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Kr  ^s-^^v(v) 


r 


A  DICTIONARY 


OP 


MUSIC  AND  MUSICIANS 


MACMILLAN  AND  CO.,  Limited 

H1ND0N  •  BOMBAY  •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

XEW  YORK  •  BOSTON  •  CHICAGO 
ATLANTA  •  SAN  FRANCISCO 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


GROVE'S 

DICTIONAEY  OF  MUSIC 

AND  MUSICIANS 


EDITED 

BV 

J.  A.  FULLER   MAITLAND,  M.A.,  F.S.A. 


IN  FIVE  VOLUMES 
VOL.  IV 


MACMILLAN   AND   CO.,   LIMITED 

ST.    MARTIN'S    STREET,   LONDON 

1908 


^7^  <s>^ao^^(^\ 


'<s-^^t/ 


LIST  OF  CONTRIBUTOKS 


The  names  of  deceased  writers  are  printed  in  italics 


W.  A.  AlKiN,  Esq. 

W.  A.  A. 

R  Aldrich,  Esq.,  *New  York  Times' 

R.  A. 

E  Herox-Allen,  Esq. 

E.  H-A. 

Carl  Armbruster,  Esq. 

C.  A. 

David  Baptie,  Esq.     . 

D.  B. 

Mrs.  Edith  Oldham  Best 

E.  0.  B. 

J.  R.  Sterivdale-Benkett,  Esq. 

J.  R.  S.-B. 

D.  J.  Blaikley,  Esq.   . 

D.  J.  B. 

JFiLUAM  OhappblLj  Esq.,  F.8.A. 

W.  C. 

Alexis  Chitty,  Esq.   . 

A.  C. 

M.  OusTAVR  Chouqvet, 

G.  a 

W.  W.  CoBBETT,  Esq. . 

W.  W.  C. 

Frederick  Corder,  Esq. 

F.  C. 

Major  G,  A.  Crawford 

G.  A.  C. 

William  H.  Cumminos,  Esq.,  Mu&D., 

F.S.A., 

Principe 

il  of  th( 

i  Guild. 

hall  School  of  Music 

W.  H.  0. 

Sir  William  George  Gusins 

. 

W.  G.  C. 

Edward  Dannreuther,  Esq.    , 

B.  D. 

HeiT  Paul  David 

P.  D. 

J.  H.  Davie,  Esq. 

J.  h.  D. 

/.  W.  Davison,  Esq.      . 

J.  W.  D. 

H.  C.  Deacon,  Esq. 

H.  C.  D. 

K  J.  Dent,  Esq. 

E.  J.  D. 

L  M'C.  L.  Dix,  Esq.    . 

L.  M*C.  L.   D. 

Thomas  Elliston,  Esq. 

T.  E. 

Gostave  Ferrari,  Esq. 

G.  F. 

W.  H.  Grattan  Flood,  Esq.,  Mus.D., 

M.RIA 

W.  h.  G.  F. 

Rev.  W.  H.  Frere 

W.  h.  F. 

E.  Frederick  Frost,  Esq. 

h.  F.  F. 

John  T.  Fyfe,  Esq.     . 

J.  T.  F. 

Rev.  F.  W.  Galpin     . 

F.  W.  0. 

Nicholas  Gatty,  Esq.,  Mu8.B. 

N.  G. 

Dr.  Franz  Gehring     . 

P.  G. 

J.  C.  Griffith,  Esq.    . 

J.  C.  G. 

LIST  OF  CONTRIBUTORS 


Sir  George  Grove,  C.B.,  D.C.L. 

W.  H.  Hadow,  Esq.    . 

H.  V.   Hamilton,  Esq. 

William  Henderson,  Esq. 

George  Herbert,  Esq. . 

Arthur  F.  Hill,  Esq. 

A.  J.  HlPKFXS,  Esq.,  F.SA.      . 

Mis3  E.  J.  HiPKiNS 

A.  Hughes-Hughes,  Esq. 

Duncan  Hume,  Esq.     . 

JfiLLiAM  H.  HrsK,  Esq. 

F.  H,  Jenk.%  Esq.,  Boston,   U.S.A. 

M.  Adolphe  Jullien  . 

Frank  Kidson,  Esq.    . 

H.  K   Krehbiel,  Esq.,  New  York 

James  Lecky,  Esq. 

Robin  H.  Legoe,  Esq. 

Hercules  MAcDosyEii,  Esq.    . 

R.  F.  M'Ewen,  Esq.     . 

Rev.  Charles  Mackeson,  F.R.S. 

Herr  A.  Maozewski,  Kaiserslaucern 

Julias  Marshall,  Esq. 

Mrs.  Julian  Marshall 

Russell  Martikkau,  Esq. 

Signer  Giannandrea  Mazzucato 

Rev.  J.   H.  Mee 

Miss  Louisa  M.  Middleton     . 

Rev.  J.  R.  Milne 

Mi-s.  Newmarch 

J.  Weston  Nicholl,  Esq. 

E.  M.  Oakeley,  Es(j.    . 

Sir  Herbert  S.  Oakeley,  Mus.D. 

Sidney  H.  Pardon,  Esq. 

Sir  C.  Hubert  H.  Parry,  Bart.,  Miis.D.,  Director  of  the  Royal  CoUegt^ 

of  Music   . 
E.  J.  Payse,  Esq.,  Barrister -at-laiv 
Rev.  Canon  T.  Percy  Pemberton 
Herr  G.  Ferdinand  Pohl 
William  Pole,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  Mu8,D. 
Victor  de  Postigny,  Esq. 
Reginald  Lane  Poole,  Esq. 
Miss  Olga  Racster     . 
Luioi  Ricci,  Esq. 

TV.    S.    R(JCKSTRO,    Esq.  . 

Desmoid  Lumlry  Ryan,  Esq. 
Carl  Sibwbrs,  Esq, 
Dr.  Philipp  Spitta 


g. 

W.  H.  H"^'- 

h.  v.  h. 

W.   H. 
G.  H. 
A.    F.    H. 
A.  J.  H. 

E.  J.  H. 
A.  H-H. 

D.  H. 

W.  H.  H. 

F.  H.  J. 
A.  J. 

F.  K. 
H.  E.  K. 
J.  L. 
R.  H.  L. 
H.  M*C.  D. 
R.  F.  M*E. 
C.  M. 
A.  M. 
J.  M. 

F.  A.  M. 
II,  M. 

G.  M. 

J.  H.  M. 
L.  li.  M. 
J.  R.  M. 
R,  N. 
J.  M'.  N. 

E.  M.  O. 
H.  B.  O. 
8.  H.  r 

C.  H.  H.  P. 
E.  J.  P. 
T.  P.  P. 

C.  F.  P. 
W.  P. 

V.  DE  P. 

R.  li.   P 
O.  R. 
L.  R. 
W.  R.   R. 

D.  L  R. 
C.  S* 

P.  8. 


LIST  OF  CONTRIBUTORS 


S.  J.  SPURLlNti,  Esq.       . 

William  Barclay  Squire,  Esq. 

Miss  C.  Stainer 

Sir  John  STAiSEiiy  M\u.D, 

W.  W.  Starmer,  Esq. . 

E  Irenaei's  Prime  Stevenson,  Esq. 

T.  Ll  Stillie,  Esq. 

IViLUAM  H.  STONEy  Esq.,  M.R 

R  A-  Streatfeild,  Esq. 

Franklin  Taylor,  Esq. 

Alexander  Jr.  Thayer,  Esq. 

Miss  Bertha  Thomas  . 

Herbert  Thompson,  Esq. 

F.  Gilbert  Webb,  Esq. 

C.  Welch,  Esq. 

H.  A.  Whitehead,  Esq. 

C.  F.   Abdy  Williams,  Esq. 

Mrs.  Edmond  Wopehourb 

J.  MriR  Wood,  Esq.    . 

The  Editor 


K.  J.  S. 
W.  B.  S. 
C.  S. 
J.  S. 
W.  W.  S. 

E.  I.  P.  S. 
T.  L.  S. 
W.  H.  S. 
R.  A.  S. 

F.  T. 

A.  W.  T. 

B.  T. 
H.  T. 

F.  G.  W. 

C.  W. 

H.  A.  W. 
C.  F.  A.  W. 
A.  H.  W. 
J.  M.  W. 
H. 


DICTIONARY 


OF 


MUSIC   AND    MUSICIANS 


Q 


QUADRILLE  (German  Contretanz),  a  dance 
execated  by  an  equal  number  of  couples 
drawn  up  in  a  square.  The  name  (which  is 
derired  from  the  Italian  aquadra)  was  originally 
not  aolely  applied  to  dances,  but  was  used  to 
denote  a  small  company  or  squadron  of  horse- 
meu,  from  three  to  fifteen  in  number,  magnifi- 
ceDtly  mounted  and  caparisoned  to  take  part 
iii  a  tournament  or  carousal.  The  name  was 
next  given  to  four,  six,  eight,  or  twelve  dancers, 
dressed  alike,  who  danced  in  one  or  more  com- 
panies in  the  elaborate  French  ballets  ^  of  the 
18th  century.  The  introduction  of  '  contre- 
dauses '  into  the  ballet,  which  first  took  place 
in  the  fifth  act  of  Rousseau's  '  F^tes  de  Polymnie ' 
(1745),  and  the  consequent  popularity  of  these 
dances,  are  the  origin  of  the  dance  which,  at 
first  known  as  the  '  Quadrille  de  Contredanses,' 
was  soon  abbreviated  into  '  quadrille.'  [The  use 
of  the  Spanish  equivalent,  cuadrUlay  for  the 
party  of  four  banderilleros  associated  with  each 
torero  in  a  bull-fight,  and  the  familiar  name  of 
a  card -game  onoe  very  popular,  may  be  men- 
tioned.] The  quadrille  was  settled  in  its  pre- 
sent shape  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century, 
and  it  has  undergone  but  little  change,  save 
in  the  simplification  of  its  steps.  It  was  very 
popular  in  Paris  during  the  Consulate  and  the 
first  Empire,  and  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon  was 
brought  to  England  by  Lady  Jersey,  who  in 
1815  danced  it  for  the  first  time  at  Almack's' 
%nth  Lady  Harriet  Butler,  Lady  Susan  Ryde, 
Miss  Montgomery,  Count  St.  Aldegonde,  Mr. 
Montgomery,  Mr.  Montague,  and  Mr.  Standish. 
The  English  took  it  up  with  the  same  eagerness 
which  they  displayed  with  regard  to  the  polka 
in  1845,  and  the  caricatures  of  the  period 
abound  witb  amusing  illustrations  of  the  quad- 
rille mania.  It  became  popular  in  Berlin  in 
1821. 

The  quadrille  consists  of  five  distinct  parts, 
which  bear  the  name  of  the  *  contredanses '  to 
which  they  owe  their  origin.  No.  1  is  *Le 
Pantalon, '  the  name  of  which  is  derived  from  a 
song  which  began  as  follows : 

*  Tlw  BkOeU  «crediTld«d  into  Ave  «et«.  each  act  Into  three,  irix, 
oijw.  or  tvelv* '  entrta.'  amd  each  *  mtrfo '  waa  perftnmed  by  one  or 
Ban '  qnadrfllea '  of  daacera. 

>  iM  Ckptaln  Gronow'a  JlnfrfniseenoM  (1881). 

VOL.  IV  ] 


Le  pantalon 
De  MadelOD 
N'a  pas  de  fond, 

and  was  adapted  to  the  dance.  The  music 
consists  of.  32  bars  in  6-8   time.     No.  2  is 

*  L'Ete,'  the  name  of  a  very  difi&cult  and  grace- 
ful '  contredanse '  popular  in  the  year  1800  ;  it 
consists  of  32  bars  in  2-4  time.  No.  3  is  '  La 
Poule '  (32  bars  in  6-8  time)  which  dates  from 
the  year  1802.  For  No.  4  (32  bars  in  2-4  time) 
two  figures  are  danced,  *La  Tr^nise,'  named 
after  the  celebrated  dancer  Trenitz,  and  'La 
Pastourelle,'   perhaps   a   survival    of  the   old 

*  Pastorale. '  No.  5 — '  Finale ' — consists  of  three 
parts  repeated  four  times.  In  all  these  figures 
(except  the  Finale,  which  sometimes  ends  with 
a  coda)  the  dance  begins  at  the  ninth  bar  of  the 
music,  the  first  eight  bars  being  repeated  at  the 
end  by  way  of  conclusion.  The  music  of  quadrilles 
is  scarcely  ever  original ;  operatic  and  popular 
tunes  are  strung  together,  and  even  the  works 
of  the  great  composers  are  sometimes  made  use 
of.3  The  quadrilles  of  Musard  are  almost  the 
only  exception  ;  they  may  lay  claim  to  some 
recognition  as  graceful  original  musical  com- 
positions. "VV.  B.  8. 

QUAGLIATI,  Paolo,  Iwrn  about  1560,  was 
a  musician  living  in  Rome,  who  in  1608  is  indi- 
cated as  holding  the  position  of  organist  at  the 
Liberian  Basilica  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore.  In 
1585  he  edited  acoUection  of  Spiritual  Canzonets 
for  three  voices,  containing,  besides  sixteen 
numbers  by  himself,  some  contributions  by 
Marenzio,  Nanino,  and  Giovanelli.  His  other 
publications  before  1600  consist  of  two  books 
of  Secular  Canzonets  a  3.  Two  Canzonets  a  4 
with  cembalo  and  lute  accompaniment  appear 
in  Verovio's  collection  of  1691,  which  has  been 
recently  republi.shed  complete  by  Alfred  Wot- 
quenne.  After  1600  he  appears  to  have  followed 
with  interest  the  twofold  direction  in  music 
emanating  from  Florence  and  Venice  respectively, 
the  Florentine  Stile  rappresenialivo  for  solo 
voices,  and  the  Venetian  concerted  style  with 

1  Soma  readen  mmy  recollect  the  clerer  'Bologna  Qnadrillea' 
on  themen  from  Rocatnl's  '  Stabat  Mater.'  which  wero  published 
shortly-  aiter  the  appearanoe  of  that  work.  The  plates  of  these 
quRdiilles  were  destroyed  on  the  publishers  learning  the  source 
from  which  the  author  (popularly  supposed  to  be  J.  W.  Davison) 
had  obtained  the  melodies.  [Hans  von  Billow  wrote  a  set  of  quad* 
rilles  on  airs  from  Berliox's  '  Benvenuto  CelHnl.1 


2 


QUALITY 


QUANTZ 


basso  continuo.  In  1606  he  composed  an  o])era 
with  libretto  by  his  pupil  Pietro  della  Valle, 
entitled  *  Garro  di  fedeltii  d'  amore,'  which  was 
performed  on  a  Carnival  car  in  the  streets  of 
Rome.  It  has  five  solo  voices,  and  was  published 
in  1611,  with  the  addition  of  several  Arie  a  1-3. 
His  other  works  are  a  book  of  Concerted  Madri- 
gals a  4  for  voices  and  instruments,  with  a 
separate  book  for  Basso  Continuo,  some  other 
books  of  Spiritual  Madrigals  a  1-3,  and  two 
books  of  Sacred  Motets  and  Dialogues  for  two 
and  three  choirs  in  the  concerted  style  with 
Basso  Continue  (Rome,  1612-27).  In  Diruta's 
'  II  Transilvano '  there  appears  a  toccata  by 
Quagliati  for  organ  or  clavier,  which  has  been 
republished  by  L.  Torchi  in  L*ArU  Mitsicalc  in 
Italia^  vol.  iii.  j.  r.  m. 

QUALITY.     See  Tone. 

QUANTITY.     See  Metre,  vol.  iii.  p.  186. 

QUANTZ,  JoHANN  Joachim,  celebrated  flute- 
player  and  composer,  bom,  according  to  his 
autobiography  in  Marpuig's  BeUrdgt  sur  Auf- 
Tiahrne  der  Musikf  J aji.  30, 1697,  at  Oberscheden, 
a  village  between  Gottingen  and  Miinden.  His 
father,  a  blacksmith,  urged  him  on  his  death-bed 
(1707)  to  follow  the  same  calling,  but,  in  his 
own  words,  *  Providence,  who  disposes  all  for 
the  best,  soon  pointed  out  a  different  path  for 
my  future.'  From  the  age  of  eight  he  had  been 
in  the  habit  of  playing  the  double-bass  with  his 
elder  brother  at  village  fStcs,  and  judging  from 
this  that  he  had  a  talent  for  music,  his  uncle 
Justus  Quantz,  Stadtmusikus  of  Merseburg, 
offered  to  bring  him  up  as  a  musician.  He 
went  to  Merseburg  in  August  1708,^  but  his 
uncle  did  not  long  survive  his  father,  and 
Quantz  passed  under  the  care  of  the  new 
Stadtmusikus,  Fleischhack,  who  had  married 
his  predecessor's  daughter.  For  the  next  Ave 
and  a  half  years  he  studied  various  instruments, 
Kiesewetter  being  his  master  for  the  pianoforte. 
In  Dec.  1713  he  was  released  from  his  ap- 
prenticeshii),  and  soon  after  became  assistant, 
first  to  Knoll,  Stadtmusikus  of  Radeberg,  and 
then  to  Schalle  of  Pirna  near  Dresden.  Here 
he  studied  Vivaldi's  violin-concertos,  and  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Heine,  a  musician  in  Dresden, 
with  whom  he  went  to  live  in  March  1716.  He 
now  had  opportunities  of  hearing  great  artists, 
such  as  Pisendel,  Veracini,  Sylvius  Weiss, 
Richter  and  Buffardin,  the  flute- player.  In 
1717  he  went,  during  his  three  months'  leave, 
to  Vienna,  and  studied  counterpoint  with 
Zelenka,  a  pupil  of  Fux.  In  1718  he  entered 
the  chapel  of  the  King  of  Poland,  which 
consisted  of  twelve  players,  and  was  stationed 
alternately  in  Warsaw  and  Dresden.  His 
salary  was  150  thalers,  with  free  quarters 
in  Warsaw,  but  finding  no  opportunity  of 
distinguishing  himself  either  on  the  oboe,  the 
instrument  for  which  he  was  engaged,  or  the 
violin,  he  took  up  the  flute,  studying  it  with 

1  Not  1707.  M  Mendel  tUtea. 


Buffardin.  In  1723  he  went  with  Weiss  to 
Prague,  and  the  two  played  in  Fux's  opera 
'Costanzae  Fortezza,*  performed  in  honour  of 
the  coronation  of  Charles  VI.  Here  also  he 
heard  Tartini.  In  1724  Quantz  accompanied 
Count  Lagnasco  to  Italy,  arriving  in  Rome  on 
July  11,  and  going  at  once  for  lessons  in 
counterpoint  to  Gaspai'ini,  whom  he  describes 
as  a  '  good-natured  and  honourable  man.'  In 
1725  he  went  on  to  Naples,  and  there  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Scarlatti,  Hasse,  Mauciiii, 
Leo,  Feo,  and  other  musicians  of  a  similar 
stamp.  In  May  1726  we  find  him  in  Reggio 
and  Parma,  whence  he  travelled  by  Milan, 
Turin,  Geneva,  and  Lyons  to  Paris,  arriving  on 
August  15.  In  Paris — where  his  name  was 
remembered*  as  'Quouance'  —  he  remained 
seven  months,  and  occupied  himself  with  con- 
triving improvements  in  the  flute,  the  most 
important  being  the  addition  of  a  second  key, 
as  described  by  himself  in  his  Versxwh  eiiwr 
Amoeisufig  die  F/iite , , .  zitspielaiy  vol.  iii.  chap. 
58  (Berlin,  1752).  He  was  at  length  recalled 
to  Dresden,  but  first  visited  London  for  three 
months.  He  arrived  there  on  March  20, 
1727,  when  Handel  was  at  the  very  summit  of 
his  ojieratic  career,  with  Faustina,  Cuzzoni, 
Castrucci,  Senesino,  Attilio,  and  Tosi  in  his 
train.  He  returned  to  Dresden  on  July  23, 
1727,  and  in  the  following  March  re-en tered 
the  chapel,  and  again  devoted  himself  to  the 
flute.  During  a  visit  to  Berlin  in  1728  the 
Crown  Prince,  afterwards  Frederick  the  Great, 
was  so  charmed  with  his  playing,  that  he 
determined  to  learn  the  flute,  and  in  future 
Quantz  went  twice  a  year  to  give  him  instruc- 
tion. In  1741  his  pupil,  having  succeeded  to 
the  throne,  made  him  liberal  oflers  if  he  would 
settle  in  Berlin,  which  he  did,  remaining  till 
his  death  on  July  12,  1773.  He  was  Kammer- 
mnsicus  and  court-composer,  with  a  salary  of 
2000  thalers,  an  additional  payment  for  each 
composition,  and  100  ducats  for  each  flute 
which  he  supplied.  His  chief  duties  were  to 
conduct  the  private  concerto  at  the  Palace,  in 
which  the  king  played  the  flute,  and  to  compose 
pieces  for  his  royal  pupil.  He  left  in  MS.  300 
concertos  [but  see  the  Qti^llm-Lexikon^  p.  99, 
on  this  number]  for  one  and  two  flutes — of 
which  277  are  preserved  in  the  Neue  Palais  at 
Potsdam — and  200  other  pieces ;  flute  solos, 
and  dozens  of  trios  and  quatuors,  of  which  61 
are  to  be  found  at  Dresden.  His  printed  works 
are  three — *  Sei  Sonate '  dedicated  to  Augustus 
III.  of  Poland,  op.  1,  Dresden,  1734;  *Sei 
duetti,'  oj).  2,  Berlin,  1769 ;  Faix  sonatas  for  two 
flutes,  op.  8,  of  doubtful  authenticity,  London, 
Walsh ;  five  sonatas  for  flutes,  also  op.  8, 
Paris,  Boi\in],  a  method  for  the  flute —  Versttck 
einer  Anvocifning  die  FloU  traversiire  zu  spiclen 
— dedicated  to  Frederick  *  Konige  in  Preussen,* 
Berlin,   1762,   4to,  with  twenty -four  copper- 

>  In  Boivln's  Oatalogw. 


QUAREKGHI 


QUARTET 


3 


plates.  This  passed  through  three  (or  four) 
German  editions,  and  was  also  published  in 
French  and  Dutcli.  He  left  also  a  sei-enata,  a 
few  songs,  music  to  twenty -two  of  Gellert's 
hymns,  'Nene  Kirchenmelodien/  etc.  (Berlin, 
1760),  and  an  autobiography  (in  Maqiurg's 
Bcitrdge).  Tliree  of  the  Melodien  ai-e  given 
by  von  Winterfeld,  Evang,  Kircheng,  iii.  272. 
Asides  the  key  which  he  added  to  the  flute,  he 
invented  the  sliding  top  for  tuning  the  instru- 
ment. His  playing,  which  was  unusually 
correct  for  the  imperfect  instruments  of  the 
day,  delighted  not  only  Frederick,  but  Mar- 
piirg,  a  more  fastidious  critic  He  married,  not 
happily,  in  1737  ;  and  died  in  easy  circum- 
stances and  generally  respected  at  Potsdam, 
July  12,  1773. 

All  details  regarding  him  may  be  found  in 
Lfben  und  Werken,  etc,  by  his  gi-andson  Albert 
<^uantz  (Berlin,  1877).  f.  q. 

QUARENGHI,  Oucjlielmo,  violoncellist  and 
composer,  bom  at  Casalmaggiore,  Oct  22, 
182«,  died  at  MiUn,  Feb.  4,  1882.  He  studied 
at  the  Milan  Conservatoire,  1839-42,  occupied 
the  post  of  first  violoncello  at  the  Scala  Theatre 
in  1850  ;  became  professor  of  his  instrument  at 
the  Milan  Conservatoire  in  1851,  and  in  1879 
Maestro  di  Cappella  at  the  Milan  Cathediul. 
As  a  composer  he  contributed  an  oyyevb.  entitled 
'H  didi  Michel' ;  published  in  1863  some  church 
music  and  transcriptions,  as  well  as  an  inter- 
esting method  for  the  violoncello ;  a  valuable 
treatise  upon  the  origin  of  bow  instruments 
precedes  this  Melodo  di  Violoncello  (Milan, 
1876),  in  which  he  compares  the  earliest  forms 
with  the  various  barbaric  and  semi -barbaric 
instruments  previously  in  use  amongst  primi- 
tive nations.  In  addition  the  author  gives 
the  'Personaggi'  of  Monteverde's  *Orfeo,'  and 
the  tuning  of  the  earliest  viola.  —  Riemann, 
Lejrihm ;  Baker,  Biog.  Did,  of  Mu^.      E.  h-a. 

QUARLES,  Charles,  Mus.B.,  graduated  at 
Cambridge  in  1 6  98.  He  was  organist  of  Trinity 
CoU^e,  Cambridge,  from  1688  to  1709.  He 
was  appointed  oi^nist  of  York  Minster,  June  30, 
1722  ;  and  died  at  York  early  in  1727.  *  A 
Lesson  *  for  the  harpsichord  by  him  was  printed 
by  Goodison  about  1788.  w.  ii.  H. 

QUART-GEIGK     See  Violin. 

QUART- POSAUNE.     See  Trombone. 

QUARTERLY  MUSICAL  MAGAZINE 
AND  REVIEW,  conducted  by  R  M.  Bacon 
of  Norwich.  [See  vol.  i.  p.  181  ;  vol.  iii.  p. 
680.J  G. 

QUARTET  (Fr.  quaiuoT\  Ital.  Quarmto).  A 
composition  for  four  solo  instruments  or  voices. 

L  With  regard  to  instrumental  quartets  the 
favourite  combination  has  naturally  been  always 
that  of  two  violins,  viola,  and  violoncello,  the 
chief  representatives  since  the  days  of  Monte- 
vcrde  of  soprano,  alto,  tenor,  and  bass,  in  the 
orchestra:  in  fact,  when  'quartet' only  is  sjwken 
of,  the  'stringquartet  *  is  generally  understood  ; 


any  other  combination  being  more  fully  particu- 
larised ;  and  it  is  to  the  string  quartet  we  will 
turn  our  principal  attention.  The  origin  of  the 
quartet  was  the  invention  of  four-i>art  harmony, 
but  it  was  long  before  a  comjwsition  for  four 
instruments  came  to  be  regarded  as  a  distinct 
and  worthy  means  for  the  expression  of  musical 
ideas.  Even  the  prolific  J.  S.  Bach  does  not 
api)ear  to  have  favoured  this  combination, 
though  he  wrote  trios  in  plenty.  With  the 
symphony  was  bom  the  string  quartet  as  we 
now  understand  it — the  symphony  in  miniature ; 
and  both  were  born  of  the  same  father,  Haydn. 
[See  Form.] 

The  early  quartets  of  Haydn  seem  to  us 
sadly  feeble  in  the  jn-esent  day ;  there  is  not 
enough  flesh  to  cover  the  skeleton,  and  the 
joints  are  tenibly  awkward ;  but  there  is  the 
unmistakable  infant  quartet,  and  certainly  not 
more  clumsy  and  unpromising  than  the  human 
infant.  In  the  course  of  his  long  life  and  in- 
cessant pi-actice  in  symphonic  composition, 
Haydn  made  vast  progress,  so  that  the  later 
quartets  (op.  71,  etc.)  begin  to  show,  in  the 
lower  parts,  some  of  the  boldness  which  had 
before  been  only  allowed  to  the  1st  violin. 
Eighty-three  quai-tets  of  Haydn  are  catalogued 
and  printed,  while  of  the  ninety- three  of  his 
contemporary  Boccherini,  scarcely  one  survives. 

Mozart,  with  his  splendid  genius  for  poly- 
phony as  well  as  melody,  at  once  ojiened  up  a 
new  world.  In  the  set  of  six  dedicated  to 
Haydn  we  notice,  besides  the  development  in 
form,  the  development  of  the  idea,  which  it 
has  only  been  given  to  Beethoven  fully  to 
carry  out — the  making  each  i)art  of  equal 
interest  and  im])ortance.  Theoietically,  in  a 
perfect  quartet,  whether  vocal  or  instrumental, 
there  should  be  no  *princii>al  part.'  The  six 
quartets  just  8i)oken  of  were  so  far  in  advance 
of  their  time  as  to  be  considered  on  all  sides  as 
Miideous  stuff.*  In  our  time  we  find  little 
that  is  startling  in  them,  exce])t,  perha})s,  the 
famous  opening  of  No.  6,  which  will  always 
sound  harsh  from  the  false  relations  in  the 
second  and  fourth  bai-s. 


Adagio, 


^4 


Mozart's  twenty-six  quartets  all  live,  the  six 
dedicated  to  Haydn  and  the  last  three  com- 
]x)sed  for  the  King  of  Prussia  being  immortal. 

Those  writers  whose  quartets  were  simply  the 
echo  of  Mozart's — such  as  Romberg,  Onslow, 
Ries,  and  Fesca — made  no  advance  in  the  treat- 
ment of  the  four  instruments. 

It  is  not  our  province  here  to  speak  of  the 


QUARTET 


QUARTET 


gi-owth  of  tlie  symphonic  form  as  exhibited  in 
the  string  quartet,  this  subject  having  been 
already  discussed  under  Form,  but  rather  to 
notice  the  extraordinary  development  of  the 
art  of  part-writing,  and  the  manner  in  which 
the  most  elaborate  compositions  have  been 
constructed  with  such  apparently  inadequate 
materials.  In  these  points  the  quartets  of 
lieethoven  so  far  ecli^)se  all  otliere  that  we 
might  confine  our  attention  exclusively  to  them. 
In  the  very  first  (op.  18,  No.  1)  the  phrase 


of  the  first  movement  is  delivered  so  impartially 
to  each  of  the  four  players,  as  though  to  see 
what  each  can  make  of  it,  that  we  feel  them  to 
bo  on  an  equality  never  before  attained  to.  If 
the  1st  violin  has  fine  running  passages,  those 
of  the  2nd  violin  and  viola  are  not  a  whit 
inferior.  Does  the  Ist  violin  sing  a  celestial 
adagio,  the  violoncello  is  not  put  off  with  mere 
bass  notes  to  mark  the  time.  All  four  partici- 
pate equally  in  the  merriment  of  the  scherzo 
and  the  dash  of  the  finale.  This  much  strikes 
one  in  the  earlier  quartets,  but  later  we  find 
that  we  are  no  longer  listening  to  four  voices 
disposed  so  as  to  sound  together  harmoniously, 
but  that  we  are  being  shown  the  outline,  the 
faint  pencil  sketch,  of  works  for  whose  actual 
presentation  the  most  perfect  earthly  orchestra 
would  be  too  intolerably  coarse.  The  post- 
humous quartets  are  hardly  to  be  regarded  as 
pieces  written  for  violins,  but  we  are  rather 
forced  to  imagine  that  in  despair  of  finding 
colours  delicate  and  true  enough  the  artist  has 
prefeiTcd  to  leave  his  conceptions  as  charcoal 
sketches.  This  fancy  is  borne  out  when  we 
note  how  large  a  compass  the  four  parts  are 
constantly  made  to  cover,  a  space  of  nearly  five 
octaves  sometimes  being  dashed  over,  with 
little  care  for  the  inevitable  poverty  of  tone 
produced. 

Tliere  is  a  wide  contrast  between  these  stu- 
pendous works  of  genius  and  the  polished  and 
thoroughly  legitimate  workmanship  of  Schubert's 
quartets.  Here  we  find  everything  done  which 
ought  to  be  done  and  nothing  which  ought  not. 
They  are  indeed  in*eproachable  models.  One 
little  point  deserves  notice  here  as  illustrating 
the  comparative  strength  of  two  great  men : 
Beethoven  gives  frequent  rests  to  one  or  two 
of  the  players,  allowing  the  mind  to  fill  in  the 
lacking  harmony,  and  thus  producing  a  clear- 
ness, boldness,  and  contrast  which  no  other 
composer  has  attained  ;  Schubert,  on  the  other 
hand,  makes  all  four  parts  work  their  hardest 
to  hide  that  thinness  of  sound  which  is  the 
drawback  of  the  quartet. 

Mention  of  Spohr's  quartets  might  almost  be 
omitted  in  spite  of  their  large  number  and  their 
great  beauty.  Technically  they  are  no  more 
advanced  than  those  of  Haydn,   the  interest 


lying  too  often  in  the  top  part.  Tliey  also 
lose  much  through  the  peculiar  mannerism  of 
the  composer's  harmony,  which  so  constantly 
occupies  three  of  the  parts  in  the  jierformance 
of  pedal  notes,  and  portions  of  the  chromatic 
scale. 

Still  more  than  Schubert  does  Mendelssohn 
seem  to  chafe  at  the  insufficiency  of  four  stringed 
instnunents  to  express  his  ideas.  Not  only 
this,  but  he  fails,  through  no  fault  of  his  own, 
in  one  point  needful  for  successful  quartet- 
writing.  Beethoven  and  Schubert  have  shown 
us  that  the  theoretically  perfect  string-quartet 
should  have  an  almost  equal  amount  of  interest 
in  each  of  the  four  parts  ;  care  should  therefore 
be  taken  to  make  the  merest  accompaniment- 
figures  in  the  middle  parts  of  value  and 
character.  Tremolos  and  reiterated  choi-ds 
should  be  shunned,  and  indeed  the  very  idea 
of  accompaniment  is  barely  admissible.  The 
quartet,  though  differing  from  the  symphony 
only  in  the  absence  of  instrumental  colouring 
and  limitation  of  polyphony,  is  best  fitted  for 
the  expression  of  ideas  of  a  certain  delicacy, 
refinement  and  complexity,  anything  like 
boldness  being  out  of  place,  from  the  weakness 
of  the  body  of  tone  produced.  Now  the  chief 
characteristic  of  Mendelssohn's  music  is  its 
broad  and  singing  character,  passage-writing  is 
his  weak.jioint.  Consequently,  however  good 
his  quartets,  one  cannot  but  feel  that  they 
would  sound  better  if  scored  for  full  orchestra. 
Take  the  opening  of  op.  44,  No.  1,  for  in- 
stance :  this  is  not  quartet-writing  at  all ;  there 
is  a  melody,  a  bass,  and  the  rest  is  mere  filling- 
up ;  in  the  second,  we  have  here  as  thorough 
an  orchestral  theme  as  could  be  devised— the 
ear  longs  for  trumpets  and  drums  in  the  fourtli 
bar.  The  name  symphony  in  disguise  has 
often,  and  not  unjustly,  been  applied  to  these 
works.  This  is  curious,  because  Mendelssohn 
has  shown  himself  capable  of  expressing  his 
ideas  with  small  means  in  other  departments. 
The  four- part  songs  for  male  voices,  for  instance, 
are  a1>solutely  perfect  models  forwhat  such  things- 
ought  to  be.  Schumann  (op.  41)  is  the  only 
writer  who  can  be  said  to  have  followed  in  the 
wake  of  Beethoven  with  regard  to  using  the 
quartet  as  a  species  of  shorthand.  All  his 
three  quartets  have  an  intensity,  a  depth  of 
soul,  which,  as  with  Beethoven,  shrinks  from 
plainer  methods  of  expression. 

Of  the  earnest  band  of  followers  in  this 
school — Bargiel,  Rheinberger,  and  others — all 
that  can  be  said  is  that  they  are  followers. 
[Brahms's  three  quartets,  opp.  51,  67,  are 
perfect  examples  of  the  art  of  spreading  the 
interest  over  all  the  parts,  and  the  way  the 
return  is  made  to  the  opening  subject  of  op.  67 
at  the  close  of  the  variations  is  a  touch  of 
unmistakable  genius.] 

II.  Quartets  for  strings  and  wind  instruments 
are  uncommon,  but  Mozart  has  one  for  oboe,, 


QUAETET 


QUARTET 


violin,  viola,  and  violoncello.  Next  to  the 
string  quartet  ranks  the  pianoforte  quartet, 
which,  however,  is  built  on  quite  a  different 
principle :  here  the  composition  becomes  either 
equivalent  to  an  accompanied  trio,  or  to  a 
symphony  in  which  the  piano  takes  the  place 
of  the  'string  quartet,'  and  the  other  instru- 
ments— ^usually  violin,  viola,  and  violoncello 
— the  place  of  wind  instruments.  In  any  case 
the  piano  does  quite  half  the  w^ork.  Mozart 
has  written  two  such  quartets,  Beethoven  only 
one,  besides  three  early  compositions,  Mendels- 
sohn three,  Schumann  and  Goetz  one  each, 
while  Brahms  (opp.  23,  26,  60)  and  the  modem 
com})Oser8  have  favoured  this  form  of  quartet 
still  more. 

III.  Vocal  quartets  are  so  called  whether 
accompanied  by  instruments  or  not.  The  four- 
part  son^  of  Mendelssohn  have  been  mentioned. 
For  many  years  no  oratorio  was  considered 
ofimplete  without  its  unaccompanied  quartet, 
Spohr  having  set  the  fashion  with  *  Blest  are 
tlic  departed '  in  the  *  Last  Judgment. '  Modem 
oiJera  is  learning  to  disjiense  "with  concerted 
mnsic,  Richard  Wagner  having  set  the  fashion. 
To  enumerate  the  fine  operatic  quartets  from 
•Don  Giovanni*  to  *  Faust,'  would  be  useless. 
[Brahms's  first  set  of  *  Liebeslieder '  for  piano 
duet  and  four  voices  ad  libitum^  was  one  of  the 
comijositions  which  began  Ids  popularity  in 
England  ;  in  the  second  set,  and  in  opp.  92, 
103,  and  112,  he  has  left  notable  examples. 
Henachel's  *  Serbisches  Liederspiel,'  op.  32  ; 
Stanford's  quartets  from  Tennyson's  'Princess ' ; 
Walford  Davies's  'Pastorals';  and  Ernest 
"Walker's  songs  from  England's  Helicon^  may 
also  1)0  mentioned.] 

IV.  The  whole  body  of  stringed  instruments 
in  the  orchestra  is  often  incon-ectly  spoken  of 
as  'the  Quartet,'  from  the  fact  that  until  the 
time  of  Beethoven  the  strings  seldom  played  in 
other  than  four-part  hanuony.  It  is  now  the 
usual  custom  to  write  the  parts  for  violoncello 
and  double  bass  on  separate  staves  ;  in  Gennany 
(and  in  the  present  day  in  England)  these 
instruments  are  grouped  apart,  a  practice  which 
is  decidedly  unwise,  seeing  that  the  double  bass 
requires  the  support  of  the  violoncello  to  give 
the  tone  firmness,  more  especially  the  German 
four-stringed  instmment,  the  tone  of  which  is 
80  much  lacking  in  body. 

\,  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  performers 
of  a  quartet,  as  well  as  to  the  composition 
itself.  F.  c. 

VI.  The  word  is  used  of  a  set  of  sti*inged 
instruments,  corresponding  to  the  old  phrase 
•  a  chest  of  viols.'  Although,  accurately  speak- 
ing, quartets  of  musical  instruments  were  not 
employed  in  chamber  music,  as  we  understand 
the  term,  until  the  era  of  Monteverde  (1568- 
1643),  yet  the  literature  and  art  recoi*ds  of  past 
Ci^nturies  seem  to  point  to  the  existence  of  'sets' 
of  imstrnments,  analogous  in  pitch  to  the  soprano, 


alto,  tenor,  and  bass  voices,  from  very  early 
times.  Some  ground  for  this  assumption  may 
be  found  in  the  following  examples: — The 
concert  of  eight  flutes  (in  four  sizes)  discovered 
on  one  of  the  tombs  in  the  Necropolis  of  Gizeh, 
dating — according  to  Lepsius — from  the  fifth 
Dynasty  (b.g.  2000)  which  are  reproduced 
in  Carl  Engel's  Catalogue  of  the  Exhibition 
of  Musical  Instruments,  South  Kensington 
Museum,  1874.  Certain  Hebrew  coins  in  the 
British  Museum  ascribed  to  Simon  Maccabaeus 
(of  the  second  century  of  the  Christian  ei-a) 
depicting  lyres  differing  in  size,  shape,  and 
number  of  strings,  and  a  ])ertinent  ])assage, 
quoted  from  Aristides  Quintilianus  (about  B.C. 
1 10,  in  Bumey's  History  of  MtisiCy  vol.  i.  p.  513). 
Mention  may  also  be  made  of  the  string  trio  por- 
trayed on  the  splendid  Greek  Vase  in  the  Mmiich 
Museum.  The  three  figures,  gi'ouped  in  the 
manner  of  our  modem  trio  performere,  apj)car 
to  be  playing  ensemble  music.  Two  of  the 
performers  have  lyres  of  different  sizes  and 
stringing,  whilst  the  third,  Polyhymnia,  plucks 
a  small  harp. 

Passing  hence  to  the  11th  century,  it  would 
appear  from  Dr.  Ruhlmann's  GesehicMe  der 
BogaiiiisLrumefntCy  that  a  *  set '  of  crouths  is  to 
be  seen  in  an  old  MS.  prayer-book  of  that  jieriod 
(vide  Gebetbuch  dcs  Erzh.  Leopold  d*Heit  von 
Osterrdch,  Bibl.  zu  Kloster  Neuburg  bei  Wien, 
Codex,  No.  98,  Fol.  110,  XI  Jahrh.).  Four 
centuries  later  (April  14,  1401)  Charles  VI. 
granted  *Lettres-Patentes,'  to  the  Society  of 
Minstrels  who  styled  themselves  *  joueurs  d'ln- 
struments  taut  haut  que  bas,'  and  in  the  follow- 
ing century  the  *  sets '  of  viols  began  to  make 
their  ap[)earance.  In  Martin  Agricola's  liusica 
Instrumentalis  deiUsch  (1528),  woodcuts  of  a 
complete  quartet  of  viols  may  be  seen,  as  also 
*  Rebecs,'  in  four  different  sizes,  which  he  desig- 
nates, *  Discantus, '  *  Altus,  *  *  Tenor, '  'Bassus. '  [In 
the  same  year,  in  the  Coi-tigiano  of  Bald. 
Castiglione,  there  is  a  reference  to  music  played 
on  'quattro  viole  da  aroo.']  In  1566,  Andreas 
Amati  (see  that  name)  made  the  famous  set  of 
bowinstraments  for  the  French  King  Charles  IX. 
It  consisted  of  twelve  large  and  twelve  small 
pattern  violins,  six  tenoi-s  and  eight  basses,  and 
in  all  probability  these  instraments  were  the 
finest  examples  of  this  maker's  work.  On  the 
backs  were  painted  the  arms  of  France  and  other 
devices,  and  the  motto  'Pietate  et  Justitia.* 
During  the  French  revolution  the  mob  took 
these  instruments  out  of  the  chapel  at  Versailles 
(on  Oct.  6  and  7,  1789),  and  destroyed  all  but 
two  violins  which  were  afterwards  recovered  by 
Viotti's  pupil,  J.  B.  Cartier.  One  of  the  small 
violins  is  now,  or  was  recently,  the  projjerty  of 
Mr.  George  Somes.  In  the  following  century 
numbers  of  *  Chests  of  Viols '  (two  trebles,  two 
tenors,  two  basses),  for  the  performance  of  the 
elaborate  compositions  in  parts,  called  *  Fan- 
tasies,' were  made,  and  the  growing  adoption 


6 


QUARTET 


QUATRE  FILS  AYMOX,  LES 


of  instrumental  music  at  the  Royal  Courts  of 
Europe  induced  Antonio  Stradivari  (see  that 
name)  to  turn  his  attention  to  the  making  of 
*  sets'  of  instruments,  comprising  violins,  tenors, 
and  basses.  The  first  *set'  of  instruments, 
recorded  as  by  this  maker,  is  that  mentioned  in 
the  Arisi  MSS.,  a  document  written  by  Desideno 
Arisi,  a  Cremonese  priest  of  the  order  of  St 
Jerome  and  belonging  to  the  Church  of  St. 
Sigismondo  (see  Antonio  St7'adirari,  his  Life 
aiid  Work,  W.  E.  Hill  k  Sons).  He  states 
that  Stradivari  received  an  order,  in  1682,  from 
the  Venetian  banker  Michele  Morigi,  for  a  com- 
plete *  sett '  of  instruments,  destined  to  be  pre- 
sented to  James  II.  of  England.  As  no  trace  of 
these  instruments  has  as  yet  been  found,  their 
existence  rests  entirely  upon  the  statement 
made  in  the  MSS.  referred  to.  In  1690  the 
same  maker  produced  the  so-called  'Tuscan 
Concerto,'  or  *set'  of  instruments,  for  Cosmo 
di  Medici.  This  probably  consisted  of  two  or 
three  violins,  a  contralto  (small  tenor),  a 
tenore  (lai^ge  tenor),  and  a  violoncello.  The 
tenore  of  this  set^  has  been  preserved  in  its 
original  state,  and  may  bo  seen,  together  with 
the  violoncello,  in  the  Musical  Institute  at 
Florence.  In  1696  Stradivari  made  the  inlaid 
quintet  which  for  some  years  was  owned  by 
Philip  IV.  of  Spain,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
I7th  century  and  the  beginning  of  the  18th, 
the  *set*  (dated  1696-1709)  destined  to  have 
been  presented  to  Philip  V.  of  Spain,  but  not 
sold  until  after  Stradivari's  death,  when  his  son 
Paolo  disposed  of  it  (in  1775)  to  a  priest  named 
Padre  Brambrilla  for  £148,  and  later  it 
became  the  property  of  Don  Carlos,  afterwards 
Charles  IV.  of  Spain.  This  *  set '  consisted  of 
two  violins,  two  violas,  one  tenore,  and  a 
violoncello.  The  large  tenore  vanished  at  the 
dispersal  of  the  royal  collection,  and  the  rest  of 
the  'set'  were  submitted  to  such  barbarous 
reparations  at  the  hands  of  Dom  Vincenzo 
Acenzo  and  his  successor  Ortega,  that,  especially 
in  the  case  of  the  violoncello  now  in  the  Cha])el 
Royal,  Madrid,  little  of  their  original  character 
remains. 

In  modem  times  'sets'  of  instruments  by 
one  maker  have  been  largely  collected  by  ardent 
connoisseurs.  We  are  told  that  the  Dumas 
family,  friends  of  Beethoven,  assembled  a  quartet 
of  6io.  Paolo  Maggini's  instnmients,  violin, 
viola,  violoncello,  and  small  hass,  and  that  with 
the  exception  of  the  last,  they  are  some  of  the 
finest  specimens  of  this  master's  work.  The 
Prince  J.  de  Caraman  Chimay  owned  a  very 
interesting  quartet  of  instruments  by  Stradi- 
vari's pupil  (?)  Ambrose  de  Comhle  of  Toumay 
(about  1750)  and  also  an  ornamented  quartet 
(copies  of  Stradivari)  made  by  J.  B.  Vuillaume 
in  1865.  [These  instruments  were  exhibited 
in  the  Albert  Hall  in  1886.]  Quartets  of 
Stradivari's  instruments  have  been  collected  by 

1  For  the  historj  of  the  >-ioUa  of  thli  Mt  we  article  Mmku 


the  following :  Count  Archinto  of  Milan,  whcr 
died  in  1860.  Tliis  quartet  passed  into  the 
hands  of  J.  B.  Vuillaume,  and  the  violoncello 
(1689)  was  the  instrument  used  by  Mons.  Jules 
Delsart  Nicolo  Paganini  also  owned  a  quartet 
by  this  maker.  The  Due  de  Camposelice,  who 
died  in  Paiis  in  1887,  possessed  about  twenty  of 
the  great  master's  instruments,  and  ^I.  Wilmotte 
of  Antwerp,  who  died  in  1898,  left  eight  violins, 
two  violas,  and  two  violoncellos.  M.  de  St. 
Senoch's  quartet — violin,  1737  ;  second  violin, 
1704  ;  viola,  1728 ;  violoncello,  1696— was  sold 
after  his  death  in  1886,  at  the  Hotel  Drouot. 
At  the  present  time  Stradivari  quartets  are 
owned  by  Baron  Knoop,  Dr.  R  E.  Brandt,  and 
the  Herreu  Mendelssohn.  The  late  Dr.  Charlen 
Oldham's  quartet  was  bequeathed  to  the  British 
Museum.  The  quartet  of  Stradivaris  employed 
by  Lady  Hall^  and  her  collaborators  at  the  St. 
James's  Hall  Popular  Concerts  were  dated  as 
follows : — Lady  Halle's  violin,  1709  ;  Mr.  Ries* 
violin,  1710  ;  Mr.  Gibson's  viola,  1728  ;  and 
Signer  Piatti's  violoncello,  1 720.  It  would  ap- 
pear that  the  only  present-day  instrumentalists 
who  play  upon  a  complete  set  of  Stradivari's 
instruments  ai-e  the  Joachim  quartet.  Dr. 
Joachim's  violin  is  dated  1715,  Prof.  Haus- 
mann's  violoncello,  1724,.  Prof.  Carl  Halir'a 
violin  is  a  long-pattern  Stradivarius,  and  the  fine 
viola  played  upon  by  Prof.  Wirth  is  lent  to  the 
quartet  by  the  Herren  Mendelssohn. — Agricola, 
Musica  huttruineiUalis ;  Bumey,  History  of 
Music  \  Hawkins,  History  of  Music-,  de  Laborde, 
Essai  sur  la  Musiqne ;  Hart,  The  Violin  ;  Hill, 
Antonio  Stradivari ;  Engel,  Cataloffue,  Soifth 
Kensington  Erhihition  of  Instrumefnts,  1874  ; 
Catalogue  of  Inventions  Exhibition,  1 885  ;  von 
Moser,  Joseph  Joachim.  E.  h-a. 

QUARTET  ASSOCIATION,  THE.  A 
Society  for  the  performance  of  chamber  music, 
started  in  1852  by  Messrs.  Sainton,  Cooper, 
Hill,  and  Piatti,  with  such  eminent  artists  as 
Sterndale  Bennett,  Mile.  Clauss,  Mme.  Pleyel, 
Arabella  Goddard,  Pauer,  Halle,  etc.,  at  the 
pianoforte.  They  gave  six  concerts  each  season  at 
Willis's  Rooms,  but  ended  with  the  third  season, 
the  time  not  having  yet  arrived  for  a  sufficient 
support  of  chamber  music  by  the  London  public. 
The  programmes  were  selected  with  much 
freedom,  embracing  English  composers — Ben- 
nett, Ellerton,  Loder,  Macfarren,  Mellon,  etc.  ; 
foreign  musicians  then  but  seldom  heard  — 
Schumann,  Cherubini,  Hummel,  etc.,  and 
Beethoven's  Posthumous  Quartets.  The  pieces 
were  analysed  by  Q.  A.  Macfan-en.  o. 

QU ASI ,a8  if — t. e.  an  approach  to,  '  Andante 
quasi  allegretto'  or  'Allegretto  quasi  vivace' 
means  a  little  quicker  than  the  one  and  not  so 
quick  as  the  other — answering  to  poco  allegretto, 
or  piJi  tosto  allegro.  o. 

QUATRE  FILS  AYMON,  LES.  An  op4ra- 
comique ;  words  by  MM.  Leuven  and  Bruns- 
wick, music  by  Balfe.     Produced  at  the  Op^ra- 


QUAVER 


QUEISSER 


Comit£iie,  Paris,  July  15,  1844,  and  at  the 
Princeaa'd  Theatre,  London,  as  *The  Castle  of 
Aymou,  or  The  Four  Brothers,'  in  three  acts, 
Nov.  20,  1844.  (J. 

QUA  V£B  (Ger.  AefUdnole,  whence  American 
•  eighth  note ' ;  Ft,  Cloche  ;  Ital.  Croma).  A 
note  which  is  half  the  length  of  a  crotchet, 
and  therefore  the  eighth  part  of  a  semibreve  ; 
hence  the  German  and  American  names.  It 
is  written  thus  J,  its  Best  being  represented 
by-v  "^ 

The  idea  of  expressing  the  values  of  notes  by 
diversity  of  form  has  been  ascribed  by  certain 
writers  to  De  Muris  (about  1340),  but  this  is 
undoubtedly  an  error,  the  origin  of  which  is 
traced  by  both  Hawkins  {Hist,  of  Music)  and 
Fi-tis  (art.  *  Muris ')  to  a  work  entitled  Vanlka 
Musica  ridoUa  alia  nwdenia  Prattica,  by  Vicen- 
tino  (1555),  in  which  it  is  explicitly  stated  that 
De  Muris  invented  all  the  notes,  from  the  Large 
to  the  Semiquaver.  It  is,  however,  certain  thkt 
the  longer  notes  were  in  nse  nearly  300  years 
earlier,  in  the  time  of  Franco  of  Cologne  [Nota- 
tion, vol.  iii.  p.  399],  and  it  seems  equally 
clear  that  the  introduction  of  the  shorter  kinds 
is  of  later  date  than  the  time  of  De  Muris. 
The  fact  appears  to  be  that  the  invention  of 
the  shorter  notes  followed  the  demand  created 
by  the  general  progress  of  music,  a  demand 
which  may  fairly  be  supposed  to  have  reached  p 
its  limit  in  the  quarter-demisemiquaver,  or  ^V  ^ 
of  a  quaver,  occasionally  met  with  in  modern  ^ 
music. 

The  Quaver,  originally  called  Chroma  or  Fusat 
sometimes  Unca  (a  hook),  was  probably  invented 
some  time  during  the  15th  century,  for  Morley 
(1597)  says  that  *  there  were  within  these  200 
years '  (and  therefore  in  1400)  'but  four  *  (notes) 
known  or  used  of  the  musicians,  those  were  the 
Long,  Breve,  Semibreve,  and  Minim ' ;  and 
Thomas  de  Walsingham,  in  a  MS.  ti-eatise 
written  somewhat  later  (probably  about  1440), 
and  quoted  by  Hawkins,  gives  the  same  notes, 
and  adds  that  ^of  late  a  New  character  has 
been  introduced,  called  a  Crotchet,  which  would 
be  of  no  use,  would  musicians  remember  that 
beyond  the  minim  no  subdivision  ought  to  be 
made. '  Franchinus  Gafurius  also,  in  his  Practica 
Afusicae  (1496),  quoting  from  Prosdocimus  de 
Beldemandis,  who  flourished  in  the  early  part 
of  the  15th  century,  describes  the  division  of 
the  minim  into  halves  and  quarters,  called 
respectively  the  greater  and  lesser  semiminim, 
and  written  in  two  ways,  white  and  black 
(Ex.  1).  The  white  forms  of  these  notes  soon 
fell  into  disuse,  and  the  black  ones  have  become 
the  crotchet  and  quaver  of  modem  music.  ^ 

1  Tbere  ««»  mllr  flrp.  Including  the  lArgv,  which  Morley  calls 
the  Doahla  Lot»g. 


The  subdivision  of  the  quaver  into  semiquaver 
and  demisemiquaver  followed  somewhat  later. 
Gafurius,  in  the  work  quoted  above,  mentions 
a  note  1  of  a  minim  in  length,  called  by  various 

names,  and  written  either  *  or  4»  but  the  true 

semiquaver  or  scmichroifnay  the  earliest  form  of 

which  was  ^^  does  not  appear  until  later,  while 
the  demisemiquaver  must  have  been  a  novelty 
as  late  as  1697,  at  least  in  this  country, 
judging  from  the  13th  edition  of  Play  ford's 
IntrodvxAion  to  the  Skill  of  Musick;  in  which, 
after  describing  it,  the  author  goes  on  to  say 
*  but  the  Printer  having  none  of  that  character 
by  him,  I  was  obliged  to  omit  it.' 

"When  two  or  more  quavers  (or  shorter  notes) 
occur  consecutively,  they  are  usually  gi-ouped 
together  by  omitting  the  hooks  and  drawing  a 
thick  stroke  across  Sieir  stems,  thus  J^TC' 

[This  grouping,  which  had  been  in  use  for 
centuries  in  SlS.  music,  was  oue  of  the  gi-eat 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  printing  from  music- 
types  ;  it  was  not  overcome  until  about  1690, 
when  John  Heptinstall  brought  it  into  use. 
See  Heptinstall,  and  Music-Pkintino.] 

In  vocal  music,  quavers  which  have  to  be 
sung  to  8e{)arate  syllables  are  written  detached, 
while  those  which  are  sung  to  a  single  syllable 
are  grouped  ;  for  example  : — 


The  peo-pletbatwtdk-edin  dark 


F.  T. 


'  It  is  worthy-  of  notice  that  In  the  ancient  manntcript  hy  Ens- 
"'ton  known  u  the  Walthain  Hair  Croee  MS.,  «  note  U 
d.  aHUA  »  'tiniple,'  which  has  the  value  of  a  crotchet. 
Iwt  U  written  trith  a  hoeked  tUm  like  a  modern  qnaTer.  That  a 
nete  half  the  T»lae  of  a  minim  ahoold  at  anjr  neriod  have  been 
written  with  a  htjok  m«y  help  to  aoroniit  for  the  modem  name 
er*iekt»,  which,  bring  clearly  derived  from  the  French  rroc.  or 


One  quaver  of  historical  importance  deserves 
mention,  that  which  Handel  added  in  pencil  to 
the  quintet  in  'Jephtha'  in  1758,  six  years 
after  he  is  supposed  to  have  lost  his  sight,  and 
which  in  Schoelcher's  words  shows  that  by 
*  looking  very  closely  at  a  thing  he  was  still 
able  to  see  it  a  little.'  g. 

QUEEN  OF  SHEBA.  (i.)  La  Reine  pe 
Sada,  in  four  acts  ;  words  by  Barbier  and 
Carre,  music  by  Gounod.  Produced  at  the 
Op^ra,  Feb.  28,  1862.  Adapted  as  *  Irene'  by 
H.  B.  Famie,  and  produced  as  a  concert  at  the 
Crystal  Palace,  August  12, 1865.  The  beautiful 
Airs  de  ballet  contain  some  of  Gounod's  best 
music.  G. 

(ii.)  See  Konigin  von  Saba. 

QUEISSER,  Carl  Traugott,  a  great  trom- 
bone player,  was  bom  of  poor  parents  at  Diiben, 
near  Leipzig,  Jan.  11,  1800.  His  turn  for 
music  showed  itself  early,  and  he  soon  mastered 
all  the  ordinary  orchestral  instruments.  He 
ultimately  confined  himself  to  the  viola,  and 
to  the  trombone,  which  he  may  really  be  said 

eroektt.  a  hook.  i«  mine  what  inappropriate  to  the  note  in  it*  present 
form,  which  hsu  no  hook. 


8 


QUICK-STEP 


QUINTE 


to  have  created,  since,  for  instance,  the  solo 
in  the  Tuba  mirum  of  Mozart's  Requiem  was 
before  his  time  usually  played  on  a  bassoon. 
In  1817  he  was  appointed  to  play  the  violin 
and  trombone  in  the  town  orchestra,  and  by 
1830  had  worked  his  way  into  the  other 
orchestras  of  Leipzig,  including  that  of  the 
Gewandhaus.  He  played  the  viola  in  Matthai's 
well-known  quartet  for  many  years  ;  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Leipzig  *  Euterpe,*  and 
led  its  orchestra  for  a  long  time  ;  and  in  short 
was  one  of  the  most  prominent  musical  figures 
in  Leipzig  during  its  very  best  period. 

As  a  solo  trombone-player  he  ap{>eared  fre- 
quently in  the  Gewandhaus  Concerts,  with  con- 
certos, concertinos,  fantasias,  and  variations, 
many  of  them  composed  expressly  for  him  by 
C.  G.  Mliller,  F.  David,  Meyer,  Kummer,  and 
others  ;  and  the  reports  of  these  appearances 
rarely  mention  him  without  some  term  of  pride 
or  endearment.  *  For  fulness,  purity  and  power 
of  tone,  lightness  of  lip,  and  extraordinary 
facility  in  passages,'  says  his  biogi'apher,  *he 
surpassed  all  the  trombone-players  of  Germany.  *  * 
There  was  a  Leipzig  story  to  the  effect  that  at 
the  first  rehearsal  of  the  Lobgesang,  Queisser 
led  off  the  Introduction  as  follows  : — 


to  Mendelssohn's  infinite  amusement.  Se  nmi  h 
vcro^  e  ben  trovato, 

Queisser  was  well  known  throughout  Germany, 
but  appears  never  to  have  left  his  native  country. 
He  died  at  Leipzig,  June  12,  1846.  g. 

QUICK- STEP  (Fr.  Pas  redouble ;  Ger.  Ge- 
schwind  Marsch)  is  the  English  name  for  the 
music  of  the  Quick  march  in  the  army,  a  march 
in  which  116  steps  of  30  inches  go  to  the 
minute.  (See  Boost's  Journal  of  Marches^ 
Quicksteps^  Dances  J  etc.)  It  may  be  well  to 
mention  that  in  the  Slow  march  there  are  75 
steps  of  30  inches,  and  in  the  *  Double'  165  of 
33  inches.    [See  March,  vol.  iii.  p.  50.1     o. 

QUILISMA.  An  ancient  form  of  r^euma, 
representing  a  kind  of  shake.  [See  Notation, 
vol.  iii.  p.  396.]  w.  s.  R. 

QUINIBLE.     See  Quintoyer. 

(jUINT.  An  organ  stop  which  causes  the 
fifth  above  a  given  note  to  sound  as  well  as  the 
note  belonging  to  the  key  which  is  pressed 
down.  From  the  note  and  its  fifth  there  arises 
a  differential  tone  an  octave  beU>w  the  note. 
By  this  mixture  an  organ  with  16- ft.  pipes 
can  be  made  to  sound  as  if  with  32-ft.  pipes  ; 
that  is  the  pitch  of  the  lowest  note,  but  of 
coui-se  it  sounds  with  far  less  energy  than  if 
properly  produced  with  a  32.ft.  pipe.     t.  e. 

(iUINTA  FALSA  (False  Fifth).  The  for- 
bidden  interval  between  Mi  in  the  Hexachordon 
dunim,  and  Fa  in  the  Hexachordon  uaturale — 

t  AUg.  mnf{JbaU«*«  JMtumf,  JUI7  8^  18M. 


the  Diminished  Fifth  of  modem  music.  [See 
Ml  contra  Fa.]  w.  s.  r. 

QUINTE  The  name  given  in  France,  during 
the  latter  half  of  the  17th  and  part  of  the 
1 8th  centuries,  to  the  now  obsolete  five-stringed 
tenor  viol.  Five-stringed  viols  were  amongst 
the  earliest  in  use.  Piietorius  {Organographia.^ 
1619)  says  they  were  employed  in  ancient  times, 
and  Agricola  {Musica  JnstrumeiUalis,  1532) 
gives  the  tuning  of  the  five-stringed  viols  then 
in  vogue.  Although  com^tosers  of  vocal  music 
during  the  16th  century  not  infrequently  called 
their  tenor  part  *  Quinte  *  or  *  Quintus,'  viols  of 
that  denomination  remained  under  the  title  of 
tenor  until  a  later  period ;  and  probably  the  first 
instance  where  *  Quintus '  designates  a  musical 
instrument  occurs  in  the  overture  to  Claudio 
Monteverde's  opera,  *Orfeo*  (Venice,  1609- 
1618).  rj^at  de  France,  in  1683,  gives  the 
name  of  *  Fossart,'  who  played  the  '  Quinte  de 
Violon'  in  the  Queen's  band,  and  in  1712-13 
the  Paris  opera  orchestra  included  two  *  Quintes ' 
amongst  the  instnmients.  In  1773  there  were 
four   '  Quintes '  amongst  the  musicians  of  the 

*  Grande  Chapelle, '  and  *  Quintes '  were  employed 
in  all  the  orchestras.  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau 
{Dictionnaire  de  Musique,  Paris,  1708)  gives  a 
good  deal  of  information  concerning  the  *  Quinte. ' 
Under    *Viole'   he   says   that   in   France  the 

*  Quinte  *  and  the  *  Taille  *  (a  large  six-stringed 
tenor  viol),  contrary  to  the  Italian  custom, 
played  the  same  part,  and  nnder  *  Partie ' 
mentions  that  the  '  Quinte '  and  *  Taille '  were 
united  under  the  name  *  Yiole.'  The  highest 
and  lowest  notes  of  these  instruments,  according 
to  the  same  writer,  were — 

(a) 


Quinte  or  Viola. 


from  which  it  is  to  be  inferred  that  the  tuning 
was  the  same  as  that  given  by  Agricola  in 
1632,  i.e. 


In  England  the  two  tenor  viols  which  formed 
a  imrt  of  the  *  Chests  of  six  Viols,*  so  much  in 
vogue  during  the  17th  and  beginning  of  the 
1 8th  centuries,  were  probably  identical  with  the 
'  Quinte '  and  *Taille* ;  but  the  French  title  was 
never  adopted  in  this  country.  The  bulky  size 
of  the  *  Quinte '  rendered  it  such  an  awkward 
instrument  to  play  upon  that  its  dimensions 
gradually  diminished  from  century  to  century, 
and  when  the  violin  came  into  more  general  nse, 
it  melted  into  the  *  Haute  Contre  *  (alto  viol). 
In  the  second  half  of  the  18th  century  it 
developed  into  a  tenor  violin  with  four  strings, 
and  adopted  the  C  clef  on  the  third  line  which 


QUINTET 


QUINTUPLE  TIME 


9 


was  formerly  the  clef  of  the  *  Haute  Contre  * 
or  alto  viol.  (See  Tenor  Viol.) — Agricola 
(Martinns),  Musiea  Instrwnentalis ;  Praetorius, 
Organo^aphia  ;  Rousseau  (J.  J.),  Dictionnaire 
di  3litsiqne  ;  La  Borde,  E^i  sur  la  Munqice ; 
Grillet  (Laurent),  AncSlres  du  Violofi;  Hart, 
The  Violin,  E.  H-A. 

QUINTET  (Ft.  Quintuor;  Ital.  QuhUetto).  A 
conijKHition  for  five  instrumeuts  or  voices  with 
or  without  aocompaniment. 

I.  Quintets  for  strings  have  been  far  less 
often  written  than  quartets,  owing  to  the 
greater  complexity  demanded  in  the  polyphony. 
Boccherini,  however,  published  125,  of  which 
twelve  only  were  written  for  two  violms,  two 
violas,  and  one  violoncello,  the  others  having 
two  violoncellos  and  one  viola.  The  former  is 
the  more  usual  choice  of  instruments,  probably 
because  the  lower  jiarts  are  ai)t  to  be  too  heavy 
sounding  with  two  violoncellos,  owing  to  the 
greater  body  of  tone  in  this  instrument.  Schu- 
Ijcrt's  noble  Quintet  in  C  (op.  163)  is  for  two 
violoncellos,  but  the  first  is  used  constantly 
in  its  upper  octave,  soaring  above  the  viola. 
Onslow's — thirty-four  in  number^ are  for  a 
double  bass  and  violoncello. 

Beethoven's  two  Quintets,  in  E]?  and  0,  be- 
long to  his  earlier  j^eriods,  and  have  there- 
fore none  of  the  extraordinary  features  of  the 
later  quartets.  Mendelssohn's  Quintet  in  Bb 
(op.  87)  is  so  orchestral  as  to  seem  almost  a 
symphony  in  disguise,  but  that  in  A  (op.  18)  is 
an  exc|uisite  specimen  of  what  a  string  quintet 
should  be. 

3Iany  other  combinations  of  iive  insti'uments 
have  found  favour  with  musicians,  mostly  in- 
cluding a  pianoforte.  Thus  there  is  Mozart's 
Qnintet  in  £b  for  oboe,  clarinet,  horn,  bassoon, 
and  piano — which  the  com[)Oser  esteei^ed  the 
best  thing  lie  ever  wrote, — the  beautiful  one  for 
clarinet  and  strings,  and  another  for  tlie  piquant 
combination  of  flute,  oboe,  viola,  violoncello, 
and  harmonica.  Perhaps  the  most  effective 
attsfociation  is  that  of  piano,  violin,  viola,  violon- 
cello, and  double  bass,  as  in  Schubert's  well- 
known  *  Trout'  Quintet  (op.  114).  [The  splendid 
quintets  of  Schumann  and  Brahms  for  piano  and 
strings  are  for  the  ordinary  combination  above 
referred  to,  as  are  also  those  of  Dvof-ak,  Dohnanyi, 
and  others.  The  quintet  by  Brahms  for  clarinet 
and  strings  is  one  of  his  most  beautiful  works.] 
Beethoven's  qnintet  for  i>iano  and  wind  instru- 
ments (op.  1 6),  in  £b  is  a  noble  representative 
of  a  very  small  class.  Hmnmel  has  also  written 
a  well-known  one. 

II.  In  vocal  music  none  who  have  ever  heard 
it  can  forget  the  admirable  quintet  (for  two 
soprani,  contralto,  tenor,  and  l^iss)  which  forms 
the  finale  to  Act  1  of  SiH>lir's  ^  Azor  and  Zemira. ' 
in  modem  opera  the  most  striking  specimen 
occurs  in  Wagner's  *  Meistersinger.'  Five-part 
harmony  has  a  {leculiarly  rich  effect,  and  deserves 
to  be  more  practised  than  it  is,  especially  in 


oratorio  chorus.  It  is,  however,  by  no  means 
easy  to  write  naturally.  F.  c. 

QUINTON  [See  Viol,  treble]. 

QUINTOYER  (Old  Eng.  Quinible).  To  sing 
in  Fifths — a  French  verb,  in  frequent  use  among 
extempora  Organisers  during  the  Middle  Ages. 
[See  Okoanum,  Part-Wkiting.J       \v.  s.  ii. 

QUINTUPLE  TIME.  The  rhythm  of  five 
beats  in  a  bar.  As  a  rule  quintuple  time  has 
two  accents,  one  on  the  "first  beat  of  the  bar,  and 
the  other  on  either  the  third  or  fourth,  the  bar 
being  thus  divided  into  two  unequal  i)arts.  On 
this  account  it  can  scarcely  be  considered  a  dis- 
tinct species  of  rhythm,  but  rather  a  comjwuud 
of  two  ordinary  kinds,  duple  and  triple,  emi»loyed 
alternately.  Although  of  little  practical  value, 
quintuple  time  produces  an  effect  sufficiently 
characteristic  and  interesting  to  have  induced 
various  composers  to  make  experiments  therein, 
the  earliest  attempt  of  any  importance  beiug  a 
symphony  in  the  second  act  of  Handel's  *  Orlando' 
(1732),  in  which  the  hero's  perturbation  is  re- 
presented by  this  peculiar  time  (see  Buniey, 
History y  iv.  364).  The  same  rhythm  occurs  in 
an  air  to  the  woixis  '  Se  la  sorto  mi  coudanna ' 
in  the  opera  of  *  Ariadne '  by  Adolfati,  written 
in  1 750,  and  it  is  also  met  in  some  of  the  national 
airs  of  Sjmin,  Greece,  Germany,  etc.  Thus  Reicha, 
in  a  note  to  No.  20  of  his  set  of  36  fugues  (each 
of  which  embodies  some  curious  experiment  in 
either  tonality  or  rhythm),  states  that  in  a 
certain  district  of  the  Lower  Rhine,  named 
Kochersberg,  the  aira  of  most  of  the  dances  have 
a  well-mai'ked  rhythm  of  five  beats,  and  he 
gives  as  an  exam})le  the  following  waltz  : — 


In  the  above  example  the  second  accent  falls 
on  the  third  beat,  the  rhythm  being  that  of  2-8 
followed  by  3-8,  and  the  same  order  is  ob- 
served in  a  chai-ming  movement  by  Hiller, 
from  the  Trio,  op.  64. 

In  Reicha's  fugue  above  refeired  to,  the 
reverse  is  the  case,  the  fourth  beat  receiving 
the  accent,  as  is  shown  by  the  composer's  own 
time  -  signature,  as  well  as  by  his  explicit 
directions  as  to  performance.  The  following  is 
the  subject : — 


Allegretto.  ^ .     


Other  instances  of  quintuple  rhythm  are  to 
be  found  in  a  Trio  for  strings  by  K.  J.  Bischoff, 
for  which  a  prize  was  awarded  by  the  Deutsche 
Touhallein  1 853 ;  in  Chopin's  Sonata  in  C  minor, 
op.  4  ;  in  Hiller's  *Rhythmische  Studien,'  oj). 
52  ;  in  *  Viens,  gentille  Dame  ' ;  in  lioieldieu's 
*  La  Dame  blanche ' ;  Lowe's  Ballad  *  Prinz 
Eugen  * ;  a  number  in  Rubinstein's  '  Tower  of 
Babel,'  etc.      Another  characteristic  example 


10 


QUIKTUS 


QUODLIBET 


occurs  in  the  *  Gypsies*  Glee,  *  by  W.  Reeve  (1 796). 
This  may  fairly  be  considei-ed  an  example  of 
genuine  quintuple  rhythm,  for  instead  of  the 
usual  division  of  the  bar  into  two  parts,  such 
as  might  be  expressed  by  alternate  bars  of  3-4 
and  2-4,  or  2-4  and  3-4,  there  are  five  distinct 
beats  in  every  bar,  each  consisting  of  an  accent 
and  a  nou- accent.  This  freedom  from  the 
oixlinary  alternation  of  two  and  three  is  well 
expressed  by  the  grouping  of  the  accompaniment. 
[The  same  true  quintuple  time,  as  distinguished 
from  a  combination  of  triple  and  dujile  time, 
distinguishes  the  best-known  example  of  all,  the 
second  movement  of  Tchaikovsky's  *  Pathetic ' 
symphony.  The  passage  in  the  third  act  of 
*  Tristan  und  Isolde,'  occurring  at  a  most  excit- 
ing moment  in  the  drama,  is  apt  to  escape 
the  attention  of  many  liearers  who  are  only 
conscious  of  the  impatient  effect  it  produces. 
See  Rhvthm.]  f.  t. 

QUINTU8  (the  Fifth).  The  Fifth  Part  in 
a  composition  for  five  voices ;  called  also  Pars 
quinta  and  Quincuplum.  In  music  of  the  15th 
and  16th  centuries,  the  Fifth  Part  always  cor- 
responded exactly  in  compass  with  one  of  the 
other  four  ;  it  would,  therefore,  have  been  im- 
possible to  describe  it  as  Firat  or  Second  Cantus, 
Altus,  Tenor,  or  Bassus.  w.  s.  r. 

QUIRE.     Another  way  of  spelling  Choir. 

o. 

QUODLIBET  (Lat.  '  What  you  i)lea8e '),  also 
called  QuoTUBET  (*  As  many  as  you  please'), 
and  in  Italian  Messanza  or  Miktichanza 
('A  mixture').  This  was  a  kind  of  musical 
joke  in  the  16th  and  early  part  of  the  17th 
centuries,  the  fun  of  which  consisted  in  the 
extempore  juxtaposition  of  different  melodies, 
whether  sacred  or  secular,  which  were  incon- 
gruous either  in  their  musical  character,  or  in 
the  words  with  which  they  were  associated  ; 
sometimes,  however,  the  words  were  the  same 
in  all  parts,  but  were  sung  in  snatches  and 
scraps,  as  in  the  quodlibets  of  Melchior  Franck. 
(See  Praetorius,  Syntagma  Mitsicuitij  tom.  iii. 
cap.  V.)  There  were  two  ways  of  performing 
this :  one  was  to  string  the  melodies  together 
simply  and  without  any  attempt  at  connecting 
them  by  passages  such  as  those  found  in  modem 
'  fantasias ' ;  the  other,  the  more  elaborate 
method,  consisted  in  singing  or  playing  the 
melodies  simultaneously,  the  only  modifications 
allowed  being  those  of  time.  The  effect  of  this, 
unless  only  very  skilful  musicians  engaged  in 
it,  must  have  been  very  like  what  we  now  call 
a  '  Dutch  chorus. '     This  pastime  was  a  favourite 


one  with  the  Bachs,  at  whose  annual  family 
gatherings  the  singing  of  quodlibets  was  a  great 
feature  (see  Spitta,  J,  S.  Bach  (Engl,  transl.) 
i.  154,  iii.  172-6).  Sebastian  Bach  himself  has 
left  us  one  delightful  example  of  a  written-doun 
quodlibet,  at  the  end  of  the  *  30  variations '  in 
(r  major,  for  a  detailed  analysis  of  which  see 
Spitta.  The  two  tunes  used  in  it  are  *  Ich  bin 
so  lang  bei  dir  nicht  gewest,'  and  'Kraut  und 
Rilben,  Haben  mich  vertiieben.'  One  of  the 
best  modern  examples,  although  only  two 
themes  are  used,  is  in  Reinecke's  variations  for 
two  pianos  on  a  gavotte  of  Gluck's,  wjiere,  in  the 
last  variation,  he  brings  in  simultaneously  with 
the  gavotte  the  well-known  musette  of  Bach 
which  occurs  in  the  third  *  English  *  suite.  A 
good  instance,  and  one  in  which  the  extempore 
character  is  retained,  is  the  singing  of  the 
three  tunes  *  Polly  Hopkins,'  'Buy  a  Broom,* 
and  'The  Merry  Swiss  Boy*  together,  which 
was  formerly  sometimes  done  for  a  joke.  A 
very  interesting  specimen  of  a  16th-century 
quodlibet  by  Johann  Giildel,  consisting  of  five 
chorale -times  —  viz.  (1)  '  Erhalt  uus,  Herr  bei 
deinem  Wort,'  (2)  *  Ach  Gott,  von  Himmel,' 
(3)  *  Vater  unser  im  Himmelreich,'  (4)  *Wir 
glauben  all,'  (5)  '  Durch  Adam's  Fall ' — is  given 
as  an  appendix  to  Hilgenfeldt's  Life  of  Bach. 
We  quote  a  few  bars  as  an  example  of  the 
ingenuity  vriih  which  the  five  melodies  are 
brought  together : — 


m 


1^' 


R 


"D  AAFF,  A^TOX,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
tenors  of  his  day ;  born  1714  in  the 
village  of  Holzem,  near  Bonn,  and  educated 
for  the  priesthood  at  the  Jesuit  College  at 
Cologne.  His  tine  voice  so  struck  the  Elector, 
Clement  Augustus,  that  he  took  him  to  Munich, 
where  Ferrandini  brought  him  forward  in  an 
ojiera.  After  studying  for  a  short  time  with 
Bemacchi  at  Bologna,  Raalf  became  one  of  the 
first  tenors  of  his  time.  In  1 738  he  sang  at 
Florence  on  the  betrothal  of  Maria  Theresa,  and 
followed  up  this  successful  d^but  at  many  of 
the  Italian  theatres.  In  1742  he  returned  to 
Bonn,  and  sang  at  Vienna  in  Jommelli's 
*Didone'  (1749),  to  Metastasio's  great  satis- 
faction. In  1752  he  passed  througli  Italy  to 
Lisbon  ;  in  1755  he  accepted  a  simimons  to 
Madrid,  where  he  remained  under  Farinelli's 
direction,  enjopng  every  favour  from  the  court 
and  public.  In  1759  he  accompanied  Farinelli 
to  Naples.  In  1770  he  entered  the  service  of 
the  Elector,  Karl  Theodor,  at  Mannheim.  In 
1778  he  was  in  Paris  with  Mozart,  and  in  1779 
he  followed  the  court  to  Munich,  where  Mozart 
eomix)sed  the  part  of  Idomeneo  for  him.  Ho 
died  in  Munich,  May  27,  1797.  Mozart  in 
his  letters  speaks  of  him  as  his  *  best  and  dearest 
friend,  *  especially  in  one  from  Paris,  dated  June 
12,  1778.  He  composed  for  him  in  Mannheim 
the  air,  *  Se  al  labbro  mio  non  credi '  (Kiichel, 
295).  c.  F.  P. 

RABAX,  Edward,  was  an  Englishman,  and  I 
after  having  fought  in  the  ware  of  the  Nether-  , 
lands,  from  the  year  1 600,  settled  at  Edinburgh,  ' 
at  the  Cowgate  Port,  as  a  printer,  in  1620.  | 
One  work  with  the  Edinburgh  imprint  alone  ' 
remains,  and  in  the  same  year  he  removed  to  { 
St.  Andrews,  and  finally  to  Aberdeen  in  1622.  ' 
In  this  place  he  was  under  the  patronage  of  the  | 
town  dignitaries,  and  had  the  friendship   of  , 
Bishop  Forlies.  It  was,  no  doubt,  these  circum- 
stances that  enabled  him  to  carry  on  his  craft 
unmolested,  unlike  John  Forbes  of  the  same 
city  who,  at  a  later  date,  sufiered   fine   and  i 
imprisonment  for  infringing  the  monoi)oly  held 
by  the    King's   printer  in   Scotland.      Raban  I 
at  once  commenced  the  printing  of  liturgical 
works,  including  a  prayer-book,  dated   1625, 
which  is  stated  to  liave  tlie  music  to  the  Psalms. 
In  1629  he  printed  t\vo  editions  of  CZ.  PscUmcs 
of  the  prinrciie  prophet  David ,  a   qiuirto   for 
binding  with  Bibles  and  a  16mo  edition.    Also, 
in  163.3,  two  editions  of  The  Pmvies  of  David 
in  prose   and  metre  according  to  the   Church 
of  SoAlawL  ...     In  AberdenCj  iviprinted  by 
j&ficard  Habanfor  Darid  Melrill,  1688,  8o. 
These  have  the  music  to  the  Psalms  printed 
from  movable  type.     Though  probably  not  so 
veil  executed  as  the  music  of  Andro  Hart  of 
Eilinbnrgh,  these  are  of  great  interest  in  the  . 


history  of  Scottish  music -printing.  Raban 
gave  up  business  in  1649,  dying  in  1658.    f.  k. 

RACCOLTA  GENERALE  delle  opere 
CLARsicHE  MUsicALi.  A  collection  of  pieces  of 
which  the  full  title  is  as  follows :  *  Collection 
generale  des  ouvrages  classiqnes  de  musique,  ou 
Choix  de  chefs  d'oeuvres,  en  tout  genre,  des 
plus  gi-ands  compositeurs  de  toutes  les  Ecoles, 
recueillis,  mis  en  ordre  et  enrichis  de  Notices 
lustoriques,  par  Alex.  E.  Choron,  pour  servir 
de  suite  aux  Princii)es  de  Composition  des  ecoles 
d' Italic.'  A  notice  on  the  wrapper  further 
says  that  the  price  of  the  work  to  subscribers 
is  calculated  at  the  rate  of  5  sous  per  page, 
The  numbers  were  not  to  be  issued  jjeriodically, 
but  the  annual  cost  to  subscribers  W€ks  fixed  at 
from  86  to  40  francs.  The  work  was  in  folio, 
engraved  by  Gille  fils,  and  published  by 
Leduc&  Co.,  Paris,  Rue  de  Richelieu,  78,  with 
agents  at  Bordeaux,  Marseilles,  Leipzig,  Munich, 
Vienna,  Lyon,  Turin,  Milan,  Rome,  and  Naples. 
It  was  got  up  with  gi*eat  care  and  taste,  but 
seems  to  have  ceased  after  about  six  numbers. 

For  Alfieri's  *Raccolta  di  musica  sacra* 
see  vol.  i,  p.  66.  o. 

RACHMANINOV,  Sergei  Vassilibvich,  a 
pianist  of  repute,  and  one  of  the  most  talented 
of  the  younger  Moscow  school  of  coniposera  ; 
born  in  the  Government  of  Novgorod,  April  1 
(March  20,  O.S.),  1873.  At  nine  years  of  ago 
he  entered  the  St.  Petersburg  Conservatoire, 
where  he  remained  three  years,  making  the 
pianoforte  his  chief  study.  Three  yeara  later, 
in  1886,  he  was  transferred  to  the  Conservatoire 
at  Moscow.  Here  he  studied  the  i>ianoforte, 
firat  with  Tchaikovsky's  friend,  Zvierev,  and 
afterwards  with  Siloti.  His  masters  for  theory 
and  composition  were  Taneiev  and  Arensky. 
The  musical  influences  of  Moscow  are  clearly 
evident  in  the  works  of  Rachmaninov.  In 
1892  he  won  the  gold  medal  for  comjwsition, 
and  on  quitting  the  Conservatoire,  in  the  same 
year,  he  started  on  a  long  concert-tour  through 
the  chief  towns  of  Russia.  In  1899  Rach- 
maninov ap()cared  in  London  at  one  of  the 
concerts  of  tlie  Philharmonic  Society,  and  made 
a  good  impression  in  the  threefold  capacity  of 
com^ioser,  conductor,  and  pianist.  In  1893 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  pianoforte  to  the 
Maryinsky  Institute  for  girls,  in  Moscow,  a  i)ost 
which  he  still  holds.  Several  of  Rachmaninov's 
songs  and  pianoforte  pieces,  esjjecially  the 
famous  prelude  in  C%  minor,  have  attained 
immense  popularity.  His  coni|x)sition8  are  as 
follows : — 

A.  ORCREaTBAL 

'The  Rock."  (antiitlA,  op.  7;  Olp«y  Caprlcdo,  op.  12 :  Symphony, 

ut».  13  11895). 

B.  PiAVoniRTC 
Twfi  Concprto*.  opp.  1  ni»d  18 :    two  Sult«s.  opp.  5  and  17 :    •\x 

plecci  for  four  hnitdB.  op.  11 ;  ftv«  pieces  fur  iwohanda,  op.  3 


12 


RACKET 


RADZIWILL 


(including  the  Cj  minor  prelude) ;  seven  plecee,  op.  10 ;  six 
31uiuvnta  Slusiokux,  up.  16 ;  VHriatioiuon  the  theme  uf  Gbupiu's 
Prelude  in  C  minor,  op.  22. 

C.  CuAMBBa  Hi'src 
Elegiju:  trio  (in  nicuiory  of  Tchalkoveky)  for  pianoforte,  rlolin, 
and  violoncello,  op.  »  (1883) :  wnata  for  violunooUo  and  piano- 
forte, op.  19 :  two  pieces  for  \1olin  and  pianoforte,  op.  6 ;  two 
pieces  for  violoncello  and  i>iauo(orte,  op.  'J. 

D.  VocAi, 
Bix  choruses  for  female  voices,  op.  15:  humorous  chorus  for  mixed 

voices  ;    Cantata,    '  Bpnng,'    for  chorus,   baritone  solo,  and 

uruhestra.  op.  20  ;  six  songs,  op.  4 :  six  ditto,  op.  8 ;  12  ditto. 

op.  14 ;  '  Fate '  (t«i  Beethoven's  Fifth  Symphonyj.  op.  17. 
*  Aleko,'  opera  in  one  act.  iitwt  jMrformed  at  the  Imperial  Opera- 

House,  Moscow.  ItfiO.  -^  jj, 

RACKET,  RACKETT,  or  RANKETT  (also 
l<no\vn  as  Cervelat).  An  obsolete  instniiiient 
of  small  cylindrical  bore,  played  with  a  double 
reed  of  the  bassoon  type.  It  is  described  both 
by  Praetorius  and  by  Mersenne,  and  was  made 
both  of  wood  and  ivory.  The  apparent  length 
of  the  instrument  was  very  small,  as  the  bore 
doubled  many  times  upon  itself,  the  true  length 
being  thus  disguised.  In  addition  to  the  holes 
or  ventages  closed  by  the  tips  of  the  lingers  in 
the  usual  way,  the  doubling  of  the  tube  allowed 
of  the  piercing  of  several  holes  which  were 
closed  by  other  joints  of  the  fingers,  or  soft 
parts  of  the  hand.  According  to  Praetorius 
the  rackets  were  made  in  families,  the  compass 
of  a  set  of  four  extending  fi-om  C  to  d'.  i).  J.  B. 

RADICATI,  Felice  da  Maurizio  di,  violinist 
and  coniiK)ser,  born  at  Turin  in  1778  ;  died, 
according  to  the  Qiiellen-Lcxikon^  at  Vienna, 
April  14,  1823.  His  parents  belonging  to 
the  poor  nobility  of  Italy,  the  child's  singular 
interest  in  music  was  encouraged  the  more, 
and  he  began  his  studies  at  a  very  early  age. 
Pugnani  taught  him  the  violin.  Profiting 
by  the  precepts  of  this  great  master,  Radicati 
acquired  many  of  Pugnani's  finer  qualities, 
and,  on  reaching  manhood,-  toured  with  un- 
qualified success  in  Italy,  France,  and  England. 
The  love  of  his  native  land,  however,  and  the 
additional  inducement  of  a  jKist  at  the  Court 
of  King  Victor  Emanuel  V.,  drew  him  back 
to  Italy,  whither  he  returned,  accompanied  by 
his  accomplished  wife  Teresa  BEUTixorri. 
In  the  year  1815  the  town  of  Bologna  announced 
a  competition  for  the  jwst  of  leader  of  tlie  town 
orchestra— at  that  time  celebrated  ;  but  when 
it  came  to  be  known  tliat  Radicati  had  entered 
the  lists,  no  one  would  contend  against  him  ; 
with  the  result  that  he  was  elected  to  the  post 
on  March  31,  1815,  \Aithout  contest.  After 
this  his  talents  obtained  for  him  the  apix)int- 
ments  of  director  of  the  great  orchestra  of  the 
Basilica  di  S.  Pietro,  and  professor  of  the 
violin  at  the  famous  Liceo  Filarmonico  of 
Bologna.  His  career  was  calamitously  cut 
short,  in  the  prime  of  life,  by  a  fatal  carriage 
accident. 

The  authorities  on  the  subject  of  Radicati's 
career  give  but  few  dates.  According  to  the 
Qiiellen-Lej'ikon  he  was  in  London  1806-7, 
and  toured  in  Lombardy  (Fetis,  Bioff.  des  Mus.) 
in     1816.     His    principal    biographer,    Carlo 


Pancaldi — a  Bolognese  lawyer — wrote  an  eulogy 
in  his  memory,  but  unfortunately  mentions  but 
one  date,  that  of  his  election  at  Padua  on 
March  31,  1815.  As  a  violinist  his  qualities 
api)ear  to  have  been  those  of  a  musician  rather 
than  those  of  a  virtuoso.  Pancaldi  tells  us 
that  his  style  was  dignified  and  his  tone 
sonorous,  that  he  counted  Haydn,  Beethoven, 
and  Romberg  among  his  friends,  and  that  he 
was  well  educated  in  other  respects  than  music. 
As  a  composer  he  devoted  himself  esi^ecially 
to  perfecting  the  Quartet,  which  at  that  time — 
in  spite  of  Boccherini's  influence — was  less 
thought  of  in  Italy  than  in  other  comitries. 
It  would  seem  that  his  interest  in  the  cause  of 
chamber  music  was  aroused  by  a  Geniian  critic, 
who,  reviewing  some  of  Radicati's  quai-tets 
performed  in  Vienna,  remarked  that  *The 
Italian  mind  is  not  apt  to  comi>ose  works  of 
the  highest  character ;  in  this  matter  the 
Germans  seem  to  take  precedence.  Radicati's 
quartets  are  nothing  more  than  melodies  accom- 
panied by  harmonies  in  secondary  parts.'  This 
so  incensed  Radicati  that  he  gave  a  number  of 
concerts  of  Italian  music  in  Vienna,  in  oi-der 
that  the  German  critic  might  be  convinced  of 
his  error  ;  and,  on  his  i-eturn  to  Italy,  not  only 
devoted  himself  to  the  writing  of  many  quartets 
and  quintets,  but  also  endeavoured  to  induce 
other  Italian  composers  to  do  likewise,  and 
thus  efface  the  stigma  cast  xqwu  Italian  music 
by  the  Germans.  Besides  his  numerous  con- 
tributions to  chamber  music,  Radicati  wrote 
six  or  seven  operas,  among  which  are  included 
his  *Ricardo  Cuor  di  Leone,'  produced  at 
Bologna  ;  a  couple  of  farces,  *  I  due  Prigionieri,' 
*  II  Medico  per  forza '  ;  a  concerto  for  violin, 
and  a  number  of  small  *  Arias,'  *  Cavatinas,*  etc. 
All  these  were  in  the  possession  of  his  son  in 
1828.  The  most  complete  list  of  his  conij^o- 
sitions — published  and  MS. — is  probably  that 
given  in  the  Qmlkn- Lexikon.  Radicati's  wife 
and  his  son  Karolus,  who  became  a  lawyer, 
erected  a  monument  to  his  memory  in  the 
Campo  Santo  at  Bologna. — Pancaldi  (Carlo), 
Cenni  iiUomo  Felice  Jiadicatif  Bologna,  1828  ; 
Eitner,  Quelleii-Lexikon ;  F^tis,  Biog.  dcs  Mus. ; 
Baker,  Biog,  Did.  Mus,  K.  h-a. 

RADZIWILL,  Anton  Heinrich,  Prince  of, 
Royal  Prussian  *  Statthalter '  of  the  Grand  Duchy 
of  Posen,  born  at  Wilna,  June  13,  1775,  married 
in  1796  the  Princess  Luise,  sister  of  that  dis- 
tinguished amateur  Prince  Louis  Ferdinand  of 
Prussia.  [See  vol.  ii.  p.  772.]  Radziwill  was 
known  in  Berlin  not  only  as  an  aixlent  admirer 
of  good  music,  but  as  a  fine  violoncello  player, 
and  'a  singer  of  such  taste  and  ability  as  is 
very  rarely  met  with  amongst  amateui-s.'* 
Beethoven  was  the  gi*eat  object  of  his  admira- 
tion. He  played  his  quartets  with  devotion, 
made  a  long  journey  to  Prince  Galitzin's  on 
purpose  to  hear  the  Mass  in  D,  was  invited  by 

1  A.it.  M.  1831,  July  87.    Bee  also  1809,  June  9B ;  1814,  Sept.  38. 


RAFF 


RAFF 


13 


Beethoven  to  subscribe  to  the  publication  of 
that  work,  and  indeed  was  one  of  the  seven 
who  sent  in  their  names  in  answer  to  that 
ap|>eal.  To  him  Beethoven  dedicated  the 
Overture  in  C,  op.  115  (known  as  'Namens- 
feier '),  which  was  published  as  *  Grosses  Ouver- 
tare  in  C  dur  gedidUet,'  etc.,  by  Steiner  of 
Vienna  in  1825. 

Radziwill  was  not  only  a  player,  a  singer, 
and  a  passionate  lover  of  music,  he  was  also  a 
composer  of  no  mean  order.  Whistling's  Hdnd- 
Inch  (1828)  names  three  Romances  for  voice 
and  PF.  (Peters),  and  songs  with  guitar  and 
Tioloncello  (B.  k  H.),  and  Mendel  mentions 
duets  with  PF.  accompaniment,  a  Ck)mplaint  of 
Maria  Stuart,  with  PF.  and  violoncello,  and 
many  part-songs  (still  in  MS.)  eomposed  for 
Zelter*8  Liedertafel,  of  which  he  was  an  en- 
thusiastic supporter.*  But  these  were  only 
preparations  for  his  great  work,  entitled  '  Com- 
positions to  Goethe*s  dramatic  poem  of  Faust.' 
This,  which  was  published  in  score  and  arrange- 
ment by  Trautwein  of  Berlin  in  Nov.  1836, 
contains  twenty -five  numbers,  occupying  589 
{wiges.  A  portion  was  sung  by  the  Singakademio 
as  early  as  May  1,  1810  ;  the  choruses  were 
performed  in  May  1816,  three  new  scenes  as 
late  as  Nov.  21,  1830,  and  the  whole  work  was 
brought  out  by  that  institution  after  the  death 
of  the  composer,  which  took  place  April  8, 
1833.  The  work  was  repeatedly  performed 
during  several  years  in  Berlin,  Danzig,  Han- 
over, Leipzig,  Prague,  and  many  other  places, 
as  may  be  seen  from  the  index  to  the  A,  M, 
Zeiiung,  It  made  its  appearance  in  a  perform- 
ance at  Hyde  Park  College,  London,  on  May 
21, 1880,  under  the  direction  of  L.  Martin- Eiffe. 
A  full  analysiB  of  it  will  be  found  in  the  A.  M, 
Zeilung  for  1836,  pp.  601,  617  ;  and  there  is  a 
copy  in  the  British  Museum.  6. 

RAFF,  Joseph  Joachim,  bom  May  27, 1822, 
at  liichen  on  the  Lake  of  Zurich.  He  received 
his  early  education  at  Wiesenstetten  in  Wurtem- 
berg,  in  the  home  of  his  parents,  and  then  at 
the  Jesnit  Lyceum  of  Schwyz,  where  he  carried 
off  the  first  prizes  in  German,  Latin,  and 
mathematics.  Want  of  means  compelled  him 
to  give  up  his  classical  studies,  and  become  a 
schoolmaster,  but  he  stuck  to  music,  and  though 
unable  to  afibrd  a  teacher,  made  such  progress 
not  only  with  the  piano  and  the  violin,  but  also 
in  composition,  that  Mendelssohn,  to  whom  he 
sent  some  MSS.,  gave  him  in  1843  a  recommen- 
dation to  Breitkopf  k  Hartel.  This  introduction 
seems  to  have  led  to  his  appearing  before  the 
public,  and  to  the  first  drops  of  that  Hood  of 
compositions  of  aU  sorts  and  dimensions  which 
from  1844  he  poured  forth  in  an  almost  un- 
ceasing stream.  Of  op.  1  we  have  found  no 
critical  record  ;  but  op.  2  is  kindly  noticed  by 
the  N.    Zeitsehrifl   for  August   5,    1844,   the 

Zaltn'a  Oorrnprndema  with  OMthe  teema  with  notices  of  fhe 


reviewer  finding  in  it  *  something  which  jwints 
to  a  future  for  the  composer.'  Encouraging 
notices  of  opp.  2  to  6  inclusive  are  also  given 
in  the  A,  M,  Zeitung  for  the  2l8t  of  the  same 
month.  Amidst  privations  which  would  have 
daunted  any  one  of  less  determination  he  worked 
steadily  on,  and  at  length  having  fallen  in  with 
Liszt,  was  treated  by  him  with  the  kindness 
which  always  marked  his  intercourse  with  rising 
or  struggling  talent,  and  was  taken  by  him  on 
a  concert-tour.  Meeting  Mendelssohn  for  the 
first  time  at  Cologne  in  1846,  and  being  after- 
wards invited  by  him  to  become  his  pupil  at 
Leipzig,  he  left  Liszt  for  that  purpose.  Before 
he  could  carry  this  project  into  eflect,  however, 
Mendelssohn  died,  and  Raff  remained  atCologner 
occupying  himself  inter  alia  in  writing  critiques 
for  Dehn's  Cadlia,  Later,  in  1854,  he  published 
Die  JFagnerfragej  a  pamphlet  which  excited 
considerable  attention.  Liszt's  endeavours  to- 
secure  him  a  patron  in  Vienna  in  the  person  of 
Mecchetti  the  publisher,  were  frustrated  by 
Mecchetti's  death  while  Raff  was  actually  oit 
the  way  to  see  him.  Undismayed  by  these 
repeated  obstacles  he  devoted  himself  to  a 
severe  course  of  study,  partly  at  home  and 
I)artly  at  Stuttgart,  with  the  view  to  remedy 
the  deficiencies  of  his  early  training.  At 
Stuttgart  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Biilow, 
who  became  deeply  interested  in  him,  and  did 
him  a  great  service  by  taking  up  his  new 
Concertstuck,  for  PF.  and  orchestra,  and  playing 
it  (Jan.  1,  1848). 

By  degrees  Raff  attached  himself  more  and 
more  closely  to  the  now  German  school,  and  in 
1850  went  to  Weimar  to  be  near  Liszt,  who  had 
at  that  time  abandoned  his  career  as  a  virtuoso 
and  was  settled  there.  Here  he  remodelled  an 
opera,  *  Konig  Alfred,*  which  he  had  composed 
in  Stuttgart  three  yeare  before,  and  it  was 
produced  at  the  Court  Theatre,  where  it  was 
often  performed.  It  has  also  been  given  else- 
where. Other  works  followed — a  collection  of 
PF.  pieces  called  *  Friihlingsboten '  in  1 852,  the 
first  string  quartet  in  1855,  and  the  first  grand 
sonata  for  PF.  and  violin  (E  minor)  in  1857. 
In  the  meantime  he  had  engaged  himself  to 
Doris  Genast,  daughter  of  the  well-known  actor 
and  manager,  and  heraelf  on  the  stage  ;  and  in 
1856  he  followed  her  to  Wiesbaden,  where  he 
was  soon  in  great  request  as  a  pianoforte  teacher. 
In  1858  he  composed  his  second  violin  sonata, 
and  the  incidental  music  for  *  Bemhard  von  Wei- 
mar,' a  drama  by  Wilhelm  Genast,  the  overture 
to  which  speedily  became  a  favourite,  and  was 
much  played  throughout  Germany.  In  1859 
he  married.  In  1863  hia  first  symphony,  'An 
das  Vaterland,'  obtained  the  prize  offered  by  the 
Gesellschaft  der  Musikfreunde  in  Vienna  (out 
of  thirty-two  competitors),  and  was  followed  by 
the  2nd  (in  C)  and  the  3rd  (in  F,  *  Im  Walde') 
in  1869,  the  4th  (in  G  minor)  in  1871,  the  5th 
(*Lenore')  in  1872,  the  6th  (*Gelebt,  gestrebt, 


14 


RAFF 


RAFF 


gelitten,  gestritteu,  gestorben,  uimvorben ')  in 
1876,  and  the  7th  (*  Alpensinfonie ')  in  1877, 
the  8th  (*Friihling8kliinge')  in  1878,  and  the 
9th  (*  Ini  Sommerzeit ') in  1880.  A  1 0th  ('  Zur 
Herbstzeit ')  was  played  at  Wieabaden  ;  and  the 
nth,  left  unfinished  at  his  death,  was  revised 
by  Erdmannsdbrfer.  In  1870  his  comic  opera 
*  Dame  Kobold  *  was  produced  at  Weimar.  Other 
o)>eras  for  which  he  himself  wrote  the  libretti 
have  not  been  j>ei-formod  in  public.  Two  can- 
tatas, '"NVachet  auf,'  and  another  written  for 
the  Festival  in  commemoration  of  the  battle  of 
Leipzig,  were  his  firet  works  for  men's  voices, 
and  are  popular  with  choral  societies.  His  ar- 
rangement of  Bach's  six  ^^olin  sonatas  for  PF. 
is  a  work  of  great  merit. 

Detailed  analyses  of  the  firat  six  of  these 
Sym])honies  will  be  found  in  the  Monthly  Musical 
Record  for  1875,  and  from  thase  a  very  good 
idea  of  the  composer's  style  may  be  gathered. 
Remembering  his  stniggles  and  hard  life  it  is 
only  a  matter  for  wonder  that  he  should  have 
striven  so  earnestly  and  so  long  in  a  path  that 
was  not  his  natural  walk.  A  glance  at  the 
nearly  complete  list  of  his  works  at  the  foot  of 
this  notice  will  explain  our  meaning.  The 
enormous  mass  of  'drawing-room  music'  tells 
its  own  tale.  Ralf  had  to  live,  and  having  by 
nature  a  remarkable  gift  of  melody  and  jwrhaps 
not  nm(!h  artistic  refinement,  he  wrote  what 
would  i>ay.  But  on  looking  at  his  works  in 
the  higher  branch  of  music — his  symphonies, 
concertos,  and  chamber  music — one  cannot  but 
be  stnick  by  the  conscientious  striving  towards 
a  high  ideal.  In  the  whole  of  his  published 
Symphonies  the  slow  movements,  without  a 
single  exception,  are  of  extreme  melodic  beauty, 
although  weak  from  a  symphonic  iwint  of  view ; 
the  tii-st  movements  are  invariably  worked  out 
with  surprising  technical  skill,  the  subjects 
appearing  frequently  in  double  counterpoint 
and  in  every  kind  of  canon.  And  however 
modern  and  common  his  themes  may  appear, 
they  have  often  been  built  up  with  the  greiitest 
care,  note  by  note,  to  this  end  ;  showing  that 
he  does  not,  as  is  often  said,  put  down  the  fn-st 
thing  that  comes  into  his  mind.  Observe  tlie 
following  treatment  of  the  first  subject  in  his 
1st  Symphony  '  An  das  Vaterland ' :  — 


1st  Violin 


a  canon  in  augmentation  and  double  augmenta- 
tion. Such  instances  as  this  are  numerous,  and 
the  art  with  which  these  contrapuntal  devices 


are  made  to  appear  spontaneous  is  remarkable. 
In  the  Pianoforte  Concerto  in  C  minor  (op.  1 85), 
in  each  movement  all  the  subjects  are  in  double 
counteri>oint  with  one  another,  yet  this  is  one 
of  Raffs  freshest  and  most  melodious  works. 
To  return  to  the  Symphonies :  the  Scherzos  are, 
as  a  rule,  weak,  and  the  Finales  without  excej)- 
tion  boisterous  and  indeed  vulgar.  Writing 
here,  as  ever,  for  an  uneducated  jmblic,  Ralf 
has  forgotten  that  for  a  symphony  to  descend 
from  a  liigh  tone  is  for  it  to  be  unworthy  of  the 
name. 

A  remarkable  set  of  thirty  Songs  (Sanges- 
Friililing,  op.  98)  deserves  notice  for  its  wealth 
of  fine  melodies,  some  of  which  have  become 
national  property  (*  Kein  Sorg  urn  den  Weg ' ; 
'Schun'  Else,'  etc.)  ;  and  among  his  pianoforte 
music  is  a  set  of  twenty  Variations  on  an  original 
theme  (op.  179)  which  displays  an  astonishing 
fertility  of  resource,  the  theme — of  five  and 
seven  quavers  in  the  bar — being  built  up  into 
canons  and  scherzos  of  great  variety  and  elegance. 

Raffs  Pianoforte  Concerto  was  very  populai-, 
and  his  Suite  for  Violin  and  Orchestra  (op.  180) 
only  little  less  so.  His  versatility  need  not  be 
enlarged  upon.  In  all  the  forms  of  musical  com- 
jiosition  he  showed  the  same  brilliant  qualities 
and  the  same  regrettable  shortcomings.  His 
gift  of  melody,  his  technical  skill,  his  inex- 
haustible fertility,  and  above  all  his  jwwer  of 
never  re2)6ating  himself — all  these  are  beyond 
praise.  But  his  very  fertility  was  a  misfortune, 
since  it  rendered  him  careless  in  the  choice  of 
his  subjects  ;  writing  *  pot-boilers '  injured  the 
development  of  a  delicate  feeling  for  what  is 
lofty  and  refined  ;  in  short,  the  conscientious 
critic  hesitates  to  allow  him  a  place  in  the  front 
rank  of  composers. 

Even  those  who  have  least  sympathy  with 
Rafl's  views  on  art  must  admire  the  energy  and 
spirit  with  which  he  worked  his  way  upwai-ds 
in  sjiite  of  every  obstacle  poverty  could  throw  in 
his  way.  He  was  a  memljcr  of  several  societies, 
and  received  various  ordei-s.  In  1877  he 
wtis  a]j}K)inted  with  nmch  ikilat  director  of 
the  Hoch  couservatorium  at  Frankfort,  a  post 
he  held  until  his  death,  in  the  night  of  June 
24-25,  1882.  [Since  his  death  his  music  has 
passed,  alike  in  Germany  and  England,  into  an 
oblivion  which  cannot  excite  surprise  in  those 
who  realise  the  inherent  weaknesses  of  the  com- 
|)oser ;  and  the  sudden  change  on  the  jiart  of 
the  public,  from  a  widespread  admiration  to 
almost  complete  neglect,  is  of  itself  a  severe 
criticism  on  his  work.] 

The  first  of  his  large  works  performed  in 
this  country  was  probably  the  licnoi-e  Symphony 
at  the  Crystal  Palace,  Nov.  14,  1874.  [The 
Musical  /^orW  of  August  1890,  p.  629,  contains 
a  translation  of  Raffs  letters  explaining  the 
meaning  of  the  work.]  Tliis  was  followed  by 
the  *  Im  Walde,*  and  the  PF.  Concerto  in  C 
minor  (Jaell),  at  the  Philharmonic ;  the  Sym- 


RAFF 


RAFF 


15 


phonies  in  G  minor,  *  Im  Walde,'  *Fruhling8. 
klange'  and  *Im  Sommerzeit,'>vith  the  Concertos 
for  violoncello  and  violin,  and  the  Suite  for 
PF.  and  orchestra,  at  the  Crystal  Palace.  His 
Quintet  (op.  107),  two  Trios  (opp.  102,  112), 
Sonata  (op.  128),  and  other  pieces,  were  played 
at  the  Monday  Popular  Concerts.  f.  g. 


Calaloffiu:  of  Jiafs  JVorks.^ 


op. 


Sermade.    PF.  solo.    Andre. 
Tmia  pMca  ouvctMstiqnei. 

PF.  mVa.     B.  *  H.' 
Schcno  (C  minar).    PF.  solo. 

a.*H. 

3Iorc«ao  d«  Baloo  .    .    .  mr 

•Mjtfte  d«   Bodenz.'     PF. 

•olo.     B.  k  H. 
4GAla9>m     PF.  aolo.    B.  ft  H. 
Morcwa  iiist     Fkntalsle  et 

Vwna.     PF.  aolo.    B.  ft  H. 
RuBd«Mi  tar  'lo  son  ricoo.' 

PF.  lulo.     B.  ftH. 
I'i  EoniaiKcs  en  fonn  d'Xtu- 

•l0i:    en   3   Cahien.      PF. 

sulo.     B.  ftH. 
Impromiito    hrilluit.       PF. 

•olo.     B.  ft  H. 
Hommace     au      K^roiniin- 

tUin«.  Unod  Gipricc.    PF. 

■olo.     B.  ft  H. 
Air   inlaw,    tntnacrlt.       PF. 

•o)a     B.ftlL 
MorcMa    de    Salon.      Fant. 

rracicine,  PF.  aolo.    B.  ft  H. 
ValM.       Rondlno    sor    *L«a 

Hunenota.'    PF.  dost.    B. 

Sonata  ft  Foyoe  (^  nttnor). 

PF.  aolo.     B.ftlL 
«PbtaieiL    PF.aolo.    Scbott. 
Im|irom|itiii  for  PF.  Unpub- 


Albmn  Lgrrlqne.      PF.    ■olo. 

Bchubertli  {A  booka  oontain- 

tnc  t  pieeeai. 
ParapkinMa  (on  Llact'a  aonipi) 

PF.  aulo.    Bck. 
Paataiala   dramatlqnc.     PF. 

aolo.    Lltolfl'. 
3  Moreaanx  da  Salon.     S^rd- 

md*  ttaHaiuM ;  Air  BbcnMi. 

PF.  aolo.     Utolir. 
Lorelajr.       DIehtung      ohne 

Worto.     PF.  aolo.    Spina. 
tRliapaodi«a<Wflaiiu«k   PF. 

aolo.    Spina. 
SPtteaaoaract^rlatiqaaa.  PF. 

■Olnc     KistBMk 

Valaa     mAanooIiqne.       PF. 

aoUk    Spina. 
Bomaaea-ttada.      PF.  aolo. 

Den       lUnoi       ScwlaUia. 

Schano.    PF.  ado.    Spina. 
AMtlcM    WUtar    Tkf     iin 

Kioater.  Bin  C/cloa.  etc.  H'i 

pl«eaaln2booka).   PF.  aolo. 

ktainar. 
S    atn     from     '  Bobart     1e 

DlaMc'  ttmnaeribed  for  PF. 

Unpabliahad. 
Uebeafrthlinc  aongiL 
2  Maaarkaa    and   Sevmade, 

lorPF. 
I^imotoile,  for  PF.    Crmiix. 
Am   Rbein.   Bomanse.     PF. 

aolo.    Spina. 
Albutnataek.  for  PF.  Vnpob- 


,  Op. 

*L  'ht   Prdtcndant'   .    .     .    de 
;  KQcken  (3  Noa.).    PF.  aolo. 

Kiatner. 
'4^  Divertiaaameut       aur      'La 
I  J  Dive.'  PF.  aulo.  Schuberth. 

4i.  Fautaaiiia   aur   'Le    Barbier 
I  de     SaTille.'       PF.      aolo. 

Schuberth. 
45.  Souvenir  de  'Don  Oiovanni.' 
I  PP.  nolo.    Schuberth. 

|441.  'L«    deniiire    Boae'  — (The 

laat  roae  of  aumtuer).     Im- 

promptu.    PF.  aolo.   Craiu. 

47.  3  Liedcr  (by  J.   O.   Fischer) 

for  Bar.  or  Alto  aud  PF. 
Bmtt. 

48.  2  Urder  for  Voice  and  PF. 

SeiiK 

49.  3  Lieder  (by  J.   G.  Flacher) 

for  Voice  and  PP.     Hein- 

riehabofen. 
90.  2     lUIienlache     Lieder    0>7 

Sternau)  for  Voice  and  PF. 

Hetnrichahofen. 
SI.  5  Liedcr  for  Voice  and  PF. 

Kiatner. 
93.  3  Lieder  for  Voice  and  PF. 

Bchleainger. 
fi3.  2  Lieder  vom  Bhein  for  V«lce 

and  PF.    SohloM. 
M.  Tani-ohpricen  (4).    PP.  aolo. 

Bahn. 
S5.  FrahllDgabotcn  — 12      abort 

f\v.va  fi4    PF-  hjIaj-     Bihu- 

b^rtlt. 
86. 3    8*u«wnji:V.     rr     *i1m. 

B4iibin*nit' 
57.  'Amu  Avt  Hchweli,'    F^uUt- 

tlK7hr  K^lo^     flni?hc«i*iin, 
as.  2  SiiH^lamw.    PP.  wmL  ^  j^jUii. 

S<bTiWrih. 
89.  Dan  iui  A.     PF.  And  vlultfn- 

Cd'l]'].     liaicpl, 

60.  SeliwrlEarvTelicl]      ifl     N'oa^]. 

PF,  M^^\l>.     8i£habvrlh. 

61.  No    1.  Waifiiara  '  Lxtbt^nirrlii,' 

■.►li»,-.Kii,  iL  r>.>.  ■Tiiiiii. 
hauMr/  FitbtMie.  PF. 
aolo.— No.  3.  Do.  '  Fli^ende 
HolUinder,'  Beiuiniaceiiaen. 
PF.  aolo.  — No.  4.  8«hu- 
niann'a  '  Oenoveva.'  PF. 
aolo.    Schuberth. 

60.  Salon -Etuden  from  Wag- 
uer'a  operaa.  PF.  aolo. 
Schleahiger.  No.  1.  Andante 
from '  Fllegvnde  Holliitider.' 
— Nu.  2.  Sestet  from  '  Taim- 
hSuMr.'  — No.  3.  Lohen- 
frin'a  farewell. 

63.  Duoa  on  inotiCa  from  Wag- 
ner'a  operaa.  PF.  and  V. 
Stegel.  No.  I.  'Flicgende 
HolMnder.'— No.  2.  'TlMin- 


6  Uadartbertraguncan,    tot 


.  Oawlocieito  <od  themea  from 
'Frrlaehats'L       PF.     aolo. 


Faniatele  Militatre  (on  themea 
aoloL    SdiaT     " 


Grand  Mawurka.    PF.  aolo. 

StoIL 
Noctama    (an    romanoe    bj 

Unii.     PF.  aolo.     Kiatner. 
Gapriecietio  k  la  Bohtoilenne. 

PF.  aoki.    Klatoer. 
Bomanoe.   PF.  aokx  Kiatner. 


No.    3.    '  Lolten- 
grin.' 
61  Capriceio  in  F  minor.    PF. 
,  aolo.    Leuckart. 

1 68.  No.  1.  FanUiale  on  motifa 
from  Berlios'a  '  Benvennto 
Cellini.'  PF.  aolo.  — No.  2. 
Caprice  on  motifa  from 
BalTa  'Alfred.'  PF.  aolo. 
Schuberth. 

Traum-KOnig  nnd  aein  Lieb ' 
(Oeibel).  Voice  and  PF. 
Schott. 

La  Vim  d' Amour.'   Moroean 
').     PF.  tola  eaiset^riatique  pour  Violon 

de  Concert  avec  PF.  Schott. 
68.  8  Tranaorlutiona  (Beethoven, 
Glu«k,  Moatrt.  Schumann, 


-).    PF.  aolo. 
Ita.    PF.  aolo.    KOmer. 
70.  2  Paraphraaea  da  Salon  (Tro- 
vatore,  Travlata).   PF.  aolo. 
Petera. 


I  The  Idltor  dealrea  to  expreaa  bia  obligationa  to  Meaara.  Angener 
ft  Co.  ftv  graat  ■— IrtmuT  kindly  reodered  blm  In  the  difficult  taak 
of  dnvlM  np  thla  llat 

s  B  ft  B.-Br«ltkoirf  ft  BlrteL 


Op. 

71.  Suite  in  C.    PF.  aulo.    KUhn. 

72.  Suite  in  B  minor.     PF.  aulo. 

KOhu. 

73.  lat  Grand  Sonata.    PF.  and 

V.  (E  minor).    Schuberth. 

74.  3  PF.  aoloa  (Ballade.  Scher- 

MKi,  Metamorphoaen).  Schu- 
berth. 
79.  Suite  de  (12)  Morceaux  pour 
lea  petitea  malua.    PF.  aolo. 
KUtner. 

76.  Ode  au  Priutempa.     Morceau 

de  Cunuert.  PF.  and  Orch. 
Schott. 

77.  Quatuor  (No.  1)  in  D  minor. 

fur  Stringa.    Schuberth. 

78.  'ind  Grand   Sonata   for  PF. 

and  V.  (in  A).    Schuberth. 

79.  Cachoncha,CHprioe.  PF.aulu. 

Peter*. 

80.  'Wachetauf'(Gelbel).  Meu'a 

voices.  Solo,  Chorua,  and 
Orcheatra.    Scbott. 

81.  No.  1.  Sici limine  de  I'Opdra 

dea  'V^prea  Siciliennea.'— 
No.  2.  Tarautelle  de  ditto. 
PF.  aulo.     Petera.  I 

82.  Suite  de  (12i  Morceaux  pour 

lea  petktea  maina.  PF. 
dueta.    Schuberth. 

83.  Mnzourka-Capriue.    PF.  aolo. 

Scbott. 

84.  M'bant  de  I'Ondin.'  Grande 

Etude  de  I 'Arpeggio  tremo- 
laiido.     PF.  aolo.     Petera. 
8.V  U    Mon.-eaux.      PF.    and    V. 
Kiatner. 

86.  2    KanUiaieatncke.   PF.  and 

V'cello.  R.  B.5 

87.  Introduction  aud  All"  acher- 

xoao.    PF.  aolo.  ^  R.  B. 

88.  'AmGleMbach,' Ktude.    PF. 

aolo.     R.  B. 
8B.  Vilanella.     PP.  aolo.     R.  B. 

90.  Quartf-t.    No.    2.    In    A.   for 

Strings.    Schulierth. 

91.  Suite  in  D.   PF.  nolo.   Petera. 

92.  Capriodu  in  D  minor.     PF. 

aolo.    Petera. 
90.  '  Dana   la   nacelle,'   Rtverie- 

Barcarolle.  PF.  aolo.  Peters. 
94.  Impromptu  Vulse.     PF.  aolo. 

Peters. 
80.  'L*    Polka     de     U    Reine.' 
Caprice.    PF.  aolo.    Petera. 

96.  'An  das   Vaterland.'     Prixe 

Symphony  (No.  1).  Schu- 
berth. 

97.  10    Lieder   for   Male  Voice*. 

KahnL 
96.  'Sangea-FrUbling.'      .10  Ro- 
1—'--^-    » i^r-  Dalladen. 
a  opr.  and 

99.  3  F^'ii  1.1113'-'    I  ^   '     <tor:    G; 

(  .     VV.  p-J-i      f  hul>erth. 

100.  'lHiitfc>iliiTMli*         \nfenite- 

huTig/  F<M  f'Liitatc  on 
tliD  M)th  «.EtnJvri '  'Xy  of  the 
luttlt^  of  LMiNiiL  for  Male 
V<ifr««nml  riiL.li      Kahnt. 

101.  Su  I  Uf  t\ii  VlTvhv'f  [  i  L     Schott. 
10*2.  lat    ihaui]    TH»,    for    PP., 

^^,  ^nd:  '^kiWrnil  o.  Schu- 
Iwrtli. 

103.  Jubilee  Overture,  for  Or- 
chestra.    Kahnt. 

101  'Le  Galop,'  Caprice.  PF. 
sola    Petera. 

100.  8  Bgloguea.  PF.  aolo.  Pet4>rH. 

106.  Fantaisie- Polonaise.        PF. 

aolo.     Peters. 

107.  Grund  Quintuor  (A  minor). 

PF..  2  VV.,  vloU,  and 
violoncolla    Schuberth. 

108.  Saltarello.     PF.  aolo.     R.  B. 

109.  K«verio-Nocturne.  PF.aolo. 

R.  B. 

110.  *  La  Gitana.'  Danse  Eapagn. 

Caprice.     PF.  nolo.    B.  B. 

111.  Buleroa   and    Val««,   2   Ca- 

prices. PF.  aolo.  Schu- 
lierth. 

112.  '2nd  Grand  Trio  (in  G).     PF. 

V.  and  violoncello.    R.  B. 

113.  ITnoariacbe  Rhapaodie.    PF. 

aolo.    Forberg. 

114.  12  SongN  for  2  voices  and 

PF.    Porberg. 

115.  2  Morceaux  lyriqnas.      PF. 

aolo.    Forherg. 

116.  Valae   Caprice.       PF.    aolo. 

Porberg. 

117.  Faatlval  Overture  (In  A),  for 

Orchestra.    Kiatner. 


Valae   favorite.      PF.   solo. 

Kiatner. 
Fantaaie.  PF.aolo.  Kiatner. 
Spaniah  Rhapsudy,  for  PF. 

Kiatner,  18S5. 
lUustratiuna      de     '  L'Afrl- 

caine'  (4  Nua.).     PF.  aolo. 

B.  B.* 
10  Sungs  for  Meu'a  Voices. 

Kahnt. 
Concert -Overture     lin     F). 

Sic^l. 
FeatiVRl-Overtiire   on   4  fa- 
vourite Studeut-aongs.  for 

the    50th    anniversary    uf 

the   •  Deutschen-BurM-heu- 

achaft.'  PF.  4  hands.  Prae- 

ger. 
Garotte;  Berceuse:  Eapi^gle; 

Vali*.     PF.  solo.     8legel. 
3     CUvleiTtUckc  — Menuet. 

Roniance.Capriccietto.  PF. 

aulo.     Praever. 
'Eln'  feste  Burg.'  overture 

to  a  drama  on  the  »»-yeani' 

wM-.    Orchestra.    Hufniels- 

ter. 
3nt  Grand  Sonata.     PF.  and 

V.  (In  D).    Schulierth. 
4th  Grand  SonaU.     PF.  nnd 

V,     'Chrom.  Stiuate  in  el- 

nem    Satze.'      (G    minor). 

S«Oiu)ierth. 
2  Etudes  m(51odique9.     PF. 

aolo.    Schulierth. 
Styrienne.    PF.  solo.     Hof- 

meiater. 
Man;he  brillante.    PF.  aolo. 

Hofiueister. 
ra«5gle.    PF.  aolo.    Hofmeis- 

ter. 
'Vom    Rhehi.'    6    Fantasie- 

stUcke.   PF.aolo.    Klstner. 
'Bliitter   und   Biathen.'  12 

pieces  for  PF.  aolo.  Kahnt. 
3rd  Htri  ng  quartet  (E  minor). 

Schulierth. 
4th      String      qiwrtet     (A 

minor).    Schubeith. 
5th     String     quartet     (G). 

Schuberth. 
Festmarach,   for  Orchestra. 

Schott. 
2nd   Symphony   (in  C),  for 

Orchestra.     Scbott. 
Paalm  130  t'  De  Pmfnndis'). 

8  voices  and  Orch.    Schu- 
berth. 
Fantaisie  (F|).       PF.   m>1o. 

Kiatner. 
Barcarolle  (Eb).     PF.  solo. 

KUtner. 
Tarantella   (C).      PF.    solo. 

Kiatner. 
5th  Grand  Sonata.  PF.and  V. 

(C  minor).    Schuberth. 
Capriceio  (Bb  minor  I.     PP. 

solo.    R.  B. 
2    MediUtiuna.       PF.    m\o. 

II.  B. 
Scherzo  in  Eb.       PP.   aulo. 

2  Elsies  for  PF.  aolo.    R.  B. 
Chaconne  (A  minor).   2  PFs. 

Allegro  agiUto.      PF.  aolo. 

2  Romances.  PF.  nolo.  R.  B. 
3rd  Symphony.  '  Im  Walde ' 

(F).     Oirhestra.     Kiatner. 
'  Dame       Kobold,'      Comic 

opera.    B.  B. 
3rd  Grand  Trio.  PF..V.,and 

violoncello.     B.  B, 
Valse  brillante  (Eb).      PF. 

aolo.     Rlea. 
Cavatlne    (Ab)    and    Etude 

'La   Flleuae.'       PF.    solo. 

Scits. 
4th  Grand  Trio  (D).      PP.. 

v.,  and  violoticellu.    ^Itx. 
ltd  Uumoreskc  (D)  In  Wnlta 

form,     PF.  duet.     B.  B. 
Reiaebllder  (10  Nua.).      PF. 

duet.     Slegel. 
Concerto  for  Violin  ft  Orch. 

(B  minor).    Slegel. 
Suite  In  G  minor.    PF.  aolo. 

Challier. 
Suite  in  G  major.     PF.  solo. 

Seitx. 
Sicillenne,    Romance,    Tar- 

anielle.    PF.  aolo.    B.  B. 
•  La    Clcerenella,     Nouveau 

Carnaval.'  PF.aolo.  Slegel. 


'  R.  B.«"Rleter-Bl«lermann  ftCu. 
«  B.  B.=Bot«  ft  Bock. 


16 


RAG  TIME 


RAIMONDI 


Op. 

IW.  10  OeMuge  for  Mixed  Choir. 

Seitjc. 
198.  2  BceiiM  for  Bo!o  Voice  And 

Orvh.     *  J<g«r-braut '  and 

'DleHirtin.'    8i««el. 
I.  Saite   lu  Eb    for    PF.  and 

Urvh.    Sivgel. 

201.  7th  Byiiiphony.  'In  the 
Alps' (Bb|.    Oroh.    8eits. 

202.  2  Quartets  for  FF.  V.  Va. 

aiid  vluluncvllo  <0).   Sityel. 

203.  •  Volker."  oycllnche  Toudlch- 
tiing  19  No*.).  V.  and  PP. 
8ie««l., 

8ulU?(Bb).    Orch.   ChalUer. 
206.  8th  8yiuphouy   '  FrUhUnip)- 

kliiitge'lA).    Orch.    8l(««l. 
aOd  2nd    Concerto   fur   Y.    and 

Orch.  (A  minor).    8iei{«rl. 
207(1.  Phautaaie   (O    minor).     2 

PFb.     Siegel. 
2)76.  The  tame  arranged  for  PF. 

and  strlu|(B.     SirveL 
'J06.  9ih  Symphony    iK   minor). 

*  Im  Bommer.'   Orch.    8ie- 

jpel. 
■203.  '  LHe  TMgeuelton,'  for  Choir, 

PP..  and  Orvh.     B.  A  H. 
•JIO.  Suite  for  VIn.  and  PF.  Sicvel. 

211.  'Blondel  de  Netle.'  Cycloa 

von  OeaKugen.    Barit.  and 
PF.     B.  *  H. 

212.  Weltende  —  (leHcht  -  Neue 

Wclt.  oratorio.     B.  *  H. 

213.  10th  Symphony. 'ZurHerbBt- 

zeit.'    Sieeel. 

214.  11th  Symphony.  *  Der  Win- 

ter.'   Siegel. 

215.  '  Von  derKhwKbiachen  Alb.' 

10  PF.  piece*.     8l.-gel. 

216.  *Au*dcr  Adventreit."  8  PF. 

pieuea.     Bahu. 


Op. 

IM.  Idylle:  Val«e  champ«tre. 
PF.  Milo.    8eits. 

167.  4th    Symphony   (G   minor). 

Orchestra.     Schuberth. 

168.  FantaUie-Sonate  li>  minor). 

PF.  nolo.    Siegel. 
168.  Bonuinie;    Valite  brlllante. 
PF.  nolo.     Siegel. 

170.  Lii  Polka  gllMiante.  Caprice. 

PF.  lolo.    Siegel. 

171.  '  fill  Kahu  '  and  '  Der  Tanz.' 

2   simipi  for  Mixed   Choir 
and  Oruhestra.    Siegel. 

172.  'Maria  Stuart,  cln    Cyclua 

von    Clemngeii.'  for  Voice 
andPF.  (II  Not.)    Sie«el. 

173.  8  Gewinge  for  Voice  and  PF. 

SeiU. 

174.  *  Ami  dem  Tanzsalon.  Phaii- 

taaieStUcke'(12Noe.).  PF. 
4  haiidi.    Seits. 

179.  '  Oriontalet,'    8    Morceanx. 

PP.  eolo.     Forberg. 
178.  Octet  for  itringB  (C».    SeiU. 

177.  8th    Symphony,    *  Lenore.' 

Oreh.    Beitz. 

178.  Seatet.      2  VV..  2  vlobia.  2 

violoncellos.    Seltz. 
170.  VariatiouB    on    an    original 
theme.     PF.  w>lo.     Seltz. 

180.  Suite  for  Solo  V.  and  Orch. 

Htcgel. 

181.  2ua    Uumoreske    In   WalU 

form,  'Todtentans  (Daiuc 
macabre).'  PF.  duet.  Siegel. 

182.  2    Romant-es    for  Horn    |or 

violoncello)  and  PF.  Siegel. 

183.  Sonata  for  PF.  and  violon- 

cello.    Siegel. 

184.  6  Songs  for  3  women's  voices 

and  PF.     Siegel. 

185.  Concerto.     PF.  and  Orch.  (C 

minor).    8ie/el. 
186a.  Morgenlled  fur  MixedChoir 

and  Orch.     Hiegel. 
1866.  Rlner   entachUfenen.     So- 

p— irrn  »o!r>.  Phwr.  aivi  Orch. 

187.  Erl  i;  ^j  mii:   mi  V*jtin'  i  .    (6 

N   ..   .     IT.  •'►K     J^i.v-1. 

188.  Sit,'  .inHU  tr,r  *lln'l  iiihLru- 

n.   Ill'-    Hli>y?'l. 
180.  6tl     -3  iiirt y   lU   Miinor). 

••  I'-Ji.tiT..  gtwLif  ht,  hi; linen, 

gt^tLntEen.  ^I'^i^irlx'n,    iini' 

wiu^PTi  '     Drijh.     a.  B. 
190.  Foift  fi.SVt*.  f'qirj.^p-ftiide. 

P'-'       '        -       ' 
101.  Bli  igs. 

192.  SStrinTQiwrte'ts.  No.  6.  (C 
minor)  Suite  kiterer  Form. 
—No.  7.  (U)  Die  sch6ne 
Muileriu.— No.  8.  (C)  Suite 
in  Canon-form.    Kahnt. 

198.  Concerto  I D  minor).  Violon- 
cello and  Orch.    Siegel. 

194.  2nd    Suite    in    Ungarischer 

WeiseJF).    Orch.     Bahu. 

195.  10  Ocaiinge  for  men's  voices. 
■Kahnt. 

196.  Etude    'am    Schllf:     Ber- 

ceuse :      Novelette ;      Im- 
promptu.   PF.  solo.   Seltz. 

197.  Capricclo  (Db).      PF.    solo. 

SeiU. 

RAG  TIME.  A  modern  term,  of  American 
origin,  signifying,  in  the  first  instance,  broken 
rhythm  in  melody,  especially  a  sort  of  con- 
tinuous syncopation.  *Rag  time  tunes'  is  a 
name  given  in  tlie  States  to  those  airs  which 
are  usually  associated  with  the  so-called  *  coon  ' 
songs  or  lyrics,  which  are  supposed  to  depict 
negro  life  in  modem  America.  f.  k. 

RAIF,  OsKAR  (born  July  31,  1847,  at 
Zwolle,  in  Holland,  died  July  29,  1899,  in 
Berlin),  was  a  pupil  of  Tausig,  and  occupied  a 
post  as  pianoforte  teacher  in  the  Royal  Hoch- 
schule  at  Berlin,  with  the  title  of  Koniglicher  Pro- 
fessor, from  1875  till  the  time  he  died.    h.  v.  h. 

RAIMONDI,  loNAZio,  Neapolitan  violinist 
and  composer.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  unknown, 
but,  judging  by  the  fact  that  he  went  to 
Amsterdam  in  1760,  and  there  produced  his 


Works  without  On*s-!irMBE». 

Valse-rondlno   on    motifs    from 

Salomau's        '  Diamautkreuz.' 

8«.huberth. 
Reminiscences  of  the  '  Meister- 

singer' (4  Pts.).     Bcbott. 
Valse- impromptu    k    la    Tyro- 

llenne.    Schott. 
Abendlled  by  Schunwnn.    Con- 
cert-paraphrase.   Schuberth. 
Berceuse  on  an  Idea  of  Oounod's. 

Siegel. 
Improvisation     on     Damrosch's 

Lied  '  Der  Llndeiuweig.'   Lich- 

tenberg. 
Valse     de     Juliette     (Qoonod). 

Siegel. 
4  Capriccios  on   WalUrhlan    (2) 

and  Servian  (21  themes.  Siegel. 
Introduction  and  Fugue  for  Or- 
gan (K  minor).     R.  B. 
Bair-Albnm^«ontaining  op.  1S6 : 

l.W.  Nos.  1.  2:    166.  No.  2;  196. 

Nos.1-4:  11^7.     SeiU. 
Oper  im  Salon — containing   op. 

35-37.  43-45.  61,  65.      Schu- 

lierth. 
FrUhlinvs-Lied.     Met.  Sop.  and 

PF.     Schott. 
RUindchen   for   Voice   and    PF. 

CotU. 


first  compositions,  we  may  infer  that  he  was 
bom  about  1735  or  1740.  He  died  in  London 
at  his  own  house,  74  Great  Portland  Street, 
January  14,  1813.  During  his  residence  in 
Amsterdam  he  established  periodical  concerts, 
and  produced  his  symphony  entitled  *The 
Adventures  of  Telemachus.'  From  Amsterdam 
he  went  to  Paris,  where  his  opera,  '  La  Muette, ' 
was  performed,  and  about  1790-91  he  came  to 
London,  where  he  received  sufficient  encourage- 
ment to  induce  him  to  make  it  his  [lermanent 
home.  His  comfX)sitions  became  very  popular 
in  England,  particularly  a  symphony  entitled 
*The  Battle.'  On  June  1,  1791,  he  gave  a 
benefit  concert  at  the  Hanover  S<|uare  Rooms, 
at  which  he  figured  both  as  violinist  and  com- 
poser ;  he  was  assisted  by  Signer  Pacchierotti, 
Madame  Mara,  Lord  Momington,  and  Monsieur 
Dahmer  (vide  Morning  Chronicle^  June  1 ,  1791). 
The  following  year  he  gave  a  series  of  subscni>- 
tion  concerts  at  Willis's  Rooms,  and  at  these 
he  both  played  solos  and  led  the  orchestra. 
Emanuele  Barbella  is  said  to  have  taught 
Raimondi  the  violin,  but  whether  this  be  fact 
or  no,  we  may  infer  from  Dr.  Burney's  remark 
{History  of  Music,  vol.  iii.),  *  The  sweet  tone 
an'd  polished  style  of  a  Raimondi,'  that  this 
artist's  technique  was  of  the  then  greatly  ad- 
mired Tartini  school.  Raimondi's  published 
compositions  include  two  symphonies — besides 
the  *  Telemachus '  above  mentioned,  a  number 
of  quartets  for  two  violins,  viola,  and  violon- 
cello, two  sets  of  six  trios  for  two  violins  and 
violoncello,  and  some  sonatas  for  two  violins, 
violin  and  violoncello,  and  violin  and  viola. — 
Dr.  Bumey,  History  of  Music  ;  Park  (W.  T.), 
Musical  Memoirs ;  Fetis,  Biog,  des  iViis. ;  Eitner, 
Qiiellen  -  Lex  ikon  ;  The  Gentleman's  Magazine, 
Jan.  1813  ;  Tli^  Times,  May  14,  1800.  e.  ha. 
RAIMONDI,  PiKTRO,  was  bom  at  Rome  of 
poor  jMirents  Dec.  20,  1786.  At  an  early  age 
he  passed  six  years  in  the  Conservatorio  of  tlie 
Piet^  de'  Turchini  at  Naples,  and  after  many 
wanderings,  mostly  on  foot — from  Naples  to 
Rome,  from  Rome  to  Florence,  from  Florence  to 
Genoa — and  many  years,  he  at  length  found  an 
opportunity  of  coming  before  the  public  with  an 
©i^era  entitled  *Le  Bizzarrie  d'Amore,'  which  was 
performed  at  Genoa  in  1807.  After  three  years 
there,  each  producing  its  opera,  he  passed  a 
twelvemonth  at  Florence,  and  brought  out  two 
more.  The  next  twenty- five  years  were  spent 
l)etween  Rome,  Milan,  Naples,  and  Sicily,  and 
each  year  had  its  full  complement  of  operas  and 
ballets.  In  1824  he  became  director  of  the 
royal  theatres  at  Naples,  a  position  which  he 
retained  till  1832.  In  that  yeAv  the  brilliant 
success  of  his  opera  butfa,'ll  Ventaglio'  (Naples, 
1831),  procured  him  the  post  of  Professor  of 
Composition  in  the  Conservatorio  at  Palermo. 
Here  he  was  much  esteemed,  and  trained  several 
promising  pupils.  In  December  1852,  he  was 
called  upon  to  succeed  Basili  as  Maestro  di 


RAINFOBTH 


RALLENTANDO 


17 


Cappella  at  St  Peter's ;  a  post  for  which,  if 
knowledge,  experience,  and  ceaseless  labour  of 
prodaction  in  all  depiui^ments  of  his  art  could 
qualify  him,  he  was  amply  fitted.  Shortly 
before  this,  in  1848,  he  had  after  four  years 
of  toil  completed  three  oratorios,  'Potiphar,' 
'Pharaoh,'  and  'Jacob,'  which  were  not  only 
designed  to  be  performed  in  the  usual  manner, 
but  to  be  played  all  three  in  combination  as 
one  work,  under  the  name  of  'Joseph.'  On 
August  7,  1 852,  the  new  Maestro  brought  out 
this  stupendous  work  at  the  Teatro  Argentina. 
The  success  of  the  three  single  oratorios  was 
moderate,  but  when  they  were  united  on  the 
following  day — the  three  orchestras  and  the 
three  troupes  forming  an  ensemble  of  nearly  400 
musicians — the  excitement  and  applause  of  the 
spectators  knew  no  bounds,  and  so  great  was 
iiis  emotion  that  Raimondi  fainted  away.  He 
did  not  long  survive  this  triumph,  but  died  at 
fiome,  Oct  30,  1853. 

The  list  of  his  works  is  astonishing,  and 
embraces  62  operas  ;  21  grand  ballets,  composed 
for  San  Carlo  between  1812  and  1828  ;  8 
oratorios ;  4  masses  with  full  orchestra ;  2 
ditto  with  2  choirs  a  cappella ;  2  requiems 
with  full  orchestra  ;  1  ditto  for  8  and  16  voices ; 
a  Credo  for  1 6  voices ;  the  whole  Book  of  Psalms, 
for  4,  5,  6,  7,  and  8  voices  ;  many  Te  Deums, 
Stabats,  Misereres,  Tantum  ergos,  psalms,  and 
htanies ;  two  books  of  00  partimerUiy  each  on 
a  separate  bass,  with  three  different  accompani- 
ments ;  a  collection  of  figured  basses  with  fugaed 
accompaniments  as  a  school  of  accompaniment ; 
4  fugues  for  4  voices,  each  independent  but 
capable  of  being  united  and  sung  together  as  a 
quadruple  fugue  in  16  parts ;  6  fagues  for  4 
voices  capable  of  combination  into  1  fugue  for 
24  voices  ;  a  fague  for  16  choirs  ;  16  fugues  for 
4  voices  ;  24  fugues  for  4,  5,  6,  7,  and  8  voices, 
of  which  4  and  5  separate  fugues  will  combine 
into  one.  A  fugue  in  64  parts,  for  16  four-part 
choirs,  is  said  to  exist  Besides  the  above  feat 
with  the  three  oratorios  he  composed  an  opera 
seria  and  an  opera  buffa  which  went  equally 
well  separately  and  in  combination.  Such 
stupendous  labours  are,  as  Fetis  remarked, 
enough  to  give  the  reader  the  headache  :  what 
must  they  have  done  to  the  persevering  artist 
who  acoomplished  them  ?  But  they  also  give 
one  the  heartache  at  the  thought  of  their  utter 
futility.  Raimondi's  compositions,  with  all  their 
ingenuity,  belong  to  a  past  age,  and  we  may 
safely  say  that  they  will  never  be  revived,      o. 

RAINFORTH,  Elizabeth,  bom  Nov.  28, 
1814,  studied  singing  under  George  Perry  and 
T.  Cooke,  and  acting  under  Mrs.  Davison,  the 
eminent  comedian.  After  having  gained  experi- 
ence at  minor  concerts,  she  appeared  upon  the 
stage  at  the  St  James's  Theatre,  Oct  27,  1836, 
as  Mandane,  in  Ame's  'Artaxerxes,'  with  com- 
plete success.  She  performed  there  for  the 
remainder  of  the  season,  and  then  removed  to 

VOL  IV 


the  English  Opera -House.  Subsequently  to 
her  public  appearance  she  took  lessons  from 
Crivelli.  In  1837  she  sang  in  oratorio  at  the 
Sacred  Harmonic  Society,  and  continued  to  do 
so  for  several  years.  She  made  her  first  appear- 
ance at  the  Philharmonic,  March  18,  1889. 
In  1840  she  sang  at  the  Antient  Concerts,  and 
in  1848  at  the  Birmingham  Festival.  After 
performing  at  Covent  Garden  from  1838  to 
1843  she  transferred  her  services  to  Drury  Lane, 
where  she  made  a  great  hit  by  her  performance 
of  Arline,  in  Balfe's  '  Bohemian  Girl,*  on  its 
production,  Nov.  27,  1843.  In  the  previous 
year  she  had  a  most  suocessful  season  in  Dublin, 
and  repeated  her  visits  to  Ireland  in  1844  and 
1849.  She  was  engaged  as  prima  donna  at  the 
Worcester  Festival  of  1845.  She  continued  to 
perform  in  the  metropolis  until  about  1852, 
when  she  removed  to  Edinburgh,  where  she 
remained  until  about  1856.  She  then  retired, 
and  in  1858  went  to  live  at  Old  Windsor,  and 
taught  music  in  the  neighbourhood  until  her 
complete  retirement  in  March  1871,  when  she 
removed  to  her  father's  at  Bristol.  Her  voice 
was  a  high  soprano,  even  and  sweet  in  quality, 
but  deficient  in  power,  and  she  possessed  great 
judgment  and  much  dramatic  feeling.  Although 
her  limited  power  prevented  her  from  becoming 
a  great  singer,  her  attainments  were  such  as 
enabled  her  to  fill  the  first  place  with  credit  to 
herself,  and  satisfaction  to  herauditors.  Shedied 
at  Redland,  Bristol,  Sept  22,  1877.  w.  H.  h. 
RALLENTANDO,  RITARDANDO,  RITEN- 
ENTE,  RITENUTO— *  Becoming  slow  again,' 
'Slackening,'  'Holding  back,'  'Held  back/ 
The  first  two  of  these  words  are  used  quite 
indifierently  to  express  a  gradual  diminution  of 
the  rate  of  speed  in  a  composition,  and  although 
the  last  is  commonly  used  in  exactly  the  same 
way,  it  seems  originally  and  in  a  strict  sense  to 
have  meant  a  uniform  rate  of  slower  time,  so 
that  the  whole  passage  marked  ritenuto  would 
be  taken  at  the  same  time,  while  each  bar  and 
each  phrase  in  a  passage  marked  rallentando 
would  be  a  little  slower  than  the  one  before  it. 
That  there  exists  a  difference  in  their  uses  is 
conclusively  proved  by  a  passage  in  the  Quartet 
op.  131  of  Beethoven,  where  in  the  7th  move- 
ment (allegro)  a  phrase  of  three  recurring 
minims,  which  is  repeated  in  all  five  times,  has 
the  direction  '  Espressivo,  poco  ritenuto '  for  its 
first  three  appearances,  which  are  separated  by 
two  bars  a  tempo,  and  for  the  last  two  times 
has  rUardandOf  which  at  length  leads  into  the 
real  a  tempo,  of  which  the  former  separating 
fragments  were  but  a  presage.  This  is  one  of 
the  very  rare  instances  of  the  use  of  the  word 
ritenuto  by  Beethoven.  The  conclusion  from  it 
is  confirmed  by  a  passage  in  Chopin's  Rondo, 
op.  16,  consisting  of  the  four  bars  which  im- 
mediately precede  the  entry  of  the  second 
subject.  Here  the  first  two  bars  consist  of  a 
fragment  of  a  preceding  figure  which  is  repeated, 

0 


18 


RAMANN 


RAMEAU 


so  that  both  these  bars  are  exactly  the  same ; 
the  last  tvvo  bai-s,  however,  have  a  little  chromatic 
cadence  leading  into  the  second  subject  The 
direction  over  the  iirst  two  bars  is  'poco  ritenuto,' 
and  over  the  last  two  '  rallentando/  by  which 
we  may  be  quite  sure  that  the  composer  intended 
the  repeated  fragment  to  be  played  at  the  same 
speed  in  each  bar,  and  the  chromatic  cadence 
to  be  slackened  gradually. 

Hitenenie  is  used  by  Beethoven  in  the  PF. 
Sonata,  op.  110,  about  the  middle  of  the  first 
movement,  and  again  in  the  Sonata,  op.  Ill, 
in  the  first  movement,  in  the  seventh  and  fif- 
teenth bars  from  the  beginning  of  the  Allegro 
eon  brio.  It  would  seem  that  the  same  effect 
is  intended  as  if  '  ritenuto '  were  employed  ;  in 
each  case,  the  words  *  meno  mosso '  might  have 
been  used.  Beethoven  prefers  RUardamdo  to 
RaZlmtandOf  which  latter  is  common  only  in  his 
earlier  works.  M. 

RAMANN,  LiNA,  musical  writer  and  edu- 
cationist, was  bom  at  Mainstockheim,  near 
Kitzingen,  in  Bavaria,  June  24,  1888.  Her 
turn  for  music  and  her  determination  to  succeed 
were  evident  from  a  very  early  age.  It  was 
not,  however,  till  her  seventeenth  year  that  she 
had  any  instruction  in  music.  At  that  time 
her  parents  removed  to  Leipzig,  and  from  1850 
to  1853  she  there  enjoyed  the  advantage  of 
pianoforte  lessons  from  the  wife  of  Dr.  F. 
Brendel,  herself  formerly  a  scholar  of  Field's. 
From  this  period  she  adopted  the  career  of  a 
teacher  of  music,  and  studied  assiduously, 
though  without  help,  for  that  end.  After  a 
period  of  activity  in  America,  she  opened  (in 
1858)  an  institute  in  Gliiokstadt  (Holstein)  for 
the  special  training  of  music-mistresses,  and 
maintained  it  till  1865,  in  which  year  she 
founded  a  more  important  establishment,  the 
Music  School  at  Nuremberg,  in  conjunction  with 
Frau  Ida  Yolkmann  of  Tilsit,  and  assisted  by 
a  staff  of  superior  teachers,  under  Frl.  Ramann's 
own  superintendence.  The  school  was  trans- 
ferred to  Aug.  Gollerich  in  1890,  when  Frl. 
Ramann  moved  to  Munich.  With  a  view  to 
the  special  object  of  her  life  she  has  published 
two  works — Die  Musik  ala  Oegenstand  der 
Mrziehung  (Leipzig:  Merseburger,  1868),  and 
Allgemgine  Erzieh-  und  UrUerriehts-Uhre  der 
Jug&nd  (Leipzig :  H.  Schmidt,  1869  ;  2nd  ed. 
1873),  which  were  both  received  with  favour 
by  the  German  press.  From  1 860  she  was  musical 
correspondent  of  the  Hamburg  Jahreszeiten. 
A  volume  of  her  essays  contributed  to  that 
paper  has  been  collected  and  published,  under 
the  title  of  Aiia  der  Oegenwart  (Nuremberg : 
Schmid,  1868).  In  the  early  part  of  1880  she 
published  a  study  of  Liszt's  *  Christus '  (Leipzig, 
Kahnt),  and  later  in  the  year  the  first  volume 
of  a  Life  of  Liszt,  completed  in  two  volumes  in 
1894  (Leipzig,  Breitkopf).  The  first  portion  was 
translated  by  Mrs.  S.  H.  Eddy,  Chicago,  and 
by  Miss  £.  Cowdery,  and  published  in  two  vols. 


in  1882.  This  is  an  important  work.  It 
suffers  somewhat  from  over -enthusiasm,  but 
it  is  done  with  great  care,  minuteness,  and 
intelligence,  and  obviously  profited  largely  by 
direct  information  from  Liszt  himself.  She 
also  edited  Liszt's  writings  (1880-83,  in  six 
volumes).     Her  cousin, 

Bruno  Ramank,  was  born  April  17,  1882, 
at  Erfurt,  and  was  brought  up  to  commerce, 
but  his  desire  and  talent  for  music  were  so 
strong,  that  in  1857  or  1858  he  succeeded  in 
getting  rid  of  his  business  and  put  himself  under 
Dr.  F.  Brendel  and  Riedel,  for  regular  instruc- 
tion. He  then  for  five  years  studied  under 
Hanptmann  at  Leipzig,  and  was  a  teacher  and 
composer  at  Dresden  from  1867  until  his  death, 
March  13,  1897.  His  works  are  numerous, 
but  they  consist  almost  entirely  of  songs  for 
one  or  more  voices,  and  of  small  and  more  or 
less  sentimental  pieces  for  the  pianoforte.  He 
also  wrote  poetry,  and  some  dramatic  pieces,  o. 

RAMEAU,  Jban  Philippe,  eminent  com- 
poser, and  writer  on  the  theory  of  music,  bom 
at  Dijon,  Oct  23,  1683,*  in  the  house  now 
No.  5  Rue  St.  Michel.  His  father,'  Jean,  was 
a  musician,  and  organist  of  D\jon  cathedral,  in 
easy  circumstances.  He  intended  Jean  Philippe, 
the  eldest  of  his  three  sons,  to  be  a  magistrate, 
but  his  strong  vocation  for  music  and  obstinacy 
of  character  frustrated  these  views.  According 
to  his  biographers  he  played  the  harpsichord  at 
seven,  and  read  at  sight  any  piece  of  music  put 
before  him :  music  indeed  absorbed  him  to  such 
an  extent  when  at  the  Jesuit  €k>llege  that  he 
neglected  his  classical  studies,  and  was  alto- 
gether so  refractory  that  his  parents  were 
requested  to  remove  him.  Henceforth  he  never 
opened  a  book,  unless  it  were  a  musical  treatise. 
He  quickly  mastered  the  harpischord,  and 
studied  the  organ  and  violin  with  success,  but 
there  was  no  master  in  Dgon  capable  of  teaching 
him  to  write  music,  and  he  was  left  to  discover 
for  himself  the  laws  of  harmony  and  composition. 

At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  fell  in  love  with  a 
young  widow  in  the  neighbourhood,  who  in- 
directiy  did  him  good  service,  since  the  shame 
which  he  felt  at  the  bad  spelling  of  his  letters 
drove  him  to  write  correctly.  To  break  off 
this  acquaintance  his  father  sent  him,  in  1701, 
to  Italy,  where,  however,  he  did  not  remain 
long,  a  mistake  which,  in  after  life,  he  regretted. 
He  liked  Milan,  and  indeed  the  attractions  of 
so  great  a  centre  of  music  must  have  been  great ; 
but  for  some  unknown  reason  he  soon  left  with 
a  theatrical  manager  whom  he  accompanied  as 
first  violin  to  Marseilles,  Lyons,  Ntmes,  Mont- 
I^llier,  and  other  places  in  the  south  of  France. 
How  long  the  tour  lasted  it  is  impossible  to 
ascertain,  as  no  letters  belonging  to  this  period 
are  to  be  found.     From  his  *  Premier  Livre  do 

I  [Th«  date  of  Mrth  la  t*k«n  from  the  coinpoMr'a  montiiBeiit  at 
Dtjon !  the  ftnt  edition  of  this  DletlaoeYy  gives  the  more  usual 
date.  Sept.  SS.  IfflS.] 

>  His  mothax's  iiaine  was  Cl&ndlne  DenuTUiMfcoarL 


BAMEAU 


RAMEAU 


19 


pitices  de  clavecin'  (Paris,  1706)  we  learn  that 
he  was  then  living  in  Paris,  at  a  wig-maker's 
in  the  Yieille  Rue  du  Temple,  as  Haydn  did  at 
Keller's,  though  without  the  disastrous  results 
vrhich  followed  that  connection.  Meantime  he 
was  organist  of  the  Jesuit  convent  in  the  Rue 
8t  Jacques,  and  of  the  chapel  of  the  P^res  de  la 
MercL  No  particulars,  however,  of  the  length 
of  his  stay  in  Paris  are  known,  nor  how  he 
occupied  the  interval  between  this  first  visit 
and  his  return  about  1717.  In  that  year  a 
competition  took  place  for  the  post  of  organist 
of  the  church  of  St.  Paul,  and  Rameau  was 
among  the  candidates.  Marchand,  then  at  the 
head  of  the  organists  in  Paris,  was  naturally 
one  of  the  examiners ;  and  either  from  fear 
of  being  outshone  by  one  whom  he  had  formerly 
patronised,  or  for  some  other  reason,  he  used 
his  whole  influence  in  favour  of  Daquin,  who 
obtained  the  post  Mortified  at  the  unjust 
preferenoe  thus  shown  to  a  man  in  all  points 
his  inferior,  Bameau  again  left  Paris  for  Lille, 
and  became  for  a  short  time  organist  of  St. 
6tienne.  Thence  he  went  to  Clermont  in 
Auveigne,  where  his  brother  Claude  ^  resigned 
the  post  of  organist  of  the  cathedral  in  his 
favour.  In  this  secluded  mountain  town,  with 
a  harah  climate  predisposing  to  indoor  life,  he 
had  plenty  of  time  for  thought  and  study.  The 
defeats  of  his  education  drove  him  to  find  out 
everything  for  himself.  From  the  works  of 
Descartes,  Mersenne,  Zarlino,  and  Eircher  he 
gained  some  general  knowledge  of  the  science 
of  sound,  and  taking  the  equal  division  of  the 
monochord  as  the  starting-point  of  his  system 
of  harmony,  soon  conceived  the  possibility  of 
placing  the  theory  of  music  on  a  sound  basis. 
Henceforth  he  devoted  all  his  energies  to  drawing 
uphis  Treatise  on  Harmony  Heduced toils  Natural 
Fnmeiples,  and  as  soon  as  that  important  work 
was  finished  he  determined  to  go  to  Paris  and 
publish  it  His  engagement  with  the  chapter 
of  Clermont  had,  however,  several  years  to  run, 
and  there  was  great  opposition  to  his  leaving, 
owing  to  the  popularity  of  his  improvisations 
on  the  organ,  in  which  his  theoretical  studies, 
far  from  hampering  his  ideas,  seemed  to  give 
them  greater  freshness  and  fertility. 

Once  free  he  started  immediately  for  Paris, 
and  brought  out  his  TraUd  de  VHamumie 
(BalUrd,  1722,  4to,  432  pp.).2  The  work  did 
not  at  first  attract  much  attention  among  French 
musidaos,  and  yet,  as  F^tis  observes,  it  laid 
the  foundation  for  a  philosophical  science  of 
harmony.  Rameau's  style  is  prolix  and  obscure, 
often  calculated  rather  to  repel  than  attract  the 

*  Clawto  Bancsa.  a  man  of  indomitable  witl  and  oaprldous 
tcwp«r.  aaid  a  etercr  orsantit.  llrwl  saooMriveljr  at  DlJon,  Lyons. 
ManMlllaa,  Clanaont,  Origins.  Stravbarg.  and  Auiuii.  Hti  won 
3m%  Pfaaoofa.  a  ctrtcd  miMlcUn.  bata  dtstipatod  man.  !•  admirably 
Fortnyod  by  Dfdecot  In  bla  Ntmu  dt  Rammau.  He  pablUhed  In 
ITtB  «  poein  te  &*•  eantoii  called  U  Ramildt,  followwf  in  the  aame 
jwr  fcy  I«  aMiwile  RamUU;  a  parody  by  hie  echoolfellow  Jacqnes 
CM4te.    IXm  le  mentioned  by  Mercier  in  hte  TaUttm  d»  ParU. 

<  The  thft^  ftert  cA  thia  via  tranelated  into  Bngliah  fifteen  yean 
btcr  with  tte  title  A  Trwtlm  efMurte  nntalntng  the  PrineiptM  ftf 
gftwyfletiiew.    London,  no  datei,8ro.  100  pp. 


reader,  and  the  very  boldness  and  novelty  of 
his  theories  excited  surprise  and  provoked 
criticism.  His  discovery  of  the  law  of  inversion 
in  chords  was  a  stroke  of  genius,  and  led  to 
very  important  results,  although  in  founding 
his  system  of  harmony  on  the  sounds  of  the 
common  chord,  with  the  addition  of  thirds 
above  or  thirds  below,  he  put  both  himself  and 
others  on  a  wrong  track.  In  the  application 
of  his  principle  to  all  the  chords  he  found 
himself  compelled  to  give  up  all  idea  of  touality, 
since,  on  the  principles  of  tonality  he  could 
not  make  the  thirds  for  the  discoixls  fall  on 
the  notes  that  his  system  required.  Fetis 
justly  accuses  him  of  having  abandoned  the 
tonal  successions  and  resolutions  prescribed  in 
the  old  treatises  on  harmony,  accompaniment, 
and  composition,  and  the  rules  for  connecting 
the  chords  based  on  the  ear,  for  a  fixed  order 
of  generation,  attractive  from  its  apparent 
regularity,  but  vrith  the  serious  inconvenience 
of  leaving  each  chord  disconnected  from  the 
rest 

Having  rejected  the  received  rules  for  the 
succession  and  resolution  of  chords  which  were 
contrary  to  his  system,  Rameau  perceived  the 
necessity  of  formulating  new  ones,  and  drew 
up  a  method  for  composing  a  fundamental  bass 
for  every  species  of  music.  The  principles  he 
laid  down  for  forming  a  bass  different  from  the 
real  bass  of  the  music,  and  for  verifying  the 
right  use  of  the  chords,  are  arbitraiy ,  insufficient 
in  a  large  number  of  cases,  and,  as  regards 
many  of  the  successions,  contrary  to  the  judg- 
ment of  the  ear.  Finally,  he  did  not  perceive 
that  by  using  the  chord  of  the  6-5-S  both  as 
a  fundamental  chord  and  an  inversion  he 
destroyed  his  whole  system,  as  in  the  former 
case  it  is  impossible  to  derive  it  from  the  third 
above  or  below.*  After  more  study,  however, 
particularly  on  the  subject  of  harmonics,  Rameau 
gave  up  many  of  his  earlier  notions,  and  corrected 
some  of  his  most  essential  mistakes.  The 
development  and  modification  of  his  ideas  may 
be  seen  by  consulting  his  works,  of  which  the 
following  is  a  list : — Nowceav,  aystime  de  musique 
tMorique  .  .  .  pour  servir  d*  Introduction  au 
traiti  d^Harmonie  (1726,  4to) ;  Oiniratwn 
Tiarmonique,  etc.  (1787, 8vo)  ;  V^monatrationdu 
principe  de  Vharmonie  (1750,  8vo) ;  Nouvelles 
reflexions  sur  la  d^monslralion  du  principe  de 
Vharmonie  (1 752,  8vo) ;  Extrait  d'une  riponse  de 
Jf.  Ra/meau  d  M.  EvJer  sur  VidentitS  des  octnves, 
etc.  (1758,  Svo)— all  published  in  Paris.  To 
these  specific  works,  all  dealing  with  the  science 
of  harmony,  should  be  added  the  Dissertation 
sur  les  diffirenies  mdhodes  d^aceompagnemerU 
pour  le  clavecin  ou  pour  Vorgue  (Paris,  Boiviu, 
1782,  4 to),  and  some  articles  which  appeared 
in  the  Mcrcure  de  France^  and  in  the  M&moires 
de  Trdvoux, 

>  Fetle  hae  explained,  detailed,  and  refuted  Rameau'i  eyiitem  in 
hie  JlMttltM  d»  tHlHoire  de  fHarmanle,  utrhtcb  bas  been  used  by 
tbe  writer,  and  to  which  he  refers  hla  revdem. 


20 


RAMEAU 


RAMEAU 


The  mere  titles  of  these  works  aro  a  proof 
of  the  research  and  invention  which  Ranieau 
brought  to  bear  on  the  theory  of  music ;  but 
what  was  most  remarkable  in  his  case  is  that 
he  succeeded  in  lines  which  are  generally 
opposed  to  each  other,  and  throughout  life 
occupied  the  first  rank  not  only  as  a  theorist, 
but  as  a  player  and  composer.  Just  when 
his  TraUd  de  VHarmonie  was  beginning  to 
attract  attention  he  an-anged  to  make  music 
for  the  little  pieces  which  his  fellow-countryman, 
Alexis  Piron,  was  writing  for  the  Th^&tre  de  la 
Foire,  and  accordingly,  on  Feb.  3,  1728,  they 
produced  *  L'Endriague,*  in  three  acts,  with 
dances,  divertissements,  and  grand  airs,  as 
stated  in  the  title.  In  Jan.  1724  he  obtained 
the  privilege  of  publishing  his  cantatas,  and 
various  instrumental  compositions,  amongst 
others  his  *  Pitees  de  clavecin,  avec  une  Methode 
pour  la  m^canique  des  doigts,'  etc.,  republished 
as  '  Pieces  de  Clavecin,  avec  une  table  pour  les 
agr^ments'i  (Paris,  1731  and  1736,  oblong 
folio). 

As  the  favourite  music-master  among  ladies 
of  rank,  and  organist  of  the  church  of  Ste.  Croix 
de  la  Bretonnerie,  Rameau's  position  and  pros- 
pects now  warranted  his  taking  a  wife,  and  on 
Feb.  25,  1726,  he  was  united  to  Marie  Louise 
Mango t,  a  good  musician,  with  a  pretty  voice. 
The  disparity  of  their  ages  was  considerable, 
the  bride  being  only  eighteen,  but  her  loving 
and  gentle  disposition  made  the  marriage  a 
very  happy  one. 

A  few  days  later,  on  Feb.  29,  Rameau  pro- 
duced at  the  Th^tre  de  la  Foire,  a  one-act  piece 
called  *  L'EnrOlement  d*Arlequin,'  followed  in 
the  autumn  by  '  Le  faux  Prodigue,'  two  acts, 
both  written  by  Pir<Hi.  Such  small  comic  pieces 
as  tiiese  were  obviously  composed,  by  a  man  of 
his  age  and  attainments  (he  was  now  forty- two), 
solely  with  the  view  of  gaining  access  to  a  stage 
of  higher  rank,  but  there  was  no  hope  of  admis- 
sion to  the  theatre  of  the  Academic  without  a 
good  libretto,  and  this  it  was  as  difficult  for  a 
beginner  to  obtain  then  as  it  is  now.  There  is 
a  remarkable  letter,  still  extant,  from  Rameau 
to  Houdar  de  Lamotte,  dated  Oct.  1727,  asking 
him  for  a  lyric  tragedy,  and  assuring  him  that 
he  was  no  novice,  but  one  who  had  mastered 
the  'art  of  concealing  his  art'  The  blind  poet 
refused  his  request,  but  aid  came  from  another 
quarter.  La  Popelinifere,  the  fermier  ginned, 
musician,  poet,  and  artist,  whose  houses  in  Paris 
and  at  Paasy  were  frequented  by  the  most 
celebrated  artists  French  and  foreign,  had  chosen 
Rameau  as  his  clavecinist  and  conductor  of  the 
music  at  his  fStes,  and  before  long  placed  at  his 
disposal  the  organ  in  his  chapel,  his  orchestra, 
and  his  theatre.  He  did  more,  for  through  his 
influence  Rameau  obtained  from  Voltaire  the 
lyric  tragedy  of  'Samson,'  which  he  promptly 

>  BoUi  Fdtia  and  Pongln  hiiv*  fallen  Into  the  inlatak*  of  eoMidtr* 
lug  this  a  Mpatnto  work. 


set  to  music,  though  the  performance  was  pro- 
hibited on  the  eve  of  its  representation  at  the 
Academic — an  exceptional  stroke  of  ill-fortune. 
[On  the  history  of  tliis  work,  see  Hngues  Imbert's 
Symphonie  (1891),  and  for  a  resume  of  the  facts, 
see  Musical  Times,  1898,  p.  379  ff.]  At  last  the 
Abb^  Pellegrin  agreed  to  furnish  him  with  an 
opera  in  five  acts,  'Hippolyte  et  Aricie,'  founded 
on  Racine's  *Ph6dre.*  He  compelled  Rameau 
to  sign  a  bill  for  500  livres  as  security  in  case 
the  opera  failed,  but  showed  more  sagacity  and 
more  heart  than  might  have  been  expected 
from  one 

Qui  dfnait  de  I'autel  et  soupait  du  th^tre, 
Le  matin  catliolique  et  lo  soir  idol&tre, 

for  ho  was  so  delighted  with  the  music  on  its 
first  performance  at  La  Popeliniere*s,  that  he 
tore  up  the  bill  at  the  end  of  the  first  act.  The 
world  in  general  was  less  enthusiastic,  and  after 
having  overcome  the  ill-will  or  stupidity  of 
the  performers,  Rameau  had  to  encounter  the 
astonishment  of  the  crowd,  the  prejudices  of 
routine,  and  the  jealousy  of  his  brother  artists. 
Campra  alone  recognised  his  genius,  and  it  is  to 
his  honour  that  when  questioned  by  the  Prince  de 
Conti  on  the  subject,  he  replied,  *  There  is  stuff 
enough  in  Hippolyte  et  Aricie  for  ten  operas  ; 
this  man  will  eclipse  us  all.' 

The  opera  was  produced  at  the  Academic  on 
Oct  1,  1733.  Rameau  was  then  turned  fifty 
years  of  age,  and  the  outcry  with  which  his 
work  was  greeted  suggested  to  him  that  he  had 
possibly  mistaken  his  career ;  for  a  time  he  con- 
templated retiring  from  the  theatre,  but  was 
reassured  by  seeing  his  hearers  gradually  accus- 
toming themselves  to  the  novelties  which  at 
first  shocked  them.  The  success  of  *  Les  Indcs 
galantes'  (August  23,  1735),  of  *  Castor  et 
Pollux,'  his  masterpiece  (Oct.  24,  1737),  and  of 
*Les  Fetes  d'Ul^b^'  (May  21,  1739),  however, 
neither  disarmed  his  critics,  nor  prevented 
Rousseau  from  making  himself  the  mouthpiece 
of  those  who  cried  up  Lully  at  the  expense  of 
the  new  composer.  But  Rameau  was  too  well 
aware  of  the  cost  of  success  to  be  hurt  by 
epigrams,  especially  when  he  found  that  he  could 
count  both  on  the  applause  of  the  multitude, 
and  the  genuine  appreciation  of  the  more  en- 
lightened. 

His  industry  was  immense,  as  the  following 
list  of  his  0{>eras  and  ballets  produced  at  the 
Acad($mie  in  twenty  years  will  show  : — 

Dardanaa.  flre  acts  and  pro-      Plat^,  three  acta  and  prologue 

.^  .   .> (Feb.  4.  1749». 

Nala,  thre«  acts  and  prvlogne 
(April  22,  1749t. 

Zoroaitre,    five  acta   (Dee.   0. 
1749). 

I.*  Gnirlande.  on  lee  Fleure  en- 

cbant^a.  one  act  (Sept.  21. 1751). 

Acanthe  et  Cdphiee,  three  acta 

I  (Nov.  18,  1751). 

1748).  I     Lee  Surprlees  de  TAmour,  three 

Lee  P«te8  de  I'Hymen   et  de  acte  (Jnly  IS.  1797). 
I'Amotir.  three  acta  and  prologue      Lee  Faladina,  three  acta  (Feb. 
(Matfh  16.  1747).  IS.  1760). 

Besides  these,  Rameau  found  time  to  write 
divertissements  for  'Les  Courses  de  Temp^,'  a 


logtio  (Oct.  19. 173B). 


Fetes  de  Polymnlo.  three 
acts  and  prolugno  (Oct  13, 1745). 

Lb  Temple  de  la  Gloire,  P0te, 
in  three  acts  and  prologue  (Nov. 
57. 1745). 

ZkIb,  four  acts  and  prologue 
(Feb.  39. 1748). 

Pygmalion,  one  act  (Aug.  37, 


RAMEAU 


RAMEAU 


21 


Ptotonl  (Theiitrc  Fran^ais,  August  1734),  and 

*  La  Rose '  (Theatre  de  la  Foire,  March  1744), 
both  by  Piron.  From  1 740  to  1 745  the  director 
of  the  Op^ra  gave  liim  no  employment,  and  in 
thk  interval  he  published  his  'Nouvelles  Suites 
de  Pieces  de  clavecin'  and  his  *  Pieces  de  clavecin 
«n  eonoerta  avec  un  violon  ou  une  flftte'  (1741), 
remarkable  compositions  which  have  been  re- 
printed by  Mme.  Farrenc  (*  Le  TWsor  des 
Pianistes')  and  M.  Poisot.  He  also  accepted 
tlie  post  of  conductor  of  the  Op^ra-Comique,  of 
which  Monnet^  was  manager,  probably  in  the 
hope  of  attracting  public  attention,  and  forcing 
the  management  of  the  Acad<^mie  to  alter  their 
treatment  of  him.  Finally  he  comi)08ed  for 
the  Conrt  <  Lysis  et  D^lie,'  'Daphnis  et  £gl^,' 
'Lea  Sybarites*  (Oct.  and  Nov.  1768);  *La 
Naiasanced'OsiriSj'and  'Anacr^n'(Oct.  1754), 
all  given  at  Fontainebleau.  Some  years  pre- 
viously, on  the  occasion  of  the  marriage  of  the 
Danphin  with  the  Infanta,  he  had  composed  '  La 
Prinoesae  de  Navarre'  to  a  libretto  of  Voltaire's 
(three  acts  and  prologue,  performed  with  great 
splendour  at  Versailles,  Feb.  28,  1745).  This 
was  the  most  successful  of  all  his  op^as  de 
eirotnutance,  and  the  authors  adapted  from  it 

*  Les  FStes  de  Ramire,'  a  one-act  o})era -ballet, 
also  performed  at  Versailles  (Dec.  22,  1745). 

In  estimating  Bameau's  merits  we  cannot  in 
instice  compare  him  with  the  great  Italian  and 
(iennan  masters  of  the  day,  whose  names  and 
works  were  then  equally  unknown  in  France ; 
we  must  measure  him  with  contemporary  French 
composers  for  the  stage.  These  writers  had  no 
idea  of  art  beyond  attempting  a  servile  copy 
of  Lully,  with  overtures,  recitatives,  vocal  pieces, 
and  beJlet  airs,  all  cast  in  one  stereotyped  form. 
Rameau  made  use  of  such  a  variety  of  means  as 
not  only  attracted  the  attention  of  his  hearers, 
but  retained  it.  For  the  placid  and  monotonous 
liarmonies  of  the  day,  the  trite  modulation, 
insignificant  accompaniments,  and  stereotyped 
litomelles,  he  substituted  new  forms,  varied 
and  piquant  rhythms,  ingenious  harmonies, 
liold  modulations,  and  a  richer  and  more  effective 
orchestration.  He  even  ventured  on  enharmonic 
changes,  and  instead  of  the  time-honoured 
aooompaniroents  with  the  strings  in  five  parts, 
and  flutes  and  oboes  m  two,  and  with  tuUis  in 
which  the  wind  simply  doubled  the  strings,  he 
gave  each  instrument  a  distinct  part  of  its  own, 
and  thns  imparted  life  and  colour  to  the  whole. 
Without  interrupting  the  other  instruments,  he 
introduced  interesting  and  unexpected  passages 
on  tlie  flutes,  oboes,  and  bassoons,  and  thus 
opened  a  path  which  has  been  followed  up 
with  ever -increasing  success.  He  also  gave 
importance  to  the  orchestral  pieces,  introducing 
his  operas  with  a  well-oonstnicted  overture, 
instead  of  the  meagre  introduction  of  the  period, 
in  which  the  same  phrases  were  repeated  ad 


lt«  Monoct's  SuppUnunt  «m  Roman  comlqui 
m  to  hftiw  tmxpid  all  aaniMii'a  Uogxapben. 


rf  «m  Roman  eomigu*,  p.  Bl.    This  fact 


Tiatiseam.  Nor  did  he  neglect  the  chorus  ;  he 
developed  it,  added  greatly  to  its  musical 
interest,  and  introduced  the  syllabic  style  with 
considerable  effect.  Lastly,  his  ballet -music 
was  so  new  in  its  rhythms,  and  so  fresh  and 
pleasing  in  melody,  that  it  was  at  once  adopted 
and  copied  in  the  theatres  of  Italy  and  Germany. 

We  have  said  enough  to  prove  that  Rameau 
was  a  composer  of  real  invention  and  originality. 
His  declamation  was  not  always  so  just  as  that 
of  Lully ;  his  airs  have  not  the  same  grace, 
and  are  occasionally  marred  by  eccentricity  and 
harshness,  and  disfigured  by  roulades  in  doubt- 
ful taste ;  but  when  inspired  by  his  subject 
Rameau  found  appropriate  expression  for  all 
sentiments,  whether  simple  or  pathetic,  pas- 
sionate, dramatic,  or  heroic.  His  best  operas 
contain  beauties  which  defy  the  caprices  of 
fashion,  and  will  command  the  respect  of  true 
artists  for  all  time. 

But  if  his  music  was  so  good,  how  is  it  that 
it  never  attained  the  same  popularity  as  that 
of  Lully  ?  In  the  first  place,  he  took  the  wrong 
line  on  a  most  important  point ;  and  in  the 
second,  he  was  less  favoured  by  circumstances 
than  his  predecessor.  It  was  his  doctrine,  that 
for  a  musician  of  genius  all  subjects  are  equally 
good,  and  hence  he  contented  himself  with  un- 
interesting fables  written  in  wretched  style, 
instead  of  taking  pains,  as  Lully  did,  to  secure 
pieces  constructed  with  skill  and  well  versified. 
He  used  to  say  that  he  could  set  the  Gazelte 
de  HoUande  to  music.  Thus  he  damaged  his 
own  fame,  for  a  French  audience  will  not  listen 
even  to  good  music  unless  it  is  founded  on  an 
interesting  drama. 

Much  as  Rameau  would  have  gained  by  the 
co-operation  of  another  Quinanlt,  instead  of 
having  to  employ  Cahusac,  there  was  another 
reason  for  the  greater  popularity  of  Lully. 
Under  Louis  XIV.  the  king's  patronage  was 
quite  sufficient  to  ensure  the  success  of  an  artist ; 
but  after  the  Regency,  under  Louis  XV.,  other 
authorities  asserted  themselves,  especially  the 

*  philosophes.'  Rameau  had  first  to  encounter 
the  vehement  opposition  of  the  Lullists  ;  this 
he  had  succeeded  in  overcoming,  when  a  company 
of  Italian  singers  arrived  in  Paris,  and  at  Qnce 
obtained  the  attention  of  the  public,  and  the 
support  of  a  powerful  party.  The  partisans  of 
French  music  rallied  roimd  Rameau,  and  the 
two  factions  carried  on  what  is  known  as  the 

*  Guerre  des  Bouffons,'  but  when  the  stniggle 
wos  over,  Rameau  perceived  that  his  victoiy 
was  only  an  ephemeral  one,  and  that  his  works 
would  not  maintain  their  position  in  the 
repertoire  of  the  Academic  beyond  a  few  years. 
With  a  frankness  very  touching  in  a  man  of 
his  gifts,  he  said  one  evening  to  the  Abb^* 
Amaud,  who  had  lately  arrived  in  Paris,  *  If  I 
were  twenty  years  younger  I  would  go  to  Italy, 
and  take  Pergolcsi  for  my  model,  abandon 
something  of  my  harmony,  and  devote  myself 


22 


RAMEAU 


RAMONDON 


to  attaining  truth  of  declamation,  which  should 
be  the  sole  guide  of  musicians.  But  after  sixty 
one  cannot  change ;  experience  points  plainly 
enough  the  best  course,  but  the  mind  refuses 
to  obey.'  No  critic  could  have  stated  the 
truth  more  plainly.  Not  having  heard  Italian 
music  in  his  youth,  Rameau  never  attained  to 
the  skill  in  writing  for  the  voice  that  he  might 
have  done  ;  and  he  is  in  consequence  only  the 
first  French  musician  of  his  time,  instead  of  taking 
his  rank  among  the  great  composers  of  European 
fame.  But  for  this,  he  might  have  effected 
that  revolution  in  dramatic  music  which  Gluck 
accomplished  some  years  later. 

But  even  as  it  was,  his  life's  work  is  one  of 
which  any  man  might  have  been  proud  ;  and  in 
old  age  he  enjoyed  privileges  accorded  only  to 
talent  of  the  first  rank.  The  directors  of  the 
Op4ra  decreed  him  a  pension ;  his  appearance 
in  his  box  was  the  signal  for  a  general  burst  of 
applause,  and  at  the  last  performance  of  ^Dar- 
danus'  (Nov.  9,  1760)  he  received  a  perfect 
ovation  from  the  audience.  At  D\jon  the 
Academic  elected  him  a  member  in  1761,  and 
the  authorities  exempted  himself  and  his  family 
for  ever  from  the  municipal  taxes.  The  king 
had  named  him  composer  of  his  chamber  music 
in  1745  ;  his  patent  of  nobility  was  registered, 
and  he  was  on  the  point  of  receiving  the  order 
of  St  Michel,  when,  already  suffering  from  the 
infirmities  of  age,  he  took  typhoid  fever,  and 
died  Sept.  12,  1764.  All  France  mourned  for 
him  ;  Paris  gave  him  a  magnificent  funeral,  and 
in  many  other  towns  funeral  services  were  held 
in  his  honour.  Such  marks  of  esteem  are  ac- 
corded only  to  the  monarchs  of  art 

Having  spoken  of  Rameau  as  a  theorist  and 
composer,  we  will  now  say  a  word  about  him 
as  a  man.  If  we  are  to  believe  Grimm  and 
Diderot,  he  was  hard,  churlish,  and  cruel, 
avaricious  to  a  degree,  and  the  most  ferocious 
of  egotists.  The  evidence  of  these  writers  is, 
however,  suspicious ;  both  disliked  French  music, 
and  Diderot,  as  the  friend  and  collaboraUur  of 
d'Alembert,  would  naturally  be  opposed  to  the 
man  who  had  had  the  audacity  to  declare  war 
against  the  Encyclopedists.'  It  is  right  to  say 
that,  though  he  drew  a  vigorous  and  scathing 
portrait  of  the  composer,  he  did  not  publish  it^ 
As  to  the  charge  of  avarice,  Rameau  may  have 
been  fond  of  money,  but  he  supported  his  sister 
Catherine  ^  during  an  illness  of  many  years,  and 
assisted  more  than  one  of  his  brother  artists — 

1  Bamoau  wma  uked  to  oorrsct  the  AZtlclos  on  music  for  the  Xncp' 
clop4di0.  but  ths  MSS.  were  uot  eabinltted  to  him.  He  pubUnhed 
in  eonaeqneuoe :  Arnurt  tur  la  mtuiqua  datu  TSnegcloptdU  (I7&BI ; 
Suite  On  Srrturt,  etc.  (1786) ;  JUpotue  d»  M.  Rameau  d  MM.  /«t 
4dUmr$  (to  Vgnejfclopidia  $ur  leur  A9tHU$emmt  (1757) ;  Uttre  tU 
M.  ^AUmbert  d  M.  Rameau,  eontemavt  le  enrpe  tonorr,  aew  la 
ripoiue  (to  M.  Rameau  (undated,  but  apparently  176B)— all  printed 
in  Piirie. 

>  We  refer  to  Diderot's  violent  satire  on  the  momls  and  philo- 
Bophie  tendencies  of  the  18th  OBntarjr,  entitled  U  A'eeeu  de  Ramrau, 
It  is  a  curious  fact  that  this  brilliantlv  written  dialog-uo  wns  only 
known  In  France  through  a  re-translation  of  Goethe's  Geiman 
version.  The  first  Prsnch  edition,  by  Sanr,  appeared  in  Paris  only 
in  1831. 

s  A  good  player  on  the  harpsichord ;  ehe  lived  in  Dijon,  and  died 
there,  17IBL 


such  as  Dauvergne,  and  the  organist  Balb&tre* 
He  was  a  vehement  oontroversialist,  and  those 
whom  he  had  offended  would  naturally  say  hard 
things  of  him.  Tall,  and  thin  almost  to 
emaciation,  his  sharply  marked  features  indi- 
cated great  strength  of  character,  while  his  eyes 
burned  with  the  fire  of  genius.  There  was  a  de- 
cided resemblance  between  him  and  Voltaire,  and 
painters  have  often  placed  their  likenesses  side 
by  side.  Amongst  the  best  portraits  of  Rameau 
may  be  specified  those  of  Benoist  (after  Restout), 
Caffieri,  Masquelier,  and  Carmontelle  (full 
length).  In  the  fine  oil-painting  by  Ohardin  in 
the  Museum  of  D^on,  he  is  represented  seated, 
with  his  fingers  on  the  strings  of  his  violin^ 
the  instrument  he  generally  used  in  composing. 
The  bust  which  stood  in  the /aycr  of  the  Op^ra 
was  destroyed  when  the  theatre  was  bui-nt  down 
in  1781  ;  that  in  the  libraiy  of  the  Conserva- 
toire is  by  Destreez  (1865).  A  bronze  statue 
by  Quillaume  was  erected  at  Dijon  in  1880. 
The  fine  medal  of  him  given  to  the  winners  of 
the  grand  prix  de  .Rome  was  engraved  by 
Gatteaux. 

There  are  many  biographies  of  Rameau  ;  the 
most  valuable  are,  among  the  older,  Chabanon's 
Moge  (1764)  ;  Maret's  Eloge  hisUmque  (1766)  ; 
and  the  very  curious  details  contained  in  De 
Croix's  VAmi  des  Arts  (1776) ;  among  the 
more  modem,  the  notices  of  Adolphe  Adam, 
F^tis,  Poi8ot(1864),  Nisard  (1867),  and  Pougin 
(1876). 

Rameau  had  one  son  and  two  daughters, 
none  of  them  musicians.  He  left  in  MS.  four 
cantatas,  three  motets  with  chorus,  and  frag- 
ments of  an  opera  *  Roland,'  all  which  are  now 
in  the  Biblioth^ue  Nationale.  None  of  his 
organ  pieces  have  survived  ;  and  some  cantatas, 
mentioned  by  the  earlier  biographers,  besides 
two  lyric  tragedies  *  Abaris  *  and  *  Linus,'  and  a 
comic  opera,  *  Le  Procureur  dupd,*  are  lost ;  but 
they  would  have  added  nothing  to  his  fame. 

Some  of  his  harpsichord  pieces  have  been 
X^ublished  in  the  *  Tresor  des  Pianistes ' ;  in  the 
*Alte  Klavierniusik  *  of  Pauer  (Ser.  2,  pt.  6) 
and  of  Roitzsch  ;  also  in  Pauer's  '  Alte  Meister, ' 
and  in  the  '  Perles  Musicales '  (51,  52).  A  new 
edition,  with  a  preface  by  Saint-Saens,  appeared 
in  Paris  in  1 905.  g.  o. 

RAMONDON,  Lewis,  presumably  a  French- 
man, and  at  first  a  singer  in  the  pre-Handelian 
Italian  operas.  He  appeared  in  *Arsinoe,*^ 
1705  ;  in  'Camilla,'  1706  ;  and  *Pyrrhus  and 
Demetrius,'  1709.  He  sometimes  took  Leve- 
ridge's  parts  in  these  operas,  but  about  1711 
he  ceased  to  be  a  public  singer,  and  turned  his 
talents  to  composition.  He  brought  out  the 
series  called  *  The  Lady's  Entertainment'  in 
1709,  1710,  1711,  and  1788.  He  arranged 
for  the  harpsichord  the  song- tunes  in  *  Camilla,* 
using,  perhaps  for  the  first  time  in  music-nota- 
tion for  this  instrument,  a  five  instead  of  a  six- 
line  stave,  and  giving  as  the  reason — '  that  the 


RAMSEY 


RANDEGGER 


23 


leoBons  being  placed  on  five  lines  renders  them 
proper  for  a  violin  and  a  base.'  His  vocal 
compositions  were  in  high  favour,  and  half  a 
dozen  or  so  may  be  seen  in  Walsh's  *  Merry 
Musician,  or  a  Core  for  the  Spleen/  vol.  L, 
1716 ;  others  are  on  the  single  song  sheet  of 
the  period.  A  tune  of  his,  '  All  yon  that  must 
take  a  leap  in  the  dark,'  attained  some  degree 
of  popularity  by  being  sung  by  Macheath  in 
the  'Beggar's  Opera.'  It  is  probable  that  he 
died  about  1720,  as  his  name  does  not  appear 
to  occur  on  any  fresh  work  after  that  date ; 
but  biographical  details  regarding  him  are 
lacking.  F.  K. 

RAMSEY,  RoBXRT,  was  organist  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  from  1628  to  1644  in- 
clusive, and  '  Magister  Choristarum '  from  1687 
to  1644  inclusive  ;  but  whether  before  or  after 
those  dates  is  not  certain  in  either  case.  He 
took  the  degree  of  Mus.B.  at  Cambridge  in 
1616,  and  was  required  to  compose  a  'Canti- 
cum*  to  be  performed  at  St.  Mary's  Church. 
A  Morning  and  Evening  Service  in  F  by  him 
is  contained  in  the  Tudway  Collection  (Harl. 
MS.  7340)  and  in  the  Ely  Library,  where,  and 
at  Peterhouse  College,  Cambridge,  there  are 
also  two  anthems  of  his.  Add.  MS.  11,608  in 
the  British  Museum  contains  a  setting  by  him 
of  the  dialogue  between  Saul,  the  witch,  and 
Samuel — *In  guiltie  m'ght,'  which  was  after- 
wards set  by  PurcelL  Tudway  miscalls  him 
John.  A  madrigal  by  him  is  in  the  British 
Museum,  and  a  '  commencement  song '  a  8  was 
sold  at  Warren's  sale  in  1881.  o. 

RANDALL,  Johx,  Mus.D.,  bom  1716,  was 
a  chorister  of  the  Chapel  Royal  under  Bernard 
Gates.  He  was  one  of  the  boys  who  shared 
in  the  representation  of  Handel's  '  Esther '  at 
Gatee's  house,  Feb.  23, 1732,  he  himself  taking 
the  part  of  Esther.  He  graduated  as  Mus.B. 
at  Cambridge  in  1744,  his  exercise  being  an 
anthem.  In  1748  he  was  appointed  organist 
of  King's  College,  and  on  the  death  of  Dr. 
Greene  in  1755  was  elected  Professor  of  Music 
at  Cambridge.  In  1756  he  proceeded  Mus.D. 
He  composed  the  music  for  Gray's  Ode  for  the 
Installation  of  the  Duke  of  Grafton  as  Chan- 
cellor of  the  University  in  1768,  and  some 
church  music.  He  was  organist  of  Trinity  Col- 
lege in  1 77 7.  He  died  at  Cambridge,  March  1 8, 
1799.  His  name  is  preserved  in  England  by 
his  two  Double  Chants.  w.  H.  h. 

RANDALL,  P.,  a  London  music-seller  and 
publisher,  who  had  a  shop  at  the  sign  of  *  Ye 
Viol  and  Lute,'  at  Paul's  Grave,  without  Temple 
Bar,  in  1707,  and  for  some  years  later.  He 
may  have  been  related,  by  marriage,  to  John 
WsJsh,  senior,  the  great  music -publisher  of 
this  period.  Before  1710  he  was  a  partner 
with  Walsh,  and  had  abandoned  his  own  place 
of  business  for  Walsh's  address  in  Katherine 
Street,  Strand.  His  name,  in  conjunction  with 
Walsh's,  appears  on  many  imprints  of  Walsh's 


publications.  Later  issues  of  these  publica- 
tions have  Randall's  name  erased,  and  before 
1720  his  name  entirely  disappears  from  them. 

Randall,  William,  is  presumed  to  be  a 
son  of  the  preceding  P.  RandalL  At  the  death 
of  John  Walsh,  junior,  Jan.  15,  1766,  William 
Randall  succeeded  to  the  extensive  business  in 
Catherine  Street,  and  shortly  afterwards  was 
for  a  couple  of  years  or  less  in  partnership 
with  a  person  named  Abell.  Randall  k  Abell 
issued  in  large  folio  in  1768  what  is  practically 
the  first  complete  edition  of  the  *  Messiah,'  as 
well  as  some  minor  issues.  Randall  was  in 
business  alone  in  1771,  and  besides  reprinting 
the  Walsh  publications,  he  published  many 
interesting  works.  One  of  these  was  a  reissue 
in  1771  of  Morley's  Plaine  and  Easie  Intro- 
duction, Collections  of  Vauxhall  or  other 
songs  came  forth,  country  dances,  and  the 
like.  William  Randall  died  about  1780,  and 
his  widow,  Elizabeth,  carried  on  the  business 
until  it  was  taken  over,  about  1788,  by  Messrs. 
Wright  k  Wilkinson,  who  made  a  great  busi- 
ness almost  solely  by  reprinting  Handel's  works 
from  the  origins^  plates.  f.  k. 

RANDEGGER,  Albekto,  composer,  con- 
ductor, and  singing-master,  was  bom  at  Trieste, 
April  13,  1832.  He  began  the  study  of  music 
at  the  age  of  thirteen,  under  Lafont  for  the  PF., 
and  L.  Ricci  for  composition,  soon  began  to 
write,  and  by  the  year  1852  was  known  as  the 
composer  of  several  masses  and  smaller  pieces 
of  Church  music,  and  of  two  ballets — *La 
Fidanzata  di  Castellamare '  and  'La  Sposa 
d'  Appenzello,'  both  produced  at  the  Teatro 
grande  of  his  native  town.  In  the  latter  year 
he  joined  three  other  of  Ricci's  pui>ils  in  the 
composition  of  a  buffo  opera  to  a  libretto  by 
Gaetano  Rossi,  entitled  *  II  Lazzarone,'  which 
had  much  success,  first  at  the  Teatro  Mauroner 
at  Trieste,  and  then  elsewhere.  In  the  next  two 
years  he  was  occupied  as  musical  director  of 
theatres  at  Fiume,  Zara,  Sinigaglia,  Brescia, 
and  Venice.  In  the  winter  of  1854  he  brought 
out  a  tragic  opera  in  four  acts,  called  *  Bianca 
Capello,'  at  the  chief  theatre  of  Brescia.  At 
this  time  he  was  induced  to  come  to  London. 
He  gradually  took  a  high  position  there,  and 
has  become  widely  known  as  a  teacher  of  sing- 
ing, conductor,  and  composer,  and  an  enthusi- 
astic lover  of  good  music  of  whatever  school  or 
country.  He  has  resided  in  England  ever  since, 
and  is  one  of  the  most  prominent  musical  figures 
in  the  metropolis.  In  1864  he  produced  at  the 
Theatre  Royal,  Leeds,  *The  Rival  Beauties,*  a 
comic  operetta  in  two  acts,  which  has  had  much 
success  in  London  and  many  other  places.  In 
1868  he  became  Professor  of  Singing  at  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Music,  and  has  since  been 
made  an  honorary  member  and  director  of  that 
institution  and  a  member  of  the  Committee  of 
Management.  He  is  a  Professor  of  Singing  at 
the  Royal  College  of  Music,  and  is  on  the  Board 


24 


RANDHARTINGER 


RANELAGH  HOUSE  AND  GARDENS 


of  Professors.  In  the  autumn  of  1857  he  con- 
ducted a  series  of  Italian  operas  at  St.  James's 
Theatre,  and  in  1879-85  the  Carl  Rosa  Com- 
pany. [He  conducted  grand  opera  under  Harris's 
management  at  Drury  Lane  and  Covent  Garden 
in  1887-98.  He  conducted  the  Queen's  Hall 
Choral  Society  in  1895-97,  but  his  most  im- 
])ortant  position  of  this  kind  was  the  conductor- 
ship  of  the  Norwich  Festival,  which  he  lield 
with  great  success  from  1881  to  1906  inclusive.] 

Mr.  Randegger's  published  works  are  numer- 
ous and  important  They  comprise  a  dramatic 
cantata  (words  by  Mme.  Rudersdorff),  entitled 
'  Fridolin/  composed  for  the  Birmingham  Festi- 
val, and  produced  there  with  great  success, 
August  28, 18r73 ;  two  soprano  scenas — 'Medea,' 
sung  by  Mme.  Rudersdorff  at  the  Gewandhaus, 
Leipzig,  in  1869,  and  *Saffo,'  sung  by  Mme. 
Lemmens  at  the  British  Orchestral  Society, 
March  31,  1875  ;  the  150th  Psalm,  for  soprano 
solo,  chorus,  orchestra,  and  organ,  for  the  Boston 
Festival,  1872  ;  Funeral  Anthem  for  the  death 
of  the  Prince  Consort,  twice  performed  in 
London  ;  a  scena,  'The  Prayer  of  Nature,'  sung 
by  Edward  Lloyd  at  a  Philharmonic  concert  in 
1887  ;  and  a  large  number  of  songs  and  con- 
certed vocal  music  for  voice  and  orchestra  or 
PF.  He  is  also  the  author  of  the  PHmer  of 
Singing  in  Novello's  series.  As  a  teacher  of 
singing,  Mr.  Randegger  has  a  large  number  of 
pupils  now  before  the  English  public  as  popular 
singers.  (See  the  Mitsical  Times  for  1899,  p. 
658  fr.)  o. 

RANDHARTINGEEL,  Bbn£DICT,  an  Aus- 
trian musician,  memorable  for  his  connection 
with  Schubert.  He  was  born  at  Ruprechtshofen, 
in  Lower  Austria,  July  27,  1802  ;  at  ten  years 
old  came  to  the  Convict  school  at  Vienna,  and 
was  then  a  pupil  of  Salieri's.  He  afterwards 
studied  for  the  law,  and  for  ten  years  was  Secre- 
tary to  Count  Sz^h^nyi,  an  official  about  the 
Court.  But  lie  forsook  this  line  of  life  for 
music  ;  in  1832  entered  the  Court  Chapel  as  a 
tenor  singer ;  in  1844  became  Vice-Court-Capell- 
meister,  and  in  1862,  after  Assmayer's  death, 
entered  on  the  full  enjoyment  of  that  dignity. 
His  compositions  are  more  than  600  in  number, 
comprising  an  opem,  'Konig  Enzio' ;  20  masses ; 
60  motets ;  symphonies ;  quartets,  etc.  ;  400 
songs,  76  4 -part  songs,  etc.  Of  all  these, 
124,  chiefly  songs,  are  published ;  also  a  vol. 
of  Greek  national  songs,  and  a  vol.  of  Greek 
liturgies.  His  acquaintance  with  Schubert 
l>robably  began  at  the  Convict,  and  at  Salieri's; 
though  as  he  was  Schubert's  junior  by  five  years, 
they  can  have  been  there  together  only  for  a 
short  time ;  but  there  are  many  slight  traces  of 
the  existence  of  a  close  friendship  between  them. 
He  was  present,  for  example,  at  the  first  trial 
of  the  D  minor  String  Quartet  (Jan.  29,  1826), 
and  he  was  one  of  the  very  few  friends  who 
visited  Schubert  in  the  terrible  loneliness  of  his 
last  iUness.    But  ibr  Randhartinger  it  is  almost 


certain  that  Schubert's  'Schone  MUllerin'  would 
never  have  existed.  He  was  called  out  of  his 
room  while  Schubert  was  paying  him  a  visit, 
and  on  his  return  found  that  his  friend  had 
disappeared  with  a  volume  of  W.  MUller's 
poems  which  he  had  accidentally  looked  into 
while  waiting,  and  had  been  so  much  interested 
in  as  to  carry  off.  On  his  going  the  next  day 
to  reclaim  the  book,  Schubert  presented  him 
with  some  of  the  now  well-known  songs,  which 
he  had  composed  during  the  night.  Thb  was 
in  1823.  It  is  surely  enough  to  entitle  Rand- 
hartinger to  a  i)erpetual  memory. 

He  had  a  brother  Josef,  of  whom  nothing 
is  known  beyond  this — that  he  was  probably 
one  of  the  immediate  entourage  of  Beethoven's 
coffin  at  the  funeral.  He,  Lachner,  and 
Schubert  are  said  to  have  gone  together  as 
torch-bearers  (Kreissle  von  Hellbom's  Schubert, 
p.  266).  G. 

RANDLES,  Elizabeth,  an  extraordinary 
infant  musical  prodigy  and  performer  on  the 
pianoforte.  She  was  born  at  Wrexham,  August 
1,  1800,  and  played  in  public  before  she  was 
fully  two  years  of  age.  Her  father,  a  blind 
harper  and  organist  of  Wrexham,  of  some  degree 
of  local  fame  (1760-1820),  placed  her  under 
John  Parry  the  har{)or,  and  afterwards  took 
her  on  tour  to  London,  where  she  attracted 
much  attention,  and  was  made  a  pet  of  by  the 
Royal  family.  A  second  visit  to  London  was 
undertaken  in  1808,  and  a  concert  for  her 
benefit  given  in  the  Hanover  Squai*e  rooms. 
At  this  Madame  Catalan!  and  other  singers 
and  instrumentalists  gave  their  gratuitous  ser- 
vices, Sir  George  Smart  conducting.  She  settled 
in  Liverpool  as  a  music  teacher  about  1818, 
and  died  there  in  1829.  f.  k. 

RANELAGH  HOUSE  AND  GARDENS 
were  situated  on  the  bank  of  the  Thames, 
eastward  of  Chelsea  Hospital.  They  were 
erected  and  laid  out  about  1690  by  Richaixi 
Jones,  Viscount  (afterwards  Earl  of)  Ranelagh, 
who  resided  there  until  his  death  in  1712.  In 
1733  the  property  was  sold  in  lots,  and  eventu- 
ally the  house  and  part  of  the  gardens  came 
into  the  hands  of  a  number  of  persons  who 
converted  them  into  a  place  of  public  entertain- 
ment In  1741  they  commenced  the  erection 
of  a  spacious  Rotunda  (185  feet  external,  and 
150  feet  iutenial  diameter),  with  four  entrances 
through  porticos.  Surrounding  it  was  an 
arcade,  and  over  that  a  covered  gallery,  above 
which  were  the  windows,  sixty  in  number.  In 
the  centre  of  the  interior  and  supporting  the 
roof  was  a  square  erection  containing  the 
orchestra,  as  well  as  fireplaces  of  peculiar 
construction  for  warming  the  building  in 
winter.  Forty-seven  boxes,  each  to  contain 
eight  persons,  were  placed  round  the  building, 
and  in  these  the  company  ])artook  of  tea  and 
cofiee.  In  the  garden  was  a  Chinese  building, 
and  a  canal    ujion   which   the    visitors  were 


BANELAGH  HOUSE  AND  GARDENS 


RANSFORD 


25 


rowed  about  in  boats.  Banelagh  was  opened 
with  a  public  breakfast,  April  5,  1742.  The 
admission  was  2s.  including  breakfast  On 
May  24  following  it  was  opened  for  evening 
ooucerts ;  Beard  was  the  principal  singer, 
Festing  the  leader,  and  the  choruses  were 
chiefly  from  oratorios.  Twice  a  week  ridottos 
were  given,  the  tickets  for  which  were  £1 :  Is. 
each,  including  supper.  Masquerades  were 
shortly  afterwards  introduced,  and  the  place 
soon  became  the  favourite  resort  of  the  world 
of  fashion.  Ranelagh  was  afterwards  opened 
about  the  end  of  February  for  breakfasts,  and 
on  Easter  Monday  for  the  evening  entertain- 
ments. On  April  10,  1746,  a  new  organ  by 
Bytield  was  opened  at  a  public  morning  rehearsal 
of  the  music  for  the  season,  and  Parry,  the 
celebrated  Welsh  harper,  appeared.  In  1749, 
in  honour  of  the  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  an 
entertainment  called  'A  Jubilee  Masquerade 
in  the  Venetian  manner,'  was  given,  of  which 
Horace  Walpole,  in  a  letter  to  Sir  Horace 
Mann,  dated  May  3,  1749,  gives  a  lively 
description. 

This  proved  so  attractive  that  it  was  repeated 
several  times  in  that  and  succeeding  years, 
until  the  sappression  of  such  entertainments  in 
1755.  In  1751  morning  concerts  were  given 
twice  a  week,  Signora  Frasi  and  Beard  being 
the  singers.  At  that  date  it  had  lost  none  of 
its  charm.  'You  cannot  conceive,'  says  Mrs. 
Ellison,  in  Fielding's  Ameliaj  'what  a  sweet 
elegant  delicious  place  it  is.  Paradise  itself 
can  hardly  be  equal  to  it'  In  1754  an 
entertainment  of  singing,  recitation,  etc.  was 
given  under  the  name  of  *  Comus's  Court,' 
which  was  very  successful.  In  1755  a  pastoral, 
the  words  from  Shakespeare,  the  music  by  Ame, 
was  produced  ;  Beard  and  Miss  Young  were  the 
singers  ;  Handel's  *  L'Allegro  ed  11  Pensieroso ' 
was  introduced  on  Beard's  benefit  night,  and 
Stanley  was  the  organist  In  1759  Bonnell 
Thornton's  burlesque  Ode  on  St  Cecilia's  Day 
was  performed  with  great  success.  In  1762 
Tenducd  was  the  principal  male  singer.  In 
1 764  a  new  orchestra  was  erected  in  one  of  the 
porticos  of  the  Rotunda,  the  original  one  being 
found  inconvenient  from  its  height  On  June 
29,  1764,  Mozart,  then  eight  years  old,  per- 
formed on  the  harpsichord  and  organ  several 
pieces  of  his  own  composition  for  the  benefit  of 
a  charity.  In  1770  Bnmey  was  the  organist. 
Fireworks  were  occasionally  exhibited,  when  the 
price  of  admission  was  raised  to  5s.  In  1777 
the  fashionable  world  played  one  of  its  strange, 
unreasoning  freaks  at  Ranelagh.  Wal])ole 
WToit  on  June  18  : — *  It  is  the  fashion  now  to 
go  to  Ranelagh  two  hours  after  it  is  over.  You 
may  not  believe  this,  but  it  is  literal.  The 
mosic  ends  at  ten,  the  company  go  at  twelve. ' 
This  practice  caused  the  concert  to  be  commenced 
at  a  later  hour  than  before.  In  1790  a  repre- 
sentation of  Mount  Etna  in  eruption,  with  the 


Cyclops  at  work  in  the  centre  of  the  mountain, 
and  the  lava  pouring  down  its  side,  was 
exhibited.  The  mountain  was  80  feet  high. 
In  1798  the  Chevalier  d'£ou  fenced  in  public 
with  a  French  professor,  and  about  the  same 
time  regattas  on  the  Thames  in  connection  with 
the  place  were  established.  In  1802  the 
Installation  Ball  of  the  KnighU  of  the  Bath 
was  given  at  Ranelagh,  and  also  a  magnificent 
entertainment  by  the  Spanish  Ambassador. 
These  were  the  last  occurrences  of  any  import- 
ance ;  the  fortunes  of  the  place  had  long  been 
languishing,  and  it  opened  for  the  last  time 
July  8,  1808.  On  Sept  80,  1806,  the 
proprietors  gave  directions  for  taking  down  the 
house  and  rotunda ;  the  furniture  was  soon 
after  sold  by  auction,  and  the  buildings  re- 
moved. Tlie  organ  was  placed  in  Tetbury 
Church,  Gloucestershire.  No  traces  of  Ranelagh 
remain  ;  the  site  now  forms  part  of  Chelsea 
Hospital  garden.  w,  h.  h. 

RANK.  A  rank  of  oigan-pipes  is  one  com- 
plete series  or  set,  of  the  same  quality  of  tone 
and  kind  of  construction  from  the  largest  to 
the  smallest,  controlled  by  one  draw-stop,  acting 
on  one  slider.  If  the  combined  movement  of 
draw-stop  and  slider  admits  air  to  two  or  more 
such  series  of  pi|>e8,  an  organ-stop  is  said  to  be 
of  two  or  more  ranks,  as  the  case  may  be. 
Occasionally  the  twelfth  and  fifteenth,  or 
fifteenth  and  twenty-second,  are  thus  united, 
forming  a  stop  of  two  ranks  ;  but,  as  a  nile, 
only  those  stojis  whose  tones  are  reinforcements 
of  some  of  the  higher  upi)er-i)artials  of  the 
ground -tone  are  mode  to  consist  of  several 
ranks,  such  as  the  Sesquialtera,  Mixture, 
Furniture,  etc.  These  sto})s  have  usually  from 
three  to  five  ranks  each,  reinforcing  (according 
to  their  s})ecial  disposition)  the  ground-tone  by 
the  addition  of  its  17th,  19th,  22nd,  24th, 
26th,  29th,— -that  is,  of  its  Si-d,  5th,  and  8th 
in  the  third  and  fourth  octave  above.  [See 
Sesquialtera  and  Mixture.]  j.  s. 

RANSFORD,  Edwin,  baritone  vocalist,  song- 
writer,  and  composer,  bom  Mareh  13,  1805,  at 
I^urton-on- the- Water,  Gloucestershire,  died  in 
London,  July  11,  1876.  He  first  appeared  on 
the  stage  as  an  *  extra '  in  the  opera-chonis  at 
the  King's  Theatre,  Hay  market,  and  was 
after\vards  engaged  in  that  of  Covent  Garden 
Theatre.  During  Charles  Kemble's  manage- 
ment of  that  theatre  he  mode  his  first  appear- 
ance OS  Don  Caesar  in  '  Tlie  Castle  of  Andalusia,' 
on  May  27,  1829,  and  was  engaged  soon 
afterwards  by  Arnold  for  the  English  Opera- 
House  (now  the  Lyceum).  In  the  autumn  of 
1829,  and  in  1830,  he  was  at  Covent  Gai-den. 
In  1831  he  played  leading  characters  under 
El  listen  at  the  Surrey  Theatre,  and  became 
a  general  favourite.  In  1832  he  was  with 
Joe  Grimaldi  at  Sadler's  Wells,  playing  Tom 
Truck,  in  Campbell's  nautical  drama  *The 
Battle  of  Trafalgar, '  in  which  he  made  a  great 


26 


RANTZAU 


RAPPOLDl 


Mt  with  Neukomm's  song,  *  The  Sea. '  At  this 
theatre  he  sustained  the  part  of  Captain 
Cannonade  in  Bamett's  opera  *  The  Pet  of  the 
Petticoats.'  He  afterwards  fulfilled  important 
engagements  at  Drury  Lane,  the  Lyceum,  and 
Covent  Garden.  At  Covent  Garden  he  played 
the  Doge  of  Venice  in  '  Othello,'  March  25, 
1833,  when  £dmund  Keau  last  appeared  on  the 
stage,  and  Sir  Harry  in  '  The  School  for  Scandal ' 
on  Charles  Kemble's  last  appearance  as  Charles 
Surface.  His  final  theatrical  engagement  was 
with  Macready  at  Covent  Garden  in  1837-38. 
He  wrote  the  words  of  many  songs,  his  best 
being  perhaps  '  In  the  days  when  we  went 
gipsying.'  In  later  years  his  entertainments, 
*  Gipsy  life,'  '  Tales  of  the  Sea,'  and  *  Songs  of 
Dibdin,'  etc.,  became  deservedly  popular.  As 
a  genial  bon  camarade  he  was  universally  liked. 

SHe  was  also  a  music-seller  and  publisher,  and 
luring  the  forties  and  fifties  issued  a  great 
number  of  the  popular  songs  of  the  day.  His 
shop  was  in  Charles  Street,  Soho,  but  in  1850 
he  moved  to  461  Oxford  Street  In  1869  he 
went  into  partnership  with  his  son,  William 
Edwin,  at  2  Princes  Street,  Cavendish  Square. 
The  son,  who  continued  the  business  after  his 
father's  death,  was  a  tenor  vocalist  of  ability. 
He  died  Sept.  21,  1890.     F.  k.]  w.  h. 

RANTZAU,  I.  Opera  in  four  acts,  text  by 
G.  Targioni-Tazzetti  and  G.  Menasoi,  music  by 
Mascagni.  Produced  at  the  Pergola,  Florence, 
Nov.  10,  1892,  and  at  Covent  Garden,  July 
7    1893 

'  RANZ  DES  VACHES  (Kuhreihm,  Kuhrei- 
gen  ;  Appenzell  patois  Chucreiha),  a  strain  of  an 
irregular  description,  which  in  some  parts  of 
Switzerland  is  sung  or  blown  on  the  Alpine  horn 
in  June,  to  call  the  cattle  from  the  valleys  to 
the  higher  pastures.  Several  derivations  have 
been  suggested  for  the  words  rams  and  reihen  or 
reigen,  Jianz  has  been  translated  by  the  English 
*rant,'  and  the  French  *  rondeau,'  and  has  been 
derived  from  the  Keltic  root  *  renk '  or  *rank,' 
which  may  also  be  the  derivation  of  reihen^  in 
which  case  both  words  would  mean  the  *  proces- 
sion or  march  of  the  cows.'  Stalder  (Sdiweize- 
riscfies  Idiotikon)  thinks  that  reihen  means  '  to 
reach,'  or  *  fetch,'  while  other  authorities  say 
that  the  word  is  the  same  as  reigen  (a  dance 
accompanied  by  singing),  and  derive  ranz  from 
the  Swiss  patois  *  ranner,'  to  rejoice. 

The  Ranz  des  Yaches  are  very  numerous,  and 
differ  both  in  music  and  words  in  the  different 
cantons.  They  are  extremely  irregular  in  char- 
acter, full  of  long  cadences  and  abrupt  changes 
of  tempo.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  they  are 
seldom  strictly  in  tune,  more  particularly  when 
])layed  on  the  Alpine  horn,  an  instrument  in 
which,  like  the  Bag  pipe,  the  note  represented 
by  F  is  really  an  extra  note  between  F  and  Ftf . 
This  note  is  very  characteristic  of  the  Ranz  des 
Vaches ;  passages  like  the  following  being  re- 
peated and  varied  almost  ad  infinitum. 


The  most  celebrated  Ranz  des  Vaches  is 
that  of  Appenzell,  a  copy  of  which  is  said  to 
have  been  sent  to  our  Queen  Anne,  with  whom 
it  was  a  great  favourite.  The  first  work  in 
which  it  was  printed  is  Georg  Rhaw's  Bieinia 
(Wittenberg,  1545).  It  is  also  to  be  found  in 
a  dissertation  on  Nostalgia  in  Z winger's  Fauci- 
cuius  Disaertationum  Medicarum  (Basle,  1710). 
Rousseau  printed  a  version  in  his  DiciioniuUre 
de  Musiqiic^  which  Laborde  arranged  for  four 
voices  in  his  Essai  sur  la  Musique.  It  was 
used  by  Gr^try  in  his  Overture  to  *  Guillaume 
Tell,'  and  by  Adam  in  his  Method  de  Piano  du 
Conservatoire.^  It  has  been  also  arranged  by 
Webbe,  Weigl,  Rossini  ('  Guillaume  Tell '),  and 
Meyerbeer.  w.  b.  8. 

RAPPOLDl,  Eduard,  bom  at  Vienna,  Feb. 
21,  1831.  He  was  placed  by  his  father  at  an 
early  age  iinder  Doleschall,  and  made  his  first 
appearance  in  his  seventh  year  as  violinist, 
pianist,  and  composer.  His  talent  for  the 
pianoforte  was  so  great  as  to  induce  the  Countess 
Banffy  to  put  him  under  Mittag,  Thalbeig's 
teacher.  But  the  violin  was  the  instrument  of 
his  choice,  and  he  succeeded  in  studying  it 
under  Jansa,  who  induced  him  to  go  to  London 
in  1850.  Here  he  made  no  recorded  appearance. 
On  his  return  to  Vienna  he  was  so  far  provided 
for  by  the  liberality  of  the  same  lady,  that  he 
became  a  pujiil  of  the  Conservatorium  under 
Hellmesberger  from  1851  to  1854.  He  then 
put  himself  un(fer  Bohm,  and  shortly  began 
to  travel,  and  to  be  spoken  of  as  a  promising 
player.  The  first  real  step  in  his  career  was 
conducting  a  concert  of  Joachim's  at  Rotterdam 
in  1866,  where  he  had  been  concertmeister  since 
1861.  At  the  end  of  that  year  he  went  to 
LUbeck  as  capellmeister,  in  1867  to  Stettin  in 
the  same  capacity,  and  in  1869  to  the  Landes- 
theater  at  Prague.  During  this  time  he  was 
working  hard  at  the  violin,  and  also  studying 
com  position  with  Scchter  and  Hiller.  From  1871 
to  1877  he  was  a  colleague  of  Joachim's  at  the 
Hochschule  at  Berlin  —where  he  proved  himself 
a  first-rate  teacher — and  a  member  of  his 
quartet  party.     In  1876  he  was  made  Royal 

>  Thciv  it «  carious  analogy  between  the  above  and  the  following 
ntrnin,  which  !•  rani;  ^'th  Inflnlte  rariatloni  In  the  agrlcoltunu 
iliatricta  near  Ixjndon  to  frii^hten  away  the  bird*  from  the  eecd. 
In  both  paaMgce  the  F  U  more  nearly  ¥^ 

s  Other  esaainlee  and  dnKriptionii  will  be  found  In  the  following 
works  :-Cappeller'i  Pilati  Montis  Ni^oria  (1797| ;  HtolbefK'i  Ketat 
in  Dtutwrhland,  der  Sehtartx,  He.  (1794  • :  Ebel'e  Scha4terung  drr 
OiMrgnakmr  drr  SehmH  (1798) ;  AlKninnd  von  Wagner'ii  Acht 
ath¥>eiMr  Kuhrrihfn  (IHOA) ;  tbe  article  on  Vlotti  in  the  M<wl« 
Fhilo»ofikiqu9  (An  6) :  Caatelnan'e  Conaidiratiotta  tur  la  Noatataie 
(1806) :  Bdward  Jonee'e  Muaicai  CurioaitUt  (1811) :  RturuHl  de  Rant 
dea  ToflkM  ft  da  Ctutntnna  .VatioHat«$  /lulaaet.  third  edition.  Bemr, 
1818.  alao  IVrenne'n  Sammtung  whi  SeMwHaer  jr«Ar«A«n  und  t'oUa- 
Uad«m (1R18) ;  Habere  AviiW/ d*  Ranadearaehn (18MI ;  and Tobler** 
AppemalHaeher  S/jradiarhata  (1KI7i. 


RASELIUS 


RASOUMOWSKY 


27 


Prafeaaor,  and  soon  after  received  a  call  to  a 
court  concertmeistership  at  Dresden.  This, 
howeyer,  his  love  for  Joachim  and  for  Berlin, 
where  he  had  advanced  Bufficiently  to  lead  the 
Quartets  alternately  with  his  chief,  induced  him 
for  a  long  time  to  hesitate  to  accept,  notwith- 
standing the  very  high  terms  otfered.  At 
length,  however,  he  did  accept  it,  and  became 
(in  1877)  joint  coucertmeister  with  Lauterbach 
at  the  Dresden  opera,  and  chief  teacher  in  the 
Conservatorium.  He  retired  in  1898,  after 
which  time  he  only  taught  a  few  favoured 
pupils ;  ]ie  died  in  Dresden,  May  16,  1903. 
Though  a  virtuoso  of  the  first  rank  he  followed 
in  the  footsteps  of  Joachim  by  sacrificing  display 
to  the  finer  interpretation  of  the  music,  and 
succeeded  in  infusing  a  new  spirit  into  chamber- 
music  at  Dresden.  He  composed  symphonies, 
quartets,  sonatas,  and  songs,  some  of  which 
have  been  printed.  They  are  distinguished  for 
earnestness,  and  for  great  beauty  of  form,  and 
a  quartet  was  performed  in  Dresden  in  the 
winter  of  1878  which  aroused  quite  an  unusual 
sensation.  In  1874  Bappoldi  married  a  lady 
nearly  as  distinguished  as  himself,  Laujla 
Kahrbr,  who  was  bom  in  Vienna,  Jan.  14, 
1858,  and  whose  acquaintance  he  made  many 
years  before  at  Prague.  Her  talent,  like  his, 
showed  itself  very  early.  On  the  nomina- 
tion of  the  Empress  Elisabeth  she  became  a 
pupil  of  the  Conservatorium  at  Vienna,  under 
Dacha  and  Dessoff,  from  1866  to  1869.  After 
taking  the  first  prize,  she  made  a  toumSe  to  the 
principal  towns  of  Germany,  ending  at  Weimar. 
There  she  studied  under  Liszt,  and  matured 
that  beauty  of  touch,  precision,  fire,  and 
intelligence,  which  have  raised  her  to  the  first 
rank  of  pianists  in  Germany,  and  which  induced 
Hcrr  von  Biilow — no  lenient  critic — to  praise 
her  playing  of  Beethoven's  op.  106  in  the 
highest  terms.  She  was  the  worthy  colleague  of 
her  husband  in  the  best  concerts  of  Dresden,  g. 
RASELIUS,  Andreah,  was  bom  at  Hahn- 
bach  near  Amberg  in  the  Upper  Palatinate  some 
time  between  1562  and  1564.  He  was  the  son 
of  a  Lutheran  preacher,  who  had  studied  at 
Wittenberg  under  Melanchthon,  and  whose  ori- 
ginal name,  Basel,  Melanchthon  latinised  into 
Rasclius.  From  1581tol584  Andreas  attended 
the  then  Lutheran  University  of  Heidelberg, 
taking  his  degree  as  Magister  Artium  in  the 
latter  year.  In  the  same  year  he  was  appointed 
cantor  and  teacher  at  the  Gymnasium  of 
Batisbon,  then  conducted  under  Lutheran 
auspices.  In  his  capacity  as  cantor  he  published 
in  1589  a  Musical  Instraction  book  with  the 
title  ffexaehordum  aeu  Quaestiones  Mtisicae 
Praetieae  sex  eapitibus  comprehenme,  which  was 
still  in  use  at  Batisbon  in  1664.  In  1599 
appeared  his  '  Begenspurgischer  Kirchen-Contra- 
punkt,'  which  contains  simple  settings  a  5  of 
51  of  the  older  Lutheran  Psalm -tunes  and 
chorales.     The  full  title  describes  them  as  set 


so  that  the  congregation  may  easily  sing  the- 
chorale-tune  while  the  trained  choir  provide  the 
harmonies.  The  chorale-tune  is  in  the  upper 
part,  but  the  harmonies  are  not  always  mere 
note-for-note  counterpoint  as  in  a  modem  hymn- 
tune.  A  few  specimens  of  these  settings  are 
given  in  Schbberlein's  Schaiz,  Other  published 
works  of  Baselius  are  'Teutsche  Spriiche  aus  den 
Sonntaglichen  Evangelia  .  .  .,'  58  German 
Motets  a  6  (Nuremberg,  1594),  and  *Neue 
Teutsche  Spriiche  auf  die  .  .  .  Fest  nnd 
Aposteltage  .  .  .,'22  Motets  a  5-9,  described 
as  composed  on  the  12  Modes  of  the  Dodeca- 
chordon  (Nuremberg,  1595).  Besides  these 
published  works  there  remain  in  MS.  several 
collections  of  Latin  and  German  motets  and 
magnificats  by  Baselius.  He  is  also  known  as 
the  author  of  a  historical  work,  a  chronicle  of 
Batisbon,  originally  written  both  in  Latin  and 
German,  of  which  only  the  German  edition 
survives.  Baselius  remained  at  Batisbon  till 
1600,  when  he  received  a  pressing  invitation 
from  the  Elector  Palatine  Frederick  IV.  to 
return  to  Heidelberg  as  Hofcapellmeister.  This 
higher  post  of  honour  he  was  not  permitted  to 
retain  long,  as  death  carried  him  off  on  Jan.  6, 
1602.  A  monograph  on  Baselius  by  J.  Auer  of 
Amberg  appeared  as  a  Beilage  to  Eitner'a 
M<mat8hefte  of  1892.  J.  R.  M. 

BASOUMOWSKY,!  Andreas  Kyrillo- 
viTSCH,  a  Bussian  nobleman  to  whom  Beethoven 
dedicated  three  of  his  greatest  works,  and  whose 
name  will  always  survive  in  connection  with 
the  '  Basoumowsky  Quartets '  (op.  59).  He  was 
the  son  of  Kyrill  Basum,  a  peasant  of  Lemeschi^ 
a  village  in  the  Ukraine,  who,  with  his  elder 
brother,  was  made  a  Count  (Graf)  by  the 
Empress  Elisabeth  of  Bussia.  Andreas  was 
bom  Oct.  22,  1752,  served  in  the  English  and 
Bussian  navies,  rose  to  the  rank  of  admiral, 
and  was  Bussian  ambassador  at  Venice,  Naples, 
Copenhagen,  Stockholm,  and  Vienna.  In  Eng- 
land his  name  must  have  been  familiar,  or  Foote 
would  hardly  have  introduced  it  as  he  has  in 
*  The  Liar '  (1762).  At  Vienna  he  married,  in 
1788,  Elisabeth  Countess  of  Thun,  one  of  the 
'three  Graces,'  elder  sister  of  the  Princess  Carl 
Lichnowsky  [see  vol.  ii.  p.  723a] ;  and  on  Mai'ch 

25,  1792,  had  his  audience  from  the  Emperor 
of  Austria  as  Bussian  ambassador,  a  post  which 
he  held  with  short  intervals  for  more  than 
twenty  years.  He  was  a  thorough  musician, 
an  excellent  player  of  Haydn's  quartets,  in 
which  he  took  second  violin,  not  improbably 
studying  them  under  Haydn  himself.  That, 
with  his  connection  with  Lichnowsky,  he  must 
have  known  Beethoven  is  obvious ;  but  no  direct 
trace  of  the  acquaintance  is  found  until  May 

26,  1806  (six  weeks  after  the  withdrawal  of 
*Fidelio'),  which  Beethoven — in  his  usual  poly- 
glot— has  marked   on   the  first  page   of  the 

I  Runmoffiiky  and  Buoamoflkky  are  forma  uaed  by  Beethoven 
in  varioua  dedlcaitons. 


28 


RASOUMOWSKY 


RAUZZINI 


Quartet  in  F  of  op.  59,  as  the  date  on  which 
he  began  it — *  Quartetto  angefangen  am  26 ten 
May  1806.' 

In  1808  the  Count  formed  his  famous  quartet 
l»arty — Schuppanzigh,  first  violin;  Weiss,  viola; 
Lincke,  violoncello ;  and  he  himself  second 
violin — which  for  many  years  met  in  the  even- 
ings, and  performed,  among  other  compositions, 
Beethoven's  pieces,  *hot  from  the  fire,' under 
his  own  immediate  instructions. 

In  April  1809  appeared  the  C  minor  and 
Pastoral  Symphonies  (Nos.  5  and  6),  with  a 
dedication  (on  the  Parts)  to  Prince  Lobkowitz  and 
'son  excellence  Monsieur  le  Comte  de  Rasu- 
moffsky '  (Breitkopf  k  Hiirtel).  These  dedica- 
tions doubtless  imply  that  Beethoven  was  largely 
the  recipient  of  the  Count's  bounty,  but  there 
is  no  direct  evidence  of  it,  and  there  is  a  strange 
absence  of  reference  to  the  Count  in  Beethoven's 
letters.  His  name  is  mentioned  only  once — 
July  24,  1813 — and  there  is  a  distant  allusion 
in  a  letter  of  a  much  later  date  (Nohl,  Briefe 
B.  1866,  No.  364).  In  the  autumn  of  1814 
came  the  Vienna  Congress  (Nov.  1,  1814- 
June  9,  1816),  and  as  the  Empress  of  Russia 
was  in  Vienna  at  the  time,  the  Ambassador's 
Palace  was  naturally  the  scene  of  special  festivi- 
ties. It  was  not,  however,  there  that  Beethoven 
was  presented  to  the  Empress,  but  at  the  Arch- 
duke Rodolph's.^  The  Count's  hospitalities 
were  immense,  and,  vast  as  was  his  palace,  a 
separate  wooden  annexe  had  to  be  constructed 
capable  of  dining  700  ]^iersons. 

On  June  3,  1815,  six  days  before  the  signa- 
ture of  the  final  Act  of  the  Congress,  the  Count 
was  made  Prince  (Fiirst),  and  on  the  31st  of  the 
following  December  the  diniug-hall  just  men- 
tioned was  burnt  down.  The  Emperor  of  Russia 
gave  400,000  silver  roubles  (£40,000)  towards 
the  rebuilding,  but  the  misfortune  appears  to 
have  been  too  much  for  the  Prince ;  he  soon 
after  sold  the  property,  pensioned  his  quartet, 
and  disappears  from  musical  history.  The 
quartet  kept  together  for  many  years  after  this 
date,  Sina  playing  second  violin.  Beethoven 
mentions  them  hproi>os  of  the  Galitzin  Quartets 
in  the  letter  to  his  nephew  already  referred 
to,  about  1825.  A.  w.  t. 

The  three  quartets  to  which  Rasoumowsky's 
name  is  attached  form  op.  59,  and  are  in  F,  E 
minor,  and  0  respectively.  The  first  of  the 
three,  as  already  mentioned,  was  begun  May 
26,  1806,  and  the  whole  three  were  finished 
and  had  evidently  been  played  before  Feb.  27, 
1807,  the  date  of  a  letter  in  the  Allg,  mus. 
Zeitung  describing  their  characteristics.^  They 
were  published  in  January  1808  (Vienna  Bureau 
des  Arts  ;  Pesth,  Schreyvogel),  and  the  dedi- 
cation (on  the  Parts)  begins  *Troi8  Quatuors 

>  Srhlndler.  i.  S33  (quoted  by  Thayer,  ill.  331). 

3  They  are  antn  alluded  to  in  the  iiuinlier  for  May  6  as  more  and 
more  fluocenful.  and  ponibly  to  be  aoon  pubtiiihed ;  and  then,  with 
Mtonlshine  nalvtfi,  follows  '  Ebcrl's  newest  coinpoeitlonii,  too,  are 
anticipated  with  great  pleasure '  ] 


tres  humblement  dedi^es  k  son  Excellence  Mon- 
sieur le  Comte,'  etc.  Beethoven  himself  men- 
tions them  in  a  letter  to  Count  Brunswick, 
which  he  has  dated  May  11,  1806,  but  which 
Thayer  (iiL  11)  sees  reason  to  date  1807. 

The  Quartet  in  F  is  the  one  which  Bernard 
Romberg  is  said  to  have  thrown  on  the  ground 
and  trampled  upon  as  unplayable. — The  slow- 
movement  is  entitled  in  the  Sketchbook  '  Einen 
Trauerweideii  oder  Akazienbaum  aufs  Grab 
meines  Bruders' — *  A  weeping  willow  or  acacia 
tree  over  the  grave  of  my  brother.'  But  which 
brother?  August  died  in  1783,  twenty-three 
years  before,  Carl  not  till  ten  years  after,  and 
Joliann  not  till  1848.  Carl's  marriage-contract 
had,  however,  been  signed  only  on  May  25, 1806. 
Is  it  possible  that  this  inscription  is  a  Beet- 
hovenish  joke  on  the  occasion  ?  If  so,  he  began 
in  fun  and  ended  in  earnest.  The  finale  has  a 
Russian  theme  in  D  minor  for  its  principal 
subject,  and  the  second  of  the  three  has  a  Rus- 
sian theme  in  £  major  as  the  Trio  of  its  third 
movement  g. 

[The  tunes  are  given  in  Kohler's  'Album 
Russe '  as  Nos.  188  and  175  respectively  ;  and 
are  also  in  'Chants  Natiouaux  Russes,'  Nos. 
13  and  45.] 

RATAPLAN,  like  Rub-a-dub,  is  an  imitative 
word  for  the  sound  of  the  drum,  as  Tan-ta-ra 
is  for  that  of  the  trum^iet,  and  Tootle-tootle 
for  the  flute.^  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  mention 
its  introduction  by  Donizetti  in  the  *  Fille  du 
Regiment, '  or  by  Meyerbeer  in  the  *  Huguenots ' ; 
and  every  Londoner  is  familiar  with  it  in 
Sergeant  Bouncer's  part  in  Sullivan's  '  Cox  and 
Box.'  'Rataplan,  der  kleine  Tambour*  is  the 
title  of  a  Singspiel  by  Pillwitz,  which  was 
produced  at  Bremen  in  1831,  and  had  a  con- 
siderable run  both  in  North  and  South  Germany 
between  that  year  and  1886.  o. 

RAUZZINI,  Vknanzio,  born  1747,  in  Rome, 
where  he  made  his  debut  in  1765,  captivating 
his  audience  by  his  fine  voice,  clever  acting, 
and  prepossessing  appearance.  In  1 766  or  1 767 
he  was  at  Munich,  where  Burney  heard  him  in 
1772,  and  where  four  of  his  ot>eras  were  per- 
formed. He  sang  at  various  places  during  this 
period.  In  London  he  made  his  first  appearance 
in  1774,  in  Corri's  'Alessandro  nell'  Indie.' 
[His  appearance  in  a  pasticcio  of  '  Armida '  in 
the  same  year  has  resulted  in  the  attribution 
to  him  of  an  opera  of  that  name  dated  1778, 
and  the  error  has  been  copied  into  most 
dictionaries  from  the  first  edition  of  this  work.] 
He  also  distinguished  himself  as  an  excellent 
teacher  of  singing,  Miss  Storace,  Braham,  Miss 
Poole  (afterwards  Mrs.  Dickons),  and  Incledon, 
being  among  his  pupils.  In  1778  and  1779 
he  gave  subscription  concerts  with  the  violinist 
Lamotte,  when  they  were  assisted  by  such 
eminent  artistsas  Miss  Harrop,  Siguor  Rovedino, 

s  other  form*  are  Ptitapataplan,  Palalalatan.  Bumberuinbnmbuin. 
Bee  the  mctionnair*  Xnr^opidivtie  of  Saehii  *  VlUatte. 


RAVENSCROFT 


RAWLINGS 


29 


Fiacher,  Cervetto,  Stamitz,  Decamp,  and  de- 
menti. He  also  gave  brilliant  concerts  in  the 
new  Assembly  ^ooms  (built  1771)  at  Bath, 
where  he  took  up  his  abode  on  leaving  London. 
Here  he  invited  Haydn  and  Dr.  Buniey  to  visit 
him,  and  the  three  spent  several  pleasant  days 
together  in  1794.  On  this  oocasion  Haydn 
wrote  a  four-part  canon  (or  more  strictly  a 
round)  to  an  epitaph  on  a  favourite  dog  buried 
in  Baazzini  8  (^uden,  '  Turk  was  a  faithful  dog 
and  not  a  man.'  (See  Turk.)  Bauzzini's 
operas  performed  in  London  were  'Piramo  e 
Hsbe'  (March  16,  1775,  and  afterwards  in 
Vienna),  *Le  Ali  d'Amore'  (Feb.  27,  1776); 
*Creu8a  in  Delfo'  (1783);  *La  Regina  di 
Golconda*  (1784);  and  *  La  Vestale'  (1787). 
'  L'  Eroe  Cinese,'  originally  given  at  Munich  in 
1771,  was  performed  in  London  in  1782. 
(These  dates  are  from  the  Public  Advertiser.) 
He  composed  string-quartets,  sonatas  for  PF., 
Italian  arias  and  duets,  and  English  songs ; 
also  a  Requiem  produced  at  the  little  Haymarket 
Theatre  in  1801,  by  Dr.  Arnold  and  Salomon. 
He  died,  universally  regretted,  at  Bath,  April  8, 
1810.     His  brother 

MA.TTBO,  bom  in  Rome  1754,  made  his  first 
appearance  at  Munich  in  1772,  followed  his 
brother  to  England,  and  settled  in  Dublin, 
where  he  produced  an  opera,  '  II  R^  pastore,'  in 
1784.  He  had  written  *  Le  finte  Gemelli'  for 
Munich  in  1772,  and  *  L'  opera  nuova'  for  Venice 
in  1781.  He  employed  himself  in  teaching 
singing,  and  died  in  1791.  c.  f.  p. 

RAVENSCROFT,  John,  one  of  the  Tower 
Hamlets  waits,  and  violinist  at  Goodman's  Fields 
Theatre,  was  noted  for  his  skill  in  the  composi- 
tion of  hornpipes,  a  collection  of  which  he  pub- 
lished. Two  of  them  are  printed  in  Hawkins's 
History,  and  another  in  vol.  iii  of  'The  Dancing 
Master.'  A  set  of  sonatas  for  two  violins  and 
violone  or  arch-lute,  were  printed  at  Rome  in 
1695.     He  died  about  1745.  w.  h.  h. 

RAVENSCROFT,  Thomas,  Mus.B.,  bom 
about  1582,  was  a  chorister  of  St.  Paul's  under 
Edward  Pearce,  and  graduated  at  Cambridge  in 
1607.  In  1609  he  edited  and  published  *  Pam- 
melia.  Musickes  Miscellanic :  or  Mixed  Varietie 
of  pleasant  Roundelayes  and  delightful  Catches 
of  3,  4, 5,  6,  7, 8, 9, 10  Parts  in  one  '—the  earliest 
collection  of  rounds,  catches,  and  canons  printed 
in  this  country.  A  second  impression  appeared 
in  1618.  Later  in  1609  he  put  forth  *Deutero- 
melia ;  or  the  Second  Part  of  Musick*s  Melodie, 
or  melodius  Miisicke  of  Pleasant  Roundelaies  ; 
K.  H.  mirth,  or  Freemen's  Songs  and  such 
delightfull  Catches'  ;  containing  the  catch, 
'  Hold  thy  peace,  thou  knave,'  sung  in  Shake- 
speare's 'Twelfth  Night'  In  1611  he  published 
'Melismata.  Musicall  Phansies,  fitting  the 
Court,  Citie,  and  Countrey  Humours,  to  3,  4 
and  5  Voyces.'  In  1614  he  published  'A  Briefe 
Discourse  of  the  true  (but  neglected)  use  of 
Charact'ring  the  Degrees  by  their  Perfection, 


Imperfection,  and  Diminution  in  Mensurable 
Miisicke  against  the  Common  Practise  and  Cus- 
tome  of  these  Times  ;  Examples  whereof  are 
exprest  in  the  Harmony  of  4  Voyces  Concerning 
the  Pleasure  of  5  vsuall  Recreations.  1.  Hunt- 
ing. 2.  Hawking.  8.  Dancing.  4.  Drinking. 
5.  Enamouring ' — a  vain  attempt  to  resuscitate 
an  obsolete  practice.  The  musical  examples 
were  composed  by  Edward  Pearce,  John  Bemiet, 
and  Ravenscroft  himself.  [Much  of  the  material 
is  found  in  a  MS.  in  the  Brit.  Mus.  Add.  MS. 
19,758  (Diet,  of  Nat.  Biog.),  In  1618-22  he 
was  music -master  at  Christ's  Hospital  (Mus. 
Times,  1905,  p.  580.)]  In  1621  he  published 
the  work  by  which  he  is  best  known,  *The 
Whole  Booke  of  Psalmes ;  With  the  Hymnes 
Evangelicall  and  Spirituall.  Composed  into  four 
parts  by  Sundry  Authors  with  several!  Tunes  as 
have  been  and  are  usually  sung  in  England, 
Scotland,  Wales,  Germany,  Italy,  France,  and 
the  Netherlands.'  Another  edition  was  pub- 
lished in  1683.  Four  anthems  or  motets  by 
Ravenscroft  are  among  the  MSS.  in  the  library 
of  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  [For  other  music  by 
him  see  the  Quellen-Lexikon.']  The  date  of  his 
death  is  not  known.  It  is  said  by  some  to 
have  been  about  1630,  and  by  others  about 
1635.  w.  H.  u. 

RAVINA,  Jean  Henri,  a  pianoforte  com- 
poser, was  bom  May  20,  1818,  at  Bordeaux, 
where  his  mother  was  a  prominent  musician. 
At  the  instance  of  Rode  and  Zimmermann  the 
lad  was  admitted  to  the  Conservatoire  of  Paris 
in  1831.  His  progress  was  rapid — second  prize 
for  PF.  in  1832;  first  prize  for  the  same  in 
1834 ;  first  for  harmony  and  accompaniment  in 
1835,  ajoint  professorship  of  PF.  Nov.  1835.  In 
Feb.  1837  he  left  the  Conservatoire  and  embarked 
on  tlie  world  as  a  virtuoso  and  teacher.  He 
resided  exclusively  at  Paris,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  journey  to  Russia  in  1853,  and  Spain 
in  1871.  He  received  the  Legion  of  Honour  in 
1861.  His  compositions  are  almost  all  salon 
pieces,  many  of  them  very  popular  in  their  time, 
graceful  and  effective,  but  with  no  permanent 
qualities.  He  also  published  a  4 -hand  arrange- 
ment of  Beethoven's  nine  symphonies.  Ravina 
died  in  Paris,  Sept.  80,  1906. — The  above 
sketch  is  indebted  to  M.  Pougin's  supplement 
to  F^tis.  G. 

RAWLINGS,  or  RAWLINS,  Thomas,  bora 
about  1703,  was  a  pupil  of  Dr.  Pepusch,  and 
a  member  of  Handel's  orchestra  at  both  opera 
and  oratorio  performances.  On  March  14, 
1753,  he  was  appointed  organist  of  Chelsea 
HospitaL  He  died  in  1767.  His  son,  Robert, 
born  in  1742,  was  a  pupil  of  his  father,  and 
afterwards  of  Barsanti.  At  seventeen  he  was 
appointed  musical  page  to  the  Duke  of  York, 
with  whom  he  travelled  on  the  continent  until 
his  death  in  1767,  when  he  returned  to  England 
and  became  a  violinist  in  the  King's  band  and 
Queen's  private  band.    He  died  in  1814,  leaving 


30 


RAYMOND  AND  AGNES 


READE 


A  son,  Thomas  A.,  bom  in  1775,  who  studied 
music  under  his  father  and  Dittenhofer.  He 
composed  some  instrumental  music  performed 
.at  the  Professional  Ck)ncerts,  became  a  violinist 
at  the  Opera  and  the  best  concerts,  and  a  teacher 
•of  the  pianoforte,  violin,  and  thorough-bass. 
He  composed  and  arranged  many  pieces  for  the 
pianoforte,  and  some  songs,  and  died  about  the 
middle  of  the  19th  century.  w.  H.  H. 

RAYMOND  AND  AGNES.  A  *  grand 
romantic  English  Opera  in  three  acts ' ;  words 
by  E.  Fitzball,  music  by  K  J.  Loder.  Pro- 
duced at  Manchester  in  1855,  and  at  St.  James's 
Theatre,  London,  June  11,  1859.  o. 

RE.  The  second  note  of  the  natural  scale  in 
solmisatiou  and  in  the  nomenclature  of  France 
and  Italy,  as  Ut  (or  Do)  is  the  first,  Mi  the 
third,  and  Fa  the  fourth — 

Ut  queant  laxis  resonare  flbris 
Afira  gestorum,  /amuli  taoruiii. 

By  the  Germans  and  English  it  is  called  D.      o. 

RE  PASTORE,  XL.  A  dramatic  cantata  to 
Metastasio's  words  (with  compressions),  com- 
posed by  Mozart  at  Salzburg  in  1775,  in  honour 
of  the  Archduke  Maximilian.  First  performed 
April  23,  1775.  It  contains  an  overture  and 
fourteen  numbers.  The  autograph  is  in  the 
Royal  Library  at  Berlin,  and  the  work  is  pub- 
lished in  Breitkopfs  complete  edition  as  Series 
V.  No.  10.  Aminta's  air,  *L'amer6,'  with 
violin  obbligato,  is  the  number  by  which  the 
work  is  most  widely  known.  o. 

REA,  William,  born  in  London,  March  25, 
1827  ;  when  about  ten  years  old  learnt  the 
pianoforte  and  organ  from  Josiah  Pittman,  for 
whom  he  acted  as  deputy  for  several  years.  In 
about  1848  he  was  appointed  organist  to  Christ- 
church,  Watney  Street,  St,  George's-in-the-East, 
and  at  the  same  time  studied  the  pianoforte, 
composition,  and  instrumentation  under  Stern- 
dale  Bennett,  appearing  as  a  pianist  at  the 
concerts  of  the  Society  of  British  Musicians  in 
1845.  On  leaving  Chnstchurch  he  was  appointed 
organist  to  St  Andrew  Undershaft  In  1849 
he  went  to  Leipzig,  where  his  masters  were 
Moscheles  and  Richter ;  he  subsequently  studied 
under  Dreyschock  at  Prague.  On  his  return 
to  England,  Mr.  Rea  gave  chamber  concerts  at 
the  Beethoven  Rooms,  and  became  (1858) 
organist  to  the  Harmonic  Union.  In  1856  he 
founded  the  London  Polyhymnian  Choir,  to 
the  training  of  which  he  devoted  much  time, 
and  with  excellent  i-esults ;  at  the  same  time 
he  conducted  an  amateur  orchestral  society.  In 
1858  he  was  appointed  organist  at  St  Michael's, 
Stockwell,  and  in  1860  was  chosen  by  competi- 
tion organist  to  the  corporation  of  Newcastle- 
on-Tyne,  where  he  also  successively  filled  the 
same  post  at  three  churches  in  succession,  and 
at  the  Elswick  Road  Chapel.  At  Newcastle 
Mr.  Rea  worked  hard  to  diflfnse  a  taste  for  good 
music,  though  he  met  with  less  encouragement 


than  his  labours  and  enthusiasm  deserved. 
Besides  weekly  organ  and  pianoforte  recitals, 
he  formed  a  choir  of  eighty  voices,  which  in 
1862  was  amalgamated  with  the  existing  Sacred 
Harmonic  Society  of  Newcastle.  In  1867  he 
began  a  series  of  excellent  orchestral  concerts 
which  were  carried  on  every  season  for  nine 
years,  when  he  was  compelled  to  discontinue 
them,  owing  to  the  pecuniary  loss  which  they 
entailed.  In  1876  he  gave  two  performances 
of  *  Antigone'  at  the  Theatre  Royal,  and  devoted 
much  of  his  time  to  training  his  choir  (200 
voices),  the  Newcastle  Amateur  Vocal  Society, 
and  other  Societies  on  the  Tyne  and  in  Sunder- 
land, besides  giving  concerts  at  which  the  best 
artists  performed.  His  published  works  com- 
prise four  songs,  three  organ  pieces,  and  some 
anthems.  At  the  close  of  1 880  he  was  appointed 
organist  of  St  Hilda's,  S.  Shields,  in  1888  he 
resigned  the  corporation  appointment  [He 
was  an  honorary  Fellow  of  the  Royal  College 
of  Organists,  and  in  1886  received  the  honorary 
degree  of  Mu8.D.  from  theUniversity  of  Durham. 
He  composed  a  *  Jubilee  Ode '  for  the  Newcastle 
Exhibition  of  1887,  and  he  died  at  Newcastle, 
March  8,  1903.  An  account  of  his  life  and 
works  is  in  Musical  Times^  April  1903.  His 
wife,  Emma  Mary  {-nAe  Woolhouse),  was  an  ac- 
complished musician,  actively  connected  with 
the  musical  life  of  Newcastle.  She  died  May  6, 
1893.     F.  K.]  w.  B.  s. 

READE,  Charles,  English  dramatist  and 
novelist — bom  June  8,  1814,  died  April  11, 
1884 — claims  a  notice  in  his  capacity  of  expert 
connoisseur,  and  one  of  the  earliest  collectors  of 
old  violins.  He  devoted  much  time  to  the 
study  of  violin  constniction,  and — as  his  sons 
put  it — acquired  *  as  keen  a  scent  for  the  habitat 
of  a  rare  violin,  as  the  truffle  dog  for  fungus 
beneath  the  roots  of  the  trees.'  He  gathei-ed 
much  of  this  accurate  knowledge  from  one 
Henri,  a  player  and  a  maker  to  boot,  resident  in 
Soho,  with  whom  he  engaged  in  experiments  in 
varnish,  and  in  the  business  of  importing  fiddles 
from  abroad  for  the  English  dealers.  Frequent 
visits  to  Paris,  in  the  latter  connection,  resulted 
sometimes  in  profit,  and  at  other  times  in  finan- 
cial catastrophe  ;  but  they  succeeded  in  bring- 
ing to  England  some  of  the  finest  specimens  of 
Cremona  instruments  that  are  known  to-day. 
They  were  in  Paris,  buying  a  stock  of  thirty 
fiddles,  when  the  Revolution  of  1848  broke  out, 
and  Henri  threw  aside  fiddle-dealing  and  joined 
the  revolutionists.  He  was  shot  before  his 
friend's  eyes  at  the  first  barricade,  and  Charles 
Reade  escaped  with  difficulty,  leaving  the  fiddles 
behind.  'These  were  found  stored  away  in  a 
cellar  after  the  Revolution,  and  eventually 
reached  Reade,  who  records  that  he  sold  one 
of  them  for  more  than  he  paid  for  the  whole 
lot  At  the  time  of  the  Special  Loan  Exhibi- 
tion of  Musical  Instruments  held  at  the  South 
Kensington  Museum  in  1872,  Reade  wrote  a 


READING 


REBEC 


31 


series  of  letters  upon  Cremona  fiddles  in  tlie 
Pall  McUl  GaxeUe,  in  which  he  propounded  the 
theory  that  the  *  Lost  Cremona  Varnish '  was 
a  spirit  varnish  laid  over  an  oil  varnish. 
Coming  as  it  did  from  so  noted  a  connoisseur, 
there  were  many  who  accepted  the  theory  as 
the  solution  of  the  question.  These  lettei-s 
were  privately  reprinted  by  G.  H.  M.  Muntz, 
under  the  title  A  Lost  Art  Hevived :  Cremona 
Fiolins  and  V/imish  (Gloucester,  1878),  and 
again  in  the  volume  entitled  Headiana  (Chatto 
k  Windus,  1882).  In  later  life  Charles  Reade 
abandoned  fiddles  and  fiddle-trading,  but  we 
find  traces  of  his  infatuation  in  his  writings. 
The  adventurous  career  of  John  Frederick  Lott, 
the  violin- maker,  is  told  by  him,  somewhat 
romantically,  in  his  novel  Jack  of  all  Trades  ; 
whilst  interesting  matter  concerning  the  violin 
comes  into  Christie  JchnsUme^  and  his  collection 
of  tales  entitled  Cream, — Reade  (Charles  L., 
and  Rev.  Compton),  Charles  Reade ;  Coleman 
(John),  Charles  Reader  Sutherland -Edwards, 
Perwnal  ReeoUeetians ;  Hart  (G.),  The  Violin ; 
Diet.  ofNoL  Biog,  E.  H-A. 

READING,  John.  There  were  three  musi- 
cians of  these  names,  all  organists.  The  first 
was  appointed  Junior  Vicar  Choral  of  Lincoln 
Cathedral,  Oct.  10,  1667,  Poor  Vicar,  Nov.  28, 
1667,  and  Master  of  the  Choristers,  June  7, 
1670.  He  succeeded  Randolph  Jewett  as 
organist  of  Winchester  Cathedral  in  1675,  and 
retained  the  office  until  1681,  when  he  was 
appointed  organist  of  Winchester  College.  He 
died  in  1692.  He  was  the  composer  of  the 
Latin  Graces  sung  before  and  after  meat  at  the 
annual  College  election  times,  and  the  well-known 
Winchester  School  song,  '  Dulce  Domum ' ;  all 
printed  in  Dr.  Philip  Hayes's  *Harmonia 
Wiccamica.'  The  second  was  organist  of 
Chichester  Cathedral  from  1674  to  1720. 
Several  songs  included  in  collections  published 
between  1681  and  1688  are  probably  by  one  or 
other  of  these  two  Readings.  The  third,  bom 
1677,  was  a  chorister  of  the  Chapel  Royal  under 
Dr.  Blow.  In  1696-98  he  was  organist  of 
Dulwich  Collie  [information  fh>m  Dr.  W.  H. 
Cnmmings].  He  was  appointed  Junior  Vicar 
and  Poor  Clerk  of  Lincoln  Cathedral,  Nov.  21, 
1702,  Master  of  the  Choi-isters,  Oct.  5,  1708, 
and  Instructor  of  the  choristers  in  vocal  music, 
Sept  28,  1704.  He  appears  to  have  resigned 
these  posts  in  1707,  and  to  have  returned  to 
London,  where  he  became  organist  of  St.  John, 
Hackney  (in  1708),  St  Dunstan  in  the  West, 
St  Mary  Woolchurchhaw,  Lombard  Street,  and 
St  Mary  Woolnoth.  He  published  '  A  Book 
of  New  Songs  (after  the  Italian  manner)  with 
Symphonies  and  a  Thorough  Bass  fitted  to  the 
Hsrpsichord,  etc,*  and  (about  1709)  *  A  Book 
of  New  Anthems.'  One  of  the  Readings  was 
also  the  reputed  composer  of  the  tune  to  '  Adeste 
fideles.'     He  died  Sept  2,  1764. 

There  was  another  person  named  Reading, 


who  was  a  singer  at  Drury  Lane  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  17th  century.  In  June  1695  he  and 
Pate,  another  singer  at  the  theatre,  were  removed 
from  their  places  and  fined  20  marks  each  for 
being  engaged  in  a  riot  at  the  Dog  Tavern,  Drury 
Lane,  but  were  soon  after  reinstated. 

A  Rev.  John  Reading,  D.D.,  Prebendary  of 
Canterbury  Cathedral,  preached  there  a  sermon 
in  defence  of  church  music,  and  published  it  in 
1663.  w.  H.  H. 

REAL  FUGUE.     See  Fugue. 

REAY,  Samuel,  bom  at  Hexham,  March  1 7, 
1822,  was  noted  for  his  fine  voice  and  careful 
singing  asa  chorister  at  Durham  Cathedral ;  and 
under  Henshaw  the  organist,  and  Penson  the 
precentor  there,  became  acquainted  witli  much 
music  outside  the  regular  Cathedral  services. 
After  leaving  the  choir  he  had  organ  lessons 
from  Mr.  Stimpson  of  Birmingham,  and  then 
became  successively  organist  at  St.  Andrew's, 
Newcastle  (1845);  St  Peter's,  Tiverton  (1847); 
St  John's  Parish  Church,  Hampstead  (1854)  ; 
St  Saviour's,  Warwick  Road  (1866);  St 
Stephen's,  Paddington  ;  Radley  College  (1859, 
succeeding  Dr.  E.  G.  Monk)  ;  Bniy,  Lancashire 
(1861);  and  in  1864  was  appointed  'Song- 
schoolmaster  and  organist '  of  the  parish  Church 
Newark,  retiring  from  the  latter  post  in  1901, 
but  retaining  that  of  Song  schoolmaster  on  the 
Magnus  foundation  until  his  death,  which  took 
place  at  Newark,  July  22,  1906.  In  1871 
Reay  graduated  at  Oxford  as  Mus.B.  In  1879 
he  distinguished  himself  by  producing  at  the 
Bow  and  Bromley  Institute,  London,  two  comic 
cantatas  of  J.  S.  Bach's  (*  Caffee-cantate '  and 
*  Bauem-cantate '),  which  were  performed  there 
—  certainly  for  the  first  time  in  England — on 
Oct  27,  under  his  direction,  to  English  woixls 
of  his  own  adaptation.  Mr.  Reay  was  noted  as 
a  fine  accompanist  and  extempore  player  on  the 
organ.  He  published  a  Morning  and  Evening 
Service  in  F,  several  anthems,  and  tw^o  madrigals 
(all  Novello)  ;  but  is  best  known  as  a  writer  of 
part-songs,  some  of  which  ('The  clouds  that 
wrap, '  *  The  dawn  of  day, '  written  for  the  Tiverton 
Vocal  Society)  are  deservedly  popular.         g. 

REBEC  (Ital.  Ribeca,  Riheha  ;  Span.  Rah4, 
Rabet).  The  French  name  (said  to  be  of  Arabic 
origin)  of  that  primitive  stringed  instniment 
which  was  in  use  throughout  western  Eiirojie  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  and  was  the  parent  of  the  viol 
and  violin,  and  is  identical  with  the  German 
<  geige '  and  the  English  ''fiddle '  ;  in  outline 
something  like  the  mandoline,  of  which  it  was 
probably  the  parent.  It  was  shaped  like  the 
half  of  a  pear,  and  was  everywhere  solid  except 
at  the  two  extremities,  the  upper  of  which  was 
formed  into  a  peg-box  identical  with  that  still 
in  use,  and  surmounted  by  a  carved  human 
head.  The  lower  half  was  considerably  cut 
down  in  level,  thus  leaving  the  upper  solid  part 
of  the  instrument  to  form  a  natural  finger-board. 
The  portion  thus  cut  down  was  scooped  out. 


32 


REjBEjC 


REBEL 


and  over  tlie  cavity  thus  formed  was  glued  a 
short  pine  belly,  pierced  with  two  trefoil-shaped 
sound -holes,  and  fitted  with  a  bridge  and  sound- 


post.  The  player  either  rested  the  curved  end 
of  the  instrument  lightly  against  the  breast,  or 
else  held  it  like  the  violin,  between  the  chin 
and  the  collar-bone,  and  bowed  it  like  the  violin. 
It  had  three  stout  gut  strings,  tuned  like  the 
lower  strings  of  the  violin  (A,  D,  G).  Its  tone 
was  loud  and  harsh,  emulating  the  female  voice, 
according  to  a  French  poem  of  the  13th  century. 
Quidam  rebecAm  arcuabant, 
Muliebrem  Yocem  conflugentes.^ 

An  old  Si^auish  poem  speaks  of  '  el  rabe  gri- 
tador, *  3  or  the  *  squalling  rebec. '  This  powerful 
tone  made  it  useful  in  the  mediseval  orchestra  ; 
and  Henry  the  Eighth  employed  the  rebec  in 
his  state  band.  It  was  chiefly  used,  however,  to 
accompany  dancing ;  and  Shakespeare's  musicians 
in  Romeo  and  Juliet^  Hugh  Rebeck,  Simon 
Catling  (Catgut),  and  James  Soundpost,  were 
undoubtedly  rebec- players.  After  the  inven- 
tion of  instruments  of  the  viol  and  violin  type 
it  was  banished  to  the  streets  of  towns  and  to 
rustic  festivities,  whence  the  epithet  'jocund' 
applied  to  it  in  Milton's  VAllegro.  It  was 
usually  accompanied  by  the  drum  or  tambourine. 
It  was  in  vulgar  use  in  France  in  the  18th  cen- 
tury, as  is  proved  by  an  ordinance  issued  by 
Guignon  in  his  official  capacity  as  *Roi  des 
Violons'iu  1742,  in  which  street-fiddlers  are 
prohibited  from  using  anything  else  ;  *  II  leur 
sera  permis  d'y  jouer  d'une  esp^  d'instrument 
hk  trois  cordes  seulement,  et  connu  sous  le  nom 
de  rebec,  sans  qu'ils  puissent  se  servir  d'un 
viol  on  \k  quatre  cordes  sous  quelque  pr^texte  que 
ce  soit'  A  similar  order  is  extant,  dated  1628, 
in  which  it  is  forbidden  to  play  the  treble  or  bass 
violin  'dans  les  cabarets  et  les  mauvais  lieux, 
but  only  the  rebec.  The  rebec  was  extinct  in 
England  earlier  than  in  France.   Itis  now  totally 

>  VAymtiio  de  Poyiat;  see  Du  Cfenge's  Qloitarium,  i.t.  *1»n- 
doia.' 
'  Don  Ant  Rod.  de  HIU;  aee  Vldal,  U$  Ini(rument$  A  artkrt. 


disused,  and  no  specimen  was  known  until,  at 
the  exhibition  of  Musical  Instruments  at  Milan 
in  1881,  six  genuine  specimens  were  shown. 
Representations  of  it  In  sculpture,  paintings 
manuscripts,  etc.,  are  abundant.  The  illustra- 
tion is  from  an  Italian  painting  of  the  13th 
century  engraved  in  Vidal's  Instruments  a 
Archet.  [The  custom  of  playing  songs  in 
unison  with  the  voice,  which  came  into  vogue 
in  the  15th  century,  resulted  in  the  classifica- 
tion of  rebecs  into  definite  '  sets '  answering  in 
pitch  to  the  Treble,  Alto,  Tenor,  and  Bass  voices. 
Martin  Agricola,  in  his  Musica  InstrumenUUis, 
1528,  gives  woodcuts  of  a  'set'  of  rebeca 
which  he  calls  Discant,  Altus,  Tenor,  and 
Bassus.     £.  H-A.]  E.  J.  p. 

REBEL,  Jean  F^ry,  bom  in  Paris  about 
1661,  [the  son  of  Jean,  a  singer  in  the  service 
of  the  French  court,  from  1661  to  his  death  in 
1692.]  After  a  precocious  childhood  he  entered 
the  Op^ra  as  a  violinist.  In  1703  he  produced 
'  Ulysse,'  opera  in  five  acts  with  prologue,  con- 
taining a  pas  seul  for  Fran9ois  Pr^vot  to  an  air 
called  'Le  Caprice,'  for  violin  solo.  The  opera 
failed,  but  the  Caprice  remained  for  years  the 
test-piece  of  the  haJlerine  at  the  Opera.  After 
this  success,  Rebel  composed  violin  solos  for 
various  other  ballets,  such  as  'La  Boutade,' 
' Les  Caractkes  de  la  Danse'  (1715),  'Terpsi- 
chore' (1720),  'La  Fantaisie'  (1727),  'Les 
Plaisirs  Champ^tres,'  and  'Les  l^lements.' 
Several  of  these  were  engraved,  as  were  his 
sonatas  for  the  violin.  In  1713  he  was  accom- 
panist at  the  Op^ra,  and  in  1717  was  one  of 
the  '24  violons,'  and  by  1720  'compositeur 
de  la  chambre '  to  the  King.  [This  latter  office 
he  resigned  in  1727,  in  favour  of  his  son 
Fran9ois,  and  later  passed  on  to  him  the  duties 
of  conductor  of  the  Opera,  which  he  had  fulfilled 
for  many  years.]  He  died  in  Paris,  1746  or 
1747,  and  was  buried  on  Jan.  3,  1747.  [His 
sister,  Anne- Ren £e,  bom  1662,  became  one 
of  the  best  singers  of  the  court,  and  from  the 
age  of  eleven  years,  appeared  in  the  ballet,  etc. 
She  was  married  in  1684  to  Michel  Richard  de 
Lalande  (sec  vol.  ii.  p.  623),  and  she  died  iu 
1722.] 

Jean-Fery's  son  Francois,  born  in  Paris, 
June  19,  1701,  at  thirteen  played  the  violin 
in  the  Op^ra  orchestra.  It  seems  to  have  been 
at  Prague,  during  the  festivities  at  the  corona- 
tion of  Charles  YI.  in  1723,  that  he  became 
intimate  with  Fran9ois  Francoeur ;  the  two 
composed  conjointly,  and  produced  at  the 
Academic,  the  following  operas  : — '  Pyrame  et 
Thisbe'  (1726);  'Tarsis  et  Z^lie'  (1728); 
'Scanderbe^'  (1735);  'Ballet  de  la  Paix ' 
(1738)  ;  *  Les  Augustales '  and  *  Le  Retour  du 
Roi'  (1744);  'Z^lindor,'  'Le  Tioph^'  (in 
honour  of  Fontenoy,  1745)  ;  *  Ism^ne '  (1750)  ; 
*  Les  G6nies  tut^laires '  (1751)  ;  and  '  Le  Prince 
de  Noisy'  (1760)  ;  most  of  which  were  com- 
posed for  court  f^tes  or  public  rejoicings.  [Rebel 


BEBER 


RECITATIVE 


33 


seems  to  have  been  the  sole  author  of  a  *  Pas- 
torale heroiqae'  (1730).] 

From  17S8  to  1744  Rebel  and  Franctjeur 
were  joint  leaders  of  the  Acad^mie  orchestra, 
and  in  1753  were  appointed  managers.  They 
soon,  however,  retired  in  disgust  at  the  petty 
Texations  they  were  called  upon  to  endure. 
Loois  XV.  made  them  surintendants  of  his 
miuic,  with  the  Order  of  St.  Michel.  In  March 
1757  these  inseparable  friends  obtained  the 
privilege  of  the  Op^ra,  and  directed  it  for  ten 
years  on  their  own  account,  with  great  ad- 
ministrative ability'. 

Rebel  died  in  Paris,  Nov.  7,  1775.  He  com- 
posed some  cantatas,  a  Te  Deum,  and  a  De 
Profandis,  performed  at  the  Concerts  Spirituels, 
but  all  his  music  is  now  forgotten,  excepting  a 
lively  air  in  the  first  finale  of '  Pyrame  et  Thisb6 ' 
which  was  adapted  to  a  much-admired  pcu  seal 
of  Mile,  de  Camaaigo,  thence  became  a  popular 
contredanse — the  first  instance  of  such  adapta- 
tion— and  in  this  form  is  preserved  in  the  *  C\i 
da  Caveau,'  under  the  title  of  *La  Camargo.' 

SA  veiy  interesting  account  of  the  family,  with 
ietailed  notices  of  the  music  of  G.  F.  Rebel, 
appeared  in  the  Sammelbdnde  of  the  InL 
Mus.  Ges,  voL  .vii.  p.  258,  by  M.  L.  de  la 
Laorencie.]  G.  c. 

REBER,  NapolAon-Henei,  bom  at  Miil- 
hansen,  Oct.  21,  1807  ;  at  twenty  entered  the 
Ptms  Conservatoire,  studying  counterpoint  and 
fbgue  under  Senriot  and  Jelenspeiger,  and  com- 
position under  Lesueur.  Circumstances  led  him 
to  compose  chamber -mnsic,  after  the  success 
of  whidi  he  attempted  opera.  His  music  to 
the  second  act  of  the  charming  ballet  *Le 
Diable  amoureux'  (Sept.  23,  1840)  excited 
considerable  attention,  and  was  followed  at  the 
Op^-Comique  by  *  La  Nuit  de  Noel,'  three  acts 
(Feb.  9, 1848),  <LeP^reGaillard,' threeact8(Sept 
7,  1852),  *  Les  Papillotes  de  M.  Benoit,'  one  act 
(Dec  28,  1853),  and  '  Les  Dames  Capitaines,' 
three  acts  (June  3,  1857).  In  these  works  he 
strove  to  counteract  the  tendency  towards  noise 
and  bombast  then  so  prevalent  both  in  French 
and  Italian  opera,  and  to  show  how  much  may 
be  made  oat  of  the  simple  natural  materials  of 
the  old  French  opera-comique  by  the  judicious 
use  of  modem  orchestration. 

In  1851  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  har- 
mony at  the  Conservatoire,  and  in  1853  the 
well-merited  success  of  *  Le  Pire  Gaillard '  pro- 
cured his  election  to  the  Institut  as  Onslow's 
successor.  Soon  after  this  he  renounced  the 
theatre,  and  returned  to  chamber-music.  He 
also  b^gan  to  write  on  music,  and  his  TraiU 
d'Harmottie  (1862)  went  through  many  editions, 
and  is  without  comparison  the  best  work  of  its 
kind  in  France.  The  outline  is  simple  and 
methodical,  the  classification  of  the  chords  easy 
to  follow  and  well  connected,  the  explanations 
lamuumsly  dear,  the  exercises  practical  and 
well  calculated  to  develop  musical  taste — in  a 

VOL.  IV 


word,  everything  combines  to  make  it  one  of  the 
safest  and  most  valuable  of  instruction-books. 
The  second  part  especially,  dealing  with  *  acci- 
dental '  notes — or,  notes  foreign  to  the  constitu- 
tion of  chords —contains  novel  views,  and  obser- 
vations throwing  light  upon  points  and  rules  of 
harmony  which  before  were  obscure  and  con- 
fused. 

In  1862  M.  Reber  succeeded  Halevy  as 
Professor  of  composition  at  the  Conservatoire  ; 
since  1871  he  was  also  Inspector  of  the 
succurtcUes  or  branches  of  the  Conservatoire. 
He  died  in  Paris,  after  a  short  illness,  Nov.  24, 
1880,  and  was  succeeded  as  Professor  by  M. 
Saint-Saens. 

His  compositions  comprise  four  symphonies, 
a  quintet  and  three  quartets  for  strings,  one  PF. 
ditto,  seven  trios,  duets  for  PF.  and  violin,  and 
PF.  pieces  for  two  and  four  hands.  Portions  of 
his  ballet '  Le  Diable  amoureux '  have  been  pub- 
lished for  orchestra,  and  are  performed  at  con- 
certs. In  1875  he  produced  a  cantata  called 
*  Roland,'  but  *Le  MenStrier  h  la  cour,'  opera- 
comique,  and  *Kaim,'  grand  opera  in  five  acts, 
have  never  been  performed,  though  the  overtures 
are  engraved.  His  best  vocal  works  are  his 
melodies  for  a  single  voice,  but  he  has  composed 
choruses  for  three  and  four  men's  voices,  and 
some  sacred  pieces.  o.  c. 

RECITA  (Ital.),  'performance.' 

RECITAL,  a  term  which  has  come  into  use 
in  England  to  signify  a  performance  of  solo 
music  by  one  performer.  It  was  probably  first 
used  by  Liszt  at  his  performance  at  the  Hanover 
Square  Rooms,  June  9,  1840,  though  as  applying 
to  the  separate  pieces  and  not  to  the  whole 
performance.  The  advertisement  of  the  concert 
says  that  *M.  Liszt  will  give  Recitals  on  the 
Pianoforte  of  the  following  pieces. '  The  name 
was  afterwards  adopted  by  Hall^  and  others, 
and  is  in  the  present  day  often  applied  to  con- 
certs when  two  or  more  soloists  take  part. 

The  term  Opera  Recital  is  used  for  a  concert 
in  which  the  mnsic  of  an  opera  is  sung  without 
costume  or  action.  o. 

RECITATIVE  (Ital.  EeeUativo ;  Germ.  Be- 
citcUiv  ;  Fr.  It^citatif ;  from  the  Latin  JiecUare), 
A  species  of  declamatory  music,  extensively 
used  in  those  portions  of  an  Opera,  an  Oratorio, 
or  a  Cantata,  in  which  the  action  of  the  drama 
is  too  rapid,  or  the  sentiment  of  the  poetry  too 
changeful,  to  adapt  itself  to  the  studied  rhythm 
of  a  regularly  constructed  Aria. 

The  invention  of  Recitative  marks  a  crisis  in 
the  history  of  music,  scarcely  less  important 
than  that  to  which  we  owe  the  discovery  of 
harmony.  Whether  the  strange  conception  in 
which  it  originated  was  first  clothed  in  tangible 
form  by  Jacopo  Peri,  Giulio  Caccini,  or  Emilio 
del  Cavalieri,  is  a  question  which  has  never  been 
decided. 

Thus  first  launched  upon  the  world,  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  a  new  impetus  to  the  progress 

D 


34 


RECITATIVE 


of  ftrt,  this  particular  style  of  composition  has 
undergone  less  change,  during  the  last  300 
years,  than  any  other.  What  simple  or  unac- 
companied Recitative  (RecUativo  secco)  is  to-day, 
it  was,  in  all  essential  particulars,  in  the  time 
of  *  Euridice.'  Then,  as  now,  it  was  supported 
by  the  lightest  possible  accompaniment,  origin- 
ally a  figured-bass.  Then,  as  now,  its  periods 
were  moulded  with  reference  to  nothing  more 
than  the  plain  rhetorical  delivery  of  the  words 
to  which  they  were  set ;  melodious  or  rhythmic 
phrases  being  everywhere  carefully  avoided,  as 
not  only  unnecessary,  but  absolutely  detrimental 
to  the  desired  effect — so  detrimental  that  the 
difficulty  of  adapting  good  recitative  to  poetry 
written  in  short  rhymed  verses  is  almost 
insuperable,  the  jingle  of  the  metre  tending 
to  crystallise  itself  in  regular  form  with  a 
persistency  which  is  rarely  overcome  except  by 
the  greatest  masters.  Hence  it  is,  that  the 
best  poetry  for  recitative  is  blank  verse ;  and 
hence  it  is,  that  the  same  intervals,  progres- 
sions, and  cadences  have  been  used  over  and 
over  again  by  composers  who,  in  other  matters, 
have  scarcely  a  trait  in  common.  We  shall  best 
illustrate  this  by  selecting  a  few  examples  from 
the  inexhaustible  store  used  by  some  of  the 
greatest  writers  of  the  I7th,  18th,  and  19  th 
centuries ;  premising  that,  in  phrases  ending 
with  two  or  more  reiterated  notes,  it  has  been 
long  the  custom  to  sing  the  first  as  an  appog- 
giatura,  a  note  higher  than  the  rest.  We  have 
shown  this  in  thi-ec  cases,  but  the  rale  applies 
to  many  others. 

(a)  PsRi(1600).      (a)       Cavalieri  (1<K)0). 


RECITATIVE 

(a)  HatdxOTWX 


at)              ^                      Mkndcubobm  (188^ 

i^EE^fe^zS:^ 

-f-H 

&=^ 

.]■  1 

(c) 

■P"'   "^  <•     1^ 

/r\ 

^ 

r    gp  i^.-f^-s- = — -| 

•/ 

/S\ 

<g^E 

. 

— ^ 

^^ 

The  universal  acceptance  of  these,  and  similar 
figures,  by  oompoeers  of  all  ages,  from  Peri  down 
to  Wagner,  sufficiently  proves  their  fitness  for 


RECITATIVE 


RECITATIVE 


35 


the  purpose  for  which  they  were  originally 
designed.  But  the  staunch  conservatism  of 
ReeiUUivo  seeco  goes  even  farther  than  this.  Its 
aooompaniment  has  never  changed.  The  latest 
composers  who  have  employed  it  have  trusted 
for  its  support  to  the  simple  Basso  amtinnOf 
which  neither  Peri,  nor  Carissimi,  nor  Handel, 
nor  Mozart  cared  to  reinforce  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  fuller  aooompaniment.  The  chief 
modification  of  the  original  idea  which  has 
found  favour  in  modem  times  was  when  the 
harpsichord  and  the  pianoforte  wei'e  banished 
from  the  opera  orchestra,  and  the  accompani- 
ment of  Recitative  secoo  was  confided  to  the 
principal  violoncello  and  double  bass ;  the  former 
filling  in  the  harmonies  in  light  arpeggios,  while 
the  latter  confined  itself  to  the  simple  notes  of 
the  Basso  eorUinuo,  In  this  way  the  Recitatives 
were  performed  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre  for 
more  than  half  a  century  by  Lindley  and 
Dragonetti,  who  always  played  at  the  same 
d^k,  and  accompanied  with  a  perfection  at- 
tained by  no  other  artists  in  the  world,  though 
Charles  Jane  Ashley  was  considered  only  second 
to  Lindley  in  expression  and  judgment  The 
general  style  of  their  accompaniment  was 
exceedingly  simple,  consisting  only  of  plain 
chords,  played  arpeffffiando ;  but  occasionally 
the  two  old  friends  would  launch  out  into 
I>aaBage8  as  elaborate  as  those  shown  in  the 
following  example ;  Dragonetti  playing  the 
large  notes,  and  lindley  the  small  ones. 


governed  by  no  law  whatever  beyond  that  of 
euphony.  Its  harmonies  exhibit  more  variety 
now  than  they  did  two  centuries  ago ;  but 
they  are  none  the  less  free  to  wander  wherever 
they  please,  passing  through  one  key  after 
another,  until  they  land  the  hearer  somewhere 
in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  key 
chosen  for  the  next  regularly  constructed  move- 
ment Hence  it  is  that  recitatives  of  this  kind 
are  usually  written  without  the  introduction  of 
sharps  or  flats  at  the  signatm-e ;  since  it  is 
manifestly  more  convenient  to  employ  any 
number  of  accidentals  that  may  bo  needed,  than 
to  place  three  or  four  sharps  at  the  beginning 
of  a  piece  which  is  perfectly  at  liberty  to  end  in 
seven  flats. 

But  notwithstanding  the  unchangeable  char- 
acter of  BeciUUivo  secco,  declamatory  music  has 
not  been  relieved  from  the  condition  which  im- 
poses progress  upon  every  really  living  branch 
of  art.  As  the  resources  of  the  orchestra  in- 
creased, it  became  evident  that  they  might  be  no 
less  profitably  employed  in  the  accompaniment 
of  highly  impassioned  recitative  than  in  that 
of  the  aria  or  chorus ;  and  thus  arose  a  new 
style  of  rhetorical  composition,  called  accom- 
panied recitative  (BgdtoHvo  stromenUito),  in 
which  the  vocal  phrases,  themselves  unchanged, 
received  a  vast  accession  of  power,  by  means  of 
elaborate  orchestral  symphonies  interpolated 
between  them,  or  even  by  instrumental  passages 
designed   expressly    for  their  support.     [Tlie 


DOH  GlOVAKKI. 

iMPOBXLLO. 

Don  GiovAKin. 

|^r./Jg-g^.g#^ 

i^-^!-~g##giP g  g|g   ^-^^oS=^-=t 

Fiv  teaMM  «■»•!•  to -lams     pnoda              An-co-im  magUo 

1                        mr 

y  y  ■ 

ITMM-iw-ia.       miaMinweU 

etc 

hit           t 

^^  ^    .^' 

M-'^iTr- 

^^■g^^-^^^B^: 

V 

^ 

In  no  country  has  this  peculiar  style  been  so 
mcoessfhlly  cultivated  as  in  England,  where 
the  traditions  of  its  best  period  are  scarcely 
yet  foigotten.  [On  an  interesting  MS.  of 
MendelsBohn's,  showing  the  kind  of  treatment 
he  preferred  while  following  the  English  prac- 
tice, see  Musical  TimeSy  1902,  p.  727. J  A 
return  was  made  to  the  old  method  by  the 
employment  of  the  piano,  first  by  Mr.  Otto 
Ooldschmidt  at  a  performance  of  Handel's 
'  L' Allegro '  in  1868,  and  more  recently  by  Sir 
John  Stainer,  at  St  Paul's,  in  various  oratorios. 

Again,  this  simple  kind  of  recitative  is  as 
free  now  as  it  was  in  the  first  year  of  the  17th 
centory,  from  the  trammels  imposed  by  the  laws 
of  modulation.  It  is  the  only  kind  of  music 
which  need  not  begin  and  end  on  the  same  key. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  it  usually  begins  upon  some 
€hord  not  far  removed  from  the  tonic  harmony 
of  the  aria  or  concerted  piece  which  preceded 
it ;  and  ends  in  or  near  the  key  of  that  which 
is  to  follow ;  but  its  intermediate  course  is 


fii-st  example  of  it  seems  to  be  in  Landi's  '  San 
Alessio'  (1634)],  and  its  advantages  in  telling 
situations  were  so  obvious  that  it  was  im- 
mediately adopted  by  other  composers,  and 
at  once  recognised  as  a  legitimate  form  of  art — 
not,  indeed,  as  a  substitute  for  simple  recitative, 
which  has  always  been  retained  for  the  ordinary 
business  of  the  stage,  but  as  a  means  of  produc- 
ing powerful  effects,  in  scenes,  or  portions  of 
scenes,  in  which  the  introduction  of  the  measured 
aria  would  be  out  of  place. 

It  will  be  readily  understood  that  the  sta- 
bility of  simple  recitative  was  not  communicable 
to  the  newer  style.  The  steadily  increasing 
weight  of  the  orchestra,  accompanied  by  a 
correspondent  increase  of  attention  to  orchestral 
effects,  exercised  an  irresistible  influence  over 
it.  Moreover,  time  has  proved  it  to  be  no  less 
sensitive  to  changes  of  school  and  style  than 
the  aria  itself;  whence  it  frequently  happens 
that  a  composer  may  be  as  easily  recognised  by 
his  accompanied  recitatives  as  by  his  regularly 


36 


RECITATIVE 


RECITING-NOTE 


constructed  movements.  Scarlatti's  accompani- 
ments exhibit  a  freedom  of  thought  immeasur- 
ably in  advance  of  the  age  in  which  he  lived. 
Sebastian  Bach's  recitatives,  though  priceless 
as  music,  are  more  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of 
their  harmonies  than  for  that  spontaneity  of 
expression  which  is  rarely  attained  by  composers 
unfamiliar  with  the  traditions  of  the  stage. 
Handel's,  on  the  contrary,  though  generally 
based  upon  the  simplest  possible  harmonic  found- 
ation, exhibit  a  rhetorical  perfection  of  which 
the  most  accomplished  orator  might  well  feel 
proud  ;  and  we  cannot  doubt  that  it  is  to  this 
high  quality,  combined  with  a  never -failing 
truthfulness  of  feeling,  that  so  many  of  them 
owe  their  deathless  reputation — to  the  unfair 
exclusion  of  many  others,  of  equal  worth,  which 
still  lie  hidden  among  the  unclaimed  treasures  of 
his  long- forgotten  operas.  Scarcely  less  success- 
ful, in  his  own  peculiar  style,  was  Haydn,  whose 

*  Creation '  and  '  Seasons '  owe  half  their  charm 
to  their  pictorial  recitatives.  Mozart  was  so 
uniformly  great,  in  his  declamatory  passages, 
that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  decide  upon  their 
comparative  merits ;  though  he  has  certainly 
never  exceeded  the  perfection  of  *  Die  Weiselehre 
dieser  Knaben,'  or  '  Non  temer.'  Beethoven  at- 
tained his  highest  flights  in  '  Abscheulicher  !  wo 
eilst  du  hin  ? '  and  *  Ah,  perfido  1 ' ;  Spohr,  in 

*  Faust,'  and  *  Die  letzten  Dinge  * ;   Weber,  in 

*  Der  Freischiitz.*  The  works  of  Cimarosa,  Ros- 
sini, and  Cherubini  abound  in  examples  of  ac- 
companied recitative,  which  rival  their  airs  in 
beauty  ;  and  it  would  be  difldcult  to  point  out 
any  really  great  composer  who  has  failed  to 
appreciate  the  value  of  the  happy  invention. 

Yet  even  this  invention  failed  either  to  meet 
the  needs  of  the  dramatic  composer  or  to  ex- 
haust his  ingenuity.  It  was  reserved  for  Gluck 
to  strike  out  yet  another  form  of  recitative, 
destined  to  furnish  a  more  powerful  engine  for 
the  production  of  a  certain  class  of  effects  than 
any  that  had  preceded  it.  He  it  was  who  first 
conceived  the  idea  of  rendering  the  orchestra 
and  the  singer  to  all  outward  appearance  en- 
tirely independent  of  each  other  ;  of  filling  the 
scene,  so  to  speak,  with  a  finished  orchestral 
groundwork,  complete  in  itself,  and  needing  no 
vocal  melody  to  enhance  its  interest,  while  the 
singer  declaimed  his  part  in  tones  which,  how- 
ever artfully  combined  with  the  instrumental 
harmony,  appeared  to  have  no  connection  with 
it  whatever ;  the  resulting  effect  resembling 
that  which  would  be  produced,  if,  during  the 
interpretation  of  a  symphony,  some  accomplished 
singer  were  to  soliloquise  aloud  in  broken 
sentences,  in  such  wise  as  neither  to  take  an 
ostensible  share  in  the  performance  nor  to 
disturb  it  by  the  intix)duction  of  irrelevant 
discord.  An  early  instance  of  this  may  be 
found  in  'Orfeo.'  After  the  disappearance  of 
Euridice,  the  orchestra  plays  an  excited  ores- 
oendo,    quite  complete  in  itself,   during  the 


course  of  which  Orfeo  distractedly  calls  his  lost 
bride  by  name,  in  tones  which  harmonise  with 
the  symphony,  yet  have  not  the  least  appearance 
of  belonging  to  it  In  *  Iphig^nie  en  Tauride,' 
and  all  the  later  operas,  the  same  device  is 
constantly  adopted  ;  and  modem  composers 
have  also  used  it  freely — notably  Spohr,  who 
opens  his  *  Faust '  with  a  scene,  in  which  a 
band  behind  the  stage  plays  the  most  delightful 
of  minuets,  while  Faust  and  Mephistopheles 
sing  an  ordinary  recitative,  accompanied  by 
the  usual  chords  played  by  the  regular  orchestra 
in  front. 

By  a  process  of  natural,  if  not  inevitable 
development,  this  new  style  led  to  another,  in 
which  the  recitative,  though  still  distinct  from 
the  accompaniment,  assumed  a  more  measured 
tone,  less  melodious  than  that  of  the  air,  yet 
more  so,  by  far,  than  that  used  for  ordinary 
declamation.  Gluck  has  used  this  peculiar 
kind  of  Afezzo  MecUativo  with  indescribable 
power,  in  the  prison  scene,  in  *  Iphig^nie  en 
Tauride.'  Spohr  employs  it  freely,  almost  to 
the  exclusion  of  symmetrical  melody,  in  'Die 
letzten  Dinge.'  Wagner  makes  it  his  eheval  de 
boUailley  introducing  it  everywhere,  and  using 
it  as  an  ever-ready  medium  for  the  production 
of  some  of  his  most  powerful  dramatic  effects. 
His  theories  on  this  subject  have  already  been 
discussed  so  fully  that  it  is  unnecessary  to 
revert  to  them  here.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  his 
J^fcloSf  though  generally  possessing  all  the  more 
prominent  characteristics  of  pure  recitative, 
sometimes  approaches  so  nearly  to  the  rhythmic 
symmetry  of  the  song,  that — as  in  the  case  of 
*  Nun  sei  bedankt,  mein  lieber  Schwan  ! ' — 
it  is  difficult  to  say,  positively,  to  which  class 
it  belongs.  We  may,  therefore,  fairly  accept 
this  as  the  last  link  in  the  chain  which  fills  up 
the  long  gap  between  simple  *  Rccitativo  secco ' 
and  the  finished  aria.  [The  free  declamation, 
built  on  the  natural  inflexions  of  the  spoakin<r 
voice,  which  is  employed  for  the  vocal  part  of 
Debussy's  'Pell^as  et  M^lisande,'  though  not 
styled  *  recitative,'  has  much  in  common  with 
it.]  w.  s.  K. 

RECITING-NOTE  (Lat.  RejyercussiOy  NoUt 
dominans),  A  name  sometimes  given  to  that 
important  note,  in  a  Gregorian  Tone,  on  which 
the  greater  portion  of  every  verse  of  a  psahn 
or  Canticle  is  continuously  recited  ;  and  it  is 
commonly  used  of  the  corresponding  note  in 
Anglican  chant. 

As  this  particular  note  invariably  corresponds 
with  the  Dominant  of  the  Mode  in  which  the 
Psalm-Tone  is  written,  the  terms,  Dominant, 
and  Reciting -Note,  are  frequently  treated  as 
interchangeable.     [See  Modes  and  Psalmody.] 

The  Reciting -Note  makes  its  appearance 
twice  in  the  course  of  every  tone  ;  first,  as  the 
initial  member  of  the  Intonation,  and  after- 
wards as  that  of  the  Ending ;  the  only  exce]>- 
tion  to  the  general  rule  is  to  be  found  in  the 


RECORDER 


RECORDER 


37 


Tunus  Peregrinns  (or  Irr^ularis),  in  which  the 
true  Dominant  of  the  Ninth  Mode  (E)  is  used  for 
the  first  Beciting-Note,  and  D  for  the  second. 

The  Eeciting-Notes  of  Tones  III,  V,  VII, 
VIII,  and  IX,  are  so  high  that  they  cannot 
be  sung,  at  their  tme  pitch,  without  severely 
straining  the  voice  ;  in  practice,  therefore,  these 
tones  are  almost  always  transposed.  An 
attempt  has  been  sometimes  made  so  to  arrange 
their  respective  pitches  as  to  let  one  note — 
generally  A — serve  for  all.  This  plan  may, 
perhaps,  be  found  practically  convenient ;  but 
it  shows  very  little  concern  for  the  expression 
of  the  words,  which  cannot  but  suffer,  if  the 
jubilant  phrases  of  one  Psalm  are  to  be  recited 
on  exactly  the  same  note  as  the  almost  despair- 
ing accents  of  another.  w.  s.  r. 

RECORDER.  A  name  given  in  England  to 
a  kind  of  flute,  now  discarded,  but  once  very 
]>opular  in  Western  Europe.  The  verb  *to 
record'  was  formerly  in  common  use  in  the  sense 
of  to  warble  or  sing  as  a  bird,  e.g.^  'Hark! 
hark  !  oh,  sweet,  sweet  1  How  the  birds  record 
too'  (Beaumont  and  Fletcher).  A  recorder, 
then,  is  a  warbler,  than  which  a  more  appropri- 
ate appellation  for  the  instrument,  looking  to 
its  sweetness  and  facility  for  trilling,  it  would 
be  hard  to  find.  "When  the  word  sprang  up 
is  uncertain.  There  is  reason  for  believing 
that  it  was  in  use  in  the  14  th  century ;  it  is 
indisputable  that  in  the  15th  it  was  known 
from  Cornwall  to  Scotland ;  for  in  a  miracle- 
play  in  the  Cornish  language,  the  manuscript 
of  which  is  of  that  date,  we  have  *  recordys  ha 
symphony '  (recorders  and  symphony),  and  in 
the  Scottish  work  entitled  the  Buke  of  the  How- 
laU  maid  be  Holland  {c.  1450),  '  The  rote,  and 
the  reoordour,  the  ribup,  the  rist.' 

The  recorder  belonged  to  the  fipple  flute 
family  (see  Fipple  Flute),  of  which  the  flageo- 
let is  a  familiar  example.  It  was  distinguished 
from  the  other  members  of  the  family  by  the 
number  and  position  of  its  finger-holes.  Their 
number  was  eight.  The  highest,  which  was 
closed  with  one  of  the  thumbs,  was  pierced  at 
the  back,  the  lowest,  played  with  a  little  finger, 
at  the  side,  of  the  tube.  The  remaitiing  six 
were  placed  in  the  front  of  the  instrument. 
In  early  recorders,  which  were  made  in  one 
piece,  the  lowest  hole  was  duplicated  for  the 
accommodation  of  left-handed  players  ;  there 
were  thus  two  holes  for  the  little  finger,  but 
one  of  them  was  kept  stopped  with  wax.  The 
duplication  of  the  hole  explains  a  paradox. 
Although  the  recorder  was  an  eight -holed 
instrument,  it  was  called  in  France  (in  addition 
to  la  fi4JU  donee  and  la  JliUe  d^Angleterre)  la 
JUUe  a  neuf  trous,  or  the  nine-holed  flute.  The 
largest  contrabass  recorders  were  pierced  with 
three  holes  below  the  eight.  They  were  covered 
with  keys,  the  two  lowest  of  which  were  closed 
in  some  instruments  by  the  otherwise  unem- 
ployed thumb,  in  others   by  the  feet,  of  the 


player.  An  existing  contrabass  measures  8  feet 
8  inches;  its  lowest  note  is  D  below  the  bass  stave. 
Instruments  of  different  families  were  formerly 
kept  apart,  each  family  forming  a  consort,  or 
band,  of  its  own.  The  basis  of  the  consort  was 
the  quartet — the  discant,  the  alto,  the  tenor, 
and  the  bass.  But  the  consort  was  not  confined 
to  the  quartet ;  thus  Virdung,  referring  to 
recorders,  writes :  '  Generally,  one  makes  four 
flutes  in  one  case,  or  six ;  this  is  called  a  set, 
two  discant,  two  tenor,  and  two  bass.'  The 
circumstance  that  each  set  was  kept  in  a  separate 
case,  enables  us  to  say  how  many  recorders  were 
played  together.  In  the  time  of  Henry  VIII. 
the  number  rose  to  seven,  eight,  and  nine,  as 
the  inventory  of  that  monarch's  recorders  shows. 
"VNTienPraetorius  wrote  twenty-one  were  required 
to  form  a  full  flute  consort  Dr.  Bumey  saw 
a  set  at  Antwerp  comprising  no  less  than  thirty 
or  forty,  the  case  for  which,  when  filled,  was 
so  heavy  that  eight  men  were  required  to  raise 
it  from  the  ground.  By  the  middle  of  the 
18th  century  the  number  had  dwindled  in 
France  to  five,  and  in  a  very  late  set,  now  in 
the  Grosvenor  Museum  at  Chester,  it  is  I'educed 


Discant     Alto.     Tenor.     Baas. 
The  CaESTEii  Flites. 

to  four.  The  date  of  this  set  is  unknown,  but 
they  are  marked  with  the  name  of  Bressan,  a 
maker  of  whose  flutes  Sir  John  Hawkins  speaks 
in  a  way  which  shows  that  they  were  in  common 
use  in  his  time  (1719-89)  ;  in  1724  Mr.  Bressan, 
by  whom  presumably  the  Chester  set  was  made, 
was  carrying  on  business  at  the  Green  Door  in 
Somerset  House  Yard,  in  the  Strand. 

The  tone  of  the  recorder  was  remarkable  for 
two  characteristics,  solenmity  and  sweetness. 


38 


RECORDER 


RECORDER 


Bacon  twioe  alludes  to  its  solemnity ;  Milton 
speaks  of  its  <  solemn  touches/  and  under  the 
name  of  'the  solemn  pipe/  mentions  it  as  one 
of  the  instraments  played  on  a  great  occasion 
in  Heaven.  Its  sweetness  was  ineffable.  Refer- 
ring to  the  effect  of  recorders  used  at  a  theatre 
to  represent  a  choir  of  angels,  Pepys  writes : 
*  But  that  which  did  please  me  beyond  any- 
thing in  the  whole  world  was  the  wind-musique 
wlien  the  angel  comes  down,  which  is  so  sweet 
that  it  ravished  me,  and  indeed,  in  a  word,  did 
wrap  up  my  soul  so  that  it  made  me  really  sick, 
just  as  I  have  formerly  been  when  in  love  with 
my  wife  ;  that  neither  then,  nor  all  the  evening 
going  home,  and  at  home,  I  was  able  to  think 
of  anything,  but  remained  all  night  transported, 
so  as  I  could  not  believe  that  ever  any  musick 
hath  that  real  command  over  the  soul  of  a  man 
as  this  did  upon  me  :  and  makes  me  resolve  to 
practice  wind-musique,  and  to  make  my  wife 
do  the  like.'  Some  weeks  afterwards  he  buys 
a  recorder,  *  which,'  he  says,  *I  do  intend  to 
learn  to  play  on,  the  sound  of  it  being  of  all 
sounds  in  the  world,  most  pleasing  to  me/ 

The  *  command  '  which  recorders  had  *  over 
the  soul  of  a  man,'  and  their 

—power  to  mitigate  and  'swage 
With  solemn  touches  troubled  thoughts,  and  chase 
Anguish,  and  doubt,  and  fear,  and  sorrow,  and  iialn 
From  mortal  or  immortal  minds- 
may  serve  to  explain  why  Hamlot,  in  the 
frenzied  state  to  which  he  had  been  wrought 
by  the  spectacle  of  the  murder  of  his  father 
played  before  his  guilty  uncle,  should  bethink 
him  of  the  calming  influence  of  a  consort  of 
these  instruments.  'Come,'  he  cries,  'some 
music ;  come,  the  recorders.'  If  Shakespeare's 
design  were  carried  out,  instead  of  the  two 
musicians  we  generally  see  furnished  with 
little  pipes  not  unlike  penny  whistles,  there 
would  come  upon  the  stage  in  the  recorder 
scene  at  least  four  recorder  players  carrying 
instruments  varying  in  length  from  nearly  two 
to  nearly  four  feet.  It  is  needless  to  say  that 
even  the  discant  is  far  too  stout  to  be  snapped 
like  a  twig,  so  that  the  act  of  \'iolence  some- 
times seen,  the  breaking  to  pieces  of  the  recorder 
borrowed  of  the  player,  would  be  as  impractic- 
able as  it  is  foreign  to  the  true  spirit  of  the 
scene,  and  out  of  keeping  with  the  nature  of 
the  gentle  Hamlet. 

With  the  advance  of  the  orchestra  the 
consorts  of  wind  instruments  broke  up  and 
disappeared,  only  such  members  of  each  family 
being  retained  as  were  most  suitable  for  the 
new  combination.  The  member  of  the  recorder 
family  which  survived  had  a  compass  of  two 
octaves,  from/'  to/"',  fingerings  up  to  a!"  being 
sometimes  given.  About  the  end  of  the  17  th 
century  the  instrument  ceased  to  be  called  the 
recorder,  retaining  only  the  appellation  of  flute, 
and  descending  after  a  time  to  that  of  the 
Common  flute.    In  France  it  came  to  be  styled 


the  fMt  a  bee.  The  change  of  name  led  to  a 
strange  chapter  in  the  history  of  music — a 
chapter  which  should  be  a  warning  to  those 
who  attempt  to  reconstruct  extinct  instruments 
out  of  preconceived  ideas  of  what  they  might, 
or  must,  have  been.  For  more  than  a  hundred 
years  the  recorder  was  enshrouded  in  mystery. 
It  was  asked,  What  was  a  recorder  ?  Sir  John 
Hawkins  put  forward  the  notion  that  it  was 
a  flageolet,  and  persuaded  himself  that  Lord 
Bacon  had  spoken  of  the  recorder  as  having 
six  holes,  the  number  of  those  of  the  flageolet. 
Bumey,  writing  thirteen  years  after  Sir  John, 
stated  authoritatively  that  a  recorder  was  a 
flageolet,  thereby  revealing  the  secret  that  he 
had  availed  himself  of  his  rival's  labours  with- 
out acknowledging  lus  obligation.  Next  came 
Mr.  William  Chappell,  who  brought  himself  to 
the  belief  that  he  had  discovered  in  a  book  of 
instructions  for  the  recorder  the  statement  that 
the  instrument  was  pierced  with  a  hole  called 
the  recorder.  He  fancied  that  the  recorder 
took  its  name  from  the  hole,  and  drawing 
further  on  his  imagination,  supposed  the  hole 
to  be  covered  with,  a  piece  of  thin  skin.  Finally, 
Carl  Engel  acquired  a  Common  flute  (it  is  now 
in  the  South  Kensington  Museum)  in  which 
there  was  a  hole  covered  with  membrane.  He 
pronounced  this  flute  to  be  a  recorder  of  tho 
17th  century,  and  explained  that  the  hole  thus 
covered  was  intended  to  make  the  sound  reedy 
and  tender ;  whereas  an  examination  of  the 
instrument  would  have  shown  him  that  his 
recorder  of  the  17th  century  was  made  in  New 
Bond  Street  between  1800  and  1812,  and  that 
the  hole  covered  with  membrane  was  so  placed 
that  it  was  impossible  for  it  to  affect  the  tone. 
The  claim  of  the  recorder  to  be  considered 
the  head  of  instruments  of  the  flute  kind  was 
destined  to  be  called  in  question.  Its  supremacy 
was  challenged  by  the  transverse  flute,  an  instru- 
ment called  by  the  French  the  German  flute, 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  recorder,  which  tliey 
termed  the  English  flute.  In  lip  flutes,  to 
which  family  the  German  flute  belongs,  the 
channel  from  which  the  jet  of  air  issues  (see 
Flute)  is  formed  by  the  lips.  The  control 
exercised  by  the  lips  over  the  shape  of  the  jet  and 
the  size  of  the  opening  of  the  mouth-hole  of  the 
flute  enables  the  player  to  influence  the  intona- 
tion and  the  quality  of  the  tone,  advantsges  (not 
to  mention  greater  power)  more  than  sufficient 
to  compensate  for  inferiority  in  sweetness  and 
dignity.  In  Handel's  orchestra  the  German 
and  the  Common  flute  existed  side  by  side,  a 
circumstance  which  enabled  Handel  to  express 
niceties  of  flute  timbre  to  which  we  are  strangers. 
Thus  in  'Judas  Maocabsus'  he  was  able  to 
avail  himself  of  the  martial  strains  of  two 
German  flutes  for  'See  the  Conquering  Hero 
comee,'  but  to  assign  the  cigolery  of  'Wise 
men  flattering  may  deceive  yon '  to  the  cooing 
blandishments  of  two  Common  flutes.     We  can 


RECORDER 


RECORDER 


39 


al'R'ays  tell  which  flute  he  intends  to  be  used, 
for  he  terms  the  Common  flute  Flauio  ;  the 
(remian  flute  Traversa^  Traverse ,  Traversare, 
Traversiera  ;  sometimes,  but  rarely,  FlaiUo 
Traverta,  Scarcely  ever  does  he  leave  open 
which  flute  is  to  be  employed  ;  there  is,  how- 
ever, in  '  Pamasso  in  Festa,'  a  passage  marked 
FlatUo  on  Trae,  i.,  Flauto  au  Trav,  II. 
Handel's  orchestra  is  known  to  have  contained 
four  hautboys  and  four  bassoons  ;  his  flutes,  as 
will  be  shown,  were  still  more  numerous.  He 
onoe  uses  una  traverta  basga.  When  he  wrote 
ii  aversieri  tuUi,  he  no  doubt  expected  not  short 
of  four  treble  transverse  flutes  to  respond.  It 
seems  certain  that  he  had  at  his  command  as 
many  Common  flutes ;  for  the  fourth  scene  of  the 
tint  act  of  '  Giustino '  opens  with  a  passage  in 
which  not  less  than  four  Flauti  and  a  Bcaso  de^ 
FlaiUi  play  together^  We  are  not  bound  to 
suppose  that  Handel  had  in  his  pay  ten 
musicians  who  devoted  themselves  exclusively 
to  the  flute ;  performers  on  other  instruments, 
especially  the  hautboy,  were  expected  to  take 
the  flute  when  required. 

Handel  could  call  for  not  only  five  but  six 
fipple  flutes,  his  ottavino  being  ^  flaxUo  piccolo, 
or  octave  Common  flute,  not  a  transverse  instru- 
ment. This  does  not  seem  to  be  even  suspected, 
yet  the  evidence  S&  quite  conclusive.  Here  one 
proof  must  suffice.  The  accompaniment  to 
'  Augelletti  che  cantate '  (the  air  in  '  Rinaldo,' 
on  the  singing  of  which  birds  were  let  loose)  is 
marked  in  the  conducting  score  flauto  piccolo^ 
but  in  the  autograph  copy  in  Buckingham 
Palace  Handel  has  written  *  Flageolett'  Now 
Handel  would  never  have  called  a  transverse 
piccolo  a  flageolet  The  usual  description  of 
this  accompaniment,  that  it  is  scored  for  two 
flutes  and  a  piccolo,  gives  to  the  modem  reader 
a  fiilBe  impression,  neither  the  flutes  nor  the 
piccolo  being  the  instruments  we  now  call  by 
those  names.  It  is  a  trio  for  three  fipple  flutes, 
i^JlarUo  piccolo  and  two  flauli ;  the  flatUo  piccolo 
playing  a  brilliant  solo  which  the  flauti  support. 
The  accompaniment  has  been  pronounced  by  a 
musician  to  be  the  *  loveliest  imaginable ' ;  the 
scoffing  Addison  writes  of  it,  '  The  musick  pro- 
ceeded firom  a  concert  of  flagelets  and  bird-calls 
which  were  planted  behind  the  scenes. '  Handel 
uses  the  flatUo  piccolo  in  a  Tamburino  in  *  Alcina, ' 
and  in  two  movements  of  the  Water  Music.  In 
the  latter  two  piccolos  which  play  in  unison  are 
employed.  Theyare  not  in  the  same  key  as  the 
orchestral  piccolo,  but,  like  it,  they  were  Apple 
flutes.  Thrice  the  flatUo  piccolo  furnishes  a  florid 
aooompaniment  to  the  soprano  voice ;  in  '  Augel- 
letti che  cantate,'  just  mentioned,  in  a  song  in 
'Riocardo,'  and  in  'Hush,  ye  pretty  warbling 
choir,'  in  'Acis  and  Galatea.'  The  obhligato 
in  the  last-named  work  to  the  bass  solo;  'O 
ruddier  than  the  cherry,'  is  marked  in  the 
score  flautOj  but  seems  to  have  been  always 
assigned   to   the  flmUo  piccolo*      As  late  as 


the  third  decade  of  the  19th  century,  long 
after  that  instrument  had  been  banished  from 
the  orchestra,  the  second  hautboy  player  used 
to  play  the  part  on  a  so-called  flageolet  at  the 
Antient  Concerts.  As  the  society  was  estab- 
lished in  1776,  only  seventeen  years'  after 
Handel's  death,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
the  practice  was  handed  down  from  the  time 
of  the  great  composer. 

When  the  orchestra  was  remodelled  by  Haydn 
only  the  transverse  flute  was  retained,  the 
Common  flute  being  altogether  rejected.  The 
German  flute  having  thus  captured  its  rival's 
place,  proceeded  to  usurp  its  title  of  FlaulOy  and 
to  drop  its  old  name,  Traversa.  Its  superiority 
for  orchestral  purposes  was  already  so  marked 
as  to  cause  Haydn's  choice  to  fall  upon  it; 
but  during  Haydn's  career  as  a  composer  it 
received  an  improvement  which  gave  the  eo^ip 
de  grdce  to  the  old  favourite.  The  improve- 
ment consisted  in  boring  new  holes  in  the  tube 
and  covering  them  with  keys  kept  closed  by 
springs.  To  make  clear  the  importance  of  this 
step  it  is  necessary  to  explain  that  in  the  one- 
keyed  flute,  which  was  then  in  use,  there  were 
no  holes  for  four  of  the  notes  of  the  chromatic 
octave.  When  the  player  was  in  want  of 
either  of  them,  he  muffled,  and  to  some  extent 
flattened,  the  note  above  the  accidental  needed 
by  closing  one  or  more  holes  below  the  hole 
from  which  the  note  to  be  flattened  issued. 
Although  the  spurious  notes  thus  obtained  were 
so  impure,  feeble,  and  out  of  tune  as  to  make 
the  flute  and  those  who  played  it  bywords 
amongst  musicians,  the  one-keyed  flute  held  its 
ground  for  a  period  of  not  far  short  of  a  century. 
Remonstrances  on  the  subject  of  its  imper- 
fections were  put  to  silence  by  the  dictum  that 
the  flute,  like  the  violin,  was  perfect ;  the 
player,  it  was  asserted,  not  the  instrument,  was 
at  fault.  At  length  a  stand  was  made  against 
authority.  The  rebellion  broke  out  in  England, 
where  two  professional  players  named  Tacet  and 
Florio  had  the  courage  to  adopt  a  flute  with  no 
less  than  six  keys.  Their  example  was  quickly 
followed.  Between  1770  and  1780  the  six- 
keyed  flute  came  into  use  in  this  country,  and 
by  degrees,  in  spite  of  opposition,  the  keys  were 
introduced  abroad. 

The  advantages  conferred  on  the  transverse 
flute  by  the  completion  of  the  chroma^o  octave 
were  so  immense  that  it  is  inconceivable  that 
the  makers  of  the  time  should  not  have  thought 
of  applying  the  system  to  the  Common  flute. 
Why  the  idea  was  not  carried  out  is  unknown, 
but  it  may  be  coi\jectured  that  mechanical 
difficulties  stood  in  the  way.  Of  the  ten  digits 
with  which  the  hands  of  man  are  fiimiflhed 
but  nine  are  available  for  execution,  the  tentli 
being  required  for  holding  the  flute.  As  the 
Common  flute  was  pierced  with  eight  holes, 
only  one  finger  was  free  when  they  were  all 
closed.     Possibly,  then,  the  makers  may  have 


40    RECTE  ET  RETRO,  PER 


RECTE  ET  RETRO,  PER 


been  unable  to  contrive  a  method  of  acting  on 
the  five  keys  required  for  the  chromatic  octave, 
being  baffled  by  the  want  of  fingers  for  the 
purpose ;  but  whatever  was  the  cause,  closed 
keys  did  not  find  their  way  to  the  Common  flute, 
and  so  the  instrument  after  a  time  fell  completely 
into  disuse.  (See  Proceedings  of  the  Musical 
Aaaociaiion^  1897-98,  pp.  145-224  ;  1900-1,  pp. 
110-120;  and  1901-2,  pp.  106-137.)  The 
above  is  epitomised  from  the  writer's  Lectures  on 
the  Becorder,  to  be  published  shortly,     c.  w. 

RECTE  ET  RETRO,  PER  (Imiialio  can- 
erizans,  ImUtUio  per  Motum  retrogradum,  Imi- 
tatio  recurrens ;  ItaL  Imitaziane  al  Boveedo,  o 
cUla  Riveraa ;  Eng.  Retrograde  Tmitatioji), 
A  peculiar  kind  of  Imitation,  so  constructed 
that  the  melody  may  be  sung  backwards  as 
well  as  forwards ;  as  shown  in  the  following 
two-|>art  canon,  which  must  be  sung,  by  the 
first  voice,  from  left  to  right,  and  by  the  second, 
from  right  to  left,  both  beginning  together,  but 
at  opposite  ends  of  the  music. 


The  earliest  known  instances  of  Retrograde 
Imitation  are  to  be  found  among  the  works  of 
the  Flemish  composers  of  the  15th  century, 
who  delighted  in  exercising  their  ingenuity,  not 
only  upon  the  device  itself,  but  also  upon  the 
Inscriptions  prefixed  to  the  canons  in  which  it 
was  employed.  The  Netherlanders  were  not, 
however,  the  only  musicians  who  indulged 
successfully  in  this  learned  species  of  recreation. 
Probably  the  most  astonishing  example  of  it 
on  record  is  the  motet,  ^  'Diliges  Dominum,' 
written  by  William  Byrd  for  four  voices- 
Treble,  Alto,  Tenor,  and  Bass — and  transmuted 
into  an  eight-part  composition,  by  adding  a 
second  Treble,  Alto,  Tenor,  and  Bass,  formed 
by  singing  the  four  first  parts  backwards.  It 
is  scarcely  possible  to  study  this  complication 
attentively,  without  feeling  one's  brain  turn 
giddy ;  yet,  strange  to  say,  the  effect  produced 
is  less  curious  than  beautiful. 


or  the  cry  of  the  Evil  Spirits — 

In  giruni  imos  noctu  ecce  at  consumimur  igni. 

Tlie  canons  were  frequently  constructed  in  exact 
accordance  with  the  method  observed  in  these 
curious  lines  ;  and  innumerable  quaint  conceits 
were  invented,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  the 
singers  some  intimation  of  the  manner  in  which 
they  were  to  be  read.  *  Canit  more  Hebraeorum  * 
was  a  very  common  motto.  'Misericordia  et 
Veritas  obviaveruut  sibi '  indicated  that  the 
singers  were  to  begin  at  opposite  ends,  and  meet 
in  the  middle.  In  the  second  '  Agnus  Dei '  of 
his  '  Missa  Graecorum,'  Hobrecht  wrote,  '  Aries 
vertatur  in  Pisces  * — ^Aries  being  the  fiirst  sign 
of  the  Zodiac,  and  Pisces  the  last.  In  another 
part  of  the  same  Mass  he  has  given  a  far  more 
mysterious  direction — 

Tn  tenor  cancrixa  et  per  antiflnuin  canta. 
Cum  fnrcis  in  capita  antiftuizando  reiMte. 

This  introduces  ua  to  a  new  complication  ;  the 
secret  of  the  motto  being,  that  the  tenor  is  not 
only  to  sing  backwards,  but  to  invert  the  inter- 
vals (*  per  antifrasin  canta '),  until  he  reaches 
the  '  Horns  * — that  is  to  say,  the  two  cusps  of 
the  semicircular  Time-Signature — after  which 
he  is  to  sing  from  left  to  right,  though  still  con- 
tinuing to  invert  the  intervals.  This  new  device, 
in  which  the  intervals  themselves  are  reversed, 
as  well  as  the  sequence  of  the  notes,  is  called 
*  Retrograde  Inverse  Imitation'  (Lat.  ImiUUio 
cancrizans  motu  conlrario ;  Ital.  Imitazione  al 
eontrario  riverso).  It  might  have  been  thought 
that  this  would  have  contented  even  Flemish 
ingenuity.  But  it  did  not  The  part-books 
had  not  yet  been  turned  upside  down  !  In  the 
subjoined  example  we  have  endeavoured  to 
show,  in  an  humble  way,  the  manner  in  which 
this  most  desirable  feat  may  also  be  accomplished. 
The  two  singers,  standing  face  to  face,  hold  the 
book  between  them  ;  one  looking  at  it  from  the 
ordinary  point  of  view,  the  other,  upside  down, 
and  bo^  reading  from  left  to  right — that  is  to 
^yt  beginning  at  opposite  ends.  The  result, 
if  not  strikingly  beautiful,  is,  at  least,  not 
inconsistent  with  the  laws  of  counter]X)in t.  ( For 
other  examples  see  iNwniiPTioN.) 


Laa  •  d»>ta    DoBlnum.  out  •  nes  f  ta 


There  is  little  doubt  that  the  idea  of  singing 
music  from  right  to  left  was  first  suggested  by 
those  strange  Oracular  Verses  ^  which  may  be 
read  either  backwards  or  forwards,  without 
ii\jury  to  words  or  metre ;  such  as  the  well- 
known  Pentameter — 

Roma  tibi  snbito  motibns  ibit  amor. 


t  ReprintMl  hy  Hawkins.  BUtorp,  oh.  9a 

*  VermiB  raoiirr«nt«B.  raid  to  ha.vc  been  (Int  InTenttd  hr  the 
Qittk.  Poet.  Sotadn.  daring 'the  raign  of  Ptolnny  Phlladelphoa. 
The  exaniplm  we  have  quoted  are.  however,  of  much  later  date ; 
Uie  oldest  ol  tbem  bdng  certainly  not  earlier  than  the  7Ui  ovntary. 


tee,  laa-da-te  Do*ini-nam. 


Retrograde  Imitation  has  survived,  even  to 

our  own  day ;   and  in   more   than  one  very 

popular  form.     In  the  year  1791  Haydn  wrote 

for  his  Doctor's  degree,  at  the  University  of 

Oxford,  a  '  Canon  oancrizans,  a  tre '  ( ^  Thy  Voice, 

0  Harmony ' ),  which  will  be  found  in  vol.  iL 

p.  857,  and  he  has  also  used  the  same  device 

in  t\h  minuet  of  one  of  his  symphonies.     Some 

i  other  modem  composers  have  tried  it,  with 

I  less  happy  efiect     But  perhaps  it  has  never 

I  yet  appeared   in   a  more  popular  form  than 


REDEKER 


REDOUTE 


41 


that  of  the  wellrknown  Doable  Chant  by  Dr. 
Crotch. 


It  would  be  difficult  to  point  to  two  schools 
more  bitterly  opposed  to  each  other  than  those 
of  the  early  Netherlanders,  and  the  English 
Cathedral  writers  of  the  19th  century.  Yet 
here  we  see  an  artifice,  invented  by  the  former, 
and  naed  by  one  of  the  latter,  so  completely  con 
aninre,  that,  backed  by  the  harmonies  peculiar 
to  the  modem  'free  style,'  it  has  attained  a 
IMsition  quite  unassailable,  and  will  probably 
fast  as  long  as  the  Anglican  Chant  itself  shall 
continue  in  use.  [Sir  John  Stainer  wrote  a 
hymn- tune  *  Per  Recte  et  Retro*  in  1898  for 
the  Church  Hymnary  (No.  381)  ;  it  is  also  No. 
81  of  Novello's  edition  of  the  composer's  hymns. 
It  reads  backwards  in  all  the  parts.]  With 
these  things  before  us,  we  shall  do  well  to 
pause,  before  we  consign  even  the  moat  glaring 
pedantries  of  our  forefathers  to  oblivion,    w.  8.  r. 

REDEKER,  Louise  Dorette  Auguste,  a 
contralto  singer,  who  made  her  first  appearance 
in  London  at  the  Philharmonic  Concert  of  June 
19,  1876,  and  remained  a  great  favourite  until 
she  retired  from  public  life  on  her  marriage  with 
Dr.  (ftow  Sir)  Felix  Semon,  Oct.  19,  1879.  She 
wasbomatDuingen,  Hanover,  Jan.  19, 1858,  and 
from  1 870  to  1878  studied  in  the  Conservatorium 
at  Leipzig,  chiefly  under  Konewka.  She  sang 
first  in  public  at  Bremen  in  1878.  In  1874 
she  made  the  first  of  several  appearances  at 
the  Grewandhaus,  and  was  much  in  request  for 
concerts  and  oratorios  in  Germany  and  other 
conatnes  during  1874  and  1875.  In  England 
she  sang  at  all  the  principal  concerts,  and  at 
the  same  time  maintained  her  connection  with 
the  Continent,  where  she  was  always  well 
received.  Her  voice  is  rich  and  sympathetic  ; 
she  sings  without  effort  and  with  great  taste.    6. 

REDE^iPTION,  THE.  A  Sacred  Trilogy, 
writtenand  composed  by  Charles  Gounod.  First 
performed  at  the  Birmingham  Festival,  August 
30,  1882,  under  the  composer's  direction.      M. 

REDFORD,  John,  was  organist  and  almoner, 
and  master  of  the  Choristers  of  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral  in  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIIL  (1491-1647).  Tusser,  the  author 
of  the  Hundred  good  Points  of  Hushandrie, 
was  one  of  his  pupils.  An  anthem,  <  Rejoice 
in  the  Lorde  alway,'  printed  in  the  appendix 
to  Hawkins's  History  and  in  the  Motett  Society's 
first  volume,  is  remarkable  for  its  melody  and 
expression.  Some  anthems  and  organ  pieces 
by  him  are  in  the  MS.  volume  collected  by 
'niomas  Mulliner,  master  of  St  Paul's  School, 
afterwards  in  the  libraries  of  John  Stafford 
Smith  and   Dr.    Rimbault,   and  now  in  the 


British  Museum.  A  motet,  some  fancies,  and 
a  voluntary  by  him  are  in  MS.  at  Christ  Chureh, 
Oxford.  [See  also  the  Afonaishe/te  for  1902,  for 
list  of  other  works  by  him.]  His  name  is  in- 
cluded by  Morley  in  the  list  of  those  whose  works 
he  consulted  for  his  'Introduction.'     w.  u.  h. 

REDHEAD,  Richard,  born  March  1,  1820, 
at  Harrow,  was  a  chorister  at  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford,  1829-86,  having  received  his  musical 
education  therefrom  Walter  Vicary,  the  organist. 
He  was  organist  at  Old  Margaret  Chapel  (now 
All  Saints'  Church),  Margaret  Street,  in  1839- 
1864,  and  from  the  latter  date  at  St  Mary 
Magdalene,  Paddington,  a  post  he  held  till  his 
death  at  Hellingley,  Sussex,  April  27,  1901. 
His  works  are  almost  exclusively  written  or 
compiled  for  use  in  the  Church  of  England 
service,  viz.  *  Church  Music,*  etc.,  1840,  *Laudes 
Diumae,  the  Psalter  and  Canticles  in  the  Morn- 
ing and  Evening  Service,'  1843,  Music  for  the 
Office  of  the  Holy  Communion,'  1853;  *0 
my  people,'  anthem  for  Good  Friday  ;  '  Church 
Melodies,  a  collection  of  short  pieces  and  Six 
Sacred  Songs,'  1868  ;  *The  Celebrant's  Office 
Book,'  1863  ;  *  Ancient  Hymn  Melodies,  Book 
of  Common  Piayer  with  Ritual  music,  Canticles 
at  Matins  and  Evensong,  pointed  as  they  are 
to  be  sung  in  churches  and  adapted  to  the 
Ancient  Psalm  Chants,  and  Parish  Tune  Book 
and  Appendix,'  1865 ;  *The  Universal  Organist, 
a  Collection  of  Short  Classical  and  Modern 
Pieces,'  1866-81;  'Litany  with  latter  jMirt 
of  Commination  Service,  Music  to  the  Divine 
Liturgy  during  the  Gradual,  Offertoriuni  and 
Communion,  arranged  for  use  throughout  the 
year,'  1874  ;  Festival  Hymns  for  All  Saints  and 
St.  Mary  Magdalene  Days,  Hymns  for  Holy 
Seasons,  Anthems,  etc.  A.  c. 

REDOUTE.  Public  assemblies  at  which  the 
guests  appeared  with  or  without  masks  at 
2)leasure.  The  word  is  French,  and  is  explained 
by  Voltaire  and  Littre  as  being  derived  from 
the  Italian  ridoUo — perhaps  with  some  analogy 
to  the  word  *  resort.'  They  soon  made  their 
way  to  Germany  and  England.  They  are 
frequently  mentioned  by  Horace  Walpole  under 
the  name  'Ridotto,'  and  were  one  of  the 
attractions  at  Yauxhall  and  Ranelagh  in  the 
middle  of  the  18th  century.  In  Germany  and 
France  the  French  version  of  the  name  was 
adopted.  The  building  used  for  the  purpose 
in  Vienna,  erected  in  1748,  and  rebuilt  in  stone 
in  1754,  forms  part  of  the  Burg  or  Imperial 
Palace,  the  side  of  the  oblong  facing  the 
Josephs-Platz.  There  was  a  grosse  and  a  kleins 
Redoutensaal.  In  the  latter  Beethoven  played 
a  concerto  of  his  own  at  a  concert  of  Haydn's, 
Dec.  1 8, 1 795.  The  rooms  were  used  for  concerts 
till  about  1870.  The  masked  balls  were  held 
there  during  the  Carnival,  from  Twelfth  Night 
to  Shrove  Tuesday,  and  occasionally  in  the 
weeks  preceding  Advent ;  some  being  public, 
i,e.  ox)en  to  all  on  payment  of  an  entrance  fee. 


42 


REDOWA 


REED 


and  others  private.  Special  nights  were  reserved 
for  the  court  and  the  nobility.  The  *  Redou- 
tentanze ' — Minuets,  AUemandes,  Contredanses, 
Schottisches,  Anglaises,  and  Landler — were 
composed  for  full  orchestra,  and  published 
(mostly  by  Artaria)  for  pianoforte.  Mozart,^ 
Haydn,  BeiBthoven,*  Hummel,  "Woelfl,  Gyrowetz, 
and  others,  have  left  dances  written  for  this 
purpose.  c.  f.  p. 

REDOWA,  a  Bohemian  dance  which  was 
introduced  into  Paris  in  1846  or  1847,  and 
([uickly  attained  for  a  short  time  great  popu- 
larity, both  there  and  in  London,  although  it  is 
now  never  danced.  In  Bohemia  there  are  two 
variations  of  the  dance,  the  Rejdovdk,  in  3-4 
or  3-8  time,  which  is  more  like  a  waltz,  and 
the  Rejdovacka,  in  2-4  time,  which  is  some- 
thing like  a  polka.  The  ordinary  Redowa  is 
written  in  3-4  time  (M.M.  J=160).  The 
dance  is  something  like  a  Mazurka,  with  the 
rhythm  less  strongly  marked.  The  following 
example  is  part  of  a  Rejdovdk  which  is  given 
in  Kohler's  *  Volkstiinze  aller  Nationen ' — 


W.  B.  8. 

REED  (Fr.  Anehe ;  Ital.  Ancia ;  Germ.  Blatt, 
Jtohr).  The  speaking  part  of  many  instruments, 
both  ancient  and  modern  ;  the  name  being  de- 
rived from  the  material  of  which  it  has  been 
immemorially  constructed.  The  plant  used  for 
it  is  a  tall  grass  or  reed,  the  Arundo  Danax  or 
ScUiva^  growing  in  the  South  of  Europe.  The 
substance  in  its  rough  state  is  commonly  called 
*  cane,'  though  differing  from  real  cane  in  many 
respects.  Tlie  chief  supply  is  now  obtained  from 
Frejus  on  the  Mediterranean  coast.  Many  other 
materials,  such  as  lance- wood,  ivory,  silver,  and 
'ebonite,'  or  hardened  india-rubber,  have  been 
experimentally  substituted  for  the  material  first 
named  ;  but  hitherto  without  success.  Organ 
reeds  were  formerly  made  of  hard  wood,  more 
recently  of  brass,  Gorman  silver,  and  steel. 
The  name  Reed  is,  however,  applied  by  organ- 
builders  to  the  metal  tube  or  channel  against 
which  the  vibrating  tongue  beats,  rather  than 
to  the  vibrator  itself. 

Reeds  are  divided  into  the  Free  and  the 
Beating ;  the  latter  again  into  the  Single  and 
the  Double  forms,     'fiie  Free  reed  is  used  in 

1  Sm  K0oh«rs  Ofttidonc  No.  SBt.  ate. 
«  8m  Nottabohtn's  Thematle  CuttJoffoe,  Button  it  iMfM  115^. 


the  harmonium  and  concertina,  its  union  with 
Beating  reeds  in  the  oigan  not  having  proved 
suocessfuL  [See  Free  Reed,  voL  ii.  p.  106.] 
The  vibrator,  as  its  name  implies,  passes  freely 
through  the  long  slotted  brass  plate  to  which 
it  is  adapted ;  the  first  impulse  of  the  vrind 
tending  to  push  it  within  the  slot  and  thus 
close  the  aperture.  In  '  percussion '  harmoniums 
the  vibrator  is  set  suddenly  in  motion  by  a  blow 
from  a  hammer  connected  with  the  keyboard. 
[See  Harmonium,  vol.  ii.  p.  808.]  [Tlie 
Beating  reed  in  its  single  form  is  that  of  the 
organ  and  the  clarinet.  In  this  the  edges  of 
the  vibrator  overlap  the  slot  leading  into  the 
resonating  pipe  or  tube,  and  so  close  it  periodi- 
cally during  vibration.  The  reed,  which  is  a 
thin  blade  or  lamina,  has  roughly  the  form  of  a 
long  parallelogram,  and  it  is  firmly  secured  for  a 
portion  of  its  length  to  the  bed  or  table  of  the 
tnbe  or  mouthpiece  in  which  the  slot  is  cut.  In 
the  organ  reed  the  necessary  opening  for  the 
entrance  of  the  wind  at  the  free  end  is  obtained 
by  giving  a  slight  curvature  to  the  blade  or 
reed ;  the  pressure  of  the  wind  tends  to  close 
this  opening,  and  vibration  is  thus  set  up. 
In  the  clarinet  the  same  result  is  obtained  by 
giving  a  slight  curvature  to  the  bed  of  the 
mouthpiece  towards  its  tip,  the  under  side  of 
the  reed  itself  being  left  perfectly  flat  (see 
Clarinet). 

The  Double  reed,  as  used  in  the  oboe  and 
the  bassoon,  is  constructed  of  two  segments 
united  in  a  tubular  form  at  one  end,  and 
splayed  out  and  flattened  at  the  other  so  as  to 
leave  a  slight  opening  in  shape  like  the  section 
of  a  double-convex  lens.  The  bassoon  reed  is 
placed  directly  upon  the  *  crook  *  of  the  instru- 
ment, but  the  oboe  reed  is  built  up  upon  a 
small  tube  or  *  staple.'  The  exact  appearance 
of  both  single  and  double  reeds  will  be  gathered 
better  from  the  drawings  than  from  a  more 
detailed  description. 


1.  'i.  3.  4. 

single  Beed :— I.  Clarinet  rred.  m  held  to  the  mouthpiece  bjr  a 
metal  lifatare. 

DoaUe  Reedi :— S.  Baeeoon  reed.  S.  Baaeooo  reed,  fomhortened 
to  show  the  opctitng  between  the  two  l>ladee.    4.  Oboe  reed. 

The  single  reed  is  used  also  on  the  saxophone, 
and  the  double  reed  for  the  chaunter  of  the 
Highland  bagpipe,  but  the  drones  of  the  bag- 


REED 


REED 


43 


pipe  are  sounded  by  single  reeds  of  a  most 
radimentary  character.  It  la  possible  to  replace 
the  doable  reed  of  the  oboe  and  bassoon  by  a 
single  reed  of  the  clarinet  type  fitted  to  a  small 
moathpieoe.  The  old  dolcino  or  alto-fagotto 
was  80  played  in  the  band  of  the  Coldstream 
(foarda  by  the  late  Mr.  Henry  Lazanis  when  a 
boy.  The  idea  has  been  revived  of  late  years 
as  a  novelty,  but  neither  the  oboe  nor  the 
bassoon  is  capable  of  improvement  in  this  way, 
although  the  saxophone,  also  a  conical  tube,  is 
well  adapted  to  the  single  reed,  being  an  instru- 
ment of  wider  calibre.  ]  w.  h.  s.  ;  with  addi- 
tions by  B.  J.  B. 

REED,  Thomas  Gebmax,  bom  at  Bristol, 
June  27,  1817.  His  lather  was  a  musician, 
and  the  son  first  appeared,  at  the  age  of  ten, 
at  the  Bath  Concerts  as  a  PF.  player  with 
John  Loder  and  lindley,  and  also  sang  at  the 
Concerts  and  at  the  Bath  Theatre.  Shortly 
after,  he  appeared  at  the  Haymarket  Theatre, 
London,  where  his  father  was  conductor,  as 
PF.  player,  singer,  and  actor  of  juvenile  parts. 
In  1832  the  fomily  moved  to  London,  and 
the  &ther  became  leader  of  the  band  at  the 
Garrick  Theatre.  His  son  was  his  deputy, 
and  also  organist  to  the  Catholic  Chapel, 
Sloane  Stroet.  (rerman  Reed  now  entered 
esgerly  into  the  musical  life  of  London,  was 
an  early  member  of  the  Society  of  British 
Musicians,  studied  hard  at  harmony,  counter- 
point, and  PF.  playing,  composed  much,  gave 
many  lessons,  and  took  part  in  all  the  good 
music  he  met  with.  His  work  at  the  theatre 
consisted  in  great  measure  of  scoring  and 
idapting,  and  getting  up  new  operas,  such  as 
'Fra  Diavolo'  in  1837.  In  1838  he  became 
Musical  Director  of  the  Haymarket  Theatre, 
a  post  which  he  retained  till  1851.  In  1838 
he  also  succeeded  Mr.  Tom  Cooke  as  Chapel- 
master  at  the  Royal  Bavarian  Chapel,  where 
the  music  to  the  Mass  was  for  long  noted  both 
for  quality  and  execution.  Beethoven's  Mass 
in  C  was  produced  there  for  the  first  time  in 
England,  and  the  principal  Italian  singers 
habitually  took  part  in  the  Sunday  services. 
At  the  Haymarket,  for  the  Shakespearean 
^performances  of  Macready,  the  Eeans,  the 
Cushnians,  etc.,  he  made  many  excellent 
innovations,  by  introducing,  as  overtures  and 
entr'actes,  good  pieces,  original  or  scored  by 
himself,  instead  of  the  rubbish  usually  played 
at  that  date.  During  the  temporary  closing 
of  the  theatre.  Reed  did  the  work  of  producing 
Pacini's  opera  of  'Sappho'  at  Drury  Lane 
(April  1,  1843 — Clara  Novello,  Sims  Reeves, 
etc.).  In  1844  he  married  Miss  Priscilla 
Horton,  and  for  the  next  few  years  pursued 
the  same  busy,  usefnl,  miscellaneous  life  as 
before,  directing  the  production  of  English 
opera  at  the  Surrey,  managing  Sadler's  Wells 
daring  a  season  of  English  opera,  with  his 
wife,  Miss  Louisa  Pyne,  Harrison,   etc.,  con- 


ducting the  music  at  the  Olympic  under  Mr. 
Wigan's  management,  and  making  prolonged 
provincial  tours. 

In  1855  he  started  a  new  class  of  performance 
which,  under  the  name  of  *Mr.  and  Mrs.  Ger- 
man Reed's  Entertainment,'  made  his  name 
widely  and  favourably  known  in  England.  Its 
object  was  to  provide  good  dramatic  amusement 
for  a  large  class  of  society  who,  on  various 
grounds,  objected  to  the  theatres.  It  was 
opened  at  St.  Martin's  Hall,  April  2,  1855, 
as  'Miss  P.  Horton's  Illustrative  Gatherings,' 
with  two  pieces  called  'Holly  Lodge'  and 
*  The  Enraged  Musician  '  (after  Hogarth), 
written  by  W.  Brough,  and  presented  by  Mrs. 
Reed,  with  the  aid  of  her  husband  only,  as 
accompanist  and  occasional  actor.  In  Feb. 
1856  they  removed  to  the  Gallery  of  Illustra- 
tion, Regent  Street,  and  there  produced  'A 
Month  from  Home,'  and  *My  Unfinished  Opera' 
(April  27,  1857);  *The  Home  Circuit'  and 
'Seaside  Studies'  (June  20,  1859)— all  by 
W.  Brough;  'After  the  Ball,'  by  Edmund 
Yates ;  '  Our  Card  Basket,'  by  Shirley  Brooks  ; 
'An  Illustration  on  Discord'  ('The  Rival 
Composers '),  by  Brough  (April  3,  1861) ;  and 
'The  Family  Legend,'  by  Tom  Taylor  (March 
31,  1862).  They  then  engaged  Mr.  John 
Parry,  and  produced  the  following  series  of 
pieces  specially  written  for  this  company  of 
three,  and  including  some  of  Mr.  Parry's  most 
popular  and  admirable  songs  in  the  characters 
of  Paterfamilias  at  the  Pantomime,  Mrs.  Rose- 
leaf,  etc.  etc.  : — 

*  The  Charming  Cottage.'  April 

6.  ises. 

'ThePjFamld.'  Shirley  Brooks. 
Feb.  7, 1864. 

'The  Bard  and  hU  Birthday.' 
W.  Brough.    April  20.  lE&L 

'The  Peculiar  Family.'  Do. 
March  16. 186B. 

"The  Yachting  Cruise.'  F.  C. 
Bomand.    Aprll2, 186& 

At  this  period  the  company  was  further  in- 
creased by  the  addition  of  Miss  Fanny  Holland 
and  Mr.  Arthur  Cecil,  and  soon  after  by  Mr. 
Comey  Grain  and  Mr.  Alfred  Reed.  The 
following  was  the  repertory  during  this  last 
period : — 


'  A  Dream  In  Venice.'  T.  W. 
Robertson.    March  18. 18S7. 

'  Our  Quiet  Chfttean.'  R.  Reece. 
Deo.  26. 1867. 

'Inquire  within.'  F.  C.  Bur- 
nand.    July  22. 1868. 

'  Last  of  ttie  Paladins.' R.  Beeoe. 


*  LUehenand  Fritaohen.'  Offen- 
■  .  ^ !   .4nd 

I  jnu- 


'  Near     Relations.'       Art 
Sketohley.    August  14. 1871. 
Chrlstnuis.'      Plan< 


King 
Dea  26. 1871 

'Charity  begins  at  Home.'    B. 
Roweand  Celller.    Feb.  7,  1872. 

*  My  Aunt's  Secret.'    Burnand 
,aud  Molloy.    March  S.  1872. 


'Hapi 


Aixadla.'     W.  8.  OH- 


wy  A 
bert  and  F.  Clay.    Oct  28.  1872. 

'  Very  Catching.'  Burnand  and 
MoUoy.    Not.  18. 1872. 

'I    ..Ired's   Well.'       Burnand 
and  . .  .nnan  Reed.    May  5. 1873. 


•O 
U\ 
fli^L...> 

'  Ahi^  Ag»i,     w  >  ail  l*rt  And 
F.  OLfcjr,     N(?T.  '£>, 

'  llettfi^  iii^  \  l^^{  hbcur.*    F.  C. 
Bnnuiiui,    HanJ)  ^,  IKid. 

'  Our  tplnlvt  Ucniie.'    W.  B.  OU- 
hert.    Juii^m,  IJ^O. 

'Th*  field  Et-crnit,'    r,  riay. 
JuLr  I«H  1B70. 

'  Aiirf;nMtti>liN'U't^vl/  Du.    4an. 
80,1871. 

During  this  period  a  diversion  was  made  by  the 
introduction  of  'Opere  di  Camera,'  for  four 
characters.     These  comprised  : — 

'JesayLea.'  Oxenfoid  and  Mac- 1     '  Widows  bewitdied.'  Virginia 
fiuren.  OabrleL 

' Too  Many  Cooks.'   Ofllrobach.       'AFalrVxohange'; 'AHappr 

•  The  Bleeping  Beauty.'    Balfe.  Result ' ;  '  Ching  Chow  HI.'     All 

•  The  Soldier^  Legacy.'    Oxen-  three  by  Ofltenbach. 
ford  and  Maefarren.  ' 


44 


REED 


REED-STOP 


While  the  entertainment  still  remained  at 
the  Gallery  of  Illustration,  Reed  became  lessee 
of  St.  George's  Hall  for  the  production  of  Comic 
Opera.  He  engaged  an  orchestra  of  forty  and 
a  strong  chorus,  and  *The  Contrabandista ' 
(Burnand  and  Sullivan),  '  L'Ambassadrice ' 
(Auber),  and  the  *  Beggar's  Opera '  were  pro- 
auced,  but  without  the  necessary  success.  Mr. 
Reed  then  gave  his  sole  attention  to  the  Gallery 
of  Illustration,  in  which  he  was  uniformly 
successful,  owing  to  the  fact  that  he  carried 
out  his  entertainments,  not  only  with  perfect 
respectability,  but  always  with  great  talent, 
much  tact  and  judgment,  and  constant  variety. 

When  the  lease  of  the  Gallery  of  Illustration 
expired,  the  entertainment  was  transferred  to 
St.  George's  Hall,  and  there  the  following 
entertainments  were  produced  : — 


'  H»'r  Coming.'  F.  C  Baniand 
and  Genoui  Beed. 

'  Tbo  Many  by  One.'  F.  C  Bur- 
uand  and  F.  Oowan. 

'  The  nane  Tenants ' ;  'Ancient 
BrlUraa.'  Qilbort  A'Beokett  and 
Uerman  Beed. 

•A  T9le  of  Old  China.'  F.  C. 
Burnand  and  Mnlloy. 

'  Byes  and  no  Kyea.'  W.  B.  Gil- 
bert and  G«nnan  Beed. 

'  A  Spanish  Bond ' ; '  An  Indian 

PimzIa':      *The    Wi 


Gilbert  A'Beekett  and  Oennan 
Beed. 

'Matched  and  Match.'  F.  C. 
Burnand  and  German  Beed. 

'  A  Faff  of  Sraoke. '  C.  J.  Bowe 
and  Mme.  Ooeta. 

'OorDoIle'HouM.'  a  J.  Bowe 
and  Cotefbrd  Dick. 

•A  HIght'i  SorpriM.'  Went 
Cromer  and  German  Beed. 

'  Foeter  Brothers.'  F.  C.  Bur- 
nand and  King  Hall. 

*  Happy  Bungftlow.'    A.  Lav. 


Ponle';    'The   Wicked   Duke.' 

The  following  were  produced  under  the 
management  of  Mr.  Gomey  Grain  and  Mr. 
Alfred  Reed  :— 


G. 


'  No.  204.'  F.  C.  Burnand  and 
German  Beed. 

'  Once  in  a  Century.'  G. 
A'Beekett  and  VivUn  Bllgh. 

•Our  New  Doll*'  House.'  W. 
Yardley  and  Ootoford  Dick. 

'  Answer  Paid.'  F.C.  Burnand 
and  W.  Austin. 

'  Doableday's  WIIL'  Burnand 
and  Klnc  HaU. 

'Artfiu  Automaton.'  Arthur 
Law  and  King  HaU. 

'A  Tremendous  Mystery.'  F. 
C.  Burnand  and  King  HaU. 

'  Bnchantmeot.'  A.  Iaw  and 
German  Beed. 

'  Grimstone  Grange.'  O. 
A'Beekett  and  King  Hall. 

'£100  Be  ward.'  A.  Iaw  and 
Coriiey  Grain. 

•  Back  from  India.'  Fottinger 
Stevens  and  Cotsford  Dick. 

'  The     Pirate's     Home.' 
A'Beekett  and  ViTian  Bllgh. 

'A  Christmas  Stocking.'  u. 
A'Beekett  and  Kltig  HalL 

'CasUe  Botherem.'  A.  Law 
and  Hamilton  Clarke. 

'The  Three  Hate.'  A.  A'Beekett 
and  Edouard  Marlois. 

'  A  Flying  Visit'  A.  Law  and 
Comey  Grain. 

'  The  Turquoise  Blng.'  G.  W. 
Godfrey  and  Lionel  Benson. 

'  A  Mernr  Christmas.'  A.  Law 
and  King  HalL 

'Bandford  and  Morton.'  Bur- 
nand and  A.  S.  Gatty. 

*AU  at  Sea.'  A.  Law  and 
Corney  Grain. 

'Many  Happy  Beturiia'  G. 
A'Beekett  and  Lionel  Benson. 

■A  Bright  Idea.'  A.  Law  and 
Arthur  CeeiL  j 

'Cherry  Tree  nu-m.*  A.  Law 
and  Hamilton  Clarke. 

'The  Head  of  the  Poll.'  A.  Iaw 
and  Raton  Fanlng. 

•  Nobody's  Fault.' 
Hamilton  Clarke. 

'  A  Strange  Host.' 
KlngHsU. 

•  That    Drewlful    _.,. 
A'Beekett  and  Corney  Grain. 

'A  Mountain  Heiress.'  G. 
A' Beckett  and  Lionel  Benson. 

'  Treasure  Trove."  A.  Law  and 
A.  J.  Cildicott. 


A.lAwand 
A.  Law  and 


Boy.' 


G. 


'A  Water  Cure.'    A.  Law.  Ar- 
nold FeUx,  and  George  Gear. 

'  A  Moss  Boee  Bent.'    A.  Law 
and  A.  J.  Caldloott. 

*A  Double  Event'     A.  Law, 
Alfred  Beed.  and  Carney  Grain. 

'  Fkirly  Panled.'  OUver  Brand 
and  Ham  U  ton  Clarke. 

'  A  Terrible  Fright'     A.  Law 
and  Comey  Grain. 

'Old  Knockles.'    A.  Law  and 
A.  J.  Caldicott 

'  A  Peculiar  Case.'  A.  Law  and 
G.  Grossmith. 

'  Hobbies.'  Stephens,  Yardley, 
and  O.  Gear. 

*  A  Pratty  Bequest'     M.  Wat- 
eon  and  HamUtOD  Clarke. 

'A  Night  In  Wales.'    H.  Gard- 
ner  and  Comey  Grain. 

'In  Cupid's  Court'    M.  Wat- 
eon  and  A.  J.  C^dloott 

'  A  United  Pair.'  ComynsCarr 
and  A.  J.  Caldloott 

'  The  Friar.'    Do. 

'  The Natoialist'  ComynsCarr 
and  King  HalL 

'Tally-Ho!'     M.  Watson  and 
A.  J.  Caldloott 

'Wanted  an  Heir.'    Do. 

'The    Bo'sun's     Mate.'       W. 
Browne  and  A.  J.  Caldloott 

■  Brittany  Fblk.'  Walter  Frith 
and  A.  J.  Caldicott 

'Tuppins  and  Co.'      Malcolm 
Wateon  and  Bdward  Solomon. 

'The   Verger.'    Walter  Frith 
and  King  HalL 

■Oiurnival  Time.'     M.  Wateon 
and  Comey  Grain. 

'  Poesessioo.'     Walter  Browne 
and  A.  J.  Caldloott 

'  KUUecrnmper.'     M.  Watson 
and  E.  Solomon. 

■The  Old  Bureau.'  H.  M.FauU 
and  A.  J.  Caldicott 

"The   Barley   Mow.'      Walter 
Frith  and  C.  Grain. 

'  Dan'l'a  Delight'  Archie  Arm- 
strong and  J.  W.  Elliott 

•An   0<ld   Pair.'     M.  Watson 
and  A.  J.  Caldicott 

'  Peggy's  Plot'  SomenriUe  Gib- 
ney  and  Walter  Slaughter. 

•A  Big  Bandit'    M.  Wateon 
and  W.  Slaughter. 

'Melodtainanis.'    Du. 

A.  C. 


The  accompaniments  to  these  pieces  were  played 
on  a  pianoforte  and  harmonium.  For  many 
years  the  'Musical  Sketches'  of  Mr.  Comey 
Grain  were  a  principal  attraction  of  the  enter- 
tainment. German  Reed  died  at  Upper  East 
Sheen,  Surrey,  March  21,  1888,  and  in  1895 
the  entertainments  came  to  an  end,  with  the 
deaths  of  Alfred  German  Reed,  March  10,  and 
Corney  Grain,  March  16.  An  attempt  was 
made  to  revive  the  enterprise,  but  without  effect. 

Mrs.  German  Reed,  ii4e  Prihcilla  Hokton, 
was  bom  at  Birmingham,  Jan.  1,  1818.  From 
a  very  early  age  she  showed  unmistakable  quali- 
fications for  a  theatrical  career,  in  a  fine  sti-oug 
voice,  great  musical  ability,  and  extraordinary 
power  of  mimicry.  She  made  her  first  appear- 
ance at  the  age  of  ten,  at  the  Surrey  Theatre, 
under  Elliston's  management,  as  the  Gipsy  Girl 
in  'Guy  Mannering.'  After  this  she  was  con- 
stantly engaged  at  the  principal  metropolitan 
theatres  in  a  very  wide  range  of  parts.  Her 
rare  combination  of  great  ability  as  a  singer, 
with  conspicuous  gifts  as  an  actress,  and  most 
attractive  appearance,  led  to  a  very  satisfactory 
step  in  her  career.  On  August  16,  1837,  she 
signed  an  agreement  with  Macready  for  his 
famous  performances  at  Covent  Garden  and 
Drury  Lane,  in  which  she  acted  Ariel,  Ophelia, 
the  FooP  in  *Lear,'  the  Attendant  Spirit  in 
*Comus,'  Philidel  in  *  King  Arthur,'  and  Acis 
in  'Acis  and  Galatea.'  After  the  conclusion 
of  this  memorable  engagement,  Miss  Hortou 
became  the  leading  spirit  in  Planoh^'s  graceful 
burlesques  at  the  Haymarket  Theatre.  On 
Jan.  20,  1844,  she  married  Mr.  German  Reed, 
and  the  rest  of  her  career  lias  been  related  under 
his  name.  She  died  at  Bexley  Heath,  March 
18,  1896,  a  few  days  after  her  son  and  Comey 
Grain.  g. 

reed-stop.  When  the  pipes  of  an  organ, 
controlled  by  a  draw-stop,  produce  their  tone 
by  means  of  a  vibrating  tongue  striking  the 
face  of  a  reed,  the  stop  is  called  a  Reed-stop  ; 
when  the  pipes  contain  no  such  reeds,  but  their 
tone  is  produced  merely  by  tlie  impinging  of 
air  against  a  sharp  edge,  tiie  stop  is  called  a 
Flue-stop.  Any  single  pipe  of  the  former  kind 
is  called  a  Reed-pipe,  any  single  pipe  of  the 
latter  kind,  a  Flue-pipe.  Pipes  containing  Free 
reeds  are  seldom  used  in  English  organs,  but 
are  occasionally  found  in  foreign  instruments 
under  the  name  of  Physharmonika,  etc.  [See 
Harmonium,  Reed.]  The  reed-stoiw  consisting 
of  *  striking-reeds '  are  voiced  in  various  ways 
to  imitate  the  sounds  of  the  Oboe,  Cor  Anglais, 
Clarinet,  Bassoon,  Horn,  Cornopean,  Trumi)et, 
etc.,  all  of  which  are  of  8 -ft  pitch  (that  is,  in 
unison  with  the  diapason).  The  Clarion  4-ft. 
is  an  octave  reed-stop.  The  Double  Trumpet 
16 -ft.  is  a  reed-stop  one  octave  lower  in  pitch 
than  the  diapason ;  it  is  also  called  a  Conti-a- 
ix)8aune,  or  sometimes  a  Trombone.    Reed-stops 

I  See  Jtaereadg'B  AeniiMlweneet,  by  Sir  P.  Pollock,  ii.  99. 


REEL 


REEVE 


45 


of  the  trumpet  dasB  are  often  placed  on  a  very 
high  pressure  of  wind  under  such  names  as 
Taha  inirabilis,  Tromba  mi^'or,  etc. ;  such  high- 
pressure  reed-stops  are  generally  found  on  the 
Solo-manual ;  the  reed-stops  of  the  Great  organ 
being  of  moderate  loudness  ;  those  on  the  Choir 
organ  altogether  of  a  softer  character.  A  very 
much  larger  proportion  of  reed-stops  is  usually 
assigned  to  the  Swell  organ  than  to  any  other 
manual,  owing  to  the  brUliant  crescendo  which 
they  produce  as  the  shutters  of  the  swell-box 
open.  Reed-stops  are  said  to  be  'harmonic' 
when  the  tubes  of  the  pipes  are  twice  their 
normal  length  and  perforated  half-way  with  a 
small  hole.  Their  tone  is  remarkably  pure  and 
brilliant.  The  best  modem  organ-builders  have 
made  great  improvements  in  the  voicing  of  reed- 
stops,  which  are  now  produced  in  almost  infinite 
variety  both  as  to  quality  and  strength  of 
tone.  J.  ». 

REEL  (Anglo-Saxon  hreol,  connected  with  the 
Suio-Grothic  rtdla,  *  to  whirl ').  An  ancient  dance, 
the  origin  of  which  is  enveloped  in  much  ob- 
scurity. The  fact  of  its  resemblance  to  the 
Norwegian  HcUlungf  as  well  as  ita  popularity 
in  Scotland,  and  its  occurrence  in  Denmark,  the 
north  of  England,  and  Ireland,  has  led  most 
writers  to  attribute  to  it  a  Scandinavian  origin, 
although  its  rapid  movements  and  lively  char- 
acter are  opposed  to  the  oldest  Scandinavian 
danoe-rhythma.  The  probability  is  that  the 
reel  is  of  Keltic  origin,  perhaps  indigenous  to 
Britain,  and  from  there  introduced  into  Scandi- 
navia. In  Scotland  the  reel  is  usually  danced 
by  two  oouples  ;  in  England — where  it  is  now 
almost  only  found  in  connection  with  the  Sword 
Dance,  as  performed  in  the  North  Riding  of 
Yorkshire — it  is  danced  by  three  couples.  The 
figures  of  the  reel  differ  slightly  according  to 
the  locality  ;  their  chief  feature  is  their  circular 
character,  the  dancers  standing  face  to  face  and 
describing  a  series  of  figures  of  eight.  The 
music  consists  of  8-bar  phrases,  generally  in 
common  time,  but  occasionally  in  6-4.  The 
Irish  reel  is  played  much  faster  than  the  Scotch  ; 
in  Yorkshire  an  ordinary  hompi{)e-tune  is  used. 
The  following  example,  *Lady  Nelson's  Reel,' 
is  from  a  MS.  collection  of  dances  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  present  writer : — 


[In  Newefnm  SeoUand  (1591)  it  is  stated 


that  *  Giles  Duncan  did  go  before  them  playing  a 
reill  or  dance  upon  a  small  trump. '  Tlie  Irish 
reel,  which  is  apparently  alluded  to  here,  is  in 
2-4,  orcommon  time,  and  isalwaysdancedsingly : 
the  first  eight  bars,  danced  in  steps,  are  followed 
by  a  round  for  the  next  eight  bars,  when  the 
original  steps  are  resumed,but  reversed,  w.  h.  g.  f.  T 

An  example  of  the  Danisli  reel  will  be  found 
in  Engel's  *  National  Music '  (London,  1866). 

One  of  the  most  characteristic  Scotch  reels  is 
the  Reel  of  Tulloch  (Thulichan)  :— 


Others,  equally  good,  are  *  Colonel  M'Bean*a 
Reel,'  *Ye're  welcome,  Charlie  Stuart,'  *The 
Cameronian  Rant,'  *  Johnnie's  friends  are  ne'er 
pleased,'  and  *  Flora  Macdonald.' 

For  the  slow  Reel  see  Strathspey,    w.  b.  s. 

REEVE,  William,  bom  1757 ;  after  quitting 
school,  was  placed  with  a  law  stationer  in  Chan- 
cery Lane,  where  his  fellow-writer  was  Joseph 
Munden,  afterwards  the  celebrated  comedian. 
Determined,  however,  upon  making  music  his 
profession,  he  became  a  pupil  of  Richardson, 
organist  of  St.  James's,  Westminster.  In  1781 
ho  was  appointed  organist  of  Totnes,  Devonshire, 
where  he  remained  till  about  1783,  when  he  was 
engaged  as  composer  at  Astley's.  He  was  next 
for  some  time  an  actor  at  the  regular  theatres. 
In  1791,  being  then  a  chorus  singer  at  Covent 
Garden,  he  was  applied  to  to  complete  the  com- 
position of  the  music  for  the  ballet-pantomime 
of '  Oscar  and  Malvina, '  left  unfinished  by  Shield, 
who,  upon  some  differences  with  the  manager, 
had  resigned  his  appointment.  Reeve  thereupon 
produced  an  overture  and  some  vocal  music, 
which  were  much  admired,  and  led  to  his  being 
appointed  composer  to  the  theatre.  In  1792 
he  was  elected  organist  of  St.  Martin,  Ludgate. 
In  1802  he  became  part  ])roprietor  of  Sadler's 
Wells  Theatre.  His  principal  dramatic  com[K)- 
sitions  were  'Oscar  and  Malvina,'  and  *Tippoo 
Saib,*  1791  ;  'Orpheus  and  Eurydice,'  partly 
adapted  from  Gluck,  1792  ;  *  The  Apparition,' 
'British  Fortitude,'  'Hercules  and  Omphale,' 
and  'The  Purse,'  1794;  'Merry  Sherwood' 
(containing  Reeve's  best-known  song,  '  I  am  a 
Friar  of  orders  grey '),  1796;  'Harlequin  and 
Oberon,'  1796,  *  Bantry  Bay,'  'The  Round  . 
Tower,'  and  '  Harlequin  Quixote,'  1797 ;  '  Joan 
of  Arc,'  and  '  Ramah  Droog'  (with  Mazzinghi), 

1798  ;  '  The  Turnpike  Gate '  (with  Mazzinghi), 
'The  Embarkation,*  and  'Thomas  and  Susan,' 

1799  ;  'Paul  and  Virginia'  (with  Mazzinghi), 
and  'Jamie  and  Anna,'  1800;  'Harlequin's 
Almanack,*  'The  Blind  Girl '  (with  Mazzinghi), 
1801;  'The  Cabinet'  (with  Braham,  Davy, 
and  Moorehead),  and  '  Family  Quarrels '  (with 
Braham  and  Moorehead),  1802 ;  'The  Caravan,' 


46 


REEVES 


REEVES 


1803;  *The  Dash/  and  *  Thirty  Thousand' 
(with  Davy  and  Braham),  1804  ;  *  Out  of  Place* 
(with  Braham),  and  'The  Corsair,'  1805  ;  *The 
White  Plume,'*RokebyCastle,'and*  An  Bratach,' 
1806;  'Kais'  (with  Braham),  1808;  <  Tricks 
upon  Travellers '  (part),  1810;  and  'The  Out- 
side Passenger '  (with  Whitaker  and  D.  Corn), 
1811.  He^vrote  music  for  some  pantomimes 
at  Sadler's  Wells;  amongst  them  'Bang  up,' 
by  C.  Dibdin,  jun.,  containing  the  favourite 
Clown's  song,  *  Tippity witchet, '  for  Grimaldi. 
He  was  also  author  of  The  Juvenile  Preceptor, 
cr  Entertaining  Instinietor,  etc.  He  died  June 
22,  1816.  w.  H.  H. 

REEYES,  John  Sims,  son  of  a  musician  in 
the  Royal  Artillery,  was  born  at  Woolwich, 
Sept  26,1  1818  (^ifemairs  of  the  RoyaJ,  AHil- 
Itry  Band,  by  H.  G.  Farmer  (1904),  p.  74  If.). 
He  received  his  early  musical  instruction  from 
his  father,  and  at  fourteen  obtained  the  post 
of  organist  at  North  Cray  Church,  Kent.  Upon 
gaining  his  mature  voice  he  determined  on 
becoming  a  singer,  and  [after  a  year  spent  in 
studying  for  the  medical  profession]  in  1839 
made  his  first  appearance  at  the  Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne  Theatre,  as  the  Gipsy  Boy  in  *  Guy 
Mannering,'  and  subsequently  performed  Dan- 
4ini  in  'La  Cenerentola,'  and  other  baritone 
parts.  The  true  quality  of  his  voice,  however, 
having  asserted  itself,  he  placed  himself  under 
J.  W.  Hobbfl  and  T.  Cooke,  and  in  the  seasons 
•of  1841-42  and  1842-43  was  a  member  of 
Macready's  company  at  Drury  Lane,  as  one  of 
the  second  tenors,  performing  such  parts  as 
the  First  Warrior  in  Puroell's  '  King  Arthur,' 
•Ottocar  in  '  Der  FreischUtz,'  and  the  like.  He 
then  went,  to  prosecute  his  studies,  first  to 
Paris  under  Bordogni,  and  subsequently  to 
Milan  under  Mazzucato ;  he  appeared  at  the 
Scala  as  Edgardo  in  Donizetti's  'Lucia  di 
Lammermoor '  with  marked  success.  Return- 
ing to  England  he  [appeared  at  various  con- 
certs, and]  was  engaged  by  Jullien  for  Drury 
Lane,  where  he  made  his  first  appearance  on 
Monday,  Dec.  6,  1847,  as  Edgar  in  '  The  Bride 
•of  Lammermoor,'  and  at  once  took  position  as 
an  actor  and  singer  of  the  first  rank.  '  His 
voice  had  become  a  pure  high  tenor  of  delicious 
quality,  the  tones  vibrating  and  equal  through- 
out, very  skilfully  managed,  and  displaying 
remarkably  good  taste.  His  deportment  as  an 
actor  was  natural  and  easy,  his  action  manly 
and  to  the  purpose,  and  exhibiting  both  jvission 
and  power,  wi^out  the  least  exaggeration.'  A 
fortnight  later  he  performed  his  first  original 
part,  Lyonnel  in  Balfe's  'Maid  of  Honour.' 
[Berlioz,  who  conducted  the  performance,  en- 
gaged him  for  the  performance  of  two  parts  of 
La  DamiuUiion  de  Fiust  at  Drury  Lane,  Feb.  7, 
1848.]  In  1848  he  was  engaged  at  Her 
Majesty's  Theatre,  and  came  out  as  Carlo  in 

1  Or  poflribly  Oct  91  (b«  entered  hla  naina  In  a '  Urthdaj  book ' 
M»  bom  on  that  day). 


Donizetti's  'Linda  di  Chamounix,'  appearing 
also  as  Florestan  in  'Fidelio.'  [His  operatic 
career  was  more  or  less  overshadowed  by  the 
great  place  he  made  for  himself  in  oratorio  ;  he 
sang  the  part  of  Faust  when  Gounod's  opera 
was  given  for  the  first  time  in  English,  at 
Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  and  for  a  few  (ler- 
formances  he  sang  Braham's  old  part  of  Sir 
Huon  in  *  Oberon.  *  Captain  Macheath,  in  *  Tlie 
Beggar's  Opera,'  was  one  of  the  last  operatic 
parts  in  which  he  appeared.]  In  the  autumn 
of  1848  he  was  engaged  at  the  Norwich  Musi- 
cal Festival,  where  he  showed  his  ability  as 
an  oratorio  singer  by  an  extraordinarily  fine 
delivery  of  '  The  enemy  said '  in  '  Israel  in 
Egypt.'  On  Nov.  24  following  he  made  his  first 
appearance  at  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society  in 
Handel's  '  Messiah.'  The  rapid  strides  which  he 
was  then  making  towards  perfection  in  oratorio 
were  shown — to  take  a  few  instances  only — 
by  his  performances  in  '  Judas  Maooabssus '  and 
'Samson,'  'Elijah,'  'St  Paul,' and  'Lobgesang,' 
and  '  Eli '  and  '  Naaman '  (both  composed  ex- 
pressly for  him).  [He  sang  in  Bach's  '  St. 
Matthew  Passion/  under  Stemdale  Bennett, 
when  the  work  was  given  for  the  first  time  in 
England  in  1854.]  But  his  greatest  triumph 
was  achieved  at  the  Handel  Festival  at  the 
Crystal  Palace  in  1857,  when,  after  singing  in 
'Messiah'  and  'Judas  Maccabeeus'  with  in- 
creased reputation,  he  gave  '  The  enemy  said ' 
in  'Israel  in  Egypt'  with  such  remarkable 
power,  fire,  and  volume  of  voice,  breadth  of 
style,  and  evenness  of  vocalisation,  as  com- 
pletely electrified  his  hearers.  He  repeated 
this  wonderful  performance  at  several  succeed- 
ing festivals,  and  in  the  Handelian  repertory 
nothing  was  more  striking  than  his  delivery  of 
'Total  Eclipse'  from  'Samson.'  [He  was  the 
first  representative  of  various  tenor  parts  in 
oratorios  and  cantatas  that  are  for  the  most  part 
forgotten  in  the  present  day^  such  as  Benedict's 
'St.  Peter,'  Bennett's  'May  Queen,'  Sullivan's 
*  Prodigal  Son '  and  '  Light  of  the  World. '  His 
singing  of  '  Tom  Bowling '  and  '  Come  into  the 
garden,  Maud '  remained  unapproachable  until 
the  end  of  his  life.  It  was  unfortunate  that 
he  was  compelled  by  adverse  circumstances  to  go 
on  singing  after  lus  voice  had  begun  to  decay. 
His  farewell  concert  took  place  at  the  Albert 
Hall  on  May  11,  1891,  but  he  sang  afterwards 
at  Covent  Garden,  and  at  music  halls.  Some 
critics,  who  only  heard  him  in  his  last  days,  were 
inclined  to  question  whether  he  had  ever  been 
great,  but  their  doubts  were  without  foundation. 
In  the  quarter  of  a  century  during  which  his  voice 
was  at  its  best,  he  sang  on  the  orchestra  with 
Jenny  Lind,  Clara  Novello,  Tietjens,  Adelina 
Patti,  and  Christine  Nilsson,  and  held  his  own 
with  them  all.  Assuredly  none  but  a  great 
artist  oould  have  done  that.  Even  in  his  vocal 
decay  there  was  nothing-  harsh  or  ugly.  He 
neyer  sang  off  the  key,  and  even  when  he  was 


REFORMATION  SYMPHONY,  THE 


REGAL 


47 


nearly  seventy  his  legato  singing  was  a  model 
of  steadiness  and  breath  management  The 
expression  <  yoice  colouring '  was  not  much  used 
in  Sims  Reeves's  day,  but  of  the  art  implied  in 
the  words  he  was  a  past  master.  No  one  could 
"nith  greater  certainty  find  the  exact  tone  to 
fit  the  most  varied  emotions.  It  was  a  com- 
prehensive talent  indeed  that  could  range  at 
will  from  the  levity  of  Captain  Macheath's 
songs  to  the  poignant  pathos  of  Handel's 
*  Deeper  and  deeper  still,'  the  emotional  warmth 
of  Beethoven's  'Adelaide/  or  the  cycle  *An 
die  feme  Geliebte.'  He  died  at  Worthing, 
Oct.  25, 1900.]  Sims  Reeves  married,  Nov.  2, 
1850,  Miss  EscMA  Lucombis,  soprano  singer, 
who  had  been  a  pupil  of  Mrs.  Blane  Hunt,  and 
appeared  at  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society's 
concert  of  Jnne  19,  1839,  and  sang  there  and 
at  other  concerts  until  1845,  when  she  went 
to  Italy.  She  returned  in  1848,  and  appeared 
in  opera  as  well  as  at  concerts.  She  retired 
from  public  life  and  occupied  herself  as  a 
teacher  of  singing,  for  which  she  had  a  de- 
servedly high  reputation.  [She  died  at  Upper 
Norwood,  June  10,  1895  ;  and  in  the  same 
year  her  husband  married  his  pupil,  Miss  Maud 
Rene,  with  whom  he  went  on  a  successful  con- 
cert tour  in  South  Africa  in  1896.]  His  son 
Herbert,  after  a  careful  education  under  his 
father  and  at  Milan,  made  his  successful  debut 
at  one  of  Mr.  Ganz's  concerts  (June  12,  1880), 
and  met  with  considerable  favour  from  the 
public,  w.  H.  H.  ;  additions  from  the  Did.  of 
yat,  Biog.,  S.  H.  Pardon,  Esq.,  etc 

REFORMATION  SYMPHONY,  THE. 
Mendelssohn's  own  name  for  his  Symphony  in 
D  minor,  written  with  a  view  to  performance  at 
the  Tercentenary  Festival  of  the  Augsburg  Pro- 
testant Confession,  which  was  intended  to  be 
celebrated  throughout  Germany  on  June  25, 
1 830.  The  first  mention  of  it  appears  to  be  in 
a  letter  of  his  own  from  North  Wales,  Sept,  2, 
1829.  On  May  25,  1830,  he  writes  from 
Weimar  that  it  is  finished,  and  when  copied 
will  be  sent  to  Leipzig.  It  was  not,  however, 
then  performed  ;  the  political  troubles  of  that 
year  prevented  any  festive  demonstrations.  In 
Januaiy  and  March,  1832,  it  was  in  rehearsal 
in  Paris,  but  it  did  not  come  to  actual  per- 
formance tm  November  1832,  when  it  was 
played  under  his  own  direction  at  Berlin.  It 
was  not  repeated  during  his  life,  but  was  re- 
vived at  the  Crystal  Palace,  Nov.  30,  1867. 
It  was  afterwards  played  at  the  Gewandhaus, 
Leipzig,  Oct.  29,  1868,  and  was  published  in 
score  and  parts  by  Novello  k  Co.,  and  by 
Simrock  as  *  Symphony  No.  5 ' — op.  107,  No. 
36  of  the  posthumous  works.  The  first  Allegro 
is  said  to  represent  the  conflict  between  the  old 
and  new  religions,  and  the  Finale  is  founded 
on  Luther's  Hymn,  *  Ein'  feste  Burg  ist  unser 
Oott'  One  of  the  most  prominent  themes  of 
the  work  is  the  beautiful  ascending   phrase 


known  as  the  'Dresden  Amen,'  which  has 
been  used  with  marvellous  effect  in  Wagner's 
'Parsifal.'  g.  • 

REFRAIN  (Fr.  He/rain ;  Germ.  JieimJcchr). 
This  word  is  used  in  music  to  denote  what  in 
poetry  is  called  a  '  burden,'  ue.  a  short  sentence 
or  phrase  which  recurs  in  every  verse  or  stanza. 
It  was  probably  first  employed  in  music  in  order 
to  give  roundness  and  unity  to  the  melody,  and 
was  then  transferred  to  the  poetry  which  was 
written  especially  for  music.  Such  collections 
as  the  '  &hos  du  temps  pass^ '  give  an  abundance 
of  examples  in  French  music,  where  songs  with 
refrains  are  most  frequently  to  be  found.  *  Lil- 
liburlero '  may  be  cited  as  one  English  instance 
out  of  many.  [See  vol.  ii.  p.  781.]  Schubert's 
four  Refrain  -  Lieder  were  published  as  op. 
95.  M. 

REGAL  (Fr.  li^ale  ;  It.  It^gale  or  Kinfale). 
[The  word  may  be  derived  from  *regulus,*  the 
idea  of  gradation  being  inherent  in  a  keyboard. 
The  wooden  harmonicon,  when  played  with  a 
keyboard,  was  at  one  time  called  'regale  en 
hois.']  This  name  describes  a  variety  of  organ, 
which  is  especially  interesting  as  being  in  some 
ways  the  prototype  of  the  modern  harmonium. 
It  consists  of  a  single  row  of  *  beating '  reeds,  the 
pipes  of  which  are  in  some  instances  so  small 
as  hardly  to  cover  the  reeds.  A  fine  specimen 
Is  in  the  possession  of  the  Brussels  Conservatoire, 
and  was  lent  to  the  Inventions  Exhibition  in 
1885.  The  name  'bible  regal'  is  the  title  of 
another  variety,  the  peculiarity  of  which  consists 
in  its  being  arranged  to  fold  in  two,  on  a  similar 
principle  to  that  on  which  leather  backgammon 
boards  are  made.  The  bellows  are  covered  with 
leather,  so  that  when  the  instrument  is  folded 
it  presents  the  appearance  of  a  large  book. 
Praetorius  in  his  Syntag^na,  vol.  iii.  pi.  iv., 
gives  a  view  of  one,  which  in  its  extended  con- 
dition, bellows  and  all,  appears  to  be  about 
3  ft.  6  in.  by  3  ft.  He  ascribes  (ii.  p.  73) 
the  invention  to  a  nameless  monk  ;  others  give 
it  to  YoU,  an  oi^gan-builder  at  Nuremberg  in 
1575.  The  specimen  preserved  in  the  Mus^e 
of  the  Conservatoire  at  Paris  is  said  to  date 
from  the  end  of  the  16th  century,  and  has  a 
compass  of  four  octaves.  The  instrument  has 
been  long  since  extinct,  but  the  name  '  regal ' 
is  still  applied  in  Germany  to  certain  reed- 
stops.  [The  word  is  used  by  Fetis,  Rimbault, 
and  Engel  to  denote  the  portable  organ  of  the 
12th  and  13th  centuries.  Mr.  Hipkins  \)ob- 
sessed  a  remarkably  fine  specimen,  believed  to 
be  unique  as  far  as  Great  Britain  is  concerned. 
It  is  smaller  than  the  Brussels  one,  being  2  ft 
5  in.  wide,  and  (with  the  bellows)  3  ft.  8  in. 
long.  The  compass  is  from  E  to  c"'.  The 
sharps  are  of  boxwood  stained  black,  the  naturals 
of  bird's-eye  maple.  The  keys  are  not  balanced 
but  hinged.  The  instrument  is  of  oak,  and  is 
dated  1629,  with  no  maker's  name.] 

In  the  inventory  of  Henry  VIII. 's  musical 


48 


REGAN 


REQER 


instruments  [Harleian  MS.,  1419,  A  fol.  200], 
we  find  thirteen  pairs  of  single  regalls  (the  ^pair ' 
ifteant  only  one  instrument)  and  five  pairs  of 
double  regalls  (that  is  with  two  pipes  to  each 
note).  The  name  continued  in  use  at  the  Eng- 
lish Court  down  to  1773,  the  date  of  the  death 
of  Bernard  Gates,  who  was  *  tuner  of  the  Regals 
in  the  King's  household.'  For  further  parti- 
culars the  reader  is  referred  to  Mr.  A.  J.  Hip- 
kins's  Musical  InstrumerUs  (A.  &  C.  Black, 
1887),  where  instruments  are  figured;  also  to 
the  same  writer's  History  of  the  Pianoforte^ 
1898.  a;  with  additions  from  MS.  notes  left 
by  Mr.  Hipkins. 

REGAN,    Anna,     soprano    singer.       [See 

SCHIMON.] 

REGER,  Max,  was  bom  March  19,  1873,  at 
Brand,  a  village  near  Kemnath  in  Bavaria,  and 
left  his  native  place  when  but  a  year  old  for 
Weiden,  whither  his  father,  who  was  a  teacher, 
was  transferred  in  1874.  There  he  received  his 
first  musical  training  through  his  father  and  the 
organist,  whose  name  was  Lindner.  In  1890 
he  went  to  study  with  Riemann  at  Sonders- 
hausen,  whom  he  followed  to  Wiesbaden  on  the 
latter 's  appointment  to  the  Conservatorium,  and 
became  himself  a  teacher  there  in  1895,  till 
in  1896  he  was  called  to  the  service  of  his 
country.  After  recovering  from  a  severe  illness 
he  returned  to  his  own  home  in  1898,  removed 
again  in  1901,  this  time  to  Munich,  where  he 
married. 

Of  all  the  composers  of  the  modem  German 
school  of  chamber  and  church  music  Herr  Reger 
occupies  a  place  that  is  probably  the  most  pro- 
minent of  any,  and  the  fact  that  his  publishers 
attest  to  an  enormous  sale  of  his  works  in  Berlin 
and  other  musical  centres  must  contribute  to 
that  belief.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  he  is  a 
composer  gifted,  as  a  celebrated  German  critic 
remarks,  with  strong  individuality,  and  that  he 
handles  with  the  utmost  facility  the  art  of 
counterpoint ;  but  to  a  large  number  of  persons 
at  the  present  day  his  resources  of  harmony  and 
his  indulgences  in  rhythm  and  in  form  will 
appear  so  infinite  as  to  fog  even  a  most  attentive 
and  experienced  listener  with  their  complexity. 
Truly,  however,  his  compositions  contain  remark- 
able and  original  effects.  In  his  songs,  to  quote 
the  aforesaid  critic,  *  hat  er  sich  vielfach  von 
einer  Stromung  fortreissen  lassen,  welche  das 
Grundwesen  des  Liedes  zerstort.*  To  which  he 
adds  that  Herr  Reger's  powers  of  invention  are 
so  rich  that  only  the  employment  of  a  conscious 
limitation  of  his  artistic  means  instead  of  an 
intentional  eclipse  of  his  forerunners  is  to  be  de- 
sired of  him,  and  he  would  then  be  the  master  to 
continue  the  direct  line  of  the  gi'eat  German  com- 
posers. For  a  man  of  thirty-four  years  of  age 
the  number  of  his  compositions  is  enormous,  as 
will  be  seen  from  the  catalogue  below,  which,  it 
will  be  noticed,  contains  only  one  number  for 
orchestra  (op.  90). 


Op. 

1.  Scmata  for  rloUn  and  piano,  in  O  minor. 
*i.  Trlu  for  piano,  rioUu  and  viola. 
S.  Sonata  for  Tiolln  and  piano,  in  D. 

4.  SlzSonipk 

5.  Sonata  fur  Tlolonoello  and  piano,  in  F  minor. 
,,  f  Two  Sacred  Songi  with  orgau. 

Isooga  for  4  voiow  with  piano. 

7.  Three  Oqptn  pleoea. 

8.  PiveSoniis. 

8.  '  Walaer  Kaprioen '  (piano  picoes  for  4  handa). 

10.  '  Deutache  Tunie '  (piano  picoes  fbr  4  hands). 

11.  WaltM*  for  PF..  solo. 
VL  FiveSonga. 

13.  '  Loee  BUtter.'  PF.  mIo. 

1^  Doeta  for  aopiano  and  alto,  with  piano. 

lA.  TanSonga. 

18.  Suite  in  E  minor,  for  organ. 

17.  '  Ana  der  Jumndaelt.'  twenty  pieora  for  PF.  sola 

18.  '  Improriaauoa,'  PF.  aolo. 

19.  Two  Sacred  Songa,  with  organ. 
90.  Fire  Hnmareaken  for  PF.  solo. 

81.  Hymn  '  An  der  Oeeang '  (male  ehoroa,  with  orcheitra). 

as.  SU  Waitaaa.  for  piano  (4  handa). 

8S.  Four  Songa. 

94.  Six  Pieces  for  PF.  aolo. 

SB.  Aquarellen  for  PF.  aolo. 

98.  Seren  Ftuitadestaeke  for  PF.  aolo. 

97.  Fantasia  for  organ  on  '  Bin'  feat*  Bxag.' 

88.  Sonata  for  piano  and  vloloDoallo.  in  O  minor. 

98.  Fantaale  anid  Fogae.  0  minor,  for  ornn. 
"    '    •   '  .-    ..  ■■  -  ^^,  o  nieine  Seele.' 


90.  Fantasie  for  organ  on  '  Freu'  dich  a 


SI.  Six  Songs. 

39.  Seven  CharaoterlaUe  Pieces  for  PF.  aolo. 

83.  Sonata  for  Organ.  Ft  uiiiior. 

34.  *  Pl«aea  Pittoiwquea  for  piano  (4  hands). 

33.  StxBoQfi. 

36.  Bante  BUtter,  nine  small  piecea  for  PF.  aolo. 

37.  FiveSonga. 

(Two  Tnlutnr^  of  Folk-songa  fbr  male  chorus  (a  5-9). 
^a  I  TwLi  vi>lijriv^  1  of  Folk-songs  for  mixed  thanu  (a  6-8). 
**■  *  si^jLTwi  i>rr  ir  an  Folk-songs  (a  7-18). 

\  -Sevr<n  rh>  r  <ses  for  male  voices. 
39.   Ttir^t'  ^1 1  F^L't  Choruses  for  mixed  voices. 
J.  I    I.  l-Aiitk^i.  on  '  Wie  schOn  leucht't  uns der  Morgenstem.' 
*'-|  II,  iHiLi^.i  'Straf  michnicht  in  deinemZoru' (both  for  organ). 
41.  -:  -MnUi  111  A  ror  violin  and  piano. 

.Lir  Hijij^tu  for  violin,  in  D  minor.  A.  B  minor,  and  G  minor. 


42. 
43. 
44. 
48.  ^      ■■  ■ d  for  piano. 

46.  1  Fugue  on  BACH  for  oigMi. 

47.  -^  i^.-.^  i—  organ. 

48.  Seven  Songs. 

«i  /  Fonr  Sonatas  for  violin  alone  (one  in  the  ityle  of  Bach). 

ITwo  Sonatas  for  clarinet  and  piano. 
80.  Two  Bomauoea  fbr  violin  in  G  and  D. 
51.  Twelve  Songs. 

f  Organ  Fantasie  on  '  Alle  Mensehen  mOsseu  aterbeo.' 
88.  i  Ditto.  '  Wachet  anf.  raft  una  die  Stimme.' 

^  Ditto.  •  HalleluK  Gott  zu  loben.' 

53.  '  Silhouetten '  for  piano. 

54.  Three  String  Quartette  in  O,  A.  and  D  minor. 
56.  Fifteen  Songs. 

56.  Five  easy  Preludes  and  Fugues  for  organ. 

ip.  /  Variations  on  '  Hell  nnserm  K8nig,  Hell.' \  «^.    .^^., 

^-  isymphonic  Fantaale  and  Fugue.  /  ^  °'^^°- 

66.  Six  Burlesken  for  PF.  (4  hands). 

SO.  Twelve  Pieces  for  ornn. 

00.  Sonata  for  oqpitn  in  D  minor. 

{'  Palmsonntagmorgen '  (6  voices  a  cappella). 
Der  evangellsche  Klrchenchor  (for  4  voices),  forty  Raay  Com- 
positions fbr  church  performance. 

62.  Sixteen  Songs. 

63.  Twelve  Monologues  for  the  organ. 

64.  String  quintet  in  C  Minor  (two  vioUos.  two  Ttolaa,  and  riokn* 

cello). 
66.  Twelve  Piecea  fbr  organ. 

66.  Twelve  Bonn. 

67.  Flfty-thrm  Basy  'Choral  Voraplele' 
69.  Blx  Bongs. 

69.  Ten  Organ  Pieces. 

70.  Seventeen  Songs. 

71.  'Oesang  der  Verkttrten'  (for  8- voiced  choir  and  grand  or< 

chestra). 

72.  Sonata  for  piano  and  violin. 

7:1.  Variations  and  Fugue  on  an  original  theme  for  organ. 

74.  Btrinc  quartet  in  D  minor. 

75.  EiRhtecn  Sodkh. 

7R.  Fifteen  '  Sohllchte  Weii«n '  for  piano  and  voice. 

77.  (a)  Serenade  in  D  for  flute,  violin,  and  viola. 

(6)  Trio  in  A  minor  for  violin,  viola,  and  violonceUa 

78.  Boiwta  for  violoncello  and  PF.  in  F. 

79.  Fourteen  volumes  of  Pieces  for  piano,  for  organ,  for  piano  and 

violin,  for  piano  and  violoncello,  and  songs. 

80.  Five  Easy  Preludes  and  Fugues.  Bach's  Two-part  Inventions 

arranged    as  organ  trios  (with  K.  Straube),  and  twelve 
pieces  fdf  organ. 

81.  Variations  and  Fugue  on  a  theme  of  J.  S.  Bach,  for  PF.  solo. 

82.  Twelve  small  ploovs  for  PF.  solo, '  Aus  melnem  l^tgebuche.' 

83.  Bight  Songs  for  male  chorus. 

84.  Sonatas  for  PF.  and  violin  in  Ff  minor. 

85.  Four  Preludes  for  the  organ. 

86.  Variations  and  Fugue  on  a  theme  by  Beathovwi  for  two  PFs. 

(4  hands). 

87.  Two  Compoadtions  for  violin  and  PF. 

88.  Four  Songi. 

8B.  Two  Sonatas  (B  minor  and  D)  for  PF.  sohk. 
80.  SlnfoniattofororohMtm. 


REGGIO 


REGNART 


49 


Wilhout  opoB  nntnbecs  axe : — 

T««  Book*  of  Quwns  (IBBS)  for  PP. 

PF.  TkBoacripCtom  of  Uach.  KuhUv,  tie.,  tor  PP.  lolo  and 

diwca, 
Poor  •  Hcitsrv  Lled«r/ 


Pour  PF.  BtudlM  for  tlie  left  baud  alone. 

Fire  PF.  8tiidi«a  (amnffeuiente  of  Chopin's  worka). 

■Wi^enlled.' 

PlMw  Tnuuetlptloni  of  aoiVi  ty  Hofo  Wotf  and  Richard 


Dar  Evangdfaefae  Ktrdienehor.  conaiatlng  of — 
Book  L  For (7  CMiy  acred  aonga  (8.  A.T.B.)  tor  aU  fMUvala, 

In  four  Mrlca. 
fiook  IL    Cantatn  'O  «i«  •ells'  tor  mixed  choir  and  con- 

gnfatlon,  with  aooomi»niinent  of  strinn  and  organ. 
Book  IIL    OantaU  for  Oood  Friday.  'O  Hanpt  voU  Blut 
nod  Wundea,'  for  alto  and  tenor  (or  aopr.)  aoloa,  mixed 
^fiir.  TloUn  aolo.  oboe  solo,  and  organ. 
For  male  ehonia : — 
Kise  Tolkdieder. 
Five  volkalieder. 
T«^T«  nuMlrigala. 
For  mtxiod  choir  :— 
Si^t  volkalieder. 
Six  volkalieder. 

Twelve  Qemiaa  eacred  aongs  (In  three  hooka). 
'  Komm.  helHser  Qdat.' 

*  Ba  Oel  cin  Thau,'  for  ft-part  oholr. 

*  VocB  Himmel  hoeh.'  for  4-part  choros.  two  aolo  violina, 

choir,  and  ooocrecatlon.  with  organ  or  harmonium. 
For  Orgao :— BdiiiU  dee  Trioepiela  (arrangements  of  Bach'a 

S-part  invratlona.  wiUi  K.  Btranbe). 
Boinanae,  also  for  hftrmoniura. 
Sooss  with  organ  or  piano. 
Amogcaienta  of  fifteen  of  Bach's  clftvier  works  for  orpin. 

Armofements  of  souga  for  hanuoniuio. 
FF.  and  Tioltn :— Pottte  Caprice.  Bomanao  |0  major),  and 

WiagenUed. 
For  PF.  and  TiotonoelJo :— Caprloe. 
For  Toiee  and  PP. :— Sixteen  aangs. 
PF.  aoto :— Perpetaum  mobile,  Kl^e,  Hurooreske,  Bomanse. 

Jlaawnt  muslcsl.  Schenino.  Albumblatt,  FrfthlinVBlied, 

MAodlc.  two  Humorwken.  Naehtatttck. 
Oaaone  In  all  major  and  minor  k«ya.  Book  I.  in  two  parts. 

Book  II.  In  three  parts. 
Four  special  studies  for  left  hand  stone  >-8ehetso,  Humoreske, 

Bomamw.  and  Prdude  and  Fogoe. 
Regiments- Marseh  der  ehenutligoi  HannoTenohen  Armeo 


A  new  set  of  orchestcal  variations  is  annonnoed  for  perform- 
aooe  in  the  winter  of  1W7-& 
Utenry  work :— ileiCnflfe  xur  ModulaHonMtn  (Contribution  to 
the  Rnlee  of  Modnlatlon).  g^  y^  ^^ 

REGGIO,  PiZTRO,  born  at  Genoa  in  the  first 
quarter  of  the  17th  centuiy,  was  private  musi- 
cian (Intenist  and  singer)  to  Queen  Christina 
of  Sweden  after  her  abdication.  After  her  final 
departnre  from  Rome,  Reggio  came  to  England 
and  settled  at  Oxford,  where,  in  1677,  he  pub- 
lished A  Treatise  to  sing  well  any  Song  whcUso- 
evir.  In  1680  he  issued  a  book  of  songs  dedi- 
cated to  the  king,  and  containing  the  earliest 
setting  of  *  Arise,  ye  subterranean  winds,*  from 
Shadweirs  'Tempest,'  afterwards  set  by  Purcell. 
(See  Sammelbafndc  oi  the  InL  Mua.  Oes.  v.  553.) 
Seven  Italian  songs  are  in  the  British  Museum 
in  MS.,  two  duets  in  the  Fitzwilliam  Museum 
at  Oambridge,  and  a  three-part  motet  in  the 
Christ  Church  Library,  Oxford.  Reggio  died 
in  London,  July  23,  1685  (Hawkins),  and  was 
buried  in  St  Giles's  in  the  Fields.  M. 

REGIS,  Jeai7,  a  Flemish  musician  of  the 
latter  part  of  the  15  th  century,  usually  reckoned 
along  with  Busnois,  Caroii,Obrecht,  and  Okeghem 
as  bdonging  to  the  transitional  school  of  com- 
poeeiB  between  Dufay  and  Binchois  on  the  one 
hand,&nd  Josquin  Despres  on  the  other.  Tinctoris 
mentions  him  with  special  distinction.  He  was 
for  a  time  master  of  the  choir-boys  in  Antwerp 
Cathedral,  and  is  also  supposed  to  have  been  in 
personal  relation  with  Dufay.  Though  he  does 
not  appear,  like  Dnfay,  to  have  ever  been  a 
member  of  the  Papal  Choir,  two  of  his  masses 
were  copied  into  the  great  choir-books  of  the 

VOL.  IV 


Sistine  Chapel,  which  are  so  far  interesting  as 
showing  the  curious  custom  of  the  time  in 
combining  different  liturgical  texts.  Thus,  in 
one  of  them,  while  the  two  upper  voices  sing  the 
usual  words  of  the  mass  the  tenor  sings  the  *  Ecoe 
ancilla  Domini, '  and  the  Bass  '  Ne  timeas  Maria, ' 
which  would  seem  to  show  that  this  mass  was 
specially  composed  for  the  festival  of  the 
Annunciation.  In  the  other,  the  Alto  and 
Tenor  sing  'Dum  sacrum  mysterium  cemeret 
Joannes,'  which  would  imply  the  work  to  be 
intended  for  the  festival  of  St.  John  the 
Evangelist  Begis  is  also  the  author  of  a  masa 
*L'omme  arme,'  in  the  Archives  of  Cambrai, 
and  of  a  few  other  pieces  in  the  collections  of 
Petrucci.  The  setting  of  a  popular  song  *  S'il 
vous  plaisait '  a  4,  transcribed  by  Kiesewetter  in 
his  Schickmle  und  BeschafferiheU  des  welUichen 
Oesanges,  serves  to  show  the  skill  of  Regis  as  a 
contrapuntal  harmonist  of  the  time  in  a  very 
favourable  light.  J.  R.  M. 

REGISTER,  of  an  organ.  Literally,  a  set 
of  pipes  as  recorded  or  described  by  the  name 
written  on  the  draw-stop  ;  hence,  in  general,  an 
organ-stop.  The  word  *  register '  is,  however, 
not  quite  synonymous  with  *stop,'  for  we  do 
not  say  'pull  out,  or  put  in,  a  register,'  but, 
'a  stop,'  although  we  can  say  indifferently  'a 
large  number  of  registers'  or  *  of  stops.'  The 
word  is  also  used  as  a  verb  ;  for  example,  the 
expression  *  skill  in  registering '  or  'registration ' 
means  skill  in  selecting  various  combinations 
of  stops  for  use.  The  word  *  stop '  is,  however, 
never  used  as  a  verb  in  this  sense.  j.  s. 

REGISTER  is  now  employed  to  denote  a 
portion  of  the  scale.  The  'soprano  register,' 
the  'tenor  register,'  denote  that  part  of  the 
scale  which  forms  the  usual  compass  of  those 
voices  ;  the  *  head  register '  means  the  notes 
which  are  sung  with  the  head  voice ;  the  'chest 
register '  those  which  are  sung  from  the  chest ; 
the  'upper  register'  is  the  higher  portion  of 
the  compass  of  an  instrument  or  voice,  and  so 
on.  How  it  came  to  have  this  meaning,  the 
writer  has  not  been  able  to  discover.  o. 

REGISTRATION  (or  REGISTERING)  is 
the  art  of  selecting  and  combining  the  stops 
or  *  registers '  of  the  organ  so  as  to  produce  the 
best  effect  See  Oroan-Playixo,  vol.  iii.  pp. 
562-64. 

REGNART,  surname  of  a  family  of  Flemish 
musicians  who  flourished  towards  the  end  of 
the  16th  century.  There  were  five  brothers, 
one  of  whom,  Augustiu  (not  August,  as  given 
by  Eitner,  which  would  corresjx)nd  to  Augustus 
in  Latin  but  not  to  Augustinus)  was  a  canon  of 
the  Church  of  St.  Peter's,  Lille  (not  Douai,  as 
Eitner  suggests  in  the  QuellenrLexikon,  forget- 
ting the  words  of  the  dedication  partly  quoted 
by  himself  in  his  Bibliographies  p.  216),i  and 
in   1590    edited   and    published   at    Douai  a 

1  Bee  also  Goovaert's  BiUioffmphie.  p.  908 ;  but  ho  contradicts 
himself  by  elsewhere  (p.  S3)  deerrlliing  Angostlu  Begnart  as  Canon 
of  St.  Peter's.  Louvain. 


50 


REGNART 


REGONDI 


Collection  of  thirty -nine  Motets,  a  4-6,  oomposed 
by  his  four  brothers  Francis,  Jacob,  Paschasius, 
and  Charles  Regnart.  The  work  appropriately 
bears  on  its  title-page  the  motto,  *  £cce  quam 
bonam  et  quam  jucundum  fratres  habitare  in 
unum,'  Psal.  132.  The  full  title  is  *  Novae 
Cantiones  Sacrae,  4,  5,  et  6  vocum  turn  in- 
strumentorum  cuivis  generi  turn  vivae  voci 
aptissimae,  authoribus  Francisco,  Jacobo,  Pas- 
casio,  Carolo  Regnart,  fratribus  germanis '  (an- 
other incidental  mistake  of  Eitner  is  that  of 
taking  the  word  'germanis'  as  indicative  of 
nationality,  and  explaining  it  on  the  ground 
that  Flanders  was  then  part  of  Germany,  while 
all  that  the  word  really  implies  is  that  the 
brothers  were  full  brothers).  Of  the  four 
brothers  only  two  attained  any  real  position  or 
eminence  as  composers,  Francis  and  Jacob.  The 
other  two  are  only  represented  by  three  motets 
a  piece  in  this  Collection,  and  of  their  careers 
nothing  is  known  with  any  certainty.  Of 
Francis,  Augustin  tells  us  that  he  had  pursued 
his  studies  at  the  University  of  Douai  and  the 
Cathedral  of  Toumai.  Besides  the  twenty-four 
motets  in  the  Collection  above  mentioned, 
Francis  Regnart  is  chiefly  known  by  a  book  of 
fifty  Chansons  a  4-5,  'Ponies  de  Ronsard  et 
autres,'  originally  published  at  Douai  by  Jean 
Bogaerd  in  1575,  and  afterwards  at  Paris  by 
Le  Roy  and  Ballard  in  1579.  These  Chansons 
have  now  been  republished  in  modem  score  by 
H.  Expert  in  his  collection  'Les  Maitres 
Musiciens  de  la  renaissance  Fran^aise.'  F^tis 
mentions  a  book  of  Missae  tres  a  4-5,  by 
Francis  Regnart,  published  by  Plan  tin  in  1582, 
but  there  is  no  trace  of  such  a  publication  in 
Goovaert's  Bibliographiey  and  Eitner  knows 
nothing  of  it. 

Of  the  life  and  works  of  Jacob  Regnart 
we  have  fuller  information.  He  was  early 
received  as  an  Alumnus  of  the  Imperial  Chapel 
at  Vienna  and  Prague.  In  1 564  he  is  desig- 
nated as  tenor  singer  in  the  chapel  ;  and  as  a 
member  of  the  chapel  accompanied  the  Emperor 
to  the  Augsburg  Diet  of  1566.  In  1573  he  is 
mentioned  as  musical  preceptor  to  the  boys  of 
the  choir,  and  before  1579  became  the  vice- 
capellmeister.  In  1580  he  was  offered  by  the 
Elector  of  Saxony  the  post  of  capellmeister  at 
Dresden  vacant  by  the  death  of  Scandelli,  but 
declined.  In  1582,  however,  he  left  the 
imperial  service  to  enter  that  of  the  Archduke 
Ferdinand  at  Innsbruck,  where  he  remained  as 
capellmeister  till  1595.  He  then  returned  to 
Prague,  where  he  died  in  1600.  Shortly  before 
his  death,  in  the  dedication  of  a  book  of  Masses 
to  the  Emperor,  Rudolf  II.,  which,  however, 
was  not  published  till  afterwards,  he  recom- 
mended to  the  care  of  the  Emperor  his  wife 
and  six  children.  The  widow,  a  daughter  of 
Hans  Vischer,  the  famous  bass  singer  in  the 
Electoral  Chapel  at  Munich  under  Orlando 
Lassus,  returned  to  Munich,  where  she  occupied 


herself  in  preparing  for  publication  in  1602-3 
three  volumes  of  her  husband's  Masses,  con- 
taining altogether  29  a  5,  6,  8,  and  10,  also  a 
book  of  Sacrae  Cantiones,  a  4-12,  35  Nos. 
The  other  sacred  works  of  Regnart  which  ap- 
peared during  his  lifetime  wore  a  book  of 
Sacrae  Cantiones,  a  5-6,  1575,  and  one  a  4, 
1577  ;  also  one  entitled  MaricdCy  1588,  Marian 
Motets  composed  by  way  of  thanksgiving  for 
recovery  from  severe  illness.  He  was,  however, 
even  more  widely  known  by  his  secular  works, 
which  consist  of  (1)  two  books  of  Canzone 
Italiane,  a  5  (1574-81),  (2)  two  books  entitled 
Threni  Amorum,  German  secular  songs,  a  5 
(1595),  and  (3)  several  collections,  a  3,  4,  5, 
entitled  '  Eurtzweilige  teutsche  Lieder  nach  Art 
der  Neapolitanen  oder  welschen  Villanellen' 
(1676-91).  Of  the  Utter,  the  collection  of 
67  a  3  was  republished  by  Eitner  in  modem 
score  in  1895.  They  are  written  in  the  simple 
melodious  Italian  canzonet  style,  without  any 
artificiality  of  counterpoint.  In  some  intro- 
ductory lines  of  verse  the  composer  apologises 
for  his  frequent  intentional  employment  of 
consecutive  fifths  in  the  harmony  as  being  in 
accordance  with  the  simple  popular  character  he 
wished  to  give  these  songs.  The  melody  of 
one  of  them,  '  Venus  du  und  dein  Kind,'  has 
become,  with  a  slight  alteration  in  the  first  line, 
the  chorale  tune  well-known  later,  '  Auf  meinen 
lieben  Gott.'  Two  of  Regnart's  other  songs, 
a  5,  which  have  something  more  of  imitative 
counterpoint,  have  been  reprinted  in  Commer's 
selection  of  'Geistliche  und  weltliche  Lioder 
aus  der  xvi-xvii  Jahrh.'  None  of  his  Latin 
motets  have  been  reprinted,  with  the  exception 
of  one  which  found  admission  into  the  Evan- 
gelical Ooika  CanticmcU  of  1655,  whence  it  has 
been  reproduced  in  Schoberlein's  Sehatz,  His 
Masses,  several  of  them  based  on  the  themes  of 
German  popular  songs,  must  have  been  popular 
in  their  day,  judging  from  the  MS.  copies  of 
them  enumerated  in  Eitner  as  surviving  in 
various  church  archives.  A  Passion  according 
to  St.  Matthew,  a  8,  by  Regnart  survives  only 
in  MS.,  of  which  some  account  is  given  in 
Eade,  DU  aelUre  PassionakomposUumen,  pp. 
60-62.  J.  R.  u. 

REGONDI,  GiULio,  of  doubtful  parentage, 
bom  at  Geneva  in  1822.  His  reputed  father 
was  a  teacher  in  the  Gymnasium  of  Milan.  The 
child  appeara  to  have  been  an  infant  pheno- 
menon on  the  guitar,  and  to  have  been  sacrificed 
by  his  father,  who  took  him  to  every  court  of 
Europe,  excepting  Madrid,  before  he  was  nine 
years  old.  They  arrived  in  England  in  June 
1831  ;  and  Giulio  seems  never  to  have  left  the 
United  Kingdom  again  except  for  two  concert 
tours  in  Germany,  one  with  Lidel,  the  violon- 
cellist, in  1841,  the  other  with  Mme.  Dulcken 
in  1 8  4  6.  On  the  former  of  these  tours  he  played 
both  the  guitar  and  the  melophone  (whatever 
that  may  have  been),  and  evoked  enthusiastic 


REHEARSAL 


REICHA 


61 


praises  from  the  correspondents  of  the  A,  M, 
Zeilung  in  Prague  and  Vienna  for  his  extraordi- 
nary execution  on  both  instniments,  the  very 
artistic  and  individual  character  of  his  perform- 
ance, and  the  sweetness  of  his  caniabile.  The 
concertina  was  patented  by  Sir  Charles  Wheat- 
stone  in  1829  [see  Ck)NCBRTiNA],  but  did  not  come 
into  use  till  Begondi  took  it  up.  He  wrote  two 
concertos  for  it,  and  a  very  large  number  of 
arrangements  and  original  compositions.  He  also 
taught  it  largely,  and  at  one  time  his  name  was 
to  be  seen  in  almost  all  concert  programmes.  He 
was  a  great  friend  of  Molique's,  who  wrote  for 
him  a  CSoncerto  for  the  Concertina  (in  G)  which 
he  played  with  great  success  at  the  concert  of 
the  Musical  Society  of  London,  April  20,  1864. 
When  he  went  abroad  for  his  second  tour,  his 
]jerformance  and  the  effect  which  he  got  out  of 
so  unpromising  and  inartistic  an  instrument 
astonished  the  German  critics.  (See  the  A.  M. 
Zeitung  for  1846,  p.  853.)  Begondi  appears  to 
have  been  badly  treated  by  his  father,  and  to 
have  had  wretched  health,  which  carried  him 
off  on  May  6,  1872.  o. 

REHEARSAL  (Fr.  Ji^Uwr^  Ger.  Frobe), 
In  the  case  of  concerts,  a  trial  performance  pre- 
liminary to  the  public  one,  at  which  each  piece 
included  in  the  programme  is  played  through 
at  least  once,  if  in  MS.  to  detect  the  errors  in- 
evitable in  the  parts,  and  in  any  case  to  study 
the  work  and  discover  how  best  to  bring  out 
the  intentions  of  the  composer,  and  to  ensure 
a  perfect  eiuemble  on  the  part  of  the  performers. 
In  England,  owing  to  many  reasons,  but  princi- 
pally to  the  oYer-occupation  of  the  players,  suffi- 
cient rehearsals  are  seldom  given  to  orchestral 
works.  The  old  rule  of  the  Philharmonic  Society 
(now  happily  altered)  was  to  have  one  rehearsal 
on  Saturday  moniing  for  the  performance  on 
Monday  evening,  and  the  Saturday  Popular  Con- 
certs were  originally,  in  like  manner,  rehearsals 
for  the  Monday  evening  concertSw  No  new  works 
can  be  efficiently  performed  with  less  than  two 
rehearsals  ;  and  in  the  case  of  large,  intricate, 
and  vocal  works,  many  more  are  requisite.  We 
have  it  on  record  that  Beethoven's  £b  Quartet, 
op.  127,  was  rehearsed  seventeen  times  before 
its  first  performance  ;  the  players  therefore  must 
have  arrived  at  that  state  of  familiarity  and 
certainty  which  a  solo  player  attains  with  a 
concerto  or  sonata. 

In  the  case  of  Operas,  every  practice  of  either 
chorus,  principals,  or  orchestra,  separately  or 
together,  is  termed  a  rehearsal.  These  will  some- 
times continue  every  day  for  six  weeks  or  two 
months,  as  the  whole  of  the  voice-music,  dialogue, 
and  action  has  to  be  learnt  by  heart.  Whilst 
the  chorus  is  learning  the  music  in  one  part  of 
the  theatre,  the  principals  are  probably  at  work 
with  the  composer  at  a  piano  in  the  green-room, 
and  the  ballet  is  being  rehearsed  on  the  stage. 
It  isonly  when  the  musicand  dialogue  are  known 
by  heart  that  the  rehearsals  on  the  stage  with 


action  and  business  begin.  The  orchestra  is 
never  used  until  the  last  two  or  three  rehearsals, 
and  these  are  termed  Full  Band  Behearsals 
(Germ.  GetiercU-probe).  Last  of  all,  before  the 
public  production  of  the  work,  comes  the  Full 
Dress  Behearsal,  exactly  as  it  will  appear  in 
performance.  g. 

BEICHA,  Anton  Joseph,  born  at  Prague, 
Feb.  27,  1770,  lost  his  father  before  he  was  a 
year  old ;  his  mother  not  providing  properly 
for  his  education,  he  left  home,  and  took  refuge 
with  his  grandfather  at  Glattow,  in  Bohemia. 
The  means  of  instruction  in  this  small  town 
being  too  limited,  he  went  on  to  his  uncle 
Joseph  Beicha  (bom  in  Prague,  1746,  died  at 
Bonn,  1795),  a  violoncellist,  conductor,  and 
composer,  who  lived  at  Wallerstein  in  Bavaria. 
His  wife,  a  native  of  Lorraine,  speaking  nothing 
bat  French,  had  no  children,  so  they  adopted 
the  nephew,  who  thus  learned  to  speak  French 
and  German  besides  his  native  Bohemian.  He 
now  began  to  study  the  violin,  pianoforte,  and 
flute  in  earnest.  On  his  uncle's  appointment, 
in  1788,  as  musical  director  to  the  Elector  of 
Cologne,  he  followed  him  to  Bonn,  and  entered 
the  band  of  Maximilian  of  Austria  as  second 
flute.  The  daily  intercourse  with  good  music 
roused  the  desire  to  compose,  and  to  become 
something  more  than  an  ordinary  musician, 
but  his  uncle  refused  to  teach  him  harmony. 
He  managed,  however,  to  study  the  works  of 
Kimberger  and  Marpurg  in  secret,  gained  much 
practical  knowledge  by  hearing  the  works  of 
Handel,  Mozart,  and  Haydn,  and  must  have 
learned  much  from  his  constant  intercourse  witli 
Beethoven,  who  played  the  viola  in  the  same 
band  with  himself  and  was  much  attached  to 
him.  At  length  his  perseverance  and  his  success 
in  composition  conquered  his  uncle's  dislike.  He 
composed  without  restraint,  and  his  symphonies 
and  other  works  were  played  by  his  uncle's 
orchestra.* 

On  the  dispersion  of  the  Elector's  Court  in 
1794,  Beicha  went  to  Hamburg,  where  he  re- 
mained till  1799.  There  the  subject  of  instruc- 
tion in  composition  began  to  occupy  him,  and 
there  he  composed  his  first  operas,  'Godefroid 
de  Montfort,'  and  '  Oubaldi,  on  les  Franfais  en 
%ypte'  (two  acts).  Though  not  performed, 
some  numbers  of  the  latter  were  well  received, 
and  on  the  advice  of  a  French  ^mlgr6,  he  started 
for  Paris  towards  the  close  of  1799,  in  the  hopi> 
of  producing  it  at  the  Thd&tre  Feydeau.  In  this 
he  failed,  but  two  of  his  symphonies,  an  over- 
ture, and  some  'Scenes  Italiennes,'  were  played 
at  concerts.  After  the  successive  closing  of  the 
Theatre  Feydeau  and  the  Salle  Favart,  he  went 
to  Vienna,  and  passed  six  years  (1802-8),  in 
renewed  intimacy  with  Beethoven,  and  making 
friends  with  Haydn,  Albrechtsberger,  Salieri, 
and  others.    The  patronage  of  the  Empress  Maria 

1  Bee  an  tnt«rMtlDg  notice  by  Kutoer,   quoted  by   Thayer, 
BftthoMH,  i.  188. 


52 


REICHA 


REICHARDT 


Theresa  was  of  great  aervioe  to  him,  aiid  at  her 
request  he  composed  an  Italian  opera,  '  Argina, 
regina  di  Granata. '  During  this  happy  period 
of  his  life  he  published  symphonies,  oratorios, 
a  requiem,  six  string  quintets,  and  many  solos 
for  PF.  and  other  instruments.  He  himself 
attached  great  importance  to  his  '36  Fugues 
pour  le  piano,'  dedicated  to  Haydn,  but  they 
are  not  the  innovations  which  he  believed  them 
to  be  ;  in  placing  the  answers  on  any  and  every 
note  of  the  scale  he  merely  reverted  to  the 
Ricercari  of  the  I7th  century,  and  the  only 
effect  of  this  abandonment  of  the  classic  laws  of 
Real  fugue  was  to  banish  tonality. 

The  prospect  of  another  war  induced  Reicha 
to  leave  Vienna,  and  he  settled  finally  in  Paris 
in  1808.  He  now  realised  the  dream  of  his 
youth,  producing  first  'Caglioetro*  (Nov.  27, 
1 8 1 0 ),  an  opera-comique  composed  with  Dourlen ; 
and  at  the  Academic,  *  Natalie '  (three  acts,  July 
30, 1816),  and  *  Sapho '  (Dec.  16, 1822).  Each 
of  these  works  contains  music  worthy  of  respect, 
but  they  had  not  sufficient  dramatic  effect  to 
take  with  the  public. 

Reicha's  reputation  rests  on  his  chamber- 
music,  and  on  his  theoretical  works.  Of  the 
former  the  following  deserve  mention :  a  diecetto 
for  five  strings  and  five  wind  instruments  ;  an 
octet  for  four  strings  and  four  wind  instruments  ; 
twenty-four  quintets  for  flute,  oboe,  clarinet, 
horn  and  bassoon ;  six  quintets  and  twenty 
quartets  for  strings ;  one  quintet  for  clarinet 
and  strings  ;  one  quartet  for  PF.,  flute,  violon- 
cello, and  bassoon  ;  one  do.  for  four  flutes  ;  six 
do.  for  flute,  violin,  tenor,  and  violoncello  ;  six 
string  trios ;  one  trio  for  three  violoncellos ; 
twenty- four  do.  for  three  horns ;  six  duets  for 
two  violins;  twenty -two  do.  for  two  flutes; 
twelve  sonatas  for  PF.  and  violin,  and  a  number 
of  sonatas  and  pieces  for  PF.  solo.  He  also 
composed  symphonies  and  overtures.  These 
works  are  more  remarkable  for  novelty  of  com- 
bination and  striking  harmonies,  than  for 
abundance  and  charm  of  ideas.  Reicha's  faculty 
for  solving  musical  problems  brought  him  into 
notice  among  musicians  when  he  first  settled  in 
Paris,  and  in  1818  he  was  oflerod  the  professor- 
ship of  counterpoint  and  fugue  at  the  Conser- 
vatoire. Among  his  pupils  there  were  Boilly, 
Jelenspei^r,  Bienaim^,  Millaut,  Lefebvre, 
Elwart,  Pollet,  Lecarpentier,  Dancla,  and 
others. 

His  didactic  works,  all  published  in  Paris, 
are  :  TraiU  de  Melodic,  etc.  (4 to,  1814)  ;  Cours 
de  composiHon  mimecUe,  etc  (1816)  ;  TraiU  de 
hauU  compo8Uian  mtuicale  (first  part  1824, 
second  1826),  a  sequel  to  the  other  two ;  and 
Art  du  compositeur  dramalique^  etc.  (4to,  1833). 

F^tis  has  criticised  his  theories  severely,  and 
though  highly  successful  in  their  day,  they  are 
now  abandoned,  but  nothing  can  surpass  the 
clearness  and  method  of  his  analysis,  and  those 
who  use  his  works  will  alwi^ys  find  much  to 


be  grateful  for.  Czerny  published  a  German 
translation  of  the  Traits  de  Jutute  composUion 
(Vienna,  1834,  four  vols,  folio),  and  in  his  Art 
(fimproviser  obviously  made  use  of  Reicha's 
Art  de  varier — fifty -seven  variations  on  an 
original  theme. 

Reicha  married  a  Parisian,  was  naturalised  in 
1829,  and  received  the  L^on  of  Honour  in 
1831.  He  presented  himself  several  times  for 
election  to  the  Institut  before  his  nomination 
as  Boieldieu's  successor  in  1835.  He  only 
enjoyed  his  honours  a  short  time,  being  carried 
off  by  inflammation  of  the  lungs.  May  28,  1836. 
His  death  was  deplored  by  the  many  friends 
whom  his  trustworthy  and  honourable  character 
had  attached  to  Mm.  A  life-like  portrait, 
somewhat  spoiled  by  excessive  laudation,  is 
contained  in  the  Notice  sur  Iteicha  (Taris^  1837, 
8vo),  by  his  pupil  Delaire.  o.  c. 

REICHARDT,  Alexander,  a  tenor  singer, 
was  bom  at  Packs,  Hungary,  Apri]  17,  1825. 
He  received  his  early  instruction  in  music  from 
an  uncle,  and  made  his  first  appearance  at  the 
age  of  eighteen  at  the  Lemberg  theatre  as  Rodrigo 
in  Rossini's  *  Otello.*  His  success  there  led  him 
to  Vienna,  where  he  was  engaged  at  the  Court 
Opera,  and  completed  his  education  under 
Gentiluomo,  Catalani,  etc.  At  this  time  he 
was  much  renowned  for  his  singing  of  the 
Lieder  of  Beethoven  and  Schubert,  and  was  in 
request  at  all  the  soirees ;  Prince  Esterhazy 
mskde  him  his  Kammersanger.  In  1846  he 
made  a  towm^e  through  Berlin,  Hanover,  eta, 
to  Paris,  returning  to  Vienna.  In  1851  he 
made  his  first  ap])earance  in  England,  singing 
at  the  Musical  Union,  May  6,  and  at  the  Phil- 
harmonic, May  12,  at  many  other  concerts,  and 
before  Queen  Victoria.  In  the  following  season 
he  returned  and  sang  in  Berlioz's  *  Romeo  and 
Juliet,'  at  the  new  Philharmonic  Concert  of 
April  14,  also  in  the  Choral  Symphony,  Berlioz's 
*  Faust,'  and  the  *  Walpurgisnight,'  and  enjoye<I 
a  very  great  popularity.  From  this  time  until 
1857  he  passed  each  season  in  England,  singing 
at  concerts,  and  at  the  Royal  Opera,  Drury 
Lane,  and  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  where  lie 
filled  the  parts  of  the  Count  in  '  The  Barber  of 
Seville,'  Raoul  in  '  The  Huguenots,'  Belmont  in 
the  *  Seraglio,'  Don  Ottavio  in  *  Don  Juan,' 
and  Florestan  in  'Fidelio.'  Tlie  last  was  a 
very  successful  impersonation,  and  in  this  part 
he  was  said  *  to  have  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
popularity  which  he  has  so  honourably  earned 
and  maintained  in  London.'  He  also  appeared 
with  much  success  in  oratorio.  In  1857  he 
gave  his  first  concert  in  Paris,  in  the  Salle 
Erard,  and  the  following  sentence  from  Berlioz's 
report  of  the  performance  will  give  an  idea  of 
his  style  and  voice.  '  M.  Reichardt  is  a  tenor 
of  the  first  water — sweet,  tender,  sympathetic 
and  charming.  Almost  all  his  pieces  were  re- 
demanded,  and  he  sang  them  again  without  a 
sign  of  fatigue. '    In  1 860  he  settled  in  Boulogne, 


REICHARDT 


REICHARDT 


53 


where  he  died  March  14,  1885.  After  he  retired 
from  the  active  exerciae  of  his  profession  he 
was  not  idle.  He  organised  a  Philharmonic 
Society  at  Boulogne ;  he  was  President  of  the 
Academie  Commnnale  de  Musique,  and  his 
oecasional  concerts  for  the  benefit  of  the  hospital 
—  where  one  ward  is  entitled  'Fondation 
Beichardt* — were  among  the  chief  musical 
events  of  the  town.  Beichardt  was  a  composer 
as  well  as  a  singer.  Several  of  his  songs  were 
very  popular  in  their  day.  o. 

REICHARDT,  Johaxn  Friedrioh,  composer 
and  writer  on  music  ;  son  of  a  musician  ;  born 
Not.  25,  1752,  at  Konigsberg,  Prussia.  From 
childhood  he  showed  a  great  disposition  for 
mnsio,  and  such  intelligence  as  to  interest  in- 
flnential  persons,  under  whose  care  he  was 
educated  and  introduced  into  good  society,  and 
thus  formed  an  ideal  both  of  art  and  of  life 
which  he  could  scarcely  have  gained  had  he 
been  brought  up  among  the  petty  privations  of 
his  original  position.  Unfortunately,  the  very 
gifla  which  enabled  him  to  adopt  these  high 
aims,  fostered  an  amount  of  conceit  which  often 
led  him  into  difficulties.  His  education  was 
more  various  than  precise,  music  he  learned  by 
practioe  rather  than  by  any  real  study.  His 
liest  instrument  was  the  violin,  on  which  he 
attained  considerable  proficiency  under  Yeicht- 
ner,  a  pupil  of  Benda's ;  but  he  was  also  a 
good  pianist.  Theory  he  learned  from  the 
organist  Richter.  On  leaving  the  university  of 
Kbnigsberg  he  started  on  a  long  tour,  ostensibly 
to  see  the  world  before  choosing  a  profession, 
though  he  had  virtually  resolved  on  becoming 
a  musician.  Between  1771  and  1774  he  visited 
Berlin,  Leipzig,  Dresden,  Vienna,  Prague, 
Brunswick,  and  Hamburg,  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  the  chief  notabilities — ^musical,  literary, 
and  political — in  each  place,  and  became  himself 
in  some  sort  a  celebrity,  after  the  publication 
of  his  impressions  in  a  series  of  Vertraute 
Brirfen  etnea  aufmerksamen  Jteisendeiif  in  two 
parts  (1774  and  1776).  On  his  return  to  KonigS' 
berg  he  went  into  a  government  office,  but 
hearing  of  the  death  of  Agricola  of  Berlin,  he 
applied  in  person  to  Frederick  the  Great  for 
the  vacant  post  of  Capellraeister  and  Court- 
composer,  [sending  him  his  opera  *  Le  feste 
galanti,']  and  though  barely  twenty -four 
obtained  it  in  1776.  He  at  once  began  to 
introduce  reforms,  both  in  the  Italian  opera 
and  the  court  orchestra,  and  thus  excited  much 
opposition  from  those  who  were  more  conserva- 
tive than  himself.  While  thus  occupied  he 
was  indefatigable  as  a  composer,  writer,  and 
condactor.  In  1783  he  founded  the  'Concerts 
Spirituels'  for  the  performance  of  unknown 
works,  vocal  and  instrumental,  which  speedily 
gained  a  high  reputation.  He  published  col- 
lections of  little -known  music,  with  critical 
observations,  edited  newspapers,  wrote  articles 
and  critiques  in  other  periodicals,  and  produced 


independent  works.  But  enemies,  who  were 
many,  contrived  to  annoy  him  so  much  in  the 
exercise  of  his  duties,  that  in  1785  he  obtained 
a  long  leave  of  absence,  during  which  he  visited 
London  and  Paris,  and  heard  Handel's  oratorios 
and  Gluck's  operas,  both  of  which  he  heartily 
admired.  In  both  places  he  met  with  great 
success  as  composer  and  conductor,  and  was 
popular  for  his  social  qualities  ;  but  neither  of 
his  two  French  operas  'Tamerlan'  and  'Panth^e,' 
composed  for  the  Academie,  was  performed. 
On  the  death  of  Frederick  the  Great  (1786) 
his  successor  confirmed  Reichardt  in  his  office, 
and  he  produced  several  new  operas,  but  his 
position  became  more  and  more  disagreeable. 
His  vanity  was  of  a  peculiarly  offensive  kind, 
aud  his  enemies  found  a  weapon  ready  to  their 
hand  in  his  avowed  sympathy  with  the  doctrines 
of  the  French  Revolution.  The  attraction  of 
these  views  for  a  buoyant,  liberal  mind  like 
Reichardf  s,  always  in  pursuit  of  high  ideals, 
and  eager  for  novelty,  is  obvious  enough  ;  but 
such  ideas  are  dangerous  at  court,  and  after 
further  absence  (from  1791)  which  he  spent  in 
Italy,  Hamburg,  Paris,  and  elsewhere,  he 
received  his  dismissal  from  the  Capellmeistership 
in  1794.*  He  retired  to  his  estate,  Giebichen- 
stein,  near  Halle,  and  occupied  himself  with 
literature  and  composition,  and  occasional  tours. 
In  1796  he  became  inspector  of  the  salt  works 
at  Halle.  After  the  death  of  Frederick  William 
II.  he  produced  a  few  more  operas  in  Berlin, 
but  made  a  greater  mark  with  his  Singspiele, 
which  are  of  real  importance  in  the  history  of 
German  opera.  In  1808  he  accepted  the  post 
of  Capellmeister  at  Cassel  to  Jerome  Bonaparte, 
refused  by  Beethoven,  but  did  not  occupy  it 
long,  as  in  the  same  year  we  find  him  making 
a  long  visit  to  Vienna.  On  his  return  to 
Giebichenstein  he  gathered  round  him  a  pleasant 
and  cultivated  society,  and  there,  in  the  midst 
of  his  friends,  he  died,  June  17,  1814. 

Reichardt  has  been,  as  a  rule,  harshly  judged ; 
he  was  not  a  mere  musician,  but  rather  a  com- 
bination of  musician,  litterateur,  and  man  of  the 
world.  His  overweening  personality  led  him  into 
many  difficulties,  but  as  a  compensation  he  was 
endued  with  great  intelligence,  and  with  an  ardent 
and  genuine  desire  for  progress  in  everything — 
music,  literature,  and  politics.  As  a  composer  his 
works  show  cultivation,  thought,  and  honesty : 
but  have  not  lived,  because  they  want  the  neces- 
sary originality.  This  is  specially  true  of  his 
instrumental  music,  which  is  entirely  forgotten. 
His  vocal  music,  however,  is  more  important,  and 
a  good  deal  of  it  might  well  be  revived,  especially 
his  Singspiele  and  his  Lieder.  Mendelssohn 
was  no  indulgent  critic,  but  on  more  than  one 
occasion  he  speaks  of  Reichardt  with  a  warmth 

1  Tlwre  wu  appftnntljr  some  dla»UatMUon  with  Beichvrdt'a 
effloiency  as  »  mnaidftn  m  well  m  with  hU  political  opintonx,  for 
Moiart't  remark  that  *  the  Kin^'t  hand  oniitalM  freat  ▼irtuo«l,  hut 
the  eOtect  would  be  better  if  the  gentlemen  played  together,'  oertiii  nly 
Implied  a  reflection  on  the  conductor.  Neither  does  Reichardt  aeeiu 
to  hitve  apprecUted  MoMrt  (Jahn'a  Jloaart,  ii.  410;. 


64       REICHER-KINDERMANN 


REICHMANN 


which  he  seldom  manifests  even  towards  the 
greatest  masters.  He  never  rested  until  he  had 
arranged  for  the  performance  of  Beichardt's 
Morning  Hymn,  after  Milton,  at  the  Diisseldorf 
Festival  of  1835  ;  and  his  enthnsiasm  for  the 
composer,  and  his  wrath  at  those  who  criticised 
him,  are  delightful  to  read.^  Years  afterwards, 
when  his  mind  had  lost  the  ardour  of  youth, 
and  much  experience  had  sobered  him,  he  still 
retained  his  fondness  for  this  composer,  and  few 
things  are  more  charming  than  the  genial  appre- 
ciation with  which  he  tells  Beichardt's  daughter 
of  the  effect  which  her  father's  songs  had  had, 
even  when  placed  in  such  a  dangerous  posi- 
tion as  between  works  of  Haydn  and  Mozart, 
at  the  Historical  Concert  at  the  Gewandhaus 
in  Feb.  1847.  It  is  the  simplicity,  the  naivete, 
the  national  feeling  of  this  true  German  music 
that  he  praises,  and  the  applause  with  which  it 
was  received  shows  that  he  was  not  alone  in  his 
appreciation.  Amongst  Beichardt's  numerous 
works  are  eight  operas ;  eight  Singspiele,  includ- 
ing four  to  Goethe's  poems,  '  Jery  und  Bately,' 
(1789),  'Erwin  und  Elmire,'  ^Claudine  von 
Villabella,'  and  '  Lilla  ' ;  five  large  vocal  works, 
including  Milton's  '  Morning  Hymn,'  translated 
by  Herder,  hiis  most  important  work,  in  1835  ; 
a  large  number  of  songs,  many  of  which  have 
passed  through  several  editions,  and  been  pub- 
lished in  various  collections. 

Reichardt's  writings  show  critical  acumen, 
observation,  and  judgment.  Besides  the  letters 
previously  mentioned,  he  published — Das  Knnst- 
magazin,  eight  numbers  in  two  vols.  (Berlin, 
1782  and  1791)  ;  StudienfUr  Tonkunstler  und 
Musik/retmde,  a  critical  and  historical  periodical 
with  thirty-nine  examples  (1792^ ;  FerlratUe 
Briefe  aus  PariSf  three  parts  (1804)  ;  Vertravte 
BrUfe  auf  eintr  Reiae  ruteh  Wieny  etc  (1810)  ; 
fragments  of  autobiography  in  various  news- 
])ai)er8  ;  and  innumerable  articles,  critiques,  etc. 
The  Briefe  are  specially  interesting  from  the 
copious  details  they  give,  not  only  on  the  music, 
but  on  the  politics,  literature,  and  society  of  the 
various  places  he  visited.  A  biography,  J,  F. 
Beichardi,  sein  Leben  und  seine  musikaZische 
Thdiigkeit,  by  Herr  Schletterer,  Capellmeister 
of  the  cathedral  of  Augsburg,  is  unfinished,  two 
volumes  only  having  been  published  at  Augs- 
burg in  1865.  [For  list  of  compositions  and 
writings,  see  the  Quellen-LexihrnA         A.  M. 

REICHER-KINDERMANN,  Hedwio,  the 
daughter  of  the  celebrated  baritone,  Kindermann 
(g.  V. ),  was  bom,  July  15,  1 8  5  8,  at  Munich.  She 
was  taught  the  piano  first  by  her  mother,  and  at 
the  School  of  Music,  but  abandoned  the  same 
in  favour  of  singing,  on  the  advice  of  Franz 
Wtillner.  She  received  her  vocal  instruction 
from  her  father,  and  made  her  d^but  at  the 
Munich  Opera  as  one  of  the  boys  in  the  *  Meis- 
tersinger,'  and  next  played  small  parts  in  the 
opera,  drama,  and  ballet,  besides  singing  in 

I  Letten,  Dec.  98, 103;  Aprils,  1838. 


the  chorus,  in  order  to  gain  experience.  She 
sang  the  alto  part  in  Franz  Lachner's  Requiem 
at  Leipzig  in  1871  with  such  success  that  she 
became  engaged  at  Carlsruhe.  She  played  '  as 
guest '  at  Berlin  as  Pamina,  June  5,  and  Agathe, 
June  9,  1874  ;  she  then  returned  to  Munich, 
and  sang  Daniel  in  Handel's  'Belshazzar,' 
April  14,  1875.  Soon  after  she  married 
Emanuel  Reicher,  an  actor  at  the  Gartnerplatz 
theatre,  and  for  a  time  sang  there  in  op<^ra 
bouffe,  but  returned  to  opera  and  played  Grim- 
gerde  in  the  Ist  Cycle,  and  Erda  in  the  2nd 
Cycle,  at  Bayreuth  in  1876.  She  next  played 
at  Hamburg,  Vienna  (where  she  appeared  as 
Leah  on  the  production  of  Rubinstein's  '  Mac- 
cabees'),  and  again  at  Munich.  Having  re- 
ceived instruction  for  the  puq^ose  from  Faure 
and  Jules  Cohen  at  Paris,  she  sang  in  French 
at  Monte  Carlo  in  1880  with  such  success  that 
she  received  an  oifer  to  sing  at  La  Soala,  Milan, 
but  declined  it  in  favour  of  an  engagement  under 
Neumann  at  Leipzig,  where  she  made  her  debut 
as  Fidelio,  May  12, 1880.  She  became  a  great 
favourite,  and  remained  there  until  1 882.  She 
played  in  Neumann's  company  in  the  Trilogy  at 
Berlin  and  other  German  towns,  in  London,  and 
lastly  at  Trieste,  where  she  died  June  2, 1883. 
[See  Neumann's  Erinneruiigen,  etc.,  1907.] 

She  made  a  great  impression  at  Her  Majesty's 
Theatre  as  Frioka  on  the  production  of  '  Rhein- 
gold,'  May  5,  and  of  *  Walkiire,'  May  6,  1882, 
and  still  more  as  Briinnhilde  in  the  2nd  Cycle ; 
*  not  only  was  her  magnificent  voice  equal  to  all 
the  demands  upon  it,  but  her  presentation  of 
the  character  was  full  of  force  and  of  pathos. 
While  no  less  touching  than  Fran  Yogi  in  the 
truthfulness  of  her  expression,  she  was  more 
heroic  and  dignified  ;  the  supernatural  element 
was  brought  into  stronger  relief ...  in  the 
grand  awakening  scene  her  manner  was  perhaps 
too  coldly  dignified  and  wanting  in  the  impuK 
siveness  which  characterises  the  heroine  when 
she  has  finally  abandoned  her  supernatural 
attributes  and  become  a  true  woman.'  '    A.  c. 

REICHMANN,  Theodor,  was  bom  at  Ros- 
tock, March  15,  1849,  was  taught  to  sing  at 
first  by  Mantius,  and  subsequently  by  Lamperti 
in  Milan  ;  he  made  his  d^but  as  a  baritone  at 
Magdeburg  in  1869,  and  sang  at  Berlin,  Rot- 
terdam, Strasburg  (1872),  Hambuig  (1878), 
Munich  (1875),  and  was  a  member  of  the 
Court  Opera  at  Vienna  in  1882-89.  In  1882 
he  sang  the  part  of  Amfortas  at  Bayreuth  for 
the  first  time,  and  was  identified  with  it  for 
some  ten  years,  after  which  differences  with 
the  authorities  resulted  in  his  non-appearance 
there  until  1902.  In  the  seasons  between 
1889  and  1891  he  sang  in  New  York,  and  in 
the  latter  year  returned  to  Vienna,  becoming 
once  more  a  member  of  the  Opera  Company  in 
1893.  In  that  year  he  sang  the  part  of  Creon 
in  'Medea'  at  an  operatic  festival  at  Gotha. 

*  Athnnmrn,  M»7  90, 188L 


BEIB 

He  appeared  in  Loudon  at  Oovent  Garden  in 
18S4,  and  at  Dniiy  Lane  and  Coyent  Garden 
in  1892,  singing  the  parts  of  Wo  tan,  Hana 
Sachs,  Flying  Dutchman,  Pizarro,  and  the 
Trompeter  Ton  Sakkingen.  He  was  far  more 
popular  in  Germany  than  in  England,  where 
he  had  to  stand  comparisons  with  voices  of  far 
more  beautifal  quality  than  his.  He  died  at 
Marbach,  on  the  Lake  of  Constance,  May  22, 
1903.  M. 

REED,  GXMSRAL  JoHir,  [bom  Feb.  18, 1721, 
was  the  son  of  Alexander  Bobertaon  of  Straloch, 
Perthshire,  was  educated  at  Edinburgh  Uni- 
Yendty,  and  entered  Lord  Loudoun's  regiment 
of  H^hlanders  in  1745.  He  subsequently 
adopted  the  surname  by  which  he  is  known. 
After  the  quelling  of  the  Jacobite  rebellion,  he 
saw  active  service  in  Flanders,  Martinique, 
Havanna,  and  North  America.  He  was  in  the 
42nd  Highlanders  in  1751-70,  was  promoted 
colonel  in  1777  and  nu^or-general  in  1781. 
In  1794  he  became  colonel  of  the  88th  foot, 
and  general  in  1798,  dying  in  London,  Feb.  6, 
1807,  possessed  of  a  fortune  of  £50,000.]  By 
his  will,  made  in  1803,  he  directed  his  trustees, 
in  the  event  of  his  daughter  dying  without 
issue,  to  found  a  Professorship  of  Music  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  *  for  the  purpose  also, 
after  completing  such  endowment  as  hereinafter 
is  mentioned,  of  making  additions  to  the  library 
of  the  said  University,  or  otherwise  promoting 
the  general  interest  and  advantage  of  the 
University  in  such  .  .  .  manner  as  the  Principal 
and  Professors  .  .  .  shall  .  .  .  think  most  JUt 
and  proper.'  In  a  codicil,  dated  1806,  he  adds 
— *  Afiar  the  decease  of  my  daughter  ...  I 
have  left  all  my  property  ...  to  the  College 
of  EkiinbuTgh  where  I  had  my  education  .  .  . 
and  as  I  leave  all  my  music  books  to  the  Pro- 
fessor of  Music  in  that  College,  it  is  my  wish 
that  in  every  year  after  his  appointment  he 
will  cause  a  concert  of  music  to  be  performed 
on  the  13th  of  February,  being  my  birthday.' 
He  also  directed  that  at  this  annual  '  Reid 
Concert'  some  pieces  of  his  own  composition 
should  be  performed  *  by  a  select  baud. ' 

When  by  the  death  of  General  Reid's  daughter 
in  1838  some  £70,000  became  available,  it  seems 
to  have  been  handed  over  to  the  University 
authorities  without  sufficient  attention  to  the 
italicised  portion  of  the  following  instruction 
in  the  will :  '  that  .  .  .  my  said  Trustees  .  .  . 
shall  and  do,  by  such  instrumeni  or  inarumerUs 
as  may  be  required  by  the  law  of  SeoUamd  make 
over  the  residue  of  my  .  .  .  personal  estate  to 
the  Principal  and  Professors  of  the  said  Uni- 
versity.' And  as  no  particular  sum  was  speci- 
fied for  foundation  and  maintenance  of  the 
Chair  of  Music,  considerable  latitude  being 
allowed  to  the  discretion  of  the  University 
authorities,  the  secondary  object  of  the  bequest 
received  far  greater  care  and  attention  than 
the  primary  one,  and  for  years  the  Chair  was 


REID  CONCERTS 


55 


starved.  [On  the  history  of  the  professorship, 
see  vol  iii  p.  816.]  In  1851,  anticipating 
Professor  Donaldson's  intention  of  petitioning 
Parliament,  the  Edinburgh  Town  Council,  as 
*  Patrons '  of  the  University,  raised  an  action 
against  the  Principal  and  Professors  for  alleged 
mismanagement  and  misappropriation  of  the 
Reid  Fund.  A  long  litigation  followed,  and 
by  decree  of  the  Court  of  Session  in  1855  the 
University  authorities  were  ordered  to  devote 
certain  sums  to  the  purchase  of  a  site,  and  the 
erection  of  a  building  for  the  Class  of  music. 
The  class-room  and  its  organ  were  built  in  1861, 
and  the  Professor's  salary — which  had  been 
fixed  at  the  very  lowest  sum  suggested  by  the 
founder,  viz.  £300 — as  well  as  the  grant  for 
the  concert,  were  slightly  raised,  and  a  sum  set 
apart,  by  order  of  Sie  Court,  for  expenses  of 
class-room,  assistants,  instruments,  etc.  H.  s.  0. ; 
with  additions  from  Diet,  Nat,  Biog. 

REID  CONCERTS.  These  concerts  passed 
through  vicissitudes  almost  as  unfortunate  as 
those  to  which  the  Reid  Professorship  was 
subjected.  The  earliest  concerts  under  Pro- 
fessors Thomson  and  Bishop,  considering  the 
then  musical  taste  of  Scotland,  were  not  un- 
worthy of  General  Reid's  munificent  bequest 
The  £200  allowed  out  of  the  Reid  Fund  was 
wholly  inadequate  to  the  cost  of  a  grand  concert 
400  miles  from  London.  The  Senate  therefore 
decided  that,  besides  this  grant,  all  the  tickets 
should  be  sold,  and  that  the  proceeds  should 
assist  Professor  Thomson  in  giving  a  fine  concert ; 
and  the  following  note  was  printed  in  tlie  first 
Reid  Concert  Book  J  in  1841  :--*The  Professors 
desire  it  to  be  understood  that  the  whole  of 
these  sums ' — i.e.  the  grant  and  the  proceeds — 
<  is  to  be  expended  on  the  concert ;  and  that  in 
order  to  apply  as  large  a  fund  as  possible  for 
the  purpose,  they  have  not  reserved  any  right 
of  entry  for  their  families  or  friends.' 

This  system  was  continued  by  Sir  H.  R. 
Bishop,  and  in  1842  and  1843  the  sale  of  tickets 
enabled  him  to  give  concerts  which  were  at  least 
creditable  for  the  time  and  place. 

Upon  Professor  Donaldson's  accession  a  plan 
was  initiated  by  him  which  proved  most  un- 
fortunate. He  altered  the  system  of  admission 
by  payment  to  that  of  invitation  to  the  whole 
audience  ;  and  in  consequence  the  Reid  Concerts 
began  to  decline,  and  became  an  annual  source 
of  vexation  to  the  University,  public,  and  Pro- 
fessor. The  grant,  which  under  legal  pressure 
afterwards  seems  to  have  been  raised  to  £300, 
was  then  only  £200,  and  therefore  not  only 
was  it  impossible  to  give  an  adequate  concert 
without  loss,  but  the  distribution  of  free  tickets 
naturally  caused  jealousies  and  heartburnings  to 
'town  and  gown,'  and  the  Reid  Concert  became 
a  byword  and  the  hall  in  which  it  was  held  a 
bear-garden.     Matters  seem  to  have  culminated 

1  Beaiark»bl«  u  the  Ant  programme  iaracd  in  Grc»t  BrIUla  with 
aoAlybloal  notw. 


56 


REIMANN 


REINACH 


in  1865,  when  a  large  number  of  students,  who 
thought  that  they  had  a  right  of  entry,  broke 
into  the  ooncert-hall. 

Such  was  the  state  of  things  on  Professor 
Oakeley's  appointment  in  1865.  Finding  it 
impossible,  after  twenty  years,  to  return  to  the 
original  system  of  Thomson  and  Bishop,  he 
made  a  compromise,  by  giving  free  admissions 
to  the  Professors,  the  University  Court,  the 
students  in  their  fourth  year  at  college,  and  a 
few  leading  musicians  in  the  city,  and  admitting 
the  rest  of  the  audience  by  payment.  From 
this  date  a  new  era  dawned  on  the  Reid  Concerts ; 
the  university  and  the  city  were  satisfied,  and 
the  standard  of  performance  at  once  rose. 

In  1867  the  engagement  of  Manns  and  of 
a  few  of  the  Crystal  Palace  orchestra  produced 
very  good  results. 

In  1869  Hall^  and  his  band  were  engaged, 
and  the  demand  for  tickets  soon  became  so 
great  that  the  Professor  organised  two  supple- 
mentary performances  on  the  same  scale  as  the 
'  Reid,'  and  thus,  from  concerts  which  on  some 
occasions  seem  to  have  been  a  mere  performance 
of  ballads  and  operatic  music  by  a  starring  party, 
the  Reid  Concert  grew  into  the  'Edinburgh 
Orchestral,'  or  *Reid  Festival,'  which  in  turn 
was  converted  into  the  series  of  historical  con- 
certs described  in  vol.  iii.  p.  816.  The  Scottish 
Universities  Commission  abolished  the  'Reid 
Concert'  itself  about  1893.  6. 

REIMANN,  loNAZ  (bom  Dec.  27,  1820,  at 
Albendorf  in  the  district  of  Glatz,  died  June  17, 
1885),  became  principal  teacher  and  choir- 
master at  Rengersdorf  in  Silesia,  having  been 
4k  pupil  of  the  Breslau  Seminary.  He  was  an 
'Excessively  diligent  and  fluent  composer  of 
church  music,  and  wrote  no  fewer  than  74 
masses,  of  which  only  18  were  published,  24 
Requiems  (4  published),  4  Te  Deums  (8  pub- 
lished), 37  Litanies,  4  Oratorios,  88  Offertories 
^48  published),  50  Gradualien  (40  published), 
besides  many  burial -songs,  wedding  cantatas. 
Salves,  Aves,  etc.,  and  9  overtures,  and  other 
instrumental  works. 

Heinkich  (son  of  the  above)  was  bom  March 
14,  1850,  at  Rengersdorf;  and  received  musical 
instmction  from  his  father.  He  passed  the 
Gymnasium  at  Glatz,  and  studied  pliilology  at 
Breslau  from  1870  to  1874,  graduated  the  fol- 
lowing year,  and  taught  at  the  gymnasia  of 
Strehlen,  Wohlau,  Berlin,  Ratibor,  and  Glatz, 
for  a  year  in  each  place  successively,  till  in 
1885  he  became  director  of  that  at  Gleiwitz,  in 
Upper  Silesia.  There  he  quarrelled  with  the 
authorities,  threw  up  his  post,  embraced  the 
Protestant  faith,  and  thenceforth  devoted  him- 
self entirely  to  music.  As  a  schoolboy  (Gym- 
nasiast)  he  had  already  conducted  an  orchestral 
and  choral  society,  and  had  composed  church 
and  chamber  music,  and  as  a  student  had  led 
the  academical  singing -club  (Gesangverein), 
*  Leopoldina,'  studying  incidentally  with  Moritz 


Brosig;  had  founded  and  directed  a  musical 
society  at  Ratibor,  which  performed  oratorios, 
etc.,  under  him,  and  had  become  known  during 
1879  and  1880  as  musical  reporter  to  the 
Schlesicher  ZeUung,  and  by  other  literary  works 
(Nmnos,  1882  ;  Proaodies,  1885-86).  After  he 
definitely  took  to  music,  he  published  some 
vocal  and  organ  compositions  (sonatas,  studies, 
etc),  and  a  biography  of  Schumann,  which  was 
published  by  Peters  in  1887,  and  in  that  year 
he  moved  to  Berlin  to  act  as  musical  critic  for 
the  Allgemeine  MusikcUische  Zeiiung.  For 
a  time  he  was  occupied  at  the  Royal  Library, 
besides  being  teacher  of  organ -playing  and 
theory  at  the  Scharwenka-Klindworth  Conser- 
vatorium  till  1894,  and  organist  of  the  Phil- 
harmonic till  1895,  in  which  year  the  Kaiser 
appointed  him  to  the  great  church  in  the 
Augusta- Victoriaplatz,  erected  to  the  memory 
of  the  Emperor  William  I.,  where  he  enjoyed 
a  great  reputation  as  an  organ  virtuoso,  and 
directed  some  of  the  most  magnificent  and  im- 
pressive performances  of  oratorios,  masses,  and 
church  music  generally,  given  in  any  churcli 
in  Germany.  In  1897  he  received  the  title 
of  Professor,  and  in  1898  founded  a  Bach 
Society.  He  died  at  Charlottenburg,  May  24, 
1906. 

His  compositions  include  duets  for  female 
voices ;  love  scenes  in  Waltz  form  for  four  voices ; 
a  chorus  for  four  male  voices ;  an  album  of 
children's  songs  for  solo  voice ;  toccata  for  organ 
in  £  minor  (op.  23) ;  piano  duets ;  two  wed(Hng 
songs  for  bass  voice  ;  arrangements  of  twenty- 
five  German  songs,  *  Das  deutsche  Lied,'  of  the 
14  th  to  the  19  th  centuries,  also  for  bass  voice  ; 
a  prelude  and  triple  fugue  in  D  minor  for  the 
organ ;  and  ciacona  for  organ  in  F  minor.  His 
writings  are  numerous,  and  include  a  contribu- 
tion on  the  theory  and  history  of  Byzantine 
music  (1889) ;  two  volumes  of  musical  retro- 
spects, JVagiieriana-Lisztiana;  an  opening 
volume  to  his  own  collection  of  lives  of  cele- 
brated musicians,  being  the  biography  of  Schu- 
mann already  mentioned,  to  which  he  added 
those  of  Billow  and  J.  S.  Bach.         H.  v.  h. 

REIMANN,  Matthieu  (Matthias  Reymau- 
nus),  (bom  1544  at  Lowenberg,  died  Oct.  21, 
1597,  at  Prague),  was  a  Doctor  of  Law  and 
Imperial  Councillor  under  Rudolf  II.,  and  wrote 
two  works  for  the  lute  j  the  one  entitled  *  Noctes 
musicae'  appeared  in  1598,  and  the  other, 
'Cithara  sacra  pealmodiae  Davidis  ad  usum 
testudinis,'  in  1608.  H.  v.  h. 

REINACH,  Saloman  (TntoDORE),  Iwrn 
June  3,  1860,  at  St.  Germain-en-Laye,  was  at 
firat  educated  at  the  j^le  Normal  in  that  place. 
His  bent  was  always  for  languages,  and  especi- 
ally for  Archaeology.  His  occupation  of  the 
post  of  Conservator  (curator)  of  the  Museum 
of  Antiquities  at  St.  Germain — which  was  both 
the  reward  of,  and  the  ever -fresh  inoentive 
to,  his  taste  for  original  research —afforded 


REINAGLE 


REINECKE 


67 


him  ample  opportunities  for  carrying  out  his 
natural  procliyities  to  investigation  and  critical 
inquiry  into  the  methods  of  the  past.  His 
works  include  a  Latin  Grammar,  a  Greek  £pi- 
grainy,  a  Manual  of  Classical  Philology  (2nd 
€d.,  Paris,  1883-84,  2  vols.)  and  Archaeological 
researches  in  Tunis.  His  editorship  of  the 
Jievtie  des  Andes  Grecqwa  (1888  and  following 
yean)  was  marked  by  valuable  researches  into 
the  music  of  ancient  Greece,  and  his  translation 
•of  the  hymns  discovered  at  Delphi  gave  rise 
to  much  discussion.  d.  h. 

REINAGLE,  Joseph,  senior,  said  to  have  been 
bom  near  Vienna,  and  to  have  served  in  the 
Hungarian  army.  In  1762  he  was  at  Ports- 
mouth, where  his  sons  were  bom.  By  the 
influence  of  the  Earl  of  Kelly,  he  was  appointed 
in  1762  trumpeter  to  the  king,  presumably  in 
Scotland,  as  he  appears  to  have  at  that  time 
removed  to  Edinbuigh.     See  Schetky. 

Alexander  Reinaols  was  probably  his 
eldest  son  ;  he  was  bom  in  1756  at  Portsmouth. 
He  accompanied  his  younger  brother,  Hugh, 
to  Lisbon,  and  after  his  death,  went  to  America 
about  1786,  dying  at  Baltimore,  Ind.,  Sept  21, 
1809.  His  name  is  attached  to  'A  Collection 
of  the  mostFavouriteScots tunes  with  Variations 
for  the  Harpsichord  by  A.  Reinagle,  London, 
printed  for  and  sold  by  the  author, '  folio.  This 
scarce  and  rudely  printed  volume  is  advertised 
in  Aird*s  *  Selection,'  vol.  it.  1782,  and  though 
bearing  '  London  '  as  an  imprint  was  most  likely 
issued  from  Glasgow. 

The  second  son,  Joseph  Rbinaole,  junior, 
was  bom  at  Portsmouth  in  1762,  and  was  first 
intended  for  the  navy,  and  next  apprenticed  to 
a  working  jeweller  in  Edinburgh.  He  took  up 
music  as  a  profession,  and  studied  the  French 
hom  and  the  trumpet  under  his  father  and 
subsequently  the  violoncello  under  J.  G.  C. 
Schetky,  who  had  married  his  sister.  He 
became  a  noted  player  at  the  Edinburgh 
concerts,  but  abandoned  the  instrument  as  a 
conaeqnence  of  his  brother's  superior  skill  on  it, 
resuming  it  after  Hugh's  death.  He  became 
violin  and  viola  player  and  leader  of  the  orchestra 
at  St.  Cecilia's  Hall,  Edinbuigh.  He  came  to 
London,  and  was  one  of  the  second  violins  at 
the  Handel  Commemoration  in  1784.  In  the 
following  year  he  became  associated  with  Haydn 
and  Salomon  and  played  at  their  concerts.  Early 
in  the  19th  century  he  removed  to  Oxford,  and 
died  there  in  1836.  His  published  works 
include  '  Twenty-four  progressive  lessons  for  the 
pianoforte '  1796.  '  Duets  for  the  Violoncello ' 
ijiiartets  for  strings,  besides  an  iTUroduetion  to  the 
AH  cf  Playing  the  VioloncellOy  which  ran  through 
several  editions.  In  Gow's  'Fifth  Collection 
of  Strathspey  Reels'  are  some  airs  by  Mr. 
Joseph  Reinagle ;  one,  *  Dumfries  Races,'  became 
well  known. 

The  third  son,  Hitob,  became  a  proficient 
violoncellist,  and  went  to  Lisbon  for  the  benefit 


of  his  health  in  1784 ;  he  died  there  of  consump- 
tion, March  19,  1786. 

Alexander  Robert  Reinagle,  the  sou  of 
the  younger  Joseph,  was  bom  at  Brighton, 
August  21,  1799,  and  settled  with  his  father  in 
Oxford,  where  he  became  teacher,  organist,  and  a 
well-known  figure  in  musical  circles.  He  was 
organist  of  the  church  of  St.  Peter  in  the  East. 
He  composed  a  number  of  sacred  pieces,  includ- 
ing the  well-known  'St.  Peter'  psalm-tunc 
He  also  wrote  and  compiled  many  books  of 
instruction  for  the  violin  and  violoncello.  He 
died  at  Kidlington  near  Oxford,  April  6,  1877. 

His  wife,  Caroline  Reinagle  (n4e  Orgkr) 
was  bom  in  London  in  1818,  and  married 
Reinagle  in  1846.  She  was  associated  with 
her  husband  as  a  teacher,  and  wrote  some 
technical  works  for  the  pianoforte,  besides  a 
concerto,  and  several  chamber  compositions. 
She  also  attained  some  success  as  a  pianist. 
She  died  March  11,  1892.  f.  k.  ;  with  addi- 
tions from  MusiccU  Times^  1906,  pp.  541,  617, 
and  688. 

REINE  DE  SABA,  LA.  See  Queen  of 
Sheba. 

REINE  TOPAZE,  LA.  Op^ra-comique  in 
three  acts  ;  words  by  Lockroy  and  Battes,  nmsic 
by  Victor  Mass^.  Produced  at  the  The&tre 
Lyrique,  Dec.  27, 1866.  In  English,  as  '  Qneen 
Topa«e,'  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  Dec.  24, 
1860.  G. 

REINECEE,  Carl  Heinrich  Carsten,  com- 
poser, conductor,  and  performer,  director  of  the 
Gewandhaus  concerts  at  Leipzig,  the  son  of  a 
musician,  bom  June  23,  1824,  at  Altona,  was 
from  an  early  age  trained  by  his  father,  and  at 
eleven  performed  in  public'  As  a  youth  he  was 
a  first-rate  orchestral  violin-player.  At  eighteen 
he  made  a  concert  tour  through  Sweden  and 
Denmark,  with  especial  success  at  Copenhagen. 
In  1843  he  settled  in  Leipzig,  where  he  studied 
diligently,  and  eagerly  embraced  the  oppor- 
tunities for  cultivation  afforded  by  the  society 
of  Mendelssohn  and  Schumann,  with  a  success 
which  amply  shows  itself  in  his  music.  In 
1844  he  made  a  professional  tour  with 
Wasielewski  to  Riga,  returning  by  Hanover  and 
Bremen.  He  was  already  in  the  pay  of  Christian 
VIII.  of  Denmark,  and  in  1846  he  again  visited 
Copenhagen,  remaining  there  for  two  years. 
On  both  occasions  he  was  appointed  court- pianist'. 
In  1851  he  went  with  the  violinist  Otto  von 
Kbnigslow  to  Italy  and  Paris ;  and  on  his 
return  Hiller  secured  him  for  tlie  professorship 
of  the  piano  and  counterpoint  in  the  Conscrva- 
torium  of  Cologne.  In  1 854  he  became  conductor 
of  the  Concertgesellschaft  at  Barmen,  and  iu 
1 859  Musikdirector  to  the  University  of  Breslau. 
On  Julius  Rietz's  departure  from  Leipzig  to 
Dresden  in  1860  Reinecke  succeeded  him  as 
conductor  at  the  Gewandhaus,  and  became  at 
the  same  time  ]>rofes8or  of  composition  in  the 
Conservator ium.     Between  the  years  1867  and 


58 


REINER 


REINHOLD 


1872  he  made  extensive  tours ;  in  England 
he  played  at  the  Musical  Union,  Crystal  Palace, 
and  Philharmonic,  on  the  6th,  17th,  and  19th 
of  April,  1869,  respectively,  and  met  with  great 
success  both  as  a  virtuoso  and  a  composer.  He 
reappeared  in  this  country  in  1872,  and  was 
equally  well  received.  [In  1895  he  resigned 
the  post  of  conductor  of  the  Gewandhaua 
concerts,  but  kept  his  position  in  the  Gonserva- 
torium,  being  appointed  in  1897  director  of 
musical  studies  until  1902,  when  he  retired 
altogether.] 

Reinecke's  industry  in  composition  is  great, 
his  best  works,  as  might  be  expected,  being  those 
for  piano  ;  his  three  PF.  sonatas  indeed  are  ex- 
cellent compositions,  carrying  out  Mendelssohn's 
technique  without  indulging  the  eccentricities  of 
modem  virtuosi ;  his  pieces  for  two  PFs.  are  also 
good ;  his  PF.  Concerto  in  ¥%  minor,  a  well- 
established  favourite  both  with  musicians  and 
the  public,  was  followed  by  two  others  in  E 
minor  and  C  respectively.  Besides  other  instru- 
mental music — a  wind  octet,  quintets,  four  string 
quartets,  seven  trios,  concertos  for  violin  and 
violoncello,  etc. — he  has  composed  an  opera  in 
five  acts,  *  Konig  Manfred,*  and  two  in  one  act 
each,  *  Der  vierjahrigen  Posten  *  (after  Komer) 
and  *  Bin  Abenteuer  Handers ' ;  *  Auf  hohen 
Befehr  (1886),  and  *  Der  Gouvemeur  von  Tours' 
(1891);  incidental  music  to  Schiller's  'Tell'; 
an  oratorio, '  Belsazar ' ;  cantatas  for  men's  voices 
'  Hakon  Jarl '  and  '  Die  Flucht  nach  Aegypten ' ; 
overtures,  'DameKobold,' 'Aladdin,'  'Friedens- 
feier, '  an  overture, '  Zenobia, '  and  a  funeral  march 
for  the  Emperor  Frederick  (op.  200)  ;  two 
masses,  and  three  symphonies,  (op.  79  in  A, 
op.  134  in  C  minor,  and  op.  227  in  G  minor)  ; 
and  a  large  number  of  songs  and  of  pianoforte 
pieces  in  all  styles,  including  valuable  studies 
and  educational  works.  Of  his  settings  of  fairy 
tales  as  cantatas  for  female  voices,  'Schnee- 
wittchen,'  '  Dornroschen,'  '  Aschenbrbdel,'  and 
several  others  are  very  popular.  His  style 
is  refined,  his  mastery  over  counterpoint  and 
form  is  absolute,  and  he  writes  with  peculiar 
clearness  and  correctness.  He  has  also  done 
much  editing  for  Breitkopfs  house.  His 
position  at  Leipzig  speaks  for  his  ability  as  a 
conductor ;  as  a  pianist  (especially  in  Mozart) 
he  kept  up  a  high  position  for  many  years  ;  as 
an  accompanist  he  is  first-rate ;  and  as  an 
arranger  for  the  pianoforte  he  is  recognised  as 
one  of  the  first  of  the  day.  Various  contribu- 
tions to  musical  literature  will  be  found 
enumerated  in  Riemann's  Lexikon,  [See  also 
E.  Segnitz,  Carl  Reinecke,']  f.  o. 

REINER,  Jacob,  bom  about  1559  or  1560 
at  Altdorf  in  Wiirtembei|;,  was  brought  up  at 
the  Benedictine  Monastery  of  Weingarten,  where 
he  also  received  his  first  musical  training.  We 
have  it  on  his  own  authority  that  he  was  after- 
wards a  pupil  of  Orlando  Lassus  at  Munich, 
where  also  his  first  publication,  a  volume  of 


Motets  a  5-6,  appeared  in  1579.  Incidentally 
it  may  be  mentioned  that  in  1589  Lassus  dedi- 
cated a  book  of  six  masses,  the  eighth  volume 
of  the  P(Urocinium  Miisiceay  to  the  Abbot  of 
Weingarten.  Reiner  himself  returned  to  Wein- 
garten, and  from  at  least  1586  to  his  death  on 
August  12,  1606,  was  engaged  as  lay  singer  and 
choir-master  to  the  monastery.  His  publica- 
tions are  fairly  numerous,  and  consist  of  several 
volumes  of  motets,  masses,  andmagnifioats,  which 
need  not  here  be  specified  in  detail,  especially 
since  part -books  are  frequently  missing,  also 
two  volumes  of  German  songs  a  3-5.  Three 
settings  a  5  of  the  Passion  exist  in  MS. ,  of  a 
similflur  character  to  those  by  Lassus.  The  first 
volume  of  Reiner's  Motets  was  reproduced  in 
lithograph  score  by  Ottomar  Dresel  in  1872, 
and  one  of  the  numbers  also  appears  in  the 
supplement  to  Proske's  '  Musica  Divina,'  edited 
by  F.  X.  Haberl  in  1876.  J.  K.  M. 

REINHOLD,  Hugo,  bom  March  8, 1854,  in 
Vienna,  was  a  choir-boy  of  the  Hofkapelle  of  his 
native  city  and  a  pupil  of  the  Oonservatorium 
der  Musikfreunde  till  1874,  where  he  worked 
with  Brackner,  Dessofi',  and  E|)stein  under  the 
endowment  of  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg  and 
Gotha,  and  obtained  a  silver  medal.  He  has 
presented  various  compositions,  numbering  up 
to  op.  59,  to  the  public,  including  piano 
music  and  songs,  a  string  quartet  (op.  18  in  A 
major),  a  suite  in  five  movements  for  piano  and 
strings,  and  a  Prelude,  Minuet,  and  Fugue  for 
stringed  orchestra.  The  two  latter  were  per- 
formed at  the  Vienna  Philharmonic  Concerts  of 
Dec  9,  1877,  and  Nov.  17,  1878,  respectively, 
and  were  praised  by  the  Vienna  critic  of  the 
Monthly  Musical  ^Record  for  their  delicate  char- 
acter and  absence  of  undue  pretension.  The 
quartet  was  executed  by  Hellmesberger.   H.  v.  h . 

REINHOLD,  TuEODOR  Christlibb,  bom  in 
1682,  died  in  1755,  was  the  teacher  of  Johann 
Adolf  Hiller  (Hiiller),  the  composer  of  numerous 
motets,  and  can  tor  of  the  Krouzkirche  at  Dresden 
from  1720  till  his  death.  h.  v.  h. 

REINHOLD,  Thomas,  bom  at  Dresden  about 
1 690,  was  the  reputed  nephew,  or,  as  some  said, 
son,  of  the  Archbishop  of  that  city.  He  had  an 
early  passion  for  music,  and  having  met  Handel 
at  the  Archbishop's  residence  conceived  so 
strong  a  liking  for  him  that  after  a  time  he 
quitted  his  abode  and  sought  out  the  great  com- 
poser in  London,  where  he  appeared  in  varioun 
works  of  Handel's,  after  making  his  first  appear- 
ance in  July  1731  at  the  Haymarket  Theatre 
as  a  singer  in  *The  Grub  Street  Opera,'  He 
died  in  Chapel  Street,  Soho,  in  1751. 

His  son,  Charles  Frederick,  bom  in  1787, 
received  his  musical  education  first  in  St.  Paul's 
and  afterwards  in  the  Chapel  RoyaL  On  Feb.  3, 
1755,  he  made  his  first  appearance  on  the  stage 
at  Drury  Lane  as  Oberen  in  J.  C.  Smith's  opera, 
'The  Fairies,'  being  announced  as  'Master 
Reinhold.'    He  afterwards  became  organist  of 


REINKEN 


REISSIGER 


59 


St  George  the  Martyr,  Bloomsbury.  In  1759 
he  appeared  as  a  hass  singer  at  Marylebone 
Gardens,  vhere  he  continued  to  sing  for  many 
seaaona.  He  afterwards  performed  in  English 
operas,  and  sang  in  oratorios,  and  at  provincial 
festivals,  etc  He  was  especially  famed  for 
his  singing  of  HandeUs  song,  '  0  ruddier  than 
the  cheny.'  He  was  one  of  the  principal 
baas  singers  at  the  Commemoration  of  Handel 
in  1784.  He  retired  in  1797,  and  died  in 
Somers  Town,  Sept.  29,  1815.  See  Mttsical 
Times,  1877,  p.  273.  w.  H.  H. 

REINKEN,  JoHANN  Adam,  or  Jan  Adams 
Reincken,  eminent  organist,  bom  at  WUs- 
hauaen  in  Lower  Alsace,  April  27,  1623,  a 
pupil  of  Heinrich  Scheidemann,  became  in 
1654  OTganist  of  the  church  of  St.  Catherine  at 
Hambuig;  and  retained  the  post  till  his  death, 
Nov.  24,  1722,  at  the  age  of  ninety-nine.  He 
was  a  person  of  some  consideration  at  Hamburg, 
both  on  account  of  his  fine  playing,  and  of  his 
beneficial  influence  on  musio  in  general,  and 
the  Hambni^  opera  in  particular,  but  his  vanity 
and  jealousy  of  his  brother  artists  are  severely 
commented  on  by  his  contemporaries.  So  great 
and  so  widespread  was  his  reputation  that  Sebas- 
tian Bach  frequently  walked  to  Hambuig  from 
Liineburg  (1700  to  1703),  and  Cothen  (1720), 
to  hear  him  play.  Reinken  may  be  considered 
the  best  representative  of  the  North-German 
school  of  organists  of  the  17  th  century,  whose 
strong  points  were,  not  the  classic  placidity  of 
the  South-German  school,  but  great  dexterity 
of  foot  and  finger,  and  ingenious  combinations 
of  the  stops.  His  compositions  are  loaded  with 
passages  for  display,  and  are  defective  in  form, 
both  in  individual  melodies  and  general  construc- 
tion. His  works  are  very  scarce  ;  '  Hortus 
MusicoB,'  for  two  violins,  viol  da  gamba  and 
bass  (Hambuig,  1704)  is  reprinted  as  No. 
XIII.  of  the  publications  of  the  Maatschappg 
tot  bevordering  der  Toonkunst  (Amsterdam, 
1887).  No.  XIV.  of  the  same  publication  con- 
sists of  Reinken's  'Partite  Diverse'  (variations), 
but  even  in  MS.  only  very  few  pieces  are 
known — two  on  Chorales,  one  Toccata,  and 
two  sets  of  Variations  (for  Clavier).^  Of  the 
first  of  these,  one — on  the  chorale  *  An  Wasser- 
fliissen  Babylons'  —  is  specially  interesting, 
becaoae  it  was  by  an  extempore  performance  on 
that  chorale  at  Hamburg  in  1722  that  Bach 
extorted  from  the  venerable  Reinken  the  words, 
'  I  thought  that  this  art  was  dead,  but  I  see 
that  it  still  lives  in  you.'  Two  organ  fugues, 
a  toccata  in  G,  Variations  on  chorales  and  on  a 
'ballet, 'etc.  are  in  MSS.  at  Dresden,  Leipzig,  and 
Darmstadt  (See  the  Tijdschrifl  of  the  Vereenig- 
iog  voorN.-Nederlands  Muziekgeschiedenis,  vi. 
pp.  151-8,  the  Quellen-Lexikon,  etc.)     a.  m. 

REINTHALER,  Karl  Martin,  conductor 
of  the  Private  Concerts  at  Bremen,  bom  Oct. 
13,  1822,  at  Erfurt,  was  early  trained  in  music 

>  Spltte's  Audb.  EngL  tnuid.  1. 197-9.  I 


by  G.  A.  Ritter,  then  studied  theology  in 
Berlin,  but  after  passing  his  examination,  de- 
voted himself  entirely  to  music,  and  studied 
with  A.  B.  Marx.  His  first  attempts  at 
composition,  some  psalms  sung  by  the  Cathedral 
choir,  attracted  the  attention  of  King  Frederick 
William  IV.,  and  procured  him  a  travelling 
grant.  He  visited  Paris,  Milan,  Rome,  and 
Naples,  taking  lessons  in  singing  from  Geraldi 
and  Bordogni  On  his  return  in  1853  he 
obtained  a  post  in  the  Conservatorium  of 
Cologne,  and  in  1858  became  organist  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Bremen,  and  conductor  of  the 
Singakademie.  He  had  already  composed  an 
oratorio,  *  Jephta '  (performed  in  London  by 
HuUah,  April  16,  1856,  and  published  with 
English  text  by  Novellos),  and  in  1875  his 
opera  *£dda'  was  played  with  success  at 
Bremen,  Hanover,  and  elsewhere.  His 
'Bismarck-hymn'  obtained  the  prize  at  Dort- 
mund, and  he  composed  a  symphony,  and 
a  large  number  of  part-songs.  [He  was  a 
member  of  the  Berlin  Academy  from  1882, 
and  had  the  title  of  Royal  Professor  in  1888. 
His  cantata  '  In  der  Wiiste '  had  a  great  success, 
and  his  opera  *  Kathchen  von  Heilbronn '  re- 
ceived a  prize  at  Frankfort  He  retired  from 
the  Singakademie  in  1890,  and  died  at  Bremen, 
Fob.  13,  1896.]  F.  o. 

REISSIGER,  Karl  Gottlieb,  son  of  Chris- 
tian Gottlieb  Reissiger,  who  published  three 
symphonies  for  full  orchestra  in  1790.  Bom 
Jan.  81,  1798,  at  Belzig  near  Wittenberg, 
where  his  father  was  Cantor,  he  became  in 
1811  a  pupil  of  Schicht  at  the  Thomas- 
schule,  Leipzig.  In  1818  he  removed  to  the 
University  with  the  intention  of  studying 
theology,  but  some  motets  composed  in  1815 
and  1816  had  already  attracted  attention,  and 
the  success  of  his  fine  baritone  voice  made  him 
determine  to  devote  himself  to  music.  In 
1821  he  went  to  Vienna  and  studied  opera 
thoroughly.  Here  also  he  composed  'Das 
Rockenweibchen.'  In  1822  he  sang  an  aria  of 
Handel's,  and  played  a  PF.  concerto  of  his  own 
composition  at  a  concert  in  the  Kamthnerthor 
theatre.  Soon  after  he  went  to  Munich,  where 
he  studied  with  Peter  Winter,  and  composed 
an  opera,  '  Dido,'  which  was  performed  several 
times  at  Dresden  under  Weber's  condiictorship. 
At  the  joint  expense  of  the  Prussian  government 
and  of  his  patron  von  Altenstein,  a  musician, 
he  undertook  a  tour  in  1824  through  Holland, 
France,  and  Italy,  in  order  to  report  on  the 
condition  of  music  in  those  countries.  On  his 
return  he  was  commissioned  to  draw  up  a 
scheme  for  a  Prussian  national  Conservatorium, 
but  at  the  same  time  was  offered  posts  at  the 
Hague  and  at  Dresden.  The  latter  he  accepted, 
replacing  Marschner  at  the  opera,  where  he 
laboured  hard,  producing  both  German  and 
Italian  operas.  In  1827  he  succeeded  C.  M. 
von  Weber  as  conductor  of  the  German  Opera 


(K) 


REISSMANN 


RELATION 


at  Dresden.  Among  his  operas,  '  Ahnenschatz ' 
(1824),  *Libella,'  *Tupandot,'  *  Adele  de  Foix,* 
and  '  Der  Sohiffbruch  von  Mednsa/  had  great 
success  in  their  day,  but  the  term  '  Capellmeis* 
termusik'  eminently  describes  them,  and  they 
have  almost  entirely  disappeared.  The  overture 
to  the  *  Felsenmiihle,'  a  spirited  and  not  un- 
interesting piece,  was  occasionally  played. 
Masses  and  church  music  [an  oratorio,  *  David '], 
a  few  Lieder,  numerous  chamber  compositions, 
particularly  some  graceful  and  easy  trios  for 
PF.  violin  and  violoncello,  made  his  name  very 
popular  for  a  period.  He  is  generally  supposed 
to  liave  been  the  composer  of  the  piece  known 
as  *  Weber's  Last  Waltz.'  Eeissiger  died  Nov. 
7,  1859,  and  was  succeeded  at  Dresden  by 
Julius  Rietz.  f.  g. 

REISSMANN,  August,  musician  and  writer 
on  music,  bom  Nov.  14,  1825,  at  Frankenstein, 
Silesia,  was  grounded  in  music  by  Jung,  the 
Cantor  of  his  native  town.  In  1 84 3  he  removed 
to  Breslau,  and  there  had  instruction  from 
Moscwius,  Baumgart,  Ernst  Richter,  Liistner, 
and  Kahl,  in  various  branches,  including  piano- 
forte, organ,  violin,  and  violoncello.  He  at 
first  proposed  to  become  a  composer,  but  a 
residence  in  1850-52  at  Weimar,  where  he  came 
in  contact  with  the  new  school  of  music,  changed 
his  plans  and  drove  him  to  literature.  His  first 
book  was  Von  Bach  bis  JVagrier  (Berlin,  1861)  ; 
rapidly  followed  by  a  historical  work  on  the 
German  song.  Das  deutsche  Lied,  etc.  (1861), 
rewritten  as  Geschichte  des  DevUschen  Liedes 
(1874).  This  again  was  succeeded  by  his 
General  History  of  Music — Allg,  Geschichte  der 
Musik  (3  vols.  1864,  Leipzig),  with  a  great 
number  of  interesting  examples  ;  Allg,  Musik- 
lehre  (1864)  ;  and  Lehrbuch  der  musik,  Koni- 
posUioyien  (3  vols.  Berlin,  1866-71).  His  later 
works  were  of  a  biographical  nature,  attempts 
to  show  the  gradual  development  of  the  life 
and  genius  of  the  chief  musicians — Schumann 
(1865),  Mendelssohn  (1867),  Schubert  (1873), 
Haydn  (1879),  Bach  (1881),  Handel  (1882), 
Oluck  (1882),  Weber  (1883).  In  1877  he 
published  a  volume  of  lectures  on  the  history 
of  music,  delivered  in  the  Conservatorium  of 
Berlin,  where  he  resided  from  1863.  His  chief 
employment  from  1871  was  the  completion  of 
the  Musik  Conversationslexikonj  in  which  he 
succeeded  Mendel  as  editor,  after  the  death  of 
the  latter.  The  11th  volume,  completing  the 
work,  appeared  in  1879,  and  it  will  long  remain 
as  the  most  comprehensive  lexicon  of  music. 
Dr.  Reissmann  unfortunately  thought  it  neces- 
sary to  op|)ose  the  establishment  of  the  Hoch- 
schule  in  1875,  and  to  enforce  his  opposition 
by  a  bitter  pamphlet,  which,  however,  has  long 
since  been  forgotten.  Many  treatises  on  musical 
education  were  written  in  the  later  part  of  his 
life.  As  a  practical  musician  Dr.  Reissmann  was 
almost  as  industrious  as  he  was  in  literature. 
The  operas,  'Gudrun*  (Leipzig,  1871),  'Die  Biir- 


germeisterin  von  Schomdorf  (Leipzig,  1880), 
and  'Das  Gralspiel '  (Diisseldorf,  1895),  a  ballet, 
*  Der  Blumen  Bache '  (1887),  a  work  for  singing 
and  speaking  soloists,  with  choir  and  piano, 
'Konig  Drosselbart'  (1886),  dramatic  scenas, 
an  oratorio,  'Wittekind'  (1888),  a  concerto 
and  a  suite  for  solo  violin  and  orchestra ;  two 
sonatas  for  pianoforte  and  violin ;  and  a  great 
quantity  of  miscellaneous  pieces  for  piano  solo 
and  for  the  voice  are  mentioned.  In  1881  he 
edited  an  Illustrated  History  of  German  music 
[He  died  in  Berlin,  Dec.  1,  1903.]  c;. 

RELATION  is  a  general  term  implying  con- 
nection between  two  or  more  objects  of  con- 
sideration, through  points  of  similarity  and 
contrast.  In  other  words,  it  is  the  position 
which  such  objects  appear  to  occupy  when 
considered  with  reference  to  one  another.  It 
is  defined  by  its  context. 

The  relations  of  individual  notes  to  one 
another  may  be  described  in  various  ways.  For 
instance,  they  may  be  connected  by  belonging 
to  or  being  prominent  members  of  the  diatonic 
series  of  any  one  key,  and  contrasted  in  various 
degrees  by  the  relative  positions  they  occupy 
in  that  series.  A  further  simple  relation  is 
established  by  mere  proximity,  such  as  may 
be  observed  in  the  relations  of  grace -notes, 
appoggiaturas,  turns,  and  shakes  to  the  essential 
notes  which  they  adorn  ;  and  this  is  earned  so 
far  that  notes  idien  to  the  harmony  and  even 
to  the  key  are  freely  introduced,  and  are  jjer- 
fectly  intelligible  when  in  close  connection  with 
characteristic  diatonic  notes.  The  relations  of 
disjunct  notes  may  be  found,  among  other  ways, 
by  their  belonging  to  a  chord  which  is  easily 
called  to  mind  ;  whence  the  successive  sounding 
of  the  constituents  of  familiar  combinations  is 
easily  realised  as  melody  ;  while  melody  which 
is  founded  upon  less  obvious  relations  is  not  so 
readily  appreciated. 

The  relations  of  chords  may  be  either  direct  or 
indirect.  Thus  they  may  have  several  notes  in 
common,  as  in  Ex.  1,  or  only  one,  as  in  Ex.  2, 
Ex.  1.  Ex.  2.  Ex.  3. 


to  make  simple  direct  connection,  while  the 
diversity  of  their  derivations,  or  their  respective 
degrees  of  consonance  and  dissonance,  afford  an 
immediate  sense  of  contrast.  Or  they  may  be 
indirectly  connected  through  an  implied  chord 
or  note  upon  which  they  might  both  converge  ; 
as  the  common  chord  of  D  to  that  of  C  through 
G,  to  which  D  is  Dominant^  while  G  in  its  turn 
is  Dominant  to  C  (Ex.  3).  The  rektion  thus 
established  is  sufficiently  clear  to  allow  the 
major  chotd  of  the  supertonic  and  its  minor 
seventh  and  major  and  minor  ninth  to  l>e 
systematically  affiliated  in  the  key,  though  iU 


RELATION 


RELATION 


61 


third  and  minor  ninth  are  not  in  the  diatonic 
series. 

A  further  illustration  of  the  relations  of 
chords  is  afforded  by  those  of  the  Dominant  and 
Tonic.  They  are  connected  by  their  roots  being 
a  fifth  a^iart,  which  is  the  simplest  interval, 
except  the  octave,  in  music ;  but  their  other 
components  are  entirely  distinct,  as  is  the  coro- 
poand  tone  of  the  roots,  since  none  of  their 
lower  and  more  characteristic  harmonics  are 
coincident.  They  thus  represent  the  strongest 
contrast  in  the  diatonic  series  of  a  key,  and 
when  taken  together  define  the  tonality  more 
clearly  than  any  other  pair  of  chords  in  its 
range. 

The  relations  of  keys  are  traced  in  a  similar 
manner  ;  as,  for  instance,  by  the  tonic  and  per- 
fect fifth  of  one  being  in  the  diatonic  series  of 
another,  or  by  the  number  of  notes  which  are 
common  to  both.  The  relations  of  the  keys  of 
the  minor  third  and  minor  sixth  to  the  major 
mode  (as  of  £b  and  Ab  with  reference  to  C)  are 
rendered  intelligible  through  the  minor  mode  ; 
but  the  conyerse  does  not  hold  good,  for  the 
relations  of  keys  of  the  major  mediant  or  sub- 
mediant  to  the  minor  mode  (as  of  E  minor  and 
A  minor  with  reference  to  C  minor)  are  decidedly 
remote,  and  direct  transition  to  them  is  not 
easy  to  follow.  In  fact  the  modulatory  tendency 
of  the  minor  mode  is  towards  the  connections 
of  its  relative  major  rather  than  to  those  of  its 
actual  miyor,  while  the  outlook  of  the  major 
mode  is  free  on  both  sides.  The  relation  of  the 
key  of  the  Dominant  to  an  original  Tonic  is 
explicable  on  much  the  same  grounds  as  that 
of  the  chords  of  those  notes.  The  Dominant 
key  is  generally  held  to  be  a  very  satisfieu^tory 
complementary  or  contrast  in  the  construction 
of  a  piece  of  music  of  any  sort,  but  it  is  not  of 
universal  cogency.  For  instance,  at  the  very 
outset  of  any  movement  it  is  almost  inevitable 
that  the  Dominant  harmony  should  early  and 
emphatically  present  itself ;  hence  when  a  fresh 
section  is  reached  it  is  sometimes  desirable  to 
find  another  contrast  to  avoid  tautology.  With 
some  such  purpose  the  keys  of  the  mediant  or 
snbmediant  have  at  times  been  chosen,  both  of 
which  afford  interesting  phases  of  contrast  and 
connection ;  the  connection  being  mainly  the 
characteristic  major  third  of  the  original  tonic, 
and  the  contrast  being  emphasised  by  the 
sharpening  of  the  Dominant  in  the  first  case, 
and  of  the  Tonic  in  the  second.  The  key  of 
the  subdominant  is  avoided  in  such  cases  because 
the  contrast  afforded  by  it  is  not  sufficiently 
strong  to  have  force  in  the  total  impression  of 
the  movement 

The  relations  of  the  parts  of  any  artistic 
work  are  in  a  similar  manner  those  of  contrast 
within  limits  of  proportion  and  tonality.  For 
instance,  those  of  the  first  and  second  section 
in  wliat  is  called  '  first  movement '  or  '  sonata ' 
form  are  baaed  on  the  contrast  of  complementary 


tonalities  as  pai-t  of  the  musical  structure,  on 
the  one  hand  ;  and  on  contrast  of  character  and 
style  in  the  idea  on  the  other  ;  which  between 
them  establish  the  balance  of  proportion.  The 
relation  of  the  second  main  division — the  *  work- 
ing-out '  section — to  the  first  jmrt  of  the  move- 
ment is  that  of  greater  complexity  and  freedom 
in  contrast  to  regularity  and  definiteness  of 
musical  structure,  and  fanciful  discussion  of 
characteristic  portions  of  the  main  subjects  in 
contrast  to  formal  exposition  of  complete  ideas  ; 
and  the  final  section  completes  the  cycle  by 
returning  to  regularity  in  the  recapitulation. 

The  relations  of  the  various  movements  of  a 
large  work  to  one  another  are  of  similar  nature. 
The  earliest  masters  who  wrote  Suites  and  Senate 
da  Camei-a  or  da  Chiesa  had  but  a  rudimentary 
and  undeveloped  sense  of  the  relative  contrasts 
of  keys;  consequently  they  contented  themselves 
with  connecting  the  movements  by  putting  them 
all  in  the  same  key,  and  obtained  their  con- 
trasts by  alternating  quick  and  slow  movements 
or  dances,  and  by  varying  the  degrees  of  their 
seriousness  or  liveliness  :  but  the  main  outlines 
of  the  distribution  of  contrasts  are  in  these 
respects  curiously  similar  to  the  order  adopted 
in  the  average  modern  Sonata  or  Symphony. 
Thus  they  placed  an  allegro  of  a  serious  or  solid 
character  at  or  near  the  beginning  of  the  work, 
as  typified  by  the  Allemande  ;  the  slow  or 
solemn  movement  came  in  the  middle,  as  typified 
by  the  Sarabande  ;  and  the  conclusion  was  a 
light  and  gay  quick  movement,  as  typified  by 
the  Gigue.  And  further,  the  manner  in  which 
a  Courante  usually  followed  the  Allemande,  and 
a  Gavotte  or  Bourr^e  or  Passepied,  or  some  such 
dance,  preceded  the  final  Gigue,  has  its  counter- 
part in  the  Minuet  or  Scherzo  of  a  modern 
work,  which  occupies  an  analogous  position 
with  respect  either  to  the  slow  or  last  movement. 
In  modem  works  the  force  of  additional  contrast 
is  obtained  by  putting  central  movements  in 
different  but  allied  keys  to  that  of  the  first 
and  last  movements  ;  the  slow  movement  most 
frequently  being  in  the  key  of  the  Subdominant. 
At  the  same  time  additional  bonds  of  connec- 
tion are  sometimes  obtained,  both  by  making 
the  movements  pass  without  complete  break 
from  one  to  another,  and  in  some  cases  (illus- 
trated by  Beethoven  and  Schumann  esimcially) 
by  using  the  same  characteristic  features  or 
figures  in  difierent  movements. 

The  more  subtle  relations  of  proportion,  both 
in  the  matter  of  the  actual  length  of  the  various 
movements  and  their  several  sections,  and  in 
the  breadth  of  their  style  ;  in  the  congruity  of 
their  forms  of  expression  and  of  the  quality  of 
the  emotions  they  appeal  to  ;  in  the  distribution 
of  the  qualities  of  tone,  and  even  of  the  groups 
of  harmony  and  rhythm,  are  all  of  equal  im- 
portance, Uiough  less  easy  either  to  appreciate 
or  to  effect,  as  they  demand  higher  degrees  of 
artistic  power  and  perception  ;  and  the  proper 


62 


RELATIVE 


RELLSTABB 


a^yustment  of  such  relations  is  as  vital  to 
operas,  oratorios,  cantatas,  and  all  other  forms 
of  vocal  mnsic,  as  to  the  purely  instrumental 
forms. 

The  same  order  of  relations  appears  in  all 
parts  of  the  art ;  for  instance,  the  alternation 
of  discord  and  concord  is  the  same  relation, 
implying  contrast  and  connection,  analogous  to 
the  relation  between  suspense  or  expectation 
and  its  relief ;  and,  to  speak  generally,  the  art 
of  the  composer  is  in  a  sense  the  discovery 
and  exposition  of  intelligible  relations  in  the 
multifarious  material  at  his  command,  and  a 
complete  explanation  of  the  word  would  amount 
to  a  complete  theory  of  music.       o.  H.  H.  P. 

RELATIVE  is  the  word  used  to  express  the 
•connection  between  a  major  and  a  minor  key 
which  have  the  same  signature  ;  A  minor  is  the 

*  relative '  minor  of  C,  C  the  *  relative '  major 
of  A  minor.  In  other  words,  the  relative 
minor  of  any  key  is  that  which  has  its  keynote 
on  the  submediant  of  the  major  key.  The  term 
is  used  to  distinguish  this  minor  key  from  the 
other,  which  is  perhaps  as  closely  allied  to 
the  major,  that  which  has  the  same  keynote 
AS  the  major,  and  is  consequently  called  the 

*  tonic  *  minor.  The  *  tonic  *  minor  of  C  is  C 
minor,  the  *  tonic '  major  of  G  minor  is  0 ;  in 
this  case,  the  key -signature  is  of  course 
changed.  M. 

RBLLSTAB,  Johann  Karl  Friedrich,  was 
bom  in  Berlin,  Feb.  27,  1759.  His  father,  a 
printer,  wished  him  to  succeed  to  the  business, 
but  from  boyhood  his  whole  thoughts  were 
devoted  to  music.  He  was  on  the  point  of 
starting  for  Hamburg  to  complete,  with  Em- 
manuel Bach,  his  musical  studies  begun  with 
Agricola  and  Fasch,  when  the  death  of  his  father 
forced  him  to  take  up  the  business.  He  added 
a  music-printing  and  publishing  branch  ;  was 
the  first  to  establish  a  musical  lending  library 
<(1783)  ;  founded  a  Concert -Society,  on  the 
model  of  Hiller's  at  Leipzig,  and  called  it 
'Concerts  for  connoisseurs  and  amateurs,*  an 
unusually  distinctive  title  for  those  days.  The 
firat  concert  took  place  April  16,  1787,  at  the 
Englisches  Haus,  and  in  course  of  time  the 
following  works  were  performed ;  Salieri's 
'  Armida,'Schulz's  *  Athalia,'  Naumann's  'Cora,' 
Hasse's  *  Conversione  di  San  Agostino,'  Bach's 
'  Magnificat,'  and  Gluck's  '  Alceste,'  which  was 
thus  first  introduced  to  Berlin.  The  Society 
at  last  merged  in  the  Singakademie.  He  wrote 
.musical  critiques  for  the  Berlin  paper,  signed 
with  his  initials  ;  and  had  concerts  every  other 
Sunday  during  the  winter  at  his  own  house,  at 
which  such  works  as  Haydn's  '  Seasons '  were 
performed  ;  but  these  meetings  were  stopped 
by  the  entry  of  the  French  in  1806,  when  he 
frequently  had  twenty  men  and  a  dozen  horses 
quartered  on  him  ;  lost  not  only  his  music  but 
all  his  capital,  and  had  to  dose  his  printing- 
press.     In  time,  he  resumed  his  concerts ;  in 


1809  gave  lectures  on  harmony;  in  1811 
travelled  to  Italy.  Not  long  after  his  return 
he  was  struck  with  apoplexy  while  walking  at 
Charlottenburg,  August  19, 1813,  and  was  found 
dead  on  the  road  some  hours  afterwards.  As 
a  composer  he  left  three  cantatas,  a  '  Passion,' 
a  Te  Deum,  and  a  Mass.  Also  an  opera  ;  songs 
too  numerous  to  specify  ;  vocal  scores  of  Graun's 
*  Tod  Jesu,'  and  Gluck's  '  Iphig^nie ' ;  and  a 
German  libretto  of  Gluck's  *  Orph^e '  apparently 
from  his  own  pen.  Of  instrumental  music  he 
published — marches  for  PF.,  symphonies  and 
overtures  ;  a  series  of  pieces  with  characteristic 
titles,  'Obstinacy,'  'Sensibility,*  etc  ;  twenty- 
four  short  pieces  for  PF.,  violin  and  bass,  etc. 
Also  Versuch  uber  die  Vereinigung  der  mua,  und 
ortUorixhen,  DeklanuUion  (1785)  ;  Ueber  die 
Bemerkungen  einer  Reisenvdcn  .  .  .  (1789) 
(see  Reich ardt)  ;  and  Anleiiungfiir  Clavier- 
spieler  (1790).  These  works,  for  the  most 
part  bibliographical  curiosities,  are  very  in- 
structive. 

Rellstab  had  three  daughters,  of  whom 
Caroline,  bom  April  18,  1794,  died  Feb.  17, 
1813,  was  a  singer,  distinguished  for  her  extra- 
ordinary compass.     His  son, 

Hbinrioh  Friedrich  Ludwiq,  bom  April 
18,  1799,  in  Berlin,  though  delicate  in  healtli, 
and  destined  for  practical  music,  was  compelled 
by  the  times  to  join  the  army,  where  he  became 
ensign  and  lieutenant.  In  1816,  after  the 
peace,  he  took  lessons  on  the  piano  from  Ludwig 
Berger,  and  in  1819  and  1820  studied  theory 
with  Bemhard  Klein.  At  the  same  time  he 
taught  mathematics  and  history  in  the  Brigade- 
schule  till  1821,  when  he  retired  from  the  army 
to  devote  himself  to  literature,  ultimately  settling 
in  Berlin  (1823).  He  also  composed  much 
part-music  for  the  *  jungere  Liedertafel,*  which 
he  founded  in  conjunction  with  G.  Reichardt 
in  1819,  wrote  a  libretto,  '  Dido,'  for  B.  Klein, 
and  contributed  to  Marx's  Musikzeihing,  A 
pamphlet  on  Madame  Sontag  (JTenriette,  oder  die 
schone  Sangerin)  procured  him  three  months* 
imprisonment  in  1826,  on  account  of  its  satirical 
allusions  to  a  well-known  diplomatist.  In 
1826  he  joined  the  staff  of  the  Vossisehe  Zeitung^ 
and  in  a  short  time  completely  led  the  public 
opinion  on  music  in  Berlin.  His  first  article 
was  a  report  on  a  performance  of  '  Euryanthe,' 
Oct.  81,  1826.  Two  years  later  he  wrote  a 
cantata  for  Humboldt's  congress  of  physicists, 
which  Mendelssohn  set  to  music. 

Rellstab  was  a  warm  supporter  of  classical 
music,  and  strongly  condemned  all  undue  at- 
tempts at  effect  He  quarrelled  with  Spontini 
over  his  *  Agnes  von  Hohenstauffen '  (Berlin 
Muaikalisehe  Zeitung  for  1827,  Nob.  23,  24, 
26,  and  29),  and  the  controversy  was  maintained 
with  much  bitterness  until  Spontini  left  Berlin, 
when  Rellstab,  in  his  pamphlet  Ueber  mein 
Verhdltniss  als  KrUiker  su  Herm  Spontini, 
(1827)  acknowledged  that  he  had  gone  too  far. 


REMBT 


REMOTE 


63 


Bellatab's  novels  and  essays  are  to  be  found 
for  the  most  part  in  his  (JesatnmeUe  Schriftsny 
24  vols.  (Leipzig,  Brockhaus).  A  musical 
periodical.  Iris  im  Gebiet  tier  Tonkunat,  founded 
by  him  in  1880,  sunrived  till  1842.  His 
recollections  of  Berger,  Schroeder-Devrient, 
Mendelssohn,  Klein,  Dehn,  and  Beethoven 
(whom  he  visited  in  March  1825)  will  be  found 
in  Aus  memem  Leben  (2  vols.  Berlin,  1861). 
He  was  thoroughly  eclectic  in  his  taste  for 
music,  and,  though  not  an  unconditional  sup- 
porter, was  no  opponent  of  the  modem  school 
of  LLsot  and  Wagner.  He  died  during  the 
night  of  Nov.  27,  1860.  F.  o. 

&EMBT,  JoHiiNK  Ernst,  was  born  in  1749 
or  1750  at  Suhl,  in  the  Thiiringer-Wald,  where 
in  1773  he  was  abo  appointed  organist,  and 
remained  till  his  death  on  Feb.  26,  1810.  He 
was  distinguished  as  a  performer,  and,  devoting 
himself  to  the  study  of  the  works  of  Sebastian 
Bach,  he  worthily  upheld  the  more  solid  tradi- 
tions of  the  Bach  school  of  organ-playing  against 
the  prevailing  shallowness  of  his  time.  Messrs. 
Breitkopf  ft  Hartel  still  retain  in  their  cata- 
logue some  of  his  works  originally  published  by 
them,  such  as  his  six  Fugued  Chorale-preludes, 
six  Organ  Trios,  and  various  Chorale-preludes  in 
Trio-form.  Various  Fughettas  for  the  Organ  also 
appear  in  Volkmar's  'Orgel- Album.'      j.  B.  M. 

REM£NYI,  Eduard  (real  name  Hoffmann), 
a  famous  violhiist^  wss  bom  in  1830  at  Heves 
(according  to  another  account  at  Miskolc)  in 
Hungary,  and  received  his  musical  education 
at  the  Vienna  Conservatorium  during  the  years 
1842-45,  where  his  master  on  the  violin  was 
Joseph  Bbhm,  the  famous  teacher  of  Joachim. 
In  1848  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  insurrec- 
tion, and  became  adjutant  to  the  famous  general 
Gorgey,  under  whom  he  took  part  in  the  cam- 
]iaign  against  Austria.  After  the  revolution 
luid  been  crushed  he  had  to  fly  the  country, 
and  went  to  America,  where  he  resumed  his 
i-areer  as  a  virtuoso.  [The  details  of  his  Ger- 
man tour  in  1852-53,  which  indirectly  had  so 
great  an  influence  on  the  career  of  Brahms,  may 
be  read  in  Florence  May's  Life  of  BrahmSj  vol. 
i.  pp.  92-104.]  In  1853  he  went  to  Liszt  in 
Weimar,  who  at  once  recognised  his  genius 
and  became  his  artistic  guide  and  friend.  In 
the  following  year  he  came  to  London  and  was 
appointed  solo  violinist  to  Queen  Victoria.  In 
1855  he  was  in  America,  and  in  1860  he  ob- 
tained his  amnesty  and  returned  to  Hungary, 
where  some  time  afterwards  he  received  from 
the  Emperor  of  Austria  a  similar  distinction 
to  that  granted  him  in  England.  After  his 
return  home  he  seems  to  have  retired  for  a 
time  from  public  Ufe,  living  chiefly  on  an 
estate  he  owned  in  Hungary.  In  1865  he 
appeared  for  the  first  time  in  Paris,  where  he 
created  a  perfect  furore.  Repeated  tours  in 
Germany,  Holland,  and  Belgium  further  spread 
his  fame.     In  1875  he  settled  temporarily  in 


Paris,  and  in  the  summer  of  1877  came  to 
London,  where  also  he  produced  a  sensational 
efiect  in  private  circles.  The  season  being  far 
advanced  he  appeared  in  public  only  once,  at 
Mapleson's  benefit  concert  at  the  Crystal  Palace, 
where  he  played  a  fantasia  on  themes  from  the 
*  Huguenots.'  In  the  autumn  of  1878  he  again 
visited  London,  and  played  at  the  Promenade 
Concerts.  He  was  on  his  way  to  America,  where 
he  gave  concerts  and  took  up  his  residence.  In 
1887  he  undertook  a  tour  of  the  world,  in  the 
course  of  which  he  appeared  in  private  in 
London  in  1891  and  1893.  As  an  artist  he 
combined  perfect  mastery  over  the  technical 
difficulties  of  his  instrament  with  a  strongly 
pronounced  individualixy.  His  soul  was  in 
his  playing,  and  his  impulse  carried  him  away 
as  he  warmed  to  his  task,  the  impression  pro- 
duced on  the  audience  being  accordingly  in 
an  ascending  scale.  Another  important  feature 
in  Rem^nyi's  playing  was  the  national  element. 
He  strongly  maintained  against  Liszt  the 
genuineness  of  Hungarian  music,  and  showed 
himself  thoroughly  imbued  with  that  spirit  by 
writing  several  'Hungarian  melodies,'  which 
have  been  mistaken  for  popular  tunes  and 
adopted  as  such  by  other  composers.  The  same 
half-Eastem  spixit  was  observable  in  the  strong 
rhythmical  accentuation  of  Rem^nyi's  style,  so 
rarely  attained  by  artists  of  Teutonic  origin. 
Eem^nyi's  compositions  are  of  no  importance, 
being  mostly  confined  to  arrangements  for  his 
instrument,  and  other  pieces  written  for  his  own 
immediate  use.  [His  name  is  known  to  music- 
lovers  in  the  present  day  by  the  circumstance 
that  Brahms  went  on  a  tour  with  him  as  his 
accompanist,  and  was  '  discovered '  by  Joachim 
in  this  capacity.  Rem^nyi  died  during  a  con- 
cert at  which  he  was  playing  at  San  Francisco, 
May  15,  1898.]  e.  h-a. 

REMOTE  is  a  term  used  in  speaking  of 
modulation  from  one  key  to  another,  or  in 
regard  to  the  succession  of  keys  in  a  work  in 
several  movements.  A  remote  key  has  little  in 
common  with  the  key  which  may  be  called  the 
starting-point.  Thus  a  key  with  many  sharps 
or  flats  in  the  signature  will  probably  be  very 
'  remote '  from  the  key  of  C.  In  the  early  days 
of  the  harmonic  period,  the  nearest  keys  to  a 
major  key  were  considered  to  be  its  dominant, 
subdominant,  relative  and  tonic  minors ;  and 
the  nearest  to  a  minor  key  were  its  relative  and 
tonic  majors,  the  dominant  major,  and  the  sub- 
dominant  minor.  As  the  art  progressed,  it  was 
gradually  admitted  that  keys  which  stood  to 
each  other  in  the  relation  of  a  third,  whether 
major  or  minor,  were  not  to  be  considered 
remote  from  each  other.  Beethoven,  in  the 
piano  sonata  in  C,  op.  2,  No.  3,  puts  his  slow 
movement  into  the  key  of  E  miyor ;  in  op.  106, 
in  B  flat,  the  slow  movement  is  in  F  sharp 
minor ;  and  Schubert,  in  his  sonata  in  the  same 
key,  employs  C  sharp  minor  for  his  slow  move- 


64 


R^MY 


RENAUD 


ment ;  the  connection,  in  this  last  instance,  is 
attained  by  a  kind  of  unconscious  mental  pro- 
cess, involving  a  silent  modulation  thraugh  the 
key  of  the  tonic  minor,  B  flat  minor,  and  its  re- 
lative major,  0  sharp  major.  This  is  an  unusual 
succession  of  keys,  even  with  Schubert ;  but 
other  examples,  quite  as  strange,  are  in  Beet- 
hoven's 'posthumous'  quartets,  and  elsewhere. 
Of  the  eleven  semitones  apart  from  the  keynote, 
six  were  now  accepted  as  within  the  scope  of 
modulation  without  a  long  and  complex  process ; 
two  others,  the  whole  tone  above  and  below  the 
keynote,  involve  a  double  modulation,  the  tone 
above  being  the  dominant  of  the  dominant,  and 
the  tone  below  being  the  subdominant  of  the 
Bubdominant.  There  remain,  therefore,  three 
keys  which  are  very  remote,  the  semitone  above 
and  below  the  keynote,  and  the  augmented 
fourth  of  the  key.  Even  these  are  nowadays 
brought  within  fairly  easy  distance,  by  the  fact 
tliat  for  the  semitone  above,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  regard  the  keynote  as  the  leading -note  of 
the  new  key ;  and  for  the  semitone  below,  a 
'  Phrygian  cadence '  (such  as  is  figured  in  the 
last  two  examples  in  vol.  i  p.  436,  oolumn  a) 
may  be  imagined.  The  semitone  above  the 
keynote  is  used  for  the  slow  movement  of 
Brahms's  sonata  for  violoncello  and  piano,  op. 
99,  in  F,  where  F  sharp  major  is  the  key  chosen 
for  the  slow  movement.  As  transition  to  the 
augmented  fourth  of  the  key  involves  several 
stefts  of  modulation,  this  may  be  considered  the 
most  remote  part  of  the  octave.  (It  is  not  quite 
obvious  why  minor  keys  should  almost  always 
be  remote  from  other  minor  keys,  but  they 
certainly  are,  from  almost  all  excepting  the  key 
of  their  subdominant  minor.  See  Relation.) 
In  relation  to  any  given  major  keynote,  we  may 
recognise  four  degrees  of  proximity,  besides  its 
relative  and  tonic  minors.  In  relation  to  the  key 
of  G,  the  notes  F  and  G  stand  nearest  of  all ; 
next  come  £  flat,  £,  A  flat  and  A,  as  standing 
in  the  relation  of  thirds,  major  or  minor  ;  next, 
as  requiring  a  double  modulation,  D  and  B  flat ; 
and  farthest  of  all,  C  sharp,  B,  and  F  sharp, 
the  last  being  the  extreme  of  remoteness.  Before 
equal  temperament  was  a  part  of  practical  music, 
the  inherent  error  in  the  scale  was  confined  by 
tuners  to  the  'remote'  keys,  that  term  being 
used  simply  of  the  keys  which  had  many  sharps 
or  flats,  leaving  the  key  of  C  perfectly  in  tune, 
and  F  and  G  almost  perfect  M. 

R^MY,  W.  A.,  the  name  by  which  an  eminent 
musician  and  teacher  in  Prague  preferred  to  be 
known.  His  real  name  was  Wilhelm  Mayer, 
and  he  was  the  son  of  a  lawyer  in  Prague,  where 
he  was  born,  June  10,  1831.  A  pupil  of  C.  F. 
Pietsch,  he  appeared  at  the  age  of  seventeen 
years  as  the  composer  of  an  overture  to  Sue's 
*  Fanatiker  in  den  Cevennen  * ;  but  in  obedience 
to  the  parental  desires,  he  studied  law,  took  the 
degree  of  Dr.  Jur.  in  1856,  and  did  not  take  up 
music  as  his  profession  until  1862,  when  he 


became  conductor  of  the  Steiermarkische  Musik- 
verein,  and  earned  experience  as  an  orchestral 
director.  He  kept  the  post  till  1870,  composing 
many  orchestral  works  during  the  period,  among 
them  an  overture  to  '  Sardanapalus, '  and  a  sym- 
phonic poem,  'Helena,'  as  well  as  his  first 
symphony  in  F.  The  three  works  made  their 
way  as  far  as  Leipzig,  where  they  were  received 
with  great  success.  From  the  date  of  hia 
resignation  he  lived  as  an  unofficial  teacher,  and 
devoted  himself  to  composition,  until  his  death 
at  Prague,  Jan.  22,  1898.  His  works  include 
two  more  symphonies  (in  F  and  £  flat),  a 
'  Phantasiestiick '  for  orchestra,  given  at  the 
Yienna  Philharmonic  concerts  under  Desaoff; 
a  '  Slawische  Liederspiel '  for  solos  and  chorus^ 
with  accompaniment  of  two  pianos,  another 
work  of  the  same  kind,  'Oestliche  Rosen,'  a 
oonoert-opera,  '  Waldfraulein,'  and  many  songs, 
etc.  Among  his  most  eminent  pupils  may  be 
mentioned  Busoni,  Kienzl,  Heubeiger,  von 
Rezniczek,  and  Felix  Weingartner.  {Neue 
Miisik-Z&Uung,  1890,  p.  261.)  M. 

R£NAUD,  Maurice  Arnold,  bom  1862, 
at  Bordeaux,  studied  singing  at  the  Conser- 
vatoire, Paris,  and  subsequently  at  that  of 
Brussels.  From  1883  to  1890  he  sang  at  the 
Monnaie,  Brussels,  in  a  variety  of  parts, 
making  a  great  impression ;  on  Jan.  7,  1884, 
as  the  High  Priest  in  Reyer's  '  Sigurd,'  and 
on  Feb.  10,  1890,  as  Hamilcar  in  Reyers 
'  Salammbd,'  on  production  of  these  operas ; 
he  also  sang  baritone  or  bass  parts  in  '  Manon,' 
'Lakm4,'  etc.,  and  as  Eothner  in  'Meister- 
singer.'  On  Oct.  12,  1890,  he  made  his  ddbut 
at  the  Opera-Comique,  Paris,  as  Kamac  in  '  Le 
Roi  d'Ys,'  and  sang  on  Dec.  3  as  the  hero  of 
Diaz's  new  opera  '  Benvenuto.'  On  July  17, 
1891,  he  made  a  very  successful  debut  at  the 
Opera  as  Nelusko,  and  remained  there  until 
1902.  On  Feb.  29,  1892,  he  sang  the  modest 
part  of  Leuthold,  in  'Tell,'  at  the  Rossini  cen- 
tenary ;  he  added  to  his  repertory  the  parts  of 
Telramund,  Wolfram,  lago,  Beokmesser,  Hilperic 
in  Guiraud's  '  Fr^^gonde,'  completed  by  Saint- 
Saens,  the  Shepherd  in  Bruneau's  'Mcssidor,' 
and,  on  Nov.  15,  1899,  Chorebe  in  Berlioz's 
'  Prise  de  Troie.'  On  leave  of  absence,  on  June 
23,  1897,  he  made  his  d6but  at  Covent  Garden 
as  Wolfram  and  De  Nevers  in  selections  from 
'Tannhiiuser'  and  'Huguenots,'  at  the  State 
performance  in  honour  of  the  Diamond  Jubilee 
of  Queen  Yictoria  ;  and  in  the  same  season  he 
sang  the  above  parts,  Don  Juan,  and  Juan  in 
D'£rlanger's  '  Inez  Mendo. '  He  fully  confirmed 
his  Parisian  reputation  by  his  fine  voice  and  pre- 
sence, and  excellent  singing  and  acting.    From 

1898  to  1 905  he  has  re-appeared  here  frequently 
at  the  above  theatre,  singing  the  part  of  Henry 
YIII.  in  Saint-Saens's  opera,  July  19,  1898, 
that  of  Hares  in  De  Liara's  'Messaline,'  July  13, 

1899  ;  and  appearing  as  Hamlet,  Rigoletto, 
Yalentine,  £scamillo,  etc    In  1908  M.  Renaud 


RENCONTRE  IMPR^VUE 


REPETITION 


66 


sang  at  the  Gaite,  in  Paris,  as  Herod  in  Mas- 
senet's '  H^rodiade,'  and  both  there,  and  at  the 
Opera-Comiqne  in  1904  as  Don  Juan,  and  the 
Flying  Dntchman,  always  vrith  great  suocess. 
He  sang  at  Monte  Carlo  in  1907  in  Broneau's 
*Nai8  Mieoulin.'  ,  a.  c. 

RENCONTRE  IMPREYUE.    SeePiLORiME 

TON*  MeKKA. 

R£NDANO,  Alfonso,  bom  April  5,  1853, 
at  Carolei,  near  Cosenza,  studied  first  at  the 
Conservatorio  at  Naples,  then  with  Thalberg, 
and  lastly  at  the  Leipzig  Conservatorinm.  He 
played  at  the  Gewandhaus  with  marked  success 
on  FeK  8,  1872.  He  then  visited  Paris  and 
London,  performed  at  the  Musical  Union  (April 
30.  1872),  the  Philharmonic  (March  9,  1873), 
the  Crystid  Palace,  and  other  concerts,  and  much 
in  society  ;  and  after  a  lengthened  stay  returned 
to  Italy.  He  was  a  graceful  and  refined  player, 
with  a  delicate  touch,  and  a  great  command 
over  the  mechanism  of  the  piano.  His  playing 
of  Bach  was  especially  good.  He  published 
some  piano  pieces  of  no  importance.  6. 

REPEAT,  REPETIZIONE,  REPLICA  (Ger. 
iTiedarholung ;  Fr.  Bipitition.,  which  also  means 
' rehearsal ').  In  the  so-called  sonata  form,  there 
are  certain  sections  which  are  repeated,  and 
are  either  written  out  in  full  twice  over,  or  are 

written  only  once,  with  the  sign     :||      at  the 

end,  which  shows  that  the  music  is  to  be  repeated 
cither  from  the  beginning  or  from  the  previous 
occurrence  of  the  sign.  The  sections  which,  ac- 
cording to  the  strict  rule,  are  repeated,  are — the 
first  section  of  the  first  movement,  both  sections 
of  the  minuet  or  scherzo  at  their  first  appear- 
ance, and  both  sections  of  the  trio,  after  which 
the  minuetorscherzoisgoneoncestraightthroilgh 
without  repeats.  Thelatterhalf  of  the  firstmove- 
ment,  and  the  first,  or  even  both,  of  the  sections 
in  the  last  movement,  may  be  repeated  ;  see  for 
instance  Beethoven's  Sonatas,  op.  2,  No.  2  *;  op. 
1 0,  No.  2  ;  op.  78  ;  Schubert's  Symphony  No. 
9.  Also,  where  there  is  an  air  and  variations, 
both  sections  of  the  air  and  of  all  the  variations, 
should,  strictly  speaking,  be  repeated.  This 
nndoabtedly  arose  from  the  facility  with  which 
on  a  good  harpsichord  the  player  could  vary  the 
qualities  of  tone,  by  using  different  stops  ;  and 
there  was  a  tradition  that,  on  that  instrument, 
a  change  of  '  register '  should  be  made  at  every 
repetition.  Although  it  is  a  regular  custom  not 
to  play  the  minuet  or  scherzo,  after  the  trio,  with 
rejieats,  Beethoven  thinks  fit  to  draw  attention  to 
the  fact  that  it  is  to  be  played  straight  through, 
by  putting  after  the  trio  the  words  *  Da  Capo 
senza  repetizione, '  or  *senza  replica,'  in  one  or 
two  instances,  as  in  op.  10,  No.  3,  where,  more- 
over, the  trio  is  not  divided  into  two  sections, 
and  is  not  repeated  ;  in  op.  27,  No.  2,  where 
the  All^iretto  is  marked  *  La  prima  parte  senza 
repetizione '  (the  first  part  without  repeat).  In 
his   Fourth   and  Seventh  Symphonies  he  has 

VOL.  IV 


given  the  trio  twice  over  each  time  with  full 
repeats.  m. 

REPETITION.     (Fr.)  Rehearsal. 

REPETITION  (Pianoforte).  The  rapid 
reiteration  of  a  note  is  called  repetition  ;  a 
special  touch  of  the  player  facilitated  by  me- 
chanical contrivances  in  the  pianoforte  action  ; 
the  earliest  and  most  important  of  these  having 
been  the  invention  of  Sebastian  Erard.  [See 
the  diagram  and  description  of  Erard's  action 
under  Pianoforte,  vol.  iii.  p.  730.]  By  such 
a  contrivance  the  hammer,  after  the  delivery  of 
a  blow,  remains  poised,  or  slightly  rises  again, 
so  as  to  allow  the  liopper  to  fall  back  and  be 
ready  to  give  a  second  impulse  to  the  hammer 
before  the  key  has  nearly  recovered  its  position 
of  rest.  The  particular  advantages  of  repetition 
to  grand  pianos  have  been  widely  acknowledged 
by  pianoforte  makers,  and  much  ingenuity  has 
been  spent  in  inventing  or  perfecting  repetition 
actions  for  them ;  in  upright  pianos,  however, 
the  principle  has  been  rarely  employed,  although 
its  influence  has  been  felt  and  shown  by  care  in 
the  position  of  the  'check '  in  all  check  action  in- 
struments. The  French  have  named  the  mechani- 
cal power  to  repeat  a  note  rapidly,  *  double 
echappement' ;  the  drawbacks  to  double  escape- 
ment— which  the  repetition  really  is — are  found 
in  increased  complexity  of  mechanism  and 
liability  to  derangement.  These  may  be  over- 
rated, but  there  always  remains  the  drawback 
of  loss  of  tone  in  repeated  notes  ;  the  repetition 
blow  being  given  from  a  small  depth  of  touch 
compared  ^ith  the  normal  depth,  is  not  so  elastic 
and  cannot  be  delivered  with  so  full  a/orte,  or 
with  a  piano  or  pianissifno  of  equally  telling 
vibration.  Hence,  in  spite  of  the  great  vogue 
given  to  repetition  effects  by  Herz  and  Thalberg, 
other  eminent  players  have  disregarded  them, 
or  have  even  been  opposed  to  repetition  touches, 
as  Chopin  and  von  Biilow  were  ;  see  p.  7,  §  10 
of  the  latter's  commentary  on  selected  studies 
by  Chopin  (Aibl,  Munich,  1880).  where  he  de- 
signates double  escapement  as  a  'deplorable 
innovation. ' 

A  fine  example  of  the  best  use  of  repetition 
is  in  Thalberg's  A  minor  Study,  op.  45 — 


where  the  player,  using  the  first  two  Gngers 
and  thumb  in  rapid  succession  on  each  note,  pro- 
duces by  these  triplets  almost  the  effect  of  a 
sustained  melody  with  a  tremolo.  Repetition  is 
an  old  device  with  stringed  instruments,  having 
been,  according  to  Bunting,  a  practice  with  the 
Irish  harpers,  as  we  know  it  was  with  the  common 
dulcimer,  the  Italian  mandoline,  and  the  Spanish 
bandurria. 

A  remarkable  instance  may  be  quoted  of  the 

F 


66 


REPORTS 


REQUIEM 


effective  use  of  repetition  in  the  Fugato  (piano 
solo)  from  Liszt's' Tod tentanz*(DanBe  Macabre). 
Vivace, 


But  there  need  be  no  difficulty  in  playing  this 
on  a  well-regulated  and  checked  single  escape- 
ment. WiUi  a  double  escapement  the  nicety  of 
checking  is  not  so  much  required.       a.  j.  h. 

REPORTS  (the  word  seems  not  to  be  used 
in  the  singular),  an  old  English  and  Scottish 
term  for  points  of  imitation.  From  the  eight 
examples  in  the  Scottish  Psalter  of  1635  (re- 
printed in  the  Rev.  Neil  Livingston's  edition, 
1864)  it  would  seem  that  the  term  was  used 
in  a  more  general  sense,  of  a  setting  of  certain 
tunes  in  which  the  parts  moved  in  a  kind  of 
free  polyphony,  not  in  strictly  imitative  style. 
In  Pm'cell's  revision  of  the  treatise  which 
appears  in  the  third  part  of  Playford's  Intro- 
duction to  the  Skill  of  Musick  (twelfth  edition, 
1694),  the  term  is  mentioned  but  not  explained, 
further  than  as  being  synonymous  with  *  imita- 
tion ' :  *  Tlie  second  is  Imitation  or  IteportSy 
which  needs  no  Example.'  (See  Samnulbande 
of  the  IrU.  Mus,  Gea.  vi.  p.  562.)  M. 

REPRISE,  repetition  ;  a  term  which  is  occa- 
sionally applied  to  any  repetition  iu  music,  but 
is  most  conveniently  confined  to  the  recurrence 
of  the  first  subject  of  a  movement  after  the 
conclusion  of  the  working  out  or  Durchfuhrunrj, 
[In  Couperin,  Rameau,  and  other  French  com- 
posers, the  term  is  used  of  a  short  refrain  at 
the  end  of  a  movement,  which  was  probably 
intended  to  be  played  over  more  than  twice, 
as  sometimes  it  contains  the  ordinary  marks 
of  repetition  within  the  passage  covered  by 
the  word.]  g. 

REQUIEM  (Lat.  Misaa  pro  Deftmctis  ;  Ital. 
Mesaa  per  i  DefurUi ;  Fr.  Mease  des  Morta ; 
Germ.  Todtennuaae),  A  solemn  Mass,  sung 
annually,  in  Commemoration  of  the  Faithful 
Departed,  on  All  Souls'  Day  (Nov.  2) ;  and, 
with  a  less  general  intention,  at  funeral  services, 
on  the  anniversaries  of  the  decease  of  particular 
persons,  and  on  such  other  occasions  as  may  be 
dictated  by  feelings  of  public  respect  or  indi- 
vidual piety. 

The  Requiem  takes  its  name  ^  from  the  first 
word  of  the  Introit — '  Requiem  aeternani  dona 
eis,  Domine.'  When  set  to  music,  it  naturally 
arranges  itself  in  nine  principal  sections :  (1) 
The  Introit — '  Requiem  aeternam  ' ;  (2)  the 
'  Kyric' ;  (8)  the  Gradual,  and  Tract— 'Requiem 
aeternam,'  and  'Absolve,  Domine';  (4)  The 
Sequence  or  Prose — '  Dies  irae ' ;  (5)  Tlie  Offer- 
torium — '  Domine  Jesu  Christi ' ;  (6)  the  Sanc- 

1  Tb&t  U  to  my.  It*  name  u  »  ■pecUl  Mm*.  Th«  Mnste  of  the 
ordlimry  Po]jphnti)c  Ma«  «1  wajn  bean  the  OAine  of  the  Cknto  fermo 
OD  which  it  1«  founded. 


tus*;  (7)  the  ' Benedictus ' ;  (8)  the  'Agnus 
Dei' ;  and  (9)  the  Communio — 'Lux  aetema.' 
To  these  are  sometimes  added  (10)  the  Reapon- 
sorium,  'Libera  me,'  which,  though  not  an 
integral  portion  of  the  Mass,  immediately  follows 
it,  on  all  solemn  occasions  ;  and  (11)  the  Lectio 
— '  Taedet  animam  nieam,'  of  which  we  possess 
at  least  one  example  of  gi^eat  historical  interest. 

The  Plain-song  Melodies  adapted  to  the  nine 
divisions  of  the  mass  will  be  found  iu  the 
Gradual,  together  with  that  proper  for  the 
Responsorium.  The  Lectio,  which  really  belongs 
tp  a  different  Service,  has  no  proper  Melody, 
but  is  sung  to  the  ordinary  'Tonus  Lectionis.' 
[See  Inflexion.]  The  entire  series  of  Melodies 
is  of  nu-e  beauty,  and  produces  so  solemn  an 
effect,  when  simg  in  unison  by  a  large  body 
of  grave  equal  voices,  that  most  of  the  gi-eat 
polyphonic  oomiiosei-s  have  employed  its  phrases 
more  freely  than  usual,  in  their  Requiem  Masses, 
either  as  Canti  fermi,  or  in  the  form  of  unison- 
ous passages  interi)osed  between  tlie  harmonised 
portions  of  the  work.  Compositions  of  this 
kind  are  not  very  numerous ;  but  most  of  the 
examples  we  possess  must  be  classed  among  the 
most  i)erfect  productions  of  their  i-es|)ective 
authors. 

Palestrina's  '  Missa  pro  Defunctis,'  for  five 
voices,  first  printed  at  Rome  in  1591,  iu  the 
form  of  a  supplement  to  the  Third  Edition  of 
his  '  First  Book  of  Masses,'  was  reproduced  in 
1841  by  Alfieri,  in  the  first  volume  of  his 
*  Raccolta  di  Musica  Sacra ' ;  again,  by  Lafage  ■* 
in  a  valuable  8vo  volume,  entitled  '  Cinq  Messes 
de  Palestrina' ;  and  by  the  Prince  de  la  Moskowa 
in  the  9th  volume  of  his  collection  [see  vol.  iii. 
p.  271],  and  has  since  been  included  by  Messrs. 
Br^itkopf  &  Hartel,  of  Leipzig,  in  their  complete 
edition.  This  beautiful  work  is,  unhappily, 
very  incomplete,  consisting  only  of  the  *  Kyric,* 
the  'Offertorium,'  the  'Sanctus,'  the  'liene- 
diotus,'  and  the  'Agnus  Dei.'  We  must  uot^ 
however,  suppose  that  the  com|)oser  left  his 
work  imfinished.  It  was  clearly  his  intention 
that  the  remaining  movements  should  be  sung, 
in  accordance  witii  a  custom  still  common  at 
Roman  funerals,  in  unisonous  plain-song  ;  and, 
as  a  fitting  conclusion  to  the  whole,  he  has  left 
us  t^vo  settings  of  the  '  Libera  me,'  in  botli  of 
which  the  Gregorian  melody  is  treated  with  an 
indescribable  intensity  of  {iathos.^  One  of 
these  is  preserved  in  MS.  among  the  archives 
of  the  Pontifical  Chai)el,  and  the  other,  among 
those  of  the  Lateran  Basilica.  After  a  careful 
com})arison  of  the  two,  Baini  arrived  at  the 
conclusion  that  that  belonging  to  the  Sistine 
Chapel  must  have  been  com[)08ed  very  nearly 
at  the  same  time  as,  and  probably  as  an  a4junct 
to,  the  five  printed  movements,  which  are  also 
founded,  more  or  less  closely,  upon  the  original 
Canti  fermi,  and  so  constructed  as  to  bring  their 

a  Parta.  Launer  et  Cle.:  London.  HrhiHt  k  Co. 
*  Bee  Alflcri.  RaixUta  di  Mutica  Sacr^  tuiu.  \ii. 


REQUIEM 


RESOLUTION 


67 


characteristic  beauties  into  the  highest  possible 
i«]ief — in  no  case,  perhaps,  with  more  touching 
effect  than  in  the  ojiening  *  Kyrie/  the  first  few 
bars  of  which  will  be  found  at  vol.  ii.  p.  618. 

Next  in  importance  to  Palestrina's  Requiem 
is  a  very  grand  one,  for  six  voices,  composed  by 
Victoria  for  the  funeral  of  the  Empress  Mai'ia, 
widow  of  Maximilian  II.  This  line  work — 
midonbtedly  the  greatest  triumph  of  Vittoria's 
genius — comprises  aU  the  chief  divisions  of  the 
Mass,  except  the  Sequence,  together  with  the 
Rcasiiousorium  and  Lectio,  and  brings  the 
plain -song  subjects  into  prominent  relief 
throughout.  It  was  first  published  at  Madrid 
in  1605 — the  year  of  its  production.  In  1869 
the  Lectio  was  reprinted  at  Ratisbon,  by  Joseph 
Schrems,  in  continuation  of  Proske's  'Musica 
I>i\ina.'  A  later  issue  of  the  same  valuable 
collection  contains  the  Mass  and  Responsorium. 
The  original  volume  contains  one  more  move- 
ment— *  Versa  est  in  luctum  * — which  has  never 
been  reproduced  in  modem  notation  ;  but,  as 
this  has  now  no  ]}lace  in  the  Roman  Funeral 
Service,  its  omission  is  not  so  much  to  be 
regretted. 

Some  otiier  very  fine  Masses  for  the  Dead, 
by  Francesco  Anerio,  Orazio  Vecchi,  and  Giov. 
Matt.  AsoU,  are  included  in  the  same  collec- 
tion, together  witli  a  somewhat  preteutious 
work  by  Pitoni,  which  scarcely  deserves  the 
entliusiastic  eulogium  bestowed  upon  it  by 
Dr.  Proske.  A  far  finer  composition,  of  neai'ly 
similar  date,  is  Colonna's  massive  Requiem  for 
eight  voices,  first  printed  at  Bologna  in  1684 — 
a  copy  of  which  is  preserved  in  the  libraiy  of 
the  Royal  College  of  Music 

Sev^:^  modem  Requiem  Masses  have  become 
very  celebrated. 

(1.)  Tlie  history  of  Mozart  s  last  work  is 
surrounded  by  mjrsteries  which  render  it  scarcely 
it^ss  interesting  to  the  general  i*eader  than  the 
music  itself  is  to  the  student.  (See  vol.  iii 
p.  308  ff.) 

(2.)  For  Gossec's  *  Mease  des  Morts '  see  vol. 
iL  p.  203. 

(3.)  Next  in  impmtanoe  to  Mozart's  immortal 
work  are  the  two  great  Requiem  Masses  of 
ChembinL  The  first  of  these,  in  C  minor,  was 
written  for  the  Anniversary  of  the  death  of 
King  Louis  XYI.  (Jan.  21,  1793),  and  first 
sang  on  that  occasion  at  the  Abbey  Church 
of  Saint -Denis  in  1817  ;  after  which  it  was 
not  again  heard  until  Feb.  14,  1820,  when  it 
was  re^jeated  in  the  same  church  at  the  funeral 
of  the  Due  de  Bern.  Berlioz  regarded  this  as 
Cherubini's  greatest  work.  It  is  undoubtedly 
full  of  beauties.  Its  general  tone  is  one  of 
extreme  moumfulness,  pervaded  throughout 
by  deep  religious  feeling.  Except  in  the  *  Dies 
iiae '  and  'Sanctus'  this  style  is  never  exchanged 
for  a  more  excited  one ;  and,  even  then,  the 
treatment  can  scarcely  be  called  dramatic. 
The  deep  pathos  of  the  little  movement,  inter- 


l)08ed  after  the  last '  Osanua,*  to  fulfil  the  usual 
oflice  of  the  *Benedictus* — which  is  here 
incorporated  with  the  '  Sanctus ' — exhibits  the 
com|)oser's  power  of  appealing  to  the  feelings  in 
its  most  affecting  light. 

The  second  Reqmcni,  in  D  minor,  for  three 
male  voices  is  in  many  respects  a  greater  work 
than  the  firat;  though  tlie  dramatic  element 
jiervades  it  so  fi-eely  that  its  character  as  a 
religious  service  is  sometimes  entirely  lost. 
It  was  completed  on  Sept.  24,  1836,  a  few 
days  after  the  composer  had  entered  his  seventy- 
seventh  year ;  and,  witli  the  exception  of  the 
sixth  quartet  and  the  quintet  in  £  minor,  was 
his  last  important  work.  The  '  Dies  irae '  was 
first  sung  at  the  concert  of  the  Conservatoire, 
March  19,  1837,  and  repeated  on  the  24tli  of 
tlie  same  month.  On  Mai-ch  25,  1838,  the 
work  was  sung  throughout  In  the  January 
of  that  year  Mendelssohn  had  akeady  recom- 
mended it  to  the  notice  of  the  committee  of 
the  Lower  Rhine  Festival;  and  in  1872  and 
1873  it  was  sung  as  a  funeral  service  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Chapel,  in  Farm  Street,  London. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  Cherubini's  genius  ever 
shone  to  greater  advantage  than  in  this  gigantic 
work.  Every  movement  is  full  of  interest ; 
and  the  *  whirlwind  of  soimd '  which  ushers  in 
the  *  Dies  irae  *  jiroduces  an  effect  which,  once 
heard,  can  never  be  forgotten.  "W.  s.  n. 

[Schumann's  Requiem,  op.  148,  is  of  com- 
l)aratively  small  imi)ortauce ;  more  beautiful 
com|)ositions  of  his  with  the  same  title  are  the 
'Requiem  for  Mignon,'  and  a  song  included 
in  op.  90.  These  two  have,  of  course,  notliing 
to  do  with  the  words  of  the  Mass  whicli  ai*e 
here  imder  discussion ;  nor  has  the  famous 
*  Gemian  Requiem '  of  Brahms,  which  has  been 
noticed  in  its  own  place  (see  vol.  i.  p.  384). 
Verdi's  Requiem,  written  in  memory  of  Manzoni, 
startled  the  purists  when  it  was  produced  in 
1874,  but  it  gradually  won  the  entliusiastic 
apx)roval  even  of  the  most  aixlent  classicists, 
for  it  is  a  masterpiece  in  its  way.  Among  later 
Requiem  Masses  may  be  mentioned  Stanfoitl's 
work  in  memoiy  of  Loitl  Leightou,  given  at 
the  Birmingham  Festival  of  1897  ;  Henschels 
expressive  Requiem,  wiitten  in  memory  of  his 
mfe,  in  1902 ;  and  Sgambati's  in  memory  of 
King  Humbert,  published  1906.] 

RESIN.     See  Colophane,  and  Rosin. 

RESINARIUS,  Balthasak,  is  jmssibly,  but 
not  certainly,  identical  with  Baltliasar  Harzer 
or  Hartzer.  He  was  bom  at  Jessen  early  in 
the  16th  century,  took  clerical  ordei-s  and  be- 
came Bishop  of  Leipa  in  Bohemia  about  1543. 
He  had  been  a  chorister  in  the  service  of  the 
£m|)eror  Maximilian  I.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
a  pupil  of  Isaac,  and  he  published  at  Witten- 
berg in  1543  'Responsorium  nimiiei'o  octoginta 
de  tempore  et  festis  .  .  .  libri  duo.' 

RESOLUTION  is  the  process  of  relieving 
dissonance  by  succeeding  consonance.     All  dis- 


68 


RESOLUTION 


RESOLUTION 


sonance  is  irritant,  and  cannot  be  indefinitely 
dwelt  upon  by  the  mind,  but  while  it  is  heard 
the  return  to  consonance  is  awaited.  To  conduct 
this  return  to  consonance  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  connection  between  the  chords  may  be  intel- 
ligible to  the  hearer  la  the  problem  of  resolution. 
The  history  of  the  development  of  harmonic 
music  shows  that  the  separate  idea  of  resolution 
in  the  absti-act  need  not  have  been  present  to 
the  earliest  composers  who  introduced  discords 
into  their  works.  They  discovered  circumstances 
in  which  the  flow  of  the  parts,  moving  in  con- 
sonance with  one  another,  might  be  diversified 
by  retarding  one  part  while  the  others  moved  on 
a  step,  and  then  waited  for  that  which  was  left 
behind  to  catch  them  up.  This  process  did  not 
invariably  produce  dissonance,  but  it  did  conduce 
to  variety  in  the  independent  motion  of  the 
parts.  The  result,  in  the  end,  was  to  establish 
the  class  of  discords  we  call  suspensions,  and 
their  resolutions  were  inevitably  implied  by  the 
very  principle  on  which  the  device  is  founded. 
Thus  when  Josquin  diversified  a  simple  succes- 
sion of  chords  in  what  we  call  their  first  position, 
as  follows — 


Ex.1. 


it  seems  sufficiently  certain  that  no  such  idea  as 
resolving  a  discord  was  pi*esent  to  his  mind.  The 
motion  of  D  to  C  and  of  C  to  B  was  predeter- 
mined, and  their  being  retarded  was  mainly  a 
happy  way  of  obtaining  variety  in  the  flow  of  the 
parts,  though  it  must  not  be  ignored  that  the 
early  masters  had  a  full  appreciation  of  the 
actual  function  and  ef!ect  of  the  few  discords 
they  did  employ. 

Some  time  later  the  device  of  overlapping  the 
succeeding  motions  of  the  parts  was  discovered, 
by  allowing  some  or  all  of  those  which  had  gone 
on  in  front  to  move  again  while  the  part  which 
had  been  left  behind  passed  to  its  destination  ; 
as  by  substituting  (b)  for  (a)  in  Ex.  2. 


Ex.2. 


This  complicated  matters,  and  gave  scope  for 
fresh  progressions  and  combinations,  but  it  did 
not  necessarily  affect  the  question  of  resolution, 
pure  and  simple,  because  the  destination  of  the 
part  causing  the  dissonance  was  still  predeter- 
mined. However,  the  gradually  increasing  fre- 
quency of  the  use  of  discords  must  have  habituated 
hearers  to  their  effect  and  to  the  consideration 
of  the  characteristics  of  different  groups,  and  so 


by  degrees  to  their  classification.  The  first 
marked  step  in  this  direction  was  the  use  of  the 
Dominant  seventh  without  preparation,  which 
showed  at  least  a  thorough  appreciation  of  the 
fact  that  some  discords  might  have  a  more  inde- 
pendent individuality  than  others.  This  appears 
at  first  merely  in  the  occasional  discarding 
of  the  formality  of  delaying  the  note  out  of 
a  preceding  chord  in  order  to  introduce  the 
dissonance ;  but  it  led  also  towards  the  considera- 
tion of  resolution  in  the  abstract,  and  ultimately 
to  greater  latitude  in  the  process  of  returning  to 
consonance.  Both  their  instinct  and  the  par- 
ticular manner  in  which  the  aspects  of  discords 
presented  themselves  at  first  led  the  earlier  oom- 
posers  to  pass  from  a  discordant  note  to  the 
nearest  available  note  in  the  scale,  wherever  the 
nature  of  the  retardation  did  not  obviously  imply 
the  contrary ;  and  this  came  by  degrees  to  be 
accepted  as  a  tolerably  general  rule.  Thus  the 
Dominantseventhisgenerally  found  to  resolve  on 
the  semitone  below ;  and  this,  combined  with  the 
fact  that  the  leading  note  was  already  in  the  chord 
with  the  seventh,  guided  them  to  the  relation  of 
Dominant  and  Tonic  chords ;  although  they  early 
realised  the  possibility  of  resolving  on  other  har- 
mony than  that  of  the  Tonic,  on  special  occasions, 
without  violating  the  supposed  law  of  moving  the 
seventh  down  a  semitone  or  tone,  according  to  the 
mode,  and  raising  the  leading  note  to  what  would 
have  been  the  Tonic  on  ordinary  occasions.  How- 
ever, the  ordinary  succession  became  by  degrees  so 
familiar  that  the  Tonic  chord  grew  to  be  regarded 
as  a  sort  of  resolution  in  a  lump  of  the  mass  of 
any  of  the  discords  which  were  built  on  the  top 
of  a  Dominant  miy'or  concord,  as  the  seventh  and 
major  or  minor  ninth,  such  as  are  now  often 
called  Fundamental  discords.  Thus  we  find  the 
following  }Nissage  in  a  Haydn  Sonata  in  D — 
Ex.8. 


in  which  the  Dominant  seventh  is  not  resolved 
by  its  passing  to  a  near  degree  of  the  scale,  but 
by  the  mass  of  the  harmony  of  the  Tonic  fol- 
lowing the  mass  of  the  harmony  of  the  Dominant 
Ex.  4  is  an  example  of  a  similar  use  by  him  of 
a  Dominant  major  ninth. 

»'*•     J.    ^ 


A  more  common  way  of  dealing  with  the 
resolution  of  such  chords  was  to  make  the  part 


RESOLUTION 


RESOLUTION 


69 


having  the  disoordaut  note  pass  to  another 
position  in  the  same  harmony  before  changing, 
and  allowing  another  part  to  supply  the  con- 
tigaoos  note  ;  as  in  Ex.  6  from  one  of  Mozart's 
Fantasias  in  C  ndnor. 

Ex.  &.  Ex.  5a. 


Some  theorists  hold  that  the  passage  of  the 
ninth  to  the  third — as  Db  to  E  in  Ex.  5a  (where 
the  root  C  ddes  not  apjiear) — is  sufficient  to  con- 
lititnte  resolution.  That  such  a  form  of  resolu- 
tion is  Tery  common  is  obvious  from  theorists 
having  noticed  it,  but  it  ought  to  be  understood 
that  the  mere  change  of  position  of  the  notes  of 
a  discord  is  not  sufficient  to  constitute  resolu- 
tion unless  a  real  change  of  harmony  is  implied 
by  the  elimination  of  the  discordant  note  ;  or 
unless  the  change  of  position  leads  to  fresh 
harmony,  and  thereby  satisfies  the  conditions 
of  intelligible  connection  with  the  discord. 

A  much  more  unusual  and  remarkable  resolu- 
tion is  such  as  appears  at  the  end  of  the  first 
movement  of  Beethoven's  F  minor  Quartet  as 
follows — 

Er-  ^^ ^ 


where  the  chord  of  the  Dominant  seventh  con- 
tracts into  the  mere  single  note  which  it  repre- 
sents, and  that  proceeds  to  the  note  only  of  the 
Tonic ;  so  that  no  actual  harmony  is  heard  in 
the  movementafter  the  seventh  has  been  sounded. 
An  example  of  treatment  of  an  inversion  of  the 
major  ninth  of  the  Dominant,  which  is  as  un- 
usual, is  the  following  from  Beethoven's  last 
Quartet,  in  F,  op.  135  : — 
Ex. 


There  remain  to  be  noted  a  few  typical  devices 
by  which  resolutions  are  either  varied  or  ela- 


borated. One  which  was  more  common  in  early 
stages  of  harmonic  music  than  at  the  present 
day  was  the  use  of  representative  progressions, 
which  were,  in  fact,  the  outline  of  chords  which 
would  have  supplied  the  complete  succession  of 
parts  if  they  had  been  filled  in.  The  following 
is  a  remarkable  example  from  the  Sarabande  of 
J.  S.  Bach's  Partita  in  Bb  :— 


Ex.8.       w 


which  might  be  interpreted  as  follows  : 
Ex.  9. 


^ 


^^^ 


Another  device  which  came  early  into  use,  and 
was  in  great  favour  with  Bach  and  his  sons  and 
their  contemporaries,  and  is  yet  an  ever-fruitful 
source  of  variety,  is  that  of  interpolating  notes 
in  the  part  which  has  what  is  called  the  discor- 
dant note,  between  its  sounding  and  its  final 
resolution,  and  either  i)assing  direct  to  the  note 
which  relieves  the  dissonance  from  the  digression, 
or  touching  the  dissonant  note  slightly  again  at 
the  end  of  it.  The  simplest  form  of  this  device 
was  the  leap  from  a  sus()ended  note  to  another 
note  belonging  to  the  same  harmony,  and  then 
back  to  the  note  which  supplies  the  resolution, 
as  in  Ex.  10  ;  and  this  form  was  extremely 
common  in  quite  the  early  times  of  polyphonic 
music 


Ex.  10. 


But  much  more  elaborate  forms  of  a  similar 
nature  were  made  use  of  later.  An  example 
from  J.  S.  Bach  will  be  found  in  vol.  i.  p.  31 4& 
of  this  Dictionary  ;  the  following  example,  from 
a  Fantasia  by  Emanuel  Bach,  illustrates  the 
same  point  somewhat  remarkably,  and  serves 
also  as  an  instance  of  enharmonic  resolution  : — 


70 


RESOLUTION 


RESPONSE 


The  minor  seventh  on  G  in  this  case  is  ulti- 
mately resolved  as  if  it  had  been  an  augmented 
sixth  composed  of  the  same  identical  notes 
according  to  our  system  of  temperament,  but 
derived  from  a  different  source  and  having  con- 
sequently a  different  context.  This  manner  of 
using  the  same  group  of  notes  in  different  senses 
is  one  of  the  most  familiar  devices  in  modem 
music  for  varying  the  course  of  resolutions  and 
obtaining  fresh  aspects  of  harmonic  combina- 
tions. [For  further  examples  see  Modulation, 
Change,  Enharmonic] 

An  inference  which  follows  from  the  use  of 
some  forms  of  Enharmonic  resolution  is  that 
the  discordant  note  need  not  inevitably  move  to 
resolution,  but  may  be  brought  into  consonant 
relations  by  the  motion  of  other  parts,  which 
relieve  it  of  its  characteristic  dissonant  effect ; 
this  is  illustrated  most  familiarly  by  the  freedom 
which  is  recognised  in  the  resolution  of  the  chord 
of  the  sixth,  fifth,  and  third  on  the  subdominant, 
called  sometimes  the  added  sixth,  sometimes 
an  inversion  of  the  supertonic  seventh,  and 
sometimes  an  inversion  of  the  eleventh  of  the 
Dominant,  or  even  a  double-rooted  chord  derived 
from  Tonic  and  Dominant  together. 

It  is  necessary  to  note  shortly  the  use  6{ 
vicarious  resolutions — that  is,  of  resolutions  in 
which  one  part  supplies  the  discordant  note 
and  another  the  note  to  which  under  ordinary 
circumstances  it  ought  to  pass.  This  has  been 
alluded  to  above  as  common  in  respect  of  the 
so-called  fundamental  discords,  but  there  are 
instances  of  its  occurring  with  less  independent 
combinations.  The  Gigue  of  Bach's  Partita  in 
£  minor  is  full  of  remarkable  experiments  in 
resolution  ;  the  following  is  an  example  which 
illustrates  especially  the  point  under  considera- 
tion : — 


The  inference  to  be  drawn  from  the  above  ex- 
amples is  that  the  possible  resolutions  of  discords, 
especially  of  those  which  have  an  individual 
status,  are  varied,  but  that  it  takes  time  to 
discover  them,  as  there  can  hardly  be  a  severer 
test  of  a  true  musical  instinct  in  relation  to 
harmony  than  to  make  sure  of  such  a  matter. 
As  a  rule,  the  old  easily  recognisable  resolutions, 
by  motion  of  a  single  degree,  or  at  least  by 
interchange  of  parts  of  the  chord  in  supplying 
the  subsequent  consonant  harmony,  must  pre- 
ponderate, and  the  more  peculiar  resolutions 
will  be  reserved  for  occasions  when  greater  force 
and  intensity  are  required.  But  as  the  paradoxes 
of  one  generation  are  often  the  tniisms  of  the 
next,  so  treatment  of  discords  such  as  is  utterly 


incredible  to  people  w^bo  do  not  believe  in  what 
they  are  not  accustomed  to,  is  felt  to  be  obvious 
to  all  w^hen  it  becomes  familiar  ;  and  hence  the 
peculiarities  which  are  reserved  for  special 
occasions  at  first  must  often  in  their  turn  yield 
the  palm  of  special  interest  to  more  complex 
instinctive  generalisations.  Such  is  the  history 
of  the  development  of  musical  resources  in  the 
past,  and  such  it  must  be  in  the  future.  The 
laws  of  art  require  to  be  based  upon  the  broadest 
and  most  universal  generalisations  ;  and  in  the 
detail  under  consideration  it  appears  at  present 
that  the  ultimate  test  is  thorough  intelligibility 
in  the  melodic  progressions  of  the  parts  which 
constitute  the  chords,  or  in  a  few  cases  the 
response  of  the  harmony  representing  one  root 
to  that  representing  another,  between  which, 
as  in  Examples  3  and  4,  there  is  a  recognise<i 
connection  sufficient  for  the  mind  to  follow 
^vithout  the  express  connection  of  the  flow  of 
the  parts.  Attempts  to  catalogue  the  various 
discords  and  their  various  resolutions  must  be 
futile  as  long  as  the  injunction  is  added  that 
such  formulas  only  are  admissible,  for  this  is  to 
insist  upon  the  repetition  of  what  has  been  said 
before ;  but  they  are  of  value  when  they  are 
considered  with  suflScient  generality  to  help  us 
to  arrive  at  the  ultimate  principles  which  under- 
lie the  largest  circle  of  their  multifarious 
varieties.  The  imagination  can  live  and  move 
freely  within  the  bounds  of  comprehensive  laws, 
but  it  is  only  choked  by  the  accumulation  of 
precedents.  g.  h.  h.  i*. 

RESPOND  (Lat.  Respmamiuin)  a  form  of 
ecclesiastical  chant  which  grew  out  of  the 
elaboration  of  the  primitive  Responsohial 
Psalmody.  Some  of  the  Responds  have  been 
frequently  treated  in  the  Polyphonic  Style,  with 
very  great  effect,  not  only  by  the  Great  Mastera 
of  the  16th  century,  but  even  as  late  as  the  time 
of  Colonna,  whose  Responsoria  of  the  Office  for 
the  Dead,  for  eight  voices,  are  written  with 
intense  appreciation  of  the  solemn  import  of 
the  text. 

A  large  collection  of  very  fine  examples,  in- 
cluding an  exquisitely  beantifiil  set  for  Holy 
Week,  by  Vittoria,  will  be  found  in  vol.  iv,  of 
Proske's  *  Musica  Divina.  *  w.  s.  r, 

RESPONSE,  in  English  church  music,  is,  in 
its  widest  sense,  any  musical  sentence  sung  by 
the  choir  at  the  close  of  something  read  or 
chanted  by  the  minister.  The  term  thus  in- 
cludes the  *  Amen '  after  prayers,  the  *  Kyrie  * 
after  each  commandment  in  the  Communion 
Service,  the  'Doxology'  to  the  Gospel,  and 
every  reply  to  a  Versicle,  or  to  a  Petition,  or 
Suffrage.  In  its  more  limited  sense  the  first 
three  of  the  above  divisions  would  be  excluded 
from  the  term,  and  the  last-named  would  fall 
naturally  into  the  following  imfwrtant  groups : 
(1)  those  which  immediately  precede  the  Psalms, 
called  also  the  Preces  ;  (2)  thoee  following  the 
Apostles'  Creed  and  the  Lord's  Prayer ;  (3)  those 


RESPONSE 


RESPONSE 


71 


following  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  the  Litany  ;  (4) 
and  the  Responses  of  the  first  portion  of  the 
Litany,  which,  however,  are  of  a  special  musical 
form  which  will  be  fully  explained  hereafter. 
Versicles  and  Responses  are  either  an  ancient 
formula  of  prayer  or  praise,  as,  *Lord,  have 
mercy  ui)on  us,'  etc.,  *  Glory  be  to  the  Father,* 
etc.,  or  a  quotation  from  Holy  Scripture,  as, 

y  O  Lord,  open  Thou  onr  lips. 

1^  And  our  month  shall  shew  forth  Thy  praise. 

which  is  Terse  15  of  Psalm  11. ;  or  a  quotation 
from  a  church  hymn,  as, 

}^  O  Lord,  save  Thy  people. 
R  And  bless  Thine  inheritance. 

which  is  from  the  Te  Deum  ;  or  an  adaptation  of 
a  prayer  to  the  special  purpose,  as, 


I 


Fkronrably  with  mercy  hear  our  prayers. 
O  Son  of  David,  have  mercy  upon  us. 


The  musical  treatment  of  such  Versicles  and 
Responses  offers  a  wide  and  interesting  field  of 
study.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  all  the 
inflections  or  cadences  to  which  they  are  set 
have  been  the  gradual  development  of  an 
original  monotonal  treatment,  which  in  time 
was  found  to  be  uninteresting  and  tedious 
(whence  our  term  of  contempt  *  monotonous '), 
or  was  designedly  varied  for  use  on  s])ecial 
occasions  and  during  holy  seasons.  [See  In- 
flexion.] 

The  word  'Alleluia'  is  found  as  a  Response 
Id  the  Prayer- Book  of  1549,  for  use  between 
Easter  and  Trinity,  immediately  before  the 
Psalms  ;  during  the  remainder  of  the  year  the 
translation  of  the  word  was  a  ^^  a  ^  . 
used.       Here   is    Marbeck's  ^  — »Sp_ 

music  foT  it  (1550)—  Pmy.«  y  tb.  Lord.. 

When  this  was  in  later  editions  converted 
into  a  Versiole  and  Response,  as  in  our  present 
Prayer-Book,  the  music  was,  according  to  some 
uses,  divided  between  the  Versicle  and  Response, 
thus — 


W  FniiM>  ye  the  Lord.  1$  Hie  Lord'a  nune  be  pniied. 

But  as  a  matter  of  fact  these  '  Preces '  in  our 
Prayer-Book  which  precede  the  daily  Psalms 
have  never  been  strictly  bound  by  the  laws  of 
'ecclesiastical  chant,'  hence,  not  only  are  great 
varieties  of  plain-song  settings  to  be  met  with, 
gathered  fh>m  Roman  and  other  uses,  but 
also  actual  settings  in  service-form  (that  is, 
like  a  motet),  containing  contrapuntal  devices 
in  four  or  more  parts.  Nearly  all  the  best 
cathedral  libraries  contain  old  examples  of  this 
elaborate  treatment  of  the  Preces,  and  several 
have  been  printed  by  Dr.  Jebb  in  his  '  Choral 
Responses.* 

As  then  the  Preces  are  somewhat  exceptional, 
we  will  pass  to  the  more  regular  Versicles  and 
Responses,  such  as  those  after  the  Apostles' 


Creed  and  the  Lord's  Prayer.  And  here  we  at 
once  meet  the  final  *  fall  of  a  minor  third,'  which 
is  an  ancient  form  of  inflec- 
tion known  as  the  Aixentus 
Medialis — 

This  is  one  of  the  most  characteristic  progres- 
sions in  plain-song  versicles,  responses,  con- 
fessions, etc.  It  must  have  already  struck  the 
reader  that  this  is  nothing  more  or  less  than 
the  *  note '  of  the  cuckoo.  This  fact  was  prob- 
ably in  Shakespeare's  mind  when  he  wrote, 

The  flnch,  the  sparrow,  and  the  lark, 
The  Tplain-»ong  cuckoo  gray. 

This  medial  accent  is  only  used  in  Versicles 
and  Responses  when  the  last  word  is  a  poly- 
syllable ;  thus —  Medial  Accent. 


^^ 


I^  A»  we  do  put  our  trust  In  Thee. 


T^  And  grant  vm  Thr  Mlva-tion. 

When  the  last  word  is  a  monosyllable  or  is 
accented  oaite  iicderuu  Aoc^t. 

last    syllable, 
there  is  an  ad- 
ditional note,  ' 
thus — 

This  may  be  said  to  be  the  only  law  of  the . 
Accenttis  EccUsiasticus  which  the  tradition  of  our 
Reformed  Church  enforces.  It  isstrictly  observed 
in  most  of  our  cathedrals,  and  considering  its 
remarkable  simplicity,  should  never  be  broken. 
The  word  'prayers'  was  formerly  pronounced 
as  a  dissyllable  ;  it 
therefore  took  the 

medial  accent  thus — •^  F»vour»WyT  ...  onr  pmy-er*. 

but    as    a    monosyllable  it   should  of  course 
be  treated  thus — 

Favourably  ....  oar  pnycn. 

In  comparing  our  Versicles  and  Responses 
with  the  Liatin  from  which  they  were  trans- 
lated, it  is  important  to  bear  this  rule  as  to  the 
'  final  word '  in  mind.  Because  the  Latin  and 
English  of  the  same  Versicle  or  Response  will 
frequently  take  difl'erent  *  accents '  in  the  two 
languages.  For  example,  the  following  Versicle 
takes  in  the  Latin  the  medial  acceiU ;  but  in 
the  translation  will  require  the  moderate  accent. 


ol 

Latin  form. 

# 

-m= 

%) 

English  f&nn. 

DM  Chris -te. 

W-^ 

-m— 

From  onr  enemies  defend  ns.  O     Christ. 

It  has  been  just  stated  that  the  early  part  of 
the  Litany  does  not  come  under  the  above  laws 
of  *  accent.*  The  principal  melodic  progression 
is,  however,  closely  allied  to  the  above,  it 
having  merely  an  addi-  fl| 
tional  note,  thus — 


72 


RESPONSE 


RESPONSE 


tn 


:C= 


This  is  the  old  and  com- 

mon  Resi)ODse —  

O  -  i»    pro  uo-bU. 

and  to  this  are  adapted  the  Responses,  '  Spare 
us,  good  Lord ' ;  *  Good  Lord,  deliver  us '  ; 
<  We  beseech  Thee  to  hear  us,  good  Lord  * ; 

*  Grant  us  Thy  peace  *  ;  *  Have  mercy  upon  us  * ; 

*  0  Christ,  hear  us  '  (the  first  note  being  omitted 
as  redundant)  ;  and  *  Lord,  have  mercy  upon  us ; 
Christ,  have  mercy  upon  us.'  At  this  point, 
the  entry  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  brings  in  the 
old  law  of  medial  and  moderate  accents ;  the 
above  simple  melody,  therefore,  is  the  true 
Response  for  the  whole  of  the  first  (and  principal) 
portion  of  the  Litany.  It  is  necessaxy,  however, 
to  return  now  to  the  preliminary  sentences  of 
the  Litany,  or  the  *  Invocations,'  as  they  have 
been  called.  Here  we  find  each  divided  by  a 
colon,  and,  in  consequence,  the  simple  melody 
last  given  is  lengthened  by  one  note,  thus — 


This  is  used  without  variation  for  all  the  Invo- 
cations. The  asterisk  shows  the  added  note, 
which  is  set  to  the  syllable  immediately  pre- 
ceding the  colon.  It  happens  that  each  of  the 
sentences  of  Invocation  contains  in  our  English 
version  a  monosyllable  before  the  colon  ;  but  it 
is  not  the  case  in  the  Latin,  therefore  both  Ver- 
side  and  Response  differ  from  our  use,  thus — 


{°. 


Oodthel 
Father,  of/ 


Latin. 


E 


etc 


Piftter  de  omdU  De  •  lu. 

In  the  petitions  of  the  Litany,  the  note  marked 
with  an  asterisk  is  approached  by  another  addi- 
tion, for  instead  of 


^   '^     =^"^ 


we  have 


with     ua     for  erer. 

The  whole  sentence  of  music  therefore  stands 
thus — 

hi- 


(Petition  chanted  by 
Priest.) 


(Responne  by  Choir  and 
People.) 


We  have  now  shoi*tly  traced  the  gradual 
growth  of  the  plain-song  of  the  whole  of  our 
Litany,  and  it  is  impossible  not  to  admire  the 
simplicity  and  beauty  of  its  construction. 

But  the  early  English  church-musicians  fre- 
quently composed  original  musical  settings  of 
the  whole  Litany,  a  considerable  number  of 
which  were  printed  by  Dr.  Jebb ;  nearly 
all,  however,  are  now  obsolete  except  that  by 
Thomas  Wanless  (organist  of  York  Minster  at 
the  close  of  the  17th  century),  which  is  occa- 


sionally to  be  heard  in  our  northern  cathedrals. 
The  plain-song  was  not  always  entirely  ignored 
by  church-musicians,  but  it  was  sometimes  in- 
cluded in  tlie  tenor  |)art  in  such  a  mutilated 
state  as  to  be  hardly  recognisable.  It  is  gene- 
rally admitted  that  the  form  in  which  Tallis  s 
responses  have  come  down  to  us  is  very  ijupure, 
if  not  incorrect.  To  such  an  extent  is  this  the 
case  that  in  an  edition  of  the  *  people's  part '  of 
Tallis,  published  not  many  years  since,  the 
editor  (a  cathedral  organist)  fklrly  gave  up  the 
task  of  finding  the  plain-song  of  the  response, 
*  Wo  beseech  Thee  to  hear  us,  good  Lord,'  and 
ordered  the  people  to  sing  the  tuneful  8nx>er- 
structure — 


We     be  •  leech   Thee    to   hear      vm,  good  Laid. 

It  certainly  does  appear  impossible  to  combine 
this  with 


We      beseech      Thee      to      hear     vm,   good  Lord. 


But    it    appears    that  {    ■    ^    ■ 
this    ancient    form  * 

existed — 


Chria-te    ex  -  mu  •  dt     u<»-. 

This,  if  used  by  Tallis,  will  combine  with  his 
harmonies ;  thus — 


(Plain-song  in  Tenor.) 

Having  now  described  the  Preces,  Versicles 
and  Responses,  and  Litany,  it  only  remains  to 
say  a  few  words  on  (1)  Amens,  (2)  Doxology  to 
Gosi>el,  (3)  Responses  to  the  Commandments, 
all  of  which  we  have  mentioned  as  being  re- 
sponses of  a  less  important  kind. 

(1)  Since  the  Reformation  two  forms  of 
Amen  have  been  chiefly  used  in  our  church, 
the  monotone,  and  the  approach  by  a  semitone, 
generally  harmonised  thus — 


The  former  of  these  *  Amens  *  in  early  times 
was  used  when  the  choir  responded  to  the  priest ; 
the  latter,  when  both  priest  and  choir  sang 
together  (as  after  the  Confession,  Lord's  Prayer, 
Creed,  etc.).  Tallis,  however,  always  uses  the 
monotonic  form,  varying  the  harmonies  thrice. 
In  more  modem  uses,  however,  the  ancient 
system  has  been  actually  reversed,  and  (as  at 
St  Paul's  Cathedral)  the  former  is  only  used 


RESPONSORIAL  PSALMODY 


RESPONSORIAL  PSALMODY     73 


when  priest  and  choir  join  ;  the  latter  when 
the  choir  responds.  In  many  cathedrals  no 
guiding  principle  is  adopted ;  this  is  undesirable. 
(2)  The  Doxology  to  the  Gospel  is  always 
monotone,  the  monotone  being  in  the  Tenor, 
thus — 


There  are,  however,  almost  innumerable  original 
settings  of  these  words  used  throughout  the 
countiy. 

(3)  The  Responses  to  the  Commandments  are 
an  expansion  of  the  ancient — 

Kyrie  eleiBon, 

ChrUU  eleiaim, 
Kyrie  eleiaoD, 

uiade  to  serve  as  ten  responses  instead  of  being 
used  as  one  responsive  prayer.  The  ancient 
form  actually  appears  in  Marbeck  (1550),  and 
the  so-called  Marbeck's  *  Kyrie '  now  used  is  an 
editorial  manipulation.  Being  thrown  on  their 
own  resources  for  the  music  to  these  ten  re- 
sponses, our  composers  of  the  reformed  church 
always  oomjiosed  original  settings,  sometimes 
containing  comx>lete  contrapuntal  devices.  At 
one  period  of  vicious  taste  arrangemtnia  of 
various  sentences  of  music,  sacred  or  secular, 
were  pressed  into  the  service.  The  '  Jommelli 
Kyrie'  is  a  good — or  rather,  a  bad — example. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  adapted  by  Attwood 
from  a  chaconne  by  Jommelli,  which  had  already 
been  much  used  on  the  stage  as  a  soft  and  slow 
accom^Muiiment  of  weird  and  ghostly  scenes. 
Tlio  adaptation  of  '  Open  the  heavens '  from 
*  Elijah '  is  stOl  very  i)opular,  and  may  be  con- 
sidered a  favourable  specimen  of  an  unfavourable 
daas.  [Both  these  have  happily  passed  out 
of  general  use  at  present,  1907.1 

The  re-introduction  of  choral  celebrations  of 
Holy  Communion  has  necessitated  the  use  of 
various  inflexions,  versicles,  and  responses,  of 
which  the  music  or  method  of  chanting  has, 
almost  without  exception,  been  obtained  from 
pre- Reformation  sources.  j.  s. 

RESPONSORIAL  PSALMODY  is  the  earUest 
form  in  which  psalms  have  been  sung  in  the 
Christian  Church.  It  is  a  development  from 
inflected  monotone  (see  Inflexion).  In  the 
earliest  Christian  days  the  recitation  of  the 
fjsalms  was  carried  out  by  a  single  soloist,  who 
monotoned  the  greater  part  of  the  psalm,  but 
inserted  various  cadences  or  inflexions  at  certain 
points  of  distinction  in  the  verse.  This  was  very 
probably  but  the  carrying  on  of  what  had  longbeen 
current  in  the  Synagogue.  (See  Plain-song, 
Synagogue  Music.)  It  was  very  advisable  not 
to  leave  the  whole  of  the  performance  of  the  psalm 
to  the  soloist ;  and  it  became  customary  for  the 
congregation  to  inteiject  some  small  response 


at  the  close  of  each  verse.  Such  a  response 
was  known  among  the  Greeks  as  an  acrostic 
(i.Kpwrrixi-oif  or  dfc/>oT€\ei>rtoi'),  and  the  technical 
word  in  Latin  for  this  performance  by  the 
congregation  was  F^cspondere  ;  hence  this  foi*m 
of  psalmody  was  called  '  Responsorial  Psalmody. ' 
The  reirain  was  originally  very  brief, — an  Amen 
or  an  Alleluia,  a  short  text  like  the  '  For  his 
mercy  endureth  for  ever '  of  Psalm  cxxxvi.  or 
some  pregnant  sentence  drawn  from  the  Psalm 
which  was  being  sung.  In  the  earliest  days 
the  soloist's  text  was  very  little  removed  from 
monotone,  but  already  by  the  time  of  St 
Augustine  it  had  become  more  elaborate,  and 
the  ancient  simplicity  was  looked  upon  as  an 
archaism.  The  result  was  a  x)erformance  some- 
what resembling  the  familiar  Litany.  The 
psalmody  remained  such  a  short  time  in  this 
comparatively  simple  stage  that  veiy  few  actual 
monuments  of  it  have  survived.  The  Respon- 
sorial Psalmody  that  exists  is  of  the  elaborate 
sort.  Partly  as  a  result  of  the  growing  artistic 
feeling,  partly  also  in  consequence  of  the 
existence  of  trained  singers  in  the  great  Song 
School  at  Rome,  the  music,  alike  of  the  soloist 
who  sang  the  verses  of  the  psalm  and  of  the 
choir  who  responded,  was  elaborated  to  a  very 
high  pitch.  Then,  since  it  was  impossible  to 
sing  the  whole  psalm  to  a  highly  ornate  chant 
habitually,  certain  verses  were  selected  from 
the  psalm  for  this  elaborate  treatment ;  and 
there  grew  up,  therefore,  the  musical  form  called 
the  Respond,  which  consisted  in  its  simplest 
shape  of  a  choral  melody  (called  the  Respond 
proper),  alternating  with  one  or  more  Verses 
sung  by  the  soloist.  This  form  is  found  both 
in  the  music  of  the  Mass  and  in  that  of  Divine 
Service,  and  mainly  as  an  interlude  between  the 
reading  of  lessons.  In  the  former  it  is  called  for 
distinction's  sake  Responsorium  Oraduale  or  the 
Gradual.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  simply  called 
Responsorium ;  for  the  lesser  Ofiices,  which  were 
sung  \vithout  musical  elaboration,  there  came  to 
be  a  few  simple  forms  of  Responsorial  music, 
modelled  on  the  elaborate  responds  of  Mattins 
but  difiering  from  them  in  being  simpler  in 
texture.  This  brief  form  was  then  called  Re- 
sponsorium breve  as  distinct  from  the  Respon- 
sorium prolixum. 

The  highest  development  of  elaboration  was 
reached  in  the  Gradual ;  but  even  there,  in 
spite  of  all  the  embroidery,  the  primitive 
monotone  around  which  everything  else  centres 
is  still  traceable ;  and  careful  analysis  will 
show  that  with  all  its  elaboration  the  chant  is 
still  an  inflected  monotone.  This  statement  can 
most  easily  be  proved  by  the  study  of  a  single 
group  of  Graduals  which  are  ordinarily  ascril)ed 
to  the  second  mode,  and  are  decorated  with 
similar  melodic  themes. 

The  music  falls  into  eight  divisions,  each  of 
which  consists  of  (a)  an  intonation,  (6)  the  reci- 
tation in  inflected  monotone,  (c)  the  cadence  or 


74     RESPONSORIAL  PSALMODY 


EESPONSORIAL  PSALMODY 


pneuma  or  vielUirva.  There  are  in  all  fifteen 
diiferent  texts  set  to  this  scheme  of  music  ;  the 
Justus  ut  palina  is  given  here  as  being  the  best 
representative  of  the  group  ;  but  in  two  of  the 
divisions  another  text  is  given  as  well,  in  order 
to  reveal  the  structui-e  the  more  clearly. 


Gloria  patri  as  well,  in  the  early  shape  in  whieli 
it  consisted  of  one  phrase,  not  two.  Further,  it 
became  customary  in  France  to  repeat  after  the 
Verse  not  the  whole  of  the  respond  but  only  a 
part  of  it ;  and  this  custom  spread  till  it  was 
universal. 


t 


^  Ji» 


Ri  i>»^jV 


tus    ut  pal  -  nu  flor 


II. 


:=1C 


M^Ei=Sl«=Kt^ 


,1V    .8^1, 


III. 


y*\^y  ^^\  .  :.,3flV>fL. 


ti-pli 


IV. 


In       do-  ...  ...      mo        ra     -     o 

(Pro-c«   •     •     ileiM  de  ih»  •     U    •    luo       Do-iol-nli 


1TOT  ^'  ^'^■'^  %v.?^^'^vr 


V. 


VI. 


VII. 


VIII. 


<-r— ^— *— 


^    All    an  •  imn    •    tl  •  nn  dmii 

(81     we  •  i  noD  fuorint  do-ml 


■^*»^*»     a      ■      ■      ■      8 


-^^''flTLTfl^'M  , 


•B  ■  ri   •   cor  -  Ul  -  am 


S^^ 


;a\3,a">3,3fLV>n. 


(Cp.  in.) 


:^ 


V»in      1^ 


i   «.J   Jt 


^-  f  -s^ 


(Op.  IV.) 

The  same  plan  holds  good  with  the  responds 
of  the  O0ice  which  are  found  for  the  most  part 
in  the  service  of  Mattins.  It  is  visible  more 
plainly  in  the  verses  of  the  responds  than  in 
the  responds  themselves.  Those  of  the  Ofl5ce 
use  a  set  of  invariable  psalm  -  melodies,  one 
belonging  to  each  mode  ;  in  tliese  the  monotone 
is  very  clear,  and  yet  there  is  much  elaboration 
in  the  cadences,  and  the  forms  are  so  plastic 
that  they  can  by  certain  well-defined  rules  be 
readily  adapted  to  the  vaiious  texts  of  the 
verses.  (See  Pralmody.)  The  Graduals  in  the 
mass  do  not  utilise  these  common  forms  for 
their  Verses  ;  each  Verse  is  jieculiar  to  the 
Gi-adual ;  but  even  so  there  is  much  similarity 
observable  amongst  them  both  in  general  struc- 
ture and  in  detail.  In  exceptional  cases  even 
the  responds  of  the  Office  have  their  Verses  set 
to  a  special  melody  and  not  to  the  common  one. 

As  regards  liturgical  (as  distinct  from  musi- 
cal) stnicture  the  respond  of  the  Office  is  like 
the  gradual  -  respond  of  the  Mass,  but  not 
identical.  In  neither  case  is  it  common  now 
to  find  more  than  one  Verse,  but  the  respond 
in   the   Office   is    often    accompanied   by   the 


HOC      -      tetn 


The  following  respond,  then,  which  belongs 
to  Mattins  of  the  First  Sunday  in  Advent  and 
stands  at  the  head  of  the  series,  may  be  taken 
as  representing  this  form  of  composition  in  an 
unusually  full  shape. 

Three  boys  sing  the  Respond — 

a:" 


i  '  * .  ^|l^  .  ^.i|A14,^^ 


j 


As-pl-d  •  rtu        a     lou   -  ?« 


ec  •  c*  vi-d*  • 


v,.^ 


i      po-t«a-ti  •  am       re  -  ui  •  en 


.      ^  I  ^,^u'\>,M  p.  ;^ '    ■  -s^ 


■ftl 

•  tern,  et  ue  ■  hit 


1m 111    to  •  tani  ter'taui  te    • 


j  3MS*<  y     jN  84^  1^  Is  .^— ^ 


n.  .)(  I    -    ie       ob    •    vl 


^^=^^=*^='^^^^^=^=^ 


1.    et    dl  .  ci  •  te ; 


t  Nun  •  ci  <  a 


RESPONSORIUM 


REST 


t '^  ^  i;  - '  ■  (V^Xl^a    — 


n-)    -    bis  ■!    til  «   Ip  •  M. 


I  Qtil 


t    3  r^  ^it.  '^^'^f^  =^=^=^ 


.r«f-ii»-ta  -  ma  es 


0  Inpo-pn-lo 


t    ,  3  ■W'M.,fl^: 


A  boy  sings  the  first  Verse  to  the  psalm  melody 
of  the  Seventh  mode  (see  Psalmody) — 
Qaiquie  terrigenae  et  filii  hominuin,  simnl  in  unnm  dives 
et  pauper  (Ps,  xlix.  2}. 

The  choir  repeats  the  Respond  from  lU  onwards. 
A  second  boy  sings  a  second  Verse  as  before — 
Qui  regis  Isnel  intende,  qui  deducis  velut  ovem  JoMph 

(P*.  iTTT.  IX 

The  choir  repeats  the  Respond  from  Nuncia, 
A  third  boy  sings  a  third  Vei-se — 
Excila  domine  potentiam  tuam,  et  venl  nt  salvoe  facias 
noa. 

The  I^  is  repeated  from  Qui  regncUurus,  The 
three  boys  sing  the  Gloria  pairi  (down  to  Sancto 
only)  to  the  same  psalm  melody,  and  the  choir 
repeats  the  closing  section  of  the  Respond — In 
popido  Isntel.  w.  H.  F. 

RESPONSORIUM.  See  Respond,  and  Re- 
SPONSOBIAL  Psalmody. 

REST  (Fr.  Silence,  Pause  ;  Ger.  Pause  ;  Ital. 
Pattsa).  The  sign  of  silence  in  music,  the 
duration  of  the  silence  depending  upon  the 
form  of  the  character  employed  to  denote  it. 
The  employment  of  the  rest  dates  from  the 
invention  of  'measured  music,'  that  is,  music 
composed  of  notes  of  definite  and  proportionate 
values,  [SeeMusiCAMENSTJRATA;  Notation.] 
In  earlier  times  the  carUus  was  sung  without 
pauses,  or  with  only  such  slight  breaks  as  were 
necessary  for  the  due  separation  of  the  sentences 
of  the  text,  but  so  soon  as  the  relative  duration 
of  the  notes  was  established,  the  employment 
of  rests  of  like  proportionate  values  became  a 
necessity.  Franchinus  Gafurius,  in  his  Praclica 
Miitiau  (1496),  says  that  the  Rest  ^was  invented 
to  give  a  necessary  relief  to  the  voice,  and  a 
sweetness  to  the  melody  ;  for  as  a  preacher  of 
the  divine  word,  or  an  orator  in  his  discourse, 
finds  it  necessary  oftentimes  to  relieve  his 
auditors  by  the  recital  of  some  pleasantry, 
thereby  to  make  them  more  favourable  and 
attentive,  so  a  singer,  intermixing  certain  pauses 
with  his  notes,  engages  the  attention  of  his 
hearers  to  the  remaining  parts  of  his  song.' 
(«)  (&)  (c) 


(Hawkins,  Hist,  of  Music,  chap.  63.)  Accord- 
ingly we  find  rests  corresponding  in  value  to 
each  of  the  notes  then  in  use,  as  shown  in  tlie 
following  table. 

Maxinui.  Longa.  Brevlt.  SemlbreTls. 

tq  fc]  HO 


Maxima.  Longa  perfecta.     Longa  imperfvcta.    Fniua.  Semlpausn. 

8emifuaa« 


Minima. 


Bemimiiiiina. 


FllM. 

♦ 


Sospirinm.    Seiuisiuplriam.      PatuaFoMB.      Paoaa  Semlf umb. 

Of  these  rests,  two,  the  aemipausa  and  svspi- 
Hum,  have  remained  in  use  until  the  present 
day,  and  appear,  slightly  increased  in  size  but 
of  unchanged  value,  as  the  semibreve  and  minim 
rests.  T\('o  of  the  longer  rests  are  also  occasion- 
ally used  in  modem  music,  the  pausa,  or  breve 
rest,  to  express  a  silence  of  two  bars' duration,  and 
the  longa  imperfecta  a  silence  of  four.  These  rests 
are  called  in  French  bdtons,  and  are  spoken  of 
as  *  baton  k  deux  mesures,'  *  k  quatre  mesures.' 

The  rests  employed  in  modem  music,  with 
their  names  and  values  in  corresponding  notes, 
are  shown  in  the  table  below. 

By  a  license  the  semibreve  rest  is  used  to 
express  a  silence  of  a  full  Imr  in  any  rhythm 
(hence  the  German  name  Taktpaicse)  ;  its  value 
is  therefore  not  invariable,  as  is  the  case  with 
all  the  other  rests,  for  it  may  be  shorter  than 
its  corresiX)nding  note,  as  when  used  to  express 
a  bar  of  2-4  or  6-8  time,  or  longer,  as  when  it 
occurs  in  3-2  time.  To  express  a  rest  of  longer 
duration  than  one  bar,  either  the  bdtans  of  two 
or  four  bars  are  employed  (Ex.  a),  or,  more 
commonly,  a  thick  horizontal  line  is  drawn  in 
the  stave,  and  the  number  of  bars  which  have  to 
be  counted  in  silence  is  written  above  it  (Ex.  b). 
(a)  0)       10 


Like  the  notes,  the  value  of  a  rest  can  be 
increased  by  the  addition  of  a  dot,  and  to  the 
same  extent,  thus  •*  •  is  equal  to  -^r,  r  *  to  r  "1, 
and  so  on. 

In  the  earlier  forms  of  the  ancient  *  measured 
music '  rests  were  used  as  a  part  of  the  time- 
signature,  and  placed  immediately  after  the  clef. 
In  this  position  they  did  not  denote  silence, 
but  merely  indicated  the  description  of  Mood 
to  bo  counted.  [See  Notation,  Mood,  Time, 
Signature.] 
(d)  (0  if)  ia) 


M  SemlbrvT*  rati. 
M  Crotch«tr«Bt 

k)   OWT^tWt. 

(M  ScoikiaaTv  rest. 


I/)   SMBitleatla«mk|iaver  rMt. 


FauiCB. 


(a) 

(61  Utmi-panae. 

(ct  Soupir. 

(4)  Dwnl-Muplr. 

(«)  Quart-dc-Maptr. 

(/)  D«mi-quart.d«-«ouptr. 

(^)  8eUUne-de*aottpir. 


f  ITALIAK. 

(a)  Patim  della  BemibrvTe. 

(fr)  Pauia  della  Minima. 

|c)  Piiuaa  del  la  Sewimfohna,  or  Quarto. 

id)  Fauaa  dclla  Crania,  or  Mano  Quarto. 

(c)  Fauia  della  Semicroma,  or  Rwplro. 

,  (/)  Fkma  della  Biwroma. 


OERMAir. 

(a)  ThktpaoM. 

(fr)  HalbeFaiue. 

(ci  VIertclpauaa. 

{d)  AohtelpaoM. 

(c)  SecbawhntalpaaM. 

(/)  Zwelunddrelnigathcilpaoae.    „  , 

(g)  VlsnmdMrhnlKrthollpaiiM. !  [g)   Pauaa  della  BcmlMacroma.         F.  T. 


76 


RESULTANT  TONES 


RESULTANT  TONES 


RESULTANT  TONES  (Fr.  Sons  rdmltam ; 
Ger.  CombinationstoTie)  are  produced  wheu  any 
two  loud  and  sustained  musical  sounds  ara  heard 
at  the  same  time.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
resultant  tones,  the  Differential  and  the  Sum- 
mational. The  '  DifTerential  tone '  is  so  called 
because  its  number  of  vibrations  is  equal  to  the 
difference  between  those  of  the  generatingsounds. 
The  '  Summational  tone '  is  so  called  because  its 
number  of  vibrations  is  equal  to  the  sum  of 
those  of  the  generating  sounds.  The  following 
diagram  shows  the  pitches  of  the  differential 
tones  of  the  principal  consonant  intervals  when 
in  perfect  tune. 
Generators. 


Differentials. 


If  the  interval  be  w^ider  than  an  octave,  as  in 
the  last  two  examples,  the  differential  is  inter- 
mediate between  the  sounds  which  produce  it. 
These  tones  can  be  easily  heard  on  the  ordinary 
harmonium,  and  also  on  the  organ.  They  are 
not  so  distinct  on  the  piano,  because  the  sounds 
of  this  instrument  are  not  sustained.  By 
practice,  however,  the  resultant  tones  can  be 
distinguished  on  the  piano  also. 

Dissonant  as  well  as  consonant  intervals  pro- 
duce resultant  tones.  Taking  the  minor  Seventh 
in  its  three  possible  fonns  the  differentials  are 
as  follows : — 


-^6  '-€^9  -^4 


The  first  form  of  minor  Seventh  is  obtained  by 
tuning  two  Fifths  upwards  (C-G-D)  and  then  a 
major  Third  downwards (D  #Bb) ;  itsdifferential 
tone  is  /Ab,  an  exact  major  Third  below  C. 
The  second  form  is  got  by  two  exact  Fourths 
upwards  (C-F-B^) :  the  differential  is  then  |Ab, 
which  is  flatter  than  the  previous  #Ab  by  the 
interval  35:86.  The  third  form  is  the  so-called 
Harmonic  Seventh  on  0,  whose  differential  is  G, 
an  exact  Fourth  below  C.  The  marks  \  #,  here 
used  to  distinguish  notes  which  are  confused 
in  the  ordinary  notation,  will  be  found  fully 
explained  under  Tempekament.  We  may 
briefly  remark  that  the  acute  sign  #  refers  to 
notes  in  an  ascending  series  of  Fifths,  the  grave 
sign  I  to  those  in  a  descending  series  of  Fifths. 
Hitherto  we  have  spoken  only  of  the  differ- 
ential tones  which  are  produced  by  the  funda- 
mentals or  prime  partial  tones  of  musical  sounds. 
[See  Partial  Tones.]  But  a  differential  may 
also  arise  from  the  combination  of  any  upper 
])artial  of  one  sound  with  any  partial  of  the 


other  sound  ;  or  from  the  combination  of  a 
differential  with  a  partial,  or  with  another 
differential.  Thus  the  major  Third  C-E  may 
have  the  foUowing  differential  tones  :— 


All  these  tones  are  heard  simultaneously ;  but 
tor  convenience  the  differentials  of  the  first, 
second,  third,  and  fourth  orders  are  written 
in  notes  of  different  length.  We  see,  then, 
that  the  number  of  possible  resultant  tones  is 
very  great ;  but  only  those  which  arise  from 
the  primes  of  musical  sounds  are  sufficiently 
strong  to  be  of  practical  importance. 

In  enabling  the  ear  to  distinguish  between 
consonant  and  dissonant  intervals,  the  differ- 
ential tones  are  only  less  important  than  the 
upper  partials.  Thus  if  the  choi-d  G-E-C  be 
accurately  tuned  as  3  :  5  :  8,  the  differential  of 
G-C  coincides  with  E,  and  that  of  E-C  mth  G. 
But  if  the  intervals  be  tempered  the  differentials 
are  thrown  out  of  tune,  and  give  rise  to  beats. 
These  beats  are  very  loud  and  harsh  on  the 
ordinary  harmonium,  timed  in  equal  tempera- 
ment Again,  in  the  close  triad  G-E-G  the 
differentials  of  C-E  and  of  E-G  coincide  and 
give  no  beats  if  the  intervals  be  in  perfect  tune. 
On  a  tempered  instrument  the  result  is  very 
different.  If  we  take  C  to  have  264  vibrations, 
the  tempered  E  has  about  332^,  and  the 
tempered  G  about  396^  vibrations.  The  differ- 
ential of  C-E  is  then  68^,  and  that  of  E-G  63. 
These  two  tones  beat  5-^  times  each  second,  and 
thus  render  the  chord  to  some  extent  dissonant. 

In  the  minor  triad,  even  when  in  just  intona- 
tion, several  of  the  resultant  tones  do  not  fit  in 
with  the  notes  of  the  chord,  although  they  may 


be  too  far  apart  to  beat  In  the  msjor  triad,  on 
the  contrary,  the  resultant  tones  form  octaves 
with  the  notes  of  the  chord.  To  this  difference 
Helmholtz  attributes  the  less  perfect  consonance 
of  the  minor  triad,  and  its  ol^ured  though  not 
inharmonious  effect 

The  origin  of  the  differential  tones  has  been 
the  subject  of  much  discussion.  Thomas  Young 
held  that  when  beats  became  too  rapid  to  be 
distinguished  by  the  ear,  they  passed  into  the 
resultant  tone.  This  view  prevailed  until  the 
publication  in  1856  of  Helmholtz's  investiga- 
tions, in  which  many  objections  to  Young's 
theory  were  brought  for^vard.  To  explain 
what  these  objections  are,  it  would  be  necessary 


RESULTANT  TONES 


RESZKE 


77 


to  treat  at  some  length  of  the  nature  of  beats, 
and  the  reader  is  therefore  referred  to  the  article 
Beats,  for  this  side  of  the  question.  The  later 
mathematical  theoiy  given  by  Helmholtz  is  too 
abfitrnse  to  admit  of  popular  exposition. 

It  was  also  part  of  Young's  theory  that  the 
differential  tone  was  produced  in  the  ear  alone, 
and  not  in  the  external  air.  But  Helmholtz 
found  that  stretched  membranes  and  resonators 
responded  yery  clearly  to  differentials  produced 
by  the  siren  or  the  harmonium.  This  he  con- 
siden  to  prove  the  existence  of  vibrations  in  the 
external  air  corresponding  to  the  differential 
tonea.  But  when  the  two  generating  tones  were 
produced  by  separate  instruments,  the  differ- 
ential, though  powerfully  audible,  hardly  set 
the  resonator  in  vibration  at  alL  Hence 
Helmholtz  concludes  that  the  differential  tone 
13  for  the  most  part  generated  in  the  ear  itself. 
He  further  points  out  that  certain  features  in 
the  construction  of  the  ear  easily  permit  the 
action  of  the  law  which  he  has  stated.  The 
unsymmetrical  form  of  the  drum-skin  of  the  ear, 
and  the  loose  attachment  of  the  ossicles  are,  he 
thinks,  peculiarly  favourable  to  the  production 
of  resultant  tones.  [A  practical  use  of  re- 
sultant tones  is  shown  in  the  article  Organ, 
vol.  iii,  p.  552a.] 

As  a  consequence  of  his  theory,  Helmholtz 
deduced  a  different  series  of  resultant  tones, 
which  he  calls  sumrncUvmal  tones,  because  their 
number  of  vibrations  is  the  sum  of  those  of  the 
generators.  The  existence  of  the  summational 
tones  which  Helmholtz  believed  he  verified 
experimentally,  has  recently  been  called  in 
question  by  Dr.  Preyer.  He  points  out  that 
in  some  intervals,  as,  for  instance,  1  :  2,  1  :  3, 
1  : 5,  there  will  be  a  partial  tone  present  of 
t}ie  same  pitch  as  the  presumed  summational 
tone,  and  these  cases  therefore  prove  nothing. 
Again,  if  we  take  2  :  3,  the  note  5  is  not 
necessarily  a  summational  tone,  but  may  be  the 
differential  of  4  and  9,  which  are  the  2nd  partial 
of  2  and  the  3rd  of  3  i*espectively.  Dr.  Preyer 
was  unable  to  find  any  trace  of  the  summational 
tones  when  care  had  been  taken  to  exclude  the 
upper  partials.  But  to  do  this  he  could  only 
use  sounds  of  tuning-forks  gently  bowed,  which 
were  far  too  weak  to  produce  any  resultant  tones 
in  the  air.  The  question,  however,  is  one  of 
theoretic  interest  merely. 

Not  only  the  origin,  but  also  the  discovery 
of  differential  tones  has  been  disputed.  The 
earliest  publication  of  the  discovery  was  made 
by  a  German  organist  named  Sorge  in  1745. 
Then  came  Romieu,  a  French  savant,  in  1751. 
Lastly,  the  great  Italian  violinist,  Tartini,  made 
the  phenomenon  the  basis  of  his  treatise  on 
Harmony  in  1 754.  But  Tartini  explicitly  claims 
priority  in  these  words: — *In  the  year  1714, 
when  about  twenty-two  years  of  age,  he  dis- 
covered this  phenomenon  by  chance  on  the 
violin  at  Ancona,  where  many  witnesses  who 


remember  the  fact  are  still  living.  He  com- 
municated it  at  once,  without  reserve,  to  pro- 
fessors of  the  violin.  He  made  it  the  funda- 
mental rule  of  perfect  tuning  for  the  pupils  in 
his  school  at  Padua,  which  was  commenced  in 
1728  and  which  still  exists  ;  and  thus  the  phe- 
nomenon became  known  throughout  Europe.'^ 

Tartini  in  some  cases  mistook  the  pitch  of  the 
differential  tone  ;  but  there  does  not  appear  to 
be  any  reason  for  taking  from  him  the  credit  of 
the  discovery  which  has  so  long  been  associated 
with  his  name.  J.  l. 

RESZKE,  DE,  Edouard,  bom  at  Warsaw, 
Dec.  23,  1855,  was  taught  singing  by  his 
brother  Jean,  Giaffei,  Steller,  and  Coletti,  and 
made  his  d^but  April  22,  1876,  as  the  King  in 
'  Aida,'  on  its  production  at  the  Italiens,  Paris. 
He  sang  there  with  success  for  two  seasons,  and 
afterwards  went  to  Italy,  where,  in  1880,  at 
Turin,  he  made  a  success  in  two  new  parts — the 
King  in  Catalani's  '  Elda,'  Jan.  81,  and  Charles 
V.  in  Marchetti's  'Don  Giovanni  d' Austria,' 
March  11,  and  appeared  at  Milan  on  the  produc- 
tion of  Ponchielli's  *  Figliuol  Prodigo,'  Dec.  26. 
From  1880  to  1884,  he  was  engaged  with  the 
Royal  Italian  Opera,  until  its  collapse.  He  made- 
his  d6but  on  April  13,  1880,  as  Indra  ('  Koi  de 
Lahore '),  but  his  success  as  a  foremost  lyria 
artist  was  established  by  his  admirable  perform- 
ances of  St.  Bris,  the  Count  in  *Sonnambula,' 
Basilic,  and  later  as  Walter  (*  Tell '),  Peter  the 
Great,  Prince   Gudal  (*  Demonio '),  June   21,. 

1881  ;  S^non  (Lenepveu's  *Velleda'),  July  4,. 

1882  ;  Almaviva ;  Mephistopheles ;  Alvise,  on 
production  of  'La  Gioconda,'  May  31,  1883  ; 
Hagen,  on  production  of  Reyer's  *  Sigurd,'  July 
15,  1884,  etc.  In  1883-84  he  reappeared  in 
Paris  at  the  Italian  Opera  (Th^fitre  des  Nations), 
with  great  success,  in  *  Simone  Boccanegra' ;  in* 
Massenet's  *Herodiade,'  on  its  production  in 
Paris ;  in  Dubois'  *  Aben  Hamet,*  Dec.  16, 1884, 
and  in  other  operas.  He  was  engaged  at  the 
French  Opera,  where  he  first  appeared  April  13, 
1885,  as  Mephistopheles,  a  part  he  sang  sub- 
sequently in  the  500th  performance  of  *  Faust.' 
He  appeared  as  LeporeUo  in  the  centenary  per- 
formance of  '  Don  Juan,'  Nov.  4, 1887,  and  has 
sung  in  *  Le  Cid  '  and  *  Patrie.'  He  played  at 
the  Italian  Opera  at  Drury  Lane  in  1887  the 
part  of  Ramfis  in  *  Aida,'  and  sang  during  the 
season  as  Basilio,  St.  Bris,  Mephistopheles,  and 
Henry  the  Fowler  (*  Lohengrin  ').  From  1888 
to  1900  he  sang  every  season  (except  1899),  and- 
added  to  his  repertory  the  parts  of  Almaviva, 
Marcel,  the  Mefistofele  of  Boito,  and  the  Wag- 
nerian parts  of  Hans  Sachs,  King  Mark,  Hun- 
ding,  and  Hagen.  From  1 890,  for  many  seasons, 
he  sang  in  America  with  his  brother,  with  the 
greatest  success.  He  sang  at  the  Mozart  (con- 
cert) Festival  at  the  Nouveau  Theatre  in  Paris 
in  the  spring  of  1906,  under  the  direction  of 
M.  Reynaldo  Hahn.    In  Feb.  1 907  he  advertised 

1  D0  Prhtctpil  dHT  Armonta,  Padova,  1707,  p.  96. 


?8 


BESZKK 


REUTTER 


liis  intention  of  opening  a  scUool  of  singing 
in  Loudon,  and  ap[>eared  thoi'e  on  June  13. 

His  brother,  Jean  (more  correctly  Jak  Mec- 
zisLAw)  born  at  Warsaw,  Jan.  14,  1860,^  was 
the  eldest  son  of  theoonti^oUer  of  the  government 
railways,  was  taught  singing  by  his  mother,  a 
distinguished  amateur,  and  at  the  age  of  twelve 
sang  solos  in  the  Cathedral  there.  He  was 
taught  later  by  Ciaffei,  Cotogni,  and  Sbriglia. 
Under  the  name  '  De  Beschi '  he  made  his  debut 
at  Venice  as  Alfonso  ('  Favorita ')  in  Jan.  1874, 
according  to  an  eye-witness  with  success.^  He 
made  his  d^but  at  Druiy  Lane  on  April  11  of 
the  same  year,  and  in  the  same  part,  and  played 
there  two  seasons  as  Don  Giovanni,  Almaviva, 
De  Nevers,  and  Valentine.  A  contemporary  ^ 
spoke  of  him  as  one  of  whom  the  highest  ex- 
jiectations  might  be  entertained,  having  a  voice 
of  delicious  quality ;  he  phrased  artistically  and 
[lossessed  sensibility,  but  lacked  experience  such 
sfi  w^ould  enable  him  to  turn  his  vocal  gifts  to 
greater  account  and  to  become  an  effective  actor. 
It  is  interesting  to  find  that  the  quality  of  the 
organ  was  even  then  considered  to  be  more  of  the 
robust  tenor  timbre  than  a  baritone.  Under  his 
own  name  he  made  his  debut  at  the  Italiens  as 
FraMelitone(*ForzadelDe3tino'),Oct.  81, 1876, 
with  some  success,  and  as  Severo  (Donizetti's 
'  Poliuto ')  Dec,  6,  Figaro  (*  Barbiere  ')  Dec.  19. 
He  made  his  tenor  d^but  as  *  Robert '  at  Madrid 
in  1879  with  great  success,  and  was  engaged  at 
the  Theatre  des  Nations  in  1884.  He  played 
there  the  part  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  on  the 
production  of '  H^rodiade '  so  much  to  the  satis- 
faction of  Massenet,  that  he  procured  him  an 
engagement  at  the  Academic  to  create  the  title- 
part  of  '  Le  Cid,'  in  which  he  made  his  ddbut 
on  its  production,  Nov.  30,  1885.  He  was 
engaged  there  for  four  years,  and  sang  the  usual 
tenor  |)arts,  notably  Don  Ottavio  (*  Don  Juan  * 
centenary)  and  Romeo  (in  1888,  on  the  produc- 
tion of  Gounod's  opera  at  the  Grand  Oi)era). 
On  June  13,  1887,  he  reapjieared  at  Drury  Lane 
as  Radames,  and  sang  as  Lohengrin,  Faust,  and 
Raoul.  He  worthily  fulfilled  his  eai'ly  promise 
by  the  marked  improvement  both  in  his  singing 
and  acting,  and  by  his  ease  and  gentlemanly 
bearing,  the  improvements  being  almost  entirely 
due  to  his  own  hard  work  and  exertions.  On 
June  4,  1888,  as  Vasco  de  Gama,  he  made  his 
fii-st  appearance  at  Covent  Garden,  and  from  that 
season  dates  the  revival  of  opera  as  a  fashionable 
amusement  in  London.  Till  1900  inclusive,  he 
sang  nearly  every  year  here,  his  parts  including 
John  of  Leyden,  the  Duke  in  '  Un  Hallo,'  Don 
Jos^,  Phoebus  in  Goring  Thomas's  *  Esmeralda,' 
Lancelot  in  Bemberg's  *  Elaine,'  Werther  (in 
Massenet's  opera).  In  the  great  parts  of  Wagner, 
such  as  Walther,  Tristan,  and  Siegfried,  he  was 
unrivalled,  throwing  new  light  upon  the  music 
by  his   wonderful  power  of  interpreting  the 

>  8<w  rrufh.  July  IB,  18B7. 

*  Letter  of  Mr.  Michju>l  WilliAiiis  in  MuHoal  World.  Jan.  31. 1874. 

«  Atkentoutn,  Aiwil  18.  and  July  S5, 1874. 


dramatic  side,  without  losing  sight  of  vocal 
purity.  He  sang  for  several  seasons  in  America 
with  his  brother,  and  at  Warsaw  and  St.  Petei's- 
burg.  On  Dec  1 1 , 1 890,  he  assisted  gi^tuitously 
in  the  performance  of  *  Carmen '  at  the  Op^a- 
Comique  in  Paris,  where  Mme.  Galli-Marit^  re- 
appeared in  her  original  pai't,  and  Melba  and 
Lassalle  were  in  the  cast  He  reappeared  at  in- 
tervals at  the  Paris  Opera,  singing  in  *  Siegfried' 
and  '  Pagliacci '  on  the  Paris  production  of  those 
operas.  He  was  announced  in  Beyer's  *  Sigurd  * 
in  1904,  but  was  unable  to  appear  through  ill- 
ness. He  is  living  in  Paris,  and  devotes  himself 
to  teaching. 

Their  sister,  Josephine,  educated  at  tlie  Con- 
servatorium  of  St.  Peteraburg,  atti-acted  the  notice 
of  M.  Halanzier  at  Venice,  and  was  engaged  by 
him  at  the  Academic,  where  she  made  her  debut 
as  Ophelia,  June  21 , 1 875.  She  sang  there  with 
success  for  some  time,  where  she  was  tlie  original 
Sita  (*  Roi  de  Lahore '),  AprU  27,  1877.  Later 
she  was  very  successfiU  at  Madrid,  Lisbon,  etc.  ; 
sang  at  Covent  Garden  as  Aida,  April  18,  1881, 
and  again  in  Paris  at  the  Th.  des  Nations  as 
Salome  (*  Herodiade '),  March  13,  1884.  She 
retired  from  public  on  her  marriage  with  M. 
Leopold  de  Kronenburg  of  Warsaw ;  she  died 
there  Feb.  22,  1891.  a.  r. 

RETARDATION  is  a  word  used  by  some 
theorists  to  distinguish  a  small  group  of  discoitis 
which  are  similar  in  nature  to  suspensions,  but 
resolve  upwards,  as  in  Ex,  1. 


Bx.2. 


Ex.  2. 


The  ground  for  making  this  sub-class  in  that 
it  appears  inaccurate  to  describe  as  suspensions 
notes  which  are  delayed  or  retarded  in  ascending. 
A  comparison  of  Ex.  2,  which  would  be  distin- 
guished as  a  suspension,  with  Ex.  1,  will  show 
the  identity  of  principle  which  underlies  the  two 
discords ;  while  the  fact  of  their  ascending  or 
descending  is  clearly  not  an  attribute  but  an  ac- 
cident So  in  this  case  there  is  no  otiier  osten- 
sible reason  for  breaking  up  a  well-defined  class 
but  the  fact  that  the  common  designation  in  use 
is  supposed,  perhaps  erroneously,  to  be  insuflScient 
to  denote  all  that  ought  to  come  under  it.  On  the 
other  hand  it  requires  to  be  noted  tliat  as  all  dis- 
cords of  this  class  are  discords  of  retaixlation,  and 
as  those  which  rise  are  very  much  less  common 
than  those  which  descend  in  resolution,  the 
name  which  might  describe  the  whole  class  is 
reserved  for  the  smallest  and  least  conspicuous 
group  in  that  class.  c.  h.  H.  h. 

REUTTER,  Gborg,  bom  1656  at  Vienna, 
became  in  1686  organist  of  St.  Stephen's,  and 
in  1 700  Hof-  and  Kammer-organist.  He  also 
played    the   theorbo   in   the   Hofcapelle  from 


RfiVE,  LE 


KEY 


79 


1697  to  1703.  In  1712,  he  succeeded  Fux  as 
Capelliueister  to  the  Gnadenbild  inSt.Stepheu'8» 
dud  ill  1715  became  Capellmeister  of  the  cathe- 
dral itselfl  He  died  August  29,  1738.  His 
church  music  (see  list  in  the  Quellcti-Lexikon), 
was  sound,  without  being  i-emarkable.  Ou 
Jan.  8,  1695,  he  was  knighted  in  Rome  by 
Count  Francesco  Sforza,  on  whose  family  Po[)e 
Paul  II L  had  bestowed  the  privilege  of  confer- 
ring tliat  honour  in  1539.     His  son, 

Geobg  Kaiil  (generally  known  by  his 
tirst  name  only),  according  to  the  cathedral 
register,  was  bom  in  Vienna,  April  6,  1708, 
became  Court-composer  in  1731,  and  succeeded 
lus  fiither  in  1738  as  Capellmeister  of  the 
cathedral.  In  1746  he  was  appoint^  second 
Conrt-capeUmeister,  his  duty  being  to  conduct 
the  music  of  the  Em^ieror's  church,  chamber, 
and  dinnei'-table.  On  Predieri's  retirement  in 
1751  Reutter  exercised  the  functions  of  chief 
Coort-capellmeister,  but  did  not  receive  tlie 
title  till  the  death  of  the  former  in  1769.  As 
an  economical  measure  he  was  allowed  the  sum 
of  20,000  gulden  (£2000)  to  maintain  the 
coart-capelle  (the  whole  body  of  musicians, 
vocal  and  insti-umental),  and  he  enjoys  the 
melancholy  distinction  of  having  i-educed  the 
establishment  to  the  lowest  possible  ebb. 
Reutter  composed  for  the  court  numerous  opei'as, 
cantatas  d^ueeasiariy  and  Italian  oratorios  for 
Lent ;  also  a  requiem,  and  smaller  dramatic 
and  sacred  works.  His  grand  masses  are  showy, 
with  rapid  and  noisy  instrumentation,  so  much 
so  that  *rushing(rauschende)  violins  d  laJieiUter' 
became  a  proverb.  Bumey  heard  one  of  tlieni 
during  his  visit  to  Vienna  in  1772,  and  says 
'it  was  dull,  dry  stutf ;  great  noise  and  little 
meaning  characterised  the  whole  performance ' 
(Present  State  of  Music  in  Qemiany,  i.  361). 
in  1731  Reutter  married  Therese  Holzhauser, 
a  court  singer  of  merit,  who  died  in  1782.  His 
own  death  took  place  March  12, 1772.  He  was 
much  favoured  at  court  owing  to  his  great  tact ; 
and  Maria  Theresa  ennobled  him  in  1740  as 
'  Edier  von  Reutter.'  His  name  is  inseparably 
associated  with  that  of  Haydn,  whom  he  heard 
sing  as  a  boy  in  the  little  town  of  Hainburg, 
and  engaged  for  the  choir  of  St.  Stephen's, 
where  he  sang  from  1740  to  1748.  His  ti^eat- 
ment  of  the  poor  chorister,  and  his  heartless 
behaviour  when  the  boy's  fine  voice  had  broken, 
are  mentioned  under  Haydn,  vol.  ii.  pp.  349- 
350.  See  StoUbrock's  biography  in  the  Vier- 
leljahrstehri/i,  8,  p.  165  ff.,  ahso  the  Quellen- 
Lexii»ti,  where  a  list  of  his  compositions  will 
be  fonnd.  (\  f.  r. 

RfiVE,  LE.  Lyric  drama  in  four  acts, 
text  by  Louis  Gallet  after  Zola,  music  by  Alfred 
Hruneau.  Produced  at  the  Opera -Comique, 
Paris,  June  18,  1891,  and  at  Covent  Garden, 
Oct  29,  1891. 

REVEILLJfe.  See  Military  Sounds  and 
Signals,  vol.  iiL  piiw  204-209. 


REVERSE.  See  Recte  et  Retro,  Rovescio. 

REVUE  ET  GAZETTE  MUSICALE,  the 
oldest  and  most  complete  of  French  musical 
periodicals.  This  branch  of  literature  has  taken 
root  in  France  with  gi-eat  diiiicul  ty .  So  fai*  back 
as  Jan.  1770,  M.  de  Breuilly  and  other  amateurs 
founded  the  JourruU  dcMusiquc  (monthly,  8vo), 
which  after  a  troubled  existence  of  three  years 
was  dropped  till  1777,  and  then  resumed  for 
one  year  more.  In  1810  Fayolle  started  Les 
TaMciUs  de  Polyiiinie  (8vo),  but  it  did  not 
sui-vive  beyond  1811,  Undeten-ed  by  these 
failures,  Fetis  brought  out  the  first  number  of  the 
Revive  inu9icale  in  January  1827.  It  ap|)eared 
four  times  a  month,  each  number  containing 
twenty-four  pages  8vo,  till  Feb.  5,  1831,  when 
it  was  published  weekly,  in  small  4to,  double 
columns.  La  Gazette  musicale  de  Pai-is^  started 
Jan.  5,  1834,  was  similar  in  size  to  Fetis  s  Pcvuc 
and  also  weekly,  but  issued  on  Sunday  instead 
of  Saturday.  The  two  were  united  on  Xov.  1 , 
1835,  since  which  date  the  iifeuitc  et  Oa-^ctt^ 
musicale  twice  enlarged  its  fonu,  in  1841  and 
in  1845,  at  which  date  it  became  what  it  was 
till  its  last  number,  Dec.  31,  1880. 

The  property  of  the  publishers  Schlesiuger 
k  Brandus,  this  ])eriodical  was  always  noted 
for  the  reputation  and  ability  of  its  editoi-s. 
Amongst  its  regular  conti-ibutoi-s  have  been  : 
Berlioz,  P.  Bernard,  M.  Bourges,  Chouquet, 
Oomettant,  Danjou,  Ernest  David,  F.  J.  Fdtis, 
0.  Fouque,  Heller,  A.  Jullien,  Kastuer,  Laconic, 
A.  de  La  Fage,  Liszt,  d'Ortigues,  Pougin,  Monnais 
('  Paul  Smith  *),  Richard  Wagner,  and  Johannes 
Weber.  A  careful  i-eader  of  the  forty -seven 
volumes  will  easily  recognise  the  sentiments 
of  the  various  editora  through  whose  hands  it 
passed  ;  among  those  deserving  special  mention 
are  Fetis,  l^ouard  Monnais,  and  M.  Charles 
Bannelier,  who  conducted  it  from  1872  with 
equal  learning  and  taste.  The  indexes  given 
with  each  volume  are  a  gi-eat  boon,  and  consti- 
tute one  of  its  advantages  over  other  French 
^leriodicals  of  the  same  kind.  g.  c. 

REY,  Jean  Baitiste  (I),  bom  at  Lauzerto 
(Tarn  et  Garonne),  France,  Dec.  18,  1724. 
His  musical  studies  began  at  an  early  age  at 
Toulouse,  where  he  became  a  chorister  at  the 
Abbey  of  Saint  Sernin.  There  he  remained 
until  the  age  of  seventeen,  when  he  com})eted 
for  and  obtained  the  }»osition  of  Maiti-e  de 
Chapelle  at  the  Cathedral  of  Auch.  Three 
years  later,  in  1739,  a  dispute  with  the  authori- 
ties caused  him  to  resign  this  i>osition  and 
return  to  Toulouse,  where  he  became  cJuf 
d'orchestrc  at  the  opera.  Until  tlie  age  of 
forty  he  filled  similar  ix)8ts  at  Montpellier, 
Mai-seilles,  lk>rdeaux,  and  Nantes.  It  was  at 
the  last-named  town  that  a  summons  to  Paris 
to  assist  in  the  ]>roduction  of  G luck's  '  Alceste ' 
reached  him  in  1776.  Three  yeai-s  later  Louis 
XVI.  ap|)ointed  him  MaUre  de  la  Musiquc  de 
CJiaiiibre,  with  a  salary  of  2000  frs.     In  the 


80 


KEY 


REYER 


same  year  the  King  decorated  him  with  the 
Order  of  Saint  Michel,  and  appointed  him 
SurirUendant  de  la  Chapelle.  According  to 
F^tis  and  Brenet,  Rey  conducted  the  orchestra  of 
the  Concert  Spiritael between  1782  and  1786,  and 
some  of  his  compositions  were  performed  there. 
After  the  French  Revolution,  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Committee  of  Administration 
for  the  Affairs  of  the  Opera,  and  the  decree 
which  established  the  Conservatoire  of  Music 
in  1796,  named  him  one  of  the  professors  of 
harmony.  It  was  there  that  F.  J.  F^tis  became 
a  pupil  of  Rey,  and  was  instructed  by  him 
accoiding  to  the  complicated  principles  of 
Rameaa.  So  staunch  was  his  adherence  to 
bygone  traditions  that  he  became  involved  in 
the  turbulent  discussions  which  were  roused  by 
Catel's  innovations.  Finally  his  champion- 
ship of  his  friend  Lesueur  brought  about  his 
dismissal  from  the  Conservatoire  in  1802. 
Napoleon  soothed  his  wounded  feelings  by 
nominating  him  his  Maitre  de  Cfiapelle  two 
years  later.  He  held  this  appointment  for  five 
years,  but  the  death  of  his  daughter,  who  was 
a  talented  pianist,  plunged  him  into  an  abandon- 
ment of  grief,  which  caused  his  death,  July  15, 
1810.  As  a  conductor,  Rey  was  closely 
associated  with  all  the  great  composers  of  his 
day  and  assisted  in  the  productions  of  the 
masterpieces  of  Piccini,  Gluck,  Paisiello,  Gretry, 
Lemoine,  and  Mdhul.  Sacchini,  on  his  death- 
bed, entrusted  the  completion  of  his  o{)era 
'  Armire  et  Evelina '  to  his  friend  Rey.  This 
commission  was  conscientiously  executed  by  him, 
and  the  opera  was  produced  April  29,  1788. 
He  is  also  said  to  have  written  all  the  ballet 
music  in  the  same  composer's  opera  '  Oedipe  a 
Colone,*  and  in  Salieri's  *  Tarare.* 

His  original  compositions  comprise  some  MS. 
motets  with  orchestra,  several  of  which  were  per- 
formed in  the  Chapelle  du  Roi,  and  some  solfege 
studies  which  are  included  in  the  third  part  of 
the  '  Solfeges  du  Conservatoire  de  Paris/  His 
two -act  opera  'Diana  and  Endymion*  was 
produced  in  Paris  in  1791,  and  the  opera  in 
one  act,  entitled  'ApoUon  et  Coronis,'  was 
performed  at  the  Academic  Royale  de  Musique, 
in  1781.  This  last  was  written  in  conjunction 
with  his  brother, 

Rey,  Louis  Charles  Joseph,  who  was 
born  at  Lauzerte,  Oct  26,  1738,  and  died  May 
12,  1811.  Also  a  chorister  at  the  Abbey  of 
St.  Semin,  Toulouse,  he  became  a  violoncellist 
in  the  theatre  orchestra  at  Montpellier,  and 
came  to  Paris  in  1765  to  profit  by  Borteau's 
teaching.  Two  years  later  he  occupied  the 
post  of  violoncellist  at  the  principal  theatre  in 
Bordeaux,  an  appointment  which  he  held  for 
nine  years.  At  the  end  of  the  year  1766,  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Paris  opera  orchestra, 
and  in  1772  was  admitted  into  the  orchestra 
of  the  Chapelle  du  RoL  After  forty  years' 
service  Rey  retired  from  the  orchestra  with  a 


pension  in  1806.  F^tis  says  that  he  cut  his 
throat  in  delirium  caused  by  a  nervous  fever. 
He  wrote  some  trios  for  two  violins  and  violon- 
cello ;  some  duos  for  violin  and  violoncello,  etc., 
and  a  brochure  entitled :  Mdmaire  justicaii/  des 
Artistes  de  VAcadimie  Jtoyale  de  Miisique^  ou 
response  a  la  lettre  qui  leur  a  itd  adressSe  le 
4  Sept,  1789.  This  last  was  a  reply  to  Papillon 
de  Lafert^'s  complaints  of  the  behaviour  of  the 
members  of  the  opera  orchestra. — Brenet,  M.,Xes 
Concerts  en  France  ;  Saint  Laurent,  Didionnaire 
Encydopidique ;  Nouvelle  Biographie  G^nerale^ 
Paris,  1843  ;  Fetis,  Biog.  des  Afus,  Journal  de 
Paris,  July  19,  1810.  B.  h-a. 

REY,  Jean  Baptiste,"  (II),  bom  at  Tarasoon 
about  1760,  is  said  to  have  taught  himself  the 
harpsichord,  violin,  and  violoncello  ;  occupied 
the  post  of  Maitre  de  Musique  at  the  cathedrals 
of  Verviers  and  Uzes,  and  went  to  Paris  in 
1786,  establishing  himself  there  as  a  professor  of 
music.  A  year  later  he  was  admitted  into  the 
opera  orchestra,  and  held  an  appointment  as 
violoncellist  until  his  death,  at  Paris  in  1822. 
A  potpourri  (op.  1)  of  his  for  pianoforte  was 
imblished  by  Lednc,  in  Paris,  and  Nadermann 
of  Paris  brought  out  his  Cmirs  iUnientaire  de 
Musique  et  de  Piano.  In  1807  the  same  firm 
published  his  Exposition  ^lementaire  de  Vhar- 
inonie;  thSorie  g^n^aZe  des  accords  dHapres  les 
diffirents  genres  de  Musique,  Copies  of  this 
last  work  are  in  the  Biblioth^que  at  Brussels, 
in  the  British  Museum,  London,  and  also  in 
Glasgow.  The  Quell  en- Lexikon  mentions  twelve 
sonatas  for  violoncello,  op.  4. — J.  B.  Wekerlin, 
Bihl,  du.  Conservatoire  Nat.  de  Paris ;  Fetis, 
Biog,  des  Mus,  E.  h-a. 

REYER,  Ernest,  whose  real  name  is  Rey, 
was  born  at  Marseilles,  Dec.  1,  1823.  As  a 
child  he  learned  solfege  at  the  free  school  of 
music  founded  by  Bai-sotti  (bom  in  Florence, 
1786  ;  died  at  Marseilles,  1868),  and  became  a 
good  reader,  though  he  did  not  carry  his  musical 
education  far.  At  sixteen  he  went  to  Algiers 
as  a  government  official,  but  continued  his 
pianoforte  practice,  and  began  to  compose  with- 
out having  properly  learned  harmony  and 
counterpoint.  He  was  soon  able  to  write 
romances  which  became  popular,  and  composed 
a  mass  which  was  solemnly  i)erformed  before 
the  Due  and  Duchesse  d'Aumale.  The  Revolu- 
tion of  1848  deprived  him  of  the  support  of  the 
Governor-General,  and  he  returned  to  Paris, 
and  placed  himself  in  the  hands  of  his  aunt 
Mme.  Louise  Farrenc,  who  completed  his  musical 
education,  and  before  long  he  found  an  op- 
portunity of  coming  before  the  public.  From 
his  friend  Th^ophile  Gautier  he  procured  the 
libretto  of  '  Le  Selam,*  an  oriental  *  Symphony  ' 
in  four  parts,  on  the  model  of  David's  'Le 
Desert. '  It  was  produced  with  success,  April  6, 
1850,  and  then  M^ry  fumished  him  with 
*  Maitre  Wolfram,'  a  one-act  opera,  which  was 
also  successful,  at  the  Th^tre  Lyrique,  May  20, 


REYEB 


REZNICEK 


61 


1854.  (Revived  at  the  Op^ra-Comique,  1873.) 
His  next  work  was  *Sacountala'  (July  20, 1868), 
one  of  the  channing  ballets  of  Th^ophile  Gautier ; 
and  ^Victoire,'  a  cantata,  was  given  at  the 
Op^ra,  June  27,  1859  ;  but  his  full  strength 
was  first  put  forth  in  'La  Statue,'  a  three-act 
opera  produced  at  the  Th^&tre  Lyrique,  April 

11,  1861,  and  containing  music  which  is  both 
melodious  and  full  of  colour.  (It  was  revived 
in  1878  at  the  Op^ra-Comique,  and  in  1908  at 
the  Grand  Op^ra.)  *  Erostrate  *  (two  acts)  was 
j>erformed  at  Baden  in  1862,  and  reproduced 
at  the  Academic,  Oct  16,  1871,  for  two  nights 
only.  Among  his  earlier  works  may  be 
mentioned  a  *  Recueil  de  10  M^odies '  for  voice 
and  PF. ;  songs  for  a  single  voice ;  and  some 
pieces  of  sacred  music.  o.  c. 

After  numerous  attempts  on  Reyer's  part  to 
secure  an  unmutilated  performance  of  *  Sigurd ' 
at  the  Paris  Op^ra,  he  produced  it  at  the 
Th^dtre  de  la  Monnaie,  Brussels,  Jan.  7,  1884, 
with  great  and  lasting  success.  On  July  15  of 
the  same  year  it  was  produced  at  Covent 
Garden.  The  first  performance  of  the  work  in 
France  was  at  Lyons,  on  Jan.  15,  1885,  when 
it  was  received  with  marked  success.     On  June 

12,  1885,  < Sigurd'  was  performed  at  the 
Grand  Op^ra  in  Paris,  but  at  the  general 
rehearsal  the  directors  thought  fit  to  make 
curtailments  in  the  8Coi*e,  and  the  composer 
retired,  protesting  against  the  proceeding,  and 
yet  unwilling  to  withdraw  a  work  on  which  so 
much  trouble  and  expense  had  been  bestowed, 
on  the  eve  of  its  production.  He  threatened 
never  to  set  foot  in  the  opera-house  until  his 
score  shoidd  have  been  restored  to  its  original 
integrity,  and  he  kept  his  word.  The  public, 
less  exacting  than  the  composer,  received  the 
opera,  which  in  many  passages  must  have 
considerably  surprised  them,  with  increasing 
sympathy,  and  its  success  was  all  the  more 
remarkable  as  it  was  entirely  unassisted  either 
by  the  composer,  who  appeared  to  take  no 
interest  in  its  fate,  or  by  the  directors,  who 
would  not  have  been  sorry  had  it  failed. 
It  has  definitely  taken  a  high  place  in  the 
repertory.  The  qualities  which  are  most 
prominent  in  *  Siguid '  are  the  individual  charm 
of  its  musical  ideas,  the  exact  agreement  be- 
tween the  words  and  the  music,  vain  repetitions 
and  conventional  formulas  being  generally 
absent ;  and  lastly,  the  richness  and  colouring 
of  the  instrumentation,  the  style  of  which  was 
greatly  influenced  by  Reyer's  favourite  masters, 
Weber  and  Berlioz,  and  in  places  by  Wagner. 
No  charge  of  plagiarism  from  the  last-named 
composer  is  intended  to  be  suggested,  nor  could 
such  a  charge  be  substantiated.  It  is  true  that 
the  subjects  of  *  Sigurd'  and  the  'Ring  des 
Nibelungen'  are  identical,  but  this  is  a  mere 
coincidence.  The  plot  of  the  libretto,  which 
was  written  by  Du  Locle  and  A.  Blau,  is  taken 
from   the  Nibelungen   Not,   the  source    that 

VOL.  IV 


inspired  Wagner,  who,  however,  went  further 
back  and  took  his  subject  direct  from  the 
Eddas,  moulding  it  after  his  own  conception. 
In  1868  the  libretto  of  Wagner's  trilogy  had 
been  published  for  fifteen  years,  but  it  was 
completely  unknown  in  France,  and  when  the 
trilogy  was  produced  in  1876,  Reyer's  score 
was  nearly  finished  and  ready  for  production. 
Reyer  was  decorated  with  the  Legion  d'Honneur 
in  August  1862,  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
an  officer  in  Jan.  1886.  In  1890  his  grand 
opera  on  Flaubert's  'Salammbd,'  was  produced 
in  Brussels,  and  was  given  at  the  Grand  Opera 
in  Paris,  on  May  16,  1892,  with  great  success. 
It  has  been  frequently  revived. 

Besides  being  reckoned  among  the  most 
poetical  of  French  musicians,  M.  Reyer  ia  an 
accomplished  feuilletoniste.  After  writing 
successively  for  the  Presse,  the  JReime  de 
FariSf  and  the  Courrier  de  Paris,  he  became 
editor  of  the  musical  portion  of  the  Journal 
des  Dibats,  having  succeeded  d'Ortigue,  who 
followed  Berlioz.  He  has  collected  his  most 
important  articles  and  published  them  under  the 
title  of  Notes  de  Miisique  (Paris  :  Charpentier, 
1875).  In  both  literature  and  composition  he 
is  the  disciple  and  admirer  of  Berlioz,  in  whose 
collected  essays,  published  as  Les  Musidens, 
there  is  an  interesting  article  on  '  La  Statue '  on 
p.  333.  It  is  curious  that  M.  Reyer,  having 
succeeded  F.  David  at  the  Institut  (1876), 
who  himself  succeeded  Berlioz  in  1869,  should 
thus  occupy  the  positions,  both  in  music  and 
literature,  of  the  master  whose  legitimate 
successor  he  may  well  claim  to  be.  A.  J. 

REZNICEK,  Emil  Nicholaus  von,  bom  on 
May  4,  1861,  at  Vienna,  was  at  first,  like  so 
many  other  musicians,  destined  for  a  legal 
career,  and  for  that  purpose  was  entered  as  a 
law  student ;  but,  rebelling  against  the  U'k- 
someness  of  that  kind  of  employment,  he  be- 
came a  student  at  the  Leipzig  Couservatorium. 
Being  drawn  towards  the  dramatic  side  of 
music,  he  presently  undertook  the  duties  of 
theatre  conductor  at  Graz,  Zlirich,  Stettin, 
Berlin,  and  at  other  places ;  and  then,  branch- 
ing out  in  a  different  direction,  obtained  an 
appointment  as  military  conductor  in  Prague. 
[For  a  short  time  he  was  Court  Capellmeister 
at  Weimar,  and  in  1896-99  held  a  similar  post 
at  Mannheim.  In  1902  he  moved  to  Berlin, 
where  he  founded  the  *Orchester-Kammer- 
Konzerte '  for  works  requiring  a  small  orchestra. 
He  also  directs  the  monthly  concert  of  the 
Warsaw  Philharmonic  Society,  and  makes  fre- 
qnent  journeys  to  Russia,  where  he  is  as  highly 
appreciated  as  he  is  in  Berlin.  He  became 
teacher  of  composition  at  the  Klindworth-Schar- 
wenka  Conservatorium  in  1 906.  He  conducted 
two  concerts  in  London  in  Nov.  1907.]  All 
his  operas  are  of  distinctly  Czechish  character ; 
although  the  libretti,  as  will  be  seen  below, 
are  founded  on  stories  derived  from  varioua 


88 


BHAMES 


RHAPSODY 


nations.  The  operas,  with  one  exception,  were 
all  produced  in  Prague,  where  they  met  with 
great  success.  Their  titles  and  dates  of  pro- 
duction are  as  follow:  *Die  Jungfrau  von 
Orleans,'  1887 ;  <  Satanella,'  1888 ;  '  Emmerich 
Fortunate'  1889  ;  < Donna  Diana,'  1894  ;  'Till 
£ul6U9piegel/  1901.  Of  these  the  most  cele- 
brated is  *  Donna  Diana,'  a  comic  opera,  of  which 
the  scene  is  laid  in  the  castle  of  Don  Diego  at 
Barcelona,  at  the  period  of  the  independence  of 
Catalouia;  the  libretto  is  by  Moreto.  'Till 
Eulenspiegel '  is  a  'folk -opera,' dealing  with 
the  jokes  of  the  well-known  German  comical 
character;  it  was  produced  at  Carlsruhe,  on 
the  date  given  above,  and  repeated  at  Berlin 
in  1903. 


[Hit  oomiKwlUoiu  Jaclndts  EagaiMn  for  SoluiMvkaJ,  for  dumu, 
" -  .  ^  jgg^  to  f  1^  til*  JabUM  of  the  Emperor 


OKuhMttm,  Mad 

I  JoMph  II.  (1888):  'aohin  nad  BwigkciV *  poen 
Nietnohe  mc  for  tenor  Volee  and  orofacetn ;  a  Comedy  Orerture^ 


lorvan; 
^  II.  (II 


A  Sjmphonle  Suite  In  B  minor,  and  another  In  D  major:  aome 
•ong*  and  niano  pieoei ;  a  String  Quartet  In  C  miniar ;  an  Idylllo 
Overture  (Berlin :  Nlkleeh.  1908) ;  a  Traglo  Bymnhony  In  D  minor 
(BerUn :  Weingartner,  1904) ;  Three  VoUuUeder  for  voloe  and  email 


orchoetra  (Kammer'Orohaater-Konaerte,  190S) ;  Ironic  8ymph<m7, 
B  major  (do.) ;  a  String  Quartet  In  Oft  minor  (Berlin :  Deanu 
Qnartet.  1906);  NaohtatQck  for  T'oello,  With  aooompanlmeut  for 


harp^  four  home,  and  atring  onartet;  a  Bersnate  fbr  atring*. 
and  an  Introduction  and  VaWCaprlce  for  violin  and  oreheetra 
{KammerOrebester-Konaerte.  1906) ;  Pusne  InCf  minor,  originally 
for  atrlnga,  and  aubaequentty  for  full  oreneatra.] 

D.  H.  ;  additions  by  H.  v.  H. 

RHAMES,  a  family  of  Dublin  music-pub- 
lishers. Bei^amin  Rhames  was  established, 
about  the  year  1765,  at  16  Upper  Blind  Quay, 
at  the  sign  of  the  Sun.  Dr.  W.  H.  Grattan 
Flood  informs  the  writer  that  the  father,  Aaron 
Rhames,  was  issuing  sheet-music  in  Dublin, 
circa  1729  to  1732.  Benjamin  Rhames  was  in 
an  extensive  way  of  trade,  and  published  great 
quantities  of  single  sheet  songs,  mainly  of  con- 
temporary English  music.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  widow,  Elizabeth,  about  1778  or  1776. 
In  the  year  1776  the  name  Upper  Blind  Quay 
was  altered  into  Exchange  Street,  and  the  later 
imprints  of  Elizabeth  Rhames  bear  the  new 
address  with  the  same  number,  16.  She  re- 
mained in  business  until  about  the  yesr  1790, 
when  Francis  Rhames,  her  son,  took  over  the 
concern  and  greatly  increased  the  output  of 
music  sheets.  In  or  near  the  year  1811  Paul 
Alday  bought  the  business  and  remained  at 
the  same  address  until  1828  or  1824,  removing 
then  to  10  Dame  Street  Elizabeth  Rhames 
and  her  son  published,  among  other  Irish  works, 
pieces  by  Sir  John  Stevenson,  the  copyright  of 
which,  after  being  held  by  Alday,  was  trans- 
ferred to  James  Power  of  London.  F.  k. 

RHAPSODY.  The  Greek  Rhapsodist  ('Pa^- 
yd6f)  was  a  professional  reciter  or  chaunter  of 
epic  poetry.  'Pa^yd^a  is  the  Greek  title  of  each 
book  of  IJie  Homeric  poems,  the  first  book  of 
the  Iliad  being  'Paf  ^ia  A,  and  so  forth.  The 
Rhapsody  was  the  song  of  the  Mapiode ;  a 
sequel  of  Rhapsodies  when  sung  in  succession  or 
written  down  so  as  to  form  a  series,  constituted 
an  epic  poem,  and  when  a  long  poem  was 
chanted  in  sections  at  different  times  and  by 
different  sin^rs  it  was  said  to  be  rhapsodised. 


The  usual  derivation  of  'Vai/^tfiHa  is  l^irria-  I 
sew,  and  41^1^= song,  ode. 

Musicians  might  speak,  in  Hamlet's  phrase, 
of  a  '  rhapsody  of  woids,'  or  of  tunes— that  is  to 
say,  of  a  string  of  melodies  arranged  with  a  view 
to  effective  performance  in  public,  but  without 
regular  dependence  of  one  part  upon  another. 
Such  a  description  would  seem  to  apply  pretty 
closely  to  Liszt's  fifteen  Rhapsodies  Hongroises, 
and  to  his  '  Reminiscences  d'Espagne '  (a  fantasia 
on  two  Spanish  tunes,  '  Les  Folies  d'Espagne ' 
and  'La  Jota  Aragonesa,'  1844-45)  which,  in 
1868,  herepublishedas  a  'Rhapeodie  Espagnole. ' 
The  history  of  the  latter  piece  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  Hungarian  rhapsodies— portions  of  which 
were  originally  pubUshed  under  the  title  of 
'  Melodies  Hongroises — Ungarische  National- 
melodien  ' — short  transcriptions  of  Hungarian 
tunes  as  they  are  played  by  the  wandering  bands 
of  Gipsies,  the  national  musicians  of  Hungary. 
The  prototype  of  these  '  melodies '  in  all  prob- 
ability was  Schubert's  '  Divertissement  h  la 
Hongroise,'  in  G  minor,  op.  54— a  piece  Liszt 
was  always  fond  of,  and  of  which  he  produced 
several  versions — as  of  the  whole  for  pianoforte 
solo,  and  of  the  march  in  G  minor  for  orchestra.^ 
Liszt's  ten  sets  of  '  Melodies  Hongroises '  date 
from  1839  to  1847  ;  the  fifteen  so-called  Rhap- 
sodies Hongroises  from  1853  to  1854. 

In  1859  Liszt  published  a  book  in  French 
Des  Bcihimiens  et  de  leur  Jllusiqua  en  Hbngric — 
a  late  and  overgrown  preface,  as  he  confesses, 
to  the  Rhapsodies.  In  this  brilliant,  though 
at  intervals  somewhat  meretricious  work,^  an 
effort  LB  made  to  claim  for  the  set  of  Rhapsodies 
the  dignity  of  an  Hungarian  Epic  sui  generis. 
Be  this  as  it  may,  the  term  '  Rhapsodic ' 
remains  as  one  of  Liszt's  many  happy  hits  in 
the  way  of  musical  nomenclature. 

Brahms  has  adopted  the  term  '  Rhapsodie ' 
both  in  Liszt's  sense  and  in  that  of  the  Greek 
Rhapsodists ;  and,  as  usual  with  him,  he  has 
added  weight  to  its  significance.     His  original 

*  Rhapsodien,'  op.  79,  for  pianoforte  solo — in  B 
minor  and  G  minor — are  abrupt,  impassioned 
aphoristic  pieces  of  simple  and  obvious  structure, 
yet  solidly  put  together.  The  '  Rhapsodic '  in 
C,  op.  53,  for  contralto,  male  chorus,  and 
orchestra,  justifies  its  title,  in  the  Greek  sense, 
inasmuch  as  it  is  a  setting — a  recitation,  a 
rhapsody — of   a    portion  of    Goethe's    poem 

*  HarzreiBe  im  Winter ' ;  it,  also,  is  a  com^iact 
and  carefully  balanced  piece.  The  last  piano- 
forte piece,  in  op.  119,  is  a  noble  Rhajisody,  in 
which  there  is  perhaps  rather  more  of  the  quality 
that  is  usually  called  '  rhapsodical '  than  is  to 
be  found  in  Brahms's  other  rhapsodies. 

Among  later  rhapsodies  may  be  named  Mac- 
kenzie's Scottish  Rhapsodies,  Stanford's  Iriiih 
Rhapsodies,  German's  Welsh  Rhapsody,  and 
'  Rhapsody  on  March  Themes.' 

1  He  played  hia  veraloo  of  the  march  in  London.  April  188S. 
t  Like  Ltaat'a  Ckopin,  this  book  la  on  good  authority  reported  to 
be  the  Joint  production  of  himaelf  and  certain  femal«  fricnda. 


RHAW 


RHEINBERGER 


83 


The  last  movement  of  Parry's  'Suite 
Modeme  in  A  minor  for  orohestra/  entitled 
'  Rhapeodie/  consists  of  a  systematised  series  of 
melodies  on  the  plan  familiar  in  the  Rondo.    E.  D. 

RHAW,  or  RHAU,  Georg,  bom  about 
1488  at  Sisfeld  in  Franconia,  was  Cantor  at 
the  Thomaasohule  at  Leipzig  till  1520,  after 
which  he  settled  at  Eisleben  as  a  schoolmaster, 
and  sabsequently  at  Wittenberg,  where  he 
became  a  printer,  issuing  books  both  in  ordinary 
typography  (including  many  first  editions  of 
Luther's  writings)  and  in  musical  notes,  includ- 
ing his  own  works,  Enchiridion  musices  ex  variis 
ma$ieorum  libri,  etc,  1518  (often  reprinted), 
Enckiridi4miMmoaemen9uralis,  1520,  etc.  He 
also  brought  oat  many  collections  of  musical 
works  (see  the  Qte^Uen-Lessikon) ;  Winterfeld 
ascribes  some  chorales  to  him.  He  died  at 
Wittenberg,  August  6,  1548. 

RHEINBERGER,  Josbf  Gabriel,  was  bom 
March  17,  1839,  at  Vaduz  (Liechtenstein). 
At  an  early  age  he  showed  extraordinary 
musical  aptitude,  and  when  five  years  old  had 
attained  to  considerable  local  reputation.  His 
father,  who  was  financial  agent  to  Prince 
Liechtenstein,  though  unmusical  himself,  was 
quick  to  recognise  and  encourage  the  uncommon 
talent  of  his  son.  He  accoi-dingly  placed  him 
in  charge  of  Sebastian  Pohly,  a  superannuated 
schoolmaster  in  Schlanders,  who  gratuitously 
gave  him  lessons  in  musical  theory,  pianoforte, 
and  oigan.  The  organ  pedals  not  being  within 
reach,  F5hly  arranged  a  second  pedal  board  for 
the  conTenience  of  his  pupil.  In  1846,  when 
only  seven  years  of  age,  Rheinberger  was  ap- 
pointed organist  at  Vaduz  Parish  Ohuroh,  and 
during  the  following  year  his  first  composition 
— a  three-part  mass  with  organ  accompaniment 
— ^was  pnblidy  performed.  Shortly  after  this 
event  the  Bishop  of  Ohur  invited  Rheinberger 
Renior  to  bring  his  son  to  the  cathediul  in 
order  that  his  musical  ability  might  be  tested. 
A  'Salve  Regina*  for  four  male  voices  and 
organ  was  placed  before  the  young  musician, 
which  he  was  requested  to  play  whilst  the 
bishop  and  clergy  sang.  The  performance, 
however,  was  brought  to  an  unexpected  con- 
duaion  by  young  Rheinberger,  who  abruptly 
ceased  his  accompaniment  and  exclaimed,  '  But, 
Herr  Bishop,  you  continually  sing  out  of  tune  ! ' 
('Aber,  Herr  Bischof,  Sie  singen  ja  immer 
falsch  ! ') 

Even  at  this  early  stage  of  his  career  Rhein- 
berger had  very  decided  opinions  upon  any 
music  which  came  under  his  notice.  Disap- 
proving of  certain  masses  composed  by  one 
Franz  Biihler,  an  Augsburg  musician,  the  young 
organist  one  day  during  service  stuffed  them  all 
into  a  stove.  The  volume  of  smoke  arising  in 
consequence  alarmed  the  assembled  congrega- 
tion, and  the  culprit  had  probably  his  youth 
to  thank  that  this  auto  dafi  had  no  unpleasant 
result. 


In  November  1848  Rheinberger  heard  a 
stiing  quartet  for  the  first  time  when  a  few 
dilettanti  came  over  to  Vaduz  for  the  day  fix>m 
the  neighbouring  town  of  Feldkireh.  The  boy 
was  allowed  to  turn  the  leaves  for  the  leader, 
a  revenue  official  named  Schrammel.  ^^^len 
the  tuning  began  Josef  promptly  remarked, 
'  Your  A  string  sounds  a  semitone  higher  than 
my  piano  at  home.'  As  the  boy's  statement 
turned  out  to  be  perfectly  accurate,  the  interest 
of  Schrammel  was  aroused.  Realising  the 
possibilities  of  a  musical  career  for  the  talented 
child,  the  violinist  approached  Rheinberger 's 
father,  who  was  finally  induced  to  allow  his 
son  to  reside  in  Feldkireh  under  Schrammel's 
protection,  and  receive  musical  instmction  from 
the  choir  director  there,  Philipp  Schmutzer. 
A  si^ecial  condition  attached  to  the  permission 
was  that  the  organist's  duties  at  Vaduz  should 
not  be  abandoned ;  so  for  two  years  the  boy 
walked  the  ten  miles  between  Vaduz  and  Feld- 
kiroh  every  Saturday  and  Monday.  In  Feld- 
kireh Rheinberger  made  rapid  progress  in  his 
musical  studies.  It  was  here  that  he  acquired, 
though  under  somewhat  strict  conditions,  his 
intimate  knowledge  of  the  music  of  the  great 
masters.  He  was  allowed  to  study  only  one 
piece  at  a  time,  and  this  he  had  to  play  from 
memory  before  exchanging  for  another.  Such 
strict  discipline,  however,  had  a  beneficial  in- 
fluence. It  laid  that  foundation  of  thorough- 
ness which  was  so  distinguiBhing  a  character- 
istic in  later  life. 

In  1850  Rheinberger  left  Feldkm^h,  and 
after  a  year  of  careful  preparation  entered  the 
Munich  Consei-vatorium  (founded  in  1846  by 
Franz  Hauser  by  command  of  King  Ludwig  1.). 
Here  he  remained  from  1851  to  1854,  studying 
the  piano  with  Julius  Emil  Leonhard,  the 
organ  ^vith  Joh.  Georg  Herzog,  and  counter- 
point with  Jul.  Jos.  Maier,  the  learned  curator 
of  the  musical  department  of  the  Munich 
Library.  On  leaving  the  Conservatorium 
Rheinberger  obtained  the  highest  honoui-s 
granted  by  that  institution,  and  he  particularly 
impressed  the  ministerial  examiner,  Professor 
von  Schafhiiutl,  by  an  extempore  performance 
on  the  organ  of  a  complete  four-part  fugue. 
To  show  his  appreciation  of  the  youth's  talent, 
Schafhiiutl  presented  him  with  a  copy  of 
Oulibicheff's  biography  of  Mozart,  and  ever 
afterwards  remained  his  trae  friend  and  adviser. 

Rheinberger  then  became  a  private  pupil  of 
Franz  Lachner,  and  remained  in  Munich  supple- 
menting his  small  income  by  giving  lessons. 
A  series  of  124  youthful  compositions  bears 
eloquent  testimony  to  his  untiring  energy  and 
enthusiasm  at  this  time.  On  Leonhard's 
resignation  in  1859  Rheinberger  was  appointed 
to  succeed  him  as  professor  of  pianoforte  at  the 
Conservatorium,  and  after  hol<&ng  this  position 
about  a  year  he  was  given  the  more  important 
office  of  professor  of  composition.     When  the 


84 


RHEINBERGER 


RHEINBEBGER 


Munich  Conservatorium  was  dissolTed  Rliein- 
berger  was  appointed  *  Bepetitor '  at  the  Court 
Theatre,  where  he  at  once  favourably  impressed 
his  colleagues  by  playing  and  transposing  a 
prima  vista  Wagner's  *  Flying  Dutchman. '  The 
environment  of  the  theatre,  however,  proved 
uncongenial.  He  therefore  retired  from  active 
service  in  1867,  retaining,  however,  his  interest 
in  the  stage. 

Much  of  Rheinberger's  earliest  success  as  a 
composer  was  due  to  his  Wallenstein  and 
Florentine  Symphonies.  He  at  one  time 
thought  of  setting  the  complete  Wallenstein 
trilogy  to  music  The  project,  however,  was 
discarded  in  favour  of  a  Symphony,  which  was 
published  and  first  performed  in  Munich  in 
1866.  The  Florentine  Symphony  was  com- 
missioned by  the  SocietkOrchestrale  of  Florence. 
In  1868  Rheinberger  revised  his  opera,  *  Die 
sieben  Raben,'  and  composed  the  music  to 
Raimund's  '  Die  unheilbringende  Krone.'  Both 
works  were  successfully  produced  in  Munich  the 
following  year.  From  1860  to  1866  Rhein- 
berger was  organist  of  the  Court  Church  of 
St.  Michael.  He  had  been  since  1854  accom- 
panist to  the  Munich  Choral  Society,  and  in 
1864  he  became  director.  When  the  present 
(1907)  'Kbnigliche  Akademie  der  Tonkunst ' 
was  founded  in  1867  by  Hans  von  Billow,  he 
accepted  the  position  of  composition  and  oi^n 
professor  and  inspector  of  instrumental  and 
theory  classes,  a  post  which  he  held  with  ever- 
increasing  fame  until  the  year  of  his  death. 
The  title  of  Royal  Professor  was  conferred  upon 
him  soon  after  his  installation  in  the  Conserva- 
torium, and  in  the  same  year  he  married  Frau 
von  Hoffnaass,  nde  Fraulein  Jagerhiiber  (bom 
October  1822,  died  December  31,  1892),  a 
gifted  authoress  and  singer,  who  wrote  the 
words  of  many  of  her  husband's  most  success- 
fid  choral  works.  In  1877  he  was  offered  the 
directorship  of  the  newly-founded  Hoch  Con- 
servatorium at  Frankfort-on-Main,  but  being 
unwilling  to  forsake  the  congenial  artistic  sur- 
roundings of  Munich,  he  declined  the  invitation. 
King  Ludwig  II.,  to  mark  his  approval  and 
appreciation,  conferred  upon  him  the  order  of 
knighthood  of  St.  Michael.  In  the  same  year 
Rheinberger  resigned  his  position  as  musical 
director  of  the  Munich  Choral  Society  and  suc- 
ceeded Franz  Willlner  as  dii*ector  of  the  Court 
Church  music  (Konigliche  Hofcapellmeister). 
This  appointment  stimulated  Rheinberger  to 
comi)ose  many  ecclesiastical  works,  one  of  which 
— a  mass  in  eight  parts,  dedicated  to  Pope 
Leo  XIII. — obtained  for  him  the  order  of 
knighthood  of  Gregory  the  Great.  In  1899, 
on  his  sixtieth  birthday,  Rheinberger  was 
created  Doctor  honoris  causa  of  the  University 
of  Munich — modorum  musicoram  inventare7n 
fccundissimum  artis  ad  leges  sevoriares  adstricta^e 
praeceptorcm  stibtilissimwn  preisend.  He  died 
in  Munich,  Nov.  25,  1901. 


It  is  comparatively  seldom  that  a  highly  dis- 
tinguished composer  attains  great  success  as  a 
teacher.  Rheinberger,  however,  was  accounted 
one  of  the  foremost  musical  theorists  and 
teachers  of  his  day.  Students  came  to  his 
composition  classes  at  the  Munich  Conserva- 
torium not  only  from  his  own  country  but  from 
many  European  countries,  as  well  as  from 
America.  Three  years  were  required  to  com- 
plete the  full  course  of  theoretical  instruction 
in  these  classes.  In  the  first  year  students 
were  taught  free  harmonisation  of  chorales,  in- 
cluding eanlo  fermo  in  alto,  tenor,  and  bass — 
the  same  for  strings  with  free  florid  counter- 
point. Second  and  third  year:  form,  double 
counterpoint,  fugue,  vocal  and  instrumental  in 
two  to  six  parts,  instrumentation,  scoring  of 
movements  from  Mozart's  and  Beethoven's 
sonatas  and  quartets,  etc. 

As  an  organ  teacher  Rheinberger's  activity  in 
his  later  years  was  somewhat  restricted.  His 
organ  class  consisted  of  four  advanced  students, 
generally  chosen  because  of  marked  ability. 
The  organ  works  of  Bach  and  Mendelssohn,  and 
Rheinberger's  own  organ  sonatas,  received  the 
greatest  amount  of  attention.  He  insisted  upon 
a  clear  and  noble  delivery,  his  remarks  upon 
the  interpretation  of  his  own  works  being 
especially  valuable. 

Rheinberger's  compositions  embrace  almost 
every  branch  of  musical  art.  All  his  works 
show  marked  individuality,  together  with  an 
absolute  mastery  of  musical  technique.  It  is, 
however,  as  a  choral  writer  and  composer  for 
the  organ  that  he  is  especially  distinguished. 
His  twelve  masses,  Stabat  Mater,  De  Profundi^ 
and  many  other  examples  of  church  music  are 
marked  by  earnestness  and  deep  religious  feel- 
ing. In  '  Christophorus '  (Legend  for  soli, 
chorus,  and  orchestra,  op.  120)  Rheinberger 
combines  religious  and  secular  sentiment  in  a 
masterly  and  convincing  manner.  The  Christ- 
mas cantata,  *  Stem  von  Bethlehem  *  (for  soli, 
chorus,  and  orchestra,  op.  164),  lb  also  remark- 
able for  its  sustained  beauty  and  loftiness  of 
conception.  Amongst  his  finest  secular  vocal 
compositions  are  the  'Seebilder,'  ^Das  Thai 
des  Espingo,'  *Am  Walchensee,'  *Wittekind,' 
*  Montfort,'  *Toggenburg,'  *  Die  Rosen  von 
Hildesheim.' 

Hans  von  Billow  and  Sir  Charles  Halle  were 
the  first  to  introduce  Rheinberger's  music  into 
England.  At  a  pianoforte  recital  which  Billow 
gave  in  London  in  1878,  he  played  the  'Andante 
and  Toccata,'  op.  12,  one  of  the  finest  and  most 
brilliant  of  Rheinbei^r's  pianoforte  composi- 
tions. In  the  same  year  at  the  Musical  Union, 
and  also  in  the  following  year  at  a  popular  con- 
cert, Billow  gave  the  Pianoforte  Quartet  in  E  flat, 
op.  38,  which  achieved  awide  popularity.  Among 
his  pianoforte  compositions  which  have  been  re- 
ceived with  special  favour  are  the  three  'Kleine 
Concertstiioke,'  op.  5,  and  '  Aus  Italien,'  op.  29. 


RHEINBERGER 


RHEINBERGER 


85 


Rheinberger's  twenty  organ  sonatas  are  un- 
doubtedly tibe  most  valuable  addition  to  organ 
music  since  the  time  of  Mendelssolm,  and  it  is 
probably  upon  the  artistic  worth  of  these  works 
tliat  hu  position  as  a  composer  ultimately 
depends.  They  are  chaiacterised  by  a  happy 
blending  of  the  modem  romantic  spirit  with 
masterly  counterpoint  and  dignified  oigan  style. 
As  perfect  examples  of  organ  sonata  form  they 
are  probably  unrivalled.  With  the  object  of 
obtaining  external  and  material  relationship 
between  the  chief  movements,  Rheinberger 
generally  introduced  as  a  coda  to  his  finale  a 
brief  summary  of  one  or  more  of  the  chief  sub- 
jects of  the  first  movement.  Another  device 
with  the  same  object  in  view — the  unifying  of 
the  sonata — ^was  the  re-introduction,  generally 
with  fine  artistic  effect,  of  a  first- movement 
subject  as  an  integral  part  of  the  last  movement. 
An  instance  of  this  procedure  is  found  in 
Sonata  No.  9  in  B  flat  minor  (op.  142).  Here 
the  principal  subject  of  the  first  movement  is 
re-introduced  in  the  finale  as  the  second  sub- 
ject and  developed  in  connection  with  the  fugal 
subject  of  this  last  movement.  Similar  examples 
of  this  method  are  found  in  Sonatas  No.  16  (op. 
175)  and  Na  17  (op.  181).  Throughout  the 
whole  of  the  organ  sonatas  there  is  a  constant 
flow  of  beautiful  ideas,  though  a  considerable 
distance  separates  his  best  and  weakest  move- 
ments. There  is  occasionally  a  tendency  to  pro- 
long some  of  the  movements,  considering  the 
materials  upon  which  they  are  built.  The  two 
concertos  for  organ  and  orchestra  show  real 
breadth  of  treatment  and  a  freedom  of  mani- 
pulation that  appeal  strongly  to  the  musical 
sense. 

Rheinberger  was  not  much  in  sympathy  with 
modem  art  He  strongly  disapproved  of 
Wagner's  methods  and  theories.  In  the  ante- 
ch^ber  of  his  class-room  were  lying  one  day 
the  opened  scores  of  'Lohengrin'  and  *Der 
Freisdiutz,'  the  former  on  the  top  of  the  latter. 
As  Rheinberger  passed  through,  he  glanced  at 
the  books,  and  then  with  a  gesture  full  of 
meaning,  as  if  to  say,  '  This  is  how  it  ought  to 
be/  puUed  out  the  '  Freischutz '  and  placed  it 
on  the  top.  In  his  later  years  Rheinberger 
suffered  from  a  chronic  lung  disease  contracted 
by  exoeanve  exposure  when  making  a  mountain 
tour  in  the  l^n^l.  His  constant  ill-health  and 
niiturally  austere,  retiring  disposition  precluded 
mnch  personal  intercourse  with  the  outside 
world.  Towards  his  pupils  he  was  invariably 
exacting  and  often  severe,  but  his  musical 
genius  and  commanding  personality  never  fiuled 
to  comp^  their  respect. 

Rheinberger's  individuality  is  faithfully  re- 
flected in  his  compositions.  Thoroughness  and 
unpretentiousness  are  qualities  equally  charac- 
teristic of  the  artist  and  of  his  work.  His 
musical  themes  are  for  the  most  part  of  great 
lieauty.     Much  of  his  work,  however,  betrays 


a  lack  of  strong  impassioned  enthusiasm,  and 
seldom,  if  ever,  attains  to  that  degree  of  exalted 
musical  inspiration  which  marks  the  finest 
creations  of  a  great  genius. 

CATALOGUE  OF  BHEINBEBGEB'S  COMPOSmONB 
Opw  Op. 

1.  4  Piece*.  pL  74.  6  Male  c 

*78.  a  Vooal  qouleta,  with  pf. 
7  Bonn  —    — 

4. 

a. 

6. 
7. 

8. 
9. 

la 
11. 
iz 
u. 

14. 
1ft. 
1& 

17. 
1& 

19. 
99. 


4  Piece*.  pL 

5  Piurt-wnigi. 
7SangB. 

6  Songs. 
S  Small  pf. 
S  Studiei,  pf . 

5  Chatactsristifi  pleoei,  pf . 
'  WaldiuiirdiflD.'  pf. 

6  Studies.  pL 

*  Wallenstein,'  qrmphony. 
5  Piecoa.  pf. 
Toocsta,  pf . 

'  TknuiteUa,'  pL.  4  hand*. 
2i  Preludee,  pf. 
Duo,  9  pfik 
'  SUbat  Mater.'  eoU.  cfaonu, 

andorch. 
9  Four-part  Balladi. 
Overtnre,  'Taming  of  the 

Shrew.' 
Tocoatlna,  pf. 
'  Die  Sleben  Baben,'  roman- 

tlo  opera  in  S  acta. 
'WaHcxfee,'   Tooal    qnartet 

andpf. 
4  Songs. 
Fantasia,  pf. 
4  Vocal  quartet*. 

•  Locknng,'    Tooal    quartet 

aodpL 
78onga. 
lat    Orga 

minor. 
4  Humoreiken.  pf. 
'  Aoa  Italien,*  S  pf.  pieces. 

7  Pf.  duct*  <trom  the  music 
to    'Der    Wunderthltlge 


In    C 


J  not  son 


.  0  V^rt  aonga. 

.  'Daughter  of  Jairu*,*  can- 
tata for  children. 

.  Prelude  and  fugue,  pf. 

.  Trio.  pf.  and  strluK*. 

.  Uyuui  for  female  choir, 
organ,  and  harp. 

.  9  Duets,  pf.  (from  the  murir 
to  'Die  nnheilhrlngende 
Krone'). 

.  'Poor  Henzy,'  comic  opera 
for  children. 

.  Qtiartet,  pL  and  strings,  in 
Bflat 

.  6  PL  pieces,  in  fugal  fonn. 

.  5  Motets,  choir. 

.  78ongB. 

.  fitude  and  fugato,  pf . 

.  Capriodo  gioooao,  pf. 

.  S  Stale  dionises. 

.  9  Pf .  studies  on  a  theme  bj 


4B.  'Passion  Music,'  dioir  and 
organ. 

47.  Symphomio  sonata,  pL 

48.  4  Male  choruses. 

49.  10  Orpui  trloa. 
.  Ballad.  'Das  Thai  des  ]&► 

and 


pingOk' 
orch. 


Improvisation  on  a  theme 
from  '  Die  Zaaberllflte,'  pL 


3  Studies,  pf . 

4  Hymns,  mecso-sopimno  and 
organ,  or  pL 

SBougs. 

4    Vocal    ouartets,     with 
stringi  and  pf . 


6  Hymns,  dboir. 

Pf .  study. 

Bequiem,  soli,  choms,  and 


61.  Tlieme  and  variations,  pf. 
02.  Mass  for  one  Toioe  and  oripin. 
6S.  8  Part-songs. 

•64.  'May   Dav.'    6    three-part 
female  ^oruses.  with  pf. 

65.  Snd  Organ  sonata  in  A  flat. 

66.  3  Studies.  pL 

67.  6  Preludes,  pf. 

68.  6  Pieces,  in  fugal  form. 
691.  S  Sacred  part-sonffs. 

70.  'Thurmers        TOchterlein,' 

comie  opera  in  4  acts. 

71.  Ballad.       '  KSnlg      Erich,' 

choms  with  pf. 

72.  '  AuB  den  Fsrieutagon,'  4  pf. 

duets. 

73.  0  Male  chraruses. 


*76.  'TognnbuTg,'  soil,  chorus, 
andpf. 

77.  Sonata,    vln.    and    pf..   or 

T'oello  and  pf. 

78.  3  Pf.  pieces. 

79.  Fantasia,    ordi.    or    pf.,   4 


80.  6  Part^ongi. 

81.  'DietodtoBraut, 


orch.,  or  pf. 
89.  Stxlug  quintet,  in  A  minor 
(or  pf.  duet). 

83.  Mlssa  hTBTis  in  D  minor, 
choir. 

84.  Bequiem  In  B  flat,  choir. 

85.  7  Male  ohoruses. 

86.  4  Epic  songs,  male  choir. 

87.  Symphony  ('  Florentine ')  in 
F. 

88.  3rd    Organ    sonata     ('Pas- 

toral 'Tin  G  (or  pf.  duet). 

89.  String  quartet  in  C  minor. 

90.  'Vom     Bheine,*     6     male 


91.  •  Johannlsnacht,'  male  choir 

92.  Swnata,  pL  and  Voallo.  in  0 

(or  Tin.  and  pf.). 

93.  "Aeme      and      Tsrlatlons, 

■trine  quartet  in  O  minor 
(or  pi.  duet). 

94.  Concerto,  pL  and  orch.  in  A 

flat. 

95.  2  Ghoruaes  with  orob.  or  pf. 

96.  3  Latin  hymns,  three-part 

ftanale  choir  and  organ. 
•97.  Ballad.    'Clarice    of    Eber- 
stein,'  soli,   chorus,   and 

98.  4th  Organ  sonata,  'tonus 
peregrinus,'  in  A  minor  (or 
pf .  duet). 

89.  Pf.  sonata  in  D  flat. 

100.  7  Songs,  male  choir. 

101.  3  StudiH.  pf. 

109.  Ballad,  'Wittekind.'  male 
chorus  and  orch. ,  or  pf . 

103.  3   Vocal  duets,  sop.,  bass, 

and  pf. 

104.  Toccata,  pf. 

105.  Sonata,  yin.  and  pf..  in  B 


106.  2  Bomantlc  song^  choir  and 

orch..  or  pt 

107.  0  Hymns  for  choir. 

108.  '  Am  Strom.'  6  part-eongs. 

109.  Mass  in  B  flat  for  double 

choir,  dcd.  to  Leo  XIII. 

lia  OTertnre  to  Schiller's  'De- 
metrius' (or  pL  duet). 

HI.  5th  Organ  sonaU  in Faharp 
(or  pi.  duet). 

112.  2ndTrio,pf.,  Tin.  and  T'oello, 
in  A. 

113  6  Studies  for  pf.  aeft  hand). 

114.  Quintet,  pf.  and  striiaga.  In  O. 

115.  Toccata,  pL  in  C  minor. 
11&  4  Songs,  male  choir. 

117.  'Mlssa    Banctissimie  Trini- 

Utis.'  choir,  in  F. 

118.  6    Two-part    hymna,   with 

organ. 

119.  6th  Organ  sonata,  in  B  flat 
minor  (or  pf .  duet). 

Legend.      '  Chrlstophoms,' 
•oli,  cfac  ■       • 


•190L  ] 


.  chorus,  and  orch.,  or 

121.  Trio,  pf.  and  strings,  in  B 
flat 

192.  Sonata.  C  minor.  pL.  4  hands 

(or  2  pfs..  8  hand«). 

193.  94  Fughetten  for  organ. 
124.  8  Pftrt^nga. 

120.  7  Male  choruses. 

198.  Mass,     three-part     female 

choir,  in  A. 
127.  7th  Organ  sonata  in  F  minor 

(or  pf.  duet). 
198.  4  Eleglae  songs,  with  (Hgan. 

129.  3  Italian  songs. 

130.  6  Male  choruses. 

131.  6  Female  choruses. 

132.  8th  Organ  BotiatA,  in  E  minor 

(or  irf.  duet). 

133.  4  Motets,  six-part  ohoir. 

134.  Easter  hymn,  double  choir. 


86 


RHEINGOLD,  DAS 


Oi>.  Op. 

13&.  Pf.  aotuiU.  in  E  flat.  175.  18th   Orynn   MnutK.   In    O 

IM.  14  Bongs.  ilurp  minor  (or  pL  duct). 

1S7.  Orgui  oonoerto  In  F,  with  ITS.  9  Adwut-Motettcn.  choir. 

orch.  (or  pf.  dv«t).  177.  'ind  Cuoeerto  for  oi^ui  and 

138.  Stabat  Mater,  chotr,  string  orcb..  in  O  minor  (or  pf. 

oroh.  and  oryan.  da«t). 

l.ia.  Nonet,  wind  and  atrlnffi  (or  178.  Sonata  for  horn  and  pL 

at.  dn«t).  '  179.  '  HTmnna  an  die  Tonkuiiat,' 

140.  S  Hjinna.  choir  and  or^ai.  for  male  chorus  and  oreh. 

18&  IS  Chaimotertatlc  pieces  for 

181.  17th  Oi«an  aooata  in  R. 
18S.  '  Vom      foldenen      Horn.' 


141.  8  Male  choruses. 
14S.  9th  Organ  sonata.  In  B  flat 
minor  (or  pf.  daet). 

143.  'Die  Rosen  von  Hildeshelm.' 

male  chorus  and  vlnd  in* 
straments. 

144.  S  Male  chomsas. 

145.  '  Montfort,' soli,  ehoros.  and 

orch. 
148.  10th   Organ   sonata,   in   B 

minor  (or  pf.  duet). 
147.  String  quartet  in  F. 
14!L  11th    Organ    sonata 

minor  (or  pt  duet). 

fiiiitjt.  om.n.  Tlolin* 


Uoderapiel 


14ik  Suite,  oraan.  Tlolin.*T'oeUo. 

and  string  ordt. 
IBa  8  pteeca.  riolin  and  organ, 

or  T'oello  and  oigmn. 
191.  Mass  in  O. 
15SL  30  Children's  songs. 
153.  'Das  &aberirort.' singspiel. 

In  9  acta,  for  children. 
194.  19th  Organ  sonata,  in  D  flat 

(or  pt  duet). 
•186.  Mass,    three -part    female 

ehoir  and  ozfcsn. 
1S8.  19  Chaiaeterlstio  pleoes  for 

organ. 
187.  8  Sacred  songs,  with  oivan. 
158.  SSopcano  (or  baritone) songs. 
180.  Mass,  four -part  choir  and 

oraan,  in  F  minor. 

180.  7  MAle  ohoruses. 

181.  ISth  Organ  sonata,  in  B  flat 

(or  pL  duet). 
183.  'Monologue,' 19 organ  pieces. 
•183.  8  Motets,  flve-part  choir. 
•184.  '  Star      of       Bethlehem. 

Christmas   cantata,    snli, 


Tttrkii 
with  pf. 

183.  19  Studies,  pf. 

184.  Romantic  sonata  for  pf.,  in 
F  sharp  minor. 

188.  7  Male  chomses. 

188.  8  Four-part  song^  'Jahrca- 

seiten.' 
in   D  •187.  Mass,  for  ftomale  toIcm  and 

organ,  in  G  minor. 

188.  18th  Organ  sonata,  in  A. 

189.  19  Organ  trios. 

190.  Mass.  for  male  choir  and 
ongao,  in  F. 

191.  Trio,  for pL.Tln.,andT'calk>, 
inF. 

193.  Mass.  '  Misericordias  Do- 
mini.' choir  and  organ,  in 

193.  mh  Organ  sonata,  in  G 
minor. 

194.  Requiem,  for  ehoraa  and 
organ. 

196.  '  Akademlsehe  '  orerture, 
fngue  with  8  themes  for 
oroh. 

196.  90th  Organ  sonata.  'Znr 
Friedensfeler,'  In  F. 

197.  Mass  I  posthumous),  choir 
and  organ  (flnished  bj 
Louis  Adolph  Coeme  of 


chorus,  and  orch.,  or  pf. 
183.  nth  Organ  sonata,  in  0  (or 
pf.  dust). 

166.  Suits,  Tin.  and  organ,  in  C 

minor. 

167.  'MeditaUona.'     13     organ 


188.  16th  Organ  sonata,  in  D  (or 

pf.  duet). 

189.  Mass,  soli,  choir,  and  oroh., 

or  strings  and  organ. 
ITO.  8  Four-part  so"^    "" 

und  Frieden.' 
•171.  '  Marlanlsehe 

Toloe  and  organ,  or  pt. 

173.  Mass,  male  choir  with  organ, 

or  wind  Insts. 
ITS.  4  Male  choruses. 

174.  13  Organ  pii 


WUkota  (^MU  Xumben. 

*'  Ats  Maria,'  soprano  and  oiigan, 
or  three-part  female  ehoir. 

Romance,  for  soprano  and  harp. 

'Carmina  sacra.*  songs  with 
organ. 

Amuigement  of  Bach's  30  varia- 
tions, for  2  pflk 

Three  flve-part  songs. 

Idylle  for  v'oello  and  pf. 

Bhapsodie,for  fluto  and  pf . .  in  B. 

'Trennung.'  for  voice,  pt.,  or 

■  ^iaMbkehleln.'  ft>r  choir. 
Pastorale,  for  oboe  and  organ. 

from  op.  98. 
Rhapsodle.  for  oboe  and  organ. 

or  vln.  and  organ,  from  op. 

ir. 

Tarantella  tram  op.  1S9.  for  3 
pfa.Shanda. 
Works  possessing  English  text.  J.  \V.  K. 

RHEINGOLD,  DAS.  The  «Vorabend'  of 
Wagner's  trilogy.    See  Ring  des  Nibblukoen. 

RHINE  FESTIVALS.  See  Nibderrhein- 
I8CHB  MUSIKFESTE,  voL  ill.  p.  377. 

RHUBEBA.     See  Rbbeo. 

RHYTHM.  This  much -used  and  many- 
sided  term  may  be  defined  as  '  the  systematic 
grouping  of  notes  with  regard  to  duration.'  It 
i.s  often  inaccurately  employed  as  a  synonym  for 
its  two  subdivisions,  Accent  and  Time,  and 
in  its  proper  signification  bears  the  same  relation 
to  these  that  metre  beare  to  quantity  in  poetry. 

The  confusion  which  has  arisen  in  the  em- 
ployment of  these  terms  is  unfortunate,  though 
so  frequent  that  it  would  appear  to  be  natuml, 
and  therefore  almost  inevitable.  Take  a  number 
of  notes  of  equal  length,  and  give  an  emphasis 
to  every  second,  third,  or  fourth,  the  music  will 
be  said  to  be  in  *  rhythm '  of  two,  three,  or  four 
— meaning  in  tim€.  Now  take  a  number  of 
these  groups  or  bars  and  emphasise  them  in  the 
same  way  as  their  subdivisions :  the  same  term 
will  still  be  employed,  and  rightly  so.     Again, 


RHYTHM 

instead  of  notes  of  equal  length,  let  each  group 
consist  of  unequal  notes,  but  similarly  arranged, 
as  in  the  following  example  from  Schumann — 


etc 


or  in  the  Vivace  of  Beethoven's  No.  7  Symphony : 
the  form  of  these  groups  also  is  spoken  of  as  the 
'prevailing  rhythm/  though  here  aceerU  is  the 
only  correct  expression. 

Thus  we  see  that  the  proper  distinction  of  the 
three  terms  is  as  follows : — 

Accent  arranges  a  heterogeneous  mass  of  notes 
into  long  and  short ; 

Time  divides  them  into  groups  of  equal  dura- 
tion ; 

Bhythm  does  for  these  groups  what  Accent 
does  for  notes. 
In  short,  Rhythm  is  the  Metre  of  Music. 

This  parallel  \\i\\  help  us  to  understand  why 
the  uneducated  can  only  write  and  fully  compre- 
hend music  in  complete  sections  of  four  and 
eight  bars.  [Rhythm  is  an  essential  part  of 
all  primitive  music,  and  every  folk-song  has  a 
distinct  rhythmical  character.  It  was  long 
before  this  characteristic  was  introduced  into 
serious  music,  which  had  been  rhythmlesa 
because  the  notes  of  plain-chant  exist  only  with 
reference  to  the  words.]  In  polyphonic  music 
the  termination  of  one  musical  phrase  ^foot,  or 
group  of  accents)  is  always  coincident  with,  and 
hidden  by,  the  commencement  of  another.  And 
this  although  the  subject  may  consist  of  several 
phrases  and  be  quite  rhythmical  in  itself,  as  is 
the  case  in  Bach's  Organ  Fugues  in  G  minor  and 
A  minor.  The  Jihythmus  of  the  ancients  was 
simply  the  accent  prescribed  by  the  long  and 
short  syllables  of  the  poetry,  or  words  to  which 
the  music  was  set,  and  had  no  other  variety 
than  that  afforded  by  their  metrical  laws. 
Modem  music,  on  the  other  hand,  would  be 
meaningless  and  chaotic — a  melody  would  cease 
to  be  a  melody — could  we  not  plainly  perceive 
a  proportion  in  the  length  of  the  phrases. 

The  bar-line  is  the  most  obvious,  but  by  no 
means  a  |)erfect,  means  of  distinguishing  and 
determining  the  rhythm  ;  but  up  to  the  time 
of  Mozart  and  Haydn  the  system  of  liarring, 
although  used  more  or  less  accurately  from  the 
time  of  the  Elizabethan  composers,  in  Virginal 
music,  etc.,  was  but  imperfectly  understood. 
Many  even  of  Handel's  slow  movements  have 
only  half  their  proper  number  of  bar-lines,  and 
consequently  terminate  in  the  middle  of  a  bar 
instead  of  at  the  commencement ;  as,  for  instance, 
<Ho  shall  feed  His  flock'  (which  is  really  in 
6-8  time),  and  '  Surely  He  hath  borne  our  griefs ' 
(which  should  be  4-8  instead  of  C)*  Where 
the  accent  of  a  piece  is  strictly  binary  through- 
out, composera,  even  to  this  day,  appear  to  be 
often  in  doubt  about  the  rhythm,  time,  and 


RHYTHM 


RHYTHM 


87 


barring  of  their  music  The  simple  and  nnmis- 
takable  role  for  the  latter  is  this:  the  last 
strong  accent  will  occur  on  the  first  of  a  bar, 
and  joa  have  only  to  reckon  backwards.  If 
the  piece  falls  naturally  into  groups  of  four 
accents  it  is  four  in  a  bar,  but  if  tiiere  is  an 
odd  two  anywhere  it  should  all  be  haired  as 
two  in  a  bar.  Ignorance  or  inattention  to  this 
causes  us  now  and  then  to  come  upon  a  sudden 
change  from  C  to  2-4  in  modem  music. 

With  regard  to  the  regular  sequence  of  bars 
with  reference  to  doee  and  cadence — which  is 
the  tnie  sense  of  rhythm — much  depends  upon 
the  character  of  the  music.  The  dance-musio 
of  modem  society  must  necessarily  be  in  regular 
periods  of  4,  8,  or  16  bars.  Waltzes,  though 
written  in  S-4  time,  are  almost  always  really  in 
6-8,  and  a  danoe-music  writer  will  sometimes, 
from  ignorance,  omit  an  unaccented  bar  (really 
a  half-bar),  to  the  destraction  of  the  rhythm. 
The  dancers,  marking  the  time  with  their  feet, 
and  feeling  the  rhythm  in  the  movement  of  their 
bodies,  then  complain,  without  understanding 
what  is  wrong,  that  such  a  waltz  is  *  not  good 
to  dance  to.* 

In  pure  music  it  is  different.  Great  as  are 
the  varieties  afforded  by  the  diverse  positions 
and  combinations  of  strong  and  weak  accents, 
the  equal  length  of  bars,  and  consequently  of 
musical  phrases,  would  cause  monotony  were  it 
not  that  we  are  allowed  to  combine  sets  of  two, 
three,  and  four  bars.  Not  so  freely  as  we  may 
combine  the  different  forms  of  accent,  for  the 
longer  divisions  are  less  clearly  perceptible; 
indeed,  the  modem  complexity  of  rhythm, 
esx»ecially  in  German -music,  is  one  of  the  chief 
obstacles  to  its  ready  appreciation.  Every  one, 
as  we  have  already  said,  can  understand  a  song 
or  piece  where  a  half-close  occurs  at  each  fourth 
and  a  whole  close  at  each  eighth  bar,  where  it 
is  expected ;  but  when  an  uneducated  ear  is 
continually  being  disappointed  and  surprised 
by  unexpected  prolongations  and  alterations  of 
rhjTthm,  it  soon  grows  conftased  and  unable  to 
follow  the  sense  of  the  music.  Quick  music 
naturally  allows — ^indeed  demands— more  variety 
of  rhythm  than  slow,  and  we-  can  scarcely  turn 
to  any  scherzo  or  finale  of  the  great  composers 
where  such  varieties  are  not  made  use  of. 
Taking  two-bar  rhythm  as  the  normal  and 
simplest  form — just  as  two  notes  form  the 
simplest  kind  of  accent — the  first  variety  we 
have  to  notice  is  where  one  odd  bar  is  thrast  in 
to  break  the  continuity,  as  thus  in  the  Andante 
of  Beethoven's  G  minor  Symphony : 


This  may  also  be  effected  by  causing  a  fresh 
phrase  to  begin  with  a  strong  accent  on  the 
weak  bar  with  which  the  previous  subject  ended, 
thus  really  eliding  a  bar,  as  for  instance  in  the 
minuet  in  Haydn's '  Reine  de  France '  Symphony : 


^iJUi^CjLJii^'?^^^^ 


Here  the  bar  marked  (a)  is  the  overlapping  of 
two  rhythmic  periods. 

Gombinations  of  two -bar  rhythm  are  the 
rhythms  of  four  and  six  bars.  The  first  of  these 
requires  no  comment,  being  the  most  common 
of  existing  forms.  Beethoven  has  specially 
marked  in  two  cases  (Scherzo  of  Ninth  Symphony, 
and  Scherzo  of  Ci  minor  Quartet)  <  Ritmo  di 
4  battute,'  because,  these  compositions  being  in 
such  short  bars,  the  rhythm  is  not  readily  per- 
ceptible. The  six-bar  rhythm  is  a  most  useful 
combination,  as  it  may  consist  of  four  bars  fol- 
lowed by  two,  two  by  four,  three  and  three,  or 
two,  two  and  two.  The  well-known  minuet  by 
LuUi  (from  'Le  Bourgeois  Gentilhomme ')  is  in 
the  first  of  these  combinations  throughout. 


And  the  opening  of  the  Andante  of  Beethoven's 
First  Symphony  is  another  good  example.  Haydn 
is  especially  fond  of  this  rhythm,  especially  in 
the  two  forms  first  named.  Of  the  rhythm  of 
thrice  two  bars  a  good  specimen  is  afforded  by 
the  Scherzo  of  Schubert's  G  miy'or  Symphony, 
where,  after  the  two  subjects  (both  in  four-bar 
rhythm)  have  been  announced,  the  strings  in 
unison  mount  and  descend  the  scale  in  accom- 
paniment to  a  portion  of  the  first  theme,  thus : 


A  still  better  example  is  the  first  section  of 
*  God  save  the  King.' 

This  brings  us  to  triple  rhythm,  uncombined 
with  double. 

Three-bar  rhythm,  if  in  a  slow  time,  conveys 
a  very  uncomfortable  lop-sided  sensation  to  the 
uncultivated  ear.  The  writer  remembers  an  in- 
stance when  a  band  could  hardly  be  brought 
to  play  a  section  of  an  Andante  in  9-8  time 
and  rhythm  of  three  bars.  The  combination  of 
d'xSxS  was  one  which  their  sense  of  accent 
refused  to  acknowledge.  Beethoven  has  taken 
the  trouble  in  the  Scherzo  of  his  Ninth  Sym- 
phony to  mark  '  Ritmo  di  tre  battute,'  although 


88 


RHYTHM 


RIBATTUTA 


in  such  quiok  time  it  is  hardly  neceesary  ; 
the  passage, 


being  understood  as  though  written— 


Numerous  instances  of  triple  rhythm  occur, 
which  he  has  not  troubled  to  mark  ;  as  in  the 
Trio  of  the  C  minor  Symphony  Scherzo : — 


Rhythm  of  five  bars  is  not,  as  a  rule,  produc- 
tive of  good  effect,  and  cannot  be  used — any 
more  than  the  other  unusual  rhythms — for  long 
together.  It  is  best  when  consisting  of  four 
bars  followed  by  one,  and  is  most  often  found 
in  compound  form  —  that  is,  as  eight  bars 
followed  by  two. 

Minuet,  Mozart's  Symphony  in  C  (No.  6). 

.^    J.J     r.4J^ 


T'   r 

A  very  quaint  effect  is  produced  by  the  un- 
usual rhythm  of  seven.  An  impression  is  con- 
veyed that  the  eighth  bar — a  weak  one — has  got 
left  out  through  inaccurate  sense  of  rhythm,  as 
so  often  happens  with  street-singers  and  the 
like.  Wagner  has  taken  advantage  of  this  in 
his  *  Dance  of  Apprentices '  ( *  Die  Meistersinger'), 
thus : — 


It  is  obvious  that  all  largersymmetrical  groups 
than  the  above  need  be  taken  no  heed  of,  as 
they  are  reducible  to  the  smaller  periods.  One 
more  point  remains  to  be  noticed,  which,  a 
beauty  in  older  and  simpler  music,  is  becoming 
a  source  of  weakness  in  modem  times.  This  is 
the  disguising  or  concealing  of  the  rhythm  by 
strong  accents  or  change  of  harmony  in  weak 
bars.  The  last  movement  of  Beethoven's  Piano- 
forte Sonata  in  D  minor  (op.  31,  No.  2)  affords 
a  striking  instance  of  this.  At  the  very  outset 
we  are  led  to  think  that  the  change  of  bass  at 
the  fourth  bar,  and  again  at  the  eighth,  indi- 
cates a  new  rhythmic  period,  whereas  the  whole 


i^m 


^j 


movement  is  in  four-bar  rhythm  as  imchaugiug 
as  the  semiquaver  figure  which  pervades  it.  The 
device  has  the  effect  of  preventing  monotony  in 
a  movement  constructed  almost  entirely  on  one 
single  figure.  The  same  thing  occxvca  in  the 
middle  of  the  first  movement  of  the  Sonatina 
(op.  79,  Presto  alia  Tedesca).  Now  in  both  of 
these  cases  the  accent  of  the  bars  is  so  simple 
that  the  ear  can  afford  to  hunt  for  the  rhythm 
and  is  pleased  by  the  not  too  subtle^  artifice ; 
but  in  slower  and  less  obviously  accented  music 
such  a  device  would  be  out  of  place  ;  there  the 
rhythm  requires  to  be  impressed  on  the  hearer 
rather  than  concealed  from  him. 

On  analysing  any  piece  of  music  it  will  be 
found  that  whether  the  ultimate  distribution  of 
the  accents  be  binary  or  ternary,  the  larger  divi- 
sions nearly  always  nm  in  twos,  the  rhythms 
of  three,  four,  or  seven  being  merely  occasion- 
ally used  to  break  the  monotony.  This  is 
only  natural,  for,  as  before  remarked,  the  oom- 
prehensibility  of  music  is  in  direct  proportion 
to  the  simplicity  of  its  rhythm,  irreguLuity  in 
this  point  giving  a  disturbed  and  emotional 
character  to  the  piece,  until,  when  all  attention 
to  rhythm  is  ignored,  the  music  becomes  inco- 
herent and  incomprehensible,  though  not  of 
necessity  disagreeable.  In  *  Tristan  uud  Isolde ' 
Wagner  has  endeavoured,  with  varying  success, 
to  produce  a  composition  of  great  extent,  from 
which  rhythm  in  its  larger  signification  shall 
be  wholly  absent.  One  consequence  of  this  is 
that  he  has  written  the  most  tumultuously 
emotional  opera  extant ;  but  another  is  that 
the  work  is.  a  mere  chaos  to  the  hearer  until  it 
is  closely  studied.  f.  c. 

RIBATTUTA  (re-striking),  an  old  contriv- 
ance in  instrumental  music,  gradually  acceler- 
ating the  pace  of  a  phrase  of  two  notes,  until 
a  trUl  was  arrived  at.   Beethoven  has  preserved 


RIBIBLE 


RICCl 


89 


it  for  ever  in  the  Overture  *  Leonore  No.  3  * 
{bar  75  of  AlUgro), 

See  too  another  passage  farther  on,  before 
the  Flute  solo.     [See  Trill.]  g. 

RIBIBLE,  an  obsolete  instrument  played  by 
a  bow.  It  is  mentioned  by  Chaucer  and  other 
early  vniters,  and  appears  to  have  been  either 
the  rebec  itself,  or  a  particular  form  of  it. 
Sometimes  it  is  spelled  'rubible.'  It  has  been 
suggested  that  both  'rebec'  and  'ribible'  are 
derived  from  the  Moorish  word  *rebeb'  or 
'  rebab/  which  seems  to  have  been  the  name  of 
a  somewhat  similar  musical  instrument.  (See 
Kebec.)  f.  k. 

RIBS  (Ft.  blisses'.  Germ.  Zarge\  The 
sides  of  stringed  instruments  of  the  violin  type, 
connecting  the  back  and  the  belly.  They  con> 
aist  of  six  (sometimes  only  five)  pieces  of  maple, 
and  should  be  of  the  same  texture  as  the  back, 
and  if  possible  cut  out  of  the  same  piece.  After 
lieing  carefully  planed  to  the  right  thickness, 
they  are  bent  to  the  required  shape,  and  then 
glued  together  on  the  mould  by  means  of  the 
comer  and  top  and  bottom  blocks,  the  angles 
being  feather -edged.  The  back,  the  linings, 
and  the  belly  are  then  added,  and  the  body  of 
the  violin  is  then  complete.  The  ribs  ought  to 
be  slightly  increased  in  depth  at  the  broader 
end  of  the  instrument,  but  many  makers  have 
neglected  this  rule.  The  flatter  the  model, 
the  deeper  the  ribs  require  to  be ;  hence  the 
Tiol  tribe,  having  perfectly  flat  backs  and  bellies 
of  slight  elevation,  are  very  deep  in  the  ribs. 
The  oldest  violins  were  often  very  deep  in  the 
ribs,  but  many  of  them  have  been  since  cut 
down.  Carlo  Bergouzi  and  his  contemporaries 
had  a  fashion  of  making  shallow  ribs,  and  often 
cut  down  the  ribs  of  older  instruments,  thereby 
injuring  their  tone  beyond  remedy.  Instru- 
ments made  of  ill-chosen  and  unseasoned  wood 
will  cFBck  and  decay  in  the  ribs  sooner  than  in 
any  other  part ;  but  in  the  best  instruments  the 
ribs  will  generally  outlast  both  belly  and  back. 
Some  old  makers  were  in  the  habit  of  glueing 
a  strip  of  linen  inside  the  ribs.  E.  J.  F. 

RICCI,  LuiGi,  bom  in  Naples,  June  8, 1805, 
in  1814  entered  the  Royal  Conservatorio,  then 
under  ZingarelH,  of  which  he  became  in  1819 
one  of  the  sub-professors  together  with  Bellini 
His  first  work,  '  L'  Impresario  in  angustie,'  was 
performed  by  the  students  of  the  Conservatorio 
in  1823,  and  enthusiastically  applauded.  In 
the  following  four  years  he  wrote  'La  Cena 
frastomata,'  '  L*  Abate  Taocarella,'  ^  II  Diavolo 
condannato  a  prender  moglie,'  and  '  La  Lucema 
d'  Epitteto, '  all  for  the  Teatro  Nuovo.  In  1 828 
his  'Ulisse,'  at  the  San  Carlo,  was  a  failure. 
In  1 829  '  II  Colombo '  in  Parma  and '  L'  Orfanella 
di  Ginevra'  in  Naples  were  both  successful. 
The  winter  of  1829-80  was  disastrous  for  Ricci, 
his  four  new  operas  ( *  II  Sonnambulo,  *  *  L'  Eroina 
del  Messico,*  'Annibale  in  Torino,'  and  <La 
Neve ')  being  all  unsuccessful.     In  the  autumn 


of  1831  he  produced  at  the  Scala,  Milan, 
'Chiara  di  Rosemberg,'  and  this  opera,  per- 
formed by  Grisi,  Sacchi,  Winter,  Badioli,  etc., 
was  greatly  applauded,  and  soon  became  success- 
ful in  all  the  theatres  of  Italy.  'II  nuovo 
Figaro'  failed  in  Parma  in  1832.  In  it  sang 
Rozer,  who  afterwards  married  Balfe.  The 
same  fate  attended  '  I  due  Sergenti '  at  the  Scala 
in  1833,  where  the  following  year  he  gave  '  Un' 
Avventura  di  Scaramuccia,'  which  was  a  very 
great  success,  and  was  translated  into  French 
by  Flotow.  The  same  year  *  Gli  esposti,'  better 
known  as  *  Eran  due  ed  or  son  tre, '  was  applauded 
in  Turin,  whilst  *Chi  dura  vince,'  like  Rossini's 
immortal  '  Barbiere, '  was  hissed  at  Rome.  It 
was  afterwards  received  enthusiastically  at  Milan 
and  in  many  other  opera-houses  of  Europe.  In 
1835  'Chiara  di  Montalbano'  failed  at  the 
Scala,  while  '  La  serva  e  1'  ussero '  was  applauded 
in  Pavia.  Rioci  had  thus  composed  twenty 
operas  when  only  thirty  years  old  ;  and  although 
many  of  his  works  had  met  with  a  genuine  and 
well-deserved  success,  he  was  still  very  poor 
and  had  to  accept  the  post  of  musical  director 
of  the  Trieste  Cathedral  and  conductor  of  the 
Opera.  In  1838  his  'Nozze  di  Figaro'  was  a 
fiasco  in  Milan,  where  Rossini  told  him  that 
its  fall  was  due  to  the  music  being  too  serious. 

For  the  next  six  years  Ricci  composed  nothing. 
In  1844  he  married  Lidia  Stoltz,  by  whom  he 
had  two  children,  Adelaide,  who  in  1867  sang 
at  the  Th^dtre  des  Italiens  in  Paris,  but  died 
soon  after,  and  Luigi,  who  lives  in  London. 
'  La  Solitaria  delle  Asturie '  was  given  in  Odessa 
in  1844  ;  'II  Birraio  di  Preston'  in  Florence 
in  1847  ;  and  in  1852  *  La  Festa  di  Piedigrotta' 
was  very  successful  in  Naples.  His  last  opera, 
'  II  Diavolo  a  quattro,'  was  performed  in  Trieste 
in  1859. 

Luigi  Ricci  composed  in  collaboration  with 
his  brother  Fedbrico  '  II  Colonnello,'  given  in 
Rome,  and  '  M.  de  Chalumeaux,'  in  Venice,  in 
1835;  in  1836  'II  Disertore  per  amore'  for 
the  San  Carlo  in  Naples,  and  'L'Amante  di 
richiamo,'  given  in  Turin  in  1846.  Of  these 
four  operas,  '  II  Colonnello '  alone  had  a  well- 
deserved  reception.  But  Ricci's  masterpiece, 
the  opera  which  has  placed  him  in  a  very  high 
rank  among  Italian  composers,  is  'Crispino  e 
la  Coraare,'  written  in  1850  for  Venice,  and  to 
which  his  brother  Federico  partly  contributed. 
This  opera,  one  of  the  best  comic  operas  of 
Italy,  ei\joyed  a  long  success  all  the  world  over. 

Shortly  after  the  production  of  *  II  Diavolo  a 
quattro '  in  1 8  59,  however,  symptoms  of  insanity 
showed  themselves,  and  the  malady  soon  became 
violent.  He  was  taken  to  an  asylum  at  Prague, 
his  wife's  birthplace,  and  died  there  Dec.  31, 
1859.  He  was  much  mourned  at  Trieste ;  a 
funeral  ceremony  was  followed  by  a  performance 
of  selections  from  his  principal  works,  his  bust 
was  placed  in  the  lobby  of  the  Opera-house, 
and  a  pension  was  granted  to  his  widow.     He 


90 


KICCIO 


RICH 


published  two  volumes  of  vocal  pieces  entitled 
'  Mes  Loisirs '  and  *  Les  inspirations  du  Th^ ' 
(Ricordi),  and  he  left  in  MS.  a  large  number  of 
compositions  for  the  cathedral  service.  His 
brother, 

Federico,  was  bom  in  Naples,  Oct.  22, 1809, 
entered  the  Royal  Conservatorio  of  that  town, 
where  his  brother  was  then  studying,  and 
received  his  musical  education  from  Bellini 
and  Zingarelli.  In  1837  he  gave  *  La  Prigione 
d'  Edimburgo '  in  Trieste.  The  barcarola  of 
this  opera,  'Sulla  poppa  del  mio  brick,'  was 
for  long  one  of  the  most  popular  melodies  of 
Italy.  In  1839  his  'Duello  sotto  Richelieu' 
was  only  moderately  successful  at  the  Scala,  but 
in  1841  *  Michelangelo  e  Rolla'  was  applauded 
in  Florence.  In  it  sang  Signora  Strepponi,  who 
after^vards  raariied  Verdi.  *Oorrado  d'Alta- 
mura '  was  given  at  the  Soala  in  the  same  year. 
At  the  personal  request  of  Charles  Albert  he 
composed  in  1842  a  cantata  for  the  marriage 
of  Victor  Emmanuel,  and  another  for  a  court 
festival.  In  1843  his  *  Vallombra '  failed  at  La 
Scala.  '  Isabella  de'  Medici '  (1844)  in  Trieste, 
*Estella'  (1846)  in  Milan,  *Griselda'  (1847) 
and  '  I  due  ritratti'  (1850)  in  Venice,  were  all 
failures.  '  II  Marito  e  I'Amante '  was  greatly 
applauded  in  Vienna  in  1852,  but  his  last  opera, 
*  II  paniere  d'amore,*  given  there  the  following 
year,  did  not  succeed.  He  was  then  named 
Musical  Director  of  the  Imperial  Theatres  of 
St.  Petersburg,  which  post  he  occupied  for  many 
years.  Of  the  operas  written  in  collaboration 
with  his  brother  we  liave  already  spoken. 

He  brought  out  at  the  Fantaisies-Parisiennes, 
Pjiris,  *Une  Folic  k  Rome,'  Jan.  80,  1869,  with 
great  success.  Encouraged  by  this  he  produced 
an  op^ra-comique  in  three  acts,  *  Le  Docteur  rose ' 
(Boulfes  Parisiens,  Feb.  10,  1872),  and  *Une 
Fete  h  Venise,'  a  reproduction  of  his  earlier 
work,  *Il  Marito  e  I'Amante'  (Ath^n^e,  Feb. 
15,  1872).  Shortly  after  this  Federico  retired 
to  Conegliano  in  Italy,  where  he  died  Dec.  10, 
1877.  He  was  concerned  partially  or  entirely 
in  nineteen  operas.  Of  his  cantatas  we  have 
s|>okon.  He  also  left  two  masses,  six  albums 
or  collections  of  vocal  pieces  (Ricordi),  and 
many  detached  songs.  l.  r. 

RICCIO,  Teodoro,  a  native  of  Brescia,  who 
after  holding  the  post  of  choirmaster  at  one  of 
the  churches  of  Brescia  was  in  1576  invited  by 
George  Frederick,  Margrave  of  Brandenberg- 
Anspach,  to  be  his  capellmeister  at  Anspach. 
When  in  1579  George  Frederick  became  also 
Duke  of  Prussia,  Riccio  accompanied  him  as 
cai)ellmeister  to  his  new  capital  Konigsberg, 
where,  like  Scandello,  also  a  native  of  Brescia, 
in  similar  circumstances  at  Dresden,  Riccio 
adopted  the  Lutheran  faith,  and  seems  to  have 
settled  for  the  rest  of  his  life  with  an  occasional 
visit  to  Anspach.  His  adoption  of  Lutheranism 
made  little  dilference  to  the  nature  of  his  com- 
positions for  use  in  church,  as  Ijatin  was  still 


largely  used  in  the  services  of  Lutheran  court 
chapels,  and  so  we  find  that  his  publications 
mainly  consist  of  various  volumes  of  Latin 
masses,  motets,  and  magnificats,  a  4  to  8  or  12. 
Probably  Johann  Eocard,  who  was  called  to  be 
his  coadjutor  at  Konigsberg  from  1581,  pro- 
vided the  music  required  for  German  texts. 
Besides  the  Latin  works  the  QueUen-Lexikon 
mentions  two  incomplete  books  of  madrigals 
a  5  and  6,  and  one  book  of  Canzone  alia 
napolitana.  Riccio  is  supposed  to  have  died 
between  1603  and  1604,  since  in  the  latter  year 
Eccard  is  known  to  have  definitely  suooeeded 
him  as  capellmeister.  J.  B.  M. 

RICERCARE,  or  RICERCATA  (from  rica-- 
care,  'to  search  out'),  an  Italian  term  of  the 
I7th  century,  signifying  a  fugue  of  the  closest 
and  most  learned  description.  Frescobaldi's 
Ricercari  (1615),  which  are  copied  out  in  one  of 
Dr.  Bumey's  note-books  (Brit.  Mus.  Add.  MS. 
11,588),  are  full  of  augmentations,  diminutions, 
inversions,  and  other  contrivances,  in  fact 
rechercMs  or  full  of  research,  J.  S.  Bach  has 
affixed  the  name  to  the  6-part  Fugue  in  his 
'  Mnsikalisches  Opfer,'  and  the  title  of  the  whole 
contains  the  word  in  its  initials — Regis  lussu 
Cantio  Et  Reliqua  Canonica  Arte  Resoluta.  But 
the  term  was  also  employed  for  a  fantasia  on 
some  popular  song,  street-cry,  or  such  similar 
theme.  Dr.  Cummlngs  has  a  MS.  book,  dated 
1680-1600,  containing  twenty- two  ricercari  by 
CI.  da  Coreggio,  Gianetto  Palestina  (^ic),  A. 
Vuillaert  (sic),  0.  Lasso,  Clemens  non  Papa, 
Oip.  Rore,  and  others — compositions  in  four 
and  five  parts,  on  'Ce  moy  de  May,'  'Vestiva  i 
colli,'  'La  Rossignol,'  *  Susan  un  jour,'  and  other 
apparently  popular  songs.  This  use  of  the  word 
appears  to  have  been  earlier  than  the  other, 
as  pieces  of  the  kind  by  Adriano  (1520-67) 
are  quoted.  o. 

RICH,  John,  son  of  Christopher  Rich,  patentee 
of  Drury  Lane  Theatre,  was  bom  about  1682. 
His  father,  having  been  compelled  to  quit 
Dniry  Lane,  had  erected  a  new  theatre  in 
Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  but  died  in  1714  when  it 
was  upon  the  eve  of  being  opened.  John  Rich, 
together  with  his  brother  Christopher,  then 
assumed  the  management  and  opened  the  house 
about  six  weeks  after  his  father's  death.  Find- 
ing himself  imable  to  contend  against  the 
superior  company  engaged  at  Dmry  Lane,  he 
hsd  recourse  to  the  introduction  of  a  new  species 
of  entertainment — pantomime — in  which  music, 
scenery,  machinery,^  and  appropriate  costtimes 
formed  the  prominent  features.  In  these  pieces 
he  himself,  under  the  assnmed  name  of  Lun, 
performed  the  part  of  Harlequin  with  such 
ability  as  to  extort  the  admiration  of  even  the 
most  determined  opponents  of  that  class  of 
en  tertainment.  [He  played  Harlequin  in '  Cheats, 
or  the  Tavern  Bilkers,'  a  pantomime  by  John 

I  Moit  of  Rtob't  machinery  wm  Inrmted  br  John  HOOI0.  the 
tniiaUtnr  of  T%mo.  ami  hia  father,  SatDnvt  Hoole.  an  eminent 
watch  maker. 


KICHAFORT 


RICHARDS 


91 


Weaver  (adapted  from  *  Les  Fourberies  de  Sea- 
pin'),  with  music  by  Dr.  Pepusch,  in  1716-17. 
w.  H.  o.  F.]  [See  also  Beggar's  Opera,  vol. 
i.  p.  277  ;  LiKcoLN*8  Inn  Fields  Theatre, 
ToL  ii.  p.  738  ;  Pantomime,  vol.  iii.  p.  616.1 
Snconn^E^  by  success  he  at  length  decided 
upon  the  erection  of  a  larger  theatre,  the 
fiUge  of  which  should  afford  greater  facilities 
for  scenic  and  mechanical  display,  and  accord- 
ingly bnilt  the  first  Covent  Gu^en  Theatre, 
which  he  opened  Dec.  7,  1782.  Hogarth 
produced  a  caricature  on  the  occasion  of  the 
removal  to  the  new  house,  entitled  'Rich's 
Glory,  or  his  Triumphal  Entry  into  Covent 
Garden,'  copies  of  which  will  be  found  in  Wil- 
kinson's Londina  llluslraia^  and  in  H.  Saxe 
Wyndham's  AnruUs  of  Covent  Garden  Theatre, 
voL  i.  He  oondncted  the  new  theatre  with 
great  success  until  his  death,  relying  much  upon 
the  attraction  of  his  pantomimes  and  musical 
pieces,  but  by  no  means  neglecting  the  regular 
drama.  In  his  early  days  he  had  attempted 
tragic  acting,  but  failed.  He  died  Nov.  26, 
1761,  and  was  buried  Dec.  4,  in  Hillingdon 
churchyard,  Middlesex.  (See  list  of  productions, 
etc,  in  the  DicU  of  NaL  Biog,)        w.  H.  H. 

RICHAFORT,  Jean,  a  Flemish  musician  of 
the  earlier  part  of  the  16th  century,  whom  we 
know  on  the  authority  of  the  poet  Ronsard  to 
hare  been  a  pupil  of  Josquin  Despr^.  He  was 
one  of  the  more  distinguished  composers  of  the 
lieriod  immediately  after  Josquin,  in  which  with 
the  retention  of  what  was  valuable  in  the  older 
technique  of  contrapuntal  artifice,  there  was,  as 
Mr.  Wooldridge  observes,  a  greater  approach 
made  towards  purity  of  sound  and  beauty  of 
expression.  The  only  known  dates  of  Richafort's 
career  are  that  between  1548  and  1547  he  was 
choirmaster  of  the  church  of  St.  Gilles,  Bruges, 
but  this  is  supposed  to  have  been  towards  the 
end  of  his  life,  since  as  early  as  1519  a  motet 
of  his  composition  appears  in  one  of  the  collec- 
tions of  Petmcci,  the  Motetti  de  la  Corona, 
lib.  ii.  His  works  appeared  only  in  the  collec- 
tions of  the  time,  and  specially  in  those  of 
Attaignant  and  Modemus  between  1580  and 
1550.  Two  masses  are  specially  mentioned, 
one  'Ogenetrix  gloriosa' published  by  Attaignant 
1532,  and  afterwards  copied  into  the  Sistine 
c}ia{)el  and  other  choir-books  ;  the  other,  '  Veni 
Siionsa  Christi,'  1540,  based  on  one  of  his  o^'n 
motets,  which  Ambros  describes  as  the  finest  of 
the  collection  of  motets  in  which  it  appears. 
The  motet  has  been  reprinted  in  Maldeghem's 
*Tpe9or.'  A  Requiem,  a  6,  would  seem  from  the 
account  which  Ambros  gives  of  it  to  be  on  the 
whole  more  curious  than  beautiful,  though  it 
testifies  to  the  aim  after  intensity  of  expression. 
While  the  other  voices  sing  the  ritual  text,  the 
two  tenor  sing  in  canon  '  Circumdederunt  me 
gomitus  mortis,'  and  also  reply  to  each  other  as 
if  with  exclamations  of  personal  sorrow,  '  c'est 
doulenr  non  pareille.'    If  some  of  Richafort's 


works  retain  a  character  of  antique  severity, 
others,  as  Eitner  observes,  are  remarkable  for 
their  wonderful  beauty,  clearness,  and  simplicity. 
Several  of  his  motets  Ambros  singles  out  for 
high  praise.  Of  one  which  he  mentions,  *  Quem 
dicunt  homines,'  the  opening  portion  is  given  by 
Mr.  Wooldridge  in  the  Oxford  History  of  Music, 
vol.  ii.  pp.  269-70.  Glarean  gives  in  full 
Richafort's  motet '  Christus  resurgens '  as  a  good 
example  of  the  polyphonic  treatment  of  the 
Ionic  mode.  Of  the  fifteen  chansons  of  Richafort 
in  various  collections,  two  fine  specimens  are 
accessible  in  modem  reprints,  '  De  mon  triste 
d^plaisir'  in  Commer  Collectio  xii.,  and  'Sur 
tons  r^ets  *  in  Eitner's  republication  of  Ott's 
*Liederbuoh,'  1544.  J.  R.  M. 

RICHARD  CCEUR  DE  LION.  An  op^ra- 
comique  in  three  acts  ;  words  by  Sedaine,  music 
by  Gr^tiy.  Produced  at  the  Op^ra-Comiquc 
Oct.  21, 1784.  The  piece  has  a  certain  historical 
value.  One  of  the  airs,  '  Une  fi^vre  brfilante, ' 
was  for  long  a  favourite  subject  for  variations. 
Beethoven  wrote  a  set  of  eight  upon  it  (in  C 
miy'or),  published  in  Nov.  1798,  having  prob- 
ably heard  the  air  at  a  concert  of  Weigl's  in 
the  preceding  March.  Another  set  of  seven 
(also  in  0)  were  for  long  attributed  to  Mozart, 
but  are  now  decided  not  to  be  by  him.  The 
air  *d  Richard,  6  mon  roi,  I'univers  t'abandonne,' 
was  played  on  a  memorable  occasion  in  the 
early  stage  of  the  French  Revolution — at  the 
banquet  at  Versailles  on  Oct.  1,  1789.  [Two 
versions  were  made  for  the  English  stage ; 
General  Burgoyne's  was  acted  at  Drury  Lane 
in  1786,  and  Leonard  MaoNally's  at  Covent 
Garden  in  the  same  year.  Thomas  Linley 
adapted  Gr^try's  music  to  one  of  them  and 
the  opera  remained  a  standard  work  for  many 
years,     f.  k.]  o. 

RICHARDS,  Henry  Brinley,  soivof  Henry 
Richards,  organist  of  St.  Peter's,  Carmarthen, 
was  bom  there  Nov.  18,  1817,  and  intended 
for  the  medical  profession,  but  preferred  the 
study  of  music,  and  became  a  pupil  of  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Music,  where  he  obtained 
the  King's  scholarship  in  1885,  and  again  in 
1887.  He  soon  gained  a  high  position  in 
London  as  a  pianist.  As  a  composer  he  was 
financially  very  successful,  his  song  *  God  bless 
the  Prince  of  Wales '  (published  in  1862)  having 
reached  a  high  pitch  of  popularity,  even  out  of 
England,  and  his  sacred  songs,  part-songs,  and 
pianoforte  ]>ieces  having  been  most  favourably 
received.  [An  overture  in  F  minor  was  per- 
formed in  1840.1  He  composed  additional 
songs  for  the  English  version  of  Auber's  *  Crown 
Diamonds,'  when  produced  at  Drury  Lane  in 
1846.  He  especially  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  Welsh  music  (upon  which  he  lectured), 
and  many  of  his  compositions  were  inspired  by 
his  enthusiastic  love  for  his  native  land.  He 
exerted  himself  greatly  in  promoting  the 
interests  of  the  South   Wales  Choral   Union 


92 


RICHARDSON 


RICHTER 


on  its  visits  to  London  in  1872  and  1878,  when 
they  successfully  competed  at  the  National 
Music  Meetings  at  the  Crystal  Palace.  [He 
died  in  London,  May  1,  1885.]  (Additions 
from  Did,  of  NcU.  Biog.)  w.  h.  h. 

RICHARDSON,  Joseph,  an  eminent  flute- 
player,  born  in  1814,  and  died  March  22, 
1862.  He  was  engaged  in  most  of  the  London 
orchestras,  was  solo  player  at  Jullieu's  concerts 
for  many  years,  and  afterwaixls  became  principal 
flute  in  the  Queen's  private  band.  {He  played 
at  the  Melodists*  Club  and  the  Society 
Armonica  in  1836,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
Liszt  concert  party  in  1841,  and  visited  Dublin 
in  that  capacity,  w.  h.  g.  f.]  His  neatness 
and  rapidity  of  execution  were  extraordinary, 
and  were  the  great  features  of  his  playing.  He 
composed  numerous  fantasias  for  his  instrument, 
usually  extremely  brilliant.  o. 

RICHARDSON,  Vaughan,  bom  in  London 
in  the  latter  half  of  the  17th  century,  was  iu 
1685  a  chorister  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  under 
Dr.  Blow.  He  was  possibly  a  nephew  of  Thomas 
Richardson  (alto  singer,  gentleman  of  the  Chapel 
Royal  from  1664  to  his  death,  July  23,  1712, 
and  lay  vicar  of  Westminster  Abbey),  and  a 
brother  of  Thomas  Richardson,  who  was  his 
fellow-chorister.  In  June  1 6 93  he  was  appointed 
organist  of  Winchester  Cathedral.  In  1701  he 
published  '  A  collection  of  Songs  for  one,  two, 
and  three  voices,  accompany'd  with  instruments.' 
He  was  author  of  some  church  music :  a  fine 
anthem,  *  O  Lord  God  of  my  salvation,'  and  an 
Evening  Service  in  C  (composed  in  1718),  are 
in  the  Tudway  Collection  (Harl.  M8S.  7341  and 
7342),  and  another  anthem,  'O  how  amiable,* 
also  in  Tudway,  and  printed  in  Page's  '  Har- 
monia  Sacra ' ;  others  are  in  the  books  of 
different  cathedrals.  He  was  also  composer  of 
'  An  Entertainment  of  new  Musick,  composed 
ou  the  Peace '  [of  Ryswick],  1697  ;  *  A  Song  in 
praise  of  St.  Cecilia,'  written  for  a  celebration 
at  Winchester  about  1700,  and  a  'set  of  vocal 
and  instrumental  music,'  written  for  a  like 
occasion  in  1703.  [An  autograph  volume  of 
music,  containing  foui*teen  anthems,  a  'Song 
for  the  King'  (1697),  six  sonatas  for  strings, 
etc.,  is  in  the  possession  of  J.  S.  Bumpus,  Esq.] 
He  died  before  June  26,  1729,  and  not,  as 
commonly  stated,  in  1715.  w.  h.  ii. 

RICHAULT,  Chables  Simon,  head  of  a 
family  of  celebrated  French  music-publishers, 
born  at  Chartres,  May  10,  1780,  came  early  to 
Paris,  and  served  his  apprenticeship  in  the 
music-trade  with  J.  J.  Momigny.  From  him 
he  acquired  a  taste  for  the  literature  of  music 
and  chamber  compositions  ;  and  when  he  set 
up  for  himself  at  No.  7  Rue  Grange  Bateli^re 
in  1805,  the  first  works  he  published  were 
classical.  He  soon  perceived  that  there  was 
an  opening  in  Paris  for  editions  of  the  best 
works  of  German  musicians,  and  the  early  efforts 
of  French  composers  of  promise.     His  calcula- 


tion proved  correct,  and  his  judgment  was  so 
sound  that  his  business  increased  rapidly,  and 
he  was  soon  obliged  to  move  into  larger  premises 
in  the  Boulevard  Poissonniere,  first  at  No.  16, 
and  then  at  No.  26.  Here  he  published  Mozart's 
Concertos  in  8vo  score,  and  other  works  of  the 
classical  composers  of  Germany,  and  acquired 
the  bulk  of  the  stock  of  the  firms  of  Frey, 
Nadermau,  Sieber,  Pleyel,  Petit,  Erard,  and 
Delahante.  He  moved  in  1862  to  No.  4  iu 
the  Boulevard  des  Italiens.  In  this  house  he 
died,  Feb.  20,  1866,  well  known  as  a  publisher 
of  judgment  and  abilil^,  a  man  of  keen  intel- 
lect, and  a  pleasant  social  companion.    His  son, 

GuiLLAVME  Simon,  bom  in  Paris,  Nov.  2, 
1806,  had  long  been  his  father's  paitner,  and 
continued  in  the  old  line  of  serious  music.  At 
the  same  time  he  realised  that  in  so  important  a 
business  it  was  well  that  the  Italian  school  should 
be  represented,  and  accordingly  bought  tlie  stock 
of  the  publisher  Pacini.  On  his  death,  Feb.  7, 
1877,  his  son, 

L£oN,  bom  in  Paris,  August  6, 1839,  resolved 
to  give  a  fresh  impetus  to  the  firm,  which  already 
possessed  1 8, 000  publications.  Bearing  in  mind 
that  his  grandfather  had  been  the  first  to  publish 
Beethoven's  Symphonies  and  Mozart's  Concertos 
in  score  ;  to  make  known  in  France  the  oratorios 
of  Bach  and  Handel,  and  the  works  of  Schubert, 
Mendelssohn,  and  Schumann  ;  to  bring  out  the 
first  operas  of  Ambroise  Thomas  and  Victor 
Mass^ ;  to  encourage  Berlioz  when  his  *  Dam- 
nation de  Faust'  was  received  with  contempt, 
and  to  welcome  the  orchestral  compositions  of 
Reber  and  Gouvy  ;  M.  L^n  Richault  above  all 
determined  to  maintain  the  editions  of  the 
German  classical  masters  which  had  made  Uie 
fortune  of  the  firm.  His  intelligent  administra- 
tion of  his  old  and  honourable  business  procured 
him  a  silver  medal  at  the  International  Ex- 
hibition of  1878,  the  highest  recompense  open 
to  music-publishers,  the  jury  having  refused 
them  the  gold  med2J.  g.  o. 

RICHTER,  Ernst  Friedrich  Eduard,  son 
of  a  schoolmaster,  bom  Oct.  24,  1 808,  at  Gross- 
schonau  in  Lusatia ;  from  his  eleventh  year 
attended  the  Gymnasium  at  Zittau,  managed 
the  choir,  and  arranged  independent  jierform- 
ances.  In  1 83 1  he  went  to  Leipzig  to  study  with 
Weinlig,  the  then  Cantor,  and  made  such  pro- 
gress that  soon  after  the  foundation  of  the 
Conservatorium,  in  1843,  he  became  one  of  the 
professors  of  harmony  and  counterpoint.  Up  to 
1847  he  conducted  the  Singakademie  ;  he  was 
afterwards  organist  successively  of  the  Petci^- 
kirche  (1851)  and  the  Neukirche  and  Nicolai- 
kirche  (1862).  After  Hauptmann's  death,  Jan. 
3,  1868,  he  succeeded  him  as  Cantor  of  the 
Thomasschule.  Of  his  books,  the  Lehrbueh  der 
ffarmanie  (afterwards  called  Praktische  Studien 
zur  TJuorie\  (12th  ed.  1876),  has  been  trans- 
lated into  Dutch,  Swedish,  Italian,  Russian, 
Polish,  and  English.     The  Lehre  von  der  Fvtre 


KICHTER 


RICHTER 


93: 


has  passed  through  three  editions,  and  Vom 
Contrapunct  through  two.  The  English  transla^ 
tions  of  all  these  are  by  Franklin  Taylor,  and 
were  published  by  Cramer  &  Go.  in  1864, 
187  8,  and  1874  respectively,  Richter  also 
published  a  GaUchism  of  Orffan-building,  Of 
his  mAny  compositions  de  Hreonstanee  the  best 
known  is  the  Cantata  'Dithyrambe/  for  the 
Schiller  Festival  in  1869.  Other  works  are — 
an  oratorio,  'Christus  der  Erloser'  (Mai-ch  8, 
1S49),  masses,  psalms,  motets,  organ-pieces, 
string-qnartets,  and  sonatas  for  PF.  He  became 
one  of  the  King's  Professors  in  1868,  died  at 
Leipzig,  April  9,  1879,  and  was  succeeded  as 
Cantor  by  W.  Rust.  F.  g. 

RICHTER,  Feroinakd  Tobias,  a  native  of 
AViirzbnrg,  the  date  of  whose  birth  is  given  as 
1649,  8QiS«eded  Alessandro  Poglietti  as  Imperial 
Court  organist  at  Vienna  in  1688.  In  the 
(/neilen- Lexikon  he  is  wrongly  said  to  have 
been  the  teacher  in  composition  of  the  Emperor 
Leopold  L,  but  he  was  undoubtedly  music 
teadier  to  Leopold's  children,  the  future  Emperor 
Joseph  I.,  and  the  three  Archduchesses.  Richter 
enjoyed  a  high  reputation  as  organ-player  and 
composer.  Several  even  of  Pachelbel's  pupils 
at  Nuremberg  came  afterwards  to  Vienna  to 
perfect  themselves  in  organ-playing  by  further 
Instructions  from  Richter,  and  Pachelbel  him- 
self must  have  held  Richter  in  high  esteem, 
since  in  1699  he  dedicated  to  him  along  with 
Buztehude  his  organ  or  clavier  work  entitled 
*Hexachordum  Apollinis.'  It  is  all  the  more 
remarkable  that  so  few  organ  works  of  Richter 
have  been  preserved.  In  a  recent  volume  of 
the  Denkmiiler  der  Tonkunst  in  Oesterreich 
(Jahrg.  ziii.  Th.  2)  three  clavier  suites  out  of 
a  set  of  five,  and  an  organ  toccata  with  short 
fugued  Versetti  out  of  a  set  of  five  on  the  church 
tones  intended  for  liturgical  use,  have  been 
printed  for  the  first  time,  but  hardly  suffice  to 
explain  his  great  reputation.  The  Imperial 
libmry  at  Vienna  preserves  in  MS.  two  serenatas 
by  Richter  evidently  intended  for  court  fes- 
tivities, '  L'  Istro  ossequioeo,'  and  *  Le  promesse 
degli  Dei ; '  also  five  spiritual  dramas  composed 
for  performance  by  the  pupils  of  the  Jesuit 
college  at  Vienna.  There  are  also  some  instru- 
mental works,  a  sonata  a  7  (described  as  for  two 
Trombe,  one  Timpano,  two  violini,  two  viole 
da  braccio  e  cembalo),  along  with  some  Balletti 
a  4  and  a  5,  also  two  Sonatas  a  8.  Richter  died 
at  Vienna  in  1711.  J.  R.  M. 

RICHTER,  Franz  Xaver,  was  bom  at  Hblli- 
schau  in  Moravia  on  Dec.  1  or  81,^  1709.  His 
first  official  poet  was  that  of  capellmeister  to  the 
Abbot  of  Kempten,  which  he  held  from  1740 
until  1 750,  when  difficulties  appearto  have  arisen 
with  the  authorities  as  the  result  of  his  duplica- 
tion of  posts.     He  had  been  a  bass-singer  at 

I  Gerter's  texikon,  followed  by  Rlemann.  Ill  his  LttxtJton,  and  In 
hi»  pntiea  to  tbe  ]>aikin.  toIiiidc  eoutaining  worics  tqr  Richter, 
fivw  Dec.  I  m  tho  dftto  of  hirth ;  Btiier'e  «««aMi-£«9rUon  foUowe 
UbetelB'e  Je«ni^  eCe..  in  giniif  Deo.  n  M  the  dAtCL 


the  court  of  Mannheim  since  1747,  and  no  doubt 
this  was  the  cause  of  his  dismissal  fh>m  Kempten. 
He  is  stated  by  F.  Walter,  Oesehiekte  des  TheaierSf . 
etc.  (1898),  to  have  appeared  in  operatic  per- 
formances in  1748  and  1749.  He  was  also 
engaged  as  leader  of  the  second  violins  in  the 
orchestra.  An  oratorio,  *  La  deposizione  della 
croce,'  was  performed  at  Mannheim  in  1748. 
He  left  Mannheim  for  Strasburg  in  1769, 
becoming  capellmeister  at  the  Minster,  and 
spending  the  remainder  of  his  life  there.  He 
died  Sept.  12,  1789,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Ignaz  Pleyel,  who,  according  to  Fetls,  had  acted 
as  liis  assistant  for  six  years.  Bumey,  in  his 
Present  State  (Germany),  ii.  327,  speaks  of  the 
great  reputation  Richter  eiyoyed,  and  of  the 
want  of  real  individuality  in  his  music.  He 
speaks  of  his  frequent  employment  of  the 
device  called  Rosalia.  He  left  sixty  -  four 
symphonies,  of  which  the  themes  of  sixty-two 
are  given  in  the  volume  devoted  to  the  Mann- 
heim school  of  symphonists  in  the  Denknu  der 
Tmik,  in  Baycm,  vol.  iii  1.  Three  of  the  sym- 
phonies are  printed  in  full,  and  the  preface 
contains  a  detailed  account  of  the  composer. 
An  enormous  mass  of  church  music  is  ascribed 
to  him  in  Riemann's  Lexikcni,  such  as  twenty - 
eight  masses,  two  requiems,  sixteen  psalms, 
thirty-eight  motets,  etc.  The  Quellen-Lexikon 
gives  a  more  limited  list  of  extant  works,  and 
contains  many  doubtful  statements  concerning 
the  composer.  m. 

RICHTER,  Hans,  celebrated  conductor,  born 
April  4,  1843,  at  Raab  in  Hungary,  where  his 
father  was  capellmeister  of  the  cathedral.  His 
mother,  n^  Josephine  Csazinsky,  sang  the  part 
of  Venus  in  ^Tannhauser'  at  the  first  performance 
in  Vienna  in  1857  ;  she  was  afterwards  a  very 
successful  teacher  of  singing  in  Vienna,  and 
died  Oct.  20,  1892.  The  father  died  in  1853, 
and  Hans  was  then  placed  at  the  Lowenburg 
Convict-School  in  Vienna.  Thence  he  went 
into  the  choir  of  the  Court  chapel,  and  remained 
there  for  four  years.  In  1860  he  entered  the 
Conservatorium,  and  studied  the  horn  under 
Kleinecke,  the  violin  under  Heissler,  and  theory 
under  Sechter.  After  a  lengthened  engagement 
as  horn-player  in  the  orchestra  of  the  Kiimth- 
nerthor  opera  he  was  recommended  by  Esser  to- 
Wagner,  went  to  him  at  Lucerne,  remained  there 
from  Oct.  1866  to  Dec.  1867,  and  made  the  first 
fair  copy  of  the  score  of  the  *  Meistereinger. '  In 
1868heaccepted  the  post  of  conductor  at  theHof- 
und  National  Theatre,  Munich,  and  remained 
there  for  a  year.  He  next  visited  Paris,  and 
after  ashort  residence  there,  proceeded  to  Brussels- 
for  the  production  of  *  Lohengrin  '  (March  22, 
1 870).  He  then  returned  to  Wagner  at  Lucerne, 
assisted  at  the  first  performance  of  the  '  Siegfried 
Idyll '  (Dec.  1870),  and  made  the  fair  copy  of  the 
score  of  the  *  Nibelungen  Ring '  for  the  engraver. 
In  April  1871  he  went  to  Pesth  as  chief  conductor 
of  the  National  Theatre,  a  post  to  which  he  owes 


94 


RICHTER 


RIDDELL 


much  of  his  great  practical  knowledge  of  the  stage 
and  stage  business.  In  Jan.  1875  he  conducted 
a  grand  orchestral  concert  in  Vienna,  which  had 
the  effect  of  attracting  much  public  attention 
to  him,  and  accordingly,  after  the  retirement 
of  Dessoff  from  the  Court  opera,  Richter  was 
invited  to  take  the  poet,  which  he  entered  upon 
in  the  autumn  of  1876,  concurrently  with  the 
conductorship  of  the  Philharmonic  Concerts. 
In  1884-90  he  acted  as  conductor  of  the  concerts 
of  the  Gesellsohaft  der  Musik&eunde. 

He  had  conducted  the  rehearsals  of  the 
'  Nibelungen  Ring '  at  Bayreuth,  and  in  1876  he 
directed  the  whole  of  the  rehearsals  and  perform- 
ances of  the  Festival  there,  and,  at  the  dose  of  the 
third  set  of  performances,  received  the  Order  of 
Maximilian  from  the  King  of  Bavaiia,  and  that 
of  the  Falcon  from  the  Grand  Duke  of  Weimar. 
In  1877  he  produced  the  *  Walkiire '  in  Vienna, 
and  followed  it  in  1878  by  the  other  portions 
of  tlie  trilogy.  In  1878  he  was  made  court 
capellmeister,  and  received  the  Order  of  Franz 
Josef.  His  first  introduction  to  English  audiences 
was  at  the  famous  Wagner  Concerts  given  in  the 
Albert  Hall  in  1877,  when  he  shared  the  duties 
of  conductor  with  Wagner  himself.  In  1879 
/May  5-12),  1880  (May  10-June  14),  and  1881 
(May  9-nJune  23)  were  started  what  were  at 
first  called  'Orchestral  Festival  Concerts,'  but 
afterwards  the  *  Richter  Concerts,'  in  London, 
which  excited  much  attention,  chiefly  for  the 
conductor's  knowledge  of  the  scores  of  Beethoven's 
symphonies  and  other  large  works,  which  he 
conducted  without  book.  [The  Richter  Concerts 
went  on  for  many  years  with  great  success,  but 
after  the  great  conductor  went  to  live  in 
Manchester  in  1897,  as  director  of  theManohester 
Orchestra,  the  London  concerts  were  given  less 
regularly.  In  1882  and  1884  he  conducted 
impoi-tant  performances  of  German  operas  in 
London,  introducing  'Die  Meistersinger '  and 
'  Tristan  'to  the  Loudon  public.  The  special  per- 
formances of  German  opera  which  form  part  of 
the  Covent  Garden  season  have  been  conducted 
by  Richter  siuce  1904.  Since  1885  he  has  con- 
ducted the  Birmingham  Festival.  In  that  year 
he  received  the  honorary  degree  of  Mu8.D.  at 
Oxford.  He  has  numberless  decorations.  (See 
Musical  Times,  1899,  pp.  441-6.)  A  special 
concert  in  celebration  of  his  thirty  years'  work 
in  England  took  place  at  .the  Queen's  Hall,  June 
3,  1907.1 

Herr  Richter  is  certainly  one  of  the  very 
greatest  of  conductors.  He  owes  this  position  in 
great  measure  to  the  fact  of  his  intimate  practi- 
cal acquaintance  with  the  technique  of  the  instru- 
ments in  the  orchestra,  especially  the  wind,  to 
a  degree  in  which  he  stands  alone.  As  a  musi- 
cian he  is  a  self-made  man,  and  enjoys  the  pecu- 
liar advantages  which  spring  from  that  fact 
His  devotion  to  his  orchestra  is  great,  and  the 
high  standard  and  position  of  the  band  of  the 
Vienna  opera-house  is  due  to  him.     He  is  a 


great  master  of  crescendo  and  d£cre9cendOy  and  of 
the  finer  shades  of  accelerating  and  retarding 
the  time.  F.  g. 

RICOCHET.  The  employment  of  the  bound- 
ing staccato — stacoaUi  a  rieoehet — ^is  thus  indi- 
cated in  violin  music  As  the  best  examples  of 
this  bowing  are  to  be  found  in  the  works  of  tlie 
French  and  Belgian  composers,  it  is  probable 
that  it  owes  its  invention  to  the  father  of 
virtuosity — Paganini.  The  same  system  which 
governs  the  flying  staocato — so  brilliantly 
applied  by  Paganini,  de  B^ot,  Wieniai^'ski, 
Vieuxtemps,  and  latter-day  virtuosi,  to  the 
execution  of  swift  chromatic  passages  — 
dominates  the  ricochet,  but  being  thrown  u|>on 
the  strings  less  rapidly,  and  with  more  force, 
the  effect  is  heavier.  To  accomplish  this  style 
of  bowing  neatly,  the  stick  should  be  held  so 
that  the  full  breadth  of  the  hair  at  the  up{)er 
part  shall  fall  upon  the  strings  accurately.  The 
wrist  must  remain  flexible,  while  the  fingers  grip 
the  bow  firmly  and  relax  to  allow  the  bow  to  re- 
bound. Two  graoeftd  examples  of  the  application 
of  the  ricochet  are  to  be  found  in  the  Bolero  of  de 
B^riot's  *  Scene  de  Ballet,'  and  in  the  Polonaise 
of  Vieuxtemps's  *  Ballade  et  Polonaise.'      o.  k. 

RICORDI,  GiovAKXi,  founder  of  the  well- 
known  music-publishing  house  in  Milan,  where 
he  was  bom  in  1785,  and  died  March  15,  1853. 
He  made  his  first  hit  with  the  score  of  Mosca's 
'  Pretendenti  delusi.'  Since  that  time  the  firm 
lias  published  for  all  the  great  Italian  maestri^ 
down  to  Verdi  and  Boito,  and  has  far  out- 
stripped all  rivals.  The  OasseUa  fnusioaley 
edited  with  great  success  by  Mazzucato,  has  had 
much  influence  on  its  prosperity.  It  jxissesses 
the  whole  of  the  original  scores  of  the  o])eras 
it  has  published — a  most  interesting  collec- 
tion. Giovanni's  son  and  successor  Tito  (bom 
Oct  29,  1811,  died  Sept  7,  1888)  further 
enlai^ged  the  business.  The  catalogue  issued 
in  1875  contains  738  iwges  large  8vo.  The 
present  head  of  the  firm  is  his  son  GiULio  Di 
Tito,  bom  Dec  19,  1840,  who  is  a  practised 
writer,  a  skilled  draughtsman,  a  composer  of 
drawing-room  music,  under  the  pseudonym  of 
Burgmein,  and  in  all  respects  a  thoroughly 
cultivated  man.  F.  o. 

RIDDELL,  John  (or  'Riddle'),  composer  of 
Scottish  dance  music,  bom  at  Ayr,  Sept.  2, 
1718.  It  is  stated  in  'The  Balhids  and  Songs 
of  Ayrshire,'  1846,  that  Riddell  was  blind  from 
infancy,  also  that  he  was  composer  of  tlie  well- 
known  tune  'Jenny's  Bawbee.'  This  latter 
statement  is  not  authenticated.  Bums  mentions 
him  as  'a  bard -bom  genius,'  and  says  he  is 
composer  of  '  this  most  beautiful  tune '  ('  Fin- 
layston  House '). 

Riddell  published  about  1766  his  first  '  Col- 
lection of  Scots  Reels,  or  Country  Dances,  and 
Minuets,'  and  a  second  edition  of  it,  in  obloug 
folio,  in  1 782.     He  died  April  6, 1795.        r.  k. 

RIDDELL,  Robert,  a  Scottish  antiquary. 


RIDOTTO 


RIEMANN 


95 


and  friend  of  Bobei't  Burns.  He  was  an  aimy 
(or  Volauteer)  captain,  and  resided  on  the  family 
estate  Glenriddell,  Dumfrieeshire.  He  was  an 
amateur  oompoeer  of  Scottish  dance  music,  and 
wrote  the  mudc  to  one  or  two  of  Bums's  songs. 
His  most  interesting  publication  (1794)  is  'A 
Collection  of  Scotch,  Galwegian,  and  Border  Tunes 
.  .  .  selected  by  Bobert  Riddell  of  Glenriddell, 
Esq. , '  folio.  He  died  at  Friars'  Carse,  April  21 , 
1794.  r.  K. 

RIDOTTO.     See  Redcutjs. 

RI£D£L,  Cakl,  bom  Oct  6, 1827,  at  Kronen- 
berg  in  the  Rhine  provinces.  Though  always 
mosicfldly  inclined  he  was  educated  for  trade, 
and  was  at  Lyons  in  the  silk  business  until 
3848,  when  he  determined  to  devote  himself 
to  moaio  as  a  profession.  He  returned  home 
and  at  once  began  serious  study  under  the 
direction  of  Carl  Wilhelm,  then  an  obscure 
musician  at  Crefeld,  but  destined  to  be  widely 
known  as  the  author  of  the  *  Wacht  am  Rhein.' 
Late  in  1849  Riedel  entered  the  Leipzig  Con- 
servatoiium,  where  he  made  great  jirogress 
under  Moscheles,  Hauptmann,  Becker,and  Flaidy . 
He  had  long  had  a  strong  predilection  for  the 
vocal  works  of  the  older  masters  of  Germany 
and  Italy.  He  practised  and  performed  in  a 
private  society  at  Leipzig  Astorga's  *Stabat,' 
Palestrina's  '  Improperia,'  and  Leo's  *  Miserere,' 
and  this  led  him  to  found  a  singing  society  of 
his  own,  which  began  on  May  17,  1854,  with 
a  simple  quartet  of  male  voices,  and  was  the 
foundation  of  the  famous  Aasociation  which, 
under  the  name  of  the  '  Riedelsche  Verein,'  was 
so  celebrated  in  Leipzig.  Their  first  public 
concert  was  held  in  November  1855.  The 
reality  of  tlie  attempt  was  soon  recognised  ; 
members  flocked  to  the  society ;  and  its  first 
great  achievement  was  a  ])erformance  of  Bach's 
B  minor  Mass,  April  10,  1859.  At  that  time 
Riedel  appears  to  have  practised  only  ancient 
music,  but  this  rule  was  by  no  means  main- 
tained ;  and  in  the  list  of  the  works  performed 
by  the  Verein  we  find  Beethoven's  Mass  in  D, 
Kiel's  'Christus,'  Berlioz's  'Messe  des  Morts,' 
and  Liszt's  '  Graner  Meese '  and  '  St.  Elizabeth.' 
Riedel's  devotion  to  his  choir  was  extraordinary : 
he  was  not  only  its  conductor,  but  librarian, 
secretary,  treasurer,  all  in  one.  His  intei*est 
in  the  welfare  of  music  was  always  ready  and 
always  effective,  and  many  of  the  best  vocal 
associations  of  Korth  Germany  owe  their  success 
to  his  advice  and  help.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  <  Beethovenstiftung,'  and  an 
earnest  supporter  of  the  Wagner  performances 
at  Bayrenth  in  1876.  His  own  com|)06itions 
are  cMefly  part-songs  for  men's  voices,  but  he 
edited  several  important  ancient  works  by 
Pl-aetorios,  Franck,  Eccard,  and  other  old  Ger- 
man writcffs,  especially  a  '  Passion '  by  Hein- 
rich  Schutz,  for  which  he  selected  the  best 
portions  of  four  Passions  by  that  master — a 
proceeding  certainly  deserving  all  that  can  be 


said  against  it  Riedel  died  in  Leipzig,  June 
3,  1888.  o. 

R1£M,  WiLHJSLM  Fkiedrich,  bomatCoUeda 
in  Thuringia,  Feb.  17,  1779,  was  one  of  J.  A. 
Hiller's  pupils  in  the  Thomasschule  at  Leipzig. 
In  1807  he  was  made  organist  of  the  Kefoimed 
church  there,  and  in  1814  of  the  Thomas- 
schule itself.  In  1822  he  was  called  to  Bremen 
to  take  the  cathedral  organ  and  be  director  of 
the  Singakademie,  where  he  remained  till  his 
death,  April  20,  1837.  He  was  an  industrious 
writer.  His  cantata  for  the  anniversary  of  tlie 
Augsburg  Confession,  1830  (for  which  Mendels- 
sohn's Reformation  Symphony  was  intended) 
is  dead ;  so  are  his  quintets,  quartets,  trios, 
and  other  large  works,  but  some  of  his  eight 
sonatas  and  twelve  sonatinas  are  still  used  for 
teaching  purposes.  He  left  two  books  of  studies 
for  the  PF.,  which  are  out  of  print,  and  sixteen 
progressive  exercises,  besides  useful  compositions 
for  the  organ.  g. 

RIEMANN,  Kakl  Wilhelm  Julius  Hugo, 
was  bom  at  Grossmehlra  near  Sondershaiiscn, 
July  18,  1849,  and  studied  law,  etc.,  at  Berlin 
and  Tubingen.  He  saw  active  service  in  the 
Franco -German  war,  and  afterwards  devoted 
his  life  to  music,  studying  in  the  Leipzig  Cou- 
servatorium.  After  some  years'  residence  at 
Bielefeld  as  a  teacher,  he  was  ap]>ointed  to  the 
l^ost  of  *  privatdozent '  in  the  University  of 
Leipzig,  which  he  held  fi*om  1878  to  1880, 
going  thence  to  Bromberg;  in  1881-90  he  was 
teacher  of  the  piano  and  theory  in  the  Hambui-g 
Conservatorium,  and  subsequently  (after  a  three- 
months'  stay  at  the  conservatoriiun  of  Sonders- 
hausen)  was  given  a  post  at  the  CouseiTatorium 
of  Wiesbaden  (1890-95).  In  the  latter  year 
he  returned  to  Leipzig,  as  a  lecturer  in  the 
University,  and  in  1901  was  api>ointed  2>rofessor. 
Ho  has  been  amazingly  active  as  a  writer  on 
every  branch  of  musical  knowledge,  but  his  work 
is  as  thorough  as  if  it  had  been  small  in  extent. 
On  the  teaching  of  harmony,  on  musical  phrasing 
and  the  peculiarities  of  notation  required  for 
explaining  his  system  to  students,  he  has 
strongly  supported  various  innovations,  most 
of  them  due  to  his  own  inventive  faculty.  Tlie 
complete  list  of  his  works  is  given  in  his  own 
Afusiklexikoyif  to  which  the  reader  must  be 
referred  ;  Die  Naiur  der  Harmonik  (1882), 
VereinfachU  Hamvonielehre  (1893),  Lehrbuch 
des  .  ,  ,  CoM^rajwnir^s  (1888),  have  been  trans- 
lated into  English,  as  well  as  the  various 
catechisms  dealing  with  every  branch  of 
musical  study,  and  the  famous  Musiklexikini 
(first  edition,  1882,  sixth,  1905,  Engl,  transla- 
tion, 1893,  etc.).  The  useful  OpetmJiandhuch 
(1884-98)  and  works  on  musical  histoiy  must 
not  be  forgotten.  As  a  practical  illustration  of 
his  excellent  method  of  teaching  the  art  of 
phrasing,  his  editions  of  classical  and  romantic 
pianoforte  music,  called  'Phraaierungsausgaben,' 
may    l)e    mentioned.     He    has   edited    many 


96 


RIEMSDIJK 


BIES 


masterpieces  of  ancient  music,  as,  for  instance, 
the  works  of  Abaoo  and  the  Mannheim  sym- 
phonists  for  the  Denkmaler  der  Tonkunst  in 
Bayern  (1900  and  1902  respectively).  His 
original  compositions — for  he  has  found  time 
to  write  music  as  well  as  musical  literature — 
are  numerous  but  not  very  important,  being 
mainly  of  an  educational  kind  ;  but  his  position 
in  the  musical  world  of  Germany  is  deservedly 
a  very  high  one.  m. 

RIEMSDIJK,  J.  0.  M.  van,  bom  1843,  died 
June  30,  1895,  at  Utrecht,  was  a  member  of  an 
aristocratic  family,  and  thus  grew  up  amid  the 
best  and  most  powerful  social  influences.  An 
enthusiastic  amateur  musician,  he  threw  him- 
self into  the  work  of  furthering  the  cause  of 
music.  A  cultivated  scholar,  he  devoted  him- 
self to  editing  the  old  songs  of  the  Netherlands 
with  marked  success.  A  practical  and  business- 
like citizen,  he  became  Technical  Director  of  the 
State  railway.  His  house  was  always  open  to 
any  artists,  and  his  welcome  was  always  ready 
for  those  who  followed  music  as  a  profession. 

He  was  chairman  of  the  '  Society  of  Musical 
history  in  the  North  Netherlands,'  in  which 
capacity  he  doubtless  had  many  facilities  for 
collecting  old  Netherland  Folk- Songs,  of  which 
he  availed  himself  in  the  most  able  manner. 
His  works  are  as  follows  : — 

1881.  StaU  Mude  School  of  UtrodU  16S1-18B1  (»  eompleto  hiatory 
of  the  Art  of  Hiulc  in  the  NetherUnda  beivMU  tha«e  dat«). 
*18S3.  NetherUnd  Danoes  kirangwl  for  PF.  Duet. 
1088.  The  two  tint  Kudo  books  of  TylmAB  8ua»to  (e.  1549).  a 

ooUeetlon  of  NetherUnd  Polk  Song*  of  the  18th  oentary. 
*1888.  Horiiu   Hoeiciu  of  J.    A.    Betnken   (18Bf-17SSI)    for   two 

Tiolini,  TiolA.  and  bua  (truulatiou  Into  Dutch). 
•1890.  Twenty-four  Songa  of  the  16th  and  16th  centuries  with  PP. 

aoeompanlment. 
1896.  Polk  Song  book  of  the  Netherlanda  (posthumous). 
The  works  marked  thus  *  are  among  the  publloations  of  the 
Vereenlging  voor  N.-Nederianda  Muslkgesohledenia.       jy    ^ 

RIENZI,  DER  LETZTE  DER  TRIBUNEN 
(the  last  of  the  Tribunes).  An  opera  in  five 
acts ;  words  (founded  on  Bulwer's  novel)  and 
music  by  Wagner.  He  adopted  the  idea  in 
Dresden  in  1837  ;  two  acts  were  finished  early 
in  1839,  and  the  opera  was  produced  at  Dresden, 
Oct.  20,  1842.  'Rienzi'  was  brought  out  in 
French  (Nuitter  and  GuilUume)  at  the  Theatre 
Lyrique,  April  16,  1869,  and  in  English  at 
Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  London  (Carl  Rosa), 
Jan.  27,  1879.  o. 

RIES.     A  distinguished  family  of  musicians. 

1.  JoHANN  RiES,  native  of  Benzheim  on  the 
Rhine,  bom  1 723,  was  appointed  Court  trumpeter 
to  the  Elector  of  Cologne  at  Bonn  [with  a  salary 
of  192  thalers],  May  2,  1747,  and  violinist  in 
the  Capelle,  March  5,  1754.  On  April  27,  1 764, 
his  daughter  Anna  Maria  was  appointed  singer. 
In  1774  she  married  Ferdinand  Drewer,  violinist 
in  the  band,  and  remained  first  soprano  till  the 
break-up  in  1794.  Her  father  died  at  Cologne 
in  1784.  Her  brother,  Franz  Anton,  was  bom 
at  Bonn,  Nov.  10,  1755,  and  was  an  infant  phe- 
nomenon on  the  violin  ;  learned  from  J.  P.  Salo- 
mon, and  was  able  to  take  his  father's  place  in  the 
orchestra  at  the  age  of  eleven.    His  salary  began 


when  he  was  nineteen  [at  25  thalers  a  year  ;  he 
occupied  the'  post  until  1774].  In  1779  he 
visited  Vienna,  and  made  a  great  success  as  a 
solo  and  quartet  player.  But  he  elected  to  re- 
main, on  poor  pay,  in  Bonn,  and  was  rewarded 
by  having  Beethoven  as  his  pupil  and  friend. 
[On  March  2,  1779,  he  petitioned  the  Elector 
Maximilian  for  a  post,  and  received  it  on 
May  2.]  During  the  poverty  of  the  Beethoven 
family,  and  through  the  miser}'  caused  by  the 
death  of  Lud wig's  mother  in  1787,  Franz  Ries 
stood  by  them  like  a  real  friend.  In  1794 
the  French  arrived,  and  the  Elector's  establish- 
ment was  broken  up.  Some  of  the  members  of 
the  band  dispersed,  but  Ries  remained,  and 
documents  are  preserved  which  show  that  after 
the  passing  away  of  the  invasion  he  was  to  have 
been  Court-musician.^  Events,  however,  were 
otherwise  ordered ;  he  remained  in  Bonn,  and 
at  Godesberg,  where  he  had  a  little  house,  till 
his  death  ;  held  various  small  offices,  culminat- 
ing in  the  Bonn  city  government  in  1800, 
taught  the  violin,  and  brought  up  his  children 
well.  He  assisted  Wegeler  in  his  Notices  of 
Beethoven,  was  present  at  the  imveiling  of 
Beethoven's  statue  in  1845,  had  a  Doctor's 
degree  and  the  Order  of  the  Red  Eagle  conferred 
on  him,  and  died,  Nov.  1,  1846,  aged  ninety- 
one  all  but  nine  days. 

2.  Franz's  son  Ferdinand,  who  with  the 
Archduke  Rudolph  enjoys  the  distinction  of 
being  Beethoven's  pnpU,  was  bom  at  Bonn  in 
November  (baptized  Nov.  28)  1784.  He  was 
brought  up  firom  his  cradle  to  music.  His 
father  taught  him  the  pianoforte  and  violin, 
and  B.  Romberg  the  violoncello.  In  his 
childhood  he  lost  an  eye  through  small  pox. 
After  the  break-up  of  the  Elector's  band  he 
remained  three  years  at  home,  working  very 
hard  at  theoretical  and  practical  music,  scoring 
the  quartets  of  Haydn  and  Mozart,  and  arrang- 
ingthe '  Creation, '  the  *  Seasons,  'and  the  Requiem 
with  such  ability  that  they  were  all  three  pub- 
lished by  Simrock. 

In  1801  he  went  to  Munich  to  study  under 
Winter,  in  a  larger  field  than  he  could  com- 
mand at  home.  Here  he  was  so  badly  off  as  to 
be  driven  to  copy  music  at  3d.  a  sheet.  But 
poor  as  his  income  was  he  lived  within  it,  and 
when  after  a  few  months  Winter  left  Munich 
for  Paris,  Ries  had  saved  seven  ducats.  With 
this  he  went  to  Vienna  in  October  1801,  taking 
a  letter  from  his  father  to  Beethoven.  Beet- 
hoven received  him  well,  and  when  he  had 
read  the  letter  said,  '  I  can't  answer  it  now  ;  but 
write  and  tell  him  that  I  have  not  foi^tten 
the  time  when  my  mother  died ' ;  and  knowing 
how  miserably  poor  the  lad  was,  he  on  several 
occasions  gave  him  money  unasked,  for  which 
he  would  accept  no  retum.  The  next  three 
years  Ries  spent  in  Vienna.     Beethoven  took 

1  See  the  onrfoua  and  Important  llsta  and  memorandnma,  pui»- 
Uahed  for  the  flnt  time  in  Thayer'a  awOesew.  L  SO. 


RIES 


BI£S 


97 


a  great  deal  of  pains  with  his  pianoforte-play- 
ing, but  would  teach  him  nothing  else.  He, 
however,  prevailed  on  Albrechtsberger  to  take 
luDi  as  a  pupil  in  composition.  The  lessons 
cost  a  ducat  each  ;  Ries  had  in  some  way  saved 
up  twenty -eight  ducats,  and  therefore  had 
twenty-eight  lessons.  Beethoven  also  got  him 
an  appointment  as  pianist  to  Count  Browne,  the 
Russian  chargi  dCaffaires^  and  at  another  time 
to  Count  Lichnowsky.  The  pay  for  these 
services  was  probably  not  over-abundant,  but 
it  kept  him,  and  the  position  gave  him  access 
to  the  best  musical  society.  Into  Ries's  relations 
with  Beethoven  we  need  not  enter  here.  They 
are  touched  upon  in  the  sketch  of  tlie  great 
master  in  vol.  i.  of  this  work,  and  they  are 
fully  laid  open  in  Ries's  own  invaluable  notices. 
He  had  a  great  deal  to  bear,  and  considering 
the  secrecy  and  imperiousness  which  Beethoven 
often  threw  into  his  intercourse  with  every  one, 
there  was  probably  much  unpleasantness  in  the 
relationship.  Meantime  of  course  Ries  must 
have  become  saturated  with  the  music  of  his 
great  master  ;  a  thing  which  could  hardly  tend 
to  foster  any  little  originality  he  may  ever  have 


As  a  citizen  of  Bonn  he  was  amenable  to  the 
French  conscription,  and  in  1805  was  summoned 
to  appear  there  in  person.  He  left  in  Sept. 
1805,  made  the  journey  on  foot  via  Prague, 
Dresden,  and  Leipzig,  reached  Coblenz  within 
the  prescribed  limit  of  time,  and  was  then 
dismissed  on  account  of  the  loss  of  his  eye. 
He  then  went  on  to  Paris,  and  existed  in 
mu$ery  for  apparently  at  least  two  years,  at  the 
end  of  which  time  he  was  advised  to  try  Russia. 
On  August  27,  1808,  he  was  again  in  Vienna, 
and  soon  afterwards  received  from  Reichardt 
an  offer  of  the  post  of  capellmeister  to  Jerome 
Bonaparte,  King  of  Westphalia,  at  Cassel, 
which  Reichardt  alleged  had  been  refused  by 
Beethoven.  Ries  behaved  with  perfect  loyalty 
and  stnughtforwardness  in  the  matter.  Before 
replying,  he  endeavoured  to  find  out  from 
Beethoven  himself  the  real  state  of  the  case ; 
bat  Beethoven  having  adopted  the  idea  that 
Ei&i  was  trying  to  get  the  post  over  his  head, 
wonld  not  see  him,  and  for  three  weeks  behaved 
to  him  with  an  incredible  degree  of  cruelty 
aud  insolence.  When  he  could  be  made  to 
listen  to  the  facts  he  was  sorry  enough,  but  the 
opfiortunity  was  gone. 

The  occupation  of  Vienna  (May  12,  1809)  by 
the  French  was  not  favourable  to  artistic  life. 
Kiea,  however,  as  a  French  subject,  was  free  to 
wander.  He  accordingly  went  to  Cassel,  pos- 
sibly with  some  lingering  hopes,  played  at 
Court,  and  remained  till  the  end  of  February 
1810,  very  much  applauded  and  fSted,  and 
making  money — but  had  no  offer  of  a  post. 
From  Oassel  he  went  by  Hamburg  and  Copen- 
hagen to  Stockholm,  where  we  find  him  in 
Sept.  1810,  making  both  money  and  reputation. 

VOL.  IV 


He  had  still  his  eye  on  Russia,  but  between 
Stockholm  and  Petersburg  the  ship  was  taken 
by  an  English  man-of-war,  and  all  the  passengers 
were  turned  out  upon  an  island  in  the  Baltic. 
In  Petersburg  he  found  Bemhard  Romberg,  and 
the  two  made  a  successful  tour,  embracing 
places  as  wide  apart  as  Kiev,  Reval,  and  Riga. 
The  burning  of  Moscow  (Sept.  1812)  put  a  stop 
to  his  progi-ess  in  that  direction,  and  we  next 
find  bim  again  at  Stockholm  in  April  1813,  tni 
route  for  Kngland.  By  the  end  of  the  month 
he  was  in  London. 

Here  he  found  his  countryman  and  his  father's 
friend,  Salomon,  who  received  him  cordially 
and  introduced  him  to  the  Philharmonic 
Concerts.  His  first  appearance  there  was  March 
14,  1814,  in  his  own  PF.  Sextet.  His  sym- 
phonies, overtures,  and  chamber  works  fre- 
quently occur  in  the  programmes,  and  ho 
himself  appears  from  time  to  time  as  a  PF. 
player,  but  rarely  if  ever  with  works  of 
Beethoven's.  Shortly  after  his  arrival  he  married 
an  English  lady  of  great  attractions,  and  ho 
remained  in  London  till  1824,  one  of  the  most 
conspicuous  figures  of  the  musical  world.  *  Mr. 
Ries,'  says  a  writer  in  the  Hdrmonieon  of  March 
1824,  'is  justly  celebrated  as  one  of  the  finest 
pianoforte  performers  of  the  day ;  his  hand  is 
powerful  and  his  execution  certain,  often  sur- 
prising ;  but  his  playing  is  most  distinguished 
from  that  of  all  others  by  its  romantic  wildness. ' 

His  sojourn  here  was  a  time  of  herculean 
labour.  His  compositions  numbered  at  their 
dose  nearly  180,  including  6  fine  symphonies  ; 

4  overtures ;  6  string  quintets,  and  14  do. 
quartets ;  9  concertos  for  PF.  and  orchestra ; 
an  octet,  a  septet,  2  sextets,  and  a  quintet, 
for  various  instruments ;  3  PF.  quartets,  and 

5  do.  trios ;  20  duets  for  PF.  and  violin  ;  10 
sonatas  for  PF.  solo  ;  besides  a  vast  number  of 
rondos,  variations,  fantasias,  etc.,  for  the  PF. 
solo  and  duet.  Of  these  38  are  attributable  to 
the  time  of  his  residence  here,  and  they  embrace 
2  symphonies,  4  concertos,  a  sonata,  and  many 
smalliar  pieces.  As  a  pianist  and  teacher  he 
was  veiy  much  in  request.  He  was  an  active 
member  of  the  Philharmonic  Society.  His 
correspondence  with  Beethoven  during  the 
whole  period  is  highly  creditable  to  him, 
proving  his  gratitude  towards  his  master,  and 
the  energy  with  which  he  laboured  to  promote 
Beethoven's  interests.  That  Beethoven  profited 
so  little  therefrom  was  no  fault  of  Ries's. 

Having  accumulated  a  fortune  adequate  to 
the  demands  of  a  life  of  comfort,  he  gave  a 
farewell  concert  in  London,  April  8,  1824,  and 
removed  with  his  wife  to  Godesberg,  near  his 
native  town,  where  he  had  purchased  a  property. 
Though  a  loser  by  the  failure  of  a  London 
bank  in  1825-26,  he  was  able  to  live  inde- 
pendently. About  1880  he  removed  to 
Frankfort.  His  residence  on  the  Rhine  brought 
him  into  close  contact  with  the  Lower  Rhine 


98 


KIES 


KIETER-BIEDERMANN 


Festivals,  and  he  directed  the  performances  of 
the  years  1825,  1829,  1830,  1832,  1834,  and 
1837,  as  well  as  those  of  1826  and  1828  in 
conjunction  with  Spohr  and  Klein  respectively. 
In  1834  he  was  appointed  head  of  the  town 
orchestra  and  Singakademie  at  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
3ut  he  was  too  independent  to  keep  any  post, 
and  in  1836  he  gave  this  up  and  returned  to 
Frankfort.  In  1837  he  assumed  the  direction 
of  the  Cecilian  Society  there  on  the  death  of 
Schelble,  but  this  lasted  a  few  months  only, 
for  on  Jan.  13,  1838,  he  died  after  a  short 
illness. 

The  principal  works  which  he  composed  after 
his  return  to  Germany  are  *Die  Riiuberbraut,' 
which  was  first  performed  in  Frankfort  probably 
in  1829,  then  in  Leipzig,  July  4,  and  London, 
July  1 5,  of  the  same  year,  and  often  afterwards 
in  Germany  ;  another  opera,  known  in  Germany 
as  '  Liska,'  but  produced  at  the  Adelphi,  London, 
in  English,  as  *The  Sorcerer,*  by  Arnold's  com- 
pany, August  4, 1831,  and  a  third,  '  Eine  Nacht 
auf  dem  Libanon ' ;  an  oratorio,  *  Der  Sieg  des 
Glaubens'  (The  Triumph  of  the  Faith),  ap- 
parently performed  in  Dublin  for  the  first  time 
in  1831  ^  and  then  at  Berlin,  1835 ;  and  a  second 
oratorio,  *Die  Konige  Israels'  (The  Kings  of 
Israel),  Aix-la-Chapelle,  1837.  He  also  wrote 
much  chamber  music  and  six  symphonies.  All 
these  works,  however,  are  dead.  Beethoven  once 
said  of  his  compositions,  '  he  imitates  me  too 
much.'  He  caught  the  style  and  the  phrases, 
but  he  could  not  catch  the  immortality  of  his 
master's  work.  One  work  of  his  will  live — the 
admirable  Biographical  Notices  of  Ludwig  van 
Beethoven,  which  he  published  in  conjunction 
with  Dr.  Wegeler  (Coblenz,  1838).  The  two 
writers,  though  publishing  together,  have  fortu- 
nately kept  their  contributions  quite  distinct ; 
Ries's  occupies  from  pp.  76  to  163  of  a  little 
duodecimo  volume,  and  of  these  the  last  thirty- 
five  pages  ai-e  occupied  by  Beethoven's  letters. 
The  work  is  translated  into  French  by  Le  Gentil 
(Dentu,  1862),  and  partially  into  English  by 
Moschelos,  as  an  Appendix  to  his  version  of 
Schindler's  Life  of  Beethoven. 

3.  Hubert,  youngest  brother  of  the  preced- 
ing, was  bom  at  Bonn,  April  1, 1802.  He  made 
his  first  studies  as  a  violinist  under  his  father, 
and  afterwards  under  Spohr.  Hauptmann  was 
his  teacher  in  composition.  From  1 824  he  lived 
at  Berlin.  In  that  year  he  entered  the  band  of  the 
Konigstadt  Theatre,  Berlin,  and  in  the  following 
year  became  a  member  of  the  Royal  band.  In 
1835  he  was  appointed  Director  of  the  Phil- 
harmonic Society  at  Berlin.  In  1836  he  was 
nominated  Conoertmeister,  and  in  1839  elected 
a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Arts.  [In 
1851  he  became  a  teacher  at  the  Kgl.  Theater- 
instrumentalsohule,  from  which  he  retired  with 
a  pension  in  1872.]  A  thorough  musician  and 
a  solid  violinist,  he  was  held  in  great  esteem  as 

i  Infonaation  from  L.  X'C.  U  DU,  Bhi. 


a  leader,  and  more  especially  as  a  methodical 
and  conscientious  teacher.  His  Violin-School 
for  beginners  is  a  very  meritorious  work,eminently 
practical,  and  >videly  used.  He  published  two 
violin-concertos,  studies  and  duets  for  violins, 
and  some  quartets.  An  English  edition  of  the 
Violin-School  appeared  in  1873  (Hofmeister). 
He  died  in  Berlin,  Sept.  14,  1886.  Three  of 
his  sons  gained  reputation  as  musicians  : — 

Louis,  violinist,  born  at  Berlin,  Jan.  30, 1830, 
pupil  of  his  father  and  of  Vieuxtemps,  has,  since 
1853,  been  settled  in  London,  where  he  enjoys 
great  and  deserved  reputation  as  violinist  and 
teacher.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Quartet  of 
the  Musical  Union  from  1855  to  1870,  and  held 
the  second  violin  at  the  Monday  Popular  Con- 
certs from  their  beginning  in  1859,  until  his 
retirement  in  1897. 

Adolph,  pianist,  bom  at  Berlin,  Dec  20, 
1837,  died  in  April  1899.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Kullak  for  the  piano,  and  of  Boehmer  for  com- 
]x>sition,  and  lived  in  London  as  a  pianoforte 
teacher.  He  published  a  number  of  oom|X}8i- 
tions  for  the  piano,  and  some  tongs,  a.  w.  t.  ; 
with  additions  in  square  brackets  by  E.  h.-a. 

RIES,  Franz,  violinist  and  composer,  was 
bom  on  April  7,  1846,  in  Berlin.  His  musical 
gifts  were  apparent  in  early  youth.  The 
))osse8sor  of  an  alto  voice  of  exceptional  beauty, 
he  was  admitted  at  the  age  of  twelve  to  the 
JConigl.  Dorncfwr  (royal  Cathedral  choir),  which 
then,  under  Neithardt's  direction,  enjoyed  con- 
siderable reputation  in  the  musical  circles  of 
Berlin.  He  studied  the  violin  in  the  first 
instance  under  his  father,  and  afterwards,  in 
Paris,  under  Leon  Massart  and  Henri  Vieux- 
temps. In  composition  he  was  a  pupil  of 
Friedr.  Kiel.  Gained  in  1 868  the  first  prize  at 
the  Paris  Conservatoire,  and  was  active  in  the 
musical  life  of  the  city  as  soloist  and  also  as 
viola -player  in  the  Vieuxtemps  Quartet.  In 
1870  he  migrated,  owing  to  the  Franco-German 
war,  to  London,  appearing  as  a  soloist  at  the 
Crystal  Palace.  But  in  1872  an  unfortunate 
nerve  affection  of  the  left  hand  compelled  him 
to  renounce  the  career  of  an  executive  artist. 
He  founded  in  1874  a  publishing  business  in 
Dresden,  and  ten  years  later  became  partner  in 
the  firm  Ries  k  Erler  in  Berlin,  where  he  still 
resides.  As  a  composer  his  main  successes  have 
been  made  in  four  suites  for  violin  and  piano- 
forte, which  are  in  the  repertory  of  almost 
every  famous  violinist.  He  has  also  vrritten  a 
string  quintet,  two  string  quartets,  a  dramatic 
overture,  piano  and  violin  solos  and  arrange- 
ments, besides  a  series  of  songs,  one  of  which, 
the  'Rheinlied,'  has  taken  rank  in  the  Rhine 
provinces  as  a  Folk-song.  w.  w,  c. 

RIETER  -  BIEDERMANN.  An  eminent 
German  firm  of  music-publishers.  The  founder 
was  Jacob  Melohior  Rieter-Biedermann  (bom 
May  14,  1811  ;  died  Jan.  25,  1876),  who  in 
Jime  1849  opened  a  retail  business  and  lending- 


ttlETZ 


RIETZ 


9d 


libraiy  at  W'intertliar.  Since  the  first  work 
vas  pabliahed  in  1856,  tlie  business  has  con- 
tinually improved  and  increased.  In  1862, 
a  poblishing  branch  was  .opened  at  Leipzig. 
The  stock  catalogue  of  the  firm  includes  nmsic 
by  Berlioz,  Brahms  (PF.  Concerto,  PF.  Quintet, 
Bequiem,  Magelone-Lieder,  etc.)  ;  A.  Dietrich  ; 
J.  O.  Grimm  ;  Gemsheim  ;  Ton  Herzogenberg  ; 
F.  Hiller  ;  Holstein  ;  Kirchner  ;  Lachner  ; 
F.  Marschner ;  Mendelssohn  (op.  98,  Nos.  2, 
3  ;  opp.  103,  106,  106,  108,  115,  116);  Raff; 
Eleinecke ;  Schumann  (opp.  130,  137,  138, 140, 
142);  etc.  G. 

RIETZ  (originally  Ritz  ^)  Ebuasd,  the  elder 
brother  of  Julius  Rietz,  an  excellent  violinist, 
was  bom  at  Berlin,  Oct.  17,  1802.  He  studied 
nrst  under  his  father,  a  member  of  the  royal 
band,  and  afterwards,  for  some  time,  under  Rode. 
He  died  too  young  to  acquire  more  than  a  local 
reputation,  but  his  name  will  always  be  re- 
membered in  connection  with  Mendelssohn, 
who  had  the  highest  possible  opinion  of  his 
{)ower3  as  an  executant,*  and  who  comited  him 
amongst  his  dearest  and  nearest  friends.  It 
was  for  Rietz  that  he  wrote  the  Octet  which 
is  dedicated  to  him,  as  well  as  the  Sonata  for 
PF.  and  violin,  op.  4.  For  some  years  Rietz 
i^-as  a  member  of  the  royal  band,  but  as  his 
health  faOed  him  in  1824  he  had  to  quit  his 
appointment  and  even  to  give  up  playing.  He 
founded  and  conducted  an  orchestral  society  at 
Berlin,  with  considerable  success ;  he  died  of  con- 
Komption  Jan.  23,  1 832.  Mendelssohn's  earlier 
letters  teem  with  affectionate  reference  to  him, 
and  the  news  of  his  death  affected  him  deeply. ^ 
The  Andante  in  Mendelssohn's  string  quintet, 
oji.  18,  was  composed  at  Paris  'in  memory  of 
E.  Ritz,'  and  is  dated  on  the  autograph  *  Jan. 
*J3,  1832/  and  entitled  *Nachruf.'         p.  d. 

RIETZ,  Julius,  younger  brother  of  the  pre- 
ening, violoncellist,  composer,  and  eminent 
conductor,  was  bom  at  Berlin,  Dec.  28,  1812. 
Brought  up  under  the  influence  of  his  father 
and  brother,  and  the  intimate  friend  of 
Mendelssohn,  he  received  his  first  instruction 
on  the  violoncello  from  Schmidt,  a  member  of 
the  royal  band,  and  afterwards  from  Bemhard 
Romberg  and  Moritz  Ganz.  Zelter  was  his 
teacher  in  composition.  Having  gained  con- 
siderable proficiency  on  his  instrument,  he 
obtained,  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  an  appointment 
in  the  bknd  of  the  Konigstadt  Theatre,  where 
he  also  achieved  his  first  success  as  a  composer 
by  writing  incidental  music  for  Holtei's  drama, 
'Lorbeerbaum  nnd  Bettelstab.'  In  1834  he 
went  to  Diisseldorf  as  second  conductor  of  the 
opera.  Mendelssohn,  who  up  to  his  death 
ifhowed  a  warm  interest  in  Rietz,  was  at  that 
time  at  the  head  of  the  opera,   and  on  his 


I  Unilacnlj  n  spelt  by  McndelHohn, 

*  *  I  loDf  mraeKOr,'  mift  be.  In  •  litter  from  Bome.  'for  hia  viol  In, 
and  Ua  deoCh  of  feeling ;  tb«<r  oonie  vlrUlIy  befbre  my  mind  when 
I  'xwhl*  bdxrved  ncBt  handwritinf.' 

>  XeMdcte(^m'«  iMtanfvm  ttalf  and  SieUttriand,  EngllBh  tnins- 
IitioB.  ji.  337. 


resignation  in  the  summer  of  1835,  Rietz  became 
his  successor.  He  did  not,  however,  remain 
long  in  that  position,  for,  as  early  as  1836,  he 
accepted,  under  the  title  of  *  Stadtisclier  Musik- 
director,'  the  post  of  conductor  of  the  public 
subscription  -  concerts,  the  principal  choral 
society,  and  the  church -music  at  Diisseldorf. 
In  this  position  he  remained  for  twelve  years, 
gaining  the  reputation  of  an  excellent  conductor, 
and  also  appearing  as  a  solo  violoncellist  in  most 
of  the  principal  towns  of  the  Rhine-province. 
During  this  period  he  wrote  some  of  his  most 
successful  works — incidental  music  to  dramas 
of  Goethe,  Calderon,  Immermann,  and  others  ; 
music  for  Goethe's  Liederspiel '  Jery  und  Bately , ' 
Ms  first  Symphony  in  G  minor  ;  three  overtures 
— 'Hero  and  Leander,'*  Concert  overture  in 
A  major,  Lustspiel-overture,  the  *  Altdeutscher 
Schlachtgesang '  and  *Dithyrambe' — both  for 
men's  voices  and  orchestra.  He  was  six  times 
chief  conductor  of  the  Lower  Rhine  Festivals — 
in  1845,  1856,  and  1869  at  Diisseldorf;  in 
1864,  1867,  and  1873  at  Aix. 

In  1847,  after  Mendelssohn's  death,  he  took 
leave  of  Diisseldorf,  leaving  Ferdinand  Hiller 
as  his  successor,  and  went  to  Leipzig  as  con- 
ductor of  the  opera  and  the  Singakademie. 
[He  gave  up  the  post  at  the  o|)era  in  1854.] 
From  1848  we  find  him  also  at  the  head  of  the 
Gewandhaus  orchestra,  and  teacher  of  composi- 
tion at  the  Conservatorium.  In  this  position 
he  remained  for  thirteen  years.  Two  operas, 
*Der  Corsar'  and  *Georg  Neumark,*  were 
fiiilures,  but  his  Symphony  in  Eb  had  a  great 
and  lasting  success.  At  this  [)eriod  he  began 
also  to  show  his  eminent  critical  powers  by 
carefuUy  revised  editions  of  the  scores  of 
Mozart's  symphonies  and  operas,  of  Beethoven's 
symphonies  and  overtures  for  Breitkopf  & 
Hartel's  complete  edition,  and  by  the  work  he 
did  for  the  Bach  and  (German)  Handel  Societies. 
His  editions  of  Handel's  scores  contrast  very 
favourably  with  those  of  some  other  editors. 
An  edition  of  Mendelssohn's  complete  works 
closed  his  labours  in  this  respect. 

In  1860  the  King  of  Saxony  appointed  him 
Conductor  of  the  Royal  Opera  and  of  the  music 
at  the  Hofkirche  at  Dresden.  He  also  accepted 
the  post  of  Artistic  Director  of  the  Dresden 
Conservatorium.  In  1874  the  title  of  General- 
Musikdirector  was  given  to  him.  The  Uni- 
versity of  Leipzig  had  already  in  1859  confen*ed 
on  him  the  honorary  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Philosophy. 

Rietz  was  for  some  time  one  of  the  most 
influential  musicians  of  Germany.  He  was  a 
good  violoncellist,  but  soon  after  leaving 
Diisseldorf  he  gave  up  playing  entirely.  As 
a  composer  he  showed  a  rare  command  of  all 
the  resources  of  the  orchestra  and  a  complete 
mastery  of  all  technicalities  of  composition. 
Yet  few  of  Rietz's  works  have  shown  any  vitality. 

*  See  Mendelawhn'a  Letteri,  11.  p.  2M  (Eng.  ed.). 


100 


RIGADOON 


RIGBY 


As  a  composer  he  can  haidly  be  said  to  show 
distinct  individuality  ;  his  ideas  are  wanting 
in  spontaneity,  his  themes  are  generally  some- 
what dry,  and  their  treatment  often  rather 
dif!iise  and  laboured.  In  fact  Rietz  was  an 
excellent  musician,  and  a  musical  intellect  of 
the  first  rank — but  not  much  of  a  poet.  His 
great  reputation  rested,  first,  on  his  talent  for 
conducting,  and  secondly  on  his  rare  acquire- 
ments as  a  musical  scholar.  An  imfailing  ear, 
imperturbable  presence  of  mind,  and  great 
personal  authority,  made  him  one  of  the  best 
conductors  of  modem  times.  The  combination 
of  practical  musicianship  with  a  natural  inclina- 
tion for  critical  researdi  and  a  pre-eminently 
intellectual  tendency  of  mind,  made  him  a 
first-rate  judge  on  questions  of  musical  scholar- 
ship. After  Mendelssohn  and  Schumann, 
Rietz  probably  did  more  than  anybody  else  to 
purify  the  scores  of  the  great  masters  from  the 
numerous  errors  of  text  by  which  they  were 
disfigured.  He  was  an  absolute  and  uncom- 
promising adherent  of  the  classical  school,  and 
had  but  little  sympathy  with  modem  music 
after  Mendelssohn ;  and  even  in  the  works  of 
Schubert,  Schumann,  and  Brahmshe  wasover-apt 
to  see  the  weak  points.  As  to  the  music  of  the 
newest  German  School,  he  held  it  in  abhorrence, 
and  would  show  his  aversion  on  every  occasion. 
He  was,  however,  too  much  of  an  opera-conductor 
not  to  feel  a  certain  interest  in  Wagner,  and  in 
preparing  his  operas  would  take  a  special  pride 
and  relish  in  overcoming  the  great  and  peculiar 
difficulties  contained  in  Wagner's  scores. 

Rietz  had  many  personal  friends,  but,  as  will 
appear  natural  'with  a  man  of  so  pronounced  a 
character  and  opinions,  also  a  number  of  bitter 
enemies.  He  died  at  Dresden,  Sept.  12,  1877, 
leaving  a  large  and  valuable  musical  library, 
which  was  sold  by  auction  in  Dec.  1877.  Be- 
sides the  works  already  mentioned  he  published 
a  considerable  number  of  compositions  for  the 
chamber,  songs,  concertos  for  violin  and  for 
various  wind-instruments.  He  also  i^Tote  a 
great  Mass.  p.  d. 

RIGADOON  (French  Jtigadan  or  Rigaud(m), 
A  lively  dance,  which  most  probably  came  from 
Provence  or  Languedoc,  although  its  popularity 
in  England  has  caused  some  writers  to  suppose 
that  it  is  of  English  origin.  It  was  danced 
in  France  in  the  time  of  Louis  XIII.,  but 
does  not  seem  to  have  become  popular  in 
England  until  the  end  of  the  17th  century. 
According  to  Rousseau  it  derived  its  name  from 
its  inventor,  one  Rigaud,  but  others  connect  it 
with  the  English  *rig,*  i.e.  wanton  or  lively. 

The  Rigadoon  was  remarkable  for  a  peculiar 
jumping  step  (which  is  described  at  length  in 
Compan's  Diiiionnairedc  la  Danse^  Paris,  1 802) ; 
this  step  survived  the  dance  for  some  time. 
The  music  of  the  Rigadoon  is  in  2-4  or  Q  time, 
and  consists  of  three  or  four  parts,  of  which 
the  third  is  quite  short.     The  number  of  bars 


is  unequal,  and  the  music  generally  begins  on 
the  third  or  fourth  beat  of  the  bar.  The  fol- 
lowing example  is  from  the  third  part  of  Henry 
Playford's  'Apollo's  Banquet'  (sixth  edition, 
1690).  The  same  tune  occurs  in  *  The  Dancing 
Master,'  but  in  that  work  the  bars  are  incor- 
rectly divided 


w.  B.  B. 


RIGBY,  George  Yebnon,  bom  at  Birming- 
ham, Jan.  21,  1840,  when  about  nine  years  old 
was  a  chorister  of  St.  Chad's  Cathedral,  Bir- 
mingham, where  he  remained  for  about  seven 
years.  In  1860,  his  voice  having  changed  to 
a  tenor,  he  decided  upon  becoming  a  singer, 
tried  his  strength  at  some  minor  concerts 
in  Birmingham  and  its  neighbourhood,  and 
succeeded  so  well  that  in  1861  he  removed  to 
London,  and  on  March  4,  appeared  at  the 
Alhambra,  Leicester  Square  (then  a  concert 
room,  managed  by  E.  T.  Smith),  and  in  August 
following  at  Mellon's  Promenade  Concerts  at 
Covent  Garden.  In  1865  he  sang  in  the 
provinces  as  a  member  of  H.  Corn's  Opera 
Company,  until  November,  when  he  went  to 
Italy  and  studied  under  Sangiovanni  at  Milan, 
where,  in  Nov.  1866,  he  appeared  at  the  Car- 
cano  Theatre  as  the  Fisherman  in  *  Guglielmo 
Tell.'  He  next  went  to  Berlin,  and  in  Jan. 
1867  appeared  at  the  Victoria  Theatre  there, 
in  the  principal  tenor  parts  in  *  Don  Pasqoale,' 
'La  Sonnambula,'  and  'L'ltaliana  in  AlgierL' 
He  then  accepted  a  three  months'  engagement 
in  Denmark,  and  performed  Almaviva  in  the 
'Barbiere,'  the  Duke  in  'Rigoletto,'  and  other 
parts,  in  Copenhagen  and  other  towns.  He 
returned  to  England  in  Sept.  1867,  and  sang 
at  various  places.  In  1868  he  was  engaged 
at  the  Gloucester  Festival  with  Sims  Reeves, 
whose  temporary  indisposition  afforded  him 
the  opportunity  of  singing  the  part  of  Samson 
in  Handel's  oratorio,  in  which  he  acquitted 
himself  so  ably  that  he  was  immediately  en- 
gaged by  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society,  where 
he  appeu^,  Nov.  27,  1868,  with  signal  success, 
and  immediately  established  himself  as  an 
oratorio  singer,  appearing  at  all  the  principal 
festivals.  In  1869  he  appeared  on  the  stage  of 
the  Princess's  Theatre  as  Acis  in  Handel's  *  Acts 


RIGHINI 


RIMBAULT 


101 


and  Golateft.'  His  voice  was  of  fine  quality,  full 
compass,  and  considerable  power,  and  he  sang 
with  earnestness  and  care.  Since  an  appeai*ance 
at  Brighton  in  1887  in  'Eli,'  he  has  virtually 
retired.  w.  h.  h. 

RIGHINI,  YiNGENzo,  awell-known  conductor 
of  the  Italian  opera  in  Berlin,  bom  at  Bologna, 
Jan.  22,  1756.  As  a  boy  he  was  a  chorister 
at  San  Petronio,  and  had  a  fine  voice,  but  owing 
to  injury  it  developed  into  a  tenor  of  so  rough 
and  muffled  a  tone,  that  he  turned  his  attention 
to  theory,  which  he  studied  with  Padre  Martini. 
In  1776  he  sang  for  a  short  time  in  the  Opera 
buffa  at  Prague,  then  under  Bustelli's  direction, 
but  waa  not  well  received.  He  made  a  success 
there,  however,  with  three  operas  of  his  com- 
position, '  La  Yedova  scaltra,'  *  La  Bottega  del 
Cali^'  and  'Don  Giovanni,'  also  performed  in 
Vienna  (August  1777),  whither  Righini  went 
on  leaving  Prague  in  1780.  There  he  became 
singing-master  to  Princess  Elisabeth  of  Wiirtem- 
berg,  and  conductor  of  the  Italian  opera.  He 
next  entered  the  service  of  the  Elector  of  Mainz, 
(1 788-92)  and  composed  for  the  Elector  of  Treves 
'  Alcide  al  Bivio'  (Coblenz)  and  a  missa  solemnis 
(1790).  In  April  1793  (owing  to  the  success 
of  his  'Enea  nel  Lazio')  he  was  invited  to 
succeed  Alessandri  at  the  Italian  Opera  of  Berlin, 
with  a  salary  of  8000  thalers  (about  £450). 
Here  he  produced  *  II  Trionfo  d'Arianna'  (1 793), 
'AnnidaXl799),*Tigrane'(18pO),'Gerusalemme 
liberata,'  and  *La  Selva incantata'  (1802).  The 
last  two  were  published  after  his  death  with 
German  text  (Leipzig,  Herklotz). 

In  1793  Righini  married  Henriette  Kneisel 
(bom  at  Stettin  in  1767,  died  of  consumption 
at  Berlin,  Jan.  25,  1801),  a  charming  blonde, 
and  according  to  Gerber,  a  singer  of  great 
exfoieasion*  After  the  death  of  Friedrich 
Wilhelm  II.  (1797)  his  poet  became  almost  a. 
sinecore,  and  in  1806  the  opera  was  entirely 
diacontinned.  Righini  was  much  beloved. 
Gerber  speaks  in  high  terms  of  his  modesty 
and  courtesy,  and  adds,  '  It  is  a  real  enjoyment 
to  hear  him  sing  his  own  pieces  in  his  soft  veiled 
voice  to  hia  own  accompaniment.'  As  a  com- 
jtoder  he  was  not  of  the  first  rank,  and  of  course 
was  eclipsed  by  Mozart  His  best  point  was 
his  feeling  for  ensemble,  of  which  the  quartet  in 
*  Gemsalemme '  is  a  good  example.  He  was  a 
successful  teacher  of  singing,  and  counted  dis- 
tingoiahed  artists  among  his  pupils.  After  the 
loss  of  a  promising  son  in  1810,  his  health  gave 
way.  and  in  1812  he  was  ordered  to  tiy  the 
effects  of  his  native  air  at  Bologna.  When  bid- 
ding good-bye  to  his  colleague,  Anselm  Weber, 
he  said,  '  It  is  my  belief  that  I  shall  never 
return  ;  if  it  should  be  so,  sing  a  Requiem  and 
a  Miserere  for  me ' — touching  words,  too  soon 
fulfilled  by  his  death  at  Bologna,  August  19, 
1812.  His  own  Requiem  (score  ii?  tiie  Berlin 
Library)  was  performed  by  the  Singakademie 
in  his  honour. 


Besides  twenty  operas,  of  which  a  list  is  given 
by  F^tis  (thirteen  are  mentioned  in  the  Quellcn- 
Lexihon  as  still  extant),  Righini  composed 
church  music — a  Te  Deum  and  a  Missa  Solennis 
were  published — several  cantatas,  and  innumer- 
able Scenas,  Lieder,  and  songs ;  also  a  short 
ballet,  'Minerva  belebt  die  Statuen  des  Dadalus ' 
(1802),  and  some  instrumental  pieces,  including 
a  serenade  for  two  clarinets,  two  horns,  and  two 
bassoons  (1799,  Breitkopf  k  Hartel).  One  of 
his  operas,  *  II  Gonvitato  di  pietra,  ossia  il 
dissolute,'  will  always  be  interesting  as  a  fore- 
runner of  Mozart's  'Don  Giovanni.'  It  was 
produced  at  Vienna,  August  21,  1777  (ten  years 
before  Mozart's),  and  is  described  by  Jahn 
{Mozart,  ii.  333).  His  best  orchestral  work  is 
his  overture  to  'Tigrane,'  which  was  often 
played  in  Germany  and  England.  Breitkopf 
k  Hartel's  Catalogue  shows  a  tolerably  long 
list  of  his  songs,  and  his  exercises  for  the  voice 
(1 8 04)  are  amongst  the  best  that  exist.  English 
amateurs  will  find  a  duet  of  his,  *  Come  opprima, ' 
from  *  Enea  nel  Lazio,'  in  the  '  Musical  Libraiy,' 
voL  i.  p.  8,  and  two  airs  in  Lonsdale's  '  Gemme 
d'Antichitli.'  He  was  one  of  the  sixty-three 
composers  who  set  the  words  '  In  questa  tomba 
oscura,'  and  his  setting  was  published  in  1878 
by  Ritter  of  Magdeburg.  ¥.  o. 

RIGOLETTO.  An  opera  in  three  acts; 
libretto  by  Piave  (founded  on  V.  Hugo's  Le 
Itoi  s'amuse),  music  by  Verdi.  Produced  at 
the  Teatro  Fenice,  Venice,  March  11,  1851, 
and  given  in  Italian  at  Covent  Garden,  May 
14,  1858,  and  at  the  Italiens,  Paris,  Jan.  19, 
1857.      ^  G. 

RILLE,  Francois  Anatole  Laurent  de, 
the  composer  of  an  enormous  number  of  part- 
songs  and  other  small  choi*al  works,  bom  at 
Orleans  in  1828.  He  was  at  first  intended  to 
be  a  painter,  but  altered  his  purpose  and  studied 
music  under  an  Italian  named  Comoghio,  and 
subsequently  under  Elwart.  His  compositions, 
of  which  a  list  of  the  most  important  is  given 
in  the  supplement  to  Fetis,  have  enjoyed  a  last- 
ing popularity  with  *  orph^oniste  '  societies,  and 
although  they  contain  few  if  any  characteristics 
which  would  recommend  them  to  the  attention 
of  earnest  musicians,  they  have  that  kind  of 
vigorous  effectiveness  which  is  exactly  suited  to 
their  purpose.  A  laige  number  of  operettas  of 
very  slight  constraction  have  from  time  to  time 
been  produced  in  Paris,  and  the  composer  has 
made  various  more  or  less  successful  essays  in 
the  department  of  church  music.  m. 

RIMBAULT,  Edward  Francis,  LL.D.,  son 
of  Stephen  Francis  Rimbault,  organist  of  St. 
Giles  in  the  Fields,  was  bom  in  Soho,  June  13, 
1816.  He  received  his  first  instmction  in  music 
from  his  father,  but  afterwards  became  a  pupil 
of  Samuel  Wesley.  At  sixteen  years  old  he  was 
appointed  organist  of  the  Swiss  Church,  Soho. 
He  early  directed  his  attention  to  the  study 
of  musical  history  and  literature,  and  in  1838 


102 


RIMSKY-KORSAKOV 


RIMSKY-KORSAKOV 


delivered  a  series  of  lectures  on  the  history  of 
music  in  England.  In  1840  he  took  an  active 
part  in  the  formation  of  the  Musical  Antiquarian 
and  Percy  Societies,  of  both  which  he  became 
secretary,  and  for  both  which  he  edited  several 
works.  In  1841  he  was  editor  of  the  musical 
publications  of  the  Motet  Society.  In  the 
course  of  the  next  few  years  he  edited  a  collec- 
tion of  Cathedral  Chants  ;  The  Order  of  Daily 
Service  according  to  the  use  of  Westminster 
Abbey  ;  a  reprint  of  Lowe's  Short  Direction  for 
the  performance  of  CcUhednd  Service ;  Tallis's 
Responses  ;  Marbeok's  Book  of  Common  Prayer, 
noted ;  a  yolume  of  unpublished  Cathedral 
Services ;  Arnold's  Cathedral  Music ;  and  the 
oratorios  of  *  Messiah,'  'Samson,'  and  'Saul,' 
for  the  Handel  Society.  In  1842  he  was  elected 
a  F.S.  A.  and  member  of  the  Academy  of  Music 
in  Stockholm,  and  obtained  the  degree  of  Doctor 
in  Philosophy.  He  was  offered,  but  declined, 
the  appointment  of  Professor  of  Music  in  Har- 
vard University,  U.S. A.  In  1848  he  received 
the  honorary  degree  of  LL.D.,  from  the  univer- 
sity of  Oxford.  He  lectured  on  music  at  the 
Collegiate  Institution,  Liverpool ;  the  Philo- 
sophic Institute,  Edinburgh  ;  the  Royal  Institu- 
tion of  Great  Britain,  and  elsewhere.  He  pub- 
lished The  Organ,  its  History  and  Construction 
(1855)  (in  collaboration  with  Mr.  K  J.  Hopkins), 
Notices  of  the  Early  English  Organ  Builders 
(1865),  History  of  the  Pianoforte  (1860),  Biblio- 
thecaMadrigcUiana (IS^7),  Musical  IllustraJtunis 
of  Percy's  Reliques,  The  Ancient  Focal  Music  of 
England,  The  Mounds,  Catches,  and  Canons  of 
England  (in  conjunction  with  Rev.  J.  P. 
Metcalfe),  two  collections  of  Christmas  Carols. 
'A  Little  Book  of  Songs  and  Ballads,'  etc.  etc. 
He  edited  North's  Memoirs  of  Mtisick  (1846), 
Sir  Thomas  Overbury's  Works  (1866),  the  Old 
Cheqne  Book  of  ths  Chapel  Royal  (1872),  and 
two  Sermons  by  Boy  Bishops.  He  arranged 
many  operas  and  other  works,  was  author  of 
many  elementary  books,  and  an  extensive 
contributor  to  periodical  literature.  His  com- 
positions were  but  few,  the  principal  being  an 
operetta,  *  The  Fair  Maid  of  Islington '  (1838), 
music  to  'The  Castle  Spectre'  (1839),  and  a 
posthumous  cantata,  'Country  Life.'  His  pretty 
little  song,  'Happy  Land,'  had  an  extensive 
popularity.  After  his  resignation  of  the  organist- 
ship  of  the  Swiss  Church,  he  was  successively 
organist  of  several  churches  and  chapels,  such 
as  St.  Peter's,  Vere  Street.  He  died,  after  a 
lingering  illness,  Sept  26,  1876  (buried  at 
Highgate  Cemetery),  leaving  a  fine  musical 
library,  which  was  sold  by  auction  at  Sotheby's 
on  July  3,  1877,  and  following  days.  See  an 
account  of  the  library  in  the  Musical  World, 
1877,  p.  539.  An  obituary  notice  appeared  in 
the  Musical  Times,  1877,  p.  427,  and  other 
papers.  The  most  complete  list  of  his  works 
is  in  Brit.  Mus,  Biog.  w.  h.  h. 

RIMSKY-KORSAKOV,  Nicholas  Axdreie- 


VICH,  was  bora  March  18  (O.S.  March  6),  1844, 
in  the  little  town  of  Tikhvin,  in  the  Govern- 
ment of  Novgorod.  The  child's  earliest  musical 
impressions  were  derived  from  a  small  band, 
consisting  of  four  Jews  employed  upon  the 
family  estate.  These  mnsicians  mustered  two 
violins,  cymbals,  and  a  tambourine,  and  were 
often  summoned  to  the  house  to  enliven  the 
evenings  when  there  was  company  or  dancing. 
At  six  years  old  the  boy  began  to  be  taught 
the  piano,  and  at  nine  he  made  his  first  at- 
tempts at  composition.  His  talent  for  music 
was  evident  to  his  parents,  but  being  of  aristo- 
cratic family  he  was  destined  for  one  of  the 
only  two  professions  then  considered  suitable 
for  a  young  man  of  good  birth.  In  1855 
Rimsky  -  Korsakov  entered  the  Naval  College 
in  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  remained  until 
1862.  This  period  of  his  life  was  not  very 
favourable  to  his  musical  development,  but  he 
managed  on  Sundays  and  holidays  to  receive 
some  instruction  in  the  violoncello  from  Ulich, 
and  in  the  pianoforte  from  an  excellent  teacher, 
Fedor  Kanill^.  His  acquaintance  with  Bala- 
kirev,  dating  from  1861,  was  the  decisive 
moment  in  his  career.  Intercourse  with  the 
young  but  capable  leader  of  the  new  Russian 
school  of  music,  and  with  his  disciples,  Cui, 
Moussorgsky,  and  Borodin,  awoke  in  the  yonng 
naval  cadet  an  ambition  to  study  the  art  to 
more  serious  purpose.  He  had  only  just  begun 
to  profit  by  Balakirev's  teaching  when  he  was 
sent  abroad  ;  but,  undaunted  by  the  interrup- 
tion, during  this  cruise,  which  lasted  three 
years  (1862-65),  he  completed  a  symphony, 
op.  1.  From  the  letters  which  he  ^\Tote  at 
this  time  to  Cesar  Cui  it  is  evident  that  he 
composed  under  great  difficulties,  but  the  work 
was  completed  in  spite  of  them,  and,  movement 
by  movement,  the  manuscript  was  sent  to 
Balakirev  for  advice  and  correction.  The  work 
was  performed  for  the  first  time  in  December 
1865,  when  Balakirev  conducted  it  at  one  of 
the  concerts  of  the  Free  School  of  Music,  St, 
Petersburg.  It  was  the  first  symphony  ifroni 
the  pen  of  a  native  composer,  and  the  public, 
who  gave  it  a  hearty  reception,  were  surprised 
when  a  youth  in  naval  uniform  appeared  to 
acknowledge  their  ovation.  Rimsky- Korsakov 
now  remained  in  St.  Petersbui*g,  and  was  able 
to  renew  his  musical  studies  and  his  close 
association  with  the  circle  of  Balakirev. 

The  compositions  which  followed  the  First 
Symphony— ^ the  symphonic  poem  *Sadko' 
(1867),  and  the  opera  *  Pskovitianka '  (*The 
Maid  of  Pskov ') — called  the  attention  of  all 
musical  Russia  to  this  promising  composer. 
In  1871  he  was  appointed  professor  of  com- 
position and  instrumentation  in  the  St.  Peters- 
burg Conservatoire.  He  retired  from  the  na\'3', 
which  can  never  have  been  a  congenial  profes- 
sion, in  1873,  and  at  the  wish  of  the  Grand 
Duke  Constantiue  Nicholaevich  was  appointed 


RIMSKY-KORSAKOV 


RIMSKY-KORSAKOV 


103 


inspector  of  naval  bands,  a  post  which  ho  held 
an  til  it  was  abolished  in  1884.  From  1883  to 
1S84  he  was  assistant  director  to  the  Conrt 
Chapel  nnder  Balakirev.  Succeeding  to  Bala- 
kirey,  he  became  director  and  conductor  of  the 
Free  School  Concerts  from  1874  to  1881,  and 
oondacted  the  Russian  Symphony  Concerts, 
inaogurated  in  St.  Petersburg  by  Bclaiev,  from 
1886  to  1900.  His  gifts  in  this  respect, 
although  ignored  in  England,  have  been  highly 
appreciated  in  Paris  and  Brussels.  Rimsky- 
Korsakov's  career  has  remained  closely  asso- 
ciated with  St.  Petersbuig,  which  was  the  scene 
of  his  earliest  successes,  and  on  more  than  one 
occasion  he  has  declined  the  directorship  of 
the  Moscow  Conseryatoire.  His  pupils  number 
some  distinguished  names :  Liadov,  Ippolitov- 
IvanoT,  Sacchetti,  Grechianinov,  and  Glazounov 
have  all  studied  under  him  for  longer  or  shorter 
periods.  In  1873  Rimsky-Korsakov  married 
Xadejda  Nicholaevna  Pourgold,  a  gifted  pianist, 
who  proved  a  helpmeet  in  the  tniest  sense  of 
the  word.  This  lady  and  her  sister,  A.  P. 
Molas,  have  played  important  parts  in  the 
history  of  the  modem  Russian  school ;  the' 
former  by  her  clever  pianoforte  arrangements 
of  many  of  the  great  orchestral  works,  while 
the  latter,  gifted  with  a  fine  voice  and  dramatic 
instinct,  created  most  of  the  leading  female 
roles  in  the  operatic  works  of  Cui,  Moussorgsky, 
and  Borodin,  before  they  obtained  a  hearing  at 
the  Imperial  Opera. 

Rimsky-Korsakov  had  already  composed  his 
symphonic  works  'Sadko'  and  *  An  tar,'  and 
Ids  opera  *  Pbkovitianka,'  and  had  been  ap- 
]ioint6d  professor  at  the  St.  Petersburg  Conser- 
vatoire, when  his  'ideal  conscientiousness' 
awoke  in  him  some  doubts  as  to  the  solidity 
of  his  early  musical  education.  Admirably  as 
the  system  of  self-education  had  worked  in  his 
case,  he  still  felt  it  a  duty  to  undergo  a  severe 
coarse  of  theoretical  study  in  order  to  have  at 
his  disposal  that  supreme  mastery  of  technical 
means  in  which  all  the  great  classical  masters 
excelled.  Accordingly  he  began  to  work  at 
fugae  and  counterpoint,  thereby  calling  forth 
from  Tchaikovsky,  in  1875,  this  tribute  of  ad- 
miration :  '  I  do  not  know  how  to  express  all 
my  respect  for  your  artistic  temperament.  .  .  . 
I  am  a  mere  artisan  in  music,  but  you  will  be 
an  artist  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  word.' 
Moat  of  Rimsky-Korsakov's  early  works  have 
been  revised  since  this  period  of  artistic  dis- 
cipline. In  the  earlier  phases  of  his  career  he 
was  obviously  influenced  by  Glinka  and  Liszt, 
and  in  a  lesser  degree  by  Schumann  and  Berlioz. 
The  imitative  period  was,  however,  of  short 
duration,  and  perhaps  no  contemporary  com- 
poser can  boast  a  more  individiial  and  distinctive 
utterance  than  Rimsky-Korsakov.  But  its  dis- 
tinctiveness liea  in  extreme  refinement  and 
restraint  rather  than  in  violent  and  sensational 
expression.     He  wins  but  does  not  force  our 


attention.  A  lover  of  musical  beauty  rather 
than  musical  truth — or,  to  put  it  more  justly, 
believing  truth  to  lie  in  idealistic  rather  than 
realistic  methods  of  ci^eation,  he  was  never 
deeply  influenced  by  the  declamatory  and  natu- 
ralistic style  of  Dargom^jsky  and  Moussorgsky. 
Like  Tchaikovsky,  he  has  divided  his  career 
between  operatic  and  symphonic  music,  but 
with  a  steadily  increasing  tendency  towards  the 
former.  After  his  first  symphony,  written  on 
more  or  less  conventional  lines,  he  showed  a 
distinct  preference  for  the  freer  forms  of  pro- 
gramme music,  as  shown  in  the  symphonic  poem 
'Sadko,'  the  Oriental  Suite  'Antar,'  and  the 
Symphonic  Suite  *  Scheherezade. '  In  the  Sin- 
fonietta  upon  Russian  themes,  and  the  Third 
Symphony  in  C  major,  he  returns  to  more 
traditional  treatment.  Of  all  his  orchestral 
works  the  Spanish  Capriccio  seems  to  have  met 
with  the  greatest  appreciation  in  England. 
Almost  without  exception  Rimsky-Korsakov's 
symphonic  works  are  distinguished  by  a  poetic 
and  tactful  expression  of  national  sentiment. 
His  art  is  rooted  in  the  Russian  soil,  and  the 
national  element  pervades  it  like  a  subtle  but 
unmistakable  aroma.  We  may  be  repelled  or 
fascinated  by  it,  according  to  individual  taste, 
but  we  are  forced  to  recognise  that  this  is 
not  mere  local  colour  laid  on  by  a  coarse  brush 
to  give  factitious  and  sensational  interest  to 
music  which  would  be  otherwise  commonplace 
in  character,  but  an  essential  product  of  the 
national  spirit. 

His  music  invariably  carries  the  charm  of 
expressive  orchestration.  Taking  it  up  where 
Glinka  left  it  in  his  *  Jota  Aragonese'  and  in- 
cidental music  to  *  Prince  Kholmsky,'  Rimsky- 
Korsakov  has  developed  this  characteristic 
quality  of  Russian  musicians  beyond  any  of  his 
contemporaries,  without,  however,  overstepping 
the  bounds  of  what  sane  minds  must  still  re- 
gard as  legitimate  eflect.  He  is  at  his  best  in 
descriptive  orchestration — in  the  suggestion  of 
landscape  and  atmospheric  conditions.  But 
his  clear  objective  outlook  leads  him  to  a 
luminous  and  definite  tone-painting  quite  dif- 
feretft  from  the  subtle  and  dreamy  impressionism 
of  Debussy.  The  musical  pictures  of  Rimsky- 
Korsakov  are  mostly  riant  and  sunny ;  some- 
times breezy  and  boisterous,  as  in  the  sea-music 
of  *  Sadko '  and  *  Scheherezade ' ;  often  full  of 
a  quaint  pastoral  grace,  as  in  the  springtide 
music  in  his  opera  'The  Snow  Maiden.'  His 
harmony  has  freshness  and  individuality.  He 
makes  considerable  use  of  the  old  Church  modes 
and  Oriental  scales. 

All  Rimsky-Korsakov's  operas,  except  'Mozart 
and  Salieri,'  are  based  upon  national  subjects, 
historical  or  legendary.  Tales  from  the  Slavonic 
mythology,  which  combine  poetical  allegory  with 
fantastic  humour,  exercise  the  greatest  attraction 
for  him.  In  his  first  opera,  *  The  Maid  of  Pskov,  * 
he  evidently  started  under  the  partial  influence 


104 


RIMSKY-KORSAKOV 


RIMSKY-KORSAKOV 


of  Dargorngsky's  '  Tlie  Stone  Gnest/  for  the  solo 
jiarts  consist  chiefly  of  mezzo  •I'ecitative,  the 
dryness  of  which  is  compensated  by  the  orches- 
tral colour  freely  employed  in  tlie  accompani- 
ments. In  the  two  operas  which  followed,  '  A 
Night  in  May'  and  'The  Snow  Maiden,'  the 
dramatic  realism  of  his  first  work  for  the  stage 
gives  place  to  lyrical  inspiration  and  the  free 
flight  of  fancy.  With  '  Mozart  and  Salieri ' — 
a  setting  of  Poushkin's  dramatiis  duologue — 
and  *The  Boyarina  Vera  Sheloga'  Rimsky- 
Korsakov  shows  a  return  to  the  declamatory 
style,  while  'Sadko/  which  appeared  in  1896, 
is  a  skilful  compromise  between  lyrical  and 
dramatic  forms,  and  may  be  accepted  as  the 
mature  expression  of  his  artistic  creed.  Of  all 
his  operatic  works,  *  The  Snow  Maiden,'  founded 
upon  OstroYsky's  poetical  legend  of  the  spring- 
tide, has  jjerhaps  the  most  characteristic  charm, 
and  seems  best  calculated  to  win  popular  favour 
outside  Russia.  '  Sadko,'  the  thematic  material 
for  which  is  partly  drawn  from  the  symphonic 
ix}em  of  the  same  name,  is  more  epic  in  char- 
acter and  full  of  musical  interest.  It  must  be 
surmised  that  it  is  only  the  peculiarly  national 
character  of  the  libretto  which  has  hindered 
this  remarkable  work  from  becoming  more 
widely  known.  Time,  which  must  inevitably 
biidge  over  this  intellectual  gulf  which  separates 
eastern  and  western  Europe,  will  probably  bring 
these  two  masterpieces  of  Russian  art  to  Paris, 
and  perhaps  farther  afield.  Most  of  Rimsky- 
Korsakov's  operas  combine  with  this  strong 
national  element  that  also  of  the  neighbouring 
East 

As  a  song-writer  he  takes  a  high  place  in  a 
school  which  has  shown  itself  pre-eminent  in 
this  branch  of  art.  He  has  composed  about 
eighty  songs,  remarkable  for  an  all-round  level 
of  excellence,  for  few  are  really  poor  in  quality, 
while  the  entire  collection  comprises  such  lyrical 
gems  as  'Night,'  the  Hebrew  song  ('Awake, 
long  since  the  dawn  appeared '),  '  A  Southern 
night,'  'Spring,'  and  'Come  to  the  kingdom  of 
roses  and  wine.'  In  his  songs,  as  in  his  operas, 
he  inclines  more  to  the  lyrical  grace  of  Glinka 
than  to  the  declamatory  force  of  Dargomijsky. 
His  melodies  are  not  lacking  in  distinction  and 
charm,  especially  when  they  approacli  in  style 
to  the  melodies  of  the  folk-songs  ;  but  in  this 
respect  he  is  somewhat  lacking  in  im{)assioned 
inspiration  and  copious  invention.  The  rich- 
ness and  picturesqueness  of  his  accompaniments 
make  tlie  characteristic  interest  of  his  songs. 

A  close  study  of  the  works  of  Rimsky-Kor- 
sakov  reveals  a  distinguished  musical  person- 
ality ;  a  thinker,  a  fastidious  and  exquisite 
craftsman,  an  artist  of  that  refined  and  dis- 
criminating type  who  is  chiefly  concerned  in 
satisfying  the  demands  of  his  own  conscience 
rather  than  the  tastes  of  the  general  public. 
Outside  Russia  he  has  been  censured  for  his 
exclusive  devotion  to  national  ideals.     On  the 


other  hand,  some  Russian  critics  have  accused 
him  of  opening  the  door  to  AVagnerism  in 
national  opera.  This  is  only  true  in  so  far  as 
he  has  grafted  upon  the  older  lyrical  forms  the 
use  of  some  modem  methods,  notably  the 
occasional  employment  of  the  leitmotif.  As 
regards  instrumentation  he  has  a  remarkable 
faculty  for  the  invention  of  new  and  brilliant 
effects,  and  is  a  master  in  the  skilful  use  of 
onomatopa3ia.  Given  a  temperament,  musically 
endowed,  which  sus  its  subject  with  the  direct 
and  observant  vision  of  the  painter,  instead  of 
dreaming  it  through  a  mist  of  subjective  exal- 
tation, we  get  a  type  of  mind  that  naturally 
tends  to  a  programme  which  is  clearly  defined. 
Rimsky-Korsakov  belongs  to  this  class.  We 
feel  in  all  his  music  the  desire  to  depictf  which 
so  often  inclines  us  to  the  language  of  the 
studio  in  attempting  to  express  the  quality  of 
his  work.  His  music  is  entirely  free  from  that 
tendency  to  melancholy  unjustly  supposed  to 
be  the  characteristic  of  all  Russian  art  The 
folk-songs  of  Great  Russia — the  source  from 
which  the  national  composers  have  drawn  their 
inspiration — are  pretty  evenly  divided  between 
the  light  and  shade  of  life ;  it  is  the  former 
aspect  which  makes  the  strongest  appeal  to 
the  vigorous,  optimistic,  but  highly  poetical 
temperament  of  this  musician. 

Many  gifted  members  of  the  New  Russian 
School  were  prevented  by  illness,  by  the  enforced 
choice  of  a  second  vocation,  and  by  the  imperfect 
conditions  of  artistic  life  fifty  or  sixty  years 
ago,  from  acquiring  a  complete  musical  educa- 
tion. Rimsky-Korsakov,  out  of  the  fulness  of 
his  own  technical  equipment,  has  ever  been 
ready  to  sacrifice  time  and  labour  in  the  interest 
of  his  fellow-workers.  Thus,  he  orchestrated 
'  The  Stone  Guest '  which  Dargomijsky  endea- 
voured to  finish  on  his  death -bed ;  part  of 
Borodin's  'Prince  Igor'  and  Moussorgsky's 
operas  '  Khovantshina '  and  '  Boris  Godounov.' 

In  1889,  during  the  Paris  Exhibition,  he  con- 
ducted two  concerts  devoted  to  Russian  music 
given  in  the  Salle  Trocad^ro.  In  1890  and 
again  in  1900  he  conducted  concerts  of  Russian 
music  in  the  Th^&tre  de  la  Mounaie,  Brussels. 

In  March  1905,  in  consequence  of  a  letter 
published  in  the  JHusSf  in  which  he  advocated 
the  autonomy  of  the  St.  Petersbui^  Conserva- 
toire, hitherto  under  the  management  of  the 
Imperial  Russian  Musical  Society,  and  com- 
plained of  the  too  stringent  police  supervision 
to  which  the  students  were  subjected,  Rimsky- 
Korsakov  was  dismissed  from  his  professorship. 
This  high-handed  action  on  the  part  of  the 
authorities  was  deeply  resented  by  all  his 
colleagues,  and  Glazounov,Liadov,  and  Blnmen- 
feld  immediately  resigned  their  posts  by  way 
of  protest  By  the  autumn  of  the  same  year 
the  Conservatoire  had  actually  wrested  some 
powers  of  self-government  from  the  Musical 
Society,    and    having    elected    Glazonnov    as 


RINALDO 


RINALDO  DI  CAPUA 


106 


director,  the  new  committee  lost  no  time  in 
re-instating  Rimsky-Korsakov  in  the  professor- 
ship of  composition  and  instnimentation  which 
he  had  honourably  filled  since  1871.  The 
following  is  a  list  of  Rimsky-Korsakov's  numer- 
ous oompositions : — 


Okchbtbal 


flfvpliaBT  Nok  I,  4  minor,  op.  1,  AftenrardB  tmn«poMd  Into 
Mr;  Syniphonjr  No.  2,  'Antar.'  op.  9.  afterwardti  entitled 
'*-'  *"*•-•  Sjmphony  No.  S,  C  minor,  up.  32,  1873,  rcviaed 


E  minor: 
'<)r{cstnl  Sidte' 

IflM;  SiBfouietta  on  Rvnlaa  thomat,  A  minor.' op.  SI.  Orerturv 
on  KuHten  theme*,  opu  38 :  *  Euter,'  oTertnre,  op.  M,  1888 ; '  Sedko, 
mnriol  pictvn.  opu  S.  MIS?,  rariaed  18B1 ;  Serbian  FantaaiA,  op.  6; 
*  A  Ikte.^  op.  9.  rabjeet  trout  the  Prologoe  of  Pooahkin  a  '  Roaalan 
maA  UowiBiillja' :  Caprlorto  on  Spaniah  themee,  op.  34. 1887 ;  Bym- 
phoaie  fhUte '  Sehahcraade '  (from  the  AraMan  IfigkU),  op.  3S,  1888 ; 
^ttitM  fnim  the  opetna '  The  Snow  Matden '  and  '  Tear  Saltana,'  and 
the  opei»-baIlet  'JUada,'  op.  67;  prelude  'At  the  Otare.'  op.  61 ; 
STiltefnimth«op«n'CbjlBUnaBBve'(  *  


I  m.). 

L  Mvaic 

String  qQart«i.  F  m«Jor,  opw  19 ;  string  aextet.  A  major  (MS.): 
fiTf4  movement  of  the  atring  quartet  on  the  theme  B-la-f. 
BelaieT) ;  third  moTcment  of  tbe  qoartet '  for  a  FMe  Day ' ;  allegro 
*A  th«  atriog  quartet  in  the  collection  'Fridaya'  ;  Serenade  for 
riuioneello  and  piiUMiftete,  op.  37. 

OBCBsmu  An>  Solo  Iirernviuam 
PUaoCorte  oonoerto,  C^  minor,   op.  30;    Fantasia  on  Buaian 
themea  ftar  TioUn  and  orcneetra. 

PiAsroroKTB 

Six  nalatioiia  an  the  them*  B-arc-h.  op.  10 ;  four  piece*,  op.  11 ; 

three  piaeei,  op.  19 ;  ilz  fugue*,  op.  17 ;  eight  Tariatlona  on  a  folk- 

tone  (Boopk  nnmber);  Are  variatioua  for  the  'ParaphnMea'  (aee 

BoaoDcr). 

ChoBAI.  with  ORfEBVTKA 

Folk-eang,  op.  90 ;  *  Slava,'  op.  21 ;  cantata  for  loprano.  tenor,  and 
mixed  dwrna.  op.  44;  'Tbe  Fir  and  the  Palm "^ (from  op.  3)  for 
faarltaae :  two  arloaoa  lor  baat, '  Azudiar'  (The  Upaa  Tree)  and  'The 
ProphK,'  opL  49 :  trio  for  female  roloea,  op.  tS3 ;  *  The  Legend  of 
i<t  Olga.'  cantAta  for  aoU  and  ohoma,  op.  58;  'Fragment  from 
UoBcr/  <mntata  for  three  female  Toioe*  and  chorua,  op.  60. 

C^OKl-B  OVLT 

Two  trio*  for  female  rolt-ea,  op.  13 ;  four  rariatioiu  and  a  fnghetta 
&v  female  quartet,  op.  14;  six  ehoruae*  a  oappella,  op.  16:  two 
■iix«d  dioniae*.  op.  18 ;  fifteen  RoaRiaii  folk-eonga,  op.  19 ;  four  trio* 
lift  male  roloe*.  op.  83, 

Soscta,  tTC 

F<»ar  ■o«ga.  op.  9 ;  foor  eonga.  op.  8 :  four  longi.  op.  4 ;  four  ionga, 
op.  7 :  *ix  aonfa,  op.  8 ;  two  aonga,  op.  25 ;  four  aongs,  op.  26 ;  four 
■ony^  op.  27;  foor  aonga,  op.  99;  four  aongs,  op.  40;  four  wnigB, 
4^  41 ;  four  fonga,  op^  42 ;  four  aong*,  op.  43  ;  four  •onp,  op.  4S ; 
five  vaagi,  op.  46;  two  doeta.  op.  47 ;  four  dneta,  op.  00;  Ave  duetn, 
"p.  31 ;  two  duel*,  op.  fi3;  four  doeta  for  tenur,  op.  85 ;  two  dueta, 
«p.  94. 

Sacrkd  WoBxa 

The  lltini7  of  St.  John  Chryvoctom  (a  portion  only),  op.  22 ; 
eiz  tTanapoMtlom*.  inclnding  the  iwalm  '  By  the  waters  of  Babylon,' 
op.  as  • ;  •  W*  ptaise  The^  U  Qod '  (MS.  1883). 

OrSKAS 

'  Th*  Maid  of  PftkOT '  ('  Pakoritianka ').  libretto  from  a  drama  by 
Mcy  a9«9-7S;  performed  St.  Petersbntg.  1878.  reriaed  in  18M): 
*  A  Night  ill  M«y.'  test  from  Gogol  (1878,  St.  PlDterabuig.  18801 ; 
'The  Snow  Maiden.'  text  from  Oatroroaky  (1880^.  St.  Petersburg, 
28n»;  ■Mlada.'faiXTopcn-ballet  fSt  Petersburg.  1893) ;  'Christmas 
Eve,'  ligtindsry  open,  text  from  Gogol,  1874  (Maryinsky  Theatre.  St. 
P»««nlnurf.  1885):  *8Bdko^'  epic-opera,  1896-96  (Private  Opera. 
Moaeow.  lSir7 ;  SC  Petenbui^.  1901) : '  Mozart  and  Salleri.'  dramatic 
•OBMS^  op.  4S,  188S  (PtiTate  Opera,  Moeoow.  1898) ;  '  Boyarina  Vera 
S^loga.'^anstcal  dramatic  prologue  to  'The  Maid  of  Pskov.'  op.  64 
cPrfvate  Opera,  Mosoow,  1899;  SL  Pfetenborg.  1902) ;  'The  Tsar's 
Bride.' lan  rPtlTate Oami,  Moeoow.  1899 ;  St.  Petenburg,  Maryinsky 
Theatnw  1901) :  'The  Tkle  of  T«ir  Saltana,  etc,'  1880-1800  (Private 
Opera^  Mowaow,  1900t:  'Bervilia'  (IflAryinaky  Theatre,  St.  Peten- 
hiirg.  1909) ;  *  Kostehe!  the  Immortal,'  an  autumn  legend  (Private 
f>pcra.  Moeoow.  1909> ;  '  Van  Toyevoda,'  'The  Tale  of  the  Invisible 
<1ty  td  Kitesh  and  tbe  Maiden  Fevronia.' 

One  h«odr«l  Rnaslan  folk-eonga,  op.  24  (1877);  forty  Russian 
folk-«on«i  asa^ :  A  PmeUeal  OuitU  to  the  Studg  «/ aarmonp  (1888). 

R.  N. 

RINALDO.  (i.)  HandeVs  first  opera  in  Eng- 
land ;  composed  in  a  fortnight,  and  produced 
at  the  King's  Theatre  in  the  Haymarket^  Feb. 
24,  1711.  The  Hbretto  was  founded  on  the 
episode  of  Rinaldo  and  Armida  in  Tasso's 
Oentgalentme  liberata  (the  same  on  which 
Glnck  based  his  '  Armida ').  Rossi  wrote  it  in 
Italian,  and  it  was  translated  into  English  by 
Aaron  HilL  The  opera  was  mounted  with 
extraordinary  magnificence,  and  had  an  unin- 


terrupted run  of  fifteen  niglits — at  that  time 
unusually  long.  The  march,  and  the  air  ^11 
tricerbero,'  were  long  popular  as  'Let  us  take 
the  road'  ('Beggar's  Opera'),  and  *Let  the  waiter 
bring  clean  glasses.'  'Lsiscia  ch'io  pianga' — 
made  out  of  a  saraband  in  Handel's  earlier  opera 

*  Almira '  (1704) — is  still  a  favourite  with  singers 
and  hearers.  [John  Walsh  published  the  songs 
in  folio  with  the  title  *  Arie  del'  opera  di  Rinaldo 
composta  dal  Signor  Hendel,  Maestro  di  Cajjella 
di  sua  Altezza  Elettorale  d' Hannover.  London, 
printed  for  J.  Walsh,  Servant  in  oidinary  to  her 
Britannick  Majesty.'  It  is  said  that  Walsh 
made  £1600  by  the  publication,  and  that  the 
comjxiser  addressed  to  him  a  satirical  letter  : — 

*  My  dear  Sir,  as  it  is  only  right  that  we  should 
be  on  an  equal  footing,  you  shall  compose  tlie 
next  opera,  and  I  will  sell  it.'     F.  K.]        6. 

(ii.)  Cantata  for  male  voices,  set  to  Goethe's 
words,  by  Johannes  Brahms  (op.  50).  First 
performed  by  the  Akademisches  Gesangverein, 
Vienna,  Feb.  28,  1869. 

RINALDO  DI  CAPUA,  an  Italian  composer 
of  the  18th  century,  of  whose  life  very  little 
is  known.  Burney  made  his  acquaintance  in 
Rome  in  1770,  and  since  he  describes  him  as 
an  old  man  we  may  suppose  him  to  have  been 
bom  about  1700-10.  F^tis  gives  1715  as  tlie 
year  of  his  birth,  and  Rudhardt  1706,  but 
neither  wiiter  states  his  authority  for  the  date. 
According  to  Burney  he  was  *  the  natural  son 
of  a  pei-son  of  very  high  rank  in  that  country 
[i.c,  the  kingdom  of  Naples],  and  at  first  studied 
music  only  as  an  accomplishment ;  but  being 
left  by  his  father  with  only  a  small  fortune, 
which  was  soon  dissipated,  he  was  forced  to* 
make  it  his  profession.'  It  has  been  assumed 
that  he  was  bom  at  Capua,  and  took  his  name 
from  that  place ;  but  it  may  be  noted  that 
whether  Rinaldo  had  a  legitimate  claim  to  it 
or  not,  Di  Capua  was  a  fairly  common  surname 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Naples  at  that  time. 
He  com}x>sed  his  first  opera  at  the  age  of  seven- 
teen, at  Vienna,  according  to  Burney ;  Spitta 
showed  that  no  opera  by  Rinaldo  was  ever 
produced  at  Vienna,  but  thought  it  pi-obable 
that  he  had  some  connection  with  that  city, 
since  Metastasio's  *Ciro  Riconosciuto,*  which 
formed  the  libretto  of  an  opera  by  Rinaldo  pro- 
duced at  Rome  in  1737,  was  set  to  music  for  the 
first  time  by  Caldara  for  performance  at  Vienna 
on  August  28,  1786.  A  further  connection 
with  the  imperial  court  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  he  composed  a  special  work  to  celebrate 
the  election  of  Francis  I.  in  1745.  It  seems, 
therefore,  not  unreasonable  to  take  Bumey's 
words  literally,  and  to  understand  that  the 
opera  *Ciro  Riconosciuto,'  though  performed 
in  Rome,  was  composed  in  Vienna.  If  this 
was  his  first  opera,  it  would  settle  1720  as  the 
year  of  Rinaldo's  birth.  Spitta  was,  however, 
not  aware  of  the  existence  of  a  few  airs  from  a 
comic  opera,  the  title  of  which  has  not  been 


106         RINALDO  DI  CAPUA 


RINCK 


preserved,  produced  at  the  Teatro  Valle  in 
Kome  in  the  autumn  of  1737.  Of  the  subse- 
quent history  of  Kinaldo's  life  nothing  is  known. 
Bumey  informs  us  that  'in  the  course  of  a 
long  life  he  has  experienced  various  vicissitudes 
of  fortune ;  sometimes  in  vogue,  sometimes 
neglected.'  Most  of  his  operas  were  given  at 
Rome,  a  few  being  produced  at  Florence  and 
Venice  ;  although  described  in  some  libretti 
as  a  Neapolitan,  no  opera  of  his  is  known  to 
have  been  performed  in  Naples.  The  Bouifons 
Italiens  performed  an  intermezzo  of  his,  'La 
Zingara '  (La  Boh^mienne),  at  Pans  in  1753,  in 
a  version  which  included  songs  by  other  com- 
posers ;  among  these  was  the  well-known  *  Tre 
giorni  son  che  Nina,'  generally  ascribed  to 
Pergolesi,  and  on  this  account  attributed  to 
Rinaldo  by  Spitta.  The  song  has,  however, 
been  recently  proved  to  be  by  another  composer 

ECre  oiobni  son  ohe  Nina],  When  Buruey 
new  him  he  was  in  somewhat  impoverished 
circumstances,  owing  to  the  indifference  of  the 
public  which  had  once  applauded  him.  He 
had  collected  his  works  with  a  view  to  making 
provision  for  his  old  age,  but  at  the  moment 
when  they  were  required,  discovered  that  his 
son  had  sold  them  for  waste  paper.  The  date 
of  his  death  is  not  known.  Bumey  mentions 
an  intermezzo  composed  for  the  Gapranica 
theatre  in  1770  ('  I  finti  ^mzzi '),  when  he  was 
already  an  old  man.  Another  opera,  *La 
donna  vendicativa*  (ascribed  by  Clement  and 
Larousse  to  1740,  though  on  no  apparent 
authority),  was  performed  in  Rome  in  1771, 
and  this  was  probably  his  last  work.  After 
this  date  we  know  only  of  '  La  Oiocondina ' 
(Rome,  1778),  which  was  pi-obably  a  revival  of 
an  earlier  work.  Bumey,  with  characteristic 
kindliness,  recommended  him  as  a  teacher  to 
William  Parsons,  who  had  studied  at  a 
Nea^iolitan  conservatorio,  where  according  to 
his  own  account  he  learnt  nothing.  Parsons 
became  Master  of  the  King's  Musick  in  1786, 
to  the  great  disappointment  of  Bumey,  to 
whom  the  post  had  been  promised.  Another 
pupil  of  Rinaldo's  was  Antonio  Aurisiccliio. 

Rinaldo  was  supposed  to  have  been  the 
inventor  of  accompanied  recitative ;  Burney 
pointed  out  that  this  invention  belonged  to 
Alessandro  Scarlatti.  Rinaldo  himself  only 
claimed  'to  have  been  among  the  first  who 
introduced  long  ritomellos  or  symphonies  into 
tlie  recitatives  of  strong  passion  and  distress, 
which  express  or  imitate  what  it  would  be 
ridiculous  for  the  voice  to  attempt.'  An 
example  from  *  Vologeso '  is  in  the  Fitzwilliam 
Museum.  His  musical  education  having  been 
that  of  an  amateur,  his  technique  of  composi- 
tion was  sometimes  defective  ;  but  apart  from 
this  slight  weakness  of  harmony,  he  was  one 
of  the  best  composers  of  his  i>eriod  for  dramatic 
])ower  and  melodic  beauty.  He  was  especially 
successful  in  brilliant  coloratura,  but  was  also 


capable  of  producing  most  attractive  light 
operas.  To  judge  from  the  few  fragments  of 
his  work  that  remain,  '  Giro  Riconosciuto '  and 
'  Vologeso'  seem  to  have  been  his  most  important 
dramatic  works. 

CATALOOUB  OF  EXTANT  WORKS  OF  BINALDO  DI  CAFUA 

Opkbas 
A  comic  opera,  luuite  unknown  (Borne,  T.  V«ll«,  1737).  Fracments : 

Palermo  B.C.M. 
Giro  Ricouowlato  (Rome.  T.  Tordinonk,  1737 ;  revived  Rome,  1739L 

PragmeiiU:    formerly  in  poaMuion  u(   SpitU;    Brit.  Mua.; 

MOntter. 
Ia  Commedia  in  Commedi*  (Rome.  T.  Valle,  1788).     Libretto: 

Brunela  Conaervatoire.  Fiagmeiita:  Palermo  R.C.1L  Ravlred 

at  Venice  (T.  San  Caviano,  1749).  Ubretto :  Venice,  Blbl.  Marc 
The  opera  was  alao  performed  in  London ;  Walsh  printed  five  air* 
aa '  The  favourite  Songa  in  the  Opera  call'd  La  Comedla  in  Comedia.' 
Rinaldo'*  name  !•  not  meuUoued,  and  the  work  waa  probabljr  a 
paaticcio ;  one  eons,  howevei. '  Nou  so  la  prole  mia.'  is  in  tae  Palermo 
ooUection.  which  bean  Rinaldo'*  namCb 
Famaoe  (Venice,  T.    8.  Giovanni  OriMMtomo.   1739).     Libretto: 

Venioe.  Bibl.  Marc. 
Vologceo  Rede'  Fartl  (Rome. T.  Aiyentlna,  173B).  Lllnvtto:  Bolopia, 

Lie.  Mu*.    Fra«ment* :  Brit.  Mua. ;  Brunei*  Cona. ;  Oambridire. 

Fiti.  Mns. ;   Dresden ;   Mttnater ;  New  York,  in  poen—iun  of 

H.  B.  Krehbiel.  Ew). 
Ia  Ubert4  Nociva  (Borne.  T.  VaUe.  1740).     Libretto:    Bolofua. 

Bmiaels  Con*.    Fragment* :  Brit.  Mn*. ;  Cambridge.  Pita.  Mu*. 

Bevived  In  Florence  (T.  Cooomero,  I'tt),  Bolagna  (T.  Fonnag- 

liari.   174S).     Libretti:    Bologna.    Aim  at   Venice   (T.    Han 

Ca**iano,  1744).    Libretto :  Bologna,  Venice. 
Tunio  Herdonlo  Ariclno  (Bome,  T.  Gapranica,  1743).     Ubretto: 

Bologna,  Bnueela  Cona. 
Le  Noxae  dl  Don  Trifone  (Rome.  T.  Axgentlna,  1743).    Libretto: 

Bologna. 
L'  AmbUione  daluaa  (Venice,  T.  S.  Caariano,  1744).     Libretto: 

BologiuK  Venice.  Revived  at  Milan  (T.  Ducale,  1745).  Ubretto: 

Bologna. 
L*  Forza  del  Snogue  (Intermeao),  (Florence,  T.  Pallaoorda.  1746). 

Libretto :  Bruaaela  Cona. 
II  bravo  4  U  beUo  (intetmeuo),  (Borne.  T.  Grauarl.  1748).  libretto  : 

Bmaaela  Con*. 
Mario  In  Numidia  (Rotne,  T.  Dame.  1748).     Ubretto:   Bologna. 

Fragment* :  BrlL  Mu*.,  Dresden.  Munich, 
n  Bravo   Burlato  (Intenneuo),  (Florence,    T.  PliUaoorda.  I74f>l. 

Libretto:  BnuaelsCou*. 
A  oomio  opera  (Borne  ?  1700).    Fragment* :  Dresden. 
II  Bipieio  in  Amoie  (Borne,  T.  Valle.  1761).    Libretto :  Bologna. 
II  Cavalier  Mignatta  \  (IntermeKzi).  (Borne,   T.  Gapranica.   1791). 
UGallopplno  /     Libretto:  Brunei* Con*. 

La  Donna  auperba  (intermeasu).  (Paris.  Opirtk,  17BSL    Ubretto: 

Brtvnela  Con*.   Fragmeuts  (with  French  words) :  Brussels  Cona. 
lA  Foria  della  Face  (Rome.  T.  Ptww.  17921.     Ubretto :  Bologna. 
La  ZIngan  (intermesso).  (Phrls.  Op4ra.  1753).    Ubrrtto :  BnTeU 

Cona.  Score,  printed  in  Plaris,  BruaselaConB.  Revived  at  Peaaro. 

1755,  a*  *  II  Veoehio  Amante  e  la  Ziiioara.'    Libretto:  Bologna. 
La  Ser^a  Spoaa  (Rome.  T.  Valle.  175.1).     Ubretto :  Bologna. 
La  Chiavarlna  (Rome,  T.  Valle,  1754).    Ubretto :  BologiM. 
Attalo  (Rome,  T.    Gapranica,    17641.      Libretto:    Brusacls   Cona. 

Rinaldo  dl  Capua  appears  here  under  the  peeudonym  of  Cleo- 

fante  Doriano. 
Adriauo  in  Sirla  (Rome.  Angentlna.  1798).     Ubretto:   Druiwels 

Coua.     Fragments:  Brit  Mua. 
La  Bmorflosa  (Florence.  T.  Coeuniero,  17BH).    Libretto :  Bologiw. 
Le    Donne   Bidicole  (intermeao),  (Rome,    T.    Gapranica.    1750). 

Ubretto:  BruaMls Cons. 
II  Gam  di  Gampagna  (fknetU),  (Borne,  T.  Pace,  1784).    Libretto: 

Bologiw,  Bmesela  Cons. 
1  Finti  PasBi  per  Ainore  (fanetta).  (Borne,  T.  Pace,  1770).    UI»«tto : 

Bologna.  Brusaels  Cons. 
La  Donna  Vendicativa  (farsetta).  (Borne.  T.  Pace.  ITH).    Libretto : 

Bologna.    Soon:  Brit  Mus. 
la  Oiooondlna  (farsetta),  (Rome.  T.  Pace.  \7t%).    Ubretto :  Bnusels 

ConH. 
[La  Stntoa  per  Puntiglio.  aacrlbed  to  R.  di  Capua  by  Eltner.  is  by 

Marcello  di  Capua.] 

Sacrbd  Muaio 
Cantata   per  la   Katlvltk  della  Bonta  Vcrgine   (Rome.  Collcgin 

Naaareno,  1747).    Score:  MOnster.     Paris,  Bibl.  Nat  t(Kltu«T}. 
A  few  other  works  ara  mentioned  by  Eltner :  symphonies,  probably 
open  overtures,  and  cantatas  (Venire)  ascribed  toCavallere  Rinaldi. 
who  may  have  been  a  different  composer. 

Airs  from  opera*  as  yet  unidentified  are  at  Cambridge,  Fits.  Mns.. 
MUnster.  and  Monteoassino. 

The  writer  is  indebted  to  Mr.  H.  E.  Krehbiel  for  notice  of  the 
aire  in  his  possession :  the  MS.  from  which  they  are  taken  formerly 
belonged  to  Thomas  Gray,  the  poet,  and  is  described  in  Mr. 
KrehbiH's  Mutie  and  Hannert  in  th»  CUmieal  Period.  Other 
authorities  consulted :  Bumey's  /Ves^nC  Statt  of  Jftuie  in  /Vanr* 
and  Italu  (1771) ;  an  article  by  SpitU  in  the  riertetfaMrttelnrift  /Gr 
MtutkwiM,.  vol.  ill.  (1887).  and  A.  Wotquenne's  CtttalcyaM  of  the 
library  of  the  Bniasels  Conservatoire,  vol.  i.  (1806).  The  two  latter 
works  give  fuller  bibliographical  detailB  than  we  have  spac«  for 
***^  E.  J.  H. 

RINCK,  or  RINK,  Johann  Christian  Hkis- 
RICH, celebrated  organist  and  composer  for  his  in- 
strument, was  bom  at  Elgersburg  in  Saxe-Gotha, 
Feb.  18,1770,  and  died  at  Darmstadt,  August  7, 
1846.     His  talent  developed  itself  at  an  early 


KINFOBZANDO 


RIOTTE 


107 


period,  and,  like  Johann  Schksidek,  he  had 
the  adTuitage  of  a  direct  traditional  reading  of 
the  works  of  Sebastian  Bach,  having  studied  at 
Erfnrt  (in  1786-89)  under  Kittel,  one  of  the 
great  composer's  best  pupils.  Rinck  having 
sat  at  the  feet  of  Forkel  at  the  University  of 
(lottingen,  obtained  in  1790  the  organistship 
of  Giessen,  where  he  held  several  other  musical 
appointments.  In  1805  he  became  organist  at 
Dumstadt,  and  '  professor '  at  its  college ;  in 
1813  was  appointed  Court  organist,  and  in 
1817  chamber  musician  to  the  Grand  Duke 
(Ladwig  I.).  Rinck  made  several  artistic  tours 
in  Germany,  his  playing  always  eliciting  much 
admiration.  At  Treves,  in  1 827,  he  was  greeted 
with  special  honour.  He  received  various 
decorations, — in  1831  membership  of  the  Dutch 
Society  for  Encouragement  of  Music  ;  in  1838 
the  cross  of  the  first  class  from  his  Grand  Duke  ; 
in  1840  '  Doctor  of  Philosophy  and  Arts '  from 
the  University  of  Giessen*  Out  of  his  1 25  works 
a  few  are  for  chamber,  including  sonatas  for  PF. , 
violin,  and  violoncello,  and  PF.  duets.  But 
his  reputation  is  based  on  his  organ  music,  or 
rather  on  his  '  Practical  Organ  School, 'a  standard 
work.  Rinck's  compositions  for  his  instrument 
show  no  trace  of  such  sublime  influence  as  might 
have  been  looked  for  from  a  pupil,  in  the  second 
generation,  of  Bach  ;  indeed,  throughout  them 
fugue -writing  is  conspicuous  by  its  absence. 
But  without  attaining  the  high  standard  which 
has  been  reached  by  living  composers  for  the 
instrument  in  Germany,  his  organ-pieces  contain 
much  that  is  interesting  to  an  organ  student. 

Rinck*s  name  will  always  live  as  that  of  an 
executant,  and  of  a  safe  guide  towards  the  form- 
ation of  a  sound  and  practical  organ-player ; 
and  Ids  works  comprise  many  artistic  studies. 
Amongst  these  the  more  important  are  the 
*  (^Tactical  Organ  School,'  in  six  divisions  (op. 
55,  re-edited  by  Otto  Dienel,  1881),  and 
numerous  '  Preludes  for  Chorales,'  issued  at 
various  periods.  He  also  composed  for  the 
church  a  *  Pater  Noster '  for  four  voices  with 
organ  (op.  59)  ;  motets,  '  Praise  the  Lord  *  (op. 
88)  and  'God  be  merciful'  (op.  109)  ;  twelve 
chorales  for  men's  voices,  etc  h.  s.  o. 

RINFORZANDO,  *  reinforcing '  or  increasing 
in  power.  This  word,  or  its  abbreviations, 
rinf.  or  r/s,  is  used  to  denote  a  sudden  and  brief 
cmceRdo,  It  is  applied  generally  to  a  whole 
phrase,  however  short,  and  has  the  same  mean- 
ing as  sffynando,  which  is  only  applied  to  single 
notes.  It  is  sometimes  used  in  concerted  music 
to  give  a  momentary  prominence  to  a  subordinate 
part,  as  for  instance  in  the  Beethoven  Quartet, 
op.  95,  in  the  Allegretto,  where  the  violoncello 
part  is  marked  rinforzando,  when  it  has  the 
second  section  of  the  principal  subject  of  the 
movement.  m. 

RING  DBS  NIBELUNGEN,  DER,  *The 
Ring  of  the  Niblung,'  a  tetralogy  or  se- 
quence of  four  music-dramas  (more  correctly 


a  *  trilogy '  with  a  proludial  drama),  words  and 
music  by  Richard  Wagner,  was  first  performed 
in  its  entirety  at  Bayreuth,  August  13,  14,  16, 
and  17,  1876,  and  repeated  during  the  two 
foUoTving  weeks.  The  book,  which  is  written 
in  an  alliterative  style  modelled  on  that  of  the 
*  Stabreim,'  is  founded  on  the  Icelandic  Sagas, 
and  has  little  in  common  with  the  Nibelungen- 
lied,  or  more  correctly  *  Der  Nibelunge  N6t,* 
a  mediaeval  German  poem  of  the  beginning  of 
the  18th  century,  in  which  the  mythical  types 
of  the  old  Norse  sagas  appear  in  humanised 
modifications.  The  poem  was  completed  in 
1852.  The  whole  was  given  at  Her  Majesty's 
Theatre,  under  the  management  of  Augelo  Neu- 
mann and  the  conductorship  of  Anton  Seidl, 
on  May  5-9,  1882  ;  four  performances  of  the 
complete  cycle  took  place.  The  dates  of  first  per- 
formances of  the  separate  parts  are  appended : — 

Das  Rheingold.  The  *  Vorabend,'  or  Pre- 
ludial  Evening,  was  first  performed  at  Munich , 
Sept.  22,  1869. 

Die  Walkure  was  completed  in  1856,  and 
the  first  performance  took  place  at  Munich 
June  25,  1870.  It  was  given  in  English  at 
Covent  Garden,  Oct.  16,  1895. 

Siegfried  was  completed  early  in  1869, 
and  first  performed  in  its  place  in  the  cycle,  at 
Bajrreuth,  August  16,  1876.  It  was  given  in 
French  at  Brussels,  June  12,  1891,  and  subse- 
quently at  the  Op^ra  in  Paris  ;  and  in  English, 
by  the  Carl  Rosa  Company,  in  1898. 

Gotterdammeruno,  completed  in  1874,  was 
first  heard  at  Bayreuth,  August  17,  1876.  The 
whole  trilogy  was  announced  for  production  in 
English  at  Covent  Garden  in  the  winter  season 
of  1907-8.  M. 

RIOTTE,  Philipp  Jacob,  bom  at  St.  Mendel, 
Treves,  August  16,  1776.  Andre  of  Oflenbach 
was  his  teacher  in  music,  and  he  made  his  first 
appearance  at  Frankfort  in  Feb.  1 804.  In  1 806 
he  was  music-director  at  Gotha.  In  1808  he 
conducted  the  French  operas  at  the  Congress  of 
Erfurt  In  April  1809  his,  operetta  *  Das  Grenz- 
stiidtchen '  was  produced  at  the  Kamthnerthor 
Theatre,  and  thenceforward  Vienna  was  his  resi- 
dence. In  1818  he  became  conductor  at  the 
Theatre  an-der-Wien,  beyond  which  he  does  not 
seem  to  have  advanced  up  to  his  death,  August 
20,  1856.  The  list  of  his  theatrical  works  is 
immense.  His  biography  in  Wurzbach's  Lexicon 
enumerates,  between  1809  and  1848,  no  less 
than  forty-eight  pieces,  operas,  operettas,ballets, 
{)antomimes,  music  to  plays,  etc.,  written  mostly 
by  himself,  and  sometimes  in  conjunction  with 
others.  In  1852  he  wound  up  his  long  laboura 
by  a  cantata  *  The  Crusade,'  which  was  performed 
in  the  great  Redoutensaal,  Vienna,  with  much 
applause.  He  wrote  an  opera  called  *  Mozart's 
Zauberflote '  at  Prague  about  1 820.  He  left  also 
a  symphony  (op.  25),  nine  solo-sonatas,  six  do. 
for  PF.  and  violin,  three  concertos  for  clarinet 
and   orchestra,    but    these    are    defunct.      He 


108 


RIPIENO 


RITORNELLO 


became  very  jMjpular  by  a  piece  called  *Tbe 
Battle  of  Leipzig,'  for  PF.  solo,  which  was 
i'e[)ublished  over  half  Germany,  and  had  a 
prodigious  sale.  g. 

RI PIENO,  *  supplementary.  *  The  name  given 
in  the  orchestral  concertos  of  the  17th  and  18th 
oen tunes,  to  the  accompanying  instruments 
which  were  only  employwi  to  till  in  the  har- 
monies and  to  support  the  solo  or  *  concertante ' 
parts.  [See  Concertante,  and  Concertino, 
vol.  i.  pp.  676-7.]  M. 

RIPPON,  John,  bom  at  Tiverton,  April  29, 
1751.  Died  in  London,  Dec.  17,  1836  {Brit. 
Mh8,  Biog,),  He  was  a  doctor  of  divinity,  and 
had  a  meeting-house  for  a  number  of  years  in 
Carter  Lane,  Tooley  Street.  His  *  Selection  of 
Psalm  and  Hymn  Tunes,'  from  the  best  authors 
in  three  and  five  parts  (1795)  was  a  tune-book 
in  much  request  for  congregational  singing, 
and  ran  through  a  large  number  of  editions. 
In  its  compilation  and  arrangement  he  was 
assisted  by  T.  Walker.  Rippon  was  composer 
of  an  oratorio  'The  Crucifixion,'  published  in 
1837.  F.  K. 

RISELEY,  George,  bom  at  Bristol,  August 
28,  1845,  was  elected  chorister  of  Bristol  Cathe- 
dral in  1852,  and  in  Jan.  1862  articled  to  Mr. 
John  Davis  Corfe,  the  Cathedral  organist,  for 
instruction  in  the  organ,  pianofoi'te,  harmony, 
and  counterpoint.  During  the  next  ten  years 
he  was  organist  at  various  dmrches  in  Bristol 
and  Clifton,  at  the  same  time  acting  as  deputy 
at  the  Cathedral.  In  1870  lie  was  appointed 
organist  to  the  Colston  Hall,  Bristol,  where  he 
started  weekly  recitals  of  classical  and  popular 
music,  and  in  1876  succeeded  Corfe  as  organist 
to  the  Cathedral.  In  1877  he  started  his  or- 
chestral concerts,  which  have  won  for  him 
a  well-deserved  reputation.  Notwithstanding 
considerable  opposition,  and  no  small  pecuniary 
risk,  he  has  continued,  during  each  season,  to 
give  fortnightly  concerts,  at  which  the  principal 
works  of  the  classical  masters  have  been  well 
performed,  and  a  large  number  of  interesting 
novelties  by  modem  writers,  both  English  and 
foreign,  produced.  [In  1878  he  was  ap}>ointed 
conductor  of  the  Bristol  Orpheus  Society,  and 
has  enlarged  its  scope  and  greatly  increased  its 
reputation.  He  is  conductor  of  the  Bristol 
Society  of  Instrumentalists,  and  was  the  founder 
of  the  Bristol  Choral  Society  in  1889.  He 
retired  with  a  2>ension  from  the  cathedral 
apiK)intment  in  1898,  and  was  appointed 
conductor  of  the  Alexandra  Palace,  and  of  the 
(Queen's  Hall  Choral  Society.  In  1896  he 
conducted  his  first  Bristol  Festival,  with  great 
success.  His  compositions  include  a  Jubilee 
Ode  (1887),  ])art-8ongs,  etc.  See  an  interesting 
article  on  him  in  Musical  TiitieSf  1899,  p. 
81  ff.]  \v.  B.  s. 

RISLER,  Joseph  Edouard,  bom  at  Baden, 
Feb.  23,  1873,  studied  at  the  Paris  Conserva- 
toire, where  he  gained,  among  other  distinctions, 


first  medals  in  solfege  and  elementary  piano  in 
1887,  a  first  piano  prize  (in  Dimmer's  class)  in 
1889,  a  second  harmony  prize  in  1892,  and 
the  firat  prize  for  accompaniment  in  1897.  On 
leaving  the  Conservatoire,  Risler  made  further 
studies  with  Dimmler,  Stavenhagen,  D* Albert, 
and  Klind worth.  In  1896  and  1897  he  was 
one  of  the  'Assistenten  auf  der  Biihue'  at 
Bayreuth,  and  took  part  as  *  r^p^titeur,*  in 
preparing  the  '  Meistersinger '  for  the  Paris 
Opera.  In  1906  he  was  appointed  a  member 
of  the  Conseil  sup^rienr  of  the  Paris  Conserva- 
toire. Risler  has  given  many  pianoforte  reoitals 
in  France,  Germany,  Holland,  Russia,  Spain, 
etc.  His  first  apjiearance  in  England  took  place 
at  Prince's  Hall,  May  17,  1894,  when  he  played 
two  sonatas  of  Beethoven,  a  master  for  whom 
he  has  a  special  predilection.  His  playing  was 
then  found  to  be  singularly  free  from  aifecta- 
tion,  although  in  his  later  years  he  has  yielded 
to  certain  mannerisms  which  detract  from  the 
artistic  beauty  of  his  earlier  performances.  His 
technique  is  very  remarkable.  He  played  the 
thii-ty-two  sonatas  of  Beethoven  in  London  in 
1906.  He  has  written  a  ooncert-trsnscriptiou 
of  Strauss's  'Till  Eulenspiegel,'  etc.        o.  F. 

RISPOSTA  (Lat.  Comes;  Eng.  *  Answer  y 
The  Answer  to  the  subject  of  a  Fugue,  or  {X}int 
of  imitation.     [See  Puoposta.] 

In  Real  Fugue,  the  answer  imitates  the 
subject,  interval  for  interval.  In  Tonal  Fugue, 
the  Tonic  is  always  answered  by  the  Dominant, 
and  vice  versa.  In  both,  the  imitation  is 
usually  conducted,  either  in  the  fifth  above 
the  Proposta,  or  the  fourth  below  it,  when  the 
subject  begins  upon  the  Tonic  ;  and,  in  the 
fourth  above,  or  the  fifth  below,  when  it  begins 
upon  the  Dominant.  [See  Fugue,  Sub- 
ject.] w,  s.  r. 

RITARDANDO;  RITENENTE ;  RITEN- 
UTO.     [See  Rallentaxdo.] 

RITORNELLO  (Abbrev.  JUtamd.,  RUor.  ; 
Fr.  llitoumellr),  I.  An  Italian  word,  literally 
signifying  a  little  i^tum  or  repetition ;  but 
more  frequently  applied,  in  a  conventional  sense, 

(1)  to  a  short  instnimentAl  melody  played 
between  the  scenes  of  an  opera,  or  even  during 
the  action,  either  for  the  purpose  of  enforcing 
some  particular  dramatic  effect  or  of  amusing 
the  audience  during  the  time  occupied  in  the 
preparation  of  some  elaborate  *  set-scene  * ;  or, 

(2)  to  the  symphonies  introduced  between  the 
vocal  phrases  of  a  song  or  anthem. 

1.  The  earliest  known  use  of  the  term,  in  its 
first  sense,  is  to  be  found  in  Peri's  *Euridice,* 
in  connection  with  a  melody  for  three  flutes, 
which,  though  called  a  *  Zinfonia '  on  its  first 
appearance,  is  afterwards  repeated  under  tlie 
title  of  *Ritoraello.*  *Euridice*  was  first 
printed  at  Florence  in  1600,  and  at  Venice  in 
1608. 

A  similar  use  of  the  term  occurs  soon  after- 
wards in  Monteverde*s  *  Orfeo,'  printed  at  Venice 


BITTER 


BITTER 


lOJ) 


in  1 609,  and  republished  in  1 6 1 5.  In  this  work , 
the  Overtiire — there  called  Toccata — is  followed 
by  a  *  Bitoraello '  in  five  parts,  the  rhythmic 
form  of  which  is  immeasurably  in  advance  of 
the  age  in  which  it  was  produced.  [Both  toccata 
and  ritomello  are  printed  in  the  MusiecU  Tivies 
for  1880,  in  an  essay  on  Monteverde  ;  and  the 
toccata  is  given  in  Parry's  SeveiUeemik  Century 
{fhford  Hist,  of  M'uaic,  vol.  iii),  p.  51.] 

2.  When  vocal  music  with  instrumental 
accompaniment  became  more  extensively  culti- 
vated, the  word  was  brought  into  common  use,  in 
its  second  sense,  as  applied  to  the  instrumental 
symphonies  of  a  song,  or  other  composition  for 
a  solo  voice.  Ritomelli  of  this  kind  were  ftreely 
a:)ed  by  Cavalli,  Gesti,  Garissimi,  and  many 
other  composers  of  the  early  Venetian  dramatic 
school,  who  imitated  their  manner.  An  example 
from  Cavalli's  *  II  Giasone '  will  be  found  at 
vol.  iiL  p.  440.  Towards  the  close  of  the 
17th  century  such  instrumental  interpolations 
became  very  common,  in  all  styles  and  countries. 
For  instaneey  in  early  editions  of  the  Verse 
Aathema,  of  Croft,  Greene,  and  other  English 
compoeeTS,  of  the  17  th  and  18  th  centuries,  we 
constantly  iind  the  words  'Ritomel.,'  *Ritor.,' 
or  'Rit,'  printed  over  little  interludes,  which, 
unknown  in  the  more  severe  kind  of  ecclesiastical 
mnsic,  formed  a  marked  feature  in  works  of  this 
particular  school,  frequently  embodying  some  of 
its  choicest  scraps  of  melody,  as  in  Dr.  Boyce's 
Anthem,  'The  Heavens  declare  the  glory  of 
God.' 

In  later  editions  the  term  disappears,  its  place 
being  supplied,  in  the  same  passages,  by  the 
words  '  Organ,'  or  '  Sym.' ;  which  last  abbrevia- 
tion is  almost  invariably  found  in  old  copies  of 
Handel's  songs,  and  other  similar  music,  in 
which  the  symphonies  are  interpolated,  as  often 
as  opportunity  permits,  upon  the  line  allotted 
to  the  voice. 

II.  An  ancient  form  of  Italian  verse,  in  which 
each  Strophe  consists  of  three  lines,  the  first  and 
third  of  which  rhyme  with  each  other,  after  the 
manner  of  the  Term  rima  of  Dante.  Little  Folk- 
Songs  of  this  character  are  still  popular,  under 
the  name  of  '  Ritomelli '  or  '  Stomelli,'  among 
the  peasants  of  the  Abruzzi  and  other  motmtain 
regions  of  Italy.  w.  8.  r. 

RITTER,  Fr«d£ric  Louis,  bomat  Strasburg, 
June  22,  1884.  His  paternal  ancestors  were 
S[janish,  and  the  family  name  was  originally 
Caballero.  His  musical  studies  were  begun  at 
an  early  age  under  Hauser  and  Schletterer,  and 
continued  at  Paris  (whither  he  was  sent  when 
sixteen  years  of  age)  under  the  supervision  of 
his  cousin,  Georges  Kastner.  Possessed  with 
the  idea  that  beyond  the  Rhine  he  would  find 
better  opportunities  forthe  study  of  composition, 
he  ran  away  to  Germany,  where  he  remained^ 
for  two  years,  assiduously  pursuing  his  studies 
with  eminent  musicians,  and  attending  concerts 
whenever  good  music  could  be  heard.     Return- 


ing to  Lorraine,  aged  eighteen,  he  was  nominated 
professor  of  music  in  the  Protestant  seminary 
of  Fen^strange,  and  invited  to  conduct  a  Societe 
de  Concerts  at  Bordeaux.  The  representations 
made  by  some  of  his  fandly  who  had  settled  in 
America  induced  him  to  visit  the  New  ^N^orld, 
He  spent  a  few  years  in  Cincinnati,  where  his 
enthusiasm  worked  wondera  in  the  development 
of  taste.  The  Cecilia  (choral)  and  Philharmonic 
(orchestral)  Societies  were  established  by  him, 
and  a  large  number  of  important  works  presented 
at  their  concerts  for  the  first  time  in  the  United 
States.  In  1861  Ritter  went  to  New  York,, 
becoming  conductor  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic 
Society  for  seven  years,  and  of  the  Arion  Choial 
Society  (male  voices),  and  instituting  (1867)  the 
first  musical  festival  held  in  that  city.  In  1867 
he  was  appointed  dii-ector  of  the  musical  depart- 
ment of  Vassar  College,  Poughkeepsie,  whither 
he  removed  in  1874  on  resigning  his  conductor- 
ships.  The  University  of  New  York  conferred 
on  him  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Music  in  1878. 
He  died  at  Antwerp,  July  22,  1891.  Ritter's 
literary  labours  have  included  articles  on  musical 
topics  printed  in  French,  German,  and  American 
periodicals.  His  most  important  work  is  A 
History  of  Music,  in  the  Form  of  Lectures — vol.  i. 
1870  ;  vol.  iL  1874,  Boston  ;  both  republished 
byW.  Reeves,  London,  1876.  Music  in  Englaiid 
appeai-ed  in  New  York  in  1883,  and  Music  in 
America  in  the  same  year. 

The  following  works  have  appeared  in  the 
catalogues  of  Hamburg,  Leipzig,  Mainz,  and 
New  York  publishers  : — 

OpL  1.  'H*fls,'  cyelus  of  Penlan.Op.  10.  PiT«  taofpu     TVn    Irbih 
M«lodlM  wlUi  new  PF. 


inn. 

2.  Preainbnle  Scheno*.  PF. 

3.  Ton  diildren'a  Ktugs. 

4.  Fairy  Lore. 

B.  Kight  PF..P10OW. 

6.  Six  longa. 

7.  FlTeohonw 
a  PHUmxxlii. 


11.  Orgiui  fantMla  and  fapie. 

12.  Voices  of  the  Night,  PF. 
'  O  Salutarla,'  baritone,  oigan. 
'  Are  Uaria/  ueso-aopr.,  organ. 


One  string  quartet;  three  PF. 

Do. 
Fsalni  iv.  baritone  solo,  ohonu, 

and  orehMtra. 
Plalm  xlrl.,  aolo,  chor.  and  orch. 
Paalm   xofv.  fenude  voices   with 


ticca.  '  Pfcrting,'  song,  meuo-sopnuio. 
le  voices.  A  practical  Alethod  for  the  lu- 
I      stmctionof  Choms-classes. 

The  following  are  his  most  important  unpub- 
lished com])osition8 : — 

S  Symphonies— A,  E  minor.  Ei>. 
'  Stella.'     Poinie  •  eymphoulque, 

d'aprta  v.  Hngo. 
OTerture,  'Othello.' 
Concerto,  PF.  and  orch. 

Do.       Tloloucello  and  orch. 
Fantasia,  baas  clarinet  and  orch. 

Dr.  Ritter's  wife,  nie  Raymond,  is  known 
under  the  name  of  Fanny  Raymond  Rittek 
(bom  at  Philadelphia  in  1840),  as  an  author  and 
translator  of  works  on  musical  subjects.  She 
brought  out  translations  of  Ehlert's  Letters  on 
Music,  to  a  Lady;  and  of  Schumann's  Essays 
and  Criticisms — ^in  two  series,  as  Music  and 
Musicans ;  and  a  pamphlet  entitled  Wmnan 
as  a  Musician  —  all  published  by  Reeves, 
London.  f.  h.  j. 

RITTER,  Hermann,  sou  of  a  German 
government  official,  was  bom  at  Wismar,  M  eckleii- 
burg,  Sept.  26,  1849.  A  gifted  writer  and  able 
violinist  and  musician,  he  attracted  considerable 
public  interest  in  Germany  during  the  latter 
half  of  the  10th  century  by  his  performances. 


110 


RITTER 


RIZZIO 


oil  the  'Viola  Altaian  instrument  which  he 
claimed  to  be  his  own  invention.  While  study- 
ing history  and  art  at  the  Heidelberg  University, 
Herr  Ritter  became  deeply  interested  in  the 
history  of  musical  instmments,  and  the  desire 
to  improve  the  muffled  tone  of  the  oi*dinary 
viola  induced  him  to  attempt  the  construction 
of  a  similar  instrument  which  should  possess 
the  acute  resonant  qualities  of  the  violin. 
Accoi-ding  to  his  own  account,  this  consumma- 
tion was  effected  by  the  aid  of  the  rules  laid 
down  by  Antonio  Bagatella  in  his  pamphlet 
entitled  Regoh  per  la  costrusiont  di  KioUni, 
Viole^  VioloncellijC  Vwlom^etc.  etc., Padua,  1786, 
x)f  which  a  second  edition  apt)eared  in  Padua 
in  1883,  and  German  translations  at  Padua  in 
1786  and  Leipzig  in  1806.  In  point  of  fact 
Hermann  Ritter's  *  Viola  Alta '  was  in  reality  a 
revival  of  the  large  'Tenor  Viol,'  that  direct 
descendant  of  those  iiistrumetUs  de  remplissage 
the  Quiittea.n&  Haute  Contre,  which  he  methodised 
into  a  tenor  of  extra  large  proportions  constructed 
on  the  scientific  acoustical  basis  appertaining  to 
the  violin.  His  public  api)oarances  with  the 
instrument  began  in  1876.  They  attracted 
the  consideration  of  many  eminent  composers, 
and  Wagner,  who  was  at  that  time  occupied 
with  his  'Nibelungen,'  invited  his  aid  for  the 
production  of  that  opera  in  the  same  year. 
After  completing  this  engagement  Herr  Ritter 
travelled  for  several  years,  touring  in  Germany, 
Austria,  Switzerland,  Holland,  Russia,  England, 
and  Scotland,  and  in  1879  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  musical  history  and  (esthetics,  as 
well  as  of  the  viola,  at  the  Royal  School  of 
music  at  AVurzburg.  There  his  talents  and 
personal  influence  were  the  means  of  attracting 
a  vast  number  of  students,  who  assisted  in 
spreading  the  fame  of  his  invention,  and  in 
1889  five  of  his  pupils  were  playing  in  the 
orchestra  of  the  Bayreuth  festival.  In  1889  ho 
was  learnedly  advocating  the  use  of  a  three-footed 
binder  in  a  pamphlet  entitled  £>cr  DreifUssige 
oder  Normal-Geigemtey  (Wiirzburg,  G.  Hartz). 

The  Grand  Duke  of  Mecklenburg  appointed 
Herr  Ritter  his  *  Court  Chamber  Virtuoso,'  and 
the  Emperor  Ludwig  II.  of  Bavaria  gave  him 
the  title  of  *  Court  Professor. '  He  married  the 
singer  Justine  Haecker  in  1884.  Ho  wrote 
and  arranged  an  immense  amount  of  music  for 
his  *  Viola  Alta '  and  traced  its  history  in  his 
book  entitled  Die  Geschiehte  des  Viola  Alia 
(Leipzig,  Merseburg).  (See  Viola.)  G.  Adema, 
Hermann  Ritter  und  seine  Viola  alta  (Wiirzburg, 
1881,  2nd  edition,  1890);  Hermann  Ritter, 
Die  Viola  alta  oder  Altgeige  (Leipzig,  1885),  1st 
edition,  Heidelberg,  1876,  2nd  edition,  Leipzig, 
1877.     (Riemann,  Diet,  of  Music)     E.  h-a. 

RITTER  (properly  Bennet),  Theodore, 
bom  near  Paris,  April  6,  1841,  was  a  pupil  of 
Liszt  and  wrote  a  number  of  successful  drawing- 
room  pieces  (*  Chant  du  braconnier,'  *  Sylphes,' 
etc).    He  produced  two  o{)eras  (*  Marianne,'  at  , 


Paris  in  1861,  and  '  La  dea  risorta,'  at  Florence, 
1865)  ;  he  died  in  Paris,  April  6,  1886. 

RIVARDE,  Serge  Achille,  %'iolinist,  was 
bom  on  Oct.  31,  1865,  in  New  York  of  an 
American  mother,  his  father  being  a  Spaniard. 
He  lived  in  America  till  the  age  of  eleven, 
receiving  lessons  successively  firom  Felix  Simon, 
Henri  Wieniawski  and  Joseph  AVhite  (a  man 
of  colour).  Coming  to  Europe  he  entered  the 
Paris  Conservatoire,  to  become  a  pupil  of  Charles 
Dancla.  He  won  a  first  prize  in  July  1879,  shar- 
ing the  same  with  Franz  Ondricek.  In  1881 
he  returned  to  America,  where  he  stayed  three 
years,  and  then  gave  up  violin-i)laying  entirely 
for  a  time.  In  1885  he  came  back  to  Paris  and 
entered  Lamoureux's  orchestra,  in  which  he 
remained  for  five  years  as  princi^tal  violin,  and 
occasional  soloist.  He  gave  up  the  appointment 
in  1891  and  made  hisd^but  in  London  in  1894. 
In  1899  he  took  the  post  of  violin  professor 
at  the  Royal  College  of  Music.  He  is  occa- 
sionally heard  as  soloist  in  London  and  abroad, 
being  the  possessor  of  an  exceptionally  pure 
style,  but  spends  most  of  his  time  in  teaching. 
Until  recently  he  played  almost  exclusively 
upon  violins  made  by  a  modern  maker, 
Sze^^essy  Bela,  but  recently  has  tiiken  to  a 
Nicolas  Lupot.  w.  w.  c. 

RIVISTA  MUSICALS  ITALIANA,  an  im- 
])ortant  quarterly  review  on  music,  published 
by  the  firm  of  Bocca  in  Turin,  and  edited  by 
L.  Torchi.  Each  quarterly  *  fascicolo  *  contains 
about  200  pages  in  Italian  or  French,  the 
articles  headed  'Memorie'  dealing  frequently 
with  points  of  musical  arclueology,  while  '  Arte 
contem})oranea '  is  the  heading  of  those  which 
treat  of  current  events  or  the  criticism  of  new 
music.  Operas  and  other  works  of  importance 
are  discussed  in  detail,  there  are  illustrations, 
musical  and  otherwise,  and  shorter  reviews  of 
musical  books  appear  under  the  title  of '  Reoen- 
sioni.'  A  useful  feature  is  a  list  of  articles  on 
music  which  appear  in  other  periodicals.  Among 
the  Italian  contributors  to  the  first  volume 
may  be  mentioned  Signori  Chilesotti,  Giani,  de 
Piccolellis,  Tacchinardi,  Tebaldini,  and  Vald- 
righi ;  while  the  names  of  some  of  the  most 
eminent  writers  of  other  countries,  such  as 
Guido  Adler,  F.  Draeseke,  F.  A.  Qevaert,  Adolphe 
Jullien,  Arthur  Pougin,  Saint-Saens,  Philipp 
Spitta,  and  J.  Weckerlin,  appear  in  the  list  of 
contributors.  The  publication  began  in  1894, 
and  has  maintained  a  high  standard  of  excellence 
ever  since.  m. 

RIZZIO,  David  (Rizzi,  or  Ricci),  the  son 
of  a  professional  musician  and  dancing-master, 
bom  at  Turin,  in  Italy,  in  the  early  years  of 
the  16th  century.  He  obtained  a  post  at  the 
court  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  and  came  over  to 
Scotland  in  the  train  of  the  ambassador  in 
1661.  With  his  brother  Joseph  he  remained 
in  the  service  of  Queen  Mary,  in  the  first  in- 
stance as  a  bass  singer,  receiving  £80  per  year. 


ROAST  BEEF  OF  OLD  ENGLAND 


ROBERTS 


111 


He  so  won  his  way  into  her  favour  (no  doubt 
primarily  by  liis  ability  in  connection  with 
court  masques,  of  which  she  was  so  fond),  that 
he  became,  in  1564,  her  foreign  secretary.  By 
this  he  aroused  political  and  other  feelings,  and 
he  was  stabbed  to  death,  almost  in  the  Queen's 
prussence,  in  Holyrood  Palace,  on  the  evening 
of  March  9,  1566. 

Tliere  is  no  doubt  that  Rizzio  exercised  some 
inHuence  on  the  music  then  fashionable  in  Scot- 
land (or  at  least  in  Edinburgh),  and  there  appears 
to  have  been  a  very  strong  tradition  that  he  was 
the  composer  of  several  of  the  well-known  Scots 
tunes.  In  1725  William  Thomson  in  the 
*  Orpheus  Caledonius '  puts  this  tradition  into 
deiinite  form  by  affixing  a  mark  to  seven  of  the 
airs  there  engraved,  stating  them  to  be  the  com- 
{•osition  of  Rizzio  (see  Orpheus  Caledonius). 
James  Oswald  and  others  have  in  one  or  two 
instances  also  assigned  other  airs  to  Rizzio  with 
probably  less  of  tradition  to  justify  them.     f.  K. 

ROAST  BEEF  OF  OLD  ENGLAND,  THE 
An  Knglifib  national  song  whose  tune  has 
beoome  associated  with  the  serving  of  dinner 
at  public  functions,  and  occasionally  used  as  a 
signal  for  the  same  in  the  army. 

The  air  is  a  fine  marked  specimen  of  English 
melody,  and  is  probably  the  composition  of 
Richard  Leveridge,  who  doubtless  sang  the  song 
in  public.  The  first  two  verses  were  inserted 
in  Henry  Fielding's  ballad  opera,  *  Don  Quixote 
in  England,'  produced  in  1733.  They  ai*e 
considertxl  to  be  by  Fielding  himself,  and  are 
marked  as  to  be  sung  to  the  air  *The  Queen's 
old  Courtier.'  Another  claim,  however,  arises. 
In  Walsh's  British  Musical  Miscellany  or  T?ie 
I/fUghfful  Grace,  vol.  iii.,  is  *  A  Song  in  praise 
of  Old  English  Roast  Beef:  the  words  and 
^lusick  by  Mr.  Leveridge.*  This  is  a  version  of 
seven  verses,  including  the  two,  with  slight 
verbal  diiferenoes,  already  placed  in  Fielding's 
*Don  Quixote.'  The  tune  is,  however,  the 
now  well-known  melody  as  under — 


The  melody  has  been  used  for  many  songs,  one, 
formerly  well  known  in  the  north,  being  *  The 
KaU  Brose  of  auld  Scotland.'  'The  Roast 
Beef  Cantata '  was  a  well-known  piece  originally 
published  about  1760-70.  Headed  by  a  copy 
of  Hogarth's  picture  the  'Gate  of  Calais,'  the 


subject  of  which  is  the  carrying  of  a  huge  piece 
of  beef  before  a  starved  French  seutiy,  the 
praises  of  roast  beef  are  set  to  several  jwpular 
airs,  concluding  with  the  '  Roast  Beef  of  Old 
England.'  f.  k. 

ROBARTT,  of  Crewkeme,  was  an  *orgyn 
maker '  who  let  out  organs  to  churches  by  the 
year.  The  Mayor  of  Lyme  Regis,  in  1551,  |jaid 
him  ten  shillings  for  his  year's  rent      v.  de  p. 

ROBERT  BRUCE.  A  iMisticcio  adapted  by 
Niedermeyer  from  four  of  Rossini's  operas — 
'Zelmira,'  the  'Donna  del  Lago,'  'Torvaldo  e 
Dorliska,'  and  '  Bianca  e  Faliero.'  Produced 
without  success  at  the  Academic  Royale,  Dec. 
30,  1846.  It  is  published  in  Italian  as  'Roberto 
Bnice  *  by  Ricordi.  g. 

ROBERT  LE  DIABLE.  Opera  in  five  acts  ; 
words  by  Scribe,  music  by  Meyerbeer.  Pro- 
duced at  the  Academic,  Paris,  Nov.  21,  1831. 
In   London,  and   in    English,  imperfectly,   as 

*  The  Demon,  or  the  Mystic  Branch,'  at  Drury 
Lane,  Feb.  20,  1832,  and  as  '  The  Fiend  Father, 
or  Robert  of  Normandy,'  at  Covent  Garden  the 
day  following  ;  as  *  Robert  the  Devil '  at  Drury 
Lane  (Bunn),  March  1,  1845.  In  French,  at 
Her  Mjyesty's,  June  11,  1832,  with  Nourrit, 
Levasseur,  Damoi-eau.  In  Italian,  at  Her 
Majesty's,  May  4,  1847  (first  appearance  of 
Jenny  Llnd  and  Staudigl).  g. 

ROBERTO  DEVEREUX,  CONTE  D'ESSEX. 
(1)  Oi)era  in  three  acts,  text  by  Romani  (from 
Comeille),  music  by  Mercadante.  Produced  at 
Milan,  March  10,  1833.  (2)  An  opera  in 
three  acts ;  libretto  by  Camerano  from  Comeille's 

*  Comte  d'Essex,  *  music  by  Donizetti.  Produced 
in  Naples  in  1837  ;  at  the  Italiens,  Paris,  Dec. 
27,  1838  ;  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  London, 
June  24,  1841.  The  overture  contains  the  air 
of  '  God  save  the  King. '  g. 

ROBERTS,  Henry,  a  music  and  an  orna- 
mental engraver,  who  issued  several  notable 
books  of  songs  with  music,  now  much  sought 
after,  mainly  on  account  of  their  decorative 
character.  In  these  works  the  2>ieces  are  headed 
with  pictorial  embellishments.  The  earliest  of 
Roberts's  publications  is  'Calliope,  or  English 
Harmony,'  in  two  volumes  octavo.  It  was 
issued  by  and  for  the  engraver  in  ])eriodical 
numbers  of  8  ])p.  and  commenced  late  in  the 
year  1787.  Twenty-five  numbers  formed  the 
first  volume,  which  was  completed  in  1739. 
The  second  volume  began  in  this  year,  but 
from  some  cause  now  unknown,  the  publication 
came  to  a  standstill  when  half  through,  and 
was  not  resumed  until  1746,  when  it  came  out 
with  the  imprint  of  John  Simpson  (q.v.).  This 
volume  contains  'God  save  the  King,'  which, 
from  the  date  1739  appearing  on  some  of  the 
plates,  has  been  hastily  assumed  to  be  prior  to 
the  copy  in  the  OenUetrtan^s  Magazine  of  1745  ; 
this,  however,  is  not  the  case,  for  ample  proof 
exists  that  this  portion  of  the  volume  was  not 
issued  before  the  spring  of  1746.     The  plates 


^  "^ 


112 


ROBERTS 


ROBINSON 


of  *  Calliope,'  thirty  or  forty  years  afterwards, 
came  into  possession  of  Longman  k  Broderip, 
who  reprinted  from  them.  Roberts's  other 
famous  work  is  *Clio  and  Euterpe,'  precisely 
similar  in  style,  which,  issued  in  two  volumes, 
bears  the  dates  1758  and  1 759.  A  later  edition 
has  a  third  volume  added,  and  is  dated  1 762. 
A  fourth  was  again  added  when  re-issued  by 
John  Welcker.  Henry  Roberts  kept  a  music 
and  a  print-shop  in  Holborn  '  near  Hand  Alley 
almost  opposite  Great  Turnstile.'  His  name  is 
attached  as  engraver  to  several  pieces  of  decora- 
tive engraving  on  music-sheets.  f.  k. 

ROBERTS,  John,  composer  of  sacred  music, 
bom  in  Wales,  Dec.  22,  1822.  Before  1839 
he  had  adopted  the  name  *Ieum  Qwyllt.' 
He  removed  to  Liverpool  and  became  editor 
of  a  Welsh  newspaper,  besides  writing  upon 
musical  matters.  In  1858  he  again  returned 
to  Wales,  and  at  Aberdare  set  up  as  a  music 
teacher.  On  Jan.  10,  1859,  he  founded  there 
the  first  of  a  long  series  of  Welsh  musical 
festivals,  and  in  the  same  year  published  a 
tune -book,  'Llyfr  Tonau,'  which  was  much 
used  throughout  Wales,  and  passed  through 
many  editions.  Roberts  was  a  strong  advocate 
of  temperance,  and  preached  as  a  Calvinistic 
Methodist  He  died  May  6,  1877.  [Informa- 
tion principally  from  Diet.  Not,  Biog,\      f.  k. 

ROBERTS,  J.  Varlby,  Mus.D.,  native  of 
Stanningley,  near  Leeds,  bom  Sept.  25,  1841. 
He  early  exhibited  much  ability  for  music,  and 
at  twelve  was  appointed  organist  of  S.  John's, 
Farsley,  near  Leeds.  In  1862  he  became 
organist  of  S.  Bartholomew's,  Armley,  and  in 
1868  organist  and  choirmaster  of  the  parish 
church,  Halifax.  In  1 8 7 1  he  graduated  Mus.  B. , 
and  in  1876  Mu8.D.,  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford. 
During  his  organistship  at  Halifax,  upwards  of 
£3000  was  raised  to  enlarge  the  organ,  origin- 
ally built  by  Snetzler — the  instrument  upon 
which  Sir  William  Herschel,  the  renowned 
astronomer,  formerly  played — and  it.  is  now 
one  of  the  finest  and  largest  in  the  North  of 
England.  In  1 8  76  Dr.  Roberts  became  a  Fellow 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Organists,  London. 
In  1882  he  was  elected  organist  at  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford,  succeeding  Mr.  (now  Sir 
Walter)  Parratt.  In  1884  the  University  Glee 
and  Madrigal  Society  wss  founded  under  his 
conductoi-ship.  In  1885-93  he  was  organist 
of  St.  Giles's,  Oxford,  and  in  the  former  year 
was  appointed  examiner  in  music  to  the  Oxford 
Local  Examinations,  and  also  became  conductor 
of  the  Oxford  Choral  Society.  In  1883  he  was 
appointed  one  of  the  University  examiners  for 
musical  degrees.  In  1907  he  presented  a  new 
organ  to  his  native  village  of  Stanningley.  His 
compositions  include  sacred  cantatas,  'Jonah,' 
for  voices  and  orchestra ;  '  Advent,'  *  The  Story 
of  the  Incarnation,'  'The  Passion,'  for  church 
choirs  ;  Psalm  ciii.  for  voices  and  orchestra ;  six 
services,  one  an  evening  service  in  C  written  for 


the  London  Church  Choir  Association  Festival 
in  1894  ;  about  fifty  anthems,  besides  jiart- 
songs,  and  organ  pieces.  His  FrcuUieal  Method 
of  Training  Choristers,  1898,  1900,  and  1905, 
is  very  useful.  w.  b.  s. 

ROBIN  ADAIR.  [See  Eileen  Aroon,  vol. 
i.  p.  770.] 

ROBIN  DES  BOIS.  The  title  of  the  French 
version  of  *  Der  Freischiitz '  at  its  first  apjiear- 
anoe  in  Paris  (Od^n,  Dec.  7,  1824  ;  0|)era- 
Comique,  Jan.  15,  1835  ;  Lyrique,  Jan.  24, 
1855).  The  libretto  was  made  by  Sanvage  ; 
the  names  of  the  characters  were  dhanged,  the 
action  and  the  story  were  altered,  portions  of 
'  Preciosa '  and  '  Oberon '  were  introduced,  and 
the  piece  was  made  to  end  happily.  The 
alterations  were  due  to  Castil  Blaze,  who,  to 
save  expense,  scored  the  music  himself  from  a 
PF.  copy.  Nevertheless,  with  all  these  draw- 
backs,  so  great  was  the  popularity  of  the  music 
that  Castil  Blaze  made  a  large  sum  of  money 
by  it.  For  the  translation  by  Pacini  and 
Berlioz  see  FreischCtz,  vol.  ii.  p.  107.  g. 

ROBIN  HOOD.  An  opera  in  three  acts ; 
words  by  John  Oxenford,  music  by  G.  A.  Mac- 
farren.  Produced  at  Her  Migesty's  Theatre, 
London,  Oct.  11,  1860,  and  had  a  very  great 
ran.  o. 

Other  operas  on  the  same  subject  have  been 
produced,  besides  many  masques  of  the  16tli 
and  17th  centuries,  more  or  less  associated 
with  the  May  Day  games  and  observances  ; 
of  these  early  pieces  littie  record  as  to  detail 
has  survived. 

A  ballad  opera  of  the  name  was  acted  at  Lee 
k  Harper's  great  booth,  at  St.  Bartholomew's 
Fair,  in  1730 ;  the  music  and  libretto  of  this 
was  published  by  John  Watts  in  the  year  of 
production.  A  different  *  Robin  Hood, '  by  Moses 
Mendez,  was  performed  atDrary  Lane  in  1750, 
the  music  being  supplied  by  Charles  (afterwards 
Dr.)  Bumey.  Another  English  ballad  opera 
in  three  acts,  which  attained  some  degree  of 
fame,  was  entitled  'Robin  Hood,  or  Sherwood 
Forest.'  This  was  written  by  Leonard  Mac- 
Nally,  with  the  music  selected,  arranged,  and 
composed  by  William  Shield.  It  was  produm^d 
at  Co  vent  Garden  Theatre  in  1784,  the  prin- 
cipals being  Mrs.  Kennedy,  Mrs.  Martyr,  Mrs. 
Banister,  and  Miss  Kemble,  while  the  male 
singers  were  Banister,  Johnstone,  and  Edwin. 
The  piece  had  a  considerable  ran,  and  several 
of  the  songs  lasted  in  popularity  long  after  the 
opera  itself  was  dead.  f.  k. 

ROBINSON,  Anastasia,  bora  about  1698, 
was  daughter  of  a  portrait  painter,  who,  becom- 
ing blind,  was  compelled  to  qualify  his  children 
to  gain  their  own  livelihood.  Anastasia  received 
instmction  from  Dr.  Croft,  Pier  Giuseppe 
Sandoni,  and  the  singer  called  The  Baroness, 
successively.  She  appeared  in  '  Creso, '  in  1 71 4  : 
as  Ariana  in  Handel's  'Amadigi,*  May  25, 
1715  ;  and  in  1720  at  the  King's  Theatre  as 


ROBINSON 


ROBINSON 


113 


Echo  in  Domemoo  Scarlatti's  opera,  'Narciso.' 
She  afterwards  sang  in  the  pasticcio  of  'Muzio 
SceTola,*  in  Handel's  *Ottone/  *  Floridante/ 
"  Flavio/  and  '  Giulio  Cesare ' ;  in  Baononcini's 
'Crispo'  and  'Griselda,'  and  other  operas. 
Her  salaiy  was  £1000  for  the  season,  besides 
a  benefit-night.  She  possessed  a  fine  voice  of 
extensive  compass,  but  her  intonation  was  un- 
certain. She  quitted  the  stage  in  1724,  having 
two  years  previously  been  privately  married  to 
the  Earl  of  Peterborough,  who  did  not  avow 
the  marriage  until  shortly  before  his  death  in 
1735,  although,  according  to  one  account,  she 
resided  with  him  as  mirtress  of  the  house,  and 
was  received  as  such  by  the  Earl's  Mends. 
According  to  another  account,  she  resided  with 
her  mother  in  a  house  at  Parson's  Green,  which 
the  Earl  took  for  them,  and  never  lived  under 
tlie  same  roof  with  him,  until  she  attended  him 
in  a  journey  in  search  of  health,  a  short  time 
before  his  death.  She  died  at  Bevis  Mount, 
Southampton,  in  April  1755,  and  was  buried 
at  Bath  Abbey.  There  is  a  fine  portrait  of  her 
by  Faber  after  Bank,  1727. 

Her  younger  sister,  Elizabeth,  intended  for 
a  miniature  painter,  preferred  being  a  singer. 
She  studied  under  Buononcini,  and  afterwards 
at  Paris  under  Bameau  ;  but  though  an  excellent 
singer,  was  said  to  have  been  prevented  by 
timidity  from  ever  appearing  in  public.^  A 
fortunate  marriage,  however,  relieved  her  from 
the  necessity  of  obtaining  her  own  subsist- 
ence, w.  H.  H.  ;  with  additions  from  the  Did, 
i*f  Sal.  Biog. 

■  ROBINSON,  John,  bom  1682,  was  a 
chorister  of  the  Chapel  Royal  under  Dr.  Blow. 
He  became  organist  of  St.  Lawrence,  Jewry,  in 
1710  and  St.  Magnus,  London  Bridge,  in  1713. 
Hawkins,  in  his  Histoiy,  describes  him  as  'a 
very  florid  and  elegant  performer  on  the  organ, 
inasmuch  that  crowds  resorted  to  hear  him ' ; 
and  elsewhere  says :  '  In  parish  churches  the 
voluntary  between  the  Pwdms  and  the  first 
Lesson  was  anciently  a  slow,  solemn  movement, 
tending  to  compose  the  minds  and  excite  senti- 
ments of  piety  and  devotion.  Mr.  Robinson 
introduced  a  different  practice,  calculated  to 
display  the  agility  of  his  fingeis  in  allegro 
movements  on  the  comet,  trampet,  sesquialtera, 
and  other  noisy  stops,  degrading  the  instrument, 
and  instead  of  the  full  and  noble  haraiony  with 
which  it  was  designed  to  gratify  the  ear,  tickling 
it  with  mere  airs  in  two  parts,  in  fact  solos 
for  a  flute  and  a  bass.'  On  Sept.  30,  1727, 
Bobinaon  wss  appointed  to  succeed  Dr.  Croft 
as  organist  of  Westminster  Abbey.  He  had  an 
extensive  prsctioe  as  a  teacher  of  the  harpsichord, 
and  will  be  long  remembered  by  his  double 
r:hant  in  Eb.  He  died  April  80,  1762,  and  was 
liuried,  May  18,  in  the  north  aisle  of  Westminster 
Abbey.     He   married,    Sept.    6,    1716,    Ann, 

I  A  'MlMEoMBMiu  )Bn..'»nMWKlai  Dnizy  Iam.  Jan.  %  ITS, 
M»  ArM  In  'TWTempcrt.'  U  la  poMlble  ttiai  thU  wm  lUisarat 
IUUmoa. 

VOT*  IV 


youngest  daughter  of  William  Tumer,  Mu8.D. 
She  was  a  singer,  and  appeared  at  the  King's 
Theatre  in  1720  in  Domenico  Scarlatti's  opera 
*  Nardso,'  being  described  as  *  Mrs.  Turaer- 
Robinson'  to  distinguish  her  from  Anastasia 
Robinson,  who  sang  in  the  same  opera.  She 
died  Jan.  5,  and  was  buried  Jan.  8,  1741,  in 
the  west  cloister  of  Westminster  Abbey.  Robin- 
son had  a  daughter,  who  was  a  contralto  singer 
and  the  original  representative  of  Daniel  In 
Handel's  oratorio  '  Belshazzar,'  1745,  and  also 
sang  in  others  of  his  oratorios.  w.  h.  r. 

ROBINSON,  Joseph,  was  the  youngest  of 
four  brothers,  bom  and  resident  in  Dublin. 
Their  fiither  Francis  was  an  eminent  professor 
of  music,  and  in  1810  was  mainly  instrumental 
in  founding  *  the  Sons  of  Handel,'  probably  the 
earliest  society  established  therefor  the  execution 
of  large  works.  His  eldest  son  Francis,  Mus.  D. , 
bom  about  1799,  had  a  tenor  voice  of  great 
beauty  and  sympathetic  quality ;  was  a  vicar- 
choral  of  the  two  Dublin  Cathedrals ;  and,  at 
the  Musical  Festival  in  Westminster  Abbey,  in 
June  1834,  sang  a  principal  part.  He  died 
Oct  31,  1872.  Another  son,  William,  had  a 
deep  bass  of  exceptional  volume  ;  while  John, 
born  about  1812,  died  in  1844,  the  organist  olf 
both  Cathedrals  and  of  Trinity  College,  had  a 
tenor  ranging  to  the  high  D.  The  four  brothers 
formed  an  admirable  vocal  quartet,  and  were 
the  first  to  make  known  the  German  Part-songs 
then  rarely  heard  either  in  England  or  Ireland. 

Joseph  Robinson,  bora  August  20,  1815, 
was  a  chorister  of  St.  Patrick's  at  the  early  age 
of  eight,  and  afterwards  a  member  of  all  the 
choirs,  where  his  fine  delivery  of  recitative 
was  always  a  striking  feature.  He  also  played 
in  the  orchestra  of  the  Dublin  Philhannonic. 
But  it  is  as  a  conductor  that  his  reputation 
is  best  established.  In  1834  he  founded  the 
'Antient  Concert  Society,'  of  which  he  was 
conductor  for  twenty-nine  years,  and  which 
ceased  to  exist  soon  after  his  resignation.  It 
commenced  its  meetings  in  a  private  house, 
then  took  a  large  room,  now  the  Royal  Irish 
Academy  of  Antiquities,  and  in  1843  had  made 
such  progress  that  it  purchased  and  remodelled 
the  building  since  known  as  the  '  Antient  Con- 
cert Rooms.'  Amongst  the  last  things  written 
by  Mendelssohn  was  the  instmmentation  of  his 
*Hear  my  Prayer'  (originally  composed  for 
voices  and  organ  only),  expressly  for  Mr. 
Robinson  to  produce  at  the  *  Antients.'  It  did 
not  reach  him  till  after  the  composer's  death. 
[See  Mendelssohn,  vol.  iii.  p.  146a,  note  2.]  In 
1887  he  became  conductor  of  the  *  University 
Choral  Society,'  founded  by  the  students.  At 
one  of  its  concerts  the  music  of  *  Antigone '  was 
given  for  the  first  time  out  of  Germany.  He 
continued  to  conduct  the  Society  for  ten  years. 
[In  1849  he  married  Miss  Fanny  Arthur  (see 
below).]  In  1852,  at  the  opening  of  the  Cork 
Exhibition,  Mr.  Robinson  conducted  the  music, 


114 


ROBINSON 


ROCHLITZ 


which  was  on  a  large  scale,  and  included  a  new 
cantata  by  Sir  Robert  Stewart.  In  1853,  an  In- 
ternational Exhibition  was  opened  in  Dublin  ; 
there  he  assembled  1000  performers,  the  largest 
band  and  chorus  yet  brought  togetherin  Ireland. 

In  1856  efforts  were  made  to  revive  the 
'  Insh  Academy  of  Music/  founded  in  1848,  but 
languishing  for  want  of  funds  and  pupils.  (See 
BoTAL  Irish  Academy.)  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Robin- 
son joined  as  Professors,  and  nearly  all  the  Irish 
artists,  both  vocal  and  instrumental,  who  ap- 
peared during  their  time,  owed  both  training 
and  success  to  their  teaching  ;  and  when,  after 
twenty  years,  Mr.  Robinson  resigned,  the  insti- 
tution was  one  of  importance  and  stability.  In 
1859,  for  the  Handel  Centenary,  he  gave  the 
*  ilcs<<iah,'  with  Jenny  Lind  and  Belletti  among 
the  ))rincipals.  The  net  receipts  amounted  to 
£900,  an  unprecedented  sum  in  Dublin.  In 
1865  the  large  Exhibition  Palace  was  opened  by 
the  Prince  of  Wales,  and  Robinson  conducted  the 
performance  with  a  band  and  chorus  of  700. 

After  the  cessation  of  the  '  Antients,'  there  was 
no  Society  to  attempt  systematically  the  worthy 
production  of  great  works.  To  remedy  this  a 
chorus  was  trained  by  Robinson,  and  established 
in  1876  as  the  *  Dublin  Musical  Society.'  The 
last  concert  conducted  by  Robinson  was  on  Dec. 
6, 1888,  previous  to  which  the  members  presented 
him  with  an  address  and  a  purse  of  100 
jBovereigns.  The  purse  was  returned  by  him 
with  warm  expressions  of  gratitude,  but  with 
the  characteristic  words,  *  "While  I  think  a  pro- 
fessional man  should  expect  his  fair  remunera- 
tion, yet  his  chief  object  may  be  something 
higher  and  nobler — the  advancement  of  art  in 
his  native  city.'  The  Society  was  revived  in 
1889,  under  the  conductorship  of  Dr.  Joseph 
^mith,  but  collapsed  after  some  years.  He  wrote 
A  variety  of  songs,  concerted  pieces  and  anthems, 
besides  arranging  a  number  of  standard  songs 
And  Irish  melodies.  In  1881  he  married  for 
the  second  time  ;  he  died  August  28,  1898. 

In  1849  a  young  pianist.  Miss  Fanny  Arthur 
(bom  Sept  1831),  arrived  in  Dublin  from 
Southampton,  and  made  her  first  successful  ap- 
pearance there — Feb.  19,  1849.  She  had  studied 
under  Sterndale  Bennett  and  Thalberg.  Mr. 
Robinson  and  she  were  married  July  17  follow- 
ing, and  she  continued  for  thirty  years  to  be 
an  extraordinary  favourite.  Her  first  appear- 
ance in  London  was  at  the  Musical  Union, 
June  26,  1855,  when  she  played  Beethoven's 
Sonata  in  F  (op.  24),  with  Ernst,  and  received 
the  praises  of  Meyerbeer ;  also  at  the  New 
Philharmonic  in  1856,  whereshe played  Mendels- 
sohn's Concerto  in  D. 

Mrs.  Robinson  also  passed  a  very  active  musi- 
cal life,  though  it  was  often  interrupted  by 
nervous  illness.  In  teaching  she  had  a  peculiar 
power  of  infusing  her  own  ideas  into  others. 
She  played  from  time  to  time  at  concerts  of  a 
high  class,  and  herself  gave  a  very  successful 


concert  in  Paris,  attheSalle  Erard(Feb.  4, 1864). 
Her  pianoforte  compositions  are  numerous  and 
gracefuL  Her  sacred  cantata, '  God  is  Love, '  was 
repeatedly  performed  throughout  the  kingdom. 

On  Oct.  31, 1879,  she  met  a  sudden  and  tragic 
end,  which  caused  profound  regret.  H.  u'c.  d.  ; 
with  additions  from  Brit*  3£n8.  Biog,y  Musical 
Times,  Sept.  1898,  p.  609,  and  from  W.  H. 
Grattan  Flood,  Esq.  [See  also  an  article  by  Sir 
C.  V.  Stanford  in  Comhiil  Magcusine,3unelS99.'} 

ROBINSON,  Thomas,  was  author  of  a  curious 
work  published  at  London  in  folio  in  1603,  bear- 
ing the  following  title — The  Schoole  o/Musicke  : 
wherein  is  taught  the  perfect  method  of  the  true 
fingering  of  the  Lute,  Pandora,  Orpharion  and 
Viol  de  Oamba.  In  1609  he  published  'New 
Citharen  Lessons.'  Nothing  is  known  of  his 
biography.  w.  h.  H. 

ROBSON,  Joseph,  organ  -  builder.  See 
Apollonicon,  vol.  i.  p.  95,  and  Flight,  vol. 
ii.  p.  61. 

ROCHE,  Edmond,  bom  at  Calais,  Feb.  20, 
1828,  died  at  Paris,  Dec.  16,  1861,  began  life  as 
a  violin-player,  first  as  Habeneck's  pupil  at  the 
Conservatoire,  but  quickly  relinquished  music 
for  literature.  Roche  undertook  the  translation 
of  the  libretto  of  'Tannhauser'  for  its  representa- 
tion at  the  Op^ra,  March  13,  1861,  and  in  a 
preface  to  his  Poisies  potthumes  (Paris,  Ldvy, 
1863)  M.  Sardou  has  described  the  terrible  per- 
sistence with  which  Wagner  kept  his  translator 
to  his  task.  (See  Pougin's  supplement  to 
F^tis.)  In  Jullien's  Michard  Wagner,  1887, 
the  facts  of  the  case  were  made  public  ;  it  seems 
that  Roche,  not  knowing  German,  had  recourse 
to  the  services  of  a  friend  named  Lindau,  and 
the  translation,  when  sent  to  the  director  of  the 
Opera,  was  rejected,  as  it  was  in  blank  verse ;  the 
necessary  alteration  into  rhyfne  M'as  made  by 
Roche,  Nuitter,  and  Wagner  in  collaboration. 
On  this  Lindau  brought  an  action  against 
Wagner,  to  enforce  the  mention  of  his  name  as 
one  of  the  translators  ;  the  case  was  heud  on 
March  6, 1861 ,  a  week  before  the  first  representa- 
tion of  the  opera,  and  it  was  decided  that  no 
name  but  that  of  Wagner  should  appear  in  the 
books.  So  that  Roche  had  not  even  the  satis- 
faction of  seeing  his  name  in  print,  in  connection 
with  the  work^  for  even  Lajarte  (Bill.  Mus.  de 
VOpera,  iL  230)  gives  Nuitter  as  the  author  of 
the  French  words.  Besides  the  poems  contained 
in  the  volume  cited,  Roche  contributed  critical 
articles  to  several  small  periodicals.  M. 

ROCHLITZ,  JoHANN  Friedrich,  critic, 
and  founder  of  the  Allgemeine  musUcal- 
ische  Zeittmg,  bom  of  poor  parents  at  Leipzig, 
Feb.  12,  1769.  His  fine  voice  procured  his 
admission  at  thirteen  to  the  Thomasschule, 
under  the  Cantorship  of  Doles,  where  he  spent 
six  years  and  a  half.  He  b^gan  to  study 
theology  in  the  University,  but  want  of  means 
compelled  him  to  leave  and  take  a  tutorship, 
which  he  supplemented  by  writing.     [For  the 


ROCHLITZ 


ROCKSTRO 


115 


titles  of  his  non-musical  works  see  Riemann's 
Lexikon,']  He  also  attempted  composition, 
and  produced  a  mass,  a  Te  Deum,  some  part- 
songs  for  male  voices,  a  setting  of  Ps.  xxiii., 
and  a  cantata,  'Die  VoUendung  des  £rldeer8.' 
In  1798  he  founded  the  AUgemtine  rrvusikaiische 
ZeUung  (Brcitkopf  k  Hartel),  and  edited  it  till 
1818,  during  which  period  his  articles  largely 
contributed  to  the  improved  general  apprecia- 
tion of  the  works  of  the  three  great  Austrian 
composers,  Haydn,  Mozart,  and  Beethoven,  in 
North  Germany.  The  best  of  these  were  after- 
wards re-published  by  himself  under  the  title 
of  Fur  Freunde  dcr  Tonkunat,  in  four  vols. 
{1824  to  1882,  reprinted  later  by  Dorffel,  third 
edition,  1868).  It  contains,  amongst  other 
matter,  an  interesting  account  of  a  visit  to 
Beethoven  at  Vienna  in  1822.  Another  im- 
portant work  was  a  collection  in  three  vols. 
(Schott,  1888  to  1840)  of  vocal  music,  from 
i>nfay  to  Haydn,  in  chronological  order,  of 
which  the  contents  are  given  below.  The  first 
two  volumes  of  the  A.M,Z.  contain  a  series  of 
anecdotes  on  Mozart,  whose  acquaintance  he 
made  during  Mozart's  visit  to  Leipzig ;  but 
Jahn,  in  the  preface  to  his  Mozart,  has  com- 
pletely destroyed  the  value  of  these  as  truthful 
records.  Rochlitz  was  a  good  connoisseur  of 
paintings  and  engravings.  In  1830  he  was 
one  of  the  committee  appointed  by  the  Council 
of  Leipzig  to  draw  up  a  new  hymn-book,  and 
some  of  the  hymns  are  from  his  own  pen.  He 
also  wrote  the  librettos  for  Schicht's  'Ende 
des  Gerechten,'  Spohr*s  'Last  Judgment'  and 
'  Calvary, '  and  for  Bierey's  opera  '  Das  Blumen- 
miidchen.'  He  was  a  Hofrath  of  Saxony,  and 
died  Dec  16,  1842.  F.  o. 

The  following  are  the  contents  of  the  collec- 
tion mentioned  above — '  Sammlung  vorziiglicher 
Oesangstiicke  vom  Ursprung  gesetzmassiger 
Harmonie  bis  auf  die  neue  Zeit ' : — 


4L  X>au    Kjrrte,  a    i.    'L' 


S.  OkcvhMi.  KyrtouidChrUtc. 

•  4. 
i.  J«aq[iitad«Pria.  HriDiiiu.a4 
wqMniiii  rafagliun. 


Fixar  Pbkiod  (lasO-UM) 


Sl   DOu 


Mciatan.  ct  Incmmatia.  aA. 
%.  Do.  Moict.  MiMrieonllM  Do- 

ailal.a4. 
T.  O.  Law    BcglM  Coali.  a  i. 
8L  Do.    8b1t«  Seciiift.  a4. 


Angdiu  pMtorM. 


9.  O.  Loac 
at. 

10.  Da    MlMrcre,  Amplltu.  Cor 

mandnm.     Ne     profloeu. 
Eedde  mlhi,  etc..  a  8. 

11.  C.  Gottdini«tL    DoniliM  qaid 

moltlpUatti.  a  4 
19.  Ch.    de    Monica.    Kyrie  et 

Chrltte.  a  i. 
U.  Do.    GlorlA. 
14.  T.  TftUis.    VerlM  mc^  a  4. 
10.  U  8«nfl.    Motet  on  ■  Choral. 

*  Mag  leh  anglQck.'  a  4. 
18.  Do.   Dcna  propltitu  esto.  a  B. 
17.  Do.    Nano  dimittU.  a  4. 


Skdvd  Pnios  (1600-1690) 


OlorU.  two  cfaotra,  a  4. 
3w  Dol    Pbnl  nmt.  •  S. 
4.  Dow    O  booc  Jcra,  a  4. 

6.  Do.  Po|ml«  nwna,  two  ckob*. 

a4. 
«  Do.  MartriQl.  •  Cedro  geiitll.' 

7.  Do.    I«ada  antnui  mc*.  a  4. 
a.  O.  M.  KaainL  BtiOM  mater. 

•  4. 
t.  Do.    BsMdi  DOS.  •  4. 
1«.  Do.    HaecdlM.aS. 
11.  VlttOTta.    Joni  dttkla.  a  4. 
IS.  Do.    O  «Mn  f fMrforam.  a  4. 

13.  F.  Aacrte.    Adnmaiu.  a  4. 

14.  Do.    CfaTtetna  CMtna  ert.  a  4. 

15.  A11««rl  MiMfcre,  two  efaoin. 


1<L  OaltrleU.  TnezoelsU.  BoprKno 
wdo.  Traoraoloandchonu, 
a  4.  with  three  honu,  two 
trombone*  nod  violins. 

17.  Do.  Beaedlctue,  three  choirs, 

a4. 

18.  BOhm.  Brflder.    Two  Lieder. 

a  4 :  D«r  twg  vertrelbt ;  Die 
Naoht  iet  kommen. 

19.  Do.   Two  Lieder,  a  4:  Ver- 

leih'  una  Prleden ;  MImm' 
▼on  uiia. 

20.  Walther.     M,\xno    grmtiaa. 

•  4. 
SL  G«Knfe  Martin  Lathers,  a  4 : 
Mit  Priwl  mid  rreod :  Ea 
woU*  nna  Oott :  Nun  komin 
der  Heiden  Hciland ;  Christ 
liw:  Je      ~*   ■  * 


S2.  Galloe.    Eoce  qnnmodo  mori 

tur  Justus,  a  4. 
2S.  Do.     Adorawna,  a  & 
24.  Do.    Media  vltae.  two  choirs, 

a4. 
95.  Vulpins.    BxultateJnsU,  a4. 
98.  Do.    Surrezit  Chrlstns.  two 

choirs,  •  4. 
97.  Walliser.    Oaudent  IncoelU. 

two  choirs,  a  4. 


28.  Praetorius.  BcceDomlnas,aa 


Appendix 

Palestrina.    Bt  lueamatus,  etc. 

(from      mass     '  Assuntpta 

est'».  aS. 
Praetorius.    O  tos  omne*. 


1.  Caodnl.     Solo  and   chorus, 
Funeste  piamie. 

5.  Do.    Chums,  Biondo  aroier. 

3.  Carissimi.      Becitative    and 

ehoma.  Turliabuntur  (from 
Cantata  *Plaiutes  des  xi- 
prouTds '). 

4.  Do.     Ardens  est    oor.   four 

soloe  and  chorus. 
8.  Do.     O  sacrum   conviTinm, 
three  solo  voices. 

6.  Do.  Cantcmusomncs,  chorus 

and  socua  (Jelta). 
Plorate.  a  & 

7.  BenevoU.       Sauctus,      four 

choirs,  a  4. 

8.  Da    Chrlste.  •  4. 

9.  Beraabel.    Alleluja.  a  4. 

10.  Do.    Salve  raglna.  a  4. 

11.  A.  ScarUtti.    Kjrrle,  •  4. 

12.  Do.    Gloria,  a  fi. 

IS.  Do.  Vacuum  est.  Canto  solo 
and  chorus,  with  riolius. 

14.  Do.  flanctus,  a  4,  and  Agnus, 
at. 

18u  Caldara.    Salve  reglna,  a  S. 

16L  Da    Agnus,  alto  and  tenor. 

17.  Da    Qui  tollU,  a  4. 


TmRD  PiKioo  (1600-1700) 


18.  Astona.    RUbat 

19.  Do.    Facnie. 

20.  Do.    Oquam. 

21.  Durante.     Kyrle. 

22.  Da    Begina  angelomm. 

23.  Da    Bequlem  aetemam. 

24.  Da    DomlneJesu. 

88.  LottL    Crueiflxus,  n  6. 

26.  Da    Qui  toUU,  a  4. 

27.  Da    ^mciflxus,  •  & 

9&  MaroeUa    Udlr'  le  orecchie. 
Ps.  xllv.  a  4. 

29.  Da    Bt  Incamatus,  a  4. 

30.  Hasler.    Pater  noster,  a  7. 
SL  H.  SrJiQts.     8eUg   siud   die 

Tod  ten.  a  4. 

32.  Da  Chorus,  ChrlstiiaUthlor, 
a4. 

33.  Do.     Psalm.   Was   betrtthst 
duT 

84.  Da    Vaterunser. 

SB.  V.  Leisring.    Trots  sey  dem 

Tsufel.  two  choirs,  a  4. 
36.  Grimm.    Gloria,  a  8. 
ST.  J.  J.  Fux.    Domine  Jesn.  a  4. 
38.  Da     Trema  la  terra^  Coro 

from  oratorio  ' . 


FktDBTH  PnioD  (1700-1700) 


1.  HandeL     Te   Deum,  in    D, 

SS.  Hasae.  Alto  solo.  Ad  teclama- 

Gloria*  tuae. 

mus. 

9.  Da    He  sent  a  thick  dark- 

23. Da    Miserere,  and  Benignl. 

ness. 

24.  Da    Ts  Deum.  a  4. 

3.  Da  He  ivbuked  the  Bed  Sea. 

28.  Gimnn.  MaohetdieThUrweit 

4.  Da    And  Israel  saw. 

2&  Da    Tu  rex  gloriae.  a  4. 

8.  Do.    Behold    the   I^mb    of 

27.  Do.    Freuet  cuch  (Tod  Jmu). 

God. 

2&  Do.    Wir  hler  liegeti.    Do. 
99.  BoUe.    Der  Herr  1st  Ktinig. 

7.  Da    Thy  rebuka 

SO.  Do.  Welt-Blchter  (Tod  Abel). 

8.  Do.    Lift  up  your  heads. 

9.  Do.    Hear,  Jacob's  God. 

<t4 

10.  Da    Zadok  the  Priest. 

32.  D  .     r.-.  l..-*K?iiiiFiinit«n. 

IL  Christoph   Bach.     Ich  lasse 

35.  C.    IV    fc    VVwh..    Kt  miHtfl' 

dloh  nicht. 

1  iiT'liix  .iMi.  rruinKftgDkaraU 

19.  J.  &  Bach.    Nimm'  von  nns 

34.  Dii      HrJlttf.  L«D  .'Lt.trs.  A  4. 

Herr. 

36.  M.  li ylu.     HrItoii  rw  m». 

13.  Do.    Maehe  dich  mein  Geist. 

3&  IX-      Ten»-bT»fjiLW, 

14.  Da  Wir    setsen    uns     mit 

37.  Di>.  MLs«nu% 

38.  LH'      CViKi.  Dl  qxtftnta  jvna 

18.  Da      Wle  sloh    eln   Vatm-. 

\^   IHftm) 

Lobet  den  Harm. 

39.  D<       '^■'*  !-'".nTstiii. 

1&  Zelenka.    Cndo. 

40.  D      "                  h:r  ti!  «Ti|pi,  a  9. 

17.  TUemann.    Amen.    Lob  nnd 

41.  Jc                          .nflriiiB      h<« 

Bhr«,a8. 

i.,^a«4i;btiraiL 

18.  StOlsel.    Gloria. 

42.  D< 

19.  HomUius.    Vater  nnaer.  a  4. 

43.  Pi                        V    ttt^    tialw 

90.  PasterwlU.    Bequlem. 

21.  Hacse.    Duet  and  Chorus,  Le 

44.  I>       '                   -1 FL 

porteanoi. 

48.  D«'     ^\^\^^\  aint*r. 

ROCK,  Michael,  was  appointed  organist  of 
St  Margaret's,  Westminster,  June  4,  1802,  in 
succession  to  William  Rock,  junr.,  who  had 
filled  the  office  from  May  24,  1774.  He  com- 
posed some  popular  glees — *  Let  the  sparkling 
wine  go  round '  (which  gained  a  prize  at  the 
Catch  Club  in  1794),  'Ben^th  a  churchyard 
yew,'  etc.    He  died  in  March  1809.      w.  h.  h. 

ROCKSTRO  (originaUy  RACKSTRAW), 
William  Smith,  bom  at  North  Cheam,  Surrey, 
on  Jan.  5, 1823,  and  baptized  at  Morden  church. 
The  form  of  his  surname  by  which  he  was 
known  was  an  older  style  resumed  after  1846. 
He  was  successively  pupil  of  John  Purkis,  the 
blind  organist,  of  Stemdale  Bennett,  and  at 
the  Leipzig  Conservatorium,  where  he  studied 
from  1846  till  1846.  He  enjoyed  the  special 
friendship  and  tuition  of  Mendelssohn,  and 
was  with  Hauptmann  for  theory  and  with 
Plaidy  for  pianoforte.     For  some  years  after  his 


116 


ROCKSTRO 


RODE 


return  to  England,  he  was  active  as  a  teacher 
and  performer  in  London,  being  regular  accom- 
panist at  the  *  Wednesday  concerts/  where 
Braham  and  other  eminent  singers  were  to  be 
heard.  At  this  period  he  wrote  his  most  popu- 
lar and  beautiful  song,  *  Queen  and  huntress ' ; 
and  his  pianoforte  editions  of  classical  and  other 
operas  led  the  way  in  popularising  that  class 
of  music  in  an  available  form  for  the  use  of 
those  who  could  not  read  full  scores ;  and  in 
his  indications  of  the  orchestral  instruments 
above  the  music-staves  he  did  much  to  point 
the  way  towards  a  general  appreciation  of 
orchestral  colour.  In  the  early  sixties  he  left 
London  for  Torquay  on  account  of  his  mother's 
health  and  his  own,  and  on  her  death  in  1876, 
he  openly  became  a  member  of  the  Roman 
communion.  He  had  been  organist  and  honorary 
precentor  at  All  Saints'  Church,  Babbacombe, 
from  1867,  and  won  a  high  position  as  a  teacher. 
He  published,  with  T.  F.  Ravenshaw,  a  *  Festival 
Psalter,  adapted  to  the  Gregorian  Tones,'  in 
1863,  and  *  Accompanying  Harmonies  to  the 
Ferial  Psalter,'  in  1869.  These  were  the  first- 
fruits  of  his  assiduous  study  of  ancient  music, 
on  which  he  became  the  first  authority  of  his 
time  in  England.  A  couple  of  valuable  text- 
books, on  harmony  (1881)  and  counterpoint 
(1882)  res^iectively,  had  a  great  success,  and 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  first  edition  of  this 
Dictionary  he  wrote  a  large  number  of  articles 
on  musical  archaeology  generally.  In  the  pre- 
sent day,  musical  research  has  been  sedulously 
carried  on  in  other  countries,  and  it  is  inevitable 
that  some  of  his  conclusions  should  have  been 
controverted,  if  not  disproved  ;  but,  considering 
the  state  of  musical  education  at  the  time  he 
wrote,  the  value  of  his  contributions  to  such 
subjects  as  the  music  of  the  period  which  closed 
in  1600,  can  hardly  be  exaggerated.  He  was 
too  ardent  a  partisan  to  be  an  ideal  historian, 
but  his  History  of  Music  for  Young  Students 
(1879)  and  his  larger  work  A  General  History 
of  Music  (1886)  contain  much  that  is  of  per- 
manent value.  His  Life  of  Handel  (1883)  and 
Mendelssohn  ^1884)  are  fine  examples  of  eulo- 
gistic biography,  though  they  are  liardly  to  be 
recommended  as  embodying  a  calmly  critical 
estimate  of  either  composer.  In  his  larger 
History  he  showed  that  he  was,  nevertheless, 
not  above  owning  himself  in  the  wrong,  and 
his  recantation  of  certain  excessive  opinions 
expressed  by  him  in  the  Dictionary  against 
Wagner's  later  works  was  due  to  true  moral 
courage.  He  conducted  a  concert  of  sacred 
music  of  the  16th  and  17  th  centuries  at  the 
Inventions  Exhibition  of  1885,  and  in  1891 
gave  up  Torquay  for  London,  giving  lectures  at 
the  Royal  Academy  and  Royal  College  of  Music, 
and  holding  a  class  for  counterpoint  and  plain- 
song  at  the  latter  institution.  Here  he  imparted 
the  true  principles  of  the  ancient  music  with 
great  success  to  many  worthy  pupils  ;  and  as  a 


singing-master  and  teacher  of  the  pianoforte  his 
method  of  imparting  instruction  was  remarkably 
successful.  As  a  composer,  he  never  quite  freed 
himself  from  the  powerful  influences  engendered 
by  his  studies ;  the  lovely  madrigal,  *  0  too 
cruel  fair,'  was  judged  unworthy  of  a  prize  by 
the  Madrigal  Society  on  the  ground  that  it  was 
modelled  too  closely  on  Palestrina ;  and  liis 
oratorio,  *The  Good  Shepherd,*  produced  at 
the  Gloucester  Festival  of  1886  under  his  own 
direction,  was  found  to  bear  too  many  traces  of 
Mendelssohnian  influence  to  deserve  success. 
In  1891,  he  collaborated  with  Canon  Scott 
Holland  in  writing  the  life  of  his  old  friend, 
Jenny  Lind-Goldschmidt ;  an  abbreviated  edi- 
tion came  out  in  1898,  and  with  Mr.  Otto 
Goldschmidt  he  wrote  a  still  shorter  book, 
Jenjiy  Lind,  her  Focal  Art  and  Culture  (partly 
reprinted  from  the  biography).  For  many  yeai>j 
his  health  had  been  bad,  and  he  had  many 
adverse  circumstances  to  contend  ^nth.  He 
fought  bravely  for  all  that  he  held  best  in  art, 
and  boundless  enthusiasm  carried  him  through. 
He  died  in  London,  July  2,  1895.  {Diet,  of 
Nat.  Biog.  etc.)  m. 

RODE,  Jacques  Pierre  Joseph,  a  great 
violinist,  was  bom  at  Bordeaux,  Feb.  16,  1774. 
When  eight  years  of  age  he  came  under  the 
tuition  of  Fauvel  atne,  a  well-known  violinist  of 
his  native  town,  and  studied  under  him  for  six 
years.  In  1788  he  was  sent  to  Paris.  Here 
Punto  (or  Stich),  the  famous  horn- player,  heard 
him,  and  being  struck  with  the  boy's  exceptional 
talent,  gave  him  an  introduction  to  Viotti, 
who  at  once  accepted  him  as  his  pupil.  With 
this  great  master  he  studied  for  two  years, 
and  in  1790  made  his  first  public  appearance, 
when  he  played  Yiotti's  13th  Concerto  at  the 
Theatre  de  Monsieur  with  complete  success. 
Although  then  but  sixteen  years  of  age,  he  was 
appointed  leader  of  the  second  violins  in  the 
excellent  band  of  the  Thefttre  Feydeau.  In 
this  position,  appearing  at  the  same  time  fre- 
quently as  soloist,  he  remained  till  1794,  and 
then  started  for  his  first  tour  to  Holland  and 
the  north  of  Germany.  His  success,  especially 
at  Berlin  and  Hamburg,  was  great.  From  the 
latter  place  he  sailed  for  his  native  town,  but 
the  vessel  was  compelled  by  adverse  winds  to 
make  for  the  English  coast.  So  Rode  came  to 
London  ;  but  he  only  once  appeared  in  public, 
at  a  concert  for  a  charitable  purpose,  and  left 
England  again  for  Holland  and  Geiinany .  Finally 
he  returned  to  France  and  obtained  a  professor- 
ship of  the  violin  at  the  newly  established 
Conservatoire  at  Paris.  He  was  solo  violin 
at  the  Op^ra  until  November  1799.  In  1799 
he  went  to  Spain,  and  at  Madrid  met  Boccherini, 
who  is  said  to  have  written  the  orchestration 
for  Rode's  earlier  concertos,  especially  for  that 
in  B  minor.  On  his  return  to  Paris  in  180O 
he  was  appointed  solo-violinist  to  the  First 
Consul,   and   it  was  at  that  period  that  he 


RODE 


RODWELL 


117 


achieved  his  greatest  success  in  the  French 
capital.  In  1803  he  went  with  Boieldieu  to 
St.  Petersburg.  Spohr  heard  him  on  his 
passage  through  Branswick,  and  was  so  im- 
I^essed  that  for  a  considerable  time  he  made  it 
his  one  aim  to  imitate  his  style  and  manner  as 
eloeely  as  possible.  Arrived  at  the  Russian 
capital,  Rode  met  with  a  most  enthusiastic 
reception,  and  was  at  once  attached  to  the 
private  music  of  the  Emperor  with  a  salary  of 
6000  roubles  (about  £750).  But  the  fatigues 
of  life  in  Russia  were  so  excessive  that  from 
this  period  a  decline  of  his  powers  appears  to 
have  set  in.  On  his  return  to  Paris  in  1808 
his  reception  was  less  enthusiastic  than  in 
former  times,  and  even  his  warmest  friends 
and  admirers  could  not  but  feel  that  he  had 
lost  considerably  in  certainty  and  vigour.  From 
1811  we  find  him  again  travelling  in  Germany. 
Spohr,  who  heard  him  in  1813  at  Vienna,  tells 
in  his  Autobiography  (i  178)  of  the  disappoint- 
ment he  felt  at  Rode's  playing,  which  he  now 
found  mannered,  and  deficient  in  execution 
and  style. 

In  Vienna  Rode  came  into  contact  with  Beet- 
hoven, who  finished  the  great  Sonata  in  G,  op. 
96,  expressly  for  him.  It  was  played  by  Rode 
and  the  Archduke  Rudolph,  Beethoven's  pupil, 
at  a  private  concert,  but  as  far  as  the  violin 
part  was  concerned,  not  much  to  the  composer's 
satisfaction.  Soon  afterwards,  at  any  rate, 
Beethoven  requested  the  Archduke  to  send  the 
violin  part  to  Rode  that  he  might  play  it  over 
before  a  second  performance,  and  he  adds: 
'  He  will  not  take  it  amiss ;  certainly  not ! 
would  to  God  there  were  reason  to  beg  his 
pardon  for  doing  so.*^  F^tis's  statement  that 
Beethoven  wrote  a  Romance  for  Rode,  probably 
rests  on  a  confusion  of  the  G  major  Sonata 
with  the  Romanza  in  the  same  key. 

In  1814  Rode  went  to  Berlin,  married,  and 
remained  for  some  time.  He  then  retired  to 
his  native  place.  At  a  later  date  he  made  an 
ill-advised  attempt  to  resume  a  public  career. 
But  his  appearance  at  Paris  proved  a  complete 
failure,  and  Mendelssohn,  writing  from  thence 
in  April  1825,  says  that  he  was  fixed  in  his 
resolution  never  again  to  take  a  fiddle  in  hand.^ 
This  failure  he  took  so  much  to  heart  that  his 
health  began  to  give  way,  and  he  died  at 
Bordeaux,  Nov.  25,  1830. 

Rode  was  one  of  the  greatest  of  all  violinists. 
During  the  earlier  part  of  his  career  he  dis- 
played all  the  best  qualities  of  a  grand,  noble, 
pure,  and  thoroughly  musical  style.  His 
intonation  was  perfect;  Ills  tone  large  and 
imre;  boldness  and  vigour,  deep  and  tender 
feeling,  characterised  his  performances.  In 
fact  he  was  no  mere  virtuoso,  but  a  true  artist. 
His  truly  musical  nature  shows  itself  equally 
in   his    compositions.      Although   his  general 

1  TttMjtT,  14^  €(f  Beetkomn,  IIL  p.  923. 

2  JMe  FamUi*  JfondclMeAM,  1.  p.  14S. 


musical  education  appears  to  have  been,  like 
that  of  most  French  violinists,  deficient  (we 
have  already  mentioned  that  Boccherini  added 
the  simple  orchestration  to  his  earlier  concertos), 
yet  his  works,  especially  his  concertos,  have  a 
noble  dignified  character  and  considerable  charm 
of  melody,  while,  it  need  hardly  be  added,  they 
are  thoroughly  suited  to  the  nature  of  the 
violin.  On  the  other  hand,  they  hardly  show 
high  creative  power ;  of  thematic  treatment 
there  is  very  little,  the  form,  though  not  un- 
symmetrical,  is  somewhat  loose,  and  the  in- 
strumentation poor. 

He  published  ten  concertos  (three  more  were 
issued  after  his  death);  five  sets  of  quartets; 
seven  sets  of  variations;  three  books  of  duos 
for  two  violins,  and  the  well-known  twenty- 
four  caprices. 

Of  his  concertos,  the  7th  in  A  minor  is 
still  in  the  repertory  of  some  eminent  violinists. 
The  variations  in  G  major — the  same  which 
the  famous  singer  Catalani  and  other  celebrated 
vocalists  after  her  have  made  their  chenal  de 
hataille — are  occasionally  heard.  But  above 
all,  his  *24  caprices  or  Etudes'  will  always, 
along  vdth  Kreutzer's  famous  forty  caprices, 
hold  their  place  as  indispensable  for  a  sound 
study  of  the  violin. 

Although,  owing  to  his  life  of  travel,  he  had 
but  few  direct  pupils,  his  influence  through  his 
example  and  compositions  on  the  violinists  of 
France,  and  more  especially  of  Germany,  was 
very  great  indeed.  Bohm,  the  master  of  Joachim, 
and  Eduard  Rietz,  the  friend  of  Mendelssohn, 
both  studied  under  him  for  some  time.     p.  d. 

RODWELL,  George  Herbert  Bonaparte, 
bom  Nov.  15,  1800,  brother  of  J.  T.  G.  Rodwell, 
part  proprietor  and  manager  of  the  Adelphi 
Theatre,  London,  and  author  of  several  dramatic 
pieces,  was  for  many  years  music-director  of 
the  Adelphi.  On  the  death  of  his  brother,  in 
March  1825,  he  succeeded  to  his  share  in  the 
theatre.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Vincent  Novello 
and  Henry  Bisliop,  and  became  in  1828  professor 
of  harmony  and  composition  at  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music.  He  was  the  composer  of 
very  many  operettas  and  other  dramatic  pieces, 
of  which  the  following  are  the  principal :  *  The 
Flying  Dutchman'  (Adelphi,  1826);  *The 
Cornish  Miners'  (English  Opera- House,  1827)  ; 
'The  Bottle  Imp'  and  'The  Mason  of  Buda* 
(partly  adapted  from  Auber's  '  Le  Magon '), 
1828  ;  'The  Spring  Lock,'  'The  Earthquake,' 
and  'The  Devil's  Elixir,'  1829;  'The  Black 
Vulture,'  1880;  'My  Own  Lover,'  and  'The 
Evil  Eye,'  1832 ;  '  The  Lord  of  the  Isles,'  1884 ; 
'Paul  Clifford'  (with  Blewitt),  1835;  'The 
Spirit  of  the  Bell'  (Lyceum,  1835);  'The 
Sexton  of  Cologne,'  1836;  'Jack  Sheppard,' 
1839;  and  'The  Seven  Sisters  of  Munich,' 
1847.  In  1836  he  was  director  of  the  music 
at  Covent  Garden,  where  he  brought  out  many 
adaptations  of  operas,  etc.,   'anticipating  the 


118 


ROECKEL 


RONTGEN 


repertory  of  Drury  Lane '  (Diet,  of  Nat.  Biog.). 
He  was  author  of  several  farces  and  other 
dramatic  pieces,  amongst  which  were  'Teddy 
the  Tiler '  (written  in  1830  for  Tyrone  Power, 
and  eminently  successful),  'The  Ghimney-Piece, ' 
*The  Pride  of  Birth/  *The  Student  of  Lyons,' 
and  *My  Wife's  Out'  ;  of  three  novels,  *01d 
London  Bridge,'  *  Memoirs  of  an  Umbrella,'  and 
'  Woman's  Love ' ;  and  of  'The  First  Rudiments 
of  Harmony,'  1831.  He  composed  also  two 
collections  of  songs:  'Songs  of  the  Sabbath 
Eve,'  and  'Songs  of  the  Birds'  (1827).  He 
for  many  years  persistently  advocated  the 
establishment  of  a  National  Opera.  He  married 
the  daughter  of  Listen,  the  comedian  ;  died  in 
Upper  Ebury  Street,  Pimlico,  Jan.  22, 1852,  and 
was  buried  at  Brompton  Cemetery.      w.  h.  h. 

ROECKEL,  Professor  Joseph  August,  was 
bom  August  28,  1788,  at  Neumbui^g  vorm 
Wald,  in  the  Upper  Palatinate.  He  was 
originally  intended  for  the  church,  but  in  1803 
entered  the  diplomatic  service  of  the  Elector 
of  Bavaria  as  Private  Secretary  to  the  Bavarian 
Charg^  d'Affaires  at  Salzburg.  On  the  recall 
of  the  Salzburg  Legation  in  1804,  he  accepted 
an  engagement  to  sing  at  the  Theatre  ander- 
Wien,  where,  March  29,  1806,  he  appeared  as 
Florestan  in  the  revival  of  '  Fidelio.'^  In  1823 
Roeckel  was  appointed  Professor  of  Singing  at 
the  Imperial  Opera  ;  in  1828  he  undertook  the 
direction  of  the  opera  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and 
in  the  following  year  made  the  bold  experiment 
of  producing  German  operas  in  Paris  with  a 
complete  German  company.  Encouraged  by 
the  success  of  this  venture,  Professor  Roeckel 
remained  in  Paris  until  1832,  when  he  brought 
his  company  to  London,  and  {Hroduced  '  Fidelio,' 
'  Der  Freischiitz,*  and  other  masterpieces  of  the 
German  school,  at  the  King's  Theatre ;  the 
principal  artists  being  Schrc^er-Devrient  and 
Haitzinger,  with  Hummel  (Roeckel's  brother-in- 
law)  as  conductor.  In  1835  he  retired  from 
operatic  life,  and  in  1853  finally  returned  to 
Germany,  where  he  died,  at  Anhalt-Cothen,  in 
September  1870. 

August,  his  eldest  son,  was  bom  Dec  1, 
1814,  at  Graz.  He  was  Musikdirector  at  Bam- 
berg, at  Weimar  (1838-43),  and  lastly  was 
Musikdirector  at  the  Dresden  Opera  in  1843-49, 
and  so  a  colleague  of  Richard  Wagner  ;  being, 
like  the  latter,  involved  in  the  Revolution  of 
1848  (he  had  also  witnessed  the  Paris  revolution 
of  1830),  he  abandoned  music  and  devoted 
himself  entirely  to  politics.  He  spent  thirteen 
years  in  prison  (1849-62),  and  on  his  release 
became  editor  of  various  newspapers,  at  Coburg, 
Frankfort,  Munich,  and  Vienna,  successively. 
He  published  an  account  of  his  imprisonment 
{SdchserCs  Erhebung,  etc.).  Wagner's  letters  to 
him  were  published  in  1894,  and  translated 
into  English  by  Miss  K  C.  Sellar  shortly  after- 

>  For  Roeokel'i  own  MOount  of  his  InteroootM  with  Beethorea 
MO  Thayer.  toI.  ii.  p.  SB4.  and  voL  iU.  p.  90B. 


wards.  From  admiration  of  Wagner's  genius, 
Roeckel  withdrewanoperaof  his  own, '  Farinelli,* 
which  had  been  accepted  for  performance  at 
Dresden.  See  also  Praeger's  Wagner  as  I  knew 
him,  p.  119  ff.  He  died  at  Buda-Pesth  on 
June  18,  1876. 

Edward,  the  second  sou  of  Professor  Roeckel, 
was  bom  at  Treves  on  Nov.  20,  1816,  and 
received  his  musical  education  &om  his  uncle 
J.  N.  Hummel.  He  came  to  London  in  1835, 
and  gave  his  first  concert  in  1836  at  the  King's 
Theatre.  He  subsequently  went  on  a  concert- 
tour  in  Germany,  and  performed  with  great 
success  at  the  courts  of  Prussia,  Saxony,  Saze- 
Weimar,  Anhalt-Dessau,  etc.  In  1848  Roeckel 
settled  in  England,  and  resided  at  Bath,  where 
he  succeeded  Uie  late  Henry  Field.  He  died  there 
Nov.  2,  1899.  He  published  a  considerable 
quantity  of  pianoforte  music. 

Joseph  Leopold,  the  youngest  son  of  Professor 
Roeckel,  was  bom  in  London,  April  11,  1838. 
He  studied  composition  at  Wiirzbui^  under 
Eisenhofer,  and  orchestration  under  Gotze  at 
Weimar.  Like  his  brother,  Mr.  J.  L.  Roeckel 
settled  in  England,  and  lives  at  Clifton  ;  he  is 
well  known  as  a  teacher  and  a  voluminous 
composer  of  songs.  His  orchestral  and  instru- 
mental compositions  are  less  well  known,  but 
his  cantatas  'Fair  Rosamond/  'Ruth,*  'The 
Sea  Maidens,'  'Westward  Ho,'  and  'Mary 
Stuart,'  'The  Victorian  Age'  (1887),  and  many 
others,  have  been  received  with  much  favour. 
The  first  of  these  was  performed  at  the  Crystal 
Palace  in  1871,  and  a  baritone  scena  with 
orchestra,  'Siddartha,'  was  produced  at  the 
Bristol  Festival  of  1896.  A  song-cycle  was 
brought  forward  at  the  same  festival  in  1902. 
In  1864  Roeckel  married  Miss  Jane  Jackson, 
a  successful  pianist,  who  did  much  good  work  a^ 
a  teacher  at  Clifton,  and  wrote  pianoforte  piecen, 
etc. ,  under  the  name  of  Jules  de  Sivi*ai.  She  died 
at  Clifton  on  Aug.  26,  1907,  aged  73.    w.  B.  s. 

RONTGEN,  Engelbkrt,  bom  Sept.  30, 1829, 
at  Deventer  in  Holland,  entered  the  Conserva- 
torium  at  Leipzig  in  1848,  as  a  pupil  of  David 
for  violin  and  of  Hauptmann  for  theory.  Upon 
graduating  at  the  Conservatorium,  Rontgen  was 
engaged  as  a  first  violin  both  in  the  0]^)era 
orchestra  and  in  the  famous  Gewandhaus  or- 
chestra. In  1869  he  became  professor  of  the 
violin  at  the  Conservatorium  ;  second  Conoert- 
meister  of  the  Gewandhaus  orchestra,  and,  ou 
the  death  of  his  illustrious  master,  David,  in 
1878,  he  was  made  first  Concertmeister  in  his 
place.  Rontgen  was  a  fine  violinist  although  he 
never  adopted  the  career  of  a  virtuoso,  and  his 
careful  editing  of  Beethoven's  Quartets  proves 
him  to  have  been  a  scholarly  musician.  He 
married  a  daughter  of  Moritz  Klengel,  himself 
Concertmeister  at  the  Gewandhaus.  He  died  in 
Leipzig,  Dec.  12, 1897.— A.  Ehrlich's  CeMnrUed 
Violinists ;  Bachmann,  Le  Fiolon ;  Lahee's 
Famous  Violinists.  e.  h-a. 


ROGEL 


ROGER 


119 


His  son,  Juuvs,  was  born  at  Leipzig,  May  9, 
1855,  and  soon  displayed  a  great  gift  lor  music. 
His  pmrents  were  his  first  teachers,  and  he  after- 
wards learned  from  Hauptmann,  Richter,Plaidy, 
and  Eeinecke.  In  1872  he  went  to  Munich,  and 
remained  there  for  some  time  studying  counter- 
IK>int  and  composition  under  Franz  Lachner. 
A  tour  with  Stockhausen  in  1873-74,  during 
which  he  played  chiefly  his  own  compositions, 
launched  him  favourably  before  the  world.  [He 
now  lives  in  Amsterdam,  where  he  was  teacher 
in  the  Conservatorium  for  some  years  before 
succeeding  Verhulst  as  director  of  the  Maat- 
schspp^  tot  Bevorderiugder  Tonkunst  in  1886. 
He  was  also  conductor  of  the  Felix  Mentis 
society  for  the  last  two  years  of  its  existence. 
Sinoe  1898  Bontgen  has  devoted  himself  entirely 
to  teaching  and  composition.]  His  published 
works  amount  to  eighteen,  almost  all  of  a 
serious  character.  They  are,  for  the  PF. — a 
duet  for  four  hands,  in  four  movements  (op.  16) ; 
two  sonatas  (opp.  2, 10),  a  phantasie  (op.  8) ;  a 
suite  (op.  7);  a  ballade  (op.  5),  a  cyclus  of 
pieces  (op.  6),  and  a  theme  with  variations 
(opL  17),  etc.  etc;  a  sonata  for  PF.  and  violin 
(op.  1)  and  for  PF.  and  violoncello  (op.  3) ;  a 
concerto  for  PF.  and  orchestra  (op.  18) ;  a 
serenade  for  seven  wind  instruments  (op.  14)  ; 
'  Toskanische  Rispetti,'  a  Liederspiel  (op.  9) ; 
nine  songs  (op.  15)  etc.  etc.  The  violoncello 
sonata  was  played  at  the  Monday  Popular 
Ooncert  of  Feb.  14,  1881,  and  was  well  re- 
ceived. G. 

ROGEL,  Jos^  Spanish  conductor  and  com- 
poser, bom  at  Orihuela,  Alicante,  Dec.  24, 1829 ; 
began  music  under  Cascales  and  Gil,  organist 
and  conductor  of  the  cathedral,  and  made  great 
progress,  till  sent  to  Valencia  by  his  father  to 
study  law.  The  six  years  which  he  spent  there 
were,  however,  devoted  much  more  to  music  than 
to  law,  under  the  guidance  of  Pascual  Perez,  a 
musician  of  ability,  from  whom  he  learned 
composition  and  other  branches  of  practical 
music.  After  completing  his  legal  course  and 
taking  his  degree  at  Madrid,  Rogel  was  able  to 
indulge  his  taste,  plunged  into  music  without 
restraint,  and  became,  or  at  any  rate  acted  as, 
conductor  and  composer  to  several  theatres. 
The  notice  of  him  in  Pougin's  supplement  to 
F^tis,  from  which  this  notice  is  taken,  enumerates 
no  fewer  than  sixty-one  zarzuelcu  or  dramatic 
pieces  of  his  composition,  fourteen  of  them  in 
three  sets,  eight  in  two  acts,  and  the  remainder 
in  one  act,  brides  a  dozen  not  yet  brought  out. 
The  titles  of  the  pieces  are  of  all  characters, 
ranging  from  '  Revista  de  un  muerto '  and  *  Un 
Viage  demil  demonios'  to  *  £1  General  Bumbum.' 
No  crittcism  is  given  on  the  merits  of  the  music, 
but  it  must  at  least  be  popular.  o. 

ROGER,  EsTiENiYS,  an  Amsterdam  music- 
publisher,  who  was  in  a  very  extensive  way  of 
bnsinesB  from  1696  to  1722.  His  work  is  of 
the  highest  class  of  music-printiugand  engraving, 


and  is  from  copper  plates.  It  is  said  that  he 
was  one  of  the  first  to  introduce  the  practice 
of  punching  the  notes  on  the  copper  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  engraving.  Walsh  and  Hare  are 
stated  to  have  taken  this  idea  from  him  and  to 
have  used  pewter,  a  cheaper  and  a  more  ductile 
metal.  He  translated  the  TraiU  de  la  cam- 
position  of  de  Nivers  into  Flemish  (1697). 

Among  other  works  Roger  issued,  circa  1720, 
a  fine  edition  of  Corelli's  four  sets  of  Sonatas, 
and  also  of  the  same  composer's  Concertos. 
Several  collections  of  miscellaneous  works  ai*e 
mentioned  in  the  QitelUnrLexikon, 

Roger  either  died  or  gave  up  business  about 
1725  (his  last  dated  publication  is  1722), 
leaving  as  his  successor  Michel  Charles  Le  C^ne, 
who  reissued  many  of  his  predecessor's  publi- 
cations. F.  K. 

ROGER,  GusTAYE  HiPPOLiTE,  eminent 
French  singer,  bom  Dec.  17,  1815,  at  La 
Chapelle-Saint-Denis,  Paris.  He  was  brought 
up  by  an  uncle,  and  educated  at  the  Lycee 
Charlemagne  for  the  legal  profession,  but  his 
studies  were  so  neglected  for  an  amateur  theatre 
of  which  he  was  the  leading  tenor  and  self- 
constituted  manager,  that  he  was  at  length 
allowed  to  follow  his  real  vocation.  He  entered 
the  Conservatoire  in  1886,  and  after  studying 
for  a  year  under  Martin  carried  off  the  first 
prizes  both  for  singing  and  op^ra-comique. 
He  obtained  an  immediate  engagement,  and 
made  his  debut  at  the  Op^ra-Comique,  Feb.  16, 
1838,  as  Georges  in  '  L' Eclair.'  To  a  charming 
voice  and  distinguished  appearance  he  added 
great  intelligence  and  stage  tact,  qualities  which 
soon  made  him  the  favourite  tenor  of  the  Parisian 
world,  and  one  of  the  best  comedians  of  the  day. 
Ambroise  Thomas  composed  for  him  *  Le  Per- 
raquier  de  la  R^ence '  and  '  Mina,'  Hal^vy  gave 
him  capital  parts  in  *  Les  Mousquetaires  de  la 
Reine '  and  *  Le  Guitarrero,'  and  Auber  secured 
him  for  *  Le  Domino  Noir, '  *  La  Part  du  Diable,  * 
*  La  Sir^ne, '  and  *  Hayd^ '  Meyerbeer  declared 
him  to  be  the  only  French  artist  capable  of 
creating  the  part  of  John  of  Leyden.  In  conse- 
quence, after  ten  years  of  uninterrupted  success, 
Roger  left  the  Op^ra-Comique  for  the  Academic, 
where  on  April  16, 1849,  he  ci'eated  an  immense 
sensation  with  Mme.  V iardot,  in  '  Le  Proph^te. ' 
His  acting  was  quite  as  good  in  tragedy  as  it  had 
been  in  comedy,  but  his  voice  could  not  stand 
the  wear  and  tear  of  the  fatiguing  repertoire  he 
had  now  to  undertake.  During  the  next  ten 
years,  however,  he  was  invaluable  at  the  Op^ra, 
creating  new  parts  in  the  'Enfant  prodigue,' 
the  *  Juif  errant,'  and  many  more.  His  best 
creation  after  John  of  Leyden,  and  his  last  part 
at  the  Op^ra,  was  Helios  in  David's  *  Hercu- 
lanum'  (March  4,  1859).  In  the  following 
autumn  he  lost  his  right  arm  while  shooting, 
by  the  bursting  of  a  gun  ;  he  reappeared  with 
a  false  one,  but  with  all  his  skill  and  bravery 
he  could  not  conceal  his  misfortune,  and  found 


120 


ROGERS 


ROGERS 


himself  compelled  to  bid  farewell  to  the  Aca- 
demic and  to  Paris. 

He  went  onoe  more  to  Qermany,  which  he 
had  been  in  the  habit  of  visiting  since  1850, 
and  where  he  was  invariably  successful,  partly 
owing  to  his  unusual  command  of  the  language. 
After  this  he  sang  in  the  principal  provincial 
theatres  of  France,  and  in  1861  reappeared  at 
the  Op^ra-Gomique  in  his  best  parts,  especially 
that  of  Georges  Brown  in  'La  Dame  Blanche,' 
but  it  was  evident  that  the  time  for  his  retire- 
ment had  arrived.  He  then  took  pupils  for 
singing,  and  in  1868  accepted  a  professorship 
at  the  Conservatoire,  which  he  held  till  his 
death,  Sept.  12,  1879. 

Roger  was  of  an  amiable  and  benevolent  dis- 
position. He  talked  well,  wrote  with  ease,  and 
was  the  author  of  the  French  translation  of 
Haydn's  *  Seasons,'  and  of  the  words  of  several 
romances  and  German  Lieder.  His  book,  Le 
Garnet  d^un  tdruyr  (Paris,  Ollendorff,  1880),  is  a 
portion  of  his  autobiography.  It  contains  an 
account  of  his  visits  to  England  in  1847  (June), 
and  1848  (June-No v.),  when  he  sang  at  the 
Royal  Italian  Opera,  and  made  an  artistic  tour 
in  the  provinces  with  Mile.  Jenny  Lind,  and 
other  artists.  o.  c. 

ROGERS,  Benjamin,  Mu8.D.,  son  of  Peter 
Rogers,  lay-clerk  of  St.  George's  Chapel,  Wind- 
sor, was  bom  at  Windsor  in  1614.  He  was 
a  chorister  of  St  George's  under  Dr.  Giles, 
and  afterwards  a  lay -clerk  there.  He  suc- 
ceeded Jewett  in  1639  as  organist  of  Christ 
Church,  Dublin,  where  he  continued  until  the 
rebellion  in  1641,  when  he  returned  to  Windsor 
and  obtained  a  lay-clerk's  place  there  ;  but 
on  the  breaking  up  of  the  choir  in  1644  he 
taught  music  in  Windsor  and  its  neighbourhood, 
and  obtained  some  compensation  for  the  loss  of 
his  appointment.  In  1653  he  composed  some 
airs  in  four  parts  for  violins  and  organ,  which 
were  presented  to  the  Archduke  Leopold,  after- 
wai-ds  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  favourably 
received  by  him.  In  1658  he  was  admitted 
Mus.B.  at  Cambridge.  (See  Carlyle's  Oliver 
Cromwell^  v.  248,  244  (People's  edition).)  In 
1 660  he  composed  a  *  Hymnus  Euoharisticus ' 
in  four  parts,  to  words  by  Dr,  Nathaniel  Ingelo, 
which  was  performed  at  Guildhall  when  Charles 
II.  dined  there  on  July  5.^  About  the  same 
time  he  became  organist  of  Eton  College.  On 
Oct  21,  1662,  he  was  reappointed  a  lay -clerk 
at  St  George's,  Windsor,  his  stipend  being 
augmented  by  half  the  customary  amount ;  and 
he  also  received  out  of  the  organist's  salary  £1 
per  month  as  deputy  organist  On  July  22, 
1664,  he  was  appointed  Informator  Choristarum 
and  organist  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford.  On 
July  8,  1669,  he  proceeded  Mus.D.  at  Oxford. 
In  Jan.  1685  he  was  removed  from  his  place  at 
Magdalen  College  on  account  of  irregularities 

>  The  hymn  wmidiflinvnt  from  that,  bMring  the  flame  title,  which 
Rofeni  afiprwftMfl  net  for  Magdalen  OoUege.  Oxford. 


(see  West's  Ca£k,  Org.,  p.  120),  the  College,  how- 
ever, assuring  to  him  an  annuity  of  £30  for  life. 
He  survived  until  June  1698,  on  the  21st  of 
which  month  he  was  buried  at  St  Peter-le- Bailey. 
His  widow,  whom  the  College  had  pensioned 
with  two-thirds  of  his  annuity,  survived  him 
only  seven  months,  and  was  laid  by  his  side 
Jan.  5,  1699. — Rogers  composed  much  church 
music ;  four  services  are  printed  in  the  collections 
of  Boyce,  Rimbault,  and  Sir  F.  Ouseley ;  another, 
an  Evening  Verse  Service  in  G,  is  at  Ely  in  MS. 
Some  anthems  were  printed  in  *Cantica  Sacra,' 
1674,  and  by  Boyce  and  Page  ;  and  many  others 
are  in  MS.  in  the  books  of  various  cathedrals 
and  college  chapels.  Four  glees  are  contained 
in  Playford's  'Musical  Companion,'  1673,  and 
many  instrumental  compositions  in  'Courtly 
Masquing  Ayres,'  1662.  [Some  MS.  organ 
compositions  are  in  the  library  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Music,  and  Mr.  J.  S.  Bumpus  possesses 
a  volume  in  the  handwriting  of  Dr.  Philip  Hayes, 
containing  the  whole  of  Rogers's  compositions 
for  the  church.]  His  '  Hymnus  Eucharisticus  * 
(the  first  stanza  of  which,  commencing  'Te  Denm 
Patrem  colimus,'  is  daily  sung  in  Magdalen 
College  Hall  by  way  of  grace  after  dinner,  and 
is  printed  in  the  Appendix  to  Hawkins's  Hiatory) 
\b  sung  annually  on  the  top  of  Magdalen  tower 
at  five  in  the  morning  of  May  1  in  lieu  of  a 
requiem  which,  before  the  Reformation,  was 
performed  in  the  same  place  for  the  soul  of 
Henry  VII.  His  service  in  D  and  some  of  his 
anthems,  which  are  pleasing  and  melodious  in 
character,  are  still  sung  in  cathedrals,    w.  h.  h. 

ROGERS,  John,  a  famous  lutenist,  bom  in 
London,  was  attached  to  the  household  of 
Charles  II.  in  1661-63.  He  lived  near  Alders- 
gate,  and  died  there  about  1668.         w.  h.  h. 

ROGERS,  Sib  John  Leman,  Bart.,bom  April 
18,  1780,  succeeded  his  father  in  the  baronetcy 
in  1797.  He  became  a  member  of  the  Madrigal 
Society  in  1819,  and  in  1820  was  elected  its 
permanent  President  (being  the  first  so  ap- 
pointed), and  held  the  office  until  1841,  when 
he  resigned  on  account  of  ill-health.  He  com- 
posed a  cathedral  service,  chants,  anthems, 
madrigals,  glees,  and  other  vocal  music.  [See 
HuUah's  Part  Music,  Class  A,  and  Vocal 
Scores.]  He  was  an  ardent  admirer  of  the 
compositions  of  Tallis,  and  by  his  exertions  an 
annual  service  was  held  for  several  years  in 
Westminster  Abbey,  the  music  being  wholly 
that  of  Tallis.     He  died  Dec.  10, 1847.  w.  h.  h. 

ROGERS,  Roland,  Mus.D.,  bom  at  West 
Bromwich,  Staffordshire,  Nov.  17,  1847,  where 
he  was  appointed  oi^nist  of  St  Peter's  Church 
in  1858.  He  studied  under  Mr.  S.  Grosvenor, 
and  in  1862  obtained  by  competition  the  post 
of  organist  at  St  John's,  Wolverhampton.  In 
1867  he  similarly  obtained  the  oi^nistshtp 
of  Tettenhall  parish  church,  and  in  1871  was 
appointed  organist  and  choirmaster  of  Bangor 
Cathedral,  a  post  which  he  resigned  at  the  end 


ROGUES'  MARCH,  THE 


ROI  DES  VIOLONS 


121 


of  1 891 .  He  took  the  Oxford  degree  of  Mus.  B. 
in  1370,  and  that  of  Mus.D.  in  1875.  Dr. 
Bogers's  published  works  are  *  Prayer  and  Praise/ 
a  cantata,  a  prize  cantata,  *  The  Garden  * 
(Llandndno,  1896),  Evening  Services  in  Bb 
and  D,  Anthems,  Part-songs,  Organ  Solos,  and 
Songs ;  a  Symphony  in  A,  a  Psalm  *  De  Pro- 
fnndis,'  and  several  Anthems  and  Services  are 
still  in  MS.  w.  b.  s. 

ROGUES'  MARCH,  THE.  Originally  a  mili- 
tary quickstep,  which  from  some  cause  haa 
become  appropriate  to  use  when  offenders  are 
drummed  oat  of  the  army.  When,  from  theft, 
or  other  crime,  it  is  decided  to  expel  a  man 
from  the  regiment,  the  buttons  bearing  the 
regimental  number,  and  other  special  decora- 
tions, are  cut  from  his  coat,  and  he  is  then 
marched,  to  the  music  of  drums  and  fifes  play- 
ing 'The  Rogues'  March,'  to  the  barrack  gates, 
and  kicked  or  thrust  out  into  the  street.  The 
ceremony  still  continues  at  the  present  day. 
The  writer,  though  he  has  made  diligent  search, 
cannot  find  traces  of  the  tune  before  the  middle 
of  the  18th  century,  although  there  can  be  but 
little  doubt  that  the  air,  with  its  association, 
liad  been  in  use  long  before  that  time.  About 
1790,  and  later,  a  certain  more  vocal  setting 
of  the  air  was  used  for  many  popular  humorous 
songs.  •  'Robinson  Crusoe,'  'Abraham  New- 
land,'  and  the  better-known  *  Tight  little 
Island,'  are  among  these.  The  latter  song,  as 
*The  Island,'  was  written  by  Thomas  Dibdin 
al)out  1798,  and  sung  by  a  singer  named  Davies 
at  Sadler's  Wells  in  that  year. 

The  original  *  Rogues'  March  *  stands  thus — 


It  is  found  in  many  18th-century  collections  of 
fife  and  flute  music ;  the  above  copy  is  from 
*The  Compleat  Tutor  for  the  Fife,'  London, 
printed  for  and  sold  by  Thompson  k  Son,  8vo, 
circa  1759-60.  F.  K. 

ROHR  FLUTE  (Rohrflote).  See  Flute- 
woBK,  vol.  ii.  pp.  68-9. 

ROI  DE  LAHORE,  LE  Opera  in  five  acts, 
libretto  by  Louis  Gallet,  music  by  Jules  Mas- 
senet. Ptoduoed  at  the  Grand  Opera,  Paris, 
April  27,  1877,  and  at  Govent  Garden,  Royal 
Italian  Opera,  June  28,  1879. 

ROI  DES  VIOLONS—*  King  of  the  violins ' 
— a  title  of  great  interest  as  illustrating  the 
stmggle  between  Art  and  Authority.    On  Sept 


14,  1321,  the  mAiestriers  or  fiddlers  of  France 
formed  themselves  into  a  regular  cori>oration, 
with  a  code  of  laws  in  eleven  sections,  which 
was  presented  to  the  Prevdt  of  Paris,  and  by 
him  registered  at  the  Ch&telet.  The  Confra- 
ternity, founded  by  thirty-seven  jongleurs  and 
jonglercsses,  whose  names  have  been  preserved, 
prospered  so  far  as  in  1330  to  purchase  a  site 
and  erect  on  it  a  hospital  for  poor  musicians. 
The  building  was  begun  in  1381,  finished  in 
1335,  and  dedicated  to  St  Julien  and  St. 
Genest  The  superior  of  this  *  Confr^rie  of  St. 
Julien  des  m^n^triers'  was  styled  'king,'  and 
the  following  were  *  Rois  des  m^n^triers '  in  the 
14th  century  : — Robert  Caveron,  1388  ;  Copin 
du  Brequin,  1349  ;  Jean  Caumez,  1387  ;  and 
Jehan  Porte\dn,  1392. 

In  1407  the  musicians,  vocal  and  instni- 
mental,  separated  themselves  from  the  mounte- 
banks and  tumblers  who  had  been  associated 
with  them  by  the  statutes  of  1821.  The  new 
constitution  received  the  sanction  of  Charles 
YI.,  April  24,  1407,  and  it  was  enacted  that 
no  musician  might  teach,  or  exercise  his  pro- 
fession, without  having  passed  an  examination, 
and  been  declared  suffisant  by  the  *Roi  des 
m^nestrels'  or  his  deputies.  These  statutes 
continued  in  force  down  to  the  middle  of  the 
17th  century.  History,  however,  tells  but 
little  about  the  new  corporation.  The  only 
'  rois '  whose  names  have  been  preserved  in  the 
charters  are — Jehan  Boissard,  called  Verdelet, 
1420  ;  Jehan  Facien,  the  elder,  and  Claude  de 
Bouchai*don,  oboes  in  the  band  of  Henri  III., 
1575;  Claude  Nyon,  1590;  Claude  Nyon, 
called  Lafont,  1600  ;  Frangois  Rishomme, 
1615  ;  and  Louis  Constantin,  *roi'  from  1624 
to  1655.  Constantin,  who  died  in  Paris  1657, 
was  a  distinguished  artist,  violinist  to  Louis 
XIII.,  and  composer  of  pieces  for  strings  in  five 
and  six  parts,  several  of  which  are  preserved  in 
the  valuable  collection  already  named  under 
Philidor,  vol.  iiL  p.  708. 

In  1514  the  title  was  changed  to  *roi  des 
m^nestrelsdu royaume. '  All  provincial  musicians 
were  compelled  to  acknowledge  the  authority  of 
the  corporation  in  Paris,  and  in  the  1 6th  century 
branches  were  established  in  the  principal  towns 
of  France  under  the  title  of  *  Confr^rie  de  St 
Julien  des  men^triers.'  In  Oct.  1658,  LouisXIV. 
confirmed  Constan tin's  successor,  Guillaume 
Dumanoir  I.,  in  the  post  of  *  Roi  des  violons, 
maltres  a  danser,  et  joueurs  d'instruments  tant 
haut  que  bas,'  ordaining  at  the  same  time  that 
the  'Roi  des  violons'  should  have  the  sole 
privilege  of  conferring  the  mastership  of  the  art 
throughout  the  kingdom  ;  that  no  one  should 
be  admitted  thereto  without  serving  an  ap- 
prenticeship of  four  years,  and  paying  sixty 
livres  to  the  '  roi,'  and  ten  livres  to  the  masters 
of  the  Confr^rie  ;  the  masters  themselves  paying 
an  annual  sum  of  thirty  sous  to  the  corporation, 
with  a  further  commission  to  the  *  roi '  for  each 


122 


ROI  DES  VIOLONS 


ROKITANSKY 


pupil.  The  masters  alone  were  privileged  to 
play  in  taverns  and  other  public  places,  and  in 
case  this  rule  were  infringed,  the  *roi'  could 
send  the  offender  to  prison  and  destroy  his 
instruments.  This  formidable  monopoly  ex- 
tended even  to  the  King's  band,  the  famous 
'twenty -four  violons,*  who  were  admitted  to 
office  by  the  '  roi '  alone  on  payment  of  his  fee. 
[See  ViNOT-QUATRB  Violons.] 

So  jealously  did  Guillaume  Dumanoir  I. 
guard  his  rights,  that  in  1662  he  commenced  an 
action  against  thirteen  dancing-masters,  who, 
with  the  view  of  thro  wring  off  the  yoke  of  the 
corporation,  had  obtained  from  Louis  XIV. 
permission  to  found  an  *  Academic  de  danse.' 
The  struggle  gave  rise  to  various  pamphlets,* 
and  Dumanoir  was  beaten  at  all  pointo.  He 
bequeathed  a  difficult  task  to  his  son  Michel 
Guillaume  Dumanoir  II.,  who  succeeded  him  as 
'roi'  in  1668,  and  endeavoured  to  enforce  his 
supremacy  on  the  instrumentalists  of  the 
Academic  de  Musique,  but,  as  might  have  been 
expected,  was  overmatched  by  LuUy.  After 
his  difficulties  with  the  director  of  the  Op^ra, 
Dumanoir  II.,  like  his  father,  came  into  collision 
with  the  dancing- masters.  In  1691  a  royal 
proclamation  was  issued  by  which  the  elective 
committee  was  abolished,  and  its  place  filled  by 
hereditary  officials,  aided  by  four  othera  ap- 
pointed by  purchase.  Against  this  decree  the 
corporation  and  the  thirteen  membera  of  the 
Academic  de  danse  protested,  but  the  Treasury 
was  in  want  of  funds,  and  declined  to  refund 
the  purchase  money.  Finding  himself  unequal 
to  such  assaults  Dumanoir  resigned  in  1693,  and 
died  in  Paris  in  1697.  He  delegated  his  powers 
to  the  privileged  committee  of  1691,  and  thus 
threw  on  them  the  onus  of  supporting  the  claims 
of  the  Confreriis  over  the  clavecinists  and  organ- 
ists of  the  kingdom ;  a  i)arliamentary  decree 
of  1695,  however,  set  free  the  composers  and 
professors  of  music  from  all  dependence  on  the 
corporation  of  the  nUrUtruirs,  This  struggle 
was  several  times  renewed.  When  Pierre 
Guignon  (bom  1702,  died  1776),  a  good 
violinist,  and  a  member  of  the  King's  chamber- 
music,  and  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  attempted  to 
reconstitute  the  Confr^rie  on  a  better  footing, 
it  became  evident  that  the  musicians  as  a  body 
were  determined  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  the 
association.  Guignon  was  appointed  'Roi  des 
violons'  by  letters  patent,  June  15,  1741,  was 
installed  in  1742,  and  in  1747  endeavoured  to 
enforce  certain  new  enactments,  but  a  parlia- 
mentary decree  of  May  30,  1750,  put  an  end 
to  his  pretended  authority  over  clavecinists, 
organists,  and  other  serious  musicians.  The 
corporation  was  maintained,  but  its  head  was 

1  Of  theM  the  principal  are  StahUftrntant  da  rAeadimie  ro^ale 
de  danee  [ale]  m  la  vUh  <f«  Pari*,  awe  %m  tfteoown  Acadimitu^ 
pour  proumr  que  la  danef,  tiaru  »a  vlus  nobU  partie,  n'a  pa*  beeoin 
de*  ingtrumna*  de  mutique.  eC  eu'OIe  ett  en  tout  almlument  indi- 
pendante  du  eUtlon  (Pftrls.  vm,  4to).  and  Le  mariage  de  lamuatque 
etdela  danee.  eantenant  la  ripnnee  [sic]  au  Mw»  de*  treixe  prUendua 
aeadimieien*  touokant*  eet  deux  art*  (Puia,  1664. 12ino). 


obliged  to  be  content  with  the  title  of  '  Roi  et 
maitre  des  menetriers,  joueurs  d'instrumenta 
tant  haut  que  has,  et  hautbois,  et  communaute 
des  mattres  a  danser.'  Roi  Guignon  still  pre- 
served the  right  of  conferring  on  provincial 
musicians  the  title  of  '  lieutenants  generaux  et 
particuliers '  to  the  '  roi  des  violons,'  but  even 
this  was  abrogated  by  a  decree  of  the  Conseil 
d']6tat,  Feb.  13,  1773.  The  last  *roi  des 
violons '  at  once  resigned,  and  in  the  follo>ving 
month  his  office  was  abolished  by  an  edict  of 
the  King  dated  from  Versailles. 

This  hasty  sketch  of  a  difficult  subject  may 
be  supplemented  by  consulting  the  following 
works :  Abrig4  historique  de  la  JUnestrandie 
(Versailles,  1774,  12mo) ;  StcUtUs  et  r4glemenU 
dee  maUres  de  danse  et  joueurs  dHnstrumeTUs 
.  .  .  registry  au  FarUfnefU  le  SS  AoM  1669 
(Paris,  1753)  ;  RemeU  d^ddils,  arrHs  du  ConseU 
da  roif  lettres  paieiUes^  .  .  .  g?i  faveur  des 
musiciens  du  Hoyaume  (Ballard,  1774,  8vo) ; 
and  Les  InstrumetUs  A  arckett  by  A.  Vidal  (L 
and  ii.  Paris,  1876,  1877,  4 to),  which  last  con- 
tains nearly  all  the  necessary  information.    G.  c. 

ROI  D'YS,  LE.  Opera  in  three  acts,  text 
by  Iklouard  Blan,  music  by  ^ouard  Lalo,  pro- 
duced at  the  Opera -Comique,  Paris,  May  7, 
1888,  and  at  Covent  Garden,  July  17,  1901. 

ROI  L'A  DIT,  LE.  Opera-oomique  in  thi^ 
acts,  text  by  Edra.  Gondinet,  music  by  Leo 
Delibes ;  produced  at  the  Opera-Comique,  Paris, 
May  24,  1873,  in  Englisli  at  Prince  of  Wales's 
Theatre,  by  the  Royal  College  of  Music,  Dec. 
13,  1894. 

ROI  MALGRlfe  LUI,  LE.  Oi)^ra-comique  iu 
three  acts,  text  by  Emile  de  Najao  aud  Paul 
Burani,  music  by  Emmanuel  Chabrier ;  pro- 
duced at  the  Opera-Comique,  Paris,  May  18, 
1887. 

ROITZSCH,  F.  August,  bom  Dec.  10, 1805, 
at  Gruna,  near  Gorlitz,  won  a  high  reputation 
as  a  careful  editor  of  old  music,  and  more  es- 
})ecially  of  Bach's  instrumental  compositions, 
in  the  valuable  cheap  editions  of  the  firm  of 
Peters.    He  died  at  Leipzig,  Feb.  4, 1889.      M. 

ROKITANSKY,  Hans,  Fkkiheer  von,  bom 
March  8,  1835,  at  Vienna,  eldest  son  of  Carl 
Freiherr  von  Rokitansky  (1804-78),  an  eminent 
medical  professor.  He  studied  singing  chiefly 
at  Bologna  and  Milan,  and  first  appeared  in 
England  at  concerts  in  1856.  In  1862  ho 
made  his  d^but  at  Prague  in  '  La  Juive,*  and 
fulfilled  a  very  successful  engagement  there  of 
two  years.  In  1863  he  sang  the  same  part 
at  Vienna,  in  1864  obtained  an  engagement 
there,  and  was  a  member  of  the  opera  company 
for  many  years,  retiring  in  1892.  His  voice 
was  a  basso -profondo  of  great  compass  and 
volume,  very  equal  in  all  its  range ;  he  had  a 
commanding  presence,  and  was  an  excellent 
actor.  His  operas  include  '  La  Juive,'  '  Robert 
le  Diable,' '  Les  Huguenots,'  '  Don  Juan,' '  Zan- 
berfiote,*    'Guillaume    Tell,'    'Le    Proph^te,' 


ROKITANSKY 


ROLLE 


123P 


*  AidA, '  *  Faiist, '  *  Vestale,  *  *  Medea, '  and  Wagner's 
openu.  On  Jime  17,  1865,  he  reappeared  in 
London  at  Her  Majesty's  as  Marcel  with  very 
great  sncoess,  and  then  sang  there  and  at  Drury 
Lane  for  four  oonsecutiye  seasons,  and  was 
greatly  esteemed.  He  played  with  success  as 
Rooco,  Sarastro,  Leporello,  II  Commendatore, 
Oroyeso,  Falstaff,  Osmin  (June  30,  1866,  on 
production  in  Italian  of  Mozart's  'Entfuh- 
rung '},  and  Padre  Guardiano  in  *  La  Forza  del 
Destine,'  June  22,  1867.  He  returned  for  the 
seasons  of  1876  and  1877  in  some  of  his  old 
parts,  and  played  for  the  first  time  the  King 
in  'Lohengrin,'  and  Giorgio  in  *I  Puritani.' 
He  retired  from  public  life  at  the  end  of  1894, 
and  is  now  a  professor  in  the  Vienna  Conser- 
▼atorinm.  a.  c. 

ROKITANSKY,  Victor.  A  younger  brother 
of  the  above,  and  a  fashionable  singing-master 
at  Vienna.  Bom  July  9,  1836.  From  1871 
to  1880  he  filled  the  post  of  Professor  of  Singing 
at  tlie  Gonservatorium  of  Vienna  ;  he  published 
Udxr  Sanger  und  Singtn  in  1894,  and  died  in 
Vienna,  July  17,  1896.  a.  o. 

ROLFE  &  CO.,  pianoforte  makers.  William 
Rolfe  w^as  at  112  Gheapside  in  1796  as  a  music- 
seller  and  publisher  of  minor  musical  works, 
also  as  maker  of  musical  instruments.  Before 
this  date  he  was  partner  in  a  small  music- 
imblishing  firm,  Culliford,  Rolfe,  k  Barrow,  at 
the  same  address,  about  1790.  With  Samuel 
Davis,  Rolfe  took  out  a  patent  for  improve- 
ments in  pianofortes  on  Jan.  31,  1797,  and  his 
pianofortes  had  some  degree  of  reputation.  His 
bnainesB  continued  nntU  1806,  when  the  firm 
was  William  Rolfe  k  Sons,  and  in  1813  they 
had  additional  premises  at  28  London  Wall. 
Rolfe  k  Sons  (or  Co.)  remained  in  Gheapside 
for  many  years.  In  1850  the  number  had  been 
changed  to  61,  and  the  London  Wall  premises 
to  81  and  82.  They  removed  to  12  Great 
Marlborough  Street  (1869),  and  then  (1878) 
to  11  Orchard  Street.  During  the  eighties 
their  place  of  business  was  at  6  Lower  Seymour 
Street,  but  after  1890  the  writer  can  find  no 
traces  of  them.  f.  k. 

ROLL,  in  dramming,  is  a  tremolo  effect  on 
the  side-drum,  produced  by  a  certain  varied 
method  of  playing  according  to  the  kind  of  roll 
desired.  Tlie  first  practice  of  this  is  called 
'  daddy  mammy,'  which,  commencing  deliber- 
ately, with  a  long  stroke  for  each  syllable, 
gradually  increases  in  speed  until  the  beats  are 
merged  into  one  continuous  roll.  The  'long 
roll '  is  an  alternate  beat  of  two  with  the  left 
stick,  followed  by  two  with  the  right.     The 

*  five  stroke  roll '  is  two  with  the  left,  two 
with  the  right,  one  with  the  left,  two  with  the 
right,  two  with  the  left,  and  one  with  the 
right ;  or  more  briefly — l  lbb.l;rrll.r. 
The  '  seven  stroke  roll '  is — L  l  R  B  l  l  .  r.    The 

*  nine  stroke  roll '  is — l  lrbllbr.l  followed 
by  a  short  rest,  and  rrllrrll..r.     Rolls 


on  the  timpani  are  made  by  the  simple  altema- 
nation  of  strokes  with  the  two  sticks.  See 
Drum.  f.  k. 

ROLL-GALL.  See  Military  Sounds  ani> 
Signals. 

ROLLA,  Alessandro,  violinist  and  com- 
ix>ser,  bom  at  Pavia,  April  22,  1757.  He  first 
studied  the  pianoforte,  but  soon  exchanged  it 
for  the  violin,  which  he  learned  under  Renzi 
and  Gonti.  He  had  also  a  great  predilection 
for  the  viola,  and  wrote  and  performed  in 
public  concertos  for  that  instrument.  In 
1782-1802  he  was  leader  of  the  band  at  Parma, 
and  it  was  there  that  Paganini  was  for  some 
months  his  pupil.  [See  Paganini.]  In  1802 
he  went  to  Milan  as  leader  and  conductor  of 
the  opera  at  La  Scala,  in  which  position  he 
gained  a  great  reputation.  He  became  in 
1805  a  professor  at  the  Gonservatorio  of  Milan, 
and  died  in  that  town,  Sept  15,  1841,  aged 
eighty -four.  His  compositions,  now  entirely 
forgotten,  had  considerable  success  in  their 
time  ;  they  consist  of  a  large  number  of  violin 
duets,  some  serenades,  trios,  quartets,  and 
quintets  for  stringed  instruments,  and  con- 
certos for  the  violin  and  for  the  viola,  as  well 
as  songs.  (See  the  QueUen-LexHam.)  His  sou 
and  pupil,  Antonio,  violinist,  was  bom  at 
Parma,  April  18,  1798  ;  from  1823  till  1885 
was  leader  of  the  Italian  Opera  band  at  Dresden, 
and  died  there.  May  1 9, 1 837.  He  published  con- 
certos and  other  solo  pieces  for  the  violin,    p.  d. 

ROLLE.  A  Qerman  musical  family.  The 
father,  Ghristian  Friedrich,  was  town  musi- 
cian of  Quedlinburg  and  of  Magdeburg  in  1721, 
and  died  there  in  1751.  Of  his  three  sons, 
Ghrirtian  Garl,  bom  at  Quedlinburg  in  1714, 
was  Gantor  of  tiie  Jerusalem  Ghurch,  Berlin, 
about  1760,  but  was  apparently  of  no  account. 
He  had  sons,  of  whom  Friedrich  Hein- 
RICH  left  a  biography  of  his  father ;  while 
Ghristian  Garl  (the  younger)  succeeded  him 
as  Gantor.  2.  A  second  son  is  mentioned,  but 
without  name.  3.  The  third,  Johann  Hein- 
rich,  was  bom  at  Quedlinburg,  Dec.  23,  1718, 
and  at  an  early  age  began  to  play  and  to  write. 
He  held  the  post  of  organist  at  St.  Peter's, 
Magdeburg,  in  1732  when  only  fourteen  years 
old  (Qtiellen-Lexikon).  He  was  at  the  Leipzig 
University  in  1736,  and  migrated  to  Berlin  in 
hopes  of  some  legal  post ;  but  this  failing  he 
adopted  music  as  his  career,  and  about  1740 
entered  the  Gourt  chapel  of  Frederick  the  Great 
as  a  chamber  musician  (viola  player).  There 
ho  remained  till  1746,  and  then  took  the 
organist's  place  at  the  Johanniskirche,  Magde- 
burg, as  town  musician,  worked  there  with 
uncommon  zeal  and  efficiency,  and  died  at  the 
age  of  sixty-seven,  Dec.  29, 1 785.  His  industry 
seems  almost  to  have  rivalled  that  of  Bach  him- 
self. He  left  several  complete  annual  series  of 
church  music  for  all  the  Sundays  and  Festivals  ; 
cantatas  for  Easter,  Whitsuntide,  and  Ghristmas, 


124 


ROLLI 


RO^LAJ^TIC 


of  which  m&ny  are  in  tlie  Royal  Library  at 
Berlin  ;  five  Passions,  and  at  least  sixty  other 
large  church  compositions.  Besides  these  there 
exist  twenty-one  large  works  of  his,  of  a  nature 
between  oratorio  and  drama,  such  as  '  Saul,  or 
the  power  of  Music,'  *  Samson,'  'David  and 
Jonathan,'  *The  Labours  of  Hercules,'  'Orestes 
and  Py lades,'  'Abraham  on  Moriah,'  'The 
Death  of  Abel,'  etc.  The  last  two  were  for 
many  years  performed  annually  at  Berlin,  and 
were  so  popular  that  the  editions  had  to  be 
renewed  repeatedly.  In  addition  to  these  he 
left  many  songs  and  compositions  for  organ, 
orchestra,  and  separate  instruments.  (See  the 
QiuUen-LexUcon  for  list)  All  have  now  as 
good  as  perished  ;  but  those  who  wish  to  know 
what  kind  of  music  they  were,  will  find  a 
specimen  in  Hullah's  '  Vocal  scores,'  'The  Lord 
is  King.'  It  has  a  good  deal  of  vigour,  but 
no  originality  or  character.  Others  are  given 
in  the  collections  of  Sander  and  Rochlitz,  and 
a  set  of  twenty  motets  for  four  voices  was  pub- 
lished at  Magdeburg  by  Rebling  (1 851-66.)      g. 

ROLLI,  Paolo  Antonio,  an  Italian  poet,  a 
Florentine,  who  was  employed  by  the  managers 
of  the  Italian  opera  to  supply  the  libretti  for 
several  of  the  operas  put  before  the  English  public 
in  the  early  years  of  the  18th  century.  It  is 
said  that  he  was  originally  a  pastry-cook,  but 
coming  to  England  about  1718,  his  productions 
pleased  the  public,  and  he  became  much  noticed. 
In  1727  he  issued  a  small  book  of  canzonets 
and  cantatas,  with  the  music,  dedicated  to  the 
Countess  of  Pembroke.  At  a  later  date  he  set 
up  as  teacher  of  the  Italian  language,  and  left 
England  for  Italy  in  1744.  Two  stanzas  of 
his  poem,  '  Se  tu  m'  ami,'  were  set  by  Pei^golesi, 
and  three  by  J.  J.  Rousseau ;  and  his  whole 
book  of  canzonets  and  cantatas  was  adapted 
to  new  music  by  William  De  Fesch  about 
1745-46,  and  published  with  a  fi*esh  dedication 
to  Lady  Frances  Erskine.  f.  k. 

ROMANCE  (Germ.  Jiatnaivsc),  A  term  of 
very  vague  signification,  answering  in  music  to 
the  same  term  in  poetry,  where  the  character- 
istics are  rather  those  of  personal  sentiment  and 
expression  than  of  precise  form.  The  Romanze 
in  Mozart's  D  minor  PF.  Concerto  differs  (if  it 
diiTers)  from  the  slow  movements  of  his  other 
Concertos  in  the  extremely  tender  and  delicate 
character  of  its  expression  ;  in  its  form  there  is 
nothing  at  all  unusual :  and  the  same  may  be 
said  of  Beethoven's  two  Romances  for  the  violin 
and  orchestra  in  G  and  F  (opp.  40  and  50),  and 
of  Schumann's  'Drei  Romanzen'  (op.  28). 
Schumann  has  also  affixed  the  title  to  three 
movements  for  oboe  and  PF.  (op.  94),  and  to  a 
well-known  piece  in  D  minor  (op.  32,  No.  3), 
just  as  he  has  used  the  similar  title,  '  in  Legen- 
denton. '  The  Romance  which  forms  the  second 
movement  of  his  symphony  in  D  minor,  is  a 
little  poem  full  of  sentimental  expression. 

In  vocal  music  the  term  is  obviously  derived 


from  the  character  or  title  of  the  words.  In 
English  poetry  we  have  few  '  romances,'  though 
such  of  Moore's  melodies  as  '  She  is  far  from  the 
land  where  her  young  hero  sleeps '  might  well 
bear  the  title.  But  in  France  they  abound,  and 
some  composers  (such  as  Puget  and  Panseron) 
have  derived  nine -tenths  of  their  reputation 
from  them.  *  Partant  pour  la  Syrie '  may  be 
named  as  a  good  example,  well  known  on  this 
side  the  water.  Mendelssohn's  '  Songs  without 
Words'  are  called  in  France  'Romances  sans 
Paroles.'  o. 

ROMANI,  Felice,  a  famous  Italian  littera- 
teur, bom  at  Genoa,  Jan.  31,  1788.  He  was 
educated  for  the  law,  but  soon  forsook  it  for 
more  congenial  pursuits,  and  was  in  early  life 
appointed  to  the  post  of  poet  to  the  royal 
theatres,  with  a  saUry  of  6000  lire.  Tlie  fall 
of  the  French  government  in  Italy  drove  him 
to  his  own  resources.  He  began  with  a  comedy, 
*  L'  Amante  e  l'  Impostore,'  which  was  very  suc- 
cessful, and  the  forerunner  of  many  dramatic 
pieces.  But  his  claim  to  notice  in  a  dictionary 
of  music  rests  on  his  opera-librettos,  in  which 
he  was  for  long  the  favourite  of  the  Italian  com- 
posers. For  Simone  Mayr  he  wrote  '  Medea ' 
(1812),  '  La  Rosa  biauca  e  la  Rosa  rossa,'  and 
others;  for  Rossini,  'Aimiliano  in  Palmira,' 
and  *  II  Tureo  in  Italia ' ;  for  Bellini,  *  Bianca 
e  Faliero,'  'La  Straniera,'  *  La  Sonnambula,' 
*Il  Pirata,'  'Norma,*  *  I  Capuletti,'  and '  Beatrice 
di  Tenda';  for  Donizetti,  'Lucrezia,'  'Anna 
Bolcna,'  *  L*  Elisir  d'  amore,*  and  'Parisina*  ; 
for  Mercadante,  '  II  Conte  d'  Essex ' ;  for  Rioci, 
'  Un  Avventura  di  Scaramuccia ' ;  and  many 
others,  in  all  fully  a  hundred.  As  editor  for 
many  years  of  the  GazzeUa  PievwtUeaCf  he  was 
a  voluminous  writer. 

In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  became  blind, 
and  was  pensioned  by  government,  and  spent 
his  last  years  in  his  family  circle  at  Moneglia, 
on  the  Riviera,  where  he  died  full  of  years  and 
honours,  Jan.  28,  1865.  o. 

ROMANO,  one  of  the  names  (derived  from 
his  birthplace)  of  a  certain  Aleasandro,  who 
was  also  known  under  the  name  of  Alessandro 
DELLA  Viola  from  his  favourite  instniment — 
a  composer  and  performer  on  the  viola,  was  bom 
at  Rome  about  the  year  1530.  His  published 
works  include  a  set  of  madrigals,  Venice,  1554 
(Royal  College  of  Music,  etc.);  five-part  madrigals, 
lb,  1565  ;  two  books  of  Canzoni  Napolitane  for 
five  voices  (Venice,  1572  and  1575) ;  a  set  of 
motets  in  five  parts  (Venice,  1679).  A  five- 
part  madrigal  by  him, '  Non  pur  d '  almi  splendori,  * 
is  published  in  the  'Libro  terzo  dello  Muse' 
(Venice,  Gardano,  1561).  [See  the  Qxullcn- 
LexikoTiy  a.v.  Alessandro.J  P.  D. 

ROMANTIC  is  a  term  which,  with  its  anti- 
thesis Classical,  has  been  borrowed  by  music 
from  literature.  But  so  delicate  and  incorporeal 
are  the  qualities  of  composition  whioh  both 
words  describe  in  their  application  to  music,  and 


ROMANTIC 


ROMANTIC 


125 


HO  arbitrary  has  been  their  use  by  different 
writers,  that  neither  word  is  susceptible  of  very 
precise  definition.  The  best  guide,  however,  to 
the  meaning  of  '  romantic '  is  supplied  by  its 
etymology.  The  poetic  tales  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  written  in  the  old  Romance  dialects,  were 
called  Romances.  In  them  mythological  fables 
and  Christian  legends,  stories  of  fairyland,  and 
adrentares  of  Oruaaders  and  other  heroes  of 
chivalry,  were  indiscriminately  blended,  and  the 
fantastic  figures  thus  brought  together  moved 
in  a  dim  atmosphere  of  mystic  gloom  and  re- 
ligious ecstasy.  These  mediseval  productions 
had  long  been  neglected  and  forgotten  even  by 
acholara,  when,  about  the  close  of  the  18th 
century,  they  were  again  brought  into  notice 
by  a  group  of  poets,  of  whom  the  most  notable 
were  the  brothers  August  Wilhelm  and  Friedrich 
voD  Schlegel,  Ludwig  Tieck,  and  Friedrich 
NoTalis.  They  set  themselves  to  rescue  the  old 
romances  from  oblivion,  and  to  revive  the  spirit 
of  medisval  poetry  in  modern  literature  by  the 
example  of  their  own  works.  Hence  they  came 
to  be  caUed  the  Romantic  School,  and  were  thus 
distinguished  from  writers  whose  fidelity  to  rules 
and  models  of  classic  antiquity  gave  them  a  claim 
to  the  title  of  Classical 

It  was  not  long  before  the  term  Romantic  was 
introduced  into  musical  literature  ;  and  it  was 
understood  to  characterise  both  the  subjects  of 
certain  musical  works  and  the  spirit  in  which 
they  were  treated.  Its  antithetical  significance 
to  the  term  Classical  still  clung  to  it ;  and 
regard  to  perfection  of  form  being  often  subordi- 
nated by  so-called  romantic  composers  to  the 
object  of  giving  free  play  to  the  imaginative  and 
emotional  parts  of  our  nature,  there  grew  up 
around  the  epithet  Romantic  the  notion  of  a 
tendency  to  depart  more  or  less  from  the  severity 
of  purely  classical  compositions.  But,  in  truth, 
no  clear  line  divides  the  romantic  from  the 
classical.  As  we  shall  endeavour  to  show,  the 
greatest  names  of  the  Classical  school  display 
the  quality  of  romanticism  in  the  spirit  or  ex- 
pression of  some  of  their  works,  ^  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  compositions  of  the  Romantic 
school  are  frequently  marked  by  scrupulous 
adherence  to  the  forms  of  traditional  excellence. 
Again,  as  the  associations  of  the  word  Classical 
convey  the  highest  meed  of  praise,  works  at 
first  pronounced  to  be  romantic  establish,  by 
general  recognition  of  their  merit,  a  claim  to  be 
considered  classical.  What  is  *  romantic '  to-day 
may  thus  grow,  although  itself  unchanged,  to 
be  *  classical '  to-morrow.  The  reader  will  thus 
understand  why,  in  Reichardt's  opinion,  Bach, 
Handel,  and  Gluck  were  classical,  but  Haydn 
and  Uozart  romantic ;  why  later  critics,  in 

>  TnmaaikmM  ot  nradoal  romantlctom  existed  In  fact  lotig 
befope  the  woid  eamc  into  use.  To  onr  modem  earn,  now  conMiooa 
of  this  ipedal  quality.  tx«ee*  are  olearly  diecemiblei.  Ae  examplee 
«•  may  take  J.  &  Baai'e  praludoe  Moa.  14  and  18  in  the  second  book 
ot  Vbt  * Wohltcmperlrtes  Clavier.'  or  the  Arioeo  'Am  Abend  da  ee 
kaUe  wmr '  from  the  Matthew  ftselon.  Alao  many  paeaaees  from 
Gloek'sa      " 


presence  of  the  fuller  romanticism  of  Beethoven, 
placed  Haydn  and  Mozart  among  the  classical 
composers  ;  and  why  Beethoven  himself,  in  his 
turn,  was  declared  to  be  classical. 

The  propriety  of  applying  the  term  Romantic 
to  operas  whose  subjects  are  taken  from  romantic 
literature,  or  to  songs  where  music  is  set  to 
romantic  words,  will  not  be  questioned.  And 
from  such  works  it  is  easy  to  select  passages 
which  present  romantic  pictures  to  the  mind,  as, 
for  instance,  the  Trumpet  passage  on  the  long 
Bb  in  the  bass  in  the  great  Leonore  overture, 
the  three  horn  notes  in  the  overture  to  *  Oberon,* 
or  the  three  drum  notes  in  the  overture  to  '  Der 
Freischiitz.'  But  in  pure  instrumental  music 
the  marks  of  romanticism  are  so  fine,  and  the 
recognition  of  them  depends  so  much  on  sym- 
])athy  and  mental  predi8]x>sition,  that  the 
question  whether  this  or  that  work  is  romantic 
may  be  a  subject  of  interminable  dispute  among 
critics.  Sometimes  the  only  mark  of  romanti- 
cism would  seem  to  be  a  subtle  effect  of  in- 
strumentation, or  a  sudden  change  of  key, 
as  in  the  following  passage  from  the  Leonore 
Overture : — 


fftuiti 


Another  example  from  Beethoven  is  8upi»lied 
by  the  opening  bars  of  the  PF.  Concerto  in  G 
major,  where  after  the  solo  has  ended  on  the 
dominant  the  orchestra  enters 7)p  with  the  chord 
of  B  major.  The  whole  of  the  slow  movement 
of  this  Concerto  is  thoroughly  romantic,  but 
])erhaps  that  quality  is  most  powerfully  felt  in 
the  following  passage : — 

TuttL  Bolo.  r"™!^ 

Yet  so  subtle  is  the  spell  of  its  presence  hero 
that  it  would  be  difficult  to  define  where  its 
intense  romanticism  lies,  unless  it  be  in  the 
abrupt  change  both  in  key  (A  minor  to  F  major), 
and  in  the  character  of  the  phrase,  almost 
forcing  a  scene,  or  recollection,  or  image,  upon 
the  hearer.^  Indeed,  romantic  music  possesses 
in  the  highest  degree  the  power  of  evoking  in 
the  mind  some  vivid  thought  or  conception — 
as  for  instance,  in  a  passage  from  the  Adagio  of 
the  Ninth  Symphony,  where  a  sudden  transition 
into  D|^  seems  to  say,  *  Yanitas  vanitatum,  omnia 
vanitas' ;  and  again  in  the  'Eroica,'  where  at 
the  end  of  the  Trio,  the  long  holding  notes  and 
peculiar  harmony  in  the  horns  seem  to  suggest 
the  idea  of  Eternity : — 

9  iter's  definition  mar  well  be  applied  to  thin  example :  '  The 
eeeenoe  of  romantidsm  is  the  blending  of  strangeness  with  the 
beanUfnl.' 


126 


ROMANTIC 


ROMANTIC 


Strings. 


Horns.  ^ 


That  there  are  times  when  music  has  a  fuller 
and  wider  range  of  meaning  than  language,  and 
defies  expression  in  words,  might  be  illustrated 
by  many  passages  in  Beethoven's  B  flat  trio  or 
.the  last  five  sonatas.  But  with  regard  to  the 
•choice  of  examples  we  must  remind  the  reader 
that,  where  the  standpoint  of  criticism  is  almost 
wholly  subjective,  great  diversities  of  judgment 
^ara  inevitable. 

It  was  not  until  after  the  appearance  of  the 
<works  of  Carl  Maria  von  Weber,  who  lived  in 
close  relation  with  the  romantic  school  of  litera- 
ture, and  who  drew  his  inspirations  from  their 
writings,  that  critics  began  to  speak  of  a 
'romantic  school  of  music'  Beethoven  had 
by  this  time  been  accepted  as  classical,  but  in 
.addition  to  Weber  himself,  Schubert  and  after- 
wards Mendelssohn,  Schumann,  and  Chopin  were 
all  held  to  be  representatives  of  the  romantic 
school.  Widely  as  the  composers  of  this  new 
school  differed  in  other  respects,  they  were  alike 
in  their  susceptibility  to  the  tone  of  thought  and 
feeling  which  so  deeply  coloured  the  romantic 
literature  of  their  time.  None  of  them  were 
strangers  to  that  weariness  of  the  actual  world 
around  them,  and  those  yearnings  to  escape 
from  it,  which  pursued  so  many  of  the  finest 
minds  of  the  generations  to  which  they  belonged. 
To  men  thus  pi-edisposed,  it  was  a  relief  and 
delight  to  live  in  an  ideal  world  as  remote  as 
I>ossible  from  the  real  one.  Some  took  refuge 
in  medieeval  legends,  where  no  border  divided 
the  natural  from  the  supernatural,  and  where 
nothing  could  be  incongruous  or  improbable ; 
.some  in  the  charms  and  solitudes  of  nature ; 
and  others  in  the  contemplation  of  peace  and 
beatitude  beyond  the  grave.  But  in  all  there 
was  the  same  impatience  of  the  material  and 
mundane  conditions  of  their  existence,  the  same 
longing  to  dwell  in  the  midst  of  scenes  and 
images  which  mortals  could  but  dimly  see 
through  the  glass  of  religious  or  poetic  imagina- 
tion. As  might  have  been  expected  of  works 
produced  under  such  influences,  indistinctness 
of  outline  was  a  common  attribute  of  compositions 
of  the  romantic  school.  The  hard,  clear  lines 
of  reality  were  seldom  met  with  in  them,  and 
the  cold  analysis  of  pure  reason  was  perpetually 
eluded.  It  was  equally  natural  that  the  creations 
of  minds  withdrawn  from  contact  with  the 
actual  world  and  wrapt  in  their  own  fancies, 
should  vividly  reflect  the  moods  and  phases  of 
feeling  out  of  which  they  sprang — that  they 
should  be,  in  short,  intensely  subjective.  Nor 
was  it  surprising  that  when  impatience  of 
reality,  indistinctness  of  outline,  and  excessive 


subjectivity  co-existed,  the  pleasures  of  imagina- 
tion sometimes  took  a  morbid  hue.  Such 
conditions  of  origin  as  we  have  been  describing 
could  not  fail  to  affect  the  forms  of  composition. 
It  was  not  that  the  romanticists  deliberately 
rejected  or  even  undervalued  classic  models, 
but  that,  borne  onward  by  the  impulse  to  give 
free  expression  to  their  own  individuality,  Uicy 
did  not  suffer  themselves  to  be  bound  by  forms, 
however  excellent,  which  they  felt  to  be  inade- 
quate for  their  purpose.  Had  the  leaders  of 
the  romantic  school  been  men  of  less  genius, 
this  tendency  might  have  degenerated  into 
disregard  of  form  ;  but  happily  in  them  liberty 
did  not  beget  license,  and  the  art  of  music  was 
enriched  by  the  addition  of  new  forms.  *  The 
extremes,'  says  Goethe,  speaking  of  the  romantic 
school  of  literature,  'will  disappear,  and  at 
length  the  great  advantage  will  remain  that  a 
wider  and  more  varied  subject-matter,  together 
with  a  freer  form,  will  be  attained.'  Goethe's 
anticipations  were  equally  applicable  to  music 

Among  masters  of  the  romantic  school, 
Weber  stands  second  to  none.  In  youth  he 
surrendered  himself  to  the  fascination  of  literary 
romanticism,  and  this  early  bias  of  his  mind 
was  confirmed  in  later  years  by  constant  inter- 
course at  Dresden  with  Holtei,  Tieck,  E.  T.  A. 
Hoffmann,  and  other  men  of  the  same  cast  of 
thought.  The  subjects  of  Weber's  operas  were 
selected  exclusively  from  romantic  literature, 
and  the  *  Romantic  Opera, '  of  which  Germany  has 
so  much  reason  to  be  proud,  owed  to  him  its 
origin  and  highest  development,  although  the 
names  of  Spohr,^  Marschner,  Lindpaintner, 
Kreutzer,  Lortzing,  and  others  are  justly  asso- 
ciated with  it  The  romantic  effects  which 
Weber  could  produce  in  his  instrumentation  are 
indisputable,  and  never,  even  in  the  least  of  his 
pianoforte  works,  did  he  cease  to  be  romantic 

Though  Weber  holds  the  first  place  in  the 
opera  of  the  romantic  school,  he  was  surpassed 
in  other  branches  of  composition  by  his  contem- 
porary, Franz  Schubert.  Pure  and  classic  as 
is  the  form  of  Schubert's  symphonies  and 
sonatas,  the  very  essence  of  romanticism  is  dis- 
closed in  them.  His  unrivalled  wealth  of 
melody  was  the  gift  of  romanticism.  It  gave 
him  also  a  certain  indefiniteness  and,  as  it  were, 
indivisibility  of  ideas,  which  some  critics  have 
judged  to  be  a  failing,  but  which  were  in  fact 
the  secret  of  this  strength,  because  they  enabled 
him  to  repeat  and  develop,  to  change  and  then 
again  resume  his  beautiful  themes  and  figures 
in  long  and  rich  progression,  without  pause 
and  without  satiety.  None  have  known,  as  he 
knew,  how  to  elicit  almost  human  sounds  from  a 
single  instrument — as  for  instance,  in  the  well- 
known  passage  for  the  horn  in  the  seoond 
movement  of  the  C  major  Symphony,  of  which 
Schumann  said  that  '  it  seems  to  have  come 

1  Th«M  point*,  and  flpohr'ii  claim  to  priority  of  Inrvntlon  of  ih<> 
Somaiitio  opera.  ar»  diicuncd  in  Opbka.  rol.  ill.  p.  4M.  etc. 


ROMANTIC 


ROMANTIC 


127 


to  us  from  another  world.'  Many  glorious 
passages  might  he  pointed  out  in  this  Symphony, 
the  romanticism  of  which  it  would  he  difficult 
to  surpass  ;  for  instance,  the  second  suhject  in 
the  first  morement,  the  beginning  of  the  work- 
ing out  in  the  Finale,  etc  etc  In  Song  Schu> 
hert  stands  alone.  Even  from  boyhood  he  had 
steeped  his-  soul  in  romantic  poetry ;  and  so 
expressiTo  is  the  music  of  his  songs  that  they 
require  no  words  to  reveal  their  deeply  romantic 
character.  Few  were  the  thoughts  or  feelings 
which  Schubert's  genins  was  unable  to  express 
in  music.  '  He  was '  (to  quote  Schumann  again) 
'  the  deadly  enemy  of  all  Philistinism,  and  after 
Beethoven  the  greatest  master  who  made  music 
his  vocation  in  the  noblest  sense  of  the  word.' 

Schumann's  own  enmity  to  Philistinism  was 
not  less  deadly  than  that  of  Schubert,  and  roman- 
ticism was  its  root  in  both  men.  So  strongly 
did  Schumann  resent  the  popularity  of  Herz, 
Hiinten,  and  other  Philistines,  whose  works 
were  in  vogue  about  the  year  1880,  that  he 
founded  the  Davidsbund  to  expose  the  hollow- 
nesB  of  their  pretensions.  And  equally  dissatis- 
fied with  the  sliallow  and  contracted  views  of 
the  musical  critics  of  that  day,  he  started  his 
Keue  ZeUaehrift  fitr  Musik  to  vindicate  the 
claims  of  music  to  freedom  from  every  limitation, 
except  the  laws  of  reason  and  of  beauty.  Even 
in  childhood  Schumann  was  an  eager  reader  of 
romantic  literature,  and  the  writings  of  Hoffmann 
and  Jean  Paul  never  lost  their  charm  for  him. 
He  told  a  oorreepondent  that  if  she  would  rightly 
understand  his  '  Papillons,'  op.  2,  she  must  read 
the  last  chapter  of  Jean  Paul's  Flegeljahre  ;  and 
from  Hoffmann  he  borrowed  the  title  of '  Kreis- 
leriana.'  It  was  not,  however,  the  imaginary 
sufferings  of  Dr.  Ereissler,  but  the  real  deep 
melandioly  of  Schumann's  own  soul,  which  ex- 
pressed itself  in  these  noble  fantasias.  Though 
perfect  in  form,  they  are  thoroughly  romantic  in 
thought  and  spirit.  Not  less  romantic  were  the 
names  he  gave  to  his  pianoforte  pieces.  These 
names,  he  said,  were  scarcely  necessary — *  for  is 
not  music  self-sufficing  ?  does  it  not  speak  for 
itself  ?•— but  he  admitted  tliat  they  were  faithful 
indexes  to  the  character  of  the  pieces.  The 
clearest  tokens  of  the  same  source  of  inspiration 
niay  be  found  in  his  Fantasie,  op.  17,  which  bears 
as  its  motto  a  verse  from  Schlegel.  In  the  last 
part  a  deeply  moving  effect  is  produced  by  the 
abrupt  change  of  key  in  the  arpeggios  from  the 
chords  of  G  to  A  and  then  to  F.  But  changes 
of  key  were  not  his  only  resource  for  the  produc- 
tion of  romantic  effects.  Excepting  Beethoven, 
none  have  illustrated  the  power  of  rhythm  so 
well  as  Schumann.  He  often  imparts  a  strange 
and  entirely  novel  significance  to  commonplace 
or  familiar  phrases  by  syncopated  notes,  by  put- 
ting the  emphasis  on  the  weak  part  of  the  bar, 
or  by  accents  so  marked  as  to  give  the  impres- 
sion of  a  simultaneous  combination  of  triple  and 
common  time.      These  strong  and    eccentric 


rhythms  appear  in  all  his  works ;  and  the  frequent 
directions  Marcato  assai  or  Molto  marccUo  show 
what  stress  he  laid  upon  emphasis.  The  influence 
of  Jean  Paul  may  be  traced  also  in  Schumann's 
sometimes  grave  and  sometimes  playful  humour. 
Many  of  his  pianoforte  pieces  are  marked  fnit 
HumcT  or  mit  vUlem  HuTiwr.  And  in  this 
respect  he  is  inferior  only  to  Beethoven,  of  whoso 
'  romantic  humour '  he  so  often  speaks  in  his 
OesammelU  Schriflen,  The  romantic  bias  of 
Schumann's  mind  was  not  less  e\ndent  in  his 
treatment  of  Oriental  subjects.  The  colouring 
of  his  *  Paradise  and  the  Peri,'  and  of  his  *  Bilder 
aus  Osten,'  is  \'ividly  local.  And  of  his  songs 
we  may  cite  the '  Waldesgesprach '  (op.  89,  No.  3) 
as  an  example  of  the  purest  essence  of  romance. 
Full  as  the  poem  is  in  itself  of  romantic  feeling 
and  expression,*  the  music  interprets  the  words, 
rather  than  the  words  the  music. 

The  romantic  spirit  found  a  less  congenial 
abode  in  the  happy,  equable  disposition,  and 
carefully  disciplined  imagination  of  Mendels- 
sohn ;  but  his  genius  was  too  sensitive  and 
delicate  to  remain  unaffected  by  the  main 
currents  of  his  age.^  Take,  for  example,  the 
first  four  chords  in  the  overture  to' A  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream.'  And  could  it  indeed  be 
possible  to  illustrate  Shakespeare's  romantic 
play  in  music  with  fuller  success  than  Mendels- 
sohn has  done  ?  The  overtures  *  The  Hebrides,' 
'Melusine,'  and  'Calm  Sea  and  Pixyspcrous 
Voyage,'  are  likewise  full  of  the  brightest 
qualities  of  romanticism. 

Not  unlike  Mendelssohn  was  William  Stem- 
dale  Bennett ;  and  the  points  of  resemblance 
between  them  were  strict  regard  to  form,  clear- 
ness of  poetic  thought,  and  cultivated  refine- 
ment of  taste.  Romantic,  too,  Bennett  certainly 
was  ;  as  may  at  once  be  seen  in  his  overtures, 
*The  Naiads'  and  *The  Wood  Nymphs.'  So 
tranquil,  clear  and  perfect  in  detail  are  most  of 
Bennett's  compositions,  so  delicate  was  the 
touch  which  fashioned  them,  that  they  have 
been  likened  to  the  landscapes  of  Claude  Lor- 
raine. Yet  there  were  rare  moments  when 
Bennett's  habitual  reserve  relaxed,  and  to  the 
inspiration  of  such  moments  we  may  ascribe  the 
romantic  passages  which  occur  in  his  beautiful 
'Paradise  and  the  Peri'  and  'Parisina'  over- 
tures. 

Notice  of  the  modem  German  composers  on 
whom  the  stamp  of  Schumann  is  so  unmistak- 
able, would  lead  us  too  far,  but  the  names  of 
Robert  Franz  and  Adolf  Jensen  cannot  be 
omitted.  Some  of  the  tenderest  and  most 
delicate  attributes  of  romanticism  are  to  be 
found  in  their  songs,  as  for  instance  in  the 
*  Dolorosa '  cycle  of  the  latter  composer.  Peter 
Cornelius's  spirit  moves  inadifferentatmosphere ; 
a  poet  himself,  he  casts  a  pecnliar  and  magic 

1  In  dearrlUnff  to  Retcluurdt'i  dan^ter  the  sueeewof  her  father^* 
'Morgengenng'  at  the  Rhine  Fcwtival,  Mondelmohn  adds,  'At  the 
words  Vnd  $ehUch  in  diatir  Naeht  the  niotic  heuoine*  ao  roinaiitie 
and  poetical  that  ererr  time  I  hear  it.  I  am  more  touched  aiid 
charmed.' 


128 


ROMANTIC 


ROMANTIC 


spell  of  romance  over  his  music.  Waguer  we 
pass  by,  because  he  cannot  be  counted  among 
the  followers  of  the  romantic  school,  and, 
within  tlie  limits  of  this  article,  it  would  be 
impossible  to  show  the  points  wherein  he 
differs  from  all  former  romanticists.  We  may, 
however,  designate  one  of  the  greatest  of  modem 
composers  as  one  of  the  greatest  romanticists ;  and 
it  is  no  disparagement  to  the  individuality  of 
Johannes  Brahms  to  say  that  he  is  in  many 
respects  the  disciple  of  Schubert  and  Schumann. 
The  romanticism  of  such  productions  as  the 
beautiful  romances  from  Tieck's  ^Magelone' 
(op.  33)  or  the  cantata  *  Rinaldo '  (op.  50)  is  of 
course  visible  at  a  glance,  and  there  are  many 
other  songs  in  which  the  presence  of  romantic 
sensibility  is  felt  throughout.  For  Instance  in 
one  of  liis  most  exquisite  songs* '  Immer  leiser 
wii-d  mein  Schlummer,'  the  phrase  '  Eh'  die 
Drossel  singt  im  Wald'  reaches  a  point  of 
romantic  emotion  difticult  to  describe.  In 
Brahms's  greater  works  the  romanticism  seems 
sometimes  veiled,  but  there  are  passages  in  his 
chamber -music  and  symphonies  where  this 
quality  in  its  deepest  sense  resides.  As  examples, 
the  romanticism  of  which  could  hardly  be 
surpassed,  we  may  cite  the  slow  movement  of 
the  A  major  pianoforte  quartet  and  the  opening 
of  the  last  movement  of  the  C  minor  symphony  ; 
or  the  last  part  of  the  first  movement  of  tlie 
D  major  symphony  (seventy-three  bare  before 
the  end,  where  the  horns  enter  and  the  strings 
are  kept  in  the  low  register)  ;  or  the  andante 
of  the  third  symphony  in  F,  where  the  different 
instruments  softly  call  to  each  other,  as  if  from 
another  world  after  the  passionate  working-uj) 
twenty-seven  bars  before  the  close. 

Chopin  holds  a  solitary  position  in  romantic 
art  No  school  can  claim  him  wholly  for  its 
own,  and  the  best  poetic  gifts  of  the  French, 
German,  and  Sclavonic  nationalities  were  united 
in  him.  'Chopin,'  says  Liszt,  'refused  to  be 
bound  by  deference  to  rules  which  fettered  the 
play  of  his  imagination,  simply  because  they 
had  been  accepted  as  classical.'  But  the  classic 
training  and  solid  studies  of  his  youth,  combined 
with  his  exquisite  taste  and  innate  refinement, 
preserved  him  from  abuse  of  the  liberty  which 
he  was  determined  to  enjoy.  The  mental 
atmosphere  of  his  life  in  Paris  may  be  felt  in 
his  works.  In  hatred  of  whatever  was  common- 
place and  ordinary,  he  was  one  with  the  French 
romantic  school ;  but  unlike  them  he  would 
not  allow  originality  alone  to  stand  in  his  com- 
lx>sitions.  Beauty  there  must  always  be  to 
satisfy  him  ;  and  he  would  have  recoiled  from 
the  crudities  and  extravagances  which  disfigure 
some  works  of  the  French  romantic  period.  So 
uniformly  romantic  was  Chopin  in  every  stage  of 
his  career,  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  illustrate 
this  quality  of  his  music  by  extracts.  Among 
the  Sclavonicand  Scandinavianraces  theromantio 
element  is  especially  marked ;   a  study  of  the 


poetic  creations  of  Tchaikovsky  and  Grieg  will 
illustrate  this. 

The  French  romantic  school  of  literature  w^as 
of  later  date  than  the  German,  and  was  con- 
siderably affected  by  it.  The  general  features 
of  the  two  schools  were  very  similar,  but  the 
French  authors  wrote  oven  more  than  the 
German  in  the  medisval  and  mystic  vein,  and 
were  more  prone  to  unhealthy  exaggeration. 
In  France,  moreover,  the  antagonism  between 
the  romantic  and  classical  schools  was  carried  to 
a  pitch  that  had  no  parallel  in  Germany.  The 
completeness  and  universality  of  the  empire 
which  classic  example  and  tradition  had  gained 
over  the  educated  public  of  France  intensified 
the  revolt  against  them,  when  at  last  it  anived. 
The  revolt  was  as  widespread  as  it  was  uncom- 
promising :  there  wasnot  a  field  of  art  or  literature 
in  which  the  rebel  flag  of  the  new  school  was 
not  unfurled,  and  a  revolutionaiy  temper,  in- 
flamed perhaps  by  the  political  stoi-ms  of  that 
time,  was  manifest  in  all  that  they  did.  In 
the  false  simplicity  and  sickly  sentimentality, 
in  the  stilted  diction  and  threadbare  forms  of 
expression  affected  by  the  reigning  school,  the 
insurgent  authors  had  indeed  much  to  provoke 
them.  But  in  the  vehemence  of  their  reaction 
against  such  faults  they  were  apt  to  fall  into 
an  opposite  extreme  ;  and  thus,  finish  of  form, 
clearness  of  outline,  and  coherent  sequence  of 
thought  are  too  often  absent  from  their  works. 

With  respect  to  music,  Berlioz  is  the  typical 
name  of  the  renaissance  of  1830  ;  but  Liszt,  on 
whom  the  French  school  exercised  so  strong  an 
influence,  may  be  associated  with  him.  So  far 
were  these  composers  and  their  countless  fol- 
lowers borne  by  the  revolutionary  impulse,  that 
they  did  not  shrink  at  times  from  a  total  rejection 
of  the  old  traditional  forms  in  their  instrumental 
music  ;  but  it  cannot  be  said  that  very  valuable 
results  were  obtained  by  their  hardihood.  They 
chose  indeed  romantic  subjects  for  musical  repre- 
sentation, as  Weber  and  Schumann  had  done, 
but  there  the  resemblance  ceased.  They  aimed 
not,  as  the  earlier  masters  did,  to  reproduce  the 
feelings  stirred  in  them  by  external  objects,  but 
rather  to  present  the  objects  themselves  to  the 
minds  of  an  audience. 

To  this  kind  of  music,  the  term  programme- 
music  has  been  applied,  and  we  may  here  perhaps 
fitly  show  wherein  it  differs  from  romantic  music, 
with  which  there  is  a  tendency  in  the  present 
day  to  confound  it  In  reality  a  distinct  line 
divides  the  two.  Romantic  music  implies  an 
emotional  and  imaginative  atmosphere,  com- 
bined with  an  idealistic,  as  distinct  from  an 
imitative  presentment  of  whatever  theme  may  be 
associated  with  the  music.  Programme-music 
avowedly  endeavours  to  depict  and  imitate  the 
actual  scenes  and  sounds  so  literally  that  no 
doubt  is  left  in  the  mind  of  the  hearer  as  to 
what  the  composer  desired  to  represent  or  re- 
produce.    Neither  emotional  nor  imaginative 


ROMBERG 


ROMBERG 


129 


qualities  are  essential  to  it.  Romantic  music 
does  not  necessarily  desire  to  call  up  a  given 
pcture,  bnt  to  indnoe  a  mental  attitude.  Un- 
conscionsly  the  romantic  composer  may  have 
viitteD  passages  which  eroke  as  clearly,  bat  not 
in  so  limited  a  degree,  some  mental  image  in  the 
mind  of  the  hearer.  The  composer  has  stimu- 
lated the  imagination  of  his  hearer,  and  left  it 
free  to  conjure  up  what  it  wills.  Herein  lies 
the  diiference  between  the  two  schools.  Indi- 
fidnalism  or  subjectivity,  the  characteristic  mark 
of  the  romantic  movement  in  philosophy  and 
Hterature,  asserts  itself  as  distinctively  in  music. 
Programme  or  pictorial  music  stands  on  a  lower 
plane.  It  is  purely  imitative  work  on  the  com- 
poser's part ;  it  gives  no  scope  for,  and  makes 
no  demands  upon  the  imagination  of  the  hearer. 
An  undoubted  loss  of  romantic  effect  was  the 
consequence  of  this  method.  It  produced  in 
the  younger  French  romanticists  an  excessive 
realism,  which  too  readily  sacrificed  artistic 
beauty  to  origmality  and  vivid  representation. 
Nor  can  we  deny  the  frequent  obscurity  and  in- 
coherence of  their  compositions,  though  we  are 
unable  to  acquiesce  in  the  imputation  so  often 
fastened  upon  them  that  their  romanticism  was 
merely  the  veil  of  ignorance,  and  that  they 
violated  rules  because  they  knew  no  better.  As 
a  matter  of  fiatct,  even  those  among  them  who 
pushed  extravagances  to  the  farthest  point  were 
thorough  masters  of  the  strictest  rules  and 
severest  forms  of  musical  composition. 

To  sum  up,  in  conclusion,  our  obligations  to 
the  masters  of  the  romantic  school,  we  must 
admowledge  that  they  saved  music  from  the 
danger  with  which  it  was  at  one  time  threatened, 
of  being  treated  as  an  exact  but  dry  and  cold 
sdeooe ;  that  they  gave  it  a  freer  and  more 
elastic  form ;  that  they  developed  the  capabilities 
and  technique  of  various  instruments ;  that 
being  themselves  always  filled  with  a  deep 
reverence  for  their  art  they  have  added,  by  their 
own  genius  and  labour,  many  a  noble  master- 
piece to  the  treasures  of  music.  ^        a.  h.  w. 

ROMBERG.  One  of  those  musical  families 
of  whom,  from  the  Bachs  downwards,  so  many 
are  encountered  in  Germany.  The  founders 
were  Anton  and  Heinrioh,  a  pair  of  insepar- 
able brothers,  who  dressed  alike,  and  lived 
together  in  Bonn.  They  were  still  alive  in 
1792.  Another  Anton,  a  bassoon-player, 
bom  in  Westphalia,  March  6,  1742,  lived  at 
Dinklage  (Duchy  of  Oldenburg),  gave  concerts 

1  For  tlM  fongolai:  artkto  the  followiac  irarks  hxv  been  ran- 
wltedi-SrhimiMin.  Uuammat*  tekri/tmn  Uast.  Chopin;  Hoe- 
tinAr,  Dte  Ufmrm  dmr  formaUn  Attthtttk',  Kftater,  Popuidrt 
r«f(fftf#«:  Lft  Mkb.  MmObaibtlkt  BtyMtn-kOpftx  Wutebwtkl. 
a>wiiwii,  Wdier.  llAX  T..  C.  M.  9.  Waberi  HoAnann.  Krtidert. 
mm;  flaatter.  JMMrv  *•  BemtuUitmt;  M.  MeUiShirift  f.  Mwlk, 
18MJ»'.  KtaU.  ChmraUtrUffn  Broekhana,  OM>Mr»a«<mj/«etom ; 
,  9mrHkh»  mat  0mA«;   Mendel.  leBttm;  Brendel, 


Tnrifrtfw  ifrr  riirifr:  Mara.  Jfitftt  «to  Xmmuhmten  JahrtamderU ; 
KMIte.  OtatklekU *$r  MhaOtx  Weltsmann.  0«M*<eM«  dn  Ctavier. 
«ME»:  lel—Mim.  rm  Baeh  H$  WafHtr;  Letters  from  Dr.  Zopff 
vad  Dr.  Litf  vte.  See  aleo  Prof.  V.  Kleeks's  article  on  Romantlcinn, 
iDjriiiileainMi.De(»mberiagB;  rtA.  ri.  ot  tha  O^ffitrd  Hiatorv  cf 
Mmtte  {Tha  »ammntle  fertiod).  hy  B.  Danorenther:  The  quarteHp 
amlmt  fer  Oetobcr  IMS.  ppl  S5T-74:  and  Daniel  Gracory  ICaMn'i 
Aotk 0r<v  to^arakau.  and  7%$  Rpmaiitie  (^mpomru 

VOL.  rr 


at  Hamburg,  and  died  in  Dec.  14,  1814,  living 
long  enough  to  play  a  concerto  for  two 
bassoons  with  his  youngest  son  Anton,  born 
1777.  His  eldest  son,  Bexnhabd,  born  Nov. 
12,  1767,  at  Dinklage,  is  justly  regarded  as 
head  of  the  school  of  German  violoncellists. 
When  only  fourteen  he  attracted  considerable 
attention  in  Paris  during  a  visit  there  with  hie 
father  ;  from  1790  to  179S  he  was  in  the  band 
of  the  Elector  of  Cologne  at  Bonn,  at  the  same 
time  with  Ferdinand  Ries,  Beicha,  and  the  two 
Beethovens.  During  the  French  invasion  he 
occupied  himself  in  a  professional  tour  in  Italy, 
Spain,  and  Portugal,  and  was  well  received, 
especially  in  Madrid,  where  Ferdinand  VII. 
accompanied  him  on  the  violin.  His  cousin 
Andreas  went  with  him,  and  on  their  return 
through  Vienna  late  in  1796,  they  gave  a 
concert  at  which  Beethoven  played  (Thayer, 
ii.  16).  After  his  return  Bemhard  married 
Catherine  Ramcke  at  Hamburg.  From  1801 
to  1803  he  was  a  professor  in  the  Paris  Con- 
servatoire, and  we  next  find  him  in  the  King's 
band  at  Berlin.  Spohr  (AtUcb,  i.  78)  met  him 
there  at  the  end  of  1804,  and  played  quartets 
with  him.  Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  fact 
he  mentions  is  that  after  one  of  Beethoven's 
early  quartets  (op.  18)  Romberg  asked  how 
Spohr  could  play  'such  absurd  stuff'  (baroekes 
Zeug),  It  is  of  a  piece  with  the  well-known 
anecdote  of  his  tearing  the  copy  of  the  first 
Rasonmowsky  quartet  from  the  stand  and 
trampling  on  it. 

The  approach  of  the  French  forces  in  1806 
again  drove  Romberg  on  the  world,  and  in 
1807  he  was  travelling  in  South  Russia,  but 
retomed  to  Berlin,  and  was  Court-Capellmeister, 
1815-19,  when  he  retired  into  private  life  at 
Hamburg.  [In  1814  he  visited  England, 
giving  a  concert  under  the  patronage  of  Prince 
Blucher  and  the  Hetman  of  the  Cossacks,  at 
Willis's  Rooms,  June  27.  A.  f.  h.]  In  1822 
he  went  to  Vienna,  in  1825  to  St.  Petersburg 
and  Moscow,  to  Frankfort  in  1836,  and  in 
1839  to  London^  and  Paris,  where  his  Method 
for  the  Violmullo  (Berlin,  Trautwein,  1840) 
was  adopted  by  the  Conservatoire.  He  died 
at  Hamburg,  August  13,  1841. 

The  great  importance  of  B.  Romberg  both  as 
composer  and  executant  arises  from  the  fact 
that  he  materially  extended  the  capabilities 
of  the  violoncello.  His  celebrated  concertos 
may  be  said  to  contain  implicitly  a  complete 
theory  of  violoncello  playing,  and  there  are 
few  passages  known  to  modem  players  the 
type  of  which  may  not  be  found  there.  Pi*ob- 
ably  no  better  knowledge  of  the  finger-board 
could  be  gained  than  by  studying  these  con- 
certos. Although  they  are  now  seldom  played 
in  public,  being  somewhat  too  old-fashioned 

«  He  doei  not  seem  to  have  played  on  thii  ooeasion ;  Irat  a  slisht 
trace  of  hla  vreaence  U  perhaps  diKO%'eFable  in  an  oTertnreof  nii 
nephew's,  which  doses  the  Phtlhamonic  progxanune  of  June  17. 


130 


ROMBERG 


ROME 


to  hit  the  taste  of  modern  artists  and  audiences, 
they  are  yet  of  considerable  merit  as  composi- 
tions, and  contain  passages  of  distinct  grace 
and  charm.  It  may  be  gathered  from  the 
character  of  his  compositions,  that  his  tone 
was  not  so  full  and  powerful  as  that  of  artists 
who  confine  themselves  more  to  the  lower 
register  of  the  instrument,  and  to  passages  of 
less  complication.  As  an  indication  that  this 
view  agrees  with  that  which  prevailed  during 
his  lifetime,  we  find  him  for  instance  spoken  of 
as  follows  by  a  correspondent  of  the  Allgemeine 
Jdu8ikali8C?ie  Zeitung  for  1817,  who  had  heard 
him  play  at  Amsterdam : — 'The  visit  of  B.  Bom- 
berg  had  long  been  eagerly  looked  for.  The 
immense  reputation  which  preceded  him  caused 
his  first  concert  to  be  crowded  to  excess.  He 
played  a  concerto  ('die  Beiseauf  den  Bemhards- 
berg ')  and  a  capricdo  on  Swedish  national  airs. 
In  regard  to  tiie  perfection  and  taste  of  his 
performance,  to  the  complete  ease  and  lightness 
of  his  playing,  our  great  expectations  were  far 
exceedeid — but  not  so  in  respect  of  tone — this, 
especially  in  difficult  passages,  we  found  much 
weaker  than  the  powerful  tone  of  our  own 
Rauppe,  and  indeed  scarcely  to  compare  with 
it.'  At  a  second  concert  Romberg  played  his 
well-known  Military  Concerto,  and  the  same 
view  was  reiterated. 

Bemhard  Romberg  composed  violoncello 
solos  of  various  kinds ;  string  quartets ;  PF. 
quartets  ;  a  funeral  symphony  for  Queen  Louise 
of  Prussia ;  a  concerto  for  two  violoncellos 
(Breitkopf  k  Hartel),  his  last  work  ;  and  operas 
— 'Die  wiedergefundene  Statue,'  words  by 
Qozzi  von  Schwick  (1790),  and  'DerSchiffbruch' 
(1791,  Bonn),  'Don  Mendooe,'  with  his  cousin 
Andreas  (Paris),  'Alma,'  'Ulysses  und  Circe* 
(July  27,  1807),  and  '  Rittertreue,*  three  acts 
(Jan.  31,  1817,  Berlin).  His  son  Karl,  also 
a  violoncellist,  bom  at  St.  Petersburg,  Jan. 
17,  1811,  played  in  the  court  band  there  from 
1832  to  1842,  and  afterwards  lived  at  Vienna. 

Anton  Romberg,  the  father  of  Bemhard,  had 
a  brother  Gerhabd  Heinrich,  bom  August 
8,  1745,  a  clarinet-player,  and  Musikdirector 
at  Munster,  who  lived  with  him  for  some  time 
at  Bonn,  and  had  several  children,  of  whom 
the  most  celebrated  was  Andreas  Jakob,  a 
violinist,  bom  April  27,  1767,  at  Vechta,  near 
Miinster.  When  only  seven  he  played  in  public 
with  his  cousin  Bemhard,  with  whom  he  re- 
mained throughout  life  on  terms  of  the  closest 
friendship.  At  seventeen  he  excited  great 
enthusiasm  in  Paris,  and  was  engaged  for  the 
Concerts  Spirituek  (1784).  In  1790  he  joined 
his  cousin  at  Ponn,  played  the  violin  in  the 
Elector's  band,  and  accompanied  him  to  Italy 
in  1793.  In  Rome  they  gave  a  concert  at  the 
Capitol  (Feb.  17,  1796)  under  the  patronage 
of  Cardinal  Rezzonico.  Andreas  then  made 
some  stay  in  Vienna,  where  Haydn  showed 
great  interest  in  his  first  quartet     In  1797  he 


went  to  Hamburg,-  and  in  1798  made  a  tour 
alone,  in  1800  he  followed  Bemhard  to  Paris, 
and  composed  with  him  'Don  Mendooe,  ou  le 
Tuteur  portugais.'  The  opera  failed,  and  the 
success  of  their  concerts  was  but  partial,  so 
Andreas  left  for  Hamburg,  where  he  married, 
and  remained  for  fifteen  years.  He  next  became 
Court-Capellmeister  at  Gotha,  where  he  died, 
in  very  great  destitution,  Nov.  10,  1821. 
Concerts  were  given  in  various  towns  for  the 
benefit  of  his  widow  and  children.  The  uni- 
versity of  Kiel  gave  him  a  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Music.  He  composed  six  symphonies,  quartets, 
quintets,  and  church  music ;  a  Te  Deum,  Psalms, 
a  Dixit,  Magnificat,  and  HaJleli^jah,  in  four,  five, 
eight,  and  sixteen  parts  ;  several  operas — '  Das 
graue  Ungeheuer'  (1790,  Bonn),  'Die  Macht 
der  Musik '  (1791),  '  Der  Rabe,'  operetta  (1792). 
'Die  Groflsmuth  des  Scipio,'  and  'Die  Rninen 
zu  Paluzzi,' — the  two  last  not  performedL  His 
best-known  work  is  the  music  for  Schiller's '  Laj 
of  the  Bell,'  which  kept  its  place  in  concert 
progranmies  for  many  years.  His  music  is 
solid,  but  not  original,  being  too  closely  modelled 
on  Mozart  His  larger  works  are  well  known 
in  England.  '  The  'Dransient  and  the  Eternal, ' 
'The  Harmony  of  the  Spheres,'  'The  Power  of 
Song,'  and  a  Te  Deum  (in  D),  as  well  as  'The 
Lay  of  the  Bell,'  are  all  published  with  English 
words  by  Novello.  His  Toy-symphony  is  now 
and  then  played  as  an  alternative  to  Haydn's, 
and  was  chosen  for  performance  by  an  extra- 
ordinary company,  embracing  most  of  the  great 
artists  of  London,  May  14,  1880.  Two  sons, 
Cyprian  and  Heinrioh  are  mentioned  in  the 
Allg,  mimkcUiache  ZeUung,  [The  former,  a 
violoncellist,  pupil  of  his  unde,  was  bom  at 
Hamburg,  Oct  28,  1807,  and  died  there  Oct. 
14,  1865  ;  he  made  concert -tours,  became  a 
member  of  the  court  orchestra  of  St.  Petersburg, 
and  published  compositions  for  his  instrament. 
Riemann's  Lexikon.']  Andreas's  brother  Bal- 
THASAR,  bom  1775,  and  educated  for  a  violon- 
cellist, died  aged  seventeen.  His  sister  Therese, 
bom  1781,  had  a  considerable  reputation  as  a 
pianist.  F.  o. 

ROME.  The  early  music  schools  of  Rome, 
from  the  time  of  St  Sylvester  to  that  of  Pales- 
trina,  were  so  closely  connected  with  the  papacy 
that  their  history,  as  far  as  it  is  known,  may  be 
read  in  the  article  Sistine  Choir. 

Whether  or  not  Guido  d'Arezzo  founded  a 
school  of  singing  at  Rome  in  the  first  half  of  the 
11th  century  is  only  a  matter  of  coQJecture  ;  the 
probabilities  are  in  favour  of  the  theory,  as  it 
is  known  that  Guido  si)ent  a  short  time,  at  least, 
at  the  capital  about  the  year  1032,  and  that 
the  then  Pope  John  XIX.  was  so  delighted  with 
his  method  of  teaching  singing  that  he  urged 
him  to  take  up  his  residence  in  Rome,  an  in- 
vitation which  only  ill-health  prevented  Guido 
from  accepting.  (See  vol.  ii.  p.  256.)  In  any 
case  there  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  the 


BOM£ 


ROME 


131 


papal  choir  received  many  valuable  hints  from 
him. 

The  Sistine  Chapel  was  not  the  only  one  which 
had  a  school  or  college  of  music  attoched  to  it, 
thoagh  it  was  by  far  the  earliest  In  1480 
Siztos  lY.  proposed  the  formation  of  a  *  cappella 
mosicale '  in  connection  with  the  Vatican,  dis- 
tinct from  theSistine ;  his  idea  was  not,  however, 
realised  till  the  time  of  Julius  II.,  when  the 
*  Cappella  Giulia*  was  founded  (in  1518)  for 
twelve  singers,  twelve  scholars,  and  two  masters 
for  music  and  grammar.  Arcadelt  was  the  first 
'Maestro  de*  Putti'  (in  1539),  Palestrina  the 
first  '  Maestro  della  cappella  della  basilica 
VaticaDa'(1551-54);  amongcelebrated 'maestri' 
in  later  days  were  Tommaso  Bai  (1718- 
1715),  and  Domenico  Scarktti  (1715-19). 
The  *  Cappella  musicale  nella  protobasilica  di 
&  Giovanni  in  Laterano '  was  founded  in  1585 
by  Cardinal  de  Onpis ;  one  of  the  earliest 
'Maestri  de'  Putti'  was  Lasso  (1541);  Pales- 
trina held  the  office  of  'Maestro  di  cappella' 
here  after  his  exclusion  from  the  Vatican  chapel 
(1555-61).  The  'Cappella  di  Musica  nella 
basilica  Liberiana'  (or  Sta.  Maria  Maggiore) 
was  founded  about  the  same  time  as  the  Lateran 
chapel,  and  numbers  among  its  maestri  Pales- 
trina (1561-71),  Giov.  Maria  Nanini  (1571- 
1575),  and  Alessandro  Scarlatti  (1708-9). 

Beades  these  exclusively  ecclesiastical  schools, 
others  were  established  by  private  individuals. 
The  first  man  who  is  known  to  have  kept  a 
public  music  school  at  Borne  was  a  certain 
Gaudio  Mell,  whose  school  is  supposed  to  have 
been  founded  about  the  year  1589  ;  and  among 
his  earliest  pupils  were  Palestrina,  Giovanni 
Animnccia,  and  Giovanni  Maria  Nanini.  In 
1549,  Nicola  Vioentino,  the  would-be  restorer 
of  the  ancient  Greek  Modes,  opened  a  small 
private  school  at  Borne,  into  which  a  few  select 
pupils  were  admitted,  whom  he  endeavoured  to 
indoctrinate  with  his  musical  views.  But  it 
was  not  till  a  quarter  of  a  century  later  that  a 
(mblic  music  school  was  opened  by  an  Italian. 
Whether  it  was  that  Nanini  was  inspired  by 
his  master's  example,  or,  which  is  still  more 
likely,  was  stirred  by  the  musical  agitation  of 
the  day,  is  of  little  importance  ;  but  it  is  certain 
that  the  year  to  which  the  opening  of  his 
school  is  attributed  was  the  same  which  saw 
the  foundation  of  the  order  of  Oratorians,  who 
in  the  person  of  their  leader,  St  Filippo  Neri, 
were  then  doing  so  much  for  the  promotion  of 
music  Kanini  soon  induced  his  former  fellow- 
jiupil,  Palestrina,  to  assist  him  in  teaching,  and 
he  appears  to  have  given  finishing  lessons. 
Among  their  best  pupils  were  Felice  Anerio  and 
<iregorio  Allegri.  After  Palestrina's  death, 
Nanini  associated  his  younger  brother  Ber- 
nardino with  him  in  the  work  of  instruction, 
and  it  was  probably  for  their  scholars  that  they 
^Tote  jointly  their  treatise  on  counterpoint. 
Giovanni  Maria  dying  in  1607  was  succeeded  by 


Bernardino,  who  was  in  his  turn  succeeded  by  his 
pupil  and  son-in-law  Paolo  Agostini.  It  must 
have  been  this  school  that  produced  the  singers 
in  the  earliest  operas  and  oratorios  of  Peri, 
Caccini,  Monteverde,  Cavaliere,  Gagliano,  etc. 
In  the  second  quarter  of  the  17th  century  a 
rival  school  was  set  up  by  a  pupil  of  B.  Nanini, 
Domenico  Mazzocchi,  who,  with  his  younger 
brother  Virgilio,  opened  a  music  school,  which 
was  soon  in  a  very  flourishing  condition ;  this 
was  due  in  a  great  measure  to  the  fact  that  the 
masters  were  themselves  both  singers  and  com- 
posers. Their  curriculum  differed  but  slightly 
from  that  of  the  Palestrina  -  Nanini  school. 
In  the  morning  one  hour  was  given  daily  to 
practising  difficult  passages,  a  second  to  the 
shake,  a  third  to  the  study  of  literature,  and 
another  hour  to  singing  with  the  master  before 
a  mirror  ;  in  the  afternoon  an  hour  was  occupied 
in  the  study  of  the  theory  of  music,  another  in 
writing  exercises  in  counterpoint,  and  another 
in  literature ;  theremainder  of  the  day  (indoors) 
was  employed  in  practising  the  harpsichord  and 
in  composition.  Outside  the  school  the  pupils 
used  sometimes  to  give  their  vocal  services  at 
neighbouring  churches,  or  else  they  went  to 
hear  some  well-known  singer ;  at  other  times 
they  were  taken  to  a  spot  beyond  the  Porta 
Angelica  to  practise  singing  against  the  echo 
for  which  that  neighbourhood  was  famous,  tn 
1662  Pompeo  Natale  kept  a  music  school,  at 
which  Giuseppe  Ottavio  Pitoni,  the  reputed 
master  of  Durante  and  Leo,  learnt  singing  and 
counterpoint  G.  A.  Angelini-Buontempi,  a 
pupil  of  the  Mazzocchis,  writing  in  1695,  says 
that  Fedi,  a  celebrated  singer,  had  opened  the 
first  school  exclusively  for  singing  at  Bome. 
His  example  was  soon  followed  by  Giuseppe 
Amadori,  with  equal  success ;  the  latter  was  a 
pupil  of  P.  Agostini  and  no  doubt  had  not 
entirely  forgotten  the  teachings  of  the  old 
school ;  but  by  the  end  of  the  17th  century 
its  traditions  were  gradually  dying  out,  to  be 
replaced  by  the  virtuosity  of  the  18th  century. 

We  must  now  retrace  our  steps  and  give  some 
account  of  the  most  important  musical  institution 
at  Bome  of  past  or  present  time— the  '  Congre- 
gazione  dei  Musici  di  Boma  sotto  l'  invocazione 
di  Sta.  Cecilia.'  It  was  founded  by  Pius  V. 
in  1566,  but  its  existence  is  usually  dated  ft*om 
1 584,  when  its  charter  was  confirmed  by  Gregory 
XIII. ;  almost  all  the  masters  and  pupils  of  the 
Palestrina-Nanini  school  enrolled  their  names 
on  its  books,  and  their  example  has  been  since 
followed  by  over  4000  others,  including  every 
Italian  of  note,  and  in  the  19th  century  many 
illustrious  foreigners,  such  as  John  Field, 
Wagner,  Liszt,  Goimod,  etc.  etc 

Tbe  officers  originally  appointed  were  a 
Cardinal  Protector,  a  *  Primicerio  *  or  president, 
usually  a  person  of  high  position,  a  '  Consiglio 
dirigente'  of  four  members  (representing  the 
four  sections— -composition,  the  organ,  singing. 


132 


ROME 


ROME 


and  instramental  miiBic),  a  Secretary,  a  Chan- 
cellor, twelve  OounselloTB,  two  Prefects,  etc.  ; 
there  were  also  professors  for  almost  every 
branch  of  music ;  Oorelli  was  head  of  the 
instrumental  section  in  1700.  Those  qualified 
for  admission  into  the  institution  were  chapel- 
masters,  organists,  public  singers,  and  well- 
known  instrumentalists.  By  a  papal  decree 
of  1689  all  musicians  were  bound  to  observe 
the  statutes  of  the  Academy ;  and  by  a  later 
decree  (1709)  it  was  ordained  that  its  licence 
was  necessaiy  for  exercising  the  profession. 
Soon  after  this  the  Congregation  began  to  suffer 
from  an  opposition  which,  though  covert,  was 
none  the  less  keenly  felt ;  and  in  1716  a  papal 
decree  unfavourable  to  *  the  institution  was 
passed.  In  1762  it  was  flourishing  again,  for 
in  that  year  we  find  that  a  faculty  was  granted 
to  the  cardinal  protector,  to  have  the  general 
direction  of  all  ecclesiastical  music  at  Rome. 
By  another  decree  of  1764,  it  was  enacted  that 
none  but  those  skilled  in  music  should  be  in 
fhture  admitted  as  members.  The  entrance- 
fee  was,  as  it  has  continued  to  be,  a  very  small 
one.  The  demands  made  upon  members  were 
also  very  slight  At  first  they  were  only  ex- 
pected to  assist,  by  their  compositions  or  per- 
formances, in  the  grand  annual  festival  in 
honour  of  the  patron  saint  Towards  the  close 
of  the  17th  century  were  added  one  or  two 
annual  services  in  memoiy  of  benefactors ;  in 
1700  a  festival  in  honour  of  St.  Anna,  and  in 
1771  a  'piecola  festa  di  Sta.  Cecilia.' 

The  Congregation  originally  took  up  its 
quarters  at  t£e  College  of  Bamabites  (afterwards 
Palazzo  Chigi)  in  the  Piazza  Colonna,  where  they 
remained  for  nearly  a  century ;  thence  they 
moved  to  the  Convent  of  Sta.  Maria  Maddalena, 
and  again  to  another  college  of  Bamabites 
dedicated  to  San  Carlo  a  CatinarL  Here  they 
resided  for  the  greater  part  of  two  centuries, 
and,  after  the  temporary  occupation  of  premises 
in  the  Via  Ripetta,  finally,  in  1876,  settled  at 
their  present  quarters,  formerly  a  convent  of 
Ursuline  nuns,  in  the  Via  dei  Greci.  Besides 
the  hostility  which  the  Congregation  had  to 
undergo,  as  we  have  seen,  fh)m  outsiders,  at 
the  banning  of  the  18th  century — which  was 
repeated  in  another  form  as  late  as  1886 — it 
has  had  its  financial  vicissitudes.  Indeed  at 
the  end  of  the  18th,  and  beginning  of  the  19th 
century,  the  funds  were  at  a  veiy  low  ebb,  from 
which  they  have  been  gradually  recovering. 
The  institution  was  dignified  with  the  title  of 
Academy  of  Gregory  XVI.  in  1889.  Two  yeare 
later  Rossini's  'Stabat  Mater'  was  performed 
for  the  first  time  in  Italy  in  its  entirety  by 
the  members  of  the  Academy.  Pius  IX.,  who 
became  Pope  in  1846,  though  he  founded  several 
other  schools  for  singing,  such  as  that  of  'S. 
Salvatore  in  Lauro,'  did  little  more  for  the 
Academy  than  to  bestow  upon  it  the  epithet 
'Pontificia.'     [During  the  early  years  of  his 


reign  two  attempts  were  made  to  found  a  Liceo 
musicale  or  music-school  in  connection  vrith.  the 
Academy.  The  first,  in  1847,  received  en- 
couragement and  sympathy  from  the  pontiff, 
but  efforts  to  obtain  a  government  subddy  for 
the  purpose  failed  owing  to  the  political  disturb- 
ances of  1848-49.  Another  endeavour  by  Pro- 
fessor Filippo  Bomia  in  1857  had  no  better 
result  It  was  not  until  1869,  when  two  young 
associates  of  the  institute,  Giovanni  Sgambati 
and  Ettore  Penelli,  opened  gratuitous  classes 
for  pianoforte  and  violin  on  the  premises  of  the 
Aocademia  that  a  practical  start  was  made  in 
this  direction.  In  the  following  year  the  two 
professors  sought  and  obtained  from  Cardinal 
Di  Pietro,  Protector  of  the  Accademia,  official 
sanction  for  their  venture.  This  was  given  in 
a  decree,  dated  May  23,  1870,  establishing  the 
classes  on  a  recognised  footing  as  belonging  to 
and  dependent  upon  the  institution.  The 
fresh  departure  received  further  impetus  later 
in  the  same  year.  Soon  after  the  &I1  of  the 
pontifical  government  in  September,  the  asso- 
ciates of  the  Aocademia,  now  a  *  Royal '  institu- 
tion, expressed  in  general  assembly  unani- 
mous approval  of  the  classes,  and  entrusted  a 
provisional  committee  with  Professor  Bomia  at 
its  head  with  the  task  of  formally  constituting 
a  Liceo  Musicale. 

From  this  period  the  energies  of  the  Acca- 
demia, which  until  now  had  been  little  more 
than  a  body  of  examiners  and  licentiates,  be- 
came oentreid  in  the  new  development,  and  its 
history  identified  with  that  of  the  daughter- 
institute  of  which  the  classesformed  by  Sgambati 
and  Penelli  were  the  nucleus,  and  of  which, 
therefore,  they  are  rightly  considered  the 
founders.  The  provisional  committee  remained 
in  office  until  1875,  when  its  duties  were  taken 
over  by  the  Accademia's  newly  constituted 
Council  of  Direction,  of  which  Comm.  Emilio 
Broglio  was  president.  Meanwhile  the  music- 
school  had  been  rapidly  growing.  Sgambati 
had  engaged  three  assistants  for  pianoforte 
teaching,  Alessandro  Oreini  with  a  sub-professor 
had  opened  classes  for  singing,  and  violoncello 
and  brass  instroments  were  being  taught  by 
Ferdinando  Forino  and  Vedasto  Vecchietti. 
At  length  after  seven  years  of  careful  prepara- 
tion the  Liceo  Musicale  was  formally  constituted 
under  the  direction  of  a  *  Commissions  discipli- 
nare '  and  a  *  Comitate  tecnioo,'  with  a  staff  of 
twenty-nine  professors.  The  new  institute  was 
launched  on  March  S,  1877,  in  the  presence  of 
the  Crown  Prince  and  Princess  (Umberto  and 
Margherita)  of  Italy. 

The  Aocademia  now  occupied  itself  with  the 
compilation  of  a  Statute  for  the  Liceo,  and  in 
accordance  with  the  wishes  of  the  Govemment 
the  'Commissions  disciplinare'  was  substituted, 
in  1886,  by  an  administrative  council.  On  this 
the  Govemment,  the  Province  of  Rome,  and 
the  Municipality,  as  contributors  to  the  main- 


ROME 


ROMEO  AND  JULIET         133 


teiianoe  of  the  liceo,  were  represented,  while 
its  Director  was  nominated  by  the  Accademia 
itsell  The  first  to  oocnpy  the  newly  created 
poet  was  Comm.  Filippo  Marchetti,  who  vacated 
the  presidential  chair  of  the  Accademia  to  under- 
take it. 

In  1907  the  Liceo  had  225  students  and 
a  professorial  staff  of  about  forty.  In  the  first 
twenty -five  years  of  its  existence  instruction 
was  given  to  1387  pupils,  of  whom  415  received 
diplomas.  Every  branch  of  practice  and  theory 
is  taught,  besides  Italian  literature  and  the 
history  of  music.  The  charge  for  instruction 
is  so  low  (five  francs  a  month)  that  tuition  is, 
to  all  intents  and  purposes,  free.  The  Liceo 
receives  yearly  subsidies  from  the  Government 
(£1600),  from  the  Province  of  Rome  (£320), 
and  from  the  Municipality  (£1200).  .Airange- 
ments  are  now  pending  to  place  it  directly  under 
the  Government,  and  its  professors  will  then 
enjoy  the  distinction,  highly  prized  in  Italy, 
of  State  officials.  Professors  Sgambati  and 
Penelli,  after  thirty-eight  years,  still  take  an 
active  part  in  examining  and  teaching.  The 
director  is  Comm.  Stanialao  Falchi,  who  suc- 
ceeded Comm.  Marchetti  in  1901. 

To  its  premises  in  the  Via  dei  Greci  the 
Accademia,  assisted  by  contributions  from  the 
Government  and  Queen  Margherita,  has  added 
a  spacious  concert-hall  with  an  organ,  opened 
in  1895.  Here,  during  winter  and  spring, 
pQbHc  orchestral  and  chamber  concerts  are 
given.  The  library  also  constitutes  an  in- 
creasingly important  branch  of  its  influence. 
Originally  small,  the  collection  of  books  and 
MSS.  was  increesed  by  the  musical  library  of 
Gregory  XVI.  bequeathed  in  1846.  It  was 
still  fixrther  enriched  in  1875  by  the  Orsini 
collection,  and  later  by  the  musical  works  which 
had  f<»rmerly  belonged  to  the  dissolved  monas- 
teries. In  1882  were  added  copies  of  all 
modem  musical  publications  since  1500,  so 
that  Uie  Accademia  now  possesses  one  of  the 
largest  and  most  important  musical  libraries  in 
Italy  (see  voL  ii  p.  714a).  The  books  having 
been  removed  to  the  ground  floor,  the  library 
and  reading-room  are  l£e  more  easily  accessible 
to  the  public  The  Accademia  still  enjoys 
royal  patronage,  and  the  King  of  Italy  is  its 
honorary  president,  whOe  the  Conte  di  San 
Martino  is  at  the  head  of  its  Council  of  Direction. 

Quite  apart  from  the  Accademia,  which  with 
its  Lioeo  is  the  musical  centre  of  Rome,  much 
has  been  done  for  the  improvement  of  the 
popular  taste  in  music  For  this  the  municipal 
ordiestra,  under  Signer  Alessandro  VesseUa, 
has  been  chiefly  responsible.  Concerts  are  given 
weekly  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year  at 
the  Argentina  theatre.  Formerly,  popular 
audiences  in  Rome  were  for  the  most  part  in- 
tolerant of  music  which  was  not  Italian.  Thanks 
to  the  courage  and  perseverance  of  Signer 
Yeanlla  this  is  the  case  no  longer.     His  pro- 


grammes, open  to  composers  of  aU  nationalities, 
have  familiarised  the  Roman  public  with  classi- 
cal and  modem  works — Bach,  Haydn,  Beet- 
hoven, Mozart,  Mendelssohn,  Berlioz,  Liszt, 
Wagner,  Tchaikovsky,  and  Elgar  being  often 
associated  with  Rossini,  Verdi,  Puccini,  and 
Mascagni.  As  an  operatic  centre,  however, 
Rome  lacks  the  prestige  of  Milan  and  Naples. 

Ecclesiastical  music  in  the  Italian  capital  still 
leaves  much  to  be  desired,  the  excellent  ideals 
of  Pius  X.  being  as  yet  &r  from  any  wide 
realisation.  Divine  service  is  sometimes  ac- 
companied by  devout  and  careful  singing,  as  at 
the  church  of  Santa  Maria  dell'  Anima  and  at 
St.  John  Lateran  under  Maestro  Filippo  Capocci; 
but  artistic  performances  are  unhappily  rare, 
and  organ -playing  is,  too  generally,  careless 
and  vulgar.  J  a.  h-h.  ;  vrith  additions  in  square 
brackets  by  H.  a.  w. 

ROMEO  AND  JULIET.  A  subject  often 
set  by  opera  composers ;  e,g. — 

1.  Rom^o  et  Juliette  ;  three  acts  ;  words  by 
de  S^gur,  music  by  Steibelt.  Th^tre  Feydeau, 
Paris,  Sept.  10,  1798. 

2.  *Giuliettae  Romeo.'  Opera  seria  in  three 
acts,  words  by  Giuseppe  Foppa,  music  by  Zin- 
garelli  Produced  at  the  Scala,  Milan,  Jan.  80, 
1796. 

3.  '  Giulietta  e  Romeo,'  three  acts,  words  by 
Romani,  music  by  Yaccaj.  Produced  at  the 
Teatro  della  Canobbiana,  Milan,  Oct  81, 1825  ; 
King's  Theatre,  London,  April  10,  18S2. 

4.  *  I  Capuletti  ed  i  Montecchi,'  in  three 
acts ;  libretto  by  Romani,  music  by  Bellini. 
Produced  at  Venice,  March  11,  1880.  It  was 
written  for  the  two  Crisis  and  Rubini.  King's 
Theatre,  London,  July  20,  1838. 

5.  'Les  Amants  de  Tyrone, '  five  acts,  text 
and  music  by  the  Marquis  d'lvry  (under  the 
pseudonym  of  Richard  Yrvid),  written  in  1864, 
performed  privately  in  1867,  and  publicly  at 
the  Salle  Ventadour,  Oct  12, 1878.  At  Covent 
Garden,  May  24,  1879. 

6.  *  Rom^  et  Juliette,'  in  five  acts ;  words 
by  Barbier  and  Carr^,  music  by  Gounod.  Pro- 
duced at  the  Th^tre  Lyrique,  April  27,  1867. 
In  London,  at  Covent  Garden,  in  Italian,  July 
11,  1867. 

7.  In  addition  to  these  it  has  been  made  the 
subject  of  a  work  by  Berlioz,  his  Fifth  Symphony 
— *  Rom^  et  Juliette.  Symphonic  dramatique 
avec  choeurs,  solos  de  chant,  et  prologue  en 
r^citatif  choral,  op.  1 7. '  Dedicated  to  Paganini. 
The  words  are  Berlioz's  own,  versified  by  Emil 
Deschamps.  It  was  composed  in  1839,  and 
I>erformed  three  times  consecutively  at  the 
Conservatoire,  first  on  Nov.  24,  1839.  In 
England  the  First  Part  (four  numbers)  was 
executed  under  Berlioz's  direction  at  the  New 
Philharmonic  Concerts  of  March  24,  and  April 
28,  1852,  and  the  entire  work  by  the  Philhar- 
monic Society  (Cusins),  March  10,  1881. 

8.  A  symphonic  poem  by  Tchaikovsky  was  first 


134 


ROMER 


RONCONI 


performed  at  the  Musical  Society  in  Moscow, 
March  4,  1870.  It  was  published  by  Bote  & 
Boch  in  the  following  year,  and  was  afterwards, 
(in  1881)  issued  in  a  curtailed  and  revised 
form.  6. 

ROMER,  Emma,  soprano  singer,  pupil  of  Sir 
George  Smart,  born  in  1814,  made  her  first 
appearance  at  Govent  Garden,  Oct.  16,  1830, 
as  Glara  in  'The  Duenna.'  She  met  with  a 
favourable  reception,  and  for  several  years 
filled  the  position  of  prima  donna  at  Govent 
Garden,  the  English  Opera-House,  and  Drury 
Lane,  with  great  credit.  In  1852  she  took 
the  management  of  the  Surrey  Theatre,  with 
a  company  containing  Miss  Poole  and  other 
good  singers,  and  brought  out  a  series  of  operas 
in  English.  Miss  Romer  was  rarely  hearid  in 
the  concert -room,  but  appeared  at  the  West- 
minster Abbey  Festival  in  1834.  She  was  the 
original  singer  of  the  title-parts  in  Bamett's 
'  Mountain  Sylph  *  and  '  Fair  Rosamond.'  Her 
performance  of  Amina  in  the  English  version 
of  Bellini's  'Sonnambula'  was  much  admired. 
She  married  a  Mr.  Almond,  and  died  at  Mar- 
gate, April  14,  1868.  w.  h.  h. 

RONALD,  Landon.    See  Russell,  Henbt. 

RONCONI,  DoMENico,  was  born  July  11, 
1772,  at  Lendinara-di-Poleaine  in  Venetia.  He 
first  appeared  on  the  stage  in  1 797  at  La  Fenice, 
Venice,  and  obtained  great  renown  both  as  a 
singer  and  actor,  there  and  in  other  Italian 
cities,  sang  in  Italian  opera  at  St.  Petersburg 
(1801-5),  was  dii-ector  of  the  Italian  opera  in 
Vienna  in  1809,  sang  in  Paris  in  1810,  and 
was  engaged  at  Munich  in  1819-29,  becoming  a 
teacher  of  singing  there.  He  founded  a  vocal 
school  in  1829  at  Milan.  He  died  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, April  13,  1836.     Of  his  three  sons, 

Felice,  bom  in  1811,  at  Venice,  under  the 
direction  of  his  father  devoted  himself  to  in- 
struction in  singing,  and  became  a  professor 
in  1837  at  Wurzburg,  at  Frankfort,  and,  in 
1844-48,  at  Milan.  He  was  similarly  engaged 
for  some  years  in  London,  and  finally  at  St. 
Petersburg,  where  he  died  Sept.  10,  1875.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  method  of  teaching  singing, 
and  of  several  songs.     His  elder  brother, 

Giorgio,  the  celebrated  baritone,  was  bom  at 
Milan,  August  6,  1810.  He  received  instmc- 
tion  in  singing  from  his  father,  and  began  his 
dramatic  career  in  1831,  at  Pa  via,  as  Arturo 
in  'La  Straniera.'  He  played  in  some  of  the 
small  Italian  cities,  then  at  Rome,  where 
Donizetti  wrote  for  him  *  II  Furioso,'  *  Torquato 
Tasso,'  and  *  Maria  di  Rohan,'  in  which  last,  as 
the  Duo  de  Chevreuse,  he  obtained  one  of  his 
greatest  triumphs — also  at  Turin,  Florence,  and 
Naples,  where  he  on  Oct.  8,  1837,  married 
Signorina  Elguerra  Giannoni,  who,  according 
to  some  accounts,  had  recently  sung  with  success 
at  the  Lyceum  and  King's  Theatres,  London. 
He  began  his  career  in  England  at  Her  Majesty's, 
April  9,  1842,  as  Enrico  in  'Lucia,'  and  was 


well  received  during  the  season  in  that  chai'acter 
and  in  those  of  Filippo  (*  Beatrice  di  Tenda '), 
Beloore(  *L'  EUsir'),  Baisilio,  Riccardo  ( '  Puritani'), 
Tasso,  etc.  In  the  last  opera  his  ^^ife  played 
with  him,  but  neither  then,  nor  five  years  later 
as  Maria  di  Rohan,  did  she  make  the  least  im- 
pression on  the  English  public.  He  then  made 
a  provincial  tour  with  her,  Thalberg,  and  John 
Parry.  In  the  winter  he  played  at  the  Italiens, 
Paris,  with  such  success  that  he  was  engaged 
there  for  several  subsequent  seasons,  and  at  one 
time  was  manager  of  the  theatre,  and  was  also 
engaged  at  Vienna,  Pesth,  Madrid  (where  he 
was  manager),  Barcelona,  and  Naples.  He  re- 
appeared in  England,  April  13,  1847,  at  Govent 
Garden,  as  Enrico,  and  also  played  Figaro 
('  Barbiere'),  May  8,  De  Chevreuse  on  the  pro- 
duction in  England  of  *  Maria  di  Rohan,'  and 
the  Doge  on  the  production  of  Verdi's  *  I  due 
Foscari,'  June  19,  in  which  *by  his  dignity 
and  force  he  saved  the  opera  .  .  .  from  utter 
condemnation'  (Chorley).  'There  are  few 
instances  of  a  Toice  so  limited  in  compass  (hardly 
exceeding  an  octave),  so  inferior  in  quality,  so 
weak,  so  habitually  out  of  tune.  .  .  .  The 
low  stature,  the  features,  unmarked  and 
commonplace  when  silent,  promising  nothing 
to  an  audience,  yet  which  could  express  a 
dignity  of  bearing,  a  tragic  passion  not  to  be 
exceeded,  or  an  exuberance  of  the  wildest, 
quaintest,  most  whimsical,  most  spontaneous 
comedy.  .  .  .  These  things  we  have  seen, 
and  have  forgotten  personal  insignificanoe, 
vocal  power  beyond  mediocrity,  every  dis- 
qualification, in  the  spell  of  strong  real  sensi- 
bility '  (lb. ).  There  have  been  few  such  examples 
of  terrible  courtly  tragedy  as  *  Signer  Ronooni's 
Chevreuse — the  ])olished  demeanour  of  his  earlier 
scenes  giving  a  fearful  force  of  contrast  to  the 
latter  ones.  .  .  . '  (lb.)  He  sang  at  the  Italian 
Opera  every  season  until  1866  inclusive,  ex- 
cepting in  1855  and  1862.  His  parts  included 
Don  Juan,  Papageno,  Leporello,  Masetto,  lago, 
Podest^  ('  La  Gazza  Ladra '),  Isidore  ('  Matilda 
di  Shabran '),  Nabucco,  Faust  (Spohr),  Rigoletto, 
Lord  Allcash  ( *  Fra  Diavolo ') ,  Dandolo  ( *  Zampa' ), 
Barberino  ('  Stradella'),  and  Crispino  ('  Crispino 
e  laGomare '),  etc.  His  Rigoletto  was  unrivalled, 
but  his  Don  Juan  was  a  disappointment.  He 
sang  in  America  (1866-74)  with  great  success^ 
and  on  his  return  to  Eivope  he  became  a  teacher 
of  singing  at  the  Conservatorio  at  Madrid.  In 
1863  he  founded  a  school  of  singing  at  Granada. 
He  died  at  Madrid,  Jan.  8,  1890.  A  warm 
appreciation  of  his  powers  appears  in  Santley's 
Student  and  Singer. 

Sebastiano,  the  other  son,  also  a  baritone, 
bom  May  1814,  at  Venice,  received  instruction 
from  his  father  and  the  elder  Romani,  and 
made  his  first  appearance  in  1886,  at  the  Teatro 
Pantera,  Lucca,  as  Torquato  Tasso,  in  which 
part  throughout  his  career  he  made  one  of  his 
greatest  successes.      He  enjoyed  considerable 


RONDEAU 


RONDO 


135 


popnlarity  in  his  own  country,  at  Vienna,  and 
in  Spun,  Portugal,  and  America,  as  an  able 
artiat  in  the  same  line  of  parts  as  his  brother 
— unlike  him  in  personal  appearance,  being  a 
tall  thin  man,  but  like  him  in  the  capabiUty 
of  his  face  for  great  variety  of  expression.  He 
appeared  in  England  on  Deo.  17,  1836,  at  the 
Lyceum,  as  Caidenio  in  Donizetti's  *  Furioeo,' 
and  also  sang  for  a  few  nights  at  the  King's 
Theatre,  aa  well  as  at  the  Philharmonic,  Feb. 
27»  1837.  He  reappeared  in  1860  at  Her 
Majesty's,  as  Bigoletto,  Masetto,  and  Griletto 
{*  Prova  d*  un  Opera  Seria  *).  He  retired  from 
public  life  after  a  career  of  thirty-five  years,  and 
settled  in  Milan  as  a  teacher  of  singing.  ^       A.  c. 

RONDEAU.  A  French  name  for  a  short 
poem  of  six  or  eight  lines,  containing  but  two 
rhymes,  and  so  contrived  that  the  opening  and 
cloaiDg  lines  were  identical,  thus  forming  as  it 
were  a  circle  or  round.  The  name  has  come  to  be 
used  in  muaic  for  a  movement  constructed  on  a 
somewhat  corresponding  plan.  [SeeRoKDO.]  o. 

RONDO  (Fr.  Rondeau).  A  piece  of  music 
having  one  principal  subject,  to  which  a  return 
is  always  made  after  the  introduction  of  other 
matter,  so  as  to  give  a  symmetrical  or  rounded 
form  to  the  whole. 

From  the  simplicity  and  obviousness  of  this 
idea  it  will  be  readily  understood  that  the 
Rondo-form  was  the  earliest  and  most  frequent 
definite  mould  for  musical  construction.  For 
a  full  tracing  of  this  point  see  Form,  vol.  ii. 
p.  74,  etc.  In  fact  the  First  Movement  and  the 
Rondo  are  the  two  principal  types  of  Form, 
modifications  of  the  Rondo  serving  as  the 
skeleton  for  nearly  every  piece  or  song  now 
written.  Marx  {Allgemeine  Jfusikkhre)  dis- 
tingttiahea  five  forms  of  Rondo,  but  his  descrip- 
tion is  involved,  and,  in  the  absence  of  any 
acknowledged  authority  for  these  distinctions, 
scarcely  justifiable. 

Starting  with  a  principal  subject  of  definite 
form  and  length,  the  first  idea  naturally  was  to 
preaerve  this  unchanged  in  key  or  form  through 
the  piece.  Hence  a  decided  melody  of  eight 
or  sixteen  bars  was  chosen,  ending  with  a  fhll 
close  in  the  tonic.  After  a  rambling  excursion 
through  several  keys  and  with  no  particular 
object,  the  principal  subject  was  regained  and 
an  agreeable  sense  of  contrast  attained.  Later 
on  there  grew  out  of  the  free  section  a  second 
subject  in  a  related  key,  and  still  later  a  third, 
which  allowed  the  second  to  be  repeated  in  the 
tonic.  This  variety  closely  resembles  the  first- 
movement  form,  the  third  subject  taking  the 
place  of  the  development  of  subjects,  which  is 
rare  in  a  Rondo.  The  chief  difierence  lies  in 
Uie  return  to  the  fint  subject  immediately  after 
the  second,  which  is  the  invariable  characteristic 
of  the  Rondo.  The  first  of  these  classes  is  the 
Rondo  from  Couperin  to  Haydn,  the  second 

1  W«  an  iDiMitod  to  hln  and  Mr.  J.  C.  Griffith  of  Sydney  for 
vaet  cf  tko  abov*  InfonnnUon  wlttk  ngud  tohli  funily. 


and  third  that  of  Mozart  and  Beethoven.  The 
fully  developed  Rondo- form  of  Beethoven  and 
the  modem  composers  may  be  thus  tabulated  : — 

^<^*"^  0«^..,K 

latsub.  (domi-  Istsub.  Snisab.  Ut8nb.^;^"|^r- Cloda. 
nant).  (tonic). 

In  the  case  of  a  Rondo  in  a  minor  key,  the 
second  subject  would  naturally  be  in  the  rela- 
tive migor  instead  of  in  the  dominant. 

One  example — perhaps  the  clearest  as  well 
as  one  of  the  best  known  in  all  music — will 
suffice  to  make  this  plan  understood  by  the 
untechnical  reader.  Taking  the  Rondo  of 
Beethoven's  *  Senate  Path^tique'  (op.  13)  we 
find  the  first  subject  in  G  minor : — 

^etc. 

this  is  of  1 7^  bars  in  length,  and  ends  with  a  full 
close  in  the  key.  Six  bara  follow,  modulating 
into  Eb,  where  we  find  the  second  subject,  which 
is  of  unusual  proportions  compared  with  the  first, 
consisting  as  it  does  of  three  separate  themes : — 

.(1) 

)te. 


etc 


~etc. 


After  this  we  return  to  the  first  subject,  which 
ends  just  as  before.  A  new  start  is  then  made 
with  a  third  subject  (or  pair  of  subjects)  in 

Ab:— 


AjAj^ 


this  material  is  worked  out  for  twenty-four  bars 
and  leads  to  a  prolonged  passage  on  a  chord  of 
the  dominant  seventh  on  G,  which  heightens 
the  expectation  of  the  return  of  the  first  subject 
by  delaying  it.  On  its  third  appearance  it  is 
not  played  quite  to  the  end,  but  we  are  skilfully 
led  away,  the  bass  taking  the  theme,  till,  in 
the  short  space  of  four  bars,  we  find  the  whole 
of  the  second  subject  reappearing  in  G  major. 
Then,  as  this  is  somewhat  long,  the  first  subject 
comes  in  again  for  the  fourth  time  and  a  Coda 
formed  from  the  second  section  of  the  second 
subject  concludes  the  Rondo  with  still  another 
'  positively  last  appearance '  of  No.  1. 

Beethoven's  Rondos  will  all  be  found  to 
present  but  slight  modifications  of  the  above 
form.  Sometimes  a  *  working-out '  or  develop- 
ment of  the  second  subject  will  take  the  place 


136 


RONDO 


BOOKE 


of  the  third  subject,  as  in  the  Sonata  in  £ 
minor  (op.  90),  but  in  every  case  the  priacipal 
subject  will  be  presented  in  its  entirety  at  least 
three  times.  But  as  this  was  apt  to  lead  to 
monotony — especially  in  the  case  of  a  long 
subject  like  that  in  the  Sonata  just  quoted — 
Beethoven  introduced  the  plan  of  varying  the 
theme  slightly  on  each  repetition,  or  of  break- 
ing off  in  the  middle.  It  is  in  such  delicate 
and  artistic  modifications  and  improvements  as 
these  that  the  true  genius  shows  itself,  and  not 
in  the  complete  abandonment  of  old  rules.  In 
the  earliest  example  we  can  take — the  Rondo 
of  the  Sonata  in  A  (op.  2,  No.  2) —the  form  of 
the  opening  arpeggio  is  altered  on  every  recur- 
rence, while  the  simple  phrase  of  the  third  and 
fourth  bars 


In  the  Rondo  of  the  Spnata  in  £b  (op.  7)  again, 
we  find  the  main  subject  cut  short  on  its  second 
appearance,  while  on  its  final  repetition  all 
sorts  of  liberties  are  taken  with  it ;  it  is  played 
an  octave  higher  than  its  normal  place,  a  free 
variation  is  made  on  it,  and  at  last  we  are 
startled  by  its  being  thrust  into  a  distant  key 
— Etj.  This  last  effect  has  been  adopted  by 
many  a  composer  since — Chopin  in  the  Rondo 
of  his  E  minor  Pianoforte  Concerto,  for  instance. 
It  is  needless  to  multiply  examples :  Beethoven 
shows  in  each  successive  work  how  this  apparently 
stiff  and  rigid  form  can  be  invested  with  infinite 
variety  and  interest;  he  always  contradicted 
the  idea  (in  which  too  few  have  followed  him) 
that  a  Rondo  was  bound  in  duty  to  be  an  eight- 
bar  subject  in  2-4  time,  of  one  unvarying, 
jaunty,  and  exasperatingly  jocose  character. 
The  Rondo  of  the  £b  Sonata  is  most  touchingly 
melancholy,  so  is  that  to  the  Sonata  in  £  minor 
(op.  90),  not  to  mention  many  others.  There  will 
always  remain  a  certain  stiffness  in  this  form, 
owing  to  the  usual  separation  of  the  subject 
from  its  surroundings  by  a  full  close.  When 
this  is  dispensed  with,  the  piece  is  said  to  be 


in  Rondo-form,  but  is  not  called  a  Rondo  (e,g, 
the  last  movement  of  Beethoven's  Sonata  op.  2, 
No.  8). 

Modem  composers,  like  Chopin,  with  whom 
construction  was  not  a  strong  point,  often  omit 
the  central  section,  or  third  subject,  together 
with  the  repetition  of  the  first  subject  which 
accompanies  it,  and  thus  what  they  call  a 
Rondo  is  merely  a  piece  on  the  plan  of  a  French 
overture ;  that  is  to  say,  having  produced  all 
his  material  in  the  first  half  of  the  piece,  the 
composer  repeats  the  whole  unchanged,  save 
that  such  portions  as  were  in  the  Dominant 
are,  in  the  repetition,  given  in  the  Tonic 
Chopin's  '  Rondeau  brillant '  in  £b,  the  '  Adieu 
h.  Yarsovie ' — ^indeed  all  his  Rondos— show  this 
construction.  f.  c. 

RONZI.  [See  Bbonis,  de,  vol.  L  p.  278.] 
ROOK£,  WILLIAM  Michael,  son  of  John 
Rourke,  or  O'Rourke,  a  Dublin  tradesman,  was 
bom  in  South  Great  George's  Street,  Dublin, 
Sept.  29,  1794.  His  bent  for  music,  which 
displayed  itself  at  an  early  age,  was  sternly 
discouraged  by  his  father,  who  wished  him  to 
follow  his  own  avocation,  but  before  he  was 
sixteen,  he  was,  by  his  father's  death,  left  free 
to  follow  his  own  inclination.  He  studied, 
almost  unaided,  so  assiduously,  that  in  1813 
he  took  to  music  as  a  profession  (having  alterod 
the  form  of  his  name),  learned  counterpoint 
under  Dr.  Cogan,  a  Dublin  professor,  and 
became  a  teacher  of  the  violin  and  pianoforte. 
Among  his  pupils  on  the  former  instrument 
was  Balfe,  then  a  boy.  In  1817  he  was 
appointed  chorus-master  and  deputy  leader  at 
the  theatre  in  Crow  Street,  Dublin,  and  soon 
afterwards  composed  a  polacca,  'Oh  Gkny,  in 
thy  brightest  hour, '  which  was  sung  by  Braham, 
and  met  with  great  approbation.  [In  1818  he 
composed  his  first  opera,  '  Amilie '  (see  below), 
and  in  1822  he  removed  to  England,,  where  he 
became  choros-master  at  Dnjry  Lane  Theatre, 
under  Tom  Cooke,  and,  in  1830-38,  leader  at 
Vauxhall,  under  Sir  Henry  Bishop,  w.  h.  o.  F.] 
A  few  years  later  he  removed  to  England.  In 
1826  he  was  leading  oratorios  at  Birmingham, 
and  in  the  same  year  came  to  London,  and 
sought  the  appointment  of  chorus-msster  at 
Drary  Lane,  and  established  himself  as  a  teacher 
of  singing.  His  opera,  '  Amijie,  or  The  Love 
Test,'  after  he  had  waited  many  years  for  an 
opportunity  of  producing  it,  was  brought  out 
at  Covent  Garden,  Dec.  2,  1887,  with  decided 
success,  and  at  once  established  his  reputation 
as  a  composer  of  marked  ability.  He  imme- 
diately commenced  the  composition  of  a  second 
opera,  and  on  May  2, 1839,  produced  at  Covent 
Garden  ^Henrique,  or.  The  Love  Pilgrim,'  which, 
although  most  favourably  received,  was  with- 
drawn after  five  performances  on  aooonnt  of  a 
misunderstanding  with  the  manager.  He  com- 
IKwed  two  more  entitled  'Cagliostro,'  and  *  The 
Valkyrie,'  which  have  never  been  performed. 


ROOT 


ROOT 


137 


He  died  Oct  14,  1847,  and  was  buried  in 
Brompton  Cemetery.  w.  h.  r. 

ROOT.  The  classification  of  the  chords  which 
lonn  the  atractoral  material  of  modem  harmonic 
music  is  attained  bj  referring  them  to  what  are 
called  their  roots ;  and  it  is  mainly  by  their 
use  that  these  harmonic  elements  are  brought 
into  intelligible  order. 

As  long  as  the  purely  polyphonic  system  was 
in  full  force,  ihe  chordal  combinations  were 
merely  classified  according  to  recognised  degrees 
of  consonance  and  dissonance,  wi^out  any  clear 
idea  of  relationship :  but  as  that  system  merged 
by  degrees  into  tiie  harmonic  system,  it  was 
fonnd  that  fresh  principles  of  classification  wore 
indispensable ;  and  that  many  combinations 
which  at  first  might  appear  to  have  quite  a 
distinct  character  must  somehow  be  recognised 
as  haying  a  common  centre.  This  centre  was 
fonnd  in  an  ultimate  bass  note,  namely,  the 
bass  note  of  the  complete  chord  in  what  would 
be  considered  its  natural  or  first  position  ;  and 
this  was  called  the  Root,  and  served  as  the 
common  indicator  of  all  the  various  portions  of 
the  complete  chord  which  could  be  detached, 
and  their  test  of  closest  possible  relationship. 
Farther,  these  roots  were  themselves  classified 
acoovding  to  their  status  in  any  given  key  ;  and 
by  this  means  a  group  of  chords  whidi  were 
related  to  one  another  most  closely  by  having 
the  same  root,  might  be  shown  to  be  related 
severally  and  collectively  to  the  group  which 
belonged  to  another  root ;  and  the  degree  of 
relationship  could  be  easily  and  clearly  ascer- 
tained aocxnding  to  the  known  nearness  or 
remoteness  of  the  roots  in  question.  By  this 
means  the  whole  harmonic  basis  of  a  piece  of 
music  can  be  tested ;  and  it  must  be  further 
noted  that  it  is  only  by  such  means  that  the 
structural  principles  of  that  kind  of  music 
which  has  been  called  *  absolute '  because  of  its 
dissociation  from  words,  is  rendered  abstractedly 
intelligible. 

Theprindpleupon  which  modem  Instrumental 
Music  has  been  developed  is  that  a  succession 
of  distinct  tunes  or  recognisable  sections  of 
melody  or  figures  can  be  associated  by  the 
orderly  distribution  of  harmonies  and  keys  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  mind  can  realise  the 
concatenation  as  a  complete  and  distinct  work 
of  art.  It  is  obvious  that  fine  melodic  material 
is  a  vital  point ;  but  it  is  not  so  obvious  that 
where  the  dimensions  of  the  work  are  such  that 
a  continuous  flow  of  melody  of  a  uniform  charac- 
ter is  impossible,  the  orderly  arrangement  of  the 
materials  in  successions  of  keys  and  harmonies 
is  no  less  vital.  The  harmonic  structure  requires 
to  be  clearly  ascertainable  in  works  of  art  which 
are  felt  to  be  masterpieces  of  form^  and  to  be 
perfectly  understood  and  felt  by  those  who 
attempt  to  follow  such  models  :  hence,  in  dis- 
cussing the  structure  of  works  of  this  kind,  the 
frequent  use  of  such  terms  as  Tonic,  or  Domi- 


nant or  Subdominant  harmony,  which  is  only 
a  short  way  of  describing  harmony  of  which 
these  respective  notes  are  the  roots. 

The  simplest  and  most  stable  of  complete 
combinations  in  music  are  the  chords  consisting 
of  a  bass  note  with  its  third  and  perfect  fifth  ; 
and  of  these  the  bass  note  is  considered  the 
root.  In  most  cases  such  a  root  is  held  to  be 
the  fundamental  sound  of  the  series  of  harmonics 
which  an  essential  chord  may  be  taken  to 
represent.  For  instance,  the  chord  of  the 
migor  third  and  perfect  fifth  on  any  note  is 
supposed  to  represent  the  ground  tone  or 
generator  with  two  of  its  most  distinct  and 
characteristic  lower  harmonics ;  and  whatever 
be  the  positions  of  the  individual  notes  in  respect 
of  one  another,  they  are  stiU  referred  to  this 
ground-tone  as  a  root     Thus  the  chord  GBD 

(a)  (6)5*T    (c) 


(a)  would  be  taken  to  be  the  representative  of 
the  ground-tone  G  with  its  second  and  fourth 
hamionics  (6);  and  every  transposition  or 
'  inversion '  of  the  same  notes,  such  as  BDG,  or 
DGB  in  close  or  open  order  (as  in  c),  or  even 
lesser  portions  to  which  the  implication  of  a 
context  would  afford  a  clue,  would  be  referred 
alike  to  this  same  root.  If  F  be  added  (ct)  to 
the  above  chord  it  may  be  taken  to  represent 
the  sixth  harmonic  (6),  and  similar  '  inversions ' 
of  the  component  )X)rtions  of  the  chord  will 
similarly  be  referred  to  the  note  G.  If  A  be 
added  further  above  the  F  of  the  preceding 
chord,  producing  G6DFA  (as  in  <;),  that  is 
commonly  taken  as  a  yet  more  complete  repre- 
sentation of  the  group  of  harmonics  generated 
by  the  sounding  of  G,  of  which  it  is  the  eighth  ; 
and,  as  before,  all  the  different  jtortions  which 
could  be  intelligibly  isolated,  and  all  the  trans- 
positions of  its  component  notes,  would  be  still 
referable  to  the  one  root  G.  If  Ab  had  been 
taken  instead  of  Atl,  the  same  general  explana- 
tion would  hold  good,  though  the  special 
question  might  remain  open  whether  it  was  a 
representative  of  the  16th  harmonic,  which  is 
four  octaves  from  the  fundamental  sound,  or 
an  artificial  softening  of  the  clear  and  strong 
major  ninth,  Alj.  Some  theorists  carry  the 
same  principles  yet  further,  and  include  the 
C  above  A,  and  even  the  E  and  E^  above  that 
in  the  group  which  represents  the  harmonic 
series    of   G,    calling  them   respectively    the 


138 


ROOT 


ROOT 


eleventh  and  major  and  minor  thirteenths  of 
that  note. 

The  discords  contained  in  the  above  series 
are  frequently  styled  fundamental  from  this 
supposed  representation  of  the  group  of  har- 
monics generated  by  their  fundamental  or  root, 
note  ;  they  are  characterised  among  discords  by 
the  peculiar  freedom  of  the  notes  of  which  they 
are  composed,  on  both  sides.  It  will  be  observed 
that  they  are  all  members  of  the  Diatonic  series 
of  the  key  of  C,  major  or  minor ;  and  as  G, 
their  root  note,  is  the  Dominant  of  that  key, 
they  represent  the  scope  of  what  is  called  the 
Dominant  harmony  of  C,  which  of  course  has 
its  counterpart  in  every  other  key.  No  other 
note  than  the  Dominant  serves  to  this  extent 
as  the  root  of  chords  of  this  class  which  are 
Diatonic.  The  Tonic,  for  instance,  can  only 
supply  the  third  and  fifth,  and  even  the  minor 
seventh  is  a  chromatic  note.  Nevertheless  this 
chromatic  choi-d  and  the  ninths  which  are  built 
upon  it  are  commonly  used  as  if  they  belonged 
to  the  key  of  0  ;  and  the  same  remark  applies 
to  the  similar  discords  founded  on  the  Super- 
tonic  root  (as  D  in  the  key  of  C) ;  and  these 
are  most  readily  intelligible  through  their  close 
connection  as  Dominant  harmony  to  the  Domi- 
nant of  C. 

The  roots  of  the  various  combinations  which 
are  arrived  at  by  modifying  the  intervals  of 
such  distinct  and  essential  harmonies  as  the 
above,  are  of  course  the  same  as  those  of  the 
unmodified  harmonies.  Thus  the  I'oots  of 
suspensions  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  har- 
monies upon  which  they  are  said  to  resolve, 
because  they  are  modifications  of  that  which 
follows  in  its  complete  state,  and  not  of  that 
which  precedes ;  and  the  same  applies  to  the 
combinations  produced  by  adventitious  notes, 
such  as  appoggiaturas  and  the  like. 

The  combinations  which  arise  from  the  simul- 
taneous occurrence  of  ordinary  passing  notes 
must  find  their  root  in  the  chord  which  precedes, 
as  that  has  possession  of  the  field  till  new 
harmony  presents  itself. 

From  these  considerations  it  will  be  obvious 
that  a  very  considerable  variety  of  apparently 
different  combinations  are  referable  to  a  single 
root.  In  fact  a  great  portion  of  music  is  built 
upon  very  few  roots  ;  many  examples  of  good 
popular  music  especially  do  not  exceed  the 
limits  of  Tonic  and  Dominant  harmony  with 
an  occasional  move  as  far  as  the  Subdominant, 
and  next  to  no  modulation.  £ven  in  works 
which  belong  to  the  domain  sometimes  dis- 
tingmshed  as  high  art,  a  great  deal  is  often  done 
within  very  narrow  limits.  For  instance,  the 
whole  of  the  first  sectionof  a  violin  and  pianoforte 
sonata  of  Mozart's  in  A  is  based  on  six  successive 
alternations  of  Tonic  and  Dominant  harmony, 
and  modulation  to  the  new  key  for  the  second 
section  is  effected  merely  by  the  Dominant  and 
Tonic  harmony  of  that  key. 


Notwithstanding  the  importance  which  at- 
taches to  a  clear  understanding  of  the  classifica- 
tion of  chords  according  to  ^eir  roots,  there 
are  some  combinations  upon  whose  derivation 
doctors  disagree  ;  and  it  must  be  confessed  that 
the  theory  of  music  is  yet  far  from  that  complete 
and  settled  stage  which  would  admit  any  hope 
of  a  decisive  verdict  in  the  matter  at  present. 
In  such  circumstances  variety  of  opinion  is  not 
only  inevitable  but  desirable  ;  and  though  the 
multitude  of  counsellors  is  a  little  bewildering 
there  are  consolations ;  for  it  happens  fortun- 
ately that  these  differences  of  opinion  are  not 
vital.  Such  chords,  for  instance,  as  augmented 
sixths  have  so  marked  and  immediate  a  con- 
nection with  the  most  prominent  harmonies  in 
the  key,  that  the  ascertainment  of  their  roots 
becomes  of  secondary  importance ;  and  even 

with  the  chord  which  silands  as  V*  I  in  the  key 

fJ 

of  C  for  instance  (/),  it  is  not  so  indispensable 
to  decide  whether  G  or  F  or  D  is  the  root,  or 
whether  indeed  it  is  even  a  double-rooted  chord, 
because,  among  other  reasons,  the  very  attention 
which  has  been  called  to  it  and  the  very  charac- 
teristics which  have  made  it  difficult  to  classify 
have  given  it  a  prominence  and  a  unique  indi- 
viduality which  relieves  it  of  the  need  of  being 
assigned  to  any  category  ;  and  even  when  it  is 
an  important  factor  in  the  harmonic  structure, 
the  process  of  analysis  need  not  be  rendered 
doubtful,  because  its  actual  position  in  the  key- 
is  so  thoroughly  realised.  Other  disputed  points 
there  are  having  reference  to  roots,  which  are 
even  of  less  importance.  For  instance,  whether 
what  is  called  an  augmented  fifth  is  really  an 
augmented  fifth  or  a  minor  thirteenth  ;  or 
whether  the  augmented  octave  which  Mozart 
uses  with  such  marked  emphasis  in  the  third 
bar  of  the  Allegro  in  the  overture  to  *Don 
Giovanni '  is  properly  a  minor  ninth,  as  some 
maintain — since  happily  the  roots  would  be 
the  same  in  both  cases.  c.  h.  h.  p. 

ROOT,  Geobge  Frederick,  an  American 
popular  composer,  bom  at  Sheffield,  Mass., 
U.S.A.,  August  30,  1820.  He  studied  under 
Webb  of  Boston,  and  afterwards  in  Paris  in 
1850.  He  was  a  music-publisher  in  Chicago 
in  1859-71.  He  was  associated  with  Lowell 
Mason  in  popularising  music  in  American 
schools,  etc.,  and  had  a  musical  doctor's  degree 
conferred  on  him  at  the  Chicago  University. 
He  died  at  Barley's  Island,  August  6,  1895.  He 
wrote  various  cantatas,  such  as  *The  Flower 
Queen,'  'Daniel,'  and  others,  but  is  best  known 
as  composer  of  certain  songs  much  sung  during 
the  American  Civil  War,  as,  *The  Battle-Cry 
of  Freedom,'  *  Just  before  the  Battle,  Mother,' 
but  his  composition  of  the  spirited  *  Tramp, 
tramp,  tramp,  the  boys  are  marching,'  now  almost 
better  known  as  'God  save   Ireiand/  should 


ROPARTZ 


ROSA 


139 


entitle  him  to  rank  among  the  makers  of  Hying 
national  music  His  son,  Frederick  Wood- 
XAN  Root,  bom  at  Boston,  June  13,  1846, 
has  done  naefol  work  aa  a  teacher  of  singing, 
both  individually  and  in  large  classes.        f.  k. 

ROPARTZ,  J.  Guy,  bom  at  Quingamp 
(Cotes  du  Kord),  June  15,  1864,  was  a  pupil 
of  Dubois  and  Massenet  in  the  Paris  Con- 
serratoire,  and  afterwards  studied  with  C^r 
Franek.  Though  his  life  has  been  chiefly 
devoted  to  composition  he  has,  since  1894, 
directed  the  Conservatoire  of  Nancy  with  great 
success,  and  has  given  a  strong  impulse  to  the 
symphony  concerts  in  that  town.  His  dramatic 
works  include  two  pieces  in  one  act,  *  Le  Diable 
ooaturier '  and  '  Marguerite  d'Ecosse ' ;  he  has 
written  incidental  music  for  'Pechenr  d'Islande ' 
(Loti  and  Tieroelin),  played  in  Paris,  1893  ; 
'  Paysages  de  Bretagne '  (written  for  a  '  theatre 
d'ombrea  chinoiaes'),  'Les  Landes,'  'Marie 
endormie,'  and  five  short  pieces,  a  '  Marche  de 
tete,'  three  'Airs  de  ballet,'  a  suite  in  four 
movements  called  *I  Hmanche  breton, '  a  symphony 
on  a  Breton  chorale,  a  'Serenade,'  etc.,  and 
among  his  smaller  published  works  which  have 
been  brought  to  a  hearing  are  a  string  quartet 
and  a  '  fantaisie '  for  strings,  some  church  music 
(Psalm  xxxvi  for  choir,  organ,  and  orchestra), 
songs,  and  pieces  for  organ  and  for  piano,     g.  f. 

RORE,  CiPRiANO  DE,  composer  of  the  Venetian 
school,  bom  at  Mechlin  (or  possibly  Antwerp) 
about  1516.  He  studied  under  Willaert,  >  chapel- 
master  of  St.  Mark's,  Venice,  and  was  probably 
in  early  life  a  singer  in  that  cathedral.  In  1542 
he  brought  out  his  first  book  of  madrigals  a  5, 
and  in  1550  his  first  book  a  4  appeared,  a  work 
long  held  in  fiivour,^  and  for  the  next  seven  or 
eight  years  published  continually.^  About  1 550  ^ 
he  appears  to  have  left  Venice  for  the  court  of 
Hercules  II.,  Duke  of  Ferrara,  and  for  some 
years  we  hear  nothing  of  him.^  [In  1558  he 
was  given  leave  of  absence  to  visit  his  parents 

>  bf  tf tie-pM*  *  Fkntcaie  «  Reoerchftrl.  etc. .  compoati  lU  lo  Booell. 
A.  VvJcUut «  aprimmo  tmo  Dtteapoto,  etc..  Venetlls.  1M8 '  (Brit.  Hoe. 
A.28»U 

>  Ttm  P^tts  libcmrr  •!  BnuMh  containa  Imperfeot  eoptes  of  three 
editteM.  lasa,  Ism.  and  IMS.  The  edltloti  In  the  BrlUah  M uaeom  te 
IS7S. 

3  TbalbUovinf  list  of  book*  of  moteta  and  DUkdrlgAlaU  taken  from 
PMia'a  gJOiyyjiHi.  BtiMT'a  BOUofrtvMe.  the  quMen-Lexlton.  and 
the  MtfalogiMa  oi  tha  Brltiah  M uaeom  and  F6Ua  llbtarlaa.  Some 
nwtain  «atk  bT  other  compoaera.  but  In  all  oaaea  th«7  bear 
CIptlaDo'a  name,  and  be  la  the  chief  eontrlbator.  The  date  given  la 
tbat  c4  the  annpoaed  flist  edition  :— 

Mit^U.  Bk.  L  aS^ Venleau  1M4  (Brit  M na.):  bk.  li.  a  4aiid  S.Venice. 
Im:  irtUm,  Btrnvr-) :  bk.  Ui.  a  8,  Venice.  1649  (Eltnar). 

it^drtgaU.  Bk.Lal,Venic«.lM2;bk.ll.a6.VenIce.l544(Brit. 
NoL.  the  OMOM.i:«aaeii|ivea  100 aa  the  flrat  edition);  bk.  ill.  a  5. 
Vesica.  1941.  The  1MB  edition  4n  Brit.  M ua. ;  bka.  iv.  and  t.  (1S67 
and  IMQ.  (Tha  Afth  book  eontaina  an  ode  to  the  Duke  of  Parma. 
aad  fro«i  fb*  evanfta  of  the  oompoaei'a  life  «•  may  aaaame  thu 
veloBc  lo  be  one  of  hia  lataat  pumicatlona.)  Por  the  flrat  book  of 
Budrlgala  •  4.  aee  above ;  the  aeoond  waa  printed  in  1S67.  and  in 
lag  caaagoaa  a  aalertlon  of  the  fonr  and  flva-part  madrinla,  aa  *Le 
rire  ttoaaaMi.*  etc  A  laige  number  of  the  foiir*part  madrivala  were 
temght  oat  la  aeore  In  1977. 

Oiaiaarti  madHfaU.  Bk.  i.  a  B.  1M4  (Brit  Mna.;  the  word '  ri- 
tfampato'on  titie-paje  ahowathat  thU  la  not  the  flrat  edition).  The 
ftnt  book  waarvpatetedaa  lata  aa  lN8(P<ti8Ubtmr7)'  Bnmeyhaa 
ioaartad  oae  avmber  in  hia  INitory. 

I  In  thia  jmr  a  reprint  of  hia  flrat  book  of  madrlgala  waa  brought 
oat  at  PariBfa. 

*  ExooBt  the  pabiiAtloa  of  two  Puaiona  (Ftoia  1897)  with  the 
feUowiag  eariooa  titlea:  'Pkaaio  D.  N.  J.  Chrlati  in  qua  anluc 
Jahaanea  eaaaoa  tatrodncltur  cum  quatuor  vociboa'  and  'Paaaio 
.  .  .  Inoaalntrodtieantar  JenuetJndaeloanantea.cnradaabQaet 
lex  TBcfaaa.* 


at  Antwerp,  and  soon  afterwards  visited  the 
court  of  Margaret  of  Austria,  Governess  of  the 
Netherlands,  whose  husband,  Duke  Ottavio 
Famese,  engaged  him  as  his  maestro  di  cappella 
at  Parma.]  On  the  death  of  Willaert  he  was 
appointed  his  successor,  Oct.  18,  1568.  He 
resigned  this  position  almost  immediately,  and 
returned  to  the  court  of  Parma  in  July  1664, 
where  he  died,  in  the  autumn  of  1565,  at  the 
age  of  forty-nine.  He  was  buried  in  the  cathedral 
of  that  city,  and  the  following  epitaph  gives  an 
authentic  sketch  of  his  life  :— 

Cypriano  Roro,  Flandro 

Artis  Musicae 

Viro  omnium  peritisaimo, 

CtHuB  noinen  famaque 

Nee  vetustate  obrui 

Nee  oblivione  delerl  potent, 

Hercales  Ferrariens.  Ducis  II. 

Delude  Venetonim, 

Postremo 

Octavi  Farnesi  Pariuae  et  Placentiae 

Dads  II  Chorl  Praefecto. 

LudovicuB  fhiter,  ilL  et  haeredes 

Moestifisimi  po«iierunt. 

Obiit  anno  mdlxv.  aetatis  vero  suae  xlix. 

The  position  to  which  Rore  attained  at  St. 
Mark's,  and  the  rank  as  a  musician  which  con- 
temporary writers  assigned  him,  point  to  his 
having  been  something  of  an  innovator,  and  a 
really  original  composer.  His  sacred  and  secular 
compositions  were  frequently  reprinted,  and 
were  included  in  many  collections  of  the  time.* 
(See  the  Quellen-Lexikon  for  these  and  for  MS. 
copies.)  We  know  that  they  were  held  in  high 
esteem  in  the  court  chapel  at  Munich,  and  were 
constantly  performed  there  under  Lassus's  direc- 
tion.^  Duke  Albert  of  Bavaria  caused  a  superb 
copy  of  Rore's  motets  to  he  made  for  his  library, 
where  it  remains  to  this  day,  with  a  i)ortrait  of 
the  composer  on  the  last  page,  by  the  court 
painter  Mielich.  j.  r.  s.-b. 

ROSA  (ROSE),  Carl  August  Nicolas,  bom 
at  Hamburg,  March  22,  1842,  was  educated 
as  a  violin-player  and  made  such  progress  as  to 
be  sent  to  the  Leipzig  Conservatoriimi,  which  he 
entered  in  1859.  [He  afterwards  studied  at  the 
Paris  Conservatoire,  and  obtained  the  post  of 
concertmeister  at  Hamburg  in  1863.1  In  1 866 
he  came  to  England  and  appeared  as  a  solo 
player  at  the  Crystal  Palace  on  March  10. 
After  a  short  stay  in  London  he  joined  Mr. 
Bateman  in  a  concert- tour  in  the  United  States, 
and  there  met  Madame  Parepa,  whom  he  married 
at  New  York,  in  Feb.  1867.  His  wife's  success 
on  the  stage  led  to  the  formation  of  a  company 
under  the  management  and  conductorship  of 
Mr.  Rose,  which,  during  its  early  campaigns 
could  boast  such  names  as  Parepa,  Wachtel, 
Santley,  Ronconi,  and  Formes  among  its  artists. 

Early  in  1871  Mr.  Rose — who  by  this  time 
had  changed  his  name  to  Rosa  to  avoid  mistakes 

<  Petta  mentiona  a  book  of  Clprlano'a  niaaaes,  a  4,  B,  6  (Veniev, 
1666)  on  the  authority  of  Drandiua'a  BibHothwa  Claattea.  Thia  i% 
probably  *  Liber  MiMarum '  a  4.  S.  6  (Venice,  1366)  to  which  Cipriano 
only  contribute*  the  flrat  nuua  '  Dnulce  memoyre.' 

7  Dtacorsi  delll  tnomphi.  etc.  nelle  noaae  dell'  Uloatr.  duca  OugL 
etc  da  Maaaimo  Trojano  (Monaco.  Berg.  180S;. 


140 


ROSA 


ROSA 


in  pronunciation — returned  to  England  \pith 
his  wife,  and  then  made  a  lengthened  visit  to 
Egypt  for  health.  After  this  they  again  returned 
to  London,  but  only  for  the  lamented  death  of 
Madame  Parepa-Rosa,  which  took  place  Jan.  21, 
1874.  Mr.  Rosa,  however,  was  resolved,  not- 
withstanding this  serious  blow,  to  test  the 
fortunes  of  English  opera  in  London,  and  on 
Sept.  11, 1875,  he  opened  the  Princess's  Theatre 
with  a  company  including  Miss  Rose  Hersee  as 
prima  donna,  Mr.  Santley,  and  other  good 
singers.  He  closed  on  Oct.  30,  having  pro- 
duced 'Figaro,'  'Faust,' **The  Porter  of  Havre '^ 
(Cagnoni),  *Fra  Diavolo,*  'Bohemian  Girl,* 
*  Trovatore,*  ♦'  The  Water-Carrier'  (Cherubini), 
and  '  Siege  of  Rochelle.' 

The  season  of  1876  was  undertaken  at  the 
Lyceum  (Sept.  11-Dec.  2).  It  included  'The 
Water-Carrier ' ;  '  The  Lily  of  Killamey '  (with 
additions ;  *  Sonnambula ' ;  '  Faust ' ;  ♦ '  Giralda ' 
(Adam)  ;  '  Bohemian  Girl ' ;  ♦'  Flying  Dutch- 
man ' ;  '  Zampa ' ;  '  Trovatore ' ;  '  Montana ' ; 
♦'Joconde'(Nicol6);  'Fidelio';  'Fra Diavolo'; 
♦'  Pauline '  (Cowen) :  '  Porter  of  Havre. '  The 
next  season  was  at  the  Adelphi  Tlieatre  (Feb. 
ll-April  6,  1878).  It  included  ♦'  The  Golden 
Cross,'  by  Briill ;  'The  Merry  Wives';  'The 
Flying  Dutchman';  'The  Lily  of  Killamey,' 
and  others  of  those  already  named.  For  the 
fourth  season  Mr.  Rosa  took  Her  Majesty's 
Theatre,  Jan.  27 -March  22,  1879),  brought  out 
♦'Rienzi,'  ♦'Piccolino'  (by  Gniraud),  and 
♦'Carmen,*  and  played  'The  Golden  Cross,* 
'  Huguenots,'  *  Lily  of  Killamey,*  etc.  etc.  His 
fifth  season  was  at  the  same  theatre  (Jan.  10- 
March  6,  1880^;  *' Mignon  *  (Thomas), 
♦'Lohengrin,*  and  *'Aida'  were  all  produced 
for  the  first  time  in  English  ;  and  '  The  Taming 
of  the  Shrew '  (Goetz),  *  Carmen,' '  Rienzi,'  etc., 
were  performed.  In  1882  a  season  was  given 
at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  from  Jan.  14  to 
March  11.  *  Tannhauser '  and  Balfe's  ♦*  Painter 
of  Antwerp  *  (*  Moro ')  were  produced,  and  Mme. 
Valleria  joined  the  company.  For  the  season 
of  1883  (March  26-April  21)  the  company 
moved  to  Drary  Lane,  which  was  its  London 
centre  until  1 8 8 7 .  Thomas's  ♦ '  Esmeralda  *  and 
Mackenzie's  ♦'Colomba'  were  produced,  and 
Mme.  Marie  Roze  appeared  as  'Carmen,'  etc. 
In  1884  (April  14-May  10)  Stanford's  ♦'Canter- 
bury  Pilgrims*  was  the  only  new  work  pro- 
duced. In  1885  (April  6-May  80)  Thomas's 
♦'Nadeshda'  and  Massenet's  'Manon'  were 
given.  In  1886  (May  23~June  26)  Mackenzie's 
♦'Troubadour,'  and  in  1887  (April  7-June  11) 
Corder's  ♦'Nordisa*  were  the  novelties.  In 
1888  'Robert  the  Devil,'  'Tlie  Puritan's 
Daughter,'  'The  Star  of  the  North,'  and  'The 
Jewess'  were  produced  ;  and  on  Jan.  12,  1889, 
Planquette's  'Paul  Jones*  at  the  Prince  of 
Wales's  Theatre,  London.  o. 

1  Tb«  uUri«k  prvflxed  to  th«M  nMn«i  rignlflM  tb&t  fh«  workf 
h»A  not  been  befors  prodnoed  In  Englaad,  at  l«Mt  in  Englisb. 


Aft^er  the  death  of  Carl  Rosa,  which  took 
place  in  Paris,  April  80,  1889,  the  company 
began  to  lose  a  little  of  the  prestige  it  had 
formerly  exgoyed.  An  amalgamation  with 
Harris,  which  had  just  been  entered  into  at 
the  time  of  Rosa's  deatli,  had  no  very  artistic 
results,  although  a  few  works  of  importance 
were  given  from  time  to  time.  It  must  of 
course  be  remembered  that  the  chief  influence 
of  such  a  company  is  in  the  provinces  rather 
than  in  London,  and  as  a  mle,  from  this  time, 
the  first  performances  of  the  Carl  Rosa  prodnc- 
tions  took  place  away  from  London.  Cowen's 
♦'  Thorgrim '  was  the  main  attraction  of  a  Dnuy 
Lane  season  in  1890 ;  and  the  production  of 
MacCnnn's  ♦'Jeanie  Deans*  in  Edinburgh  took 
place  in  November  1 894.  In  December  1 894,  the 
company  again  laid  I^ondon  musicians  under  a 
great  obligation,  by  producing  ♦'  Hansel  and 
Gretel '  with  Mozart's  early  ♦*  Bastien  et  Bas- 
tienne'  at  Daly's  Theatre.  In  1896  the  same 
theatre  was  occupied  for  a  short  series  of  miscel- 
laneous performances.  1897  was  an  eventful 
year  in  the  life  of  the  company,  and  in  ita 
oouxse  permission  was  granted  to  prefix  the 
word  '  Royal '  to  the  name.  In  January  '  Die 
Meistersinger '  was  given  at  the  Gamck  Theati'e ; 
in  April,  Puccini's  ♦'  La  Boh^e'  was  introduced 
to  England  at  Manchester,  and  in  October  they 
gave  a  season  at  Covent  (>arden  (opening  with 
the  work  just  named),  in  the  course  of  which 
MacCunn's  ♦'Diarmid*  was  produced.  After 
♦'  Siegfried  *  (1898)  the  enei^  of  the  company 
failed  for  some  time.  A  series  of  performances 
of  '  popular  *  operas  at  the  Lyceum  in  1899  was 
attended  by  no  remarkable  success ;  but  in 
November  1 900,  at  the  Coronet  Theatre,  Netting 
Hill,  they  introduced  Gounod's  ♦*  Cinq  Mars,' 
and  in  the  following  week,  at  the  Brixton 
Theatre,  gave  Goldmark's  ♦'Heimchen  am 
Herd'  to  the  English  public.  In  the  fol- 
lowing October  they  gave  'Siegfried,'  and  in 
April  1902,  Giordano's  ♦' Andr^  Chenier*  was 
given  for  the  first  time  in  England.  The 
oompany*s  record  is  an  honourable  one,  and  its 
influence  on  English  music  cannot  be  denied  ; 
with  rather  higher  aims,  its  prestige  might  have 
been  kept  up  at  the  same  level  that  was  attained 
during  the  founder's  lifetime,  but  the  usual 
temptation  to  beat  successful  rivals  on  their  own 
ground,  and  to  present  the  '  popular '  operas  in 
ultra-'  popular  *  style,  was  too  strong  to  be  quite 
resisted,  and  the  result  has  been  that  the  most 
artistic  productions  have  perhaps  been  suspected 
by  the  cultivated  amateurs  who  were  the  com- 
pany's best  patrons  in  former  times.  M. 

ROSA,  Salvator,  was  bom  at  Arenella,  near 
Naples,  July  21, 1615.  His  father  Vito  Antonio 
de  Rosa  sent  him  to  be  educated  at  the  college 
of  the  padri  SomaschL  He  soon  began  to  study 
music,  and  became  an  expert  player  of  the  lute, 
improvising  accompaniments  and  interludes  to 
his  own  verses.     His  ambition  to  go  to  Rome 


BOSA 


ROSALIA 


141 


and  devote  himself  seriously  to  painting  seemed 
on  the  iN»nt  of  being  fulfilled  in  1685,  when  he 
Tisited  Borne  for  the  first  time.  But  becoming 
ill,  he  returned  to  Naples  at  the  end  of  six 
months,  and  there  became  a  pupil  of  the  painter, 
Aniello  Falcone,  until  1637.  Then  sgain  he 
went  to  Borne,  and  accompanied  a  friend, 
Hercorio,  in  the  service  of  the  Cardinal 
Brancacoio,  to  Yiterbo,  where  he  received  a 
oomnuasion  to  paint  an  altar-piece. 

Altera  visit  to  Naples,  he  was  again  in  Rome 
in  1638  until  September  1640,  when  he  went 
to  Florence  to  take  an  appointaient  as  painter 
to  the  court  of  the  Medid,  a  post  he  held  for 
nearly  nine  years.  During  this  time  he  met 
Filippo  lippi,  poet  and  jiainter,  and  Cesti,  the 
musieian,  and  wrote  La  Stregct,  to  which 
Cesti  composed  the  music,  and  H  LainerUo^ 
later  on  set  to  music  by  Bandini  It  was  prob- 
ably towards  the  end  of  1640  that  he  wrote 
the  satire  La  musieaf  a  violent  attack  on  the 
depraved  taste  shown  in  Italian  church  music 
It  was  not  published  till  some  years  after  Boss's 
death,  and  evidently  caused  much  agitation.  It 
was  answered  with  a  bitterness  almost  equal  to 
its  own  by  ICattheson  in  his  MUhridat  toider 
den  Oift  tiner  welsehen  Sail/re^  ffenanjit  la 
Musica,  Hamburg,  1749 ;  in  which  a  German 
translation  of  the  satire  is  given,  with  pages  of 
comments  and  annotations.  The  six  satires, 
La  Musiea,  La  Poesia,  La  PUiura,  La 
Cfuerra,  La  Babilonia,  and  L*  Invidia,  written 
by  Bosa  between  1640  and  1669,  were  probably 
&8t  published  in  Bome  in  1695  ;  the  title-page, 
without  date,  and  with  Amsterdam  falsely  in- 
dicated as  the  printing  place,  is  as  follows: 
Satire  di  Salvador  Rosa  dtdieaJU  a  aettano.  In 
Amsterdam  pres9o  Severo  Prothanuuiix,  12mo, 
p.  161.  It  was  followed  by  numberless  un- 
authorised editions.  The  first  dated  edition 
of  186  pages  was  printed  in  Amsterdam  by 
J.  F.  Benuod  in  1719,  the  second  edition  is 
dated  1781,  and  the  third  1790.  In  1770  there 
was  an  edition  Con  note  diA.M,  Salvini,  printed 
at  Florence,  but  with  Amsterdam  on  the  title- 
page  ;  this  was  reprinted  in  1781,  1784,  and 
1787. 

Rosa  on  leaving  Florence  was  in  Volterra  for 
a  time,  and  then  returned  to  Rome  in  February 
1649.  The  year  1647  was  certainly  passed 
peaceably  in  Tuscany,  in  spite  of  the  legend 
which  has  it  that  Rosa  was  at  Naples  during 
the  insurrection  in  July  1647,  and  was  one  of 
the  '  oompagnia  della  morte '  under  the  leader- 
ship of  the  painter  Falcone.  To  begin  with,  no 
such  company  existed,  and  secondly,  there  are 
letters  preserved,  written  by  Rosa  to  his  friend 
Maffei,  one  from  Pisa,  on  Jan.  9,  1647,  and 
another  from  Florence,  on  Sept  26,  1647,  in 
which  the  tumults  at  Naples  are  not  even 
alluded  to  (Cesareo,  Foesie  e  lettered  1892, 
p.  55).  In  1650  Rosa  again  visited  Florence, 
Pisa,  and  Siena,  returning  to  Rome  in  December, 


where  he  worked  at  his  painting,  finding  relaxa- 
tion in  writing  songs  to  which  either  he  or  his 
friend  Cavalli,  then  in  Rome,  composed  the 
airs. 

Rosa  died  in  Rome  on  March  15,  1678,  at 
the  age  of  fifty-eight,  and  was  buried  in  the 
church  of  Santa  Maria  degli  Angioli  alle  Terme 
di  Diocleziano. 

Little  of  Rosa's  music  is  known,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  songs  published  in  the  '  Gemme 
d'antichitii'  and  other  modem  collections.  His 
position,  however,  was  one  of  some  musical 
interest.  A  personal  friend  of  some  of  the  leading 
composers  of.the  time — Cavalli,  Cesti,  Bandini 
and  others — he  was  so  far  in  touch  with  the 
new  ideas  just  germinating,  as  to  adopt  the 
method  of  writing  for  a  single  voice  with  hasao 
coniinuo  accompaniment. 

In  1770  Dr.  Bumey  acquired  from  a  great- 
grand-daughter  of  Rosa,  occupying  the  same  house 
on  the  Monte  Santa  TrinitJi  in  Rome  in  which 
he  had  lived  and  died,  a  musical  manuscript  in 
Rosa's  handwriting,  containing,  besides  airs  and 
cantatas  by  Cesti,  Rossi,  etc.,  eight  cantatas 
written  and  composed  by  Rosa  himself.  The 
airs  are  melodious  and  vivacious,  and  have  a 
good  deal  of  charm.  Bumey  (SisL  qf  Music, 
iv.  pp.  165-8)  gives  the  music  of  a  certain 
number  of  them  ;  they  were  also  included  by 
N.  d'  Arienzo  in  his  paper  on  Rosa  in  the  Rivista 
Mus,  Hal.  1894,  i.  389. 

The  better-known  airs  are  *  Vado  ben  spesso,' 
printed  by  Dr.  Crotch  in  Specimens  of  Various 
Styles,  1808.  Edited  by  H.  Bishop  in  '  Gemme 
d'antichit^,'  No.  26,  and  in  La  seuola  antica, 
No.  24,  also  in  Marx's  Oluck  wnd  die  Oper, 
1868.  BeUage,  No.  2.  'Star  vicino,'  edited 
by  W.  H.  Callcott,  *  Gemme,'  No.  27.  And 
*  Selve  voi  che,'  edited  by  J.  Pittmann,  London, 
1878.  A  manuscript  copy  of  the  latter  is  in 
the  Vienna  Imperial  Library,  No.  19,242  in 
Mantuani's  catalogue.  c.  8. 

ROSALIA  (Germ.  Fetter  Michel,  SchusUr- 
fleck).  A  form  of  melody,  vocal  or  instmmental, 
in  which  a  figure  is  repeated  several  times  in. 
succession,  transposed  a  note  higher  at  each 
reiteration. 

The  name  is  derived  from  an  old  Italian 
Canto  popolare,  '  Rosalia,  mia  cara,'  the  Melody 
of  which  is  constracted  upon  this  principle. 


The  well-known  German  Volkslied,  'Gestem 
Abend  war  Vetter  Michel  da,'  begins  with  a 
similar  repetition,  and  hence  the  figure  is 
frequently  called  in  Germany,  *  Vetter  Michel.' 
These  titles,  as  well  as  that  of  '  Schusterfleck  ' 
— a  cobble — ^are  of  course  given  to  it  in  derision 
— for  writers  on  composition  regard  its  frequent 
introduction  as  indicative  of  poverty  of  inventive 
power.  Nevertheless,  it  is  frequently  employed 
by  the  great  masters,  with  charming  effiect,  as 


142 


ROSALIA 


ROSAMUNDE 


may  be  seen  in  the  Minuet  in  Handel's 
*  Ariadne,'  in  which  it  will  be  observed  that 
the  figure  is  suffered  to  appear  three  ^  times 
only  in  succession.  Almost  all  great  writers 
have  imposed  this  limit  upon  its  employment, 
experience  having  proved  that  a  fourfold  re- 
petition generally  tends  to  render  the  passage 
wearisome.  Strikingly  effective  instances  of 
threefold  repetition  will  be  foimd,  in  Mozart's 
Requiem,  at  the  words  'Ingemisoo  tamqiu&m 
reus';  in  Spohr's  'Last  Judgment,'  at  *The 
grave  gives  up  its  dead ' ;  and  in  a  remark- 
ably forcible  passage  in  the  *  Rigaudon '  from 
Rameau's  *Dardanus.'  Still,  this  restriction 
is  frequently  disregarded.  Vallerano  has  left 
a  Canon,^  which  ascends  a  Tone  higher  at  each 
repetition,  ad  infinitum ;  and  the  resulting 
effect  is  far  from  inharmonious,  though  the  work 
must  be  regarded  rather  as  a  musical  curiosity 
than  a  serious  composition. 

Closely  allied  to  this  figure  is  another,  in 
which  the  leading  phrase  is  transposed  one  or 
more  notes  lower  at  each  repetition  ;  as  in 
*Habbiam  vinto*  from  Handel's  *Scipio,'  in 
which  the  transposition  proceeds  by  thirds. 


Here,  again,  the  figura  breaks  off  after  a 
threefold  reiteration ;  and,  in  two  cases  in 
which  Mozart  has  employed  the  same  device, 
in  his  Requiem  ~at  the  words  <Qui  Mariam 
absolvisti,'  and  'Oro  supplex  et  acclinis ' — it  is 
relinquished  after  the  second  enunciation.  [For 
a  fivefold  repetition  see  the  Branle  given  under 
Form,  vol.  iL  p.  75a.]  This  kind  of  imitation 
is,  indeed,  subject  to  exactly  the  same  form  of 
treatment  as  the  true  Rosalia  ;  though  it  would 
be  inexact  to  call  it  by  that  name,  and  equally 
so  to  apply  the  term  to  the  regular  ascents  or 
descents  of  a  sequence — as  constantly  exhibited 
in  the  fugues  of  Seb.  Bach  ;  or  to  those  of  vocal 
divisions — as  in  'Every  Valley,'  or  Rossini's 
*  Quis  est  homo ' ;  or  to  the  scene,  in  *  Tann- 
hauser,'  in  which  the  stanzas  of  '  Dir  tone 
Lob '  are  sung  a  note  higher  at  each  repetition. 

Schumann  was  accused  of  writing  Rosalie 
usque  ad  natufeam.  He  does  employ  them 
very  frequently  :  but  often — as  in  the  opening 
of  his  *Arabeske*  (op.  18) — with  an  effect 
which  true  genius  alone  could  have  dictated. 
This  is  not  the  place  for  a  detailed  criticism  of 
Schumann's  principles  of  composition:  but 
when— as  in  a  bitter  article,  by  Joseph  Rubin- 
stein, which  appeared  in  BayrevUher  BliUUr — his 
masterly  use  of  this  particular  device  is  made 

I  Sometimes  ailed  '  Le«  troli  B4v<hreiioe*.' 
^  Reprinted  in  toL  1.  of  dementi's  Practical  Barmonp. 


to  serve  as  an  excuse  for  its  unqualified  con- 
demnation, as  a  'vicious  monotony-producing 
repetition  of  musical  phrases  on  related 
degrees,  which  the  student  of  composition 
loves  to  introduce  in  his  first  exercises,'  we 
naturally  revolt  from  a  conclusion  so  illogical. 
That  a  form  which  neither  Handel,  nor  Mozart, 
nor  Beethoven,  nor  any  other  great  writer  has 
disdained  to  employ,  can  possibly  be,  in  its 
own  nature,  *  vicious, '  we  cannot  believe.  With 
equal  reason  might  we  condemn  the  *  monotony- 
producing'  effect  of  a  regular  figure.  It  is, 
indeed,  quite  possible  to  make  such  a  figure 
monotonous  to  the  last  degree ;  yet  nearly  the 
whole  of  Beethoven's  *  Andante  in  F '  (op.  34), 
is  founded  on  the  rhythmic  form  of  the  first 
four  notes  of  the  opening  subject.  The  truth 
is,  that,  in  the  hands  of  a  great  master,  all 
such  devices  are  made  productive  of  pure  and 
beautiful  effects  ;  while  all  are  '  vicious '  when 
viciously  misused.  w.  s.  r. 

ROSAMOND.  An  opera  by  Joseph  Addison, 
music  by  Thomas  Clayton  ;  produced  at  Dmry 
Lane  Theatre  on  March  4,  1707,  but  only  ran 
three  nights. 

Thomas  Augustine  Ame,  many  years  later, 
took  the  libretto  for  one  of  his  early  musical 
efforts ;  and  produced  a  work  that  bore  con- 
siderable promise  of  his  future  excellence. 

His  setting  of  the  opera  was  given  at  the 
Little  Theatre  in  the  Haymarket,  on  March  7, 
1733.  F.  K. 

ROSAMUNDE  fORSTIN  VON  CYPERN 
(Rosamond,  Princess  of  Cyprus).  A  romantic 
play  in  four  acts ;  written  by  Wilhelmine 
Christine  von  Chezy,  the  overture  and  incidental 
music  by  Franz  Schubert  (op.  26).  Produced 
at  the  Theatre  an-der-Wien,  Vienna,  Dec.  20, 
1823,  and  only  performed  twice.  The  music 
as  then  played  is  as  follows : — 

*  1.  Overture  (D  minor). 

t  2.  Entr'acte  between  Acts  I  and  2  (B  minora 
t  8.  Ballo  (B  minor),  and  Andante  un  pooo  assai  (O). 
4.  Entr^acte  between  Acts  2  and  8  (D). 

*  6.  Romance  for  soprano,  *Der  Vollmond  strabit* 

(P  roinorX 

*  6.  Chorus  of  Spirits. 

*  7.  Entr'acte  between  Acts  8  and  4  (B^). 
8.  Shepherds'  Melody. 

*  9.  Shepherds'  Chorus. 
♦10.  Huntsmen's  Chorus, 
til.  Air  de  Baliet  (0). 

The  overture  played  at  the  performances  was 
published  in  1827,  for  PF.  four  hands,  by 
Schubert  himself,  as  op.  52,  under  the  title  of 
*  Alfonso  und  Estrella'  (now  op.  69>  The 
overture  (in  C),  known  as  the  'Overture  to 
Rosamunde'  (op.  26)  was  composed  for  the 
melodrama  of  the  <  Zauberharfe,'  or  Magic  Harp 
(produced  August  19, 1820),  and  was  published 
by  Schubert  with  its  present  name  and  opus- 
number  for  PF.  four  hands,  in  1828.  The 
pieces  marked  have  been  published  —  those 
marked  with  *  by  Schubert  himself,  as  op.  29  ; 
those  marked  with  +  more  recently.     For  parti- 


KOSE 


ROSEINGRAVE 


143 


enlars  see  Kottebohra's  Thematic  Catalogue, 
pp.  46,  84.  The  £ntr*acte  in  B  minor  is  one  of 
the  finest  of  all  Schubert's  works ;  the  Bomanoe, 
the  Entr'acte  No.  7,  the  Shepherds'  Melodyi 
and  the  Air  de  Ballet  (in  O),  are  all  admirable, 
the  Shepherds'  Melody  for  two  clarinets  especi- 
ally chaiacteristic  The  second  Trio  to  the 
Entr'acte  No.  7  was  previously  composed,  in 
May  1819,  as  a  song,  '  Der  Leidende.'       g.^ 

ROSE  or  KNOT  (Fr.  i&3>saa ;  Fr.  and  Germ. 
Rosette  ;  Ital.  Jioaa).  The  ornamental  device  or 
scutcheon  inserted  in  the  sound-hole  of  the  belly 
of  stringed  instruments,  such  as  the  lute,  guitar, 
mandoline,  dulcimer,  or  harpsichord,  serving 
not  only  a  decorative  purpose,  but-— in  the 
Netherlands  especially — as  the  maker's  *  trade 
mark. '  In  the  harpsichord  and  spinet  there  was 
usually  but  one  sound-hole  with  its  rose ;  but 
owing  to  the  origin  of  these  keyboard  instruments 
from  the  psaltery,  their  analogy  with  the  lute, 
and  the  fact  of  the  Roman  lutes  having  three, 
several  sound-holes  were  sometimes  perforated. 
In  fact,  a  harpsichord  dated  1581  was  seen  in 
Italy  by  the  eminent  art  critic,  Mr.  T.  J.  Gullick, 
which  possessed  no  less  than  five,  each  with  a 
rose  inserted.  From  the  analogy  above  referred 
to,  the  old  Italian  harpsichord  makers  named 
the  bottom  of  the  instrument  *  cassa  armonica ' 
(sound-chest) ;  as  if  its  office  were  like  that  of 
the  back  of  the  lute  or  viol,  while  the  belly  was 
the  *  piano  armonioo '  (sound-flat).'  The  Flem- 
ings, retaining  the  sound-hole,  doubtless  adhered 
more  or  less  to  this  erroneous  notion  of  a  sound- 
ehest  The  Hitchoocks  in  England  (1620  and 
later)  appear  to  have  been  the  first  to  abandon 
it;  no  roses  are  seen  in  their  instruments. 
Kirkman  in  the  next  century  still  adhered  to 
the  rose  and  trade  scutcheon,  but  Shudi  did 
not.  In  the  Oiomaie  de*  IMterali  cF  Italia 
A'enice,  1711,  torn,  v.),  Scipione  Maffei,  re- 
ferring to  Cristofori,  who  had  recently  invented 
the  pianoforte,  approves  of  his  retention  of  the 
principle  of  the  rose  in  his  ordinary  harpsichords, 
although  contemporary  makers  for  the  most 
part  had  abandoned  it  But  Cristofori,  instead 
of  a  large  rose,  to  further,  as  he  thought,  the 
resonance,  used  two  small  apertures  in  the  front 
Under  the  head  Rifckers  will  be  found  illustra- 
tions of  the  rose  or  rosace,  as  used  by  those  great 
makers.  a.  j.  h. 

ROSE  OF  CASTILE.  An  opera  in  three 
acts ;  compiled  by  Messrs.  Harris  &  Falconer 
(from  *Le  Muletier  de  TolWe'),  music  by  M.  W. 
Balfe.  Produced  at  the  Lyceum  Theatre  (Pyne 
and  Harrison),  London,  Oct.  29,  1857.       o. 

ROSE  OF  PERSIA,  THE.  Comic  opera  in 
two  acts,  libretto  by  Basil  Hood,  music  by 
Arthur  Sullivan,  produced  at  Savoy  Theatre, 
Nov.  29,  1899. 


>  [Sb^  O«orn  Grove,  with  duiMteriatic  modaaty,  here  omlta  all 
Kfcrenee  to  tbe  tMt  tli»t  be  hinueU  diaoovered  the  micring  portions 
ofthem^c.    B«m  foL  iL  p.  %K7b,  mad  h^fra,  p.  dOla.} 

2  In  modern  ItaUaa  we  mare  freqnentlr  meat  wltia '  tompacno,' 
'  tavob  •nnoai'*,'  sod  '  fondOb'  manning  * helly.'  or '  aonnd-board.' 


ROSEINGRAVE  or  ROSINGRAVE, 
Daniel,  Church  musician  and  organist  The 
exact  date  of  his  birth  is  not  known.  He 
received  his  early  musical  education  as  one  of 
the  children  of  the  Chapel  Royal ;  though 
whether  before  1660,  under  Captain  Cook,  or 
after  that  date,  under  Pelham  Humfrey,  is  un- 
certain. He  is  stated  subsequontiy  to  have 
studied  under  Dr.  John  Blow  and  Henry  Purcell. 
He  was  organist  of  Gloucester  Cathedral  from 
1679  to  1681,  of  Winchester  Cathedral  from 
1682  to  1692,  of  Salisbury  Cathedral  from  1692 
to  1 698,  was  appointed  organist  and  Vicar-choral 
of  St  Patrick's  Cathedral,  Dublin,  in  the  year 
1698,  and  organist  and  stipendiary  of  Christ 
Church  Cathedral,  Dublin,  in  the  same  year.  He 
retired  from  the  organistship  of  St.  Patrick's  in 
1719  in  favour  of  his  son  Ralph,  but  remained 
organist  of  ChristChurch  until  his  death  in  1727. 
He  married  Ann,  daughter  of  the  Rev.  Thomas 
Washboume,  D.D.,  who  survived  him,  and  by 
whom  he  had  several  children,  including  his 
sons  Thomas  and  Ralph,  who  were  also  distin- 
guished musicians.  There  appear  to  have  been 
Roseingraves  in  Ireland  before  Daniel  Rosein- 
grave's  time,  as  mention  is  made  in  the  Chapter 
Acts  of  Christ  Church  of  a  lease  from  the 
Dean  and  Chapter  to  one  Ralph  Roseingrave  in 
1661. 

Daniel  Roseingrave  succeeded  Robert  Hodge 
as  organist  of  St  Patrick's.  Hodge,  who  resignwl 
the  post  6t  organist,  was  thereupon  appointed 
*  Master  of  the  song  to  the  Quire,'  apparently 
as  a  solatium  for  losing  the  post  of  organist 
The  arrangement  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
a  happy  one,  for  in  1699  we  find  a  Chapter 
Act  in  the  following  words :  '  The  said  Dean 
and  Chapter  having  received  information  that 
Mr.  Hodge  and  Mr.  Rosingrave,  two  of  the 
Vicars-choral,  gave  each  other  very  scurrilous 
language  in  Christ  Church,  Dublin,  and  after 
went  together  to  the  taveme  and  there  fought, 
upon  which  the  said  Hodge  and  Roseingrave 
were  ordered  to  appear  before  the  said  Dean  and 
Chapter  to  answer  in  their  places  touching  such 
their  misdemeanours.  And  upon  hearing  what 
they  could  severally  say  for  themselves  touching 
the  matter.  And  it  thereupon  appearing  to  the 
said  Dean  and  Chapter  that  Mr.  Roseingrave  was 
ye  first  and  chief  aggressor,  and  that  also  the 
said  Mr.  Hodge  was  to  blame.  It  was  thereupon 
ordered  by  the  aforesaid  Dean  and  Chapter  tiiat 
the  said  Mr,  Daniell  Roseingrave  should  forth- 
with pay  into  the  hands  of  ye  steward  of  the 
said  Vicars  choralls  the  sums  of  three  pounds 
and  the  said  Mr.  Hodge  the  sume  of  20s.  sterling 
for  a  penall  mulct  for  such  their  offences,  the 
same  to  be  disposed  of  as  the  said  Dean  shall 
think  fitt,  and  that  the  said  Mr.  Roseingrave 
should  then  and  there  beg  publick  pardon  of  the 
said  Mr.  Hodge  for  the  scurillous  language  hee 
gave  him  as  aforesaid,  which  was  accordingly 
done  in  the  presence  of  the  said  Dean  and 


144 


ROSEINGRAVE 


ROSEINGRAVE 


Chapter. '  Robert  HodgCi  it  may  be  mentioned, 
had  previouslj,  when  organist  of  Wells  Cathe- 
dral (1686),  been  corrected  and  admonished  for 
breaking  windows. 

At  Christ  Church  Cathedral  Roseingrave 
appears  to  have  been  equally  combative.  By 
a  Chapter  Act  in  1700  the  Dean  and  Chapter, 
on  hearing  the  Petition  of  Daniel  Roseingrave 
complaining  of  assault  by  Mr.  Thomas  Finell, 
'ordered  on  hearing  the  Petition  of  Daniel 
Roseingrave  and  examination  of  several  witnesses 
that  the  said  Daniel  Roseingrave  and  Thomas 
Finell  be  and  are  hereby  suspended  ab  officio 
et  beneficio ' ;  and  further  ordered  *  that  from 
henceforth  no  Vicar  or  Stipendiary  of  this 
Church  do  wear  a  sword  under  the  penalty  of 
expulsion.'  This  suspension  was  subsequently 
removed  on  payment  of  'mulcts'  by  the  offend- 
ing parties. 

By  his  will,  dated  Oct.  21,  1724,  Daniel 
Roseingrave  left  the  house  in  Peter  Street, 
Dublin,  in  which  he  then  dwelt,  to  his  '  second 
son  Ralph,'  ^  to  whom  he  also  left  the  residue 
of  his  property,  subject  to  his  providing  an 
annuity  of  £20  for  his  (Daniel's)  wife,  the  said 
Ann  Roseingrave.  To  his  '  eldest  son  Thomas ' 
he  only  left  five  shillings.  Daniel  Roseingrave 
died  in  1727,  at  Oolden  Lane  (the  same  street 
where,  fifty -five  years  later,  John  Field  was  born), 
and  was  buried  in  the  churchyard  of  St  Bride's 
Church.  His  widow  died  in  1782-8,  and  was 
buried  in  the  old  churchyard  in  St. '  Patrick's 
CathedraL 

Although  Daniel  Roseingrave  seems  to  have 
written  a  great  deal  of  church  music,  and  is 
highly  spoken  of  as  a  composer  by  Burney  and 
Hawkins,  very  little  of  his  music  is  now  extant. 
One  of  his  anthems,  *  Lord,  Thou  art  become 
gracious,'  is  preserved  in  manuscript  in  the 
library  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  another, 
*  Haste  Thee,  0  Lord,'  in  the  Bodleian  library. 
Mr.  J.  S.  Bumpus  has  autograph  scores  of  four 
other  anthems  of  his. 

By  a  Chapter  Act  of  Christ  Church,  Dublin, 
dated  Dec.  15, 1699,  it  is  ordered  'that  the  Proc- 
tor do  x)ay  unto  Mr.  Daniel  Roseingrave  three 
pounds  as  a  gratuity  for  his  writing  three  services 
and  two  Creeds  for  the  use  of  the  Church.  Un- 
fortunately all  traces  of  these  compositions  have 
long  since  disappeared.  L.  M'c.  l.  d. 

ROSEINGRAVE,  Thomas  (1690  to  1766), 
the  second  son  of  Daniel  Roseingrave,  was  bom 
at  Winchester  in  1690.  At  the  age  of  seven 
he  came  with  his  father  to  Dublin,  and  from 
him  received  his  early  education  in  music. 
Thomas  Roseingrave  entered  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  in  1707,  and  his  then  age  is  given  in 

>  Although  In  hifl  will  Dsuiel  doMiibM  Baiph  u  his '  Moond  wm,' 
hia  eldest  son  wm  Davicl  Boibivoratb.  Juxior.  who  vms  born  at 
Wtnehestwln  168B,  entered  Trinity  College.  DuUln.  in  170S,  obtatned 
a  schoUrahlp  In  1709,  and  took  ont  his  B.A.  degree  In  1707.  He 
was,  doahiless,  the '  young  Boseingrave'  who  appears  by  the  College 
Register  to  have  been  appointed  organist  of  Trinity  College  Chapel 
in  ITOB,  «•  In  that  year  Thomas  was  only  fourteen,  and  Balph  still 
yonnger.  In  1707  he  was  given  leave  of  absence  for  one  year, '  In 
order  to  Improve  himself  m  music'  He  had  probably  died  some 
years  before  1794.  the  date  of  his  father's  wilL 


the  College  Register  as  sixteen.     He  did  not) 
however,  proceed  to  his  degree  in  Arts. 

In  a  Chapter  Act  of  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral, 
dated  14th  December  1709,  it  is  ordered  by  the 
Dean  and  Chapter  'that  whenever  Thomas 
Roeseingrave  sonn  of  Daniell  Roseingrave,  the 
present  o]^;anist  of  the  said  Cathedrall,  being 
minded  to  travell  beyond  seas  to  improve 
himself  in  the  art  of  music,  and  that  hereafter 
he  may  be  useful  and  serviceable  to  the  said 
Cathe(&all,  yt  tenne  guineas  be  by  the  Proctor 
of  the  said  Canonry  given  him  as  a  guift  from 
the  said  Canonry  towards  bearing  his  charges.' 
He  went  to  Italy  in  1710,  and  at  Venice  made 
the  acquaintance  of  the  ScarlattiB,  Alessandro 
and  Domenico.  For  the  latter  he  appears  to 
have  formed  a  great  admiration.  Burney 
(History  of  Muaie,  iv.  p.  268)  says,  that  he 
*  followed  him  to  Rome  and  Naples,  and  hardly 
ever  quitted  him  while  he  remained  in  Italy, 
which  was  not  till  after  the  Peace  of  Utrecht, 
[1718],  as  appears  by  an  anthem  which  he 
composed  at  Venice  in  1718,  ''  Arise,  shine,  for 
thy  light  is  come." '  The  manuscript  of  this 
anthem,  which  he  wrote  with  orchestral  aooom- 
paniment,  is  preserved  in  the  Tudway  collection 
(Harl.  MS.  7842).  Burney  says  of  it,  'There 
is  much  fire  in  the  introductory  symphony, 
which  is  of  a  very  modem  cast'  How  long 
he  continued  abroad  is  not  exactly  known,  but 
in  1720  we  find  him  in  London,  where  he 
produced,  at  the  Haymarket  Theatre,  Domenico 
Scarlatti's  opera,  'Narciso,'  with  two  additional 
songs  and  two  duets  of  Roseingrave's  oikh 
composition. 

As  a  composer  and  organist  he  appears  to 
have  been  held  in  high  estimation,  his  powers 
of  reading  at  sight  and  of  improvising  being 
especially  dwelt  on  by  his  contemporaries. 

Burney  says :  '  In  his  younger  days,  when 
he  enjoyed  tlie  mens  sana  in  eorpore  sano,  he 
was  regarded  as  having  a  power  of  seizing  the 
parts  and  spirit  of  a  score,  and  executing  the 
most  difficult  music  at  sight,  beyond  any 
musician  in  Europe.' 

In  1725  he  was  appointed  the  first  organist 
of  St.  Gteorge's,  Hanover  Square.  There  were 
seven  other  competitors,  all  of  whom  had  to 
give  a  performance  on  the  organ  before  Dr. 
Greene,  Dr.  Pepusch,  and  Mr.  Galliard,  who 
acted  as  judges.  Burney  says  that  Roseingrave's 
performance  of  the  set  pieces  was  by  no  means 
good,  but  that  when  he  was  asked  to  improvise 
on  given  themes,  he  *  treated  the  subjects  with 
such  science  and  dexterity,  inverting  the  order 
of  notes,  augmenting  and  diminishing  their 
value,  introducing  counter  subjects,  and  treating 
the  themes  to  so  many  ingenious  purposes,  that 
the  judges  were  unanimous  in  declaring  him  the 
victorious  candidate.' 

Archdeacon  Coxe,  in  his  Anecdotes  of  George 
Frederick  Handel  and  John  Christopher  Smithy 
speaking  of  Roseingrave  at  this  time  says : — 


BOSEINGRAVE 


ROSELLEN 


146 


*  His  reputation  was  at  this  period  so  high  that 
on  commencing  teaching  he  might  have  gained 
one  thousand  pounds  a  year,  but  an  unfortunate 
event  reduced  him  to  extreme  distress.  Among 
Roseingraye's  scholars  was  a  young  lady  to 
whom  he  was  greatly  attached,  and  whose 
atfections  he  had  gained,  but  her  father,  who 
iutended  to  give  her  a  large  fortune,  did  not 
approve  of  her  marrying  a  musician,  and  forbade 
Roseingrave  his  house.  This  disappointment 
aflected  his  brain,  and  he  never  entirely  re- 
covered the  shock.  He  neglected  his  scholars 
and  lost  his  business.  He  lived  upon  fifty 
pounds  per  annum,  which  his  place  produced, 
and  was  often  in  indigence.  He  was  perfectly 
rational  upon  every  subject  but  the  one  nearest 
hii  heart ;  whenever  that  was  mentioned  he 
was  quite  insane.' 

About  the  year  1737  he  was  compelled  to 
give  up  the  organistship,  and  lived  for  some 
time  at  Hampstead.  Thence  in  about  the 
beginning  of  1753  he  removed  to  Dublin, 
where  he  probably  lived  with  his  nephew, 
William  Roseingrave,  a  son  of  Kalph's,  who 
was  bom  in  1725  and  at  this  time  (1753)  held 
the  Office  of  Chief  Chamberlain  of  the  Exchequer 
Court. 

Mrs.  Delany,  in  her  memoirs,  under  date 
Jan.  12,  1753,  writes : — *  Mr.  Roseingrave,  who 
was  sent  away  from  St.  George's  Church  on 
account  of  his  mad  fits,  is  now  in  Ireland,  and 
at  times  can  play  very  well  on  the  harpsichord ' 
{Carreapondetux,  iii.  194).  Faulkner's  l>vblin 
Journal  of  Feb.  3,  1753,  contains  an  announce- 
ment that  'the  celebrated  Opera  of  "Phaedra 
and  HippoUtns,"  composed  by  Mr.  Roseingrave 
lat«ly  arrived  from  London,  will  be  jjerformed 
at  the  Great  Music  Hall  in  Fishamble  Street,  and 
conducted  by  himself  on  Tuesday  the  6th  of 
March.  Between  the  acts  Mr.  Roseingrave  will 
perform  Scarlatti's  ''Lessons  on  the  Harpsi- 
chord, "with  his  ovm  additions,  and  will  conclude 
with  bis  celebrated ' '  Almand. " '  And  in  the  same 
Journal  of  Feb.  27,  we  read: — 'Yesterday 
there  wbs  a  public  rehearsal  of  Mr.  Roseingrave's 
0{)era  of  "  Phaedra  and  Hippolytus"  at  the  great 
Musie  Hall  in  Fishamble  Street,  to  a  numerous 
audience,  which  met  the  higliest  applause,  the 
connoiflBenrs  allowing  it  to  exceed  any  musical 
performance  ever  exhibited  here,  in  variety, 
taste,  and  number  of  good  songs. '  One  wonders 
if  the  writer  of  this  notice  had  been  at  the 
production  of  the  '  Messiah '  in  the  same  hall 
eleven  years  earlier. 

Two  anthems  of  Thomas  Roseingrave  ('  Great 
is  the  Lord '  and  '  One  Generation ')  are 
included  in  the  manuscript  collection  of 
Anthems  in  the  Library  of  the  Royal  College 
of  Music.  He  was  an  enthusiastic  admirer 
of  Palestrina,  and  is  said  to  have  adorned 
the  walls  of  his  bedroom  with  scrape  of  paper 
containing  extracts  from  the  works  of  that 
master. 

VOL.  IV 


He  died  on  June  26,  1766,  and  is  buried  in 
the  churchyard  of  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  in 
the  same  grave  with  his  brother  Ralph.  The 
inscription  on  the  tombstone  adds  that  he  died 
in  the  78th  year  of  his  age,  '  a  most  celebrated 
musician  and  accomplished  man.'  Although 
an  inscription  added  to  this  tombstone  at  a  later 
date  (1802)  states  that  his  wife,  Mrs.  Jane 
Roseingrave,  is  also  buried  there,  this  is  incor- 
rect, as  the  Jane  Roseingrave  in  question  was 
the  wife  of  the  before -mentioned  William 
Roseingrave,  who  died  in  1780,  and  is  buried 
in  an  adjoining  grave.  Thomas  Roseingrave 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  married. 

The  most  important  of  his  published  com- 
positions are  : — Fifteen  Voluntaries  and  Fugues 
for  the  organ  or  harpsichord  ;  six  double  Fugues 
for  the  organ  or  harpsichord ;  the  Opera 
'  Phaedra  and  Hippolytus ' ;  eight  suits  of 
lessons  for  the  harpsichord  or  spinet ;  six 
cantatas  (Italian  words) ;  the  additional  songs 
and  duets  sung  with  Scarlatti's  Opera  'Narciso' ; 
and  twelve  solos  for  the  German  flute  with 
thoroughbass  for  the  harpsichord.  He  edited 
the  '  Forty -Two  Suits  of  Lessons  for  the  Harpsi- 
chord by  Domenico  Scarlatti,'  prefixing  an  intro- 
ductory movement  in  G  minor.      l.  m'c.  l.  d. 

ROSEINGRAVE,  Ralph  (about  1695  to 
1747),  the  youngest  son  of  Daniel  Roseingrave, 
was  bom  at  Salisbury,  and  received  his  musical 
education  from  his  father.  In  1718-19  Daniel 
Roseingrave  petitioned  the  Dean  and  Chapter 
of  St  Patrick's  Cathedral,  Dublin,  to  allow  him 
to  resign  the  post  of  organist  in  favour  of  his 
son  Ralph,  who  appears  to  have  been  forthwith 
appointed  Vicar-Choral,  but  did  not  formally 
succeed  his  father  as  organist  until  1726.  On  his 
father's  death  in  1727  he  also  succeeded  him  a£ 
organist  of  Christ  Church  Cathedral,  Dublin,  at 
a  salary  of  fifty  pounds  per  annum.  He  appears 
to  have  written  a  good  deal  of  church  music 
Eight  of  his  Anthems  and  two  Services  in  C  and 
F  are  ])reserved  at  Christ  Church,  and  some  of 
them  are  still  sung  there.  Another  anthem  of 
his,  *  O  God  of  Truth,'  is  published  in  Hullah's 
Part  Music,  and  an  old  organ  book  in  the 
possession  of  Mr.  J.  S.  Bumpus  contains  a 
Service  of  his  in  F  with  a  setting  of  the 
Benedicite.  He  died  in  1747,  and  is  buried 
in  the  churchyard  of  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral. 
The  headstone  mentions  that  his  wife  Sarah, 
who  died  in  1746,  and  four  of  their  children, 
are  buried  with  him,  as  are  also,  his  mothei 
Ann  Roseingrave,  and  his  brother  Thomas. 
Ralph  Roseingrave  is  sometimes  mentioned  as 
having  taken  part  as  a  soloist  in  the  production 
of  the  'Messiah'  on  April  13, 1742,  but  Dr.  J.  C. 
Culwick,  in  his  pamphlet  on  the  original  Word 
Book  ofllandeVa  'ifes9uiA'(1891),  points  out  the 
improbability  of  his  having  done  so.  l.  m  'c.  l.  d. 

ROSELLEN,  Henri,  son  of  a  PF.  maker, 
bom  in  Paris,  Oct.  13,  1811 ;  took  second 
PF.  prize  at  the  Conservatoire,  1827,  and  first 

L 


146 


ROSENHAIN 


ROSENMULLER 


harmony  do.  1828.  Was  a  pupil  and  imitator  of 
Herz.  He  published  nearly  200  works  for  PF., 
including  a  'Methode  de  Piano'  (Heugel),  a 
collection  of  progressive  exeroises  entitled 
'  Manuel  des  Pianistes '  {Ibid,),  a  trio  for  piano 
and  strings,  and  many  separate  pieces  of  draw- 
ing-room character,  one  of  which,  a  Reverie 
(op.  32,  No.  1),  eiyoyed  an  extraordinary  popu- 
larity for  many  years  over  the  whole  of  Europe. 
He  died  in  Paris,  March  18,  1876.  o. 

ROSENHAIN,  Jaoob,  eldest  son  of  a  banker, 
was  bom  at  Mannheim,  Dec.  2,  1813.  His 
teachers  were  Jacob  Schmitt,  Kalliwoda,  and 
Schnyder  von  Wartensee.  His  fii-st  appearance 
as  a  pianoforte- player  was  in  1823  at  Frankfort, 
where  his  success  induced  him  to  take  up  his 
i-esidence.  A  one-act  piece  of  his,  *  Der  Besuch 
im  Irrenhause,'  was  produced  at  Frankfort,  Dec. 
29,  1884,  with  great  success  ;  his  second,  '  Lis- 
wenna,'  three  acts,  was  never  performed  in  its 
original  form.  In  1837  he  came  to  London, 
played  at  the  Philharmonic,  April  1 7,  and  was 
much  heard  in  the  concerts  of  the  day.  After 
this  he  took  up  his  abode  in  Paris,  where  he 
became  very  prominent,  giving  chamber  concerts 
in  combination  with  Alard,  Ernst,  and  other 
eminent  players,-  and  carrying  on  a  school  of 
pianoforte-playing  in  conjunction  with  J.  B. 
Cramer.  His  early  opera,  *  Liswenna,'  was  pro- 
vided with  a  new  libretto  (by  Bayard  and  Arago), 
and  brought  out  at  the  Grand  Opera  as  ^Le 
Demon  de  la  Nuit,'  March  17,  1851.  It  had, 
however,  but  a  moderate  success,  and  was  with- 
drawn after  four  representations,  though  it  was 
afterwards  occasionally  played  in  Germany. 
Another  one-act  piece,  *  Volage  et  Jaloux,'  pro- 
duced at  Baden-Baden,  August  3,  1863,  com- 
pletes the  list  of  his  works  for  the  stage.  In 
instrumental  music  he  was  much  more  prolific. 
He  composed  three  symphonies — in  G  minor 
(op.  42),  played  at  the  Gewandhaus,  Leipzig, 
linder  Mendelssohn's  direction,  Jan.  31,  1846  ; 
in  F  minor  (op.  43),  played  at  Brussels,  and  at 
the  Philharmonic,  London,  April  24,  1854  ; 
'  Im  Friihling,'  in  F  major  (op.  61),  rehearsed 
at  the  Conservatoire,  and  played  at  a  Concert 
Populaire.  Four  trios  for  PF.  and  strings  ;  one 
PF.  concerto ;  three  string  quartets ;  two  violon- 
cello sonatas  ;  twelve  characteristic  studies  (op. 
17)  and  twenty- four  Etudes  m^lodiques  (op. 
20),  both  for  PF.  solo  ;  a  PF.  concerto,  op.  73  ; 
Sonata,  op.  74  ;  do.  PF.  and  violoncello,  op.  98 ; 
'Am  Abend'  for  quartet,  op.  99.  Also  various 
pieces  for  piano  entitled,  'Poemes,'  'RSveries,' 
etc. ;  a  biblical  cantata,  and  various  songs,  etc. 
[He  died  at  Baden-Baden,  March  21,  1894.] 
Schumann  criticised  several  of  his  pieces  with 
kindness  and  liberality.  o. 

ROSENMttLLER,  Johann,  was  bom  of 
poor  parents  about  1619  at  Pelsnitz  in  the 
Vogtland  of  Saxony.  In  spite  of  the  poverty 
of  his  parents  the  arrangements  of  the  time 
enabled  him  to  obtain  a  good  general  education, 


and  in  1640  his  name  appears  inscribed  in  the 
Matriculation- book  of  the  University  of  Leipzig. 
In  1642  he  became  Collaborator  or  Assistant- 
Master  at  the  Thomasschule.  In  musical  matters 
he  would  appear  to  have  been  mainly  a  pupil 
of  Tobias  Michael,  wHo  then  held  the  important 
office  of  Cantor  at  the  school.  In  1645  Roeen- 
mUller  published  his  first  work,  a  work  for 
instruments  entitled,  '  Paduanen,  Alemanden, 
Couranten,  Balletten,  Sarabanden  mit  SStimmen 
und  ihrem  Basso  pro  Oigano.'  A  more  im- 
portant work  was  his  'Kemspriiche,'  published 
in  two  parts,  1648  and  1652-58,  each  part 
consisting  of  twenty  Latin  and  German  Motets 
on  Scripture  and  other  Church  Texts  for  three 
to  seven  voices,  mostly  %vith  accompaniment  of 
two  violins,  and  also  occasionally  trombones 
and  other  instruments  with  Basso  Continuo. 
When  Tobias  Michael  became  too  infirm  to 
discharge  adequately  his  duties  as  Cantor, 
Rosenmiiller  acted  as  his  deputy,  and  in  this 
position  gave  such  satisfaction  to  the  city 
council  as  to  obtain  the  promise  of  succession 
to  the  Cantorship.  In  1651  he  also  held  the 
post  of  organist  at  the  Nikolaikirche.  But  in 
May  1655  his  prospects  of  further  promotion 
were  blighted  by  an  accusation  made  against 
him  of  some  grave  moral  offence,  for  which  he 
was  temporarily  imprisoned.  He  succeeded  in 
effecting  his  escape,  and  betook  himself  for  a 
time  to  Hamburg.  From  Hamburg  he  is  said 
to  have  addressed  a  'Supplication'  to  the 
Elector  of  Saxony,  Johann  Georg  I.,  along  with 
a  setting  of  the  Hymn  of  Albinus,  *  Straf  mich 
nicht  in  deinem  Zorn.'  This  would  almost 
seem  to  be  an  admission  of  his  guilt,  although 
Wintcrfeld  in  his  Evangeliacher  KircJiengcsang 
endeavours  to  prove  him  innocent  of  the  charge 
made  against  him.  However  the  case  may 
be,  Rosenmiiller  did  not  feel  himself  safe  in 
Hamburg,  but  fled  to  Italy,  and  settled  in 
Venice  as  a  teacher  of  music  for  a  considerable 
number  of  years.  Of  his  stay  in  Venice  little 
would  have  been  known  if  Johann  Philipp 
Krieger,  who  was  aftenvards  Capellmeister  at 
Weissenfels,  had  not  sought  him  out  and  become 
his  pupil  in  composition.  A  large  number  of 
works  existing  only  in  MSS.,  consisting  of  Latin 
Motets,  Vesper  Psalms,  Lamentations,  and 
various  parts  of  the  Mass,  must  be  referred  to 
this  Venetian  stay.  The  only  work  published 
in  Venice  was  one  for  instruments,  entitled 
*Sonate  da  Camera  cioe  Sinfonie,  Alemande, 
Correnti,  Balletti,  Sarabande  da  suonare  con 
5  Strom,  da  arco  et  altri'  .  .  .  1670.  This 
work  was  dedicated  to  Duke  Johann  Friedrich 
of  Bronswick,  who  became  acquainted  with  the 
composer  on  the  occasion  of  one  of  his  visits  to 
Venice.  It  has  recently  been  republished  as 
Bd,  xviii.  of  the  DenknuUer  devtscher  Tonkunst, 
EnU  Fclgty  where  also  in  his  introduction  the 
editor  Karl  Nef  traces  the  influence  of  tlie 
Venetian  opera-symphonies  upon  Rosenmiillcr's 


KOSENTHAL 


ROSIN 


147 


style  of  instrumental  composition.  The  ac- 
qnaintanoe  with  Dnke  Johsnn  Friedrich  had 
important  oonaeqnences  for  Bosenmiiller.  It 
led  to  his  recall  to  Germany.  Dnke  Johann 
Friedrich  recommended  him  to  his  brother  the 
reigning  Dnke  Anton  Ulrich,  who  was  an 
enlightened  patron  of  literature  and  music,  and 
himself  a  hymn -writer  of  some  reputation. 
In  1674  Doke  Anton  XJlrich  appointed  Bosen- 
miiller CapellmeiBter  at  Wolfenbilttel,  where 
he  remained  for  the  rest  of  his  Ufe,  dying  there 
on  10th  or  11th  of  September  1684.  Only  one 
other  work  was  published  in  this  later  period 
uf  his  life,  *  Sonate  a  2,  3,  4,  e  5  Stromenti  da 
Arcoetaltri  .  .  .  Nuremberg,  1682/ dedicated 
to  his  patron  Duke  Anton  Ulrich.  A  large 
number  of  German  Motets  and  Cantatas  belong- 
ing to  this  time  remained  unpublished.  None 
of  Bosenmiiller's  vocal  works  have  yet  been 
republished  in  modem  editions,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  two  Chorale-tunes  and  settings — '  Straf 
mich  nicht  in  deinem  Zom  '  and  '  Welt  ade,  ich 
bin  dein  miide.'  Tlie  former  of  these  tunes 
indeed  seems  far  less  suitable  to  its  original 
German  words  than  to  those  of  the  Blaster 
hymns  to  which  it  has  been  so  successfully 
adapted  in  our  English  hymn-books,  'Christ 
the  Lord  is  risen  again.'  Of  Bosenmiiller's 
5- voice  setting  of  '  Welt  ade '  it  would  appear 
that  Sebastian  Bach  thought  so  highly  that 
he  took  it  over  bodily  from  Vopelius'  *  Leipziger 
Gesangbuch,'  1682,  to  incorporate  it  into  his 
own  church-cantata  of  1731,  'Werweiss,  wie 
nahe  mir  mein  Ende.'  This  led  to  both  tune 
and  setting  being  afterward^  ascribed  to  Bach  in 
earlier  editions  of  his  'Choral-gesiinge.'  J.  r.  m. 
KOSENTHAL,  Moriz,  bom  Dec.  18,  1862, 
at  Lenibei^,  where  his  father  was  a  professor  in 
the  chief  Academy.  From  him  Rosenthal  ob- 
tained the  solid  foundation  of  the  philosophical 
turn  of  mind  which  early  in  his  career  became 
very  fully  developed.  At  eight  years  of  age 
the  boy  began  the  study  of  the  pianoforte  under 
a  certain  Oaloth,  whose  method  was  curious  in 
that  he  permitted  his  pupil  absolute  freedom 
in  sight-reading,  transposing,  and  modulating, 
without  paying  over- much  attention  to  the 
systematic  development  of  his  technique.  All 
who  have  heard  the  pianist  in  later  life  will 
agree  that  this  system  did  no  harm,  for  it  is 
probable  that  there  has  never  lived  a  player 
possessing  a  more  perfect  technique.  Beethoven, 
Weber,  and  others  were  one  and  all  boldly 
attacked  by  the  youth,  who  as  yet  knew  not 
a  syllable  of  the  conventional  methods  of 
fingering  either  chords  or  scales.  In  1872  Carl 
Miknli,  the  editor  of  Chopin,  who  was  then 
director  of  the  Lemberg  Conservatorium,  took 
charge  of  Bosenthal's  education,  and  within  the 
game  year  played  in  public  with  him  Chopin's 
Rondo  in  C  for  two  piauoa  All  this  time, 
however,  nothing  had  been  determined  as  to 
Rosenthal's  ultimate  career,  and  it  was  only  on 


the  urgent  advice  of  Rafael  Joeeffy  that  tlio 
parents  consented  to  Rosenthal's  adoption  of  a 
career  as  pianist.  When,  in  1875,  tiie  family 
moved  to  Vienna^  Rosenthal  became  a  ])upil  of 
Josetfy,  who  set  to  work  systematically  to  ground 
the  boy  on  Tausig's  method.  The  results  were 
astonishing  enough,  since  in  1876  Rosenthal 
played  at  his  first  public  recital  Beethoven's 
thirty-two  Variations,  Chopin's  F  minorconcerto, 
and  some  Liszt  and  Mendelssohn.  Promptly 
a  tour  followed  through  Roumania,  where  at 
Bucharest  the  king  created  the  fourteen-year- 
old  lad  court-pianist  In  the  next  year  Liszt 
came  into  Rosenthal's  life,  and  henceforth  played 
a  great  ])art  therein,  and  in  1878  and  subse- 
quently they  were  together  in  Weimar  and 
Rome.  As  Liszt's  pupil  Rosenthal  then  ap- 
peared in  Paris,  St.  Petersburg,  and  elsewhere. 

Meanwhile  the  philosophical  studies  were  by 
no  means  neglected,  for  in  1880  Rosenthal 
qualified  at  the  Staatsgymnasium  in  Vienna  to 
take  the  philosophical  course  at  the  University, 
where  he  studied  with  Zimmermann,  Brentano, 
and  Hanslick  (musical  aesthetics).  Six  years 
elapsed  before  he  resumed  public  piauoforte- 
playing.  Then  there  followed  in  quick  succes- 
sion, after  a  triumph  in  the  liszt  Verein  at 
Leipzig,  a  long  series  of  concert -tours,  in 
America  and  elsewhere,  which  brought  him 
ultimately  to  England  in  1895  and  to  America 
again  later,  where  in  the  spring  of  the  present 
year  (1907)  he  was  making  a  remarkably  suc- 
cessful tour.  As  a  master  of  technique  Rosen- 
thal is  not  surpassed  by  any  pianist  of  his  time, 
while  as  an  interpreter,  especially  of  music  of 
the  modern  composers  and  of  Schubert,  he  has 
earned  a  prodigious  reputation.  To  his  great 
technical  accomplishment  he  adds  a  beautiful 
touch,  and  to  those  who  know  him  personally 
he  is  a  musician  of  unquestionable  distinc- 
tion. R.  H.  L. 

ROSES,  Jose,  priest  and  musician,  bom  at 
Barcelona,  Feb.  9,  1791,  learned  music  from 
Sampere,  chapelmaster  at  Barcelona  ;  was  firat 
organist  of  the  monastery  of  San  Pablo  and  then 
succeeded  his  master  at  Santa  Maria  del  Pino, 
a  post  which  he  held  for  thirty  years.  During 
this  time  he  composed  a  large  quantity  of  music 
— masses,  requiems,  motets,  gmduals,  etc.,  which 
are  preserved  in  MS.  in  the  church.  Among 
his  pupils  may  be  mentioned  Calvo,  Puig,  Rius, 
Casanovas,  etc  He  died  at  his  native  city, 
Jan.  2,  1866.  cj. 

ROSIN,  RESIN  (Fr.  Colophane),  a  preiuira- 
tion  applied  to  the  hair  of  the  violin  bow  to  give 
it  the  necessary  *bite*  upon  the  strings.  With- 
out some  such  agent,  the  hoi-sehair  would  slip 
noiselessly  over  the  catgut.  Rosin  is  the  re- 
siduary gum  of  turpentine  after  distillation. 
The  ordinary  rosin  of  commerce  is  a  coarse,  hard 
substance,  quite  useless  to  the  fiddler,  for  whom 
the  rough  material  undergoes  a  process  of  refine- 
ment.    The  ancient  English  recipe  was  to  boil 


148 


EOSINA 


ROSSI 


rough  rosin  do^vn  in  vinegar,  a  process  no  longer 
in  vogue,  as  excellent  French  rosin  is  now  to 
be  had  at  a  very  trifling  cost.  It  is  prepared 
by  dissolving  the  rough  article  in  a  glazed 
earthen  vessel  over  a  slow  charcoal  fire.  As  it 
melts,  it  is  strained  through  coarse  canvas  into 
a  second  vessel  also  kept  at  a  moderate  heat, 
from  which  it  is  poured  into  pasteboard  or  metal 
moulds.  The  process  requires  some  delicacy  of 
eye  and  hand,  and  the  greatest  care  in  handling 
so  inflammable  a  material,  and  is  usually  en- 
trusted to  women.  Some  players  affect  to  prefer 
the  rosin  of  6and,  others  that  of  Yuillaume,  but 
both  are  made  of  the  same  material  and  at  the 
same  factory.  Rosin  should  be  transparent,  of 
a  darkish  yellow  colour  in  the  mass,  and  quite 
white  when  pulverised :  it  ought  to  fall  from 
the  bow,  when  first  applied  to  the  strings,  in  a 
very  fine  white  dust :  when  crushed  between  the 
fingers  it  ought  not  to  feel  sticky.  The  best 
rosin  is  made  from  Venetian  turpentine.  The 
same  sort  of  rosin  serves  for  the  violin,  viola, 
and  violoncello.  The  double-bass  bow  requires 
a  stiffer  preparation  than  pure  rosin,  and  accord- 
ingly double-bass  rosin  is  made  of  ordinary  rosin 
and  white  pitch  in  equal  proportions.  Emery 
powder  and  other  matters  are  sometimes  added 
in  the  composition  of  rosin,  but  are  quite 
unnecessary,  and  even  ii^urious  to  the  tone. 
A  liquid  rosin,  applied  to  the  bow  with  a  camel's- 
hair  brush,  has  its  advocates.  [See  Colophane, 
vol.  i.  p.  565.]  E.  J.  p. 

ROSINA.  An  English  ballad  opera,  of  the 
18th  century,  which  attained  an  extraordinary 
degree  of  popularity,  holding  the  boards,  as 
a  stock  piece,  for  nearly  half  a  century.  The 
libretto,  written  by  Mrs.  Brooke,  is  founded  on 
the  Scriptural  story  of  Ruth  and  Boaz ;  or  of 
Palemon  and  Lavinia,  in  Thomson's  'Seasons,' 
a  subject  which  has  inspired  numbers  of 
theatrical  pieces. 

The  opera  was  first  produced  at  Co  vent  Garden 
in  1788,  and  its  music  was  written,  selected, 
and  arranged  by  William  Shield.  Miss  Harper 
took  the  title-rdle  ;  Mrs.  Martyr,  Phoebe,  and 
Mrs.  Kennedy  the  hero,  William,  while  the 
rest  of  the  male  characters  were  taken  by 
Messrs.  Banister,  Brett,  and  Davies. 

A  passage  in  the  overture  has  long  been  a 
bone  of  contention.  It  is  arranged  for  the 
oboe,  with  a  bass  for  '  bassoons,  etc.  to  imitate 
the  bagpipe.'  This  fragment  of  melody  is  ex- 
ceedingly like  that  of  '  Auld  Lang  Syne,'  and  it 
has,  therefore,  been  contended  that  Shield  was 
the  author  of  the  air  for  the  celebrated  Scotch 
song.  This  is,  however,  scarcely  proven,  for 
there  exist  in  prior  publications  other  strath- 
speys, as  'The  Miller's  Daughter,'  and  'The 
Miller's  Wedding,'  which  also  resemble  the  well- 
known  air,  and  these,  together  with  a  song, 
are  also  prototypes  of  the  Scotch  national 
melody.  f.  k. 

ROSS,  John,  bom  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 


Oct.  12,  1763,  ^^as  placed  in  his  eleventh  year 
under  Hawdon,  organist  of  St.  Nicholas  Church, 
a  disciple  of  Charles  Avison,  with  whom  he 
studied  for  seven  years.  la  1783  he  was 
appointed  organist  of  St.  Paul's  Chapel,  Aber- 
deen, where  he  remained  until  his  death,  July 
28,  1637.  He  composed  '  An  Ode  to  Charity,' 
pianoforte  concertos  and  sonatas,  songs,  can- 
zonets, hymns,  waltzes,  etc.  w.  h.  h.  ;  addi- 
tions from  Brit,  Mils,  Biog. 

ROSSETER,  Philip,  a  lutenist,  bom  about 
1575,  in  1601  issued  '  A  Booke  of  Ayres,  set 
foorth  to  be  song  to  the  Lute,  Orpherian,  and 
Base  Violl,*  containing  forty-two  songs,  the 
poetry  and  music  of  the  first  twenty-one  by 
Campion,  and  the  rest  by  Rosseter  himself. 
[A  selection  of  eight  of  the  forty-two  songs 
was  reprinted  in  1907,  as  vol.  iv.  of  the  Oriana 
Madrigal  Society's  publication,  'Euterpe'  (Breit- 
kopf  &  Hdrtel)].  In  1609  he  published  '  Lessons 
for  Consort :  Made  by  sundry  excellent  Authors, 
and  set  to  sixe  severall  instruments  ;  Namelv, 
the  Treble  Lute,  Treble  Violl,  Base  Violl, 
Bandora,  Citteme,  and  the  Flute.'  On  Jan. 
4,  1610,  a  patent  was  granted  to  him  and 
others  appointing  them  Masters  of  the  Children 
of  the  Queen's  Revels,  under  which  they  carried 
on  dramatic  performances  at  the  theatre  in 
Whitefriars.  In  March  1612,  Rosseter's  com- 
pany was  joined  by  'The  Lady  Elizabeth's 
Servants,'  but  the  union  lasted  for  a  year  only. 
In  May  1615  a  privy  seal  for  a  |)atent  for  tlie 
erection  of  a  theatre  in  Blackfriars  was  granted 
to  Rosseter,  Philip  Kingman,  Robert  Jones,  and 
Ralph  Reeve,  but  th^  Lord  Mayor  and  Aldemien 
compelled  them  to  surrender  it,  when  the 
building  was  nearly  finished.  [See  Jok^, 
Robert,  vol.  ii.  p.  544,  where  the  date  of  the 
patent  is  to  be  corrected.]  Rosseter  died  on 
May  6,  1623.  (Corrections,  etc.  from  IHd,  of 
Nat.  Biog,)  w.  h.  h. 

ROSSI.  Nofewerthantwenty-eightmusicians 
of  this  name  are  enumerated  in  the  Quellen- 
LexHcoTij  and  as  there  are  motets  and  other 
works  in  various  libraries  attributed  to  '  Rossi ' 
without  further  identification,  there  is  still  a 
large  field  open  for  careful  research  before  the 
facts  can  be  absolutely  ascertained.  Of  these 
older  bearers  of  the  name  there  are  seven  who 
may  be  distinguished  as  important:  (1) 
Salomone,  a  Jewish  musician,  ^'as  at  the 
court  of  Mantua  from  1687  to  1628,  when  he 
appears  to  have  died.  He  ei^'oyed  such  high 
favour  with  two  successive  dukes  that  he  was 
privileged  to  dispense  with  the  yellow  badge 
that  all  Jews  were  ordered  to  wear.  He  issued 
madrigals  and  canzonets  in  1589,  1600,  1602. 
1603,  1610,  1614,  and  1628,  but  his  most 
important  works  were  instrumental,  being  con- 
tained in  four  books,  called '  Sinfonie  e  Gagliarde ' 
and  'Senate'  (1607,  1608,  1628,  and  1636). 
He  wrote  twenty-eight  compositions  (a  4-8)  to 
Hebrew  psalms,  published  in  two  editions,  in 


ROSSI 


ROSSI 


149 


Hebrew  and  Italian,  in  1623.  The  authority 
lor  his  life  is  BimbauTn's  Jiidiscke  Musiker  am 
Hofe  zu  Manixuu  A  selection  from  his  vocal 
music  was  published  in  1877  by  S.  Naumburg 
aud  Vincent  d'Indy,  and  examples  of  his 
iD2»tramental  music  are  included  in  Riemann's 
*Alte  Kammermusik/  (2)  Giovanni  Battista, 
a  monk,  bom  at  Genoa,  who  published  in 
1618  at  Venice  a  book  on  mensural  notation, 
Organo  de  eaTtlori  per  intendere  da  se  stesao 
ogui  passo  diffidUy  etc.,  containing  cantilene  a 
'1-b,  and  a  book  of  four-part  masses  in  the  same 
year.  M. 

(3)  Michael  Angelo,  a  Roman  musician 
of  the  earlier  part  of  the  17th  century,  was  a 
|iupil  of  Fresoobaldi  for  organ-playing.  He  is 
known  as  the  composer  of  an  opera  entitled 

*  Erminia  sul  Giordano,'  which  in  1685  or 
1637  (F^tis  aud  Clement,  Dietionjiaire  Lyrique^ 
erroneously  give  the  date  1625)  was  performed 
with  all  stage  accessories  in  the  Palace  of  Taddeo 
Barberinl,  Prefect  of  Rome  and  Prince  of  Pales- 
trina.  It  was  published  in  1687,  and  dedicated 
to  the  Signora  Anna  Colonna  Barberiua,  the 
Princess  of  Palestrina.  A  fall  account  of  the 
o]iera,  the  libretto  of  which  is  based  on  an 
episode  in  Tasso's  Oerusalemme  Liberataf  is 
given  in  H.  Goldschmidt's  Studien  zur  Geschichte 
tier  Italieniacken  Oper,  with  some  specimens  of 
the  music.  Like  most  of  the  Roman  Operas  of 
the  period,  the  music  would  appear  to  be 
utterly  wanting  in  any  dramatic  power ;  the 
form  of  the  drama  is  merely  an  excuse  for  scenic 
decoiationa,  and  occasional  graceful  pastoral 
music  Rossi  is  better  known  as  a  composer 
for  davier.  He  published  a  collection  of 
Toccaie  e  Correnti  for  organ  or  cembalo  (second 
edition,  Rome,  1657,  first  edition  without  date). 
These  are  now  generally  accessible  in  Torchi's 

*  L'Arte  Musicalo  in  Italia,'  vol.  iii.  They  are 
modelled  on  the  style  of  the  pieces  of  the  same 
name  by  Frescobaldi,  but  show  no  advance  either 
in  technique  or  treatment,  though  the  Correnti 
are  melodious  enough.  Previous  to  this  re- 
publication by  Torchi,  thei-e  used  to  appear  in 
various  modem  collections  of  older  music,  such 
as  L.  Kohler's  'Maitres  du  Clavecin,'  Pauer's 
'  Alte  Meister,'  and  others,  an  Andantino  and 
All^px>  ascribed  to  Rossi,  which  have  now  been 
proved  to  be  spurious,  their  whole  style  showing 
them  to  belong  to  the  follo\%ing  centuiy.  Ernst 
von  Werra  was  the  first  to  prove  by  examination 
of  the  genuine  works  of  Rossi  previously  un- 
known, the  anachronism  of  this  attribution 
(}f(/nai^icfte/ur  Musikgeachichte,  xxviii.  pp.  123 
ff,).  It  would  be  interesting  to  know  how 
these  two  pieces  came  to  be  ascribed  to  M.  A. 
Rossi.  J.  K.  M. 

(4)  LuiGi,  bom  about  the  end  of  the  16th 
century  in  Naples,  was  about  1620  in  the 
service  of  Cardinal  Barberini  in  Rome  as  a 
singer.  Through  Mazarin's  influence  he  was 
invited  to  Paris,  where  on  March  2,  1647,  his 


opera,  '  Le  Mariage  d'Orph^  et  Euridiee, '  was 
given,  being  the  first  Italian  opera  performed 
in  Paris.  Five  years  before  he  had  composed 
a  dramatic  work,  'II  palagio  d'Atlante,'  to 
words  by  G.  Ruspiglosi  (a  copy  in  the  Royal 
College  (Jf  Music  has  the  title  *  II  Pallazzo  in- 
cantato  *).  Gevaert  edited  a  selection  of  thirteen 
cantatas  by  him.  (5)  Francesco,  an  Abbate, 
a  native  of  Apulia  (Fetis  gives  Ban  as  his 
birthplace),  who  brought  out  several  oi)eras  in 
Venice  between  1686  and  1689,  viz.  '  II  Sejano 
moderno'  (1686),  *La  Clorilda'  and  'La  pena 
degl'  occhi'  in  1688,  and  'Mitrane'  in  1689. 
The  last  work  contains  the  beautiful  air,  '  Ah  ! 
rendimi  quel  core,'  by  which  alone  Rossi's  name 
is  kno>vn  in  the  pi-esent  day.  An  oratorio, 
'La  Caduta  dei  Giganti,'  is  in  MS.  (6)  Giu- 
seppe, was  successively  maestro  di  cappella  at 
the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo,  Rome,  Pistoia,  and 
San  Loreto,  Rome.  He  died  in  Rome  about 
1719.  A  mass  in  twelve  parts,  divided  into 
three  choirs,  and  two  settings  of  Dixit  Dominus 
for  twelve  and  sixteen  voices  respectively,  are 
preserved  at  Bologna,  where  the  latter  ai-e 
ascribed  to  the  later  Giuseppe  Rossi.  (7) 
Another  Giuseppe  was  maestro  in  the  cathedral 
of  Tcmi,  and  was  the  composer  of  an  opera, 
'  La  sposa  in  Livomo,'  given  in  Rome  in  1807. 
He  published  a  treatise,  AlH  iniendenti  di 
corUrappunto,  in  1 809,  and  several  of  his  motets 
are  at  Bologna.  m. 

There  are,  furthermore,  three  modem  opera- 
composers  of  the  name :  (8)  Laueo,  bora  at 
Macerata,  Feb.  19,  1810,  was  a  pupil  of 
Crescentini,  Fumo,  and  Ziugarelli  at  Naples. 
He  began  to  write  at  once,  and  at  eighteen 
had  his  first  two  operas — 'Le  Coutesse  Yillane' 
and  '  La  Villana  Contessa ' — |)erformed  at  the 
Fenice  and  Kuovo  Theatres  of  Naples  respec- 
tively. Other  pieces  followed  :  one  of  them, 
'Costanza  ed  Oringaldo,'  being  written  expressly 
for  the  San  Carlo  at  the  request  of  Barbaja.  On 
the  recommendation  of  Donizetti,  Rossi  was 
engaged  for  the  Teatro  Valle  at  Rome,  and  there 
he  remained  for  1832  and  1833,  and  composed 
four  operas  and  an  oratorio.  In  1884  he  moved 
to  Milan,  and  brought  out  'La  Casa  disabitata' 
(or  '  I  falsi  Monetari '),  which,  though  but 
moderately  successful  at  theScala,  was  afterwards 
considered  his  chef-d^muvre^  and  spoken  of  as 
'Rossi's  Barbiere  di  Siviglia.'  It  pleased 
Malibran  so  much  that  she  induced  Barbaja  to 
bespeak  another  opera  from  Rossi  for  the  San 
Carlo,  in  which  she  should  appear.  The  opera 
was  composed,  and  was  named  '  Amelia '  (pro- 
duced at  Naples,  Dec.  4,  1884) ;  but  owing  to 
her  caprice  was  a  failure.  She  insisted  on 
having  a  pas  de  deux  inserted  for  her  and 
Mathis.  The  theatre  was  crowded  to  the 
ceiling  to  see  the  great  singer  dance  ;  but  her 
dancing  did  not  please  the  public,  and  the  ]nece 
was  damned.  This  disappointment,  though 
somewhat  alleviated    by  the    success  of   his 


150 


ROSSI 


ROSSINI 


*  Leocadia '  (1834)  seenis  to  have  disgusted 
Rossi  >vith  Italy ;  he  accepted  an  engagement 
from  Mexico,  left  Europe,  Oct.  15,  1886,  and 
aiTived  at  Vera  Cruz  the  6th  of  the  following 
January.  From  Mexico  he  went  to  the 
Havannah,  New  Orleans,  and  Madras  ;  married 
in  1841,  and  returned  to  Europe,  landing  at 
Cadiz,  Feb.  3,  1843.  He  began  again  at  once 
to  compose — 'Cellini  a  Parigi'  (Turin,  1845), 
etc.,  but  with  very  varying  success.  In  1846 
he  reappeared  at  the  Scala  at  Milan  with  '  Azema 
di  Granata,'  'II  Borgomastro  di  Schiedam,'  and 
three  or  four  other  o^ieras  in  following  years. 
His  great  success,  however,  appears  to  have  been 
made  with  'II  Domino  nero,'  at  the  Teatro 
Canobbiana,  Sept.  1849.  In  1850  he  was 
called  to  be  director  of  the  Conservatorio  at 
Milan.  For  this  institution  he  published  a 
Guida  di  annania  pratiea  oroZ^  (Ricordi,  1868), 
and  between  1850  and  1859  composed  a  great 
many  operas,  and  detached  pieces  for  voices  and 
for  instruments.  After  the  death  of  Mercadante 
in  1870,  Rossi  succeeded  him  as  head  of  the 
Conservatorio  at  Naples.  This  office  he  resigned 
in  1878,  and  he  went  to  Cremona  in  1880,  dying 
there  on  May  6,  1886.  Lists  of  his  works  are 
given  by  Florirao  (Cenni  Storici,  pp.  948-962), 
Riemann  (Ltxikan)^  and  Pougin.  They  com- 
]>rise  twenty-nine  operas,  a  grand  mass,  and  a 
dozen  miscellaneous  compositions,  including  six 
fugues  for  strings,  two  sets  of  vocal  exercises, 
and  the  Guide  to  Hannony  already  mentioned. 
His  best  works  are  '  Cellini  a  Parigi,'  '  I  falsi 
Monctari,'  'La  Contessa  di  Mons,'  and  'II 
Domino  nero.'  One  of  his  operas,  '  La  Figlia 
di  Figaro,'  is  said  to  have  been  produced  at  the 
Kamthnerthor  Theatre,  Vienna,  April  17, 1846 ; 
and  another,  '  Biorn,'  was  announced  for  per- 
formance at  the  Queen's  Theatre,  London,  Jan. 
17,  1877— English  libretto  by  Frank  Marshall; 
but  no  notice  of  either  performance  can  be 
found.  [An  oratorio,  'Saul,'  elegies  on  Bellini 
and  Mercadante,  a  mass,  and  other  works,  are 
mentioned  by  Riemann.]  g. 

(9)  Giovanni  Gaktano,  bom  at  Borgo  San 
Donnino,  Parma,  August  6,  1828,  studied  at 
the  Milan  Conservatorio,  was  leader  of  the 
orchestra  in  the  theatre  at  Parma,  and  organist 
of  the  court  chapel  there,  from  1862  to  1873, 
and  director  of  the  Parma  Conservatorio  in  1 864- 
1873.  In  1873  he  became  conductor  at  the 
Teatro  Carlo  Felice,  Genoa,  until  1879  ;  he 
died  at  Parma,  March  30,  1886.  His  operas 
were:  'Elena  di  Taranto*  (Parma,  1862), 
'  Giovanni  Giscala'  (Parma,  1866),  *  Nicol6  de' 
Lapi'  (Ancona,  1865),  'Lacontessa  d'Altemberg' 
(Borgo  San  Donnino,  1872),  and  'Maria  Sanz' 
(Bergamo,  1895).  A  symphony,  'Saul,'  won  a 
prize  in  Paris  in  1878,  and  Rossi  wrote  besides 
three  masses,  an  oratorio,  and  a  requiem. 
(10)  Oesarr,  bom  at  Mantua  in  1864,  has 
won  success  as  a  composer  in  many  branches  of 
art,  his  opera  'Nadeja'  having  been  received 


with  much  favour  at  Prague  in  1903  (Rie- 
mann's  Lexikmi,  etc.)  m. 

ROSSINI,  GioACGHiNO  Antonio,  was  bom 
Feb.  29,  1792,  at  Pesaro,  and  was  the  only 
chUd  of  Giuseppe  Rossini  of  Lugo.  The  position 
of  his  parents  was  of  the  humblest ;  his  father 
was  town-trumpeter  (irombadcrt)  and  inspector 
of  slaughter-houses,  and  his  mother  a  baker's 
daughter,  but  their  life  was  a  happy  one,  and 
the  irrepressible  good -humour  of  the  town- 
trampeter  was  celebrated  among  his  friends. 
In  the  political  straggles  of  1796  the  elder 
Rossini  declared  himself  for  the  French,  and 
for  republican  government,  and  was  naturally 
sent  to  gaol.  His  wife,  thus  deprived  of  her 
means  of  subsistence,  was  driven  to  turn  lier 
voioe  to  account  She  went  with  her  little 
Gioacchino  to  Bologna,  and  there  made  her 
debut  as  '  prima  donna  buffa '  with  such  success 
as  to  procure  her  engagements  in  various  theatres 
of  the  Romagna  during  the  Carnival.  Mean- 
time the  trombadore  had  regained  his  liberty 
and  was  engaged  as  horn- player  in  the  bands 
of  the  theatres  in  which  his  wife  sang ;  the 
child  remaining  at  Bologna,  in  the  charge  of  an 
honest  pork  butcher.  In  such  surroundings 
it  is  not  wonderful  that  Gioacchino's  learning 
was  confined  to  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic. 
Music  he  acquired  from  a  certain  Priuetti  of 
Novara,  who  gave  hiin  harpsichord  lessons  for 
three  years ;  but  the  lessons  must  have  been 
peculiar,  for  Prinetti  was  accustomed  to  play 
the  scale  with  two  fingers  only,  combined  his 
music-teaching  with  the  sale  of  liquors,  and 
had  the  convenient  habit  of  sleeping  as  he  stood. 
Such  a  character  was  a  ready  butt  for  the  son  of 
a  joker  like  Giuseppe  Rossini ;  and  so  incor- 
rigible was  Gioacchino's  love  of  mimicking  his 
master  that  at  length  he  was  taken  from  Prinetti, 
and  apprenticed  to  a  smith. 

Ashamed  of  this  result  he  resolved  to  amend 
and  apply.  In  Angelo  Tesei  he  fortimately 
found  a  clever  master,  able  to  make  singing  and 
practical  harmony  interesting  to  his  pupil ;  in  a 
few  months  he  learned  to  read,  to  accom[)any,  and 
to  sing  well  enough  to  take  solos  in  church  at 
the  modest  price  of  three  \ta.nla  per  service.  He 
was  thus  able,  at  the  age  of  ten,  to  assist  his 
parents,  who,  owing  to  a  sudden  change  in  his 
mother's  voice,  were  again  in  misfortune.  In 
his  desire  to  help  them  he  seized  every  oppor- 
tunity of  singing  in  public,  and  eagerly  accepted 
an  offer  to  appear  at  the  theatre  of  the  Commune 
as  Adolfo  in  Paer's  'Camilla.'  This  was  his 
first  and  only  step  in  the  career  of  a  dramatic 
singer,  but  it  must  have  been  often  diflicult  to 
resist  taking  it  up  again,  when  he  saw  singers 
receiving  a  thousand  ducats  for  appearing  in 
operas  which  he  both  composed  and  conducted 
for  fifty. 

Thus  at  the  age  of  thirteen  Rossini  was  a 
sufficiently  good  singer  to  be  well  received  at  the 
theatre  ;  he  also  played  the  horn  by  his  father's 


BOSSINI 


ROSSINI 


161 


side,  and  had  a  fair  reputation  as  accompanist 
At  this  time  he  acquired  a  valuable  friend  in 
the  Chevalier  Giusti,  commanding  engineer  at 
Bologna,  who  took  a  great  affection  for  the  lad, 
read  and  explained  the  Italian  poets  to  him,  and 
opened  his  fresh  and  intelligent  mind  to  the 
comprehension  of  the  ideal ;  and  it  was  to  the 
eflbrts  of  this  distinguished  man  that  he  owed 
thestartof  hjsgenius,  andsuch general  knowledge 
as  he  afterwards  possessed.  After  three  years 
with  Tesei  he  put  himself  under  a  veteran  tenor 
named  Babbini  to  improve  his  singing.  Shortly 
after  this  his  voice  broke,  at  the  end  of  the 
aatomn  of  1806,  during  a  toum^e  in  which  he 
accompanied  his  father  as  chorus-master  and 
maetlro  al  cembalo,  an  engagement  in  which  the 
daily  income  of  the  two  amounted  to  1 1  pauls, 
about  equal  to  4  shillings.  The  loss  of  his  voice 
cost  him  his  engagements  in  church ;  but  it 
gave  him  the  opportunity  of  entering  the  Con- 
servatorio,  or  liceo  communale,  of  Bologna.  On 
March  20, 1 807,  he  was  admitted  to  the  counter- 
point class  of  Padre  Mattei,  and  soon  after  to 
that  of  Oavedagni  for  the  violoncello.  He  little 
anticipated  when  he  took  his  first  lesson  that 
his  name  would  one  day  be  inscribed  over  the 
entrance  to  the  liceo. 

His  progress  was  rapid,  and  he  was  soon  able 
to  take  his  part  in  Haydn's  quartets ;  but  his 
counterpoint  lessons  were  a  trouble  to  him  from 
the  first  Before  he  entered  Mattel's  class  he  had 
composed  a  variety  of  things — little  pieces  for 
two  horns,  songs  for  Zambini,  and  even  an  opera, 
called  '  Demetrio,'  for  his  friends  the  Mombellis. 
Unfortunately  Mattei  was  a  pedant,  who  could 
see  no  reason  for  modifying  his  usual  slow 
mechanical  system  to  suit  the  convenience  of  a 
scholar,  however  able  or  advanced.  His  one 
answer  to  his  pupil's  inquiry  as  to  the  resson 
of  a  change  or  a  progression  was,  '  It  is  the 
rule.'  The  result  was  that  after  a  few  months 
of  discouraging  labour  Gioacchino  began  to  look 
to  instinct  and  practice  for  the  philosophy,  or 
at  least  the  rhetoric  of  this  art.  The  actual 
parting  is  the  subject  of  an  anecdote  which  is 
not  improbably  true.  Mattei  was  explaining 
that  the  amount  of  counterpoint  which  his  pupil 
had  already  acquired  was  sufficient  for  a  com- 
poser in  the  *  fi^  style ' ;  but  that  for  church- 
music  much  severer  studies  were  required. 
♦What,'  cried  the  boy,  *do  you  mean  that  I 
know  enough  to  write  operas  ? '  '  Certainly, '  was 
the  reply.  'Then  I  want  nothing  more,  for 
operas  are  all  that  I  desire  to  write.'  There 
was  in  this  something  of  the  practical  wisdom 
which  distinguished  the  Bossini  of  later  life. 
Meantime  it  was  necessary  that  he  and  his 
parents  should  live,  and  he  therefore  dropped 
counterpoint  and  returned  to  his  old  trade  of 
accompanist,  gave  lessons,  and  conducted  per- 
formances of  chamber- music.  He  was  even 
bold  enough  to  lead  an  orchestra,  and  took  the 
direction  of  the  *Accademia  del  Concord! '  of 


Bologna.  There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  it 
was  more  by  scoring  the  quartets  and  symphonies 
of  Haydn  and  Mozart  than  by  any  lessons  of 
Padre  Mattel's  that  Bossini  learned  the  secrets 
and  the  magic  of  the  orchestra.  His  fame  at 
the  Liceo  increased  day  by  day,  and  at  the  end 
of  his  first  year  his  cantata '  II  Piauto  d'armonia 
per  la  morte  d'Orfeo*  was  not  only  rewarded 
with  the  prize,  but  was  performed  in  public, 
August  8, 1808.  He  was  then  in  his  seventeenth 
year.  The  cantata  was  followed,  not  by  a 
symphony,  as  is  sometimes  said,  but  by  an 
overture  in  the  fugued  style,  in  imitation  of  that 
to  '  Die  Zauberflbte,'  but  so  weak,  that  after 
hearing  it  played  he  lost  no  time  in  destroying 
it  T£e  same  fate  probably  attended  some 
pieces  for  double  bass  and  strings,  and  a  mass, 
both  written  at  the  instance  of  an  amateur  of 
the  double  bass.  Rossini  had  hitherto  been 
known  at  Bologna  as  'il  Tedeschino' — 'the 
little  German ' — for  his  devotion  to  Mozart ; 
but  such  serious  efforts  as  composing  a  mass, 
and  conducting  a  work  like  Haydn's  '  Seasons ' 
were  probably  intended  as  hints  that  he  wished 
to  be  looked  upon  no  longer  as  a  scholar,  but 
as  a  master  waiting  his  opportunity  for  the 
stage. 

It  may  be  easier  to  enter  on  a  career  in  Italy 
than  elsewhere,  but  even  there  it  is  not  without 
its  difficulties.  Rossini  by  his  wit  and  gaiety 
had,  in  one  of  his  tours,  made  a  friend  of  the 
Marquis  Cavalli,  who  had  promised  him  his 
interest  whenever  it  should  be  wanted.  The 
time  was  now  come  to  claim  the  fulfilment  of  the 
promise,  and  Rossini's  delight  may  be  imagined 
when  he  received  an  invitation  to  compose  an 
opera,  from  the  manager  of  the  San  Mos^  theatre 
at  Venice.  He  hastened  to  prepare  the  piece, 
and  '  La  Cambiale  di  Matrimonio '  or  the  '  Matri- 
monial Market'  was  produced  there  in  the 
autumn  of  1810.  The  piece  was  an  opera  buffa 
in  one  act ;  it  was  supported  by  Morandi,  Ricci, 
De  Grecis,  and  Raffanelli,  and  had  a  most  en- 
couraging reception.  After  this  feat  he  returned 
to  Bologna,  and  there  composed  for  Esther  Mom- 
belli's  benefit  a  cantata  called  '  Didone  abban- 
donata.'  In  1811  he  wrote  for  the  Teatro  del 
Corso  of  Bologna  an  opera  buffa  in  two  acts, 
'L'  Equivoco  stravagante, '  which  closed  the  season 
with  success,  and  in  which  both  he  and  Maroolini 
the  contralto  were  highly  applauded. 

'  Demetrio  e  Polibio  '  was  brought  out  at  the 
Teatro  Valle,  by  his  old  friends  the  Mombellis, 
in  1 81 1.  Early  in  1 81 2  he  produced,  at  the  San 
Mos^  theatre,  Venice,  two  bufFa  operas  — 
'  L'  Inganno  felloe,'  and  '  L'  Occasione fa  il  Ladro, 
ossia  il  Cambio  della  valigia. '  The  first  of  these, 
a  Farsa,  a  trifle  in  one  act,  was  well  sung  and 
much  applauded,  especially  an  air  of  Galli's, 
*  Una  voce,'  a  duet  for  the  two  basses,  and  a 
trio  full  of  force  and  original  melody.  After 
the  Carnival  he  went  to  Ferrara,  and  there  com- 
posed an  oratorio,  'Ciro  in  Babilonia,'  which 


152 


ROSSINI 


ROSSINI 


was  brought  out  during  Lent,  and  proved  a 
fiasco.  [It  was  performed  as  *  Cyrus  in  Babylon  * 
at  Drury  Lane  Theatre  (Lent  Oratorios),  Jan. 
30,  1823,  under  Sir  George  Smart.]  Another 
failure  was  *  La  Scala  di  Seta,'  an  opera  buffa  in 
one  act,  produced  at  Venice  in  the  course  of  the 
spring.  While  the  Mombellis  were  engaged  on 
his  serious  opera;  he  flew  off  to  Milan  to  fulfil 
an  engagement  which  Marcolini  had  procured 
for  him,  by  writing,  for  her,  Galli,  Bonoldi,  and 
Parlamagni,  a  comic  piece  in  two  acts  called 
'La  Pietra  del  Paragone,'  which  was  produced 
at  the  Scala  during  the  autumn  of  1812,  with 
immense  success.  It  was  his  first  appearance 
at  this  renowned  house,  and  the  piece  is  under- 
lined in  the  list  as  *  uiusica  nuova  di  Gioacchino 
Kossini,  di  Femro,*  The  numbers  most  ap- 
plauded were  a  cavatina,  'Eoco  pietosa,'  a 
quartet  in  the  second  act,  the.  duel -trio,  and  a 
finale  in  which  the  word  'Sigillara'  recurs 
continually  with  very  comic  effect.  This  finale 
is  memorable  as  the  first  occasion  of  his  employ- 
ing the  crescendo^  which  he  was  ultimately  to 
use  and  abuse  so  copiously.  Mosca  has  accused 
Rossini  of  having  borrowed  this  famous  effect 
from  his  '  Pretendenti  delusi,'  produced  at  the 
Scala  the  preceding  autumn,  forgetting  that 
Mosca  himself  had  learned  it  from  Generali  and 
other  composers.  Such  accusations,  however, 
were  of  little  or  no  importance  to  Rossini,  who 
had  already  made  up  his  mind  to  adopt  what- 
ever pleased  him,  wheresoever  he  might  find  it. 
In  the  meantime  he  took  advantage  of  his 
success  to  pass  a  few  days  at  Bologna  with  his 
parents,  en  route  for  Venice ;  and  thus  ended 
the  year  1812,  in  which  he  had  produced  no 
less  than  six  pieces  for  the  theatre. 

Nor  was  1813  less  prolific.  It  began  with  a 
terrible  mystification.  He  had  accepted  a  com- 
mission of  500  francs  for  a  serious  opera  for  the 
Grand  Theatre  at  Venice,  but  the  manager  of 
San  Mos^,  furious  at  his  desertion,  in  pursuance 
of  some  former  agreement,  forced  on  him  a 
libretto  for  that  theatre,  *  I  due  Bruschini,  o  il 
figlio  per  azzardo,'  which,  if  treated  as  intended, 
would  inevitably  have  been  the  deatli  of  the 
music.  From  this  dilemma  Rossini  ingeniously 
extricated  himself  by  reversing  the  situations, 
and  introducing  all  kinds  of  tricks.  The 
second  violins  mark  each  bar  in  the  overture 
by  a  stroke  of  the  bow  on  the  lamp  shade  ; 
the  bass  sings  at  the  top  of  his  register  and  the 
soprano  at  the  bottom  of  hers  ;  a  flineral  march 
intrudes  itself  into  one  of  the  most  comical 
scenes  ;  and  in  the  finale  the  words  '  son  pentito* 
are  so  arranged  that  nothing  is  heard  but '  tito, 
tito,  tito.'  Those  of  the  audience  who  had  been 
taken  into  the  secret  were  in  roars  of  laughter, 
but  the  strangers  who  had  paid  for  their  places 
in  good  faith,  were  naturally  annoyed,  and 
hissed  loudly.  But  no  complaints  were  of  any 
avail  with  Rossini,  he  only  laughed  at  the 
success  of  his  joke.     *I  due  Bruschini'   dis- 


appeared after  the  first  night,  and  the  remem- 
brance of  it  was  very  shortly  wiped  out  by  the 
appearance  of  *  Tancredi  *  at  the  Fenice  during 
the  Carnival.  The  characters  were  taken  by 
Manfredini,  Malanotte,  Todran,  and  Bianchi. 
A  work  so  important  and  so  full  of  spirit, 
effect,  and  melody,  was  naturally  received  ^nth 
enthusiasm,  and  nobody  had  time  to  notice 
various  plagiarisms  from  Paisiello  and  Paer.  It 
was  in  fact  the  first  step  in  the  revolution  which 
Rossini  was  destined  to  effect  in  Italian  opera. 
All  Venice,  and  very  soon  all  Italy,  was  singing 
or  humming  *  Mi  rivedrai,  ti  rivedr6.*  Hardly 
any  one  now  remembers  that  it  is  only  to  the 
happy  accident  that  Malanotte  was  dissatisfied 
with  her  air,  and  insisted  on  its  being  rewritten, 
that  we  owe  the  *  Di  tanti  palpiti,'  which  was 
nicknamed  the  *aria  de'  rizzi,'  because  it  was 
said  to  have  been  dashed  off  while  waiting  for 
a  dish  of  rice.  One  must  read  the  accounts  of 
the  day  to  understand  the  madness — for  it  was 
nothing  else — which  *  Tancredi '  excited  among 
the  Venetians.  '  I  fancied,'  said  Rossini,  with 
his  usiml  gaiety,  *  that  after  hearing  my  opera 
they  would  put  me  into  a  mswl-house — on  the 
contrary,  they  were  madder  than  I.' 

Henceforward  he  was  as  much  feted  for  his 
social  qualities  as  for  his  music.  But  he  did  not 
give  way  to  such  dissipations  for  long.  His 
next  work  was  *  L'  Italiana  in  Algeri,'  an  o]x;ra 
buffa  produced  at  the  San  Benedetto  theatre, 
Venice,  in  the  summer  of  1813.  Its  greatest 
novelty  was  the  famous  trio  'Papataci,'  a  charm- 
ing union  of  melody  and  genuine  comedy  ; 
while  the  patriotic  air,  *  Peusa  alia  Patria,* 
which  closes  the  work,  spoke  not  less  powerfully 
to  the  hearts  of  his  countrymen. 

'  Aureliano  in  Palmira ',  and  '  II  Turco  in 
I  talia '  were  both  brought  out  at  the  Scala,  Milan, 
the  first  in  Dec.  1813,  the  second  in  August 
1814,  before  an  audience  somewhat  more  critical 
than  that  at  Venice.  'Aureliano,'  tliough  it 
contains  some  fine  things,  which  were  afterwanls 
utilised  in  '  filisabetta '  and  the  '  Barbiere,'  was 
a  fiasco.  The  '  Turco,*  too,  was  not  received  with 
the  applause  which  it  afterwards  commanded. 
Rossini,  however,  was  greatly  fSted  during  his 
stay  in  Milan,  and  among  his  '  amiable  protec- 
tresses' — to  use  the  expression  of  Stendhal — 
was  the  Princess  Belgiojoso,  for  whom  he  com- 
posed a  cantata  entitled  '  Egle  ed  Irene.'  His 
next  opera,  *  Sigismondo,*  written  for  the  Fenice 
at  Venice,  in  the  Carnival  of  1815,  was  unsuc- 
cessful, and  the  failure  so  far  affected  him  as  to 
make  him  give  up  work  for  a  time,  and  retira 
to  his  home  at  Bologna.  There  he  encountered 
Barbaja,  who  from  being  a  waiter  at  a  coffee- 
house had  become  the  farmer  of  the  public 
gaming-tables  and  impresario  of  the  Naples 
theatre.  Barbaja,  though  rich,  was  still  bent 
on  making  money  ;  he  had  heard  of  the  success 
of  the  young  composer,  and  of  his  brilliant 
talents,  and  was  resolved  to  get  hold  of  him  ; 


ROSSINI 


ROSSINI 


153 


and  Roaaini,  with  the  support  of  his  parents  on 
his  hands,  was  ready  enough  to  listen  to  any 
good  proposal  He  accordingly  engaged  with 
Barfaaja  to  take  the  musical  direction  of  the 
San  CWlo  and  Del  Fondo  theatres  at  Naples, 
and  to  compose  annually  an  opera  for  each. 
For  this  he  was  to  receive  200  ducats  (ahout 
£35)  per  month,  with  a  small  share  in  the 
gaming-tables,  amounting  in  addition  to  some 
1000  ducats  per  annum,  for  which,  however, 
he  obtained  no  compensation  after  the  tables 
were  abolished  in  1820. 

Doring  Murat's  visit  to  Bologna  in  April 
1S15  Rossini  composed  a  cantata  in  favour  of 
Italian  independence  ;  but  politics  were  not  his 
line,  and  he  arrived  in  Naples  fully  conscious 
of  this,  and  resolved  that  nothing  should  induce 
him  to  repeat  the  experimentw  The  arrival  of 
a  young  composer  with  so  great  a  reputation 
for  originality  was  not  altogether  pleasing  to 
Ziogarelli,  the  chief  of  the  Conservatorio,  or  to 
the  aged  Faisiello.  But  no  intrigues  could 
]>revent  the  brilliant  success  of  'Elisabetta, 
reginad*  Inghilterra,'  which  was  produced  before 
the  Gonrt  for  the  opening  of  the  autumn  season, 
1815,  and  in  which  Mile.  Colbran,  Dardanelli, 
Manuel  Garcia,  and  Nozzari  took  the  principal 
parts.  The  libretto  of  this  opera  was  by  a 
certain  Schmidt,  and  it  is  a  curious  fact  that 
some  of  its  incidents  anticipate  those  of  *  Kenil- 
worth,'  which  was  not  published  till  January 
1821.  Two  historical  facts  should  be  noted  in 
regard  to  '  EUsabetta.'  It  is  the  first  opera  in 
wliich  Rossini  so  (ar  distrusted  his  singers  as  to 
write  in  the  ornaments  of  the  airs ;  and  it  is 
also  the  first  in  which  he  replaced  the  reeUcUivo 
iecco  by  a  recitative  accompanied  by  the  string 
quartet.  The  overture  and  the  finale  to  the 
first  act  of  *  Elisabetta '  are  taken  from  '  Aure- 
Hano.' 

Shortly  before  Christmas  Rossini  left  Naples 
for  Rome  to  write  and  bring  out  two  works  for 
which  he  was  under  engagement.  The  first  of 
these,  'Torvaldo  e  Dorliska,'  produced  at  the 
TeatroValle,  Dec.  26, 1815,  was  coldly  received, 
but  the  second,  *  Almaviva,  oesia  1'  inutile  pre- 
caaaone,'  founded  on  Beaumarchais'  '  Barbier 
de  Seville,'  by  Sterbini,  which  made  its  first 
appearance  at  the  Argentina,  Feb.  5,  1816,  was 
unmistakably  damned.  The  cause  of  this  was 
the  predilection  of  the  Romans  for  Paisiello,  and 
their  determination  to  make  an  example  of  an 
innovator  who  had  dared  to  reset  a  libretto 
already  treated  by  their  old  favourite.  Rossini , 
with  excellent  taste  and  feeling,  had  inquired  of 
Paisiello,  before  adopting  the  subject,  whether 
doing  so  would  annoy  the  veteran,  whose  *  Bar- 
biere '  had  been  for  a  quarter  of  a  century  the 
favourite  of  Europe,  and  not  unnaturally  believed 
that  after  this  step  he  was  secure  from  the  ill- 
will  of  Paisiello^s  friends  and  admirers.^     But 

■  We  ])•*•  BoMlDl'a  own  avilKnity  for  this,  and  for  the  opent 
ha-vinc  IweD  vrltten  In  thirinen  daya.  In  hla  letter  toM.  Bcitlvaux. 
i<o-  Mtuteal  W«rld,  Not.  «.  1875,  p.  761. 


the  verdict  of  a  theatre  crammed  with  partisans 
is  seldom  just.  It  is  also  as  changeable  as  the 
winds,  or  as  Fortune  hei*self.  Though  hissed 
on  the  first  night,  '  Almaviva '  was  listened  to 
with  patience  on  the  second,  advanced  in  favour 
night  by  night,  and  ended  by  becoming,  under 
the  title  of  *  II  Barbiere  di  Siviglia,'  one  of  the 
most  popular  comic  operas  ever  composed,  and 
actually  eclipsing  in  spirit  and  wit  the  comedy 
on  which  it  is  founded.  It  was  acted  by  Giorgi- 
Righetti  (Rosina),  Rossi  (Berta),  Zamboni 
(Figaro),  Garcia  (Almaviva),  Botticelli  (Bartolo) 
and  Vitarelli  (Basilio).  The  original  overture 
was  lost,  and  the  present  one  belongs  to  ^Elisa- 
betta ' ;  the  opening  of  the  cavatina  *  Ecco 
ridente '  is  borrowed  from  the  opening  of  the 
first  chorus  in  *  Aureliano.'     The  air  of  Berta, 

*  II  vecchietto  cerca  moglie,'  was  suggested  by  a 
Russian  tune,  and  the  eight  opening  bars  of  the 
trio  *  Zitti,  zitti '  are  notoriously  taken  note  for 
note  from  Simon's  air  in  Haydn's  *  Seasons.' 
Indeed  it  is  astonishing  that,  with  his  extra- 
ordinary memory,  his  carelessness,  and  his 
habitual  hurry,  Rossini  should  not  have  boiTOwed 
oftener  than  he  did.  He  received  400  scudi 
(£80)  for  the  *  Barbiere,'  and  it  was  composed 
and  mounted  in  a  month.  When  some  one  told 
Donizetti  that  it  had  been  written  in  thirteen 
days,  *  Very  possible,'  was  his  answer,  *  lie  is  so 

Lazy  as  he  was,  Rossini  was  destined  to  wi-ite 
twenty  operas  in  eight  years,  1815-23.  On 
his  return  to  Naples  after  the  Carnival  of  1816, 
and  the  gradual  success  of  the  *  Barbiere,'  he 
found  the  San  Carlo  theatre  in  ashes.  Barbaja 
undertook  to  rebuild  it  more  magnificently  than 
before  in  nine  months.  He  kept  his  word,  and 
thus  acquired  not  only  the  protection  but  the 
favour  of  the  king.  Rossini  obtained  the  same 
boon  by  composing  a  grand  cantata  entitled  '  Teti 
e  Peleo*  for  the  marriage  of  the  Duchesse  de 
Berry.  No  sooner  had  he  completed  this  than 
he  dashed  off  a  two-act  comic  opera  entitled  '  La 
Gazzetta  *  to  a  libretto  by  Tottola,  which  was 
produced  at  the  Teatro  dei  Fiorentini,  Naples, 
and  which,  although  in  the  hands  of  a  clever 
and  charming  actress  like  Chambrand,  and  of 
two  such  public  favourites  as  Pellegrini  and 
Casaccia,  was  but  moderately  successful.  Rossini 
completed   his  reform  of  serious  opera  by  his 

*  Otello,'  which  was  brought  out  at  the  Teatro 
del  Fondo,  Naples,  Dec.  4,  1816,  with  Isabella 
Colbran,  Nozzari,  Davide,  Cicimarra,  and  Bene- 
detti  as  its  interpreters.  Some  of  the  most 
remarkable  features  of  this  work,  such  as  the 
finale  of  the  first  act,  the  duet  *  Non  m'inganno,' 
and  the  passionate  trio  of  defiance,  were  not  at 
first  appreciated :  the  touchingair  of  Desdemona, 

*  Se  il  padre,'  and  the  romance  of  the  Willow, 
with  harp  accompaniment,  were  better  received ; 
but  the  tragic  termination  of  the  whole  was 
very  distasteful  to  the  public,  and  when  the 
opera  was  taken  to  Rome,  it  was  found  necessary 


154 


ROSSINI 


ROSSINI 


to  invent  a  happy  conclusion,  a  fact  which 
throws  a  curious  light  on  the  dramatic  taste 
of  the  period. 

The  machinery,  and  power  of  rapidly  changing 
the  scenes,  were  at  that  time  so  very  imperfect 
in  smaller  Italian  theatres,  that  Rossini  would 
only  accept  the  subject  of  Cinderella  when 
proposed  to  him  by  the  manager  of  the  Teatro 
Valle  at  Rome,  on  condition  that  the  super- 
natural element  was  entirely  omitted.  A  new 
comic  piece  was  therefore  written  by  Ferretti 
under  the  title  of  *  Oenerentola,  ossia  la  bontk 
in  trionfo '  ;  Rossini  undertook  it,  and  it  was 
produced  at  the  Carnival  of  1817.  Its  success 
was  unmistakable,  though  the  cast  was  by  no 
means  extraordinary — Giorgi,  Catarina,  Rossi, 
Guglielmi,  De  Beguis,  Verni,  and  Vitarelli. 

In  the  profusion  and  charm  of  its  ideas  this 
delicious  work  is  probably  equal  to  the  '  Bar- 
biere,'  but  it  is  inferior  in  unity  of  style.  No 
doubt  tliis  is  partly  owing  to  the  fact  that 
many  of  the  pieces  were  originally  composed  to 
other  words  than  those  to  which  they  are  now 
sung.  The  duet  *  Un  soave  non  s6  che,*  the 
drinking-chorns,  and  the  mock  proclamation  of 
the  Baron,  are  all  borrowed  from  *La  Pietra 
del  Paragone ' ;  the  air  '  Miei  rampolli '  is  from 
'  La  Oazzetta/  where  it  was  inspired  by  the 
words  •  Una  prima  ballerina  * ;  the  air  of  Ramiro 
recalls  that  to  *  Ah  !  vieni  *  in  the  trio  in 
*  Otello  ' ;  the  delightful  stretto  of  the  finale, 
the  duct '  Zitto,  zitto,'  the  sestet  *  Quest'  h  un 
nodo  avvilupato,'  and  various  other  incidental 
passages  originally  belonged  to  the  'Turco  in 
Italia'  ;  and  the  humorous  duet  ^Unsegreto' 
is  evidently  modelled  on  that  in  Cimarosa's 
'  Matrimonio.'  Such  repetitions  answered  their 
purpose  at  the  moment,  but  while  thus  ex- 
temporising his  operas  Rossini  forgot  that  a 
day  would  arrive  when  they  would  all  be  pub- 
lished, and  when  such  discoveries  as  those  we 
have  mentioned,  and  as  the  existence  of  the 
principal  motif  of  the  duet  of  the  letter  in 
'  Otello  '  in  the  agitato  of  an  air  from  *  Torvaldo 
e  Dorliska,'  would  inevitably  be  made.  As  he 
himself  confessed  in  a  letter  about  this  time, 
he  thought  he  had  a  perfect  right  to  rescue  any 
of  his  earlier  airs  from  operas  which  had  either 
failed  at  the  time  or  become  forgotten  since. 
Whatever  force  there  may  be  in  this  defence, 
the  fact  remains  that  '  Cenerentola '  and  the 
'  Barbiere '  share  between  them  the  glory  of 
being  Rossini's  chefs  d'asuvre  in  comic  opera. 

From  Rome  he  wont  to  Milan,  to  enjoy  the 
triumph  of  the  *Gazza  ladra* — libretto  by 
Gherardini, — which  was  brought  out  on  May  31 , 
1817,  at  the  Scala.  The  Milanese  found  no 
difference  between  the  really  fine  parts  of  the 
opera  and  those  which  are  mere  padding — of 
which  the  'Gazza  ladra'  has  several.  Nor 
would  any  one  have  noticed,  even  had  they 
had  the  necessary  knowledge,  that  in  the  first 
duet  and  the  finale — as  was  the  case  also  in  the 


finale  to  the  *  Oenerentola ' — Rossinihad  borrowed 
an  effect  from  the  Poco  cuUtffio  of  Mozart's  Sym- 
phony in  0  (Kochel,  p.  425)  by  maintaining  a- 
sustained  accompaniment  in  the  wind  while  the 
strings  and  the  voices  carry  on  the  ideas  and 
the  ornaments. 

From  Milan  he  returned  to  Naples,  and  pro- 
duced '  Armida '  during  the  autumn  season,  a 
grand  opera  in  three  acts,  with  ballet,  which 
was  mounted  with  great  splendour,  and  enjoyed 
the  advantage  of  very  good  singers.  The  duet 
*  Amor,  possente  Nume  1 ' — which  was  soon  to 
be  sung  through  the  length  and  breadth  of  Italy, 
the  air  *Non  soffiro  V  oifensa,'  the  4ncantation 
scene,  the  chorus  of  demons,  and  the  airs  do 
ballet,  would  alone  have  been  snflScient  to  excite 
the  Neapolitans  ;  but  these  were  not  the  only 
pieces  applauded,  and  the  remarkable  trio  *  In 
quale  aspetto  imbelle,'  written  for  three  tenors 
with  extraordinary  ease,  a  pretty  chorus  of 
women  *  Qui  tutto  ^  calma,'  and  a  scena  with 
chorus  'Germane  a  te  richiede' — afterwards 
employed  in  the  French  version  of  *  Moise ' — all 
deserve  mention. 

This  fine  work  had  hardly  made  its  appear- 
ance before  Rossini  had  to  dash  off  two  more — 
'Adelaide  di  Borgogna,'  sometimes  known  as 
*Ottone  B.k  d'  Italia,'  and  an  oratorio—*  Mos^ 
In  Egitto.'  'Adelaide'  was  produced  at  the 
Argentina  at  Rome,  in  the  Carnival  of  1818, 
was  well  sung  and  warmly  received.  *  Mos^ ' 
was  written  for  the  San  Carlo  at  Naples,  and 
brought  out  there  in  Lent  with  an  excellent 
cast — Isabella  Colbran,  Benedetti,  Porto,  and 
Nozzari.  Here  for  the  first  time  Rossini  was 
so  much  pressed  as  to  be  compelled  to  call 
in  assistance,  and  employed  his  old  and 
tried  friend  Carafa  in  the  recitatives  and  in 
Pharaoh's  air  'Aspettar  mi.'^  The  scene  of 
the  darkness  was  another  step  onwards,  and 
the  whole  work  was  much  applauded,  with  the 
exception  of  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea,  the 
representation  of  which  was  always  laughed  at, 
owing  to  the  imperfection  of  the  theatrical 
appliances  already  spoken  of.  At  the  re<nimp- 
tion  of  the  piece,  therefore,  in  the  following 
Lent,  Rossini  added  a  chorus  to  divert  attention 
from  the  wretched  attempt  to  represent  the 
dividing  waves,  and  it  is  to  the  sins  of  the 
Neapolitan  stage  machinists  that  we  owe  the 
popular  prayer  '  Dal  tuo  stellate  soglio.' 

As  some  relaxation  after  this  serions  effort 
he  undertook,  in  the  summer  of  1818,  a  one- 
act  piece  '  Adina,  o  il  Califfo  di  Bagdad,'  for  the 
San  Carlos  Theatre,  Lisbon  ;  and  immediately 
after,  '  Ricciardo  e  Zoraide  '  for  San  Carlo, 
Naples,  which  was  sung  to  perfection  at  ths 
autumn  season  there  by  Isabella  Colbran, 
Pisaroni  (whose  excessive  plainness  was  no  bat 
to  her  splendid  singing),  Nozzari,  Davide,  and 
Cicimarra. 

'  Ricciardo '  was  extraordinarily  fhll  of  orna- 

1  Omttifld  In  the  ItMllan  aoore  pnbliahed  fit  Piurl*. 


ROSSINI 


ROSSINI 


16& 


ment,  but  'Ermione,*  which  was  produced  at 
San  Carlo  in  the  Lent  of  1819,  went  quite  in 
the  opposite  direction,  and  affected  an  unusual 
plainness  and  severity.  Though  splendidly 
sang,  '  Ermione '  did  not  please,  and  the  single 
number  applauded  was  the  one  air  in  which 
there  was  any  ornamentation.  So  much  for 
the  taste  of  Naples  in  1819  !  An  equally  x>oor 
reception  was  given  to  a  cantata  written  for  the 
re-establishment  of  the  health  of  the  King  of 
Naples,  and  sung  at  the  San  Carlo,  Feb.  20, 
1819.  It  consisted  of  a  cavatina  for  Isabella 
Colbran,  and  an  air  with  variations,  which  was 
afterwards  utilised  in  the  ballet  of  the  *  Viaggio 
a  Reims. '  The  piece  was  hastily  thrown  off,  and 
was  probably  of  no  more  value  in  the  eyes  of 
its  aathor  than  was  an  opera  called  *  Edoardo  e 
Cristina'  which  was  brought  out  at  the  San 
Benedetto,  Venice,  this  same  spring,  and  was 
in    reality   a   mere  pasticcio    of   pieces   from 

*  Ermione,'  'Riodardo,'  and  other  operas, 
hitherto  nnheard  in  Venice,  attached  to  a 
libretto  imitated  from  Scribe.  Fortunately  the 
oiiera  pleased  the  audience,  and  sent  Rossini 
back  to  Naples  in  good  spirits,  ready  to  com- 
|»09e  a  new  cantata  for  the  visit  of  the  Emperor 
of  Austria.  The  new  work  was  performed  on 
May  9,  1819,  at  the  San  Carlo,  and  was  simg 
by  Colbran,  Davide,  and  Rubini,  to  the  accom- 
paniment of  a  military  band.      This  Rossini 

•probably  accepted  as  a  useful  experience  for  his 
next  new  opeia,  the  'Donna  del  Lago,'  in  the 
march  of  which  we  hear  the  results  of  his 
experiments  in  writing  for  a  wind  band.  Even 
at  the  present  day  the  first  act  of  the  opera  ia 
well  worthy  of  admiration,  and  yet  the  evening 
of  Oct.  4,  1819,  when  it  was  first  given,  with 
the  magnificent  cast  of  Colbran,  Pisaroni, 
Nozzari,  Davide,  and  Benedetti,  was  simply  one 
long  torture  of  disappointment  to  the  composer, 
who  was  possibly  not  aware  that  the  storm  of 
disapprobBition  was  directed  not  against  him 
so  much  as  against  Barbuda  the  manager,  and 
Colbran  his  favourite. 

On  the  following  evening  the  hisses  became 
braro^,  but  of  this  Rossini  knew  nothing,  as  by 
that  time  he  was  on  his  road  to  Milan.  The 
Scala  opened  on  Dec  26,  1819,  for  the  Carnival 
aeaaon  with  'Bianca  e  Faliero,'  libretto  by 
Romani,  which  was  admirably  sung  by  Cam- 
porese  and  others.  No  trace  of  it,  however, 
now  remains  except  a  duet  and  quartet,  which 
were  afterwards  introduced  in  the  *  Donna  del 
Lago,'  and  became  very  popular  at  concerts. 

His  engagement  at  Milan  over,  he  hurried 
Ijack    to    Naples,   to    produce    the    opera    of 

*  Maometto  secondo,'  before  the  close  of  the 
Carnival.  It  had  been  composed  in  great  haste, 
but  was  admirably  interpreted  by  Colbran, 
Chanmel  (afterwards  Madame  Rubini),  Nozzari, 
Cicimarra,  Benedetti,  and  F.  Galli,  whose 
Maometto  was  a  splendid  success.  It  was  the 
l»t  opera  tliat  Rossini  was  destined  to  give  at 


I  Naples  before  the  revolt  of  July  20, 1820,  of  the 
I  Carbonari,  under  Pepe,  which  obliged  the  King 
I  to  abandon  his  capital,  mined  Barbaja  by 
depriving  him  at  once  of  a  powerful  i>atron 
and  of  the  monopoly  of  the  gambling-houses, 
and  drove  Rossini  to  make  important  changes 
in  his  life.  Having  for  the  moment  no  engage- 
ment for  the  Scala,  he  undertook  to  write 
'  Matilda  di  Ciabrano '  (<  Mathilde  di  Shabran  ') 
for  Rome.  Torlonia  the  banker  had  bought 
the  Teatro  Tordinone,  and  was  converting  it 
into  the  Apollo  ;  and  it  was  for  the  inauguration 
of  this  splendid  new  house  that  Rossini's  opera 
was  intended.  Tlie  opening  took  place  on  the 
first  night  of  the  Carnival  of  1821.  The 
company,  though  laige,  contained  no  first-rate 
artists,  and  Rossini  was  therefore  especially 
careful  of  the  enstmble  pieces.  The  first  night 
was  stormy,  but  Rossini's  friends  were  in  the 
ascendancy,  Paganiui  conducted  in  splendid 
style,  and  the  result  was  a  distinct  success. 

On  his  return  to  Naples,  Rossini  learned 
from  Barbaja  his  intention  of  visiting  Austria, 
and  taking  his  company  of  singers  to  Vienna. 
Rossini's  next  opera,  *Zelmira,'  was  tlierefoi-e 
to  be  submitted  to  a  more  critical  audience  than 
those  of  Italy,  and  with  this  in  view  he  applied 
himself  to  make  the  recitatives  interesting,  tho 
harmonies  full  and  varied,  and  the  accompani- 
ments expressive  and  full  of  colour,  and  to 
throw  as  much  variety  as  possible  into  the  form 
of  the  movements.  He  produced  the  opera  at 
the  San  Carlo  before  leaving,  in  the  middle  of 
December  1821.  It  was  sung  by  Colbran, 
Cecconi,  Davide,  Nozzari,  Ambrosi,  and  Bene- 
detti, and  was  enthusiastically  received.  On 
the  27th  of  the  same  month,  he  took  his  benefit,, 
for  which  he  had  composed  a  special  cantata 
entitled  '  La  Riconoscenza  - ;  and  the  day  after 
left  for  the  North.  He  was  accompanied  by 
Isabella  Colbran,  with  whom  he  had  been  in  love 
for  years,  whose  influence  over  him  had  been  so 
great  as  to  make  him  forsake  comedy  for  tragedy, 
and  to  whom  he  was  married  on  his  arrival  at 
Bologna.  The  wedding  took  place  in  the  chapel 
of  the  Archbishop's  palace,  and  was  celebrated 
by  Cardinal  Opizzoni.  Rossini  has  been  accused 
of  marrying  for  money,  and  it  is  certain  that 
Colbran  had  a  villa  and  j£500  a  year  of  her 
own,  that  she  was  seven  yeara  older  than  her 
husband,  and  that  her  reputation  as  a  singer 
was  on  the  decline. 

After  a  month's  holiday,  the  couple  started 
for  Vienna,  where  they  arrived  about  the  end 
of  February  1822.  He  seems  to  have  made 
his  d^but  before  the  Vienna  public  on  March  30, 
as  the  conductor  of  his  'Cenerentola,'  in  the 
German  version,  as  'Aschenbrbdel,'  and  his 
tempi  were  found  somewhat  too  fast  for  tlie 
*  heavy  German  language. '  *  Zelmira '  was  given 
at  the  Kamthnerthor  opera-house  on  April  1 .3, 
with  a  success  equal  to  that  which  it  obtainefi 
at  Naples.     Rossini  was  not  without  violent 


156 


ROSSINI 


ROSSINI 


opponents  in  Vienna,  but  they  gave  him  no 
anxiety,  friends  and  enemies  alike  were  received 
with  a  smile,  and  his  only  I'otort  was  a  good- 
humoured  joke.  He  is  said  to  have  visited 
Beethoven,  and  to  have  been  much  distressed 
by  the  condition  in  which  he  found  the  great 
master.  The  impression  which  he  made  on  the 
Viennese  may  be  gathered  from  a  paragraph  in 
the  Leipzig  AUgemeine  musik.  Zeitinig^  of  the 
day,  in  which  he  is  described  as  *  highly  accom- 
plished, of  agreeable  manners  and  pleasant 
appearance,  full  of  wit  and  fun,  cheerful,  oblig- 
ing, courteous,  and  most  accessible.  He  is 
much  in  society,  and  charms  every  one  by  his 
simple,  unassuming  style.'  After  the  dose  of 
the  Vienna  season,  the  Rossinis  returned  to 
Bologna,  where  his  parents  had  resided  since 
1798.  There,  at  the  end  of  September,  he 
received  a  flattering  invitation  from  Prince 
Mettemich,  entreating  him  to  come  to  Verona, 
and  he  accordingly  arrived  at  the  Congress  in 
time  for  its  opening,  Oct.  20,  1822.  Rossini's 
contribution  to  the  Congress  was  a  series  of 
cantatas,  which  he  poured  forth  without  stint 
or  difficulty.  The  best  known  of  these  is  *  II 
vero  Omaggio  * ;  others  are  *  L'  Augurio  felice,' 
'  La  sacra  AUeanza,'  and  *  II  Bardo.' 

The  Congress  at  an  end,  he  began  to  work  at 
'Semiramide,'  which  was  brought  out  at  the 
Fenice,  Venice,  Feb.  8,  1828,  with  Madame 
Rossini,  the  two  Marianis,  Galli,  and  Sinclair 
the  English  tenor,  for  whom  there  were  two 
airs.  The  opera  was  probably  wiitten  with 
more  care  than  any  of  those  which  had  preceded 
it ;  and  possibly  for  this  very  reason  was  some- 
what coldly  received.  The  subject  no  doubt 
.would  seem  sombre  to  the  gay  Venetians,  and 
they  even  omitted  to  applaud  the  fine  quartet 
(which  Verdi  must  surely  have  had  in  his  mind 
when  writing  the  Miserere  in  the  *  Trovatore '), 
the  finale,  and  the  appearance  of  Ninus,  the 
final  trio,  at  once  so  short  and  so  dramatic,  the 
cavatina  with  chorus,  and  all  the  other  new, 
bold,  bright  passages  of  that  remarkable  work. 
Rossini  was  not  unnaturally  much  disappointed 
at  the  result  of  his  labour  and  genius,  and  re- 
solved to  write  no  more  for  the  theatres  of  his 
native  country.  The  resolution  was  hardly 
formed  when  he  received  a  visit  from  the 
manager  of  the  King's  Theatre,  London  (Sigi*. 
Benelli),  and  a  proposal  to  write  an  opera  for 
that  house,  to  be  called  '  La  Figlia  dell'  aria,' 
for  the  sum  of  £240 — £40  more  than  he  had 
received  for  '  Semiramide, '  a  sum  at  the  time 
considered  enormous.  The  offer  was  promptly 
accepted,  and  the  Rossinis  started  for  England 
without  delay,  naturally  taking  Paris  in  their 
road,  and  reaching  it  Nov.  9,  1823.  Paris,  like 
Vienna,  was  then  divided  into  two  hostile  camjis 
on  the  subject  of  the  great  composer.  Berton 
always  spoke  of  him  as  'M.  Crescendo,'  and 
he  was  caricatured  on  the  stage  as  *  M.  Vacar- 

I  Mar  8. 1829.  raporiinf  ttic  early  p*rt  of  March. 


mini' ;  but  the  author  of  the  *  Barbiere '  coald 
afibrd  to  laugh  at  such  satire,  and  his  respectful 
behaviour  to  Cherubini,  Lesueur,  and  Reicha, 
as  the  heads  of  the  Conservatoire,  his  graceful 
reception  of  the  leaders  of  the  French  School, 
his  imperturbable  good  temper  and  good  spirits, 
soon  conciliated  every  one.  A  serenade,  a  public 
banquet,  triumphant  receptions  at  the  opera- 
house,  a  special  vaudeville  ('  Rossini  h  Paris,  ou 
le  Grand  Diner') — eveiything  in  short  that 
could  soothe  the  pride  of  a  stranger  was  lavished 
upon  him  from  the  first  He  in  his  turn  was 
always  kind  and  amiable,  consenting,  for  instance, 
at  the  request  of  Panseron — an  old  colleague  at 
Rome — to  act  as  accompanist  at  a  concert  witli 
the  object  of  saving  Panseron's  brother  from 
the  conscription.  Under  the  hands  of  Rossini 
the  piano  became  as  effective  as  an  orchestra  ; 
and  it  is  on  record  that  the  first  time  that 
Auber  heard  him  accompany  himself  in  a  song 
he  walked  up  to  the  instrument  and  bent  down 
over  the  keys  to  see  if  they  were  not  smoking. 
Paris,  however,  was  not  at  present  his  ultimate 
goal,  and  on  Dec.  13,  1823,  Rossini  and  his 
wife  arrived  in  London.  They  were  visited 
immediately  by  the  Russian  ambassador,  M.  de 
I  Lieven,  who  gave  the  composer  barely  time  to 
I  recover  from  the  fatigues  of  the  journey  before 
I  he  carried  him  off  to  Brighton  and  presented 
him  to  the  King.  George  IV.  believed  himself 
to  be  fond  of  music,  and  received  the  author  of' 
the  *  Barbiere  *  in  the  most  flattering  manner. 
'Zelmira'  wsEs  brought  out  at  the  Opera  on 
Jan.  24,  1824  ;  and  the  royal  favour  naturally 
brought  with  it  that  of  the  aristocracy,  and  a 
solid  result  in  the  shape  of  two  grand  concert-s 
at  Almack's,  at  two  guineas  admission.  The 
singers  on  these  occasions  were  Mme.  Rossini, 
Mme.  Catalani,  "Mme,  Pasta,  and  other  first-rate 
artists,  but  the  novelty,  the  attraction,  was  to 
hear  Rossini  himself  sing  the  solos  '  in  a  cantata 
(or  *  ottavino ')  which  he  had  composed  for  the 
occasion,  under  the  title  of  *  II  Pianto  delle 
Muse  in  Morte  di  Lord  Byron.'  He  also  took 
part  with  Catalani  in  a  duet  from  Cimarosa's 
'  Matrimonio '  whidi  was  so  successful  as  to  be 
encored  three  times.  He  appeared  at  the  so- 
called  '  Cambridge  Festival '  again  with  Catalani, 
in  July  1824.  The  opera  manager  was  unable 
to  finish  the  season,  and  became  bankrupt  before 
discharging  his  engagements  with  Rossini.  Nor 
was  this  all.  Not  only  did  he  not  produce  the 
*  Figlia  deir  aria,'  but  the  music  of  the  first  act 
unaccountably  vanished,  and  has  never  since 
been  found.  It  was  in  vain  for  Rossini  to  sue 
the  manager  ;  ho  failed  to  obtain  either  his  MS. 
or  a  single  penny  of  the  advantages  guarantee*! 
to  him  by  the  contract  *  True,  he  enjoyed  a 
considerable  set-off  to  the  loss  just  mentioned 
in  the  profits  of  the  countless  soirees  at  which 
he  acted  as  accompanist  at  a  fee  of  £50.     At 

*  Thla  recall!  the  Tlrit  of  a  great  coinpoiMr  In  1748,  wh«n  Gluck 
gave  a  ooDoert  at  the  Klng'R  Theatre,  at  which  the  great  attraction 
wan  his  eolo  od  the  miMinU  glaiiMH !    [See  vul.  il.  p.  1836.] 


ROSSINI 


KOSSINI 


167 


the  end  of  five  months  he  found  himself  in 
possession  of  £7000  ;  and  just  before  his  de- 
}>artare  was  honoured  by  receiving  the  marked 
c-omplimeuts  of  the  king  at  a  concert  at  the 
Duke  of  Wellington's,  for  which  His  Majesty 
had  expressly  come  up  from  Brighton.  [See 
MvHcnl  Times,  1900,  pp.  18  ff.] 

In  leaving  fhigland  on  July  26,  after  so  hearty 
and  proiitablea  reception,  Rossini  was  not  taking 
a  leap  In  the  dark  ;  for  through  the  Prince  de 
PoUgnac,  French  ambassador  in  England,  he 
had  already  concluded  an  agreement  for  the 
musical  direction  of  the  Th^&tre  Italien, 
Paris,  for  eighteen  months  at  a  salary  of 
£800  per  annum.  In  order  to  be  near  his 
work  he  took  a  lodging  at  No.  28  Rue  Tait- 
bout,  and  at  once  set  about  getting  younger 
singers  for  his  company.  Knowing  that  Paer 
was  his  enemy,  and  would  take  any  oppor- 
tanitj  of  ii^juring  him,  he  was  careful  to  retain 
him  in  his  old  post  of  maestro  al  cembalo  ;  but 
at  the  same  time  he  engaged  Harold  (then  a 
Toung  man  of  twenty-five)  as  chorus-master, 
and  as  a  check  on  the  pretensions  of  Madame 
Pasta  he  brought  to  Paris  Esther  Mombelli, 
Schiassetti,  DonzeUi,  and  Rubini,  successively. 
To  those  who  sneered  at  his  music  he  replied 
by  playing  it  as  it  was  written,  and  by  bringing 
out  some  of  his  operas  which  had  not  yet  made 
their  appearance  in  Paris,  such  as  *  La  Donna 
del  Lago '  (Sept.  7, 1824),  *Semiramide'  (Dec.  8, 
1825),  and  '  Zelmira '  (March  14, 1826).  And 
he  gave  much  eclat  to  his  direction  by  introduc- 
ing Meyerbeer's  *Crociato' — the  first  work  of 
Meyerbeer's  heard  in  Paris — and  by  composing 
a  new  opera,  *  II  Viaggio  a  Reims,  ossia  V  Albergo 
del  giglio  d'  oro,'  which  he  produced  on  June  19, 
1825.  during  the  f^tes  at  the  coronation  of 
Charles  X.  The  new  work  is  in  one  act,  and 
three  parts ;  it  is  written  for  fourteen  voices, 
which  are  treated  with  marvellous  art.  It  was 
sung  by  Mmes.  Pasta,  Schiassetti,  Mombelli, 
Cinti,  Amigo,  Dotti,  and  Rossi ;  and  by  MM. 
LerasBeur,  Zucchelli,  Pellegrini,  Graziani,  Aul- 
etta,  Donzelli,  Bordogni,  and  Scudo — a  truly 
magnificent  assembli^.  In  the  ballet  he 
introduced  an  air  with  variations  for  two 
clarinets,  borrowed  from  his  Naples  cantata  of 
1819,  and  played  by  Oambaro  (a  passionate 
admirer  of  his)  and  by  F.  Berr.  In  the  hunt- 
ing scene  he  brought  in  a  delicious  fanfare 
of  horns,  and  the  piece  winds  up  with  *God 
save  the  King,'  *  Vive  Henri  Quatre,'  and  other 
national  airs,  all  newly  harmonised  and  accom- 
panied. After  the  Revolution  of  1848  the 
words  were  suitably  modified  by  H.  Dupin, 
and  the  piece  appeared  in  two  acts  at  the 
Theatre  Italien  as  '  Andremo  noi  a  Parigi,'  on 
Oct  26  of  that  year. » 

After  the  expiration  of  Rossini's  agreement 

I  TteKcmof 'AndrcmoiMlaPurlgi'toiatheLibnuTof  th«Oon- 
•arvfttolrtt.  bat  the  final*  of  the  *  Viaoio.'  whldi  we  hare  mentioned 
••  ooateloing  oatiotwl  ain.  it  not  there,  and  all  tnMse  of  this  oortooe 
feat  Mnu  to  1»T«  raalnlMd. 


as  director  of  tlie  Th^ti'e  Italien,  it  was  a 
happy  idea  of  the  Intendant  of  the  Civil  List  to 
confer  upon  him  the  sinecure  {)osts  of  '  Premier 
Compositeur  du  Roi '  and  *  Inspecteur  G^n^ral 
du  Chant  en  France,'  with  an  annual  income  of 
20,000  francs,  possibly  in  the  hope  that  he 
might  settle  permanently  at  Paris,  and  in  time 
write  operas  expressly  for  the  French  stage. 
This  was  also  an  act  of  justice,  since  in  the 
then  absence  of  any  law  of  international  ^  copy- 
right his  pieces  were  public  property,  and  at 
the  disposal  not  only  of  a  translator  like  Castil- 
Blaze,  but  of  any  manager  or  publisher  in  the 
length  and  breadth  of  France  who  chose  to 
avail  himself  of  them.  Fortunately  the  step 
was  justified  by  the  event.  The  opera  of 
'.Maometto' — originally  written  by  the  Duke 
of  Ventagnano,  and  produced  at  Naples  in  1820 
— had  never  been  heard  in  France.  Rossini 
employed  MM.  Soumet  and  Balocchi  to  give 
the  libretto  a  French  dress ;  he  revised  the 
music,  and  considerably  extended  it ;  and  on 
Oct.  9,  1826,  the  opera  was  produced  at  the 
Academic  as  '  Le  Siege  de  Corinthe,'  with  a  cast 
which  included  Nourrit  and  Mile.  Cinti,  and 
with  great  success.  For  the  new  opera  Rossini 
received  6000  francs  from  Troupenas. 

After  this  feat  Rossini  turned  to  another  of 
his  earlier  works,  as  not  only  sure  of  success  but 
eminently  suited  to  the  vast  space  and  splendid 
miss  en  ac^ne  of  the  Grand  Op^ra.     This  was 

*  Mos^. '  He  put  the  revision  of  the  libretto  into 
the  hands  of  Etienne  Jouy  and  Balocchi,  and 
arranged  for  Cinti,  Nourrit,  and  Levasseur  to^ 
be  in  the  cast.  *  Moi'se '  was  produced  March  25, 
1 827,  and  created  a  profound  impression.  True, 
it  had  been  heard  in  its  original  form  at  the 
Italiens  five  years  before,  but  the  recollection  of 
this  only  served  to  bring  out  more  strongly  the 
many  improvements  and  additions  in  the  new 
version — such  as  the  Introduction  to  the  fii-st 
act ;  the  quartet  and  chorus  ;  the  chorus  '  La. 
douce  Aurore ' ;  the  march  and  chorus,  etc. 
The  airs  de  ballet  were  largely  borrowed  from 

*  Armida'  (1817)  and  *  Giro  in  Babilonia'  (1812). 
This  magnificent  work  gave  Rossini  a  sort  of 
imperial  position  in  Paris.  But  it  was  necessary 
to  justify  this,  and  he  therefore  resolved  to  try 
a  t^rork  of  a  different  character,  and  according 
to  the  axiom  of  Boileau,  to  pass 

From  grave  to  gay,  from  lively  to  severe — 
not  in  the  direction  of  comic  but  of  lyric  opera. 
With  this  view  he  employed  Scribe  and  Poirson 
to  develop  a  vaudeville  which  they  had  written 
in  1816  to  the  old  legend  of  'Le  Comte  Cry,' 
adapting  to  that  lively  piece  some  of  his 
favourite  music  in  the  '  Viaggio  a  Reims,' — the 
introduction  and  finale  of  the  first  act,  the  duet 
of  the  Count  and  Countess,  and  the  famous 
narrative  of  Raimbaut  when  he  brings  up  the 

t  The  ooatom  in  Italy  in  thoee  dajra  was  to  aell  an  opera  to  a 
manager  for  tvo  yearB.  with  exclxuivo  right  of  repreeentation ;  after 
that  it  hecaine  imbllo  property.  The  only  pemon  who  derived  no  - 
profit  from  thia  arraogenient  was  the  unfortonate  composer. 


158 


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ROSSINI 


-wine  from  the  cellar,  which  it  is  difficult  to 
believe  was  in  its  tirst  form  applied  to  the 
taking  of  the  Trocadero  I  Adolphe  Nourrit, 
who  was  not  only  a  great  artist,  but  a  poet  of 
very  considerable  dramatic  power,  was  privately 
■of  much  assistance  to  Rossini  in  the  adaptation 
of  his  old  music  to  the  new  words,  and  in  the 
.actual  mounting  of  the  piece  in  which  he  was 
.to  take  so  important  a  share;  *  Le  Comte  Cry ' 
was  produced  at  the  Academic,  August  20,  1828, 
and  the  principal  characters  were  taken  by  Mme. 
Damoreau-Cinti,  Miles.  Jawurek  and  Mori, 
Adolphe  Nourrit,  Levasseur,  and  Dabadie.  The 
Introduction  is  based  on  the  old  song  which 
gives  its  name  to  the  piece.  The  best  thing  in 
the  second  act  is  borrowed  from  the  Allegretto 
scherzando  of  Beethoven's  Eighth  Symphony. 
Rossini  was  at  that  time  actually  engaged  Avith 
Habeneck,  the  foimder  of  the  Concerts  of  the 
Conservatoire,  and  his  intimate  friend,  in  study- 
ing the  Symphonies  of  Beethoven  ;  and  it  is 
easy  to  understand  how  impossible  it  must 
have  been  to  forget  the  fresh  and  graceful 
movement  referi-ed  to. 

The  study  of  Beethoven  was  at  any  rate  not 
a  bad  pre}>aration  for  the  very  serious  piece  of 
work  which  was  next  to  engage  him,  and  for  a 
great  jiortion  of  which  he  retired  to  the  chateau 
of  his  friend  Aguado  the  banker  at  Petit- Bourg. 
Schiller  had  recently  been  brought  into  notice 
in  Fiunce  by  the  translation  of  M.  de  Barante  ; 
and  Rossini,  partly  attracted  by  the  grandeur 
of  the  subject,  partly  inspired  by  the  liberal 
ideas  at  that  moment  floating  through  Europe, 
was  induced  to  choose  the  Liberator  of  the  Swiss 
Cantons  as  his  next  subject.  He  accepted  a 
libretto  offered  him  by  Etienne  Jouy,  Spontini's 
old  librettist,  who  in  this  case  was  associated 
with  Hipjwlyte  Bis.  Their  words,  however, 
were  so  unmusical  and  unrhythmical,  that 
Rossini  had  recourse  to  Amiand  Marrast,  at 
that  time  Aguado's  secretary,  and  the  whole 
scene  of  the  meeting  of  the  conspirators — one 
of  the  best  in  operatic  literature,  and  the  only 
thoroughly  satisfactory  part  of  the  book  of 
'  Guillaume  Tell  * — was  rewritten  by  him,  a  fact 
which  we  are  glad  to  make  public  in  these 
pages. 

This  grand  opera,  undoubtedly  Rossini's 
masterpiece,  was  produced  at  the  Academic  on 
August  3,  1829,  with  the  following  cast: — 
Arnold,  Nourrit ;  Walter  Fiirst,  Levasseur ; 
Tell,  Dabadie  ;  Ruodi,  A.  Dupont ;  Rodolphe, 
Massol ;  Gessler,  Prevost ;  Leutold,  Prev6t ; 
Mathilde,  Damoreau-Cinti ;  Jemmy,  Dabadie  ; 
Hedwige,  Mori. 

'Tell'  has  now  become  a  study  for  tlie 
nmsician,  from  the  first  bar  of  the  overture  to 
the  storm  scene  and  the  final  hymn  of  freedom. 
The  overture  is  no  longer,  like  Rossini's  former 
ones,  a  piece  of  work  on  a  familiar,  well-worn 
l)attem,  but  a  true  instrumental  prelude,  which 
would  be  simply  perfect  if  the  opening  and  the 


fiery  peroration  were  only  as  appropriate  to  the 
subject  as  they  are  tempting  to  the  executant. 
We  find  no  absurdities  like  those  in  '  Moise ' — 
no  song  of  thanksgiving  accompanied  by  a  bril- 
liant polonaise,  no  more  cabalettas,  no  more 
commonplace  phrases  or  worn-out  modulations — 
in  shoit,  no  more  padding  of  any  kind.  Time, 
it  would  not  be  difficult  to  criticise  the  length 
of  the  duet  in  the  second  act,  which  recalU  the 
duet  in  *Semiramide,'  and  breathes  rather  tlie 
concert-room  than  the  stage — or  the  style  of  the 
finale  of  the  third  act,  which  is  not  appropriate 
to  the  situation. 

The  spectacle  of  a  great  master  at  the  zenith 
of  his  glory  and  in  tihe  very  prime  of  life  thus 
breaking  with  all  the  traditions  of  his  genius 
and  appearing  as  in  a  second  avatar  is  indeed  a 
rare  and  noble  one.  The  sacrifice  of  all  the 
means  of  effect  by  which  his  early  popularity 
had  been  obtained  is  one  which  Rossini  shares 
with  Gluck  and  Weber,  but  for  which  our  former 
experience  of  his  character  would  hardly  have 
prepared  us.  He  seems  at  length  to  have  dis- 
covered how  antagonistic  such  effects  were  to 
the  simplicity  which  was  really  at  the  base  of 
the  great  musical  revolution  effected  by  him ; 
but  to  discover,  and  to  act  on  a  discovery,  are 
two  different  things,  and  he  ought  to  have  full 
credit  for  the  courage  and  sincerity  with  which, 
at  his  age,  he  forsook  the  flowery  plains  in  which 
his  genius  had  fonnerly  revelled,  for  loftier  and 
less  accessible  heights. 

But  the  career  thus  splendidly  inaugurated 
was  not  destined  to  be  pursued  ;  circumstances, 
political  and  domestic,  stopped  him  on  the 
threshold.  He  was  anxious  to  visit  once  more 
the  city  in  which  his  beloved  mother  died  in 
1827,  and  where  his  father,  who  luid  soon  tired 
of  Paris,  was  awaiting  him.  With  this  view 
he  resigned  his  office  as  inspector  of  singing  in 
France,  and  made  an  arrangement  with  the 
Government  of  Charles  X.,  dating  from  the 
beginning  of  1829,  by  which  he  bound  himself 
for  ten  years  to  compose  for  no  other  stage  but 
that  of  France,  and  to  write  and  bring  out  an 
opera  every  two  years,  receiving  for  each  such 
opera  the  sum  of  15,000  francs.  In  the  event 
of  the  Government  failing  to  carry  out  the 
arrangement  he  was  to  receive  a  retiring  pension 
of  6000  francs.  *  Guillaunie  Tell '  was  thus  to 
be  the  first  of  a  series  of  five  operas. 

After  a  serenade  from  the  opera  orchestra, 
Rossini,  therefore,  left  Paris  for  Bologna.  Here 
he  was  engaged  in  considering  the  subject  of 
*  Faust,'  with  a  view  to  his  next  work,  when  he 
received  the  sudden  news  of  the  abdication  of 
Charles  X.,  and  the  revolution  of  July  1830. 
The  blow  shattered  his  plans  and  dissipated  his 
fondest  hopes.  He  flattered  himself  that  ho  had 
regenerated  the  art  of  singing  in  France.  What 
would  become  of  it  again  under  a  king  who  could 
tolerate  no  operas  but  those  of  Gr^try  ?  Anxious 
to  know  if  his  friend  Lubbert  was  still  at  the 


ROSSINI 


ROSSINI 


159 


head  of  the  Academle  de  Musique,  and  if  the 
new  Intendant  of  the  Civil  List  would  acknow- 
ledge the  engagements  of  his  pi-edecessor,  he 
returned  to  Paris  in  Nov.  1830  ;  and  intending 
only  to  make  a  short  stay,  took  up  his  quarters 
in  the  upper  storey  of  the  Th^tre  des  Italiens, 
of  which  his  friend  Severlni  was  then  director. 
Here,  however,  he  was  destined  to  remain  till 
Nov.  1836.     The  new  Government  repudiated 
the  agreement  of  its  predecessor,  and  Rossini 
had  to  carry  his  clahn  into   the  law-courts. 
Had  his  law-suit  alone  occupied  him,  it  would 
not  have  heen  necessary  to  stay  quite  so  long, 
for  it  was  decided  in  his  favour  in  Dea  1885. 
But  tJiere  was  another  reason  for  his  remaining 
in  Paris,  and  that  was  his  desire  to  hear  *  The 
Huguenots '  and  ascertain  how  far  Meyerbeer's 
star  was  likely  to  eclipse  his  own.     It  is  impos- 
sible to  believe  that  a  mere  money  question 
could  have  detained  him  so  long  at  a  time  when 
almost  every  day  must  have  brought  fresh  an- 
noyances.   After  reducing  '  Quillaume  Tell '  from 
five  acts  to  three,  they  carried  their  love  of 
compression  so  far  as  to  give  only  one  act  at  a 
time,  as  a  lever  de  rideau,  or  accompaniment  to 
the  ballet.     This  was  indeed  adding  insult  to . 
ix^nry.     '  I  hoiie  you  won't  be  annoyed,'  said 
the  Director  of  the  Opera  to  him  one  day  on 
the  boulevard,  *  but  to-night  we  play  the  second 
act  of  "TelL" '    *The  whole  of  it  I'  was  the  reply. 
How  much  bitter  disappointment  must  have 
been  hidden  under  that  reply !     During  the 
whole  of  this  unhappy  interval  he  only  once 
resumed  his  pen,  namely  in  1832  for  the  *  Stabat 
Mater,'  at  the  request  of  his  friend  Aguado,  who 
was  anxious  tb  serve  the  Spanish  minister  Seftor 
Valera.     He  composed  at  that  time  only  the 
tint  six  numbers,  and  the  other  four  were  sup]  >lied 
by  Tadolini.    The  work  was  dedicated  to  Valera, 
with  an  expi*ess  stipulation  that  it  should  never 
leave  his  hands.     In  1 834  he  allowed  Troupenas 
to  pablish  the  *  Soirees  musicales,'  twelve  lovely 
vo^  ]>ieces  of  very  original  form  and  harmony, 
i^evend  of  which  have  still  retained  their  charm. 
The  rehearsals  of  '  The  Huguenots '  lingered 
on,  and  it  was  not  till  Feb.    29,   1836,  that 
Rossini  could  hear  the  work  of  his  new  rival. 
He  returned  to  Bologna  shortly  after,  taking 
Frankfort  in  his  way,  and  meetingMendelssohn.  * 
He  had  not  been  long  in  Bologna  before  he  heard 
of  the  prodigious  success  of  Duprez  in  the  revival 
of  •  Gidllaume  Tell  *  (April  1 7).    Such  a  triumph 
might  well  have  nerved  him  to  fresh  exertions. 
But  it  came  a  year  too  late ;  he  had  already 
taken  an  unfortunate  and  irrevocable  resolution 
never  again  to  break  silence.     It  would  be  very 
wrong  to  conclude  from  this  that  he  had  lost 
his  interest  in  music.     The  care  which  he  be- 
stowed on  the  Liceo  of  Bologna,  of  which  he 
was  honorary  director,  shows  that  the  art  still 
exercised  all  its  claims  on  him.     He  was  especi- 
Sally  anxioos  to  improve  the  singing  of  the  pupils, 

1  See  Hfllcr'a  JfmkUUmku,  and  M.'s  own  letter,  July  14. 1836. 


and  among  those  who  are  indebted  to  liis  care, 
Marietta  Alboni  held  the  first  rank. 

Rossini's  father  died  Apnl  29,  1839,  and  he 
soon  afterwards  learned  to  his  disgust  that  the 
MS.  of  the  *  Stabat '  had  been  sold  by  the  heirs 
of  Sefior  Valera,  and  acquired  by  a  Paris 
publisher  for  2000  francs.  He  at  once  gave 
Troupenas  full  jwwer  to  stop  both  publication 
and  performance,  and  at  the  same  time  com- 
pleted the  work  by  composing  the  last  four 
movements,  which,  as  we  have  already  said, 
were  originally  added  by  Tadolini  The  first 
six  movements  were  produced  at  the  Salle  Herz, 
Paris,  Oct  31, 1841,  amidst  very  gi'eat  applause. 
Troupenas*  bought  the  entire  score  for  6000 
francs.  He  sold  the  right  of  performance  in 
Paris  during  three  months  to  the  Escudiers  for 
8000,  which  they  again  disposed  of  to  the 
director  of  the  Theatre  Italien  for  20,000. 
Thus  three  persons  were  enriched  by  this  single 
work.  It  was  performed  complete  for  the  first 
time  at  the  Salle  Ventadour,  Jan.  7,  1842,  by 
Giisi,  Albertazzi,  Mario,  and  Taniburini. 

Notwithstanding  its  brilliant  success,  some 
critics  were  found  to  accuse  the  com|)08er  of 
importing  the  sti-ains  of  the  theatre  into  the 
church  ;  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that 
religion  in  the  South  is  a  very  different  thing 
from  what  it  is  in  the  North.  Mysticism  could 
have  no  place  in  the  mind  of  such  a  man  as 
Rossini,  who  would  naturally  utter  his  prayers 
aloud,  in  the  sunshine  of  noon,  mther  than 
breathe  them  to  himself  in  the  gloom  and 
mystery  of  night.  The  prayer  and  the  scene 
of  the  darkness  in  'Moise,'  as  well  as  the  first 
movement  and  the  unaccompanied  quartet  in 
the  *  Stabat,'  will  always  hold  their  place  as 
religious  music  ;  and  are  of  themselves  sufficient 
to  show  that  Rossini,  sceptic  as  he  was,  was 
not  without  religious  feeling. 

But  at  the  very  moment  that  the  *  Stabat ' 
was  making  its  triumphant  progi-css  round  the 
world,  Rossini  began  to  suffer  toi-tures  from  the 
stone,  which  increased  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
force  him,  in  May  1843,  to  Paris,  where  he 
imderwent  an  operation  which  proved  jierfectly 
satisfactory.  We  next  find  him  writing  a  chonis 
to  words  byMarchetti  for  the  anniversary  festival 
of  Tasso  at  Turin,  on  March  13,  1844.  On  the 
2nd  of  the  following  September  *  Othello '  was 
produced  in  French  at  the  Academic  with  Duprez, 
Ban-oilhet,  Levasseur,  and  Mme.  Stoltz.  Ros- 
sini, however,  had  nothing  to  do  with  this  adap- 
tation, and  the  divertissement  was  arranged 
entirely  by  Benoist  from  airs  in  '  Mathilde  de 
Sabran'  and  *Amiida.'  While  *  Othello'  was 
thus  on  the  boards  of  the  opera,  Troupenas 
brought  out  *  La  Foi,  I'Esperance  et  la  Charity ' 
(Faith,  Hope,  and  Charity),  three  choruses  for 
women's  voices,  the  firat  two  composed  many 
years  previously  for  an  opera  on  the  subject  of 

•i  We  have  ineiitinued  that  h«  paid  6000  fnuico  for  the  '  8i^«  de 
Coriiithe.'  For '  MoTw '  he  gnve  only  '2400 :  but.  on  the  othw  hiuid, 
the  '  Cointe  Orj '  vnnt  him  12.U00,  and  '  Guillaunii'  Tell '  24.000. 


160 


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ROSSINI 


(Edipus,  These  choruses  are  hardly  worthy  of 
Kossini.  They  justify  Berlioz's  sarcasm — *  his 
Hope  has  deceived  ours  ;  his  Faith  will  never 
remove  mountains  ;  his  Charity  will  never  ruin 
him. '  It  is  fair  to  say  that  Louis  Engel,  in  his 
book  From  Mozart  to  Mario,  states  that  Rossini 
repudiated  them.  Troupenas  also  brought  out 
a  few  songs  hitherto  unpublished,  and  these 
reattracted  the  attention  of  the  public  in  some 
degree  to  the  great  composer.  His  statue  was 
executed  in  marble  ^  by  Etex,  and  was  inaugurated 
at  the  Academic  de  Musique,  June  9,  1 846.  A 
few  months  later  (Dec.  30),  by  his  permission, 
a  pasticcio  adapted  by  Nieidermeyer  to  portions 
of  the  'Donna  del  Lago, ' '  Zelmira, '  and '  Armida, ' 
and  entitled  'Robert  Bruce,'  was  put  on  the 
stage  of  the  Op^ra,  but  it  was  not  successful, 
and  Mme.  Stoltz  was  even  hissed.  From  his 
seclusion  at  Bologna  Rossini  kept  a  watchful 
eye  upon  the  movements  of  the  musical  world. 
It  would  be  interesting  to  know  if  he  regretted 
having  authorised  the  manufacture  of  this 
pasticcio.  If  we  may  judge  from  the  very  great 
difficulty  with  which,  some  time  later,  M6ry  ob- 
tained his  permission  to  translate  and  produce 
'  Semiramide, '  he  did.  It  is  certain  that  during 
his  long  residence  at  Bologna  he  only  broke  his 
vow  of  silence  for  the  *  Inno  popolare  a  Ro  IX.' 
The  commencement  of  this  was  adapted  to  an 
air  from  '  La  Donna  del  Lago,'  and  its  perora- 
tion was  borrowed  from  'Robert  Bruce,'  which 
gives  ground  for  supposing  that  he  himself  was 
concerned  in  the  arrangement  of  that  opera, 
and  explains  his  annoyance  at  its  failure. 

The  political  disturbances  which  agitated  the 
Romagna  at  the  end  of  1847  compelled  Rossini 
to  leave  Bologna.  He  quitted  the  town  in  much 
irritation.  After  the  death  of  his  wife  (Oct.  7, 
1845),  he  married  (in  1847)  Oljrmpe  Pelissier, 
with  whom  he  had  become  connected  in  Paris  at 
a  time  when  she  was  greatly  in  public  favour, 
and  when  she  sat  to  Vemet  for  his  picture  of 
'Judith  and  Holofemes.'  In  fact  at  this  time 
the  great  musician  had  to  a  great  extent  dis- 
appeared in  the  voluptuary.  From  Bologna  he 
removed  to  Florence,  and  there  it  was  that  this 
writer  visited  him  in  1852.  He  lived  in  the 
Via  Larga,  in  a  house  which  bore  upon  its  front 
the  words  Ad  votum.  In  the  course  of  a  long 
conversation  he  spoke  of  his  works  with  no 
pretended  indifference,  but  as  being  well  aware 
of  their  worth,  and  knowing  the  force  and  scope 
of  his  genius  better  than  any  one  else.  He 
made  no  secret  of  his  dislike  to  the  violent 
antivocal  element  in  modem'  music,  or  of  the 
pleasure  he  would  feel  when  'the  Jews  had 
finished  their  Sabbath.'  It  was  also  evident 
that  he  had  no  affection  for  the  capital  of 
Tuscany,  the  climate  of  which  did  not  suit  him. 

At  length,  in  1855,  he  crossed  the  Alps  and 
returned  to  Paris,  never  again  to  leave  it.     His 

I  It  ntfireiieDted  him  Mated  in  an  flMT  attlfcnde.  ItwMdMtroyed 
wlMn  the  opara-hooM  was  burnt  down  in  187S. 


reception  there  went  far  to  calm  the  nervous 
irritability  that  had  tormented  him  at  Florence, 
and  with  the  homage  which  he  received  from 
Auber  and  the  rest  of  the  French  artists  his 
health  returned.  His  house.  No.  2  in  the  Rue 
Chauss^  d'Antin,  and,  at  a  later  date,  his  yilla 
at  Passy,  were  crowded  by  the  moat  illustrioas 
representatives  of  literature  and  art,  to  such  an 
extent  that  even  during  his  lifetime  he  seemed 
to  assist  at  his  own  apotheosis.  Was  it  then  mere 
idleness  which  made  him  thus  bury  himself  in 
the  Capua  of  his  past  successes  ?  No  one  who, 
like  the  present  writer,  observed  him  coolly, 
could  be  taken  in  by  the  comedy  of  indifference 
and  modesty  that  it  pleased  him  to  keep  up. 
We  have  already  said  that,  after  Meyerbeer's 
great  success,  Rossini  had  taken  the  resolution 
of  >vriting  no  more  for  the  Academic  de  Musique 
and  keeping  silence. 

The  latter  part  of  this  resolution  he  did  not, 
however,  fully  maintain.  Thus  he  authorised 
the  production  of  'Bruschino'  at  the  Bonffes 
Parisiens  on  Dec.  28, 1857,  though  he  would  not 
be  present  at  the  first  representation.  *  I  have 
given  my  permission,'  said  he,  '  but  do  not  ask 
me  to  be  an  accomplice.'  The  discovery  of  the 
piece — which  is  nothing  else  but  his  early  farce 
of  'II  figlio  per  azzardo'  (Venice,  1818) — was 
due  to  Prince  Poniatowski,  and  some  clever 
librettist  was  found  to  adapt  it  to  the  French 
taste.  A  year  or  two  later  M^ry  with  difficulty- 
obtained  his  permission  to  transform  'Semi- 
ramide' into  'S^miramis,'  and  the  opera  in  its 
new  garb  was  produced  at  the  Academic,  July  9, 
1860,  with  Garlotta  Marchisio  as  Semiramis, 
her  sister  Barbara  as  Arsace,  and  Obin  as  Assur. 
In  this  transformation  Rossini  took  no  ostensible 
part.  Garafa  at  his  request  arranged  the  reci- 
tatives, and  wrote  the  ballet  music.  These  were 
mere  revivals.  Not  so  the  sacred  work  which 
he  brought  out  at  tlio  house  of  M.  Pillet-Will 
the  banker  on  March  14,  1864,  and  at  the  re- 
hearsals of  which  he  presided  in  person.  We 
allude  to  the  'Petite  messe  solennelle,' which 
though  so  called  with  a  touch  of  Rossinian 
pleasantry  is  a  mass  of  full  dimensions,  lasting 
nearly  two  hours  in  performance.  Rossini  had 
always  been  on  good  terms  with  the  bankers  of 
Paris,  and  after  Rothschild  and  Aguado  he  be- 
came very  intimate  with  the  Count  Pillet-Will 
(1781-1860),  a  rich  amateur,  passionately  fond 
of  music,  who  had  learned  the  yioUn  from 
Baillot,  and  amused  himself  with  composing 
little  pieces  for  that  instrument.  His  son,  more 
retiring  but  not  less  enthusiastic  than  his  fiither, 
had  always  been  one  of  Rossini's  most  devoted 
admirers,  and  on  the  occasion  of  the  inauguration 
of  his  magnificent  house  in  the  Rue  Monoey, 
it  was  a  happy  thought  of  the  composer  to  allow 
his  '  Petite  messe  solennelle '  to  be  heard  there 
for  the  first  time.  This  important  oompoeition, 
comprising  solos  and  choruses,  was  written  with 
the  aocompaniment  of  a  harmonium  and  two 


ROSSINI 


KOSSINI 


161 


pianos.  On  this  occasion  it  was  sung  by  the  two 
MarchisioB,  Oardoni,  and  Agnesi,  and  was  much 
applauded.  Rossini  afterwards  scored  it  with 
slight  alterations  for  the  full  orchestra — perhaps 
a  little  heavily — and  in  this  shape  it  was  per- 
formed for  the  first  time  in  public  at  the  Theatre 
Italien,  on  the  evening  of  Sunday  Feb.  28, 1869, 
on  the  seventy-eighth  anniversary  of  the  com- 
poser's birth  as  nearly  as  that  could  be,  seeing 
that  he  was  bom  in  a  leap  year,  on  Feb.  29. 

In  the  last  years  of  his  life  Rossini  affected 
the  piano,  spoke  of  himself  as  a  fourth-rate 
pianist,  and  composed  little  else  but  pianoforte 
pieces.  Most  of  these  were  in  some  sense  or 
other  Jenx  d*e9prit ;  some  were  inscribed  to  his 
parrot,  or  had  the  most  fanciful  titles — '  Valse 
anti'dansante,'  'Fausse  couche  de  Polka- ma- 
zurka,' '^tnde  asthmatique,'  '^hantillon  de 
blague,'  etc.  The  whole  were  arranged  in  cases 
with  snch  quaint  names  as  '  Album  oUa  podrida, ' 
*  Lea  quatre  mendiants,'  *  Quatre  hors-d'oeuvre,* 
'Album  de  Ch&teau,'  *  Album  de  Chaumi^re,' 
etc.  For  the  Exposition  universelle  of  1867, 
however,  he  wrote  a  Cantata,  which  was  per- 
formed for  the  first  time  at  the  ceremony  of 
awarding  the  prizes  on  July  1,  and  was  also 
executed  at  the  Opera  at  the  free  performances 
OD  August  15,  1867  and  1868.  It  opens  with  a 
hymn  in  a  broad  style,  in  which  the  author  of 
'  Semiramis '  and  *  Moise '  is  quite  recognisable, 
but  winds  up  with  a  vulgar  quick -step  on  a 
vioi^  not  unlike  the  country  dance  kno^vn  as 
'  L'  Ostendaise.'  The  title,  which  we  give  from 
the  autograph,  seems  to  show  that  the  son  of  the 
jolly  '  trombadore '  of  Pesaro  was  quite  aware  of 
the  character  of  the  finale  of  his  last  work. 

A  NapoltoD  III. 

et 

i  son  TBillabt  Peuple. 

Hymne 

aree  aeeompagnement  d'orchestre  et  muBique  militaire 

poor  baiyton  (soloX  nn  Pontife, 

choenr  de  Grands  Praties 

chcBor  de  YlTandi^ies,  de  Soidats,  et  de  Peuple. 

Alafln 

Daiue,  Clochw,  Tambours  et  Canons. 

E  du  peu ! ! 


The  final  touch  is  quite  enough  to  show  that 
Rossiiii  to  the  last  had  more  gaiety  than  pro- 
priety, more  wit  than  dignity,  more  love  of 
independence  than  good  taste.  He  preferred  the 
society  of  artists  to  any  other,  and  was  never  so 
happy  as  when  giving  free  scope  to  his  caustic 
wit  or  his  Rabelaisian  humour.  His  bona  mots 
were  abundant,  and  it  is  surprising  that  no  one 
has  yet  attempted  to  collect  them.  One  or  two 
may  find  place  here.  One  day,  in  a  fit  of  the 
spleen,  he  cried  out,  *  I  am  miserable  ;  my  nerves 
are  wrong,  and  every  one  offers  me  string  in- 
stead. *  D'Ortigue,  the  author  of  the  Didionnaire 
liturgique,  had  been  very  severe  on  him  in 
an  article  in  the  Corretpondant  on  'Musical 
VOL.  IV 


royalties,'  and  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  the 
Italian  School  having  replied  somewhat  angrily, 
Rossini  wrote  to  him,  '  I  am  much  obliged  to 
you  for  your  vigorous  treatment  (lavemeTit)  of 
the  tonsure  of  my  Mend  the  Cur^  d'Ortigue.' 
A  number  of  friends  were  disputing  as  to  which 
was  his  best  opera,  and  appealed  to  him.  '  You 
want  to  know  which  of  my  works  I  like  best? 
"  Don  Giovanni "  !  *  He  took  extreme  delight 
in  his  summer  villa  at  Passy,  which  stood  in  the 
Avenue  Ingres,  and  had  a  fine  garden  of  about 
three  acres  attached  to  it.  In  that  house  he 
died  on  Friday  Nov.  13,  1868,  at  9  p.m.,  after 
a  long  day  of  agony.  His  funeral  was  magnifi- 
cent. As  Foreign  Associate  of  the  Institute 
a  888)  ;  Grand  Officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honour 
(1864),  and  the  orders  of  St.  Maurice  and  St. 
Lazare ;  commander  of  many  foreign  orders, 
and  honorary  member  of  a  great  number  of 
Academies  and  musical  institutions — Rossini 
had  a  right  to  every  posthumous  honour 
possible.  The  funeral  took  pUce  at  the  church 
of  the  Trinite  on  Saturday  Nov.  21,  it  was 
gorgeous,  and  was  attended  by  several  deputa- 
tions from  Italy.  Tamburini,  Duprez,  Gardoni, 
Bonnehte,  Faure,  Capoul,  Belval,  Obin,  Delle 
Sedie,  Jules  Lefort,  Agnesi,  Alboni,  Adelina 
Patti,  Nilsson,  Krauss,  Carvalho,  Bloch,  and 
Grossi,  with  the  pupils  of  the  Conservatoire, 
sang  the  Prayer  from  'Moise.'  Nilsson  gave 
a  fine  movement  from  the  '  Stabat '  of  Peigolesi, 
but  the  most  impressive  part  of  the  ceremony 
was  the  singing  of  the  *  Quis  est  homo  *  from 
Rossini's  own  'Stabat  mater'  by  Patti  and 
Alboni.  To  hear  that  beautiful  music  rendered 
by  two  such  voices,  and  in  the  presence  of  such 
artists,  over  the  grave  of  the  composer,  was  to 
feel  in  the  truest  sense  the  genius  of  Rossini, 
and  the  part  which  he  played  in  the  music  of 
the  19th  century. 

At  the  opening  of  his  career  Rossini  had  two 
courses  before  him,  either,  like  Simone  Mayr 
and  Paer,  to  follow  the  footsteps  of  the  old 
Neapolitan  masters,  or  to  endeavour  to  revolu- 
tionise the  Italian  opera,  as  Gluck  and  Mozart 
had  revolutionised  those  of  France  and  Germany. 
He  chose  tlie  latter.  We  have  described  the 
eagerness  with  which  he  threw  himself  into  the 
path  of  innovation,  and  the  audacity  with  which, 
while  borrowing  a  trait  of  harmony  or  of  piquant 
modulation  from  Mjyo  (1740-71)  or  the 
skeleton  of  an  effect  from  Generali  (1783-1832), 
he  extinguished  those  from  whom  he  stole, 
according  to  the  well-known  maxim  of  Voltaire. 
We  have  already  mentioned  his  innovations  in 
the  accompaniment  of  the  recitatives,  first,  in 
'  Elisabetta,'  the  fiiU  quartet  of  strings,  and 
next  in  *  Otello '  the  occasional  addition  of  the 
wind  instruments.  This  was  a  great  relief  to 
the  monotony  of  the  old  secco  recitative.  But 
his  innovations  did  not  stop  there  ;  he  intro- 
duced into  the  orchestra  generally  a  great  deal 


162 


ROSSINI 


ROSSINI 


more  movement,  variety,  colour,  combination, 
and  (it  must  be  allowed)  noise,  than  any  of  his 
predecessors  had  done,  though  never  so  as  to 
drown  the  voices.  In  Germany  the  orchestra 
was  well  understood  before  the  end  of  the  18th 
century ;  and  we  must  not  forget  that — not 
to  sj^eak  of  Mozart's  operas  of  *  Fidelio  *  or  of 
Gherubini's  masterpieces — before  the  production 
of  the  *Barbier©*  (1816),  eight  of  Beethoven's 
Symphonies  were  before  the  world.  But  in 
Italy  instrumentation  was  half  a  century  behind, 
and  certainly  none  of  Rossini's  predecessors  in  that 
country  ever  attempted  what  he  did  in  his  best 
operas,  as  for  instance  in  the  finale  to  *  Semira- 
mide'  (1823),  where  the  employment  of  the 
four  horns  and  the  clarinets,  and  the  astonish- 
ingly clever  way  in  which  the  orchestra  is 
handled  generally,  are  quite  strokes  of  genius. 
The  horns  are  always  favourites  of  his,  and  are 
most  happily  used  throughout  *  Guillaume  Tell,' 
where  we  may  point  to  the  mixture  of  pizzicato 
and  bowed  notes  in  the  Chorus  of  the  first  act, 
the  harp  and  bell  in  the  Chorus  of  the  second 
act,  and  other  traits  in  the  Conspiracy  scene  as 
marks  of  real  genius,  for  the  happy  and  pictur- 
esque effects  produced  by  very  simple  means. 
Rossini  had  further,  like  all  the  great  masters, 
a  strong  feeling  for  rhythm,  as  the  most  power- 
ful of  all  aids  to  interest  and  success,  and  was 
fond  of  quick  movements  and  of  triple  time.^ 
But  an  excessive  love  of  jewels  is  apt  to  lead  to 
the  use  of  sham  diamonds,  and  his  incessant 
pursuit  of  effect  led  him  to  excessive  ornamen- 
tation, to  noise,  and  to  a  passion  for  attractive 
forms  rather  than  for  the  feeling  which  should 
lie  at  the  root  of  them.  Much  of  this,  however, 
was  atoned  for  in  his  early  operas  by  his 
masterly  way  of  writing  for  the  voices,  by  the 
strength  of  his  melody,  the  copious  flow  of  his 
ideas,  and  the  irresistible  contagion  of  his  good 
spirits,  especially  in  comic  opera.  Having  thus 
secured  his  position  in  public  favour,  his  next 
step — a  very  legitimate  one — was  to  satisfy 
the  demands  of  his  own  taste  and  conscience. 
During  this  second  period  the  subjects  of  his 
operas  increase  in  interest  In  '  Mos^ '  he  deals 
with  the  religious  sentiment  In  the  '  Donna 
del  Lago '  he  rivals  Walter  Scott  on  his  own 
field  ;  and  in  '  Semiramide '  he  has  recourse  to 
oriental  history  in  his  endeavour  to  give  an 
independent  value  to  his  drama.  During  this 
])eriod  his  melodies  drop  some  of  their  former 
voluptuous  character,  but  in  return  are  more 
pathetic  and  more  full  of  colour,  though  still 
wanting  in  tenderness  and  depth. 

Lastly,  in  his  Paris  operas,  and  especially  in 
'  Guillaume  Tell,'  the  influence  of  French  taste 
makes  itself  strongly  felt,  and  we  find  a  clear- 
ness, a  charm,  a  delicacy  in  the  small  details, 
a  sense  of  proportion  and  of  unity,  a  breadth 
of  style,  an  attention  to  the  necessities  of  the 

1  The  BiifUah  rmder  wlU  find  theae  potnta  bftppilj  touched  oo 
In  Sutherland  Bdwmrds'a  OUUrpitfthe  Opera,  chap.  xvl. 


stage,  and  a  dignity,  which  raise  this  epoch  of 
his  career  far  higher  than  either  of  the  others. 

Rossini's  music,  as  we  have  already  said,  has 
been  very  differently  estimated.  Ingres,  in 
whose  view  honesty  in  art  held  almost  as  high 
a  place  as  genius  or  originality,  has  called  it 
'the  music  of  a  dishonest  (malhonnUe)  man.' 
Berlioz  would  gladly  have  burnt  it  all,  and 
Rossini's  followers  with  it*  On  the  other 
hand,  Schubert,  though  fully  alive  to  his 
weaknesses,  as  his  caricatures  of  Rossini's  over- 
tures show,  and  with  every  reason  to  dislike 
him  from  the  fact  that  the  Rossini /uron;  kept 
Schubert's  own  works  off  tlie  stage — oonti-asts 
his  operas  most  favourably  with  die  *  rubbish ' 
which  filled  the  Vienna  theatres  at  that  time, 
and  calls  him  emphatically  'a  rare  genius.' 
'His  instrumentation,'  he  continues,  'is  often 
extremely  original,  and  so  is  the  voice-writing, 
nor  can  I  find  any  fault  with  the  music  (of 
"  Otello  "),  if  I  except  the  usual  Italian  gallo- 
pades  and  a  few  reminiscences  of  "  Tancredi." '  ^ 
Mendelssohn,  too,  as  is  well  known,  would  allow 
no  one  to  depreciate  RossinL  Even  Schumann, 
so  intolerant  of  the  Italian  School,  is  enthusi- 
astic over  one  of  his  operas,  and  calls  it  '  real, 
exhilarating,  clever  music'  Such  exaggerations 
as  those  of  Ingres  and  Berlioz  are  as  bad  as 
intentional  injustice  ;  it  is  better  to  recollect  the 
very  difficult  circumstances  which  surrounded 
an  Italian  composer  eighty  years  ago,  and  to  en- 
deavour to  discover  why  music  which  was  once 
so  widely  worshipped  has  now  gone  out  of 
fashion.  Is  it  the  fault  of  his  librettos  ?  No 
doubt  he  would  have  been  wiser  to  stick  to 
comic  subjects,  like  that  of  the  'Barbiere,'  and 
to  have  confined  himself  for  his  librettos  to  the 
poets  of  his  own  family.  Is  it  the  elaborate 
ornamentation  of  much  of  his  music?  No 
doubt  ornamented  music  decays  sooner  than 
that  of  a  plainer  style,  and  it  Lb  always  danger- 
ous, though  tempting,  to  adopt  the  fashionable 
forms.  But  one  main  reason  is  to  be  found  in 
the  deterioration  of  the  art  of  singing ;  the 
Paris  opera  can  now  boast  neither  *  t^nor  de  force ' 
nor '  t^nor  de  grace ' ;  and  the  revival  of  the '  Comte 
Ory'(on  Oct  29,  1880)  showed  conclusively 
the  mediocrity  of  the  singers  at  the  Academie. 
In  fiM^t  Rossini  is  now  expiating  his  fault  in 
having  demanded  too  much  from  his  singers.^ 
Some  feeling  of  remorse  on  this  head  seems  to 
have  prompted  his  efibrts  to  improve  the  art  of 
singing  both  in  Paris  and  Bologna.  Indeed  so 
keenly  alive  was  he  to  the  tendencies  which 

>  Berltei.  J/nnoinm,  chap,  xlv,    Th«  aboaa  of  th«  '  hnitala  groaae 
ealsM  de  Bominl '  aounda  oddly  from  Berlioa't  pen. 
s  Letter  In  Ktelaale'e  I4/lt  t^faekuUrt,  tituiv-  viL 
<  It  in  amusing  to  find  BoMfni  aeeuwd  In  hla  own  titn«.  ai  «#re 


both  Beethoven  and  Wagner,  of  being  a  deabnjrer  of  the  roioe. 
The  ooRMpondent  of  the  Attg.  JtuaUt.  MtUmtf,  writing  from 
Venice  In  Apxll  1819,  mention*  a  eertatn  Connteaa  INeterlehatein 
at  Rome,  who  prononnoed  that  hla  pniMgea  were  ao  attaining  and 
ruinous  for  both  throat  and  duet  that  if  he  wrote  opena  for  tra 
yean  longer  there  would  be  no  more  alngera  left  In  Italy.  *  Olorsi. ' 
oontinuea  the  ooireapondent,  *  for  whom  he  wrote  the  "  Ceneieiitola.  * 
la  already  completely  ruined.'  [It  la  periiape  only  UXr  to  remfikd 
the  reader  that  since  the  above  article  waa  written  there  have  liacn 
many  aingers  at  the  Pkris  Op<ta  and  elaewheie  fully  oapable  of 
performing  Boealnl's  operaa  if  the  public  wanted  them.] 


ROSSINI 


ROSSINI 


163 


have  degraded  the  stage  since  1830,  and  so 
anxious  to  further  the  love  of  fresh  melody  and 
the  pTosecQtion  of  sound  musical  study,  that 
he  bequeathed  to  the  Institute  an  annual  sum 
of  6000  francs  (£240)  for  a  competition  both 
in  dramatic  poe^  and  composition,  specifying 
particularly  that  the  object  of  the  prize  should 
lie  to  encourage  composers  with  a  turn  for 
melody.  The  greater  part  of  his  property 
Rossini  devoted  to  the  foundation  and  endow- 
ment of  a  Conaervatorio  of  Music  at  his  native 
town  Peearo,  of  which  A.  Bazzini  and  Mascagni 
were  successively  directors. 

In  order  to  complete  this  sketch  it  is  neces- 
sary to  give  as  complete  a  list  as  possible  of  his 
works.    N.B. — In  the  column  after  the  names, 

(1)  signifiee  that  the  score  has  been  engraved  ; 

(2)  that  it  is  published  for  voices  and  piano ; 

(3)  that  it  is  still  in  manuscript 


I  IsPull 

!  Boore. 
I  9-PP. 

do. 
!  .1=118. 


Pint 
repreaenUtkm. 


A4i»  ilMtmi 


Ud'lUUa  , 


AaedlediCortnto.  L' 
AorcUaao  tn  Ftelmin 
*Baftiiex«dJ8lTlcUa.U 
BuMo-drB^nU^Le 
BiMnePkltoro 
BniKhlsi.  I  doe  itmim) 


daOk    viOIkU.,  -  S.  3 


CuibiBle     di      ni 
DMfBio.  L*  (teni^ 

CubMo    <-  - 
Il,arL- 
(burnt 
VCoMraitola,  La 

•  C««it«0r7.  l^ 
biMdaUcLa 
IVmetotoeFMfbto 

•  [teamd«lUcD,  Im, 
EdMrteeCriaUaa 
Btebecta 
Kqidv<wo  ■tnTacutte 


-  8.  3  Rome.  Car.  1818 

-  2.  3  iLUbon.  1818 

-  3,  3  NaplM.  Ant.  1817 

-  2,  3  MilMi,  Dec  98. 18B. 

-  S.  3  Milui.  Dee.  98. 1813 

-  8,  S  BoBDA.  Peb.  0. 1816 
1.9,-  Plkrla.  M»y  8. 1G34 

2,  3  MilMi.  D«L  98.  1819 
Venloe.  1819 
Full.  Dee.  98. 1887 
Venice,  Ant.  1810 


6.1834 

Jnne  92.1898 
Jan.  27. 1818 


-9.- 
-2.  S 


Venice.  1819 


—  2.  8  Rome.  Car.  1817 

;  1.  9.  -  iParti.  Anc  90, 1898 

,  I. Plaria.  Oct.  21, 189ft 

I  —  2.  S  Rome.  1812 

-  1  8  Naplei.  Oet.  4, 1819 


Jan.  8. 1890 
Pebk  98.1899 


FifUo  per  Anardo.  IL 
HceBnwelilnl 
•  GanaMra.  La 

OaartU.U  i 

«  OiiUlMmwTUl 

lacuiMfellee.  L'  (faraa) 

lAbeOe.  adapied  Innu 


9,  8 
-  2.  3 
-2.8 
-2,8 


Venice,  Car.  1819 
NaplM.  Ant.  1816 
Bokiipia.  Ant  1811 
Naplee,UDt^l819 


-2.  3 
-U.  3 
1.  9- 
-2.  3 

lUlJana  in  Alferl.  L'  -  2.  8 

Macvieeio  Seeoodo  —  2,  8 

MaUkUdiShahna  -2.3 

Ibtklkledeaabian  1-2.- 

*'■*«  .  1.  9.  — 

llaa«  la  EcHto  (2  or  4!  —  2.  3 
•cut 

TV),  lad  Italian  Uteetto, 

Ocaatone  fa  11  ladxu. 
L.  «  U  camblo.  etc, 
'<wat  I 

•  OtaDo  I  . 
Olello,  on   Ic   Mere  de> 

VealM  ^Castll-Blaaef    ' 
Otfceao(Ror«'aW»e«f  i- 
Otto««B4d' Italia.    Scf' 

AdciaJd*  I 

^l^tn  del  Pw^DOc.  L«    - 
^♦<i»ni«.La  1 

'^i'caudo  e  Zotfrnide 
KebertBraoc 
«o^  *t  Hta.  U  ifana^     - 

•  !Va.iruiid« 
!«teliainis 

«  HUftdeCflrtntbe.  Le       1 


Milan.  May  81. 1817 
Naplea.  1816 
Plaria.  An«.  3. 1890 
Venice,  Car.  1812 


Venice,  1813 
Naidei.  Car.  1820 
Rome.  Car.  1891 
Ftftria.  1807 

Pluia.  Mar.  20.  1»27 
Naplo^  Lent.  1818 


Fftrla,18S7 
Venice.  1812 


2.  3  Ii•J>^m,  D«c  i.  HUH  MajrlS,  1822 


-  9.  —  Wl«.  8el>1.  H,  1644 


Pint  per- 
formance 
in  London 
atKinc** 
Theatre. 


Peb.  18, 1823 
Apr.  20, 1818 


Mar.  10. 1821 


JUI7II.I8SO 
Jnly  1,  1819 


Jan.  27, 1819 
July  3.  I88S 


(Pletro 
I'BremtU) 
Apr.  23. 1822 


TwviMo  •  Dorliaka 
Tano  in  Italtei.  n 
yiH»fc»»B.ln„,ll 


-2.3 
-2,  3 

-  2.  3 

-  2.  3 

-  2.  3 
.  2.- 

-  2.  3 

-  2.  3 


I-^Hk  1IIS9 

^  .ki^lriv  A  qt-  im  »      Jmi«  6.  1828 

I.uii.,  X*fc.  XK  IftM 

^  -T3lrt,  Cat.  I  HI  J 

\i^nl».  fmh.  .1.  ]*^J:t  Jlllyl6.1894 

ririti.  juif  B,  ^snu 

'^ViiJ,,^.  Car.  ItMQ 

^ '^nkcB.  Ft^  «.  It^H  Haj  4,  1820 
2.  3  K'itoi,  Dec  %  1^1^ 
2.  3  HLIaiw  Aug.  14  UCJ4  )[ayl9. 1821 

F^da,  JuM  1ft.  1I£& 
2.  3  N«^«»,  Dvi^,  l^il        T«D.94,1824 


II  plmai\ 
1806. 


II.  CANTATAS 


ito  d'  armonia,  Bologna. 


Dldone  abbandonata.    Bologna, 

1811. 
Rfle  ed  Irene.  1814. 
TaU  e  P«leo.  1810. 


Igea.  1819. 
Partenope. 


18ia 


U  Tero  omacgio.  Verona.  1823. 


L'  Augnrio  felice.  Verona,  18». 

La    sacra    alleanai.    Veronal 

1888. 
n  Bardo.  Verona,  1888. 
II  rltomo,  182lw 
II  pianto  delle  Muae.  London, 

I  Paatorl.  Naplee,  189B. 

II  eerto  rotlvo.  Bologna.  1828. 


Oratorio.  'Ciro  in  BabUoula.' 
Penara.  Lent,  1812. 

Stabat  Mater.  1889-41.    1.2.3. 

lyUU  Meeae  SolenneUe.  1864. 
2,8. 

Tantum  ergo,  for  2  tenors  and 
baae.  with  oreheetra.  1.  2.  a 
Compoeed  at  Bologna,  and  per- 
fonned  Not.  28.  1847.  for  the 


III.  SACRED  MUSIC 

rfseetabltshment  of  the  aervice 
In  the  church  of  S.  Pranoeioo 
del  Minori  conventnalL 

Qnonlam,  ban  solo  and  oreheatm. 
1.2,8. 

O  Salntaria,  4  aolo  roioea.  Pub. 
llahed  at  Paris  in  La  MaUrim 
and  reprodnoed  in  facsimile  hy 
Aievedo  in  hia  RouUni. 


IV.  MISCELLANEOUS  VOCAL  MUSIC 
Qor^ieni  e  SoUeggi.     A  eolko-  Inno  popnlars,  cm  the  accession 

tion  «  exerdaes  rar  the  voice. 
Nou    poeso.   o    Dio,    rselstere. 

CanUta. 


Dnet- 


»  popnla    . 
of  Fins  IX.    Chorus. 
D^r  Oriente  1'  aatro  del  giomo, 

Cara  Patria.    Cantata. 

Chant  dea  Titans.    Chorua. 

Se  11  mol  hi  Molinara.-Roasini's 

first  composition. 
La     Separacione.         Dramatic 


Oh   qnanto    eon   grate. 

tina 
Ridlamo.  cantiamo,  4  4. 
Alle  Tod   della    gloria.     Scena 

edAria. 
Lea  Soirtes  mnsioales.  8  ariettas 

and  4  duets. 

Various  other  airs  and  pieces,  thirty  or  forty 
in  number,  will  be  found  in  the  catalogues  of 
Ricordi,  Lucca,  Brandus  (Troupenas),  and 
Escudier,  which  it  is  hardly  necessary  to 
enumerate  here.  Probably  no  composer  ever 
wrote  so  much  in  albums  as  did  Rossini.  The 
number  of  these  pieces  which  he  threw  off  while 
in  London  alone  is  prodigious.  They  are 
usually  composed  to  some  lines  of  Metastasio's, 
beginning  'Mi  lagnerk  tacendo  della  sorts 
amara^'  which  he  is  said  to  have  set  more  than 
a  hundred  times.  [The  famous  aria,  *Pietk, 
Signore/  which  credulous  amateurs  still  regard 
as  Stradella's,  was,  according  to  Signer  Alfredo 
Piatti,  WTitteu  as  a  joke  by  Rossini.] 

We  have  stated  that  during  the  latter  yeara 
of  his  life  Rossini  composed  a  great  quantity  of 
music  for  the  PF.  solo,  both  serious  and  comic. 
These  pieces  were  sold  by  his  widow  en  masse 
to  Baron  Grant  for  the  sum  of  £4000.  After 
a  time  the  whole  was  put  up  to  auction  in 
London  and  purchased  by  Ricordi  of  Milan, 
^I.  Paul  Dalloz,  proprietor  of  a  {)eriodical 
entitled  La  MusiquCt  at  Paris,  and  other 
persons. 

V.  INSTRUMENTAL  MUSIC 

Lerendeivousdecbasse.  A  fan-  Marrh  (Pas  redoubU)  compotttKl 
fare  for  4  trumpets,  composed  for  H.I.M.  the  Sultau  Abdul 
at  Compligue  in  1898  for  M.  Medjld.  Arniuged  for  PP.  solo 
Schikler,  and  dedicated  to  him.      (Benedict)  and  4  4  mains. 

3  Marches  for  the  marriage  of  5  String  Quartets,  arranged  ms 
H.E.H.  the  Duke  of  Orleans.  Sooatlnes  for  the  PP.  by  Mock- 
Arranged  for  PP.  4  4  mains.  wlU  ( Breitkopf  t  HMrtel). 

To  enumerate  and  elucidate  all  the  biogi-aphi- 
cal  and  critical  notices  of  Rossini  would  require 
a  volume  ;  we  shall  therefore  confine  ourselves 
to  mentioning  these  of  importance  either  from 
their  authority,  their  ability,  or  the  special 
nature  of  their  contents  ;  and  for  greater  con- 
venience of  reference  we  have  arranged  them 
according  to  country  and  date. 

I.  Itauan 

G.  Carpani.    JjttUra  all'  arumimo  autcre  delV  articolo 
sul  •  Tancredi'  di  RoisinU    Milan,  1818,  8vo. 


164 


ROSSINI 


ROTA 


G.  Garpani.  Le  Rostiniaw,  os$ia  Lettere  mtmco-teatraii, 
Padam,  1824, 180  pages,  8vo.    Portrait. 

Nfc.  Bettoni.  Rossini  e  la  rua  mutiai,  Milan,  1824, 
8va 

P.  Brighenti.  Delia  vtttsica  rouiniana  e  dd  mo  aiutart. 
Bologna,  1880,  8vo. 

Lib.  Musumeei.  Parattdo  tra  %  maulri  Rotti'ni  e  Bel- 
lini.   Palermo,  1882,  8vo. 

Anon.  OsservcuUmi  tvi  mtrito  musUxde  dei  mae$tri 
Bellini  «  Rossini,  in  riposta  ad  un  ParaUdo  tra  i  meJe- 
simi.  Bologna,  1884,  8va  This  pamphlet  was  trans- 
lated into  French  by  M.  de  Ferrer,  and  published  as 
Rossini  et  Bdllni.    Paris,  1835,  8vo. 

Anon.  Rossini  « la  sua,  musUu  ;  una  Passeggiata  eon 
Rossini,    Florence,  1841, 10mo. 

Anon.  Ddlo  Stabat  Mater  di  Gioachino  Rossini,  Ut- 
ters Storioo-critidu  di  un  Lonibardo.    Bologna,  1842,  8vo. 

Oiov.  Raflbelli.    Rossini,  canto.    Modena,  1844,  8vo. 

Fr.  Regli.  Elogio  di  Gioacchtno  Rossini.  We  have 
not  been  able  to  discover  how  far  llM;li  (1804-66)  has 
used  this  work  in  his  Dizionario  biogr^fieo  (I860). 

B.  Montazia  Gioacehino  Rossini.  Turin,  1862, 18mo. 
Portrait. 

Qiul.  Vanzolini.  Ddla  vera  Patria  di  G.  Rossini. 
Pesaro,  1873,  8vo. 

Ferrucci.  Gludisio  psr&ntorio  svUa  verity  ddla  Patria 
dl  G.  Rossini  impugTuUadal  Prqf.  GiuL  Vanzolini.  Flo* 
rence,  1874 ;  an  8vo  pamphlet  of  20  pages. 

Sett  Silvestri.  Ddla  vita  s  ddle  opere  di  G.  Rossini. 
Milan,  1874,  8vo ;  with  portrait  and  facsimiles. 

Ant  Zanolini.  BlograJUi  di  Gioadtino  Rossini.  Bo- 
logiM,  1875,  8vo ;  with  portrait  and  fiicsimiles. 

[R.  Gandolfl«  Onoranaefiorsntine  a  Gioacehino  Botaini. 
1902.] 

II.  Frbkch 

Papillon.    Lettre  critique  sur  Rossini.    Paris,  1828, 8vo. 

Stendhal.  Fie  de  RossinL  Paris,  1828,  8vo.  Stend- 
hal, whose  real  name  was  Henri  Beyle,  compiled  this 
work  fh>m  Garpani.  In  many  passages  in  (kct  it  is 
nothing  but  a  translation,  and  Beyle's  own  anecdotes 
are  not  always  trustworthy.  It  was  translated  into 
Bngliah  (London,  12mo,  1826)  and  German  (Leipzig, 
1824),  in  the  latter  case  by  Wendt,  who  has  added  notes 
and  corrections. 

Berton.  De  la  mnsique  mieaiUqve  et  de  la  musiquB 
philoBopkique.    Paris,  1824,  8vo :  24  pages. 

Ditto,  followed  by  an  EpUre  a  v/n  oddfre  compositeur 
fran^is  (Boieldieu).    Paris,  1826,  8vo ;  48  pages. 

Imbert  de  Laphaltaue.  De  la  Musique  en  Francs: 
Rossini,  '  GuUlawiM  7eU.'    (Revue  de  Paris,  1820.) 

J.  d'Ortigue.  De  la  guerre  des  dildtanti  ou  de  la  re- 
volution opirie  par  M.  Rossini  dans  Vopira  frangais, 
Paris.  1829,  8vo. 

N.  BettonL  Rossini  et  sa  musigue.  Paris,  Bettoni, 
1836.  8vo. 

Anon.  Vie  de  Rossini,  etc.  Antwerp,  1889,  12mo ; 
215  pages.  (By  M.  Van  Damme,  who  hi  his  turn  has 
borrowed  much  fh>m  StendhaL) 

L.  de  Lomdnie.  M.  Rossini,  par  un  homme  de  rien. 
Paris,  1842,  8va 

Aulagnier.  Qudques  obgervations  sur  la  pvJblieation 
dn  '  Stabat  maUr '  de  Rossini.    Paris,  1842,  4to. 

Anon.  Obaervatioru  d'un  amateur  non  dUettante  au 
sufd  du  '  Stabat '  de  M.  Rossin  i.    ParU,  1842,  8vo. 

B.  Troupenas.  Risumi  des  opinions  de  la  Presss  sur  le 
•  Stabat '  de  RossinU    Paris,  1842,  8vo  ;  75  pages. 

Escudier  fr^res.  Rossini,  sa  vieetses  oeuvres.  Paris, 
1854,  12mo ;  888  pages. 

Bug.  de  Mirecourt.    Rossini.    Paris,  1865,  S2mo. 

A.  Azevedo.  G.  Rossini,  savie  et  ses  ceuvres.  Paris, 
1865,  large  8vo ;  810  pages,  with  portraits  and  (kcsirailes. 
This  is  the  most  complete  and  eulogistic  work  on 
Rnssini.  It  appeared  originally  in  the  MHestrd,  but 
was  discontinued  there,  the  editor  not  approving  of  a 
violent  attack  on  Meyerbeer,  which  Azevedo  included 
in  it. 

Virmaitre  et  Elie  Fr^bault.  Les  maisons  comiques  de 
Paris,  1868,  I2mo.  One  chapter  is  devoted  to  the  house 
of  Rossini. 

N.  Roqueplan.   Rossini.    Paris,  1869, 12rao ;  16  pages. 

B.  BeuM.    Eloge  de  Rossini.    Paris,  1869. 

A.  Pougin.  Rossini:  Notts,  impretsions,  souvenirs, 
commentaires.  Paris,  1870, 8vo ;  91  pages.  The  detailed 
and  annotated  chronological  list  mentioned  on  p.  8  has 
not  yet  been  published. 

O.  Moutoz.  Rossini  et  son  *  GuiUawne  TeU.'  Bouiv, 
1872,  8vo. 


Vauder  Straeten.    La  mdodie  popuiaire  dans  Vopira 
*  GuUlaume  TeU '  de  Rossini.    Pans,  1879,  8vo. 
[J.  Sittard.    Aooini,  1882.] 

in.  Okrbian 

Oetttnger.  Rossini,  Komischer  Roman.  Leipzig,  1847. 
A  satirical  work  translated  into  Danish  by  Marlow 
fCk>penhagen,  1849,2  vols.  8vo.);  into  Swedish  by  Land- 
Der§  (Stockholm,  1850,  2  vols.  8vo);  and  Into  French 
by  Royer,  Rossini,  Vhomme  et  VartisU  (Brussels,  186S, 
8  vols.  16mo). 

Otto  Gumprecht  MusikalisduCharakterlMder.  Leip- 
zig, 1860,  8vo. 

Fd.  HiUer.  Plaudereien  mU  RosHni.  Inserted  (with 
date  1856)  in  Hiller's  Aus  dem  Tonleben  unserer  Zeit 
(Leipzig,  1868) ;  translated  into  French  by  Ch.  Schwartz 
in  La  France  musioale,  1855 ;  and  into  Bn^ish  by  Miss 
M.  B.  von  Glehn  in  Once  a  Week,  1870. 

A.  Struth.  Rossini,  sein  Leben,  seine  Wsrke  und  Chetrak' 
terzuge.    Leipzig. 

La  Mara.  Musikxdisdtx  Studienkopje,  \o\.  iu  Leipzig, 
1874-1876,  2  vols.  12mo. 

IV.  Bkgush 

Hogarth.  Memoirs  of  the  Musical  Drama,  London, 
1888,  2  vols.  8vo. 

H.  S.  Edwards.  Rossini's  Lijis.  London,  1809,  8vo ; 
portrait— 1/Mory  qf  the  Opera,  lb.  1862,  2  vols.  8vo.^ 
Rossini  and  his  Sdiool,  1881. 

Portraits  of  Rossini  ore  frequent  at  all  periods- 
of  his  life.  Marochetti's  statue,  in  which  he  is. 
represented  sitting,  was  erected  in  his  native 
town  in  1864.  There  is  a  good  bust  by  Barto- 
lini  of  Florence.  In  the  *  foyer '  of  the  Opera 
in  the  Rue  Le  Peletier,  Paris  (now  destroyed), 
there  was  a  medallion  of  Rossini  by  Chevalier  ; 
a  duplicate  of  this  is  in  the  possession  of  the 
editor  of  the  MAustrel.  The  front  of  the 
new  opera-house  has  a  bronze -gilt  bust  by 
M.  Evrard.  A  good  early  engraving  of  him  is 
that  from  an  oil-painting  by  Mayer  of  Vienna 
(1820).  Of  later  ones  may  be  mentioned  that 
by  Tli^venin  after  Ary  Scheffer  (1843):  still 
later,  a  full-length  drawn  and  engraved  by- 
Masson,  and  a  photograph  by  Erwig,  engraved 
as  frontispiece  to  the  PF.  score  of  S^miramis 
(Heugel).  Among  the  lithographs  the  best  is 
that  of  Gr^vedon  ;  and  of  caricatures  the  only 
one  deserving  mention  is  that  by  Dantan.  g.c. 

ROTA,  or  ROTTA  (Fr.  roU ;  Ger.  rolU,  or 
roUa).  (i.)  A  stringed  instrument  of  the 
psaltery  class,  the  three  (or  seven)  strings  of 
which  were  plucked  either  with  the  fingers  or 
with  a  plectrum.  It  is  mentioned  as  early  as 
A.D.  868  by  Otfried.  It  seems  to  be  allied  to 
the  ancient  lyre.  The  derivation  of  the  word 
from  the  Irish  croU  or  eruil,  or  the  Welsh  cruih 
(called  chroUa  by  Yenantius  Fortunatus),  seems 
hardly  likely  without  more  definite  evidence 
than  is  before  us.  The  instruments  of  the  crwth 
kind  were  generally  played  with  a  bow. 

(ii.)  The  name  rota  is  applied  to  the  famous 
round,  *  Sumer  is  icumen  in  *  (see  that  article), 
and  may  have  been  a  generic  name  for  what  we 
now  call  rounds,  the  derivation  being  in  that 
case  quite  obvious.  m. 

ROTA,  Andrea,  was  bom  in  Bologna  about 
1553,  and  in  1583  was  appointed  choir-master 
to  the  church  of  San  Petronio  in  that  city. 
He  died  in  1597.     His  publications  consist  of 


ROUGET  DE  LISLE 


ROUND 


165 


three  books  of  madrigals,  two  a  5  (Venice,  1579- 
1589),  one  a  4  (1592)  ;  two  books  of  motets  a 
5-10  (1584,  1595) ;  and  one  book  of  masses  a 
4-6  (1595).  A  very  pleasing  madrigal  a  5  is  re- 
published in  Torchi's  *  L'  Arte  Musicale  in  Italia,' 
ToL  L,  also  an  Agnus  Dei  a  7  with  double 
canon,  and  a  Dixit  Dominus  a  8.  Padre 
Martini's  Eseniplare  contains  a  Da  Pacem  by 
Bota,  and  Paolucci's  *  L' Arte  Prattica,'  a  motet 
a  10.  J.  R.  H. 

ROUGET  DE  LISLE,  Claude  Joseph, 
author  of  the  '  MarBeillaise,'  bom  at  Montaign, 
Lons-le-Sanlnier,  May  10,  1760.  He  entered 
the  School  of  Royal  Engineers  ('  ^kx)le  royale  du 
g<^nle')  at  Mezi^res  in  1782,  and  left  it  two 
yean  later  with  the  rank  of  'aspirant-lieutenant ' 
Early  in  1789  he  was  made  second  lieutenant, 
and  in  1 790  he  rose  to  be  first  lieutenant,  and  was 
moved  to  Strasbuig,  where  he  soon  became  very 
popular  in  the  triple  capacity  of  poet,  violin- 
player,  and  singer.  His  hymn,  *  k  la  Liberte,' 
composed  by  Ignaoe  Pleyel,  was  sung  at  Stras- 
bnrg,  at  the  fete  of  Sept.  25,  1791.  While 
there  he  wrote  three  pieces  for  the  theatre,  one 
of  which,  *  Bayard  en  Bresse,'  was  produced  at 
Paris,  Feb.  21,  1791,  but  without  success.  In 
April  1792  he  wrote  the  '  Marseillaise,'  of  which 
an  account  has  been  given  elsewhere.  [See  vol. 
iiL  p,  62  if.]  As  the  son  of  royalist  parents, 
and  himself  belonging  to  the  constitutional 
]jarty,  Ronget  de  iJsle  refused  to  take  the  oath 
to  the  oonstitittion  abolishing  the  crown  ;  he 
vas  therefore  stripped  of  his  military  rank, 
denounced,  and  imprisoned,  only  to  escape  after 
the  fall  of  Robespierre  in  1764,  [an  event  he 
celebrated  in  a  *Hymne  dithyrambique,'  etc. 
A  *  Chant  des  vengeances*  (1798)  and  'Chant 
da  combat  *  (1800)  are  mentioned  in  Riemann's 
Ijtxi1conS\  He  re-entered  the  army,  and  made 
the  campaign  of  La  Vend^  under  General  Hoche ; 
was  wounded,  and  at  length,  under  the  Con- 
sulate, returned  to  private  life  at  Montaign, 
where  he  remained  in  the  depth  of  solitude  and 
of  poverty  till  the  second  Restoration.  His 
brother  then  sold  the  little  family  property,  and 
Kooget  was  driven  to  Paris ;  and  there  would 
have  starved  but  for  a  small  pension  granted  by 
Louis  XVI 1 1,  and  continued  by  Louis  Philippe, 
and  for  the  care  of  his  friends  Banger,  David 
d'Angers,  and  especially  M.  and  Mme.  Yoiart, 
in  whose  house,  at  Choisy-lc-Roi,  he  died,  June 
27,  1836. 

Besides  the  works  already  mentioned,  he  pub- 
lished in  1797  a  volume  of  Essaia  en  vers  et  en 
fTfm  (Pans,  F.  Didot,  an  Y  de  la  R^publique), 
dedicated  to  M6hul,  and  now  extremely  rare  ;  so 
also  is  his  'Cinquante  chants  Fran^ais'  (1825, 
4to),  with  PF.  accompaniment  €^e  of  these 
songi,  'Roland  k  Roncevaux,'  was  written  in 
1792,  and  its  refrain — 

Monrir  pour  la  patrie, 
C«st  le  sort  le  pins  beau,  1e  plus  dlgne  d'envie— 

was  borrowed  by  the  authors  of  the  '  Chant  des 


Girondins,'  which  was  set  to  music  by  Varney, 
and  played  a  distinguished  ])art  in  the  Revolution 
of  1848.  [He  wrote  another  set  of  twenty-five 
romances  with  violin  obbligato,  and  two  opera- 
librettos,  *Jacquot,  on  I'^le  des  meres'  for 
DeUa  Maria,  and  '  Macbeth '  for  Chelard,  pro- 
duced in  1827.]  His  'Relation  du  d^sastre  de 
Quiberon,*  is  in  vol.  ii.  of  the  Mmimres  de  tons. 

There  exists  a  fine  medallion  of  Rouget  by 
David  d'Angers,  which  is  engraved  in  a  pamphlet 
by  his  nephew,  entitled  La  viriU  9ur  la  pater- 
nity de  la  Marseillaise  (Paris,  1865).  See  the 
volume  of  M.  Le  Roy  de  Ste.  Croix  (Strasburg, 
1880).  o.  c. 

ROUND.  I.  *A  species  of  canon  in  the 
unison,  so  called  because  the  performers  begin 
the  melody  at  regular  rhythmical  periods,  and 
return  from  its  conclusion  to  its  commencement, 
so  that  it  continually  passes  round  and  round 
from  one  to  another  of  them.'  ^  Rounds  and 
Catches,  the  most  characteristic  forms  of  English 
music,  differ  from  canons  in  only  being  sung  at 
the  unison  or  octave,  and  also  in  being  rhyth- 
mical in  form.  Originating  at  a  period  of  which 
we  have  but  few  musical  records,  these  composi- 
tions have  been  written  and  sung  in  England 
with  unvarying  popularity  until  the  present  day. 
The  earliest  extant  example  of  a  round  is  the 
w^ell- known  'Sumer  is  icumen  in,'  as  to  the 
date  of  which  there  has  been  much  discussion, 
although  it  is  certainly  not  later  than  the  middle 
of  the  18th  century.  [See  Sumer  is  icumen 
IN.]  Amongst  early  writers  on  music,  the  terms 
'  round '  and  *  catch '  were  synonymous,  but  at 
the  present  day  the  latter  is  generally  under- 
stood to  be  what  Hawkins  (vol.  ii.)  defines  as 
that  species  of  round  '  wherein,  to  humour  some 
conceit  in  the  words,  the  melody  is  broken, 
and  the  sense  interrupted  in  one  part,  and 
caught  again  or  supplied  by  another,'  a  form 
of  humour  which  easily  adapted  itself  to  the 
coarse  tastes  of  the  Restoration,  at  which  period 
rounds  and  catches  reached  their  highest  popu- 
larity. That  catches  were  immensely  i)opular 
with  the  lower  classes  is  proved  by  the  numerous 
allusions  to  '  alehouse  catches '  and  the  like  in 
the  dramas  of  the  16  th  and  17th  centuries.  Ac- 
cording to  Drayton  {Legend  ofThcmas  Cromwell^ 
Stanza  29)  they  were  introduced  into  Italy  by 
the  Earl  of  Essex  in  1510. 

The  first  printed  collection  of  rounds  was  that 
edited  by  Thomas  Ravenscroft,  and  published  in 
1609  under  the  title  of  'Pammelia.  Musickes 
Miscellanie :  or  Mixed  Yarietie  of  pleasant 
Roundelayes  and  delightful  1  Catches  of  3.  4.  5. 
6.  7.  8.  9.  10.  Parts  in  one.'  This  interesting 
collection  contains  many  English,  French,  and 
Latin  rounds,   etc.,  some  of    which  are  still 

>  *  Thfl  Rotmds,  Catrhn.  and  Canons  of  BB(I»iid  :  a  Oolleetlon  of 
Sparlmana  of  th^  sixteenth,  seventeenth,  and  eight««nth  oentnrles 
adaatfd  to  Modrtn  Use.  TIm  Worda  reviaed.  adapted,  or  r«- written 
by  the  Rev.  J.  Powell  Metcalfe.  The  Music  seleoted  and  reviaed,  and 
An  Introdnciory  Ersay  on  the  Riaa  and  Progrem  of  the  Round, 
Cfttrh,  and  Canon ;  alao  Blognphical  Notices  of  the  Compoaerti. 
written  by  EdwaJd  F.  Rimbaalt,  LL.D./  from  which  work  much  el 
the  Information  contained  in  the  above  article  haa  been  derived. 


166 


ROUND 


ROUSSEAU 


popular.  Amongst  them  there  is  also  a  curious 
'Round  of  three  Country  Dances  in  one'  for 
four  voices,  which  is  in  reality  a  Quodlibet  on 
the  country-dance  tunes  'Robin  Hood/  'Now 
foot  it,*  and  *The  Grampe  is  in  my  purse.' 
'  Pammelia '  was  followed  by  two  other  ooUeo- 
tions  brought  out  by  Ravenscroft,  'Deutero- 
melia'  in  1609,  and  'Melismata'  in  1611,  and 
the  numerous  publications  of  the  Playfords,  the 
most  celebrated  of  which  is  '  Catch  that  catch 
can,  or  the  Musical  Companion'  (1667),  which 
passed  through  many  editions.  The  most  com- 
plete collection  of  rounds  and  catches  is  that 
published  by  Warren  in  thirty -two  monthly 
and  yearly  numbers,  from  1768  to  1794,  which 
contains  over  800  oompositionB,  including  many 
admirable  specimens  by  P\ircell,  Blow,  and  other 
masters  of  the  English  school.  It  is  to  be  re- 
gretted that  they  are  too  often  disfigured  by  an 
obscenity  of  so  gross  a  nature  as  to  make  them 
now  utterly  unfit  for  performance.  A  good 
specimen  of  the  round  proper  is  Hayes's  '  Wind, 
gentle  evergreen.'  The  Round  has  never  been 
much  cultivated  by  foreign  composers.  One  or 
two  examples  are,  however,  well  known,  amongst 
them  may  be  mentioned  Cherubini's  'Perfida 
Clori.' 

II.  Any  dance  in  which  the  dancers  stood  in 
a  circle  was  foimerly  called  a  round  or  roundel.  ^ 
The  first  edition  of  the  '  Dancing  Master '  (1651) 
has  thirteen  rounds,  for  six,  eight,  or  '  as  many 
as  will.'  Subsequent  editions  of  the  same  book 
have  also  a  dance  called  *  Cheshire  Rounds,'  and 
Part  II.  of  Walsh's  *  Compleat  Country  Dan- 
cing Master'  (1719)  has  Irish  and  Shropshire 
rounds.  These  latter  dances  are,  however, 
not  danced  in  a  ring,  but  '  longways,'  i.e.  like 
'Sir  Roger  de  Coverley.'  In  Jeremiah  Clarke's 
'Choice  Lessons  for  the  Harpsichord  or  Spinett ' 
(1711),  and  similar  contemporary  publications, 
the  word  rondo  is  curiously  corrupted  into 
'Round  O.'  w.  B.  8. 

ROUND,  CATCH,  AND  CANON  CLUB. 
A  society  founded  in  London  in  1843,  by  Enoch 
Hawkins,  for  the  purpose  of  singing  the  new 
compositions  of  the  professional  members  and 
others,  written  in  the  form  of  Round,  Catch,  and 
Canon ;  hence  the  title  of  the  Club.  Among  the 
original  members  were  Messrs.  Enoch  Hawkins, 
Hobbs,  Bradbury,  Handel  Gear,  Henry  Phillips, 
Addison,  D'Ahnaine,  and  F.  W.  Collard.  The 
meetings  were  originally  held  at  the  Crown  and 
Anchor  Tavern  whence  the  Club  removed  to 
the  Freemasons'  Tavern,  thence  to  the  Thatched 
House,  again  to  Freemasons'  Tavern,  and  to  St. 
James's  Hall,  where,  until  the  demolition  of 
the  building,  it  assembled  every  fortnight  from 
the  first  Saturday  in  November  until  the  end 
of  March,  ten  meetings  being  held  in  each 
season.  [Its  meetings  are  now  held  in  the 
Criterion  Kestaurant,  and  take  place  on  Mon- 

■  *  Com*  now  a  n»uidel  and  a  talry  MHig .' 

Midtuntmer  SighVt  Dream,  act  IL  k.  2. 


day  evenings  instead  of  Saturdays.]  In  the 
earlier  years  of  its  existence  the  number  both  of 
professional  and  non- professional  members  at 
each  dinner  rarely  exceeded  eighteen,  but  now 
from  sixty  to  seventy  dine  together.  The 
management  of  the  Club  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
officers,  who  are  the  proprietors,  and  each  of 
whom  in  turn  takes  the  chair,  and  is  alone 
responsible  for  the  entertainment.  The  musical 
programmes  now  consist  mainly  of  glees,  al- 
though an  occasional  catch  is  introduced.  [The 
professional  members  at  present  (1907)  are 
Messrs.  W.  Coward,  6.  May,  £.  Dalzell,  F. 
Norcup,  G.  and  H.  Stubbs,  assisted  by  a  boy 
treble.  The  officers  are  Messrs.  J.  A.  Brown, 
Fred.  Walker,  and  Robt.  Hilton.]  For  non- 
professional members  there  is  an  entrance  fee  of 
three  guineas,  and  an  annual  subscription  for  the 
ten  meetings  and  dinner  of  five  guineas,     c.  m. 

ROUSSEAU,  Jean  Jacques,  bom  at  Geneva, 
June  28, 1 712,  died  at  Ermenonville,  near  Plarid, 
July  3,  1778,  five  weeks  after  Voltaire.  The 
details  of  his  life  are  given  in  his  Confessums  ; 
we  shall  here  confine  ourselves  to  his  compo- 
sitions, and  his  writings  on  music.  Although, 
like  all  who  learn  music  late  in  life  and  in  a 
desultory  manner  without  a  master,  RouBsean 
remained  to  the  end  a  poor  reader  and  an 
indifferent  harmonist,  he  exercised  a  great 
influence  on  French  music.  Immediately  after 
his  arrival  in  Paris  he  read  a  paper  before  the 
Academic  des  Sciences  (August  22,  1742)  on 
a  new  system  of  musical  notation,  which  he 
aften\'ards  extended  and  published  under  the 
title  of  Dissertation  sur  la  musi^e  modems 
(Paris,  1 743, 8vo).  His  method  of  representing 
the  notes  qf  the  scale  by  figures — 1,  2,  3,  4,5, 
6,  7 — had  been  already  proposed  hy  Souhaitty, 
but  Rousseau's  combinations,  and  especially  Ids 
signs  of  duration,  are  so  totally  different  as 
entirely  to  redeem  them  from  the  charge  of 
plagiarism.  A  detailed  analysis  and  ref\itation 
of  the  system  may  be  found  in  Raymond's  Des 
principatix  sysUmes  de  noUUiini  mudcaU  (Turin, 
1824,  8vo),  to  which  the  reader  is  referred  ;  but 
it  is  evident  that,  however  convenient  notation 
by  means  of  figures  may  be  for  writing  a  simple 
melody,  it  becomes  as  complicated  as  the  old 
system  when  modulation  or  polyphony  are  at- 
tempted. Its  very  uniformity  also  deprives  the 
reader  of  all  assistance  from  the  eye  ;  die  sounds 
must  be  spelt  out  one  by  one,  and  the  difficulty 
of  deciphering  orchestral  combinations  or  com- 
plicated harmonies  becomes  almost  insuperable. 

Copying  music  had  been  Rousseau's  means  of 
livelihood,  and  this  led  him  to  believe  that  th6 
best  way  to  learn  an  art  is  to  practise  it ;  at  any 
rate  he  composed  an  opera,  '  Les  Muses  galantes  * 
(1747),  which  was  produced  at  the  house  of  La. 
Popelini^re,  when  Rameau,  who  was  present, 
declared  that  some  pieces  showed  the  hand  of  a 
master,  and  others  the  ignorance  of  a  schoolboy. 
Not  being  able  to  obtain  access  to  any  of  the 


ROUSSEAU 


ROUSSEAU 


167 


theatres,  Rousseau  undertook  to  write  the 
articles  on  moaic  for  the  BncydopidiCj  a  task 
which  he  acoomplished  in  three  months,  and 
afterwards  acknowledged  to  have  heen  done 
hastily  and  unsatisfactorily.  We  have  mentioned 
in  the  article  Ramkau  (ante,  p.  22)  the  expos^ 
by  that  great  musician  of  the  eiTors  in  the 
mosifial  articles  of  the  Eneyehp^dU ;  Rousseau's 
reply  was  not  published  till  after  his  death,  but 
it  is  included  in  his  complete  works. 

Three  months  after  the  arrival  in  Paris  of  the 
Italian  company  who  popularised  the  <3erva 
padrona'i  in  France,  Rousseau  produced  *Le 
Devin  du  village  *  before  the  King  at  Fountaine- 
bleaii,  on  Oct.  18  and  24,  1752.  The  piece, 
of  which  both  words  and  music  were  his  own, 
pleased  the  court,  and  was  quickly  reproduced 
in  Paris.  The  first  representation  at  the 
Academic  took  place  March  1,  1753,  and  the 
last  in  1828,  when  some  wag  ^  threw  an  immense 
powdered  perruque  on  the  stage  and  gave  it  its 
deathblow.  [Devix  du  Village,  vol.  i.  p.  692a.] 
It  is  curious  that  the  representations  of  this 
simple  pastoral  should  have  coincided  so  exactly 
with  the  vehement  disciissions  to  which  the  per- 
formances of  Italian  opera  gave  rise.  We  cannot 
enter  here  upon  the  literary  quarrel  known  as 
the  *  Guerre  des  Bouffons,'  or  enumerate  the 
host  of  pamphlets  to  which  it  gave  rise,'  but 
it  is  a  strange  fact,  only  to  be  accounted  for 
on  the  principle  that  man  is  a  mass  of  contra- 
dictions, that  Rousseau,  the  author  of  the 
*  Devin  du  Village,'  pronounced  at  once  in 
favour  of  Italian  music. 

His  LeUre  tur  la  musiqitc  Fraiiqaise  (1758) 
raised  a  storm  of  indignation,  and  not  unnatu- 
rally, since  it  pronounces  French  music  to  have 
neither  rhythm  nor  melody,  the  language  not 
being  susceptible  of  either ;  French  singing  to  be 
but  a  prolonged  barking,  absolutely  insupport- 
able to  an  unprejudiced  ear  ;  French  harmony 
to  be  crude,  devoid  of  expression,  and  full  of 
mere  padding  ;  French  airs  not  airs,  and  French 
recitative  not  recitative.  *  From  which  I  con- 
clude,* he  continues,  'that  the  French  have  no 
music,  and  never  will  have  any  ;  or  that  if  they 
ever  should,  it  will  be  so  much  the  worse  for 
them.'  To  this  pamphlet  the  actors  and  musi- 
cians of  the  Opera  replied  by  hanging  and  bui-n- 
ing  its  author  in  e^y.  His  revenge  for  this 
absurdity,  and  for  many  other  attacks,  was  the 
witty  Lettre  (fvn  symphoniste  dc  I  AcacUmie 
rcynU  de  musique  A  9e$  camarades  de  Vorchestre 
(1753),  which  may  still  be  read  mth  pleasure. 
The  iesthetic  part  of  the  JHcHonnnire  de  musique 
which  he  finished  in  1764  at  Metiers -Tra vers, 
is  admirable  both  for  matter  and  style.  He 
obtained  the  privilege  of  printing  it  in  Paris, 

I  Tt  h—  bfo  fpBomn!ttf  ■apnu— J  thrt  th»  *  Senra  padrotw '  wm  not 
h«»nliBPteteb«Car»170a:  thU.  howwer,  to  »  mtotaks :  it  bad  been 
ptejed  ao  ftr  bttdE  ae  Oei.  4, 17401  bat  the  Italian  company  who  per- 
lomMd  it  warn  net  ■attafbrotory,  and  It  paaMd  alnoat  unnoticed. 

*  eiippeaed  to  haw  bean  Berlloc.  bnt  be  exculpates  htueelf  in  ble 
JTi'^wwf re,  ehapL  xr. 

•"^  S««  ChouiiiBet'e  EUtotrt  4e  la  musique  dramatitw.  pp.  134  and 


April  15,  1765,  but  did  not  make  use  of  the 
privilege  till  1768  ;  the  Geneva  edition,  also  in 
one  vol.  4to,  came  out  in  1 767.  In  spite  of  mis- 
takes in  the  didactic,  and  serious  omissions  in 
the  technical  portions,  the  work  became  very 
popular,  and  was  translated  into  several  lan- 
guages; the  English  edition  (London,  1770, 
8vo)  being  by  William  Waring. 

Rousseau's  other  writings  on  music  ^re :  LeUre 
a  if.  Orimm,  au  sujet  des  remarques  ajouUes  d 
sa  LeUre  mr  Omphale  (1752),  belonging  to  the 
early  stage  of  the  *  Guerre  des  Bouffons  * ;  Essai 
8ur  Vorigine  des  langueSf  etc.  (1758),  containing 
chapters  on  harmony,  on  the  supposed  analog}' 
between  sound  and  colour,  and  on  the  music  of 
the  Greeks  ;  LeUre  a  M,  VAbh6  Eaynal  au  svjet 
d^un  n&uveau  mode  de  musique  invent^  par  M, 
Blainville,  dated  May  30, 1754,  and  first  printed 
in  the  Mercure  de  France  ;  LeUre  d  M.  Bumey 
sur  la  Musique^  avec  des  fragments  cT  Observations 
sur  VAlceste  italien  de  M,  le  chevalier  Oluck^  an 
analysis  of  '  Alceste '  written  at  the  request  of 
Gluck  himself;  and  Eodtrait  dune  r^ponse  du 
Petit  Faiseur  A  son  Pr^te-Nom^  sur  un  morceau 
de  VOrplUe  de  J/,  le  chevalier  Gliick,  dealing 
principally  with  a  particular  modulation  in 
'Orph^e.'  From  the  last  two  it  is  clear  that 
Rousseau  heartily  admired  Gluck,  and  that  he 
had  by  this  time  abandoned  the  exaggerated 
opinions  advanced  in  the  Lettre  sur  la  musique 
Frav^ise,  The  first  of  the  above  was  issued 
in  1752,  the  rest  not  till  after  his  death  ;  they 
are  now  only  to  be  found  in  his  complete 
works. 

On  Oct.  30,  1775,  Rousseau  produced  his 
*  Pygmalion  *  at  the  Commie  Fran9aise  ;  it  is  a 
lyric  piece  in  one  act,  and  caused  some  sensation 
owing  to  its  novelty.  Singing  there  was  none, 
and  the  only  music  consisted  of  orchestral  pieces 
in  the  intervals  of  the  declamation.  He  also 
left  fragments  of  an  opera  *  Daphnis  et  Ghloe ' 
(published  in  score,  Paris,  1780,  folio),  and  a 
collection  of  about  a  hundred  romances  and 
detached  pieces,  to  which  he  gave  the  title 
'Consolations  des  Miseres  de  ma  vie'  (Paris, 
1781,  8vo) ;  in  the  latter  collection  are  the 
graceful  'Rosier,*  often  reprinted,  and  a  charm- 
ing setting  of  Rolli's  '  Se  tu  m'ami.'  Rousseau 
was  accused  of  having  stolen  the  'Devin  du 
Village'  from  a  musician  of  Lyons  named 
Granet,  and  the  greater  part  of  *  Pygmalion ' 
from  another  Lyonnais  named  Coigniet.  Among 
his  most  persistent  detractors  is  Castil-Blaze 
(see  Molihre  musident  ii.  409),  but  he  says  not 
a  word  of  the  *  Consolations. '  Now  any  one 
honestly  comparing  these  romances  with  the 
'Devin  du  Village,*  will  inevitably  arrive  at 
the  conviction  that  aire  at  once  so  simple, 
natural,  and  full  of  expression,  and  so  incorrect 
as  regards  harmony,  not  only  may,  but  must 
have  proceeded  from  tlie  same  author.  There 
is  no  doubt,  however,  that  the  instrumentation 
of  the   'Devin*  was  touched  up,  or  perhaps 


168 


ROUSSEAU'S  DREAM 


ROVESCIO,  AL 


wholly  re -written,  by  Francceur,  on  whose 
advice,  as  well  as  on  that  of  Jelyotte  the  tenor 
singer,  Rousseau  was  much  in  the  habit  of  re- 
lying. An  air  ('  de  trois  notes ')  and  a  duettino, 
melodious  and  pretty  but  of  the  simplest  style, 
are  given  in  the  Musical  Library ,  vol.  iii.  g.  c. 
ROUSSEAU'S  DREAM.  A  very  favourite 
air  in  England  in  the  early  part  of  the  19th 
century.  Its  first  appearance  under  that  name 
is  presumably  as  *an  Air  with  Variations  for 
the  Pianoforte,  oompoeed  and  dedicated  to  the 
Rt.  Hon.  the  Countess  of  Delaware,  by  J.  B. 
Cramer.     London,  Chappell' [1812]. 


TOfat5^fa^= 


W^ 


FiM. 


But  it  is  found  (with  very  slight  changes)  a 
quarter  of  a  century  earlier,  under  the  title  of 
'  Melissa.  The  words  by  Charles  James,  Esq., 
adapted  to  the  Pianoforte,  Harp,  or  Guitar. 
London,  J.  Dale,  1788.*  The  melody  occurs 
in  the  '  Pantomime '  in  Scene  8  of  the  '  Devin 
du  Village,'  where  its  form  is  as  follows : — 


[The  tune,  no  doubt,  made  its  way  in  England 
through  the  adaptation  of  the  opera  by  Dr. 
Bumey,  as  *The  Cunning  Man,'  in  1766.  It 
seems  to  have  been  first  adapted  to  a  hymn  in 
Thomas  Walker's  *  Companion  to  Dr.  Rippon's 
Tunes'  (1825),  and  after  its  api)earanoe  in 
'Sacred  Melodies'  (1843),  with  the  name 
'Rousseau'  attached  to  it,  became  widely 
popular  as  a  hymn -tune.  w.  h.  g.  f.]  The 
origin  of  the  title  *  Dream '  is  not  forthoommg.  g. 
ROUSSEAU,  Samuel  Alexajydre,  was  born 
at  Neuve-Maison  (Aisne),  June  11,  1853,  and 
studied  at  the  Paris  Conservatoire,  where  he 
gained  successively  the  first  organ  prize  in  1877, 
in  C<sar  Franck's  class,  and  the  Grand  Prix  de 
Rome  in  1Q78  with  'La  Fille  de  Jepht^.'  In 
the  latter  year  the  Prix  Cressent  was  awarded 
to  his  op^ra-comique,  'Dinorah,'  which  was 
produced  at  the  Op^ra-Comique  in  December 
1879.  Works  sent  from  Rome,  and  executed 
at  the  Conservatoire,  were  'Labinies'  (1880), 
•  Raddir '  (1881),  *  La  Florentina '  (1882).  He 
was  for  many  years  mattre  de  chapelle  in  Sainte- 
Clotilde,  and  chorus-master  of  the  Societe  des 


Concerts  du  Conservatoire.  He  wrote  a  great 
quantity  of  admirable  church  music,  two  masses, 
motets,  organ  pieces,  etc. ;  secular  dhoral  works, 
pieces  for  piano,  harmonium,  violin,  small 
orchesti'a,  etc.  and  songs.  He  was  president  of 
the  Society  des  Compositeurs,  and  vice-president 
of  the  Association  de  la  critique  musicale  et 
dramatique.  His  most  famous  work  was  the 
opera,  'La  Cloche  du  Rhin,'  in  three  acts, 
brought  out  at  the  Paris  Op^ra,  June  8,  1898  ; 
another  three-act  opera,  '  Merowig, '  gained  the 
prize  of  the  City  of  Paris,  and  produced  at 
Nancy,  Jan.  12,  1899.  Rousseau  died  of  a 
tumour  on  the  brain,  in  Paris,  Oct  1, 1904.  o.  F. 

ROVELLI.  A  family  of  eminent  Italian 
musicians.  Giovanni  Battista  was  first  violin 
in  the  orchestra  of  the  church  of  S.  Maria 
Maggiore  of  Bergamo,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  century.  Giuseppe,  his  son,  was  a  violon- 
cellist, bom  at  Bei^amo  in  1753,  and  died  at 
Parma,  Nov.  12,  1806.  Of  Alessandro  we 
only  know  that  he'  was  at  one  time  director  of 
the  orchestra  at  Weimar,  and  that  he  was  the 
father  of  Pietro,  who  was  bom  at  Beigamo, 
Feb.  6,  1793,  and  received  his  first  lessons, 
both  in  violin-playing  and  the  general  science 
of  music,  from  his  giundfather.  By  an  influential 
patron  he  was  sent  to  Paris  to  study  under 
R.  Kreutzer,  and  his  playing  attracted  much 
attention  there.  On  his  father's  appointment 
to  Weimar  he  joined  him  for  a  time.  At  the 
end  of  1814  we  find  him  at  Munich,  playing 
with  great  applause^  He  remained  there  for 
some  years,  and  was  made  'Royal  Bavarian 
chamber-musician,' and  'first  concerto-player.' 
In  Feb.  1817  he  was  playing  at  Vienna ;  Uiere 
he  married  Micheline,  daughter  of  K  A.  Fbrster, 
and  a  fine  PF. -player,  and  in  1819  went  on  to 
Bergamo,  took  the  place  once  occupied  by  his 
grandfather,  and  seems  to  have  remained  there, 
sufiering  much  from  bad  health,  till  his  death, 
Sept.  8,  1838.  The  writer  in  the  AUg.  mus. 
Zeitung  for  Dec.  26,  1838,  from  whom  the 
above  facts  have  been  mainly  taken,  characterises 
his  playing  as  'simple,  expressive,  graceful, 
noble  ;  in  a  word,  classical — a  style  which 
takes  instant  possession  of  the  heart  of  the 
hearer. '  In  other  notices  in  the  same  periodical, 
he  is  said  to  have  inherited  the  pure,  singing, 
expressive  style  of  Viotti,  and  practised  it  to 
perfection.  Molique  was  his  pupil  at  Munich,    u. 

ROVESCIO,  AL.  A  term  used,  in  instm- 
mental  music,  to  express  two  different  things. 
(1)  An  imitation  by  contrary  motion,  in  which 
every  descending  interval  in  the  leading  part  is 
imitated  by  an  ascending  one,  and  vice  versa  ; 
see  Moscheles's  £tude  '  La  Forza,'  op.  51.  (2) 
A  phrase  or  piece  which  may  be  played  back- 
wards throughout  It  is  then  synonymous  with 
Canceizans.  An  interesting  example  occurs 
in  the  minuet  of  a  Sonata  for  PF.  and  violin  by 
Haydn,  in  which,  on  the  repetition  after  the 
Trio,  the  minuet  is  played  backwards,  so  as  to 


ROW  OF  KEYS 


ROYAL  ACADEMY  OF  MUSIC  169 


end  on  the  first  note,  Haydn's  indication  being 
MenvuUc  D.  C,  wird  swruekgespielt.  [See  Recte 
rr  Retro.] 


and'Griselda.'  The  fourth  season  lasted  fix>m 
Nov.  7,  1722,  to  June  15,  1723,  and  was  re- 
markable for  the  first  apjxuirancp  in  England 


Jf(m«<tto  oZ  Bovesda. 


ROW  OF  KEYS.  A  single  Clavier  or 
Manual.  The  term  is  not  applied,  in  the 
organ,  to  a  pedal-clavier  from  the  simple  fact 
that  one  row  of  keys  is  all  that  is  required  by 
the  feet ;  two  rows  of  pedal-keys  have  sometimes 
been  oonstmcted,  but  they  have  proved  always 
nnneceasary  and  generally  unmanageable.  Harp- 
sichords had  often  two  rows  of  keys  acting  on 
different  sets  of  jacks,  and  thus  allowing  of 
changes  of  force  and  quality  of  tone.       J.  s. 

ROYAL  ACADEMY  OF  MUSIC,  1720- 
1 728.  From  1 7 1 7  to  1 720  there  was  no  Italian 
Opera  in  London,  but  in  the  latter  year  a  sum 
of  £50,000  was  raised  by  subscription,  and  &n 
establishment  was  founded  for  the  performance 
of  Italian  operas.  This  was  the  first  Royal 
Academy  of  Music  It  consisted  of  a  Governor, 
a  Deputy-Governor,  and  twenty  Directors.  Tlie 
first  governor  was  the  Duke  of  Newcastle, 
the  deputy -governor  was  Lord  Bingley,  and 
the  directors  included  the  leaders  of  society 
at  the  Court  of  George  I.  Buonondni  was 
invited  to  England  from  Rome,  Ariosti  from 
Berlin,  and  Handel  left  Cannons  and  went  to 
Dresden  to  engage  singers.  Under  these  brilliant 
auspices  the  Academy  opened  at  the  King's 
Theatre  in  the  Haymarket,  on  April  2,  1720, 
with  Giovanni  Porta's  'Numitor,'  and  the 
following  strong  cast: — Senesino,  Durastanti, 
Boschi,  and  Berenstadt  The  season  ended  on 
Jane  25.  It  was  remarkable  for  the  production 
of  Handel's  'Radamisto'  and  D.  Scarlatti's 
'Karciso,'  the  latter  conducted  by  Roseingrave, 
and  including  Mrs.  Anastasia  Robinson  in  the 
cast  The  second  season  lasted  from  Nov.  19, 
1720,  to  July  5,  1721.  The  new  works  per- 
formed were  '  Astarto '  (BuononciniV  '  Arsace ' 
(a  pasticcio),  *  Mmdo  Scaevola  (Ariosti, 
Bnonondni,  and  Handel),  and  'Ciro*  (Ariosti). 
During  the  first  year  of  the  undertaking 
^15,000  of  the  subscription  had  been  spent. 
The  third  season  began  Nov.  1,  1721,  and 
ended  June  16,  1722.  The  new  operas  were 
Handel's  '  Floridante,'  Bnononcini's   'Crispo' 


F.  T. 


of  Cuzzoni,  who  sang  in  Handel's  *  Ottone '  on 
Jan.  1 2.  The  other  new  works  (besides  *  Ottone ') 
were  Arioeti's  *Coriolano,'  Buonoucini's  *Er- 
minia,'  and  Handel's  'Flavio.'  In  the  fifth 
season  (Nov.  27,  1723,  to  June  13,  1724) 
Bnononcini's  'Famace,'  Ariosti's  *  Vespasiano,* 
and  a  pasticcio  called  *  Aquilio,'  were  produced. 
At  the  end  of  the  season  Mrs.  Robinson  retired 
from  the  stage.  The  sixth  season  (Oct  81, 
1724,  to  May  19,  1725)  opened  with  Handel's 
'Tamerlane'  Ariosti's  'Artaserse'  and  *Dario' 
(partly  by  Vivaldi),  Handel's  *  Rodeliuda,'  Bno- 
noncini's *Calfurnia,'  and  Vinci's  *Elpidia* 
were  the  other  new  works  produced.  The 
seventh  season  (November  1725  to  June  1726) 
ended  abmptly,  owing  to  the  illness  of  Senesino, 
but  it  was  remarkable  for  the  first  appearance 
of  the  celebrated  Faustina  Hasse,  who  sang  in 
Handel's  'Alessandro'  on  May  5.  Handel's 
I  'Scipione'  was  also  produced  in  March.  Owing 
to  Senesino's  absence,  the  operas  were  suspended 
I  till  Christmas,  and  the  next  season  ended  on 
'  June  6,  1727.  Ariosti's  *Lucio  Vero,' Handel's 
I  *  Admeto, '  and  Buonoucini's  '  Astyanax '  (the  last 
I  of  his  operas  performed  at  the  Academy)  were 
the  chief  works;  but  the  season,  although  shoii;, 
was  enlivened  by  the  continual  disturbances 
caused  by  the  rivalry  between  Cuzzoni  and 
Faustina.  The  ninth  season  lasted  from  Oct.  3, 
1727,  to  June  1,  1728.  The  operas  were  en- 
tirely under  Handel's  direction  :  his  *  Siroe,' 
*Tolomeo,'  and  'Riccardo  I'  were  produced,  but 
the  success  of  the  '  Beggar's  Opera '  at  Lincoln's 
Inn  Fields  Theatre,  as  well  as  the  continual 
disputes  and  dissensions  amongst  the  singers, 
called  the  season  to  be  more  than  usually 
disastrous.  At  the  end  of  it,  the  whole  sum 
subscribed,  as  well  as  the  receipts,  was  found 
to  have  been  entirely  sjient.  The  comjyany 
was  dispersed,  and  although  a  few  meetings 
of  the  court  were  held  during  the  year,  the 
establishment  was  allowed  to  die  gi*adually, 
and  was  never  revived.*  w.  b.  s. 

1  Fartiier  infomuitloii  as  to  the  Royal  Academy  of  UqbIc  will  be 


170  ROYAL  ACADEMY  OF  MUSIC 


ROYAL  ACADEMY  OF  MUSIC 


ROYAL  ACADEMY  OF  MUSIC.  The 
original  plan  for  this  institution  was  proposed 
by  Lord  Westmorland  (then  Lord  Burghersh) 
at  a  meeting  of  noblemen  and  gentlemen  held 
at  the  Thatched  House  Tavern,  London,  on 
July  5,  1822.  The  proposal  meeting  with 
approval,  at  a  second  meeting,  July  12,  rules 
and  i*egulations  were  drawn  up,  and  a  oommittee 
was  appointed  to  carry  out  the  undertaking. 
According  to  the  niles  adopted,  the  constitution 
of  the  new  Academy  was  to  bo  modelled  upon 
the  British  Institution.  The  king  was  announced 
as  the  principal  Patron,  the  government  was  to 
consist  of  a  committee  of  twenty-five  Directors 
and  a  sub-committee  of  nine  subscribers,  and 
the  school  was  to  be  Supported  by  subscriptions 
and  donations.  There  was  also  to  be  a  Board, 
consisting  of  the  Principal  and  four  professors, 
and  the  number  of  pupils  was  not  to  exceed 
forty  boys  and  forty  girls,  to  bo  admitted  be- 
tween the  ages  of  ten  and  fifteen,  and  all  to  be 
boarded  in  the  establishment.  A  sub-committee, 
the  members  of  which  were  Lord  Burghersh, 
Sir  Gore  Ouseley,  Count  St.  Antonio,  Sir  Andrew 
Barnard,  Sir  John  Murray,  and  the  Hon.  A. 
Macdonald,  was  empowered  to  form  the  Insti- 
tution. Dr.  Crotch  was  appointed  the  first 
Princi^ml,  and  by  September  1,  the  sum  of 
£4812 :  10s.  had  been  collected,  including  an 
annual  subscription  of  100  guineas  from  George 
rV.,  which  was  continued  by  his  successors, 
William  IV.  and  Queen  Victoria.  In  November 
the  house.  No.  4  Tenterden  Street,  Hanover 
Sc[uare,  was  taken  for  the  new  school,  but  the 
opening  was  deferred  until  March  1828,  on  the 
24th  of  which  month  the  first  lesson  was  given 
by  Mr.  Cipriani  Potter  to  Mr.  Kellow  Pye. 

The  Academy  began  its  labours  with  the  fol- 
lowing staff :  Head  Master — Rev.  John  Miles. 
Governess — Mrs.  Wade.  Principal — Dr.  Crotch. 
Board  of  Professors — Messrs.  Attwood,  Greato- 
rex,  Sliield,  and  Sir  George  Smart.  Supple- 
mentary members  of  the  Board — Messrs.  Horsley 
and  J.  B.  Cramer.  Professors — Messrs.  Anfossi, 
Andrew,  Bishop,  Bochsa,  Crivelli,  F.  Cramer, 
dementi,  Coccia,  Cerruti,  Dragonetti,  Dizi, 
Griesbach,  Hawes,  Ireland,  C.  Kramer,  Liverati, 
Lindley,  Ixxler,  Mori,  Macintosh,  Nicholson, 
Cipriani  Potter,  Puzzi,  Ries,  H.  Smart,  Spagno- 
letti.  Watts,  Willniann,  and  Caravita.^ 

The  Foundation  students  who  were  first 
elected  were  the  following :  Girls — M.  E.  Lawson, 
C.  Smith,  M.  Chancellor.  S.  Collier,  E.  Jenkyns, 
Mi  A.  Jay,  C.  Bromley,  H.  Little,  J.  Palmer, 
C.  Porter.  Boys— W.  H.  Holmes,  H.  A.  M. 
Gooke,2  A.  Greatorex,  T.  M.  Mudie,  H.  G. 
Blagrove,  Kellow  J.  Pye,  W.  H.  Phippe,  A. 

foar.d  In  Bumey's  BUtwrg  qf  Jftule,  reL  Iv.,  from  which  the  above 
t«  compiled. 

>  AlthoQKh  the  »boTe  wm  publUhed  in  the  Homing  Poat  u  the 
lUt  of  profeuon,  instruction  Menu  only  to  have  been  given  by  the 
followlnir:— Dr.  Crotch,  Meura.  Lord.  Potter,  Haydon,  CrivelU,  P. 
Cramer,  Spacnoletti,  Uiidley,  Bochaa.  Gooke,  Oiinvita,  Giechettl. 
Goodwin.  J  B.  Cramer.  Beale,  and  Pinart;  and  by  Mroe*.  BlagioU. 
Reguaadln ,  and  M  i as  Adant.  (See  First  Report  of  the  Oommittee, 
Jnne2.1«a.) 

2  Known  an  '  Grattan  Cooke.* 


Devaux,  C.  Seymour,  £.  J.  Neilson,  and  C.  S. 
Packer.  The  pupils  were  divided  into  two 
classes,  those  on  the  foundation  paying  ten 
guineas  per  annum,  while  extra  students  paid 
twenty  guineas,  or  if  they  lodged  and  boarded 
in  the  establishment,  thirty -eight  guineas. 
Although  the  first  report  of  the  Committee 
(June  2,  1823)  was  satisfactory,  yet  financial 
oifficulties  soon  made  themselves  felt  In 
March  1824,  the  Committee  reported  a  de- 
ficiency for  the  current  year  of  £1600,  if  the 
institution  were  conducted  on  the  same  plan  as 
before.  To  meet  this,  the  difference  between 
the  students'  payments  was  abolished,  and  the 
fees  were  fixed  for  all  at  £40,  the  professors  at 
the  same  time  giving  their  instruction  gratis 
for  three  months.  Lord  Burghersh  also  applied 
to  the  Government  for  a  grant,  but  without 
effect.  In  1826  further  alterations  were  made 
as  to  the  admission  of  students,  by  which  the 
numbers  amounted  in  four  months'  time  to  & 
hundred,  and  Lord  Burghersh  made  another 
appeal  for  a  Government  grant.  In  spite  of 
this,  the  year's  accounts  still  showed  an  un- 
satisfactory financial  condition.  During  the 
latter  part  of  the  year  Moscheles  was  included 
among  the  staff  of  professors.  Elarly  in  1826 
the  increased  number  of  students  compelled  the 
Academy  to  enlarge  its  premises,  the  lease '  of 
No.  5  Tenterden  Street  was  bought,  and  the 
two  houses  were  thrown  into  one.  In  Februarj' 
the  Government  were  petitioned  for  a  charter. 
In  reply  it  was  stated  that  though  unwilling 
to  give  a  gr&nt,  they  were  ready  to  defray  the 
cost  of  a  charter.  In  1827  the  financial  oon- 
dition  of  the  Academy  was  so  disastrous  that 
it  was* proposed  to  close  the  institution  ;  but 
a  final  appeal  to  the  public  procured  a  loan  of 
£1469,  beside  further  donations,  enabling  the 
Directors  to  carry  on  the  undertaking  on  a 
reduced  scale  and  ^vith  increased  fees.  Hence- 
forward the  state  of  things  began  to  mend. 
The  charter  was  granted  on  June  28,  1830. 
By  this  document  the  members  of  the  Academy 
and  their  successors  were  incorporated  and 
declared  to  be,  and  for  ever  hereafter  to  con- 
tinue to  be  by  the  name  of  the  *  Royal  Academy 
of  Music,'  under  the  government  of  a  Board  of 
Directors,  consisting  of  thirty  members,  with 
power  to  make  rules  and  regulations ;  a  Com- 
mittee of  Management,  with  full  power  over 
the  fluids  and  both  students  and  professors  ; 
and  a  Treasurer. 

In  1832  Dr.  Crofash  resigned  his  poet  of 
Principal,  and  was  succeeded  by  Cipriani  Potter, 
who  retained  office  until  his  resignation  in  1859. 
The  financial  position  of  the  Academy,  although 
not  prosperous,  remained  on  a  tolerably  secure 
footing.  In  1834,  William  IV.  directed  that 
a  quarter  of  the  proceeds  of  the  Musical  Festi^'al 
held  in  Westminster  Abbey  should  be  handed 
over  to  the  institution.     This  sum,  amounting 

3  Relinquished  in  or  before  1SV3. 


ROYAL  ACADEMY  OF  MUSIC 


ROYAL  ACADEMY  OF  MUSIC  171 


to  £2250,  was  devoted  by  the  Committee  to 
the  foundation  of  four  King's  ScholarBhi[i8,  to 
be  competed  for  by  t^-o  male  and  two  female 
students.  Instead,  however,  of  being  invested 
8e|»arately,  the  fnnd  was  merged  in  the  general 
property  of  the  Academy,  a  mistake  which 
eventuidly  led  to  the  discontinuance  of  the 
scholanhips.  For  the  next  ten  years  the 
financial  condition  of  the  Academy  continued 
to  fluctuate.  In  July  1853  the  Committee  of 
Management  (which  was  totally  unprofessional 
in  its  constitution)  summoned  the  professors, 
revealed  to  them  the  decline  of  the  funded 
property,  and  asked  their  counsel  as  to  the 
remedies  to  be  adopted.  The  professors  advised 
that  the  management  should  be  made  entirely 
professional.  This  course  was  so  far  adopted 
that  a  Board  of  Professors  was  appointed  to 
adviae  the  Committee. 

The  first  act  of  this  Board  (Sept.  1853)  was 
to  recommend  the  discontinuance  of  the  practice 
of  students  lodgingand  boarding  on  the  premises. 
This  recommendation  was  adopted,  and  since 
that  time  the  Academy  only  receives  day 
students.  The  Board  formed  in  1853  was 
disbanded  by  Lord  Westmorland  in  1856,  but 
after  his  death  in  1859,  a  new  Board  was 
formed  ;  this,  however,  found  itself  obliged  to 
resign  in  1864.  Before  ito  resignation  it  drew 
up  a  memorial  to  Government,  praying  for  an 
annual  grant.  After  a  conference  with  a  depu- 
tation of  Professors,  Mr.  Gladstone,  then  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer,  inserted  in  the  estimates 
for  the  year  a  sum  of  £500  *  to  defray  the  charge 
which  will  oome  in  course  of  payment  during 
the  year  ending  March  81,  1865,  for  enabling 
the  Directors  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music 
to  provide  accommodation  for  the  Institution.' 
In  1866,  upon  the  change  of  Administration, 
su^estions  were  made  to  tlie  Committee  on  the 
part  of  the  Government,  and  were  renewed 
personally  in  1867  by  the  then  Chancellor  of 
the  Exchequer,  in  consequence  of  which  the 
Committee  was  induced  to  expend  the  whole  of 
its  funds,  in  order  to  accommodate  the  institution 
to  the  designs  in  which  it  was  invited  to 
participate.  In  1867,  Lord  Beaconsfield  (then 
Mr.  Disraeli),  in  reply  to  a  question  as  to  the 
grant,  announced  in  the  House  of  Commons 
that '  the  Government  were  of  opinion  that  they 
would  not  be  authorised  in  recommending  any 
enlargement  of  the  grant,  the  results  of  the 
institution  not  being  in  fact  of  a  satisfactory 
character.'  This  was  followed  by  the  total 
withdrawal  of  the  grant,  in  order  (to  quote  from 
an  official  letter  addressed  to  Sir  W.  Sterndale 
Bennett)  *  simply  to  give  effect  to  the  opinion 
that  it  was  not  so  expedient  to  subsidise  a 
central  and  quasi -independent  association,  as 
to  establish  a  system  of  musical  instruction 
under  the  direct  control  of  some  Department  of 
Government.'  In  this  emergency  the  Committee 
decided  to  close  the  establishment.     The  funds 


(including  the  sum  devoted  to  the  King's  Scholar- 
ships) wei-e  totally  exhausted.  The  Professors 
met  in  1868  to  consider  what  could  be  done, 
and  generously  offered  to  accept  a  payment  pro 
ratd.  It  was  then,  however,  announced  that  the 
Committee  had  resigned  the  Charter  into  the 
hands  of  the  Queen.  Upon  this  the  Professors 
obtained  a  legal  ojunion,  to  the  effect  that  the 
Charter  could  not  be  resigned  without  the 
consent  of  every  member  of  the  Academy.  As 
many  of  the  members  protested  at  the  time 
against  the  resignation  of  the  Charter,  it  was 
returned,  and  by  great  exertions  on  the  part  of 
the  Professors,  a  new  Board  of  Directors  was 
formed  under  the  Presidency  of  tlie  Earl  of 
Dudley,  who  appointed  a  new  Committee  of 
Management,  in  which  the  professional  element 
formed  an  important  ingredient.  From  the 
time  of  this  change  the  institution  has  continued 
to  prosper.  In  1868,  on  the  return  to  office  of 
the  Liberal  Ministrj-,  Mr.  Gladstone  restoi-ed 
the  annual  grant  of  £600.  In  1876  the  number 
of  pupils  had  so  increased  that  the  lease  of  the 
house  adjoining  tlie  premises  in  Tenterden  Street 
had  to  be  repurchased  out  of  the  savings  of  the 
institution.  This  house  was  joined  on  to  the 
original  premises,  and  a  concert-room  was  formed 
out  of  part  of  the  two  houses,  which  though 
small  has  proved  a  great  boon  not  only  to  the 
students  for  their  regular  concerts,  but  to  many 
concert -givers  for  whose  purposes  the  more 
extensive  rooms  of  St.  James's  Hall,  Exetei' 
Hall,  etc.,  were  too  large.  [For  some  time  the 
room  was  not  licensed  as  a  public  concert  room, 
and  at  the  present  time  it  is  not  available  for 
outside  performances.]  In  July  1 880  Mr.  William 
Shakespeare  was  apj)ointed  conductor  of  the 
Students*  Concerts,  vice  Mr.  "Walter  Macfairen. 
He  was  succeeded  in  1886  by  Sir  Joseph  Harnby, 
but  since  the  election  of  Sir  A.  C.  Mackenzie  the 
Principal  has  conducted  the  students*  concerts. 
[It  la  since  that  appointment  of  Sir  Alexander 
Campbell  Mackenzie  as  Principal  in  Feb.  1888 
that  the  real  tide  of  prosperity  for  the  institution 
set  in,  since  which  date  it  has  never  slackened. 
Tlie  neighbouring  houses,  11  and  12  Dering 
Street,  6  Tenterden  Street,  and  the  upper  part  of 
3  Tenterden  Street  have  been  successively  added 
to  the  premises,  and  still  the  accommodation  is 
insufficient.  The  number  of  students,  which 
was  300  in  1876,  rose  to  500  in  1896,  and  remains 
at  that  number,  the  full  cajiacity  of  the  school. 

Tlie  following  have  been  the  Principals  of  the. 
Academy  from  its  foundation  to  the  present 
time :  ■  Dr.  Crotch  (1823-32),  Cipriani  Potter 
(1832-59),  Charles  Lucas  (1859-66),  William 
Sterndale  Bennett  (1866-75),  George  Alexander 
Macfarren  (1875-87),  Alexander  Campbell 
Mackenzie  (1888). 

The  Academy  is  supported  by  the  Government 
grant,  subscriptions,  donations,  and  fees  from 
students.  It  is  under  the  direction  of  a  Presi- 
dent  (H.R.H.   the  Duke   of  Connaught  and 


172  ROYAL  ACADEMY  OF  MUSIC 


ROYAL  CHORAL  SOCIETY 


Strathearn,  K.G.),  four  Vice-Presidents  (the 
Earl  of  Kilmorey,  Lord  Stratlicona,  Lord  Glenesk, 
and  Lord  Riverstone),  about  twenty  Directors, 
amongst  whom  are  Earls  De  Grey  and  Shaftes- 
bury, Sir  Benjamin  Baker  and  other  distinguished 
gentlemen,  and  a  Committee  of  Management, 
consisting  iiartly  of  Professors  of  the  Institution 
and  partly  of  well-known  business  men  who  are 
so  good  as  to  place  their  powers  at  the  service 
of  the  Institution.  It  was  the  Principal's  wish 
that  his  office  and  that  of  Chairman  of  this 
Committee  should  be  separate  functions,  and 
accordingly  since  1890  this  has  been  the  case. 
Mr.  Thomas  Tlirelfall  was  elected  to  the  latter 
])03t  in  1890,  and  filled  it  with  zeal  and  distin- 
guished success  till  his  death  in  February  1907. 
The  Committee  therefore  consists,  at  the  present 
date,  of  Messrs.  P.  L.  Agnew,  Oscar  Beringer, 
E.  E.  Cooper  (Treasurer),  F.  Corder  (Curator), 
C.  T.  D.  Crews,  Sir  Geo.  Donaldson,  H.  C. 
Gooch,  Sir  A.  C.  Mackenzie  (Principal),  A. 
Randegger,  C.  Rube,  John  Thomas,  F.  P.  Tosti, 
Fred  Walker,  and  Hans  Wessely.  Tlie  secretary 
is  Mr.  F.  W.  Renaut,  and  the  Lady  Superin- 
tendent Miss  Marion  White.  A  staff  of  one 
hundred  and  two  Professors  and  about  twenty 
sub-professors  (students)  gives  instruction  in 
every  branch  of  music,  besides  which  there  are 
classes  for  Languages,  Diction,  Elocution,  O^iera, 
Dancing,  Drama,  Fencing,  and  Dei)ortment. 
Students  cannot  enter  for  less  than  a  year,  nor 
for  a  single  subject ;  the  normal  coui-se  is  three 
years,  and  all  pupils  receive  an  all-round  musical 
training.  The  libraiy  of  the  institution  has 
been  noticed  in  vol.  ii.  pp.  705-6. 

The  list  of  scholarshii)s  and  prizes  oi)eu  to 
comjietition  is  too  largo  for  enumeration,  being 
tifty-nine  of  the  former  and  thirty- three  of  the 
latter  (not  all  awarded  annually)  ;  but  mention 
.should  be  made  of  the  noble  foundation,  by  the 
late  Mrs.  Ada  Lewis  Hill,  of  the  fifteen  scholar- 
ships bearing  her  name,  five  of  which  are  awarded 
each  year  and  tenable  for  three  years.  Deserving 
but  indigent  musical  ability  is  also  assisted  by 
the  Students'  Aid  Fund,  of  which  the  interest 
is  appropriated,  at  the  Committee's  discretion, 
towarrls  the  reduction  of  the  fees  of  talented 
pupils.] 

Public  performances  have  been  given  by  the 
pupils  of  the  Royal  Academy  at  various  intervals 
from  the  date  of  its  foundation.  Their  locality 
was  sometimes  in  the  Hanover  Square  Rooms 
and  sometimes  at  Tenterden  Street.  [Tlie 
present  custom  is  to  have  Fortnightly  Concerts 
of  chamber  and  organ  music  at  the  Academy, 
and  one  chamber  concert  and  one  Orchestral 
ditto  at  the  Queen's  Hall  every  term.  Public 
operatic  and  dramatic  performances  are  also 
given  from  time  to  time,  these  being  sometimes 
of  works  by  the  students  themselves.  At  the 
orchestral  practices  on  Tuesday  and  Friday 
afternoons  the  pupils  have  the  opportunity  of 
hearing  their  own  instrumental  or  vocal  com- 


jiositions,  and  of  performing  concertos  and  songs 
with  orchestral  accompaniments. 

An  account  of  the  Royal  Academy  would  be 
incomplete  without  some  reference  to  the  part  it 
has  taken  in  the  holding  of  public  examinations 
— so  prominent  a  factor  in  modem  musical  life. 
For  many  years  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music 
held  Local  Examinations  throughout  the  king- 
dom, which  wei-e  popular  and  lucrative.  In 
order,  how^ever,  to  raise  the  standard  of  these 
examinations  and  assist  the  public  towards  tlie 
elimination  of  defective  instruction  in  music, 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Music  entered  into 
negotiations  with  the  Royal  College  of  Music 
for  combined  action  in  the  matter.  These 
negotiations  happily  resulted  in  a  union  of  the 
forces  of  the  two  Institutions  for  the  purposes 
of  Local  Examinations  in  Music,  and  the  forma- 
tion, in  the  year  1889,  of  the  'Associated 
Board,'  under  the  Presidency  of  H.R.H.  the 
Prince  of  Wales.  The  work  of  the  *  Associated 
Boai*d '  of  the  two  great  Chartered  Schools  of 
Music  has  already  produced  excellent  results. 
The  scheme  includes  the  Local  Examination  of 
Schools,  as  well  as  Local  Centre  Examinations, 
and  has  recently  been  extended  to  the  Colonies. 

Tlie  Academy  continues  its  own  separate  Ex- 
amination in  London  (independent  of  Academy 
Teaching)  of  music  teachers  and  performers. 
This  is  known  as  the  *  Metropolitan  Examina- 
tion.' Successful  candidates  at  thisExamination,. 
which  increases  annually  in  popular  estimation, 
receive  Diplomas  certifying  to  their  proficiency, 
and  are  created  by  the  Directors,  licentiates  of 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Music]  w.  b.  8. ;  with 
additions  by  F.  c. 

ROYAL  AMATEUR  ORCHESTRAL  SO- 
CIETY, THE,  was  established  in  1872  by 
H.RH.  the  Duke  of  Edinburgh  (late  Duke 
of  Coburg),  who  was  the  first  president,  and 
leader  of  the  orchestra  for  many  years.  Mr. 
J.  R,  Gow  was  honorary  secretary,  and  Mr- 
George  Mount  acted  as  conductor  for  the  first 
twenty-six  years  of  the  Society's  existence,  re- 
tiring in  1897,  when  Mr.  Ernest  Ford,  the 
present  conductor,  was  appointed.  Sir  Arthur 
Sullivan  conducted  the  first  concert  in  1878, 
and  took  a  lifelong  interest  in  the  institution, 
which  has  done  much  to  raise  the  standard  of 
amateur  proficiency  in  London.  The  subscrip- 
tion is  two  guineas,  and  the  present  honorary 
secretary  is  Hermann  Schmettau,  Esq.       M. 

ROYAL  CHORAL  SOCIETY.  On  the 
opening  of  the  Albert  Hall,  Rmghtsbridge,  in 
1871,  a  choral  society  was  formed  by  Charles 
Gounod,  and  was  amalgamated  in  1872  with  a 
successful  institution  called  *Bamby*s  Choir,* 
and  conducted  by  that  musician,  the  name 
being  from  that  time  *  Tlie  Royal  Albert  Hall 
Choral  Society.'  The  change  to  the  present 
title  was  made  in  1888,  by  command  of  Queen 
Victoria.  The  conductor  was  Sir  Joseph  Bamb  j 
until  his  death  in  1896,  when  he  was  succeeded 


BOYAL  COLLEGE  OF  MUSIC 


ROYAL  COLLEGE  OF  MUSIC  173 


bj  Sir  Frederick  Bridge,  who  still  fills  the  post 
«ith  distinctioa.  The  great  number  of  voices 
required  to  produce  a  tone  adequate  to  the  size 
of  the  building  makes  it  unwise  to  attempt  any 
Tery  complicated  choral  music  or  delicate  effects 
of  vocal  writing;  this  cause,  added  to  the 
indifference  of  the  musical  amateurs  in  London 
to  new  choral  works,  is  responsible  for  the  lack 
of  interest  which  ia  sometimes  complained  of 
in  the  Society's  repertoiy.  But,  although  the 
institution  bias  relied  for  its  cliief  successes 
upon  the  hackneyed  oratorios,  the  list  of  its 
achievements  ia  a  long  and  honourable  one. 
Fourteen  performances  took  place,  in  the  earlier 
years,  of  Bach's  St  Matthew  Passion ;  three  have 
been  given  of  Beethoven's  Choral  Symphony, 
while  his  Mass  in  D  has  been  attempted. 
Gounod's  *  Bedemption '  was  for  many  years  a 
regular  attraction,  and  other  choral  works  of 
the  composer's  were  frequently  given.  In 
addition  to  the  more  hackney^  oratorios  of 
Handel,  'Judas  Maccabseus,'  *  Belshazzar,' 
*  Theodora,*  'Samson,*  *  Jephtha,'  *  L'  Allegro,' 
and  'Alexander's  Feast*  have  been  performed  ; 
and  certain  notable  foreign  compositions  have 
been  introduced  to  England  by  the  Society,  such 
ss  Verdi's  famous  'Requiem, 'Wagner's  'Parsifal' 
(in  concert  form),  and  Benoit's  '  Lucifer. '  The 
English  works  given  by  the  Society  have  been, 
for  the  most  part,  re]>etitions  of  oratorios,  etc. 
written  for  the  provincial  festivals,  and  therefore 
only  new  as  re^rds  London.  Parry's '  War  and 
Peace'  (1903),  and  the  third  part  of  Coleridge- 
Tayhn'a  'Hiawatha,'  completing  the  work, 
were  given  by  the  Society  for  the  first  time, 
as  well  as  Bridge's  'Flag  of  England'  (1897) 
and  '  Ballad  of  the  Clampherdown '  (1 899).  M. 
ROYAL  COLLEGE  OF  MUSIC.  For  in- 
formation as  to  the  commencement  of  this 
institution  see  National  Training  School, 
ToL  iii.  p.  354.  The  new  institution  was 
founded  by  the  Prince  of  Wales  at  a  meeting 
held  at  St.  James's  Palace,  Feb.  28,  1882,  and 
was  opened  by  H.R.H.  on  May  7  of  the  follow- 
ing year.  Negotiations  took  place  with  the 
RoTAL  AcADBMT  OF  Music  with  the  object  of 
a  union  with  the  two  bodies ;  but  these  un- 
fortunately came  to  nothing.  Like  its  pre- 
decessor, the  College  rests  on  the  basis  of 
endowed  scholarships  lasting  not  less  than 
three  years ;  but  the  funds  for  these  are  in 
this  case  provided  by  the  interest  of  money 
subscribed  throughout  the  country  and  per- 
manently invested.  The  College  opened  with 
fifty  Scholars  elected  by  competition,  of  whom 
fifteen  received  maintenance  in  addition,  and 
forty- two  paying  students.  It  was  incorporated 
by  Royah  Charter  on  May  23,  1883,  and  is 
governed  by  a  Council,  presided  over  by  the 
Prince  of  Wales  (the  present  King),  and  divided 
into  a  Finance  Committee,  and  an  Executive 
Committee.  The  staff  was  as  follows : — Director, 
Sir  George  Grove,  D.C.L  ;  Principal  Teachers, 


forming  the  board  of  Professors,  J.  F.  Bridge, 
Mus.D. ;  H.  C.  Deacon;  Henry  Holmes;  Mme. 
Lind-Goldschmidt ;  Walter  Parratt ;  C.  Hubert 
H.  Parry,  Mu8.D. ;  Ernst  Pauer;  C.  V.  Stanford, 
Mus.D. ;  Franklin  Taylor  ;  A.  Visetti.  Other 
principal  teachers  were  Mme.  A.  Goddard  ;  John 

F.  Bamett;  6.  C.  Martin,  Mus.D. ;  R.  Com- 
pertz ;  C.  H.  Howell ;  F.  E.  Gladstone,  Mus.D. ; 
J.  Higgs,  Mus.B.  ;  G.  Garcia,  etc.     Registrar, 

G.  Watson,  jun.  At  the  dissolution  of  the 
Sacred  Harmonic  Society  (1882)  the  valuable 
library  was  acquired  for  the  College  through 
the  exertions  of  Sir  P.  Cunliffe  Owen,  and  the 
library  of  the  Concerts  of  Antient  Music  was 
given  by  Queen  Victoria.  In  1 8  8  7  the  Alexandra 
House  was  opened,  containing  a  beautiful  concert 
hall,  where  the  studenta'  concerta  were  regularly 
held,  as  well  as  accommodation  for  100  ladies, 
some  of  whom  are  pupils  of  the  College. 

When  the  accommodation  in  the  old  building 
was  found  insufficient  for  the  needs  of  the 
College,  a  new  site  was  granted  in  Prince  Consort 
Road,  and  the  first  stone  of  the  new  building 
was  laid  on  July  8,  1890.  The  structure,  erected 
by  the  generosity  of  the  late  Mr.  Samson  Fox, 
M.I.C.E.,  was  formally  opened  on  May  2,  1894, 
and  the  fine  concert-room  connected  with  it  wa» 
opened  on  Jime  13,  1901.  In  1894,  on  the 
resignation  of  Sii*  George  Grove,  Sir  Hubert 
Parry  was  appointed  director  of  the  institu- 
tion, and  has  filled  the  post  w^ith  great  dis- 
tinction till  the  present  time.  The  Council 
consiste  (1907)  of  the  following:— H.R.H.  The 
Prince  of  Wales,  H.R.H.  Prince  Christian,  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  the  Marquis  of 
Northampton,  the  Earls  of  Cawdor,  Pembroke, 
Plymouth,  Shaftesbury ;  Lords  Revelstoke, 
Althorp,  Farquhar,  The  Lord  Mayor ;  Messrs, 
C.  B.  Stuart  Wortley,  Herbert  J.  Gladstone, 
G.  W.  Spencer  Lyttelton,  Robert  H.  Lyttelton, 
Robert  T.  O'Neill,  Sir  J.  Whittaker  Ellis,  Sir 
Edward  W.  Hamilton ;  Messrs.  Lionel  Benson, 
Jacques  Blumenthal,  Eaton  Faning,  A.  W.  Fox, 
Rev.  Canon  F.  A.  J.  Hervey ;  Messrs.  William 
H.  Leslie,  Alfred  H.  Littleton,  C.  Harford  Lloyd, 
R.  F.  M'Ewen,  George  A.  Macmillan,  Charles 
Morley,  Howard  Morley,  S.  Ernest  Palmer, 
Edward  H.  Pember ;  and  J.  W.  Sidebotham,  Esq. 

The  Board  of  Professors  includes  the  following 
names:  for  singing,  Messrs.  Randeggcr  and 
Visetti ;  piano,  Mr.  Franklin  Taylor ;  organ, 
Sir  Walter  Parratt ;  violin,  Seftor  Arbos  and 
Mr.  Rivarde ;  composition.  Sir  C.  V.  Stanford  ; 
harmony,  etc.,  Sir  J.  F.  Bridge.  A  large 
number  of  professors  in  addition  to  these  are 
on  the  staff.  At  the  present  time,  the  number 
of  scholars  is  67,  and  of  paying  studenta  352. 

In  1889  the  College  of  Music  and  the  Royal 
Academy  joined  in  forming  the  'Associated 
Board, '  intended  to  bring  the  local  examinations 
of  the  two  schools  into  line  with  each  other. 
Both  institutions  have  benefited  by  the  new 
undertaking,  and  the  standard  of  musical  educa- 


174  ROYAL  COLLEGE  OF  ORGANISTS     ROYAL  SOCIETY  OF  MUSICIANS 


tion  in  all  quarts  of  the  Empire  has  been  im- 
.  portantly  raised.  In  1 894  Sir  George  Donaldson 
]>resented  a  large  collection  of  musical  instru- 
ments. (See  vol  iii.  p.  337.)  The  'Patron's 
Fund '  was  instituted  in  1903  by  Mr.  S.  Ernest 
Palmer,  who  handed  to  the  College  sums  amount- 
ing in  all  to  £27,000  for  the  encouragement  of 
com2x>sition  by  the  younger  British  musicians, 
etc.  M. 

ROYAL  COLLEGE  OF  ORGANISTS.  See 
Organists,  Royal  College  of,  vol.  iiL  p.  564. 

ROYAL  IRISH  ACADEMY  OF  MUSIC, 
THE,  founded  in  1848,  was  re -organised  in 
1856,  the  necessary  funds  being  obtained  by 
private  subscription,  and  by  the  proceeds  of 
operatic  performances  given  by  amateur  musi- 
cians resident  in  the  country.  It  was  not 
until  1870  that  the  English  Government,  of 
which  Mr.  Gladstone  was  then  head,  voted  it 
an  annual  grant  of  £150,  subsequently  increased 
to  £300,  on  condition  that  £100  should  be 
contributed  annually  by  private  subscribers. 
The  title  'Royal'  was  granted  in  1872. 

Various  capital  sums  have  been  acquired  by 
the  Academy  at  different  times,  chiefly  through 
the  agency  of  Sir  Francis  Brady,  Bart.,  whose 
efforts  on  behalf  of  the  Academy  cannot  be  for- 
gotten. These  are :  The  Begley  Fund,  £125, 
the  Albert  Fund,  £940,  the  Vandeleur  Bequest, 
£4000,  and  the  Coulson  Bequest,  £13,000. 
The  last  named  was  left  by  Miss  Elizabeth 
Coulson  in  1883,  to  found  a  School  in  which 
'  the  children  of  respectable  Irish  parents  *  could 
be  taught  instrumental  music.  The  money  was 
handed  over  to  the  Academy  for  administration 
in  1887  by  the  Conmiissioners  of  Charitable 
Donations  and  Bequests,  the  Academy  having 
been  first  reconstituted  and  incorporated  under 
the  Educational  Endowments  (Ireland)  Act  of 
1885. 

The  Government  of  the  Academy  consists  at 
present  of :  a  Patron,  His  Migesty  the  King ; 
a  viee-patix>n,  H.RH.  the  Duke  of  Connaught ; 
a  President,  the  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland  ; 
nine  vice-presidents ;  a  Board  of  twenty-four 
Governors,  of  whom  twelve  are  nominated  by 
eubsoribera,  eight  by  the  Municipal  Corporation, 
three  by  the  Coulson  Endowment  trustees,  and 
one  by  the  Boaixl  of  Studies,  which  consists  of 
the  Professors.  There  is  no  Director,  orders 
being  carried  out  by  a  Secretary  under  direction 
of  the  Board  of  Governors. 

From  small  beginnings  the  Academy  has 
come  to  hold  a  very  im[)ortant  position  in  the 
musical  life  of  the  country.  While  almost 
every  resident  musician  of  distinction  has  been 
among  its  professors — among  others  Sir  Robert 
Stewart,  Mr.  Joseph  Robinson,  Mrs.  Fanny 
Robinson,  Mr.  R  M.  Levey,  Herr  Eisner, — it 
has  also  been  the  means  of  bringing  to  Ireland 
many  foreign  artists  of  talent  who  have  spent 
tlieir  lives  in  the  country  and  rendered  incal- 
culable   service   in   its  musical  development 


Notable  among  these  must  be  mentioned  the 
late  Herr  Bast  the  violoncellist,  and  also  Signer 
Michele  Esposito,  who  has  created  in  Dublin  a 
fine  school  of  pianoforte  playing,  and  founded 
an  Orchestral  Society  of  which  he  is  at  present 
conductor.  The  teaching  staff  of  the  Academy 
in  1906  numbered  forty -one,  and  the  students 
almost  500. 

After  1856,  tlie  premises  of  the  Academy  were 
the  upper  portion  of  a  house  No.  18  St.  Stephen's 
Green,  the  classes  having  previously  been  held 
in  the  rooms  of  the  Antient  Concert  Society. 
In  1871  the  Council  purchased  the  present 
building.  No.  36  Westland  Row,  which  was  tlie 
town  residence  of  Sir  FitzGerald  Aylmer,  a 
fine  old  house,  but  now  quite  inadequate  to 
the  needs  of  the  Academy.  e.  o.  b. 

ROYAL  SOCIETY  OF  MUSICUNS  OF 
GREAT  BRITAIN,  THE,  was  founded  by  the 
exertions  of  Festing  the  violinist,  and  Wiedemann 
the  flautist,  who  were  struck  by  the  appearance 
of  two  little  boys  driving  milch  asses,  who  proved 
to  be  orphans  of  a  decoised  oboe-player  named 
Kytch.  [See  Festing,  vol.  iL  p.  27.]  They 
immediately  raised  subscriptions  to  relieve  the 
family,  and  feeling  that  some  permanent 
establishment  was  required  to  meet  similar  cases, 
induced  the  mast  eminent  music-professors  of 
the  day  to  associate  themselves  together  as  a 
Society  for  that  purpose.  This  excellent  work 
was  formally  accomplished  on  April  19,  1738, 
and  amongst  its  first  members  were  Handel, 
Boyce,  Arne,  Christopher  Smith,  Carey,  Cooke, 
Edward  Purcell,  Leveridge,  Greene,  Reading, 
Hayes,  Pepusch,  and  Travers.  In  1739  the 
members  of  the  Society  executed  a  'deed  of 
trust,'  which  was  duly  enrolled  in  the  Court  of 
Chancery  ;  the  signatures  of  the  members,  226 
in  number,  include  the  most  eminent  professors 
of  music  of  the  time.  The  deed  recites  the  rules 
and  regulations  for  membership  and  for  the 
distribution  of  the  funds,  and  provides  for 
regular  monthly  meetings  at  the  sign  of  Saint 
Martin,  in  St.  Martin's  Lane.  Handel  took  an 
especial  and  active  interest  in  the  welfare  of  the 
Society,  composing  concertos  and  giving  concerts 
for  the  benefit  of  its  funds,  and  at  his  death 
bequeathing  to  it  a  legacy  of  £1000.  The 
Handel  Commemoration  held  in  Westminster 
Abbey  in  1784  brought  a  further  addition  of 
£6000.  In  1789  G«orge  IIL  granted  the 
Society  a  charter,  by  virtue  of  which  its  manage- 
ment is  vested  in  the  hands  of  the  *  Governors ' 
and  'Court  of  Assistants.'  In  1804  the  fujids 
of  the  Society  not  beiug  in  a  flourishing  con- 
dition, the  king  gave  a  donation  of  500  guineas. 
Considerable  sums  have  been  given  or  bequeathed 
to  the  Society  by  members  of  the  music  pro- 
fession, especially  Signora  Storace  £1000,  Cros- 
dill  £1000,  Begrez  £1000,  Schulz  £1000  ;  the 
latest  amount  of  1000  guineas  being  that  of 
Mr.  Thomas  Molineux  (Feb.  10,  1881),  for 
many   years   an    eminent   performer   on    the 


ROZE 


ROZE 


175 


baasoon  &nd  double-bass  at  Maacliester,  who 
died  in  1891. 

The  Society  pajs  away  annually  to  relieve 
distr^s  over  i>3000,  which  amount  ia  provided 
bj  donations  from  the  public,  subecripiions  and 
donations  of  members  of  the  Society,  and  intei-cst 
(abont£2500  per  annum)  on  the  Society's  funded 
l»roperty. 

Members  of  the  Society  must  be  professional 
Miusidans^  and  are  of  both  sexes.  The  Royal 
Society  of  Female  Musicians  was  established  in 
1S39  by  several  ladies  of  distinction  in  the 
mnsical  profession,  amongst  others  Mrs.  Ander- 
son, Miss  Birch,  Miss  Dolby,  and  Miss  Mounsey 
(Mrs.  Bartholomew),  in  consequence  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Musicians  having  made  no 
provision  in  their  laws  for  the  admission  of 
female  members.  Practically  it  soon  became 
evident  that  the  co-existence  of  two  separate 
aocieties  with  the  same  aim  was  resulting  in 
considerable  loss  of  sympathy  and  support ;  and 
that  one  expenditure  would  suffice  for  the 
management  of  both  institutions,  if  they  could 
be  amalgamated.  'With  the  consent  of  the 
trustees  and  members  this  happy  union  was 
effected  in  1866,  and  the  two  societies  have  now 
Ijecome  one. 

There  is,  says  Dr.  Bm-ney,  *no  lucrative 
employment  belonging  to  this  Society,  except- 
ing small  salaries  to  the  secretary  and  collector, 
so  that  the  whole  produce  of  benefits  and  sub- 
scriptions is  nett,  and  dear  of  all  deductions 
or  dnwbacks.'  The  large  staff  of  physicians, 
flugeoDS,  counsel,  solicitors,  give  their  gratui- 
tous services  to  the  Society.  The  present  secretary 
ia  Mr.  Charles  Lucas,  and  the  honorary  treasurer 
Dr.  W.  H.  Cummings.  The  Society's  rooms  are 
ftt  No.  12  Lisle  Street,  Leicester  Square,  and 
contain  some  interesting  memorials  of  music, 
as  veil  as  a  collection  of  portraits,  including 
Handel,  by  Hudson ;  Haydn ;  Corelli,  by 
Howard ;  Geminiani,  by  Hudson ;  Purcell,  by 
Olosterman ;  C.  £.  Horn,  by  Pocock ;  John 
Parry,  the  elder  ;  Sir  W.  Parsons  ;  J.  Sinclair, 
by  Harlowe  ;  Gaetano  Crivelli,  by  Partridge  ; 
Domenico  Francesco  Maria  Crivelli ;  J.  S.  Bach, 
by  Clark  of  £ton  ;  Beethoven,  with  autograph 
presenting  it  to  C.  Keate ;  W.  Dance  by  his 
brother ;  and  a  life-size  painting  of  George  III. 
by  Gainsborough.  w.  h.  c. 

ROZE,  Makie  Hippolyte,  nSe  Ponsin,  bom 
March  2,  1846,  at  Paris ;  received  instruction 
in  singing  from  Mocker  at  the  Conservatoire, 
and  in  1865  gained  first  prizes  in  singing  and 
comic  opera.  She  made  her  d^bnt  August  16 
of  that  year  at  the  Opera-Comique  as  Marie, 
in  Hold's  opera  of  that  name,  and  at  once 
cGodnded  an  engagement  for  the  next  three 
years  there.  She  created  the  |)art  of  Djelma 
in  *  Le  Premier  jour  de  Bonheur  *  of  Auber,  at 
hU  request,  on  Feb.  15,  1868.  After  further 
instniction  from  Wartel  she  appeared  at  the 
Opera  as  Marguerite  in  *  Faust '  (Jan.  2,  1870), 


returned  to  the  Opera -Gomique  to  create 
the  part  of  Jeanne  in  Flotow's  'L'Ombre,' 
July  7,  1870.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  she 
left  the  opera  for  the  army,  and  served  with 
zeal  in  the  ambulance.  After  the  war  she 
sang  for  a  season  at  Brussels  and  elsewhere,  and 
on  April  30,  1872,  first  appeared  in  England  at 
the  Italian  Opera,  Drury  Lane,  as  Marguerite, 
and  as  Marcelline  in  'Les  Deux  Joum^,'  on 
its  production  (for  one  night  only),  June  20, 
1872.  The  ensuing  seasons,  imtil  1881  (except 
1878  and  1880)  she  sang  at  that  theatre  or 
at  Her  Majesty's,  becoming  a  great  favourite, 
both  on  account  of  her  charm  of  person  and 
manner,  and  by  her  readiness  to  undertake  any 
part,  from  the  small  one  of  Berengaria  iu 
Balfe's  'Talismano'  (Drury  Lane,  June  11, 
1874),  to  Donna  Anna,  Ortrud,  Aida,  etc. 
She  also  appeared  in  the  provinces,  singing 
both  in  Italian  and  English  in  opera  or  the 
concert-room.  In  1 87  4  she  married  an  American 
bass  singer,  Julius  Edson  Perkins,  who  died  iu 
the  following  year  at  Manchester.  She  after- 
wards married  Mr.  Henry  Mapleson.  In  the 
winter  of  1877  she  made  a  highly  successful 
visit  to  America,  returning  in  1879  to  Her 
Majesty's  Theatre,  where  her  parts  included 
Dqnna  Anna,  Donna  Elvira,  Panuna,  Susanna, 
Alice,  Leonora  (Verdi),  Agatha,  Mignon,  Carmen. 
Aida,  Ortrud,  etc.  After  singing  at  the 
Birmingham  Festival  of  1 882  with  great  success, 
she  joined  the  Carl  Rosa  Company  from  1883 
to  1889 ;  in  that  time  she  added  to  her 
repertory  Fidelio,  and  Elsa,  and  was  the  first 
representative  in  England  of  Manon  Lescaut  in 
Massenet's  opera  of  that  name.  Margaret  and 
Helen  in  Boito's  *Mefistofele,*  Fadette  in 
Maillart's  'Dragons  de  Yillars,'  Donna  Maria 
in  Marchetti's  *  Buy  Bias,'  are  among  the  parts 
which  she  has  sung  on  the  first  production  of 
these  works  in  English.  Her  impersonation  of 
Carmen  was  her  greatest  success,  as  it  was  full 
of  delicate  detail,  and  presented  Bizet's  music 
in  an  ideal  way.  Many  Carmens  before  and 
since  have  emphasised  liie  wild,  lawless  ]iature 
of  the  gipsy  more  realistically  than  she  chose 
to  do ;  but  none  have  brought  out  the  in- 
dividuality and  charm  of  the  musical  conception 
so  finely.  She  sang  the  part  first  in  Italian 
in  1879  in  America  and  afterwards  in  London, 
next  in  English  in  1880  at  Boston  (U.S.A.),  in 
1883  at  Manchester,  and  on  April  15,  1884, 
appeared  in  it  at  Drury  Lane,  where  it  was  a 
constant  attraction  of  the  Carl  Rosa  season. 
She  sang  it  in  1889  in  Italian  at  Covent 
Garden.  Scarcely  lees  efi'ective  was  her  Manon 
in  Massenet's  opera,  first  sung  by  her  in  English 
at  Liverpool,  Jan.  17, 1885,  and  at  Drury  Lane 
on  May  7.  In  1890  she  settled  in  Paris  as  a 
teacher  of  singing,  reappearing  at  long  intervals 
in  London  and  the  English  provinces  in  con- 
certs. She  made  a  farewell  tour  in  1894  ;  her 
last  appearance  in  London  was  as  late  as  1903, 


176 


RUBATO 


RUBINI 


when  she  sang  at  a  concert  given  by  one  of  her 
pupils.  A.  c. 

RUBATO,  lit.  *  robbed '  or  *  stolen,'  referring 
to  the  values  of  the  notes,  which  are  diminished 
in  one  place  and  increased  in  another.  The 
word  is  used,  chiefly  in  instrumental  music,  to 
indicate  a  particular  kind  of  licence  allowed  in 
Older  to  emphasise  the  expression.  This  con- 
sists of  a  slight  ad  libitum  slackening  or 
quickening  of  the  time  in  any  passage,  in 
accordance  with  the  unchangeable  rule  that 
in  all  such  passages  any  bar  in  which  this 
licence  is  taken  must  be  of  exactly  the  same 
length  as  the  other  bars  in  the  movement,  so 
tliat  if  the  first  part  of  the  bar  be  played  slowly, 
the  other  part  must  bo  taken  quicker  than  the 
ordinary  time  of  the  movement  to  make  up  for 
it ;  and  vice  versa^  if  the  bar  bo  hurried  at  the 
beginning,  there  must  be  a  rallentando  at  the 
end.  In  a  general  way  this  most  important 
and  effective  means  of  expression  is  left  entirely 
to  the  discretion  of  the  performer,  who,  it  need 
scarcely  be  said,  should  take  great  care  to  keep 
it  within  due  limits,  or  else  the  whole  feeling 
of  time  will  be  destroyed,  and  the  emphasis  so 
desirable  in  one  or  two  places  will  fail  of  its 
effect  if  scattered  over  the  whole  composition. 
Sometimes,  however,  it  is  indicated  by  the 
composer,  as  in  the  first  Mazurka  in  Chopin's 
op.  6  (bar  9),  etc.  This  licence  is  allowable  in 
the  works  of  all  the  modem  *  romantic '  masters, 
from  Weber  downwards,  with  the  single  excep- 
tion of  Mendelssohn,  who  had  the  greatest 
dislike  to  any  modification  of  the  time  that  he 
had  not  specially  marked.  In  the  case  of  the 
older  masters,  it  is  entirely  and  unconditionally 
inadmissible,  and  it  may  be  doubted  whether 
it  should  be  introduced  in  Beethoven,  although 
many  great  interpreters  of  his  music  do  not 
hesitate  to  use  it     [See  Tempo.]  m. 

RUBINELLI,  Giovanni  Battista,  cele- 
brated singer,  bom  at  Brescia  in  1753,  made 
his  first  appearance  on  the  stage  at  the  age  of 
eighteen,  at  Stuttgart,  in  Sacchini's  'Galliroe.' 
For  some  years  he  was  attached  to  the  Duke  of 
Wurtemberg's  chapel,  but  in  1774  he  sang  at 
Modena  in  Paisiello's  *  Alessandro  nelle  Indie  ' 
and  Anfossi's  ^Demofoonte.'  His  success  was 
very  great ;  and  during  the  next  few  years  he 
performed  at  all  the  principal  theatres  in  Italy, 
In  1786  became  to  London,  after  a  journey  firom 
Rome  by  no  means  propitious.  The  weather 
was  unusually  severe,  and,  in  going  through 
France,  his  travelling  chaise  was  overturned 
at  Macon  ;  besides  which,  when  approaching 
Dover,  the  boat  that  landed  him  was  upset,  and 
the  unlucky  singer  remained  for  a  time  up  to  his 
chin  in  the  water.  In  spite  of  these  perils  he 
made  a  successful  debut  in  a  pasticcio  called 
*  Virginia,'  his  own  part  in  which  vras  chiefly 
composed  by  Tarchi.  He  next  sang  with  Mara, 
in  *  Armida,'  and  in  Handel's  '  Qiulio  Cesare,' 
revived  for  him,  with  several  interpolations  from 


Handel's  other  works.     These  are  said  to  have 
been  most  admirably  sung  by  Rubinelli. 

After  his  season  in  London  he  returned  to 
Italy,  where  he  had  enormous  success  at 
Yicenza  and  Verona,  in  1791  and  1792,  in 
'La  Morte  di  Cleopatra'  of  Nasolini,  and 
'Agesilao'  of  Andreozzi.  In  1800  he  left  the 
stage,  and  settled  at  Brescia,  where  he  died  in 

1829.  F.A.M. 

RUBINI,  Giovanni  Battista,  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  tenor  singers,  was  bom  at 
Romano,  near  Bergamo,  on  April  7,  1795. 
The  son  of  a  professor  of  music,  he  learned  the 
rudiments  of  his  art  from  his  father,  and  at 
eight  years  old  could  sing  in  church  choirs  and 
play  the  violin  in  an  orchestra.  He  was  then 
placed  as  a  pupil  with  one  Don  Santo,  a  priest, 
organist  at  Adro,  who,  however,  soon  sent  him 
home  again,  saying  that  he  had  no  talent  for 
singing.  In  spite  of  this,  the  father  persisted 
in  teaching  his  unpromising  son,  and  allowed 
him,  at  the  age  of  twelve,  to  appear  in  public 
at  the  Romano  theatre  in  a  woman's  part. 
The  boy  was  next  engaged  at  Beigaroo  as 
chorus-singer,  and  to  play  violin  solos  in  the 
entr'actes.  It  happened  while  he  was  here 
that  in  a  new  drama  that  was  brought  out,  an 
air  by  Lamberti,  of  considerable  difficulty,  had 
to  be  introduced,  for  which  it  was  not  easy  to 
find  a  singer.  The  song  was  finally  entrusted 
to  young  Rubini,  who  acquitted  himself  with 
much  applause,  and  was  rewarded  by  the 
manager  with  a  present  of  five  francs.  His 
elation  at  the  time  must  have  been  sadly  damped 
just  afterwards  by  the  refusal  of  a  MUan 
manager  to  engage  him  as  chorus-singer,  because 
of  his  insufficient  voice. 

After  belonging  for  a  time  to  a  strolling  oom- 
{jany,  and  making  an  unsuccessful  attempt  at 
a  concert  tour  with  a  violinist  called  Madi,  he 
got  a  small  engagement  at  Pavia,  then  another 
at  Brescia  for  the  Carnival ;  he  next  appeared 
at  the  San  Mois6  theatre  at  Venice,  and  lastly 
at  Naples,  where  the  director,  Barbiga  (according 
to  Escudier),  engaged  him  to  sing  with  Pelle- 
grini and  Nozzari,  in  two  operas  written  for 
him  by  Fioravanti.  (The  name  of  one  of  these 
operas  'Adelson  e  Salvina,'  is  identical  with 
that  of  an  early  work  of  Bellini's,  produced 
about  this  time.)  With  the  public  Rubini  was 
successful,  but  so  little  does  Barbaja  appear  to 
have  foreseen  his  future  greatness  that  he  wished 
to  part  with  him  at  the  end  of  the  first  year's 
engagement,  and  only  consented  to  retain  his 
services  at  a  reduced  salaiy.  Rubini  preferred 
making  some  sacrifice  to  leaving  Naples,  where 
he  was  taking  lessons  of  Nozzari,  and  he  acceded 
to  Barbaja's  conditions,  which  very  soon,  how> 
ever,  had  to  be  rescinded,  owing  to  Rubini's 
brilliant  successes  at  Rome  (in  *  La  Gazza 
ladra')  and  at  Palermo.  Some  time  in  1819 
he  married  Mile.  Chomel,  known  at  Naples 
as  La  Comelli,  a  singer  of  some  contemporary 


RUBINI 


RUBINI 


177 


celebrity,  a  Frenchwoman  by  birth,  and  pupil 
of  the  Paris  Conservatoire. 

His  first  appearance  at  Paris  was  on  Oct  6, 
1625,  in  the  *  Cenerentola,*  and  was  followed 
by  otiiers  in  *  Otello '  and  '  La  Donna  del  Lago.' 
He  was  hailed  unanimously  as  *  King  of  Tenors, ' 
and  began  here  the  series  of  triumphs  which 
lasted  as  long  as  his  stage  career.  He  was  still 
bound  by  his  engagement  with  Barbiga,  who 
by  this  time  had  become  aware  of  his  worth, 
and  only  yielded  him  for  six  months  to  the 
Th^lUre  Italien,  claiming  him  back  at  the  end 
of  that  time  to  sing  at  Naples,  then  at  Milan, 
and  at  Vienna. 

Up  to  this  time  his  laurels  had  been  won  in 
Rossini's  music,  on  which  his  style  was  first 
formed,  and  it  was  not  till  now  that  he  found 
his  real  element,  the  vehicle  most  congenial  to 
his  special  individuality,  and  thanks  to  which 
he  was  to  reach  the  summit  of  his  fame. 
Rubini  was  the  foundation  and  raison  cTitre  of 
the  whole  phase  of  Italian  opera  that  succeeded 
the  Boasinian  period.  He  and  Bellini  were 
said  to  have  been  bom  for  one  another,  and  in 
all  probability  Rubini  was  not  more  captivated 
by  the  tender,  pathetic  strains  of  Bellini,  than 
the  sensitive  Bellini  was  influenced  by  Rubini^s 
wonderful  powers  of  expression.  Such  a  singer 
is  an  actual  source  of  inspiration  to  a  composer, 
who  hears  his  own  ideas  not  only  realised, 'but, 
it  may  be,  glorified.  During  the  whole  com- 
poaition  of  'II  Pirata,'  Rubini  stayed  with 
Bellini,  singing  each  song  as  it  was  finished. 
To  this  fortunate  companionship  it  cannot  be 
doubted  that  we  owe  'La  Sonnambula'  and 
'I  PQiitani'  Donizetti,  again,  achieved  no 
great  saooe^  until  the  production  of  <  Anna 
Bolena,'  his  thirty -second  opera,  in  which  the 
tenor  part  was  written  expressly  for  Rubini, 
who  achieved  in  it  some  of  his  greatest  triumphs. 
It  was  followed  by  *  Lucia,'  *  Lucrezia,'  *  Marino 
Faliero,'  and  others,  in  which  a  like  inspiration 
was  followed  by  the  same  result. 

Rubini  first  came  to  England  in  1831,  when 
freed  from  his  engagement  with  Barbaja,  and 
from  that  time  till  1843  he  divided  each  year 
between  Paris  and  this  country,  singing  much 
at  concerts  and  provincial  festivals,  as  well  as 
at  the  Opera,  and  creating  a  furore  wherever 
he  went. 

His  voice  extended  from  E  of  the  bass  clef 
to  B  of  the  treble,  in  chest  notes,  besides  com- 
manding a  falsetto  register  as  far  as  F  or  even 
G  above  that  A  master  of  every  kind  of  florid 
execution,  and  delighting  at  times  in  its  display, 
no  one  seems  ever  to  have  equalled  him  when 
he  turned  these  powers  into  the  channel  of 
emotional  vocal  expression,  nor  to  have  produced 
so  magical  an  effect  by  the  singing  of  a  simple, 
pathetic  melody,  without  ornament  of  any  kind. 
He  indulged  too  much  in  the  use  of  head-voice, 
but '  80  perfect  is  his  art,'  says  Escudier,  writing 
at  the  time,    'that  the  transition  from  one 

VOL.  IV 


register  to  the  other  is  imperceptible  to  the 
hearer.  .  .  .  Gifted  with  immense  lungs,  he 
can  so  control  his  breath  as  never  to  expend 
more  of  it  than  is  absolutely  necessary  for  pro- 
ducing the  exact  degree  of  sound  he  wishes. 
So  adroitly  does  he  conceal  the  artifice  of  re- 
spiration tiiat  it  is  impossible  to  discover  when 
his  breath  renews  itself,  inspiration  and  expira- 
tion being  apparently  simultaneous,  as  if  one 
were  to  fill  a  cup  with  one  hand  while  emptying 
it  with  the  other.  In  this  manner  he  can 
deliver  the  longest  and  most  drawn-out  phrases 
without  any  solution  of  continuity.'  His  stage 
appearance  was  not  imposing,  for  his  figure  was 
short  and  awkward,  his  features  plain  and 
marked  with  small-pox.  He  was  no  actor,  and 
seems  rarely  to  have  even  tried  to  act.  His 
declamation  of  recitative  left  something  to  be 
desired.  '  In  concerted  pieces  he  does  not  give 
himself  the  trouble  of  singing  at  all,  and  if  he 
goes  as  far  as  to  open  his  mouth,  it  is  only  to 
preserve  the  most  absolute  silence '  (Escudier). 
*  He  would  walk  through  a  good  third  of  an 
opera  languidly,  giving  the  notes  correctly  and 
little  more, — in  a  duet  blending  his  voice 
intimately  with  that  of  his  partner  (in  this  he 
was  unsurpassed)  ;  but  when  his  own  moment 
arrived  there  wssno  longer  coldness  or  hesitation, 
but  a  passion,  a  fervour,  a  putting  forth  to  the 
utmost  of  every  resource  of  consummate  vocal 
art  and  emotion,  which  converted  the  most 
incredulous,  and  satisfied  those  till  then  inclined 
to  treat  him  as  one  whose  reputation  had  been 
overrated'  (Ohorley).  Some  of  his  greatest 
effects  were  produced  by  an  excessive  use  of 
strong  contrasts  between  piano  hnd/orte,  *  which 
in  the  last  years  of  his  reign  degenerated  into 
the  alternation  of  a  scarcely-audible  whisper 
and  a  shout. '  He  was  the  earliest  to  use  that 
thrill  of  the  voice  known  as  the  vibrato  (with 
the  subsequent  abuse  of  which  we  are  all  of  us 
too  familiar),  at  first  ss  a  means  of  emotional 
effect,  afterwards  to  conceal  the  deterioration 
of  the  organ.  To  him,  too,  was  originally  due 
that  species  of  musical  sob  produced  by  the 
repercussion  of  a  prolonged  note  before  the  final 
cadence,  which,  electrifying  at  first  as  a  new 
effect,  has  become  one  of  the  commonest  of  vocal 
vulgarisms.  But  such  was  his  perfection  of 
finish,  such  the  beauty  of  his  expression,  such 
his  thorough  identification  of  himself,  not  with 
his  dramatic  impersonations  but  with  his  songs, 
that  his  hold  on  the  public  remained  un  weakened 
to  the  last,  even  when  his  voice  was  a  wreck 
and  his  peculiarities  had  become  mannerisms. 
He  has  had  numberless  imitators,  but  no  rival 
in  the  art  of  gathering  up  and  expressing  in 
one  song  the  varied  emotions  of  a  whole  opera, 
and  to  this  may  be  due  the  fact  that  he  was  as 
much  worshipped  and  as  affectionately  remem- 
bered by  numbers  who  never  set  foot  in  a 
theatre,  as  by  the  most  constant  of  opera-goers. 
In  1848  he  started  with  Liszt  on  a  tour 


178 


RUBINSTEIN 


RUBINSTEIN 


through  Holland  aud  Germany,  but  the  two 
separated  at  Berlin,  and  Rubini  went  on  alone 
to  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  created  an  enthusi- 
asm verging  on  frenzy.  By  his  first  concert 
alone  he  realised  54,000  francs.  The  Emperor 
Nicholas  made  him  '  Director  of  Singing '  in 
the  Russian  dominions,  and  a  colonel  into  the 
bargain. 

In  the  summer  of  this  year  Rubini  went  to 
Italy,  giving  some  representations  at  Vienna 
by  the  way.  He  returned  to  Russia  in  the 
winter  of  1844,  but  finding  his  voice  perman- 
ently affected  by  the  climate  resolved  to  retire 
from  public  life.  He  bought  a  proi)erty  near 
Romano,  where  he  })a86ed  his  last  years,  aud 
died,  on  March  2,  1854,  leaving  behind  him 
one  of  the  lai^est  fortimes  ever  amassed  on  the 
operatic  stage,  which,  unlike  too  many  of  lus 
brother  artists,  he  liad  not  squandered.  He 
seems  to  have  been  a  simple,  kindly-natured 
man,  and  letters  of  his,  still  extant,  show  that 
he  was  ready  and  willing  to  assist  needy  com- 
patriots. F.  A.  M. 

RUBINSTEIN,  Anton  Gregor,  an  eminent 
composer  and  one  of  the  greatest  pianists  the 
world  has  ever  seen,  was  bom  Nov.  28,  1830,^ 
of  Jewish  parents,  atWechwotynetz,  in  Volhynia, 
near  the  Austrian  frontier  of  Russia.  He 
received  his  first  musical  instruction  from  his 
mother,  and  afterwards  from  a  pianoforte-teacher 
in  Moscow  named  Villoing.  So  early  as  1889 
he  made  his  first  public  appearance  in  Moscow, 
and  in  the  following  year  undertook  a  concert- 
tour  with  his  teacher,  journeying  to  Paris, 
where  lie  made  the  acquaintance  of  Liszt,  who 
was  then  teaching  in  that  city,  and  under 
whose  advice  he  there  pursued  his  studies.  A 
year  later  he  made  a  more  extended  tour,  going 
to  England  (1842),  and  thence  to  Holland, 
Germany,  and  Sweden.  In  1845  he  went  to 
study  composition  with  Professor  Dehn  in  Berlin. 
From  1846  to  1848  he  passed  in  Vienna  and 
Pressburg,  teaching  on  his  own  account  In  1 8  4  8 
he  returned  to  Russia,  where  the  Grand  Duchess 
Helen  nominated  him  Kammervirtuos.  After 
studying  diligently  in  St.  Petersburg  for  eight 
years  he  appeared  as  a  fully-fledged  artist  with 
piles  of  original  compositions,  first  in  Hamburg 
and  then  all  over  Germany,  where  he  found 
enthusiastic  audiences  and  willing  publishers. 
His  early  operas,  to  Russian  words,  were  per- 
formed as  follows : — *  Dimitri  Donskoi,'  1862  ; 
*  Die  Sibirischen  Jiiger,  '1862;  *  Toms  der  Narr, ' 
1853,  and  *Ha<yi-Abrek,'  were  not  performed. 
From  this  time  his  fame  as  a  pianist  and  com- 
poser spread  rapidly  over  Europe  and  America. 
He  again  visited  England  in  1867,  and  made 
his  first  appearance  at  the  Philharmonic  on  May 
18.     In   1858  he  returned  home  again,  gave 

>  Not.  90  it  given  In  most  bookc  of  reference,  u  the  eqnlTmlent 
of  Nov.  18  (O.Sj.  In  bit  autobiofr»phj  (nee  below)  he  decUrei  Nov. 
16  (0.8.)  to  be  the  actnal  day.  but  that  the  18th  had  been  eo  long 
regarded  ae  hti  birthday  that  he  had  no  intention  of  changing  it. 
Not,  18  (O.a)  U  the  equivalent  of  Nov.  SB. 


brilliant  concerts  in  St  Peteisbuig,  Moscow, 
etc,  and  settled  in  the  former  city.  At  this 
period  he  was  appointed  Imperial  Concert- 
director,  with  a  life -pension.  Thenceforward 
he  worked  in  conjunction  with  his  friend 
Carl  Schuberth  for  the  advancement  of  music 
in  Russia,  and  had  the  merit  of  being  the 
founder  of  the  St.  Petersbui^g  Conservatorium  in 
1862,  remaining  its  Principal  until  1867.  Tlie 
Russian  Musical  Society,  founded  in  1859,  was 
also  his.  On  leaving  Russia  he  made  another 
triumphant  tour  through  the  greater  part  of 
Europe,  which  lasted  till  the  spring  of  1870. 
When  in  his  native  country,  in  1869,  the 
Emperor  decorated  him  with  the  Vladimir 
Order,  which  raised  him  to  noble  rank.  In 
1870  he  rested  awhile,  and  expressed  the 
intention  of  retiring  from  public  life ;  but  it 
was  not  likely  that  this  desire  could  be  fulfilled. 
He  held  the  Directorship  of  the  Philharmonic 
Concerts  and  Choral  Society  in  Vienna  for  the 
next  year  or  two,  and  this  was  followed  by 
fresh  concert  tours.  In  1872-78  he  toured  in 
America.  Every  year  the  same  threat  of  retire*- 
inent  was  made,  but  the  entreaties  of  the  public, 
aud,  probably,  the  desire  of  providing  for  his 
wife  and  family,  brought  the  gifted  genius  before 
us  again  and  again.  He  gave  a  set  of  farewell 
recitals  all  over  Europe  in  1885-87,  and  in  1887- 
1 890  he  again  undertook  the  direction  of  the  St 
Petersburg  Conservatorium,  and  from  the  latter 
year  lived  for  a  time  in  Dresden.  In  1889  he 
celebrated  his  artistic  jubilee  and  published  an 
Autobiography.  He  died  at  Peterhof,  Nov.  20, 
1894. 

Rubinstein's  playing  was  not  only  remarkable 
for  the  absolute  perfection  of  tedknique,  in  which 
he  was  the  only  rival  Liszt  ever  had,  but  tliere 
was  the  fire  and  soul  which  only  a  true  and 
genial  composer  can  possess.  He  could  play  a 
simple  piece  of  Haydn  or  Mozart  so  as  positively 
to  bring  tears  into  the  eyes  of  his  hearers,  but 
on  the  other  hand,  he  would  sometimes  fall  a 
prey  to  a  strange  excitement  which  caused  him 
to  play  in  the  wildest  fashion.  An  example 
(though  hardly  a  commendable  one)  of  his 
perfect  mastery  over  tone  is  to  be  found  in  his 
performance  of  the  Funeral  March  of  Chopin's 
Sonata  in  Bb  minor.  Regardless  of  the  com- 
poser's intentions,  he  began  it  ppp,  proceeding 
creseendoj  with  perfect  gradation,  up  to  the 
Trio,  after  which  he  recommenced  ff  and  with 
an  equally  long  and  subtle  dimifi/Mndo  ends  as 
softly  as  he  began.  As  an  effect — the  idea  of 
a  band  passing — this  is  stale  and  unworthy  of 
I  an  artist,  but  as  a  Umr  defcrce  it  can  only  be 
justly  appreciated  by  those  who  have  heard  it 
done  and  then  sought  to  imitate  it. 

The  compositions  of  Rubinstein  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  legitimate  outcome  of  Mendels- 
sohn ;  there  is  a  fine  broad  vein  of  melody 
which  is  supported  by  true  and  natural  har- 
mony, and  a  thorough  technical  skill.     But 


RUBINSTEIN 


RUBINSTEIN 


179 


there  is  also  the  fatal  gift  of  fluency,  and  the 
consequent  lack  of  that  self-criticism  and  self- 
restraint  which  alone  make  a  composer  great. 
Rnbinstein  has  written  in  every  department  of 
mosic,  bot  as  yet  his  songs  and  chamber-music 
are  all  that  can  be  ctdled  really  popular, 
excepting  always  his  *  Ocean  Symphony,'  which 
is  known  all  oyer  the  world.  ^  This  is  un- 
(ioabtedly  one  of  his  very  best  works,  the  ideas 
throughout  being  vivid  and  interesting,  while 
the  workmanship  shows  unusual  cai'e.  From 
the  composer's  having  added  an  extra  Adagio 
and  Scherzo  after  the  first  api>earance  of  this 
Symphony  we  may  presume  he  had  a  particular 
regard  for  it,  though  to  risk  wearying  an  audience 
by  inordinate  length  is  scarcely  the  way  to 
recommend  a  work  to  their  favour.  The 
*  Dramatic '  Symphony  (op.  96)  has  been 
admired,  while  of  the  other  three  symphonies 
tlie  first  and  fifth  have  each  only  been  performed 
once  in  England.  His  Pianoforte  Concertos 
are  very  brilliant  and  eifective,  especially  that 
in  G  (op.  45) ;  they  will  perhaps  in  time  take 
a  permanent  {xxsition.  His  Violin  Concerto 
(op.  46)  is  a  very  fine  work,  though  but  little 
known.  The  Persian  Songs  (op.  34 )  are  perhaps 
the  most  popular  of  his  vocal  works,  but  there 
are  many  very  striking  and  successful  specimens 
among  his  other  songs — *  Es  blink t  der  Thau' 
and  'Die  Waldhexe'  for  instance — and  the 
duets  are  fiill  of  beauty  and  passion.  The 
nomerous  drawing-room  pieces  which  he  has 
written  for  the  piano  are  far  superior  to  most 
of  their  class,  his  writing  for  the  instrument 
being  invariably  most  brilliant,  as  is  but  natural 
in  so  great  a  pianist.  His  chamber-music  is 
not  much  known  in  England,  and  he  is  apt  to 
give  the  piano  an  undue  prominence  in  it ;  the 
<  Quintet  in  F  (op.  65)  is  almost  a  Pianoforte 
Concerto  in  disguise.  His  operas  and  oratorios 
have  as  yet  met  with  but  (qualified  success, 
>«eming  to  lack  dramatic  force.  This  is  in 
some  measure  duo  to  his  antagonism  to  the 
theories  and  practice  of  Wagner  and  the  modern 
('erman  school.  He  hsA  a  jn-eferenoe  for  sacred 
snbjects,  which  are  but  ill  fitted  for  the  stage. 

Ust  of  dramatic  works  (including  the 
*iratorios,  or  sacred  operas,  wliich  were  all 
intended  for  stage-performance) : — 

Mmltri  Donakoi.    St.  Petenbanr,  18B2. 

tilMnkiJe  Ocbotnikie.    St.  Patenburg,  18S2.    ('  Die  Sibiriadien 

Fosia  Dontehok  ('  Toma,  d«r  Narr ').    St.  Fetcnburg,  1853. 

Mtft  (•  Me  Bach« '».     St.  P«tcnbnrg.  IffiH. 

Hadji-Abmk  fapnarmtlj  not  parfbrmedK 

IHf  KiDder  der  Haidci.  in  meU.    Vienna.  1861. 

y-anmon  <LaIU  Bookh).  thrM  act*.     Draulen,  ISfO. 

Ixr  Tbnnn  xa  Babel  ('The  Tower  of  BobpJ ').     KOnigubcrif,  1870 
•w  opt  tut). 

D*T  Dftinaii,  thrw  acta.    St.  Petcrsbary,  lS7fi.     As  *  U  Deinonio,' 
C'.ventGanlai.  1681. 

I>te  WatkablT.  thw  act*.    Berlin.  1875. 

l^iwVe(ioir«DePkfadlai(I>tlHMldorf.18T5).  A  preliminary  perform- 
ce  bad  taken  nlac*  in  1855  under  Llaxt  at  Weimar  (Me  op.  84).     I 
I.  loar  acta.    Bambon,  187B.  I 

«hnlkoT  MoakoTiiki  Knpeta  ('  Der  Kanf mann  von  Mo»kaQ '}. 


KAbuhnlkoT 
8t  FHcnburr.  »«0. 
;efac  ('  La  V[ 


trie  Befac  ( 


npetaC 
igne').  1862. 


Snlamith.    Hamburg,  1883. 

Unter  Bilabem,  one  act  (Uambiuv,  1 88S,  placed  before '  Sulaai  iih  *)• 

Der  P»pa»l,  one  act    Hauiburg,  1884. 

MoM«  (1887).  see  op.  112. 

Goriushka  ('  Die  KuuunerroUe ').    St.  Petersburg.  1888. 

Christua.    Berlin,  1888.  Bremen,  1895.  on  tbe  sta««  (we  op.  117). 

The  complete  list  of  Rubinstein's  numbered 
works  is  as  follows : — 

Op,  :op. 

1.  6  little  Songs  in  Low  German  44.  'fioinkw  de  St  Petcnbourg.' 

dialect      Voice   and    PF.  fur    PF.    solo    (6    pieces). 

Schi«lber.  |  Kabnt 

2.8     Ftmtasias     on      Rusrian  45.  Srd  PF.  Concerto  (G).    B.  B. 

themes.  PF.  solo.  Schreiber.  1 4a  Concerto.  Violin  and  Orcb. 

3.  a  Melodies  for  PF.  solo  (F.  B). !  (G).    Peters. 

Schreiber.  47.  3  String  OuarteU  (Nos.  4,  5. 

4.  lfaconrka*Fantaisie.  PP. solo,  6,  E  niln.,  Bb,  D  niin.L 

(O).    Schreiber.  B.  *  H. 

6.  Polonaise,   Cnux>Tlenne  and  48.  IS  Two-part  Bongs  (from  the 
Hasurka.  PF.  solo.  Schrei-  Ktissian)  with  PP.    SniflT. 

ber.  49.  Senate    for   PF.    and    Viola 

6.  'nuvntelle.     PF.     solo     (B).  (F  min.).    B.  ft  H. 

Schreiber.  80.  6  '  Charakter  -  Bilder.'      PF. 

7.  Improinptn -Caprice,   'Horn-  duet    Kahnt 

mage  a  Jenny  Llnd.'    PF.  81.  6  Morccaux  for  PF.    Benff. 
nolo  (A  minot^.  Schreiber.    52.  3rd  Trio.     PF.  and  Strings 

8.  8    Songs    (words    from     the  (Bb).    SenfT. 

Roflrian).     Voice  and  PF.  8S.  6  Preludes  and  Fugues  in  free 
BeniT.  style.    PF.  solo.    Peters. 

9.  Octet  in  D  for  PF.  V.,  Viola.  84.  'Paradise Lost'  Sacred  Open 

Vcello.    Bass.    Fl.,    Clar.,  after  MUtou,   in  3  iMirts. 

and  Horn.     Peters.  SenlT. 

10.  Kamenuoi-Ostruw.     24  For-  88.  Quintet  for  PF.  and  Wind 

traiteforPF.    Schott         i  (F).    8chaberth. 

11.  S  Pieces  for  PF.  and  V. ;  3  86.  8rd   Symphony   (A).     Schu- 

do.  for  PF.  and  Vcello ;  8'  berth. 

do.  for  PF.  and  Viola.  Behu-  87.  6  Songs.  Voice  and  PF.  SeufT. 

berth.  ,88.  Scena  ed  Aria,   'E   dunque 

12.  1st  Sonata  for  PF.  solo  (B).  |  rerot'      8op.    and    Orch. 

Petws.  Schott 

13L  Ist  Sonata  for  PF.  and  V.  (G).  M.  String  Quintet  (F).    SenlT. 

Peters.  ,60.  Concert    Overture    in     Bfc. 
14.  'The   Ball.'   Fantasia   in  10  SenlT. 

Noa.  for  PF.  solo.    B.  B.>  61.  3  Put-songs  for  Male  Voices. 
18.  2  Trios.     PF..  v..  and  Vcello  Schreiber. 

(F.  Gmln.).    Hofmeister.  62.  6 Part-aongs for  Mixed  Voices. 


16.  Impromptu.    Beroeiise    and 

Serenade.    PF.  solo.    Hof- 
meister. 

17.  3  String  QuarteU  (G.  C  mln., 

18.  1st  Sonata  forPF.  and  Vcello 

(D).    a  *  H. 

19.  2ud  Sonata  for  PP.  and  V. 

'  \  TTTfn  y     T..  .^  H. 

20.  an ■  I   >.  r,.,t.i   h.r    CF.   solo  (C 

Miirk.!.     B.  ah: 

21.  8  *.    prk**  ti,r  V¥.  solo  (Ft, 

!■    Ktji,    R.  ill,  * 

2i  3  .^ivmdmtvi  PF.  solo  (F, 


Schreiber. 

63.  'Die  Nixe.'  Alto  Solo.  Fe- 
male Chorus,  and  Orch. 
Senlt 

64.  6  Fkbles  by  KriloiT.  Voice 
and  PF.    SenflT. 

65b  1st  Concerto  for  Vcello  and 

Orch.  (A  mln.).    Senff. 
66.  Quartet   PF.  and  Strings  (C). 

Senff. 
07.  6  Two-part  Songs  with  PF. 

Scuff. 
68.  'Faust'     Musical    imrtrait, 

for  Orch.    Biegel. 
p  inln,,  &K    KAU.  60.8    Morceaux    for    PF.    sola 

23.  6  itnrlr*  tur  P^%  v^lo.    Peten.  j  Sttgel. 

24.  ePtr-Jiirlfaf^irT-K  -olo.  Ptftoi*..  70.  4th  PF.  Concerto  |D  mln,). 
24.  1st    •■'*■-    f  -     -      (B  miu.;,  |  Senff. 

1^^.^.  i71.  3  Morceaux.  PF.  mlo.  Slegel. 

26.  Romance    and    Impromptu,  72.  6  Songs  for  a  Low  Voice  and 
PF.    solo    (F,    A    minor).  PP.    Senff, 

Schreiber.  173.  Fantalsle   for  2  Pianos  (F). 


■  First  Mrfonoed  in  Laswion  by  Musical  Art  Union  (Kliiidworth) 
Xay  n.  ISO ;  with  extia  movements.  Crystal  Palace,  April  12, 1877. 
nillbaraoQic,  June  11, 1879. 


27.  9  Songs  (words  from  RuMdan). 

Voice  and  PP.     Schreiber. 

28.  Nrjctunie  (f:b)  and   Caprice 

(I*)  for  PF.  solo,    Kistner. 

29.  2  Funeral  Marches.    PP.  solo. 

— 1 .  For  an  Artist  (F  min, ) ; 

2.   For  a   Hero   (C  min.). 

Kistner. 
;».    Barcarolle  (F,   min.);   All" 

Appass.  (D  min.)  for  PF. 

solo.    Kistner. 
31.  6  4-part  Songs  for  Male  Voicea. 

Kistner. 
•(2,  6  Songs  triMi  Heine.     Voice 

and  PF.     Kistner. 

33.  6  Bongs.  Voice  and  PF.  Kist- 

ner. 

34.  12  Persian  Songs.    V,audPF, 

Kistner. 

35.  2nd  PF.  Concerto  (F).  Schrei 

ber. 

36.  12  Songs  from  the  Russian, 

Voice  and  PF.    8chrei>ier. 

37.  Akrosttehon  (lAura)  for  PF. 

solo.    Schreiber. 

38.  Suite  no  Noa.)  for  PF.  milo. 

Schott 

39.  2nd  Sonate  for  PF.  and  Vcello 

(G),    B,kH, 

40.  1st  Symphony  for  Orchestra 

(F).     Kahnt 

41.  3rd  Sonata  for  PF,  solo  (F), 

B.  ftH. 

42.  and  Symphony,  *  Ocean '  (C). 

Senff. 

43.  Triumphal  Overture  for  Or- 

ohestm.   Schott 


Senff. 
Der  Morgen.'     Cantata  for 

Male    Voices    and    Orch. 

(from  the  Russian).    Senff. 
Album    de    Peterhof.'      12 

Pieces.     PF.  solo.    Senff. 

76.  6  Songs  for  Voice  and  PF. 
Senff. 

77.  Fantalsle  for  PF.  (K  min,). 
Senff. 

78.  12  Songs  from  the  Riinsian. 
Voice  and  PF.    Scnft. 

Ivan  the  Tenlble.'   Musical 
portrait  for  Orch.     B.  B. 

80.  'The  Tower  of  Babel.'  Bacreti 
opera  in  one  act  Senff. 
rhappell. 

81.  6  Etudes  for  PF.  solo.  B.  B. 
'9SL  Album  of  Krttional  Diuicrs 
1  (6)  for  PF.  nolo.     B.  B. 

63.  10   Songs.      Voice  and   PF. 

B.  B. 
84.  Fantasia  for  PF.  and  Orch. 

(C).    Senff. 
86.  4th  Trio.     PF.  and  Strings 

(A).      Lewy. 

86.  Romance  and  Caprice  for 
Violin  and  Orch.    Senff. 

87.  ' Don  Quixote.'  Musical  por- 
trait Humoreske  for  Orch. 
Senff. 

88.  Theme  and  Variations  for 
PF.  sulo(G).    Benll. 

89.  Sonata  for  PP.  duH  (D). 
Senff. 

90.  2  String  Qoarteta  (Nos.  7.  8, 
O  min..  B  min.).    Senff. 


2  B.B.r=BotekBock. 


a  B.  St  H.aBreitkopf  ft  HMrtel. 


180 


RUBINSTEIN 


RUCKERS 


Oi>. 

91.  Soogi  and  Requiem  (or  Mil- 

lion (from  Ctoethe's  'WU- 
helm  MeisteO  for  Solas, 
Choms.  and  PP.    SenO. 

92.  9  SoenM  for  Contralto  and 

OrcheBtra.  No.  1.  'Hecu- 
ba'; No.  2.  Hagar  In  the 
deaert.'    Senff. 

95.  9    Books  of  MiwellaneouB 

PleoM  (12)  for  PP.  aolo. 
Sentr,  . 

94.  SthPP.CkmeertoCEb).  Soiff. 

96.  4th  Symphony.  'Dramatic' 

(D  min.).    Benflr. 
W.  and  Concerto.    VoeUo  and 

Orch.    SenlL 
AT.  8extuorforStrbige(D).8onff. 

95.  3rd  tenata.    PP.  and  V.  (B 

min.).    SenlL 
99.  Qniittet.  PP.  and  Btrlnsa  (O 
min.).    SeniL 

100.  4th  Sonata  for  PP.  eolo  (A 

mill.).    Senff. 

101.  13  Songs.     Voice  and  PP. 

Senff. 

102.  Caprice    Russv.      PP.    and 

Orch.    SenlL 
lOSL  Bal  costume.    Setofchaimo- 

terisUe  pieces  <90)  for  PP. 
^  4  hands.    B.  B.        . 
104.  Kl<Sfcie;  VarUtions;  Etude. 

PP.  solo.    B.  B. 


Op, 

lOB.  A  aeries  of 

Voice  and  PP.    Bw  B. 
108b  2  String  Qnarteto  (Noa.  9. 

10.  A9.  P  min.). 

107.  6tb  Symphony  (O  min.).   In 

memory  of  the  Orand- 
duoheasH^lAne  Fl^ulovna. 
Senff. 

108.  5th  Trio  lor  PP.  and  Strings 


109.    Soirees  M uslcales.     9  PP. 


110.  Eroiea.  Fantasia  for   PP. 

and  Orchestra. 

111.  eth  Symphony  (A  minor). 

112.  '  Moses,'  a  Biblieal  opera  in 

8  tableaux.    Fart  I.  oon. 

tainlng  four  tableaux  (Bil- 

der).   was   published    by 

Senff.  1888. 
lis.  Concertstilck   for  PP.  and 

Oroh. 
114.  Akrostichon.  for  PP.  solo. 

116.  Songs. 

116b  Concert •orertore,  'Antony 
and  Cleopatra.' 

117.  ChristUB.  Biblical  Opera. 

118.  Six  PP.  solos. 

119.  Butte  In  Bb  for  orchestra,  in 

slxi 


Without  opus  numben  appeared  the  following  :— 

Symphonic  poem, '  RusaiJ.^   M osoow.  18SL 

nuitasia  eroiea  for  orchestra. 

Ouverture  solennello.  for  orchestta,  with  organ  and  chorus 
(posth. ).    Three  baronrollas  (A  minor,  O,  and  C  minor). 

Pianoforte  pieces  :  —  *  Valse  oapriee.'  B  fUt,  and  'Ungarlsehe 
Phantasto.' '  Rnsslsche  Serenade,' '  Phantasie,'  3  Moroeauz  caraot&r- 
istiques,'  6  preludes,  cadensas  to  Beethoven's  pianoforte  eonoertos. 
and  to  Mocart's  concerto  in  D  minor,  arrangement  of  the  march 
in  Beethoven's  '  Ruins  of  Athena.' 

Rubinstein's  appearance  was  remarkable.  His 
head  was  of  a  very  Russian  type,  without  beard 
or  moustache,  but  with  a  thick  shock  of  dark- 
brown  hair. 

We  have  said  that  Rubinstein's  first  visit  to 
London  was  in  1842.  He  was  then  only  just 
twelve.  Mendelssohn  and  Thalberg  were  both 
here,  and  the  Philharmonic  was  thus  naturally 
already  occupied.  Mention  of  him  is  to  be 
found  in  Moscheles's  Diary  for  1842  {Leben,  it 
90),  where  he  is  spoken  of  by  that  genial  master 
as  *a  rival  to  Thalberg  ...  a  Russian  boy 
whose  fingers  are  as  light  as  feathers,  and  yet 
as  strong  as  a  man's.'  In  the  MiisiceU  and 
Dramatic  Review  of  May  28,  1842,  he  is  men- 
tioned. He  did  not  return  to  this  country  till 
1857,  when  he  appeared  at  the  Philharmonic 
on  May  18,  playing  his  own  Concerto  in  G. 
He  came  back  in  the  following  year,  played 
again  at  the  Philharmonic  on  June  7,  and  at 
the  Musical  Union,  May  11.  In  1869  he  came 
a  fourth  time,  and  played  at  the  Musical  Union 
only  (May  18,  June  1).  In  1876  he  made  his 
fifth  visit,  played  at  the  Philharmonic,  May  1, 
and  gave  four  Recitals  in  St.  James's  Hall.  In 
1877  he  again  gave  recitals,  and  conducted  his 

*  Ocean'  Symphony  (six  movements)  at  the 
Crystal  Palace,  April  21  ;    he  conducted  his 

*  Dramatic '  symphony,  and  played  Beethoven's 
Concerto  in  G,  at  the  Crystal  Palace  on  June  4. 
In  1881  he  gave  another  series  of  Recitals  at 
St  James's  Hall,  his  opera  *  The  Demon '  was 
brought  out  in  Italian  at  Covent  Garden  on 
June  21,  and  his  *  Tower  of  Babel,'  with  other 
musio,  at  the  Crystal  Palace  on  June  11.  In 
May  and  June  1887,  he  gave  a  final  set  of  seven 
historical  recitals  in  St.  James's  Hall. 


Rubinstein  made  sundry  attempts  as  a  writer 
on  musical  subjects.  The  *  Autobiography  * 
spoken  of  above  appeared  in  German  to  celebrate 
his  artiBtic  jubilee  in  1889,  and  was  translated 
into  Englisli  by  Aline  Delano  in  1890.  (See 
Musical  TimeSf  1891,  p.  105.)  *Die  Kunst 
und  ihre  Meister '  appeared  in  1892,  as  well  as 
*  Erinnerungen  aus  50  Jahren. '  (German  treusl. 
in  1896.)  A  posthumous  supplement  to  *Die 
Kunst,'  etc.,  called  ^Gedankenkorb,'  was  pub- 
lished posthumously  in  1897.  Among  various 
biographies  of  Rubinstein  may  be  mentioned 
those  of  W.  Baskin  (1886),  N.  Liasowaki 
(1889),  A.  MacArthur  (1889),  and  Sandra 
Droueker  (1904). 

Nicholas,  his  younger  brother,  bom  at 
Moscow,  June  2,  1835,  was  also  a  fine  pianist 
and  no  mean  composer,  though  overshadowed 
by  the  fame  of  his  great  brother.  He  studied 
under  Kullak  and  Dehn  in  Berlin  during 
1844-46.  In  1859  he  founded  at  Moscow  the 
Russian  Musical  Society,  which  gives  twenty 
concerts  each  year  ;  and  in  1864  the  Conserva- 
torium,  and  was  head  of  both  till  his  death.  In 
1861  he  visited  England,  and  played  twice  at 
the  Musical  Union  (June  4,  18).  In  1878  he 
gave  four  orchestral  concerts  of  Russian  music 
in  the  Trocad^ro  at  Paris  with  great  success. 
He  died  of  consumption  in  Paris,  Mar.  23, 
1881,  on  his  way  to  Nice  for  his  health,  widely 
and  deeply  lamented.  His  latest  published 
work  is  op.  17 — *Sc^ne  du  Bal,  Polonaise.' 
His  best-known  pupils  are  Taneiev,  Siloti,  and 
Saner.  The  Musical  Society  gives  annual 
concerts  in  his  memory,  on  the  anniversaries  of 
his  birth  and  death. 

RUBINSTEIN,  Joseph— no  relation  to  the 
foregoing — was  bom  at  Staro  Konstantinov,  in 
Russia,  Feb.  8,  1847,  and  acquired  some  fame  as 
a  pianist  and  composer  of  drawing-room  music. 
He  also  obtained  an  unenviable  notoriety 
through  certain  newspaper  articles  in  the  Bai/- 
retUher  Bl&Uer  signed  with  his  name,  and 
attacking  Schumann  and  Brahms  in  a  most 
offensive  and  vindictive  manner.  He  made 
some  good  pianoforte  transcriptions  of  the  works 
of  Wagner,  of  whom  he  was  an  ardent  if  not 
very  judicious  propagandist.  He  committed 
suicide  at  Lucerne,  Sept  16,  1884.         f.  c. 

RUCKERS,  harpsichord  makers  of  Antwerp, 
who  were  working  as  masters  between  1579  and 
1667  or  later,  the  first  of  whom,  Hans  Ruckers, 
is  always  credited  with  great  improvements  iu 
keyboard  instraments.  It  is  certain  that  the 
tone  of  the  Ruckers  harpsichords  has  never  been 
surpassed  for  purity  and  beauty  of  tone-colour, 
and  from  this  quality  they  remained  in  use  iu 
England,  as  well  as  in  France  and  the  Nether- 
lands, until  harpsichords  and  spinets  were  super- 
seded, at  the  end  of  the  18th  century,  by  the 
pianoforte.  The  art  of  harpsichord  making,  as 
exemplified  in  London  by  Kirkman  and  Shudi, 
was  directly  derived   from  Antwerp  and  the 


RUCKERS 


EUCKERS 


181 


Eockers.  Tune  seemed  to  have  no  effect  with 
the  Ruckers  instrnments.  They  were  decorated 
with  costly  paintings  in  this  country  and  France, 
when  a  hundred  years  old  and  more.  .  New  keys 
and  new  jacks  replaced  the  old  ones  ;  so  long  as 
the  sound-board  stood  lasted  the  '  silvery  sweet ' 
tone.  It  has  done  so  in  some  instances  until 
now,  but  modem  conditions  of  life  seem  to  be 
inimical  to  the  old  wood ;  it  will  be  difficult,  if 
oot  impossible,  to  preserve  any  of  these  old  in- 
struments much  longer.  As  a  work  of  piety  we 
have  catalogued  all  that  we  have  seen  or  can 
hear  of,  appending  the  list  to  this  notice. 

In  John  Broadwood's  books,  1772-73,  are 
several  entries  concerning  the  hiring  of  Ruker, 
Rooker,  and  Roiiker  harpsichords  to  his  cus- 
tomers ;  to  the  Duchess  of  Richmond,  Lady 
Pembroke,  Laily  Catherine  Murray,  etc.  etc. 
In  1790  Lord  Oainden  bought  a  'double  Ruker ' : 
in  1792  Mr.  Williams  bought  another,  the  price 
charged  for  each  being  twenty-five  guineas. 
These  entries  corroborate  the  statement  of  James 
Broadwood  (Some  Notcs^  1838,  printed  privately 
186*2)  that  many  Ruckers  harpsichords  were 
extant  and  in  excellent  condition  fifty  years 
before  he  wrote.  He  specially  refers  to  one  that 
was  twen^  years  before  in  possession  of  Mr. 
Preston,  the  publisher,  reputed  to  have  been 
Queen  Elizabeth's,  and  sold  when  Nonsuch 
Palace  was  demolished.  To  have  been  hers 
Hans  Ruckers  the  elder  must  be  credited  with 
having  made  it 

If  the  tone  caused,  as  we  have  said,  the  long 
preservation  of  the  Ruckers  clavecins,  on  the 
other  hand  the  paintings  which  adorned  them 
not  nnfrequently  caused  their  destruction.  A 
case  in  point  is  the  instrument  of  the  Parisian 
OTganist,  Balbastre,  whom  Bumey  visited  when 
on  his  famous  tour.  Bumey  says  it  was  painted 
inside  and  out  with  as  much  delicacy  as  the 
finest  coach  or  snuff-box  he  had  ever  seen.  In- 
side the  cover  was  the  story  of  Rameau's  '  Castor 
and  Pollux,'  the  composer,  whom  Bumey  had 
seen  some  years  before,  being  depicted  crowned 
with  a  wreath.  He  describes  the  tone  as 
delicate  rather  than  powerful  (he  would  be  ac- 
customed in  London  to  the  sonorous  pompous 
Kirkmans,  which  he  so  much  admired),  and  the 
touch,  in  accordance  with  the  French  practice  of 
quilling,  as  very  light  This  instrament  was 
then  more  than  a  hundred  years  old,  perhaps  more 
than  a  hundred  and  fifty.  On  the  front  board 
above  the  keys  is  inscribed  a  complete  piece  .of 
clavecin  music,  'Pastorale  par  Mr.  Balbastre, 
le  6  Aoust,  1767,'  beginning — 


etc. 

The  stand  for  this  instrument  is  rococo,  and  gilt. 
"We  learn  more  of  its  fate  from  Rimbault  {Tkc 
Pianoforie,  1860,  p.  76),  who  tells  us  that  it 
became  the  property  of  Mr.  Coding  of  London, 


who  sacrificed  Ruckers'  work,  to  display  the 
paintings  by  Boucher  and  Le  Prince  that  had 
adorned  it,  on  a  new  grand  piano  made  for  the 
purpose  by  Zeitter.  "niis  miJcer  showed  respect 
for  his  predecessor  by  preservingthesound-board, 
which  he  converted  into  a  music-box,  the  insciip- 
tion  'Joazmes  Ruckers  me  fecit  Antverpiae' 
being  transferred  to  the  back.  This  box  ulti- 
mately became  Rimbault's ;  the  piano  was  sold 
at  Coding's  sale  by  Christie  &  Manson  in  1857. 
In  the  same  house  (Carlton  House  Terrace),  and 
sold  by  auction  at  the  same  time  for  £290,  was  an 
Andries  Ruckers  harpsichord  that  had  also  been 
made  intoa  pianoforte  by  Zeitter.  In  this  instra- 
ment the  original  belly,  dated  1628,  was  pre- 
served. The  sound-hole  contained  the  rose  (No.  6) 
of  this  maker.  The  present  compass  of  the  piano 
is  five  octaves  F — F.  Inside  the  top  is  a  landscape 
with  figures,  and  outside,  figures  with  musical 
instraments  on  a  gold  ground.  Round  the  case 
on  gold  are  dogs  and  birds,  a  serpent  and  birds, 
etc  All  this  decoration  is  1 8th;century  work. 
The  instrument  is  on  a  Louis  Quinze  gilt  stand. 

It  was  this  intimate  combination  of  the  deco- 
rative arts  with  music  that  led  to  the  clavecin 
and  clavichord  makers  of  Antwerp  becoming 
members  of  the  artists'  guild  of  St.  Luke  in 
that  city.  They  were  enrolled  in  the  first 
instance  as  painters  or  sculptors.  We  must, 
however,  go  farther  back  than  Hans  Ruckers 
and  his  sons  to  estimate  truly  their  position 
and  services  as  clavecin  makers.  For  this 
retrospect  the  pamphlet  of  the  Chevalier  Leon 
de  Burbure  —  Becherches  aur  le$  Faeteiirs  de 
Claveeina  et  les  LtUhiers  (TAnvers  (Brussels, 
1863),  supplies  valuable  information.  We 
learn  that  at  the  end  of  the  1 5th  and  beginning 
of  the  16th  centuries,  pi*ecisely  as  in  ^gland 
and  Scotland  at  the  same  period,  the  clavichord 
was  in  greater  vogue  than  the  clavecin  ;  possibly 
because  clavecins  were  then  always  long  and 
sometimes  trapeze-shaped.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  names  Clavicordio  in  Spain, 
Clavicordo  in  Italy,  and  Clavicorde  in  France, 
have  been  always  applied  to  the  quilled  instra- 
ments. We  are  not,  therefore,  sure  whether  old 
references  to  the  clavichord  are  to  be  taken  as 
describing  a  plectram  or  a  tangent  keyboard 
instrament  About  the  year  1500  the  clavecin 
had  been  made  in  the  clavichord  shape  in 
Venice,  and  called  Spinet.  [See  Spinet.]  Tliis 
new  form  must  have  soon  travelled  to  the  Low 
Countries,  and.  have  superseded  the  Clavichord 
as  it  did  in  England  and  France  about  the 
same  epoch. 

A  clavecin  maker  named  Josse  Carest  was 
admitted  in  1523  to  the  St  Luke's  guild  as  a 
sculptor  and  painter  of  clavichords  (literally 
*  Joos  Kerrest,  ciavecordmaker,  snyt  en  scildert ').  * 
Another  Carest  had  been  accepted  in  1519  as 
an  apprentice   painter   of  clavecins  ('Qoosen 

Bint  LueatgUde.    Bomboata  en  Van  Lerlna.    2  toIs.    

Antwerp ;  N ijhofl;  The  Hagtie. 


182 


RUCKERS 


RUCKERS 


Kareest,  schilder  en  Klavecimbelmaker,  gheleert 
by  Peeter  Mathys ').  This  is  an  earlier  instance 
of  the  name  Clavecin  than  that  quoted  by  M.  de 
Burbnre  as  the  oldest  he  had  fonnd  in  Belgium, 
viz.  a  house  in  the  parish  of  Notre  Dame, 
Antwerp,  which,' in  1532,  bore  the  sign  of  *de 
Clavizimbele.'  No  doubt  at  that  time  both 
clavecins  and  clavichords  were  in  use  in  Antwerp, 
but  in  a  few  years  we  hear  of  the  latter  no 
more  ;  and  the  clavecin  soon  became  so  im- 
portant that,  in  1557,  Josse  Garest  headed  a 
petition  of  the  clavecin-makers  to  be  admitted 
to  the  privileges  of  the  guild  as  such,  and  not, 
in  a  side  way,  merely  as  painters  and  sculptors 
of  their  instruments.  Their  prayer  was  granted 
and  the  ten  petitioners  were  exempted  from  the 
production  of  'masterworks,'  but  their  pupils 
and  all  who  were  to  come  after  them^  were 
bound  to  exhibit  masterworks,  being  clavecins, 
oblong  or  with  bent  sides  ('  viercante  oft  gehoecte 
clavisimbale,'  square  or  grand  as  we  should  say), 
of  five  feet  long  or  more ;  made  in  the  work- 
shops of  master  experts,  of  whom  two  were 
annually  elected  ;  and  to  have  the  mark,  design, 
or  scutcheon,  proper  to  each  maker  (syn  eygen 
marck,  teecken,  oft  wapene),  that  is,  a  recog- 
nised trade-mark  on  each  instrument.  We  will 
give  these  trade-marks  of  the  members  of  the 
Buckers  family  from  sketches  kindly  supplied 
by  [the  late]  M.  Abel  Regibo,  of  Renaix  in  Bel- 
gium ;  three,  belonging  to  Hans  and  his  two  sons, 
having  been  already  published  by  M.  Sdmond 
Vander  Straeten  in  his  monumental  work  La 
Musique  aux  Pays-Bos,  vol.  iiL  (Brussels,  1875).^ 
It  is  at  once  evident  that  such  regulations 
tended  to  sound  work.  The  trade-marks  we 
have  more  particularly  described  under  Rose. 
They  were  usually  made  of  lead,  gilt,  and  were 
conspicuous  in  thesound-holes  of  the  instruments. 
Some  of  the  contemporary  Italian  keyboard- 
instruments  might  bo  taken  to  give  a  general 
idea  of  what  the  Antwerp  ones  were  like  prior 
to  the  improvements  of  Hans  Ruckers  the 
elder.  In  the  preparation  of  the  sound-boards 
the  notion  of  the  sound -chest  of  Lute  and 
PSALTXRY  prevailed.  Ruckers  adhered  to  this 
prin9lple,  but  being  a  tuner  and  perhaps  a 
builder  of  organs,  he  turned  to  the  organ  as  a 
type  for  an  improved  clavecin,  and  while  hold- 
ing fast  to  tiinhre  as  the  chief  excellence  and 
end  of  musical  instrument  making,  introduced 
different  tone  colours,  and  combined  them  after 
organ  analogies  and  by  organ  contrivances  of 
added  keyboards  and  registers.  It  is  doubtful 
what  changes  of  construction  Hans  Ruckers 
made  in  the  harpsichord — perhaps  the  octave 
strings  only.  Yet  a  clavicembalo  by  Domenico 
di  Pesaro,  dated  1590,  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert 
Museum,  has  the  octave  strings  with  t^^'o  stops. 
Ruckers*8  great  service  may  after  all  have  only 

t  Ijitar  on,  ttin«n  alao  beoame  memben  of  the  guild.  For 
liuUaoe  MIcImI  OoItiw,  CUufntnffaHtldtr,  in  1631-3S :  vho  wm. 
hnirever,  the  son  of  a  memher. 

3  Burner  refers  to  them  nutrlss  when  writing  about  the  Suckers. 


been  to  improve  what  others  had  previously 
introduced.  It  is  nearly  certain  that  harpsi- 
chords with  double  keyboards  and  stops  for 
diiferent  registers  existed  before  his  time,  and 
their  introduction  may  be  attributed  to  the 
great  favour  the  Claviorganum,  or  combined 
spinet  and  organ,  was  held  in  during  the  16th 
century.  The  researches  of  M.  Edmond  Vander 
Straeten  (La  Mimqve  avx  Pays-Bos,  vol.  viii. 
Brussels,  1885)  have  done  much  to  bring  into 
prominence  the  great  use  of  the  Claviorgannm 
at  an  early  time ;  see  Rabelais,  who,  before 
1 552,  described  Car^meprenant  as  having  toes 
like  an  *^pinette  organist.'  The  merit  of 
Hans  Ruckers,  traditionaUy  attributed  to 
him,  and  never  gainsaid,  was  his  placing  the 
octave  as  a  fixtm^  in  the  long  c]avecin,  boldly 
attaching  the  strings  to  hitch-pins  on  the  sound- 
board (strengthened  beneath  for  the  purpose), 
and  by  the  addition  of  another  keyboard,  also 
a  fixture,  thus  establishing  a  model  which 
remained  dominant  for  large  instruments  until 
the  end  of  the  clavecin  manufacture.^  [On  the 
inventions  of  H.  Ruckers  the  elder,  see  Hipkins's 
Pianoforte  Prvnver,  p.  81.] 

An  in  terestingchapter  isdevoted  to  the  Ru<^erB 
family  by  M.  Edmond  Vander  Straeten  in  the 
work  already  referred  to  (vol.  iii.  p.  825,  etc). 
He  has  gathered  up  the  few  documentary  notices 
of  the  members  of  it  discovered  by  MM. 
Rombouts  and  Van  Lerius,  by  M.  G^nard  and 
by  M.  Leon  de  Burbnre,  with  some  other  facts 
that  complete  all  that  is  known  about  them. 

The  name  Ruckers,  variously  spelt  Rukers, 
Rueckers,  Ruyckers,  Ruekaers,  Rieckera,  and 
Rikaert,  is  really  a  contraction  or  corruption  of 
the  Flemish  Ruckaerts  or  Ryckaertszoon,  equi- 
valent to  the  English  Richardson.  Hans  the 
elder  was  certainly  of  Flemish  origin,  being  the 
son  of  Francis  Ruckers  of  Mechlin.  He  can 
hardly  have  been  bom  later  than  1555.  Married 
at  Notre  Dame  (the  cathedral),  Antwerp,  June 
25,  1575,  as  Hans  Ruckaerts,  to  Naenken 
Cnaeps,  he  was  admitted  as  Hans  Ruyckers, 
'clavisinbalmakerre,'  to  the  Lucas  guild  in 
1575.  It  appears  strange  that  he  was  not  en- 
rolled a  citizen  until  1594,  but  this  may  have 
been,  as  M.  de  Burbure  suggests,  a  readmisdon, 
to  repair  the  loss  of  a  record  burnt  when  the 
Spaniards  sacked  the  Hdtel  de  Ville  in  1576. 
In  those  troubled  times  there  could  have  been 
but  little  to  do  in  clavecin-making.  May  we 
see  in  this  a  reason  for  his  acquiring  that 
knowledge  of  the  organ  which  was  to  lead 
ultimately  to  his  remodelling  the  long  clavecin  i 

He  had  four  sons,  Francis,  Hans,  Andries, 
and  Anthony.  It  is  only  with  Hans  (baptized 
Jan.  13,  1578)  and  Andries  (baptized  August 
80,  1579)  that  we  are  concerned,  since   they 

>  The  end  of  the  manufacture  for  Antwerp  ia  dtronloled  by  H.  dp 
Burbnre  in  one  iieen  by  him— he  does  not  say  whether  single  or 
double— made  by-  a  blind  man,  and  iiiseribcd  '  Joannes  Relneman 
me  fecit  A°  ITW,  Antwerpiae.'  The  latest  harplschord  made  (apnrt 
from  niodem  revivals)  Heeini  to  be  an  instrumeoat  br  Clenteuti. 
dated  1803.  and  shown  at  the  Bolopia  BshibiUon  of  im 


RUCKERS 


RUCKERS 


183 


became  clavecin -makers  of  equal  reputation 
with  their  father.  We  learn  that  in  1591 
Hans  Rnckers  the  elder  became  tuner  of  the 
organ  in  the  Yiigin's  chapel  of  the  Cathedral, 
and  that  in  1593  he  added  fourteen  or  fifteen 
stops  to  the  large  organ  in  the  same  church. 
In  1598  and  1599  either  he  or  his  son  Hans 
(the  records  do  not  specify  which)  had  charge 
of  the  organs  of  St  Bavon,  and  from  1617  to 
1623  of  St.  Jacques.  The  like  doubt  exists  as 
to  the  Hans  who  died  in  1642.  We  believe 
that  this  date  refers  to  the  son,  as  the  latest 
clavecin  we  have  met  with  of  his  make  is  the 
Countess  of  Dudley's  beautiful  instrument  dated 
that  year  (list,  No.  41) ;  the  latest  certain  date 
of  the  father's  clavecins  at  present  found  being 
1614.  The  earliest  is  1590,  with  which  date 
three  existing  instruments  are  marked. 


JS^MSt 


The  trade-mark  of  Hans  the  elder  is  here  re- 
presented. 

Of  the  instruments  catalogued  below,  it  will 
be  observed  that  twenty  are  probably  by  Hans 
the  elder.  The  long  ones  are  provided  with  the 
octave  stop  and,  with  a  few  exceptions,  have 
the  two  keyboards  identified  with  him  as  the 
inventor.  But  it  is  interesting  to  observe  the 
expedients  agreeing  with  the  statement  of 
Praetorius,  that  octave  instruments  ^  were  em- 
ployed with  and  in  the  oblong  clavecins. 
These  expedients  doubtless  originated  before 
Hans  Ruckers ;  indeed  in  the  Museum  at 
Nuremberg,  there  is  an  oblong  clavecin  of 
Antwerp  make,  signed  'Martinus  Vander 
Bieet,*  and  dated  1580,  that  has  an  octave 
spinet  in  it.^  '  Merten '  Vander  Biest  entered 
the  Guild  in  Antwerp,  as  one  of  the  ten 
clavecin  makers,  in  1558.  Now  Messrs.  Chap- 
[lell  of  London  had  such  an  instrument,  No. 
16  in  appended  catalogue,  made  by  Hans 
Ruckers,  certainly  the  elder.  No  keys  remain, 
but  the  scale  of  both  the  fixed  and  movable 

>  W«  baaltaUtoaeeMC  Pnuitoriiu's  statement  Utenlly  m  to  tuch 
wgiaM/t  \mi99  tan«d  a  flfth  u  well  m  an  oetare  h{fh«r.  Thia  more 
Ukely  orfirfBatca  In  the  fact  that  the  F  and  C  iMtrumenta  had  before 
hi«  tiaw  been  made  at  one  and  the  aame  plteh.  utartlng  from  the 
lovavt  key.  althoofAi  the  diepoeition  of  the  keyboardi  and  names  of 


j  as  In  organs,  whoe  pipe*  of 

■waavrenent  had  been  actually  uasd  for  the  note  F  or  the  note  O. 
Bee  Saon  OCTAVB :  Arnold  Sefallek's  apiegtil  der  Orffelmaehtr.  1911. 
z  A  voodcvt  of  thia  rare  instmment  is  giren  In  Part  ix.  of  Dr.  A. 
irsiiaamenn'e  mmlrirU  OmddehU  der  dtnUdun  MtuSk.  Leipeis. 
laSl.  Both  keyboarda.  aide  hj  side,  are  apparently  original,  with 
vhlte  iMtozBle  and  oompaaa  6t  foor  octeves  C— C  It  ia  the  right- 
h«ad  keyboard  that  la  tnned  tbe  octave  higher,  and  ia  removable 
like  a  drawer.  A  fall  deaerlptloQ  of  Uiis  doable  Inatmment  is 
raprodaeKl  In  Reieamann's  work,  copied  from  tbe  Aru»tff«r  far 
Kumi*  rfer  S*ntadien  TorteU  (Naremberg,  1879.  Na  9). 


keyboards  is  the  same,  four  octaves  marked  near 
the  wrest-pins  si — si  (B — B).  In  this  clavecin 
it  is  the  left-hand  keyboard  which  is  removable 
and  is  tuned  an  octave  higher.  In  the  Museum 
of  the  Conservatoire,  Brussels,  there  is  an  oblong 
clavecin  by  Hans  the  elder  (No.  8),  wherein  the 
octave  spinet  is  above  and  not  by  the  side  of 
the  fixed  one — according  to  M.  Victor  Mahillon 
a  later  addition,  though  the  work  of  the  maker 
himself.  This  curious  instrument  formerly  be- 
longed to  F^tis  (who  sold  the  paintings  that 
adorned  it),  and  is  dated  1610.  While  on  the 
subject  of  these  removable  octave  spinets  we 
will  refer  to  one  with  keyboards  side  by  side, 
made  by  Hans  the  younger  (No.  28),  and  dated 
1619,  the  property  of  M.  R^gibo,  and  another, 
a  long  clavecin,  also  by  Hans  the  younger 
(No.  44),  not  dated,  now  in  the  Hochschule, 
Berlin,  that  has  the  octave  spinet  fixed  in  the 
angle  side,  precisely  as  in  a  more  modem  one, 
made  by  Coenen  of  Ruremonde,  which  may 
be  seen  in  the  Plantin  museum,  Antwerp. 
The  same  construction  is  found  in  a  harpsi- 
chord by  Hans  the  elder  (No.  5). 

Hans  Rnckers  the  younger — known  to  the 
Belgian  musicologists  as  Jean,  because  he  used 
the  initials  J.  R.  in  his  rose,  while  the  father, 
as  far  as  we  know,  used  H.  R. — was,  as  we 


have  said,   the  second  son.     M.    R^gibo   has 
supplied  us  with  three  of  his  roses. 

We  have  given  the  date  of  his  baptism  in  the 
cathedral  in  1578,  but  have  no  further  details 
to  record  beyond  the  ascertained  facts  that  he 
was  married  to  Marie  Waelrant,  of  the  family  of 
the  musician  Hubert  Waelrant,^  in  thecathedral, 
Nov.  14^  1604  ;  that  either  he  or  his  brother 
Andries  was  admitted  as  a  master  in  the  Guild 
in  1611  ;  and  that  he  was  employed  to  tune 
the  organ  of  St.  Jacques  from  1631  until  1642. 

3  Dr.  John  Ball  succeeded  Ramold  Waelrent  ss  organist  of  the 
cathedml  In  1617,  and  reteinMl  the  poet  until  his  death  in  1628. 
He  moat  bave  known  Hans  Ruckera  and  his  two  sons  weU.  and 
been  well  acquainted  with  their  instruments. 


184 


RUCKERS 


RUCKERS 


There  is  also  evidence  as  to  his  having  died  in 
that  year,  and  not  the  father,  who  would  seem 
to  have  died  before. 

Mr.  Vander  Straeten  has,  however,  brought 
us  nearer  Hans  the  younger,  by  reference  to 
Sainsbury's  collection  of  Original  unpublished 
papers  iUustraiive  of  the  life  of  Sir  Peter  Paul 
Rubens  (London,  1859,  p.  208,  etc.),  wherein 
are  several  letters  which  passed  in  1638  between 
the  painter,  Balthazar  Gierbier,  at  that  time  at 
Brussels,  and  the  private  secretary  of  Charles  I., 
Sir  F.  Windebank.  They  relate  to  the  purchase 
of  a  good  virginal  from  Antwerp  for  the  King 
of  England.  Be  it  remembered  that  up  to  this 
time,  and  even  as  late  as  the  Restoration,  all 
clavecins  in  England,  long  or  square,  were  called 
Virginals.  [See  Virginal.]  Gerbier  saw  one 
that  had  b^n  made  by  Hans  Ruckera,  the 
younger  ('Johannes  Riclutrts'),  for  the  Infanta. 
He  describes  it  as  having  a  double  keyboard 
placed  at  one  end,  and  four  stops  ;  exactly  what 
we  should  now  call  a  double  harpsichord.  There 
were  two  paintings  inside  the  cover,  the  one 
nearest  the  player  by  Rubens ;  the  subject  Cupid 
and  Psyche.  The  dealer  asked  £30  for  it,  such 
instruments  without  paintings  being  priced  at 
£15.  After  some  correspondence  it  was  bought 
and  sent  over.  Arrived  in  London  it  was 
found  to  be  wanting  six  or  seven  keys,  and  to 
be  insufficient  for  the  music,  ^  and  Gerbier  was 
requested  to  get  it  exchanged  for  one  with  larger 
compass.  Referring  to  the  maker,  Gerbier  was 
informed  that  he  had  not  another  on  sale,  and 
that  the  instrument  could  not  be  altered.  So 
after  this  straightfonvard  but  rather  gruff  answer 
Gerbier  was  written  to  not  to  trouble  himself 
further  about  it.  Mr.  Vander  Straeten  inquires 
what  has  beopme  of  this  jewel  ?  We  agree  with 
him  that  the  preservation  of  the  pictures  has 
probably  long  since  caused  the  destruction  of 
the  instniment.  With  such  decoration  it  would 
hardly  remain  in  a  lumber-room.  Mr.  Vander 
Straeten  himself  possessed  a  Jean  Ruckers  single 
harpsichord  (now  in  the  Berlin  Hochschule), 
restored  by  M.  Ch.  Meerens,  of  which  he  has 
given  a  heliotype  illustration  in  his  work.  It 
is  a  splendid  specimen  of  Hans  the  younger. 
(See  No.  27  below). 

Andries  Ruckers  (the  elder,  to  distinguish  him 
from  his  son  Andries),  the  third  son  of  Hans, 
was,  as  we  have  said,  baptized  in  1579,  and  was 
a  master  in  1610.  As  a  member  of  the  con- 
fraternity of  the  Holy  Virgin  in  the  cathedral 
he  tuned  the  chapel  organ  gratuitously  in  1644. 
His  work,  spite  of  Bumey's  impression  about 
the  relative  excellence  of  his  larger  instruments, 
was  held  in  as  great  esteem  as  that  of  his  father 
and  brother.  In  1671,  Jean  Cox,  choirmaster 
of  the  cathedral,  left  by  will,  as  a  precious  object, 
an  Andre  Ruckers  clavecin.  Handel,  many 
years  after,  did  the  same.     Within  the  writer's 

I  The  HitcbcockB  were  active  in  the  Utter  half  of  the  17th  oentory. 
•Bd  early  in  the  I8tb.  making  ■plneta  in  London  with  At*  ootarvs 
O— O. 


recollection  there  have  been  three  honoured 
witnesses  in  London  to  this  maker's  fame,  viz. 
Handel's  (No.  77),  dated  1651,  given  by  Messrs. 
Broadwood  to  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum  ; 
Mr.  Howard  Head's  (No.  65),  dated  1614 ;  and 
one  belonging  to  the  late  Miss  Twining,  a  single 
keyboard  one  (No.  74),  dated  1640.^  A  tradition 
exists  that  Handel  had  also  played  upon  both 
the  last-named  instruments.  We  do  not  know 
when  Andries  Ruckers  the  elder  died.  He  was 
certainly  living  in  1651,  since  that  date  is  on 


his  harpsichord  (Handel's)  at  South  Kensington. 
His  roses  are  here  given. 

Of  Andries  Ruckers  the  younger,  the  informa- 
tion is  most  meagre.  Bom  in  1 607,  he  probably 
became  a  master  in  1636.  The  Christian  name 
is  wanting  to  the  entry  in  the  ledger,  but  as 
the  son  of  a  master,  the  son  of  Andries  the  elder 
is  apparently  indicated.  The  researches  of  M. 
G^nard  have  proved  the  birth  of  a  daughter  to 
Hans  the  younger,  but  not  that  of  a  son.  It 
might  be  Christopher,  could  we  attribute  to  him 
a  master  for  a  father.  Regarding  him,  however, 
as  living  earlier,  we  are  content  to  believe  that 
Andries  the  younger  then  became  free  of  the 
Guild  ;  but  as  his  known  instruments  are  of 
late  date,  it  is  possible  that  he  worked  much 
with  his  father.  We  know  from  a  baptism  in 
1665  tliat  the  younger  Andries  had  married 
Catherina  de  Vriese,  perhaps  of  the  family  of 
Dirck  or  Thierri  de  Vries,  a  clavecin  -  maker 
whose  death  is  recorded  in  1628.  F^tis  {Biog. 
Univ.f  2nd  edit  vii.  3466)  says  he  had  seen  a 
fine  clavecin  made  by  Ajidries  the  younger, 
dated  1667.  M.  R^gibo  possesses  undoubted 
instruments  by  him,  and  has  supplied  a  copy 
of  his  rose  (7).     He   has  done  the  same  for 


*  This  instraroent  formerly  belonfed  to  the  Rev.  Thomas  Twining. 
Rector  of  St.  Mary.  Colchester,  who  died  in  1804.  A  learned  echolar 
(he  translated  Aristotle's  Foetiet)  and  derer  mnslcUn,  he  enloj-vd 
the  f  riendshipof  Bnrney  and  Talned  highly  his  farourite  harpadchord. 
on  which  the  irreat  Handel  had  played.  Charles Salaman  need  both 
this  instminent  and  MesMr*.  Broadwood's  in  his  admirable  leetnrea 
given  in  18S5-06  in  London  and  the  provinoes. 


RUCKERS 


RUCKERS 


185 


Christopher  Ruckers  (8),  of  whose  make  he 
owns  a  apedinen.  M.  Yander  Straeten  refers 
to  another  in  the  Museum  at  Namur.  We  can- 
not determine  Christopher's  relationship  to  the 
other  Ruckers,  but  he  might  have  been  the  Her 
Christofel  Ruckers,  organist  and  clockmaker  of 
Termonde,  where  he  set  up  a  carillon  in  1549 
— possibly  a  priest,  at  least  the  title  *Her* 
would  indicate  a  person  regarded  with  venera- 
tion. The  same  writer,  in  the  5th  vol.  p.  393 
of  La  Musique  aux  Pays-Bas^  continues,  *  who 
knows  if  this  Christopher  did  not  own  a  work- 


shop for  clavecin  making?  The  priest  was 
everything  at  that  epoch,  and  a  scholar,  an 
organ  or  spinet-builder  seems  to  us  quite  natural 
and  normal.' 

We  will  now  give  the  list  of  the  existing  Ruckers 
instruments  as  complete  as  we  have  been  able 
to  make  it.  The  kind  and  never-tiring  help  of 
MM.  Mahillon,  Meerens,  and  Vander  Sti*aeten 
of  Biiissels,  and  of  MM.  Snoeck  and  Regibo  of 
Renaix,  as  well  as  of  other  friends,  in  compiling 
it,  is  gratefully  acknowledged. 


Catalogue  of  Ruckers  Clavecins^  still  existing  (1907),  as  far  as  possible  according  to  date. 
Extreme  measurements  of  length  aivd  width. ' 

In  all  the  sound-boards  are  painted  with  devices,  generally  of  fruit,  birds,  and  flowers. 
I.     Hans  Ruckers  de  Oudb  (the  Elder). 


TCo.,      PoriD.       Dftte.     DtmenBtoni. 


1  Bentsida 

2  Bent  rides. 

3  i  Bvtridc 


hancl- 
ehcrdvith 

■pliMtin 


«     Obl<n«. 


S     ObUms. 


»     Oliloag. 


10  OhJoag. 

11  BcBt»ide. 


ft.  in.      ft.  in. 
7    4  by2    9 

7    9  by  2  10| 


5    7  by  1  11 


5    11  by2    6 


IflM       Intdtre.    45 
(width) 

1«10     5    7   by  1    7 
1610 


Iffll 
1<12 


5  6  byl    7i 
7    6  by  2  11 


Genam  DoKriptlon. 


8  keytaoardfl,  not  original:  black  natnraU;  4} 
octaTea,  G— B ;  finely  painted.    Bom  Na  1. 

2  keyboards,  not  original;  Uaek  naturaU;  5 
Oct. ;  extended  by  Blanchet.*    Inwribod  Havb 

RUCKBBC  XB  FKCIT  AXTVKRriAK  ;  Boeo  No.  1. 

2  keyboards  ;  oaae  'en  laqoe  de  Chine ' ;  8  BtopR 
'  A  genonlUtoe.' 

1  keyboard ;  oompau  3|  oetavea,  B— C.  White 
natotal*.  Boae  No.  1.  Bed  and  blaok  orna- 
mentation on  yellow  ground.  Juwribed  'Scl- 
entia  non  habet  Inimicuin  nisi  Ignonuitem.' 
Date  on  cover,  1991. 

2  keyboards;  the  front  one  4  oct.,  C— C ;  the 
side  one  8|  Oct.,  K— A.  without  the  highest  G| ; 
3  stops  in  original  position  at  the  right-hand 
side ;  white  naturals.  Rose  No.  1 ;  and  Rose 
to  octave  spinet  an  arabesque.  Painting  In- 
side top  showing  a  similar  combined  Instm- 
ment.  Mr.  Lionel  Cust  considers  the  painting 
to   be  Iqr  Hieronymns    Jaussens.    Inscrlbea 

HaSS  RvCKBIUI  U*  FKCIT  AjtTWEKPIA. 

1  keyboard.  4|  oct.,  G— C  (short  octave  in  baas, 
not  original);  white  naturals.  Inscribed 
JoAVNBH  Rtokbus  Fkcit  AinrweRriAB  1086, 
and  '  Dnlcissimnm  reflclt  triotla  corda  melon.' 

3i  oct.  Rose  H.R.  Original  decoration  simple, 
subsequently  painted  in  grisaille.    Inscrllied 

JOAXMBS     KT    AXDRBAS     RvCKERa     FbCERVST 
1004. 

9  keyboards  one  above  the  other ;  white  natnrals ; 
4i  Oct..  C~-Y  each.  The  upjier  and  octave  In- 
strument a  later  addition  by  the  maker. 
Inscribed  Haws  Bcckbbh  mk  vbcit  Axtver- 
riAB.  1610. 

1  keyboard,  3  octaves,  short  octave  in  basM.  In- 
serlbed  Haws  Rvckbbs  mb  vec'it.  Antwerp, 
1610,  and  '  Landabo  noinen  Del  cum  cantico  et 
magiilflcabo  eum  in  laude.'  The  case  is  of 
ebony  Inlaid  with  engraved  ivory.  A  small 
octave  instrument. 

1  keyboard  ;  3|  oct.,  E— C ;  oaae  patterned  i)aper. 
Inscribed  Joaxkes  Rockkrh  kbcit  Axtvkr- 
PiAB,  1611 ;  H.  B.  rose. 

2  keyboaida  (put  In  by  MMon.  Broadwood,  1885). 
Rose  No.  1.  Case  and  compass  AS  No.  77.  New 
keys,  Jacks,  and  stops.  Inscribed  Joabmeh 
RvcKXM  MB  yRcn  AxTYBHPiAB,  1812.  Found 
at  Windsor  Csstle,  1883.  This  may  liave  been 
the  large  Harpsichord  left  by  Haudel  to  Smith, 
and  given  by  the  latter  to  King  George  III. 


Present  Owner. 


Collection  of  the  late  M. 
B^gibo,  Benaix. 

Kusee  du  Conserva- 
toire, Paris. 

ChAtesude  Pan,  France. 


T.  J.  Canueel.  Director 
of  the  Aosd^mie 
Royale,  Ghent. 


Gewerbe  Musenm,  Ber- 
lin. 


Mile.     Jeanne      Lyon, 
Paris. 


The    late    M.    R^gibo, 


Muste    dn     Conserva- 
toire, Brussels. 


Muate    du     Oonierva- 
toiro,  Paris. 


Mu«!e  du  Steen,  Ant- 
werp. 

H.M.  The  King. 


Source  of 
Information. 


A.  B4<gibo. 
G.  Chouquet. 


Spire  Blondel,  Let 
Revue  Brttan- 
nigue,  Oct.  1860.3 

T.  J.  Canneel. 


A.  J.  Hlpklna. 


Paris   Exhibition. 
1886. 


Vandor  Straeten. 


Rev.  F.  W.  Oalpln. 


E.  Vander  Straeten 
and  V.  Mahillon. 


A.  J.  Hipkins. 


t  The  prcamt  ownenhtp  of  the  Instruments  has  not  been  poe- 
■ibie  Xt>  oaoe  is  aU  mses,  owing  to  the  frequent  dispersal  of  private 


s  It  waa  faeUrred  by  MM.  Snoeck.  Vander  Straeten,  R^bo,  and  V. 
Xablllafi.  that  few  of  the  Kueken  clavecins  were  of  the  original 
aefkaym.  The  statements  of  com  pass  in  this  list  and  also  in 
KcvaoiAKn  dhnold  ba  qnalifled  by  this  remark.  The  increase  was, 
bowe^er.  made  loos  ago,  and  in  some  instances  possibly  by  the 
noaker  UnMeU  IT.  Vander  Straeten.  p.  348,  has  a  passage  quoted 
from  Van  BUnkcnlnirg :  'This  was  at  the  time  when  clavecins  had 
•IIU  a  ttumnr  keyboard.  Tn  the  present  dav  (1736?)  it  would  be 
'"  *"  "  — ritb  one  of  this  kind;  all  uie  keyboards  having 
A^tn.  white  natosals  are  believed  to  be  original 


dHBeoIt  to  meet  with  one  of  this  1 


in  these  instruments.  Upon  very  old  alterations  it  is  not  easy 
to  deride.  We  are  of  opinion  that  black  naturals  and  ivory 
sharps  were  occasionally  substituted  when  the  paintings  were 
done.  In  dealing  with  these  quostioiu,  however,  it  is  best  to 
retnin  from  generalising;  many  errors  having  arisen  from  too 
hasty  conclusions. 

3  M.  BpirR  Blondel  {HiMtoin  AruedoUque  du  Pkmo)  mention*  a 
Rucken  clavecin,  painted  by  Gravelot,  as  finding  a  buyer  at  the 
sale  of  Blondel  d'Axincourt.  M.  du  Sommerard  in  a  private  letter 
refers  to  one  found  in  a  village,  probably  a  Hans  Ruckers.  There 
are  more  In  France,  as  M.  Chouquet  has  heard  of  three,  but  has  no 
particulars  of  them  to  communicate.  Inquiry  has  failed  to  discover 
one  in  Holland  or  the  Rhcuish  provinces. 


186 


RUCKERS 


Form.       Date.  I    DfmeoaioiM. 


12  I  B«nt  8lil«.  ;  1612 


Obloof. 
Bent  Bide. 


16     Oblong. 


IS     Bent  side. 
19     Obloug. 


I  OUong. 


Bent  aide. 

Oblong. 

Oblouir. 


ft.  In.      ft.  in. 
7    e   hya    0 


0  Sibyl  7| 

7  4iby»  S 

7  71  by  3  ei 

5  7   byl  6i 


7    4  by  a    7 
Kot  origlnAl. 


Un- 
dated I 


Oknanl  DncriiitioD. 


Prewnt  Owner. 


'2  keyboanU:  black  natamls.  Bum  So.  1.  So 
name  of  original  maker,  bat  inscribed  'Xis 
en  nralement  par  Pascal  Taskin.  1774^'  mean- 
ing that  the  oompaas  of  keys  was  extended. 
This  beauUfol  Instniment.  painted  inside 
and  out  with  Louis  XIV.  subjects  by  Vander 
Meulen,  is  said  to  have  belonged  to  Marie 
Antoinette.  It  will  be  remembered  as  baring 
adorned  the  I^ouis  Seise  Rmnii  of  the  Historic 
CkiUeetion.  Inventions  Bxhlbltion.  London, 
1886, 

1  keyboard :  Sf  oct.  K—C ;  white  naturals. 

S  keyboards :  not  original ;  5  oci.,  etc,  F— O  : 
white  naturals ;  curved  bent  side  and  round 
narrow  end  ;  8  genouiUires  and  a  aourdine  of 
the  18th  centuiT-    Bose  No.  1. 

Rose  No.  6  in  sound-board,  which  Is  painted  with 
the  usual  decoration.  The  width  naa  been  in- 
creased to  aduiifc  of  •  greater  compass. 

2  keyboards  side  by  aide,  the  left-lvind  one  re- 
movables having  its  own  belly  and  roee.  but  to 
be  tuned  an  8ve  higher  than  the  flxed  instru- 
ment; no  keys  left;  4  oct.,  B— B.  Both 
iitrptehers  Inscribed  JoAWirn  Ruckers  xe 
rmcrt.  9  roses  No.  1.  (See  No.  21.)  Good 
paintings.    Stand,  an  arcade  witli  6  balusters. 

3  original  keyboards:  4|  uct.,  C— P  (3  keys 
added) ;  white  naturals :  8  stopn. 

Described  ou  pL  181a,  6. 

Double  virginal,  inscribed  JonArsKx  BvqvKua 
MK  rn  IT.  CompaM,  4  octaves.  C— C.  White 
naturals ;  nut  original.  Kerboiud  of  the  laiger 
iustrument  to  the  right,  the  smaller  (octave) 
lustnimentendostHl  in  the  larger  case  to  the 
left 

Virginal,  keybonnl  to  right. 


Sir  Edgar  Speyer. 


The    Ute    M.   Snoeck. 

Benaix. 
Museum  of  the  Hocfa- 

schule     fttr     Xnsik. 

Beriin. 

Walter  H.  Bums.  £sq.. 
and  CapUin  Halt 

Boyal  College  of  Muric, 
London. 


M.  Rdgibo.  Reiiaix. 

PUiiuure  Gordon,  E«|. 

Morris  Stetuert  Collec- 
tlun.  New  Hav<-ii, 
Connecticut  U.S.A. 


Mtw^  du   Staen.  Ant- 


Bonroeof 
Infetnation. 


II.  Hans  Ruckbrs  de  Jokoe  (tlie  Younger). 


Oblong. 
Oblong. 

Oblong. 
Bent  side. 

Oblong. 

Bent  side. 
Bent  side. 
Bent  side. 


Oblong. 
Oblong. 


Oblong. 


1617 
1618 
1619 

1619 

leas 

1026 
16f7 


1632 


6  8  by  3  7 

2  8tbyl  3 

7  4   by  2  7 

3  S   byl  6) 

8  7  byl  7» 

4  3  byl  7 

6  0   by  a  7| 

9  9  byl  7i 

7  4   by  3  0 
4  10|  by  a  10 


8    2   by  3    8 


1634  I  7    3   by  3    3 

5    9  byl    8 
I8S7 


6    1    bya    9i 
5    9   byl    7 


I 


M.     Pllette.     BntMtls. 

1878,  since  sold,  UAtel 

Drouot 
M  us^  du  Oooscrvatui  n>, 

P^ria. 

M.  R^bo.  Benaix. 


M.  Bdgibo.  Benaix. 
M.     Victor     MahlUon, 


akeybtnrds;  white  naturals.  Pointings  in  Vrr- 
nis  M»rtin,  lately  removed. 

1  original  keyboard:  Sf  oet.  B-C;  white 
nAturals.  Inscribed  JoA.KifBi  RncKXfti  nciT. 
Rose  No.  a. 

2  original  keyboards,  side  by  side,  4  stops  to  the 
fixed  one,  the  other  tuned  Svv  higher ;  4|  oct, 
C— F:  white  natuimls.  Roses  No.  4.  (See 
N0.1&) 

1  original  keylraard;  3}  oct.  E— G;  white 
naturals.     Ruse  No.  2. 

1  keyboard  ;  4|  oet.  C— F ;  white  naturals.  In- 
scribed JoAvirn  Rvckkhs  rartr  Astvxrpiaji, 
1832,  and  Omvis  Snarrvs  Lauobt  Domhtux. 

1  keyboard.  luKribeil  Joasiibi  Rim  kkrs  Pbcit 
AHTWKuriAK.  1636. 

1  original  keyboard ;  44  oct,  C— E ;  white  natu- 
rals :  2  stops :  Rose  No.  4 :  painting  inside  top, 
drawn  in  La  Muatqtte  aux  Pni/»'Btu,  tome  3. 
Inscribed  as  No.  26,  and  Musica  Do«vx  Dbi. 

1  ke>buard  :  4)  oct,  C— K.  without  lowmt  C| : 
appears  to  have  been  extended  by  the  maker 
from  S]  oct,  B— C.  A  sourdine  '  k  genonilldrv.' 

1  keyboard :  sound-board  painted  with  musical 
subjects. 

2  keybaardH:  98  keys,  O— F ;  bUck  naturals. 
Roee  No.  4. 

2  keyboards ;  4]  act..  G^E:  black  naturals: 
painting  inside  top  said  to  be  by  Laucret  In- 
scribed JoAVKas  RVCKBBS  XB  FKCIT  AlTrVXR- 

PIAB.    Case  and  top  black  and  gold  laoquer, 

Chinese.    Drawn  in  L'/tttutration,  March  13, 

1868.  and  as  frontispiece  to  Chevalier  de  Bur- 

bure'.*  pamphlet 
2 keyboards;   5  oct  and  1  note,  F— 0;  white 

naturals ;  4  "^m  '  ^  geiioullUre.'    Rose  No.  3. 
Too  painted.    (The  date  inclines  us  to  attribute 

this  one  to  Hans  the  Younger) ;  the  rose  is  not 

dewribed. 
1  keylxiard;  compass  4|  octaves,  O— E.    White 

natunliL    Name-board.    Johahvks   Rvckkiu 

MB  FKCIT,  AKTvmriAK.     On  llapi,  'Soil  Deo 

gloria.'    Inside  top,  *  Acta  virum  probant' 
1  keyboard.    Inset  Died  Joamkks  RvrxKRs,  Fwit 

Ajitwkrpiax,  1636.     The  stand  also  original. 
1  keyboard  to  right  4  oct.  C— C  (short  oct  In 

faaira):  white  naturals.    On  sound-board  the 

date  1637,  and  on  the  cover  the  inscription— 
•Audi  Vide etTaoe 
81  vb  %ivere  in  Pace.* 
1  keyboaid  ;  4i  oct..  A— F;  white  naturals.  In- 
scribed as  No.  31.  with  date. 

I  keyboard  ;  4  oct.  etc..  C— D :  white  naturals.  I  Mme.  Snoeck.  Ghent 
Inscribed  as  No.  29,  with  date,  and  MoaicA  ' 
Maororox    bit  Solamer    Duu'K    Laborvh. 
Rose  No.  a.  . 


Pie)' Collection. 

idUpersed  Nov.  1906). 

Muwnm  of  the  Hoch- 
Bchule.  Berlin. 

M.  Lfon  Jouret  Brus- 
sels. 

Mme.  Snoeck,  Ghent. 

M.    Gerard    de    Prinn, 

Ijtmxikin. 
Baronera      Jame«      de 

RothschUd,  Pkuis. 


M.  Snoeck,  Renalx. 
M.  De  Btvyne,  Ypres. 

liarl  of  Dyaart 


A.  J.  Hlpkins. 


C.Me< 
C.Mei 


A.  J.  Hlpkins. 
A.  J.  Hlpkins. 


A.B4glbo.- 

A.  J.  Hipklss. 
Rev.  F.  W.  Oa^ln. 


Rev.  F.  W.  Oalpin.  | 


Victor  Mahlllon. 
O.  Chon<|uet 
A.R^bo. 

A.R^gIbo. 
V.  MahiUon. 

Rev.  F.  W.  Oalpin. 
K.  Vander  Straetcn. 

V.  MahUlon. 

Rev.  F.  W.  Oalpin. 

F.     P.    de    PriDs, 

Umerick. 
Oeoiges  PtMlIbr. 


C*.  Meerens. 

E.  Vander  Straeten 

<  A.  J.  Hlpkins. 


Pier  Collection.  Brassebi '  Rev.  F.  W.  Oalpin. 

(dispersedl.  I 

Museum  of  the  Hoch-    Rev.  F.  W.  Galptn. 

schule     ftlr     Muslk. 

Berlin. 


The  kte  John  Calloott    J.  C.  Horaley. 
Honley.    Esq..   R.A.. 


RUCKERS 


187 


i  Bentsldek 


e«n«nl  DwcriptioD. 


Pment  Owner. 


ft.  In.      (t.  In. 
T    Hhy2    « 


BOf 

Infonuation. 


5  9  bj2  71 

7    4ib72  8 

7  11    br  S  0 

7    1   by2  7 

6  11   bT2  Bi 


6  11    brS    7} 
6    0   b72    7 


2  ^cinal  keybouds.  the  lower.  4  Oct.  and  a  note. 
E— F;  the  upper.  49  here.  B-C.  The  upper 
hare  prolongation  on  the  luwMt  FB  and  Ut 
keys  at  an  angle  to  touch  the  foorthsVlow.  In 
vrder  to  preaerve  the  aemi  tonal  nicoesNion  after 
the  abort  octare  of  the  lower  keyboard,  while 
Mcuriiig  the  ahort  ootave  of  the  upper.  Below 
S  of  the  upper  In  a  wooden  block  dcacrlbed  by 
Qniritt  van  Blaakenbuiv.  Thl"  1*  the  only 
Rocken  known  to  Mr.  Htpkltw  left  unalterad 
In  the  inatmmwt  and  keyl>oards.  A  restorw 
has  Ukm  aw«y  two  rows  of  Jacks  and  the  stopa, 
aa  D^y  be  attll  men ;  making  the  Instrument 
two  independent  apineU.  an  eleventh  apart  in 
pitch,  ao  aa  to  set  the  keyboaida  with  on- 
tmnspoaed  notea.  PiUntcd  belly  with  date; 
over  keys  Joaxxu  RvcKEna  Pkcit  Airr- 
▼ERTiAK.  Faintinn  Inside  top,  block  and  gold 
caae  and  old  atand.  Fimuerly  in  the  poasea- 
sjoD  of  the  Ute  Mr.  Spenoe  of  Florence.    See 


The  late  Right  Hon.  Sir 
Bemhard  Sauiuelaon 

(1806). 


A.  J.  Hipkins. 


1  k«yboaid  j  pokeys ;  4atopa ;  RoeeKo.  4 ;  black 
and  gold  caae. 

2kevboaxd8:  4ioet..  B-D;  4  stopa  at  the  side  as 
originallv  pkoed ;  Rose  No.  4 ;  paintings. 

2  keyboards;  6  ocL,  F— F;  painted  outside  by 
Tenien  or  Bronwer.  Inside  by  Breughel  and 
Phul  Bril.    Roae  No.  a 

1  keyboard  :  44  oot.  O— D ;  black  natunUs ;  Rose 

No.  4 ;  blaekwood  case  with  iucrueted  ivory, 
aooonUng  to  M.  da  Somnierard.  Italian  work 

2  keyboards ;  each  8|  oct .  K— C ;  black  naturals ; 
2  stops  to  the  bent  side  instrument  and  Roae 
No.  4 :  to  the  oblong  one.  Rose  No.  2 :  superbly 
painted.  The  two  Instruments  together  fonn 
an  oblong  sqnare. 

4^  Oct.,  C— B ;  white  natuiala  :  superb  paintings 

1  original  keyboard.  M  oct..  C-FVo  keys  adcfed 
in  treble;  white natoials;  3 stops ;  Rose  No.  2 • 
painting  of  Orpheoa  playing  a  bass  \-iol. 

1  original  keyboard.  4}  oct..  C-F  ;  4  keys  added 
in  treble ;  Rom  No.  ».  cut  in  hardwood. 

1  keyboaid ;  6  oct.  and  a  note.  F— O  ;  not  orl- 
giiial.  An  exceptional  form,  allied  to  the 
older  Italian  pentagonal  spinets,  endoeed  in 
an  oblong  ease. 

Two  specimens  in  the  Flemish  collection  of  the 


1    keyboard   with   two   registers,  unison  and 
octava 


South  Kensington  Mu- 
seum (gift  of  Messrs. 
Kirkman). 

Countess  of  I>udley. 

Muste  du  Conservatoire. 

Pkris  (Clapisson  Col. 

lection). 
Muste    de    I'HAtel    de 

Cluny,    Piaris.      Gat 

1875,  No.  2820. 
Museum  of  the  Hooh- 

schnle.  Berlin. 


M.  Snoeck.  Renaix. 
M.  B^bo.  Beualx. 


M.  R^bo.  Renaix. 


Hnseum  of  the  Hoch< 
schule,  Berlin. 


Mm«k  Snoeck.  Ghent 
Muate  du  Steen,  Ant- 


III.  Andries  Ruckers  de  Oude  (the  Elder). 


'm 

Obloog. 

leio 

4    4   by  1    6 

1 

Oblaog. 

1«13 

2    84  by  1    44 

1 

OUoog. 

ICU 

l» 

BMitaideL 

ICU 

7   e  by  2   8 

'88 

Bmtaid*. 

1619 

4    0  by    .. 

s;;  BcntsUe. 

1«18 

7    4   by  2  10 

«l|BeQ»sidiu 

102 

8  1(H  by  2  10 

* 

Best  side. 

1820 

5  10  by  2    8 

« 

OMoof. 

1«10 

« 

Obkmc 

ie» 

5    8   byl    7J 

C 

ONnc 

1820 

4    1    by  1    Si 

1  keyboaid  to  the  right :  4  oct..  C— C ;  (short  oct. 
in  bass) ;  white  naturals.  Inscribed  Akoxear 
RvcKxn  XK  Fecit  AirrwKRnAX,  and  '  Omnia 
spiritna  taiodet  Domlnum.'  On  the  sound- 
board is  the  date  1610.  A  '  sourdine '  added  iu 
the  18th  century. 

1  keyboard ;  4  oct..  C— C ;  white  naturals.  In- 
scribed AXOXBAS  RUCKXBS  MB  FECIT  AKTVER- 

piAE,  1818.  Belonged  to  the  claveoinist  and 
carlllonneur,  Matthias  Vanden  Oheyn,  who 
put  his  mark  upon  it  in  1740. 

1  k^bound  to  the  left;  4  oct..  C— C;  (short  oct. 
in  baes^    A  small  instrument 

2  keyboards,  not  original :  4i  oct.  A— E ;  whit^ 
natnnls:  buir  leather,  lute  and  octave  stops: 
pedal,  not  original ;  case  veneered  18th  century. 
Inscribed  as  No. «.  Roae  No.  8.  Panting  inside 
top  attributed  to  Van  der  Meulen. 

Inscribed  Ookoobdia  res  .  partab  .  crescukt  . 

DISCORDIA  .  MAXUCAB  .  DILABiniTVB  ;  WBS  in  the 

Collegiate  Church  of  St.  Jacques,  Antwerp. 

4\  oct,  C— F :  white  nattiralB.  Inscribed  l3ou 
Dbo  Gloria. 

2  keyboards ;  8  oct.  C-C  :  the  lowest  note  8ve 
tielow  cello  C :  belly  gilt  and  diapered  in  Moor- 
ish style:  painting  of  Orpheus  outside.  In- 
scribed as  No.  S3,  with  date.    Rose  No.  6. 

2  keyboards :  4|  oct.  G— F ;  (short  oct  in  baasf ; 
4  stops.  Workmanship  very  similar  to  No.  14, 
but  has  the  initiaU  A.  R. 

1  keyboard  :  4  oct,  C— C ;  (short  oct.  In  baas) ; 
white  natunils.  Inscribed  Axdreas  Rcckebs 
■b  Fecit  Aktverfiab  antl  Bic  transit  gloria 
xrxDi.    Perhaps  identical  with  No.  62. 

1  keyboard  to  the  right;  4  oct,  C-C;  white 
natinals ;  chromatic  ooiiipaas.  the  short  octave 
having  IJeen  completed  by  a  later  hand.  In- 
scribed   AVDRBAB    RVlKKRM    MK    FeCIT    AVT- 

wbrpiab.  and  'Omnia  iplritns  laodet  Doml- 
num.'   On  the  sound-board  the  date  1820. 
1  keyboard ;  8|  oct.,  R—C :  white  nHturalip.    In- 
aeribed  as  Nol  BS,  and  Inside  the  top  8u:  Trav- 
RtT  O1.0RIA  MuvDi.    Bee  No.  60. 


Rev.  F.  W.  Oalpin.  Hat- 
field, " 


Musde  du  Conservatoire. 
Brussels. 


Mme.  Snoeck.  Ghent. 


Howard     Head. 
London. 


Museum  of  the  Hoch- 

schnle,  Berlin. 
M.  R^bo.  Renaix. 


Museum  of  the  Hoch- 
schuie,  Berlin. 

Morris  Bteinert  Coller- 
tion,  New  Haven. 
Connecticut. 

Muade  du  Conserva- 
toire. Brussels. 


M.  Alfred  Campo.  Brua. 


A.  J.  Hipkina. 

A.  J.  HIpklaa. 
G.  Chonquet 

A.  J.  Hipkins. 

CI 


C.  Meerens. 
A.R^bo. 


A.  R^bo. 

Rev.  v.  W.  Galpin. 


Rev.  F.  W.  Galpin. 
Rev.  F.  W.  Galpin. 


Rev.  F.  W.  Galpin. 


A.  J.  Hipkins. 

Uon  de  Burbure, 
p.  2S. 

V.  Meerens. 

A.Rdglbo. 

C.  Meerenai 

Rev.  F.  W.  Galpin. 

I 
Rev.  F.  W.  Oalpin. 


188 


RUCKERS 


63  Oblong. 

64  I  B«ntside. 

65  I  Bent  dde. 

66  I  Oblonf. 


67  I  Oblonf. 


Oblong. 


6B  I  Bent  side. 


70  I 

71  Bent  aide. 


72     Bent  dde. 


Oblong. 
Bentildf 


Oblong. 
Bent  eide. 


81  Oblong. 

82  Bent  side. 


m  '  Oblong. 
84  I  Bentilde. 


Four 
cornered 


V  Bent  aide. 
Bentilde. 


Un- 
dated 


Generml  DeMrlptlon. 


MM.  Victor  and  Joeeiih 

Mahillon.  Bmnels. 
The  late  John  Hnllah. 


Mnate    Avch^ologiqm. 
Brngei. 


M.  Rdgibo,  Renalx. 
M.  B^bo,  Banalx. 

Heyex    Collection, 


In  a  Tlllace  in  Flanden. 
....Dijon,- 


Mneeo  OItIco,  Torin. 


Bent  side. 

Bent  side. 
Bent  ride. 
Oblong. 


ft.  in.      ft.  in. 

0  71  b7  1  7i  1  keyboanl ;  4  oct,  O-C ;  white  natuxmla.  In 
scribed  as  No.  fiS,  vith  date. 

7  9  bjS    1      2  keyboards;  5  oet..  F— F;  white  uatnimls;  3 
stops;  pedal  not  original;  case  veneered 
oentnry.    Boee  No.  6. 

8  0   by  8  10      5  oct.,  F— F;  8  stops.     Inscribed  Mcuca  laic- 

TiTiAB  Combs.  Hkoicika  Dolorcm. 
4    0  by  3    U    1  keyboard ;  3i  oct.  and  2  notes ;  at  least  an  8ve 
added  in  the  18th  century.   Inscribed  as  No.  83, 
and  inside  top  as  No.  62.    The  stand  a  row  of 
dve  balusters. 

6  8  by  1  7|  1  original  keyboard  to  right  hand  of  front ;  4) 
Oct.,  C— F :  white  naturals.    Inscribed  inside 

top  MUSICA  .  HauKORUH  .   SOLAHXX  .   DULCK  . 

Laborum.  Rose  No.  6. 
8  libyl  6  1  original  keyboord  to  lefthand  of  front;  4i  Oct. 
C— F  ;  white  naturals.  Inscribed  Asdkras 
RucKBRS  rKuiT  AMTVSRriAB.  Hafdwood  Jacks 
of  double  thicknees ;  painting  inside  top. 
Rose  No.  6. 

0  by  2  8  1  keyboard.  Inscribed  Abdbkas  Ruckbbs  a 
AsrrwERFBH  Amvo  1633.  Formerly  in  the 
coUecUon  of  Paul  de  Wit.  Leipdg. 

Inscribed  Andrkas  Ruckbrs  Amtvcxtiar. 

2  keyboards  not  original ;  5  oet. ;  black  natnnJs 
stops  and  li«s  like  'Hukin's ;  beautifully 
painted.    Inscriiied  as  No.  fiS.  with  date. 

7  8  Iv  8  1  2  keyboards.  Rose  No.  6.  Buff  atopL  Painted 
oil  name -board  Anottt  Rcckkrs  Avn£x 
1636.  '  Mis  en  raTalement  par  Pascal  Tsskin^ 
ITS.'  Cue  and  top  L«oquer  with  Japanese 
figures.    Exhibited,  London.  1880. 

6  4  by  8  9  8  keyboards,  compass  4|  octaves  O  —  D,  white 
at  keyboard.  natutala  Two  unisons  and  octave,  esse 
dark  green,  powdered  with  gold.  Bound-board 
painted,  and  usual  A.  Buckers  rose. 

6  0  by  2  6  1  original  keyboard ;  4  oct..  etc.  C— D ;  white 
naturals.  Inscribed  Akdrbas  Rdkbrh,  1640 ; 
and  inside  top  Musica  Laktitiab  Combs 
Mbdicixa  Dolorum  ;  inside  flap  Coxcordia 
Mcsis  Amica.  2  stops ;  Boee  No.  6;  case  pat- 
terned paper. 

0  8  by  1  8  1  keyboanl ;  4  oct.,  C— C.  Inscribed  Axprbas 
Ri-oKKRs.  Anno  1644. 

7  0  by  8    0      8  keylxxutis,  each  0  oct. ;  black  naturals. 
No.  6.    Inscribed  Asubea  RucBBRa  mb  khi'IT 

AXTVKRPIAK. 

6  8  by  3  0  8  keyboArds  not  original :  nearly  0  oct..  G— F, 
lowest  Ol  wanting ;  white  natnrsla  Inscribed 
as  No.  OS;  vith  date,  and  8ic  Tramsit  Glorta 
Mdxdi.  MvsirA  Domom  Dki,  and  formerly 
Acta  Vixum  Probant.  Concert  of  monkeys 
on  the  belly,  one  conducting.    Rose  Na  6. 

2  7  by  1    3i     1  original  keyboard  placed  In  the  middle ;  4  oct, 

C— C ;  white  naturals.     Rose  No.  6. 

7  6  by  2  7  8  keyboards ;  the  lower  4  oct.  etc,  B— C.  the 
upper  3]  oct,  R— C ;  only  one  key,  a  white 
natural,  left :  3  stops ;  no  name  or  roee,  but 
style   of   work    of   A.    R.      Inscribed    Omnis 

SPIRITVS  I.AUnBT  DOMINL'X  CoNCORDIA  RkS 
PaRVAK  CRBecCMT  DlltCORDIA  MAXIMA  B 
DiLABUXTVR. 

7  3  by 8  11  2  keyboards,  not  original;  6  oct..  F— P;  black 
naturals ;  inscribed  as  No.  63 ;  date  of  renova- 
tion, 1798,  marked  on  a  Jack  ;  fine  paintings. 

3  8    by  1    0      1  keyboard:  44  oct.  C— F;  white  naturals;  In 

scribed  as  No.  OS. 

6   by 8    8      2  keyboards;   4i  oct,  B— F;  white  naturals; 

name  and  roee  wanting ;  attributed  to  A.  R. 

by  the  work. 

3    8  byl    4      1  keyboard  .^i  oct.  E-a    Rose  No.  6. 

6    1   by  8    101  1  keyboard ;  4  wt,  C-C ;  without  lowest  Cf . 

white  naturals.    Rose  Na  6;  painting  of  a 

hunt 

S8  in.  long.  12)  White  natural  keys,  E  to  D,  nearly  4  octaves. 
tn.wide.6in.  Inscribed  Andreas  Rnckers  me  fecit  Ant- 
deep:  key-  verpiae  (Roee  Na  6?).  Inside  surfaces  painted 
board  pro-  in  black  curved  design  on  a  white  ground. 
Joets  4  in.  Bed  line  niund  the  Inside.  Georgian  msbogany 

case. 
2  specimens  each  with  one  keylwnrd.  on  one  the 
inscription,  'Bic  transit  gloria  mundi.'  The 
Ruckurs  rose  with  the  Initials  A.  R. 
2  keyboards:  five  oct,  G— G,  white  naturals;  3 
stops.  Inscribed  Andrrah  RTrxBRs  mk  Fecit 
AxrwKRPiAB.  Formerly  in  the  Bodlington 
Collection;  sold  1901. 


IV.  Andries  Ruf^KERS  DE  JoNOE  (the  Younger). 


Case  painted  in  Idue  camaieu  in  rococo  style:    M.  lAvign^  (f!rom  the 

"  " ■    -  ■  -elate       "     " 


Morley,  LoDdoB. 


The  late  Miss  Twining. 
Dial  Honae,  Twickea- 


M.  Victor  Mahfllan. 

Brussels. 
M.  Paul  Endd,  Fatia. 


South  Kensington  Mn. 
seuni  (gift,  aa  having 
been  Handel's,  of 
Messrs.  Broadwood). 


M.  B^bo.  RflBaiz. 
Musde  da  Steen.  Ant- 


Le  Baron  de  O^ier,  CbA> 
teau  de  Vein.  Flu  de 
Calais.  France. 

Mus69     du      7. 
toire.  Brussels. 

M.  Snoeck.  Renalx. 


M.  Bnoeck.  Renaix. 
M.  O.  de  Prins. 


The  late  W.  H.  Ham- 
mond Jooes.  Esq.. 
Wltley.  Oodalming. 


Mus6e  du  Steen,  Ant- 


V.  Mahilkn. 
H^HoUday. 


A.B^baL 


Ber.  F.  W.  Oalpin.  • 


K  Vander  Stneten. , 
KVaoderStzaeten. 


A.  J.  Hipklns. 


Mr.  C  Cramp,  and 
B.  J.  Ulpklna. 


A.  J.  Hipfciu. 


y.MahUkm. 
P.  EtadeL 

A.  J.  mpklaa. 


A.B^glbow 
V.  MahUlon. 


y.  Mahillon. 


a  Snoeck. 
F.  P.  de  Prina. 


W.  H.  H.  Jones. 


Rev.  F.  W.  Galpln. 
Ber.P.W.Oalpin. 


0  4ilv9  21 
0  10  by  2  4 
4    9   by  1    0| 


attribution  to  the  younger  A.  R.  from  the 

date. 
1  original  keyboard ;  4  oct.C— C ;  white natumls; 

painting  inside  top.    Rose  No.  7. 
1  origins!  keyboard  ;  4  oct  .C— C ;  white  naturala 

Rose  No.  7. 
1  original  keyboard  to  the  left ;  4oct.  etc,  D— E ; 

white  naturals.    Roee  No.  7. 


Chlkteau  de  Perceau, 
prda  Coane). 
M.  lUgibo,  Renalx. 

M.  R^bo.  Beoaix. 

M.  R^glbo.  Bfloalx. 


A.  R^bow 
A.  R^iba 
A.  R^ibo. 


RUDDYGORE 


RUDOLPH    ARCHDUKE       189 


V.  Christofel  Rvgkers. 


,>-Uu 

Ftenn. 

DtU. 

Present  Owner. 

las 
1 

Obtav. 

Un- 
dated 

It-  la.     ft.  in. 
3    7   tayl    64 

1  oristnal  keyboutl  to  the  right;  4  oet.  E-K. 

No.  8.  with  InitlAlii  C.  B.    Sound-hoard  and 
top  raneved.    Inacribed  'Acta  virum  prohuut' 
An  instrument  by  Christofel  SoclLeia  was  stated 
bj  Vander  Straeten  to  be  In  the  museum  at 
Namur. 

In  the  Crosby -Brown 
CoUection,  Metro- 
politan Museum,  New 
York. 

Museum,  Namur. 

A.E<glho. 

A.  J.  H. ;  with  additions  by  £ev.  F.  W.  Galpin  and  Miss  £.  J.  Hipkins. 


RUDDYGORE:  or,  THE  WITCH'S  CURSE 
(Title  afterwards  spelt  Ruddioore).  Comic 
opera  in  two  acts ;  the  words  by  W.  8.  Gilbert, 
music  by  Sir  Arthur  Sullivan.  Produced  at  the 
Sayoy  Theatre,  Jan.  22,  1887. 

RUDERSDORFF,  Hermine,  bom  Dec.  12, 
1822,  at  Ivanowsky  in  the  Ukraine,  where  her 
father,  Joseph  Rudersdorff,  a  distinguished 
violinist  (afterwards  of  Hamburg),  was  then 
engaged.  She  learned  singing  at  Paris  from 
Bordogni,  and  at  Milan  from  de  Micherout, 
also  master  of  Clara  Kovello,  Catherine  Hayes, 
etc  She  first  appeared  in  Germany  in  concerts, 
and  sang  the  principal  soprano  music  at  the  pro- 
duction of  Mendelssohn's  *  Lobgesang '  at  Leip- 
zig, June  25, 1 840.  The  next  year  she  appeared 
on  the  stage  at  Carlsruhe  with  great  success, 
and  then  at  Frankfort — where  in  1844  she 
married  Dr.  Kiichenmeister,  a  professor  of 
mathematics, — and  at  Breslau,  Berlin,  etc. 
Her  repertory  was  large,  and  included  both 
dramatic  and  coloratura  parts.  On  May  23, 
1354,  she  first  appeared  in  England  in  German 
opera  at  Drury  Lane,  as  Donna  Anna,  and  was 
fairly  well  received  in  that  and  her  subsequent 
jiartB  of  Constance  in  Mozart's  'Entfiihrnng,' 
Agatha,  Fidelio,  and  Margaret  of  Valois,  and 
in  Eng^h  as  Elvira  in  'Masaniello.'  She 
took  up  her  residence  in  England  for  several 
yean,  only  occasionally  visiting  Germany  for 
concerts  and  festivals.  She  sang  at  the  Royal 
Italian  Opera  in  1855,  also  from  1861  to  1865, 
as  Donnas  Anna  and  Elvira,  Jemmy,  Bertha, 
Xatalia  ('L'£toile  du  Nord'),  etc.  ;  and  in 
En^iah  at  St.  James's  Theatre  for  a  few  nights 
in  Loder's  opera,  'Raymond  and  Agnes.' 
But  it  was  as  a  concert -singer  that  she  was 
best  appreciated,  her  very  powerful  voice  (not 
always  pleasing),  combined  with  admirable 
powers  of  declamation,  certainty  of  execution, 
and  thorough  musicianship,  having  enabled 
her  to  take  high  rank  as  a  singer  of  oratorio. 
Especially  fine  was  her  singing  of  the  opening 
soprano  recitatives  in  the  *  Messiah '  with  the 
air,  '  Rejoice  greatly,'  and  of  the  final  air  and 
chorus  in  the  *  Israel,'  especially  at  the  Handel 
Festivals,  when  her  voice  would  tell  out  with 
wonderful  effect  against  the  powerful  band  and 
choir.  In  concerts,  whatever  she  undertook  she 
always  showed  herself  a  thorough  artist,  being 
devoted  to  her  art,  in  which  she  worked  with 
untiling  industry.     This  she  proved  by  her 


revival  of  Mozart's  fine  scenas  '  Ahi  lo  previdi ' 
and  'Misera  dove  son,'  and  of  Handel's  air 
from  'Seraele,'  'O  Sleep,'  or  by  the  introduc- 
tion in  their  own  tongue  of  Danish  melodies 
and  the  Spanish  songs  of  Yradier.  She  was 
engaged  at  the  Boston  festivals  of  1871  and 
1872,  and  finally  settled  in  that  city,  becoming 
a  veacher  of  singing  there.  Her  best  pupils 
were  Misses  Emma  Thursby  and  Isabel  Fassett. 
Her  son  was  the  w^ell- known  actor,  Richard 
Mansfield,  for  whose  revival  of  IHctiard  III,  at 
the  Globe  Theatre  in  1889,  Mr.  Edw^ard  German 
wrote  the  incidental  music.  Mme.  Rudersdorff 
died  at  Boston,  Feb.  26,  1882.  For  the 
Birmingham  Festival  of  1878  she  ^vrote  the  lib- 
retto of  Signer  Randegger's  cantata  '  Fridolin,' 
founded  on  Schiller's  '  Gang  nach  dem  Eisen- 
hammer.'  She  had  previously  introduced,  in 
1869,  at  the  Gewandhaus  concerts,  Leipzig,  the 
same  composer's  scena  '  Medea,'  which  she  sang 
also  at  the  Crystal  Palace  and  in  1872  at 
Boston.  A.  c. 

RUDHALL.  A  famUy  of  bell- founders  of 
this  name  earned  on  business  in  Bell  Lane, 
Gloucester,  from  1648  until  late  in  the  18th 
century.  Its  successive  members  were  Abraham , 
sen.,  Abraham,  jun.,  Abel,  Thomas,  and  John. 
From  catalogues  published  by  them  it  appears 
that  from  1648  to  Lady  Day,  1751,  they  had 
cast  2972  bells  'for  sixteen  cities'  and  other 
places  'in  forty-four  several  counties,'  and  at 
Lady  Day  1774  the  nimiber  had  increased  to 
3594.  The  principal  metropolitan  peals  cast 
by  them  were  those  of  St.  Bride,  St.  Dunstan 
in  the  East,  and  St.  MaHin  in  the  Fields.  The 
most  eminent  member  of  the  family  was  Abraham 
junior,  who  brought  the  art  of  bell-casting  to 
great  perfection.  He  was  bom  1657,  and  died 
Jan.  25,  1736,  'famed  for  his  great  skill,  be- 
loved and  esteemed  for  his  singular  good  nature 
and  integrity,'  and  was  buried  in  Gloucester 
Cathedral.  His  daughter,  Alicia,  married 
William  Hine,  the  cathedral  organist,    w.  ii.  h. 

RUDOLPH  JOHANN  JOSEPH  RAINER, 
Archduke  of  Austria,  bom  at  Florence,  Jan. 
8,  1788,  died  suddenly  at  Baden,  Vienna,  July 
24,  1831,  was  the  youngest  child  of  Leopold  of 
Tuscany  and  Maria  Louisa  of  Spain.  Music  was 
hereditary  in  his  family.  His  great-grandfather, 
Carl  VI.,  so  accompanied  an  opera  by  Fux,  that 
the  composer  exclaimed  :  '  Bravo  !  your  Ms^esty 
might  serve  anywhere  as  chief  Capellmeister  ! ' 


190       RUDOLPH,  ARCHDUKE 


RUDOLPH,  ARCHDUKE 


*N"ot  so  fast,  my  dear  chief  Capellnieister/ 
replied  the  Emperor  ;  *  we  are  better  off  as  we 
are ! '  His  grandmother,  the  great  Maria 
Theresa,  was  a  fine  singer  ;  her  children,  from 
very  early  age,  sang  and  performed  cantatas 
and  little  dramas,  to  words  by  Metastasio,  on 
birthdays  and  fetes.  His  nnde,  Max  Franz, 
was  Elector  of  Cologne,  viola  -  play er,  and 
organiser  of  the  splendid  orchestra  at  Bonn,  to 
which  the  Ronibergs,  Rieses,  Reichas,  and 
Beethovens  belonged.  It  was  his  father, 
Leopold,  who,  after  the  first  performance  of 
Cimai-osa's  *  Matrimonio  segreto,'  gave  all  those 
who  took  part  in  the  production  a  supper,  and 
then  ordered  the  performance  to  be  repeated  ; 
and  it  was  his  aunt,  Marie  Antoinette,  who 
supported  Gluck  against  Piccinni  at  Paris. 

Like  the  other  children  of  the  Imperial  family, 
Rudolph  was  instructed  in  music  by  Anton 
Teyber,  and  tradition  says  that  as  early  as 
twelve  or  fourteen  he  gave  ample  proof  of  more 
than  ordinary  nmsical  talent  and  taste  ;  as  soon 
as  he  had  liberty  of  choice  he  exchanged  Teyber 
for  Beethoven.  The  precise  date  and  circum- 
stances attending  this  change  have  eluded  in- 
vestigation ;  but  it  seems  probable  that  the 
connection  between  Rudolph,  a  youth  of  sixteen, 
and  Beethoven,  a  man  of  thirty-four,  began  in 
the  winter  of  1803-4. 

Ries  I'elates  that  Beethoven's  breaches  of 
court  etiquette  were  a  constant  source  of  trouble 
to  his  pupil's  chamberlains,  who  strove  in  vain 
to  enforce  its  rules  on  him.  He  at  last  lost 
all  2>atience,  pushed  his  way  into  the  young 
Archduke's  presence,  and,  excessively  angi-y, 
assured  him  that  he  had  all  due  respect  for  his 
person,  but  that  the  punctilious  observance  of 
all  the  rules  in  which  he  was  daily  tutored 
was  not  his  business.  Rudolph  laughed  good- 
humouredly  and  gave  orders  that  for  the  future 
he  should  be  allowed  to  go  his  own  way. 

Beethoven's  triple  concerto,  op.  56  (1804), 
though  dedicated  to  Prince  Lobkowitz,  was 
^vritten,  says  Schindler,  for  the  Archduke, 
Seidlcr,  and  Kraft  The  work  does  not  require 
great  execution  in  the  piano  part,  but  a  youth 
of  sixteen  able  to  play  it  must  be  a  very  re- 
spectable |)erformer. 

The  weakness  of  the  Arcliduke's  constitution 
is  said  to  have  been  the  cause  of  his  entering 
the  Church.  The  coadjutorship  of  Olmiitz 
secured  to  him  the  succession  ;  and  the  income 
of  the  position  was  probably  not  a  bad  one  ; 
for,  though  his  allowance  as  Archduke  in  a 
family  so  very  mimerous  was  of  necessity  com- 
paratively small,  yet,  in  the  spring  of  1809, 
just  after  completing  his  21st  year,  he  sub- 
scribed 1500  florins  to  Beethoven's  annuity. 
[See  vol.  i.  pp.  244,  246.]  In  1818  Beethoven 
determined  to  compose  a  solemn  Mass  for  the 
installation  service  of  his  pupil,  a  year  or  two 
later.  On  Sept.  28,  1819,  the  Cardinal's 
insignia  arrived  from  the  Pope,  and  the  installa- 


tion was  at  leugtli  fixed  for  March  9,^  1820. 
But  the  Mass  had  assumed  such  gigantic  pro- 
portions that  the  ceremony  had  passed  nearly 
two  years  before  it  was  completed.^  [See  vol.  i. 
p.  258.]  Instead  of  it,  the  music  performed 
was  a  Mass  in  Bb,  by  Hummel ;  a  *  'Te  Deuni ' 
in  C,  by  Preindl ;  '  Ecce  Sacerdos  magnus,'  by 
a  *  Herr  P.  v.  R.' ;  and  Haydn's  Offertorium  in 
D  minor. 

Apart  from  the  annuity,  Rudolph's  purse  was 
probably  often  opened  to  his  master ;  but  the 
strongest  proofs  of  his  respect  and  affection  are 
to  be  found  in  his  careful  preservation  of  Beet- 
hoven's most  insignificant  letters ;  in  tlie  zeal 
with  which  he  collected  for  his  library  eveiy- 
thing  published  by  him ;  in  his  purchase  of 
the  caligraphic  copy  of  his  works  made  by 
Haslinger ;  ^  and  m  his  patience  with  him, 
often  in  trying  circumstances.  For  Beethoven, 
notwithstanding  all  his  obligations  to  his  patron, 
chafed  under  the  interference  with  his  perfect 
liberty,  which  duty  to  the  Archduke-Cardinal 
occasionally  imjiosed.  There  are  passages  in 
his  letters  to  Ries  and  others  (suppressed  in 
publication),  as  well  as  in  the  conversation- 
books),  which  show  how  galling  even  this  light 
yoke  was  to  Beethoven  ;  and  one  feels  in  per- 
using those  addressed  to  the  Archduke  how 
frivolous  are  some  of  the  excuses  for  not  attend- 
ing him  at  the  proper  hour,  and  how  hollow 
and  insincere  are  the  occasional  compliments, 
as  Rudolph  must  have  felt.  That  Beethoven 
was  pleased  to  find  the  Forty  Variations  dedicated 
to  him  by  *hi8  jjupil,  R.  E.  H.'  (Rudolph  Erz- 
Herzog),  was  probably  the  fact ;  but  it  is 
doubtful  whether  his  satisfaction  waiTanted  tlie 
superlatives  in  which  his  letter  of  thanks  is 
couched.  Other  lettersagain breathe  throughout 
nothing  but  a  tnie  and  warm  affection  for  his 
pu  [»il .  Kochel  sensibly  remarks  that  the  trouble 
lay  in  Beethoven's  'aversion  to  the  enforced 
performance  of  regular  duties,  especiaUy  to 
giving  lessons,  and  teaching  the  theory  of 
music,  in  which  it  is  well  known  his  strength 
did  not  lie,  and  for  which  he  had  to  prepare 
himself.'  When  the  untamed  nature  of  Beet- 
hoven, and  his  deafness,  are  considered,  together 
with  his  lack  of  worldly  wisdom  and  his  absolute 
need  of  a  Maecenas,  one  feels  deeply  how 
fortunate  he  was  to  have  attracted  and  retained 
the  syni])athy  and  affection  of  a  man  of  such 
sweet  and  tender  qualities  as  Archduke  Rudolph. 

We  can  hardly  expect  an  Archduke-Cardinal 
to  be  a  voluminous  composer,  but  the  Forty 
Variations  already  mentioned,  and  a  sonata  for 
PF.  and  clarinet,  composed  for  Count  Ferdinand 
Troyer,  both  published  by  Haslinger,  are  goo<i 
specimens  of  his  musical  talents  and  acqnire- 

I  This  date  i«  from  the  report  of  th«  evant  in  th«  Wiener  mtukxt- 
iirJu!  ZeUwnff  of  Huvh  S5,  ISaO. 

s  Beethov«n  uinouncos  XU  oampIetloB  Ib  a  leUar  to  the  Ardiduk^ 
F«b.  97, 1822. 

'  The«e.  »  splendid  §erifR  of  red  folto  volmna*.  beftnllfvTIj  ci^ed. 
are  oomiiicuouji  in  the  Library  of  the  Geedlmdinft  dcr  Mmikfrcaode 
»t  Vienna. 


RUDORFF 


RUBEZAHL 


191 


ments.  There  is  also  a  set  of  Variations  on  a 
theme  of  Rossini's,  corrected  by  Beethoven  in  MS. 
He  was  for  many  years  the  '  x)rotector '  of  tlie 
great  Gesellschaft  der  Musikfreunde  at  Vienna, 
and  bequeathed  to  it  his  very  valuable  musical 
library.  An  oil  ix>rtrait  in  tlie  possession  of  his 
fon,  shows  a  rather  intellectual  face,  of  tlie 
Hapebarg  type,  bat  its  peculiarities  so  softened 
as  to  be  more  than  ordinarily  pleasing,  and 
even  handsome.^ 

The  Archduke's  published  works  are  the  two 
alluded  to  above  :  Theme  by  L.  van  Beethoven, 
with  Forty  Variations — for  PF.  solo  (Haslinger) ; 
Sonata  for  PF.  and  clarinet,  op.  2,  in  A  (Has- 
linger). A.  w.  T. 

RUDORFF,  Ernest,  was  bom  in  Berlin, 
Jan.  18,  1840;  his  fainily  was  of  Hanoverian 
extraction.  At  the  age  of  five  he  received  his 
first  musical  instruction  from  a  god-daughter  of 
C  M.  von  Weber,  an  excellent  pianist  and  of 
a  thoronghly  poetical  nature.  From  his  twelfth 
CO  his  seventeenth  year  he  was  a  pupil  of  Bargiel 
in  PF.  playing  and  composition.  A  song  and 
a  PF.  piece  composed  at  this  period  he  afterwaids 
thought  worthy  of  publication  (op.  2,  No.  1  ; 
op.  10,  No.  4).  For  a  short  time  in  1868  he 
had  tlie  advantage  of  PF.  lessons  from  Mme. 
Schumann,  and  from  his  twelfth  to  his  fourteenth 
year  learned  the  violin  under  Louis  Ries.  In 
1857  he  entered  the  Friedrichs  Gjrmnasium, 
whence  in  1 859  he  passed  to  the  Berlin  university. 
Dnring  the  whole  of  this  time  his  thoughts  were 
bent  on  the  musical  profession.  When  Joachim 
visited  Berlin  in  1852  Rudorff  had  played  before 
him,  and  had  made  such  a  favourable  impression 
that  Joachim  advised  his  being  allowed  to  follow 
the  profession  of  musia  His  father  at  length 
consented  that  he  should  goat  Michaelmas,  1859» 
and  attend  the  Conservatorium  and  the  Uni- 
versity at  Leipzig.  After  two  terms  of  theology 
and  history  he  devoted  himself  exclusively  to 
music,  and  on  leaving  the  Conservatorium  in 
1861,  con  tinned  his  musical  studies  for  a  year 
under  Hanptmann  and  Reinecke.  Rudorif 
went  to  Stockhausen  early  in  1864,  conducted 
those  of  the  Choral  Society's  concerts  in  which 
Stockhaosen  himself  sang,  and  finally  made 
concert  tours  with  him.  In  1865  he  became 
professor  at  the  Cologne  Conservatorium,  and 
there  in  1867  he  founded  the  Bach  Society, 
whose  performance  at  their  first  concert  in  1 869 
gave  saeh  satisfaction  to  Rudorff  that  he  at  first 
refused  an  appointment  as  professor  in  the  new 
Hochschnle  at  Berlin  under  Joachim's  direction. 
He  afterwards  changed  his  mind,  and  since 
October  1869  has  been  first  professor  of  PF.- 
playing  and  director  of  the  piano  classes  in  that 
institution,  besides  conducting  part  of  the 
ordieetnd  practices,  and  in  Joachim's  absence 
direefsng  the  public  performances.  In  the 
summer  of  1880,  on  Max  Bruch's  appointment 
as  director  of  the  Liverpool  Philharmonic  Society, 

>  Ftar  ft  more  detofled  Mtioe  see  the  JTiMieoI  Wort4,ApM  2. 1881. 


Rudorff  succeeded  him  as  conductor  of  the  Stem 
Singing-Society  in  Berlin,  but  without  resigning 
his  post  at  the  Hochschule.  [He  retained  the 
direction  of  this  Society  till  1890.] 

He  has  much  talent  for  piano- playing,  though 
an  unfortunate  nervousness  prevents  him  from 
exercising  it  much  in  pubUc.  His  tone  is 
beautiful,  his  conception  poetical,  and  he  pos- 
sesses considerable  power  of  execution,  never 
degenerating  into  mere  display.  He  is  an 
excellent  teacher ;  but  his  greatest  gifts  are 
shown  in  composition.  His  musical  style  is 
founded  throughout  upon  the  romantic  school 
of  Chopin,  Mendelssohn,  and  Schumann,  and 
especially  of  Weber.  His  part-songs  interest  by 
their  elegance  and  thoughtfulness,  but  few,  if 
any,  leave  a  pleasant  impression  on  the  mind. 
This  is  true  also  of  his  solo  songs.  He  has  an 
almost  feminine  hon-or  of  anything  rough  or 
common,  and  often  carries  this  to  such  a  pitch  as 
seriously  to  interfere  with  simplicity  and  natural- 
ness. He  has  deeply  imbibed  the  romantic  chann 
of  Weber's  music,  but  the  bold  easy  mirth  which 
at  times  does  not  shrink  from  trivialities  is  un- 
fortunately utterly  strange  to  him.  His  early 
songs  opp.  1  and  2  follow,  it  ia  true,  closely  in 
Schumann's  steps,  but  they  are  among  the  most 
beautiful  that  have  been  written  in  his  style. 

Rudorffs  works  are  for  the  most  part  of  great 
technical  difficulty,  and  many  of  them  are  over- 
elaborated,  a  fact  which  has  kept  his  works 
from  being  as  well  known  as  they  deserve.  The 
following  is  a  list  of  his  published  works : — 


Op. 

1.  Vftiiatloiifl  for  two  PPa. 

2.  SlzaongOL 

.i.  Six  aoDgii  from  Rlehendorff. 

4.  Six  doets  for  PF. 

5.  Sextet  tor  atrlnsi  (play«d  at 

the   Popnlftf    Conoertii   In 

April  1900»iidJanuai7l9QS). 

(L  Four  part-DongB  fur  mixed 

TOiCClS. 

7.  TUnnanoe  for  violoncello  and 


Op. 

18.  'Der  Aufzug  der  Boiiia&se,' 

from  Tleck,  for  iioIofl,chorua, 

and  orchfwtra. 
'20.  Serenade  for  orch«iitnu 
22.  Six     three -part    longa    fur 

female  voloes. 
24.  Varlationa    on    an    original 

theme  for  oreheetm. 
29.  Foiir  six-part  soDgH. 
*2B.  'Oeeang  an  die  Mteme,'  liy 

BQckert,      for      nix  •  part 

chorus  and  orchestra. 
27.  Six  four-part  songs. 
,28.  Three  sougs. 
!2».  Two  dtudes  for  PF. 
90.  Four  part  •songs  for  mixed 

choir. 
31.  STraphonjr  in  B  flat. 
38.  Kinderwaker  for  PF.  dnet 
A   second    symphony   in   O 

minor  (1891). 
Symphonic     variations     for 

orche8tr4.. 
Scherzo       capriccioso       for 

orchestra. 


8.  Overture  to  '  Der  blonde  Ek- 

bert'  for  orchestra. 

9.  Six   part-songs    for    f<'male 

voicen. 
I  a  Kight  FantasiwtUcke  for  PF. 

11.  Four   part-songs   for   mixed 

voices. 

12.  Overture  to 'Otto der  Schatc 

f or  orehostra. 

13.  Foot  part -songs  for  mixed 

voices. 

14.  Pantanle  for  PF. 

IB.  Ballade  for  full  orchestiu. 
Ifi.  Four  songs. 
17.  Four  songs. 


He  has  also  arranged  Schubert's  4 -hand 
fantasia  in  F  minor  (op.  103)  for  orchestra,     f.  s. 

RttBEZAHL.  An  opera  in  two  acts  ;  words 
by  J.  G.  Rhode,  music  composed  by  C.  M.  von 
Weber,  at  Breslau,  between  October  1804  and 
May  1806.  Weber's  autograph  list  shows  that 
tlie  first  act  contained  fifteen  scenes,  the  second 
twelve.  Of  these  pieces  of  music,  however,  only 
three  havesurvived  (in  MS. ) — a  Chorus  of  Spirits, 
a  Recitative  and  Arietta,  and  a  Quintet.  Of  the 
overture  (in  D  minor)  only  the  last  eleven  bars 
of  the  first  violin  part  exist ;  it  was  recast  into 
the  overture  called  *  The  Ruler  of  tlie  Spirits.' 


192 


RUCKAUF 


RULE,  BRITANNIA! 


(See  Jahn's  List,  Nos.  44,  45,  46, 122  ;  Anhang 
2,  No.  27.)  G. 

RUCKAUF,  Anton,  was  born  March  13, 
1855,  at  Pi-ague,  and  died  Sept.  19,  1903,  at 
Schloss  Alt-Erlaa.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Proksch, 
and  studied  at  the  same  time  at  the  Prague 
Organ  School,  taught  for  a  time  at  Proksch 's 
Institute  till  he  went,  at.tlie  expense  of  the 
state,  to  fiurther  his  studies  in  Vienna,  where, 
advised  by  Brahms,  he  learnt  counterpoint  with 
Nottebohm  and  with  Nawratil  when  Nottebohm 
died.  His  connection  with  Gustav  Walter,  whose 
permanent  accompanist  he  was,  had  a  great 
influence  over  his  development  as  a  composer 
of  songs,  and  having  been  an  excellent  pianist 
himself,  he  belongs  unquestionably  to  the  com- 
paratively small  number  of  modem  song- writers, 
who  give  equal  expression  and  effect  to  the 
formation  of  the  voice -part  and  accompani- 
ment. His  compositions  are  of  various  sorts, 
including  songs,  'Balladen,'  settings  to  five 
Minnelieder  of  Walter  von  der  Vogelweide, 
gipsy  songs,  duets,  choral  songs  with  PF.  ac- 
companiment and  also  a  cappella,  besides  a 
violin  sonata  (op.  7),  a  PF.  quintet  (op.  13), 
some  piano  solos  and  duets,  and  an  opera,  '  Die 
Rosenthalerin,'  which  was  produced  at  Dresden 
in  1897,  and  attracted  a  considerable  amount 
of  attention.  h.  v.  h. 

RUFFO,  ViNCENZO,  a  member  of  a  noble 
Veronese  family,  who  flourished  as  a  composer 
in  the  16th  century.  His  name  is  included  by 
Baini  in  his  list  of  the  '  good  musicians '  of  his 
fourth  epoch.  Unless  a  five-part  magnificat, 
stated  to  have  been  published  at  Venice  in 
1539,  and  to  exist  at  Liineburg,  be  a  genuine 
work,  his  first  publication  would  seem  to  be  a 
book  of  motets  dated  1542,  where  he  is  described 
as  *  musico '  (i.e.  castrato)  in  the  service  of  the 
Marchese  Alfonso  d'Avalli.  In  1554  he  became 
maestro  di  cappella  at  the  cathedral  of  Verona, 
and  in  1563  was  appointed  to  a  similar  post  at 
the  cathedral  of  Milan.  In  1574-79  he  was  at 
Pistoia  in  the  same  capacity,  and  in  1580  we 
find  him  again  at  Milan.  His  last  publication, 
a  book  of  masses,  dated  1592,  contains  no 
mention  of  any  official  post,  and  it  is  argued 
that  he  therefore  held  none  in  his  latest  years. 
The  other  masses  appeared  in  1557,  1574,  and 
1580 ;  motets  in  1542,  1555,  and  1583, 
settings  of  the  magnificat  in  1578,  and  psalms 
a  6  in  1574.  His  madrigals  were  published 
in  1545,  1554,  1555,  1556,  and  1560.  The 
psalms  and  a  mass  were  written  for  his  patron 
Saint  Carlo  Borromeo  in  accordance  with  the 
decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  An  Adoramus 
is  printed  by  Liick,  and  a  madrigal,  *  See  from 
his  ocean  bed,  *  edited  by  Oliphant,  is  in  Hullah's 
Part  Music.  Torchi,  in  his  'Arte  Musicale  in 
Italia,'  vol.  i.,  gives  two  movements  from  masses, 
a  motet,  and  two  madrigals.  The  libraries  of 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  the  Royal  College 
of  Music,  contain  specimens  of  his  works  in 


MS.,  and  for  others  the  article  in  the  Quellen- 
Lexikon  and  an  interesting  monograph  by  Lnigi 
Torri  in  the  Mv.  Mus.  Ital.  iiL  635,  and  iv. 
233,  should  be  consulted.  m. 

RU66IERI,  the  name  of  a  celebrated  family 
of  violin-makers,  who  flourished  at  Cremona 
and  Bresoia.  The  eldest  was  Francesco, 
commonly  known  as  'Rnggieri  il  Per'  (the 
father),  whose  instruments  date  from  1668  to 
1720  or  thereabouts.  John  Baptist  (1700- 
1725)  and  Pbter  (1700-20),  who  form  the 
second  generation  of  the  family,  were  probably 
his  sons  ;  and  John  Baptist  (called  '  il  buono '), 
who  was  indisputably  the  best  maker  in  the 
family,  claims  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Nicholas 
Amati«  Besides  these,  we  hear  of  GuiDo  and 
ViNCBNZO  Ruggieri,  both  of  Cremona,  early  in 
the  18th  century.  The  instruments  of  the 
Ruggieri,  though  differing  widely  among  them- 
selves, bear  a  general  resemblance  to  Uiose  of 
the  Amati  family.  They  rank  high  among  the 
works  of  the  second-rate  makers,  and  are  often 
passed  off  as  Amatis.  s.  j.  p. 

RUINS  OF  ATHENS,  THK  A  dramatic 
piece  (Nachspiel)  written  by  Kotzebue,  and 
composed  by  Beethoven  (op.  113),  for  the 
opening  of  a  new  theatre  at  Pesth,  Feb.  9, 
1812,  when  it  was  preceded  in  the  ceremony 
by  '  King  Stephen '  (op.  117).  It  contains  an 
overture  and  eight  numbers,  and  was  probably 
composed  late  in  1811.  The  'Marcia  alia 
turca,'  No.  4,  is  founded  on  the  theme  of  the 
Variations  in  D,  op.  76,  which  was  composed 
two  years  earlier.  The  March  and  Choms, 
No.  6,  were  used  in  1822,  with  the  Overture, 
op.  124,  for  the  opening  of  the  Josephstadt 
Theatre,  Vienna.  The  Overture  to  '  The  Ruins 
of  Athens'  and  the  Turkish  March  were 
published  in  1823,  but  the  rest  of  the  music 
remained  in  MS.  till  1846.  g. 

RULE,  BRITANNIA !  The  music  of  this 
<ode  in  honour  of  Great  Britain,'  which, 
according  to  Southey,  'will  be  the  political 
hymn  of  this  country  as  long  as  she  maintains 
her  political  power,'  was  composed  by  Ame  for 
his  masque  of  *  Alfred '  (the  words  by  Thomson 
and  Mallet),  and  first  performed  at  Oiiefden 
House,  Maidenhead,  August  1,  1740.  CHefden 
was  then  the  residence  of  Frederick,  Prince  of 
Wales,  and  the  occasion  was  to  commemorate 
the  accession  of  George  I.,  and  the  birthday  of 
Princess  Augusta.  The  masque  was  repeated  on 
the  following  night,  and  published  by  Millar, 
August  19,  1740. 

Dr.  Ame  afterwards  altered  the  masque  into 
an  opera  [and  it  was  so  performed  at  the  Smock 
Alley  Theatre,  Dublin,  on  March  10,  3  744. 
In  the  advertisement  it  is  announced  that 
*  Alfred  '  will  conclude  with  a  *  favourable  Ode 
in  honour  of  Great  Britain,  beginning  "When 
Britain  first  at  Heaven's  command." '  It  was 
not  heard  in  London  till  March  20,  1745, 
when  it  was  given  at  Drury  Lane  for  the  benefit 


RULE,  BRITANNIA! 


RUMMEL 


193 


ofMr&Ame.  W.H.O.F.].  In  the  advertisements 
of  tluit  performance,  and  of  another  in  April,  Dr. 
Ame  entitles  '  Bale,  Britannia  ) '  *  a  celebrated 
ode,'  from  which  it  may  be  inferred  that  it  had 
been  especially  suocessfnl at  Cliefden,  andDnblin. 
The  year  1745,  in  which  the  ope»  was  pro- 
duced, is  memorable  for  the  Jacobite  rising  in 
the  North,  and  in  1746  Handel  prodnced  his 
'Oocaaioiial  Oratorio/  in  which  he  refers  to  its 
n^yression,  'War  shall  cease,  welcome  Peace,' 
adapting  those  words  to  the  opening  bare  of 
*  Rnle,  Britannia ! ' — in  itself  a  great  proof  of 
the  popularity  of  the  air. 


By  a  singular  anachronism,  Schoelcher,  in 
his  Li/e  qf  Handel  (p.  299),  accuses  Ame  of 
copying  these  and  other  bare  in  the  song  from 
Handel,  instead  of  Handel's  quoting  them  from 
Ame.  He  says  also:  'Dr.  Ame's  Alfred^  which 
ms  an  utter  failure,  appeare  to  have  belonged 
to  1751.'  It  was  not  Ame's  'Alfred'  that 
failed  in  1751,  but  Mallet's  alteration  of  the 
original  poem,  which  he  made  shortly  after  the 
death  of  Thomson.  Mallet  endeavoured  to 
appropriate  the  credit  of  the  masque,  as  he  had 
l«fore  appropriated  the  ballad  of  '  William  and 
MaT]0Krety'  and  thereby  brought  himself  into 
notice.^  Mallet's  vereion  of  '  Alfred '  was  pro- 
duced in  1751,  and,  in  spite  of  Ganick's  acting, 
failed,  as  it  deserved  to  faiL' 

The  score  of  '  Rule,  Britannia  ! '  was  printed 
by  Ame  at  the  end  of  *  The  Judgment  of  Paris,' 
vhidi  had  also  been  produced  at  Oliefden  in 
1740.  The  air  was  adopted  by  Jacobites  as 
well  as  Hanoverians,  but  the  former  parodied,  or 
changed,  the  words. 

A  donbt  was  raised  as  to  the  authorehip  of  the 
words  of  '  Rnle,  Britannia  ! '  by  Dr.  Dinsdale, 
editor  of  the  re-edition  of  Mallet's  Poe-TTis  in  1851. 
Dinsdale  claims  for  Mallet  the  ballad  of  William 
and  Margaret,'  and  '  Rule,  Britannia  ! '  As  to 
the  fint  claim,  the  most  convincing  evidence 
against  Mallet — unknown  when  Dinsdale  wrote 
— is  now  to  be  foimd  in  the  Library  of  the 
British  Museum.  In  1878  I  firateawacopy  of 
the  original  ballad  in  an  auction  room,  and, 
guided  by  it,  I  traced  a  second  copy  in  the 
British  Museum,  where  it  is  open  to  all  inquirere. 
It  reproduces  the  tune,  which  had  been  utterly 
lost  in  England,  as  in  Scotland,  because  it  was 
not  fitted  for  dancing,  but  only  for  recitation. 
Untfl  Dinsdale  put  in  a  claim  for  Mallet,  '  Rule, 
Hribuinia  ! '  had  been  universally  ascribed  to 
Thomson,  from  the  advertisements  of  the  time 
down  to  the  '  Scotch  Songs '  of  Ritson — a  most 
careful  and  trustworthy  authority   for  facts. 

1  Por  *  WUIiuM  tmA  lUi«M«t,'  vlth  aniL  witiurat  MaUet'*  alton. 
tiou.  wm  Appendix  to  toL  iiL  of  StetendU  Sall«b.  leprlntod  tat 
tte  BiOlBd  SocMj ;  Um>  aa  wttele  in  Na  1  of  the  perlodloal  mUUed 

t  a«>chqppdl'«  jyiwlT itutte ^the (Mm  nmt. 

VOL  IV 


Mallet  left  the  question  in  doubt.  Thomson 
was  but  recently  dead,  and  consequently  many  of 
hiB  surviving  friends  knew  the  facts.  '  According 
to  the  present  arrangement  of  the  fable,'  says 
Mallet,  '  I  was  obliged  to  reject  a  great  deal  of 
what  I  had  written  in  the  other  ;  neither  could 
I  retain  of  my  friend's  part  more  than  three  or 
four  single  speeches,  and  a  part  of  one  song.' 
He  does  not  say  that  it  was  the  one  song  of  the 
whole  that  had  stood  out  of  the  piece,  and  had 
become  naturalised,  lest  his '  friend'  should  have 
too  much  credit,  but  '  Rnle,  Britannia  ! '  comes 
under  this  description,  because  he  allowed  Lord 
Bolingbroke  to  mutilate  the  poem,  by  substitut- 
ing three  stanzas  of  his  own  tor  the  fourth,  fifth, 
and  sixth  of  the  original.  Would  Mallet  have 
allowed  this  mutilation  of  the  poem  had  it  been 
his  own  ?  [During  Mallet's  lifetime,  the  words 
were  printed  in  the  second  edition  of  a  well- 
known  song-book,  'The  Charmer,'  in  Edinburgh, 
with  the  initials  of  James  Thomson.]  On  the 
whole,  internal  evidence  is  strongly  in  favour  of 
Thomson.  See  his  poems  of 'Britannia,'  and 
'  Liberty.'  As  an  antidote  to  Dinsdale's  character 
of  David  Mallet,  the  reader  should  compare 
that  in  Chalmere's  General  Biographical  Dic- 
tionary. "W.  c. 

[See  an  article  by  J.  Cuthbert  Hadden  in  the 
Nineteenth  Century  for  Dec.  1896  ;  and  another 
by  Churton  Collins  in  the  Saturday  Heview  of 
Feb.  20, 1897.] 

'RuIe,Britanniar  was  firet  published  by  Heniy 
Waylett  as  an  appendix  (with  another  song)  to 
Ame's  '  Music  in  the  Judgment  of  Paris. '  The 
copyright  privilege  is  dated  Jan.  29,  1740-41. 
An  extraordinary  perversion  or  religious  parody 
was  sung  as  a  hymn  in  the  Rev.  Rowland  Hill's 
Chapel,  and  was  included  in  his  Surrey  Chapel 
Hymns  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century. 
Since  the  above  account  was  written  no  fresh 
clue  has  come  to  light  regarding  the  authorship 
of  the  words.  F.  K. 

Beethoven  wrote  iive  variations  for  the  piano 
upon  the  air,  and  besides  numberless  references 
to  it  in  occasional  compositions  of  all  sorts, 
mention  may  be  made  of  Wagner's  overture 
upon  it,  which  was  written  at  Eonigsberg  in 
1836,  sent  to  the  Philharmonic  Society  of 
London  in  1840,  and  apparently  lost  for  many 
yeare.  A  set  of  parts,  no  donbt  made  for  some 
X)erformance  which  never  took  place,  was  acquired 
by  the  late  Hon.  ^fre.  Burrell  from  a  German 
dealer  in  old  music  ;  and  another  set  came  to 
light  in  1904,  corresponding  exactly  with  these, 
from  which  the  score  was  reconstructed  and  the 
work  played  at  the  Queen's  Hall  in  Jan.  1906. 
It  is  a  composition  of  no  intrinsic  value,  though 
historically  it  is  of  some  interest.  m. 

RUMMEL.  A  German  musical  family.  (1) 
Chbistian  Franz  Ludwio  Friedrich  Alex- 
ander was  bom  at  Brichsenstadt,  Bavaria,  Nov. 
27,  1787.  He  was  educated  at  Mannheim,  and 
seems  to  have  had  instruction  from  the  Abb^ 


194 


JIUMMEL 


RUSSELL 


Vogler.  In  1 806  he  took  the  post  of  bandinaater 
to  the  2nd  Nassau  infantry,  made  the  Penin- 
sular Campaign,  married  in  Spain,  was  taken 
prisoner,  released,  and  served  with  his  regiment 
at  Waterloo.  He  was  then  employed  by  the 
Dake  of  Nassau  to  form  and  lead  his  Court 
orchestra,  which  he  did  with  great  credit  to 
himself  till  1841,  when  it  was  dissolved. 
Christian  Rummel  died  at  Wiesbaden,  Feb.  13, 
1849.  He  was  not  only  an  able  conductor  and 
a  composer  of  much  ability  and  industry,  but 
a  fine  clarinettist  and  a  good  pianist.  His 
works  are  numerous,  and  embrace  pieces  for 
military  band,  concertos,  quintets  and  other 
pieces  for  clarinet,  many  pianoforte  compositions, 
especially  a  sonata  for  fon^  hands  (op.  20), 
waltzes,  variations,  etc.,  and  a  Method  for  the 
PF.  (2)  His  daughter  Josephine  was  born  at 
Manzanares  in  Spain  during  the  Peninsular  War, 
May  12,  1812.  She  was  pianist  at  the  Court 
at  Wiesbaden,  and  died  Dec.  19,  1877.  (3) 
His  son  Joseph,  born  at  Wiesbaden,  Oct  6, 
1818,  was  educated  by  his  father  in  music 
generally,  and  in  the  clarinet  and  PF.  in 
particular,  on  both  of  which  he  was  a  good 
player.  He  was  for  many  years  Capellmeister 
to  the  Prince  of  Oldenburg,  then  residing  at 
Wiesbaden — a  post  in  which  he  was  succeeded 
by  Adolph  Henselt.  Up  to  1842  he  lived  in 
Paris,  and  then  removed  to  London  for  five 
years.  In  1847  he  returned  to  Paris,  and 
remained  there  till  driven  back  to  London  by 
the  war  in  1870  ;  and  in  London  he  resided 
till  his  death,  March  25,  1880.  Joseph 
Rummel  wrote  no  original  music,  but  he  was 
one  of  the  most  prolific  arrangers  of  operas  and 
operatic  selections  for  the  PF.  that  ever  existed. 
For  nearly  forty  years  he  worked  incessantly  for 
the  houses  of  Schott  and  Escudier,  publishing 
about  400  pieces  with  each  house  under  his  own 
name,  besides  a  much  larger  number  under  twms 
dc  plume.  His  arrangements  and  transcriptions 
amount  in  all  to  fully  2000.  He  wrote  also  a 
series  of  exercises  for  Augener  &  Co.,  and  for 
Escudier.  (4)  Joseph's  sister  Franzisra,  born 
at  Wiesbaden,  Feb.  4,  1821,  was  educated  by 
her  father  imtil  she  went  to  Paris  to  study 
singing  under  Bordogni,  and  afterwards  to 
Lamperti  at  Milan.  She  became  principal 
singer  at  the  Court  of  Wiesbaden,  and  at  length 
married  Peter  Schott,  the  well-known  music 
publisher  at  Brussels,  who  died  in  1873.  (5) 
Another  son,  August,  a  capable  pianist,  bom 
at  Wiesbaden,  Jan.  14, 1824,  became  a  merchant 
in  London,  where  he  died,  Dec.  14,  1886,  and 
where  (6)  his  son  Franz  was  born,  Jan.  11, 
1853.  At  the  age  of  fourteen  he  went  to 
Brussels  to  study  the  PF.  under  Brassin,  first 
as  a  private  pupil  and  afterwards  in  the  Con- 
servatoire. He  took  the  first  prize  for  PF.- 
playing  there  in  1872,  and  afterwards  became 
one  of  the  staff  of  teachers.  He  made  his 
first  public  appearance  at  Antwerp,  Dec.  22, 


1872,  in  Henselfs  PF.  Concerto  ;  in  July  1873 
played  Schumann's  Concerto  at  the  Albert  Hall 
Concerts,  London  ;  and  again  at  Brussels,  before 
the  King  and  Queen  of  the  Belgians,  with  great 
distinction.  He  remained  at  the  Conservatoire 
as  professor  till  1876,  when  on  the  advice  of 
Rubinstein  ho  threw  up  his  post  and  began  to 
travel,  playing  in  the  Rhine  Provinces,  Holland, 
and  France.  Early  in  1 8  7  7  he  came  to  London , 
and  played  at  the  Crystal  Palace  on  April  7. 
Next  year  he  went  to  America,  where  he  met 
with  great  success,  though  interrupted  by  a 
serious  accident.  He  returned  in  1881,  and 
played  again  at  the  Crystal  Palace  on  April  30. 

ge  was  for  a  long  time  a  teacher  in  the  Stem 
nservatorium  at  Berlin.  He  afterwards 
lived  at  Dessau,  and  died  at  Berlin,  May  2, 
1901.]  o. 

RUNGENHAGEN,  Carl  Friedrich,  bora 
at  Berlin,  Sept.  27, 1778,  became  in  1815  second 
director  of  the  Singakademie,  and  in  1833 
succeeded  Zelter  as  first  director.  In  1843  he 
received  the  title  of  professor:  he  -^Tote  four 
operas,  three  oratorios,  a  mass,  a  Stabat  Mater 
for  female  voices,  a  great  deal  of  church  music, 
many  songs,  and  orchestral  and  chamber  music, 
all  of  which  is  now  forgotten.  He  died  in 
Berlin,  Dec.  21, 1851.  (Kiem&nn'a  Lexikati.)   u. 

RUSSELL,  Henry,  was  bora  at  Sheerness 
on  Dec.  24,  1812  ;  went  to  Bologna,  in  1825, 
to  study  music  [was  for  a  time  a  pupil  of 
Rossini  in  Naples,  appeared  as  a  singer  at  the 
Surrey  Theati*e  in  1828,  and  went  to  Canada 
about  1833.  He  was  organist  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church,  Rochester  (N.Y.),  and  travelled 
in  America  till  1841,  when  he  returned  to 
England  and  gave  entertainments  by  himself 
and  in  company  with  Charles  Mackay.  The 
tirst  took  place  at  the  Hanover  Square  Rooms, 
March  8,  1842].  In  his  particular  style  he 
had  no  rival.  His  songs  *  I'm  afloat,'  •  A 
life  on  the  ocean  wave*  (which  in  1889  was 
authorised  as  the  march  of  the  royal  marines), 
'Cheer,  boys,  cheer'  (the  only  air  played  by 
the  regimental  drum  and  fife  band  when  a 
regiment  goes  abroad),  '  Woodman,  spare  that 
tree,'  etc.,  are  still  familiar,  and  some  of  his 
dramatic  songs,  as  *  The  Dream  of  the  Reveller,' 
*The  Maniac,'  *The  Gambler's  Wife,*  etc,  were 
immensely  popular  in  their  day.  It  may  cer- 
tainly be  said  that  over  800  songs  were  either 
written  or  composed  by  him.  At  a  time  when 
Australia,  Tasmania,  and  New  Zealand  were 
almost  unknown,  Henry  Russell  was  iiistra- 
mental,  through  the  Canadian  government,  in 
sending  over  thousands  of  poor  people  who  are 
now  wealthy.  A  memoir  was  published  in 
1846,  and  a  book  of  reminiscences,  Cheer^  boys, 
cheer,  in  1895.  [He  retired  from  public  life  in 
1865,  was  fgted  at  a  special  concert  given  in 
his  honour  by  Sir  A.  Harris  in  Covent  Garden 
Theatre,  Got.  12,  1891,  and  died  in  London 
Dec.  8, 1900.]  V  amieo  del  cawtarUi  is  a  treatise 


RUSSELL 


RUST 


195 


on  the  art  of  singing.  [Two  of  his  sons  have 
attained  distinction  in  music,  Henry  Russell  as 
a  singing  master  and  operatic  impresario,  and 
Landon  Ronald  (bom  Jan^7,  1878)  as  a  pianist 
and  composer.  The  last-named  studied  at  the 
Royal  College  of  Music,  went  on  tour  with 
'L'Enfant  Prodigue'  in  1891  as  pianist,  con- 
ducted opera  at  Drury  Lane  in  1896,  and  has 
composed  many  songs  of  high  artistic  aims, 
besides  gaining  wide  ix>pularity  as  an  accom- 
panist and  conductor.]  J.  H.  D. ;  with  additions 
from  JMcL  qfXai,  Biog.  (suppl.),  MtcsiccU  Times 
for  Jan.  1901,  etc 

RUSSELL,  William,  Mus.B.,  son  of  an 
organ  builder  and  organist,  was  bom  in  London, 
Oct.  6,  1777.  He  was  successively  a  pupil  of 
Cope,  oi^nist  of  St.  Saviour's,  Southwark, 
8hmb8ole,  of  Spa  Fields  Chapel,  and  Groom- 
bridge,  Hackney  and  St.  Stephen's,  Coleman 
Street.  In  1 789  he  was  appointed  deputy  to  his 
father  as  organist  of  St.  Mary,  Aldermanbury, 
and  continued  so  until  1798,  when  he  obtained 
the  poet  of  organist  at  the  chapel  in  Great  Queen 
Street,  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  which  he  held  until 
1 798,  when  the  chapel  was  disposed  of  to  the 
Wesleyan  body.  In  1797  he  became  a  pupil  of 
Dr.  Arnold,  with  whom  he  studied  for  about 
three  years.  In  1798  he  was  chosen  organist  of 
St.  Ann's,  Limehonse.  In  1800  he  was  engaged 
as  pianist  and  composer  at  Sadler's  Wells,  where 
he  continued  about  four  years.  In  1801  he 
was  engaged  as  pianist  at  Covent  Garden  and 
appointed  organist  of  the  Foundling  Hospital 
Chapel.  He  took  his  Mus.B.  degree  at  Oxford 
in  1808.  He  composed  three  oratorios,  *Tlie 
Deliyerance  of  Israel,'  *Tlie  Redemption,'  and 
'Job'  (1826) ;  a  mass  in  C  minor,  an  'Ode  to 
Music,'  an  'Ode  to  the  Genius  of  Handel,' 
Christopher  Smart's  'Ode  on  St.  Cecilia's  Day,' 
and  an  *  Ode  to  Harmony,'  several  glees,  songs, 
and  organ  voluntaries,  and  about  twenty  dra- 
matic pieces,  chiefly  spectacles  and  pantomimes. 
He  edited  in  1 809 '  Psalms,  Hymns  and  Anthems 
for  the  Foundling  Chapel.'  He  was  much 
esteemed  both  as  pianist  and  organist  He 
died  Kov.  21,  1818.  w.  h.  h. 

RUSSLAN  I  LIOUDMILLA.  A  Russian 
romantic  opera,  in  five  acts,  based  on  a  poem 
by  Poshkin,  the  music  by  Glinka.  Produced 
at  St.  Petersburg,  Nov.  27,  1842.  The  scene  is 
laid  in  the  Caucasus,  in  fabulous  times,  and  the 
music  partakes  strongly  of  the  oriental  character. 
The  overture  was  played  at  the  Crystal  Palace, 
Sydenham,  London,  July  4,  1874.  g. 

RUST.  A  distinguished  German  musical 
family.  Fbiedbich  Wilhelm  was  bora  at 
Wbrlitz,  Dessau,  July  6,  1789  ;  his  father  was 
a  person  of  eminence,  and  he  received  a  first- 
rate  education.  He  was  taught  music  by  his 
elder  brother,  Johann  Ludwig  Anton,  who,  as 
an  amateur,  had  played  the  violin  in  J.  S. 
Bach's  orchestra  at  Leipzig;  and  at  thirteen 
he  played  the  whole  of  the  '  Wohltemperirtes 


Clavier'  without  book.  Composition,  organ, 
and  clavier  he  learned  fix>m  fViedemann  and 
Emmanuel  Bach,  and  the  violin  from  Hockh 
and  F.  Beuda  ;  and  in  1765,  during  a  journey 
to  Italy,  from  G.  Benda,  Tartini,  and  Pugnani. 
In  1766  he  returned  to  Dessau,  and  became  the 
life  and  soul  of  the  music  there.  On  Sept.  24, 
1774,  a  new  theatre  was  opened  through  his 
exertions,  to  which  he  was  soon  after  appointed 
music-director.  He  married  his  pupil,  Henriette 
Niedhart,  a  fine  singer,  and  thencefom^ard,  with 
a  few  visits  to  Berlin,  Dresden,  etc.,  his  life 
was  confined  to  Dessau,  where  he  died  March  28, 
1796.  His  compositions  include  a  Psalm  for 
solo,  choms,-  and  orchestra ;  several  large 
Church  Cantatas ;  Duodramasand  Monodramas ; 
Operas ;  music  to  Plays ;  Prologues  and  Occa- 
sional pieces,  etc.  ;  Odes  and  Songs  (2  collec- 
tions) ;  Sonatas  and  Vaiiations  for  the  PF. 
solo — *  4  dozen '  of  the  former  and  many  of  the 
latter — Concertos,  Fugues,  etc.  etc.  ;  and  thi'ee 
Sonatas  for  violin  solo,  which  have  been  re- 
published by  his  giiindson  (Peters),  and  are 
now  the  only  music  by  which  Rust  is  known  ; 
that  in  D  minor  was  often  played  at  the 
Monday  Popular  Concerts.  The  sonatas  ai-e 
analysed  in  Shedlock's  Pianoforte  Sonata,  pp. 
152  ff.  His  last  composition  was  a  violin 
sonata  for  the  £  string,  thus  anticipating 
Paganini.  A  list  of  his  works,  with  every 
detail  of  his  life,  extending  to  6^  large  pages, 
is  given  in  Mendel.  A  monograph  on  him, 
with  list  of  works,  etc.,  was  publifi^ed  in  1882 
by  W.  Hofaus,  and  Dr.  £.  Ptieger  published  a 
pamphlet,  F,  W,  Riist^einVorganger  Beeihovens, 
His  eldest  son  was  drowned  ;  the  youngest, 
Wilhelm  Karl,  bom  at  Dessau,  April  29, 
1787,  began  music  very  early  ;  and  besides  the 
teaching  he  naturally  got  at  home,  learned 
thorough-bass  with  Tiirk  while  at  Halle  Uni- 
versity. In  Dec.  1807  he  went  to  Vienna,  and 
in  time  became  intimate  with  Beethoven,  who 
praised  his  playing  of  Ikich,  and  recommended 
him  strangly  as  a  teacher.  Amongst  other 
I)upils  he  had  Baroness  Ertmann  and  Maxi- 
milian Brentano.  His  letters  to  his  sister  on 
Beethoven  are  given  by  Thayer,  iii.  35-6. 
He  remained  in  Vienna  till  1827,  when  he 
returned  to  his  native  place,  and  lived  there 
till  his  death,  April  18,  1855. 

Wilhelm  Rust,  the  nephew  of  the  foregoing, 
himself  an  advocate,  and  a  fine  amateur  player 
on  both  violin  and  PF.,  was  born  August  15, 
1822,  at  Dessau ;  he  learned  music  from  his 
uncle  and  F.  Schneider.  After  a  few  years* 
wandering  he  settled  in  Berlin,  where  he  soon 
joined  the  Singakademie.  He  played  at  the 
Philharmonic  Society  of  Berlin,  Dec.  5,  1849, 
and  was  soon  much  in  request  as  a  teacher. 
In  Jan.  1861  he  became  organist  of  St.  Luke's 
church,  and  twelve  months  afterwards  director 
of  Vierling's  Bach  Society,  which  he  conducted 
till  1874,  performing  a  large  number  of  fine 


196 


RUTHERFORD 


RYAN 


works  by  Bach  and  other  great  oompoeers, 
many  of  them  for  the  first  time.  The  list  of 
occasional  concerts  conducted  by  him  is  also 
yery  large.  In  1870  he  undertook  the  de- 
partment of  counterpoint  and  composition  in 
the  Stem  Conseryatorium  at  Berlin,  and  in 
1878  was  appointed  organist  of  the  Thomas- 
kirche,  Leipzig,  and  in  1880  succeeded  £.  F.  E. 
Kiohter  as  Cantor  of  the  Thomasschule.  He 
was  connected  with  the  Leipzig  Bachgesellschaft 
from  1850,  and  edited  vols,  v.,  vii.,  ix.-xxiiL 
and  xxv.  His  original  works  have  reached  op. 
S3,  of  which  eight  are  for  the  PF.  and  the  rest 
for  voices.  [He  died  at  Leipzig,  May  2,  1892. 
A  biography  appeared  in  the  dfimkal,  Wocheii- 
blaU  for  1890.]  g. 

RUTHERFORD,  David,  a  Scotch  music 
publisher  in  London,  who  worked  in  St  Martin's 
Court,  near  Leicester  Fields,  *  at  the  sign  of  the 
Violin  and  German  Flute,'  about  1746.  His 
publications  consist  principally  of  minor  works 
for  the  violin,  or  flute,  such  as  country  dances, 
minuets,  and  books  of  airs.  He  republished  in 
octavo  William M 'Gibbon's  'Scotch  Airs,'  and 
issued  song-sheets,  etc.  He  was  publisher,  and 
probably  author,  of  several  quaint  instruction 
books,  as  The  Fiddle  new  modeVd,  or  a  usefid 
irUrodvuAion  for  the  violin,  exemplified  vnth 
familiar  diaXog-aea,  circa  1750,  8vo,  and  The  art 
of  Trying  on  the  molinj  showing  how  to  stop 
every  iwte  exactly. 

He  was  succeeded  at  the  same  address  by 
John  Rutherford,  who  issued  a  similar  class  of 
works,  and  who  remained  in  business  until 
1783,  or  later.  f.  k. 

RUY  BLAS.  A  pUy  by  Victor  Hugo,  to 
which  Mendelssohn  composed  an  Overture  and 
a  Choi*us  for  soprano  voices  and  orchestra.  The 
Overture  (op.  95)  is  in  C  minor,  and  the 
Chorus  (op.  77,  No.  8)  in  A.  Both  pieces 
were  conceived,  written,  copied,  rehearsed,  and 
executed  in  less  than  a  week  (see  Letter,  March 
18,  1839).  The  first  performance  was  Monday, 
March  11,  1839.  Mendelssohn  brought  it  to 
London  in  MS.  in  1844,  and  it  was  tried  at  a 
Philharmonic  Rehearsal,  but  for  some  reason 
was  not  performed  till  a  concert  of  Mrs.  Ander- 
son's, May  25,  1849  ;  it  is  now  in  the  library 
at  Buckingham  Palace.  The  MS.  differs  in  a 
few  passages  from  the  published  score,  which 
was  not  printed  till  after  Mendelssohn's  death 
(No.  5  of  the  posth.  works).  o. 

RYAN,  MicuAEL  Desmond,  dramatic  and 
musical  critic,  was  bom  at  Kilkenny,  March  3, 
1816,  son  of  Dr.  Michael  Ryan.     On  the  com- 


pletion of  his  academical  education  at  an  early 
age  he  entered  the  University  of  Edinboigh, 
early  in  the  year  1882,  for  the  purpose  of 
studying  medicine.  •  He  remained  in  Edinburgh 
steadily  pursuing  his  studies  for  some  three 
years,  after  which,  being  fairly  well  i-ead,  a 
dabbler  in  literature,  an  enthusiastic  admirer 
of  art,  a  good  amateur  musician,  and  a  keen 
follower  of  the  stage,  Ryan  determined  to  quit 
Edinburgh  and  try  his  fortune  in  London. 
Here  he  arrived  in  1836,  by  chance  met  with 
J.  W.  Davison,  and  commenced  an  intimate 
and  lifelong  friendship.  Ryan  now  entered 
upon  his  literary  career  in  earnest,  writing 
articles  and  poems  for  Harrison's  Miscellany, 
etc.,  and  producing  verses  for  songs.  A  set  of 
twelve  sacred  songs,  versified  from  the  Old 
Testament  and  set  to  music  by  Edward  Loder 
(D'Almaine),  may  also  be  mentioned.  The 
*  Songs  of  Ireland  *  (D'Almaine),  in  which,  in 
coigunction  with  F.  N.  Crouch,  new  verses 
were  fitted  to  old  melodies,  ia  another  example 
of  effective  workmanship.  In  1844  Ryan  be- 
came a  contributor  to  The  Afusieal  World,  and 
two  years  later  sub-editor,  a  post  which  lie 
filled  as  long  as  he  lived.  For  years  he  was  a 
contributor  to  the  Morning  Post,  Court  Journal, 
Morning  Chronicle,  and  other  periodicals,  writ- 
ing criticisms  on  the  drama  and  music,  which 
had  the  merit  of  being  trenchant,  sound,  and 
erudite.  In  1849  he  wrote  the  opera  libretto 
of  <Charies  IL'  for  G.  A.  Mac&rren.  The 
subject  was  taken  from  a  well-known  comedy 
by  Howard  Payne,  rendered  popular  at  Covent 
Garden  by  Charles  Kemble's  acting  some  quarter 
of  a  century  before.  A  short  time  afterwards 
Ryan  was  commissioned  by  M.  Jullien  to  provide 
the  libretto  of  a  grand  spectacular  opera,  on  the 
subject  of  Peter  the  Great — brought  out  at  the 
Royal  Italian  Opera  on  August  17, 1852,  under 
the  title  of  *  Pietro  il  Grande.'  With  the  late 
Frank  Mori,  Ryan  colkborated  in  an  opera 
called  ^Lambert  Simnel,'  originally  intended 
for  Sims  Reeves,  but  never  performed.  In 
1857  he  formed  his  first  association  with  the 
Morning  Herald,  and  its  satellite  the  StaneUird, 
and  became  permanently  connected  with  those 
journals  in  1862  as  musical  and  dramatic 
critic.  Few  temperaments,  however,  can  sus- 
tain the  excitement  and  toil  demanded  in  these 
days  of  newspaper  activity,  and  after  a  painful 
and  prolonged  illness  Ryan  quitted  this  life  on 
Dec.  8,  1868,  followed  to  the  grave  by  the 
regretfdl  memories  of  those  who  had  known 
and  esteemed  his  character.  p.  L.  R. 


s 


Q  ABBATINI,  Galeazzo,  of  Peaaro,  was  prob- 
^  ably  maestro  di  cappella  there  for  some 
jears  before  1626  ;  this  is  indicated  at  any  rate 
in  the  prebce  to  the  *  Sacrae  Laudes,'  Venice, 
1626  (Parisini,  Catalogo,  ii.  492V  On  the 
title-pages  of  his  works  he  is  callea  maestro  di 
cappella  di  camera  to  the  Duke  of  Mirandola 
in  1630  and  again  in  1636.  Tlie  dates  of  his 
publications  range  from  1625  to  1640.  In 
G.  B.  Doui*s  Annotazioni,  published  in  1640, 
the  '  Discorso  primo  dell*  inutile  osservanza  de 
tuoni '  (p.  234),  is  dedicated  to  '  Signer  Galeazzo 
Sabbatiui  a  Beigamo.'  Sabbatini  is  highly 
commended  by  Kircher,  Musurgia  universalis^ 
Rome,  1650,  torn.  i.  p.  460,  for  his  scientific 
luiowlodge  of  music,  a  '  rams  musicns,  qui  tria 
genera  novoausu  ad  arithmetioas  leges  revocans, 
mnlto  plnra  san^  invenit,  quorum  diversis  in 
locis  huius  opens  mentio  fiet,  et  inter  coetera 
abacom  novum  ordinavit  exactissim%  quicquid 
k  desiderari  potest  referentem,  omnibus 


harmoniis  exibendis  perfectiaeimum,'  etc  Sab- 
batini published  one  theoretical  work,  on  the 
thorough-bass  or  basso  continue,  which  Bumey 
{Hi9L  of  Afvsie,  iii.  p.  538)  criticises  as  inade- 
quate because  it  only  treats  of  common  chords 
given  to  every  note  of  the  scale.  The  title 
is :  Regola  facile  e  breve  per  sonare  sapra  il 
basso  eontinuOf  nell*  organo,  matiaeordo,  d  altro 
simile  sirmnento,  Gompoeta  da  Galeazzo  Sab- 
batini. Dalla  quale  in  questa  prima  parte 
dascuno  da  se  stesso  potrk  imparare  da  i  primi 
principii  qnello  che  sark  neceasario  per  simi- 
r  effetto.  Yenetia  per  il  Salvatori,  1628,  4to. 
The  second  edition,  dated  1644,  is  in  the  British 
Museum,  and  a  third  edition  was  published  in 
Rome  in  1669.  No  *seconda  ])arte'  of  the 
work  Is  known.  Sabbatini's  published  oom- 
portions  were  as  follows  :  — 

1.  n  frtmo  injTO  de'  mailrlsill  dl  GAleKoo  dc  Sabbatini  da  FManx 
CcaoarUti  a  doa.  tre.  e  quattro  tocI.  Opera  prima.  Nooamente 
«wipoata.  e  data  In  luce.  Venetia,  Alew.  Viiioentt.  IdSS.  4to.  A 
aeoowl  edltSfon  waa  lanted  In  109.  and  atUid  In  1839. 

S.  naeeaadoUbroderniadTifalldlO.S..conoert»tiaS,S,et4Tool. 
Con  la  riapoeta  a  qoattro  Tod  e  due  vloIlBi  ad  aleuiii  venf  che 
incauAaebuto  qvaado  la  Donna  al  dlmoatn  altiera,  poati  nel  terzu 
*W  madrifill  a  6  del  Sig.  StcAuio  BomanU,  etc.  Opera  aooooda. 
Jfowuiimte  oomnosta  et  data  in  Inoe.  Venetia,  Alan.  VinoenU, 
iaBL4toL    8eeoDdeditlooiul«36. 

S.  aftcn*  Laodca  madeii  oonoentlbui  a  G.  8.  oontextae,  8, 3,  4, 
«C  5  vocibaa  eoncbkendaa.  Una  onuu  faaesna  oonttnmia  pro  organo. 
etc  Opo*  terUvm.  liber  primua.  Venettia,  A.  Vlncentlnni,  laSM, 
4U>.    Beeaod  ediUon.  1637 ;  another  edition,  Antwerp,  1642. 

4.  Madrifali  conoertati  a  clnqne  tocI  oon  aloone  oanaoni  oonoer- 
tat»  aae'  tmm  dloemniente  oon  ■infonie,  e  ri tome!  11,  e  nel  flne  una 
<i— ainiatta  eon  tqcI.  e  Inaironientl,  die  al  coneerta  in  tempo  luiper- 
fetto,  i  in  proportione  minor  perfeita,  cioi  d  Is  numero  binaiio,  d 
»  temarlou  Di  O.  8.  Opera  quarta.  de'  madriaall  libro 
e  d«U  in  loce.  Venetia,  Alem.  Vinoentl, 

Oon  alenne  eanionf 
•Infonle  c  rltomelll. 


ceomportied 
1  cditlott  in  14 


f fjaadefau  Opera  qnlnta,  de'  i 
'jaapoeli  t  dafil  in  !&«.  Veue 
dition.  107. 


A.  XadrlsaU  ooooertatt  a  S.  3.  4,  e  6  rod. 
Maeatate,  e  trameaate  dinermmente  oon 
DI  O.  S.  maartro  di  o^palla  di  oamera  dell'  eooell.  dg.  dnca  ddla 

— .^  ^  .  . ,     ^ .^^^  ^,  ni^irtpgi  jHn^o  quarta    Nooamente 

, Veuetia,  A.  Vinoeutt.  16Sa  4to.    Second 

6.  ■adrlgall  eoneertaU  a  2,  S.  e  4  vod,  con  alcnno  oansonette 
oooceriate  eoa  imtrooientl,  di  O.  8.  maatro  di  ouwlla  di  camera 
'Idr  eeeelL  dg.  doea  della  Mirandola.  etc.  Opera  aeeta,  de'  madrigali 
libra  qalnta  Koaani«nteooimpoatiedatlinluo«,etaenaeccdlen2a 
illnsbriiMiiDadcdiceti.    Veneti,  A.  VinoanU.  1686.  4to. 

7.  flacxamm  iaodum  mnaida  conoepUbns  a  Oaleatio  Babbatfno 
oaDtcatanimS^ll4.et8rodba8adoTganumcondnendamm.  Liber 
•ceaadna.  OpiM  ■epClmum.  etc.  Venetiia.  A.  Vincentlnm,  1637, 
4io.    AMther  aditiOB  vaa  published  at  Antweir  in  1641. 


8.  Ddpaxae  Vli^iii  Landee  a  O.  S.  mTidda  oonceptibua  cum 
8,  4,  8.  at  6  vodbna  oontexfeae,  etc.  Opoa  octarnm.  VenatUa.  A. 
Vinoentlum,  163S.    4to. 

8.  Sacrelodi  concerto  a  ToceeoIa,C.A.T.B.  Con  la  parte  coutinoa 
da  Moare  di  O.  &  Opera  nona.  Venetia,  A.  Vinoentl,  1640, 4to. 
nieee  are  the '  Kotetti  a  Toee  aola  dl  O.  sTLlb.  prlmo.' 

la  Ubro  de'  madrigali  di  G.  S.  conoertati  a  ^  3.  e  4  vod.  con  la 
riapotta  a  quattro  vod,  e  due  violini  ad  alcuui  vcrd  cbe  inoo- 
mlndaao  quando  la  donna  d  dimoatra  altiera.,  Poati  nd  tenm 
de'  madrigali  a  6  dd  ds.  StdBuo  Bemardl.  Con  il  baaan  oontlnuo. 
Nooamente  riatampau.  In  Anrena  praeao  1  heredl  dl  Pietro  Pha- 
ledo  al  Be  David.  1640.  obL  4tOb  A  reprint  of  the  second  volume  of 
madrigals  published  in  1686. 

Compodtlous  in  other  poblicatloos:— 

A  motet  and  a  maaa '  dal  sig.  Oaleacao  Sabbatini,  maaatro  dell*  au- 
ton,'  in  Baniero  Seandli'a  Baenmun  modolationom.  Venice,  1637. 

'lAudate  poeri'  for  three  voieea,  in  Marcello  Xinocd'a  Salmi, 
Venice,  1636.  Mlnocd  in  the  preisoe  menUona  that  Sabbatini  warn 
his  teacher,'  hoonto  dl  quel  gndo  che  parUoolarmeDte  h  noto  a  gll 
iutendenU  deU' aria.'    jParidni.  11.  SRV.) 

*  O  nomen  Jesu '  for  three  voices,  in  Ambr.  Pjnofios's  Andar  Iheil 
gelsUieher  Conct:rtcn,  Lripdg,  1611 ;  '  Jesn  Domlne'  for  two  vdces, 
in  the  Drltter  Theil.  I6tt:  '  Laudate  poeri.' '  Omnea  saneti.'  and  a 
Missa.  all  for  four  voices,  in  the  Vierdter  und  letater  Theil.  1616. 

One  motet  in  Froflns's  Cunla  aolennlb.    Jesull  leotna-uati.  1646. 

'  Noe  autem  gloriari '  for  Uiree  voioee.  in  Benedetto  Face's  M otetti 
d'  aotori  eeodlentiadmi.  Loreto.  1646w 

'  Bb  perao  11  mio  core,'  in  Florldo  oonoeiito  di  madrigali.  Borne. 
16S3. 

Jtaa.  In  the  BerUn  KSnigL  Bibliothek :  MS.  1100. '  Amaredeeidero.' 
In  the  Upaala  Univ.-Btbliothek :  'lo  amo.'ono  of  the  Madri- 
gali conewtati  a  dnque  vod,  pubUdied  1697. 
In  the  Westuiinater  Abbey  LibrazT :  'Amor  porta '  for  voice  with 
baaao  oontlnuo.  in  a  iTUi-oentiuy  folio  manuacript      q^  g^ 

SABBATINI,  Luioi  Antonio,  was  bom  in 
1782  at  Albano  Laziale,  near  Rome.  He  was 
educated  at  Bologna  in  the  Franciscan  monastery 
of  minori  conventuali,  where  he  studied  muSiC 
under  padre  G.  B.  Martini.  There  is  a  manu- 
script in  Sabbatini's  handwriting  in  the  Bologna 
Liceo  Musicale,  which  contains  the  '  Begole  per 
accompagnare  del  pre.  G.  B.  Martini,  min.  conle. 
maestro  di  cappella  di  San  Francesco  in  Bologna, 
1761.  Per  uso  di  Fra  Luigi  Ant  Sabbatini, 
min.  conle.'  (Parisini,  CaJtalogo^  i.  282).  He 
remained  there  eight  years  according  to  a  long 
and  interesting  letter  which  he  wrote  to  Martini 
from  Albano  on  Nov.  2,  1766,  now  preserved 
in  the  library  of  the  Accademia  filarmonica, 
Bologna  (Succi,  Mostra  intemazumalef  Bologna, 
1888).  He  was  afterwards  in  the  Franciscan 
monastery  at  Padua,  where  Vallotti  gave  him 
lessons  in  composition.  Eventually  he  was 
appointed  maestro  di  cappella  at  the  church  of 
the  SS.  A]x)stoli  in  Rome,  a  letter  in  the 
Bologna  collection,  written  to  Martini  from 
Rome,  is  dated  July  17,  1776  (Masseangeli, 
Cataiogo  delta  collezione  di  axUografi^  Bologna, 
1881). 

Before  Vallotti,  maestro  di  cappella  of  S. 
Antonio,  Padua,  died  in  January  1780,  he 
expressed  a  wish  that  Sabbatini  should  be  his 
successor.  Sabbatini  was  offered  the  post,  but, 
unmlling  to  leave  Rome,  he  suggested  that 
Agoetino  Rioci  would  be  a  suitable  candidate. 
Ricci  was  therefore  appointed  on  April  26, 
1780,  and  remained  in  Padua  for  six  years, 
but  when  he  left  for  Assisi,  Sabbatini  was 
persuaded  to  reconsider  his  decision  and  was 
finally  appointed  to  the  post  on  April  22,  1786, 
which  he  held  until  his  death  on  January  29, 
1809,  in  Padua.  During  these  twenty -three 
years  of  his  life,  he  enriched  the  archives  of  S. 
Antonio  with  many  compositions,  writes  Gonzati 


197 


198 


SABBATINI 


SACCHINI 


(La  Basilica  di  S,  AiUmiio  di  Padova,  1853, 
ii.  p.  453),  among  which  may  be  especially 
mentioned  his  Salmi  di  Terza,  four  masses,  a 
vespero,  and  a  Compieta  breve,  all  composed  for 
fonr  voices. 

Sabbatiniwas  elected  one  of  the  eightmembers 
of  the  music  section  of  the  Accademia  italiana 
in  May  1807.  In  1887  a  bust  of  Sabbatini 
was  placed  in  the  Piazza  Feoli,  Albano ;  this 
tribute  to  his  memory  was  due  to  Signer 
Cesare  de  Sanctis,  also  an  Albano  musician. 

The  larger  part  of  Sabbatini's  church  music 
remains  in  manuscript  in  the  archives  of  S. 
Antonio,  but  TebalcUni,  who  gives  a  list  of 
eiglity-six  compositions  (L'Archivio  mics,  della 
cappella  Antoniana.,  1895,  i>.  81),  has  published 
some  examples  for  four  voices  with  orchestra, 
which  he  considei's  show  that  Sabbatini  in- 
stinctively tried  for  new  combinations,  new 
effects,  and  that  he  sometimes  lent  his  music 
quite  an  individual  character  by  giving  the 
canto  fermo  to  the  alto  or  soprano  part  instead 
of  the  tenor.  Sabbatini  was  generally  recognised 
as  a  sound  and  erudite  theorist ;  Gervasoni 
(Ntu)va  teoria  di  musicat  Parma,  1812,  p.  258) 
testifies  to  his  profound  knowledge  no  loss  than 
to  his  great  personal  charm. 

Some  other  manuscript  compositions  are  in 
the  Bologna  Liceo  Musicale ;  autograph  scores 
of  twelve  pieces  of  sacred  music  for  two  and 
four  voices  with  orchestral  accompaniment,  in 
one  volume,  and  three  Kyrie,  two  Gloria,  two 
Credo,  and  'Qui  habitat,'  all  for  four  voices 
with  orchestral  accompaniment,  in  another 
volume  (Parisini,  OcUalogOf  ii.  pp.  136,  306) ; 
as  well  as  twenty-one  pieces  of  sacred  music  for 
four  voices  with  figured  bass  ;  and  'Atto  di 
contrizione '  for  two  voices  with  basso  continue. 
The  nineteenth  volume  of  the  Martini  corre- 
spondence in  the  same  library  consists  entirely 
of  letters  from  Sabbatini. 

In  the  Vienna  Hofbibliothek  in  MS.  16,217 
there  is  a  mass  for  fonr  voices  with  organ 
accompaniment;  and  in  MS.  19,103  a  treatise 
on  music  'trascritto  ad  litteram  nell'  anno 
1791.  Dal  p.  L.  A.  Sabbatini,  min.  con. 
maestro  di  cappella  nella  sacra  Basilica  del 
Santo  in  Padova '  (Mantuani's  Catalogue). 

The  following  theoretical  works  were  pub- 
lished : — 


SlemgtUt  ttortei  deUa  mtuiea  coKa  preUtoa  tfe*  medetlmt,  in 
duetti  0  t«neM  a  eanotui,  eoe.  di  fra  L.  A.  S^>batini,  mirL  eon. 
gid  maeatro  di  eappHla  nMa  BaHliea  Oottantiniana  d^  88.  XII. 
ApottoU  in  Roma  ed  al  premmte  in  queNa  del  Santo  in  Padmn.  In 
RoiiM.  178&-90.  obi.  folio.  In  three  books.  A  wcond  edition  w 
publlahfld  »t  Borne  in  17W. 

La  vera  Idea  dMtmtuteaUmtmgHdie  aegnaiure  eeo.  ddlfra  L.  A. 
&  m.e.  tnaettro  di  oappMa  neOa  BaeOica  di  B.  Antonio  di  Padoea. 
Venecia,  I7W.  preieo  Seb.  V»lle,  4to,  pp.  17B.  A  mannAcript  of 
BAbbattnl's  Inacribed  Trattato  di  eontrappunto^  which  is  In  the 
Fado*  llbrarr,  would  appear  to  be  the  flnt  sketch  for  this  more 
elabonte  work. 

Trattato  aopra  tefughe  musleaU  di  fYa  L,  A.  8.  m.e.  eomdatoda 
eopioai  taggi  tlH  $tto  nnteeemre  P.  Franc  Ant.  raliotti.  Veneaia. 
1802,  presso  S^b.  Valle,  4to.  In  two  books.  An  anabrsto  of 
Vallotu's  fttgues  with  examples  taken  from  his  ohnrch  mnsic. 

aotfige$  «tt  lefofu  Sthnenlatnu  de  nuuifne,  etc.  en  eanon  aeee 
baue  e»>it<niM.  Pw  le  B.  P.  Lalgl  A.  Sabbatini.  etc.  Public  par 
M.  Alex.  Choron.  Paris,  droa  1810,  8ro.  pp.  190.  Consists  of  mnslo 
taken  from  Oementi  teorieU  1789.  Another  edition  wm  puhlUhed 
In  18S4 


Besides  these  works  Sabbatini  also  published  a  life  of  Vallottt  r 
Sotlde  toi^ra  laHtaele  opere  dH  R.  P.  Fr.  Ant.  Valtetti  (Padoa. 
1V80):  and  edited  a  collection  of  Marcel  lo's  psalms  which  waa 
published  at  Venice  in  1801.    (FM*,  Biogr.  vnir.)  ^^^   s. 

SABBATINI,  PiETHO  Paolo,  was  a  native 
of  Rome.  The  dates  of  his  published  works 
range  from  1628  to  1657,  and  from  their  title- 
pages  it  is  to  be  gathered  that  in  1628  he  was 
maestro  di  cappella  dell'  Archiconfratemitk 
della  morte  et  oratione  di  Roma ;  1 680  -  31 
maestro  di  capi>ella  di  S.  Luigi  de'  francesi, 
Rome ;  and  in  1650  pi-ofessore  di  musica. 
Catalisano  alludes  to  him  in  his  Grammalica 
armoniea,  1781,  p.  xii.  *  Per  esprimere  quanto 
mai  sia  tenuto  a  quest!  celebri  maestri  ^  cap- 
pella ...  P.  P.  Sabbatini,'  etc.  His  published 
works  were : — 

1.  II  sesto  di  Pietro  Fholo  Sabbatini  maestro  di  cappella  del 
r  archtcoiilratemit4  della  morte  et  oratione  dl  Roma.  Opera  Till. 
In  Bracclano.  per  And.  F«i.  stampatore  ducale.  1028,  folio,  pp.  23. 
Contains  songs  for  one.  two,  and  three  voices,  some  with  ^itar 
aucompaniuient. 

•2.  Intennedii  spirltuali  dl  P.P.R.. etc.  as  abore.  Ubro  L  Open 
IX.  In  Bonia  appresso  Paolo  Masotti,  1888.  folio,  pp.  17.  Contain* 
three  Intennedii. 

3.  Ftalmi  magnlllcat  cum  qnatuor  antiphonis  ad  Vespcra.  cnm 
Lettaitiis  B.V.  octonis  vodbns,  uno  cum  Bassu  ad  orfp^num  decan- 
tandt.  Anctore  P.P.a  romano  in  Ecclesia  a  AI<qrsii  Oall^ie 
nationis  mnsioes  moderatore,  Liber  I.  Opus  XII.  BoBiae,  P. 
Masottum,  1630.  4to. 

4.  II  teno  di  P.P.8.  maestro  di  oippella  di  S.  Lnifi  de'  franccsl  In 
Bourn.  In  Boma,  appresso  P.  Masutti.  1631,  fulio.  pp.  19.  Cont«iB» 
Villanalle  for  one.  two,  and  three  voices. 

5.  II  quarto  de  Villanelle  a  una,  due  e  tre  vod.  Del  Big.  P.P.S. 
etc.  as  above.  Bonia,  G.  R  BoblettI,  1631.  folio,  pp.  19.  The 
deillcation  Is  written  hy  Pietro  Simi,  a  pupil  of  Sabbatini.  fkom 
Borne,  May  1,  1631.  he  states  that  he  rescues  from  oblirion  these 
Villanelle  by  P.  P.  Sabbatini. 

6.  Ganioni  spirltuali  ad  una,  a  due.  et  a  tre  voci  da  cautarsi,  e 
sonarsi  soprs  qnalslmglia  istromento,  Libm  II.  Opera  XIII.  de 
P.P.&    In  Boma.  appreeso  Lod.  Orignani.  1610.  folio,  pp.  3S. 

7.  Varii  capricci,  e  canaonette  a  una  e  tzv  voci  da  eantani  sopca 
uiialslvoglia  istnnnento  oon  1'  altebeto  della  chitarra  spsgnuol*.  di 
P.P.S.  Bomano,  Libro  VII.  Opera  XIV.  Bonia.  Vine  BianchI, 
1641.  folio,  pp.  32. 

8  Prima  soelta  dl  villanelle  a  doe  rod  composte  da  P.P.9.  da 
sonarsi  in  quaUivoglia  instroinento  con  le  lettere  accomodate  alia 
chitarra  spsgnola  in  quelle  plA  k  proposito.  In  Boma.  Vital* 
MMcardi,  1602.  folio,  pp.  19. 

9.  Arietta  spirituaira  una.  doi  e  tre  ^-ocl  di  P.P.K  in  dlverri  atili 
da  cantarri  in  qualslvoglia  instromento,  Libm  V.  Openi  XXI. 
Boma,  Jaoomo  Fei  del  q.  Andrea,  16S7,  folio,  pp.  M. 

The  following  treatise  was  also  published  :— 

Toni  eodesiastici  coUe  sne  intonazioni.  all'  uso  romano.  M odo  per 
•onare  11  basso  oontinuo,  chlavi  oorrispondentl  aU*  altre  chtavl 
fenendi,  et  ordinarie,  etc.,  da  P.P.8.  Professore  della  mnsica.  Libro 
L,  Opera  XVIIL    Boma.  Lod.  Orignani.  1680.  4tow  q^  f^^ 

SACXUHINI,  Antonio  Maria  Gaspare,  bom 
at  Pozzuoli,  near  Naples,  on  July  28,  1784. 
This  'graceful,  elegant,  and  judicious  composer,' 
as  Bumey  calls  him,  who  eiyoyed  great  con- 
temporary fame,  and  was  very  popular  in  this 
countiy,  was  the  son  of  poor  fisher-people  who 
had  no  idea  of  bringing  him  up  to  any  life  but 
their  own.  It  chanced,  however,  that  Durante 
heard  the  boy  sing  some  popular  airs,  and  was 
so  much  struck  with  his  voice  and  talent  that 
he  got  him  admitted  into  the  Conservatorio  of 
San  Onofrio,  at  Naples.  Here  he  learned  the 
violin  from  Niccolo  Forenza,  and  acquired  a 
considerable  mastery  over  the  instrument,  which 
he  subsequently  turned  to  good  account  in  his 
orchestrtd  writing.  He  studied  singing  with 
Gennaro  Manna ;  harmony  and  counterpoint 
with  Durante  himself,  who  esteemed  him  highly, 
holding  him  up  to  his  other  pupils,  among  whom 
were  Jommelli,  Piccinni,  and  Guglielmi,  as  their 
most  formidable  rival*  Durante  died  in  1755, 
and  in  the  following  year  Sacchini  left  the 
Conservatorio,  but  not  until  he  had  produced 


SACCHINI 


SACCHINI 


199 


dn  inteimezzo,  in  two  imrts,  *¥ra.  Donato/ 
very  successfnlly  performed  by  the  pupils  of 
the  institQtion.  For  some  years  he  supported 
liimaelf  by  teaching  singing,  and  writing  little 
pieces  for  minor  theatres,  till,  in  1762,  he  wrote 
a  serious  opera,  *  Semiramide,'  for  the  Argentina 
theatre  at  Rome.  This  was  so  well  received 
that  he  remained  for  seven  years  attached  to 
the  theatre  as  composer,  writing  operas  not 
only  for  Bome  but  many  other  towns.  Among 
these,  '  Alessandro  nelle  Indie,'  played  at  Venice 
in  1768,  was  especially  successful,  and  obtained 
for  its  composer,  in  1769,  the  directorship  of 
the  '  Ospedaletto '  school  of  music  there.  He 
seems  to  have  held  this  office  for  little  more 
than  a  year,  but  during  that  time  formed  some 
excellent  pupils,  among  whom  may  be  mentioned 
(tabrieli,  Canti,  and  Pasqnali. 

Before  1770  he  left  Venice,  and  proceeded  by 
w^y  of  Munich,  Stuttgart,  and  other  German 
towns^  to  England,  arriving  in  London  in  April 
1772.  [For  Munich  he  wrote  'Scipione  in 
Cartagena'  and  'L'Eroe  cinese'  in  1770,  and 
for  Stuttgart  *  Calliroe. ']  His  continental  fame 
had  preceded  him  to  this  country,  and  a  beauti- 
ful air  of  his,  *Care  luci,'  introduced  by  Guar- 
dncci  into  the  pasticcio  of  *  Tigrane '  as  early  as 
1767,  had,  by  its  popularity,  paved  the  way 
for  his  music.  True,  a  strong  clique  existed 
against  the  new  composer,  but  he  soon  got  the 
lietter  of  it. 

In  addition  to  the  'Cid'  and  'Tamerlano,' 
mentioned  by  Bumey,  he  produced  here  *  Luoio 
Vcro'  and  *Nitettie  Perseo'  (1778-74).  His 
perfect  comprehension  of  the  art  of  writing  for 
the  voice,  and  the  skill  with  which  he  adapted 
his  songs  to  their  respective  ex]i)ODents,  con- 
tributed an  important  element  to  the  success 
of  his  music,  even  indifferent  singers  being  made 
to  appear  to  advantage.  His  popularity,  how- 
ever, was  undermined,  after  a  time,  from  a  variety 
of  causes.  Jealousy  led  to  cabals  against  him. 
He  wotdd  probably  have  lived  down  calumny, 
prompted  by  personal  spite,  but  his  idle  and 
disBoInte  habits  estranged  his  friends,  impaired 
his  health,  and  got  him  deeply  into  debt,  the 
a>nseqaenoe  of  which  was  that  he  left  this 
country  and  settled  in  Paris — Bumey  says  in 
1784  ;  F^tis  in  1782.  It  seems  probable  that 
this  last  <iate  is  correct,  as  several  of  his  opeitis 
were  produced  in  the  French  capital  during 
1783-84.  He  had  been  there  on  a  visit  in 
1781,  when  his  '  Isola  d'  Amore,'  translated  by 
Framiry  and  adapted  to  the  French  stage,  was 
played  there  successfully,  having  been  played 
under  the  name  of  *  La  Colonic '  in  1775.  His 
'Olimpiade'  had  been  given  in  1777.  Bumey 
says  that  in  Paris  3acchini  was  almost  adored. 
He  started  with  an  apparent  advantage  in  the 
patronage  of  Joseph  II.  of  Austria,  who  was  in 
Paris  at  the  time,  and  recommended  the  com- 
poser to  the  protection  of  his  sister,  Marie 
Antoinette.      Thanks  to  this,  he   obtained  a 


hearing  for  his  *  Rinaldo '  (rearranged  and  partly 
rewritten  for  the  French  stage  as  *Kenaud'), 
and  for  *11  gran  Cid,'  which,  under  the  name 
of  *  Chim^ne,'  was  performed  before  the  Court 
at  Fontainebleau.  Both  of  these  works  con- 
tained great  beauties,  but  neither  had  more 
than  a  limited  success.  *  Dardanus,'  a  French 
opera,  was  not  more  fortunate  in  1 784.  '  Qiidipe 
h  Colone'  was  finished  early  in  1785,  and  (per- 
formed at  Versailles,  April  4,  1786.  Tliis,  his 
masterpiece,  brought  him  his  bitterest  dis- 
appointment The  Queen  had  promised  that 
'  (Kdipe '  should  be  the  first  opera  at  the  royal 
theatre  during  the  Court's  next  residence  at 
Fontainebleau.  The  time  was  approaching,  but 
nothing  was  said  about  it,  and  Sacchini  remarked 
with  anxiety  that  the  Queen  avoided  him  and 
seemed  uneasy  in  his  presence.  Suspense  became 
intolerable,  and  he  sought  an  audience,  when 
the  Queen  unwillingly  and  hesitatingly  confessed 
the  truth.  'My  dear  Sacchini,  I  am  accused 
of  showing  too  much  favour  to  foreigners.  I 
have  been  so  much  pressed  to  command  a  per- 
formance of  M.  Lemoine's  **PhMre"  instead  of 
your  "(Bdipe"  that  I  cannot  refuse.  You  see 
the  situation  ;  forgive  me.'  Poor  Sacchini  con- 
trolled himself  at  the  moment,  but  on  arriving 
at  home  gave  way  to  despair.  The  Queen's 
favour  lost,  he  believed  his  only  chance  gone. 
He  took  to  his  bed  then  and  there,  and  died 
three  months  afterwards,  on  Oct.  7,  1786. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  form  a  just  estimate  of 
this  composer,  whose  merits  were  great,  yet 
whose  importance  to  the  history  of  Art  seems 
now  so  small.  The  dramatic  music  of  the  end 
of  the  18th  century  is  summed  up  to  us  in  the 
operas  of  Gluck  and  Mozart,  exclusive  of  many 
others,  akin  to  these  in  style  and  tendency, 
deficient  only  in  the  vital  element  which  makes 
one  work  live  while  others  die  out.  At  the 
time  of  their  production  the  line  may  have 
seemed  more  difficult  to  draw.  One  drop  of 
essence  may  be  distilled  from  a  large  quantity 
of  material,  yet  without  the  proportion  of 
material  that  drop  would  not  be  obtained. 
Among  the  second-rate  writers  of  this  transition 
period,  Sacchini  must  rank  first.  A  little 
more  force,  perhaps  a  little  less  facility,  and  he 
might  have  been  a  great,  instead  of  a  clever  or 
a  *  graceful,  elegant,  and  judicious'  composer. 
He,  better  than  most  Italians,  seems  to  have 
understood  the  dawning  idea  of  the  *  poetical 
basis  of  music '  ;  unfortunately  the  musical 
ideas,  of  which  the  superstracture  must,  after 
all,  consist,  while  good  and  appropriate  as  far 
as  they  went,  were  limited.  His  dramatic  sense 
was  keen  and  just,  but  was  not  backed  by 
sufficient  creative  power  to  make  a  lasting  mark. 
Fear,  remorse,  love,  hatred,  revenge, — these 
things  repeat  themselves  in  the  world's  drama 
from  Time's  beginning  to  its  end,  but  their 
expressions  are  infinite  in  variety.  They  repeat 
themselves,  too,  in  Sacchini's  operas,  but  always 


200 


SACCHINI 


SACKBUT 


iu  very  much  the  same  way.  In  his  later  works, 
the  influence  of  Gluck's  spirit  is  unmistakable. 
There  is  a  wide  gulf  between  such  early  Italian 
operas  as  *  L'  Isola  d'  Amore/  consisting  of  the 
usual  detached  series  of  songs,  duets,  and 
concerted  pieces,  and  the  *(£dipe  k  Colone,' 
where  each  number  leads  into  the  next,  and 
where  vigorous  accompanied  recitative  and  well- 
contrasted  dialogued  choruses  carry  on  and 
illustrate  the  action  of  the  drama,  while  keeping 
alive  the  interest  of  the  hearer.  Bumey  remarks 
that  Saoohini,  *  observing  how  fond  the  English 
were  of  Handel's  oratorio  choruses,  introduced 
solenin  and  elaborate  choruses  into  some  of  his 
operas  ;  but,  though  excellent  in  their  kind,  they 
never  had  a  good  effect ;  the  mixture  of  English 
singers  with  the  Italian,  as  well  as  the  awkward 
figure  they  cut  as  actors,  joined  to  the  difficulty 
of  getting  their  parts  by  heart,  rendered  those 
compositions  ridiculous  which  in  still  life  would 
have  been  admirable.'  In  Paris  they  managed 
these  things  better,  for  in  all  the  operas  of  Sac- 
chini*s  which  were  composed  or  arranged  for  the 
French  stage,  chontses  are  used  largely  and  with 
admirable  effect,  while  in  '  (Edipe '  they  are  the 
principal  feature.  A  somewhat  similar  transition 
to  this  is  apparent  iu  comparing  Piooinni*s  earlier 
and  later  works  ;  but  his  French  operas  are  only 
Italian  ones  modified  and  enlarged.  Saochini 
had  far  more  dramatic  spirit,  and  took  more 
kindly  to  the  change.  He  bears  the  kind  of 
relation  to  Gluck  that  Piccinni  does  to  Mozart, 
but  he  approached  his  model  more  nearly,  for 
he  handled  Gluck's  theory  almost  as  well  as 
Gluck  himself ;  had  he  possessed  the  one  thing 
lacking — force  of  originality — there  might  have 
been  more  in  his  works  for  criticism  to  censure, 
but  they  might  not  now  have  been  forgotten. 
As  it  was,  they  made  a  hard  struggle  for  life. 
The  '  (Edipe '  was  continuously  on  the  boards  of 
the  Academic  for  fifty-seven  years  (from  1787  to 
1844),  which  can  be  said  of  no  other  opera. 
During  this  time  it  had  583  representations. 
It  was  revived  in  July  1843,  and  was  performed 
six  times  in  that  year  and  once  in  May  1844. 

Sacchini  understood  orohestral  as  well  as  choral 
effect  His  scores  are  small,  oboes,  horns,  and 
sometimes  trumpets  and  bassoons,  being  the  only 
additions  to  the  string  quartet,  but  the  treat- 
ment is  as  effective  as  it  is  simple.  His  i)art- 
writing  is  pure  and  good,  while  the  care  and 
finish  evident  in  his  scores  are  hard  to  reconcile 
with  the  accounts  of  his  idle  and  irregular  ways. 
Tlie  same  technical  qualities  are  shown  in  his 
compositions  for  the  church,  which  in  other  ways 
are  less  distinguished  than  his  operas  from  con- 
temiwrary  works  of  a  similar  kind. 

Much  of  Saochini's  music  is  lost.  Four 
oratorios,  a  mass,  and  various  motets,  etc.,  are 
mentionod  in  the  Q%UllenrLexik(m,  Fdtis  gives 
a  list  of  twenty-one  sacred  compositions,  and 
the  names  of  forty-one  operas,  the  chief  of  which 
have  been  mentioned  here,  but  Bumey  puts  the 


number  of  these  much  higher  [twenty-seven 
ai*e  given  as  still  extant  in  the  Qu^len-Lexikon]. 
The  last  of  them,  *  Arvire  et  Evelina,'  was  left 
unfinished.  It  was  completed  by  J.  B.  Bey, 
and  performed  with  success  after  tiie  oompoeer's 
death  (April  29,  1788).  He  also  left  two 
symphonies  in  D,  six  trios  for  two  Woliiu  and 
bass  ;  six  quartets  for  two  violins,  tenor  and  bass ; 
and  two  sets,  each  of  six  harpsichord  sonatas,  with 
violin,  as  well  as  twelve  sonatas  (opp.  3  and  4) 
for  clavier  solo.  These  were  all  published  in 
London.  One  of  the  sonatas,  in  F,  is  included 
in  Pauer's  *  Alte  Meister.*  [See  the  list,  vol.  iii. 
p.  103.]  Aooupleof  oavatinasaregivenby Gevaert 
in  his  ^Gloires  d'ltalie,'  and  an  antiphon  for 
two  voices  by  Ghoron  in  his  *  Journal  de 
Chant'  F.  A.  M. 

SACKBUT,  an  early  name  for  the  trombone, 
probably  derived  from  the  Spanish  saealnich^ 
('  draw-tube ')  i.e.  gacar  *  to  draw,'  and  bueha  *  a 
])ipe,'  originally  of  boxwood  (cf.  Portuguese  aara- 
buxa)f  the  name  being  also  given  to  a  form  of 
pump.  Other  derivations,  however,  are  from 
O.F.  mquier-hoter  (*to  pull  and  to  push')  or  8p. 
sacar  del  buehe  (*to  exhaust  the  chest').  The 
form  first  appears  in  Spanish  literature  of  the 
14th  century,  the  trombone  haviug  been  evolved 
from  the  trum}>et  about  the  year  1300.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  next  century  the  French 
form  aaquehouU  is  found,  and  at  the  close  of 
the  same  century,  when  the  instrument  was 
introduced  into  England,  it  was  known  as  tlie 
ahdkhttsshe  and  subsequently  as  the  aaykebud, 
mckbiUf  or  sagbitt.  One  of  the  earliest  uses  of 
the  word  in  English  literature  occurs  in  Hawes's 
PcLsaetynic  of  Pleasure  (1506).  English  players 
were  held  iu  high  esteem  botli  in  this  comitry 
and  on  the  continent,  the  popularity  of  the 
sackbut  continuing  till  the  18th  century,  when 
it  gave  place  to  the  horn  and  serpent  Bumey 
{Musical  Performances  in  WesiminsUr  Abbetf^ 
1784)  relates  the  difficulty  experienced  in  obtain- 
ing players  on  the  sackbut  or  double  trumpet, 
the  only  performers  to  be  found  in  England 
being  the  six  German  musicians  of  the  Royal 
Band.  About  the  year  1800  the  use  of  tlie 
instrument  was  revived  in  connection  with  tlie 
Opera,  but  the  old  English  name  was  supplanted 
by  the  Italian  trombone.  Notwithstanding 
Shakespeare's  allusion  (Coriolanits,  Act  V. 
Sc  iv.),  there  is  at  present  no  authority  for 
believing  that  the  sackbut  was  known  to  the 
Romans,  the  siiecimeu  said  to  have  been  dis- 
covered in  the  18th  century  at  Pom]>eii  or 
Herculaneum  having  proved  a  myth.  The  so- 
called  repi-esentation  of  a  9th-century  sackbut 
in  the  Boulogne  Psalter  (MS.  No.  20)  is  also 
an  error,  the  instrument  depicted  being  a  fanci- 
ful delineation  of  the  sambuke,  an  ancient 
four-stringed  lyre.  The  phrase  *  tuba  ductilis ' 
applied  in  later  times  to  ikie  sackbut,  originally 
meant  a  trampet  of  metal  beaten  or  drawn 
out  by  the  hammer,  i,e.  not  cast     For  details 


SACRED  HARMONIC  SOCIETY 


SACRED  HARMONIC  SOCIETV  201 


of  the  instramejit  soe  art  Tbohbone  ;  also 
Mabillon,  Le  Trombone^  BnisaeU,  1906,  and 
Oalpiii,  The  Sackbut^  Us  Svolution  and  HiMjory^ 
Jfns,  Asaoe.  Proceeding,  1907.  r.  w.  o. 

SACRED  HARMONIC  SOCIETY.  This 
Society  was  origiiiAted  bj  Thomas  Brewer, 
Joaeph  Hart,  W.  Jeffreys,  Joseph  Snrman,  aod 
—  Gockerell,  who  first  met,  with  a  view  to  its 
estabUahment,  on  August  21,  1832.  Its 
pnetioal  operations  did  not,  however,  commence 
until  Nov.  20  following.  Its  first  meetings 
were  held  in  the  chapel  in  Gate  Street, 
Unooln's  Inn  Fields,  where  the  first  concert 
was  given  on  Tuesday  evening,  Jan.  15,  1833. 
The  programme  comprised  selections  from 
Handel's  *  Messiah'  and  *  Funeral  Anthem,' 
and  from  Perry's '  Fall  of  Jerusalem '  and  '  Death 
of  Abel,'  with  Attwood's  Coronation  Anthem, 
*  O  Lord,  grant  the  king  a  long  life,'  and  the 
hymn  'Adeste  fideles.'  The  names  of  the 
principal  singers  were  not  published ;  Thomas 
Harper  was  engaged  as  solo  trumiieter.  The 
then  officers  of  the  Society  were  John  Newman 
Hanison,  president ;  Thomas  Brewer,  secretary ; 
J.  G.  Moginie,  treasurer ;  Joseph  Surman,  con- 
doctw ;  Geoige  PeiTy,  leader  of  the  band  ;  and 
F.  C  Walker,  organist  In  Nov.  1838,  the 
pemuasion  to  meet  in  the  chapel  being  suddenly 
withdrawn,  the  Society  removed  to  a  chapel  in 
Henrietta  Street,  Brunswick  Square,  and  shortly 
afterwards  to  a  room  belonging  to  the  Scottish 
Hospital  in  Flenr  de  Lys  Court,  Fleet  Street ; 
but  at  Midsummer,  1834,  it  migrated  to  Exeter 
Hall,  which  was  its  home  until  Michaelmas, 
1880.  The  concerts  were  for  the  first  two 
yean  given  in  the  Minor  Hall,  and  consisted 
principally  of  selections,  in  which  a  few  short 
complete  works  were  occasionally  introduced, 
sQch  as  Handel's  '  Dettingen  Te  Deum,'  Haydn's 
'Mass,'  No.  1,  Bishop's  *  Seventh  Day,'  and 
Romberg's  'The  Transient  and  the  Eternal.' 
The  Society  having  on  June  28,  1836,  given  a 
concert  in  the  Laige  Hall  in  aid  of  a  charity 
with  very  great  success,  was  shortly  afterwards 
induced  to  give  its  own  concerts  there.  At 
the  same  time  an  important  change  in  its  i>olicy 
was  effected,  viz.  the  abandonment  of  miscel- 
laneous selections  for  complete  oratorios,  a 
change  which  was  received  by  the  jiublic  with 
great  favour.  Up  to  that  period,  even  at  the 
provincial  festivals,  it  was  very  rarely  that  any 
complete  oratorio,  except  Handel's  'Messiah,' 
was  performed,  whilst  the  programmes  of  the 
so-called  *  Oratorios '  at  the  two  patent  theatres 
on  the  Wednesdays  and  Fridays  in  Lent  were  a 
mongrel  mixture  of  oratorio  songs  and  choruses, 
secuUr  songs  of  all  kinds,  and  instrumental 
solos*  The  first  concert  given  in  the  Large 
Ilall  on  the  Society's  own  account  was  Handel's 
<  Messiah/  on  Dec.  20,  1836,  the  orehestra 
consisting  of  about  300  performers.  In  1837 
the  works  performed  ioeluded  ilendelssohn's 
*St.   Panr  (Mareh  7),   for  the  firet  time  in 


London  and  second  in  England,  Handel's 
'Messiah,'  'Israel  in  Egypt,'  and  'Dettingen 
Te  Deum,'  Haydn's  'Creation,'  and  the  Mass 
known  as  Mozart's  12th.  On  Sept.  12  another 
l^erformance  of  'St.  Paul'  was  given,  in  the 
composer's  presence  [see  Mendfxssohx,  vol.  iii. 
p.  134a].  During  the  year  the  number  of 
performers  was  increased  to  500.  In  the  same 
year  the  formation  of  a  musical  library  was  com- 
menced, and  Robert  Kanzow  Bowley  ap)x)inted 
honoi-ary  librarian.  In  1838  Handel's  'Judas 
Maccabffius,'  'Samson,'  and  'Solomon'  were 
revived,  and  Beethoven's  *  Mass  in  C,'  Spohr's 
'  Last  Judgment, '  and  Perry's '  Fall  of  Jeinisalem ' 
introduced.  1839  witnessed  the  revival  and 
repetition  of  Handel's  'Joshua.'  A  new  oigan 
was  built  for  the  Society  by  Walker,  and  opened 
Jan.  23,  1840,  with  a  performance  by  Thomas 
Adams.  Handel's  'Saul'  was  revived,  and 
Elvey's  '  ResuiTOction  and  Ascension,'  and 
Perry's  *  Thanksgiving  Anthem  on  the  birth  of 
the  Princess  Royal '  introduced.  1841  was  dis- 
tinguished by  a  revival  of  llanders  '  Jephtha,' 
and  by  two  })erformances  of  a  selection  of 
anthems.  Tlie  latter  was  received  with  great 
interest,  public  attention  having  been  then 
lately  drawn  to  our  cathedral  music.  Tlie 
programme  was  chronologically  arranged,  and 
exhibited  the  various  changes  in  the  style  of 
English  chureh  music  from  Tallis  to  Samuel 
Wesley,  a  ])eriod  of  two  centuries  and  a  half. 
It  is  true  that  a  i)erformance  of  a  so-called 
'  Selection  of  Anthems '  had  been  given  in  the 
preceding  year,  but  the  jirogramme  being  in- 
judiciously arranged — a  few  anthems  being 
interspersed  with  songs  and  other  pieces  in  no 
wise  connected  with  chureh -music, — had  i>ro- 
duced  but  little  effect:  the  distinguishing 
feature  of  it  was  two  admimble  perfonnances 
upon  the  organ  by  Mendelssohn.  Perry's 
'Death  of  Abel'  was  brought  for^'ard  on 
Mareh  19,  1841.  In  1842  Handel's  'Jubilate 
Deo,'  and  Beethoven's  'Mount  of  Olives'  (the 
'Engedi'  version),  were  introduced.  In  1843 
Spohr's  '  Fall  of  Babylon  '  was  i)roduccd,  con- 
ducted by  the  comix>ser,  who  was  then  on  a 
visit  to  England  *,  Dr.  Crotch's  anthem,  '  The 
Lord  is  Kin,','  was  performed  for  the  first  time; 
Mendelssohn's  'Hymn  of  Praise '  was  introduced, 
and  also  Handel's  '  Deborah.'  Tlie  new  intro- 
ductions in  1844  were  a  Coronation  Anthem 
and  an  otgan  concerto  by  Handel,  Mendelssohn's 
42nd  Psalm,  and  Haydn's  Mass,  No.  16  ;  but 
the  season  was  chiefly  distinguiBhed  by  two 
performances  of  Mendelssohn's  'St  Paul,'  con- 
ducted by  the  composer.  Handel's  '  Athaliali,' 
Puroell's  'Jubilate  in  D,'  and  cantata  'Saul 
and  the  Witch  of  Endor,'  Neukomm's  '  David,' 
and  a  new  selection  of  anthems,  were  brought 
forward  for  the  first  time  in  1845.  In  1846 
the  new  introductions  comprised  Perry's  '  Bel- 
shazzar's  Feast,'  Mendelssohn's  114th  Psalm, 
Haydn's  Mass,  No.  2,  and  some  minor  pieces. 


202  SACRED  HARMONIC  SOCIETY 


SACRED  HARMONIC  SOCIETY 


1847  was  an  important  epoch  in  the  Society's 
annals ;  Handel's  '  Belsliazzar '  was  revived, 
and  a  new  selection  of  Anthems  given,  but  the 
greatest  event  was  the  production  for  the  first 
time  in  its  improved  form  of  Mendelssohn's 

*  Elijah/  under  his  own  personal  direction. 
Four  performances  of  it  were  given,  and  it  at 
once  took  that  firm  position  which  it  has  ever 
since  maintained.  Subsequently  Spohr  visited 
this  country  at  the  invitation  of  the  Society 
and  conducted  two  performances  of  his  *Fall 
of  Babylon '  and  one  of  his  *  Christian's  Prayer ' 
and  '  Last  Judgment '  (the  last  for  the  only 
time  in  England  under  his  direction),  and 
produced  his  •84th  Psalm,  Milton's  version,' 
composed  expressly  for  the  occasion.  An 
incident  of  this  year  eventually  led  to  changes 
which  had  an  important  influence  on  the  for- 
tunes of  the  Society.  A  committee,  appointed 
to  investigate  the  conduct  of  Joseph  Surman, 
both  in  respect  of  his  dealings  with  the  Society 
and  his  execution  of  the  office  of  conductor, 
having  unanimously  reported  adversely  to  him, 
he  was  removed  from  his  office  Feb.  15,  1848. 
Pending  a  regular  appointment  the  remaining 
concerts  of  the  season  were  conducted  by  the 
leader  of  the  band,  George  Perry.  Mr.  (after- 
wards Sir  Michael)  Costa  was  elected  conductor, 
Sept  22, 1848.  Very  beneficial  results  followed 
this  appointment :  both  band  and  chorus  were 
strengthened  and  improved,  and  the  number  of 
performers  was  augmented  to  nearly  700.  The 
l)erformances  of  the  season  consisted  principally 
of  more  effective  renderings  of  the  stock  pieces, 
but  Mendelssohn's  music  for  « Athalle*  was  intro- 
duced with  great  success.  In  1 850  nothing  new 
was  given  but  Mendelssohn's  '  Lauda  Sion '  in 
an  English  dress.  1851  was  chiefly  remarkable 
for  the  number  of  concerts  given — thirty-one  ; 
'  Messiah,'  •  Elijah,'  and  tlie  '  Creation '  having 
been  performed  alternately,  one  in  each  week, 
from  May  to  September  for  the  gratification  of 
visitors  to  the  Great  Exhibition  in  Hyde  Park. 
Later  in  the  year  Haydn's  *  Seasons '  was  intro- 
duced for  the  first  time.  In  1852  Spohr's 
'  Calvary '  and  the  fragments  of  Mendelssohn's 
'Christus'  were  introduced.  In  185.3  some 
changes  took  place  in  the  officers  of  the  Society ; 
R.  K.  Bowley  became  treasurer,  and  W.  H. 
Husk   succeeded   him   as   librarian :    Mozart's 

*  Requiem '  was  first  brought  forward  this  year. 
1854  was  distinguished  by  two  performances  of 
Beethoven's  Mass  in  D.  Griesbach's  'Daniel' 
was  also  brought  forward,  and  the  Society 
undertook  the  performance  of  the  music  at  the 
opening  of  the  Crystal  Palace  on  May  10.  In 
1856  Costa's  *  Eli '  was  performed  for  the  first 
time  in  London  Avith  marked  success.  In  1857 
Rossini's  'Stabat  Mater'  was  introduced,  and 
the  Society  undertook  the  musical  arrangements 
for  the  first  Handel  Festival  at  the  Crystal 
Palace.  [See  Hakdel  Festival.]  In  1862 
Beethoven's  '  Mount  of  Olives '  was  given  with 


its  proper  libretto.  Costa's  'Naaman'  was 
introduced  to  a  London  audience  in  1865.  In 
1867  Benedict's  'Legend  of  St.  Cecilia'  was 
given  ibr  the  first  time  in  London.  •  In  1870 
Beethoven's  Mass  in  D  was  again  performed. 
The  Society  sustained  the  loss,  by  death,  of 
three  of  its  principal  officers,  J.  N.  Harrison, 
president ;  R.  K.  Bowley,  treasurer ;  and  T. 
Brewer,  secretary  and,  for  a  few  weeks,  president. 
They  were  replaced  by  D.  Hill|  president ; 
W.  H.  WithaU,  treasurer ;  and  J.  F.  Puttick, 
seci*etary.  In  1873  the  last  named  died,  and 
E.  H.  Mannering  was  appointed  in  his  stead. 
Bach's  '  St.  Matthew  Passion '  was  given  for  the 
first  time.  In  1874  Dr.  Crotch's  'Palestine' 
was  introduced,  and  Macfarren's  '  St.  John  the 
Baptist'  given  for  the  first  time  in  London. 
Mozart's  Litany  in  Bb,  in  an  English  dreas^ 
was  introduced  in  1877.  In  1878  Rossini's 
'Moses  in  Egypt'  was  restored  to  its  original 
position  as  an  oratorio.  Nothing  new  was 
brought  forward  in  the  season  of  1879-80, 
which  ended  on  April  30,  1880,  with  'Israel 
in  Egypt. '  Owing  to  a  change  in  the  proprietor- 
ship of  Exeter  Hall  the  Society  had  to  quit 
that  building,  and  the  concerts  of  the  season 
1880-81  were  given  in  St.  James's  Hall,  the 
number  of  performers  being  reduced,  on  account 
of  the  limited  space  of  the  orchestra,  to  abont 
300.  The  first  concert  was  on  Dec.  8.  Sullivan's 
'  Martyr  of  Antioch '  (first  time  in  London)  and 
Cherubini's  Requiem  in  C  minor  were  brought 
out  during  the  season. 

The  Society's  library  was  the  largest  collec- 
tion of  music  and  musical  literature  ever  gathered 
together  by  a  musical  body  in  England.  Space 
does  not  allow  here  of  even  a  brief  list  of  its  prin- 
cipal contents,  and  the  reader  is  therefore  referred 
to  the  last  edition  of  its  printed  catalogue,  issued 
in  1872.  It  was  acquired  for  the  Royal  College 
of  Music  at  the  dissolution  of  the  original 
Society.  [See  also  Libuaries,  vol.  ii.  p.  706.] 
The  Society  also  possessed  some  interesting 
original  portraits,  statuary,  and  autograph 
letters.  It  was  in  constitution  an  essentially 
amateur  body,  none  but  amateurs  being  eligible 
for  membership,  and  the  governing  committee 
being  chosen  by  and  from  the  membera.  Every 
member  was  required  to  take  some  part  in  the 
orchestra,  and  a  strict  examination  as  to  his 
qualification  for  so  doing  was  made  prior  to  his 
admission.  The  most  eminent  professors  were 
engaged  as  principal  vocalists  and  instrumenta- 
lists, the  rest  of  the  band  and  the  whole  of  the 
chorus  being  amateurs.  The  members  were 
comparatively  few  in  number,  the  msgority  of 
the  amateurs  being  assistants,  who  gave  their 
gratuitous  services,  but  paid  no  subscription.  The 
subscription  of  members,  originally  £1,  was  after- 
wards £2  :  28.  per  annum.  The  original  Society 
was  dissolved  in  1882,  its  last  concert  being  a 
performance  of  '  Solomon '  on  April  28  of  that 
year.     Some  members  of  the  committee  deter- 


SADLER'S  WELLS 


SAINT  ANNE'S  TUNE        203 


mined  to  resuscitate  the  Society,  and  the  new 
institution  was  incorporated  in  1882.  Charles 
HalU  was  appointed  conductor,  and  in  1885 
vu  succeeded  by  W.  H.  Ciimniings,  who  had, 
up  to  that  time,  acted  as  assistant  conductor. 
In  the  autumn  of  1888  the  new  Society  ceased 
to  exist. 

The  Benevolent  Fund  of  the  Society  was 
instituted  March  14,  1855,  for  the  aid  of  neces- 
!»:tous  persons  who  had  at  any  time  been  con^' 
nected  with  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society.  The 
management  of  the  Fund  was  entrusted  to  an 
independent  committee,  chosen  by  the  Governors 
of  the  Fund  IVom  the  members  of  the  Sacred 
Harmonic  Society.  w.  H.  H. 

SADLER'S  WELLS,  a  place  of  entertain- 
ment near  the  New  River  Head,  Pentonville, 
much  associated  with  music  from  the  end  of 
the  17th  centur>'.  In  a  garden  belonging  to  a 
{lerson  named  Sadler  an  ancient  well  was  dis- 
covered in  1683.  The  water  of  the  well  was 
chalybeate  and  ferruginous,  and  Sadler,  who 
owned  a  sort  of  tavern,  having  attached  a  wooden 
^ Music  House,'  exploited  the  medicinal  qualities 
in  rivalry  of  the  waters  at  Tunbridge  and  at 
E[«om.  He  laid  out  the  grounds  and  engaged 
tumblers  and  musicians,  and  the  place  was 
much  frequented  for  its  open-air  concerts.  In 
1699  James  Miles  and  a  Francis  Forcer,  the 
Utter  a  musician,  were  proprietors,  and  the  place 
tiecame  known  also  as  'Miles's  Music  House.' 
Miles  having  died  in  1724,  Francis  Forcer, 
junior,  increased  the  attractions,  and  Forcer 
dying  in  1743,  the  gardens  passed  into  the 
hands  of  one  Rosoman,  who  made  many  altera- 
tions, rebuilding  the  Music  House  in  brick.  This 
brick  structure,  erected  in  1765,  formed  part  of 
Sadler's  Wells  theatre  until  quite  recent  years. 
Mrs.  Lampe,  Thomas  Lowe,  and  other  vocalists 
of  repute  sang  at  Sadler's  Wells,  and  at  a  later 
date  Miss  Romanzini  (Mrs.  Bland),  and  Braham 
were  among  the  performers  engaged  there. 
Mrs.  Mountain,  the  singer,  whose  parents  were 
engaged  at  Sadler's  Wells,  was  named  after 
Roeoman  tho  proprietor.  Charles  Dibdin  the 
elder,  and  his  sons  Thomas  and  Charles  were 
all  more  or  less  closely  connected  with  Sadler's 
Wells,  writing  plays  and  musical  pantomimes 
for  production  there.  The  younger  Dibdins  were 
pro;Nietorsand  managers.  Grimaldi's  connection 
with  thistliestre  and  thatof  other  pantomimists, 
tumblers,  rope- dancers,  and  actors,  do  not 
concern  the  musical  records  of  it.  The  theatre 
has  seen  many  changes,  and  it  is  now  a  music- 
hall.  Much  information  regarding  details  can 
be  gathered  from  a  collection  of  scraps  relating 
to  Sadler's  Wells,  bound  in  foui-teen  volnmes, 
formed  by  Mf.  Percival  in  the  British  Museum. 
Lmdon  Pleasure  Gardens  by  W.  and  A.  E 
Wroth,  Old  and  New  Londviij  and  similar  works 
may  be  also  consulted.  F.  k. 

8AFF0.     See  Sappho. 

SAGOIO    DI    CONTRAPPUNTO  (Sample 


I  of  Counterpoint).  A  very  im|K)rtant  work,  pub- 
h'shed  at  Bologna,  in  1774-75,  by  the  Padre 
Giambattista  Martini,  in  two  large  4to  volumes, 
dedicated  to  Cardinal  Vincen2oMalvezzi,and  how 
very  scarce.  The  full  title,  Esemplare,  o  sia  saggio 
/ondame7itale  pratico  di  corUrapjnirUo  sopra  ?7 
eaiitofertno,  etc.,  sufficiently  explains  the  design 
of  the  work,  in  which  the  author  endeavours  to 
teach  the  art  of  counterpoint  rather  by  reference 
to  the  most  perfect  obtainable  models  than  by 
any  code  of  written  laws.  The  method  adopted 
for  this  purpose  is  above  all  praise.  The  bulk 
of  the  volume  consists  of  a  series  of  examples, 
in  tho  form  of  Motets,  Madrigals,  Movements 
from  Masses,  and  other  similar  compositions, 
selected  from  the  works  of  the  gi-eatest  mastere 
of  the  16th  and  17th  centuries,  beautifully 
printed,  from  movable  tyiHJs,  in  lozenge -headed 
notes,  resembling  those  found  in  Italian  Part- 
Books  of  the  best  period,  but  without  the 
Ligatures  which  render  those  books  so  puzzling 
to  the  modern  musician.  The  masters  selected 
are,  Agoetini,  Animuccia,  Barbieri,  Baroni, 
Benevoli,  Bernabei,  Caresana,  Cifra,  Clari, 
Corvo,  Falconio,  Foggia,  Gabussi,  Gesualdo, 
Lotti,  Marcello,  Marenzio,  Minarti,  Monte verde. 
Morales,  Navarro  di  Siviglia,  Nitrami,  Olstani, 
Ortiz,  Pacchioni,  Palestiina,  P.  Pontic  Pamii- 
giano,  Pasquale,  Perti,  Piocchi,  Porta,  Predieri, 
Riccieri,  Rota,  A.  Scarlatti,  Stradella,  Turiui, 
Vittoria,  Willaert,  Zarlino,  and  several  Anonymi. 
The  works  are  an*anged  in  accordance  with  the 
characteristics  of  tlieir  respective  schools  ;  and 
each  movement  is  illustrated  by  a  copious  series 
of  annotations,  exx>laining  its  general  design, 
pointing  out  the  various  devices  employed  in 
its  construction,  and  calling  particular  attention 
to  its  merits,  and  the  lessons  to  be  learned 
from  it.  The  amount  of  sound  scholarship 
and  able  criticism  displayed  in  these  annota- 
tions renders  the  work  extremely  valuable  for 
purposes  of  study ;  while  the  rarity  of  the  ori- 
ginal edition  suggests  that  a  careful  reprint 
would  be  useful.  w.  8.  R. 

SAINT  ANNE'S  TUNE.  This  well-kno\*Ti 
tune,  in  accordance  with  a  practice  of  which 
there  are  several  examjiles,*  was  constructed  by 
the  addition  of  a  new  continuation  to  a  fragment 
of  an  older  melody.  A  seven-part  motet  of 
Palestrina's,  published  in  May  1569,  leads  off 
in  the  first  treble  with  this  phrase 


identical  with  the  first  phrase  of  St.  Anne's ; 
after  which  the  resemblance  ceases.  The  entire 
first  strain  of  the  tune  is  said  to  be  traceable  to 
a  French  chanson  of  the  16th  century.  It  was 
adopted  by  J.  S.  Bach  as  the  subject  of  an  organ 
fugue,  known  in  England  as  *St.  Anne's  fugue' — 

1  The  'Old  Hundredth  '  pmlm  tnne  1«  another  Instance.    Its  flmt 
strain  U  the  conimenoenient  of  Bevenl  distinct  tnnes. 


204        SAINT  ANNE'S  TUNE 


SAINT-AUBIN 


a  tiiisleading  title,  as,  except  in  the  identity  of 
its  subject  with  the  first  strain  of  St.  Anne's, 
the  fugue  has  no  connection  with  the  hjmn-tune. 
As  early  as  1638  the  same  strain  was  employed 
by  Henry  lAwes  as  the  commencement  of  the 
tunes  set  by  him  to  the  9th  and  136th  Psalms 
in  Sandys's  'Paraphrase  ujion  the  Psalmes  of 
David.' 

St.  Anne's  tune,  under  that  name,  is  first 
found  in  '  A  Supplement  to  tlie  New  Version  of 
the  Psalms, 'sixth  edition,  much  enlax^ged,  1708. 
Dr.  Croft's  name  is  not  mentioned  in  the  work, 
but  he  is  believed  to  have  been  the  musical 
editor  of  this  edition  of  the  Sup))lement ;  the 
name  of  the  tune  is  probably  derived  from  that 
of  the  ]>arish,  St.  Anne's,  Westminster,  of  which 
church  he  was  then  organist,  and  the  tune  itself 
is  directly  ascribed  to  him  by  his  contemporaries, 
viz. ,  Philip  Hai-t  in  *  Melodies  proper  to  be  sung 
to  any  of  y*  Versions  of  y"  Psalms  of  David,' 
cir.  1716,  and  John  Church  in  his  'Introduc- 
tion to  Psalmody,'  1723.  The  tune  appears 
in  the  '  Supplement  *  in  the  following  form : — 


Psalm  xlii. 
A  2  voe. 


St.  Anne's  Tutu, 


See  Mtisical  Times  for  1900,  p.  585,  where  the 
tune  is  given  in  facsimile  and  Croft's  authorship 
discussed. 

Of  late  years  some  doubt  has  been  thrown  on 
the  authorship  of  the  tune  from  its  having  been 
found  in  Abraham  lUrber's  'Book  of  Psalm 
Tunes,'  a  Yorkshire  collection,  of  which  the 
license  bears  date  Feb.  14, 1687,  when  Croft  was 
but  ten  years  of  age.  Here  the  tune  appeara 
under  the  name  of 'Leeds,'  and  is  ascribed  to 
'Mr.  Denby,'  whose  name  some  editors  of 
hymnals  have  too  hastily  substituted  for  that  of 
Ci'oft.  The  edition,  however,  of  Barber's  Psalms 
which  contains  the  tune  is  the  seventh,  dated 
1715,  or  seven  years  after  the  publication  of  the 
•  Supplement '  already  mentioned.  This  edition 
contains,  besides  tunes  for  Canticles,  Psalms, 
etc,  twenty-eight  hymn-tunes  arranged  in  four 
parts,  with  the  melody  in  the  tenor.  Of  these 
tunes  three  only  have  a  com  poser's  name  prefixed, 
and  tliese  three,  which  beartlienames  of  northern 


towns  ('  Leverpool,'  '  Hallifax,'  and  '  Leeds '), 
are  all  ascribed  to  'Mr.  Denby.'  It  may  be 
observed  that  while  the  melody  of  *  Leeds  *  is 
identical  with  that  of  St.  Anne's  in  the  '  Supple- 
ment,' the  modulation  at  the  end  of  the  third 
strain  is  different. 


Leeds  Tune, 


Tlie  supiKwition,  however,  that  *  Leeds  *  was 
originally  in  Barber's  Psalm-book  haa  been 
disproved  by  the  recent  discovery  of  a  copy  of 
an  early  edition  of  the  collection,  which  from 
the  evidence  of  the  ])refaoe  appears  to  be  either 
the  third  or  fourth,  and  to  have  been  published 
about  1696.^  The  title-|)age  is  unfortunately 
missing.  This  volume,  a  smaller  book  than  the 
edition  of  1 716,  contains  but  twelve  hymn-tunes 
arranged  in  two  parts,  and  neither  die  tune  in 
question  nor  Denby 's  name  occurs  in  it  Until, 
therefore,  an  edition  of  Barber's  Psalms  is  found, 
containing  'Leeds,'  and  of  earlier  date  than 
1708,  Denby  must  be  regarded  as  merely  the 
author  of  a  rearrangement  of  Croft's  tune. 

That  some  confusion  existed  respecting  tlie 
authorship  may  perhaps  be  inferred  from  the 
fact  that  Dr.  Miller,  oi^nist  of  Donoaster  Parish 
Church,  in  his  'Psalms  of  David,'  1790^  gives 
<  St.  Ann's,  Dr.  Croft '  on  one  page,  and  opposite 
to  it  'Leeds,  Denby,'  in  triple  time  and  as  a 
different  tune.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be 
noticed  that  in  another  Yorkshire  collection, 
John  and  James  Green's  '  Collection  of  choice 
Psalm  Tunes'  (Sheffield,  8rd  ed.,  1716),  St 
Anne's  tune  is  quoted  under  that  name.    o.  a,  <  \ 

SAINT-AUBIN^  JeanneCharloiteSchr<*- 
PER,  a  veiy  remarkable  opera-singer,  bom  in 
Paris,  Dec  9,  1764.  She  was  daughter  of  a 
theatrical  manager,  began  to  act  as  a  mere 
child,  and,  when  only  nine,  charmed  Louis  XV. 
by  her  precocious  talent  In  1782  she  married 
Saint-Aubin,  an  actor  in  Mile.  Montansier's 
company,  and  in  1 786  made  her  first  apiiearanoe 
at  the  Academic,  in  'Colinette  k  la  Cour,'  but 
perceiving  that  she  was  not  qualified  for  so  lai^ 
a  stage,  had  the  good  sense  to  transfer  herself 
to  the  Commie  Italienne..  There  her  expressive 
face,  giaceful  acting,  and  good  singing,  oould 

1  Th«  prefMM  tpeaJu  of  'fornMr  editions.' and  addt^'diMe  th« 
Paalmii  in  metre  »re  thU  Ust  jmr  moth  rafln'd  as  to  tlw  Engtteh 
by  ■ome  good  gmve  Divine  Penoni  who  kath  only  kft  out  au  the 
old  words  and  inade  the  meter  good  BngUah.'  The  prafMO  to  the 
■BTeath  edition  Is  a  difltecnt  one 


SAINT  CECILIA 


SAINT  HUBERTY 


205 


be  properly  appreciated,  and  she  speedily  became 
a  &Yoiirite.  No  actress  ever  created  a  greater 
namber  of  parts,  in  a  rariety  of  styles.  She 
sang  romaoces  with  great  charm,  and  became  the 
acknowledged  star  of  the  company  and  its  most 
]«ofitable  member.  She  was,  however,  badly 
treated  by  the  management,  for  though  admitted 
as  BoeUtmre  to  the  fourth  of  a  share  in  1788, 
she  was  not  advanced  to  a  fiiU  share  till  1798, 
after  her  success  in  *  Le  Prisonnier.' 

At  her  &rewell  benefit  (April  2,  1808)  she 
took  the  part  of  Mme.  Beknont  in  this  work, 
leaving  Bosine,  her  own  creation,  to  her  second 
daughter,  Alexandrine.  Her  modest  pension 
of  1900  francs  was  increased  by  Louis  XVIII. 
to  3000.  She  took  her  final  fi&rewell,  assisted 
by  her  elder  daughter,  Mme.  Duret,  on  Nov.  7, 
1818,  in  'line  heure  de  mariage,'  and  was  as 
much  applauded  as  ever.  Mme.  Saint-Aubin 
lived  to  a  great  age,  and  died  in  Paris,  Sept.  11, 
IS 50.  Three  of  her  children  distinguished 
themselves ;  the  son,  Jian  Denis,  bom  at 
Lyons  in  1 783,  a  violinist  and  composer  of  gi*eat 
promise,  died  at  Paris  in  1810. 

The  elder  daughter,  Cecils,  bom  at  Lyons  in 
1785,  a  pupil  of  Garat,  made  her  d^ut  in  1 805  at 
the  Opera-Comique  in  *  Le  Concert  interrompu,' 
but  went  back  to  the  Conservatoire  to  study,  and 
did  not  reappear  till  1808.  In  the  interval  she 
gained  both  style  and  taste  in  singing,  but  re- 
mained an  indifferent  actress.  Under  the  name 
of  Mme.  Duret  she  rose  for  a  short  time  to  dis- 
tinction as  the  favourite  singer  of  Nicololsouard, 
who  eompoeed  several  important  and  difHcitlt 
parts  for  her.  Her  best  creations  were  in  '  Le 
Billet  de  Loterie,'  and  *  Jeannot  et  Colin.'  She 
retired  in  1820.  Her  sister  Alexandrine, 
bom  at  Paris,  1793,  made  a  brilliant  ddbut  at 
the  Th^tre  Feydeau  in  1809,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  excited  great  enthusiasm  in  Isouard's 
*Oendrillon.'  This  was,  however,  the  only 
original  part  in  which  she  distinguished  herself, 
and  on  her  marriage  with  an  actor  at  the 
Vaudeville  in  1812,  she  retired  from  the 
stage.  G.  c. 

SAINT  CECILIA.     See  vol.  i.  p.  489  ff. 

SAINT  CECILIA'S  HALL,  a  famous  Edin- 
burgh concert-room,  associated,  during  the  last 
half  of  the  18  th  century,  with  the  chief  musical 
events  of  the  northem  capital.  It  was  at  the 
foot  of  Niddry  Wynd  (now  Niddry  Street),  and 
almost  adjoining  the  Cowgate.  Robert  Mylne, 
the  well-known  Scottish  architect,  designed  the 
building,  taking  the  opera-house  at  Parma  for 
his  model.  The  main  hall  was  a  long-shaped 
oval,  and  its  acoustic  properties  were  admirable. 
It  was  opened  in  1762,  and  remained  in  posses- 
sion of  the  Musical  Society  of  Edinburgh  from 
that  date  to  June  1801.  It  then  became 
snooeasively  a  Baptist  Chapel,  a  Freemasons' 
Hall,  a  school,  and,  in  1899,  a  book-binder's 
works. 

Though  at  the  foot  of  a  steep  and  dirty  wynd, 


in  a  quarter  that  had  ceased  to  be  fashionable 
even  at  the  time  of  its  first  building,  it  was 
frequented  by  the  highest  society  of  Edinburgh. 
All  the  important  concerts  were  held  here. 
Previous  to  its  erection  the  chief  concerts 
were  held  in  St  Mary's  Chapel,  in  the  same 
wynd,  aaf  early  as  1728.  The  Taylors'  Hall  in 
the  Cowgate,  the  Assembly  Rooms,  Assembly 
Close,  and  the  Concert  Hall,  in  Playhouse 
Close. 

At  a  later  date  Corn's  Rooms  and  other 
places,  as  the  New  Town  began  to  grow,  super- 
seded the  Hall.  Some  interesting  reminiscences 
of  the  Concerts  at  St.  Cecilia's  Hall  were  con- 
tributed in  1847  by  George  Thomson  to  Robert 
Chambers's  Traditions  of  Edinburgh.  Wilson'a 
Memorials  of  Edinlmrgh^  Grant's  Old  aiid  Kew 
Edinburghf  and  other  works  deal  with  the 
famous  Concert-room.  See  Mr.  Fraser  Harris's 
SaiTU  Cecilia  8  Hall  in  the  Kiddry  Wynd^ 
1899.  F.  K. 

SAINT-GEORGES,  Jules  Henri  Vernoy, 
Marquis  de,  —not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
notorious  Chevalier  de  Saint-Geoi-ges  (1745-99 
or  1801) — bom  in  Paris,  1801,  died  there,  Dec. 
23,  1875,  writer  of  novels,  and  author  of 
numerous  librettos  for  operas  and  02>eras- 
comiques,  was  the  favourite  collaborator  of 
Halevy.  Among  his  120  librettos  we  need 
only  specify  those  for  Donizetti's  'Fille  dn 
R^ment ' ;  Adolphe  Adam's  *  La  Marquise, ' 
'Cagltostro,*  *Le  Bijou  perdu,'  operas:  and 
'Giselle,'  'La  jolie  Fille  de  Gand,'  and  *Le 
Corsaire,'  ballets;  Auber's  *L' Ambassadrice,' 
'  Zanetta,'  and  '  Les  Diamants  de  la  Couronne,' 
with  Scribe  ;  Grisar's  *  Lady  Melvil,*  *  Le  Caril- 
lonnenr  de  Bmges,'  and  'Les  Amours  du 
Diable ' ;  Clapissou's  '  La  Fanchonnette ' ;  and 
Hale>y's  'L'Eclair,'  'Les  Mousquetaires  de  la 
Reine,'  *  Le  Val  d'Andorre,'  *La  F^e  aux  Roses,' 
*Le  Jnif  errant,'  *Le  Nabab,'  and  '  Jaguarita 
rindienne.' 

From  this  list  it  will  appear  that  Saint- 
Georges  was  the  most  prolific,  as  he  was  the 
ablest,  of  all  French  contemporary  librettists 
after  Scribe.  o.  c. 

SAINT  HUBERTY,!  Antoinette  C^cile, 
an  eminent  French  operatic  actress,  whose  real 
surname  was  Clavel,  was  bom  at  Toul,  about 
1766.  Her  father,  who  had  previously  served 
in  the  army,  became  stage  manager  to  a  French 
opera  company  at  Mannheim,  and  afterwards 
at  Warsaw,  where  she  studied  for  four  years 
with  Lemoyne,  conductor  of  the  orchestra.  Her 
first  public  ap|)earance  was  in  an  opera  of  his, 
*  Le  Bouquet  de  Colette.*  She  then  went  to 
Berlin,  and  S&  said  to  have  been  married  there 
to  a  certain  Chevalier  de  Croisy,  of  whom, 
however,  nothing  is  heard  in  her  subsequent 
history.  For  three  years  she  sang  at  Strasburg, 
as  Mile.  Clavel,  and  thence  went  to  Paris, 
and  made  her  d^but  at  the  Acarlemie  as  'un 

1  How  ihs  obtained  thU  n«n«  U  not  known. 


206 


SAINT  HUBERTY 


ST.  JAMES'S  HALL  CONCERT  ROOMS 


demon,  iiii  plaiair '  in  the  first  performance  of 
Gluck's  *  Amiide '  (Sept.  23,  177  7).  For  a  con- 
siderable time  she  only  played  in  subordinate 
parts.  Her  appearance  was  not  striking ;  she 
was  fair,  tlun,  and  below  middle  height,  with 
a  face  expressive,  but  not  beautiful.  Her  voice 
was  produced  badly  and  with  eflbrt,  her  stage 
action  was  spasmodic  and  exaggerated,  and  slie 
had  a  strong  German  accent  But  Gluck  found 
in  this  ill- trained  actress  some  qualities  he 
may  have  vainly  sought  for  in  moi*e  finished 
singers.  She  appeared  one  morning  at  rehearsal 
in  an  old  black  gown  in  the  last  stage  of  patched 
decrepitude.  *  Here  comes  Madame  la Bessource, ' 
remarked  some  gay  rival  (alluding  to  the  char- 
acter of  that  name  in  *Le  Joueur*).  *Well 
said,'  answered  Gluck  ;  '  that  woman  will  some 
day  be  the  resource  of  the  opera.'  Perhaps 
she  heard  the  words — we  may  be  sure  she 
heard  of  them.  She  laboured  to  improve  her- 
self, and  on  the  retirement  of  two  leading 
singers  succeeded  to  their  parts.  Her  first  great 
success  was  as  Ang^lique  in  Piocinni's  *  Roland,' 
and  was  followed  by  others  in  Floquet's  *  Le 
Seigneur  Bienfaisant,'  Gossec's  'Th^see  *  (March 
1,  1782),  and  Edelmann's  '  Ariane'  (Sept  24, 
1782),  all  tragic  parts ;  while  as  Rosette  in 
Gretry's  *  L'Erabarras  des  Richesscs '  (Nov.  26, 
1782),  she  showed  all  the  vei-satility  and 
vivacity  necessary  for  comedy.  As  Armide  (in 
Sacchini's  ^Renaud'),  in  *Didon,*  *Chimene,' 
'  Les  Danaides,'  *Alceste,'  and  'Phedre,'  she 
had  a  succession  of  triumphs.  *Didon,'  Pic- 
cinni's  masterpiece,  made  no  impression  till 
she  undertook  the  title-rdle,  and  the  composer 
declared  that,  without  her,  his  opera  was 
'without  Dido.'  On  her  first  appearance  in 
that  part  (Jan.  16,  1784)  she  was  crowned 
upon  the  stage. 

In  1785  she  made  a  journey  to  Mai-seilles, 
which  resembled  a  royal  progress.  The  excite- 
ment she  created  amounted  to  frenzy,  and 
when  she  left  Provence  she  carried  away  more 
tlian  a  hundred  crowns,  many  of  them  of  great 
value.  But  on  her  return  to  Paris  she  found 
new  rivals  to  dispute  her  sway.  She  failed, 
too,  as  Clytemnestra,  a  part  altogether  unsuited 
to  her.  It  ended  four  years  later  by  her 
marrying  the  Comte  d'Entraiguos,  of  strong 
royalist  sympathies,  in  which  she  participated 
warmly.  In  1 790  he  had  emigrated  to  Lausanne, 
and  there  their  marriage  took  place,  at  the  end 
of  that  year.  It  was  only  acknowledged,  how- 
ever, in  1797,  after  the  Ck>unt,  imprisoned  at 
Milan  by  Bonaparte,  had  been  released  by  his 
wife,  who  found  means  of  enabling  him  to 
escape,  and  of  preserving  his  ix)rtfolio,  full  of 
political  papers.  For  this  service  she  was 
rewarded  by  Louis  XVIII.  with  the  Order  of 
St.  Michel  and,  it  seems,  by  her  husband  with 
the  recognition  of  their  marriage. 

The  Count  afterwards  entered  the  Russian 
diplomatic  service,  and  was  employed  on  secret 


missions.  The  peace  of  Tilsit  changed  his 
tactics.  He  possessed  himself  in  some  niajiiic-r 
of  a  copy  of  the  secret  ai-ticles  of  the  Treaty, 
and  hastened  with  tliem  to  England  to 
communicate  them  to  the  government  F<»r 
this  he  is  said  to  have  received  a  pension. 
He  established  himself,  with  his  wife,  at  Barnes, 
near  Richmond,  where,  July  22,  1812,  tliey 
were  assassinated  by  their  servant,  who  stabbi<l 
them  as  they  were  getting  into  their  carriage, 
and  blew  out  his  own  brains  afterwards.  This 
man  liad  been  bribed  by  emissaries  of  Foucht^'s, 
sent  to  watch  the  proceedings  of  the  Comte 
d'Entraigues,  and  had  allowed  them  to  take 
copies  of  correspondence  witli  tlie  Foreign  Office, 
entrusted  to  his  care  by  his  master.  He  had 
reason  to  think  tliat  his  treachery  was  being 
discovered,  and  fear  of  the  consequeuoes  prob- 
ably prompted  him  to  the  dreadful  deed.  v.  a.  m. 

SAINT  JAMES'S  HALL  CONCERT  ROOMS 
were  erected,  at  the  cost  of  a  company  with 
limited  liability,  from  designs  by  Owen  Joue^ 
Messra.  Lucas  were  the  buildera. 

The  project  was  taken  up  by  two  of  the 
music-publishing  finns,  Messrs.  Beale&Chappell 
of  Regent  Street,  and  Gha2)pell  k  Co.  of  New 
Bond  Street ;  and  the  company  was  formed 
mainly  by  them,  and  among  their  friends. 
Messrs.  T.  F.  Beale  and  W.  Chap}>ell  became 
the  tenants  of  the  Crown  for  the  land,  holding 
it  in  trust  for  the  Comi)any.  The  capital  was 
fixed  at  £40,000,  because  the  original  estimate 
for  the  new  building  was  £28,000  and  the  re- 
mainder was  supposed  to  be  an  ample  sum  for 
compensations,  working  expenses,  etc  It  wa*< 
then  unknown  that  between  Regent  Street  and 
Piccadilly,  was  the  ancient  boundary  of  Thonicy 
Island  with  its  quicksand,  but  this  was  en- 
countered in  the  course  of  the  building,  and 
had  to  be  saturated  with  concrete  at  great  cost, 
in  order  to  make  a  sure  foundation.  Other 
demands  raised  the  cost  of  the  building  to 
beyond  £70,000.  The  Great  Hall  was  open*»d 
to  the  public  on  March  25,  1858,  with  a  concert 
for  tlie  benefit  of  Middlesex  Hospital,  given  in 
pi*esence  of  the  Prince  Consort. 

The  principal  entrance  to  the  Great  Halt 
was  originally  fit>m  Regent  Street,  and  that  to 
the  Minor  Hall  from  Hccadilly.  The  dimensions 
of  the  Great  Hall  were  189  feet  in  length,  60  in 
height,  and  60  in  breadth.  It  seated  on  the 
ground  floor  1100  ;  in  the  balcony  517  ;  in  the 
gallery  210  ;  in  the  orchestra  300  ;  total  2127. 
Under  the  platform  end  of  the  Great  Hall  was 
the  Minor  Hall  60  feet  by  57,  having  also  a 
gallery,  an  orchestra,  and  a  small  room.  Tliis 
was  occupied  for  many  years  by  the  Christy 
(Moore  k  Burgess)  Minstrels.  Under  the  Regent 
Street  end  of  the  Great  Hall  was  one  of  the  dinin«; 
rooms,  60  feet  by  60,  and  on  the  Regent  Street 
level  was  another  dining-room  40  feet  by  40, 
with  a  large  banqueting -room  on  the  floor 
above,  etc. 


ST.  PATRICK'S  DAY 


SAINT-SAENS 


207 


In  I860  alterations  and  additions  vrere  made 
to  the  restaurant  attached  to  the  concert  rooms, 
at  a  further  outlay  of  £5000.  The  Company 
was  eventually  enabled  to  pay  these  charges, 
through  the  unoovenanted  liberality  of  some 
of  the  directors,  in  accepting  personal  responsi- 
bility to  mortagees  and  bankers,  while  they 
diminished  the  debt  annually  through  the 
receipts  of  the  HalL  Many  concerts  were  given 
for  the  express  purpose  of  engaging  the  Hall  on 
otf-nlghts,  espedally  the  Monday  Popular  Con- 
certs, which  became  a  national  institution, 
but  were  originally  started  by  Chappell  k  Co. 
to  bring  together  a  new  public  to  fill  the  Hall 
on  Monday  nights.  In  1874  three  more  houses 
in  Piccadilly  were  purchased  to  add  to  the 
i-estauranL  The  rebuilding  of  these  entailed 
a  fiorther  expenditure  of  £45,000,  so  that 
the  total  cost  exceeded  £120,000.  w.  c.  [In 
much  later  days  important  alterations  were 
made  in  the  approaches  to  the  hall,  a  fine 
marble  staircase  leadingdirect  from  the  Piccadilly 
entrance.  In  spite  of  these,  there  was  au 
clement  of  danger  from  the  presence  of  kitchens 
and  the  Christy  Minstrels'  hall  below,  and  in 
spite  of  the  beautiful  acoustics  of  the  great  hall 
and  its  wonderful  artistic  associations,  it  was 
not  wholly  a  misfortune  when  it  was  deter- 
mined to  pull  it  down  and  use  the  site  for  a 
hotel.  The  last  concert  took  place  on  Feb.  11, 
1905.] 

ST.  PATRICK'S  DAY.  This  rousing  Irish 
melody  has  been  regarded  for  over  a  century 
as  the  nnoflScial  anthem  of  Ireland.  It  can  be 
definitely  traced  back  to  the  first  decade  of  the 
19th  century,  and  was  very  popular,  so  much 
so  that  we  find  it  as  one  of  Uie  two  tunes  played 
by  the  Irish  war-pipers  at  the  famous  battle  of 
Fontenoy,  on  May  11,  1745.  Between  the 
years  1746  and  1766  it  was  in  vogue  in  England, 
and  was  printed  by  Kutherford  iu  his  *  Country 
Dances,'  in  1749.  Iu  1759  Oswald  published 
a  fairly  good  setting  of  it  in  his  Caledonian 
Podxt  Companion  (Bk.  xL),  and  the  Irish 
dianiatist,  Isaac  Bickerstaffe,  set  one  of  his 
songs  in  'Love  in  a  Village'  to  it,  in  1762. 
Numerous  Anglo- Irish  songs  were  adapted  to 
the  tune,  and  at  length,  in  1810,  Moore  wrote 
Ilia  lyric  'Tho'  dark  are  our  sorrows,'  which 
duly  appeared  in  the  fourth  numl)er  of  the 
'  Irish  Melodies  '(1811).  Oswald's  setting  is  as 
follows : — 

SL  PairU^s  Day. 

Oswald's  Setting,  1759. 


w.  H.  o.  F. 

SAINT-SAENS,  Charles  Camille,  born 
Oct.  9, 1835,  in  the  Rue  dti  Jardinet  (now  No.  8), 
Paris.  Having  lost  his  father,  he  was  brought 
up  by  his  mother  and  a  great-aunt,  who  taught 
him  the  elements  of  music,  and  to  this  day  the 
composer  keeps  the  little  old-fashioned  instru- 
ment on  which  this  dearly-loved  relative  gave 
him  his  first  lessons.  At  seven  he  began  to 
study  the  piano  with  Stamaty,  and  afterwards 
had  lessons  in  haimony  from  Maleden.  Gifted 
Avith  an  excellent  ear  and  a  prodigious  memoi^, 
he  showed  from  childhood  a  marvellous  aptitude 
for  music,  and  an  unusual  thirst  for  knowledge. 
He  played  at  a  concert  of  his  own  in  1846,  and 
in  1847  he  entered  Benoist's  class  at  the  Con- 
servatoire, and  was  with  Halevy  for  composition ; 
he  obtained  the  second  organ-prize  in  1849,  and 
the  first  in  1851.  He  left  in  the  following  year, 
but  competed  for  the  Prix  de  Rome,  which  was, 
however,  won  by  Leonce  Cohen,  his  senior  by 
six  years.  He  was  not  more  fortunate  at  a 
second  trial  in  1864,  although  by  that  time  he 
had  made  a  name  in  more  than  one  branch  of 
composition.  These  academ  ic  failures  are  there- 
fore of  no  i-eal  importance,  and  we  merely 
mention  them  because  it  is  remarkable  that 
the  most  learned  of  French  contemporary 
musicians  should  have  gained  eveiy  jiossible 
distinction  except  the  Grand  Prix  de  Rome. 

Saint-Saens  was  only  sixteen  when  he  com- 
posed his  first  symphony,  which  was  performed 
xnth  success  by  the  Soci^t^  de  Sainte  C^cile. 
In  1853  he  became  organist  of  the  church  of 
St.  Merri,  and  shortly  after  accepted  the  ^lost 
of  pianoforte  professor  at  Niedenneyer's  Ecole 
religieuse.  Though  overwhelmed  with  work 
he  found  time  for  composing  symphonies, 
chamber-music,,  and  vocal  and  instnmiental 
pieces — and  for  playing  at  concerts,  where  he 
becai^e  known  as  an  interpreter  of  classical 
music.  In  1858  he  became  organist  of  the 
Madeleine,  and  distinguished  himself  as  much 
by  his  talent  for  improvisation  as  by  his  execu- 
tion. He  resigned  this  coveted  post  in  1877, 
when  he  was  much  gratified  by  the  appoint- 
ment of  Theodore  Dubois,  a  solid  musician, 
worthy  in  every  respect  to  be  his  successor. 

The  stage  being  the  solo  road  to  fame  and  for- 
tune in  Paris,  all  French  musicians  naturally  aim 
at  dramatic  composition.  Saint-Saens  was  no 
exception  to  this  rule.  He  was  in  the  first  rank 
of  pianists  and  organists,  and  his  cantata  *  Les 
Noces  de  Promd'th^e'  had  been  awarded  the 


208 


SAINT-SAENS 


SAINT-SAENS 


prize  at  the  International  Exhibition  of  1867, 
and  performed  with  great  eclat,  but  these  suc- 
cesses could  not  content  him,  and  he  produced 
'La  Prinoesse  jaune,'  one  act,  at  the  Opera- 
Gomique,  June  12,  1872,  and  'Le  Timbre 
d'argent,'  a  fantastic  opera  in  four  acts,  at  the 
Theatre  Lyrique,  Feb.  23,  1877.  Both  operas 
were  comparative  failures  ;  and,  doubtless  dis- 
couraged by  so  harsh  a  judgment  from  the 
Parisian  public,  he  produced  his  next  work, 
'  Samson  ot  Dalila, '  a  sacred  drama  (Dec.  2, 
1877),  at  Weimar,  and  *  ^tienne  Marcel,'  opera 
in  four  acts  (Feb.  8,  1879),  at  Lyons.  [*  Henri 
VIII.'  was  produced  at  the  Op^ra,  March  6, 
1883,  and  not  given  in  England  until  1898  ; 
'  Proserpine '  was  given  at  the  Op^ra-Comique, 
March  16,  1887,  *Ascanio'  at  the  Op^ra,  March 
21,  1890,  *Phryn6'inMay  1893,  *Fr^egonde' 
(completion  of  Guiraud's  unfinished  opera)  in 
1895,  *Les  Barbares'in  1901,  *Parysatis'  in 
1902  in  the  ancient  theatre  of  B^ziers,  '  Andro- 
maque'  in  1903,  'H^l^ne'  (one-act,  Monte  Carlo, 
Feb,  18,  1904,  and  Covent  Garden,  June  20  of 
the  same  year);  *L*AncStre,'  produced  Feb.  24, 
1906,  at  Monte  Carlo,  is  the  master's  last  opera. 
His  *  Javotte,'  a  two -act  ballet,  was  given  at 
Lyons  and  Brussels  in  1896, music  to  'Antigone' 
(Th.  Fran9ais,  1893),  and  'D^janire,'  inciden- 
tal music  to  Gallet's  play,  at  the  Odeon,  Nov. 
11,  1898.  He  also  wrote  music  to  *  Le  Malade 
Imaginaire.'] 

Saiut-Saens  has  been  an  extensive  traveller. 
He  has  been  in  Russia,  Spain,  Portugal,  Africa, 
etc. ,  besides  paying  repeated  visits  to  Germany, 
Austria,  and  England,  so  that  he  may  be  truly 
said  to  have  acquired  a  European  reputation. 
His  fame  mainly  rests  on  his  instrumental 
music,  and  on  his  masterly  and  effective  manner 
of  dealing  with  the  orchestra.  He  is  an  excel- 
lent contrapuntist,  shines  in  the  construction 
of  his  orchestral  pieces,  has  a  quick  ear  for 
picturesqueness  of  detail,  and  has  written 
enough  fine  music  to  procure  him  an  unique 
position  among  French  composers.  He  has 
very  great  power  of  combination,  and  of  seizing 
instantaneously  all  the  latent  capacities  of  a 
given  theme,  both  in  the  way  of  melody  and 
harmony. 

[Saint-Saens  is  a  consummate  master  of  com- 
position, and  no  one  possesses  a  more  profound 
knowledge  than  he  does  of  the  secrets  and  re- 
sources of  the  art ;  but  the  creative  faculty  does 
not  keep  pace  with  the  technical  skill  of  the 
workman.  His  incomparable  talent  for  or- 
chestration enables  him  to  give  relief  to  ideas 
which  would  otlierwise  be  crude  and  mediocre 
in  themselves ;  and  it  is  this  talent  which 
makes  him  the  one  French  musician  most  fitted 
to  compete  with  the  classic  masters  of  the 
Symphony.  His  weakness  consists  not  only 
in  the  inequality  of  his  inspiration,  but  also  in 
the  indecision  of  his  artistic  principles  ;  this  is 
shown  in  all  his  compositions,  and  it  is  this 


which  leads  him  to  place  excellent  and  objec- 
tionable passages  in  juxtaposition.  For  the 
same  reason  his  works  are  on  the  one  hand  not 
frivolous  enough  to  become  popular  in  the  widest 
sense,  nor  on  the  other  do  they  take  hold  of  the 
public  by  that  sincerity  and  warmth  of  feelings 
which  is  so  convincing.  Saint-Saens,  who  was 
made  a  knight  of  the  Legion  d'honneur  in  1867, 
and  an  officer  of  the  same  in  July  1884,  is 
always  the  same  incomparable  pianist  It  would 
even  seem  that  during  the  last  twenty  years  his 
talent  in  this  direction  had  increased,  and  such 
receptions  as  he  has  received  at  the  Conserva- 
toire, where  he  played  Beethoven's  Choral  Fan- 
tasia, in  Russia,  on  the  occasion  of  his  tour  iu 
1887  with  Taffanel,  Turban,  and  Gillet,  and  iii 
London,  on  many  occasions,  as  in  1871,  1874, 
1879,  prove  him  to  be  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able and  earnest  pianoforte  players  of  the  day. 
On  June  13,  1892,  he  received  the  honorary 
degree  of  Mus.D.  from  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  played  his  'Africa  *  at  a  concert 
of  the  Cambridge  University  Musical  Society 
on  the  previous  day.  On  June  2,  1896,  the 
fiftieth  anniversary  of  his  first  appearance  in 
public  was  celebrated  iu  Paris. 

In  addition  to  his  other  claims  to  distinction, 
Saint-Saens  is  a  first-rate  musical  critic,  and  has 
contributed  articles  to  La  RenaisaaiuXf  VEs- 
tafeUe,  and  Le  Voltaire y  the  best  of  which 
were  published  in  1885,  under  the  title  of  Har- 
monie  et  Mdodie  (Paris:  Calmann  L^vy,  1885), 
with  an  introduction  and  appendix  explaining 
the  change  which  his  views  have  undergone  in 
relation  to  Richard  Wagner.  An  '  Essai  sur  les 
lyres  et  cithare  antique'  appeared  in  1902,  and 
'Portraits  et  Souvenirs'  in  1903.]  He  was 
elected  member  of  the  Institute,  vice  Henri 
Reber,  Feb.  19,  1881. 

LIST  OF  SAINT-SAfiNS-B  COMPOSmOKS 


Op. 
1. 
9.  Ptratlfym] 


1.  Three  piecM  for  humonlum. 

Sympbony,  B 
8.  PK  *>L.iP,  HA^Xt^.11. 


Eb  (pabliBlied  18K). 


i.   It...  f  .,    ..]      .1,    ii,   ..rrvri,  <kr»Hr,rr|]i-ltlfc 

S.  Ta  .:  ••■.  .I.-  ■  !•  ■  -  |,  .11  .  ■hulf  *r1tli  unpto. 
«.TiiH-,'.  i      !•  ,  i!:,i. .  ,  I  ,riai-t.  ifl-l  t»--h. 

7.  .R1i-iJ,r^!'j  r«  ^-U    Lkct^'Fi  LthiUItaB  for  iJrjfMD^ 

8.  81t  rJui.''tj  fur  huiiiutduiu  uid  pt. 

9.  B4^itCklk-IUc)D  llii|4Ul«.  hum^gui^ 

10.  SOi^nft  f^oiD  H0n£i<, 

11.  DtJolilDi]  In  O,  fur  [if, 
IS.  Onil»riv  de  ^^(^^ 

IS.  Klciritiii>i)  for  biLrtnrrnLiiiii. 

li.  QniintL-t,  A  mlnur,  lur  \fi.  «iul  ftitiip. 

IS.  mft-iumIc  ftit  \f{.,  orifKiin  t^'In.,  Aiitl  ■nutB  or  TceUo. 

18.  8u  ilr  for  pr  Hiid  TCpLki. 

17.  Plr»t  Jjt.  ffrlK-^rto  111  I). 

18.  Tr.i.  i.f.  vmI  ^tfiimln  lt\ 

19.  Lc  wi-\ht^.  culiUtL 

90.    PI-  -  ..Tta   A  EUlQOf. 

21.  Pint  MjuuriKA  for  pf. 

22.  Seoond  pf.  oonoerto,  G  minor. 
SS.  Oavotte  for  pf. 

M.  Secund  MMurka  for  pi. 

2B.  Maivfa  for  pf.. '  Orient  et  Occident.'  4  handa. 

98.  Mtiodlee  Penenee  for  roiee. 

27.  Bomaiioe  for  pf.,  ovgan.  Mid  Tiolin. 

2S.  Introduction  and  Rondo  oftprioetoeo  for  rloUn  and  or^ 

29.  Third  pL  oonoerto,  Bb. 

SO.  La  Prinoeeae  Jaane,  opera. 

81.  Le  Bouet  d'Omphale.  eyaishonir  poem. 

9L  Sonata  In  C  minor,  pf.  and  ^  oeUo. 

S8b  VIolonoeUo  concerto,  A  minor. 

84.  Marche  h4roIqtie  for  orcheetra. 

3B.  Varlationa  for  two  p<a.  on  a  theme  of  BeethoTta. 

88.  Bomanoe.  horn  or  Toello  and  orch.  in  F. 

17.  Bomanee  for  Ante  or  rln.  in  D  ilat. 

88.  Beroeuee  in  B  flat.  pL  and  vln. 

89.  PtaaMon,  ■ymphoole  poem. 


SAINTON 


SAINTON-DOLBY 


209 


^^ 


MCAtoe,  qmiphi 
lor  pL  and  atr. 


sgrmphonle  poain. 
-    '     in  B  flat. 


.  Ia  Iwaaavmt  d'Hercule.  mrmnhoolc  g 
.  Ittmmngm  ia  D,  pL  uid  voello. 
.  ttzttadMforpL 


iL  <)Mrt«tiar  pL  and  str.  in  B  flat. 

a  Pk.  xix.  (vQ%.  xTiii.).  'Coeli  «naRant,'  for  soil,  ohotr  and  orch. 

c  AllcpD  AppMdoMitofoc  pi  and  vcdlo. 

M.  PI  eoo«rto  in  C  minor. 

4S.  Le  DAofla^  UbUdal  opan. 

••&  Loi  SoJdate  de  OMfon.  tor  double  male  chonu,  uoaocomp. 

47.  Bamenn  ei  Dalfla,  open. 

«L  BoHHMaee.  tIjl  and  orch. 

«.  tett«  far  orebaetim. 

Sil  LaJ<  — 

31.  " 

as.    

St  Ckaaaom  de  sniiid  -pira  for  two  female  roicee,  and  ChaneoD 

d'anoMn,  male  cfaoir.  baritone  aolo ;  aooompt.  orch.  or  pf. 
S4.  Bffqaiwn  for  eoU,  diolr.  and  ocvlkeetra. 
&  a»iciond  ermphoaiy,  A  minor. 
M.  Minuet  and  TakM  for  pL 
57.  I*  Lyre  et  la  Harpe,  eoll.  choir,  and  orchMtra. 
a&  S«oiaMl  TioUn  ooncnto  in  C. 
Ml  Ballade  for  bC.  4  hands. 
m.  Buitm  JUVbrleone  for  oreheatn. 
Si.  Third  vioUn  ooooerto,  B  minor. 
fiL  llMvean  de  Coooertk  Tin.  and  oreh. 
«3L  Une  nait  k  Llaboune.  Barcarolle  for  orcheatra. 
$4.  Jo«a  Axafliaeee  lor  oivheatia. 
«Sw  Septe*  for  pi.  S  atrinfed  iartnunente,  and  trumpet 
fiSL  Thlid  Xantka,  B  minor,  for  pf . 
67.  Boeaanee  ftar  horn  (fhma  op.  18}. 
aSl  TN>o  ehonmoB  with  md  Ub.  pL  aooompaniment. 
ML  HjmiM  4  Victor  Hugo  lor  orcheatia  ancT   ' 
TO.  Anasn  AppaaaloDato  for  pt  and  orch. 
71.  Two  ttoufuma  fior  male  Tones. 

TS.  Bhapaodie  d*Anv«i:ne,  for  pf .  and  oi«lia>tia. 

7^  Saltaralla.  for  male  ehotr.  oaaooompanled. 

TSb  Sooala  ftar  pi  and  Tin.,  D  minor. 

Tft.  Wedding  Gakew  c^rievralM  for  pt  and  atrlnga. 

77.  Fbhmalne  for  tiro  Dfa. 

7%  Third  agrmphony  in  C  minor,  oreh.  orsan,  pi,  4  hande. 

Til  Gh^rfoe  for  pi  and  three  wind  inatnunenta.  on  Daniah  and 

Bnmiafi  alra 
ML  SoQTcnir  d*Italie.  for  of. 
Kl.  Alboahlatt  for  pL,  4  handa. 

n.  iMk  Flanete  dn  Timhalier  (Victor  Hofo's  ballade),  voice  and  orch. 
r  pf.  and  rin. 
w  tor  1 

».  LeaCliMteada  Soir.  pf. 

!J1  Fka  i«d«ttfaM  for  pf .,  4  hauda. 

•C.  Befaetao  for  two  pfa.,  4  handa. 

«  Valae  eumalate  for  of. 

Ml  AlHea.  tontalale;  pi  and  orcb. 

n.  Mte.pl 

n.  Chant  aaphlnuB,  reello  and  pf. 

K.  Senmd  trio,  B  minor,  pf .  and  atrlnga. 

Kt  Barahande  and  Binvdun  for  orcheatra. 
"i  tor  fiora. 


A  ftentaiaie  far  harp. 

M.  Caprice  Aiabe  for  two  pCa..  4  handa. 

•7.  TWme  valid,  for  pL 

ML  PaOaa  Athene,  hymn  for  aop.  and  orchestra. 

M.  Thne  preludea  and  f  ii«nea  tor  organ. 

IML  aoannlr  dlamalUa.  pf. 

m.  Fkntalale  lor  organ.  . 

1«1  BMWid  eonata.  pi  and  Tiolln.  Efe 


1«S.  Fifth  pi  eoneerto  in  F. 
]«!.  Valae  Hlgooone  for  pi 
M&  BereeoM  for  pi.  4  handa. 

Werfca  vithont  opoa  unmberi— 
fkntalale  tor  rloUn  and  harp  (190f7). 
Twenty^lTe  moteta:  aonga.  part-aongs.  etc. 
~  '  "     a  of  hia  own  and  other  moaic 


6.  c.  ;  with  additions  by  MM.  Adolphe 
Jollien  and  Gustavo  Ferrari ;  from  the  mono- 
graph by  O.  Neitzel  in  BeriihmU  Musiker ; 
Reimann's  and  Baker's  Dictionaries,  etc. 

SAINTON,  PaosPKR  Philippe  Catherine, 
an  eminent  violin-player,  born  June  5,  1818,  at 
Toalouse,  where  his  father  was  a  merchant.  He 
received  his  education  at  the  College  of  Toulouse, 
and  was  destined  to  the  law,  but  his  great  talent 
for  music,  combined  with  other  reasons,  for- 
tunately altered  this,  and  in  Dec.  1881  he 
entered  the  Conservatoire  at  Paris,  and  studied 
the  violin  under  Habeneck,  taking  the  first  prize 
in  1884.  For  two  years  after  this  he  was  a 
member  of  the  orchestra  of  the  Soci^t^  des 
OoDoertB,  and  the  Orand  Opera  ;  and  then  made 
an  extended  tour  through  Italy,  Germany, 
Russia,  Finland,  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Spain, 
with  great  success.  In  1840  he  was  appointed 
Professor  of  the  violin  iii  the  Conservatoire  of 

VOL  IV 


his  native  city.  In  1844  he  made  his  first 
visit  to  England,  and  played  at  the  Philharmonic 
on  June  10,  and  July  8,  of  that  memorable 
season,  under  the  baton  of  Mendelssohn.  The 
following  year  he  returned,  was  appointed  Pro- 
fessor at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  and 
settled  in  London.  He  took  the  first  and  second 
violin  alternately  with  Sivori,  Ernst,  Molique, 
and  Yieuxtemps,  at  the  performances  of  Beet- 
hoven's quartets,  at  the  house  of  Mr.  Alsager 
in  1845  and  1846,  which  resulted  in  the  '  Beet- 
hoven Quartet  Society.'  He  was  also  a  constant 
leader  at  the  performances  of  the  Musical  Union, 
the  Quartet  Association,  the  Monday  Popular 
Concerts,  etc.  etc.  On  the  establishment  of 
the  Royal  Italian  Opera  at  Covent  Garden,  April 
6,  1847,  Mr.  Sainton  became  leader  of  the 
orchestra,  a  post  which  he  held  until  1871, 
when  he  accompanied  Sir  Michael  Costa  to  the 
rival  house,  and  remained  there  till  1880.  He 
was  leader  of  the  Philharmonic  band  from  1846 
to  1854  inclusive,  and  of  the  Sacred  Harmonic 
Society  from  1848,  conducting  the  performances 
of  the  latter  Society  in  the  absence  of  his  chief, 
as  he  did  those  of  the  Opera.  He  was  also  for 
many  years  leader  of  the  Birmingham  Festivals, 
and  other  provincial  musical  performances. 
From  1848  to  1855  he  was  conductor  of  the 
State  Band  and  violin  solo  to  the  Queen,  resign- 
ing the  post  of  his  own  accord.  At  the  opening 
of  the  International  Exhibition  of  1862  Sainton 
conducted  the  performance  of  Stemdale  Bennett's 
Ode  (to  Tennyson's  words)  and  was  presented 
by  the  composer  with  the  autograph  of  the  work 
as  a  token  of  his  gratitude  and  consideration. 
Among  the  many  pupils  whom  he  formed  during 
his  long  career  as  Professor  of  the  Violin  at  the 
Royal  Academy  may  be  mentioned  H.  Weist 
Hill,  F.  Amor,  A.  C.  Mackenzie,  A.  Burnett, 
Gabrielle  Vaillant,  W.  Sutton,  and  many  more 
good  players.  His  works  comprise  two  Con- 
certos for  the  violin  with  orchestra ;  a  Solo  de 
Concert ;  a  Rondo  mazurka  ;  three  Romances  ; 
several  airs  with  variations ;  and  numerous 
Fantasias  on  operas.  In  1860  Mr.  Sainton 
married  Miss  Dolby,  the  well-known  English 
contralto  singer.  [See  below.]  His  farewell 
concert  took  place  at  the  Albert  Hall,  on  June 
25,  1883,  and  he  died  on  Oct.  17,  1890.  o. 
SAINTON-DOLBY,  Charlotte  Helen,  was 
bom  in  London,  May  17,  1821,  and  gave  signs 
of  possessing  decided  musical  talent  when  still 
young.  Her  earliest  instructress  was  a  Mrs. 
Montague,  from  whom  she  received  pianoforte 
lessons.  On  the  death  of  her  father  Miss  Dolby 
determined  to  adopt  the  musical  profession,  and 
in  Jan.  1884  entered  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Music,  where  she  first  studied  under  Mr.  J. 
Bennett  and  Mr.  Elliott,  and  then  under  Signer 
Crivelli.  In  1837  so  great  was  her  promise 
that  she  was  elected  a  King's  Scholar,  although 
her  voice  was  still  weak  and  not  fully  developed. 
She  remained  at  the  Academy  for  three  years, 

P 


no 


SAITEN 


SALAMAN 


and  after  leaving  was  elected  an  honorary 
member  of  the  institntion.  Almost  from  the 
date  of  her  first  appearance  in  public,  until  her 
retirement  in  1870,  she  remained  unrivalled  as 
a  singer  of  oratorio  and  English  ballads.  The 
admirable  skill  with  which  she  controlled  a 
powerful  contralto  voice,  the  exquisite  intona- 
tion, perfect  enunciation,  and  noble  declamation 
which  distinguished  her  singing,  caused  her  to 
take  a  very  high  place,  not  only  among  English, 
but  among  European  artists  of  the  19th  century. 
She  made  her  first  appearance  at  the  Philhar- 
monic in  a  quartet,  June  14,  1841,  and  in  a 
solo,  April  14,  1842.  In  the  winter  of  1845- 
1846,  Mendelssohn,  who  had  been  delighted  by 
her  singing  in  *St.  Paul,'  obtained  for  her  an 
engagement  at  the  Gewandhaus  Concerts  at 
Leipzig,  where  her  first  appearance  took  place 
Oct.  25,  1845,  and  on  Dec.  6  she  sang  in  a 
duet  with  Jenny  Liud.  About  this  time 
Mendelssohn  dedicated  to  her  his  Six  Songs  ^ 
(op.  57),  besides  writing  the  contralto  music  in 
'  £Il\jah '  with  the  special  view  to  her  singing 
it.  Her  success  in  Leipzig  was  followed  by 
several  concert  tours  in  France  and  Holland, 
in  both  of  which  countries  Miss  Dolby  estab- 
lished her  reputation  as  a  singer  of  the  first 
rank.  In  1860  she  married  M.  Prosper  Sainton, 
(see  above),  and  ten  years  later  she  retired  from 
public  life.  In  1872  Mme.  Sainton  opened  her 
Vocal  Academy,  at  which  she  successfully 
trained  many  excellent  artists  in  the  admirable 
school  of  pure  vocalisation,  of  which  she  was 
herself  so  distinguished  an  example.  Mme. 
Fanny  Moody  is  her  most  eminent  pupil. 
Besides  her  labours  in  connection  with  this 
Academy,  Mme.  Sainton  appeared  before  the 
world  as  a  composer.  Her  cantatas  '  The  Legend 
of  St  Dorothea,'  and  *The  Story  of  the  Faithful 
Soul,'  produced  respectively  at  St  James's  Hall 
on  June  14,  1876,  and  Steinway  Hall  on  June 
19,  1879,  have  been  performed  in  the  provinces 
and  the  colonies  with  unvaried  success.  A  fairy 
cantata  for  female  voices,  '  Florimel,'  was  pub- 
lished after  her  death,  which  took  place  at  71 
Gloucester  Place,  Hyde  Park,  Feb.  18,  1885  ; 
she  was  buried  at  Highgate  Cemetery,  the  great 
concourse  of  persons  assembled  testifying  to  the 
estimation  in  which  the  singer  was  held.  The 
Royal  Academy  of  Music  founded,  shortly  after 
her  death,  a  scholarship  in  memory  of  the 
eminent    singer,    once    a    student  within    its 

SAITEN,  SAITENINSTEUMENTE  (Germ.) 
Strings,  Stringed  Instruments. 

SALA,  Nicola,  bom  at  a  little  village  near 
Benevento,  Naples,  in  1701,  and  brought  up  in 
the  Conservatorio  della  Pietii  de'  Turchini  under 
Fago,  Abos,  and  Leo.  He  died  in  1800,  and 
devoted  the  whole  of  a  long  life  to  his  Conser- 
vatorio, in  which  he  succeeded  Fago  as  second 
master  about  1764,  and  Cafaro  in  1787,  as  first 

1  AIM  dedicated  to  Mme.  Uria,  Fnge. 


master.  The  great  work  to  which  all  his  enei^es 
were  devoted  was  his  Jieffole  del  coiUrappurUo 
praJtUco  in  three  large  volumes,  containing 
methodical  instruction  in  the  composition  of 
fugues,  canons,  etc.,  which  was  published  in 
1794.  During  the  disturbances  in  Italy  the 
engraved  plates  vanished  for  a  time  and  were 
supposed  to  be  lost  Choron  then  reprinted  the 
work  (Paris,  1808),  but  the  plates  were  after- 
wards diBOOvered.  Both  editions  are  in  the 
Library  of  the  Boyal  College  of  Music  Sala 
wrote  little  besides  this  work.  Three  operas, 
*  Vologeso,'  1737  ;  'Zenobia,'  1761  ;  and  *  Me- 
rope,'  1769;  an  oratorio,  *Giuditta,'  1780; 
three  'Prologues'  on  the « births  of  kings  of 
Naples ;  a  Mass,  a  Litany,  and  a  few  smaller 
pieces,  are  mentioned  by  Florimo  {Cenno  storico, 
p.  562).  G. 

SALAMAK,  Charles  Kensington,*  bora 
in  London,  March  8,  1814  ;  began  music  early 
— violin,  PF.,  and  composition.  In  1824  he 
became  a  student  of  the  Boyal  Academy  of 
Music,  but  soon  left  it  and  studied  under  Charles 
Neate,  the  friend  of  Beethoven.  He  made  his 
first  public  appearance  at  Blackheath,  in  1828, 
as  a  PF.  player ;  then  went  to  Paris  and  took 
lessons  of  Herz,  and  in  the  following  summer 
returned  to  London  and  began  teaching,  play- 
ing, and  writing. 

In  1830  he  played  a  rondeau  brillant  of  his 
own  in  London,  and  composed  an  ode  for  tlie 
Shakespeare  commemoration,  which  was  per- 
formed at  Stratford-on-Avon,  April  23,  and  was 
repeated  in  London.  From  1833  to  1837  he 
gave  annual  orchestral  concerts  in  London,  at 
one  of  which  he  played  Mendelssohn's  G  minor 
Concerto  for  the  third  time  in  England — the 
former  two  performances  having  been  by  the 
composer  himself.  [In  1835  he  instituted,  with 
Henry  Blagrove  and  others,  the  Concert!  da 
Camera.  He  was  an  associate  of  the  Philhar- 
monic Society  from  1837  to  1855.]  In  1846, 
1847,  and  1 84  8  he  resided  at  Bome,  and  while  oon> 
ducting  Beethoven's  Symphony  No.  2  (for  the 
first  time  in  Bome),  the  concert  was  interrupted 
by  the  news  of  Louis  Philippe's  flight  from 
Paris.  [He  was  made  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  St  Cecilia  in  1847.  He  founded  an  amateur 
choral  society  in  London  in  1849.]  On  March 
18,  1850,  he  played  at  the  Philharmonia  In 
1855  he  began  a  series  of  lectures  on  the  History 
of  the  Pianoforte,  and  other  musical  subjects, 
which  he  continued  both  in  London  and  the 
country  for  several  years.  In  1868  he  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  Musical  Society  of 
London,  and  acted  as  its  honorary  secretary 
until  1865.  [He  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  Musical  Association,  and  its  secretary  until 
1877.]  Mr.  Salaman  was  for  many  years 
a  well-known  professor  and  teacher  of  music  in 
London.     Besides  the  ever -popular   *I   arise 

>  H«  a«am«d  thU  iutni«  in  1867  at  the  dedre  of  hit  father,  *ho 
bad  been  born  in  Kensington  in  178S. 


SALAMMBO 


SALIERI 


211 


from  dreams  of  thee,'  he  composed  many  songs, 

some  to  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin  words ;  Psalms 

(the  84th,  29th) ;  anthems,  choral  works,  in 

Hebrew  for  the  service  of  the  Synagogue,  and 

Tarious  PF.  pieces.     He  contributed  to  various 

mosicsl  journals.    [He  died  in  London,  June  28, 

1901.   An  interesting  obituary  notice  appeared 

in  the  Musical  Times,  1901,  p.  580.    Additions 

from  that  article  and  from  Brit.  Mus,  Biog,']  g. 

SALAJIHB6.    Opera  in  three  acts  ;  text  by 

Ihi  Lode,  music  by  £.  Reyer.     Produced  at 

Bniuels,  Feb.  9,  1890. 

SAIX:iONAL.     See  Salicional. 

SALE,  John,  bom  at  Gainsborough,  March 

19,  1734,  was  admitted  in  1766  a  lay  clerk  of 

St  Geoige's  Chapel,  Windsor,  and  held  that  post 

until  his  death,  Oct.  2,  1802. 

His  son  John,  bom  in  London  in  1758,  was 
in  1767  admitted  a  chorister  of  St.  George's 
Chapel,  Windsor,  and  Eton  College  under  William 
Webb,  and  so  continued  until  1775.  In  1777  he 
obtained  a  lay  clerk's  place  in  both  choirs.  On 
July  12, 1788,  he  was  admitted  a  gentleman  of 
the  Chapel  Royal  in  the  room  of  Nicholas  Lade 
or  lAdd  ;  in  1794  he  succeeded  John  Soaper  as 
vicar  choral  of  St  Paul's ;  and  in  1796  John 
Hindis  as  lay -vicar  of  Westminster  Abbey.  At 
Christmas  1796  he  resigned  his  appointments 
at  Windsor  and  Eton.  In  1800  he  succeeded 
Richard  Bellamy  as  almoner  and  master  of  the 
choristers  of  St  Paul's.  On  Jan.  14,  1812,  he 
was  appointed  successor  to  Samuel  Webbe  as 
secretazy  to  the  Catch  Club,  and  soon  afterwards 
resigned  his  places  of  almoner  and  master  of  the 
chonsters  of  St.  Paul's.  He  was  also  conductor 
of  the  Glee  Club.  He  possessed  a  rich,  full, 
and  mellow -toned  bass  voice,  and  sang  with 
distmct  articulation  and  energetic  expression. 
He  was  for  thirty  years  a  principal  singer  at  the 
Concert  of  Antient  Music  and  other  leaiding  con- 
certs in  London,  and  at  various  provincial  festi- 
vals. He  composed  several  glees  (published  in 
1800)  and  some  which  were  included,  with  glees 
by  Lord  Momington  and  other  composers,  in 
collections  published  by  him.  He  died  at  West- 
minster, Nov.  11,1827.  He  left  two  sons,  viz.  — 
John  Bernard,  bora  at  Windsor,  June  24, 
1 779,  and  admitted  a  chorister  of  St  George's 
Chapel,  Windsor,  and  Eton  College  in  1785. 
[He  was  in  the  chorus  of  the  Antient  Concerts 
in  1792,  and  in  1794  was  principal  soprano  at 
the  Three  Choir  Festival  at  Hereford.]  In 
1800  he  suooeeded  Richard  Bellamy  as  lay- vicar 
of  Westminster  Abbey  ;  on  Jan.  19,  1803,  was 
admitted  a  gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  in 
the  place  of  Samuel  Champness,  and  in  1806, 
OQ  the  death  of  Richard  Guise,  obtained  a  second 
lay-Ticar's  place  at  Westminster  Abbey.*  On 
March  30,  1809,  he  succeeded  Michael  Rock  as 
organist  of  St  Maigaret's,  Westminster.     About 

'  In  onier  to  umlCTcUnd  how  one  pcnon  coold  perf onn  th«  dniiM 
^  tvo  in  Htm  Mine  choir  it  is  neoenary  to  explain  that  by  long- 
*tu«UttC  tiMtoiu  ««eh  lay  Ticiur  attends  daring  ilz  months  of  the 
^r  m\f,  tjc  In  each  alternate  month. 


1826  he  was  appointed  musical  instructor  to  the 
Princess  Victoria.  In  1888  he  was  admitted 
organist  of  the  Chapel  Royal  on  the  death  of 
Attwood.  His  voice  was  a  powerful  bass,  and 
his  style  of  singing  chaste  and  refined ;  he. 
excelled  in  anthems,  glees,  and  other  part-music. 
He  was  for  many  years  principal  second  bass  at 
the  Concerts  of  Antient  Music.  He  long  enjoyed 
a  high  reputation  as  a  teacher  of  singing  and  the 
pianoforte.  His  compositions  were  few,consisting 
only  of  some  chants,  psalm-tunes,  Eyries,  glees, 
songs,  and  duets.  One  of  his  duets,  *  The  Butter- 
fly, *  was  long  in  favour.  In  1 83 7  he  published  a 
collection  of  psalm  and  hymn  tunes,  chants,  etc., 
with  a  concise  system  of  chanting.  He  died  at 
Westminster,  Sept  16,  1866.  Of  his  three 
daughters,  two,  Mary  Anne  and  Sophia,  were 
organists  and  teachers  of  music  ;  Sophia  died 
May  3,  1869.  The  youngest,  Laura,  was  the 
wife  of  William  John  Thorns,  the  antiquary, 
and  originator  of  I^otes  and  Queries* 

The  other  son,  George  Charles,  bom  at 
Windsor  in  1796,  was  admitted  a  chorister  of 
St.  Paul's underhis  fatherin  1803.  Heafterwards 
became  a  skilful  organist ;  in  1 81 7  succeeded  Dr. 
Busby  as  organist  of  St  Mary,  Kewington,  and 
in  1826  was  appointed  organist  of  St  George's, 
Hanover  Square.  He  died  Jan.  23, 1869.  w.h.h. 
SALICIONAL,  or  SALICET,  a  soft- toned 
organ-stop  of  a  reedy  quality.  The  pipes  are  of 
a  very  small  scale,  the  tenor  C  being  of  about 
the  same  diameter  as  the  middle  C  of  an  ordinary 
open  diapason.  The  mouth  is  also  much  more 
'  cut  up '  than  that  of  a  diapason  pipe.  The 
origin  of  the  word  Salicet  is  plain  ;  to  this  day 
country  boys  make  toy  wind-instruments  out  of 
*  withy ' ;  but  withy  is  also  called  *  sally,'  and 
'  sally '  is  sdUx,  a  willow.  In  some  counties  a 
willow  is  called  (by  combining  both  names)  a 
'  sally- withy. '  A  Salicet  is  therefore  a  stop  made 
to  imitate  a  rustic  *  willow-pipe. '  The  introduc- 
tion of  the  Salicional  or  Salicet  was  later  than 
that  of  the  Dulciana  (said  to  have  been  invented 
by  Snetzler),  and  it  must  be  considered  merely 
as  a  variety  of  that  stop.  It  is  of  8  ft  or  unison 
pitch.  J.  s. 

SALIERI,  Antonio,  Court-capellmeister  at 
Vienna,  son  of  a  wealthy  merchant,  born  August 
19,  1760,  at  Legnago  in  the  Veronese  territory, 
learnt  music  early  from  his  brother  Franz,  a 
2>upil  of  Tartini.  After  the  death  of  his  parents 
a  member  of  the  Mocenigo  family  took  him  to 
Venice,  where  he  continued  his  studies,  and 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Gassmann,  composer 
and  late  Capellmeister  to  the  Emperor,  who 
became  much  interested  in  him,  and  took  him 
to  Vienna  in  June  1766.  Here  Gassmann  con- 
tinued his  fatherly  care,  provided  his  protege 
with  teachers,  and  himself  instructed  him  in 
composition,  made  him  acquainted  with  Meta- 
stasio,  and  introduced  him  to  the  Emperor 
Joseph,  whose  chamber-concerts  he  henceforth 
attended,  and  often  took  an  active  part  in. 


212 


SALIERI 


SALIERI 


While  Gassmann  was  in  Rome,  composing  an 
opera  for  the  Carnival  of  1770,  Salieri  conducted 
the  rehearsals  for  him,  and  composed  his  own 
first  comic  opera,  *  Le  Donne  letterate,*  which 
receiyed  the  approval  of  Gluck  and  Calzabigi, 
and  was  performed  with  success  at  the  Burg- 
theater.  On  Gassmann's  death  in  1774  Salieri 
returned  his  paternal  kindness  by  doing  all  in 
his  power  for  the  family,  and  educating  the  two 
daughters  as  opera-singers.  In  the  same  year 
the  Emperor  appointed  him  court  composer,  and 
on  Bonno's  death  in  1788  he  became  Oourt- 
capellmeister.  He  was  also  a  director  of  the 
opera  for  twenty- four  years,  till  1790,  when  he 
resigned,  and  out  of  compliment  to  him  the 
post  was  given  to  his  pupil  Weigl.  In  1778 
Salieri  was  in  Italy,  and  composed  five  operas 
for  Venice,  Milan,  and  Rome.  For  the 
Emperor's  newly -founded  National  Singspiel 
he  wrote  *Der  Rauchfangkehrer '  (1781),  and 
for  a  fSte  at  Schonbrunn  *  Prima  la  musica,  poi 
le  parole*  (1786).^  When  the  Academic  de 
Musique  in  Paris  requested  Gluck  to  suggest  a 
composer  who  could  supply  them  with  a  French 
opera  in  which  his  own  principles  should  be 
carried  out,  he  proposed  Salieri,  who  accordingly 
received  the  libretto  of  'Les  Danaides'  from 
Moline,  worked  at  it  under  Gluck's  supervision, 
and  personally  superintended  its  production  in 
Paris  (April  26,  1784).*  He  was  entrusted 
with  librettos  for  two  more  operas,  and  returned 
with  a  great  increase  of  fame  to  Vienna,  where 
he  composed  an  opera  buffa,  'La  Grotto  di 
Trofonio'  (Oct.  12,  1785),  the  best  of  its  kind 
and  one  of  his  finest  works,  which  had  an 
extraordinary  success,  and  was  engraved  by 
Artaria.  In  1787  he  again  visited  Paris, 
where  the  first  of  his  operas,  *Les  Horaces,' 
had  failed  (Dec.  7,  1786),  owing  to  a  variety 
of  untoward  circumstances,  a  failure  amply 
retrieved,  however,  by  the  brilliant  success  of 
•  Axur,  Re  d'Orraus '  (Jime  8,  1787)  or  *  Tarare,' 
as  it  was  first  called.  This,  which  has  remained 
hi3  most  important  work,  was  first  performed  in 
Vienna,  Jan.  8,  1788.  Another  work  composed 
in  Vienna  for  Paris  was  a  cantata,  *  Le  Dernier 
Jugement''  (libretto  by  Chevalier  Roger), 
ordered  by  the  Soci^te  d'Apollon,  and  per- 
formed there  and  at  the  Concerts  Spirituels 
with  great  applause  from  the  connoisseurs.  In 
1801  Salieri  went  to  Trieste  to  conduct  an  opera 
composed  for  the  opening  of  a  new  opera-house. 
This  was  his  last  Italian  opera,  and  *  Die  Neger ' 
(Vienna,  1804)  his  last  German  one,  for  owing 
to  his  dislike  to  the  change  of  taste  in  dramatic 

>  MoBurt'i  'Schnaftpielcltrcetor'  wu  giren  the  »m«  evening. 
3  The  plaj-biU  of  the  flrat  twelve  performances  daeerlbed  It  ae 
•n  opem  b^  Oluck  and  SUierl.  in  Hoeordanoe  with  a  etlpalatlon  of 


the  pubUaber  Deslanrlera,  trat  before  the  thirteenth  repreeentatlon 
Oluck  publlolj  atoted  in  the  Journal  de  ParU  that  SaUeri  waa  the 
■ole  author. 

>  The  toUowinf  aueodote  la  connectad  with  this  cantata.  Salieri 
waa  talking  over  the  dlfflooltfea  of  the  work  with  Olnek,  eaneciaUy 
aa  to  the  voice  to  be  aadgned  to  the  part  of  Chrlat,  for  wnioh  he 
Anally  propoaed  a  high  tenor.  Oluck  aaaented,  adding,  half  in  Joke, 
half  in  eamaiit, '  Before  long  I  will  tend  yon  word  from  the  other 
world  in  what  k«y  our  Saviour  apeaka.'  Pour  days  later.  Nov.  IS, 
1787,  he  waa  dead. 


music,  he  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  chnrch 
music,  composing  also  a  few  instrumental  pieces, 
choruses,  and  canons  in  various  parts,  published 
as  'Scherzi  armonici/  On  June  16,  1816,  he 
celebrated  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  com- 
mencement of  his  career  in  Vienna,  when  he 
was  decorated  with  the  gold  <  Civil -Ehren- 
medaille '  and  chain,  and  honoured  by  a  fete, 
at  which  were  performed  special  compositions- 
by  each  of  his  pupils,  including  Schubert.* 
Salieri  was  also  vice-president  of  the  Tonkiinstler 
Societat,  and  till  1818  conducted  nearly  all  the 
concerts.  For  the  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of 
its  foundation  (1796)  he  composed  a  cantata 
'  La  Rioonoscenza,'  and  for  the  fiftieth  (1821)  a 
part-song,  *  Zu  Ehren  Joseph  Haydn,'  to  whom 
the  society  was  largely  indebted.  Salieri  was- 
also^a  generous  contributor  to  the  funds.  He 
took  great  interest  in  the  foundation  of  the 
Conservatoriuni  (1817),  and  wrote  a  singing- 
method  for  the  pupils.  He  lost  his  only  son  in 
1805,  and  his  wife  in  1807,  and  never  recovered 
his  spirits  afterwards.  On  June  14,  1824, 
after  fifty  years  of  service  at  court,  he  was. 
allowed  to  retire  on  his  full  salary,  and  died 
May  7,  1826. 

His  biographer,  Edler  von  Mosel  (Ueber  das 
Leben  und  die  Werke  des  Anton  Salieri^  Vienna, 
1827),  describes  him  as  a  methodical,  active, 
religious -minded,  benevolent,  and  peculiarly 
grateful  man,  easily  irritated,  but  as  quickly 
pacified.  We  have  seen  how  he  dischai^ged  hia 
obligations  to  Gassmann.  He  gave  gratuitous 
instruction  and  substantial  aid  of  various  kinds 
to  many  poor  musicians,  and  to  the  library  of 
the  Tonkiinstler  Societat  he  bequeathed  forty- 
one  scores  in  his  own  handwriting  (thirty-four 
operas,  and  seven  cantatas)  now  in  the  Hof- 
bibliothek.  In  accordance  with  his  own  wish 
his  Requiem  was  performed  after  his  death  at 
the  Italian  church.  He  remained  throughout 
on  cordial  terms  with  Haydn,  whose  two  great 
oratorios  he  often  conducted,  and  Beethoven 
dedicated  to  him  in  1799  three  sonatas  for  PF. 
and  violin,  op.  12.  In  the  first  volume  of  his 
Beethoven's  Siudien  (Rieter-Biedermann,  1873), 
Nottebohm  has  printed  ten  Italian  vocal  pieces, 
submitted  by  Beethoven  to  Salieri,  with  the 
corrections  of  the  latter.  These  chiefly  concern 
the  arrangement  of  the  notes  to  the  words,  so 
as  to  conform  to  the  rules  of  Italian  prosody, 
and  produce  the  best  effect.  The  pieces  are 
undated,  but  internal  evidence  fixes  them  to 
the  period  between  1793  and  1 802.  It  appears 
that  as  late  as  1809  the  great  composer  con- 
sulted his  old  adviser  as  to  the  arrangement  of 
his  Italian,  probably  in  the  'Four  Ariettas 
and  Duet '  of  op.  82 ;  and  that  even  then, 
when  Beethoven  was  so  fiercely  independent  of 
all  other  musicians,  their  relations  were  such 
that  he  voluntarily  styled   himself  'Salieri's 

4  The  autogimph  of  Sehubert'a  Cantata— both  wntda  and  Mwie  Vy 
him— waa  aold  by  auction  in  Itela,  May  1<  188L 


SALIMBENE 


SALMON 


213 


pEBpil.'*  As  regards  Mozart,  Salieri  cannot 
escape  oensnre,  for  though  the  accusation  of 
having  been  the  cause  of  his  death  has  been 
long  ago  disproved,  it  is  more  than  possible  that 
he  was  not  displeased  at  the  removal  of  so 
formidable  a  rival.  At  any  rate  though  he  had 
it  iu  his  power  to  influence  the  £mperor  in 
Mozart's  fiivour,  he  not  only  neglected  to  do  so, 
bat  even  intrigued  against  him,  as  Mozart 
himself  relates  in  a  letter  to  his  friend  Puch- 
b^.*  After  his  death,  however,  Salieri  be- 
friended his  son,  and  gave  him  a  testimonial, 
which  secured  him  his  first  appointment. 

His  works  were  too  much  in  accordance  with 
the  taste,  albeit  the  best  taste,  of  the  day  to 
survive.  He  drew  up  a  catalogue  of  them  in 
1818.  They  comprise  five  Masses,  a  Requiem, 
three  Te  Deums,  and  several  smaller  diuroh 
works ;  four  oratorios  (including  '  La  Passions 
di  Gesii  Cristo,'  performed  by  the  Tonkiinstler 
Societsit  in  1777);  one  French,  three  Italian, 
and  two  Gexman  cantatas,  and  five  patriotic 
part-songB ;  several  instrumental  pieces ;  two 
operas  to  French,  and  thii'ty-seven  to  Italian 
woids ;  one  German  Singspiel,  three  German 
operas,  and  numerous  vocal  pieces  for  one  or 
more  voices,  choruses,  canons,  fragments  of 
operas,  etc  [See  the  Quellen- L&Bthni  for 
detailed  listj[  c.  p.  p. 

SALIMBENE,  Fra,  a  Minorite  monk,  of 
Parma,  who  began  his  life  early  in  the  18th 
century,  and  seems  to  have  lived  through  the 
greater  part  of  the  same  century  (achieving  a 
good  de^  of  distinction  in  his  order)  and  whose 
extremely  curious  Cumaca  or  Diary,  throws 
eonsiderable  interesting  side-light  on  musical 
affairs  in  his  time.  He  was  a  skilled  and 
passionate  music-lover.  He  gives  us  our  ac- 
counts of  two  or  three  distinguished  monkish 
composers  and  singers  of  his  day,  including  the 
ODoe-fiunous  Fra  Enrico  da  Pisa,  and  Fra  Vita 
da  Lucca,  who  were  in  great  demand  during 
their  careers.  The  Crrniaaa,  was  found  in  the 
Vatican  Library  in  the  middle  of  the  19th 
century.  It  has  been  printed  (though  never 
completely)  in  the  original  Latin,  and  in  a 
translation  into  Italian  made  by  Cantarelli,  and 
published  by  Battei,  at  Parma  in  1882.  The 
Latin  version  is  now  extremely  rare  ;  and  even 
the  Italian  text  long  out  of  print.  But  the 
book  deserves  the  attention  of  musicians,  pasmm, 
in  much  the  way  that  Pepys's  Diary  does,  on 
aocoont  of  its  intelligent  references  to  the  art 
of  music  at  a  period  so  early,  and  not  too 
dearly  depicted  by  contemporaries.  A  new  ^ 
and  complete  edition  is  about  to  be  published  * 
(1907).  K.  I.  p.  fi. 

SALMON,  Mbs.,  whose  maiden  name  was 
Eliza  Munday,  was  bom  at  Oxford  in  1787. 
Her  mother's  family  had  produced  several  good 
musicians ;  her  uncle,  William  Mahon  (bom 
1753,  died  at  Salisbury,  May  2,  1816),  was 

•*s  Ut9^  L  la      s  Nottebohm's  M^nniioma,  p.  64. 


the  best  clarinettist  of  his  day ;  her  aunts, 
Mrs.  Warton,  Mrs.  Ambrose,  and  Mrs.  Second, 
were  excellent  singers  of  the  second  rank. 
She  was  a  pupil  of  John  Ashley,  and  made  her 
first  appearance  at  Covent  Garden  in  the  Lenten 
concerts  given  by  him  under  the  name  of 
'oratorios,*  March  4, 1808.  On  Feb.  11, 1806, 
she  married  James  Salmon,  and  went  to  reside 
at  Liverpool,  where  she  became  distinguished 
as  a  concert  singer,  occasionally  appearing  in 
London,  and  rapidly  attaining  the  highest 
(lopularity.  In  1812  she  sang  at  the  Gloucester 
Festival,  and  in  1815  at  the  Antient  Concerts. 
From  that  time  to  the  close  of  her  career  her 
services  were  iu  constant  request  at  nearly  all 
the  concerts,  oratorios,  and  festivals  in  town 
and  country.  Her  voice  was  a  pure  soprano  of 
the  most  b^utiftd  quality,  of  extensive  compass, 
very  brilliant  tone,  and  extraordinary  flexibility. 
She  excelled  in  songs  of  agility,  and  was  unsur- 
passed for  the  rapi^ty,  neatness,  and  certainty 
of  her  execution,  and  the  purity  of  her  taste 
in  the  choice  of  omament.  In  the  higher  and 
more  intellectual  qualities  of  singing,  expression 
and  feeling,  she  was  wanting.  But  she  extorted 
admiration,  even  from  those  most  sensible  of 
her  deficiencies,  by  the  loveliness  of  her  voice 
and  the  ease  with  which  she  executed  the  most 
difficult  passages.  She  unfortunately  gave  way 
to  intemperance,  which  eventually  occasioned 
derangement  of  the  nervous  system,  and  in 
1825  she  suddenly  lost  her  voice.  She  en- 
deavoured to  gain  a  livelihood  by  teaching 
singing,  but,  lUthough  she  was  well  qualified 
for  it,  the  ignorant  public  concluded  that,  as 
she  herself  had  lost  the  power  of  singing,  she 
was  incapable  of  instracting  others.  She  re- 
married a  Bev.  Mr.  Hinde,  who  died  leaving 
her  totally  destitute.  A  concert  was  given  for 
her  relief,  June  24,  1840,  which  proved  a 
complete  failure.  She  gradually  sank  into  a 
state  of  the  greatest  poverty ;  in  1845  an  effort 
was  made  to  raise  a  fand  to  pmxihase  an  annuity 
for  her,  but  it  was  only  partially  successful. 
She  died  at  No.  88  King's  Boad  East,  Chelsea, 
June  5, 1849.  Her  deatii  was  registered  in  the 
names  of  Eliza  Salmon  Hinde. 

Her  husband.  Jambs  Salmon,  son  of  James 
Salmon  (gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  Nov. 
80,  1789,  vicar  choral  of  St.  Paul's,  and  lay 
clerk  of  St  George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  died 
1827),  received  his  early  musical  education  as 
a  dhorister  of  St  George's,  Windsor.  In  1805 
he  was  appointed  oiganist  of  St  Peter's,  liver- 
pool,  and  was  in  much  esteem  as  a  performer. 
In  1818,  having  fedlen  into  embarrassed  cir- 
cumstances (by  some  attributed  to  his  wife's 
extravagance,  and  by  others  to  his  own 
irregularities),  he  enlisted,  and  went  with  his 
regiment  to  the  West  Indies,  where  he  died. 

William,  another  son  of  James  Salmon,  sen., 
bora  1789,  was  also  a  chorister  of  St.  George's. 
He  was  admitted  a  gentleman  of  the  Chapel 


214 


SALMON 


SALO 


Royal,  May  28,  1817,  and  was  also  lay  vicar  of 
Westminster  Abbey  and  lay  clerk  of  St.  George's, 
Windsor.  With  an  ungrateful  voice  he  sang 
with  much  taste  and  expression,  and  was  an 
excellent  singing-master.  He  died  at  Windsor, 
Jan.  26,  1858.  w.  h.  h. 

SALMON,  Thomas,  bom  at  Hackney, 
Middlesex,  June  24,  1648,  was  on  April  8, 
1664,  admitted  a  commoner  of  Trinity  College, 
Oxford.  He  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  and 
became  rector  of  Mepsal  or  Meppershall,  Bed- 
fordshire. In  1672  he  published  An  Essay  to 
the  Advancement  of  Mitsick,  by  casting  atoay  the 
perplexity  of  different  Cliffs,  and  uniting  all  sorts 
of  Muaiek  in  one  universal  charo/cter.  His  plan 
was  that  the  notes  should  always  occupy  the 
same  position  on  the  stave,  without  regard  as 
to  which  octave  might  be  used  ;  and  he  chose 
such  position  from  that  on  the  bass  stave — i.e. 
G  was  to  be  always  on  the  lowest  line.  Re- 
moving the  bass  clef,  he  substituted  for  it  the 
capital  letter  B,  signifying  Bass.  In  like  manner 
he  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  next  stave  the 
letter  M  (for  Mean),  to  indicate  that  the  notes 
were  to  be  sung  or  played  an  octave  higher  than 
the  bass ;  and  to  the  second  stave  above  prefixed 
the  letter  T  (for  Treble),  to  denote  that  the 
notes  were  to  be  sounded  two  octaves  above  the 
bass.  Matthew  Locke  criticised  the  scheme 
with  great  asperity,  and  the  author  published 
a  Vindication  of  it,  to  which  Locke  and  others 
replied.  [See  Locke,  Matthew.]  [In  1688 
he  wrote  a  book  on  Temperament,  A  Proposal 
to  perform  Music  in  Fejfect  and  Mathematical 
Proportions ;  he  lectured  before  the  Royal  Society 
on  Just  Intonation,  in  July  1705  ;  and  in  the 
following  December  approached  Sir  Hans  Sloane 
with  a  view  of  making  researches  into  the  Greek 
enharmonic  music  He  died  at  Mepsal,  and 
was  buried  there  August  1,  1706.  For  his  non- 
musical  works,  see  I)ict.  of  Nat,  Biog.]    w.  h.  h. 

SALO,  Gasparo  da,  a  celebrated  violin- 
maker  of  Brescia.  [The  career  of  this  maker 
rested  entirely  upon  coig'ecture,  until  the  keeper 
of  the  Brescian  State  Archives,  Cavaliere  Livi, 
undertook  to  investigate  da  Sale's  life,  and 
published  the  result  of  his  researches  in  the 
Nuova  Antologia,  on  August  16,  1891.  The 
documentary  evidence  there  quoted  has  proved 
Gasparo  da  Salo  to  have  been  a  member  of  an 
artistic  family ;  that  his  legitimate  name  was 
Gasparo  di  Bertolotti ;  that  his  grandfather  was 
a  lute-maker  of  Polepenazze,  named  Santino  di 
Bertolotti ;  and  that  his  father  was  a  painter, 
Francesco  di  Bertolotti,  who  was  apparently 
called  *  Violino '  by  his  intimate  friends.  Owing 
to  the  loss  of  certain  requisite  pages  of  the 
parish  registers  of  Salo,  the  exact  date  of  this 
violin-maker's  birth  is  still  unknown,  but  cal- 
culating by  the  income-tax  returns  of  Brescia, 
which  declare  him  to  be  twenty-six  in  1568, 
and  forty-five  in  1588,  his  birth  locates  itself 
with  some  degree  of  accuracy  in  the  year  1542. 


It  is  supposed  that  da  Salo  learnt  his  art  partly 
from  his  grandfather  and  partly  from  a  Brescian 
viol -maker  who  stood  sponsor  to  his  son 
Francesco,  named  Girolamo  Virchi.  Whether 
Virchi  was  da  Sale's  master  or  not  is  merely 
surmise,  but  what  is  certain  is  that  the  great 
Brescian  master's  earliest  efforts  met  with  such 
small  encouragement  that  he  contemplated 
removing  to  France,  but  was  turned  from  his 
purpose  by  a  loan  of  60  lire  from  a  certain 
brother  Gabriel  of  St  Pietro.  This  advance 
was  apparently  the  turning-point  in  da  Salo's 
career ;  it  was  the  moment  when  hazardous 
venture  gave  place  to  definite  aim.  In  1568 
da  Salo  was  renting  a  house  and  shop  in  tlie 
Contrada  del  Palazzo  Veochio,  Breecia,  at  £20 
per  annum.  He  then  possessed  the  title  of 
*Magistro  di  Violino,'  and  owned  a  stock  of 
musical  instruments  which  he  valued  at  £60. 
In  1579  there  is  an  added  title  of  '  Magistro  a 
Cittari,'  and  in  1583  'Artifice  d'  Instnimenti 
di  Musica.'  Five  years  later,  1588,  and  twenty 
after  his  first  establishment  in  the  Contrada 
del  Palazzo  Veochio,  he  changed  his  residence 
to  the  Contrada  Cocere,  w^here  he  valued  his 
stock  of  finished  and  unfinished  violins  at 
£200,  and  styled  himself  Magister  instrumen- 
torum  musica.'  In  1599  he  bought  a  house  in 
Brescia,  in  a  street  called  St.  Peter  the  Martyr  ; 
and  between  1581  and  1607  owned  some  small 
properties  about  Calvagese,  near  Salo.  He 
died  in  Brescia  on  April  14,  1609,  and  although 
all  trace  of  the  place  of  his  interment  is  lost,  it 
is  known  that  he  was  buried  at  Santo  JosefTo  in 
Bresda.  His  wife's  Christian  name  was  Isabella ; 
she  was  bom  in  the  year  1546.  G.  da  Salo's  son, 
Francesco,  was  bom  in  Brescia,  1565,  and  died 
there  in  1614  (?).  He  was  married  to  Signorioa 
Fior  of  Calvegese,  near  Salo,  in  his  twenty- third 
year.  He  followed  the  fiddle -making  pro- 
fession during  his  father's  lifetime,  but  ceased  to 
do  so  after  his  death.  It  is  probable  that  he  sold  . 
his  business  to  his  father's  pupil  Paolo  Maggini, 
and  retired.  In  any  case  he  apparenUy  left 
Brescia  in  1614,  and  nothing  further  is  known 
of  him  after  that  date.]  Gasparo  da  Salo  was 
one  of  the  earliestmakers  of  stringed  instruments 
who  employed  the  pattern  of  the  violin  as  dis- 
tingnished  from  that  of  the  viol  His  works 
are  of  a  primitive  pattem,  more  advanced  than 
that  of  Zanetto  and  other  old  Brescian  makers, 
but  totally  different  from  that  of  the  con- 
temporary Amati  family.  The  model  varies, 
being  sometimes  high,  sometimes  flat ;  the 
middle  curves  are  shallow,  and  the  sound-holes 
straight  and  angular.  The  wood  is  generally 
well  chosen,  and  the  thicknesses  are  correct ; 
and  the  tone  of  the  instniment,  when  of  the 
fiat  model  and  in  good  preservation,  peculiarly 
deep  and  penetrating.  [He  made  many  instru- 
ments, especially  buses,  of  pear  wood  as  well 
as  sycamore  wood.  His  selection  of  timber  was 
most  careful ;  indeed,  the  remarkable  regularity 


SALO 


SALO 


215 


of  the  grain  in  the  bellies  of  his  instruments 
bears  evidence  to  this  particular  trait  of  the 
Brescian  master.  His  yamish  is  principally 
deep  yellow,  and  rich  in  tone,  though  some  of 
his  instruments  are  much  darker  in  colour ;  in 
fact  acme  are  almost  black,  an  effect  doubtless 
due  to  age.  The  sonnd-holes  are  long,  parallel, 
and  pointed  in  form,  and  in  the  gambas  and 
riols  still  retain  the  more  simple  C  shape  ;  yet 
in  spite  of  their  length  they  are  in  perfect 
harmony  with  the  form  of  the  instrument. 
The  puling  is  usually  single,  and  the  general 
appearance  of  his  work  is  bold,  but  not  highly 
finished.  His  tickets  run  as  follows :  '  Gasparo 
da  Salo :  In  Brescia,'  and  are  undated.] 

The  pattern  of  Gasparo  da  Salo  was  partially 
reTived  in  the  18th  century,  owing  no  doubt 
to  its  great  tone -producing  capacity,  by  the 
celebrated  Joseph  Guamerius  (see  that  article), 
and  to  a  less  extent  by  some  of  the  French 
makers.  As  a  maker  of  tenors  and  double- 
basses  Gasparo  da  Salo  has  neyer  had  an  equal, 
and  his  instruments  of  these  classes  are  eagerly 
sought  after.  The  objection  to  his  tenors  is 
their  great  size,  but  their  effect  in  a  quartet  is 
unriralled.  Two  remarkably  fine  specimens, 
formerly  in  the  possession  successively  of  Dr. 
Stewart  of  Wolverhampton,  and  of  Mr.  John 
Adam  of  Blackheath,  are  now  in  the  possession 
of  Kr.  J.  A.  Torrens  Johnson.  [The  most  perfect 
specimen  of  a  da  Salo  viola  ever  seen  by  the 
writer  was  the  one  which  belonged  to  Mr. 
Edwaid  Withers  in  1884.  This  was  a  fine 
primitive  instrument,  and  another  perfect  speci- 
men was  the  propeiiy  of  Mr.  Tyssen  Amherst, 
an  English  amateur  of  celebrity.  At  the  Special 
Loan  Exhibition  of  Musical  Instruments  at  the 
Fishmongers'  Hall  in  1904  there  were  three  of 
da  S«lo*s  masterpieces.  One  was  a  viola  of 
1670,  the  property  of  Mr.  E.  A.  Sandermann  ; 
another  a  viola  da  gamba  of  the  same  date, 
lent  by  Messrs.  W.  £.  Hill  k  Sons  ;  and  a  third 
was  a  viol  of  1565,  belonging  to  F.  Pengrie, 
Esq.  (The  dates  quoted  are  according  to  the 
catalogue. )  At  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum 
there  are  two  Gasparo  da  Salo  Yiole  da  Gamba. 
One  is  mounted  with  seven  strings,  an  innovation 
attribnted  to  Marais  in  the  17th  century.  The 
aonnd-holes  are  in  the  C  form,  the  ribs  6urve 
into  the  neck  in  the  true  viol  fashion,  the  wood 
of  the  belly  is  even  in  grain,  and  the  varnish  is 
brownish  yellow.  Its  complete  length  is  4  feet, 
and  it  was  bought  at  the  sale  of  the  Engel  col- 
lection for  £8.  The  other  gamba  by  this  maker 
is  mounted  for  six  strings.  The  neck  terminates 
in  a  well-carved  grotesque  head  of  an  old  woman ; 
the  wood  of  the  belly  is  even  in  grain  ;  the 
sound-holes  are  in  the  C  form  ;  the  varnish  is 
slightly  darker  than  the  instrument  mentioned 
above.  The  finger-board  is  ornamented  with 
ivory  and  tortoise-shell,  and  bound  with  catgut 
frets.  The  pnriling  is  in  one  single  broad  line. 
It  is  labelled  within  /Gasparo  da  Salo:   In 


Brescia.'  The  length  measures  3  feet  9  inches, 
and  it  was  bought  at  the  sale  of  the  Engel  col- 
lection for  £10.  The  well-known  violin-maker, 
August  Beichers  of  Berlin,  possessed  a  small - 
sized  violonoello  by  this  maker  in  1894  (probably 
a  cut-down  bass),  and  Dragonetti  posseraed  three 
or  four  double-basses  by  da  Salo.  The  most 
celebrated  of  these  instruments  was  presented 
to  him  by  the  monks  of  the  monastery  of  St. 
Marco,  Venice,  about  the  year  1776,  and  was 
returned  to  the  donors  after  his  death.  It  would 
appear  that  this  bass  has  disappeared.  Another 
of  Dragonetti's  basses  was  bequeathed  by  him 
to  the  Duke  of  Leinster,  and  a  third  was  in  the 
possession  of  the  Eev.  G.  Leigh  Blake  in  1875. 
In  the  same  year  Mr.  John  Hart  owned  a  Gasparo 
da  Salo  bass  (small  size)  in  an  exceptional  state  of 
preservation.  The  most  renowned  instrument  of 
this  maker  is  the  violin  which  was  made  by  him 
to  the  order  of  the  Cardinal  Aldobrandini,  a  noble 
patron  of  the  fine  arts  in  Rome,  who  i>aid  da 
Salo  8000  Neapolitan  ducats  for  his  work,  and 
presented  it  to  the  treasury  of  Innspruck,  where 
it  was  preserved  as  a  curiosity.  The  head  of 
this  curious  violin  is  said  to  have  been  carved 
by  Benvenuto  Cellini ;  it  represents  an  angel's 
face  carved  and  coloured,  surrounded  by  flowing 
locks  of  hair.  Behind  this  there  leans  a 
little  mermaid,  the  human  form  of  which 
terminates  in  scales  of  green  and  gold.  Tlie 
tail-piece  is  another  mermaid,  in  bronze  colour, 
and  the  finger-board  is  ornamented  with  ara- 
besques in  blue  and  gold  ;  while  the  bridge  is 
delicately  carved  in  the  form  of  two  intertwin- 
ing fish,  similar  to  the  zodiacal  sign  of  the 
month  of  February.  The  belly  is  made  of  an 
exceedingly  rare  species  of  Swiss  pine,  which 
grows  on  the  Italian  side  of  the  Swiss  Alps,  and 
is  even-grained.  When  Innspruck  was  taken 
by  the  French  in  1809,  this  violin  was  carried 
to  Vienna  and  sold  to  a  wealthy  Bohemian 
amateur  named  Rahaczek,  who  was  a  well- 
known  collector.  Ole  Bull  saw  it  at  Rahaczek's 
house  during  a  visit  to  Vienna  in  1839,  and  tried 
to  persuade  his  host  to  part  with  it,  but  this 
he  refused  to  do.  However,  after  his  death 
Rahaczek's  sons  offered  it  to  the  great  Swedish 
virtuoso  at  a  price,  and.  he  purchased  it  from 
them  in  the  year  1841.  At  the  death  of  Ole 
Bull  this  violin  became  the  property  of  an 
American  amateur  resident  in  the  United  States.! 
Gaspare's  violins,  which  are  mostly  of  small 
size,  are  not  in  request  for  practical  purposes. 

M.  F^tis,  in  A,  Stradivari (IS&i),  mentions  a 
very  remarkable  violin  of  da  Salo  which  was 
sold  at  Milan  in  1807  ;  and  that  Baron  de  Bagge 
also  possessed  one  in  the  year  1788,  of  which 
Rudolph  Kreutzer  spoke  with  admiration.  An- 
other violin  he  states  to  be  in  the  possession  of 
Mr.  T.  Forster,  an  English  amateur,  and  the 
owner  of  a  numerous  collection  of  violins,  which 
bore  the  inscription '  Gasparo  da  Salo:  In  Brescia, 
1613,'  but  either  the  ticket  or  instrument  was 


216 


SALOM]^ 


SALOMON 


doubtless  counterfeit  On  April  21,  1907, 
commemorative  tablets  in  honour  of  Gasiiaro 
da  Salo  and  G.  P.  Maggini  were  placed  in  the 
fafade  of  the  church  of  San  Giuseppe,  and  of  a 
house  near  the  Palazzo  Yecchio,  at  Brescia. 

Von  Lutgendorff,  Die  Lavieni  und  Gfeigen- 
macher  ;  Fleming,  J.  M.,  The  Fiddle  Fancier's 
Guide ;  Schebek,  Edmund,  D&r  Geigenbau  in 
Italien  und  sein  detiUcher  Urspmng  ;  Weusten- 
berg,  H.,  Die  alten  Oalienischen  Oeigmmaeher ; 
Hart,  G.,  *  The  Violin,'  Harper's  Ma^gaziiUy  No. 
368,  Jan.  1881  (No.  2,  vol.  i.,  English  edition)  ; 
Bull,  8a.Ttk,0le  Bull :  A  Memoir,       E.  h-a. 

SALOME.  '  Drama '  in  one  act,  founded  on 
the  French  play  by  Oscar  Wilde,  the  German 
version  by  ^u  Hedwig  Lachmann,  music  by 
Richard  Strauss.  Produced  at  Dresden,  Dec.  9, 
1 905.  Performed  frequently  at  various  German 
music  centres,  and  in  New  York,  1907,  the  re- 
presentation being  forbidden  after  the  first  night. 
Six  special  representations  took  place  at  the 
Th^tre  du  Chatelet,  Paris,  in  German,  begin- 
ning May  8,  1907.  The  work  had  previously 
been  performed  in  Brussels,  in  French.      H. 

SALOME,  Theodore  C£sar,  born  in  Paris, 
Jan.  20,  1834 ;  received  his  education  at  the 
Conservatoire,  where  he  obtained  various  prizes 
for  harmony,  counterpoint,  and  organ,  and 
gained  the  second  Prix  de  Rome  in  1861. 
For  many  years  he  was  organist  of  the  small 
organ  in  the  church  of  the  Trinity,  in  1872-73 
taught  solf^  in  the  Conservatoire,  and  was 
maitre  de  chapelle  at  the  Lyc4e  Saint-Louis, 
etc.  He  wrote  various  excellent  organ  pieces,  and 
several  interesting  orchestral  works,  performed 
by  the  Soci^t^  Nationale  in  1877.  He  died  at 
Saint  Germain-en-Laye  in  July  1896.     o.  f. 

SALOMON,  JoHAKN  Peter,  a  name  insepar- 
ably connected  with  that  of  Haydn,  bom  at 
Bonn,^  1745  (christened  Feb.  2),  early  became 
an  expert  violinist,  and  in  1758  was  admitted 
into  the  orchestra  of  the  Elector  Clement  August. 
In  1765  he  made  a  concert- tour  to  Frankfort 
and  Berlin  ;  and  Prince  Henry  of  Prussia,  who 
had  an  orchestra  and  a  smidl  French  opera- 
company  at  Rheinsberg,  made  him  his  Concert- 
meister,  and  composer  of  operettas.  He  had 
already  showed  his  appreciation  for  Haydn  by 
introducing  his  symphonies  whenever  he  could. 
On  the  prince's  sudden  dismissal  of  his  band, 
Salomon  went  to  Paris,  where  he  was  well  re- 
ceived, but  being  so  near  London  he  determined 
to  go  on  there,  and  on  March  23,  1781,  made 
his  first  appearance  at  Covent  Gai-den  Theatre. 
The  pieces  on  this  occasion  were  Mason's '  Elfrida, ' 
set  to  music  by  Dr.  Ame,  and  CoUins's  '  Ode 
on  the  Passions,'  with  solos  and  choruses  by 
Dr.  Arnold,  both  of  which  he  led,  besides  play- 
ing a  solo  in  the  middle.  The  Morning  Herald 
says  of  him,  '  He  does  not  play  in  the  most 
graceful  style,  it  must  be  confessed,  but  his 

I  11m  BalomoiM'  hoQM  wm  515  BonngAMe,  the  mxa»  In  vhldi 
BMtbovai  wu  born. 


tone  and  execution  are  such  as  cannot  fail  to 
secure  him  a  number  of  admirers  in  the  musical 
world.'  From  this  time  he  frequently  appeared 
at  concerts  as  soloist,  quartet-player  (violin  and 
viola),  and  conductor.  He  quarrelled  with  the 
directors  of  the  Professional  Concerts,  soon  after 
their  foundation,  and  thenceforward  took  an 
independent  line.  During  Mara's  first  season 
in  London,  in  1784,  he  conducted  and  played 
solos  at  all  her  concerts.  The  Morning  Chronicle 
says,  in  1785,  '  Salomon's  solo,  though  jierhape 
not  excelling  in  tone,  was  in  the  greatest  point, 
in  pathetic  impression,  excelled  by  none !  Whose 
violin-playing  appiXMiches  nearer  the  human 
voice  ?  On  the  whole  Salomon  is  a  mannerist, 
but  he  has  much  originality — he  is  very  sus- 
ceptible— he  is  a  genius.'  In  1786  he  gave  a 
series  of  subscription  concerts  at  the  Hanover 
Square  Rooms,  and  produced  symphonies  by 
Haydn  and  Mozart.  From  that  time  he 
contented  himself  with  an  annual  benefit 
concert,  but  acted  as  leader  at  others,  both  in 
London,  as  at  the  Academy  of  Ancient  Music 
in  1789,  and  elsewhere,  as  at  the  Oxford 
Commemoration,  Winchester,  and  Dublin.  A 
grand  chorus  composed  by  him  in  honour  of 
the  king's  recovery,  performed  by  the  Kew 
Musical  Fund  in  1789,  and  repeated  at  his  own 
concert,  was  his  one  successful  vocal  piece.  He 
removed  in  1790  to  No.  18  Great  Pulteney 
Street,  in  which  house  Haydn  stayed  with  him 
in  the  following  year.  The  two  had  long  been 
in  con-espondenoe,  Salomon  endeavouring  in 
vain  to  secure  the  great  composer  for  a  series 
of  concerts ;  but  as  he  was  at  Cologne  on  his 
way  from  Italy,  where  he  had  been  to  engage 
singers  for  the  Italian  Opera,  he  saw  in  tlie 
papers  the  death  of  Prince  Esterhazy,  hurried 
to  Vienna,  and  carried  Haydn  back  in  triumph 
with  him  to  London.  Haydn's  two  visits  to 
England  in  1791  and  1794  were  the  most 
brilliant  (lart  of  Salomon's  career  as  an  artist^ 
and  after  the  retiun  of  the  former  to  Vienna 
the  two  continued  the  best  of  friends.  Fit  was 
at  Salomon's  suggestion  that  Haydn  undertook 
to  write  'The  Creation.'  Salomon's  most  im- 
portant composition  was  an  opera,  *  Windsor 
Castle,'  composed  for  the  Prince  of  Wales's 
wedding,  April  8,  1795.]  In  1796  Salomon 
resumed  his  concerts,  at  which  he  was  assisted 
by  Mara,  the  young  tenor  Bndiam,  and  his  own 
promising  pupil  Pinto.  On  April  21,  1800,  he 
produced  Haydn's  'Creation'  at  the  King's 
Theatre,  though  not  for  the  first  time  in  England, 
as  he  had  been  forestalled  by  John  Ashley 
(Covent  Garden,  March  28).  Salomon's  active 
career  closes  witli  the  foundation  of  the  Phil- 
harmonic Society,  in  which  he  took  a  great 
interest,  playing  in  a  quintet  of  Boccherini's, 
and  leading  the  orchestra,  at  the  first  concert 
in  the  Aigyll  Rooms,  March  8,  1813.  Up  t» 
the  last  he  was  busy  planning  an  Academy  of 
Music  with  his  friend  Ayrton.     A  fall  from  liis 


SALTANDO 


SALVAYRE 


217 


bone  caused  a  long  illness,  from  which  he  died 
Nov.  26,  1816,  at  his  house  No.  70  Newman 
Street  He  was  buried  Deo.  2  in  the  south 
cloister  of  Westminster  Abbey.  He  bequeathed 
his  house  to  the  Munchs  of  Bonn,  his  next  of 
kin ;  £200  to  F.  Ries,  for  the  benefit  of  his 
brother  Hubert ;  and  his  Stradivarius  violin 
(said  to  have  belonged  to  Corelli,  and  to  have 
his  name  upon  it)  to  Sir  Patrick  Blake,  Bart., 
of  Buy  St  Edmunds.  1 

Salomon  was,  on  the  M'hole,  a  first-rate  solo- 
lilayer,  but  his  special  field  was  the  quartet,  in 
which  he  showed  himself  a  solid  and  intelligent 
mnsidan.  Haydn's  last  quartets  were  composed 
^weiaUy  to  suit  his  style  of  playing. 

He  was  a  man  of  much  cultivation,  and 
moved  in  distinguished  society.  Bland  pub- 
lished an  eiigraWng  of  him  by  Facius  from 
Hardy's  picture.  Anotlier  portrait  by  Lansdale 
was  sent  by  Salomon  himself  to  the  Museum  at 
Bonn.  [A  pencil  drawing  by  Dance  is  in  tlie 
Royal  College  of  Music]  His  best  epitaph  is 
contained  in  a  letter  from  Beethoven  to  his  pupil 
Ri€s  in  London  (Feb.  28,  1816):  'Salomon's 
death  grieves  me  much,  for  he  was  a  noble  man, 
and  I  remember  him  ever  since  I  was  a  child.'  ^ 
r.  F.  p. ;  with  additions  from  the  Diet,  of  Nat, 
£iog.f  etc 

SALTANDO.     See  SautillA. 

SALTARELLO  or  SALTARELLA  (Utin 
Mltare,  to  jump). 

L  In  16th-centuiy  collections  of  dance  tunes 
the  melodies  usually  consist  of  two  distinct 
divisions,  the  first  of  which  is  written  in  comihon 
time,  the  second  in  S  time.  The  former  was 
probably  danced  like  our  English  country -dances 
(Le.  the  dancers  standing  in  t^vo  lines  facing 
each  other)  and  bore  the  distinguishing  name 
of  the  dance,  while  the  latter  was  like  the 
modem  round  dance  and  was  variously  entitled 
Nachtanz,  Proportio,  Hoppeltanz,  or  Saltarello, 
the  first  three  being  the  German  and  the  last 
the  Italian  names  for  the  same  movement. 
Thns  in  Bemhard  Schmidt's  TahiUcUurhucfi 
(Strssbmg,  1677)  are  found  the  following 
'ianees :  '  Possomezzo  Comun '  with  '  II  suo 
Saltarello* ;  'Ein  guter  Hofdantz '  with  <Nach- 
dantz ' ;  '  Alemando  novello  :  Ein  guter  ueuer 
Dantz'  with  *Proportz  darauf  and  'Ein 
guter  neuer  Dantz'  with  *Hoppeldantz  darauf.' 
Similarly  in  the  Fitzwilliam  Virginal  Book 
(i.  306)  there  is  an  elaborate  '  Galiarda  Passa- 
mezzo'  by  Peter  Philips  (dated  1592)  which 
consists  of  ten  8-bar  'divisions,'  the  ninth  of 
which  is  entitled  'Saltarella.'  The  Saltarello, 
or  Proportio,  was  always  founded  on  the  air  of 
the  first  part  of  the  dance,  played  in  triple 
time  with  a  strong  accent  on  the  first  beat  of 
the  bar.     The  manner  in  which  this  was  done 

>  Sw  iht  Watmtmtter  Ahbmw  JUgUten,  by  J.  L.  Cbetttr,  D.C.L. 
Sir  P.  Blafce'a  propoty  wa«  told  after  bU  death,  and  notlif  ng  i«  now 
knowa  tar  the  IbmUy  about  the  vloUn. 

<  Fohra  Mmgdn  in  Lamdom,  pp.  ?3  to  88.  BMthoven't  admmtUche 
arigf*.  Vol  ai. 


will  be  seen  by  examining  tlie  following  exami)le, 
from  the  second  book  of  Garoso  da  Sermoneta's 
*  Nobilta  di  Dame '  (Venice,  1600).  It  is  part 
of  a  Balletto,  *■  Laura  Soave,'  the  second  i>art  of 
which  (a  Gagliarda)  and  the  last  forty  bars  of 
the  Saltarello  are  not  printed  here  for  want  of 
space. 


II.  A  popular  Roman  dance,  in  3-4  or  6-8 
time,  danced  by  one  or  two  persons,  generally 
a  man  and  a  woman,  the  latter  of  whom  holds 
up  her  apron  throughout  the  dance.  The  step 
is  quick  and  hopping,  and  the  dance  gradually 
increases  in  rapidity  as  the  dancers  move  round 
in  a  semidrale,  incessantly  changing  their  |K>si- 
tion,  and  moving  their  arms  as  violently  as 
their  legs.  The  music  is  generally  in  the  minor, 
and  is  played  on  a  guitar  or  mandoline,  with 
tambourine  accompaniment.  The  finale  to 
Mendelssohn's  Italian  Symphony  contains  two 
Saltarello  themes,  in  each  of  which  the  jumping 
or  hopping  step  is  very  apparent.  In  contrast 
to  these  is  a  Tarantella,  used  as  a  thiixl  subject, 
a  continuous  fiow  of  even  triplets.        w.  b.  s. 

SALVAYRE,  Gervais  Bernard,  called 
Gaston,  bora  at  Toulouae,  Haute -Garonne, 
June  24,  1847,  began  his  musical  education  at 
the  maitrise  of  the  cathedral,  and  afterwards 
studied  at  the  conservatoire  of  the  town,  before 
he  was  braught  by  Ambroise  Thomas  to  the 
Paris  Conservatoire,  where  he  studied  the  organ 
with  Benoist,  and  composition  and  fugue  with 
Thomas  and  Baziu.  He  gained  the  first  prize 
for  organ  in  1868,  and  oom])eted  for  the  Prix 
de  Rome  every  year  from  1867  to  1872,  gaining 
it  at  last  by  sheer  force  of  perseverance.  During 
his  stay  at  Rome,  Salvayre  worked  very  hard, 
and  many  of  his  compositions  date  from  this 
time,  notably  his  opera  of  'Lo  Bravo,'  and  his 
soci'ed  symphony  in  four  movements,  *  Le 
Jugement  dernier,'  of  which  the  first  two 
movements  were  perfoiined  at  the  Concerts  du 
Ch&telet,  March  19,  1876.  It  was  given  in  its 
entirety  at  the  same  concerts  on  Dec.  8,  1876, 
under  the  title  of  *  La  Resurrection,'  and  again, 
under  a  third  title,  *La  Valine  de  Josaphat,' 
at  Lamoui-eux's  concert  on  April  7,  1882.  The 
remaining  works  written  by  Salvayre  for  the 
concert-room  are  an  *  Guverture  Symphonique,' 


218 


SALVE  REGINA 


SAMARA 


performed  on  his  return  from  Borne  at  the  Con- 
certs Populaires,  March  22,  1874  ;  a  Stabat 
Mater,  given  under  the  care  of  the  Administra- 
tion des  Beaux -Arts  (performed  in  London, 
April  28,  1879,  at  one  of  Mme.  Viard-Louis's 
concerts)  ;  a  setting  of  Ps.  cxiii.  for  soli,  chorus, 
and  orchestra  ;  and  an  air  and  variations  for 
strings,  performed  in  1877,  all  the  last  given 
as  the  fruits  of  his  residence  in  Italy.  On  his 
return  to  Paris,  he  was  appointed  chorus  master 
at  the  Op^ra  Populaire  which  it  had  been 
attempted  to  establish  at  the  Th^tre  du 
Ch&telet,  and  he  then  wrote  ballet  music  for 
Grisar's  'Amours  du  Diable,'  revived  at  this 
theatre  Nov.  18,  1874.  Three  years  later  he 
made  his  real  d^but  with  his  grand  opera,  <  Le 
Bravo*  (Theatre  Lyrique,  April  18,  1877),  a 
noisy  and  empty  composition  revealing  the 
true  nature  of  the  composer,  who  loves  effect, 
but  is  wanting  in  inspiration,  style,  and  form, 
and  is  wholly  destitute  of  any  fixed  ideal. 
His  little  ballet  *  Fandango '  (Op^ra,  Nov.  26, 
1877),  in  which  he  made  use  of  some  highly 
characteristic  Spanish  melodies,  was  a  decided 
advance  in  point  of  instrumentation  ;  but  his 
grand  opera,  'Richard  III.,' performed  at  St. 
Petersburg,  Dec.  21,  1888,  was  a  dead  failure, 
and  in  *  Egmont, '  produced  at  the  Op^ra  Comique, 
Dec.  6,  1886,  his  chief  faults,  noisiness,  and  an 
amalgamation  of  different  styles,  from  that  of 
Meyerbeer  to  that  of  Verdi,  were  so  predominant 
that  the  work  was  only  performed  a  few  times. 
Salvayre  was  commissioned  to  set  to  music 
Dumas'  drama  'La  Dame  de  Monsoreau,'  a 
subject  little  fitted  for  musical  treatment  It 
was  produced  at  the  Op^ra,  Jan.  80,  1888,  and 
was  wholly  unsucoessfuL  Salvayre,  who  has 
the  qualities  of  a  good  musician,  in  spite  of  his 
repeated  failures,  was  decorated  with  the  L^on 
d'honneur  in  July  1880.  A.  J. 

SALVE  REGINA,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
Latin  antiphons.  It  does  not  belong  to  the 
classical  Gregorian  plain-song,  but  both  words 
and  music  were  written  in  the  10th  century. 
They  have  been  ascribed  to  various  authors, 
but  are  with  greatest  probability  assigned  to 
Hermann  Contractus  (1013-1054),  the  crippled 
monk  of  St.  Gall  and  Reichenau,  composer  and 
writer  on  musical  theory  and  practice.  Origin- 
ally an  independent  antiphon,  this  was  afterwards 
assigned  a  special  place  of  its  own  and  became 
one  of  the  antiphons  of  the  B.  V.M.  sung  after 
Compline.     The  music  opens  thus — 

i: 


Jl,  ^  r^  t..*^^'=vF? 


Sal  •  v«     Re  •  gi 


,  mi-M-rl-oor  •  dl   •  ae.  «tc 


and  continues  in  pure  Dorian  classical  style. 
In  this  respect  it  is  unlike  the  companion 
antiphon  Alma  Jtedeinptoris  mcUert  also  attri- 
buted to  Hermann,  which  shows  signs  of  modem 
or  popular  tonality  from  the  very  start 


3 


^ 


A. 


-|-% 


S^^ 


-     •     mm  B«-d«mp>to  -ru    ma  -  tar.  etc 

The  Salve  Begina^  text  and  music,  became 
speedily  popular.  The  words  were  the  subject 
of  sets  of  sermons  by  the  end  of  the  century, 
and  soon  St.  Bernard  and  others  still  more 
widely  established  their  popularity.  In  some 
rites  the  antiphon  was  adinitted  into  the  Oflice 
itself  on  one  of  the  festivals  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin ;  it  was  then  naturally  associated  with 
the  First  Tone.  In  the  present  Roman  Breviary 
the  text  has  been  altered,  and  many  incorrect 
forms  of  the  music  prevail.  Apart  from  the 
plain-song  setting  the  words  have  frequently 
been  set  in  the  motet  style  by  Palestrina  and 
others.  These  antiphons  of  the  B.V.M.  were 
among  the  earliest  texts  to  be  set  in  *  prick-song/ 
partly  because  elaboration  was  especially  oon- 
nected  with  such  services,  and  partiy  because 
the  antiphon  at  the  close  of  Complhie,  being 
extra-liturgical,  gave  scope  for  polyphonic  treat- 
ment, and  in  fact  was  among  the  first  to  develop 
into  an  'anthem'  in  the  modem  sense  of  the 
word.  Their  popularity  has  survived  down  to 
the  present  time,  and  many  composers  great  and 
small  have  set  the  Salve  Heginay  the  Alma 
Redemptoris^  the  JUgina  eoelif  etc,     w.  h.  f. 

SAMARA,  Spxbo,  the  son  of  a  Greek  father 
and  an  English  mother,  was  bom  at  Corfu,  Nov. 
29,  1861.  He  began  his  musical  education  at 
Athens  under  Enrico  Stancampiano,  a  former 
pupil  of  Mercadante,  and  afterwards  studied 
at  the  Paris  Conservatoire,  where  his  principal 
master  was  L^o  Delibes.  An  introduction  to 
the  publisher  Sonzogno  led  to  the  production 
of  his  first  opera,  'Flora  Mirabilis,'  which  was 
given  at  the  Teatro  Carcano,  Milan,  May  16, 
1886.  'Flora  Mirabilis,'  which  was  written 
to  a  fantastic  libretto  by  Ferdinando  Fontana 
on  a  subject  possibly  suggested  by  the  scene  of 
the  flower-maidens  in  the  recently  produced 
'Parsifal,'  was  a  kind  of  compromise  between 
opera,  ballet,  and  spectacle.  The  legendary 
atmosphere  of  the  tale  appealed  strongly  to  the 
young  composer's  imagination,  and  his  music, 
though  unequal,  showed  remarkable  promise. 
Unfortunately  that  promise  has  never  beeu 
redeemed.  'Flora  Mirabilis,'  after  a  brief 
period  of  popularity,  dropped  into  oblivion, 
and  none  of  Samara's  subsequent  operas  has 
won  anything  like  permanent  success.  '  Medge ' 
(Rome,  1888),  a  revised  edition  of  an  0})era 
written  before  the  production  of  'Flora  Mira- 
bilis,' was  followed  by  '  Lionella '  (Milan,  1891). 
In  neither  work  were  the  hopes  founded  u|)on 
'Flora  Mirabilis'  fulfilled.  'La  Martire' 
(Naples,  1894)  may  best  be  regarded  as  a  con- 
cession to  the  prevailing  taste  for  squalid  melo- 
drama which  was  engendered  by  the  success  of 
Mascagni's  '  Cavalleria  Rusticana. '  The  libretto 
deals  with  the  painful  story  of  the  sorrows  and 


SAMMABTINI 


SANCTUS 


219 


suicide  of  a  woman  whose  husband  has  deserted 
her  for  a  music-hall  singer.  The  opera  won  a 
certain  measure  of  saccess  owing  to  the  clever 
if  somewhat  brntal  treatment  of  certain  realistic 
floenes,  notably  that  of  a  caft-ameeri,  and  still 
maze  from  the  remarkably  powerful  performance 
of  Mme.  Bellindoni  in  the  part  of  the  heroine, 
but  the  sheer  musical  value  of  'La  Martire' 
was  very  small.  Samara's  next  two  works,  '  La 
Foria  Domata'  (Milan,  1895),  an  operatic  version 
of  Shakespeare's  Taming  of  the  Shreto,  and 
'Storia  d'  Amore'  (Milan,  1903)  were  com- 
pletely uisQooessful,  but '  Mademoiselle  de  Belle 
Ule '  (Genoa,  1905)  was  more  favourably  re- 
ceived. R.  A.  8. 

SAMMARTINI.     See  San  Martiki. 

SAMSON.  Oratorio  by  Handel,  words  com- 
piled by  Newburgh  Hamilton  from  Milton's 
*  Samson  Agonistes, '*  Hymn  on  the  Nativity ,' and 
'  Lines  on  a  Solemn  Musick.'  The  autograph  of 
the  work  is  in  the  Buckingham  Palace  Library, 
and  contains  the  following  dates : — End  of  first 
l«rt,  'Sept.  29,  1741'  (N.B.  *  Messiah'  was 
finiahed  14th  of  same  month) ;  end  of  second 
part  *  ©  {ue.  Sunday)  Oct.  11,  1741 ' ;  end  of 
chorus  'Glorious  hero,'  *Fine  dell'  Oratorio,' 
S.D.G.,  London,  G.  F.  Handel,  %  {i.e.  Thurs- 
day) Oct  29,  1741';  then  the  words  'Fine 
deir  Oratorio'  have  been  struck  out,  and 
'  Come,  come,'  '  Let  the  bright,'  and  <  Let  their 
celestial '  added,  with  a  note  at  end,  '  S.D.G. — 
G.  F.  Handel,  Oct  12,  1742.'  It  was  produced 
at  Covent  Garden,  Lent  1743— the  first  after 
Handel's  return  from  Ireland. 

Handel  esteemed  it  as  much  as  the  '  Messiah,' 
and  after  his  blindness  wept  when  he  heard  the 
air  '  Total  eclipse. '  It  was  revived  by  the  Sacred 
Harmonic  Society,  Nov.  14, 1838,  and  has  often 
been  performed  since.  The  score  was  published 
by  Wright ;  by  Arnold  in  his  edition ;  by  the 
Handel  Society  (edited  by  Rimbault,  1852) ;  and 
by  Breitkopf  k  Hartel  (Chrysander,  1861).     g. 

SAMSON  ET  DALILA.  Opera  in  three 
acts,  text  by  Ferdinand  Lemaire,  music  by 
CamilleSaint-Saens ;  produced  at  Weimar  under 
Liszt,  Dec  2,  1877,  and  in  France  at  Bonen, 
1890.  Performed  at  Covent  Garden  in  concert 
form.  Sept  25,  1893. 

SAN  CARLO,  the  largest  and  most  beautiful 
theatre  of  Naples,  has  almost  the  same  pro- 
portions as  La  Scala  of  Milan,  with  which  it 
contends  for  the  theatrical  primacy  in  Italy.  It 
was  bnilt  in  1737  by  the  architect  Carasale,  on 
plans  by  Medrano,  a  General  of  the  R.E.,  and 
was  completed  in  nine  months.  Some  altera- 
tions and  improvements  were  made  in  it  by 
Fuga  and  Niccolini  towards  the  end  of  the  18th 
century.  It  was  completely  burnt  down  in 
1816,  and  rebuilt  even  more  elegantly  and 
quickly  than  before,  in  six  months,  by  the  said 
Antonio  Niccolini  In  1844  the  San  Carlo 
underwent  a  thorough  restoration  and  consider- 
able improvement. 


The  best  days  of  the  San  Carlo  were  those  in 
which  it  was  under  the  management  of  the  great 
impresario  Domenico  Barbaja  from  1810  to 
1889.  During  that  period  the  greatest  singers 
appeared  on  its  stage,  amongst  whom  we  need 
only  name  Colbran,  Sontag,  Grisi,  Tamburini, 
Rubini,  and  Lablache.  l.  r. 

SANCTUS.  L  The  angelic  hymn  based  on 
Isaiah  vi.  8  and  St.  Matt.  xxi.  9,  sung  in  all 
Liturgies  at  the  beginning  of  the  Atiaphora  or 
central  section  of  the  service.  In  the  Latin 
rite  it  is  introduced  by  the  Preface  (see  vol. 
iii,  p.  809),  sung  by  the  celebrant,  while  the 
hymn  itself  is  sung  by  the  clergy  and  congrega- 
tion, or  by  the  choir,  according  to  later  usage 
(see  vol  ii.  p.  286).  The  original  setting  was 
in  the  simplest  style  of  recitative  like  that  of 
the  Preface.  Later  plain -song  settings  were 
more  elaborate ;  see  an  example  given  in  voL 
iii.  p.  766. 

Various  specimens  survive  of  the  setting  of 
the  Sanctus  in  prick-song.  The  first  stage  here, 
as  elsewhere,  was  the  setting  of  an  Organum  or 
free  voice  part  against  the  plain-song,  as  in  the 
following  instance  from  the  latter  part  of  the 
Sanctus : — 


^^^^^^. 


l^^&d^ 


The  original  may  be  seen  in  facsimile  in  Early 
English  Harmony  (Plain-song  Soc.),  pi.  xl.  It 
belongs  to  the  14th  century.  This  was  but  a 
step  on  the  way  to  developed  polyphony. 
Another  Sanctus  in  three  parts  written  by  John 
Benet  in  the  first  half  of  the  16th  centuiy  is 
given  at  pp.  61,  62  of  the  same  volume,  and 
this  may  be  cited  as  marking  an  intermediate 
stage  on  the  way  to  the  great  masters  of  the 
16th  century.  w.  h.  f. 

II.  These  great  masters  have  almost  always 
treated  it  in  Rieal  Fugue,  of  a  peculiarly  reverent 
character,  not  unlike  that  of  the  *  Kyrie,'  but 
developed  at  greater  length,  with  frequent  repe- 
titions of  the  text,  and  three  distinct  subjects, 


220 


SANCTUS 


SANDERSON 


adapted  to  the  words, '  Sanctus/ '  Dominus  Deus 
Sabaoth, '  and  '  Plenl  sunt  coeli  et  terra.'  Some- 
times— as  in  Palestrina's  Masses,  *  Yeni,  sponsa 
Christi,'  and  *Dum  complerentur ' — the  *  Pleni 
«unt  coeli '  forms  a  separate  movement,  assigned 
to  three  or  four  solo  voioes ;  sometimes  the  nature 
of  the  subject  indicates  an  accelerated  tempo, 
without  an  actual  solution  of  continuity,  as  in 
the  same  composer's  '  Aeterna  Christi  munera.' 
The  *  Osanna,'  with  which  the  whole  concludes, 
is  either  treated  as  a  supplementary  movement, 
quite  distinct  from  the  'Sanctus'  itself;  or, 
less  frequently,  aids  in  the  development  of  the 
fugue,  by  the  addition  of  a  fourth  subject,  with- 
out disturbing  the  homogeneity  of  the  whole. 
In  the  former  case,  the  same  *  Osanna '  usually 
serves  both  for  the  '  Sanctus '  and  the  *  Bene- 
dictus,'  ^  as  in  the  '  Missa  Papae  Marcelli,'  and 
Yittoria's  '  Simile  est  regnum  coelorum ' ;  in  the 
latter,  the  treatment  is  usually  of  a  very  subdued 
character,  as  in  Palestrina's  *Tu  es  Petrus,' 
'  Assumpta  est  Maria, '  <  Aeterna  Christi  munera, ' 
and  *  Missa  brevis.'  These  instances  are 
])articularly  fine  ones ;  and,  indeed,  it  may  be 
doubted  whether  even  Palestrina's  genius  ever 
rose  to  greater  sublimity  of  conception  than  in 
this  part  of  the  'Missa  brevis,'  which,  when 
interpreted  by  a  large  body  of  voices,  singing 
in  the  most  delicate  attainable  pianisgimo, 
presents  us  with  the  highest  ideal  of  the  song 
of  the  Heavenly  Host  that  has  yet  been  reached. 
The  treatment  of  the  '  Sanctus,'  by  modern 
composers,  exhibits  an  infinite  variety  of  styles  ; 
yet  the  movement  is,  nearly  always,  the  most 
solemn  one  in  the  Mass.  In  Bach's  great  work 
in  B  minor,  an  indescribably  massive  effect  is 
produced  by  the  passages  of  sustained  chords, 
beginning  at  the  seventeenth  and  thirty- fifth 
bars.  [As  the  Lutheran  service  enjoined  the 
singing  of  the  'Sanctus'  on  certain  occasions 
apart  from  the  rest  of  the  mass.  Bach  left  four 
compositions  besides  the  glorious  chorus  already 
mentioned.  They  are  contained  in  the  B.-G. 
edition,  vol.  xi.  (i.).  The  keys  are  C,  D,  D 
minor,  and  G,  the  second  work  being  of  pecu- 
liarly impressive  beauty.]  Yery  different  is  the 
idea  developed  in  the  corresponding  division  of 
Beethoven's  Mass  in  D.  The  awestruck  charac- 
ter of  the  opening  *  Adagio.  Mit  Andacht,'  how- 
ever closely  it  may  border  \\\ion  the  dramatic, 
can  scarcely  impress  the  hearer  with  any  other 
feeling  than  thatof  the  most  profound  reverence ; 
while  the  *  Allegro  pesante '  of  the  *  Pleni  sunt 
coeli '  is  conceived  in  strict  accordance  with  the 
literal  meaning  of  the  words,  though  nothing 
could  possibly  be  more  unsuited  to  their  position 
in  the  service.  This  deplorable  incongruity  is, 
however,  more  or  less  observable  in  all  masses 

>  Id  order  toasplain  the  intlnutte  ounnection  between  these  move- 
ituxkU,  It  is  necceMry  tu  remind  the  raftder  that  the  Ant '  OMnna '  1« 
immedtaUly  followed  by  the  ConMcratlon  of  the  Hoet,  which  takei 
place  la  eilenoe.  nu  ooiopleted.  the  *  Benedlctiu,'  and  eeeond 
'OMnna,'  are  ranc.  In  continuation  of  the  Mime  ttmln  of  ideaa,  and 
not  with  the  Intention  of  Introdndnf  a  new  subject  of  con- 
templation. 


with  instrumental  accompaniment.  The  same 
objection  may  be  urged,  with  equal  propriety, 
against  the  combined  '  Sanctus '  and  *■  Benedic- 
tus,'  in  Cherubini's  Requiem  in  C  minor;  a 
comparatively  unpretending  movement,  the  per- 
sistent fortissimo  of  which  can  scarcely  fail  to 
distract  the  mind  far  more  seriously  than  even 
the  sensuous  beauty  of  a  movement  like  that  in 
Rossini's  'Iklesse  Solennelle.' 

To  particularise  the  varied  readings  of  the 
*  Sanctus,'  to  be  found  in  the  masses  of  even 
the  greatest  composers  of  modem  times,  would 
be  impossible.  The  examples  to  which  we  have 
called  attention  will  serve  as  types  of  many 
others  ;  and  will,  moreover,  be  valuable,  as 
illustrations  of  the  one  practical  point  of  diver- 
gence which,  more  than  any  other,  distinguishes 
the  reading  prevalent  in  the  16  th  century  from 
that  most  common  in  the  19th — the  devotional 
piaTW  from  the  pompous/orf^.  So  long  as  drums 
and  trumpets  are  permitted  to  take  part  in  the 
accompaniments  of  the  *  Sanctus,'  so  long  will 
it  fail  to  attain  that  aesthetic  consistency  which 
alone  can  ensure  its  ultimate  perfection  as  a 
work  of  art* 

III.  In  Anglican  'Services*  the  Sanctus  is 
usually  a  very  unpretending  movement,  written, 
for  the  most  part,  in  simple  harmony,  without 
any  attempt  at  fugal  treatment,  or  even  imita- 
tion ;  though,  in  the  works  of  such  masters 
as  Tallis,  Byid,  Farrant,  Gibbons,  and  their 
contemporaries,  it  is  always  noted  for  a  quiet 
dignity  well  worthy  of  the  solemnity  of  the 
text.  [In  former  days  when  there  was  only 
ante-communion  service,  the  Sanctus  was  often 
sung  at  the  conclusion  of  morning  prayer  as  a 
sort  of  Introit  leading  to  the  *  second  service ' 
at  the  altar.]  w.  s.  R. 

SANDERSON,  James,  bom  in  1769  at 
Workington,  Durham,  had  from  early  childhood 
a  passion  for  music,  and,  without  the  assistance 
of  masters,  so  qualified  himself  that  in  1783 
he  was  engaged  as  violinist  at  the  Sunderland 
Theatre.  In  1 784  he  went  to  Shields  as  ateachcr 
of  the  violin  and  pianoforte,  and  met  with 
much  success.  In  1787  he  was  engaged  as 
leader  at  the  Newcastle- upon -'Tyne  Theatre, 
and  in  1788  at  Astley's  Amphitheatre.  In 
1789  he  made  his  first  attempt  at  dramatic 
composition  by  writing  instramental  interludes 
to  illustrate  the  severed  parts  of  Collina's  <  Ode 
on  the  Passions,'  which  the  eminent  tragedian, 
George  Frederick  Cooke,  was  to  recite  on  his 
benefit  night  at  Chester.  His  next  work  was 
'Harlequin  in  Ireland'  at  Astley's  in  1792. 
In  1793  he  was  engaged  at  the  Royal  Circus, 
afterwards  the  Surrey  Theatre,  as  composer  and 
music  director,  a  post  which  he  retained  for 
many  years.  His  principal  productions  during 
that  period  were  *Blackbeard,'  1798;  *Oora,' 

•  (It  may  interest  the  rauler  to  noUoe  how  deeely  the  writer't 
Tieva  on  the  InapproprlatMMm  of  eertatn  uoelc  to  theacrTlee  of 
Uie  church  forethadow  the  famoua  hm(m  jarsfwle  of  the  piemtt 
Pope,  iHued  in  1903.J 


SANDONI 


SANTINI 


221 


1799  ;  *Sir  Francis  Drake,'  1800  (in  which  was 
the  song,  'Bound  'prentice  to  a  waterman, '  which 
became  ao  great  a  fikvourite  with  stage  representa- 
tnres  of  British  sailors  that  it  was  constantly 
introdnced  into  pieces  in  which  a  seaman  formed 
one  of  the  characters  for  fully  half  a  century), 
and  'Hallowe'en.'  His  'Angling  Duet,'  origin- 
ally composed  for  'The  Magic  Pipe,'  a  pantomime 
produced  at  the  Adelphi,  also  ei^joyed  a  long 
popularity.  He  composed  many  pieces  for  the 
violin.  He  died  in  or  about  1841.  w.  H.  h. 
In  these  pantomimes  and  operas  he  was 
associated  with  J.  C.  Cross,  who  wrote  most  of 
the  words,  and  contrived  the  scenic  effects.  The 
song  '  Gin  a  body  meet  a  body '  is  claimed  by 
Chappell  as  originally  appearing  in  one  of  these 
pn>dnctions,  'Harlequin  Mariner,'  1796-96,  but 
the  air  is  found  in  print  in  Scottish  collections 
long  before  this,  and  there  is  sufficient  evidence 
to  show  that  Cross  and  Sanderson  had  merely 
adapted  the  song  to  London  requirements,  f.  k. 
SANDONI.  See  Cuzzoni. 
SANDYS,  William,  F.S.A.,  bom  1792, 
educated  at  Westminster  School,  and  afterwards 
called  to  the  bar,  is  entitled  to  mention  here 
as  editor  of  'Christmas  Carols,  Ancient  and 
Modem,  including  the  most  popular  in  the  West 
of  England,  with  the  tunes  to  which  they  are 
song.  Also  specimens  of  French  Provincial 
Carols,'  1833 ;  author  of  Christmastide,  its 
HiBtanfy  Festivities,  arid  Carols,  with  twelve  carol 
tunes,  1852  ;  and  joint  author  with  Simon 
Andrew  Forster  of  Th^  History  of  the  Violin 
and  other  Instruments  played  on  with  the  Bou\ 
.  .  ,  Also  an  Account  of  the  PrineipaJ  Makers, 
English  and  Ftn-eign,  1864.  He  died  Feb.  18, 
1874.  w.  H.  H. 

SANG  SCHOOLS.     See  Song  Schools. 
SAN  MARTINI,  or  SAMMARTINI.     Two 
brothers  born  at  Milan,  both  musicians,  whose 
works  were  in  great  vogue  in  England  during 
the  first  half  of  the  18th  century. 

Giuseppe  or  Giosepfjb  Sak  Martiki,  bom 
about  1693,  came  to  England,  according  to 
Bnmey,  in  1723,  and  according  to  Hawkins  in 
1 729.  This  latter  date  is  most  probably  correct, 
as  Quantz  heard  him  in  Milan  in  1726.  He 
was  well  received  by  Buononcini,  Dr.  Greene, 
and  others,  and  was  by  the  influence  of  the  first- 
named  appointed  as  hautboy  player  at  the 
Opera.  His  performance  on  the  instmment 
surpassed  all  that  had  been  before  heard,  and 
raised  it  to  a  great  importance.  It  was  thought 
that  much  of  the  fine  quality  he  obtained  was 
by  a  secret  method  of  manipulating  the  reed 
before  its  insertion.  San  Martini,  having  left 
the  Opera,  was  patronised  by  Frederick  Prince  of 
Wales  and  his  wife,  holding  in  their  household 
the  position  of  musical  director  of  the  Chamber 
Concerts.  Hawkins  states  that  he  died  about 
1740,  but  this  date  is  probably  a  few  years  too 
early.  Martini  composed  many  sets  of  sonatas 
for  flutes  and  for  violins. 


To  distinguish  him  from  his  brother  he  is 
frequently  named  in  contemporary  references 
*8t.  Martini  of  London,'  his  brother  being  *of 
Milan.'  His  first  publication  was  a  set  of 
sonatas  for  two  flutes,  issued  in  1738.  The 
sale  of  these  being  slow  he  destroyed  the  plates 
and  the  unsold  copies,  though  they  were  after- 
wards reissued  by  Johnson  of  Cheapside.  In 
the  same  year  six  concerti  groasi  were  published. 
His  next  work,  dedicated  to  the  Princess  of 
Wales,  was  twelve  sonatas  for  the  violin  (Walsh, 
circa  1740).     Others  issued  by  Simpson  are  : — 

*  Six  Concertos  for  violins,  etc.,  in  7  parts,'  eight 
overtures,  six  more  concerti  grossi,  harpsichord 
concertos,  'Six  Solos  for  a  German  flute,'  and 
*■  Six  Sonatas  for  two  German  flutes  or  violins. ' 
Scattered  pieces  by  him  are  often  found  in 
collections  of  airs  ('Martini's  Minuet'  being 
long  a  favourite),  but  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish 
them  from  M'ork  by  his  brother  or  from  that  of 
many  other  musicians  who  bore  the  same  sur- 
name.    (See  the  Qudlm-Lexikon.) 

Giovanni  Battista  San  Martini  of  Milan, 
his  younger  brother,  remained  in  Italy,  and  be- 
came a  prolific  composer  both  for  instruments- 
and  voices.  About  1746  J.  Simpson  of  London 
published  of  his  works  *Six  Sonatas  for  two 
violins  and  a  bass,'  and  Bumey  says  that  be- 
tween 1740  and  1770,  in  which  latter  year  he 
saw  him  in  Milan,  he  produced  for  the  violin 

*  an  incredible  number  of  spirited  and  agi-eeable 
compositions,'  and  in  1770  *he  was  maestro  di 
capella  to  more  than  half  the  churches  in  the 
city,  for  which  he  furnished  masses  upon  all  the 
great  festivals.'  [Many  motets,  etc.,  and  a  great 
number  of  concertos,  symphonies,  overtures, 
trios,  sonatas,  etc.,  are  mentioned  in  the  Quellen- 
Lexikon,]  *  f.  k. 

SANTA  CHIARA.  Opera  in  three  acts  ; 
words  by  Mme.  Birch  Pfeiffer,  music  by  H.R.H. 
Ernest,  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.  Produced 
at  Coburg,  Oct.  15,  1854  ;  at  the  Op^ra,  Paris 
(French  translation  by  Oppelt),  Sept.  27,  1855, 
and,  in  Italian,  at  Covent  Garden,  June  30, 
1877.  G. 

SANTINI,  FoRTUNATO,  the  Abb^,  a  learned 
musician,  bom  in  Rome,  Jan.  5,  1778,  early 
lost  his  parents,  and  was  brought  up  in  an 
orphanage,  but  showed  such  talent  for  music 
that  he  was  put  to  study  with  Jannaconi,  and 
received  into  the  CoUegio  Salviati.  During  his 
stay  there  (until  1798)  he  occupied  himself  in 
copying  and  scoring  the  church- music  of  the 
great  masters,  and  after  his  ordination  in  1801 
devoted  his  whole  life  to  music,  copying, 
collating,  and  compiling  with  unwearied 
industry.  As  an  ecclesiastic  he  had  the  entr^ 
to  many  libraries  and  collections  generally 
inaccessible,  and  set  himself  to  the  task  of  scoring 
all  important  works  then  existing  only  in  parts. 
In  1820  he  issued  a  catalogue  (46  pp.,  1000 
Nos.)  of  his  music,  the  MS.  of  which,  con- 
taining more  than  the  printed  one,  is  in  the 


222 


SANTLEY 


SANTLEY 


collection  of  the  writer. *  A  MS.  copy  of  a 
Catalogo  dclla  musiea  anti4XL,  sctcra,  e  madri- 
galesea,  cho  si  irova  in  Mama  via  ddV  aniina 
no.  50  preaso  Fortunato  SaiUini,  \&  in  the  F^tis 
collection  at  Brussels,  No.  5166.  His  learning, 
and  practical  knowledge  of  church-music,  made 
his  assistance  invaluable  to  all  engaged  in 
musical  research.  He  did  much  to  make 
German  music  known  in  Italy,  translating 
Jlammler's  '  Tod  Jesu '  into  Italian,  and  helping 
the  introduction  of  Graun's  music  Mendels- 
sohn writes  {LeUers,  Rome,  Nov.  2, 1880):  *  The 
Abb^  has  long  been  on  the  look-out  for  nie, 
hoping  I  should  bring  the  score  of  Bach's 
*'  Passion." '  And  again  (Nov.  8) :  '  Santini  is 
a  delightful  acquaintance ;  his  library  of  old 
Italian  music  is  most  complete,  and  he  gives 
or  lends  me  anything  and  everything. '  Then 
he  tells  how  Santini  is  trying  to  get  Bach's 
compositions  performed  at  Naples,  and  goes  on 
(Nov.  16) :  *  Old  Santini  continues  to  be  courtesy 
personified  ;  if  some  evening  in  company  I 
praise  anything,  or  say  I  do  not  know  such  and 
such  a  piece,  the  very  next  morning  he  comes 
knocking  gently  at  my  door  with  the  identical 
piece  folded  up  in  his  blue  handkerchief.  Tlien 
I  go  to  him  in  the  evenings,  and  we  are  really 
fond  of  each  other. '  Santini  composed  pieces  in 
five,  six,  and  eight  real  parts.  [A  Requiem  a  8 
is  at  Bologna,  where  are  numerous  other  church 
compositions.  See  the  QueUen-Lexikon.']  The 
Singakademie  of  Berlin  elected  him  an  honorary 
member.  On  the  death  of  his  sister  he  sold 
his  valuable  collection,  stipulating,  however,  for 
the  use  of  it  for  life.  He  died  in  1862.  His 
library  is  in  the  episcopal  palace  at  Miinster  in 
Westphalia.  A  pamphlet,  LAhU  Santini  et 
sa  collection  musieale  d  Home  (Florence,  1^54), 
giving  a  useful  r^ume  of  its  contents,  was  pub- 
lished by  the  Russian  Vladimir  Stassov.  F.  g. 
SANTLEY,  Sir  Charles,  son  of  William 
Santley,  a  teacher  of  music,  was  bom  at  Liver- 
pool, Feb.  28,  1834.  He  was  a  chorister  in 
early  life,  and,  after  various  appearances  as  an 
amateur,  he  went  to  Italy  to  have  his  beautiful 
baritone  voice  trained.  Here,  at  Milan,  he  was 
under  Gaetano  Nava  from  Oct.  1855.  He  made 
a  d^but  before  very  long,  as  the  Doctor  in  *  La 
Traviata,'  at  Pa  via,  and  after  singing  some 
other  small  parts,  returned  to  England  in  Oct. 
1857,  and  pursued  his  studies  under  Manuel 
Garcia.  His  first  appearance  before  an  English 
audience  was  at  St.  Martin's  Hall  on  Nov.  16, 
1857,  when  he  sang  the  part  of  Adam  in  *  The 
Creation ' ;  he  next  sang  three  times  at  the 
Crystal  Palace,  and  again  in  'The  Creation' 
(taking  the  parts  of  Raphael  and  Adam),  at 
the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society,  Jan.  8,  185S. 
In  March  of  the  same  year  he  undertook,  at 
the  same  society's  concert,  the  part  of  Elijah, 
with  which  he  was  afterwards  so  closely  iden- 

1  HU  Addrtn  is  there  glrni  RomA,  Via  Vlttorte,  Na  48.  while  in 
the  F^tiii  oo)lectlon  It  la  Via  dell'  aniua.  No.  60. 


tified.     In  the  following  autumn  he  sang  at 
the  first  Leeds  Festival,  taking  the  bass  part 
of  Rossini's  '■  Stabat  Mater,'  and  other  works. 
His  first  appearance  on  the  English  stage  was 
at  Covent  Garden,  with  the  Pyne  and  Harrison 
Company,  as  Hoel  in  *  Dinorah,'  in  Sept.  1859  ; 
he  sang  with  the  same  company  in  '  Trovatore, ' 
'  Lurline,'  and  other  operas.    He  took  part  in  a 
concert  performance  of  '  Iphig^nie  en  Tauride,* 
under  Hall^,  about  this  time.     In  the  winter 
of  1860-61  he  sang  in  English  opera  at  Her 
Majesty's  Theatre,  in  '  Robin  Hood,'  *  La  Reine 
Topaze,'  <Fra  Diavolo,'  etc.     In  1861  he  sang 
for  the  first  time  at  the  Birmingham  Festival, 
and  in  the  winter  again  at  Covent  Garden,  in 
*  The  Lily  of  Killamey, '  and  other  things.     He 
first  appeared  in  the  Italian  opera  in  England 
at  Covent  Garden  in  1862  in  'II  Trovatore/ 
and  later  in  the  same  season  he  joined  the  com- 
pany of  Her  Majesty's  Theatre  under  Mapleson, 
appearing  as  the  Count  in  '  Figaro,'  and  Nevera 
in  'Les  Huguenots.'      In  1863  he  sang   the 
part  of  Valentine  on  the  production  of  *  Faust ' 
in  England  with  such   success  that  Gounod 
wrote  the  song  'Even  bravest  heart'  ('Dio 
possente ')  especially  for  him,  and  for  the  Eng- 
lish performance  of  the  work  in  1864.    He  sang 
at  Barcelona  in  the  winter  of  1864-65,  adding 
Rigoletto  to  the  number  of  his  characters.      At 
Manchester  in  Sept.  1865  he  sang  the  part  of 
Don  Giovanni  for  the  first  time,  and  later  on 
appeared  in  London  as  Caspar  in  'Der  Frei- 
schiitz. '     In  1 870,  after  singing  the  part  of  the 
Dutchman  for  the  first  time  in  England  (as 
'L'Olandese  dannato'),   he  gave   up  Italian 
opera,  and  sang  at  the  Gaiety  Theatre  under 
Hollingshead,  as  Zampa,  Peter  the  Shipwright, 
and  Fra  Diavolo.     In  1871  he  made  a  very 
successful  tour  in  America  in  opera  and  concerts. 
In  1876  he  joined  the  Carl  Rosa  Company  at 
the  Lyceum  Theatre,  repeating  his  memorable 
performance  of  the  Flying  Dutchman  in  English. 
After  his  first  festival  performance  at  Birming- 
ham in  1861,  he  was,  of  course,  in  request  at 
all  the  autiminal  festivals,  singing,  for  the  first 
time  at  the  Three  Choir  Meetings,  at  Worcester 
in  1 863.    He  had  previously  sung  at  the  Handel 
Festival  in  1862,  and  until  1906  he  appeued 
regularly  at  these  triennial  meetings.      From 
about  this  time  his  position  in  oratorio  and 
concert  work  was  ever  more  and  more   im- 
portant.    On  April  9,  1859,  he  had  married 
Gertrude  Kemble,  daughter  of  John  Mitchell 
Kemble,  the  eminent  Anglo-Saxon  scholar,  and 
grand -daughter  of  Charles  Kemble.     She  ap- 
I>eared  as  a  soprano  singer  at  St.  Martin's  Hall 
in  the  'Messiah,'  but  retired  from  public  life 
on  her  marriage.     Their  daughter,  Edith,  had 
a  short  but  brilliant  career  as  a  concert-singer 
(soprano),  before  her  marriage  in  1884  with  Uie 
Hon.  R.  H.  Lyttelton. 

Though  the  versatility  of  his  genius  allows 
him  to  express  any  emotion  to  the  full,  yet 


SAPPHO 


SARABAND 


228 


Santley's  singing  is  identified  with  certain 
characteristics  in  the  minds  of  those  who  know 
it  best  The  quality  of  the  voice  was  less 
reniarkable  for  richness  or  sonority  than  for  its 
eloqnenoe  of  expression,  and  had  a  timbre  which 
in  love-music  more  easily  represented  fiery  pas- 
sion than  soft  languor.  This  fire  was  never 
more  perfectly  in  its  place  than  in  '£l\jah/ 
where  it  was  prominent  from  the  opening  re- 
citative until  the  end.  His  distinct  enunciation, 
and  power  of  varying  the  tone -colour,  were 
among  his  technical  merits ;  but,  beyond  and 
above  these,  was  the  informing  spirit  of  energy 
finely  held  in  control.  This  made  his  singing 
of  songs  as  dramatic  as  if  they  were  scenes  on 
the  stage,  although  he  never  fell  into  the  error 
of  making  lyrics  sound  opei-atic.  His  perform- 
ance of  the  '  £rl  King  *  (which  he  always  sang 
in  English)  can  never  be  forgotten  in  this 
respect,  and  in  a  kindred  mood  Hatton's  'To 
Anthea'  became  exclusively  his  own.  His 
interpretation  of  Handel's  '0  ruddier  than 
the  cherry'  was  masterly  in  delineation  and 
humour.  Among  the  oratorios  in  which  he 
made  the  greatest  impression,  apart  from 
'Elijah,'  must  be  mentioned  *The  Redemp- 
tion' (Birmingham,  1882),  and  *The  Spectre's 
Bride*  (Birmingham,  1885),  He  has  found 
time  in  the  intervals  of  a  wonderfully  successful 
and  busy  career  to  compose  several  works  for 
the  service  of  the  Roman  Church  (which  he 
joined  about  1880),  such  as  a  mass  in  A  flat, 
an  Ave  3Iaria,  and  other  things.  A  berceuse 
for  orchestra  was  [>erformed  at  Sydney  in  1890, 
when  Santley  was  on  a  tour  in  Australia.  In 
1887  he  was  created  a  Knight  Commander  of 
St.  Gregory  the  Great  by  Pope  Leo  XIII.  In 
1892  he  published  an  amusing  and  valuable 
volume  of  reminiscences,  Sttidevt  and  Singer, 
On  May  1,  1907,  the  'jubilee'  of  his  artistic 
career  was  celebrated  at  a  concert  at  the  Albert 
Hall,  when  he  appeared  with  many  eminent 
artists.  A  money  presentation,  rofeiTed  to  on 
that  occasion,  was  made  some  time  afterwards. 
He  was  knighted  later  in  the  year.  M. 

SAPPHO.  1.  Saffo.  Opera  in  three  acts ; 
text  by  Cammarano,  music  by  Giov.  Pacini. 
Produced  at  Naples,  Nov.  27,  1840  ;  in  London 
at  Dmiy  Lane,  in  an  English  version  by  Serle, 
April  1,  1843  (Clara  Novello  as  Sappho). 

2.  Sapho.  Opera  in  three  acts ;  words  by 
Emik  Augier,  music  by  Charles  Gounod.  Pro- 
duced at  the  Op^ra,  April  16,  1851.  It  was 
reduced  to  two  acts,  and  reproduced  July  26, 
1858.  In  Italian,  as  '  Safifo,'  at  Covent  Garden, 
August  9,  1851.  The  opera  was  afterwards 
nmodeUed  by  its  composer,  extended  to  four 
acts,  and  produced  at  the  Grand  Op^ra,  April  2, 
1884,  with  moderate  success. 

3.  Sapho.  Opera  in  five  acts  ;  text  by  Henri 
Cain  and  Arthur  Bemede,  music  by  Jules  Mas- 
senet. Produced  at  the  Op^ra-Comique,  Paris, 
Nov.  27,  1897.  o. 


SARABAND,  a  stately  dance,  once  very 
popular  in  Spain,  France,  and  England.  Its 
origin  and  derivation  have  given  rise  to  many 
surmises.  Fuertes  {Hisloria  de  la  Musica 
Espafiola^  Madrid,  1859)  says  that  the  dance 
was  invented  in  the  middle  of  the  16th  century 
by  a  dancer  called  Zarabanda,  who,  according 
to  other  authorities,  was  a  native  of  either 
Seville  or  Guayaquil,  and  after  whom  it  was 
named.  Others  connect  it  with  the  Spanish 
Sarao  (an  entertainment  of  dancing),  and 
Sir  William  Ouseley  {OrierUal  Collections,  1728, 
vol.  ii.  p.  197,  misquoted  by  Mendel,  under 
'  Saraband '),  in  a  note  to  a  Turkish  air  called 
'Ser-i-Khdneh,'  or  'the  top  of  the  house,'  has 
the  following: — 'Some  tunes  are  ctivided  into 
three  parts  and  are  marked  Kkdru-i  Sdni  "  the 
second  part,"  and  KMne-i  idlU  "the  third 
part "  ;  near  the  conclusion  of  several  we  also 
find  the  Persian  words  ser-band,  from  which, 
without  doiibt,  our  sara-band  has  been  derived.'  * 
Whatever  its  origin  may  have  been,  it  is 
found  in  Europe  at  the  beginning  of  the  16th 
century,  performed  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
render  its  oriental  source  highly  probable.  This 
may  be  gathered  from  the  following  extract 
from  Chapter  xii.,  'Del  baile  y  cantar  Uamado 
Zarabanda,'  of  the  Tratado  contra  las  Judges 
Publieos  (Treaiise  against  Public  AmusemefUs) 
of  Mariana  (1586-1628):  'Entre  las  otras  in- 
venciones  ha  salido  estos  afios  un  baile  y  cantar 
tan  laoivo  en  las  palabras,  tan  feo  en  las  meneos, 
que  basta  para  pegar  fuego  aun  i  las  personas 
muy  honestas '  ('amongst  other  inventions  there 
has  appeared  during  late  years  a  dance  and  song, 
80  lascivioiis  in  its  words,  so  ugly  in  its  move- 
ments, that  it  is  enough  to  inflame  even  very 
modest  people ').  This  reputation  was  not  con- 
fined to  Spain,  for  Marini  in  his  poem  V Admit 
(1628)  says : 

Chiama  qnesto  sno  gioco  empio  e  profane 
Baravanda,  e  Ciaccona,  11  nuovo  Ispano.s 

Padre  Mariana,  who  believed  in  its  Spanish 
origin,  says  that  its  invention  was  one  of  the 
disgraces  of  the  nation,  and  other  authora  attri- 
bute its  invention  directly  to  the  devil  The 
dance  was  attacked  by  Cervantes  and  Guevara, 
and  defended  by  Lope  de  Vega,  but  it  seems  to 
have  been  so  bad  that  at  the  end  of  the  reign 
of  Philip  II.  it  was  for  a  time  suppressed.  It 
was  soon,  however,  revived  in  a  purer  form,  and 
was  introduced  at  the  French  court  in  1588, 
where  later  on  Richelieu,  wearing  green  velvet 
knee  -  breeche-s,  with  bells  on  his  feet,  and 
castanets  in  his  hands,  danced  it  in  a  ballet 
before  Anne  of  Austria. 

In  England  the  Saraband  was  soon  trans- 
formed into  an  ordinary  country-dance.  The 
first  edition  of  Playford's  Dancing  Master  (1 651) 
has  two  examples,  one  to  be  danced  '  longwayes 
for  as  many  as  will'   i,e,  as   'Sir  Roger  de 

I  In  a  M&  ooUeeilon  of  dances  In  the  Uoiic  School  at  Oxford  la  » 
Saraband  by  Coleman,  entitled  *  Seiibran.' 
3  'New  Spain' is Caatile. 


224 


SARASATE 


SARASATE 


Goverley'  is  now  danced),  and  the  other, 
*Adson's  Saraband,'  to  be  danced  *longwayes 
for  six.'  It  was  at  about  this  time  that  the 
Saraband,  together  Mrith  other  dances,  found 
its  way  into  the  Suite,  of  which  it  formed  the 
slow  movement,  placed  before  the  concluding 
Gigue.  In  this  form  it  is  remarkable  for  its 
strongly  accentuated  and  majestic  rhythm, 
generally  as  follows : — 


It  is  written  either  in  the  major  or  the  minor 
key,  in  3-2  or  3-4  time,  although  Walther 
{Lexikon,  1 732)  says  that  it  may  be  also  written 
in  2-4  time.  It  usually  consists  of  two  8-  or 
12-bar  divisions,  begins  on  the  down-beat,  and 
ends  on  the  second  or  third  beat.  Bach,  in  the 
*Clavierubung,'  Pt  I.  (B.-O.  iu.  76)  has  a 
Saraband  beginning  on  the  up-beat,  and  Handel 
(Suite  XI.)  has  one  with  variations.  Those  by 
Corelli  do  not  conform  to  the  established  rules, 
but  are  little  more  than  Sicilianas  played  slow^ly. 
The  following  Saraband  for  the  guitar  is 
j)rinted    in    Fuertes'   Uistoria    de   la  Mtmca 


Handel's  noble  air  *Lascia  ch'io  pianga,'  in 
<  Rinaldo,'  is  taken  with  no  material  alteration 
from  a  Saraband  in  his  earlier  opera  of  *  Almira,' 
in  which  the  majestic  rhythm  mentioned  reigns 
in  all  its  dignity.  See  Chrysander'a  If&ndel, 
i.  121.  w.  B.  s. 

SARASATE.  Pablo  Martin  Meliton  de 
Saras  ATE  y  Navascues,  born  at  Pampeluna, 
March  10,  1844,  came  to  France  as  a  child, 
and  entered  the  Paris  Conservatoire,  Jan.  1, 
1856.  The  following  year  he  became  the  favour- 
ite pupil  of  Alard,  and  gained  the  first  prizes  for 
solf^gc  and  violin.  He  then  entered  Reber's 
hanuony  class,  and  secured  a  premier  aeeeseit 
in  1859,  but  shortly  after  relinquished  the  study 
of  composition  for  the  more  tempting  career  of 
a  concert  player.     His  beautiful  tone,  retentive 


memory,  immense  execution,  and  certainty  of 
finger,  added  to  the  singularity  of  his  manners 
and  appearance,  ensured  his  success  in  Paris, 
the  French  provinces,  and  the  Peninsula.  The 
Spaniards  naturally  honoured  an  artist  whom 
they  looked  upon  as  their  own  countryman,  but 
Sarasate  aspired  to  make  his  name  known  wher- 
ever music  was  appreciated,  as  well  as  in  the 
two  countries  especially  his  own  by  birth  and 
adoption.  No  violinist  has  travelled  more  than 
he ;  besides  making  his  way  through  Europe, 
from  the  remotest  comer  of  Portugal  to  Norway, 
and  from  London  to  Moscow,  he  has  visited 
America,  North  and  South.  In  all  his  viander- 
ings  he  has  contrived  to  carry  on  his  cultivation, 
and  develop  his  great  natural  gifts.  To  London 
his  first  visit  was  in  1861,  when  he  playe<i  at 
St  James's  Hall  on  May  22  ;  he  came  again  in 
1874,  when  he  played  at  the  Philharmonic 
Concert,  May  18,  and  at  the  Musical  Union, 
June  9,  etc.  He  returned  in  1877  (Crystal 
Palace,  Oct  18),  and  1878  (Philharmonic, 
March  28),  and  has  been  a  frequent  visitor 
since.  In  1885  and  1886  he  gave  sets  qT 
orchestral  concerts  conducted  by  Cusins,  and 
at  the  Birmingham  Festival  of  1885  played  a 
concerto  written  for  him  by  Mackenzie. 

Sarasate's  distinguishing  characteristics  are 
not  so  much  fire,  force,  and  passion,  though  of 
these  he  has  an  ample  store,  as  purity  of  style, 
charm,  brightness  of  tone,  flexibility,  and  extra- 
ordinary facility.  He  sings  on  his  instrument 
with  taste  and  expression,  and  without  that 
exaggeration  or  affectation  of  sentiment  which 
disfigures  the  playing  of  many  violinists.  His 
repertoire  is  varied,  comprising  the  concertos  of 
Oerman  masters — Beethoven,  Mendelssohn,  and 
Bruch, — Raff's  various  works  for  violin,  and  the 
works  of  the  modem  French  and  Belgian  schools. 
Among  the  former  his  favourites  are  the  concertos 
of  Saint-Saens  and  Lalo,  and  the  Symphonic 
Espagnole  of  the  last-named  composer.  [He 
has  avoided  the  music  of  Paganini  and  his 
followers,  partly  for  want  of  taste  for  it,  and 
partly  because  of  the  long  stretches  required, 
his  hand  being  very  small.  Although  Bach,  on 
the  whole,  is  unsuited  to  his  style  for  obvious 
reasons,  he  gives  certain  movements  with  great 
charm,  notably  the  prelude  and  gavotte  from 
the  £  major  solo  sonata.  But  he  will  always 
be  remembered  for  his  rendering  of  the  solos  he 
has  written  for  himself,  and  plays  so  exquisitely, 
giving  the  spirit  of  Spanish  dance  translated 
into  terms  of  the  violin  virtuoso.  He  possesses 
two  fine  Stradivari  violins,  one  of  which,  dated 
1724,  was  presented  to  him  when  a  boy  by 
Queen  Isabella  of  S|>ain.  This  instrument  was 
one  of  those  brought  from  the  chapelle  royale 
at  Naples  by  Charles  III.  (for  whom  Boccherini 
composed  his  quintets),  and  upon  it  he  has 
mainly  played  throughout  his  career.  A  suc- 
cessful copy  of  it  was  made  by  Yuillaume,  and 
is  sometimes  used  by  him  at  rehearsals.     Later 


SAKRUSOPHONE 


SARTI 


225 


in  life  he  acquired  from  the  Boissier  collection, 
and  occasioually  plays  on,  an  exceptionally 
beautiful  instrument,  bearing  date  1713.] 
Saraaate  has  composed  for  his  instrument 
romances,  lantaisies,  and  especially  transcrip- 
tions of  Spanish  airs  and  dances,  all  calculated 
to  display  his  skill  as  a  virtuoso.  His  '  Zigeu* 
nerweisen,'  'Jota  Aragonesa,'  and  the  four 
books  of  Spanish  dances  are  among  the  most 
popular  violin  solos  in  existence.  [He  pays  an 
anniial  risit  to  his  native  town  of  Pampeluna, 
where  fetes  are  held  in  his  honour.]  o.  o.  ; 
additions,  in  square  brackets,  by  w.  w.  c. 

SARRUSOFHONE.  A  brass  instrument  of 
conical  bore,  played  with  a  double  reed,  designed 
in  1863  by  M.  Sarrus,  a  bandmaster  in  the 
French  army.  The  scheme  of  the  inventor 
compiised  a  whole  family  of  instruments  rang- 
ing in  pitch  from  soprano  to  contra-bass,  and 
his  expectation  was  that  they  might  well  take 
the  place  of  oboes  and  bassoons  in  military 
bands.  As  regards  the  contra -bass  models, 
Sarrus  was  to  some  extent  anticipated  by  Stehle 
of  Vienna  in  1836,  who  brought  out  a  contra- 
bassoon  in  hnaa,  of  simple  fingering,  and  whose 
model  has  been  further  developed  by  Cerveny 
of  Koniggratz,  and  Mahillon  of  Brussels ;  but 
to  Sarrus  belongs  the  credit  of  designing  a 
whole  family  of  double -reed  instruments  as 
potsihle  substitutes  for  the  oboe  and  bassoon 
gronpa.  The  objection  that  has  been  raised  to 
them  is  that  they  fail  to  produce  the  delicate 
and  distinotive  qualities  of  tlie  wooden  double- 
reed  instruments. 

The  complete  ftimily  of  sarrusophones  com- 
prises the  sopranino  in  tf'b*  soprano  in  5b,  alto 
in  eb,  tenor  in  Bb,  baritone  in  £b,  bass  in  B,b, 
eontra-haas  in  E,b>  and  the  contra-bassoon  in 
C,  or  Bj^.  All  these  have  a  compass  from  one 
tone  below  the  pitch  note,  to  a  fifth  above  its 
double  octave,  6b  to/'',  agreeing  in  this  respect 
with  the  oboe,  and  the  general  scheme  of  finger- 
ing is  much  like  that  of  the  oboe.  The  tube 
of  all  but  the  small  instruments  is  bent  back 
upon  itself,  so  as  to  reduce  the  length  to  a 
convenient  compass. 

The  actual  use  of  the  sarrusophone  in  the 
orchestra  has  been  very  limited,  but  M.  Saint- 
Saens  appears  to  have  thought  highly  of  the 
contra- bass  instrument  as  an  alternative  to  the 
double-baseoon,  and  used  it  on  several  occasions. 
Jules  Massenet  introduced  it  in  his  'Esclar- 
monde '  with  great  effect,  and  other  composers 
have  followed  his  example.  It  is  possible  that 
the  bass  and  contra-bass  members  of  the  family 
may  be  kept  alive,  as  they  have  distinctive 
qualities,  but  the  treble  and  alto  instruments 
can  be  regarded  only  as  interesting  experi- 
ments. D.  J.  B. 

SARTI,  Giuseppe,  bom  at  Faenza,  Dec.  1, 

1729,  a  date  differing  from  that  given  by  most 

of  his  biographets,  but  furnished  by  Sarti's  own 

grandson  to  the  writer,  who  has  taken  great 

VOL.  rv 


pains  to  verify  it.  The  son  of  a  jeweller  who 
played  the  violin  in  the  cathedral,  he  early 
learned  music,  and  had  lessons  in  composition 
— from  Vallotti  according  to  his  own  family, 
from  Padre  Martini  according  to  his  biographers. 
Whether  at  Padua  or  at  Bologna  (the  respective 
homes  of  the  two  masters),  he  completed  his 
studies  at  an  early  age,  for  we  leam  from  the 
chapter  archives,  still  preserved  in  the  library 
of  Faenza,  that  he  was  organist  of  the  cathedral 
from  1748  to  April  1750,  and  director  of  the 
theatre  from  1752.  In  1751  he  composed  his 
first  opera,  'Pompeo  in  Armenia,'  which  was 
enthusiastically  received  by  his  fellow  •  towns- 
men, and  followed  by  several  more  serious 
works,  and  *I1  Re  pastors'  (Venice,  1758), 
which  had  an  immense  success.  So  quickly 
did  his  fame  spread  that  when  he  was  only 
twenty-four  the  King  of  Denmark  (Frederick  V.) 
invited  him  to  Copenhagen  as  CapeHmeister  to 
the  Prince  Royal,  and  director  of  the  Italian 
opera  ;  and,  on  the  closing  of  the  latter  in  two 
years,  made  him  Oourt-capellmeister.  In  the 
summer  of  1765  the  king  determined  to  reopen 
the  opera,  and  Sarti  went  back  to  Italy  after  an 
absence  of  twelve  years  to  engage  singers  ;  but 
his  plans  were  upset  by  the  deaths  first  of  the 
king  in  1766,  and  then  of  his  own  mother  in 
1767,  so  that  it  was  not  tQl  1768  that  he  re- 
turned to  Copenhagen.  These  three  years  of 
trouble  were  not  unfruitfid,  as  he  composed 
five  operas,  of  which  two,  *I  Contratempi' 
(1767)  and  'Didone  abbandonata,'  were  given 
in  Venice,  where  he  seems  chiefly  to  have 
resided. 

Overskou's  carefully  compiled  History  of  the 
Danish  Stage^  informs  us  that  Sarti  directed 
the  Danish  court- theatre  from  1770  to  May  20, 
1775,  when  he  was  summarily  dismissed.  A 
favourite  with  Christian  VII.,  and  the  prot^g^ 
of  Struensee  and  Queen  Caroline  Matilda,  he 
was  too  artless  and  straightforward  to  curry 
favour  with  the  queen  dowager  and  the  ambiti- 
ous Ove  Oulberg ;  so  after  the  catastrophe  of 
1772  he  found  his  position  gradually  becoming 
worse  and  worse,  and  when  the  oligarchical 
party  had  secured  the  upper  hand,  imprisoning 
the  queen,  and  reducing  the  king  to  a  mere 
cipher,  he  had,  with  other  court  favourites,  to 
endure  much  HI  treatment,  and  was  finally 
banished.  During  this  second  stay  at  Copen- 
hagen he  married  Camilla  Pasi,  by  whom  he 
had  two  daughters. 

Returning  to  Italy  in  the  summer  of  1775, 
he  went  first  to  Venice,  became  at  once  director 
of  the  Ospedaletto  Conservatorio,  and  adminis- 
tered it  with  great  success  for  four  years.  In 
1779  the  post  of  maestro  di  cappella  of  the 
cathedral  of  Milan  fell  vacant  through  the 
death  of  Fioroni,  and  Sarti  was  pronounced 
successful  at  a   competition   held   before  the 


>  Thomas  Orenkou.  Dtn  damke  Skuepkid$  in 
Copenlugeu.  1804.  etc 


4m*  Etitorte,  8v«. 
Q 


226 


SARTI 


SARTI 


Conaervatorio  of  Naples.  This  victory  over 
Paisiello  and  other  eminent  musicians  greatly 
increased  his  reputation,  and  procured  him 
many  distinguished  pupils,  Cherubini  among 
the  nmnber,  who  indeed  was  not  only  his 
pupil,  but  for  some  years  his  assistant.^  In 
1784  he  received  an  invitation  from  Russia  too 
advantageous  to  be  refused,  but  the  nine  years 
spent  in  Milan  were  the  most  brilliant  of  his 
whole  career,  and  the  most  prolific,  including 
as  they  did  his  most  successful  operas,  'Le 
Gelosie  viUane '  *  and  *  Farnace '  (Venice,  1776) ; 
*Achille  in  Sciro'  (Florence,  Oct.  1779); 
*  Giulio  Sabino '  (Venice,  1781),  and  *  Fra  i  due 
Litiganti'  (Milan,  1782).  To  complete  the 
list,  at  least  ten  more  operas  and  several  can- 
tatas on  a  large  scale  should  be  added,  works 
for  the  cathedral  choir,  including  several  masses, 
a  Miserere  a  4,  and  some  important  motets. 

On  his  way  to  St.  Petersburg,  Sarti  made 
some  stay  at  Vienna,  where  Joseph  II.  received 
him  graciously,  and  granted  him  the  proceeds 
of  a  performance  of  '  I  due  litiganti,'  which  had 
long  maintained  its  place  at  the  Bnrgtheater, 
and  had  helped  to  fill  its  coffers,  as  the  monarch 
politely  told  the  composer.  He  there  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Mozart,  then  in  the  very 
prime  of  life,  who  speaks  of  him  as  an  '  honest, 
good  man,'  and  who  not  only  played  to  him  a 
good  deal,  but  adopted  an  air  from  his  'Due 
Litigant! '  as  the  theme  of  a  set  of  Variations 
(Kochel,  460),  and  as  a  subject  in  the  second 
finale  of  '  Don  Juan.*  His  pleasure  in  Mozart's 
playing  did  not,  however,  place  him  on  Mozart's 
level ;  and  when  the  famous  six  quartets  were 
published,  Sarti  was  one  of  the  loudest  to  com- 
plain of  their  'barbarisms.'  His  examination 
remains  mostly  in  MS.,  but  some  extracts  are 
given  in  the  A.M.Z,  for  1832  (p.  373),  includ- 
ing  nineteen  serious  errors  in  thirty-six  bars, 
and  showing  how  difficult  it  is  even  for  a  very 
clever  composer  to  apprehend  the  ideas  of  one 
greater  than  himself. 

Catherine  II.  received  him  with  even  greater 
marks  of  favour  than  Joseph,  which  he  repaid 
by  composing  several  important  works  for  her 
own  choir,  and  by  bringing  the  Italian  opera 
into  a  state  of  efficiency  it  had  never  attained 
before.  Among  his  sacred  compositions  of  this 
period  may  be  mentioned  an  oratorio  for  two 
choirs,  full  orchestra,  and  band  of  Russian 
horns  ;  a  Te  Deum  for  the  taking  of  Otchakow 
by  Potemkin ;  and  a  Requiem  in  honour  of 
Louis  XVI.  It  was  in  the  Te  Deum  that  Sarti 
employed  fireworks  and  the  discharge  of  cannon 
to  heighten  the  martial  effect  of  the  music. 
Among  his  operas  produced  at  St.  Petersburg 
were  '  Armida'  (1786),  which  had  an  immense 
success,  and  was  sung  to  perfection  by  the 
celebrated  Todi ;  and  'Olega,'  the  libretto  of 

1  Bee  Chernblnl's  preface  to  tbe  C^taloffw  of  hli  works.  ' 

3  MoBut,  In  1791,  wrote  a  flii&I  ohonu  for  thie,  of  which.  howeTer. 

uothlng  hM  survived  but  the  five  bun  In  his  autonaph  catalogue. 

(8m  KOchel.  619b) 


which  was  by  the  Empress  herself.  In  this 
opera  Sarti  endeavoured  to  imitate  the  music 
of  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  made  use  of  some 
of  their  modes.  A  skilled  mathematician  and 
physicist,  he  was  fond  of  explaining  to  the 
Empress  his  theories  of  acoustics,  which  he 
illustrated  by  many  ingenious  experiments. 
He  invented  a  machine  for  counting  the  vibra- 
tions of  sounds,  and  fixed  436  vibrations^  for 
the  A,  as  the  normal  pitch  for  his  orchestra. 
For  this  invention  he  was  elected  an  honorary 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Science  in  St. 
Petersburg.  Many  other  honours  were  conferred 
upon  him,  including  those  of  councillor  of  the 
University,  chief  mattre  de  chapelle  to  the 
court,  and  nobility  of  the  first  class.  Todies 
intrigues  caused  him  temporary  inconvenience, 
but  he  consoled  himself  for  a  short  period  of 
disgrace  by  going  to  a  village  in  the  Ukraine, 
given  him  by  Prince  Potemkin,  and  founding 
there  a  school  of  singing  which  turned  out 
some  remarkable  singers.  In  1 793  the  Empress 
restored  him  completely  to  favour,  and  placed 
him  at  the  head  of  a  Conservatoire  planned 
after  the  model  of  those  in  Italy.  After  her 
death  and  that  of  her  son  Paul  I.,  Sarti  deter- 
mined to  revisit  his  native  land,  and  in  the 
spring  of  1802  left  Russia,  where  he  had  lived 
for  eighteen  years  without  a  break.  At  Berlin 
he  formed  an  intimacy  with  the  Court-capell- 
meister,  Noel  Mussini  (bom  at  Bergamo,  1765  ; 
died  at  Florence,  1837),  who  fell  in  love  with 
his  daughter  Giuliana,  and  became  his  son-in- 
law.^  Immediately  after  the  marriage  the  kind 
and  gentle  Sarti  fell  seriously  ill  of  gout,  and 
died  July  28,  1802,  aged  seventy-three.  He 
was  buried  in  the  Catholic  church  of  St.  Edwige, 
where  his  ashes  still  remain. 

From  some  unexplained  cause  very  few  of 
Sarti's  compositions  have  been  engraved.  His 
Te  Deum  was  printed  with  Russian  words  at 
St.  Petersburg,  and  Breitkopf  &  Hartel  have 
published  two  of  his  sacred  pieces,  one  in  eight, 
the  other  in  six  real  parts.  A  French  transla- 
tion of  the  '  Nozzo  di  Dorina '  (identical  with 
'  Fra  i  due  Litiganti '),  apparently  the  only 
opera  of  his  that  has  been  engraved,  appeared 
in  Paris ;  but  Ricordi  of  Milan  has  copies  of 
*  Armida  e  Rinaldo  * ;  *  I  finti  Eredi ' ;  '  Lc 
Gelosie  villane';  *Nitteti,*  and  *Vologc«o.' 
These  scores,  as  well  as  those  of  'Adriauo  in 
Scire,'  '  Alessandro,'  <Gli  Am^nti  consolati,' 
'  Castors  e  PoUuce,*  '  I  Contratempi,'  '  Did  one 
abbandonata,'  'Erifile,'  <Fra  i  due  litiganti,' 
'Giulio  Sabino,'  *Idalide,'  'Ifigenia,'  *I1  Me- 
donte,'  'II  Militare  bizzarre,'  *Mitridate,' and 
'Scipione,'  and  also  of  nearly  all  his  sacred 
works,  are  in  the  library  of  the  Paris  Conserva- 
toire, from  which  circumstance  the  writer  is 


3  The  '  diapason  normale '  fixe*  43S  vibrations  fbr  tk«  mine  not*, 
s  on  Sarti  and  Mussini  in  P«tis  are  full  of  arrois  aitd 


'  diapason 
*  The  articles  on 
omissions.    We  have  corrected  the  most  ilarlng  mistakes  from 


family  papers  kindly  furnished  by  the  dlsttUKulshed  painter  U 
Mussini,  director  of  the  Museo  at  Sfrna,  and  grandson  of  tbe 


SARTORIS 


SAURET 


227 


able  to  pronoance  Bpon  his  style.  The  part- 
writing  is  eminently  vocal,  and  the  most  difficult 
combinations  are  mastered  with  ease,  but  the 
scientilic  element  is  never  unduly  forced  into 
notice,  owing  to  Sard's  gift  of  fi-esh  and  spon- 
taneous melody.  Most  of  his  operas  contain 
iiQiubers  well  constructed  with  a  view  to  stage 
effeet,  and  full  of  expression  and  charm  ;  indeed 
w  much  of  his  music  might  still  be  heard  with 
pleasure  that  it  seems  strange  that  no  great 
artist  has  attempted  to  revive  it. 

His  masses  alone  retain  their  hold  on  public 
UvcsQT,  and  one  was  performed  on  Easter  Day 
1880  in  Milan  Cathedral,  which  still  has  all 
the  MSS. 

Sarti  left  six  sonatas  for  CUvier  solo  (London, 
1762).  An  Allegro  from  these  is  included 
in  Pauer's  '  Alte  Meister. '  Cherubim  quotes  a 
'Cum  Sancto  *  a  S  oi  his  in  his  Counterpoint ; 
and  Fetis  a  Kyrie  from  the  same  mass  in  his 
treatise.  Breitkopf  has  published  a  Fugue  for 
eight  voices,  a  Hymn  and  a  ^liserere,  and  the 
OTerture  to  '  Ciro  riconosciuto.'  A  Rondo  for 
mezzo  soprano  will  be  found  in  Gevaert's  'Gloires 
d'  Italie,'  and  a  Cavatina,  fram  '  Giulio  Sabino  * 
in  the  'Gemme  d'Antichitiu' 

The  llussini  family  possess  a  fine  oil-paint- 
ing of  the  composer,  taken  in  1786  by  Tonci, 
au  Italian  painter  settled  in  St.  Petersburg. 
U  Chevalier  Sarti^  a  novel  by  P.  Scudo,  ap- 
peared first  in  the  Jtemte  des  Detix  Mondes, 
and  has  since  been  published  separately  (Paris, 
Hachette,  1857).  o.  C 

SABTORIS,  Mrs.     See  Kemble,  Adelaide. 

SATANELLA,  OR  THE  POWER  OF  LOVE. 
A  'New  Original  Romantic  Opera,'  in  four 
acts ;  words  by  Harris  and  Falconer,  music  by 
Balfe.  Produced  at  the  National  English 
Opera,  Covent  Garden  (Pyne  and  Harrison), 
I)ec  20,  1858.  The  story  is  a  version  of  *Le 
Diable  boiteux.'  o. 

SATURDAY  POPULAR  CONCERTS.     See 

TOPCLJIR  CONCEBTS. 

8ATZ.  The  German  term  for  Movement, 
which  see. 

SAUER,  Emil,  bom  at  Hamburg,  Oct  8, 
1  ^6*2,  was  a  pnpil  of  Nicolas  Rubinstein  at  the 
Moscow  Conservatorium  in  1876-81,  and  subse- 
quently studied  under  Liszt  and  Deppe.  From 
1882  he  made  frequent  and  suocessfnl  concert- 
toars  as  a  virtuoso-pianist.  He  first  appeared 
in  England  at  ei^t  recitals  of  hia  own,  in 
November  1894,  and  rapidly  attained  great 
socoess  in  this  country.  In  1901  he  was 
appointed  head  of  one  department  of  the  piano- 
forte branch  of  the  Vienna  Conservatorium, 
which  he  gave  up  in  April  1907,  going  to  live 
at  Dresden.  Hia  technique  is  wonderfully  neat 
UKi  accurate,  and  his  playing,  though  occasion- 
ally  rather  wanting  in  breadth,  is  always  agree- 
able. He  has  written  a  '  suite  modeme '  and 
many  slighter  pieces  for  the  pianoforte,  as  well 
as  a  Concerto  in  E  minor.     He  has  also  pub- 


lished a  volume  of  reminiscences,  Meine  WeU 
(1901).  M. 

SAUL.  1.  An  oratorio ;  words  attributed 
both  to  Jennens  and  Morell,  music  by  Handel. 
The  composition  was  begun  July  23,  1738. 
The  second  act  was  completed  August  28,  and 
the  whole  on  Sept.  27,  of  the  same  year.  First 
performance  at  the  King's  Theatre,  Tuesday, 
Jan.  16,  1739;  at  Dublin,  May  25,  1742. 
Revived  by  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society, 
March  20,  1840.  The  autograph  is  in  the 
libraiy  at  Buckingham  Palace.  The  overture 
('Sinfonia')  is  HandeVs  longest;  it  is  in  four 
movements,  and  the  organ  is  largely  employed 
in  it  as  a  solo  instrument.  The  ^  Dead  March 
in  Saul  *  has  been  perhaps  more  widely  played, 
and  is  more  universally  known,  than  any  other 
piece  of  music. 

2.  *  King  Saul.'  An  oratorio  ;  composed  by 
Sir  C.  Hubert  H.  Parry,  produced  at  the 
Birmingham  Festival  of  1894.  o. 

SAURET,  &MILE,  violinist,  bom  at  Dun-le- 
Roi,  Cher,  France,  May  22, 1852,  soon  attracted 
the  notice  of  De  B^riot,  and  became  his  pupil, 
the  last  he  ever  had.  He  began  to  travel  at 
an  early  age,  playing  in  the  chief  towns  of 
France  and  Italy,  in  Vienna  and  in  London, 
where  he  played  at  the  International  Exhibi- 
tion of  1862  and  also  at  the  Alhambra.  More 
im{X)rtant  was  his  appearance  at  Alfred  Mellon's 
Concerts,  Covent  Garden,  August  27,  1866. 
He  played  often  at  the  French  court  in  the 
last  days  of  the  Second  Empire.  In  1872  he 
made  his  first  visit  with  Strakosch  to  the 
United  States,  and  his  second  in  1874,  remain- 
ing there  till  Jan.  1876.  In  New  York  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  von  Biilow  and 
Rubinstein,  and  on  his  return  to  Leipzig  was 
welcomed  by  the  latter,  then  engaged  in  the 
rehearsals  of  his  *  Paradise  Lost'  Sauret  made 
his  debut  in  the  Gewandhaus  in  May  1876  in 
Mendelssohn's  Concerto,  and  was  most  warmly 
received.  He  took  lessons  in  composition  from 
Jadassohn.  He,  however,  returned  immediately 
to  America,  and  it  was  not  till  he  came  back 
again  in  1877,  and  went  through  Germany 
and  Austria  in  two  long  and  most  successful 
toum^es,  that  his  imputation  was  established 
in  his  native  country.  In  England  ho  reap- 
peared in  1880,  and  played  at  the  Crystal 
Palace,  April  24,  and  Philharmonic  (Bruch's 
Concerto,  No.  1)  on  the  28th. 

Liszt  showed  him  much  kindness,  and  they 
often  played  together.  In  1872  he  married 
Mme.  Teresa  Carre&o,  the  marriage  being  dis- 
solved a  few  years  later.  In  1879  he  mar- 
ried Miss  Emma  Hotter  of  Diisseldorf  [and 
being  appointed  professor  of  the  violin  at 
KuUak's  Academy  in  Berlin,  he  settled  in  that 
city,  remaining  there  nearly  ten  years.  He 
relinquished  this  }K)8t,  however,  in  1 890,  when 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  London,  invited 
him  to  fill  the  vacancy  caused  by  the  death  of 


228 


SAUTILL6 


SAVART 


the  principal  violin  profeaaor,  Prosper  Sainton. 
In  1903  Sauret  again  gave  up  this  second 
professorship  for  a  similar  position  at  the 
Chicago  Musical  College,  where  he  remained 
until  July  1906.  At  present  he  is  residing  in 
Geneya,  giving  private  lessons  to  a  small  coterie 
of  pupils,  many  of  whom  have  followed  him 
from  America.  As  a  virtuoso  Mons.  Sauret 
has  obtained  a  greater  degree  of  popularity  in 
America  than  here.  His  playing  is  distinguished 
by  the  grace  and  elegance  of  the  French  school, 
to  which  is  added  a  conscientious  handling  of 
the  classics.  He  is  also  a  thorough  musician, 
and  has  written  a  large  amount  of  music,  in- 
cluding an  excellent  method  for  the  violin.] 

His  published  works  embrace  a  Concerto  in 
G  minor  ;  a  Ballade,  a  Legende  ;  and  a  Serenade 
in  G — all  for  solo  violin  and  orchestra  ;  Caprice 
de  Concert  in  D  ;  Scherzo  fantastique  ;  Yalse- 
caprice ;  Barcarolle-mazurka,  and  many  other 
drawing-room  pieces,  as  well  as  transcriptions 
from  Mendelssohn,  Rubinstein,  Wagner,  etc.    o. 

[He  has  also  written  a  Concerto  in  £  miyor 
for  violin  and  orchestra,  a  Qradua  ad  Pamassum 
du  ViolinUU  (Leipzig,  1894),  and  a  number  of 
Etudes,  small  pieces  and  transcriptions  for  the 
violin,  with  and  without  orchestra. — Lahee, 
Famous  FiolinisU  *,  Mason  Clarke,  Dictionary  of 
Fiddlers ;  Baker  Did,  of  Music ;  Musical  Times, 
1900,  p.  9.  E.  H-A.] 

SAUTILL6,  or  SALTANDO.  A  technical 
term  in  violin  and  violoncello  music  whereby  the 
executant  understands  that  a  certain  skipping 
motion  of  the  bow  is  to  be  employed.  To  the 
school  of  classical  composers  from  Oorelli  to 
Spohr,  saviilU  was  either  unknown,  or  by  them 
ignored  ;  but  with  the  advent  of  Paganini  this 
brilliant  embellishment  came  into  vogue,  and  at 
the  present  time  it  is  one  of  the  most  effective 
and  frequently  used  coups  tCoflrchet,  Like  all 
the  different  species  of  bowing,  the  manner  of 
playing  sautilU  varies  with  the  tempo  of  the 
composition,  and  the  amount  of  tone  required. 
In  slow  movements  it  assumes  the  form  of  gentle 
even  taps  given  with  an  up-and-down  movement 
in  the  middle  of  the  bow.  To  accomplish  this 
accurately,  perfect  unity  of  action  between  the 
fingers  of  the  left  hand  and  the  bow  is  neces- 
sary. The  hair  of  the  bow  should  be  slightly 
turned  towards  the  faoe,  the  bow  itself  being 
held  lightly  but  firmly  ;  the  forearm  must 
move  slightly  with  each  upward  and  down- 
ward stroke  of  the  bow ;  the  thumb  must  be 
almost  straight ;  the  wrist  loose,  but  controlled. 
Although  in  a  slow  movement  the  bow  requires 
to  be  raised  and  lowered  by  the  player,  in  an 
allegro  or  presto  movement  the  bow  rebounds 
of  its  own  aocord  with  such  rapidity  that  the 
executant  has  only  to  keep  the  forearm  quiet ; 
to  have  a  perfectly  loose  wrist,  and  to  control 
the  action  of  the  bow  by  a  slight  pressure  of 
the  first  finger  upon  the  stick  when  required. 
Excellent  studies  and  examples  of  this  bowing 


are  to  be  found  in  such  compositions  as  Paganini's 
*Moto  Perpetuo,'  Sarasate's  '  Ziguenerweisen,' 
Bohm's  two  *Moto  Perpetuo,'  Arensky's  'Ca- 
price,' Ries's  *Moto  Perpetuo/  and  in  Emst's, 
Vieuxtemps's,  De  Beriot's,  Leonard's,  Wieniaw- 
ski's,  Nachez's,  and  Hubay's  compositions. 
The  use  of  the  sautUU  in  concerted  music, 
particularly  in  the  quartets  of  Haydn,  Mozart, 
Beethoven,  as  well  as  in  the  sonatas  of  the  two 
last-named  composers,  is  universally  understood, 
and  enhances  the  beauties  of  the  old  masters 
with  happy  effect  (see  Bowing).  o.  r. 

SAUZAY,  Charles  Euo^ne,  an  eminent 
French  violinist,  was  born  at  Paris,  July  14, 
1809.  In  1823  he  entered  the  Conservatoire, 
and  in  his  second  year  became  the  pupil  of 
Baillot  and  of  Reicha.  He  obtained  the  second 
violin  prize  in  1825,  the  first  do.,  and  the  second 
for  fugue,  in  1827.  A  few  years  later  he  joined 
Baillot's  quartet,  fii-st  as  second  violin  and  then 
as  tenor,  vice  Urban,  married  Mile.  Baillot,  and 
continued  one  of  her  father's  party  till  its  dis- 
solution in  1840.  He  soon  rose  rapidly  both 
in  society  and  as  a  professor.  In  1840  he  was 
made  first  violin  to  Louis  Philippe,  and  after- 
wards leader  of  the  second  violins  to  the  Emperor 
Napoleon  III.  In  1860  he  suoceeded  Girard  a& 
professor  at  the  Conservatoire.  His  own  quartet 
party  started  after  the  termination  of  Baillot's, 
embracing  his  wife  and  Boely  as  pianists,  Norblin 
and  Franchomme ;  gave  its  concerts,  sometimes 
with  and  sometimes  without  orchestra,  in  the 
Salle  Pleyel.  Sauzay  is  mentioned  by  Hiller 
as  one  of  Mendelssohn's  acquaintances  during 
his  stay  in  Paris  in  1880.  He  was  greatly 
sought  after  both  as  a  player  and  a  teacher. 
His  publications  are  not  important,  and  oonsist 
of  incidental  music  to  '  Georges  Dandin '  and 
*  Le  Sicilien,'  cleverly  written  in  the  style  of 
Lully  to  suit  the  date  of  the  pieces ;  fantasias 
and  romances ;  a  PF.  trio ;  a  string  trio ;  songs ; 
Ifaydn,  Mozart,  Beethoven;  ttude  sur  le  jiw- 
ttu>r  (Paris,  1861),  a  disappointing  work  from 
the  pen  of  a  musician  of  so  much  eminence  and 
experience  ;  L*4cole  de  I'accompagnemetU  (Paris, 
1869),  a  sequel  to  the  foregoing.  He  also  com- 
posea  a  series  of  *  Etudes  harmoniques '  for  the 
violin.  [He  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  24,  1901.]     g. 

SAVAGE,  William,  born  about  1720,  was 
a  pupil  of  Pepusch,  and  became  a  gentleman  of 
the  Chapel  Royal  in  1744.  He  was  almoner, 
vicar- choral,  and  master  of  the  choristers  at 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral  in  1748,  and  was  the 
master  of  Battishill  and  Stevens.  He  wrote 
some  chants  and  church  music  of  little  import- 
ance, and  died  in  London,  July  27,  1789. 
{Brit,  Mils.  Biog.) 

SAVART,  FAlix.  [A  French  doctor  of 
medicine  who  abandoned  his  profession  and 
devoted  himself  to  investigating  the  theory  of 
the  vibration  of  surfaces  and  strings.  He  was 
the  son  of  Gerard  Savart,  a  mathematical 
instrument  maker  of  repute,  director  of  the 


SAVART 


SAVILE 


229 


aUliers  of  the  Ecole  d' Artillerie,  and  the  author 
of  several  usefal  iuuovations,  including  an 
ingenious  oontriTance  for  dividing  circles.  He 
was  bom  at  M^^res,  June  30,  1791.  Origin- 
ally established  at  Metz,  he  left  Paris  in  1819, 
where  he  was  made  Conservateur  de  Physique  at 
the  College  de  France,  and  in  1827  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  Academic  des  Sciences.] 
Following  in  the  steps  of  Chladni,  whose 
labours  had  particularly  attracted  his  attention, 
he  made  many  investigations  in  acoustics,  which 
are  recorded  in  the  several  publications  bearing 
his  name.  He  appears  }iarticularly  to  have 
thrown  light  on  the  nature  of  that  complicated 
relation  between  a  vibrating  body  which  is  the 
soQTce  of  sound,  and  other  bodies  brought  into 
connection  with  it,  by  virtue  of  which  the  original 
sound  is  magnified  in  intensity  and  modified  in 
quality ;  well  -  known  examples  of  suoh  an  ar- 
rangement being  furnished  by  the  sound-loaitis 
of  the  violin  tribe  and  the  pianoforte. 

[In  his  Memoire  sur  la  consiruetion  des  Instru- 
*i€3tis  a  cordes  et  d  arehctj  published  in  Paris  in 
1819,  he  explains  the  series  of  experiments 
which  led  him  to  construct  his  *  Trapezoid 
Violin,'  familiarly  known  in  England  as  Savart's 
'Box  Fiddle.*  The  exhaustive  tests  therein 
d^cribed  are  the  most  renowned  and  convincing 
that  have  ever  been  undertaken.  Clearly  and 
distinctly  he  proved  that  Avood  arched  in  the 
form  ordinarily  employed  for  stringed  instru- 
ments of  the  violin  tribe  does  not  vibrate  in 
erery  jiart  of  its  length  and  breadth  equally  ; 
that  there  are  points  where  the  vibrations 
decrease,  and  points — i,e,  the  bouts,  comer- 
blocks  and  sound-holes — where  the  vibrations 
cease  ;  finally,  that  a  flat  piece  of  wood  vibrates 
more  readily  and  evenly  than  an  arched  one. 
Taking  these  facts  for  his  basis,  he  constructed 
a  violin  in  the  form  of  a  box,  narrower  at  the 
up]ier  than  at  the  lower  end.  The  two  tables 
were  flat,  planed  on  the  inner  side  and  slightly 
raised  on  the  outer  so  as  to  support  the  increased 
pressure  of  the  strings  caused  by  the  bridge, 
which  was  necessarily  higher  than  usual,  so  as 
to  allow  the  bow  a  free  passage  across  the 
strings,  which  would  otherwise  be  hindered 
by  the  straight  sides  of  the  instrument.  In 
contrast  with  the  customary  curved  sound-holes 
of  the  ordinary  violin,  Savart  cut  his  straight ; 
and  their  ])08ition  in  the  belly,  and  distance 
apart,  he  determined  by  a  series  of  practical 
experiments  which  are  minutely  described  in 
his  lKK)k.  He  tried  two  bass-bars,  one  placed 
down  the  centre  joint  of  the  violin,  the  other 
crescent-shaped,  only  touching  the  belly  at  a 
jioint  just  below  the  bridge.  Curiously  enough 
botli  these  forms  produced  apparently  identical 
effects.  The  sides  of  the  instrument  were  ^  in. 
in  thickness,  and  no  side  linings  were  employed. 
Tlie  sound-post  was  placed  behind  the  bridge, 
but  a  little  more  to  the  right  than  is  cus- 
tomary.    To  prevent  the  excessive  pull  of  the 


strings  on  the  tender  part  of  the  belly  (insepar- 
able from  a  tail-piece  attached  in  the  ordinaiy 
way),  Savart  carried  his  strings  over  a  hard- 
wood or  ivory  nut  at  the  end  of  the  violin  and 
attached  them  to  the  tail-pin,  which  was  set 
slightly  below  the  centre.  A  jury  of  the  Aca- 
demic des  Sciences,  composed  of  MM.  Biot, 
Charles,  Haiiy,  and  De  Prony,  together  with 
four  members  of  the  Acaddmie  des  Arts,  MM. 
Berton,  Catel,  Le  Sueur,  and  Cherubini,  were 
appointed  to  consider  the  merits  of  this  violin. 
The  eminent  violinist  M.  Lefebvre  played  al- 
ternately on  a  fine  Cremona  and  M.  Savart's 
violin  before  this  jury,  and  eventually  the 
latter  was  pronounced  to  be  equal,  if  not 
superior,  to  the  Italian  masterpiece.] 

Savart's  name  is  also  connected  with  an 
ingenious  little  device  for  measuring,  in  a 
manner  easily  appreciable  by  a  lecture-audience, 
the  number  of  vibrations  corresponding  to  a 
given  musical  note.  A  wheel,  caused  to  rotate 
quickly  by  ordinary  mechanical  contrivances,  is 
furnished  on  its  circumference  with  teeth  or 
ratchets,  against  which  a  tongue  of  pasteboard 
or  some  other  elastic  substance  is  brought  into 
contact.  The  passage  of  each  tooth  gives  a 
vibration  to  the  tongue,  and  if  the  wheel  revolve 
fast  enough,  the  repetition  of  these  vibrations 
will  produce  a  musical  sound.  Hence,  as  the 
number  of  rotations  of  the  wheel  in  a  given 
time  can  be  easily  counted,  the  number  of 
vibrations  corresponding  to  the  note  produced 
can  be  experimentally  ascertained  with  tolerable 
precision.  This  mode  of  determining  vibration 
numbers  has  been  since  superseded  by  the  more 
elegant  instrument,  the  Syben,  and  by  other 
modes  known  to  modem  acoustic  physicists, 
but  from  the  simplicity  of  its  demonstrations  it 
is  still  often  used.  Savart  also  investigated  with 
some  attention  and  success  the  acoustical  laws 
bearing  on  wind  instruments  and  on  the  pro- 
duction of  the  voice. 

[He  also  wrote  M4moirt  swr  la  Foix  Huinaine^ 
published  in  1826,  and  also  Sur  la  Vcix  des 
Oiseaux,  1826.  His  complete  works  were 
published  in  the  AnncUes  de  Ckimie  et  de 
Mtmque,  beginning  with  the  year  1819.  He 
died  March  16,  1841.— (P.  Davidson,  The 
Violin  ;  Heron  -  Allen,  Violin  -  making  ;  J. 
Gallay,  LiUhiers  JtcUiens ;  Leon  Mordret,  La 
LuOUrie  Artisti^u  ;  J.  A.  Otto,  Vber  den  Bau 
%imd  die  Erludtung  der  Oeige ;  F.  Savart, 
M4moire  sur  la  construction  des  Instruments^  etc, 
(a  condensed  German  translation  of  this  work 
was  published  in  Leipzig  in  1844)  ;  F.  J.  F^tis, 
'  Biographical  Notice  of  Nicolo  Paganini,'  The 
ReposUonj  of  AriSt  lAterature^  and  Fashion,  etc., 
vol.  xi.,  2nd  Series,  Jan.  1,  1821,  No.  6,  pp.  21 
and  80 ;  NouvelleBiographieOSn^ale public  par 
FirminDidol;  NouveauLarousselllnstri;  F^tis, 
Biog.  des,  Mus.)].    w.  p.  ;  additions  by  E.  h-a. 

SAVILE,  Jeremy,  a  composer  of  the  middle 
of  the  1 7th  century,  some  of  whose  songs  are 


230 


SAVONAROLA 


SAX 


included  in  'Select  Musicall  Ayres  and  Dia- 
logues/ 1663,  is  now  only  known  by  *  Here's  a 
health  unto  his  Majesty/  and  his  four -part 
song,  *  The  Waits,'  piinted  in  Play  ford's  *  Musi- 
cal Companion/  which,  by  long-standing  custom, 
is  the  last  piece  sung  at  the  meetings  of  the 
Madrigal  Society  and  similar  bodies,      w.  h.  h. 

SAVONAROLA.  Grand  opera  in  a  pro- 
logue and  three  acts ;  words  by  Gilbert  k 
Beckett,  music  by  C.  Villiers  Stanford.  Pro- 
duced at  the  Stadt-Theater,  Hamburg  (words 
translated  by  Ernst  Frank),  April  18,  1884, 
and  at  Covent  Gaitlen  (German  Opera,  under 
Richter),  July  9  of  the  same  year.  m. 

SAVOY.     [See  Old  Hundredth,  The.] 

SAVOY  CHAPEL  ROYAL,  THE,  has  a 
constitution  differing  widely  from  the  chapel 
of  St.  James.  While  tliat  is  maintained  out  of 
the  Civil  List,  the  Savoy  Chapel  derives  its 
sustenance  from  the  sovereign's  x^i^^  x^^^*^) 
and  thus  in  one  respect  has  even  greater  claim 
to  the  appellation  of  Royal.  The  salient  points 
in  the  history  of  the  Savoy  may  be  given  in 
few  words,  which  may  tend  to  remove  much 
prevailing  misconception  on  the  subject.  In 
1246  Henry  IIL  made  a  grant  of  land  on  the 
banks  of  the  Thames  to  his  wife's  uncle,  Count 
Peter  of  Savoy,  and  a  palatial  residence  was 
erected  on  the  site.  After  Peter's  death  the 
estate  came  into  the  possession  of  Queen 
Eleanor,  who  bestowed  it  upon  her  son  Edmund 
of  Lancaster,  and  it  remained  in  the  possession 
of  the  Lancastrian  branch  of  the  royal  family 
until  1381,  when,  owing  to  the  unpopularity 
of  John  of  Gaunt,  the  palace  was  wrecked  by 
the  insurgents  under  Wat  Tyler.  Under  the 
provisions  of  the  will  of  Henry  VII.,  a  hospital 
was  founded  there,  but  though  richly  endowed, 
it  did  not  flourish,  and  the  foulest  abuses  pre- 
vailed until  1702,  Avhen  the  institution  was 
dissolved.  The  Chapel  had  been  used  from 
1564  until  1717  by  the  parishioners  of  St. 
Mary's,  but  in  1773  George  III.  issued  a  patent 
constituting  it  a  Chapel  Royal,  and  its  title  is 
therefore  beyond  dispute.  From  time  to  time 
the  reigning  sovereigns  contributed  towards  its 
maintenance,  but  the  place  attracted  little 
general  notice  until  1864,  when  it  was  partially 
destroyed  by  fire.  Restored  from  designs  by 
Sir  Sidney  Smirke,  at  a  cost  to  Queen  Victoria 
of  about  £7000,  the  Chapel  was  reopened  for 
Divine  Service  on  Dec.  3,  1865.  The  appoint- 
ment is  in  the  gift  of  the  Duchy  of  Lan- 
caster. H.  F.  F. 

In  the  middle  of  the  18th  century  the  Chapel 
acquired  a  dubious  celebrity  for  'easy  marriages.' 
Tlie  inducements  are  set  forth  in  the  following 
advertisement  which  appeared  in  the  Public 
Advertiser  for  June  2,  1754  : — *  By  authority, 
marriages  performed  with  the  utmost  privacy, 
decency,  and  regularity,  at  the  Ancient  Royal 
Chapel  of  St.  John  the  Baptist  in  the  Savoy, 
where  regular  and  authentic  registers  have  been 


kept  from  the  time  of  the  Reformation  (being 
two  hundred  years  and  upwards)  to  this  day. 
The  expense  not  more  than  one  guinea,  the  live 
shilling  stamp  included.  There  are  five  private 
ways  by  land  to  this  chapel, ^and  two  by  water.' 
A  quaint  old  custom  connected  with  the  Chapel 
sun'ives  in  the  Court  Leet  of  the  Manor  Liberty 
of  the  Savoy.  The  Court  is  held  annually  at 
Easter  in  the  vestry  hall  of  St.  Clement  Danes, 
to  which  '  sixteen  good  men  and  true '  are 
summoned  to  appear  and  Mo  their  Suit  and 
Service  to  His  Majesty  the  King,'  under  penalty 
of  £2.  The  Court  consists  of  the  High  Steward, 
High  Bailiff,  four  bui^gesses,  four  assistant 
burgesses  and  their  beadle.  The  duty  of  this 
company  is  to  report  to  the  Court  that  the  old 
boundary  marks  have  not  been  removed  and 
are  in  good  order.  In  consequence  of  various 
improvements  some  of  these  boundary  marks 
are  now  in  unexpected  places  ;  one  is  in  a  sewer 
on  the  Embankment,  and  others  are  on  the 
stage  of  the  Lyceum  Theatre,  at  the  rear  of 
Child's  Bank  in  Fleet  Street,  and  beneath  a 
stone  on  the  lawn  in  the  Temple.  There  is 
evidence  to  show  that  the  Court  has  been  held 
since  the  accession  of  Henry  IV.  There  is  no 
special  endowment  fund  for  the  choir,  but  boys 
who  have  the  good  fortune  to  be  elected  receive 
a  free  education  at  the  school  in  connection 
with  the  Chapel,  of  which  Mr.  H.  Kingston  is 
the  present  master.  The  services  are  choral, 
but  almost  entirely  sung  in  unison.  The  chants 
and  tunes  are  collected  from  various  sources,  and 
comprise  a  remarkable  collection  of  old  and  new 
melodies.  A  peculiarity  of  the  building  is  its 
sensitiveness  to  the  note  F,  reverberations  being 
felt,  even  in  the  vestry,  when  the  low  F  is 
sounded  on  the  pedal  organ.  In  consequenoe 
of  this  the  responses  are  sung  in  F.  The  two- 
manual  organ,  built  by  Messrs.  Willis,  has 
recently  been  completed. 

The  names  of  the  chaplains  of  the  Savoy 
from  1773  are— William  Willmot ;  Samuel 
Ayscough,  1778  ;  James  Hodgsons,  1795  ;  Dr. 
John  Banks  Jenkinson,  1805,  afterwards  Bishoi^ 
of  St.  David's  ;  Andrew  Brandram,  1825 ;  John 
Foster,  1888,  afteni'ards  Rector  of  Stamboume  ; 
Henry  White,  1859,  Chaplain-in-Ordinary  to 
H.M.  Queen  Victoria,  Chaplain  to  the  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Commons ;  Geoi^  Herbert 
Curteis,  1890,  Canon  Residentiary  of  Lichfield  ; 
Paul  William  Wyatt,  1894,  AssisUnt  Chapkin 
of  the  Savoy  1886-94,  Chaplain  of  the  Order 
of  St.  John  of  Jenisalem  4n  England.  Farther 
information  Avill  be  found  in  The  Story  of  the 
Savoy,  by  the  Rev.  William  John  Loftie,  B.A., 
F.S.A.,  and  in  The  Htstoryofthe  Savoy  ChaprJ, 
by  John  E.  Locking.  f.  o.  w. 

SAX,  Charles  Joseph,  a  Belgian  masical> 
instrument  maker  of  the  first  rank,  bom  at 
Dinant  in  Belgium,  Feb.  1, 1791 ;  died  in  Paris, 
April  26,  1865.  He  was  first  a  cabinet-maker, 
then  a  mechanic  in  a  spinning-machine  factory, 


SAX 


SAX 


231 


and  then  set  up  in  BfiumIs  as  ft  maker  of  wind- 
instruments.  He  had  served  no  apprenticeship 
to  the  trade,  and  his  only  qualification  was 
that  he  could  play  the  serpent ;  he  was  there- 
fore obliged  to  investigate  for  himself  the  laws 
oonoeming  the  bore  of  instruments  ;  but  as  he 
had  great  manual  dexterity,  and  a  turn  for 
invention,  he  was  soon  able  to  produce  serpentB 
and  flutes  of  fair  quality.  He  quickly  attracted 
notice  by  his  clarinets  and  bassoons,  which 
gained  him  a  medal  at  the  Industrial  Exhibi- 
tion of  1820,  and  the  title  of  musical-instrument 
maker  to  the  court  of  the  Netherlands,  which 
also  enooursged  him  by  advancing  him  capital. 
In  1822  he  began  to  make  all  kinds  of  wind- 
instruments,  brass  and  wood,  and  in  1824 
invented  an  'omnitonic  horn,'  which  he  con- 
tinned  to  perfect  till  1846.  This  instrument 
can  be  adjusted  to  any  key  by  means  of  a 
piston  sliding  backwards  or  forwards  on  a  gra- 
duated scale  of  about  half  an  inch  long,  which 
sets  the  body  of  the  instrument  in  communica- 
tion with  tubes  of  different  lengths  corresponding 
to  all  the  major  keys.  On  a  separate  elbow  is  a 
movable  register  which  the  player  fixes  opposite 
the  number  of  the  key  he  wishes  to  use,  and 
the  tube  of  that  key  being  at  once  brought 
into  position,  the  instrument  is  played  exactly 
like  an  ordinary  horn.  Sax  also  invented  brass 
instruments  producing  eveiy  note  in  the  scale, 
without  crooks,  pistons,  or  cylinders.  He  took 
out  patents  for  a  keyed  harp,  and  a  piano  and 
a  guitar  on  a  new  system,  but  his  efforts  were 
mainly  directed  to  perfecting  the  clarinet, 
especially  the  bass  clarinet,  and  discovering 
new  methods  of  boring  brass  and  wood  wind 
instruments  with  a  view  to  make  them  more 
exactly  in  tune.  His  exertions  were  crowned 
with  sncoess,  and  he  obtained  gratifying  dis- 
tinctions at  the  Brussels  Industrial  Exhibition 
of  1836. 

Charles  Sax  was  the  father  of  eleven  children, 
of  whom  two  sons  were  distinguished  in  the 
same  line.     The  eldest  of  these, 

Antoine  Joseph,  known  as  Adolphe  Sax, 
bom  at  Dinant,  Nov.  6,  1814,  was  brought  up 
in  his  father's  workshop,  and  as  a  child  was 
remarkable  for  manual  skill,  and  love  of  music. 
He  entered  the  Brussels  Conservatoire  and 
studied  the  flute  and  clarinet, — the  latter  with 
Bender,  who  considered  him  one  of  his  best 
pnpils.  Like  his  father  his  efforts  were  directed 
mainly  to  the  improvement  of  that  instrument, 
especially  the  bass  clarinet,  and  he  even  designed 
a  double-bass  clarinet  in  Bb.  In  the  course 
of  his  endeavours  to  improve  the  tune  of  his 
&voarite  instrument  he  invented  an  entire 
fiimily  of  brass  instraments  with  a  new  quality 
of  tone,  which  he  called  Saxophones  (see  below). 
The  hope  of  making  both  fame  and  money  led 
him  to  Paris;  he  arrived  in  1842,  and  estab- 
lished himself  in  the  Rue  St.  Georges,  in  small 
premisee  which  he   was  afterwards  forced  to 


enlarge.  He  had  no  capital  beyond  his  brains 
and  fingers,  which  he  used  both  as  a  manu- 
facturer and  an  artist ;  but  he  had  the  active 
support  of  Berlioz,  Halevy,  and  G.  Kastner, 
and  this  soon  procured  him  money,  tools,  and 
workmen.  He  exhibited  in  the  French  Exhibi- 
tion of  1844,  and  obtained  a  silver  medal  for 
his  brass  and  wood  wind  instruments,  a  great 
stimulus  to  a  man  who  looked  down  upon  all 
his  rivals,  and  aimed  not  only  at  eclipsing 
them,  but  at  securing  the  monopoly  of  furnishing 
musical  instruments  to  the  French  army.  In 
1845  he  took  out  a  patent  for  the  Saxhorn,  a 
new  kind  of  bugle,  and  for  a  family  of  cylinder 
instruments  called  Saxotrombas,  intermediate 
between  the  Saxhorn  and  the  cylinder  trumpet. 
On  June  22,  1846,  he  registered  the  Saxophone, 
which  has  remained  his  most  important  dis- 
covery. A  man  of  such  inventive  power  natu- 
rally excited  much  jealousy  and  ill-feeling 
among  those  whose  business  suffered  from  his 
discoveries,  but  his  tact  and  wisdom  made 
numerous  and  powerful  friends,  among  others 
General  de  Bumigny,  Aide-de-camp  to  Louis 
Philippe,  and  a  host  of  newspaper  writers  who 
were  perpetually  trumpeting  his  praises.  He 
lost  no  opportunity  of  vaunting  the  superiority 
of  his  instruments  over  those  in  use  in  the 
French  military  bands,  at  a  special  competition 
held  between  the  two ;  and  the  superiority, 
whether  deserved  or  not,  soon  resulted  in  a 
monopoly,  the  first  effect  of  which  was  to 
banish  firom  the  military  bands  all  horns,  oboes, 
and  bassoons. 

The  Paris  Industrial  Exhibition  of  1849,  at 
which  Sax  obtained  a  gold  medal,  brought  his 
three  families  of  instruments  still  more-  into 
notice ;  and  he  received  the  Council  Medal  at 
the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851.  In  spite  of 
these  merited  honours,  he  became  bankrupt  in 
1 852.  He  soon,  however,  made  an  arrangement 
with  his  creditors,  and  on  recommencing  busi- 
ness entered  for  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1855, 
and  gained  another  gold  medal.  When  the 
pitch  was  reformed  in  1859  every  orchestra 
and  military  band  in  France  had  to  procure 
newwind-instruments — an  enormous  advantage, 
by  which  any  one  else  in  Sax's  place  would 
have  made  a  fortune ;  but  with  all  his  ability 
and  shrewdness  he  was  not  a  man  of  business, 
and  his  affairs  became  more  and  more  hopelessly 
involved.  There  was  full  scope  for  his  inventive 
faculties  under  the  Second  Empire,  and  he 
introduced  various  improvements  into  the  differ- 
ent piston  instruments,  only  one  of  which  need 
be  specified,  viz.  the  substitution  of  a  single 
ascending  piston  for  the  group  of  descending 
ones.  This  principle  he  adapted  to  both  conical 
and  cylindrical  instruments.  He  also  invented 
instruments  with  seven  bells  and  six  separate 
pistons ;  instruments  with  rotatory  bells  for 
altering  the  direction  of  the  sound,  and  a  host 
of  smaller  improvements  and  experiments,  all 


232 


SAXHORN 


SAXHORN 


detailed  in  F^tis's  Bapparts  de  VEi^posUum  and 
Biographic  C/niverselle. 

At  the  London  International  Exhibition  of 
1862,  Sax  exhibited  cornets,  saxhorns,  and 
saxotrombas,  with  8  pistons,  and  with  2,  8,  4, 
and  5  keys ;  and  at  Pans  in  1867  he  took  the 
Grand  Prix  for  specimens  of  all  the  instruments 
invented  or  improved  by  him.  He  afterwards 
lost  his  powerful  patrons  and  declined  in  pros- 
perity year  after  year.  He  was  obliged  to  give 
up  his  vast  establishment  in  the  Rue  St.  Georges 
and  to  sell  (Dec.  1877)  his  collection  of  musical 
instruments.  The  printed  catalogue  contains 
467  items,  and  though  not  absolutely  correct 
is  interesting,  especially  for  the  view  it  gives 
of  the  numerous  infringements  of  his  patents. 
The  typical  instruments  of  the  collection  were 
bought  by  the  Museum  of  tiie  Paris  Conserva- 
toire, the  Mus^e  Instrumental  of  Brussels,  and 
the  late  M.  G^sar  Snoeck  of  Renaix,  a  wealthy 
Belgian  collector.  Sax  died  in  Paris,  Feb.  4, 
1894. 

Among  the  numerous  works  written  to  adver- 
tise the  merits  of  Adolphe  Sax's  instruments  we 
need  only  mention  two — Comettant's  Htstoire 
d*un  invenieur  an  XlXme  SvkU  (Paris,  1860, 
652  pp.  8vo,  with  a  fair  likeness  of  Sax)  ;  and 
Pont^coulant's  Organographie  (Paris,  1861,  2 
vols.  8vo). 

Alphonse  Sax,  jun.,  worked  with  his  brother 
for  some  years,  and  seems  to  have  devoted  his 
attention  especially  to  ascending  pistons.  He 
set  up  for  himself  in  the  Rue  d' Abbeville  (No. 
5  his),  but  did  not  succeed.  He  published  a 
j^mjihlet,  Oymnastiqitsdespawmans;  laMugiqtu 
instrumentale  au  point  de  •one  de  VhygitM  et  la 
crSatum  dea  orcheatres  fSminins  (Paris,  1866), 
which  is  merely  a  disguised  puff.  o.  c. 

SAXHORN  (Saxtuba,  Saxotromha),  The 
name  given  to  a  family  of  brass  instruments 
with  valves,  invented  by  Adolphe  Sax. 

'  No  one  can  be  ignorant,'  say  the  editors  of 
the  Method  for  Saxhorn  and  Saxo-tromba,  '  of 
the  deplorable  state  in  which  brass  instruments 
were  when  M.  Sax's  method  made  its  appearance. 
No  coherence,  no  unity  between  the  individual 
members  of  the  group ;  in  one  case  keys,  in 
another  valves ;  a  small  compass,  an  imperfect 
scale,  lack  of  accurate  intonation  throughout, 
bad  quality  of  tone,  variations  of  fingering 
requiring  fresh  study  in  passing  from  one 
instrument  to  another.  The  keyed  bugle,  built 
on  false  proportions,  offered  no  prospect  of 
improvement ;  the  mechanism  of  the  valves 
themselves,  by  their  abrupt  angles,  deteriorated 
the  quality  of  tone  ;  and  the  absence  of  inter- 
mediate instruments  caused  gaps  in  the  general 
scale,  and  at  times  false  combinations.' 

Sax's  first  advice  to  players  exhibits  the 
power  of  his  new  instruments — that  namely  of 
playing  in  every  key  without  using  *  crooks,' 
as  in  the  French -horn  and  Trumpet.  [See 
HOBN.]    He  also  attacked  the  problem  of  true 


intonation  in  valve  instruments,  by  means  of 
what  he  terms  a  compensator.  Besides  these 
improvements  he  planned  all  the  tubes  and 
mechanism  on  a  far  sounder  acoustical  basis 
than  had  been  attempted  in  the  fortuitous  and 
disconnected  contrivances  of  former  periods. 
The  valve  or  piston  was  indeed  known,  but 
was  open  to  the  objection  stated  above,  and 
was  at  best  but  a  clumsy  machine.  He  un- 
questionably simplified  it  by  causing  fewer 
turns  and  comers  to  interfere  with  the  free 
oourse  of  the  vibrating  column  of  air.  It  is  to 
be  noted,  however,  that  all  the  instruments  of 
the  Sax  family,  like  the  ordinary  oomet-^- 
pistons,  ntiUse  the  harmonic  octave  below  that 
in  which  the  trumpet  and  French  horn  speak, 
and  thus  obtain  power  and  facility  some- 
what at  the  expense  of  quality. 

[Sax  did  not  aim  at  designing  or  improving 
instruments  of  the  trumpet  and  horn  qualities 
only,  but  rather  at  adapting  improved  valves 
systematically  to  brass  instruments  of  the  bugle 
type  ranging  in  pitch  from  soprano  to  contra- 
bass, the  lower  pitched  members  of  the  family 
being  substitutes  for  the  imperfect  serpents, 
ophicleldes,  and  other  bass  horns  then  in  use. 
The  power  and  facility  of  tone  production  of 
the  instruments  known  as  Saxhorns,  whether 
made  by  Sax,  or  by  other  makers  who  have 
followed  up  his  ideas,  should  therefore  be  com- 
pared with  that  obtainable  on  these  keyed 
instruments,  rather  than  with  the  quality  of 
French  horns  and  trumpets.  The  comet  is  an 
instrament  standing  by  itself,  as  a  hybrid  be- 
tween the  trampet  and  the  flugel  horn,  and  its 
analogy  with  Saxhorns,  as  now  understood,  can- 
not be  pushed  beyond  the  fact  that  the  free 
use  of  the  second  octave  in  the  harmonic  series 
is  common  to  it  and  to  them. 

The  valve  system  of  the  Saxhorn  is  arranged 
in  such  manner  that  the  depression  of  the 
second  valve  flattens  the  pitch  a  semitone,  tlie 
depression  of  the  first  valve  flattens  it  a  tone,  and 
the  third  valve  a  tone  and  a  half.  Whatever 
the  normal  pitch  of  the  instmment,  the  second 
note  of  the  harmonic  series  is  written  as  middle 
cf  when  the  treble  clef  is  used,  but  when  tlie 
bass  clef  is  employed  the  notes  are  written  as 
sounded.  The  harmonic  scale  obtained  from 
the  unaltered  length  of  the  instrument  is 
supplemented  when  three  valves  are  used  singly 
and  in  combination,  by  six  other  similar  scales, 
and  by  this  means  a  complete  chromatic  scale 
can  be  produced. 

It  will  be  observed,  on  comparing  the  notes 
on  the  first  and  last  groups  of  the  scheme,  that 
there  is  a  gap  between  the  open  pedal  C  (No.  1) 
and  the  Gb  above  it,  produced  by  the  combined 
use  of  the  1st,  2nd,  and  Srd  valves,  but  this  is 
of  no  practical  consequence  on  the  alto,  tenor, 
and  baritone  instraments,  as  the  quality  of  tiie 
extreme  low  notes  is  poor.  With  the  basses 
(euphoniums  and  tubas),  however,  the  case  is 


SAXHORN  SAXHORN 

Scheme  of  Fingering  for  the  Saxhorn 


233 


difTerent,  as  the  notes  of  the  pedal  octave  are 
required,  and  to  obtain  them,  a  fourth  valve, 
altering  the  pitch  two  and  half  tones,  is  usually 
employed.     (For  explanation  of  certain  inac- 


The  Bb  Baritone  Saxhorn  or  Althom. 
curacies  due  to  the  use  of  valves  in  combination 
«ee  Valve.) 

The  range  of  compass  of  the  Saxhorn  family 
is  fully  five  octaves,  the  upper  limit  being 
Approximately  that  of  the  soprano  voice,  and 
the  lower  descending  an  octave  lower  than  the 
bass  voice.  Sir  Edward  Elgar  in  his  '  Cockaigne  * 
Overture  has  a  descending  passage  for  the  tuba 
going  to  D^b*  Although  the  basses  can  take 
three  octaves  without  difficulty,  the  average 
<a»y  compass  of  the  other  instruments  is  about 
two  octaves  or  a  little  less. 


The  saxhoi-ns  chiefly  used  are   the  follow- 
ing:— 

Ek>  Soprano  Fliigel  Horn. 

Bfc>  Alto  Fliigel  Horn. 

Ek>  Tenor  or  Althom. 

Bb  Baritone  or  Althom. 

Bb  Bass  or  Euphonium. 

Eb  Bass  Tuba  or  Bombardon. 

Bb  Contrabass. 

but  the  instmments  are  sometimes  pitched  in 
F  instead  of  £|>  and  in  C  instead  of  Bb  when 
required  for  use  in  the  orchestra.  As  stated 
above,  the  second  note  in  the  harmonic  series 
is  written  as  middle  C  when  the  treble  clef  is 
used,  the  actual  jiiteh  of  the  note  for  each  of 
the  instruments  named  being  as  here  shown  : — 

As  Munded. 


} 

i 
< 

Tenor. 

Baritone. 
Euphouiuin. 

1 

1 

■s 

^ 

■fi    t8^ 

tS 

■g 

'=^    \rrs 


In  every  case,  however,  the  note  written  as 
middle  C  is  known  as  the  Mow  C  of  the 
instmment,  the  octave  below  is  the  *  pedal  C,' 
and  the  octave  above,  or  No.  4  in  the  harmonic 
series,  is  known  as  'middle  C  *Top  C  or 
No.  8  in  the  harmonic  series  is  rarely  passed.] 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  inventor  of 
the  Saxhorn  added  greatly*  to  the  compass, 
richness,  and  flexibility  of  the  militar}'  brass 
and  reed  bands.  But  it  is  a  question  whether 
the  tone  of  these  powerful  auxiliaries  blends  so 
well  with  the  stringed  instmments  as  that  of 
the  trampet,  French  hom,  and  trombone — and 
hence  their  comparative  neglect 

[It  is  to  open-air  music  that  we  must  look  to 
understand  the  change  that  has  been  brought 
about  by  the  introduction  of  the  saxhorns. 
Granting  that  with  the  exception  of  the  bass 


234 


SAXOPHONE 


SCALA,  LA 


tubas,  notliing  distinctive  has  been  added  to 
the  orchestra  by  them,  it  yet  remains  that 
popular  music  has  been  revohitionised,  for 
military  bands  have  been  reorganised,  and  the 
brass  bands  which  are  so  largely  instrumental 
in  introducing  good  music  to  the  masses,  have 
become  ix)ssible.]  w.  h.  s.  ;  with  additions  in 
square  brackets,  by  D.  J.  B. 

SAXOPHONE.  [An  instrument  invented 
by  Adolphe  Sax  about  1840,  introduced  offi- 
cially into  the  French  army  bands,  July  31, 


1845,  a  lid  rugtsten^d  by  Sax, 
June  il2,  1846.]  It  (.■oiisiata 
essontiaily  of  ji  coiiiml  brass  tulffi 
furiiiuhed  with  about  twenty  lat(?ral 
orifices  covered  by  keys,  atid  with  six 
studii  or  fiager-platea  for  the  firat  thi-eo 
fingers  of  either  hand,  and  in  played  by 
meaiiij  of  a  nioutlipiece  aud  single  reed  of 
the  Lkriiiet  kind.  [in  addition  to  ktoral 
holpii  giving  th*j  Hciile,  two  is  mall  holes  opened 
by  keys,  rtnd  known  as  *■  pil>eH '  or  *  apeak ers,^ 
are  aliio  pjTovide<lt  and  are  uaed  for  the  pi-o- 
duction  of  the  o«taves.  Tbe  saj^ophones  g(>tier- 
ally  in  use  am  tlie  soprano  in  h^^  the  alto  in 
cb>  the  teum-  in  Bi>,  the  Ijaritojic  m  Ehj,  antl 
the  Imss  in  B^iy-  A  isopmniiio  in  e''r^  ia  sotnetimes 
made,  atjd  c  and  /  are  oct'aijionally  Tised  for  tlie 
pitch  notes  instead  of  Dj?  and  e^  reHjiectivoly*] 
Those  most  used  are  the  alto  sud  tenor  varieties. 
In  French  military  Uands^  however,  tive  or  more 
are  in  n^c  ■  having  to  a  great  degree  superseded 
the  more  ditticnlt  bnt  more  Hexible  clarinet,  and 
having  quite  repLoeed  the  basMK^n. 

iThe  coiU].MUH  of  tlie  saxojilioite  aa  generally 
recognised  is  from  b  to/"',  but  all  the  members 
of  the  family  are  frequently  made  with  an  ex- 
tension of  the  bell  for  6b,  which  note  is  obtained 
by  the  closing  of  an  exti*a  open-standing  key. 
The  two  highest  keys,  giving  e'"  and  /'",  are, 
however,  seldom  fitted  to  any  but  the  alto  and 
tenor  instruments.  The  key -system  for  the 
right  hand  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Boehm  flute, 
but  for  the  left  hand  approaches  more  nearly  to 
that  of  the  ordinary  oboe.  The  fundamental 
sounds  from  6b  or  frfi  to  c's  are  obtained  by  the 
successive  opening  of  the  lateral  holes,  and  by 
means  of  the  t>vo  octave  or  'pijw'  keys  the 
compass  is  carried  up  from  d'  to  c"'%.  The  four 
highest  notes,  rf"',  c'"b,  e'",  and  /'",  are  pro- 
duced by  four  keys  on  the  upper  part  of  the 
instrument,  used  exclusively  for  these  notes. 
Since  its  introduction,  many  improved  or  alter- 
native fingerings  have  been  designed  for  and 
adopted  on  the  saxophone,  but  a  description 
of  these  would  unduly  extend  this  article,] 


The  saxophone,  though  inferior  in  compass, 
quality,  and  power  of  articulation  to  the  clarinet, 
and  basset-horn,  and  especially  to  the  bassoon, 
has  great  value  in  military  combinations.  It 
reproduces  on  a  magnified  scale  sometliing  of 
the  violoncello  quality,  and  giv^es  great  sustain- 
ing power  to  the  full  chorus  of  brass  instruments, 
by  introducing  a  mass  of  harmonic  overtones 
wanting  in  Sax's  other  contrivance.  [The  tone 
of  the  soprano  saxophone  is  somewhat  strident, 
but  the  general  quality  of  all  combines  the 
*  vocal '  and  the  *  string '  characteristics,  and  un- 
doubtedly bridges  over  the  gap  lietween  the  older 
established  M-e^^d  '  iurttrunieuti?  and  the  *  bra^.' 
In  the  orchid tra  the  sa?kophoiie  has  not  as  jet 
been  much  employed.  It  Wiis  fn>jt  introduct^, 
in  1844,  by  M/Ka*^tuer  in  '  Le  dernier  Roi  de 
.Tuda,'aud  subsetpieiitly  by  Meyerbeer,  Ambroise 
Thomas,  and  others.  Among  recent  examples 
of  its  use  may  be  mentioned  Cowen'Fi  *  Thor- 
grimt'  StraUBs'a  *  Domestic  Symphony/ 
anti  ft  quartet  lor  &ixophoweain  ^hts  Hom- 
niogeB,'  by  Mr,  Joaepli  Holbrooke,] 
v,\  IT.  Hi.  ;  Rilditions  by  d.  j,  u. 


m 


The  E]^  Alto  Saxophone. 


SAv    li 


SCALA,    LA, 

I  The    propnetiu-H 
of      the      Dneal 

I  Theatre  of  Milan, 
which  was  h^nnt 

'  in  1776,  obtained^ 
by  a  decree  of 
July  16,  1776, 
from  the  Empress  MariaTheresa  of  Austria,  leave 
to  build  a  new  opera-house  on  the  site  of  the 
church  of  S.  Maria  della  Scala.  The  celebrated 
architect,  Piermarini  of  Foligno,  made  the  de- 
signs, and  it  was  inaugurated  August  3,  1778. 
The  building  was  not  only  the  grandest  theatre 
then  existing  in  £uroi>e,  but  the  most  artistic- 
ally beautiful  and  complete.  Levati  and  Reina 
painted  the  ceiling,  the  boxes,  and  the  great 
hall,  or  ridotto  ;  and  the  curtain,  representing 
Parnassus,  was  the  work  of  Riccardi.  The  cost 
of  the  whole  amounted  to  one  million  lire 
(£40,000),  an  enormous  sum  for  that  time. 
Until  1857  the  principal  entrance  of  La  Scala 
was  from  a  by -street,  but  since  that  date  it 
opens  on  to  a  large  and  beautifiU  piazza. 

The  interior  of  the  house  is  in  the  horseshoe 
form,  with  five  tiers  of  boxes  and  a  gallery 
above  them,  all  in  white,  relieved  by  gilded 


SCALCHI 


SCALE 


235 


ornaments.  The  lowest  three  tiers  have  each 
thirty -six  boxes,  and  a  royal  box  above  the 
entrance  to  the  stalls.  The  fourth  and  fifth 
tiers  have  each  thirty-nine  boxes,  and  there  are 
four  on  each  side  of  the  proscenium,  making  a 
total  of  194  boxes,  besides  the  large  royal  box 
and  the  galleiy,  each  box  having  a  private 
room  at  its  back  for  the  convenience  of  its 
occupants 

The  length  of  the  whole  building  is  330  ft. , 
and  its  width  122  ft.  The  height  from  the 
floor  to  the  ceiling  is  65  ft.  The  stage,  ^-ith 
the  proscenium,  is  145  ft.  long  and  54  ^tide 
between  the  columns  of  the  proscenium,  but  is 
98  ft  wide  farther  behind.  The  ridotto,  a 
lai^  hall  for  promenading  between  the  acts, 
is  82  ft.  long  and  30  ft  wide.  The  total 
capacity  of  the  house  is  3600.  This  immense 
institution  permanently  employs  922  persons 
on  its  staff,  distributed  in  the  following  way: — 
Artist-singers,  20  ;  orchestra,  100  ;  band,  28  ; 
choristers,  110;  'comiiarse,'  120;  ballet,  140; 
dressmakers  and  tailors,  150;  doctors,  6  ;  ser- 
vants, S6,  etc. 

The  gentlemen  who  proidded  the  funds  for 
the  building  of  La  Scala  ei\joy  the  use  of  its 
boxes  at  a  nominal  rental  whenever  the  theatre 
is  open,  each  box  having  its  owner.  In  all 
other  respects  the  theatre  has  been  the  property 
of  the  town  of  Milan  since  1872.  The  munici- 
pality grants  to  its  lessee  an  annual  sum  of 
Jt*9800,  and  the  owners  of  the  boxes  pay  £2920 ; 
and  thus  La  Scala  cnjo3r8  an  endowment  of 
i:  12, 720  a  year.  The  theatre  is  controlled  by 
a  Commission  elected  by  the  Common  Council 
of  Milan  and  the  owners  of  its  boxes. 

Annexed  to  the  theatre  is  a  celebrated  dancing 
school,  with  sixty  pupils,  where  the  most  famous 
bailet-danoers  have  been  trained,  and  a  singing 
school  for  about  fifty  choristers.  Two  charit- 
able institutions — /  Filamionici,  founded  by 
Marchesi  in  1783,  and  the  Tealrale,  by  Modronc 
in  1829 — are  also  dependent  for  their  income 
upon  the  greatest  theatre  of  Italy. 

The  latest  restoration  of  the  theatre  took  place 
in  1878.  Its  archives  have  been  most  carefully 
preserved.  Further  infonnation  may  be  ob- 
tained from  the  Teairo  alia  Scala  177S-1862,  by 
Luigi  Romani  (Milan,  1862)  ;  the  Eeali  Teatri 
di  MUamo,  by  Cambiasi  (Ricordi,  Milan,  1881) ; 
and  La  SeaZa  de  Milan,  by  Henri  de  Curzon  (Le 
Guide  Musical,  1906,  pp.  538-40).         L.  R. 

SCALCHI,  Sofia,  was  bom  Nov.  29,  1850, 
at  Turin  ;  received  instruction  in  singing  from 
Augusta  Boccabadati,  and  made  her  d^but  at 
>fantna  in  1866  as  Ulrica  in  'Un  Ballo  in 
Maschera.'  She  afterwards  sang  at  Verona, 
Bologna,  Faenza,  Nice,  etc.,  and  in  England 
for  the  first  time  Sept  16,  1868,  at  the  Pro- 
menade Concerts,  Agricultural  Hall,  with  very 
great  success.  At  the  Royal  Italian  Opera, 
Covent  Garden,  she  first  appeared  Nov.  5,  of 
the  same  year,  as  Azucena,  and  after  that  as  Pier- 


rotto('  Linda '),  Urbano,  Un  Caprajo  ( '  Dinorah '), 
etc.  She  sang  there  every  year  till  1890  in- 
clusive. Her  voice  was  of  fine  quality  in  com- 
pass, two  octaves  and  a  half  from  low  F  to  6 
in  alt,  enabling  her  to  take  both  tlio  mezzo- 
soprano  and  contralto  parts  in  a  great  number 
of  operas.  In  Sept.  1875  she  married  Signer 
Lolli,  a  gentleman  of  Ferrara.  Among  her 
repertoire  may  be  named  Leonora  ('  Favorita '), 
which  she  played  July  19,  1871,  at  Mario's 
farewell  appearance  ;  Estellc  in  Campana's 
•Esmeralda,'  June  14,  1870  ;  Leonora  in  Cinia- 
rosa's  'Le  Astuzie  femminili,'  July  15,  1871  ; 
Meala  in  Masse 's  'Paul  et  Yirginie,'  June  1, 
1878  ;  Mrs.  Page,  July  14,  1877,  and  Fides, 
June  24,  1878,  on  the  respective  revivals  of 
Nicolai's  *  Lustige  Weiber, '  and  of  *  Le  f*roi)hete ' ; 
also  Arsace,  Amneris,  MafTeo  Orsini,  Siebel, 
etc.  One  of  her  most  successful  impersonations 
was  Wania  in  Glinka's  *  Vie  pour  le  Czar.'  She 
has  had  frequent  engagements  in  Italy,  St. 
Petersburg,  Moscow,  Vienna,  North  and  South 
America,  etc.  a.  c. 

SCALE  (from  the  Latin  Scala,  a  staircase  or 
ladder  ;  Fr.  Oamme  ;  Ger.  Tonleiter,  i.e.  sound - 
ladder  ;  Ital.  Scala),  a  term  denoting  the  series 
of  sounds  used  in  musical  compositions. 

The  number  of  musical  sounds  producible,  all 
differing  in  pitch,  is  theoretically  infinite,  and 
is  practically  very  large  ;  so  that  in  a  single 
octave  a  sensitive  ear  may  distinguish  50  to 
100  different  notes.  But  if  we  were  to  take  a 
number  of  these  at  random,  or  if  we  were  to 
slide  by  a  continuous  transition  from  one  sound 
to  another  considerably  distant  from  it,  we 
should  not  make  what  we  call  music.  In  order 
to  do  this  we  must  use  only  a  certain  small 
number  of  sounds,  forming  a  determinate  series, 
and  differing  from  each  other  by  well-defined 
steps  or  degrees.  Such  a  series  or  succession 
of  sounds  is  called  a  scale,  from  its  analogy  with 
the  steps  of  a  ladder. 

It  is  unnecessary  here  to  enter  into  the 
sesthetical  reason  for  this ;  ^  it  must  sufSce  to 
state  that  all  nations,  at  all  times,  who  have 
made  music,  have  agreed  in  adopting  such  a 
selection,  although  they  have  not  always  se- 
lected the  same  series  of  sounds.  As  a  first  step 
towards  the  selection  all  musical  peoples  ap|)eai' 
to  have  appreciated  the  intimate  natural  relation 
between  sounds  which  lie  at  that  distance  apart 
called  an  octave ;  and  hence  replicates  of  notes 
in  octaves  are  found  to  form  parts  of  all  musical 
scales.  The  differences  lie  in  the  intermediate 
steps,  or  the  various  ways  in  which  the  main 
interval  of  the  octave  has  been  substituted. 

For  modern  European  music,  in  ascending 
from  any  note  to  its  octave  above,  we  employ, 
normally,  a  series  of  seven  stex>s  of  unequal 
height,  called  the  diatonic  scale,  with  the  jtower 
of  interposing,  accidentally,  certain  intermediate 

I  More  eompfotc  InfofTnation  on  the  subject  geitenilly  may  be 
foand  in  Helmholtx'ii  Tonrmpfindu-ngfn.  or  in  Th«  Fkftotnphg  nf 
Jfiute.  by  W.  Pole  (London.  1979). 


236 


SCALE 


SCALE 


chromatic  steps  in  addition.  The  diatonic  scale 
is  of  Greek  origin,  having  been  introduced  about 
the  middle  of  the  6th  century  b.c.  The  main 
divisions  of  the  octave  were  at  the  intervals  called 
the  fifth  and  the  fourth,  and  the  subdivisions 
were  formed  by  means  of  two  smaller  divisions 
called  a  tone  and  a  hemiUnie  resj)ectively.  The 
tone  was  equal  to  the  distance  between  the 
fourth  and  the  fifth,  and  the  hemitone  was 
equal  to  a  fourth  minus  tAvo  tones.  The  octave 
was  made  up  of  five  tones  and  two  hemitones, 
and  the  entire  Greek  diatonic  scale  of  two 
octaves,  as  settled  by  Pythagoms,  may  be 
accurately  represented  in  modem  notation  as 
follows : — 

Thi  Grtek  Diatonic  Scale, 


.  I  :  :  I  :  :  :  I  :  :  I  .  . 
Illlllllllllll 

Thus  the  essence  of  the  diatonic  scale  was  that 
it  consisted  of  tones,  in  groups  of  two  and 
three  alternately,  each  group  being  separated 
by  a  hemitone  from  the  adjoining  one ;  and, 
combining  consecutive  intervals,  any  two  tones 
witli  a  hemitone  would  form  2^  fourth,  any  three 
tones  with  a  hemitone  would  form  ^  fifths  and 
any  complete  cycle  of  five  tones  >vith  two 
hemitones,  would  form  a  perfect  octave. 

Now  it  is  obvious  that  in  this  series  of  notes, 
proved  to  ])e  in  use  above  two  thousand  years 
ago,  we  have  essentially  our  diatonic  scale  ;  the 
series  corresponding  in  fact  with  the  natural  or 
white  keys  of  our  modern  organ  or  pianoforte. 
And  as  this  series  formed  the  basis  of  the 
melodies  of  the  Greeks,  so  it  forms  the  basis 
of  the  tunes  of  the  present  day. 

Although,  however,  the  general  aspect  of 
the  diatonic  series  of  musical  sounds  remains 
unaltered,  it  has  been  considerably  affected  in 
its  mode  of  application  by  two  modem  elements 
— namely.  Tonality  and  Harmony. 

First,  a  glance  at  the  Greek  scale  will  show 
that  there  are  seven  different  diatonic  ways  in 
which  an  octave  may  be  divided  ;  thus,  from 
A  to  the  A  above  >vill  exhibit  one  way,  from  B 
to  B  another,  from  C  to  C  a  third,  and  so  on 
— keeping  to  the  white  keys  alone  in  each  case  ; 
and  all  these  various  '  forms  of  the  octave  *  as 
they  were  called,  were  understood  and  used  in 
the  Greek  music,  and  formed  different '  modes.' 
In  modern  times  we  adopt  only  two — one 
corresponding  w^ith  C  to  C,  which  we  call  the 
Major  mode,  the  other  corresponding  Avith  A 
to  A,  which  we  call  the  Minor  mode.  And  in 
each  case  we  attach  great  importance  to  the 
notes  forming  the  extremities  of  the  octave 
series,  either  of  which  we  call  the  Tonic  or 
Ket/note,  We  have,  therefore,  in  modem  music, 
the  two  following    *forais   of  the  octave'  in 


common  use.  And  we  may  substitute  for  the 
Greek  word  *  hemitone '  the  modem  term  *  semi- 
tone,' which  means  the  same  thing. 

Intervals  o/Um  Diatonic  Scale  for  the  Maj&r  Mode. 


Key 

note. 


I    I     I     I     I     I     1 

Intervals  of  the  Diatonic  Scale  for  the  Minor  Mode. 


Although  these  differ  materially  from  each 
other,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  original  Greek 
diatonic  form  of  the  series  is  in  each  }>erfectly 
preserved.  It  must  be  explained  that  the 
minor  scale  is  given,  under  particular  circum- 
stances, certain  accidental  variations  [see  below], 
but  these  are  of  a  chromatic  nature  ;  the  normal 
minor  diatonic  form  is  as  here  shown.  The 
choice  of  jmrticular  forms  of  the  octave,  and 
the  more  prominent  character  given  to  their 
limiting  notes,  constitute  the  important  feature 
of  modem  music  called  Tonality. 

Secondly,  a  certain  influence  has  been  exer- 
cised on  the  diatonic  scale  by  modem  Harmony. 
When  it  became  the  practice  to  sound  several 
notes  of  the  scale  simultaneously,  it  was  found 
that  some  of  the  intervals  of  the  Greek  series 
did  not  adapt  themselves  well  to  the  combina- 
tion. This  was  particularly  the  case  Avith  the 
interval  of  the  major  third,  0  to  £ :  according 
to  the  Greek  system  this  consisted  of  two  tones, 
but  the  perfect  harmonious  relation  required 
it  to  be  a  little  flatter.  The  correction  was 
effected  in  a  very  simple  maimer  by  making  a 
slight  variation  in  the  value  of  one  of  the  tones, 
which  necessitated  also  a  slight  alteration  in 
the  value  of  the  semitone.  Other  small  errors 
have  been  corrected  in  a  similar  way,  so  as  to 
make  tlie  whole  conform  to  the  principle,  tfuit 
every  note  of  the  scale  mitst  have^  as  far  as  jMJssible, 
concordaiU  hamumious  relations  to  other  notes; 
and  in  determining  these,  the  relations  to  the 
tonic  or  keynote  are  the  more  important. 

The  diatonic  series,  as  thus  corrected,  is  as 
follows : — 


Major  Diatonic  Scale  as  corrtetedfbr  Modem  Barmony. 


^    1    I 

i      s      i       a       1      8 

The  several  intervals,  reckoned  upwards  from 
the  lower  keynote,  are— 

C  to  D,  Major  tone, 
„  £,  Major  third, 
,,  F,  Perfect  Fourth, 


SCALE 


SCALE 


237 


C  to  G,  Perfect  Fifth, 
,,  A,  M%jor  sixth, 
,,  b,  Major  seventh, 
,,  C,  Octave. 
In  has  been  stated,  however,  that  for  modem 
European  music  we  have  the  power  of  adding, 
to  the  seven  sounds  of  the  diatonic  scale, 
certain  other  intermediate  chromatic  notes. 
Thus  between  C  and  D  we  may  add  two  notes 
called  Ct  and  Db.  Between  G  and  A  we  may 
add  Of  and  Ab,  and  so  on.  In  order  to  de- 
termine what  the  exact  pitch  of  these  notes 
should  be,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  that  they 
may  be  used  for  two  quite  distinct  purposes, 
i.e.  either  to  embellish  melody  without  change 
of  key,  or  to  introduce  new  diatonic  scales  by 
modulation.  In  the  former  case  the  pitch  of 
the  chromatic  notes  is  indeterminate,  and 
depends  on  the  taste  of  the  performer  ;  but  for 
the  second  use  it  is  obvious  that  the  new  note 
most  be  given  its  correct  harmonic  position 
aooording  to  the  scale  it  belongs  to:  in  fact 
it  loses  its  chromatic  character,  and  becomes 
strictly  diatonic.  For  example,  if  an  FS  be 
introduced,  determining  the  new  diatonic  scale 
of  G,  it  must  be  a  true  migor  third  above  D, 
in  the  same  way  that  in  the  scale  of  C,  6  is  a 
major  third  above  G.  In  this  manner  any 
other  chromatic  notes  may  be  located,  always 
adhering  to  the  same  general  principle  that 
they  must  bear  concordant  harmonic  relations 
to  other  notes  in  the  diatonic  scale  of  which 
they  form  part. 

Proceeding  in  this  way  we  should  obtain  a 
nnmber  of  chromatic  notes  forming  a  consider- 
able addition  to  the  diatonic  scale.  For  example, 
in  order  to  provide  for  eleven  keys,  all  in 
common  use,  we  should  get  ten  chromatic  notes 
in  addition  to  the  seven  diatonic  ones,  making 
seventeen  in  all,  within  the  compass  of  a  single 
octave.  This  multiplication  of  notes  would 
produce  snch  a  troublesome  complication  in 
practical  music,  that  in  order  to  get  rid  of  it 
there  has  been  adopted  an  ingenious  process  of 
eomprominng,  which  simplifies  enormously  the 
construction  of  the  scale,  particularly  in  its 
chromatic  parts.  In  the  first  place  it  is  found 
that  the  distance  between  the  diatonic  notes 
£  and  F,  and  between  B  and  C  is  nearly  half 
that  between  0  and  D,  or  G  and  A ;  and 
secondly,  it  is  known  that  the  adjacent  chromatic 
notes  C^  &ud  Db»  0%  and  Ab,  etc.,  are  not 
Tery  different  from  each  other.  Putting  all 
these  things  together,  it  follows  that  if  the 
octave  be  divided  into  ttoelve  equal  parts,  a  set 
of  notes  will  be  produced  not  much  differing 
in  pitch  from  the  true  ones,  and  with  the 
property  of  being  applicable  to  all  keys  alike. 
Hence  has  arisen  the  modem  chromatic  scale, 
according  to  what  is  called  equal  tempcror 
ment,  and  as  represented  on  the  key -board 
of  the  ordinary  pianoforte.  According  to 
this,  the  musical  scale  consists  of  twelve  semi- 


toneSf  each  equal  to  a  twelfth  part  of  an 
octave  ;  two  of  these  are  taken  for  the  tone 
of  the  diatonic  scale,  being  a  very  little  less 
in  value  than  the  original  major  tone  of  the 
Greek  divisions. 

This  duodecimal  division  of  the  octave  was 
known  to  the  Greeks,  but  its  modern  revival, 
which  dates  about  the  16th  century,  has  been 
one  of  the  happiest  and  most  ingenious  simpli- 
fications ever  known  in  the  history  of  music, 
and  has  had  the  effect  of  advancing  the  art  to 
an  incalculable  extent.  Its  defect  is  that  certain 
harmonic  combinations  produced  by  its  notes 
are  slightly  imperfect,  and  lose  the  satisfactory 
effect  produced  by  harmonies  perfectly  in  tune. 
The  nature  and  extent  of  this  defect,  and  the 
means  adopted  to  remedy  it,  will  be  more  properly 
explained  under  the  article  Teiiiperament, 
which  see. 

Minor  Scale, — It  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  minor 
scale  adopted  in  modem  music,  that  its  form 
is  frequently  varied  by  accidental  chromatic 
alterations,  to  satisfy  what  are  assumed  to  be 
the  requirements  of  the  ear ;  and  as  these 
alterations  most  commonly  take  place  in  ascend- 
ing passages,  it  is  usual,  in  elementary  works, 
to  give  different  forms  of  the  minor  scale,  for 
ascending  and  descending. 

For  example,  the  normal  form  of  the  scale  of 
A  minor  is 


and  in  descending,  as  here  shown,  the  progres- 
sions seem  natural  and  proper. 

But  if  the  motion  take  place  in  the  reverse 
direction,  thus : — 

No.  1. 


it  is  said  that  the  succession  of  the  upper  notes 
in  approaching  the  key  note  A,  do  not  give  the 
idea  Avhich  ought  to  correspond  to  our  modern 
tonality.  It  is  argued  that  the  penultimate 
note,  or  seventh,  being  the  leading  or  seiisible 
note  of  the  key,  ought  to  be  only  a  semitone 
distant  from  it,  as  is  customary  in  all  well- 
defined  keys ;  and  that,  in  fact,  unless  this  is 
done,  the  tonality  is  not  properly  detemiined. 
This  reason  has  led  to  the  accidental  shari^ening 
of  the  seventh  in  ascending,  thus  : — 
No.  2. 


But  here  there  is  another  thing  objected  to  ; 
namely,  the  wide  interval  of  three  semitones 
(an  augmented  second)  between  the  sixth  and 
the  seventh,  Ft^  and  G%,  which  it  is  said  is 
abrupt  and  unnatural,  and  this  has  led  to  the 
sharpening  of  the  sixth  also,  thus — 


238 


SCANDELLO 


SCANDELLO 


No.  3. 


to  make  the  progression  more  smooth  and 
regular.  This  is  the  succession  of  notes  usually 
given  as  the  ascending  minor  xale,  which  with 
the  descending  scale  without  accidentals  is 
usually  called  the  melodic  form  of  the  minor 
scale. 

The  fu-st  alteration — namely,  the  sharpening 
of  the  leading  note — is  no  doubt  required  if  the 
{)erfect  modem  tonality  is  to  be  preserved,  for 
no  doubt  an  ascending  passage,  thus — 


would  give  rather  the  impression  of  the  key  of 
C  or  of  F  than  that  of  A. 

But  the  necessity  for  sharpening  the  sixth  is 
by  no  means  so  obvious ;  it  may  no  doubt  be 
smoother,  but  the  interval  of  the  augmented 
second  is  one  so  familiar  in  modern  music,  as 
to  form  no  imperative  reason  for  the  change. 
Hence  the  form  marked  No.  2  is  very  commonly 
used,  both  for  ascending  and  descending.  It 
is  called  the  harmoni^i  form,  of  the  minor 
scale.  w.  p. 

SCANDELLO,  SCANDELLIUS,  or  SCAN- 
DELLI,  Antonio,  was  bom  at  Brescia  in 
1517.  In  1553  he  was  already  resident  in 
Dresden  and  a  member  of  the  Hofcapelle, 
but  he  often  returned  to  visit  his  native  place ; 
in  1567,  on  account  of  the  plague,  he  and  his 
family  left  Dresden  and  spent  four  months 
there.  In  1555  six  Italians  are  mentioned 
as  being  mcmbere  of  the  Dresden  Hofcapelle : 
^welsche  Instrumentisten  in  der  Musica,' 
among  them  Authonius  Scandellus,  his  brother 
Angelus  Scandellus,  and  Benedict  Tola,  the 
])ainter,  whose  daughter  Agnes  became  Scan- 
dello's  second  wife  in  June  1568  (MonatshefUf 
1877,  p.  255).  Tlie  Italians,  receiving  higher 
pay  than  the  Germans,  were  even  then  arous- 
ing feelings  of  jealousy,  which  later,  as  their 
numbers  increased,  and  German  music  was 
pushed  more  and  more  into  the  background, 
resulted  in  •  open  quarrels  and  opposition. 
Their  influence  was  to  prove  powerful  enough 
to  oust  a  German  capcUmeister  from  his  post, 
although  as  is  pathetically  stated  of  Mathias 
Weckmann,  the  organist  in  question,  he  had 
learnt  Italian  'mit  Fleiss,'  and  was  at  first  on 
a  friendly  footing  with  the  foreign  musicians 
(Fiirstenau,  Zur  Gcschichte,  i.  26).  In  1655 
Scandello,  with  250  fl.  16  grs.  9  pf.  a  year, 
was  receiving  a  larger  salary  than  the  capell- 
mcister,  Matthias  Le  Maistre,  who  had  only 
204  fl.  7  grs.  9  pf.  It  is  also  curious  to  note 
that  the  Italian  players  were  paid  on  a  higher 
scale  than  singers  from  the  Netherlands,  the 
highest  salary  to  the  latter  only  amounting  to 
120  fl.  (Fiirstenau,  Arcfiiv  fiir  die  sdehs,  Ot- 


schiehU,  iv.  1866).  It  is  tme  that  the  player 
was  expected  to  show  facility  on  a  large  variety 
of  instruments ;  Scandello  himself  was  a  noted 
zinke  or  cometto  i)layer,  besides  being  already 
a  composer  of  some  repute. 

In  1566  Scandello  became  assistant  capell- 
raeister  to  the  ageing  Le  Maistre,  and  on  his 
retirement  was  appointed  capellmeister,  Feb. 
12,  1568,  when  his  salary  altogether  amounted 
to  400  fl.  a  year,  a  lai^  sum  for  those  days. 
A  letter  addressed  to  the  capellnieister  on 
Jan.  13,  1579,  gives  leave  to  his  brother  Angelo 
to  go  to  Venice  for  tliree  months,  to  collect 
some  debts.  He  retained  his  post  until  his 
death  in  Dresden  on  Jan.  18,  1580,  at  the  age 
of  sixty- three.  One  of  his  sons,  August,  was 
also  a  member  of  the  Dresden  Hofcapelle. 

Three  motets  for  six  voices,  dated  1551,  in 
a  manuscript  in  the  Dresden  Library,  are  prob- 
ably Scandello's  earliest  compositions.  Next 
comes  the  mass  for  six  voices,  in  commemora- 
tion of  the  death  of  the  Elector  Moritz  of 
Saxony,  July  9,  1553,  at  the  battle  of  Sievers- 
hausen.  In  the  '  Inventarium '  of  the  cajtelle 
music  drawn  up  by  the  Dresden  capellmeister, 
Johann  Walther,  Oct  16,  1564,  for  the  use 
of  his  successor,  Matthias  Le  Maistre,  this  mass 
is  mentioned  as  being  in  six  little  printed  part- 
books  :  '  y  I  kleine  gedrackt  Partes  in  peigament, 
darinnen  das  Epitaphium  Electoris  M&uricii 
AntoniiScandelli'(W.  Schafer,  Saehsen-ChronU^ 
1853,  p.  820).  At  the  present  time  only  a 
manuscript  copy  of  it  is  known,  made  in  Toi^u, 
in  1562,  by  one  Moritz  Bauerbach  of  Pima, 
tenorist  in  the  Dresden  capelle  ;  very  possibly 
it  was  owing  to  the  suggestion  of  Johanu 
Walther,  then  living  in  retirement  at  Toi^n, 
that  Bauerbach  WTote  it.  The  manuscript  was 
formerly  in  tlic  Hma  Stadt-Bibliothek,  but  is 
now  in  the  Di'esden  Royal  Library.  A  large 
\)a.rt  of  the  mass  was  scored  by  Otto  Kade  and 
published  in  Ambroses  OexhichU  der  Mtufik, 
1889,  vol.  V. 

Especial  mention  must  be  made  of  the  Passion- 
music  and  the  story  of  the  Resurrection,  which 
were  in  all  probability  composed  before  1561 
(see  0.  Kade,  Die  altere  Passumskompositioii, 
1893,  p.  191,  a  reprint  of  the  Passion-music,  pp. 
306-44).  Scandello  some  years  later  refers  to 
them  in  a  document  dated  July  15,  1573,  they 
were  therefore  in  existence  some  fifty  years 
before  Heinrich  Schiitz's  great  works  were  pub- 
lished, his  '  Auferstehung '  in  1623,  and  his 
'  Passionen  nach  Johanniu'  not  until  1664. 
A  manuscript  copy  of  Scandello's  work,  dated 
1593,  formerly  at  Grinima,  now  in  the  Dresden 
Royal  Library,  is  entitled,  'Passio  et  Resur- 
rectio  Domini  nostri  Jesu  Ghristi  ab  Antonio 
Scandello  compositae,'  the  scribe  was  Johann 
Gengenbach  of  Colditz.  It  only  gives  the 
tenor  part  of  the  choruses  ;  the  music  is  otlier- 
wise  complete.  The  manuscript  of  the  tenor 
(Mirt-book  now  in  the  same  library,  but  formerly 


SCANDELLO 


SCANDELLO 


239 


at  L6b%n,  contains  the  *  Johannispaasion  '  and 
the  *  Auferetehungsgeschichtei'  without  mention 
of  the  oompoaer's  name.  Another  Lobaa  manu- 
Kript  oontainsa  complete  copy  of  the  '  Auferste- 
hung ' ;  this  part  of  the  composition  was  the  first 
to  appear  in  print  It  was  published  by  Samuel 
Besler  at  Breslau,  1612,  with  the  title,  'Gaudii 
paachalis  Jesu  Ghristi  redivivi  in  Gloriosissimae 
Resurrectionis  ejus  laetam  celebrationem.  Re- 
latio  historia  k  quatuor  Evangelistis  oonsignata, 
etc,  dorch  Samuelem  Beslerum,  etc.* 

Bealer  alludes  in  the  preface  to  the  composer, 
Antonius  Scandellus,  'der  berhiimbte  musicus.' 
It  was  again  published  in  an  adapted  form  by 
O.  S.  Uamisch  in  1621.  In  the  same  year 
Besler  published  the  Passion-music ;  '  Ant 
Scandelli .  .  .  Passio,  Das  Leyden  unsers  Herm 
Jeso  Ghristi  nach  dem  H.  Evangelisten  Johanne. 
Durch  S.  B.  mit  der  Ghorstimme  vermehrt,' 
BresUa,  1621.  It  is  from  this  edition  that 
the  chorMs  parts,  missing  in  the  manuscripts, 
haTe  been  filled  in.  The  Passion  opens  with 
the  words  in  four-part  writing,  *  Das  Leyden 
unsers  Herm  Jesu  Ghristi  wie  das  der  heilige 
Evangelist  Johannes  beschreibet. '  Throughout, 
each  individual  character  is  represented  by  a 
duo,  trio,  or  quartet,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Evangelist,  who  isgiven  the  traditional  recitative. 
The  words  of  Ghrist  are  invariably  set  as  a  solo 
quartet,  those  of  Peter  as  a  trio,  and  so  on. 
The  concluding  chorus  and  the  short,  quick 
outcries  of  the  people  are  all  in  five-part  writing ; 
possibly  the  opening  chorus  should  be  the  same. 
There  is  noaccompaniment  Schiitz also  followed 
this  method  of  dividing  the  voices,  with  the 
addition  of  a  four-part  string  accompaniment 
to  the  recitative,  but  here  all  similarity  between 
the  two  works  ceases,  for  whereas  Schiitz's 
music  shows  an  emotional  impulse  which 
crentoally  alTectctl  profoundly  the  devotional 
rendering  of  church  music,  Scandello's  retains 
the  clear,  fresh  simplicity  of  the  olden  time 
with  an  added  wealth  of  sound  which  marks  a 
great  distinction  between  it  and  Joh.  Walther's 
Passion-music  ;  it  should  be  studied  as  a  link 
in  the  chain  of  historical  development  of  the 
Passion-music.  An  interesting  comparison  of 
the  Schiitz  and  Scandello  works  will  be  found 
in  MimatsheJU  fiir  MusikgeschicJitCf  1882,  p.  37, 
where  also  the  identity  of  the  anonymous 
*  Aofentehung '  published  by  Vopelius  in  the 
Neu  Ltipdger  Oesangbuch,  1682,  pp.  311-65 
(reprinted  by  Riegel  and  Schoberlein,  KircMiche 
Char^emmge,  1868,  ii.  pp.  619-47)  with  that 
of  Scandello's  is  pointed  out  Scandello  was 
the  first  composer  to  set  the  story  of  the  Resur- 
rection to  music,  and  he  followed  very  closely 
the  lines  laid  down  in  his  Passion-musia 

As  to  his  other  compositions,  it  may  be  noted 
that  although  his  Italian  madrigals,  published 
1566  and  1577,  are  purely  vocal  works  with 
no  accompaniment,  the  German  Lieder,  both 
sacred  and  secular,  published  1568,  1570,  and 


1575,  maybe  sung  to  an  instrumental  accompani- 
ment Examples  are  given  in  Ambros's  Oe- 
Khiehle  der  Musik,  v.,  'Honzomo,  madonna,' 
for  four  voices  ;  *  Der  Wein  der  schmeckt  mir  * 
for  six  voices ;  and  *  Nu  komm  der  Heiden 
Heiland  '  for  five  voices. 
List  of  published  works  :- 


MIm*  MX  Toeum  super  Bpltaphium  M auricii  Ducia  et  ElectorU 
Saxoniiic  ab  Anthunlo  Scandello.  lUlo.  oomnoalU,  ISOS.  Walthcr 
(1732)  iiUtes  that  It  waa  pabllahed  at  Nuieinberg.  by  Oeorg 
Fabrieios.  In  1SS8. 

Kl  priino  Ubro  de  le  oansoni  napoletane  a  IIII  rod.  cotnpnatl  per 
Mceaei-  Antonio  Scandello  mualoo  del  lUua.  et  eocel.  aig.  Duca 
Aogosto  Klettor  dl  Saaeonia.  Noyameiite  datti  in  luoe.  Norlbergae 
ezcQdehant  Ulrioua  Neubenu  et  Th.  OerlatJten,  1566,  obL  4to.  Four 
part-booki.  Hie  dedication  to  the  Blector  Augnit  Is  dated  from 
AugHbnrg.  Contains  twenty  •four  canaoui.  Later  editions  were 
isened  at  Noremberg  in  1S72  and  IflSS. 

Melodia  Bplthalaini  in  honorem  .  .  .  Martini  Heurici  et  flliaa 
Barbame  yiil  Joh.  Schildbergli  ...  sex  Tooum.    Witebergae.  1868. 

Epltbalamia.  in  honorem  .  .  .  NioolalLeupardi.sjniphoniaoorum 
pnerorum  Ulnstrlsslml  ac  serenia.  principis  Georyii  Friderid. 
marchionis  BrandebQigetisis  .  .  .  praeceptoris,  et  padidaslniae 
vlrirlnlsaesponsa«Kunlfandae  . .  .  oonipoaitaperAnt.8candeUiini. 
Matthaeam  Le  Maistre.  etc  Norlbergae  apud  Th.  Oerlatsennm, 
lli6&  Text :  Beatl  onines  qui  timent ;  In  two  niorements,  for  six 
Toioes. 

Newe  Teatacbe  Liedlein  init  vier  und  fUnflT  Stimmen.  welche 
ganta  Uehlieh  zu  singen.  und  unit  allerley  Instrumenten  angebrau- 
chen.  DurohAnthoniumScandelliun.CharfllrstlicherO.  suSacbwii 
Cappelmeister  verfertlgt.  Gedmckt  xu  NQmberg,  durch  Dietrich 
Oerlats.  inu  Johann  von  Bern  seligen  Dmckerey,  1868,  obL  4tu. 
Four  part-books,  containing  twelve  sacred  aonga.  Includes  the 
w«U-known  chorale  *  Lobet  den  Herm,'  which  took  a  permanent 
place  in  chnrch-eong,  and  was  reprinted  in  Joachim  Nagdebaig'* 
'  Christliche  u.  trflstfiche  TisdigesKnge.'  Brfort,  1871 ;  the  Dreadeuer 
Oesangbuch,  1898:  J.  C.  KOhnaa's  'Vierstimmige  alte  n.  neue 
Chor«r»fli(iige/  17W,  Ii,  p,  140:  LOtvl's  KirchUcbf  CborgedtnPN 
1B«1,  y^i,  II  r  ►rid  wiH»  tbf  *«Tt]fi  ■  AlTnhi  Kii  A\r'  for  J»tt  H>Uto,  J^lt 

Jinw  unil  liiBt]|in  wrlUkhn  l>piidpchir  LlfHllela,  QJit  vin,  fUllE 
Hd']  N.<h«  l^liiuTitvjii  nnf  AiE]prit<T  iuilruun'iiteii  su^cvbrnuc-iieii,  Und 
liel4h'h  m  adnpsii.  [mmH  Ant.  Bcujulciluiii.  «tc.  vtin  tbiuia  »ilMt 
oarrijcln^t,  niid  In  tlmuk  vnrfertlgiiL  Gedruc^kt  eu  DriKHleii  dnrtrh 
Ha  E  L]j  EM  R  bk:kel  aad  Q I  nitii  Bergccu  IffTfi,  »t)i.  4bo.  Fi  m  | Art-liMiks^ 
cuditAtulnit  tviLutf  Minj[L  A  kLt^tir  Alkl^iiL  nf  lATH  bail  Ul«  tltl4-pKC«i 
as  rLtnivi!  with  Lbe  eiL^'Vitliin  nf  the  tetini-  fiturt'bcii^k.  ijutjetl  t,  frmr 
1».Uif .  nji  it Ahiw*.  )khi>i]«i,  ttfttlklia  lukij  igrUtHcht,  iiii,«c>  flc^iUwhe 
Llt^llflii  niH  Vint,  ruiiir  ij{»c|  M4h«t!tEiniJii;lh^.  15?». 

Hlilt|i«4Aiitiui!pi  Ln  hiinorrnt  .  .  .  iJhristoplluH  Walthf  Hh  b]  I  ElPtiijai, 
Eltx^r^iiB  lNi];fi.[»|j«i»  ,  .  .  (Tt>;Khi>tB«  Ln«iKtj.lfl :  Jini4if iituw.  vItI 
Jiiriiii|ii¥  Waltfavrf,  <^JTi,iU]i«  IlmdnulB,  Mi  bubrnis  inunli^aM'  dlnim^ 
Lkji-  .  .  (1113^^1  fa4.iniHtl«FiinB«fii«nliiJHCalliBrilua«  T<ilac,hpouia« 
ip»iii>,  tlent^^lctl  TdIav,  miTvliifl  ei  plcLuria  .  ,  ,  r^iictav  HHiu. 
CDiii]iiiA|lUi]i  iwx  rocibuA  ab  llluj.  Kltiztjuridi  Saximiiu*  .  ,  «  mualet 
ch'iri  niajfUtrr^,  Antcmiit  Ehajtdollo^^  Ifl'Jn  it^*-     Ai^  rMit-ljurika, 

S\wr  K4'biiitp  Jtiuiieirli!anipa«lat]ltJie  IHnulsiJie  Lk-4«r,  mlt  fUntt 
nnti  mkJu  HtJuinn*ii,  gauta  ll^biitih  su  plitiii-n,  uod  dUlT  ail^lHT 
1  luitminfvntieii  iufl«bn.Tii?h«i ,  luuupt  ^1lJ«nt  ul&iiiig)}  iLflt  ai^ht  HtJnt* 
tiifH-n.  i»i.!ir'Ji  .Aiit.  Kua.ni'if Lluru.  *tsi.  caui|K>nlrt.  Aueh  nm  fliBtf 
■til'--  I  Ml  Drniu'lL  viirfertlget.     l^nHwl^'n. fMlii(Et  Bnieili, 

ir^Tri,  .  >.,  1  I  I  L.tLita  twi!u.t> rth rv«  «impii«ltlcp>iia,  '  iii«^  Uber 
tlt^re  Kircbenmeiodien.' 

Miasae  sex,  quarum  priores  tree  quinque,  posteriores  Tero  sex 
vocum  sunt,  coinpositttm  super  has  cantionumseil.  1,  super :  aveo 
que  vuua;  2.  lo  mi  son  giovenetta;  8.  Ad  aequales;  4.  Maria 
Magdelena ;  5.  Au  premier  Jour ;  6.  O  paasi  aparsL  Authoro  Ant. 
Scandello  Electoris  Saxoniae  muaioes  praefeeto.    Monachl.  1078. 

II  secondo  Ubro  de  le  cansoni  napolltane,  a  quatro  et  a  cinque 
Tod.  Composte  per  Ant.  Scandello,  maestro  de  la  capella  del 
Ulus.  et  eoc«l.  dg.  Klettore  di  Sassonia,  etc.  Novaniente  date  in 
luce.  8tampate  in  Monacbo  per  Adam  Berg,  1577,  obi.  4to.  Five 
part-books,  containing  twentj-fonr  canzoui. 

OoMroaiTiovs  in  othkk  Pcblicatioxs 

Thesaunu  mudcus.    Noribergae,  1864. 

'Imperinm  Augustl  dt  foelix,'  ' Magnifloat.'  'Noe.  noe,  exulte- 
mus.'  all  for  eight  voices,  in  the  first  volume;  'Alleluia  noli  flera 
Maria '  for  seven  voices,  in  the  second. 

Beat!  omnes,  Faalmus  138  Davidis.  ...  Per  Cl.  Stephanl 
Buchavienaem.  Noribergae,  1869.  Indudes  Scandello's  setting  of 
the  psalm  for  rix  voices  (see  his  Bpithalamia.  1868).  A  manuscript 
COOT  is  in  the  Vienna  Hofbiblinthek.  No.  18.861. 

Das  ente  Buch  .  .  .  echOner  litutenstilck  .  .  .  mit  vier  und 
funir  Stimmen.  Getruckt  durch  Bemhard  Jobin,  bttrger  ra 
Stnssbnrg.  107S.  Indudes  *  Ich  wels  mir  eln  fest  gebautes  hauas ' 
for  five  voices,  in  lute  tablature. 

Bin  new  kunstlich  Tabnlatnrbuch  .  .  .  durdi  El  lam  Nioolaum 
Animorbach.  bOrger  und  Organist  in  Leipalg  au  Banct  Thomas, 
Lelpdg,  1578.  'Ich  weis  mir,'  'Den  liebstmi  Buhlen,'  *Oros  lieb 
hat,'  'Kdn  lieb  ohn  leid,'  'Von  deinetwegen,'  all  for  five  voices, 
in  lute  tablature. 

Selectae  Cantiones  oeto  et  septem  vocum.  etc    Argentorati,  1878. 

'  Noe,  noe  exultemns,'  for  dght  voices. 

SchOne  ausserlesene  . .  .  Teutache  Lieder  XX.  Durch  J.  POhlerum 
Schvuandorfhnsem.    Mttnchen.  1885. 

'  Mancher  der  sprioht,'  for  four  voices. 

Corulljulum  Cantionum  sacranim  ...  P.  Lindner!.  Noribergae. 
1800.  No.  32.  Antoniua  Scandellus:  'Christus  vers  laniniores ' in 
two  movements,  for  five  voices.  On  a  manuscript  copv  in  the 
Zwickau  Libtary  is  written,  'Ultima  oantio  Anthonii  Scandelli 
qui  18  Jaiiuarii  die  vesperi  hora  7.  anno  80.  aotatis  suae  63  obiit' 
(Kade.  U  Maitti^  p.  3).  M88.  are  also  in  the  Bade,  Draaden.  and 
Uegniti  librartes. 


240 


SCARIA 


SCARLATTI 


Hudkaliacher  Zeiivartrelber.  du  1st  Allerley  Mlttame  lecherllche 
Vaporw  und  Hamores,  etc..  NOnibeif.  18(M.  Contains  aongs  for 
4.  5,  6.  7  and  8  voloea,  two  couiiK»itioM  are  by  BoaadeUo. 

Triuniphi  dl  Dorothea  .  .  .  das  ist  nUtllchea  rouiicallMhes 
Triumph  Crilntslein  .  .  .  dnrch  M .  Rlnckharduin.  Leipdg,  1619. 
Contain*  '  Ich  weii  mir '  for  flye  volom. 

Engeltnann'a  Qaodlibetam  uuvuin  latinum  quinque  rocuni. 
Leipsig.  leao.    Compositions  by  Scandello  in  Part  I. 

Cautionale  MMVum,  das  ist.  Geistliche  lieder  mit  3, 4.  S  oder  mehr 
Btlmmeu  nnterschiedlicher  Autorum.  Ootha.  164^48.  3  volumes. 
One  composition  by  Scandello.  also  in  the  edition  of  1691-90-67. 

Joli.  O.  Ebellng's  edition  of  P.  Gerhardi  geUtliche  Andachten. 
1687.    With  Scandello's  melo<ly  to  •  Lobet  den  Herrn.' 

A.  Neithardt,  Sammiung  religiaser  Oesttnge,  vU.  No.  11.  '  Lasset 
die  Kindeleln '  for  five  voices. 

Franx  Commer.  Oelstliche  a.  weltliche  Ueder.  1870.  No&  11, 18. 
'  Ich  mf  su  dlr '  and  '  Oelobot  seist  do.'  both  for  five  voices ;  other 
motets  in  M osica  Sacim.  vols.  19.  19.  and  80. 

Franx  Wailner.  Chorttbuogen  der  M  Qnchencr  Husikschule,  18B9. 
Nos.  63.  99.  '  Aof  dioh  traa  ich '  and  '  Mit  Ueb  bin  ich.'  both  for 
four  voices. 

M88.  In  Augsburg  Library.  No.  81.  Lib.  I.  Baoiaram  missaram 
sex  vocum  variorum  authorum  haud  vulgDrlum.  1896.  Missa  super. 
Maria  Magdalena.  (Schletterer's  Catalogue.)  Basle  UnlvendtHts- 
Bibliothek.  No.  33.  Magnlilcat  VTII.  tonl.  in  tablature,  date  about 
168R.  iRichter's  CMalogu*.)  Berlin.  KAnigL  Bibliothek,  many 
sacred  songs  In  soore  (Bitner). 

Breslau  Stadtblbllothek.  Na  9  [data  1973)  In  soore,  and  Na  6  lu 
separate  part-books.  'Alleluia  ntdl  Here'  for  seven  voices.  No.  6 
(date  1067)  and  No.  II  (date  10e»)  'Noe,  noe  exoltemus'  for  eight 
voices.  Both  in  Thes.  mu.  1064.  Na  11  and  No.  14  (date  about 
1600).  'Bin  Kindelein  so  lObelieh*  for  six  voices,  and  'Oelobet 
selst  du '  for  five  voices,  both  from  *  Nawe  tidti.  auss.  gelstL'  1879. 
No.  10.  five  part-books,  nine  Italian  madrigals  from  SoandeUo's 
second  book.  1877.  No.  94.  six  foUo  part-books,  late  I6th  century. 
MlBMe  super:  Aueoque  vous;  lo  mi  son  giovenetU :  Adaeqnales: 
all  for  Ave  voices,  and  Missae  super :  Maria  Magdalena ;  Au  premier 

jn-i--  '^ •  ■nmr^'nli  f*— -It  ▼Hl***^    The  six  masses  published 

at     i  ...       ...  1  ;  .  \  ^-l  1.  copy  of  the  mass  'O  paasi 

fuirai     u  jkbo  111   Oir  VLiiEhua  ILunjlbliothek.  date  about  I960. 

Drf<«  Oymi»sl&t-ail}3i<?i>i<^^.  Nr>  M,  lix  part-books,  date  1092. 
■  Lobvt  ^m  a&rm '  fur  f- '  "*  -"-a  1668  publication).    In  Nos. 


m,  U.  m.  \m^rtt^-i 
VfilcM;  'IfktiUiwlJtHl';     - 
of  CanitiX»1,  107a I,  »il  fnr  f. 

DrMdcTi  RoiitV  Lllwmry.  >■■.  (^m 
^Chrlstil*  didt  imI  ThcillMU] '  ^lit 
m%,'  )UIh  and  '  Jilufulii»an^erusikl> 

iUtKV  :  O  iMuei  r|m>fvl,  dilit  I    ' 

six  viAcvL     No.  'ijr  IMii . 

4ili1  '  Ach  ih>tt  wem  p>j!I 

1B:^i  ^\iii  \JAl,  an  lni;ii.i]jjpU  :,..  ^, 

ami  twQ  iivol'^  for  eljftit 


.    Ach  edler  Wein'  for  five 

d  *  Be  per  sentir '  (from  Lib.  i. 

(Kuhn's  CateUogus.) 

Three  motets  for  six  voices : 

t  1091.  'Hodie  Christus  natus 

III.'    (Kade's  Cotalogu: ) 

M  IS.  MS.  909)  date  1608.  Missa 

r :  Au  premier  Jour,  both  for 

[eh  weis'mir'  for  five  voices, 

ir  voices.    No.  138  (Mus.  MB. 

..  part-books ;  two  maffniflcats, 

*j.i\b  motet  for  seven,  and  one  for 


mIv  TDt)<«ii,  fUalR^s  Cat&iafrt*.\  Hrimma  Library  MB.  motets 
liMibii  l>«twp«ii  \!Sl&  Axtd  IRIS,  peine  for  four  and  Ave  voices  by 
Scandello. 

Liegnits  Bitterakademie  Blbl.  MS.  19.  many  motets  by  Bcandello. 

Pima  Stadtkirche  16ih-oentnry  MS.  '  Aiif  dich  trau  ich '  for  four 
voices  (from  1968  worki.  Another  MB.  with  '  Dies  sanctlflcatus '  for 
six  voices. 

Zwickau  Batsschulbibliothek.  No.  39.  date  about  1600.  in  tabla- 
ture. '  Mit  Lieb  bin  ich '  for  four  voices  (from  '  Nawe  und  lustige 
Lledlein,'  1978).  No.  678,  date  before  1980,  flre  folio  part-books 
'  N\m  kommt  der  Heiden  Heiland '  for  five  voices.  No.  679.  incom- 
plete set  of  part-books.  Missa  super :  OermanU  plange,  for  six  voices. 
No.  680.  incomplete  set  of  part-books.  '  Magnus  Domlnus '  in  two 
uiovemAnt*  (which  was  included  in  Walther's  fnnmtariufn  in 
1004).  and  '  Alleln  xu  dir.'  both  for  six  voices.  (Vollhardt's  Cata- 
'<V«««)  C.  8. 

SCARIA,  Emil,  born  Sept.  18,  1840,  at 
Graz,  Styria,  studied  at  the  Consenratoriam, 
Vienna,  under  Gentiluomo,  made  his  d^but  at 
Pesth  as  St.  Bris  in  the  *  Huguenots,'  and 
afterwards  sang  at  Brunn  and  Frankfort.  In 
1862  he  came  to  London  for  the  purpose  of 
further  study  under  Garcia,  and  sang  at  the 
Crystal  Palace,  on  April  5,  and  at  a  concert 
given  later  by  Franz  Abt,  who  procured  him 
an  engagement  at  Dessau.  He  next  played  at 
Leipzig  (1863-65)  and  from  1865  to  1872  at 
Dresden.  Among  his  best  parts  were  Hercules 
('Alceste'),  Sarastro,  Leporello,  Caspar,  Rocco, 
Landgrave  (*Tannhauser'),  Pogner  (*Meister- 
singer')  Burgomaster  (^Czaar  und  Zimmer- 
mann '),  Dulcamara,  Geronimo  ('  II  Matrimonio 
segreto '),  and  Falstaff  (Nicolai),  in  which  last  a 
critic  remarks  that  he  made  one  of  his  greatest 
successes  .  .  .  when  he  was  at  Dresden,  and 
made  it  in  great  measure  by  his  really  excellent 
acting  of  the  character.     From  1872  to  1886  he 


was  engaged  at  Vienna,  where  he  esti^liahed 
his  reputation  as  a  versatile  singer  and  actor  in 
both  baritone  and  bass  parts,  but  best  in  the 
latter,  as  his  *  carefully  deadened  high  notes  form 
so  great  a  contrast  to  the  vigorous  notes  of  his 
lower  and  middle  register'  (Hauslick).  On 
leave  of  absence  he  sang  in  the  principal  German 
cities,  in  Italian  o[)era  in  Russia,  etc.  He  sang 
the  part  of  Escamillo  to  the  Carmen  of  Bertha 
Ehnn,  Oct  23,  1875,  when  Bizet's  opera  was 
first  given  outside  France.  Among  his  later 
parts  were  Hans  Sachs  (*  Meistersinger ')  Wotan 
(*Nibelungen') — for  which  character  he  was 
originally  selected  by  Wagner  for  Bayreuth, 
and  which  he  sang  at  Her  Migesty's  Theatre  in 
1882,  Micheli  ( '  Wassertriiger '),  Marcel,  Bertram, 
and  (1879)  Seneschal  ( *  Jean  de  Paris ').  Finest 
of  all  was  his  Gurnemanz  in  '  Parsi&l,'  which 
he  created  at  Bayreuth  in  1882  ;  he  sang  it  at 
the  concert -performance  of  the  work  in  the 
Albert  Hall,  London,  in  1 884.  He  became  insane 
in  1886,  and  died  on  July  22  of  that  year  at 
Blasewitz  near  Dresden.  A.  Neumann's  Erin- 
nerungen  cm  Richard  Wa€pwi\  1907,  gives  many 
amusing  stories  of  him.  a.  c. 

SCARLATTI,  Alessaxdro,  was  bom  in 
Sicily  in  1659  or  possibly  in  1658,  as  may  be 
deduced  from  the  statement  of  his  age  engraved 
on  his  tombstone.  It  lias  generally  been  assumed 
that  his  birthplace  was  Trapani,  on  the  strength 
of  an  alleged  autograph  score  of  his  opera 
*  Pompeo,'  which  both  Fetis  and  Florimo  pro- 
fessed to  have  seen  while  in  the  possession  of 
Gaspare  Selvaggi  of  Naples.  Selvaggi's  libiury 
was  bought  by  thiB  Marquis  of  Northampton, 
and  presented  by  him  in  1843  to  tlie  British 
Museum ;  but  no  score  of  '  Pompeo '  is  to  be 
found  there  now,  nor  is  it  included  in  the  MS. 
catalogue  of  the  collection  drawn  up  for  the 
donor  at  the  time.  The  only  known  score  of 
'  Pompeo '  is  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Brussels, 
and  formerly  belonged  to  F^tis  ;  but  it  is  not 
autograph,  and  does  not  bear  the  inscription 
mentioned.  This  inscription,  by  the  way,  is 
given  by  Fetis  as  *  Musica  del  Signer  Alessandro 
Scarlatti  da  Trapani,'and  by  Florimo  as '  Pompeo 
del  Cav.  Alessandro  Scarlatti  di  TrapanL' 
Florimo's  version  can  hardly  be  accepted  as 
genuine,  since  'Pompeo'  appeared  in  1683, 
while  the  composer  did  not  receive  the  title  of 
Cavaliere  until  many  years  later.  In  the  records 
of  the  Arcadian  Academy  at  Rome,  Scarlatti  is 
described  as  a  native  of  Palermo,  but  in  view  of 
other  known  errors  to  be  found  in  these  records 
the  evidence  of  this  entry  cannot  be  regarded  as 
infallible.  The  official  record  of  his  bii-th  or 
baptism  has  hitherto  eluded  the  most  careful 
research.  The  fact,  however,  that  he  was  bom 
in  Sicily  is  proved  conclusively  by  statements  in 
the  printed  libretti  of  his  early  operas,  and  in  MS. 
chronicles  which  record  their  performanoe,  and 
speak  of  the  composer  as  a  Sicilian.  Of  his  parent- 
age nothing  is  known,  and  it  seems  not  improb- 


SCARLATTI 


SCARLATTI 


241 


able  that  hd  came  of  a  Tuscan  stock,  the  name 
Scarlatti  beingTuacan  and  not  Sicilian.  He  mast 
in  aoy  case  hav^e  left  the  island  at  an  early  age  ; 
he  is  traditionally  sup{)osed  to  have  been  a  pupil 
of  Ouissimi  in  Rome,  although  that  master 
died  when  Scarlatti  was  fifteen  years  old«  His 
early  compositions  show  the  influence  of  Legrenzi, 
and  more  especially  of  Stradella,  whose  best 
work  has  recently  been  shown  to  have  been  done 
in  Rome ;  and  his  early  chamber -cantatas,  of 
which  Bome  are  probably  earlier  in  date  than 
even  his  first  operas,  are  generally  to  be  found 
in  MS.  alongside  of  similar  music  by  composers 
who  worked  in  Rome  and  northern  Italy. 

His  first  known  opera  was  '  L'  Errore  Inno- 
cents ovvero  Oli  £quivoci  nel  Sembiante,'  pro- 
dnoed  Feb.  8,  1679,  in  Rome  at  the  Collegio 
Clementino.  This  work  won  him  the  interest 
of  Christina  Queen  of  Sweden,  who  even  asserted 
her  protection  of  him  in  defiance  of  the  Papal 
representatives,  Scarlatti  being  in  bad  odour 
at  the  Vatican  on  account  of  the  misconduct  of 
his  sister  with  an  ecclesiastic.  In  the  libretto 
of  his  second  opera,  *  L' Honest^  negli  Amori ' 
(16B0),  he  is  described  as  Maestro  di  Cappella 
to  Queen  Christina.  Both  these  operas  are  on 
a  small  scale ;  '  Pompeo '  (Rome,  1688)  was  prob- 
ably his  first  attempt  at  opera  seria  in  the 
grand  manner.  In  February  1684  'Pompeo' 
was  given  at  Naples,  where  '  611  Equivoci '  had 
also  been  heard,  and  on  the  17th  of  the  same 
month  he  was  appointed  Maestro  di  Cappella 
to  the  Viceroy,  his  brother  Francesco  receiving 
a  post  as  violinist  in  the  same  chapel  royal. 
The  two  brothers  owed  their  appointments  to 
the  influence  of  their  sister,  Anna  Maria,  an 
opera-singer,  who  was  the  mistress  of  a  court 
official ;  and  the  affair  seems  to  have  caused  some 
indignation  at  Naples,  not  so  much  on  grounds 
of  morality  as  from  motives  of  chauvinism. 
That  Scarlatti  was  regarded  as  a  stranger  in 
Naples  seems  a  sufficient  proof  that  he  did  not 
reoeive  hismuaical  education  there,  as  Neapolitan 
historians  of  music  have  tried  to  maintain. 
Ahont  this  time  Scarlatti  married  one  Antonia 
Anzalone,  by  whom  he  had  three  and  possibly 
more  children,  of  whom  the  eldest,  bom  Oct 
26,  1685,  was  Giuseppe  Domenico,  later  famous 
as  a  eompoeer  for  the  harpsichord.  From  this 
time  to  1702  he  remained  at  Naples,  occupied 
principally  in  the  composition  of  operas  for  pro- 
dnction  at  the  royal  palace  or  at  the  royal 
theatre  of  San  Bartolomeo.  He  was  also  much 
in  demand  as  a  composer  of  music  for  aristocratic 
entertainments,  and  soon  fell  into  a  popular 
and  hasty  style  of  work.  His  chamber  music, 
however,  shows  that  even  at  this  time  his  artistic 
ideak  were  mnch  higher,  and  by  1702  Naples 
had  become  so  irksome  to  him,  both  for  musical 
and  fi*i<fcn<n^1  reasons,  that  he  determined  to  try 
his  fortunes  elsewhere.  Hissalary  was  inarrear, 
and  the  political  disturbances  consequent  on 
the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession  rendered  his 

VOL.  IV 


position  still  more  insecure.  On  June  14  he 
went  with  Domenico  to  Florence,  where  they 
enjoyed  the  patronage  of  Ferdinand  III.,  son 
of  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  a  prince  who 
was  enthusiastically  devoted  to  music.  For  his 
private  theatre  at  Pratolino  Scarlatti  composed 
several  operas,  and  the  Arohivio  Mediceo  at 
Florence  contains  a  very  interesting  correspond- 
ence between  the  prince  and  the  musician  on 
the  subject  of  these  works.  Ferdinand,  however, 
was  not  disposed  to  offer  him  any  permanent 
post,  and  Scarlatti  being  resolved  not  to  return 
to  Naples  accepted  the  humble  position  of 
assistant  Maestro  di  Cappella  at  the  church  of 
S.  Maria  Maggiore  in  Rome.  This  was  obtained 
for  him  by  Cardinal  Pietro  Ottoboni,  who  had 
taken  an  interest  in  him  for  some  twelve  years 
or  more,  and  who  also  made  him  his  private 
Maestro  di  Cappella.  Nevertheless,  Scarlatti 
seems  to  have  been  no  happier  in  Rome  than 
in  Naples,  judging  from  the  contempt  for  both 
places  which  he  expresses  in  his  letters  to  Ferdi- 
nand. He  had  been  forced  to  write  down  to 
the  level  of  a  Spanish  viceroy's  taste  for  the 
opera-house  at  Naples  ;  at  Rome  the  Popes  had 
done  their  best  to  suppress  opera  altogether  on 
grounds  of  public  morality.  This  must,  no  doubt, 
have  been  a  severe  blow  to  Scarlatti,  whose  real 
genius  sought  expression  in  dramatic  music, 
although  it  found  vent  in  chamber-music  when 
its  natural  outlet  was  obstructed. 

On  April  26,  1706,  Scarlatti  was  admitted  a 
member  of  the  Arcadian  Academy,  under  the 
name  of  Terpandro  Politeio,  Corelli  and  Pasquini 
being  elected  at  the  same  time.  Crescimbeni 
(Arcadia,  Lib.  vii.  Prosa  v.)  gives  a  charming 
account  of  their  musical  performances  at  these 
pastoral  assemblies.  To  this  period  of  Scarlatti's 
activity  belong  many  of  his  beautiful  chamber- 
cantatas,  and  a  certain  amount  of  chureh  music. 
In  May  1707,  Antonio  Foggia  died,  and  Scarlatti 
succeeded  him  as  principal  Maestro  at  the  chureh 
of  S.  Maria  Maggiore.  He  continued  to  compose 
operas  for  Ferdinand  de'  Medici  while  living 
in  Rome,  but  although  his  voluminous  corre- 
spondence about  these  works  has  been  preserved, 
the  scores  of  them  have  unfortunately  disap- 
peared. In  spite  of  all  his  efforts  to  write 
pleasing  music,  he  seems  to  have  been  too  severe 
forthe  prince'staste,  and  in  1707  he  was  dropped 
in  favour  of  Perti. 

In  this  year  he  produced  two  operas,  '  Mitri- 
date  Eupatore '  and  *  II  Trionfo  della  Libertk ' 
at  Venice  (Teatro  S.  Giovanni  Crisostomo),  going 
there  in  person  to  direct  them.  These  works 
are  on  a  larger  scale  than  any  of  his  previous 
operas,  and  the  first  is  one  of  the  best  that  he 
ever  wrote  ;  the  second  has  come  do^n  to  us  in 
so  fragmentary  a  condition  that  it  is  hardly 
possible  to  form  a  fair  judgment  upon  it  In  all 
probability  Scarlatti  remained  at  Venice  to  the 
end  of  the  Carnival,  and  thence  made  his  way 
to  Urbino,  travelling,  there  is  reason  to  believe, 

R 


242 


SCARLATTI 


SCARLATTI 


by  way  of  Ferrara.  Tlie  reigning  pope  (Clement 
XL)  was  a  native  of  Urbino,  and  the  Albani 
family,  to  which  he  belonged,  were  nobles  of 
great  importance  in  that  country.  The  resident 
representative  of  the  family,  Cardinal  Orazio 
Albani,  was  interested  in  music,  and  although 
no  trace  of  Alessandro  Scarlatti  is  now  to  be 
found  there,  the  Albani  library  possesses  several 
libretti  of  Domenico's  operas,  as  well  as  a  few 
musical  treasures  of  an  earlier  date.  Scarlatti 
remained  at  Urbino  until  September,  but  prob- 
ably returned  to  Rome  for  Christmas,  since  he 
wrote  a  mass  with  orchestral  accompaniment 
for  this  festival. 

Although  Scarlatti  had  left  Naples  in  June 
1702,  his  post  at  the  royal  chapel  was  not  filled 
up  until  October  1704,  when  a  certain  Gaetano 
Veneziano  was  appointed.  In  December  1707 
he  was  succeeded  by  Francesco  Mancini ;  but 
towards  the  end  of  1708  Cardinal  Grimani,  the 
Austrian  Viceroy,  made  an  attempt  to  persuade 
Scarlatti  to  return.  It  seems  that  Scarlatti,  as 
might  have  been  expected,  declined  to  accept 
the  post  of  deputy  first  organist,  which  was 
offei-ed  him,  having  been  at  the  head  of  the 
chapel  for  nearly  twenty  years,  and  did  not 
return  until  he  had  been  restored  to  the  office  of 
Maestro  di  Cappella,  with  an  increased  stipend. 
Mancini  was  compensated  with  the  title  of  Vice- 
maestro,  and  the  right  of  succeeding  eventually 
to  the  post  held  by  Scarlatti.  It  is  doubtful, 
however,  whether  he  re-established  himself 
definitely  at  Naples  until  1718.  Although 
described  in  the  libretti  of  '  L'  Amor  Volubile  e 
Tiranno'  (1709)  and  *La  Principessa  Fedele' 
(1710)  as  Maestro  della  BeaZ  Caj^la,  he  does 
not  appear  to  have  written  anything  more  for 
Naples  during  the  next  three  years,  and  on  May 
27,  1713,  the  new  Viceroy,  Count  Daun,  made  a 
special  confirmation  of  the  appointment  given 
him  by  Cardinal  Grimani  This  action  secured 
him  for  Naples  for  the  next  few  years. 

During  this  second  period  of  work  in  Naples 
Scarlatti  was  at  the  height  of  his  fame.  He 
produced  operas  on  a  magnificent  scale  at  the 
court  theatre;  *Tigrane'  (1716)  and  its  con- 
temporaries, though  less  interesting  than  his 
later  operas,  are  brilliant  and  efiective — the 
leisured  work  of  a  man  mellowed  by  success, 
not  the  hurried  output  of  one  struggling  to 
retain  the  favour  of  his  patrons  at  any  sacrifice 
of  artistic  ideals.  To  this  i)eriod  also  belong 
some  oratorios,  notably  'San  Filippo  Neri' 
(1718),  and  several  serenatas  for  state  occasions. 
The  honour  of  knighthood,  which  is  first  vouched 
for  by  the  appearance  of  his  name  with  the 
title  Cavaliere  in  the  libretto  of  'Carlo  R^ 
d'  Alemagna'  (1716),  was  probably  conferred 
upon  him  in  recognition  of  the  serenata  and 
opera  which  he  composed  to  celebrate  the  birth 
of  the  Archduke  I^opold.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  he  received  the  order  of  the  Golden 
Spur  from  the  Pope,  at  the  request  of  Cardinal 


Ottoboni ;  but  if  this  were  the  case  it  is  only 
natural  to  supjKise  that  it  would  have  been  con- 
ferred upon  hiiu  while  in  the  Cardinal's  service, 
or  even  under  the  pontificate  of  the  Cardinal's 
uncle,  Alexander  VIII.  It  may,  however,  be 
l)ointed  out  that  in  this  year,  1716,  he  com- 
\yoaed  a  mass  (known  as  '  Missa  Clementina  II.') 
for  Clement  XL  In  1718  he  made  his  one 
attempt  at  pura  comic  opera,  *  II  Trionfo  dell' 
Onore,'  performed  at  the  Teatro  dei  Fiorentini. 
The  interest  of  the  Neapolitans  in  Scarlatti's 
music  seems  to  have  waned  about  this  time. 
After  *Cambise'  (1719)  no  more  of  his  operas 
were  heard  there,  and  it  is  probable  that  he 
established  himself  in  Rome,  since  his  stipend 
as  Maestro  di  Cappella  at  Naples  was  not  paid  to 
him  any  more,  although  he  retained  the  title. 
At  Rome  he  had  a  number  of  admirers  sufficient 
to  undertake  the  production  of  a  series  of  operas 
which  exhibit  the  composer  in  a  still  more 
advanced  phase  of  artistic  development.  The 
first  of  these  was  *  Telemaco '  (1718),  which  was 
followed  by  *  Marco  Attilio  Regolo*  (1719), 
*  Tito  Sempronio  Gracco '  and  *  Tumo  Aricino ' 
(1720),  apparently  not  so  much  revivals  as 
entire  recompositions  of  two  earlier  operas,  and 
finally  his  1 14th  and  last  opera,  'Griselda* 
(1721).  Since  the  autograph  score  of  this  last 
informs  us  that  it  was  composed  for  Prince  Rus- 
poli,  we  may  suppose  that  that  nobleman  (who 
had  interested  himself  in  Scarlatti's  work  when 
he  was  living  in  Rome  before)  was  the  principal 
organiser  of  the  |)erformances,  which  took  place 
at  the  'Sala  degli  illustrissimi  Signori  Cap- 
ranica.*  In  1721  Clement  XL  was  succeeded 
by  Innocent  XIIL,  and  in  November  of  that 
year  Scarlatti  was  commissioned  by  the  Portu- 
guese Ambassador  to  compose  a  pastorale  for 
the  Pope's  formal  entrance  into  the  Vatican. 
This  appears  to  have  been  his  last  work  for 
Rome,  where  he  had  distinguished  himself  in 
sacred  music  as  well  as  in  opera,  producing  a 
fine  mass  with  orchestra  and  other  works  for 
St.  Cecilia's  day  at  the  request  of  Cardinal 
Acquaviva,  who  had  a  special  interest  in  the 
church  of  St.  Cecilia  in  Trastevere.  In  1722 
he  seems  to  have  visited  Loreto,  where  he  is 
supposed  to  have  composed  a  setting  of  the 
Psalm  '  Memento  Domine  David '  and  an  '  Ave 
Maria.'  The  following  year  probably  saw  him 
back  at  Naples.  He  set  to  work  on  a  serenata 
for  the  marriage  of  the  Prince  of  Stigliano,  but 
appears  to  have  left  it  unfinished,  as  the  first 
part  only  has  come  down  to  us.  There  is  every 
reason  to  suppose  that  he  was  now  living  in 
complete  retirement,  forgotten  by  his  own 
generation,  and  regarded  as  a  crabbed  and 
eccentric  harmonist  by  even  so  learned  a 
musician  as  the  German  theorist  Heinichen. 
In  1724  J.  A.  Hasse,  having  quarrelled  with 
PoriM)ra,  came  to  Scarlatti  as  a  pupil ;  the  old 
man  was  attracted  by  the  boy's  amiable  dis- 
position, and  during  the  few  remaining  months 


SCARLATTI 


SCARLATTI 


243 


of  Scarlatti's  life  the  two  musiGians  regarded 
caeh  other  with  the  affection  of  father  and  son. 
(^uantz  visited  Naples  in  1725,  and  stayed  with 
Haase,  whom  he  begged  to  introduce  him  to 
Scarlatti ;  Scarlatti,  however,  merely  replied  to 
Hasse's  request,  'My  son,  you  know  that  I 
cannot  endore  players  of  wind  instruments,  for 
they  all  blow  out  of  tune*/  Hasse  succeeded 
eventually  in  inducing  him  to  i-eceive  Quantz, 
who  heard  him  jtlay  the  harpsichord  *in  a 
learned  manner ' ;  Scarlatti  even  accompanied 
him  in  a  solo  and  com^iosed  a  couple  of  flute- 
pieces  for  him.  He  died  on  Oct.  24  of  the  same 
year,  and  was  buried  in  the  church  of  Monte- 
santo.  His  epitaph  is  said  to  have  been  written 
by  Cardinal  Ottoboui,  and  runs  as  follows : — 

HEIC   .  SITVS   •  EST 

EQVES  .  ALEXANDER  •  SCARLACTVS 

▼IK    •  MODKRATIONE   •   BEMEFICIBNTIA 

PIETATK  •   INSICNIS 

BCVSICBS   •  INSTAVKATOR  •  MAXIM VS 

QVI    •  SOLIDIS  •  VBTERVM    •  NVMERIS 

NOVA    •  AC   •   MIRA   •  SVAVITATE 

MOLLtTIS 

ASrriQVlTATl   •  GLORIAM    •   POSTERITATI 

IMITANDI    •  SPEM   •  ADEMIT 

OPTIMATIBVS   •  RBGIBVSQ 

APPRIME   •  CARVS 

TANDEU   •  ANKOS   •  NATVM    •  LXVI   •  EXTINXIT 

SVMMO   •  CVM   •  ITALIAE   •   DOLORS 

IX    -   KAL-^   •  NOVEMB*''S   .  CIDIDCCXXV 

MOSS  •  MODIS   •  FLECn    •  NESCIA 

Scarlatti  is  one  of  the  most  important  iigures, 
not  only  in  the  history  of  opera,  but  in  the 
entire  history  of  music.  He  is  the  most  import- 
ant of  that  group  of  composers  who  succeeded 
the  first  pioneers  of  the  monodic  style,  based 
upon  the  modem  tonal  system,  and  who 
moulded  and  developed  a  musical  idiom  which 
senred  as  the  language  of  musical  expression 
down  to  the  days  of  Beethoven.  In  his  early 
work  he  is  naturally  under  the  influence  of  older 
composers — Carissimi,  Luigi  Rossi,  Stradella, 
and  L^renzi ;  indeed,  the  vague  tradition  of  his 
having  studied  in  Parma  might  associate  him 
with  the  last-named  composer  as  a  pupil.  His 
Hrst  operas  and  his  early  cantatas  and  church 
miksic  have,  moreover,  a  certain  harshness  and 
t-mdity  which  reveals  the  beginner ;  Stradella's 
operas  and  Rossi's  cantatas,  though  old-fash- 
ioned in  their  phraseology,  are  much  more 
mature  and  finished  in  their  execution.  It  is 
interesting  to  comi)are  Scarlatti  with  Purcell, 
who  was  his  exact  contemporary  ;  Purcell  was 
also  under  Italian  influence,  and  we  find  in  the 
yoong  Scarlatti  many  points  of  resemblance  to 
hisL,  notably  in  the  treatment  of  harmony, — 
both  composers  showing  a  tendency  to  think 
polyphonically,  though  melodiously,  and  being 
either  indifferent  to,  or  more  probably  taking  a 
positive  pleasure  in,  the  painful  dissonances 
resnlting  from  their  unbending  logic  But  with 
his  appointment  as  Maestro  di  Cappella  at 
Naples,  Scarlatti  modified  his  style.     Here  he 


Avas  forced  to  work  with  the  utmost  rapidity, 
and  to  work  for  popular  success.  The  fine  detail 
of  his  earlier  work  is  swept  aside ;  the  curious 
forms,  derived  in  part  from  the  ground-bass,  in 
which  he  had  once  delighted,  are  abandoned  ; 
and  he  poured  forth  a  long  series  of  operas 
in  which  the  grace  and  vigom*  of  his  best 
moments  eventually  degenei-ated  into  insipidity 
and  vulgarity.  Three  important  features  charac- 
terise this  somewhat  unfortunate  period  of  his 
career.  The  da  capo  aria  in  ternary  form  (ABA), 
though  of  course  not  an  invention  of  Scarlatti, 
is  now  definitely  established  as  the  only  type  of 
operatic  aria,  to  the  entire  exclusion  of  all  other 
forms.  The  form  of  overture  known  as  the 
*  Italian '  overture  was  introduced  in  1696  for 
the  revival  of  an  earlier  opera,  *  Dal  Male  il 
Bene,'  and,  though  subject  to  much  develop- 
ment, remains  constant  in  its  main  outlines  to 
the  end  of  the  Metastasio  period  of  Italian 
opera ;  and  lastly,  the  opera  *  Olimpia  Vendi- 
cata'  (1686)  presents  us  with  the  earliest-known 
example  of  accompanied  recitative.  From  about 
1686  to  1696  Scarlatti's  operas  have  a  facile 
grace  that  is  often  far  removed  from  triviality  ; 
the  operas  *La  Statira'  (1690),  <La  Rosaura' 
(1690),  and  *Pirro  e  Demetrio'  (1694),  which 
was  performed  in  London  in  an  English  adapta- 
tion in  1708,  were  deservedly  popular  in  their 
day,  and  contain  music  which  has  even  survived 
down  to  our  own.  About  1697  a  change  comes 
over  Scarlatti's  style,  due  in  all  probability  to 
the  influence  of  Giovanni  Bononcini,  whose 
'  Trionfo  di  Camilla '  was  performed  at  Naples 
in  that  year.  Bononcini  had  a  certain  genius 
for  airs  of  a  spiiited  martial  type — *  L'  esperto 
nocchiero '  from  '  Astarto '  is  a  good  specimen — 
and  no  doubt  they  pleased  the  court,  since  they 
were  easy  to  understand,  and  even  a  viceroy 
could  beat  time  to  thcni.  Scarlatti,  either  on 
his  own  initiative,  or  more  probably  in  obedience 
to  orders  from  above,  set  to  work  on  the  same 
lines,  and  from  1697  to  1702  turned  out  a 
number  of  inferior  operas,  full  of  airs  that  are 
either  sugary  and  cloying,  or  pompous  and 
stilted.  Their  only  redeeming  features,  as  a 
rule,  are  the  comic  scenes,  which  are  trivial 
but  certainly  humorous.  Of  this  phase  *  Eraclea ' 
(1700),  and  *Laodicea  e  Berenice*  (1701)  are 
the  best  examples. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  Scarlatti's  most 
serious  work  was  being  put  into  the  operas  which 
he  composed  for  Ferdinand  de'  Medici.  His  let- 
ters give  a  detailed  account  of  the  composition  of 
*Tumo  Aricino'  (1704),  *Lucio  Manlio'  (1706), 
and  'II  Gran  Tamerlane'  (1706).  He  speaks 
with  enthusiasm  of  Stampiglia's  libretto  to  the 
second  of  these,  and  appears  to  have  considered 
the  opera  the  best  that  he  had  hitherto  com- 
posed, although  each  act  was  written  in  a  fort- 
night The  scores  of  these  operas,  however, 
have  entirely  disappeared,  and  not  even  scat- 
tered fragments  of  them  can  be  traced.     To 


244 


SCARLATTI 


SCARLATTI 


wliat  groat  height  he  was  capable  of  rising  at 
this  stage  may  be  seen  in  the  opera  *  Mitridate 
Eupatoro/  composed  for  Venice  in  1707.  Al- 
though the  interest  is  not  equally  sustained  all 
through,  the  work  is  a  very  remarkable  example 
of  the  classical  manner  at  its  grandest.  The 
libretto  is  also  remarkable,  as  depending  entirely 
upon  its  political  interest.  There  are  no  love- 
scenes  at  all ;  but  the  devotion  of  the  heroine 
for  her  lost  brother  is  expressed  with  a  passion- 
ate sincerity  that  far  transcends  anything  that 
Scarlatti  had  written  before.  J.  S.  Bach  at  his 
best  has  hardly  surpassed  the  dignified  recita- 
tive *0  Mitridate  mio,*  followed  by  the  magni- 
ficent aria  *  Cara  tomba '  in  Act  IV. 

With  his  return  to  Naples  in  1709  Scarlatti 
entered  upon  yet  another  stage  of  development. 
The  deep  poetic  intention  of  *  Mitridate  '  is  in- 
deed seldom  apparent ;  but  the  experience  of 
former  years  had  given  the  composer  command 
of  every  resource,  and  the  honour  in  which  he 
was  held  at  the  Austrian  court  enabled  him  to 
write  in  a  style  more  worthy  of  himself.  We 
may  regret  the  loss  of  that  tender  charm  so 
characteristic  of  his  early  work,  but  we  must 
admit  the  wonderful  vigour  and  brilliance  of 
such  operas  as  *  La  Principessa  Fedele '  (1710), 
'II  Ciro'  (Rome,  1712),  'Soipione  nelle  Spagne' 
(Naples,  1714),  and  above  all  '  Tigrane '  (1716). 
In  these  operas  we  may  notice  not  only  the 
more  extended  development  of  the  ternary  aria- 
forms,  but  also  an  advance  towards  a  more 
modem  treatment  of  the  orchestra.  Scarlatti's 
early  operas  are  generally  scored  for  a  band  of 
strings,  supported,  of  course,  by  the  harpsichord 
and  other  harmonic  instruments,  such  as  the 
lute,  playing  from  the  bcuao  eontinuo,  which  in 
this  case  we  can  hardly  call  the  figured  bass, 
since  Italian  accompanists  were  so  fluent  in  im- 
provisation that  the  composer  could  generally 
spare  himself  the  trouble  of  indicating  the  har- 
mony in  the  conventional  shorthand.  To  this 
band  are  added  occasionally  trumpets,  flutes, 
oboes,  and  bassoons,  not  as  regular  constituents 
of  the  orchestra,  but  treated  more  as  MligcUo 
instruments,  with  a  view  to  special  colour  effects. 
The  burden  of  the  accompaniment  rested  on 
the  harpsichord.  Violin -playing  was  at  the 
close  of  the  17th  century  still  so  primitive 
that  the  strings  of  an  opera  band  could  seldom 
be  trusted  with  the  delicate  task  of  supporting 
a  singer.  In  most  cases  they  enter  only  to  play 
the  final  noisy  ritomello  at  the  close  of  an  air  ; 
sometimes  they  are  given  a  share  in  the  accom- 
paniment, but  treated  as  a  group  antiphonal 
to  the  harpsichord.  Scarlatti,  however,  was 
evidently  interested  in  the  development  of 
violin-playing,  and  as  time  went  on  he  allotted 
to  the  strings  a  more  important  share  of  the 
work,  stimulated,  no  doubt,  by  the  influence  of 
Corelli,  who  was  thought  by  his  contemporaries 
to  be  diBtinguished  more  as  a  conductor  than  aa 
a  composer.     As  early  as  '  Mitridate  Eupatore ' 


(1707)  we  may  observe  the  tendency  to  reverse 
the  principle  of  the  earlier  work ;  it  is  the 
strings  (generally  without  double-basses)  that 
accompany  the  voice,  and  the  harpsichord  that 
is  reserved  to  add  power  and  brilliance  to  the 
rUomelli,  Moreover,  Scarlatti's  whole  outlook 
becomes  gradually  less  and  less  aggressively  con- 
trapuntal, the  harsh -dissonances  of  his  boyhood 
are  soon  smoothed  away,  and  the  general  scheme 
of  his  musical  thought  tends  more  to  melody 
supported  by  harmony,  although  he  showed  to 
the  end  of  his  life  that  he  regarded  free  counter- 
point as  the  most  intellectual  style  of  expres- 
sion. This  point  of  view  naturally  influences 
his  instrumentation,  and  causes  his  later  scores 
t.0  have  much  more  affinity  to  the  modem  style 
of  treating  the  orchestra. 

A  fifth  and  final  period  is  exemplified  in  the 
series  of  operas  written  for  Rome  that  began 
with  'Telemaco'  and  ended  with  'Griselda/ 
Twenty  yeare  earlier  Scarlatti  had  bitterly 
lamented  the  impossibility  of  producing  operas 
in  the  city  that  had  witnessed  his  first  triumphs. 
But  the  passion  for  opera,  which  had  attacked 
Rome,  no  less  than  other  Italian  cities,  during 
the  baroque  period,  was  too  serious  to  be  stifled 
by  the  protests  of  clerical  pradery,  and  Rome 
now  showed  him  that  here  at  last  was  an  audi- 
ence which  could  appreciate  the  full  maturity 
of  the  genius  which  she  had  been  the  first  to 
encourage.  In  these  latest  operas  we  see  not 
only  the  furthest  development  of  technical  re- 
souree,  but  also  the  ripened  fraits  of  emotional 
experience.  Here  at  last  is  the  whole  Scarlatti, 
here  at  last  he  was  able  to  place  upon  the  stage 
something  of  that  passionate  tenderness  and 
serious  musical  reasoning  that  he  had  for  so 
many  years  brought  to  utterance  only  in  the 
intimacy  of  his  chamber-cantatas,  and  exhibit 
the  whole  in  all  the  glory  of  variegated  orehes- 
tration,  lighted  up  by  the  blaze  of  vocal  colora- 
tura, 

Scarlatti  has  been  remembered  in  modem 
times  chiefly  on  account  of  his  operas  ;  but  we 
cannot  understand  his  complete  development 
without  a  study  of  his  chamber-music  The 
chamber-cantata  was  to  the  age  of  Rossi  and 
Scarlatti  what  the  pianoforte-sonata  w  ^"iolin- 
sonata  was  to  the  age  of  Beethoven  and  Brahms 
— the  most  intimate  and  the  most  inteUectoal 
form  of  music  that  could  be  produced.  The 
degraded  age  of  vocal  virtuosity  had  not  yet 
arrived  ;  the  singers  were  not  merely  the  most 
agile  performers  upon  the  most  perfect  of  in- 
stmments,  but  the  most  intellectual  exponents 
of  the  art  of  music.  Scarlatti,  the  greatest 
and  almost  the  last  of  the  great  writers  of 
chamber -cantatas,  practised  in  this  form,  as 
Beethoven  dkl  in  the  pianoforte-sonata,  horn 
his  earliest  years  to  that  of  his  death.  Over 
five  hundred  of  his  cantatas  have  come  down 
to  us,  representing  every  period  of  his  life,  and 
we  may  often  see  that  for  any  given  period,  as 


SCARLATTI 


SCARLATTI 


245 


with  Beethoven's  pianoforto-sonatas,  they  re- 
present the  highest  intellectual  achievement  of 
the  moment.  It  is  unfair  to  judge  them  by 
the  standard  of  Schumann's  '  Lieder ' ;  they  are 
not  lyrical  ontborsts,  sacrificing  formality  to 
the  personal  emotion  of  the  poet,  much  less 
scenes  taken  out  of  operas,  as  has  been  sug- 
gested, bnt  carefully  designed  studies  in  oom- 
position,  often  depending  for  their  main  interest 
on  the  working  out  of  some  interesting  problem 
of  modulation  or  of  thematic  development. 
Thus  in  1712  he  sent  Gasparini  two  settings  of 
the  cantata  '  Andate  o  miei  sospiri '  which  had 
been  set  by  Gasparini  and  sent  to  him  by  the 
composer.  The  first  of  these  two  settings  is  a 
beautiful  specimen  of  Scarlatti's  work  at  this 
period  ;  the  second  was  designed  with  a  view 
to  puzzling  his  correspondent  with  the  most 
difficult  modulations,  both  in  the  recitatives 
and  in  the  airs.  The  work  is  difficult  even  to 
the  modem  reader,  but  only  on  account  of  the 
terseness  of  its  thought.  '  Awkward '  and  '  ex- 
perimental '  are  epi^ets  that  could  hardly  ever 
be  applied  to  Sotrlatti,  and  his  music  often 
fails  to  interest  the  modem  romantic  reader 
becanae  of  tlie  absolute  mastery  with  which  he 
solves  his  problems. 

His  instrumental  chamber  music  is  of  less 
vaXne.  It  was  appai'ently  traditional  to  treat 
this  branch  of  art  in  a  more  archaic  style  ;  the 
four  '  Sonate  a  quattro '  (string  quartets),  and 
even  the  twelve  Symphonies  for  small  orchestra 
(1715)»  are  more  primitive  in  their  methods 
than  the  Sonatas  of  Oorelli.  He  composed  a 
certain  amount  of  music  for  the  harpsichord  and 
organ,  but  it  is  for  the  most  part  straggling  and 
ineffective,  interesting  only  as  showing  a  certain 
influence  on  the  early  work  of  his  son*  His  best 
work  for  the  harpsichord  is  a  set  of  variations  on 
the  theme  of  Corelli's  'Follia,'  recently  edited 
by  Aless.  Longo,  and  published  by  Messrs. 
Ricordi. 

As  a  church  composer  Scarlatti  is  not  at  his 
best  The  story  of  his  having  set  the  mass  two 
hundred  times  may  be  dismissed  as  a  fable. 
Considering  the  vast  quantity  of  other  music  of 
his  that  has  survived,  it  can  hardly  be  believed 
that  as  many  as  190  masses  should  have  been  lost. 
Quantz  is  the  only  authority  for  this  statement, 
and  as  he  never  mentions  a  single  composition 
of  Scarlatti's  by  name,  his  information  deserves 
little  credit.  Of  the  ten  surviving  masses,  the 
majority  are  in  the  strict  style  kept  up  to  the  end 
of  the  18th  century  and  called  '  alia  Palestrina,' 
though  breaking  gradually  away  from  the  manner 
of  its  illustrious  model  Scarlatti  treats  discords 
with  more  freedom,  and  occadonaUy  shows  a 
mors  modem  feeling  for  fugue ;  but  his  strict 
masses  are  on  the  whole  uninteresting.  Two 
masses  with  orchestra  are  important  in  the 
history  of  modem  church  music.  The  first 
(1707)  is  somewhat  crude  and  ineffective,  but 
the  second  (1720)  is  a  worthy  ancestor  of  the 


great  masses  of  Bach  and  Beethoven.  The 
miscellaneous  church  music  calls  for  little  com- 
ment. Roger  of  Amsterdam  printed  a  collection 
of  'Concerti  Sacri'  (about  1710),  characterised 
by  a  Jesuitical  brilliance  which  is  meretricious, 
but  certainly  attractive ;  three  motets  for 
double  chou*  *Tu  es  Petrus,'  'O  magnum 
mysterium,'  and  *Volo,  Pater*  (about  1707), 
are  broad  and  dignified ;  the  little  *  Laetatus 
sum '  for  four  voices  (printed  by  Proske)  is  a 
model  of  counterpoint  in  Leo's  manner.  The 
oratorios  and  secular  serenatas  are  of  very  vary> 
ing  value,  and  show  the  same  sort  of  tendencies 
as  the  operas.    (See  Oratorio.) 

Mention  must  also  be  made  of  Scarlatti  as  a 
teacher.  The  Hegole  per  principicmH,  a  MS. 
treatise  on  accompaniment,  is  of  interest,  as 
showing  that  its  author  was  always  liberal  in 
his  views  on  the  theory  of  his  art.  He  allows 
various  harmonies  (e.g,  the  use  of  a  second 
inversion  of  a  dominant  seventh)  which  his 
contemporaries  did  not,  admitting  that  not 
everybody  would  agree  with  him,  but  defend* 
ing  himself  on  the  principle  that  such  progres- 
sions sound  well.  To  what  extent  he  taught 
at  Naples  is  not  clear.  The  tendency  of  modem 
research  is  to  indicate  that  the  younger  genera- 
tion of  composers  at  Naples  were  trained  for 
the  most  part  by  Nicola  Fago  and  Gaetano 
Greco ;  Hasse  seems  to  have  been  almost  the 
only  one  who  came  into  intimate  relations  with 
him.  His  frequent  absence  from  Naples  must 
have  been  a  serious  intenruption  to  teaching 
work,  and  in  his  latter  years  he  was  evidently 
quite  forgotten  by  the  Neapolitan  public. 

Nevertheless,  Alessandro  Scarlatti  must  cer- 
tainly be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  Nea- 
politan school  of  the  18th  centuiy.  He  was, 
of  course,  not  the  first  teacher  nor  the  first 
opera-composer  that  appeared  in  Naples ;  but 
Provenzale,  a  man  for  inferior  to  his  Venetian 
and  Roman  contemporaries,  was  much  too  in- 
significant to  be  the  leader  of  a  new  movement 
The  real  celebrity  of  Naples  as  an  operatic 
centre  dated  from  Scarlatti's  appointment  in 
1 683,  and  the  long  series  of  his  operas  performed 
there  from  1683  to  1702,  and  from  1709  to 
1719,  during  which  periods  he  almost  mono- 
polised the  stage  of  S.  Bartolomeo,  caused  his 
artistic  influence  to  be  paramount  there.  But 
the  unfortunate,  though  natural,  consequence 
was  that  the  younger  generation  of  composers 
imitated  him  not  at  his  ripest  but  at  his  most 
successful  phase,  so  thst,  in  spite  of  the  earnest 
effort  of  Leo,  the  later  Italian  opera  proceeded 
rapidly  to  that  state  of  decadence  against  which 
Gluck  finally  led  the  reaction.  For  this  reason 
Scarlatti  has  too  often  been  represented  as  the 
first  composer  who  took  the  downward  step  to- 
wards empty  formalism  and  the  prostitution  of 
opera  to  the  vanity  of  singera.  This  is  gross 
injustice.  We  may  regret  that  adverse  circum- 
stances compelled  him  to  produce  much  that 


246 


SCARLATTI 


SCARLATTI 


was  unworthy  of  his  best  ideals  ;  but  the  mass 
of  chamber-cantatas  and  the  later  operas  show 
him  to  have  been  a  thoroughly  intellectual 
musician,  a  complete  master  of  form  in  its 
minutest  details,  who  made  as  severe  demands 
upon  the  brains  of  his  interpreters  as  upon 
their  technical  powers. 

Scarlatti  indeed  is  the  founder  of  that  musical 
language  which  has  served  the  classical  com- 
posers for  the  expression  of  their  thoughts  down 
to  the  close  of  the  Viennese  period.  Thematic 
development,  balance  of  melodic  phrase,  chro- 
matic harmony — all  the  devices  which  the  17th 
century  had  tentatively  introduced,  are  by  him 
woven  into  a  smooth  and  supple  texture,  which 
reached  its  perfection  in  one  who,  although  he 
never  knew  his  true  master,  was  yet  his  best 
pupil — Mozart.  [For  complete  list  of  works, 
see  the  writer's  Alessandro  Scarlatti,  1905,  and 
the  Quell6n-Lexiko7i.]  E.  j.  d. 

SCARLATTI,  Giuseppe  Domenico,  son  of 
Alessandro,  born  in  Naples,  Oct.  26,  1685, 
first  learned  from  his  father,  and  later  from 
GasparinL  [He  has  been  called  a  pupil  of 
Bernardo  Pasquini,  but  that  seems  most  im- 
probable, seeing  that  Pasquini  was  of  the  school 
of  Palestrina,  and  wrote  entirely  in  the  contra- 
puntal style,  whereas  Domenico  Scarlatti's  chief 
interest  is  that  he  was  the  first  composer  who 
studied  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  the  free 
style  of  the  harpsichoni.  Mr.  Shedlock's  sug- 
gestion that  he  was  taught,  or  at  least  largely 
influenced,  by  Graetano  Greco  is  far  more  likely.] 
His  bold  style  was  by  no  means  appreciated  in 
Italy,  for  Bumey  remarks  (State  of  Music  in 
France  and  Italy)  that  the  harpsichord  was  so 
little  played  that  it  had  not  afiected  the  organ, 
which  was  still  played  in  the  grand  old  tradi- 
tional style.  The  first  work  on  which  Domenico 
is  known  to  have  been  engaged  was  that  of 
remodelling  for  Naples,  in  1704,  Polaroli's  opera 
*  Irene '  (Venice,  1695).  At  Naples  *  his  talent 
found  scope  indeed,'  wrote  Alessandro  to  Ferdi- 
nand de'  Medici  on  May  30,  1705,  *  but  it  was 
not  the  sort  of  talent  for  that  place.  I  send 
him  away  from  Rome  also,  since  Rome  has  no 
roof  to  shelter  music,  that  lives  here  in  beggary. 
This  son  of  mine  is  an  eagle  whose  wings  are 
grown  ;  he  ought  not  to  stay  idle  in  the  nest, 
and  I  ought  not  to  hinder  his  flight.  Since 
the  virtuoso  Nioolino,  of  Naples,  is  passing 
through  Rome  on  his  way  to  Venice,  I  have 
thought  fit  to  send  Domenico  with  him ; 
and  under  the  sole  escort  of  his  own  artistic 
ability  (which  has  made  great  progress  since  he 
was  able  to  be  with  me  and  ei^oy  the  honour 
of  obeying  Your  Royal  Highness's  commands  in 
person,  three  years  ago),  he  sets  forth  to  meet 
whatever  opportunities  may  present  themselves 
for  making  himself  known — opportunities  for 
which  it  is  hopeless  to  wait  in  Rome  nowadays.' 
Domenico  duly  presented  himself  to  the  Prince 
with  this  letter,  which  is  now  in  the  Medici 


archives  at  Florence,  and  presumably  continued 
his  journey  with  Nicolino,  at  any  rate  as  fkr  as 
Venice.  In  1708  he  was  in  Venice  [studying 
with  Gasparini,  and  making  the  acquaintance 
of  Handel  and  Thomas  Roseingrave.  ]  Domenico 
seems  to  have  accompanied  Handel  to  Rome, 
for  Cardinal  Ottoboni  held  a  kind  of  oomi^etition 
between  the  two,  at  which  the  victory  was 
undecided  on  the  harpsichord,  but  when  it 
came  to  the  organ,  Scarlatti  was  the  first  to 
acknowledge  his  rival's  superiority,  declaring 
that  he  had  no  idea  such  playing  as  Handel's 
existed.  The  two  became  fast  friends  from  that 
day ;  they  remained  together  till  Handel  left 
Italy,  and  met  again  in  London  in  1720.  In 
1709  he  entered  the  service  of  Marie  Casimire, 
Queen  of  Poland,  and  composed  for  her  private 
theatre  in  Rome  several  operas:  a  dratnitta 
pastorcUe  *  S^slvia '  (libretto  in  the  Paris  Biblio- 
th^que  Nationale),  which  was  followed  by  *  Or- 
lando '(1711),  *  Fatide  in  Scire'  (1712),  *  Ifigenia 
in  Aulide '  and  *in  Tauride'  (1718),  'Amor  d'nn 
ombra,'  and  'Narciso'  (1714),  and  'Amleto' 
(1715,  Teatro  Capranica),  interesting  as  the 
first  musical  setting  of  that  subject  Even  in 
extreme  old  age  Handel  spoke  ^dth  pleasure  of 
D.  Scarlatti,  and  Main  waring  {Memoirst  p.  61) 
relates  that  when  Scarlatti  was  in  Spain,  if  his 
own  playing  was  admired,  he  would  turn  the 
conversation  on  Handel's,  ci^issing  himself  at 
the  same  time  as  a  sign  of  his  extreme  reverence. 
In  January  1715  he  succeeded  Baj  as  maestro 
di  capella  of  St.  Peter's  in  Rome,  where  he 
composed  Masses,  Salve  Reginas,  etc.  In  1719 
he  went  to  London,  where  his  'Narciso'  was 
performed  (May  30,  1720),  and  in  1721  to 
Lisbon,  where  he  became  a  court  favourite. 
The  longing  for  home  and  kindred,  however, 
drove  him  back  to  Naples,  where  Hasse  heard 
him  play  the  harpsichord  in  1725. 

In  1729  he  was  invited  to  the  Spanish  courts 
and  appointed  music -master  to  the  Princests 
of  the  Asturias,  whom  he  had  formerly 
taught  in  Lisbon.  According  to  the  Cfasetta 
musicaU  of  Naples  (Sept.  15,  1838)  he  re- 
turned to  Naples  in  1754,  and  died  there  in 
1757.  Being  an  inveterate  gambler  he  left 
his  family  in  great  destitution,  but  FarinelU 
came  to  their  assistance.  (Saochi's  Vita  t^i 
Ikni  Carlo  Broschi,) 

As  we  have  said,  Scarlatti  was  in  some  sense 
the  founder  of  modem  execution,  and  his  in- 
fluence may  be  traced  in  Mendelssohn,  Liszt, 
and  many  other  masters  of  the  modem  school. 
He  made  great  use  of  the  crossing  of  the  hands, 
and  produced  entirely  new  effects  by  this  means. 
His  pieces,  unlike  the  suites  of  Handel  and  his 
predecessors,  were  all  short  Santini  possessed 
349  of  them.  Of  these  Scarlatti  himself  only 
published  one  book  of  thirty  pieces,  entitled 
*  Esercizii  per  gravicembalo,'  etc.,  printed  ac- 
cording to  Bumey  in  Venice,  but  at  any  rate 
before  August  1746,  when  the  Prince  of  the 


SCARLATTI 


SCENA 


247 


Asturiia,  whose  name  is  on  the  title-page, 
ascended  the  throne.  In  the  Fetis  collection 
is  a  Paris  edition,  *  Pieces  pour  le  clayecin,' 
two  vols.,  published  by  Mme.  Boivin  (who  died 
Sept  1738)  and  Le  Clero.i  *42  Suits*  of 
Lessons '  were  printed  by  John  Johnson  (at  the 
Harp  and  Crown,  Cheapside),  London,  under 
the  supervision  of  Scarlatti's  friend  Koseingrave 
(between  1730  and  1737,  when  Roseingrave 
went  out  of  his  mind).  In  1 752  John  Worgan 
obtained  the  sole  licence  to  print  certain  new 
works  by  Domenico  Scarlatti,  and  published 
them  (at  J.  Johnson's,  facing  Bow  Church, 
Cheapside).  These  were  twelve  sonatas,  most 
of  them  new  to  England.  Czemy's  edition 
(Haslinger,  Vienna,  1839),  containing  200 
pieces,  was  re-edited  (Paris,  Sauer,  Girod)  and 
revised  by  Mme.  FaiTenc  from  Roseingrave's 
edition,  and  MSS.  then  in  possession  of  Rim- 
banlt  There  are  also  130  pieces  in  Farrenc's 
'Treaor  des  Pianistes'  (1864);  sixty  Sonatas 
are  published  by  Breitkopf ;  and  eighteen  pieces, 
grouped  as  Suites  by  von  Billow,  by  Peters. 
[Tausig  arranged  several  of  the  sonatas  to  suit 
the  requirements  of  modem  pianists,  but  the 
greatest  boon  to  lovers  of  Domenico  Scarlatti  is 
the  publication  of  a  complete  edition  of  his 
iionatas  by  Rioordi  ft  Co.  under  the  editorship 
of  Signor  Alessandro  Longo.  Six  volumes, 
containing  300  pieces  in  all,  appeared  in  1906, 
aod  are  to  be  cAitinued  by  a  further  series. 
The  above  article  has  been  corrected  by  reference 
to  a  review  of  this  edition  written  by  Mr.  £.  J. 
Dent,  and  published  in  the  Monthly  Musical 
record,  Sept.  1906.]  Besides  these  famous 
works  and  the  operas,  among  which  last  are  to 
be  mdnded  contributions  to  various  pasticcios, 
Domenico  Scarlatti  wrote  a  Stabat  Mater  for 
ten  voices  and  organ,  and  a  *  Salve  Regina '  for 
a  single  voice,  stated  to  be  his  last  composi- 
tion. F.  o. 

SCARLATTI,  Francesco,  a  brother  of 
Aleasandro.  A  mass  and  Dixit  Dominus  by 
him,  a  16,  are  in  the  Bodleian  Library,  Oxford, 
dated  1702  and  1703  respectively.  Ho  was 
for  twenty -six  years  maestro  di  cappella  at 
Palenno  (1689-1715),  and  in  1719  came  to 
London  with  his  nephew  Domenico,  giving  a 
concert  of  his  own  compositions,  Sept.  1,  1720. 
A  Miserere  a  5  is  in  the  Court  library  at  Vienna, 
and  some  opera  airs  and  cantatas  in  the  Fitz- 
wiUiam  Museum,  Cambridge,  and  elsewhere. 
(See  the  Qudlen-Lexikon,)  M. 

SCARLATTI,  Giuseppe,  son  of  Domenico, 
was  bom  at  Naples,  according  to  Paloschi  in 
1712,  according  to  Floriroo  in  1718.  At  one 
time  he  seems  to  have  been  maestro  at  Pavia, 
and  m  the  text-book  of  'I  portentoei  effetti,' 
revived  at  Berlin,  in  1763,  he  is  styled  maestro 
di  cappella  in  Naples.  He  settled  in  Vienna  in 
1757,  before  which  date  he  had  produced  the 

'  K«.  10  In  voL  11. 1*  an  oivan  fugue  Iqr  Alwwuadra  ScarUttL 
«  Wbi^  are  not '  SoiUa.'  but  alngle  moTcmenta. 


following  Operas: — *Merope,'  Rome  1740  (re- 
peated at  Naples  1755)  ;  *  Dario,'  Turin,  1741  ; 
*Pompeo  in  Armenio,'  Rome,  1747  ;  *  Adriano 
in  Siria,'  Naples,  1752  ;  *  Ezio,'  Naples,  1754  ; 
'I  portentosi  effetti della  natura,'  Venice,  1754  ; 
*  Antigone,'  Milan,  1756;  *Chi  tutto  abbrac- 
cia  nulla  stringe,*  Venice,  1756.  In  Vienna 
he  brought  out  at  the  court  theatre  :  *  II  roer- 
cato  di  malmantile'  and  'L'  isola  disabitata,' 
1757  ;  '  La  serva  scaltra,'  1759  ;  '  Issipile '  and 
*La  Clemenaa  di  Tito,'  1760;  'Artaserse,' 
1763;  'Li  stravaganti, '  1765;  <La  moglie 
padrona,  '1768.  He  died  at  Vienna,  August  1 7, 
1777.  c.  F.  p.  ;  with  additions  from  the 
Quellen-Lexikon, 

SCARLATTI,  Piktro,  was  probably  a  nephew 
of  Domenico  and  was,  according  to  Florimo, 
maestro  di  cappella  in  Naples.  In  1728  his 
opera  *Clitarco'  was  given  at  the  theatre  of 
San  Bartolomeo  (a  MS.  of  the  work  is  at  Monto 
Cassino,  in  which  there  are  intermezzi  by 
Hasse.)  m. 

SC£N A  (Gr.  -LkiivIi  ;  Lat  Scena ;  Ital.  Seena, 
Teatro,  JtUco  ;  Ger.  Buhne,  AuftrUt ;  Fr.  Sdne, 
Thidh'e  ;  Eng.  Scene^  Stage),  A  term,  which, 
in  its  oldest  and  follest  significance,  applies 
equally  to  the  stage,  to  the  scenery  it  represents, 
and  to  the  dramatic  action  which  takes  place 
upon  it.  Hence,  the  long  array  of  synonyms 
placed  at  the  beginning  of  this  article. 

I.  Classical  authors  most  frequently  use  the 
woixi  in  its  first  sense,  as  applying  to  that  part 
of  a  Greek  or  Roman  Theatre  which  most  nearly 
answers  to  what  we  should  now  call  the  stage  ; 
and  the  classical  tendencies  of  the  Renaissance 
movement  led  to  its  similar  use  in  the  16th 
century. 

II.  In  its  second  sense,  the  word  is  commonly 
applied,  in  England,  to  those  divisions  of  a 
drama  which  are  marked  by  an  actual  change 
of  scenery  ;  a  method  of  arrangement  which  is 
even  extended  to  English  translations  of  foreign 
works. 

III.  In  the  Italian,  German,  and  French 
theatres,  the  word  is  more  frequently  used,  in 
its  third  sense,  to  designate  those  subordinate 
divisions  of  an  act^  which  are  marked  by  the 
entrance  or  exit  of  one  or  more  members  of 
the  Dramatis  Personae ' ;  a  new  scene  being 
always  added  to  the  list  when  a  new  character 
appears  upon  or  quits  the  stage,  though  it  be 
only  a  messenger,  with  half-a-dozen  words  to 
say  or  sing. 

IV.  In  a  more  limited  sense,  the  term  Scena 
is  applied  by  operatic  composers  to  an  ac- 
companied recitative,  either  interspersed  with 
passages  of  rhythmic  melody,  or  followed  by  a 
reguliur  Aria.  In  the  former  case,  the  word  is 
generally  used  alone — and  always  in  its  Italian 
form :  in  the  latter  the  composition  is  sometimes 
called  'Scena  ed  Aria.'     Less  frequently,  the 

*  Ital.  Atto;  Fr.  AtXt;  Oer.  ilif^N^— In aUnaion  to  the  nislng  of 
the  curtain. 


248 


SCENARIO 


SCHAKWENKA 


place  of  pare  recitative  is  supplied  by  the 
introduction  of  short  strains  of  melody,  with 
strongly-marked  variations  of  tempo.  Bat, 
in  all  cases,  it  is  de  rigueur  that  the  character 
of  the  composition  sliould  be  essentially  and 
unmistakably  dramatic  throughout.  The  Scena, 
thus  defined,  is  as  old  as  the  opera  itself ;  for 
the  name  might  very  well  be  given  to  the  scene 
from  *  Euridice,'  already  alluded  to  ;  or  to  the 

*  Lamento '  in  Monteverde's  *  Ariana.'  A  very 
fine  example,  much  in  advance  of  its  age,  will 
be  found  in  'Ah  rendimi  quel  core,'  from 
Francesco  Rossi's  'Mitrane,'  1689.  Mozart's 
peculiar  aptitude  for  this  kind  of  composition 
is  well  exemplified  in  his  wonderful  scena  for 
two  voices,  'Die  Weiselehre  dieser  Knaben,*  in 

*  Die  Zauberflote ' ;  in  innumerable  delightful 
instances  in  his  other  operas ;  and  in  a  large 
collection  of  detached  pieces,  such  as  *  Ch'io  mi 
scordi,'  'Bella  mia  fiamma,'  *  Ahi,  lo  previdi,* 
'  Misera,  dove  son  ?  *  and  others,  too  numerous 
to  mention,  most  of  them  wiitten  for  the  stage, 
though  some  are  clearly  intended  for  the  concert- 
room,  notwithstanding  their  powerful  dramatic 
expression.  To  this  latter  class  of  Scenas  must 
be  referred  Beethoven's  magnificent  'Ah,  per- 
fido !'  which  ranks,  with  the  Scenas  for  Leonore 
and  Florestan,  in  *Fidelio,'  among  his  most 
passionate  compositions  for  voioe  and  orches- 
tra. The  Scena  was  unquestionably  Weber's 
strongest  [mint— witness  his  three  magnificent 
examples,  *  Durch  die  Walder,'  *  Wie  nahte  mir 
die  Schlummer,'  and  'Ocean,  du  Ungeheuer,' 
and  his  six '  Concert  Arien.'  The  grand  Scena, 
in  Bb,  for  Kunegunde  in  *  Faust,'  is  one  of 
Spohr's  most  notable  masterpieces ;  and  the 
same  composer's  impassioned  instrumental 
'Scena  Cantante'  for  violin  and  orchestra 
stands  quite  alone,  as  an  inspiration  of  the 
highest  Older.  He  also  wrote  a  very  fine  Scena 
for  the  concert-room — *  Tu  m'abbandoni '  (op. 
71) ;  and  Mendelssohn  has  left  us  a  priceless 
treasure  of  this  class  in  his  'Infelice,'  which 
embodies  an  amount  of  soenic  i>ower  no  less 
remarkable  than  that  thrown  into  the  numerous 
similar  movements  in  his  oratorios.  The  secret 
of  success,  in  all  these  cases,  lies  in  the  in- 
tensity of  dramatic  expression  embodied  in  the 
work.  w.  8.  R. 

SCENARIO.  An  Italian  teim,  meaning  a 
sketch  of  the  scenes  and  main  points  of  an 
opera  libretto,  drawn  up  and  settled  preliminary 
to  filling  in  the  detail.  o. 

SCHABLONE.  The  German  teim  for  a 
stencil  or  pattern,  and  thence  in  musical  criticism 
often  applied  to  music  written  with  too  much 
adherence  to  mechanical  form  or  manner, 
whether  the  composer's  own  or  some  one  else's 
— made  on  a  cut-and-dried  pattern.  The  term 
capellmeister-musik  is  used  by  the  German 
critics  for  a  similar  thing.  With  a  slightly 
different  metaphor  we  should  say,  '  cast  in  the 
same  mould.'  o. 


SCHACK  (properly  CZIAK),  Benedict,  the 
first  Tamino,  and  one  of  the  party  ^  who  stood 
round  Mozart's  bed  the  night  before  his  death, 
and  at  his  request  sang  the  completed  portious 
of  the  '  Requiem '  as  far  as  the  first  bars  of  the 
'  Lacrimosa,'  when  he  broke  into  violent  weeping 
at  the  thought  that  he  should  never  finish  it. 
Schack,  who  was  bom  at  Mirowitz,  in  Bohemia, 
in  1758,  was  a  man  of  general  cultivation,  a 
thorough  musician,  and  a  good  flute-player.  He 
composed  several  oi)eras  for  Schikaneder's  theatre. 
Mozart  was  on  intimate  terms  with  him,  and 
would  often  come  and  fetch  him  for  a  walk, 
and,  while  waiting  for  Schack  to  dress,  would 
sit  down  at  his  desk  and  touch  up  his  scores. 
Schack's  voice  was  a  fine  tenor,  flexible  and 
sonorous,  and  his  execution  thoroughly  artistic, 
but  he  was  a  ]K)or  actor.^  In  1787  he  was 
taking  second  parts  only ;  in  1792  he  sang 
Tamino,  Count  Almaviva,  and  Don  Ottavio 
(Don  Gonsalvo  in  the  German  translation),  after 
which  we  hear  no  more  of  him  as  a  singer.  [In 
1780  he  was  Capellmeister  to  a  nobleman,  and 
in  1805  retired  on  a  pension.  A  mass  by  him 
was  finished  by  Mozart.  (See  the  ffarmonieonj 
vol.  ix.  p.  298.)]  His  operas  or  Singspiele  came 
between  1789  and  1793  ;  some  w^ere  written 
with  Gerl.3  c.  f.  p. 

SCHALE  (German).  A  cymbal,  used  of  the 
halves  of  a  pair,  which  together  are  called  Becken. 
*  Beide  Schalen  *  is  a  direction  found  after  one 
of  the  cymbals  has  been  directed  to  be  struck 
with  a  drum-stick. 

SCHALMEI.     See  Shawm. 

SCHAKWENKA,  Ludwio  Philipp,  bom 
Feb.  16,  1847,  at  Samter,  near  Posen,  in  East 
Prussia,  where  his  fiither  was  an  architect. 
His  taste  for  music  showed  itself  early,  but  he 
was  unable  to  cultivate  it  seriously  tUl  the  re- 
moval of  his  family  to  Berlin  in  1865,  when  he 
entered  Kullak's  *New  Academy,'  studying 
under  Wtierst  and  Heinrich  Dom,  having  pre- 
viously completed  his  studies  at  the  Gymnasium 
in  Posen,  where  his  iiarents  settled  in  1859. 
On  completing  his  course  at  the  Academy  he 
remained  on  the  staff  as  a  teacher  of  theoiy  till 
1881,  when  he  became  teacher  of  composition 
at  his  brother's  newly  opened  Conservatorium, 
the  direction  of  which  he  undertook  with  Hugo 
Goldschmidt  on  his  brother's  emigration  to 
America  in  1891.  In  1880  he  married  the 
well-known  violinist  Marianne  Stresow,  who  is 
at  present  a  violin  teacher  in  the  Klind  worth- 
Scharwenka  Conservatorium.  Besides  having 
made  a  good  name  for  himself  with  a  long  list  of 
interesting  compositions,  P^fessor  Scharwenka 
is  an  accomplished  caricaturist. 

The  compositions  of  Philipp  Scharwenka  in- 

1  The  othen  wet«  Xouurt'i  brother-in-Uw.  Hof«r.  the  vioUnlA. 
MMl  PiWDi  Xavot  GerU  a  hw.«lnger.  and  Oic  flrrt  BanstruL  Maart 
hlmwlf  MOK  th€  alto. 

3  Jahn'B  JtMart,  il.  p.  610. 

3  Gerl  aang  •  Onnin  Hn  1797  at  tlic  wm«  tlMatre  In  th«  FMbau*, 
wb«re  wu  prodtieed  te  17S7  hSs  caanic  open  in  thn*  acta,  *  l>le 
Xaskerade,'  by  *  a  fonnar  member  of  thii  theatre.* 


SCHARWENKA 


SCHARWENKA 


249 


<Jade  a  vast  number  of  piano  pieces — Laudler, 
waltzes,  minuets,    mazurkas,    eto. — of   which 

*  Albam  Polonais'  (op.  33)  is  best  known,  many 
songs,  three  concert  pieces  for  violin  and  PF. 
(op.  17),  studies  for  yiolin,  studies  for  violon- 
oello,  three  sonatas  for  pianoforte  (op.  61)  ;  two 
choral  works  with  soli  and  orchestra,  '  Herbst- 
fejer'  (op.  44)  and  'Sakuntala';  a  choral  work 
with  pianoforte  accompaniment  ad  lib, ,  *  Dorper- 
tauzweise  * ;  a  PF.  trio  in  Cj  minor  (op.  100)  ; 
and  some  orchestral  works,  two  symphonies,  a 
Serenade  (op.  19),  a  Fantasiestiick  'Liebesnacht,' 
a  Festival  Overture  (op.  43),  an  *  Arcadian 
Suite'  (op.    76),    and    a    Symphonic    Poem, 

*  Friihlingswogen '  (op.  87).  H.  v.  h. 

Bis  brother,  Franz  Xaver,  was  also  bom 
at  Samter,  Jan.  6,  1850  ;  and  like  his  brother 
was  at  Kullak's  Academy  in  Berlin,  where 
he  was  well  known,  while  still  a  pupil,  for 
bis  PF.  playing  and  composition,  which  he 
studied  under  KuUak  and  Wiierst  respectively. 
He  made  his  first  appearance  in  public  in  Berlin 
at  the  Singakademie  in  1869,  and  remained  for 
some  time  at  Kullak's  as  a  teacher,  until  com- 
pelled to  leave  it  for  his  military  duties  in  1873. 
After  this  he  began  to  travel,  and  was  soon 
renowned  as  a  fine  and  brilliant  player,  and  a 
'young  composer  of  remarkable  endowment&' 
In  1877  he  produced  his  firat  Concerto  for  tlie 
PF.  (in  Bb  minor,  op.  32),  playing  it  to  the 
meeting  of  German  musicians  at  Hanover  in 
Jday ;  it  was  played  in  England  for  the  first 
time  by  Mr.  Edward  Dannreuther  at  the  Crystal 
Palace,  Oct  27,  1877.  In  1878,  Feb.  14, 
Scharwenka  himself  played  it  at  the  Gewand- 
hans,  Leipzig.  In  1879  he  made  his  first 
appearance  in  England,  playing  the  same  work 
at  the  Crystal  Palace,  March  1,  and  played 
at  the  Musical  Union,  April  29.  In  1880 
he  returned  and  played  his  Bb  minor  Concerto 
at  the  Philharmonic,  Feb.  1 9,  and  the  Beethoven 
£9  Concerto  on  June  9.  In  1881  he  made  a 
third  visit,  and  played  his  second  Concerto  (in 
C  minor,  op.  56)  which  he  had  produced  at  the 
Gesellschaftsconcert  at  Vienna,  Feb.  24  ;  but 
his  stay  was  shortened  by  his  recall  to  Germany 
for  his  militaiy  duties,  though  he  found  time  to 
appear  several  times,  anddee^iened  the  favourable 
imfwession  he  had  previously  made.  In  1 8 99  he 
made  another  visit  to  England  and  played  his 
Third  Concerto  (0$  minor,  op.  80). 

On  Oct.  1,  1881,  Scharwenka  opened  his 
own  Conservatorium  in  Berlin  (stafl*  including 
his  brother  Philipp's  wife,  71^  Marianne 
Streaow,  Albert  Becker,  Philipp  BUfer,  J.  Kotek, 
0.  Lessmann,  W.  Langhans,  M.  Bbder,  W. 
Jahns,  A  Hennes,  and  Philipp  Scharwenka), 
which  became  amalgamated  with  that  of  Klind- 
worth  in  1893,  is  now  known  as  the  Klindworth- 
Scharwenka  Conservatorium  (and  School  for 
Opera  and  Drama),  and  run  undei*  the  artistic 
direction  of  the  brothers  Scharwenka  and 
Capellmeister  Bobitschek  and  the  administra- 


tion of  the  latter,  of  which  Xaver  Scliarwenka 
is  the  principal. 

On  Dec.  18  and  19,  1906,  the  twenty-fifth 
anniversary  of  the  foundation  of  the  Conserva- 
torium was  celebrated. 

In  1891,  answering  a  call  to  found  and  direct 
a  branch  of  his  Conservatorium  in  New  York, 
Xaver  Scharwenka,  his  wife  and  family,  with  all 
their  belongings,  emigrated  to  the  States,  whei-e 
they  remained  seven  years  ;  he,  however,  cross- 
ing to  Europe  and  back  no  less  than  seven  times 
during  that  period.  In  the  New  World  he 
made  numerous  tours,  and  to  his  astonishment 
discovei'ed  that  in  'the  West  he  had  already 
earned  a  reputation  as  a  pianist  through  a 
former  pupil  of  his  brother's  who  had  adopted 
his  name  and  given  concerts  for  two  yeara 
without  his  identity  being  discovered.  At 
present  the  Scharwenka  family  live  in  Berlin, 
where  the  Professor  is  busy  morning,  noon,  and 
night  as  composer  and  teacher. 

As  a  pianist  Xaver  Scharwenka  is  renowned 
above  all  his  other  qualifications  for  the  beauti- 
ful quality  of  his  tone,  which  is  rich,  round, 
soft,  yet  great,  and  singing,  for  which  it  would 
be  difficult  to  name  another  living  i)ianist  as 
his  equal.  His  power  is  enormous,  yet  he 
never  bangs,  and  has  no  mannerisms,  his  arms 
and  body  at  the  piano  ap|)earing  to  be  almost 
entirely  without  movement.  If  he  is  a  special- 
ist as  interpi*eter  of  one  composer  i-ather  than 
another  it  ia  of  Chopin,  whose  nationality  he 
partly  shares,  but  of  the  other  gi^eat  mastera 
his  readings  are  always  grand  and  musicianly, 
while  to  hear  him  play  a  waltz  of  Strauss  is  as 
danoe-inspiring  as  the  magic  bells  of  Papageno. 
His  compositions,  which  ]X)ssess  energy,  har- 
monic interest,  strong  rhythm,  many  beautiful 
melodies,  and  much  Polish  national  character, 
include  a  symphony  in  C  minor  (op.  60)  ;  tln^e 
PF.  concertos  in  Bb  minor,  C  minor,  and  C$ 
minor  (opp.  32,  56,  and  80)  ;  two  PF.  trios  in 
FjJ  minor  and  A  minor  (opp.  1  and  42) ;  two 
v'cello  sonatas  iu  D  minor  and  E  minor  (ojtp.  2 
and  46)  ;  aPF.  quartet  in  F(op.  37)  ;  two  PF. 
sonatas  in  Ct  minor  and  Eb  (opp.  6  and  36) ; 
very  many  piano  pieces,  mostly  Polish  dances, 
but  also  a  scherzo  in  G,  a  ballade  (op.  8),  a 
concert  menuet  in  B  (op.  18),  a  theme  and 
variations,  studies  and  some  songs,  besides  some 
books  of  technical  exercises  of  great  value  to 
the  modem  pianist.  A  grand  opera,  without 
opus  number,  in  four  acts,  to  a  libretto  by  Dr. 
^ust  Koppel,  '  Mataswintha '  (from  the  novel 
of  Felix  Dahn,  Ein  Kampf  vm  Jiom\  was  pro- 
duced at  Weimar,  Oct.  4,  1896,  and  at  the 
Metropolitan  Opera- House,  New  York,  April  1, 
1897.  In  New  York  Scharwenka  himself 
conducted  ;  at  Weimar,  Stavenhagen. 

Xaver  Scharwenka  is  Royal  Professor,  Im- 
perial and  Royal  'Kammervirtuos,'  Ordinary 
Member  and  Senator  of  the  Royal  Prussian 
Academy   of  Arts,    President  of  the   'Musik 


250    SCHAUSPIELDIRECTOR,  DER 


SCHEIBE 


padagogische '  Association,  Doctor  of  Music 
(America),  and  bears  the  title  of  Ritter  hoher 
Orden.  h.  v.  h. 

SCHAUSPIELDIRECTOR,  DER,  'Comodie 
mit  Musik  in  1  Act '  (The  Manager,  a  Comedy 
with  Music  in  one  Act)  ;  containing  an  overture 
and  four  numbers ;  words  by  Stephanie,  jun., 
music  by  Mozart.  Produced  at  a  Court  festival 
at  Schonbrunn,  Feb.  7,  1786.  Over  the  terzet 
(No.  3)  is  the  date,  Jan.  18,  1786.  It  was 
adapted  to  a  French  libretto  under  the  name  of 
*  L'  Impresario,'  and  produced  in  Paris  in  1856. 
[See  vol.  ii.  p.  462.]  A  careful  version  of  the 
entire  piece  from  the  German  original,  by  W. 
Grist,  was  bi-ought  out  at  the  Crystal  Palace, 
London,  on  Sept.  14,  1877,  as  *The  Manager,' 
and  rei)eated  several  times  there  and  elsewhere. 

An  interesting  little  work,  full  of  details  on 
this  opera  and  Mozart  in  general,  is  Mozart's 
Schauspieldirector  by  Dr.  R.  Hirsch  (Leipzig, 
1859).  G. 

SCHEBEK,  Edmund,  a  distinguished  and 
influential  Austrian  amateur,  Doctor  of  Law, 
Imi)erial  councillor,  and  secretary  to  the 
Chamber  of  Commerce  at  Prague,  was  bom 
Oct.  22,  1819,  at  Petersdorf  in  Moravia.  He 
began  his  musical  career  as  head  of  a  Society 
at  Olmiitz,  and  continued  it  at  Prague,  where 
in  conjunction  with  "Weiss,  the  superior  of  the 
Capuchins,  and  Krejci,  he  revived  much  of  the 
best  old  Italian  church  music.  He  devoted 
his  attention  specially  to  the  construction  of 
the  violin,  in  relation  to  which  he  published 
very  interesting  treatises — On  the  Orchestral 
histrumeTits  in  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1855  ^ ; 
On  the  CremoTiese  instruments^  apropos  of  the 
Vienna  Exhibition  of  1873,  and  The  Italian 
Violin  inamtfacture  and  its  German  origin,^ 
He  also  published  a  valimble  little  pamphlet 
on  Froberger  (1874).  Dr.  Schebek  possessed  a 
fine  collection  of  ancient  stringed  instniments, 
Beethoven  autographs,  etc.  o. 

SCHEBEST,  Agnes,  Iwrn  at  Vienna,  Feb. 
15,  1813,  became  attached  at  a  very  early  age 
to  the  Court  Theatre  at  Dresden,  first  in  the 
chorus,  and  then  as  singer  of  small  solo  parts. 
Here  she  had  the  inestimable  advantage  of  fre- 
quently hearing  and  seeing  the  great  Schroeder- 
Devrient.  In  1833  she  left  Dresden  for  Pesth, 
and  from  1836  to  1841  starred  throughout 
Germany  with  very  great  applause.  Her  voice 
was  a  fine  mezzo-soprano,  her  style  and  method 
were  good,  her  best  parts  heroic,  with  much 
energy  and  passion.  In  1841  she  married  the 
great  theologian  Dr.  David  Strauss  (himself  a 
keen  amateur,  and  author  of  an  interesting 
paper  on  the  Ninth  Symphony),  and  died  Deo. 
22,  1869,  at  Stuttgart.  She  left  an  account  of 
her  career — Aus  dem  Lehen  eitier  Kunstlerin 
(1857),  and  lUde  und  Oabiirde  (1862).        g. 

1  Die  Oreknter-fnttr  mnaiito  auf  der  PaHter  WettauMteUung  hn 
Jakre  fSSS  (Viaauk,  BtaatmlrUclcerel.  18B6). 
Getaenbau  i 
11874). 


SCHECHNER-WAAGEN,  Nanettk,  dra- 
matic  singer,  bom  at  Munich  in  1806.  She 
was  employed  in  the  chorus-scenes  of  the  opera, 
and,  on  the  occasion  of  Madame  Grassini's  visit, 
was  chosen  to  second  her  in  some  selections 
from  Cimarosa's  *  Gli  Orazii  e  Cnriazii.'  Schech- 
ner's  beautiful  voice  made  a  great  impression, 
and  won  for  her  a  jiatroness  in  the  Queen  of 
Bavaria.  After  some  study  in  singing  and  in 
Italian,  she  appeared  in  Italian  opera  in  Munich, 
until  1827,  after  which  she  devoted  herself  to 
German  oi^era.  In  1826  she  was  in  Vienna,  if 
a  curious  story,  related  by  Sdiindler,  of  a  scene 
in  the  theatre  there,  apropos  of  an  air  written 
for  her  by  Schubert,  may  be  believed.  [See 
Schubert.]  It  is  related  by  F^tis  that,  when 
she  first  appeared  in  Berlin  in  Weigl's  *  Schwei- 
zerfamilid,'  the  first  act  ^'as  played  to  an 
almost  empty  house  ;  but  such  enthusiasm  did 
her  EmmeUne  arouse  in  the  few  listeners,  that 
the  report  of  it  spread  to  the  neighbonnng 
cafes  during  the  entr'acte,  a  large  audience  was 
drawn  to  the  theatra  for  the  rest  of  the  per- 
formance, and  the  singer's  success  was  complete. 
Her  Donna  Anna,  Euryanthe,  Fidelio,  Reiza, 
Vestalin  and  Iphigenie  in  Tauris  excited  great 
admiration  in  Berlin  and  Mimich.  In  1832 
she  married  Waagen,  a  lithographer  and 
painter.  Her  voice  was  powerful,  even  massive 
in  its  tones,  and  her  acting  earnest  and  natural. 
She  took  a  place  in  the  tii-st  rank  of  German 
singers,  but  her  brilliant  career  lasted  no  longer 
than  ten  years.  A  severe  illness  injured  her 
voice  ;  she  retired  from  the  stage  in  1835,  and 
died  April  80,  1860. 

Mendelssohn  heard  her  at  Munich  in  1830, 
and  while  he  found  her  voice  much  gone  off 
and  her  intonation  false,  says  that  her  expres- 
sion was  still  80  touching  as  to  make  him 
weep.  3  L.  M.  M. 

SCHEIBE,  JoHANN  Adolph,  bom  at  Leip- 
zig in  May  1708,  the  son  of  an  organ-builder, 
was  educated  for  the  law  at  the  Nioolaischule, 
and  at  the  University,  where  Gottsched  was  at 
the  time  professor.  In  1735  he  set  out  to  try 
his  fortunes  as  a  musician,  visiting  Prague, 
Gotha,  Sondershausen,  and  settling  in  1736  at 
Ham  burg  as  a  teacher.  He  composed  incidental 
music  to  various  plays,  and  wrote  a  grand 
opera  which  only  reached  the  stage  of  being 
twice  rehearsed.  In  1737  he  began  the  pub- 
lication by  which  he  is  famous  in  the  history 
of  German  opera.  Der  Criiische  AfusikuSf  as 
it  was  called,  came  out  as  a  weekly  periodical » 
and  carried  further  the  war  against  Italian 
oi)eratic  conventions  which  Gottsched  had  de- 
clared in  his  Vei-nihiftigen  Tadlerinnen^  In 
1740  he  was  appointed  Capellmeister  to  the 
Mai'grave  of  Brandenburg-Culmbach,  and  also 
visited  Copenhagen,  where  he  settled  two  years 
later,  and  in  1742  became  director  of  the  court 
opera,  retaining  this  post  till  1749,  when  he 

3  Letter.  JttM  e.  18M. 


SCHEIBLER 


SCHEIDEMANN 


251 


was  sncceeded  by  the  Italian  SartL  He  next 
devoted  himself  to  literature  and  comi>o8ition, 
becoming  for  a  time  head  of  a  music-school  at 
Sonderbaig  in  Holstein.  In  1 7  4 5  he  published 
a  second  edition  of  the  Crilische  MnsikuSt 
{nee  below),  and  in  1754  wrote  an  Alihandlung 
iOiii  Ur^truTUji  und  Alter  der  Musik,  He  con- 
tributed a  treatise  on  Recitative,  in  the  com- 
pocition  of  which  he  was  a  proficient,  to  the 
BibiioUuk  der  schanm  Wissenxhafien  und  freien 
Kunste  (voU.  xi.  and  xii.),  1764-65.  In  1773 
appeared  the  first  of  fonr  projected  volumes  on 
composition,  Ueber  die  musHcalische  Composition, 
but  no  more  was  finished,  as  the  author  died 
at  Copenhagen,  April  22,  1776.  Apart  from 
his  championship  of  German  opera,  he  obtained 
an  unenviable  notoriety  by  an  attaek  on  Sebas- 
tian Bach,  published  in  the  sixth  number  of 
his  periodical,  under  date  May  14,  1787.  He 
had  competed  for  the  post  of  organist  to  the 
Nikolaikirche  in  1729  ;  and  Bach,  one  of  the 
judges,  had  not  approved  his  playing  ;  further- 
more, it  seems  probable  that  Bach,  in  his 
cantata  '  Der  Streit  zwischen  Phobus  und  Pan,' 
had  intended  the  character  of  Midas  as  a  refer- 
ence to  Schelbe.  It  is  only  fair  to  say  that 
Scheibe  recanted  his  errors  in  the  second 
edition  of  the  CriiiKher  Musikus,  issued  in 
1745.  Scheibe  wrote  an  opera,  'Thusnelda,' 
which  was  published  (with  an  introductory 
article  on  vocal  music)  at  Copenhagen  in  1749  ; 
two  oTBtorios,  *Die  Auferstehung '  and  *Der 
wundervoUe  Tod  des  Welterlosers ' ;  masses, 
secular  cantatas,  church  compositions  to  the 
number  of  200;  150  flute  concertos;  70  quartets 
or  symphonies,  trios,  sonatas,  existed,  for  the 
most  part  in  MS.  (Quellen-Lexikon  ;  Riemann's 
Lankan ;  Sammelbdnde  of  the  Int.  Mtts,  Oes, 
il  654  ff.  ;  Spitta,  J,  S.  Bach  (Engl,  transl.) 
iL  645-47,  iiL  252-56.)  M. 

SCHEIBLER,  Johann  Heinrich,  bom  at 
Montjoie,  near  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Nov.  11,  1777, 
died  Kov.  20,  1838,  silk  manufacturer,  after 
many  travels  settled  down  at  Crefeld,  where 
he  was  first-assistant-Biiigermeister.  In  1812- 
1813,  after  some  interesting  experiments  with 
Jew's-harps,  he  turned  his  attention  to  the  im- 
perfections of  existing  means  of  tuning.  He 
first  tried  a  monochord,  but  finding  that  he 
eoQld  not  always  get  the  same  note  firom  the 
same  division  of  his  monochord,  he  endeavoured 
to  help  himself  by  beats,  and  discovered  that 
each  beat  corresponded  to  a  difference  of  two 
simple  vibrations  or  one  double  vibration  in  a 
second.  His  plan  was  to  fix  the  monochord  by 
finding  the  stopped  length  which  would  give  a 
note  beating  four  times  in  a  second  with  his 
own  fork.  Then,  after  endless  trials  and  cal- 
colations,  he  found  similar  places  for  all  the 
divisions  of  the  scale,  and  finally  from  the 
monochord  made  forks  for  each  note  of  the 
perfectly  equally  tempered  scale.  By  repeated 
compansons  wiUi  his  forks  he  found  that  it  was 


impossible  to  make  a  mathematically  accurate 
monochord,  or  to  protect  it  from  the  effects  of 
temperature.  He  then  hit  u^ion  the  plan  of 
inserting  forks  between  the  forks  of  his  scale, 
from  the  lowest  A  of  the  violin  to  the  open  A, 
and  counting  the  beats  between  them.  It  was 
this  counting  that  was  the  trouble,  but  by 
highly  ingenious  mechanical  contrivances  he 
was  enabled  to  complete  the  count  of  his  fifty- 
two  forks  within  from  -0067  to  -00083  beats  or 
double  vibrations  in  a  second,  and  hence  to  tune 
a  set  of  twelve  forks  so  as  to  form  a  perfectly 
equal  scale  for  any  given  pitch  of  A.  The 
particulars  of  his  forks  and  the  mode  of  count- 
ing them  are  contained  in  his  little  pamphlet 
Der  physikalische  und  musikalixhe  Tovymesser, 
(£ssen,  Biideker,  1834,  p.  80,  with  lithographic 
plates),  1  from  which  the  preceding  history  has 
been  gathered.  During  his  lifetime  he  issued 
four  smaller  tracts,  showing  how  to  tune  organs 
by  beats,  which  were  collected  after  his  death  as 
//.  Scheibler'a  Schriften,  etc.  (Crefeld,  Schmiiller, 
1838).  This  is  quite  out  of  print,  but  copies  of 
the  former  book  are  still  to  be  bought  [These 
pamphlets  form  part  of  the  interesting  bequest 
left  to  the  late  A.  J.  Hipkins,  by  Dr.  A.  J. 
Ellis,  and  will,  it  is  hoped,  complete  Mr. 
Hipkins's  gift  to  the  Royal  Institution  in 
memory  of  his  friend  Dr.  Ellis.]  His  wonderful 
tonometer  of  fifty -two  forks  has  completely  dis- 
appeared. But  another  one,  of  fifty -six  instead 
of  fifty-two  forks,  which  belonged  to  Scheibler, 
still  exists,  and  was  inherited  by  his  daughter 
and  grandson,  who  lent  it  to  Herr  Amels, 
formerly  of  Crefeld,  who  again  lent  it  to  the 
late  Dr.  Alexander  J.  Ellis,  who  counted  it, 
and  having  checked  his  results  by  means  of 
M*Leod*s  and  Mayer's  machines  for  measuring 
pitch,  gave  the  value  of  each  fork  in  the  Journal 
of  the  Society  of  Arts  for  March  6,  1880,  p.  300, 
correct  to  less  than  one-tenth  of  a  double  vibra- 
tion. The  two  extreme  forks  of  this  fifty-six 
fork  tonometer  agree  in  pitch  precisely  with 
those  of  the  fifty-two  fork  tonometer,  but  no 
other  forks  are  alike,  nor  could  the  forks  of  the 
fifty-two  fork  tonometer  have  been  easily  con- 
verted into  those  of  the  other  one.  In  1834, 
at  a  congress  of  physicists  at  Stuttgart,  Scheibler 
proposed  with  approval  the  pitch  A  440  at  69*" 
F.  (=A  440.2  at  59"*  F.)  for  general  purposes, 
and  this  has  been  consequently  called  the  Stutt- 
gart pitch.*  A.  J.  H. 

SCHEIDEMANN.  The  name  of  a  family 
of  organists  in  Hamburg  in  the  16th  and  17  th 
centuries.  Gerber,  in  his  Lexicmt,  mentions 
Heinrich  Scheidemann,  bom  about  1600,  died 
1654,  but  appears  to  confuse  him  with  an  older 

1  rA«  phwulcta  and  imuleal  Tonometer.  wM:*  prow«.Wi<frly  fry 
mean*  V  M«  pendulum,  the  abmttHt*  numben  t^f  vUratUnu  <if 
muMtaa  ttmea,  the  principal  khuta  <^f  eomhinatlonai  tom»,  and  the 
moat  Hgid  exactnen  nf  vfuaJly  temperrd  and  mathematical  Jutt 
eh«rdM. 

*  He  Mlect«d  it  m  the  niflftn  of  the  varUtfon  of  pitch  in  pi&not  u 
then  tuned  at  Viennm  nnd  not  from  the  fact  that  it  enables  the  wale 
of  C  major,  in  Ja*t  intonation,  to  be  expreaaed  in  whole  numberit 
a*  has  been  aometlmes  stated. 


252 


SCHEIDEMANN 


SCHEIDEMANTEL 


and  more  important  memlier  of  the  family, 
David  Scheidemann,  probably  an  uncle  of  Hein- 
rich.  The  date  of  David  Schcidemann's  birth  is 
not  ascertained,  but  in  1585  he  was  organist  of 
St  Michael's  Church,  Hamburg.  He  is  chiefly 
noteworthy  as  associated  with  three  other  Ham- 
burg organists  of  repute,  Jacob  and  Hieronymus 
Praetonus,  and  Joachim  Decker,  in  the  compila- 
tion of  what  we  should  now  call  a  Choralbuch, 
though  this  name  was  not  in  general  use  then,' 
a  book  of  the  usual  hymn-tunes  or  chorales  of 
the  Lutheran  Church,  simply  harmonised  in 
four  parts  for  congregational  singing.  This 
book  appeared  in  1604.  Its  original  title  is 
'Melodeyen-Gesangbuch,  dareiii  Dr.  Luthers 
und  ander  Christen  gebrauchlichste  Gesange, 
ihren  gewohnliohen  Melodien  nach  ...  in 
vier  stimmen  libergesetzt. '  The  example  first 
set  by  Lucas  Osiander  in  1586,  of  unifonnly 
giving  the  melody  to  the  soprano  part,  and  not 
to  the  tenor,  as  the  older  practice  was,  is  here 
followed,  and  in  the  preface  attention  is  called 
to  the  greater  convenience  of  this  for  congrega- 
tional singing.  Of  the  eighty -eight  tunes  in 
the  book,  David  Scheidemann  harmoniBed 
thirteen  or  fourteen  ;  among  them  there  appears 
for'  the  first  time  harmonised  *\Vie  schon 
leuchtet  der  Morgenstem.'  Gerber,  confusing 
David  with  Heinrich,  attributes  both  the  melody 
and  the  setting  of  this  Chorale  to  Heinrich. 
But  Winterfeld  shows  {Ev,  Kirch,  i.  p.  90)  that 
the  melody  lielongs  to  neither,  but  seems  to 
be  taken  from  an  old  secular  song,  beginning 
with  similar  words  ('  Wie  schon  leuchten  die 
Aeugelein'),  to  the  metre  of  which  Philip 
Nicolai  in  1699  wote  the  words  of  his  hymn, 
*  Wie  schon  leuchtet  der  Morgenstern.  *  It  should 
be  mentioned,  however,  that  Wackemagel  {Das 
Deutsche  KirchcnlUd,  Bd.  I.  pp.  618-19),  after 
giving  the  words  of  the  secular  song  in  full, 
adduces  reasons  for  believing  that  in  this  case 
the  secular  song  is  a  later  parody  of  Nicolai's 
hymn,  not  vice  versa,  Winterfeld  praises 
Bcheidemann's  settings  of  the  chorales  for  their 
fresh  animated  character,  and  for  tlie  happy 
way  in  which  the  rhythmical  i)eculiarities  of 
the  old  melodies  are  brought  out.  Chorales  were 
not  then  sung  as  now,  all  in  slow  uniform 
rhythm,  but  many  of  tlie  older  melodies  had 
curious  changes  of  rhythm,  as  from  common 
to  triple   time,  in  successive   lines.      See  the 

1  It  I«  worth  while  noting  that  the  word  Chonl  (in  Engliah  URiuUy 
»|i«ltClionile),  M  now  nMtricted  to  the  melodies  of  Gennan  inetrioU 
hymn*,  itMlly  origiOAted  in  a  ini»undcntandlng  of  what  Walther 
meant  when  he  spoke  of  Lather  as  having  called  the  '  deutscher 
Chonitgesang'  into  life.  What  both  Lnther  and  Walther  meant 
liy  '  ChoralgeMing'  whs  the  old  Cantus  Chumlis  or  Plain-Mnig  of  the 
I«tin  Church,  which  Lather  hiniaelf  wished  to  retain ;  and  his  lu'erit 
«xm9ist49d  in  the  adaptation  of  the  chief  parts  of  the  Latin  Choral  to 
0«nuan  words,  his  work  in  this  iwpect  oomtipoiiding  to  Marbeck's 
'Book  of  Common  Prayer  Noted'  with  ns  in  Rngland.  All  the 
older  LathersD  Chorch  -  musicians,  snoh  as  Loaw  Loesins  and 
Miehael  Practorios,  used  the  words  ChonU  and  ChoralgmXngB  in 
this  sense  of  the  old  Plain- mug  melodies  to  the  graduals. 
Hflquencvs,  and  aiitiphons.  whether  sang  to  lAtln  or  adapted  to 
Oennan  wonls.  It  was  only  when  Oenuan  metrical  hymns  gmdu- 
ully  superseded  in  common  use  the  other  choral  parts  of  the 
M*rvlee,  that  the  name  Choml  in  conrw  of  time  became  rentrictnl 
to  the  melodies  of  these  hymns.  See  Winterfeld.  Ev,  Ktrch.  1.  pp. 
351,  152. 


8i)ecimens  of  Scheidemann  in  W^interfeld,  Part  L 
Nos,  70,  71. 

Heinrich  Scheidemann,  mentioned  above, 
was  the  son  of  Hans  Scheidemann,  organist  of 
St.  Catherine's  Church,  Hambui^.  In  1616  he 
and  Jacob  Praetorius,  the  younger,  weire  sent 
at  the  public  expense  to  Amsterdam,  to  be 
initiated  into  a  higher  style  of  oigaa-playing, 
under  the  tuition  of  the  then  most  £unous 
organ-player  of  Eoroiie,  Peter  Sweelinck.  In 
1625  Heinrich  succeeded  his  father  as  organist 
of  St.  Catherine's.  Mattheson  says  of  Scheide- 
mann that  his  organ-playing  and  compositions 
were  like  himself,  popular  and  agreeable,  easy 
and  cheerful,  with  no  pretence  or  desire  for 
mere  show.  Some  of  his  oigan  pieces  have 
been  discovered  in  MS.  tablature  at  Liineburg, 
for  an  estimate  of  which  see  SeifTert's  GesckkhU 
der  Klaviermusikf  vol.  i.  pp.  117-19.  Heinrich 
Scheidemann  was  again  associated  with  Jacob 
Ih'aetorius  in  contributing   melodies  to   Rist's 

*  Himmlische  Lieder,'  which  were  published  in 
1641-42.  Praetorius  composed  ten  to  the  4th 
part  o/  Rist's  Book,  Scheidemann  ten  to  the 
5  th  part,  entitled  '  HoUenlieder.'  One  of 
Scheidemann's  melodies  in  this  collection. 
'Frisch  auf  und  lasst  uns  singen,'  continued 
for  a  while  in  church  use,  as  it  appears  again 
in  Vopelius's  *  Leipziger  Gesaugbuch '  of  1 682. 
Among  Scheidemann's  pupils  were  Werner  Fab- 
ricius,  Matthias  Weckmann,  and  Joh.  Adam 
Reinken,  the  last  of  whom  became  his  sacoessor 
as  organist  of  St.  Catherine's,  Hamburg,  in 
1654.  Max  Seiffert,  in  the  Sammelbdnde  of 
the  InL  Mtu,  Oes,  ii.  p.  117,  gives  the  date  of 
Scheidemann's  death  as  1668,  but  Eitner,  in 
the  Qmllen-Leosikon^  gives  reasons  for  adhering 
to  the  previously  accepted  date,  1654,  as  there 
is  no  doubt  that  Reinken  succeeded  him  in 
that  year.  j.  r.  x. 

SCHEIDEMANTEL,  Cabl,  bom  Jan.  21, 
1859,  at  Weimar,  was  taught  singing  by  Bodo 
Horchers,  and  on  Sept.  15,  1878,  made  his 
debut  there  as  Wolfram.  He  remained  ther« 
until  1886,  having  in  the  meantime  received 
further  instruction  from  Stockhausen  at  Frank- 
fort. In  1884,  on  leave  from  Weimar,  he 
sang  in  German  at  Covent  Garden,  June  4,  as 
Kothner,  as  the  Minister  ('Fidelio'),  Herald 
(*  Lohengrin '),  Kunvenal,  W^olfram,  and,  July 
9,  Rucello,  on   the  production   of  Stanford's 

•  Savonarola.'  He  made  a  very  favourable  im- 
pression, both  on  account  of  his  fine  baritone 
voice  and  his  excellent  singing  and  acting.  In 
1886  he  sang  at  Bayreuth  as  Klingsor,  Am- 
foi*tas,  a  remarkable  performance,  and  Kurwenal ; 
after  which  he  made  his  debuts  at  Dresden  as 
the  Dutchman,  and  the  Templar  and  Hans 
Heiling  of  Marschner,  as  a  ])ermanent  member 
of  the  company  there,  as  successor  to  Degele, 
the  result  of  a  successful  '  gastspiel '  the  pre- 
vious year.  Here  he  has  remained  ever  sinoe 
(1907),  and  has  gained  great  popularity  in  a 


SCHEIDT 


SCHEIDT 


253 


brge  number  of  parts.  On  Dec.  12,  1896, 
he  nng  with  great  success  as  the  hero  in 
Bangert's  ^Odyssens*  Heimkehr,' on  Jan.  29, 
1898,  in  <Kirke/  and  on  March  21,  1901, 
in  'Nausikaa'  (the  second  and  third  parts 
Rspectiyely  of  the  Homeric  tetralogy),  on 
May  21,  1901,  in  Paderewski's  'Manni,'  on 
the  production  of  that  opera.  On  leave  of 
abtence,  in  1888,  he  sang  as  Hans  Sachs  at 
Bayreath ;  in  1 893,  at  the  Gotha  Opera  Festival, 
as  Bodolph  in  the  revival  of  Boieldieu's  '  Petit 
Chaperon  Rouge.'  On  May  27,  1899,  he  sang 
again  at  Covent  Garden,  as  Hans  Sachs,  a  per- 
formance remarkable  both  on  account  of  his 
fine  acting  and  for  the  refinement  of  his  singing 
and  declamation.  In  addition  he  has  sung  in 
the  principal  cities  of  Germany  and  Austria, 
both  in  opera  and  concerts.  In  1906  he  took 
the  part  of  Scherasmin  in  a  successful  revival 
of  *  Oberon  *  at  Dresden.  A.  c. 

SCHEIDT,  Samitel,  one  of  the  celebrated 
three  S's  (the  other  two  being  Heinrich  Schiitz 
tad  Hermann  Schein,  his  contemporaries),  the 
best  German  organist  of  his  time,  was  born  at 
Halle  in  1587.  His  father,  Conrad  Scheidt, 
was  master  or  overseer  of  salt-works  at  Halle. 
The  family  must  have  been  musical,  as  some 
works  are  still  preserved  of  Gottfried,  Samuel's 
brother,  which  A.  6.  Ritter  (Geachichte  der 
Oryelmunk)  says  show  considerable  musical 
abUity.  Samuel  owed  his  training  as  an  organist 
to  the  then  famous  *  Organisten-macher '  Peter 
Sweelinck  of  Amsterdam.  About  1605  he 
hetook  himself  to  Amsterdam,  and  became  a 
pupil  of  Sweelinck.  In  1608  or  1609  he 
became  organist  in  the  Moritzkirche  in  Halle, 
and  in  1620  at  least,  if  not  earlier^  he  had 
received  the  appointment  of  oi^nist  and  capell- 
meister  to  Christian  WUhelm,  Markgraf  of 
Brandenbaig,  and  then  Protestant  Adminis- 
trator of  the  Archbishopric  of  Magdeburg.  In 
this  capacity  Scheidt  officiated  not  at  Magde- 
boig,  but  in  the  Hofkirche  at  Halle.  The 
troubles  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  and  the 
misfortunes  of  his  patron,  the  siege  and  sack 
of  Magdeburg  in  1681,  and  the  abdication  of 
Christian  Wilhelm  in  1638,  seem  to  have  made 
no  difierence  to  Scheidt's  official  position  at 
Halle,  though  liis  income  and  means  of  living 
must  have  suffered ;  the  service  in  the  Hof- 
kirche ceased  after  1625,  and  the  Moritzkirche 
vas  destroyed  by  fire  in  1687.  We  have  no 
record  as  to  his  personal  relations  with  Chris- 
tian's saooessors  in  the  administration  of  the 
Magdeborg  archbishopric,  but  Chrysander  in 
the  JahrbUeher  /Ur  mtuikcUische  Wisaefnschdft^ 
i.  p.  158,  prints  a  letter  fh)m  Scheidt  to  Duke 
Augustus  of  Brunswick  in  1642,  which  seems 
to  imply  that  he  was  then  looking  for  some 
patronage  or  assistanoe  from  that  art-loving 
prince.  Seheidt  never  left  Halle,  however,  and 
his  drenmstances  may  have  improved,  as  in 
his  will  he  bequeathed  some  money  for  the 


sake  of  the  oi^gan  in  the  St.  Moritzkirche  at 
Halle.  He  died  at  the  age  of  sixty-seven  on 
March  24,  1654. 

Scheldt's  first  published  work  appeared  at 
Hamburg  in  1620  (^Cantiones  Sacrae  octo 
vocum'),  and  consists  of  thirty -nine  vocal 
compositions,  fifteen  of  which  are  settings  of 
Lutheran  chorales.  In  1621-22  ap{)eared  the 
first  part  of  his  sacred  concertos,  in  2-12  vocal 
parts  with  instrumental  accompaniment.  This 
was  followed  by  successive  books  of  similar 
pieces,  published  in  1631,  1684,  1635,  and 
1640.  His  fame,  however,  rests  not  on  his 
vocal  compositions,  but  on  his  works  for  the 
organ.  His  next  work,  also  published  at 
Hamburg  in  1624,  is  considered  epoch-making 
in  the  history  of  organ  music.  It  consists  of 
three  parts,  but  the  whole  work  beai-s  the 
general  title  *  Tabulatura  Nova ' ;  the  same 
title,  indeed,  as  many  earlier  works  of  the  same 
kind  in  Germany  {e.g,  Ammerbach,  1571  ;  B. 
Schmid,  1577;  Paix,  1583;  Woltz,  1617), 
from  all  of  which,  however,  it  differs  widely 
both  in  aim  and  style,  and  indeed  marks  the 
beginning  of  a  new  and  better  treatment  of 
the  organ  both  with  regard  to  playing  and  to 
composition.  From  1570  to  about  1620,  organ 
playing  in  Germany  almost  entirely  consisted 
in  what  was  known  as  the  art  of  'coloriren,' 
the  art  of  *  colouring '  melodies  sacred  or  secular 
by  the  inserting  of  meaningless  passages,  all 
framed  on  one  and  the  same  pattern,  between 
each  note  or  chord  of  the  melody.  These  earlier 
Tablature-books  were  all  compiled  simply  to 
teach  this  purely  mechanical  art  of  *  colouring  * 
melodies  for  the  organ.  The  music  was  written 
in  the  so-called  German  Tablature,  i.c.  with 
letters  instead  of  notes.  ^  (For  a  full  account 
of  these  German  *  Coloristen '  *  of  the  16th  and 
17th  centuries,  see  A.  G.  Ritter's  OeschichU  der 
OrgelmusUc,  pp.  111-89.)  Scheidt's  'Tabu- 
latura Nova '  put  an  end  to  this  miserable  style 
of  playing  and  composing  for  the  organ,  as  well 
as  to  the  old  German  Tablature.  The  music 
in  his  book  is  noted  in  score  of  four  staves, 
with  five  lines  to  the  stave,  so  far  differing  from 
the  notation  both  of  Frescobaldi  and  Sweelinck, 
the  former  using  two  staves  of  six  and  eight 
lines  respectively,  the  latter  two  staves  both  of 
six  lines.  To  give  an  idea  of  the  contents  of 
Scheidt's  work,  we  transcribe  in  full  the 
separate  titles  of  the  three  parts  : — 

I.  Tabulatura  Nova,  continens  variationes  aliquot 
Psalmorum,  Fantasiarnm,  Cantllenarum,  Paanamezo 
et  Canones  aliauot,  in  gratiam  Organistarum  adomata 
a  Sanuiele  Scneidt  Hallense,  ReverendiRS.  Illustris- 
simique  Principin  ac  Domini,  Chriatiani  Guilielmi  Archi- 
epiacopi  Maffdebuigenala,  Primatis  Qermaniae  Oiganista 
et  Oapellae  Uagistro.    Hamburgi  .  .  .  icdcxxiv. 

II.  ParaSecunda.  .  .  continen8Fugarum,PaaImorum, 
CantloDum  et  Echna  Tocatoe  variationes  vaiiaa  et 
omniraodaa.  Pro  quorumvis  Organiatarum  captu  et 
modulo.  .  .  . 


I  For  an  «XAinple  of  Orrnuin  OrgHii  TkbUture,  m«  Schlecht, 
GflMAidU*  der  KirehenmutOt,  p.  377  (f. 

*  '  anohmacklow  Barbarcn'  (tasteless  barbari»ns),  m  Ambros 
ealla  them. 


254 


SCHEIDT 


SCHEIDT 


I II.  Tertift  et  ulti  ma  pars,  continens  Kyrie  Dominicale, 
Credo  in  nnum  Dkuih,  Psalmuin  de  Goena  Domini  sub 
Communione,  Hymnos  praecipuonim  Festonim  totius 
anni,  Magnilicat  1-9  toni,  modum  ludendi  pleno 
Organo  et  BenedicamuH  ...  In  gratiam  Oiganistarum, 
praecipae  eorum  qui  musice  pure  et  absque  celerrimis 
coloraturia  Organo  ludera  gaudent  .  .  . 

The  last  words  mark  an  important  difference 
between  the  third  ^MU-t  and  the  two  preceding. 
In  the  first  two  parts  the  composer  appears  to 
wish  to  show  how  he  could  beat  the  *  Colourists ' 
on  their  own  ground,  his  figures  and  passages, 
however,  not  being  like  theirs,  absolutely  mean- 
ingless and  void  of  invention,  but  new  and 
varied,  and  having  an  organic  connection  with 
the  whole  composition  to  which  they  belong. 
He  shows  himself  still  as  virtuoso,  desirous  to 
extend  the  technique  of  organ-playing,  while 
at  the  same  time  displaying  his  contrapuntal 
mastery.  So  far  as  technique  is  concerned, 
there  is  to  be  noticed  in  Scheidt  the  extended 
use  of  the  pedal,  so  different  from  Frescobaldi's 
occasional  use  of  it  for  single  notes  merely,  also 
the  imitation  of  orchestral  effects,  such  as  what 
he  himself  terms  *  imitatio  violistica,'  the  imita- 
tion of  the  effects  of  the  different  ways  of  bowing 
on  the  violin,  and  the  imitation  of  an  organ 
tremulant  itself  by  the  rapid  interchange  of  the 
fingers  of  the  two  hands  on  one  and  the  same 
key('Bicinium  imitatione  tremulaorganiduobus 
digitis  in  una  tantum  clave  manu  tum  dextra, 
tum  sinistra').  The  first  two  juirts  contain  a 
mixture  of  sacred  and  secular  pieces,  the  secular 
pieces,  however,  being  marked  off  as  for  domestic 
rather  than  for  church  use  by  the  absence  of  a 
pedal  part.  The  sacred  pieces  consist  of  ten 
fantasias  or  sets  of  variations  on  chorale  melo- 
dies, vfith  a  few  fugues  or  fantasias  on  another 
motive,  among  which  is  a  '  fantasia  fuga  quadru- 
plici,'  on  a  madrigal  of  Palestrina's,  which  Ritter 
describes  as  a  masterpiece  of  contrapuntal  art, 
four  subjects  from  the  madrigal  being  treated 
first  singly  and  then  together,  and  with  con- 
trary motion  and  other  devices.  The  secular 
pieces  consist  chiefly  of  variations  on  secular 
melodies,  among  which  appears  one  entitled  an 
English  song  *  de   fortuna '   {Le,   the   famous 

*  Fortune,  my  foe').     The  third  part  of  the 

*  Tabulatura  Nova '  stands,  however,  on  a  higher 
level  than  the  first  two.  The  composer  ex- 
pressly renounces  the  virtuoso ;  he  writes,  as  the 
title-}>age  says,  for  those  who  delight  to  play 
the  organ  purely  musically,  and  without  mere 
ornamental  and  i»assage  work.  In  this  third 
part  he  gives  very  full  directions  with  regard 
to  registering  both  for  manuals  and  pedal.  It 
is  intended  entirely  for  church  use,  and  both 
by  the  choice  of  ])ieces,  and  the  manner  in  which 
they  are  arranged,  it  gives  us  an  insight  into 
the  way  in  which  the  organ  was  very  frequently 
employed  in  the  church  services  of  those  days. 
It  was  not  then  generally  used  to  accompany 
or  sustain  the  voices  of  tike  choir  or  congrega- 
tion, but  rather  to  alternate  with  them.     Thus, 


for  instance,  between  each  verse  of  the  '  Mag- 
nificat '  sung  by  the  choir  without  accompani- 
ment, the  organ  would  come  in  independeutly 
with  some  vaiiation  or  changing  harmonies  on 
the  plain-song  melody.     A  further  use  of  the 
organ  was  even  to  take  the  place  of  the  choir 
in  makuig  tlie  responses  to  the  ecclesiastical 
intonations  of  the  officiating  clergy  when  tliere 
was  no  proper  choir  to  do  this.     Fresoobaldi's 
works  (especially  *  Fiori  Musicali,'  1635)  fiimiali 
instances  of  this  use  of  the  organ  in  the  Roman 
Church.     Thus  when  the  priest  had  intoned 
the  Kyrie  of  the  Mass,  in  the  absence  of  a  proi>er 
choir,  the  organist  would  answer,  as  Ambros 
expresses  it,    when  speaking  of  Fresoobaldi's 
works  of  the  kind,  *  vntti  a  kind  of  artistically- 
ennobling  and  enriching  echo'  ('mit  einer  Art 
von  kiinstlerisch-vei-edelnden  und  bereichemden 
Echo '),  that  is  to  say,  the  organist,  taking  up 
the  plain-song  theme,  would  not  just  harmonise 
it  note  by  note,  but  ti-eat  it  in  the  form  of  a 
short   polyphonic  com}x>sition  for  the  organ. 
(See  the  quotations  from  Fresoobaldi  in  Ambros's 
OeschickU  der  Mtisik,   iv.   pp.   444-50.)     The 
third  x>art  of  Sdieidt's  '  Tabulatura '  shows  that 
this  usage  was  not  confined  to  the  Roman 
Church,  but  was  also  retained  for  a  considerable 
time  in  the  Lutheran.     It  opens  with  twelve 
short  movements  based  on  the  plain-song  of  the 
different  sections  of  the  Kyrie  and  Gloria  of  the 
Mass,  and  the  remark,  or  rubric,  as  we  nii^ht 
call  it,  *  Gloria  canit  Pastor,'  shows  that  tbey 
were  expressly  intended  as  responses  made  by 
the  organ  to  the  intonation  of  officiating  dei^gy. 
The    *  Magnificat'   follows,  in  all  the  church 
tones,  one  verse  sung  by  the  ecclesiastic  and 
every  alternate  verse  arranged  to  be  played  by 
the  organ  in  lieu  of  a  choir.     Tliis  way  of  treat- 
ing the   'Magnificat'   prevailed   in   Lutheran 
Churches,  even  up  to  Pachelbel's  time  (1706), 
though  the  plain-song  was  more  and  more  jmt 
into  the  background,  and  the  practice  beounc 
simply  an  excuse  for  interludes  on  any  motive. 
After  the  Magnificat  came  a  series  of  hymns 
common  to  both  Roman  and  Lutheran  churches, 
with    their    plain -song    melodies   treated    in 
a  similar  fashion.     The  book  further  contains 
Luther's  version  of  the  Creed  (*Wir  glauben 
Air  an  einen  Gott')  with  its  Doric  melody, 
John  Huss's  Communion  Hymn,  arranged  to 
be  played  instead  of  being  sung  during  Com- 
munion.    The  two  last  pieces  in  the  book  are 
6-part  movements  for  the  full  organ,  meant  to 
be  played  at  the  end  of  Vespers.     Interwoven 
with  the  last  is  the  liturgical  melody  of  the 
Benedicamus.    In  all  these  compositions  Scheidt 
has  faithfully  adhered  to  the  original  plain-song 
melodies  when  they  appear  as  Cantus  Firmus, 
but  in  the  further  working  out  has  not  been 
content  simply  to  harmonise  them  according  to 
the  laws  of  the  Church  modes,  but  has  so  far 
altered  them  in  accordance  with  the  new  ideas 
of  harmony  then  beginning  to  make  way.    But 


SCHEIDT 


SCHEIN 


255 


there  is  still  w&ntiDg  in  liim  a  consistent  system 
of  modulation.  The  chromatic  semitones  are 
etiU  employed  by  him  rather  in  a  haphazard 
sort  of  way. 

Twenty-six  years  later,  viz.  in  1650,  Scheidt 
published  another  work  for  the  organ,  his  second 
and  last,  which  shows  a  different  conception  as 
to  the  use  of  the  organ  in  the  services  of  the 
Church,  and  probably  marks  a  change  which 
vas  then  going  on  gradually  in  the  practice  of 
the  Lutheran  Church.  The  congregational  sing- 
ing of  metrical  hymns  was  gradually  superseding 
the  older  liturgical  music,  and  the  organ  had 
more  and  more  to  surrender  its  independence  to 
accommodate  itself  to  the  simple  accompaniment 
in  4 -part  harmony  of  the  melodies  of  these 
hymns,  which  now  began  to  assume  exclusively 
the  name  of  Choral-musik.  This,  which  was  at 
first  a  loss,  became  in  time  a  gain,  as  it  deepened 
the  sense  of  the  value  of  harmony  for  its  own 
sake  ;  and  besides,  out  of  this  originated  the  new 
art-form  of  the  Choral- Vorspiel  of  later  days. 
Scheidt*s  last  oigian  work  was  intended  to  meet 
the  new  requirements.  Its  title  sufficiently 
explains  its  object:  < Tabnlatur-buch  100  geist- 
licher  lieder  u.  Psalmen  D.  Martini  Lutheri 
imd  anderer  gottseliger  Manner  fiir  die  Herren 
Oi^E^isten  mit  der  Christlichen  Kirchen  u. 
Oemeine  auf  derOrgel,  desgleichenauoh  zu  Hause 
zu  spielen  u.  zu  singen,  auf  alle  Fest-u.  Sonn-  tage 
duTchs  gauze  Jahr  mit  4  Stimmen  coniix)nirt 
.  .  .  Gedruckt  zu  Gorlitz  .  .  .  im  1650  Jahr.' 
This  work  is  dedicated  to  the  Magistrates  and 
Town  Council  of  Gorlitz,  and  the  composer 
seems  to  imply  that  it  had  been  undertaken  at 
their  special  desire.  In  this,  as  in  his  previous 
work,  there  is  noticeable,  as  Bitter  points  out, 
the  same  undecided  struggle  in  the  composer's 
mind  between  attachment  to  the  old  and  in- 
clination to  the  new.  Thus,  while  he  strictly 
adheres  to  the  original  rhythms  of  the  old  melo- 
dies, he  harmonises  according  to  the  rules  of 
modern  musical  accent,  and  thus  the  rhytlim  of 
the  melody  is  not  in  agreement  with  the  rhythm 
implied  by  the  harmony.  See  for  illustration 
his  setting  of  *Ein'  feste  Burg'  in  Ritter, 
GtachiekU  der  Orgd-Mmik,  p.  19,  the  first  two 
bars  of  which  may  here  be  given  : — 


One  chorale  appears  in  this  book  for  the  first 
time,  viz,  'O  Jesulein  siiss,  O  Jesulein  mild,' 
which  has  been  adapted  in  later  chorale  books 
to  the  words  *  0  heiliger  Geist,  0  -  heiliger 
Oott'  As  harmonised  by  Scheidt  it  is  given 
in  Winterfeld  Ev,  K.  Q.  ii.  No.  218,  and 
Schoherlein,  SchcUz  dea  Chorgeaa'ngs,  ii.  No. 
457. 


If  it  is  his  organ  works  that  now  entitle 
Scheidt  to  honourable  i-emembrance,  and  give 
him  a  distinct  {josition  of  his  own  amongst 
composers,  it  was  not  his  organ  works,  but  his 
vocal  compositions,  that  procured  him  the 
esteem  of  his  contemporaries,  and  caused  him  to 
be  ranked  as  one  of  the  celebrated  three  S's. 
Of  his  vocal  works,  besides  the  *  Saci-ae  Cau- 
tiones'  of  1620,  mentioned  above,  there  are 
mentioned  *  Liebliche  Krafft-Bliimlein  conzert- 
weise  mit  2  Stimmen  sampt  dem  General-Basse,' 
Halle,  1625.  Another  work  should  also  be 
recorded,  consisting  of  *Paduana,  Galliarda,' 
etc  for  four  and  live  voices,  1621,  the  second 
part  of  which  was  called  *  Ludorum  musicorum 
prima  et  secunda  pars,'  and  published  in  1622. 

It  is  natural  to  draw  comparisons,  as  Ritter 
does  in  his  history  above  quoted,  between 
Scheidt  and  Fi*escobaldi,  whose  lives  covered 
nearly  the  same  period  of  time,  and  who  may 
both  be  regarded  as  the  true  founders  of  modem 
organ  music,  or  luther,  the  Italian  of  clavier 
music  generally,  the  German  of  specifically 
organ  music.  Of  the  two,  Frescobaldi  is  the 
greater  genius,  showing  greater  force  of  imagina- 
tion in  the  invention  of  new  forms  and  the 
solution  of  difficult  problems  ;  Scheldt  is  more 
laborious  and  painstaking,  showing  greater 
study  of  the  capabilities  of  his  instrument,  as, 
for  instance,  in  the  use  of  the  pedal,  and  in 
registering  generally,  with  neitlier  of  which 
did  Frescobaldi  concern  himself.  As  Ritter 
points  out,  while  Scheidt  has  thus  greater 
command  of  all  the  resources  of  expression, 
Frescobaldi  has  more  of  real  |)oetic  expression  in 
his  music  itself.  For  more  detailed  comparison 
of  the  two  masters  it  will  be  sufficient  to  refer 
to  Ritter's  work.  [See  Max  Seiffert's  preface 
to  the  first  vol.  of  the  DenkmiUer  deutscker 
Tonkunst,  containing  Scheldt's  '  Tabulatura 
Nova ' ;  the  VterUljahrsschrift  fUr  Musikmiss, 
vii.  p.  188  ff. ;  and  the  Samnielbande  of  the  InL 
Mus.  Oes,  i.  p.  401,  where  a  detailed  study  of 
Samuel  and  Gottfried  Scheidt  is  to  be  found, 
the  work  of  Arno  Werner.  Also  titles  of  works 
in  the  Qucllen-Lexikon.']  j.  r.  m. 

SCHEIN,  JoHANN  Herman,  was  bom  Jan. 
20,  1586,  at  Grunhaiu  in  Saxony,  where  his 
father  was  the  Lutheran  pastor.  Having  lost 
his  father  at  an  early  age,  he  was  taken  to 
Dresden  and  became  a  chorister  in  the  Court 
Chapel  there  in  1599.  His  further  education 
was  received  at  the  Gymnasium  of  Schulpforta 
in  1603  and  the  University  of  Leipzig  (1607). 
Of  his  musical  training  further  than  what  ho 
received  in  the  Court  Chapel  at  Dresden  we 
have  no  details.  In  1615  he  was  invited  to 
be  capellmeister  at  Weimar,  but  held  this 
post  for  only  two  yeare.  On  the  death  of  Seth 
Calvisius  in  November  1615  he  obtained  the 
appointment  of  Cantor  to  the  Thomasschule  in 
Leipzig,  which  post  he  held  till  his  death  Nov. 
19,  1630. 


256 


SCHEIN 


SCHELBLE 


Schcin  is  chiefly  known  to  later  times  by 
his  'Cantional,'  first  published  iu  1627.  Its 
original  title  is  'Cantional  oder  Gesangbuch 
Augspurgischer  Confession,  in  welchem  des 
Herrn  D.  Martini  Lutheri  vnd  anderer  frommen 
Christen,  auch  des  Autoris  eigne  Lieder  vnd 
Psalmen.  .  .  .  So  im  Chur-  vnd  Fiirstenthuraem 
Sachsen,  insonderheit  aber  in  beiden  Kirchen 
und  Gemeinen  allhier  zu  Leipzig  gebrauchlich, 
verfertiget  und  mit  4,  6,  6  Stimmen  compo- 
nirt.*  A  second  (enlarged)  edition  appeared  in 
1645  after  Schein's  death.  As  the  title  ahows, 
it  consists  of  Choral-melodies,  both  old  and 
new,  harmonised  for  ordinary  church  use, 
mostly  note  against  note.  Schein  himself 
appears  in  this  book  in  three  capacities,  viz. 
as  poet,  melodist,  and  harmonist  Of  the  200 
and  odd  Choral-melodies  in  the  book  about  80 
are  Schein's  own,  a  few  of  which  have  still  held 
their  ground  in  modem  chorale  books,  though 
some  appear  to  be  attributed  to  him  by  mistake. 
Schein's  book  diflfers  from  Criiger's  similar  book 
of  later  date  (1648)  in  retaining  the  old  irregular 
rhythm  of  Choral-melodies,  while  Criiger  has 
transformed  their  rhythms  according  to  more 
modem  ideas.  But  if  Schein  still  retains  the 
old  rhythm  in  the  melodies,  in  his  harmonies 
he  has  almost  entirely  lost,  as  Winterfeld  points 
out,  the  feeling  for  the  peculiarities  of  the  old 
church  modes  in  which  those  melodies  are 
written,  though  otherwise  his  harmonies  are 
serious  and  dignified.  With  Michael  Praetorius 
and  Heinrich  Schiitz,  and  probably  through 
their  influence,  Schein  was  one  of  the  pioneers 
in  Germany  of  the  new  movement  in  music 
proceeding  from  Italy  at  the  beginning  of  the 
17th  century.  Naturally  his  other  works 
show  this  more  plainly  than  the  *  Cantional,'  as 
many  of  them  are  avowedly  written  in  imitation 
of  Italian  models.  These  other  works  are  as 
follows:  — 

1.  Vmui-KrlDzIvin  mit  aU«rl«y  liehllohen  tind  achdnen  Blamen 
BtBierat  und  gewonden.  oder  Neue  WelUlche  Ueder  mit  6  Stimmen. 
nebea  etllchen  Intnden,  Oaffliarden,  and  Canionen  .  .  .  I^ipslr. 


Qeneral  BmswiI  eiae  •onderfaare  auniutige  Itidlan-lIadrisBUacbe 
3Unier  aowol  fflr  ridi  alleln  mit  lebendiger  Stim  nnd  Izkatnu»ent«»ri 
aU nuoh  in  die  Orfel  CUirioeuibel  bequemlidi  snietamncliea.  L«t|» 
Elf,  l(B!k  This  work  oonsUta  of  twenty-aix  mcred  pieoaa  a  S  and  6. 
on  Gennan  text*,  compoeed  In  the  later  freer  Hadri^il  style  of 
Monteverde  and  othen.  allowing  greater  boldncM  of  hannooic 


This  work  consists  of  sixteen  secular  strophlo  songs  a  0 

""  ■■  "k  style,  hi 

tngtaout.  besides  eig&l  instnunencai  pieces  a  6  and  0. 
•2.  (^ymbalnm  Sionium  sive  Cantlones  Sacrae  B.  6.  8,  10  et  19 


and  one  a  8,  in  the  simideet  Italian  eanaonetta  style,  homophonle 
throughout,  besides  eight  instrumental  pieces  a  6  and  & 


^oonm.  Leipsig.  1615.  This  work  contains  thirty  aacred  motets, 
some  to  Latin  texu.  some  to  German,  besides  an  instrumental 
canzone  a  9  as  Corollarium.  _     ..     ^ 

3.  Banehetto  Musioale,  nener  anmuthiger  Padouanen,  Oagliarden. 
Couranten  uud  Allemanden  a  6  auf  allerley  Instmmenten,  berorans 
auf  Vlolon  iiicht  ohne  sondertaare  gratia  lleblich  und  lustlg  su 

Sebnuchen  .  .  .  Leipsig,  1617.  This  work  was  dedicated  to  Duke 
ohann  Srnst  of  Weimar,  and  contains  twenty  instrumental  suites 
consisting  of  FMluanas.  Oagliardas,  Courentes  a  6  and  AJleroanda 
aud  TripU  a  4,  with  two  separate  pieces  at  the  end. 

4.  QiMUa  Nova,  ttster  Theil  GelstUcher  Conoerten  mit  8.  4  and  5 
Stimmen  zusampt  dem  General-Bass  auf  Jetso  gebrKuchliche  Italie- 
nische  Invention  bomponirt,  Leipsig.  161&  This  work  contains 
thirty  Hored  compositions  on  German  texts  in  the  new  Italian 
style,  with  instrumental  basso  oontinuo,  which,  however,  seems  to 
be  purely  ad  liMtum. 

sT  Mosica  BoMareocia.  Waldliederiein  auf  Italian-VUlanelHsche 
Invention.  Beides  ftir  sich  allein  mit  lebendiger  Stim,  oder  in  ein 
Clavioembel.  Spinet.  Tiorba,  Lanten,  etc.  This  work  appeared  in 
three  mrts  puMished  in  1621, 16B6. 16S8  respectively,  and  contains 
altoge&er  ftfty  secular  oomposltions  a  S  on  poems  by  Sohein  himself 
written  in  the  artifld*!  pastoral  style  of  the  time.  These  nieces 
af  more  polyphonic  in  their  chanwter  than  those  of  the  *  Venus- 
Ki«iislein,'  and,  as  the  tlUe  indicates,  they  may  be  sung  by  voices 
alone  or  with  ttie  substitution  of  instruments  for  one  or  other  of 
the  vocal  parts  or  instrumental  accompaniment  genemlly.  A  new 
edition  of  the  work  appeared  in  1614,  with  the  substitution  of  aacred 
texts  for  the  original  secuUr.    ,^_   .  .  ,  ^    ^ _^ 

a  Fontana  d'  Israel,  Israels  Brfinlein  anserleeener  Kraft-spiilch- 
lein  sites  und  neuen  Testaments  von  9  und  6  Stimmen  sambt  dem 


T.'Olletti  paatocali,  Hlrten  Lust  von  •  Bilm.  susunpt  deau 
Oeneral-Baaa  auf  Madrigal  Manler.    Leipsig.  lOM.    iS  Sob. 

a  Stodenten-Sehmaus  a  A.    Leiudg.  lOM.    6  No*. 

9.  OpeUa  Nova,  Ander  Theil  deistlicher  CoDoertcn.  L«i|a!i«. 
16Ba  Contains  thirty-two  aaered  pieces,  tweuty-eewn  witb  OenuAn 
texts,  five  with  Latin. 

Besides  these  works,  aud  the  Cantional  of 
1627,  the  Quellen-Lexikon  enumerates  a  large 
number  of  occasional  compositions  for  weddings 
and  funerals,  many  of  which,  however,  Scheiu 
himself  incorporated  into  the  publications  above 
specified. 

In  1895  Herr  Arthur  Priifer  publuihed  a 
monograph  on  Schein's  Life  and  Works,  b5- 
way  of  preparation  for  a  complete  edition  of 
his  works,  two  volumes  of  which  have  since 
appeared,  containing  the  *  Venus- Kranzlein/ 
'Banehetto  Musicale,'  and  'Musica  Bosca- 
reooia.'  J.  R.  m. 

SCHELBLE,  JohannNepomuk,  a  thoroughly 
excellent  and  representative  German  mosician, 
bom  May  16,  1789,  at  Hiifingen,  in  the  Black 
Forest,  where  his  father  was  superintendent  of 
the  House  of  Correction.  His  strict  musical 
education  was  begim  in  a  Monastery  of  March - 
thai  1800-3 ;  and  continued  at  Donaueschingen, 
under  Weisse.  He  then  spent  some  time,  first 
with  Yogler  at  Darmstadt,  and  then  with  Krebs, 
a  distinguished  singer  at  Stuttgart,  and  there,  in 
1812,  he  filled  the  post  of  elementary  teacher 
in  the  Royal  Musical  Institution,  a  veiy  famous 
and  complete  school  of  those  times.  >  In  1 8 1 3  he 
went  to  Vienna,  lived  in  intimate  acquuntance 
with  Beethoven,  Moscheles,  Weigl,  Spohr,  etc., 
composed  an  opera  and  many  smaller  works, 
and  went  on  the  stage,  where,  however,  his 
singing,  though  remarkable,  was  neutralised  by 
his  want  of  jiower  to  act.  From  Austria  in  1 8 16 
he  went  to  Frankfort,  which  became  his  home. 
Here  the  beauty  of  his  voice,  the  excellence  of 
his  method,  and  the  justness  of  his  expression, 
were  at  once  reoognisecL  He  became  the  favourite 
teacher,  and  in  1817  was  made  director  of  the 
Musical  Academy.  This,  however,  proved  too 
desultory  for  his  views,  and  on  July  24,  1818, 
he  formed  a  Society  of  his  own,  which  developed 
into  the  famous  *Caecilian  Society'  of  Frankfort, 
and  at  the  head  of  which  he  remained  till  his 
death.  The  first  work  chosen  by  the  infimt 
institution  was  the  '  Zauberfiote ' ;  then  Mozart's 
Requiem  ;  then  one  of  his  Masses ;  and  then 
works  by  Handel,  Cherubini,  Bach,  etc.  In 
1821  the  Society  assumed  the  name  of  the 
*  Ciicilienverein ' ;  the  repertoire  was  increased 
by  works  of  Palestrina,  Scarlatti,  and  other 
Italian  masters,  and  at  length,  on  March  10, 
1828,  Mozart's  * Davidde  penitents'  and  the 
Credo  of  Bach's  Moss  in  B  minor  were  given  ; 
then.  May  2,  1829  (stimulated  by  the  example 
of  Mendelssohn  in  Berlin),  the  Matthew  Pto- 

1  See  the  A.M.M.  18U.  p.  S34. 


SCHELLER 


SCHENK 


267 


Bion ;  and  after  that  we  hear  of  '  Samson  *  and 
other  oratorioe  of  Handel,  Bach's  motets, 
and  chomses  of  Mendelssohn,  whose  genius 
Schelble  was  one  of  the  first  to  recognise,  and 
whose  *  St.  Paul '  was  suggested  to  him  hy  the 
Caa:Uian  Association,  doubtless  on  the  motion 
of  its  conductor.  Whether  the  Society  ever  at- 
tempted Beethoven's  mass  does  not  appear,  but 
Schelble  was  one  of  the  two  private  individuals 
who  answered  Beethoven's  invitation  to  subscribe 
for  its  publication.  [See  vol.  i.  p.  255,  note  6  ; 
▼ol  iii.  p.  131a.] 

His  health  gradually  declined,  and  at  length, 
in  the  winter  of  1835,  it  was  found  necessary  to 
mske  some  new  arrangement  for  the  direction 
of  the  Society.  Mendelssohn  was  asked  {Letters^ 
Feb.  18,  1836),  and  undertook  it  for  six  weeks 
daring  the  summer  of  1836.  Mendelssohn's 
fondness  and  esteem  for  the  man  whose  place 
he  was  thus  temporarily  filling  is  evident  in 
eveiy  sentence  referring  to  him  in  his  letters  of 
this  date.  Schelble  died  August  7,  1837.  His 
great  qualities  as  a  practical  musician,  a  con- 
ductor, and  a  man,  are  well  summed  up  by 
Hiller'  in  his  book  on  Mendelssohn,  to  which 
we  refer  the  reader.  His  compositions  have 
not  survived  hiuL  His  biography  was  pub- 
lished shortly  after  his  death—/.  N,  Schelble^ 
roQ  Weissmann  (Frankfort,  1838).  o. 

SCHELLER,  Jakob,  bom  at  Schettal,  Ka- 
konit2,  Bohemia,  May  16,  1769,  a  very  clever 
riolinist  He  was  thrown  on  his  own  resources 
from  a  very  early  age,  and  we  hear  of  him  at 
Prague,  Vienna ,  and  Mannheim,  where  he  re- 
mained for  two  years  playing  in  the  court  band, 
tnd  learning  composition  from  Yogler.  After 
more  wandering  he  made  a  stay  of  three  years  in 
Paris,  studying  the  school  of  Yiotti.  He  then, 
in  1785,  took  a  position  as  ConcertmeisUr,  or 
leading  violin,  in  the  Duke  of  Wurtemberg's 
hand  at  Stntt^rt,  which  he  retained  until  the 
establishment  was  broken  up  by  the  arrival  of 
the  French  in  1792.  This  forc«i  him  to  resume 
his  wandering  life,  and  that  again  drove  him  to 
intemperance,  till  after  seven  or  feight  years 
more  he  ended  miserably,  being  even  obliged 
to  borrow  a  fiddle  at  each  town  he  came  to.  2  He 
was  more  celebrated  for  his  tricks  and  i<rurs  de 
force  than  for  his  legitimate  playing.  Spohr 
(Selbstbiog.  i.  280)  speaks  of  his  flageolet- tones,  of 
variations  on  one  string,  of  pizzicato  with  the 
nails  of  the  left  hand,  of  imitations  of  a  bassoon. 
Ml  old  woman,  etc. ;  and  F^tis  mentions  a  trick 
in  which  by  loosening  the  bow  he  played  on  all 
four  strings  at  once.  By  these,  and  probably 
also  by  really  fine  playing,  he  excited  so  much 
enthosiasm,  that  it  used  to  be  said  of  him  '  one 
God  ;  one  Scheller.'  o. 

8CHEMELLI,  Georo  Christian,  bom  at 
Hftrzberg  about  1 678,  was  a  pupil  of  the  Thomas- 
Khale  at  Leipzig  from  1695,  and  was  cantor  of 

•  J/mdelttokn.  tiMi»)at«d  by  MIn  M.  E.  von  Olehn.  p.  8. 
a  BoehUts.  FBr  Fmmdt  der  Tonkutut,  11. 

VOL  IV 


the  castle  at  Zeitz.  In  1736  he  published  a 
*  Musicalisches  Gesang-Buch,  Darinnen  954 
geistreiche,  sowohl  alte  als  neue  Lieder  und 
Arien,  mit  wohlgesetzten  Melodien,  in  Discant 
und  Bass,  befindlich  sind  .  .  .  '  In  the 
preface  the  compiler  states  that  the  tunes  in  his 
book  were  partly  newly  composed,  partly  im- 
proved, by  J.  S.  Bach.  Various  authorities  on 
the  life  of  Bach  have  spent  much  labour  in 
investigating  which  were  the  tunes  newly  com- 
posed by  him,  and  which  were  merely  revised 
and  corrected  by  him.  While  Spitta  attributes 
twenty-nine  out  of  the  sixty-nine  tunes  to  Bach, 
Herr  F.  Wiillner,  the  editor  of  the  volume  of 
the  Bach-Gesellschaft  (xxxix.)  in  which  the 
hymns  appear,  considers  that  only  twenty-four 
are  Bach's ;  w^hileEitner,  in  the  Quellen-Lankon, 
assigns  only  twenty -two  to  the  master.  His 
name,  curiously  enough,  is  appended  to  only 
one  of  the  sacred  songs  of  which  the  collection 
mainly  consists  (the  beautiful  'Yergiss  mein 
nicht,'  above  which  is  written,  Mi  J.  S.  Bach, 
D.  M.  Lips.'  See  S.  Spitta,  J,  S.  Back,  Eng. 
trans,  i.  367-70  ;  iu.  109-114.)  m. 

SCHENK,  JoHANN,  (I)  was  a  viol-da-gamba 
player  in  the  service  of  the  Elector  Palatine  at 
Dusseldorf  in  the  latter  part  of  the  1 7th  century. 
He  was  afterwards  at  Amsterdam,  where  he 
published  numerous  works  for  his  instrument, 
and  other  compositions.  The  following  are 
known  to  have  existed,  but  only  a  few  of  them 
are  still  extant,  according  to  the  Quell&ii- 
Lexikon : — 

Op. 

1.  Atn  from  an  ojwtm,  '  Cere*  en  Bachna.' 

2.  Konstoeflnuiiiigan  (aouatas  or  suites). 

3.  II  glardino  armonloo,  waoaXo  da  camem  a  4  (two  Tin*.,  gamba. 

and  continue). 

4.  Koninklyke  HarpUederm.  160  alr«  for  one  or  two  roioes,  with  a 

nrelnde  and  nostlude. 

6.  Stmerzl  niQiioali,  for  tIoI  da  gamba  and  ban. 

7.  Eighteen  sonatas  for  violin  and  base. 

a  La  ninfa  del  Beno,  twelve  sonatas  or  suites. 

8.  L'^cho  da  Danube,  sonatas. 

10.  Les  Fantaisies  bisures  de  la  goutie,  twelve  sonatas  for  viol  da 
gamba. 

(Qttellcn-Lexikon  ;  Riemann's  Lexikon.)      M. 

SCHENK,  JoHANN,  (II)  is  mainly  interesting 
from  his  connection  with  Beethoven  ;  he  was 
bom  of  poor  parents,  Nov.  30,  1753,^  at  Wiener 
Neustadt  in  Lower  Austria,  and  at  an  early 
age  was  admitted  into  the  Archbishop's  choir 
at  Vienna.  [In  1774  he  was  a  pupil  of 
Wagenseil.]  In  1778  he  produced  his  first 
mass,  which  he  followed  by  other  sacred  pieces, 
and  by  many  Singspiele  and  Operas  [beginning 
with  *  Die  Weinlese,'  1785,  and  *  Die  Weihnacht 
auf  dem  Lande,'  1786,  and  ending  with  *Der 
Faasbinder,'  1802],  which  gained  him  a  consider- 
able name,  and  rank  with  those  of  Dittersdorf 
and  Wenzel  Miiller.  In  addition  he  wrote 
symphonies,  concertos,  quartets,  lieder,  etc.  The 
aut<^aphs  of  many  of  these  are  in  the  Gesell- 
schaft  der  Musikfreunde  at  Vienna,  with  that 
of  a  theoretical  work,  Gi-undsdize  des  General- 
basses,     [In   1794   he   was  appointed   music- 

s  Bo  In  Biemann's  lexikon ;  Eitner  {quMtn-LexUon)  gives  the  date 
M1781. 


258 


SCHENK 


SCHERZO 


director  to  Prince  Carl  von  Auersperg ;  in 
1795  his  '  Achmet  und  Almanzine '  was  brought 
oat  at  Vienna,  and  finally  '  Der  Dorfbarbier '  was 
produced  at  the  Eiimthnerthor  Theatre,  Noy.  7, 
1796,  a  work  that  was  always  popular,  and 
kept  its  position  in  the  repertory  for  many 
years.  Between  this,  his  masterpiece,  and 
the  *  Fassbinder,'  already  mentioned,  came  '  Der 
Bettelstudent '  (1796)  and  *Die  Jagd'  (1797).] 
The  anecdote  of  his  kissing  Mozart's  hand  during 
the  overture  on  the  first  night  of  the  '  Zauberflote ' 
has  been  already  related.  [See  Mozabt,  vol  iii 
p.  300a,note  1.]  His  first  meeting  with  Beethoven 
is  told  in  Bauemfeld's  biographical  sketch  of 
Schenk  in  the  Wiener  Zeitachrift  fur  Kwnst  for 
1887  (Nos.  5,  6,  and  7).  Gelinek  mentioned  to 
Schenk  that  he  had  found  a  young  man  whose 
playing  excelled  anything  ever  heard  before, 
excepting  Mozart's,  and  who  had  been  studying 
counterpoint  for  six  months  with  Haydn,  but 
to  80  little  purpose  that  it  would  be  a  great 
kindness  if  Schenk  would  give  him  some  help. 
A  meeting  was  an-anged  at  Gelinek's  house, 
when  Beethoven  improvised  for  over  half  an 
hour  in  so  remarkable  and  unusual  a  manner 
that  forty  years  afterwards  Schenk  could  not 
speak  of  it  without  emotion.  Schenk  next  went 
to  see  the  young  artist.  Himself  a  model  of 
neatness,  he  was  rather  taken  aback  by  the 
disorderliness  of  the  room,  but  Beethoven's 
reception  was  cordial  and  animated.  On  the 
desk  lay  some  short  exercises  in  counterpoint, 
in  which  on  the  first  glance  Schenk  detected  a 
few  errors.  Beethoven's  troubles  soon  came 
out.  He  had  come  to  Vienna  aware  of  his  own 
ability,  but  anxious  to  learn  ;  had  at  once  put 
himself  in  the  hands  of  the  first  master  to  be 
got,  and  yet  was  making  no  progress.  Schenk 
at  once  agreed  to  help  him,  and  took  him 
through  Fux's  ^Gradus  ad  Pamassum,'  with 
which  indeed  Haydn  was  familiar  enough.  As 
it  was  essential  that  Haydn  should  not  be  en- 
tirely thrown  over,  Beethoven  copied  exercises 
partly  corrected  by  Schenk,^  and  Haydn  was 
then  able  to  congratulate  himself  on  the  progress 
of  his  hot-headed  pupil.  The  affair  was  of  course 
kept  strictly  secret,  but  Beethoven  having  fallen 
out  with  Gelinek  the  latter  gossiped,  and 
Schenk  was  deeply  annoyed.  Beethoven,  how- 
ever, when  on  the  point  of  following  Haydn  to 
Eisenstadt,  wrote  very  gratefully  to  Schenk,* 
and  the  two  remained  on  pleasant  terms.  It  is 
interesting  to  know  that  besides  Mozart  and 
Beethoven,  Schenk  wasacquaintedwith  Schubert. 
Bauemfeld  introduced  them,  and  so  congenial 
were  they  that  after  an  hour's  talk  they  parted 
like  old  friends. 

Very  unassuming  in  his  ways,  Schenk  was 

I  This  saraly  Mya  a  gnat  d«al  for  B«eUioven'«  patloiioe.  and  for 
hill  desire  not  to  olIlBDd  Hajrdn. 

> '  I  wiah  I  were  not  atartinK  to-day  fbr  Kiaeimtadt.  I  ahoold 
Uke  to  have  had  more  talk  with  you.  In  the  meantime  you  may 
eount  upon  my  gxatltnde  for  the  kindneai  yon  have  shown  m«.  I 
ihall  do  all  In  my  power  to  return  It  I  ho|je  to  aee  yon  and  enjoy 
your  eoelflty  again  aoon.    Farewell,  and  do  not  forgot  your  Bbbt- 

■OVKV.' 


respected  as  a  thorough  though  somewhat 
pedantic  teacher  of  the  piano  and  composition. 
His  portrait,  in  the  Museum  of  the  Gesellschaft 
der  Musikfreunde  in  Vienna,  shows  a  pleasing 
countenance.  [Two  cantatas,  'Die  Hnldigung' 
and  '  Die  Mai,'  his  last  complete  compositions, 
date  from  1819]  and  at  an  aldvanced  age  he  set 
about  remodelling  his  *  Jagd,'  for  which  he  got 
Bauemfeld  to  write  him  a  new  libretto.  He 
had  finished  the  first  act  when  he  died,  Dec 
29,  1836.  c.  F.  p. 

SCHERZANDO,  SCHERZOSO,  playful, 
lively ;  a  direction  of  frequent  occurrence,  in- 
dicating a  passage  of  a  light  and  chaerful 
character.  It  is  occasionally  used,  in  combina- 
tion with  some  other  direction,  to  indicate  the 
style  of  a  whole  movement,  bs  Allegro  seherzanelo. 
Allegretto  scherzando  (Beethoven,  Symphony 
No.  8),  etc.,  but  its  more  usual  and  character- 
istic application  is  to  a  phrase  which  is  to  be 
played  in  a  lively  manner,  in  contrast  to  the 
rest  of  the  movement  or  to  some  other  phrase. 
In  such  passages,  as  a  rule,  the  time  is  intended 
to  be  taken  more  freely  tlian  usual,  while  any 
marks  of  phrasing  which  occur  should  be  strictly 
adhered  to.  In  fact  the  phrasing  of  a  sehersando 
passage  is  of  paramount  importance,  for  by  it 
alone  can  the  proper  character  bo  given. — The 
word  is  found,  where  one  would  littie  expect  it, 
in  the  old  editions  of  Beethoven's  Mass  in  D, 
near  the  beginning  of  the  *  Et  vitam  venturi ' ; 
but  on  reference  to  Breitkopf  &  Hartel's  complete 
edition  it  turns  out  to  have  been  read  in  error 
for  sfoTTando !  m. 

SCHERZO.  An  Italian  word  signifying  'jest' 
or  '  joke. '  Its  application  in  music  is  extensive, 
and — as  is  the  case  with  many  other  musical 
titles — often  incorrect.  Most  of  the  move- 
ments, from  the  time  of  Mendelssohn  onwards, 
would  be  better  designated  as  'Caprices'  or 
'  Capricoios. '  Obviously  the  word  signifies  that 
the  piece  to  which  it  applies  is  not  merely  of  a 
light  and  gay  character,  but  is  of  the  nature  of 
a  joke,  in  that  it  possesses  that  rare  quality  in 
music,  humour.  But,  exclusive  of  Haydn  and 
Beethoven,  what  musician  shows  humour,  real 
unaffected  drollery,  in  his  music  ! 

The  term  seems  to  have  been  first  employed 
(Scherzando)  merely  as  a  direction  for  perform- 
ance, but  there  are  early  instances  of  its.uae  as 
a  distinctive  title.  The  light  Italian  canzonets 
popular  in  Germany  in  the  17th  century  were 
called  Scherzi  mtuicali.  Late  in  the  17  th 
century  Johann  Schenk  published  some  '  Scherzi 
musicali  per  la  viola  di  gamba.'  Later,  when 
each  movement  of  an  instrumental  oompoaition 
had  to  receive  a  distinctive  character,  the  direc- 
tions Allegretto  scherzando  and  Presto  sehersando 
became  common,  several  examples  occurring  in 
the  Sonatas  of  Ph.  Em.  Bach.  But  even  in 
the  '  Partitas '  of  his  great  father,  we  find  a 
Scherzo  preceded  by  a  Burlesca  and  a  Fantaisie, 
though  some  modern  ears  can  discover  little  of 


SCHERZO 


SCHERZO 


259 


hamoar  or  fancy  in  either  of  these.  Many 
of  the  Gigues  are  far  more  frolicsome  than 
these. 

Coming  to  the  period  of  the  Symphony  it 
may  be  as  well  to  remind  the  reader  of  a  fact 
which  vill  be  more  enlarged  upon  under  that 
heading,  namely,  that  the  presence  of  the 
Minaet  or  Scherzo  in  works  of  the  symphonic 
d&ss,  is  a  matter  of  natural  selection,  or  survival 
of  the  fittest.  In  the  old  Suites  the  Minuet, 
being  of  rather  shorter  rhythm  than  the  other 
dsnces,  was  seized  upon,  perhaps  unconsciously, 
by  the  great  masters  who  tied  themselves  down 
to  the  old  form,  and  was  exaggerated  out  of  all 
recognition  for  the  sake  of  contrast.  The  actual 
3ilinnet,  as  danced  from  the  16th  century  up 
to  the  present  day  (if  any  one  still  learns  it), 
is  in  the  time  of  that  famous  specimen  in 
Mozart's  *  Don  Juan,*  or  say  M.M.  J=  80.  Yet 
even  in  the  Suites  of  Bach  one  finds  quick  and 
slov  Minuets,  neither  having  any  regcuxl  to  the 
requirements  of  the  dance.  [The  slow  tempo 
was  obligatory  only  where  dancing  was  con- 
cerned ;  quicker  Minuets  were  recognised  in 
'ioite  early  days.]  When  we  come  to  Haydn 
the  term  Minuet  ceases  to  have  any  meaning  ; 
the  stateliness  and  character  of  the  dance  are 
({oite  gone,  and  what  we  should  call  a  Waltz 
dppeara^  But  with  the  true  instinct  of  an 
artist,  Haydn  felt  that  in  a  work  containing 
sQch  heavy  subtleties  (for  even  Haydn  was 
deemed  heavy  and  suhtle  once)  as  the  ordinary 
fin$t  movement  and  slow  movement,  a  piece  of 
(ai  lighter  character  was  imperatively  demanded. 
So  lighter  and  quicker  and  more  sportive  grew 
the  Minuets,  till  Beethoven  crowned  the  incon- 
graoas  fashion  with  the  '  Minuet '  of  this  First 
Symphony.  It  should  be  mentioned,  however, 
that  Mozart  never  departed  nearly  so  far  from 
the  true  Minuet  as  Haydn,  whose  gaiety  of 
mnsical  thought  drove  him  into  really  invent- 
ing the  Scherzo,  though  he  did  not  use  the 
name.  The  Minuets  of  many  of  the  String 
^^oartets  of  Haydn  exhibit  indeed  those  quaint 
and  fanciful  devices  of  imexpected  reiteration, 
surprises  of  rhythm,  and  abrupt  terminations, 
which  are  the  leading  characteristics  of  the 
Scherzo,  and  are  completely  opposed  to  the 
spirit  of  the  true  Minuet.  One  which  begins 
and  ends  each  part  with  these  hars 


is  a  strong  instance  in  point. 

Beethoven  quickly  gave  the  Scherzo  -the  per- 
manent position  in  the  Symphony  which  it  now 
occupies.  He  aUo  settled  its  form  and  character. 
It  is  a  good  answer  to  those  who  consider  the 
classical  forma  worn  out  and  irksome  to  the 
flow  of  inspiration  to  point  out  that  in  the 
^herzo,  where  full  rein  is  given  to  the  individual 


caprice  of  the  musician,  there  is  as  much  atten- 
tion given  to  construction  as  anywhere.  In 
fact,  either  the  bold  and  masculine  First-move* 
ment  form,  or  its  sister,  the  weaker  and  more 
feminine  Rondo  form,  mtist  be  the  backbone  of 
every  piece  of  music  with  any  pretensions  to 
the  name.  But,  lest  the  light  and  aij-y  char- 
acter of  the  Scherzo  should  be  spoilt  by  the 
obtrusion  of  the  machinery,  the  greater  com- 
posers have  sought  to  obscure  the  form  artistic- 
ally by  several  devices,  the  most  frequent  and 
obvious  being  the  humorous  persistent  dwelling 
on  some  one  phrase — generally  the  leading 
feature  of  the  first  subject — and  introducing  it 
in  and  out  of  sea.son,  mixed  up  with  any  or  all 
of  the  other  subjects.  Witness  the  Scherzo  of 
Beethoven's  Ninth  Symphony,  where  the  open- 
ing phrase  for  the  drums  is  used  as  an  accom* 
paniment  to  the  second  subject — indeed  as  a 
persistent  *  motto '  throughout.  Apart  from 
this  there  is  not  the  slightest  departure  from 
rigid  First-movement  form  in  this  great  move- 
ment. 

The  Trio,  which  is  a  relic  of  the  Minuet  and 
takes  the  position  of  third  subject  or  middle 
section  in  a  Rondo,  survives  because  of  the 
naturally  felt  want  of  a  contrast  to  the  rapid 
rhythm  of  the  Scherzo.  Many  modem  com- 
posers afi'ect  to  dispense  with  it,  but  there  is 
usually  a  central  section  answering  to  it,  even 
though  it  be  not  divided  off  from  the  rest  by  a 
double  bar.  Mendelssohn  has  been  the  most 
successful  in  writing  Scherzos  without  Trios. 
The  main  idea  was  to  have  a  movement  in 
extremely  short  and  marked  rhythm,  for  which 
purpose  triple  time  is  of  course  the  best.  In 
the  Pianoforte  Sonatas  the  Scherzo  to  that  in 
Eb  (op.  81,  No.  3)  is  the  only  instance  where 
Beethoven  has  employed  2-4.  The  Trios  to 
the  Scherzos  of  the  Pastoral  and  Choral  Sym- 
phonies are  2-4  and  C  for  special  reasons  of 
effect  and  contrast  It  may  be  worth  noticing 
that  Beethoven  invariably  writes  S-4  even 
where  6-8  or  8-8  could  equally  well  have  been 
employed.  This  is  no  doubt  in  order  that  the 
written  notes  should  appeal  to  the  eye  as  miich 
as  the  sounded  notes  to  the  ear.  In  fact  three 
crotchets,  with  their  separate  stems,  impress 
far  more  vividly  on  the  mind  of  the  player  the 
composer's  idea  of  ti'ippiug  lightness  and  quick 
rhythm  than  three  quavers  with  united  tails. 
Having  once  ousted  the  Minuet,  Beethoven 
seldom  re-introduced  it,  the  instances  in  which 
he  has  done  so  being  all  very  striking,  and 
showing  that  a  particularly  fine  idea  drove  him 
to  use  a  worn-out  means  of  expression.  In 
several  cases  (PF.  Sonatas  in  Eb,  op.  7  ;  in  F, 
op.  1 0,  etc. )  where  there  is  no  element  of  humour, 
he  has  abstained  from  the  idle  mockeiy  of 
calling  the  movement  a  Minuet,  because  it  is 
not  a  Scherzo,  as  others  have  done ;  yet,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  third  movements  of  both 
the  First,  Fourth,  and  Eighth  Symphonies  are 


260 


SCHERZO 


SCHERZO 


called  Minuets  while  having  little  or  nothing 
in  common  with  even  the  Symphony  Minuets 
of  Haydn  and  Mozart.  Amongst  Beethoven's 
endless  devices  for  novelty  should  be  noticed 
the  famous  treatment  of  the  Scherzo  in  the  G 
minor  Symphony ;  its  conversion  into  a  weird 
and  mysterious  terror,  and  its  sudden  reappear- 
ance, all  alive  and  well  again,  in  the  midst 
of  the  tremendous  jubilation  of  the  Finale. 
Symphony  No.  8,  too,  presents  some  singular 
features.  The  second  movement  is  positively 
a  cross  between  a  slow  movement  and  a  Scherzo, 
partaking  equally  of  the  sentimental  and  the 
humorous.  But  the  Finale  is  nothing  else 
than  a  rollicking  Scherzo,  teeming  with  eccen- 
tricities and  practical  jokes  from  beginning  to 
end,  the  opening  jest  (and  secret  of  the  move- 
ment) being  the  sudden  unexpected  entry  of 
the  basses  with  a  tremendous  0  sharp,  afterwards 
turned  into  D  flat,  and  the  final  one,  the 
repetition  of  the  chord  of  F  at  great  length  as 
if  for  a  conclusion,  and  then,  when  the  hearer 
naturally  thinks  that  the  end  is  reached,  a  start 
off  in  another  direction  with  a  new  coda  and 
wind-up. 

As  a  specimen  of  true  Scherzo — that  is,  a 
movement  in  strict  form  and  with  quaint  and 
whimsical  humorous  devices  springing  up  un- 
expectedly, but  naturally,  throughout, — the 
Scherzo  of  the  Ninth  Symphony  must  ever 
stand  without  a  rival.  The  tiny  phrase  which 
is  the  nucleus  of  the  whole  is  eccentrically  in- 
troduced, and  prepares  us  at  the  outset  for  all 
manner  of  starts  and  surprises.  The  idea  of 
using  the  drums  for  this  phrase  seems  to  have 
tickled  Beethoven's  fancy,  as  he  repeats  it  again 
and  again. 

Humour  is  more  unexpected  in  Schubert 
than  in  Beethoven,  and  perhaps  because  of  its 
unexpectedness  we  appreciate  it  the  more.  The 
Scherzo  of  the  C  mtgor  Symphony  is  full  of 
happy  thoughts  and  surprises,  as  fine  as  any 
of  Beethoven's,  and  yet  distinct  from  them. 
The  varied  changes  of  rhythm  in  two,  three, 
and  four  bars,  the  piquant  use  of  the  wood 
wind,  and  above  all  the  sudden  and  lovely 
gleam  of  sunshine 


combine  to  place  this  movement  among  the 
things  imperishable.  The  Scherzos  of  the  Octet, 
the  Quintet  in  C,  and  above  all,  the  PF.  Duet 
in  C,  which  Joachim  has  restored  to  its  rightful 
dignity  of  Symphony,  are  all  worthy  of  honour. 
The  last  named,  with  its  imitations  by  inversion 
of  the  leading  phrase,  and  its  grotesque  bass 


is  truly  comical. 

It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  the  more 
modem  composers  have  lost  sight  of  the  true 
bearing  of  the  Scherzo  so  completely.  Mendels- 
sohn indeed  has  given  it  an  elfish  fairy  char- 
acter, but  though  this  is  admirable  in  the 
'Midsummer  Night's  Dream,*  it  is  perhaps  a 
little  out  of  place  elsewhere.  Lightness  and 
airy  grace  his  Scherzos  possess  to  admiration, 
in  common  with  his  Capriocios,  which  they  closely 
resemble  ;  but  the  musical  humour  which  vents 
itself  in  unexpected  rhythms  and  impudent  np- 
startings  of  themes  in  strange  places,  neither 
he  nor  any  later  composer  seems  to  have  had 
an  idea  of.  Mendelssohn  has  not  used  the  title 
'  Scherzo '  to  either  of  his  five  symphonies,  though 
the  'Vivace  non  troppo'  of  the  Scotch,  the 
*  Allegretto '  of  the  Lobgesang,  and  the  *  Allegro 
Vivace*  of  the  MefarmcUion  are  usually  called 
'  Scherzos.'  It  is  sufficient  to  name  the  String 
Octet,  the  two  PF.  Trios  and  the  two  Quintets 
for  Strings,  as  a  few  of  his  works  which  contain 
the  most  striking  specimens  in  this  line.  As 
before  mentioned,  his  Gapriccios  for  Piano  are 
pieces  of  the  same  order,  and  No.  4  of  the 
'  Sieben  Charakter-stiicke'  (op.  7)  may  be  classed 
with  them. 

With  Schumann  we  find  ourselves  again  in  a 
new  field.  Humour,  his  music  seldom,  if  ever, 
presents,  and  he  is  really  often  far  less  gay  in 
his  Scherzos  than  elsewhere.  He  introduced 
the  innovation  of  two  Trios  in  his  Bb  and  C 
Symphonies,  PF.  Quintet,  and  other  works, 
but  although  this  practice  allows  more  scope 
to  the  fancy  of  the  composer  in  setting  forth 
strongly  contrasted  movements  in  related 
rhythm*,  it  is  to  be  deprecated  as  tending  to 
give  undue  length  and  consequent  heaviness  to 
what  should  be  the  lightest  and  most  epigram- 
matic of  music.  Beethoven  has  repeated  the 
Trios  of  his  Fourth  and  Seventh  Symphonies, 
but  that  is  quite  another  thing.  Still,  though 
Schumann's  Scherzos  are  wanting  in  lightness, 
their  originality  is  more  than  compensation. 
The  Scherzos  of  his  orchestral  works  suffer  also 
from  heavy  and  sometime-s  unskilful  instru- 
mentation, but  in  idea  and  treatment  are  full 
of  charm.  Several  of  his  Kreisleriana  and  other 
small  PF.  pieces  are  to  all  intents  and  purposes 
Scherzos. 

Though  the  modern  composers  have  not  pro- 
duced many  remarkable  Scherzos,  it  is  not  for 
want  of  trying.  Rubinstein  has  a  very  pretty 
idea  in  6-4  time  in  his  Pianoforte  Octet,  and  a 
very  odd  one  in  his  A  major  Trio.  The  *  Ocean  * 
Symphony  has  two  Scherzos,  in  excellent  con- 
trast, the  first  being  in  2-4  time,  and  slightly 
Schumannish,  and  the  second  in  d-A  time,  with 
quite  a  Beethoven  flavour.  The  first  of  these  is 
not,  however,  entitled  Scherzo  by  the  composer 


SCHETKY 


SCHIEDMAYER 


261 


any  more  than  is  the  second  movement  of  his 
•  Dramatic  *  Symphony. 

Unlike  Schuhert  and  Beethoven,  Brahms 
seldom  wrote  a  really  bright  Scherzo,  but  he 
published  one  for  PF.  solo  (op.  4)  which  is  very 
odd  and  striking.  [It  was  the  work  which  un- 
doubtedly persuaded  Liszt  to  include  Brahms 
among  the  partisans  of  the  'advanced  school,' 
a  mistake  which  had  many  curious  consequences. 
The  PF.  sonata  (op.  6)  has  a  Scherzo  of  wonder- 
ful rigour.]  The  Second  Symphony  has  a 
movement  which  is  a  combination  of  Minuet 
and  Scherzo,  and  certainly  one  of  his  most 
charming  ideas.  On  somewhat  the  same  prin- 
ciple is  the  Scherzo  of  the  second  String  Sextet 
(o{).  36)  which  begins  in  2-4  as  a  kind  of 
Gavotte,  while  the  Trio  is  3-4  Presto,  thus  re- 
veismg  the  ordinary  practice  of  making  the 
Trio  broader  and  slower  than  the  rest  of  the 
piece. 

Quite  on  a  pedestal  of  their  own  stand  the 
four  Scherzos  for  piano  by  Chopin.  They  are 
indeed  no  joke  in  any  sense  ;  the  first  has  been 
entitled  *  Le  Banquet  infernal,'  and  all  four  are 
characterised  by  a  wild  power  and  grandeur 
to  which  their  composer  seldom  attained. 

Among  other  productions  may  be  noticed  the 
Scherzo  for  orchestra  by  Goldmark,  the  so-called 
Intermezzo  of  Goetz's  Symphony,  the  Scherzos 
in  Dvorak's  Sextet,  and  other  chamber  works. 
We  have  omitted  mention  of  the  strangely  in- 
strumented *  Queen  Mab '  Scherzo  of  Berlioz — 
more  of  a  joke  in  orchestration  than  anything. 

The  position  of  the  Scherzo  in  the  Symphony 
—whether  second  or  third  of  the  four  move- 
ments— ^is  clearly  a  matter  of  individual  taste, 
the  sole  object  being  contrast.  Beethoven,  in 
the  laige  majority  of  cases,  places  it  third,  as 
affording  relief  from  his  mighty  slow  movements, 
whereas  most  modem  composers  incline  to  place 
it  as  a  contrast  between  the  first  and  slow  move- 
ments.    The  matter  is  purely  arbitrary,     f.  c. 

SCHETKY,  Job  ANN  Geokg  Christoff,  a 
composer,  and  an  excellent  performer  on  the 
violoncello.  He  was  bom  at  Hesse-Darmstadt 
in  1740,  and  was  the  son  of  Louis  Schetky, 
secretary  and  musician  to  the  Landgrave  there. 
J.  G.  G.  Schetky  was  intended  for  the  law,  but 
developed  musical  abilities  and  became  locally 
famous.  He  travelled  to  Italy  and  France,  and 
obtamed  recognition  and  patronage  at  various 
courts.  He  returned  to  Hesse-Darmstadt,  but 
after  the  death  of  the  Landgrave  set  out  for 
London.  Robert  Bremner,  the  music-publisher, 
^ring  been  commissioned  by  the  gentlemen 
directors  of  St,  Cecilia's  Hall,  Edinburgh,  to 
engage  a  first  violoncellist  for  the  concerts 
Held  there,  met  Schetky  at  Lille,  and  brought 
him  to  Edinburgh,  where  he  arrived  in  Feb. 
1772,  and  there  spent  the  remainder  of  a  long 
life.  He  played  at  the  Edinburgh  concerts, 
Mid  became  associated  with  the  musical  life 
there.    He  was  a  friend  of  Robert  Bums,  and 


at  the  latter's  request  set  to  music  his  song, 
*Clarinda,  mistress  of  my  soul,*  printed  with 
the  music  in  the  second  volume  of  Johnson's 
Scots  Museum,  1788.  In  1774  Schetky  mar- 
ried the  daughter  of  Joseph  Beinagle,  senior, 
the  Austrian  musician,  who  was  then  settled  in 
Edinburgh.  He  had  several  children  by  this 
marriage,  one  of  whom,  John  Christian  Schetky, 
was  marine  painter  to  George  IV.  and  to  Queen 
Victoria.  Schetky,  the  musician,  died  in  Edin- 
burgh on  Nov.  29,  1824,  aged  eighty-four,  and 
was  buried  in  the  Canongate  burial-ground. 
His  published  works  consist  of  concertos,  duets, 
trios,  etc.,  for  strings,  and  some  harpsichord 
sonatas.  They  were  principally,  if  not  all, 
published  by  Robert  Bremner.  A  MS.  ora- 
torio, *Die  verschmachtende  Verspottung  des 
zum  Tode  verurtheilten  Heylandes,'  is  at  Darm- 
stadt. For  some  details  of  his  life  see  Life  of 
John  C.  Schetky,  late  Maritie  Painter,  by  his 
daughter,  and  St,  Cecilia's  Hall,  by  David 
Eraser  Harris,  Edinburgh,  1899.  F.  K. 

SCHICHT,  JoHANN  Gottfried,  bom  at 
Reichenau,  Zittau,  Sept.  29,  1763,  owed  his 
education  to  an  uncle ;  went  to  Leipzig  Uni- 
versity in  1776,  intending  to  study  law,  but 
gradually  adopted  music,  and  was  soon  chosen 
by  Adam  Hiller  as  solo  clavier  player  at  his 
concerts.  On  Hillers  retirement  he  succeeded 
him  in  1785,  and  at  length  in  1810  rose  to  the 
head  of  his  profession  as  Cantor  of  the  Thomas- 
schule.  He  died  Feb.  16,  1823,  leaving  many 
large  works  (three  oratorios,  much  church  and 
chamber  music),  as  well  as  a  translation  of  the 
PF.  Schools  of  Pleyel  and  Clementi,  and  of  Pel- 
legrini-Celoni's  Singing  Method,  etc.,  but  only 
one  which  will  live,  his  edition  of  J.  S.  Bach's 
motets  (Breitkopf  &  Hartel,  1802-3).  o. 

SCHICKHARD,  or  SCHICKARD,  Johann 
Christian,  a  composer  resident  at  Hamburg 
about  1730.  His  works  were  chiefly  published 
at  Amsterdam,  but  were  republished  by  the 
elder  John  Walsh  in  England.  They  comprise 
instmmental  pieces,  including :  solos  for  a  flute 
and  bass,  op.  17  ;  concertos  for  flutes,  op.  19  ; 
solos  for  German  flute,  hautboy,  or  violin,  op. 
20  ;  sonatas  for  two  violins  and  a  bass,  op.  5  ; 
sonatas  for  two  German  flutes  and  a  bass,  op. 
10  ;  and  some  others.  These  were  all  published 
by  Walsh,  and  reissued  by  Randall.       f.  k. 

SCHICKSALSLIED  (*  Song  of  Destiny '),  a 
short  cantata  or  ode  for  chorus  and  orchestra, 
words  by  Friedrich  Holderlin,  music  by  Brahms, 
op.  54.  It  was  first  performed  from  manuscript 
by  the  Carlsrahe  Philharmonic  Society,  imder 
the  composer's  direction,  Oct.  18,  1871.  It 
was  published  by  Simrock  in  the  following 
December,  and  was  performed  early  in  1872 
at  Leipzig,  Bremen,  Breslau,  Frankfort,  and 
Vienna.  First  performed  in  England  by  the 
Cambridge  University  Musical  Society,  March 
8,  1877.  M. 

SCHIEDMAYER.     There  are  now  two  firms 


262 


SCHIEVER 


SCHIKANEDER 


of  this  name  in  Stuttgart,  both  eigoying  wide 
reputation  as  pianoforte-makers,  viz.  'Schied- 
mayer  ^  Sous/ and  'Schiedmayer  Pianoforte- 
fabrik ;  vormals,  J.  k  P.  Schiedmayer.*  The 
heads  of  these  firms  are  the  grandsons  and 
great-grandsons  of  Johann  David  Schiedmayer, 
who  towards  the  close  of  the  18  th  century  was 
a  musical  instrument  maker  at  Erlangen,  and 
afterwards  at  Nuremberg,  where  he  died  in 
1806.  His  son  Johann  Lorenz  (bom  1786) 
went  after  this  for  two  years  to  Vienna  as  a 
workman,  and  in  1809  established  a  business 
at  Stuttgart  in  partnership  with  G.  F.  Dieudonne 
(who  died  in  1826).  Before  that  time  piano- 
forte-making was  virtually  unknown  in  Stutt- 
gart, those  who  required  satisfactory  instruments 
obtaining  them  from  Vienna.  Lorenz  Schied- 
mayer's  intelligence .  and  aptness  for  business 
gained  a  position  for  his  firm,  and  it  soon 
became  one  of  the  first  in  Germany.  In  1845 
Loienz  united  his  two  eldest  sons,  Adolf  and 
Hermann,  to  himself,  and  ^Schiedmayer  k 
Sons'  sooii  became  as  well  known  in  foreign 
countries  as  in  Wiirtemberg.  Lorenz  died  in 
1860  and  his  son  Hermann  in  1861.  The  sons 
of  the  brothers  Adolf  (1820-1890)  and  Her- 
mann, bearing  the  same  Christian  names,  have 
been  for  many  years  the  directors  of  this  firm, 
which  has  made  both  concert  and  ordinary 
instruments,  and  has  competed  with  success  in 
London  and  Paris  and  other  exhibitions.  The 
two  younger  sons,  Julius  (1822-78)  and  Paul 
(died  June  18, 1890)  at  first  devoted  themselves 
to  harmonium-making,  then  of  recent  introduc- 
tion, a  practical  knowledge  of  which  had  been 
gained  by  Paul  in  Paris.  They  started  together 
in  1854,  but  after  the  death  of  the  father,  in 
1860,  turned  to  pianoforte-making  in  competi- 
tion with  the  elder  firm,  and  tie  younger  firm  is 
now  known  as  'Schiedmayer,  Pianoforte-fabrik. ' 

Special  mention  must  be  made  of  Julius 
Schiedmayer's  prominence  as  an  expert  in  the 
Juries  of  the  great  Exhibitions  of  London,  1862 ; 
Paris,  1867  ;  Vienna,  1873  ;  and  Philadelphia, 
1876.  A.  J.  H. 

SCHIEVER,  Ernst,  violinist,  was  bom  at 
Hanover  on  March  28,  1844.  Studied  under 
Joachim,  1860-64.  In  1868  joined  the  MuUer 
Quartet,  with  which  he  travelled  as  leader 
until  its  dissolution  in  1869,  and  became  in 
the  same  year  a  teacher  at  the  Hochschule  and 
a  member  of  the  Joachim  Quartet.  Remained 
in  Berlin  two  years,  organising  with  Hermann 
Franke  (second  violin),  Leonhard  Woltf  (viola), 
and  Robert  Hausmann  (violoncello)  another 
quartet  party,  which  was  engaged  subsequently 
by  Count  Hochberg,  and  became  known  as  the 
*  Graflich  Hochberg  Quartet '  of  Schloss  Rohn- 
stock  near  Striegau  in  Silesia.  Came  to  England 
in  1878,  making  Liverpool  his  headquarters, 
and  undertaking  the  leadership  of  the  Richter 
orchestra,  with  which  he  has  been  connected 
for  nearly  thirty  years.     His  sympathy  with 


chamber  music  remains  constant,  the  '  Schierer 
Quartet,'  in  which  he  is  associated  with  A.  Ross 
(second  violin),  Carl  Courvoisier  (viola),  and 
Walter  Hatton  (violoncello),  being  an  institu- 
tion favourably  known  in  the  north  of  Eng- 
land, w.  w.  c. 

SCHIKANEDER,  EMMiiNrxL,  theatrical 
manager,  playwright,  actor,  and  singer,  bom 
1751  at  Ratisbon,  began  life  as  a  poor  wandering 
musician,  joined  some  strolling  players  at  Augs- 
bui^  in  1778,  married  the  adopted  daughter 
of  the  manager,  and  at  length  undertook  the 
direction  himself.  In  1780  his  wanderings 
brought  him  to  Salzburg,  where  he  fell  in  with 
the  Mozarts,  and  at  once  began  to  make  a 
profit  out  of  Wolfgang's  talents.  In  1784  we 
find  him  in  Vienna,  giving  with  Kumpf  a  series 
of  excellent  performances  of  German  opera, 
comedy,  etc.,  at  the  Kamthnerthor  theatre. 
He  appeared  on  the  boards  both  here  and  at 
the  Burgtheater,  where,  however,  he  did  not 
succeed.  He  next  took  the  management  of  the 
theatre  at  Ratisbon,  but  was  recalled  to  Vienna 
by  his  wife,  who  had  undertaken  the  little 
theatre  lately  built  in  the  grounds  of  Prince 
Starhemberg's  house  in  the  suburb  of  Wieden, 
for  which  Schikaneder  received  &priviUffium  or 
licence.^  He  had  no  scruples  as  to  the  means 
to  be  adopted  to  make  a  hit,  but  in  spite  of 
large  receipts  was  continually  in  difficulty.  On 
one  such  occasion  (March  1791)  he  had  reooune 
to  Mozart,  whom  he  implored  to  set  to  music 
a  libretto  adapted  by  himself  from  a  piece  by 
Giesecke,  a  member  of  his  comjiany.  Mozart, 
always  good-natured,  especially  to  a  brother- 
mason,  consented,  and  from  that  moment  till 
its  completion  Schikaneder  stuck  closely  to 
him,  and  did  all  he  could  to  keep  him  amused 
over  his  work.  The  history  of  the  *  Zauberfibte  * 
is  well  known  ;  Schikaneder  made  various  sug- 
gestions in  the  composition,  took  the  part  of 
Papageno,  and  found  himself  saved  from  ruin 
by  the  success  of  the  opera ;  but  he  showed 
little  gratitude  to  Mozart,  and  after  his  death, 
instead  of  helping  the  widow  of  the  man  b}' 
whom  he  had  benefited  so  materially,  contented 
himself  with  loud  and  vain  lamentations.  In 
1800  he  entered  into  partnership  with  a  mer- 
chant named  Zitterbarth,  who  at  a  short  distance 
from  the  small  theatre  just  mentioned,  bnilt 
the  present  'Theater  an-der- Wien,'  opened 
June  13,  1801.  Zitterbarth  then  bought  the 
privilegium  from  Schikaneder,  who  managed  it 
for  him  till  1806.  His  next  project  waa  to 
build,  with  the  assistance  of  some  wealthy 
friends,  a  new  theatre  in  the  Joeephstadt  suburb, 
but  this  he  did  not  carry  out  On  his  way  to 
Pesth,  whither  he  had  been  invited  to  under- 
take a  theatre,  he  went  mad,  was  brought  back 
to  Vienna,  and  died  in  great  misery  Sept.  21, 
1812. 

Schikaneder  wrote  the  librettos  for  many 

1  It  «u  popularly  called  SchUcMMder**  thmtrc. 


SCHILLING 


SCHINDELMEISSER 


263 


popnlftr  opens,  Singspiele^  and  fairy-pieces,  the 
list  of  which,  with  year  of  performance,  is  here 
published  for  the  first  time : — 

*JUtn  dcr  damn*  Obtner '  (Bdiaelc  and  a«rl).  178B ;  '  Die  beid«n 


'  (with  4 aBOwla).  'Jakob  and  Nannerl,'  and  '  Dar  Stein  der 
VtiMo,'  or  'Die  Zaaberinwl '  (Sdia^  and  otbera),  1790;  'Die 
ZaatefaU'  (Monrt).  1791;  *Der  vohltUttige  Denrlach.'  or  'Die 
SeheUaokapM '  (Bcbw^  Gerl.  and  othon).  1798 ;'  Die  ElaenkOnl^n.' 
'Dto  WafetaDtamar.'  and  *Dar  Zanbenfell'  (Llekl).  170;  ^Der 
-     -  —  ),  and  '  Die  Hirten  am  ~*   ' 

ibergU  '  Der  KSnf 


lUkka'iA.  F.  HoAiMriater),  and  'Der  HAUanberg'  (WttUl),  1796; 
•Der  Tyroler  Waafeel'  (Halbel),  and  a  Mcond  part  'Oeeterrelcb's 
tnw  BrM«r,*  VM'.  *Daa  medlalnlarhe  ConalUam'  (Halbel).  'Dtx 
LA«<Bfarannen '  (SeyMed).  and  'Ba^lons  Pynunlden'  (Act  1. 
Oallw.  Act  U.  Peter  Wlntor).  1787t  'Daa  labyrinth.'  or  'KampC 
mtt  dn  Elamenten'  (aeoond  part  d  *  ZaubarflOte,'  Winter).  1798; 
•  Die OillBdIer  Tom  Splttelbess '  (Seyfrled,  Stegmayer.  etc.).  '  Con- 
nd  Ui^tartk.'  or '  Der  Bozctelat'  (Hennebcrg),  *  Minna  and  Pern/ 
o?  'Kflolfvdidit'  (Act  L  Henneb«v.  Aft  11.  Beyfiied).  and  'Der 
WaMlBBaBa  am  WaaMrflill '  (Sayfrled),  1799 ;  *  Amors  BohURihen ' 
diicjrtriedj.  UKXlL  At  the  Tlieater  an-der-Wlen— opening  nli^t— 
'  Akiaader'  (Teybcr).  "flMapia  Traum,'  and  '  Protens  tmd  Axb- 
MoM  SBkTM'  (StccmaynrK  IflOl;  'Ttehlng!  TBehlngI'  (Halbel). 
ISR: '  Die  Sntlamen/  a  oontlnaatlon  of  the  '  WaldmJtamer '  (An- 
ton Fteter).  and  'Pfllndang  md  fersonalarrest '  (Teyber).  180S: 
'Der  94elB  der  Waiaen '  (Bohaek  and  othera).  1804;  'Swetarda  Zau- 
boihal '  (Vteher).  IMS ;  '  Die  BaenkflnMn '  (HanuebergK  and '  Die 
SaiSlate  am  Saaerbrunnen '  (Anton  DiabeUl),  Sehlkaneder'a  laat 
pm»,  glTon  for  hla  bcneflt,  1806b  q^  p^  p^ 

SCHILLING,  Dr.  Gustav,  author  of  a 
book  much  esteemed  in  Germany,  though  little 
known  in  England — Encyd&pddu  der  geaamm- 
tea  mutikalisehen  WissenachafUn  oder  Universal 
Laikm  der  Tonkunst  (7  vols.  8yo,  Stuttgart, 
1835-40).  He  was  bom  Nov.  8,  1803,  at 
Schwiegershausen,  Hanover,  where  his  father 
Tu  cleigyman.  He  was  brotfght  up  at  Got- 
tingen  and  Halle,  and  in  1880  settled  in 
Stuttgart  as  director  of  Stopel's  Music  School. 
In  1857  he  went  to  America,  and  died  at 
NebiBska  in  March  1881.  He  published  several 
other  works  bearing  on  music,  but  none  of  the 
importanoe  of  that  already  mentioned.        o. 

SCHILLINGS,  Max,  was  bom  at  Diu-en  in 
Rheinland,  on  April  19,  1868.  He  studied 
imder  K.  Joseph  Brambach  and  0.  F.  von 
Kbnigalow,  at  Bonn.  From  the  former  he 
deriTed  the  traditions  of  both  Hummel  and 
Beethoven,  as  shown  through  the  medium  of 
the  teaching  of  Hiller,  whose  pupil  Brambach 
was ;  while  from  the  latter  he  inherited,  music- 
ally, the  methods  of  David  the  violinist,  and 
Moritz  Hauptmann  the  distinguished  theorist. 
On  leaving  Bonn,  Schillings  continued  his 
studies  at  Munich,  where,  after  three  years  spent 
in  perfecting  himself  in  all  branches  of  his  art, 
he  decided  to  settle.  He  was  appointed  choms- 
nuMter  at  Bayreuth  in  1902,  having  acted  as 
one  of  the  assistant  stage  conductors  there  in 
1892.  His  compositions,  fairly  numerous,  show 
a  high  order  of  talent ;  but  the  composer  is 
decidedly  dominated  by  the  influence  of  Wagner. 
Among  his  published  works  may  be  mentioned 
t«'o Symphonic  Fantasias,  'Meergruss'  and  'See- 
moTgen ' ;  *  Zwiegesprach '  for  small  orchestra, 
solo  violin,  and  solo  violoncello ;  '  Abend- 
dammerung '  for  baritone,  violin,   and  piano  ; 

*  Improvisation '  for  violin  and  piano  ;  the  or- 
chestral   accompaniments    to    Wildenbruch's 

*  Hexenlied ' ;  music  to  '  Oedipus  Rex ' ;  and 
several  books  of  songs.  The  operas  '  Ingwelde,' 
three  acts,  produced  at  Carlsmhe  in   1894, 


*Der  Pfeifertag,'  first  performed  at  Schwerin 
in  1901,  and  'Moloch'  (Dresden,  1906)  are  at 
present  in  MS.  d.  h. 

SCHIMON,  Adolf,  son  of  an  Austrian 
artist,  well  known  for  his  portraits  of  Beethoven, 
Weber,  Spohr,  etc.,  was  bom  on  Feb.  29,  1820, 
at  Vienna.  At  sixteen  he  went  to  Paris  and 
entered  the  Conservatoire  as  a  pupU  of  Berton 
and  Hal6vy.  In  1844  he  brought  out  an  opera 
called  '  Stradella,'  at  the  Pergola  in  Florence. 
In  1850  he  was  in  London,  and  took  a  pro- 
vincial tour  with  Balfe,  Reeves,  and  Clara 
Novello.  From  1854  to  1859  he  was  attached 
to  the  Italian  opera  in  Paris,  and  in  1858  pro- 
duced a  comic  opera  '  List  um  list,'  which  was 
successful  in  North  Germany.  In  1872  we 
find  him  again  at  Florence,  where  he  married 
Anna  Rogan.  (See  below).  From  1874  to 
1877  he  was  teacher  of  singing  in  the  Con- 
servatorium  at  Leipzig,  and  from  thence  was 
called  to  Munich,  where  he  was  professor  of 
singing  in  the  Royal  Music  School.  His  original 
compositions  embrace  quartets,  trios,  and  solos 
for  the  PF.,  and  songs  in  various  languages, 
and  he  edited  many  vocal  pieces  by  Scar- 
latti, Porpora,  Paradies,  and  other  old  Italian 
roasters.  He  died  at  Leipzig,  June  21,  1887. 
His  wife,  Anna  Reoan-Schimon,  was  bom  at 
Aich,  near  Carlsbad,  Sept.  18,  1841,  and  was 
brought  up  in  the  house  of  Dr.  Anger  in  Carls- 
bad, till  1859,  when  she  was  placed  as  a  pupil 
with  Mme.  Schubert  (nSe  Maschinka-Schneider) 
in  Dresden.  In  the  following  year  she  accom- 
panied Mme.  Sabatier-UNGHER,  the  great  con- 
tralto, to  Florence,  where  she  remained  under 
the  care  of  that  eminent  artist  till  Feb.  1864. 
During  this  time  she  made  her  first  attempts 
on  the  stage  at  Siena,  her  success  in  which  en- 
couraged her  in  further  study.  From  1864  to 
1867  she  was  engaged  at  the  Court  theatre  at 
Hanover.  Then  as  Eammersangerin  to  the 
Grand  Duchess  Helena  in  St.  Petersburg,  where 
she  sang  at  three  of  the  seven  concerts  given  by 
Berlioz.  In  1869  she  visited  London  in  com- 
pany with  her  old  friend  and  teacher,  Mme. 
Sabatier,  sang  twice  at  the  Philharmonic,  and 
three  times  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  and  at  Hallo's 
Recitals,  etc.  From  this  time  till  1875  shb 
was  frequently  in  England,  widely  known  and 
much  liked  for  her  exquisite  delivery  of  Schu- 
bert's and  other  songs.  In  1870  and  1871  she 
visited  Vienna  with  great  success,  and  in  1872 
married  Dr.  Schimon.  She  took  two  brilliant 
toum^s  with  MombelU,  Sivori,  Trebelli,  etc., 
in  the  winters  of  1872  and  1878,  and  from  that 
time  till  her  death  only  appeared  occasionally 
at  the  Gewandhaus  Concerts  at  Leipzig.  [After 
her  husband's  death  she  accepted  a  post  in  the 
Royal  Music  School  at  Munich,  where  she  died 
April  18,  1902.]  o. 

SCHINDELMEISSER,  Louis,  was  bom  at 
Eonigsberg,  Dec.  8,  1811,  and  educated  at  the 
Gymnasium  at  Berlin.     Music  he  learned  from 


264 


SCHINDLER 


SCHIRA 


a  French  musician  named  Hosti^,  and  from 
Gahrich.  He  first  adopted  the  clarinet,  but 
afterwards  took  a  wider  range.  From  1832  to 
1837  he  filled  capellmeisters'  posts  at  Salzburg, 
Innsbruck,  Graz,  then  at  Berlin  (Konigstadt 
theatre),  and  at  Pesth,  where  he  remained  for 
nine  years.  He  at  length  came  to  an  anchor 
as  Court-capellmeister  at  Darmstadt,  where  he 
died  March  30,  1864.  His  works  embrace  six 
operas — *Mathilde,'  *Ten  happy  days,'  'Peter 
von  Szapary '  (Pesth,  1839),  '  Malvina '  (Pesth, 
1861),  *The  Avenger,'  ^Melusine'  (1861);  an 
oratorio,  '  S.  Boniface ' ;  an  overture  to  '  Uriel 
Acosta,'  and  incidental  music  to  various  plays  ; 
concerto  for  clarinet  and  orchestra  ;  and  a  oon- 
eertante  for  four  clarinets  and  orchestra  ;  songs, 
PF.  pieces,  etc.  o. 

SCHINDLER,  Anton,  the  devoted  friend  and 
biographer  of  Beethoven,  was  bom  in  1796  at 
Medl,  Neustadt,  Moravia,  where  his  father  was 
cantor  and  schoolmaster.  He  began  the  study  of 
music  and  the  violin  early  in  life.  While  quite 
young  he  entered  the  Vienna  University  to  study 
law,  and  assiduously  kept  up  his  music  by 
practice  in  an  amateur  orchestra.  His  intro- 
duction to  Beethoven  took  place  accidentally  in 
1814,  when  he  was  asked  to  take  a  note  from 
Schuppanzigh  to  the  great  composer.  Later  in 
the  year  he  played  in  Beethoven's  two  concerts 
of  Nov.  29  and  Dec  2.  He  and  the  master  met 
often,  and  the  intimacy  increased  until,  early  in 
1819,  on  the  recommendation  of  Dr.  Bach,  he 
became  a  kind  of  secretary  to  Beethoven  and  at 
length,  in  1822,  took  up  his  residence  in  the 
master's  house.  He  then  became  conductor 
at  the  Josephstadt  Theatre,  where  he  studied 
several  of  Beethoven's  great  works  under  his 
own  direction.  Beethoven,  however,  at  last 
began  to  tire  of  his  young  friend,  and  after  much 
unpleasantness,  in  1824,  after  the  failure  of 
the  concert  of  May  23,  the  breach  came.  Beet- 
hoven behaved  with  great  violence  and  injustice, 
and  Schindler  was  driven  from  him  till  Dec. 
1826,  when  he  arrived  in  Vienna  from  Gneixen- 
dorf,  to  die.  Schindler  at  once  resumed  his 
position,  attended  him  with  devotion  till  his 
death,  wrote  several  letters^  to  Moscheles  on 
the  details  of  the  event,  and  in  company  with 
Breuning  took  charge  of  Beethoven's  papers. 
Breuning  died,  and  then  the  whole  came  into 
Schindler's  hands. 

In  1831  he  wrote  some  interesting  articles  on 
Beethoven  and  Schubert  in  Bauerle's  Tkealer- 
zeitung.  In  December  he  left  Vienna,  and  became 
capellmeister  to  the  cathedral  at  Mlinster,  a  post 
which  he  exchanged  four  years  later  for  that 
of  music- director  at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  After 
some  years  he  relinquished  this,  became  first 
a  private  teacher  and  then  went  entirely  into 
private  life.  He  lived  in  various  towns  of 
Germany,  and  at  length  in  Bockenheim,  near 
Frankfort,  where  he  died  Jan.  16,  1864. 

>  Printed  in  Mowhela's  lAfe,  i.  145-79. 


His  book  on  Beethoven  is  entitled  Biograpkie 
von  Ludwig  van  Beethoven,  MU  dem  Portrat 
Beethoven's  undzivei  FcuximiUn  (Miinster,  1840, 
1  vol.  8vo).^  This  was  followed  by  Beethoven 
in  Paris  .  .  ,  ein  Nachtrag  zur  Biographie  Beet- 
hoven* s,  etc.  (Miinster,  1842;  1  thin  vol.  8vo), 
and  that  by  a  second  edition  of  the  BiogntphU 
with  additions  (Munster,  1845,  1  vol.  8vo)l 
The  third  and  last  edition  appeared  in  1860. 
Being  so  long  about  Beethoven  he  accumulated 
many  autographs  and  other  papers  and  articles 
of  interest,  and  these  he  disposed  of  to  the 
library  at  Berlin  for  an  annuity.  His  sister  was 
a  singer,  who  in  the  year  1880  was  engaged  at 
the  Konigstadt  Theatre,  Berlin. 

Schindler  has  been  the  object  of  much  obloquy 
and  mistrust,  but  it  is  satisfactory  to  know,  on 
the  authority  of  A.  W.  Thayer,  that  this  is  un- 
founded, and  that  his  honesty  and  intelligence 
are  both  to  be  trusted.  6. 

SCHIRA,  Francesco,  was  bom  at  Malta, 
Sept.  19,  1815,  received  his  early  education  at 
Milan,  and  was  placed,  at  the  age  of  nine  (1824), 
in  the  Conservatorio,  where  he  learned  counter- 
point under  Basily,  principal  of  that  institution. 
At  seventeen,  having  completed  his  studies, 
Francisco  was  commissioned  to  write  an  opera 
for  the  Scala,  which  was  produced  Nov.  17, 
1832.  That '  Elena  e  Malvina '  won  favourable 
recognition  may  bo  inferred  from  the  fact  that 
a  Lisbon  impresario^  being  at  Milan  with  the 
object  of  forming  a  company  for  the  Santo 
Carlos,  contracted  an  engagement  with  Schira 
for  the  forthcoming  season  as  *  Maestro  Direttore, 
Compositore  e  Conduttore  della  Musioa.'  He 
remained  eight  years  at  Lisbon,  where  he  was 
also  appointed  Professor  of  Harmony  and 
Counterpoint  at  the  Conservatorio,  composing 
'  I  Cavalieri  di  Valenza '  and  '  II  Fanatioo  per 
la  Musica,'  for  the  Santo  Carlos,  besides  ballets, 
cantatas,  etc 

In  January  1842  Schira  quitted  Lisbon  for 
Paris,  with  the  idea  of  obtaining  some  book  in 
the  French  language  which  he  might  set  to 
music.  In  Paris  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Mr.  Maddox,  then  in  quest  of  artists  for  the 
Princess's  Theatre.  This  led  to  an  offer  from 
the  London  manager,  and  Schira  was  appointed 
director  of  music  and  orchestral  chief  at  that 
establishment  On  Monday,  Dec.  26,  1842, 
the  Princess's  opened  as  a  lyric  theatre,  and 
Schira's  appearance  at  the  conductor's  desk  was 
his  first  introduction  to  the  English  public 
The  opera  chosen  was  an  English  version  of 
'La  Sonnambula,'  the  leading  characters  sus- 
tained by  Mme.  Eugenie  Garoia,  Mme.  Feron, 
Messrs.  Templeton,  Walton,  and  Weiss;  Mr. 
Loder  (father  of  Edward  Loder)  being  principal 
violin.  Among  notable  incidents  during  Schira's 
term  of  conductorship  may  be  specified  the  pro- 
duction of  two  operas  by  Balfe,  originally  com- 

s  Thii  ii  the  book  which  wm  trasalAte4  or  mAa;pttA  Iqr  Mowbfl— 
{ London.  Colburn.  1841 ).  itranfC  to mj  with  no  niNitloa  of  Scfaladlcr 

on  the  title-pHge. 


SCUIRA 


SCHIRMER 


265 


posed  for  the  Paris  Op^ra-Comique— *  Le  Puits 
d  Amour/  called  'Geraldine'  (Nov.  1843),  and 
Les  Qnatre  Fila  d'Aymon/  called  'The  Castle 
of  Aymon '  (Nov.  1844).  At  the  end  of  1844 
Schira  accepted  an  engagement  from  Alfred 
Bonn,  then  lessee  of  Dniry  Lane,  to  fill  the 
plaee  left  vacant  by  Benedict,  who  resigned 
immediately  after  Balfe's  'Daughter  of  St.  Mark' 
vss  brought  out.  At  Drury  Lane  he  remained 
until  the  spring  of  1847,  when  Bunn  seceded 
from  the  management,  the  committee  having 
entertained  the  proposal  of  Jullien  to  become 
future  lessee ;  and  here  several  adaptations  of 
foreign  operas,  besides  a  good  number  of  works 
by  English  composers,  were  produced.  From 
the  latter  it  will  suffice  to  name  Wallace's 
'Maritana'  and  'Matilda  of  Hungary,'  Mac- 
Urren's  'Don  Quixote,'  Benedict's  'Crusaders,' 
Lavenu's  '  Loretta '  (composed  for  Mme.  Anna 
Bishop),  Balfe's  'Enchantress,'  etc.  ;  among 
the  former,  Flotow's  'Stradclla'  and  'Martha.' 
In  Sept.  1848  Bunn  took  (>)vent  Garden 
Theatre,  and  Schira  was  again  appointed  con- 
doctor.  The  season  only  lasted  two  months, 
bat  comprised  the  first  theatrical  engagement 
ftfter  his  brilliant  success,  the  year  before,  at 
Drury  Lane,  of  Sims  Reeves,  for  whom  an 
a<laptation  of  Auber's  '  Haydee '  was  produced, 
the  great  English  tenor  assuming  the  part  of 
Loredano ;  another  English  adaptation  of 
Rossini's  '  Donna  del  Lago ' ;  and  an  entirely 
new  opera,  called  'Quentin  Durward,'  the  com- 
position of  Henri  Laurent.  The  success  of 
the  enterprise  was  not  in  proportion  to  the  ex- 
I«ctations  of  the  manager  ;  '  Quentin  Durward  ' 
vas  by  no  means  a  hit,  and  though  Bunn  had 
lowered  his  prices  the  house  was  prematurely 
closed.  Thus  an  opera,  entitled  'Kenil worth,' 
from  Schira's  own  pen,  which  had  already  been 
pat  into  rehearsal,  with  Sims  Reeves  in  the 
part  of  Leicester,  was  lost  to  the  public,  and 
no  more  English  opera  was  heard  at  Coven  t 
Garden  until  Miss  Pyne  and  Mr.  Harrison 
migrated  from  the  Lyceum,  to  carry  on  their 
Qodertaking  in  a  more  spacious  arena. 

Although  he  had  severed  his  connection  "with 
the  Princess's  as  musical  director,  in  which 
{losition  his  worthy  suocessor  was  Edward  Loder, 
Schira  wrote  two  original  works  for  the  theatre 
in  Oxford  Street — 'Mina,'  produced  in  1846, 
«id  'Thereea,  or  the  Orphan  of  Geneva,'  in 
1850,  both,  the  latter  especially,  received  with 
marked  favour.  Schira  was  once  more  en- 
gaged as  conductor  at  Drury  Lane,  and  the 
theatre  opened  on  Jan.  28,  1852,  with  an 
English  version  of  '  Robert  le  Diable,'  succeeded 
by  'Fra  Diavolo,'  with  Sims  Reeves  in  the  title- 
^  put  The  principal  incident  that  marked 
,'  the  season  was  the  production  of  '  The  Sicilian 
Bride,'  by  Balfe,  in  no  respect  one  of  his  most 
successful  efforts.  From  this  time  Schira  de- 
voted himself  specially  to  giving  instructions 
in  the  vocal  art      He  nevertheless  did  not 


neglect  composition,  as  testified  in  a  number  of 
charming  songs,  duets,  trios,  etc.,  some  of  which 
have  attained  wide  popularity.  He  also  was 
busily  employed  in  the  composition  of  a  grand 
opera  called  'Nicool6  de*  Lapi,'  jierformed 
with  marked  applause  at  Her  M^^esty's  Theati'e 
in  May  1863.  For  the  Carnival  at  Naples,  two 
years  later,  he  wrote  another  grand  opera,  entitled 
'Selvaggia,'  which  was  given  with  brilliant 
success,  and  represented  at  Milan,  Barcelona, 
and  elsewhere.  The  reception  accorded  to  '  Sel- 
vaggia '  led  to  his  being  asked  to  ^vrite  another 
opera,  'lia,'  for  Venice.  This,  also  brought 
out  during  the  Carnival,  was  hardly  so  much 
to  the  taste  of  the  Venetians  as  its  precursor. 
Nevertheless,  there  are  amateurs  who  regard 
'  Lia '  as  Schira's  best  work. 

The  managers  of  the  Birmingham  Festival 
commissioned  Schira  to  write  a  cantata  for  the 
meeting  of  1873,  and  he  wrote  a  piece  entitled 
'The  Lord  of  Burieigh,'  the  libretto,  by 
Desmond  Lumley  Ryan,  being  founded  upon 
Tennyson's  well-known  poem,  though  not  a 
line  was  appropriated,  save  the  motto  which 
heads  the  title-page  of  the  printed  edition. 
An  operetta  entitled  'The  Ear-ring'  was  per- 
formed at  the  St.  George's  Hall  Theatre.  His 
music,  while  revealing  the  hand  of  one  who 
has  thoroughly  mastered  the  principles  of  his 
art,  was  free  from  all  pretence,  relying  ujwn  its 
unaffected  simplicity  and  grace  for  its  impression. 
As  an  instructor  in  singing  Schira  always  main- 
tained a  high  position,  many  a  public  vocalist  of 
note  having  profited  by  his  counsels.  In  his 
own  country  and  elsewhere  abroad,  he  held  the 
insignia  of  several  orders  of  merit,  the  most 
prized  of  which  was  that  of  'Commendatore  della 
Corona  d'  Italia ' — prized  the  more  because  con- 
ferred by  King  Humbert,  motti  propn'o,  Schira 
died  in  London,  Oct.  16,  1883.  J.  w.  D. 

SCHIRMER,  G.,  is  the  corporate  name  under 
which  is  carried  on  the  music-publishing  and 
trading  business  established  in  New  York  by 
Gustav  Schirmer,  and  which  has  attained  to  a 
place  among  the  largest  and  most  important  of 
its  kind  in  the  world.  Gustav  Schirmer,  bom 
in  Saxony  in  1829,  went  to  New  York  in  1837, 
and  entered  the  music -shop  of  Seharfenberg 
and  Luis.  In  1854  he  became  the  manager 
of  Breusing's  music  business,  which  had  been 
founded  in  1848  by  Kcrksieg  and  Breusing. 
In  1861,  with  B.  Beer,  he  took  over  this  business, 
which  was  then  carried  on  under  the  name  of 
Beer  &  Schirmer,  when  Schirmer  obtained  com- 
plete control.  Under  his  management  it  steadily 
increased  in  standing  and  influence.  Gustav 
Schirmer  died  in  1898  in  Eisenach,  while 
journeying  in  Germany  in  the  hope  of  restoring 
his  health.  In  the  same  year  the  business  was 
incorporated  by  his  heirs,  and  its  management 
undertaken  by  his  two  sons  Rudolph  K.  and 
Gustave  Schirmer  (the  latter  died  July  16, 1907), 
who  extended  it  still  further  in  importance, 


266     SCHLAGINSTRUMENTEN 


SCHLICK 


especially  the  department  of  publication.  The 
iinn  has  a  large  engraring  and  printing  plant 
of  its  own,  being  one  of  the  few  maintained  bv 
American  publishing-houses.  The  catalogue  of 
G.  Schirmer  numbered  about  18,000  active  titles 
in  1906.  Among  the  most  important  of  its 
publications  are  the  Library  of  Musical  Classics, 
comprising  about  850  numbers  and  a  series  of 
modem  operas  in  vocal  score  with  analytical 
and  historical  prefaces  written  by  the  foremost 
musical  writers  of  the  United  States.  G.  Schirmer 
has  published  the  works  of  many  American  com- 
posers, including  Dudley  Buck,  George  W. 
Chadwick,  Arthur  Whiting,  Henry  Holden 
Hiias,  Horatio  W.  Parker,  Ethelbert 
Nevin,  and  especially  Charles  Martin  Loeff- 
LER.  The  literary  publications  of  the  house 
include  theoretical  works  by  Dr.  Percy  Goet- 
schius.  Dr.  Theodore  Baker,  and  others.  It 
established  and  maintained  for  many  years  the 
principal  circulating  music  library  in  the  United 
States  ;  but  this  was  transferred  in  1906  to  the 
Institute  of  Musical  Art  r.  a. 

SCHLAGINSTRUMENTEN.  Instruments 
of  percussion,  such  as  drums,  cymbals,  tam- 
bourine, etc. 

SCHLEIFER.     See  Slide. 

SCHLEPPEN.  To  drag.  A  frequent  direc- 
tion in  modem  scores  is  *  Nicht  schleppend  ' — 
Don't  drag ! 

SCHLESINGER.  A  well-known  musical- 
publishing  house  in  Berlin.  It  was  founded  ill 
1795  by  Adolf  Martin  Scmlesinger,  a  man 
of  original  character  and  great  ability.  Among 
the  principal  works  issued  by  him  was  the 
edition  of  Bach's  *  Matthew  Passion,'  one  of  the 
fniits  of  Mendelssohn's  revival  of  it,*  and  an 
astonishingly  bold  undertaking  for  those  days 
— which  Schlesinger  brought  out,  according  to 
his  favourite  expression,  *  for  the  honour  of  the 
house.'  It  was  announced  in  Sept  1829,  and 
published  soon  afterwards  both  in  Full  and  PF. 
score.  Ho  also  founded  the  Berliner  Allg,  mus. 
Zeituwgj  which  under  the  editorship  of  A.  B. 
Marx  had  for  seven  years  (1824-30)  much  in- 
fluence for  good  in  Germany.  [See  vol.  iii. 
p.  685a.]     He  died  in  1839. 

His  second  son,  HEiNRicH(bom  1807),  carried 
on  the  business  till  his  death,  Dec.  14,  1879. 
He  founded  the  Echo  in  1851,  a  periodical 
which  remained  in  his  hands  till  1864,  when 
it  was  sold  to  R.  Lienau. 

The  eldest  son,  Moritz  Adolf,  left  Berlin, 
and  in  1819  entered  the  bookselling  house  of 
Bossange  p^re  at  Paris.  In  1 823  he  endeavoured 
to  found  a  similar  business  for  himself.  Police 
difficulties  prevented  him  from  carrying  out  his 
intention,  and  he  founded,  in  1834,  a  music 
business  instead,  which  for  many  years  has  had 
the  lead  among  French  publishers,  and  is  now 
nearly  as  famous  as  Paris  itself.  He  brought 
his  German  tastes  with  him,  and  an  unusual 

1  Maroh  U .  1889.    B«e  Marx's  Srtnnerungen.  il.  pp.  BO.  97. 


degree  of  enterprise.  His  first  serious  effort  uras 
an  edition  of  Mozart's  operas  in  PF.  soore,  for 
which  Horace  Yemet  designed  the  title-pa^. 
This  was  followed  by  editions  of  the  oomplete 
works  of  Beethoven,  Weber,  Hummel,  etc., 
and  a  *  Collection  de  chefs  d'oeuvre  *  in  twenty- 
four  vols.  He  published  also  the  full  scores  of 
Meyerbeer's  *  Robert,'  and  *Les  Huguenots'; 
Hal^vy's  'L'&lair,'  *La  Juive,'  'Les  Monsqne- 
taires, '  *  La  Reine  de  Chypre, '  *  Guido  e  t  Ginevra, ' 
'  Charles  VI '  ;  Donizetti's  *  La  Favorite  '  ; 
Berlioz's  '  Symphonie  &ntastique,'  and  OTertare 
to  the  *  Camaval  Romain ' ;  the  arrangements 
of  Wagner ;  the  chamber -music  of  Onslow, 
Reissiger,  and  a  host  of  other  pieces  of  all 
descriptions,  for  which  the  reader  must  be  re- 
ferred to  the  catalogue  of  the  firm.  Amongst 
the  educational  works  the  '  M^thode  des 
M^thodes '  is  conspicuous.  On  Jem.  5,  1834,  he 
issued  the  first  number  of  the  OaseUe  Miuieale, 
which  in  a  few  months  was  united  to  the  Revne 
MttsvcdU  and  ran  a  useful  and  successful  course 
till  its  expiry  in  1880.  [See  ante,  p.  79.]  In 
1846  M.  Schlesinger  sold  the  business  to  MM. 
Brandus  and  Dufour,  and  retired  to  Badeii- 
Baden,  where  he  died  in  Feb.  1871.  o. 

SCHLICK,  Arnolt,  the  elder,  was  bom  in 
Bohemia  about  1 460.  Like  Paumann  of  Nurem- 
berg he  was  blind,  a  fine  organist,  and  a  Inte- 
player.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Hofkapelle 
at  Heidelberg  before  1511,  holding  the  post  of 
organist  to  the  Count  Palatine.  In  the  fourth 
book  of  the  Micrologus,  1517,  dedicated  to 
Schlick,  ^musioo  consumatissimo,  ac  Palatini 
Principis  organisteprobatiasimo,'  Ornithoparcus 
thus  apostrophises  him  :  *•  From  your  sentence 
no  man  will  enter  appeale  ;  because  there  is  no 
man  either  leameder,  or  subtiler  in  this  art, 
than  your  selfe,  who  besides  the  practise,  hast 
wisdome,  eloquence,  gentlenesse,  quicknesse  of 
wit,  and  in  all  kinds  of  musicke  a  divine 
industry,  and  further  the  knowledge  of  many 
other  sciences.  Thou  wantest  the  bodily 
lamp,  but  in  thy  mind  shineth  that  golden 
light ;  .  .  wherefore  not  only  by  thy  i^rinces, 
who  are  to  thee  most  gracious,  but  even  of  all 
men  (like  Orpheus  and  Amphion)  art  thou 
loved'  (Dowland's  translation,  1609).  Schlick 
himself  states  in  the  preface  to  his  ^Tabulatoren* 
that  he  made  tours  through  Germany  and 
Holland,  winning  much  renown  as  an  organist, 
and  that  he  was  in  Worms  in  1495,  at  the  time 
that  the  Reichstag  was  held  there.  Two  of 
Schlick's  works  are  still  in  existence,  the  first 
on  organs  and  organists,  the  second,  a  Tolume 
of  organ  and  lute  pieces  in  tablature.  The 
former  was  called :  *  Spiegel  der  Orgelmacher 
vnd  Organisten,  alien  Stifftcn  vnd  Kirchen  so 
Orgel  halten  oder  machen  lassen  hochniitzlich, 
duroh  den  hoohberiimpten  vnd  kunstreiohen 
meyster  Araolt  Schlicken  Pfalzgramschen 
Organisten  artlich  verfasst,'  etc.  (1511),  small 
4to,  30  pages  (*  Mirror  of  organ-builders  and 


SCHLICK 


SCHLOESSER 


267 


orgauists,  very  useful  to  all  foundations  and 
cbarches  which  possess  or  order  organs,  excel- 
lently composed  by  the  celebrated  and  gifted 
master,  A.  S.  organist  to  the  Palatinate ').  The 
only  copy  known  lacks  the  page  at  the  end  which 
vottld  have  giyen  the  name  of  the  publisher, 
but  there  is  little  doubt  that  it  was  printed  by 
Peter  Schoffer,  at  Mainz.  Eitner  reprinted  the 
whole  work  in  the  MomatahtfU  fUr  Musik- 
gtschUhJU,  1869,  givinga facsimile  of  theengraved 
title-page.  It  deals  with  the  materials  to  be  used 
for  the  construction  of  an  organ,  its  erection, 
ihe  timing  of  the  pipes,  and  other  technical  and 
theoretical  matters,  to  which  is  added  a  de- 
scription of  the  organs  then  in  existence,  and 
some  allusions  to  the  music  of  the  period. 
Mr.  A.  E.  Ellis,  in  his  paper  on  the  history  of 
musical  pitch,  read  before  the  Society  of  Arts, 
March  3,  1880,  referred  to  this  book  as  being 
of  great  use  in  showing  the  relation  between 
Tery  high  and  yery  low  church-pitch,  and  the 
method  of  tuning  before  the  invention  of 
the  mean-tone  temperament.  He  notes  also  the 
carious  fact  that  Schlick  recommended  both 
the  very  sharp  and  the  very  flat  pitch,  and  for 
the  same  reason,  consideration  of  the  con- 
venience of  both  singer  and  organist  using  the 
old  ecclesiastical  tones,  that  is,  consideration  of 
the  compass  of  the  voice  and  of  ease  in  Anger- 
ing.  This  appears  to  account  for  the  high  and 
low  pitches  in  the  earlier  period  of  church-pitch. 
8chlick'8  work  is  mentioned  in  Virdung's 
Umca  getutscfUf  1511  (see  Eitner's  reprint, 
page  E.  IV.  V.)  *  Dann  ich  neulich  ein  tractetlin 
iian  gelesen,  das  ist  der  spiegel  aller  organisten 
vnn  orgelmacher  intitulieri;  oder  genannt,  darin 
find  ich  in  dem  andem  capitel,  das  er  spricht  der 
organist  well  dann  per  fiotam  musicam  spilen, 
weste  der  selb  von  den  dreyen  geschlechten 
zn  Bagen  er  wurd  sye,  nit  fictam  musicam 
nennen,  dann  das  er  maynt  fictam  musicam  syn, 
daa  ist  cromaticum  genus  .  .  .  man  soil  ihn  aber 
verzeihen  dann  er  hat  es  iibersehen,  ists  augen 
schuld,  oder  der  spiegel  ist  dunckel  worden,' 
etc.  These  remarks  on  his  use  of  the  term 
'  musics  fieta '  did  not  at  all  please  Schlick,  and 
in  return  he  made  a  long  attack  on  Virdung 
in  his  preface  to  the  'Tabulaturen,*  published  the 
year  after  ;  there  are  only  two  copies  known  of 
this  important  work,  one  in  the  Leipzig  Stodt- 
Mbliothek,  the  other,  without  title-page,  is  in 
the  Bcrlm  Konigl.  Bibliothek.  The  full  title 
is:— 

I^WUtortnttlleherlohsMBng  mdlldleln  virdleorvelfiTnlKaten, 
!lu^^'  nit  nreten  ititDmi  m  swiekea  tii  die  drit  cbirtBii  slnKen. 
nncfa  on  g— mk  mit  drden.  ron  Amolt  Schlicken  Pfjilxaraniaehen 
(iicrAntlklMo  OrganUtcn  tabalirt,  vn  In  den  truck  In  d  vnpranR- 
Uichen  ftwlt  der  trockcnl  m  Xdnta  wie  hie  naoh  rolgt  verordnct 
ton  lut  pue)  Oetnickt  su  Ments  dnrcfa  Peter  Bchftffem.  Vff  8«nt 
x&tth«la  Abent.    Anno  1S12.  anuill  obL  4to,  83  |m«rm  oiinambend. 

It  contains  fourteen  organ  pieces,  twelve  songs 
^th  late  accompaniment,  and  three  pieces  for 
late.  Eitner  reprinted  (Monaishe/te,  1869)  all 
the  organ  and  two  lute  compositions.  They 
*t«  preceded  by  a  letter  from  Schlick's  son 


Amolt,  asking  his  father  to  make  him  a  col- 
lection of  organ  and  lute  music ;  it  is  dated 
St.  Catherine's  Day,  1511,  and  an  answer  from 
his  father  promising  to  do  so,  although  he  has 
become  blind,  is  dated  St  Andrew's  Day,  1611. 
Some  satirical  verses  about  Virdung  follow. 
Schlick's  method  of  arranging  songs,  some  with 
one -voice  part  and  two  lutes  accompanying, 
others  for  three  lutes  only,  is  noted  by  Ambros 
(Oeschiehte  der  Jfusik,  iii.  440)  as  being  rather  re- 
markable at  that  early  date.  Two  examples  were 
transcribed  and  published  by  "Wilhelm  Tappert 
(Sang  u.  Klemg  aus  alter  ZeUy  Berlin,  1906). 
Schlick's  volume  is  also  the  earliest  appearance 
in  print  of  organ  pieces  in  the  German  tablature, 
for  Ammerbach's  *  Tabulaturbuch '  was  not  pub- 
lished until  1571,  and  Bemh.  Jobin's  work  in 
1 572.  The  organ  pieces  are  all  taken  from  sacred 
vocal  compositions,  but  are  arranged  with 
intelligence  and  artistic  feeling,  and  with  a 
musicianly  touch  that  shows  a  genuine  sense 
of  instrumental  composition  ;  the  next  step  in 
advance  was  to  be  taken  later  on  by  Bnus, 
Willaert,  and  others,  in  their  *  Ricercari '  for  the 
organ  (Wasielewski,  Geschichte  der  Instru- 
mentalmunk  im  X  VI.  Jahrhundert,  1878).  No. 
10  from  'Tabulaturen,' an  organ  arrangement  in 
three-part  writing  of  *  Maria  zart,*  was  published 
in  A.  G.  Ritter's  Zur  Oesehichte  des  Orgelspieh, 
1884,  ii.  96.  In  the  Heilbronn  Gymnasial- 
bibliothek  is  a  MS.  part- book  with  the  Bass  only 
of  a  three-i)art  song  *Mi,  mi,'  by  Amolt  Schlick. 
A  manuscript,  Mus.  Theoret,  40,  57,  written 
between  1533  and  1540,  in  the  Berlin  Konigl. 
Bibliothek,  contains  a  treatise  De  miisica  poetica, 
which  has  been  ascribed  to  Amolt  Schlick  the 
younger,  because  of  the  initials  A.  S.  attached  to 
it.  It  is  described  by  H.  Bellermann  (Der 
CoTiirapunct,  1862,  p.  28)  who  gives  a  facsimile 
of  one  of  the  musical  examples  in  it,  a  four-part 
setting  by  Heinrich  Isaac ;  it  is  interesting 
because  of  the  different  parts  being  distin- 
guished by  different  colours,  the  soprano  and 
bass  being  written  in  red,  the  alto  in  green,  and 
the  tenor  in  black  ink.  c.  s. 

SCHLICK,  Rudolf,  a  doctor  of  medicine  who 
lived  in  Meissen,  published  the  following  work  : 
*  Rodholffi  Schlickii  E  Exercitatio,  qua  musices 
origo  prima,  cultus  antiquissimus,  dignitas 
maxima,  et  emolumenta,  quae  tam  animo  quam 
corjwri  humane  confert  summa,  breviter  ac 
dilucid^  exponuntur.  Spirae,  typis  Bemardi 
Albini,  1588,  8vo,  pp.  48.'  A  copy  is  in  the 
Bodleian  Library,  with  *Robertus  Burton, 
1600,'  on  the  fly-leaf,  probably  the  author  of 
the  Anatomy  of  Melancholy.  c.  8. 

SCHLOESSER,  Louis,  bom  at  Darmstadt 
in  1800,  learnt  music  there  from  Rinck,  and 
in  Vienna  from  Scy fried;  Salieri,  and  Mayseder. 
In  due  time  he  entered  the  Conservatoire  at 
Paris,  and  attended  the  violin  class  of  Kreutzer 
and  the  composition  class  of  Lesueur.  He 
then  went  to  Darmstadt  and  became  first  leader 


268 


SCHMELTZL 


SCHMITT 


and  then  condactor  of  the  Court  band.  His 
works  comprise  five  operas,  among  them  '  Das 
Leben  ein  Traum'  (1839),  and  'Die  Braut  des 
Herzogs '  (1847),  a  melodrama,  music  to  'Faust,' 
a  mass,  a  ballet,  and  a  quantity  of  instrumental 
music  of  all  descriptions.  He  died  at  Darmstadt, 
Nov.  17,  1886.  His  son,  Carl  Wilhblm 
Adolph,  was  bom  at  Darmstadt,  Feb.  1,  1830. 
He  was  educated  by  his  father,  and  in  1847 
established  himself  at  Frankfort.  In  1854  he 
went  to  England,  where  he  has  been  ever  since 
settled  in  London  as  an  esteemed  teacher.  He 
was  a  professor  at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music 
until  his  retirement  in  1 903.  He  has  published 
both  in  England  and  Germany  a  great  number 
of  PF.  works,  both  solos  and  duets  ;  including 
a  suite  dedicated  to  Cipriani  Potter,  and  a  set 
of  twenty-four  studies  ;  many  songs  and  vocal 
pieces,  and  has  many  larger  works  in  MS.  His 
'Schumann  Evenings'  in  1868  were  well  known, 
and  did  much  to  advance  the  knowledge  of 
Schumann  in  England.  o. 

SCHMELTZL,  or  SCHMELTZEL,  Wolf- 
GANG,  a  native  of  Kemnat  in  the  Upper 
Palatinate,  was  at  first  a  Protestant  cantor  at 
Amberg,  where  he  married,  but  eventually 
forsook  his  wife  and  children,  and  became  a 
Roman  priest  About  1540  he  was  a  school- 
master in  Vienna,  and  in  1544  issued  the  book 
by  which  he  is  known,  a  coUectionof  'Quodlibets' 
for  four  and  five  voices,  as  well  as  folk-songs  of 
the  time.  The  title  is  *  Outer  seltzamer  vnd 
kunstreicher  teutscher  Gesang,  sonderlich  etliche 
kiinstliche  Quodlibet,  Schlacht  (bei  Pa  via),  vnd 
dergleichen  mit  4  oder  5  stimmen.  .  .  .'  It 
was  printed  at  Nuremberg  in  four  part-books. 
Copies  are  at  Berlin,  in  the  British  Museum, 
and  elsewhere.  (See  the  Quellen-Lexikonf 
Eitner's  DeiUschcs  LUdj  vol.  i.  and  MmuUsliefte 
/.  Miunkgesch.  iii.  201.  A  long  account  of  the 
book  is  given  in  tlie  Sammelbdnde  of  the  IrU, 
Mils,  Get,  vi.  80,  by  Elsa  Bienenfeld.)       M. 

SCHMID,  Anton,  Custos  of  the  Hofbiblio- 
thek  in  Vienna,  born  at  Pihl,  near  Leipa  in 
Bohemia,  Jan.  30,  1787,  entered  the  Imi)erial 
Library  at  Vienna  in  1818,  became  Scriptor  in 
1819,  Custos  in  1844,  and  died  at  Salzburg, 
July  3,  1857.  His  department  as  a  writer 
was  the  history  and  literature  of  music  and 
hymns.  He  contributed  to  the  following 
works : — Dr.  Fei-dinand  Wolfs  Ucber  die  LaiSy 
Sequctizerit  und  Leicfic  (Heidelberg,  1841) ; 
Becker's  Darstellung  der  miisikaliscJien  Literatur 
(supplement,  Leipzig,  1839);  A.  Schmidt's 
Allg,  Wieiicr  vuisik,  Zcitung  (from  1842  to 
1848)  ;  Dehn's  Cdcilia  (from  1841  to  1848; 
Mayence,  Schott)  ;  and  the  Oesterreich  BlalUr 
fiir  Lit,  und  Kunst  (1844,  1845).  His  inde- 
pendent works  are  OUaviano  dei  Petrucci  of 
Foasombronej  the  invctilor  of  movable  nieinl  types 
for  printing  musiCf  atid  his  successors  (Vienna, 
Rohrmann,  1845)  ;  Joseph  Haydn  U7id  Nieolo 
Zingarellif  proving  that  Haydn  was  the  author 


of  the  Austrian  national  hynm  (Vienna,  Rohr- 
mann, 1847)  ;  Christoph  IFiMibald  RiOer  von 
Gluck  (Leipzig,  Fleischer,  1854)  ;  also  a  work 
on  chess,  TscfuUuranga-vidJd  (Vienna,  Ceroid, 
1847). 

To  Schmid  in  the  first  instance  is  due  the 
orderly  and  systematic  arrangement  of  the 
musical  archives  of  the  Hofbibliothek.  lu 
recognition  of  his  unwearied  industry  and 
research  he  was  made  a  member  of  many  learned 
societies  in  different  parts  of  £uro|)e.      c.  f.  p. 

SCHMIDT,  Bernhard.  See  Smith,  Beu- 
XARD  (*  Father  Smith  '). 

SCHMIDT,  Johann  Christoph.  See  Smith, 
John  Christopher. 

SCHMITT,  a  German  musical  family  founded 
by  a  Cantor  at  Obemburg  in  Bavaria.  His 
son  Aloys  was  bom  at  Erlenbach  on  the  Main, 
August  26,  1788,  and  taught  to  play  by  his 
father ;  he  then  learned  composition  from 
Andre  of  Offenbach,  and  in  1816  established 
himself  in  Frankfort  as  a  PF.  teacher.  After 
a  few  successful  years  there — during  which, 
among  others,  he  had  taught  Ferdinand  Hiller 
— and  much  travelling,  he  migrated  to  Berlin, 
then  to  Hanover,  where  he  held  the  jxwt  of 
Court  Organist  (1825-29),  and  lastly  back  to 
Frankfort,  where  he  died  July  25,  1866.  His 
reputation  as  a  teacher  was  great,  though  he 
had  a  passion  for  journeys,  and  his  pu])ils 
complained  of  his  frequent  absences.  He 
composed  more  than  100  works,  of  all  descrip- 
tions, including  masses,  four  operas,  two 
oratorios,  and  string  quartets,  besides  some 
useful  PF.  studies. 

His  brother  Jakob,  bom  at  Obemburg,  Nov. 
2,  1803,  was  a  pupil  of  Aloys.  He  settled  in 
Hamburg,  where  he  brought  out  an  opera 
(*  Alfred  der  Orosse ')  and  a  prodigious  amount 
of  music,  including  many  sonatas  for  the  pano, 
solo  and  with  violin,  variations,  three  books  of 
studies,  etc.,  in  all  more  than  800  works  ;  and 
died  June  1853. 

The  son  of  Aloys,  Georg  Aloys,  was  bom 
Feb.  2,  1827,  during  his  father's  residence  at 
Hanover.  Music  came  naturally  to  him,  but 
it  was  not  till  after  some  time  that  he  decided 
to  follow  it.  He  was  then  at  Heidelberg 
university,  and  put  himself  under  VoUweiler 
to  serious  study  of  counterpoint  His  first 
attempt  was  an  o^wretta  called  'Trilby,'  which 
was  performed  at  Frankfort  in  1850,  ^vith  great 
success.  He  then  passed  some  years  in  various 
towns  of  Germany,  and  at  length,  in  1856,  was 
called  by  Flotow  to  Schwerin  as  Court-ca]ii)ell- 
meister  ;  [he  retired  on  a  pension  in  1892,  and 
in  the  following  year  became  head  of  the  Mozart- 
verein  in  Dresden].  In  1 860  he  visited  London, 
and  played  with  ^clat  before  Queen  Victoria. 
He  wrote  operas,  music  to  plays,  and  orchestral 
and  other  works.  [He  edited  and  completed 
Mozart's  great  mass  in  C  minor  (1901)  ;  he  died 
at  Dresden,  Oct  15,  1902.]     Emma  Braxdrs, 


SCHNEIDER 


SCHNEIDER 


269 


now  Mme.    Engelmann,  the  eminent  pianist, 
was  his  pupil.  6. 

SCHNEIDER,  Georg  Abraham,  born  April 
9,  1770,  at  Darmstadt,  became  a  proficient  on 
the  hom,  studied  theory  with  Portmann,  whose 
danghter  he  afterwards  married.  He  was  suc- 
osasirely  oboist  in  a  Hessian  regiment,  horn- 
yUyer  inthe  court  bands  of  Darmstadt,  Schwerin, 
Rheinsbei^,  and  Berlin.  In  1812  or  1814  he 
imdertook  the  duties  of  theatrical  conductor  at 
Reval,  but  went  back  to  Berlin  in  1816,  and 
in  1820  was  made  capellmeister  of  the  court 
opera,  and  director  of  military  bands.  He  had 
a  rare  knowledge  of  musical  instruments  of  all 
kinds,  and  wrote  a  large  number  of  operettas, 
masses,  cantatas,  an  oratorio,  *  Die  Pilgrime  auf 
Golgotha,'  symphonies,  concertos,  and  chamber 
music  of  all  kinds.  (Quellen-Zexikon;  Rie- 
maun 8  Lexik&n,)  M. 

SCHNEIDER,  Johann  Christiak  Fkied- 
BiCH,  composer,  teacher,  and  conductor,  bom 
Jan.  3,  1786,  at  Alt-Waltersdorf,  near  Zittau, 
composed  a  symphony  at  the  age  of  ten.  In  1 708 
entered  the  Gymnasium  of  Zittau,  and  studied 
music  with  Schonfelder  and  Unger.  In  1804 
he  published  three  PF.  sonatas,  and  having 
entered  the  University  of  Leipzig  in  1 805  carried 
on  his  musical  studies  to  such  purpose  that  in 
1S07  ho  became  oi^nist  of  St.  Paul's,  in  1810 
director  of  the  Seconda  opera,  in  1812  organist 
of  the  Thomaskirche,  and  in  1817  director  at 
the  Stadt  Theater.  There  he  remained  tiU 
1821,  when  he  became  capellmeister  to  the  Duke 
of  Dessau,  whose  music  he  much  improved,  and 
founded  in  the  town  a  Singakademie,  a  school- 
master's choral  society,  and  a  Liedcrtafel.  In 
1829  he  founded  a  musical  Institute,  which 
succeeded  well,  and  educated  several  excellent 
musicians,  Robert  Franz  among  the  number. 
Schneider  was  also  an  industrious  composer,  his 
works  comprising  oratorios — 'Die  Hollenfahrt 
des  Messias '  (1810),  *  Das  Weltgcricht '  (1819), 
'Totenfeier*  (1821),  *Die  Siindfluth'  (1828), 
'Verlome  Paradies'  (1824),  'Jesu  Geburt' 
(1825),  *ChristU8  das  Kind,'  *Pharao,'  and 
*Gideon'  (1829),  *  Absalom*  (1830),  'Das 
befreite  Jerusalem '  (1886),  *  Salomonis  Tempel- 
ban'  (1836),  *  Bonif5azius '  (1837),  'Christus 
der  Erloser '  (1838), '  Gethsemane  und  Golgotha ' 
(1838) ;  14  masses  ;  Glorias  and  Te  Deums  ; 
25  cantatas  ;  5  hymns  ;  13  psalms,  7  operas  ; 
23  symphonies  ;  60  sonatas  ;  6  concertos  ;  400 
Lieder  for  men's  voices,  and  200  ditto  for  a 
single  voice — all  now  forgotten  except  the  men's 
part-songs.  Schneider  directed  the  musical 
festivals  of  Magdeburg  (1825),  Nuremberg 
(1828),Strasburg(1830),Halle(1830andl835), 
Halbentadt  (1880),  Dessau  (1834),  Wittenberg 
(1835),  Coethen  (1838  and  1846),  Coblenz  and 
Hamburg(1840),  Meissen (1841),  Zerbst (1844), 
and  Lub»3k  (1 847).  He  also  published  didactic 
works — EUmentarbuch  der  ffarmonie  und  Ton- 
9ekhnut{lS20)^  translated  into  English  (London, 


1828);  Forschule  der  Musik  (1827);  and 
Mandbuch  des  Organisttii  (1829-30).  The 
oratorio  of  the  '  Sundfluth '  was  translated  into 
English  as  *  The  Deluge '  by  Professor  E.  Taylor, 
published  in  London,  and  performed  at  the 
Norwich  Festival  of  1883. 

Schneider  was  a  doctor  of  music,  and  a  member 
of  the  Berlin  and  several  other  Academies.  He 
died  Nov.  23,  1853.  Some  traits  of  his  curious 
jealous  temper  will  be  found  in  Schubring's 
Reminiscences  of  Mendelssohn,  in  Daheim  for 
1866,  No.  26.  He  was  vexed  with  Mendelssohn 
for  his  revival  of  Bach's  Passion — but  the  feel- 
ing passed  away  ;  and  in  the  Signale  for  1866, 
Nos.  46,  47,  48,  there  are  eight  letters  (1829- 
1846  (translated  in  the  Musical  Worlds  Dec. 
29,  1866,  and  Jan.  5,  1867)  from  Mendelssohn 
to  him  showing  that  they  were  on  very  good 
terms.  When  Mendelssohn's  body  passed 
through  Dessau,  on  its  way  to  Berlin,  Schneider 
met  it  at  the  station,  with  his  choir,  and  a 
lament  was  sung,  which  he  had  purposely  com- 
posed, and  which  will  be  found  in  the  A.M.Z, 
for  1847,  No.  48.  f.  o. 

SCHNEIDER,  Johann  Gottlob,  the  cele- 
brated Dresden  organist,  brother  of  the  preced- 
ing, was  lx)m  at  Alt-Gersdorf,  Oct.  28,  1789. 
He  is  said  to  have  begim  to  learn  organ,  piano- 
forte, and  violin,  when  only  five.  At  twenty- 
two  he  was  organist  of  the  Leipzig  University 
church,  and  by  1820  was  recognised  as  one  of 
the  first  organists  living.  To  his  fine  plajring 
at  a  Magdeburg  Festival  in  1825  he  owed  his 
Dresden  appointment  of  Court  organist,  which 
he  held  till  his  death,  April  13,  1864.  From 
the  organ-loft  of  the  Hofkirche  he  made  his 
influence  felt ;  how  widely,  may  be  gathcrad 
from  the  mere  names  of  his  pupils,  amongst 
whom  were  Mendelssohn,  Schumann,  Liszt, 
Merkel,  Tbpfer,  Van  Eycken.  The  last  four 
were  amongst  the  thirty  old  pupils  who  com- 
posed and  presented  to  him  that  graceful  offering, 
the  *  Jubel  Album  fiir  die  Orgel,'  in  1861,  the 
fiftieth  year  of  his  artistic  career.  Schumann's 
studies  with  him  permanently  influenced  the- 
composer,  and  directly  inspired  or  helped  to- 
inspire  the  Pedal  Pianoforte  Studies,  and 
Fugues  on  the  name  of  Bach  ;  and  Mendelssohn 
confessed  a  like  obligation  and  admiration. 
Schneider's  reading  of  Bach — derived  straight 
from  him  by  direct  descent  in  only  three  re- 
moves— was  the  best  weapon  in  his  equipment 
as  a  teacher.  He  always  ended  a  lesson  by 
playing  one  of  the  great  fugues,  or,  especi- 
ally, 'organ  chorales.'  Sir  Herbert  Oakeley 
(Schneider's  last  pupil)  used  to  talk  much  of 
his  playing  of  these  compositions.  He  liked 
playing  some  of  *  the  48 '  on  his  deep- toned 
Silbermann  organ.  Mendelssohn  records  in 
one  of  his  letters  his  surprise  at  hearing  him 
play  the  D  major.  He  himself  used  to  tell  with 
pride  how  he  '  tried '  upon  Mendelssohn  and 
another  Professor  of  Music  the  B  flat  minor  of 


270 


SCHNELLER 


SCHOBERT 


the  second  book.  The  Professor  stood  by  his 
side  unmoved,  but  the  composer  of  *Eiyah' 
disappeared  into  a  remote  gallery,  to  hide  his 
emotion. 

Schneider's  few  published  works  include  an 
*  answer  of  thanks'  to  the  'Jubel  Album/  a 
masterly  Fantasia  and  Fugue  in  D  minor  (op.  8), 
etc.  E.  M.  o. 

SCHNELLER.  The  German  name  for  the 
short  trill  or  inverted  mordent — 


Written.     Plftyed. 

SCHNETZLER,  Johann.  See  Snetzler, 
John. 

SCHNORR  VON  CAROLSFELD,  Ludwio, 
bom  July  2,  1836,  at  Munich,  the  son  of  the 
painter  Julius  Schnorr  von  Carolsfeld,  first  re- 
ceived instruction  in  music  from  Julius  Otto 
at  Dresden,  where,  in  1846,  his  father  became 
director  of  the  Kuust  Akademie.  In  1 854  he  was 
for  a  short  time  at  the  Leipzig  Conservatorium, 
and  later  in  the  year  studied  for  the  stage  under 
Eduard  Devrient  at  Carlsruhe,  where  he  became 
engaged.  He  made  his  d^but  in  the  modest 
2iart  of  Napthali  in  M^hul's  *  Joseph,'  and  later 
made  a  great  success  as  Robert  (Meyerbeer). 
About  this  period  he  married  the  singer,  Malwina 
Garrigues  (born  Dec.  7,  1825).  On  leave  of 
absence,  he  sang  in  opera  at  Wiesbaden  and 
Frankfort,  and  at  festivals  at  Mainz  and  Diissel- 
dorf.  From  1860  to  1865  he  was  engaged  at 
Dresden,  where  he  increased  his  ^wpularity.  In 
1862  Waguer  heard  him  when  singing  at  Carls- 
ruhe as  Lohengrin,  and  was  so  struck  with  his 
performance  that  he  determined  to  confide  to 
him  the  part  of  Tristan  whenever  the  opera 
was  produced.  Schnorr  had  been  warmly  re- 
commended to  the  composer  earlier,  boUi  by 
Tichatschek  the  singer,  and  Devrient,  but  for  a 
time  Wagner  was  not  prepossessed  in  Schnorr 's 
favour,  on  account  of  his  unromantio  figure,  in 
fipite  of  his  talent  and  his  enthusiasm  for  Wagner 
and  his  music.  {Fide  'Meine  Erinnerungen 
an  L.  S.  v.  C.,'  Ncice  Zeitaehrift  fiir  Mu^k,  Nos. 
24  and  25,  1868.)  On  June  10^  1865,  Schnorr 
and  his  wife  created  the  parts  of  Tristan  and 
Isolde,  when  the  opera  was  produced  at  Munich, 
at  the  express  instance  of  the  composer.  Their 
leave  of  absence  being  limited,  they  returned  to 
Dresden,  July  15,  and  the  tenor  died  six  days 
after,  of  a  chill  and  rheumatism,  caught  at  the 
first  performance  of  the  opera.  He  was  a  clever, 
all-round  musician,  an  excellent  pianist  and 
extempore  player,  a  composer,  and  arranger  of 
Bongs  of  Bach,  Gluck,  and  the  old  Italian  school. 
He  was  also  a  painter  and  a  writer  of  poetry.  In 
1867  his  widow  published  a  volume  of  poems 
by  herself  and  her  husband.  After  his  death 
fihe  was  engaged  at  Hamburg,  and  finally  at 
Carlsruhe,  where,  on  her  retirement,  she  became 


a  teacher  of  singing.     She  died  at  the  Vinccn- 
tius  Hospital  there  on  Feb.  8,  1904.       a.  c 

SCHOBERLECHNER,  Franz,  born  at 
Vienna,  July  21,  1797.  Hummel  composed 
for  him  his  second  pianoforte  Conoerto,  in  C, 
which  he  performed  in  public  with  sucoess  when 
only  ten  years  old.  The  precocious  child  was 
taken  under  the  patronage  of  Prince  Esterhazy, 
and  sent  to  Vienna,  to  study  under  Forst^r. 
From  1814  he  travelled  in  Austria  and  Italy. 
While  at  Florence  he  composed  a  requiem,  and 
a  buffa  opera,  *I  Virtuosi  teati-alL'  In  the 
next  year,  having  been  appointed  chapel-master 
to  the  Duchess  of  Lucca,  he  wrote  *Gli  Ara^i 
nelle  Gallie,'  and  subsequently,  at  Vienna,  in 
1820,  *  Der  junge  Onkel.'  In  1823  he  went 
to  Russia.  He  seems  to  have  written  to  Beet- 
hoven, before  starting,  for  letters  of  introduc- 
tion, which  the  composer  refused.^  At  St. 
Petersburg  he  recommended  himself  to  dall* 
Occa,  a  professor  of  singing,  whose  daughter  he 
married  in  1824.  After  travelling  in  Germany 
and  Italy,  the  pair  returned  to  St.  Petersburg 
in  1827,  where  Mme.  Schoberlechner  waa  en- 
gaged for  three  years  at  the  Italian  Opera  at  a 
salary  of  20,000  roubles.  Her  husband  com- 
posed for  her  an  opera,  *  II  Barone  di  Dolzheim/ 
which  had  some  success.  In  1831  Schober- 
lechner retired  to  a  country  house  near  Florence. 
His  last  opera  waa  'Rossane,'  produced  at 
Milan,  Feb.  9,  1839.  He  died  at  Berlin  on 
Jan.  7,  1843. 

His  published  works  are  chiefly  for  the  piano- 
forte ;  a  list  of  them  is  to  be  found  in  Fi'tis's 
Bicfg,  d,  Mu9,     His  wife, 

Madame  Sophie  Schoberlechneb,  daughter 
of  Signer  dall'  Occa,  was  bom  at  St  Peteisbuiig 
in  1807.  Up  to  1827  she  appeared  only  in 
concerts,  but  was  then  engaged  at  the  Italian 
Opera  of  St.  Petersburg,  as  we  have  also  already- 
mentioned.  She  had  a  very  beautiful  voice, 
and  for  twelve  or  thirteen  years  sang  with 
unvarying  success  in  almost  all  the  principal 
towns  of  Germany  and  Italy.  In  1840  she 
left  the  stage,  retired  to  her  husband's  profierty 
in  Tuscany,  and  died  at  Florence  in  1863.  f.  a.  m. 

SCHOBERT,  or  CHOBERT  in  Mozart'sortho- 
graphy,2  a  player  on  the  harpsichord,  wliose 
sonatas  were  the  delight  of  our  great -grand- 
mothers. His  Christian  name  does  not  appear, 
and  little  is  known  of  his  biography.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  born  in  1720,  and  brought  up  at 
Strasburg.  He  was  at  one  time  organist  at  Ver- 
sailles, but  was  dismissed  for  negligence.  He 
settled  in  Paris  in  1 760,  in  which  year  his  first 
works  were  published  there,  where  he  was  in  the 
service  of  the  Prince  de  Conti.  On  the  oocaaion 
of  his  death,  August  1767,  Grimm,  no  mean 
judge  of  music,  inserts  in  his  Correspondence  a 
very  high  eulogium  on  his  merits  as  a  player. 
He  praises  him  for   *hiB   great   ability,   his 

>  Sm  Mote  to  Beetboren's  LM&n,  tmnlatod  hj  ImIj  Watlam^ 
Tol.  IL  p.  118. 
s  Sm  Letter.  Ort.  17, 1777. 


SCHCELCHER 


SCHCELCHER 


271 


brilliant  and  enchanting  execution,  and  an 
unequalled  fiusillty  and  clearness.  He  had  not 
the  genius  of  our  Eckard,  who  is  undoubtedly 
the  first  master  in  Paris ;  but  Schobert  was 
more  nniversally  liked  than  Eckard,  because 
be  was  always  agreeable,  and  because  it  is  not 
eTcry  one  who  can  feel  the  power  of  genius.' 
This  is  the  description  of  a  pleasant  brilliant 
player  who  never  soared  above  the  heads  of  his 
aadience.  He  left  seventeen  sonatas  for  PF. 
and  violin  ;  eleven  for  PF. ,  violin,  and  violon- 
cello ;  three  quartets  for  PF.,  two  violins,  and 
violoncelio  ;  six  ^sinfonies'  for  PF.,  violin,  and 
two  horns ;  six  PF.  concertos,  and  four  books 
of  sonatas  for  PF.  solo.^  These  seem  to  have 
been  originally  published  in  Paris,  but  editions 
of  many  of  them  appeared  in  London  between 
1770  and  1780.  The  particulars  of  his  death 
are  given  by  Grimm.  It  was  occasioned  by 
eatiDg  some  fungi  which  he  gathered  near  Paris, 
and  which  killed  his  wife,  his  children,  a  friend, 
the  servant,  and  himself.'  Schobert  and 
£ckard  are  alike  forgotten  by  modem  musicians. 
A  Minaetto  and  Allegro  molto  in  Kb  have  been 
leprinted  in  Pauer's  '  Alte  Meister '  (the  former 
has  been  *  freely  arranged'  in  L.  Godowsky's 
'RenaisBanoe '),  other  movements  in  the  'Maitres 
du  Clavecin,'  and  a  Sonata,  so-called,  in  the 
Moncal  Library.  These  pieces  are  tuneful  and 
graceful,  but  very  slight  in  construction,  the 
banuonies  consisting  chiefly  of  alternations  of 
tonic  and  dominant,  seldom  in  more  than  three 
I^arts,  often  only  in  two.  Bumey  {Hist,  iv, 
591,  597)  remarks  that  his  music  is  easentiAlly 
harpsichord  music,  and  that  he  was  one  of  the 
few  composers  who  were  not  influenced  by 
Emannel  Bach.  o. 

SCHCELCHER,  Victor,  French  writer  and 
politician,  son  of  a  manufacturer  of  china,  was 
bom  in  Paris,  July  21,  1804,  educated  at  the 
College  Louis  le  Grand,  and  well  known  as  an 
ultra  •  republican.  On  the  accession  of  the 
£mperor  Napoleon  III.  he  was  expelled  both 
from  France  and  Belgium,  but  took  refuge  in 
London,  where  he  brought  out  his  Histoire  des 
crima  du  2  Dioembre  (1853),  and  an  English 
IttRiphlet  entitled  Dangers  to  England  of  the 
AUianee  with  the  men  of  the  Coup  d'etat  (1 854). 

SchGelcher  remained  in  England  till  August 
1870,  returning  to  Paris  immediately  before  the 
BeTolation  of  Sept.  4.  As  staff-colonel  of  the 
(larde  Xationale  he  commanded  the  Legion  of 
Artillery  throughout  the  siege  of  Paris.  After 
<fui.  31,  1871,  he  was  elect^  to  the  AssembUe 
NationaJe  by  the  Department  of  the  Seine, 
Martinique,  and  Cayenne,  and  sat  for  Martinique 
tiU  elected  a  life-senator  (Dec.  16,  1876). 

His  claim  to  a  place  in  this  work,  however,  is 
u  a  distingnisheid  amateur.  His  devotion  to 
«t  of  all  kinds  was  proved  by  his  articles  in 
l'AHi3U(m2),  and  La  Jteme de  Paris  (1833), 

1  WeitamDii.  0«teftlek««  dea  Ctontor^iMf. 
8  OrinuD  (1I0W  ad.).  tIL  488. 


and  he  made  during  his  travels  a  most  interest- 
ing collection  of  foreign  musical  instruments. 
His  long  stay  in  England  had  a  still  more  i-e- 
markable  result  in  his  enthusiasm  for  Handel. 
Up  to  1850  only  the  *  Messiah '  and  a  few  other 
works  of  Handel  had  been  given  in  Paris,  but 
very  spasmodically ;  M.  Schoelcher  resolved  to 
do  something  to  remove  this  reproach  from 
France.  He  accordingly  made  a  collection  of 
Handel's  works,  and  of  books  and  pamphlets 
bearing  on  his  life  and  music,  a  list  of  which  he 
gives  in  the  beginning  of  his  book.  To  tlie 
autographs  in  Buckingham  Palace  and  tlie 
Fitzwilliam  Museum  at  Cambridge,  and  to  the 
copies  by  Smith  formerly  in  possession  of  Mr. 
H.  B.  Lennaixi,  he  obtained  access,  and  thus 
provided,  published  The  Life  of  Handel^  hy 
Victor  Schaskher,  London,  Triibner,  8vo,  1867. 
The  author  was  materially  assisted  by  Mr. 
Rophino  Lacy,^  whose  labours  are  amply 
acknowledged  in  the  preface  (p.  xxii).  The 
work  was  written  by  M.  Schcelcher  in  French, 
and  translated  by  James  Lowe.  It  contains 
much  information  beyond  what  is  indicated  in 
the  title,  especially  with  regard  to  Italian  opera 
and  music  in  general  in  England  during  the 
18th  century.  The  French  MS.,  Edndel  et  son 
temps,  was  handed  over  to  La  France  MusfUale, 
which  (August  19,  1860)  published  the  fh-st  four 
chapters,  and  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  (Nov. 
2,  1862),  but  there  broke  off,  doubtless  for 
political  reasons.  The  MS.  was  supposed  to 
have  been  destroyed,  till  May  26,  1881,  when 
it  was  offered  for  sale  by  M.  Charavay,  and  at 
once  bought  for  the  library  of  the  Consei-vatoire, 
thus  completing  M.  Schcclcher's  magnificent 
gift  (Nov.  1872)  of  all  the  works,  in  print  or 
MS.,  used  by  him  in  preparing  the  book,  and 
his  collection  of  foreign  instruments.  He  later 
added  a  quantity  of  music  and  rare  books  bear- 
ing on  the  history  of  Italian  opera  in  London, 
and  on  singing  and  pianoforte-playing,  in  the 
United  Kingdom.  TTie  Fonds  Schaleher,  as  it 
is  called,  contains  in  all  600  volumes  uniformly 
bound  with  the  initials  of  the  donor,  and  has 
already  been  of  immense  service  to  French 
artists  and  musicologists,  whose  knowledge  of 
the  madrigal  writers  and  pianists  of  the  English 
school,  and  indeed  of  Handel  himself,  is  as  a 
rule  but  imperfect.  [Schcelcher  died  at  the 
house  of  a  friend  at  Horville  (Seine-et-Oise), 
Dec  24,  1898.]  g.  c. 

M.  Schcelcher's  work  is  veiy  inadequate  to 
its  purpose.  The  author  was  no  musician,  and 
was  therefore  compelled  to  dei)end  on  the  labours 
and  judgment  of  another.  His  verdicts  are  de- 
formed by  violent  and  often  ludicrous  partisan- 
ship ;  and  his  style,  which  is  extremely  French, 
has  had  but  small  assistance  from  his  trans- 
lator.^    No  man  can  write  a  serious  book  on  a 

s  M.  Schcelcher's  •Utement  m  to  Hr.  iMOfm  aMlctaaoe  dunild 
mateiiAlly  modify  out  inferenon  from  hU  account  of  hliown  part 
In  the  examination  of  Handel's  M88.,  p.  xxL 

«  Who  did  not  do  hla  work  well.    Instead  of  modifying  the 


272 


SCHONBERGER 


SCHOLA  CANTORUM,  THE 


great  subject  without  its  being  of  some  value, 
and  Schoelcher's  dates  and  lists  are  alone  enough 
to  make  the  student  grateful  to  him ;  it  is  a 
great  pity  that  M.  Schoelcher's  original  French 
work  is  not  published.  g. 

SCHONBERGER,  Benno,  bom  at  Vienna, 
Sept.  12,  1863,  was  a  pupil  of  Anton  Door  for 
piano,  Bruckner  for  counterpoint,  and  V olkmann 
for  composition,  at  the  Vienna  Conservatorium, 
until  1874,  when  he  played  at  recitals,  and 
with  the  Hellmesberger  Quartet.  He  went  for 
a  time  to  study  with  Liszt,  and  in  1878  under- 
took an  extended  tour  in  Russia,  Germany, 
Austria,  and  Belgium.  From  1880  to  1885 
he  taught  in  Vienna,  and  after  a  journey  to 
Sweden  in  1886  settled  in  London,  making  his 
first  appearance  at  a  recital  of  his  own,  in 
January  1887.  Since  then  he  has  held  an 
honourable  place  among  the  pianists  who 
appear  regularly  in  London,  and  his  interpreta- 
tions of  the  classics  are  always  sound  and  in- 
teresting, while  his  tone  and  technique  are  of 
remarkable  excellence.  He  went  to  America 
on  tour  in  1894.  Of  late  years  he  has  appeared 
but  rarely,  owing  to  ill-health  ;  but  he  is  a 
diligent  and  successful  teacher  of  his  instrument. 
He  has  published  numerous  piano  pieces  and 
songs.     (Baker's  Dictionary,  etc.)  M. 

SCHONE  MINKA.  The  name  by  which 
a  certain  very  popular  Ruthenian  or  Little 
Russian  song  is  generally  known.  (The  music 
and  original  words  are  given  by  Prach,  Sobranie 
russkikh  narodnuikh  pyesen,  end  of  vol.  i.,  and 
the  literal  German  version  in  Fink,  Musika- 
lischer  HaiisschatZt  No.  157.) 

Y«-kb»TKo.sak     MDn-nft.l,       Ska  •  lal  dlT-chl- 


Bin  K»«ak  ritt     in  dtn    Krleg.     BBgtdamlCibl-ohen 
nft  pro  •  shchai ;    Vai     ko  -  ni  -  ki        to  -  ro  •  nen  -  kl 


Le  •  be  -  wohl ;      Nun,  Ilir  mel  •  ne      lie  -  ben  Bftp-pen, 
Na     si  -  la  -  gtt   -   lai.  Po-stoi,  po-stol, 


lAQ-fet  WM    ihr     kOnnt.  Wart  doch.  wart  dooh, 

ko  •  sa  •  che,  fVo-ya  dlv  -  chl  •  na  pla  -  che, 


Wenn  du  mioh  nun  aucb  Terlltnnwit.  Den-ke  doch  an     mlch. 

It  is  marked  by  perfect  regularity  of  rhythm 
and  absence  of  certain  eccentricities  noted  in 
the  article,  SoNO,  as  common  in  the  Cossack 
and  Little  Russian  songs  ;  and  the  words  are  a 
dialogue  in  rhymed  verse.  It  is  an  interesting 
instance  of  a  Volkslied  of  one  country  becoming 

natural  over-exuberance  of  the  author  he  haa  rather  exaggerated  it, 
and  haa  allowed  a  number  of  eentenoee  to  paae  which  no  lltataiT 
uian  of  any  ptetenaion  should  hare  written. 


domesticated  in  the  same  capacity  in  another, 
and  also  of  the  extraordinary  transformation 
which  the  song  may  undergo  in  the  process. 
A  very  loose  imitation  of  the  words  of  this  song, 
beginning  '  Schone  Minka  ich  muss  seheiden,  * 
was  published  by  the  German  poet  Ch.  A.  Tiedge 
in  1808,  and  this,  with  the  melody  much  altered, 
is  now  to  be  found  in  most  collections  of  German 
Volkslieder  without  notice  of  theSlavonic  source. 
J.  N.  Hummel  lias  made  this  air  (rather  iu  its 
oiiginal  than  in  the  German  form)  the  snbject 
of  *  Adagio,  Variazionen  und  Rondo  iiber  ein 
russisches  Thema,'  for  PF.,  violin,  and  violon- 
cello, op.  78,  and  Weber  wrote  a  set  of  brilliant 
variations  for  pianoforte  on  the  same  theme,  r.  m. 

SCHOLA  CANTORUM,  THE,  an  important 
institution  founded  in  1 896  in  Paris  by  Charles 
BoRDES,  the  famous  director  of  the  '  Chanteurs 
de  Saint-Gervaifl,*  Alexandre  Guilmant,  and 
Vincent  d'Indt.  Its  first  object  was  the 
execution  of  plain -song  after  the  Gregorian 
tradition,  and  the  revivtd  of  music  of  the  period 
of  Palestrina,  The  beginnings  were  very 
modest,  only  twenty-one  pupils  attending  the 
first  course;  but  in  1900  its  growth  had  been 
so  rapid  that  it  was  foimd  necessary  to  transfer 
it  from  the  original  premises  in  the  Rue  Stanislas, 
to  the  large  building  it  now  occupies  in  the 
Rue  Saint  Jacques,  formerly  the  Hdtel  des  B^ne- 
dictins  Anglais,  where  the  remains  of  the  ezUed 
James  II.  of  England  were  deposited. 

It  is  now  a  superior  high-class  music-school, 
with  more  than  800  pupils  of  both  sexes,  who 
receive  a  thorough  musical  education,  founded 
(whatever  may  be  the  ultimate  direction  of  their 
studies)  upon  a  knowledge  of  plain-song,  litur- 
gical melodies,  and  of  the  religious  music  of  the 
polyphonic  period.  The  course  of  training  is 
wisely  divided  into  two  sections,  one  concerned 
solely  with  technique  and  the  other  with  style 
and  the  application  of  technique  to  art.  At  the 
monthly  concerts,  directed  and  prepared  by 
M.  Vincent  d'Indy,  the  head  of  the  institution, 
the  pupils  have  opportunities  for  becoming  inti- 
mately acquainted  with  the  music  of  the  centuries 
preceding  the  19th.  Complete  performances 
are  given  of  works  rarely  to  be  heeutl  elsewhere 
in  Paris ;  Bach  has  been  repi-esentod  by  more 
than  20  of  the  church  cantatas,  the  Christmas 
Oratorio,  all  his  concertos,  the  Passion  according 
to  St.  John,  and  the  B  minor  Mass  ;  Gluck,  by 
*Alceste,'  *Armide,*  *Iphig^nie  en  Aulide'; 
Monte verde  by  *Orfeo,'  and  *  L*  Incoronazione 
di  Poppea.'  Numberless  works  by  such  old 
French  masters  as  Cl^rambault,  Charpentier, 
Dumont,  Leclair,  Lalande,  etc.,  have  been  re- 
vived, as  well  as  Rameau's  'I^rdanus,'  *Hip- 
polyte  et  Aricie,'  *Zoroastre,'  *  Castor  et  Pollux.' 
There  are  a  certain  number  of  bursaries  or  scholar- 
ships connected  w^ith  the  institution,  and  by  an 
ingenious  system  the  fees  due  from  the  pupils 
are  in  many  oases  balanced  by  the  fees  they  earn 
in  taking  part  in  the  concerts.  There  is  a  <  section 


SCHOLZ 


SCHOTT 


273 


de  propagande '  oonMed  to  M.  Bordes,  who  has 
foimded  afiiliated  sodeties  at  Avignon,  Lyons, 
tfaneilles,  Bordeaux,  Poitiers,  Nancy,  etc. 
The  'bureau  d'edition'  connected  with  the  school 
has  done  yeiy  useful  work  in  bringing  out  an 
'Anthologie  des  Maitres  primitifs,'  'Les  Ar- 
chives des  Maitres  de  TOrgne,'  'lies  Concerts 
Spirituels, '  acoUection  of  modem  vocal  and  oi^an 
music,  and  '  Le  Chant  Populaire.'  An  '  ^ition 
mutaelle '  of  the  compositions  of  the  younger 
men  is  intended  to  assure  to  the  composers  the 
profit  on  the  sale  and  performance  of  their  works. 
The  school  also  publishes  a  monthly  organ  Les 
TabieUes  de  la  Scholar  which  chronicles  the 
Tvioas  doings  of  the  institution.  6.  f. 

SCHOLZ,  Bernuard  £.,  bom  March  80, 
1835,  at  Mainz,  studied  the  piano  with  Ernst 
Pauer  (at  that  time  Director  of  the  Liedertafel 
in  that  city)  and  theory  with  S.  W.  Dehn, 
became  teacher  of  theory  in  the  Royal  School 
of  Music  at  Munich  in  1856,  was  CapellmeiBter 
at  the  Hanover  Court  Theatre  from  1859  till 
1865,  when  he  went  to  live  in  Berlin,  until  he 
vas  summoned  to  Breslau  in  1871  as  Director 
of  the  Orcheeterverein.  On  April  1,  1888,  he 
became  RafiTs  successor  as  Director  of  Dr. 
Hoch's  Conservatorium  at  Frankfort.  There 
he  met  with  much  opposition,  and  in  spite  of 
endless  intrigue  succeeded  in  ensuring  a  pros- 
perous future  for  the  Conservatorium.  Since 
1SS4  he  has  also  directed  the  Gesangvercin 
founded  in  Mainz  by  Fried.  Wilhelm  Riihl. 

Many  compositions  have  been  written  by 
BemhardScholz,  including  songs,  string  quartets 
(opp.  46  and  48),  and  a  quintet  (op.  47),  a 
piano  concerto,  a  symphony  in  B|^  (op.  60) 
entitled  '  Malinconia,'  some  pieces  for  orchestra, 
■olos,  and  chorus,  'Das  Siegesfest,'  'Das  Lied 
render  Glocke, '  overtures  to  Goethe's  '  Iphigenie ' 
and  'Im  Freien,'  a  requiem,  and  the  operas 
'Carlo  Rosa*  (Munich,  1858);  '  Zietensohe 
Hosaien'  (Breslau,  1869) ;  'Morgiane'  (Munich, 
1870);  '  Genoveva '  (Nuremberg,  1876);  'Der 
Trompeter  von  Sakkingen  *  (Wiesbaden,  1877)  ; 
'Die  vomehmen  Wirte'  (Leipzig,  1888); 
'Ingo*  (Frankfort-a.-M.,  1898);  and  'Anno 
1757 '  (Berlin,  1903).  H.  v.  H. 

SCHOP,  or  SCHOPP,  Johann,  a  skilful 
player  on  the  lute,  violin,  and  trombone,  who 
entered  the  court  band  at  Wolfenbiittel  in 
1615,  was  a  violinist  at  the  Danish  court  in 
1618-19  (according  to  one  account  he  went  to 
Denmark  in  1615,  so  that  his  stay  at  Wolfen- 
bdttel  must  have  been  very  short),  and  in 
1621  became  director  of  the  Ratsmusik  at 
Hambnrg,  being  appointed  later  on  organist 
to  the  town  and  to  the  church  of  St.  James. 
He  died  about  1664  or  1665.  Although  he 
was  chiefly  renowned  as  an  instrumentalist 
(Mattheson  speaks  of  him  as  incomparable  in 
his  way),  he  is  at  present  known  mainly  as 
a  composer  of  chorale -times,  in  virtue  of  his 
contributions  to  Rist*s  hymn-book,  published  in 

VOL.  TV 


1 6  4 1  as  '  Himmlische  Lieder. '  No  copy  seems  to 
exist  of  his  '  Neue  Paduanen,  Galliarden,  AUe- 
manden,'  published  in  six  parts  at  Hamburg  in 
1683-40  ;  his  '  Geistliche  Concerten '  appeared 
in  1648,  and  many  occasional  compositions, 
such  as  congratulatory  odes  on  weddings,  are 
extant.  Besides  Rist's  book,  already  alluded 
to,  the  following  contain  tunes  by  Schop :  Rist's 
'  Frommer  und  gottseliger  Christen  allUlgliche 
Hausmusik '  (1654),  Philip  von  Zesen's  'Jugend- 
und  Liebes-Flammen,'  1651,  and  1658,  and 
from  these  books  the  melodies  were  copied  into 
later  collections.    {QuellenrLexUcon,  etc.)       M. 

SCHOTT,  Anton,  bom  June  25,  1846,  at 
Castle  Stauifeneck  in  the  Swabian  Alps,  was 
educated  at  the  military  academy  at  Ludwigs- 
burg,  Wiirtemberg,  and  served  as  an  artillery 
officer  through  the  war  of  1866.  Some  time 
after,  his  voice  attracted  the  attention  of  Pischek, 
and  of  Frau  Schbbebt,  from  the  latter  of  whom 
he  had  much  instruction  preparatory  to  his 
appearance  on  the  stage.  On  May  8,  1870,  Herr 
Schott  made  his  d^but  at  Frankfort,  as  Max  in 
'  Der  Freischutz, '  with  such  success  that  he  deter- 
mined to  abandon  the  army  in  favour  of  music, 
though  prevented  for  a  time  by  the  outbreak 
of  the  war  of  1870,  through  which  he  served 
and  obtained  his  captaincy.  At  the  end  of  1 8 7 1 
he  was  engaged  at  Munich,  and  subsequently 
at  Berlin,  Schwerin,  and  Hanover.  At  the 
last  place  he  created  the  part  of  Benvenuto 
Cellini  on  the  revival  of  Berlioz's  opera  there 
under  Biilow.  He  sang  in  England,  June  16, 
1879,  at  piano  recitals  given  by  Dr.  von  Billow 
at  St.  James's  Hall,  and  at  a  New  Philharmonic 
concert,  in  all  which  he  was  well  received.  He 
appeared  Jan.  10,  1880,  at  Her  Majesty's 
Theatre  (Carl  Rosa),  as  Rienzi,  and  afterwards 
as  Lohengrin,  with  only  moderate  success,  owing 
to  his  £aulty  intonation.  He  had  a  fine  presence 
and  a  good  voice.  He  received  further  instruc- 
tion from  Blume,  and  created  the  part  of  Azim 
in  Stanford's  *  Veiled  Prophet '  on  Feb.  8,  1881, 
at  Hanover.  In  1882  he  sang  with  Neumann 
in  Wagner's  company  in  Italy,  and  in  1884  in 
Leopold  Damrosch's  company  in  America.  He 
afterwards  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  concert- 
singing.  In  his  day  he  was  considered  one  of 
the  best  *  heroic  tenors  *  in  Germany.      A.  c. 

SCHOTT  (B.  Schott's  Sohne),  the  well- 
known  firm  of  music-publishers  at  Mainz.  This 
business,  the  largest  of  the  kind  except  Breitkopf 
k  Hartel's,  was  founded  in  1778  by  Bsrnhard 
ScHOTT,  and  carried  on  after  his  death  in  1817 
by  his  sons  Andreas  (bom  1781,  died  1840), 
and  Johann  Joseph  (bom  1782,  died  1855), 
who  in  the  early  part  of  the  19th  centuiy  set 
up  a  house  of  their  own  at  Antwerp  (afterwards 
removed  to  Bmssels)  which  gave  them  an  ad- 
vantage both  in  suppressing  pirated  editions, 
and  in  dealing  with  the  French  and  Italian 
composers  then  in  vogue.  In  1838  they  founded 
a  branch  in  London,  superintended  by  a  third 

T 


274 


SCHOTTISCHE 


SCHRADIECK 


brother,  Adam  (who  afterwards  was  a  band- 
master in  Canada  and  India,  dying  in  the  latter 
country),  and  conducted  vdih  great  success  since 
1849  by  J.  B.  Wolf  (bom  1816,  died  1881), 
and,  since  his  death,  by  Mr.  Carl  Volkert. 
Another  branch  in  Paris  soon  followed.  Peter, 
a  younger  brother  of  Franz  Philipp,  and  grand- 
son of  Bernhard,  lived  in  Brussels  and  managed 
the  business  of  the  branches  there  and  in  Paris, 
forwarding  at  the  same  time  the  circulation  of 
the  Mainz  publications.  He  died  Sept  20, 
1894,  in  Paris.  Besides  these  four  independent 
houses  the  firm  has  depOts  in  Leipzig,  Rotterdam, 
and  New  York.  Franz  Philipp  (bom  1811), 
grandson  of  Bernhard,  took  part  in  the  business 
from  1825,  and  managed  it  after  the  death  of 
his  father  Andreas,  first  in  partnership  with  his 
uncle  Johann  Joseph,  and  after  his  death  by 
himself.  Since  his  death  in  Milan  in  1874  the 
business  has  been  carried  on  with  the  old 
traditions  by  Peter  Schott  (a  son  of  the 
Brussels  Peter),  Franz  von  Landwehr  (a 
nephew  of  the  family),  and  Dr.  L.  Strecker. 
The  Schotts  have  been  music-publishers  to  the 
Court  since  1824. 

At  a  time  when  the  book  and  music  trade 
was  regulated  by  no  fixed  laws,  the  correct  and 
elegant  editions  of  Mainz  found  a  ready 
entrance  into  foreign  countries,  and  the  firm 
was  thus  stimulated  to  keep  ahead  of  rivals  by 
making  constant  improvements  in  music-print- 
ing and  engraving.  They  were  the  firat  to  use 
lithography  for  this  purpose,  an  important 
turning-point  in  the  printing  of  music  Their 
copyright  publications  now  amount  to  over 
23,000,  including  Beethoven's  latest  quartets, 
Ninth  Symphony,  and  Mass  in  D,  nearly  all 
the  operas  of  Donizetti,  Rossini,  Adam,  and 
Auber,  most  of  Rink's  organ-music,  *  der  Choral- 
freund,'  in  nine  volumes  ;  *  &ole  pratique  de  la 
modulation,'  op.  99 ;  'Gesangstudien'  (vocalises, 
m6thode  de  chant,  etc.)  by  Bord^e,  Bordogni, 
Concone,  Fetis,  Gavaud^,  Garcia,  Lablache,  Abbe 
Mainzer,  Rossini,  Rnbini,  Yaccaj,  etc.  To  come 
to  later  times,  Wagner's  'Meistersinger,'  'Ring 
des  Nibelimgen,'  atid  *  Parsifal.'  The  establish- 
ment has  been  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  a 
printing-offici;  (where  have  been  printed,  among 
others,  Gottfried  Weber's  theoretical  works,  the 
periodical  CdHlia,  1824-48,  etc.),  and  in  1829 
of  a  piano  factory,  which,  however,  was  given 
up  in  1860  on  account  of  the  extension  of  the 
main  business. 

The  Schotts,  besides  innumerable  services  to 
art  and  artists,  have  done  good  work  in  a  smaller 
circle  by  fostering  music  in  Mainz  itself. 
Franz  and  his  wife  Betty  {n^e  von  Braunrasch, 
born  1820,  died  1875)  left  a  considerable  sum 
for  the  maintenance  of  a  permanent  orchestra 
and  conductor  of  eminence,  in  order  that  Mainz 
might  hold  its  own  in  music  with  the  richer 
cities  of  the  Rhine  provinces.  c.  f.  p. 

SCHOTTISCHE   ('The    Scotch  dance'),    a 


round  dance  very  similar  to  the  polka.  It  must 
not  be  confounded  with  the  ^ossaise,  which  was 
a  country  dance  of  Scotch  origin  introduced  into 
France  towards  the  end  of  the  1 8th  century.  The 
Schottische  was  first  danced  in  England  in  1848, 
when  it  was  also  known  as  the  German  Polka. 
It  does  not  seem  to  have  been  danced  in  Paris, 
as  Cellarius  {La  Dansc  des  ScUons,  Pans,  1847) 
does  not  include  it  amongst  the  dances  he 
describes.  The  music  is  fdmoet  the  same  as 
that  of  the  polka,  but  should  be  played  rather 
slower.  The  following  is  the  tune  to  which  it 
was  originally  danced  in  England. 


w.  B.  s. 

SCHRADIECK,  Henry,  violinist,  was  bomat 
Hamburg,  on  April  29,  1846.  He  received  his 
first  lesson  from  his  father  on  his  fourth  birth- 
day, and  already  made  public  appearances  in 
his  sixth  year.  In  1854  Teresa  Milanollo 
heard,  and  took  considerable  interest  in  him, 
putting  him  into  the  hands  of  Leonard  at  the 
Conservatoire  in  Bmssels,  where  he  stayed  for 
four  years,  and  gained  the  first  prize.  Afterwards 
he  studied  under  David  at  Leipzig  (1859-61), 
obtaining  his  first  important  engagement  in 
1 863  as  soloist  in  the  so-called  *  Private  Concerts,' 
conducted  by  Reinthaler  at  Bremen.  The 
following  year  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
the  violin  at  the  Moscow  Conservatorium,  hut 
in  1868  returned  to  Hamburg  to  take  the  post 
vacated  by  Auer  as  Concertmeister  of  the  Phil- 
harmonic Society.  After  six  years  he  moved 
(in  1874)  to  Leipzig,  becoming  Concertmeister 
at  the  Gewandhaus  concerts,  professor  at  the 
Conservatorium,  and  leader  of  the  theatre  or- 
chestra. His  pupils  became  very  numerous,  and 
at  length  he  found  himself  overburdened  with 
so  many  duties,  and  accepted  an  appointment 
as  conductor  and  teacher  of  the  violin  at  the 
College  of  Music  at  CincinnatL  Here  he  worked 
until  1 889,  and  then  returned  to  his  native  town, 
taking  his  old  position  as  Concertmeister  of  the 
Philharmonic  Society,  besides  teaching  at  the 
Hamburg  Conservatorium.  Subsequently  he 
went  to  New  York  as  principal  violin  professor 
at  the  National  Conservatoire,  moving  in  1899 
to  Philadelphia,  where  he  teaches  at  the  S. 
Broad  Street  Conservatoire. 

As  a  writer  of  Studies  for  the  violin  he  stands 
very  high.     Amongst    them    are    twenty- five 


SCHRIDER 


SCHRODER-DEVRIENT       275 


Grosse  Stndien  for  violin  alone,  three  volumes 
of  Technical  Studies,  Scale  Studies,  Guide  to  the 
Study  of  Chords,  Finger  Exercises,  and  'The 
First  Position.'  He  has  also  interested  himself 
in  questions  connected  with  the  making  of 
violins.  w.  w.  c. 

SCHRIDER,  SCHREIDER,  orSCHRtoER, 
CuiusTOPHER,  was  one  of  Father  Smith's  work- 
men, and  previous  to  1708  had  become  his 
son-in-law.  After  Smith's  death  he  succeeded 
to  his  business,  and  in  1710  was  organ-builder 
to  the  Royal  Chapels.  His  organs  do  not 
appear  to  be  very  numerous,  that  of  West- 
minster being  his  chef-dCoeuvre,  It  was  built 
for  the  coronation  of  George  II.  in  1727,  and 
was  presented  to  the  Abbey  by  the  King 
(Chryaander's  Ildndel^  ii.  174,  note).  He  put 
up  another  organ  in  Henry  the  Seventh's 
Chapel  for  the  funeral  of  Queen  Caroline, 
Dec  17,  1737,  when  Handel's  noble  anthem, 
'The  ways  of  Zion,'  was  first  sung  to  its  ac- 
companiment (76*^.  p. 437, note;  Stanley's  IFest- 
hdnMer  Abbey,  p.  166).  An  amusing  epitaph 
is  quoted  in  Soott's  Gleanings  f row,  Westminster 
A^ey,  2nd  ed.  p.  279.  v.  de  p. 

SCHRODER-DEVRIENT,  Wilhelmine,  a 
highly-gifled  dramatic  singer,  was  bom  at 
Hamburg,  Dec.  6, 1804.^  Her&ther,  Friedrich 
Schriider — who  died  in  1818 — had  been  an 
excellent  baritone  singer,  a  favourite  in  many 
operas,  espedallj  in  Mozart's  ^Don  Juan,' 
which  he  was  the  first  to  act  in  German.  Her 
mother  was  Antoinette  Sophie  Biirger,  a  cele- 
brated actress,  sometimes  called  '  the  German 
SiddoDs.' 

Wilhelmine  was  the  eldest  of  four  children. 
She  enjoyed  great  advantages  of  training ; 
dancing  lessons,  and  pubUc  appearances  in 
ballets  in  early  childhood,  helped  her  to  mastery 
of  attitude  and  elasticity  of  movement ;  after- 
wards, when  her  parents'  wanderings  led  them 
to  Vienna,  she  took  such  parts  as  Ophelia,  and 
Arida  (Schiller's  *  Phadra '),  at  the  Hofburg- 
theater,  receiving  careful  instruction  in  gesture 
and  delivery  from  her  mother,  who  afterwards 
SQlierintended  her  study  of  operatic  parts. 

Thus  there  was  no  trace  of  the  debutante, 
when,  in  1821,  Wilhelmine  made  a  brilliant 
fiist  appearance  at  the  Vienna  opera-house  as 
Pamina  in  'Die  Zauberfiote.'  The  freshness 
of  her  well -developed  soprano,  her  jmrity  of 
intonation  and  certainty  of  attack,  astonished 
the  public.  Other  early  triumphs  were  Em- 
meUne  (Weigl's  *  Schweizerfamilie '),  Marie 
(Gr^try's  'Barbe  bleu'*),  where  she  showed 
heraelf  worthy  of  all  praise  '  as  well  in  singing 
u  in  acting,  especially  in  parts  demanding 
paasionate  expression.'  As  Agathe  (*  Der  Frei- 
achutz')  her  glorious  voice  and  charming  ap- 
I>earance  won  great  approval,  not  only  from 
the  public  'who  already  loved  her,'  but  from 

Aceonlfaif  to  her  ovn  •oeoant.  as  quoted  i»  GlOmer'i  JKWn* 

nrw.  and  lut  fn  October  1806.  m  eUted  by  TiUs. 

'BmiiI  Bubc  bleu'  (1780),  Oennaiilaed  Into '  RaouI  der  Blanbert.' 


Weber,  who  presided  over  the  performance  at 
Vienna,  March  7,1822.  But  her  great  achieve- 
ment was  the  creation  of  the  part  of  Leonore, 
on  the  revival  of  *  Fidelio '  at  Vienna  later 
in  the  year.  Hitherto  connoisseurs  had  failed 
to  discover  the  merits  of  Beethoven's  opera. 
Mile.  Schroder's  impersonation  of  the  heroine, 
besides  laying  the  foundation  of  her  own  fame, 
redeemed  the  music  from  the  imputation  of 
coldness,  won  for  the  work  the  jiraise  so  long 
withheld,  and  achieved  its  ultimate  j>opnlarity 
by  repeated  performances  in  Germany,  London, 
and  Paris.  The  story  of  her  first  appearance 
in  the  part  has  often  been  quoted  from  Gliimer's 
Brinneningen  an  Wilhelmine  Schrdder  Devrient, 
Beethoven  was  present  at  the  performance. 
*  He  sat  behind  the  conductor,  and  had  isTapped 
himself  so  closely  in  the  folds  of  his  cloak  tiiat 
only  his  eyes  could  be  seen  flashing  from  it.* 
Schroder's  naturcJ  anxiety  only  heightened  the 
effect  of  her  acting.  A  breathless  stillness 
filled  the  house  until  Leonore  fell  into  the 
arms  of  her  husband,  when  a  storm  of  applause 
broke  out  which  seemed  unceasing.  To  Beet- 
hoven also  had  his  Leonore  been  revealed  in 
the  glowing  life  of  Schroder's  representation. 
He  smilingly  patted  her  cheek,  thanked  her, 
and  promised  to  write  an  opera  for  her.  Would 
that  he  had  I 

In  1823  she  went  to  Dresden  to  fulfil  a 
contract  to  sing  at  the  Court  Theatre  for  two 
years,  at  a  salary  of  2000  thalers.  (At  a  later 
period  she  received  4000  thalers  at  the  same 
house,  for  her  connection  with  Dresden  never 
entirely  ceased  as  long  as  she  was  on  the  stage.) 
She  married  Earl  Devrient,  an  excellent  actor 
whom  she  met  in  Berlin  during  an  engagement 
there  that  year.  Four  children  were  bom, 
but  the  marriage  was  not  a  happy  one,  and 
was  dissolved  in  1828.  During  the  next  eight 
years  she  delighted  her  audiences  by  her  ap- 
pearance in  the  great  classical  characters  which 
ever  remained  her  most  successful  parts.  In 
Weber's  operas,  as  Preciosa,  Euryanthe,  and 
Reiza,  she  is  said  to  have  thrown  a  new  light 
over  both  story  and  music,  gradually  heighten- 
ing the  interest  of  the  work  until  a  torrent  of 
inspiration  carried  all  before  it.  In  Spontini's 
'Vestale'  she  was  the  very  personification  of 
the  spirit  of  the  antique.  Yet  no  less  did 
she  succeed,  in  Paer's  comic  opera,  'Sargino,' 
in  singing  with  so  much  finish,  and  acting 
ydth.  so  much  humour,  that  it  became  a  matter 
of  dispute  whether  tragedy  or  comedy  was 
her  forte. 

In  1830  she  passed  through  Weimar  and 
sang  to  Goethe  on  her  way  to  Paris  to  join 
Rockel's  German  company.  With  an  exalted 
sense  of  the  importance  of  her  mission,  she 
wrote :  '  I  had  to  think  not  only  of  my  own 
reputation,  but  to  establish  German  music. 
My  failure  would  have  been  injurious  to  the 
music    of    Beethoven,    Mozart,    and    Weber.' 


276       SCHRODER-DEVRIENT 


SCHRODER-DEVRIENT 


This  date  was  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  musio 
in  Paris.  Bouquets — then  an  extraordinary 
manifestation  of  approval — were  showered  upon 
the  triumphant  singer.  In  her  subsequent 
visits  to  Paris,  1831  and  1832,  she  sang  in 
Italian  opera. 

In  1832  Schrbder-Devrient  was  heard  at 
the  King's  Theatre  in  London,  engaging  with 
Mr.  Monck  Mason  to  sing  ten  times  monthly 
during  May,  June,  and  July,  for  £800  and  a 
benefit.  Ghelard  was  conductor.  'Fidelio,' 
'Don  Juan,'  and  Chelard's  'Macbeth'  were 
repeatedly  given,  but  Chorley  (AfusiecU  Hecollec- 
tiona)  says,  '  Fidelio  was  the  solitary  success  of 
a  disastrous  enterprise.  .  .  .  The  sensation  is 
not  to  be  forgotten.  The  Italians  (not  very 
strong  that  year)  were  beaten  out  of  the  field 
by  the  Germans.  The  intense  musical  vigour 
of  Beethoven's  opera  was  felt  to  be  a  startling 
variety,  wrought  out  as  it  was  in  its  principal 
part,  by  a  vocalist  of  a  class  entirely  new  to 
England.  This  was  Madame  Schroder-Devrient. 
Within  the  conditions  of  her  own  school  she 
was  a  remarkable  artist  .  .  .  She  was  a  pale 
woman  ;  her  face,  a  thoroughly  German  one 
though  plain,  was  pleasing,  from  the  intensity 
of  expression  which  her  large  features  and  deep 
tender  eyes  conveyed.  She  had  profuse  fair 
hair,  the  value  of  which  slie  thoroughly  under- 
stood, delighting,  in  moments  of  great  emotion,  to 
fling  it  loose  with  the  vrild  vehemence  of  a  Mnenad. 
Her  figure  was  superb  though  full,  and  she 
i-ejoiced  in  its  display.  Her  voice  was  a  strong 
soprano,  not  comparable  in  quality  to  some 
other  German  voices  of  its  class  .  .  .  but  with 
an  inherent  expressiveness  of  tone  which  made 
it  more  attractive  on  the  stage  than  many  a 
more  faultless  organ.  .  .  .  Her  tones  were  de- 
livered without  any  care,  save  to  give  them  due 
force.  Her  execution  was  bad  and  heavy. 
There  was  an  air  of  strain  and  spasm  through- 
out her  performance.' 

The  '  Queen  of  Tears '  (so  she  was  styled)  was 
heard  next  season  in  *  Der  Freischiitz,'  *  Die 
Zauberflote,'  *Euryanthe,'  and  *Otello.*  The 
engagement  was  to  sing  for  Mr.  Bunn  at  Covent 
Garden  twenty-four  times  at  £40  a  night,  and 
once  for  the  benefit  of  the  speculators.  How- 
ever all  London  was  under  the  spell  of  Taglioni 
and  of  Fanny  Elsler.  Malibran  in  the  English 
o{)dra ;  Pasta,  Ointi-Damoreau,  Rubini,  and 
Tamburint,  in  tlie  Italian  opera,  sang  to  empty 
houses.  Again  in  1837, after  Malibran's  deatli, 
Mr.  Bunn  engaged  Schrbder-Devrient  at  a  double 
salary.  *  Fidelio, ' '  Le  Sonnambula, '  and '  Norma ' 
were  performed  in  English.  She  broke  down 
in  health  before  the  season  was  over.  After  a 
rest,  too  short  to  be  beneficial,  she  resumed  her 
work,  and  was  carried  home  insensible  from  the 
theatre.  She  was  able,  however,  to  give  a  farewell 
performance  of  '  Fidelio,'  with  the  last  act  of 
the  '  Montecchi  e  Capuletti,'  and  then  discovered 
that  Bunn  had  declared  himself  bankrupt  and 


could  pay  her  nothing.  In  his  book,  The  Sttuje 
both  before  and  behind  the  Curtain,  Bann  com- 
plains of  the  singer's  attempts  at  extortion ; 
says  that  she  demanded  the  fourth  part  of 
tlie  proceeds  of  each  night,  but  on  this  sum 
proving  to  fall  short  of  the  fixed  salary,  asked 
for  £100. 

From  1837  a  gradual  decline  in  power  was 
observed  in  Mme.  Schrtlder-Devrient^  though 
she  continued  to  delight  her  audiences  all 
over  Germany  in  the  parts  she  had  identified 
herself  with.  Of  Wagner's  operas  she  only 
appeared  in  *Rienzi'  as  Adriano  Colonna,  in 
'Der  fliegende  Hollander'  as  Senta,  and  in 
'  Tannhauser '  as  Venus.  Gluck's  masterpieces 
were  among  her  latest  studies.  Her  last  appear- 
ance in  Dresden  was  in  his  *  Iphigenie  in  Aulis,' 
in  1847  ;  her  last  appearance  on  any  stage  took 
place  at  Riga,  where  she  played  Ilomeo.  Her 
concert-singing  was  greatly  admired,  and  one  of 
the  liveliest  passages  in  Mendelssohn's  letters  ^ 
describes  the  furore  caused  by  her  impromptu 
execution  of  *  Adelaide '  in  her  ordinary  travel- 
ling dress  at  the  Gewandhaus  Concert  of  Feb. 
11,  1841. 

She  had  made  a  second  marriage  with  Herr  von 
Dbring,  a  worthless  person,  who  immediately 
seized  upon  his  wife's  earnings  and  pension, 
and  left  her  almost  destitute,  to  recover  what 
she  could  in  a  long  lawsuit.  The  marriage  was 
dissolved  at  her  wish.  In  1 850  she  again  married 
Herr  von  Bock,  a  man  of  culture,  who  took  her 
to  his  property  in  Livonia.  Passing  through 
Dresden  she  was  arrested  on  account  of  the  sym- 
pathy she  had  shown  with  the  revolution  of  184  S. 
An  examination  in  Berlin  resulted  in  her  being 
forbidden  to  return  to  Saxony  ;  in  the  meantime 
she  was  exiled  from  Russia.  Her  husband's 
exertions  and  sacriflces  secured  a  reversal  of  thi^ 
sentence.  In  1856  she  visited  some  German 
towns,  singing  Lieder  in  public  concerts.  Her 
interpretations  of  Beethoven's  *  Adelaide '  and 
of  Schubert's  and  Schumann's  songs  were  im- 
mensely admired,  though  by  some  thought  too 
dramatic.  When  at  Leipzig  her  strength  suc- 
cumbed to  a  j>ainful  illness.  She  was  devotedly 
nursed  by  a  sister  and  a  friend  at  Cobuig,  and 
died  Jan.  21,  1860. 

Even  in  her  best  days  her  voice  was  of  no 
extraordinary  compass,  but,  to  the  last,  the 
tones  of  the  middle  notes  were  of  exceptionally 
fine  quality.  Mazatti's  teaching,  with  further 
instruction  from  Radichi  and  from  Miksch  (the 
Dresden  Chorus-master),  had  not  been  sufficient 
training  for  the  young  girl,  who  liad  besides 
been  disinclined  to  the  dnidgery  of  scale-sing- 
ing. The  neglect  of  system  and  of  careful 
vocal  exercise  resulted  in  faulty  execution  and 
too  early  loss  of  the  high  notes.  This  nii^ht 
h^ve  been  less  observable  had  she  kept  to  snch 
simple  rdles  as  Pamina  and  Agathe.  But 
there  seemed  a  discrepancy  between  the  delicate 

<  LettMT.  Feb.  U  IMl. 


SCHRODER-DEVRIENT 


SCHROTER 


277 


organisataon  of  her  voice  and  the  passionate 
energy  of  her  temperament.  By  force  of  will 
she  accomplished  more  than  was  warranted  by 
her  natural  powers.  'A  portion  of  her  lii'e 
vu  exhausted  in  every  song.'  As  a  musical 
instrument  the  voice  was  not  under  her 
command ;  as  a  vehicle  of  expression  it  was 
completely  so.  It  was  the  dramatic  genius  of 
this  artist  which  won  for  her  an  European 
reputation.  She  infused  a  terrible  earnestness 
into  the  more  pathetic  impersonations,  while 
an  ahnoet  unerring  instinct  of  artistic  fitness, 
combined  with  a  conscientious  study  of  the 
parts,  secured  a  perfection  of  perfoimance 
which  reached  every  detail  of  by-play.  It 
could  be  said  of  her  that  she  never  ceased 
learning,  for  she  toiled  at  her  art  to  the  end. 
She  once  wrote  as  follows :  '  Art  is  an  eternal 
race,  and  the  artist  is  destroyed  for  art  as  soon 
as  he  entertains  the  delusion  that  he  is  at  the 
goal  It  were  certainly  comfortable  to  lay 
down  the  task  with  the  costume,  and  let  it 
rest  until  its  turn  comes  round  again  in  tlie 
rtfpertoire.  I  have  never  been  able  to  do  this. 
How  often,  when  the  public  have  shouted 
approval  and  showered  bouquets  on  me,  have  I 
retired  in  confnsion,  asking  myself:  ''Wilhel- 
mine,  what  have  you  been  about  again  ?" — then 
there  would  be  no  peace  for  me,  but  brooding 
the  livelong  days  and  nights,  until  I  had  hit 
upon  something  better.' 

Her  good  faith  and  earnestness  led  her  to 
oondemn  a  feUow-actress  for  disrespect  to  her 
art  when  she  carelessly  threw  down  behind  the 
icenes  a  handkerchief  which  had  served  on  the 
stage  as  a  Signal  of  Love.  Schroder-Devrient's 
art  generally  inspired  others  with  her  own 
spirit.  On  one  occasion  it  moved  a  Bluebeard 
to  forget  the  ordinary  artifice  used  in  dragging 
his  Marie  off  the  stage,  and  to  take  her  literally 
by  the  hair.  '  Almost  unconscious  with  pain 
and  covered  with  blood,  the  artist  endured  this 
torturerather  than  spoil  the  effect  of  the  tableau.' 
It  was  easier  for  her  to  forgive  an  injury  arising 
thus  from  excess  of  feeling,  than  to  tolerate  the 
inadequate  support  of  a  first  tenor,  '  half  sponge, 
half  wood ' ;  or  to  allow  the  sleepy  acting  of  a 
prima  donna  to  go  unpunished :  as  when,  in 
Romeo,  she  was  guilty  of  tickling  the  feet  of  a 
too  unemotional  Giulietta,  during  the  caresses 
of  the  last  scene  of  Bellini's  opera.  (See  also 
Moscheles'  Life^  i.  270.)  An  audience  of 
'ledeme  Seelen'  was  her  abhorrence,  and  the 
ignorance  of  fashionable  London  in  the  forties 
tried  her  sorely  (76.  p.  268). 

In  his  Mod^  Gennan  Mime  (i.  341)  Chorley 
enters  upon  an  analysis  of  some  of  Madame 
Schrijder-Devrient's  parts.  He  and  Berlioz 
(the  latter  in  letters  to  the  Jounud  des  Dihats^ 
1843)  concur  in  condemning  the  mannerisms 
vhich  grew  upon  her  as  time  went  on.  Rellstab 
has  devoted  an  article  to  her  {Ges,  SchrifUn^ 
ix.).      A.    von   Wolzogen's    With.    Schrdder- 


Devnewt  (Leipzig,  1863)  is  the  best  life,  and 
gives  a  circumstantial,  impartial,  and  interesting 
account ;  while  Wagner's  Ueber  Schauspieler 
und  Sanger  eulogises  her  depth  of  feeling  and 
power  of  interpretation.  L.  M.  M. 

SCHROETER,  Christoph  Gottlieb,  bora 
at  Hohenstein,  Saxony,  August  10,  1699,  long 
enjoyed  in  Germany  the  honoitr  of  having 
invented  the  pianoforte.  His  claims,  firat 
published  by  himself  in  Mizler's  Musilcalische 
Bibliothek  (Leipzig,  1738)  and  repeated  in 
Marpurg's  KritiKhe  Britfe  (Berlin,  1764)  have 
been  examined  and  set  aside  in  favour  of 
Cristofori.  [See  Pianoforte,  vol.  iii  pp.  718, 
719.]  We  leaiii  from  Schroeter's  autobiography 
that  at  seven  years  of  age  he  was  placed  as 
a  chorister  at  Dresden,  under  CapeUmeister 
Schmidt,  and  that  Graun  was  his  companion. 
The  clavichord  early  became  his  greatest 
pleasure.  When  he  lost  his  voice  he  entered 
the  Ereu28chule  to  study  thorough-bass,  that  is, 
accompaniment  as  then  practised,  and  learaed 
to  quill  and  tune  harpsichords,  which  led  him 
to  the  monochord  and  systems  of  temperament 
On  the  wish  of  his  motlier  that  he  should  study 
theology,  he  went  to  Leipzig  for  that  purpose 
in  1717,  but  after  her  death  resumed  music, 
returned  to  Dresden,  and  was  accepted  by  Lotti 
to  copy  for  him,  and  write  his  middle  parts. 
It  was  at  this  time  that  he  endeavoured  to 
combine  the  characteristics  of  the  harpsichord 
and  clavichord,  by  inventing  two  hammer  actions, 
the  models  of  which  he  deposited  at  the  Saxon 
Court  in  1721 ;  but  immediately  afterwards  he 
left  Dresden,  taking  service  with  a  Baron  whom 
he  does  not  name,  to  travel  in  Germany,  Holland, 
and  England.  In  1724  he  went  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Jena  and  began  writing  upon  musical 
subjects ;  in  1726  he  took  the  organist's  place 
at  Minden,  removing  in  1732  to  Nordhausen, 
where  he  remained  until  his  death  in  1782. 
[He  published  a  treatise,  DevUiche  Anweisung 
sum  General' Bass f  in  1772  at  Halberstadt, 
and  his  Letzte  Bes6ka/tigung  mit  musikalisehm 
IHngen  appeared  posthumously  in  1782.  A 
list  of  his  polemical  pamphlets  is  given  in  the 
Qtiellen-Zexikon  and  elsewhere.]         a.  j.  h. 

SCHRDTER,  Corona  Elisabeth  Wilhel- 
MINE,  a  celebrated  singer  of  the  Weimar  court 
in  its  most  brilliant  days,  was  the  daughter  of 
a  musician,  Johann  Friedrich  Schroter.  Accord- 
ing to  her  latest  biographer,  Keil  (For  hundert 
Jakren^  Leipzig,  1875),  Corona  was  born  Jan. 
14,  1751,  at  Guben,  whence  the  family  shortly 
afterwards  migrated  to  Warsaw,  and  finally  to 
Leipzig.  Corona's  voice  was  trained  by  her 
father,  and  she  sang  when  she  was  but  fourteen 
at  a  Leipzig  Grosses  Concert  (1765).  From 
the  following  year  until  1771  she  was  engaged 
at  these  concerts,  Schmehling  (La  Mara)  being 
retained  as  princijml  vocalist.  Goethe  had 
become  acquainted  with  Schroter  in  1766  ;  ten 
years  later  he  conveyed  to  her  the  offer  of  the 


278 


SCHROTER 


SCHROETER 


post  of  Kammereiingerin  to  the  Dowager  Duchess 
of  Weimar.  Here  she  made  her  first  appearance 
Nov.  23,  1776,  and  soon  became  the  idol  of  the 
place.  Associated  with  Goethe  himself  in  the 
production  of  his  dramas,  she  created  amongst 
others  the  part  of  Iphigenia,  completely  realising 
the  poet's  ideal  (see  Auf  Mieding*s  Tod).  Her 
co-operation  in  *Die  Fischerin'  included  the 
composition  of  all  the  music.  It  was  on  July 
22,  1782,  that  she  was  heard  as  Dortchen,  and 
that  *Der  Erlkonig,'  with  which  the  play  opens, 
was  sung  for  the  first  time.  [In  1782-84 
she  sang  at  the  Qewandhaus  in  Leipzig.]  After 
1786  Schroter  sang  little  in  public,  but  devoted 
herself  to  composition,  painting,  and  a  few 
dramatic  pupils.  Schiller  heard  her  read 
Goethe's  *Iphigenie'  in  1787,  and  Charlotte  von 
Schiller,  a  year  or  two  later,  found  much  to 
praise  in  the  musical  settings  of  '  Der  Taucher  * 
and  *Wiirde  der  Frauen,*  and  their  expressive 
rendering  by  the  famous  artist.  In  the  mean- 
time Schrbter's  health  had  broken  down,  and 
her  death,  when  aged  fifty -one,  at  Ilmenau, 
August  23,  1802,  was  not  unexpected. 

Her  songs  were  published  in  two  books. 
They  are  melodious  and  simple  settings  of 
poems  by  Herder,  Matthison,  Klopstock,  etc. 
Book  I.  (26  Lieder,  Weimar,  1786)  contains 
Gk>ethe's  *Der  neue  Amadis'  and  *Der  Elrlkbnig.' 
The  second  collection  of  songs  was  published  at 
Weimar,  1794. 

Corona's  brothers,  Johann  Samuel  (see  below) 
and  Johann  Heinrich  Schroter  (violinist)  visited 
England  ;  the  latter  published  some  duos  for 
two  violins  and  for  violin  and  violoncello,  in 
1782.  Besides  the  life  by  Keil,  Diintzer's 
Charlotte  von  Stein  und  Corona  Schrdter  may 
be  consulted  for  details  of  her  social  and 
artistic  successes.  In  1778  Schroter  handed 
to  Goethe  her  MS.  autobiography,  which  has 
never  been  made  public,  perhaps  has  not  yet 
been  discovered  among  his  papers,  although 
Goethe  noted  the  receipt  of  it  in  his 
diary.  L.  M.  M. 

SCHROTER,  Johann  Samuel,  an  esteemed 
pianoforte-player  and  composer  for  that  instru- 
ment, was  born  about  1750  of  German  parents 
at  Warsaw,  where  his  father,  Johann  Fricdrich, 
was  oboist  in  the  royal  orchestra.  About  1763 
he  accompanied  his  father  and  sister  to  Leipzig, 
and  sang  there  in  the  Gewandhaus  Concerts. 
On  the  breaking  of  his  voice  he  devoted  himself 
entirely  to  the  piano,  and  travelled  with  his 
father,  brother,  and  sister,  performing  as  they 
went,  through  Holland  to  London.  There 
thoy  made  their  debut  in  the  concerts  of  Bach 
and  Abel  at  the  Thatched  House,  St  James's 
Street,  May  2,  1772,  Schroter  playing  a  concerto 
on  the  '  Forte  Piano,'  which  J.  Christian  Bach 
had  first  performed  in  1767,  the  brother  Johann 
Heinrich  on  the  violin,  and  the  sister.  Corona, 
singing.  [In  1773  we  find  evidence  of  his 
performance  on  the  harpsichord,  as  Broadwood's 


books  show  that  a  harpsichord  was  sent  to 
Haberdashers'  Hall  on  March  4,  for  J.  S. 
Schroter  (a.  j.  h.).]  After  J.  C.  Bach's  death 
in  1782,  he  succeeded  him  as  music-master  to 
the  Queen.  '  Six  Sonatas  for  the  harpsichord 
or  piano  forte '  are  announced  by  W.  Napier  in 
the  Public  Advertiser  in  1776  as  his  op.  1. 
This  was  followed  in  1778  by  op.  3,  *Six 
Concertos  with  an  accompaniment  for  two 
violins  and  a  bass ' ;  and  this  again  by  three 
concertos  with  string  accompaniments,  op.  4  ; 
three,  op.  6  (Berlin) ;  op.  6  (Paris) ;  opu  2,  six 
trios  (Amsterdam);  op.  9,  two  ditto  (Do.)- 
[Many  other  compositions — quintets,  trios, 
sonatas  with  and  without  accompaniment — are 
enumerated  in  the  Quellen-LextJton.']  The 
ABC  Dario  (p.  144)  says  of  him,  *  He  has 
composed  the  harpsichord  parts  of  some  con- 
certos ;  the  accompaniments  are  by  Bach  ;  they 
are  neither  new  nor  very  striking.  He  plays 
in  an  elegant  and  masterly  style  ;  his  cadences 
are  well  imagined,  and  if  his  penchant  was  not 
rather  to  play  rapidly  than  al  core,  he  would 
excel  on  the  pianoforte.'  Bumey,  on  the  other 
hand  (in  Rees),  says,  ^He  became  one  of  the 
neatest  and  most  expressive  players  of  his  time, 
and  his  style  of  composition,  highly  polished, 
resembles  that  of  Abel  more  than  any  other. 
It  was  graceful  and  in  good  taste,  but  so  chaste 
as  sometimes  to  seem  deficient  in  fire  and 
invention.'  He  did  not  remain  long  before  the 
public  in  consequence  of  his  marriage  with  one 
of  his  pupils,  a  young  lady  of  birth  and  fortune, 
after  which  he  played  only  at  the  concerts  of 
the  Prince  of  Wales  and  a  few  others  of  the 
nobility.  He  died  on  Sunday,  Nov.  2,  1788, 
in  his  own  house  at  Pimlico,  having  lost  his 
voice  some  years  before  by  a  severe  cold.  His 
marriage  was  a  clandestine  one,  and  brought 
him  into  collision  with  his  wife's  family,  the 
result  of  which  was  his  surrendering  all  his 
rights  for  an  annuity  of  £500.  She  is  the 
lady  who  took  lessons  from  Haydn  during  his 
residence  in  London,  and  fell  violently  in  love 
with  him.  Haydn  spoke  of  her  many  years 
after  as  a  very  attractive  woman,  and  still 
handsome,  though  over  sixty ;  *  had  I  licen 
free,'  said  the  patriarch,  'I  should  certainly  < 
have  married  her' — she  was  then  a  widow. 
He  dedicated  to  her  three  clavier  trios  (B. 
&  H.,  Nos.  1,  2,  6).  [See  voL  ii.  p. 
368.]  c.  F.  p. 

SCHROETER,  Leonard,  bom  at  Torgau 
towards  the  middle  of  the  16th  century,  became 
Cantor  of  the  Cathedral  of  Magdeburg  about 
1564,  in  succession  to  Gallus  ]>essler,  also  a 
composer  of  some  importance.  [His  successor  | 
was  appointed  in  1600,  so  this  may  be  assumed 
as  the  year  of  his  death.]  Schroeter's  chief 
work  is  *Hymni  Sacri,'  Erfurt,  1587,  and  con- 
sists of  4-  and  5 -part  settings  of  those  Latin 
Church  Hymns  which  had  also  been  received 
into   the   worship   of   the  Lutheran    Church.         ' 


SCHUBART 


SCHUBERT 


279 


Winterfeld  says  of  these  hymns  that  they 
belong  to  the  best  musical  works  of  the  time  ; 
the  harmony  is  rich,  clear,  and  dignified,  and 
shows  an  unmistakable  advance  on  the  path  of 
the  older  masters.  They  are  in  the  same  style 
as  the  Hymns  of  Palestrina  and  Vittoria,  only 
the  choral  melody  is  mostly  given  to  the  upper 
Toioe.  Some  of  these  hymns,  as  well  as  some 
of  the  German  psalms  of  Gallus  Dressier, 
Schpoeter's  predecessor,  are  re -published  in 
Schbberlein  and  Biegel's  Schatz  des  lUurgiachen 
Chargeaangs,  Gottingen,  1868-72.  [Earlier 
publicationa  of  hymn-tunes  by  Schroeter  were 
published  in  1562,  1576,  1584,  etc.  See  the 
(^llen-Lexikon  for  list]  Four  Weihnachts- 
Liedlein  of  Schroeter's  are  received  into  the 
repertoire  of  the  Berlin  Dom-Chor,  and  are 
published  in  Schlesinger's  'Musica  Sacra,'  No. 
11.  A  German  Te  Deum  for  double  choir  by 
Schroeter,  originally  published  in  1676,  has 
been  printed  by  Otto  Kade  in  the  Notenbeilagen 
to  Ambros's  Geaeh,  der  Musik,  No.  28.  J.  R.  M. 
SCHUBART,  Christian  Friedrich  Daniel, 
bom  at  Obersontheim  in  Suabia,  in  1739,^  and 
brought  up,  not  as  a  musician,  at  Nbrdlingen, 
Xuremberg,  and  Erlangen.  In  1768  we  find 
him  as  organist  at  Ludwigsburg.  His  life  seems 
to  have  been  a  very  wild  and  irregular  one,  but 
he  must  have  been  a  man  of  great  talent  and 
energy  to  justify  the  eulogies  on  him  so  frequent 
in  the  early  volumes  of  the  Allg,  miisikalische 
Zdtung,  of  Leipzig  (see  vol,  ii  pp.  78,  68,  etc.), 
and  the  constant  references  of  Otto  Jahn  in  his 
Life  ofMozarl.  He  lived  in  Mannheim,  Munich, 
Augsburg,  and  Ulm ;  founded  a  Deutsche  Chronik 
in  1744  ;  was  more  than  once  in  confinement 
for  his  misdeeds,  and  at  length  was  imprisoned 
from  1777  to  1787  at  Hohenasperg.  [On  his 
release  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  court 
theatre ;  his  yiaper  changed  its  title  to  Voter- 
iands-Chronikf  and  appeared  from  1787  until 
the  year  of  his  death.]  He  died  Oct.  10,  1791 . 
An  autobiography,  written  in  prison,  appeared 
in  1 791  •  9  3.  His  compositions  are  few  and  unim  - 
portant  [They  include  a  set  of  *  Musicalische 
Khapsodien,'  a  '  Salve  Regina,'  variations,  and 
other  clavier  pieces.]  A  work  of  his  on  musical 
esthetics,  Ideen  zu  einer  Aestltetik  der  Tonkunstf 
was  published  after  his  death  by  his  son  Ludwig 
(Vienna,  1806).  From  the  notices  of  it  in  the 
A.M.Z,  (viii  801,  xiii.  53,  etc)  and  Jahn's  cita- 
tions, it  appears  to  be  partly  a  dissertation  on 
the  styles,  abilities,  and  characteristics  of  great 
mnsiciaus  and  artists.  It  also  contains  some 
iancifnl  descriptions  of  the  various  keys,  which 
Schumann  notices  ((?«?.  Schrifien,  i.  180)  only 
to  condemn.  But  Schubart  will  always  be 
known  as  the  author  of  the  words  of  one  of  F. 
Schubert's  most  favourite  songs — *Die  Forelle' 
(op.  32).  The  words  of  'An  den  Tod'  and 
'  Grablied  auf  einen  Soldaten '  are  also  his.     His 

'  TW  (Ur  !■  giT«fii  In  the  qutilen-Lextton  as  Hnrch  S8.  and  in 
Rienann-i  Lntkon  a*  April  13. 


son  further  published  two  vols,  of  his  Vermischte 
Schriflen  (Ziirich,  1812).  g. 

SCHUBERT,  Ferdinand,  one  of  the  elder 
brothers  of  Franz  Schuksrt,  second  son  of  his 
father  (see  p.  280),  bom  at  Vienna,  Oct.  19, 
1794.  After  passing  the  two-years'  course  at 
the  Normal  School  of  St.  Anna  in  1807-8,  he 
became  his  father's  assistant  at  the  school  in 
the  Lichtenthal.  In  Nov.  1 81 0  he  was  installed 
as  assistant  (Gehilfe),  and  in  1816  teacher,  at 
the  Imperial  Orphan  House  (Waisenhaus)  in 
Vienna,  where  he  continued  till  March  1820, 
devoting  himself  specially  to  the  Bell-Lancastrian 
method.  He  was  then  appointed  principal 
teacher  and  choirmaster  to  the  school  at  Altler- 
chenfeld,  Vienna,  till  1824,  when  he  was 
nominated  to  be  head  teacher  of  the  Normal 
School  of  St.  Anna,  which  he  held  from  Jan.  22, 
1824,  till  his  appointment  as  director  of  the 
same  establishment  on  March  15,  1854.  This 
position  he  retained  ,till  his  death  on  Feb.  28, 
1859.  His  merits  were  recognised  by  the 
bestowal  of  the  Gold  Cross  of  Merit  (Ver- 
dienstkreuze),  with  the  Crown.  During  this 
long  period  of  useful  and  efficient  service  he 
was  twice  married,  and  had  in  all  seventeen 
children,  of  whom  Ferdinand,  Rudolf,  and 
Hermann  were  living  in  Vienna  in  1882.  His 
daughter  Elise  married  Linus  Geisler,  and  their 
daughter,  Caroline  Geisler -Schubert,  had  a 
successful  career  in  Vienna  as  a  player  and 
teacher.  She  is  now  living  in  England.  Be- 
tween 1819  and  1853  Ferdinand  published 
twelve  school-books  on  various  branches  of 
learning,  which  came  into  general  use.  Music 
he  learnt  from  his  father  and  from  Holzer,  and 
left  more  than  forty  works,  of  which  the  follow- 
ing were  published  : — Regina  Coeli,  a  4  and 
orch.  (op.  1)  ;  German  Requiem,  a  4  with  organ 
(op.  2) ;  4  Waisenlieder  (op.  3) ;  Cadenzas  for 
PF.  in  all  keys  (op.  4)  ;  Requiem  a  4  and  orch. 
(op.  9)  ;  Mass  in  F,  a  4  and  orch.  (op.  10)  ; 
Salve  Regina  in  F,  a  4  and  orch.  (op.  11) ; 
Salve  Regina  a  4  and  wind  (op.  12) ;  original 
March  and  Trio.  The  MS.  works  contain 
various  other  pieces  of  church  music.  Of  the 
two  Requiems  the  first  is  mentioned  in  his 
brother's  letter  of  August  24,  1818  (see  p.  291) ; 
the  second  was  performed  a  few  days  before 
Franz's  death,  and  was  possibly  the  last  music 
he  heard.  The  library  of  the  Musikverein  at 
Vienna  contains  the  autograph  of  Franz  Schu- 
bert's Mass  in  G,  with  oboes  (or  clarinets)  and 
bassoons,  added  by  Ferdinand,  July  23,  1847. 

Ferdinand's  love  for  his  brother  and  care  of 
his  memory  have  been  often  referred  to  in  the 
following  article  (pp.  31 7, 31 9, 320).  An  interest- 
ing evidence  of  their  attachment  is  afforded  by 
a  letter  *  of  his  to  Franz,  dated  Vienna,  July  3, 
1824,  and  containing  the  following  passage  in 
regard  to  a  clock  at  the  Ungarische  Krone  in 
Vienna,  which  played  his  brother's  music : — 

9  I  owe  this  letter  to  Miu  Gelaler-Schubert. 


280 


1797- 


SCHUBERT 


-1807 


'This  clock  delighted  me  not  a  little,  when 
one  day  at  dinner  for  the  first  time  I  heard  it 
play  some  of  your  waltzes.  I  felt  so  strange 
at  the  moment  that  I  really  did  not  know 
where  I  was ;  it  was  not  only  that  it  pleased 
me,  it  went  regularly  through  my  heart  and 
soul  with  a  fearful  pang  and  longing,  which  at 
last  turned  into  settled  melancholy.'  This 
may  be  fanciful,  but  it  is  the  language  of 
passionate  affection,  which  evidently  animated 
Ferdinand's  whole  intercourse  with  his  great 
brother.  Franz's  reply  (July  16-18,  1824)  is 
quite  in  the  same  strain.  (The  above  article 
is  indebted  to  Wurzbach's  Biograpkisehes 
Lexicon,)  o. 

SCHUBERT,!  Franz  Peter,  the  one  great 
composer  native  to  Vienna,  was  bom  Jan.  31, 
1797,  in  the  district  called  Lichtenthal,  at  the 
house  which  is  now  numbered  54  of  the  Nuss- 
dorfer  Strasse,'  on  the  right,  going  out  from 
Vienna.  There  is  now  a  grey  marble  tablet 
over  the  door,  with  the  words  '  Franz  Schuberts 
Geburtshaus '  in  the  centre  ;  on  the  left  side  a 
lyre  crowned  with  a  star,  and  on  the  right  a 
chaplet  of  leaves  containing  the  words,  '31 
Janner  1797.'  He  came  of  a  country  stock, 
originally  belonging  to  Zukmantel  in  Austrian 
Silesia.  His  father,  Franz,  the  son  of  a  })easant 
at  Neudorf  in  Moravia,  was  bom  about  1764, 
studied  in  Vienna,  and  in  1784  became  assistant 
to  his  brother,  who  kept  a  school  in  the 
Leopoldstadt.  His  ability  and  integrity  raised 
him  in  1786  to  be  parish  schoolmaster  in  the 
parish  of  the  'Twelve  holy  helpers'  in  the 
Lichtenthal,  a  post  which  he  kept  till  1817  or 
1818,  when  he  was  appointed  to  the  parish 
school  in  the  adjoining  district  of  the  Rossau, 
and  there  he  remained  till  his  death,  July  9, 
1830.  He  married  early,  while  still  helping 
his  brother,  probably  in  1783,  Elisabeth  Vitz, 
or  Fitz,  a  SUesian,  who  was  in  service  in  Vienna, 
and  was,  like  Beethoven's  mother,  a  cook.  Their 
first  child,  Ignaz,  was  bom  in  1784.  Then 
came  a  long  gap,  possibly  filled  by  children 
who  died  in  infancy — of  whom  they  lost  nine 
in  all ;  then,  Oct.  19,  1794,  another  boy, 
Ferdinand ;  then  in  1 796,  Karl,  then  Franz, 
and  lastly,  a  daughter,  Theresia,  Sept.  17, 
1801,  who  died  August  7,  1878.  The  hard- 
worked  mother  of  these  fourteen  children  lived 
till  1812.  Soon  after  her  death  her  husband 
was  married    again,    to   Anna  Klayenbok,    a 

>  The  foUowloig  abbrerlatioDS  are  tued  In  the  note*  to  thla 
article  :— 

K.  if.  aKreleele  von  HeUborn's  biographr.  The  flnt  reference  to 
the  German  edition ;  the  aeooud,  in  bnusketa,  to  Coleridire'e  tnuis- 


AmLs  Ferdinand  Sdiabert,  In  hie  blographloal  iketoh  In  Sohn- 
mann'e  Note  MtUtOtrift  fOr  Muttk.  x.  p.  139.  eto. 

A.M.M.  ^AUgemtina  MvtOcaUjKha  ^sttutv. 

fr.M.M.^if€u»  ZeU»ekHft/nr  Mutlk. 

W.M.K.=  Wimm-  MeiUduift/Or  KunM,  tte. 

s  The  Nuandorfer  Strane  runs  north  and  eonth.  At  the  time  of 
Schnbert's  birth  it  vac  called  '  Anf  deiu  mmmelpfortgrund,'  and 
the  honae  waa  No.  TS.  The  Hi  ni  melpfortgaaae  ( '  the  etreet  of  the  gate 
of  heaven ' )  waa  a  abort  atrect  running  ont  of  it  weitwarda  towarda 
the  fortifloationa— the  aame  which  la  now  the  '  SKuIengaaae.'  The 
preeent  Bchubertgaaee  did  not  then  eziat  beyond  the  opening  Into 
the  main  street.  I  find  all  thla  on  a  Uunge  map  of  the  date  In  the 
Brltlah  Mnaeum. 


Viennese,  and  had  a  second  family  of  five 
children,  of  whom  three  grew  up,  viz.  Josefa 
(  +  1861),  Andreas,  an  accountant  in  one  of 
the  public  offices,  and  Anton,  a  Benedictine 
priest,  'Father  Hermann '^ — the  last  two 
living  in  1881. 

Ignaz  and  Ferdinand  followed  their  father's 
calling,  and  inherited  with  it  the  integrity,  fru- 
gality, and  modesty,  which  had  gained  him 
such  respect.  Of  the  former  we  do  not  hear 
much  ;  Uie  one  letter  by  him  that  is  preserved 
(Oct.  12,  1818),  shows  him  very  free- thinking, 
very  tired  of  schoolmastering,  very  much  at- 
tached to  his  home  and  his  brother.*  He  re- 
mained at  the  Rossau  school  till  his  death  in 
1 844.  Ferdinand,  on  the  other  hand,  rose  to  be 
director  of  the  chief  normal  school  of  St  Anna 
in  Vienna,  and  played  a  considerable  part  in  the 
life  of  his  celebrated  brother,  by  whom  he  was 
fondly  loved,  to  whom  he  was  deeply  attached, 
and  whose  eyes  it  was  given  to  him  to  close  in 
death. 

Little  Franz  was  no  doubt  well  grounded  by 
his  father,  and  to  that  early  training  probably 
owed  the  methodical  habit  which  stuck  to  liini 
more  or  less  closely  through  life,  of  dating  his 
pieces,  a  practice  which  makes  the  investigation 
of  them  doubly  interesting.*  As  schoolmasters 
the  father  and  his  two  eldest  sons  were  all  more 
or  less  musicaL  Ignaz  and  Ferdinand  had 
learned  the  violin  with  other  mdiments  from 
the  father,  and  Franz  was  also  taught  it  by 
him  in  his  turn,  and  the  *  clavier '  (t.c.  probably 
the  pianoforte — for  Beethoven's  op.  31  was 
published  before  Schubert  had  passed  his  sixth 
year)  by  Ignaz,  who  was  twelve  years  his  senior. 
But  his  high  vocation  quickly  revealed  itself; 
he  soon  outstripped  these  simple  teachers,  and 
was  put  under  Michael  Holzer,  the  choirmaster 
of  the  parish,  for  both  violin  and  piano,  as  well 
as  for  singing,  the  organ,  and  thorough-bass. 
On  this  good  man,  who  long  outlived  him,  he 
made  a  deep  impression.  *  When  I  wished  to 
teach  him  anything  fresh, '  he  would  say,  '  he 
always  knew  it  already.  I  have  often  listened 
to  him  in  astonishment.'*  Holzer  would  give 
him  subjects  to  extemporise  upon,  and  then  his 
joy  would  know  no  bounds,  and  he  would  ciy 
'  The  lad  has  got  harmony  at  bis  fingers'  ends.' ' 
Such  astonishment  was  natural  enough,  but  it 
would  have  been  far  better  if  he  had  tanght 
him  counterpoint.  Ignaz  too — and  an  elder 
brother  is  not  always  a  lenient  judge  of  his 

3  Author  of  a  nennon  on  the  1400th  annlTereaxr  of  the  birth  of 
St  Benedict  (Vienna,  18»),  in  which  he  la  atjrled '  Capltafaoiiriciter 
dM  Stiftea  Schotten;   Curat  und  Predlcer  an  dcr  SUft^fam: 
Beaitser  dea  gold.  Vatllenatlueuaea  m.  d.  Krone.' 
*  #:.!/.  p.  146(1.  148).  ^    ^^ 

s  HU  uaual  pnctioe  waa  to  write  the  Utle  of  the  piece.  Oie  datr. 
and  hia  name. '  AVc  Sckubfrt  Mpla '  inumu  prvuHdi.  at  the  head  of 
the  flrst  page,  on  beginning  to  compoee.  In  hia  earlier  y**"^^ 
added  the  fall  date  of  completion  at  the  end.  eren  when  It  wMMUte 
■ame  day.  See  Noa.  1, 9,  and  5  of  the  •  0  Ueder '  (]lttUery-«U  thm 
belonging  to  ItnS.  aa  given  in  Nottebohnra  (MaUaw.  p.  9431  An^ 
timea  heliaa  dated  each  moTemeut.  aa  in  the  String  Quartet  is  W 
(op.  1881.  deacrlb«d  under  1814.  With  1814.  however,  this  mlnutj 
dating  in  great  meaanre  oeaaea,  and  aa  a  rule  we  find  the  /mt  or  « 
UKiat  the  month  atated. 

'i  y.e.M.  '  iT.  J7.  p.  B  a.  5). 


1  SOS- 


SCHUBERT 


-1810 


2S1 


janior — bears  similar  testimoDy.  *  I  was  much 
astonished/  says  1)8,  '  when  after  a  few  months 
he  told  me  that  he  had  no  more  need  of  any 
help  from  me,  but  would  go  on  by  himself ;  and 
iudeed  .1  soon  had  to  acknowledge  that  he  had 
far  surpassed  me,  beyond  hope  of  competition/ 
Before  he  became  eleven  he  was  first  soprano 
in  the  Lichtenthal  choir,  noted  for  the  beauty 
of  his  voice  and  the  appropriateness  of  his 
expression.  He  played  the  violin  solos  when 
they  occurred  in  the  service,  and  at  home  com- 
posed little  songs,  and  pieces  for  strings  or  for 
PF.  For  a  child  so  gifted,  of  people  in  the 
position  of  the  Schuberts,  the  next  step  was 
imtQrally  the  Imperial  Connnet^  or  school  ^  for 
edacating  the  choristers  for  the  Court-chapel ; 
and  to  the  Convict  accordingly  Franz  was  sent 
in  Oct  1808,  when  eleven  yearsand  eight  months 
old.  He  went  up  with  a  batch  of  other  boys,  who, 
while  waiting,  made  themselves  merry  over  his 
grey  snit,  calling  him  a  miller,  and  otherwise 
cracking  jokes.  But  the  laugh  soon  ceased  when 
the  'miller'  came  under  the  examiners,  the  Court- 
capellmeisters  Salieri  and  Eybler,  and  Komer 
tlte  singing-master.  He  sang  the  trial-pieces  in 
sQch  a  style  that  he  was  at  once  received,  and 
henceforth  the  grey  frock  was  exchanged  for  the 
gold-laoed  uniform  of  the  imperial  choristers.  Tlie 
music  in  the  Convict  had  been  a  good  deal  dropt 
in  consequence  of  the  war,  but  after  the  signing 
of  the  treaty  of  peace,  Oct.  14,  1809,  it  regained 
its  old  footing,  and  then  Franz  soon  took  his  right 
place  in  the  muaic-schooL  There  wasan  orchestra 
formed  from  the  boys,  which  practised  daily 
symphonies  and  overtures  of  Haydn,  Mozart, 
Krommer,  Kozeluch,  M6hul,  Ghenibini,  etc., 
and  occasionally  Beethoven.  Here  his  home 
practice  put  liim  on  a  level  with  older  boys 
than  himself.  The  leader  of  the  band,  behind 
whom  he  sat,  several  years  his  senior,  turned 
round  the  first  day  to  see  who  it  was  that  was 
playing  so  cleverly,  and  found  it  to  be  'a  small 
boy  in  spectacles  named  Franz  Schubert. '  ^  Tlie 
big  fellow's  name  was  Spaun,  and  he  soon 
yi^ame  intimate  with  his  little  neighbour. 
Franz  was  extremely  sensitive,  and  one  day 
admitted  to  his  friend,  very  confused  and 
blushing  deeply,  that  he  had  already  composed 
much ;  that  indeed  he  could  not  help  it,  and 
shoold  do  it  every  day  if  he  could  afford  to  get 
music-paper.  Spaun  saw  the  state  of  matters, 
and  took  care  that  music-paper  should  be 
forthcoming ;  for  which  and  other  kindnesses 
his  name  will  be  long  remembered.  Franz  in 
time  became  first  violin,  and  when  Ruzicka, 
the  ri^lar  conductor,  was  absent,  he  took  his 
pUce.  The  orchestral  music  must  have  been 
a  great  delight  to  him,  but  we  only  hear  that 
be  preferred  Kozeluch  to  Krommer,  and  that 

'  la  th«  PlarliteD^MS  In  the  Joseplistiidt.  Bee  a  vtry  tull  and 
mtcniilBg  aeooant  of  thU  whool  in  Hanriiek's  excellent  book. 
<»7^'ete  deg  CoHetrtmmatru  In  HTUm  rv'ienna,  18QD>.  p.  141. 

*  fi^Uk  a  Mketch  by  von  Kflcbel.  entitled  Nathrtif  nn  Jomj*  ton 
*!«•",  VicDiia  (privately  pi  Inted).  1806.  I  owe  the  sight  of  this  to 
K'7  fXcellcBt  Mend  Mr.  MxL 


his  particular  favomitcs  were  some  adagios  of 
Haydn's,  Mozart's  G  minor  Symphony,  in  which 
he  said  *  You  could  hear  the  angels  singing,'  and 
the  overtures  to  '  Figaro  '  and  the  *  Zauberflote. ' 
It  is  also  evident  fi*om  his  earliest  symphonies 
that  the  overture  to  *  Prometheus '  had  made  its 
mark  on  his  mind.  On  Sundays  and  holidays 
he  went  home,  and  then  the  gi-eat  delight  of 
the  family  was  to  play  quartets,  his  own  or 
those  of  other  writers,  in  which  the  father  took 
the  violoncello,  Ferdinand  and  Ignaz  the  first 
and  second  violins,  and  Franz  the  viola,  as 
Mozart  did  before  him,  and  Mendelssohn  after 
him.  The  father  would  now  and  then  make  a 
mistake ;  on  the  first  occasion  Franz  took  no 
notice,  but  if  it  recurred  he  would  say  with  a 
smile,  in  a  timid  way,  *  Heir  Yater,  something 
must  be  wrong  there.* 

The  instruction  in  the  Convict  was  by  no 
means  only  musical.  There  was  a  Curator,  a 
Director  (Rev.  Innocenz  Lang),  a  Sub-director, 
an  Inspector,  a  staff  of  preachers  and  catechists  ; 
and  there  were  teachere  of  mathematics,  history, 
and  geography,  poetry,  writing,  drawing,  French, 
and  Italian.  3  In  fact  it  was  a  school,  apart 
from  its  music  department.  Franz  of  course 
took  his  part  in  all  this  instruction,  and  for  the 
firet  year  is  said  to  have  acquitted  himself  with 
credit,  but  his  reputation  in  the  school  fell  off 
as  it  increased  in  the  musical  depai-tment  The 
extraordinary  thiist  for  composition,  which  is 
so  remarkable  throughout  his  life,  began  to 
assert  itself  at  this  time,  and  ai)pears  to  have 
been  limited  only  by  his  power  of  obtaining 
paper ;  and  it  not  imiiaturally  interfered  with 
his  general  lessons.  His  first  pianoforte  piece 
of  any  dimensions,  and  apparently  his  earliest 
existing  composition,  was  a  four-hand  fantasia, 
containing  more  than  a  dozen  movements,  all 
of  different  characters,  and  occupying  tliiity- 
two  pages  of  very  small  wiiting.  It  is  dated 
April  8-May  1,  1810,  and  was  followed  by  two 
smaller  ones.^  His  brother  remarks  that  not 
one  of  the  three  ends  in  the  key  in  which  it 
began.  The  next  is  a  long  vocal  piece  for  voice 
and  PF.,  called  *Hagars  Klage'  —  Hagar's 
lament  over  her  dying  son — dated  March  30, 
1811,  also  containing  twelve  movements,  with 
curious  unconnectedchanges  of  key ;  andanother, 
of  even  grimmer  character,  attributed  to  the 
same  year,  is  called  *  Leichenfantasie,'  or  Corpse- 
fantasia,  to  the  words  of  Schiller's  gruesome 
juvenile  poem  of  the  same  name.  This  has 
seventeen  movements,  and  is  quite  as  erratic  in 
its  changes  of  key  and  disregaid  of  the  compass 
of  the  voiceas  the  preceding.  ^  The  reminiscences 
of  Haydn's  *  Creation,'  Mozart's  o])era  airs,  and 
Beethoven's  Andantes,  are  frequent  in  both.  A 
fourth  is  *  Der  Yatermbrder  ' — the  Parricide — 

3  Bee  the  list  of  names  in  K.ff.  p.  13  (1. 19). 

*  Ferd.  p.  133.  Beiasmaon  (p.  7)  (rives  the  inscriptions—'  Den  & 
Anrill  angefangeu.     Den  1.  May  voUbracht,  1810.' 

s  The  antographe  of  both  are  in  possession  of  Herr  Nirholaa 
Dumba  of  Vienna. 


282 


1811— 


SCHUBERT 


—1812 


for  voice  and  PF.,  «26  Dec.  1811,'  a  pleasant 
Christmas  piece  !  a  decided  advance  on  the  two 
previous  songs  in  individuality  of  style,  and 
connection.  1811  also  saw  the  composition  of 
a  quintet-overture,  a  string  quartet,  a  second 
fantasia  for  four  hands,  and  many  songs.  ^  For 
1812  the  list  is  more  instmmentaL  It  contains 
an  overture  for  orchestra  in  D  ;  a  quartet  over- 
ture in  B^>  ;  string  quartets  in  C,  B|>,  and  D  * ; 
a  sonata  for  PF.,  violin,  and  violoncello  ;  varia- 
tions in  Ei^,  and  an  andante,  both  for  PF.  ;  a 
Salve  Regina  and  a  Kyrie.  In  1813  an  octet  ^ 
for  wind  ;  three  string  quartets  in  C,  Bb,  Eb, 
and  D  ;  minuets  and  trios  for  orchestra  and  for 
PF.  ;  a  third  fantasia  for  the  PF.,  four  hands; 
several  songs,  terzets,  and  canons  ;  a  cantata  in 
two  movements,  for  three  male  voices  and  guitar, 
for  his  father's  birthday,  Sept.  27 — both  words 
and  music  his  own  ;  and  his  first  symphony  in 
D,*  intended  to  celebrate  the  birthday  of  Dr. 
Lang,  and  finished  on  Oct  28.  With  this  very 
important  work  his  time  at  the  Convict  ended. 
He  might  have  remained  longer  ;  for  it  is  said 
that  the  Emperor,  who  took  an  interest  in  the 
lads  of  his  chapel,  had  specially  watched  the 
progress  of  this  gifted  boy  with  the  lovely  voice 
and  fine  expression,  and  that  a  special  decision 
had  been  registered  in  his  favour  on  Oct.  21, 
assuring  him  a  foundation  scholarship  in  the 
school,  provided  that  during  the  vacation  he 
should  study  sufficiently  to  pass  an  examination.^ 
To  this  condition,  however,  he  refused  to  submit ; 
and  at  some  time  between  Oct.  26  and  Nov.  6 
he  left  the  Convict  and  returned  home.*  His 
mother  died  in  1812,  but  we  hear  nothing  of 
the  event,  unless  the  octet  just  named  refers  to 
it.  The  father  married  again  in  about  a  year, 
and  the  new  wife,  as  we  shall  see,  did  her  duty 
to  her  stepson  Franz  fully,  and  apparently  with 
affection. 

Franz  was  now  just  comi>leting  his  seven- 
teenth year,  and  what  has  been  rightly  called 
the  first  period  of  his  life.  The  Convict  has 
much  to  answer  for  in  regard  to  Schubert.  It 
was  entrusted  >vith  the  most  poetical  genius  of 
modern  times,  and  it  appears  to  have  allowed 
him  to  take  his  own  course  in  the  matter  of 
composition  almost  unrestrained.  Had  but  a 
lK)rtion  of  the  pains  been  spent  on  the  musical 
education  of  Schubert  that  was  lavished  on  that 
of  Mozart  or  of  Mendelssohn,  we  can  hardly 
doubt  that  even  his  transcendent  ability  would 

1  /Vrrf.  0.138. 

3  Krelnle  exprawly  sUteti  ihU  (p.  B30)  and  gives  the  date-'  Not. 
19.  1813.' 

3  Thin  octet,  dnted  Sept.  19.  Ia  Miil  to  be  mentioned  bsr  FerdiiutDd 
Bchiihert  m  'Fiuiu  Schabi>rt's  liCichenbegKngnln '  (fancnU  oeiv* 
iiioiiy).  It  isfluppoaod  by  Kreissle  (p.  31)  to  have  been  ooiiipoved 
for  the  funenl  of  hU  mother ;  hut  it  Is  rltfflotilt  to  believe  thnt  the 
wordM  which  he  wrote  for  hbi  father's  birthday  ode.  eight  days  later, 
wonid  have  had  no  reference  to  the  mother's  death— which  they 
oertAinly  have  not— if  it  had  occnrrvd  at  that  date. 

*  Ailagio  and  Allegro  ytvace  (Df :  Amlante  fO) ;  Minuet  and  Trio 
(!)) :  Finale,  Allegro  vi^-aoe  (D).  The  work  was  played  from  MS.  at 
thp  Crystal  Palace.  Feb.  6.  ItHl.  The  autograph  is  in  powenion  of 
Herr  Uuuiha.  Vienna.  »  /f.  W.  p.  S3  (1.  33). 

«  It  is  statetl  on  Spann's  author! tjrthat  Hchubrrt  was  led  to  this 
decision  by  the  advice  of  the  poet  Theodor  KOrner.  Bat  KiSnier, 
in  whoee  correspondence  there  Is  no  mention  of  Schubert,  left  Vienna 
at  the  lieglnning  of  this  year  and  died  at  Gadebosch  in  Angost. 


have  been  enhanced  by  it,  that  he  woxild  have 
gained  that  control  over  the  prodigious  spon- 
taneity of  his  genius  which  is  his  only  want, 
and  have  risen  to  the  very  highest  level  in  all 
departments  of  composition,  as  he  did  in  song- 
writing.  But  though  Eybler  and  Salieri  were 
the  conductors  of  the  choir  in  chapel,  it  does 
not  appear  that  they  had  any  duties  in  tlie 
school,  and  Ruzicka,  the  thorough-baas  master, 
like  Holzer,  was  so  prostrated  by  Schubert's 
facility  as  to  content  himself  with  exclaiming 
that  his  pupil  already  knew  all  he  could  teach 
him,  and  must  have  'learned  direct  from 
heaven. '  If  all  masters  adopted  this  attitude 
towards  their  pupils,  what  -would  have  become 
of  some  of  the  greatest  geniuses  t  The  dis- 
comforts of  the  school  appear  to  have  been  great 
even  for  that  day  of  i-oughness.  One  of  the 
pupils  speaks  of  the  cold  of  the  practice-room 
as  '  dreadful '  (schauerlicJi)  ;  and  Schubert's  own 
earliest  letter,  dated  Nov.  24,  1812,  to  his 
brother  Ferdinand,  shows  that  these  young 
growing  lads  were  allowed  to  go  without  food 
for  8^  hours,  between  'a  poor  dinner  and  a 
wretched  supper. '  There  was  not  even  sufficient 
music  paper  provided  for  the  scholars,  and 
Schubert  was,  as  we  have  seen,  dependent  on 
the  bounty  of  the  richer  pupils. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  motets  and  masses  in 
the  service,  the  rehearsals  in  the  school,  such 
teaching  as  there  was,  and  the  daily  practisiugs, 
must  have  been  both  stimulating  and  improving, 
and  with  all  its  roughness  a  good  deal  of  know- 
ledge could  not  but  have  been  obtainable.  One 
advantage  Schubert  reaped  from  the  Convict — 
the  friends  which  he  made  there,  many  of  them 
for  life,  Spaun,  Senn,  Holzapfel,  Staidler,  and 
others,  all  afterwards  more  or  less  eminent,  who 
attached  themselves  to  him  as  every  one  did 
who  came  into  contact  with  him  ;  a  band  of 
young  adorers,  eager  to  play,  or  sing,  or  copy 
anything  that  he  composed  ;  the  earnest  of  the 
devoted  friends  who  surrounded  him  in  later 
years,  and  helped  to  force  his  music  on  an 
ignorant  and  preoccupied  public.  Nor  did  the 
enthusiasm  cease  with  his  departure  ;  for  some 
years  afterwards  the  orchestral  pieces  which  he 
had  written  while  at  the  school  were  still  played 
by  the  boys  from  his  own  MS.  copies.  Outside 
the  school  he  had  sometimes  opportunities  of 
going  to  the  opera.  The  first  opera  which  he 
is  said  to  have  heard  was  Weigl's  '  Waisenhans,' 
played  Dec.  12,  1810  ;  but  this  was  eclipsed 
by  the  *  Schweizerfamilie '  of  the  same  com- 
poser, July  8,  1811  ;  that  again  by  Spontini's 
'  Vestalin,'  with  Milder,  Oct.  1,  1812  ;  and  all 
of  them  by  Gluck's  *  Iphigenie  auf  Tauris,' 
which  he  probably  heard  first  April  5.  18ir», 
with  Milder  and  Vogl  in  the  two  principal  parts, 
and  which  made  a  deep  and  ineffaceable  im- 
])rcssion  upon  him,  and  drove  him  to  the  study 
of  Gluck's  scores. 7    During  the  same  years  there 

7  From  Banemfeld.  in  W.g.K. 


1814 


SCHUBERT 


1814 


283 


were  also  many  concerts,  including  those  at 
whicli  Beethoven  produced  his  6th,  6th,  and  7  th, 
S}inphonies,  the  Choral  Fantasia,  portions  of 
the  Stass  in  C,  the  Overture  to  *Coriolan,'  and 
others  of  his  greatest  compositions.     Schubert 
probably  heard  all  these  works,  but  it  is  very 
doabtfol  whether  he  heard  them  with  the  same 
I^«dilection  as  the  operas  just  mentioned.     We 
might  infer  with  certainty  from  the  three  earliest 
of  his  symphonies,  that  Beethoven's  style  had 
as  yet  taken  but  little  hold  on  him,  not>vith- 
standing  the  personal  fascination  which  he  seems 
to  have  felt  for  the  great  master  from  first  to 
last     But,  indeed,  we  have  his  own  express 
declaration  to  that  effect.     Coming  home  after 
a  performance  of  an  oratorio  of  Salieri's,  June 
H,  1816,  he  speaks  of  the  music  in  terms  which 
can  only  refer  to  Beethoven,   as   *of  simple 
natural  expression,  free  from  all  that  hizarreHe 
which  prevails  in  most  of  the  composers  of  our 
time,  and  for  which  we  have  almost  solely  to 
thank  one  of  our  greatest  German  artists  ;  that 
hiuimne  which  unites  the  tragic  and  the  comic, 
the  agreeable  and  the  repulsive,  the  heroic  and 
the  petty,  the  Holiest  and  a  harlequin  ;   in- 
fariates  those  who  hear  it  instead  of  dissolving 
them  in  love,  and  makes  them  laugh  instead  of 
raising  them  heavenwards.  *     Mozart  was  at  the 
time  his  ideal  composer  ;  this,  too,  is  plain  from 
the  symphonies,  but  here  also  he  leaves  us  in 
no  doubt.     Three  days  earlier  we  find  in  the 
same  diary,'  apropos  of  one  of  the  quintets  of 
that  great  master  : — *  Gently,  as  if  out  of  the 
distance,  did  the  magic  tones  of  Mozart's  music 
strike  my  ears.     With  what  inconceivable  al- 
ternate force  and  tenderness  did  Schlesinger's 
masterly  playing  impress  it  deep,  deep,  into  my 
heart !    Such  lovely  impressions  remain  on  the 
Mul,  there  to  work  for  good,  past  all  power  of 
time  or  circumstances.     In  the  darkness  of  this 
life  they  reveal  a  clear,  bright,  beautiful  pros- 
pect, inspiring  confidence  and  hope.     0  Mozart, 
immortal  Mozart !  what  countless  consolator}' 
images  of  a  bright  better  world  hast  thou 
stamped  on  our  souls.'     There  is  no  doubt  to 
which  of  these  two  great  masters  he  was  most 
attached  at  the  time  he  wrote  this.     [At  the 
same  time  it  is  fair  to  add  that  even  now  his 
allegiance  was  divided.     In  the  instrumental 
compositions  of  this  period,  though  the  style  is 
modelled  on  Mozart,  the  subjects  are  occasionally 
reminiscent  of  Beethoven's  ideas  ;  and  there  is 
a  significant  story  that  when  a  friend  praised 
some  of  his  settings  of  Klopstock,  and  hailed 
him  already  as  one  of  the  great  masters  of 
f'omposition,  he  answered  diffidently,  '  Perhaps, 
I  sometimes  have  dreams  of  that  sort,  but  who 
can  do  anything  after  Beethoven  ? '] 

We  have  seen  what  a  scourge  the  conscription 
proved  in  the  case  of  Ries  (see  ante,  \\  97),  and 
the  nneasiness  of  Mendelssohn's  family  till  the 
risk  of  it  was  over  in  his  case  (vol.  iii.  p.  121a). 

>  Quoted  br  K.n.  pp.  lOS.  101  (i.  105. 103). 


To  avoid  a  similar  danger  *  Schubert  elected  to 
enter  his  father's  school,  and  after  the  necessary 
study  for  a  few  months  at  the  Normal  School  of 
St.  Anna,  did  so,  and  actually  remained  there  for 
three  years  as  teacher  of  the  lowest  class.  The 
duties  were  odious,  but  he  discharged  them 
with  strict  regularity,  and  not  with  greater 
severity  than  might  reasonably  be  expected 
from  the  irritable  temperament  of  a  musician 
condemned  to  such  drudgery.  The  picture  of 
Pegasus  thus  in  vile  harness,  and  the  absence 
of  any  remark  on  the  anomaly,  throws  a  curious 
light  on  the  beginnings  of  a  great  composer. 
Out  of  school  hours,  however,  he  had  his  re- 
laxations. There  was  a  family  in  the  Lichten- 
thal  named  Grob->a  mother,  son,  and  daughter 
— whose  relations  to  him  were  somewhat  like 
those  of  the  Breunings  to  Beethoven  (vol.  i.  p. 
2186).  The  house  was  higher  in  the  scale  than 
his  father's,  and  he  was  quite  at  home  there. 
Therese,  the  daughter,  had  a  fine  high  soprano 
voice,  and  Heinrich  Grob  played  both  PF.  and 
violoncello  ;  the  mother  was  a  woman  of  taste, 
and  a  great  deal  of  music  was  made.  It  is  not 
impossible  that  Therese  inspired  him  with  a 
softer  feeling.3  The  choir  of  the  Lichtenthal 
church,  where  his  old  friend  Holzer  was  still 
choirmaster,  was  his  resort  on  Sundays  and 
feast  days,  and  for  it  he  wrote  his  first  mass,  in 
F— begun  May  17,  finished  July  22,  1814— a 
fitting  pendant  to  the  6ymi)hony  of  the  previous 
October.  He  was  not  yet  eighteen,  and  the 
mass  is  pronounced  by  a  trustworthy  critic* 
to  be  the  most  remarkable  first  mass  ever  pro- 
duced, excepting  Beethoven's  in  C,  and  as 
striking  an  instance  of  the  precocity  of  genius 
as  Mendelssohn's  Overture  to  the  *  Midsummer 
Night's  Dream.'  It  seems  to  have  been  first 
performed  on  Oct.  16,  the  first  Sunday  after  St. 
Theresa's  day,  1814 — Mayseder,  then  twenty- 
five  and  an  acknowledged  virtuoso,  leading  the 
first  violins  ;  and  was  repeated  at  the  Augustine 
Church  ten  days  after.  This  second  perfoi  mance 
was  quite  an  event.  Franz  conducted,  Holzer 
led  the  choir,  Ferdinand  took  the  organ,  Therese 
Grob  sang,  the  enthusiasm  of  the  family  and 
friends  was  great,  and  the  proud  father  pie- 
sented  his  happy  son  with  a  five-octave  piano.* 
Salieri  was  present  and  loud  in  his  praises,  and 
claimed  Schubert  as  his  pupil.  He  had  indeed 
begun  to  take  some  interest  in  the  lad  before  ^ 
he  left  the  Convict,  and  continued  it  by  daily 
lessons  'for  a  long  time.'^  That  interest  was 
probably  much  the  same  that  he  had  shown  to 
Beethoven  fifteen  years  before,  making  him 
write  to  Metastasio's  words,  and  correcting  the 
prosody  of  his  music.  But  there  must  have 
been  some  curious  attraction  about  the  old  man, 
to  attach  twosuch  original  geniuses  as  Beethoven 

3  He  vas  three  Kmea  suininoned  to  enlUt.    8e«  Ferd,  p.  133. 

3  See  K.n.  pp.  141  (1.  144). 

*  Prout,  In  Monthty  MuMieal  Sernrd.  Jan.  and  FeK  1871. 

»  ferd.  p.  1,136.  "  A'.//.  K  27  vote. 

'  Bauemfeld,  in  W.E.K.  June  9. 1829. 


284 


1814- 


SCHUBERT 


—1816 


and  Schubert  to  liim,  and  make  them  willing 
to  style  themselves  *  scholars  of  Salieri.'  *  His 
permanent  influence  on  Schubert  may  be 
measured  by  the  fact  that  he  warned  him 
against  Goethe  and  Schiller,  a  warning  which 
Schubert  attended  to  so  far  as  to  compose  sixty- 
seven  songs  of  the  one  poet,  and  fifty-four  of 
the  other ! 

Franz's  next  effort  was  an  opera — a  light  b.nd 
absurd  supernatural  *op^ra-comique'  in  three 
acts,  *  Des  Teufels  Lustschloss, '  words  by 
Kotzebue.  He  probably  began  it  while  at  the 
Convicty  the  first  act  having  been  completed 
Jan.  11,  1814  ;  the  second,  March  16  ;  and 
the  third,  May  15.  Two  days  afterwards  he 
began  the  mass.  That  over,  he  had  leisure  to 
look  again  at  the  earlier  work.  The  experience 
gained  in  writing  the  mass  probably  revealed 
many  an  imperfection  in  the  opera.  He  at 
once  rewrote  it,  and  finished  the  revision  of  it 
on  Oct.  22.  The  work  was  never  performed. 
With  all  these  and  other  labours  he  found  time 
to  visit  the  Convict  ^  in  the  evenings,  take  part 
in  the  practices,  and  try  over  liis  new  composi- 
tions. Besides  the  pieces  already  mentioned, 
the  productions  of  1814  embrace  a  Salve  Begina 
for  tenor  and  orchestra.  Also  two  string 
quartets  in  D  and  G  minor  respectively,  and  a 
third  in  Bj^,  published  as  op.  168,  and  remark- 
able for  the  circumstances  of  its  composition. 
It  was  begun  as  a  string  trio,  and  ten  lines 
were  written  in  that  form.  It  was  then  begun 
again  and  finished  as  a  quartet.  The  move- 
ments are  more  fully  dated  than  usual.^  Also 
five  minuets  and  six  Deutsche  (or  waltzes)  for 
strings  and  horns ;  and  seventeen  songs,  among 
them  *Gretchen  am  Spinnrade'  (Oct.  19),  and 
Schiller's  *Der  Taucher,'  a  composition  of 
enormous  length,  begun  Sept.  1813,  and  finished 
in  the  following  August.  On  Dec  10  he  began 
Ills  second  symphony,  in  B^.^  The  autograph 
shows  that  the  short  Introduction  and  Allegro 
vivace  were  finished  by  the  twenty-sixth  of  the 
same  month,  but  its  completion  falls  in  1815. 
Before  the  year  closed  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Mayrhofer,  a  man  of  eccentric,  almost  hypo- 
chondriac character,  and  a  poet  of  grand  and 
gloomy  cast,  who  became  his  firm  friend,  and 
fifty-four  of  whose  poems  *  (besides  the  operas 
of  *Adrast'  and  *Die  beiden  Freunde  von 
Salamanka'),  fortunately  for  Mayrhofer's  im- 
mortality,   he   set   to  music — some   of  them 

1  For  Beethoven  eee  toL  1.  p.  2224.  Sehnbert  ao  stxlee  Umaelf 
on  the  tiUe-iMges  of  his  *  Fernando '  and  '  Claudlne  von  VilU- 
bellft.' 

«  A'./Sr.  p.  IS  (L  19). 

s  The  Allegro hu  at  heffinning.  '6  Sept  1814.' at  end.  'den  6  Sept. 
in  4\  Btunden  angefertlgi.'  apperenUy  Implying  that  It  waa  dashed 
off  before  and  after  twelve  o'clock  at  night.  Andante,  at  beginning. 
'  den  6  Sept  1814.'  at  end.  '  den  10  Sept  1814  '  If  innet,  at  end,  '  ]  1 
Sept  1^4.'  Finale,  at  end  'den  13  Sept  1814.'  Autognph  with 
Spina. 

*  At  beginninn.  '  10  Dec.  1814 ' :  at  end  of  Allegro.  '  96  Dec.  1814 ' : 
nt  beginning  of  Finale.  '26  Feb.  1815.'  and  at  end,  '  34  March  lB\!i.' 
The  movements  are  Largo  and  Allegro  viwioe  (Bt)| ;  Andante  <Eb) : 
MInnet  and  Trio  (C  minor);  Finale,  Pre«to  vivace  (Bb).  Played 
from  MS.  at  the  Crystal  Falace.  Oct  90. 1877.  Antogiaph  with  Hen 
Duroba. 

»  Forty-eight  published,  and  six  in  MS. 


among  his  very  finest  songs.  The  acquaintance 
began  by  Schubert's  setting  Mayrhofer^s  '  Arn 
See.'  He  composed  it  on  Dec.  7,  and  a  few 
days  afterwards  visited  the  poet  at  his  lodgings 
in  the  Wipplinger  Strasse  420  (since  destroye^i), 
a  small  dark  room  rendered  illustrious  by  lieing 
the  residence  of  Theodor  Komer,  and  after- 
wards of  Schubert,  who  lived  there  in  1S19 
and  1820.  The  visit  was  the  beginning  of  a 
friendship  which  ended  only  with  Schulx-rt  a 
death. 

1816  is  literally  crowded  with  compositions. 
Two  orchestral  symphonies  of  full  dimensions, 
Nos.  2  and  3  (that  in  Bb  ended  March  24,  that 
in  D,®  May  24-July  19);  a  string  quartet  in 
G  minor  (March  25-April  1) ;  PF.  sonatas  in 
C,  F,  E  (Feb.  11)  and  E  (Feb.  18) ;  an  adii<no 
in  G  /April  8),  twelve  Wiener  Deutsche, 
eight  Ecossaises  (Oct.  3),  and  ten  variations 
for  PF.  solo ;  two  masses,  in  G "  (ifarcli 
2-7)  and  Bb  (Nov.  11~);  a  new  *Dona'«  for 
the  mass  in  F ;  a  Stabat  Mater  in  G  miii<>i 
(April  4)  ;  a  Salve  Regina  (July  6)  ;  five  laiye 
dramatic  pieces  — *  Der  vierjiihrige  Posten,*  one- 
act  operetta  (ended  May  16)  ;  '  Fernando,'  one- 
act  Singspiel  (July  8-9)  ;  *  Claudiue  von  Villa- 
bella,'  three-act  Singspiel  (Act  1,  July  26- 
August  6),  originally  composed  complete,  br.t 
Acts  2  and  8  were  used  by  an  ofiicious 
maid-servant  for  lighting  fires  ;  *  Die  beiden 
Freunde  von  Salamanka,'  a  two-act  Singspiel 
by  Mayrhofer  (Nov.  18-Dea  31);  *Der 
Spiegelritter,*  three-act  opera,  of  which  eight 
numbers  are  with  tlie  Oesellschaft  des  Musik* 
freunde  at  Vienna ;  |)erhaps  also  a  Siugspit-l 
called  *Die  Minnesanger,'  and  'Adrast,'  an 
opera  by  Mayrhofer,  of  which  but  seven  numbers 
exist. ^  In  addition  to  all  these  there  are  no 
less  than  146  songs.  In  August  alone  there 
are  over  thirty,  and  in  October  over  twenty, 
of  which  eight  are  dated  the  15th  and  seven 
the  19th  !  And  of  these  146  songs  some  are  of 
sucli  enormous  length  as  would  seem  to  have 
prevented  their  publication.  *Miuona'  (MS. 
Feb.  8),  the  first  one  of  the  year,  contains  six- 
teen, and  *  Adelwold  and  Emma '  (MS.,  June  5) 
no  less  than  fifty-five  closely  written  sides.  Of 
those  published,  *Die  Biirgschaft'(*Aug.  1815') 
fills  twenty-two  pages  of  LitolfTs  edition, '  Ely- 
sium '  thirteen,  and  *  Loda's  Gespenst '  fifteen  of 
the  same.  It  was  the  length  of  such  composi- 
tions as  these — 'jmis  une  histoire,  mais  des 
histoires' — that  caused  Beethoven's  exchuna- 

"  It  is  in  the  usual  nnmher  of  movements :  Adagio  niseftoM)  ukI 
Allegro  oon  brio  (D) :  Allegivtto  rG) ;  Mfnnetand  Triv  tP) :  Fi'l'T' 
Preeto  vivace  (D).  Dates :— Allegro,  at  becinning. '  M  Vvf  Iflf  i 
end.  'July  IS,  1818.'  Allegretto,  at  begbinlng.  'Joly  l-\  i'f''' 
End  of  Finale,  *  Jnly  19. 181B.'    Antogra^  with  Berr  D«di)«. 

7  Published  by  M.  Betra.  of  Pnfae.  in  18«.  as  the  oonipi»it  p"  «^ 
R.Ptthrer.  [See  vol.  11.  p.  11S61  The  fraud  was  not  expo«dtlin*f;. 
when  it  wasannouneed  by  Ferd.  Schubert  In  the  ^%.  WHmer  Jt»f- 
utttunfi  of  Dec.  14.  Ferdinand  mentions  this  uiaai  In  hi*  l<>t  w<ifr 
IS]  5.  A  copy,  evidently  copied  cloaely  fraio  the  autognph.  bat  «^tfi 
the  Addition  of  oboes  (or  clarinets)  and  bassoons  by  Ferd.  f^hHi-^ 
(July  2n.  1M7).  is  in  Uie  Ubnuy  of  the  GeeellsdMftder  Mosikfnrim'lf 

B  Mentioned  by  Ferdinand,  p.  ISRn.  ^ 

*  Autographs  of  Fernando,  Teufels  Lustsdiloas,  and  A<ira<  w 
with  Herr  Dumba. 


1815 


SCHUBERT 


1815 


285 


tiou  on  his  deathbed  :  '  Such  long  poems,  many 
of  them  containing  ten  others/  by  which  he 
meant  as  long  as  ten.  [See  p.  3095.]  And 
this  mass  of  music  was  produced  in  the  mere 
inteirals  of  his  school  drudgery  !  Well  might 
his  brother  say  that  the  rapidity  of  his  writing 
vas  marvellons. 

Amidst  all  this  work  and,  one  might  be 
tempted  to  believe,  all  this  hurry,  it  is  astonish- 
ing to  find  that  some  of  the  songs  of  these 
boyish  years  are  amongst  the  most  permanent 
of  his  productions.  *  Gretchen  am  Spinnrade,' 
a  song  full  of  the  passion  and  experience  of  a 
lifetune,  was  written  (as  we  have  said)  in  Oct. 
1814,  when  he  was  seventeen.  The  '  Erl  King ' 
itself  in  its  oiiginal  form  (with  a  few  slight 
differences)*  belongs  to  the  winter  of  1816, 
iQ<i  the  immortal  songs  of  the  *  Haidenroslein,' 
'Rastlose  Liebe,'  *Schafers  Klagelied,'  the 
grand  Ossian  songs,  and  others  of  his  better- 
knon-n  works,  fall  within  this  year.  The  Mass 
in  G,  too,  though  composed  for  a  very  limited 
orchestra,  and  not  without  tokens  of  hurry,  is 
a  masterpiece.  The  dramatic  works  contain 
nmny  beautiful  movements,  and  are  full  of 
striking  things,  but  the  librettos  are  so  bad, 
that  in  their  present  condition  they  can  never 
be  put  on  the  stage.  The  symphonies,  though 
not  original,  are  not  without  original  points ; 
and  are  so  sustained  throughout,  so  full  of 
fresh  melody  and  interesting  harmony,  and  so 
extraordinarily  scored  considering  their  date, 
that  in  these  respects  a  man  of  double  Schubert's 
tge  might  be  proud  to  claim  them. 

The  habit  of  writing  to  whatever  words  came 
in  his  way  was  one  of  Schubert's  characteristics, 
HI*cially  in  the  earlier  part  of  his  career. 
^Vith  his  incessant  desire  to  sing ;  with  an 
abnndant  fountain  of  melody  and  harmony 
always  welling  up  in  him  and  endeavouring  to 
e$ca}>e,  no  wonder  that  he  grasped  at  any  words 
and  tried  any  forms  that  came  in  his  way  and 
>>«emed  to  afford  a  channel  for  his  thoughts. 
If  good,  well  ;  if  bad,  well  too.  The  reason 
why  he  wrote  eight  operas  in  one  year  was  no 
doaht  in  great  measure  becatise  he  happened  to 
meet  with  eight  librettos  ;  had  it  been  four  or 
twelre  instead  of  eight  the  result  would  have 
been  the  same.  The  variety  in  the  productions 
even  of  this  early  year  is  truly  extraordinary.  A 
glance  at  the  l^t  is  sufficient  to  show  that  he 
tried  nearly  every  form  of  composition,  whilst 
the  songs  which  he  set  range  from  gems  like 
Goethe's  *  Meeresstille '  and  *  FreudvoU  und 
leidToll,'  to  the  noisy  ballads  of  Bertrand  ;  from 
Mayrhofer's  stern  dassicality  and  the  gloomy 
romance  of  Ossian,  to  the  mild  sentiment  of 
Kloprtock.  No  doubt,  as  Schumann  says,  he 
could  have  set  a   placard   to   music.  ^      The 

\  "^  Beriin  Ubnrf  poM«— w  an  aatogim^  of  th«  «arller  fonn. 

I  ^v^ntoM  are  In  the  complete  edition. 
.     y'yo  iD«  donne  1»  Guette  de  Honande,'  mju  Rameaa.    Bat 
nt^kabeit  eoaM  have  tbrovn  poetry  Into  an  adTerilMment  I   *  Give 
'^tbcwordt.'MidMoairt,  '  and  TU  irai  the  poetry  to  them.' 


spectacle  of  so  insatiable  a  desire  to  produce  has 
never  before  been  seen  ;  of  a  genius  thrown 
naked  into  tlie  world  and  compelled  to  explore 
for  himself  all  paths  and  channels  in  order  to 
discover  by  exhaustion  which  was  the  best — 
and  then  to  die. 

During  this  year  he  taught  diligently  and 
punctually  in  his  father's  school,  and  attended 
Salieri's  lessons.  His  relations  to  the  Lichten- 
thal  remained  as  before.  The  Mass  in  G,  like 
that  in  F,  was  written  for  the  parish  church,  and 
according  to  the  testimony  of  one  ^  of  his  old 
friends  was  especially  intended  for  those  of  hi* 
companions  who  had  been  pupils  of  Holzer's  with 
him.  A  pleasant  relic  of  his  home  life  exists 
in  a  piece  of  music  written  for  his  father's  birth- 
day, Sept.  27, 1815,  for  four  voices  and  orchestra 
— '  Erhabner,  verehrter  Freund  der  Jugend.'* 
He  kept  up  his  intercourse  also  with  the  Convict, 
and  when  he  had  written  anything  special  it 
was  one  of  the  first  places  to  which  he  would 
take  it  There  possibly  his  Symphonies  were- 
tried,  though  it  is  doubtful  if  a  juvenile  orchestra 
would  contain  clarinets,  bassoons,  trumpets, 
and  horns,  all  which  are  present  in  the  scores 
of  the  first  four  Symphonies.  Tliere,  thanks- 
to  the  memorandum  of  another  old  *  Convicter,' 
we  can  assist  at  the  first  hearing  of  the  *  Erl 
King.'  Spaun  happened  to  call  one  afternoon,, 
in  this  very  winter,  at  the  elder  Schubert's- 
house  in  the  Himmelpfortgruud,  and  found 
Franz  in  his  room,  in  a  state  of  inspiration  over 
Goethe's  ballad,  which  he  had  just  seen  for  the 
first  time.  A  few  times'  reading  had  been 
sufficient  to  evoke  the  music,  which  in  the  rage 
of  inspiration  he  was  whelming  dowu^  on  to* 
the  paper  at  the  moment  of  Spaun's  anival ;. 
indeed  it  was  already  perfect  except  the  mere 
filling  in  of  the  accompaniment.  This  was- 
quickly  done  ;  and  it  was  finished  in  the  fonn 
in  which  we  can  now  see  it  in  the  Berlin 
Library.*^  In  the  evening  Schubert  brought  it 
to  the  Convict,  and  there  first  he  and  then  Hok- 
apfel  sang  it  through.  It  was  not  altogether 
well  received.  No  wonder  ;  the  form  was  too 
new,  the  dramatic  spirit  too  strong,  even  for 
that  ch-clo  of  young  Schubert-admirers.  At 
the  words  *  Mein  Vater,  mein  Vater,  jetzt  fasst 
er  mich  an ! '  where  Gb,  F5,  and  Eb  all  come 
together,  there  was  some  dissent,  and  Ruzicka, 
as  teacher  of  harmony,  had  to  explain  to  his 
pupils,  as  best  he  might,  a  combination  which 
now  seems  perfectly  natural  and  appropriate. 

1816  was  passed  much  as  1815  had  been,  in 

•  HeiT  Doppler.  I  cannot  refrain  from  mentioning  this  frentle- 
niaii,  who  In  1887  was  ihopinan  at  Spina's  (formerly  Diabelll's).  I 
fthall  never  forget  the  droU  ahock  I  received  when  onaaking  him  if 
he  knew  Schubert,  he  replied,  'Know  hlmt  I  was  nthU  christen- 
ing! '  Krelsale's  Life  is  Indebted  to  him  for  many  a  trait  which 
would  otherwise  have  bnen  lost. 

*  Now  In  the  Imperial  Library.  Berlin.  No  doubt  there  was  one 
every  year,  though  that  of  1914  hnr  been  loat. 

>  HhtuncOJdend  is  Kxeissle's  word,  doubtless  from  Spaun's  llpa. 

B  If  indeed  this  lie  the  actually  first  original.  The  omission  of 
bar  8.  and  its  subsequent  insertion,  however,  as  weH  aa  the  clean 
regular  look  of  the  whole,  seem  to  point  to  its  being  a  ttanecript. 
[roe  various  versions  of  this  song,  and  the  stages  of  ita  growth, 
can  be  seen  In  the  complete  edition  of  Breltkopf  ft  HKrtel.] 


286 


1816 


SCHUBERT 


1816 


a  marvellous  round  of  incessant  work.  The 
drudgery  of  the  school,  however,  had  become  so 
insupportable  that  Schubert  seized  the  oppor- 
tunity of  the  opening  of  a  government  school  of 
music,  at  Laibach,  near  IVieste,  to  apply  for  the 
post  of  director,  with  a  salary  of  500  Vienna 
florins — £21  a  year.  The  testimonials  which  he 
sent  in  in  April  from  Salieri,  and  from  Joseph 
8i>endou,  Chief  Superintendent  of  Schools,  were 
so  cold  in  tone  as  to  imply  that  however  much 
they  valued  Schubert,  they  believed  his  qualifi- 
cations not  to  be  those  of  the  head  of  a  large 
establishment.^  At  any  rate  he  failed,  and  the 
post  was  given,  on  the  recommendation  of 
Salieri,  to  a  ceitain  Jacob  Schaufl.  Schubert 
found  compensation,  however,  in  the  friendship 
of  Franz  von  Schober,  a  young  man  of  good 
birth  and  some  small  means,  who  had  met  with 
his  songs  at  the  house  of  the  Spauns  at  Linz, 
and  had  ever  since  longed  to  make  his  personal 
acquaintance.  Coming  to  Vienna  to  enter  the 
University,  apparently  soon  after  the  Laibach 
rebuff,  he  called  on  Schubert,  found  him  in  his 
father's  house,  overwhelmed  with  his  school 
duties,  and  with  apparently  no  time  for  music. 
There,  however,  were  the  piles  of  manuscript — 
operas,  masses,  symphonies,  songs,  heaped  up 
around  the  young  schoolmaster-composer,  and 
Schober  saw  at  once  that  some  step  must  be 
taken  to  put  an  end  to  this  cruel  anomaly, 
and  give  Schubert  time  to  devote  himself  wholly 
to  the  Art  of  which  he  was  so  full.  Schober 
proposed  that  his  new  friend  should  live  with 
liim  ;  Franz's  father  —  possibly  not  over- 
satisfied  with  his  son's  performances  as  a  teacher 
of  the  alphabet  to  infants  ^ — consented  to  the 
plan,  and  the  two  young  men  (Schober  was 
some  four  months  Franz's  junior)  went  off  to 
keep  house  together  at  Schober's  lodgings  in 
tiie  Landkrongasse.  A  trace  of  this  change  is 
found  on  two  MS.  songs  in  the  Musik  Verein  at 
Vienna,  *  Leiden  der  Trennung '  and  *  Lebens- 
lied,'  inscribed  *In  HeiT  v.  Schober's  lodging,' 
and  dated  Nov.  1816.  Schubert  began  to  give 
a  few  lessons,  but  soon  threw  them  up,^  and 
the  household  must  have  been  maintained  at 
Schober's  expense,  since  there  was  obviously  as 
yet  no  sale  for  Schubert's  comix}sitions.  He 
had  good  friends,  as  Beethoven  had  had  at  the 
same  age,  though  not  so  high  in  rank — Hofrath 
von  Kiesewetter,  Matthiius  von  Collin,  Graf 
Moritz  Dietrichstein,  Hofrath  Hammer  von 
Purgstall,  Pyrker,  afterwards  Patriarch  of 
Venice  and  Archbishop  of  Erlau,  Fran  Caroline 
Pichler— all  ready  and  anxious  to  help  him  had 
they  had  the  opportunity.  But  Schubert  never 
gave  them  the  opportunity.  He  was  a  true 
Viennese,  bom  in  the  lowest  ranks,  without 
either  the  art  or  the  taste  for  *  imposing '  on 
the  aristocracy  (Beethoven's  *  favourite  phrase) 
that  Beethoven  had  ;  loving  the  society  of  his 


1  K.rr.p.vym.iW). 

3  Bkuenifeld.  W.M.K. 


3  Thmv  l»  ground  for  thia  •upposltloo. 
*  Impontrtn.    Thayer,  li.  3IS. 


own  class,  shrinking  from  praise  or  notice  of 
any  kind,  and  with  an  absolute  detestation  of 
teaching  or  any  other  stated  duties. 

But  to  know  him  was  to  love  and  value  him. 
Three  little  events,  which  slightly  diversify  the 
course  of  this  year,  are  of  moment  as  showing 
the  position  which  Schubert  took  amongst  his 
acquaintances.  The  first  was  the  50th  anni- 
versary of  Salieri's  arrival  in  Vienna,  which  he 
had  entered  as  a  boy  on  June  16,  1766.  [Si'e 
Salieki,  p.  212.]  On  Sunday,  June  16,  1516. 
the  old  Italian  was  invested  with  the  Imixrial 
gold  medal  and  chain  of  honour,  in  the  presence 
of  the  whole  body  of  Court-musicians  ;  and  in 
the  evening  a  concert  took  place  at  hisoiA'n  house, 
in  which,  surrounded  by  his  pupils,  Wcigl. 
Assmayer,  Anna  Frohlich,  Schubert,  and  many 
others,^  both  male  and  female,  he  snuffed  up 
the  incense  of  his  worshippers,  and  listened  to 
compositions  in  his  honour  by  his  scholars  pabt 
and  present.  Among  these  were  pieces  sent  by 
Hummel  and  Moscheles,  and  a  short  cantata, 
both  words  and  music  by  Schubert.** 

Eight  days  afterwards,  on  July  24,  there  was 
another  festivity  in  honour  of  the  birthday  of 
a  certain  Herr  Heinrich  Watteroth,^  a  distin- 
guished official  person,  for  which  Schubert  had 
been  employed  to  write  a  cantata  on  the  subject 
of  Prometheus,  words  by  PhilippDriixler,  another 
official  person.  The  cantata  has  disappeared  ; 
but  from  a  description  of  it  by  Leopold  Sonn- 
leithner,  communicated  to  *  Zellner's  Blatter  fiir 
Theater, 'etc.  (No.  19),  and  reprinted* separately, 
it  seems  to  have  been  written  for  two  solo  voices, 
soprano  (Gaa),  and  bass  (Prometheus),  chorus, 
and  orchestra,  and  to  have  contained  a  duct  in 
recitative,  two  choruses  for  mixed  and  one  for 
male  voices  (the  disciples  of  Prometheu8)L  This 
last  is  described  as  haWng  been  in  the  form  of 
a  slow  march,  with  original  and  interesting  treat- 
ment. The  performance  took  place  in  the  garden 
of  Watteroth's  house  in  the  Erdberg  suburb  of 
Vienna.  As  all  the  persons  concerned  in  the 
festivity  were  people  of  some  consideration,  and 
as  the  music  was  very  well  received,  it  may  have 
been  an  important  introduction  for  the  young 
composer.  A  congratulatory  poem  by  von 
Schlechta,  addressed  to  Schubert,  appeared  a  day 
or  two  later  in  the  TheaUrzeUwng,  Schubert 
had  already,  in  the  previous  year,  set  a  song 
of  Schlechta's — *  Auf  einem  Kirchhof  * — and  he 
promptly  acknowledged  the  compliment  by 
adopting  one  of  more  moment  from  Schlechta's 

'  Thm>  WM  a  Lint  amoiiff  flalieri'a  paiilb  at  thia  time,  bat 
hardly  the  futnre  AbW,  vho  waa  then  bat  flv«  ywn  old.  Frmni 
Liaxt  and  Schubert  met  onoe— in  the  carlona  oollection  of  viriatinn* 
on  Dlabelli'a  waltz,  to  which  fifty  Aoatrian  oompoaara  oontribatwi 
Beethoven's  contribution  beiiic  the  thirty-three  vmrlationii.  op.  )9P- 
Lirat'ii  variationa  ia  Ka  «.  and  Sehubert'a  Na  38.  Uaat  wm  UmwcO* 
out  an  indeCatigable  diampion  for  SchuberL 

"  Theauto^raphof  thlalittiecnrioalty  waaaoldin  PMia.byaiKtK>B- 
May  14. 1881.  The  words  are  Riven  by  Krrlale.  p.  81  (i.  8».  bat  an 
not  worth  qaotinR.  They  do  not  poaaeaa  the  individaaltty  of  tboapn* 
which  makM  Schubert's  Ut«r  veraea  ao  intereating.  in  spite  of  tbe 
cnidity  of  their  expraaaion. 

7  His  birthday  waa  July  12.  bat  tha  pezfonnanoe  waa  pat  off  on 
account  of  the  weather.  ^  _ 

"  I  am  indebted  for  thia  reprint  to  my  ever-kind  IxUaA  Mr.  C.  F. 
Pohl.  of  the  Gowllachaft  der  Mualkfreande.  Vienna. 


1816 


SCHUBERT 


1816 


287 


'Diego  Manzauares/  *  Wo  irrst  du  durch  einaame 
Sch&tten  ?  *  his  setting  of  which  is  dated  July 
30,  1816.1  Schubert  evidently  was  fond  of  his 
cantata.  It  was  performed  at  Innsbruck  by 
Iransbacher,  and  at  Vienna  by  Sonnleithner  in 
1819.  Schubert  wished  to  give  it  at  the  Augarten 
in  1820,  and  had  sent  it  somewhere  for  perfonu- 
anoe  at  the  time  of  his  death.  He  was  paid  1 00 
florins,  Vienna  currency  (or  £4)  for  it,  and  he 
notes  in  his  journal  that  it  was  the  first  time 
he  had  composed  for  money. 

The  thiid  event  was  the  composition  of  a 
cantata  on  a  lai^ger  scale  than  either  of  the  others. 
It  was  addressed  to  Dr.  Joseph  Spendou,  in  his 
character  of  Founder  and  Principal  of  the  School- 
masters* Widows*  Fund,  and  contained   eight 
numbers,  with  solos  for  two  sopranos  and  bass, 
a  qaartet  and   choruses,    all  with  orchestral 
aooonipaniment.     Whether  it  was  performed  or 
not  is  uncertain,^  but  it  was  published  in  1880 
in  PF.  score  by  Diabelli,  as  op.  128.     The  other 
compositions  of  the  year  1816  are  as  numerous  as 
Qsual.    There  is  a  fine  trio  for  S.S.A.  and  PF. 
to  the  words  of  Klopetock's  *  grosses  Halleluja ' 
(Lf.  41 ,  No.  2) ;  a  Salve  Regina  in  F,  to  German 
voids,  for  four  voices  and  organ*  (Feb.  21, 
1S16)  [another,  to  Latin  words,  for  unaccom- 
panied chorus  (Feb.  1816),  and  a  Stabat  Mater 
in  F  minor  (Feb.   28,  1816)   to   Klopstock's 
tnzolation  of  the  Latin  hjrmn.]    The  last  of 
tliese  is  written  for  soprano,  tenor,  and  bass 
.  solo,  and  chorus,  and  for  an  orchestra  of  the  usual 
strings,  two  flutes,  two  oboes,  two  bassoons,  one 
coQtra-baasoon,  two  horns,  three  trombones,  two 
tmmpets  and  drums.     These,  however,  are  not 
aniformly  employed  ;  the  trumpets  and  drums 
only  api)ear  for  a  few  chords  in  Nos.  9  and  12 ; 
No.  5,  an  eight- part  chorus,  is  accompanied  by 
the  wind  alone,  and  No.  6,  a  tenor  air,  by  the 
strings,  Ti-ith  oboe  solo.     This  work  was  per- 
formed in  1841  by  the  Musik-Verein  of  Vienna, 
and  in  1863  at  the  Altlerchenfelder  church,  but 
was  not  published  until    the  appearance  of 
Breitkopf  k  Hiirtel's  edition.     [Among  other 
works  of  this  year  are  a  setting  of  the  Angels' 
Chorus  from  Faustf  '  Christ  ist  erstanden '  (June 
1^16),  a  fragment  of  a  Requiem  in  El^*  (Jiily 
1816),  which  ends  with  the  second  bar  of  the 
vcond  Kyrie,  a  Tantum  ergo  in  C  (Aug.),  a 
MagniGcat  in  C  (Sept),  and  a  duet,  *  Auguste 
jam  ooelestium '  (Oct.),  strongly  tinctured  by 
Mozart*] 

Of  operas  we  find  only  one  in  1816,  probably 
hecaose  only  one  libretto  came  in  his  way.  It 
is  called  *  Die  Biirgschaft,*  and  is  in  three  acts. 
The  author  of  the  words  is  not  known  ;  and  the 
quotations  in  Kreissle  show  that  they  are  in  great 
part  absolute  rubbish.     Schubert  continued  his 

\  HcntiinMd  to  this  t»«i  ^n  1830, 18SS.  1818. 1SS8. 
'  Kntele.  i.  m.  my%  tliat  it  wm. 

*  >'«tt«)»hm's  Catalagut,  p.  9SfL 

*  r>nt  printed  hy  SchumMui  M  Appendix  to  his  newspaper,  the 
.v/.jr,  for  Jane  18. 18391 

Ma  Bntnu'iMMMMioii.  The  date  1*  qttoted  from  the  OttfoiovMe 
« tbe  Mcoiate  IMtebohni.  I  am  boand  to  aay  that  I  nw  no  date, 
ud  BnfaaM  ]iid«Bd  It  to  he  later  than  181A. 


task  to  the  third  act,  fifteen  numbers,  and  there 
stopped.  The  autograph,  in  Herr  Dumba's 
possession,  is  dated  May  1816. 

The  Symphonies  of  1816  are  two— the  fourth, 
in  C  minor,  entitled  *'lVagic  Symphony,'  and 
datedApril  1816  ;«  and  the  fifth,  iuBb,  for  small 
orchestra,  dated  Sept  1816-Oct.  8, 1816.^  The 
firstof  these  isa  gi'eat  advance  on  itspredecessoi-s ; 
the  Andante  is  individual  and  very  beautiful,  and 
the  Finale  wonderfully  spirited.  Tlie  other, 
though  full  of  Mozart,  is  asgay  and  untrammelled 
as  all  Schubert's  orchestral  music  of  that  day .  It 
is  sometimes  entitled  'Without  Trumpets  or 
Drums,'  and  is  said  to  have  been  composed  for 
the  orchestra  at  the  Gundelhof,  which  grew  out 
of  the  Schubert  Sunday  afternoon  quartets.  ^  Both 
were  often  played  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  under 
Manns's  direction,  and  were  among  the  favourite 
works  in  the  r&pcrtoire  of  that  establishment  A 
string  quartet  in  F ;  a  string  trio  in  Bb,  apparently 
very  good ;  a  rondo  in  A  for  violin  solo  and 
quartet  (June  1816)  ;  a  violin  concerto  in  C  ; 
three  sonatinas  for  PF.  and  violin  (op.  137)  ;  a 
PF.  sonata  in  F,  two  movements  of  another  in 
£ ;  various  marches  for  PF.  ;  twelve  Deutsche 
(waltzes)  ;  six  ^kx>8saiBe8,  with  the  inscriptions 
'  Composed  while  a  prisoner  in  my  room  at  Erd- 
berg '  and  '  Thank  God  ' — probably  the  relic  of 
some  practical  joke — are  still  existing. 

Very  little  of  the  above,  however  interesting, 
can  be  said  to  be  of  real,  first-rate,  peimanent 
value.  But  when  we  approach  the  songs  of  1 8 1 6 
the  case  is  altered.  There  are  not  quite  so  many 
with  this  date  as  there  were  with  that  of  1815, 
but  there  are  over  a  hundred  in  all,  and  among 
them  are  some  of  his  finest  settings  of  Goethe, 
the  three  songs  of  the  Harjjer,  in  *Wilhelm 
Mei8ter'(op.  12,  Sept  6),  Mignon's  'Sehnsucht' 
song  (op.  62,  No.  4) ;  *Der  Fischer' ;  *Der  Kbnig 
in  Thule'  (op.  6,  No.  6),  *  Jiigers  Abendlicd,'  and 
'Schafers  Klagelied'  (op.  8),  *  Wanderer's  Nacht- 
lied  *  (op.  4),  '  Sch wager  Kronos  *  (op.  1 9).  Of 
Schiller  there  are  the  beautiful  *  Ritter  Toggen- 
burg,'  Thekla's  song  (op.  58),  etc.,  and  to  name 
only  one  other,  the  far-famed  *  Wanderer,'  by 
Schmidt  of  Lubeck. 

These  magnificent  pieces  are  well  known  to 
every  lover  of  Schubert,  but  they  are  not  more 
valued  than  such  exquisitely  simple  and  touch- 
ing little  etfusions  as '  An  eine  Quelle '  of  Claudius 
Top.  109,  No.  8),  '  Der  Abend '  of  Kosegarten 
(op.  118,  No.  2),  or  *Der  Leidende'  of  Holty 
(Lief.  50,  No.  2),  all  equally  bearing  his  stamp. 

The  lists  of  the  songs  of  these  two  years  throw 
a  curious  light  on  Schubert's  musical  activity 
and  mode  of  proceeding.  Dr.  Johnson  was  said 
when  he  got  hold  of  a  book  to  '  tear  the  heart 
out  of  it,'  and  with  Schubert  it  was  very  much 

*  April  18ia— Adagio  moltoand  Alldgmtto  Tlvaoe  in  C  minor ;  An. 
dante  in  Ab  ;  Menuet  and  Trio  in  Eb ;  Finale  in  C— The  autograiib 
has  Taniahed. 

^  Sept.  1818.— Pine  den  S.  Oct.  1816.  Allegro.  Bb :  Andante  con 
nioto,  Eb ;  Menuet  and  Trio,  O  minor  and  O  major ;  Finale,  Alle- 
gretto vlTaoe,  Bb.    Autograph  with  Peten  *  Co. 

9  Hanalick,  Oonoertwntn,  p.  142. 


288 


1816 


SCHUBERT 


1816 


the  same.  To  read  a  poem,  and  at  once  to  fasten 
upon  it  and  transcribe  it  in  music  seems  to  have 
been  his  natural  course ;  and  having  done  one 
he  went  at  once  to  the  next  A  volume  of 
Holty,  or  Claudius,  or  Kosegarten  came  into 
his  hands  ;  he  tore  from  it  in  a  moment  what 
struck  him,  and  was  not  content  with  one  song, 
but  must  have  three,  four,  or  five.  Thus,  iu 
the  summer  of  1815,  he  evidently  meets  with 
Kosegarten's  poems,  and,  in  July,  sets  twenty 
of  them.  In  March  1816  he  sets  five  songs 
by  Salis ;  in  May,  six  by  Holty  ;  in  Nov.  four 
by  Claudius,  three  by  Mayrhofer,  and  so  on. 
To  read  these  lists  gives  one  a  kind  of  visible 
image  of  the  almost  fierce  eagerness  with  which 
he  attacked  his  poetry,  and  of  the  inspiration 
with  which  the  musio  rushed  from  his  heart 
and  through  his  pen — 'everything  that  he 
touched,'  says  Schumann,  '  turning  into  music' 
Thus,  at  a  later  date,  calling  accidentally  on 
Randhartinger,  and  his  friend  being  summoned 
from  the  room,  Schubert,  to  amuse  himself  in  the 
interval,  took  up  a  little  volume  which  lay  on 
the  table.  It  interested  him  ;  and  as  his  friend 
did  not  return  he  carried  it  off  with  him.  Anxious 
for  his  book,  Randhartinger  called  next  morning 
at  Schubert's  lodgings,  and  found  that  he  had 
already  set  several  pieces  in  it  to  music.  The 
volume  was  Wilhelm  Miiller's  poems  ;  the  songs 
were  part  of  the  '  Schone  Miillerin.'  A  year  or 
two  after  this,  in  July  1826 — it  is  his  old  friend 
Doppler  who  tells  the  story — returning  from  a 
Sunday  stroll  with  some  friends  through  the 
village  of  Wiihring,  he  saw  a  friend  sitting  at  a 
table  in  the  beer-garden  of  one  of  the  taverns. 
The  friend,  when  they  joined  him,  had  a  volume 
of  Shakespeare  on  the  table.  Schubert  seized 
it,  and  began  to  read  ;  but  before  he  had  turned 
over  many  pages  pointed  to  *  Hark,  hark,  the 
lark,'  and  exclaimed,  '  Such  a  lovely  melody  has 
come  into  my  head,  if  I  had  but  some  music 
paper.'  Some  one  drew  a  few  staves  on  the 
back  of  a  bill  of  fare,  and  there,  amid  the  hubbub 
of  the  beer-garden,  that  beautiful  song,  so  per- 
fectly fitting  the  words,  so  skilful  and  so  happy 
in  its  accompaniment,  came  into  perfect  existence. 
Two  others  from  the  same  poet  not  improbably 
followed  in  the  evening.^ 

It  seems  that  the  Quartet  afternoons  at  the 
house  of  Schubert  the  elder  had  gradually  ex- 
tended themselves  into  performances  of  Haydn's 
Symphonies,  arranged  as  quartets  and  played 
with  doubled  parts,  playei-s  of  ability  and 
name  joined,  and  a  few  heai-ers  were  admitted. 
After  a  time,  the  modest  room  became  incon- 
veniently crowded,  and  then  the  little  society 
migrated  to  the  house  of  a  tradesman  named 
Frischling  (Dorotheengasse  1106),  wind  instru- 
ments were  add^d,  and  the  smaller  works  of 
Pleyel,  Haydn,  and  Mozart  were  attacked. 
In  the  winter  of  1815  another  move  became 


1   Tb«  drinklDg<aonf  from  'Anionj  and  CleoiMira'  (marked 

'Wihilng.  July  SB'),  «  "  "     "  *  '"     "* 

Anecdote  U  In  KraiMle. 


•Wihilng.  Jaljr  26').  Mid  the  lov«ly  'Sylvia'  ('July  1896).    The 


necessary,  to  the  house  of  Otto  Hati^dg,  one 
of  the  violins  of  the  Burgtheater,  at  the  Schot- 
tenthor,  and  in  the  spring  of  1818,  to  his  new 
residence  in  the  Gundelhof,  and  later  still  at 
Pettenkofer's  house  in  the  Bauemmarkt.  The 
band  now  contained  some  good  professional 
players,  and  could  venture  even  on  Beethoven's 
first  two  symphonies,  and  the  overtures  of  Cheru- 
bini,  Spontini,  Boieldieu,  Weigl,  etc.  Schubert 
belonged  to  it  all  through,  playing  the  viola,  and 
it  was  probably  with  the  view  to  their  perform- 
ance by  the  society  that  he  wrote  the  two 
symphonies  of  1816  (Nos.  4  and  5),  two  over- 
tures in  the  winter  of  1817,  and  his  sixth 
Symphony  in  the  spring  of  1818. 

Schober  and  Mayrhofer  were  Schubert's  first 
friends  outside  the  immediate  circle  of  his  youth- 
ful associates.  He  was  now  to  acquire  a  third, 
destined  to  be  of  more  active  service  than  either 
of  the  others.  This  was  Vogl.  He  was  twenty 
years  Franz's  senior,  and  at  the  time  of  their 
meeting  was  a  famous  singer  at  the  Vienna 
Opera,  admired  more  for  his  intellectual  gift} 
than  for  the  technical  perfection  of  his  singing, 
and  really  great  in  such  parts  as  Orestes  in 
'Iphigenie,*  Almaviva  in  *  Figaro,*  Creon  in 
*  Medea, '  and  Telasko  in  the  '  Yestalin. '  About 
the  year  1816 — the  date  is  not  precisely  given 
— Vogl  was  induced  by  Schober  to  come  to  their 
lodgings,  and  see  the  young  fellow  of  whom 
Schober  was  always  raving,  but  who  had  uo 
access  to  any  of  the  circles  which  Vogl  adorned 
and  beautified  by  his  presence.  The  room  as 
usual  was  sti-ewed  with  music.  Schubert  was 
confused  and  awkward  ;  Vogl,  the  great  actor 
and  man  of  the  world,  gay,  and  at  his  ease. 
The  first  song  he  took  up — probably  the  first 
music  of  Schubert's  he  had  ever  seen — was 
Schubart's  *  Augenlied. '  He  hummed  it  through, 
and  thought  it  melodious,  but  slight — which  it 
is.  '  Ganymed '  and  the  '  Schiifers  Klage '  made 
a  deeper  impression  ;  others  followed  and  he 
left  with  the  somewhat  patronising  but  true  re- 
mark, *■  There  is  stuff  in  you  ;  but  you  squander 
your  fine  thoughts  instead  of  making  the  most 
of  them.'  But  tlie  impression  remained,  be 
talked  of  Schubert  with  astonishment,  soon 
retiu'ned,  and  the  acquaintance  grew  and  ripened 
till  they  became  almost  inseparable,  and  until 
in  tlieir  performances  of  Schubert's  songs,  *  the 
two  seemed,'  in  Schubert's  own  words,  '  for  tlie 
moment  to  be  one.'  In  those  days  songs  were 
rarely  if  ever  sung  in  concert-rooms  ;  but  Vogl 
had  the  entree  to  all  the  great  musical  houses 
of  Vienna,  and  l)efore  long  his  performances  of 
the  *  Erl  King, '  the  *  Wanderer, '  *  Ganymed, '  *  Der 
Kampf,'  etc.,  with  the  composer's  accom}>ani- 
ment,  were  well  known.  What  Vogl's  opinion 
of  him  ultimately  became,  may  be  learnt  from 
a  passage  in  his  diary  :  — '  Nothing  shows  so 
plainly  the  want  of  a  good  school  of  singing  as 
Schubert's  songs.  Otherwise,  what  an  enormous 
and  universal  effect  must  have  been  produced 


1816— 


SCHUBERT 


—1817 


289 


throughout  the  world,  wherever  the  German 
language  is  understood,  by  these  truly  divine 
inspintionB,  these  utterances  of  a  musical  clair- 
ojyance  I    How  many  would  havecomprehended, 
probably  for  the  first  time,  the  meaning  of  such 
expressions  as  ''speech  and  poetry  in  music," 
"  words  in  harmony,"  **  ideas  clothed  in  music," 
etc.,  and  would  have  learnt  that  the  finest 
poems  of  our  greatest  poets  may  be  enhanced 
ud  even  transcended  when   translated   into 
musical  language  ?     Numberless  examples  may 
be  named,  but  I  will  only  mention  '*  The  Erl 
King,"  "Gretchen,"  -'Sch wager  Kronos,"  the 
Uignon  and  Harper's  songs,  Schiller's  "  Sehn- 
sucht,"  "  Der  Pilgrim,"  and  "Die  Biirgschaft. "  * 
This  extract  shows  how  Justly  Yogi  estimated 
Schubert,  and  how,  at  that  early  date,  his  dis- 
cernment enabled  him  to  pass  a  judgment  which 
even  now  it  would  be  difficult  to  excel.     The 
wofd  dairvoyance,  too,  shows  that  he  thoroughly 
•Altered  into  Schubert's  great  characteristic.     In 
hearing  Schubert's  compositions  it  is  often  as  if 
one  were  brought  more  immediately  and  closely 
into  contact  with  music  itself  than  is  the  case 
in  the  works  of  others  ;  as  if  in  his  pieces  the 
atream  from  the  great  heavenly  reservoir  were 
dashing  over  us,  or  flowing  through  us,  more 
directly,  with  less  admixture  of  any  medium 
or  channel,  than  it  does  in  those  of  any  other 
writer— even  of  Beethoven  himself.     And  this 
immediate  communication  with  the  origin  of 
mosic  really  seems  to  have  happened  to  him. 
No  sketches,  no  delay,   no  anxious  period  of 
ftreparation,  no  revision,  appear  to  have  been 
necessary.     He  had  but  to  read  the  poem,  to 
surrender  himself  to  the  torrent,  and  to  put 
down  what  was  given  him  to  say,  as  it  rushed 
through  his  mind.     This  was  the  true  *  inspira- 
tion of  dictation, '  as  much  so  as  in  the  utterance 
of  any  Hebrew  prophet  or  seer.     We  have  seen 
one  instance  in  the  case  of  the  *  Erl  King.'     The 
poem  of  the  Wanderer  attracted  him  in  the  same 
way,  and  the  song  was  completed  in  one  evening. 
In  a  third  case,   that  of  Goethe's   'Bastlose 
Liebe,'  the  paroxysm  of  inspiration  was  so  fierce 
that  Schubert  never  forgot  it,  but  reticent  as  he 
oft^n  was,  talked  of  it  years  afterwards.^     It 
voold  aeem  that  the  results  did  not  always  fix 
themselves  in  the  composer's  memory  as  per- 
manently as  if  they  had  been  the  effect  of  longer 
and  more  painful  elaboration.     Yogi  tells  an 
anecdote  about  this  which  is  very  much  to  the 
I)oint,*     On   one    occasion   he  received   from 
Schubert  some  new  songs,  but  being  otherwise 
occupied  could  not  try  them  over  at  the  moment. 
When  he  was  able  to  do  so  he  was  particularly 
pleased  with  one  of  them,  but  as  it  was  too  high 
for  his  voice,  he  had  it  copied  in  a  lower  key. 
About  a  fortnight  afterwards  they  were  again 
making  music  together,  and  Yogi  placed  the 
transposed  song  before  Schubert  on  the  desk  of 
the  piano.     Schubert  tried  it  through,  liked  it, 

1  BuwrafeM,  WJ.K.  *  lu  Kreitiit,  p.  119  (L  123). 

VOL.  IV 


and  said,  in  his  Yienna  dialect,  '  I  say  !  the 
song's  not  so  bad  ;  whosfi  is  it?*  so  completely, 
in  a  fortnight,  had  it  vanished  from  his  mind  ! 
Sir  Walter  Scott  attributed  a  song  of  his  own  to 
Byron ;  but  this  was  in  1828,  after  his  mind 
had  begun  to  fail.^ 

1817  was  comparatively  an  idle  year.  Its 
great  musical  event  was  the  arrival  of  Rossini's 
music  in  Yienna.  '  L'  Inganno  felice  '  was  pro- 
duced at  the  Hoftheater,  Nov.  26,  1816,  and 
'Tancredi,'  Dec.  17  ;  *  L'  Italiana  in  Algeri,'  Feb. 
],  1817,  and  'Giro  in  Babilonia,'  June  18  ;  and 
the  enthusiasm  of  the  Yiennese — like  that  of 
all  to  whom  these  fresh  and  animated  strains 
were  brought — knew  no  bounds.  Schubert 
admired  Rossini's  melody  and  spirit,  but  rather 
made  fun  of  his  orchestral  music,  and  a  story 
is  told — not  impossibly  apocryphal* — of  his 
having  written  an  overture  in  imitation  of 
Rossini,  before  supper,  after  returning  from 
*  Tancredi. '  At  any  rate  he  has  left  two  *  Over- 
tures in  the  Italian  style '  in  D  and  G,  dated 
Sept.^  and  Nov.  1817  respectively,  which  were 
much  played  at  the  time.  Schubert  made  four- 
hand  PF.  arrangements  of  both,  and  that  in  0 
has  been  since  published  in  score  and  parts  as 
op.  170,  and  has  been  played  at  the  Crystal 
Palace  (Dec.  1,  1866,  etc.)  and  elsewhere.  Its 
caricature  of  Rossini's  salient  points,  including 
of  course  the  inevitable  crescendo^  is  obvious 
enough  ;  but  nothing  could  transform  Schubert 
into  an  Italian,  and  the  overture  has  indi- 
vidual and  characteristic  beauties  which  are 
immediately  recognisable.  The  influence  of 
Rossini  was  no  mere  passing  fancy,  but  may  be 
traced  in  the  Sixth  Symphony,  mentioned  below, 
and  in  music  of  his  later  life — in  the  two 
Marches  (op.  121),  the  Finale  to  the  Quartet 
in  G  (op.  161),  and  elsewhere. 

A  third  Overture  in  D  belongs  to  1817,  and, 
though  still  in  MS.,  has  also  been  played  at 
the  Crystal  Palace  (Feb.  6,  1869,  etc.).  It  is 
in  two  movements  Adagio,  and  AlK  giusto, 
and  the  former  is  almost  a  draft  of  the  ana- 
logous movement  in  the  overture  known  as 
'Rosamunds'  (op.  26),  though  really  the 
'Zauberharfe.'  There  the  resemblance  ceases. 
What  led  Schubert  to  the  pianoforte  this 
year  in  so  marked  a  manner  is  not  known,  but 
his  devotion  to  it  is  obvious,  for  no  fewer  than 
six  sonatas  belong  to  this  period,  viz.  three 
with  opus  numbers — op.  122,  in  Eb  ;  op.  147,* 
in  B  (August);  op.  164,  in  A  minor, ^  and  three 
others,  in  F,  Ab,  and  E  minor  (Jime). 

Schubert's  Sixth  Symphony,  in  C,^  completed 
in  February  1818,  appears  to  have  been  begun 
in  the  preceding  October.     It  is  the  first  one 

a  LoekhATt's  L(/«  t^fSeoU,  v\L  188. 
«  K.a.  129  (i.  1331. 

*  Erslule  m.j%  M«y.  September  la  Nottebobm's  date :  but  there 
Ib  »nother  Overture  In  D.  and  It  aeema  doubtful  which  of  the  two 
le  dated  May,  and  wbtch  September. 

•  Autograph  in  poaaeaeiou  of  Brahms. 
7  Pnbllahed.  bj  Spina  aa  'Tth  Sonata.' 

»  Adagio  and  Allegro  in  C  ;  Andante  In  F ;  Scheno  in  C,  and 
Trio  in  E  major ;  Finale  in  C. 


290 


1817— 


SCHUBERT 


—1818 


which  he  has  marked  as  ^ Grand' — 'Grosse 
Sinfonie ' — though  hardly  with  reason,  as  both 
in  form  and  orchestra  it  is  the  same  as  the 
early  ones.  It  is  an  advance  on  the  others, 
and  the  Scherzo  shows  the  first  decided  signs 
of  Beethoven's  inflaence.  Passages  may  also 
be  traced  to  Rossini  and  the  Italian  opera. 

The  catalogae  of  the  instrumental  composi- 
tions of  this  year  closes  with  a  string  Trio^ 
and  a  Polonaise  for  the  violin.  In  the  number 
of  the  vocal  compositions  of  1817  there  is  an 
equal  falling  off.  jlossini's  popularity  for  the 
time  shut  the  door  against  all  other  composers, 
and  even  Schubert's  appetite  for  bad  librettos 
was  compelled  to  wait.  Not  only,  however, 
are  there  no  operas  this  year,  there  is  no 
church  music,  and  but  forty -seven  songs. 
In  quality,  however,  there  is  no  deterioration 
in  the  songs.  The  astonishing  *  Gruppe  aus 
dem  Tartarus,*  and  the  *  Pilgrim '  of  Schiller  ; 
the  *  Ganymed '  of  Goethe ;  the  *  Fahrt  zum 
Hades,'  'Memnon,'  and  'Erla&ee'  of  Mayr- 
hofer ;  and  *  An  die  Musik '  of  Schober,  are 
equal  to  any  that  come  before  them.  Among 
the  MS.  songs  is  one  showing  the  straits  to 
which  Schubert  was  sometimes  put,  either  by 
tlie  want  of  materials  or  by  the  sudden  call  of 
his  inspiration.  It  is  the  beginning  of  a  setting 
of  Schiller's  *  Entziickung  an  Laura,'  and  is 
written  on  the  front  page  of  the  second  violin 
part  of  a  duet-fugue  by  Fux,  the  words,  *  Fuga. 
Duetto.  Violino:  Secundo.  Del:  Sing r^ Fux.' 
appearing  in  the  copyist's  formal  handwriting 
through  Schubert's  hasty  notes.  It  is  super- 
scribed *  Entziickung  an  Laura  Abschied  August 
1817.  Schubert  Mpia' — interesting  as  show- 
ing that  in  'Abschied'  he  has  added  his 
own  comment  to  Schiller's  words ;  that  he 
dated  his  pieces  at  the  moment  of  beginning 
them  ;  and  that  he  sometimes  signed  his  name 
without  the  'Franz.' 

His  circle  of  intimate  friends  was  increased 
about  this  date  by  Anselm  and  Joseph  Hdtten- 
brenner  and  Joseph  Gaby.  Anselm,  four  years 
his  senior,  was  a  pupil  of  Salieri's,  and  there 
they  had  met  in  1815.  With  the  younger 
brother,  Joseph,  ]ie  became  acquainted  in  the 
summer  of  1817.^  Both  were  men  of  indepen- 
dent means,  and  Anselm  was  a  musician  by  pro- 
fession. Gahy  was  in  the  government  employ- 
ment, an  excellent  pianoforte-player,  of  whom 
Schubert  was  for  long  very  fond.  The  younger 
Hiittenbrennerwas  bewitched  by  Schubert,  much 
as  Krumpholz  and  Schindler  were  by  Beethoven ; 
and  was  ever  ready  to  fetch  and  carry  for  his 
idol,  and  to  praise  whatever  he  did,  till  the  idol 
would  turn  on  his  worshipper,  and  be  so  cruel 

1  In  Bb.  Id  ooe  morement. 

*  For '  Sign.'    A  facsimile  In  glrtitx  by  Relmmann. 

3  So  KrtiMtU,  1.  isa  But  (Iom  not  tlio  dedloftiion  of  th«  aong. 
'  Die  Brwiu-tunn.'  ooinpoeed  Feb.  37, 181S,— 'to  hts  friend.'  J.  H.— 
■how  that  tbe  eoatulntiuioe  wm  of  much  earlier  date 7  True.  It  waa 
not  puhliiihfil  tilt  the  April  after  Schubert's  death ;  and  the  anus 
nrny  have  bwn  prepared  by  him  for  pablloatlon  shortly  before,  and 
the  dedloatloii  added  then. 


as  to-  get  the  nickname  of  '  The  Tyrant '  from 
the  rest  of  the  set. 

How  Schubert  existed  since  he  threw  up  his 
place  at  the  school  and  left  his  father's  house 
is  a  i)oint  on  which  we  are  in  entire  ignorance, 
His  wants  were  few,  but  how  even  those  few 
were  supplied  is  a  mystery.  We  have  se«n 
that  he  lived  rent-free  with  Schober  for  a  few 
months  in  1816,  but  the  return  of  Schober'.*. 
brother  put  an  end  to  the  arrangement,^  and 
from  that  date  he  must  have  been  indebted  to 
Spaun,  or  some  friend  better  off  than  himself, 
for  lodgings,  for  existenoe,  and  for  his  visit.** 
to  the  theatre,  for  there  is  no  trace  of  his 
earning  anything  by  teaching  in  1817,  and  the 
few  pounds  paid  him  for  the  Watteroth  cantata 
is  the  only  sum  which  he  seems  to  have  earned 
up  to  this  date. 

In  the  summer  of  1818,  however,  on  the  re- 
commendation of  Unger,  the  father  of  Mme. 
Unger  -  Sabatier,  the  great  singer,  Schubert 
accepted  an  engagement  as  teacher  of  music  in 
the  family  of  Count  Johann  Esterhazy,  to  {«.«^ 
the  summer  at  his  country  seat  at  Zselesz,  in 
Hungary,  on  the  Waag,  some  distance  east  o(' 
Vienna,  and  the  winter  in  town.  He  was  to 
be  a  member  of  the  establishment  and  to  receive 
two  gulden  for  every  lesson.  The  family  con- 
sisted of  the  Count  and  Countess,  two  daughters, 
Marie,  thirteen,  and  Caroline,  eleven,  and  a 
boy  of  five.  All  were  musical.  The  Count 
sang  bass,  the  Countess  and  Caroline  contraltn, 
Marie  had  a  fine  soprano,  and  both  daughteiN 
played  the  piano.  Baron  von  Schonstein,  their 
intimate  friend,  slightly  older  than  Schubert, 
a  singer  of  the  highest  qualities,  with  a  nobu> 
baritone  voice,  made  up  the  party,  which 
certainly  promised  all  the  elements  of  enjoy- 
ment. It  was  a  pang  to  Schubert  to  part  from 
the  circle  of  his  companions,  to  whom  he  was 
devoted,  but  it  is  not  difficult  to  imagine  how 
pleasant  he  must  have  found  the  comfort  and 
generous  living  of  the  Esterhazy  house,  while 
at  the  same  time  there  would  be  opportunitif^ 
of  retirement,  and  abundant  means  of  diversion 
in  a  beautiful  country,  a  new  people,  and  the 
Hungarian  and  gipsy  melodies. 

When  they  left  town  does  not  appear.^  Schu- 
bert's Mass  in  C,*  his  fourth,  written  like  the 
others,  for  Holzer,  is  dated  *July  1818' ;  but 
there  is  nothing  to  show  whether  it  was 
finished  in  Vienna  or  in  the  country.  A  set 
of  MS.  Solfeggi  for  the  Countess  Marie,  al^ 
dated  July,  is  perhaps  evidence  that  by  that 
time  they  were  settled  at  Zsel^z.  Two  letter^ 
to   Schober  are  printed  by  Bauemfeld,^  and 

«  K.n.  109  (1.  112). 

s  There  la  an  Intercatlnt  aatograph  eopy  of  the  'Forrlk'  *•«< 
dRted  at  A.  Httttenbrennei's  Lodginn  (In  Vienna)  inidBlpht.  F«KC1. 
1818.  and  beeprinkled  with  ink  iiiatewl  of  maA.  It  baa  bcvn  puMiilH^I 
in  photogmi^y.  But  the  '  Forelle '  really  datea  froiu  1817.  iN<At« 
bohm.  in  the  Them.  Catatogm*.) 

•  Pobtiahed  In  182B  aa  op.  4&  Schnbert  vroie  a  n«w  and  w^ 
beautiful  Benedictua  to  It  in  I89S.  only  a  few  montlM  beforr  hi* 
death. 

^  In  Me  PrtMe.  Vienna,  April  17. 1880.  Beprlnted  In  tW  Stgmit'- 
Nor.  15.  18Stf. 


1818 


SCHUBERT 


1818 


291 


are  dated  August  3,  and  Sept.  18,  1818.  The 
£ist  is  addressed  to  his  home  circle,  his  '  deaj'est 
fondest  friends  .  .  Spaun,  Schoher,  Mayrhofer, 
and  Senn  .  .  .  you  who  are  everything  to  me.' 
There  are  messages  also  to  Vogl,  and  to  Schober's 
inother  and  sister,  and  to  'all  possible  ac- 
quaintances,' and  an  ui^ent  entreaty  to  write 
Mon — 'every  syllable  of  yoars  is  dear  to  me.* 
He  is  thorooghly  well  and  happy,  and  '  com- 
posing like  a  god.  .  .  Mayrhofer's  Einsarakeit 
is  ready,  and  I  believe  it  to  be  the  best  thing 
1  have  yet  done,  for  I  was  wUhcnU  cmxicty ' 
[ckM  Sorge — the  italics  are  his  own).  *  Ein- 
samkeit '  is  a  long  ballad,  filling  nineteen  close 
Images  of  print,  with  a  dozen  changes  of  tempo 
aod  as  many  of  signature  ;  perhaps  not  quite 
coming  up  to  his  oyra  estimate  of  it,  though 
both  words  and  music  are  often  very  striking. 
The  length  of  this  and  other  biillads  will 
probably  always  hinder  their  wealth  of  melody, 
dramatic  effects,  and  other  striking  beauties, 
from  being  known  by  the  world  at  large. 

The  other  letter,  seven  weeks  later,  throws 
more  light  on  his  position  at  Zsel^  '  as  com- 
poser, manager,  audience,  everything,  in  one.' 
'No  one  here  cares  for  true  Art,  unless  it  be 
Qov  and  then  the  Countess  ;  so  I  am  left  alone 
*ith  my  beloved,  and  have  to  hide  her  in  my 
room,  or  my  piano,  or  my  own  breast  If  this 
often  makes  me  sad,  on  the  other  hand  it  often 
elevates  me  aU  the  more.  Several  songs  have 
lately  come  into  existence,  and  I  hope  very  suc- 
o^ful  ones.'  He  is  evidently  more  at  home 
in  the  servants'  hall  than  the  drawing-room. 
'  The  cook  is  a  pleasant  fellow ;  the  ladies'-maid 
is  thirty ;  the  housemaid  very  pretty,  and  often 
I>ay8  me  a  visit ;  the  nurse  is  somewhat  ancient ; 
the  butler  is  my  rival ;  the  two  grooms  get  on 
Utter  with  the  horses  than  with  us.  The  Count 
is  a  little  rough  ;  the  Countess  proud,  but  not 
^thoat  heart ;  the  young  ladies  good  children. 
I  need  not  tell  you,  who  know  me  so  well,  that 
vnth  my  natural  frankness  I  am  good  friends 
with  eveiybody.'  The  letter  ends  with  an 
affectionate  message  to  his  parents. 

The  only  songs  which  can  be  fixed  to  this 
autumn,  and  which  are  therefore  doubtless  those 
just  referred  to,  besides  the  great '  Einsamkeit,' 
«e  the  'Blumenbrief,'  'Blondel  und  Maria,* 
'Das  Marienbild'  and  *Litaney,*  *Das  Aben- 
droth' — for  a  contralto,  evidently  composed 
for  the  Countess  ;  '  Yom  Mitleiden  Marid,'  and 
three  Sonnets  from  Petrarch.  The  Hungarian 
i^tional  songs  left  their  mark  in  the  '  86  original 
dances,'  or  'First  Waltzes'  (op.  9),  some  of 
which  were  written  down  in  the  course  of  the 
next  year.  The  *  Divertissement  k  la  hongroise, ' 
and  the  Quartet  in  A  minor  (op.  29),  in  which 
the  Hungarian  influence  is  so  strong,  belong — 
the  first  apparently,  the  second  certainly — to  a 
innch  later  period. 

A  third  letter  of  this  date,  hitherto  unprinted, 
^th  which  the  writer  has  been  honoured  by  the 


grand-daughter^  of  Ferdinand  Schubert,  to  whom 
it  was  addressed,  is  not  without  interest,  and  is 
here  printed  entire.  The  Requiem  referred  to 
was  by  Ferdinand,  and  had  evidently  been  sent 
to  his  brother  for  revision.  The  letter  throws 
a  pleasant  light  on  the  strong  link  existing 
between  Franz  and  his  old  home,  and  suggests 
that  assistance  more  solid  tlian  'linen '  may  often 
have  reached  him  from  his  fond  step-mother 
in  his  poverty  in  Vienna.  In  considering  the 
pecuniary  result  of  the  engagement,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  the  florin  was  at  that  time  only 
worth  a  franc,  instead  of  two  shillings.  The 
month's  pay  therefore,  instead  of  being  £20,  was 
i*eally  only  about  £8.  Still,  for  Schubert  that 
was  a  fortune. 


Dear  Bbotber  Ferdinand, 


24  Ang.  1818. 


It  is  half-past  11  at  night,  and  your  Requiem  is 
rea(W.  It  has  made  me  sorrowiftil,  as  you  may  believe, 
for  1  sang  it  with  all  my  heart.  What  is  wanting  you 
can  fill  in,  and  put  the  words  under  the  music  and  the 
signs  above.  And  if  you  want  much  rehearsalyou  must 
do  it  yourself,  without  asking  me  in  Zel^z.  lliings  are 
not  going  well  with  you ;  I  wish  you  could  change  with 
me,  so  that  for  once  you  might  be  happy.  You  should 
find  all  your  heavy  burdens  gone,  dear  brother ;  I  heartily 
wish  it  could  be  so.— My  foot  is  asleep,  and  I  am  mad  with 
it.    If  the  fool  could  only  write  it  wouldn't  go  to  sleep  1 

Good  morning,  my  boy,  I  have  been  asleep  with  my 
foot,  and  now  go  on  with  mv  letter  at  8  o'clock  on  the  26t]i. 
I  have  one  request  to  make  in  answer  to  yours.  Give 
my  love  to  my  dear  parents,  brothers,  sisters,  firiends,  and 
acquaintances,  especially  not  forgetting  Carl.  Didn't 
he  mention  me  in  his  letter !  As  for  my  Mends  in  the 
town,  buUy  them,  or  get  some  one  to  bully  them  well,  till 
they  write  to  me.  Tell  my  mother  that  my  linen  is 
well  looked  after,  and  that  I  am  well  off,  thanks  to 
her  motherly  care.  If  I  could  have  some  more  linen 
1  should  very  much  like  her  to  send  me  a  second 
batch  of  pocket-handkerchiefs,  cravats,  and  stockings. 
Also  I  am  much  in  want  of  two  pair  of  kerseymere 
trousers.  Hart  can  get  the  measure  wherever  he  likes. 
I  would  send  the  money  very  soon.  For  July,  witii  tlie 
Journey-money,  I  got  200  florins. 

It  is  beginning  already  to  be  cold,  and  yet  we  shall 
not  start  for  Vienna  before  the  middle  of  October.  Next 
month  I  hope  to  have  a  few  weeks  at  Freystadt,  which 
belongs  to  Count  Erdddy,  the  uncle  of  my  count,  llie 
country  there  is  said  to  be  extraordinarily  beautiful. 
Also  I  hope  to  get  to  Festh  while  we  are  at  the  vintage 
at  Bosczniecij,  which  is  not  far  off.  It  would  be  delight- 
ful if  I  should  hapi)en  to  meet  Herr  Administrator 
Taigele  there.  I  am  delighted  at  the  thought  of  the 
vintage,  for  I  have  heard  so  much  that  is  pleasant  about 
it.  The  harvest  also  is  beautiful  here,  lliey  don't  stow 
the  com  into  bams  as  they  do  in  Austria,  but  make 
immense  heaps  out  in  the  fields,  which  they  call  TritUn. 
They  are  often  80  to  100  yards  long,  and  30  to  40  high, 
and  are  laid  together  so  cleverly  that  the  rain  all  runs  off 
without  doing  any  harm.  Oats  and  so  on  they  bury  in 
the  ground. 

Though  I  am  so  well  and  happy,  and  every  one  so  good 
to  me,  yet  I  shall  be  immensely  glad  when  the  moment 
arrives  for  going  to  Vienna.  Beloved  Vienna,  all  that  is 
dear  and  valuable  to  me  is  there,  and  nothing  but  the 
actual  sight  of  it  will  stop  my  longing !  Again  entreating 
you  to  attend  to  all  my  requests,  I  remain,  with  much  love 
to  all,  your  trae  and  sincere, 

Franz  Mpia. 

A  thousand  greetings  to  your  good  wife  and  dear  Reai, 
and  a  very  hearty  one  to  aunt  Schubert  and  her  daughtor. 

The  inscrif  tion  *  Zel^sz,  Nov.  1818 '  on  the 
song  *  Das  Abendroth  '  shows  that  the  return  to 
Vienna  was  not  till  nearly  the  end  of  the  year. 

>  Ftftnlein  Caroline  Geisler.  tlaoghter  of  LIdiu  Gcialer  and  Fer* 
dliiand't  aeoond  dnughter.  EUm*. 


292 


1819 


SCHUBERT 


1819 


He  found  the  theatre  more  than  ever  in  posses- 
sion of  Rossini.  To  the  former  operas, '  Elisabetta' 
was  added  in  the  autumn,  and  '  Otello  *  early  in 
Jan.  1819.  But  one  of  the  good  traits  in  Schu- 
bert's character  was  his  freedom  from  jealousy, 
and  his  determination  to  ei^joy  what  was  good, 
from  whatever  quarter  it  came,  or  however  much 
it  was  against  his  own  interest.  A  letter  of  his 
to  Hlittenbrenner,  written  just  after  the  pro- 
duction of  *  Otello,'  puts  this  in  very  good  light 
*  **  Otello  "  is  far  better  and  more  characteristic 
than  "Tancredi."  Extraordinary  genius  it  is 
impossible  to  deny  him.  His  orchestration  is 
often  most  original,  and  so  is  his  melody  ;  and 
except  the  usual  Italian  gallopades,  and  a  few 
reminiscences  of  **Tancredi,"  there  is  nothing 
to  object  to.'  But  he  was  not  content  to  be 
excluded  from  the  theatre  by  every  one,  and  the 
letter  goes  on  to  abuse  the  *  canaille  of  Weigls 
and  Treitschkes,'  and  'other  rubbish,  enough 
to  make  your  hair  stand  on  end,*  all  which 
were  keeping  his  operettas  off  the  boards.  Still, 
it  is  very  good-natured  abuse,  and  so  little  is 
he  really  disheartened,  that  he  ends  by  begging 
Hlittenbrenner  for  a  libretto  ;  nay,  he  had 
actually  just  completed  a  little  piece  called  '  Die 
Zwillingsbrilder '  (*The  Twins'),  translated  by 
Hofmann  from  the  French — a  Singspiel  in  one 
act,  containing  an  overture  and  ten  numbers. 
He  finished  it  on  Jan.  19,  1819,  and  it  came 
to  performance  before  many  months  were 
over. 

Of  his  daily  life  at  this  time  we  know  nothing. 
We  must  suppose  that  he  had  regular  duties 
with  his  pupils  at  the  Esterhazys'  town  house, 
but  there  is  nothing  to  say  so.  We  gather 
that  he  joined  Mayrhofer  in  his  lodgings,  420 
in  the  Wipplingerstrasse,  early  in  the  year.^ 
It  was  not  a  prepossessing  apartment  'The 
lane  was  gloomy  ;  both  room  and  furniture  were 
the  worse  for  wear ;  the  ceiling  drooped  ;  the 
light  was  shut  out  by  a  big  building  opposite — 
a  worn-out  piano,  and  a  shabby  bookcase.'  The 
only  relief  is  the  name  of  the  landlady — Sans- 
souci,  a  Frenchwoman.  No  wonder  that  Mayr- 
hofer's  poems — he  was  ten  years  Schubert's 
senior — ^were  of  a  gloomy  cast. 

The  two  friends  were  on  the  most  intimate 
terms,  and  addressed  each  other  by  nicknames. 
What  Mayrhofer's  appellation  may  have  been 
we  do  not  know,  but  Schubert,  now  and  later, 
was  called  *the  Tyrant,'  for  his  treatment  of 
Hlittenbrenner;  also  '  Bertl,*  'Schwammerl,' 
and,  best  of  all,  *  Kanevas ' — ^because  when  a 
stranger  came  into  their  circle  his  first  question 
always  was,  *Kann  er  was?*  (*Can  he  do 
anything?')  Their  humour  took  all  sorts  of 
shapes,  and  odd  stories  are  told  of  their  sham 
fights,  their  howls,  their  rough  jokes  and  re- 
partees. ^    Mayrhofer  was  a  Government  employ^ 

1  Tn  a  lettor  to  Mayrhofer  from  Unx,  dated  Augnai  19.  1819,  h« 
m.yn,  '  Let  the  bearer  have  mj  bed  while  he  ttnj*  with  70a.'  JT.IT. 
p.  ISO  (i.  100).    The  bod  miut  have  been  hla  before  ho  left  town. 

a  r.if.  p.  61  (1.61). 


and  went  to  his  office  early,  leaving  his  fellow- 
lodger  behind.  Schubert  began  work  directly 
he  awoke,  and  even  slept  in  his  spectacles  to 
save  trouble  ;  he  got  at  once  to  his  writing, 
sometimes  in  bed,  but  usually  at  his  desk.  It 
was  so  still,  when  Hiller  called  on  him  eight 
years  later.'  *  Do  you  write  much  !  *  said  the 
boy,  looking  at  the  manuscript  on  the  standing 
desk — they  evidently  knew  little  in  Xorth 
Germany  of  Schubert's  fertility.  *I  compose 
every  morning,'  was  the  reply  ;  *  and  when  one 
piece  is  done,  I  begin  another.'  And  yet  this 
was  the  mtisicien  le  plus  pokte  que  jamais— \i 
might  have  been  the  answer  of  a  mere  Czemy  I 
Add  to  this  a  trait,  communicated  to  the  writer 
by  Schubert's  friend,  Franz  Lachner,  of  Munich, 
that  when  he  had  completed  a  piece,  and  heard 
it  sung  or  played,  he  locked  it  up  in  a  drawer, 
and  often  never  thought  about  it  again. 

This  close  work  went  on  till  dinner-time- 
two  o'clock — after  which,  as  a  rule,  he  was  free 
for  the  day,  and  spent  the  remainder  either  in 
a  country  walk  with  friends,  or  in  visits — ad 
to  Sofie  Miiller,  and  Mme.  Lacsny  Buchwieser, 
whom  we  shall  encounter  farther  on  ;  or  at 
Schober's  rooms,  or  some  coffee-house — in  his 
later  days  it  was  Bogner's  Cafi^  in  the  Singer- 
strasse,  where  the  droll  cry  of  a  waiter  was  a 
never-ending  pleasure  to  him.  But  no  hour  or 
place  was  proof  against  the  sudden  attack  of 
inspiration  when  anything  happened  to  excite 
it.  An  instance  occurs  at  this  very  time,  Nov. 
1819,  in  an  overture  for  four  hands  in  F 
(op.  34),  which  he  has  inscribed  as  *  written  in 
Joseph  Hiittenbrenner's  room  at  the  City  Hos- 
pital in  the  inside  of  three  hours  ;  and  dinner 
missed  in  consequence.'*  If  the  weather  was 
fine  he  would  stay  in  the  country  till  late, 
regardless  of  any  engagement  that  he  might 
have  made  in  town. 

The  only  compositions  that  can  be  fixed  to 
the  spring  of  1819  are  five  songs  dated  February, 
and  one  dated  March  ;  a  very  fine  quintet 
for  equal  voices,  to  the  'Sehnsucht'  song  in 
'Wilhelra  Meister'  —  a  song  which  he  had 
already  set  for  a  single  voice  in  1816,  and  was 
to  set  twice  more  in  the  course  of  his  life  (thus 
rivalling  Beethoven,  who  also  set  the  same 
words  four  times)  ;  an  equally  fine  quartet  for 
men's  voices,  *  Ruhe,  schonstes  Gliick  der  Erde,' 
dated  April ;  four  sacred  songs  by  No^Tilift, 
dated  May ;  and  a  striking  overture  in  E 
minor,  in  Ser.  II.  of  the  complete  edition. 

The  earnings  of  the  previous  summer  allowed 
him  to  make  an  expedition  this  year  on  his 
own  account.  Mayrhofer  remained  in  Vienna, 
and  Yogi  and  Schubert  appear  to  have  gone 
together  to  Upper  Austria.  Steyr  was  the  first 
point  in  the  journey,  a  town  beautifully  sitnated 
on  the  Enns,  not  far  south  of  Linz.  Tliey 
reached  it  early  in  July  ;  it  was  VogVs  native 
place,  and  he  had  the  pleasure  of  introducing 

*  In  HiUer'e  jr«iM(l«rMeti.  p.  49.         «  KM.  pi  190  (i.  18». 


1819— 


SCHUBERT 


—1820 


293 


liis  friend  to  the  chief  amateurs  of  the  town, 
Parangartner,  Koller,  Dornfeld,  Schellmann — 
sibstantial  citizens  of  the  town,  with  wives  and 
daughters,  *Pepi  Koller,'  *Frizi  Domfeld,'  *the 
eight  Schellmann  girls,'  etc.,  who  all  welcomed 
the  musician  with  real  Austrian  hospitality, 
heard  his  songs  with  enthusiasm,  and  them- 
selires  helped  to  make  music  with  him.     His 
friend  Albert  Stadler  was  there  also  with  his 
sister  Kathi.    How  thoroughly  Schubert  enj  oy ed 
himself  in  this  congenial  bourgeois  society,  and 
in  such  lovely  country — ^he  mentions  its  beauties 
each  time  he  writes — we  have  ample  proof  in 
two  letters.^     Among  other  drolleries  the  *  Ei-l 
King'  was  sung  with  the  |)art8   distributed 
amongst  Yogi,    Schubert,    and    Pepi    Roller. 
Perhaps,  too,  Schubert  gave  them  his  favourite 
Tereion  of  it  on   a  comb.      Yogi's  birthday 
(August  10)  was  celebrated  by  a  cantata  in  C, 
containing  a  terzet,  two  soprano  and  two  tenor 
isolos,  and  a  finale  in  canon,  pointed  by  allusions 
to  his  various   operatic   triumphs,  words  by 
Stadler,  and  music  by  Schubert^     After  this 
the  two  friends  strolled  on  to  Linz,  the  home 
of  the  Spauns,  and  of  Kenner  and  Ottenwald, 
whose  verses  Franz  had  set  in  his  earlier  days  ; 
and  thence  perhaps  to  Salzburg,  returning  to 
Steyr  about  the  end  of  the  month.     Nor  did 
the  jomlity  of  these  good  Austrians  interfere 
with  composition.      Besides    the    impromptu 
cantata  just  mentioned,  the  well-known  PF. 
quintet  (op.  114),  in  which  the  air  of  *Die 
Forelle '  is  used  as  the  theme  of  the  Andantino, 
was  written  at  Steyr,  possibly  as  a  commission 
from  the  good  Paumgartner,  and  was  performed 
by  the  Paumgartner  party.     Schubert  achieved 
in  it  the  same  feat  which  is  somewhere  ascribed 
to  Mozart,  of  writing  out  the  separate  parts 
without  first  making  a  score,  and  no  doubt 
played  the  pianoforte  part  by  heart     The  date 
of  their  departure,  Sept.   14,  is  marked  by  an 
entry  in  the  album   of  Miss  Stadler,   when 
Schubert  delivered   himself  of  the   following 
highly  correct  sentiment : — *  Enjoy  the  present 
so  wisely,  that  the  past  may  be  pleasant  to 
rwoUect,  and  the  future  not  alarming  to  con- 
template.'   This  may  pair  off  with  a  sentence 
written  by  Mozart,  in  English,  in  the  Album 
of  an  English  Freemason,  which  has  not  yet 
been  printed: — 'Patience  and  tranquillity  of 
mind  contribute  more  to  cure  our  distempers 
as  the  whole  art  of  medicine.     Wien,  den  30te 
Marz  1787.*  3 

A  few  days  more  saw  them  again  settled  in 
Vienna.  Each  of  the  two  letters  preserved  from 
the  journey  contains  an  obvious  allusion  to 
•omc  love  afiair ;  but  nothing  is  known  of  it. 
He  could  hardly  have  adopted  a  more  effectual 
diversion  from  such  sorrows  than  the  composi- 
tion of  a  mass,  on  an  extended  scale  ;  that 
namely  in  Ab — his  fifth— which  he  began  this 

1  f  .2r.  pp.  ISS-ISG  (L  199-160). 
2  PaUJalMd  to  other  wotda,  '  Herrlieh  prangt,'  u  op.  158. 
>  Io«c  tblatoinr  good  friend  Mr.  Pohl.  of  **' 


month  under  the  serious  title  of  '  Missa 
Solemnis ' ;  but  he  seems  to  have  dawdled 
over  it  more  than  over  any  other  of  his  works  ; 
as  it  was  not  finished  till  Sept.  1822,  and 
contains  many  marks  of  indecision. 

The  most  pregnant  musical  event  of  this 
year  is  the  fact  that  on  Feb.  28,  1819,  a  song 
of  Schubert's  was  simg  in  public — ^the  *  Schafei-s 
Klagelied,'  sung  by  Jager  at  Jail's  concert,  at 
5  P.M.  at  the  *Romische  Kaiser,'  Vienna.  It 
was  Schubert's  first  appearance  before  the  pjiblic 
as  a  song- writer  [one  of  the  *  Italian '  overtures 
had  been  given  on  March  1,  1818,  at  one  of 
Jail's  concerts],  and  is  noticed  by  the  Leipzig 
A.ALZ.  in  these  terms: — 'Goethe's  Schafers 
Klagelied  set  to  music  by  Herr  Franz  Schubert 
— the  touching  and  feeling  composition  of  this 
talented  young  man  was  sung  by  Herr  Jiiger  in 
a  similar  spirit.'  Such  is  the  first  utterance  of 
the  press  on  one  who  has  since  evoked  so  much 
enthusiasm !  In  the  course  of  this  year  Schubert 
appears  to  have  forwarded  the  three  songs, 
*Schwager  Kronos,'  *Ueber  Thai'  (Mignon), 
and  *Ganymed,' — afterwards  published  as  op. 
19), — to  Goethe ;  but  no  notice  was  taken  by 
the  poet  of  one  who  was  to  give  some  of  his 
songs  a  wider  popularity  than  they  could  other- 
wise have  enjoyed,  a  popularity  independent  of 
country  or  language  ;  nor  does  Schubert's  name 
once  occur  in  all  the  six  vols,  of  Goethe's 
correspondence  with  Zelter.* 

1820  was  again  a  year  of  great  activity. 
Owing  to  Yogi's  influence,  Schubert  was  gradu- 
ally attracting  the  attention  of  the  managei-s. 
The  *  Zwillingsbriider '  had  been  written  for  the 
Kamthnerthor  theatre  (see  p.  292a),  and  it 
was  not  long  before  the  rigisseur  of  the  rival 
opera-house,  the  Theatre  an-der-Wien,  suggested 
to  him  a  libretto  called  the  *  Zauberliarfe,'  or 
'Magic  harp,'  a  melodrama  in  three  acts,  by 
the  same  Hofmann  who  had  translated  the 
former  piece.  To  receive  such  a  proposal  and 
to  act  upon  it  was  a  matter  of  course  with 
Schubert,  and  the  *  Zauberharfe  *  is  said  to  have 
been  completed  in  a  fortnight.^  But  before 
this,  early  in  the  year,  he  had  met  with  the 
works  of  A.  H.  Niemeyer,  Professor  of  Theology 
at  Halle,  and  had  adopted  the  poem  of  *  Lazarus, 
or  the  Feast  of  the  Resurrection,'  for  an  Easter 
Cantata.  Easter  fell  that  year  on  April  2,  and 
his  work  is  dated  '  February,'  so  that  he  was  in 
ample  time.  The  poem — or  drama,  for  there 
are  seven  distinct  characters — is  in  three  parts. 
1.  The  sickness  and  death.  2.  The  burial  and 
elegy.  8.  The  resurrection.  Of  these  the  first 
and  a  large  portion  of  the  second  were  completed 
by  Schubert,  apparently  without  the  knowledge 
of  any  of  his  friends.  Ferdinand  mentions  the 
first  part  in  his  list,®  but  the  existence  of  the 
second  was  unknown,  till,  through  the  instru- 

*  Search  ahoold  be  nude  In  the  Ooethe  Art^iv  at  WeJmar  for  the 
autograph  of  these  songa,  and  the  letter  which  donbtlen  accompanied 
thein. 

•  Autograph  in  Herr  Damba's  conection.        «  jr.I.M.  p.  laSm. 


294 


1820 


SCHUBERT 


1820 


mentality  of  Mr.  Thayer,  it  was  unearthed  in 
1861.  These  have  been  published,*  but  no 
trace  of  the  third  act  has  yet  been  found,  and 
the  work  was  not  performed  till  long  after  the 
composer's  death — viz.  in  1868. 

On  June  14  the  *  Zwillingsbrttder '  or  *  Zwil- 
linge*  was  produced  at  the  Kamthnerthor 
theatre.  It  is  a  comic  operetta  (*  Posse '),  with 
spoken  dialogue,  in  one  act,  containing  an  over- 
ture and  ten  numbers,  and  turns  on  the  plot  that 
has  4one  duty  many  times  before,  the  confusion 
between  two  twin-brothers,  who  were  both  acted 
l>y  Vogl.  The  overture  was  encored  on  the  first 
night,  and  Yogi's  two  songs  were  much  ap- 
plauded, but  the  piece  was  virtually  a  fiascoy 
and  was  withdravm  after  six  representations. 
Schubert  took  so  little  interest  in  its  production 
that,  like  Mendelssohn  at  the  'Wedding  of 
Oamaoho,*  he  did  not  even  stay  in  the  house, 
and  Yogi  had  to  appear  instead  of  him  in  front 
of  the  curtain.  The  libretto,  though  over- 
burdened with  characters,  is  sadly  deficient  in 
proportion,  and  contains  very  little  action. 
Schubert's  music,  on  the  other  hand,  is  light, 
fresh,  and  melodious,  pointed,  unusually  com- 
pact, and  interesting  throughout  In  the 
concerted  numbers  there  is  evidence  of  great 
dramatic  power.  To  condemn  it,  as  the  critics 
of  the  day  do,  as  wanting  in  melody,  and 
constantly  striving  after  originality,  is  to  con- 
tradict Schubert's  most  marked  characteristics, 
and  is  contrary  to  the  facts.  There  is  possibly 
more  justice  in  the  complaint  that'  the  accom- 
paniments were  too  loud,  though  that  is 
certainly  not  the  fault  in  his  masses,  his  only 
other  published  works  with  orchestral  accom- 
paniments anterior  to  this  date.  The  work 
has  been  published  in  vocal  score  by  Peters 
(1872). 

On  August  19  the  '  Zauberharfe '  was  pro- 
duced at  the  Theatre  an-der-\Yien.  It  consists 
chiefly  of  chorus  and  melodrama,  with  only  a 
few  solo  passages.  There  is  a  fine  overture 
(in  C),  original,  characteristic,  and  full  of 
beauty,  which  was  published  before  1828  as 
op.  26,  under  the  name  of  *  Rosamunde,*  to 
which  it  seems  to  have  no  claim.*  The  piece 
was  occasionally  brought  forward  till  the  winter, 
and  was  then  dropped.  These  three  vocal 
works  appear  so  far  to  have  whetted  Schubert's 
appetite  that  in  the  autumn  he  attacked  the 
more  important  libretto  of '  Sakontala,'  a  regular 
opera  in  three  acts,  by  P.  H.  Neumann, 
founded  on  the  Indian  drama  of  that  name. 
He  sketched  two  acts,  and  there  it  remains  ;  the 
MS.  is  in  Herr  Dumba's  possession.  Another 
important  and  very  beautiful  piece  is  the  23rd 
Psalm,3  set  for  two  sopranos  and  two  altos  mth 
PF.  accompaniment,  at  the  instigation  of  the 

1  In  1808.  by  Spina. 

<  The  overture  pl«r«<l  to  the  'Roaamunde'  music  ia  In  D  minor,  and 
W114  aflorwi%rd«  published  an '  Alfonso  k  Bstrella.'  There  is,  perhaps, 
another  in  cxistenco.    See  the  lettfr  to  vou  Motel  quoted  farther  on. 

'  To  MosQS  Mendelssohn's  translation. 


sisters  Frohlich,  and  dated  at  the  beginning 
*  23  Deo.  1820 ' — perhaps  with  a  view  to  some 
private  concerts  given,  now  or  later,  at  the  old 
hall  of  the  Musikverein.  Anotiier  is  the 
'Gesang  der  Geister  iiber  den  Wassem'  of 
Goethe  (op.  167).  This  fine  and  mystical  {loem 
had  a  strong  attraction  for  Schubert.  He  set 
it  for  four  equal  voices  in  1817  ;  tlien  he  reset 
it  for  four  tenors  and  four  basses  with  two  violas, 
two  violoncellos,  and  bass,  in  Dec.  1 820  ;  and 
lastly  revised  this  in  Feb.  1821.  It  was  first  pro- 
duced on  March  7,  1821,  and  found  no  fevonr, 
to  Schubert's  disgust.  It  was  again  performed 
on  March  30,  before  a  more  receptive  audience, 
with  a  far  better  result  It  was  revived  at 
Yienna  in  1868  by  Herbeck,  and  in  England 
was  performed  with  success  on  March  22,  1881, 
under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Prout.  It  is 
enormously  difficult,  and,  though  perfectly  in 
character  with  the  poem,  will  probably  never 
be  attractive  to  a  mixed  audience.  Another 
work  of  1820  were  some  antiphons  (op.  US) 
for  Palm  Sunday  (March  26),  composed  for 
Ferdinand,  who  had  been  recently  appointe<l 
Choirmaster  at  the  Altlerchenfelder  Church,  and 
found  the  duties  rather  too  much  for  him.  They 
are  written  with  black  chalk,  on  coarse  grey 
wrapping  paper  ;  and  the  tradition  is  that  they 
and  two  motets  were  written  in  great  haste, 
just  in  time  for  the  servifte.  On  Easter  Sunday 
Franz  attended  and  conducted  the  mass  for  his 
brother. 

The  Fantasia  in  C  for  PF.  solo  (op.  15),  con- 
taining Yariations  on  Schubert's  own  *  Wanderer,' 
is  probably  a  work  of  this  year.  It  was  written 
for  von  Liebenberg,  a  PF.  player,  to  whom  Schu- 
bert dedicated  it.  This  fine  piece  was  brought 
into  vogue  by  Liszt's  arrangement  of  it  for  PF. 
and  orchestra  as  a  concerto  ;  but  it  is  doubtful 
if  it  is  improved  by  the  process.  Schubert  never 
could  play  it ;  he  always  stuck  fast  in  the  last 
movement ;  and  on  one  occasion  jumped  np  ami 
cried  *  Let  the  devil  himself  play  it ! '  Another 
piece  is  an  Allegro  for  strings  in  C  minor,  dateil 
Dec.  1820,  the  first  movement  of  a  quartet,  of 
which  there  exist  besides  forty-one  bars  of  the 
Andante,  in  Ab.  The  Allegro  is  of  first-rate 
quality,  and  Schubert  in  every  bar.  It  was 
published  in  1868  by  Senff.  The  MS.  was 
in  Johannes  Brahms's  fine  collection  of  auto- 
graphs. 

The  songs  of  1820,  seventeen  in  all,  though 
not  so  numerous  as  those  of  previous  years,  are 
very  fine.  They  contain  *Der  Jiingling  auf 
dem  Hiigel'  (op.  8,  No.  1),  *Der  Schifler,' 
'Liebeslauschen,'  three  grand  songs  to  Mayr- 
hofer's  words,  *  Orest  auf  Tauris, ' '  Der  entsiihnte 
Orest,'  and  *  Freiwilliges  Versinken,*  and  f»ur 
Italian  Canti,  written  for  Frl.  von  Romer,  who 
afterwards  married  Schubert's  friend  Spaun,  and 
since  published  with  one  which  was  probably 
written  under  Salieri's  eye  as  early  as  1813. 
The  most  remarkable  of  all  is  '  Im  Walde '  or 


1821 


SCHUBERT 


1821 


295 


'  Waldesnaeht,  *  a  yeiy  long  song  of  extraordinary 
Iicaaty,  vaiie^,  force,  and  imagination. 

With  £ebniary  1821  Schubert  entered  his 
twenty-fifth  year,  and  it  was  a  good  omen  to 
i^oeire  sach  a  birthday  present  as  the  three 
testimonials  of  this  date  which  Kreissle  has^ 
preserved.     The  first  is  from  von  Mosel,  then 
CourtSecretaiy ;  the  second  from  Weigl,  Director 
of  the  Court  Opera,  Salieri,  and  von  Eichthal ; 
the   third  from  Moritz   Count  Dietrichstein, 
whom  Beethoven  addresses  as  'Uofmusikgraf,' 
and  who  appears  to  have  been  a  sort  of  Jupiter- 
Apollo  wi^  general  sway  over  all  Court  music. 
These  influential  personages  warmly  recognise 
bis  eminent  ability,  industry,  knowledge,  feel- 
ing, and  taste,  and  profess  the  best  intentions 
towards    him*      The    three    documents    were 
encloeed  by  the  Count  in  a  letter  to  Vogl,  full 
of  good  wishes  for  the  future  of  his  friend. 
Still  more  gratifying  was  the  prospect,  which 
now  at  last  opened,  of  the  publication  of  his 
soQga.     It  was  the  ikst  good  epoch  in  Schubert's 
hitherto  struggling  life.      He  had  now  been 
writing  for  more  than  seven  years,  with  an 
industry  and  disregard  of  consequences  which 
are  really  fearful  to  contemplate ;  and  yet,  as 
far  as  fame  or  profit  were  concerned,   might 
almost  as  well  have  remained  absolutely  idle. 
Here  at  length  was  a  break  in  the  cloud.     It 
was  not  less  welcome  because  it  was  mainly  due 
to  his  faithful  friends,  the  Sonnleithners,  who 
bad  made  his  acquaintance  through  the  accident 
of  Leopold  Sonnleithner's  being  at  school  with 
him,  and  ever  since  cherished  ii:  in  the  most 
faithful  and  practical  way,  Ignaz,  the  father, 
haiiog,  since  1816,  had  large  periodical  music- 
meetings  of  artists  and  amateurs  in  his  house 
at  the  Gundelhof,    which  were  nothing  less 
than  Schubert  propaganda.     Here,  before  large 
audiences  of  thoroughly  musical  people,  Schu- 
bert's pieces  were  repeatedly  performed,  and  at 
length,  on  Dec.  1,  1820,  the  *Eri  King'  was 
song  by  Gymnich,  a  well-known  amateur,  with 
a  spirit  which  fired  every  one  of  the  audience 
with  the  desire  to  possess  the  song,  and  appears 
to  have  sQggested  to  Leopold  and  Gymnich  the 
l-ofiidbility  of  finding  a  publisher  for  the  inspira- 
tions which  had  for  so  long  been  their  delight 
and  astonishment.     They  applied  to  Diabelli 
and  Haslinger,  the  leading  houses  of  Vienna, 
hnt  without  success  ;  the  main  objections  being 
the  insignificance  of  the  composer,   and  the 
<lifGculty  of  his   PF.    accompaniments.       On 
thi3  they  resolved  to  takd  the  matter  into  their 
own  hands ;  and,  probably  not  without  mis- 
ginngs,  had  the  *Erl  King'  engraved.     The 
fact  was  announced  at  the  next  Concert  at  the 
('undelhof,  and  a  hundred  copies  were  at  once 
i^nhscribed  for  in  the  room — sufficient  to  defray 
the  cost  of  the  engraving  and  printing,  and  of 
engraving  a  second  song  as  welL     Meantime 
the  'Erl  King*  had  been  sung  in  public  (for 
1  jr.jr.  p.  901  (1. 903). 


the  concerts  at  the  Gundelhof  were,  strictly 
speaking,  private,  limited  to  the  friends  of  the 
host)  by  Gymnich,  at  an  evening  concert  of  the 
Musikverein,  in  one  of  the  public  rooms  of  the 
city,  on  Jan.  26,  1821,  Schubert  himself 
appearing  on  the  platform^  and  playing  the 
accompaniment.  Everything  was  done  by  the 
young  enthusiasts  to  foster  the  Schubert  furore, 
even  to  the  publication  of  a  set  of  *  Erl  King 
waltzes'  by  A.  Hiittenbrenner,  which  at  any 
rate  must  have  made  the  name  familiar,  though 
they  provoked  Schubert,  and  drew  from  Kanne 
some  satirical  hexameters  and  pentameters 
which  may  be  read  in  Kreissle.^  On  Feb.  8  the 
programme  of  the  Musikverein  Concert  included 
three  songs  of  his,  the  *  Sehnsucht '  by  Schiller, 
*Gretchen  am  Spinnrade,'  and  *Der  JUngling 
auf  dem  Hiigel ' ;  and  on  March  8  the  *  Gruppe 
aus  dem  Tartarus.'  On  March  7  the  *  Erl  King' 
was  again  sung,  this  tinae  by  Vogl  himself,  at 
an  unmistakable  public  concert,  at  the  Kamth- 
nerthor  theatre,  a  concert  supported  by  all  the 
most  distinguished  ladies  of  the  Court,  who 
received  the  song  with  loud  applause.  Think 
what  the  first  appearance  of  these  godlike 
pieces  must  have  been  1  It  was  the  rising  of 
the  Sun  !  He  is  now  an  everyday  sight  to  us  ; 
but  how  was  it  the  first  time  that  he  burst  in 
all  his  brightness  on  the  eyes  of  mortals  ?  In 
the  midst  of  all  this  enthusiasm  the  '  Erl  King ' 
was  published  on  the  1st  of  April  1821,  by 
Cappi  and  Diabelli,  on  commission.  It  was 
dedicated  to  Count  Moritz  Dietrichstein,  whose 
kindness  well  deserved  that  recognition.  On 
April  80,  *Gretchen  am  Spinnrade'  appeared 
as  op.  2.  The  succeeding  publications — each 
made  to  depend  on  the  success  of  the  last — 
were  as  follows  : — 

May  29.  Op.  8.  Sch&fers   Klagelied  ;     Meeres-StUle ; 
Heidenitislein ;  Jagera  Abendlled. 
Do.       Op.  4.  Der  Wanderer;   Morgenlied ;    Wan- 
derers Nachtlied. 

July  9.  Op.  5.  Rastloae  Liebe ;  Nahe  des  Geliebten  ; 
Der  Fischer ;  Erater  Verlust ;  Der  Kdnig 
in  Thule. 

Aug.  28.  Op.  6.  Memnon ;  Antigone  und  Oedip ;  Am 
Qrabe  Anselmos. 

Nov.  27.  Op.  7.  Die  abgebltihte  Linde ;  Der  Flug  der 
Zeit ;  Der  Tod  und  das  Madchen. 

Here  the  publication  by  commission  stopped, 
the  Diabellis  being  evidently  convinced  that  the 
lisk  might  be  profitably  assumed  ;  and  accord- 
ingly op.  8  appears  on  May  9,  1822,  as  *the 
property  of  the  publishers.'  The  dedications 
of  the  first  seven  numbers  no  doubt  furnish  the 
names  of  Schubert's  most  influential  supporters : 
1.  Graf  von  Dietrichstein  ;  2.  Reichsgraf  Moritz 
von  Fries  ;  3.  Ignaz  von  Mosel ;  4.  Johann  La- 
dislaus  Pyrker,  Patriarch  of  Venice  ;  5.  Salieri  ; 
6.  Michael  Vogl ;  7.  Graf  Ludwig  Sz^ch^nyi. 
It  must  be  admitted  that  the  above  are  very 
good  lists,  and  that  if  Schubert  had  waited 
long  for  the  publication  of  his  works,  the  issue 

*  Haiulick.  ConeertiMtfn,  p.  2S4 ;  and  K.If.  v  W  (1.  60). 


296 


1821 


SCHUBERT 


1821 


of  twenty  songs  in  eight  months,  under  the 
patronage  of  seven  such  eminent  personages, 
was  a  substantial  compensation.  We  do  not 
hear,  however,  that  much  money  came  into  his 
hands  from  the  publication.  The  favourable  im- 
pression made  by  the  publication  may  be  gathered 
from  the  long,  intelligent,  and  sympathetic 
criticism,  *Blick  auf  Schuberts  Lieder,*  by  F. 
von  Hentl,  which  appeared  in  the  Wiener  Ztii- 
schrift  flir  Kunst,  etc. — a  periodical  belonging 
to  Diabelli's  rivals,  Steiner  k  Co. — for  March 
23,  1822. 

Schubert  was  now  a  good  deal  about  the 
theatre,  and  when  it  was  determined  to  produce 
a  German  version  of  Harold's  *Clochette,*  as 
'  Das  Zauberglockchen,'  at  the  Court-opera,  he 
was  not  unnaturally  called  upon  to  insert  a 
couple  of  pieces  to  suit  the  Vienna  audience.  It 
was  what  Mozart  often  did  for  the  Italian  operas 
of  his  day — what  indeed  we  know  Shakespeare 
to  have  done  in  more  than  one  case.  The  opera 
was  produced  on  June  20.  The  interpolated 
pieces  were  a  long  air  for  tenor,  ^  in  three  move- 
ments— Maestoso,  Andante,  and  Allegro — full 
of  passion  and  imagination,  and  a  comic  duet 
between  the  princes  B  flat  and  C  natural  (Bedur 
and  Cedur).  They  were  more  applauded  than 
anything  else  in  the  work,  but  Schubert's  name 
was  not  divulged  ;  the  opera  as  a  whole  did  not 
please,  and  was  soon  withdrawn. 

The  little  Variation  which  he  contributed, 
as  No.  38,  to  Diabelli's  collection  of  fifty  Varia- 
tions— the  same  for  which  Beethoven  wrote 
his  thirty- three  (op.  120) — should  not  be  over- 
looked. Though  not  published  till  1823,  the 
autograph,  now  in  the  Hofbibliothek  at  Vienna, 
is  dated  *  March  1821.'  The  variation  is  fresh 
and  pretty,  in  the  minor  of  the  theme,  but  is 
more  noticeable  from  its  situation  than  from  its 
own  qualities.  A  few  dances  for  PF.  solo  are 
dated  '8th  March'  and  'July'  in  this  year, 
and  a  collection  of  thirty-six,  containing  those 
alluded  to  and  others  of  1816  and  1819,  was 
published  by  Cappi  and  Diabelli  on  Nov.  29, 
as  op.  18.  Some  of  these  are  inscribed  on  the 
autograph  *  Atzenbrucker  Deutsche,  July  1821,' 
indicating  a  visit  to  Atzenbruck,  the  seat  of 
an  uncle  of  Schober's,  near  Abstetten,  between 
Vienna  and  St.  Pollen,  where  a  three  days' 
annual  festivity  was  held,  to  which  artists  of 
all  kinds  were  invited,  and  where  Schubert's 
presence  and  music  were  regarded  as  in- 
dispensable. 

Whether  after  this  he  and  Schober  returned 
to  Vienna  we  know  not,  no  letters  remain  ;  but 
the  next  event  of  which  any  record  remains  is 
the  composition  of  a  symphony,  his  seventh, 
in  £,  which  is  marked,  without  note  of  place, 
as  begun  in  August  He  did  not  complete  the 
writing  of  it,  and  indeed  it  is  probable  that  it 
did  not  occupy  him  more  than  a  few  hours  ;  but 
the  autograph,  which  is  in  the  writer's  posses- 

1  Introdaced  Into  '  Alfonso  nnd  Bitrdla '  In  1881  by  Job.  Fudu. 


sion,*  is  a  very  curious  manuscript,  probably 
quite  unique,  even  among  Schubert's  feats  of 
composition.    1 1  occupies  167  pages  of  42  sheets 
(10  quires  of  4,  and  1  of  2),  and  is  in  the  usual 
movements — Adagio  in  £  minor,  and  All^ro  in 
E  major ;  Andante  in  A ;  Scherzo  in  C,  and 
Trio  in  A ; '  and  Allegro  giusto  in  E  major.    The 
Introduction  and  a  portion  of  the  All^tro  are 
fully  scored  and  marked  ;  but  at  the  110th  bar 
— the  end  of  a  page — Schubert  appears  to  havp 
grown  impatient  of  this  regular  proceeding,  and 
from  that  point  to  the  end  of  the  work  has 
made  merely  memoranda.      But  these  memo- 
randa are,  in  their  way,  perfectly  complete  ami 
orderly  to  the  end  of  the  Finale.     Every  Iwir 
is  drawn  in ;  the  tempi  and  names  of  the  instru- 
ments are  fully  written  at  the  beginning  of  each 
movement ;  the  ntuinces  are  all  marked  :  the 
very  double  bars   and   flourishes   are  gi^^'^L^ 
added  at  the  end  of  the  sections,  and  '  Fine '  at 
the  conclusion  of  the  whole ;    and  SchuKit 
evidently  regarded  the  work  as  no  less  complet*; 
on  the  paper  than  it  was  in  his  mind.     Aii<i 
complete   it  virtually  is;  for  each  subject  is 
given  at  full  length,   with   a  bit  of  bass  or 
aocompaniment-figure,  or/iigalo  passage.    There 
is  not  a  bar  from  beginning  to  end  that  does 
not  contain  the  part  of  one  or  more  instruments : 
at  all  crucial  places  the  scoring  is  much  fuller  ; 
and  it  would  no  doubt  be  possible  to  complete 
it  as  Schubert  himself  intended.     [It  is  said 
that  the  sketch  was  submitted  to  Mendelssohn, 
who  refused  to  complete  it     In  later  days,  at 
the  suggestion  of  Sir  Geoi^  Grove,  Mr.  J.  K 
Bamett  undertook  the  task,  and  the  symphony, 
scored  by  him  from  Schubert's  indications,  was 
produced  at  the  Crystal  Palace  on  May  5, 1883. 
See  Bamett's  Musical  JReminiscences  and  Impres- 
Sims,  pp.  312-22.] 

We  next  find  the  two  friends  at  the  castle  of 
Ochsenburg,  a  few  miles  south  of  St.  Polten,  the 
seatof  the  Bishop,  whowasarelativeof  Schobor's ; 
and  there  and  in  St.  Polten  itself  they  passed 
a  thoroughly  happy  and  healthy  holiday  of 
some  weeks  in  September  and  October.  The 
Bishop  and  Baron  Mink,  a  local  magnate,  wen? 
congenial  hosts,  and  the  visit  of  the  two  cle\*er 
young  men  was  the  signal  for  various  festivities, 
in  which  all  the  aristocracy  of  the  country-side— 
'  a  princess,  two  countesses,  and  three  baronesses,' 
in  Schober's  enumeration — ^took  part,  and  in 
which  the  music  and  drollery  of  Schubert  aud 
his  friend  delighted  every  one.  The  great  result 
of  the  visit,  however,  was  the  composition  of  an 
opera  to  Schober's  words,  on  a  romantic  subject 
of  battles,  love,  conspiracy,  hunting,  peasant  life 
and  everything  else,  so  natural  in  opera  librettos, 

s  I  recoircd  It  In  1888  from  the  Ute  Pl»ul  Hendplanbn.  FrliV* 
brother,  into  wboM  Iwadi  it  c»ni«  after  his  brother's  dmUt.  F«ili 
M end«lnohn  had  it  from  FerdinMid  Schubert  direct. 

3  The  change  in  thla  •ymrhony  from  the  8chcrao  In  C  to  the  Trio 
in  A,  by  an  B  In  octave*  in  the  oboM  laettnf  fonr  bare,  ia  an  antLi 

gAtion  of  the  iiimilar  change  in  the  lame  place  in  the  great  C  wtyt 
rmphony  of  1828,  and  a  nuiooe  instance  of  the  aingular  «ay  m 
which  many  of  Schubert's  earlier  symphonies  lead  up  to  his  cM«n- 
iug  elTurt. 


1821- 


SCMCJBERT 


—1822 


297 


80  impossible  in  real  life.  It  was  oalled  *  Alfonso 
und  Egtrella/  and  two  acts  were  completed  be- 
fore their  return  to  town.  The  first  act  is  dated 
at  the  end  of  the  autograph  Sept.  20,  and  the 
second  Oct.  20.  A  week  later  they  were  back 
again  in  Vienna. 

The  songs  composed  in  1821  are  very  im- 
portant, and  comprise  some  of  his  very  finest, 
and  in  the  most  various  styles.  It  is  sufficient 
to  name  among  the  published  ones  *  Greuzen  der 
Menschheit'  (February);  'Geheimes*  (March); 
Saleika's  two  songs  (opp.  14,  81);  'Sei  mil 
gegriisst '  (op.  20,  No.  1) ;  and  '  Die  Nachtigall,' 
for  four  men's  voices  (op.  11,  No.  2) — all  of  the 
very  highest  excellence,  of  astonishing  variety, 
and  enough  of  themselves  to  make  the  fame  of 
any  ordinary  composer.  A*  fine  setting  of 
'  Mahomet's  song,'  by  Goethe,  for  bass  (possibly 
for  Lablache),  was  begun  in  March. 

The  third  act  of  '  Alfonso  und  Estrella '  was 
finished  in  Feb.  27,  1822.  The  fact  that  a 
thoroughly  worldly,  mercenary,  money-making 
manager  like  Barbaja,  who  was  at  the  same  time 
a  firm  believer  in  Rossini,  had  become  lessee 
of  the  two  principal  theatres  of  Vienna,  augured 
badly  for  Schubert's  chance  of  success  in  that 
direction.  But  indeed  the  new  piece  seems  to 
have  been  calculated  to  baffle  any  manager,  not 
only  in  Vienna,  but  everywhere  else.  It  caused, 
as  we  shall  see,  a  violent  dispute,  eighteen  months 
later,  between  Schubert  and  Weber,  which  but 
for  Schubert's  good  temper  would  have  led  to  a 
permanent  quarrel.  Anna  Milder,  to  whom 
Schubert  sent  a  copy  of  the  work  in  1825,  tells 
him,  in  a  letter  full  of  kindness  and  enthusiasm, 
that  the  libretto  will  not  suit  the  taste  of  the 
Berliners,  *who  are  accustomed  to  the  grand 
tragic  opera,  or  the  French  opdra-comique.' 
Nor  was  the  libretto  the  only  drawback. 
Schubert,  like  Beethoven  in  'Fidelio,*  was  in 
advance  of  the  modest  execution  of  those  days. 
At  Graz,  the  abode  of  the  Hiittenbrenners, 
where  there  was  &  foyer  of  Schubert-enthusiasts, 
the  opera  got  as  far  as  rehearsal,  and  would 
probably  have  reached  the  stage,  if  the  accom- 
paniments had  not  proved  impossible  for  the 
hand.  ^  No  performance  took  place  until  twenty- 
six  years  after  poor  Schubert's  death,  namely  at 
Weimar,  on  June  24,  1854,  under  the  direction 
of  Liszt,  who,  with  all  his  devotion  to  the 
inaster,  had  to  reduce  it  much  for  performance. 
It  was  very  carefully  studied,  and  yet  the 
success,  even  in  that  classical  town,  and  with 
all  Liszt's  enthusiasm  and  influence,  seems  to 
jwve  been  practically  nil.  At  last,  however, 
its  time  came.  Twenty-five  years  later,  in 
1879,  it  was  again  taken  in  hand  by  Capell- 
meister  Johann  Fuchs  of  the  Court  opera, 
Vienna,  who  entirely  rewrote  the  libretto,  and 
greatly  curtailed  the  work ;  and  in  this  form 
rt  was  brought  to  performance  at  Oarlsruhe  in 
March  1881,  with  great  success. 

1  K.B.  ^  849  (f.  S52). 


But  to  return  to  Schubert  and  1822.  Early 
in  the  year  he  made  the  acquaintance^  of  Weber, 
who  spent  a  few  weeks  of  February  and  March 
in  Vienna  to  arrange  for  the  production  of  his 
'  Euryanthe.  *  No  ^particulars  of  their  intercourse 
on  this  occasion  survive.  With  Beethoven 
Schubert  had  as  yet  hardly  exchanged  words. 
And  this  is  hardly  to  be  wondered  at,  because, 
though  Vienna  was  not  a  large  city,  yet  the 
paths  of  the  two  men  were  quite  separate. 
Apart  from  the  great  difference  in  their  ages, 
and  from  Beethoven's  peculiar  position  in  the 
town,  his  habits  were  fixed,  his  deafness  was  a 
great  obstacle  to  intercourse,  and,  for  the  last 
five  or  six  years,  what  with  the  lawsuits  into 
which  his  nephew  dragged  him,  and  the  severe 
labour  entailed  by  the  composition  of  the  Mass 
in  D,  and  of  the  Sonatas  opp.  106,  109,  110, 
and  111 — works  which  by  no  means  flowed 
from  him  with  the  ease  that  masses  and  sonatas 
did  from  Schubert — he  was  very  inaccessible. 
Any  stranger  arriving  from  abroad,  with  a 
letter  of  introduction,  was  seen  and  treated 
civilly.  But  Schubert  was  a  bom  Viennese, 
and  at  the  time  of  which  we  speak,  Beethoven 
was  as  much  a  part  of  Vienna  as  St.  Stephen's 
tower,  and  to  visit  him  required  some  special 
reason,  and  more  than  special  resolution. 

A  remark  of  Rochlitz's  ^  in  the  July  of  this 
year  shows  that  Schubert  was  in  the  habit  of 
going  to  the  same  restaurant  with  Beethoven, 
and  worshipping  at  a  distance ;  but  the  first 
direct  evidence  of  their  coming  into  contact 
occurs  at  this  date.  On  April  19,  1822,  he 
imblished  a  set  of  Variations  on  a  French  air 
as  op.  10,  and  dedicated  them  to  Beethoven  as 
*his  admirer  and  worshipper'  {sein  Verehrer 
und  BewuTtderer).  The  Variations  were  written 
in  the  winter  of  1 820-21,  and  Schubert  presented 
them  in  person  to  the  great  master.  There  are 
two  versions  of  the  internew,*  Schindler's  and 
J.  Hiittenbrenner's.  Schindler  was  constantly 
about  Beethoven.  He  was  devoted  to  Schubert, 
and  is  very  unlikely  to  have  given  a  depreciating 
account  of  him.  There  is  therefore  no  reason  for 
doubting  his  statement,  especially  as  his  own 
interest  or  vanity  were  not  concerned.  It  is 
the  first  time  we  meet  Schubert  face  to  face. 
He  was  accompanied  by  Diabelli,  who  was  just 
beginning  to  find  out  his  commercial  value,  and 
would  natnrally  be  anxious  for  his  success. 
Beethoven  was  at  home,  and  we  know  the 
somewhat  overwhelming  courtesy  with  which 
he  welcomed  a  stranger.  Schubert  was  more 
bashful  and  retiring  than  ever  ;  and  when  the 
great  man  handed  him  the  sheaf  of  paper  and 
the  carpenter's  j>encil  provided  for  the  replies 

s  For  th«lr  meeting  we  have  the  authority  of  Weber's  son  In  bia 
biography,  li.  420.  But  hie  itateineot  that  Schubert  waa  alienated 
from  Weber  by  Weber's  eriticium  on  '  Roaamunde'  1b  )nore  than 
dottbtfol.  because  'Roeamande'  was  probably  not  componed  till 
■ome  nineteen  months  later,  and  benoae  it  was  not  Schubert's 
habit  to  t<tke  offence  at  orltlcinn. 

3  Far  Fmmde  der  Tonkunit,  ir.  363.  Bee  the  lifelike  and  touch- 
ins  picture  by  Braun  von  Braun  given  in  Nohl's  Beethoven,  iii.  6S2. 

«  Schindler's  Beetheeen,  it.  176. 


298 


1822 


SCHUBERT 


1822 


of  his  visitors,  could  not  collect  himself 
sufficiently  to  write  a  word.  Then  the  Varia- 
tions were  produced,  with  their  enthusiastic 
dedication,  which  probably  added  to  Beethoven's 
good  humour.  He  opened  them  and  looked 
through  them,  and  seeing  something  that 
startled  him,  naturally  pointed  it  out.  At 
this  Schubert's  last  remnant  of  self-control 
seems  to  have  deserted  him,  and  he  rushed 
from  the  room.  When  he  got  into  the  street, 
and  was  out  of  the  magic  of  Beethoven's  person- 
ality, his  presence  of  mind  returned,  and  all 
that  he  might  have  said  iiashed  upon  him,  but 
it  was  too  late.  The  story  is  perfectly  natural, 
and  we  ought  to  thank  Beethoven's  Boswell  for 
it.  Which  of  us  would  not  have  done  the 
same  ?  Beethoven  kept  the  Variations  and 
liked  them  ;  and  it  must  have  been  some  con- 
solation to  the  bashful  Franz  to  hear  that  he 
often  played  them  with  his  nephew.  Hlitten- 
brenner's^  story  is  that  Schubert  called,  but 
found  Beethoven  out ;  which  may  have  been 
an  invention  of  Diabelli's  to  shield  his  young 
client. 

This  autumn  Schubert  again  took  up  the 
Mass  in  Ab,  which  was  begun  in  1819  ;  finished 
it,  and  inscribed  it  *m  7*  822  beendct.'^  Not 
tliat  that  was  the  final  redaction  ;  for,  contrary 
to  his  usual  practice — in  fact  it  is  almost  a 
solitary  instance — he  took  it  up  again  before 
his  death,  and  made  material  improvements  ^ 
both  in  the  position  of  the  voice-parts  and  in 
the  instrumentation,  as  may  be  seen  from  the 
autograph  score  now  in  the  Library  of  the 
GesoUschaft  der  Musikfreunde. 

This  year  seems  to  have  been  passed  entirely 
in  Vienna,  at  least  there  are  no  traces  of  any 
journey  ;  and  the  imprisonment  in  the  broiling 
city,  away  from  the  nature  he  so  dearly  loved, 
was  not  likely  to  improve  his  spirits.  What 
events  or  circumstances  are  alluded  to  in  the 
interesting  piece  called  *  My  Dream,'*  dated 
*  July  1822,'  it  is  hard  to  guess.  It  may  not 
improbably  have  been  occasioned  by  some  dispute 
on  religious  subjects  of  the  nature  of  those  hinted 
at  in  his  brother  Ignaz's  letter  of  Oct.  12, 
1818.^  At  any  rate  it  is  deeply  pathetic  and 
poetical. 

During  this  summer  Joseph  Hlittenbrenncr 
was  active  in  the  cause  of  his  friend.  He 
made  no  less  than  four  endeavours  to  bring  out 
the   'Teufels  Lustschloss' — at  the   Joset'stadt 


1  K./f.  p.  961  (i.  2G4). 


*  7^  itandi  for  Soi>tember. 


9  This  WM  kindly  poIntMl  oat  tu  the  wi  iter  by  Juhannns  BrahmR. 
who  had  an  wrly  copy  of  the  aeore,  made  by  Ferdinand  Schnbert 


from  the autogiaph  in  tte  oiiglnal  condition.  In  this  shape  Brahms 
rehenned  the  maiw,  but  foaud  many  pottions  nniiatiKfactory.  and 

iraph 


/  poU 

vaa  InterMted  to  discover  Hubeoquentiy  from  the  autograph  that 
Schubert  had  altered  the  very  peasngos  slluded  to.  and  made  them 


practicable.— He  made  three  attempts  at  the  '  Cum  Sancto'  before 
sucooedlng.  each  time  in  fugue,  and  always  with  a  dlflTerrnt  subject. 
Of  the  first  there  are  four  ban ;  of  the  M>cond  199 ;  the  third  Is  that 

f printed  in  Bchreibcr's  edition.  This  «<lition  is  unfnttunately  very 
ncoitect.  Not  only  does  it  swsnn  with  misinints,  but  whole 
paraaffeH.  yid  those  most  impoitant  ones  (as  in  the  Home  and 
Trombonee  of  the  Dona),  are  clean  omitted.    The  ttMancM  also  are 


loneei 
•hampfully  treated. 

*  First  piinted  by  R.  Schumann  In  the  Xinie  £eUuhr(/t  fikr 
Mu^k  for  Fob.  5.  IS'ff).    See  also  A'.//,  p.  333  (li.  16). 

ft  if.//,  pi  146(1.  148). 


and  Court  theatres  of  Vienna,  at  Munich,  and 
at  Prague.  At  Prague  alone  was  there  a  gleam 
of  hope.  Hollbein,  the  manager  there,  requests 
to  have  the  score  and  parts  sent  to  him,  at  the 
same  time  regretting  that  during  a  month  which 
he  had  passed  in  Vienna,  Schubert  had  not  once 
come  near  him.  Hiittenbrenner  also  nidged 
Schubert  on  Peters,  the  publisher,  of  Leipzig, 
who  in  a  tedious  egotistical  letter,  dated  Nov. 
14,  1822,  gives  the  usual  sound  reasons  of  & 
cautious  publisher  against  taking  up  with  an 
unknown  composer — for  in  North  Germany 
Schubert  was  still  all  but  unknown.  One  is 
sorry  to  hear  of  a  little  rebuff  which  he  saatained 
at  this  time  from  the  Gesellschaft  der  Musik- 
freunde of  Vienna,  to  whom  he  applied  to  be 
admitted  as  a  practising  member  (on  the  yiola), 
but  who  refused  him  on  the  ground  of  his  being 
a  professional,  and  therefore  outside  their  rnles.^ 
A  somewhat  similar  repulse  was  experienced  by 
Haydn  from  the  Tonkiinstler  Societat.  [See 
vol.  ii.  p.  354.1  On  the  other  hand,  the 
musical  societies  both  of  Linz  and  Graz  elected 
him  an  honorary  member.  To  the  latter  of 
these  distinctions  we  owe  the  two  beautiful 
movements  of  the  symphony  No.  8,  in  B  minor, 
which  was  begun  at  Vienna  on  Oct  30,  1 822, 
and  intended  as  a  return  for  the  compliment. 
The  Allegro  and  Andante  alone  are  finished, 
but  these  are  of  singular  beauty  and  the  greatest 
originality.  In  them,  for  the  first  time  in 
orchestral  composition,  Schubert  exhibits  a 
style  absolutely  his  own,  untinged  by  any 
piredecessor,  and  full  of  that  strangely  direct 
appeal  to  the  hearer  of  which  we  have  already 
spoken.  It  is  certain  that  he  never  heard  the 
music  played,  and  that  the  new  and  delicate 
effects  and  orchestral  combinations  with  which 
it  is  crowded,  were  the  result  of  his  imagination 
alone.  The  first  movement  is  sadly  full  of 
agitation  and  distress.  It  lay  hidden  at  Graz 
for  many  years,  until  obtained  from  Anselm 
Hiittenbrenner  by  Herbeck,  who  first  produced 
it  in  Vienna  at  one  of  the  Gesellschaft  concerts 
in  1865.^  It  was  published  by  Spina  early  in 
1867  ;  was  played  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  April 
6,  1867,  and  elsewhere  in  England,  and  always 
with  increasing  success.  In  fact  no  one  .can 
hear  it  without  being  captivated  by  it. 

The  Songs  composed  in  1822 — fourteen 
printed  and  two  in  MS. — comprise  *  Epistel  von 
Collin '  (Jan.)  ;  *  Heliopolis  '  (April)  ;  *  Todes- 
musik,'  with  a  magnificent  opening  (op.  108, 
No.  2  ;  Sept.)  ;  *  Schatzgrabers  Bogehr '  (op.  28, 
No.  4  ;  Nov.)  with  its  stately  bass  ;  *  Willkom- 
men  und  Abschied  *  (op.  56,  No.  1 ;  Dec.) ;  *  Die 
Rose'  (op.  73)  and  *Der  Musensohn '  (op.  92). 
The  concerted  pieces,  *  ConstitutionsUed  *  (op. 
157;  Jan.),  'Geist  der  Liebe*  (op.  11,  No.  8), 
*  Gott  in  der  Nutur  '  (op.  133),  and  *  Des  Tages 
Weihe '  (op.  146),  all  belong  to  this  year. 

Publication  went  on  in  1822,  though  not  so 

«  A'.AT.  p.  280  (i.  283).         7  pec  Hanslick.  Omttrtnutl,  p.  300. 


1822— 


SCHUBERT 


—1823 


299 


briskly  as  before.  The  Variations  dedicated  to 
Beethoven  (op.  10)  were  iirst  to  appear,  on 
April  19.  They  were  followed  by  op.  8  (four 
soDgs)  on  May  9,  and  op.  11  (three  part-songs) 
on  June  1 2.  Then  came  a  long  gap  till  Dec.  1 3, 
on  which  day  opp.  12,  13,  and  14,  all  songs, 
appeared  at  onoe.  We  have  not  space  to  name 
them.  But  with  sach  accumulated  treasures 
to  draw  upon,  it  ia  unnecessary  to  say  that  they 
are  all  of  the  first  class.  The  pecuniary  result 
of  the  publications  of  1821  had  been  good  ; 
2000  golden  were  realised,  and  of  the  '£rl 
King'  alone  more  than  800  copies  had  been 
sold ;  and  if  Schubert  had  been  provident 
enough  to  keep  his  works  in  his  own  possession 
he  would  soon  have  been  out  of  the  reach  of 
want  This,  however,  he  did  not  do.  Pressed 
by  the  want  of  money,  in  an  incautious  moment 
he  sold  the  first  twelve  of  his  works  *  to  Diabelli 
for  800  silver  gulden  (£80),  and  entered  into 
some  injudicious  arrangement  with  the  same 
timi  for  future  publications.  His  old  and  kind 
friend  Count  Dietrichstein  about  this  time 
offered  him  a  post  as  organist  to  the  Court 
Chapel,^  but  he  refused  it,  and  he  was  probably 
right,  though  in  so  doing  he  greatly  distressed 
his  methodical  old  father.  His  habits,  like 
Beethoven's,  made  it  absurd  for  him  to  under- 
take any  duties  requiring  strict  attendance. 

The  Vienna  Theatre  being  closed  to  '  Alfonso 
and  Estrella,'  Schubert  turned  his  thoughts  in 
the  direction  of  Dresden,  where  his  admirer 
Anna  Milder  was  living,  and  where  Weber  was 
Director  of  the  Opera ;  and  we  find  him  in  a 
letter  of  Feb.  28,  1823  (published  in  1881 
for  the  first  time)  ^  asking  Ids  old  patron  Herr 
Ton  Mosel  for  a  letter  of  recommendation  to 
Weber.  He  is  confined  to  the  house  by  illness, 
and  apologises  for  not  being  able  to  call.  There 
are  no  traces  of  reply  to  this  application,  but  it 
probably  led  to  nothing,  for,  as  we  shall  see, 
the  score  of  the  opera  was  still  in  his  hands  in 
October.  He  was  evidently  now  set  upon  opera. 
In  the  letter  just  mentioned  he  implores  von 
Mosel  to  entrust  him  with  a  libretto  *  suitable 
for  his  littleness ' ;  and  though  he  seems  never 
to  have  obtained  this,  he  went  on  with  the 
best  he  could  get,  and  1828  saw  the  birth  of  no 
less  than  three  dramatic  pieces.  The  Ki-st  was 
a  one- act  play  with  dialogue,  adapted  from 
the  French  by  Castelli,  and  called  'Die  Ver- 
sehworenen,'  or  *The  Conspirators.'  The  play 
was  published  in  the  Dramatic  Garland—  an  an- 
nual collection  of  dramas — for  1823.  Schubert 
mnst  have  seen  it  soon  after  publication,  and 
by  April  had  finished  the  composition  of  it. 
The  autograph,  in  the  British  Museum,  has  at 

'  So  uy  the  bookN ;  but  th«  worlu  piihltsh«d  on  oommlnlon  wero 
"PP- 1-7.  containing  twenty  aongs. 

'  [The  evidcno*  for  thin  trmnuctiOD  ii  very  obecure,  and  the  Htory 
**7  Ittve  beuome  conftued  with  a  propoeed  application  iii  188S. 
8««Wow.  p.3n9o.l 

J  In  Uw  .Vnw  rrvte  Pr«im  of  Vienna.  Not.  19. 1881.  The  letter, 
wQgh  fennal  in  style,  la  cnrloaaly  free  in  Kime  of  its  exprrmionii. 
""wationt  the  orerture  to  the  1st  Act  of  '  Alfonso  und  Bstrella. 
T^cati  this  bet  The  overture  known  under  that  name  (op.  9)  Is 
«t«l '  Dee.  1 1BS.'  and  is  said  to  have  been  written  for '  Boeamunde.' 


the  end  the  words  '  Aprill  1828.  F.  Schubert, 
Ende  der  Oper.'  It  contains  an  overture  and 
eleven  numbers,  and  api)ears  from  Bauemfeld's 
testimony  to  have  been  composed  with  a  view 
to  representation  at  the  Court  theatre.  The 
libretto  is  a  very  poor  one,  with  but  few  dra- 
matic points,  and  confines  the  composer  mainly 
to  the  Chorus.  The  licensera  changed  its  title 
to  the  less  suspicious  one  of  'Der  hausliche 
Krieg'  or  'The  Domestic  Struggle,'  and  it  was 
duly  sent  in  to  the  management,  but  it  returned 
in  twelve  months  without  examination.  It  did 
not  come  to  performance  at  all  during  Schubert's 
lifetime,  nor  till  1861.  In  that  year  it  was 
given,  under  Herbeck's  direction,  by  the  Musik- 
verein,  Vienna,  on  March  1  and  22  ;  and  on 
the  stage  at  Frankfort  on  August  29  ;  since 
then  at  the  Court  theatre,  Vienna,  at  Munich, 
Salzburg,  and  other  German  towns ;  in  Paris, 
Feb.  3,  1868,  as  'La  Croisade  des  Dames,' 
and  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  Sydenham,  March  2, 
1872,  as  *The  Conspirators.'  In  less  than  two 
months  after  throwing  off  this  lively  Singspiel, 
Schubert  had  embarked  in  something  far  more 
serious,  a  regular  three-act  opera  of  the  *  heroico- 
romantic'  pattern — also  with  spoken  dialogue 
— the  scene  laid  in  Spain,  with  Moors,  knights, 
a  king,  a  king's  daughter,  and  all  the  usual 
furniture  of  these  dreary  compilations.  The 
libretto  of  *  Fierrabras,'  by  Josef  Kupelwieser — 
enough  of  itself  to  justify  all  Wagner's  charges  * 
against  the  opera  books  of  the  old  school — was 
commissioned  by  Barbaja  for  the  Court  theatre. 
The  book  was  passed  by  the  Censure  on  July  21  ; 
but  Schubert  had  by  that  time  advanced  far  in 
his  labours,  and  had  in  fact  completed  more 
than  half  of  the  piece.  He  began  it,  as  his  own 
date  tells  us,  on  May  25.  Act  1,  filling  304 
pages  of  large  oblong  paper, ^  was  completely 
scored  by  the  Slst  of  the  month  ;  Act  2,  in  five 
days  more,  by  June  5  ;  and  the  whole  three 
acts,  fully  1000  pages,  and  containing  an  over- 
ture and  twenty- three  numbers,  were  entirely 
out  of  hand  by  Oct.  2.  And  all  for  nothing  ! 
Schubert  was  not  even  kept  long  in  suspense, 
for  early  in  the  following  year  he  learnt  that 
the  work  had  been  dismissed.  The  ground  for 
its  rejection  was  the  badness  of  the  libretto  ; 
but  knowing  Barbaja's  character,  and  seeing 
that  Kupelwieser  was  secretary  to  a  rival  house 
(the  Josefstadt),  it  is  difficult  not  to  suspect 
that  the  commission  had  been  given  by  the  wily 
Italian,  merely  to  facilitate  the  i)rogress  of  some 
piece  of  business  between  the  two  establishments. 
It  is,  as  Liszt  has  remarked,  extraordinary 
that  Schubert,  who  was  brought  up  from  his 
youth  on  the  finest  ]X)etry,  should  have  unhesi- 
tatingly accepte<l  the  absurd  and  impracticable 
librettos  which  he  did,  and  which  have  kc{)t  in 
oblivion  so  much  of  his  8])lendid  music;  His 
devotion  to  his  friends,  and  his  irrejiressible 

^  Hanalick,  Oonnrttaal,  p.  ISO, 

*  The  antogmph  was  shown  to  Rulllvan  and  the  writtr  by  that 
energetic  Schubert  aiiostle.  Herr  Juhann  Herbeck.  in  1868. 


300 


1823 


SCHUBERT 


1823 


desire  to  utter  what  was  in  him,  no  doubt  help 
to  explain  the  anomaly,  but  an  anomaly  It  will 
Always  remain.  It  is  absolutely  distressing  to 
think  of  such  extraordinary  ability,  and  such 
still  more  extraordinary  powers  of  work,  being 
80  cruelly  thrown  away,  and  of  the  sickening 
disappointment  which  these  repeated  failures 
must  have  entailed  on  so  simple  and  sensitive  a 
heart  as  his.  Fortunately  for  us  the  strains  in 
which  he  vents  his  griefs  are  as  beautiful  and  en- 
dearing as  those  in  which  he  celebrates  his  joys. 
His  work  this  summer  was  not,  however,  to 
be  all  disappointment  If  the  theatre  turned 
&  deaf  ear  to  his  strains  there  were  always  his 
beloved  songs  to  confide  in,  and  they  never 
deceived  him.  Of  the  Song  in  Schubert's  hands 
we  may  say  what  Wordsworth  so  well  says  of 
the  Sonnet : — 

With  this  key 
Shakespeare  unlocked  his  heart ;  the  melody 
Of  this  sinall  lute  gave  ease  to  Petrarch's  wound. 


and  when  a  damp 
Fell  round  the  path  of  Milton,  in  his  hand 
The  thing  became  a  trumpet,  whence  he  blew 
Soul-aniuiatiug  strains,  alas  too  few  ! 

— with  the  notable  difference  that  it  was  given 
to  Schubert  to  gather  up  and  express,  in  his  one 
person  and  his  one  art,  all  the  various  moods 
and  passions  which  Wordsworth  has  divided 
amongst  so  many  mighty  poets. 

And  now,  in  the  midst  of  the  overwhelming 
tumult  and  absorption  which  inevitably  accom- 
pany the  production  of  so  large  a  work  of  imagi- 
nation as  a  three-act  opera,  brought  into  being  at 
so  extraordinarily  rapid  a  pace,  he  was  to  stop, 
And  to  indite  a  set  of  songs,  which  though  not 
of  greater  worth  than  many  othei-s  of  his,  are  yet 
so  intelligible,  so  expressive,  address  themselves 
to  such  universal  feelings,  and  form  so  attractive 
a  whole,  that  they  have  certainly  become  more 
popular,  and  are  more  widely  and  permanently 
beloved,  than  any  similar  production  by  any 
other  composer.  We  have  already  described 
the  incident  through  which  Schubeii;  made  ac- 
quaintance with  the  Miillorlieder  ^  of  Wilhelm 
Miiller,  twenty  of  which  he  selected  for  the 
beautiful  series  so  widely  known  as  the  *  Schone 
Mullerin. '  We  have  seen  the  enduring im{)atience 
with  which  he  attacked  a  book  when  it  took 
his  fancy,  and  the  eagerness  with  which  he 
began  upon  this  particular  one.  We  know  that 
the  Miillerlieder  were  all  composed  this  year  ; 
that  some  of  them  were  written  in  hospital ; 
that  No.  1 5  is  dated  *  October' ;  that  a  consider- 
able interval  elapsed  between  the  second  and 
third  Act  of  '  Fierrabras ' — probably  the  best 
part  of  July  and  August  Putting  these  facts 
together  it  seems  to  follow  that  the  call  on  Band- 

1  The  liailrrlieder.  twenty-three  in  number,  with  Pix>logue  and 
Epilogue  Id  addition,  are  contained  in  the  lat  toI.  of  the  Qedichte 
au$  den  hiTUtrlattmen  Payiervn  Mnea  rHtentUn  yraldhorntUen 
{Poems  found  among  the  papers  of  atravolline  Piench-hom'playcrL 
which  wvre  first  pnbllHhod  at  Deraau,  1821.  Schubert  has  otntttod 
the  Proloiiuesnd  Bpilogue.'and  tiinv  ponms— 'Das  MUhlcnleben' 
after  '  Der  Nen^ierince'^;  '  Ersttr  Schniert,  Irtzter  Schert.'  after 
'  Elfcrsurht  und  Stolz';  and  'Bltlmlein  Verginnidn'  after 'Die 
bOee  Farbe.' 


hartinger  (see  ante,  p.  24)  and  the  compodtion 
of  the  first  numbera  of  the  '  Schone  Miilleriu ' 
took  place  in  May,  before  he  became  immersed 
in  *  Fierrabras.*  Then  came  the  first  two  Acts 
of  that  opera  ;  then  his  illness,  and  his  sojourn 
in  the  hospital,  and  more  songs  ;  then  the  third 
Act  of  the  opera  ;  and  lastly  the  completion  of 
the  Ideder. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  there  was  no  lack  of  occu- 
pation for  Schubert  after  he  had  put  *  Fierrabras' 
out  of  hand.  Weber  arrived  in  Vienna  late  in 
September  1823,  and  on  Oct  3  began  the  rehear- 
sals of'  Euryanthe ' ;  and  for  a  month  the  musical 
world  of  Austria  was  in  a  ferment.  After  the 
first  performance,  on  Oct.  25,  Weber  and  Schu- 
bert came  somewhat  into  collision.  Schubert, 
with  characteristic  frankness,  asserted  that  the 
new  work  wanted  the  geniality  and  grace  of 
'  Der  Freischutz,*  that  its  merit  lay  mainly  ui  its 
harmony,  2  and  that  he  was  prej>ared  to  prove 
that  the  score  did  not  contain  a  single  original 
melody.  Weber  had  been  much  tried  by  the 
rehearsals,  by  the  growing  conviction  that  his 
work  was  too  long,  and  by  the  imperfect  success 
of  the  performance  ;  and  with  a  combinatioD  of 
ignorance  and  insolence  which  does  him  no  credit 
replied,  '  Let  the  fool  learn  something  himself 
before  he  criticises  me.*  Schubert's  answer  to 
this  was  to  go  off  to  Weber  with  the  score  of 
*  Alfonso  und  Estrella.'  When  they  had  looked 
through  this,  Weber  returned  to  Schubert's  criti- 
cisms on  *  Euryanthe,*  and  finding  that  the 
honest  Franz  stuck  to  his  point,  was  absurd 
enough  to  lose  his  temper,  and  say,  in  the 
obvious  belief  that  the  score  before  him  ^^tis 
Schubert's  firat  attempt,  *  I  tell  you  the  first 
puppies  and  the  first  operas  are  always  drowned.' 
Franz,  it  is  unnecessary  to  say,  bore  no  malice, 
even  for  so  galling  a  speech,  and  it  is  due  to 
Weber  to  state  that  he  took  some  pains  later  to 
have  the  work  adopted  at  the  Dresden  theatre.' 

Schubert  did  not  yet  know  the  fate  which 
awaited  *  FieiTabras ' ;  all  was  at  present  couleur 
de  rose  ;  and  the  fascination  of  the  theatre,  the 
desire  innate  in  all  musicians,  even  one  so 
self-contained  as  Schubert,  to  address  a  \»rgB 
public,  sharpened  not  improbably  by  the  chance 
recently  enjoyed  by  the  stranger,  was  too  strong 
to  be  resisted,  and  he  again,  for  the  third  time 
in  ten  months,  turned  towards  the  stage.  This 
time  the  temptation  came  in  the  sha])e  of 
'Rosamunde,  Princess  of  Cyprus,'  a  play  of 
ultraromantio  character,  by  Madame  von  Chezy, 
authoress  of  *  Euryanthe,*  a  librettist  whose  lot 
seems  to  have  been  to  drag  down  the  musicians 
connected  with  her.  The  book  of  *  Rosamunde' 
must  have  been  at  least  as  inefficient  as  that 
with  which  Weber  had  been  struggling,  to  cause 
the  failure  of  such  magnificent  and  interesting 
music  as  Schubert  made  for  it.  The  drama  has 
disap{)eared,  but  Kreissle  gives  the  plot,^  and 

•  See  Mi'ndelFiohn's  opinion  in  The  Mendttitokn  rhmitji,  1 237. 
a  K.if.  p.  M6  (1. 5M9t  note.  «  JUd,  p^  S8S  (1.  Sffi}.  rtc 


1823- 


SCHUBERT 


—1824 


301 


it  is  both  tedious  «nd  improbable.  It  had 
moreover  the  disadvantage  of  competition  with 
a  sensational  spectacular  piece,  written  expressly 
to  suit  the  taste  of  the  suburban  house,  the 
Theatre  an-der-Wien,  at  which  'Rosamunde' 
was  produced,  and  which,  since  the  time  when 
Schikaneder  induced  Mozart  to  join  him  in  the 
'Magic  Flute,**  had  a  reputation  for  such  ex- 
travaganzas. Schubert  completed  the  music  in 
five  days.*  It  consists  of  an  Overture  in  D,* 
since  published  as  *  Alfonso  und  Estrella, '  op. 
69 ;  three  Entr'actes ;  two  numbers  of  ballet 
music ;  a  little  piece  for  clarinets,  horns,  and 
bassoons,  called  a  *  Shepherds'  Melody,'  of  be- 
witching beauty  ;  a  Romance  for  soprano  solo, 
lud  three  choruses.  The  Romance  (op.  26), 
the  Shepherds'  chorus,  the  Entr'acte  in  Bb, 
and  the  Air  de  Ballet  in  G,  are  not  only  very 
beantiful  but  very  attractive  ;  and  the  Entr'acte 
in  B  minor,  of  a  grand,  gloomy,  and  highly 
imaginative  cast,  is  one  of  the  finest  pieces  of 
music  existing.  The  play  was  brought  out  on 
Dec.  20, 1823  ;  the  overture,  though  the  entire 
orchestral  part  of  the  music  had  only  one 
rehearsal  of  two  hours,  was  twice  redcmanded, 
other  numbers  were  loudly  applauded,  and 
Schubert  himself  was  called  for  at  the  close ; 
but  it  only  survived  one  more  representation, 
and  then  the  parts  were  tied  up  and  forgotten 
till  the  year  1867,  when  they  were  discovered 
by  two  English  travellers  in  Vienna.* 

Besides  the  Miillerlieder  several  independent 
songs  of  remarkable  beauty  belong  to  1823. 
Conspicuous  among  these  are  *  Viola '  (Schnee- 
glcicUein ;  op.  123),  a  long  composition  full  of 
the  most  romantic  tenderness  and  delicacy, 
with  all  the  finish  of  Meissonnier's  pictures, 
and  all  his  breadth  and  dignity.  Also  the 
'Zwerg*  (op.  22,  No.  1),  by  Matthias  von 
Collin,  in  which  Schubert  has  immortalised 
the  one  brother,  as  Beethoven,  in  his  overture 
to  'Coriolan, '  did  the  other.  This  long,  dramatic, 
and  most  pathetic  ballad,  which  but  few  can 
hear  unmoved,  was  written  absolutely  d  rim- 
prvritte,  without  note  or  sketch,  at  the  top  of  his 
speed,  talking  all  the  while  to  Randhaitinger, 
who  was  waiting  to  take  him  out  for  a  walk.^ 
Equal,  if  not  superior,  to  these  in  merit,  though 
of  smaller  dimensions,  are  *Das8  sie  hier 
gewesen '  (op.  59,  No.  2)  ;  *  Du  bist  die  Ruh ' 
(do.  No.  3)  ;  the  BarcArolle,  *  Auf  dem  Wasser 
zu  singon '  (op.  72),  to  which  no  nearer  date 
than  *  1828 '  can  be  given.  Below  these  again, 
though  still  fine  songs,  are  *Der  ziimende 
Barde'  (Feb.)  ;  *  Drang  in  die  Feme '  (op.  71  ; 
March  25)  ;  *  Pilgerweise '  (April)  ;  *  Vergiss- 
meinnicht'  (May).  The  fine  Sonata  in  A 
minor  for  PF.  solo,  published  as  op.  143,  is 

■  Prndooed  kt  the  Theatre  ander-Wien.  Sci^t.  90. 1791. 
>  So  mjt  Wilbelm  ran  Cbcir.  the  aon  of  the  librettist,  who  wm 
oi  tniim  with  Srhnbert.    See  hie  Journal,  A^wfieruiiireii.  eto..  1863. 

*  Tlw  utefxaph  ie  dated  '  Dee.  1838.' 

*  lit  it  birdly  nccenaxy  to  remind  the  reader  that  the  two 
tnvrlVn  were  eir  George  Gf  ove  and  Sir  Arthur  Sullivan.] 

*  Kif  Ifile,  8k«tth,  p;  IM  not*. 


dated  Feb.  1823,  and  the  sketch  of  a  scena  for 
tenor  solo  and  chonis  of  men's  voices  with 
orchestra,  dated  May  1823.  The  latter  was 
completed  by  Herbeck,  and  published  in  186S 
by  Spina  as  *  Riidiger's  Heimkehr.* 

Ten  works  (opp.  15-24)  were  published  in 
1823.  The  earliest  was  a  collection  of  dances, 
viz.,  twelve  Waltzes,  nine  &ossaises,  and 
seventeen  Landler,  op.  18,  published  Feb.  6  } 
the  PF.  Fantasia,  op.  15,  followed  on  Feb.  24. 
The  rest  are  songs,  cither  solo — op.  20,  April  10 ; 
op.  22,  May  27  ;  op.  23,  August  4  ;  op.  24, 
Oct.  7  ;  op.  16,  Oct  9  ;  op.  19,  twenty-one  (no 
dates) — or  part-songs,  op.  17,  Oct.  9.  With 
op.  20,  the  names  of  Sauer  k  Leidesdorf  first 
occur  as  publishers. 

The  year  1824  began  almost  exclusively  with 
instrumental  compositions.  An  Introduction  and 
Variations  for  PF.  and  flute  (op.  160),  on  the 
*Trockne  Blumen'  of  the  *  Scheme  Miillerin,' 
are  dated  *  January,*  and  were  followed  by  the- 
famous  Octet  (op.  166),  for  clarinet,  horn, 
bassoon,  two  violins,  viola,  violoncello,  and 
contrabass,  which  is  marked  as  begun  in 
February,  and  finished  on  March  1.  It  was 
written — not,  let  us  hope,  without  adequate 
remuneration,  though  that  was  probably  the 
last  thing  of  which  its  author  thought — for 
Count  F.  von  Troyer,  chief  oflBcer  of  the  house- 
hold to  the  Archduke  Rudolph,  Beethoven's 
patron.  In  this  beautiful  composition  Schubert 
indulges  his  love  of  extension.  It  contains, 
like  Beethoven's  Septet,  eight  movements  ;  but, 
unlike  the  Septet,  it  occupies  more  than  an 
hour  in  performance.  But  though  long,  no* 
one  can  call  it  tedious.^  The  Count  played 
the  clarinet,  and  must  have  been  delighted  with 
the  expressive  melody  allotted  to  him  in  the 
Audante.  The  work  was  performed  immedi- 
ately after  its  composition,  with  Schuppanzigh, 
Weiss,  and  Linke,  three  of  the  famous  Rasou- 
mowsky  quai-tet,  amongst  the  players.  His 
association  with  the  members  of  this  celebrated 
party  may  well  have  led  Schubert  to  write 
string  quartets  ;  at  any  rate  he  himself  tells  us- 
that  he  had  written  two  before  the  31st  March/ 
and  these  are  doubtless  those  in  E|^  and  E 
(op.  125),  since  the  only  other  quartet  bearing 
the  date  of  1824 — that  in  A  minor — has  so 
strong  a  Hungarian  flavour  as  to  point  to  his 
visit  to  Zselesz  later  in  the  year.  How  power- 
fully his  thoughts  were  running  at  present  on 
orchestral  music  is  evident  from  the  fact  that 
he  mentions  both  octet  and  quartets  as  studies 
for  *the  Grand  Symphony,*  ^  which  was  then 
his  goal,  though  he  did  not  reach  it  till  eighteeiv 
months  later. 

A  bitter  disappointment,  however,  was  await- 
ing him  in  the  rejection  of  *  Fierrabras,'  which, 

"  Publifthed  by  Spina  in  1851 

^  In  hia  letter  to  Lecq^ld  Kupelwiaer  of  March  31,  K.B.  p.  891 
(U.  6}. 

8  '  Tn  this  manner  I  shall  prepaio  the  wa>'  to  the  Grand  Symphony 
(sui  groeeen  Slnfouie).'    Ibid. 


302 


1824 


SCHUBERT 


1824 


as  already  mentioned,  was  returned  by  Barbiga, 
ostensibly  ou  account  of  the  badness  of  its 
libretto.  Two  full-sized  operas — this  and  *  Al- 
fonso und  £strel]a' — to  be  laid  on  the  shelf 
without  even  a  rehearsal !  Whatever  the  cause, 
the  blow  must  have  been  equally  severe  to  our 
simple,  genuine,  composer,  who  had  no  doubt 
been  expecting,  not  without  reason,  day  by  day 
for  the  last  four  months,  to  hear  of  the  accept- 
ance of  his  work.  His  picture  of  himself  under 
this  temporary  eclipse  of  hope  is  mournful  in 
the  extreme,  though  natural  enough  to  the 
easily  depressed  temperament  of  a  man  of 
genius.  After  speaking  of  himself  as  'the  most 
unfortunate,  most  miserable  being  on  earth,' 
he  goes  on  to  say,  'think  of  a  man  whose 
health  can  never  be  restored,  and  who  from 
sheer  despair  makes  matters  worse  instead  of 
better.  Think,  I  say,  of  a  man  whose  brightest 
hopes  have  come  to  nothing,  to  whom  love  and 
friendship  are  but  torture,  and  whose  enthusiasm 
for  the  beautiful  is  fast  vanishing;  and  ask 
yourself  if  such  a  man  is  not  truly  unhappy. 

Hy  peace  is  gone,  my  heart  is  sore. 
Gone  for  ever  and  evermore. 

This  is  my  daily  cry  ;  for  every  night  I  go  to 
sleep  hoping  never  again  to  wake,  and  every 
morning  only  brings  back  the  torment  of  the 
day  before.  Thus  joylessly  and  friendlessly 
would  pass  my  days,  if  Schwind  did  not  often 
look  in,  and  give  me  a  glimpse  of  the  old 
happy  times.  .  .  .  Your  brother's  opera' — 
this  is  a  letter  to  Eupelwieser  the  painter,  and 
the  allusion  is  to  '  Fierrabras ' — '  turns  out  to  be 
impracticable,  and  my  music  is  therefore  wasted. 
Castelli's  '' Yerschworenen "  has  been  set  in 
Berlin  by  a  composer  there,  and  produced  with 
success.  Thus  I  have  composed  two  operas 
for  nothing.'  This  sad  mood,  real  enough  at 
the  moment,  was  only  natural  after  such  re- 
pulses. It  was  assisted,  as  Schubert's  depres- 
sion always  was,  by  the  absence  of  many  of 
his  friends,  and  also,  as  he  himself  confesses, 
by  his  acquaintance  with  Leidesdorf  the  pub- 
lisher (in  Beethoven's  banter  *  Dorf  des  Leides,' 
a  very  *  village  of  sorrow '),  whom  he  describes 
as  a  thoroughly  good,  trustworthy  fellow,  *  but 
so  very  melancholy  that  I  begin  to  fear  I  may 
have  learnt  too  much  from  him  in  that  direc- 
tion.' It  must  surely  have  been  after  an 
evening  with  this  worthy  that  he  made  the 
touching  entries  in  his  journal  which  have  been 
preserved  ;  e.g.  *  Grief  sharpens  the  understand- 
ing and  strengthens  the  soul :  Joy  on  the  other 
hand  seldom  troubles  itself  about  the  one,  and 
makes  the  other  effeminate  or  frivolous.'  *  My 
musical  works  are  the  product  of  my  genius  and 
my  misery,  and  what  the  public  most  relish  is 
that  which  has  given  me  the  greatest  distress.' 
Fortunately,  in  men  of  the  genuine  composer- 
temperament,  the  various  moods  of  mind  follow 
one  another  rapidly.  As  soon  as  they  begin 
to  compose  the  demon  flies  and  heaven  opens. 


That  gloomy  document  called  'Beethoven's 
Will,'  to  which  even  Schubert's  most  wretched 
letters  must  yield  the  palm,  was  written  at  the 
very  time  that  he  was  pouring  out  the  gay 
and  healthy  strains  of  his  Second  Symphony. 
Schubert  left  town  with  the  Esterhazys  in  a 
few  weeks  after  these  distressing  utterances, 
and  for  a  time  forgot  his  troubles  in  the  dia- 
tractions  of  country  life  in  Hungary.  At 
Zselesz  he  remained  for  six  months,  but  his 
life  there  is  almost  entirely  a  blank  to  us.  ^Ve 
can  only  estimate  it  by  the  compositions  which 
are  attributable  to  the  jieriod,  and  by  tlie 
scanty  information  conveyed  by  hia  letters, 
which,  though  fuller  of  complaint  than  those 
of  1818,  are  even  less  communicative  of  facts 
and  occurrences.  To  this  visit  is  to  be  ascribed 
that  noble  composition  known  as  the  'Grand 
Duo'  (op.  140),  though  designated  by  himself 
as  '  Sonata  for  the  PF.  for  four  hands.  Zael^ 
June  1824 ' ;  a  piece  which,  though  recalling 
in  one  movement  Beethoven's  Second,  and  in 
another  his  Seventh  Symphony,  is  yet  fiUI  of  the 
individuality  of  its  author  ;  a  symphonic  work 
in  every  sense  of  the  word,  which,  through 
Joachim's  instrumentation,  has  now  become 
an  orchestral  symphony,  and  a  very  fine  one. 
To  ZaeUaz  also  are  due  the  Sonata  in  Bb  (op.  80, 
May  or  June),  the  Yariations  in  Ab  (op.  35, 
'middle  of  1824'),  two  Waltzes  (in  op.  88, 
*  1824,  July'),  and  four  Landler  ('  July,  1824,* 
Nott  p.  216)— all  for  PF.  four  hands ;  other 
Waltzes  and  Landler  in  the  same  collections 
for  two  hands ;  and  the  '  Gebet '  of  Lamotte 
Fouqu^  (op.  139a),  signed  'Sept  1824,  at 
Zel^sz  in  Hungary ' — all  evidently  arising  from 
the  necessity  of  providing  music  for  the  Count's 
family  circle.  The  young  Countesses  were  now 
nineteen  and  seventeen,  and  doubtless  good 
performers,  as  is  implied  in  the  duet-form  of 
the  pianoforte  works.  We  are  probably  right 
in  also  attributing  the  lovely  String  Quartet  in 
A  minor  (op.  29),  and  the  four-hand  'Divertisse- 
ment k  la  hongroise '  (op.  54),  to  this  visit,  at 
any  rate  to  its  immediate  influence.  Both  are 
steeped  in  the  Hungarian  spirit,  and  the 
Divertissement  contains  a  succession  of  real 
national  tunes,  one  of  which  he  heard  from 
the  lips  of  a  maidservant  as  he  passed  the 
kitchen  with  Baron  Schonstein  in  returning 
from  a  walk.  For  the  Baron  was  at  Zsel^ 
on  this  as  on  the  last  occasion,  and  frequent 
and  exquisite  must  have  been  the  performances 
of  the  many  fine  songs  which  Schubert  had 
written  in  the  interval  since  his  former  visit. 

The  circumstances  attending  the  composition 
of  the  vocal  quartet  ('Gebet,'  op.  139)  just 
mentioned  are  told  by  Kreissle,  probably  on  the 
authority  of  Schonstein,  and  they  give  a  good 
instance  of  Schubert's  extraordinary  fadlity. 
At  breakfast  one  morning,  in  Sept.  1824,  the 
Countess  produced  Lamotte  Fouqu^'s  poem,  and 
proposed  to  Schubert  to  set  it  for  the  family 


1824— 


SCHUBERT 


—1826 


303 


party.  He  withdrew  after  breakfast,  taking 
the  book  with  him,  and  in  the  evening,  less 
thAD  ten  hoars  afterwards,  it  was  tried  through 
from  the  score  at  the  piano.  The  next  evening 
it  was  sung  again,  this  time  from  separate  parts, 
which  Schubert  had  written  out  during  the  day. 
The  piece  is  composed  for  quartet,  with  solos 
for  Alme.  Esterhazy,  Marie,  Sohonstein,  and  the 
Coont,  and  contains  209  bars.  A  MS.  letter  of 
Ferdmand's,*  dated  July  8,  full  of  that  strong 
half-reverential  affection  which  was  Ferdinand's 
habitual  attitude  towards  his  gifted  brother, 
and  of  curious  details,  mentions  having  sent  him 
Bach's  fugues  (never-cloying  food  of  great  com- 
posers), and  an  opera-book,  '  Der  kurze  Mantel.' 
Strange  fascination  of  the  stage,  which  thus,  in 
despite  of  so  many  failures,  could  keep  him 
stai  enihialled ! 

The  country  air  of  the  Hungarian  mountains, 
and  no  doubt  the  sound  and  healthy  living  and 
early  hours  of  the  chateau,  restored  Schubert's 
health  completely,  and  in  a  letter  of  Sept.  21 
to  Schober  he  says  that  for  five  months  he  had 
beenwelL  But  he. felt  his  isolation  and  the 
want  of  congenial  Vienna  society  keenly ;  speaks 
with  regret  of  having  been  'enticed'  into  a 
second  visit  to  Hungaiy,  and  complains  of  not 
having  a  single  person  near  to  whom  he  could 
say  a  sensible  word.  How  different  from  the 
exuberant  happiness  of  the  visits  to  Steyr  and 
St  Polten,  when  every  one  he  met  was  a  demon- 
strative admirer,  and  every  evening  brought  a 
fresh  triumph  1 

Xow,  if  ever,  was  the  date  of  his  tender  feel- 
ing for  his  pupil  Caroline  Esterhazy,  which  his 
biographers  have  probably  much  exaggerated. 
She  was  seventeen  at  the  time,  and  Bauemfeld 
represents  her  as  the  object  of  an  ideal  devotion, 
which  soothed,  comforted,  and  inspirited  Schu- 
hert  to  the  end  of  hiB  life.  Idieal  it  can  only 
have  been,  considering  the  etiquette  of  the  time, 
and  the  wide  distance  between  the  stations  of 
the  two;  and  the  only  occasion  on  which 
Schubert  is  ever  alleged  to  have  approached 
anything  like  a  revelation  of  his  feelings,  is 
that  told  by  Ereiasle — on  what  authority  he 
does  not  say,  and  it  is  hard  to  conceive — when 
on  her  jokingly  reproaching  him  for  not  having 
dedicated  anything  to  her,  he  replied,  *Why 
ahould  I  ?  everything  I  ever  did  is  dedicated 
to  yoo.'  True,  the  fine  Fantasia  in  F  minor, 
published  in  the  March  following  his  death  as 
op.  103,  is  dedicated  to  her  *  by  Franz  Schubert,* 
a  step  which  the  publishers  would  hardly  have 
ventured  upon  unless  the  MS. — probably  handed 
to  them  before  his  death — had  been  so  inscribed 
by  himself.  But  it  is  difficult  to  reconcile  the 
complaints  of  isolation  and  neglect  already 
quoted  from  his  letter  to  Schober  with  the  exist- 
ence of  a  passion  which  must  have  been  fed 
^ery  time  he  met  his  pupil  or  sat  down  to  the 

>  Far  »liieb  I  auln  gladly  acknowlcdye  the  klndncM  of  FiL 
CuoIiM  GciiUr.«cEtibert.  Schubert's  giandnloce. 


piano  with  her.  We  must  be  content  to  leave 
each  reader  to  decide  the  question  for  himself. 

Vocal  composition  he  laid  aside  almost  en- 
tirely in  1824.  The  only  songs  which  we  can 
ascertain  to  belong  to  it  are  four — the  fine 
though  gloomy  ones  called  'Auflosung,'  and 
'Abendstom,'  both  by  Mayrhofer ;  another 
evening  song  'Im  Abendroth'  by  Lappe,  all 
three  in  March  ;  and  the  bass  song,  *  Lied  eines 
Kriegers,'  with  which  he  closed  the  last  day  of 
the  year.^  Of  part-songs  tliere  are  two,  both 
for  men's  voices  ;  one  a  '  Salve  regina,'  written 
in  April,  before  leaving  town ;  and  the  other, 
the  'Gondelfohrer,'  or  Gondolier,  a  very  fine 
and  picturesque  composition,  of  which  Lablache 
is  said  to  have  been  so  fond  that  he  encored  it 
on  first  hearing,  and  himself  sang  in  the  encore 
(Spaun). — A  Sonata  for  PF.  and  Arpeggione, 
in  A  minor,  dated  Nov.  1824,  was  probably 
one  of  his  first  compositions  after  returning  to 
town.' 

The  publications  of  1824  embrace  opp.  25 
to  28  inclusive,  all  issued  by  Sauer  k  Leides- 
dorf.  Op.  25  is  the  'Schone  Miillerin,'  20 
songs  in  five  numbers,  published  March  25  ; 
op.  26  is  the  vocal  music  in  *  Rosamundc,' ^ 
the  romance  and  three  choruses ;  op.  27,  three 
fine  *  heroic  marches, '  for  PF.  four  hands  ;  op. 
28,  'Der  Gondelfahrer,'  for  four  men's  voices 
and  PF.,  August  12. 

1825  was  a  happy  year  to  our  hero — happy 
and  productive.  He  was  back  again  in  his  dear 
Vienna,  and  exchanged  the  isolation  of  Zsel^ 
for  tlie  old  familiar  life,  with  his  congenial 
friends  Vogl,  Schwind,  Jenger,  Mayrhofer,  ete. 
(Schober  was  in  Prussia,  and  Eupelwieser  still 
at  Rome),  in  whose  applause  and  sympathy  and 
genial  conviviality  he  rapidly  forgot  the  dis- 
appointmente  and  depression  that  had  troubled 
him  in  the  autumn.  Sofie  MilUer,  one  of  the 
great  actresses  of  that  day,  evidently  a  very 
accomplished,  cultivated  woman,  was  then  in 
Vienna,  and  during  February  and  March  her 
house  was  the  resort  of  Schubert,  Jenger,  and 
Vogl,  who  sang  or  listened  to  her  singing  of 
his  best  and  newest  Lieder, — she  herself  sang 
the  *  Junge  Konne '  at  sight  on  March  3 — and 
lived  a  pleasant  and  thoroughly  artistic  life.'^ 
Others,  which  she  mentions  as  new,  and  which 
indeed  had  their  birth  at  this  time  are  *Der 
Einsame, '  and  '  Ihr  Grab. '  The  *  new  songs  from 
the  Pirate,'  which  she  heard  on  March  1,  may 
have  been  some  from  the  *  Lady  of  the  Lake,' 
or  'Noma's  song,'  or  even  *Anna  Lyle,'  usually 
placed  two  years  later.  Schubert  published 
some  important  works  early  in  this  year — the 
Overture  in  F  for  four  hands  (op.  34) ;  also 
the  Sonata  in  Bb  (op.  80),  and  the  Variations 
in  Ab  (op.  35),  both  for  four  hands ;  and  the 

s  The  antognph,  to  dated,  beloiiga  to  Mr.  C.  J.  Hatgltt,  London. 
3  Gotthard,  1871.    Autograph  in  MoRlkverein. 
*  B««ldea  the  Tocal  mnalc.  the  overture  was  pubUihed  about  1828. 
and  the  Entr'actes  and  Ballet  mualc  in  1866. 
>  See  her  lutcreatinK  Journal,  in  her  Leben  und  naehpeiamene 
.  PoffUn  berauas.  von  Juhann  Orafen  Majlith  (Vienna,  1832). 


304 


1825 


SCHUBERT 


1825 


String  Quartet  in  A  minor  (op.  29) — fruits  of 
his  sojourn  in  Hungary.  The  last  of  these, 
the  only  quartet  he  was  destined  to  publish 
during  his  life,  is  dedicated  'to  his  friend  I. 
Schuppanzigh,'  a  pleasant  memorial  of  the 
acquaintance  cemented  by  the  performance  of 
the  octet,  a  twelvemonth  before.  And  as  on 
such  publications  some  amount  of  money  passes 
from  the  publisher  to  the  composer,  this  fact  of 
itself  would  contribute  to  enliven  and  inspirit 
him.  In  addition  to  these  instrumental  works 
some  noble  songs  were  issued  in  the  early  part 
of  1825 — *Die  ziimende  Diana,'  and  the 
*  Nachtstiick,'  of  Mayrhofer  ;  *  Der  Pilgrim '  and 
*Der  Alpenjiiger,'  of  Schiller;  and  Zuleika's 
second  song.  The  two  beautiful  solo  sonatas  in 
A  minor  and  in  C — the  latter  of  which  he  never 
succeeded  in  completely  writing  out,  but  the 
fragment  of  which  is  of  first-rate  quality — also 
date  from  this  time. 

As  if  to  revenge  himself  for  his  suffenngs  at 
the  Esterhazys',  he  planned  an  extensive  tour 
for  this  summer,  in  his  favourite  district,  and 
in  the  company  of  his  favourite  friend.  Vogl, 
on  March  31,  started  for  his  home  at  Steyr. 
Schubert  1  soon  followed  him,  and  the  next  five 
months,  to  the  end  of  October,  were  passed  in  a 
delightful  mixture  of  music,  friends,  fine  scenery, 
lovely  weather,  and  absolute  ease  and  comfort, 
in  Upper  Austria  and  the  Salzkammergut, 
partly  amongst  the  good  people  who  had  wel- 
comed him  so  warmly  in  1819,  partly  among 
new  friends  and  new  enthusiasm.  Taking  Steyr 
as  their  point  d'appui  they  made  excursions  to 
Linz,  Steyreck,  Gmunden,  Salzburg,  and  even 
as  far  as  Gastein,  etc.,  heartily  enjoying  the 
glorious  scenery  by  day,  received  everywhere  on 
arrival  with  open  arms,  and  making  the  best 
possible  impression  with  their  joint  perform- 
ances. The  songs  from  *The  Lady  of  the 
Lake'  were  either  composed  before  starting  or 
on  the  road.  At  any  rate  they  formed  the  chief 
programme  during  the  excursion.  If  the  whole 
seven  were  sung  or  not  is  uncertain  ;^  but 
Schubert  particularly  mentions  the  *  Ave  Maria,' 
2ipropos  of  which  he  makes  an  interesting 
revelation.  *My  new  songs,'  says  he,  'from 
Walter  Scott's  **  Lady  of  the  Lake,"  have  been 
very  successful.  People  were  greatly  astonished 
at  the  devotion  which  I  have  thrown  into  the 
Hymn  to  the  Blessed  Virgin,  and  it  seems  to 
have  seized  and  impressed  everybody.  I  think 
that  the  reason  of  this  is  that  I  never  force 
myself  into  devotion,  or  compose  hymns  or 
prayers  unless  I  am  really  overpowered  by  the 
feeling  ;  that  alone  is  real,  true  devotion.'  It 
is  during  this  journey,  at  Salzburg,  that  he 
makes  the  remark,  already  noticed,  as  to  the 
performance  of  Vogl  and  himself.  At  Salzburg 
too,  it  was  the  *Ave  Maria*  that  so  riveted 
his  hearers.     *We  produced  our  seven  pieces 

I  For  the  dates  of  the  early  part  of  the  tour,  aee  K.  ii.  21. 
s  Schabert  speaks  of  them  as  '  nnsere  aleben  Sachen  '  (Letter  to 
Ferdinand.  JTrefotfo,  p.  988) ;  but  Nos.  3  and  4  are  tor  choras. 


before  a  select  circle,  and  all  were  much  im- 
pressed, especially  by  the  Ave  Maria,  which  I 
mentioned  in  my  former  letter.  The  way  in 
which  Vogl  sings  and  I  accompany,  so  that  for 
the  moment  we  seem  to  be  one,  is  something 
quite  new  and  unexpected  to  these  good  people.' 
Schubert  sometimes  performed  alone.  He  had 
brought  some  variations  and  marches  for  four 
hands  with  him,  and  finding  a  good  player  at 
the  convents  of  Florian  and  Kremsmiinster,  had 
made  a  great  efiect  with  them.  But  he  was 
especially  successful  with  the  lovely  variations 
from  the  solo  Sonata  in  A  minor  (op.  42)  ;  and 
here  again  he  lets  us  into  his  secret.  '  There  1 
played  alone,  and  not  without  success,  for  I  was 
assured  that  the  keys  under  my  hands  sang  like 
voices,  which  if  true  makes  me  very  glad, 
because  I  cannot  abide  that  accursed  thumping, 
which  even  eminent  players  adopt,  but  which 
delights  neither  my  ears  nor  my  judgment.* 
He  found  his  compositions  well  known  through- 
out Upper  Austria.  The  gentry  fought  for  the 
honour  of  receiving  him,  and  to  this  day  old 
people  are  found  to  talk  with  equal  enthusiasm 
of  his  lovely  music,  and  of  the  unaffected  gaiety 
and  simplicity  of  his  ways  and  manners. 

The  main  feature  of  th^  tour  was  the  excursion 
to  Gastein  in  the  mountains  of  East  Tyrol.  To 
Schubert  this  was  new  ground,  and  the  delight 
in  the  scenery  which  animates  his  description 
is  obvious.  They  reached  it  about  August  18, 
and  appear  to  have  remained  three  or  four 
weeks,  returning  to  Gmunden  about  Sept.  10. 
At  Gastein,  among  other  good  people,  he  found 
his  old  ally  Ladislaus  Pyrker,  Patriarch  of 
Venice,  and  composed  two  songs  to  his  poetry, 
*  Heimweh  '  and  *  Allmacht '  (op.  79).  But  the 
great  work  of  this  date  was  the  '  Grand  Sym- 
phony '  which  had  been  before  him  for  so  long. 
We  found  him  eighteen  months  ago  writing 
quartets  and  the  octet  as  preparation  for  it, 
and  an  allusion  in  a  letter  ^  of  Schwind's  shows 
that  at  the  beginning  of  August  he  spoke  of 
the  thing  as  virtually  done.  That  it  was 
actually  put  on  to  paper  at  Gastein  at  this  date 
we  know  from  the  testimony  of  Bauernfeld,* 
who  also  informs  us  that  it  was  a  special 
favourite  with  its  composer.  Seven  songa  in 
all  are  dated  in  this  autumn,  amongst  them  two 
fine  scenes  from  a  play  by  W.  von  Schiitz  called 
'  Lacrimas '  (op.  124),  not  so  well  known  as 
they  deserve. 

The  letters  of  this  tour,  though  not  all  pre- 
served, are  unusually  numerous  for  one  who  so 
much  disliked  writing.  One  long  one  to  his 
father  and  mother;  another,  much  longer,  to 
Ferdinand  ;  a  third  to  Spaun,  and  a  fourth  to 
Bauernfeld,  are  printed  by  Kreissle,  and  contain 
passages  of  real  interest,  showing  how  keenly 
he  observed  and  how  thoroughly  he  enjoyed 
nature,  and  displaying  throughout  a  vein  of 

s  jr.  J7.  p.  868  (11. 43).  '  To  your  Symphony  we  ara  lookinf  forvard 
eagerly/  implylBg  tJiat  Bchubert  h«d  mentioned  It  In  a  former 
letter.  «  W.M.K.,  Jane  »-13. 1839. 


1825— 


SCHUBERT 


-1826 


305 


good  seiue  and  even  practical  sagacity,'  and  a 
£uiUty  of  expression,  which  are  rare  in  him. 

At  length  the  summer  and  the  money  came 
to  an  end,  Vogl  went  off  to  Italy  for  his  gout, 
and  Schubert,  meeting  Gahy  at  Linz,  returned 
uith  him  and  the  MS.  Symphony  to  Vienna  in 
an  Eiiupaanner,  to  find  Schober  and  Kupelwieser 
both  once  more  settled  there.  The  first  thing 
to  be  done  was  to  replenish  his  purse,  and  this 
he  soon  did  by  the  sale  of  the  seven  songs  from 
'The  Lady  of  the  Lake,'  which  he  disposed  of 
on  Oct.  29  to  Artaria,  for  200  silver  gulden — 
just  £20  !  Twenty  pounds,  however,  were  a  mine 
of  wealth  to  Schubert ;  and  even  after  repaying 
the  money  which  had  been  advanced  by  his 
&ther,  and  by  Bauemfeld  for  the  rent  of  the 
lodgings  during  his  absence,  he  would  still  have 
a  few  pounds  in  hand. 

During  Schubert's  absence  in  the  country  his 
old  friend  Salieri  died,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Eybler.  The  Court  organist  also  fell  ill,  and 
S^hwind  wrote  urging  him  to  look  after  the 
jvv^t :  but  Schubert  made  no  sign,  and  evidently 
did  notliing  in  the  matter,  though  the  organist 
died  on  Nov.  19.  He  obviously  knew  much 
better  than  his  friends  that  he  was  absolutely 
nntit  for  any  post  requiring  punctuality  or  re- 
straint In  the  course  of  this  year  he  was 
made  *  Ersatzmann, '  or  substitute — whatever 
that  may  mean — by  the  Musikverein,  or 
Gt^llschaft  der  Musikfreunde.  Of  what  hap- 
{lened  from  this  time  till  the  close  of  1825  we 
have  no  certain  information.  He  set  two  songs 
by  Schnlze  in  December ;  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  Piano  Sonata  in  D  (oj).  58),  and  the 
noble  funeral  march  for  the  Emperor  of  Russia 
(op.  55),  whose  death  was  known  in  Vienna  on 
IW.  14,  both  belong  to  that  month.  What 
gave  him  his  interest  in  the  death  of  Alexander 
i2»  not  known,  but  the  march  is  an  extraordi- 
narily fine  specimen.  A  piece  for  the  Piano  in 
F.  serving  as  accompaniment  to  a  recitation 
from  a  poem  by  Pratobevera,  a  series  of  grace- 
ful modulations  in  arpeggio  form,  also  dates 
from  this  year.* 

The  compositions  of  1825  may  be  here 
Bommed  up  :— Sonata  for  PF.  solo  in  A  minor 
(op.  42) ;  ditto  in  D  (op.  63) ;  ditto  in  A  (op. 
120);  uifinished  ditto  in  C  ('Reliquie,'  Nott. 
V'  -11) ;  a  funeral  march,  four  hands,  for  the 
Emperor  Alexander  of  Russia  (op.  55).  Songs 
— '  Des  Sangers  Habe,'  by  Schlechta,  and  *  Im 
Walde,'  by  E.  Schulze  ;  seven  from  *The  Lady 
of  the  Lake '  (op.  52)  ;  another  from  Scott's 
'  Pirate' ;  ^  *  Auf  der  Brack,'  by  Schulze  ;  *  Fiille 
♦ier  Liebe,'  by  Schlegel  ;  *Allraacht*  and 
'Heimweh,'  by  Pyrker  ;  two  scenes  from  *  Lacri- 
mas.'  by  W.  von  Schiitz  ;  and  '  Abendlied  fiir 
die  Entfemte/  by  A.  W.  Schlegel ;  *  Die  junge 

'  ^  kli  ■hxawd  woM  for  not  »t  onoe  accepting  Bammfold's 
t^  pocitiaa  tlwt  h*.  Sdiwind  uid  Behttbert.  should  all  live  together. 
••  V  ^  ro  HL  S7}.    Alao  the  vbole  lc<tt«r  to  B|»nn. 

;  hinted  by  BclMmaim  In  his  book. 
/  ^  mjn  SoAe  MSUot  (under  date  of  Marah  1) ;  but  perhaps  It  was 
Vr  mistake  for  Norman's  sang  in  'The  Lady  of  the  Lake.' 

VOL.  IV 


Nonne,'  ' Todtengrabers  Heimweh,*  and  'Der 
blinde  Knabe,'  all  by  Craigher  ;  *  Der  Einsame,' 
by  Lappe  ;  and,  in  December,  '  An  mein  Herz ' 
and  '  Der  liebliche  Stem, '  both  by  Ernst  Schulze. 
It  is  also  more  than  probable  that  the  string 
quartet  in  D  minor  was  at  least  begun  before 
the  end  of  the  year. 

The  publications  of  1825  are : — In  January, 
opp.  32,  30,  34  ;  Feb.  11,  opp.  36  and  87  ; 
May  9,  op.  38  ;  July  25,  op.  43 ;  August  12, 
op.  31  ;  and,  without  note  of  date,  opp.  29  and 
83.  Op.  29  is  the  lovely  A  minor  Quartet ;  and 
it  is  worthy  of  note  that  it  is  published  as  the 
first  of  'Trois  quatuors.'  This  was  never 
carried  out.  The  two  others  were  written,  as 
we  have  already  seen  (p.  3016),  but  they  re- 
mained unpublished  till  after  the  death  of  their 
author. 

1826  was  hardly  eventful  in  any  sense  of  the 
word,  though  by  no  means  unimportant  in 
Schubert's  history.  It  seems  to  have  been  passed 
entirely  in  Vienna.  He  contemplated  a  trip  to 
Linz  with  Spaun  and  Schwind,  but  it  did  not 
come  off.  The  weather  of  this  spring  was  extra- 
ordinarily bad,  and  during  April  and  May  he 
composed  nothing.^  The  music  attributable  to 
1826  is,  however,  of  first-rate  quality.  The 
String  Quartet  in  D  minor,  by  common  consent 
placed  at  the  head  of  Schubert's  music  of  this 
class,  was  first  played  on  Jan.  29,  and  was  there- 
fore doubtless  only  just  completed.*  That  in  G 
(op.  161),  Schubert  himself  has  dated  as  being 
written  in  ten  days  (June  20  to  June  30),  a  work 
teeming  with  fresh  vigour  after  the  inaction  of 
the  preceding  two  months  as  full  of  melody, 
spirit,  romance,  variety,  and  individuality,  as 
anything  he  ever  penned,  and  only  prevented' 
from  taking  the  same  high  position  as  the  pre- 
ceding, by  its  great  length — due  to  the  diffuse- 
ness  which  Schubert  would  no  doubt  have 
remedied  had  he  given  himself  time  to  do  so. 
One  little  point  may  be  mentioned  en  passant 
in  both  these  noble  works — the  evidence  they 
afford  of  his  lingering  fondness  for  the  past. 
In  the  D  minor  Quartet  he  goes  back  for  the 
subject  and  feeling  of  the  AiidarUe  to  a  song  of 
his  own  of  1816,  and  the  Finale  of  the  6  mig'or 
is  curiously  tinged  with  reminiscences  of  the 
Rossini- fever  of  1819. 

The  *  Rondeau  brillant '  in  B  minor  for  PF. 
and  violin  (op.  70),  now  such  a  favourite  in  the 
concert-room,  also  belongs  to  this  year,  though 
it  cannot  be  precisely  dated  ;  and  so  does  a 
piece  of  still  higher  quality,  which  is  pronounced 
by  Schumann  to  be  its  author's  'most  perfect  work 
both  in  form  and  conception,'  the  Sonata  in  G 
major  for  PF.  solo,  op.  78,  usually  called  the 
*  Fantasia,'  owing  to  a  freak  of  the  publisher's. 
The  autograph  is  inscribed,  in  the  hand  of  its 

4  B«e  his  letter  to  Bttuemfeld  and  HaTrhofer,  in  Die  Preut.  April 
21.  18G9. 

s  K.ff.  p.  3B1  (II.  71).  The  flnale  was  voted  too  long,  to  which 
Schubert,  after  a  few  xninuten'  cotutlderatiun.  aftreed.  and  'at  once 
cut  out  a  good  part.'  (Hauer's  information.)  The  autograph  has 
disappeared. 


306 


1826 


SCHUBERT 


1826 


author,  *  IV.  Sonate  fiir  Pianoforte  allein. 
Oct.  1826,  Franz  Schubert';  above  which, 
in  the  writing  of  Tobias  Haslinger,  stands  the 
title  '  Fantasie,  Andante,  Mennetto  und  Alle- 
gretto.' *     We  may  well  say  with  Beethoven, 

*  0  Tobias  ! ' 

By  the  side  of  these  undying  productions  the 
'Marche  hdroique,'  written  to  celebrate  the 
accession  of  Nicholas  I.  of  Russia,  and  the 
Andantino  and  Rondo  on  French  motifs — both 
for  PF.  four  hands,  are  not  of  great  significance. 

An  attack  of  song- writing  seems  to  have  come 
upon  him  in  March,  which  date  we  find  attached 
to  six  songs  ;  or,  if  the  rest  of  those  to  Seidl's 
words  forming  opp.  105  and  80,  and  marked 
merely  '  1826,'  were  written  at  the  same  time 
(as,  from  Schubert's  habit  of  eviscerating  his 
books,  they  n6t  improbably  were) — twelve. 
Three  Shakespeare  songs  are  due  to  this  July — 

*  Hark  !  hark  !  the  lark,*  ^  from  *  Cymbeline ' ; 

*  Who  is  Sylvia  ? '  from  the  *  Two  Gentlemen  of 
Verona ' ;  and  the  Drinking-song  in  *  Antony 
and  Cleopatra ' — the  first  two  perhaps  as  popular 
as  any  single  songs  of  Schubert's.  The  circum- 
stances of  the  composition,  or  rather  creation, 
of  the  first  of  these  has  already  been  mentioned 
(p.  288a).  The  fact  of  three  songs  from  the 
same  volume  belonging  to  one  month  (not  im- 
probably to  one  day,  if  we  only  knew)  is  quite 
d  la  Schubert. — A  beautiful  and  most  character- 
istic piece  of  this  year  is  the  '  Nachthelle '  or 

*  Lovely  night '),  written  to  words  of  Seidl's — 
not  improbably  for  the  Musikverein,  through 
Anna  Frohlich — for  tenor  solo,  with  accompani- 
ment of  four  men's  voices  and  pianoforte,  which 
would  be  a  treasure  to  singing  societies,  for  its 
truly  romantic  loveliness,  but  for  the  inordinate 
height  to  which  the  voices  are  taken,  and  the 
great  difficulty  of  executing  it  with  sufficient 
delicacy.  A  song  called  'Echo*  (op.  180), 
probably  written  in  1826,  was  intended  to  be 
the  first  of  six  '  humorous  songs  *  for  Weigl's 
firm.  3 

We  hear  nothing  of  the  new  symphony  during 
the  early  part  of  this  year.  No  doubt  it  was 
often  played  from  the  MS.  score  at  the  meetings 
of  the  Schubert  set,  but  they  say  no  more  about 
it  than  they  do  of  the  Octet,  or  Quartets,  or 
Sonatas,  which  were  all  equally  in  existence  ; 
and  for  aught  we  know  it  might  have  been 
'  locked  in  a  drawer,*  which  was  often  Schubert's 
custom  after  completing  a  work — 'locked  in  a 
drawer  and  never  thought  about  again. '^  It 
was,  however,  destined  to  a  different  fate.  On 
Sept.  9,  1826,  at  one  of  the  first  meetings  of 
the  Board  of  the  Musikverein  after  the  summer 
recess,  Hofrath  Kiesewetter  reports  that  Schu- 
bert desires  to  dedicate  a  symphony  to  the 
Society ;   upon  which  the  sum  of  100  silver 

>  Beo  ui  IntnwtiDK  letter  from  KrnBt  Penbo.  the  owner  of  the 
MS.  with  an  extract  from  the  Andante,  In  the  Monthly  Musical 
Rawrd  for  April  1888. 

>  Entitled  'Serenade,'  but  more  oocarately  an  '  Aubade.' 
3  See  Nottebohm's  Cataioffue  under  op.  190. 

*  LAchner't  exprewlon  to  my  friend  Mr.  C.  A.  Barry  In  1881. 


florins  (£10)  is  voted  to  him,  not  in  payment 
for  the  work,  but  as  a  token  of  sympathy,  and 
as  an  encouragement.  The  letter  conveying 
the  money  is  dated  the  12th,  and  on  or  even 
before  its  receipt  Schubert  brought  the  manu- 
script and  deposited  it  with  the  Society.  His 
letter  accompanying  it  may  here  be  quoted  : — 

To  the  Committee  of  the  AuBtrian  Mosioal  Society.— 
Convinced  of  the  noble  desire  of  the  Society  to  give  its 
best  support  to  every  effort  in  the  cause  of  ait,  I  venture, 
as  a  native  artist,  to  dedicate  this  my  Symphcmy  to  il.*' 
Society,  and  most  respectfully  to  recommend  myseir  to 
its  protection.  With  the  highest  enteem.  Your  obedi. 
Frakz  Schcbskt. 

In  accordance  with  this,  the  MS.  probably  bears 
his  formal  dedication  to  the  Verein,  and  we 
may  expect  to  find  that  though  so  long  talked 
of,  it  bears  marks  of  having  been  written  down 
as  rapidly  as  most  of  his  other  productioniv.^ 
At  present,  however,  all  trace  of  it  is  gone  : 
not  even  its  key  is  known.  There  is  no  entrv 
of  it  in  the  catalogue  of  the  Society's  Library, 
and  except  for  the  minute  and  letter  given 
above,  and  the  positive  statements  of  Banemfeld 
quoted  below,^  it  might  as  well  be  non-existent. 
That  it  is  an  entirely  distinct  work  from  that 
in  C,  written  two  and  a  half  years  later,  can 
hardly  admit  of  a  doubt. 

Of  the  publications  of  1826,  the  most  re> 
markable  are  the  seven  songs  from  *  The  Lady 
of  the  Lake,'  for  which  Artaria  had  paid  him 
200  florins  in  the  preceding  October,  and  which 
appeared  on  the  5th  of  this  April,  in  two  parts, 
as  op.  52.  They  were  succeeded  immediately, 
on  April  8,  by  the  PF.  Sonata  in  D  (op.  53), 
and  the  '  Divertissement  k  la  hongroise '  (op.  54), 
both  issued  by  the  same  firm.  For  these  two 
splendid  works  Schubert  received  from  the 
penurious  Artaria  only  300  Vienna  florins,  equal 
to  £12.     Songs  issued  fast  from  the  press  at 

9  Tli«  document*  on  which  theae  •Utaraenta  art  hued  are  fltra 
by  Herr  C.  P.  Pohl  In  hU  History  </  th*  OmeUaektifi  eLrr  Mnmk- 
frmutdt— or  MnaikTerein— Vienna,  1971.  p.  16:  and  by  Fetrdiuitd 
Schubert  in  the  Jfttu  JeiUehrift  /Or  MtuUt,  far  AprU  30,  IKS. 
P-IM. 

«  Bauernfeld.  in  an  article  rMWr  nxuu  Sehvbtri  in  the  Witmt 
JMttohrift  /Or  JTimhC,  Uteratur.  TksaUr,  mU  MatU,  (or  9. 11.  M 
June.  18S9  (Noa.  aB.  70.  71),  say*  aa  followa :— *To  tha  Inrgct  vorkt 
of  hia  latter  yeara  alao  belonga  a  Symphony  written  In  1983  at 
Gactflin,  for  which  ita  author  had  an  eapedal  predilection.  ...  At 
a  ereat  eonoort  given  by  the  Muailt  Verein  ahortly  after  hia  death 
a  Symphony  in  C  waa  performed,  which  waa  oompoaed  aa  eartj  u 
1817  [18181  and  which  he  oonaidered  aa  one  of  hia  lea*  aneeenfal 
worka.  .  .  .  Porhapa  the  Society  intenda  at  aoiue  future  tine  t.* 
make  ua  acquainted  with  one  of  the  later  aymphonica.  poaaibly  tbe 
Oaatein  one  already  mentioned.'  [N.B.  The  two  moremeiita  of  tt« 
B  minor  Symphony  (1829)  were  not  at  thia  time  luiown,  ao  that  by 
'  later  Symphuniea '  Bauernfeld  muat  anrely  intoid  the  two  of  IKS 
and  1828.]    At  the  end  of  the  article  he  giwa  a  *  durooiologieal  1->k 

^  p^v..v,^.,  .^__.„t 1 *  _^f  cmerally  known.'    Amoap^ 

th  '  1828.  Laat  SymplKtsy  7 

'Gj'irLiL  ■iFi'"^jvr'i  t>-::ri};  '.n^  w.i]hi  Luti]  i-y  Bchubcart  bbnaelf  in  bit 
leiUit  Uj  KTipelwlt;Hr  rffrirtvl  tn  iLbun*  ip.  801a).  Itb  ptatn.  thrre- 
fori .,  that  »t  thin  cl>a<i.  >civ^n  lunhth*  "Iter  Schnbert'a  death.  ^ 
Ofe^tcln  Rrnifibimr  4.f  i4^,iLti4  tJi*t  In  T  major  of  1888,  were  known 
aa  ilJ^tSn.t  »v-iritP.  Thv  prrmmt  wMtrr  haa  odlleeied  the  eTidrt-c* 
for  tiin  (fi|j[*!Hf*»  yf  the  STm^tbiinr  hi  a  letter  to  the  LonJoa 

ITtii tcUltin-AH^irClenrvv  OtTFVv  'rote  it  But  the  exieteoce  of 

thr  U40f«lti  **y»fi|phfjl])r  rwrtj  at  firi>)wnt  on  Tery  imperfect  erldfflce 
Th4-rt  \m  ivt  ihciLtiaEL  »f  It  lu  Fiir^lnuail  B^nbertla  eakakvne,  or  ic 
Krn^Kiir  *'-si  HcTlh*~ni>  ^ii^cmTJ'h  v.  f*r  '•n  the  teeklaaooy  of  any  oo« 
wl  =    '  '     ^    -  ■-,■■■-■  -1^    aymphony  aeeepted  b^  tk« 

0«  armed  by  thMn  IB  the  r«»r 

of  ^uaa^L.-_x._  _^,_i  ^  .1.4. ,„,  ^^.,ttea  In  ins  and  innomct'y 

dated,  in  a  Geaellachaft  arogramme,  1825.  No  copy  o<  the  wx»k  in 
queation  haa  rerealed  itaelf  to  the  moat  oarefni  rmarth  It  is 
probable  that  the  so-called  Oaatein  Srmphony  la  BchahcK'a  '  No  fi.' 
poasibly  retouched  durini  the  holiday  of  lOB,  and  uObrcd  to  tbe 
OeacUachaft  in  the  follow&ig  year.] 


1826 


SCHUBERT 


1826 


307 


this  date ;   for  on  the  6th  of  April  we  find 
op.  56  (three  songs)  announced  by  Pennauer, 
and  opp.  57  and  58  (each  three  songs)  by  Weigl ; 
on  June    10,   op.    60    ('Greisengesang'    and 
*  Dithyranibe ')  by  Cappi  and  Czcmy ;  in  Sept 
op.  59  (four  songs,  including  *  Dass  sie  hier 
gewesen/  *  Du  bist  die  Ruh,'  and  '  Lachen  und 
Weinen')  by  Leidesdorf ;  and  op.   64  (three 
part-songs  for  men's  voices)  by  Pennauer  ;  and 
on  Nov.  24,  op.  65  (three  songs)  by  Cappi  and 
Czemy.     Some  of  these  were  composed  as  early 
as  1814,  1815,  1816 ;  others  again  in  1820, 
1822,  and  1823.     The  Mass  in  C  (op.  48),  and 
three  early  pieces  of  church  music,   'Tantum 
ei^ '  (opi  45),  '  Totus  in  oorde  '  (op.  46),  and 
'Salve  Begina '  (op.  47),  were  all  issued  in  this 
vear  by  IMabellL     Of  dances  and  marches  for 
piano  there  are  eight  numbers : — a  Galop  and 
eight  Eoossaiaee  (op.   49) ;  thirty-four  Yalses 
aentimentales  (op.  50)  ;  *  Hommage  aux  belles 
Viennoises '  (sixteen  L^dler  and  two  ^cossaises, 
opw  67) ;  three  Marches  (four  hands,  op.  51) — 
all  published   by  Diabelli ;   the  two  Russian 
Marches  (opp.  65,  56),  by  Pennauer ;  six  Polo- 
naises (op.    61),    Cappi  and   Czemy ;  and   a 
Divertissement,  or  '  Marche  brillante  et  raison- 
nee,'  on  French  motifs  (op.   63),  Weigl.     In 
all,  twenty -two  publications,  divided  among 
six  pnblishers,  and  containing  106  works. 

We  have  been  thus  particular  to  name  the 
nombeis  and  publishers  of  these  works,  because 
they  show  conclusively  how  much  Schubert's 
music  was  coming  into  demand.  Pennauer  and 
Leideadorf  were  his  personal  friends,  and  may 
possibly  have  printed  his  pieces  from  chivalrous 
motives ;  but  no  one  can  suspect  hard  and  ex- 
l«nenced  men  of  business  like  Diabelli  and 
Aitaria  of  publishing  the  music  of  any  one  at 
th«ir  own  risk  unless  they  believed  that  there 
was  a  demand  for  it.  The  list  is  a  remarkable 
one,  and  will  compare  for  extent  and  variety 
with  that  of  most  years  of  Beethoven's  life. 
And  even  at  the  incredibly  low  prices  ^  which  his 
publishers  gave  for  the  exclusive  copyright  of 
Wb  works,  liiere  is  enough  in  the  above  to  pro- 
duce an  income  sufficient  for  Schubert's  wants. 
But  the  fact  is  that  he  wsa  mixed  up  with  a  set 
of  young  fellows  who  regarded  him  as  a  Croesus,* 
and  who  virtually  lived  upon  his  carelessness 
and  good -nature,  under  the  guise  of  keeping 
house  in  common.  Bauemfeld,  in  an  article  in 
the  Vienna  Preaae  of  April  17,  1869,  has  given 
08  the  accoimt  with  some  naiveU,  A  league  or 
lartnership  was  made  between  himself,  Schv^and 
tbe  painter,  and  Schubert.    They  had  nominally 

'  |^»i<i  )7  Schindler  that  the  price*  acrvcd  on  with  him  mn 
inivicikaft|«ldeii  p«r  Heft  of  «wffi,  and  twelve  per  pianoforte  piece. 
♦2!  *?"f  fBMen  WM  then  worth  )i»t  one  fxmnc  •  Heft '  nieitnt 
J~'W"**.no»**P»rt'oftwoorthree.  Thi«  !■  condttrively 
•^  n  r«nttiMiMi  Sehnbert'ii  letter  of  ISW.)  Theee  prices  were 
^  ukcnd  Ut.  Thw  forthe  eeveu  '  hiAj  of  the  L*ke'  wngs  he  hud 
!^  rn*  gvldca  w  caa.  or  nearly  a  per  aong.  Bren  that  is  low 
w^'  ^  ^  o^«T  h»d  P-  Laehner  told  Mr.  Barry  that  in  the 
**y«w<<  Schobert'sUfe.  he  took  half-a-down  of  the  *  Wlnterreiae' 
*^to  KMUofer  at  Sehvbert'e  rcqucrt,  Mid  hroufht  back  one 
«^»  pi«e « -  ifliilor  them  I 
"»  oprtMion  b  Baoenfeld'e. 


their  own  lodgings,  but  often  slept  all  together 
in  the  room  of  one.  The  affection  between  them 
was  extraordinary.  Schubert  used  to  call 
Schwind  '  seine  Geliebte ' — his  innamarata  !  A 
kind  of  common  property  was  established  in 
clothes  and  money ;  hats,  coats,  boots,  and 
cravats  were  worn  in  common,  and  the  one  who 
was  in  cash  paid  the  score  of  the  others.  As 
Schwind  and  Bauemfeld  were  considerably 
younger  than  Schubert,  that  duty  naturally 
fell  on  him.  When  he  had  sold  a  piece  of 
music  he  seemed  to  this  happy  trio  to  'swim 
in  money,'  which  was  then  spent  *  right  and 
left '  in  the  most  reckless  manner,  till  it  was  all 
gone,  and  the  period  of  reverse  came.  Under 
these  circumstances  life  was  a  series  of  fluctua- 
tions, in  which  the  party  were  never  rich,  and 
often  very  poor.  On  one  occasion  Bauemfeld 
and  Schubert  met  in  a  coffee-house  near  the 
Kamthnerthor  theatre,  and  each  det€lcted  the 
other  in  ordering  a  m&aiige  {caf4  au  lait)  and 
biscuits,  Ji)ecause  neither  had  the  money  to  pay 
for  dinner.  And  this  in  Schubert's  twenty- 
ninth  year,  when  he  had  already  written  im- 
mortal works  quite  sufficient  to  make  a  good 
livelihood  I  Outside  the  circle  of  this  trio  were 
a  number  of  other  young  people,  artists  and 
literary  men,  Schober,  Jenger,  Kupelwieser,  etc., 
attracted  by  Schubert's  genius,  good-nature,  and 
love  of  fan,  and  all  more  or  less  profiting  by 
the  generosity  of  one  who  never  knew  what  it 
was  to  deny  a  friend.  The  evenings  of  this 
jolly  company  were  usually  passed  in  the 
Gasthaus,  and  then  they  would  wander  about, 
till  daybreak  drove  them  to  their  several  quarters, 
or  to  the  room  of  one  of  the  party.  It  would 
be  absurd  to  judge  Vienna  manners  from  an 
English  |)oint  of  view.  The  Gasthaus  took  the 
place  of  a  modem  club,  and  the  drink  consumed 
probably  did  not  much  exceed  that  which  some 
distinguished  Vienna  artists  now  imbibe  night 
after  night,  and  does  not  imply  the  excess  that 
it  would  infallibly  lead  to  in  a  Northern  climate ; 
but  it  must  be  obvious  that  few  constitutions 
could  stand  such  racket,  and  that  the  exertion 
of  thus  trying  his  strength  by  night  and  his 
brain  by  day,  must  have  been  more  than  any 
frame  could  stand.  In  fact  his  health  did  not 
stand  the  wear  and  tear.  We  have  seen  that 
in  Febraary  1828,  he  could  not  leave  the  house  ; 
that  in  the  summer  of  the  same  year  he  was 
confined  to  the  hospital ;  that  in  March  1824, 
he  speaks  of  his  health  as  irrecoverably  gone  ; 
and  the  dedication  of  the  six  four- hand  Marches, 
op.  40,  to  his  friend  Bernhardt,  doctor  of  medi- 
cine, *  as  a  token  of  gratitude,'  is  strong  evidence 
that  in  1826,  the  year  of  their  publication,  he 
had  had  another  severe  attack. 
.  It  was  probably  a  sense  of  the  precarious 
nature  of  such  a  life  that  led  some  of  his  friends 
in  the  autumn  of  1 826  to  urge  Schubert  to  stand 
for  the  post  of  Vice-capellmeister  in  the  Imperial 
Court,  vacant  by  the  promotion  of  Eybler  to  that 


308 


1826— 


SCHUBERT 


-1827 


of  principal  capellmeister  ;  but  the  application, 
like  eyery  other  of  the  same  kind  made  by  him, 
was  a  failure,  and  the  place  was  given  to  Joseph 
Weigl  by  the  Imperial  decree  of  Jan.  27,  1827. 

Another  opportunity  of  acquiring  a  fixed  in- 
come was  opened  to  him  duringthe  same  autumn, 
by  the  removal  of  Karl  August  Krebs  from  the 
conduotorship  of  the  Court  theatre  to  Hamburg. 
Yogi  interested  Duport,  the  administrator  of 
the  theatre,  in  his  friend,  and  the  appointment 
was  made  to  depend  on  Schubert's  success  in  com- 
posing some  scenes  for  the  stage.  Madame 
Schechner,  for  whom  the  principal  part  was 
intended,  a  young  debutante  who  was  making 
her  first  appearance  in  Vienna,  objected  at  the 
pianoforte  rehearsals  to  some  passages  in  her 
air,  but  could  not  induce  the  composer  to  alter 
them.  The  same  thing  happened  at  the  first 
orchestral  rehearsal,  when  it  also  became  evident 
that  the  accompaniments  were  too  noisy  for  the 
voice.  Still  Schubert  was  immovable.  At  the 
full-band  rehearsal  Schechner  fairly  broke  down, 
and  refused  to  sing  any  more.  Duport  then 
stepped  forward,  and  formally  requested  Schubert 
to  alter  the  music  before  the  next  meeting.  This 
he  refused  to  do  ;  but  taking  the  same  course  as 
Beethoven  had  done  on  a  similar  occasion,  said 
loudly,  *  I  will  alter  nothing,'  took  up  his  score 
and  left  the  house.  After  this  the  question  of 
the  conduotorship  was  at  an  end.  Schubert's  be- 
haviour in  this  matter  has  beenstrongly  censured, 
but  we  do  not  see  much  in  it.  Such  questions 
will  alwayB  depend  on  the  temperament  of  the 
composer.  Had  it  been  either  Mozart  or  Mendels- 
sohn we  cannot  doubt  that  all  would  have  gone 
smoothly  ;  the  prima  donna  would  not  only  not 
have  been  ruffled,  but  would  have  felt  herself 
complimented,  and  the  musio  would  have  been 
so  altered  as  to  meet  every  one's  wish,  and  yet 
sound  as  well  as  before.  On  the  other  hand, 
had  it  been  Beethoven  or  Schumann  we  may  be 
equally  sure  that  not  a  note  would  have  been 
changed,  and  that  everything  would  have  ended 
in  confusion.  With  aU  Schubert's  good-nature, 
when  his  musio  was  concerned  he  was  of  the 
same  mind  as  Beethoven  and  Schumann.  There 
are  other  instances  of  the  same  stubbornness, 
which  will  be  noticed  later. 

Some  set-off  to  these  disappointments  was 
afforded  by  the  ready  way  in  which  his  Gastein 
Symphony  was  received  by  the  Musikverein, 
and  the  sympathetic  resolution  and  prompt 
donation  which  accompanied  its  acceptance, 
although  no  attempt  to  perform  or  even  rehearse 
it  can  now  be  traced.  The  beautiful  *  Nacht- 
helle,'  already  referred  to,  which  he  composed 
in  September,  was  rehearsed  during  the  early 
winter  months,  and  performed  by  the  Society 
on  Jan.  25,  1827. 

Some  little  gratification  also  he  not  improbably 
derived  from  the  letters  which  during  this  year 
he  began  to  receive  from  publishers  in  the  north. 
Probst  of  Leipzig —one  of  Beethoven's  publishers, 


predecessor  of  the  present  firm  of  SenfT — vras 
the  first  to  write.  His  letter  is  dated  August 
26,  and  is  followed  by  one  from  Breitkopf  k 
Hartel  of  Sept  7.  True,  neither  are  very 
encouraging.  Probst  speaks  of  his  music  as  too 
often  'peculiar  and  odd,'  and  'not  intelligible 
or  satisfactory  to  the  public ' ;  and  begs  him  to 
write  so  as  to  be  easily  understood ;  while 
Breitkopf  stipulates  that  the  only  remuneration 
at  first  shall  be  some  copies  of  the  works.  Still, 
even  with  this  poor  present  result,  the  fact  was 
obvious  that  he  had  b^gun  to  attract  attention 
outside  of  Austria. 

As  to  Schubert's  life  in  the  early  part  of 
1827  we  have  little  to  guide  us  beyond  the 
scanty  inferences  to  be  drawn  from  the  dated 
compositions.  The  first  of  these  of  any  moment 
are  eight  Variations  (the  eighth  very  much 
extended)  on  a  theme  in  Herold's  opera  '  Marie/ 
for  PF.  four  hands  (op.  82).  'Marie'  wm 
produced  on  the  Vienna  boards  Jan.  18,  1827  ; 
and  Schubert's  Variations  are  dated  '  February/ 
and  are  dedicated  to  one  of  his  friends  in  Upi^er 
Austria,  Prof.  Gig'etan  Neuhaus  of  Linz.  The 
next  and  still  more  important  work  is  the  first 
half  of  the  *  Winterreise,'  twelve  songs  ('Gute 
Nacht '  to  '  Einsamkeit '),  marked  as  b^;un  in 
Feb.  1827.  Franz  Lachner  remembers  tliat 
'half  a  dozen'  of  them  were  written  in  one 
morning,  and  that  Haslinger  gave  a  gulden 
(that  is  a  franc)  apiece  for  them.  The  poems 
which  form  the  basis  of  this  work  are  by  Wilhelm 
Miiller,  the  poet  of  the  'Schone  Miillerin,'  which 
the  Winterreise  closely  approaches  in  popularity, 
and  which  it  would  probably  equal  if  the  maiden 
of  the  Winter-walk  were  as  definite  a  creation 
as  the  miller's  daughter  is.  They  are  twenty- 
four  in  all,  and  appear  under  their  now- 
immortal  name  in  the  second  volume  of  the 
work  of  which  voL  i.  contained  the  'Schone 
Miillerin/  and  which  has  the  quaint  title 
already  quoted  (p.  300a).  ^  The  second  volume 
was  published  at  Dessau  in  1824,  and  ^id  not 
at  once  attract  Schubert's  notice.  When  it  did, 
he  made  short  work  of  it.  Another  important 
composition  of  this  month  (dated  Feb.  28)  i» 
the  Schlachtlied  (battle -song)  of  Klopatock, 
set  for  two  choirs  of  male  voioes,  sometimes  ' 
answering,  sometimes  in  eight  real  parts,  of  I 
inmiense  force  and  vigour,  and  marked  by  that  | 
dogged  adherence  to  rhythm  so  characteristic 
of  Schubert. 

He  can  scarcely  have  finished  with  this  before 
the  news  that  Beethoven  was  in  danger  spread 
through  Vienna.  The  great  musician  got  back 
to  his  rooms  in  the  Schwarzspanierhaus  from 
his  fatal  expedition  to  Gneixendorf  in  the  first 
week  of  December,  became  very  ill,  and  during 
January  was  tapped  for  the  dropsy  three  times. 
Then  Malfatti  was  called  in,  and  there  was  a 
slight  improvement  During  this  he  was  allowed 
to  read,  and  it  was  then  that  Schindler,  a  zealous 

1  Tlic  order  ot  the  •oogi  la  much  eb«n(«t  In  Um  mnrie. 


1827 


SCHUBERT 


1827 


309 


Schnbert-propagandist,  took  the  opportunity  to 
pat  some  of  Schubert's  songs  into  his  hands.  ^ 
He  made  a  selection  of  about  sixty,  in  print 
and  MS.,  including  '  Iphigenie/  '  Grenzen  der 
Henschheit,'  *  Allmacht,'  *Die  junge  Nonne/^ 
'Viola/  the  *Miillerlieder,'  etc  Beethoven 
op  to  this  time  probably  did  not  know  half- 
a-dozen  of  Schubert's  compositions,  and  his 
astonishment  was  extreme,  especially  when  he 
heard  that  there  existed  at  least  500  of  the 
same  kind.  *  How  can  he  find  time,'  said  he, 
'  to  set  such  long  poems,  many  of  them  contain- 
ing ten  others  ?'  %.e,  as  long  as  ten  separate 
ones ;  and  said  over  and  over  again,  *  If  I  had 
had  this  poem  I  would  have  set  it  myself  ; 
'Truly  Schubert  has  the  divine  fire  in  him.' 
He  pored  over  them  for  days,  and  asked  to  see 
Schubert's  operas  and  PF.  pieces,  but  the 
illness  returned  and  it  was  too  late.  But  from 
this  time  till  his  death  he  spoke  often  of  Schu- 
bert, regretting  that  he  had  not  sooner  known 
his  worth,  and  prophesying  that  he  would 
make  mudi  stir  in  the  world.  ^  Schubert  was 
sore  to  hear  of  these  gratifying  utterances,  and 
they  would  naturally  increase  his  desire  to  come 
into  close  contact  with  the  master  whom  he  had 
long  worshipped  at  a  distance.  It  is  possible 
that  this  emboldened  him  to  visit  the  dying 
man.  He  seems  to  have  gone  twice ;  first 
vith  Anselm  Hiittenbrenner  and  Schindler. 
Schindler  told  Beethoven  that  they  were  there, 
and  asked  whom  he  would  see  first.  *  Schubert 
may  come  in  first'  was  the  answer.  At  this 
mt  perhaps,  if  ever,  it  was  that  he  said,  in 
bis  affectionate  way,  '  You,  Anselm,  have  my 
mind  {Geisi),  but  Franz  has  my  soul  (Seele),*  * 
The  second  time  he  went  with  Josef  Hiitten- 
brenner and  Teltscher  the  painter.  They  stood 
roand  the  bed.  Beethoven  was  aware  of  their 
presence,  and  fixing  his  eyes  on  them,  made 
some  signs  with  his  hand.  No  one,  however, 
coold  explain  what  was  meant,  and  no  words 
passed  on  either  side.  Schubert  left  the  room 
overcome  with  emotion.  In  about  three  weeks 
came  the  end,  and  then  the  funeral.  Schubert 
vas  one  of  the  torch-bearers.  Franz  Lachner 
and  Randhartinger  walked  with  him  to  and 
from  the  Cemetery.  The  way  back  lay  by  the 
Himmelpfortgrund,  and  close  by  the  humble 
house  in  which  he  had  drawn  his  first  breath. 
They  walked  on  into  the  town,  and  stopped  at 
the  *Mehlgrube,'  a  tavern  in  the  Kamthner- 
thoTsh^Bse,  now  the  Hotel  Munsch.  There 
thej  called  for  wine,  and  Schubert  drank  off 
two  glasses,  one  to  the  memory  of  Beethoven, 
the  other  to  the  first  of  the  three  friends  who 
shonld  follow  him.  It  was  destined  to  be  himself. 


*  Sdiindkr'*  list  of  the  longa  peniaed  by  Beethoven  dllTets  In  his 
t*o  acooonU    Comiare  hie  BmKoMn,  IL  US,  with  K.H.  p.  S84 

(l  WlL 

'  flckindler,  In  BKnerle's  TktattruUtmg  (Vienna).  Vay  8, 1831. 
J  See  TOO  Ldtncr.  Anaiim  BiUtenbrtnner,  Gru,  186B,  pw  B.  The 
•tcrr  iiae  «n  apoerTphJil  air.  bat  HBttenbrenner  ma  ao  thoroughly 
tfutvorthy.  itet  ft  is  dlfflenlt  to  reject  it.  At  any  rate.  Beethoven 
i>  Dot  likely  to  have  thus  cxpreaeed  himeelf  before  he  had  made 
•oqnaintaaoe  with  Sehnbort's  mnslc. 


Lablache  was  also  one  of  the  torch-bearers 
at  the  funeral.  This  and  the  part  which  he 
took  in  the  Reqiiiem  for  Beethoven  [vol.  i.  p. 
260  b]  may  have  induced  Schubert  to  write  for 
him  the  '  three  Italian  Songs  for  a  Bass  voice,' 
which  form  op.  83,  and  are  dedicated  to  the 
great  Italian  basso. 

Hummel  and  Hiller  were  in  Vienna  during 
March  1827,  and  Hiller  describes  meeting  Schu- 
bert and  Yogi  at  Madame  Lacsny-Buchwieser's, 
and  his  astonishment  at  their  joint  performance. 
*  Schubert,'  says  Hiller,*  *had  little  technique, 
and  Yogi  but  little  voice ;  but  they  had  both 
so  much  life  and  feeling,  and  went  so  thoroughly 
into  the  thing,  that  it  would  be  impossible  to 
render  these  wonderful  compositionsmore  clearly 
and  more  splendidly.  Yoice  and  piano  became 
as  nothing;  the  music  seemed  to  want  no 
material  help,  but  the  melodies  appealed  to 
the  ear  as  a  vision  does  to  the  eye.'  Not  only 
did  the  boy  think  it  the  deepest  musical  im- 
pression he  had  ever  received,  but  the  tears 
coursed  down  the  cheeks  even  of  the  veteran 
Hummel.  Either  then  or  a  few  evenings  after- 
wards. Hummel  showed  his  appreciation  by 
extemporising  on  Schubert's  'BUnde  Knabe,' 
which  Yogi  had  just  snng — to  Franz's  de- 
light. 

In  April  Schubert  wrote  the  beautiful  *  Nacht- 
gesang  im  Walde'  (op.  1396)  for  four  men's 
voices  and  four  horns;  and  a  'Spring  Song,' 
also  for  men's  voices.  In  July  we  have  the 
very  fine  and  characteristic  serenade  '  Zogemd 
leise '  (op.  185)  for  alto  solo  and  female  voices, 
a  worthy  pendant  to  the  'Kachthelle,'  and 
written  almost  d  VimpromsU,^  A  fiSte  was 
to  be  held  for  the  birthday  of  a  young  lady 
of  Dobling.  Grillparzer  had  written  some 
verses  for  tiie  occasion,  and  Schubert,  who  was 
constantly  in  and  out  of  the  Frohlichs'  house, 
was  asked  by  Anna  to  set  them  for  her  sister 
Josephine  and  her  pupils.  He  took  the  lines, 
went  aside  into  the  window,  pushed  up  his 
spectacles  on  to  his  brow,  and  then,  with  the 
paper  close  to  his  face,  read  them  carefully 
twice  through.  It  was  enough  :  '  I  have  it,' 
said  he,  'it's  done,  and  will  go  famously.'  A 
day  or  two  afterwards  he  brought  the  score, 
but  he  had  employed  a  male  chorus  instead  of 
a  female  one,  and  had  to  take  it  away  and 
transpose  it.  It  was  sung  in  the  garden  by 
moonlight,  to  the  delight  of  every  one,  the 
villagers  tiironging  round  the  gate.  He  alone 
was  absent. 

1827  witnessed  another  attempt  at  an  opera 
— the  *  Graf  von  Gleichen,'  written  by  Bauem- 
feld,  apparently  in  concurrence ^  with  Mayrhofer. 
Schul:«rt  had  the  libretto  in  August  1826,  sub- 
mitted it  to  the  management  of  the  Royal 
Opera-house,  and  arranged  with  Grillparzer,  in 
case  the  Censure  should  cause  its  rejection,  to 

•  KHmtOerMmi  aSSO).  p.  48. 


ISO),  p.  48. 
jtterTMay 
1  81. 1869, 


See  Schobert's  letter  [May  1890]  with  Banern) 
in  the /VeMc  of  April  ~     — 


«  K.B.  u.  474  (U.  IflO). 
Banemfeld's  a'  ' 
and  aignah,  Nov.  18691 


s  atatcmentii 


310 


1827 


SCHUBERT 


1827 


have  it  accepted  by  the  Konigstadt  Theatre. 
Owing  possibly  to  the  delay  of  the  Censure  it 
was  nearly  a  year  before  he  could  begin  the 
composition.  The  MS.  sketch,  now  in  Herr 
Dumba's  collection,  is  dated  at  the  beginning 
'  1 7  Juni  1827.'  The  opera  is  sketched  through- 
out, and  he  played  portions  of  it  to  Bauernfeld. 
Forty  years  later  the  sketch  came  into  the 
hands  of  Herbeck,  and  he  began  to  score  it 
after  Schubert's  indications — of  which  there 
are  plenty — but  was  prevented  by  death. 

A  correspondence  had  been  going  on  for  long 
between  the  Schubert  circle  at  Vienna  and  the 
Pachler  family  in  Graz,  the  capital  of  Styria, 
as  to  an  expedition  thither  by  Schubert,  and 
at  length  it  was  arranged  for  the  autumn  of 
this  year.  Carl  Pachler  was  one  of  those 
cultivated  men  of  business  who  are  such  an 
honour  to  Germany ;  an  advocate,  and  at  the 
head  of  his  profession,  yet  not  ashamed  to  be 
an  enthusiastic  lover  of  music  and  musicians, 
and  proud  to  have  them  at  his  house  and  to 
admit  them  to  his  intimate  friendship.  Amongst 
his  circle  was  Anselm  Hiittenbrenner,  the 
brother  of  Schubert's  friend  Josef,  himself  an 
earnest  admirer  of  Franz,  whose  last  visit  to 
Vienna  had  been  to  close  the  eyes  of  his  old 
friend  Beethoven.  The  house  was  open  to 
painters,  singers,  actors,  and  poets,  'the  scene 
of  constant  hospitalities,  the  headquarters  of 
every  remarkable  person  visiting  Graz.'  Such 
was  the  family  whose  one  desire  was  to  receive 
Schubert  and  Jenger.  The  journey,  now  accom- 
plished in  5^  hours,  was  an  affair  of  two  days 
and  a  night,  even  in  the  fast  coach.  They 
left  on  Sunday  morning,  Sept.  2,  and  reached 
Graz  on  Monday  night.  The  next  three  weeks 
were  spent  in  the  way  which  Schubert  most 
ei^oyed,  excursions  and  picnics  by  day  through 
a  beautiful  country,  and  at  night  incessant 
music ;  good  eating  and  drinking,  clever  men 
and  pretty  women,  no  fuss,  a  little  romping, 
a  gocKl  piano,  a  sympathetic  audience,  and  no 
notice  taken  of  him — such  were  the  elements 
of  his  enjoyment.  The  music  was  made  mostly 
by  themselves,  Schubert  singing,  accompanying, 
and  playing  duets  with  Jenger,  and  extemporis- 
ing endless  dance  tunes.  He  does  not  appear 
to  have  composed  anything  of  great  moment 
during  the  visit.  A  galop  and  twelve  waltzes, 
published  under  the  tities  of  the  'Gratzer 
Waltzer  *  (op.  91)  and  the  *  Gratzer  Galoppe  * ;  * 
three  songs  (op.  106,  1,  2,  8 — the  last  a 
particularly  fine  one)  to  words  by  local  poets — 
and  the  *  Old  Scottish  Ballad '  by  Herder  (op. 
165,  No.  5),  were  probably  aU  that  he  penned 
during  this  festive  fortnight ;  unless  perhaps 
some  of  those  exquisite  little  pieces  published  in 
1828  and  1838  as  *  Impromptus '  and  *  Momens 
musicals'  are  the  result  of  this  time.  Two 
songs,  written  a  couple  of  years  before,   *Im 

1  PablUhad  hy  HMUnger,  m  Na  10  of  the  'F»Torite  O«lop«.' 


Walde,"  and  *Auf  der  Brack,*  of  the  purest 
Schubert,  proved,  and  justly  proved,  srach 
fjftvourites  that  he  had  them  lithographed  and 
published  in  the  place.'  The  visit  is  further 
perpetuated  by  the  titles  of  the  dances  just 
mentioned,  and  by  the  dedication  to  Mme. 
Pachler  of  op.  106,  a  collection  of  four  songs, 
the  three  already  named,  and  the  lovely '  Sylvia. ' 
Schubert  seems  to  have  had  this  set  of  songs 
lithographed  without  name  of  place  or  publisher, 
shortly  after  his  return,  on  purpose  for  his 
hostess.' 

The  journey  home  was  a  triumphal  progress, 
and  by  the  27th  they  were  back  in  Vienna. 
Schubert  then  wrote  the  second  part  of  the 
'Winterreise'  (Nos.  13-24), completing  that  im- 
mortal work.  The  shadows  lie  much  darker  on 
the  second  than  on  the  first  part,  and  the  '  Weg- 
weiser,'  <Das  Wirthshaus,'  'Die  Krahe,*  'Die 
Nebensonnen,'  and  *  Der  Leiermann,*  are  unsur- 
passed for  melancholy  among  all  the  songs.  Even 
in  the  extraordinary  and  picturesque  energy  of 
'  Die  Post '  there  is  a  deep  vein  of  sadness.  Schu- 
bert here  only  followed  faithfully,  as  he  always 
does,  the  character  of  the  words. 

On  Oct.  12  he  wrote  a  little  four-hand  march 
as  a  souvenir  for  Faust  Pachler,  the  son  of  his 
host,  a  trifle  interesting  only  from  the  circum- 
stances of  its  composition.  In  the  same  month 
he  composed  his  first  PF.  trio,  In  Bt^  (op.  99), 
and  in  November  the  second,  in  £b  (op.  100). 
They  were  both  written  for  Booklet,  Schuppan- 
zigh,  and  Lincke,  and  were  first  heard  in  public, 
the  one  early  in  January,  the  other  on  March 
26,  1828.  The  year  was  closed  with  an  Italian 
cantata,  dated  Dec.  26,  'alia  bella  Irene,'  in 
honour  of  Frl.  Kiesewetter  (afterwards  Mme.  Pro- 
kesch  V.  Osten),  the  daughter  of  his  friend  the 
Hofrath,  sponsor  to  the  Gastein  Symphony 
(p.  306a).  It  is  probably  more  interesting  for 
its  accompaniment  for  two  pianos  than  for  any- 
thing else. 

The  communications  with  Probst  of  Leipzig 
went  on.  There  is  a  letter  from  him  dated  Jan. 
15,  and  he  himself  paid  a  visit  to  Vienna  later 
in  the  season,  and  made  Schubert's  *  personal 
acquaintance,  but  the  negotiations  were  not 
destined  to  bear  frait  till  next  year.  But  a 
proof  that  Schubert  was  making  his  mark  in 
North  Germany  is  afforded  by  a  letter  from 
Rochlitz,  the  critic^^itor  of  the  Leipzig  AUge- 
meine  Musikaligehe  Zeitung,  and  a  great  person- 
age in  the  musical  world  of  Saxony — dated  Nov. 
7, 1 827,  proposing  that  Schubert  should  compose 
a  ]M>em  by  him,  called  '  Der  erste  Ton,'  or  *  The 
first  Sound,'  a  poem  which  Weber  had  already 
set  without  success,  and  which  Beethoven  had 
refused.  Rochlitz's  letter  was  probably  inspired 
by  the  receipt  of  three  of  his  songs  set  by 

>  Ther  stood  orlginaUy  la  Bb  minor  and  a)».  bat  on  npabllmUoa 
br  Diabelli  after  hln  death,  aa  o^  8S.  the  kef  v«e  chanted  toO 
minor  and  O  major. 

9  Compare  Jenser'i  letter  In  S.ff,  (It.  lOS).  note,  with  Kottebohms 
notice  under  op.  106. 

«  K.N.  p.  421  (iL  107). 


1827— 


SCHUBERT 


-1828 


311 


Schabert  as  op.  81,  and  pabUshed  on  May  27. 
The  propositioD,  however,  came  to  nothing. 

Coincident  with  these  communications  from 
abroad  came  a  gratifying  proof  of  the  improve- 
ment in  his  position  at  home,  in  his  election  as 
a  member  of  the  representative  body  of  the  Musi- 
cal Society  of  Vienna.  The  date  of  election  is 
not  mentioned  :  but  Schubert's  reply,  as  given 
by  Herr  Pohl,^  is  dated  Vienna,  June  12,  1827, 
and  runs  as  follows  : — 

The  Managing  Oommlttee  of  the  Hociety  of  Friends 
of  Mosie  of  Uie  Austrian  Empire  having  thought  me 
worthy  of  election  aa  a  Member  of  the  Representative 
BijdyofthateiDeellent  Society,  I  beg  herewith  to  state 
tbafc  I  reel  myself  greatly  honoured  by  their  choioe,  and 
that  I  undertake  the  duties  of  the  position  with  much 
satif&ftion 

-*•"""•  Frakz  Schubebt,  Compositeur. 

We  have  mentioned  the  more  important  com- 
positions of  1827.  There  remain  to  be  named 
two  songs  by  Schober  (op.  96,  No.  2)  ;  and  one 
by  Reil  (op.  115,  No.  1) ;  a  comic  trio,  *Die 
Hochzeitsbraten '  (op.  104),  also  by  Schober; 
and  an  Allegretto  in  C  minor  for  PF.  solo,  written 
for  his  friend  Walcher,  <  in  remembrance  of  April 
26,  1827,*  and  not  published  till  1870. 

The  publications  of  1827  are  as  follows  :— 
the  Overture  to  'Alfonso  und  Estrella '  (op.  69) ; 
Rondeau  brillant,  for  PF.,  and  violin  (op.  70)  ; 
songs— 'Der  Wachtelachlag  *  (op.  68,  March  2), 
'Drang  in  die  Feme ' (op.  71,  Feb.),  *  Auf  dem 
Wiaser  zn  singen'  (op.  72,  Feb.),  *  Die  Rose' 
(op.  73,  May  10) — all  four  songs  previously  pub- 
lished in  the  YiexmA  ZeUschrifi/ur  KuiisA  ;  four 
Poloiuuses,  for  PF.  four  hands  (op.  75) ;  Over- 
ture to  'Fierrabras,'  for  PF.  four  hands,  arranged 
by  Czemy  (op.  76);  t\velve  'Valses  Nobles,' 
for  PF.  solo  (op.  77,  Jan.) ;  Fantasie,  etc.  for 
PF.  in  G  (op.  78)  ;  two  songs,  *  Das  Heimweh,' 
'Die  Allmacht'^(op.  79,  'May  16');  three 
songs  (op.  80,  May  26) ;  three  ditto  (op.  81, 
May  28)  ;  Variations  on  theme  of  Herold's  (op. 
92,  Dec);  three  Italian  songs  (op.  83,  Sept. 
12);  four  songs  (op.  88,  Dec.  12). 

Wc  have  now  arrived  at  Schubert's  last  year, 
1828.  It  would  be  wrong  to  suppose  that  he 
had  any  presentiment  of  his  end  ;  though,  if  a 
{asrion  for  work,  an  eager  use  of  the  '  day, '  were 
any  lign  that  the  '  night '  was  coming  'in  which 
no  man  could  work,'  we  might  almost  be  justi- 
M  in  doing  so.  We  hear  of  his  suffering  from 
blood  to  the  head,  but  it  was  not  yet  enough  to 
%hten  any  one.  He  returned  to  the  extra- 
ordinary exertions,  or  rather  to  the  superabun- 
<)%nt  productions  of  his  earlier  years,  as  the 
following  full  list  of  the  compositions  of  1828, 
in  order,  as  far  as  the  dates  permit,  will  show. 

(u.       %,m^  'Die BtcRM '  (op.  W.  Na  1):  * Der  Wlnterabend.' 
^^>R^    Bympbonj  in  C.  No.  ». 

Oratorio,  Mliiuii'i  SlcfMnaaBg. 

■ooff;  *  Asf  d«m  Strom.'Voice  and  Horn  (op.  119). 
^r       UtNOMtaime.  PF.  dnet  (op.  144). 

Hrain  to  th«  Hdtr  Ohort  (op.  164).  for  two  Choln  and 
Wind. 

SCUrl«niiA(^«L 


>  M*  QmdUekaft  4«r  Mutitfrwnde.  etc..  p.  16. 


Man  in  flb  (begun). 
I  In  B  mine 


1828'). 


minor.  PF.  duet,  op.   102  ('Baden.  Junj, 


Orand  Rondeau.  PF.  duet  (op.  107). 

Ptalm  9S,  in  Hebrew,  for  Baritone  and  Chorna. 


'  Nw.  1-13. 


July. 

Antnat  Soan. '  Sdiwaneniew  ng. ' 

S^pt       PFTSoiiaU  in  C  minor. 

Ditto  In  A. 

Ditto  In  Eb  ('  Sept.  98 '). 
Between  Anguet  and  October.    Tantum  ergo  in  B  flat,  and  Offer- 

torlum  in  B  flat,  tor  tenor  lolo.  cboroa,  and  orcbeitra. 

Pnhltabed  1880  by  Feten. 
October.  Song,  '  Sebwanengceang.'  No.  14. 

New  Benedietua  to  Maes  in  C. 

'  Dor  Hilt  auf  den  Felaen.'  Voice  and  Clarinet  (op.  128). 

*  1898 '  only.    String  Quintet  In  C  (op.  168). 

This  truly  extraordinary  list  includes  his 
greatest  known  symphony,  his  greatest  and  long- 
est mass,  his  first  oratorio,  his  finest  piece  of 
chamber  music,  three  noble  PF.  sonatas,  and 
some  astonishingly  fine  songs.  The  autograph 
of  the  symphony,  218  pages  in  oblong  quarto, 
is  now  one  of  the  treasures  of  the  Library  of 
the  Musikverein  at  Vienna.  It  has  no  title 
or  dedication,  nothing  beyond  the  customary 
heading  to  the  first  page  of  the  score  *  Symfonie 
Miirz  1828,  Frz.  Schubert  Mpia,'  marking  the 
date  at  which  it  was  begun.  If  it  may  be  taken 
as  a  specimen,  he  took  more  pains  this  year 
than  he  did  formerly.  In  the  first  three  move- 
ments of  this  great  work  there  are  more  after- 
thoughts than  usual.  The  subject  of  the 
Introduction  and  the  first  subject  of  the  Allegro 
have  both  been  altered.  In  several  passages  an 
extra  bar  has  been  stuckin — between  the  Scherzo 
and  the  Trio,  two  bars  ;  in  the  development  of 
the  Scherzo  itself  sixteen  bars  of  an  exquisite 
episode — first  sketched  in  the  Octet — have  been 
substituted.  The  Finale  alone  remains  virtually 
untouched.'  But  such  alterations,  always  rare 
in  Schubert,  are  essentially  diflerent  from  the 
painful  writing,  and  erasing,  and  rewriting,  which 
we  are  familiar  with  in  the  case  of  Beethoven's 
finestand most  spontaneousmnsic.  This,  though 
the  first  draft,  is  no  rough  copy  ;  there  are  no 
traces  of  sketches  or  preparation  ;  the  music  has 
evidently  gone  straight  on  to  the  paper  without 
any  intervention,  and  the  alterations  are  merely 
a  few  improvements  en  passa^U,^  It  is  im- 
possible to  look  at  the  lATiting  of  the  autograph, 
after  Schubert  has  warmed  to  his  work,  especially 
that  of  the  Finale,  and  not  see  that  it  was  put 
down  as  an  absolute  impromptu^  written  as  fast 
as  the  pen  could  travel  on  the  paper. 

It  seems  that  Schubert's  friends  used  to  lec- 
ture him  a  good  deal  on  the  diffuseness  and  want 
of  consideration  which  they  discovered  in  his 
works,  and  were  continually  forcing  Beethoven's 
laborious  processes  of  composition  down  his 
throat.  This  often  made  him  angry,  and  when 
repeated,  evening  after  evening,  he  would  say, 

*  So  you're  going  to  set  upon  me  again  to-day  ! 
Go  it,  I  beg  you  ! '  But,  for  all  his  annoyance, 
the  remonstrances  appear  to  have  had  some 
effect ;  and  after  Beethoven's  death  he  asked 

'  See  details  by  tbe  praeent  writer  in  Appendix  to  tbe  lift  9f 
8<Aub«rt.  tranelated  by  A.  D.  Coleridge.  Enq.,  toI.  11.  p.  390. 

'  The  original  MS.  orehoetral  part*  abow  at  any  rate  that  the 
alterations  In  the  score  were  made  before  they  were  copied  from  it. 
C.  v.  Stanford  kindly  examined  them  for  me  with  that  view. 


312 


1828 


SCHUBERT 


1828 


Schindler  to  show  him  the  MS.  of  'Fidelio.'* 
He  took  it  to  the  piano,  and  pored  over  it  a 
long  time,  making  out  the  passages  as  they 
had  been,  and  comparing  them  with  what  they 
were  ;  but  it  would  not  do  ;  and  at  last  he  broke 
out,  and  exclaimed  that  for  such  drudgery  he 
could  see  no  reason  under  any  circumstances  ; 
that  he  thought  the  music  at  first  just  as  good 
as  at  last ;  and  that  for  his  part  he  had  really 
no  time  for  such  corrections.  Whether  the 
amendments  to  the  Great  Symphony  were  a  re- 
morseful attempt  on  Schubert's  part  to  imitate 
Beethoven  and  satisfy  the  demands  of  his  friends 
we  cannot  tell  ;  but  if  so  they  are  very  unlike 
the  psttem. 

The  autograph  of  the  £b  Mass,  in  the  Biblio- 
thek  at  Berlin,  does  not  show  at  all  the  same 
amount  of  corrections  as  that  in  Ab  (see  p. 
298a),  nor  do  the  fugal  movements  appear  to 
have  given  any  special  trouble.  True,  the 
'Cum  Sancto'  was  recommenced  after  the 
erasure  of  seven  bars,*  but  apparently  merely 
for  the  sake  of  changing  the  tempo  from  C  ^  $> 
and  the  larger  part  of  the  movement  was 
evidently  written  with  great  rapidity.     In  the 

*  Et  vitam '  there  are  biurely  a  dozen  corrections, 
and  the  '  Osanna  '  has  every  mark  of  extreme 
haste.  Some  of  the  erasures  in  this  work  are 
made  with  the  penknife — surely  an  almost  unique 
thing  with  Schubert !  The  four-hand  PF.  fugue 
in  E  minor  (op.  152,  dated  '  Baden,  June  1828  ') 
is  not  improbably  a  trial  of  counterpoint  with 
reference  to  this  Mass. 

The  Songs  of  1828  are  splendid.  It  does  not 
appear  that  the  fourteen  which  were  published 
after  his  death  with  the  publisher's  title  of 

*  Schwanengesang — 'the  Swan's  song' — were  in- 
tended by  him  to  form  a  series  of  the  same  kind 
as  the  *Sch6ne  Miillerin'  and  *  Winterreise' ;  but 
no  lover  of  Schubert  can  dissociate  them,  and 
in  the  '  Liebesbotschaft,'  '  Aufenthalt,'  *  Stand- 
chen, '  etc. ,  we  have  some  of  the  most  beautiful,  and 
in  the  *  Atlas,'  'Am  Meer,'  *  Doppelganger,'  etc., 
some  of  the  most  impressive,  of  his  many  songs. 
The  words  of  some  are  by  Rellstab,  and  the  origin 
of  these  is  thus  told  by  Schindler.  ^  Schubert 
had  been  much  touched  by  Schindler's  efforts 
to  make  Beethoven  acquainted  with  his  music, 
and  after  the  great  master's  death  the  two 
gradually  became  intimate.  Schindler  had 
possession  of  many  of  Beethoven's  papers,  and 
Schubert  used  to  visit  him  in  familiar  style, 
to  look  over  them.  Those  which  specially  at- 
tracted him  were  the  poems  and  dramas  sent  in 
at  various  times  for  consideration ;  amongst 
others  a  bundle  of  some  twenty  anonymous 
lyrics  which  Beethoven  had  intended  to  set,  and 
which  therefore  attracted  Schubert's  particular 

>  Schindler.  Xrinneruttfen,  in  Jft»Urr1ttiHi$che  MuHkttUung, 
188TjPp.  78-78.  81-86. 

^  The  omlnion  of  the  words  *  Jmu  OhrUie '  at  the  end  of  the 

*  Qaoniam.'  and  other  omtHione,  riiow  that  he  had  not  conqnared 
the  carelewneM  no  freqnent  In  his  early  Maaees  ai  to  the  treatment 
of  the  words. 

>  Schindler,  Erinntrun^fen,  etc,  as  before. 


notice.  *  He  took  them  away  with  him,  and  in 
two  days  brought  back  the  'Liebesbotschaft,' 
'Kriegers  Ahnung,'  and  <  Aufenthalt,'  set  to 
music.  This  account,  which  is  perfectly  natural 
and  consistent,  and  which  Mr.  Thayer  allows  me 
to  say  he  sees  no  reason  to  question,  has  been  ex- 
aggerated ^  into  a  desire  expressed  by  Beethoven 
himself  that  Schubert  should  set  these  particular 
songs  ;  but  for  this  there  is  no  warrant.  Ten 
more  quickly  followed  the  three  just  mentioned  ; 
and  these  thirteen — seven  to  Bellstab's  and  ax 
to  Heine's  words  (from  the  *  Buch  der  Lieder '  •), 
were,  on  Nottebohm's  authority,  written  in 
August.  The  last  is  by  Seidl ;  it  is  dated  '  Oct 
1828,'  and  is  probably  Schubert's  last  song. 

But  it  is  time  to  return  to  the  chronicle  of  his 
life  during  its  last  ten  months.  Of  his  doings 
in  January  we  know  little  more  than  can  be 
gathered  from  the  following  letter  to  Anselm 
Hiittenbrenner,  the  original  of  which  is  in  the 
British  Museum  (Add.  MS.  29,804,/,  24). 
Vebrha,  /OK.  18, 1828. 
Ht  dear  old  Hf)TTBSBaB2niER— Toa  will  wonder  at 
my  writing  now?  So  del.  But  if  I  write  it  is  because  I 
am  to  get  something  by  it.  Now  Just  listen  ;  a  drawing- 
master's  place  near  you  at  Oraz  is  vacant,  and  compe- 
tition is  invited.  Hy  brother  Karl,  whom  yon  probably 
know,  wishes  to  get  the  place.  He  is  very  clever,  both 
as  a  landscape-painter  and  a  draughtsman.  If  you  could 
do  anything  for  him  in  the  matter  I  should  be  eternally 
obliged  to  you.  Tou  are  a  great  man  in  Oraz,  and  prob- 
ably know  some  one  In  authority,  or  some  one  else  who 
has  a  vote.  My  brother  is  married,  and  has  a  Ikmily, 
and  would  therefore  be  very  glad  to  obtain  a  permaneDt 
appointment  I  hope  that  things  are  all  right  with  yon, 
as  well  as  with  your  dear  Ikmily,  and  your  brothen. 
A  Trio  of  mine,  for  Pianoforte,  Violin,  and  Violoncello, 
has  been  lately  performed  by  Bchuppansigh,  and  vu 
much  liked.  It  was  splendidly  executed  by  BokI«t, 
Bchuppanzigh,  and  Link.  Have  you  done  nothing  oew  ? 
Apropos,  why  doesn't  Greiner,?  or  whatever  his  name  is, 
lublfehthi  '  •  '• 


publish  the  two  songs  ?  What's  the  reason  ?  Sappwment ! 

[oping  fora  ' 
I  remain  your  true  friend,  till  death, 


1  repeat  my  request ;  recollect,  what  you  do  for  my 
brother,  yoU  do  for  me.    Hoping  for  a  Cftvorable  answer, 


Franz  Schubert  Mpls. 
of  Vienna. 

The  expression  *till  death,'  which  appears 
here  for  the  first  time  in  his  letters,  and  the 
words  '  of  Vienna,'  added  to  his  name,  are  botJi 
singular. 

On  the  24th,  at  an  evening  concert  at  the 
Musikverein,  the  serenade  for  contralto  solo  and 
female  chorus  just  mentioned  was  performed, 
and  is  spoken  of  by  the  correspondent  of  the 
Leipzig  A.M.Z,  as  'one  of  the  most  charming 
works  of  this  favourite  writer. '  In  February  we 
find  three  letters  from  North  Germany,  one  from 
Probst  of  Leipzig,  and  two  from  Schott.  Tliey 
show  how  deep  an  impression  Schubert  was 
making  outside  Austria.     Both  firms  express 

«  Th«y  popovcd  Aftsrwardi  to  be  bj  RdlaUb. 

s  8«e  Eulitab's  Aua  m.  £«6eti,  IL  94fi. 

8  Baron  SchOniteln  nUtas— jr.J7.  d.  i47  (U.  ISSV- that  he  fwund 
Heine's '  Budi  der  Lieder '  on  Schnberi'e  table  eoane  years  before  this 
date,  and  that  Schubert  lent  them  to  him  vith  the  ranark  *  that  be 
ihottld  not  want  them  egkin.'  But  eueh  remiDleMnoee  arc  ofufi 
wrong  in  point  of  date :  the  fact  remalna  tneflbeeable  in  the  miiKi. 
the  date  easily  oete  altered.  In  fact  Heine's  *  Bocli  der  Ltodcr '  «v 
Arst  pablished  in  1827.  The  six  songB'*^ich  Bdtnbert  took  fran  it 
are  all  from  the  section  entitled  '  Die  Hcimkehr.' 

7  A  pnbliiher  in  Oraz.  His  name  was  Kienreidi,  and  the  tvo 
songs,  *Im  Walde'  and  *Anf  der  Brack'  (op.  0).  aiiiearsd  in 
May. 


1828 


SCHUBERT 


1828 


313 


warm  Appreciation  of  his  music,  both  leave  the 
terms  to  be  named  by  him,  and  Schott  orders 
a  list  of  nine  important  pieces. 
On  March  26  Schubert  gave,  what  we  wonder 


he  never  gave  before,  an  evening  concert  on  his 
own  account  in  the  Hall  of  the  Musikvorein. 
The  following  is  the  programme  exactly  re- 
printed from  the  original : — 


Einladung 

zu  dem  Privat  Concerte.  welches  Franz  Schubert  am 

26.  Marz,  Abends  7  Uhr  im  Locale  des  oeaterreichiachen  Masikvereins 

untar  den  Tuchlaubeu  No.  658  zn  geben  die  Ehre  haben  wird. 

Vorkommende  Stiicke. 

1.  Eniter  Satz  einea  neuen  Streich  Quartette  vorgetragen  von 
den  Herren  Bohm,  Holz,  Weiss,  und  Linke. 

S.  a.  Der  Kreotzzug,  von  Leitner  ^  Gesange  mit  Begleitnng  des 

b.  Die  Sterne,        vou  demselben        I  Piano  Forte,  vorgetragen  von 

c.  Fiacherweise,    vonBar.Schlechta  jHerm  VogI,  k.  k.  penaionirten 

d.  Fragment  aos  dem  Aeschylus        J  Hofopemaanger. 

8.  Standchen  von  Grillparzer,  Sopnui-Solo  und  Chor,  vorgetragen  von 
Fraulein  Josephine  FrOhlich  und  den  SchiUerlnnen  des  Con- 
servatoriuma. 

4.  Neues  Trio  fUr  des  Piano  Forte,  Violin  und  Vloloncelle, 
vcnrgetragen  von  den  Herren  Carl  Maria  von  Boklet,  Bohm  und  Linke. 

5.  Auf  dem  Strome  von  Rellatab.    Gesang  mit  Begleitung 
des  Horns  und  Piano  Forte,  vorgetragen  von  den  Herren 
Tietze,  und  Lewy  dem  JUngeren. 

6.  Die  Allmacht,  von  Ladislaus  Pyrker,  Gesang  mit  Begleitung 
des  Piano  Forte,  voigetragon  von  Herren  Vogl. 

7.  Schlachtgesang  von  Klopfatock,  Doppelchor  fUr  Miinnerstimmen. 

Siimmtllche  MusikstUcke  sind  von  der  Composition  des  Goncertgebers. 
Eintrittekarten  zu  fl.  S.  W.  W.  sind  in  den  Kunsthandlungen 
der  Herren  Haalinger,  Diabelli  und  Leidesdorf  zu  haben. 


This  programme  attracted  '  more  people  than 
the  hall  had  ever  before  been  known  to  hold,* 
and  the  applause  was  very  great.  Tlie  net 
result  to  Schubert  was  800  gulden,  Vienna 
currency,  equal  to  about  £82.  This  put  him 
in  funds  for  the  moment,  and  the  money  flowed 
freely.  Thus,  when,  three  days  later,  Paganini 
gave  his  first  concert  in  Vienna,  Schubert  was 
there,  undeterred,  in  his  wealth,  by  a  charge  of 
five  gulden.  Nay,  he  went  a  second  time,  not 
that  he  cared  to  go  again,  but  that  he  wished  to 
treat  Bauemfcld,  who  had  not  five  farthings, 
^hile  with  him  'money  was  as  plenty  as 
blackberries.' ^ 

This  month  he  wrote,  or  began  to  write,  his 
last  and  greatest  Symphony,  in  C.  He  is  said 
to  have  offered  it  to  the  society  for  performance, 
and  in  so  doing  to  have  expressed  himself  to  the 
effect  that  henceforth  he  wished  to  have  nothing 
more  to  do  with  songs,  as  he  was  now  planted 
firaily  in  Opera  and  Symphony.  Tliis  rests  on 
the  authority  of  Kreissle  ;  *  the  silence  of  Hen- 
Mi  in  his  history  of  the  society  shows  that  its 
minnte-books  contain  no  express  mention  of  the 
reception  of  the  work,  as  they  do  that  of  the 
symphony  in  October  1 826.  There  is  no  doubt, 
howeyer,  that  it  was  adopted  by  the  society, 
and  is  entered  in  the  Catalogue,  under  the  year 
1S2S,  as  xiiL  8024. ^  But  this  prodigious  work 
vas  far  beyond  the  then  powers  of  the  chief 
musical  institution  of  Vienna.  The  parts  were 
<^opied  and  some  rehearsals  held  ;  but  both 
^«ngth  and  difficulty  were  against  it,  and  it  was 

, '  ^  Baomifcld'ii  Letter  in  the  /yMW.  April  17.  IMB.    nddter- 
«y.  •  cb*ff.'  i«  Schnbert'a  word.  2  A'.  //.  p.  44A  (11. 182). 

'  8«  H«T  Pohr«  letter  to  the  Ttmn,  of  Oct  17, 1881. 


soon  withdrawn,  on  Schubert's  own  advice,  in 
favour  of  his  earlier  Symphony,  Ko.  6,  also  in 
C.  Neither  the  one  nor  the  other  was  performed 
till  after  his  death. 

March  also  saw  the  birth  of  the  interesting 
Oratorio  'Miriam's  Song  of  Victory,*  to  Grill- 
parzer's  words.^  It  is  written,  as  so  many  of 
Schubert's  choral  pieces  are,  for  a  simple  piano- 
forte accom})animent ;  but  this  was  merely  to 
suit  the  means  at  his  disposal,  and  is  an  instance 
of  his  practical  sagacity.  It  is  unfortunate, 
however,  since  the  oratorio  has  becomea  favourite, 
that  we  have  no  other  orchestral  accompaniment 
than  that  aftem'ards  adapted  by  Lachner,  which 
is  greatly  wanting  in  character,  and  in  the 
picturesque  elements  so  native  to  Schubert.* 
A  song  to  Rellstab's  words,  'Auf  dem  Strom' 
(op.  119),  for  soprano,  with  obbligato  horn  and 
PF.  accompaniment,  written  for  Lewy,  a  Dresden 
horn- player,  belongs  to  this  month,  and  was 
indeed  first  heard  at  Schubert's  own  concert,  on 
the  26th,  and  afterwards  repeated  at  a  concert 
of  Lewy's,  on  April  20,  Schubert  himself  play- 
ing the  accomi)animent  each  time. 

To  April  no  compositions  can  be  ascribed  un- 
less it  be  the  Quintet  in  C  for  strings  (op.  163), 
which  bears  only  the  date  *  1828.'  This  is  now 
universally  accepted  not  only  as  Schubert's  finest 
piece  of  chamber  music,  but  as  one  of  the  very 
finest  of  its   class.     The   two   violoncellos  in 

*  Kralale.  p.  flOQ  (il.  S8S).  Mja  that  it  wm  produced  In  the  Bchubert 
Concert.  March  1828L  Bat  this  la  contradicted  by  the  Pn>grr»mnie 
which  Is  printed  above.  It  was  first  performed  Jan.  30.  1^29.  at  a 
concert  for  enscting  Schubert's  headstone. 

>  It  has  been  perfonned  (with  L«chner's  orchestration)  at  the 
Cryatal  Palsoe  several  times,  at  the  Leeds  Feeti  val  1880.  and  elsewhere 
in  England. 


314 


1828 


SCHUBERT 


1828 


themselves  give  it  distinction ;  it  has  all  the 
poetry  and  romance  of  the  G  mi^or  Quartet, 
without  the  extravagant  length  which  will 
always  stand  in  the  way  of  that  noble  produc- 
tion ;  while  the  Adagio  is  so  solemn  and  yet  so 
beautiful  in  its  tone,  so  entrancing  in  its  melodies, 
and  so  incessant  in  its  interest,  and  the  Trio  of 
the  Scherzo,  both  from  itself  and  its  place  in 
the  movement,  is  so  eminently  dramatic,  that 
it  is  difficult  to  speak  of  either  too  highly. 
In  May  we  have  a  grand  battle-piece,  the 

*  Hymn  to  the  Holy  Ghost,*  for  eight  male  voices, 
written  for  the  Concert  Spirituel  of  Vienna,  at 
first  with  PF.,  in  October  scored  by  the  com- 
poser for  a  wind  band,  and  in  1847  published 
as  op.  154.  Also  a  '  Characteristic  Allegro'  for 
the  PF.  four  hands,  virtually  the  first  movement 
of  a  Sonata — issued  some  years  later  with  the  title 

*  Lebensstiirme  *  (op.  144)  ;  an  Allegro  vivace 
and  Allegretto,  in  £b  minor  and  major,  for  PF. 
solo,  published  in  1868  as  first  and  second  of 

*  8  ClavierBtilcke ' ;  and  a  song  '  Widerschein.* 

In  June,  probably  at  the  request  of  the  pub- 
lisher, he  wrote  a  four-hand  Rondo  for  PF.  in 
A,  since  issued  as  *  Grand  Rondeau,  op,  107  ' ; 
and  began  his  sixth  Mass,  that  in  £b.  In  this 
month  he  paid  a  visit  to  Baden — Beethoven's 
Baden  ;  since  a  fugue  for  four  hands  in  £  minor 
is  marked  as  written  there  in  *  June  1828.'  In 
the  midst  of  all  this  work  a  letter  *  from  Mose- 
wius  of  Breslau,  a  prominent  Prussian  musician, 
full  of  sympathy  and  admiration,  must  have 
been  doubly  gratifying  as  coming  from  North 
Germany. 

In  July  he  wrote  the  92nd  Psalm  in  Hebrew 
for  the  synagogue  at  Vienna,  of  which  Sulzer 
was  precentor.  In  August,  notwithstanding  his 
declaration  on  completing  his  last  Symphony, 
we  find  him  (under  circumstances  already  de- 
scribed) comi)osing  seven  songs  of  Rellstab's, 
and  six  of  Heine's,  afterwards  issued  as  '  Schwa- 
nengesang.' 

He  opened  September  with  a  trifle  in  the 
shape  of  a  short  chorus,^  with  accompaniment 
of  wind  band,  for  the  consecration  of  a  bell  in 
the  church  of  the  Alservorstadt.  A  few  days 
after,  the  memory  of  Hummel's  visit  in  the 
spring  of  1827  seems  to  have  come  upon  him 
like  a  lion,  and  he  wrote  off  three  fine  PF.  solo 
sonatas,  with  the  view  of  dedicating  them  to 
that  master.  These  pieces,  though  very  un- 
equal and  in  parts  extraordinarily  diffuse,  are 
yet  highly  characteristic  of  Schubert.  They 
contain  some  of  his  finest  and  most  original 
music,  and  also  his  most  affecting  (e.g.  Andan- 
tino,  Scherzo  and  Trio  of  the  A  minor  Sonata)  ; 
and  if  full  of  disappointment  and  wrath,  and 
the  gathering  gloom  of  these  last  few  weeks  of 
his  life,  they  are  also  saturated  with  that  name- 
less personal  charm  that  is  at  once  so  strong 
t  x./Ap.4a8m.  114). 

«  K.U.  p.  44S  (IL 1311.  Thil  pleoe,  '  Olaube.  Hofniung.  und  Ltobe.' 
U  not  to  b«  cotifonnded  with  one  of  almilkr  title  for  a  aolo  voice, 
published.  Oct.  6, 1898.  as  op.  87. 


and  so  indescribable.  The  third  of  the  three, 
that  in  B^,  dated  Sept.  26,  has  perhaps  more 
of  grace  and  finish  than  the  other  two.  The 
sonatas  were  not  published  till  a  year  after 
Hummel's  death,  and  were  then  dedicated  by 
Diabelli- Spina  to  Robert  Schumann,  who  ac- 
knowledges the  dedication  by  a  genial  though 
hardly  adequate  article  in  his  Oes,  Schri/ten^  ii. 
239.  The  second  part  of  the  *  Winterreiae '  was 
put  into  Haslinger's  hands  for  engraving  before 
the  end  of  this  month.' 

In  October,  prompted  by  some  occasion  which 
has  eluded  record,  he  wrote  a  new  <  Benedictns ' 
to  his  early  Mass  in  C,  a  chorus  of  great  beanty 
and  originality  in  A  minor,  of  which  a  com- 
petent critic  *  has  said  that  '  its  only  fault  con- 
sists in  its  immeasurable  superiority  to  the  rest 
of  the  Mass.'  To  the  same  period  may  be  as- 
signed a  fine  offertorium,  '  Intende  voci  orationis 
meae, '  and  an  extremely  beautiful '  Tantum  ergo ' 
in  £b,  for  chorus  and  orchestra.  For  some 
other  occasion,  which  has  also  vanished,  he 
wrote  accompaniments  for  thirteen  wind  iiifltni- 
ments  to  his  grand  *  Hymn  to  the  Holy  Ghost ' ; 
a  long  scena  or  song  for  soprano — probably  his 
old  admirer,  Anna  Milder — with  pianoforte  and 
obbligato  cUtrinet  (op.  129)  ;  and  a  song  called 
'Die  Taubenpost'  ('The  carrier  pigeon')  to 
Seidl's  words.  The  succession  of  these  pieces 
is  not  known.  It  is  always  assumed  that  the 
Taubenpost,  which  now  closes  the  Schwanen- 
gesang,  was  the  last.  Whichever  of  them  was 
the  last,  was  the  last  piece  he  ever  wrote. 

The  negotiations  with  Probst  and  Schott,  and 
also  with  Briiggemann  of  Halberstadt,  a  pab- 
lisher  anxious  for  some  easy  PF.  pieces  for  a 
series  called  '  Miihling's  Museum,'  by  no  means 
fiilfiUed  the  promise  of  their  commencement. 
The  magnificent  style  in  which  the  Schotts  de- 
sired Schubert  to  name  his  own  terms  ^  contrasts 
badly  with  their  ultimate  refusal  (Oct.  80)  to 
pay  more  than  80  florins  (or  about  25s.)  for  the 
PF.  Quintet  (op.  114)  instead  of  the  modest 
sixty  demanded  by  him.  In  fact  the  sole  result 
was  an  arrangement  with  Probst  to  publish  the 
long  and  splendid  £b  Trio,  which  he  did,  accord- 
ing to  Nottebohm,®  in  September,  and  for  which 
the  composer  received  the  incredibly  small  sum 
of  21  Vienna  florins,  or  just  17s.  6d. !  Schu- 
bert's answer  to  Probst's  inquiry  as  to  the 
'Dedication'  is  so  characteristic  as  to  deserve 
reprinting : — 

ViKNiTA,  Aug.  1. 

Buer  Wohlgeboren,  the  opus  of  the  Trio  is  100.  I 
entreat  you  to  make  the  edition  correct :  I  am  extremely 
anxious  about  it  The  voiic  will  be  dedicated  to  no  one 
but  those  who  like  it.  That  is  the  most  profitable 
dedication.    With  all  esteem, 

Fbanz  Schubcrt. 


3  SchabeK'i  lettOT  to  Jensw.  Sept.  «.    JT.  IT.  p.  437  ai.  ISi). 

«  Mr.  E.  Front  In  the  MmAlg  Jitulcal  itwserd  for  1871.  p.  BS. 

•  K.tr.  pu  484  (it.  109). 

9  Probrt  announooi  two  long  llct*  of  n«v  muatc  Intb*  A.M.Z.  for 
Oct. ,  Imt  nwkes  no  mentioa  of  the  Trio.  It  ia  rvv  iewed  aoefc  tftroer- 
•bly  In  the  A.M.X.  for  Dec.  10.  ISSS.  AIm  I  he  wm  then  htfoni  the 
reach  of  pniae  or  bbune. 


1828 


SCHUBERT 


1828 


315 


The  home  publications  of  1828  are  not  so  im- 
portant as  those  of  former  years.  The  first  part 
of  the '  Winterreise '  (op.  8  9)  was  issued  in  January 
by  Haslinger;  March  14,  three  songs  by  Sir 
W.  Scott  (opix  86,  86)  by  Diabelli ;  at  Easter 
(April  6)  six  aongs  (opp.  92  and  108),  and  one 
s^'t  of  'Momens  musicals,'  by  Leidesdorf ;  in 
May,  two  songs  (op.  93)  by  Kienreich  '  of  Graz  ; 
in  June  or  July  ('  Sommer '),  four  songs  (op.  96) 
by  Diabelli ;  Aug.  IS,  four  Refrain-Lieder  (op. 
95),  Weigl.  Also  the  following,  to  which  no 
month  can  be  fixed  : — *  Andantino  vari^  and 
Rondeau  brillant '  (op.  84),  PF.  four  hands,  on 
French  motifs,  forming  a  continuation  of  op. 
63,  Weigl;  three  songs  (op.  87),  Pennauer ; 
four  impromptus  (op.  90),  and  twelve  Griitzer 
Waltzer  (op.  91)  forPF.  solo,  Diabelli ;  Griitzer 
Galoppe,  do.  Haslinger ;  four  songs  (op.  106) 
lithographed  without  publisher's  name. 

There  is  nothing  in  the  events  already  cata- 
logued to  have  prevented  Schubert's  taking  an 
excursion  this  summer.  In  either  Styria  or 
Upper  Austria  he  would  have  been  welcomed 
Trith  open  arms,  and  the  journey  might  have 
idven  him  a  stock  of  health  sufficient  to  carry 
him  on  for  years.  And  he  appears  to  have 
entertained  the  idea  of  both.^  But  the  real 
obstacle,  sa  he  constantly  repeats,  was  his 
poverty.*  *It*8  all  over  with  Graz  for  the 
present,'  he  says,  with  a  touch  of  his  old  fun, 
'  for  money  and  weather  are  both  against  me.' 
Herr  Franz  Lachner,  at  that  time  his  constant 
companion,  told  the  writer  that  he  had  taken 
half,  a -dozen  of  the  *  Winterreise  *  songs  to 
Haslinger  and  brought  back  half-a-dozen  gulden 
~each  gulden  being  then  worth  a  franc.  Let 
tlie  lover  of  Schubert  pause  a  moment,  and 
think  of  the  *  Post'  or  the  *  Wirthshaus '  being 
sold  for  tenpence  !  of  that  unrivalled  imagina- 
tion and  genius  producing  those  deathless  strains 
and  being  thus  rewarded  !  When  this  was  the 
ca«,  when  even  a  great  work  like  the  Eb  Trio, 
after  months  and  months  of  negotiation  and 
heavy  postage,  realises  the  truly  microscopic 
amount  of  <  20  florins  60  kreutzers '  (as  with 
true  Prussian  businesslike  minuteness  Herr 
Probst  specifies  it),  of  178.  6d.  as  our  modem 
wrrency  has  it — not  even  Schubert's  fluency 
and  rapidity  could  do  more  than  keep  body 
and  soul  together.  It  must  have  been  hard 
not  to  apply  the  words  of  Miiller's  *  Leyermann ' 
to  his  own 


BarftuM  auf  dem  Biite 
Wankt  er  hin  und  her, 
XJnA  min  kleiner  TdUr 
BUOti  ikm  imiHer  Utr. 

In  fact  so  empty  was  his  little  tray  that  he 
conld  not  even  afford  the  diligence-fare  to  Pesth, 
where  Lachner's  *  Biirgschaft '  was  to  be  brought 
out,  and  where,  as  Schindler  reminds  him,  he 
would  be  safe  to  have  a  lucrative  concert  of  his 

>  Whom  SdratNTt  parodtoa  m  '  Oretner '  i,*.  grnmblor. 

*  ieopn's  and  Tmwager's  lettera,  K.E.  pp.  416.  427,  431,  etc 

s  Letten.  K.a.  p.  4X1  (li.  IM).  «tc. 


own  music,  as  profitable  as  that  of  March  26. 
Escape  from  Vienna  by  that  road  was  imi>ossible 
for  him  this  year. 

Schubert  had  for  some  time  past  been  living 
with  Schober  at  the  '  Blaue  Igel '  (or  Blue 
Hedgehog),  still  a  well-known  tavern  and  resort 
of  musicians  in  the  Tuchlauben  ;  but  at  the 
end  of  August  he  left,  and  took  up  his  quarters 
with  Ferdinand  in  a  new  house  in  the  Neue 
Wieden  suburb,  then  known  as  No.  694  Firmian, 
or  Lumpert,^ or  Neugebauten,  Gasse,  now  (1881) 
No.  6  Kettenbriicken  Gasse  ;  a  long  house  with 
three  rows  of  nine  windows  in  front ;  a  brown 
sloping  tiled  roof;  an  entry  in  the  middle  to 
a  quadrangle  behind  ;  a  quiet,  clean,  inoffensive 
place.  Here,  on  the  second  floor,  to  the  right 
hand,  lived  Schubert  for  the  last  five  weeks  of 
his  life,  and  his  death  is  commemorated  by  a 
stone  tablet  over  the  entry,  placed  there  by 
the  Mannergesang  Yerein  in  Nov.  1869,  and 
containing  these  woi-ds  : — '  In  dieseni  Hause 
starb  am  19  November  1828  der  Tondichter 
Franz  Schubert ' — (In  this  house  died  on  Nov. 
19,1 828,  the  composer  Franz  Schubert).  Ferdi- 
nand had  removed  there,  and  Franz  went  there 
too.  He  made  the  move  with  the  concurrence 
of  his  doctor,  von  Rinna,  in  the  hope  that  as 
it  was  nearer  the  country — it  was  just  over  the 
river  in  the  direction  of  the  Belvedere — Schubert 
would  be  able  to  reach  fresh  air  and  exercise 
more  easily  than  he  could  from  the  heart  of 
the  city.  The  old  attacks  of  giddiness  and 
blood  to  the  head  had  of  late  been  frequent, 
and  soon  after  taking  up  his  new  quarters  he 
became  seriously  unwell.  However,  th^s  was 
so  far  relieved  that  at  the  beginning  of  October 
he  made  a  short  walking  tour  with  Ferdinand 
and  two  other  friends  to  Ueber-Waltersdorf, 
and  thence  to  Haydn's  old  residence  and  grave 
at  Eisenstadt,  some  25  miles  from  Vienna.  It 
took  them  three  days,  and  during  that  time 
he  was  very  careful  as  to  eating  and  drinking, 
regained  his  old  cheerfulness,  and  was  often 
very  gay.  Still  he  was  far  from  well,  and  after 
his  return  the  bad  symptoms  revived,  to  the 
great  alarm  of  his  friends.  At  length,  on  the 
evening  of  Oct.  31,  while  at  supper  at  the 
Rothen  Kreuz  in  the  Himmelpfortgrund,  an 
eating-house  much  frequented  by  himself  and 
his  friends,  he  took  some  fish  on  his  plate,  but 
at  the  first  mouthful  threw  down  the  knife  and 
fork,  and  exclaimed  that  it  tasted  like  poison. 
From  that  moment  hardly  anything  but  medicine 
passed  his  \\\»  ;  but  he  still  walked  a  good 
deal.  About  this  time  Lachner  returned  from 
Pesth  in  all  the  glory  of  the  success  of  his 
opera ;  and  though  only  in  Vienna  for  a  few 
days,  he  called  on  his  friend,  and  they  had  two 
hours'  conversation.  Schubert  was  full  of  plans 
for  the  future,  especially  for  the  completion  of 
'Graf  von  Gleichen,'  which,  as  already  men- 
tioned, he  had  sketched  in  the  summer  of  1827. 

«  K.H.  p.  453  itor^. 


316 


1828 


SCHUBERT 


1828 


He  discussed  it  also  with  Bauernfeld  during 
the  next  few  days,  and  spoke  of  the  biilliant 
style  in  which  lie  intended  to  score  it.  About 
this  time  Carl  Holz,  Beethoven's  old  friend,  at 
Schubert's  urgent  rei^uest,  took  him  to  hear 
the  great  master's  C%  minor  Quartet,  still  a 
novelty  in  Vienna.  It  agitated  him  extremely. 
'  He  got  (says  Holz)  into  such  a  state  of  excite- 
ment and  enthusiasm  that  we  were  all  afraid 
for  him.**  On  Nov.  3,  the  morrow  of  All 
Souls'  day,  he  walked  early  in  the  morning  to 
Hernals — then  a  village,  now  a  thickly  built 
suburb  outside  the  Glirtelstrasse — to  hear  his 
brother's  Latin  Requiem  in  the  church  there. 
He  thought  it  simple,  and  at  the  same  time 
etfective,  and  on  the  whole  was  much  pleased 
with  it.  After  the  service  he  walked  for  three 
hours,  and  on  reaching  home  complained  of 
great  weariness. 

Shortly  before  this  time  the  scores  of  Handel's 
oratorios  had  come  into  his  hands — not  impos- 
sibly some  of  the  set  of  Arnold's  edition  given  to 
Beethoven  before  his  death,  and  sold  in  his  sale 
for  102  florins ;  and  the  study  of  them  had 
brought  home  to  him  his  deficiencies  in  the 
department  of  counterpoint.  *  I  see  now,'  said 
he  *  to  the  Frbhlichs,  *  how  much  I  have  still  to 
learn  ;  but  I  amgoing  to  work  hard  with  Sechter, 
and  make  up  for  lost  time ' — Sechter  being  the 
recognised  authority  of  the  day  on  counterpoint. 
So  much  was  he  bent  on  this,  that  on  the  day 
after  his  walk  to  Hernals,  i,e,  on  Nov.  4,  not- 
withstanding his  weakness,  he  went  into  Vienna 
and,  with  another  musician  named  Lanz,  called 
on  Sechter,  to  consult  him  on  the  matter,  and 
they  actually  decided  on  Marpurg  as  the  text- 
book, and  on  the  number  and  dates  of  the 
lessons.^  But  he  never  began  the  course. 
During  the  next  few  days  he  grew  weaker  and 
weaker  ;  and  w^hen  the  doctor  was  called  in,  it 
was  too  late.  About  the  1 1th  he  wrote  a  note  ^ 
to  Schober — doubtless  his  last  letter. 

Dear  Schober, 

I  am  ill.  I  have  eaten  and  drank  nothing  for  eleven 
days,  and  am  so  tired  and  ahakv  that  I  can  only  get 
from  the  bed  to  the  chair,  and  back.  Rinna  is  attending 
ine.     If  I  taste  anything,  I  brine  it  up  again  directly. 

In  this  distressing  condition,  be  so  kind  as  to  help  me 
to  some  reading.  Of  CSooper's  I  have  read  the  Last  of 
the  Mohicans,  the  Spy,  the  Pilot,  and  the  Pioneers.  If 
yon  have  anything  else  of  his,  I  entreat  you  to  leave  it 
with  Frail  von  Bogner  at  the  Coffee  house.  My  brother, 
who  is  conscientiousness  itself,  will  bring  it  to  me  in  the 
most  consciei  i tious  way.    Or  anything  else.  Your  friend, 

Schubert. 

What  answer  Schober  made  to  this  appeal  is  not 
known.  He  is  said  to  have  had  a  daily  report 
of  Schubert's  condition  from  the  doctor,  but 
there  is  no  mention  of  his  having  called.  Spaun, 
Bandhartinger,^  Bauernfeld,  and  Josef  Hiitten- 

1  Qnot«a  by  Nohl.  AevfAown.  lit  964.  Hoix  nays  It  wu  the  lut 
tuoAlc  that  poor  Schubert  heard.  Ferdinand  claims  th«  mme  for 
bl*  Requiem.    At  any  rate  both  were  rery  near  the  end. 

a  Kreimle's  Skatek.  p.  102. 

»  K.//.  p.  451  111.  1381.  raprewly  on  Sechtcr'i  authority. 

*  Olreii  by  Banemfeld.  in  ZM«  Preue,  April  21.  186D. 

3  FrKulelii  (Tinier-Schubert  informs  loe  that  Ferdinand's  wife 
(•till  living.  1R83)  maintains  that  Bandhnrtinffer  wu  the  only  one 
who  viiited  him  during  his  lIlneM ;  but  it  Is  difBcult  to  resist  the 


brenner,  are  all  said  to  have  visited  him  ;  but 
in  those  days  there  was  great  dread  of  infection, 
his  new  residence  was  out  of  the  way,  and 
dangerous  illness  was  such  a  novelty  with  Schu> 
bert  that  his  friends  may  be  excused  for  not 
thinking  the  case  so  grave  as  it  was.  After  a 
few  days  Rinna  himself  fell  ill,  and  his  place 
was  filled  by  a  staff-surgeon  named  Behring. 

On  the  14th  Schubert  took  to  his  bed.«  He 
was  able  to  sit  up  a  little  for  a  few  days  longer, 
and  thus  to  correct  the  proofs  of  the  second  jiart 
of  the  *  Winterreise,*  probably  the  last  occu|*- 
tion  of  those  inspired  and  busy  fingers.  He 
appears  to  have  had  no  pain,  only  increasing 
weakness,  want  of  sleep,  and  great  depression. 
Poor  fellow !  no  wonder  he  was  depressed ! 
everything  was  against  him,  his  weakness,  his 
poverty,  the  dreaiy  house,  the  long  lonely  hours, 
the  cheerless  future — all  concentrated  and  em- 
bodied in  the  hopeless  images  of  Miiller's  poems, 
and  the  sad  gloomy  strains  in  which  he  h<is 
clothed  them  for  ever  and  ever — the  *JjeUte 
Hoffnung,'  the  *Krahe,*  the  '  Wegweiser,  *  the 

*  Wirthshaus,'  the  *  Nebensonnen,'  the  'Leicr- 
mann ' — all  breathing  of  solitude,  broken  hopes, 
illusions,  strange  omens,  poverty,  death,  the 
grave !  As  he  went  through  the  pages,  they 
must  have  seemed  like  pictures  of  his  own  life  : 
and  such  passages  as  the  following,  from  the 

*  Wegweiser  *  (or  Signpost),  can  hardly  have  failed 
to  strike  the  dying  man  as  aimed  at  himself : — 

Einen  Weiser  seh'  ich  stehen, 
Unverriickt  vor  meinem  Blick, 
Eine  Straue  must  ich  geKen^ 
Die  noth  keiner  ging  zuruck. 

Alas !  he  was  indeed  going  the  road  which 
no  one  e'er  retraces  1  On  Sunday  the  16th  the 
doctors  had  a  consultation ;  they  predicted  a 
nervous  fever,  but  had  still  hopes  of  their  patient 
On  the  afternoon  of  Monday,  Bauernfeld  saw 
him  for  the  last  time.  He  was  in  very  bad 
spirits,  and  complained  of  great  weakness,  and 
of  heat  in  his  head,  but  his  mind  was  still  clear, 
and  there  was  no  sign  of  wandering  ;  he  spoke 
of  his  earnest  wish  for  a  good  opera- book.  Latt-r 
in  the  day,  however,  when  the  doctor  arrived, 
he  wus  quite  delirious,  and  typhus  had  unmis- 
takably broken  out  The  next  day,  Tuesday, 
he  was  very  restless  throughout,  trying  continu- 
ally to  get  out  of  bed,  and  constantly  fancying 
himself  in  a  strange  room.  That  evening  be 
called  Ferdinand  on  to  the  bed,  made  him  put 
his  ear  close  to  his  mouth,  and  whisiiered 
mysteriously,  *  What  are  they  doing  with  me ! ' 
'Dear  Franz,' was  the  reply,  'they  are  doing 
all  they  can  to  get  you  well  again,  and  the 
doctor  assures  us  you  will  soon  be  right,  only 
you  must  do  your  best  to  stay  in  bed.*  He  re- 
turned to  the  idea  in  his  wandering — *  I  implore 
you  to  put  me  in  my  own  room,  and  not  to  leave 
me  in  this  comer  under  the  earth  ;   don't  1 

•tatemeut*  of  Banemfeld  (Pr9$m,  AprU  SI,  ISO)  and  of  Krcia>:«* 
infonnanU.  p.  498  (iL  140). 
•<  Ferdinand,  iu  the  y.I.M.  p.  14S. 


1828 


SCHUBERT 


1828 


317 


deserre  a  place  above  ground  ? '  *  Dear  Franz,* 
sud  the  agonised  brother,  '  be  calm ;  trust  your 
brother  Ferdinand,  whom  yon  have  always 
trusted,  and  who  loves  yon  so  dearly.  You  are 
in  the  room  which  you  always  had,  and  lying 
on  your  own  bed.'  'No,'  said  the  dying  man, 
'that's  not  true;  Beethoven  is  not  here.'  So 
strongly  had  the  great  composer  taken  posses- 
sion of  him  !  An  hour  or  two  later  the  doctor 
came,  and  spoke  to  him  in  the  same  style. 
Schubert  looked  him  full  in  the  face  and  made 
no  answer :  but  turning  round  clutched  at  the 
▼all  with  his  poor  tired  hands,  and  said  in  a 
slow  earnest  voice,  'Here,  here,  is  my  end.' 
At  three  in  the  afternoon  of  Wednesday  ttie  1 9th 
Nov.  1828  he  breathed  his  last,  and  his  simple 
earnest  soul  took  its  flight  from  the  world.  He 
was  thirty-one  years,  nine  months,  and  nineteen 
days  old.  There  never  has  been  one  like  him, 
and  there  never  will  be  another. 

His  death,  and  the  letters  of  the  elder  Franz 
and  of  Ferdinand,  bring  out  the  family  relations 
in  a  very  pleasant  light.  The  poor  pious 
bereaved  father,  still  at  his  drudgery  as  '  school 
teacherintheRoesau,'  'afflicted,  yet  strengthened 
by  faith  in  God  and  the  Blessed  Sacraments,' 
writing  to  announce  the  loss  of  his  'beloved 
son,  Franz  Schubert,  musician  and  composer ' ; 
the  good  innocent  Ferdinand,  evidently  re- 
cognised as  Franz's  peculiar  property,  clinging 
to  his  brother  as  the  one  great  man  he  had  ever 
known ;  thinking  only  of  him,  and  of  ftilfilling 
his  last  wish  to  lie  near  Beethoven, — these  form 
a  pair  of  interesting  figures.  Neither  Ignaz  nor 
Carl  appear  at  all  in  connection  with  the  event, 
the  father  and  Ferdinand  alone  are  visible. 

The  funeral  took  place  on  Friday  Nov.  21. 
It  was  bad  weather,  but  a  number  of  friends  and 
sympathisers  assembled.  He  lay  in  his  coffin, 
dressed,  as  the  custom  then  was,  like  a  hermit, 
with  a  crown  of  laurel  round  his  brows.  The 
face  was  calm,  and  looked  more  like  sleep  than 
death.  By  desire  of  the  family  Schober  was 
chief  mourner.  The  coffin  left  the  house  at 
half»paat  two,  and  was  borne  by  a  group  of  young 
men,  students  and  others,  in  red  cloaks  and 
flowers,  to  the  little  church  of  S.  Joseph  in 
Margarethen,  where  the  funeral  service  was  said, 
and  a  motet  by  Gansbacher,  and  a  hymn  of 
Schober's,  *  Der  Friede  sey  mit  dir,  du  engelreine 
8cele ' — ^written  that  morning  in  substitution  for 
his  own  earlier  words,  to  the  music  of  Schubert's 
*  Pax  vobiscum  ' — were  sung  over  the  coffin.  It 
was  then  taken  to  the  Ortsfriedhof  in  the  village 
of  W'ahring,  and  committed  to  the  ground, 
three  places  higher  up  than  the  grave  of 
Beethoven.*  In  ordinary  course  he  would  have 
been  buried  in  the  cemetery  at  Matzleinsdorf,  but 
the  appeal  which  he  made  almost  with  his  dying 
breath  was  naturally  a  law  to  the  tender  heart 
of  Ferdinand,  and  through  his  piety  and  self- 

'  Next  to  BeethoTen  c»ioe  *  PrHherr  von  Waaehrd  * :  then  *  Joh. 
cm  Odood  ftBd  OriUn  0'Oomi«U/  and  then  Schubert 


denial  his  dear  brother  rested  if  not  next,  yet 
near  to  the  great  musician,  whom  he  so  deeply 
reverenced  and  admired.  Late  in  the  afternoon 
Wilhelm  von  Chezy,  son  of  the  authoress  of 
*  Euryanthe '  and  *  Rosamunde,'  who  though  not 
in  Schubert's  intimate  circle  was  yet  one  of  his  ac- 
quaintances, by  some  accident  remembered  that 
he  had  not  seen  him  for  many  months,  and  he 
walked  down  to  Bogner's  coffee-house,  where  the 
composer  was  usually  to  be  found  between  five 
and  seven,  smoking  his  pipe  and  joking  with  his 
friends,  and  where  the  Cooper's  novels  mentioned 
in  his  note  to  Schober  were  not  improbably  still 
waiting  for  him.  He  found  the  little  room 
almost  empty,  and  the  familiar  round  table  de- 
serted. On  entering  he  was  accosted  by  the 
waiter — *Your  honour  is  soon  back  from  the 
funeral ! '  *  Whose  funeral  ? '  said  Chezy  in 
astonishment.  *  Franz  Schubert's,'  replied  the 
waiter,  *  he  died  two  days  ago,  and  is  buried  this 
afternoon.'* 

He  left  no  will.  The  official  inventory  ^  of  his 
possessions  at  the  time  of  his  death,  in  which 
he  is  described  as  '  Tonkiinstler  und  Composi- 
teur ' — musician  and  composer — is  as  follows : — 
'3  dress  coats,  8  walking  coats,  10  pairs  of 
trousers,  9  waistcoats — together  worth  8  7  florins ; 
1  hat^  5  pairs  of  shoes  and  2  of  boots — valued 
at  2  florins ;  4  shirts,  9  cravats  and  pocket  hand- 
kerchiefs, 18  pairs  of  socks,  1  towel,  1  sheet,  2 
bedcases — 8  florins ;  1  mattress,  1  bolster,  1 
quilt — 6  florins  ;  a  quantity  of  old  music  valued 
at  10  florins — 63  florins  (say  £2  :  10s.)  in  all. 
Beyond  the  above  there  were  no  effects.'  Is  it 
possible  then,  that  in  the  *  old  music,  valued  at 
8s.  6d.,'are  included  thewholeof  his  unpublished 
manuscripts  ?  Where  else  could  they  be  but  in 
the  house  he  was  inhabiting  ? 

The  expenses  of  the  illness  and  funeral 
amounted  in  all  to  269  silver  florins,  19  kr.  (say 
£27).  Of  this  the  preliminary  service  cost  84  fl. 
35  kr. ;  the  burial  44  fl.  45  kr. ;  and  the  ground 
70  fl. ;  leaving  the  rest  for  the  doctor's  fees  and 
incidental  disbursements.  Illness  and  death 
were  truly  expensive  luxuries  in  those  days. 

On  Nov.  27,  the  Kirch  en  musikverein  per- 
formed Mozart's  Requiem  in  his  honour ;  and 
on  Dec.  23  a  requiem  by  Anselm  Hiittenbrenner 
was  given  in  the  Augustine  church.  On  Dec. 
14,  his  early  Symphony  in  C,  No.  6,  was  jilayed 
at  the  Gesellschaftsconcert,  and  again  on  March 
12,  1829.  At  Linz  on  Christmas  Day  there 
was  a  funeral  ceremony  with  speeches  and  music. 
Articles  in  his  honour  appeared  in  the  Winier 
Zeitschrift  of  Dec.  25  (by  von  Zedlitz),  in  the 
Theatei^eituTig  of  Vienna  of  the  20th  and  27th 
(by  Blahetka)  ;  in  the  Vienna  Zeitschrift  fUr 
Kunst  of  June  9,  11^  13,  1829  (by  Bauemfeld) ; 
in  the  Vienna  Archiv  fur  GeschicMe  by  Mayr- 
hofer) ;  and  memorial  poems  were  published  by 

«  wilhelm  Ton  Chexy,  Srlnntrttriffen  aus  meirun  Leben  (1868). 
pp.  182,  18». 

3  Qivcn  at  length  by  Krelule  (p.  4S7)— but  mtirely  omitted  in 
the  translation— And  materially  mi»quotod  by  Guniprecht  (p.  16). 


318 


1828 


SCHUBERT 


1828 


Seidl,  Schober,  and  others.  Ou  Jan.  30,  1829, 
a  concert  was  given  by  the  arrangement  of  Anna 
Frohlich  in  the  hall  of  the  Musikverein ;  tlie 
programme  included  'Miriam/  and  consisted 
entirely  of  Schubert's  music,  excepting  a  set  of 
flute  variations  by  Gabrielsky,  and  the  first 
Finale  in  *  Don  Juan ' ;  and  the  crowd  was  so 
great  that  the  performance  had  to  be  repeated 
shortly  afterwards.  The  proceeds  of  these  con- 
certs and  the  subscriptions  of  a  few  friends 
sufficed  to  erect  the  monumentwhich  now  stands 
at  the  back  of  the  grave.  It  was  carried  out  by 
Anna  Frohlich,  Grillparzer,  and  Jenger.  The 
bust  was  by  Franz  Dialler,  and  the  cost  of  the 
whole  was  860  silver  florins,  46  kr.  The  in- 
scription *  is  from  the  pen  of  Grillparzer  : — 

DIE  TONKUNST  BBCRUB  HISR  EINEN  REICHBN  BBSITZ 

ABER  NOCH  VI EL  SCHOBNERE  HOFFNUNGEN. 

FRANZ  SCHUBERT  LIEGT  HIER. 

GBBOREN  AM  XXXI.  JiCNNBR  MDCCXCVII. 

GESTORREN  AM  XIX.  NOV.  MDCCCXXVIII. 

XXXI  JAHRE  ALT. 


MUSIC  HAS  HERE  ENTOMBED  A  RICH  TREASURE, 

BUT  MUCH  FAIKBR  HOPES. 

FRANZ  SCHUBERT  LIES  HERE. 

BORN  JAN.   31,   1797  ; 

DIED  NOV.  19,  1838, 

31  YEARS  OLD. 

The  allusion  to  fairer  hopes  has  been  much 
criticised,  but  surely  without  reason.  When 
we  remember  in  how  many  departments  of 
music  Schubert's  latest  productions  wei-e  his 
best,  we  are  \mdoubtedly  warranted  in  believing 
that  he  would  have  gone  on  progressing  for 
many  years,  had  it  been  the  will  of  God  to 
spare  him. 

In  1863,  owing  to  the  state  of  dilapidation 
at  which  the  graves  of  both  Beethoven  and 
Schubert  had  arrived,  the  repair  of  the  tombs, 
and  the  exhumation  and  reburial  of  both,  were 
undertaken  by  the  Gesellsohaft  der  Musik- 
freunde.  The  operation  was  begim  on  the 
12th  of  October  and  completed  on  the  13th. 
The  opportunity  was  embraced  of  taking  a  cast 
and  a  photograph  of  Schubert's  skull,  and  of 
measuring  the  principal  bones  of  both  skeletons. 
The  lengths  in  Schubert's  case  were  to  those  in 
Beethoven's  as  27  to  29,*  which  implies  that  as 
Beethoven  was  5  ft.  5  in.  high,  he  was  only  5  ft. 
and  ^  an  inch.  Schubert  was  reburied  in  the 
central  cemetery  of  Vienna  on  Sept.  23,  1888. 

Various  memorials  have  been  set  up  to  him 
in  Vienna.  The  tablets  on  the  houses  in  which 
he  was  bom  and  died  have  been  noticed.  They 
were  both  carried  out  by  the  Mannergesang 
Verein,  and  completed,  the  former  Oct.  7,  1858, 
the  latter  in  Nov.  1869.  The  same  Society 
erected  by  subscription  a  monument  to  him  in 
the  Stadt-Park,   a  sitting  figure  in   Carrara 

>  Wa  bftveglvan  th<  inscription  exaeUj  as  itstands  an  ih«  monu- 
mmit.  KralMle's  Tenion  (p.  MS*.  foUowed by  Oomprachtand  otiien, 
U  inoorract  In  almoat  evcnr  line. 

3  Bea  Aet*timdMlo«  DanUUwmg  dtr  Au»srrabung  wnA  WUdLer- 
fumtnaatxumt  der  irdUcktn  Settt  van  BMthoven  und  AcAiitorf .  Vienna. 
Gerold.  1883. 


marble  by  Oarl  Kuntmann,  with  the  inscription 
*  Franz  Schubert,  seinem  Andenken  der  Wiener 
Miinnergesangverein,  1872.'  It  cost  42,000 
florins,  and  was  unveiled  May  15,  1872. 


Outside  of  Austria  his  death  created  at  first 
but  little  sensation.  Robert  Schumann,  then 
eighteen,  is  said  to  have  been  deeply  affected, 
and  to  have  burst  into  tears  when  the  news 
reached  him  at  Leipzig ;  Mendelssohn  too, 
though  unlike  Schubert  in  temperament, 
circumstances,  and  education,  doabtleaB  folly 
estimated  his  loss  ;  and  Bellstab,  Anna  Milder, 
and  others  in  Berlin  who  knew  him,  most  have 
mourned  him  deeply ;  but  the  world  at  large 
did  not  yet  know  enough  of  his  works  to  under- 
stand either  what  it  possessed  or  what  it  had 
lost  in  that  modest  reserved  young  musician  of 
thirty-one.  But  Death  always  brings  a  man. 
especially  a  young  man,  into  notoriety,  and 
increases  public  curiosity  about  his  works :  and 
so  it  was  now ;  the  stream  of  publication  at 
once  began  and  is  even  yet  flowing,  neither  the 
supply  of  works  nor  the  eagerness  to  obtain 
them  having  ceased.  The  world  has  not  yet 
recovered  from  its  astonishment  as,  one  after 
another,  the  stores  accumulated  in  those  dusky 
heaps  of  music  paper  (valued  at  Ss.  6d.)  were 
made  public,  each  so  astonishingly  fresh, 
copious,  and  diflerent  from  the  last  As  songs, 
masses,  part-songs,  operas,  chamber -music  of 
all  sorts  and  all  dimensions — pianoforte-sonatas, 
impromptus  and  fantasias,  duets,  trios,  quartets, 
quintet,  octet,  issued  from  the  press  or  were 
heard  in  manuscript ;  as  each  seaaon  brought 
its  new  symphony,  overture,  entr'acte,  or  ballet- 
music,  people  began  to  be  staggered  by  the 
amount.  'A  deep  shade  of  suspicion,'  said 
The  Musktd  World  of  Jan.  24,  1889,  p.  150, 
*■  is  beginning  to  be  cast  over  the  authenticity 
of  posthumous  compositions.  All  Paris  has 
been  in  a  state  of  amazement  at  the  posthumous 
diligence  of  the  song-writer,  F.  Schubert,  who, 
while  one  would  think  that  his  ashes  repose  in 
peace  in  Vienna,  is  still  making  eternal  new 
songs.'  We  know  better  now,  but  it  must  be 
confessed  that  the  doubt  was  not  so  unnatnnl 
then. 

Of  the  MS.  music — an  incredible  quantity,  of 
which  no  one  then  knew  the  amount  or  the  par- 
ticulars, partly  because  there  was  so  much  of 
it,  partly  because  Schubert  concealed,  or  rather 
forgot,  a  great  deal  of  his  work — a  certain  number 
of  songs  and  pianoforte  pieces  were  probably 
in  the  hands  of  publishers  at  the  time  of  his 
death,  but  the  great  bulk  was  in  the  possession 
of  Ferdinand,  as  his  heir.  A  set  of  four  wnp 
(op.  105)  was  issued  on  the  day  of  his  funeral 
Other  songs— opp.  101,  104,  106,  110-112. 
116-118  ;  and  two  PF.  Duets,  the  Fantasia  in 
F  minor  (op.  103)  and  the  *  Grand  Rondeau' 
(op.  107)— followed  up  to  April  1829.  Bat 
the     first     important    publication    was    the 


SCHUBERT 


319 


well-known  '  Schwanengesang/  so  entitled  by 
Haslinger — a  oolloction  of  fourteen  songs,  seven 
by  Bellstab,  six  by  Heine,  and  one  by  Seidl — 
unquestionably  Schubert's  last.  They  were 
issued  in  May  1829,  and,  to  judge  by  the  lists 
of  arrangements  and  editions  given  by  Notte- 
bohm,  have  been  as  much  appreciated  as  the 
'Schbne  Miillerin'  or  the  *  Winterreise.*  A 
stream  of  songs  followed — for  which  we  must 
refer  the  student  to  Nottebohm's  catalogue. 
The  early  part  of  1880^  saw  the  execution  of 
a  bargain  between  Diabelli  and  Ferdinand,  by 
which  that  Finn  was  guaranteed  the  property 
of  the  following  works ;  opp.  1-32,  35,  39-59, 
«2,  63,  64,  66-69,  71-77,  84-88,  92-99,  101- 
104,  106,  108,  109,  113,  115,  116,  119,  121- 
124,  127,  128,  180,  182-140,  142-163  ;  also 
154  songs  ;  14  vocal  quartets  ;  the  canons  of 
1813 ;  a  cantata  in  G  for  three  voices ;  the 
Hymn  to  the  Holy  Ghost ;  Klopstock's  Stabat 
Mater  in  F  minor,  and  Grosse  Halleluja  ;  Mag- 
nificat in  G ;  the  String  Quintet  in  G  ;  four 
string  quartets  in  G,  B|^,  G,  6b  ;  a  string  trio 
in  B?  ;  two  sonatas  in  A  and  A  minor,  varia- 
tions in  F,  an  Adagio  in  Db,  and  Allegretto  in 
Cj— all  for  PF.  solo;  Sonata  for  PF.  and 
Arpeggione  ;  Sonata  in  A,  and  Fantasie  in  G — 
both  for  PF.  and  violin  ;  Rondo  in  A  for  violin 
and  quartet ;  Adagio  and  Rondo  in  F,  for  PF. 
and  quartet ;  a  Goncert-piece  in  D  for  violin 
and  orchestra ;  Overture  in  D  for  orchestra ; 
Overture  to  third  Act  of  the  *  Zauberharfe  * ; 
*  Lazarus ' ;  a  Tantum  ergo  in  £b  for  four  voices 
and  orchestra ;  an  Offertorium  in  Bb  for  tenor 
solo,  chorus  and  orchestra. 

Another  large  portion  of  Ferdinand's  posses- 
sions came,  sooner  or  later,  into  the  hands  of 
Dr.  Eduard  Schneider,  son  of  Franz's  sister 
Theresia.  They  comprised  the  autographs  of 
Symphonies  1,  2,  3,  and  6,  and  copies  of  4  and 
5  ;  Autographs  of  operas  : — The  *  Teufels  Lust- 
schlofls,'  'Fernando,'  *Der  Vieijahrige  Posten,* 
'Die Frennde  von  Salamanka,'  'Die  Biirgschaft,' 
'  Fienabras,*  and  '  Sakontala ' ;  the  Mass  in  F  ; 
and  the  original  orchestral  parts  of  the  whole  of 
the  music  to  *  Bosamunde. '  The  greater  part  of 
these  are  now(  1882)  safe  in  the  possession  of  Herr 
Nicholas  Dumba  of  Vienna. 

On  July  10,  1880,  Diabelli  began  the  issue  of 
what  wasentitled '  Franz  Schuberts  nachgelassene 
mttdkaliBche  Dichtungen ' ;  and  continued  it  at 
intervals  till  1850,  by  which  time  50  Parts 
{Litferungm),  containing  137  songs,  had  ap- 
peared. In  1830  he  also  issued  the  two  aston- 
ishing 4-hand  marches  (op.  121) ;  and  a  set 
of  20  waltzes  (op.  127)  ;  whilst  other  houses 
published  the  PF.  Sonatas  in  A  and  Eb  (opp.  120, 
122) ;  the  two  string  quartets  of  the  year  1824 
(op.  125)  ;  the  D  minor  Quartet,  etc.    For  the 

I  Tb«  Urt  vhieh  followm  U  taken  from  Kreittie.  p.  806  (ii.  945),  who 
*PPvaiUy  IhwI  Um  oiiflnal  doeoment  before  him.  The  011I7  date 
^vtt  by  KielMle  is  ISO.  but  it  moat  have  been  early  In  that  year, 
gy  op>  IS.  vhteta  forma  part  of  the  barpain,  waa  inraed  in 
"^ftMaj.  Seme  of  the  nmnbera  in  the  lint  bad  already  been  ieaued 
« the  property  of  the  pobliihera. 


progress  of  the  publication  after  this  date  we 
must  again  refer  the  reader  to  Nottebohm's 
invaluable  Thematic  Catalogue  (Vienna,  Sclirei- 
ber,  1874),  which  contains  every  detail,  and  may 
be  implicitly  relied  on  ;  merely  mentioning  the 
principal  works,  and  the  year  of  publication  : — 
'  Miriam,'  Mass  in  Bb,  three  last  Sonatas  and  the 
Grand  Duo,  1838  ;  Symphony  in  0,  1840  ; 
Phantasie  in  C,  PF.  and  violin,  1850  ;  Quartet 
in  Q,  1852  ;  Quintet  in  C,  and  Octet,  1854  ; 
*Gesang  der  Geister,'  1858  ;  '  Yerschworeneu,' 
1862;  Mass  in  Eb,  1865;  'Lazarus,'  1866; 
Symphony  in  B  minor,  1867 ;  Mass  in  Ab,  1875. 

Before  the  complete  critical  edition  of  Schu- 
bert's works  issued  by  Breitkopf  &  Hartel  was 
finished,  there  were  many  publications  of  songs, 
pianoforte  pieces,  etc,  for  which  the  reader  is 
referred  to  Nottebohm's  TheTnalic  Catalogue,  Of 
the  Songs  two  collections  may  be  signalised  as 
founded  on  the  order  of  opus  numbers : — that 
of  Senff  of  Leipzig,  edited  by  Julius  Beitz,  361 
songs  in  20  vols,  and  that  of  Litolff  of  Bruns- 
wick— songs  in  10  vols.  But  neither  of  these, 
though  styled  '  complete '  are  so.  For  instance, 
each  omits  opp.  88,  110,  129,  165,  172,  178  ; 
the  six  songs  published  by  Miiller,  the  forty  by 
Gotthard  ;  and  Litolff  also  omits  opp.  21,  60. 

Schumann's  visit  to  Vienna  in  the  late  autumn 
of  1838  formed  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  the 
Schubert  music.  He  saw  the  immense  heap  of 
MSS.  which  remained  in  Ferdinand's  hands  even 
after  the  mass  bought  by  Diabelli  had  been  taken 
away,  and  amongst  them  several  symphonies. 
Such  sympathy  cmd  enthusiasm  as  his  miist  have 
been  a  rare  delight  to  the  y^oor  desponding 
brother.  His  eagle  eye  soon  discovered  the 
worth  of  these  treasures.  He  picked  out  several 
works  to  be  recommended  to  publishera,  but 
meantime  one  beyond  all  the  rest  riveted  his 
attention — the  great  symphony  of  March  1828 
(was  it  the  autograph,  not  yet  deposited  in  the 
safe  keepingoftheGcsellschaftder  Musikfreunde, 
or  a  copy  ?)  and  he  arranged  with  Ferdinand  to 
send  a  transcript  of  it  to  Leipzig  to  Mendelssohn 
for  the  Gewandhaus  Concerts,  where  it  was  pro- 
duced March  21,  1839,^  and  repeated  no  less 
than  three  times  during  the  following  season. 
His  chamber -music  was  becoming  gradually 
known  in  the  North,  and  as  early  as  1833  is 
occasionally  met  with  in  the  Berlin  and  Leipzig 
programmes.  David,  who  led  the  taste  in 
chamber  music  at  the  latter  place,  was  devoted 
to  Schubert.  He  gradually  inti'oduccd  his 
works,  until  there  were  few  seasons  in  which 
the  Quartets  in  A  minor,  D  minor  (the  score  of 
which  he  edited  for  SenfJ),  and  G,  the  String 
(Quintet  in  C  (a  special  favourite),  the  Octet, 
both  Trios,  the  PF.  Quintet,  and  the  Rondeau 
brillant,  were  not  performed  amid  gieat 
applause,  at  his  concerts.     Schumann  had  long 

t  March  22  in  the  AUg.  Mvu.  gHtwig,  March  21  in  Schutnann'e 
paper.  Tlje  Symphony  wae  repeated  Dec  12, 1890.  March  12,  and 
April  3.  1840.  Mendelesohn  made  a  few  cute  In  the  work  for  per< 
formaiice. 


320 


SCHUBERT 


been  a  zealous  Schubert  propagandist.  From 
an  early  date  his  ZeUachrifl  contains  articles  of 
more  or  less  length,  always  inspired  by  an  ardent 
admiration  ;  Schubert's  letters  and  poems  and 
his  brother's  excellent  short  sketch  of  his  life, 
printed  in  vol.  x.  (April  23  to  May  3,  1839) 
— obvious  fruits  of  Schumann's  Vienna  visit 
— are  indispensable  materials  for  Schubert's 
biogi-aphy  ;  when  the  Symphony  was  performed 
he  dedicate  to  it  one  of  his  longest  and  most 
genial  effusions,  ^  and  each  fresh  piece  was 
greeted  with  a  hearty  welcome  as  it  fell  from 
the  press.  One  of  Schumann's  especial  favourites 
was  the  Eb  Trio ;  he  liked  it  even  better  than 
that  in  Bb,  and  has  left  a  memorandum  of  his 
fondness  in  the  opening  of  the  Adagio  of  his 
Symphony  in  0,  which  is  identical,  in  key  and 
intervals,  with  that  of  Schubert's  Andante. 
The  enthusiasm  of  these  prominent  musicians, 
the  repeated  performances  of  the  Symphony, 
and  its  publication  by  Breitkop£s  (in  Jan.  1850), 
naturally  gave  Schubert  a  strong  hold  on 
Leipzig,  at  that  time  the  most  active  musical 
centre  of  Europe ;  and  after  the  foundation  of 
the  Conservatorium  in  1843  many  English  and 
American  students  must  have  carried  back  the 
love  of  his  romantic  and  tuneful  music  to  their 
own  countries. 

Several  performances  of  large  works  had  taken 
place  in  Vienna  since  Schubert's  death,  chiefly 
through  the  exertions  of  Ferdinand,  and  of  a 
certain  Leitermayer,  one  of  Franz's  early  friends ; 
such  as  the  Eb  Mass  at  the  parish  church  of 
Maria  Trost  on  Nov.  16,  1829  ;  *  Miriam,'  with 
Lachner's  orchestration,  ataGeseUschaft  Concert 
in  1830  ;  two  new  overtures  in  1883  ;  an  over- 
tui-o  in  E,  the  Chorus  of  Spirits  from '  Bosamunde, ' 
the  Grosses  Halleliga,  etc. ,  early  in  1 885,  and  four 
large  concerted  pieces  from  <  Fierrabras '  later  in 
the  year;  an  overture  in  D ;  the  finale  of  the  last 
Symphony  ;  a  march  and  chorus,  and  an  air  and 
chorus,  from  *  Fierrabras, '  in  April  1836 ;  another 
new  overture,  and  several  new  compositions  from 
the  *  Remains,'  in  the  winter  of  1837-38.  As 
far  as  can  be  judged  by  the  silence  of  the  Vienna 
newspapers,  these  passed  almost  unnoticed. 
Even  the  competition  with  North  Germany 
failed  to  produce  the  effect  which  might  have 
been  expected.  It  did  indeed  excite  the  Viennese 
to  one  effort.  On  the  15  th  of  the  December 
following  the  production  of  the  Symphony  at 
Leipzig  its  performance  was  attempted  at  Vienna, 
but  though  the  whole  work  was  announced,  ^ 
such  had  been  the  difficulties  at  rehearsal  that 
the  first  two  movements  alone  were  given,  and 
they  were  only  carried  off  by  the  interpolation 
of  an  air  from  *  Lucia '  between  them. 

1  Get.  Sdkf^en,  iii.  196.  Sohomann'i  exprMsions  leave  no  doubt 
that  the  Symphony  in  C  was  in  Ferdinand's  pouenion  at  the  time 
of  hi«  visit.  Thii!  and  nuuiy  others  of  his  articles  on  Schubert  have 
been  translated  into  English  by  Miss  M.  E.  von  Glehn,  and  Mrs. 
RItter. 

i  The  MS.  parts  in  the  poeaesslon  of  the  Muaikveroin  show  the 
most  cruel  cuts,  possibly  with  a  view  to  this  perfomianoe.  In  the 
Finale,  one  of  the  most  easential  and  effective  sections  of  the  move- 
ntfnt  is  clean  expunifed. 


But  symphonies  and  symphonic  works  can 
hardly  be  expected  to  float  rapidly ;  songs  are 
more  buoyant,  and  Schubert's  songs  soon  began 
to  make  their  way  outside,  as  they  had  long  since 
done  in  his  native  place.  Wlierever  they  once 
penetrated  their  success  was  certain.  In  Paris, 
where  spirit,  melody,  and  romance  are  the  certain 
criterions  of  success,  and  where  nothing  dull 
or  obscure  is  tolerated,  they  were  introduced  by 
Nourrit,  and  were  so  much  liked  as  actually  to 
find  a  transient  place  in  the  programmes  of  the 
Concerts  of  the  Conservatoire,  the  stronghold  of 
musical  Tor3rism.'  The  first  French  collection 
was  published  in  1834,  by  Richault,  with  trans- 
lation by  Belanger.  It  contained  six  songs— 
*Die  Post, '  *Standchen, ' '  Am  Meer, '  *Das  Fiacher- 
madchen,'  *Der  Tod  und  das  Madchen,'  and 
*  Schlummerlied.'  The  *  Erl  King '  and  othets 
followed.  A  larger  collection,  with  translation 
by  Emil  Deschamps,  was  issued  by  Brandus  in 
1888  or  1839.  It  is  entitled  'Collection  des 
Lieder  de  Fi*anz  Schubert,'  and  contains  sixteen 
— '  La  jeune  reUgieuse, '  *  Marguerite, ' '  Le  roi  des 
aulnes,'  *  La  rose,*  *  La  serenade,'  *  Laposte,'  *  Ave 
Maria,'  'La cloche  des  agonisants,'  'La  jeune  fiUe 
et  la  morte,'  'Bosemonde,'  'Les  plaintes  de  ia 
jeune  fille,'  'Adieu,' '  Les  astres,' '  La  jeune  mere,' 
'  La  Berceuse, ' '  ^loge  des  krmes. '  ^  Except  that 
one — '  Adieu '  * — is  spurious,  the  selection  does 
great  credit  to  Parisian  taste.  This  led  the 
way  to  the  'Quarante  melodies  de  Schubert' 
of  Riohault,  Launer,  etc.,  a  thin  8vo  volume, 
to  which  many  an  English  amateur  is  indebted 
for  his  first  acquaintance  with  these  treasures 
of  life.  By  1845  Bichault  had  published  aa 
many  as  150  with  French  words. 

Some  of  the  chamber  music  also  soon  obtained 
a  certain  popularity  in  Paris,  through  the  play- 
ing of  Tilmant,  Urban,  and  Alkan,  and  later 
of  Alard  and  Franchomme.  The  Trio  in  Bb. 
issued  by  Richault  in  1838,  'was  the  first  instni- 
mental  work  of  Schubert's  published  in  France. 
There  is  a  'Collection  complete'  of  the  solo 
PF.  works  published  by  Richault  in  8vo,  con- 
taining the  Fantaisie  (op.  1 5),  ten  sonatas,  the 
two  Russian  marches,  Impromptus,  Momens 
musicals,  five  single  pieces,  and  nine  sets  of 
dances.  Liszt  and  Heller  kept  the  flame  alive 
by  their  transcriptions  of  the  songs  and  waltzes. 
But  beyond  this  the  French  hardly  know  more 
of  Schubert  noM'  than  they  did  then  ;  none  of 
his  large  works  have  become  popular  with  them. 
Habeneck  attempted  to  rehearse  the  Symphony 
in  C  (No.  10)  in  1842,  but  the  band  refused 
to  go  beyond  the  first  movement,  and  Schubert's 
name  up  to  this  date  (1881)  appears  in  the 

>  'Ia  Jeune  rellgieuse'  and  'Le  roi  des  aulnes'  were  sniif  ^ 
Nourrit.  at  the  Concerts  of  Jan.  18;,  and  April  9S.  18K,  rtspectlvrly 
—the  latter  with  orchestral  aocompaniment^  On  If  arch  90.  1S9B. 
Manudrite  was  sung  by  Jllle.  Falcon,  and  there  the  list  atop*. 

*  This  list  is  copied  from  the  Paris  correepondenoe  of  the  A.M.t^ 
1838j>.  394. 

>  This  song  is  made  up  of  phrase*  from  Schubert's  eoags  and  will 
probably  always  be  attributed  to  him.  It  stands  even  In  Pauer** 
edition.  But  it  is  by  A.  H.  ron  Weyrauch.  who  pnbUahed  it  him- 
self in  1824.    See  Nottebohm's  Catatofiu,  p.  SS4. 


SCHUBERT 


321 


programmes  of  the  Concerts  of  the  Conservatoire 
attached  to  three  songs  only.  M.  Pasdeloup 
introdnced  the  Symphony  in  C  and  the  frag- 
ments of  that  in  B  minor,  but  they  took  no  hold 
on  the  Parisian  amatenrs. 

Liszt's  devotion  to  Schubert  was  great  and 
tmceasing.  We  have  already  mentioned  his 
prodaction  of  *  Alfonso  und  Estrella '  at  Weimar 
in  1854,  bat  it  is  right  to  give  a  list  of  his 
transcriptions,  which  have  done  a  very  great 
d^l  to  introduce  Schubert  into  many  quarters 
where  his  compositions  would  otherwise  have 
been  a  sealed  book.  His  first  transcription — 
'Die  Rose,'  op.  78 — ^was  made  in  1834,  and 
appeared  in  Paris  the  same  year.^  It  was  fol- 
lowed in  1888  by  the  *Standchen,'  To8t,'and  *Lob 
der  Thiiinen,'  and  in  1839  by  the  *  £rl  King 'and 
by  twelve  Lieder.  These  again  by  six  Lieder  ; 
foar  Geistliche  Lieder ;  six  of  the  Miillerlieder  ; 
the  'Schwanengesang,' and  the  *  Winterreise. ' 
Liazt  also  transcribed  the  Divertissement  &  la 
hongroise,  three  Marches  and  nine  ^Yalses- 
caprioes,'  or  *  Soirees  de  Vienne,*  after  Schubert's 
op.  67.  All  the  above  are  for  PF.  solo.  He 
also  scored  the  aocompaniment  to  the  *  Junge 
Xonne,'  'Gretohen  am  Spinnrade,'  'So  lasst  mich 
3chein6n,'andthe'£rlKing,'  forasmall  orchestra ; 
bas  adapted  the  Allmacht  for  tenor  solo,  male 
choros,  and  orchestra,  and  has  converted  the 
Fantasie  in  C  (op.  15)  into  a  Concerto  for  PF. 
and  orchestra.  Some  will  think  these  changes 
indefensible,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  they 
are  done  in  a  masterly  manner,  and  that  many 
of  them  have  become  very  popular. — Heller's 
arrangements  are  oonfined  to  six  favourite  songs. 

England  made  an  appearance  in  the  field 
with  the  'Moment  musicar  in  F  minor  in 
1831,  followed  in  1832  by  the  <Eri  King'  and 
the  *  Wanderer.'  In  1886  Mr.  Ayrton  printed 
*The  Letter  of  Flowers'  and  *The  Secret,'  in 
the  Mosical  Library,  to  Ozenford's  translation. 
Mr.  Wessel  (Ashdown  &  Parry)  had  begun  his 
'  Series  of  German  Songs '  earlier  than  this,  and 
by  1S40,  out  of  a  total  of  197,  the  list  included 
3S  of  Schubert's,  remarkably  well  chosen,  and 
including  several  of  the  finest  though  less  known 
ones,  e.g,  <Ganymed,'  *An  den  Tod,'  'Seimir 
gcgriisst, '  *  Die  Rose, '  etc.  etc.  Ewer's  *  Gems  of 
Oerman  Song,'  containing  many  of  Schubert's, 
were  begun  in  Sept  1837.  Schubert's  music 
took  a  long  time  before  it  obtained  any  public 
footing  in  this  country.  The  first  time  it 
appears  in  the  Philharmonic  programmes — then 
so  ready  to  welcome  novelties — is  on  May  20, 
1839,  when  Ivanoff  sang  the  Serenade  in  the 
'  Schwanengesang '  to  Italian  words,  'Quando 
a^-volta.'  Staudigl  gave  the  'Wanderer,'  May 
8,  1843.  On  June  10,  1844,  tlie  Overture  to 
'Fierrabras'  was  played  under  Mendelssohn 'h 
direction,  and  on  June  17  the  *  Junge  Nonne' 
was  sung  to  French  words  by  M.   de  Revial, 

'  'Hhw  pkrticulara  sre  taken  partly  from  Miw  Ramann's  Li/0  of 
urt,  tnd  partly  from  Uat'*  ThimatU!  Cataltmu.  The  third  Ko. 
>ni»-  AnnrittOBS '  la  founded  on  a  Walts  melody  of  Schubert's. 

VOL.  TV 


Mendelssohn  playing  the  magnificent  accom- 
paniment. We  blush  to  say,  however,  that 
neither  piece  met  with  approval.  T?ie  Musical 
World  (1844,  p.  197)  says  that  *the  overture 
is  literally  beneath  criticism :  perhaps  a  more 
overrated  man  never  existed  than  this  same 
Schubert.'  Its  dictum  on  the  song  is  even 
more  unfortunate.  It  teUs  us  that  'it  is  a 
very  good  exemplification  of  much  ado  about 
nothing — as  unmeaningly  mysterious  as  could 
be  deedred  by  the  most  devoted  lover  of 
bombast'  Mendelssohn  conducted  the  last 
five  Philharmonic  concerts  of  that  season 
(1844) ;  and  amongst  other  orchestral  music 
new  to  England  had  brought  with  him 
Schubert's  Symphony  in  C,  and  his  own 
overture  to  'Buy  Bias.'  At  the  rehearsal  on 
June  10,  however,  the  behaviour  of  the  band 
towards  the  symphony— excited,  it  is  said,  by 
the  continual  triplets  in  the  Finale — was  so 
insulting  that  he  refused  either  to  go  on  with 
it  or  to  allow  his  own  overture  to  be  tried.  ^ 
But  the  misbehaviour  of  our  leading  orchestra 
did  not  produce  the  effect  which  it  had  done 
in  Paris ;  others  were  found  to  take  up  the 
treasures  thus  rudely  rejected,  and  Schubert 
has  had  an  ample  revenge.  The  centres  for 
his  music  in  England  have  been — for  the 
orchestral  and  choral  works,  the  Crystal  Palace, 
Sydenham,  and  Hallo's  Concerts,  Manchester ; 
and  for  the  chamber  music,  the  Popular  Concerts 
and  Halle's  Recitals.  At  the  Crystal  Palace  the 
Sjrmphony  in  0  (No.  10)  was  in  the  repertoire 
of  the  Saturday  Concerts  from  April  6,  1856  ; 
the  two  movements  of  the  B  minor  Symphony 
were  first  played  April  6,  1867,  and  have  been 
constantly  repeated.  The  six  other  MS.  Sym- 
phonies were  obtained  from  Dr.  Schneider  in 
1867  and  since,  and  have  been  played  at  various 
dates,  a  performanceof  the  whole  eight  in  chrono- 
logical order  forming  a  feature  in  the  series  of 
1880-81.  The  'RMamunde'  music  was  first 
played  Nov.  10,  1866,  and  the  *  air  de  baUet '  in 
G,  March  16, 1867.  Joachim's  orchestration  of 
the  Grand  Duo  (op.  140)  was  given  March  4, 
1876.  The  overtures  to  '  Alfonso  und  Estrella,' 
'Fierrabras,'  'Freunde  von  Salamanka,'  'Teufels 
Lustschloss,'  and  that  'in  the  Italian  style'  have 
been  frequently  heard.  'Miriam's  Song'  was  first 
given  Nov.  14,  1868  (and  three  times  since) ; 
the  'Conspirators,'  March  2,  1872;  the  23rd 
Psalm,  Feb.  21,  1874  ;  the  Eb  Mass,  March 
29,  1879.  At  the  Popular  Concerts  a  begin- 
ning was  made  May  16,  1859,  with  the  A 
minor  Quartet,  the  D  major  Sonata,  and  the 
Rondeau  brillant.  Afterwards  the  D  miyor 
and  G  major  Quartets,  many  sonatas  and  othei* 

s  Even  flttren  years  later,  when  played  at  the  Kualoal  Society 
of  London,  the  mme  periodical  that  we  hav«  already  quoted  aaye 
of  It ;— '  The  Ideae  throayhout  it  are  all  of  a  minute  chancter,  and 
the  instmroentatlon  ie  of  a  piece  with  the  ideea.  There  in  no 
breadth,  there  is  no  grandeur,  there  la  no  dignity  in  either; 
cleameaB.  and  contnut,  and  beautiful  flnieh  are  always  apparent, 
but  the  orchentrm  thongh  loud,  is  never  mamive  and  sonorone,  ard 
the  music,  thottgh  always  onrrect.  Is  never  serlons  or  Impoeintr.' 
I^tuico;  WoHH,  April  S,  ISSO).  Is  it  possible  for  critldam  tn  t>e 
more  hopelessly  wrong  t 


322 


SCHUBERT 


PF.  pieces  were  added,  and  the  Octet,  the 
Quintet  in  C,  and  the  two  Trioe  were  repeated 
season  by  season,  and  enthusiastically  received. 
The  Quartet  in  Bb,  the  trio  in  the  same 
key,  the  Sonata  for  PF.  and  Arpeggione,  etc. 
were  brought  to  a  hearing.  A  lai^e  number 
of  songs  were  made  familiar  to  the  subscribers 
to  these  concerts  through  the  fine  interpretation 
of  Stockhausen,  Mme.  Joachim,  Miss  Sophie 
Lowe,  Mr.  Santley,  Mr.  Henschel,  and  other 
singers.  At  Hallo's  admirable  recitals  at  St 
James's  Hall,  from  their  conmienoement  in 
1861  all  the  published  Sonatas  were  repeatedly 
played  ;  not  only  the  popular  ones,  but  of  those 
less  known  none  have  been  given  less  than 
twice  ;  the  Fantasia  in  C,  op.  15,  three  times  ; 
the  PF.  Quintet,  the  Fantasia  for  PF.  and 
Violin,  the  Impromptus  and  Momens  musicals, 
the  '5  pieces,'  the  *3  pieces,'  the  Adagio  and 
Rondo,  the  Valses  nobles,  and  other  numbers 
of  this  fascinating  music  have  been  heard  again 
and  again. 

The  other  principal  publications  in  England 
are  the  vocal  scores  of  the  six  Masses,  the  PF. 
accompaniment  arranged  from  the  full  score  by 
Ebenezer  Prout,  published  by  Augener  &  Co. — 
the  1st,  2nd,  3rd,  4th  in  1871,  the  6th  (Eb) 
in  1872,  and  the  6th  (Ab)  in  1876.1  The 
Masses  have  been  also  published  by  Novellos, 
both  with  Latin  and  English  words  ('Com- 
munion Service ')  ;  and  the  same  firm  has  pub- 
lished 'Miriam,'  in  two  forms,  and  the  'Rosa- 
munde '  music,  both  vocal  score  and  orchestral 
parts.  Messrs.  Augener  have  also  published 
editions  of  the  PF.  works,  and  of  a  large  number 
of  songs,  by  Pauer. 

Schubert  wa9  not  sufficiently  important  during 
his  lifetime  to  attract  the  attention  of  painters, 
and  although  he  had  more  than  one  artist  in 
his  circle,  there  are  but  three  portraits  of  him 
known.  1.  A  poor  stiffhead  by  Leopold  Kupel- 
wieser,  fiill  face,  taken  July  10,  1821,  photo- 
graphed by  Mietke  and  Wawra  of  Vienna,  and 
wretchedly  engraved  as  the  frontispiece  to 
Kreissle's  biography.  2.  A  very  characteristic 
half-length,  three-quarter-face,  in  water-colours, 
by  W.  A.  Rieder,  taken  in  1826,  and  now  in 
possession  of  Dr.  Granitsch  of  Vienna.  ^  A 
replica  by  the  artist,  dated  1840,  is  now  in 
the  Musikverein.  It  has  been  engraved  by 
Passini,  and  we  here  give  the  head,  from  a 
photograph  expressly  taken  from  the  original. 
3.  The  bust  on  the  tomb,  which  gives  a  very 
prosaic  version  of  his  features. 

His  exterior  by  no  means  answered  to  his 
genius.  His  general  appearance  was  insigni- 
ficant. As  we  have  already  said,  he  was  prob- 
ably not  more  than  6  feet  and  1  inch  high, 
his  figure  was  stout  and  clumsy,  with  a  round 

1  R«Tl«ved  by  Mr.  B.  Prout  in  Concordia  for  1879.  pp.  8,  SB.  109, 
«tc. 

<  He  bought  it  in  Feb.  1881  for  120B  florloe,  or  about  £190.  It  la 
about  8  incbee  high,  by  6  wide.  It  was  taken,  or  begun.  vhUa 
Schubert  took  refuge  in  the  artist's  hooee  from  a  storm  (Pohl). 


back  and  shoulders  (perhaps  due  to  incessant 
writing),  fleshy  arms,  and  thick  short  fingers. 
His  complexion  was  pasty,  nay  even  tallovi^  ; 
his  cheeks  were  full,  his  eyebrows  bushy,  and  his 
nose  insignificant  But  there  were  two  things 
that  to  a  great  extent  redeemed  these  insigni- 
ficant traits — ^his  hair,  which  was  black,  and 
remarkably  thick  and  vigorous, ^  as  if  root^i 
in  the  brain  within  ;  and  his  eyes,  which  were 
truly  *the  windows  of  his  soul, 'and  even  through 
the  spectacles  he  constantly  wore  were  so  bright 
as  at  once  to  attract  attention.*  If  Rieder's 
portrait  may  be  trusted — and  it  is  said  to  be 
very  faithful,  though  perhaps  a  little  too^»^ — 


they  had  a  peculiarly  steadfast  (>enetrating  look, 
which  irresistibly  reminds  one  of  the  firm  rhytlira 
of  his  music.  His  glasses  are  inseparable  from 
his  face.  One  of  our  earliest  glimpses  of  him 
is  *  a  little  boy  in  spectacles '  at  the  Convict ; 
he  habitually  slept  in  them ;  and  within  eighteen 
months  of  his  death  we  see  him  standing  in  the 
window  at  Dbbling,  his  glasses  pushed  up  over 
his  forehead,  and  Grillparzer's  verses  held  close 
to  his  searching  eyes.  He  had  the  broad  strong 
jaw  of  all  great  men,  and  a  marked  asserti\o 
prominence  of  the  lips.  He  had  a  beautiful 
set  of  teeth  (Benedict).  When  at  rest  the 
expression  of  his  face  was  uninteresting,  but 
it  brightened  up  at  the  mention  of  music, 
especially  that  of  Beethoven.  His  voice  was 
something  between  a  soft  tenor  and  a  baritone. 
He  sang  *like  a  composer,'  without  the  least 
affectation  or  attempt.' 

His  general  disposition  was  in  accordance 
with  his  countenance.  His  sensibility,  though 
his  music  shows  it  was  extreme,  was  not  roused 

'  All  three  portraits  agree  in  this.  An  eminent  smvma  o<  ovt 
own  day  is  aoonstomed  to  saj.  '  Never  timt  a  man  »tth  s  grmt 
head  of  black  hair,  h*  is  sure  to  be  an  enthusiast.' 

*  W.  T.  Chezy.  Krinnemngm—'  with  eyes  so  brilliant  aa  at  tb* 
first  ghinoe  to  betiay  the  Are  within.'  *  BawrofeM. 


SCHUBERT 


323 


by  the  small  things  of  life.  He  had  little  of 
that  jealous  susceptibility  which  too  often  dis- 
tmgnishes  musicians,  more  irritable  even  than 
the  '  irritable  lace  of  poets. '  His  attitade  to- 
wards Rossini  and  Weber  proves  this.  When 
a  post  which  he  much  coveted  was  given  to 
another,^  he  expressed  his  satisfaction  at  its 
being  bestowed  on  so  competent  a  man.  Trans- 
parent trathfdlness,  good -humour,  a  cheerful 
contented  evenness,  fondness  for  a  joke,  and  a 
desire  to  remain  in  the  background — such  were 
liis  prominent  characteristics  in  ordinary  life. 
But  we  have  seen  how  this  apparentiy  impassive 
man  could  be  moved  by  a  poem  which  appealed 
to  him,  or  by  such  music  as  Beethoven's  G$ 
minor  Quartet.^  Tliis  unfailing  good-nature, 
this  sweet  lovableness,  doubtiess  enhanced  by 
his  reserve,  was  what  attached  Schubert  to  his 
friends.  They  admired  him ;  but  they  loved 
bim  still  more.  Ferdinand  perfectly  adored 
him,  and  even  the  derisive  Ignaz  melts  when 
he  takes  Icave.^  Hardly  a  letter  from  Schwind, 
^hober,  or  Banemfeld,  that  does  not  amply 
testify  to  this.  Their  only  complaint  is  that 
he  will  not  return  their  passion,  that  'the 
affection  of  years  is  not  enough  to  overcome  his 
distrost  and  fear  of  seeing  himself  appreciated 
and  beloved.'  *  Even  strangers  who  met  him 
in  this  entourage  were  as  much  captivated  as 
his  friends.  J.  A.  Berg  of  Stockholm,  who 
was  in  Vienna  in  1827,  as  a  young  man  of 
twenty- four,  and  met  him  at  the  Bogners', 
speaks  of  him^  with  the  clinging  affection 
which  such  personal  charm  inspires. 

He  was  never  really  at  his  ease  except  among 
his  chosen  associates.  When  with  them  he  was 
genial  and  compliant.  At  the  dances  of  his 
friends  he  would  extemporise  the  most  lovely 
v^tzes  for  hours  together,  or  accompany  song 
after  song.  He  was  even  boisterous — playing 
the  *Erl  King'  on  a  comb,  fencing,  howling,  and 
making  many  practical  jokes.  But  in  good 
society  he  was  shy  and  silent,  his  face  grave  ;  a 
word  of  pndse  distressed  him,  he  would  repel 
the  admiration  when  it  came,  and  escape  into 
the  next  room,  or  out  of  the  house,  at  the  first 
possible  moment.  In  consequence  he  was  over- 
looked, and  of  his  important  friends  few  knew, 
or  showed  that  they  knew,  what  a  treasure  they 
had  within  their  reach.  A  great  player  like 
Booklet,  after  performing  the  Bb  Trio,  could 
kneel  to  kiss  the  composer's  hand  in  rapture, 
and  with  broken  voice  stammer  forth  his  homage, 
hat  there  ia  no  trace  of  such  tribute  from  the 
Bpper  classes.  What  a  contrast  to  Beethoven's 
position  among  his  aristocratic  friends — their 
devotion  and  patience,  his  contemptuous  be- 
havionr,  the  amount  of  pressing  necessary  to 
make  him  play,  his  scorn  of  emotion,  and  love 
of  applause  after  he  had  finished  !  [See  vol.  i. 
p.  2236.]    The  same  contrast  is  visible  in  the 


■  W«itl.  t  8c«  pttga  S9.  3IR. 

•  Sefavind.  in  XJT.  p.  345  (11.  88). 


>  K.ir.  p.  149  {1.  151). 
(  In  A  letter  to  the  writer. 


dedications  of  the  music  of  the  two — Beethoven's 
chiefly  to  crowned  heads  and  nobility,  Schubert's 
in  large  proportion  to  his  friends.  It  is  also 
evident  in  the  music  itself,  as  we  shall  endeavour 
presently  to  bring  out. 

He  played,  as  he  sang,  *  like  a  composer,'  that 
is,  with  less  of  teehniqtLc  than  of  knowledge  and 
expression.  Of  the  virtuoso  he  had  absolutely 
nothing.  He  improvised  in  the  inteiTals  of 
throwing  on  his  clothes,  or  at  other  times  when 
the  music  within  was  too  strong  to  be  resisted, 
but  as  an  exhibition  or  performance  never,  and 
there  is  no  record  of  his  playing  any  music  but 
his  own.  He  occasionally  accompanied  his  songs 
at  concerts  (always  keeping  very  strict  time),  but 
we  never  hear  of  his  having  extemporised  or 
played  a  piece  in  public  in  Vienna.  Notwith- 
standing the  shortness  of  his  fingers,  which  some- 
times got  tired, ^  he  could  play  most  of  his  own 
pieces,  and  with  such  force  and  beauty  as  to 
compel  a  musician  ^  who  was  listening  to  one  of 
his  latest  Sonatas  to  exclaim,  *  I  admire  your 
playing  more  than  your  music,'  an  exclamation 
susceptible  of  two  interpretations,  of  which 
Schubert  is  said  to  have  taken  the  unfavourable 
one.  But  accompaniment  was  his/orte,  and  of 
this  we  have  already  spoken  [see  pp.  3046,  3096, 
etc.].  Duet-playing  was  a  favourite  recreation 
with  him.  Schober,  Gahy,  and  others,  were  his 
companions  in  this,  and  Gahy  has  left  on  record 
his  admiration  of  the  clean  rapid  playing,  the 
bold  conception  and  perfect  grasp  of  expression, 
and  the  clever  droll  remarks  that  would  drop 
from  him  during  the  piece. 

His  life  as  a  rule  was  regular,  even  monotonous. 
Hecom  posed  or  studied  habitually  for  six  or  seven 
hours  every  morning.  This  was  one  of  the 
methodical  habits  which  he  had  learned  fi-om  his 
good  old  father  ;  others  were  the  old-fashioned 
punctilious  style  of  addressing  strangers  which 
struck  Hiller  ^  with  such  consternation,  and  the 
dating  of  his  music.  He  was  ready  to  write 
directly  he  tumbled  out  of  bed,  and  remained 
steadily  at  work  till  two.  *  When  I  have  done 
one  piece  I  begin  the  next '  was  his  explanation 
to  a  visitor  in  1827  ;  and  one  of  these  mornings 
produced  six  of  the  songs  in  the  *  Winterreise ' ! 
At  two  he  dined — when  there  was  money  enough 
for  dinner — either  at  the  Gasthaus,  where  in 
those  days  it  cost  a  *  Zwanziger  *  (8jd.),  or  with 
a  friend  or  patron  ;  and  the  afternoon  was  spent 
in  making  music,  as  at  Mme.  Lacsny  Buchwieser's 
[p.  8096],  or  in  walking  in  the  environs  of 
Vienna.  If  the  weather  was  fine  the  walk  was 
often  prolonged  till  late,  regardless  of  engage- 
ments in  town  ;  but  if  this  was  not  the  case,  he 
was  at  the  coffee-house  by  five,  smoking  his  pipe 
and  ready  to  joke  with  any  of  his  set ;  tiben  came 
an  hour's  music,  as  at  Sofie  Miiller's  [p.  3086]  ; 

«  Bauemfeld.  ^  Horzalka.    A.ff,  p.  188  (i.  IS8). 

B  KUnttlerMien,  p.  •19.    '  Schubert  I  And  mentioned  In  lay  Joamal 


-pomibly  not  alwavs  m.  though  it  wm  only  amongst 
h  !■  Intimates  that  he  broke  out.  when  I  rlaited  hlzn  in  his  modest 
lodging  he  received  me  kindly,  but  so  respectfully,  as  quite  to 
frighten  me.' 


324 


SCHUBERT 


then  the  theatre,  and  supper  at  the  Gasthaus 
again,  and  the  coffee-house,  sometimes  till  far 
into  the  morning.  In  those  days  no  Viennese, 
certainly  no  young  bachelor,  dined  at  home ; 
so  that  the  repeated  visits  to  the  Gasthaus  need 
not  shock  the  sensibilities  of  any  English  lover 
of  Schubert.  [See  p.  3076.]  Nor  let  any  one 
be  led  away  with  the  notion  that  he  was  a  sot, 
as  some  seem  prone  to  believe.  How  could  a 
sot — how  could  any  one  who  even  lived  freely, 
and  woke  with  a  heavy  head  or  a  disordered 
stomach — have  worked  as  he  worked,  and  have 
composed  nearly  1000  such  works  as  his  in 
eighteen  years,  or  have  performed  the  feats  of 
rapidity  that  Schubert  did  in  the  way  of  opera, 
symphony,  quartet,  song,  which  we  have  enu- 
merated ?  No  sot  could  write  six  of  the  *  Win- 
terreise '  songs — perfect,  enduring  works  of  art — 
in  one  morning,  and  that  no  singular  feat  I  Your 
Morlands  and  Poes  are  obliged  to  wait  their 
time,  and  produce  a  few  works  as  their  l^in  and 
their  digestion  will  allow  them,  instead  of  being 
always  I'eady  for  their  greatest  efforts,  as  Mozart 
and  Schubert  were.  Schubert — like  Mozart — 
loved  society  and  its  accompaniments  ;  he  would 
have  been  no  Viennese  if  he  had  not ;  and  he 
may  have  been  occasionally  led  away  ;  but  such 
escapades  were  rare.  He  does  not  appear  to 
have  cared  for  the  other  sex,  or  to  have  been 
attractive  to  them  as  Beethoven  was,  notwith- 
standing his  ugliness.  This  simplicity  curiously 
characterises  his  whole  life  ;  no  feats  of  memory 
are  recorded  of  him  as  they  so  often  are  of  other 
great  musicians  ;  the  records  of  his  life  contain 
nothing  to  quote.  His  letters,  some  forty  in 
all,  are  evidently  forced  from  him.  *  Heavens 
and  Earth,'  says  he,  *it's  frightful  having  to 
describe  one's  travels ;  I  cannot  write  any 
more. '  *  Dearest  friend ' — on  another  occasion 
— 'you  will  be  astonished  at  my  writing:  I 
am  so  myself.'  ^  Strange  contrast  to  the  many 
interesting  epistles  of  Mozart  and  Mendelssohn, 
and  the  numberless  notes  of  Beethoven  !  Beet- 
hoven was  well  read,  a  politician,  thought 
much,  and  talked  eagerly  on  many  subjects. 
Mozart  and  Mendelssohn  both  drew  ;  travelling 
was  a  part  of  their  lives  ;  they  were  men  of  the 
world,  and  Mendelssohn  was  master  of  many 
accomplishments.  Schumann  too,  though  a  Saxon 
of  Saxons,  had  travelled  much,  and  while  a  most 
prolific  composer,  was  a  practised  literary  man. 
But  Schubert  has  nothing  of  the  kind  to  show. 
He  not  only  never  travelled  out  of  Austria,  but 
he  never  proposed  it,  and  it  is  difficult  to  con- 
ceive of  his  doing  so.  To  picture  or  work  of 
art  he  very  rarely  refers.  He  expressed  himself 
with  such  difficulty  that  it  was  all  but  impossible 
to  argue  with  him.*  Besides  the  letters  just 
mentioned,  a  few  pages  of  diary  and  four  or 
five  poems  are  all  that  he  produced  except  liis 
music.     In  literature  his  range  was  wide  indeed, 

1  K.ir.  p.  383  (II.  53) :  p.  417  (it.  104). 
>  Seyfried,  in  Schillingii  Lexicon. 


but  it  all  went  into  his  music ;  and  he  vias 
strangely  uncritical.  He  seems  to  have  beeu 
hardly  able — at  any  rate  he  did  not  care — to 
discriminate  between  the  magnificent  songs  of 
Goethe,  Schiller,  and  Mayrhofer,  the  feebl^^ 
domesticities  of  Kosegarten  and  Holty,  and  tiie 
turgid  couplets  of  the  authors  of  bis  libretto»«. 
All  came  alike  to  his  omniTorous  appetite. 
But  the  fact  is  that,  apart  from  his  music. 
Schubert's  life  was  little  or  nothing,  and  that 
is  its  most  peculiar  and  most  interesting  fact. 
Music  and  music  alone  was  to  him  all  in  all. 
It  was  not  his  principcU  mode  of  expression,  it 
was  his  <mly  one ;  it  swallowed  up  every  other. 
His  afternoon  walks,  his  evening  amusements, 
were  all  so  many  preparations  for  the  creations 
of  the  following  morning.  No  doubt  he  enjoyed 
the  country,  but  the  effect  of  the  walk  is  to  be 
found  in  his  music  and  his  music  only.  He 
left,  as  we  have  said,  no  letters  to  speak  of,  no 
journal ;  there  is  no  record  of  his  ever  having 
poured  out  his  soul  in  confidence,  as  Beethoven 
did  in  the  'Will/  in  the  three  mysterious 
letters  to  some  unknown  Beloved,  or  in  hi& 
conversations  with  Bettina.  He  made  no  im- 
pression even  on  his  closest  friends  beyond  that 
of  natural  kindness,  goodness,  truth,  and  reserve. 
His  life  is  all  siunmed  up  in  his  music.  No 
memoir  of  Schubert  can  ever  be  satt8factor>', 
because  no  relation  can  be  established  between 
his  life  and  his  music;  or  rather,  proper] v 
speaking,  because  there  is  no  life  to  eetablisii 
a  relation  with.  The  one  scale  of  tho  balance 
is  absolutely  empty,  the  other  is  full  to  over- 
flowing. In  his  music  we  have  fluency,  depth, 
acuteness,  and  variety  of  expression,  unbounded 
imagination,  the  happiest  thoughts,  never- 
tiring  energy,  and  a  sympathetic  tenderness 
beyond  belief.  And  these  were  the  result  of 
natural  gifts  and  of  the  incessant  practice  to 
which  they  forced  him;  for  it  seems  certain 
that  of  education  in  music — meaning  by  educa- 
tion the  severe  course  of  training  in  the 
mechanical  portions  of  their  art  to  whidi  Mozart 
and  Mendelssohn  were  subjected — he  had  little 
or  nothing.  As  we  have  already  mentioned, 
the  two  musicians  who  professed  to  instrurt 
him,  Holzer  and  Ruzicka,  were  so  astonished 
at  his  ability  that  they  contented  them8elve^ 
with  wondering,  and  allowing  him  to  go  hi.s 
own  way.  And  they  are  responsible  for  that 
want  of  counterpoint  which  was  an  embarrass- 
ment to  him  all  his  life,  and  drove  him,  during 
his  last  illness,  to  seek  lessons.  [See  p.  316/>.] 
What  he  learned,  he  learned  mostly  for  himseU. 
from  playing  in  the  Convict  orchestra,  from 
Incessant  writing,  and  from  reading  the  beat 
scores  he  could  obtain;  and,  to  use  the  ex- 
pressive term  of  his  friend  Mayrhofer,  remaint^l 
a  *  Naturalist'  to  the  end  of  his  life.  From 
the  operas  of  the  Italian  masters,  which  wen- 
recommended  to  him  by  Salieri,  he  advancoil 
to  those  of  Mozart,  and  of  Mozart  abundant 


SCHUBERT 


325 


traces  appear  in  his  earlier  instxrunental  works. 
Is  1814  Beethoyen  was  probably  still  tabooed 
in  the  Convict ;  and  beyond  the  '  Prometheus ' 
music,  and  the  first  two  Symphonies,  a  pupil 
there  would  not  be  likely  to  encounter  anything 
of  his. 

To  speak  first  of  the  orchestral  works. 

The  first  Symphony  dates  from  1814  (his 
1 8th  year),  and  between  that  and  1818  we 
hsTe  five  more.  These  are  all  much  tinctured 
br  what  he  was  hearing  and  reading — Haydn, 
Mozart,  Boesini,  Beethoven  (the  last  but  slightly, 
for  reasons  jnst  hinted  at).  Now  and  then — 
as  in  the  second  subjects  of  the  first  and  last 
Allegros  of  Symphony  1,  the  first  subject  of  the 
opening  Alle^  of  Symphony  2,  and  the  Andante 
of  Symphony  5,  the  themes  are  virtually  re- 
produced— no  doubt  unconsciously.  The  treat- 
ment is  more  his  own,  especially  in  regard  to 
the  nse  of  the  wind  instruments,  and  to  the 
'working  out'  of  the  movements,  where  his 
TTint  of  education  drives  him  to  the  repetition 
of  the  subject  in  various  keys,  and  similar 
artifices,  in  place  of  contrapuntal  treatment. 
In  the  slow  movement  and  Finale  of  the  Tragio 
Symphony,  No.  4,  we  have  exceedingly  happy 
examples,  in  which,  without  absolutely  breaking 
away  from  the  old  world,  Schubert  has  revealed 
in  amount  of  original  feeling  and  an  extra- 
ordinaiy  beauty  of  treatment  which  already 
stamp  him  as  a  great  orchestral  composer.  But 
whether  always  original  or  not  in  their  subjects, 
DO  one  can  listen  to  these  first  six  Symphonies 
without  being  impreaaedwithiitieiTindividualUy, 
Single  phrases  may  remind  us  of  other  com- 
posers, the  treatment  may  often  be  traditional, 
bnt  there  is  a  fluency  and  continuity,  a  happy 
cheerfulness,  an  earnestness  and  want  of  triviality 
and  an  absence  of  labour,  which  proclaim  a 
new  composer.  The  writer  is  evidently  writ- 
ing because  what  he  has  to  say  must  come  out, 
oven  though  he  may  occasionally  couch  it  in 
the  phrases  of  his  predecessors.  Beauty  and 
[•rofusion  of  melody  reign  throughout  The 
tone  is  often  plaintive  bnt  never  obscure,  and 
there  is  always  the  irrepressible  gaiety  of  youth 
and  of  Schubert's  own  Viennese  nature,  ready 
and  willing  to  burst  forth.  His  treatment  of 
particular  instruments,  especially  the  wind,  is 
tlresdy  quite  his  own — a  happy  eonversaiianal 
way  which  at  a  later  period  becomes  highly 
characteristic  At  length,  in  the  B  minor 
Symphony  (Oct.  80,  1822),  we  meet  with 
something  which  never  existed  in  the  world 
before  in  orchestral  music — a  new  class  of 
thonghta  and  a  new  mode  of  expression  which 
distingoish  him  entirely  firom  his  predecessors, 
characteristics  which  are  fully  maintained  in 
the  *  Roeaniunde '  music  (Christmas,  1828),  and 
colminate  in  the  great  C  miy'or  Symphony 
(March  1828). 

The  same  general  remarks  apply  to  the  other 
instnunental  compositions — tiie  quartets  and 


PF.  sonatas.  These  often  show  a  close  adher- 
ence to  the  style  of  the  old  school,  but  are 
always  effective  and  individual,  and  occasion- 
ally, like  the  symphonies,  varied  by  original 
and  charming  movements,  as  the  Trio  in  the 
Eb  Quartet,  or  the  Minuet  and  Trio  in  the  E 
major  one  (op.  125,  1  and  2),  the  Sonata  in 
A  minor  (1817),  etc.  The  visit  to  Zsel^  in 
1824,  with  its  Hungarian  experiences,  and  the 
pianoforte  proclivities  of  the  Esterhazys,  seem 
to  have  given  him  a  new  impetus  in  the  direc- 
tion of  chamber  music.  It  was  the  immediate 
or  proximate  cause  of  the  *  Grand  Duo  '-^that 
splendid  work  in  which,  with  Beethoven  in  his 
eye,  Schubert  was  never  more  himself— and  the 
Divertissement  &  la  hongroise  ;  as  well  as  the 
beautiful  and  intensely  personal  String  Quartet 
in  A  minor,  which  has  been  not  wrongly  said 
to  be  the  most  characteristic  work  of  any  com- 
poser ;  ultimately  also  of  the  D  minor  and  G 
major  Quartets,  the  String  Quintet  in  C,  and 
the  last  three  Sonatas,  in  aU  of  which  the 
Hungarian  element  is  strongly  perceptible — all 
the  more  strongly  because  we  hardly  detect  it 
at  all  in  the  songs  and  vocal  works. 

Here  then,  at  1822  in  the  orchestral  works, 
and  1824  in  the  chamber  music,  we  may  per- 
haps draw  the  line  between  Schubert's  mature 
and  immature  compositions.  The  step  from 
the  Symphony  in  C  of  1818  to  the  Unfinished 
Symphony  in  B  minor,  or  to  the  <  Rosamunde ' 
Entr'acte  in  the  same  key,  is  quite  as  great  as 
Beethoven's  was  from  No.  2  to  the  Eroica,  or 
Mendelssohn's  from  the  C  minor  to  the  Italian 
Symphony.  All  trace  of  his  predecessors  is 
gone,  and  he  stands  alone  in  his  own  undis- 
guised and  pervading  personality.  All  trace 
of  his  youth  has  gone  too.  Life  has  become 
serious,  nay  cruel ;  and  a  deep  earnestness  and 
pathos  animate  all  his  utterances.  Similarly 
in  the  chamber  music,  the  Octet  stands  on  the 
line,  and  all  the  works  which  have  made  their 
position  and  are  acknowledged  as  great  are  on 
this  side  of  it — the  Grand  Duo,  the  Divertisse- 
ment Hongroise,  the  PF.  Sonatas  in'  A  minor, 
D,  and  Bb,  the  Fantasie-Sonata  in  G  ;  the  Im- 
promptus and  Momens  musicals ;  the  String 
Quartets  in  A  minor,  D  minor,  and  G ;  the 
String  Quintet  in  C  ;  the  Rondo  brillant, — in 
short,  all  the  works  which  the  world  thinks  of 
when  it  mentions  *  Schubert '  (we  are  speaking 
now  of  instrumental  music  only)  are  on  this 
side  of  1822.  On  the  other  side  of  the  line, 
in  both  cases,  orchestra  and  chamber,  are  a 
vast  number  of  works  full  of  beauty,  interest, 
and  life ;  breathing  youth  in  every  bar,  abso- 
lute Schubert  in  many  movements  or  passages, 
but  not  completely  saturated  with  him,  not  of 
sufficiently  independent  power  to  assert  their 
rank  with  the  others,  or  to  compensate  for  the 
dilTuseness  and  repetition  which  remained  char- 
acteristics of  their  author  to  the  last,  but  which 
in  the  later  works  are  hidden  or  atoned  for  by 


326 


SCHUBERT 


the  astonishing  force,  beauty,  romance,  and 
personality  inherent  in  the  contents  of  the 
music.  These  early  works  will  always  be  more 
than  interesting ;  and  no  lover  of  Schubert  but 
must  regard  them  with  the  strong  affection  and 
fascination  which  his  followers  feel  for  every 
bar  he  wrote.  But  the  judgment  of  the  world 
at  large  will  probably  always  remain  what  it 
now  is. 

He  was,  as  Liszt  so  finely  said,  *  le  musicien 
le  plus  poHe  que  jamais '  * — the  most  poetical 
musician  that  ever  was  ;  and  the  main  character- 
istics of  his  music  will  always  be  its  vivid  per- 
sonality, fulness,  and  poetry.  In  the  case  of 
other  great  composers,  the  mechanical  skill  and 
ingenuity,  the  very  ease  and  absence  of  effort 
with  which  many  of  their  effects  are  produced, 
or  their  pieces  constructed,  is  a  great  element  in 
the  pleasure  produced  by  their  music.  Not  so 
with  Schubert.  In  listening  to  him  one  is  never 
betrayed  into  exclaiming  *  How  clever  !  'but  very 
often  *How  poetical,  how  beautiful,  how  intensely 
Schubert ! '  The  impression  produced  by  his  great 
works  is  that  the  means  are  nothing  and  the 
effect  everything.  Not  that  he  had  no  technical 
skill.  Counterpoint  he  was  deficient  in,  but  the 
power  of  writing  whatever  he  wanted  he  had 
absolutely  at  his  fingers'  end.  No  one  had  ever 
written  more,  and  the  notation  of  his  ideas  must 
have  been  done  without  an  effort.  In  the  words 
of  Maofarren,^  'the  committing  his  works  to 
paper  was  a  process  that  accompanied  their  com- 
position like  the  writing  of  an  ordinary  letter 
that  is  indited  at  the  very  paper.'  In  fact  we 
know,  if  we  had  not  the  manuscripts  to  prove  it, 
that  he  wrote  with  the  greatest  ease  and  rapidity, 
and  could  keep  up  a  conversation,  not  only  while 
writingdown  but  while  inventing  his  best  works ; 
that  he  never  hesitated  ;  very  rarely  revised — ^it 
would  often  have  been  better  if  he  had ;  and 
never  seems  to  have  aimed  at  makinginnovations 
or  doing  things  for  effect.  For  instance,  in  the 
number  and  arrangement  of  the  movements,  his 
symphonies  and  sonatas  never  depart  from  the 
regular  Haydn  pattern.  They  rarely  show  aesthetic 
artifices,  such  as  quoting  the  theme  of  one  move- 
ment in  another  movement,^  or  running  them 
into  each  other  ;  ©hanging  their  order,  or  intro- 
ducing extra  ones  ;  mixing  various  times  simul- 
taneously— or  similar  mechanical  means  of 
producing  unity  or  making  novel  effects,  which 
often  surprise  and  please  us  in  Beethoven, 
Schumann,  Mendelssohn,  and  Spohr.  Nor  did 
he  ever  indicate  a  programme,  or  prefix  a  motto 
to  any  of  his  works.  His  matter  is  so  abundant 
and  so  full  of  variety  and  interest  that  he  never 
seems  to  think  of  enhancing  it  by  any  devices. 
He  did  nothing  to  extend  the  formal  limits  of 
Symphony  or  Sonata,  but  he  endowed  them  with 

I  Lint's  wont  enemies  will  pardon  him  mach  for  this  emtence. 

>  Philhannonio  programme,  Mayas,  1871. 

>  iDStanoes  may  be  quoted  from  the  Rondo  brillant,  op.  70.  where 

art  of  the  introduction  Is  repeated  In  the  Rondo,  snd  from  the  pf. 
o  In  E  flat.  op.  100.  where  the  principal  theme  of  the  slow  move- 
ment is  repeated  in  the  Finale. 


a  magic,  a  romance,  a  sweet  naturalness,  which 
no  one  has  yet  approached.  And  as  in  the 
general  structure  so  in  the  single  movements. 
A  simple  canon,  as  in  the  £b  Trio,  the  Andante 
of  the  B  minor  or  the  Scherzo  of  the  C  major 
Symphonies ;  an  occasional  round,  as  in  the 
Masses  and  Part-songs  ; — such  is  pretty  nearly 
all  the  science  that  he  affords.  His  vocal  fogues 
are  notoriously  weak,  and  the  symphonies  rarely 
show  those  ^iquAntftigalos  which  are  so  delight- 
ful in  BeelSioven  and  Mendelssohn.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  all  that  is  neoessaiy  to  express 
his  thoughts  and  feelings,  and  to  convey  them 
to  the  hearer,  he  is  inferior  to  none.  Such  pass- 
ages as  the  return  to  the  subject  in  the  Andante 
of  the  B  minor  Symphony,  or  in  the  ballet  air  in 
G  of  *Roeamunde' ;  as  the  famous  horn  passage 
in  the  Andante  of  the  0  major  Symphony  (No. 
10) — which  Schumann  happily  compares  to  a 
being  from  the  other  world  gliding  about  the 
orchestra — or  the  equally  beautiful  violoncello 
solo  farther  on  in  the  same  movement,  are  un- 
surpassed in  orchestral  music  for  felicity  and 
beauty,  and  have  an  emotional  effect  which  no 
learning  could  give.  There  is  a  place  in  the 
working-out  of  the  Bosamunde  Entr'acte  in  B 
minor  (change  into  Gi)  in  which  the  combination 
of  modulation  and  scoring  produces  a  weird  and 
overpowering  feeling  quite  exceptional,  and  the 
change  to  the  major  near  the  end  of  the  same 
great  work  will  always  astonish.  One  of  the  most 
prominent  beauties  in  these  orchestral  works  is 
the  exquisite  and  entirely  fresh  manner  in  which 
the  wind  Instruments  are  combined.  Even  in 
his  earliest  Symphonies  he  begins  that  method 
of  dialogue  by  interchange  of  phrases,  which  rises 
at  last  to  the  well-knoAvn  and  lovely  passages  in 
the  Overture  to  '  Rosamunde '  (2nd  subject),  the 
Trios  of  the  Bb  Entr'acte,  and  the  Air  de  BaUer 
in  the  same  music,  and  in  the  Andantes  of  the 
eighth  and  tenth  Symphonies.  No  one  has 
ever  combined  wind  instruments  as  these  are 
combined.  To  quote  Schumann  once  more — they 
talk  and  intertalk  like  human  beings.  It  is  no 
artful  concealment  of  art.  The  artist  vanishes 
altogether,  and  the  loving,  simple,  human  friend 
remains.  It  were  well  to  be  dumb  in  articulate 
speech  with  such  a  power  of  utterance  at  com- 
mand !  If  anything  were  wanting  to  convince 
us  of  the  absolute  itispiraUon  of  such  music  as 
this  it  would  be  the  fact  that  Schubert  never 
can  have  heard  either  of  the  two  Symphonies 
which  we  have  just  been  citing. — But  to  return 
to  the  orchestra.  The  trombones  were  favourite 
instruments  with  Schubert  in  his  later  life.  In 
the  fugal  movements  of  his  two  last  Masses  he 
makes  them  accompany  the  voices  in  unison, 
with  a  persistence  which  is  sometimes  almost 
unbearable  for  its  monotony.  In  portions  of  the 
C  major  Symphony  also  (No.  10)  some  may 
possibly  find  them  too  much  used.*     But  in 

«  There  is  a  tradition  that  he  douYited  this  hlmarlt  and  refrtrw 
the  score  to  Laohner  for  his  opinion. 


SCHUBERT 


327 


other  parts  of  the  Maases  they  are  beautifully 
employed,  and  in  the  Introdnction  and  Allegro 
of  the  Symphony  they  are  used  with  anobleeffect, 
which  not  improbably  suggested  to  Schumann 
the  equally  iiapressire  use  of  them  in  his  6b 
Symphony.  Theaooompaniments  to  his  subjects 
are  always  of  great  ingenuity  and  originality, 
and  full  of  life  and  character.  The  triplets  in 
the  Finale  to  the  tenth  Symphony,  which  excited 
the  mal  djnvpoa  menimeat  of  the  Philharmonic 
orchestra  (see  p.  3216),  are  a  very  striking  in- 
stance. Another  is  the  incessant  run  of  semi- 
quavers in  the  second  violins  and  violas  which 
accompany  the  second  theme  in  the  Finale  of 
the  Tragic  Symphony.  Another,  of  which  he  is 
very  fond,  is  the  employment  of  a  recurring 
monotonous  figure  in  the  inner  parts  : — 


often  running  to  great  length,  as  in  the  Andantes 
of  the  Tragic  and  B  minor  Symphonies ;  the 
Hoderato  of  the  Bb  Sonata ;  the  fine  song 
*  Viola'  (op.  123,  at  the  return  to  Ab  in  the 
middle  of  the  song),  etc  etc.  In  his  best  PF. 
music,  the  accompaniments  are  most  happily 
fitted  to  the  leading  part,  so  as  never  to  clash 
or  produce  discord.  Rapidly  as  he  wrote  he 
did  these  things  as  if  they  were  calculated. 
But  they  never  obtrude  themselves  or  become 
prominent.  They  are  all  merged  and  absorbed 
in  the  gaiety,  pathos,  and  personal  interest  of 
the  music  itself,  and  of  the  man  who  is  uttering 
through  it  his  griefs  and  joys,  his  hopes  and 
feaiB,  in  so  direct  and  touching  a  manner  as 
no  composer  ever  did  before  or  since,  and  with 
no  thought  of  an  audience,  of  fame,  or  success, 
or  any  other  external  thing.  No  one  who 
listens  to  it  can  doubt  that  Schubert  wrote  for 
himself  alone.  His  music  is  the  simple  utter- 
ance of  the  feelings  with  which  his  mind  is  fall. 
If  he  had  thought  of  his  audience,  or  the  effect 
he  would  produce,  or  the  capabilities  of  the 
means  he  was  employing,  he  would  have  taken 
more  inins  in  the  revision  of  his  works.  In- 
deed the  most  affectionate  disciple  of  Schubert 
must  admit  that  the  want  of  revision  is  often 
hut  too  apparent. 

In  his  instrumental  music  he  is  often  very 
difiuae.  When  a  passage  pleases  him  he  gene- 
nlly  repeats  it  at  once,  almost  note  for  note. 
He  will  reiterate  a  passage  over  and  over  in 
diiferent  keys,  as  if  he  could  never  have  done. 
In  the  songs  this  does  not  offend ;  and  even 
here,  if  we  knew  what  he  was  thinking  of,  as 
▼e  do  in  the  songs,  we  might  possibly  find  the 
repetitions  just.  In  the  Eb  TVio  he  repeats  in 
the  Finale  a  characteristic  accompaniment  which 


is  very  prominent  in  the  first  movement  and 
which  originally  belongs  perhaps  to  the  Ab 
Impromptu  (op.  90,  No.  4)--and  a  dozen  other 
instances  of  the  same  kind  might  be  quoted.^ 
This  arose  in  great  part  from  his  imperfect 
education,  but  in  great  part  also  from  the  furious 
pace  at  which  he  dashed  down  his  thoughts 
and  feelings,  apparently  without  previous  sketch, 
note,  or  preparation  ;  and  from  his  habit  of 
never  correcting  a  piece  after  it  was  once  on 
paper.  Had  he  done  so  he  would  doubtless 
have  taken  out  many  a  repetition,  and  some 
trivialities  which  seem  terribly  out  of  place 
amid  the  usual  nobility  and  taste  of  his  thoughts. 
It  was  doubtless  this  diffiiseness  and  apparent 
want  of  aim,  as  well  as  the  jolly,  untutored 
naiveU  of  some  of  his  subjects  (Rondo  of  D 
major  Sonata,  etc.),  and  the  incalculable  amount 
of  modulation,  that  made  Mendelssohn  shrink 
from  some  of  Schubert's  instrumental  works, 
and  even  go  so  far  as  to  call  the  D  minor  quartet 
tchUchU  Musik — i.e.  'nasty  music'  But  un- 
less to  musicians  whose  fastidiousness  is  some- 
what abnormal — as  Mendelssohn's  was — such 
criticisms  only  occur  afterwards,  on  reflection  ; 
for  during  the  progress  of  the  work  all  is 
absorbed  in  the  intense  life  and  personality  of 
the  music.  And  what  beauties  there  are  to 
put  against  these  redundances  I  Take  such 
movements  as  the  first  Allegro  of  the  A  minor 
Sonata  or  the  Bb  Sonata ;  the  6  major  Fantasia- 
Sonata  ;  the  two  Characteristic  Marches ;  the 
Impromptus  and  Momens  musicals  ;  the  Minuet 
of  ^e  A  minor  Quartet ;  the  Variations  of  the 
D  minor  Quartet ;  the  Finale  of  the  Bb  Trio  ; 
the  first  two  movements,  or  the  Trio,  of  the 
String  Quintet ;  the  two  movements  of  the  B 
minor  Symphony,  or  the  wonderful  Entr'acte 
in  the  same  key  in  *  Roeamunde ' ;  the  Finale  of 
the  tenth  Symphony — think  of  the  abundance 
of  the  thoughts,  the  sudden  surprises,  thtf 
wonderful  transitions,  the  extraordinary  pathos 
of  the  turns  of  melody  and  modulation,  the 
absolute  manner  (to  repeat  once  more)  in  which 
they  bring  you  into  contact  with  the  affectionate, 
tender,  suffering  personality  of  the  composer, — 
and  who  in  the  whole  realm  of  music  has  ever 
approached  them  ?  For  the  magical  expression 
of  such  a  piece  as  the  Andantino  in  Ab  (op.  94, 
No.  2),  any  redundance  may  be  pardoned. 

In  Schumann's  words,  'he  has  strains  for 
the  most  subtle  thoughts  and  feelings,  nay  even 
for  the  events  and  conditions  of  life  ;  and  in- 
numerable as  are  the  shades  of  human  thought 
and  action,  so  various  is  his  music'  ^  Another 
equally  true  saying  of  Schumann's  is  that, 
compared  with  Beethoven,  Schubert  is  as  a 
woman  to  a  man.  For  it  must  be  confessed 
that  one's  attitude  towards  him  is  almost  always 
that  of  sympathy,  attraction,  and  love,  rarely 
that  of  embarrassment  or  fear.     Here  and  there 

I  For  »  eompuisoa  of  hU  SonatM  viUi  thoM  of  other  maaten  Me 

SOKATA. 

•  ffM.  Sdkrifttm,  i.  908. 


328 


SCHUBERT 


only,  as  in  the  Bosamunde  B  minor  Entr'acte, 
or  the  Finale  of  the  tenth  Symphony,  does  he 
compel  his  hearers  with  an  irresistible  power  ; 
and  yet  how  different  is  this  compulsion  from 
the  strong,  fierce,  merciless  coercion,  with  which 
Beethoven  forces  yon  along,  and  bows  and  bends 
you  to  his  will,  in  the  Finale  of  the  eighth  or 
still  more  that  of  the  seyenth  Symphony. 

We  have  mentioned  the  gradual  manner  in 
which  Schubert  reached  his  own  style  in  instru- 
mental music  (see  p.  825).  In  this,  except 
perhaps  as  to  quantity,  there  is  nothing  singular, 
or  radically  different  from  the  early  career  of 
other  composers.  Beethoven  began  on  the  lines 
of  Mozart,  and  Mendelssohn  on  those  of  Weber, 
and  gradually  found  their  own  independent 
style.  But  the  thing  in  which  Schubert  stands 
alone  is  that  while  he  was  thus  arriving  by 
degrees  at  individuality  in  Sonatas,  Quartets, 
and  Symphonies,  he  was  pouring  forth  songs 
by  the  dozen,  many  of  which  were  of  the 
greatest  possible  novelty,  originality,  and 
mastery,  while  all  of  them  have  that  peculiar 
cachet  which  ia  immediately  recognisable  as  his. 
The  chronological  list  of  his  works  shows  that 
such  masterpieces  as  the  '  Gretchen  am  Spinn- 
rade,'  the  *  Erl  King,'  the  Ossian  Songs,  *  Gret- 
chen im  Dom,'  *  Der  Taucher,' '  Die  Biirgschaft,' 
were  written  before  he  was  nineteen,  and  were 
contemporary  with  his  very  early  efforts  in 
the  orchestra  and  chamber  music;  and  that 
by  1822 — in  the  October  of  which  he  wrote 
the  two  movements  of  his  eighth  Symphony, 
which  we  have  named  as  his  first  absolutely 
original  instrumental  music — he  had  produced 
in  addition  such  ballads  as  'Ritter  Toggen- 
burg'  (1816),  and  'Einsamkeit'  (1818);  such 
classical  songs  as  '  Memnon '  (1817),  *  Antigone 
undCEdip'(1817),  *Iphigenia'  (1817),  'Gany- 
med'  (1817),  'Fahrt  zum  Hades'  (1817), 
'Prometheus'  (1819),  *Gruppe  aus  dem  Tar- 
tarus' (1817);  Goethe's  *Wilhelm  Meister' 
songs,  *  An  Schwager  Kronos  *  (1816),  *  Grenzen 
der  Monschheit '  (1821),  Suleika's  two  songs 
(1821),  *Geheimes'  (1821);  as  well  as  the 
•  Wanderer '  (1816),  *  Sei  mir  gegriisst '  (1821), 
« Waldesnachf  (1820),  '  Greisengesang '  (1822), 
and  many  more  of  his  very  greatest  and  most 
immortal  songs. 

And  this  is  very  confirmatory  of  the  view  al- 
ready taken  in  this  article  (p.  289a)  of  Schubert's 
relation  to  music.  The  reservoir  of  music  was 
within  him  from  his  earliest  years,  and  songs 
being  so  much  more  direct  a  channel  than  the 
more  complicated  and  artificial  courses  and 
conditions  of  the  symphony  or  the  sonata, 
music  came  to  the  surface  in  them  so  much  the 
more  quickly.  Had  the  orchestra  or  the  piano 
been  as  direct  a  mode  of  utterance  as  the  voice, 
and  the  forms  of  symphony  or  sonata  as  simple 
as  that  of  the  song,  there  seems  no  reason  why 
he  should  not  have  written  instrumental  music 
as  characteristic  as  his  eighth  Symphony,  his 


Sonata  in  A  minor,  and  his  Quartet  in  the 
same  key,  eight  yean  earlier  than  he  did  ;  for 
the  songs  of  that  early  date  prove  that  he  had 
then  all  the  original  power,  imagination,  and 
feeling,  that  he  ever  had.  That  it  should  have 
been  given  to  a  comparative  boy  to  produce 
strains  which  seem  to  breathe  the  emotion  and 
experience  of  a  long  life  is  only  part  of  the 
wonder  which  will  also  surround  Schubert's 
songs.  After  1822,  when  his  youth  was  gone, 
and  health  had  b^^  to  fail,  and  life  had 
become  a  terrible  reality,  his  thoughts  turned 
inwards,  and  he  wrote  the  two  great  cycles  of 
the  <  MiiUerlieder '  (1828)  and  the  *  Winterreise ' 
(1827) ;  the  Walter  Scott  and  Shakespeare 
songs  ;  the  splendid  single  songs  of '  Im  Walde  * 
and  '  Auf  der  Bruck,'  'Todtengrabera  Heimweh,* 

*  Der  Zwerg  '  '  Die  junge  Nonne ' ;  the  Bar- 
carolle, *  Du  bist  die  Ruh,'  and  the  lovely  *  Dass 
sie  hier  gewesen' ;  the  'Schiffers  Scheidelied,' 
those  which  were  collected  into  the  so-called 

*  Schwanengesang,'  and  many  more. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  draw  a  comparison 
between  the  songs  of  this  later  period  and  tboee 
of  the  earlier  ouq,  but  the  difference  must  strike 
every  one,  and  it  resides  mainly  perhaps  in  the 
subjects  themselves.  Subjects  of  romance — of 
ancient  times  and  remote  scenes,  and  strange 
adventures,  and  desperate  emotion — are  natanil 
to  the  imagination  of  youth.  But  in  matorcr 
life  the  mind  is  calmer,  and  dwells  more 
strongly  on  personal  subjects.  And  this  is  the 
case  with  Schubert  After  1822  the  classical 
songs  and  ballads  are  rare,  and  the  themes 
which  he  chooses  belong  chiefly  to  modem  life 
and  individual  feeling,  such  as  the  'MiiUer- 
lieder '  and  the  '  Winterreise,'  and  otbere  in  the 
list  just  given.  Walter  Scott's  and  Shakespeare's 
form  an  exception,  but  it  is  an  exception  w^hich 
explains  itself.  We  no  longer  have  the  exuber- 
ant dramatic  force  of  the  'Erl  King,'  'Ganymed,' 
the  *Gruppe  aus  dem  Tartarus,'  *Gronnan,'  or 

*  Kolma's  Klage' ;  but  we  have  instead  the  con- 
densation and  personal  point  of  *  Pause,'  '  Die 
Post,'  'Das  Wirthshaus,'  'Die  NebGnsonnen,' 
the  'Doppelganger,'  and  the  'Junge  Nonne.' 
And  there  is  more  maturity  in  the  treatment 
His  modulations  are  fewer.  His  acoompaui- 
ments  are  always  interesting  and  suggestive, 
but  they  gain  in  force  and  variety  and  quality 
of  ideas  in  the  later  songs. 

In  considering  the  songs  themselvee  somewhat 
more  closely,  their  most  obvious  characteristics 
are : — ^Their  number ;  their  length  ;  the  variety 
of  the  words ;  their  expression,  and  tlieir  other 
musical  and  poetical  peculiarities. 

1.  Their  number.  The  published  songs,  that 
is  to  say  the  compositions  for  one  and  two 
voices,  excluding  Offertories  and  songs  in  operas, 
amount  to  603. 

2.  Their  length.  This  varies  veiy  much. 
The  shortest,  like  'Klage  um  Aly  Bey,*  'Der 
Goldschmiedsgesell,*  and  '  Die  Spinnerin '  (op. 


SCHUBERT 


329 


1 18,  6),  &re  strophic  songs  (that  is,  with  the 
aame  melody  and  harmony  unchanged  verse 
after  verse),  in  each  of  which  the  voice  part  is 
only  eight  bars  long,  with  a  bar  or  two  of  intro- 
duction or  ritomel.  The  longest  is  Bertrand's 
*  Adelwold  und  Emma '  (June  6,  1816),  a  ballad 
che  autograph  of  which  contains  fifty -five 
pages.  Others  of  almost  equal  length  and  of 
about  the  same  date  are: — 'Minona,'  'Die 
Konne, '  *  Amphiaraos, '  etc.  Another  is  Schiller's 
'  Ber  Tancher,'  which  fills  thirty -six  pages  of 
close  print  Schiller's  '  Biirgschaft '  and  the 
Osaian-songs  are  all  long,  though  not  of  the 
same  extent  as  'Der  Taucher.'  These  vast 
ballads  are  extremely  dramatic ;  they  contain 
many  changes  of  tempo  and  of  signature, 
dialogues,  redtativee,  and  airs.  The  *  Bitter 
Toggenbuif^ '  ends  with  a  stiophic  song  in  five 
stanzas.  *  Der  Tanoher '  contains  a  long  piano- 
forte passage  of  sixty  bars,  during  the  suspense 
after  the  diver's  last  descent  'Der  Liedler' 
contains  a  march.  The  Ballads  mostly  belong 
to  the  early  years,  1815,  1816.  The  last  is 
XIayrhofer's  *  Einsamkeit,'  the  date  of  which 
Schubert  has  fixed  in  his  letter  of  August  8, 
1 81 8.  There  are  long  songs  of  later  years,  such 
<i3  Collin's  'Der  Zwerg'  of  1828;  Schober's 
'Viola'  and  ' V ergissmeinnidit '  of  1828,  and 
'Schifiers  Scheidelied'  of  1827,  and  Leitner's 
'  Der  Winterabend '  of  1828 ;  but  these  are 
essentially  different  from  the  ballads ;  they  are 
lyrical,  and  evince  comparatively  few  mechani- 
cal changes. 

It  stands  to  reason  that  in  608  songs  collected 
from  all  the  great  German  poets,  from  Elopstook 
to  Heine,  there  must  be  an  infinite  variety  of 
material,  form,  sentiment,  and  expression. 
And  one  of  the  most  obvious  characteristics  in 
Schubert's  setting  of  this  immense  collection  is 
the  close  way  in  which  he  adheres  to  the  words.  ^ 
•Setting  a  song  was  no  cssual  operation  with 
him,  rapidly  as  it  was  often  done ;  but  he 
identified  himself  with  the  poem,  and  the 
poef  s  mood  for  the  time  was  his.  Indeed  he 
complains  of  the  influence  which  the  gloom  of 
the  '  Winterretse '  had  had  upon  his  spirits. 
He  does  not,  as  is  the  manner  of  some  song- 
eomposers,  set  the  poet  at  naught  by  repeating 
hi£  words  over  and  over  again.  This  he  rarely 
does ;  but  he  goes  through  his  poem  and  confines 
himself  to  enforcing  the  expression  as  music 
alone  can  do  to  poetry.  The  music  changes 
irith  the  words  as  a  landscape  does  when  sun  and 
doad  pass  over  it  And  in  this  Schubert  has 
anticipated  Wagner,  since  the  words  to  which 
he  writes  are  as  much  the  absolute  basis  of  his 
songs,  as  Wagner's  librettos  are  of  his  operas. 
\Vhat  this  has  brought  him  to  in  such  cases 
as  the  *Erl  King,'  the  'Wanderer,'  *Schwager 

1  It  ia  itrBOfe  to  find  hit  pneilM  in  the  3Imms  n  difltarent. 
Thct«— •  critic  AM  pointed  ont— in  tvny  one  of  the  elx.  words  are 
•itte-  omitted  or  loeanrcRtly  )nmbl«d  toicether  (Mr.  FtonU  In 
^^meerrfte,  18«9.  p.  110a).  Wm  this  beoaute  he  noderstood  the  Latin 
Nardil  iiBpotetlyt 


Ki-onos,'  the  'Gruppe  aus  dem  Tartarus,'  the 
Shakespeare  songs  of  'Sylvia'  and  'Hark,  hark, 
the  lark  1 '  those  of  Ellen  and  the  Huntsman 
in  'The  Lady  of  the  Lake,'  even  Englishmen 
can  judge ;  but  what  he  did  in  the  German 
literature  generally  may  be  gathered  from  the 
striking  passage  already  quoted  from  Vogl  (pp. 
288-9),  and  from  Mayrhofer's  confession — 
doubly  remarkable  when  coming  from  a  man  of 
such  strong  individuality — who  somewhere  says 
that  he  did  not  understand  the  full  force  even 
of  his  own  poems  until  he  had  heard  Schubert's 
setting  of  them. 

One  of  his  great  means  of  expression  is  modu- 
lation. What  magic  this  alone  can  work  may 
be  seen  in  the  Trio  of  the  Sonata  in  D.  As  in 
his  PF.  works,  so  in  the  songs,  he  sometimes 
carries  it  to  an  exaggerated  degree.  Thus  in 
the  short  song  '  Liedesend '  of  Mayrhofer  (Sept. 
1816),  he  begins  in  G  minor,  and  then  goes 
quickly  through  Eb  into  Gb  major.  The  signa- 
ture then  changes,  and  we  are  at  onceinD  major ; 
then  G  major.  Then  the  signature  again  changes 
to  that  of  Ab,  in  which  we  remain  for  fifteen 
bars.  From  Ab  it  is  an  easy  transition  to  F 
minor,  but  a  very  sudden  one  from  that  again 
to  A  minor.  Then  for  the  breaking  of  the  harp 
we  are  forced  into  Db.  and  immediately,  with 
a  further  change  of  signature,  into  ¥%,  Then 
for  the  King's  song,  with  a  fifth  change  of 
signature,  into  B  major ;  and  lastly,  for  the 
concluding  words, 

Und  immer  niiher  schreitet 
Vergfingllehkelt  und  Grab— 

a  sixth  change,  with  eight  bars  in  E  minor,  thus 
ending  the  song  a  third  higher  than  it  began. 

In  Schiller's  '  Der  Pilgrim '  (1826),  after  two 
strophes  (four  stanzas)  of  a  chorale-like  melody 
in  D  mi^or,  we  come,  with  the  description  of 
the  difiSculties  of  the  pilgrim's  road — mountains, 
torrents,  ravines — to  a  change  into  D  minor, 
followed  by  much  extraneous  modulation,  reach- 
ing Ab  minor,  and  ending  in  F,  in  which  key 
the  first  melody  is  repeated.  At  the  words 
'naher  bin  ioh  nicht  zum  Ziel' — we  have  a 
similar  phrase  and  similar  harmony  (though  in 
a  difiisrent  key)  to  the  well-known  complaint  in 
the  *  Wanderer,'  *  Und  immer  fragt  der  Seufzer, 
Wo?'  The  signature  then  changes,  and  the 
song  ends  very  impressively  in  B  minor. 

These  two  are  quoted,  the  first  as  an  in- 
stance rather  of  exaggeration,  the  second  of  the 
mechanical  use  of  modulations  to  convey  the 
natural  difficulties  depicted  in  the  poem.  But 
if  we  want  examples  of  the  extraordinary  power 
with  which  Schubert  wields  this  great  engine  of 
emotion,  we  would  mention  another  song  which 
contains  one  of  the  best  instances  to  be  foimd 
of  propriety  of  modulation.  I  allude  to  Schu- 
hart's  short  poem  to  Death,  'An  den  Tod,'  where 
the  gloomy  subjects  and  images  of  the  poet  have 
tempted  the  composer  to  a  series  of  successive 


330 


SCHUBERT 


changes  so  grand,  so  sudden,  and  yet  so  easy, 
and  so  thoroughly  in  keeping  with  the  subject, 
that  it  is  impossible  to  hear  them  unmoved. 

But  modulation,  though  an  all- pervading 
means  of  expression  in  Schubert's  hands,  is 
only  one  out  of  many.  Scarcely  inferior  to  the 
wealth  of  his  modulation  is  the  wealth  of  his 
melodies.  The  beauty  of  these  is  not  more 
astonishing  than  their  variety  and  their  fitness 
to  the  words.  Such  tunes  as  those  of  'Ave 
Maria,'  or  the  Serenade  in  the  'Schwanengesang,' 
or  '  Ungeduld,'  or  the  *  Griinen  Lautenband,'  or 

*  Anna  Ly le, '  or  the  *  Dithyrambe, '  or  * Geheimes, ' 
or  *  Sylvia,  'or  the  *  Lindenbaum,'  or  *Du  bist  die 
Ruh, '  or  the  '  Barcarolle, '  are  not  more  lovely  and 
more  appropriate  to  the  text  than  they  are 
entirely  different  from  one  another.  One  quality 
only,  spontaneity,  they  have  in  common.  With 
Beethoven,  spontaneity  was  the  result  of  labour, 
and  the  more  he  polished  the  more  natural  were 
his  tunes.  But  Schubert  read  the  poem,  and 
the  appropriate  tune,  married  to  immortal  verse 
(a  marriage,  in  his  case,  truly  made  in  heaven), 
rushed  into  his  mind,  and  to  the  end  of  his  pen. 
It  must  be  confessed  that  he  did  not  always 
think  of  the  compass  of  his  voices.  In  his 
latest  songs,  as  in  his  earliest  (see  p.  281),  we 
find  him  taking  the  singer  from  the  low  Bb  to 
F,  and  even  higher. 

The  tune,  however,  in  a  Schubert  song  is  by 
no  means  an  exclusive  feature.  The  accompani- 
ments are  as  varied  and  as  different  as  the  voice- 
parts,  and  as  important  for  the  general  effect. 
They  are  often  extremely  elaborate,  and  the  pub- 
lishers' letters  contain  many  complaints  of  their 
difficulty.  1  They  are  often  most  extraordinarily 
suitable  to  the  words,  as  in  the  'Erl  King,'  or 
the    beautiful    'Dass    sie    hier    gewesen,'   the 

*  Gruppe  aus  dem  Tartarus,'  the  *  Waldesnacht  * 
(and  many  others) ;  where  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  imagine  any  atmosphere  more  exactly  suitable 
to  make  the  words  grow  in  one's  mind,  than  is 
supplied  by  the  accompaniment.  Their  unerring 
certainty isastonishing.  Often,  asin  *Heliopolis, ' 
or  'Auflbsung,  'he  seizes  at  once  on  a  characteristic 
impetuous  figure,  which  is  then  carried  on  with- 
out intermission  to  the  end.  In  *  Anna  Lyle,' 
how  exactly  does  the  sweet  monotony  of  the 
repeated  figure  fall  in  with  the  dreamy  sadness 
of  Scott's  touching  little  lament !  Another  very 
charming  example  of  the  same  thing,  though  in 
a  different  direction,  is  found  in  *  Der  Einsame,' 
a  fireside  piece,  where  the  frequently-recurring 
group  of  four  semiquavers  imparts  an  indescrib- 
able air  of  domesticity  to  the  picture.^     In  the 

*  Winterabend  * — the  picture  of  a  calm  moonlit 
evening — the  accompaniment,  aided  by  a  some- 
what similar  little  figure,  conveys  inimitably 
the  very  breath  of  the  scene.     Such  atmospheric 

I  Op.  S7.  oontainlng  throe  ■ongs  by  no  mean*  difllcult,  wm  pub* 
liahed  vlth  »  notice  on  the  title-page  that  am  bad  been  taken  (we 
trust  with  Schubert's  consent)  to  omit  everything  that  was  too  hard. 

3  A  similar  mood  is  eToked  Id  the  Andante  of  the  Grand  Dno 
(op.  140). 


effects  as  these  are  very  characteristic  of  Schu- 
bert. 

The  voice-part  and  the  accompaniment  some- 
times form  so  perfect  a  whole,  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  disentangle  the  two  ;  as  in  '  Sylvia,' 
where  the  persistent  dotted  quaver  in  the  bass, 
and  the  rare  but  delicious  ritomel  of  two  notes 
in  the  treble  of  the  piano-part  (bars  7,  14,  etc), 
are  essential  to  the  grace  and  sweetness  of  the 
portrait,  and  help  to  place  the  lovely  English 
figure  before  us.  This  is  the  case  also  in  *  Anna 
Lyle '  just  mentioned,  where  the  ritomel  in  the 
piano-part  (bar  20,  etc.)  \s  inexpressibly  soothing 
and  tender  in  its  effect,  and  sounds  like  the  echo 
of  the  girl's  sorrow.  The  beautiful  Serenade  in  the 
'Schwanengesang,'  again,  combines  an  incessant 
rhythmical  accompanimentwith  ritomels  (longer 
than  tliosein  the  last  case),  both  uniting  with  the 
lovely  melody  in  a  song  of  surpassing  b^uty .  In 
the  *  Liebesbotschaft,'  the  rhythm  is  not  bo 
strongly  marked,  but  the  ritomels  are  longer  and 
more  frequent,  and  form  a  charming  feature  in 
that  exquisite  love-poem.  Schubert's  passion  for 
rhythm  comes  out  as  strongly  in  many  of  thesongs 
as  it  does  in  his  marches  and  scherzos.  In  the 
two  just  named,  though  persistent  throughout, 
the  rhythm  is  subordinated  to  the  general  effect 
But  in  others,  as  *Suleika,'  'Die  Sterne,'  the 
*  Nachtgesang  im  Walde, '  *  Erstarrang, '  or '  Friih- 
lingssehnsucht,'  it  forces  itself  more  on  the 
attention. 

Schubert's  basses  are  always  splendid,  and 
are  so  used  as  not  only  to  be  the  basis  of  the 
harmony  but  to  add  essentially  to  the  variety 
and  effect  of  the  songs.  Sometimes,  as  in  'Die 
Kriihe,'  they  are  in  unison  with  the  voice-part. 
Often  they  share  with  the  voice-part  itself  in 
the  melody  and  structure  of  the  whole.  The 
wealth  of  ideas  which  they  display  is  often 
astonishing.  Thus  in  *  Waldesnacht,'  a  very 
long  song  of  1820,  to  a  fine  imaginative  poem 
by  F.  Schlegel,  describing  the  impressions  pro- 
duced by  a  night  in  the  forest,  ^*e  have  a 
splendid  example  of  the  organic  life  which 
Schubert  can  infuse  into  a  song.  The  pace  is 
rapid  throughout ;  the  accompaniment  for  the 
right  hand  is  in  arpeggios  of  semiquavers 
throughout,  never  once  leaving  off;  the  left 
hand,  where  not  in  semiquavers  also,  has  a 
succession  of  noble  and  varied  rhythmical 
melodies,  independent  of  the  voice,  and  the 
whole  is  so  blended  with  the  voice  part — itself 
extraordinarily  broad  and  dignified  throughout; 
the  spirit  and  variety,  and  the  poetry  of  tlie 
whole  are  so  remarkable,  and  the  mystery  of 
the  situation  is  so  perfectly  conveyed,  as  to 
make  the  song  one  of  the  finest  of  that  class 
in  the  whole  Schubert  collection.  The  same 
qualities  will  be  found  in  *Auf  der  Brack*  (1 825). 

We  do  not  say  that  this  is  the  highest  class 
of  his  songs.  The  highest  class  of  poetry,  and 
of  music  illustrating  and  enforcing  poetry,  most 
always  deal  with  human  joys  and  sorrows,  m 


SCHUBERT 


331 


their  most  individual  form,  with  the  soul  loving 
or  longing,  in  contact  with  another  soul,  or 
irith  its  ^laker  ;  and  the  greatest  of  Schubert's 
soDgs  will  lie  amongst  those  which  are  occupied 
with  those  topics,  such  as  *  Gretchen  am  Spinn- 
lade,'  the  ' Mignon '  songs,  the  'Wanderer,'  the 
•Mullerlieder,'  and  *  Winterreise,'  and  perhaps 
highest  of  all,  owing  to  the  strong  religious 
element  which  it  contains,  the  *  Junge  Nonne.'  ^ 
In  that  wonderful  song,  which  fortunately  is  so 
well  known  that  no  attempt  at  describing  it 
la  necessary,  the  personal  feelings  and  the 
siUToundings  are  so  blended — the  fear,  the 
faith,  the  rapture,  the  storm,  the  swaying  of 
the  house,  are  so  given,  that  for  the  time  the 
hearer  becomes  the  Young  Nun  herself.  Even 
the  convent  bell,  which  in  other  hands  might 
be  a  burlesque,  is  an  instrument  of  the  greatest 
beauty. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  mental  atmosphere 
which  Schubert  throws  round  his  poems  ;  but 
he  does  not  neglect  the  representation  of 
physical  objects.  He  seems  to  confine  himself 
to  the  imitation  of  natural  noises,  and  not  to 
attempt  things  which  have  no  sound.  The 
triplets  in  the  Lindenbaum  may  be  intended  to 
convey  the  fluttering  leaves  of  the  lime-tree, 
and  the  accompaniment-figure  in  '  Die  Forelle ' 
may  represent  the  leaps  of  the  trout ;  but  there 
are  other  objects  about  which  no  mistake  can  be 
made.  One  imitation  of  the  bell  we  have  just 
referred  to.  Another  is  in  the  '  AbendbUder,' 
where  an  Ff  sounds  through  sixteen  bars  to 
represent  the  '  evening  bell ' ;  in  the  '  Ziigen- 
glbcklein '  the  upper  £  is  heard  through  the  whole 
piece ;  and  the  bell  of  St.  Mark's  is  a  well- 
known  feature  in  the  part-song  of  the  *  Gondel- 
fahrer.'  The  post-horn  forms  a  natural  feature 
in  'Die  Post,*  and  the  hurdy-gurdy  in  'Der 
Leiermann. '  Of  birds  he  gives  several  instances ; 
the  Nightingale  in  'Ganymed'  and  'Die 
ge&ngene  Sanger' ;  the  Raven  in  '  Abendbilder/ 
and  perhaps  in  '  Friihlingstraum ' ;  the  Cuckoo 
m  '  Einsamkeit,'  the  Quail  in  '  Der  Wachtel- 
achlag ' ;  and  the  Cock  in  '  Friihlingstraum.' 

That  hesitation  between  major  and  minor 
which  is  so  marked  in  Beethoven  is  character- 
istic also  of  Schubert,  and  may  be  found  in 
nearly  every  piece  of  his.  A  beautiful  instance 
may  be  mentioned  en  passant  in  the  trio  of  the 
G  major  Fantasia  Sonata  (op.  78),  where  the 
two  bars  in  E  minor  which  precede  the  E  m%jor 
have  a  peculiarly  charming  effect.  Another  is 
sQppIied  by  the  four  bars  in  A  minor,  for  the 
question  which  begins  and  ends  the  beautiful 
fragment  from  Schiller's  'Gods  of  ancient 
Greece.'  He  also  has  an  especially  happy  way 
—surely  peculiarly  his  own — of  bringing  a 
minor  piece  to  a  conclusion  in  the  major.  Two 
instances  of  it,  which  all  will  remember,  are  in 
the  Romance  from  '  Rosamunde ' : — 

'  Tb«  poeatf  of  Cnlgber.  Pottiteht  BHraehhmaen  in  frtytn. 
SiMdan,  •en  Kteolatu,  itdt  thur  Vwrtd*  .  .  .  vmi    -  '   -  ■  • 
ra  printed  Iqr  Oarald  of  Vlesiw  in  18SB. 


Diis(lnaBHotz.Mi>taoachOn.veDnt]:«adleTreu-e  klUit 

and  in  the  'Moment  musical,'  No.  3,  in  F 
minor.  This  and  the  ritomels  already  spoken 
of  strike  one  like  personal  features  or  traits  of 
the  composer.  But  apart  from  these  idios3m- 
crasies,  the  changes  from  minor  to  major  in  the 
songs  are  often  superb.  That  in  the  '  Schwager 
Kronoe'  (astonishmg  ^  production  for  a  lad  under 
twenty),  where  the  key  changes  into  D  major, 
and  farther  on  into  F  major,  to  welcome  the 
girl  on  the  threshold,  with  the  sudden  return 
to  D  minor  for  the  onward  journey,  and  the 
sinking  sun — can  be  forgotten  by  no  one  who 
hears  it,  nor  can  that  almost  more  beautiful 
change  to  D  mi^'or  in  the  '  Gute  Nacht '  on  the 
mention  of  the  dreauL  This  latter,  and  the 
noble  transition  to  F  migor  in  the  'Junge  Nonne' 
are  too  familiar  to  need  more  than  a  passing 
reference,  or  that  to  G  major  in  the  '  Riickblick,' 
for  the  lark  and  nightingale  and  the  girl's  eyes, 
or  to  D  major  in  the  Serenade.  'Irdisches 
Gliick'  is  in  alternate  stanzas  of  major  and 
minor.  In  Schiller's  'Rose'  (op.  73)  every 
shade  in  the  fate  of  the  flower  is  thus  indicated ; 
and  this  is  no  solitary  instance,  but  in  almost 
every  song  some  example  of  such  faithful  paint- 
ing may  be  found.  A  word  will  often  do  it. 
With  Schubert  the  minor  mode  seems  to  be 
synonymous  with  trouble,  and  the  miyor  with 
relief ;  and  the  mere  mention  of  the  sun,  or  a 
smile,  or  any  other  emblem  of  gladness,  is  sure 
to  make  him  modulate.  Some  such  image  was 
floating  before  his  mind  when  he  made  the 
beautiful  change  to  A  major  near  the  beginning 
of  the  A  minor  Qiiartet  (bar  23). 

The  foregoing  remarks,  which  only  attempt  to 
deal  with  a  few  of  the  external  characteristics  of 
these  astonishing  songs,  will  be  of  use  if  they 
only  encourage  the  knowledge  and  study  of  them. 
The  chronological  list  of  Schubert's  productions 
[which  appeared  in  the  first  edition  of  the  Dic- 
tionary, and  has  now  been  superseded  by  the 
list  in  the  complete  edition  of  Breitkopf  &  Hartel] 
will  throw  much  light  on  the  progress  of  his 
genius,  by  facilitating  the  search  where  alone 
it  can  be  made  with  profit,  namely  in  the  works 
themselves.  All  are  worth  knowing,  though 
all  are  by  no  means  of  equal  excellence. 


I  end  my  imperfect  sketch  of  the  life  and 
works  of  this  wonderful  musician,  by  recalling 
the  fact  that  Schubert's  songs,  regarded  as  a 
department  of  music,  are  absolutely  and  entirely 
his  own.  Songs  there  were  before  him,  those  of 
Schulz  for  instance,  and  of  Zxmisteeg,  which  he 
so  greatly  admired,  and  of  Haydn  and  Mozart — 
touching,  beautiful  expressions  of  simple  thought 
and  feeling.  But  the  Song,  as  we  know  it  in  his 
hands ;  full  of  dramatic  fire,  poetry,  and  pathos ; 

s  Why  Is  this  wondarf al  song  never  rang  In  pnblio  In  England  7 


332 


SCHUBERT 


set  to  no  simple  Yolkslieder,  but  to  long  complex 
ix>em8,  the  best  poetry  of  the  greatest  poets,  and 
an  absolute  reflection  of  every  change  and  breath 
of  sentiment  in  that  poetry ;  with  an  accompani- 
ment of  the  utmost  force,  fitness,  and  variety — 
such  songs  were  his  and  his  alone.  With  one 
exception.  Beethoven  left  but  one  song  of  im- 
|x>rtance,  his  '  Liederkreis '  (op.  98),  but  that  is 
of  superlative  excellence.  The  'liederkreis, '  how- 
ever, was  not  published  till  Dec.  1816,  and  even 
if  Schubert  made  its  acquaintance  immediately, 
yet  a  reference  to  the  Chronological  List  will 
show  that  by  that  time  his  style  was  formed,  and 
many  of  his  finest  songs  written.  He  may  have 
gained  the  idea  of  a  connected  scries  of  songs 
from  Beethoven,  though  neither  the  'Schone 
Miillerin  '  nor  the  *  Winterreise  *  have  the  same 
intimate  internal  connection  as  the '  Liederkreis ' ; 
but  the  character  and  merits  of  the  single  songs 
remain  his  own.  When  he  wrote  *  Loda's  Oe- 
spenst '  and  '  Kolma's  Klage '  in  1815,  he  wrote 
what  no  one  had  ever  attempted  before.  There 
is  nothing  to  detract  from  his  just  claim  to  be 
the  creator  of  German  Song,  as  we  know  it,  and 
the  direct  progenitor  of  those  priceless  treasures 
in  which  Schumann,  Mendelssohn,  and  Brahms 
have  followed  his  example. 

Of  Schubert's  religion  it  is  still  more  difficult 
to  say  anything  than  it  was  of  Beethoven's,  be- 
cause he  is  BO  much  more  reticent.  A  little  poem 
of  Sept.  1820,  one  of  two  preserved  by  Robert 
Schumann  (^^eue  Zeitaehrift/Ur  Mxmk,  Feb.  5, 
1889),  is  as  vague  a  confession  of  faiUi  as  can 
well  be  imagined. 

THE  SPIRIT  OF  THE  WORLD. 

Leave  them,  leave  them,  to  their  dream, 

I  hear  the  Bpf  rit  say : — 
It  and  only  it  can  keep  them 

Near  me  on  their  daxkliog  way. 

Leave  them  racing,  hurrying  on 
-^  ntg    • 


To  some  distant  goal, 
iuilding  creeds  and  proon  up 
Half-seen  flashes  in  the  soul. 


Not  a  word  of  it  is  true. 

Yet  what  loss  is  theirs  or  mine  ? 
In  the  maze  of  human  systems 

I  can  trace  the  thought  divine. 

The  other,  three  years  kter,  May  8, 1 828,  is  some- 
what more  definite.  It  calls  upon  a  '  mighty 
father '  to  look  upon  His  son  lying  in*  the  dust ; 
and  implores  Him  to  pour  upon  him  the  ever- 
lasting beams  of  His  love  ;  and,  even  though  He 
kill  him,  to  preserve  him  for  a  purer  and  more 
vigorous  existence.  It  expresses — very  imper- 
fectly, it  is  true,  but  still  unmistakably — the 
same  faith  that  has  been  put  into  imdying  words 
in  the  prologue  to  In  Menuniam, 

Franz  may  not  have  gone  the  length  of  his 
brother  Ignaz  ^  in  vulgar  scoffing  at  religious 
forms  and  persons,  which  no  doubt  were  very 
empty  in  Vienna  at  that  date  ;  but  still  of  formal 
or  dogmatic  religion  we  can  find  no  traces,  and 
we  must  content  ourselves  with  the  practical 

1  Sm  his  letter  In  KnUAt,  p.  147  (i.  149). 


piety  displayed  in  his  love  for  his  fother  and 
Ferdinand,  and  testified  to  by  them  in  their 
touching  words  and  acts  at  the  time  of  his  deatli 
(pp.  816-17);  and  with  the  certainty  that, 
though  irregular  after  the  irregularity  of  his 
time,  Schubert  was  neither  selfish,  sensual,  nor 
immoral.  What  he  was  in  his  inner  man  we 
have  the  abundant  evidence  of  his  music  to 
assure  us.  Whatever  the  music  of  other  com- 
posers may  do,  no  one  ever  rose  from  hearing  a 
pieoe  by  Schubert  without  being  benefited  by 
it.  Of  his  good-nature  to  those  who  took  the 
bread  out  of  his  mouth  we  have  already  spoken. 
Of  his  modesty  we  may  be  allowed  to  say  that 
he  was  one  of  the  very  few  musicians  who  ever 
lived  who  did  not  behave  as  if  he  thought  him- 
self the  greatest  man  in  the  world.'  And  these 
things  are  all  intrinsic  parts  of  his  character  and 
genius. 

That  he  died  at  an  earlier  age  ^  even  than 
Mozart  or  Mendelssohn,  or  our  own  Purcell,  must 
be  accounted  for  on  theground  partly  of  his  extra- 
ordinary exertions,  but  stiUmore  of  the  privations 
to  which  he  was  subjected  from  his  very  earliest 
years.  Hisproductions  are  enormous,  even  when 
measured  by  those  of  the  two  great  German  com- 
posers just  named,  or  even  of  Beethoven,  who 
lived  to  nearly  double  his  years.  At  an  age  when 
Beethoven  had  produced  one  Symphony  he  had 
written  ten,  besides  a  mass  of  works  great  and 
small.  '  Fairer  hopes '  ?  Had  he  lived,  who 
can  doubt  that  he  would  have  thrown  into  the 
shade  all  his  former  achievements  T  But  as  we 
have  endeavoured  to  explain,  his  music  came  so 
easily  and  rapidly  that  it  was  probably  not  ex- 
hausting. It  was  his  privations,  his  absolute 
poverty,  and  the  distress  which  he  naturally  felt 
at  finding  that  no  exertions  could  improve  his 
circumstances,  or  raise  him  in  the  scale  of  exist- 
ence, that  in  the  end  dragged  him  down. 
Nearly  the  first  distinct  glimpse  we  catch  of 
him  is  in  the  winter  of  1812,  supplicating 
his  brother  for  a  roll,  some  apples,  or  a  few 
halfpence,  to  keep  off  the  hunger  of  the  long 
fast  in  the  freezing  rooms  of  the  ConvieL  With- 
in a  year  of  his  death  we  catch  sight  of  him 
again,  putting  up  with  coffee  and  biscuits  because 
he  has  not  %\di.  to  buy  his  dinner  with  ;  selling 
his  great  Trio  for  l7s.  6d.,  and  his  songs  at  lOd. 
each,  and  dying  the  possessor  of  effects  which 
were  valued  at  little  more  than  two  ponnds. 
Beside  this  the  poverty  of  Mozart — tiie  first 
of  the  two  great  musicians  whom  Vienna  has 
allowed  to  starve — ^was  wealth. 

<  This  modcrty  oomM  out  Ina  l«U«r  to  Pcrdlmad  of  Jvlr  16-18, 
in4,  vlMTS  Behnbert  my,  'It  would  bo  bottor  to  plur  mne  othor 
qoartototlMninino'  (probably  reterrtag  to  thoMtnB  and  Bb>.  'sinoo 
there  U  nothing  in  tlwm  cxoopt  pariiapo  the  tMt  that  thor  ptwo 
yoii,  aa  ovorytblng  of  mlno  plOMee  yoa.  Tnio.'  he  foae  on.  •  toq  do 
not  appear  to  hare  Ukod  th«m  eo  mnch  as  the  waltaaeattho  Unpo^ 
l«;he  Krone.'  alluding  to  a  eiook  at  that  eating -hooM  of  vhiek 


, ing  to  a  elook  at  that  eatlng-feooM  of  vhieh 

Faxdinand  had  told  hfm,  which  was  set  to  plaj  Fruic's  waltaet.  The 
dock  ehowt  hov  popular  Schubert  «as  amonget  Ids  own  aet  and  I 
recret  baring  owrlookod  the  fact  in  Iti  proper  nlaoe. 

*  Hie  following  are  among  th«  mneielaae.  poete.  and  painter  »ho 
haredled  in  the  fourth  deeadoof  their  livee.  Sheller,  wTsir  PhiHp 
Sidney.  SS :  Bellini. » ;  Monrt.  SB ;  Brron.  M :  Baflholle^  17 ;  Butna. 
ZJ :  Puroell,  ZJ ;  M«ndeUM>hn.  38 ;  Weber  i ^ 


SCHUBERT 


333 


Such  fiwts  as  these  reduce  the  ao-called  friend- 
ship of  his  associAtes  to  its  right  leveL  With 
his  astonishiDg  power  of  production  the  com- 
monest care  would  have  ensured  him  a  good 
living ;  and  that  no  one  of  his  set  was  found 
devoted  enough  to  take  this  care  for  him,  and 
exercise  that  watch  over  ways  and  means  which 
Nature  had  denied  to  his  own  genius,  is  a  dis- 
credit to  them  all.  They  prate  of  their  devotion 
to  their  friend,  when  not  one  of  them  had  the 
will  or  the  wit  to  prevent  him  from  starving  ; 
for  such  want  as  he  often  endured  must  inevit- 
ably have  iigured  him,  and  we  cannot  doubt 
that  his  death  was  hastened  by  the  absence  of 
those  comforts,  not  to  say  necessaries,  which 
should  have  nursed  and  restored  the  prodigal 
expenditure  of  his  brain  and  nerves. 

We  are  accustomed  to  think  of  Beethoven's 
end  as  solitary  and  his  death  as  miserable,  but 
what  was  his  last  illness  compared  to  Schubert's  t 
Officious  friends,  like  Pasqualati,  sending  him 
wine  and  delicacies ;  worshipping  musicians,  like 
Hummel  and  Hiller,  coming  to  his  death-bed  as 
if  to  a  shrine ;  his  faithful  attendants,  Schindler, 
Hiittenbrenner,  and  Breuning,  waiting  on  his 
every  wish  ;  the  sense  of  a  long  life  of  honour 
and  renown ;  of  great  works  appreciated  and 
beloved  ;  the  homage  of  distant  countries,  ex- 
pressed in  the  most  substantial  forms — what  a 
contrast  to  the  early  death-bed,  and  the  apparent 
wreck  of  such  an  end  as  Schubert's  I  Time  has 
so  altered  the  public  sense  of  his  merits  that  it 
is  all  but  impossible  to  place  oneself  in  the 
forlorn  condition  in  which  he  must  have  re- 
signed himself  to  his  departure,  and  to  realise 
the  darkness  of  the  valley  of  the  shadow  of 
death  through  which  his  simple,  sincere,  guileless 
sonl  passed  to  its  last  rest,  and  to  the  joyful 
resnrrection  and  glorious  renown  which  have 
since  attended  it.  Thm  an  intelligent  and  well- 
informed  foreign  musician  could  visit  the  Aus- 
trian capital  and  live  in  its  musical  circles, 
without  so  much  as  hearing  Schubert's  name.^ 
Kmc  memorials  are  erected  to  him  in  the  most 
public  places  of  Vienna,  institutions  are  proud 
to  bear  his  name,  his  works  go  through  count- 
less editions,  and  publishers  grow  rich  upon 
the  proceeds  even  of  single  songs,  while  faces 
brighten  and  soften,  and  hands  are  clasped,  as 
we  drink  in  the  gay  and  pathetic  accents  of  his 
maaic. 

For  even  his  privations  and  his  obscurity  have 
now  been  forgotten  in  the  justice  since  done  to 
him,  and  in  the  universal  affection  with  which 
he  was  regarded  as  soon  as  his  works  reached 
the  outside  world — an  affection  which,  as  we 
have  conclusively  shown,  has  gone  on  increasing 
ever  since  his  death.  In  the  whole  range  of 
composers  it  may  be  truly  said  that  no  one  is 

t  TIm  Mmiaa  Is  to  B.  nolmM,  the  blognphcr  of  MoMrt,  vho 
VUMd  aome  ttma  in  Vienna  in  the  ■prlng  of  1827.  evidently  with 
wt  ^Wv  ol  findioff  ont  all  that  wu  beet  worth  knowing  in  mneic. 
ftnd  yet  dote  not  mention  Sehnbert'a  name.    (See  hie  RamJbU  among 


now  SO  dearly  loved  as  he,  no  one  has  the  happy 
power  so  completely  of  attracting  both  the 
admiration  and  the  affection  of  his  hearers. 
To  each  one  he  is  not  only  a  great  musician, 
not  only  a  great  enchanter,  but  a  dear  personal 
friend.  If  in  his  '  second  state  sublime '  he  can 
know  this,  we  may  feel  sure  that  it  is  a  full 
compensation  to  his  affectionate  spirit  for  the 
many  wrongs  and  disappointments  that  he 
endured  while  on  earth. 

The  very  wide  field  over  which  Schubert  ranged 
in  poetry  has  been  more  than  once  alluded  to  in 
the  foregoing.  It  would  be  both  interesting  and 
profitable  to  give  a  list  of  the  poems  which  he 
has  set  Su<£  a  list,  not  without  inaccuracies, 
will  be  found  in  Wurzbaoh's  Biographischea  Lexi- 
con, voL  zxxii.  p.  94.  Here  we  can  only  say 
that  it  includes  over  600  poems  by  100  authors, 
of  whom  the  principal  are : — 

Goethe,  72  ;  Schiller,  54 ;  Mayrhofer,  48  ;  W, 
Muller,  44 ;  Holty,  25 ;  Matthisson,  27  ;  Rose 
garten,  20 ;  F.  Schlegel,  19  ;  Klopstock,  19 
Eomer,  16  ;  Schober,  15;  Seidl,  15  ;  Salis,  14 
GUudius,  13  ;  Walter  Scott,  10  ;  Bellstab,  9 
Uz,  8  ;  Ossian,  7  ;  Heine,  6  ;  Shakespeare,  8 
Pope,  1 ;  Colley  Cibber,  1  ;  etc.  etc. 


Compared  with  the  literature  on  other  com- 
posers that  on  Schubert  is  not  extensive. 

Biographical, — The  original  sources  are  scat- 
tered in  German  periodicals  and  elsewhere. 

1.  The  first  place  mast  be  given  to  Ferdinand  Schu- 
bert's sketch,  entitled  '  Aus  Frans  Schuberta  Leben,' 
four  short  papers  which  appeared  in  Schumann's  period- 
ical, the  J^  ZtiUehriftJIir  Mvsik,  in  Nos.  88  to  86 
(April  28-May  8X  1889.  These  are  written  with  great 
simplicity,  and  apparently  great  exactness ;  but  might 
have  been  extenaed  to  double  the  length  with  great 
advantage.  S.  Mayrhofer  contributed  a  shoit  article  of 
recollections,  EHnnervngen,  to  the  Newt  Arehiv  JVr 
GetchidUe  .  .  .  Literatw  und  Kurui  (Vienna^  Feb.  28, 
1820 ;  and  Bauemfeld  a  longer  paper,  U9ber  Franz  Schu- 
bert, to  Nos.  69,  70,  71,  of  the  Wiener  Zeitschrifl  JUr 
Kunst,  Literatwr,  Theater,  und  Mode,  for  June  9.  11, 18, 
1829.  These  papers,  written  so  shortly  after  Schubert's 
death  by  men  extremely  intimate  with  him,  are  very 
valuable.  &  Bauemfela  also  made  two  interesting  com- 
munications  to  the  frete  Prene  of  Vienna,  for  Ajnil  17, 
and  21, 1869,  containing  six  letters  and  parts  of  letters 
by  Schubert,  and  many  anecdotes.  These  latter  articles 
were  reprinted  In  the  Leipzig  SignaJe  for  Nov.  16, 22,  26, 
28,  1869 ;  translated  in  the  MueUfd  World,  Jan.  8,  15, 
Feb.  5, 19, 1870,  and  in  Bauemfeld's  OeaammilU  Sthriften, 
voL  xiL  (Vienna,  1878).  But  recollections  written  so 
long  after  the  event  must  always  be  taken  Gumjrano. 
4.  Schindler  wrote  an  article  in  Bduerle's  Wiener  Theater- 
zeitung,  for  May  8, 1881,  describing  Beethoven's  making 
acquaintance  with  Schubert's  son^s  on  his  death -bed ; 
and  other  articles  in  the  Niederrluiniache  MvHkzeitung, 
for  1857.  He  also  mentions  Schubert  in  his  Life  of  Beet- 
hoven, Srd  ed.,  ii.  186.  5.  Schumann  printed  four  letters 
(incomplete),  two  poems,  and  a  Dream,  by  Schubert,  as 
^Reliquien '  in  his  Neue  Zeitsehrift  fUrAfusil;  for  Feb.  1 
and  5,  1889.  6.  One  of  the  same  letters  was  printed 
complete  in  the  SlgndU,  No.  2,  for  1878.  7.  The  Diary 
of  Sofle  Milller  (Vienna,  1882X  the  Unvergeeeenes  of  Frau 
von  Chezy  (Leipzig,  1858),  and  the  Erinneritngen  of  her 
son  W.  von  CAiezy  (Schaffhausen,  1868),  all  afTord  original 
ftusts  about  Schubert  by  those  who  knew  him ;  and  8. 
Ferd.  Hiller's  Kunstlerhben  (Cologne,  1880),  contains  a 
paper —  •  Vienna  52  years  since '  — emboaying  a  few 
interesting  and  lifelike  notices  of  the  year  1827.  Of  all 
these,  use  has  been  made  in  the  foregoing  pages. 

9.  The  ftrst  attempt  to  write  a  life  of  Schubert  was 


334 


SCHUBERT 


made  by  von  Kreissle,  who,  in  1861  published  a  small 
8vo  pamphlet  of  165  pages,  entitled  Franz  Sekubertj  tint 
biografiadu  SHxze ;  von  Dr.  Heinrich  von  Kreissle.  This 
is  a  very  interesting  little  book,  and  though  not  nearly 
so  long  as  the  second  edition,  it  contains  some  facts 
whichnave  dropt  out  of  that  10.  The  second  edition, 
Fran»  Sehabert^  von  Dr.  Heinrich  Kreissle  von  Hellbom 
(Vienna,  Qerold,  1865),  is  a  large  8vo  of  619  pages,  with 
portrait  after  Kupelwieser.  This  is  a  thoroughly  honest, 
affectionate  book ;  but  it  is  deformed,  like  many  German 
biographies,  by  a  very  difftise  style,  and  a  mass  of  un- 
necessary matter  in  the  shape  of  detailed  notices  of  every 
one  who  came  into  contact  with  Schubert ;  and  some  of 
the  letters  appear  to  be  garbled ;  but  the  analvses  of  the 
operas  and  tne  lists  of  works  are  valuable,  and  there  are 
some  interesting  facts  gathered  from  the  Frohlichs, 
Ferdinand  Schubert,  Spaun,  HUttenbrenner,  and  others. 
It  has  been  transUtedinto  English  by  Mr.  A.  D.  CSoleridge 
(two  vols,  8vo.  Longman,  1869),  with  an  Appendix  by 
the  present  writer,  containing  the  themes  and  particuhirs 
of  the  MS.  Symphonies  and  other  MS.  music  of  Schubert, 
as  seen  by  Arthur  Sullivan  and  him  in  Vienna  in  1867. 
A  r^um6  of  the  work  is  given  in  English  by  Wilberforce. 
Franz Schvibert,  etc.  (London,  1866).  11.  Both  Kreissle's 
works  have  been  largely  utilised  by  H.  Barbedette,  in 
F.  SchubeH,  ea  vU,  etc.  (Paris,  1866).  This  containa  an 
atrocious  version  of  Rieder's  portrait,  and  one  new  fkct 
—a  facsimile  of  Schober's  song '  An  die  Musik,'  valuable 
because,  being  dated  April  24, 1827  (while  the  song  was 
composed  in  1817),  it  shows  tliat  Schubert  did  not  con- 
fine nis  dates  to  the  original  autographs  (compare  'The 
Trout,*!).  829,  note  4). 

12.  The  chief  value  of  Reissinann's  book,  Franz  ScKti- 
hert,  sein  Leben  u.  »eine  Werht  (Berlin,  1878X  consists 
in  the  extracts  flrom  the  juvenile  MS.  songs.  Quintet 


overture  (pp.  12-30),  the  comparisons  of  early  songs  with 
later  revisions  of  the  same  (pp.  24,  154,  etc.),  five  pieces 
printed  for  the  first  time,  and  fkcsimile  of  a  MS.  page. 


13.  Gumprecht,  La  Mara,  and  others  have  included 
sketches  of  Schubert  in  their  works. 

14.  The  article  on  Schubert  in  Wurzbach's  Biogror 
phisckes  Lexicon  (Part  82,  pp.  30-110 ;  Vienna,  1876)  is  a 
good  mixture  of  unwearied  research,  enthusiasm  for  his 
hero,  and  contempt  for  thane  who  miiOudge  him  (see  for 
example,  p.  98&).  'rhe  copious  lists  are  extremely  interest- 
ing and  useful.  Unfortunately  they  cannot  alwavs  be 
trusted,  and  the  quotations  are  sometimes  curiously  in- 
correct. Thus  Mr.  Arthur  Duke  Ck>leridge  is  raised  to 
the  peerage  as  *  Herzog  Arthur  von  Ck)leridge,'  etc.  etc. 
Still  all  students  of  Schubert  should  be  giatefUl  for  the 
article. 

15.  The  fkcsimile  of  the  'Erl  King'  in  its  first  form 
has  been  mentioned  in  the  body  of  the  article  (p.  2856). 
Further  consideration  convinces  me  that  the  original  of 
this  cannot  be  the  first  autograph,  but  must  be  a  copy 
made  afterwards  by  Schubert. 

Two  documents  must  be  mentioned.  16.  Aettnmazsige 
Darstellung  der  Ausgrabung  und  Wiederbeeingetzwng  der 
irdUchen  Rate  von  Bedhoven  und  Schubert  (Vienna, 
1868),  and  17.  Vom  JViener  Mdnnergezangverein.  Fest- 
achrifi  zur  BnthUllung  dee  Schubert  Denkmales  am  15 
Jlfai,  1872,  an  account  of  the  unveiling  of  the  statue  in 
tlie  Stadt  Park,  containing  a  capital  sketch  of  Schubert's 
Life,  Lists,  and  many  other  welcome  facts.  Herr  Dnmba's 
speech  on  the  occasion,  and  poems  by  Banernfeld  and 
Weilen  were  printed  separately.  Good  photographs  of 
the  statue  are  published  by  LOwy  of  Vienna. 

18.  Since  writing  the  foregoing  I  have  seen  the  Life 
and  Works  qf  Schubert,  by  A.  Niggli,  which  forms  No.  15 
of  Breitkopf  A  H&rtel's  MuHkalisehe  Vortrage  (1880). 
It  appears  to  be  an  excellent  and  generally  an  accurate 
compilation,!  with  a  great  deal  of  information  in  small 
compass,  but  wants  a  list  of  works  to  make  it  complete. 
Also  19,  a  Life  by  H.  F.  Frost  in  The  Great  Musieiana, 
edited  by  Francis  Hueffer  (London,  1881),  is  readable 
and  intelligent,  and  has  a  list  of  works  year  by  year. 

[Schubert,  by  Bdmondstoune  Duncan,  contains  a  good 
deal  of  useful  information,  and  a  catalogue  of  Schubert's 
works  based  on  the  complete  edition  of  Messrs.  Breitkopf 
Jt  Hftrtel.] 

The  articles  on  Schubert's  masses  by  Professor  Prout, 
in  the  Monthly  Musical  Becord  for  1871,  and  the  Concordia 
for  1875,  are  too  important  and  interesting  to  be  omitted. 
[Among  other  articles  on  Schubert  may  be  specially 
mentioned  those  in  the  Monthly  MusUxd  Record  for  Feb. 

>  I  am  noTTj  to  find  the  liucriptton  on  the  tomb  very  Incoirectlr 
given. 


1897 ;  those  in  the  Musical  Times  for  August  1888,  Jan. 
and  Feb.  1897,  Sept  and  Oct  1901,  and  an  interesting 
critical  study  by  Antonin  Dvof&k  and  Mr.  H.  T.  Finck  in 
The  Century  for  July  1804.  The  Bomantie  Camfozers.  by 
Daniel  Gregory  Mason  (1907X  contains  a  very  interestiog 
article  on  Schubert] 

ThemoUic  Cataloguea. 

Of  these  there  are  two : — 

1.  Thematiaches  Verzeieknizs  im  Druck  erzekiauntn 
ComposiHonen  von  Franz  Schubwt  (Vienna,  Diabelli) 
[1852],  contains  the  works  from  Opus  1  to  160 ;  Scfawanen- 

rinclnded 


trzeHetuittK 

Werht  von  Franz  Schubert,  herausgegeben  von  G.  Kotte- 
bohm.  Vienna,  F.  Schreiber,  1874,  pages  1  to  288.  This 
admirable  work  is  as  comprehensive  and  accurate  as  the 
previouspublicationsof  its  author  would  imply  its  being. 
under  the  head  of  printed  works  It  comprises  :—(l)  works 
with  opus  numbers  1  to  178.  (2)  Nachgelassene  Mas. 
Dichtungen,  Liefemnsen  1  to  50.  (8)  Works  without 
opus  numbers  for  orchestra,  chamber  music,  etc  (4) 
Doubtful  and  spurious  compositions  ;  works  still  in  MS. ; 
books,  portraits,  etc    (5)  Index,  list  of  songs,  etc 

The  information  under  each  piece  is  not  confined  to 
the  name  and  date  of  publication,  but  gives  in  most  cms» 
the  date  of  composition,  and  frequently  also  such  fiu^ts 
as  the  first  time  of  performance,  etc.  It  is  in  fiu:t,  like 
all  the  author's  puolications,  a  model  of  what  such  a 
catalogue  should  be. 

Schubert's  Letters^  etc 


Date 

Place. 

AddraMdto 

1812.    Nov.M 

Vienna 

Ferd.  Schubert 

A'.#.ir.Feb.].]8».« 

isia.    Septa? 

Poem   for  his  fa- 

K.N. PL  SO  nee*  IL 

ther*  birthday 

181&    Septs? 

Poem   fbr  hit  tm- 

K.H.'  p.  SO  mate  ft 

tbcr'i  birthday 

31). 

1818. .  June  16 

Poem  for  Sallerl'ft 

K.ff.  p.  82  trace  it 

Jubilee 

8S). 

Jane  18-16 

Diary 

£.a.  pp.  103-105  <L 

108). 
Li^.  xxix.  4. 

1817.    Aug.  34 

Ued.  'Abwrhicd  v. 

e.  Freunde' 

181&    Feb.2(Tj 

K.B.  p.  129  (i-  12»|- 

Aug.  8 

ZMlte 

Schober 

Bauenifeld.  In  Dit 
PMHC  April   17. 
1889;     Statftt. 
1889.p.9raw 

1819^1?)** 

ZMlte 

Fenl.  Schubert 

mire.  p.  291ft. 

K./r.  p.  19S  nat»  (L 

ISO). 
K.ff.  p.  182  (i.  194). 

May  19 

July  19 

Steyr 

Ferd.  Schubert 

K.N.  p.  188  (L  IW. 

Aug.  19 

Ura 

Mayrhofer 
K-Stadler*!  album 

KM.  PL  189  (L  160). 

Sept.  14 

Steyr 

K.U.  p.  160  Mete  (L 

161). 
N.M.Jf.  Feb.  5.  U3Sl 

1820.    Bept 

Poem.    'Lavt   aie 

18B1.    Not.  2 

Vienna 

Spaun 

K.ff.  p.  2S1  (L  2Mt. 
PS.  to   Schobefe 
lettm-. 

1829.    (?) 

(t) 

Hattenbrenner  (T) 

A-.J7.  p.  236  Mte  (L 
.V.M.M.  Feb.  6.  ISSBi 

Julys 

'  My  dream ' 
Httttenbrenner 

Oct  SI 

Vienna 

MS.  (in  my  poeM- 

don). 
.Vnte  >Wfe  rut. 

1821.    Feb.  28 

vonMoeel 

Nov.  19. 1881. 

Mays 

(t) 

^gjyer.'F^ 

N.I.JI.  FeK  5.  ISm 

Nov.  SO 

Vienna 

Banernfeld.  in  DU 

Pnme,  April    17. 

1889:     Siqnat*, 

1869.  p.  9m 

18M.  Mar. 2728 

„ 

Diary 

JT.F.  p.3aa(lLft.«i 

Mar.  31 

K.ff.  p.  819  (it  ». 

July  16-18 

Zaelte 

Ferd.  Schubert 

Mpnole.  1878.  p.  17. 

Septal 

Hchober,     with 

Bauerafdd.  In  Me 

Poem  -Klage  an 

Prm$0.  AprU    17. 

daaVolk' 

1889:     Sifnal*, 
1889.P.98& 

189B.    July  21 

Lins 

Spann 

K.ff.  p.  341  (IL  99). 

July  25 

Steyr 

Father  and  Mother 

y.M.M.  Feb.  ]8S9l 

(f) 

Gmunden 

Steiger 

K.ff.  p.  372  note  (U. 
Jir.X.if.,Feb.6.18». 

Bept  12-21 

Ferd.  Schubert 

Sept  18-19 
Oct  10 

Stej^ 

Banernfeld 

K.ff.  p.  370  (U.  96). 

Vienna 

Committee  of  Mu- 

AA*.P.16l 

■ikvereln 

«  S.X.M.-'XeuB  Ketttekri/t  fur  MtuUt. 

s  jr.^.^Kreinle  von  Hellbom.  Lift  qjT  SAvbert.  The  leleamuee 
in  parentheeea  are  to  Coleridge'*  t 


SCHUBERT 


SCHUBERTH 


335 


189&    Ma7 


27.    June  IS 
June  13 

Sept.  37 
Oct.  12 

1828.    Jul.  18 
AprlllO 

Aug.  1 
aepL2a 

m 

Nov.  11 


VieJin»(r) 


Yienm  (f) 
Vleniut 


Bauernfeld  and 
Mayrhofer 


Addrenedto 


Mme.  PuLler 
Committee  of  Mu- 

■Ikvereln 
Herr  Pachler 
Mme.Pacfaler.with 

march 
HUttenbrenner 
H.  A.  Probet 

Probrt 
Jenger 
Sonnleithner 
Scfaober 


Where  Printed. 


Bauernfeld,  Die 
Pretae,  Ai»ril  21. 
180B;  Signal*, 
180B.  p.  1011. 

K.a.  p.  ao6  ill.  84). 

P<M.  p.  17. 

K.B.  p.  402  (IL  80). 
K.H.  p.  404  (ii.  91). 

K.H.  p.  417  (11.  104). 
MS.  in  the  wrlter'a 


K.B.  p.  43S  (ii.  1S2). 
K.H.  p.  487  (IL  124). 
K.n.  p.  519  (11.  198). 
Bauernfeld,  Prmm, 

1809:    Siffnale, 

1809,  p.  10S8. 


It  only  remains  for  me  to  return  my  sincere 
thanks  to  those  friends  who  have  helped  me  with 
facts  and  suggestions  and  with  much  labour  in 
the  execution  of  the  preceding  pages  ;  such  as 
Friiulein  Caroline  Geisler- Schubert,  Father  Her- 
mann (Anton)  Schubert,  and  other  members  of 
the  composer's  family  ;  to  Herr  Eugen  Heilpem 
and  the  eminent  photographers  who  act  under 
the  name  of  *  Ad^le  *  in  Vienna  ;  my  ever- kind 
friend  Herr  C.  F.  Pohl,  Librarian  of  the  Musik- 
verein  there  ;  Dr.  Kopfermann,  Librarian  of  the 
k.  k.  Bibliothek,  Berlin ;  Sir  C.  V.  Stanford  ; 
Mr.  C.  A.  Barry ;  Sir  A.  Manns ;  Herr  A. 
DorfTel ;  Mr.  Paul  David  ;  Messrs.  Breitkopf  & 
Hartel ;  Baron  Tauchnitz,  jun.  ;  Mr.  L.  Engel ; 
Mr.  W.  B.  Squire  ;  and  many  more.  To  each 
and  to  all,  I  express  my  hearty  acknowledg- 
ments. G. ;  revised  by  w.  h.  h^- 

SCHUBERT,  Franz,  a  violinist,  bom  of  a 
musical  family  at  Dresden,  July  22,  1808,  was 
a  pupil  of  Lafont,  and  rose  through  various 
grades  to  succeed  Lipinski  in  1861  as  first 
Concertmeister  (or  leader)  in  his  native  city. 
He  retired  in  1873,  on  the  fiftieth  anniversary 
of  his  entrance  into  the  orchestra.  He  died  at 
Dresden,  April  12,  1878.  His  published  works 
include  Studies,  a  Duo  for  violin  and  piano, 
and  two  Concertante  for  violin  and  violoncello 
(with  Kummer).  His  little  piece,  'L'Abeille' 
is  often  to  be  found  on  violinists'  programmes. 
Schubert's  wife,  Maschinka,  a  distinguished 
bravura  singer,  was  bom  August  25,  1815, 
and  appcjired  at  the  German  opera  in  London 
in  1832.  She  died  at  Dresden,  Sept.  20, 
1882.  G. 

SCHUBERT,  Louis,  violinist  and  singing- 
master,  born  Jan.  27,  1828,  at  Dessau,  went 
in  his  eighteenth  year  to  St  Petersbui^,  and 
then  as  Concertmeister  to  Konigsberg,  where 
he  remained  till  1862.  He  then  returned  to 
Dresden,  where  he  ei^joyed  a  great  reputa- 
tion as  a  teacher  of  singing.  He  published  a 
method  of  singing  in  the  form  of  songs,  and 
four  of  his  operettas  have  become  favourites. 
He  died  at  Dresden,  Sept.  17,  1884.  g. 

SCHUBERTH,  Gottlob,  bom  at  Carsdorf, 
August  11,  1778,  received  his  musical  education 
at  Jena,  and  learnt  the  violin  from  Stamitz. 


In  1804  he  went  to  Magdeburg,  resided  there 
for  some  years,  and  waa  distinguished  as  an 
excellent  clarinet  and  oboe  player.  In  1833 
he  moved  to  Hamburg,  where  he  died,  Feb. 
18,  1846.     His  eldest  son 

Julius  Ferdinand  Georg,  born  at  Magde- 
burg, July  14,  1804,  was  the  founder  of  the 
well-known  firm  of  J.  Schuberth  &  Co.  in 
Leipzig  and  New  York.  After  learning  the 
business  of  a  music-publisher  in  Magdeburg, 
he  started  in  1826  on  his  own  account  at 
Hamburg,  whence  he  was  enabled  to  found 
branch  establishments  at  Leipzig  (1832),  and 
New  York  (1850).  In  1854  he  gave  up  the 
Hamburg  business  to  his  brother  Frederick  (see 
below)  and  devoted  himself  entirely  to  Leipzig 
and  New  York.  Besides  his  publishhig  business, 
Julius  Schuberth  was  an  indefatigable  student 
of  language,  literature,  and  music.  He  was 
publisher,  editor,  and  proprietor  of  a  Miinkai- 
isches  Conversaiiona  Lexicon  (which  has  gone 
through  ten  editions,  and  from  which  the 
details  of  the  present  article  have  been  ob- 
tained), the  Kleine  Hamburger  Musik  Zeitung 
^1840-60),  the  New  York  Miiaik  Zeitung 
(1867),  and  SchvberOCa  kUtner  Musik  Zeitung 
(1871-72).  In  1840  he  founded  the  Nord- 
deutscher  Musikverein  and  Preis  Institut  at 
Hamburg.  He  received  many  decorations  from 
the  crowned  heads  of  Germany  in  recognition 
of  his  services  to  music.  In  1874  he  settled  at 
Leipzig,  where  he  died,  June  9,  1875.  His 
business,  which  in  1877  comprised  over  6000 
publications,  was  carried  on  with  increasing 
success  by  his  widow  and  nephew  until  1891, 
when  it  was  bought  by  F.  Siegel. 

LuDWiG,  the  second  son  of  Gottlob,  was 
bom  April  18,  1806,  at  Magdeburg.  He 
studied  under  his  father  and  C.  M.  von  Weber, 
and  when  only  sixteen  was  music-director  at 
the  Stadt  Theater  of  his  native  town.  He 
was  subsequently  Court  Capellmeister  at  Olden- 
burg, and  after  living  at  Riga  and  Konigsberg 
(1835),  became  (1845)  conductor  of  the  German 
Opera  at  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  died  in 
1 850.  His  compositions  include  some  published 
chamber  music,  besides  operas  and  symphonies 
which  remain  in  MS.     His  younger  brother, 

Carl,  was  bom  at  Magdeburg,  Feb.  25, 
1811.  He  learnt  the  piano  from  his  father, 
and  the  violoncello  from  L.  Hesse.  In  1825 
he  was  placed  under  Dotzauer  at  Dresden,  and 
in  1828  made  his  first  concert  tour  to  Ludwigs- 
lust  and  Hamburg.  In  1829  he  played  at 
Copenhagen  and  Gothenburg,  but  a  series  of 
misfortunes  drove  him  back  to  Magdeburg, 
where  he  occupied  the  j)Ost  of  first  violoncello 
in  the  theatre  orchestra.  In  1833  he  again 
played  in  Hamburg  with  success,  and  during 
the  next  few  years  gave  concerts  in  all  the 
principal  towns  of  North  Germany,  Belgium, 
and  Holland,  besides  visiting  Paris  and  London 
(1835).     In  the  autumn  of  the  latter  year  he 


336 


SCHUCH 


SCHtTTZ 


was  appointed  solo  violoncellist  to  the  Ozar. 
He  remained  for  twenty  years  at  St.  Petersburg, 
occupying  the  posts  of  musical  director  at  the 
University,  conductor  of  the  Imperial  Court 
Orchestra,  and  inspector  of  the  Imperial  Dramatic 
College.  He  died  at  Zurich,  July  22,  1863. 
His  compositions  include  chamber  music  and 
concertos  for  the  violoncello,  etc. 

Friedrich  Wilhelm  August,  fifth  son  of 
Gottlob  Schuberth,  w^as  bom  at  Magdeburg, 
Oct  27,  1817,  and  from  1853  was  the  head 
of  the  iirm  of  'Fritz  Schuberth*  at  Ham- 
burg. W.  B.  8. 

SCHUCH,  Ernst  von,  bom  at  Graz,  Nov. 
23,  1847,  was  at  first  intended  for  the  legal 
profession,  but  music  was  too  strong  (he  had 
appeared  as  a  violinist  at  the  age  of  seven,  and 
at  nine  years  old  played  solos  on  the  piano  and 
violin  in  public),  and  he  received  instruction 
from  Eduai-d  Stoltz  at  Graz,  and  afterwards 
from  Dessoff  in  Vienna.  In  1867  he  was 
appointed  conductor  of  Lobe's  theatre  at  Breslau, 
and  after  short  engagements  at  Wiirzburg, 
Graz,  and  Basic  he  was  engaged  by  PoUini  to 
conduct  a  series  of  Italian  operas  in  different 
parts  of  Germany.  In  March  1 872  he  conducted 
his  first  opera  in  Dresden,  and  in  August 
following  was  appointed  capellmeister  there. 
In  1873  he  was  made  court  capellmeister,  and 
very  soon  his  great  gifts  began  to  make  the 
Dresden  opera  famous  throughout  the  world 
for  the  catholicity  of  its  repertory,  the  broad 
views  of  its  conductor,  and  the  excellence  of 
individual  performances.  Schuch  has  always 
given  due  regard  to  the  art  of  the  bel  caiUo, 
and  as  an  operatic  conductor  he  has  few 
rivals.  In  1897  he  was  ennobled  by  the 
Emperor  of  Austria,  and  in  1899  ho  was  given 
the  title  of  privy -councillor.  In  1876  he 
married  the  singer  Clementine  Schuch - 
Proska  (her  maiden  name  was  accurately 
Prochazka),  who  was  bora  at  Vienna,  Feb.  12, 
1853,  was  a  pupil  of  Mme.  Mathilde  Marchesi 
at  the  Vienna  Conservatoire,  and  a  member  of 
the  opera  company  at  Dresden  from  1878. 
Her  voice  is  a  light  soprano,  and  she  sings 
florid  music  with  great  skill.  She  appeared  in 
London  at  some  of  the  early  Richter  Concerts, 
and  at  the  Crystal  Palace ;  she  sang  the  part 
of  Aennchen  in  *  Der  Freischutz '  at  the  German 
Opera  under  Eichter  in  1884,  with  much 
success,  and  also  appeared  as  Eva  in  *Die 
Meistersinger. '  She  retired  from  the  stage  in 
1895.  (Dr.  Sakolowski's  monograph  on  Schuch ; 
Rieniann's  Zexikon,  etc.)  M. 

SCHURMANN,  Georg  Caspar,  one  of  the 
early  composers  of  German  opera,  was  the  son 
of  a  Lutheran  pastor  in  Hanover.  He  early 
showed  a  decided  talent  for  music,  first  as  singer 
and  afterwards  as  composer.  From  1693  to 
1697  he  was  engaged  as  falsetto  singer  at  the 
Hamburg  Opera,  and  also  for  Church  service. 
In  1697  thii  Duko  of  Brunswick  invited  him 


to  WolfenbUttel,  and  shortly  afterwards,  at  the 
Duke's  expense,  he  visited  Italy  for  the  farther 
cultivation  of  his  musical  talent.  From  1 702 
to  1707,  with  the  Duke  of  Brunswick's  per- 
mission, he  entered  the  service  of  the  Duke  of 
Meiningen,  but  in  the  latter  year  he  was  re- 
called to  Wolfenbuttel,  where  he  remained  till 
hia  death,  some  time  after  1741,  busily  engageti 
in  the  composition  and  production  of  German 
operas,  in  which  he  himself  took  a  leading  part 
as  alto  singer,  and  also  from  time  to  time  acted 
as  capellmeiBter.  Many  of  these  operas  were 
also  produced  at  Hamburg,  but  none  of  them 
were  ever  printed  during  his  lifetime,  and  most 
of  them  are  only  known  from  their  librett<». 
Of  a  few  only  has  the  music  survived.  One  of 
them,  entitled  '  Ludovicus  Pius,'  or  '  Ladewig 
der  fromme,'  first  produced  in  1726,  has  now 
been  reprinted,  though  not  complete,  by  Dr. 
Hans  Sommer,  from  a  MS.  in  lids  possessiou. 
and  appears  as  Band  xvii.  in  Eitner's  Publico - 
tion  (uUerer  Musikiverke,  As  a  Beilage  to  the 
Afonatshefte  of  1885,  Eitner  has  also  printed  au 
aria  from  another  opera  of  Sohiirmann's,  entitled 
*Henricus  Anceps,'  or  *Heuirich  der  Vogler/ 
besides  a  complete  Church  Cantata  for  the  New 
Year,  both  of  which  are  calculated  to  give  a 
very  favourable  idea  of  Schiirmann's  powers  as 
a  composer.  Eitner  is  disposed  to  assign  him 
a  very  high  place  even  in  association  with 
Handel  and  Bach,  both  for  genuine  feeling  and 
contrapuntal  skill.  J.  R.  m. 

SCHUTT,  Edttard,  bom  Oct.  22,  1856,  at 
St.  Petersburg,  was  intended  for  a  mercantile 
career,  but  relinquished  it  for  music,  which 
he  learned  from  Petersen  and  Stein  sufficiently 
to  pass  the  examination  at  the  St.  Petersbur^^ 
Conservatoire,  with  honour,  in  1 876.  He  then 
entered  the  Conservatorium  at  Leipzig,  passed 
the  final  examination  there  in  1878,  and  went 
to  Vienna,  where  he  was  elected  conductor  of 
the  Akademische  Wagner- Verein.  In  January 
1882  he  played  his  Concerto  (op.  7)  in  G  minor, 
before  the  Russian  Musical  Society  at  St  Peters- 
burg. It  was  performed  at  the  Crystal  Palace. 
Sydenham,  April  16,  1882,  by  Mme.  Frickeu- 
haus.  His  published  works  include — Serenade 
for  strings,  op.  6 ;  Variations  for  2  Pianos,  op.  9 ; 
Songs  opp.  18,  19,  22,  28  ;  piano  pieces,  opp. 
13,  16,  16,  17,  20,  21,  41,  transcription  of 
songs  by  Brahms,  Strauss's  Fledermaus  waltz, 
etc.  G. 

SCHUTZ,  Heinrich  (name  sometimes  Latin- 
ised Sagittarius),  *the  father  of  German 
music,'  as  he  has  been  styled,  was  bom  at 
Kbstritz,  Saxony,  Oct.  8,  1686.  His  father 
and  grandfather  occupied  a  good  social  position 
at  Weissenfels,  whither  his  father  removed  with 
his  family  on  the  death  of  the  grandfather  in 
1691.  Admitted  in  1699  as  a  chorister  into 
the  chapel  of  the  Landgraf  Maurice  of  Hesse- 
Cassel,  Schiitz  had,  besides  a  thorough  musical 
training,    the    advantage    of  a  good    general 


SCHUTZ 


SCHUTZ 


337 


education  in  the  arts  and  sciences  of  the  time, 
which  enabled  him  in  1607  to  proceed  to  the 
University  of  Marburg,  where  he  pursued  with 
some  distinction  the  study  of  law.  The  Land- 
graf,  when  on  a  visit  to  Marburg,  observing  in 
his  prot4gi  a  special  inclination  and  talent  for 
music,  generously  offered  to  defray  the  expense 
of  his  further  musical  cultivation  at  Venice 
under  the  tuition  of  Giovanni  Gabrleli,  the 
most  distinguished  musician  of  the  age.  Schutz 
accordingly  proceeded  to  Venice  in  1609,  and 
ah*eady  in  1611  published  the  first-fruits  of 
his  studies  under  Gabrieli,  a  book  of  five-part 
madrigals  dedicated  to  his  patron.  On  the 
death  of  Gabrieli  in  1612,  Schiltz  returned  to 
Cassel,  and  was  appointed  organist  to  the  Laud- 
graf,  but  either  uncertain  himself  as  to  his  real 
vocation  for  music  or  induced  by  his  friends, 
he  had  still  some  thoughts  of  taking  up  again 
the  profession  of  law.  Perhaps  the  Landgrafs 
chapel  was  too  narrow  a  sphere  for  him  to  work 
in ;  it  was  fortunate  therefore  that  in  1 614  he  re- 
ceived the  invitation  to  undertake  the  entire  direc- 
tion of  the  capelle  of  the  Elector  Johann  Georg 
of  Saxony  at  Dresden,  at  a  salary  of  400  gulden. 
The  Landgraf  was  unwilling  to  |>art  with  him, 
and  would  at  first  only  allow  him  to  accept  this 
t)osition  temporarily.  He  recalled  Schutzin  1616, 
but  on  the  earnest  petition  of  the  Elector  finally 
consented  to  his  remaining  permanently  at 
Dresden.  Schlitz's  first  endeavour  at  Dresden 
was  to  reorganise  the  electoral  music,  and  in- 
deed, as  he  had  been  engaged  to  do,  on  the 
Italian  model,  for  the  purpose  of  introducing 
the  new  concerted  style  of  music  vocal  and 
instrumental.  He  procured  good  Italian  instru- 
ments and  players,  and  sent  qualified  members 
of  the  capelle  to  Italy  for  a  time,  to  perfect 
themselves  in  the  new  style  of  singing  and 
playing. 

His  firat  work  of  importance  appeared  in 
1619,  '  Psalmen  David's  sammt  etlichen  Motet- 
ten  und  Concerten  mit  8  und  mehr  Stimmen,' 
a  work  which  shows  the  influence  of  the  new 
Monodic  or  Declamatory  style  which  Schiltz 
had  learned  in  Italy. 

For  his  purpose  Schiitz  uses  the  means  of  ex- 
pression afforded  by  contrast  of  different  choirs, 
or  contrast  of  solo  voices  with  full  choir,  or 
contrast  of  voices  with  instruments,  either  the 
simple  Basso  Continue,  i.e.  for  organ,  lute,  or 
theorbo,  or  strings  with  occasional  trumpets,  etc. 
His  next  work,  in  l£23,  was  an  oratorio  on  the 
subject  of  tlie  Resurrection  entitled  *Historia 
der  frohlichen  und  siegreichen  Auferstehung 
unsers  einigen  Erlbsers  und  Seligmachers  Jesu 
Christi.*  The  occasion  for  the  composition  of 
this  work  would  seem  to  have  been  the  practice, 
still  kept  up  at  Dresden,  Leipzig,  and  other 
churches  in  Saxony,  of  singing  the  story  of  the 
Resurrection  at  Eiuster  as  that  of  the  Passion  in 
Holy  Week.  A  'Geistliches  Gesangbuch*  of 
1612  informs  us  that  *  Every  year  on  Easter-day 
VOL.  IV 


at  Vespers, before  the  sermon,  there  is  sung  in 
our  Christian  congregations  the  Resurrection, 
so  splendidly  set  by  Antonius  Scandellus.' 
This  Antonius  Scandellus,  Scandello,  or  Scan- 
delli,  had  been  one  of  Schiitz's  own  predecessors 
at  Dresden  from  1568  to  1580,  and  had  written 
both  a  Passion  and  a  Resurrection.  (See  p.  238.) 
His  *  Resurrection  '  must  have  continued  in  use 
even  beyond  Schiitz's  time,  since  it  even  appears 
in  Vopelius's  *  Leipziger  Gesangbuch,'  of  1682. 
It  may  be  seen  in  Schbberlein  and  Riegel's 
'Schatz  des  liturgischen  Chorgesang,'  ii.  619- 
647.     (With  regard  to  the  authorship,  compare 

0.  Kade's  remarks  in  the  Vorwort  to  the  Noten- 
beilagen  to  Ambros's  OescMchte^  xlvi.)  Schiitz's 
*  Resurrection'  follows  the  line  of  Scandello's,  only 
whereas  Scandello's  composition  is  purely  vocal, 
that  of  Schiitz  is  adapted  to  instrumental  ac- 
companiment. Both  works  begin  with  a  setting 
(inScandello5-part,  inSchiitz6-part)ofthewords 
*Die  Auferstehung  unsers  Herrn  Jesu  Christi,  wie 
uns  die  von  den  Evangelisten  beschrieben  wird,' 
and  conclude  with  a  setting  (Scandello  5-part, 
Schutz  8-part)  of  the  words  *  Gott  sei  Dank,  der 
uns  den  Sieg  gegeben  hat,'  etc.  In  Scandello, 
the  part  of  the  Evangelist  is  altogether  liturgi- 
cal, but  in  Schiitz,  while  it  is  mostly  based  on  the 
liturgical  melody,  the  more  important  passages 
have  given  to  them  a  more  characteristic  and  ex- 
pressive form  of  declamation,  which  sometimes 
rises  up  to  actual  melody  in  the  more  modern 
sense  of  the  term,  and  the  Evangelist's  part 
is  accompanied  throughout  either  by  the  organ 
or  preferably  by  four  Viole  da  Gamba,  which 
are  called  upon  at  certain  pauses  in  the  narra- 
tive to  execute  appropriate  runs  or  passages 
(*  Zierliche  und  appropriirte  Liiufe  oder  Pas- 
saggi  machen  *).  The  woixis  of  other  personages 
are  set  for  two  or  more  voices,  according  to 
their  number,  as  for  instance,  the  words  of  the 
three  Maries  as  a  trio,  of  the  two  angels  as  a  duet, 
of  the  eleven  disciples  as  a  6 -part  chorus,  only 
that  usually  for  single  {)ersonages  two  parts  are 
employed  (as  in  Scandelli),  though  Schiitz  permits 
one  of  these  parts  to  be  taken,  as  he  expresses 
it,  instnimeTUcUiter,  This  work  of  Schiitz's  is 
altogether  remarkable,  as  being  a  highly  success- 
ful endeavour  to  unite  dramatic  expressiveness 
with  reverence  for  ecclesiastical  tradition.  Tlie 
same  spirit  is  shown  in  another  form  in  his 
next  work  of  importance,  *  Cantiones  Sacrae,'  for 
four  voices  with  bass  accompaniment  for  organ. 
The  endeavour  here  is  to  unite  the  older  form  of 
the  Motet  with  the  newer  fonn  of  the  Concerto, 
and  the  Diatonic  Church  Modes  with  the  use 
of  Chromatic  harmonies.   In  1627  Johann  Georg 

1.  of  Saxony  wished  to  signalise  the  occasion 
of  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  to  tlic  Landgraf 
of  Hesse-Darmstadt  by  giving  the  first  perform- 
ance of  opera  in  Germany.  The  opera  had 
just  sprung  into  life  in  connection  with  the  new 
musical  movement  in  Italy,  as  a  supposed 
revival  of  the  antique   music-drama.     Schiitz 


338 


SCHUTZ 


SCHUTZ 


was  commissioned  to  procure  from  Italy  Peri's 
opera  '  Dafne.'  The  poet  Opitz  was  set  to 
the  task  of  translating  the  Italian  text  by 
Einuccini  into  German,  and  as  it  was  found 
that  Peri's  music  would  not  quite  fit  the  new 
German  words,  Schiitz  had  to  adapt  them  to 
new  music  of  his  own.  The  opera  '  Dafne/  as 
thus  set  by  Schiitz,  was  performed  at  Toigau  on 
the  1 3th  of  April  1 627 .  Unfortunately  the  music 
of  thisiirst  German  opera  has  not  been  preserved, 
and  no  further  account  of  it  has  been  given.  It 
is  probable,  however,  that  Schiitz  did  little  else 
on  this  occasion  than  rearrange  Peri's  music  and 
add  something  in  exactly  the  same  style.  In 
any  ease  the  result  was  not  such  as  to  induce 
Schiitz  to  make  any  further  attempts  in  music 
for  the  theatre,  if  we  except  another  occasional 
piece,  a  Ballet,  '  Orpheus  und  Euridice,'  written 
in  1638,  the  music  of  which  appears  also  to  be 
lost.  In  1625  appeared  his  'Geistliche  Gesange,' 
and  in  1628  Schiitz,  having  lost  his  wife,  found 
some  comfort  in  his  sorrow,  as  he  tells  us,  by 
occupying  himself  with  the  task  of  composing 
melodies  with  simple  4-part  harmony  to  a  rhymed 
version  of  the  Psalms  by  Dr.  Cornelius  Becker. 
This  version  by  Becker  was  meant  to  be  a 
Lutheran  rival  to  an  earlierCalvinisticversion  by 
Lobwasser,  based  on  the  French  Psalter  of  Marot 
and  Beza,  and  adapted  to  the  same  melodies. 
Later  on,  Johann  Georg  II.,  with  a  view  to  the 
introduction  of  the  Becker  Psalter  in  place  of 
Lobwasser's  in  the  schools  and  churches  of 
Saxony,  urged  Schiitz  to  complete  his  composi- 
tion of  melodies  for  the  work.  The  task  was 
hardly  congenial  to  our  composer,  as  he  himself 
confesses  in  the  preface  to  the  complete  work 
when  it  appeai-ed  in  1661.  Two  further  editions, 
however,  of  this  Psalter,  with  Schutz's  melodies, 
appeared  in  1676  and  1712.  Some  of  these 
melodies  passed  into  later  Cantionals,  though 
none  have  ever  taken  the  same  place  in  general 
use  or  esteem  that  similar  work  by  less  eminent 
composers  has  done. 

Partly  to  distract  himself  from  his  great 
sorrow,  partly  to  familiarise  himself  with  the 
still  newer  development  of  music  in  Italy,  with 
which  the  name  of  Claudio  Monteverde  is 
chiefly  associated,  Schiitz  set  out  on  a  second 
visit  to  Italy  in  1629.  He  found  musical  taste 
in  Venice  greatly  changed  since  the  time  of  his 
first  visit  (1612),  *  modem  ears  were  being 
regaled  with  a  new  kind  of  sensation '  ('  recent! 
titillatione ').  The  new  style  consisted  in  the 
greater  prominence  given  to  solo  singing,  and 
to  intensity  of  expression  in  solo  singing,  the 
freer  use  of  dissonances,  and  greater  richness 
and  variety  in  instrumental  accompaniment  In 
a  series  of  works  entitled  *■  Symphoniae  Sacrae,' 
Schiitz  endeavoured  to  turn  to  account  the  new 
experiences  he  had  gained,  without,  however, 
like  his  new  Italian  models,  turning  his  back 
upon  his  earlier  polyphonic  training.  He  never 
altogether  forgot  to  unite  the  solidity  of  the 


old  school  with  the  piquancy  of  expression  of 
the  new.  The  first  part  of  *  Symphoniae  Sacrae ' 
appeared  at  Venice  in  1629,  and  consists  of 
twenty  settings  of  Latin  texts,  chiefly  from  the 
Psalms  and  the  Song  of  Songs.  A  second  part 
of  'Symphoniae  Sacrae,'  with  the  sub -title 
'  Deutsche  Concerten,'  appeared  at  Dresden  in 
1657;  a  third  part  also  at  Dresden  in  1 650.  The 
two  later  parts  are  settings  of  German  Bible  texts. 
They  may  be  described  as  brief  dramatic  cantatas 
for  various  combinations  of  voices  and  instru- 
ments, and  in  virtue  of  them  Schutz  may  be 
considered  joint-founder  with  Carissimi  of  the 
Dramatic  Oratorio.  Winterfeld  {Gabrieli,  vol 
iii.  pp.  82,  etc.,  also  Evang,  Kir.  Geaang.  vol. 
ii.  p.  315)  singles  out  for  special  notice  from 
the  first  part,  '  Fill,  fill  mi,  Absalom '  (David's 
lament  over  Absalom),  written  for  bass  solo 
with  accompaniment  of  four  trombones,  and 
from  the  third  part,  *  Saul,  Saul,  was  verfolgst 
du  mich  ? '  (a  cantata  for  the  festival  of  the 
Conversion  of  St.  Paul),  and  *  Mein  Sohn,  waram 
hast  du  uns  das  gethan  ?'  (for  the  first  Sunday 
after  Epiphany). 

In  1631  and  following  years  Saxony  became 
the  scene  of  war,  and  one  result  was  the  com- 
plete disorganisation  of  the  Elector's  capelle, 
means  failing  for  the  payment  of  musicians,  and 
the  attention  of  the  Elector  and  his  court  being 
occupied  with  more  serious  matters  than  music. 
Schiitz  obtained  leave  in  1638  to  accept  an 
invitation  to  Copenhagen  from  King  Christian 
IV.  of  Denmark.  The  years  1635-41  were 
spent  in  wanderings  to  and  fro  between  differeDt 
courts  with  occasional  returns  to  Dresden,  Schiitz 
being  still  nominaUy  in  the  service  of  the 
Elector.  Tlie  chief  works  worthy  of  notice 
published  during  these  years  are  two  sets  of 
Geistliche  Concerto  for  one  to  five  voices,  with 
Basso  Continue  (1636,  1689),  the  seoond  set 
being  especiaUy  remarkable  by  the  composer's 
frequent  directions  for  the  securing  of  pro|«r 
expression  in  liis  music.  (It  is  to  be  remembered 
that  marks  and  terms  of  expression  were  not 
then  in  common  use. )  In  1 64 1  Schiitz  returned 
to  Dresden  to  make  an  effort  to  reorganise  the 
music,  but  from  want  of  means  his  efforts  were 
not  crowned  with  anything  like  success  till 
1645  or  1647.  A  work  of  importance  vraa 
written  and  produced  about  1645,  though 
strangely  enough  it  was  never  printed  or  pub- 
lished in  Schiitz's  lifetime,  and  only  appeared 
in  print  for  the  first  time  in  1878,  edited  by 
Carl  Riedel  of  Leipzig.  It  is  a  small  Passion 
Oratorio  on  the  Seven  Words  firom  the  Cross. 
This  work  is  of  importance  as  contributing  some 
new  elements  to  the  development  of  the  later 
Passion  Music  First,  the  part  of  the  Evangelist 
is  no  longer  based  on  the  liturgical  intonation, 
as  in  the  'Resurrection'  oratorio  of  1623,  bnt 
takes  the  form  of  the  new  '  Arioso  Recitative.' 
For  the  sake  of  variety  Schiitz  divides  this 
part  among  different  solo  voices,  and  sets  it 


SCHUTZ 


SCHUTZ 


twice  in  the  form  of  a  quartet.  Next,  the 
work  is  opened  and  concluded  with  a  chorus 
(5-part  with  basso  continue)  expressive  of  the 
feelings  of  Christians  at  the  contemplation  of 
oar  Lord  upon  the  Cross.  After  the  opening, 
and  again  before  the  concluding  chorus,  there 
occurs  a  short  5-part  instrumental  symphony, 
which  has  been  aptly  described  as  an  ideal 
raising  and  dropping  of  the  curtain  before  and 
after  the  action.  The  instruments  to  be  used 
are  not  specified,  but  strings  are  probably  more 
intended  than  anything  else.  The  part  of  our 
Lord  differs  from  the  otlier  parts  in  having  a 
3 -part  instrumental  accompaniment  "Diis 
probably  originated  out  of  the  custom  in  previous 
'  Passions '  (as  followed  in  Scandello's  *  Resurrec- 
tioD,'  for  instance),  of  setting  the  words  of  our 
Ii>ni  in  four  vocal  parts.  Schiitz  here  improved 
upon  the  idea,  first  timidly  suggested  by  himself 
in  his  'Resurrection,'  of  giving  the  words  of  a 
single  character  to  a  single  voice,  for  the  sake 
of  dramatic  consistency,  and  assigning  the 
accompanying  parts  to  the  instruments.  The 
way  in  which  this  accompaniment  is  carried 
out  deserves  to  be  noticed.  It  is  neither  in 
the  old  style  nor  in  the  4iew,  but  a  curious 
combination  of  both  ;  the  lower  part  is  identical 
^ith  the  basso  continue  for  sustaining  the 
harmony  throughout :  the  other  two  parts  are 
written  in  the  polyphonic  style  with  the  voice, 
t'onsisting  of  imitations  either  preceding  or 
following  the  vocal  phrase.  It  is  well  known 
how  Bach  in  his  *  Matthew-Passion '  developed 
this  idea  of  a  special  accompaniment  to  the 
words  of  our  Lord,  surrounding  Him  as  it  were 
with  a  halo.  Naturally  there  are  no  arias  in 
the  modem  sense  in  Schlitz's  work,  all  is  in 
the  form  of  expressive  recitative.  A  touching 
simplicity  and  tenderness  distinguish  the  whole 
work.  In  1648  appeared  his  'Musicalla  ad 
Chorum  Sacrum,'  a  work  in  quite  a  different 
style  from  those  last  mentioned,  and  showing 
a  reaction  in  Schiitz's  mind  against  the  exclusive 
claims  of  the  modem  'Manier.'  It  consists  of 
twenty-nine  pieces  to  German  words,  for  five, 
six,  and  seven  voices,  in  the  old  motet  or  strictly 
polyphonic  style,  in  which  the  bassus  generalis 
or  continuus  may  be  dispensed  with  (as  the 
title  says,  *Wobei  der  Bassus  Generalis  auf 
<^atachten  und  Begehren,  nicht  aber  aiis 
Nothwendigkeit  zugleich  auch  zu  befinden  ist '). 
In  the  preface  he  expresses  the  opinion  that  no 
one  will  become  a  capable  musician  who  has 
not  first  acquired  skill  in  strict  contrapuntal 
work  without  the  use  of  the  basso  continue. 
Personal  reasons  to  some  extent  combined  with 
vtistic  reasons  to  produce  the  reaction  in 
favour  of  the  older  school  of  music  as  against 
the  new,  to  which  we  have  referred.  From 
1647  onwards,  in  spite  of  the  many  personal 
sacrifices  he  had  made  on  behalf  of  the  Elector's 
capelle,  as  for  instance  by  paying  or  increasing 
oat  of  his  own  salary  the  salaries  of  others  of 


the  musicians,  he  appears  to  have  suffered  so 
many  annoyances  in  connection  with  it  as  caused 
him  to  have  almost  a  disgust  for  the  further 
cultivation  of  music  at  Dresden,  and  induced 
him  to  solicit  over  and  over  again  in  1651-55 
dismissal  from  the  Elector's  service.  The  new 
Italian  element  in  the  chapel  was  very  different 
from  the  old ;  Schfltz  was  getting  involved  in 
continual  differences  and  squabbles  with  a  new 
Italian  colleague  Bontempi.  Italian  art  was 
losing  its  earlier  seriousness  of  purpose,  turning 
its  back  upon  its  older  traditions,  and  aiming 
simply  at  the  amusement  of  princes  and  their 
courts,  and  thus  acquiring  a  popularity  dangerous 
to  higher  ventures  of  art.  The  Elector,  how- 
ever, refused  to  accept  the  resignation  of  his 
Capellmeister,  and  after  1655  affairs  improved 
somewhat,  so  far  as  Schiitz  was  personally  con- 
cerned, so  that  he  continued  quietly  at  his  post 
for  the  remaining  sixteen  years  of  his  life. 

In  1657  he  published  <Zwolf  geistliche 
Gesange '  a  4  for  small  choirs,  a  work  which  we 
might  call  a  German  Conmiunion  and  Evening 
Service,  consisting,  as  it  does,  mainly  of  settings 
of  the  chief  portions  of  the  Liturgy  in  order, 
viz.  the  Kyrie,  Gloria,  Nicene  Creed,  Words  of 
Institution  (usually  appointed  to  be  sung  in 
early  Lutheran  liturgies),  a  Communion  Psalm, 
Post-Communion  Thanksgiving,  then  a  Mag- 
nificat and  Litany,  etc.  From  1657  to  1661  our 
composer  would  seem  to  have  been  occupied 
with  the  task  enjoined  on  him  by  the  new 
Elector,  that  of  composing  additional  melodies 
for  Becker's  Psalter,  already  mentioned ;  work 
which  apparently  gave  him  more  trouble  than 
it  was  worth,  and  hindered  him  from  devoting 
himself  to  other  more  congenial  work.  In  the 
preface  to  this  Psalter,  1661,  he  says  that  'to 
confess  the  tmth,  he  would  rather  have  spent 
the  few  remaining  years  of  his  life  in  revising 
and  completing  other  works  which  he  had 
begun,  requiring  more  skill  and  invention ' 
( *  mehr  sinnreichen  Inventionen ').  It  is  greatly 
to  be  regretted  that  the  next  work  with  which 
Schiitz  occupied  himself  has  been  preserved  to 
us  in  86  incomplete  a  form.  It  was  a  setting 
of  the  story  of  the  Birth  of  our  Lord,  and  as  a 
Christmas  oratorio  would  have  been  a  fitting 
companion-work  to  his  earlier  *  Easter '  oratorio 
and  his  later  *  Passions-Musik.'  Only  the  part 
of  the  Evangelist,  in  recitative  with  bass 
accompaniment,  has  been  preserved  to  us  ;  but 
the  preface  to  this  (1664)  contains  a  specifica- 
tion of  ten  so-called  'Concerto'  for  various 
voices  and  instmments  which  were  to  come  in 
at  different  points  of  the  narrative.  The 
introduction,  for  instance,  consisted  of  the 
title  (*Die  Geburt,  etc.')  set  for  four  vocal  and 
five  instrumental  parts ;  the  message  of  the 
Angel  was  set  for  soprano  solo  with  accompani- 
ment of  two  violettas  and  one  violone ;  the 
Chorus  of  Angels  for  six  voices  with  violins 
and  violas ;  the  words  of  the  Shepherds  for 


340 


SCHUTZ 


SCHUTZ 


three  alto  voices  with  two  flutes  and  bassoon  ; 
of  the  Wise  Men  for  three  tenor  voices  with 
two  violins  and  bassoon ;  of  the  High  Priests 
for  four  bass  voices  and  two  trombones ;  and 
so  on  with  the  rest  of  the  work.  The  loss  of 
these  concerted  movements  is  the  more  to  be 
regretted,  as  they  would  doubtless  have  shown 
Schiitz's  maturer  views  on  instrumentation  and 
the  combination  of  voices  and  instruments. 
The  last  work  of  Schiitz  preserved  to  us,  and 
perhaps  his  most  famous  work,  is  his  setting 
of  the  story  of  the  Passions,  four  settings  in 
all,  after  the  four  Evangelists,  'Historia  des 
Leidens  und  Sterbens  unserer  Herm  und 
Heylandes  Jesu  Christi '  (1 666-66).  This  work 
was  never  published  in  his  own  lifetime,  and 
the  only  original  copy  extant  is  that  of  the 
St.  John  Passion,  presented  by  the  composer 
himself  to  the  Duke  of  Wolfenbiittel,  and  now 
in  the  library  at  Wolfenbiittel.  The  only  copy 
of  the  other  settings  is  that  made  by  a  later 
hand  in  1690,  regarding  which  see  below  in 
list  of  Schiitz's  works.  As  we  now  have  the 
work,  it  is  for  voices  alone  without  instruments. 
It  is,  therefore,  as  if  the  composer  here  wished 
to  renounce  the  mere  external  advantages  of 
the  newer  concerted  and  dramatic  style  for  the 
sake  of  showing  how  the  spirit  of  it  could  be 
retained  and  applied  to  the  purely  vocal  and 
older  polyphonic  style.  For  what  8]^>ecially 
distinguishes  this  Passion  Music,  is  the  series 
of  brief  choruses  of  surprising  dramatic  energy 
and  truth  of  expression,  yet  never  overstepping 
the  bounds  of  devout  reverence  inspired  by  the 
subject.  Otherwise  the  work  is  more  purely 
liturgical  than  later  Passions,  not  having  arias 
and  chorales  to  interrupt  the  narrative  and 
give  that  variety  of  interest  so  needed  for 
modem  concert  jierformance.  Each  Passion  is 
ojiened  according  to  old  custom  with  a  setting 
of  the  title  (*the  Passion,  etc.*)  and  closed  with 
a  devotional  chorus  in  motet  style,  the  text 
taken  from  some  familiar  Church  hymn.  The 
rest  of  the  work  is  written  in  unaccompanied 
recitative,  though  parts  of  it  may  have  been 
meant  to  be  accomi)anied  in  the  'manner 
suggested  by  Schiitz  himself  in  his  *  Resurrec- 
tion.' In  the  '  St  Matthew '  the  recitative  has 
more  of  melodic  expressiveness  than  in  the 
other  Passions.  The  *  St.  Mark '  is  peculiar  in 
combining  the  greatest  monotony  of  recitative 
with  the  richest  dramatic  character  in  the 
choruses.  Dr.  Spitta,  the  editor  of  the  new 
complete  edition  of  Schiitz's  works,  is  inclined, 
on  this  and  other  grounds,  to  doubt  the 
authenticity  of  the  *  St.  Mark  Passion '  (see  his 
preface,  pp.  xx,  xxi).  But  the  fact  of  its  being 
joined  with  the  other  undoubtedly  authentic 
Passions  without  anjrthing  to  indicate  its  being 
by  a  different  author,  is  sufficient  to  outweigh 
mere  8U8])icionfl.  These  '  Passions, '  compressed 
by  Carl  Riedel  and  so  far  adapted  to  the  re- 
quirements of  modem  performance,  have  been 


repeatedly  produced  with  considerable  success 
by  the  Riedelsche  Yerein  of  Leipzig. 

In  his  later  years  Schiitz's  powers  began  to 
fail,  especially  his  sense  of  hearing ;   and  we 
are  told,  when  he  could  no  longer  go  out,  he 
spent  the  most  of  his  time  in  the  reading  of 
Holy  Scripture  and  spiritual  books.     His  laat 
attempts  at  com|)osition  were  settings  of  (wrtions 
of  the  119th  Psalm  ;  and  no  verse  indeed  of 
that  psalm   could   have    been   more    fittingly 
chosen  as  the  motto  of  both  his  personal  lile 
and  his  art-work  than  that  on  which  he  wa^ 
last  engaged,  but  left  unfinished  :  '  Thy  statate^ 
have  been  my  songs  in  the  house  of  my  pilgrim- 
age.'    He  is  tlie  trae  predecessor  of  Handd 
and  Bach,  not  so  much  in  the  mere  form  ot 
his  work,  as  the  spirit.     If  in  the  dramatised 
Biblical  scenes  of  his  *  Symphoniae  Sacrae,'  he 
is  more  especially  Handel's  predecessor,  in  his 
Passion  Music  he  is  Bach's.     Both  Handel  and 
Bach  simply  brought  to  perfection  what  lay 
in  germ  in  Heinrich  Schiitz.     His  great  merit 
consists  in  this,  that  at  a  time  when  the  new 
dramatic  style  was  threatening  the  complete 
overthrow  of  the  older  polyphonic  style,  he 
saw  how  to  retain  the  advantages  of  both,  and 
laboured  to  engraft  the  one  upon  the  other. 
It  was  thus  he  prepared  the  way  for  the  greater 
work  of  Handel  and  Bach  after  him.     Schiitz 
died  at  Dresden,  Nov.  6,   1672.     The  rather 
singular    coincidence    of    Schiitz's    birth -year 
being  exactly  a  hundred  years  earlier  than  the 
birth-year  of  Handel  and  Bach,  brought  about, 
on  the  occasion  of  the  keeping  of  the  bicentenan* 
of  the  two  latter,  in  1885,  a  great  revi^-al  of 
interest  in  the  work  of  their  forerunner,  which 
has   had    this    practical  result    at  least,   the 
publication  of  a   monumental   edition  of  his 
works    by    Messrs.     Breitkopf    k    Hartel   of 
Leipzig. 

The  following  is  a  Ust  of  Schiitz's  works, 
based  on  Eitner,  MonalshefUfUr  AfusikffexhicfUe\ 
xviii.  pp.  47  fl*.,  and  the  Qudlen-Lexikon, 

I.  WORKS  PUBLISHED  IN  UFETIMK 

1.  n  primo  libro  de  Mftdiicall  de  Henrico  Sagltjuio  Akcunw 
Venioe.  1611.  Dedicated  to  LMidgnt  Morita  of  HeM»CuML  Oa- 
taina  18  Hadrinli  a  fi,  mhI  1  Dialogo  a  & 

2.  9  Piten  (ToecMion,  entitled  ■Conoette,'  pahllahed  Mpufttdj. 
DrMMlen.  1618. 

3.  Die  Worte  Jesoa  Syrach;  Wol  dem  dor  eln  tDgeoda.  V«(b 
16ia 

4.  Concerto  in  two  parta.    161 S. 

5.  Pm  linen  Davids  ninpt  etiichen  Motetan  and  Conccricu  B.it 
aoht  und  mehr  Stiinnien,  nebenat  andem  s««l«n  Ckpelka  ^» 
dero  etiiche  auf  drai  und  Tier  Char  nach  Beliclninf  gabnacht  wvideu 
kflnnen,  wie  aaeh  mlt  beisefOgten  Baaao  Continao  vor  die  QrieL 
lAttten,  Chitaron.  etc    Draaden.  1619.    ContaJne  96  Paalnuu 

6l  Psalm  cxixiil..  for  8  voioee  with  Baao  CentlniM,  oompoMd  fcr 
hi*  hrothet'i  wedding.    Leipcig.  1619. 

7.  Synchamia  Muaieum  trlooa  Choria  adomRtam,  etc.  A  pWn 
d'oooasioQ  for  the  realoratlon  of  peace  in  Bileala.    Brealao,  Ittl. 


ofpeaoei:  

8.  Hiatoria  der  frBhliehen  und  alegrcidien  AoferatdiODr  nnw'^ 
einigen  ErlOaen  und  Selignwchera  Jeeu  Chrlatl.  In  fanUlrbcr 
Capellen  oder  Zimmem  um  die  OaterUcbe  idt  an  getnUlrbr 
Recreation  fUglichen  xu  gebiavchen.  Draaden.  MB.  An  <h»iot> 
on  the  Reaurrectlon^of   Chrtat     The  title   ahow*  that  it  «w 

Church. 

"»ia.  HeBOKiB  " 

Sehata  hlBiMlf. 

PreilMng.  IQiB. 

10.  Cantionea  Sactme  qoatuor  Tocum,  cam  Baaao  ad  OipD«Bi. 
Praibeig.  1696.    ConUina  41  pieoea  a  4  with  LaUn  worda. 

11.  De  Vitae  fugadt»te.  Aria  quinque  Tocnm  aapra  Baaavm  Cm- 
tinuntn.    Freiberg.  IflMk    A  piAoed'ooeaaion. 

12.  Paalmen  David*,  in  Toutadie  Reimen  gebrachte  dnrrik  f 
Comeliani  Beckem  .   .  .  naoh  gemeiner  C(mtTap(inrtB.rt  •«-  4 


intended  aa  well  for  Chamber  perfbrmanoe  aa  for  Chur 

9.  Blec7  on  the  Death  of  'FdreUn  Frau  Sophia.  ] 

Sarhaen?     Melody  with  Baaao  Cont.     Text  by  Sehl 


SCHULHOFF 


SCHULTHESIUS 


341 


EUrameu  mt«llt  .  .  .  Vrtiherg,  1608.  Ck>ntalDii  99  new  melodies 
Sf  ^kfautx  hiioadf  uid  ]1  otfaera  hannonised  by  him.  An  edition. 
liuAruw.  16M.  ma  pabllsbed  tor  um  In  Mecliienlnux-flchweiin. 
A  lAter  enlarged  edition,  irlth  melodiea  for  all  the  Paaluia,  appeared, 
IiTcndni,  1S81. 

]i.  gympboDiae  Bacrae  .  .  .  varila  -vociboB  ac  Instrtunentla  ae- 
rtt»yiM.ta»  a  3.  4  B,  6w  Opos  eceleaiaatlcuin  Mcnnduni.  Venice, 
:C3B.  Dedicated  to  the  Blector  of  Saxony.  Contains  90  aettinga  of 
UtiatntL 

14  '  Daa  ist  Je  gewialidi  vmhr.'  A  motet  for  6  Tolcee  in  memory 
<  f  Jobasn  Hermann  Scheln.  died  16SI.  Dedicated  to  Scheln's  widow 
tsA  children.    Dresden.  IfiQ. 

IS.  Enter  Tbeil  Kleiner  (dstlichen  COnoerten.  mit  1.  2, 8,  4.  nnd 
SStiniMnaammtbeigefttgtenBaMoCont.  Leipiif ,  1636.  Contains 
IT  yiKxi  to  German  woirda. 

16l  HxHikaUache  Eaequien  .  .  .  mit  6.  8,  nnd  mehr  Stimmen  sn 
isbsuwhen.    Dreeden,  KfiHL    Contains  8  fniteval  pieoea. 

i;.  Anderer  Theil  Kleiner  feistllchen  Concerten.  mit  1,  2.  8,  4, 
Ti&d  5  stimmen,  Bunmt  belgefligten  Baaao  Contlnuo  Tor  die  Oxgel. 
Dresden.  1838.    Contains  SI  pieoea.  texts  Oerman  and  Latin. 

\i.  Symphoniarara  Sacisram  SecondaFara . . .  Deutsche  Oonoerte 
Bit  a.  4.  8  nSmUch  dner,  swo,  dreien  Vocal-  nnd  xweien  Instru- 
mt«U1.8timmen.  .  .  .  OpnsDedmum.  Dresden.  1647.  Dedicated 
tv  Christian  V.  of  Denmark.    Contains  27  pieoeiL    German  words. 

in  DuMk-Ued  fOr  die  hocherwiesene  fOrstUche  Gnade  In 
Wryrsar.  1617. 

21  If  osicalia  ad  Choram  aacrrmi.  Oelstliehe  Chor-MuaUc  mit  6, 
h.  7  Stimmea,  beides  Tocaliter  und  Instmmentallter  en  gebtauchen 
. .  .  Opos  Undeeimnm.  Drasden,  1648.  Dedicated  to  the  BUrger- 
uHrter,  etc  of  Leipilg,  out  of  respect  for  Uie  Choir  of  the  Thomas- 
Vhule.   Coatains  90  Motets  to  German  words. 

21.  gynphonlarum  Bamnnn  Tertift  Phrs.  Deutsche  Conoerte 
mit  6. 6, 7. 8.  nfmlieh  3,  4.  8,  flu  Vocal-  nnd  zwelen  Instmmental- 
snmraeD.  .  .  .  Opus  Duodedmnm.    Dresden.  16B0. 

23L  Cknticmn  B.  Simeonis.  German  text  of  Nunc  Dimittis,  9 
wttings  far  6  raices.     (Not  perfectly  preserved. ) 

a.  ZvfHf  Gelstlielie  Oesinge  a  4.  P&r  Klelne  Cantoreien.  Opus 
Dediavn  Tertlnm.    Dreaden,  1667. 

H.  Hlstoria  der  Preuden-  nnd  Onaden  -  reichen  Ctoburt  Gottea 
«»i  Mkrieo  Sohnes,  Jesu  Chrlati  .  .  .  VooaUter  nnd  Instmmenta- 
httr  in  dW  Mnaik  venetst-  Dresden,  1684.  A  Christmas  Oxmtorio, 
>r3t  only  imperfectly  preaerved. 

IL  W0BK8  UNPUBUSHED  IN  LIFETIME. 

1.  Dit  91ebcn  Worte  nnsers  lieben  Brlltaen  nnd  Seligmachers 
JiwQ  Christ!,  so  Er  am  Stamm  des  hciligen  Kreuses  gesprochen. 
tva  bnt^Iicfa  gesetct.  .  .  .  Parts  in  maiinscript  preserved  In  the 
Uhtary  at  Caasel,  discovered  in  1866  by  O.  Kade.  and  first  published 
b  dUMv  and  adapted  for  modem  performance  by  Garl  Bledel, 
Ldpdg.  I87S. 

1  Hiitoria  des  Leidens  nnd  Sterbens  unsen  Hemns  Jera  Christl. 
«.  Xu^  dcm  Bvangeltsten  St.  Matthaeus.  b.  Nach  St.  Marcu*. 
r.  Xach  9L  Lneae.  d,  Nach  St.  Johannes.  An  older  form  of  the 
i  >h«Bocs  Ftessifm  exists  in  MS.  1685.  Of  the  ftjur  Pttasions  together 
t^en  eiista  only  a  copy  made  by  J.  Z.  Omndlg  in  1690,  now  in  the 
LrilBig  Stadt  Bibliothek. 

3.  VarioQs  single  motets  and  concerted  pieces,  enumerated  by 
Qtacr.  M^f.M.O..  xvili.  pp.  62.  67-70,  and  in  the  qutUen-Uxihm. 

in.  W0EK8  LOST. 

1.  'DsAie.'  Opera,  performed  1697.  German  text  by  Opiti, 
kfter  Uic  original  by  Binuocini. 

2.  A  Ballet  with  Dialogue  and  Becitative.  composed  for  the 
•ouTisgfl  of  Johann  Oeois  II.  of  Saxony.  1638.  (Another  Ballet, 
'  Vca  Zaasmmenknn  ft  nnd  Wirkung  der  VII.  Planeten,'  existing  in 
MH,  is  ccojectnzally  ascribed  to  Schtttx  in  Bitner's  Ust.  MJ.M.O. 

All  Schttti's  MS.  remains  at  Dresden  were  destroyed  by  fire,  1780. 
Tbe  nms  fate  befell  in  ITM  what  he  may  h»ve  left  at  Copenhagen. 

IV.  DOUBTFUL  WORKS. 

Btllet.  "Von  Zasammenknnft  nnd  Wlrknng  der  VII  Planeten,' 
f«ndlnMS.atDiwden.    (See  above.) 

V.  NEW  EDITION  IN  SCORE. 

B^n  OR  tbe  Tereentenary  of  the  composer's  Birthday,  1888. 

Brinrieh  achats.  BKmmtllche  Werke,  edited  by  Friedrich  Chry- 

•«wr  snri  FhiUpp  Spitta,  and  published  by  M«»srs.  Breitkopf  ft 

Vrj  1  oontains  the  *  ResnrTectlon '  Oratorio,  the  Panions-Musik 
■'Jter  tb«  four  BvangellsU.  the  Seven  Words  from  the  Cross,  and  in 
*«  Appendix  the  imperfect  Christmas  Oratorio,  and  the  older  form 
"f  the  Jobsnnes-FikaRion. 

Vols. )  and  S  oontoln  the  Paalms  and  Motets  of  1619. 

Vol  4.  Canttones  Saerae.  1695. 

♦ol.  8.  Syntphoniac  Socnte,  Part  L  1699. 

JA  8,  OeisUiehe  Concerto  of  1636  and  1630. 

>«.  7.fiymphoniae  Saerae.  Part  II.  1M7. 

>«•  8.  Mosiealia  ad  Chomm  sacmm,  1648. 

\^.  %  Italian  Madrigals,  1611. 

*ols.  10  and  n.  Symphonlae  Sactae.  Part  IH.  1630. 

>^oL  IS.  Gesammelte  Motetten,  Conoerte.  Madrigals,  and  Arien, 
L  (containing  Noe.  14, 16.  and  22.  besides  other  things). 

Vol  14  Ditto.  11.  PSB.  94.  8.  7.  85, 127. 15,  and  motets. 

>9l.  K  Ditto,  ill.  14  Compoeltions.  including  No.  6. 

Vol  15.  Ditta  It.  12  Compositions,  including  No.  7. 

*«.  18,  Pmlms  for  Becker's  hymn-book.  j^   j^^  j^^ 

SCHULHOFF,  Julius— dear  to  player  and 
<3ancer  for  his  Galop  di  Bravura,  Impromptu 
Polka,  and  many  more  brilliant  and  clever  PF. 
pieces— was  bom  at  Prague,  August  2,  1825. 
He  learned  the  piano  from  Kisch,  and  counter- 


point from  Tomaschek,  and  before  he  was 
fourteen  made  a  successful  appearance  as  a 
player.  Notwithstanding  his  success,  the  boy's 
ambition  was  too  great  to  allow  him  to  remain 
in  Prague,  and  in  1842  he  went  to  Paris,  then 
a  hotbed  of  pianoforte  virtuosity.  Here  a 
fortunate  interview  with  Chopin  gave  him  his 
opportunity.  He  played  in  public  (Nov.  2, 
1845),  and  published  his  first  two  works,  of 
which  op.  1,  an  Allegro  Brillant,  was  dedicated 
to  Chopin.  After  a  lengthened  residence  in 
Paris  he  took  a  very  extended  tour  through 
France,  Austria  (1849-50),  England,  Spain 
(1851),  and  even  South  Russia  and  the  Crimea 
(1863).  He  lived  in  Dresden  from  1870,  and 
in  Berlin  irom  about  1897  ;  he  died  in  the 
latter  city  March  13,  1898.  A  sonata  in  F 
minor,  and  twelve  Etudes,  are  among  his  more 
earnest  compositions.  g. 

SCHULTHEISS,  Benedict,  was  the  younger 

son  of  HiERONYMUS   SCHULTHEISS   (1600-69), 

and  his  second  wife,  whom  he  married  in  1648. 
Benedict  became  organist  at  S.  Egidius,  Nurem- 
berg, but  he  died  at  a  comparatively  early  age 
on  March  1,  1693.  He  published  first  a  set  of 
Clavier  pieces :  Muth  und  Geist  ermuntemder 
Clavier -Lust.  Erster  Theil,  Niimberg,  1679; 
Andei*  Theil,  1680.  Later  he  seems  to  have 
devoted  himself  entirely  to  Church  music,  and 
composed  many  Chorales  which  are  still  included 
in  the  Evangelical  Church-song ;  they  will  be 
found  in  the  following  works,  all  published  in 
his  lifetime : — 

.  HeiligerSonntags- Handel  und  Kirch- Wandel  .  .  .  durchSigmnnd 
von  Blrkeii.  Niimberg,  1681.  Contains  two  melodies  with  flgnred 
bajBsby'Ben.  Bchnlth.^ 

Der  geistlichen  Brqnlck-Stunden  des  .  .  .  Heinr.  Mailers  .  .  . 
Poetischer  Andacht-Klang  von  denen  Blumgenossen  verfasset. 
anjetxo  mit  60  Liedem  vermehret,  und  von  nnterschiedllchen 
Ton-Klinstlem  in  Arien  gesetxt.  Niimberg,  1691.  Contalnsthirteen 
melodies  with  figured  bass  by  Schulthelas. 

Gott-geheillgter  Christen  niltslich  -  erigetsende  Seelen  -  Lust  .  .  . 
mit  liebTlch  in  Noten  gesetrten  neuen  Arien  .  .  .  vorgestcllet  von 
W.  C.  D.  (W.  C.  Dessler).    NOml)erg.  1692. 

It  contains  twenty-five  melodies  with  figured 
bass  ;  Zahn  included  nine  of  them  in  his  great 
work  Die  Melodien  der  detUschen  evangeliseken 
Kirchenlieder,  1893,  and  thinks  Schultheiss 
composed  all  twenty -five,  although  only  the 
first  eleven  are  initialled  B,  S.  c.  s. 

SCHULTHESIUS,  Johann  Paul,  was  bom 
at  Fechheim,  Saxe-Coburg,  on  Sept.  14,  1748. 
He  received  his  first  lessons  in  music  from  his 
father,  a  schoolmaster  there;  in  1764  he 
entered  the  local  college  to  follow  a  course  of 
theology,  became  a  member  of  tlie  choir,  and 
remained  there  six  years,  acquiring  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  music.  From  1770  to  1773  he 
was  at  the  University  of  Erlangen,  where  he 
completed  his  theological  studies,  while  he  was 
able  to  obtain  organ  lessons  from  Kehl,  an 
excellent  organist.  He  was  then  offered  a  post 
at  Leghom,  as  Protestant  minister  to  the 
colony  of  Germans  and  Dutch  settled  there ; 
he  accepted  and  went  to  Italy,  where  he  re- 
mained for  the  rest  of  his  life.  Checchi  was 
organist  at  that  time,  and  gave  him  lessons  in 


342 


SCHULTZ 


SCHULZE 


counterpoint  and  composition.  Schulthesins 
was  an  excellent  performer  on  the  clavier,  and 
in  1782  he  was  called  upon  to  play  some  of  his 
own  compositions  before  the  Grand  Dnke  of 
Tuscany,  and  was  very  favourably  received. 
He  became  one  of  the  most  erudite  musicians 
of  his  time,  and  in  1807  was  nominated  secretary 
of  the  fourth  class  of  the  Accademia  di  scienze, 
lettere  ed  arti  di  Livomo.  He  died  on  April 
18,  1816,  at  Leghorn.  His  treatise  on  the 
quality  and  character  of  church  music :  Sulla 
musica  da  chiesa,  Memoria  di  Gio.  Paolo 
Schulthesius.  Livomo,  presso  Tommaso  Masi. 
1810,  4 to,  was  also  published  in  the  first 
volume  of  the  Proceedings  of  his  Accademia. 
Letters  of  his  to  Marco  Santuoci  are  in  existence ; 
in  one  of  them  he  mentions  this  work,  and  ex- 
presses his  desire  to  hear  Santucci's  opinion  of 
it.  The  following  compositions  were  also  pub- 
lished : — 

Tre  sonate  p«r  !I  Cimbalo  o  piano-forte  ooti  1'  aocompacoMneiito 
d'un  yloUno  abbligRto.  Compocte  da  Qla  Plaolo  SchulthMioa. 
Oi>om  1.  Livomot  1780,  obi.  folio.  A  onpy  of  the  ■eoond  edition  is 
in  tbe  Brltiah  MoMiun. 

Sonate  a  nolo  per  il  cembalo  o  plauoforte.  Op.  2.  Liromo,  obL 
fol. 

Deux  qtiatuors  pour  piano,  violon,  viola  et  violoneello.  Op.  3. 
London,  1799. 

Otto  rariwEloni  facill  eopra  un  Andantino  per  11  dmbalo  o  piano- 
forte, violino,  riola  e  violoncello  obbllgato.  Op.  4.  Livomo.  Four 
oblong  folio  part-booki. 

AlleKrettoavecl2varintlonapourIeClavccln  oupianofbrte,  violon, 
viola  et  violoncello  obblisato.    Op.  0.    Augsburg  tGombart). 

Andante  gradoeo  do  Pleyel  vari4  pour  le  clavecin  ou  pianoforte, 
violon  et  violoncello  obbligato.    Op.  7.     Aogaburg  (Gotubart). 

Andantino  original,  aveo  Iiuit  variations  pour  le  piano.  Op.  & 
Augaburg  (Gombart). 

Sept  variationa  pour  le  forte-piano.  Op.  0.  Augsburg  (Gombart). 
1797.    Dedicated  to  Job.  Nlc.  Forkel. 

Hult  variations  sur  un  air  russe  pour  piano.    Op.  10.    Livomo. 

Douse  variations  sur  I'nir  de  JIalbnmkvouT  pUno,  violon,  viola 
•t  violoncello.    Op.  11.     Florence  (Nicola  Pagnl). 

La  reooncillazlone  dl  due  amlci,  tema  con  variarionL  Op.  18. 
Augsburg  (GombHrt).    It  was  dedicated  to  Baydn. 

Otto  variasioni  seutiinentall  aopra  un  tema  originate  lutitolato 
L'  Amicicia  per  pianoforte,  dedicate  al  signore  Cano  Mocart,  figlio 
magglore  del  Oran  Moeart.    Op.  14.    Leipiig.    Breitkopf.       q^  g^ 

SCHULTZ.   SeePRABTORius,  vol.  iii.  p.  806. 

SCHULZ,  JoHANN  Abraham  Peter,  son  of 
a  baker,  born  at  Liineburg,  March  30,  1747. 
His  master  was  Schmugel,  a  local  organist  of 
ability,  whose  descriptions  of  Berlin  and  of  Kim- 
berger's  labours  so  excited  him  that  at  the  age  of 
Hfteen,  without  money  and  against  the  wish  of 
his  family,  he  went  thither  and  put  himself  under 
the  protection  of  Kirnberger,  who  was  very  good 
to  him,  under  whom  he  studied  and  to  whom 
he  became  greatly  attached.  In  1 768  he  was  for- 
tunate enough  to  travel  in  France,  Italy,  and 
Germany  under  good  auspices.  In  1778  he 
returned  to  Berlin,  and  found  his  old  master 
and  Sulzer  at  work  on  their  Allgem,  Theorie  der 
Schonen  KilnsUy  and  undertook  the  musical  por- 
tion of  it  from  S  to  the  end.  In  1776-78  ho  was 
also  Gapellmeister  to  the  French  theatre  at 
Berlin,  and  afterwards  to  the  private  theatre 
of  the  Crown  Princess  at  Berlin  and  that  of 
Prince  Henry  at  Beinsberg,  where  he  stayed  for 
seven  years  from  April  1 ,  1780.  His  choruses  to 
*  Athalia,'  produced  while  there,  were  translated 
and  brought  out  at  Copenhagen,  and  the  result 
was  an  offer  from  the  King  of  Denmark  to  be 
his  Capellmeister  at  a  salary  of  2000  thalers. 
This  he  accepted  and  held  for  eight  years,  from 


1787,  with  great  credit  and  advantage  to  the 
place.  His  health  at  length  obliged  him  to 
leave,  and  he  departed,  Sept.  29,  1795,  for 
Hamburg,  Lunebui^,  and  Berlin.  He  loat  his 
wife,  and  at  length,  on  June  10,  1800,  died  at 
Schwedt  deeply  and  widely  lamented  Schulz 
was  a  prolific  composer  ;  his  operas  are  'Clarisse' 
(1775),  *  La  fee  Urgele'  (1782),  *Minoua/  and 
'  Le  Barbier  de  Seville '  (1786),  '  Aline  *  (1789)  ; 
besides  he  wrote  music  to  plays,  and  sacred  music 
such  as '  Christi  Tod, ' '  Maria  und  Johannes, '  etc. 
The  Quellen-Lexikon  gives  the  names  of  many 
church  and  chamber  works,  as  well  as  of  his 
important  song-coUections.  His  literary  works 
include  a  ti'eatise  on  a  new  mode  of  writing 
music.  He  also  edited  Kiruberger's  WcJu-t- 
Orundsatzc  zum  Oebrauefi  der  Harmcnie  (17S3). 
But  his  true  claim  to  notice  rests  on  his  sougsi. 
He  was  the  first  to  give  the  Volkslied  an  artistic 
turn.  He  was  very  careful  to  get  good  words, 
and  as  a  considerable  move  was  taking  place 
among  the  poets  at  that  date  (1770-80),  and 
Burger,  Claudius,  Holty,  and  others  were  writing, 
he  had  good  opportunities,  and  many  of  his  set- 
tings were  published  in  the  Gottingen  Mttsen- 
aZmanach  and  Voss's  Almanack.  He  published 
also  ^Lieder  in  Yolkston  bey  dem  Klavier  zu 
singen'  (1782),  containing  forty-eight  songs, 
2nd  ed.  (1785)  in  two  parts,  and  a  third  part 
in  1790.  (See  Reissmann,  Gc9ch,  d.  Deutsche  n 
Liedes,  p.  149.)  g. 

SCHULZE,  J.  F.  k  Sons,  a  firm,  of  oi^an- 
builders,  whose  founder,  J.  F.  Schulze,  was 
bom  at  Milbitz-bei-Paulinzella,  Thuringia,  in 
1 794,  and  began  his  manufactory  there  in  1 825. 
His  first  organs  were  for  Horba(  with  ten  stops)and 
Milbitz  (ti^'enty-one  stops).  In  1 825  he  moved  to 
Paulinzella,  where  his  business  largely  increased 
At  this  period  his  principal  organs  were  those 
for  Bremen  cathedral  and  Solingen.  In  1851. 
the  firm  sent  an  organ  to  the  International 
Exhibition  in  Hyde  Park,  which  obtained  a  prize 
medal  and  was  the  beginning  of  much  work 
done  for  England.  This  is  now  in  the  Town 
Hall,  Nortliampton.  In  1854  they  built  the 
great  organ  in  the  Marienkirche  at  Liibeck. 
J.  F.  Schulze  died  in  1858,  but  was  succeeded 
by  his  three  sons,  the  most  distinguished  of 
whom  was  Heinrich  Edmund,  who  introduced 
many  improvements.  On  the  rebuilding  of  the 
parish  church  of  Doncaster,  England,  after  the 
fire  in  1 853,  the  organ  was  rebuilt  by  the  Schulze 
firm,  with  great  success.  Besides  this  fine  instni- 
ment,  their  most  important  oigans  are  in 
Bremen,  Diisseldorf,  Sost,  and  Aplerbeck.  H.  E 
Schulze  died  in  1878  at  the  age  of  fifty- four, 
and  shortly  after,  on  tlie  death  of  the  surviving 
brother,  the  firm  ceased  to  exist. 

The  Schulzes'  organs  are  most  celebrated  for 
their  flute-pipes,  which  are  constructed  so  as 
to  admit  as  much  wind  as  possible.  In  order  to 
do  this  the  feet  are  opened  very  wide,  and  the 
pipes  are  in  consequence  cut  up  unusually  high. 


SCHUMANN 


343 


By  this  means,  with  a  comparatively  low  pres- 
fare  of  wind  an  extraordinarily  rich  quantity 
of  tone  is  prodnced.  The  Sohalzes  carried  the 
same  principles  into  their  wooden  flute  pipes. 
Their  oi^gans  are  also  celebrated  for  their  string- 
toned  stops,  but  the  drawback  in  all  of  these 
is  a  certain  slowness  in  their  speech.  Besides 
the  organs  at  Doncaster  and  Northampton, 
the  Schulzes  have  instruments  in  England  at 
churches  at  Armley  ;  Leeds  (in  conjunction 
with  Hill)  ;  Hindley,  Wigan  ;  Tyne  Dock,  South 
Shields  ;  Harrogate ;  also  at  Northampton  Town 
Hall ;  Charter-house  School,  Oodalming ;  Seaton 
Carew  (Thos.  Walker,  Esq.).  w.  b.  s. 

SCHUMANN,   Clara  Josephine,  wife  of 
Robert  Schumann,  one  of  the  greatest  pianoforte 
players  that  the  world  has  ever  heard,  was  the 
daughter  of  Fbiedrich  Wieck,  and  was  bom  at 
Leipzig,  Sept.  13,  1819.     She  began  the  PF.  at 
a  very  early  age  under  her  father's  guidance ; 
and  on  Oct.  20,  1828,  when  she  had  just  com- 
pleted her  ninth  year,  made  her  d^but  in  public 
at  a  concert  of  Frl.  Perthaler's,  where  she  played 
with  Emilie  Reinhold  in  Kalkbrenner's  4-hand 
variations  on  the  March  from  'Moise.'     The 
DoticeB  in  the  Leipzig  TageMatt  and  A,M,Z, 
show  that  she  was  already  an  object  of  much 
interest  in  the  town.     At  this  time  she  was 
accustomed  to  play  the  concertos  of  Mozart  and 
Hummel  with  orchestra  by  heart,  and  thus  early 
did  she  lay  the  foundation  of  that  sympathy 
with  the  orchestra  which  so  distinguished  her. 
On  Nov.    8,    1880,   when  just  over    eleven, 
she  ^ve  her  first  concert  at  the  Gewandhaus 
under  the  good   old  name   of    '  Musikalische 
Akademie' ;  and  her  performance  is  cited  by 
the  AM.Z.  as  a  proof  how  far  application  and 
good  teaching  can  bring  great  natural  gifts  at 
H>  early  an  age.     Her  solo  pieces  were  Rondo 
brillant  (op.    101),    Kalkbrenner ;    Variations 
btillantes  (op.  23),   Herz ;    and  variations  of 
her  own  on  an  original  theme ;    and  she  is 
praised  by  the  critic  just  referred  to  for  already 
possessing  the  brilliant  style  of  the  greatest 
players  of  the  day.     Her  next  appearance  was 
on  ilay  9,  1831,  in  pieces  by  Fixis  and  Herz 
—still  bravura  music.     In  the  same  year  a  set 
of  four  ))olonaises  by  her  was  published  by 
Hofmeister.     About  this  time  she  was  taken 
to  Weimar,  Gassel,  and  Frankfort,  and  in  the 
spring  of  1832   to  Paris,   where   she  gave  a 
concert  on  April  9  at  which  she  extemporised 
for  the  first  time  in  public.     Mendelssohn  was 
there  at  the  time,  but  was  suffering  from  an 
attack  of  cholera,  and  thus   the  meeting  of 
these  two  great  artists — destined  to  become 
such  great  friends — was  postponed.     On  July  9 . 
aud  July  31, 1832,  she  gives  two  other  *Musika- 
liache  Akodemien '  in  Leipzig,  at  which,  besides 
Pixis  and   Herz,  we  find  Chopin's  variations 
on  *  La  d  darem '  (op.  2),  a  piece  which,  only 
a  few  months  before,  Robert  Schumann  had 
welcomed  wth  his  first  and  one  of  his  most 


spirited  reviews.  At  the  former  of  these  two 
concerts  Frl.  Livia  Gerhardt  (Mme.  Frege)  sang 
in  public  for  the  first  time. 

On  Sept.  30, 1832,  Clara  Wieck  seems  to  have 
made  her  d^ut  at  the  Gewandhaus  Concerts 
in  Moscheles's  G  minor  Concerto,  and  from 
that  time  forward  her  name  is  regularly  found 
in  the  programmes  of  those  famous  Subscription 
Concerts,  as  well  as  of  others  held  in  the  same 
hall.  Hitherto,  it  will  be  observed,  her  music 
has  been  almost  exclusively  bravura ;  but  on 
Nov.  9,  1835,  she  played  with  Mendelssohn 
and  Rakemann  in  Bach's  triple  Concerto  in  D 
minor,  and  about  the  same  time  Moscheles 
mentions  her  performance  of  one  of  Schubert's 
Trios,  and  Beethoven's  Trio  in  Bl^.  On  Dec. 
15  she  played  Beethoven's  Choral  Fantasia. 
In  the  winter  of  1837  she  made  her  first  visit 
to  Vienna,  and  remained  during  the  winter 
playing  with  great  success,  and  receiving  the 
appointment  of  '  Kk.  Kammer-virtuosin.' 

Schumann  had  been  on  a  very  intimate  foot- 
ing in  the  Wiecks'  house  for  some  years,  but  it 
was  not  till  the  end  of  1835  that  his  attach- 
ment to  Clara  was  openly  avowed,  and  it  was 
not  till  Sept  12, 1840  (the  eve  of  her  birthday), 
after  a  series  of  delays  and  difiiculties  which 
are  sufficiently  touched  upon  in  the  article  on 
Robert  Schumann,  that  they  were  married. 
For  eighteen  months  after  this  event  Mme. 
Schumann  remained  in  Leipzig.  We  find  her 
name  in  the  Gewandhaus  programmes  attached 
to  the  great  masterpieces,  but  occasionally  play- 
ing more  modem  music,  as  on  Dec.  6, 1 841,  when 
she  twice  played  with  Liszt  in  a  piece  of  his  for 
two  pianos.  In  the  early  part  of  1842  she  and 
her  husband  made  a  tour  to  Hamburg,  which 
she  continued  alone  as  far  as  Copenhagen. 
Early  in  1844  they  went  together  to  St.  Peters- 
burg, and  at  the  end  of  the  year  Schumann's 
health  made  it  necessary  to  leave  Leipzig,  and 
remove  to  Dresden,  where  they  resided  tiU 
1850.  During  all  this  time  Mme.  Schumann's 
life  was  bound  up  with  her  husband's,  and 
they  were  separated  only  by  the  exigencies  of 
her  profession.  She  devoted  herself  not  only 
to  his  society,  but  to  the  bringing  out  of  his 
music,  much  of  which — such  as  the  PF.  Con- 
certo, the  Quintet,  Quartet,  and  Trios,  etc. — 
owed  its  first  reputation  to  her.  In  1846  she 
met  Jenny  Lind  for  the  first  time  at  Leipzig, 
and  in  the  winter  of  the  same  year  they  met 
again  at  Vienna,  when  the  two  great  artists 
appeared  together  at  a  concert  in  December. 
England,  though  at  one  time  in  view,  was 
reserved  to  a  later  day.  At  Paris  she  never 
played  after  the  early  visit  already  spoken  of. 
The  trials  which  this  faithful  wife  must  have 
undergone  during  the  latter  part  of  her  husband's 
life,  from  his  first  attempt  at  self-destruction 
to  his  death,  July  19,  1866,  need  only  be 
alluded  to  here.  It  was  but  shortly  before 
the  fatal  crisis  that  she  made  her  first  visit  to 


344 


SCHUMANN 


England,  playing  at  the  Philharmonic  on  April 
14  and  28,  at  the  Musical  Union  on  four 
separate  occasions,  and  elsewhere,  her  last  appear- 
ance being  on  June  24.  On  June  1 7  she  gave  an 
afternoon  *  Recital '  at  the  Hanover  Square  rooms, 
the  programme  of  which  is  worth  preserving. 
1.  Beethoven,  Variations  in  Eb  on  Ilieme  from 
the  Eroica ;  2.  Sterndale  Bennett,  Two  Diver- 
sions  (op.  17),  Suite  de  pieces  (op.  24,  No.  1)  ; 
8.  Clara  Schumann,  Variations  on  theme  from 
Schumann's  *  Bunte  Bliittcr '  ;  4.  Brahms, 
Sarabande  and  Gavotte  in  the  style  of  Bach  ; 
6.  Scarlatti,  Piece  in  A  major ;  6.  R.  Schumann's 
Camaval  (omitting  Eusebius,  Florestan,  Coquette, 
Replique,  Estrella,  and  Aveu).  She  returned 
from  London  to  Bonn  just  in  time  to  receive 
her  husband's  last  breath  (July  29,  1856). 

After  this  event  she  and  her  family  resided 
for  some  years  in  Berlin  with  her  mother,  who 
had  separated  from  Wieck  and  had  married  a 
musician  named  Bargiel ;  and  in  1863  she  settled 
at  Baden-Baden,  in  the  Lichtenthal,  which  then 
became  her  usual  headquarters  till  1874. 

Her  reception  in  this  conservative  country 
was  hardly  such  as  to  encourage  her  to  repeat 
her  visit ;  she  appeared  again  at  the  Philhar- 
monic on  June  29,  1857,  and  on  June  27,  1859. 
In  a  few  years  the  appreciation  of  Schumann's 
music  had  greatly  increased  on  this  side  the 
Channel ;  and  the  anxiety  of  amateurs  to  hear  j 
an  artist  whose  fame  on  the  continent  was  I 
so  great,  became  so  loudly  expressed,  that  { 
Mme.  Schumann  was  induced  to  make  another  < 
visit.  She  played  at  the  Philharmonic,  May  29, 
1865,  Musical  Union,  April  18,  25,  and  June  6, 
etc.  etc.  In  1867  she  returned  again,  and 
after  this  her  visit  became  an  annual  one  up  to 
1882,  interrupted  only  in  1878,  1879,  1880, 
when  health  and  other  circumstances  did  not 
permit  her  to  travel.  She  came  again  in  1885, 
1886,  1887,  and  1888.  In  1866  she  again 
visited  Austria,  and  gave  six  concerts  at  Vienna ; 
and  any  coldness  that  the  Viennese  may  have 
previously  shown  towards  her  husband's  com- 
positions was  then  amply  atoned  for. 

In  1878  she  accepted  the  post  of  principal 
teacher  of  the  pianoforte  in  the  Conservatoire 
founded  by  Dr.  Hoch  at  Frankfort,  where  she 
lived  and  worked  with  great  success  until  the 
end  of  her  life.  She  died  there.  May  20, 
1896. 

This  is  not  the  place  or  the  time  to  speak  of 
the  charm  of  Madame  Schumann's  personality, 
of  the  atmosphere  of  noble  and  earnest  simplicity 
which  surrounded  her  in  private  life  no  less 
than  in  her  public  performance.  Those  who 
had  the  privilege  of  her  acquaintance  do  not 
need  such  description,  and  for  those  who  had 
not  it  is  unnecessary  to  make  the  attempt. 
Slie  WM  deeply  and  widely  beloved,  and  at  a 
time  when  there  appeared  to  be  a  prospect  of 
her  being  compelled  by  ill  health  to  abandon 
her  public  appearances,  the  esteem  and  affection 


of  her  numerous  friends  took  the  practical  form 
of  a  subscription,  and  a  considerable  sam  of 
money  was  raised  in  Germany  and  England  for 
her  use. 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Franklin  Taylor  for 
the  following  characterisation  of  Mme.  Schu- 
mann's style  and  works. 

As  an  artist,  Mme.  Schumann's  place  was 
indubitably  in  the  very  first  rank,  indeed  she 
may  perhaps  be  considered  to  stand  higher 
than   any  of   her  contemporaries,   if  not   a^ 
regards  the  possession  of  natural  or  acquired 
gifts,  yet  in  the  use  she  made  of  them.      Her 
playing  was  characterised  by  an  entire  absence 
of  personal  display,  a  keen  perception  of  the 
composer's  meaning,  and  an  unfailing  power  of 
setting  it  forth  in  perfectly  intelligible  form. 
These  qualities  would  lead  one  to  pronounce 
her  one  of  the  most  intellectual  of  players, 
were  it  not  that  that  term  has  come  to  imply 
a  certain  coldness  or  want  of  feeling,  which  was 
never  perceived  in  her  playing.     But  just  such 
a  use  of  the  intellectual  powers  as  serves  the 
purposes  of  true  art,  ensuring  perfect  accuracy 
in  all  respects,  no  liberties  being  taken  with 
the  text,   even  when   playing  from    memory, 
and  above  all  securing  an  interpretation  of  the 
composer's  work  which  is  at  once  intelligible  to 
the  listener — this  certainly  formed  an  essential 
element  of  her  playing,  and  it  is  worth  while 
insisting  on  this,  since  the  absence  of  that 
strict   accuracy  and   perspicuity  is   too   often 
mistaken  for  evidence  of  deep  emotional  inten- 
tion.   With  all  this,  however,  Mme.  Schumann's 
playing  evinced  great  warmth  of  feeling,  and  a 
true  poet's  appreciation  of  absolute  l)eauty,  so 
that  nothing  ever  sounded  harsh  or  ugly  in  her 
hands  ;  indeed  it  may  fairly  be  said  that  after 
hearing  her  play  a  fine  work  (she  never  played 
what  is  not  good),  one  always  became  aware 
that  it  contained  l)cauties  undiscovered  before. 
This  was,  no  doubt,  partly  due  to  the  peculiarly 
beautiful   quality  of  the  tone  she   produced, 
which    was    rich   and    vigorous    without    the 
slightest  harshness,  and  was  obtained,  even  in 
the   loudest    passages,    by   pressure  with   tlie 
fingers   rather  than   by  percussion.      Indeed, 
her  playing  was  particularly  free  from  violent 
movement  of  any  kind  ;  in  passages,  the  fingers 
were  kept  close  to  the  keys  and  squeezed  instead 
of  striking  them,  while  chords  were  grasped 
from  the  wrist  rather  than  struck  from  tlie 
elbow.     She  founded  her  technique  upon  the 
principle  laid  down  by  her  father,  F.  Wiet'k, 
who  was  also  her  instructor,  that  *the  touch 
(i.e.  the  blow  of  the  finger  upon  the  key)  should 
never  be  audible,  but  only  the  musical  sound,' 
an  axiom  the  truth  of  which  there  is  some 
danger  of  overlooking,  in   the   endeavour  to 
compass  the  extreme  difficulties  of  certain  kinds 
of  modem  pianoforte  music. 

Mme.  Schumann's  repertoire  was  very  laige. 


SCHUMANN 


345 


extending  from  Scarlatti  and  Bach  to  Mendels- 
sohn, Chopin,  and  Brahms,  and  it  would  be 
difficult  to  say  that  she  excelled  in  her  render- 
ing of  any  one  composer's  works  rather  than 
another's,  unless  it  be  in  her  interpretation  of 
ht»r  husband's  music.  And  even  here,  if  she 
was  pronounced  by  general  opinion  to  be 
greatest  in  her  playing  of  Schumann,  it  is 
probably  because  it  was  to  her  inimitable 
l>erformanoe8  that  we  owe,  in  this  country  at 
least,  the  appreciation  and  love  of  his  music 
now  happily  become  universal,  and  thus  the 
player  shared  in  the  acknowledgment  she  won 
for  the  composer. 

Mme.  Schumann's  compositions,  though  not 
very  numerous,  evince  that  earnestness  of  pur- 
pose which  distinguished  her  work  in  general. 
Eren  her  earliest  essays,  which  are  short  piano- 
forte-pieces written  for  the  most  part  in  dance- 
form,   are    redeemed   from    any    approach   to 
triYiality  by  their  interesting  rhythms,  and  in 
particular  by  the  freshness  of  their  modulations, 
the  latter  being  indeed  in  some  cases  original 
even  to  abruptness.    Their  general  characteristic 
Ls  that  of  delicacy   rather   than  force,   their 
freqnent  tiaeeato  passages  and  the  many  skip- 
ping grace-notes  which  are  constantly  met  with 
refiuiring  for  their  performance  a  touch  of  the 
•Uintiest  lightness ;   although  qualities  of  an 
op^xHite  kind  are  occasionally  shoi^ii,  as  in  the 
•Souvenir  de  Vienne,'  op.  9,  which  is  a  set  of 
^'BriAtion8  in  bravura  style  on  Haydn's  Austrian 
Hjnnn.     Among  her  more  serious  compositions 
of  later  date  are  a  Trio  in  G  minor  for  piano- 
forte, violin  and  violoncello,  op.  17,  which  is 
thoroughly  musicianlike  and  interesting,  three 
charming  Cadenzas  to  Beethoven's  Concertos, 
o]>p.  37  and  58,  and  a  set  of  three  Preludes  and 
Fngnes,  op.    16,   which  deserve  mention  not 
'^Dly  on  account  of  their  excellent  construction, 
bat  as  forming  a  most  valuable  study  in  legaio 
part-playing.     There  is  also  a  Piano  Concerto, 
op.  7,  dedicated  to  Spohr,  of  which  the  passages 
(though  not  the  modulations)  remind  one  of 
Hummel ;  but  it  is  a  short  work  and  not  well 
balanced,  the  first  movement  being  reduced  to 
a  single  solo,  which  ends  on  the  dominant,  and 
leads  at  once  to  the  Andante. 

In  the  later  works,  as  might  naturally  be 
expected,  there  are  many  movements  which 
bear  traces  of  the  influence  of  Schumann's 
music  both  in  harmony  and  rhythm,  but  this 
influence,  which  first  seems  perceptible  in  the 
'Soirees  Musicales,'  opp.  5,  6,  is  afterwards  less 
noticeable  in  the  pianoforte  works  than  in  the 
^ngB,  many  of  which  are  of  great  beauty,  and 
some  of  which  (see  op.  12)  were  incorporated 
into  collections  by  Schumann.  Her  *■  Liebst  du 
urn  Schonheit '  is  one  of  the  most  expressive 
^ngs  in  existence.  Schumann  himself  has 
made  use  of  themes  by  Mme.  Schumann  in 
«^veral  instances,  namely  in  his  Impromptus,  op. 
5  (on  the  theme  of  her  Variations  op.  3,  which 


are  dedicated  to  him),  in  the  Andantino  of  his 
Sonata  in  F  minor  op.  14,  and  (as  a  'motto') 
in  the  'Davidsbiindlertanze,'  op.  6. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  Mme.  Schumann's 
compositions : — 


Op. 

1.  QiMtra  Polonaises. 

2.  eaprtoes  eii  foniie  de  Valse. 

3.  Bomanoe  varlde. 
Valsea  BoinanUaoes. 


0,6.  Solr^w  Muslcaifls,  10  Pitees '  19.  (T) 


lOp. 

'  IS.  Fonr  pMcea  fngitires. 
'  la.  Three  preludes  and  fugues. 
;17.  Trio.    PP.    and    Strings.    O 
minor. 


caraot^ristiques. 


119.  (?) 


7.  Concerto   lor    pUuoforte   In  20.  Variations  on  a  theme  by 
A  minor.  Robert  Schumann. ^ 

a  Variations    de    Concert.    In  121.  Three  romanoes. 

C,  on  the  Cavatina  in  'U|23L  Three  ronjances  for  PP.  and 


*Jn. 


▼iolin. 
23.  6  Lleder  from  Bollet's  ' 
cunde.' 

'  Liebooauber.'  Ued  by  Oelbel. 

Andante  and  AIIcbto,  PP.  solo. 

CadeniMB  to  Beethoven's  Con- 
certos in  C  minor  and  O. 
and  to  MoKirt's  iu  O  minor. 


Pint*.'  . 

9.  Souvenir  de  Vieune  in  fh, 
Imprompta. 

10.  Scheno.  D  minor. 

11.  3  Romanoes  (Mecfaetti). 

12.  3  Songs  in  R.  Schumann's  op. 

37  (Nos.  2.  4.  11). 

13.  6  Ueder. 

14.  2nd  Scherao,  in  C  minor. 

[A  detailed  biography  is  in  course  of  publica- 
tion. It  is  by  Berthold  Litzmann,  and  two 
volumes  have  appeared  (1902  and  1906).]      o. 

SCHUMANN,  Georg  Alfred,  born  at 
Konigstein  on  the  Elbe,  Oct.  25,  1866,  was 
taught  the  violin  by  his  father,  the  town 
musical  director  there,  and  the  organ  by  his 
grandfather,  with  such  good  results  that  at 
nine  years  old  he  played  in  the  orchestra,  and 
at  twelve  did  the  organist's  duty.  At  fifteen 
he  played  the  piano  in  public,  and  after  learning 
from  some  Dresden  masters,  he  went  to  the 
Leipzig  Conservatorium,  remaining  there  from 
1881  to  1888.  In  1891-96  he  was  conductor 
of  a  choral  society  at  Danzig,  and  from  1896 
to  1899  director  of  the  Philharmonic  orchestra 
and  choir  in  Bremen.  In  1 900  he  was  appointed 
royal  Professor,  and  made  head  of  the  Berlin 
Singakademie.  His  compositions,  though  not 
very  numerous  as  yet,  are  in  all  the  larger 
forms  excepting  opera.  His  opus  3  is  a  choral 
work,  '  Amor  und  Psyche '  ;  a  symphony  in  B 
minor  won  a  prize,  but  has  apparently  not 
been  published ;  his  first  published  work  for 
orchestra  is  a  suite  *  Zur  Kamevalszeit,'  op.  22. 
Op.  24  is  a  set  of  Symphonic  Variations  on 
*Wer  nur  den  lieben  Gott  lasst  walten,'  for 
organ  and  orchestra,  and  op.  30,  *  Variationen 
imd  Doppelfuge  iiber  ein  lustiges  Theina  fiir 
grosses  Orchester,'  shows  much  humour  and 
technical  skill ;  a  serenade,  op.  34,  and  an  over- 
ture, *  Liebesfriihling,'  are  among  the  orchestral 
works  which  have  reached  their  climax  in  a 
symphony  in  F  minor,  op.  42.  Two  choral 
works,  the  *Totenklage,'op.  33,  and  *Sohnsucht,' 
op.  40,  deserve  mention,  and  his  chamber  music 
includes  variations  and  fugue  on  a  theme  of 
Beethoven  for  two  pianos,  a  quintet  for  piano 
and  strings  in  E  minor,  op.  18,  a  violoncello 
sonata,  op.  19,  two  trios,  in  F  and  G,  two 
violin  sonatas  in  E  minor  and  C  sharp  minor, 
and  a  pianoforte  quartet  for  piano  and  strings 
in  F  minor,  op.  29.  Schumann  belongs  to  the 
more  conservative  of  the  t\vo  great  parties  in 

>  From  'Bunt«  BUitter,'  op.  99,  No.  4;  also  varied  by  Brahms, 
op.  9. 


346 


1810— 


SCHUMANN 


—1828 


modem  German  music,  and  his  soand  musician- 
ship  the  originality  of  his  ideas,  and  the  skill 
of  their  treatment,  mark  him  as  a  worthy 
member  of  the  party  which  most  strenuously 
resists  the  attacks  of  the  ultra-modern  writers. 
(Paul  Hielscher,  in  Moiwgraphen  rtwdemer 
Musiker  ;    Riemann's  LexUcon.)  M. 

SCHUMANN,  Robert  Alexander,  born 
June  8,  1810,  at  Zwickau  in  Saxony,  was  the 
youngest  son  of  Friedrich  August  Gottlob  Schu- 
mann (bom  1778),  a  bookseller,  whose  father 
was  a  clergyman  in  Saxony ;  the  composer's 
mother,  Johanna  Christiana  (born  1771),  was 
the  daughter  of  Herr  Schnabel,  Rathschirurgus 
(surgeon  to  the  town  council)  at  Zeitz.  Schu- 
mann cannot  have  received  any  incitement 
towards  music  from  his  pai-ents ;  his  father, 
however,  took  a  lively  interest  in  the  belles  leUreSy 
and  was  himself  known  as  an  author.  He 
promoted  his  son's  leanings  towards  art  in  every 
possible  way,  with  which  however  his  mother 
seems  to  have  had  no  sympathy.  In  the  small 
provincial  town  where  Schumann  spent  the  first 
eighteen  yeai*s  of  his  life  there  was  no  musician 
capable  of  helping  him  beyond  the  mere  rudi- 
ments of  the  art.  There  was  a  talented  town- 
musician,  who  for  several  decades  was  the  best 
trumpeter  in  the  district,^  but,  as  w^as  commonly 
the  case,  he  practised  his  art  simply  as  a 
trade.  The  organist  of  the  Marienkirche,  J.  G. 
Kutttzsch,  Schumann's  first  pianoforte  teacher, 
after  a  few  years  declared  that  his  pupil  was 
able  to  progress  alone,  and  that  his  instruc- 
tion might  cease.  He  was  so  impressed  with 
the  boy's  talent,  that  when  Schumann  subse- 
quently resolved  to  devote  himself  wholly  to 
art,  Kuntzsch  prophesied  that  he  would  attain 
to  fame  and  immortality,  and  that  in  him 
the  world  would  possess  one  of  its  greatest 
musicians.  Some  twenty  years  later,  in  1845, 
Schumann  dedicated  to  him  his  Studies  for  the 
Pedal-Piano,  op.  56.     [See  vol.  ii.  p.  612.] 

His  gift  for  music  showed  itself  early.  He 
began  to  compose,  as  he  teUs  us  himself,  before 
he  was  seven.  According  to  this  he  must  have 
begun  to  play  the  piano,  at  latest,  in  his  sixth 
year.  When  he  was  about  eleven,  he  accom- 
panied at  a  performance  of  Friedrich  Schneider's 
*  Weltgericht,'  conducted  by  Kuntzsch,  standing 
up  at  the  piano  to  do  it.  At  home,  with  the 
aid  of  some  young  musical  companions,  he  got 
up  performances  of  vocal  and  instrumental 
music  which  he  arranged  to  suit  their  humble 
powers.  In  more  extended  circles,  too,  he 
appeared  as  a  pianoforte-player,  and  is  said  to 
have  had  a  wonderful  gift  for  extempore  play- 
ing. His  father  took  steps  to  procure  for  him 
the  tuition  of  C.  M.  von  Weber,  who  had 
shortly  before  (1817)  been  appointed  Capell- 
meister  in  Dresden.  Weber  declared  himself 
ready  to  undertake  the  guidance  of  the  young 
genius,  but  the  scheme  fell  through  for  reasons 

>  Schumann's  OaamftufUt  Schrifttn,  11.  128  (lit  ad.). 


unknown.  From  that  time  Schumann  remained 
at  Zwickau,  where  circumstances  were  not 
favourable  to  musical  progress ;  he  was  left  to 
his  own  instraction,  and  every  inducement  to 
further  progress  must  have  come  from  himself 
alone.  Under  these  circumstances,  a  journey 
made  when  he  was  nine  years  old  to  Carlsbad, 
where  he  first  heard  a  great  pianoforte-player — 
Ignaz  Moscheles — must  have  been  an  event 
never  to  be  forgotten ;  and  indeed  during  bis 
whole  life  he  retained  a  predilection  for  certain 
of  Moscheles's  works,  and  a  reverence  for  bia 
person.  The  influence  of  the  pianoforte  tech- 
nique of  Moscheles  on  him  appears  very  distinctly 
in  the  variations  published  as  op.  1. 

At  the  age  of  ten  he  entered  the  fourth  class 
at  the  Gymnasium  (or  Academy)  at  Zwickan, 
and  remained  there  till  Easter,  1828.  He  had 
then  risen  to  the  first  class,  and  left  with  a 
certificate  of  qualification  for  the  University*. 
During  this  period  his  devotion  to  music  seems 
to  have  been  for  a  time  rather  less  eager,  in 
consequence  of  the  interference  of  his  school- 
work  and  of  other  tastes.  Now,  at  the  close 
of  his  boyhood,  a  strong  interest  in  poetry, 
which  had  been  previously  observed  in  him, 
but  which  had  meanwhile  been  merged  in 
his  taste  for  music,  revived  with  increased 
strength ;  he  rummaged  through  his  father  s 
book-shop,  which  favoured  this  tendency,  in 
search  of  works  on  the  art  of  poetry  ;  poetical 
attempts  of  his  own  were  more  frequent,  and 
at  the  age  of  fourteen  Robert  had  already 
contributed  some  literary  efibrts  to  a  work 
brought  out  by  his  father  and  called  Bilder- 
gcUlerie  der  heruhmUsten,  Mensehen  aller  Volker 
und  Zeiten,  That  he  had  a  gift  for  poetry  is 
evident  from  two  Epithalamia  given  by  Wasie- 
lewski  {BiographU,  8rd  ed.,  Bonn,  1880,  p. 
305).  In  1827  he  set  a  number  of  his  own 
poems  to  music,  and  it  is  worthy  of  note  that 
it  was  not  by  the  classical  works  of  Goethe  and 
Schiller  that  Schumann  was  most  strongly 
attracted.  His  favourite  writers  were  Schulze, 
author  of  '  Die  bezauberte  Rose ' ;  the  unhappy 
Franz  von  Sonnenberg  ;  Byron,  and,  above  all» 
Jean  Paul,  with  whose  works  he  made  acquaint- 
ance in  his  seventeenth  year  (at  the  same  time 
as  with  the  compositions  of  Franz  Schubert). 
These  poets  represent  the  cycle  of  vice's, 
sentiments,  and  feelings,  under  whose  spell 
Schumann's  poetical  taste,  strictly  speaking, 
remained  throughout  his  life.  And  in  no 
musician  has  the  influence  of  his  poetical 
tastes  on  his  music  been  deeper  than  in  him. 

On  March  29,  1828,  Schumann  matriculated 
at  the  University  of  Leipzig  as  Studiosu»  Juris. 
It  would  have  been  more  in  accordance  with 
his  inclinations  to  have  devoted  himself  at 
once  wholly  to  art,  and  his  father  would  no 
doubt  have  consented  to  his  so  doing ;  but  he 
had  lost  his  father  in  1826,  and  his  mother 
would  not  hear  of  an  artist's  career.     Her  son 


1828— 


SCHUMANN 


—1829 


347 


dutifolly  submitted,  although  he  was  decidedly 
averse  to  the  study  of  jurisprudence.  Before 
mctnally  joining  the  university  he  took  a  short 
pleasure  trip  into  South  Germany,  in  April  1828. 
He  had  made  acquaintance  in  Leipzig  with  a 
lieliow- student  named  Gisbert  Rosen ;  and  a 
conimon  enthusiasm  for  Jean  Paul  soon  led  to 
a  devoted  and  sympathetic  friendship.  Bosen 
went  to  study  at  Heidelberg,  and  the  first  object 
of  Schumann's  journey  was  to  accompany  him 
on  his  way.  In  Munich  he  made  the  acquaint-, 
ance  of  Heine,  in  whose  house  he  spent  several 
hours.  On  his  return  journey  he  stopped  at 
Bayreuth  to  visit  Jean  Paul's  widow,  and 
received  from  her  a  portrait  of  her  husband. 

Daring  the  first  few  months  of  his  university 
life,  Schumann  was  in  a  gloomy  frame  of  mind. 
A  students'  club  to  which  he  belonged  for  a 
time,  struck  him  as  coarse  and  shallow,  and  he 
could  not  make  up  his  mind  to  begin  the  course 
of  study  he  had  selected.  A  large  part  of  the 
first  half-year  had  passed  by  and  still — as  he 
writes  to  his  friend — he  had  been  to  no  college, 
bat  'had  worked  exclusively  in  private,  that 
is  to  say,  had  played  the  piano  and  written  a 
few  letters  and  Jean  Pauliads.' 

In  this  voluntary  inactivity  and  solitude 
the  study  of  Jean  Paul  must  certainly  have 
had  a  special  charm  for  him.  Tliat  writer, 
un.^(arpaased  in  depicting  the  tender  emotions, 
with  his  dazzling  and  even  extravagant  play 
of  digressive  &ncy,  his  excess  of  feeling  over 
dramatic  power,  his  incessant  alternations  be- 
tween tears  and  laughter,  has  always  been 
the  idol  of  sentimental  women  and  ecstatic 
youths.  *  If  everybody  read  Jean  Paul,*  Schu- 
mann writes  to  Rosen,  '  they  would  be  better- 
natured,  but  they  would  be  unhappier  ;  he  has 
often  brought  me  to  the  verge  of  desperation, 
still  the  rainbow  of  peace  bends  serenely  above 
all  the  tears,  and  the  soul  is  wonderfully  lifted 
up  and  tenderly  glorified.'  Even  in  his  latest 
years  Schumann  would  become  violently  angry  if 
any  one  ventured  to  doubt  or  criticise  Jean  Paul's 
j^reatneas  as  an  imaginative  writer,  and  the 
close  affinity  of  their  natures  is  unmistakable. 
Schumann  himself  tells  us  how  once,  as  a  child, 
at  midnight,  when  all  the  household  were 
asleep,  he  had  in  a  dream  and  with  his  eyes 
closed,  stolen  down  to  the  old  piano,  and 
played  a  series  of  chords,  weeping  bitterly  the 
while.  So  early  did  he  betray  that  tendency 
to  overstrung  emotion  which  found  its  most 
powerful  nourishment  in  Jean  Paul's  writings. 

Music,  however,  is  a  social  art,  and  it  soon 
brought  him  back  again  to  human  life.  In  the 
house  of  Professor  Carus^  he  made  several 
interesting  acquaintances,  especially  that  of 
MarKhner,  who  was  then  living  in  Leipzig,  and 
had  brought  out  his  *Vampyr*  there  in  the 
s]>nngof  1828.     His  first  meeting  with  Wieck, 

■  '  Pnttentfhmt  Cknu,  tod  darva  inUr  doeto».'    (B4>r11oz,   Voj/ayo 


the  father  of  his  future  wife,  took  place  in  the 
same  year;  and  Schumann  took  several  pianoforte 
lessons  from  him.  Several  music-loving  students 
met  together  there,  and  all  kinds  of  chamber- 
music  were  practised.  Tliey  devoted  themselves 
with  especial  ardour  to  the  works  of  Schubert, 
whose  death,  on  Nov.  19,  1828,  was  deeply  felt 
by  Schunumn.  Impelled  by  Schubert's  example, 
he  wrote  at  this  time  eight  Polonaises  for  four 
hands ;  also  a  Quartet  for  piano  and  strings, 
and  a  number  of  songs  to  Byron's  words  ;  all  of 
which  remain  unpublished.  Besides  these  occu- 
pations, he  made  a  moi*e  intimate  acquaintance 
with  the  clavier  works  of  Sebastian  Bach.  It 
is  almost  self-evident  that  what  chiefly  fascinated 
Schumann  in  Bach's  compositions  was  tlie 
mysterious  depth  of  sentiment  revealed  in  them. 
Were  it  not  so,  it  would  be  impossible  to  con- 
ceive of  Bach  in  connection  with  the  chaotic  Jean 
Paul ;  and  yet  Schumann  himself  says  that  in 
early  life  Bach  and  Jean  Paul  had  exercised  the 
most  powerful  influence  upon  him.  Considering 
the  way  in  which  his  musical  education  had 
been  left  to  itself,  the  fact  of  his  so  thoroughly 
appreciating  the  wealth  and  fulness  of  life  in 
Bsch's  compositions  at  a  time  when  Bach  was 
looked  upon  only  as  a  great  contrapuntist,  is 
clear  evidence  of  the  greatness  of  his  own  genius, 
which  indeed  had  some  afiinity  to  that  of  Bach. 
The  ingenuity  of  outward  fonn  in  Bach's  works 
was  neither  strange  nor  unintelligible  to  him. 
For  although  Schumann  had  hitherto  had  no 
instructor  in  composition,  it  need  scarcely  be  said 
that  he  had  long  ago  made  himself  familiar  with 
the  most  essential  i)arts  of  the  composer's  art, 
and  that  constant  practice  in  composition  must 
have  given  him  much  knowledge  and  skill  in 
this  branch  of  his  art. 

At  Easter,  1829,  Schumann  followed  his  friend 
Rosen  to  the  university  of  Heidelberg.  The 
young  jurists  were  perhaps  tempted  thither  by 
the  lectures  of  the  famous  teacher,  A.  F.  J. 
Thibaut ;  but  it  is  evident  that  other  things 
contributed  to  form  Schumann's  resolution  :  the 
situation  of  the  town, — a  perfect  Paradise, — the 
gaiety  of  the  people,  and  the  nearness  of  Switzer- 
land, Italy,  and  France.  A  delightful  prospect 
promised  to  open  to  him  there  :  *  That  will  be 
life  indeed  1 '  he  writes  to  his  friend  ;  '  at 
Michaelmas  we  will  go  to  Switzerland,  and  from 
thence  who  knows  where  ? '  On  his  journey  to 
Heidelberg  chance  threw  him  into  the  society 
of  Willibald  Alexis.  Alexis  had  trodden  the 
path  which  Schimiann  was  destined  to  follow, 
and  had  reached  art  by  way  of  the  law.  No 
doubt  this  added  to  Schumann's  interest  in  the 
acquaintance.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  even 
in  Heidelberg  Schumann  carried  on  his  legal 
studies  in  a  very  desultory  manner,  thougli 
Thibaut  himself  was  a  living  proof  that  that 
branch  of  learning  could  co- exist  with  a  true 
love  and  comprehension  of  music.  Only  a  few 
years  before  (in  1826)  Thibaut  had  published 


348 


1829- 


SCHUMANN 


—1830 


his  little  book,  Ueber  RdfiheU  der  Tonkwust,  a 
work  which  at  that  time  essentially  contributed 
to  alter  the  direction  of  musical  taste  in 
Germany.  Just  as  in  his  volume  Thibaut  attacks 
the  degenerate  state  of  church  music,  Schumann, 
at  a  later  date,  was  destined  to  take  up  arms^ 
in  word  and  deed,  against  the  flat  insipidity  of 
concert  and  chamber  music.  Nevertheless  the 
two  men  never  became  really  intimate  ;  in  one, 
no  doubt,  the  doctor  too  greatly  preponderated, 
and  in  the  other  the  artist.  Thibaut  himself 
subsequently  advised  Schumann  to  abandon  the 
law,  and  devote  himself  entirely  to  music. 

Indeed,  if  Schumann  was  industrious  in  any- 
thing at  Heidelberg  it  was  in  pianoforte-playing. 
After  practising  for  seven  hours  in  the  day,  he 
would  invite  a  friend  to  come  in  the  evening 
and  play  with  him,  adding  that  he  felt  in  a 
particularly  happy  vein  that  day  ;  and  even 
during  an  excursion  with  friends  he  would  take 
a  dumb  keyboard  with  him  in  the  carriage.  By 
diligent  use  of  the  instruction  he  had  received 
from  Wieck  in  Leipzig,  he  brought  himself  to 
high  perfection  as  an  executant ;  and  at  the 
same  time  increased  his  skill  in  improvisation. 
One  of  his  musical  associates  at  this  time  used 
afterwards  to  say  that  from  the  playing  of  no 
other  artist,  however  great,  had  he  ever  ex- 
perienced such  ineffaceable  musical  impressions  ; 
the  ideas  seem  to  pour  into  the  player's  mind 
in  an  inexhaustible  flow,  and  their  profound 
originality  and  poetic  charm  already  clearly 
foreshadowed  the  main  features  of  his  musical 
individuality.  Schumann  appeared  only  once  in 
public,  at  a  concert  given  by  a  musical  society 
at  Heidelberg,  where  he  played  Moscheles's 
variations  on  the  '  Alexandermarsch '  with  great 
success.  He  received  many  requests  to  play 
again,  but  refused  them  all,  probably,  as  a 
student,  finding  it  not  expedient. 

It  will  no  doubt  be  a  matter  of  surprise  that 
Schumann  could  have  justified  himself  in  thus 
spending  year  after  year  in  a  merely  nominal 
study  of  the  law,  while  in  fact  wholly  given  up 
to  his  favourite  pursuit.  A  certain  lack  of 
determination,  a  certain  shrinking  from  any- 
thing disagreeable,  betray  themselves  during 
these  years  as  his  general  characteristics,  and 
were  perhaps  an  integral  part  of  his  nature.  At 
the  same  time  his  conduct  is  to  a  certain  extent 
explicable,  by  the  general  conditions  of  German 
student -life.  Out  of  the  strict  discipline  of 
the  Gymnasium  the  student  steps  at  once  into 
the  unlimited  freedom  of  the  University.  It 
was  the  intoxicating  poetry  of  the  student  life 
which  Schumann  drank  in  deep  draughts.  Its 
coarseness  was  rep)ellent  to  his  refined  nature, 
and  his  innate  purity  and  nobility  guarded 
him  against  moral  degradation  ;  but  he  lived 
like  a  rover  rejoicing  in  this  bright  world  as  it 
lies  open  to  him,  worked  little,  spent  much,  got 
into  debt,  and  was  as  happy  as  a  fish  in  the 
water.     Besides  its  tender  and  rapturous  side, 


his  nature  had  a  vein  of  native  sharpness  and 
humour.  With  all  these  peculiarities  he  oould 
live  his  student's  life  to  the  full,  though  in  his 
own  apparently  quiet  and  unassertive  way. 
The  letters  in  which  he  discusses  money-matters 
with  his  guardian,  Herr  Rudel,  a  merchant  of 
Zwickau,  show  how  he  indulged  his  humorous 
mood  even  in  these  :  '  Dismal  things  I  have  to 
tell  you,  respected  Herr  Rudel,'  he  writes  on 
June  21,  1830;  'in  the  first  place,  that  I 
have  a  repeiUorium  which  costs  eighty  gulden 
every  half-year,  and  secondly,  that  witliin  a 
week  I  have  been  under  arrest  by  the  town  (don't 
be  shocked)  for  not  paying  thirty  gulden  of 
other  college  dues.'  And  on  another  occasion, 
when  tlie  money  he  had  asked  for  to  make  a 
journey  home  for  the  holidays  did  not  arrive : 
'  I  am  the  only  student  here,  and  wander  alone 
about  the  streets  and  woods,  forlorn  and  |)0or, 
like  a  beggar,  and  with  debts  into  the  bargain. 
Be  kind,  most  respected  Herr  Rudel,  and  only 
this  once  send  me  some  money — only  money — 
and  do  not  drive  me  to  seek  means  of  setting 
out  which  might  not  be  pleasant  to  you.'  The 
reasons  he  employs  to  prove  to  his  guardian 
that  he  ought  not  to  be  deprived  of  means  for  a 
journey  into  Italy  are  most  amusing :  *  At  any 
rate  I  shall  have  made  the  journey :  and  as  I 
muM.  make  it  once,  it  is  all  the  same  whetlier  I 
use  the  money  for  it  now  or  later.'  His  com- 
positions, too,  plainly  show  how  deeply  the 
poetical  aspect  of  student  life  had  aflected  him, 
and  had  left  its  permanent  mark  on  him. 
I  need  only  remind  the  reader  of  Kemer's 
*  Wanderlied '  (op.  35,  No.  3),  dedicated  to  an 
old  fellow-student  at  Heidelberg,  and  of  £icbcn- 
dorff"s  *  Friihlingsfahrt '  (op.  46,  No.  2).  Among 
German  songs  of  the  highest  class,  there  is  not 
one  in  which  the  effervescent  buoyancy  of  youth 
craving  for  distant  flights  has  found  such  lull 
expression,  at  once  so  thoroughly  German  and 
so  purely  ideal,  as  in  this  'Wanderlied,'  which 
indeed,  with  a  different  tune,  is  actually  one  of 
the  most  favourite  of  student  songs.  '  Friih- 
lingsfahrt' tells  of  two  young  comrades  who 
quit  home  for  the  first  time,  one  of  whom  soon 
finds  a  regular  subsistence  and  a  comfortable 
home,  while  the  other  pursues  glittering  visions, 
yields  to  the  thousand  temptations  of  the  world, 
and  finally  perishes  ;  it  is  a  portrait  of  a  German 
student  drawn  from  the  life,  and  the  way  in 
which  Schumann  has  treated  it  shows  that  he 
was  drawing  on  the  stores  of  his  own  experience. 
Several  journeys  also  served  to  infuse  into 
Schumann's  student  life  the  delight  of  free  and 
unrestrained  movement  In  August  1829  he 
went  for  a  pleasure  trip  to  North  Italy,  quite 
alone,  for  two  friends  who  had  intended  to  go 
failed  him.  But  perhaps  the  contemplative  an<l 
dreamy  youth  enjoyed  the  loveliness  of  tiie 
country  and  the  sympathetic  Italian  nature  only 
the  more  thoroughly  for  being  alone.*  Nor  were 
little  adventures  of  gallantry  wanting.     Frag- 


1830— 


SCHUMANN 


—1832 


349 


menu  of  a  diary  kept  at  this  time,  which  ara 
preserved  (Wasielewski,  p.  325),  reveal  to  us 
the  pleasant  sociableness  of  the  life  which  Schu- 
mann now  delighted  in.  The  Italian  music 
which  he  then  heard  could  indeed  do  little  to- 
wards his  improvement,  except  that  it  gave  him, 
for  the  first  time,  the  opportunity  of  hearing 
Paganini.  The  deep  impression  made  by  that 
remarkable  player  is  shown  by  Schumann's  visit 
to  Frankfort  (£aster,  1830)  with  several  friends 
to  hear  him  again,  and  by  his  arrangement  of 
his '  Caprices '  for  the  pianoforte  (opp.  3  and  10). 
Shortly  after  this  he  seems  to  have  heard  Ernst 
also  in  Frankfort.  In  the  summer  of  1830  he 
made  a  tour  to  Strasburg,  and  on  the  way  back 
to  Saxony  visited  his  inend  Rosen  at  Detmold. 

When  Schumann  entered  upon  his  third  year 
of  study,  he  made  a  serious  effort  to  devote 
himself  to  jurisprudence ;  he  took  what  was 
called  a  Repetitoriwrn^  that  is,  he  began  going 
over  again  with  considerable  difficulty,  and 
under  the  care  and  guidance  of  an  old  lawyer, 
what  he  had  neglected  during  two  years.  He 
also  endeavoured  to  reconcile  himself  to  the 
idea  of  practical  work  in  public  life  or  the 
government  service.  His  spirit  soared  up  to 
the  highest  goal,  and  at  times  he  may  have 
tlattered  his  fancy  with  dreams  of  having 
attained  it ;  but  he  must  have  been  convinced 
of  the  improbability  of  such  dreams  ever  coming 
true;  and  indeed  he  never  got  rid  of  his 
antipathy  to  the  law  as  a  profession,  even  in 
th«  whole  course  of  his  Bepetitorium.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  must  be  said,  that  if  he  was  ever 
to  be  a  musician,  it  was  becoming  high  time 
for  it,  since  he  was  now  twenty  years  old. 
Thus  every  consideration  urged  him  to  the 
point  Schumann  induced  his  mother,  who 
was  still  extremely  averse  to  the  calling  of  a 
musician,  to  put  the  decision  in  the  hands  of 
Friedrich  Wieck.  Wieck  did  not  conceal  from 
him  that  such  a  step  ought  only  to  be  taken 
after  the  most  thorough  self-examination,  but  if 
he  had  already  examined  himself,  then  Wieck 
could  only  advise  him  to  take  the  step.  Upon 
this  his  mother  yielded,  and  Robert  Schumann 
became  a  musician.  The  delight  and  freedom 
which  he  inwardly  felt  when  the  die  was  cast, 
most  have  shown  him  that  he  had  done  right. 
At  first  his  intention  was  only  to  make  himself 
a  great  pianoforte- player,  and  he  reckoned  that 
in  six  years  he  would  be  able  to  compete  with 
any  pianist.  But  he  still  felt  very  uncertain  as 
to  his  gift  as  a  composer  ;  the  words  which  he 
wrote  to  his  mother  on  July  30,  1880 — *Now 
and  then  I  discover  that  I  have  imagination, 
and  perhaps  a  turn  for  creating  things  myself 
—sound  curiously  wanting  in  confidence,  when 
we  remember  how  almost  exclusively  Schumann's 
artistic  greatness  was  to  find  expression  in  his 
compositions. 

He  quitted  Heidelberg  late  in  the  summer 
of  1830,  in  order  to  resume  his  studies  with 


Wieck  in  Leipzig.  He  was  resolved,  after 
having  wasted  two  years  and  a  half,  to  devote 
himself  to  his  new  calling  with  energetic  purpose 
and  manly  vigour.  And  faithfully  did  he  keep 
to  his  resolution.  The  plan  of  becoming  a  great 
pianist  had,  however,  to  be  given  up  after  a  year. 
Actuated  by  the  passionate  desire  to  achieve  a 
perfect  techiiiqiLe  as  speedily  as  possible,  Schu- 
mann devised  a  contrivance  by  which  the  greatest 
possible  dexterity  of  finger  was  to  be  attained 
in  the  shortest  time.  By  means  of  this  ingenious 
appliance  the  third  finger  was  di-awn  back 
and  kept  still,  while  tiie  other  fingers  had  to 
practise  exercises.  But  the  result  was  that  the 
tendons  of  the  third  finger  were  overstrained, 
the  finger  was  crippled,  and  for  some  time  the 
whole  right  hand  was  injured.  This  most  serious 
condition  was  alleviated  by  medical  treatment. 
Schumann  recovered  the  use  of  his  hand,  and 
could,  when  needful,  even  play  the  piano  ;  but 
the  third  finger  remained  useless,  so  that  he 
was  for  ever  precluded  from  the  career  of  a 
virtuoso.  Although  ex  press  evidence  is  wanting, 
we  may  assume  with  certainty  that  this  un- 
expected misfortune  made  a  deep  impression 
upon  him  ;  he  saw  himself  once  more  con- 
fronted with  the  question  whether  it  was  advis- 
able for  him  to  continue  in  the  calling  he  had 
chosen.  That  he  answered  it  in  the  affirmative 
shows  that  during  this  time  his  confidence  in 
his  own  creative  genius  had  wonderfully  in- 
creased. He  soon  reconciled  himself  to  the 
inevitable,  learned  to  appreciate  mechanical 
dexterity  at  its  true  value,  and  turned  his 
undivided  attention  to  composition.  He  con- 
tinued henceforth  in  the  most  friendly  rela- 
tions with  his  pianoforte-master,  Wieck  ;  indeed 
until  the  autumn  of  1832  he  lived  in  the  same 
house  with  him  (Grimmaische  Strasse,  No.  86), 
and  was  almost  one  of  the  family.  For  his 
instructor  in  composition,  however,  he  chose 
Heinrich  Dom,  at  that  time  conductor  of  the 
opera  in  Leipzig,  subsequently  Ca()ellmeister  at 
Riga,  Cologne,  and  Berlin,  who  lived  till  1892. 
Dom  was  a  clever  and  sterling  composer ;  he 
recognised  the  greatness  of  Schumann's  genius, 
and  devoted  himself  with  much  interest  to  his 
improvement.^  It  was  im^tossible  as  yet  to 
confine  Schumann  to  a  regular  course  of  com- 
position :  he  worked  very  diligently,  but  would 
take  up  now  one  point  of  the  art  of  composition 
and  now  another.  In  1836  he  writes  to  Dom 
at  Riga  that  he  often  regrets  having  learnt  in 
too  irregular  a  manner  at  this  time  ;  but  when 
he  adds  directly  afterwards  that,  notwithstand- 
ing this,  he  had  leamt  more  fromDom's  teaching 
than  Dom  would  believe,  we  may  take  this  last 
statement  as  troe.  Schumann  was  no  longer  a 
tyro  in  composition,  but  had  trae  musical  genius, 
and  his  spirit  was  already  matured.    Under  such 

1  Sehnmiura'tgFfttiitude  tohim  !s  thtia  expnswd :— "The  man  who 
flni  nave  a  hand  to  me  as  I  clinibod  upwarda.  and.  when  I  began  to 
doubt  mjaelf ,  dnw  tne  aloft  ao  that  I  should  see  Ima  of  the  common 
herd  of  mankiDd,  and  more  of  the  pure  air  of  art.' 


350 


1832— 


SCHUMANN 


—1834 


circumstances  he  was  justified  in  learning  in 
his  own  way. 

In  the  winter  of  1832-88,  he  lived  at 
Zwickau,  and  for  a  time  also  with  his  brothers 
at  Schneeberg.  Besides  a  pianoforte-concerto, 
which  still  remains  a  fragment,  he  was  working 
at  a  symphony  in  G  minor,  of  which  the  first 
movement  was  publicly  performed  in  the  course 
of  the  winter  both  at  Schneeberg  and  Zwickau. 
If  we  may  trust  the  evidence  of  the  Musikct- 
lisches  WoehmUaUy  Leipzig,  1875,  p.  180,  the 
whole  symphony  was  performed  at  Zwickau  in 
1835,  under  Schumann's  own  direction,  and  the 
last  movement  was  almost  a  failure. 

At  all  events  the  symphony  was  finished,  and 
Schumann  expected  it  to  be  a  great  success  ;  in 
this  he  must  have  been  disappointed,  for  it  has 
never  been  published.  The  first  performance  of 
the  first  movement  at  Zwickau  took  place  at  a 
concert  given  there  on  Nov.  18, 1882,  by  Wieok's 
daughter  Clara,  who  was  then  thirteen  years  of 
age.  Even  then  the  performances  of  this  gifted 
girl,  who  was  so  soon  to  take  her  place  as  the 
greatest  female  pianist  of  Germany,  were  as- 
tonishing, and  by  them,  as  Schumann  puts  it, 
<  Zwickau  was  fired  with  enthusiasm  for  the 
first  time  in  its  life.'  It  is  easily  conceivable 
that  Schumann  himself  was  enthusiastically 
delighted  with  Clara,  adorned  as  she  was  with 
the  twofold  charm  of  childlike  sweetness  and 
artistic  genius.  *  Think  of  perfection , '  he  writes 
to  a  friend  about  her  on  April  5,  1833,  'and 
I  will  agree  to  it.'  And  many  expressions  in 
his  letters  seem  even  to  betray  a  deeper  feeling, 
of  which  he  himself  did  not  become  fully  aware 
until  several  years  later. 

Schumann's  circumstances  allowed  him  to 
revisit  Leipzig  in  March  1883,  and  even  to  live 
there  for  a  time  without  any  definite  occupa- 
tion. He  was  not  exactly  well  off,  but  he  had 
enough  to  enable  him  to  live  as  a  single  man 
of  moderate  means.  The  poverty  from  which 
so  many  of  the  greatest  musicians  have 
suffered,  never  formed  part  of  Schumann's 
experience.  He  occupied  himself  with  studies 
in  composition  chiefly  in  the  contrapuntal  style, 
in  which  he  had  taken  the  liveliest  interest 
since  making  the  acquaintance  of  Bach's  works  ; 
besides  this  his  imagination,  asserting  itself 
more  and  more  strongly,  impelled  him  to  the 
creation  of  free  compositions.  From  this  year 
date  the  impromptus  for  piano  on  a  romance 
by  Clara  Wieck,  which  Schumann  dedicated  to 
her  father,  and  published  in  August  1833,  as 
op.  5.  In  June  he  wrote  the  first  and  third 
movements  of  the  G  minor  Sonata  (op.  22), 
and  at  the  same  time  began  the  Fft  minor  Sonata 
(op.  11)  and  completed  the  Toccata  (op.  7), 
which  had  been  begun  in  1829.  He  also 
arranged  a  second  set  of  Paganini's  violin  caprices 
for  the  piano  (op.  10),  having  made  a  first 
attempt  of  the  same  kind  (op.  3)  in  the  previous 
year.     Meanwhile  he  lived  a  quiet  and  almost 


monotonous  life.  Of  family  acquaintances  he 
had  few,  nor  did  he  seek  them.  He  found  a 
faithful  friend  in  Frau  Henriette  Voigt,  who 
was  as  excellent  a  pianist  as  she  was  noble  and 
sympathetic  in  soul.  She  was  a  pupil  of 
Ludwig  Berger,  of  Berlin,  and  died  young  in 
the  year  1839.  Schumann  was  wont  as  a  rule 
to  spend  his  evenings  with  a  small  number  of 
intimate  friends  in  a  restaurant.  These  gather- 
ings generally  took  place  at  the  *  Kaffeebaum ' 
(Kleine  Fleischergasse,  No.  3).  He  himself, 
however,  generally  remained  silent  by  preference, 
even  in  this  confidential  circle  of  friends.  Readily 
as  he  could  express  himself  with  lus  pen,  he 
had  but  little  power  of  speech.  Even  in  afiaiis 
of  no  importance,  which  could  have  been  trans- 
acted most  readily  and  simply  by  word  of 
mouth,  he  usually  preferred  to  write.  It  was, 
moreover,  a  kind  of  eigoyment  to  him  to  muse 
in  dreamy  silence.  Henriette  Voigt  told  W. 
Taubert  that  one  lovely  summer  evening,  after 
making  music  with  Schumann,  they  both  felt  in- 
clined to  go  on  the  water.  They  sat  side  by  side 
in  the  boat  for  an  hour  in  silence.  At  parting 
Schumann  pressed  her  hand  and  said,  '  To-day 
we  have  perfectly  understood  one  another.' 

It  was  at  these  evening  gatherings  at  the 
restaurant  in  the  winter  of  1883-34  that  the 
plan  of  starting  a  new  musical  paper  was 
matured.  It  was  the  protest  of  youth,  feeling 
itself  impelled  to  new  things  in  art,  against 
the  existing  state  of  music  Although  Weber, 
Beethoven,  and  Schubert  had  only  been  dead  a 
few  years,  though  Spohr  and  Marsehner  were 
still  in  their  prime,  and  Mendelssohn  was 
beginning  to  be  celebrated,  the  general  character- 
istic of  the  music  of  about  the  year  1 830  was 
either  superficiality  or  else  vulgar  mediocrity. 
'On  the  stage  Rossini  still  reigned  supreme, 
and  on  the  pianoforte  scarcely  anything  was 
heard  but  Herz  and  Hiinten.'  Under  these 
conditions  the  war  might  have  been  more 
suitably  carried  on  by  moans  of  important 
works  of  art  than  by  a  periodical  about  mnsic. 
Musical  criticism,  however,  was  itself  in  a  bad 
way  at  this  time.  The  periodical  called 
CcBciliay  published  by  Schott,  which  had  been 
in  existence  since  1824,  was  unfitted  for  the 
general  reader,  both  by  its  contents  and  by  the 
fact  of  its  publication  in  parts.  The  Berliner 
allgemeine  musikaliache  Zeituiig^  conducted  by 
Marx,  had  come  to  an  end  in  1830.  The  only 
periodical  of  influence  and  importance  in  1833 
was  the  Allgemeine  nmsikalische  ZeUung^  pub- 
lished by  Breitkopf  k  Hiirtel  of  Leipzig,  and  at 
that  time  edited  by  G.  W.  Fink.  But  the 
narrow  view  taken  of  criticism  in  that  periodical, 
its  inane  mildness  of  judgment — Schumann  used 
to  call  it  * Honigpinselei '  or  'Honey-daubing' 
— its  lenity  towards  the  reigning  insipidity  and 
superficiality,  could  not  but  provoke  contradic- 
tion from  young  people  of  high  aims.  And  the 
idea  of  first  bringing  the  lever  to  bear  on  the 


1834— 


SCHUMANN 


—1835 


351 


domain  of  critical  authorship,  in  order  to  try 
their  strength,  must  have  been  all  the  more 
attractive  to  these  hot-headed  youths,  since 
most  of  them  had  had  the  advantage  of  a  sound 
Mhokrly  education  and  knew  how  to  handle 
their  pens.  On  the  other  hand,  they  felt  that 
they  were  not  yet  strong  enough  to  guide  the 
public  taste  into  new  paths  by  their  own  musical 
productions ;  and  of  all  the  set  Schumann  was 
the  most  sensible  of  this  fact. 

Soch  were  the  grounds  on  which,  on  April  8, 
1834,  the  first  number  of  tlie  Nev^e  ZeiJ^ckrifi 
f^T  Musik  saw  the  light.  Schumann  himself 
called  it  the  organ  of  youth  and  movement. 
As  its  motto  he  even  chose  this  passage  from 
the  prologue  to  Shakespeare's  Henry  VIII,  : — 


Only  they 
J  bawdy  play, 
A  noise  of  targets,  or  to  see  a  fellow 


Who  come  to  hear  a  merry  bawdy  pU 


In  a  Icmg  motley  coat  gnarded  with  yellow, 
Will  be  deceived— 

a  passage  which  sufficiently  expresses  his  inten- 
tion of  contending  against  an  empty  flattering 
style  of  criticism,  and  upholding  the  dignity  of 
art.  <  The  day  of  reciprocal  compliments,'  says 
the  preliminary  notice,  '  is  gradually  dying  out, 
sod  we  must  confess  that  we  shall  do  nothing 
towards  reviving  it.  The  critic  who  dares  not 
attack  what  is  bad,  is  but  a  half-hearted 
supporter  of  what  is  good.'  The  doings  of 
'  the  three  arch-foes  of  art — those  who  have  no 
talent,  those  who  have  vulgar  talent,  and  those 
who,  having  real  talent,  write  too  much,'  are  not 
to  be  left  in  peace  ;  '  their  latest  phase,  the  re- 
sult of  a  mere  cultivation  of  executive  techniqiie,* 
it  is  to  be  opposed  as  inartistic.  *  The  older 
time,*  on  the  other  hand,  'and  the  works  it 
produced,  are  to  be  recalled  with  insistence, 
siuoe  it  is  only  at  these  pure  sources  that  new 
beauties  in  art  can  be  found.'  Moreover,  the 
Zeilsehrijt  is  to  assist  in  bringing  in  a  new 
'  poetic '  period  by  its  benevolent  encouragement 
of  the  higher  efforts  of  young  artists,  and  to 
accelerate  its  advent.  The  editing  was  in  the 
hands  of  Bobert  Schumann,  Friedrich  Wieck, 
Ludwig  Schunke,  and  Julius  Knorr. 

Ofidl  these  Schunke  alone  was  exclusively 
a  musician.  That  gifted  pianist,  who  belonged 
to  a  widely  dispei-sed  &mily  of  esteemed 
musicians,  came  to  Leiprig  in  1888,  and 
became  a  great  friend  of  Schumann's,  but  died 
&t  the  end  of  the  following  year  at  the  early  age 
of  twenty-four.  The  three  other  editors  were 
by  education  half  musicians  and  h^lf  litterateurs, 
eten  Julius  Knorr  (bom  1807)  having  studied 
philology  in  Leipzig.  Schumann  co-operated 
Iwgely  in  Schunke's  contributions  (signed  ^vith 
the  figure  3),  for  handling  the  pen  was  not  easy 
to  hinu  Hartmann  of  Leipzig  was  at  first  the 
publisher  and  proprietor  of  the  ZntsehHft, 
but  at  the  beginning  of  1885  it  passed  into 
the  hands  of  J.  A.  Barth  of  Leipzig,  Schumann 
becoming  at  the  same  time  proprietor  and  sole 
editor.     He  continued  the  undertaking  under 


these  conditions  till  the  end  of  June  1844  ;  so 
that  his  management  of  the  paper  extended  over 
a  period  of  above  ten  years.  On  Jan.  1,  1846, 
Franz  Brendel  became  the  editor,  and  after  the 
summer  of  1844  Schumann  never  again  wrote 
for  it,  with  the  exception  of  a  short  article  ^  on 
Johannes  Brahms  to  be  mentioned  hereafter. 

Schumann's  own  articles  are  sometimes  signed 
with  a  number — either  2  or  some  combination 
with  2,  such  as  12,  22,  etc.  He  also  concealed 
his  identity  under  a  variety  of  names — Florestan, 
£usebius,  Raro,  Jeanquirit.  In  his  articles  we 
meet  with  frequent  mention  of  theBavidsbiindler, 
a  league  or  society  of  artists  or  friends  of  art  who 
had  views  in  common.  This  was  purely  imagin- 
ary, a  half- humorous,  half-poetical  fiction  of 
Schumann's,  existing  only  in  the  brain  of  its 
founder,  who  thought  it  well  fitted  to  give 
weight  to  the  expression  of  various  views  of  art, 
which  were  occasionally  put  forth  as  its  utter- 
ances. The  characters  which  most  usually  ap- 
pear are  Florestan  and  Eusebius,  two  personages 
in  whom  Schumann  endeavoured  to  embody  the 
dual  sides  of  his  nature.  The  vehement,  stormy, 
rough  element  is  represented  by  Florestan  ;  the 
gentier  and  more  poetic  by  Eusebius.  These 
two  figures  are  obviously  imitated  from  Yult 
and  Walt  in  Jean  Paul's  Flegeljahre ;  indeed 
Schumann's  literary  work  throughout  is  strongly 
coloured  with  the  manner  of  Jean  Paul,  and 
frequent  reference  is  made  to  his  writings.  Now 
and  then,  as  moderator  between  these  an- 
tagonistic characters,  who  of  course  take  op{)oeite 
views  in  criticism,  *  Master  Baro  '  comes  in.  In 
him  Schumann  has  conceived  a  character  such 
as  at  one  time  he  had  himself  dreamed  of 
becoming.  The  explanation  of  the  name  '  Davids- 
biindler '  is  given  at  the  beginning  of  a  *  Shrove 
Tuesday  discourse '  by  Florestan  in  the  year 
1885.  *The  hosts  of  David  are  youths  and 
men  destined  to  slay  all  the  Philistines,  musical 
or  other.'  In  the  college-slang  of  Germany  the 
*  Philistine '  is  the  non-student  who  is  satisfied  - 
to  live  on  in  the  ordinaiy  routine  of  every-day 
life,  or — which  comes  to  the  same  thing  in  the 
student's  mind — the  man  of  narrow,  sober, 
prosaic  views,  as  contrasted  with  the  high-flown 
poetry  and  enthusiasm  of  the  social  life  of  a 
German  university.  Thus,  in  the  name  of  Ideal- 
ism, the  *  Davidsbiindler '  wage  war  against  boor- 
ish mediocrity,  and  when  Schumann  regarded  it 
as  the  function  of  his  paper  to  aid  in  bringiug  in 
a  new  *  poetical  phase '  in  music  he  meant  just 
this.  Though  Schumann  was  himself  the  sole 
reality  in  the  'Davidsbiindlerschaft,'  he  indulged 
his  fancy  by  introducing  personages  of  his 
acquaintance  whose  agreement  with  his  views 
he  was  sure  of.  He  quietly  included  all  the 
principal  co-operators  in  the  Zeitschrifty  and  even 
artists  such  as  Berlioz,  whom  he  did  not  know, 
but  in  whom  he  felt  an  interest,  and  was  thus 
justified  in  writing  to  A.  von  Zuccalmaglio  in 

1  Sent  Bahnen,  Oct.  28, 1853. 


352 


1835 


SCHUMANN 


1835 


1836  :  *  By  the  DavicUbuiid  is  figured  an  intel- 
lectual brotherhood  which  ramifies  widely,  and 
I  hope  may  bear  golden  fruit.'  He  brings  in 
the  brethren,  who  are  not  actually  himself, 
from  time  to  time  in  the  critical  discussions: 
and  the  way  in  which  he  contrives  to  make  this 
motley  troop  of  romantic  forms  live  and  move 
before  the  eyes  of  the  reader  is  really  quite 
magical.  He  could  say  with  justice  :  *  We  are 
now  living  a  romance  the  like  of  which  has 
perhaps  never  been  written  in  any  book.'  AVe 
meet  with  a  Jonathan,  who  may  perhaps 
stand  for  Schunke  (on  another  occasion,  how- 
ever, Schumann  designates  himself  by  this 
name)  ;  a  Fritz  Friedrich  probably  meant  for 
Lyser  ^  the  painter,  a  lover  of  music  ;  Serpentin 
is  Carl  Banck,  a  clever  composer  of  songs,  who 
at  the  outset  was  one  of  his  most  zealous  and 
meritorious  fellow-workers ;  Gottschalk  Wedel 
is  Anton  von  Zuccalmaglio,  then  living  in 
Warsaw,  who  had  made  a  name  by  his  collection 
of  German  and  foreign  Yolkslieder ;  Ghiara  is 
of  course  Clara  Wieck,  and  Zilia  (apparently 
shortened  from  Cecilia)  is  probably  the  same. 
Felix  Mendelssohn  appears  under  the  name  of 
Felix  Meritis,  and  the  name  Walt  occurs  once 
(in  1836,  Aus  den  Biicfiem  der  Davidsbiindlei-f 
ii.  Tanzlitteratur).  It  cannot  be  asserted  that 
any  particular  person  was  meant,  still  his  direct 
reference  to  Jean  Paul's  Flegeljahreis  interesting. 
There  is  also  a  certain  Julius  among  the  '  Davids- 
blindler,'  probably  Julius  Knorr.  The  name 
occurs  in  Schumann's  first  essay  on  music,  '  Ein 
opus  ii.'  This  is  not  included  in  the  Neue 
Zeitschriftf  but  ap|)ears  in  No.  49  of  the 
Allgeineine  Musikalische  Zeitung  for  1831  (then 
edited  by  Fink).  The  editor  has  prefixed  a 
note  to  the  effect  that  *  it  is  by  a  young  man, 
a  pupil  of  the  latest  school,  who  has  given  his 
name,'  and  contrasts  it  with  the  anonymous 
work  of  a  reviewer  of  the  old  school  discussing 
the  same  piece  of  music.  The  contrast  is  in- 
deed striking,  and  the  imaginative  flights  of 
enthusiastic  young  genius  look  strange  enough 
among  the  old-world  surroundings  of  the  rest  of 
the  paper. 

Schumann  placed  tliis  critique — which  deals 
with  Chopin's  variations  on  *  La  ci  darem ' — at 
the  beginning  of  his  collected  writings,  which 
he  published  towards  the  close  of  his  life 
(Gcsamm^lie  Schriften,  4  vols.  Georg  Wigand, 
Leipzig,  1854).  It  is  a  good  example  of  the 
tone  which  he  adopted  in  the  Nette  ZcUschrift, 
His  fellow-workers  fell  more  or  less  into  the 
same  key,  not  from  servility,  but  because  they 
were  all  young  men,  and  because  the  reaction 
against  the  Philistine  style  of  criticism  was 
just  then  in  the  air.  This  may  be  plainly 
detected,  for  instance,  in  a  critique  written  by 
Wieck  for  the  periodical  called  CcecUia,  on 
Chopin's  airs  with  variations.     It  is  easy  to 

1  Author  of  the  «ketch  of  BeethoTen  aDgnved  at  p.  22S  of  vol.  i. 
of  thlR  Dlctionao'. 


understand  that  the  total  novelty  of  the  style 
of  writing  of  the  Neue  ZeUackriJl  should  have 
attracted  attention  to  music ;  the  paper  soon 
obtained  a  comparatively  large  circulation ; 
and  as,  besides  the  charm  of  novelty  and  style, 
it  offered  a  variety  of  instructive  and  entertain- 
ing matter,  and  discussed  important  subjects 
earnestly  and  cleverly,  the  interest  of  the 
public  was  kept  up,  and  indeed  constantly 
increased,  from  year  to  year.  The  influence 
exerted  by  Schumann  on  musical  art  in  Germany 
through  the  medium  of  this  jNiper,  cannot  but 
be  regarded  as  very  important 

It  has  been  sometimes  said  that  Schumann  s 
literary  labours  must  have  done  him  mischief, 
by  taking  up  time  and  energy  which  might 
have  been  better  employed  in  compoBirion. 
But  this  view  seems  to  me  untenable.  Up  to 
the  period  at  which  we  have  now  arrived, 
Schumann,  on  his  own  statement,  had  merely 
dreamed  away  his  life  at  the  piano.  \l\& 
tendency  to  self-concenti'ation,  his  shyness, 
and  his  independent  circumstances,  placed  him 
in  danger  of  never  achieving  that  perfect 
development  of  his  powers  which  is  possible 
only  by  vigorous  exercise.  Now  the  editing  of 
a  journal  is  an  effectual  remedy  for  dreaming ; 
and  when,  at  the  beginning  of  1 835,  he  became 
sole  editor,  however  much  he  may  have  felt 
the  inexorable  necessity  of  satisfying  his  readers 
week  after  week,  and  of  keeping  his  aim 
constantly  in  view,  it  was  no  doubt  a  most 
beneficial  exercise  for  his  will  and  energies.  He 
was  conscious  of  this,  or  he  certainly  would 
not  have  clung  to  the  paper  with  such  affection 
and  persistency  ;  and  it  is  a  matter  of  fact  that 
the  period  of  his  happiest  and  most  vigorous 
creativeness  coincides  pretty  nearly  witli  that 
during  which  he  was  engaged  on  the  Zeitschrift. 
Hence,  to  suppose  that  his  literary  work  was 
any  drawback  to  his  artistic  career  is  an  error, 
though  it  is  true  that  as  he  gradually  discovered 
the  inexhaustible  fertility  of  his  creative  genius, 
he  sometimes  complained  that  the  details  of  an 
editor's  work  were  a  burthen  to  him.  Besides, 
the  paper  was  the  medium  by  which  Schuinaun 
was  first  brought  into  contact  and  intercourse 
with  the  most  illustrious  artists  of  his  time ; 
and  living  as  he  did  apart  frx>m  all  the  practic- 
ally musical  circles  of  Leipzig,  it  was  almost 
the  only  link  between  himself  and  the  contem- 
porary world. 

Nor  must  we  overlook  the  fact  that  certain 
peculiar  gifts  of  Schumann's  found  expression 
in  his  writings  on  musical  subjects,  gifts  which 
would  otherwise  scarcely  have  found  room  for 
display.  His  poetic  talent  was  probably 
neither  rich  enough  nor  strong  enough  for  the 
production  of  large  independent  poems ;  bat, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  was  far  too  considerable 
to  be  condemned  to  perpetual  silence.  In  his 
essays  and  critiques,  which  must  be  regarded 
rather  as  poetic  flights  and  sympathetic  inter- 


1835— 


SCHUMANN 


—1839 


353 


pretations  than  as  examples  of  incisive  analysis, 
his  poetical  gift  found  a  natural  outlet,  and 
literature  is  by  so  much  the  richer  for  them. 
Nay,  it  is  a  not  unreasonable  speculation 
whether,  if  his  imaginative  powers  had  not 
found  this  vent  they  might  not  have  formed  a 
disturbing  and  marring  element  in  his  musical 
creations.  Even  as  it  is,  poetical  imagery  plays 
an  important  part  in  Schumann's  music,  though 
without  seriously  overstepping  the  permissible 
limits.  This,  too,  we  may  safely  say,  that  in 
spite  of  his  silent  and  self-contain^  nature, 
there  was  in  Schumann  a  vein  of  the  genuine 
a^Uaior,  in  the  best  and  noblest  sense  of  the 
word ;  he  was  possessed  by  the  conviction  that 
the  development  of  German  art,  then  in  progress, 
had  not  yet  come  to  its  final  term,  and  that 
a  new  phase  of  its  existence  was  at  hand. 
Throughout  his  writings  we  find  this  view 
beautifully  and  poetically  expressed,  as  for 
instance,  'Consciously  or  unconsciously  a  new 
and  as  yet  undeveloped  school  is  being  founded 
on  the  basis  of  the  Beethoven-Schubert  roman- 
ticism, a  school  which  we  may  venture  to 
expect  will  mark  a  special  epoch  in  the  history 
of  art.  Its  destiny  seems  to  be  to  usher  in  a 
period  which  will  nevertheless  have  many  links 
to  oonnect  it  with  the  past  century.  *  Or  again  : 
'  A  rosy  light  is  dawning  in  the  sky  ;  whence 
it  Cometh  I  know  not;  but  in  any  case,  0 
youth,  make  for  the  light.' 

To  rouse  fresh  interest  and  make  use  of  that 
already  existing  for  the  advancement  of  this 
new  movement  was  one  of  his  deepest  instincts, 
and  this  he  largely  accomplished  by  means  of 
his  paper.  From  his  pen  we  have  articles  on 
almost  all  the  most  illustrious  composers  of  his 
generation — Mendelssohn,  Taubert,  Chopin, 
Hiller,  Heller,  Henselt,  Stemdale  Bennett, 
Gade,  Kirchner,  and  Franz,  as  well  as  Johannes 
Brahms,  undoubtedly  the  most  remarkable 
composer  of  the  generation  after  Schumann. 
On  some  he  first  threw  the  light  of  intelligent 
and  enthusiastic  literary  sympathy  ;  others  he 
was  actually  the  first  to  introduce  to  the  musical 
world;  and  even  Berlioz,  a  Frenchman,  he 
eulogised  boldly  and  successfully,  recognising 
in  him  a  champion  of  the  new  idea.  By  degrees 
he  would  naturally  discern  that  he  had  thus 
prefiared  the  soil  for  the  reception  of  his  own 
works.  He  felt  himself  in  close  affinity  with 
all  these  artists,  and  was  more  and  more  con- 
toed  in  his  conviction  that  he  too  had  some- 
thing to  say  to  the  world  that  it  had  not  heard 
before.  In  the  Zeitschrift  he  must  have  been 
aware  that  he  controlled  a  pow^er  which  would 
Krve  to  open  a  shorter  route  for  his  own  musical 
productions.  *If  the  publisher  were  not  afraid 
of  the  editor,  the  world  would  hear  nothing  of 
me—perhaps  to  the  world's  advantage.  And 
yet  the  black  heads  of  the  printed  notes  are 
Toy  pleasant  to  behold.'  *To  give  up  the 
paper  would  involve  the  loss  of  all  the  reserve 
VOL.  IV 


force  which  every  artist  ought  to  have  if  he  is 
to  produce  easily  and  freely.' 

So  he  wrote  in  1836  and  1837.  But  at  the 
same  time  we  must  emphatically  contradict  the 
suggestion  that  Schumann  used  his  paper  for 
selfish  ends.  His  soul  was  too  entirely  noble 
and  his  ideal  aims  too  high  to  have  any  purpose 
in  view  but  the  advancement  of  art ;  and  it 
was  only  in  so  far  as  his  own  interests  were 
inseparable  from  those  of  his  whole  generation, 
that  he  would  ever  have  been  capable  of  for- 
warding the  fortunes  of  his  own  works.  The 
question  even  whether,  and  in  what  manner, 
his  own  works  should  be  discussed  in  the  Heue 
Zeitschrift  he  always  treated  with  the  utmost 
tact.  In  one  of  his  letters  he  clearly  expresses 
his  principles  on  the  subject  as  follows  :  *  I  am, 
to  speak  frankly,  too  proud  to  attempt  to  in- 
fluence Hartel  through  Fink  (editor  of  the 
AllgcTTieine  mus.  Zeilung)  ;  and  I  hate,  at  all 
times,  any  mode  of  instigating  public  opinion 
by  the  artist  himself.  What  is  strong  enough 
works  its  own  way. ' 

His  efforts  for  the  good  cause  indeed  went 
beyond  essay-writing  and  composing.  Extracts 
from  a  note -book  published  by  Wasielewski 
prove  that  he  busied  himself  with  a  variety  of 
plans  for  musical  imdertakings  of  general  utility. 
Thus  he  wished  to  compile  lives  of  Beethoven 
and  of  Bach,  with  a  critique  of  all  their  works, 
and  a  biographical  dictionary  of  living  musicians, 
on  the  same  plan.  He  desired  that  the  relations 
of  o]^)eratio  composers  and  managers  should  be 
regulated  by  law.  He  wished  to  establish  an 
agency  for  the  publication  of  musical  works,  so 
that  composers  might  derive  greater  benefit  from 
their  publications,  and  gave  his  mind  to  a  plan 
for  founding  a  Musical  Union  in  Saxony,  with 
Leipzig  as  its  headquarters,  to  bo  the  counter- 
part of  Schilling's  Deutscher  National  Verein 
flir  Musik. 

In  the  first  period  of  his  editorship,  before  he 
had  got  into  the  way  of  easily  mastering  his 
day's  labour,  and  when  the  regular  round  of 
work  had  still  the  charm  of  novelty,  it  was  of 
course  only  now  and  then  that  he  had  leisure, 
or  felt  in  tiie  mood,  for  composing.  Tvro  great 
pianoforte  works  date  from  1834  (the  *Carnaval,' 
op.  9,  and  the  '  Etudes  Symphoniques,'  op.  13), 
but  in  1 835  nothing  was  completed.  After  this, 
however,  Schumann's  genius  began  again  to 
assert  itself,  and  in  the  years  1836  to  1839  he 
composed  that  splendid  set  of  pianoforte  works 
of  the  highest  excellence,  on  which  a  consider- 
able part  of  his  fame  rests ;  viz.  the  great 
Fantasia  (op.  17),  the  F  minor  Sonata  (op. 
14),  Fantasiestiicke  (op.  12),  Davidsbiindler- 
tanze,  Novelletten,  Kinderscenen,  Ereisleriana, 
Humoreske,  Faschingsschwank,  Romanzen,  and 
others.  The  fount  of  his  creative  genius  flowed 
forth  ever  clearer  and  more  abundantly.  *  I  used 
to  rack  my  brains  for  a  long  time,'  writes  he  on 
March   16,    1839,    *but   now  1   scarcely  ever 

2a 


354 


1836— 


SCHUMANN 


—1839 


scratch  out  a  note.  It  all  comes  from  within, 
and  I  often  feel  as  if  I  could  go  playing  straight 
on  without  ever  coming  to  an  end.'  The  in- 
fluence of  Schumann  the  author  on  Schumann 
the  composer  may  often  he  detected.  Thus 
the  *  Davidsbiindler '  come  into  his  music,  and 
the  composition  which  bears  their  name  was 
originally  entitled  'Davidsbiindler,  dances  for 
the  Pianoforte,  dedicated  to  Walther  von  Goethe 
by  Florestan  and  Eusebius.'  The  title  of  the 
FS  minor  Sonata,  op.  11,  which  was  completed 
in  1835,  runs  thus :  *  Pianoforte  Sonata.  Dedi- 
cated to  Clara  by  Florestan  and  Eusebius.'  In 
the  'Camaval,'  a  set  of  separate  and  shorter 
pieces  with  a  title  to  each,  the  names  of  Florestan 
and  Eusebius  occur  again,  as  do  those  of  Chia- 
rina  (the  diminutive  of  Clara),  and  Chopin ; 
the  whole  concluding  with  a  march  of  the 
Davidsbiindler  against  the  Philistines. 

The  reception  of  Schumann's  works  by  the 
critics  was  most  favourable  and  encouraging,  but 
the  public  was  repelled  by  their  eccentricity  and 
originality  ;  and  it  was  not  till  after  the  appear- 
ance of  tiie  *  Kinderscenen  *  (1889)  that  they 
began  to  be  appreciated.  0pp.  1  and  2  actually 
had  the  honour  of  a  notice  in  the  Vienna  Munka- 
lische  ZeUung  of  1832,  by  no  less  a  person 
than  Grillparzer  the  poet.  Fink  designedly  took 
hardly  any  notice  of  Schumann  in  the  Allge- 
meine  mu&ikalische  ZeUung.  But  Liszt  wrote  a 
long,  discriminating,  and  very  favourable  article 
in  the  OazeUe  Mudcale  of  1837  upon  the  Im- 
promptus (op.  5),  and  the  Sonatas  in  FS  minor 
and  F  minor.  Moscheles  wrote  very  sympatheti- 
cally on  the  two  sonatas  in  the  Neue  Zeitschrift 
fUr  Musik  itself  (vols.  5  and  6),  and  some  kind 
words  of  recognition  of  Schumann's  genius  were 
published  subsequently  from  his  diary  (Moscheles* 
Leberiy  Leipzig,  1878,  vol.  ii.  p.  16  ;  English 
translation  by  A.  D.  Coleridge,  vol.  ii  pp.  19, 
20).  Other  musicians,  though  not  expressing 
their  sentiments  publicly,  continued  to  hold 
aloof  from  him.  Hauptmann  at  that  time  calls 
Schumann's  pianoforte  compositions  *  pretty 
and  curious  little  things,  all  wanting  in  proper 
solidity,  but  otherwise  in teresting. '  (See  Haupt- 
mann's  Letters  to  Havsety  Leipzig,  1871,  vol.  i. 
p.  265.) 

In  October  1 836  the  musical  world  of  Leipzig 
was  enriched  by  the  arrival  of  Mendelssohn.  It 
was  already  in  a  flourishing  state :  operas, 
concerts,  and  sacred  performances  alike  were  of 
great  excellence,  and  well  supported  by  the 
public.  But  although  the  soil  was  well  pre- 
pared before  Mendelssohn's  arrival,  it  was  he 
who  raised  Leipzig  to  the  position  of  the  most 
musical  town  of  Germany.  The  extraordinarily 
vigorous  life  that  at  once  grew  up  there  under 
the  influence  of  his  genius,  drawing  to  itself 
from  far  and  near  the  most  important  musical 
talent  of  the  country,  has  shown  itself  to  be  of 
so  enduring  a  character  that  even  at  the  present 
day  its  influences  are  felt.     Schumann  too,  who 


had  long  felt  great  respect  for  Mendelssohn, 
was  drawn  into  his  circle.  On  Oct.  4,  1835, 
Mendelssohn  conducted  his  first  concert  in  the 
Gewandhaus ;  the  day  before  this  there  was  a 
musical  gathering  at  the  Wiecks',  at  which  both 
Mendelssohn  and  Schumann  were  present,  and 
it  seems  to  have  been  on  this  occasion  that  the 
two  greatest  musicians  of  their  time  first  came 
into  close  personal  intercourse.  (Mo^duie^' 
Leben,  vol.  i.  p.  301  ;  English  translation,  vol  L 
p.  322.)  On  Oct.  6,  Mendelssohn,  Schumann, 
Moscheles,  Banck,  and  a  few  others,  dined 
together.  In  the  afternoon  of  the  6th  there 
was  again  music  at  Wieck's  house  ;  Moscheles, 
Clara  Wieck,  and  L.  Bakemann  from  Bremen, 
played  Bach's  D  minor  Concerto  for  three 
claviers,  Mendelssohn  putting  in  the  orchestral 
accompaniments  on  a  fourth  piano.  Moscheles 
had  come  over  from  Hamburg,  where  he  was 
staying  on  a  visit,  to  give  a  concert  in  Leipzig. 
Schumann  had  already  been  in  cori'espondence 
with  him,  but  this  was  the  first  opportunity  he 
had  enjoyed  of  making  the  personal  acquaint- 
ance of  the  man  whose  playing  had  so  delighted 
him  in  Carlsbad  when  a  boy  of  nine.  Mosclieles 
describes  him  as  'a  retiring  but  interesting 
young  man,'  and  the  ¥%  minor  Sonata,  played 
to  him  by  Clara  Wieck,  as  'very  laboured, 
difficult,  and  somewhat  intricate,  although 
interesting.' 

A  livelier  intimacy,  so  far  as  Schumann  was 
concerned,  soon  sprang  up  between  him  and 
Mendelssohn.  When  Mendelssohn  had  to  go 
to  Diisseldorf  in  May  1836,  to  the  first  perform- 
ance of  *St.  Paul'  at  the  Niederrheinisehe 
Musikfest,  Schumann  even  intended  to  go  with 
him,  and  was  ready  months  beforehand,  though 
when  the  time  arrived  he  was  prevented  from 
going.  They  used  to  like  to  dine  togetlier,  and 
gradually  an  interesting  little  circle  was  formed 
around  them,  including  among  others  Ferdinand 
David,  whom  Mendelssohn  had  brought  to 
Leipzig  as  leader  of  his  orchestra.  In  the  early 
part  of  January  1837  Mendelssohn  and  Schu- 
mann used  in  this  way  to  meet  every  day  and 
interchange  ideas,  so  far  as  Schumann's  silent 
temperament  would  allow.  Subsequently  when 
Mendelssohn  was  kept  more  at  home  by  his 
marriage,  this  intercourse  became  rarer.  Schu- 
mann was  by  nature  unsociable,  and  at  this 
time  there  were  outward  circumstances  which 
rendered  solitude  doubly  attractive  to  him. 
Ferdinand  Hiller,  who  spent  the  winter  of 
1839-40  in  Leipzig  with  Mendelssohn,  relates 
that  Schumann  was  at  that  time  living  the  life 
of  a  recluse  and  scarcely  ever  came  out  of  his 
room.  Mendelssohn  and  Schumann  felt  them- 
selves drawn  together  by  nmtual  appreciation. 
The  artistic  relations  between  the  two  great  men 
were  not  as  yet,  however,  thoroughly  reciprocal. 
Schumann  admired  Mendelssohn  to  the  point 
of  enthusiasm.  He  declared  him  to  be  the  best 
musician  then  living,  said  that  he  looked  up  to 


1835— 


SCHUMANN 


—1839 


355 


him  as  to  8  high  mountain-peak,  and  that  even 
in  his  daily  talk  about  art  some  thought  at  least 
would  be  uttered  worthy  of  being  graven  in 
^Id.  And  when  he  mentions  him  in  his 
writings,  it  is  in  a  tone  of  enthusiastic  admira- 
tion, which  shows  in  the  best  light  Schumann's 
line  ideal  character,  so  remai'kable  for  its  freedom 
from  envy.  And  his  opinion  remained  un- 
altered :  in  1842  he  dedicated  his  three  string 
quartets  to  Mendelssohn,  and  in  the  'Album 
far  die  Jugend'  there  is  a  little  piano  piece 
called  *  Erinnerung,'  dated  Nov.  4,  1847,  which 
shoiK's  with  eloquent  simplicity  how  deeply  he 
felt  the  early  death  of  his  friend.  It  is  well 
known  how  he  would  be  moved  out  of  his  quiet 
stillness  if  he  heard  any  disparaging  expression 
used  of  Mendelssohn.  Mendelssohn,  on  the 
oontrary,  at  first  only  saw  in  Schumann  the 
man  of  letters  and  the  art -critic.  Like  most 
productive  musicians,  he  had  a  dislike  to  such 
men  as  a  class,  however  much  he  might  love 
and  value  single  representatives,  as  was  really 
the  case  with  regard  to  Schumann.  From 
this  point  of  view  must  be  regarded  the  expres- 
sions which  he  makes  use  of  now  and  then  in 
letters  concerning  Schumann  as  an  author. 
(S€€  Mendelssohn's  J5r^/«,  ii.  116  ;  Lady  Wal- 
lace's translation,  ii.  97  ;  ^  and  Hiller's  Felix 
Mendelssohn  Bartholdy,  Cologne,  1878,  p.  64.) 
If  they  sound  somewhat  disparaging,  we  must 
remember  that  it  is  not  the  personal  Mendels- 
sohn speaking  against  the  personal  Schumann, 
bat  rather  the  creative  artist  speaking  against 
the  critic,  always  in  natural  opposition  to 
him.  Indeed  it  is  obviously  impossible  to 
take  such  remarks  in  a  disadvantageous  sense, 
as  Scbmnann  quite  agreed  with  Mendelssohn 
on  the  subject  of  criticism.  One  passage  in 
his  writings  is  especially  remarkable  in  this 
respect  He  is  speaking  of  Chopin's  piano- 
forte concerto,  and  Florestan  exclaims,  *  What 
is  a  whole  year  of  a  musical  paper  compared 
to  a  concerto  by  Chopin  ?  What  is  a  magister's 
rage  compared  to  the  poetic  frenzy?  What 
are  ten  complimentary  addresses  to  the  editor 
compared  to  the  Adagio  in  the  second  Con- 
certo? And  believe  me,  Davidites,  I  should 
not  think  you  worth  the  trouble  of  talking 
to,  did  I  not  believe  you  capable  of  compos- 
ing SQch  works  as  those  you  write  about, 
^th  the  exception  of  a  few  like  this  concerto. 
Away  with  your  musical  journals  !  It  should 
be  the  highest  endeavour  of  a  just  critic  to 
Tender  himself  wholly  unnecessary  ;  the  best 
^iisoourse  on  music  is  silence.  Why  write  about 
Chopin  ?  Why  not  create  at  first  hand — play, 
"*rite,  and  compose  ? '  (Gesammelte  Schri/tcfij  i. 
276;  Engl,  trans,  in  Music  and  Musicians^ 
«rie8i.p.205.)  True,  this  impassioned  outburst 
tj*8  to  be  moderated  by  Eusebius.  But  consider 
tHe  significance  of  Schumann's  writing  thus  in 

'  H«nll7  rMQ«nfMbl«.  o«inc  to  /M«  mu*ikaUteh«  Uttung  (Schu- 
"■■»  ■  P*P«rt  bring  rendered  '  The  mniilcal  papers.' 


his  own  journal  about  the  critic's  vocation  !  It 
plainly  shows  that  he  only  took  it  up  as  an 
artist,  and  occasionally  despised  it.  But  with 
regard  to  Schumann's  place  in  art,  Mendelssohn 
did  not,  at  that  time  at  all  events,  consider  it 
a  very  high  one,  and  he  was  not  alone  in  this 
opinion.  It  was  shared,  for  example,  by  Spohr 
and  Hauptmann.  In  Mendelssohn's  published 
letters  there  is  no  verdict  whatever  on  Schu- 
mann's music.  The  fact,  however,  remains  that 
in  Schumann's  earlier  pianoforte  works  he  felt 
that  the  power  or  the  desire  for  expression  in 
the  greater  forms  was  wanting,  and  this  he  said  in 
conversation.  He  soon  had  reason  to  change  his 
opinion,  and  afterwards  expressed  warm  interest 
in  his  friend's  compositions.  Whether  he  ever 
quite  entered  into  the  individualities  of  Schu- 
mann's music  may  well  be  doubted ;  their  natures 
were  too  dissimilar.  To  a  certain  extent  the  Ger- 
man nation  has  recovered  from  one  mistake  in 
judgment ;  the  tendency  to  elevate  Schumann 
above  Mendelssohn  was  for  a  very  long  time 
unmistakable.  Latterly  their  verdict  has  become 
more  just,  and  the  two  are  now  recognised  as 
comi>08ers  of  equal  greatness. 

Schumann's  constant  intimacy  in  Wieck's 
house  had  resulted  in  a  tender  attachment  to 
his  daughter  Clara,  now  grown  up.  It  was  in 
the  latter  part  of  1835  that  this  first  found 
any  definite  expression.  His  regard  was  reci- 
procated, and  in  September  1887  he  preferred  his 
suit  formally  to  her  father.  ^  Wieck,  however, 
did  not  favour  it ;  possibly  he  entertained 
loftier  hopes  for  his  gifted  daughter.  At  any 
rate  he  was  of  opinion  that  Schumann's  means 
and  prospects  were  too  vague  and  uncertain  to 
warrant  his  setting  up  a  home  of  his  own. 
Schumann  seems  to  have  acknowledged  the 
justice  of  this  hesitation,  for  ia  1838  he  made 
strenuous  efforts  to  find  a  new  and  wider  sphere 
of  work.  With  the  full  consent  of  Clara  Wieck 
he  decided  on  settling  in  Vienna,  and  bringing 
out  his  musical  {)eriodical  in  that  city.  The 
glory  of  a  great  epoch  still  cast  a  light. over 
the  musical  life  of  the  Austrian  capital — the 
epoch  when  Gluck,  Haydn,  Mozart,  Beethoven, 
and  Schubert  were  living  and  working  there. 
In  point  of  fact,  all  genuine  music  had  vanished 
even  during  Beethoven's  lifetime,  and  had  given 
way  to  a  trivial  and  superficial  taste.  Rossini 
and  his  followers  were  paramount  in  opera ; 
in  orchestral  music  there  were  the  waltzes  of 
Strauss  and  Lanner ;  and  in  vocal  music  the 
feeble  sentimentalities  of  Pi-och  and  his  fellow- 
composers.  So  far  as  solo-playing  was  concerned, 
the  fourth  decade  of  the  century  saw  it  at  its 
highest  pitch  of  executive  brilliancy,  and  its 
lowest  of  purpose  and  feeling — indeed  it  may 
be  comprehensively  designated  as  the  epoch  of 
Thalberg.  Thus  Schumann  would  have  found 
in  Vienna  ample  opportunity  for  doing  good 

a  rn»e»  dates  are  now  finally  settled  by  Uttitiann's  Clara  ScAu- 
mann,  ▼ol.  i.  p.  ISS,  etc] 


356 


1838— 


SCHUMANN 


-1840 


work,  for  the  Viennese  public  was  still  as  ever 
the  most  responsive  in  the  world,  and  one  to 
justify  sanguine  hopes.  Schumann  effected  his 
move  with  the  assistance  of  Professor  Joseph 
Fischhof,  his  colleague  in  the  paper ;  settling 
himself  in  October  1838  in  the  Schonlatemgasse, 
No.  679.  Oswald  Lorenz  edited  the  ZeiMirift 
as  Schumann's  deputy,  and  for  a  time  it  was 
still  to  be  issued  in  Leipzig.  Schumann  hoped 
to  be  able  to  bring  it  out  in  Vienna  by  Jauuaiy 
1889,  and  made  every  effort  to  obtain  the 
prompt  permission  of  the  authorities,  as  well 
as  the  support  of  influential  persons  for  himself 
and  his  journal.  But  the  consent  of  the 
censor's  office  and  the  police  were  long  with- 
held ;  and  he  was  required  to  secure  the  co- 
operation of  an  Austrian  publisher,  in  itself  a 
great  difficulty.  It  is  hard  to  believe  that  in 
the  great  city  of  Vienna  no  strictly  musical 
newspaper  then  existed,  and  that  a  small 
catalogue,  the  Allgemeine  musikalischc  Ameiger, 
published  weekly  by  Tobias  Haslinger,  and 
almost  exclusively  devoted  to  the  business 
interests  of  his  firm,  was  the  only  publication 
which  could  pretend  to  the  name.  But  the 
publishers  were  either  too  indolent  or  too  tiinid 
to  attempt  any  new  enterprise,  and  sought  to 
throw  impediments  in  Schumann's  way. 

His  courage  and  hopefulness  were  soon  much 
reduced.  The  superficially  kind  welcome  he 
met  everywhere  could  not  conceal  the  petty 
strife  of  coteries,  the  party  spirit  and  gossip  of 
a  society  which  might  have  been  provincial. 
The  public,  though  keenly  alive  to  music,  was 
devoid  of  all  critical  taste.  *  He  could  not  get 
on  with  these  people, '  he  writes  to  Zuccalmaglio 
as  early  as  Oct.  19,  1838  ;  their  utter  insipidity 
was  at  times  too  much  for  him,  and  while  he 
had  hoped  that  on  its  appearance  in  Vienna 
the  ZcUschrift  would  have  received  a  fresh 
impulse,  and  become  a  medium  of  intercourse 
between  North  and  South,  he  was  forced  as 
early  as  December  to  say :  *  The  paper  is 
evidently  falling  off,  though  it  must  be  pub- 
lished here ;  this  vexes  me  much.'  Sterndale 
Bennett,  who  was  residing  in  Leipzig  during 
1837-38,  and  who,  Schumann  hoped,  would 
settle  with  him  in  Vienna,  was  obliged  to 
relinquish  his  intention  ;  and  in  Vienna  itself 
he  sought  in  vain  for  an  artist  after  his  own 
heart,  *  one  who  should  not  merely  play  toler- 
ably well  on  one  or  two  instruments,  but  who 
should  be  a  wlwle  man,  and  understand 
Shakespeare  and  Jean  Paul.'  At  the  same 
time  he  did  not  abandon  the  scheme  of  making 
a  wide  and  influential  circle  of  activity  for 
himself  ;  he  was  unwilling  to  return  to  Leipzig, 
and  when  in  March  1839  he  made  up  his  mind 
to  do  so,  after  trying  in  vain  to  carry  on  the 
journal  in  Vienna,  it  was  with  the  intention  of 
remaining  there  but  a  short  time.  He  indulged 
in  a  dream  of  going  to  England  never  to  return  ! 
What  the  anticipations  could  have  been  that 


led  him  to  cherish  such  an  idea  we  know  not ; 
perhaps  his  friendship  for  Bennett  may  have 
led  to  it ;  but,  in  point  of  fact,  he  never  set 
foot  on  English  ground. 

As  far,  therefore,  as  making  a  home  for 
himself  went,  his  half-year's  stay  in  Vienna  was 
without  result.  But  without  doubt  Schamanii 
received  impulses  and  incitements  towards 
further  progress  as  a  musician  through  hu» 
acquaintance  with  Vienna  life.  A  work  which 
is  to  be  referred  directly  to  this  influence  Is 
the  <  Faschingsschwank  aus  Wien'  (op.  26. 
published  by  Spina  in  1841).  In  the  first 
movement,  which  seems  to  depict  various 
scenes  of  a  masquerade,  there  springs  up  quite 
unnoticed  the  melody  of  the  *  Marseillaise '  (p. 
7,  bar  40,  etc.  ;  Pauer's  edition,  vol.  iiL  p.  596, 
1.  1),  at  that  time  strictly  forbidden  in  Vienna. 
Schumann,  who  had  been  much  worried  by  the 
government  officials  on  account  of  his  news- 
paper, took  this  opportunity  of  playing  off  a 
good-tempered  joke  upon  them. 

It  was  very  natural  that,  with  his  enthusiastic- 
admiration  for  Schubert,  he  should  take  pains 
to  follow  out  the  traces  of  that  master,  who 
had  now  been  dead  just  ten  years.  He  visited 
the  Wiihring  cemetery,  where  Schubert  is 
buried,  divided  by  a  few  intervening  graves 
from  Beethoven.  On  the  tomb  of  the  latter  a 
steel  pen  was  Ipng  ;  this  Schumann  took  }>osses- 
sion  of,  and  being  always  fond  of  symbolical 
associations  and  mystic  connections,  used  on 
very  special  occasions.  With  it  he  wrote  his 
Symphony  in  Bb  (op.  38),  and  the  notice  of 
Schubert's  0  major  Symphony,  which  is  found 
in  the  Zeitschrift  for  1840.^  And  here  we 
encounter  one  of  the  chief  benefits  which 
Schumann  received  from  his  stay  in  Viemia. 
He  visited  Franz  Schubert's  brother  Ferdinand, 
who  showed  him  the  artistic  remains  of  his  too 
early  lost  brother,  and  among  them  the  score 
of  the  C  miyor  Symphony.  This  he  had  com- 
posed in  March  1828,  but  never  lived  to  hear 
it  performed  entire,  and  no  one  had  since  cared 
to  take  any  trouble  about  it.  Schumann 
arranged  for  the  score  to  be  sent  to  Leipzig, 
and  there  on  March  21,  1839,  it  was  perfonue<l 
for  the  first  time  under  Mendelssohn's  direction. 
Its  success  was  very  striking,  and  was  of  great 
influence  on  the  more  thorough  and  widespread 
appreciation  of  Schubert's  genius.  Schumann 
retained  pleasant  memories  of  Vienna  through- 
out his  life,  in  spite  of  the  little  notice  he 
attracted  on  this  occasion,  and  the  meagn- 
success  of  a  concert  consisting  of  his  own  works, 
which  he  gave  with  his  wife  on  a  subsequent 
visit  in  the  winter  of  1846.  In  the  summer 
of  1847  he  even  wished  to  apply  for  a  vacant 
post  on  the  board  of  direction  at  theCouserva- 
torium,  but  when  the  year  1848  came,  he  was 
extremely  glad  that  the  plan  had  come  to 
nothing. 

I  See  Blao  tho  Gnammrit*  SehrifttH,  Ui.  1»> 


1839— 


SCHUMANN 


—  1840 


357 


At  the  beginning  of  April  1839  Schumann 
returned  to  his  old  life  in  Leipzig.  He  devoted 
himself  with  new  zest  to  the  interests  of  the 
jonnial,  and  delighted  in  once  more  being 
associated  with  prominent  and  sympathetic 
masicians.  In  the  summer  he  paid  a  short 
visit  to  Berlin,  which  pleased  and  interested 
him  from  its  contrast  to  Vienna. 

Unfortunately  Wieck's  opinion  as  to  the 
match  between  Schumann  and  his  daughter 
remained  unchanged,  and  his  opposition  to  it 
became  even  stronger  and  more  iirmly  rooted. 
Since  persuasion  was  unavailing,  Schumann 
was  forced  to  call  in  the  assistance  of  the  law, 
and  Wieck  had  to  account  for  his  refusal  in 
court  The  case  dragged  on  for  a  whole  year, 
but  the  final  result  was  that  Wieck's  objections 
to  the  marriage  were  pronounced  to  be  trivial 
and  without  foundation.  A  sensitive  nature 
such  as  Schumann's  must  have  been  deeply 
pained  by  these  difficulties,  and  the  long-delayed 
decision  must  have  kept  him  in  disastrous  sus- 
pense. His  letters  show  signs  of  this.  For 
the  rest,  his  outward  circumstances  had  so 
much  improved,  that  he  could  easily  afford  to 
make  a  home  without  the  necessity  of  such  a 
round  of  work  as  he  bad  attempted  in  Vienna. 
•We  are  young,'  he  writes  on  Feb.  19,  1840, 
*  and  have  hands,  strength,  and  reputation  ; 
and  I  have  a  little  property  that  brings  in 
500  thalers  a  year.  The  profits  of  the  paper 
amount  to  as  much  again,  and  I  shall  get  well 
jiftid  for  my  compositions.  Tell  me  now  if 
there  can  be  real  cause  for  fear.'  One  thing 
alone  made  him  pause  for  a  time.  His  bride- 
elect  was  decorated  with  different  titles  of 
honour  from  the  courts  at  which  she  had  played 
in  her  concert-tours.  He  himself  had,  it  is 
true,  been  latterly  made  a  member  of  several 
musical  societies,  but  that  was  not  enough. 
In  the  beginning  of  1840  he  executed  a  scheme 
which  he  had  cherished  since  1838,  and  applied 
to  the  university  of  Jena  for  the  title  of  Doctor 
of  Philosophy.  Several  cases  in  which  the 
(ierman  universities  had 'granted  the  doctor's 
diploma  to  musicians  had  lately  come  under 
Schumann's  notice  ;  for  instance  the  university 
of  Leipzig  had  given  the  honorary  degree  to 
Marschner  in  1835,  and  to  Mendelssohn  in 
1836,  and  these  may  have  suggested  the  idea 
to  him.  Schumann  received  the  desired  diploma 
CD  February  24,  1840.  As  he  had  wished,  the 
reason  assigned  for  its  bestowal  is  his  well- 
known  activity  not  only  as  a  critical  and 
aesthetic  writer,  but  as  a  creative  musician. 
At  last,  after  a  year  of  suspense,  doubts,  and 
disagreements,  the  marriage  of  Robert  Schu- 
mann with  Clara  Wieck  took  place  on  Sept. 
12,  1840,  in  the  church  of  Schonefeld,  near 
Leipzig. 

The  *  Davidsbiindlertanze,'  previously  men- 
tioned, bore  on  the  title-page  of  the  first  edition 
an  old  verse — 


In  all  und  jeder  Zeit 
Verkniipft  sich  Lust  und  Leld  : 
Bleibt  fyomm  in  Lust,  und  seyd 
Beim  Leid  uiit  Muth  bereit ; 

And  when  we  observe  that  the  two  first  bars  of 
the  first  piece  are  borrowed  from  a  composition 
by  Clara  Wieck  (op.  6,  No.  6),  we  understand 
the  allusion.  Schimiann  himself  admits  that 
his  compositions  for  the  piano  written  during 
the  period  of  his  courtship  reveal  much  of  his 
personal  experience  and  feelings,  and  his  creative 
work  in  1840  is  of  a  very  striking  character. 
Up-  to  this  time,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Symphony  in  6  minor,  which  has  remained 
unknown,  he  had  written  only  for  the  piano ; 
now  he  suddenly  threw  himself  into  vocal 
composition,  and  the  stream  of  his  invention 
rushed  at  once  into  this  new  channel  with  such 
force  that  in  that  single  year  he  wrote  above 
one  hundred  songs.  Nor  was  it  in  number 
alone,  but  in  intrinsic  value  also,  that  in  this 
department  the  work  of  this  year  was  the  most 
remarkable  of  all  Schumann's  life.  It  is  not 
improbable  that  his  stay  in  Vienna  had  some 
share  in  this  sudden  rush  into  song,  and  in 
opening  Schumann's  mind  to  the  charms  of 
pure  melody.  But  still,  when  we  look  through 
the  words  of  his  songs,  it  is  clear  that  here 
more  than  anywhere,  love  was  the  prompter 
— love  that  had  endured  so  long  a  struggle, 
and  at  last  attained  the  goal  of  its  desires. 
This  w  confirmed  by  the  *  Myrthen '  (op.  25), 
which  he  dedicated  to  the  laidy  of  his  choice, 
and  the  twelve  songs  from  Riickert's  Liehes- 
frilhling  (op.  37),  which  were  written  con- 
jointly by  the  two  lovers.  '  I  am  now  writing 
nothing  but  songs  great  and  small,'  he  says  to 
a  friend  on  Feb.  19,  1840  ;  *I  can  hardly  tell 
you  how  delightful  it  is  to  write  for  the  voice 
as  compared  with  instrumental  composition, 
and  what  a  stir  and  tumult  I  feel  within  me 
when  I  sit  down  to  it.  I  have  brought  forth 
quite  new  things  in  this  line.'  With  the  close 
of  1840  he  felt  that  he  had  worked  out  the 
vein  of  expression  in  the  form  of  song  with 
pianoforte  accompaniment,  almost  to  perfection. 
Some  one  expressed  a  hope  that  after  such  a 
banning  a  promising  future  lay  before  him 
as  a  song -writer,  but  Schumann  answered,  *I 
cannot  venture  to  promise  that  I  shall  produce 
anything  further  in  the  way  of  songs,  and  I 
am  satisfied  with  what  I  have  done.'  And  he 
was  right  in  his  firm  opinion  as  to  the  peculiar 
character  of  this  form  of  music.  *In  your 
essay  on  song-writing,'  he  says  to  a  colleague 
in  the  ZeUschrifl,  *  it  has  somewhat  distressed 
me  that  you  should  have  placed  me  in  the 
second  rank.  I  do  not  ask  to  stand  in  the 
first,  but  I  think  I  have  some  pretensions  to  a 
place  of  my  own,* 

As  far  as  anything  human  can  be,  the  marriage 
was  perfectly  happy.  Besides  their  genius,  both 
husband  and  wife  had  simple  domestic  tastes, 
and  were  strong  enough  to  bear  the  admiration 


358 


1840- 


SCHUMANN 


-1843 


of  the  world  without  becoming  egotistical.  They 
lived  for  one  another,  and  for  their  children. 
He  created  and  wrote  for  hia  wife,  and  in  ac- 
cordance with  her  temperament;  while  she 
looked  upon  it  as  her  highest  privilege  to  give 
to  the  world  the  most  perfect  interpretation  of 
his  works,  or  at  least  to  stand  as  mediatrix 
between  him  and  his  audience,  and  to  ward  off 
all  disturbing  or  injurious  impressions  from  his 
sensitive  soul,  which  day  by  day  became  more 
and  more  irritable.  Now  that  he  found  perfect 
contentment  in  his  domestic  relations,  he  Mrlth- 
drew  more  than  ever  from  intercourse  with 
others,  and  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  his 
family  and  his  work.  The  deep  joy  of  his  mar- 
ried Ufe  produced  the  direct  result  of  a  mighty 
advance  in  his  artistic  progress.  Schumann's 
most  beautiful  works  in  the  larger  forms  date 
almost  exclusively  from  the  years  1841  to  1845. 

In  1841  he  turned  his  attention  to  the  Sym- 
phony, as  he  had  done  in  the  previous  year  to 
the  Song,  and  composed,  in  this  year  alone,  no 
fewer  than  three  symphonic  works.  The  Bb 
Symphony  (op.  88)  was  performed  as  early  as 
March  31,  1841,  at  a  concert  given  by  Clara 
Schumann  in  the  Gewandhaus  at  Leipzig. 
Mendelssohn  conducted  it,  and  i)erformed  the 
task  with  so  much  zeal  and  care  as  truly  to 
delight  his  friend.  The  other  two  orchestral 
works  were  given  at  a  concert  on  Dec.  6  of  the 
same  year,  but  did  not  meet  with  so  much 
success  as  the  former  one.  Schumann  thought 
that  the  two  together  were  too  much  at  once  ; 
and  they  had  not  the  advantage  of  Mendelssohn's 
able  and  careful  direction,  for  he  was  spending 
that  winter  in  Berlin.  Schumann  put  these 
two  works  away  for  a  time,  and  published  the 
Bb  Symphony  alone.  The  proper  title  of  one 
of  these  was  '  Symphonistische  Phantosie,'  but 
it  was  performed  under  the  title  of  <  Second 
Symphony,'  and,  in  1851,  the  instrumentation 
having  been  revised  and  completed,  was  pub- 
lished as  the  4th  Symphony  (D  minor,  op.  120). 
The  other  was  brought  out  under  an  altereii 
arrangement,  which  he  made  in  1845,  with  the 
title  *  Ouverture,  Scherzo,  et  Finale '  (op.  52)  ; 
and  it  is  said  that  Schumann  originally  intended 
to  call  it  *  Sinfonietta.'  Besides  these  orchestral 
works  the  first  movement  of  the  Pianoforte 
Concerto  in  A  minor  was  written  in  1841.  It 
was  at  first  intended  to  form  an  independent 
piece  with  the  title  of  '  Fantasie.'  As  appears 
from  a  letter  of  Schumann's  to  David,  it  was 
once  rehearsed  by  the  Gewandhaus  orchestra  in 
the  winter  of  1841-42.  Schumann  did  not 
write  the  last  two  movements  which  complete 
the  concerto  until  1845. 

The  year  1842  was  devoted  to  chamber  music. 
The  three  string  quartets  deserve  to  be  first 
mentioned,  since  the  date  of  their  composition 
can  be  fixed  with  the  greatest  certainty. 
Although  Schumann  was  unused  to  this  style 
of  writing,  he  composed  the  quartets  in  about 


a  month — a  certain  sign  that  bis  faculties 
were  as  clear  as  his  imagination  was  rich.  In 
the  autograph,^  after  moet  of  the  movements 
is  written  the  date  of  their  completion.  The 
Adagio  of  the  first  quartet  bears  the  date  June 
21,  1842  ;  the  finale  was  '  finished  on  St  John's 
day,  June  24,  1842,  in  Leipzig.'  In  the  second 
quartet  the  second  movement  is  dated  July  2, 
1842,  and  the  last  July  5,  1842,  Leipzig.  The 
third  is  dated  as  follows :  first  movement,  July 
18,  second  July  20,  third  July  21,  and  the 
fourth  Leipzig,  July  22,  all  of  the  name  year. 
Thus  the  two  last  movements  took  the  com- 
poser only  one  day  each.  These  quartets, 
which  are  dedicated  to  Mendelssohn,  were  at 
once  taken  up  by  the  Leipzig  musicians  with 
great  interest.  The  praise  bestowed 'upon  them 
by  Ferdinand  David  called  forth  a  letter  from 
Schumann,  addressed  to  him,  which  merits 
quotation,  as  showing  how  modest  and  how 
ideal  as  an  artist  Schumann  was: — *Hartel 
told  me  how  very  kindly  you  had  spoken  to 
him  about  my  quartets,  and,  coming  from  yon, 
it  gratified  me  exceedingly.  But  I  shall  hare 
to  do  better  yet,  and  I  feel,  with  each  new 
work,  as  if  I  ought  to  begin  all  over  again  from 
the  beginning.'  In  the  beginning  of  October 
of  this  year  the  quartets  were  played  at  David's 
house  ;  Hauptmann  was  present,  and  expressed 
his  surprise  at  Schumann's  talent,  which,  judging 
only  from  the  earlier  pianoforte  works,  he  had 
fancied  not  nearly  so  great.  With  each  new 
work  Schumann  now  made  more  triumphant 
way — at  all  events  in  Leipzig.  The  same  year 
witnessed  the  production  of  that  work  to  which 
he  chiefly  owes  his  fame  throughout  Europe — 
the  Quintet  for  Pianoforte  and  Strings  (op.  44). 
The  first  public  performance  took  place  in  the 
Gewandhaus  on  Jan.  8,  1848,  his  wife,  to  whom 
it  is  dedicated,  taking  the  pianoforte  part. 
Berlioz,  who  came  to  Leipzig  in  184S,  and 
there  made  Schumann's  personal  acquaintance, 
heard  the  quintet  performed,  and  carried  the 
fame  of  it  to  Paris.  Besides  the  quintet,  Schu- 
mann wrote,  in  18^,  the  Pianoforte  Quartet 
(op.  47)  and  a  Pianoforte  Trio.  The  trio, 
however,  remained  unpublished  for  ei^t  years, 
and  then  appeared  as  op.  88,  under  the  title 
of  *  Phantasiestiicke  for  Pianoforte,  Violin,  and 
Violoncello.'  The  quartet  too  was  laid  aside  for 
a  time ;  it  was  first  publicly  performed  on  Dec  8. 
1844,  by  Madame  Schumann,  in  the  Gewand- 
haus, David  of  course  taking  the  violin  part,  and 
Niels  W.  Gade,  who  was  directing  the  Gewand- 
haus concerts  that  winter,  playing  the  yiola. 

With  the  year  1848  came  a  total  change  of 
style.  The  first  work  to  appear  was  op.  46, 
the  Variations  for  two  pianos,  which  are  now 
so  popular,  and  to  which  Mendelssohn  may 
have  done  some  service  by  introducing  them  to 
the  public,  in  company  with  Mme.  Schumann, 
on   August   19,    1843.      The    principal  work 

1  Kow  In  the  poueMioa  of  H«rr  Rajmond  Hirtal.  of  Lrtpslg. 


1843— 


SCHUMANN 


-1846 


359 


of  the  year,  however,  was  'Paradise  and  the 
Peri,'  a  grand  composition  for  solo-voioeB,  chorus, 
and  orchestra,  to  a  text  ad&pted  from  Moore's 
*■  Lalla  Bookh.'  The  enthusiasm  created  by 
this  work  at  its  first  performance  (Dec.  4, 1848), 
conducted  by  the  composer  himself,  was  so  great 
that  it  had  to  be  repeated  a  week  afterwards, 
on  Dec.  11,  and  on  the  23rd  of  the  same  month 
it  was  performed  in  the  Opera  House  at  Dresden. 
It  will  be  easily  believed  that  from  this  time 
Schumann's  fame  was  firmly  established  in 
Gennany,  although  it  took  twenty  years  more 
to  make  his  work  widely  and  actually  popular. 
Having  been  so  fortunate  in  his  first  attempt 
in  a  branch  of  art  hitherto  untried  by  him,  he 
felt  induced  to  undertake  another  work  of  the 
same  kind,  and  in  1844  began  writing  the 
second  of  his  two  most  important  choral  works, 
namely,  the  music  to  Goethe's  'Faust'  For 
some  time,  however,  the  work  consisted  only  of 
four  numbers.  His  uninterrupted  labours  had 
so  affected  his  health,  that  in  this  year  he  was 
obliged  for  a  time  to  forego  all  exertion  of  the 
kind. 

The  first  four  years  of  his  married  life  were 
passed  in  profound  retirement,  but  veiy  rarely 
intermptecL  In  the  beginning  of  1842  he  ac- 
companied his  wife  on  a  concert-tour  to  Ham- 
burg, where  the  Bj^  Symphony  was  performed. 
Madame  Schumann  then  proceeded  alone  to 
Copenhagen,  while  her  husband  returned  to  his 
quiet  retreat  at  Leipzig.  In  the  summer  of  the 
same  year  the  two  artists  made  an  excursion 
into  Bohemia,  and  at  Konigswart  were  presented 
to  Prince  Mettemioh,  who  invited  them  to 
Vienna.  Schumann  at  first  took  some  pleasure 
in  these  tours,  but  soon  forgot  it  in  the  peace 
and  comfort  of  domestic  life,  and  it  cost  his  wife 
great  trouble  to  induce  him  to  make  a  longer 
journey  to  Russia  in  the  beginning  of  1844. 
Indeed  she  only  succeeded  by  declaring  that  she 
would  make  the  tour  alone  if  he  would  not 
leave  home.  '  How  unwilling  I  am  to  move  out 
of  my  quiet  round,*  he  wrote  to  a  friend,  *you 
must  not  expect  me  to  tell  you.  I  cannot 
think  of  it  without  the  greatest  annoyance.' 
However,  he  made  up  his  mind  to  it,  and  they 
started  on  Jan.  26.  His  wife  gave  concerts  in 
Mitau,  Riga,  Petersburg,  and  Moscow  ;  and  the 
enthusiasm  with  which  she  was  everywhere  re- 
ceived attracted  fresh  attention  to  Schumann's 
works,  the  constant  aim  of  her  noble  endeavours. 
Schumann  himself,  when  once  he  had  parted 
from  home,  found  much  to  enjoy  in  a  journey 
which  was  so  decidedly  and  even  brilliantly  suc- 
cessful. At  St.  Petersburg  he  was  received  with 
undiminished  cordiality  by  his  old  friend  Hen- 
selt,  who  had  made  himself  a  new  home  there. 
At  a  soir^  at  Prince  Oldenburg's  Henselt  played 
with  Mme.  Schumann  her  husband's  Varia- 
tions for  two  pianos.  The  Bb  Symphony  was 
also  performed  under  Schumann's  direction 
at  a  soir^  given  by  the  Counts  Joseph  and 


Michael  Wielhorsky,  highly  esteemed  musical 
connoisseurs  ;  and  it  is  evident  that  the  dedica- 
tion of  Schumann's  PF.  Quartet  (op.  47)  to  a 
Count  Wielhorsky  was  directly  connected  with 
this  visit. 

In  June  they  were  once  more  in  Leipzig,  and 
so  agreeable  were  the  reminiscences  of  the 
journey  that  Schumann  was  ready  at  once  with 
a  fresh  plan  of  the  same  kind — this  time  for  a 
visit  to  England  with  his  wife  in  the  following 
year ;  not,  indeed,  as  he  had  once  intended, 
with  a  view  to  permanent  residence,  but  merely 
that  she  might  win  fresh  laurels  as  a  player, 
and  he  make  himself  known  as  a  composer.  He 
proposed  to  conduct  parts  of  *  Paradise  and  the 
Peri  '  in  London,  and  anticipated  a  particular 
success  for  it  because  the  work  *  had,  as  it  were, 
sprung  from  English  soil,  and  was  one  of  the 
sweetest  flowers  of  English  verse.'  On  June  27, 
1844,  he  writes  to  Moscheles  concerning  the 
project,  which  had  the  full  support  of  Mendels- 
sohn ;  but  the  scheme  ultimately  came  to 
nothing,  chiefly  because  of  the  refusal  of  Buxton, 
the  proprietor  of  the  publishing  firm  of  Ewer  k 
Co.,  to  bring  out  ' Paradise  and  the  Peri'  with 
English  words.  Still  Schumann,  even  long 
after,  kept  his  eye  steadily  fixed  on  England. 
He  was  delighted  at  being  told  that  Queen 
Victoria  often  listened  to  his  music,  and  had 
had  the  Bb  Symphony  ^  played  by  the  private 
band  at  Windsor,  and  he  contemplated  dedica- 
ting his  Manfred  music  (op.  1 1 5)  to  Her  Migesty, 
but  the  idea  was  given  up. 

Instead  of  going  to  England,  they  at  length 
paid  a  visit  to  Vienna  in  the  winter  of  1846. 
Here  again  Schumann  conducted  his  Bb  Sym- 
phony, and  his  wife  played  his  Pianoforte 
Concerto.  This  was  on  Jan.  1,  1847.  But  the 
publiowere  perfectly  unsympathetic,  and  justified 
an  earlier  utterance  of  Schumann's  that  'The 
Viennese  are  an  ignorant  people,  and  know  little 
of  what  goes  on  outside  their  own  city.'  Nor 
were  matters  much  more  satisfistctory  in  Berlin, 
whither  they  went  from  Vienna  to  conduct 
*  Paradise  and  the  Peri' ;  while  in  Prague,  where 
they  performed  on  their  way,  they  met  with 
the  wannest  reception. 

The  year  1844  was  the  last  of  Schumann's 
residence  in  Leipzig  ;  for  in  October  he  left  the 
town  where  he  had  lived  and  worked  with  short 
intervals  for  fourteen  years,  and  moved  to 
Dresden.  He  had  given  up  the  editorship 
of  the  Neue  ZeUschrift  in  July,  and  from  April 
3,  •1843,  had  held  a  Professor's  chair  in  the 
Conservatorium,  founded  at  Leipzig  by  Mendels- 
sohn's exertions,  and  opened  on  that  date. 
[See  vol.  ii.  p.  668  ;  voL  iii.  pp.  142,  148.1 
He  was  professor  of  pianoforte -playing  and 
composition  ;  but  his  reserved  nature  was 
little  suited  to  the  duties  of  a  teacher, 
though  his  name  and  the  example  afforded  by 

1  The  flni  pmlormuioc  of  the  Bb  Bymphooy  In  Bngland  wm  at 
th«  FhilhAnuonlc  Concert.  JaiM  6, 1894. 


360 


1844— 


SCHUMANN 


-1847 


hia  work  were  no  doubt  highly  advantageous 
to  the  infant  institution.  Schumann  had  no 
disciples,  properly  speaking,  either  in  the  Con- 
servatorium  or  as  private  pupils.  In  a  letter  to 
David  from  Dresden  he  incidentally  mentions 
Carl  Ritter  as  having  instruction  from  him,  and 
as  having  previously  been  a  pupil  of  Killer's ; 
and  he  writes  toHiller  that  he  has  brought  young 
Ritter  on  a  little.  But  what  the  style  of  Schu- 
mann's teaching  may  have  been  cannot  be  told  ; 
and  a  single  exception  only  proves  the  rule. 

The  move  to  Dresden  seems  to  have  been 
chiefly  on  account  of  Schumann's  suffering 
condition.  His  nervous  affection  rendered 
change  of  scene  absolutely  necessary  to  divert 
his  thoughts.  He  had  overworked  himself  into 
a  kind  of  surfeit  of  music,  so  much  so  that  his 
medical  attendant  forbade  his  continually  hear- 
ing it.  In  the  musical  world  of  Leipzig  such 
a  prohibition  could  not  be  strictly  obeyed,  but 
at  Dresden  it  was  quite  different.  *  Here,' 
he  writes  to  David  on  Nov.  25,  1844,  '  one  can 
get  back  the  old  lost  longing  for  music,  there 
is  so  little  to  hear  !  It  just  suits  my  condition, 
for  I  still  suffer  very  much  from  my  nerves,  and 
everything  affects  and  exhausts  me  directly.' 
Accordingly  he  at  first  lived  in  Dresden  in  the 
strictest  seclusion.  A  friend  sought  him  out 
there  and  found  him  so  changed  that  he  enter- 
tained grave  fears  for  his  life.  On  several' 
occasions  he  tried  sea-bathing,  but  it  was  long 
before  his  health  can  be  said  to  have  radically 
improved.  In  February  1846,  after  a  slight  im- 
provement, he  again  became  very  unwell,  as  he 
did  also  in  the  summer  of  the  following  year.  He 
observed  that  he  was  unable  to  remember  the 
melodies  that  occurred  to  him,  when  composing  ; 
the  effort  of  invention  fatiguing  his  mind  to 
such  a  degree  as  to  impair  his  memory.  As 
soon  as  a  lasting  improvement  took  place  in 
his  health,  he  again  devoted  himself  wholly 
to  composition.  He  was  now  attracted  more 
powerfully  than  before  to  complicated  contra- 
puntal forms.  The  *  Studies '  and  *  Sketches ' 
for  the  pedal-piano  (opp.  56  and  58),  the  six 
fugues  on  the  name  of  '  Bach  *  (op.  60)  and  the 
four  piano  fugues  (op.  72),  owe  their  existence 
to  this  attraction.  The  greatest  work  of  the 
years  1845-46,  however,  was  the  C  major  Sym- 
phony (op.  61),  which  Mendelssohn  produced 
at  the  Gewandhaus  in  Leipzig,  Nov.  6,  1846. 
Slight  intercourse  with  a  few  congenial  spirits 
was  now  gradually  resumed.  Among  those 
whom  he  saw  was  the  widow  of  C.  M.  v.  Weber, 
whose  fine  musical  feeling  was  highly  valued  by 
Schumann.  The  first  year  in  Dresden  was  spent 
with  Ferdinand  Hiller,  who  had  been  living 
there  since  the  winter  of  1 844.  Their  intercourse 
gradually  grew  into  a  lively  and  lasting  intimacy. 
When  Hiller  was  getting  up  subscription  con- 
certs in  the  autumn  of  1845,  Schumann  took 
an  active  share  in  the  undertaking.  With 
Richard  Wagner,   too,   then  Gapellmeister  at 


Dresden,  he  was  on  friendly  terms.  He  was 
much  interested  in  the  opera  of  'Tannhauaer' 
and  heard  it  often,*  expressing  his  opinion  of  it 
in  terms  of  great  though  not  unqualified  praise. 
But  the  natures  of  the  two  musicians  differed  too 
widely  to  allow  of  any  real  sympatliy  between 
them.  Wagner  was  always  lively,  versatile,  and 
talkative,  while  Schumann's  foi-mer  silence  and 
reserve  had  increased  since  his  illness,  and  even 
intimate  friends,  like  Moscheles  and  Lijunski, 
had  to  lament  that  conversation  with  him  was 
now  scarcely  possible. 

At  the  end  of  Schumann's  collected  works 
we  find  a  Thcaierbiichlein  (1847-60),  in  which 
are  given  short  notes  of  the  impressions  made 
upon  him  by  certain  operas.  From  this  we 
learn  that  in  1847  he  went  comparatively  often 
to  the  theatre  ;  the  reason  being  that  at  that 
time  he  himself  was  composing  an  opera.  He 
had  long  cherished  the  idea.  So  early  as 
Sept  1,  1842,  he  writes,  'Do  you  know  what 
is  my  morning  and  evening  prayer  as  an  artist  t 
German  Opera.  There  is  a  field  for  work." 
He  concludes  a  critique  of  an  opera  by  Heinrich 
Esser  in  the  number  of  the  ZeUscKrift  for 
September  1842  with  these  significant  words 
— *It  is  high  time  that  German  composers 
should  give  the  lie  to  the  reproach  that  has 
long  lain  on  them  of  having  been  so  cra^'en  as 
to  leave  the  field  in  possession  of  the  Italians 
and  French.  But  under  this  head  there  is  a 
word  to  be  said  to  the  German  poets  also.'  In 
1844  he  composed  a  chorus  and  an  aria  for  an 
opera  on  Byron's  Corsair,  The  work,  however, 
went  no  farther,  and  the  two  pieces  still  remain 
unpublished.  He  also  corresponded  with  his 
friend  Zuccalmaglio  as  to  the  subject  for  an 
opera,  which  he  wished  to  find  ready  on  hia 
return  from  Russia ;  and  made  notes  on  more 
than  twenty  different  subjects  of  all  kinds, 
periods,  and  nationalities ;  but  none  of  these 
were  found  suitable,  and  circumstances  led  to 
the  abandonment  of  the  project.  At  length, 
in  1847,  he  decided  on  the  legend  of  St. 
Genevieve.  The  two  versions  of  the  story 
contained  in  the  tragedies  of  Tieck  and  Hebbel 
(principally  that  of  Hebbel)  were  to  serve  as 
the  basis  of  the  text.  The  treatment  of  the 
words  he  persuaded  Robert  Reinick,  the  poet, 
who  had  been  living  in  Dresden  since  1844,  to 
undertake.  Reinick,  however,  failed  to  satisfy 
him,  and  Hebbel,  who  came  to  Dresden  at  the 
end  of  July  1847,  could  not  say  that  he  thought 
it  a  satisfactory  text,  though  he  declined  to 
assist  in  remedying  the  deficiencies  and  bringing 
it  into  the  desired  form.  This,  however,  was 
from  no  lack  of  interest  in  Schumann  himself. 
On  the  contrary  Hebbel  always  preserved  the 
highest  esteem  for  him,  and  subsequently 
dedicated  to  him  his  drama  of  Michrl  AngelOy 
accepting  in  return  from  Schumann  the  dedica- 
tion of  his  *  Nschtlied '  (op.  108).  But  it  was 
repugnant  to  him  to  see  his  work  mutilated  in 


1848— 


SCHUMANN 


—1860 


361 


tlie  way  which  Schnmann  considered  necessary 
for  an  opera.  The  composer  was  at  last  obliged 
to  trust  to  his  own  poetic  powers,  and  oon- 
stroct  a  text  himself  from  those  already  men- 
tioned. 

By  Angost  1848  the  music  for  the  opera  was 
so  far  complete  that  Schumann  thought  he 
might  take  steps  for  its  jierfonnanoe.  His  first 
thought  was  of  the  theatre  at  Leipzig,  where 
he  knew  that  he  was  most  warmly  remembered. 
M^irsing  was  at  that  time  the  director,  Julius 
Bietz  the  conductor,  and  the  opera  was  to  have 
been  brought  out  in  the  spring  of  1849,  but  it 
came  to  nothing.  In  June,  when  the  prepara- 
tions  were  to  have  begun,  Schumann  was 
detained  by  domestic  circumstances,  and  the 
rest  of  the  year  slipped  away  with  constant 
evasions  and  promises  on  the  part  of  the 
director  of  the  theatre.  Even  the  promise, 
*on  his  honour,'  that  the  opera  should  be 
performed  at  the  end  of  February  1850,  at 
latest,  was  not  kept  And  so  in  this,  his  very 
first  attempt  at  dramatic  work,  Schumann 
made  acquaintance  with  the  shady  side  of 
theatrical  management  in  a  way  which  must 
have  disgusted  his  upright  and  honourable 
spirit.  In  his  indignation,  he  would  have 
made  the  director's  breach  of  faith  public,  by 
invoking  the  aid  of  the  law ;  but  his  Leipzig 
friends  were  happily  able  to  dissuade  him  from 
this  course.  At  last,  on  June  25,  1850,  the 
first  repTOsentation  of  '  Genoveva '  actually  took 
place  nnder  Schumann's  own  direction.  But 
the  time  was  unfavourable.  'Who,'  he  writes 
to  Dr.  Hermann  Hartel,  'goes  to  the  theatre 
in  3fay  or  June,  and  not  rather  into  the  woods  ?' 
However,  the  number  of  his  admirers  in  Leipzig 
was  great,  and  the  first  opera  by  so  famous  a 
master  excited  great  expectations ;  the  house 
was  full,  and  the  reception  by  the  public, 
though  not  enthusiastic,  was  honourable  to  the 
composer.  Still,  artists  and  connoisseurs  were 
tolerably  unanimous  in  thinking  that  Schumann 
lacked  the  special  genius  for  writing  opera. 
His  almost  entire  exclusion  of  recitative  was 
very  widely  disapproved  of.  No  one  but  the 
venerable  Spohr,  who  had  attended  many  of 
the  rehearsals,  gave  a  really  favourable  verdict 
upon  the  work.  In  his  last  opera,  'The 
Crusaders,'  Spohr  himself  had  adopted  similar 
methods  of  making  the  music  follow  the  plot 
closely  without  ever  coming  to  a  standstill, 
and  he  was  naturally  delighted  to  find  the 
same  in  Schumann's  work.  After  three  repre- 
sentations (June  25,  28,  30)  'Genoveva'  was 
laid  aside  for  the  time.  Schnmann,  already 
vexed  by  the  tedious  postponements  of  the 
first  performance,  and  disappointed  by  the  cold 
reception  of  the  work,  was  greatly  annoyed  by 
the  discussions  in  the  public  prints,  especially 
by  a  critique  from  Dr.  £.  Kruger,  one  of  the 
collaborateurs  in  the  Neiu  ZcUachrifl,  A  letter 
from  Schumann  to  Kriiger,  in  stronger  terms 


than  might  have  been  expected  from  him,  put 
an  end  for  ever  to  their  acquaintance. 

Schumann  derived  far  more  gratification 
from  the  reception  of  his  music  to  'Faust' 
In  1848  he  completed  the  portion  he  had 
originally  intended  to  write  first,  viz.  the 
salvation  of  Faust,  which  forms  the  end  of  the 
second  part  of  Goethe's  poem,  and  the  music  of 
which  is  called  the  'third  part.'  On  June  25, 
1848,  the  first  performance  took  place  among 
a  limited  circle  of  friends,  upon  whom  it  made 
a  deep  impression.  The  most  cultivated  por- 
tion of  the  audience  was  of  opinion  that  the 
music  made  the  meaning  of  the  words  clear  for 
the  firet  time,  so  deeply  imbued  was  the  com- 
poser with  the  poet's  inmost  spirit.  As  the 
100th  anniversary  of  Goethe's  birthday  was 
approaching  (August  28,  1849)  it  was  decided 
to  give  a  festival  concert  in  Dresden,  at  which 
this  'Faust'  music  and  Mendelssohn's  'Wal- 
purgisnacht'  should  form  the  programme. 
"When  the  Leipzig  people  heard  of  this  inten- 
tion, they  would  not  be  behind  Dresden,  and 
also  got  up  a  performance  of  the  same  works 
on  August  29..  In  Weimar  too  the  'Faust' 
music  was  performed  for  the  same  festivity. 
Schumann  was  exceedingly  delighted  that  his 
work  had  been  employed  for  so  special  an 
occasion.  He  writes  to  Dr.  Hartel :  '  I  should 
like  to  have  Faust's  cloak,  and  be  able  to  be 
everywhere  at  once,  tliat  I  might  hear  it*  In 
Dresden  the  success  of  the  work  was  very 
considerable,  but  it  made  less  impression  at  its 
first  performance  in  Leipzig.  Schumann  took 
this  quite  calmly.  '  I  hear  different  accounts,' 
says  he  in  a  letter,  '  of  the  impression  produced 
by  my  scenes  from  "Faust" ;  some  seem  to  have 
been  afiectcd,  while  upon  others  it  made  no 
definite  impression.  This  is  what  I  expected. 
Perhaps  an  opportunity  may  occur  in  the  winter 
for  a  repetition  of  the  work,  when  it  is  possible 
that  I  may  add  some  other  scenes.'  This 
repetition,  however,  did  not  take  place  in  Schu- 
mann's lifetime.  He  fulfilled  his  scheme  of 
adding  several  scenes;  and  in  1853  prefixed 
an  overture  to  the  whole  work,  which  was 
divided  into  three  parts.  It  was  not  published 
complete  until  two  years  after  his  death. 

In  the  meantime,  Schumann's  health  had 
again  improved,  as  was  evident  from  his  aug- 
mented creative  activity.  Indeed  his  eager 
desire  for  work  increased  in  a  way  which  gave 
rise  to  great  apprehensions.  In  the  year  1849 
alone  he  produced  thirty  works,  most  of  them 
of  considerable  extent  It  had  never  seemed  so 
easy  to  him  to  create  ideas  and  bring  them  into 
shape.  He  composed  as  he  walked  or  stood, 
and  could  not  be  distracted,  even  by  the  most 
disturbing  circumstances.  Thus  he  wrote  Mig- 
non's  song  *  Kennst  du  das  Land '  at  Kreischa, 
near  Dresden,  in  the  midst  of  a  group  of  his 
noisy  children.  And  in  a  restaurant  near  the 
post-oflice,    much   frequented  by   the   artistic 


362 


1848— 


SCHUMANN 


-1850 


society  of  Dresden,  where  he  used  to  drink  his 
beer  in  the  evening,  he  would  usually  sit  alone, 
with  his  back  to  the  company  and  his  face  to 
the  wall,  whistling  softly  to  himself,  and  de- 
veloping his  musical  ideas  all  the  time.  No 
preference  for  any  particular  form  of  art  can  be 
traced  in  Schumann's  work  at  this  time.  Piano- 
forte works  and  chamber  trios,  songs  and  vocal 
duets,  choruses,  choral  works  with  orchestra, 
concertos  with  orchestra,  compositions  for  horn, 
clarinet,  oboe,  violoncello,  or  violin,  with  piano- 
forte accompaniment,  even  melodramatic  music 
— all  these  thronged  as  it  were  out  of  his  imagi- 
nation in  wild  and  strange  succession.  Among 
all  the  beautiful  and  important  works  produced 
at  this  time,  the  music  to  Byron's  Manfred 
deserves  especial  mention.  The  first  stage  per- 
formance of  it  was  given  by  Franz  Liszt  in 
Weimar  on  June  13,  1852.  For  that  occasion 
the  drama  was  adapted  for  the  stage  by  Schu- 
mann himself,  in  an  arrangement  which  is 
printed  as  a  preface  to  the  score  of  the  work. 
The  first  performance  of  the  music  at  a  concert 
took  place  at  Leipzig  on  March  24,  1859. 

Dresden  was  Schumann's  place  of  residence 
until  1850.  In  the  latter  years  of  his  stay 
there  his  outward  life  was  more  active  than 
before.  No  journeys  of  note  were  made,  it  is 
true,  with  the  exception  of  those  to  Vienna 
and  Berlin  already  mentioned,  and  a  longer 
expedition  undertaken  in  1850  to  Bremen  and 
Hamburg,  where  many  concerts  were  given. 
He  avoided  the  passing  disturbance  occasioned 
by  the  Dresden  insurrection  of  1849,  by  leaving 
the  town  with  his  family.  Though  no  revolu- 
tionary, like  Richard  Wagner,  scarcely  even  a 
politician,  Schumann  loved  individual  liberty 
and  wished  others  to  enjoy  it  also.  But  what 
gave  a  ditferent  aspect  to  his  life  as  a  musician 
in  the  last  years  of  his  stay  in  Dresden,  was 
his  occupation  as  a  conductor.  Ferdinand 
Hiller  had  conducted  a  choral  society  for  men's 
voices ;  and  when  he  left  Dresden  to  go  to 
Diisseldorf  as  municipal  director  of  music, 
Schumann  succeeded  him  in  his  post.  He 
conducted  the  society  for  some  time  with  great 
interest,  and  was  glad  to  find  that  his  capacity 
for  conducting  was  not  so  small  as  he  had 
generally  fancied  it  to  be.  He  was  even  induced 
to  write  a  few  works  for  male  chorus.  Three 
songs  of  War  and  Liberty  (Kriegs-  und  Freiheits- 
lieder,  op.  62)  and  seven  songs  in  canon-form, 
to  words  by  Riickert  (op.  65),  were  written  in 
1847,  and  a  grand  motet  for  double  chorus  of 
men's  voices  (op.  93)  in  1849.  But  a  nature 
like  Schumann's  could  not  thrive  in  the  atmo- 
sphere of  a  German  singing-club.  He  was  in 
all  respects  too  refined  for  the  tone  of  vulgar 
comfort,  and  often  even  of  low  sentimentality, 
wliich  pervades  these  assemblies,  and  they  could 
not  but  be  irksome  to  him.  *I  felt  myself,' 
he  says,  in  a  letter  to  Hiller  written  on  April  10, 
1849,  after  his  withdrawal,  *  out  of  my  element : 


they  were  such  nice  (hiihscIC)  people.'  This  is 
even  noticeable  in  his  compositions  for  male 
chorus ;  they  are  not  of  the  right  kind,  and 
have  in  consequence  never  been  much  song. 
Of  greater  artistic  importance  ^ras  a  society  of 
mixed  voices  which  was  constituted  in  Jannaiy 
1848,  and  of  which  Schumann  was  asked  to 
take  the  lead.  It  was  not  very  large — in  1849 
it  numbered  only  sixty  or  seventy  members — 
but  these  were  efiicient,  and  Sdiumann  was 
able  *  to  perform  correctly  any  music  he  liked 
with  pleasure  and  delight'  It  was  this  society 
that  gave  the  first  performance  of  the  third 
part  of  'Faust'  in  June  1848,  at  a  private 
party ;  Schumann  was  induced  to  write  many 
new  compositions  for  them,  and  they  did  ma<ji 
service  in  promoting  a  knowledge  of  his  music 
in  Dresden  by  two  performances  of  'Paradise 
and  the  Peri*  on  Jan.  6  and  12,  1850.  They 
even  succeeded  in  drawing  him  into  social 
amusements.  In  August  1848  a  general  ex- 
cursion was  arranged,  in  which  Schumann  took 
what  was,  for  him,  a  lively  interest. 

That  Schumann,  after  sosucoessful  a  beginning 
in  the  art  of  conducting,  considered  himself 
fitted  to  undertake  the  direction  of  performances 
on  a  larger  scale,  is  evident  from  the  following 
circumstance.  After  Mendelssohn's  death  the 
Gewandhaus  concerts  were  conducted  by  Julius 
Rietz,  who  until  1847  had  been  at  work  in 
Diisseldorf.  In  the  summer  of  1849  a  report 
reached  Dresden  that  Rietz  was  going  to  suc- 
ceed 0.  Nicolai  as  royal  Capellmeister  at  Beriin. 
Schumann  thereupon  applied  for  the  post  of 
concert  director  at  the  Gewandhaus.  Di*.  Her- 
mann Hartel  was  to  be  the  medium  of  com- 
munication, and  Schumann,  with  a  well-fonnded 
expectation  that  the  choice  would  fall  upon 
him,  gave  himself  up  for  a  time  with  great 
pleasure  to  the  idea  of  becoming  the  successor 
of  the  honoured  Mendelssohn.  *  It  would  give 
me  great  pleasure,'  he  wrote,  *■  if  the  thing  came 
to  pass.  I  long  for  regular  duty,  and  though 
I  can  never  forget  the  last  few  years,  daring 
which  I  have  lived  exclusively  as  a  composer, 
and  know  that  so  productive  and  happy  a  time 
may  perhaps  never  be  mine  again,  yet  I  feel 
impelled  towards  a  life  of  active  work,  and  my 
highest  endeavour  would  be  to  keep  up  tlie 
renown  which  the  institution  has  so  long  en- 
joyed.' This  wish  was  not  realised,  for  Rietz 
remained  in  Leipzig.  But  Schumann's  desire 
for  a  more  extended  field  of  work  as  a  conductor 
was  to  be  satisfied  in  another  way  in  the  follow- 
ing year. 

In  1850  Hiller  gave  up  his  post  in  Diisseldorf 
to  obey  a  call  to  Cologne  as  Capellmeister  to 
that  city.  He  suggested  that  Schumann  should 
be  his  successor,  and  opened  negotiations  with 
him.  Some  efforts  were  made  to  keep  him 
in  Dresden  and  to  obtain  his  appointment 
as  Capellmeister  to  the  Eong  of  Saxony ;  bat 
the  attempt  was  iwsuccessfol,  and  Schnmann 


1860 


SCHUMANN 


1860 


363 


accepted  the  directorship  at  Dusseldorf  that 
sammer,  though  he  left  his  native  place  with 
deep  regret,  and  not  without  some  suspicions 
as  to  the  condition  of  music  in  Dusseldorf,  of 
wiiich  he  had  heard  much  that  was  unfavour- 
able from  Mendelssohn  and  Rietz.  In  his  new 
post  he  had  the  direction  of  a  vocal  union  and 
of  an  orchestra,  and  a  number  of  concerts  to 
oondnct  in  the  course  of  the  winter.  He  arrived 
at  Diisseldorf,  Sept  2,  1850,  and  the  first 
winter  concert  was  in  some  sort  a  formal  recep- 
tion of  him,  since  it  consisted  of  the  overture  to 
'Genoyeva,'  some  of  his  songs,  and  Part  I.  of 
'  Paradise  and  the  Peri.'  It  was  under  the 
direction  of  Julius  Tausch,  Schumann  him- 
self appearing  as  conductor  for  the  first  time 
on  Oct.  24. 

He  was  very  well  satisfied  with  his  new 
sphere  of  work.  The  vocal  resources,  as  is  the 
case  ydth.  all  the  choirs  of  the  Rhine  towns,  were 
admirable  ;  Hiller  had  cultivated  them  with 
special  zeal,  and  he  and  Rietz  had  left  the  or- 
chestra so  well  drilled  that  Schumann,  for  the 
firat  time  in  his  life,  enjoyed  the  inestimable 
advantage  of  being  able  to  hear  everything  that 
he  wrote  for  the  orchestra  performed  imme- 
diately. The  concerts  took  up  no  more  of  his 
time  than  he  was  willing  to  give,  and  left  him 
ample  leisure  for  his  own  work.  Chamber  music 
was  also  attainable,  for  in  J.  von  Wasielewski 
there  was  a  good  solo  -violinist  on  the  spot. 
Schumann  and  his  wife  were  at  once  welcomed 
in  Diisseldorf  with  the  greatest  respect,  and 
every  attention  and  consideration  was  shown 
to  them  both.  It  might  be  said  that  their 
position  here  was  one  of  special  ease,  and  they 
soon  formed  a  delightful  circle  of  intimate 
acquaintances.  Little  as  his  music  was  then 
known  in  the  Rhine-cities,  Schumann's  advent 
in  peiBon  seems  to  have  given  a  strong  impulse 
to  the  public  feeling  for  music  in  Diisseldorf. 
The  interest  in  the  subscription  concerts  during 
the  winter  of  1850  was  greater  than  it  had  ever 
been  before  ;  and  the  board  of  directors  was  able, 
at  the  dose  of  the  usual  series  of  six  concerts, 
to  undertake  a  second  series  of  three  or  four. 
At  Schumann's  instance  one  of  the  winter  con- 
certs was  entirely  devoted  to  the  works  of  living 
comi)oeer8,  an  idea  then  perfectly  novel,  and 
showing  that  he  had  remained  faithful  to  his 
desire — manifested  long  before  through  the 
Ztitadvrifl — of  facilitating  the  advancement  of 
young  and  gifted  composers.  At  first  Schuman  n's 
direction  gave  entire  satisfaction.  If  some  per- 
formances were  not  perfectly  successful,  they 
were  compensated  for  by  others  of  special 
excellence  ;  and  the  execution  of  Beethoven's 
A  major  Symphony  at  the  third  concert  even 
seemed  to  show  that  he  was  a  bom  conductor. 
But  it  was  not  so  in  reality ;  indeed  he  was 
wholly  wanting  in  the  real  talent  for  conducting  ; 
all  who  ever  saw  him  conduct  or  who  played 
under  his  direction  are  agreed  on  this  point 


Irrespective  of  the  fact  that  conducting  for  any 
length  of  time  tired  him  out,  he  had  neither 
the  coUectedness  and  prompt  presence  of  mind, 
nor  the  sympathetic  faculty,  nor  the  enterprising 
dash,  without  each  of  which  coTiducling  in  the 
true  sense  is  impossible.  He  even  found  a 
difficulty  in  starting  at  a  given  tempo  ;  nay,  he 
sometimes  shrank  from  giving  any  initial  beat ; 
so  that  some  energetic  pioneer  would  begin 
without  waiting  for  the  signal,  and  without 
incurring  Schumann's  wrath.  Besides  this, 
any  thorough  practice  bit  by  bit  with  his  or- 
chestra, with  instructive  remarks  by  the  way  as 
to  the  mode  of  execution,  was  impossible  to  this 
great  artist,  who  in  this  respect  was  a  striking 
contrast  to  Mendelssohn.  He  would  have  a 
piece  played  through,  and  if  it  did  not  answer 
to  his  wishes,  had  it  repeated.  If  it  went  no 
better  the  second,  or  perhaps  even  a  third  time, 
he  would  be  extremely  angry  at  what  he  con- 
sidered the  clumsiness  or  even  the  ill-'v^'ill  of  the 
players  ;  but  detailed  remarks  he  never  made. 
Any  one  knowing  his  silent  nature  and  his 
instinctive  dislike  to  contact  with  the  outer 
world,  might  certainly  have  feared  from  the 
first  that  he  would  find  great  difficulty  in  assert- 
ing himself  as  a  director  of  large  masses.  And 
as  years  went  on  his  incapacity  for  conduct- 
ing constantly  increased,  as  the  issue  showed, 
with  the  growth  of  an  illness,  which,  after 
seeming  to  have  been  completely  overcome  in 
Dresden,  returned  in  Diisseldorf  with  increasing 
gravity.  His  genius  seemed  constantly  to  shrink 
from  the  outside  world  into  the  depths  of  his 
soul.  His  silence  became  a  universally  accei^ted 
fact,  and  to  those  who  saw  him  for  the  first 
time  he  seemed  apathetic.  But  in  fact  he  was 
anything  rather  than  that ;  he  would  let  a 
visitor  talk  for  a  long  time  on  all  kinds  of 
subjects  without  saying  a  word,  and  then  when 
the  caller  rose  to  leave,  'not  to  disturb  the 
master  longer,'  he  would  discover  that  Schu- 
mann  had  followed  the  one-sided  *  conversation ' 
with  unfailing  interest.  When  sitting  for  an 
hour,  as  he  was  accustomed  of  an  evening,  with 
friends  or  acquaintances  at  the  restaurant,  if 
anything  was  said  that  touched  or  pleased  him 
he  would  give  the  speaker  a  radiant,  expressive 
glance,  but  without  a  word  ;  and  the  incessant 
creative  labours,  to  which  he  gave  himself  up  so 
long  as  he  was  able,  are  the  best  proof  of  the  rich 
vitality  which  constantly  flowed  from  the  deepest 
sources  of  his  soul.  In  the  family  circle  he  was 
a  different  man  ;  there  he  could  be  gay  and 
talkative  to  a  degree  that  would  have  surprised 
a  stranger.  He  loved  his  children  tenderly,  and 
was  fond  of  occupying  himself  with  them.  The 
three  piano  sonatas  (op.  118)  composed  for  his 
daughters  Julie,  Elise,  and  Marie,  the  Album  for 
beginners  (op.  68) ;  the  Children's  Ball  (op.  130), 
and  other  pieces,  are  touching  evidence  of  the 
way  in  which  he  expressed  this  feeling  in  music. 
The  first  great  work  of  the  Diisseldorf  period 


364 


1850- 


SCHUMANN 


-1852 


was  the  Efc^  Symphony  (op.  97),  marked  by  the 
composer  as  No.  3,  although  it  is  really  the  fourth 
of  the  published  ones,  the  D  minor  Symphony 
preceding  it  in  order  of  composition.  If  we  call 
the  Overture,  Scherzo,  and  Finale  (op.  62)  a  sym- 
phony too,  then  the  Eb  Symphony  must  rank  as 
the  fifth.  It  would  seem  that  Schumann  had 
l^gun  to  work  at  it  before  his  change  of  resi- 
dence. As  soon  as  he  conceived  the  project  of 
leaving  Saxony  for  the  Rhine,  he  bethought 
himself  of  the  great  musical  festival  which  ever 
since  1818  had  been  held  in  the  lower  Rhine  ^ 
districts,  and  was  inspired  by  the  idea  of  assisting 
at  one  of  these  in  the  capacity  of  a  composer. 
He  wrote  down  this  great  work  ^ith  its  five 
movements  between  Nov.  2  and  Dec.  9,  1850. 
He  has  told  us  that  it  was  intended  to  convey 
the  impressions  which  he  received  during  a  visit 
to  Cologne ;  so  that  its  ordinary  name  of  the 

*  Rhenish  Symphony  *  may  he  accepted  as  correct. 
It  was  first  performed  at  Diisseldorf  on  Feb.  6, 
1851,  and  then  at  Cologne  on  Feb.  25,  both 
times  under  the  direction  of  the  composer,  but 
was  coldly  received  on  both  occasions.' 

Although  Schumann  had  had  no  pleasant  ex- 
periences in  connection  with  the  opera  *Geno- 
veva,'  he  was  not  to  be  deterred  from  making 
another  essay  in  dramatic  composition.    In  Oct 

1850  he  received  from  Richard  Pohl,  at  that  time 
a  student  in  the  Leipzig  university,  Schiller's 

*  Bride  of  Messina,'  arranged  as  an  opera  libretto. 
Schumann  could  not  make  up  his  mind  to  set  it 
to  music  ;  but  in  Dec.  1850  and  Jan.  1851  he 
wrote  an  Overture  to  the  *  Braut  von  Messina  * 
(op.  100),  which  showed  how  much  the  material 
of  the  play  had  interested  him,  in  spite  of  his 
refusal  to  set  it.  He  inclined  to  a  more  cheerful, 
or  even  a  comic  subject,  and  Goethe's  *  Hermann 
und  Dorothea '  seemed  to  him  appropriate  for  an 
oi^eretta.  He  consulted  several  poets  concerning 
the  arrangement,  and  having  made  out  a  scheme 
of  treatment,  wrote  the  Overture  at  Christmas 

1851  (op.  136).  The  work,  however,  progressed 
no  farther.  He  subsequently  turned  his  attention 
to  Auerbach's  *  Dorfgeschichten,'  but  without 
finding  any  good  material,  and  no  second  opera 
from  his  pen  ever  saw  the  light. 

He  completed,  however,  a  number  of  vocal 
compositions  for  the  concert-room,  in  which  his 
taste  for  dramatic  music  had  free  play.  A  young 
poet  from  Chemnitz,  Moritz  Horn,  had  sent  him 
a  faery  poem,  which  greatly  interested  him. 
After  many  abbreviations  and  alterations  made 
by  Horn  himself  at  Schumann's  suggestion,  *  The 
Pilgrimage  of  the  Rose '  (Der  Rose  Pilgerfahrt, 
op.  112)  was  really  set  to  music  between  April 
and  July  1851.  The  work,  which  both  in  form 
and  substance  resembles  'Paradise  and  the 
Peri,'  except  that  it  is  treated  in  a  manner  at 
once  more  detailed  and  more  idyllic,  had  at  first 
a  simple   pianoforte  accompaniment,    but   in 


I  flc«  thU  Dictionary,  vol.  ili.  pp.  377.  s;& 


>  1t«  lint  perfomuuioe  in 
Ardltl'a.  Doe.  4, 18R&. 


WM  at  a  OoDGart  of  Signor 


November  Schumann  arranged  it  for  orchestra. 
June  1851  is  also  the  date  of  the  composition 
of  Uhland's  ballad  '  Der  Konigssohn '  (op.  116), 
in  a  semi-dramatic  form,  to  which  indeed  he 
was  almost  driven  by  the  poem  itself.  Suhmnaiin 
was  much  pleased  \vith  his  treatment  of  this 
ballad,  which  he  set  for  soli,  chonu,  and  or- 
chestra. In  the  course  of  the  next  two  year» 
he  wrote  three  more  works  of  the  same  kind  : 
'Des  Siingers  Fluch'  (op.  189),  a  ballad  of 
Uhland's  ;  'Yom  Pagen  und  der  Konigstochter ' 
(op.  140),  a  ballad  by  Geibel ;  and  'DasGliick 
von  Edenhair  (op.  143),  a  ballad  by  Uhland. 

In  the  last  two  poems  he  made  alterations  of 
more  or  less  importance,  to  bring  them  into 
shape  for  musical  setting,  but  the  'Sangers 
Fluch '  had  to  be  entirely  remodelled — a  difficult 
and  ungrateful  task,  which  Richard  Pohl  carried 
out  after  Schumann's  own  suggestions. 

At  that  time  this  young  man,  a  thorough  art* 
enthusiast,  kept  up  a  lively  intercourse  with 
Schumann,  both  personally  and  by  letter.  They 
devised  together  the  plan  of  a  grand  oratorio. 
Schumann  wavered  between  a  biblical  and  an 
historical  subject,  thinking  at  one  time  of  the 
Virgin  Mary,  at  another  of  Ziska  or  Luther. 
His  final  choice  fell  upon  Luther.  He  pondered 
deeply  upon  the  treatment  of  his  materials.  It 
was  to  be  an  oratorio  suitable  both  for  the 
church  and  the  concert  room,  and  in  its  poetical 
form  as  dramatic  as  possible.  In  point  of  musical 
treatment  he  intended  the  chorus  to  predomi- 
nate, as  in  Handel's  'Israel  in  Egypt,'  of 
which  he  had  given  a  performance  in  the 
winter  of  1850.  Moreover,  it  was  not  to  be 
complicated  and  contrapimtal  in  style,  hut 
simple  and  popular,  so  that '  peasant  and  citizen 
alike  should  understand  it.'  The  more  lie 
pondered  it  the  more  was  he  inspired  with 
the  grandeur  of  the  subject,  although  by  no 
means  blind  to  its  difficulties.  'It  inspires 
courage,'  he  says,  *and  also  humility.*  He 
could  not,  however,  coincide  with  hia  poet's 
opinion  as  to  the  extent  of  the  work,  the  latter 
having  formed  the  idea  of  a  sort  of  trilogy,  in 
oratorio  form,  while  Schumann  wislied  the  work 
to  be  within  the  limit  of  one  evening's  perform- 
ance, lasting  about  two  hours  and  a  half.  In 
this  way  the  few  years  of  creative  activity  that 
were  still  granted  to  him  slipped  away,  and  the 
oratorio  remained  unwritten.  The  impossibility 
of  satisfying,  by  the  oratorio  on  Luther,  the 
inclination  for  grave  and  religious  music  which 
became  ever  stronger  with  increasing  years,  is 
partly  the  reason  of  his  writing  in  1852  a  Mass 
(op.  147),  and  a  Requiem  (op.  148).  But  to 
these  he  was  also  incited  by  outward  circum- 
stances. The  inhabitants  of  Diisseldorf  are 
mostly  Catholics,  the  organ-lofts  in  the  prin- 
cipal churches  are  too  small  to  hold  a  large 
choir  and  orchestra,  and  the  regular  church- 
music  was  in  a  bad  condition.  The  choral 
society  which  Schumann  conducted   was  ac- 


1851— 


SCHUMANN 


—1853 


365 


cixstomed,  as  a  reward  for  its  labours,  to  have 
aeTeral  concerts  of  church  music,  or  at  least 
sauzred  compositions,  every  year  ;  and  Schumann 
iiras  probably  thinking  of  this  custom  in  his 
Mass  and  his  Requiem,  but  he  was  not  destined 
ever  to  hear  them  performed. 

In  the  summer  of  1851  he  and  his  family 
made  a  tour  in  Switzerland,  which  he  had  not 
^risited  since  the  time  of  his  student-life  in 
Beidelberg;  on  his  return  he  went  to  Ant- 
■werp,  for  a  competitive  performance  by  the 
Belgian  'Mannergesangverein,'  on  August  17, 
at  which  he  had  been  asked  to  aid  in  ad^'udging 
the  prizes.  Two  years  later,  towards  the  end 
of  1853,  he  and  his  wife  once  more  visited 
the  Netherlands,  and  ^liade  a  concert -tour 
through  HoUand,  meeting  with  such  an  enthusi- 
astic reception  that  he  could  not  help  saying 
that  his  music  seemed  to  have  struck  deeper 
root  there  than  in  Germany.  In  March  1852  they 
revisited  Leipzig,  where,  between  the  14th  and 
the  21st,  a  quantity  of  his  music  was  performed  ; 
the  Manfred  overture  and  the  *  Pilgerfahrt  der 
Roee '  at  a  public  matinee  on  the  14  th  ;  the  D 
nunor  Sonata  for  pianoforte  and  violin  (op.  121) 
in  a  private  circle,  on  the  15th  ;  the  Eb  Sym- 
phony at  a  concert  at  the  Gewandhaus  on  the 
1 8th  ;  the  Pianoforte  Trio  in  G  minor  (op.  110) 
at  a  chamber  concert  on  the  21st.  On  Kov. 
6,  1851,  the  overture  to  the  'Braut  von  Mes- 
sina' was  also  performed  at  the  Gewandhaus. 
The  public  had  thus,  during  this  season,  ample 
opportunity  of  becoming  acquainted  with  the 
latest  works  of  this  inexhaustible  comix)ser. 
But  although  he  had  lived  in  Leipzig  for  four- 
teen years,  and  had  brought  out  most  of  his 
compositions  there,  besides  having  a  circle  of 
sincerely  devoted  friends  in  that  city,  he  could 
not  on  this  occasion  boast  of  any  great  success  ; 
the  public  received  him  with  respect  and  esteem, 
but  with  no  enthusiasm.  But  in  this  respect 
Schumann  had  lived  through  a  variety  of  ex- 
perience ;  *  I  am  accustomed,'  he  writes  to 
Pohl,  Dec  7,  1851,  when  speaking  of  the  recep- 
tion of  the  overture  to  the  '  Braut  von  Messina,' 
*  to  find  that  my  compositions,  particularly  the 
best  and  deepest,  are  not  understood  by  the 
public  at  a  first  hearing.'  Artists,  however,  had 
come  to  Leipzig  from  some  distance  for  the 
'  Schumann- week  '  ;  among  them  Liszt  and 
Joachim. 

In  August  1862  there  was  held  in  Diisseldorf 
a  festival  of  music  for  men's  voices,  in  which 
Schumann  assisted  as  conductor,  though,  owing 
to  his  health,  only  to  a  very  limited  extent. 
He  took  a  more  important  part  at  Whitsuntide 
1853,  when  the  81st  of  the  Lower  Rhine  Festi- 
vals was  celebrated  in  Diisseldorf  on  May  15, 
16,  and  17.  He  conducted  the  music  of  the 
first  day,  consisting  of  Handel's  'Messiah' 
and  of  his  own  Symphony  in  D  minor,  which 
was  exceedingly  well  received.  In  the  concerts 
of  the  two  following  days,  which  were  conducted 


chiefly  by  Hiller,  two  more  of  Schumann's 
larger  compositions  were  performed  ;  the  Piano- 
forte Concerto  in  A  minor,  and  a  newly  composed 
Festival  Overture  with  soli  and  chorus  on  the 
*  Rheinweinlied  '  (op.  123).  But  although  Schu- 
mann appeared  in  so  brilliant  a  way  as  a 
composer,  and  as  such  was  honoured  and 
appreciated  in  Diisseldorf,  yet  there  was  no 
concealing  the  fact  that  as  a  conductor  he  was 
inefficient.  The  little  talent  for  conducting 
that  he  showed  on  his  arrival  in  Diisseldorf, 
had  disappeared  with  his  departing  health. 
It  was  in  fact  necessary  to  procure  some  one  to 
take  his  place.  An  attempt  was  made  after 
the  first  winter  concert  of  the  year  (Oct.  27, 
1853)  to  induce  him  to  retire  for  a  time  from 
the  post  of  his  own  accord.  But  this  proposal 
was  badly  received.  The  fact,  however,  remains, 
that  from  the  date  just  mentioned  all  the 
practices  and  performances  were  conducted  by 
Julius  Tausch,  who  thus  became  Schumann's 
real  successor.  No  doubt  the  directors  of  the 
society  were  really  in  the  right ;  though  perhaps 
the  form  in  which  Schumann's  relation  to  the 
society  was  expressed  might  have  been  better 
chosen.  The  master  was  now  taken  uj)  with 
the  idea  of  leaving  Diisseldorf  as  soon  as  possible, 
and  of  adopting  Vienna,  for  which  he  had 
preserved  a  great  afiection,  as  his  permanent 
residence.     But  fate  had  decided  otherwise. 

The  dissatisfaction  induced  in  his  mind  by 
the  events  of  the  autumn  of  1853  was,  however, 
mitigated  partly  by  the  tour  in  Holland  already 
mentioned,  and  partly  by  another  incident.  It 
happened  that  in  October  a  young  and  wlioUy 
unknown  musician  arrived,  with  a  letter  of  intro- 
duction from  Joachim.  Johannes  Brahms — for 
he  it  was — immediately  excited  Schumann's 
warmest  interest  by  the  genius  of  his  playing  and 
the  originality  of  his  compositions.  In  his  early 
days  he  had  always  been  the  champion  of  the 
young  and  aspiring,  and  now  as  a  matured 
artist  he  took  pleasure  in  smoothing  the  path 
of  this  gifted  youth.  Schumann's  literary  pen 
had  lain  at  rest  for  nine  years  ;  he  now  once 
more  took  it  up,  for  the  last  time,  in  order  to 
say  a  powerful  word  for  Brahms  to  the  wide 
world  of  art.  An  article  entitled  Neue  Bdhnen 
(New  Paths)  appeared  on  Oct.  28,  1863,  in  No. 
18  of  that  year's  ZeUsckrift,  In  tiiis  he  pointed 
to  Brahms  as  the  artist  whose  vocation  it  would 
be  '  to  utter  the  highest  ideal  expression  of  our 
time.'  He  does  not  speak  of  him  as  a  youth  or 
beginner,  but  welcomes  him  into  the  circle  of 
Masters  as  a  fully  equipped  combatant.  When 
before  or  since  did  an  artist  find  such  words  of 
praise  for  one  of  his  fellows  ?  It  is  as  though, 
having  already  given  so  many  noble  proofs  of 
sympathetic  appreciation,  he  could  not  leave  the 
world  without  once  more,  after  his  long  silence, 
indelibly  stamping  the  image  of  his  pure,  lofty, 
and  unenvious  artist-nature  on  the  hearts  of  his 
fellow-men. 


366 


1853— 


SCHUMANN 


—1864 


So  far  as  Brahms  was  concerned,  it  is  true 
that  this  brilliant  envoi  laid  him  under  a  heavy 
debt  of  duty,  in  the  necessity  of  measuring  his 
productions  by  the  very  highest  standard  ;  and 
at  the  time  Schumann  was  supposed  to  have 
attributed  to  BrahmSi  as  he  did  to  the  poetess 
Elisabeth  Kulmann,  gifts  which  he  did  not 
actually  possess.  Twenty-eight  years  have 
now  [1881]  passed  and  we  know  that  Schu- 
mann's keen  insight  did  not  deceive  him,  and 
that  Brahms  verified  all  the  expectations  formed 
of  him.  His  intercourse  with  the  young  com- 
poser (then  twenty  years  old),  in  whom  he  took 
the  widest  and  most  affectionate  interest,  was 
a  great  pleasure  to  Schumann. 

At  that  time,  too,  Albert  Dietrich  (afterwards 
Hofcapellmeister  at  Oldenburg)  was  staying  in 
Diisseldorf,  and  Schumann  proved  to  the  utmost 
the  truth  of  what  he  had  written  only  a  few 
months  previously  of  Kirchner,  that  he  loved 
to  follow  the  progress  of  young  men.  A  sonata 
for  pianoforte  and  violin  exists  in  MS.  which 
Schumann  composed  during  this  month  (October 
1853),  in  conjunction  with  Brahms  and  Dietrich. 
Dietrich  begins  with  an  allegro  in  A  minor ; 
Schumann  follows  with  an  intermezzo  in  F  major; 
Brahms — who  signs  himself  Johannes  Kreiasler 
Junior — adds  an  allegro  (scherzo)  in  0  minor  ; 
and  Schumann  winds  up  the  work  with  a  finale 
in  A  minor,  ending  in  A  major.  The  title  of 
the  sonata  is  worth  noting.  Joachim  was 
coming  to  Diisseldorf  to  play  at  the  concert  of 
Oct.  27,  so  Schumann  wrote  on  the  title-page 
*  In  anticipation  of  the  arrival  of  our  belovwi 
and  honoured  friend  Joseph  Joachim,  this  sonata 
was  written  by  Robert  Schumann,  Albert 
Dietrich,  and  Johannes  Brahms.*^ 

This  interesting  intimacy  cannot  have  con- 
tinued long,  since  in  November  Schumann  went 
to  Holland  with  his  wife,  and  did  not  return 
till  Deo.  22.  But  he  met  Brahms  again  in 
Hanover  in  January  1854  at  a  performance  of 
'Paradise  and  the  Peri,'  where  he  found  also 
Joachim  and  Julius  Otto  Grimm.  A  circle  of 
gifted  and  devoted  young  artists  gathered  round 
the  master  and  rejoiced  in  having  him  among 
them,  little  imagining  that  within  a  few  months 
he  would  be  suddenly  snatched  from  them  for 
ever. 

Schumann's  appearance  was  that  of  a  man 
with  a  good  constitution  ;  his  figure  was  above 
the  middle  height,  full  and  well-built ;  but  his 
nervous  system  had  always  shown  extreme  ex- 
citability, and  even  so  early  as  his  twenty-fourth 
year  he  suffered  from  a  nervous  disorder  which 
increased  to  serious  disease.  At  a  still  earlier 
date  he  had  shown  a  certain  morbid  hypertension 
of  feeling,  in  connection  with  his  passionate  study 
of  Jean  Paul,  of  whom  he  wrote,  even  in  his 
eighteenth  year,  that  he  often  drove  him  to  the 
verge  of  madness.     Violent  shocks  of  emotion, 

>  The  MS.  WM  In  JcMchiiu'a  posaeadoD,  and  he  permitted  the 
pablicfttion  of  the  movement  by  Bnhms,  which  ftppearvd  In  IM^. 


as  for  instance  the  sudden  announcement  of  a. 
death,  or  the  struggle  for  the  hand  of  C]jLr& 
Wieok,  would  bring  him  into  a  oondition    of 
mortal  anguish,  and  the  most  terrible  state  of 
bewilderment  and  helplessness,  followed  by  days 
of  overwhelming  melancholy.     A  predispositiozi 
to  worry  himself,  an  *  ingenuity  in  clinging   to 
unhappy  ideas,'   often  embittered  the  fairest 
moments   of  his  life.      Gloomy  anticipations 
darkened  his  soul ;  '  I  often  feel  as  if  I  shoald 
not  live  much  longer,'  he  says  in  a  letter  to 
Zuccalmaglio  of  May  18,  1887,  'and  I  should 
like  to  do  a  little  more  work ' ;  and  later,  to 
Hiller — *man  must  work  while  it  is  yet  day,' 
The  vigour  of  youth  for  a  time  conquered  these 
melancholy  aberrations,  and  after  his  marriage 
the  calm  and  equable  happiness  which  be  fouiud 
in  his  wife  for  a  long  time  expelled  the  evil 
spirit     It  was  not  till  1844  that  he  again  fell 
a  prey  to  serious  nervous  tension.     'Tliis  was 
evidently  the  result  of  undue  mental  strain,  and 
for  a  time  he  was  forced  to  give  up  all  work, 
and  even  the  hearing  of  music,  and  to  with- 
draw into  perfect  solitude  at  Dr^en.     His  im- 
provement was  slow  and  not  without  relapses  ; 
but  in  1849  he  felt  quite  re-established,  as  we 
gather  from  his  letters  and  from  the  work  he 
accomplished  ;  and  his  condition  seems  to  have 
remained  satisfactory  till  about  the  end  of  1851. 
Then  the  symptoms  of  disease  reappeared ;  he 
had,  as  usual,  been  again  working  without  pause 
or  respite,  and  even  with  increased  severity ;  and 
was   himself  so  much   alarmed  as  to  seek   a 
remedy.     Various  eccentricities  of  oondnct  be- 
trayed even  to  strangers  the  state  of  nervous  ex- 
citability in  which  he  was.    By  degrees  delusions 
.grew  upon  him,  and  he  fancied  that  he  incessantly 
heard  one  particular  note,  or  certain  harmonies, 
or  voices  whispering  words  of  reproof  or  en- 
couragement.    Once  in  the  night  he  fancied 
that  the  spirits  of  Schubert  and  Mendelssohn 
brought  him  a  musical  theme,  and  he  got  up 
and  noted  it  down.     He  was  again  attacked 
by  that  '  mortal  anguish  of  mind '  of  which  he 
had  had  former  experience,  and  which  left  him 
perfectly  distracted.     Still,  all  these  symptoms 
were  but  temporary,  and  between  the  attacks 
Schumann  was  in  full  possession  of  his  senses 
and  self-control.     He  himself  expressed  a  wish 
to  be  placed  in  an  asylum,  but  meanwhile  worked 
on  in  his  old  way.     He  wrote  some  variations 
for  the  piano  on  the  theme  revealed  to  him  by 
Schubert  and  Mendelssohn,  but  they  were  hfs 
last  work,  and  remained  unfinished.   On  Feb.  2  7, 
1854,  in  the  afternoon,  in  one  of  his  fits  of 
agony  of  mind,  he  left  the  house  unobser\''ed 
and  threw  himself  from  the  bridge  into  the 
Rhine.     Some  boatmen  were  on  the  watch  and 
rescued  him,  and  he  was  recognised  and  carried 
home.     Unmistakable  symptoms  of  insanity 
now  declared  themselves,  but  after  a  few  days 
a  peculiar  clearness  and  calmness  of  mind  re- 
turned, and  with  it  his  irrepressible  love  of 


1854— 


SCHUMANN 


—1856 


367 


Ti'oriL,  He  oonpleted  the  yariation  on  which  he 
had  been  at  work  before  the  great  catastrophe. 
These  last  efforts  of  his  wearied  genius  remain 
nnpubliahed,  but  Brahms  has  used  the  theme  for 
a  aet  of  4-hand  variations  which  form  one  of  his 
most  beautiful  and  touching  works  (op.  23),  and 
which  he  has  dedicated  to  Schumann's  daughter 
Julie. 

The  last  two  years  of  Schumann's  life  were 
spent  in  the  private  asylum  of  Dr.  Richarz  at 
Endenich  near  Bonn.  His  mental  disorder  de- 
veloped into  deep  melancholy  ;  at  times — as  in 
the  spring  of  1855 — when  for  a  while  he  seemed 
better,  his  outward  demeanour  was  almost  the 
same asbefore.  He  corresponded  with  his  friends 
and  received  visits,  but  gradually  the  pinions  of 
his  aonl  drooped  and  fell,  and  he  died  in  the  arms 
of  his  wife,  July  29,  1856,  only  forty-six  years 
of  age. 

Soon    after    Schumann's    death    his    music 
achieved  a  popularity  in  Germany  which  will 
bear  comparison  with  that  of  the  most  favourite 
of  the  older  roasters.     When  once  the  peculi- 
arities of  his  style  grew  familiar,  it  was  realised 
that  these  very  peculiarities  had  their  origin  in 
the  deepest  feelings  of  the  nation.     The  desire 
of  giving  outward  expression  to  the  love  which 
was  felt  towards  him,  soon  asserted  itself  more 
and  more  strongly.     Schumann  was  buried  at 
Bonn,  in  the  churchyard  opposite  the  Sternen- 
thor,  and  it  was  resolved  to  erect  a  monument 
to  him  there.     On  August  17,  18,  and  19,1878, 
a  Schumann  festival  took  place  at  Bonn,  con- 
sisting entirely  of  the  master's  compositions. 
The  conducting  was  undertaken  by  Joachim 
and  Wasielewski,   and  among  the  performers 
were    Madame    Schumann,    who    played    her 
husband's  Pianoforte  Concerto,  and  Stockhansen. 
The  festival  was  one  of  overwhelming  interest, 
owing  to  the  sympathy  taken  in  it,  and  the 
manner  in  which  that  sympathy  was  displayed. 
The  proceeds  of  the  concerts  were  devoted  to  a 
nwnument  to  Schumann's  memory,  which  was 
executed  by  A.  Donndorf  of  Stuttgart,  erected 
over  the  grave,  and  unveiled  on  May  2,  1880. 
On  this  occasion   also  a  concert  took  place, 
(onsisting  of  compositions  by  Schumann,  and 
Brahms's  Violin  Concerto  (op.  77),  conducted 
by  himself^  and  played  by  Joachim. 


Schumann^  with  his  activity  both  as  an  author 
and  as  a  composer,  was  a  new  phenomenon  in 
German  music.  It  is  true  that  he  had  had  a 
predecessor  in  this  respect  in  C.  M.  von  Weber, 
who  also  had  a  distinct  gift  and  vocation  for 
authorship,  and  whose  collected  writings  form  a 
litenry  monument  possessing  far  more  than  a 
merely  personal  interest.  Still  Weber  was  pre- 
vented by  circumstances  and  by  his  own  natural 
restlessness  from  fully  developing  his  literary 
talent,  while  Schumann  benefited  by  the 
restraint  and  discipline  of  his  ten  years  of 
editorships     In  1854  he  had  his  OtsammeUe 


Schriften  iiber  Musik  und  Musiker  published 
in  four  volumes  by  Wigand  in  Leipzig,  and  it 
was  not  long  in  reaching  its  second  edition, 
which  appeared  in  two  volumes  in  1871.  This 
collection,  however,  is  not  nearly  complete, 
and  the  essays  it  includes  have  been  much 
altered.  A  full  and  correct  edition  of  his 
writings  is  still  a  desideratum. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  imagined  that 
Schtmnann's  aim  as  an  author  was  to  lay  down 
the  principles  on  which  he  worked  as  a  com- 
poser ;  it  is  indeed  hardly  possible  to  contrast 
the  critical  and  the  productive  elements  in  his 
works.  His  author^ip  and  his  musical  com- 
positions were  two  distinct  phases  of  a  creative 
nature,  and  if  it  was  by  composition  that  he 
satisfied  his  purely  musical  craving  it  was  by 
writing  that  he  gave  utterance  to  his  poetical 
instincts.  His  essays  are  for  the  most  part 
rather  rhapsodies  on  musical  works  or  poetical 
imagery  lavished  on  musical  subjects  than 
criticisms  properly  speaking;  and  the  cases  where 
he  writes  in  the  negative  vein  are  very  rare 
exceptions.  A  high  ideal  floats  before  his  mind, 
and  supported  by  the  example  of  the  greatest 
masters  of  the  art,  his  one  aim  is  to  introduce 
a  new  and  pregnant  period  of  music  in  contrast 
to  the  shallowness  of  his  ovna.  time.  Again  and 
again  he  speaks  of  this  as  the  *  poetic  phase ' — 
and  here  we  must  guard  against  a  misunder- 
standing. The  term  poeti<i  mtmc  is  often  used 
in  antithesis  to  pure  music,  to  indicate  a  work 
based  on  a  combination  of  j-oetry  and  music ; 
as,  for  instance,  a  song,  which  may  be  conceived 
of  either  as  a  purely  musical  composition 
founded  on  the  union  of  definite  feelings  and 
ideas,  or  as  intended  to  express  the  preconceived 
emotions  and  ideas  of  the  poet.  But  it  was  not 
anything  of  this  kind  that  Schumann  meant  to 
convey ;  he  simply  regarded  poetry  as  the 
antithesis  to  prose,  just  as  enthusiasm  is  the 
antithesis  to  sober  dulness,  the  youthful  rhapso- 
dist  to  the  Philistine,  the  artist  with  his  lofty 
ideal  to  the  mechanical  artisan  or  the  superficial 
dilettante.  His  aim  is  to  bring  to  birth  a  living 
art,  full  of  purpose  and  feeling,  and  he  cannot 
endui-e  a  mere  skeleton  of  forms  and  phrases. 
In  this  key  he  pitches  his  writings  on  music, 
and  their  purport  is  always  the  same.  He  once 
speaks  of  reviewers  and  critics  under  a  quaint 
simile — *  Music  excites  the  nightingale  to  love- 
songs,  the  lap-dog  to  liark.'  Nothing  could 
more  accurately  represent  his  own  attitude  in 
writing  on  music  than  the  first  of  these  images. 
From  his  point  of  view  a  piece  of  music  ought 
to  rouse  in  the  true  critic  sympathetic  feeling, 
he  ought  to  absorb  and  assimilate  its  contents, 
and  then  echo  them  in  words — Schumann  was 
in  fact  the  singing  nightingale.  Though  we 
may  not  feel  inclined  to  apply  his  other  com- 
parison to  every  critic  who  does  not  follow  in  his 
steps,  we  may  at  least  say  that  the  difference 
between   Schumann's  style   and   that  of   the 


368 


SCHUMANN 


musical  periodicals  of  his  day  was  as  great  as 
that  between  a  nightingale  and  a  lap-dog. 
And  how  strange  and  new  were  the  tones 
uttered  by  this  poet -critic!  A  considerable 
resemblance  to  Jean  Paul  must  be  admitted, 
particularly  in  his  earlier  critiques  :  the  ecstatic 
youthful  sentiment,  the  humorous  suggestions, 
the  highly  wrought  and  dazzling  phraseology, 
are  common  to  both  ;  but  the  style  is  quite 
dilferont.  Schumann  commonly  writes  in  short 
and  vivid  sentences,  going  straight  at  his  subject 
without  digressions,  and  indulging  in  bold 
abbreviations.  There  is  a  certain  indolence  of 
genius  about  him,  and  yet  a  sure  artistic  instinct 
throughout.  Nor  has  he  a  trace  of  Jean  Paul's 
sentimental  'luxury  of  woe,'  but  we  everywhere 
find,  side  by  side  with  emotional  rhapsody,  the 
refreshing  breeziness  of  youth  and  health. 

It  has  already  been  said  that  Schumann 
connects  certain  definite  characteristics  with 
different  feigned  names  (Florestan,  Eusebius, 
Raro,  etc.),  a  device  which  none  but  a  poet  could 
have  hit  on.  Indeed,  it  would  be  a  hindrance 
to  the  writing  of  calm  criticism,  which  must 
have  a  fixed  and  clearly  defined  position  as  its 
basis.  But  it  often  introduces  a  varied  and 
even  dramatic  liveliness  into  the  discussion, 
which  is  very  attractive,  and  leads  to  a  deeper 
consideration  of  the  subject.  Schumann,  how- 
ever, could  use  still  more  artificial  forms  in  his 
critiques.  Thus  he  discusses  the  first  concert 
conducted  by  Mendelssohn  at  the  Gewandhaus, 
October  1835,  in  letters  addressed  by  Eusebius 
to  Chiara  in  Italy ;  and  within  this  frame  the 
details  of  the  concert  are  gracefully  entwined 
with  ingenious  reflections  and  fanciful  ideas 
which  add  brilliance  to  the  picture.  On  another 
occasion,  when  he  was  to  write  about  a  mass  of 
dance  music,  Schumann  has  recourse  to  the 
following  fiction : — the  editor  of  a  certain  musical 
paper  gives  a  historical  fancy  ball.  Composers 
are  invited,  young  lady  amateurs  and  their 
mothers,  music  publishers,  diplomatists,  a  few 
rich  Jewesses,  and — of  course — the  Davids- 
biindler ;  the  dance -programme  includes  the 
music  to  be  criticised,  to  which  the  couples  whirl 
about  during  the  whole  evening.  Hence  arise 
all  sorts  of  humorous  incidents  —  satirical, 
whimsical,  and  sentimental  outpourings,  in 
which  a  criticism  of  the  compositions  is  brought 
in  unperceived.  On  another  occasion,  the 
Davidsbiindler  have  met,  and  the  new  composi- 
tions are  played  in  turns ;  during  the  playing 
the  rest  carry  on  a  variety  of  amusements  which 
culminate  in  a  magic  lantern,  throwing  the 
figures  of  a  masked  ball  on  the  wall,  which 
Florestan,  standing  on  the  table,  explains,  while 
'Zilia'  plays  Franz  Schubert's  'Deutsche  Tanze.' 
Anytliing  more  vivid,  charming,  and  poetical 
than  this  essay,  has  never  been  written  on 
music  (it  is  in  tlie  Gemm,  Schriften,  vol.  iL  p.  9  ; 
and  is  partly  translated  in  Music  and  Musicians, 
vol.  i.  p.  102)  ;  a  little  work  of  art  in  itself! 


Once,  in  reviewing  a  concert  given  by  Clara 
Wieck,  he  gives  us  a  real  poem  (' Tr&uml>ild, 
am  9  September,  1838,  Abends,'  voL  ii.  p.  233^. 
In  this  he  combines  his  own  tender  sentiments 
with  a  skilful  characterisation  of  all  that  -viras 
peculiar  in  the  performance.  For  sketching 
character -portraits  Schumann  shows  a  con- 
spicuous talent ;  the  articles  in  which  he  Yisa 
characterised  Stemdale  Bennett,  Gade,  and 
Henselt  are  unsurpassed  by  anytliing  sin«3e 
written  concerning  these  artists.  He  seems  to 
have  penetrated  with  the  insight  of  a  seer  to 
the  core  of  tlieir  natures,  and  has  set  forth  his 
conclusions  in  a  delicate  and  picturesque  manner 
that  no  one  has  succeeded  in  imitating. 

The  foundation  of  Schumann's  critiques  lay 
in  kindness ;  his  fastidious  character  would, 
simply  have  nothing  to  do  with  anything  bad 
enough  to  demand  energetic  reproof.  The  most 
cutting  and  bitter  article  he  ever  >KT0te  was  the 
famous  one  on  Meyerbeer's  'Huguenots'  (vol. 
ii.  p.  220  ;  translated  in  Mtuic  and  Musiciah^ 
vol.  i.  p.  302).  In  its  violence  it  has  no  doubt 
somewhat  overshot  the  mark ;  but  nowhere 
perhaps  do  the  purity  and  nobleness  of  Schu- 
mann's artistic  views  shine  forth  more  clearly 
than  in  this  critique  and  in  the  one  immediately 
following  on  Mendelssohn's  'St.  PauL'  It 
was  the  great  success  of  the  '  Huguenots '  which 
infused  the  acid  into  Schumann's  antagonism  ; 
for  when  dealing  with  inoffensive  writers  he 
could  wield  the  weapons  of  irony  and  ridi- 
cule both  lightly  and  efiectively.  But  he  is 
most  at  his  ease  when  giving  praise  and 
encouragement ;  then  words  flow  so  directly 
from  his  heart  that  his  turns  of  expreasion 
have  often  quite  a  magical  charm.  As  an 
example  we  may  mention  the  article  on  Field*.*! 
Seventh  Concerto  (Ibid.  vol.  i.  p.  268 ;  Music  and 
MusieiaTis,  vol.  i.  p.  267).  Anything  more  tender 
and  full  of  feeling  was  never  written  under  the 
semblance  of  a  critique  than  the  remarks  on  a 
sonata  in  C  minor  by  Delphine  Hill-Handley 
— formerly  Delphine  Schauroth  (Ibid,  L  92). 
Schumann  has  here  given  us  a  really  poetical 
masterpiece  in  its  kind,  inll  of  intelligent  appre> 
ciation  o/  the  purport  of  the  work,  and  giving 
covert  expression  to  its  maidenly  feeling,  even 
in  the  style  of  his  discussion  ;  it  must  delight 
the  reader  even  if  he  does  not  know  a  note  of 
the  composition.  Schumann  had  fresh  imagery 
always  at  command,  and  if  in  a  generally  meri- 
torious work  he  found  something  to  blame,  he 
contrived  to  do  it  in  the  most  delicate  manner. 
His  amiable  temper,  his  tender  heart  and  bis 
conspicuous  talents  for  literary  work  combined, 
never  left  him  at  a  loss  in  such  cases  for  some 
ingenious  or  whimsical  turn.  Sometimes,  thoogh 
rarely,  in  his  eager  sympathy  for  youthfnl  genius 
in  difficulty  he  went  too  far  ;  Hermann  Hirach- 
bach,  for  instance,  never  fulfilled  the  hopes  that 
Schumann  formed  of  him  ;  and  even  in  his 
remarks  on  Berlioz,  he  at  first  probably  said 


SCHUMANN 


369 


more  than  he  would  afterwards  have  main- 
tained. 

In  later  years  Schumann's  flowery  and  poetic 
vein  gave  way  to  a  calm  and  contemplative 
style.  His  opinions  and  principles  remained  as 
aound  as  ever,  but  they  are  less  keenly  and  bril- 
liantly expressed  than  at  the  earlier  period  when 
he  took  peculiar  pleasure  in  turning  a  flashing 
phrase  (see  €hs,  Schriften,  voL  i.  pp.  27,  208). 
Still,  the  practical  musician  always  predomi- 
nates, and  Schumann  himself  confesses  that 
'  the  curse  of  a  mere  musician  often  hits 
higher  than  all  your  sesthetics '  {Ibid.  ii.  246). 
Here  and  there,  however,  we  come  upon  a  pro- 
foimd  aesthetic  axiom,  the  value  of  which  is  in 
no  degree  diminished  by  our  perception  that  it 
is  the  result  rather  of  intuition  than  of  any 
systematic  reflection.  It  is  universally  acknow- 
ledged that  by  his  essay  'on  certain  corrupt 
passages  in  classical  works'  (Ibid.  iv.  59  ; 
Mtaic  and  Afusieians,  i.  26),  Schumann  gave  a 
real  impetus  to  the  textual  criticism  of  music  ; 
historical  clues  and  comparisons  are  frequently 
suggested,  and  though  these  indications  are  not 
founded  on  any  comprehensive  historical  know- 
ledge, on  all  important  subjects  they  show  a 
happy  instinct  for  the  right  conclusion,  and  are 
always  worthy  of  attention. 

It  may  be  said  of  Schumann's  literary  work 
in  general  that  it  was  not  calculated  to  attract 
attention  merely  for  the  moment,  though  it  did 
in  fact  open  up  new  paths,  but  that  it  took  the 
form  of  writings  which  have  a  high  and  per- 
manent value.  They  will  always  hold  a  foremost 
place  in  the  literature  of  music,  and  may  indeed 
take  high  rank  in  the  literature  of  art.  For 
analytical  acumen  they  are  less  remarkable. 
Schumann  cannot  be  called  the  Leasing  of  music, 
nor  is  it  by  the  display  of  learning  that  he 
produces  his  eflects.  It  is  the  union  of  poetic 
talent  with  musical  genius,  wide  intelligence, 
and  high  culture,  that  stamps  Schumann's 
writings  with  originality,  and  gives  them  their 
independent  value. 

Schumann's  literary  work  was  connected  with 
another  phase  of  the  musical  world  of  Germany, 
as  new  in  its  way  as  the  twofold  development  of 
his  genius — ^the  rise  of  party  feeling.  No  doubt 
Schumann  gave  the  first  impetus  to  this  move- 
ment, both  by  his  imaginary  *  Davidsbiindler- 
schaft,'  and  by  that  Radical  instinct  which  was 
part  of  his  nature.  Schumann's  principles  as  an 
artist  were  the  same  which  have  been  professed 
and  followed  by  all  the  greatest  German  masters  ; 
what  was  new  in  him  was  the  active  attempt  to 
propagate  them  as  principles.  So  long  as  he 
conducted  the  Zeitachri/t  he  could  not  of  course 
lend  himself  to  party  feeling  ;  the  standard  he 
had  assumed  was  so  high  that  all  who  took  a 
serious  view  of  art  were  forced  to  gather  round 
him.  Butthe  spirit  ofo^o^ioTiwas  inflamed,  and 
when  he  retired  from  the  paper  other  principles 
of  less  general  application  were  put  forward.  It 
VOL.  IV 


was  self-evident  that  Schumann  was  the  only 
contemporary  German  composer  who  could  stand 
side  by  side  with  Mendelssohn,  and  they  were 
of  course  compared.  It  was  asserted  tiiat  in 
Mendelssohn  form  took  the  precedence  of 
meaning,  while  in  Schumann  meaning  pre- 
dominated, striving  after  a  new  form  of  utter- 
ance. Thus  they  were  put  forward  as  the 
representatives  of  t\vo  antagonistic  principles  of 
art,  and  a  Mendelssohn  party  and  a  Schumann 
party  were  formed.  In  point  of  fact  there  was 
scarcely  any  trace  of  such  an  antagonism  of 
principle  between  the  two  composers  ;  the  difler- 
ence  was  really  one  of  idiosyncrasy ;  and  so, 
being  grounded  more  or  less  on  personal  feeling, 
the  parties  assumed  something  of  the  character 
of  cliques.  The  literary  Schumannites,  having 
the  command  of  an  organ  of  their  own,  had  an 
advantage  over  the  partisans  of  Mendelssohn, 
who  like  Mendelssohn  himself,  would  have 
nothing  to  do  with  the  press.  Leipzig  was  for  a 
time  the  headquarters  of  the  two  parties.  There, 
where  Mendelssohn  had  worked  for  the  delight 
and  improvement  of  the  musical  world,  it  was  the 
fate  of  his  art  to  be  first  exposed  to  attack  and 
detraction,  which,  to  the  discredit  of  the  German 
nation,  rapidly  spread  through  wider  and  wider 
circles,  and  was  fated  too  to  proceed  first  from 
the  blind  admirers  of  the  very  master  for  whom 
Mendelssohn  ever  felt  the  deepest  attachment 
and  respect  That  Schumann  himself  must 
have  been  painfully  affected  by  this  spirit  is  as 
clear  as  that  it  could  only  result  in  hindering 
the  unprejudiced  reception  of  his  works  ;  and 
the  process  thus  begun  with  Schumann  has  been 
carried  on,  in  a  greater  degree,  in  the  case  of 
"Wagner. 

As  a  composer  Schumann  started  with  the 
pianoforte,  and  until  the  year  1840  wrote 
scarcely  anything  but  pianoforte  music.  For 
some  time  he  used  to  compose  sitting  at  the 
instrument,  and  continued  to  do  so  even  until 
1889,  though  he  afterwards  condemned  the 
practice  (in  his  Musikalische  Haus-  und  Lehens- 
regeln).  At  all  events  it  had  the  advantage 
of  making  him  write  from  the  first  in  true 
pianoforte  style.  If  ever  pianoforte  works  took 
their  origin  from  the  innermost  nature  of  the 
pianoforte,  Schumann's  did  so  most  thoroughly. 
His  mode  of  treating  the  instrument  is  entirely 
new.  He  develops  upon  it  a  kind  of  orchestral 
polyphony,  and  by  means  of  the  pedal,  of  ex- 
tended intervals,  of  peculiar  positions  of  chords, 
of  contractions  of  the  hands,  and  so  forth,  he 
succeeds  in  bringing  out  of  it  an  undreamt-of 
wealth  of  effects  of  tone.  How  deeply  and 
thoroughly  Schumann  had  studied  the  character 
of  the  instrument  may  be  seen  from  the  detailed 
preface  to  his  arrangement  of  Paganini's  caprices 
(op.  3).  Even  in  his  earliest  PF.  works  he 
nowhere  shows  any  inclination  to  the  method 
of  any  of  the  older  masters,  except  in  the 
variations,  op.  1,  which  betray  the  influence 

2  B 


370 


SCHUMANN 


of  the  school  of  Hummel  and  MoBoheles.  But 
it  is  evident  that  he  knew  all  that  others  had 
done,  and  the  time  and  attention  devoted  in 
his  writings  to  works  of  technical  pianoforte 
study  were  no  doubt  deliberately  given.  Not- 
withstanding this  hia  compositions  are  scarcely 
ever  written  in  the  bravura  style ;  for  he 
seldom  cared  to  clothe  his  ideas  in  mere  outward 
brilliancy.  Sometimes  one  is  constrained  to 
wonder  at  his  reluctance  to  use  the  higher 
and  lower  registers  of  the  pianoforte. 

As  is  the  case  with  the  technical  treatment 
of  the  piano,  so  it  is  from  the  beginning  with 
the  substance  and  form  of  his  compositions. 
Few  among  the  great  German  masters  show 
such  striking  originality  from  their  very  first 
compositions.  In  the  whole  range  of  Schumann's 
works  there  is  scarcely  a  trace  of  any  other 
musician.  At  the  outset  of  his  course  as  a 
composer  he  preferred  to  use  the  concise  danoe 
or  song-form,  making  up  his  longer  pieces  from 
a  number  of  these  smaller  forms  set  together 
as  in  a  mosaic,  instead  of  at  once  casting  his 
thoughts  in  a  larger  mould.  But  the  versa- 
tility with  which  the  small  forms  are  treated  is 
a  testimony  to  the  magnitude  of  hia  creative 
faculty.  The  predominance  of  the  small  forms 
is  explained  by  his  earlier  method  of  composing. 
Diligent  and  constant  though  he  was  in  later 
years,  in  early  life  his  way  of  working  was  fitful 
and  inconstant.  The  compositions  of  thia  period 
seem  as  if  forced  out  of  him  by  sudden  impulses 
of  genius.  As  he  subsequently  says  of  his  early 
works,  *  the  man  and  the  musician  in  me  were 
always  trying  to  speak  at  the  same  time. '  This 
must  indeed  be  true  of  every  artist ;  if  the 
whole  personality  be  not  put  into  a  work  of 
art,  it  will  be  utterly  worthless.  But  by  those 
words  Schumann  means  to  say  that  as  a  youth 
he  attempted  to  bring  to  light  in  musical  form 
his  inmost  feelings  with  regard  to  his  personal 
life-experiences.  Under  such  circumstances  it 
is  but  natural  that  they  should  contain  much 
that  was  purely  accidental,  and  inexplicable  by 
the  laws  of  art  alone  ;  but  it  is  to  this  kind  of 
source  that  they  owe  the  magic  freshness  and 
originality  with  which  they  strike  the  hearer. 
The  Variations,  op.  1,  are  an  instance  of  this. 
The  theme  is  formed  of  the  notes  A,  B(b),  E, 
G,  G.  Meta  Abegg  was  the  name  of  a  beautiful 
young  lady  in  Mannheim,  whose  acquaintance 
Schumann,  when  a  student,  had  made  at  a  ball. 
Playful  symbolism  of  this  kind  is  not  un- 
frequent  in  him.  To  a  certain  extent  it  may  be 
traced  back  to  Sebastian  Bach,  who  expressed 
his  own  name  in  a  musical  phrase  ;  as  Schu- 
mann afterwards  did  Gade's.  (See  *  Album  fiir 
die  Jugend,'  op.  68,  No.  41.)  In  the  same  way 
(Ges.  Srhrifteuy  ii.  1 15)  he  expresses  the  woman's 
name  '  Beda '  in  musical  notes,  and  also  in  the 
'  Carnaval '  made  those  letters  in  his  own  name 
which  stand  as  notes — s  (e»),  <r,  A,  a — into  a 
musical  phrase.     But  the  idea  really  came  from 


Jean  Paul,  who  is  veiy  fond  of  tracing  oat 
such  mystic  connections.  Schnmann's  op.  2 
consists  of  a  set  of  small  pianoforte  pieces  in. 
dance- form  under  the  name  of  *Papillons.' 
They  were  written  partiy  at  Heidelberg,  partly 
in  the  first  years  of  the  Leipzig  period  whicb 
followed.  No  inner  musical  connection  sabdsts 
between  them.  But  Schumann  felt  the  neces- 
sity of  giving  them  a  poetical  connection,  ta 
satisfy  his  own  feelings,  if  for  nothing  else, 
and  for  this  purpose  he  adopted  the  last  chapter 
but  one  *  of  Jean  Paul's  Flegeljahre,  where  a 
masked  ball  is  described  at  which  the  lovets 
Wina  and  Walt  are  guests,  as  a  poetic  badi- 
ground  for  the  series.  The  several  pieces  of 
music  may  thus  be  intended  to  represent  partiy 
the  different  characters  in  the  crowd  of  nuuBkers, 
and  partiy  the  conversation  of  the  lovers.  The 
finale  is  written  designedly  with  reference  to 
this  scene  in  Jean  Paul,  as  is  plain  from  the 
indication  written  above  the  notes  found  near 
the  end — '  The  noise  of  the  Carnival-night  dies 
away.  The  church  clock  strikes  six/  The 
strokes  of  the  bell  are  actually  audible,  being 
represented  by  the  A  six  times  repeated.  Then 
all  is  hiished,  and  the  piece  seems  to  vanish 
into  thin  air  like  a  vision.  In  the  finale  there 
are  several  touches  of  humour.  It  begins  with 
an  old  Volkslied,  familiar  to  every  household 
in  Germany  as  the  Grossvatertanz.^ 

In  contrast  to  these  two  old-fashioned  love- 
tunes  is  placed  the  soft  and  graceful  melody  of 
No.  1  of  the  'Papillons,'  which  is  afterwards 
worked  contrapuntally  with  the  'Grossvater- 
tanz.'  The  name  '  Papillons '  ia  not  meant  to 
indicate  a  light,  fluttering  character  in  the 
pieces,  but  rather  refers  to  musical  phases 
which,  proceeding  from  various  experiences  of 
life,  have  attained  the  highest  musical  import, 
as  the  butterfly  soars  upwards  out  of  the 
chrysalis.  The  design  of  the  titie-page  in  the 
first  edition  points  towards  some  such  meaning 
as  this ;  and  the  explanation  we  have  given 
corresponds  with  his  usual  method  of  composing 
at  that  time.  There  exists,  however,  no  decisive 
account  of  it  by  the  composer  himself. 

In  a  kind  of  connection  with  the  '  Papillons ' 
is  the  '  Carnaval,'  op.  9.  Here  again  Schumann 
has  depicted  the  merriment  of  a  masquerade  in 
musical  pictures,  and  a  third  and  somewhat 
similar  essay  of  the  same  kind  is  his  *  Faschings- 
schwank^  aus  Wien,'  op.  26.  The  'Carnaval* 
is  a  collection  of  small  pieces,  written  one  by 
one  without  any  special  purpose,  and  not  pro- 
vided either  with  collective  or  individual  tities 
until  later,  when  he  arranged  them  in  their 
present  order.  The  musical  connection  between 
the  pieces  is,  that  with  few  exceptions  they  all 
contain  some  reference  to  tlie  suocession  of  notes 

1  In  a  letter  to  bl«  Mend  Mentiatte  Vuigt,  Sehumuui  cadta  It  tli* 
IojC  cJiapUr.  This,  ftlthovffh  obviously  a  Blip  of  ih«  pra.  han  l«l 
wvenil  «rit«ni  to  wonder  what  gxand  or  fkDdnil  idea  Iviln  baliisd 
the '  Paptlloni.' 

*  6f«  GnonrrAnRTAKZ,  voL  U.  p.  246. 

9  Ffuchinf  ta  II  Garnian  word  for  the  Ckrotval. 


SCHUMANN 


371 


a,e8,c,h  (A,  Eb,  C,  B)  or  <m,  c,  h  (Ab,  C,  B). 
Now  Asch  is  the  name  of  a  small  town  in 
Bohemia,  the  home  of  a  Fraulein  Ernestine  von 
Frickcn,  with  whom  Schumann  was  very 
intimate  at  the  time  of  his  writing  this  music. 
The  same  notes  in  another  order,  s  (or  m),  c,  A,  a, 
are  also  the  only  letters  in  Schumann's  own 
name  which  represent  notes.  This  explains 
the  title  'Sphinxes,*  which  is  affixed  to  the 
ninth  number  on  p.  IS  of  the  original  edition. 
The  pieces  are  named,  some  from  characters  in 
the  masked  ball — Pierrot,  Arlequin,  Pantalon, 
and  Colombine, — and  some  from  real  persons. 
In  this  last  categoiy  we  meet  with  the  members 
of  the  Dayidsbnnd — Floreetan,  Eusebius,  and 
Chiarina  ;  Ernestine  von  Fricken,  under  the 
name  Estrella,  Chopin,  and  Paganini  ;  there  is 
also  a  *  Coquette,'  but  it  is  not  known  for  whom 
this  is  intended.  Besides  these,  some  of  the 
pieces  are  named  from  situations  and  occurrences 
at  the  ball ;  a  recognition,  an  avowal  of  love, 
a  promenade,  a  pause  in  the  dance  (Beoonnais- 
sance,  Aveu,  Promenade,  Pause)  ;  between  these 
are  heard  the  sounds  of  waltzes,  and  in  one  of 
the  pieces  the  letters  A-S-C^H,  and  S-C-H-A, 
'  Lettres  dansantes,'  themselves  dance  boister- 
ously and  noisily,  and  then  vanish  like  airy 
phantoms.  A  piece  called  *  Papillons '  rushes 
by  like  a  hasty  reminiscence,  and  in  the  num- 
bers entitled  'Florestan* — an  actual  passage 
from  No.  1  of  the  'Papillons  *  (op.  2)  is  inserted. 
The  finale  is  called  *  March  of  the  Davidsbiindler 
■gainst  the  Philistines.'  The  symbol  of  the 
Philistines  is  the  'Grossvatertanz,'  here  called 
by  Schumann  a  tune  of  the  17th  century.  The 
lact  of  the  march  being  in  3-4  time  has  perhaps 
a  humorous  and  symbolic  meaning. 

The  *  Davidsbiindlertiinze '  (op.  6),  the  *  Fan- 
tasiestixcke '  (op.  12),  *  Kinderscenen  *  (op.  16V 
*  Rreisleriana  *  (op.  16),  '  Novelletten '  (op.  21), 
*Bante  Blatter*  (op.  99),  and  *  Albumblatter ' 
(op.  124),  the  contents  of  which  all  belong  to 
Schumann's  early  period,  and,  of  the  later 
works,  such  pieces  as  the  '  Waldscenen '  (op.  82) 
— all  bear  the  impress  of  having  originated  like 
the  'Papillons'  and  the  'Camaval,*  in  the 
personal  experiences  of  Schumann's  life.  They 
are  po^mes  d*oeeasicn  (Gelegenheitsdichtungen), 
a  term  which,  in  Goethe's  sense,  designates  the 
highest  form  that  a  work  of  art  can  take.  As 
to  the  'Davidsbiindlertanze,'  the  'Kreisleriana,' 
and  the  'Novelletten,*  Schumann  himself  tells 
us  that  they  reflect  the  varying  moods  wrought 
in  him  by  the  contentions  about  Clara  Wieck. 
In  the  'Davidsbiindlertanze'  the  general  ar- 
rangement is  that  Florestan  and  Eusebius  appear 
usually  by  turns,  though  sometimesalso  together. 
The  expression  'dance'  does  not,  however,  mean, 
as  is  sometimes  supposed,  the  dances  that  the 
Davidsbiindler  led  the  Philistines,  but  merely 
indicates  the  form  of  the  pieces,  which  is,  truth 
to  say,  used  with  scarcely  less  freedom  than 
that  of  the  march  in  the  finale  to  the  '  Camaval. ' 


The  '  Kreisleriana '  have  their  origin  in  a  fan- 
tastic story  with  the  same  title  by  E.  T.  A. 
Hof&nann,  contained  in  his  FantamestUcke  in 
Callots  Manwr  (Bamberg,  1814,  p.  47).  Hoff- 
mann was  a  follower  of  Jean  Paul,  who  indeed 
wrote  a  preface  to  FaiUasietAucke,  Half  mu- 
sician, half  poet,  Schumann  must  have  looked  on 
him  as  a  kindred  spirit ;  and  in  the  figure  of 
the  wild  and  eccentric  yet  gifted  '  Kapellmeister 
Kreisler,'  drawn  by  Hoffmann  from  incidents 
in  his  own  life,  there  were  many  traits  in  which 
Schumann  might  easily  see  a  reflection  of  him- 
self. Of  the  '  Novelletten '  Schumann  says  that 
they  are  '  long  and  connected  romantic  stories.' 
There  are  no  titles  to  explain  them,  although 
much  may  be  conjectured  from  the  indications 
of  time  and  expression.  But  the  rest  of  the 
works  we  have  just  mentioned  nearly  always 
have  their  separate  component  parts,  headed 
by  names  which  lead  the  imagination  of  the 
player  or  hearer,  in  a  clear  and  often  deeply 
poetic  manner,  in  a  particular  and  definite  direc- 
tion. This  form  of  piano  piece  was  altogether 
a 'very  favourite  one  with  Schumann.  He  is 
careful  to  guaid  against  the  supposition  that  he 
imagined  a  definite  object  in  his  mind,  such  as 
a  *  pleading  child  '  (in  op.  15)  or  a  *  haunted  spot 
in  a  wood '  (in  op.  82),  and  then  tried  to  describe 
it  in  notes.  His  method  was  rather  to  invent 
the  piece  quite  independently,  and  aftenvards  to 
give  it  a  particular  meaning  by  a  superscription. 
His  chief  object  was  always  to  give  the  piece  a 
value  of  its  own,  and  to  make  it  intelligible  of 
itself.  This  principle  is  undoubtedly  the  right 
one,  and,  by  adopting  it,  Schumann  proved  him- 
self a  genuine  musician,  with  faith  in  the  inde- 
pendent value  of  his  art.  Nevertheless,  had  he 
considered  the  poeticaltitles  utterly  unimportant, 
he  would  hardly  have  employed  them  as  he  has 
in  so  large  a  majority  of  his  smaller  pianoforte 
pieces.  His  doing  so  seems  to  evince  a  feeling 
that  in  the  composition  of  the  piece  alone,  he 
had  not  said  everything  that  struggled  within 
him  for  expression.  Until  a  particular  mood  or 
feeling  had  been  aroused  in  the  hearer  or  the 
player,  by  means  of  the  title,  Schumann  could 
not  bo  sure  that  the  piece  would  have  the  effect 
which  he  desired  it  to  have.  Strictly  speaking, 
poetry  and  music  can  only  be  really  imited 
by  means  of  the  human  voice.  But  in  these 
pianoforte  pieces  with  poetical  titles,  Schumann 
found  a  means  of  expression  which  hovered  as 
it  were  between  pure  instnimental  music  on  the 
one  hand,  and  vocal  music  on  the  other,  and 
thus  received  a  certain  indefinite  and  mysterious 
character  of  its  own,  which  may  moat  justly  be 
called  Romantic,  but  which  is  entirely  apart 
from  any  connection  with  what  is  now  called 
Programme  Music. 

Among  the  compositions  consisting  of  small 
forms  we  must  count  the  variations.  Schu- 
mann treated  the  variation -form  freely  and 
fancifully,  but  with  a  profuse  wealth  of  genius 


372 


SCHUMANN 


and  depth  of  feeling.  For  the  Impromptus  on 
a  theme  by  Clara  Wieck  (op.  5),  Beethoven's 
so-called  'Eroica  Variations'  (op.  35),  apparently 
served  as  a  model ;  they  remind  us  of  them 
both  in  general  arrangement  and  in  the  em- 
ployment of  the  bass  as  a  theme,  without  being 
in  any  way  wanting  in  originality.  In  the 
Andante  and  Variations  for  two  pianofortes  (op. 
46),  one  of  the  most  charming  and  popular  of 
Schumann's  pianoforte  works,  he  treated  the 
form  with  such  freedom  that  they  are  not  so 
much  variations  as  fantasias  in  the  style  of 
variations.  [They  were  at  first  intended  to  be 
accompanied  by  two  violoncellos  and  horn, 
and  tliis  version  is  in  the  supplementary 
volume  of  the  Breitkopf  edition.]  His  most 
splendid  work  in  this  form  is  his  op.  13  (the 
'  j^tudes  symphoniques '),  a  work  of  the  grandest 
calibre,  which  alone  would  be  sufficient  to  secure 
him  a  place  in  the  first  rank  of  composers  for 
the  pianoforte,  so  overpowering  is  the  display 
of  his  own  individual  treatment  of  the  piano- 
forte— frequently  rising  to  the  highest  limits  of 
the  bravura  style  of  execution — of  his  over- 
flowing profusion  of  ideas,  and  his  boldness  in 
turning  the  variation  form  to  his  own  account. 
In  the  finale  the  first  two  bars  only  of  the 
theme  are  employed,  and  these  only  occasionally 
in  the  *  working-out  section.'  In  other  respects 
the  proud  edifice  of  this  elaborately  worked 
number  has  nothing  in  common  with  a  varia- 
tion. It  contains,  however,  a  delicate  reference 
to  the  person  to  whom  the  whole  work  is 
dedicated,  William  Stemdale  Bennett.  The 
beginning  of  the  chief  subject  is  a  fragment  of 
the  celebrated  romance  in  Marschner's  '  Templer 
und  Jiidin*  (*Du  stolzes  England,  freue  dich,* 
etc.).  It  is  an  ingenious  way  of  paying  a  com- 
pliment to  his  beloved  English  composer.^ 

Schumann  had  made  early  attempts  at  works 
of  larger  structure,  but  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
they  were  not  at  first  successful.  The  ¥%  minor 
Sonata  (op.  11)  teems  with  beautiful  ideas,  but 
is  wanting  in  unity  to  a  remarkable  degree,  at 
least  in  the  Allegro  movements.  The  F  minor 
Sonata  (op.  14)  shows  a  decided  improvement 
in  this  respect,  and  the  Sonata  in  G  minor  (op. 
22)  is  still  better,  although  not  entirely  free  from 
a  certain  clumsiness.  Schumann  afterwards 
showed  himself  quite  aware  of  the  faults  of 
these  sonatas  in  regard  to  form.  They  offer  the 
most  striking  example  of  his  irregular  and 
rhapsodical  method  of  working  at  that  period. 
The  second  movement  of  the  6  minor  Sonata 
was  written  in  June  1830,  the  first  and  thii-d 
in  June  1833,  the  fourth  in  its  original  form  in 
October  1835,  and  in  its  ultimate  form  in  1838, 
the  whole  sonata  being  published  in  1 839.  The 
Fit  minor  Sonata  was  begun  in  1833,  and  not 
completed  till  1835.  The  F  minor  Sonata, 
finished  on  June  5,  1836,  consisted  at  first  of 

1  The  ftv«  variatlonileft  out  In  tho  published  edltlou  are  included 
In  the  supplementMry  volume  of  BreitkopfB  edition. 


five  movements,  an  Allegro,  two  Scherzos,  one 
after  the  other,  an  Andantino  with  variations, 
and  a  Prestissimo.  When  the  work  was  first 
published,  under  the  title  of  'Concerto  sans 
Orchestre, '  Schumann  cut  out  the  two  scherzos, 
apparently  intending  to  use  them  for  a  second 
sonata  in  F  minor.  This,  however,  was  not 
carried  out,  and  in  the  second  edition  of  the 
work  he  restored  the  second  of  the  scherzos  to 
its  place.  2  When  we  observe  how  he  took  up 
one  sonata  after  another,  we  see  how  impossible  it 
is  that  any  close  connection  can  subsist  between 
the  several  parts,  or  that  there  should  be  any 
real  unity  in  them  as  a  whole. 

The  Allegro  for  pianoforte  (op.  8)  is  somewhat 
disjointed  in  form,  while  the  Toccata  (op.  7),  a 
bravura  piece  of  the  greatest  brilliance  and 
difficulty  in  perfect  sonata-form,  exhibits  a  great 
degree  of  connection  and  consequence.  In  the 
great  Fantasia  (op.  17)  we  are  led  by  the  title 
to  expect  no  conciseness  of  form.  The  classical 
masters  generally  gave  to  their  fantasias  a 
very  clearly  defined  outline,  but  Schumann  in 
this  case  breaks  through  every  restriction  that 
limits  the  form,  especially  in  the  first  movement, 
where  he  almost  seems  to  lose  himself  in  limit- 
less freedom.  In  order  to  give  unity  to  the 
&ntastic  and  somewhat  loosely  connected  move- 
ments of  this  work  of  genius,  he  again  had 
recourse  to  poetry,  and  prefaced  the  piece  with 
some  lines  of  F.  Schlegul's  as  a  motto : — 

Dnrch  alle  Tttne  tOnet  Through  all  the  tonee  that  rilamte 

Im  bun  ten  Brdeutrauin.  About  earth's  ntlDgled  dreuB. 

Ein  lelMT  Ton  gexogen  One  whispered  note  ii  eoundiiig 

FUr  den  der  heimlich  lauechet.  For  eore  sttent  to  heer. 

The  *  earth's  mingled  dream '  is  in  a  manner 
portrayed  in  the  substance  of  the  composition. 
Schumann  means  that  '  the  ear  attent  to  hear ' 
will  perceive  the  uniting-tones  that  run  throogh 
all  the  pictures  which  the  imagination  of  the 
composer  unrolls  to  his  view.  Schlegers  motto 
seems  almost  like  an  excuse  offered  by  Schumann. 
The  original  purpose  of  this  Fantasia  was  not, 
however,  to  illustrate  these  lines.  About  Dec. 
17,  1835,  an  appeal  having  been  made  from 
Bonn  for  contributions  to  a  Beethoven  memorial, 
Schumann  proposed  to  contribute  a  composition ; 
and  this  was  the  origin  of  the  work  now  caUed 
'  Fantasia,'  the  three  movements  of  which  were 
originally  intended  to  bear  the  respective  inacrip- 
tions  of  *  Ruins,'  *  Triumphal  Arch,'  and  *The 
Starry  Crown.'  By  these  names  the  character 
both  of  the  separate  parts  and  of  the  whole 
becomes  more  intelligible.  In  order  to  get  into 
the  right  disposition  for  the  work  Schumann  s 
four  articles  on  Beethoven's  monument  should 
be  read  {OeaammelU  Schriflen^  voL  L  p.  215). 

Although  few  of  Schumann's  pianoforte  works 
of  the  first  period  are  without  defects  of  form, 
yet  their  beauties  are  so  many  that  we  easily 
forget  those  defects.     In  certain  ways  the  oom- 

3  The  flnt  appeared  in  1888  as  No.  12  of  the  FoethvimNM  Works 
published  by  Rleter-BiedemiMin,  together  with  thediscarded  Flaale 
of  the  Sonata  in  G  minor  as  No.  IS.  Both  are  in  the  va^nkemtakXarj 
volume  of  the  Breitkopf  ft  Blirtel  edition  (I8S$). 


SCHUMANN 


373 


positions  of  the  first  ten  years  present  the  most 
charecteristic  picture  of  Schumann's  genius. 
In  after  life  he  proposed  and  attained  loftier 
ideals  in  works  worthy  of  the  perfect  master. 
But  the  freshness  and  charm  of  his  earlier  piano- 
forte works  was  never  surpassed,  and  in  his  later 
yearswasbutrarelyreached.  Adreamy  imagina- 
tive nature  was  united  in  Schumann's  character 
with  a  native  solidity  that  never  descended  to 
the  commonplace.  From  the  first  his  music  had 
in  it  a  character  which  appealed  to  the  people 
— ^nay,  which  was  in  a  way  national ;  and 
quickly  as  he  reached  his  present  immense 
popularity  in  Germany,  it  will  probably  be  long 
before  he  has  the  same  influence  in  other  nations, 
especially  in  France  and  Italy.  After  Beethoven, 
Schumann  is  the  only  master  who  possesses  the 
power  of  giving  full  and  free  expression  to  the 
humorous  element  in  instrumental  music  Both 
in  his  writings  and  compositions  he  allows  it  to 
have  full  play,  and  it  is  in  his  earlier  PF.  works 
that  it  is  most  prominent.  One  of  his  fi*eshest 
and  fullest  works  is  the  Humoreske  (op.  20), 
the  most  wonderful  portrayal  of  a  humorous 
disposition  that  it  is  possible  to  imagine  in 
music  Schumann's  thorough  individuality  is 
prominent,  alike  in  harmonies,  rhythm,  and 
colouring,  and  in  the  forms  of  the  melodies.  It 
is,  however,  characteristic  of  his  early  PF.  works 
that  broad  bold  melodies  rarely  occur  in  them, 
though  there  is  a  superabundance  of  melodic 
fragments — germs  of  melody,  as  they  might  be 
called,  full  of  a  deep  expression  of  their  own. 
This  music  is  pervaded  by  a  spring-like  anima- 
tion and  force,  a  germ  of  future  promise,  which 
givesitapeculiar  romantic  character ;  a  character 
strengthened  by  the  admixture  of  poetic  moods 
and  feelings.  Schumann  was  both  musician 
and  poet,  and  he  who  would  thoroughly  under- 
stand his  music  must  be  first  imbued  with  the 
spirit  of  the  German  poets  who  were  most 
prominent  in  Schumann's  youth  ;  above  all 
others  Jean  Paul  and  the  whole  romantic  school, 
particnlarly  Eichendorff,  Heine,  and  Riickert. 
And  just  as  these  poets  were  specially  great  in 
short  lyrics,  revealing  endless  depths  of  feeling 
in  a  few  lines,  so  did  Schumann  succeed,  as  no 
one  has  done  before  or  since,  in  saying  great 
things  and  leaving  unutterable  things  to  be  felt, 
in  the  small  form  of  a  short  pianoforte  piece. 

Schumann's  enthusiastic  admiration  and 
thorough  appreciation  of  Bach  have  been  already 
described.  He  shared  this  with  Mendelssohn, 
bot  it  is  certain  that  he  entered  more  thoroughly 
than  Mendelssohn  did  into  the  old  master's 
mysterious  depth  of  feeling.  It  would  therefore 
have  been  wonderful  if  he  had  not  attempted 
to  express  himself  in  the  musical  forms  used  by 
Bach.  His  strong  natural  inclination  towards 
polyphonic  writing  is  perceptible  even  in  his 
earliest  pianoforte  works,  but  it  was  not  until 
1840  that  it  comes  prominently  forward.  His 
six  fugues  on  the  name  *  Bach '  (op.  60),  the 


four  fugues  (op.  72),  the  seven  pianoforte  pieces 
in  fughetta  form  (op.  126),  the  studies  in  canon 
form  for  the  pedal-piano  (op.  56),  and  the  other 
separate  canons  and  fugues  scattered  up  and 
down  his  pianoforte  works — all  form  a  class  in 
modem  pianoforte  music  just  as  new  as  do  his 
pianoforte  works  in  the  free  style.  The  treat- 
ment of  the  parts  in  the  fugues  is  by  no  means 
always  strictly  according  to  rule,  even  when 
viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  Bach,  who 
allowed  himself  considerable  freedom.  In 
employing  an  accompaniment  of  chords  in  one 
part,  he  also  goes  far  beyond  what  had  hitherto 
been  considered  allowable.  But  yet,  taken  as 
a  whole,  these  works  are  masterpieces;  no  other 
composer  of  modem  times  could  have  succeeded 
as  he  has  done  in  welding  together  so  completely 
the  modem  style  of  feeling  with  the  old  strict 
form,  or  in  giving  that  form  a  new  life  and 
vigour  by  means  of  the  modern  spirit.  In 
these  pieces  we  hear  the  same  Schumann  whom 
we  know  in  his  other  works ;  his  ideas  adapt 
themselves  as  if  spontaneously  to  the  strict 
requirements  of  the  polyphonic  style,  and  these 
requirements  again  draw  from  his  imagination 
new  and  characteristic  ideas.  In  short,  though 
a  great  contrapuntist  he  was  not  a  pedantic 
one,  and  he  may  be  numbered  among  the  few 
musicians  of  the  last  hundred  years  to  whom 
lx)lyphonic  forms  have  been  a  perfectly  natural 
means  of  expressing  their  ideas. 

As  a  composer  of  Songs  Schumann  stands  by 
the  side  of  Schubert  and  Mendelssohn,  the 
youngest  of  the  trio  of  great  writers  in  this 
class  of  music.  Schubert  shows  the  greatest 
wealth  of  melody,  Mendelssohn  the  most  perfect 
roundness  of  form;  but  Schumann  is  by  far  the 
most  profoundly  and  intellectually  suggestive. 
He  displays  a  more  finely  cultivated  poetic  taste 
than  Schubert,  ^dth  a  many-sided  feeling  for 
lyric  expression  far  greater  than  Mendelssohn's. 
Many  of  his  melodies  are  projected  in  bold  and 
soaring  lines  such  as  we  meet  with  in  no  other 
composer  but  Schubert ;  for  instance,  in  the  well- 
known  songs  *Widmung*  (op.  25,  No.  1),  *Lied 
der  Braut'  (op.  26,  No.  12),  *Liebesbotschaft' 
(op.  36,  No.  6),  *  Stille  Thranen '  (op.  85,  No. 
1 0),  and  others.  Still  more  frequently  he  throws 
himself  into  the  spirit  of  the  German  Volkslied, 
and  avails  himself  of  its  simpler  and  narrower 
forms  of  melody.  Indeed  his  songs  owe  their 
extraordinary  popularity  chiefly  to  this  con- 
spicuously national  element.  The  reader  need 
only  be  reminded  of  the  song  *  0  Sonnenschein ' 
(op.  86,  No.  4),  of  Heine's  *  Liederkreis '  (op. 
24),  and  of  the  Heine  songs  *Hor*  ich  das 
Liedchen  klingen,'  *  Allnachtlich  im  Traume,' 
'  Aus  alten  Marchen '  (op.  48,  Nos.  10,  14,  15), 
of  most  of  the  songs  and  ballads  (op.  45,  49, 
53),  and  above  all  of  the  *  Wanderlied '  (op.  85, 
No.  8),  which  sparkles  with  youthful  life  and 
healthy  vigour.  Besides  these  there  are  many 
songs  in  which  the  melody  is  hardly  worked 


374 


SCHUMANN 


out,  and  which  are — as  is  also  frequently  the 
case  with  his  pianoforte  works — as  it  were, 
mere  sketches,  or  germs,  of  melodies.  This 
style  of  treatment,  which  is  quite  peculiar  to 
Schumann,  he  was  fond  of  using  when  he  wished 
to  give  the  impression  of  a  vague,  dreamy,  veiled 
sentiment ;  and  by  this  means  he  penetrated 
more  deeply  into  the  vital  essence  and  sources 
of  feeling  than  any  other  song-writer.  Such 
songs  as  ^Der  Nussbaum'  (op.  25,  No.  3),  or 
'Im  Walde'  (op.  39,  No.  11)  are  masterpieces 
in  this  kind.  Besides  this,  Schumann  always 
brought  -a  true  poet's  instinct  to  bear  on 
the  subtlest  touches  and  most  covert  sugges- 
tions in  the  poems  which  he  chose  for  setting, 
and  selected  the  musical  expression  best  fitted 
to  their  purport.  Schubert  and  Mendelssohn 
set  verses  to  tunes,  Schumann  vnrote  poems  to 
them  in  music.  He  was  the  first  who  ventured 
to  close  on  the  dominant  seventh  when  his  text 
ended  with  a  query  (as  in  op.  49,  No.  3).  With 
him  also  the  vocal  part  often  does  not  end  on 
the  common  chord,  but  the  true  close  is  left  to 
the  accompaniment^  so  as  to  give  an  effect  of 
vague  and  undefined  feeling.  The  part  filled 
by  the  pianoforte  in  Schumann's  songs  is  a  very 
important  one.  With  Schubert  and  Mendelssohn 
we  may  very  properly  speak  of  the  pianoforte 
part  as  an  *  accompaniment,'  however  rich  and 
independent  it  occasionally  appears.  But  with 
Schumann  the  word  is  no  longer  appropriate, 
the  pianoforte  asserts  its  dignity  and  equality 
with  the  voice ;  to  perform  his  songs  satisfactorily 
the  player  must  enter  fully  into  the  singer's 
part  and  the  singer  into  the  player's,  and  they 
must  constantly  supplement  and  fulfil  each 
other.  It  was  evidently  of  moment  in  the 
history  of  his  art  that  Schumann  should  have 
come  to  the  work  of  writing  songs  after  ten  years' 
experience  as  a  composer  for  the  pianoforte, 
and  after  instituting  an  entirely  new  style  of 
pianoforte  music.  This  style  supplied  him  with 
an  immense  variety  of  delicate  and  poetic  modes 
and  shades  of  expression,  and  it  is  owing  to  this 
that  he  displays  such  constant  novelty  in  his 
treatment  of  the  pianoforte  part.  The  forms  of 
phrase  which  he  adopts  in  his  'accompani- 
ments '  are  infinitely  various,  and  always  corre- 
spond with  perfect  fitness  and  ingenuity  to  the 
character  of  the  verses.  In  some  cases  the 
pianoforte  part  is  an  entirely  independent 
composition,  which  the  voice  merely  follows 
with  a  few  declamatory  phrases  (op.  48,  No.  9, 
*  Das  ist  ein  Floten  und  Geigen ') ;  while  in 
others,  in  contrast  to  this,  the  voice  stands 
almost  alone,  and  the  pianoforte  begins  by 
throwing  in  a  few  soft  chords  which  nevertheless 
have  their  due  characteristic  effect  (op.  48,  No. 
13,  'Ich  hab'  im  Traum').  In  Schumann's 
songs  the  proper  function  of  the  pianoforte  is 
to  reveal  some  deep  and  secret  meaning  which 
it  is  beyond  the  power  of  words,  even  of  sung 
words,  to  express  ;  and  he  always  disliked  and 


avoided  those  repetitions  of  the  words  of  which 
other  composers  have  availed  themselvfls  in. 
order  to  fill  out  in  the  music  the  feeling  to  which 
the  words  give  rise.  When  he  does  repeat  he 
always  seems  to  have  a  special  dramatic  end  in 
view  rather  than  a  musical  one,  and  often  makes 
the  piano  supplement  the  sentiment  aroused 
by  the  text,  while  the  voice  is  silent.  He  is 
particularly  strong  in  his  final  symphonic,  to 
which  he  gave  a  value  and  importance,  as 
an  integral  portion  of  the  song,  which  no  one 
before  him  had  ventured  to  do,  often  assigning 
to  it  a  new  and  independent  musical  thought 
of  its  own.  Sometimes  he  allows  the  general 
feeling  of  the  song  to  reappear  in  it  under  quite 
a  new  light ;  sometimes  the  musical  phrase 
suggests  some  final  outcome  of  the  words, 
opening  to  the  fancy  a  remote  perspective  in 
which  sight  is  lost  (a  beautiful  example  is  op. 
48,  No.  16,  'Die  alten  bosen  Lieder'^  Or  he 
continues  the  poem  in  music ;  of  which  a 
striking  instance  is  the  close  of  the  '  Frauen- 
liebe  und  Leben '  (op.  42),  where  by  repeating 
the  music  of  the  first  song  he  revives  in  the 
fancy  of  the  lonely  widow  the  memoiy  of  her 
early  happiness.  The  realm  of  feeling  revealed 
to  us  in  Schumann's  songs  is  thoroughly  youth- 
ful, an  unfailing  mark  of  the  true  lyric ;  the 
sentiment  he  principally  deals  with  is  that  of 
love,  which  in  his  hands  is  especially  tender 
and  pure,  almost  maidenly.  The  set  of  songs 
called  '  Frauenliebe  und  Leben '  gives  us  a  deep 
insight  into  the  most  subtle  and  secret  emotions 
of  a  pure  woman's  soul,  deeper  indeed  than 
could  have  been  expected  from  any  man,  and 
in  fact  no  composer  but  Schumann  would  have 
been  capable  of  it. 

Schumann  also  found  musical  equivalents  and 
shades  of  colour  for  EichendorfTs  mystical  views 
of  nature  ;  his  settings  of  Eichendorff 's  poems 
may  be  called  absolutely  classical,  and  he  is 
equally  at  home  in  dealing  with  the  bubbling 
freshness  or  the  chivalrous  sentiment  of  the  poet. 
Many  of  Schumann's  fresh  and  sparkling  songs 
have  a  touch  of  the  student's  joviality,  but 
without  descending  from  their  high  distinction  ; 
never  under  any  circumstances  was  her  triviaL 
Indeed  he  had  no  sympathy  with  the  farcical, 
though  his  talent  for  the  humorous  is  amply 
proved  by  his  songs.  A  masterpiece  of  the 
kind  is  the  setting  of  Heine's  poem  '  Ein  Jiing- 
ling  liebt  ein  Madchen'  (op.  48,  No.  11),  with 
its  strange  undercurrent  of  tragedy.  It  was 
principally  in  dealing  with  Heine's  words  that 
he  betrays  this  sense  of  humour  ;  '  Wir  sassen 
am  Fischerhause '  (op.  45,  No.  3),  is  an  example, 
and  still  more  *£b  leuchtet  meine  liebe'  (op. 
127,  No.  3),  where  a  resemblance  to  the  scherzo 
of  the  A  minor  String  Quartet  is  very  obvious. 
A  thing  which  may  well  excite  astonishment  &» 
apparently  quite  beside  the  nature  of  Schumann's 
character,  is  that  he  could  even  find  characteristic 
music  for  Heine's  bitterest  irony  (op.  24,  No.  6) 


SCHUMANN 


376 


'  Warte,  warte,  wilder  Schifismann/  and  many 
of  the  '  Dichterliebe. ' 

Schumann's  Symphonies  may,  without  any 
i^justioe,  be  considered  as  the  most  important 
in  their  time  since  Beethoven.  Though  Mendels- 
sohn excels  him  in  regularity  of  form,  and  though 
Schubert's  0  major  Symphony  is  quite  unique 
in  its  wealth  of  beauti^l  musical  ideas,  yet 
Schumann  surpasses  both  in  greatness  and  force. 
He  is  the  man,  they  the  youths ;  he  has  the 
greatest  amount  of  what  is  demanded  by  that 
greatest,  most  mature,  and  most  important  of 
all  forms  of  instrumental  music.  He  comes 
near  to  Beethoven,  who  it  is  quite  evident  was 
almost  the  only  composer  that  he  ever  took  as 
a  modeL  No  trace  whatever  of  Haydn  or  Mozart 
is  to  be  found  in  his  symphonies,  and  of  Men- 
delssohn just  as  little.  A  certain  approximation 
to  Schubert  is  indeed  perceptible  in  the  '  work- 
ing out'  (J)urchjuhru7iig)  of  his  Allegro  move- 
ments. But  the  symphonies,  like  the  pianoforte 
works,  the  songs,  and  indeed  all  that  Schumann 
{froduced,  bear  the  strong  impress  of  a  marvellous 
originality,  and  a  creative  power  all  his  own. 
Even  the  first  published  Symphony  (in  Bi^,  op. 
38)  shows  a  very  distinct  talent  for  tills  branch 
of  composition.  We  do  not  know  that  Schu- 
mann had  ever  previously  attempted  orchestral 
compositions,  except  in  the  case  of  the  symphony 
written  in  the  beginning  of  1830,  which  still 
remains  in  MS.  In  1889  he  writes  to  Dom : 
'  At  present  it  is  true  that  1  have  not  had  much 
practice  in  orchestral  writing,  but  I  hope  to 
master  it  some  day.'  And  in  bis  next  attempt 
he  attained  his  object.  In  a  few  passages  in 
the  Bb  Symphony,  the  effects  of  the  instruments 
are  indeed  not  rightly  calculated.  One  great 
error  in  the  first  movement  he  remedied  after 
the  first  hearing.  This  was  in  the  two  opening 
bars,  from  which  the  theme  of  the  Allegro  is 
afterwards  generated,  and  which  were  given  to 
the  horns  and  trumpets.  It  ran  originally  thus, 
in  agreement  with  the  beginning  of  the  Allegro 
movement : 


which,  on  account  of  the  G  and  A  being  stopped 
notes,  had  an  unexpected  and  very  comic  eflTect. 
Schumann  himself  was  much  amused  at  the 
mistake  ;  when  he  was  at  Hanover  in  January 
IS 54  ho  told  the  story  to  his  friends,  and  it  was 
very  amusing  to  hear  this  man,  usually  so  grave 
and  silent,  regardless  of  the  presence  of  strangers 
(for  the  incident  took  place  at  a  public  restaurant), 
sing  out  the  first  five  notes  of  the  subject  quite 
lonii,  the  two  next  in  a  muffled  voice,  and  the 
last  again  loud.  He  placed  the  phrase  a  third 
higher,  as  it  stands  in  the  printed  score  : 


Another,  but  less  important  passage  for  the 
horns  has  remained  unaltered.  In  bar  17  of 
the  first  Allegro,  Schumann  thought  that  this 
phrase 


ought  to  be  made  more  prominent  than  it 
usually  was  on  the  horns,  and  requested  both 
Taubert  and  David,  when  it  was  in  rehearsal 
at  Berlin  and  Leipzig  in  the  winter  of  1842, 
to  have  it  played  on  the  trombones. 

But  in  general  we  cannot  but  wonder  at  the 
certain  mastery  over  his  means  that  he  shows 
even  in  the  first  Symphony.  His  orchestra- 
tion is  less  smooth  and  clear  than  that  of  either 
Mendelssohn  or  Gade,  and  in  its  sterner  stylo 
reminds  us  rather  of  Schubert.  But  this  stem 
power  is  suited  to  the  substance  of  his  ideas, 
and  there  is  no  lack  of  captivating  beauty  of 
sound.  We  even  meet  in  his  orchestral  works 
with  a  number  of  new  effects  of  sound  such  as 
only  true  genius  can  discover  or  invent.  In- 
stances of  these  are  the  treatment  of  the  three 
trumpets  in  the  'Manfred'  overture,  the  use 
made  of  the  horns  in  the  second  movement  of 
the  Eb  Symphony,  the  violin  solo  introduced 
into  the  Romanza  of  the  D  minor  Symphony, 
etc.  etc.  It  is  hard  to  decide  which  of  Schu- 
mann's four  symphonies  (or  five,  counting  op. 
52)  is  the  finest.  Each  has  individual  beauties 
of  its  o^'n.  In  life  and  freshness  and  the  feeling 
of  inward  happiness,  the  Bb  Symphony  stands 
at  the  head.  Schumann  originally  intended  to 
call  it  the  *  Spring  Symphony ' ;  and  indeed  he 
wrote  it,  as  we  learn  from  a  letter  to  Taubert, 
in  Feb.  1841,  when  the  first  breath  of  spring 
was  in  the  air.  The  first  movement  was  to 
have  been  called  *  Spring's  Awakening,'  and  the 
Finale  (which  he  always  wished  not  to  be  taken 
too  fast)  'Spring's  Farewell.'  Many  parts  of 
the  symphony  have  an  especial  charm  when  we 
thus  know  the  object  with  which  they  were 
written.  The  beginning  of  the  introduction 
evidently  represents  a  trumpet -summons  sent 
pealing  down  from  on  high  ;  then  gentle  zephyrs 
blow  softly  to  and  fro,  and  everywhere  the 
dormant  forces  awake  and  make  their  way  to 
the  light  (we  are  quoting  from  the  composer's 
own  programme).  In  the  Allegro  the  Spring 
comes  laughing  in,  in  the  full  beauty  of  youth. ^ 
This  explains  and  justifies  the  novel  use  of  the 
triangle  in  the  first  movement — an  instrument 
not  then  considered  admissible  in  a  symphony. 
An  enchanting  effect  is  produced  by  the  Spring 
song  at  the  close  of  the  first  movement,  played 
as  though  sung  with  a  full  heart ;  and  it  is  an 
entirely  new  form  of  coda  (see  p.  67  of  the 
scoi-e).  In  publishing  the  Symphony,  Schu- 
mann omitted  the  explanatory  titles,  because 
he  believed  that  the  attention  of  the  public  is 

I  Sebmnann  Intended  the  PiA  Wvoee  of  the  Introdnetlon  to  be 
taken  distinctly  fMter  »t  once,  so  th»t  the  time  might  grllde  Imper- 
oepttbljr  Into  the  AUrjro. 


376 


SCHUMANN 


distracted  from  the  main  purpose  of  a  work  by 
things  of  that  kind.  We  may  well  believe, 
moreover,  that  a  good  part  of  the  spring-like 
feeling  in  this  symphony  comes  from  the  deep 
and  heart-felt  joy  which  Schumann  felt  at  being 
at  last  united  to  his  hard -won  bride.  The 
same  influence  is  seen  in  the  D  minor  Symphony 
(op.  120),  written  in  the  same  year  with  that 
just  described,  and  immediately  after  it.  It  is 
entirely  similar  to  its  predecessor  in  its  funda- 
mental feeling,  but  has  more  passion.  The 
form  too  is  new  and  very  successful ;  the  four 
sections  follow  each  other  consecutively  without 
any  pauses,  so  that  the  work  seems  to  consist 
of  only  one  great  movement.  The  subjects  of 
the  Introduction  re-appear  in  the  Romanze, 
with  different  treatment,  and  the  chief  subject 
of  the  first  Allegro  is  the  foundation  of  that  of 
the  last  The  second  part  of  the  first  Allegro 
is  in  quite  an  unusual  form,  and  before  the  last 
Allegro  we  find  a  slow  introduction — imaginative, 
majestic,  and  most  original.  As  has  been 
already  mentioned,  Schumann  intended  to  call 
the  work  'Symphonic  Fantasia.'  Here,  too, 
poetic  pictures  seem  to  be  hovering  round  him 
on  every  side. 

His  third  symphonic  work  of  the  year  1841 
is  also  irregular,  but  only  in  form,  and  has  as 
good  a  right  as  the  second  to  the  name  of  '  Sym- 
phony.* It  appeared,  however,  under  the  name 
*  Overture,  Scherzo,  and  Finale '  as  op.  52.  Of 
this  work,  which  is  charming  throughout,  the 
first  movement  ofiers  us  the  only  example  to  be 
found  in  Schumann  of  the  influence  of  Chenibini, 
a  master  for  whom  he  had  a  great  reverence, 
perhaps  the  most  lovely  movement  is  the  highly 
poetic  Scherzo  in  gigue-rhythm,  which  might 
constitute  a  type  by  itself  among  symphony- 
scherzos.  His  other  scherzos  approximate  in 
style  to  those  of  Beethoven,  whose  invention  and 
speciality  this  form  was,  and  who  had  no 
successor  in  it  but  Schumann.  The  charac- 
teristic of  the  C  major  Symphony  (op.  61)  is  a 
graver  and  more  mature  depth  of  feeling ;  its 
bold  decisiveness  of  form  and  overpowering 
wealth  of  expression  reveal  distinctly  the  re- 
lationship in  art  between  Schumann  and  Beet- 
hoven. The  form,  too,  as  far  as  regards  the 
number  and  character  of  the  movements,  is 
quite  that  of  the  classical  masters,  while  in  the 
last  Symphony  (Eb,  op.  97)  Schumann  once 
more  appears  as  one  of  the  modem  school 
This  is  divided  into  five  separate  movements, 
including  a  slow  movement  in  sustained  style, 
and  of  a  devotional  character,  between  the 
Andante  and  the  Finale.  Schumann  originally 
inscribed  it  with  the  words  *  In  the  style  of  an 
accompaniment  to  a  solemn  ceremony'  (im 
Charakter  der  Begleitung  einer  feierlichen  Cere- 
monie),  and  we  know  that  it  was  suggested  to 
him  by  the  sight  of  Cologne  Cathedral,  and 
the  festivities  on  the  occasion  of  Archbishop 
yon  Geissel's  elevation    to    the    Cardinalate. 


The  other  movements  are  powerful,  and  foil  of 
variety  and  charm,  and  the  whole  symphony  is 
full  of  vivid  pictures  of  Bhineland  life.  Perhaps 
the  gem  of  the  whole  is  the  second  movement 
(Scherzo),  in  which  power  and  beauty  are 
mingled  with  the  romance  which  in  every 
Grerman  heart  hovers  round  the  Rhine  and  its 
multitude  of  songs  and  legends.  Although 
written  in  1850,  when  Schumann's  imagination 
was  becoming  exhausted,  the  work  bears  no 
trace  of  any  diminution  of  power. 

The  poetical  concert-overture,  a  form  invented 
by  Mendelssohn,  and  practised  by  Bennett  and 
Gade,  was  one  never  cultivated  by  Schumann. 
His  overtures  are  really  'opening  pieces,*  whether 
to  opera,  play,  or  some  festivity  or  other.  In 
this  again  he  follows  Beethoven.  His  overtures^, 
like  those  of  Beethoven,  are  most  effective  in 
the  concert-room,  when  the  drama  or  occasion 
for  which  they  were  composed  is  kept  in  mind. 
It  is  so  even  with  the  wonderful  *Genoveva* 
overtui-e,  which  contains  something  of  Weber's 
power  and  swing  ;  but  more  than  all  is  it  true 
of  the  overture  to  Byron's  'Manfred,'  so  full  of 
tremendous  passion.  None  of  the  overtures 
subsequently  written  by  Schumann  reached  this 
degree  of  perfection,  least  of  all  his  '  Faust ' 
overture,  though  that  to  the  '  Braut  von  Mes- 
sina'(op.  100)  ia  not  mufth  inferior  to  'Manfred.' 
In  the  last  year  of  his  productive  activity 
Schumann  was  much  occupied  with  this  form, 
but  the  exhausted  condition  of  his  creative 
powers  cannot  be  disguised,  either  in  the  '  Faust ' 
overture  or  in  those  to  Sliakespeare's  'Julius 
Caesar '  (op.  128)  and  Goethe's  '  Hermann  und 
Dorothea  *  (op.  136),  which  last  he  had  intended 
to  set  as  an  opera.  The  festival  overture  on  the 
'  Rheinweinlied '  (op.  123)  is  cleverly  worked, 
and  a  very  effective  piice  d'ocectsum. 

It  was  in  the  spring  of  1838  that  Schumann 
made  his  first  attempt,  so  far  as  we  know,  at  a 
String  Quartet.  It  was  scarcely  suocessfiil,  for 
he  was  too  much  immersed  in  pianoforte  music  ; 
at  any  rate  the  world  has  hitherto  seen  nothing 
of  it.  In  June  and  July  1842  he  was  much 
more  successfiiL  The  three  string  quartets  (op. 
41),  written  at  this  time,  are  the  only  ones  that 
have  become  known.  They  cannot  be  said  to 
be  in  the  purest  quartet  style ;  but  as  Schu- 
mann never  played  any  stringed  instrument, 
this  is  not  surprising.  They  still  retain  much 
of  the  pianoforte  style  ;  but  by  this  very  means 
Schumann  attains  many  new  and  beautiful 
effects.  At  the  time  of  writing  the  A  minor 
quartet  Schumann  had  become  acquainted  with 
Marschner's  G  minor  Trio  (op.  112),  and 
speaks  of  it  in  the  ZeitackrifU  The  fine 
scherzo  of  that  work  struck  him  very  much, 
and  in  his  own  scherzo  it  reappears,  in  a 
modified  form  certainly,  but  yet  recognisable 
enough.  In  spite  of  this  plagiarism,  however,  we 
must  allow  the  quartet  to  be  in  the  highest 
degree  original,  and  full  of  richness  and  poetry. 


SCHUMANN 


377 


It  contains  much  enchanting  beauty,  never 
surpassed  even  by  Schumann.  He  seems  here 
to  have  resumed  his  practice  of  mixing  up 
poetic  mysticism  with  his  music.  What 
other  reason  could  there  be  for  proposing  to 
use  the  four  bars  of  modulation  from  the  first 
quartet  (bars  30-34),  exactly  as  they  stand,  for 
an  introNduction  to  the  second  quartet?  He 
aftervrards  struck  them  out,  as  may  be  seen  in 
the  autograph.  The  other  quartets  also  arrived 
at  their  present  form  only  after  manifold  altera- 
tions. The  slow  introduction  to  the  A  minor 
Quartet  was  at  first  intended  to  be  played  con 
sordini.  The  third  quartet  began  with  a  chord 
of  the  6-5  on  D,  held  out  for  a  whole  bar.  The 
j^eatest  alterations  were  made  in  the  first 
Allegro  of  the  A  minor  and  in  the  variations  in 
A^  of  the  F  major  Quartets.  Whole  sections 
were  re- written  and  modified  in  various  ways. 
But  Wasielewski  is  mistaken  in  saying  (8rd  ed. 
p.  178,  note)  that  the  piii  lento  over  the  coda 
in  these  variations  is  a  misprint  for  piii,  mosso, 
Schumann  wrote  piii  leiUo  quite  plainly,  and 
evidently  meant  what  he  wrote.  He  may 
possibly  have  changed  his  mind  afterwards,  for 
in  regard  to  tempo  he  was  often  moved  by 
the  opinions  of  others. 

Of  the  works  for  strings  and  pianoforte,  the 
<^intet  (op.  44)  is  of  course  the  finest ;  it  will 
always  keep  its  place  in  the  first  rank  of  musical 
masterpieces.  It  claims  the  highest  admiration, 
not  only  because  of  its  brilliant  originality,  and 
its  innate  power — ^which  seems  to  grow  with 
every  movement,  and  at  the  end  of  the  whole 
leaves  the  hearer  with  a  feeling  of  the  possibility 
of  never-ending  increase — but  also  because  of 
its  gorgeous  beauty  of  sound,  and  the  beautiful 
and  well-balanced  relations  between  the  piano- 
forte and  the  strings.  Musicians  are  still  Hving, 
like  Carl  Reinecke  of  Leipzig,  who  at  the  time 
of  its  appearance  were  in  the  most  susceptible 
period  of  youth,  and  who  tell  of  the  indescrib- 
able impression  the  work  made  upon  them.  It 
must  have  seemed  like  a  new  paradise  of  beauty 
revealed  to  their  view.  The  Pianoforte  Quartet 
(op.  47)  only  wants  animation,  and  a  more 
popular  character  in  the  best  sense  of  the  word, 
to  make  it  of  equal  merit  with  the  Quintet. 
There  is  much  in  it  of  the  spirit  of  Bach,  as  is 
perhaps  most  evident  in  the  wonderful  melody 
of  the  Andante.  A  high  rank  is  taken  by  the 
Trios  in  D  minor  (op,  63)  and  F  major  (op.  80), 
both,  as  well  as  the  quintet  and  quartet,  written 
in  one  and  the  same  year.  In  the  first  a 
passionate  and  sometimes  gloomy  character 
predominates,  while  the  second  is  more  cheerful 
and  full  of  warmth  in  the  middle  movements. 
The  canonic  style  is  employed  in  the  Adagios 
of  both  trios  with  new  and  powerful  effect.  The 
treatment  of  the  strings  with  respect  to  the 
pianoforte  may  here  and  there  be  considered 
too  orchestral  in  style ;  but  it  must  not  be 
forgotten  that  it  was  adopted  to  suit  the  piano 


style,  which  in  Schumann  is  very  different  from 
that  of  the  classical  masters  and  of  Mendelssohn. 
The  two  trios,  however,  are  wanting  in  that 
expression  of  perfect  health  which  is  so  prominent 
in  both  the  quintet  and  the  quartet.  They 
show  traces  of  the  hurry  and  breathless  haste 
which  in  his  later  years  increases  the  complica- 
tion of  his  rhythms.  The  third  and  last  Trio 
(G  minor,  op.  110)  is  far  inferior  to  the  others. 
There  is  stiU  the  same  artistic  design,  and  in 
isolated  passages  the  noble  genius  of  the  master 
still  shines  clearly  out ;  but  as  a  whole  this 
trio  tells  of  exhaustion.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  most  of  the  other  chamber  works  of  Schu- 
mann's latest  years.  Among  them  are  two 
sonatas  for  pianoand  violin,  gloomy,  impassioned 
compositions,  which  can  hardly  be  listened  to 
without  a  feeling  of  oppression.  There  are  also 
a  number  of  shorter  pieces  for  different  instru- 
ments, among  which  the  *  Miirchenbilder  fiir 
Pianoforte  imd  Viola'  (op.  113) are  prominent. 

No  one  who  bears  in  mind  Schumann's  ulti- 
mate fate  can  hear  without  emotion  the  last 
of  these  '  Miirchenbilder,'  which  bears  the  direc- 
tion'  Langsam,  mit  melancholischem  Ausdnick.' 

In  the  sphere  of  the  concerto  Schumann  has 
left  an  imperishable  trace  of  his  genius  in  the 
Pianoforte  Concerto  in  A  minor  (op.  54).  It 
is  one  of  his  most  beautiful  and  mature  works. 
In  addition  to  all  his  peculiar  originality  it  has 
also  the  qualities,  which  no  concerto  should 
lack,  of  external  brilliancy,  and  striking,  power- 
ful, well-rounded  subjects.  The  first  movement 
is  written  in  a  free  form  with  happy  effect ;  the 
cause  being  that  Schumann  had  at  first  intended 
it  to  stand  as  an  independent  piece,  with  the 
title  *  Fantasia. '  He  did  not  add  the  other  two 
movements  until  two  years  afterwards. — The 
*  Introduction  und  Allegro  appassionato,'  for 
pianoforte  and  orchestra  (op.  92),  is  a  rich 
addition  to  concerto  literature.  In  Schumann 
there  is  a  deeper  connection  between  the 
pianoforte  and  orchestra  than  had  before  been 
customary,  though  not  carried  to  such  a  point 
as  to  interfere  with  the  contrast  between  the 
two  independent  powers.  He  was  far  from 
writing  symphonies  with  the  pianoforte  obhli- 
gato.  His  other  works  in  concerto-form,  written 
in  the  last  years  of  his  life,  do  not  attain  to 
the  height  of  the  Concerto.  Among  them  is 
an  unpublished  violin  concerto  written  between 
Sept  21  and  Oct.  3,  1858,  and  consisting  of 
the  following  movements:  (1)  D  minor  alia 
breve,  *  Imkriiftigen,  nicht  zu  schnellen  Tempo ' ; 
(2)  Bb  major,  common  time,  *  Langsam ' ;  (3) 
D  major,  3-4,  'Lebhaft,  dooh  nicht  zu  schnell. ' 
The  autograph  was  in  the  possession  of  Joachim. 
A  Fantasia  for  violin  and  orchestra,  dedicated 
to  the  same  great  artist,  is  published  as  op.  131. 
The  Violoncello  Concerto  (op.  129)  is  remark- 
able for  a  very  beautiful  slow  middle  movement. 
There  is  also  a  Concerto  for  four  horns  and 
orchestra  (op.  86).     Schumann  himself  thought 


378 


SCHUMANN 


very  highly  of  this  piece,  partly  because,  as  he 
wrote  to  Dr.  Hartcl,  *it  was  quite  curious.' 
It  is  indeed  the  first  attempt  made  in  modern 
times  to  revive  the  form  of  the  old  Concerto 
grosso  which  Sebastian  Bach  had  brought  to 
perfection  in  his  six  so-called  *  Brandenburg ' 
concertos.  As  these  concertos  of  Bach  were  not 
printed  until  1850,  and  Schumann  can  scarcely 
have  known  them  in  manuscript,  it  is  a  remark- 
able and  interesting  coincidence  that  he  should 
thus  have  followed  Bach's  lead  without  knowing 
it  The  piece  is  particularly  hard  for  the  first 
horn,  because  of  the  high  notes.  When  well 
rendered  it  has  a  peculiarly  sonorous,  often  very 
romantic  effect,  to  which,  however,  the  ear  soon 
becomes  insensible  from  the  tone  of  the  four 
horns. 

In  his  account  of  Marschner's  *  Kliinge  aus 
Osten,'  a  work  performed  in  Leipzig  on  Oct. 
22,  1840,  Schumann  expresses  great  admiration 
for  the  form,  in  which  it  was  possible  to  make 
use  for  concert  performances  of  romantic  stories, 
which  had  hitherto  been  only  used  on  the  stage. 
He  was  the  first  to  follow  this  example  in 
his  ••Paradise  and  the  Peri,'  The  text  was 
taken  from  Moore's  poem,  of  which  Schumann 
shortened  some  parts  to  suit  lus  purpose,  while 
he  lengthened  others  by  his  own  insertions. 
It  was  his  first  work  for  voices  and  orchestra, 
and  is  one  of  his  greatest  and  most  important 
The  subject  was  happily  chosen.  The  longing 
felt  by  one  of  those  ideal  beings  created  by  the 
imagination  from  the  forces  of  nature,  to  attain 
or  regain  a  higher  and  happier  existence,  and 
using  every  means  for  the  fulfilment  of  this 
longing,  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  German 
popular  legends,  and  is  still  a  favourite  and 
sym|)athetic  idea  in  Germany.  It  is  the  root 
of  the  legends  of  the  Fair  Melusina,  of  the 
Water  Nixie,  and  of  Hans  Heiling.  Schumann's 
fancy  must  have  been  stimulated  by  the  magic 
of  the  East,  no  less  than  by  Moore's  poem,  with 
its  poetic  pictures  displayed  on  a  background 
of  high  moral  sentiment  The  fact  of  Schu- 
mann's having  retained  so  much  of  Moore's 
narrative  is  worthy  of  all  praise ;  it  is  the 
descriptive  portions  of  the  poem  that  have  the 
greatest  charm,  and  the  music  conforms  to  this. 
True,  there  will  always  be  a  certain  disadvan- 
tage in  using  a  complete  self-contained  poem 
as  a  text  for  music,  a  great  deal  of  which  will 
inevitably  have  been  written  without  regard  to 
the  composer.  Much  that  we  pass  over  lightly 
in  reading  has,  when  set  to  music,  a  more 
definite  and  insistent  effect  than  was  intended. 
In  other  places  again,  the  poem,  from  the 
musician's  point  of  view,  will  be  deficient  in 
opportunities  for  the  strong  contrasts  so  neces- 
sary for  effect  in  music.  This  is  very  obvious 
in  Schumann's  composition.  The  third  portion 
of  the  work,  although  he  took  much  trouble  to 
give  it  greater  variety  by  additions  to  the  poetry, 
suffers  from  a  certain  monotony.     Not  that  the 


separate  numbers  are  weaker  than  those  of  tbe 
former  parts,  but  they  are  wanting  in  strong 
shadows.  But  there  is  something  else  ttuit 
prevents  the  work  from  producing  a  really 
striking  effect  upon  large  audiences,  and  that 
is,  if  we  may  say  so,  that  there  is  too  much 
music  in  it  Schumann  brought  it  forth  from 
the  fulness  of  his  heart,  and  threw,  even  into 
its  smallest  interludes,  all  the  depth  of  expres- 
sion of  which  he  was  capable.  The  beauties  are 
crowded  together,  and  stand  in  each  other's 
light  If  they  had  been  fewer  in  number  they 
would  have  had  more  effect.  But,  with  all 
these  allowances,  '  Paradise  and  the  Peri '  is  one 
of  the  most  enchanting  musical  poems  in  exist- 
ence. And  we  can  now  confirm  his  own  words 
in  a  letter  to  a  friend  after  the  completion  of 
the  work  :  '  A  soft  voice  within  me  kept  saying 
while  I  wrote.  It  is  not  in  vain  that  thou  art 
writing ' :  for  this  composition  will  go  far  to 
make  him  immortal.  All  the  choruses  in 
*  Paradise  and  the  Peri,'  perhaps  with  the 
exception  of  the  last,  are  fine,  original,  and 
effective.  But  it  must  be  admitted  tliat  choral 
composition  was  not  really  Schumann's  strong 
point  In  this  respect  he  is  far  inferior  to 
Mendelssohn.  In  many  of  his  choruses  he  mi^t 
even  seem  to  lack  the  requisite  mastery  over 
the  technical  requirements  of  choral  composition, 
so  instrumental  in  style,  so  impracticable  and 
unnecessarily  difficult  do  they  seem.  But  if  we 
consider  Schumann's  skill  in  polyphonic  writing, 
and  recall  pieces  of  such  grand  conception  and 
masterly  treatment  as  the  beginning  of  the  last 
chorus  of  the  '  Faust '  music,  we  feel  convinced 
that  the  true  reason  of  the  defect  lies  deeper. 
The  essential  parts  of  a  chorus  are  large  and 
simple  subjects,  broad  and  flowing  development, 
and  divisions  clearly  marked  and  intelligiUe  to 
all.  I  n  a  good  chorus  there  must  be  somethingto 
speak  to  the  heart  of  the  masses.  Schumann 
took  exactly  the  opposite  view.  The  chorus 
was  usually  an  instrument  unfitted  for  thf 
expression  of  his  ideas.  His  genius  oould  have 
mastered  the  technical  part  of  choral  compoaition 
as  quickly  and  surely  as  that  of  orchestral  com- 
position. But  since  the  case  was  otherwise,  the 
chief  importance  of  '  Paradise  and  the  Peri '  b 
seen  to  be  in  the  solos  and  their  accompaniments, 
especially  in  the  latter,  for  here  the  orchestra 
stands  in  the  same  relation  to  the  voice  as  the 
pianoforte  does  in  Schumann's  songs.  A  good 
orchestral  rendering  of  *  Paradise  and  the  Peri ' 
is  a  task  of  the  greatest  difficulty,  but  one  re- 
warded by  perfect  enjoyment 

In  the  fairy-tale  of  *  The  Pilgrimage  of  the 
Rose '  (op.  112)  Schumann  intended  to  p#odu(« 
a  companion  picture  to  *  Paradise  and  the  Peri,' 
but  in  less  definite  outline  and  vaguer  colours. 
The  idea  of  the  poem  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
former  work,  but  Horn's  execution  of  the  idea 
is  entirely  without  taste.  Schumann  was 
possibly  attracted  by  its  smooth  veniification 


SCHUMANN 


379 


and  a  few  really  good  musical  sitaations.  The 
musio  contains  much  that  is  airy  and  fresh,  as 
well  as  a  beautifui  dirge.  On  the  other  haiid, 
it  is  full  of  a  feeble  sentimentality  utterly 
foreign  to  Schumann's  general  character,  and 
asciibable  only  to  the  decay  of  his  imagination. 
The  insignificant  and  wholly  idyllic  subject  was 
quite  inadequate  to  give  employment  to  the 
whole  apparatus  of  solo,  chorus,  and  orchestra, 
and  Schumann's  first  idea  of  providing  a  piano- 
forte accompaniment  only  was  the  right  one. 
With  a  smcJl  section  of  Schumann's  admirers 
the  work  will  always  keep  its  place,  and  produce 
a  pleasing  though  not  very  deep  effect.  His 
other  works  in  this  form  consist  of  four  ballads : 
— 'Der  Konigssohn'  (op.  116),  *Des  Sangers 
Fluch '  (op.  189),  *  Das  Gluck  von  Edenhall ' 
(op.  143),  all  by  Uhland ;  and  *Vom  Pagen 
und  der  Konigstochter '  (op.  140),  by  Geibel.  It 
is  painfully  evident  that  these  poems  were  not 
reiJly  written  for  music.  The  way  the  principal 
eTents  of  the  story  are  described,  and  the  whole 
oatward  form  of  the  verses,  imply  that  they 
were  intended  to  be  recited  by  a  single  person, 
and  that  not  a  singer  but  a  speaker.  If  neces- 
sary to  be  sung,  the  form  of  s  strophic  song 
sh<Hild  have  been  chosen,  as  is  the  case  with 
'Das  Gliick  von  Edenhall,'  but  this  would 
confine  the  varieties  of  expression  >\ithin  too 
narrow  a  range.  It  is  as  though  Schumann's 
pent-up  desire  for  the  dramatic  form  were 
seeking  an  outlet  in  these  ballads  ;  especially 
as  we  know  that  in  the  last  years  of  his  creative 
activity  he  was  anxious  to  meet  with  a  new 
opera-libretto.  The  faults  of  texts  and  subjects 
might,  however,  be  overlooked,  if  the  music  made 
itself  felt  as  the  product  of  a  rich  and  unwearied 
imagination.  Unfortunately,  however,  this  is 
seldom  the  case.  It  is  just  in  the  more  dramatic 
parts  that  we  detect  an  obvious  dulness  in  the 
music,  a  lameness  in  rhythm,  and  a  want  of 
fresh  and  happy  contrasts.  It  must  be  re- 
marked, however,  that  isolated  beauties  of  no 
mean  order  are  to  be  met  with ;  such  as  the 
whole  of  the  third  part  and  the  beginning  and 
end  of  the  second,  in  the  ballad  *  Vom  Pagen 
und  der  Konigstochter.'  These  works,  however, 
taken  as  a  whole,  will  hardly  live. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  some  works  of 
striking  beauty  for  voices  and  orchestra  in  a 
jiurely  lyrical  vein.  Among  these  should  be 
mentioned  the  '  Requiem  for  Mignon '  from 
'  Wilhelm  Meister '  (op.  986),  and  Hebbel's 
'Nachtlied'  (op.  108).  The  former  of  these 
was  especially  written  for  music,  and  contains 
the  loveliest  thoughts  and  words  embodied  in 
an  unconstrained  and  agreeable  form.  Few 
oompoeers  were  so  well  fitted  for  such  a  work 
as  Schumann,  with  his  sensitive  emotional 
faculty  and  his  delicate  sense  of  poetry  ;  and 
it  is  no  wonder  that  he  succeeded  in  producing 
this  beautiful  little  composition.  But  it  should 
never  be  heard  in  a  large  concert  room,  for  which 


its  delicate  proportionB  and  tender  colouring  are 
utterly  unfitted.  The  *  Nachtlied '  is  a  long 
choral  movement.  The  peculiar  and  fantastic 
feeling  of  the  poem  receives  adequate  treatment 
by  a  particular  style  in  which  the  chorus  is 
sometimes  used  only  to  give  colour,  and  some- 
times is  combined  with  the  orchestra  in  a 
polyphonic  structure,  in  which  all  human  in- 
dividuality seems  to  be  merged,  and  only  the 
universal  powers  of  nature  and  of  life  reign 
supreme. 

Schumann's  music  to  *  Faust '  is  not  intended 
to  be  performed  on  the  stage  as  the  musical 
complement  of  Goethe's  drama.  It  is  a  piece 
for  concert  performance,  or  rather  a  set  of  pieces, 
for  he  did  not  stipulate  or  intend  that  all  three 
parts  should  be  given  together.  ^Vhat  he  did 
was  to  take  out  a  number  of  scenes  from  both 
parts  of  Goethe's  poem,  and  set  music  to  them. 
It  follows  that  the  work  is  not  self-contained, 
but  requires  for  its  full  understanding  an  accu- 
rate knowledge  of  the  poem.  From  the  First 
Part  he  took  the  following: — (1)  Part  of  tlie 
first  scene  in  the  garden  between  Grctchen  and 
Faust ;  (2)  Gretchen  before  the  shrine  of  the 
McUer  ddoroaa  ;  (8)  The  scene  in  the  Cathedral. 
These  three  form  the  first  division  of  his  Faust 
music.  From  the  Second  Part  of  the  play  he 
adopted :  (1)  The  first  scene  of  the  first  act  (the 
song  of  the  spirits  at  dawn,  the  sunrise,  and 
Faust's  soliloquy)  ;  (2)  The  scene  with  the  four 
aged  women  from  the  fifth  act ;  (3)  Faust's  death 
in  the  same  act  (as  ,far  as  the  words,  *  Der  Zeiger 
fallt— Erfallt,  esist  vollbrachf).  These  form  the 
second  division  of  the  music.  Schumann's  third 
division  consists  of  the  last  scene  of  the  fifth  act 
(Faust's  glorification)  divided  into  seven  num- 
bers. The  experiment  of  constructing  a  work 
of  art,  without  central  point  or  connection  in  it- 
self, but  entirely  dependent  for  these  on  another 
work  of  art,  could  only  be  successful  in  the  case 
of  a  poem  like  '  Faust ' ;  and  even  then,  perhaps, 
only  with  the  German  people,  with  whom 
Faust  is  almost  as  familiar  as  the  Bible.  But 
it  really  was  successful,  more  particularly  in 
the  third  division,  which  consists  of  only  one 
great  scene,  and  is  the  most  important  from  a 
musical  point  of  view.  In  this  scene  Goethe 
himself  desired  the  co-operation  of  music  Its 
mystic  import  and  splendid  expression  could 
find  no  composer  so  well  fitted  as  Schumann, 
who  seemed,  as  it  were,  predestined  for  it.  He 
threw  himself  into  the  spirit  of  the  poem  with 
such  deep  sympathy  and  understanding,  that 
from  beginning  to  end  his  music  gives  the  im- 
pression of  being  a  commentary  on  it.  To 
Schumann  is  due  the  chief  meed  of  praise  for 
having  popularised  the  second  part  of  '  Faust.* 
In  musical  importance  no  other  choral  work  of 
his  approaches  the  third  division  of  his  work. 
In  freshness,  originality,  and  sustained  power 
of  invention  it  is  in  no  way  inferior  to  '  Paradise 
and  the  Peri.*     Up  to  about  the  latter  half  of 


380 


SCHUMANN 


the  last  chorus  it  is  a  chain  of  musical  gems, 
a  perfectly  unique  contribution  to  concert  litera- 
ture, in  the  first  rank  of  those  works  of  art  of 
which  the  German  nation  may  well  be  proud. 
The  second  division  of  the  '  Faust '  music,  con- 
sisting of  three  other  scenes  from  the  Second 
Part  of  the  poem,  is  also  of  considerable  merit. 
It  is,  however,  evident  in  many  passages  that 
Schumann  has  set  words  which  Goethe  never 
intended  to  be  sung.  This  is  felt  still  more 
in  the  scenes  from  the  First  Part,  which  are, 
moreover,  very  inferior  in  respect  of  the  music. 
The  overture  is  the  least  important  of  all ;  in 
fact  the  merit  of  the  work  decreases  gradually 
as  we  survey  it  backwards  from  the  end  to  the 
beginning  ;  a  circumstance  corresponding  to 
the  method  pursued  in  its  composition,  which 
began  in  Schumann's  freshest,  happiest,  and 
most  masterly  time  of  creativeness,  and  ended 
close  upon  the  time  when  his  noble  spirit  was 
plunged  in  the  dark  gloom  of  insanity. 

There  exist  only  two  dramatic  works  of  Schu- 
mann's intended  for  the  theatre :  the  opera  of 
'  Genoveva '  and  the  music  to  Byron's  *  Manfred.* 
The  text  of  the  opera  may  justly  be  objected 
to,  for  it  scarcely  treats  of  the  proper  legend  of 
Genoveva  at  all ;  almost  all  that  made  the  story 
characteristic  and  touching  being  discarded,  a 
fact  which  Schumann  thought  an  advantage. 
This  may  perhaps  be  explained  by  remembering 
his  opinion  that  in  an  opera  the  greatest  stress 
should  be  laid  on  the  representation  of  the 
emotions,  and  that  this  object  might  most  easily 
be  attained  by  treating  the  external  conditions 
of  an  operatic  story  as  simply  and  broadly  as 
possible.  He  also  probably  felt  that  a  great 
])art  of  the  Genoveva  legend  is  epic  rather  than 
dramatic.  He  was  mistaken,  however,  in 
thinking  that  after  the  reductions  which  he 
made  in  the  plot,  it  would  remain  sufficiently 
interesting  to  the  general  public.  He  himself, 
as  we  have  said,  arranged  his  own  libretto. 
His  chief  model  was  Hebbel's  'Genoveva,'  a 
tragedy  which  had  affected  him  in  a  wonderful 
way ;  though  he  also  made  use  of  Tieck's 
'Genoveva.'  Besides  these  he  took  Weber's 
*  Euryanthe '  as  a  pattern.  The  mixture  of 
three  poems,  so  widely  difTering  from  one  another, 
resulted  in  a  confusion  of  motives  and  an 
uncertainty  of  delineation  which  add  to  the  un- 
interesting impression  produced  by  the  libretto. 
The  character  of  Golo,  particularly,  is  very 
indistinctly  drawn,  and  yet  on  him  falls  almost 
the  chief  responsibility  of  the  drama.  The 
details  cannot  but  suffer  by  such  a  method  of 
compilation  as  this.  A  great  deal  is  taken  word 
for  word  from  Hebbel  and  Tieck,  and  their  two 
utterly  different  styles  appear  side  by  side  with- 
out any  compromise  whatever.  Hebbel,  however, 
predominates.  Tieck's  work  appears  in  the  finale 
of  the  first  act,  and  in  the  duet  (No.  9)  in  the 
second  act,  e.g.  the  line  '  Du  liebst  mich,  holde 
Braut,  da  ist  der  Tag  begonnen.'     Genoveva's 


taunt  on  Golo's  birth  is  also  taken  from  Xieck, 
although  he  makes  the  reproach  come  first  from 
Wolf  and  afterwards  from  Genoveva  hersdi^  bat 
without  making  it  a  prominent  motive  in   the 
drama.      Beside  this  several   Yolkslieder    are 
interspersed.     This  confusion  of  styles  is  surpris- 
ing in  a  man  of  such  fine  discrimination   sxid, 
delicate  taste  as  Schumann  displays  elsewliere. 
The  chief  defect  of  the  opera,  however,  lies  in 
the  music.     In  the  opera  of  'Genoveva,'    tlie 
characters  all  sing  more  or  less  the  same  kind 
of  music ;  that  which  Schumann  puts  to  the 
words  is  absolute  music,  not  relative,  Le,  snch 
as  would  be  accordant  with  the  character  of 
each  individual.     Neither  in  outline  nor  deteil 
is  his  music  sufficiently  generated  by  the  sitoa- 
tions  of  the  drama.    Lastly,  he  lacks  appreciation 
for  that  liveliness  of  contrast  which  appears 
forced  and  out  of  place  in  the  concert-room,  but 
is  absolutely  indispensable  on  the  stage.  '  Geno- 
veva' has  no  strict  recitatives,  but  neither  is 
there  spoken  dialogue  ;  even  the  ordinary  quiet 
parts  of  the  dialogue  are  sung  in  strict  time, 
and  usually  accompanied  with  the  full  orchestra. 
Schumann  considered  the  recitative  a  super- 
annuated  form  of  art,  and  in  his  other  worics 
also  makes  scarcely  any  use  of  it.     This  point 
is  of  course  open  to  dispute  ;  but  it  is  not  open 
to  dispute  that  in  an  opera,  some  kind  of  calm, 
even  neutral  form  of  expression  is  wanted,  which, 
while  allowing  the  action  to  proceed  quickly, 
may  serve  as  a  foil  to  the  chief  parts  in  which 
highly-wrought  emotions  are  to  be  delineated. 
The  want  of  such  a  foil  in  '  Genoveva '  weakens 
the  effect  of  the  climaxes,  and  with  them,  that 
of  the  whole.    As  in  the  formation  of  the  libretto 
Schumann  took  '  Euryanthe '  as  his  model,  so 
as  a  musician  he  intended  to  carry  out  Weber's 
intentions  still  farther,  and  to  iK-rite,  not  an 
opera  in  the  old-fashioned  ordinary  sense,  but 
a  music-drama,  which  should  be  purely  national. 
At  the  time  when  *  Genoveva '  was  written,  he 
was  utterly  opposed  to  Italian  music,  not  in 
the  way  we  should  have  expected  him  to  be, 
but  exactly  as  Weber  was  opposed  to  it  in  his 
time.     'Let  me  alone  with  your  canary-bird 
music  and  your  tunes  out  of  the  waste-paper 
basket,'  he  once  said  angrily  to  Weber's  son, 
who  was  speaking  to  him  of  Cimarosa's  '  Matri- 
monio  Segreto.'     But  although   he  may  not 
have  succeeded  in  producing  a  masterpiece  of 
German  opera,  we  may  appreciate  with  gratitude 
the  many  beauties  of  the  music,    the  noble 
sentiment  pervading  the  whole,  and  the  constant 
artistic  feeling,  directed  only  to  what  is  true 
and  genuine.     The  finest  part  of  the  work  is 
the  overture,  a  masterpiece  in  its  kind,  and 
worthy  to  rank  with  the  classical  models. 

•  The  music  to  Byron's  '  Manfred '  (op.  115)  con- 
sists of  an  overture,  an  entr'acte,  melodramas, 
and  several  solos  and  choruses.  Byron  exprees^ly 
desired  the  assistance  of  music  for  his  worlC 
though  not  so  much  of  it  as  Schumann  has  given. 


SCHUMANN 


381 


Schumann  inserted  all  the  inBtrumental  pieces 
in  the  work,  with  the  exception  of  the  tunes  on 
the  ahepheid's  pipe  in  the  first  act ;  also  the 
requiem  heard  at  Manfred's  death,   sounding 
from  the  convent  church.     On  the  other  hand, 
it  is  remarkable  that  he  left  the  song  of '  The 
captive  usurper'  in  Act  ii.  Scene  iv.  without 
music     The  whole  work   consists  of  sixteen 
numbers,  including  the  overture ;  this  Schumann 
composed   first  of  all,  and  probably  without 
intending  to  write  music  for  the  drama  itself. 
Even  here  he  does  not  evince  any  special  gift 
for   dramatic    writing.      In    the  present  day 
Byron's  drama  is  frequently  performed  upon  the 
stage  with  Schumann's  music,  and  its  elective- 
nes8  can  thus  be  tested.     The  music  hardly 
ever  serves  to  intensify  the  dramatic  effects, 
and  yet  this  is  all  that  is  necessary  in  a  drama. 
It  appears  rather  to  be  the  outcome  of  the 
impression  produced  on  Schumann  by  Byron's 
poem.      There  is    one    peculiarity   about  the 
'Manired'  music    On  the  stage  it  loses  a  great 
part  of  its  efifect,  just  as,  in  my  opinion,  the 
poem  loses  half  its  fantastic  and  weird  magic 
by  being  dressed  in  the  clumsy  and  palpable 
illusions  of  a  scenic  representation.    The  overture 
is  a  piece  of  music  of  the  most  serious  character, 
and  much  more  fitted  for  concert  performance 
than  for  assembling  an  audience  in  a  theatre. 
This  is  still  more  true  of  all  the  other  pieces,  so 
delicate  in  construction  and  subtle  in  feeling, 
the  doeing  requiem  by  no  means  excluded.    And 
yet  in  the  concert-room  the  music  does  not 
make  its  due  effect ;  partly  because  the  hearer 
is  withdrawn  from  the  influence  of  the  action, 
which  is  indispensable  to  the  full  understanding 
of  the  whole  work ;  and  also  because  in  the 
melodramas  the  spoken  words  and  the  music 
which  accompanies  them  disturb  one  another 
more  than  when  performed  on  the  stage.     From 
these  remarks  it  might  be  imagined  that  the 
'  Manfred'  music  is  an  inferior  work ;  but  strange 
to  say  such  is  by  no  means  the  case.     It  is  a 
splendid  creation,  and  one  of  Schumann's  most 
inspired  productions.      It  hovers  between  the 
stage  and  the  concert-room  ;  and,  paradoxical  as 
it  may  seem,  the  deepest  impression  is  produced 
by  reading  the  score,  picturing  in  one's  mind 
the  action  and  the  spoken  dialogue,  and  allowing 
the  music  to  sink  deep  into  the  ears  of  one's 
mind.     Perhaps  the  most  striking  parts  of  it 
all  are  the  melodramas,  and  among  them  the 
deeply  touching  speech  of  Manfred  to  Astarte  ; 
and  these  all  stand  out  with  a  peculiar  purity 
and  unity,  when  read  as  just  described.     They 
are  in  a  manner  improvements  upon  those  highly 
poetic  piano  pieces  of  Schumann's  with  super- 
scriptions ;  and  we  ought  to  think  of  the  words 
when  hearing  the  piece.     In   this  music,   if 
nowhere  else,  is  revealed  Schumann's  character- 
istio  struggle  after  the  inward,  to  the  disregard 
of  the  outward;  and  we  see  how  diametrically 
opposed  to  his  nature  was  the  realisation  of 


dramatic  effects  where  all  is  put  into  visible  and 
tangible  form.  But  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
composition  of  the  'Manfred'  music  just  as  if  he 
had  been  fitted  for  it  by  nature.  The  poet  and 
the  composer  seem  to  have  been  destined  for 
one  another  as  truly  as  in  the  case  of  the  Faust 
music,  but  in  a  different  way.  Byron  had  no 
idea  of  stage  representation  in  writing  '  Manfred' ; 
he  only  wished  his  poem  to  be  read.  Its  romantic 
sublimity  of  thought,  spuming  all  firm  foothold 
or  support  on  the  earth,  could  only  find  its  due 
completion  in  music  such  as  this,  which  satisfies 
the  requirements  of  neither  stage  nor  concert- 
room.  That  a  work  of  art,  mighty  and  instinct 
with  life,  can  be  produced  with  a  sublime  disdain 
of  all  limits  set  by  circumstance^  provided  only 
genius  is  at  work  upon  it,  is  amply  proved  by 
Byron  and  Schumann  in  this  their  joint  produc- 
tion. It  has  been  already  remarked  more  than 
once  that  the  gloomy,  melancholy,  and  passion- 
ate intensity  of  strife  in  Byron's  'Manfred,' 
heightened  by  contrast  with  the  splendid  descrip- 
tions of  nature,  corresponded  to  the  conditions  of 
Schumann's  spirit  at  the  time  when  the  music 
was  i^Titten.  And  indeed  a  deep  sympathy 
speaks  in  every  bar.  But  there  was  in  Schumann 
a  longing  for  peace  and  reconciliation,  which  is 
wanting  in  Byron.  This  comes  out  very  plainly 
in  different  passages  in  the  music,  of  which  the 
most  striking  is  the  '  Requiem '  at  the  close, 
which  sheds  over  the  whole  work  a  gentle  gleam 
of  glory.  If  we  were  to  go  into  details,  we 
should  neither  know  where  to  begin  nor  to  end. 
In  January  1851  Schumann  wrote  to  a  friend^ 
*  It  must  always  be  the  artist's  highest  aim  to 
apply  his  powers  to  sacred  music.  But  in  youth 
we  are  firmly  rooted  to  the  earth  by  all  our 
joys  and  sorrows  ;  it  is  only  with  advancing  age 
that  the  branches  stretch  higher,  and  so  I  hope 
that  the  period  of  my  higher  efforts  is  no  longer 
distant. '  He  is  here  speaking  emphatically  of 
'sacred,'  not  of  church  music.  Church  music 
he  never  wrote,  his  Mass  and  his  Requiem  not- 
withstanding. It  should  be  adapted  to  the 
church-services,  and  calculated  to  produce  its 
effect  in  combination  with  the  customary  cere- 
monial ;  but  sacred  or  religious  music  is  intended 
to  turn  the  mind  of  the  hearers,  by  its  own 
unaided  effect,  to  edifying  thoughts  of  the 
eternal  and  divine.  Of  compositions  of  this 
class  we  possess  several  by  Schumann  ;  nor  was 
it  in  1851  that  he  first  began  writing  them. 
There  is  an  Advent  hymn  for  solo,  chorus,  and 
orchestra  (op.  71),  written  in  1848  ;  a  motet 
for  men's  voices  with  organ,  subsequently 
arranged  for  orchestra  (op.  93),  of  1849,  and  a 
New  Year's  hymn  for  chorus  and  orchestra  (op. 
144)  of  the  winter  of  the  same  year ;  all  three 
settings  of  poems  by  Friedrich  Riickert.  The 
Mass  (op.  147)  and  the  Requiem  (op.  148),  on 
the  other  hand,  were  composed  in  1852,  and 
Schumann  may  have  been  thinking  mainly  of 
works  of  this  kind  when  he  wrote  the  letter 


382 


SCHUMANN 


quoted  above.  As  a  Protestant  his  relations  to 
the  Mass  and  Requiem  were  perfectly  unfettered ; 
and  in  the  composition  of  these  works  he  can 
have  had  no  thought  of  their  adaptation  to  divine 
service,  since  even  in  form  they  exhibit  peculi- 
arities opposed  to  the  established  order  of  the 
Mass.  It  may,  however,  be  assumed  that  it  was 
the  Catholic  feeling  of  Dtisseldorf  which  suggested 
them,  and  that  he  intended  the  works  to  be 
performed  on  certain  occasions  at  church  concerts. 
The  words  of  the  Mass  will  always  have  a  great 
power  of  elevating  and  inspiring  an  earnest  artist ; 
but  irrespective  of  this,  the  composition  of  a 
mass  must  have  had  a  peculiar  attraction  for 
Schumann  on  other  grounds.  A  poetical  interest 
in  the  Catholic  Church  of  the  Middle  Ages  was 
at  that  time  widely  prevalent  in  Germany, 
particularly  in  circles  which  were  most  influenced 
by  romantic  poetry,  and  found  in  the  Middle 
Ages  the  realisation  of  their  most  cherished  ideals. 
Schumann  shared  in  this  tendency ;  a  vein  of 
mystical  religionism,  which  otherwise  might 
have  lain  dormant,  often  shows  itself  in  his  later 
compositions.  For  instance,  under  the  name 
Requiem  we  find  the  setting  of  a  hymn,  ascribed 
to  H^loise,  the  beloved  of  Ab^lard  (op.  90, 
No.  7), 

RemUetecU  a  labor* 

Ikloroso,  et  amorty  etc. 

Other  instances  are  the  poems  of  Mary  Stuart 
(op.  135),  and  the  Requiem  for  Mignon.  In 
the  Mass  he  has,  contrary  to  custom,  introduced 
an  offertorium,  Totapulehra  es,  Marian  et  ^nacula 
non  est  in  tc. 

In  judging  of  Schumann's  sacred  music,  it  is 
necessary  to  repeat  that,  though  the  chorus  is 
not,  strictly  speaking,  the  musical  means  by 
which  he  was  best  able  to  express  himself,  yet 
both  custom  and  the  character  and  importance 
of  the  subject  urged  him  to  make  considerable 
use  of  it  in  these  works.  Thus  they  contain  a 
contradiction  in  themselves  ;  they  are  all  nobly 
and  gravely  conceived,  but  as  choral  music  are 
only  very  rarely  satisfactory.  The  Mass,  no 
doubt,  ranks  highest,  and  contains  much  that 
is  very  beautifiil ;  tiie  *Kyrie,*  the  *  Agnus,' 
the  banning  and  end  of  the  'Sanctus,'  and 
part  of  the  *  Credo,'  being  among  Schumann's 
very  best  choral  works.  Unfortunately  there 
is  less  to  be  said  for  the  Requiem ;  we  should 
have  expected  the  mere  idea  of  a  mass  for  the 
dead  to  have  inspired  such  a  genius  as  Schu- 
mann's, even  without  recollecting  the  wonderful 
tones  which  he  has  found  for  the  final  requiem 
in  '  Manfred.'  But  this  work  was  undoubtedly 
written  under  great  exhaustion  ;  and  the  first 
romantic  chorus  alone  makes  a  uniformly  har- 
monious impression.  It  closes  the  list  of  Schu- 
mann's works,  but  it  is  not  with  this  that  we 
should  wish  to  complete  the  picture  of  so  great 
and  noble  a  master.  He  once  said  with  reference 
to  the  Requiem,  '  It  is  a  thing  that  one  writes 
for  oneself.'     But  the  abundant  treasure  of 


individual,  pure,  and  profound  art  which  he  has 
bequeathed  to  us  in  his  other  works  is  a  more 
lasting  monument  to  his  name,  stupendous  and 
imperishable.       

Among  the  published  works  that  tre«t  of 
Sohumann'slifeandlabours,  that  by  Wasielewski 
deserves  the  first  mention  {Rohert  SekutncmH, 
eifie  Biographie,  von  Josef  W.  von  Wasielsfwaki  ; 
Dresden,  R.  Kunze,  1868  ;  ed.  3,  Bonn,  £. 
Strauss,  1880).  Though  in  time  it  may  yet 
receive  additions  and  revision,  it  has  still  the 
enduring  merit  of  giving  from  accurate  acquaint- 
ance the  broad  outlines  of  Schumann's  life. 
[August  Reissmann's  Jtobert  Sehumawn,  9ein  Leben 
undsetne  fFerke  (IS65, 1871,  and  1879)containB 
analysis  of  many  works.]  Other  valuable  con- 
tributions to  his  biography  have  been  written 
by  Franz  Hueffer,  Die  Poesie  in  der  Musik 
(Leipzig,  Leuckart,  1874)  ;  by  Richard  PoM, 
Eriniierungen  an  R.  Sehumann,  in  the  Deutsche 
Rewu,  voL  iv.,  Berlin,  1878  (pp.  169  to  181, 
and  806  to  317);  by  Max  Kalbeck,  It 
Sekumann  in  Wien,  forming  the  /euillelong  of 
the  Wiener  AUgemeine  Zeitung  of  Sept.  24, 
29,  and  Oct  5,  1880.  An  accurate  and  sym- 
pathetic essay  on  Schumann,  Jtobert  Schumann  s 
Tage  und  Werke,  was  contributed  by  A.  W. 
Ambroe  to  the  CuUurhisiorisehe  Bilder  au9  dew 
Musikleben  d&r  Oegenioart  (Leipzig,  Matthes, 
1860  ;  pp.  51-96).  Schumann's  literaiy  work 
was  reviewed  by  H.  Deiters  in  the  Alfg, 
musik.  Zeitung  (Leipzig,  Breitkopf  &  Hart«l, 
1865,  Nos.  47-49).  fThe  GeaammelU  Sehriften 
reached  their  thiixl  edition  in  1883  ;  and  were 
translated  by  Fanny  Raymond  Ritter ;  Die 
Davidsbundler  by  F.  G.  Jensen  (1888)  is  foil  of 
Interest  A  collection  of  the  master's  Jugemd- 
hriefe  edited  by  Clara  Schumann,  appeared  in 
1885,  andvras  translated  in  1888  ;  F.  G.  Jensen's 
Neue  Folge  of  letters  (1886)  appeared  as  Thf 
Life  ofBjt^teri  Schumann  told  in  his  Letters^  tzuns- 
lated  by  May  Herbert  (1890).  Litzmann's 
biography  of  Clara  Schumann  contains  much 
new  information.  A  lai^  selection  from  all  the 
letters  was  published  by  Dr.  Karl  Storck  in 
1907,  and  transkted  by  Hannah  Bryant] 

Schuberth  k  Co.  published  in  1860-61  a  The- 
matic Catalogue  of  Schumann's  printed  works, 
extending  to  op.  143  only.  A  complete  index 
to  all  the  published  compositions  of  Schnmann, 
with  careful  evidence  as  to  the  year  in  which 
each  was  written,  published,  and  first  performed, 
and  their  different  editions  and  arrangements, 
was  compiled  by  Alfred  Dorffel  as  a  supple- 
ment to  the  MusikaZiseihes  WoehenblaU  (Leipzig, 
Fritzsch,  1875).  It  is  impossible  to  indicate 
all  the  shorter  notices  of  Schnmann  in  books 
and  periodicals.  The  author  of  this  article  has 
had  the  advantage  of  seeing  a  considerable 
number  of  his  unpublished  letters,  and  of  obtain- 
ing much  information  at  first  hand  from  persons 
who  were  in  intimate  reUtions  with  him. 


SCHUMANN 


SCHUMANN-HEINK 


383 


CATALOOinS  or  SCHUMANN'S  PUBLISHED  WORKS. 

[The  eomplete  mUUoq  of  Braitkopf  A  HKrtel  in  thirty-four 
Tclnmea.  edited  by  C3um  fldiumaDn  »nd  otbera,  wa«  complated  In 
1880  by  &  BupidanMntary  rolumt  edited  by  Brahma.] 

I  All  worlu  down  to  opw  33,  indoslve,  ajre  for  pianoforte  solo.) 

Op. 

I.  VarlAtioni  on  the  name  '  Abegg.' 

S.  Papillona.  twelrt  pieces. 

X  ax  Mudles  after  PBffanlni'a  Caprloea. 

4.  Intermenl.  dx  pleeea.  _ 

5.  IiBpromptoa  (Variations)  on  a  theme  of  CUra  Wieck. 
C  DavidsbQndlertiuiie,  dshteen  pieces. 

7.  Toecata. 
t.  Allc«ro. 
9l  GamaTal.  twenty  one  pieces. 

10.  Biz  Stodles  after  Paganlni's  ovrices. 

11.  Sonata  in  F  sharp  minor. 
1^  Eultaalestaeke.  eight  pieces. 

U.  Kcudes  en  forme  de  variations  (Etudes  symphonlqoes). 

1*.  Sonata  In  P  minor. 

15.  Kladeneenen,  thirteen  pieces. 

]&  KKialeriana.  eight  pieces. 

17.  FkntaalainC. 

U.  Atabeske. 

19.  Blnmenstllck. 

"Xk  Homoreake. 

a.  NoTelletten.  eight  pleees. 

22.  Sonata  in  G  utlnor. 

23.  NaehtBtbcke.  four  pieces. 
M.  Liederfcre&s  (nine  songs). 
35l  Myrtheii,  twenty-six  songs. 

as.  Paschingsschwank  aus  Wien,  pf.  solo. 

C.  loader  niul  OesKnge  (5). 

VL  Three  Bomances  for  pf.  solo. 

m  Ihxee  Poems  by  Oeibel  (the  first  for  two  Sopranos,  the  second  for 
three  sopnnos,  snd  the  third  [Zigeunerleben— 'Olpsy  Life'] 
for  small  Chorus,  Triangle,  and  Tambourines  ad  lib.). 

30.  Three  songs  to  Geibel's  words. 

3L  Three  sofigs  to  Chsmisto's  words. 

IL  Sebevao,  Oigtw,  Romanza.  and  Fughetta,  for  pf.  solo. 

33.  Six  Poor-part  songa  for  men's  voices. 

34.  Four  Duets  for  sopr.  and  tenor. 
3Bk  Twelve  songs  to  words  by  Kemer. 

»L  Six  songs  to  words  by  Reinick.  _ 

37.  Twelve  Bon«i  from  RQckert'a  *  Liebesfrflhllng.'     (Three  hos. 

2. 4.  and  11  are  by  Clara  Schumann.) 
K.  ^mphony  in  B  flat. 

5.  Llederkrels,  twelve  poems  liy  EidaendorfT. 

40.  Five  songs. 

41.  Thne  string  cioarteta  in  A  minor,  F,  and  A. 
«L  Franonliebe  und -Lsben,  songs  by  Chamiaao. 
43.  Three  two-part  songs. 

41  Oohitct  for  pf.  and  strings  in  E  flat 

45.  Thi«e  Romanien  und  Balladen,  voice  and  pf. 

4&  Andante  and  variations  for  two  plsnoa. 

i7.  go&rtet  for  pf.  and  strings  in  E  flat. 

«.  IMchterUebe,  aixteen  aongs  by  Heine. 

4Bi  Three  Bomansen  und  Balladen,  voice  and  pf. 

SOl  Paradise  and  the  Pferi,  cantata  fbr  solo  voiees.  chorus,  and  orch. 

81.  Five  songs. 

XL  Overtare.  Scheixo.  and  Finale,  for  orch. 

33.  Thr«e  Bomanxen  und  Balladen,  voice  and  pf. 

94.  Concerto  lor  pf  .  and  orch- 

».  Five  songs  by  Bums  for  mixed  chorus. 

9&.  Stadias  for  the  pedal  piano,  aix  piecca  in  canon. 

37.  Belsatcar.  ballad  by  Heine. 

M.  Four  sketches  for  pedal  piano. 

SSL  Four  songs  for  mixed  chorus. 

90.  dtx  fugues  on  the  name  Bach,  for  piano  or  oxgan. 

«1.  Symphony  in  C,  for  orch. 

42.  llirse  sooes  for  nisle  chorus. 

63.  Trio  for  piano  and  strings  in  D  minor. 

M.  Three  Romansen  und  Balladen,  voice  and  pf. 

6.  Rltoruellen,  canons  for  male  chorus. 
m.  Bikler  aus  Osten,  for  piano,  four  handa. 
67.  Five  Romansen  und  BaUadeti,  for  chorus. 
GfL  Album  for  the  young  (forty  pieces). 

6B.  Six  romsncee,  for  female  chorus. 

70.  Adagto  snd  A  ilegro,  for  piano  and  horn  (or  violoncello  or  violin ). 

71.  Advemtlied«  for  chorus  and  orchestra. 

72.  Poor  fugues  for  piano. 

7X  Thiwe  Pantasicstacke  for  pf.  and  clarinet  (violin  or  violoncello). 
74.  Span  laches  Liederspiel,  for  vocal  quartet,  with  pf.  acot. 

73.  Ptve  Bomanaen  und  Balladen,  for  chorus. 
7%.  Poor  marches  for  pf. 

77.  Five  songs. 

7%  Four  duets  for  sopr.  and  tenor. 

71iL  Lteder-Album.  twenty-eight  songs  for  the  young. 

m.  Triu  for  pf.  and  strings  in  P. 

^l.  Genovevsk,  opera  in  four  sets. 

m,  Waldscenen,  nine  pieces  for  pf. 

«a  Three  aongs. 

M.  A  Parting  Song  ('  Bs  1st  bestimmt ').  chorus  and  orch. 

m.  Twelve  pteno  duets,  'fQr  kleine  und  poise  Kinder.' 

m.  Ccmoertstack.  for  four  horns  and  orch. 

tn.  Der  HarMlflchuh.  ballad  for  voice  and  pf. 

HK  Poor  PhantasiestOoke  for  pf.  and  violin  and  violoncello. 

9   Six  songs. 

90.  Seven  songs. 

91.  Six  romances  for  female  chorus. 

92.  Introduction  and  A11<«ro  appassionato,  pf.  and  orch. 

95.  Mot4^  '  Verzweifle  nicht,'  double  male  chorus  with  organ  acct. 
94.  Three  romances  for  oboe  and  pf.  (or  violin  or  violoncello). 

SB.  Three  songs  from  Byron's  Hebrew  Melodies,  with  acct.  of  harp 
or  pf . 


97.  Symphony  in  E  flat. 

SSo.  Nine  aoiigs  from  '  Wilhelm  Melster.' 


Op. 

866.  Requiem  fSr  Mignon,  from  the  same,  for  chorus  and  orchestra. 
98.  Bunte  Bli&tter  for  pf.  (fourteen  pieces). 
lOa  Overture  to  'Die  Braut  von  Messina.' 

101.  Minnespiel  for  solo  voices  and  pf. 

102.  Five  StUcke  Im  Yolkatou  for  violonceUo  (or  riolin)  and  pf. 
108.  MMddienlieder,  vocal  duets. 

104.  Seven  Songs. 

105.  Sor  1"  .  ^'-r  f'   y,     \  A  miliar. 

106.  Sch  <n  IIi^HJ^J^,  }u1]a.J  i'ii  dbcljiiiiatlon  with  pf.  acct. 

107.  Six  K-Jcigiu 

108.  Ns.lLtlkil,  ftu  lihoru*  aiul  orch- 

109.  BalJjti::«[U]i,  biufi  ulccM  tfitpt  liue'L 

110.  Trii  I  tor  gt.  and  ■irinic*  in  <J  iiiiEtor. 
IIL  Thirt*  FtotAdHkOtike  fur  pf. 

lis.  Dcr  Mtm  PUgertshrt  (fllgrlmags  of  the  Rose)  for  soli,  chonu, 

a-  -1  ■  r.-li. 
118.  Mi  1*T.  lor  pf.  Jinri  viols  (ur  riolin). 

114.  Th  -«  for  fenutJF  t^tiHiiruB. 

118.  M\.«v  w  l;>roii'a  'llanli«d.' 

116.  Der  KSnigssohn,  ballad  for  soli,  chorus,  and  orch. 

117.  Pour  Huaarenlieder,  for  voice  and  pf. 

118.  Three  pf.  sonatas  for  the  young. 

119.  Three  songs. 

190.  Symphony  in  D  minor. 

lai.  Sonata  for  pf.  and  violin,  D  minor. 

1S3.  Two  ballads  for  declamation  with  pf.  sect. 

183.  Festival  Overture  on  the  Rheinweinlied,  for  orch. 

194.  AlbumbUtter,  twenty  pf.  piecea. 

185.  Five  Songs. 

186.  Seven  pieces  in  fughetta  form  for  pf. 
137.  Five  Songs. 

128.  Overture  to  'Julius  Caeaar.' 

129.  Concerto  for  violoncello  and  orch. 

130.  Kinderball,  six  pieces  for  pf.  duet. 

131.  Phsntasle  for  violin  and  orch. 

132.  MKrchenerxiLhlungen,  four  pieces  for  pf.,  clarinet  (or  violin) 

and  viola. 
183.  GesKnge  der  Prilhe,  five  pf.  pieces. 
134.  Concert-allwro  with  introduction,  for  pf.  and  orch. 
13B.  Five  Gedlchte  der  Maria  Stuart,  for  voice  and  pf. 

136.  Overture  to  '  Hermann  und  Dorothea.' 

137.  Five  hunting.eongs  for  male  chorus,  with  acct.  of  four  horns. 
188.  Spaniiche  Liebeslieder.  fur  soli,  solos,  with  acct.  of  pf.  duet. 

138.  Des  Sttngers  Pluch,  for  soli,  ohnrua,  and  orch. 

140.  Vom  Pagen  und  der  KOnigstochter,  four  ballads  for  soli. 

chonia,  and  orch. 

141.  Four  aongs  for  double  chorus. 
143.  Four  songs. 

143.  Der  Glack  von  Edenhall,  tor  soli,  chorus,  and  orch. 

144.  Neujahrslied,  for  chorus  and  orch. 

149.  Five  Romansen  und  Balladen,  for  chorus. 

146.  Five  Ronianzen  und  Balladen,  for  chorus. 

147.  Mass.  for  chonu  and  orch. 

148.  Requiem,  for  chorus  and  orch. 

WiTBovT  Opus  NuNSKaa 
Scenes  from  Goethe's  '  Faust'  for  aoli,  chorus,  and  orch. 
Der  deutxcbe  Rheln,  song  with  chorus. 
Pf.  accompaniments  to  Bach's  suites  for  violin  alone. 

The  following  are  in  the  supplementary  volume  of  the  complete 

edition  :— 
1.  Andante  and  variations  for  two  pianofortes,  two  violoncellos 

and  horn. 
8.  An  Anna,  song. 

3.  Tm  Herbste.  song. 

4.  Hirtenknabe,  aong. 

5.  Sommerruh',  duet  with  pf.  acct. 

6.  Five  extra  variations  for  op.  13. 

7.  Scherzo  for  pf.  (suppl.  to  op.  14). 

8.  l*rrf>to  for  pf.  (suppl.  to  op.  22). 

9.  Theina  in  B  flat  for  pf.  p^   g^ 

SCHUMANN-HEINK,  Ernestine,  n^ 
Roessler,  was  born,  June  15,  1861,  at  Lieben, 
near  Prague.  She  was  taught  singing  by 
Marietta  Leclair  atGraz,  and  on  Oct.  13,  1878, 
made  her  d^but  at  Dresden  as  Azucena,  remain- 
ing there  four  years.  In  1883  she  was  engaged 
at  Hamburg,  where  she  remained  many  years. 
In  1892,  as  Frl.  Heink,  she  sang  with  the 
Hamburg  Company  both  at  Covent  Garden  and 
Drury  Lane,  making  her  d^but  June  8  (Covent 
Garden)  as  Erda  in  *  Siegfried.'  Later  she  sang 
as  Fricka,  Waltraute,  and,  July  8,  as  tlie 
Countess  on  the  production  in  England  at 
Drury  Lane  of  Nessler's  *  Trompeter  von  Sak- 
kingen.'  She  made  a  great  impression,  on 
account  of  her  fine  voice,  combining  mezzo  and 
contralto,  and  of  her  excellent  singing  and 
acting.  From  1897  to  1900  inclusive  she 
sang  again  at  Covent  Garden,  principally  in 
Wagner  parts;  July  11,  1898,  the  music  of 
the  Prologue,  on  the  production  of  Mancinelli's 


384 


SCHUNKE 


SCHUPPANZIGH 


'  Ero  e  Leandi-o.'  From  1896  to  1906  she  has 
been  in  continued  request  at  Bayreuth,  having 
in  the  meantime  sung  with  great  success  in 
America,  at  Berlin  as  Carmen,  etc,  and  else- 
where. In  1903  she  gave  a  vocal  recital  in 
London,  and  on  Dec.  12  sang  Mozart's  'Non 
piii  di  fiori'  at  the  Queen's  Hall.  She  has 
been  twice  married  ;  lirst  in  1883  to  Herr 
Heink,  secondly,  in  1893,  to  Herr  Paul  Schu- 
mann. A.  c. 

SCHUNKE,  Louis  (Ludwio),  pianoforte 
player  and  composer,  bom  of  a  musical  family 
at  Cassel,  Dec.  21,  1810.  His  progress  was  so 
rapid  that  at  ten  he  could  play  the  Concertos 
of  Mozart  and  Hummel  with  ease.  In  1824  he 
visited  Munich  and  Vienna,  and  then  Paris, 
where  he  put  himself  under  Kalkbrenner  and 
Reicha.  After  some  wandering  to  Stuttgart, 
Vienna  (1832),  Prague,  and  Dresden  he  came 
to  Leipzig,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Schumann,  and  an  intimate  friendship  was  the 
result.  Schunke  was  carried  off  on  Dec.  7, 
1834,  at  the  early  age  of  not  quite  twenty- 
four,  to  the  great  grief  of  Schumann,  who  indulged 
his  affection  in  several  interesting  papers  {Ges, 
Schrifl,  i.  92,  325 ;  ii.  56, 277)  full  of  memorials 
of  his  friend's  characteristics.  Schunke  was 
one  of  the  four  who  edited  the  Neue  ZcUschrift 
fur  Musik  on  its  first  appearance.  His  articles 
are  signed  with  the  figure  3.  His  published 
compositions  are  for  tlie  piano,  and  show  con- 
siderable ability.  o. 

SCHUPPANZIGH,  Ignaz,  celebrated  violin- 
ist,  born  1776,  in  Vienna,  where  his  father 
was  a  professor  at  the  Realschule.  He  adopted 
music  as  a  profession  about  the  end  of  1792,  and 
that  he  early  became  known  as  a  teacher  we 
gather  from  an  entry  in  Beethoven's  diary 
for  1794,  *  Schuppanzigh  three  times  a  week, 
Albrechtsberger  tliree  times  a  week, '  Beethoven 
was  studying  the  viola,  which  was  at  that  time 
Schuppanzigh's  instrument,  but  he  soon  after 
abandoned  it  for  the  violin.  Before  he  was 
twenty-one  he  had  made  some  name  as  a  con- 
ductor, and  in  1798  and  1799  directed  the  Augar- 
ten concerts.  The  Allg.  mus.  Zeitungoi^&j  1799, 
after  describing  the  concerts,  remarks  that  *  the 
zeal  shown  by  Herr  Schuppanzigh  in  interpreting 
the  compositions  produced,  makes  these  concerts 
models  worth  following  by  all  amateur  associa- 
tions of  the  kind,  and  by  many  conductors.' 
Beethoven,  who  had  also  appeared  at  the  Augar- 
ten  concerts,  kept  up  a  singular  kind  of  friend- 
ship with  Schuppanzigh.  They  were  so  useful 
to  each  other  that,  as  Thayer  says,  they  had 
a  great  mutual  liking,  if  it  did  not  actually 
amount  to  affection.  Schuppanzigh  was  good- 
looking,  though  later  in  life  he  grew  very  fat, 
and  had  to  put  up  with  many  a  joke  on  the 
subject  from  Beethoven.  *  Mylord  Falstaff  *  was 
one  of  his  nicknames  (letter  to  Archduke  in 
Nohl,  Neue  Briefe,  p.  75).  The  following  piece 
of  rough  drollery,  scrawled  by  Beethoven  on  a 


blank  page  at  the  end  of  his  Sonata  op.  28,  is 
here  printed  for  the  first  time  : — 


SolL 


Lob  auf  den  IHcksTu 


Schuppanzigh  was  a  great  quartet-player,  and 
belonged  to  the  party  which  met  every  Friday 
during  1794  and  1796  at  Prince  Carl  Lichnow- 
sky's,  where  he  took  the  first  violin,  the  Prince 
himself,  or  a  Silesian  named  Sina,  the  second, 
Weiss  the  viola,  and  Kraft,  a  thorough  artist,  the 
violoncello — occasionally  changing  with  Beet- 
hoven's friend,  Zmeskall.  Towards  tlio  dose  of 
1808  Schuppanzigh  founded  the  Rasoumowsky 
quartet,  to  which  he,  Mayseder  and  Linke, 
remained  attached  for  life.  Weiss  again  took 
the  viola.  Beethoven's  quartets  were  the  staple 
of  their  performances.  In  the  meantime  Schup- 
panzigh had  married  a  Friiulein  Kilitzky,  the 
sister  of  a  well-known  singer,  who  sang  with 
little  success  *  Ah  perfido ! '  at  a  concert  of  Beet- 
hoven's in  1808,  instead  of  Anna  Milder.  On 
this  occasion  the  great  joker  writes  to  Graf 
Brunswick, '  Schuppanzigh  is  married — they  say 
his  wife  is  as  fat  as  himself — what  a  family  1  ?' 
(Nohl,  Neiie  Briefe,  p.  11.)  When  the  Rasou- 
mowsky palace  was  burnt  down  in  1815  Schu})- 
panzigh  started  on  a  tour  through  Germany, 
Poland,  and  Russia,  and  did  not  return  till 
early  in  1824,  when  the  quartets  were  resum«^ 
with  the  same  band  of  friends  (see  BeethovenV 
letters  to  his  nephew,  1825).     One  of  the  fiivt 


SCHWAKBROOK 


SCHWENKE 


385 


events  after  his  return  was  the  performance  of 
Schubert's  Octet,  which  is  marked  as  finished 
on  March  1,  and  was  doubtless  played  very 
shortly  after.  [Seeante^  p.  801.1  The  acquaint- 
ance thus  begun  was  cemented  by  Schubert's 
dedication  of  his  lovely  Quartet  in  A  '  to  his 
friend  I.  Schuppanzigh/  a  year  later.  Schup- 
panzigh  was  a  member  of  the  court-chapel,  and 
for  some  time  director  of  the  court-opera.  He 
died  of  paralysis,  March  2,  1880.  Of  his  com- 
positions the  following  were  printed: — 'Solo 
poor  le  violon  avec  quatuor '  (Diabelli),  '  Yaria- 
tionen  iiber  ein  russisches  Ided'  (Cappi),  and 
'  Variationen  iiber  ein  Thema  aus  Alcina ' 
(Mollo).  F.  G. 

SCHWARBROOK,  Thomas,  a  German,  was 
in  the  employ  of  Renatus  Harris,  the  organ- 
builder.  £arly  in  the  18th  century  he  left 
London  to  live  at  Warwick,  and  built  many 
noble  injBtruments.  His  masterpiece  was  the 
organ  of  St.  Michael's,  Coventry,  built  in 
1733,  which  cost  £1400.  The  latest  mention 
of  him  is  in  1752,  when  he  improved  the 
organ  of  Worcester  Cathedral.  See  vol.  iiL  p. 
537a.  V.  DE  p. 

SCHWARTZENDORF,  J.  P.  A.  See  Mar- 
tini iL  Tedesco,  vol.  iii.  p.  68. 

SCHWEIZERFAMILIE,  DIE.  Opera  in 
three  acts,  words  by  Castelli,  music  by  Joseph 
Weigl.     Produced  at  Vienna,  March  14,  1809. 

SCHWEMMER,  Heinrich,  was  bom  March 
28,  1621,  at  Gumbertshausen  near  Hallburg  in 
Lower  Franconia,  a  place  which  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  is  said  to  have  wiped  out  of  existence. 
In  his  younger  years  war  and  the  pestilence 
obliged  his  family  to  seek  refuge  first  at  Weimar, 
then  at  Coburg.  According  to  Gerber  he  first 
visited  Tfuremberg  in  1641  as  a  pupil  of  the  St. 
Sebald  School,  and  received  his  musical  instruc- 
tion from  the  organist  Johann  Erasmus  Kinder- 
mann.  But  the  first  documentary  evidence  we 
hare  of  his  presence  at  Nuremberg  is  in  connec- 
tion with  a  great  musical  festival  and  banquet 
lield  there  in  1649,  in  honour  of  the  Swedish 
Field-Marshal,  after  the  Peace  of  Westphalia. 
Schwemmer  appears  among  the  singers  on  that 
occasion,  though  not  yet  holding  any  apix)int- 
ment.  1 650  is  the  date  of  his  first  appointment 
at  Xaremberg  as  one  of  the  Assistant  Masters 
at  the  St.  Laurence  School.  In  1656  he  is 
described  as  Director' Chori  musici  at  the  Frauen- 
kirche ;  but  with  this  post,  which  he  seems  to 
liave  retained  till  his  death.  May  26;  1696,  he 
was  obliged,  in  accordance  with  the  custom  of 
the  time,  to  combine  certain  duties  of  ordinary 
school  instruction  at  the  St.  Sebald  School. 
Like  greater  musicians  after  him  Schwemmer 
appears  to  have  found  his  ordinary  school  duties 
somewhat  irksome,  and  for  an  occasional  negli- 
gence in  them  came  under  the  censure  of  the 
town  authorities.  In  spite  of  this  he  was 
Teoognised  as  the  best  musical  teacher  in  Nurem- 
berg,  and    the    most    distinguished  of   later 

VOL.  TV 


Nuremberg  musicians,  such  as  Pachelbel,  Johann 
Krieger,  and  Baltazar  Schmidt,  were  his  pupils. 
He  was  also  the  musician  most  sought  after  for 
such  occasional  compositions  as  wedding  and 
funeral  anthems.  The  Quellen-Lexikon  enumer- 
ates twenty  of  such  works  for  voices  and  instru- 
ments. He  was  also  the  composer  of  a  large 
number  of  melodies  for  the  various  Nuremberg 
hymn-books  of  the  time.  In  the  Denkmiiler 
der  Tonkunst  in  Bayem,  Jahrgang  YI.  there  is 
printed  for  the  first  time  an  Easter  Motet  by 
him  for  voices  and  instruments,  which  is  char- 
acterised by  much  of  the  Handelian  simplicity 
and  directness  of  choral  effect.  Only  a  few  other 
Church  works  by  him  remain  in  MS.  J.  R.  M. 
SCHWENKE,  or  SCHWENCKE,  a  German 
musical  family,  whose  founder,  Johann  Gott- 
lieb (bom  August  11,  1744,  at  Breitenau  in 
Saxony,  died  at  Hamburg,  Dec.  7,  1823),  was  a 
famous  bassoonist  and  a  'Rathsmusikus.'  His 
son.  Christian  Friedrich  Gottlieb,  was  born 
at  Wachenhausen  in  the  Harz,  August  30,  1767, 
was  a  proficient  clavier-player,  and  appeared  in 
public  at  Hamburg  in  a  concerto  of  his  father's 
in  1779,  when, eleven  and  a  half  years  old. 
Emanuel  Bach  interested  himself  in  the  boy's 
career,  and  was  instrumental  in  getting  him 
sent  to  Berlin  (1782),  where  he  studied  under 
Eimberger.  He  tried  for  an  organist's  post  at 
Hamburg  in  1783,  but  was  unsuccessful,  although 
Emanuel  Bach  was  a  judge.  In  1 7 8  7  and  1788 
he  studied  at  the  university  of  Leipzig  and 
Halle,  and  after  the  dispute  which  followed  on 
Emanuel  Bach's  death  in  1789,  Schwenke  was 
appointed  to  succeed  him  as  town-cantor,  but 
the  new  conditions  attached  to  the  post  were 
so  irksome  that  he  devoted  himself  mainly  to 
mathematical  problems.  As  a  composer  his 
main  importance  was  in  the  stress  he  laid  on 
good  accentuation.  He  set  Klopstock's  *  Vatcr- 
unser*  and  *Der  Frohsinn'  to  music,  and  was 
a  friend  of  the  poet's.  Various  cantatas  for 
solo  and  chorus  with  orchestra,  six  organ  fugues, 
a  concerto  for  oboe,  and  clavier  sonatas  are 
mentioned  in  the  Quellen-Lexikon,  from  which 
most  of  the  above  information  is  derived.  He 
was  bold  enough  to  re-score  the  *  Messiah '  and 
Bach's  B  minor  Mass.  He  died  at  Hamburg, 
Oct.  28,  1822.  Two  of  his  sons  were  musicians  ; 
the  elder,  Johann  Friedkich,  born  at  Hamburg, 
April  30, 1792,  was  a  player  on  the  organ,  violon- 
cello, and  clarinet,  was  appointed  to  the  Niko- 
laikirche  in  Hamburg  in  1829,  and  composed 
cantatas  with  organ  accompaniment,  arrange- 
ment, et-c.,  of  chorales,  a  septet  for  five  violon- 
cellos, double  bass  and  drums,  and  orchestrated 
Beethoven's  *  Adelaide'  and  *  Wachtelschlag,' 
among  other  things.  The  younger,  Karl,  bora 
at  Hamburg,  March  7, 1797,  was  a  clever  pianist 
and  an  industrious  composer  ;  three  sonatas  for 
piano  duet,  and  one  for  violin,  appeared,  as  well 
as  a  symphony  performed  at  the  Paris  Conserva- 
toire in  1843,  and  at  Hamburg.     From  1870, 

2  C 


386 


SCHWINDL 


SCORDATURA 


when  he  lived  near  Vienna,  all  trace  of  him 
is  lost.  Johann  Friedrieh's  son  and  pnpil, 
Friedrich  Gottlieb,  bom  Dec.  15,  1823,  at 
Hamburg,  was  his  successor  in  the  Nikolaikirche, 
had  success  as  a  pianist  and  organist  in  Paris 
(1855)  and  elsewhere.  Two  fantasias  for  organ, 
trumpet^  trombones,  and  drums,  are  his  most 
important  compositions.  He  re -edited  his 
father's  collection  of  chorales,  and  wrote  pre- 
ludes to  them.  He  died  June  11,  1896,  at 
Hamburg.  (Riemann's  Lexikon,  Quellen-Lexi- 
kon.)  M. 

SCHWINDL,  orSCHWINDEL,  Fribdrich, 
was  a  skilful  player  on  the  violin,  flute,  and 
clavier,  in  the  18th  century.  He  was  at  the 
Hague  about  1770,  where  Bumey  met  him, 
and  in  Geneva  and  Miilhausen,  where  he  brought 
out  some  operettas,  and  finally  he  settled  at 
CJarlsruhe,  where  he  died  August  10,  1786, 
holding  the  position  of  Markgi^ich  badischer 
Goncertmcister.  He  was  one  of  the  followers 
of  the  Mannheim  school ;  his  numerous  sym- 
phonies, quartets,  trios,  etc.  appeared  at  Amster- 
dam, Paris,  and  London  (where  his  music  en- 
joyed great  popularity),  from  1765  onwards.  A 
Mass  in  £  minor  for  four  voices  and  oi-chestra 
is  in  MS.  at  Milan.  (Riemann's  LexikoUy 
Quellen-Lexikonf  etc)  m. 

SCHYTTE,  LuDWio  Thbodor,  bom  at 
Aarhus,  Jutland,  Denmark,  April  28,  1850, 
was  originally  a  chemist,  and  gave  up  that 
business  for  music  in  1870,  when  he  studied  the 
pianoforte  under  Anton  R^e  and  Edmund 
Neupert,  and  composition  with  Gebauer  and 
Gade,  finally  going  to  Taubert  in  Berlin,  and 
Liszt  at  Weimar.  He  had  one  of  the  advanced 
piano  classes  in  Horak's  Academy  in  Vienna 
in  1887-88,  and  has  since  resided  there,  being 
distinguished  as  a  player,  composer,  and  teacher. 
A  very  large  number  of  graceful  and  effective 
compositions  for  pianoforte  testifies  to  his  in- 
dustry, and  many  have  become  widely  popular, 
such  as  op.  22,  '  Naturstimmungen ' ;  op.  80, 
*  Pantomimen '  for  PF.  duet ;  op.  58,  sonata. 
A  pianoforte  concerto  is  op.  28,  and  among  his 
many  songs,  a  cycle,  '  Die  Yerlassene,'  deserves 
mention.  A  comic  opera,  *Fahrendes  Volk,' 
was  not  performed  ;  but '  Hero, '  a  one-act  opera, 
was  given  at  Copenhagen  in  1898,  and  an 
o])eretta  'Der  Mameluk'  at  Vienna  in  1903. 
(Riemann's  Lexikon;  Baker's  Biog,  Diet,  of 
Mus,)  M. 

SCIOLTO,CONSOIOLTEZZA,  *  freely';  an 
expression  used  in  nearly  the  same  sense  as  ad 
liHtum,  but  generally  applied  to  longer  passages, 
or  even  to  whole  movements.  It  is  also  applied 
to  a  fugue  in  a  free  style.  Thus  what  Beet- 
hoven, in  the  last  movement  of  the  Sonata  in 
Bb,  op.  106,  calls  'Fnga  con  alcune  licenze,' 
might  otherwise  be  called  *  Fuga  sciolta.'  M. 

SCONTRINO,  Antonio,  bora  at  Trapani  in 
Sicily,  May  17,  1860.  His  father,  a  carpenter 
by  trade,  was  an  ardent  lover  of  music,  play- 


ing the  violin  and  guitar  as  well  as  singing, 
and  constracting  violins,  guitars,  violoncellos, 
double-basses,  and  even  pianofortes.  With  his 
children  and  brothers  this  keen  amateur  formed 
an  orchestra  in  which,  at  tlie  age  of  seven  years, 
Antonio  was  persuaded  to  take  part  as  double- 
bass,  playing  on  a  violoncello  adapted  for  the 
purpose,  and  provided  with  three  strings  only. 
In  1 86 1  he  took  up  music  in  earnest,  and  entered 
the  Palermo  Conservatorio  to  study  the  instru- 
ment which  chance,  rather  than  choice,  had 
made  his  own.  For  harmony  he  was  a  pupil 
of  Luigi  Alfano,  and  for  counterpoint  and  com- 
position of  Platania,  the  director  of  the  institu- 
tion. In  1870  he  left  the  Conservatorio  and 
toured  as  a  virtuoso  on  the  double-bass  through- 
out southern  Italy ;  in  the  following  year  he 
obtained  the  libretto  of  an  opera  from  Leopoldo 
Marenco,  but  the  work,  'Matelda,'  was  not 
produced  until  1876.  Aided  by  a  grant  from 
the  municipality  and  province  of  Trapani, 
Scontrino  went  in  1872  to  Munich,  where 
for  two  years  he  studied  German  music,  classicsl 
and  modem.  In  1874  he  came  to  England  as  a 
member  of  Mapleson's  orchestra,  and  afterwanis 
settled  in  Milan  as  a  teacher  of  instrumental, 
vocal,  and  theoretical  music.  In  1891  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  counterpoint  and  com- 
position in  the  Palermo  Conservatorio,  and  in 
1892  a  similar  professorship  was  gained  by  him 
in  competition,  at  the  Reale  Istituto  Musicale 
at  Florence,  where  he  still  resides.  His  works 
include  five  operas : — '  Matelda,'  4  acts  (Mibin, 
Teatro  Dal  Verme,  1876);  *I1  Progettista,'  1 
act  (Rome,  1882)  ;  'SortUegio,'  8  acts  (Turin, 
1882);  *Gringoire,'  1  act  (Milan,  1890);  and 
'Cortigiana,'  4  acts  (Milan,  1895-6).  Among 
his  more  important  orchestral  compositions  are 
an  overture  to  Marenoo's  *  Celeste,'  incidental 
music  to  D'Annunzio's  *  Franoesca  da  Rimini,' 
a  'Sinfonia  Marinesoa'and  'Sinfonia  Romantics.' 
Three  string  quartets  and  a  prelude  and  tugue 
for  the  same  instruments ;  various  pieces  for 
violin,  violoncello,  and  double-bass  with  piano 
accompaniment,  and  several  sets  of  pianoforte 
solos  are  among  his  instrumental  works ;  and 
his  songs,  which  number  about  fifty,  include 
two  cydes,  'La  Vie  Interieure'  to  words  by 
Sully  Prud'homme,  and  '  Intima  Vita '  to 
words  by  £.  Panzaochi  An  *  O  Salutaris '  and 
*  Salve  Regina '  for  two  voices  with  organ 
accompaniment,  a  motet,  'Tota  Pulcra,'  for 
vocal  quartet,  and  a  'Gloria,'  an  eight -part 
fugue  for  solo  voices,  are  his  sacred  composi- 
tions. M. 

SCORDATURA  (mis-tuning).  A  term  used 
to  designate  some  abnormal  tunings  of  the 
violin  which  are  occasionally  employed  to 
produce  particular  effects.  The  soordatnrt 
originated  in  the  lute  and  viol,  which  were 
tuned  in  various  ways  to  suit  the  key  of  the 
music.  Their  six  strings  being  commonly 
tuned  by  fourths,  with  one  third  in  the  middle, 


SCORDATURA 


SCORE 


387 


the  third  was  shifted  as  occasion  required,  and 
an  additional  third  or  a  fifth  was  introduced 
elsewhere,  so  as  to  yield  on  the  open  strings  as 
many  harmonies  as  possible  ;  in  old  lute  music 
the  proper  tuning  is  indicated  at  the  beginning 
of  the  piece.  This  practice  surviyes  in  the 
guitar.  The  normal  tuning  being  as  at  (a), 
very  striking  effects  in  the  key  of  E  major,  for 
instance,  may  be  produced  by  tuning  the  in- 
strument as  at  (6).  The  scordatura  was  formerly 

(a),     (6),  (c),    (d).     (•)      (/),    (9) 


often  employed  on  the  violin.  (1)  the  tuning 
(r)  is  extremely  favourable  to  simplicity  of 
fingering  in  the  key  of  A.  It  is  employed 
by  Tartini  in  one  of  his  solos,  and  by  Castrucci 
in  a  well-known  fiigue :  its  effect  is  noisy  and 
monotonous.  It  is  frequently  employed  by 
Scotch  reel-players,  and  in  their  hands  has 
a  singularly  rousing  effect.  The  following 
strain  from  'Kilrack's  Reel'  is  to  be  read  by 
the  player  as  if  tuned  in  tlie  ordinary  way, 
90  that  the  first  phrase  sounds  in  the  key 
of  A :— 


$*fn:-^^tF=^, 

't'¥ 

*?nt 

^4- 

P  iCjrtnrj-f^^m 

The  reel  called  *  Appin  House '  and  the  lively 
Strathspey  called  '  Anthony  Murray's  Reel '  are 
played  in  the  same  tuning.  (2)  The  tuning  (d) 
employed  by  Biber  (see  vol.  i.  p.  324)  is  a 
modification  of  (e),  a  fourth  being  substituted 
for  a  fifth  on  the  first  stiing  ;  and  (3)  the  tuning 
(«),  also  employed  by  Biber,  is  a  similar  modi- 
fication of  the  normal  tuning  by  fifths.  In 
these  tunings  the  viol  fingering  must  be  used  on 
the  first  strings.  On  Biber's  use  of  the  scor- 
datura in  the  eleventh  sonata  of  his  second 
book  (reprinted  in  the  Denkm.  der  Tonk.  in 
Oesterreieh,  xii.  2)  see  the  Zeiiachr,  of  the  ItU. 
Mu9,  Oes,  viii.  p.  471,  and  ix.  p.  29  (both 
1907).  (4)  The  tuning  (/),  employed  by  Nar- 
dini  in  bis  Enigmatic  Sonata,  is  the  reverse  of 
the  last,  being  a  combination  jof  the  common 
toning  for  the  first  two  strings  with  the  viol 
toning  in  the  lower  ones.  (5)  The  tuning  (gr) 
is  employed  by  Barbella  in  his  '  Serenade '  and 
by  Campagnoli  in  his  'Nottumo,'  to  imitate 
the  Viola  d'  amore,  from  the  four  middle  strings 
of  which  it  is  copied.  Thick  first  and  second 
strings  should  be  used,  and  the  mute  put  on. 
The  effect  is  singularly  pleasing:  but  the  G 
and  A  on  the  second  string  are  flat  and  dull. 
(6)  The  tuning  {k)  employed  by  Lolli,  is  the 
normal  tuning  except  the  fourth  string,  which 
is  tuned  an  octave  below  the  third.     If  a  very 


stout  fourth  string  is  used,  a  good  bass  accom- 
paniment is  thus  obtainable. 

Such  are  a  few  of  the  abnormal  tunings 
employed  by  the  old  violinists.  The  scordatura 
is  seldom  used  by  modem  players  except  on  the 
fourth  string,  which  is  often  tuned  a  tone  higher, 
as  at  {%).  (De  Beriot,  Mazas,  Prume,  etc.) 
This  device  may  always  be  employed  where  the 
composition  does  not  descend  below  A  ;  the 
tone  is  much  increased,  and  in  some  keys, 
especially  D  and  A,  execution  is  greatly  facili- 
tated. Paganini  tuned  his  fourth  string  higher 
still,  as  at  (y)  and  (^•),  with  surprising  effect ; 
the  Bb  tuning  was  a  favourite  one  with  De 
Beriot.     Paganini's  tuning  in  flats  if)  cannot 

(fc)       (0.    0),    (fc),     (0     (i»)  («), 


be  called  scordatura,  as  it  consists  in  elevating 
the  violin  generally  by  half  a  tone  for  the  sake 
of  brilliancy.  The  same  device  was  employed 
by  Spohr  in  his  duets  for  harp  and  violin,  the 
harp  part  being  written  in  flats  a  semitone 
higher.  The  fourth  string  is  rarely  lowered : 
but  Baillot  sometimes  tuned  it  a  semitone  lower, 
as  at  (m),  to  facilitate  arpeggios  in  the  sharp 
keys. 

The  scordatura  (n)  is  employed  by  Bach  in 
his  fifth  sonata  for  the  violoncello.  It  corre- 
sponds to  the  violin  tuning  («).  This  depression 
of  the  first  string,  if  a  thick  string  be  used,  is 
not  unfavourable  to  sonority.  When  the  scorda- 
tura is  used,  suitable  strings  should  be  obtained. 
Thicker  ones  are  necessary  where  the  pitch  is 
depressed,  and  thinner  ones  where  it  is  elevated  : 
and  the  player  will  find  it  best  to  keep  a  special 
instrument  for  any  tuning  which  he  frequently 
employs.  e.  j.  p. 

In  engraved  music  of  Scottish  reels,  etc. 
the  scordatura  was  marked  at  the  commencement 
of  the  piece  by  the  word  *  Scordatura '  and  the 
tuning  in  notes.  In  manuscript  music,  how- 
ever, it  was  frequently  more  carelessly  indicated, 
or  even  left  without  indication.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  although  all  notes  on  the 
mistuned  strings  are  affected,  yet  the  notation 
throughout  the  piece  always  stood  as  if  the 
tuning  were  normal,  and  consequently  allow- 
ance for  this  must  be  made  in  playing  on  the 
piano,  etc.,  and  in  transcripts.  In  scordatura 
of  the  lowest  string  the  sound  A  is  repre- 
sented by  the  note  G,  the  sound  B  by  the 
note  A,  and  so  on.  For  a  curious  instance 
of  the  Scottish  scordatura  see  Sir  Roger  be 

COVBRLY.  F.  K. 

SCORE  (Lat.  PartUwy  PartUura^  Partitura 
caticelhUa ;  Ital.  Partitura^  Partiziom,  Partitmo, 
Sparta f  Simrtita  ;  Fr.  Partition  ;  Germ.  Parti- 
iur).  A  series  of  staves  on  which  the  different 
parts  of  a  piece  of  music  are  written  one  above 
another,  so  that  the  whole  may  be  read  at  a 


388 


SCORE 


SCORE 


glance.     The   English  name   is   derived  from  | 
the  practice  of  dividing  the  music  by  bass  or 
lines  sci/red  through  the  entire  series  of  staves.  I 
The   Latin    term,   Fartitura    cavcellata    owes 
its  origin  to  the  compartments  or  Cancelli,  into  I 
which   the   page   is   divided   by   the   vertical  , 
scorings.     The  word  Score,  though  often  mis-  | 
applied  in  the  present  day  to  what  is  more 
correctly  called  a  *  short '  score,  a  *  vocal  *  score, 
or  a  '  piano '  score,  should  properly  be  reserved 
for  the  system  which  presents  on  separate  staves 
all  the  parts  that  are  to  be  performed  simul-  j 
taneously.     The  oldest  known  form  of  score 


would  seem  to  be  that  in  the  peeado-Hucbalcl 
Musica  EnchiriadiSj  a  treatise  of  the  lltli 
century.  A  specimen  will  be  found  in  vol. 
iii.  p.  897a.) 

An  interesting  early  score  is  in  the  Brit.  Uus. 
Harl.  MS.  978, — the  volume  which  contains^ 
the  famous  Reading  rata  '  Sumer  is  icumen  in. ' 
Below  the  three  voice-parts  here  shown  there 
is  a  supplementary  quadruplum,  written  on  a, 
separate  stave,  which  has  no  concern  with  our 
present  purpose.  This  composition  shows  that 
within  about  ten  years  of  1226  the  essential 
feature  of  a  score  was  realised  in  England. 


In  Arundel  MS.  No.  248,  fol.  153rt,  1546, 155a, 
and  201a,  there  are  two-jwirt  compositions  regu- 
larly scored  on  staves  of  eight  and  nine  lines.  In 
the  last  of  these,  now  nearly  illegible,  two 
staves,  each  consisting  of  four  black  lines,  are 
separated  by  a  red  line.     In  the  other  case 


the  staves  consist  of  eight  uniform  and  equi- 
distant black  lines.  The  following  is  from 
fol.  155a  of  the  MS.,  and  the  lower  part  of 
the  same  facsimile  is  another  hymn  *  Salue 
uirgo  uirginu,'  for  three  voices,  on  a  stave  of 
twelve  equidistant  black  lines.     The  >IS.  dates 


Utlfi  of  itittit  Wl^I gfe  Ittfcjft  Wurt  gimn  ri!t^  amTj  -mfnrJyu'r^ujf^AlmiB^ 


4|v-itV?Tt^^- 


nnr*^\^SA^^t^ 


^^^^  ^^^T^^^\'^v'==^^^^j^^  i^^ 


from  about  the  middle  of  the  13th  century.  A 
score  of  the  same  kind,  about  the  same  date,  is 
referred  to  by  Ambros  as  being  in  the  Biblio- 
th^que  Nationale,  Paris.  w.  s.  r. 

It  will  be  observed  that  in  these  examples 
care  is  taken  that  the  notes  which  synchronise 
in  time  are  in  the  same  vertical  line.  In  the 
rota  (see  the  facsimile  in  the  article  Sumer  is 
ICUMEN  in)  in  the  facsimile  given  in  vol.  iii. 
p.  824,  and  in  the  15th  century  carols  edited 


by  J.  A.  Fuller  Maitland  and  W.  S.  Rockstro, 
although  the  parts  are  superimposed,  yet  there 
is  no  attempt  to  make  the  page  really  a  score. 

One  of  the  first  printed  scores,  properly  so- 
called,  is  that  of  Cipriano  de  Rore's  madrigals 
of  1577  ;  and  one  of  the  first  printed  orchestral 
scores,  if  not  the  very  first,  was  that  of  the 
'Ballet  comique  de  la  Royne'  (Paris,  15S2). 
From  the  system  then  adopted  to  the  compli- 
cated scores  now  in  use,  the  process  is  one  of 


SCORE 


SCOTCH  SNAP 


389 


natural   development.     Down   to  the  days  of 
Bach  and  Handel,  and  for  some  time  after  them, 
the  orchestral  instruments  were  used  rather  as 
an  accretion  of  obbligato  parts  than  as  a  com- 
plex whole ;   but   from  the   time  that  music 
became  a  scientific  art,  some  system  of  group- 
ing instruments  of  the  same  class  near  each 
other  has  been  followed.     The  basso  continue 
or  thorough-bass,  whether  figured  or  not,  has 
always  occupied  the  lowest  stave,  and  its  in- 
separable companion,  the  violoncello  part,  has 
been  placed  immediately  above  it.    In  purely  or- 
chestral music  the  viola  comes  next  and  the  two 
violin  parts ;  bat  in  vocal  music,  whether  for  solos 
or  choruses,  the  voice-parts,  with  or  without  an 
organ  part  below  them,  occupy  the  position 
immediately  above  the  violoncello.     Sometimes 
in    a   concerto   the  solo   instrument  has  this 
place,  as  in  the  first  organ  concerto  of  Handel ; 
bnt  more  often,  and  in  modem  music  almost 
universally,  the  solo  instrument  in  such  a  com- 
position is  placed  above  the  strings.     Having 
arrived  at  the  line  for  the  first  violin  or  violin 
solo  part,  it  will  be  most  convenient  to  de- 
scribe the  constitution  of  the  score  from  the  top 
downwards.     In  certain  instances,  such  as  Beet- 
hoven's 0  minor  Symphony,  Mozart's  *  Jupiter* 
Symphony,   Schumann's  in  £  flat,   etc.,   the 
<lrums  occupy  the  top   line  ;  but  in  far  the 
greater  number  of  cases  the  piccolos  or  flutes 
head  the  score  as  the  top  of  the  group  of  '  wood- 
wind '  instruments.     Next  come  the  oboes,  then 
the  clarinet,  with  cor  anglais  immediately  above 
or  below  them  ;  the  bassoons  generally  end  the 
group  of '  wood, '  unless  a  double-bassoon  is  used. 
Some  composers  write  their  horn-parts  between 
the  clarinet  and  bassoons,  but  a  more  reasonable 
plan  aeems  to  be  to  let  them  head  the  division 
of  'brass,'  and  below  them  to  place  trumpets, 
trombones,  and  tuba.    Upon  the  staves  between 
the  last  of  the  brass  instruments  and  the  first 
violin  lines  are  placed  the  instruments  of  percus- 
sion,  generally  beginning  with   the  ordinary 
drums,  and  including  such  things  as  triangles, 
tambourines,  big  drum,  side  drum,  cymbals,  etc. 
The  staves  for  the  harp  or  harps  are  generally 
placed  in  this  division,  often  below  the  big  drum 
line.  Asa  rule,  in  carefully  printed  scores,  assist- 
ance is  given  to  the  reader's  or  conductor's  eye 
by  not  carrying  the  bar-lines  through  all  the 
staves,  but  leaving  spaces  in  the  vertical  lines 
between  the  various'  groups  of  instruments.    In 
a  well-edited  score,  while  the  whole  is  joined 
tog&ther  at  the  beginning  of  each  page  and  the 
groups  are  indicated  by  thicker  vertical  lines,  the 
bar-divisions  will  be  continuous  from  the  piccolo 
line   to  that  of  the  contrafagotto,   and  from 
the  first  horn  line  to  that  of  the  bass  tuba ; 
each  instrument  of  percussion  will   have  its 
own  bar -lines  to  itself,  and  the  three  upper 
'  strings '  will  be  joined  in  their  bar-lines.     If 
solo  parts  and  a  double  chorus  are  employed, 
each  solo  part  will  have  its  separate  bar-lines, 


and  each  choir  will  have  joined  bar-lines. 
Lastly,  the  violoncello  and  double-bass  part 
will  be  barred  together.  With  every  kind  of 
difference  in  detail,  this  arrangement  has  con- 
tinued in  use  from  the  classical  days  to  our 
own,  the  change  of  place  in  the  drum-line  being 
the  most  important  alteration.  Specimens  of 
various  scores  may  be  seen  at  vol.  ii.  pp.  474- 
483.  In  modem  times,  the  great  advance  in 
musical  education  in  England  has  had  the 
excellent  result  of  increasing  the  number  of  full 
scores  published  at  small  cost  for  the  edification 
of  those  who  listen  to  orchestral  music.  It 
may  be  presumed  that  a  certain  proportion  of 
the  many  who  holds  these  books  in  their  hands 
during  a  performance,  are  able  to  read  them,  or 
at  least  to  gain  from  them  some  kind  of  infor- 
mation ;  but  there  are  so  many  who  confess 
themselves  unable  to  cope  with  the  difficulties 
of  score-reading  that  it  may  not  be  out  of  place 
to  consider  what  their  difficulties  are.  It  is  even 
whispered  that  in  England  more  than  one  con- 
ductor has  risen  to  eminence  who  has  not  been 
able  to  read  a  complicated  score  with  the  requisite 
fluency.  The  art  of  reading,  and  still  more  that 
of  playing  from,  a  full  score  is  one  of  the  most 
precious  a  musician  can  possess  ;  those  who  can 
read  the  two  staves  of  piano  music  should  find 
only  slight  difficulty  in  reading  simple  quartets 
in  which  the  viola  part  with  its  alto  clef,  and 
the  occasional  excursions  of  the  violoncello  into 
the  tenor  clef,  are  all  the  problems  presented. 
Vocal  music,  in  which  the  soprano,  alto,  and 
tenor  clefs  are  persistently  employed,  should  be 
attacked  next,  and  as  soon  as  unaccustomed 
clefs  have  lost  their  terror,  the  student  may 
gradually  attempt  the  parts  for  the  transposing 
instruments.  Tlie  clarinet  notation  may  be  con- 
veniently studied  in  works  for  clarinet  with  piano 
or  other  instruments  ;  the  principles  on  which 
the  horn  and  trumpet  transpose  are  not  hard  to 
grasp,  but  it  is  undoubtedly  difficult  to  become 
quite  sure  what  sound  is  indicated  by  what  note, 
especially  where  a  horn  is  directed  to  change  its 
crook  during  a  few  silent  bars.  Various  sugges- 
tions have  been  made  at  different  times  for  avoid- 
ing the  difficulty  of  reading  scores  by  making 
the  players  of  transposing  instruments  read  the 
notes  Uiat  they  are  to  sound,  not  those  they 
have  to  play.  In  practice  this  would  but  remove 
the  responsibility  of  correct  transposition  from 
the  conductor's  shoulders  to  those  of  each 
individual  player ;  and  although  the  average 
English  orchestral  player  is  accustomed  to  per- 
form marvels  of  sight-reading,  such  a  change 
can  hardly  be  contemplated  except  by  those 
whose  interest  it  is  to  increase  the  number  of 
preliminary  rehearsals  in  the  case  of  any  new 
work.  M. 

SCORING.  The  art  of  Instrumbntation. 
See  vol.  ii.  p.  473  ff. 

SCOTCH  SNAP  or  CATCH  is  the  name 
given  to  the  reverse  of  the  ordinary  dotted  note 


390   SCOTCH  SYMPHONY,  THE 


SCOTT 


which  has  a  short  note  after  it — in  the  snap  the 
short  note  comes  first  and  is  followed  by  the  long 
one.  Inasmuch  as  it  is  a  national  peculiarity 
of  Scottish  music,  it  is  characteristic  of  the  slow 
Strathspey  reel,  rather  than  of  vocal  music, 
though  as  Burns  and  others  wrote  songs  to 
some  of  these  dance-tunes,  it  is  not  infrequently 
found  in  connection  with  words.  '  Green  grow 
the  rashes,'  *  Roy's  wife,'  and  *  Whistle  o'er  the 
lave  o't,'  contain  examples  of  the  sna}).  It 
was  in  great  favour  with  many  of  the  Italian 
composers  of  the  18  th  century,  for  Bumey — 
who  seems  to  have  invented  the  name — says  in 
his  account  of  the  Italian  Opera  in  London,  in 
1748,  that  there  was  at  this  time  too  much  of 
the  '  Scots  catch  or  cutting  short  of  the  first  of 
two  notes  in  a  melody.'  He  blames  Cocchi, 
Perez,  and  Jommelli  'all  three  masters  concerned 
in  the  opera  ^'Vologeso'"  for  being  lavish  of 
the  snap.  [In  the  hands  of  Hook  and  the 
other  purveyors  of  the  pseudo-Scottish  music, 
which  was  in  vogue  at  Yauxhall  and  elsewhere 
in  the  18th  century,  it  became  a  senseless 
vulgarism,  and  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
songs,  such  as  those  mentioned  above,  and  the 
Strathspey  reel  in  which  it  is  an  essential 
feature,  its  presence  may  generally  be  accepted 
as  proof  that  the  music  in  which  it  occurs  is 
not  genuine.]  An  example  of  it  will  be  found 
in  the  Musette  of  Handel's.  Organ  Concerto  in 
G  minor  (1739)  ;  he  also  uses  it  occasionally  in 
his  vocal  music. 


J.  M.  w. 

SCOTCH  SYMPHONY,  THE.  Mendels- 
sohn's  own  name  for  his  A  minor  Symphony 
(op.  66),  one  of  the  works  in  which  he  recorded 
tlie  impressions  of  his  Scotch  tour  in  1829. 
Other  results  of  that  expedition  are  the 
'Hebrides'  overture,  the  PF.  Fantasia  in  Ft 
minor  (op.  28),  originally  entitled  by  its 
author  'Senate  ecossaise,'  the  PF.  Fantasia  in 
A  minor,  op.  16,  No.  1,  and  the  two-fiart  song 
'  O  wert  thou  in  the  cauld  blast.' 

Tlie  subject  of  the  opening  Andante  of  the 
Symphony  dates  from  his  visit  to  Hol3rrood  in 
the  evening  of  July  30,  1829,  when  it  was 
written  down.  The  Symphony  was  planned 
and  begun  during  his  residence  in  Italy  in 
1831,  but  was  not  finally  finished  till  Jan.  20, 
1842,  the  date  on  the  finished  score.  It  was 
first  performed  at  a  Gewandhaus  Concert  on 
March  8  of  the  same  year,  again  at  the 
Gewandhaus  Concert  next  following.  He  then 
brought  it  to  England,  conducted  it  at  the  Phil- 
harmonic Concert,  June  13,  1842,  and  obtained 
permission  to  dedicate  it  to  Queen  Victoria. 

The  passage  for  flutes,  bassoons,  and  horns, 


connecting  the  end  of  the  first  movement  with 
the  scherzo,  was,  on  the  authority  of  G.  A.  Xac- 
farren,  put  in  after  the  rehearsal  (under  Stendale 
Bennett)  at  the  Philharmonic,  and  added  hy 
Goodwin,  the  copyist,  to  the  Leipzig  MS.  puts. 
The  score  and  parts  were  published  (as  Sym- 
phony No.  3)  by  Breitkopf  k  Hartel  in  March 
1851. 

The  work  is  peculiar  among  Mendelssohn'^ 
symphonies  from  the  fact  that  it  is  not  separated 
by  the  usual  pauses.  This  is  especially  eigoined 
in  a  preface  by  the  author  prefixed  to  the  st^re, 
in  which  the  titles  and  tempi  are  given  difierently 
from  what  they  are  at  the  head  of  the  move- 
ments themselves.  G. 

SCOTT,  Cyril  Meir,  bom  at  Oxton,  Cheshire, 
Sept  27,  1879,  studied  the  pianoforte  until  he 
was  seventeen  years  old,  when  he  went  to  the 
Hoch  Conservatorium  at  Frankfort,  and  studied 
composition,  etc.  under  Prof.  Iwan  Knorr. 
Finding  himself  hampered  by  the  limitations 
of  musical  conventions,  he  threw  himself  into 
the  ultra-modem  school  of  composition,  and  all 
his  works  show  a  remarkable  homogeneity  of 
style.  He  shares  (with  a  good  many  other 
people  in  the  present  day)  the  conviction  that 
melody  should  be  continuous,  rather  than  cut 
up  into  separate  strains,  that  tonality  is  an 
unnecessary  limitation,  and  that  the  chromatic 
scale  is  as  satisfoctory  a  basis  for  compoaitioD 
as  the  diatonic.  His  works  aim  at  the  por- 
trayal of  'atmosphere,'  rather  than  definite 
beauty ;  and  they  occasionally  reach  their  object. 
Mr.  Scott  may  best  be  described  as  the  English 
counterpart  to  Debussy,  whose  vagueness  of 
melody  and  far-fetched  harmonies  are  repro- 
duced in  the  works  of  the  younger  man.  Au 
'aubade '  for  small  orchestra,  a  symphony,  two 
rhapsodies,  an  'arabesque,'  a  'Christmas  over- 
ture*; overtures  to  '  Aglavaine  et  Selysette,* 
'  Princesse  Maleine,'  and  '  Pell^  et  M^lisande,' 
are  among  his  orchestral  works ;  a  setting  of 
'La  Belle  Dame  Sans  Merci'  is  for  soprano, 
baritone,  and  orchestra,  and  'Helen  of  Kirk- 
connel '  is  for  baritone  and  orchestra.  A  sextet 
for  piano  and  strings,  op.  26,  and  a  string 
quartet,  op.  28,  are  among  his  earlier  pieces 
of  chamber  music,  and  op.  57,  one  of  hh 
latest,  is  a  quintet  for  piano  and  strings.  It 
is  beyond  question  that  the  later  works  show 
more  consideration  for  the  hearer's  pleasure 
than  do  some  of  the  earlier.  His  setting  of 
the  old  English  lyrics,  'Lovely  kind  and 
kindly  loving'  and  'Why  so  pale  and  wan,' 
making  up  his  op.  55,  are  among  the  most 
pleasing  and  original  of  his  songs,  though  '  My 
Captain, '  to  Whitman's  words,  and  'A  Beflection ' 
are  very  striking.  'Afterday,'  and  the  three 
songs  which  make  up  op.  52,  are  interesting, 
and  in  some  ways  efiective.  There  are  a  good 
many  pianoforte  pieoes,  which  in  name  and 
style  fulfil  the  Debussy  ideal  of  landscape- 
painting  in  music.  M. 


SCOTT 


SCOTTISH  MUSIC 


391 


SCOTT,  John,  nephew  of  John  Sale,  jun., 
was  born  about  1776.  He  was  a  chorister  of 
St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  and  Eton  College ; 
afterwards  studied  the  organ  under  William 
Sexton,  organist  of  St.  George's,  Windsor,  and 
became  deputy  for  Dr.  Arnold  at  Westminster 
Abbey.  He  was  also  chorus-master  and  pianist 
at  Sadler's  Wells.  On  the  erection  of  the  first 
organ  in  Spanish  Town,  Jamaica,  he  went  out 
as  organist,  and  died  there  in  1815.  He  was 
composer  of  a  well-known  anthem,  *  Praise  the 
Lord,  O  Jerusalem,*  as  well  as  of  a  famous  comic 
song,  'Abraham  Newland,'*  the  words  of  which 
were  also  sung  to  the  'Rogue's  March';  [the 
composition  here  referred  to  was  more  commonly 
ascribed  to  Tipton,  a  Vauxhall  writer,  and  was 
written  about  the  end  of  the  18th   century. 

F.  K.].  W.  H.  H. 

SCOTT,  Lady  John  Douglas,  an  amateur 
composer  of  Scottish  songs.  Bom  Alicia  Ann 
Spottiswoode,  in  1810,  she  was  the  eldest 
daughter  of  Mr.  John  Spottiswoode,  of  Spottis- 
woode in  Berwickshire.  On  March  16,  1836, 
she  married  Lord  John  Montague-Douglas  Scott 
(son  of  the  fourth  Duke  of  Buccleuch),  who  died 
in  1 860.  In  1870,  under  the  will  of  her  father, 
she  resumed  her  maiden  name. 

Her  best  claim  to  remembrance,  musically, 
is  her  composition  of  the  song  '  Annie  Laurie,' 
which  was  first  published  without  composer's 
name  in  the  third  volume  of  Paterson  and  Roy's 
'Vocal  Melodies  of  Scotland'  in  1888.  So 
popular  was  the  song  during  the  Crimean  war, 
that  a  letter  from  the  composer  herself,  in  her 
last  years,  by  mistake  refers  to  it  as  being 
compoeed  about  that  period.  It  may  be  added 
that  the  words  are  altered  from  a  song  first 
published  in  A  Ballad  Book  collected  by  Charles 
Kirkpatrick  Sharps,  and  privately  issued  in 
1824.  A  few  other  of  her  songs  gained  but 
scant  favour,  although  she  is  sometimes  credited 
with  being  the  composer  or  adapter  of  *The 
Banks  of  Loch  Lomond,'  a  Scottish  song  still 
much  sung. 

Throughout  her  life  she  upheld  the  ancient 
Scottish  customs  in  a  manner  vei^ging  on  eccen- 
tricity. She  died  on  her  estate  at  Spottiswoode, 
March  12,  1900,  aged  ninety.  f.  k. 

SCOTTISH  MUSIC.  As  national  music, 
that  of  Scotland  has  long  been  held  in  high 
esteem.  Early  notices  of  it  may  be  meagre, 
but  are  always  laudatory.  Unfortunately,  there 
are  no  means  of  proving  what  it  was  in  remote 
times,  for  the  art  of  conveying  a  knowledge  of 
sounds  by  comprehensible  written  signs  was  a 
late  invention,  and  music  handed  down  by  mere 
tradition  was  most  untrustworthy.  Even  after 
the  invention  of  musical  'writing,  the  learned 
men  who  possessed  the  art  employed  it  almost 
entirely  in  the  perpetuation  of  scholastic  music, 
having  apparently  an  equal  contempt  for  melody 

'  AbnlHua    Newlaad  wm  the  Chief  Codiier  of   the  Bank  of 


in  general,  and  for  the  tunes  prized  by  the 
uneducated  vulgar.  The  earliest  Scottish  music 
was  probably  constructed  on  the  Pentatonic 
Scale,  which  is  not,  however,  peculiar  to  Scot- 
land, for  airs  of  a  similar  cast  have  been  found 
in  countries  as  wide  apart  as  China  and  the 
West  Coast  of  Africa.  Many  conjectures  have 
been  made  as  to  the  sources  of  British  music  in 
general,  but  in  the  absence  of  any  real  evidence, 
they  must  be  held  to  be  more  or  less  fruitless. 

[In  1780,  William  Tytler  of  Woodhouselee 
contributed  A  DisaertfUum  on  the  Scottish  Music 
to  Amot's  History  of  Edinburgh.  He  attempted 
to  date  various  well-known  Scottish  airs,  and 
though  not  very  trustworthy  or  scientific  has 
been  taken  as  authoritative  by  many  later 
writers,     f.  k.] 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  first  to  write 
a  history  of  Scottish  music  based  on  research 
was  an  Englishman,  Joseph  Ritson,  a  cele- 
brated antiquary  and  critic,  who  wrote  towards 
the  end  of  the  18th  century.  He  seems  to 
have  been  a  man  of  irascible  temperament,  but 
love  of  truth  lay  at  the  root  of  his  onslaughts 
upon  Johnson,  Warton,  Percy,  Pinkerton,  and 
others.  Any  assertion  made  without  sufficient 
evidence  he  treated  as  falsehood,  and  attacked 
in  the  most  uncompromising  manner.  His 
Historical  Essay  on  Scottish  Song  has  so  smoothed 
the  way  for  all  later  writers  on  the  subject  that 
it  would  be  ungenerous  not  to  acknowledge  the 
storehouse  from  which  his  successors  have  drawn 
their  information — in  many  cases  without  citing 
their  authority.  The  early  portion  of  the  Essay 
treats  of  the  poetry  of  the  songs,  beginning  with 
mere  rhymes  on  the  subject  of  the  death  of 
Alexander  III.  (1285),  the  siege  of  Berwick 
(1296),  Bannockburn  (1814),  and  so  on  to  the 
times  of  James  I.  (1893-1487),  whose  thorough 
English  education  led  to  his  being  both  a  poet 
and  a  musician.  His  '  tiTily  excellent  composi- 
tion At  Beltayne  or  Peblis  to  the  play  is  still 
held  in  high  esteem,'  but  of  his  music  there  are 
no  remains.  This  is  the  more  to  be  regretted 
as  a  well-worn  quotation  from  Taesoni  states 
that  James  '  not  only  wrote  sacred  compositions 
for  the  voice,  but  found  out  of  himself  a  new 
style  of  music,  plaintive  and  moumfril,  differing 
from  every  other.'  That  James  improved 
Scottish  music  need  not  be  doubted,  but  it  is 
altogether  absurd  to  suppose  that  he  invented 
a  style  that  must  have  1)een  in  existence  long 
before  his  era.  The  quotation,  however,  serves 
to  show  that  in  Italy  James  and  not  Rizzio — 
most  gratuitously  supposed  to  have  aided  the 
development  of  Scottish  music — was  believed 
to  have  originated  or  amended  this  style.  As 
Tassoni  flourished  soon  after  Rizzio's  time,  he 
had  an  opportunity  of  knowing  somewhat  more 
of  the  question  than  writers  who  came  a  century 
and  a  half  later.  George  Farquhar  Graham  has 
at  some  length  controverted  the  Rizzio  myth. 
Graham  was  a  very  competent  judge  of  such 


SCOTTISH  MUSIC 


SCOTTISH  MUSIC 


matters,  and  believed  that  some  of  our  airs 
might  be  of  the  15th  centarj ;  though  the 
earliest  to  which  a  date  can  now  be  affixed  is 
the  'Lament  for  Flodden,'  1518,  of  which 
further  mention  will  be  made. 

As  so  little  is  known  of  the  popular  music 
of  the  15th  century,  a  few  extracts  from  the 
accounts  of  the  Loids  High  Treasurers  of  Scot- 
land may  be  found  interesting.  They  show 
the  value  placed  on  the  services  of  musicians 
who  at  various  times  visited  the  Courts  of  James 
III.  and  James  IV.  Scottish  money  being 
usually  reckoned  as  worth  only  one-twelfth  of 
English  money,  the  payments  seem  very  small ; 
but  are  not  so  in  reality.  For  on  consulting 
a  table  of  prices  of  provisions  supplied  for  a 
banquet  given  by  James  IV.  to  the  French 
ambassador,  it  is  found  that  a  gratuity  such  as 
that  to  John  Broun  would  buy  seven  oxen ; 
and  that  the  '  twa  fithelaris '  (fiddlers)  who 
sang  '  Graysteil '  to  the  King  received  the  value 
of  three  sheep.  The  sums  seem  odd,  but  an 
examination  of  the  items  will  show  that  the 
payments  were  made  in  gold.  The  unicorn  (a 
Scottish  coin  that  weighed  from  57  to  60  grains 
of  gold)  is  valued  in  the  accounts  at  eighteen 
shillings  ;  and  another  coin,  the  equivalent  of 
the  French  crown,  at  fourteen  shillings — 

1474.  Item,  gevin  at  the  klngis  command  iijo  Septem- 
bris,  to  John  Broun,  iiitare,  at  his  passage  our 
8ey  to  leue  C^  lere,  i.e.  learn)  his  craft    .      v.  li. 

1489.  July  1.— Item,  to  Wilzeam,  sanRsier  of  Lithgow 

for  a  sang  bwke  he  brocht  to  the  king  be  a  precept, 

X.  IL 

1490.  April  19.— To  Martin  Glareschaw  and  ve  toder 

ersche  clareschaw  at  ye  kingis  command,xviU.  s. 
May.— Till  ane  ersche  harper,  at  ye  kingis  command, 

xvi^.  s. 

Mr.  Gunn,  in  his  Enquiry  on  the  Harp  in  the 
Highlands,  quotes  thus  from  a  work  of  1597 — 
'  The  strings  of  their  Clairxhoes  (small  Gaelic 
harp)  are  made  of  brasse  wyar,  and  the  strings 
of  the  Harp  of  sinews,  which  strings  they  stryke 
either  with  their  nayles  growing  long  or  else 
with  an  instrument  appointed  for  that  use.' 
The  correct  word  is  Cldrsach ;  and  the  harper 
Clarsair, 

1491.  Aug.  21.— Item  to  Hy  Inglis  pyparis  viy  unicorns, 

vy.  li.  liy.  s. 
1497.  April  10.— Item  to  John  Hert  for  bering  a  pare  of 

monicordis  of  the  kingis  tn  Abirdene  toStrivelin 

(Stirling) ix.  s. 

April  16.— Item,  to  the  tua  fithelaris  that  sang  Grajrsteil 

to  ze  king ix.  s. 

1500.  March  1.— Item,  to  Jacob  lutar,  to  lowse  his  lute 

that  lay  in  wed       ....        xxxy.  s. 

(Which  means  that  the  thriftless  Jacob  re- 
ceived the  value  of  eleven  sheep  to  redeem  his 
lute  that  lay  in  pawn.) 

1608.  Aug.  IS.— Item,  to  viy  Inglish  menstrales  be  the 

kingis  command  xl  f^nche  crownis,     xxviji.  11. 

Sept.  10.— Item  to  the  four  Italien  menstrales  to  fe  thaim 

hors  to  Linlithqw  and  to  red  thaim  of  the  town, 

Ivj.  8. 

(Riotous  fellows,  no  doubt,  who  got  a  French 
crown  each  to  clear  their  *  score  *  in  Edinburgh 
and  hire  horses  to  Linlithgow.) 


Information  regarding  the  state  of  popniar 
music  during  the  16th  centuiy  is  almost  eqmdly 
meagre.     James  V.  is  believed  to  have  written 
two  songs  on  the  subject  of  certain  adventures 
which  befell  him  while  wandering  through  the 
country  in  disguise  ;  these  are  '  Thegaberlonzie 
man '  and  '  The  beggar's  mealpokes '  (mealbags). 
The  airs  are  said  to  be  of  the  same  date,  but  of 
this  there  is  really  no  certainty  ;  though  Ritson, 
with<all  his  scepticism,  admits  them  into  his  list 
of  early  tunes  ;  the  second  is  much  too  modem  in 
style  to  have  been  of  James  V.  *s  date.    Of  Mary's 
time  there  are  two  curious  works  in  which  musi- 
cal matters  are  mentioned.     The  ComplaynU  of 
ScoOand  (1549),  and  The  Gude  and  Godly  BaZ- 
laies  (1578),  both  of  which  furnish  the  names 
of  a  number  of  tunes  almost  all  now  unknown. 
Mr.  J.  A.  H.  Murray,  in  his  excellent  reprint 
of  the  former  of  these,  says  '  The  Complaynte  of 
Scotland  consists  of  two  principal  parts,  vis. 
the  author's  Discourse  concerning  the  affliction 
and  misery  of  his  country,  and  his  Dream  of 
Dame  Scotia  and  her  complaint  against  her  three 
sons.     These  are,  with  other  obvious  art,  con- 
nected together  by  what  the  author  terms  his 
Monologue  JiecrecUive.* 

This  Monologue — which,  from  itsbeingprinted 
on  unpaged  leaves,  Mr.  Murray  has  discovered 
to  be  an  afterthought — is  now  the  most  inter- 
esting part  of  the  work.  In  it  the  author  in- 
troduces a  number  of  shepherds  and  their  wives. 
After  'disjune'  (d^jeHner)  the  chief  shepherd 
delivers  a  most  learned  address,  and  then  they 
proceed  to  relate  stories  from  ancient  mythology, 
and  also  from  the  Middle  Ages.  Short  extracts 
to  give  an  idea  of  the  style  may  not  be 
objected  to. 

Quhen  the  scheipherd  hed  eodit  his  prolixt  oriison  to 
the  laif  of  the  scheiphirdis,  i  memellit  nocht  litll  quhen 
1  herd  ane  rustic  pastour  of  besUalite,  distitutof  vrbanit^, 
and  of  speculatione  of  natuial  philoeophe,  indoctrj-ne 
his  nychtbours  as  he  hed  studeit  ptliolome,  auerois, 
aristotel,  galien,  ypocrites  or  Cioero,  quhilk  var  expert 
practicians  in  metnamatic  arL  .  .  .  Quhen  thir  schcip- 
hyrdis  hed  tald  al  thyr  pleysand  sloreia,  Uian  Utay  and 
ther  vyuis  began  to  singsueit  melodius  sangis  of  natund 
music  of  the  antiqulte.  the  foure  marroadyns  that  sang 
quhen  thetis  vas  mareit  on  month  pillion,  thai  sang 
nocht  aa  sueit  as  did  thir  scheiphyrdis.    .    .    . 

Then  follows  a  list  of  songs,  including — 

Pastance  vitht  gude  companye,  Stil  mdtr  the  leyuis 
grene,  (Douthoumetheraschisgrene,  .  .  .  brume  brume 
on  hil,  .  .  .  bille  vil  thou  cum  by  a  lute  and  belt  the  in 
8anct  Francis  cord,  The  trog  cam  to  the  myl  dur,  rycht 
soirly  musing  in  my  mynde,  god  sen  the  due  hed  b]^din 
in  France,  and  delaubaute  hed  neuyr  cum  hame,  .  .  .  o 
lusty  niaye  vitht  flora  quene,  ...  the  battel  of  th^ 
hayrlau,  the  hunttis  of  chenet,  .  .  .  My  lofe  is  l}*and 
seik,  send  hym  ioy,  send  hym  ioy,  .  .  .  The  perssee  and 
the  mongumrye  met,  That  day,  that  day,  that  g^ntil 
day. 

With  the  exception  of  the  ballads,  these 
seem  to  be  chiefly  part-songs,  some  of  them 
English. 

Than  eftir  this  suett  oelest  armonye,  tha  bean  to 
dance  in  ane  ring,  euyrie  aid  scheiphyrd  led  his  \7fe 
be  the  hand,  and  euyrie  3ong  scheiphird  led  hyr  quhome 
he  lufflt  best.  Ther  vas  vi^j  scheiphvrdis,  and  ilk  ane  of 
them  hed  ane  syndry  instrament  to  play  to  the  Uif.    the 


SCOTTISH  MUSIC 


SCOTTISH  MUSIC" 


393 


tynt  hed  ane  drone  bag  pipe,  the  nyxt  hed  ane  pipe 
maid  of  ane  bleddir  and  of  ane  reid,  the  third  playit  on 
ane  tnunp,  the  feyrd  on  ane  corne  pipe,  the  fyfb  playlt 
oo  ane  pipe  maid  of  ane  gait  home,  the  sext  playt  on 
ane  recoiwir,  the  seuint  plait  on  ane  fiddil^  and  the  last 
plait  on  ane  qnhissiL 

The  second  instrument  seems  to  have  been  a 
bagpipe  without  the  drone  ;  the  third,  a  jew's- 
harp,  and  the  last  a  shepherd's-pipe  or  fiHUe  a 
heK,  Sir  J.  Graham  Dalyell  says :  *  Neither  the 
form  nor  the  use  of  the  whistle  (quhissil)  is  ex- 
plicit. It  is  nowhere  specially  defined.  In 
149S  xii^'  s.  is  paid  for  a  whussel  to  the  King. 
.  .  .  Corn-pipe,  Lilt-pipe,  and  others  are  alike 
obscure.* 

In  the  other  little  book  already  mentioned, 
known  as  the  (j4<«fea7K2(x(x£2^J?a^2a^(l  578)  there 
are  «  number  of  songs  '  converted  from  profane 
into  religious  poetry.'  Dr.  David  Laing,  who 
published  a  reprint  of  it  in  1868,  informs  us 
tliat  the  authorship  of  the  work  is  usually  as- 
sign^i  to  two  brothera,  John  and  Robert  Wedder- 
bum  of  Dundee,  who  flourished  about  the  year 
1540.  It  is  divided  into  three  portions  ;  the 
first  is  doctiinal ;  the  second  contains  metrical 
versions  of  Psalms,  with  some  hymns  chiefly 
from  the  German ;  the  third,  which  gives  its 
peculiar  character  to  the  collection,  may  be  de- 
scribed as  sacred  parodies  of  secular  songs.  They 
were  to  be  sung  to  well-known  melodies  of  the 
time,  which  were  indicated  usually  by  the  first 
line  or  the  chorus  ;  but  as  Dr.  Laing  points  out 
that  not  one  of  the  secular  songs  of  which  these 
parodies  were  imitations  has  come  down  to  us, 
a  few  only  of  the  tunes  can  be  ascertained. 
Three  of  them  are  certainly  £ngh'sh,  'John 
cum  kiss  me  now,*  *  Under  the  greenwood  tree,' 
and  *  The  huntis  up.'  A  fourth  is  *  Hey  now  the 
day  dawes,'  which  Sibbald  and  Stenhouse  have 
attempted  to  identify  with  *Hey  tuti  taiti' 

The  day  dawis, 
(Prom  the  Straloch  MS.  a.d.  1687.) 


^^fel^^^^^S 


^^te^^^ 


^^g^g^^p^iU^^^ 


(Scots  wha  hae).  This  is  not  only  improbable, 
but  is  disprov^  by  a  tune  of  the  same  name 
being  found  in  the  Straloch  MS.  (1627).  It 
has  no  Scottish  characteristics,  and  may  have 
been  picked  up  from  some  of  the  English  or 
foreign  musicians  who  were  frequent  visitors  at 
the  Scottish  Court.  It  is  an  excellent  lively 
tune,  and  may  have  been  that  played  by  the 
town  pipers  of  Edinburgh  in  the  time  of 
James  IV.;  if  so,  the  note  marked  with  an 
asterisk  must  have  been  altered  to  C  to  suit  the 


scale  of  the  instrument.  Dunbar  thought  it  so 
hackneyed  that  he  complains 

Tour  common  menBtrallis  hag  no  tone 
But '  Now  the  day  dawis '  and  '  Into  Joun ' 
Think  ye  nocht  shame. 

Of  the  other  songs,  *  Ah  my  love,  leif  me  not  * 
may  be  *ril  never  leave  thee,'  and  *Ane  sang 
on  the  birth  of  Christ,  to  be  sung  with  the  tune 
of  Bawlulalu,'  may  probably  be  '  Baloo  my  boy 
lie  still  and  sleep,'  for  in  both  songs  the  measure 
and  also  the  subject — sacred  for  secular — are 
the  same.  The  words,  being  in  Bishop  Percy's 
ancient  MS.,  are  thought  to  be  English,  but 
Dr.  Rimbault  considered  the  tune  to  be  Scottish. 
Sibbald's  identifications  of  a  few  other  tunes  are 
altogether  fanciful:  *The  wind  blaws  cauld, 
furious  and  bauld,'  with  '  Up  in  the  morning 
early' ;  *My  luve  mumis  for  me,'  with  *He's 
low  down  in  the  broom, 'and  so  on.  Altogether 
not  more  than  a  third  of  the  whole  can  now  be 
even  guessed  at. 

The  religious  troubles  of  this  and  the  follow- 
ing reigns  would  no  doubt  completely  unsettle 
whatever  musical  tuition  might  be  carried  on 
by  the  Romish  Church,  but  the  introduction  of 
'  sang  schuils '  and  of  Genevan  Psalmody  w^ould 
probably  soon  compensate  for  any  loss  thence 
arising.  [Song  Schools.]  It  does  not  come 
within  the  scope  of  this  paper  to  consider  such 
changes  ;  but  the  allegation  already  alluded  to, 
that  Ri/zio  composed  some  of  the  finest  Scottish 
melodies,  is  deserving  of  a  more  careful  inquiry. 

Goldsmith,  at  the  instigation  apparently  of 
Geminiani,  chose  to  write  an  essay  on  a  subject 
of  which  he  evidently  knew  very  little.  He 
asserts  that  Rizzio  was  brought  over  from  Italy 
by  James  V.,  lived  twenty  years  in  Scotland, 
and  thus  had  sufficient  time  to  get  a  knowledge 
of  the  style,  and  ample  opportunities  for  im- 
proving it  It  is  well  known,  on  the  contrary, 
that  Rizzio  came  over  in  the  suite  of  the 
Piedmontese  Ambassador  in  1561,  nineteen 
years  after  the  death  of  James  Y.,  and  was 
little  more  than  five  years  in  Scotland.  That 
he  ever  composed  anything  in  any  style  has  yet 
to  be  shown.  Tassoni,  who  was  born  in  1565, 
and  who  speaks  of  Scottish  music — as  has  already 
been  noticed — entirely  ignores  him.  In  truth 
the  myth  seems  to  have  been  got  up  in  London 
early  in  the  18th  century,  probably  among  his 
own  countrymen.  It  is  first  heard  of  in  the 
'  Orpheus  Caledonius '  of  1725,  where  the  editor 
ascribes  seven  tunes  to  him.  T\vo  at  least  of 
these  are  shown  by  their  style  to  be  very  recent 
compositions ;  but  the  absurdity  of  the  state- 
ment must  have  been  quite  apparent,  as  all 
mention  of  Rizzio's  name  was  withdrawn  in  the 
next  edition  of  the  work,  1733. 

Oswald  helped  to  keep  up  the  falsehood. 
Notwithstanding  the  disclaimers  of  most  of  those 
who  have  made  any  research  into  the  question, 
the  belief  still  exists,  and  is  from  time  to  time 
propounded  (see  anUy  p.  Ilia).     For  160  years 


394 


SCOTTISH  MUSIC 


SCOTTISH  MUSIC 


after  his  death  Rizzio  is  not  mentioned  as  having 
composed  music  of  any  kind.  Had  he  done  bo, 
it  would  have  been  in  the  style  of  France  or  of 
Italy,  and  it  may  be  doubted  whether  Queen 
Mary  hei-self  would  have  appreciated  any  other. 
It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  she  quitted 
Scotland  when  little  more  than  five  years  of 
age,  and  returned  Queen -Dowager  of  France, 
a  widow  of  nineteen,  with  all  her  tastes  formed 
and  every  association  and  recollection  connected 
with  a  more  civilised  country  than  her  own. 

Mr.  Dauney,  in  his  Dissertation  prefixed  to 
the  Skene  MS.  gives  some  interesting  informa- 
tion regarding  the  Chapel  Royal  in  Stirling.  It 
was  founded  by  James  III.,  of  whom  Lindsay 
of  Pitsoottie  says  that  *  he  delighted  more  in 
musick  and  in  policies  of  Bigging  (building) 
than  he  did  in  the  governance  of  his  realm.  .  .  . 
He  delighted  more  in  singing  and  playing  on 
instruments,  than  he  did  in  the  Defence  of  the 
Borders.  ...  He  took  great  pleasour  to  dwell 
thair  (in  Stirling)  and  foundet  ane  collige  with- 
in the  said  Castle  callit  the  Chappell  Royal ; 
also  he  bigget  the  great  hall  of  Stirling ;  also 
he  maid  in  tlie  said  Chappell  Royal  all  kynd  of 
office  men,  to  wit,  the  bishop  of  Galloway  arch- 
dean,  the  treasurer  and  sub-dean,  the  chantor 
and  sub-chantor,  with  all  other  officieris  pertain- 
ing to  a  College ;  and  also  he  doubled  thaim, 
to  that  effect,  that,  they  schould  ever  be  readie  ; 
the  one  half  to  pass  with  him  wherever  he 
pleased,  that  they  might  sing  and  play  to  him 
and  hold  him  merrie  ;  and  the  other  half  should 
remain  at  home  to  sing  and  pray  for  him  and 
his  successioun'  (ed.  1728).  All  this  was  after- 
wards abolished  ;  but  in  1612  its  restoration 
was  ordered  by  James  VI.,  its  place  of  residence 
to  be  at  * Halyrudhous ' — 'the  palace  of  the 
samyn,  and  the  Chappell  not  to  be  called  the 
Chappell  royall  of  Striveling  as  heretofore  but 
his  majesties  Chappell  Royall  of  Scotland,  and 
the  members  to  attend  his  majesty  in  whatever 
part  of  Scotland  he  may  happen  to  be.'  In 
1629  Charles  I.  granted  an  annual  pension  of 
£2000  to  the  musicians  of  the  Chapel,  and 
preparations  were  made  for  the  celebration  of 
religious  service  according  to  the  forms  of  the 
Church  of  England.  The  nature  of  these 
arrangements  is  very  fully  given  in  an  Informa- 
tion to  the  King  by  E.  Kellie  (1631)  ;  among 
other  things  he  was  appointed  '  to  see  that  none 
but  properly  qualified  persons  should  have  a 
place  there,  and  that  they  should  all  be  kept  at 
daily  practise,  and  for  that  effect  your  Majestic 
appointed  mee  ane  chambre  within  your  pallace 
of  Halyrudhous  wherein  I  have  provided  and 
sett  up,  ane  organe,  two  flutes,  two  pandores, 
with  vioUs  and  other  instruments,  with  all 
sorts  of  English,  French,  Dutch,  Spaynish, 
Latine,  Italian,  and  Old  Scotch  music,  vocall 
and  instrumentall.'  The  capitals  are  Mr. 
Dauney's,  who  says,  'There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  this  last  expression  referred  to  the  popular 


national  music  of  Scotland.  That  sacred  music 
was  here  not  meant  is  sufficiently  obvious  ;  the 
metrical  psalmody  of  the  Reformed  Church  vas 
not  old,  and  the  music  of  the  Church  in  Scotland 
before  the  Reformation  was  identical  with  that 
of  Rome,  and  therefore  not  Scottish.'  Here 
Mr.  Dauney  surely  applies  to  the  music  what 
can  only  be  said  of  the  words  of  the  service  ; 
the  latter  were  the  same  throughout  all  Roman 
Catholic  countries,  while  the  music,  on  the 
contrary,  varied  in  every  locality,  being  fre- 
quently the  composition  of  the  chapel-master 
or  of  the  organist  of  the  church  where  it  was 
performed.  Without  insisting  on  the  fact 
already  stated,  that  James  I.  of  Scotland  wrote 
sacred  music — '  cose  sacre  compose  in  canto ' — 
reference  may  be  made  to  the  Scottish  composen 
mentioned  by  Dr.  David  Laing  as  having  written 
music  for  the  church  before  the  Reformation. 
Among  these  are  Andrew  Blackhall,  a  canon  of 
Holyrood  ;  David  Peblis,  one  of  the  canons  of 
St.  Andrews,  who  in  1530  set  the  canticle  'Si 
quis  diliget  me '  in  five  parts ;  and  Sir  John 
Fnthy  (the  '  Sir '  denotes  he  was  a  priest),  who 
wrote  a  moral  song,  *0  God  abufe,'  in  four 
parts,  *  baith  letter  and  not,'  that  is,  both  words 
and  music — as  well  as  others  whose  names  it  is 
unnecessary  to  mention.  Besides,  there  need 
not  be  a  doubt  that  their  predecessors  were 
occasional  composers  from  the  time  when  James  I. 
in  1424  set  up  organs  in  churches.  That  this 
is  the  music  called  Old  Scottish  in  Kellie's 
InfomuUion  seems  to  be  the  only  reasonable 
explanation  of  these  words.  For  though  the 
members  of  Kellie's  choir  in  fitting  time  and 
place  might  sing  to  the  king  'to  hold  him 
merrie,'  lliis  would  not  be  the  music  which  they 
were  called  upon  to  practise  twice  a  week  in 
preparation  for  the  next  service. 

It  is  to  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  that  we  owe 
the  first  certain  glimpse  of  early  Scottish  folk- 
music.  All  that  was  known  of  it  had  oome 
down  by  tradition,  till  the  discovery — only  in 
the  19th  century — of  two  MSS.  of  this  date, 
which  establish  the  existence  of  a  number  of  tunes 
whose  age  and  form  were  previously  entirely 
conjectural.  These  are  the  Straloch  and  Skene 
MSS.  The  first  was  written  by  Robert  Gordon 
of  Straloch,  Aberdeenshire,  in  1627-29.  (See 
Straloch  MS.) 

The  second  is  a  much  more  important  MS. 
It  was  formed  by  or  for  John  Skene  of  Hall- 
yards,  Midlothian,  and  has  no  date  ;  but  its 
seven  parts,  now  bound  together,  seem  from 
internal  evidence  to  have  been  written  at  various 
times  up  to  about  1685.  In  general  it  is  much 
more  correct  than  the  last,  its  versions  are 
occasionally  excellent ;  its  Scottish  airs,  after 
rejecting  dances  and  everything  else  not  of  home 
growth,  are  not  fewer  than  forty.  Above  all, 
it  contains  the  ancient  original  melody  of  *  The 
Flowers  of  the  Forest ' ;  whose  simple  pathos 
forbids  our  believing  it  to  be  the  expression 


SCOTTISH  MUSIC 


SCOTTISH  MUSIC 


395 


of  any  bat  a  trae  sorrow,  the  wail  of  a  mourner 
for  those  who  would  never  return  —  and 
^vrliich  no  doubt  is  nearly  coeval  with  Flodden. 
The  MS.  was  published  in  1888  by  Mr.  Wm. 
r>aoney,  with  a  Dissertation^  excellent  in  many 
respects,  on  the  subject  of  Scottish  music.  He 
^vras  greatly  assisted  by  O.  Farquhar  Graham, 
who  not  only  translated  the  MS.  from  Lute 
Tablature,  but  contributed  much  musical  and 
other  information.    (See  Skske  Manuscript.) 

From  some  anecdotes  told  of  Charles  II.  he 
seems  to  have  had  a  great  liking  for  Scottish 
music,  and  certainly  from  the  Restoration  it 
l)ecame  popular  in  England.  This  is  shown 
by  the  almost  innumerable  imitations  of  the 
style  that  are  to  be  found  in  the  various  pub- 
lications of  John  Playford.  They  are  usually 
simply  called  'Scotch  tunes,'  but  sometimes 
the  name  of  the  composer  is  given,  showing 
that  no  idea  of  strict  nationality  attached  to 
them.  In  general  they  are  worthless ;  but 
occasionally  excellent  melodies  appear  among 
them,  such  as  'She  rose  and  let  me  in,'  '  Over 
the  hills  and  far  away,'  'De'il  take  the  wars,' 
'Sawney  was  tall'  (Com  rigs),  'In  January 
last '  (Jock  of  Hazeldean),  all  of  which,  with 
many  others  of  less  note,  have  been  incorporated 
in  Scottish  Collections,  at  first  from  ignorance, 
afterwards  from  custom,  and  without  further 
inquiry.  There  are  however  many  tunes,  not 
to  be  confounded  with  these,  which  two  or 
even  three  centuries  ago  were  common  to  the 
northern  counties  of  England  and  the  adjoining 
counties  of  Scotland,  the  exact  birthplace  of 
whieh  will  never  be  satisfactorily  determined  ; 
for  of  course  the  first  record  in  print  does  not 
necessarily  decide  the  parentage  of  a  tune. 

Among  these^though  rather  on  account  of 
the  words  than  the  music — may  be  classed  the 
famous  song  'Tak  your  auld  cloak  about  ye,' 
which  having  been  found  in  Bishop  Percy's 
ancient  MS.  has  been  claimed  as  entirely 
English.  The  Rev.  J.  W.  Ebsworth,  a  very 
hi^  authority,  believes  it  to  be  llie  common 
property  of  the  Border  counties  of  both  nations. 
Probably  it  is  so  ;  yet  it  seems  strange  that  so 
excellent  a  ballad,  if  ever  popularly  known  in 
England,  should  have  so  utterly  disappeared 
from  that  country  as  not  to  be  even  mentioned 
in  any  English  work,  or  by  any  English  author 
with  the  exception  of  Shakespeare,  who  has 
quoted  one  stanza  of  it  in  Othello,  Not  a  line 
of  it  is  to  be  found  in  the  numerous  '  Drolleries ' 
of  the  Restoration,  in  the  publications  of  Play- 
ford  and  D'Urfey,  or  in  the  *  Merry  Musicians ' 
and  other  song- books  of  the  reign  of  Queen 
Anne.  Even  the  printers  whose  presses  sent 
forth  the  thousands  of  blackletter  ballads  that 
fill  the  Roxburgh,  Pepys,  Bagford  and  other 
collections,  ignore  it  entirely.  Allan  Ramsay, 
in  1728,  was  the  first  to  print  it,  nearly  forty 
years  before  Bishop  Percy  gave  his  version  to 
the  world,  confessing  to  have  corrected  his  own 


by  copies  received  from  Scotland.  The  question 
naturally  arises,  where  did  Allan  Ramsay  get 
his  copy  of  the  ballad,  if  not  from  the  singing 
of  the  people  t  Certainly  not  from  England, 
for  there  it  was  then  unknown. 

The  half  century  after  the  Revolution  was  a 
busy  on6  both  with  Jacobite  poetry  and  music  ; 
in  regard  to  the  music,  little,  if  any  of  it,  was 
new,  for  the  writers  of  the  words  had  the 
wisdom  to  adapt  their  verses  to  melodies  that 
every  one  knew  and  could  sing.  Thus  many 
old  favourite  tunes  got  new  names,  while  others 
equally  old  have  perhaps  been  saved  to  us  by 
their  Jacobite  words,  their  early  names  being 
entirely  lost.  The  story  of  the  battle  of 
Killiecrankie  (1689)  is  one  of  the  earliest  of 
these  songs,  and  enjoys  the  distinction  of 
having  a  Latin  translation,  beginning 

Grahamfus  notabilis  coegerat  Montanos 
Qui  clypeis  et  gladlis  ftiganint  Angllcanos, 
Fngeiant  Vallicolae  atque  Puritan! 
Cacavere  Batavi  et  CaineroDiani. 

It  is  sung  to  a  Gaelic  tune  of  its  own  name,  so 
quickly  and  so  widely  spread  as  to  be  found  in 
a  Northumbrian  MS.  of  1694,  as  the  Irish 
Gillicranky.  It  is  a  stirring  bagpipe  tune,  no 
doubt  older  than  the  words. 

A  still  more  celebrated  air,  now  known  as 
'Scots  wha  hae,'  received  its  name  of  'Hey 
tuti  taiti'  from  a  stanza  of  a  song  of  1716  (?), 
'  Here's  to  the  king,  sir  ;  Ye  ken  wha  I  mean, 
sir.'  The  stanza  is  worth  quoting,  and  would 
be  yet  more  so  could  it  tell  us  the  still  earlier 
name  of  the  tune,  a  subject  which  has  caused 
much  discussion. 

When  yon  hear  the  trumpet  soun' 
Tuti  taiti  to  the  drum, 
Up  Bword.  and  down  gun, 

And  to  the  loons  again. 

The  words  'Tuti  taiti'  are  evidently  only  an 
attempted  imitation  of  the  trumpet  notes,  and 
not  the  name  of  the  air.  To  suppose  that  the 
tune  itself  was  played  on  the  trumpet  as  a 
battle-call  is  too  absurd  for  consideration.  As 
the  air  has  a  good  deal  in  common  with  '  My 
dearie,  an  thou  dee,'  there  seems  considerable 
probability  that  it  was  another  version  of  the 
same,  or  that  the  one  gave  rise  to  the  other,  a 
thing  likely  enough  to  happen  in  days  when 
there  being  no  books  to  refer  to,  one  singer  took 
his  tune  as  he  best  could  from  his  neighbour. 

'When  the  king  comes  owre  the  water' — 
otherwise  'Boyne  water' — is  a  good  example 
of  change  of  name  ;  the  air  was  discovered  in  a 
MS.  of  1694,  where  it  is  called  '  Playing  amang 
the  rashes,'  a  line  of  an  old  Scottish  song  re- 
covered by  Allan  Ramsay,  and  printed  in  his 
Tea-Table  Afiseellany,  1 724 — a  fact  which  seems 
somewhat  to  invalidate  the  Irish  claim  to  the 
tune.  The  Jacobite  words  are  said  to  have  been 
written  by  Lady  Keith  Marischall,  mother  of 
the  celebrated  Marshal  Keith,  a  favourite  general 
of  Frederick  the  Great. 


396 


SCOTTISH  MUSIC 


SCOTTISH  MUSIC 


When  the  king  comes  owre  the  tocUer. 
(Playing  amang  the  rashes.) 
From  W.  Graham's  Flute  Book  (MS.  1604). 


^§^^^^' 


i^^j^fes^^^ 


The  old  air,  already  mentioned,  *  My  dearie, 
an  thou  dee,'  may  be  pointed  out  as  the  tune 
of  an  excellent  Jacobite  song  *Awa,  Whigs, 
awa,^  and  of  another — the  name  of  which  is  all 
that  has  come  down  to  us — '  We're  a'  Mar's 
men,'  evidently  alluding  to  the  Earl  of  Mar, 
generalissimo  of  James's  forces  in  Scotland  in 
1715. 

Another  of  the  songs  of  1715,  *Tlie  piper  o' 
Dundee,'  gives  the  names  of  a  number  of  tunes 
supposed  to  be  played  by  the  piper — Carnegie 
of  Finhaven — to  stir  up  the  chiefs  and  their 
clans  to  join  the  Earl  of  Mar. 

He  play'd  the  '  Welcome  o'er  the  main,' 
And  '  Ye'se  be  fou  and  I^e  be  fain,' 
And  '  Anld  Stuarts  back  again,' 

Wi'  meikle  mirth  and  glee. 
He  play'd  •  The  Kirk,"  he  play'd  '  The  Quier,'  [choir] 
•  The  Mullin  dhu '  and  '  Chevalier," 
And  '  Ijang  away  but  welcome  here,' 

Sae  sweet,  sae  bonnilie. 

Notwithstanding  the  diligence  of  collectors  and 
annotators  some  of  these  songs  and  tunes  have 
eluded  recognition,  chiefly  because  of  a  habit 
of  those  times  to  name  a  tune  by  any  line  of  a 
song — not  necessarily  tlie  first — or  by  some 
casual  phrase  or  allusion  that  occurred  in  it. 

Other  noted  songs  of  this  date  are  '  Carle  an 
the  King  come ' ;  *  To  daunton  me ' ;  *  Little 
wat  ye  wha's  comin,'  the  muster-roll  of  the 
clans  ;  *  Will  ye  go  to  Sheriffmuir ' ;  and  *  Ken- 
mure's  on  and  awa.' 

A  striking  phase  of  Jacobite  song  was  un- 
sparing  abuse  of  the  House  of  Hanover ;  good 
specimens  of  it  are  *The  wee  wee  (German 
lairdie,'  *  The  sow's  tail  to  Geordie,*  and,  above 


all,  *  Cumberland's  descent  into  hell,'  which  is 
so  ludicrous  and  yet  so  horrible  that  the  rising 
laugh  is  checked  by  a  shudder.  This,  however, 
belongs  to  the  '45,  the  second  rising  of  the 
clans.  Of  the  same  date  is  'Johnie  Cope,' 
])erhap6  the  best  known  of  all  the  songs  on  the 
subject.  It  is  said  to  have  been  written 
immediately  after  the  battle  of  Prestonpans, 
by  Adam  Skirving,  the  father  of  a  Scottish 
artist  of  some  reputation.  No  song  perhaps 
has  so  many  versions ;  Hogg  says  it  was  the 
boast  of  some  rustic  singer  that  he  knew  and 
could  sing  all  its  nineteen  variations.  Whether 
it  was  really  Skirving's  or  not,  he  certainly 
did  write  a  rhyming  account  of  the  battle,  in 
fifteen  double  stanzas  relating  the  incidents  of 
the  fight — who  fled  and  who  stayed — winding 
up  with  his  own  experiences. 

That  afternoon  when  a'  was  done 

I  gaed  to  see  the  Any,  man, 
But  had  I  wist  what  after  past, 

I'd  better  staid  away,  man  ; 
On  Seton  sands,  wi'  nimble  hands. 

They  pick'd  my  pockets  bare,  man  ; 
But  I  wish  ne'er  to  drie  sic  fear, 

For  a'  the  sum  and  mair,  man. 

Few  of  these  old  songs  are  now^  generally 
known ;  the  so-called  Jacobite  songs,  the 
favourites  of  our  time,  being  almost  entirely 
modem.  Lady  Naime,  James  Hogg,  Allan 
j  Cunningham,  Sir  Walter  Scott,  may  be  named 
as  the  authors  of  the  greater  portion  of  them. 
In  most  cases  the  tunes  also  are  modern. 
'  Bonnie  Prince  Charlie '  and  *  The  lament  of 
Flora  Macdonald'  are  both  compositions  of 
Niel  Gow,  the  grandson  of  old  Niel  the  famous 
reel-player — *He's  owre  the  hills  that  I  loe 
weel,'  *Come  o'er  the  stream,  Charlie,'  'The 
bonnets  of  bonnie  Dundee '  (Claverhouse),  are 
all  of  recent  origin ;  even  *  Charlie  is  my 
darling' — words  and  music — is  a  modem 
ri/aciTnento  of  the  old  song.  One  exception  to 
this  .ought  to  be  noted ;  the  tune  now  known 
as  *Wae'8  me  for  Prince  Charlie'  is  really 
ancient.  In  the  Skene  MS.  (1635)  it  is  called 
*  Lady  Cassilis'  Lilt '  (see  article  Lochaber  no 
more)  ;  it  is  also  kno\5ni  as  *  Johnny  Faa '  and 
'The  Gypsy  Laddie,'  all  three  names  connected 
with  what  is  believed  to  be  a  malicious  ballad 
written  against  an  exemplary  wife  in  order  to 


Charlie  w  my  darling.     The  Old  Air. 


SCOTTISH  MUSIC 


SCOTTISH  MUSIC 


397 


annoy  her  Covenanting  husband,  the  Earl  of 
Cassillis,  who  was  unpopular.  [It  is  especially 
interesting  to  trace  the  course  of  the  story 
of  Lady  Cassillis'  flight  with  a  gipsy  as  it 
appears  in  the  English  ballad,  '  The  Wraggle- 
Taggle  Gipsies  oh ! '  and  elsewhere.  The  story 
may  have  suggested  Browning's  Flight  of  the 
Duchess.] 

Those  who  wish  to  know  more  of  these  relics  of 
an  enthusiastic  time  will  find  in  the  volumes  of 
James  Hogg  and  Dr.  Charles  Mackay  all  that 
is  worthy  of  being  remembered  of  this  episode 
of  Scottish  song. 

Of  the  Scottish  Scales. 
The  existence  of  Scottish  airs  constructed  on 
the  series  1,  2,  3,  5,  6  of  a  major  diatonic  scale 
is  well  known  and  has  been  already  alluded  to. 
Whether  this  pentatonic  series  was  acquired 
through  the  use  of  a  defective  instrument,  or 
from  the  melodic  taste  of  singer  or  player,  must 
remain  mere  matter  of  conjecture.  The  style 
itself  may  be  accepted  as  undoubtedly  ancient, 
whatever  uncertainty  there  may  be  as  to  the 
exact  age  of  the  airs  constructed  on  it.  These 
are  not  by  any  means  numerous,  though  their 
characteristic  leap  between  the  third  and  fifth, 
and  sixth  and  eighth  of  the  scale,  is  so  common 
in  Scottish  melody,  that  many  persons  not  only 
believe  the  greater  part  of  our  airs  to  be  penta- 
tonic, but  do  not  admit  any  others  to  be  Scottish. 
However,  the  taste  for  this  style  may  have  arisen, 
the  series  of  notes  was  a  very  convenient  one  ; 
for  an  instrument  possessing  the  major  diatonic 
scale  in  one  key  only,  could  play  these  airs 
correctly  in  the  three  positions  of  the  scale  where 
major  thirds  are  found,  that  is,  on  the  first, 
fourth,  and  fifth  degrees.  In  the  key  of  C,  these 
are  as  shown  below,  adding  the  octave  to  the 
lowest  note  of  the  series  in  each  case. 

Pentatonic  scale  in  three  positional  xntlunU  change 
of  signature. 

1    S3    5    «        9  I     t    S     6    6 


S66^       ISSSsil 


If,  reversing  the  order  of  the  notes  given 
above,  we  begin  with  the  sixth,  and  passing 
downwards  add  the  octave  below,  the  feeling  of 
a  minor  key  is  established,  and  keys  of  A,  D, 
and  E  minor  seem  to  be  produced.  Besides 
tunes  in  these  six  keys,  a  few  others  will  be 
found,  which  begin  and  end  in  G  minor  (signature 
t^vo  flats),  though  also  played  with  natural  notes ; 
for  B  and  E  being  avoided  in  the  melody  neither 
of  the  flata  is  required. 

A  curious  peculiarity  of  tunes  written  in  this 
series  is,  that  from  the  proximity  of  the  second 
and  third  positions  phrases  move  up  and  down 
from  one  into  the  other,  thus  appearing  to  be 
alternately  in  the  adjoining  keys  a  full  tone 
apart,  moving  for  example  from  G  into  F  and 
vice  versa.  The  following  are  good  examples 
of  the  style  : — 


(1)  Gala  Water. 


(2)   Were  na  my  heart  lieht  I  tpod  die. 


^^^^^^Pg^ 


(3)  The  bridegroom  grot. 


^^'^^'^^^^^^^g^-g^ 


When  th«  sheep  ue  in  the  fauld  t  the     kye     at    hazne.  And 


^^^^S^^^ 


a'     the  warld  to      sleep  are  gi.ne,The  wms </my  heart  ftt' In 


show'rs  frae  my  e'e.  While  my  gadenutn  lies  mund  hj  mei 


The  first,  'Gala  Water,'  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  of  our  melodies.  The  modem  version 
of  it  contains  the  seventh  of  the  scale  more  than 
once,  but  Oswald  has  preserved  the  old  penta- 
tonic version  in  his  Caledonian  Pocket  Companion 
(1759-66).  That  version  is  here  given  in  the 
large  type,  the  small  type  showing  the  modern 
alterations.  The  air  may  be  played  correctly 
beginning  on  E,  on  A,  or  on  B,  representing  the 
thii-d  of  the  keys  of  C,  F,  and  G  ;  but  neither  flat 
nor  sharp  is  required  in  any  of  the  positions,  the 
notes  being  all  natural  throughout. 

The  second  is  the  melody  to  which  Lady  Grizel 
Baillie  wTote  (1692)  her  beautiful  ballad,  ♦  Were 
na  my  heart  licht,  I  wad  die.*  It  is  a  very 
simple,  unpretending  tune,  and  is  given  chiefly 
on  account  of  its  close  ;  indeed,  both  of  these 
tunes  are  peculiar,  and  worth  more  detailed 
discussion  than  can  be  given  them  here. 

The  third  is  the  old  tune  which  was  so  great 
a  favourite  with  Lady  Anne  Lyndsay  that  she 
wrote  for  it  her  celebrated  ballad  *  Auld  Robin 
Gray.'  Although  it  has  been  superseded  by  a 
very  beautiful  modem  English  air,  it  ought  not 
to  be  entirely  forgotten. 

Another  exceedingly  beautiful  pentatonic 
melody  is  that  to  which  Burns  wrote  '  0  meikle 
thinks  my  love  o'  my  beauty.  *  It  will  be  found  in 
E  minor  in  the  *  Select  Songs  of  Scotland, '  by  Sir 
G.  A.  Macfarren  ;  but  it  may  also  be  played  in 
D  minor  and  A  minor,  in  each  case  without 


398 


SCOTTISH  MUSIC 


SCOTTISH  MUSIC 


either  flat    or    sharp   being   required   in    the 
melody. 

The  use  of  the  imperfect  pentatonic  scale  in 
our  early  music  must  gradually  have  ceased, 
through  acquaintance  with  the  music  of  the 
church  service,  which  had  its  singularly  complete 
diatonic  system  of  modes.  The  complete  diatonic 
scale,  which  we  find  in  the  simple  Shepherd's 
Pipe  or  Recorder,  is  really  that  on  which  our 
older  melodies  are  formed.  The  pitch  note 
might  be  D  or  G,  or  any  other,  but  the  scale 
would  be  the  ordinary  major  diatonic  with  the 
semitones  between  the  3rd  and  4th  and  7th 
and  8  th  degrees.  The  key  of  C  is  that  adopted 
in  the  following  remarks.  With  scarcely  an 
exception  the  old  tunes  keep  steadily  to  this 
scale  without  the  use  of  any  accidental.  It  will 
also  be  seen  that  the  pathos  produced  by  means 
of  the  4th  of  the  key,  is  a  clever  adaptation  of 
a  necessity  of  the  scale.  *  The  Flowers  of  tlie 
Forest ' — fortunately  preserved  in  the  Skene  MS. 
— ^is  a  fine  example  of  the  skill  with  which  the 
unskilled  composer  used  the  meagre  means  at 
his  disposal.  The  first  strain  of  the  air  is  in 
G  major,  as  will  be  seen  if  it  be  harmonised, 
though  no  F  sharp  was  possible  on  the  instru- 
ment ;  in  the  second  strain,  no  more  affecting 
wail  for  the  disaster  of  Flodden  could  have  been 
produced  than  that  effected  by  the  use  of  the 
Ft],  the  4th  of  the  scale  of  the  instmment,  the 
minor  7th  of  the  original  key.  With  his  simple 
pipe  the  composer  has  thus  given  the  effect  of 
two  keys. 

J%e  Flowers  of  the  Forest.     Ancient  Version. 


It  may  be  objected  that  the  voice  was  not 
tied  down  to  the  notes  of  an  imperfect  instru- 
ment, and  could  take  semitones  wherever  it 
felt  them  to  be  wanted  ;  [but  in  the  process  of 
transmission  the  untutored  singers,  happily 
ignorant  of  musical  science,  adhere  rigidly  to 
the  original  forms  of  the  scales  in  which  they 
sing.] 

The  same  effect  of  playing  in  two  keys  occurs 
in  *  O  waly  waly  1  love  is  bonnie,  a  little  while 
when  it  is  new,'  but  in  most  modem  versions  of 
the  melody  both  the  Ft]  and  Ftf  are  found  ;  this 
was  not  possible  on  the  primitive  instrument, 
though  easy  on  the  lute  or  violin. 

0  waly  wcUy* 


l^gSg'-^igf^ii^ 


g3i^^^^ 


Any  air  which  has  the  natural  as  well  ss  the 
altered  note  may  be  set  down  as  either  modeni, 
or  as  having  been  tampered  with  in  modem 
times.  The  major  seventh  in  a  minor  key  is 
also  a  fairly  good  sign  of  modem  writing  or 
modern  meddling.  In  a  tune  written  otherwise 
in  the  old  tonality,  the  oocurrenoe  of  the  major 
seventh  sounds  weak  and  effeminate  when  com- 
pared with  the  robust  grandeur  of  the  fall  tone 
below. 

A  few  more  examples  may  be  given  to  show 
the  mingling  of  the  pentatonic  with  the  com- 
pleted scale.  '  Adieu  Dundee ' — also  found  in 
the  Skene  MS. — is  an  example  of  a  tune  written 
as  if  in  the  natural  key,  and  yet  really  in  the 
Dorian  mode. 

Adew  Dundee, 


Another  example  is  *  The  wauking  of  the  fauld,' 
which,  played  in  the  same  key,  has  the  same 
peculiarity  in  the  13th  bar;  this,  however,  is 
the  case  only  in  modern  versions  of  the  air,  for 
that  given  by  Allan  Ramsay  in  the  Gentle 
Shepherd  (1736)  is  without  the  E. 

Of  thb  Gaelic  Music. 

If  the  difficulty  of  estimating  the  age  of  the 
music  of  the  Lowlands  is  great,  it  is  as  nothing 
compared  to  what  is  met  with  in  considering 
that  of  the  Highlands. 

The  Celts  certainly  had  music  even  in  the 
most  remote  ages,  but  as  their  airs  had  been 
handed  down  for  so  many  generations  solely 
by  tradition,  it  may  be  doubted  whether  this 
music  bore  any  striking  resemblance  to  the  sin 
collected  between  1760  and  1780  by  the  Rev. 
Patrick  Macdonald  and  his  brother.  The  speci- 
mens given  of  the  most  ancient  music  are 
interesting  mainly  in  so  far  as  they  show  the 
kind  of  recitative  to  which  ancient  poems  were 
chanted,  for  they  have  little  claim  to  notice  as 
melodies.  The  example  here  given  is  said  to 
be  '  Ossian's  soliloquy  on  the  death  of  all  his 
oontemporary  heroes.' 


There  are,  however,  many  beautiful  airs  in 
the   collection ;    they  are    simple,    wild,  aod 


SCOTTISH  MUSIC 


SCOTTISH  MUSIC 


399 


irregular  ;  but  their  beauty  has  not  a  very  wide 
appeal  on  a  first  hearing.  Of  the  style  of  per- 
formanoe  the  editor  says : — 

TImm  ain  are  sung  by  the  natives  in  a  wild,  artlees 
and  irregular  manner.  Chiefly  occapied  with  the  senti- 
ment and  expression  of  the  music,  they  dwell  upon  the 
long  and  pathetic  notes,  while  they  hurry  over  the  in- 
ferior and  connecting  notes,  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
render  it  exceedingly  difficult  for  a  hearer  to  trace  the 
» of  them.  They  themselves  while  singing  them 
i  to  have  little  or  no  impression  of  measure. 

This  la  more  particularly  the  case  with  the  very 
old  melodies,  which  wander  about  without  any 
attempt  at  rhythm,  or  making  one  part  answer 
to  another.  The  following  air  is  an  excellent 
ejuonple  of  the  style : — 

ffel  is  the  nigfU  and  cold. 


In  contrast  to  these  are  the  Lvinig  and 
JoEBAM  (see  these  articles),  the  former  sung  by 
the  women  at  their  work,  the  latter  boat-songs. 

Patrick  Maodonald  says  '  the  very  simplicity 
of  the  music  ia  a  pledge  of  its  originality  and 
antiqnity. '  Judged  by  this  criticism  his  versions 
of  the  airs  seem  much  more  authentic  than  those 
of  his  successors.  Captain  Fraser  of  Knockie, 
who  published  a  very  large  and  important 
collection  of  Highland  airs  in  1816,  took  much 
pains,  in  coi^unction  with  a  musical  friend,  to 
form  what  he  terms  a  'standard.'  As  he  had 
DO  taste  for  the  old  ton^ity,  he  introduces  the 
major  seventh  in  minor  keys,  and  his  versions 
generally  abound  in  semitones.  He  professed  a 
liking  for  simplicity,  and  is  not  sparing  of  his 
abase  of  MacGibbon  and  Oswald  for  their  de- 
partures from  it ;  yet  his  own  turns  and  shakes 
and  florid  passages  prove  that  he  did  not  carry 
his  theory  into  practice.  As,  however,  a  large 
portion  of  his  volume  is  occupied  with  tunes 
composed  during  the  latter  port  of  the  18th  and 
the  beginning  of  the  19th  century,  in  these  it 
wonld  be  affectation  to  expect  any  other  than  the 
modem  tonality.  A  specimen  of  what  he  calls 
an  ancient  Ossianic  air  is  given  as  a  contrast  to 
that  selected  from  Patrick  Maodonald.  In  style 
it  evidently  belongs  to  a  date  nearer  to  the  times 
of  MacPherson  than  to  those  of  Ossian.  (Com- 
pare last  example,  p.  8986,  with  the  first  on 
next  column.) 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  though  by  his  altera- 
tions of  the  forms  of  Gaelic  melody  Fraser  may 
have  rendered  them  more  acceptable  to  modem 
ears,  he  has  undoubtedly  shom  the  received 
verrions  of  much  of  their  claim  to  antiquity. 
The  volume  published  by  the  Gaelic  Society  of 


An  air  to  which  Ossiam.  ia  recited. 


m^^^^m 


^^^^^^ 


London  in  1876,  though  not  faultless  in  regard 
to  modem  changes,  has  restored  some  of  the  old 
readings  ;  one  example  ought  to  be  quoted,  for 
the  air  '  Mairi  bhan  og '  is  very  beautiful,  and 
the  Ft;  in  the  fourth  bar  gives  us  back  the 
simplicity  and  force  of  ancient  times. 

Mairi  bhan  og,     (Mary  fair  and  young.) 


Captain  Fraser  stigmatises  the  previous  col- 
lections of  Patrick  Maodonald  and  Alexander 
Campbell  {Alhyii's  Anthology)  as  very  incorrect. 
But  Fraser's  own  versions  have  in  many  cases 
been  much  altered  in  the  second  edition  (1876), 
while  more  recent  works  differ  most  remarkably 
from  earlier  copies.  The  airs  are  evidently  still 
in  a  plastic  state,  every  glen,  almost  every  family 
seems  to  have  its  own  version. 

There  has  been  a  good  deal  of  controversy  in 
former  times  about  Highland  and  Lowland, 
Irish  and  Gaelic  claims  to  certain  melodies: 
most  of  the  former  seem  pretty  well  settled, 
but  both  Irish  and  Scot  still  hold  to  Lochaber, 
and  to  Eileen  Arook  or  Robin  Adair  (see 
those  articles). 

It  is  evident  from  the  examples  given  by 
Patrick  Maodonald  that  in  the  most  ancient 
times  Gaelic  music  was  devoid  of  rhythm.  The 
Ossianic  chants  are  short  and  wild.  They  are 
succeeded  by  longer  musical  phrases,  well  suited 
it  may  be  to  heighten  the  effect  of  the  Gaelic 
verse,  but,  apart  from  that,  formless  to  a  modem 
ear.  From  these  emerge  airs  still  wild  and 
irregular,  but  with  a  certain  sublimity  arising 
from  their  very  vagueness.  Even  when  they 
become'  more  rhythmic,  the  airs  do  not  at  once 
settle  down  into  phrases  of  twos  and  fours,  but 
retain  on  easy  indifference  to  regularity  ;  two 
alternating  with  three,  four  with  five  bars,  and 
this  in  so  charming  a  way  that  the  ease  and 


400 


SCOTTISH  MUSIC 


SCOTTISH  MUSIC 


singularity  are  alone  appai'ent.  The  air  'Morag' 
may  be  quoted  ;  other  examples  may  be  found 
in  Alhyns  Anthology^  1816-18,  and  in  'Grain 
na  h-Albain/  an  excellent  collection  of  Gaelic 
airs  made  by  Miss  Bell  and  edited  by  Finlay 
Dun.  J.  M.  w. 

George  Thomson  employed  Pleyel,  Kozeluch, 
Haydn,  Beethoven,  Weber,  and  Hummel  to 
harmonise  and  supply  symphonies  to  the 
Scottish  songs  which  comprised  his  published 
collections.  The  choice  in  all  these  instances 
was  not  yery  good.  Beethoven  appears  to  have 
been  under  the  impression  that  the  *  Scotch 
snap '  was  characteristic  of  all  Scottish  music, 
whereas,  really,  it  only  naturally  belongs  to  the 
strathspey,  the  reel,  and  the  Highland  fling. 
Haydn,  who  seems  truly  to  have  had  a  liking 
for,  and  some  knowledge  of,  Scottish  vocal 
music,  was  certainly  better  fitted  for  the  task  ; 
he  also  arranged  the  two  volumes  of  Scottish 
songs  issued  by  Whyte  in  1806-7. 

Sir  G.  A.  Macfarren's  collection  has  already 
been  spoken  of,  and  an  e;xcellent  set  of  twelve 
Scottish  songs  arranged  by  Max  Bruch  was  pub- 
lished by  Leuckart  of  Breslau.  *  Songs  of  the 
North,'  with  the  music  arranged  by  Malcolm 
Lawson,  had  a  great  popularity,  but  many  of 
the  airs  suffered  a  good  deal  in  transmission, 
and  several  of  them  are  to  be  found  in  a  purer 
form  in  Macleod's  *  Songs  of  a  Highland  Home.' 

The  virulent  attack  made  by  the  late  Mr. 
William  Chappell  on  the  claims  advanced  for 
the  Scottish  origin  of  certain  airs  cannot  in 
every  case  be  considered  justifiable.  There  is 
much  truth  in  what  he  advances,  {.e.  that  a 
number  of  Anglo-Scottish  Songs  of  the  1 7th  and 
18th  centuries  have  been  too  readily  claimed  as 
Scottish  folk-songs,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they 
have  been  sufficiently  well  ascertained  to  be  the 
composition  of  well-known  English  musicians. 
See  Ohappell's  Popular  MtisiCf  old  edition, 
pp.  609-616,  etc. 

It  is,  however,  quite  evident  that  Chappell's 
irritation  has,  on  some  points,  led  him  astray  ; 
for  some  of  his  statements  can  be  proved  to  be 
wrong  ;  those  for  instance  regarding  '  Jenny's 
Bawbee,'  *Gin  a  body,'  and  *Ye  lianks  and 
Braes'  {q.v.)^  and  some  others.  That  Sten- 
HOUSE,  up  to  Chappell's  time  the  chief  writer 
on  the  history  of  Scottish  Song,  makes  many 
lamentably  incorrect  assertions  in  his  commentary 
on  Johnson's  Scots  Musical  Museum^  cannot  be 
denied,  but  that  he  did  so  wilfully  is  quite  un- 
likely. It  must  be  remembered  that  Stonhouse 
was  handicapped  by  being  four  hundred  miles 
from  the  British  Museum  Library,  a  storehouse 
which  supplied  Chappell  so  well,  and  besides, 
Stenhouse's  work  was  a  pioneer,  for  his  notes 
were  begun  in  1817.  The  late  Mr.  John  Glen 
in  his  Early  Scottish  Melodies  has  much  to  say 
regarding  Chappell's  attack. 

The  question  as  to  the  antiquity  of  much  of 
Scotland's  national   music  is  still  undecided. 


The  dates  of  manuscripts  and  of  printed  book>. 
wherein  such  music  first  appears,  are  not  a  very 
trustworthy  guide,  for  it  is  quite  obvious  that 
tradition  has  carried  much  of  it  over  a  consider- 
able stretch  of  time,  and  also  that  music  was 
built  upon  the  modes,  which  remained  in  popular 
use  for  a  long  period  after  their  abandonment  in 
cultivated  music.  The  existing  manuscripts, 
none  of  which  are  prior  to  the  17th  oentnrr. 
show  that  music-lovers  of  the  day  were  well 
acquainted  with  English  and  Continental  work  ; 
and  although  there  cannot  be  the  slightest 
doubt  that  the  common  people  played  and  s&ng 
purely  national  music,  yet  this  was  never  written 
down  until  late  times.  Of  the  country  song« 
mentioned  in  *  The  Complaint  of  Scotland '  and 
other  early  works  only  few  are  to  be  recognised 
and  identified  with  existing  copies. 

Another  class  of  music  which  now  constitutes 
part  of  the  national  music  of  Scotland  was  the- 
compositions  of  professional  or  semi-professional 
musicians.  As  the  fiddle  is  the  national  instru- 
ment of  Scotland,  so  the  reel  and  the  strathspey 
reel  are  the  national  dances.  A  great  number 
of  country  musicians,  particularly  in  thenorthem 
part  of  Scotland,  composed  and  played  these 
dance  tunes  for  local  requirements.  These  they 
named  either  after  some  patron  or  gave  them  a 
fanciful  title.  In  many  instances,  by  the  aid 
of  subscription,  the  musician  was  enabled  to 
publish  one,  or  a  series  of  his  compositions, 
and  so  favourite  dance  tunes  from  these  vork^ 
were  frequently  reprinted  and  rearranged  by 
other  musicians. 

Isaac  Cooper  of  Banff,  Daniel  Dow,  William 
Marshall,  and  many  other  lesser-known  com- 
posers, along  with  the  Gow  family,  have  thus 
enriched  Scottish  music.  We  mustalso  remember 
that  where  one  of  this  type  of  musicians  h&<» 
succeeded  in  getting  his  compositions  into  print, 
there  may  be  many  whose  tunes  have  passed 
into  local  tradition  namelessly,  so  far  ascomposer 
is  concerned.  While  there  are  a  great  many 
beautiful  and  purely  vocal  airs,  yet  these  instru- 
mental melodies  have  largely  been  used  by  song- 
writers in  spite  of  their  great  compass ;  ihi> 
is  one  of  the  factors  which  makes  Scottish 
song  80  difficult  of  execution  to  the  average 
singer.  *Miss  Admiral  Gordon's  Strathspey.' 
'Miss  Forbes'  Farewell  to  Banff,'  *  Earl  Moiris 
welcome  to  Scotland,'  with  others,  are  well- 
known  examples,  and  have  been  selected  by 
Bums  and  other  song-writers  for  their  verses. 
Another  notable  one  is  '  Caller  Herring,'  which, 
composed  by  Nathaniel  Gow  aa  a  harpsichord 
piece  (one  of  a  series)  intended  to  illustrate  & 
popular  Edinburgh  Cry,  had  its  words  fitted 
twenty  years  afterwards  by  Lady  Naime. 

In  the  *  twenties '  and  the  '  thirties '  many 
now  well-known  songs  in  the  Scottish  vernacular 
had  their  birth,  possibly  owing  to  the  Waverley 
Novels.  Allan  Ramsay  was  the  first  to  collect 
the  Scots  Songs  into  book  form  from  traditioD, 


SCOTTISH  MUSIC 


SCOTTISH  MUSIC 


401 


and  from  printed  ballad  sheets  and  garlands. 
His  first  volume  of  The  Te€h  Table  Miscellany 
was  issued  in  1724,  three  others  following  later. 
It  is  rather  unfortunate,  from  an  antiquarian 
point  of  view,  that  Ramsay  and  his  friends  were 
not  content  to  leave  them  as  oollected,  but 
imparted  to  many  a  then  fashionable  artificial 
flavour,  while  boasting  in  his  dedication  of  the 
charming  simplicity  of  the  Scotch  ditties. 

In  1769  and  1776  David  Herd  rendered  a 
more  trustworthy  account  of  traditional  Soots 
Song  in  the  two  volumes  he  published  ;  while 
Johnson's  Scots  Musical  Museum  of  six  hundred 
songs  with  the  music,  was  the  principal  collec- 
tion of  the  18th  century. 

The  following  list  comprises  all  the  im- 
portant collections  of  Scotch  National  music, 
including  some  early  manuscripts  which  contain 
Scottish  airs. 

BIBUOORAPHT 
MAVPaoira 

c  ISD-a.  The  Bomllmn  MS.  In  late  UbUtara  on  » lix-Une  sUTe. 
90  pn.  It  helonoed  to.  and  wu  proh«bly  written  hj.  Sir 
WllUun  More  of  Rowmllan,  between  the  date*  1618  Mid 
lOaB.  It  oontaini  Mvenl  Scottish  lira,  and  ia  in  the 
UbnuT  of  the  Sdinhurgh  Uulversttr. 

r  ltZ7-S9L  The  Strklodi  MS.  In  late  tablatore  on  a  liz-line  stave. 
Oootained  Soottiah  and  other  alra.  The  original  mana- 
■erlpC  ia  now  lost,  bat  a  copy  of  a  portion  of  it  waa  made 
by  G.  F.  Graham,  and  ia  in  the  Advooatea'  Library. 
Edinborvb  (aee  Stualocb  M&K 

16 T  The  Skene  MS.    In  tablatare  ou  a  foor-Une  atave.     In 

the'AdTooatea'  Library  (aee  Skxvs  MS.). 

r.  l^TiSi.  The  Oathrie  MS.  In  tablatare.  oontaina  a  nomber  of 
SeotUah  aira  or  rather,  oa  the  late  Mr.  Glen  pointed 
out.  aooompanlmenta  for  them.  In  the  Edinbargh 
Unlverdty. 

Iffi^H  The  Blalkie  M8&  Theae  two,  in  tabUture  for  the  riol  da 
gamba.  belonged  to  Andrew  Blalkie  of  Palaley,  a  moaic- 
engrarer.  early  in  the  liMh  century.  They  bore  dates  as 
in  tiae  margin,  but  both  manuscripta  are  now  loat.  Tran* 
scrlpta  of  portlona  of  them  are  in  the  Wii^ton  Library. 


1« 1  The  Leyden  MS.     In  UbUtnre  for  the  Lrra  Viol.     It 

heknged  to  Dr.  John  Leyden  and  ia  now  loat.  A  tran> 
acrfpt  made  by  O.  F.  Oraham  ia  in  the  Advooatea'  Library. 
The  oontanta  are  much  the  aame  ae  one  of  the  Blaikle 
M8S.  and  ia  apparently  of  the  aame  date.  Another 
Leyden  MS.  la  in  the  Advooatea'  Library,  dated  1639.  but 
thto  doe*  not  appear  to  contain  Soottiah  aira. 

I7M.  Agnes  Hama'a  MS.  dated  1704.  In  the  Advocates' Ubrary, 
ordinary  notation. 

ITOi.  Mr«^  Croekat's  MS.  Referred  to  by  Stenhouae  who  once 
poaaeaaed  it ;  it  U  aaid  to  have  been  dated  1709.  bat  It  ia 
now  lost. 

ino.  Margaret  Sinkler'a  MS.  An  oblong  quarto  volume  of  aboot 
a  hundred  aira.  which  foi-merly  belonged  to  the  late  Mr. 
John  Olan.     It  bean  the  date  1710.  and  ia  in  ordinary 


I7&94.  Cumminf  MB.  A  small  volume  of  aira  for  the  violin, 
dated  I72S  on  first  leaf,  and  1724  on  last,  with  the  name 
of  ita  original  compiler,  'Patrick  Gumming.  Edinburgh.' 
It  containa  a  number  of  Scotch  aim.  up  to  ita  <Ute 
onpabliahed.    In  the  poaswsion  of  the  present  writer. 

PKnmO  AVD  BXORJITBO  C0LI.BCri05S 

Many  Soots  and  Anglo-Soottbih  airs  appear  in  Playford's 
'Dancing  Maater "^  16B0 - I79B,  and  other  of  PUyford'a 
pahlicatTons.  also  in  D'Urfey's '  Pills  to  purge  MeUncholy.' 
1498-1720.  At  later  dates  a  great  number  are  also  to  be 
found  in  the  London  country-dance  books  of  various 
publishers. 

1M2.  IMS.  14BB.  Forbes.  '  Oantus :  Songs  and  Fancies  to  three,  foure, 
or  five  parts,  both  apt  for  voices  and  viols.'  John  Forbra. 
Aboideen,  160B:  2nded.  1(186:  Srd.  16B2.  The  flnt  book 
ot  secular  music  printed  in  Scotland.  Containa  aeveral 
f*cottiah  Songs.    A  reprint  of  the  1682  ed.  was  issued  by 

Gardner  of  Plaialmr  in  1879. 

1790-1.  H.  PUyford.  *  A  ColleoUon  of  Original  Scotch  Tunes  (full  of 
the  mghland  Humours)  for  Uie  Violin.'  London,  H. 
PlaytordTlTW).  Ob.  4io. 
(A  aeeoud  edition  with  four  more  tunes  issued  with  date  of 
1701.  This  is  the  first  collection  of  Bcottiah  airs  named 
as  sodi.  There  appears  to  be  only  one  copy  of  each  in 
cziatenee.  Mr.  Inglia of  Edinburgh  holda  the  1700  edition, 
and  the  British  Museum  Library  the  aecond  edition.  The 
work  ia  printed  from  movable  type.) 

<  170M.  •  A  CoUeetion  of  Original  Scotch  Tnnea  for  the  Violin. 
the  whole  pleasant  and  oomioall.  being  faU  of  the  Highland 
Hufflonr.'  London.  John  Young. 
fThia.  and  another,  with  the  same  title  published  by  John 
Hare.  Loodea.  are  obviously  imitations  of  Playford's 
work.  The  one  DUblished  br  Young  is  in  the  library  of  an 
otUmao, 


■dinbugh  genu 
VOL.  IV 


,  and  the  other  by  Hare  is  i 


tioned  and  its  contents  noted  in  A'otM  tmd  <iiurit$.  5th 
aeries.  voL  v.  p.  iWS.) 

1736.  'Orpheus  Caledonius  or  a  CoUeetion  of  the  best  Scotch 
Songs  set  to  musick  by  W.  Thomson.'  London,  for  the 
author.  Folio,  u.d. 
(Entered  at  BUtionen'  Hall.  Jan.  6, 1785.  The  first  collection 
of  Scotch  Songs  with  their  airs.  The  book  contains  fifty 
Bougs.    See  separate  article,  vol.  iil.  p.  569.) 

e.  1726.  'Musick  for  AUan  Bamsay's  Collections  of  BcoU  Songs 
set  by  Alexander  Stuart.'    Edinburgh.    8m.  ob.  n.d. 
(This  was  intended  to  provide  the  airs  for  the  aongs  in  the 
Tta-TabU  MUeMany.    It  is  qnestionahle  whether  a  com- 
plete copy  exists.) 

1790.  Craig.  '  A  Collection  of  the  choicest  Soots  Tunes  adapted 
for  the  Harpsichord  or  Spinnet  ...  by  Adam  Cntig.' 
Edinburgh.  1730.    Ob.  folio. 

17SS.  'Orpheus  Caledonius.'  Second  editioo,  Edinburgh.  1733. 
8  vols.  8vo.    poo  songs.] 

(The  first  volume  is  practically  Identical  with  the  first 
edition.  The  second  volume  is  additional  matter,  being 
fifty  more  aongs  with  the  music.) 

1740,  etc  Oswald.  James.  '  A  Curious  Collection  of  Scots  Tunes  for 
a  Violin.  Bass  viol,  or  German  fiute . . .  by  James  Oswald, 
musician  in  Edinbr.'  Ob.  folio,  e.  1740. 
(This  is.  in  all  probability,  the  first  of  the  many  volumee  of 
Scots  m  usic  issued  by  Oswald.  When  he  arri  ved  in  London 
this  work  was  re-engraved,  and  with  another  volume  pub- 
lished by  John  Simpson.) 

e.  174S.  'A  Collection  of  Curious  Soots  Tunes  for  a  Violin,  German 
flute,  or  Harpsichord.'    By  Mr.  James  Oswald.    London, 
J.  Simpson. 
'  A  Second  Collection  of  Curious  Scots  Tunes  for  a  Violin. 
etc.'  (see  above ;  both  were  advertised  in  1748). 

e.  1743-60.  Oswald,  James.  'The  Caledonian  Pocket  Companion.' 
Ixindon.  18  books,  Svo. 
(This  important  publication  of  Scottish  airs  waa;oommeiiced 
about  1748-43.  and  ultimately  reached  to  twelve  books 
about  1700.  The  first  numbers  were  published  by  J. 
Simpeon.  others  by  the  author,  and  the  whole  was  re- 
printed by  Straight  and  Skillem.) 

17 1  Oswald.     'A  Collection  of  43  Boots  Tunes  with  Variations 

...  by  James  Oswald.'    London.  Bland  and  Weller. 
(Originally  issued  at  a  much  earlier  date  tiiau  these  pub- 
lishers.) 

e.  1761-(i3.  « t-%,L]j.  >  A  Colt«;tlali  of  the  tiest  old  Ooot^li  and  English 
>,i  r  k^x  **-%  int  Uio  volor  .  .  ^  \yy  Jain^  Divjkld,  chamber 
iiiiii^h>Mir  \f\  flifl  Mujftiit;.'     Lchikdoii,  d,(1, 

[1742.]  BarM,iitL  '  A  CoLiiHll.j.11  oi  old  Ik-ots  Tiu^n ,  *Jth  a  bass  for 
\  i4.]f.ji«]iij  iif  Hhrpiilch«rd  ^  ^  .  try  Kni.r]<-bs  BaraantL' 
Edinbiirgfa..  n.d.    4Ui. 

1742.  1746;  ITSO.  M-aiMjon.    A  CoI3«stirtii  t(t  BwIji  Tunes.    Some 
with  Tirislilrpna  Jifjra  Vk-llh,  BjintlKifH  trr  Oerman  Flute 
.      fjy   fTiu.    MOHilHi^n.'    £(illibiiijili.    Oh.   folio.  174S. 
i^i=    n  if  ^^ilfvtluu ,  1  Tiia.     ThI  nl ,  1 7Hk 
Ul^l'^'Miii.nSti  reprinted  bjN.  Btevirt,  tireinut:r.nnd Ruther- 
ford.) 

e.  174S.  '  Twelve  Scotch  and  Twelve  Irish  Airs  with  variations  .  .  . 
by  Mr.  Burk  Thumoth.'    London.  J.  Simpson.    Svo. 

[1767.]  Bremner,  Robert  'Thirty  Scots  Bongs  for  a  voice  and 
harpsichord  .  .  .  the  words  by  Allan  Ramsay.'  Edinburgh, 
R.  Bremner.    Folio.  n.d. 

'  A  Second  set  of  Scots  Bongs.'    Bremner.    e.  1790. 
(These  two,  originally  published  at  Edinburgh,  were  after- 
wards reprinted  with  Bremner's  London  imprint,  and 
again  reprinted  by  Btewart  of  Edinburgh  with  a  3rd  vol. 

[1790.]  Bremner,R.  'A  Collection  of  Scots  Reels  and  Country  Dances.' 
Ob.  4to,  n.d. 
(Inued  in  numbers  1790  to  1761.) 

[1790.]   Bremner,  R.  '  A  Curious  Collection  of  Boots  Tunes.'    Edin- 
burgh. R.  Bremner.    Ob.  folio,  n.d. 
(Afterwards  reprinted  by  Ding  of  Edinburgh.) 

[1782.]  Peacock.  '  Fifty  favourite  Scotch  Airs  for  a  Violin  .  .  .  with 
a  Thoroughbass  for  the  Harpsichord.'  Francis  Peacock 
Aberdeen.     Folio.  n.d. 

[1761-02.]  Stewart.  Neil.  '  A  Cullection  of  the  newest  and  best  Reels 
and  Country  Dances.'  Edinburgh,  Neil  Stewwt.  Ob. 
4to,  n.d. 

c.  1763.  '  A  New  Cullection  of  Scots  and  English  Tunes,  adapted  to 
the  Guittar.'    Edinburgh.  N.  Btewart.    Ob.  4to. 
'  A  Collection  of  Scots  Bongs  adapted  for  a  Voice  and  Harpsi- 
chord.'   Edinburgh.  N.  Btewart.    Folio. 

1772.  M'Lean.  '  A  Collection  of  favourite  BcoU  Tunes  with  Vari- 
ations  for  the  Violin  ...  by  Cha.  M'Lcan  and  other 
eminent  masters.'    Edinburgh.  Stewart.    Ob.  folio. 

r.  1776.  '  A  Collection  of  Ancient  BcoU  Music  for  the  Violin.  Harpai- 
chord,  or  German  Flute,  never  before  printed.  Daniel 
Dow,  Edinburgh.  Ob.  folio. 
(Dow  published  about  this  time  two  other  collections  of  his 
own  composiUons.  'Thiriy-Beven  Reels'  and  'Twenty 
Minuets.') 

1780.      Cumming.  Angus.  '  A  Collection  of  Strathvpey  or  Old  High- 
land Reels  by  Angus  Cumming.'    Edinburgh-    Ob.  folki^ 
1780. 
(A  Uter  edition  U  dated  1782.) 

[1780.]  M'Glashan.  'A  Collection  of  Strathspey  Reels.' by  Alexander 
M'Olashan.    Ob.  folio. 

[1781.]   'A  Collection  of  Boots  Measures.'    Alexander  M'GU- 

shan.    Ob.  folio. 

[1786.1  '  A  Collection  of  Reels.'  Alex.  M'Glashan.  Ob.  folia 
1782.]  Aird.  James.  '  A  Selection  of  Scotch  English.  Irish,  and 
Foreign  airs  adapted  to  the  fife,  violin,  or  Germsu  flute.' 
Glasgow,  Jaa.  Aird.  6  books,  small  oblong. 
(This  series  of  books  are  important  in  the  matt«r  of  Scot- 
tish and  Irish  music.  The  first  two  were  issued  in  \79i, 
the  Srd  1788.  4th  17M,  5th  1797,  and  the  6th  early  ia 
the  I9th  century.) 
1787-180S.  Johnson,  James.  'The  BcoU  Musical  Museum.'  Bdii^ 
burgh,  James  Johnson.    6  vols.  Svo. 

2d 


402 


SCOTTISH  MUSIC 


SCRIABIN 


(ms  important  work  oondgti  mainly  of  Boots  Songi 
collected  by  Joluuon  and  hit  frlendi  from  printad  and 
other  soaroea.  Bum*  int«rMt«d  himaelf  in  th«  publica- 
tion, and  «om«  of  hi*  Mootf  were  here  Aret  tHoed  with 
mosic.  The  flmt  voL  was  publlahed  in  1787,  2nd  178B, 
8rd  1790.  4th  179S.  6th  1707.  Oth  1808.1 

Ck>w.  (The  pabllcatlona  of  the  Oow  Cunlly  have  a  strong 
beariuc  on  the  rabjeet  of  Scottish  music.  Niel  Oow  the 
father  and  Nathaniel  the  son.  composed,  arranged,  and 
adapted  a  great  deal  of  what  now  constitutes  Scottish 
National  music  Their  sheet  publications  are  innumer- 
able, and  their  collections  of  Strathspey  reels  and  Tooal 
melodies  are  named  in  vol.  il.  at  p.  8126  of  the  present 
work.) 

Later  collections  of  Scottish  &mfM  witb  tituMc  wrfv  thwe  Ismed 
by  Wm.  Napier.  S  vols..  1790-92  :  Corrl,  3  ■oiAm.  ;:.  iTVd  ^  trbaol^A  rols. 
c.  1792. 1794. 1799. 1800, 180B ;  DaJa, ' dlxtf  F*<vunl«  l»oiitlt>h  ^rngs.' 
S  vols.  (180  songs),  e.  1794-96:  6eor{[e  ThDmscin.s  i.x)Lli<ictli:»a4,  3  798. 
etc.  (see  separate  articles):  Wh^t«.  H  mis.  lffiMI-7;  J.  ^tsam.  .'voU. 
1806-7;  K.  A- Smith.  'Scotish  Minstf*!/ B  ™1jl  JSax  Ht  ■ ;  I  Mer- 
son  and  Roy. '  Vocal  Uelodles  *ii  i^vtiuvil,'  4  wnlm.  I^r  ■'-'  \  gag 
annotated  collections  of  Scotilili  titi4jiu\  fhe  ftiLh  ■  >te- 

worthy:   'Scotlah  Songs  in  tvu  Viilnmes'  IJhmtL'Ii  i94, 

8vo  (reprinted  in  1889) :  Wood'a  '  »^>nf*  i^f  HiKiOKntl.  .  F. 

Graham.  8  vols.  1848.  etc..  8vQi   'Tib«  Lyrlti  G^cl  id.' 

Cameron,  Glasgow,  2  vols.  sm.  Ufty  ISM;  '  The  B«Jp<  :  ot- 

land.'  HaroUton,  Glasgow,  folio,  1HS7 :  'The  Iteam.r  -  lor 

to  Bums,'   Chambers,  1862,  kfa:     T!i«   4ll1!«t^L^^  id,' 

Alfred  MoflBat,  Augener,  1896 ;  '  iUi  i>  £H.^«i..u  ^^i^^.',^  «»..,<  -^.en, 
1900,  8vo:  'The  Glen  Collection  of  Scottish  danoe  music,'  1891-96; 
Jchn  Glen,  2  vols,  folio.  Jacobite  Songs  are  best  represented  in  Hogg's 
'  Jacobite  Relics.'  1819-21.  2  vols.  6vo  (reprinted  in  1874) ;  Gaelic 
music  is  found  scattered  through  Gow's  publications,  and  other 
ooUectlons  of  Scottish  danoe  music,  and  elsewhere,  but  the  best 
known  gatherings  into  volume  form  are— Rev.  Peter  M'Donald's 
IHighlaud  Airs,^ folio  [17^1:  Simon  Ptaaer's  'Airs  and  Melodies, 
peculiar  to  the  Highlands  and  Islands  of  Scotland.'  1816,  folio 
(reprinted  1876):  Alexander  Campbell's  'Albyn's  Anthology,' 
1810-18.2  vals.  folio ;  'Grain  na  h-Albain,  coUeoted  by  Miss  G.  A. 
Bell.  Edinburgh,  e.  1840;  'A  Treatise  on  the  Language.  Poetry, 
and  Music  of  the  Hlfhland  Clans.'  Donald  Campbell,  Bdinbuish. 
1867,  8vo ;  '  Ancient  Orkney  Melodies,  collected  by  Col.  Balfour.' 
1886 :  '  The  Minstrelsy  of  the  SootUsh  Highlands.^  Alfred  Moflkt, 
Bayley  and  Ferguson,  Glasgow.  1907.  and  other  works. 

The  above  bibliography  represents  but  a  tithe 
of  what  might  justly  be  included  in  it  Although 
there  is  much  traditional  Scottish  music  found 
among  the  quantity  of  dance  collections  issued 
by  individual  Scottish  musicians  it  is  difficult 
to  classify  it.  Besides  the  Scottish  publications 
enumerated  above,  the  London  country-dance 
books,  from  the  early  part  of  the  18th  century 
onward,  contain  much  interesting  matter  in 
connection  with  both  Scottish  and  Irish  music. 
Walsh  and  others  issued  collections  of  Scottish 
Songs  and  Airs,  but  they  were  mainly  taken 
from  Thomson's  *  Orpheus  Caledonius.'  His 
'  Caledonian  country  dances, '  and  those  published 
by  John  Johnson  are,  however,  of  much  anti- 
quarian interest. 

The  attention  recently  paid  to  folk-song  has 
brought  forth  enough  evidence  to  show  that  the 
published  Scottish  national  music  is  but  a  small 
proportion  of  what,  even  now,  exists  in  a  tradi- 
tionary form.  Mr.  Gavin  Greig,  Miss  Lucy 
Broadwood,  and  other  workers,  have,  without 
much  search,  brought  to  light  a  wealth  of 
Gaelic  music  of  a  purely  traditional  kind.  In 
the  Lowlands  of  Scotland  folk-song  exists  as 
it  does  in  England,  and  much  of  this  lowland 
Scottish  folk-song  is  either  almost  identical 
with  that  found  in  different  parts  of  England, 
or  consists  of  variants  of  it.  There  is,  of  course, 
a  certain  proportion  which  may  be  classed  as 
purely  confined  to  Scotland.  One  of  the  first 
of  the  modem  attempts  to  tap  this  stream  of 
traditional  music  was  made  by  Dean  Christie, 
who  published  his  two  volumes  of  Traditumal 
Ball^id  Airs  in  1876  and  1881.  This  collec- 
tion of  between  three  and  four  hundred  tunes, 
noted  down  with  the  words  in  the  north  of 


Scotland,  would  have  been  much  more  valuable 
if  the  Dean  had  been  content  to  present  them 
exactly  as  noted.  Another  valuable  oontribo- 
tion  to  the  publication  of  Scottish  folk-song  ia 
Robert  Ford's  Fagab<md  Son^  of  ScoUand,  first 
and  second  series,  1899  and  1900.  In  both 
these  works  folk-song  as  known  in  England  is 
largely  present.  The  New  Spalding  Chb  of 
Aberdeen  in  1903  made  an  initial  movement 
towards  the  rescue  of  traditional  Scottish  song. 
Mr.  Gavin  Greig  (who  is  also  a  grantee  imder 
the  Carnegie  Trust  given  to  the  Universities  of 
Scotland  for  research  work)  was  commissioned 
to  collect  systematically  in  the  north-east  of 
Scotland.  Mr.  Greig's  able  paper,  Folk-Scmg 
in  Buchan,  being  part  of  the  TranMdions  of 
ths  Buchan  Field  Club,  gives  some  of  the  resulU 
of  his  labours.  The  Scottish  National  Song 
Society,  recently  founded,  is  also  turning  its 
attention  to  folk-song  research.  f.  k. 

SCOTTISH  ORCHESTRA,  THK  The  Scot 
tish  Orchestra  Company,  Limited,  was  formed 
in  1891  with  the  object  of  fostering  the  study 
and  love  of  orchestral  music  in  Scotland,  and 
for  the  purpose  of  organising  and  maintaining 
an  efficient  orchestra  available  for  concerts 
throughout  Scotland.  To  this  end  a  fully 
equipped  band  of  eighty  performers,  name«i 
*  The  Scottish  Orchestra,'  was  recruited  in  189-3 
under  the  leadership  of  Mr.  Maurice  Sons,  and 
conducted  by  Mr.  George  HenscheL  Its  bead- 
quarters  are  in  Glasgow  ;  and  during  the  autumn 
and  winter  season  concerts  are  given  not  only  in 
Glasgow,  but  also  in  Edinburgh  (in  thelattercity 
at  the  series  of  concerts  under  the  management 
of  Messrs.  Paterson  k  Sons),  and  less  frequently 
at  Aberdeen,  Dundee,  Dunfermline,  Paisley. 
Greenock,  and  in  many  other  towns,  by  this  tiii<.- 
combination  of  players. 

Apart  from  the  presentation  of  purely  orches- 
tral compositions  the  Scottish  orchestra  has 
frequently  been  associated  with  the  principal 
Scottish  choral  societies  in  the  production  of 
important  choral  works.  In  1895  Mr.  Henscbel 
resigned  the  post  of  conductor,  and  was  succeeded 
first  by  Herr  Wilhelm  Kes  (1895  to  1898).  and 
later  by  Herr  Wilhelm  Bruch  (1898  to  1900). 
Since  1900  the  band  has  been  conducted  by 
Dr.  Frederic  Cowen.  In  1908  Mr.  Henri 
Verbrugghen  replaced  Mr.  Sons  as  leader. 

In  the  absence  of  the  regular  conductor,  the 
Scottish  Orchestra  has  played  under  thedirection 
of  many  famous  conductors,  including  Richard 
Strauss,  Fritz  Steinbach,  Edonard  Colonne, 
Hans  Richter,  Henry  J.  Wood,  and  others, 
and  though,  in  accordance  with  the  purpose  for 
which  it  was  founded,  the  appearances  of  this 
band  are  appropriately  confined  mainly  to  the 
country  north  of  the  Tweed,  it  has  played  in 
London,  Leeds,  Newcastle,  Huddersfield,  and 
elsewhere.  R.  F.  m*e. 

SCRIABIN,  Alexander  NicHOLAEvifH. 
composer  and  pianist,  bom  in  Moscow,  Jan.  10, 


SCRIBE 


SCRIPTORES 


403 


1872  (Dec.  29,  1871  O.S).  He  received  hie 
early  education  in  the  Cadet  Corpe,  but  after- 
waids,  abandoning  the  military  career  for  music, 
lie  entered  the  Moscow  Conservatorium,  where 
he  studied  the  piano  under  Safonoy  and  gained 
a  gold  medal  in  1892.  Having  completed  his 
eourse  at  the  Conservatorium  he  went  abroad, 
and  won  eonsiderable  reputation  both  as  pianist 
and  composer  in  Pans,  Brussels,  Amsterdam, 
and  other  cities.  From  1898  to  1908  he  was 
professor  of  pianoforte  at  the  Moscow  Conserva- 
toriam,  but  since  that  time  he  has  devoted 
himself  aJmoet  exclusively  to  composition. 
Scri&bin  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  gifted 
of  the  younger  Russian  composers.  He  has  a 
distmctive  style  and  seems,  like  Chopin,  by 
whom  he  has  evidently  been  influenced,  to  be 
attracted  to  the  smaller  musical  forms.  His 
pianoforte  works  are  delicate  and  poetical ;  in 
his  larger  compositions  it  is  the  orchestration 
of  Wagner  rather  than  of  Glinka  that  he  follows 
with  considerable  effect.  Scriabin's  output  is 
not  large,  but  his  orchestral  works  include :  two 
symphonies,  E  major,  op.  26  (with  choral  finale), 
and  C  minor,  op.  29 ;  *  Reverie,*  op.  24  ; 
Pianoforte  Concerto  in  F  sharp  minor,  op.  20. 
For  pianoforte  :  three  sonatas  (opp.  6,  19, 
23) ;  Allegro  appassionato,  op.  4  ;  Concert 
allegro,  op.  18 ;  Fantasia,  op.  28  ;  Studies,  op.  8 ; 
Impromptus,  opp.  7, 10, 12, 14  ;  Mazurkas,  opp. 
Z,  25;  Preludes,  opp.  11,  18,  15,  16,  17,  22, 
27 ;  besides  nocturnes,  a  valse,  and  other  small 
pieces.  r.  k. 

SCRIBE,  EuofeNE,  the  most  prolific  of  French 
dramatists,  and  the  best  librettist  of  his  day, 
born  in  Paris,  Dec.  25, 1 79 1 .  He  lost  his  parents 
early,  and  the  well-known  advocate  Bonnet 
nrged  him  to  take  to  the  Bar ;  but  he  was 
irresistibly  drawn  to  the  stage,  and  from  his 
debet  at  twenty  at  the  Th^tre  du  Vaudeville  till 
his  death,  he  produced  for  the  different  theatres 
of  Paris  a  rapid  succession  of  pieces  which  have 
9ery«i  as  models  to  a  host  of  imitators.  He 
originated  the  comSdie-vavdevilkf  and  attained 
to  high  comedy  in  *  Une  Chaine ' ;  but  it  is  in 
opeia-comique  and  lyric  tragedy  that  he  has 
given  the  most  striking  proofs  of  his  imagination 
and  knowledge  of  the  stage.  For  half  a  century 
he  produced  on  an  average  ten  pieces  a  year, 
many,  it  is  true,  written  conjointly  with  various 
anthoTs,  but  in  these  *  mariages  d'esprit '  Scribe 
was  always  the  head  of  the  firm. 

Meyerbeer's  *  Huguenots, '  *  Robert, '  *  Prophfete,  * 
•L'fetoile  du  Kord,'  and  '  L'Africaine ' ;  Auber's 
*FraDia7olo,'  'Gustave  III.,'  *Chevalde  Bronze,' 
'  Domino  Noir,'  'Diamans  de  la  Couronne,*  and 
Verdi's  '  Y epres  Siciliennes '  are  the  most  famous 
of  his  librettos. 

Scribe  died  suddenly  in  Paris,  Feb.  21,  1861. 
He  had  been  a  member  of  the  French  Academy 
since  1836,  and  had  acquired  a  large  fortune. 
His  complete  works  have  not  been  published,  but 
there  are  several  editions  of  his  stage-pieces. 


That  of  1855  comprises  2  vols,  of  operas,  and 
3  of  operas -comiques ;  and  that  of  Calmann 
L^vy  (1874  to  1881),  6  vols.  12mo  of  ballets 
and  operas,  and  20  of  op^ras-oomiques.  A 
perusal  of  these  gives  a  high  idea  of  his  fertility 
and  resource.  o.  c. 

SCRIPTORES.  There  are  several  great 
collections  of  ancient  writers  on  musical  theory, 
both  Greek  and  Latin.  In  1652  Meibomius 
printed  a  valuable  collection  of  Greek  writers 
which  long  held  the  field.  It  is  now,  however, 
superseded  by  the  following : — 

MusiciScriptoreaOraecif  ed.C.  Janus(Teubner, 
1895),  contains,  with  elaborate  prolegomena,  the 
following  authors : 

1.  Aristotle.    '  Lod  de  Hnilce.' 

ai  PModo-Ariatotle.    'De  rebaamoilolsproblemftte.' 

3.  Eodldes.    'SectioCenonls.' 

4.  CleoDides.    Eiiraywyi}  ipftoviici^, 

B.  NicoiDsehiu  Gczmaenu*.    'ApfiOviic2>vcweipt8ioi'aExoen;it«. 
8.  Baochina.    Eiaaywyii  t^x*^  ^ovo-ikijc. 

7.  Gandentitu.  ^  'Apfioviinj  turayuyi^, 

8.  Alypiua.    "Ela-aytayif  fiova-iK^. 

9.  'ExcetptaNeapoIitana,' 

10.  'CarminmnOraeooniinReUqaiae.' 

The  De  Mimca  of  Aristides  Quintilian  is  not 
included  above,  because  it  had  been  edited 
separately  by  A.  Jahn  (Berlin,  1882).  The 
Harmonic  Elements  of  Aristoxenus  are  best 
studied  in  Maoran's  edition  (Oxford,  1902). 

The  later  Greek  writers  are  to  be  found  as 
published  by  Wallis,  either  separately  or  in  his 
Opera  Maihematim  (Oxford,  1699),  of  which 
voL  iii.  contains  Ptolemy,  Hamumica\  Porphyry, 
CommefiUary  on  Ptolemy  ;  and  Bryennius,  Har- 
monica, To  these  may  be  added  a  less  important 
anonymous  work,  De  Musica,  ed.  Bellermann 
(Berlin,  1841). 

For  Latin  authors  reference  must  first  be 
made  to  the  great  collection  of  Martin  Gerbert, 
JSeriptores  JEocleaiaMici  de  Musicaf  3  vols.,  1784 
(and  reproduced  in  facsimile  1905).  It  contains, 
the  following : — 

Vol.  I. 

1.  8.  Pambo.    'Oerontloon '  (in  Greek  and  latin). 

2.  'Monacho  qp»  nieute  sit  nnlleDduin.' 

8.  '  InatltuU  Fatram  de  modo  Psallendi '  (?  CUterdan). 
4.  a  Nioetiua  of  Trevea.    '  De  bono  Pialmodiae.' 

6.  Caasiodorua.     '  Inatitntionm  mualcae.' 
e.  S.  laidore.    '  Seutentlae  de  Muaioa.' 

7.  Aleoln.    'Jfuaica.' 

a  Avrelian.    '  Mnaica  diadplina.' 

9.  Remigiua.    'Hnaiea.' 

10.  Motkcr.    'DeXuaica.' 

11.  Hncfaald.    'DeHoaica.' 

(Paeiido-Hucbald.)   *  Muaica  Snehiriadla,  Commemonitio  Brevla 
de  tonis  et  pealmia  moduluidia.' 
IS.  Bcgino.    '  De  hjvrmonica  inatltutione.'  • 

15.  Odo.    *  TonariuB.' '  Dlalogtu  de  Mnaloa.' 
14.  Adelbold.     'Maaica.' 

IB.  BemellB.    '  Dlriaio  inonocfaordi.' 

16.  Variona  anonymooa  pieooa. 

Vol.  II. 

1.  Oofdoof Araaao.  'De diadplina artiamnaicae/'Begnlaemualcae 

rhythnlcae,'  'De  ignoto  caiitn,'  "Tractotna  ootrectorlna  mul- 
tonun  enronun.' '  De  tropia  alve  tonia.' 

2.  Bemo  of  Beichemra.     'D«  rari*  Faalmorum  stque  oantaum 

modtdatlone.'  'Do  oonaon*  tonomm  dlveraltate,'  'Tonaiiiia.' 

3.  Hermann  Contractua.  *IIUBica."ExpUcatloaiguorum,"Ver8Ua 

ad  dlaeemendum  cantam.' 

4.  WiUlam  of  Hlnrliaa.     '  Muaica.' 

8.  Theoger  of  Mete.     'Muaica.' 

a  Aribo Seholaaticoa.    'Muaica.' 
7.  John  Cotton.    'Demnfrica.' 

9.  S.  Bernard.    '  Tonal.' 

9.  Oerlandua.    '  De  ntnaloa.' 

10.  Bberhard  of  Prelaingvn.    '  De  menanra  flatalantm.' 

11.  Anonjrmona.    '  Do  menanra  flatularam.' 
12l  Bngelbert  of  Adniont.    '  De  muaica.' 
18.  Jota.  .AgldluB.    '  Ara  mnalea.' 


404 


SCRIPTORES 


SEASONS,  THE 


Vol.  IIL 

1.  Fi-anoo.    'An  cantiumensunbtlit.' 

2.  EltuSalmoD.    'BoientlaartiamusicM.' 

3.  Marcheitl  of  Padua.   *  Luddarium  muslcae  planae,' '  Pomerimn 

niasicae  menauratae.' 

4.  Jean  d«  Muzia.    'Bumins  maaicae,'  'Muaica  apeeulatlva,'  'De 

namerla.' '  Mnalcapractioa.'  'QoeaUonea  taper  partaamoalaHe,' 
•  De  dtflcantn.' '  De  toula,'  •  De  propartlonibiu  ' 

9.  Amalph.    '  D«  dlflbrentlla  oantorum.' 

e.  John  Kaok.    '  Introduciorlum  moalcae.' 

7.  Adam  of  Pulda.    'Moaica.' 

8  'Conatitatlonos  oapallae  Fontifieiae'  (1545). 

8.  Tcjcioi  <^aAriKij  aea  An  PKallendl  aut  cantandi  Oraeootum. 

A  continuation  of  Gerbert  was  gathered  by 
Coassemaker  under  the  title  Scriptoresde  Muska 
medii  aevi  (1864-76).  It  contains  the  follow- 
ing works : — 

Vol.  I. 

1.  Fr»  Jerome  of  Moravia.  '  De  iniulca.'  With  extracta  from 
'Positlo  Tulgnria.'  John  de  GarLandUt,  'De  mnalca  men- 
Burabill ' ;  Franoo  of  Cologne,  '  An  cantua  mensPFaMllB ' ; 
Peter  Pleard. '  Muaica  monaurabllia.' 

5.  Fi«nco.    '  Cowpendlnm  dlaoantua.' 

3.  John  de  Garlandia.     '  Introdnctlo  mualcae.' 

4.  „  „  '  De  mnaica  menaorabill.' 

5.  Walter  de  Odlngton.    '  De  apeealatione  mualoe.' 

6.  Ariatotle.    *De  muaioa'  (12ih  or  IStli  oentary). 

7.  PetruB  de  Grace.    'Detonia.' 

8.  John  Balloc.    *  Abbrevlatlo  Franoonis.' 

9.  Anonymux.      '  De  oonaonantlia  muBicalibui.' 
'  De  dlaeantu.' 
'  Cantu  menaorabill.' 
'  I>e  mensuris  et  dlmantu.' 
'  De  dlaoanta.' 
'  De  flffaria  aive  de  uotla.' 
'Demuslca.' 

Robert  Handle.    *  Begulae.' 

John  Hanboya.    '  Bomma  aaper  mualcam.' 


Vol.  II. 
1.  Bcglno  of  PrQm.    'Tonariua.' 
9.  Huobeld.  'Mnaicaencbelrladla'iabltanpubUahed  by  Gerbert). 

3.  Ouido  of  ArezBO,  '  De  modomm  formalla. 

„  „  '  De  aex  mutiboa  vocnm.' 

4.  Odo.    '  Intouarium.' 

8.  Guldo  in  GarolMoeo  Abbaa.    'Opuacnlum.' 

5.  Jean  do  Muria.    '  Speonlum  muslcae'  (booka  vl.  and  vil.). 

7.  A  Carthuaiiui.    '  D«  muaica  plana.' 

8.  Anonymaa.    'D«  muaica.' 

Vou  III. 

1.  *  Marchettl  of  Padua.    *  Brevla  oomptlatlo '  (aee  Gerbert). 

2.  John  de  Garlandia.     'Introductlode  oontnpancto.' 

5.  Philip  of  Vltry.    'An  nova* 

4.       .,  ,,  '  An  contrapunctl.' 

6.  ,.  „  'An  perfect*.' 
6.       ..  '  Uber  mualcallum.' 

*  Libellas  oaiitos  menrarabllls.' 

*  An  oontrapunoti.' 
».        ,.           „           '  An  discantui.' 

10.  Henry  of  Zeland.   '  De  cantu  perfecto  et  imperfecto.' 

11.  Phlloppotus  Andrea*.     '  De  contrapuncto.' 

12.  Philip  de  Cnaerta.    '  De  divenls  fijruria.' 

13.  Giles  de  Murino.    'Cantua  mensurabilia.' 

14.  Johannes  Vomlua  de  Anagnia.  '  De  muaica.' 
19.  Theodore  de  Compo.  '  Muaica  mensnmbUii.' 
16.  Proedocimas  de  BeldemandU.    '  De  contrapuncto.' 


7.  Jeaude  Maris. 

8. 

9. 


Troctatua  practice  oantus  men- 

aurabilis.' 
'Do.  ad  modom  Italioom.' 
*  Llbellus  monochordl.' 
'  Bummula  proportlonum.' 

'  Rogulae  muaicne.' 

'  Tractatua.' 


17. 

18 

19. 
20. 

21.  NIcasius  Woyt«.  Carmelite. 

22.  Christian  Saae  of  Flanders. 

23.  Ouliehnus  Monachua.    '  De  praoceptis  artis  mnsicae.' 

24.  Antoniua  de  Leno.    '  Regule  de  uontraponto.' 

25.  John  de  Hothby.    '  Regulae  super  proportionem.' 
28.       „  „  *  De  cantu  fl^mto.' 

27.        „  ,,  '  Begulae  supra  oontrapunotam.' 

Anonylhous  works,  28-40  (pp.  334-496). 

VouIV. 

1.  John  TInctoris.    ( I ) '  Bxpositlo  manua ' ;  ^2) '  De  natnra  et  pro- 

prletate  tonoram' ;  (3)  '  De  notis  et  pHusls' ;  (4)  *  De  rogolvl 
vaJore  notarum ' ;  (6) '  Liber  imperfectlonnm ' ;  (6) '  Tractatua 
altorationnm ' ;  (7)  'Super  punctis  muaicallbos' ;  (8)  '  De  arte 
contrapunctl':  (9)  ' Proportlonole  musioes';  (10)  'Difllni- 
torlam  musioes.' 

2.  Simon  Tunstede.     'Quatuor  principal ia  musices.' 

&  Johannes  Gallicua.    '  Ritas  canondi ' ;  *  Introductio.' 
4.  Antoniua  de  Luca.    '  An  cantos  flgurati.' 
6.  Anonymaa.    *  De  musics  flgurata.' 

For  Boethius's  De  histUutiona  miisica  recourse 
may  be  had  to  his  works  in  Migne's  Patroloffia 
LatmaoT  inTevLhner*8  Biblioiheca  (ed.  Friedlein). 
Note  also  Bin  anonymer  Mttsiktradat  (ed. 
J.  Wolf),  Leipzig,  1893,  and  a  valuable  little 


early  tract  printed  by  Wagner  in  Saategm 
ChregorUtna,  iv.  482  (1904).  w.  H.  i. 

SCUDO,  PiETRO,  born  June  6, 1806,  at  Venice, 
was  brought  up  in  Germany.  Some  drcumstanoe 
led  him  to  Paris,  and  in  1816  he  entered  Choron's 
school,  and  studied  singing  there  at  the  same 
time  with  Duprez.  He  never  became  a  good 
singer,  and  after  taking  a  secondary  part  in 
Rossini's  '  II  Viaggio  a  Reims  *  left  the  boards, 
returned  to  Choron's  school,  and  there  picked 
up  a  slender  knowledge  of  music.  After  the 
revolution  of  1830  he  played  second  clarinet  in 
a  military  band.  Returning  to  Paris  he  made 
his  way  into  society,  set  up  as  a  teacher  of 
singing,  and  a  composer  of  romances.  His 
knowledge  of  harmony  and  the  elementary  lftw^ 
of  musical  accent  was  bnt  slight,  as  he  himself 
admits  in  spite  of  his  vanity.  CJontinuing  his 
career  as  a  professor  of  singing,  he  took  to 
writing,  and  published  Physiohgie  du  rirt  and 
Les  Partis  politiquea  en  province  (1838).  H«* 
gradually  restricted  himself  to  musical  criticLsDi, 
but  as  long  as  he  wrote  only  for  the  Bevue  d^ 
Paris,  thelU/ormef  and  the  lUvue  intUpenfiaRii, 
he  was  unknown  outside  certain  cliques  m 
Paris.  As  musical  critic  to  the  Itevue  des  Deux 
MoTvdeSy  he  became  a  man  of  mark,  though  he 
was  never  more  than  a  laborious  writer,  who 
made  good  use  of  German  and  Italian  boob^ 
and  managed  by  means  of  certain  dogmatic 
foimulse  and  fine  writing  to  conceal  his  want 
of  knowledge  and  ideas.  Scudo's  articles  are 
worth  reading  as  specimens  of  French  musical 
criticism  before  Berlioz  was  known,  and  whilr 
F^tis  occupied  a  field  without  a  rivaL  They  have 
been  mostly  republished  under  the  following 
titles : — Critique  ct  litt^ature  musicaU  (1850, 
8vo ;  1862,  12mo),  2nd  series  (1859,  12mo) ; 
La  Musiqiie  andenne  et  inodemt  (1854,  12mo) ; 
VAnn^  musicale,  8  vols.  (Hachette,  1860, 
1861,  and  1862)  ;  LaMuviqueeti  286S{Httze\, 
1863)  ;  and  Le  ObevaZier  Sarti  (1857,  12mo),  a 
musical  novel  taken  from  Italian  and  German 
sources,  of  which  a  continuation,  Fridtriquf, 
ap|)eared  in  the  Bevue  des  Deux  Mondes,  but 
was  not  republished.  AU  his  works  were 
printed  in  Paris.  Scudo  finally  became  insane, 
and  died  Oct.  14,  1864,  in  an  asylum  at 
Blois.  o.  c. 

SEASONS,  THE  —  Die  Jahreazeiten  — 
Haydn's  last  oratorio.  The  book  was  compiled 
in  German  from  Thomson's  '  Seasons '  by  Van 
Swieten,  who  induced  Haydn  to  undertake  its 
composition  immediately  after  the  success  of 
the  '  Creation ' ;  and  the  music  was  written 
between  April  1798  and  April  24,  1801,  on 
which  day  the  first  performance  took  place  at 
the  Schwarzenberg  palace,  Vienna.  Haydn 
always  averred  that  the  strain  of  writing  it  had 
hastened  his  death.     [See  vol.  u.  p.  362a.] 

It  is  in  four  parts.  The  score  was  published 
in  1802-3  (without  date)  at  Vienna ;  a  barbaitms 
English  version  accompanied  the  German  text 


SEBASTIANI 


SECHTER 


405 


In  1813  Clementi  published  a  vocal  score  with  a 
better  version.  The  Rev.  John  Webb  followed 
vith  a  farther  improvement,  and  more  recently, 
in  1840  or  1841,  Professor  £.  Taylor  made  a 
fourth.  It  was  in  the  repertory  of  the  Cecilian 
Society ;  and  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society 
performed  it  on  Dec.  5,  1851,  and  four  times 
more  down  to  1 877.  o. 

SEBASTIANI,  Johank,  was  bom  at  Weimar, 
Sept  30,  1622.     The  known  facts  of  his  life 
are  few.     He  is  said  to  have  studied  music  in 
Italy,  but  no   hint  is  given   as  to  who  his 
teachers  were.     He  is  next  heard  of  as  settled 
at  Konigsberg  in  Prussia  about  1650,  where 
ilso  in  1661  he  was  appointed  Cantor  to  the 
Domkirche  in    the   Kneiphof  quarter  of  tlie 
town,  and  in  1663  became  Gapellmeister  to  the 
Electoral  Schlosskirche.   Heretired  on  a  pension 
in  1679,  and  died  1683.     He  is  chiefly  known 
u  the  oompoeer   of  a  Passion  music,   which 
occupies  an  important  place  in  the  development 
of  the  fonn.     The   full  title  of  the  work  is 
'Bas  Leyden  und  Sterben  unsers  Herm  und 
Heylandes  J.  Chr.  nach  dem  heiligen  Matthaeo. 
In  eine  recitirende  Harmoni  von  5  singenden 
nnd  6  spielenden  Stimmen  nebst  dem   Basso 
(Mntinuo   gesetzet.     Worinnen    zu  erweckuug 
mehrer  Devotion    unterschiedliche   Verse    aus 
denen  gewohnlichen  Kirchenliedem  mit  einge- 
fihret.  .  .  .    Konigsberg,  1672.'    The  work  is 
dedicated    to    Frederick   William,    Elector    of 
Brandenburg.     As  the  title  indicates,  it  is  a 
Passion  with  instrumental  accompaniment  a  6, 
and  Chorus  a  5.     The  instrumental  parts  are 
for  firet  and  second  violins,  three  for  Viola  da 
Oamba  or  da  Braccio,  and  one  for  Viola  Bassa. 
liut  the  fall  accompaniment  is  only  reserved 
for  the  dramatic  choruses  in  the  work.     Else- 
where the  distinction  is  made  that  while  the 
mlas  alone    accompany    the    words    of    the 
Evangelist  and  other  single  characters  sung  by 
solo  voices,  the  first  and  second  violins  alone 
with  basso  continue  accompany  the  utterances 
of  our  Lord.     There  are  also  short  symphonic 
interludes  for   violas  alone,   and   the  chorale 
verses  are  intended  to  be  sung  by  a  solo  voice 
with  the  accompaniment  of  violas.     The  conclu- 
iaon  consists  of  a  hymn  of  thanksgiving,  the 
firat  four  verses  of  which  are  sung  solo,  and 
only  the  last  verse  tuttL     The  whole  interesting 
work  has  now  been  reprinted  in  Bd.  xvii.  of 
the  'Dcnkmiiler   Deutscher  Tonkunst,'  Erste 
Folge.    Other  works  of  Sebastiani,  enumerated 
in  the  Qudlen-Lexikon,  are  two  collections  of 
g«istliche  und  weltliche    Lieder   bearing  the 
title  Pamass-blumen,  published  at  Hamburg 
1672  and  1676,  also  a  large  number  of  occasional 
^-compositions  for  weddings  and  funerals.     A  few 
**^  oompositions  in  the  concerted  style  for 
voices  and  instruments  remain  in  MS.    J.  r.  m. 
SECHTER,  Simon.    One  of  the  most  import- 
ant of  modem  contrapuntists.     Bom  at  Fried- 
H.  in  Bohemia,  on  Oct.  11, 1788.     In  1804, 


after  a  moderate  musical  education,  he  went  to 
Vienna,  where  he  applied  himself  with  ardour  to 
theoretical  studies.  In  1809,  while  Vienna  was 
in  the  hands  of  the  French,  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Dragonetti — then  living  in  concealment 
under  the  curious  apprehension  that  Napoleon 
would  oblige  him  to  go  to  Paris — for  whom  he 
wrote  the  pianoforte  accompaniments  to  his 
concertos  for  the  double  bass.  In  1810  Sechter 
became  teacher  of  the  piano  and  singing  to  the 
Blind  Institute,  for  which  he  wrote  many  songs 
and  twomasses.  During  the  wholeof  this  time  he 
pushed  forward  his  studies,  working  more  especi- 
ally at  Bach  and  Mozart.  He  found  a  good 
friend  in  Abb^  Stadler,  through  whose  means 
three  of  Sechter's  masses  were  performed  at  the 
court  chapel.  A  requiem  of  his  and  a  chorus 
from  Schiller's  *  Bride  of  Messina'  were  also 
executed  at  the  Concert  Spirituel  with  success. 
In  1824  he  became  court-oiganist,  first  as  sub- 
ordinate, and  in  1825,  on  the  death  of  Worzi- 
scheck,  as  chief,  an  office  which  he  retained  till 
his  death.  His  fame  as  a  theoretical  teacher 
attracted  numerous  scholara,  amongst  others 
the  great  Schubert,  w^ho  was  on  the  point  of 
taking  lessons  from  him  when  attacked  by  his 
last  illness.  (See  Schubert,  anUf  p.  316a.) 
The  Emperor  Ferdinand  conferred  upon  him 
the  large  gold  medal  for  a  grand  mass  dedicated 
to  his  Majesty,  which  was  shortly  followed  by 
the  order  of  St.  Louis  from  the  Duke  of  Lucca.  In 
1850  he  became  Professor  of  Composition  in  the 
Conservatorium  at  Vienna.  His  Aphorisms,  etc. , 
which  he  communicated  to  the  Vienna  Allg, 
7nusik.  Zeitung^  show  him  to  have  been  a  profound 
thinker,  and  give  many  instructive  hints  both  to 
teachers  and  scholars.  His  most  intimate  friends 
were  Staudigl,  Lutz,  and  Holzel,  for  whom  he 
wrote  a  quantity  of  humorous  Volkslieder  in 
contrapuntal  style,  as  well  as  many  comic  oper- 
ettas, ballads,  etc.  His  diligence  in  study  was 
astonishing.  No  day  passed  in  which  he  did 
not  write  a  fugue.  A  few  years  before  his  death 
he  had  the  misfortune,  through  his  own  good 
nature,  to  lose  almost  everything,  and  died  on 
Sept.  12,  1867,  nearly  eighty  years  old,  in 
poverty  and  privation.  Sechter  was  much 
esteemed  and  beloved  for  his  simplicity  and 
goodness,  and  it  may  be  truly  said  that  he 
had  no  enemies.  His  system,  though  severe, 
was  simple,  clear,  and  logical.  His  scholars 
were  almost  innumerable :  amongst  them  may 
be  mentioned,  Preyer,  Nottebohra,  the  Prin- 
cess Czartor^ska,  Sucher,  Bibl,  Rosa  Kastner 
(Escudier),  Rufinatscha,  Bruckner,  Otto  Bach, 
Dohler,  Schachner,  Filtsch,  S.  Bagge,  Benoni, 
Vieuxtemps,  Pauer,  C.  F.  Pohl,  and  Thalberg. 
Notwithstanding  the  multitude  of  his  lessons 
he  found  time  to  compose  a  great  deal  of  music. 
His  unpublished  works  in  the  Imperial  Library 
and  the  Musikverein  at  Vienna  contain  four 
oratorios,  operas  and  large  cantatas,  music  for 
voice,    organ,  and  pianoforte,   including   104 


406 


SECOND 


SEEQB 


TariationB  on  an  original  theme  of  104  bars ; 
also  a  complete  theoretical  treatiae  ready  for 
publication,  in  two  portions,  first  on  acoustics, 
second  on  canon.  Among  his  published  works 
are  an  edition  of  Marpurg  On  Fugue,  with  many 
additions ;  Grwndaaize  der  musik,  CatnpoaUion 
(8  vols.  B.  k  H.) ;  twelye  masses ;  Practical  Ex- 
amples of  Accompaniment  from  Figured  Bass,oi^. 
59 ;  Practical Schoolof  Thorough Ba8S,oppA9,9S ; 
preludes  for  the  organ,  in  four  books ;  fugues 
hymns,  choral  preludes ;  four  fugues  for  PF.,  op. 
5,  dedicated  to  Beethoren  ;  fugue  in  0  minor,  to 
the  memoiy  of  Schubert,  op.  48 ;  etc.  Sechter 
completed  the  grand  fugue  for  orchestra  in  D 
major,  left  unfinished  by  Mozart.  c.  F.  p. 

SECOND.  The  smallest  interral  in  the  scale 
used  for  musical  purposes.  It  is  described  by  notes 
which  are  next  to  each  other  on  the  stave  or  by 
letters  which  lie  next  each  other  in  the  alphabet, 
as  A  B,  B  C,  0  D«,  Eb  F«. 


Three  kinds  can  be  practically  distinguished.  The 
minor  second,  which  is  equal  to  a  semitone,  as 
at  (b)  in  the  example  ;  the  major  second,  which 
is  equal  to  a  tone  (but  of  which  there  are  two 
kinds,  grave  and  acute — see  below),  as  at  (a)  ; 
and  the  augmented  second,  which  is  equal 
to  three  semitones,  as  at  (c).  They  are  all 
discords,  but  are  characterised  by  different 
degrees  of  roughness.  The  minor  second  is 
extremely  harsh,  the  major  decidedly  so, 
though  not  so  extremely,  and  the  augmented 
second  but  slightly.  In  ordinary  musical  usage 
the  last  is  actually  the  same  interval  as  a 
minor  third,  which  is  not  looked  upon  as  a 
dissonance  at  all ;  nevertheless  the  ear,  distin- 
guishing relations  instinctively,  classifies  the 
combinations  according  to  their  context  as 
having  a  dissonant  or  consonant  significance, 
Thus  when  the  context  suggests  the  interval  Ab 
B|],  the  mind  will  not  accept  it  as  final,  but  as 
a  dissonance  requiring  resolution ;  whereas  if 
the  same  interval  could  be  expressed  as  Ab  Cb, 
it  might  be  recognised  as  a  characteristic  por- 
tion of  the  minor  chord  of  Ab,  and  could  be 
accepted  as  final  without  desire  for  further 
motion. — The  numerical  ratios  of  the  several  in- 
tervals in  just  intonation  are  given  as  follows  : 
— tlie  minor  second,  16  :  15  ;  the  grave  major 
second,  10 :  9 ;  the  acute  major  second,  9:8; 
and  the  augmented  second,  75  :  64.    [See  Semi- 

TONE.]  C.  H.  H.  p. 

SEGONDO.  The  second  player  in  a  duet. 
[See  Primo.] 

SEDIE,  DELLE,  Enrico,  baritone  singer, 
son  of  a  merchant  of  Leghorn,  was  bom  June 
17,  1824.  In  the  year  1848  he  volunteered  in 
the  army  of  Charles  Albert  of  Piedmont,  and 
fought  against  the  Austrians  in  the  war  for 
Italian  independence.     He  was  taken  prisoner 


at  the  battle  of  Curtatone  but  afterwards  re- 
leased, and  at  the  close  of  the  campaign  of 
the  following  year  retired  from  the  army  with 
the  rank  of  lieutenant.  Under  the  direction  of 
his  fellow-citizen,  Orazio  Galeffi,  he  then  de- 
voted himself  to  the  study  of  singing,  and  in 
1851  made  his  d^but  at  Pistoia  in  Nabuoco. 

From  1854,  when  he  made  a  great  success  as 
Rigoletto  in  Florence,  his  position  was  secure. 
He  appeared  with  unvarying  success  at  Borne, 
Milan,  Vienna,  Paris,  and  London,  and  though 
possessed  of  so  little  voice  as  to  gain  the  sobri- 
quet of  //  bariUmo  senza  voce,  he  made  up  by 
dramatic  accent  and  purity  of  style  for  the 
shortcomings  of  nature.  In  1867,  at  the 
earnest  request  of  Auber,  he  accepted  a  profesnor- 
ship  at  the  Conservatoire  of  Paris  on  the  most 
advantageous  terms  hitherto  offered.  Undei 
him  a  commission  was  appointed  for  the  entire 
remodelling  of  that  institution,  but  the  death 
of  Auber  and  the  outbreak  of  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War  compelled  the  government  u> 
abandon  their  intention.  In  1874  he  pub- 
lished a  large  work  upon  the  art  of  singing  and 
musical  declamation,  under  the  title  of  L'Aii 
Lyrique,  Translations  of  this  and  other  yoc^ 
treatises  are  published  in  New  York  as  A  Cvm- 
plete  Method  of  Singing, 

Signer  Delle  Sedie  was  Cavaliere  of  the  Order 
of  the  Crown  of  Italy,  for  his  military  sendees 
in  the  campaigns  of  1848,  1849  ;  Cavaliere  of 
the  Order  of  SS.  Maurizio  and  Lazzaro ;  and 
member  of  many  societies  and  academies  both 
of  Italy  and  France.  For  some  time  he  lived 
in  Paris,  and  devoted  himself  entirely  to  the 
teaching  of  his  art.  He  died  there  Nov.  28, 
1907.  J.  c.  o. 

SEEGR  (Sesger,  Seger,  Sager,  Ssoebt, 
Zeckert),  Joseph  Ferdinand  Norbert,  emi- 
nent organist  and  composer,  bom  at  Bepin  near 
Melnik,  Bohemia,  March  21,  1716.  Educated 
at  Prague,  where  he  graduated  Master  of  Philo- 
sophy. He  was  alto  singer  at  St.  Jamefi's 
Church  in  that  city,  and,  later,  organist  at  St. 
Martin's.  In  1735  he  was  first  viob'nist  at  the 
TeinChurch,  but  was  appointed  organist  in  1 74 1, 
which  position  he  retained  until  his  death  on 
April  22,  1782.  In  addition  he  held  the 
appointment  of  organist  at  the  Ereuzhentoi- 
kirche  in  the  Old  Town  for  thirty-seven  years 
(1 746  to  1782).  In  this  church  Joseph  II.  heard 
Seegr  play,  and  was  so  delighted  with  the 
masterly  performance  that  he  at  once  determined 
to  give  him  a  Court  appointment  at  Vienna ;  but, 
sad  to  say,  when  the  official  document  contain- 
ing tlus  preferment  arrived,  Seegr  was  no  more. 
Amongst  hia  pupils  were  the  principal  Bohemian 
musicians  of  that  time,  viz. :  Kozeluch,  Maschek. 
Mysliwecek,  Gelinek,  Brixi,  Eucharz,  etc.  That 
Seiegr  was  well  known  to  Bach  is  testified  hj 
the  fact  that  the  ktter  advised  Count  Millesimo 
to  place  Matliias  Sofka  under  Master  Seegr, 
remarking  that  he  could  not  entrust  him  to » 


SEELING 


SEGUIDILLA 


407 


better  teacher.  Burney  (Preaeni  State  o/Mwric, 
Germany,  yoL  ii.  pp.  13-14)  mentiona  him  as 
being  a  fine  oigan-player,  a  good  lingolBt,  and 
an  excellent  musician.  The  unanimous  testi- 
mony of  his  contemporaries  proclaims  Seegr  as 
one  of  the  finest  organists  of  his  time.  At  his 
death  his  compositions  were  acquired  by  Ernst, 
concert-master  of  Ootha.  Daniel  Gottlob  Turk, 
music  director  of  Halle,  was  employed  to  edit 
the  first  posthumous  instalment  of  these  com- 
positions—  *  Eight  Toccatas  and  Fugues'  for 
the  organ  (published  by  Breitkopf  in  1798), 
which  are  up  to  the  present  his  best  known 
works.  The  toccatas  are  in  reality  preludes — 
with  the  exception  of  No.  5,  the  style  of  which 
is  more  in  accordance  with  its  title.  His  other 
compositions  consisted  of  many  masses,  psalms, 
litanies,  etc.,  printed  copies  of  which  do  not 
exist.  After  the  lapse  of  nearly  a  century  and 
a  quarter,  Messrs.  Breitkopf  are  about  to  reissue 
the  *£i^t  Toccatas  and  Fugues/  edited  by 
Dom  Samuel  Gregory  Ould,  and  adapted  to  the 
requirements  of  the  modem  organ.  w.  w.  s. 
SEELING,  Haks,  was  bom  at  Prague  in 
1828,  and  towards  the  end  of  his  life  returned 
to  his  natiye  diy,  where  he  died  on  May  26, 
1862.  Failing  health  obliged  him  to  go  to 
Italy  in  1852,  and  in  1856  he  toured  in  the 
East,  returning  to  Italy  in  1857.  After  settling 
in  Paris,  1859,  he  made  his  home  in  Germany. 
An  excellent  pianist,  he  met  with  unfailing 
socoeaa  on  his  tours.  Seeling  composed  a  num- 
ber of  brilliant  pieces  and  studies  for  the  piano, 
of  which  the  best  known  are  the  '  Barcarolle,' 
the  '  Lorelei '  (op.  2),  the  *  Concert  Studies '  (op. 
10),  and  the  *  Memories  of  an  Artist'  (op.  18). 
These  compositions  are  highly  eifectiye,  and 
their  character  partakes  of  Henselt  on  the  one 
hand  and  Bendel  on  the  other.  d.  h. 

SEGNO,  i.&  the  sign  «.  [See  Dal  Seoko.] 
SEGUE,  'follows'— as  Segue  V aria,  'the 
aria  follows ' ;  a  direction  frequently  foimd  at 
the  end  of  recitatiyes.  It  is  thus  equivalent  to 
the  more  modem  word  aUcuxa,  It  is  also  found 
occasionally  at  the  foot  of  a  page  where  a  space 
is  left  after  one  movement  in  order  that  the 
next  may  begin  at  the  top,  to  avoid  turning 
over  in  the  middle.  It  then  indicates  that 
no  stop  is  to  be  made  between  the  two  move- 
ments. H. 

SEGUIDILLA  (sometimes  written  Sioui- 
dilla),  a  popular  national  dance  of  Spain. 
The  origin  of  both  name  and  dance  are  uncer- 
tain ;  it  existed  in  La  Mancha  in  the  time  of 
Cervantes  (see  Dim  Quixote,  part  ii.  chap.  88), 
but  there  is  no  evidence  to  show  whether  it  is 
indigenous,  or  introduced  into  Spain  by  the 
Moors.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  from  La 
Mancha  it  spread  all  over  Spain,  and  it  is  stUl 
danced  in  both  town  and  country.  Seguidillas 
are  divided  into  three  kinds — Seguidillas  Man- 
ch^^,  the  original  form  of  the  dance,  in  which 
it  assumes  a  gay  and  lively  character ;  Seguidillas 


Boleras,^  more  measured  and  stately  ;  and  Segui- 
dillas  Gitanas,  danced  very  slowly  and  sentiment- 
ally.  To  these  some  writers  add  a  fourth  kind,  the 
Seguidillas  Taleadas,  said  to  be  a  combination  of 
the  original  Seguidilla  with  the  Cachucha.  The 
music  is  written  in  8-4  or  8-8  time,  usually  in 
a  minor  key,  and  is  performed  on  the  guitar 
with  occasionally  a  flute,  violin,  or  castauet 
accompaniment.  The  wplaa,  or  words  sung  by 
the  musicians,  are  written  in  couplets  of  four 
short  lines  followed  by  an  estreviUo  or  refrain 
of  three  lines,  but  some  coplas  want  this  latter 
feature.  Both  music  and  words  often  partake 
of  the  character  of  an  improvisation,  the  former 
remarkable  for  strange  and  sudden  modulations, 
and  the  latter  treating  of  both  serious  and  comic 
subjects.  A  collection  of  coplas  was  published 
at  the  end  of  the  18th  century  by  N.  Zamacola, 
writing  under  the  pseudonym  of  Don  Precise. 
From  ^e  introduction  to  this  book  the  following 
quaint  description  of  the  Seguidilla  is  translated : 
*  So  soon  as  two  young  people  of  the  opposite  sexes 
present  themselves  standing  face  to  face  at  a 
distance  of  about  two  varas  ^  in  the  middle  of 
the  room,  the  "ritomelo"  or  prelude  of  the 
music  begins  ;  then  the  seguidilla  is  insinuated 
by  the  voice — if  it  be  a  manchega,  by  singing 
the  first  line  of  the  copla  ;  if  it  be  a  bolera,  by 
singing  two  lines,  which  must  only  take  up  four 
bars.  The  guitur  follows,  playing  a  pasacalle  ;  ^ 
and  at  the  fourth  bar  the  seguidilla  begins  to  be 
sung.  Then  the  dance  breaks  out  with  castanets 
or  crotolas,^  running  on  for  a  space  of  nine  bars, 
with  which  the  first  part  concludes.  The 
guitar  continues  playing  the  pasacalle,  during 
which  the  dancers  change  to  opposite  positions 
by  means  of  a  very  deliberate  and  simple  pro- 
menade (*'  paseo  ").  While  singing  again,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  fourth  bar,  each  goes  on  for 
nine  bars  more,  making  the  variations  and 
differences  of  their  respective  schools,  which 
forms  the  second  part.  Again  they  change 
places,  and  upon  each  dancer  returning  to  the  spot 
where  they  began  to  dance,  the  third  part  goes 
on  in  the  same  way  as  the  second,  and  on 
arriving  at  the  ninth  bar,  the  voice,  the  instru- 
ment, and  the  castanets  cease  all  at  once,  and 
as  if  impromptu,  the  room  remaining  in  silence, 
and  the  dancers  standing  immovable  in  various 
beautifdl  attitudes,  which  is  what  we  call  ''well 
stopped  "  (Bien  parado).'  Space  will  not  allow 
us  to  give  an  example  of  the  music  which  ac- 
companies this  beautiful  dance.  In  Book  IV.  of 
Luigi  Borghi's  *  Opera  Dances '  (London,  1788) 
is  a  seguidilla  modified  for  theatrical  representa- 
tion, and  in  the  first  act  of '  Carmen '  there  is 
a  Spanish  air  which  Bizet  has  entitled  '  Segui- 
dille.'  Better  examples  than  these  will  be 
found  in  Mendel's  Lexikon  (sub  voce  Seguidilla), 

1  Mot  to  be  confounded  with  the  Bolero,  aald  to  hare  been  invented 
In  1180  brjr  Don  Sobastiaa  Zereso. 
s  1  Taim«-84  Inohee. 

3  Iitenll7  'Btreet-pAM' ;  axtj  popular  etreet^ong.    [See  Pabsa- 
CAOUA,  TOl.  ill.  p.  643.] 

4  A  kind  of  cwtMiet. 


408 


SEGUIN 


SEIFFERT 


and  in  the  Appendix  to  Part  I.  of  Marino  Soriano 
Fuertes's  Historia  de  laMtmcaE8paikola(}d.adndy 
1855-59),  in  which  specimens  are  given  of 
the  varieties  of  the  dance.  With  regard  to  the 
words,  the  following  copla  (from  Don  Preciso*s 
Colleccion  de  CqplaSf  Madrid,  1799)  may  serve 
as  an  example : 

El  Lunes  me  enainoro, 

M4rte8  lo  digo. 

Mi^rcoles  me  declaro, 

Jiieves  consigo : 
Vi^mes  doy  zeloa 

Y  Sabado  y  Domingo 

Boaco  Amor  nuevo.  i 

W.  B.  8. 
SEGUIN,  Arthur  Edward  Shelden,  com- 
monly known  as  Edward,  was  bom  in  London 
(of  Irish  descent),  April  7,  1809.  He  received 
his  musical  education  at  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Music,  and  first  appeared  in  public  in  1828  at 
concerts  and  performances  of  Italian  operas 
given  by  its  pupils.  His  voice  was  a  deep  bass, 
of  very  extensive  compass,  and  he  met  with 
a  very  favourable  reception.  In  1829  he  sang 
at  the  Exeter  Festival.  In  1831  he  appeared 
at  the  theatre  in  Tottenham  Street  as  Poly- 
phemus in  'Acis  and  Galatea.'  In  1832  he 
sang  at  the  Concert  of  Antient  Music.  In 
1833  and  1834  he  was  engaged  at  Covent 
Garden,  and  in  the  latter  year  appeared  at  the 
King's  Theatre  as  II  Conte  Robinson  in  Cima- 
rosa's  *Matrimonio  Segreto,'  and  also  sang  at 
the  Festival  in  Westminster  Abbey,  From 
1835  to  1837  he  was  engaged  at  Drury  Lane. 
In  August  1838  he  appeared  at  the  English 
Opera  House  in  Macfarren's  'Devil's  Opera,' 
and  soon  afterwards  quitted  England  for 
America,  made  his  first  appearance  at  the 
National  Theatre,  New  York,  as  the  Count  in 
Rooke's  *Amilie'  on  Oct.  15,  1838,  and  was 
extremely  well  received.  He  afterwiutls  formed 
an  opera  company  named  *  The  Seguin  Troupe,' 
who  performed  at  various  places  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  Amongst  other  distinctions 
he  was  elected  a  chief  by  one  of  the  Indian 
tribes,  and  received  an  Indian  name,  signifying 
'  The  man  with  the  deep  mellow  voice ' ;  an 
honour  which  had  never  before  been  conferred 
on  any  Englishman,  except  Edmund  Kean,  the 
tragedian.  He  died  at  New  York,  Dec.  9, 
1852. 

His  wife,  Ann  Childe,  bom  in  London 
1814,  was  also  a  pupil  of  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Music,  and  appeared  in  public  as  a  soprano 
singer  in  1828  in  the  same  performances  as  her 
ftiture  husband,  and  with  equal  success.  In 
1832  she  sang  at  the  Concert  of  Antient  Music, 
and  in  1834  at  the  Westminster  Abbey  Festival. 
After  performing  for  two  or  three  seasons  at 
th6  King's  Theatre  as  'seconda  donna,'  she 
appeared  on  the  English  stage  at  Dmry  Lane, 
Nov.  8,  1837,  as  Donna  Anna  in  the  English 

I  TransUtlon :— '  On  Monday  I  fall  in  love,  on  TueadAy  T  «ay  m, 
Wednoiday  I  dccUre  myaeU.  Thuiiday  I  sncoeed  :  Friday  I  oaum 
Jcaloiuy,  uid  Bsivrday  and  Snnday  I  i«ek  a  freah  love.' 


version  of  Mozart's  *■  Don  Giovanni.'  She  ac- 
oompanied  her  husband  to  America  and  per- 
formed in  opera  until  his  death,  when  she 
retired  from  the  stage  and  taught  music  in 
New  York,  where  she  died  in  August  1888. 

Seguin's  younger  brother,  W^illiax  Hexky 
Seguin,  bom  in  London  1814,  also  a  pupil  of 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  possessed  a  light 
bass  voice  and  was  a  concert  singer  and  member 
of  the  choir  of  the  Temple  Church.  He  died 
Dec.  28,  1850.  He  married  Miss  GoocH. 
soprano  singer,  a  fellow  pupil  at  the  Academy, 
who  survived  him  a  few  years  only.  His  sister 
Elizabeth,  bom  in  London  1815,  was  also  a 
singer,  and  was  the  mother  of  Mme.  Parepa> 
Rosa  ;  she  died  in  London,  1870.      w.  h.  h. 

SEIDL,  Anton,  bom  May  7,  1850,  at  Pesth, 
was  entered  as  a  pupil  at  the  Leipzig  Conserva- 
torium  in  October  1870.  Early  in  1872  he 
went  to  Bayreuth,  and  was  there  employed  by 
Wagner  to  make  the  first  copy  of  the  score  of 
the  Nibelungen  trilogy.  He  also  assisted  at 
the  festival  in  August  1876.  In  1879,  through 
Wagner's  recommendation,  he  obtained  the  post 
of  conductor  at  the  Leipsdg  Opera-Hoose,  and 
remained  there  until  1882,  when  he  went  upcn 
a  long  tour  through  Germany,  Holland,  Eng- 
land, Italy,  etc.,  in  the  capacity  of  conductor  of 
Angelo  Neumann's  '  Nibelungen '  opera  troupe. 
The  performances  were  not  altogether  fanltless : 
it  is  true  that  the  vocalists  were  good,  but  the 
great  music  drama  was  reproduced  in  a  sadly 
mutilated  condition.  Yet  Seidl  proved  himself 
to  be  an  energetic  conductor,  and  was  personally 
successful.  In  1883  he  became  conductor  at 
the  Bremen  Opera -House.  Early  in  1885  be 
married  the  well-known  soprano  singer  Frl. 
Kraus,  and  in  September  of  that  year  accepted 
the  post  of  conductor  at  the  New  York  German 
Opera- House,  which  post  he  filled  with  grest 
distinction  until  the  temporary  eclipse  of 
German  opera  in  favour  of  Itcdian.  In  1895-97 
he  again  conducted  German  opera  in  New- 
York,  and  in  1897  he  conducted  at  Covent 
Garden.  On  Nov.  28,  1898,  he  died  in  New 
York.  c.  A. 

SEIFFERT,  Max,  bom  at  Beeskow  on  the 
Spree,  Feb.  9,  1868,  was  educated  at  his  natire 
place  and  at  the  Joachimsthal  Gymnasiam  at 
Berlin,  studied  musical  science  and  literature 
under  Philipp  Spitta,  wrote  a  treatise  on 
Sweelinck  for  the  doctor's  degree  in  1S91 
(printed  in  the  Vwrieljahnachrifl  of  that  year). 
Besides  many  contributions  to  that  periodical  ro 
the  AUg,  Deutsche  £iographiay  the  Ttjdkkrift  of 
the  Dutch  Yereeniging,  etc. ,  he  wrote  a  Gexh  ifhte 
der  Klamermtuik  in  1899,  and  was  editor  of  the 
complete  works  of  Sweelinck  issued  in  tveire 
volumes,  and  of  several  volumes  of  the  vari- 
ous series  of  'Denkmaler  der  Tonkunst'  Since 
April  1904  he  has  been  editor-in-chief  of  th« 
Internationale  Musikgesellschaft.  (Riemann's 
Lexikon,  etc.)  »• 


SEISS 


SEMBRICH 


409 


SEISS,  Isiix)R  WiLHELM,  bom  at  Dresden, 
Dec.  23,  1840,  was  at  first  a  pupil  of  F.  Wieck 
for  piano  and  of  Jnlius  Otto  for  theory.  In  1858- 
1860  he  studied  at  Leipzig  under  Hauptmann. 
He  had  a  success  as  a  pianist  in  the  following 
year,  and  issued  several  compositions.  In  1871 
he  was  appointed  a  piano-teacher  at  the  Cologne 
Conservatorium,  and  in  1878  received  the  title 
of  professor.  He  has  had  a  long  and  success- 
ful career  there,  where  he  devotes  much  time 
to  conducting  the  Musikalisohe  Gesellschaft. 
His  ccmipositions,  chiefly  educational  works  for 
the  piano,  are  tasteful  and  of  high  aim ;  his 
clever  arrangement  of  Beethoven's  *Contre- 
danses'  and  'Danses  allemandes'  are  among 
his  most  famous  productions,  as  well  as  a  revised 
version  of  Weber's  £  flat  concerto.  A  '  Feierliche 
Szene  imd  Marsch '  are  for  orchestra.  (Riemann's 
LexikoH,)  M. 

SELBY,  Bertram  Luard-,  bom  at  Ight- 
ham,  Kent,  Feb.  12,  1858,  received  his  musical 
education  at  the  Leipzig  Conservatorium  under 
Reinecke  and  Jadassohn.  Became  organist  of 
St  Barnabas,  Marylebone,  and  Highgate  School 
in  1876,  and  gave  chamber  concerts  in  London 
before  his  appointment  to  the  post  of  organist 
of  Salisbury  Cathedral  in  1881,  a  post  he  re- 
tained for  two  years.  He  was  next  organist 
at  St.  John's,  Torquay,  in  1884,  and  of  St. 
Barnabas,  Pimlico,  in  1886.  He  was  appointed 
organist  of  Rochester  Cathedral  in  succession  to 
Dr.  John  Hopkins,  in  1900.  His  most  important 
works  are  incidental  music  to  'Helena  in  Troas,' 
performed  in  London,  May  1886,  and  '  Weather 
or  No,'  a  musical  duologue,  produced  at  the 
Savoy  Theatre  in  August  1896.  An  orchestral 
'  Idyll '  was  played  at  one  of  Henschel's  London 
Symphony  Concerts  on  March  11,  1897.  This, 
two  quintets  for  piano  and  strings,  a  suite  for 
violin  and  piano,  many  piano  pieces,  and  an 
opera  *The  Ring'  (1886),  remain  unpublished. 
The  list  of  printed  works  includes  *  The  Waits 
of  Bremen,'  'The  Djring  Swan,'  'Summer  by 
the  Sea,'  short  cantatas,  part-songs,  '  The  Hag,' 
'It  was  a  Lover  and  his  Lass,' trios,  etc.,  for  female 
voices,  a  violin  sonata  in  B  minor,  some  six- 
teen anthems,  ten  services,  and  very  numerous 
organ  pieces  and  some  songs,  all  of  which  show 
great  taste  and  refinement  of  treatment.       M. 

SELLINGER'S  ROUND,  a  16th.century  tune 
and  round  dance,  of  unknown  authorship,  which 
had  immense  popularity  during  the  16th  and 
17th  centuries.  The  original  form  of  the  title 
was  doubtless  '  St.  Leger's  Round. '  The  delight- 
ful vigour  and  unusual  character  of  the  air 
are  felt  to-day,  when  played  before  a  modem 
audience,  as  fully  as  in  its  own  period.  It  is 
frequently  referred  to  in  16th-  and  1 7th-century 
literature,  including  Bcuxkus  Bounties  1698  ; 
Morloy's  Plaine  and  Ecuie  Introduction^  1597, 
and  elsewhere.  In  some  cases  the  sub-title  '  or 
the  Beginning  of  the  World '  is  found  added  to 
it,  and  this  is  partly  explained  in  a  comedy 


named  *  Lingua,'  1607.  An  excellent  version  of 
the  tune,  arranged  with  variations  by  William 
Byrd,  is  found  in  *The  Fitzwilliam  Vii-ginal 
Book,'  and  other  copies  of  the  air  are  in  Lady 
Neville's  Virginal  Book  and  William  Ballet's 
Lute-book. 

Printed  copies,  which  differ  considerably, 
and  are  not  so  good  as  those  referred  to,  appear 
in  some  of  the  Play  ford  publications,  including 
early  editions  of '  Tlie  Dancing  Master, ' '  Musick's 
Handmaid,'  and  'Musick's  delight  on  the  Citli- 
ren.'  The  original  dance  has  probably  been  a 
May-pole  one,  and  this  is  borne  out  by  a  rude 
wood -cut  on  the  title-page  of  a  17th-century 
'Garland,'  where  figures  are  depicted  dancing 
round  a  may-pole,  and  '  Hey  for  Bellinger's 
Round '  inscribed  above  them. 

The  following  is  the  air,  without  the  varia- 
tions and  harmony,  in  the  Fitzwilliam  Book. 

Sellengers  Mound, 
Prom  Th£  FWnoxlliam  Virginal  Book, 


p3E^i@?s^^s^?s 


-^^^^m 


i^^^^s 


^^^^^^^^s 


SELNECCER,  or  SELENECCER,  Niko- 
LATJS,  bom  Dec.  6,  1528,  at  Hersbmck  near 
Nuremberg,  was  organist  of  the  Burgkapelle 
in  that  city,  at  the  age  of  twelve,  and  studied 
at  Wittenberg  from  1549.  From  1557  to  1561 
he  was  court  preacher  and  tutor  in  Dresden, 
and  subsequently  held  professional  posts  in 
Jena  (1561-68),  Leipzig  (1 568-70),  Wolfenbiittel 
(1570-74),  Leipzig  again  (1574-88).  In  the 
latter  year  he  was  deprived  of  his  offices  and 
became  Superintendent  at  Hildesheim,  until  at 
the  death  of  the  Elector  Christian  of  Saxony  he 
was  reinstated.  He  was  an  eminent  theologian, 
and  wrote  the  words  and  music  of  many  hymns  ; 
his  great  work  in  this  direction  was  published 
at  Leipzig  in  1587,  under  the  title  'Christliche 
Psalmen,  Lieder,  vnd  Kirchengesenge,'  set  for 
four  voices,  Selneccer's  own  compositions  being 
marked  with  his  initials.  Specimens  of  his 
music  are  given  in  several  of  the  hymn-books  of 
the  17th  century.     (Quellcn-Lcxikm,)       M. 

SEMBRICH,  Marzella  (original  name 
Praxede  Marcelline  Kochanska),  bom  Feb.  15, 
1858,  at  Wisniewczyk,  Galicia,  the  daughter 
of  a  musician,  Kasimir  Kochanski,  Sembrich 
being  her  mother's  maiden  name.  She  was 
taught  music  by  her  father,  and  played  in 
public  both  piano  and  violin    at  the  age  of 


410 


SEMELE 


SEMIBREVE 


twelve  ;  she  afterwards  received  further  instruc- 
tion on  these  instruments  from  Stengel  (to  whom 
she  was  afterwards  married),  and  Brustermann, 
both  professors  at  Lemberg.  She  then  went  to 
Vienna,  for  completion  of  her  studies  under 
Liszt,  but  discovering  herself  to  be  the  possessor 
of  a  fine  voice,  determined  to  attempt  a  vocal 
career,  and  for  that  purpose  studied  singing  at 
Vienna,  under  Rokitanskj,  and  later  at  Milan 
under  Lamperti  the  younger.  On  June  8, 1877, 
she  made  her  d^but  at  Athens  as  Elvira  in 
*I  Puritani,'  and  was  highly  successful  there 
for  two  months  in  that,  and  as  Lucia  and 
Dinorah.  She  returned  to  Vienna,  studied  the 
German  repertoire  under  Professor  Richard 
Lewy  the  horn -player,  and  in  October  1878 
made  a  highly  successful  d^but  at  Dresden  as 
Lucia.  She  remained  there  until  the  spring  of 
1880,  becoming  famous  in  coloratura  parts. 
After  singing  at  the  Lower  Rhine  Musical 
Festival  of  1880  she  made  her  first  appearance 
in  England  on  June  12  of  the  same  year  at  the 
Royal  Italian  Opera  as  Luda,  and  was  greatly 
successful  in  that,  Amina,  and  Margaret  of 
Valois.  She  returned  there  for  the  seasons 
1881-84,  playing  Dinorah,  and  Constance  in  the 
revival  of  Mozart's  '  Entfiihrung.'  Dinorah  and 
Astrifiammante  were  among  her  best  parts.  At 
Benedict's  *  Jubilee '  Concert  at  the  Albert  Hall, 
June  7,  1884,  she  sang  and  played  the  violin 
with  great  success.  After  singing  with  much 
success  in  Paris,  Russia,  Spain,  the  United 
States,  etc.,  she  appeared  at  L.  E.  Bach's  con- 
cert at  St.  James's  Hall,  June  25,  1889,  and 
was  to  have  sung  in  opera  at  Her  Majesty's 
Theatre,  but  for  the  premature  closing  of  the 
season  there.  She  reappeared  as  Susanna  at 
Coven t  Garden  in  1896.  Of  late  her  career, 
both  in  opera  and  concerts,  has  been  divided 
between  Austria  and  the  United  States. 
Madame  Sembrich's  voice  is  about  two  and  a 
half  octaves  in  compass,  viz.  from  the  lower  C 
to  F  in  alt,  and  is  very  brilliant  in  the  upper 
register ;  she  also  possesses  great  powers  of 
execution.  A.  c. 

SEMELE,  a  secular  oratorio  by  Handel,  -was 
composed  in  1743,  between  June  3  and  July  4. 
The  libretto  is  slightly  altered  from  an  opera- 
book  of  Congreve's,  written  in  1707.  *  Semele ' 
is  termed  by  Arnold  'A  Dramatic  Perform- 
ance,' by  Main  waring  *An  English  opera  but 
called  an  Oratorio,'  while  it  was  announced  at 
different  times  in  the  General  Advertiser  as 
*  Semele,  after  the  manner  of  an  Opera,'  and 
'  Semele,  after  the  manner  of  an  Oratorio. '  The 
first  performance  took  place  on  Feb.  10,  1744, 
at  Covent  Garden  Theatre,  where  it  was  re- 
peated three  times  in  the  same  year.  In  the 
following  December  it  was  performed  twice,  with 
additions  and  alterations,  at  the  King's  Theatre, 
Haymarket,  and  was  revived  by  Smith  and 
Stanley  in  1762.  The  Cambridge  University 
Musical  Society  revived  it  on  Nov.  27,  1878. 


The  original  MS.  is  in  Buckingham  Palace,  and 
there  are  some  interesting  sketches  (pTincipally 
of  Act  iii.)  in  the  FitzwilUam  Museum  at 
Cambridge.  w.  b.  s. 

SEMET,  Th6ophilb,  bom  at  Lille,  Sept.  d, 
1824.  The  prizes  he  gained  at  the  local  Con- 
servatoire procured  him  a  grant  firam  the 
municipality  to  study  in  Paris,  and  he  entered 
Hal6vy's  class  for  composition.  His  first  work 
was  merely  a  few  songs  and  some  charming 
orchestral  music  for  '  La  petite  Fadette,'  vaude- 
ville in  two  acts  (Vari^tes,  Dec  28,  1850),  but 
he  at  length  procured  a  better  opportunity,  and 
his  *  Nuits  d'Espagne,'  two  acts  (May  26),  and 
'  La  Demoiselle  d'honneur,'  three  acts  (Dec  30). 
were  both  produced  in  1857  with  success  at  the 
Th^tre  Lyrique  ;  *  Gil  Bias '  (March  26, 1860X 
an  opera- comique  in  five  acts,  and  'Ondine,' 
three  acts  (Jan.  7,  1863),  followed  at  the  same 
theatre,  and  his  next  work,  *  La  petite  Fadette ' 
(Sept.  11,  1869),  was  produced  at  the  Opera- 
Comique. 

Beddes  his  operas  he  composed  songs  for  a 
piece  called  'Constantinople'  (1854);  sougs ; 
a  cantata  (performed  at  the  Op^ra,  August  15, 
1862) ;  airs  de  ballet  for  *  Lee  Pirates  de  la 
Savane'  (1867),  and  many  part-songs,  some  of 
which,  especially  *  La  Danse  des  Sylphes,'  are 
remarkable.  He  was  drummer  at  the  Opt^ra 
for  many  years  ;  he  died  at  Corbeil,  near  Paris, 
April  15,  1888.  o.  c 

SEMIBBEVE  (Lat.  Semibrems ;  ItaL  S^mi- 
breve  ;  Fr.  Bande  ;  Germ.  Taktnote,  Gunze  Xole, 
whence  the  American  term  *  whole  note'). 
Franco  of  Cologne,  the  earliest -known  writer 
on  measured  music  {Canius  mensurdbilia)  who 
furnishes  the  types  from  which  the  forme  of 
our  modem  notation  are  evidently  deriired,  de- 
scribes the  semibreve  as  the  shortest  note  in  use, 
though  no  very  long  time  elapsed  before  the 
minim  was  added  to  the  list.  The  forms  of 
these  notes  are  generally  supposed  to  have  been 
suggested  by  those  of  the  Keumes  of  an  earlier 
period,  the  Breve  and  Semibreve  being  derived 
from  the  Punctum.  Don  Nicola  Vioentioo. 
however,  in  his  Z'  aniiea  Musica  ridoUa  aUa 
inodema  PrcUtica,  printed  at  Rome  in  1555, 
refers  the  forms  of  all  these  notes  to  a  different 
origin ;  deriving  the  Large,  the  Long,  and  the 
Breve  from  the  B  quadratum,  or  square  B  (t?) ; 
and  the  Semibreve  from  the  B  rofundum  ( b)  '* 
the  transformation  being  effected,  in  each  case, 
by  depriving  the  figure  of  one  or  both  of  its  taila. 
But  Vicentino  has  fallen  into  so  many  palpable 
errors  that  we  cannot  trust  him  ;  and,  in  the 
present  instance,  his  theory  certainly  does  not 
accord  with  that  early  form  of  the  Semibrey« 
which  is  produced  by  cutting  the  Breve  (•)  ™ 
half,  diagonally,  thus,  (r).  This  form  eoon 
gave  way  to  the  Lozenge  (♦or  o),  which  ▼** 
retained  in  use  until  late  in  the  17th  centory, 
when  it  was  replaced  in  measured  music  by  the 
round  note  of  our  present  system  (^),  though 


SEMICHORUS 


SEMIQUAVER 


411 


in  the  Gregorian  system  of  notation  the  lozenge 
rem&ina  in  use  to  the  present  day. 

Until  the  beginning  of  the  I7th  centory, 
the  Semibreve  represented  one -third  of  a 
Perfect  Breve,  and  the  half  of  an  Imperfect 
one.  In  the  Greater  Prolation  it  was  equal 
lo  three  Minims ;  in  the  Lesser  to  two.  In 
either  case  it  was  accepted  as  the  norm  of  all 
other  notes,  and  was  held  to  constitute  a 
complete  measure  or  stroke.  In  the  Greater 
Prolation — or,  as  we  should  now  call  it,  triple 
time — ^this  stroke  was  indicated  by  a  single 
down-beat  of  the  hand,  representing  what  we 
write  as  a  dotted  Semibreve.  In  the  Lesser 
Prolation — the  common  time  of  the  modem 
system — it  was  indicated  by  a  down  and  an 
up  beat,  called  respectively  the  Thesis  and  the 
Arsis  of  the  measure.  It  will  be  understood 
that  these  two  beats  represented  two  minims  ; 
and,  happily  for  us,  we  are  not  left  altogether 
in  doubt  as  to  the  average  pace  at  which  these 
two  Mmitng  were  sung,  in  ^e  great  polyphonic 
compositions  of  the  15th  and  16  th  centuries : 
for,  apart  from  the  traditions  of  the  Sistine 
Chapel,  early  writers  have  left  a  very  definite 
rule  for  our  guidance.  The  Thesis  and  Arsis 
of  the  Lesser  Prolation,  they  say,  represent  the 
beats  of  the  human  pulse.  Now,  the  rapidity 
of  the  human  pulse,  taking  into  calculation  the 
variations  exhibited  at  all  ages,  and  ih  both 
sexes,  ranges  between  66*7  and  140  per  minute  : 
allowing,  therefore,  for  roughness  of  calculation, 
we  may  say  that  the  compositions  of  Josquin 
des  Pr^,  and  Palestrina,  may  be  safely  in- 
terpreted between  J  =60,   and  J  =140 — a 

sufficiently  extended  range  for  any  conductor. 

In  modem  music  the  Semibreve  retains 
more  than  one  of  the  oharactei-istics  that  dis- 
tinguished it  in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries. 
It  is  now,  indeed,  the  longest  instead  of  the 
shortest  note  in  common  use,  for  the  employ- 
ment of  the  Breve  is  altogether  exceptional : 
but  it  is  none  the  less  the  norm  from  which 
all  other  notes  are  derived.  We  may  say  that, 
of  all  the  notes  now  in  use,  the  Semibreve  is 
the  one  which  unites  us  most  closely  to  the 
system  of  those  who  invented  the  germ  of  the 
method  we  ourselves  follow ;  and  it  furnishes 
the  safest  guide  we  know  of  to  the  right  under- 
standing of  their  works.  w.  s.  s. 

SEMICHORUS,  i.e.  Half -chorus;  a  word 
used  to  denote  a  kind  of  antiphonal  effect  pro- 
duced by  employing  half  the  number  of  voices 
at  certain  points,  and  contrasting  this  smaller 
body  of  sound  with  the  full  choras.  m. 

SEMICROMA  (Lat.  Semichrama;  Eng. 
Quaver,  or  Semiquaver),  The  Italian  name 
for  the  Semiquaver.  Old  writers,  however, 
sometimes  apply  the  term  Croma  to  the  crotchet, 
and  Semicroma  to  the  quaver ;  and,  so  vague 
was  once  the  distinction  between  the  two,  that 
even  Baretti,  writing  as  late  as  1824,  makes 


the  word  'Croma'  signify  *a  crotchet  or 
quaver.'  The  etymology  of  the  word  Chroma 
is  derived  from  the  very  early  custom  of  using 
red  notes  intermixed  with  black  ones.  The 
red  notes  being  sung  more  quickly  than  the 
black  ones,  the  duration  of  a  red  minim  was  a 
little  longer  than  that  of  a  black  Semiminim 
(or  crotchet)  ;  and  the  note  was  called  Chroma 
on  account  of  its  colour.  [See  Notation, 
Quaver.]  w.  s.  r. 

SEMIFUSA.  The  Latin  name  for  the  Semi- 
quaver ;  but  sometimes  applied  to  the  Quaver 
also.  The  etymology  of  the  term  is  not  very 
clear.  The  most  probable  theory  is  that  which 
traces  it  to  a  fancied  resemblance  between  the 
early  form  of  the  Quaver,  and  that  of  a  spindle 
(fusiisy     [See  Notation,  Quaver.]      w.  s.  r. 

SEMIMINIMA  MAJOR  and  minor  (Eng. 
Greater,  and  Lesser  Sal/- Minim  :=  Crotchet, 
and  Quaver  ;  Ital.  Croma  e  Semicroma  ;  Germ. 
Viertel  und  Aehtel ;  French  Noire  et  Croehe). 
Though  the  Minim  was  so  called,  because,  at 
the  time  of  its  invention,  it  was  the  smallest 
(i.e.  the  shortest)  of  all  notes,  composers  soon 
found  it  convenient  to  divide  it  in  half,  and 
even  into  four  parts.  Frauchinus  Gafurius, 
quoting  from  Prosdocimus  de  Beldemandis, 
describes  and  figures  these  divisions  in  his 
Practioa  Afusicae,  printed  in  1496.  The  Greater 
Semiminima,  the  equivalent  of  the  modern 
crotchet,    was   a   black   lozenge -headed   note, 

with  a  tail,  ^;  the  Lesser  Semiminima,  now 
called  the  quaver,  was  a  similar  note,  with  a 

single  hook,  4.  Sometimes  the  head  of  the 
greater  Semiminim  was  '  void ' — that  is  to  say, 
open  or  white — in  which  case,  this  note  also 
had  a  hook,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  minim, 

^ ;  and,  when  this  hooked  form  was  used,  the 
figure  which  we  have  described  above  as  proper 
to  the  Greater  Semiminim  was  used  for  the 
Lesser  one.  When  black  and  red  notes  were 
used  together  the  red  minim  served  as  the 
diminutive  of  the  black  one ;  and  the  Semiminim 
was  called  Ghromxi,  on  account  of  its  colour.  This 
name  was  afterwards  applied  both  to  the  Greater 
and  the  Lesser  Semiminim  ;  and  hence  it  came 
to  pass  that,  in  later  times,  the  term  Chroma 
was  applied  indiscriminately  to  the  crotchet 
and  the  quaver.     [See  Notation.]       w.  s.  r. 

SEMIQUAVER  (Lat.  Semifusa ;  Ital.  Semi- 
croma,  Biseroma,  Semifusa  ;  Germ.  Sechzchntel, 
whence  the  American  term.  Sixteenth  Note  ;  Fr. 
DovMe  eroche).  The  sixteenth  part  of  a  semi- 
breve. 

Tlie  earliest  mention  of  the  Semiquaver 
occurs  in  the  Fractica  Miisiea^  of  Franohinus 
Gafurius,  printed  at  Milan  in  1496.  It  may 
be  found — though  very  rarely — in  the  printed 
polyphonic  music  of  the  16th  century,  in  the 
form  of  a  black  lozenge -headed  note,  with  a 

double  hook,  ^  or  4  ;   and  it  is  manifestly 


412 


SEMIRAMIDE 


SENAILL6 


from  this  early  type  that  oui*  present  figure 
is  derived.  In  the  16th  century  both  Semi- 
quavers and  Quavers  were  always  printed  with 
separate  hooks.  The  custom  of  joining  Quavers 
together  by  a  single  line,  and  Semiquavers  by 
a  double  one,  dates  from  the  17th  century  ; 
and  the  credit  of  the  invention  is  generally 
accorded  to  John  Heptinstall,  about  1690. 
[See  Notation.]  w.  s.  jl 

SEMIRAMIDE  (i.e.  Semiramis,  Empress  of 
Nineveh).  A  favourite  subject  with  Italian 
writers  of  operas.  Librettos  upon  it  were  written 
by  Moniglia,  Apostolo  Zeno,  and  Silvani ;  and 
Clement's  Dict.i(mnaire  Lyrique  contains  a  list 
of  twenty -one  operas  composed  to  one  or  other 
of  these  by  the  masters  of  the  18  th  century. 
Voltaire's  play  on  the  same  subject  was  adapted 
to  music  and  set  by  Graun  (Berlin,  1764),  and 
Catel  (1 802).  Rossini's  well-known  chef-d^csuvre 
was  written  to  a  libretto  by  Rossi,  and  produced 
at  Venice,  Feb.  8,  1823  ;  and  in  London,  at  the 
King's  Theatre,  July  16,  1824.  In  French,  as 
'  Semiramis,'  it  appeared  in  Paris,  July  9, 1860. 
— SEMIRAMIDE  BicoNosciUTA,  words  by  Meta- 
stasio,  was  set  by  Vinci,  Porpora,  Cocchi,  Sarti, 
Traetta,  Meyerbeer,  and  Gluck — the  last  of  these 
at  Vienna  in  1748.  o. 

SEMITONE  (from  the  Greek  pfurdpiop).  Half 
a  tone ;  the  smallest  interval  in  the  ordinary 
musical  scales.  The  semitone  may  be  of  different 
kinds,  each  of  which  has  a  different  theoretical 
magnitude. 

Since  the  invention  of  the  diatonic  scale  the 
natural  intervalof  the  fourth  has  been  subdivided 
artificially  into  two  tones  and  a  semitone.  In  the 
ancient  Greek  time  the  two  tones  were  both  what 
are  now  called  major  tones,  and  the  hemitone 
had  a  magnitude  determined  by  the  difference 
between  their  sum  and  the  fourth ;  but  when 
harmony  began  to  prevail,  one  of  the  tones  was 
diminished  to  a  minor  tone,  and  this  gave  the 
modem  semitone  a  little  greater  value.  The 
semitone,  so  formed,  as  belonging  to  the  diatonic 
scale  (from  B  to  C,  or  from  E  to  F  for  example) 
is  called  a  diatonic  semitone. 

The  introduction  of  chromatic  notes  gave  rise 
to  a  third  kind  of  semitone,  as  from  C  to  Cjt  or 
from  G  to  Gb  ;  this  is  called  a  chromatic  semi- 
tone and  has  a  less  magnitude  than  the  diatonic 
one. 

Finally  came  the  great  simplification  of  music 
by  dividing  the  octave  into  twelve  equal  intervals, 
each  of  which  was  ctkUed&mean  semitone  ;  thus 
abolishing  practically  the  difference  between  the 
diatonic  and  the  chromatic  values.  A  semitone 
may  now  be  considered,  in  practical  use,  as 
simply  the  interval  between  the  sounds  given  by 
any  two  adjoining  keys  on  a  well- tuned  piano. 

The  relations  between  the  theoretical  magni- 
tudes of  the  different  kinds  of  semitones  are 
about  as  follows  :  If  we  represent  the  magnitude 
of  a  mean  semitone  by  26,  the  true  magnitude  of 
a  diatonic  semitone  will  be  about  28  ;  of  a  chro- 


matic semitone  about  18  ;  and  of  the  ancient 
Greek  hemitone  about  28.  w.  p. 

SEMPLICE,  *  simple ' ;  a  direction  denoting 
that  the  passage  so  marked  is  to  be  performed 
without  any  adornment  or  deviation  from  the 
time,  used  particularly  in  passages  of  which  the 
character  might  possibly  be  misunderstood.  The 
Arietta  which  forms  the  subject  of  the  variations 
in  Beethoven 's  last  PF.  Sonata,  op.  1 1 1,  is  marked 
'  Adagio  molto  semplioe  cantabile. '  m. 

SEMPRE,  'always,'  a  word  used  in  conjunc- 
tion with  some  other  mark  of  time  or  expression 
to  signify  that  such  mark  is  to  remain  in  force 
until  a  new  direction  appears.  Its  purpose  is 
to  remind  the  performer  of  the  directions  which 
might  otherwise  be  forgotten — as  in  the  scherzo 
of  the  Eroica  Symphony,  where  the  direction 
Sempre  pp,  e  sbcuxsaJbo  is  repeated  again  and  again 
throughout  the  movement.  m. 

SENAILL^  Jean  Baptists,  a  violinist  of 
eminence,  at  one  time  member  of  the  band  of 
Louis  XV. ,  bom  in  Paris  in  the  parish  of  Saint 
Germain  I'Auxerrois  on  Nov.  23,  1687.  He 
inherited  his  musical  gifts  from  his  father,  who 
played  the  Jucutboi^  at  the  Opera.  He  received 
his  earliest  violin  instruction  from  Queversin, 
a  member  of  the  famous  '  Vingt-quatre  violons.' 
and  during  his  period  of  study  with  this  master 
assisted  a  mattre  d  danser  named  BonnefonK 
His  next  teacher  was  Corelli's  excellent  pupil 
Jean  Baptiste  Auet,  generally  known  as  Baptiste, 
whose  teaching  imbued  him  with  such  a  longing 
to  visit  Italy  that  he  travelled  to  Modena. 
where  he  became  a  pupil  of  Antonio  ViUli. 
According  to  the  account  of  Senaill^  given  by 
Jacques  Lacombe  in  his  Didi&nnaire  PortaHf 
des  Beaux-art^  (Paris,  1752),  Auet's  teacliing 
enabled  his  pupil  to  surpass  the  Italian  vioUnist ; 
for  on  his  arrival  at  Modena,  during  the  time 
of  the  annual  fair  held  in  the  month  of  May, 
the  composer  of  the  opera  then  being  performed, 
begged  him  to  play  in  his  orchestra,  and  on 
gaining  his  consent  installed  him  with  ceremony 
in  a  place  prepared  for  him  above  the  other 
members  of  the  band.  After  the  performance, 
he  was  presented  to  the  Duke  and  Duchess  of 
Modena :  played  several  of  his  own  sonatas 
before  them  and  their  guests  with  unqualified 
success,  eventually  receiving  an  appointment  in 
the  music  of  the  court.  In  1719  he  seems  to 
have  returned  to  Paris,  where  the  special  recom- 
mendation of  the  Duchess  of  Modena,  daughter 
of  the  Duke  d'Orl^ns — at  that  time  Regent  of 
France — procured  him  a  position  in  the  Court 
band.  A  similar  appointment  was  accorded 
him  in  the  private  band  of  Louis  XV.,  and  he 
held  this  until  his  death,  when  he  was  succeeded 
by  Joseph  Francoeur. 

Senaill^  ranked  as  one  of  the  best  performers 
of  his  time  in  France.  His  importation  of  the 
Italian  methods  of  playing  influenced  the 
French  school — at  that  time  in  its  first  state 
of    development — almost    as    much    as    did 


SEKESINO 


SENESINO 


413 


Leclair.  Through  hia  two  best  pupils  Gnignon 
and  Guillemain,  his  traditions  were  transmitted 
and  preserved.  His  compositions  show  the 
influence  of  Ck)relli  ;  they  comprised  five  books 
of  Sonatas  for  violin  alone,  and  were  published 
in  books  of  ten  sonatas  in  the  following  years  : 
1710,  1712,  1716,  1721,  1727.  An  Aria  of 
bis  for  Pf.  and  V .  is  included  in  G.  Jensen's '  Glas- 
aiache  Violin  Musik, '  Heft  iii.  A  Sarabande  and 
Allemanda  (Sonate  h  violon  seul)  is  arranged 
by  Alfred  Mofiat.  A  Sonata  in  G  edited  by 
Alfred  Mofiat  is  in  Simrock's  *  Meister-Schule 
fur  Violine  mit  Begleitung  des  Pianoforte.' 
Alard  includes  Senaille's  Ninth  Sonata  in 
his  'Maitres  Chissiques  de  Violon*  (1862), 
and  G.  Jensen  has  arranged  the  same  Sonata 
for  piano  and  violin  which  is  published  in 
'Classische  Violin  Musik,'  1890.  A  com- 
position of  Senaille's  is  also  to  be  found  in 
£.  M.  £.  Deldevez's  *  Pieces  diverses  choisies' 
(Paris,  Richault,  1868).— A.  Vidal,  Les  In- 
strumetUs  d  Archet ;  G.  Hart,  The  Violin  aiid 
its  Music ;  Ghoron  et  FayoUe,  I}ict,  Hist,  des 
Mms,  \  Felix  Huet,  Etudes  sur  les  diff4rentes 
jScoles  de  Violon  ;  F^tis,  Biog,  des  Mils,  ;  J. 
lAcombe,  Dictiannaire  des  Beaitx-Arts ;  Clarke, 
Diet,  of  Fiddlers,  E.  H-A. 

SENESINO,  Francesco  Bernardi  detto, 
one  of  the  most  famous  of  the  sopranists  who 
fionrished  in  the  18th  century.  He  was  bom 
about  1680,  at  Siena  (whence  he  derived  his 
name),  and  received  his  musical  education  from 
Bemacchi,  at  Bologna.  In  1719  he  was  sing- 
ing at  the  Court  theatre  of  Saxony,  and  when 
Handel  came  to  Dresden  in  quest  of  singers, 
was  engaged  by  him  for  London.  His  first 
appearance  in  this  country  (Nov.  1720)  was 
in  Baonondni's  opera  '  Astarto,'  which  at  once 
established  him  in  public  favour.  He  sang 
next  in  a  revival  of  Handel's  *  Floridanto,'  and 
in  the  celebrated  *  Muzio  Scsevola ' ;  afterwards 
in  Handel's  'Ottone,'  *Flavio,'  and  *Giulio 
Ce8ai«'  (1723),  *  Tamerlane'  (1724),  *Rode. 
linda'  (1726),  *Scipio'  and  '  Alessandro '  (1726), 
and  in  various  operas  and  pasticcioe  by  other 
composers.  In  '  Giulio  Cesare  *  his  declamation 
of  tiie  famous  accompanied  recitative  'Alma 
del  gran  Pompeo '  created  a  special  sensation. 
A  writer  in  the  I/mdon  Magazine  (Feb.  1733) 
relates  an  amusing  anecdote  of  Senesino  in  this 
opera ;  'When  I  was  last  at  the  opera  of  ''Julius 
Caesar,"  a  piece  of  the  machinery  tumbled  down 
from  the  roof  of  the  theatre  upon  the  stage, 
just  as  Senesino  had  chanted  forth  these 
words  "Cesare  non  seppe  mai  che  sia  timore" 
(Caesar  never  knew  fear).  The  poor  hero  was 
so  frightened  that  he  trembled,  lost  his  voice, 
and  fell  crying.  Every  tyrant  or  tyrannical 
minister  is  just  such  a  Caesar  as  Senesino.' 
'  Alessandro '  had  a  run  of  two  months,  and  its 
last  performance,  advertised  for  June  7,  was 
prevented  by  the  sudden  illness  of  Senesino, 
who,  as  soon  as  he  was  able  to  travel,  set  off 


for  Italy,  for  the  recovery  of  his  health,  promis- 
ing to  return  the  next  winter.  This  promise, 
however,  was  not  kept  in  time  to  enable  the 
Opera-house  to  open  till  after  Christmas. 

Senesino  reappeared  in  Handel's  'Admeto,' 
early  in  1727.  This  was  followed  in  the  same 
year  by  *  Riccardo  Imo,'  and  in  1728  by  '  Siroe  * 
and  'Tolomeo,'  in  which  a  great  effect  was 
made  by  the  echo  song,  'Dite  che  fa,'  sung  by 
Guzzoni,  with  many  of  the  passages  repeated 
behind  the  scenes  by  Senesino.  But  now, 
after  several  unprosperous  seasons,  the  society 
called  the  Royal  Academy  was  dissolved. 
Hawkins  attributes  to  this  time  the  quarrel 
which  ended  in  a  final  rupture  betuveen  Senesino 
and  the  great  composer.  But  this  is  disproved 
by  the  fact  that  Senesino  returned  to  sing  for 
Handel  in  1730.  That  there  was,  however, 
much  discord  in  the  company  before  it  separated 
is  true  enough. 

He  rejoined  the  Haymarket  company,  under 
Handel's  management,  at  a  salary  of  1400 
guineas,  and  appeared  on  Feb.  2,  1731,  in 
'Poro,'  then  considered  a  great  success.  In 
the  same  year  were  revived  'Rodelinda'  and 
*  Rinaldo.'  *  Ezio '  and  *  Sosarme '  were  pro- 
duced in  1732.  Besides  singing  in  all  these, 
Senesino  took  part  (May  2,  1732)  in  '  Esther,' 
Handel's  first  oratorio,  described  as  'a  new 
species  of  exhibition  at  the  Opera-house,'  and 
on  June  10,  in  a  curious  performance,  under 
the  composer's  own  direction,  of  'Acis  and 
Galatea.'  Several  aire  and  three  choruses  were 
interpolated  on  this  occasion,  from  Handel's 
early  Neapolitan  Serenata  on  the  same  subject, 
and  the  piece  was  sung  partly  in  English  and 
partly  in  Italian. 

The  last  of  Handel's  operas  in  which  Senesino 
appeared,  was  'Orlando'  (Jan.  1733),  but  he 
took  part  later  in  the  same  season  in  '  Deborah,' 
described  then  as  an  opera,  and  performed  (as 
was  '  Esther ')  on  opera  nights.  The  long  im- 
pending quarrel  now  came  to  a  crisis.  'All 
these  wealthy  adversaries  of  Handel  naturally 
espoused  the  cause  of  Senesino  from  the  outset 
.  .  .  and  ended  by  demanding  that  Senesino 
should  be  retained  .  .  .  Handel  replied  that 
Senesino  should  never  reappear  in  his  theatre.' 
(Schoelcher.)  Accordingly,  says  Bumey,  'the 
nobility  and  gentry  opened  a  subscription  for 
Italian  operas  at  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  inviting 
Porpora  thither  to  compose  and  conduct,  and  en- 
gaging Senesino,  Guzzoni,  Montagnana,  Segatti, 
Bertolli,  and  afterwards  Farinelli,  to  perform 
there.'  There  Senesino  remained  till  1785, 
when  he  returned  to  Siena,  with  a  fortune  of 
£15,000,  and  built  himself  a  house. 

Senesino's  voice  was  a  mezzo-soprano,  or, 
according  to  some,  a  contralto.  Although 
limited  in  compass  it  was  considered  by  many 
good  judges  to  be  superior  in  quality  even  to 
that  of  Farinelli.  It  was  clear,  penetrating, 
and  flexible,  hia  intonation  faultless,  his  shake 


414 


SENFF 


SEPTET 


perfect.  Purity,  simplicity,  and  expressiveness 
were  the  characteristics  of  his  style,  while  for 
the  delivery  of  recitative  '  he  had  not  his  feUow 
in  Europe.' 

In  1739  Senesino  was  living  at  Florence,  and 
sang  a  duet  with  the  Archduchess  Maria  Theresa 
there.     He  died  about  1750.  F.  a.  m. 

SENFF,  Baktholf,  an  eminent  German 
music -publisher,  was  bom  at  Friedrichshall, 
Coburg,  Sept.  2,  1815.  He  founded  the  house 
which  bears  his  name,  in  Leipzig,  in  1850, 
and  his  catalogue  contains  original  editions  of 
Mendelssohn,  Schumann,  Brahms  (opp.  5,  6, 
Gavotte  by  Gluck,  6  Studien  fur  PF.),  Gade, 
Hiller,  Reinecke,  Reitz,  Rubinstein,  and  other 
masters,  as  well  as  the  excellent  educational 
works  of  Louis  Kohler. 

Senff  was  founder,  editor,  and  proprietor  of 
the  well-known  musical  periodical  SigncUe  fur 
die  musikcdische  Welt,  [See  Periodicals, 
Musical,  vol.  iii.  p.  686a.]  He  died  at  Baden- 
weiler,  June  25,  1900.  o. 

SENFL,  or  SENFEL,  Ludwio,  bom  at  Zurich 
towards  the  end  of  the  1 6th  century.  A  volume 
of  MS.  songs  in  the  Vienna  library  contains 
some  verses,  written  and  set  to  music  by  Senfl 
himself,  describing  his  early  enthusiasm  for 
music,  his  education  under  Heinrich  Isaac,  and 
his  gratitude  to  that  master.  At  an  early  age 
he  entered  the  Court  chapel  of  Maximilian  I., 
ultimately  succeeded  Isaac  as  chapel-master,  and 
held  that  office  till  the  emperor's  death  (Jan. 
1519),  on  which  occasion  he  wrote  music  to  the 
words  '  Quis  dabit  oculis  nostris  fontem  lacri- 
marum.'  In  1520  he  was  at  Augsburg,  received 
a  present  of  fifty  gulden  from  Charles  Y.  on 
Feb.  19,  and  in  the  following  November  per- 
sonally edited  the  *  Liber  selectarumCantionum,' 
one  of  the  first  music  books  printed  in  Germany. 
Thence  he  went  to  Munich,  though  in  what 
capacity  is  uncertain.  On  one  title-page  (1526) 
he  is  called  'Musicus  intonator,'  on  another 
(1584)  *Musicus  primarius,*  of  the  Duke  of 
Bavaria,  while  in  his  own  letters  he  subscribes 
himself  simply  '  Componist  zu  Mlinchen.'  The 
date  of  his  death  is  unknown.  In  Forster's 
collection  of  Liedlein  (preface  dated  Jan.  SI, 
1556)he  is  spoken  of  as  'L.  S.  seliger'  (t.e.  dead) ; 
and  if  the  title  *  musicus  primarius '  stands  for 
'chapel-master'  he  must  have  died  or  retired 
some  years  before,  since  Ludwig  Daser  had  held 
that  office  for  some  years  when  Lassus  went  to 
Munich  in  1557. 

The  well-known  letter  from  Luther  to  Senfl  ^ 
is  no  evidence  that  the  composer  had  worked 
specially  for  the  Reformed  Church,  though  the 
existence  of  the  correspondence  has  given  rise 
to  that  idea.  Indeed  his  connection  with  the 
strictly  Catholic  court  of  Munich  would,  as 
F6tis  points  out,  render  it  most  improbable.  > 
Four  letters  written  by  Senfl  to  the  Margrave 

1  Dated  Cobaif  .  Oct.  4.  ISM.    The  letter  Ib  printed  In  Dr.  M. 
LviKtrt  QrdMnkfn  Mer  dim  MutUt,  F.  A.  Beck  (Berlin.  182S}.  p.  8& 
1  Blographte  du  Mutioiefu,  t1.  44. 


Albrecht  of  Brandenbuig  and  to  Geoig  Schal- 
theis  are  printed  in  the  AUgemeine  Mutik. 
ZeUwng,  for  August  12,  1868. 

A  portrait  engraved  on  a  medal  by  HagensDer 
of  Augsburg,  with  the  inscription  <  Ludo wicos 
Senfel,'  and  on  the  reverse  *Psallam  deo  meo 
quamdiu  fiiero  1529,'  is  in  the  collection  of  coins 
and  medals  at  Vienna. 

The  royal  library  at  Munich  contains  the 
manuscript  church  service  books  began  by  Inac 
and  completed  by  Senfl,  as  well  as  manuscript 
masses  by  the  latter.  His  most  important  pub- 
lished works  are  (1)  'Quinque  salutationes  D. 
N.  Hiesu  Christi,'  etc.  (Norimbergae,  1526); 
(2)  '  Varia  carminum  genera,  quibus  turn  Hora- 
tiiis,  tum  alii  egregii  poetae  •  .  .  hannoniis 
composita '  (Jd.  1584)  ;  (3)  <  121  newe  Lieder ' 
{Id.  1534),  with  81  nos.  by  L.  S.  ;  (4)  'Mag- 
nificat  octo  tonoram,'  a  4,  5  {Id,  1537) ;  (5)  '  115 
guter  newer  Liedlein '  {Id.  1544),  with  64  noe. 
by  L.  S.  Besides  these  Eitner'  names  above 
100  separate  pieces  printed  in  various  collections 
of  the  1 6th  century.  (See  the  QueUen-Lexikon.) 
In  modem  notation  nine  sacred  pieces  (a  4)  are 
given  by  Winterfeld  in  Ikr  evangeiiMhe  Kirehin- 
gesang  (Leiprig,  1848),  and  five  Lieder  by 
Liliencron  in  Die  histarisehen  VoUailieder  der 
Detttachen  (Leipzig,  1865-69).  J.  R.  8.-B. 

SENNET— also  written  Sbnet,  Sensate, 
Synnet,  Cynet,  Signet  or  Signate — a  word 
which  occurs  in  stage-directions  in  the  plays 
of  the  Elizabethan  dramatists,  and  is  used  to 
denote  that  a  particular  fanfare  is  to  be  played. 
The  name  is  probably  derived  from  Seven,  and 
may  indicate  a  flourish  of  seven  notes,  as  sug- 
gested in  Stainer  and  Barrett's  DuAwnary  of 
Musical  Terms,  It  is  a  technical  term,  and  what 
particular  notes  were  played  is  now  unknown. 
A  Sennet  was  distinguished  frt>m  a  Flourish, 
as  is  proved  by  a  stage-direction  in  Dekker's 
Saiiromaatix,  *  Trumpets  sound  a  florisb,  and 
then  a  sennate.'     (Nares's  Glossary.)     w.  b.  s. 

SENZA,  *  without ' — as  Sensa  argano,  *  with- 
out organ  * ;  a  direction  of  frequent  oocurreDce 
throughout  Handel's  organ  concertos;  Sema 
repetizione,  *  without  repeat'  [see  Repeat]; 
Sema  tempo,  'without  time,'  which  occurs  in 
Schumann's  Humoreske,  op.  20,  in  tiie  movr- 
ment  marked  Precipitoso.  The  right  hand  is 
marked  Come  sensa  tempo  {*  Wie  ausaer  tempo,' 
in  German),  while  the  left  remains  inteniy). 
The  same  direction  is  employed  at  the  end  of 
Chopin's  Nocturne,  op.  9,  No.  8.  lu  the 
*Sanctus*  of  Verdi's  Requiem  both  the  terms 
sensa  misura  and  sema  tempo  occur.  x. 

SEPTAYE.  The  compass  of  seven  diatonic 
notes  reckoned  upward  from  the  tonic  or  key- 
note. The  term  is  occasionally  employed  by 
organ-builders.  t.  e. 

SEPTET  (Fr.  Septtior;  Ital.  SepUUo).  A 
com^iosition  for  seven  instruments  or  voices, 
with  or  without  accompaniment. 

3  3UU«ffraphU  (BarUn,  1877). 


SEQUENCE 


SEQUENCE 


415 


Beethoven's  famoiu  Septet  for  strings  and 
wind  naturally  heads  the  list,  and  Hummel's 
for  piaiio,  strings,  and  wind  is  the  next  best 
known,  though  it  is  far  inferior  to  Spohr's 
difficult  and  brilliant  work  for  a  similar  com- 
bination (op.  147).  A  striking,  though  too 
seldom  hewd  composition,  is  Saint -Saens's 
Septet  for  piano,  strings,  and  trumpet,  op.  65. 

Operatic  situations  have  seldom  given  rise 
to,  or  opportunity  for,  vocal  septets,  but  the 
magnificent  specimen  in  the  last  act  of  Goetz's 
'Taming  of  the  Shrew'  deserves  foremost 
mention.  F.  a 

SEQUENCE  is  generally  taken  to  mean  the 
repetition  of  a  definite  group  of  notes  or  chords 
in  different  positions  of  the  scale,  like  regular 
steps  ascending  or  descending,  as  in  the  following 
outlines : — 


The  device  has  been  a  favourite  one  with 
composers,  from  Corelli,  Bach,  and  Handel,  to 
Schumann,  Brahms,  and  Wagner.  The  reason 
is  partly  that  it  is  so  thoroughly  intelligible 
without  being  commonplace.  The  mind  is 
easily  led  from  point  to  point  by  recognising 
each  sucoessive  step  after  the  first  group  of 
chords  has  been  given,  and  is  sufficiently 
interested  by  the  slight  amount  of  diversity 
which  prevails  at  each  repetition.  It  thus 
sapplies  a  vital  element  of  form  in  a  manner 
which  in  some  cases  has  certain  advantages  over 
simple  exact  repetition,  especially  when  short 
phrases  are  repeated  in  juxtaposition.  It  was 
consequently  made  much  use  of  by  early  com- 
posers of  sonatas,  and  instrumental  works  of 
like  nature,  such  as  Corelli  and  his  immediate 
sacoesaoTs ;  and  in  many  cases  examples  make 
their  appearance  at  analogous  points  in  different 
morements,  indicating  the  recognition  of  formal 
principles  in  their  introduction.  This  occurs, 
for  instance,  near  the  beginning  of  the  second 
^If  in  the  following  movements  from  Corelli's 
Opera  Qnarta:  Corrente  and  AUemanda  of 
Sonata  1,  Allemanda  and  Corrente  of  Sonata 
2t  Corrente  of  Sonata  8,  Corrente  and  Oiga 
of  Sonata  4,  Gavotte  of  Sonata  5,  Allemanda 
And  Giga  of  Sonata  6,  and  so  forth.  A 
Ivge  proportion  of  both  ancient  and  modem 
Mquencee  are  diatonic  ;  that  is,  the  groups  are 
repeated  analogously  in  the  same  key  series, 
^thout  consideration  of  the  real  difference  of 
quality  in  the  intervals  ;  so  that  major  sevenths 
pccasionally  answer  minor  sevenths,  and  dimin- 
^W  fifths  perfect  fifths,  and  so  forth  ;  and 
it  has  long  been  considered  allowable  to  in- 


troduce intervals  and  combinations,  in  those 
circumstances,  which  would  otherwise  have 
been  held  inadmissible.  Thus  a  triad  on  the 
leading  note  would  in  ordinary  circumstances 
be  considered  as  a  discord,  and  would  be  limited 
in  progression  accordingly  ;  but  if  it  occurred 
in  a  sequence,  its  limitations  were  freely  obviated 
by  the  preponderant  influence  of  the  established 
form  of  motion.  Such  diatonic  sequences,  called 
also  sometimes  diatonic  successions,  are  ex- 
tremely familiar  in  Handel's  works.  A  typical 
instance  is  a  Capriccio  in  G  major,  published 
in  Pauer's  '  Alte  Mcister,'  which  contains  at 
least  fifteen  sequences,  some  of  them  unusually 
long  ones,  in  four  pages  of  Allegro.  The  subject 
itself  is  a  characteristic  example  of  a  sequence 
in  a  single  part ;  it  is  as  follows  : — 


A  kind  of  sequence  which  was  early  developed 
but  which  is  more  characteristic  of  later  music, 
is  the  modulatory  sequence,  sometimes  also 
called  chromatic.  In  tiiis  form  accidentals  are 
introduced,  sometimes  by  following  exactly  the 
quality  of  the  intervals  where  the  diatonic  series 
would  not  admit  of  them,  and  sometimes  by 
purposely  altering  them  to  gain  the  step  of 
modulation.  This  will  be  easily  intelligible 
from  the  following  example : — 


The  usefulness  of  the  device  in  such  circum- 
stances is,  if  anything,  even  more  marked  than 
it  is  in  a  single  key,  because  of  the  greater 
breadth  of  range  which  it  allows,  and  the  close- 
ness and  cogency  of  the  successive  transitions 
which  it  renders  possible.  A  compact  and 
significant  example  to  the  point  is  the  following 
from  a  fugue  by  Cherubini  in  C  major  ; — 


Beethoven  made  very  remarkable  use  of  this 
device,  especially  in  the  great  Sonata  in  Bl^, 
op.  106,  from  which  an  example  is  quoted  in 
the  article  Modulation  [vol.  iii.  p.  239].  The 
*  working  out '  portion  of  the  first  movement  of 
the  same  sonata  is  an  almost  unbroken  series  of 
sequences  of  both  orders  ;  and  the  introduction 
to  the  final  fiigue  is  even  more  remarkable,  both 
for  the  length  of  the  sequence,  and  the  origi- 
nality of  its  treatment.     The  first-mentioned, 


416 


SEQUENCE 


SEQUENTIA 


which  is  from  the  slow  movement,  is  further 
remai'kable  as  an  example  of  a  peculiar  manipu- 
lation of  the  device  by  which  modem  composers 
have  obtained  very  impressive  results.  This  is 
the  change  of  emphasis  in  the  successive  steps 
of  which  it  is  composed.  For  instance,  if  the 
characteristic  group  consists  of  three  chords  of 
equal  length,  and  the  time  in  which  it  occurs 
is  a  square  one,  it  is  clear  that  the  chord  which 
is  emphatic  in  the  first  step  will  be  weakest  in 
the  next,  and  vice  versa.  This  form  will  be  most 
easily  understood  from  an  outline  example : — 


A  passage  at  the  beginning  of  the  Presto  at  the 
end  of  Beethoven's  Leonora  Overture,  No.  3,  is 
a  good  example  of  a  sequence  of  this  kind  in  a 
single  part  It  begins  in  the  following  quota- 
tion at* 


The  extension  of  the  characteristic  group  of 
a  sequence  is  almost  unlimited,  but  it  will  be 
obvious  at  once  that  in  harmonic  sequences  the 
shorter  and  simpler  they  are  the  more  imme- 
diately they  will  be  understood.  In  long-limbed 
sequences  the  hearer  may  soon  perceive  that 
there  is  a  principle  of  order  underlying  what  he 
hears,  though  its  exact  nature  may  always  elude 
his  apprehension,  and  in  respect  of  the  larger 
branches  of  form  this  is  a  decided  advantage. 
Among  short -limbed  emphatic  sequences  in 
modern  music,  the  one  of  eight  steps  which 
occurs  towards  the  end  of  the  first  full  portion 
of  the  overture  to  •  Die  Meistersinger  *  is  con- 
spicuous, and  it  has  the  advantage  of  being 
slightly  irregular.  The  long-limbed  sequences 
are  sometimes  elaborately  concealed,  so  that  the 
underlying  source  of  order  in  the  progression 
can  only  with  difficulty  be  unravelled.  A 
remarkable  example  of  a  very  complicated 
sequence  of  this  kind  is  a  passage  in  Schumann's 
Fantasia  in  G  major  (op.  17),  in  the  movement 
in  Eb,  marked  'Moderato  con  energia,'  begin- 
ning at  the  58  th  bar.  The  passage  is  too  long 
to  quote,  but  the  clue  to  the  mystery  may  be 
extracted  somewhat  after  this  manner : — 


%^^te^ii^ 


w^ 


^#ift^^^s 


In  order  to  see  how  this  has  been  manipulated 
reference  must  be  made  to  the  original. 

A  species  of  sequence  which  is  familiar  in 


modem  music  is  that  in  w^hich  a  figure  or 
melody  is  repeated  a  tone  higher;  this  has 
been  termed  a  Rosalia.  [See  anfe,  p.  141.] 
Another,  which  is  equally  characteristic,  is  a 
repetition  of  a  figure  or  passage  a  semitone 
higher  ;  an  example  from  the  Eroica  Symphony 
is  quoted  in  vol.  iii.  p.  235  of  this  Dictionaiy. 

The  device  has  never  been  bound  to  rigid 
exactness,  because  it  is  easy  to  follow,  and 
slight  deviations  seasonably  introduced  are 
often  happy  in  effect.  In  fact  its  virtue  does 
not  consist  so  much  in  the  exactness  of  trans- 
position as  in  the  intelligibility  of  analogous 
repetitions.  If  the  musical  idea  is  sufficiently 
interesting  to  carry  the  attention  with  it,  the 
sequence  will  perform  its  function  adequately 
even  if  it  be  slightly  irregular  both  in  its 
harmonic  steps  and  in  its  melodic  features  ;  and 
this  happens  to  be  the  case  both  in  the  exampl  * 
from  the  slow  movement  of  Beethoven's  Sonata 
in  Bb,  and  in  the  passage  quoted  horn,  Schu- 
mann's Fantasia.  It  is  not  so,  however,  with 
the  crade  harmonic  successions  which  are  more 
commonly  met  with ;  for  they  are  like  diagrams, 
and  if  they  are  not  exact  they  are  good  for 
nothing.  c.  H.  H.  p. 

SEQUENTIA  {Pro8a\  Eng.  Sequewx,  or 
Prose).  A  hymn  of  peculiar  structure,  which 
owes  its  name  to  its  position  in  the  Mass ;  it 
appears  there  as  the  continuation  or  sequence 
of  the  Gradual  and  Alleluia.  It  originally  was 
a  long  jubilus  or  melody  without  words,  attached 
to  the  a  of  the  Alleluia.  (See  Trope.)  In 
the  9th  century  in  France  words  were  adapted 
to  the  notes,  and  these  were  called  a  '  Prose.' 
because  they  followed  the  lines  of  the  music 
and  not  any  scheme  of  metre.  When  these  com- 
positions had  thus  won  a  place  for  themselves, 
fresh  ones  came  to  be  written  in  regular  metre, 
and  the  old  name  Prose  being  unsuitable  gar? 
way  to  the  new  name  Sequence.  From  the 
12th  century  to  the  15th  century  such  compo- 
sitions were  most  popular ;  and  many  of  the 
most  beautiful  specimens  we  possess  were  written 
by  the  great  Hymnologists  who  flourished  dnriog 
these  productive  periods.  Mediaeval  Office- 
Books  contain  innumerable  sequences  of  striking 
originality ;  but  at  the  last  revision  of  the 
Roman  liturgy,  by  direction  of  the  Council  of 
Trent,  the  greater  number  of  these  were  ex- 
punged. Five,  however,  have  been  retained 
in  the  current  missal ;  and  these  five  occupy 
a  very  prominent  position  in  the  services  in 
which  they  are  incorporated,  as  well  as  in  the 
history  of  ecclesiastical  music. 

1.  The  sequence  appointed  for  Easter  Sunday 
is  *Victimae  paschaU,*  the  oldest  now  in  use, 
and  in  reality  a  Prose,  written  by  Wipo  in  the 
first  half  of  the  11th  century. 

2.  The  sequence  for  Whitsunday.  *Veni 
Sancte  Spiritus,*  in  rhymed  triplets  of  Trochaic 
Dimeter  Catalectic,  was  written  probably  by 
Innocent  III.  at  the  end  of  the  12th  century; 


SEQUENTIA 


SERAPHIN 


417 


it  is  called  by  mediseval  writers,  '  The  Golden 
Sequence.' 

3.  For  the  festival  of  Corpus  Christi,  S. 
Thomas  Aquinas  wrote  the  celebrated  sequence, 
'Lauda  Sion/  which  ia  generally  believed  to 
date  from  about  the  year  1261. 

4.  To  Innocent  III.  is  also  attributed  the 
*  Stabat  Mater/  sung  since  1727  on  the  *  Feasts 
of  the  Seven  Dolours  of  Our  Lady '  (the  Friday 
in  Passion  Week,  and  the  third  Sunday  in 
September).  The  authorship,  however,  has 
not  been  certainly  ascertained  ;  and  many  are 
inclined  to  attribute  it  to  Jacobus  de  Benedictis 
(Jacopone).     (See  Stabat  Mateb.) 

5.  Even  more  celebrated  than  any  of  these 
is  the  '  Dies  irae  *  written,  during  the  latter  half 
of  the  12th  century  or  beginning  of  the  18  th 
century,  by  Thomas  of  Celano,  and  sung  in 
the  ^Requiem,'  or  Mass  for  the  Dead.  In  the 
triple  stanzas  of  this  wonderful  poem  the 
rhymed  Latin  of  the  Middle  Ages  attained  its 
highest  perfection  ;  and,  though  the  '  Stabat 
Mater '  is  frequently  said  to  be  second  only  to 
it  in  beauty,  the  distance  between  the  two  is 
very  great. 

The  plain-chant  melodies  of  sequences  differ 
&om  hymn  melodies  in  their  structure.  The 
ancient  jubilus  was  divided  into  sections,  each 
of  which  was  sung  twice,  and  consequently  a 
sequence  melody  properly  consists  of  a  series 
of  phrases  each  of  which  is  repeated.  Similarly 
a  sequence  is  a  series  of  verses  each  dual  in 
structure  and  consisting  of  strophe  and  anti- 
strophe.  They  may  be  represented  by  the 
formula  aa' :  bb' :  cc\  etc.  In  the  early  rhyth- 
mical proses  a,  6,  (?,  etc.,  are  usually  unlike  one 
another ;  in  the  later  metrical  proses  for  the 
most  part  the  same  scheme  runs  throughout 
the  vrords  though  the  music  varies.  The  •  Dies 
irae '  is  irregular  and  does  not  conform  to  the 
usual  type,  because  it  was  not  originally  a 
sequence  at  all.  All  of  these,  and  other 
sequences  besides,  are  found  in  use  in  whole 
or  in  part  in  Anglican  services.  For  *  Dies  irae ' 
see  Hyrrma  Ancient  and  Modem  (new  edition), 
302,  English  Ifynnuil,  351;  *  Lauda  Sion,' 
£.ff.Zl7;  *  Stabat  Mater,'  H.  A.  aiid  if.,  132, 
E,H.ll 5,  in  part ;  '  Veni sancti  Spiritus, *  ff.A. 
avd  M.  184,  E.  H,  155  ;  *  Victimae  paschali,' 
E.  H.  180.  Compare  an  early  French  rhythmi- 
cal prose  'Salus  Aetema,'  E,  H.  10,  and  contrast 
it  with  a  late  metrical  sequence  such  as  *  Sponsa 
Christi,*  B,  A,  and  M.  246,  E,  H,  258,  both  as 
t^ids  text* and  melody. 

In  addition  to  these  plain -song  melodies, 
we  possess  innumerable  settings  of  all  the 
sequences  now  in  use,  by  the  great  masters  of 
the  Polyphonic  School ;  and  many  by  the 
classical  composers  of  the  18th  and  19th  cen- 
turies. For  these  see  Dies  Irae  ;  Lauda  Sion  ; 
Stabat  Mater  ;  Veni  Sancte  Spiritjjs  ;  and 
Victim AE  Paschali.  w.  s.  r.  ;  revised  by 
w.  H.  F. 

VOL.  IV 


SERAGLIO,  THE.  (i.)  The  English  title 
of  an  adaptation  (produced  1827)  of  Mozart's 
Entfuhrung  aus  DEM  Serail.  See  vol.  i. 
p.  784. 

(ii)  An  opera  by  Charles  Dibdin  under  this 
title  was  produced  at  Covent  Garden,  Nov.  14, 
1776.  Dibdin  being  then  in  France,  Dr.  Arnold , 
composer  to  the  theatre,  had  some  share  in  the 
musical  part  of  it,  but  it  contains  Dibdin's  fine 
song  *  Blow  high,  blow  low '  sung  in  the  opera 
by  Reinhold,  and  afterwards  introduced  by 
Bannister  into  Arne's  opera  'Thomas  and  Sally.' 
The  opera  had  very  little  success,  but  both 
libretto  and  the  music  were  published.  Harris 
the  Covent  Garden  manager  had  altered  the 
piece  considerably  for  acting  purposes.        F.  K. 

SERAPHIN,  Sanctus  (or  Santo  Sbrafin) 
and  Giorgio  (uncle  and  nephew),  two  celebrated 
violin -makers  of  Venice.  The  uncle,  as  his 
label  informs  us  (*  Sanctus  Seraphin  Utinensis 
fecit  Venetiis  *),  was  originally  of  Udine,  a  town 
in  the  Venetian  territory  towards  the  mountains 
of  Carinthia,  and  probably  of  Jewish  exti-action. 
His  violins  date  from  about  1710  to  1740. 
The  nephew,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  style  of 
his  instruments,  worked  with  the  uncle  many 
years,  and  appears  to  have  succeeded  him  in  the 
business.  The  instruments  of  Sanctus  Seraphin 
occupy  a  middle  place  between  the  Italian  and 
the  Tyrolese  school.  As  far  as  external  ajipear- 
ance  goes,  the  maker  seems  to  vacillate  between 
the  model  of  Stainer  and  that  of  Nicholas  Amati. 
But  in  the  essential  particulars  of  the  art,  in 
the  selection  of  wood  of  the  finest  and  most 
sonorous  quality,  in  the  proper  calculation  of 
the  proportions,  and  the  solidity  and  finish  of 
the  parts,  he  worked  on  the  principles  of  the 
Cremona  makers.  Few  equalled  him  as  a  work- 
man. Those  who  wish  to  see  how  far  mechanical 
perfection  can  be  carried  should  examine  Sera- 
phin's  purfling  with  a  magnifying  glass.  In 
Seraphin's  earlier  years  the  Stainer  character 
predominates  in  his  instruments  ;  in  his  later 
years  he  leaned  to  the  Amati  model.  His  in- 
struments are  famous  for  their  perfect  finish 
(reminding  forcibly  of  the  style  of  Stradivarius), 
their  remarkably  lustrous  deep  red  varnish,  and 
fine  mellow  tone. 

[The  period  of  Sanctus  Seraphin's  activity 
extends  from  about  1678  to  1736.  He  worked 
in  Udine  for  nearly  twenty  years,  and  during 
that  time  he  employed  an  engraved  label  of 
large  dimensions  which  runs :  ^  Sanctus  Sera- 
phinus  Nicolai  Amati  Cremonensis  Allumnus 
faciebat :  Udine  A.  16  ' :  It  is  worthy  of 
note  that  the  dates  on  Seraphin's  labels  are  in 
accordance  with  the  rest  of  his  work,  neatly 
written  in,  and  not  bungled,  as  is  frequently 
the  case  with  his  contemporaries.  The  Venetian 
label  quoted  at  the  beginning  of  this  article  is 
larger  than  any  label  to  be  found  in  a  Cremona 
instniment.  The  legend  on  Seraphin's  ticket 
is  framed  by  a  design  composed  on  three  sides 

2e 


418 


SERAPHINE 


SERENATA 


of  graceful  curving  strokes,  while  the  upper  side 
is  formed  of  two  fern  leaves  and  elegant  curves. 
On  either  side  there  are  respectively  some  roUs 
of  music  and  a  violin.  Representations  of  this 
ticket  are  given  by  M.  Laurent  Grillet  in  his 
ATicitres  du  VioUm  and  also  in  Herr  von 
LutgendorfTs  Die  GHgen  und  Laviervnuuher. 
One  of  the  finest  known  examples  of  this  maker's 
work  was  a  violoncello  lent  to  the  South 
Kensington  Special  Loan  Exhibition  by  its 
owner  Mr.  H.  B.  Heath  in  1872.] 

George  Seraphin  followed  his  uncle's  later 
model  with  such  precision  that  it  is  difficult  to 
find  any  point  of  difference.  Like  his  uncle, 
he  finished  his  instruments  to  a  degree  of  perfec- 
tion which  amounts  to  a  fault,  depriving  them, 
as  it  does,  of  character  and  individuality.  Like 
his  uncle,  he  used  a  large  copper-plate  label 
(nearly  all  the  Italian  makers  used  letterpress 
labels)  bearing  the  inscription  *  Georgius  Sera- 
phin Sancti  nepos  fecit  Venetiis  (1743).*  Both 
makers  branded  their  instruments  at  the  tail- 
pin.  Their  works  are  not  common  in  England, 
and  specimens  in  good  presei-vation  realise  from 
£50  upwards. 

[A  superb  violin  of  Sanctus  Seraphin  which 
belonged  to  Messrs  Barr^  and  Bayly's  collection 
reali9ed  £280,  at  a  sale  by  auction  in  1894, 
while  a  violoncello  by  the  same  maker,  the 
property  of  James  Goding,  Esq.,  was  sold  in  a 
like  manner  for  £56 :14s.  in  1857.  According 
to  Von  Lutgendorff,  George  Seraphin  was  not 
Sanctus  Seraphin's  nephew  but  his  grandson. — 
Von  Lutgendorff,  Die  Geigen  und  Lauten- 
macJier ;  Charles  Reade,  A  Lost  Art  Jtevived  ; 
Alberto  Bachmann,  Le  Violon ;  J.  M.  Fleming, 
Old  Violins  ;  Laurent  Grillet,  Les  Andtres  du 
Violon ;  G.  Hart,  ThAi  Violin ;  A.  Vidal,  Les 
Instruments  d.  ArcheL'\  E.  J.  p. ;  with  additions 
in  square  brackets,  by  E.  H-A. 

SERAPHINE  In  vol.  ii.  p.  303a  reference  is 
made  to  the  seraphine  as  a  precursor  of  Debain's 
Harmonium.  It  was  an  English  free-reed  instru- 
ment resembling  the  German  Physharmonica, 
which  latter  was  brought  to  England  by  the 
Schulz  family  in  1826.  In  1828  a  similar 
instrument,  but  named  Aeol- harmonica,  was 
played  by  young  Schulz  at  a  Philharmonic 
Concert  (Concertante  for  Aeol-harmonica  and 
two  guitars,  April  28).  In  1833,  John  Green, 
who  had  been  dementi's  traveller,  and  had  a 
shop  in  Soho  Square,  brought  out  the  Seraphine. 
Green  engaged  Samuel  Wesley  to  give  weekly 
performances  upon  the  seraphine  at  his  shop, 
and  managed  for  some  time  to  dispose  of  his 
instruments  at  40  guineas  each.  But  the  sera- 
phine was  harsh  and  raspy  in  tone,  and  never 
found  favour  with  sensitive  musicians.  The 
wind  apparatus,  similar  to  the  organ,  was  a 
dead-weighted  bellows  giving  a  uniform  pres- 
sure, and  a  swell  was  produced  by  opening 
a  shutter  of  a  box  placed  over  the  reeds. 

In  the  year  1841,  Mr.  W.  E  Evans  invented 


the  '  Organo  Harmonica,'  the  improvements  on 
the  seraphine  consisting  of  thin  steel  reeds  artis- 
tically voiced,  and  coiled  springs  in  the  reservoir 
to  enable  the  player  to  produce  a  rapid  arti- 
culation with  a  small  wind  pressure,  and  to 
increase  the  power  of  tone  as  the  reservoir 
filled.  Eminent  musicians  publicly  pronounced 
Mr.  Evans's  instrument  more  valuable  than  tie 
seraphine  as  a  substitute  for  the  organ,  but 
neither  the  one  nor  the  other  was  capable  of 
what  is  now  known  as  '  dead  expression.' 

Patents  for  various  improvements  of  the  sera- 
phine were  taken  out  by  Myers  and  Storer  in 
1839,  by  Storer  alone  in  1846,  and  by  Mott  in  the 
same  year.  There  is  further  reference  to  it  in 
patents  of  Pape  1850,  and  Blackwell  1852. 
About  the  last-named  date  it  was  entirely  super- 
seded by  the  harmonium.  a.  j.  h. 

SERENADE  (Ital.  SerencUa  ;  Fr.  S^renadr ; 
Germ.  Standchen),  Evening  song,  from  the 
Italian  sera.  Hence  the  word  has  been  applie<I. 
indiscriminately,  to  many  different  kinds  of 
music  intended  to  be  sxmg  or  played  at  night 
in  the  open  air  ;  and  so  generally  has  this  con- 
nection of  ideas  been  accepted  that,  by  common 
consent,  the  term  'Serenade'  has  identi^ed 
itself  in  many  languages  with  the  song  sung  by 
a  lover  standing  beneath  his  mistress's  window, 
or  the  concert  of  instrumental  music  substituted 
for  it  by  an  admirer  with  *■  no  voice  for  singing/ 

To  be  true  to  nature,  a  serenade  of  this  kind 
should  be  simple,*  melodious,  sensuous  in  e3q>res- 
sion,  and  accompanied  by  some  kind  of  instru- 
ment which  the  lover  might  carry  in  his  band. 
All  these  conditions  are  fulfilled  in  the  most 
perfect  example  of  the  style  that  ever  has  been, 
or  is  ever  likely  to  be  written — *Deh  vicni 
alia  finestra,'  in  '  Don  Giovanni.'  The  melody 
of  this  is  as  artless  as  a  folk-song,  yet  cap- 
able of  breathing  the  very  soul  of  voluptuons 
passion. 

[If  Mozart  created  the  perfect  type  of  vocal 
serenade  in  the  song  just  mentioned,  such  things 
as  his  'Hafner  Serenade'  have  served  as  the 
model  of  the  instrumental  serenade,  which,  like 
the  divertimento^  is  generally  in  a  large  number  of 
short  movements.  The  two  Serenade  trios  of 
Beethoven  (opp.  8  and  26)  are  illustrious  speci- 
mens of  the  forms  in  which  each  section  is  of 
the  most  concise  structure  and  built  upon 
melodic  themes  that  are  easily  recognisable  by  the 
untutored  ear.  Two  serenades  by  Brahma  are 
among  his  earlier  works  ;  the  first,  op.  11,  is  for 
full  orchestra,  in  D  ;  and  the  second,  op.  16  in 
A,  has  no  violins.  It  does  not  appear  that  the 
German  equivalent,  Stdndehen,  has  found  much 
favour  with  the  composer  of  instrumental 
Serenades.]  w.  ».  K, 

SERENATA  (ItaL  Strenata\  Fr.  Serinadf; 
Germ.  Serenade).  Though  the  terms  SerenaU 
and  Serenade  are  generally  regarded  as  inter- 
changeable— so  nearly  synonymous,  that  ve 
have  no  choice  but  to  give  the  one  as  the  trans- 


SERES 


SERMISY 


419 


Iat«d  equivalent  of  the  other — they  mean,  in 
musical  language,  two  very  different  things. 

The  Tocal  Serenata  may  he  considered  as  a 
form  of  Cantata,  which  may  he  either  dramatic 
or  imaginative,  or  even  a  simple  Ode  on  any 
subject  not  actually  sacred.  Handel  applied 
the  term  to  his  Italian  Pastoral,  '  Aci,  Galatea, 
e  PoUfemo,'  written  at  Naples  in  1709  ;  to  the 
Ode  composed  for  the  Birthday  of  Anne  of 
Denmark  in  1712  ;  and  to  the  English  Pastoral 
'Ada  and  Galatea, '  ^  written  at  Cannons  in  1720. 

We  must  not  omit  mention  of  a  Serenata  by 
Stradella  in  which  two  lovers,  each  with  his  or- 
chestra in  a  coack,  serenade  a  lady,  a  work  which 
is  famous  hecause  Handel  appropriated  a  great 
d^alofitin  'IsraeL'  It  was  republished  as  No. 
3  of  Chrysander's  SuppUmenU  to  the  edition  of 
HandeL     [See  vol.  i.  p.  585,  vol.  ii.  p.  514.] 

The  form  of  the  Instrumental  Serenata  is 
much  more  clearly  defined,  and  comprised 
within  much  narrower  limits.  It  was  very 
popular  during  the  latter  half  of  the  18th 
ceutury ;  and,  for  some  considerable  time, 
occupied  a  position  midway  between  those  of 
the  Orchestral  Suite  which  preceded,  and  the 
Symphony  which  followed  it.  From  the  former 
it  borrowed  the  multiplicity,  and  from  the 
latter  the  colouring,  of  the  long  series  of 
lightly  developed  movements  of  whidi  it  usually 
consisted.  Neither  the  sequence  nor  the 
structure  of  these  movements  was  subject  to 
any  very  rigid  law.  Two  forms,  however, 
were  considered  so  necessary  that  they  may 
almost  be  described  as  indispensable — the 
March  and  the  Minuets  With  the  former 
almost  every  Serenata  of  any  consequence 
began  or  ended.  The  latter  was  almost  always 
interj)oeed  between  two  Allegros,  or  an  Allegro 
and  an  Andante,  or,  indeed,  between  any  two 
movements  of  any  other  kind ;  and  used  so 
freely  that  it  frequently  made  its  appearance 
several  times  in  the  course  of  a  composition  of 
importance.  The  Gavotte  and  Bourr^e  so 
freely  used  in  the  older  Suite  were  completely 
banished  from  the  Serenata.  When  wind 
instruments  alone  were  employed,  the  composi- 
tion was  often  called  '  Harmoniemusik  * ;  and 
this  term  was  so  generally  received  that  music 
for  wind  instruments  is  popularly  called  *  Har- 
monic' in  Germany  to  the  present  day.  The 
term  Cassation  was  also  frequently  applied  to 
works  of  this  kind,  whether  written  for  the  full 
orchestra  or  for  wind  instruments  alone  ;  and 
many  pieces,  not  differing  very  much  from 
these,  were  called  Divertimenti.  Sometimes 
the  number  of  Instruments  employed  was  very 
small,  for  the  Serenata  was  aUnost  always 
intended  for  private  performance,  and  it  was  a 
matter  of  necessity  that  it  should  accommodate 
itself  to  the  resources  of  the  particular  establish- 
ment for  which  it  was  intended.  w.  8.  R. 

SERES,   William,   an   early  music-printer 

<  GkUed  Alio,  In  early  eoplss, '  Opera,'  'Made.'  and  '  PaitoraL' 


associated  with  John  Bay  and  others,  had  a 
privilege  for  printing  psalters,  etc  He  was 
working  in  1548,  and  was  one  of  the  early 
members  of  the  Stationers'  Company,  filling 
the  offices  of  Warden  and  Master.  His  shop 
was  *  at  the  signs  of  the  Hedge  Hqgg.*  One  of 
his  noteworthy  works  is  Francis  Seagar's  *Cer- 
tayne  Psalms  select  out  of  the  Psalter  of  David, 
drawn  into  English  metre  with  notes  to  every 
Psalm  in  iiij  parts  to  Synge,'  1553.  f.  k. 
SERGEANT    TRUMPETER.      See   Trum- 

PETER. 

SERMISY,  Claude  de,  one  of  the  gi-oup  of 
French  musicians  connected  with  the  Chapelle 
du  Roy  early  in  the  16th  century,  was  bom 
about  1490.  The  following  information  is  based 
on  the  researches  of  the  learned  M.Michel  Brenet 
(Sammelbdnde  of  the  Int.  Mus.  Gesell.  1904). 
Sermisy  is  first  heard  of  in  1508,  when  he  was 
appointed  *clerc  musicien'  in  the  Sainte-ChapeUe 
du  Palais  at  Paris,  his  name  appears  in  the 
Sainte-ChapeUe  registers  as  Claude  de  Cermisy. 
He  was  there  for  a  short  period,  as  before  1515 
he  became  a  'chanteur'  in  the  Chapelle  de 
musique  du  Roy,  at  that  time  Louis  XII. 
This  post  was  equivalent  to  the  English  *  Gentle- 
man of  the  Chapel  Royal,'  and  as  a  chauteur 
his  name  occurs  in  a  list  of  the  musicians  who 
were  present  at  the  funeral  of  Louis  XII.  He 
eventually  succeeded  Antoine  de  Longueval  as 
sous-maitre  of  the  Chapelle.  In  the  accounts 
of  payments  to  the  various  members  of  the 
chapelle  in  1538,  recently  published  by  M. 
Brenet,  there  are  some  entries  concerning  Claude 
de  Sermisy.  As  sous-maitre  he  received  the  sum 
of  400  liiTCS  toumois  (  =  2400  francs),  his  wages 
for  the  said  year,  and  a  sum  of  1080  livres 
toumois (  =  6480  francs)  for  the  feed ingand  main- 
tenance of  the  Children  of  the  Chapelle  royale 
for  the  year,  and  another  sum  of  240 1. 1.  (  =  1440 
francs)  for  care  of  the  books  belonging  to  the 
Chapelle  and  for  the  procuring  of  singing  boys, 
'  pour  envoyer  qu^rir  des  chantres.  *  This  shows 
his  position  as  sous-maitre  to  have  been  similar 
to  that  of  the  English  'master  of  the  Children 
of  the  Chapel  Royal,'  who  also  received  like 
payments,  and  fees  for  journeys  made  to  *  press  * 
children  for  the  service  of  the  Chapel. 

On  Sept.  20, 1533,  Sermisy  was  made  a  Canon 
of  La  Sainte- Chapelle,  which  gave  him  a  resi- 
dence and  a  large  salary,  and  only  imposed  the 
obligation  of  officiating  at  certain  ceremonies ; 
he  retained  therefore  his  post  of  sons-roaitre, 
although  he  and  Louis  H^rault  are  mentioned 
as  joint  possessors  of  the  office  in  1547,  when 
Fran9ois  I.  died.  They  continued  to  hold  it 
under  Henri  II.  As  a  member  of  the  Chapelle 
du  Roi,  Sermisy  was  present  on  three  historical 
occasions,  first  at  the  meeting  of  Fran9ois  I. 
with  Pope  Leo  X.  at  Bologna  in  1516,  when  the 
French  singers  vied  with  the  Papal  Choir  ;  then 
in  1520  when  Fran9ois  I.  and  Henry  VIII.  met 
at  the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,  and  again 


420 


SERMISY 


S£RMISY 


iu  1532  when  they  met  at  Boulogne ;  on  both 
occaaions  the  English  and  the  French  inuBicians 
delighted  their  hearers  with  their  performances. 

A  work  published  in  1554,  the  Itvdimcnts 
de  Musicque  bj  Maximilieu  Guilliaud,  was  dedi- 
cated to  the  *  excellent  musicien  Monsieur 
Maistre  Claude  de  Sermisy,  maistre  de  laChapelle 
du  Roy,  et  chanoine  de  la  Sainte-Ghapelle  du  Palais 
Royal  a  Paris  ;  16  Septembi'e,  1562.'  Sermisy 
probably  resigned  the  post  of  sous-maitre  soon 
after  this  date,  but  retained  his  connection  with 
La  Sainte-Chapelle  until  August  16,  1661,  his 
name  then  appearing  for  the  last  time  on  the 
rolls  of  the  Chapter  meetings.  He  died  in 
1662. 

Four  part -books  containing  twenty -eight 
motets  composed  by  Sermisy  were  published  in 
1542  :  <Nova  et  prima  motectorum  editio  6,  5, 
4,  3,  et  2  vocum,  lib.  1,  2,  3,  Paris.*  Rerre 
Attaiugnant. 

Claude  de  Sermisy,  or  Claudin  as  he  is  almost 
invariably  called  in  music -books,  shows  an 
extraordinarily  wide  range  as  a  composer ; 
love  songs,  masses,  motets  were  published  in 
rapid  succession,  and  retained  their  popularity 
for  many  years  after  his  death,  if  one  may  judge 
by  the  number  of  reprints  of  his  works. 

Upwards  of  200  of  liis  chansons  were  included 
ill  the  various  collections  of  the  period. 

The  set  of  song-books  published  by  Pierre 
Attaingnant  in  Paris,  commencing  in  January 
1529,  with  the  *Trente  et  huyt  chansons 
musicales  k  quatre  parties,'  which  were  con- 
tinued until  1535,  contained  ninety- two  chansons 
by  Claudin.  The  same  publishei's  commenced 
a  new  series  in  1588,  *  Premier  livre  contenant 
XXV  chansons  nouvelles  &  quatre  parties ' ;  in  this 
set,  up  to  the  ' viugtseptiesme  livre*  in  1548, 
there  were  thirty -hve  chansons  by  Claudin. 
About  the  same  time  Jacques  Moderne  in  Lyons 
was  publishing  the  various  volumes  of  *  Le 
Parangon  des  Chansons,'  and  in  the  2nd,  3rd, 
4th,  7th,  9th,  and  10th  volumes  (1538-43), 
which  were  often  reprinted,  Claudin  was  re- 
presented by  about  twelve  different  songs.  In 
Venice  the  '  Prime  libro  de  le  Canzoni  francese,' 
published  by  Scotto  in  1535,  included  'Faict 
on  failly,'  for  four  voices,  by  Claudin.  While 
at  An  vers,  Tylman  Susato  printed,  in  1544, 
Claudin's  *0  combien  est  malheureux,*  in  the 
'  Quatriesme  livre  des  chansons  h  quatre  parties. ' 
In  Paris,  Attaingnant's  song-books  were  being 
replaced  by  Nicolas  Du  Chemin's  publications, 
the  Premier,  Second,  and  the  *  Quart  livre  du 
recueil  contenant .  .  .  chansons  h  quatre  parties* 
in  1551,  contained  altogether  fifteen  of  Claudin's 
chansons.  Shortly  before  his  death,  Adrian  Le 
Roy  and  Robert  Ballard  of  Paris,  the  widely 
known  'imprimeurs  du  roy,'  who  published 
much  of  the  music  of  the  16  th  century,  pro- 
duced the  '  Livre  de  meslanges,  contenant  six 
vingtz  chansons  des  plus  rares  .  .  .  soit  des 
autheurs  antiques,  soit  des  plus  memorables  de 


Ubtr  ri.  'T.U 
etc 
hkbiUbit,' GUitdiii.     FMls.  iMi. 


notre  temps,'  1560,  which  contained  Claudin's 
'  Peine  et  travail  me  faut '  for  six  voices. 

Claudin's  claim  to  be  a  pupil  of  the  great 
Josquin  rests  on  a  phrase  in  the  preface  to  this 
volume  :  'Josquin  des  Prez,  hennuyer  de  nation, 
et  ses  disciples,  Mouton,  Claudin,  Jaqnet,'  etc. 
The  same  publishers  also  issued  in  1571  the 
'Second  recueil . . .  de  chansons  k  quatre  parties/ 
in  which  were  eight  chansons  by  Claudin. 
There  is  one  song  in  Granjon's  *Troph^,  livre  2.* 
there  are  four  in  *  II  primo  libro  di  madrigali 
d'Archadelt  atre  voci'(Yenetia,  G^rdano,  1559) ; 
another,  *  On  en  dire  ce  qu'on,'  in  the  *  Troisienie 
livre  delle  muse  a  tre  voci'  (Venice,  Scottu, 
1562),  and  three  more  in  the  *  Primo  libro  de 
canzoni  francese  a  due  voci '  (Venice,  Antonio 
Gardano,  1564). 

In  1532  Attaingnant  issued  seven  volumes 
of  Masses  by  various  composers,  these  included 
the  following  by  Claudin  for  four  voices : 

Liber   I.  Soeund»  est '  Philomens  pnMvia.' 
.,     II.  Second*  est  *  Miiaa  IX  leetiounm.' 
„    III.  Prima  est  *  Mtisa  pluriiun  motatMrum.' 
„     IV.  SecuncU  c«t '  Mian  pro  defnnctU.' 
.,    VIl.  PrimA  est '  Domlul  est  teriH.' 

In  1534  Attaingnant  published  : 

Mlnanini  musloAlinm  «d  qu*taar  tooob,  pu«a«    L 

pulchm.'  CUndln  :  '  Miam  ad  pLheitam.'  OUadln ; 

Uber  III.    '  MiaMi  Domlntu  quia  ha,MUbit,'  CUodli 

In  1556  Nicolas  Du  Chemiu  published  in 
Paris  a  great  collection  of  Masses,  among 
them : — 

Miaaa  cnm  qnatuor  rodbua.    Ad  ImltatloDem  moduli :  *  Ab  tniti 
oondlta  .  .  .  auctore  D.  Claudio  de  Sermlar  B«^o  Sympbrmi*' 
oorum  ordiui  pnefecto  et  in  regall  p&riaUnala  pafaitii  M«ei>> 
oancmloo. 

Hlaaa  cum  quatuor  vodbua.  Ad  imit&Uonem  eantionla :  '  VooUitt 
llionueur '  oondlta.  etc. 

Mlsaa  cum  quataor  rocibua  parlboa.  Ad  Imltatlooeu  laodaU 
'  Tota  pulchra  ea '  oondlta,  etc. 

Mlaoa  cum  quinqne  vocibua.  Ad  ImltatiimMn  moduli:  'Qaan 
fmnuerunt  gentea '  condlta,  etc 

Three  of  the  masses  printed  in  1632  wen 
reissued  : — 

Mlane  trea  Claudio  de  Sermiay  B^l  SaoeUi  ma«iatn>.  pncataatit^ 
aimo  muaico  auctore  . . .  cum  quatuor  voeiboa ...  *  Movem  hcth>- 
num '  foL  2 ;  '  Fhilomena  pnevla '  foL  IS ;  *  Domini  ett  tern 
fol.  S3. 

Lutetlae  1558  apod  Adrianum  Le  Bo j  et  Bobt.  Ballatd.  folia 

There  was  another  edition  in  1583.  The 
same  publishei's  in  the  *  Missae  tres  a  Claudio  de 
Sermisy,  Joannes  Maillard,  Claudio  Goudimel, 
cum  quatuor  vocibus  oonditae,'  1558,  included 
Claudin's  'Missa  plurium  modulorum.'  His 
motets  were  published  in  such  collections  as 
the  *  Fior  de  motetti '  (?  1526),  the  *  Motetti 
del  fiore'  (1532).  Rhaw's  *Trioinia'  (1542), 
and  Ochaenkuhn's  'Tabulatur  Buch*  (1558). 

MS.  copies  of  Claudin's  music  are  to  be  foaud 
in  different  foreign  libraries,  in  Borne,  Berlin, 
Cambrai,  Bologna,  in  the  Dresden  Boyal  Lib- 
rary, MS.  1270,  No.  5,  a  *  Laudato  Dominum" 
for  six  voices  by  Claudin ;  in  the  Monicb 
Royal  Library,  MSS.  69,  92,  and  182  conUin 
motets  and  MSS.  202,  204,  205,  and  207 
various  chansons,  all  were  published  in  the 
16  th  century. 

Of  modem  reprints,  M.  Henri  Expert's  pub- 
lication 'Les  maitres  musiciens'  includes  Attain- 
gnant's 'Trente  et  un  chansons'  (1529),  of  which 


SEROV 


SEROV 


421 


»-levcn  were  composed  by  Claudin.  Three  chan- 
sons are  in  vol.  28,  of  the  *  Publikation  alterer 
prakt.und  theoret.  Musikwerke/ Leipzig,  1899. 
Commer  ('GoU.  op.  mus.'  vol.  zii.)  reprints 
three,  the  melodies  of  which  were  used  for 
Psalms  IzziL,  ciii.,  and  cxxviii.,  in  the  *  Souter 
Liedekens,'  Antwerp,  1540.  Otto  Kade  in  his 
book  iHe  dltere  Fassionskomposition,  Giitersloh, 
1398,  treats  very  fully  of  Claudin's  Passion 
music,  published  by  Attaingnant  in  1584.  c.  h. 
SEROV,  Alexander  Nicholaevich,  com- 
poser and  critic,  bom  Jan.  28,  1820,  in  St. 
Petersburg,  died  in  the  same  city,  Feb.  1, 
(Jan.  20,  O.S.),  1871.  The  son  of  a  govern- 
ment official,  he  was  educated  at  the  School 
of  Jurisprudence,  where  he  only  made  one 
intimate  friend,  Vladimir  Stassov,  destined 
afterwards  to  be  his  stoutest  opponent  in  matters 
of  art  In  his  BeminiseeTices  of  the  School  of 
Jurisprudence  Stassov  has  given  an  interesting 
account  of  Serov's  student  days.  He  left  the 
institution  with  a  decided  hankering  after  an 
artistic  career,  but  accepted  a  clerkship  in  a 
government  office  in  obedience  to  his  father's 
wish.  He  found,  however,  some  leisure  for 
musical  pursuits,  studied  the  violoncello  and 
was  busy  with  the  project  of  composing  an  opera. 
From  his  correspondence  with  Stassov  we  gather 
that  he  cherished  vagne,  ambitious  plans  which 
were  hindered  by  lack  of  technical  training,  and 
by  the  unsympathetic  attitude  of  his  father.  In 
1848  he  was  transferred  from  the  capital  to 
the  dull  provincial  town  of  Simferopol,  which 
proved  fatal  to  his  musical  schemes.  Never- 
theless his  determination  to  acquire  further 
technical  knowledge  w^as  unshaken.  Through 
Stassov  he  obtained  an  introduction  to  the 
famous  theorist  Hunke,  then  living  in  Peters- 
burg, who  undertook  to  instnict  him  in  counter- 
point by  correspondence.  The  method  was 
not  very  successful,  and  Serov's  progress  was 
slow.  It  is  evident  that  he  was  often  tempted  to 
throw  up  his  official  position  for  art's  sake,  but 
his  father  sternly  discountenanced  such  a  pro- 
ceeding. Nevertheless,  his  feeling  for  music  con- 
tinued to  assert  itself,  and  as  his  ideas  assumed 
more  definite  shape,  he  turned  to  criticism, 
which  at  that  time  was  at  a  low  ebb  in  Russia. 
His  first  articles  in  the  Russian  Contemporary 
in  1851  created  something  like  a  sensation, 
because  he  brought  to  bear  upon  his  sesthetic 
criticism  a  highly  cultivated  intelligence,  a 
distinctive  style,  and  an  effective,  if  ponderous, 
irony.  His  early  articles  dealt  with  Mozart, 
BeeUioven,  Donizetti,  Rossini,  Meyerbeer,  and 
Spontini,  and  in  discussing  the  last-named  he 
explained  and  defended  the  historical  ideal  of 
the  music -drama.  Considering  that  at  this 
time  Serov  was  practically  ignorant  of  Wagner's 
works,  the  conclusions  which  he  draws  do 
credit  to  his  reflection  and  foresight.  His 
writings  have  now  lost  much  of  their  value 
l^ecanse  of  their  polemical  character.     With 


one  hand  Serov  pointed  to  the  great  musical 
movement  in  Western  Europe  ;  with  the  other 
he  sought  to  blind  the  eyes  of  Russian  society 
to  the  awakening  which  was  taking  place  within. 
It  was  not  until  after  his  visit  to  Germany  in 
1858,  from  which — in  his  own  words — he  re- 
turned *  W^agner  mad, '  that  he  took  upadistinctly 
hostile  attitude  to  the  New  Russian  School 
which  was  striving  to  express  in  music  the 
spirit  of  the  race.  Then  followed  that  long 
polemic  between  Serov  and  Stassov  which  was 
only  a  side  episode  in  that  greater  conflict 
between  Western  and  Slavophil,  the  echo  of 
which  has  hardly  yet  died  away.  In  spite  of 
great  popular  authonty,  Serov's  position  in 
1860  was  in  many  respects  an  isolated  and 
unenviable  one.  There  was  neither  place  nor 
need  for  an  ardent  Wagnerian  propaganda  in 
Russia.  Between  his  xmgenerous  depreciation 
of  the  new  school  and  his  lukewarm  attitude 
towards  Rubinstein,  Serov's  influence  began  to 
wane.  Serov  had  passed  his  fortieth  year  before 
he  set  to  work  upon  his  first  opera  *  Judith.* 
With  extraordinary  energy  and  determination 
he  surmounted  all  technical  difficulties,  and 
completed  the  opera  in  the  spring  of  1862.  In 
March  1868  Wagner  visited  St  Petersbutg, 
and  Serov  submitted  to  him  the  score  of  'Judith. ' 
Wagner  more  particularly  praised  the  orchestra- 
tion, in  which  he  cannot  have  failed  to  see  the 
reflection  of  his  own  influence.  *  Judith '  was 
produced  in  the  course  of  the  season  1863-64, 
on  a  scale  of  magnificence  hitherto  unknown 
in  the  production  of  national  opera,  and  im- 
mediately took  the  public  by  storm.  The 
subject  was  well  adapted  to  Serov's  opulent 
and  sensational  manner.  In  general  style  the 
work  recalls  the  early  Wagnerian  operas  with 
some  curious  reminiscences  of  Meyerbeer.  As 
regards  picturesque  effect,  *  Judith'  is  admirable, 
although  the  dramatic  colour  is  occasionally 
coarse  and  flashy.  The  many  technical  defects 
were  easily  overlooked  by  the  public  in  an  opera 
which  made  so  direct  an  apjieal  to  their  sensuous 
enjoyment.  Serov's  long  apprenticeship  to 
musical  criticism  taught  him  what  was  attractive 
and  practicable  for  the  stage,  just  as  he  had 
acquired  from  the  study  of  Wagner  a  consider- 
able power  of  effective  orchestration.  '  Juditli ' 
fascinated  not  only  the  uncritical  public,  but 
many  of  the  young  musical  generation,  including 
Tchaikovsky,  who  refers  to  it  as  one  of  his 
'  first  loves '  in  music.  It  still  holds  its  own 
in  the  repertory  of  Russian  o])era. 

Serov  lost  no  time  in  following  up  his  first 
success,  and  '  Rogneda '  was  completed  and  per- 
formed in  the  autumn  of  1865.  Its  success 
was  unprecedented.  In  'Rogneda*  Serov  al- 
most discards  the  Wagnerian  influence  for 
that  of  Meyerbeer.  We  look  in  vain  in  this 
work  for  the  higher  purpose,  the  effort  at 
psychological  delineation  and  comparative 
solidity    of   execution    which    are    occasional 


422 


SEROV 


SERPENT 


features  of  *  Judith.'  *Serov  knew  how  to 
catch  the  crowd/  writes  Tchaikovsky,  *  and  if 
this  opera  suffers  from  poverty  of  melodic 
inspiration,  want  of  organic  sequence,  weak 
recitative  and  declamation,  and  from  harmony 
and  instrumentation  that  are  purely  decorative 
— yet  what  sensational  effects  the  composer 
succeeds  in  piling  up !  .  .  .  The  whole  thing 
literally  crackles  with  them.  Serov  had  only 
a  mediocre  gift,  united  to  great  experience, 
remarkable  intellect,  and  extensive  erudition ; 
therefore  it  is  not  astonishing  to  find  in 
"Rogneda  "  numbers — rare  oases  in  a  desert — in 
which  the  music  is  excellent.'  Tchaikovsky 
stood  somewhat  apart  from  the  heated  conflict 
with  national  tendencies  in  which  Serov  was 
constantly  involved,  therefore  his  judgment 
may  be  accepted  as  less  biassed  than  that  of 
the  majority  of  his  contemporaries.  After  the 
triumph  of  *  Rogneda '  Serov  rested  awhile  upon 
his  laurels.  The  balm  of  success  seems  to  have 
done  something  to  soften  his  hostility  to  the 
national  school,  for  the  lectures  on  Glinka 
and  Dargom^sky  which  he  delivered  before  the 
Russian  Musical  Society  in  1866  are  valuable 
not  only  for  clearness  of  exposition,  but  for 
fairness  of  judgment. 

For  the  subject  of  his  third  opera  Serov 
turned  to  contemporary  national  life  as  depicted 
in  Ostrovsky's  strong,  but  somewhat  sordid, 
play  *  The  Power  of  Evil.*  His  correspondence 
reveals  his  intentions  with  regard  to  this  work. 
*Ten  years  ago,'  he  says,  *  I  wrote  much  about 
Wagner.  Now  it  is  time  to  act.  To  embody 
the  Wagnerian  theories  in  a  music-drama  written 
in  Russian  on  a  Russian  subject.  ...  In  this 
work,  besides  observing  as  far  as  possible  the 
principles  of  dramatic  truth,  I  aim  at  keeping 
more  closely  than  has  yet  been  done  to  the 
forms  of  Russian  popular  m\isic  as  preserved 
in  our  folk-songs.'  He  is  seeking  in  fact  to  fuse 
the  methods  of  Glinka  with  those  of  Wagner, 
and  produce  a  Russian  music -drama.  Serov 
was  a  connoisseur  of  Russian  folk-songs,  but  he 
had  not  the  genius  of  Glinka  ;  moreover,  with 
all  his  knowledge  of  the  popular  music  he  was 
never  penetrated  by  the  national  spirit  as  was 
his  great  predecessor.  In  creating  this  Russo- 
Wagnerian  work  Serov  created  something  purely 
artificial :  a  hybrid  which  could  bring  forth 
nothing  in  its  turn.  The  subject  of  '  The 
Power  of  Evil '  is  exceedingly  gloomy  and  not 
particularly  well  adapted  to  musical  treatment, 
and  the  work  never  attained  the  popularity  of 
*  Judith  *  and  *  Rogneda. ' 

Serov  died  of  heart  disease  in  January  1871. 
The  orchestration  of  *  The  Power  of  Evil '  was 
completed  by  one  of  his  most  talented  pupils, 
Soloviev.  At  the  time  of  his  death  he  was 
busy  with  a  fourth  opera  based  upon  Gogol's 
'Christmas  Eve  Revels,'  but  this  wofk  did  not 
progress  beyond  a  first  sketch,  from  which  his 
widow  afterwards  arranged  an  orchestral  suite, 


published  in  1877.  Other  compositions,  all 
belonging  to  his  later  years,  are :  '  Stabat 
Mater,'  *  Ave  Maria,'  incidental  music  to  'Nero' 
(1869),  *A  Christmas  Song '  and  two  or  three 
orchestral  works,  including  a  'Gopak'  and 
'Dance  of  the  Zaporogne  Cossacks.'  Serov 
married  Yalentina  Semenovna  Bergman,  a 
talented  pupil  of  the  St  Petersburg  Conserva- 
toire, and  the  composer  of  several  operas,  one 
of  which,  •  Uriel  Acosta '  (Moscow,  1885),  brought 
her  some  success.  She  was  also  a  constant 
contributor  to  the  reviews,  and  in  recent  year» 
has  devoted  her  energies  to  the  popularising  of 
music  among  the  masses.  R.  n. 

SERPENT  (Eng.  and  Fr.  ;  Germ.  SMangen- 
rohr ;  Ital.  Serpcntane),  A  now  obsolete  instru- 
ment forming  the  natural  bass  of  the  ancient 
cornet  family,  played  with  a  cupped  mouthpiece 
similar  to  that  of  the 
bass  trombone.  It 
consists  of  a  woodeL 
tube  about  8  feet  long, 
increasing  oonicailj 
from  f  of  an  inch  in 
diameter  at  the 
mouthpiece  to  4 
inches  at  the  open 
end.  The  name  in 
obviously  derived 
from  the  curved  form 
into  which  the  tube  is 
contorted,  presenting 
three  U-shaped  turns 
followed  by  a  large 
circular  convolution. 
The  bell  end  is, 
moreover,  turned  for- 
ward from  the  player, 
and  the  mouthpiece 
makes  a  right-angled  backward  turn  to  reach 
his  lips.  There  are  six  holes  on  the  front  of 
the  instrument,  to  be  stopped  by  the  three  middle 
fingers  of  either  hand  ;  those  for  the  left  hand 
on  the  third  descending  branch  ;  those  for  the 
right  on  the  fourth  ascending  branch  towanhi 
the  bell.  The  holes  are  set  in  groups  of  three, 
within  reach  of  the  outstretched  fingers.  The 
hands  are  passed  through  the  convolutions  to 
the  front  of  the  tube,  away  from  the  performer ; 
the  weight  of  the  whole  is  supported  on  the 
upper  edges  of  the  two  forefingers,  and  gras|^ 
by  the  two  thumbs,  which  are  kept  at  the  back 
of  the  instniment. 

The  serpent  is  considered  to  consist  of  three 
parts,  (1)  the  mouthpiece,  (2)  the  crook,  or 
curved  brass  tube  leading  into  (3)  the  wooden 
body,  w^hich  is  built  up  of  several  pieces  held 
together  by  a  leathern  covering.  [The  whole 
of  the  instrument  was,  however,  sometimes  made 
of  brass  or  copper.]  It  is  usually  said  to  have 
been  invented  by  a  canon  of  Auxerre,  named 
Edm^  Guillaume,  in  1590.  The  story  bears  » 
somewhat  suspicious  resemblance  to  that  of  the 


SERPENT 


SERPETTE 


423 


diaeovery  of  the  bassoon  by  a  canon  of  Ferrara 
in  the  first  half  of  the  same  centory.  But  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  about  this  period  clerical 
muaiciaiis  employed  baas  reed  and  brass  instru- 
menta  for  the  aooompaniment  of  ecclesiastical 
plain-song.  Indeed  Mersenne,  who  giyes  a  re- 
markably good  and  complete  account  of  the 
Serpent,  notices  that  '  even  when  played  by  a 
boy  it  is  sufficient  to  support  the  Yoices  of  twenty 
robust  monks/  The  SerperU  d^jSglUe  is  still  a 
recognised  functionary  in  French  churches,  [and 
for  many  years  was  an  indispensable  member  of 
the  primitive  orchestras  which  accompanied  the 
singing  in  rural  churches  in  England.] 

The  scale  of  the  Serpent  is  in  the  highest 
degree  capricious,  and  indeed  fortuitous.  In 
this  respect  it  resembles  the  bassoon.  Mersenne 
gi7e8  it  a  compass  of  seventeen  diatonic  notes 
trom  8 -foot  D  upwards,  and  intimates  that 
the  intervening  chromatics  can  be  obtained  by 
lialf-stopping.  He  does  not  name  the  device 
of  cross -fingering  so  largely  employed  on  the 
bassoon.  Berlioz,  who  speaks  slightingly  of  it, 
states  that  it  is  in  Bbi  and  that  parts  for  it 
^must  be  written  a  whole  tone  above  the  real 
sound. '  The  old  parts,  however,  from  which 
the  writer  played  [in  the  'sixties']  at  the 
Sacred  Harmonic  Society  were  all,  without 
exception,  in  C. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  Serpent,  like  every 
other  instrument  with  a  cupped  mouthpiece, 
can  produce  the  usual  harmonic  series  of  notes. 
These  in  Mersenne's  work  seem  limited  to  the 
fundamental,  its  octave,  and  twelfth.  There 
would  be  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  a  far  larger 
compass.  LichtenthaH  who,  as  an  Italian, 
highly  values  the  Serpent,  gives  its  compass  as 
no  less  than  four  full  octaves  from  the  Do 
lassiasimoy  which  '  does  not  exist  on  the  piano- 
forte (1826),  but  on  the  pedal  of  the  organ  of 
16  feet,'  up  to  the  Do  of  the  violin  on  the  third 
space.  He  states,  moreover,  that  the  lowest 
sound  of  Do  can  only  be  used  from  time  to  time, 
'avendo  bisogno  di  una  particolare  buona 
imboccatura ' — requiring  a  specially  good  lip. 
[As  the  fundamental  note,  pedal,  or  lowest 
proper  tone  of  the  Serpent  was  the  8-feet  C, 
JQst  as  it  is  on  the  trombone,  euphonium,  or 
ophideide  in  C,  the  statement  of  Lichtenthal 
can  only  be  explained  by  admitting  that  certain 
players,  by  a  peculiarly  loose  embouchure,  could 
produce  notes  of  a  forced  or  constrained  pitch 
one  octave  lower  than  due  to  the  length  of  tube. 
The  compass  given  in  the  scales  and  tutors  is 
three  octaves  from  C  to  c\  with  a  possible 
extension  downi^'ards,  by  slackening  the  lips, 
to  B,  and  B>.] 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  woodcut  that  one 
hand  being  applied  to  an  ascending,  and  the 
other  to  a  descending  branch,  the  usual  sequence 
of  fingering  is  inverted  in  the  two  hands  ;  the 
scale  proceeding  downwards  in  the   left  and 

>  Mtkmario  tMla  Mu$iea.  torn.  1.  p.  183. 


upwards  in  the  right.  The  Serpent  is  probably 
the  only  instrument  in  existence  exhibiting  so 
quaint  and  unsdentifio  a  device.  This  fkct, 
and  the  difierent  lengths  of  sounding -tube 
intervening  between  l^e  holes — the  distance 
between  the  mouthpiece  and  the  first  finger 
hole  being  44  inches ;  between  the  next  three 
only  about  4  inches  in  all ;  between  these  and 
the  next  three  for  the  right  hand,  IS  inches ; 
and  from  the  last  hole  to  the  bell,  31  inches ; 
making  96  inches,  or  8  feet — ^indicate  the  gi*eat 
imperfection  of  the  instrument  mechanically 
considered,  and  point  to  the  conclusion  that  a 
good  player  must  have  relied  more  on  his 
dexterity  and  on  the  strength  of  his  em- 
bouchure, as  mentioned  above,  than  on  the 
resources  of  the  instrument  itself.  Later 
makers,  however,  added  a  multiplicity  of  keys, 
both  above  and  below,  which  only  complicated 
without  facilitating  performance.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  notes  D,  A,  and  some  others, 
the  holes  for  which  were  the  most  approximately 
correct  in  position,  had  far  greater  force  and 
correctness  than  others  less  accurately  planted 
on  the  resonant  tube.  On  the  other  hand, 
owing  to  the  material  of  the  Serpent  and  to  its 
boi-e,  its  tone  was  certainly  more  tender  and 
less  obtrusive  than  that  of  the  blatant  brass 
valve -instruments  which  have  replaced  it  in 
the  modem  orchestra.  It  is  practically  disused 
except  in  some  few  foreign  churches,  and 
forgotten  by  all  but  musical  antiquaries.  A 
part  for  it  is  however  found  in  the  score  of 
Mendelssohn's  overtures  *The  Calm  Sea  and 
Prosperous  Voyage '  and  *  St.  Paul,'  in  the  over- 
tures to  *Masaniello,'  *The  Siege  of  Corinth' 
(between  the  second  and  third  trombones),  and 
*Rienzi.'  It  is  also  found  in  the  score  of  *  I 
Vespri  Sicilian!.  •  It  is  usually  replaced  in 
performance  by  the  ophicleide.  A  Yorkshire- 
man  of  Richmond,  named  Hurworth,  who 
played  in  the  private  band  of  George  III., 
could  execute  elaborate  flute  variations  with 
perfect  accuracy  on  this  imwieldy  instrument. 

There  is  a  Method  for  the  Serpent,  containing 
studies  and  duets,  published  by  Cocks.  The 
only  concerted  music  set  down  to  it  seems  to 
have  been  originally  intended  for  the  bassoon. 

A  '  Contra  Serpent '  was  shown  in  the  Exhibi- 
tion of  1851,  made  by  Jordan  of  Liverpool.  It 
-was  in  Eb  of  the  16-foot  octave.  It  was  how- 
ever too  unwieldy  to  be  carried  by  the  player, 
and  required  independent  support.  Another 
modification  of  this  instrument  was  invented  by 
Beacham  and  played  on  by  Prospers  in  Jullien's 
orchestra.  It  was  named  the  Serpentcleide, 
and  was  essentially  an  ophicleide  with  a  body 
of  wood  instead  of  brass,  [w.  h.  s.  ;  with 
additions  in  square  brackets  by  D.  j.  B.] 

SERPETTE,  Henri  Charles  Antoine 
Gaston,  French  composer,  bom  at  Nantes 
Nov.  4,  1846,  began  life  as  an  advocate,  but 
gave  up  the  bar  for  music.     He  was  a  pupil  of 


424 


SERRANO 


SERVICE 


Ambroise  Thomas  at  the  Conservatoire,  and 
took  the  'Grand  prix*  in  1871  for  a  cantata 
('Jeanne  d'Arc')  of  great  promise.  On  his 
return  from  Italy,  despairing  of  acceptance  at 
the  Opera-Comique,  he  closed  with  the  Bouffes 
Parisiens,  and  produced  *La  Branche  cass^' 
(three  acts,  Jan.  23,  1874),  with  a  success 
which  induced  him  to  go  on  composing  works 
of  the  same  slight  character.  '  Le  Manoir  du 
Pic  Tordu '  (May  28,  1875),  *  Le  Moulin  du 
Vert  galant'  (April  12,  1876),  and  *La  Petite 
Muette'  (Oct  3,  1877),  all  in  three  acts, 
followed  in  Paris,  and  *  La  Nuit  de  St.  Germain' 
(March  1880)  in  Brussels.  [<  Cendrillonette  * 
came  out  in  1890,  'La  dot  de  Brigitte'  in 
1895,  and  '  Le  Carillon '  in  1896.  He  died  in 
Paris,  Nov.  3,  1904.]  o.  c. 

SERRANO,  Emilio,  bom  1850  at  Yitoria 
(Spain),  court  pianist  to  the  Infanta  Isabel 
(Countess  of  Girgenti),  is  Director  of  the  Royal 
Opera  and  Professor  of  the  Conservatoire  of 
Madrid.  Has  composed  much  music,  including 
grand  operas,  of  which  '  Irene  de  Otranto ' 
(1891)  and  'Gonzalo  de  C6rdoba'  (1898)  were 
produced  with  great  success  in  Madrid.    H.  v.  h. 

SERVA  PADRONA,  LA— the  maid  turned 
mistress.  An  Italian  intermezzo,  or  piece  in 
two  acts,  containing  three  characters,  one  of 
whom  is  a  mute.  Words  by  Nelli,  music  by 
PergolesL  Written  and  produced  at  Naples 
August  28,  1733,  and  in  Paris  first  on  Oct  4, 
1746,  at  the  Hdtel  de  Bourgogne,  and  was 
revived  by  the  *  Bouffons  Italiens '  on  August 
1,  1752.  This  was  followed  by  an  obstinate 
contest  between  the  reformers,  headed  by  Rous- 
seau, and  the  conservative  musicians — *  Guerre 
des  LuUistes  et  des  Bouffonistes.'  In  1754  a 
translation, '  La  servante  maitresse, '  was  brought 
out,  and  had  a  run  of  150  consecutive  nights. 
It  was  revived,  August  13,  1862,  at  the  Op^ra- 
Comique,  for  the  d^but  of  Mme.  Galli-Mari^, 
and  was  given  in  London,  at  the  Royalty, 
March  7,  1873. — An  imitation  of  Nelli's 
libretto,  with  the  same  title,  was  composed  by 
Paisiello  during  his  stay  at  St.  Petersburg.     6. 

SERVAIS,  Adrien  FRANgois,  a  great  violon- 
cellist, was  bom  at  Hal,  near  Brussels,  June  6, 
1807.  His  study  of  music  began  early,  but  it 
was  not  till  he  heard  a  solo  by  Platel  on  the 
violoncello,  that  he  fixed  on  the  instmment  on 
which  he  became  so  famous.  He  became  a 
pupil  of  Platel's  in  the  Brussels  Conservatoire, 
where  he  rapidly  rose  to  the  first  rank.  On 
the  advice  of  F^tis  he  went  to  Paris,  where  his 
success  was  great  In  1835  he  visiM  Eng- 
land, and  on  May  25  played  a  concerto  of  his 
own  at  the  Philharmonic  Concert,  where  he 
was  announced  as  *  principal  violoncello  to  the 
King  of  the  Belgians.'  He  then  retumed 
home,  and  wisely  resolved  to  study  for  a  year, 
and  it  was  during  this  period  that  he  formed 
the  style  by  whidi  he  was  afterwards  known. 
In  1836  he  reappeared  in  Paris,  and  the  next 


dozen  years  were  occupied  in  a  series  of  long 
tours    through    Germany,    Holland,    Austria, 
Norway,  Russia,  and  even  Siberia.     In  1842 
he  married  in  St   Petersburg.      In  1848  he 
settled  at  Brussels  as  Professor  in  the  Oonserra- 
toire,  and  formed  many  distinguiBhed  pupik 
He  died  at  his  native  village  Nov.  26,  1866, 
of  an  illness  contracted  during  his  third  risit 
to  St.  Petersburg.     His  works  comprise  three 
Concertos,  and  sixteen  Fantasies,  for  violoncello 
and  orchestra ;  six  Etudes  for  violonoello  and 
PF. — with  Gr^goir ;  fourteen  Duos  for  ditto  ; 
three  Duets  for  violin  and  violoncello — with 
L^nard  ;  one  Duet  for  ditto — with  Vieuxtemps. 
Servais'  tastes  were  very  sim]>le,  and  his  great 
delight  was   to   slip   on   a    blouse  and  (like 
Mozart)  play  skittles.     At  the  close  of  his  life 
he  became  very  stout,  and  the  peg  now  used  to 
support  the  violoncello  is  said  to  have  been 
invented  by  him  as  a  relief.     A  biography  of 
Servais  was  published  at  Hal  by  Yanderbroeck 
Desmeth,  1866.     flnteresting  reminisoeDoes  of 
him  are  published  in  the  Guide  Musical  of 
June  2,  1907,  Apropos  of  the  centenary  of  his 
birth.]     His  eldest  son  Joseph,  bora  at  Hal, 
Nov.  28,  1850,  succeeded  his  father  in  June 
1872   as   professor  of  the  violoncello  at  the 
Brussels  Conservatoire.     He  appeared  first  at 
Warsaw  with  his  father,  and  the  pair  excited 
the  greatest  enthusiasm.      In    1868  he  wa.s 
appointed    solo  violoncellist  at   Weimar  and 
remained  two  years.     In  1875  he  played  for 
the  first  time  in  Paris  at  one  of  Pasdeloup's 
Popular  Concerts,  when  some  of  the  journals 
spoke  in  terms  of  extravagant  praise  of  h» 
performance.      The  instnimeut  used  by  both 
father  and  son  is  a  fine  Stradivarius  presented 
by  the  Princess  Yousoupoff.     [Joseph  Servais 
died  at  Hal,  August  29,  1885.]     A  second  son, 
Frantz,  a  successful  pianist  and  composer,  was 
a  pupil  in  the  same  Conservatoire.  t.  p.  p. 

SERVICE.  In  matters  relating  to  the 
Church  this  word  is  used  in  two  totally  difierent 
senses  ;  first,  as  a  rough  translation  of  Officium. 
OrdOj  BUuSy  as  when  we  say  Communion-service. 
Ordination-service,  and  so  on  :  next  as  a  pureir 
musical  term,  as  when  we  say  *  Wesley's  Seniee 
in  E,'  etc.  It  is  with  this  latter  application  of 
the  word  only  that  we  have  here  to  deal. 

A  Service  may  be  defined  as  a  collection  of 
musical  settings  of  the  canticles  and  other 
portions  of  the  litui^  which  are  by  usage 
allowed  to  be  set  to  free  composition.  The 
term,  therefore,  excludes  all  versicles  or  responses, 
or  other  portions  founded  on  plain-song;  all 
chants,  whether  Gregorian  or  Anglican ;  and 
all  anthems,  as  their  words  are  not  neoesssrily 
embodied  in  the  liturgy,  but  selected  at  will 
On  the  other  hand,  it  includes  the  Nicene 
Creed,  Gloria  in  excelaiSy  and  other  portionfl  of 
the  liturgy  which  have  from  the  most  ancient 
times  received  a  more  or  less  free  musical 
treatment 


SERVICE 


SERVICE 


425 


The  origin  of  the  acceptance  of  the  term  in 
this  limited  musical  sense  is  somewhat  obscure. 
The  gradual  disuse  of  distinctive  names  of 
offices — such,  for  instance,  as  Matins,  Vespers, 
Mass,  etc. — after  the  Reformation,  helped  to 
bring  the  generic  word  'service'  into  very 
j^neral  use ;  and  it  has  therefore  been  sup- 
posed that  musicians  called  their  compositions 
'services'  because  they  were  set  to  certain 
unvarying  portions  of  the  church  'services.' 
Bat  this  explanation  is  far  from  satisfactory, 
for  obvious  reasons ;  it  gives  too  much  latitude 
to  the  term,  and  offers  no  reason  why  it  should 
ever  have  become  limited  to  its  present  meaning. 
The  fullest  form  of  a  set  or  service  would 
include  free  musical  compositions  for  (1)  The 
Venite,  (2)  Te  Deum,  (3)  Benedicite,  (4)  Bene- 
dictus,  (5)  Jubilate,  (6)  Kyrie  eleison,  (7)  Nicene 
Creed,  (8)  Sanctus,  (9)  Gloria  in  excelsis  ;  (10) 
Magnificat,  (11)  CanUte  Domino,  (12)  Nunc 
Dimittis,  (13)  Deus  Misereatur. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  say  a  few  words  about 
wme  of  these  movements  separately  before 
making  any  remarks  on  our  services  generally. 
The  Venile  has  long  since  disappeared  from  the 
list  of  free  compositions,  and  is  now  univer- 
«lly  treated  as  one  of  the  psalms,  and  sung  to 
«  chant  instead  of  being  rendered  as  a  motet. 
In  the  form  in  which  the  Venite  was  printed 
in  the  Breviary  may  perhaps  be  traced  the 
reason  why  many  of  our  earliest  church-com- 
posera  after  the  Reformation,  such  as  Tallis, 
Bevin,  Byrd,  Gibbons,  and  othera,  left  settings 
of  the  Venite  in  motet-form.  But  this  treat- 
ment of  the  psalm  was  probably  found  to  lengthen 
andoly  the  time  occupied  by  Matins ;  and  it 
may  also  have  been  felt  that  an  elaborate  choral 
setting  of  these  particular  words  seriously  injured 
their  force  as  an  invitation  to  join  in  public 
worship.  On  the  whole  it  is  not  a  matter  for 
regret  that  the  Venite  now  takes  its  place  merely 
OS  an  introductory  psalm. 

The  free  setting  of  the  Benedicite  omnia  opera 
<lid  not  long  maintain  its  ground,  owing  probably 
to  its  excessive  length.  Purcell  set  this  canticle, 
and  it  is  even  now  occasionally  sung  to  his  music ; 
Blow  also  wrote  an  elaborate  Benedicite  in  his 
Service  in  £  minor.  But  the  canticle  itself  fell 
for  a  long  time  into  neglect,  and  when  revived, 
it  was  sung  either  to  a  chant  in  triple  measure, 
or  to  a  *  single '  chant,  or  to  a  Gregorian  tone 
having  a  'short  ending. '  Hayes  contributed  one 
of  the  earliest  triple-measure  chants  [and  there 
are  numerous  modem  specimens  in  which  waltz- 
themes,  more  or  less  ingenioiisly  disguised,  are 
in  use.] 

The  Gloria  in  excelms,  though  set  to  music 
hy  Tallis,  fell  almost  entirely  out  of  the  *  service ' 
owing  to  the  loss  of  choral  celebrations  of  the 
Holy  Communion.  On  their  resumption  the 
^rloria  was  once  more  included  in  the  set,  after 
a  long  period  of  virtual  disuse.  The  Kyrie  eleison 
and  8anctu8  maintained  their  place  in  the  set ; 


the  former  because  it  was  always  sung  at  the 
so-called  *  table  prayers '  (that  is,  a  Communion- 
office  brought  to  a  conclusion  at  the  end  of 
the  Creed,  Sermon,  or  Prayer  for  the  Church 
Militant)  ;  the  latter  lived  on  as  an  introit, 
a  duty  it  fulfilled  at  one  time  universally  in 
our  cathedrals. 

The  Jubilate  completely  ousted  the  Benedidus 
for  a  long  period.  The  earliest  writers  of  our 
Reformed  Church — Tallis,  Byrd,  Gibbons,  Bevin, 
Farraut,  and  others — set  the  Benedictus  to  music, 
but  it  was  afterwards  practically  lost,  until, 
within  recent  times,  a  better  feeling  has  restored 
it  to  the  place  which  it  should  hold  according 
to  the  spirit  of  the  rubric,  if  not  according  to 
its  letter. 

The  Cantate  Domino  and  Deu^  misereatur 
may  be  said  to  have  been  in  fashion  from  time 
to  time.  Both  Blow  and  Purcell  set  these  alter- 
native canticles,  and  later  Aldrich  also ;  but  they 
reached  their  highest  popularity  at  the  end  of 
the  18th  and  the  early  part  of  the  19th  century. 
At  the  present  time  they  have  again  fallen 
somewhat  into  the  background. 

To  the  contents  of  a  service  as  above  enumer- 
ated, the  most  modem  composers  add  musical 
settings  of  the  Offertory  sentences,  also  of  the 
Doxologies  before  and  after  the  Gospel,  and 
sometimes  also  of  the  Sursum  Corda,  Agnus 
Dei,  and  Benedidus.  The  Offertory  sentences 
may  perhaps  be  looked  upon  as  a  legitimate 
addition  to  the  set,  but  the  Gospel-doxologies 
and  Sursum  Corda  have  both  their  own  ancient 
plain-song,  and  the  Agnus  Dei  and  Benedidus 
are  not  ordered  by  our  rubric  to  be  sung  in  the 
office  of  Holy  Communion. 

Having  made  these  few  remarks  about  the 
contents  of  a  service,  we  must  now  discuss  the 
musical  character  of  our  English  services,  assum- 
ing that  a  Te  Deum,  Benedidus  (or  Jubilate), 
Magnificai,  and  Nunc  Dimittis  may  be  taken  as 
the  main  framework  of  an  ordinary  service.  It 
can  hardly  be  doubted  that  Tallis,  the  chief  of 
the  early  post-Reformation  composers,  was  in- 
fluenced, when  setting  his  celebrated  Te  Deum  in 
D  minor,  by  the  character  of  the  then  well-known 
Ambrosian  Te  Deum  which  Marbeck  published 
in  the  1550  Pi<ayer-book.  There  can  be  traced 
an  evident  wish  to  form  a  melody,  if  not  actually 
in  a  Church  mode,  in  a  tonality  closely  resembling 
one  of  them.  Tallis  also  avoided  contrapuntal 
devices  (in  which  he  was  a  distinguished  expert), 
and  limited  within  strict  bounds  the  ambitus  of 
his  melody  and  the  number  of  his  harmonic 
combinations.  Anybody  who  will  take  the 
trouble  to  compare  his  graceful  and  melodious 
anthems  '  Hear  the  voice  and  prayer '  and  '  If 
ye  love  Me'  with  his  Service,  must  jierceive 
that  he  wrote  his  setting  of  the  canticles  under 
an  evident  self-imposed  restraint  The  whole 
of  the  Service  was  made  to  follow  absolutely 
the  style  of  the  Te  Deum,  and  the  result  is,  that 
music  of  a  dignified  and  ecclesiastical  type  has 


426 


SERVICE 


SESQUIALTERA 


been  produced — pure,  perhaps,  but  certainly 
uninteresting.  Led  in  this  direction  by  so  great 
and  famous  a  composer  as  Tallis,  many  of 
his  contemporaries  and  immediate  successors 
followed  in  his  footsteps,  and  English  cathedrals 
possess  a  considerable  store  of  plain  contrapuntal 
services  in  minor  keys. 

Closely  following  the  class  of  services  just 
described  comes  the  strict  contrapuntal  school, 
of  which  '  Gibbons  in  F '  forms  such  a  noble 
example.  It  must  not  be  thought  that  Gibbons 
was  the  first  to  write  the  *  pure  contrapuntal ' 
service  ;  a  Magnificat  and  Nunc  DimUtis  by 
Dr.  Tye  (who  was  organist  to  Edward  VI.) 
show  that  he  transferred  his  motet-style  without 
any  change  to  his  settings  of  these  canticles, 
which  consist  almost  entirely  of  short  '  points ' 
or  phrases  of  four-part  imitation.  This  is  just 
what  Gibbons  did,  but  he  threw  more  melodic 
freedom  and  greater  breadth  into  his  work,  and 
therefore  it  has  lived,  while  Tye's  Magnificat 
is  only  known  to  antiquaries. 

Half  a  century  after  the  death  of  Gibbons  the 
settings  of  the  canticles  had  become  merely 
meaningless  collections  of  short  *  points ' ;  and, 
instead  of  running  on  with  dignified  continuity, 
the  music  came  to  be  broken  up  into  a  number 
of  small  sections,  for  voices  soli,  alternately  with, 
or  in  frequent  contrast  to,  short  choruses.  The 
influence  of  the  French  school,  which  had  the 
most  disastrous  efl*ects  on  English  anthems, 
affected  the  services  also,  though  to  a  lesser 
degree.  The  services  of  Purcell  and  Blow  may 
be  considered  typical  of  both  the  virtues  and 
vices  of  this  school, — melodious,  but  restless  and 
purposeless. 

Seven  years  before  the  death  of  Blow  a  man 
was  born,  who,  without  possessing  any  special 
musical  gifts,  was  destined  to  bring  about  a  vast 
change  in  the  character  of  services  ;  that  man 
was  the  very  second-rate  Charles  King.  The 
only  possible  way  of  accounting  for  the  enormous 
popularity  of  his  services  is  to  view  them  as  a 
protest  against  contrapuntal  devices,  and  as  a 
restoration  of  simplicity,  even  if  the  simplicity 
is  closely  allied  to  weakness.  To  the  influence 
of  King  we  probably  owe  two  short  but  beautiful 
settings  from  the  pen  of  Dr.  Boyce  (who  died 
about  thirty  years  after  him)  ;  one  is  in  the  key 
of  C,  the  other  in  A. 

The  nextde  velopmentof  the  formandcharacter 
of  services  was  the  forerunner  of  the  '  dramatic ' 
school.  Attwood  deserves  an  important  place 
in  any  sketch  of  the  history  of  services  for  his 
bold  attempt  to  attach  to  the  words  music 
which  should  vary  as  their  character.  This  had 
of  course  been  done  to  some  extent  before 
his  time,  but  nearly  always  with  a  polite  lean- 
ing to  the  conventionalities  of  the  past ;  Attwood 
struck  out  a  fresh  path.  This  fact  should  be 
borne  in  mind  by  those  who  are  disposed  to 
criticise  severely  the  weak  points  in  his  services. 
Attwood  died  in  1838,  and  we  soon  find  ourselves 


face  to  face  with  S.  S.  Wesley,  whose  Service 
in  £  has  been,  and  is,  a  model  for  many  living 
writers ;  and  he  has  been  followed  by  a  Urge 
group  of  living  composers,  all  of  whom  are 
striving  to  produce  services  in  which  the  natural 
emotions  called  up  by  the  character  of  the  words 
shall  be  reflected  in  uuartificial  music. 

Those  who  desire  to  study  the  literature  of 
services  will  find  ample  materials  in  Barnard's 
Collection ;  Boyce's  Collection  of  Cathedral 
Music,  3  vols.  ;  Arnold's  Collection,  3  vols.; 
Rimbault's  Collection  of  Services,  1  voL  ;  Ouae- 
ley's  Collection  of  Services,  1  vol.  ;  varioos 
manuscripts  in  our  cathedrals.  Full  informa- 
tion as  to  Barnard's  Collection  will  be  fonnd 
under  the  head  Barnakd.  [Of  late  years  efforts 
have  been  made  to  restore  the  fine  old  Cathedral 
Services  to  general  use,  from  which  they  were 
for  many  years  kept  by  the  crowd  of  'easr' 
services  purveyed  by  the  least  skilful  oiganists 
and  writers  of  the  day.  The  Church  Music 
Society  has  already  done  much  good  in  liis 
direction.]  J.  s. 

SESQUI.  A  Latin  won!  signifying,  literally, 
the  whole  pl-us  its  half. 

In  musical  terminology,  the  prefix  Sesqui  is» 
used  in  combination  with  certain  nomeral 
adjectives,  to  express  the  proportion,  either  of 
harmonic  intervals  or  of  rhythmic  combinatioiis. 
[See  Proportion.]  Thus,  Sesquialtera  expresses 
the  proportion  of  two  to  three,  and  therefore 
represents  the  perfect  fifth,  which  is  produced 
by  sounding  two -thirds  of  a  given  string. 
Sesquitertia,  indicatinj^  (not  very  correctly)  tk 
proportion  of  three  to  four,  represents  the  perfect 
fourth,  sounded  by  three-fourths  of  the  string. 
Sesquiquarta,  or  four-fifths,  represents  the  major 
third.  Sesquiquinta  represents  the  minor  third, 
given  by  five -sixths  of  the  resonant  string. 
Sesquisexta,  six-sevenths,  and  Sesquiseptima, 
seven -eighths,  correspond  with  no  intervals  in 
the  accepted  canon  of ^ the  scale:  but,  Sesqui- 
octava,  or  eight-ninths,  represents  the  peculiar 
form  of  the  major  second  known  to  theorists  as 
the  Greater  Tone  ;  and  Sesquinona,  nine-tentlu, 
gives  the  Lesser  Tone — an  interval,  which. 
though  conventionally  called  a  major  second. 
and  treated,  in  practice,  as  identical  with  that 
just  described,  is  less,-  by  one  Comma,  than  the 
Tone  represented  by  Sesquioctava.^ 

In  rhythmic  combinations,  Sesquialtera  is 
used  as  the  general  symbol  of  triple  time.  The 
term  Sesquialtera  is  also  applied  to  passages  ot 
three  notes  sung  against  two ;  Sesqnitertia,  to 
three  notes  sung  against  four  ;  and  Sesquiquarta, 
to  four  notes  sung  or  played  against  tire. 
[See  Hemiolia.]  w.  s.  r. 

SESQUIALTERA.  A  compound  organ  stop 
consisting  of  several  ranks  of  pipes,  sometimes 
as  many  as  five.  Various  combinations  of  inter- 
vals are  used,  but  they  only  repreaent  different 

1  The  OrMter  and  Lcner  Tdbm  are.  hy  eome  Ui«ori«t«.  ctlM  the 
Aoiite  and  the  Omre  major  aeoond. 


SESTET 


SevCik 


427 


|K)8itioiis  of  the  third,  fifth,  and  eighth  of  the 
groand-tone  in  the  third  or  fourth  octave  above. 
The  sesquialtera  thus  gives  brilliance  to  the 
tone  by  reinforcing  these  upper  partials. 

The  origin  of  the  term  Sesquialtera,  as  applied 
to  an  organ  stop,  is  rather  obscure.  In  the 
list  of  ratios  given  by  Boethius,  at  the  close  of 
the  5th  or  beginning  of  the  6th  century,  which 
were  exactly  reproduced  by  almost  every  writer 
on  music  up  to  the  16  th  oentuiy,  the  term  pro- 
j}*^rtio  seaquialtera  signifies  numbers  having  the 
ratio  2:3;  the  term  therefore  is  really  applic- 
able to  all  stops  having  pipes  at  an  interval  of 
a  fifth  (or  its  octaves)  from  the  groundtone, 
such  as  the  Quint,  Twelfth,  Larigot  (nine- 
teenth), etc.  As  stated  above,  the  Sesquialtera 
organ  stop  does  actually  contain  pipes  having 
thia  relation,  only,  and  also  contains  pipes 
having  the  ratio  6  :  4 — the  tierce — which 
Boethius  called  a  proportio  aesquiquarta.  On 
the  whole  it  may  be  safely  said  that  the  word 
Seaqoialtera  was  originally  used  for  the  purpose 
of  showing  that  the  stop  contained  pipes  having 
ratios  other  than  2  :  1,  or  other  than  an  octave- 
series.        ,  J.  s. 

SESTET,  or  SEXTET  (Fr.  Sextiurr ;  Ital. 
Seatetto),  A  composition  for  six  instruments, 
or  six  voices,  with  or  without  accompaniment. 

Instrumental  sestets  are  of  two  kinds  :  those 
for  strings  only,  which  belong  to  the  same 
class  as  string  quartets  and  quintets,  being 
monochromes  in  six  real  parts,  and  those  for 
various  combinations  of  stiings,  wind  and 
pianoforte,  which  belong  to  the  class  of  piano- 
forte quartets,  etc.,  and  may  be  regarded  as 
mioiature  symphonies.  The  first  of  these  two 
classes  is,  naturally,  but  rarely  met  with,  six-part 
harmony  not  being  easy  to  \\Tite  ;  but  the  few 
examples  we  have  are  striking  ones.  We  may 
pass  over  Haydn's  solitaiy  specimen,  called  an 
'Echo,'  for  foui'  violins  and  two  violoncellos, 
and  mention  only  that  of  Spohr,  in  C  (op.  140), 
a  charming  work  ;  the  two  immortal  composi- 
tions of  firahms  (Bb,  op.  18  ;  G,  op.  86),  which 
btand  at  the  head  of  modem  chamber-music ; 
the  Sextet  of  Raff,  op.  178,  in  G  minor ;  and 
that  of  Dvofdk,  op.  48. 

AH  the  above  are  for  two  violins,  two  violas, 
and  two  violoncellos.  Turning  now  to  the 
second  and  more  comprehensive  class,  we  find  a 
few  more  in  point  of  number  but  none  of  much 
artistic  value.  The  prolific  Boccherini  wrote 
sixteen,  Haydn  one,  Mozart  only  the  '  Musical 
Joke.'  Beethoven's  Sestet  for  Strings  and  two 
obbligato  Horns  (op.  Sib)  is  interesting,  but 
unfortunately  impracticable  for  modem  players.^ 
His  Sestet  for  Wind  Instraments,  op.  71  (for 
two  clarinet^,  two  homs,  and  two  bassoons,  in 
K?)  is  an  early  work  and  little  known.  Beet- 
hoven himself  mentions  it  in  a  letter  of  August 

'  A  lat  Horn  vmrt  Is  In  ndatanee.  on  which  BMthoren  htm  written 
'6tei  o(  mine.  Ood  knows  when  the  other  parts  sre.'  The  slow 
BKtTtmciit  hM  been  adapted  to  voices  as  'Thf  Vesper  Hjrmu/  and 
bsd a  wlda  popularltf  in  'Orphieaa.' 


8,  1809,  as  'one  of  my  earlier  things,  and  not 
only  that,  but  written  in  a  single  night ;  perhaps 
the  only  thing  in  its  favom-  is  that  it  is  the 
work  of  an  author  who  has  at  least  brought 
forward  better  works — though  for  many  such 
works  are  the  best.  *  (Nohl's  J^eue  Briefe,  No. 
53.)  Stemdale  Bennett's  Sestet  for  piano  and 
strings,  a  very  early  work  (op.  8),  is  an  elegant 
pianoforte  piece  with  an  unimportant  though 
often  picturesque  accompaniment  for  strings, 
in  which  the  piano  has  an  undue  share  of  work. 
Onslow  left  two  sestets — opp.  30  and  77  bis. 

It  should  be  noticed  that  the  sestets  and 
quintets  of  Reicha  and  other  composers,  when 
written  for  wind  instruments  only,  are  practically 
quartets,  one  or  more  of  the  instruments  taking 
a  rest  in  tum.  [Vocal  sestets  occur  in  operas 
whenever  the  dramatic  exigencies  of  the  piece 
require  them  ;  there  are  two  in  '  Don  Giovanni,' 
of  which  only  one,  *  Sola,  sola,'  is  performed  on 
the  ordinary  stage,  as  the  splendid  finale  is 
usually  left  out  in  the  present  day.  The  sestet 
in  *  Lucia'  was  long  famous,  and  there  is  a 
very  fine  specimen  in  Berlioz's  'Troyens  a 
Carthage.']  f.  c. 

SEVCilK,  Ottakar,  ^iolinist  and  pedagogue, 
was  born  on  March  22,  1852,  at  Horazdowitz 
in  Bohemia,  and  is  of  Czech  nationality.  His 
father,  a  teacher  of  the  violin,  after  giving  him 
elementary  lessons,  sent  him  in  1866  to  the 
Gonservatorium  in  Prague,  where  he  studied 
under  Anton  Bennewitz  until  1870,  and  then 
accepted  an  appointment  as  Concertmeister  of 
the  Mozarteum  in  Salzburg.  This  engagement, 
varied  by  the  organising  of  self-supporting 
concerts  at  Prague,  lasted  until  1873,  in  which 
year  he  made  his  d^but  as  a  soloist  at  Vienna, 
becoming  eventually  Concertmeister  of  the 
Komische  Oper  in  that  city.  At  the  dosing  of 
the  opera-house  he  gave  concerts  in  Moscow, 
and  in  1875  was  appointed  Professor  at  the 
Imperial  Music  School  in  Kiev,  remaining  there 
till  1892,  when  he  accepted  an  invitation  from 
Anton  Bennewitz,  then  director  of  the  Prague 
Gonservatorium,  to  return  to  Bohemia  and  fill 
the  post  of  principal  professor  of  the  violin  at 
that  institution.  From  that  day  to  this, 
although  he  has  occasionally  played  in  public 
(for  the  last  time  in  1898),  he  has  mainly 
devoted  himself  to  teaching.  His  api)oint- 
ment  happened  to  synchronise  with  the  entry, 
as  a  pupil,  of  Jan  Kubelik,  then  twelve  years 
of  age,  and  possessed  of  a  marvellous  gift  for 
technique.  Sevdlk  taught  him  for  six  years, 
moulding  him  in  accordance  with  his  own 
special  theories  of  teaching,  to  which  Kubelik's 
phenomenal  success  first  drew  the  world's  atten- 
tion. This  success  was  thought,  however,  to 
be  very  largely  due  to  the  young  violinist's  own 
natural  ability,  and  it  was  not  until,  first,  Kociau, 
and  then,  in  a  still  greater  degree,  Marie  Hall, 
confirmed,  by  the  brilliance  of  their  performances, 
the  effectiveness  of  his  system  of  training,  that 


428 


SEVClK 


SEVEN  LAST  WORDS,  THE 


his  reputation  became  established  abroad. 
Pupils  offered  themselves  in  such  great  numbers, 
mainly  from  England  and  America,  that  only 
a  small  proportion  of  them  could  be  accepted. 
Among  them  were  the  sons  of  Wilhelmj  and 
Hugo  Heermann,  the  daughter  of  Wieniawski, 
Zacharewitsch,  Michel  de  Sicard,  Walter 
Schulze,  Vivien  Chartres,  Leon  Sametini,  and 
many  others  more  locally  known,  who,  after 
studying  under  Sev6ik, received  teaching  appoint- 
ments at  various  music  schools.  The  number 
of  students  working  under  him  varies  from 
75  to  100  during  the  winter  months,  some  tak- 
ing two  or  three  lessons  monthly,  and  others, 
who  also  learn  from  his  assistants,  one  lesson 
only  a  month  ;  whilst  during  the  summer  recess 
many  follow  him  to  his  country  residence  at 
Graz,  and  continue  to  get  the  benefit  of  his 
advice  in  holiday  time.  Thanks  to  him,  Prague 
adds  to  its  distinctions  that  of  being  a  sort  of 
university  town  of  the  violin,  where  students 
learn  and  draw  inspiration  from  each  other  as 
well  as  from  the  Professor.  But  the  latter's 
personal  magnetism  is  the  chief  factor  in  his 
success  in  bringing  forward  so  many  technically 
accomplished  pupils.  He  prides  himself  on 
'  teaching  them  how  to  learn,'  and  has  the  gift 
of  stimulating  them  to  an  almost  superhuman 
exercise  of  patience.  For  as  many  hours  daily 
as  their  strength  will  allow,  they  play  small 
sections  of  passages  backwards  and  forwards 
hundreds,  even  thousands  of  times,  in  every 
possible  fingering  and  variety  of  bowing.  No 
other  teacher  of  the  violin  has  the  knowledge 
which  dev(5ik  possesses  of  the  anatomical 
stnicture  of  the  hand  and  arm.  The  position 
of  the  hand  holding  the  violin  he  regulates 
according  to  the  physique  of  the  pupil,  whose 
muscles  (those  controlling  the  fingers)  are 
systematically  trained  by  his  exercises  to 
respond  quickly,  so  that  in  the  end  remarkable 
facility  in  shifting  position  is  gained.  The 
fingers  of  the  left  hand  are  kept  down  more 
rigidly  than  in  the  Joachim  school,  and  the 
management  of  the  bow  is  taught  with  extra- 
ordinary minuteness  of  detail.  He  divides  it 
not  only  into  the  usual  three  sections,  but  also 
into  subdivisions,  and  of  course  the  pupil  has 
to  apportion  each  accurately  in  accordance  with 
the  nature  of  the  phrase,  thus  acquiring  great 
command  of  tone  and  accent.  In  short,  under 
the  Sevfiik  system,  nothing  is  left  imdone  that 
methodical  training  of  ear  or  muscle?  can 
accomplish.  In  regard  to  interpretation,  the 
professor  (seated  at  the  pianoforte)  teaches  all 
the  great  concertos  on  sound  technical  lines, 
but  the  development  of  the  psychical  side  of 
the  student's  nature,  the  bringing  to  bear  upon 
him  of  subtle  influences  which  tend  to  make 
him  a  great  interpretative  artist,  must  come 
from  without.  In  the  case  of  some  of  his  pupils, 
these  influences  appear  to  have  been  absent, 
but  that  is  no  fault  of   Sevclk,    whose   life- 


work  lies  in  the  domain  of  pure  technique, 
which  he  teaches  not  only  to  his  pupils,  but  to 
the  world,  with  a  passion  which  is  akin  to 
genius  ;  to  the  world  by  means  of  his  Method, 
which  is  a  monument  of  patient  toil  tliat  vrill 
secure  him  fame  after  his  pupils  are  forgotten. 
It  consists  of  four  books.  Book  I.  is  a  Violiji 
Method  for  Beginners  (in  seven  parts,  op.  6). 
In  this  he  has  adopted  for  the  early  stages  of 
practice  what  he  calls  his  'Semitone  System.' 
Whereas  in  the  ordinary  diatonic  scale  the 
stoppings  are  unequal,  the  semitones  which 
occur  being  produced  on  almost  every  string 
with  the  aid  of  diflerent  fingers,  in  this  book 
scales  are  placed  before  the  beginner,  in  which 
all  the  stoppings  are  the  same  on  each  string. 
This  helps  him  to  acquire  quickly  pure  intona- 
tion, and  enables  him  to  devote  his  entire 
attention  to  the  holding  of  the  violin  and  the 
handling  of  the  bow.  Book  II.  contains  Studies 
preparatory  to  the  shake  and  for  developing 
the  touch  (in  two  parts,  op.  7).  Changes  of 
lx>sition  and  preparatory  scale  studies,  op.  8. 
and  Preparatory  Studies  in  double  stopping,  op. 
9.  Book  III.  is  a  School  of  Violin  Technique 
(in  four  parts,  op.  1),  for  more  advanced  pupils, 
and  is  dev5ik's  magnum  opus.  Book  IV.  is  a 
School  of  Bowing  Technique  (in  six  parts,  op. 
2),  in  which  appear  some  4000  varieties  of 
bowing  in  progressive  order,  with  metronome 
marks,  and  exhaustive  directions  tending  to 
the  development  of  the  bow  arm. 

Such  is  the  Sevdik  method,  for  the  creating 
of  which  he  has  drawn  from  the  technical 
storehouse  of  the  past,  taken  from  all  schools 
their  characteristics  and  traditions,  anangfd 
them  in  order,  blended  them,  filtered  them 
through  his  own  originality,  and  by  adding 
many  new  features  carried  them  a  step  farther. 
His  publications  include  a  series  of  '  Bohemian 
dances'  for  violin  solo.  In  1886  the  Cz&r 
Alexander  II.  conferred  upon  him  the  Order  of 
St.  Stanislaus  for  pedagogic  services,     w.  w.  c. 

SEVEN  LAST  WORDS,  TRE—ue,  the 
seven  last  utterances  of  the  crucified  Saviom-. 
A  composition  of  Haydn's  dating  about  17S5. 
It  was  then  the  custom  in  the  principal  church 
of  Cadiz  to  have  a  kind  of  oratorio  during 
Passion  week.  The  church  was  hung  with 
black,  and  a  single  lamp  only  was  lighted.  At 
noon  the  doors  were  shut.  An  orchestral 
prelude  was  played  ;  then  the  Bishop  mounted 
the  pulpit,  read  one  of  our  Lord's  last  'words,' 
and  made  an  exhortation  upon  it.  He  then 
came  down,  and  threw  himself  on  his  knees 
before  the  altar.  During  this  there  was  again 
orchestral  music  He  then  mounted  the  pulpit 
a  second  time,  and  pronounced  the  second 
*  word,'  and  a  second  discourse,  and  so  on  tiJI 
the  last.  In  1785  Haydn  received  a  request 
from  Cadiz  to  compose  orchestral  pieces  for 
this  purpose,  each  piece  to  be  an  adagio  of 
about  ten  minutes  long.     This  he  did.  snV 


SEVENTH 


SEVENTH 


429 


stituting  however  (as  the  original  parts  show) 

for  the  Bishop's  voice  a  long  recitative  for  a 

basa  in  the  case  of  each  of  the  seven  *  words.' 

lu  this  form  the  work  was  performed  at  Vienna, 

March  26,  1787,  and  was  published  in  parts 

by  Artaria  in  the  same  year — as  *  7  senate,  con 

an  Introdnzione,  ed  al  fine  un  terremoto ' — for 

orchestra,   op.   47 ;    for  strings,   op.    48  ;    for 

piano  solo,  op.  49.     It  quickly  spread  to  other 

countries,  was  sold  to  Forster  of  London  in  the 

summer  of  the  same  year   for   five  guineas, 

Haydn  protesting,  and  endeavouring  to  obtain 

another  five,  but  with  doubtful  success  ;  ^  and 

was   announced   by   Longman  k  Broderip   in 

the   Times  of   Jan.    1,    1788,    as    'A   set  of 

Quartetts  .  .  .  expressive   of   the   Passion  of 

Our   Saviour,    op.    48,    Ss,*      Haydn    himself 

conducted  them  (whether  with  the  recitatives 

or  not  does  not  appear)  as  the  middle  part  of 

a  concert  at  the  King's  Theatre,  Haymarket, 

May  30,  1791,  and  repeated  the  performance 

at  the  benefit  of  little  Clement  the  violin- player. 

The  work  is  now  known  as  a  cantata,  with 

words  to  each  movement.     When  or  by  whom 

the  words  were  added  is  not  quite  clear ;   for 

the  various  statements   the  reader  must  be 

referred    to    Pohl's   Joseph   Haydntr   (ii.    217, 

218).*     Pohl's  conclusion  appeal's  to  be  that 

Haydn  adapted  to  his  music — perhaps  with 

Van  Swieten's  assistance — words  which  he  met 

with  at  Passau  on  his  way  to  England  in  1794, 

except  those  to  the  Earthquake,  which  are  from 

Rammler's  *Tod  Jesii.'     At  the  same  time  he 

arranged  each  of  the  *  words '  in  plain  harmony, 

and  added  a  movement  for  wind  instruments 

only  between  movements  4  and  5.     The  *  Seven 

Words'  were  for  long  a  favourite  in  Vienna 

both  in  church  and  concert-room.     One  of  the 

last  performances   was   at    the  Alt-Lerchen- 

feld  church,   when   Franz  Schubert's   brother 

Anton  (*  Father  Hermann ')  delivered  the  dis- 

couraes.*  O- 

SEVENTH.  The  intervals  which  contain 
seven  notes  comprise  some  of  the  most  import- 
ant chords  in  music,  and  such  as  have  been 
peculiarly  conspicuous  in  musical  history.  They 
are  divided  mainly  into  three  classes — major 
sevenths,  minor  sevenths,  and  diminished 
sevenths ;  HiS 


1.  The  major  sevenths,  as  CB,  FE,  GF«,  are 

very  harsh — in  fact  the  harshest  combination 
used  in  modem  music  except  the  minor  second, 
such  as  BO.  They  are  only  endurable  either 
when  prepared  and  duly  resolved,  or  when 
they  result  from  the  use  of  an  appoggiatura  or 
grace-note,  or  passing  note.  They  occur  most 
commonly  as  suspensions,  resolving  either  up 

'  Pohl,  Bavdn  in  lAmdon,  p.  92.  ^     ^ 

<  Thr  BiajrafAUf  ViavarteOe  sUtw  wtesorlcaUy  that  the  adapta- 

Ichaitl  Haydn. 

Joteph  Jta^dn,  Ii.  214.  341.  etc 


or  down,  while  the  rest  of  the  chord  is  station- 
ary, as  at  (a)  or  (6), 


or  with  the  condensed  foi-ms  of  resolution,  when 
the  rest  of  the  chord  moves  simultaneously  with 
the  motion  of  the  discordant  note,  as  at  (c). 

Of  these  major  sevenths  there  are  several 
forms,  but  as  they  all  have  the  same  general 
principles  of  formation  and  treatment  they  do 
not  require  detailed  consideration. 

2.  The  minor  sevenths  are  more  individually 
characteristic.  Of  these  the  most  important  is 
the  Dominant  seventh,  as  at  (c),  for  the  key  of 
0.  The  discordance  of  this  combination  is  very 
slight.  By  itself  it  is  but  little  more  harsh  than 
(c)       (d)  (e)  CO  (g) 


UoD  «u  by  Michael  Haydn. 
» See  Pohl'a  -        -    -      ■ 


some  combinations  which  are  universally  ac- 
cepted as  concords,  such  as  the  minor  sixth  ; 
but  its  hai-shness  is  increased  by  the  addition 
of  the  other  notes  which  fill  up  the  harmony, 
as  at  {d)y  since  the  indispensable  major  third  in 
the  chord  makes  a  diminished  fifth  with  the 
seventh.  Nevertheless  its  mildness  has  long 
been  recognised,  and  it  was  used  as  early  as 
the  beginning  of  the  17th  century  with  greater 
freedom  than  any  other  discord,  by  being  re- 
lieved of  the  condition  of  being  prepared.  [See 
Hakmony,  vol.  ii.  p.  310.]  But  the  laws  of 
its  resolution  continued,  and  still  continue, 
more  or  less  restricted.  It  naturally  resolves 
into  the  tonic  choi"d  ;  because  its  third  is  the 
leading  note  of  the  key  and  tends  to  the  tonic  ; 
its  seventh  naturally  tends  to  the  third  of  the 
tonic  chord,  which  ia  in  the  major  divided  from 
it  only  by  the  small  interval  of  a  semitone  ; 
and  its  root  or  bass  note  already  supplies  the 
fifth  of  that  chord,  which  naturally  acts  as  the 
connecting  link  between  the  two  haimonies  of 
dominant  and  tonic  ;  so  that  all  the  vital  notes 
of  the  tonic  chord  are,  as  it  were,  predicted  by 
its  sounding,  and  consequently  it  is  the  most 
natural  and  forcible  penultimate  in  cadences, 
in  which  it  occurs  with  extreme  frequency. 
[See  Cadence  II. ;  Harmony.]  It  is  hardly 
necessary  to  point  out  that  it  can  be  resolved 
otherwise,  since  it  so  often  plays  a  part  in 
interrupted  cadences  ;  as  for  instance  where  the 
tonic  chord  is  supplanted  by  the  chord  of  the 
submediant  (e)  ;  but  it  is  in  consequence  of  the 
very  predisposition  which  it  creates  to  expect 
the  tonic  chord  that  interrupted  cadences  have 
such  marked  effect.  [See  Cadence  I IL]  There 
is  no  other  minor  seventh  in  the  key  which 
can  be  accompanied  by  a  diatonic  major  third  ; 
but  there  are  two  at  least  that  can  be  obtained 
with  one  chromatic  note  in  them,  and  these 
are  so  frequently  used  as  if  they  belonged  to 


430 


SEVERN 


SEYFRIED 


the  key  that  some  theorists  have  agreed  to 
affiliate  them.  These  are  the  minor  seventh  on 
the  supertonic  with  a  chromatic  msy'or  third, 
and  the  minor  seventh  on  the  tonic,  in  which 
the  seventh  itself  is  chromatic,  as  (/")  and  {g\ 
in  relation  to  the  key  of  C.  These  are  respec- 
tively the  dominant  sevenths  of  the  Dominant 
and  Subdominant  keys,  so  that  in  any  sense 
they  lie  very  close  to  the  principal  key,  and 
can  resolve  into  it  with  the  greatest  ease  ;  and 
they  are  often  taken  witliont  preparation  as 
distinct  ingredients  of  its  harmonic  material 
without  other  reference  to  the  keys  to  which 
they  diatonieally  belong. 

The  minor  seventh  on  the  supertonic,  with 
a  diatonic  minor  third,  is  a  chord  which  has 
much  exercised  theorists.  It  comprises  the  same 
notes  as  the  chord  which  has  been  generally 
known  formerly  and  even  partially  now  as  the 
Added  sixth  ;  and  it  is  more  often  met  with 
in  the  form  from  which  that  name  was  derived. 
But  in  whatever  position,  it  has  long  been 
peculiar  among  discords  for  the  variability  of 
its  resolution,  since  the  note  which  would  be 
the  seventh  if  the  supertonic  were  at  the  bottom 
of  the  chord,  stands  still  in  resolution  almost 
as  often  as  it  moves  downwards  to  the  con- 
veniently contiguous  leading  note  of  the  key. 
For  the  various  views  entertained  concerning 
this  chord,  see  Harmony  and  Root. 

3.  The  chord  of  the  Diminished  seventh  is 
a  familiar  combination  both  to  theorists  and 
musicians.  It  is  in  its  complete  form  composed 
of  a  set  of  minor  thirds,  and  this  as  much  as 
anything  gives  it  its  notoriously  ambiguous 
character,  since  any  of  its  elements  can  be 
treated  as  the  discordant  note,  with  the  result 
of  leading  to  a  different  key  in  each  several 
case.  It  is  now  commonly  held  to  be  the 
inversion  of  a  minor  ninth  with  the  root  note 
omitted.  [See  Diminished  Intervals,  vol.  i. 
p.  702.]  0.  H.  H.  p. 

SEVERNjThomas  Henry — ^brother  of  Joseph 
Severn  the  painter,  the  intimate  friend  of  Keats, 
Leigh  Hunt,  etc. — was  bom  in  London,  Nov.  5, 
1801,  and  after  many  difficulties  became  manager 
of  Farn's  music-business  at  72  Lombard  Street. 
He  was  the  first  conductor  of  the  City  of  London 
Classical  Harmonists,  started  in  1831.  [See 
vol.  L  p.  626.]  He  was  virtually  self-taught,  and 
his  knowledge  of  music  was  derived  from  study 
of  the  scores  of  the  great  masters,  and  from 
practice.  He  died  at  Wandsworth,  April  15, 
1881.  Severn  was  the  author  of  an  opera,  and 
of  varions  songs  which  were  very  popular  in 
their  time ;  a  Cantata,  '  The  Spirit  of  the 
Sheir  ;  two  Te  Deums  (Novello  k  Co.),  etc., 
etc.  o. 

SEXT  (Lat.  Officiwm  (vd  Oratio)  ad  Horam 
Sextain  ;  Ad  Sextain),  The  last  but  one  of  the 
*  Lesser  Hours  *  in  the  Roman  Breviary. 

Tlie  Office  begins,  as  usual,  with  the  Yersicle 
and  Response,   'Dens  in  adjutorium.'    These 


are  followed  by  a  Hymn — 'Rector  poteiu, 
verax  Deux' — which  never  changes;  Verses 
81-129  of  the  Psalm,  '  Beati  immaculati,'  song 
in  three  divisions,  bat  under  a  single  antiphon  ; 
the  '  Capitulum '  and  '  Responaorium  breve '  for 
the  Season  ;  and  the  Prayer  (or  Collect)  for  the 
day. 

In  Collegiate  Churches  the  Offices  of  Terce 
and  Sext  are  usually  sung  immediately  before 
and  after  High  Mass.  The  Plain-song  Music  for 
Sext  will  be  found  in  the  Antiphonal.    w.  s.  b. 

SEXTET.     See  3estet. 

SEXTOLET  (Fr.  SextoUt ;  Ger.  SextoU ;  lUL 
Sestina).  A  group  of  six  notes  of  equal  length, 
played  in  the  time  of  four  ordinary  notes  of  the 
same  species.  To  distinguish  them  from  regoUr 
notes  of  like  form  the  number  6  is  placed  above 
or  below  the  group.  The  true  sextolet  is  formed 
from  a  triplet,  by  dividing  each  note  into  two, 
thus  giving  six  notes,  the  first  of  which  alone 
is  accented ;  but  there  is  also  a  similar  group 
of  six  notes,  far  more  frequently  nsed  than  the 
real  sextolet,  in  which  a  slight  accent  is  given 
to  the  fourth  note  as  well  as  the  first  This 
group,  which  really  consists  of  two  triplets,  is 
properly  known  as  the  Double  Triplet,  and 
should  be  marked  with  tlie  figure  8  over  the 
second  and  fifth  notes,  though  it  is  frequently 
marked  with  6,  and  called  a  sextolet  l^e 
difference  is  well  shown  in  the  following  two 
extracts  from  the  Largo  of  Beethoven's  Concerto 
in  C,  op.  15.     [See  also  Triplet.] 

DoubU  THpUts, 


SoxtoieCi.     


F.  T. 


SEXTUS  {Pars  aeaeta,  Sextuplum  ;  Eng.  The 
Sixth  Voice,  or  Part).  In  the  Part -books  of 
the  15th  and  16th  centuries  four  voices  only 
were,  as  a  general  rule,  mentioned  by  name, 
the  Cantus,  Altus,  Tenore,  and  Bassiis.  Wbeo 
a  fifth  voice  was  needed,  it  was  called  Quintus, 
or  Pars  Quinta,  and  corresponded  exactly  in 
compass  with  one  of  the  first  four.  When  yet 
another  voice  was  added,  it  was  called  Sextus 
or  Pars  Sexta,  and  corresponded  in  compass 
with  another  original  voice -part  The  extra 
part,  therefore,  represented  sometimes  an  addi- 
tional treble,  sometimes  an  alto,  sometimes  a 
tenor,  and  sometimes  a  bass  ;  and  always  corre- 
sponded in  compass  with  some  other  part  of 
equal  importance  with  itself.  w.  8.  B. 

SEYFRIED,  loNAZ  Xavkr,  Rittkb  von, 
bom  August  15,  1776,  in  Vienna,  was  origioaUy 
intended  for  the  law,  but  his  talent  for  mnsic 
was  so  decided,    that,    encouraged    by  Peter 


SFOGATO 


SGAMBATI 


431 


Winter,  he  determined  to  become  a  professional 
musician.     In  this,  his  intimacy  with  Mozart 
and  subsequent  acquaintance  with  Beethoven 
were  of  much  use.     EUs  teachers  were  Kozeluch 
for  the  PF.  and  organ,  and  Haydn  for  theory. 
In  1797  he  became  joint  conductor  of  Schikane- 
der's  theatre  with  Henneberg,  a  post  he  retained 
in  the  new  Theatre  *an  der  Wien'  from  its 
opening  in  1801  till  1826.     The  first  work  he 
proda<^  there  was  a  setting  of  Schikaneder's 
comic  opera  *  Der  Lowenbmnnen '  (1797),  and 
the  second,  a  grand  opera  'Der  Wundermann 
am  Rheinfall'  (1799),  on  which  Haydn  wrote 
him  a  very  complimentary  letter.     These  were 
succeeded   by  innumerable  operas  great  and 
small,   operettas,  singspiele,  music   for  melo- 
dramas, plays  (including  some  by  Schiller  and 
Grillpanser),  ballets,  and  pantomimes.    Specially 
sacceasful    were    his  biblical    dramas,    'Saul, 
Konigvon  Israel*  (1810),  'Abraham'  (1817), 
'Die  Maccabaer,'  and  'Die  Israellten  in  der 
Wiiste.*     The  music  to  '  Ahasverus '  (1823)  he 
arranged   from  piano  pieces  of  Mozart's,  and 
the  favourite  singspiel,  'Die  Ochsenmenuette ' 
(1823)  (an  adaptation  of  Hofmann's  vaudeville 
'Le  menuet  du  bceuf ')  was  similarly  a  pasticcio 
from  Haydn's  works.     His  church  music,  widely 
known  and  partly  printed,  included  many  masses 
and  requiems,  motets,  offertoires,  graduales,  a 
'Libera'  for  men's  voices  composed  for  Beet- 
hoven's funeral,  etc.     [See  QuelUn- Lexikon."] 
Seyfried  also  contributed  articles  to  Schilling's 
Universal  Lexikon  der  Tonhtinstf  Schimaann's 
Neue  ZeUsehrifl  fur  MusUc^  the  Lcipziger  Allg, 
ZcUung,  and  CacUia^  besides  editing  Albrechts- 
berger*8    complete    works  —  the    OenercUbasa- 
Schvle,   Compositumslehret  and  a  Supplement 
in  three  vols,  on  playing  from  score  (Haslinger) 
—  and    Beethoven's  Studies    in   Counterpoint 
(1832).    Nottebohm's  critical  investigations  re- 
duced this  last  work  to  its  proper  vsdue.     [See 
vol  i.  p.  230,  and  iii.  p.  408.] 

Seyfried  was  elected  an  honorary  or  a  cor- 
responding member  of  innumerable  musical 
societies,  at  home  and  abroad.  His  pupils 
included  Louis  Schlosser,  Karl  Krebs,  Heinrich 
Ernst,  Skiwa,  Baron  Joseph  Pasqualati,  Carl 
I^wy,  Heissler,  Kessler,  J.  Fischhof,  Sulzer, 
Carl  Haslinger,  Parish -Alvars,  B.  Mulder, 
S.  Kuhe,  Walther  von  Goethe,  Baron  Hermann 
Lbwenskiold,  F.  von  Supp^,  Kohler,  and  Basa- 
dona. 

His  closing  years  were  saddened  by  misfortune, 
and  his  death  took  place  August  26, 1841 .  He 
rests  in  the  Wahringer  cemetery  (Ortsfnedhof), 
near  Beethoven  and  Schubert.  c.  F.  f. 

SFOGATO  (open,  airy),  a  word  used  in  rare 
instances  by  Chopin  (as  in  the  '  Barcarole ')  in 
certain  of  those  little  cadenzas  and  ornaments 
that  he  is  so  fond  of  using,  to  indicate  what 
may  be  called  his  own  peculiar  touch,  a  delicate 
and,  as  it  were,  ethereal  tone,  which  can  only 
be  produced  upon  the  pianoforte,  and  then  only 


by  skilful  performers.  '  Exlialation '  is  the 
only  word  that  conveys  an  idea  of  this  tone 
when  it  is  produced.  A  'Soprano  sfogato'  is 
a  thin,  acute,  voice.  M. 

SFORZANDO,  SFORZATO,  'forced';  a 
direction  usually  found  in  its  abbreviated  form 
sf,  or  tfz.  referring  to  single  notes  or  groups  of 
notes  which  are  to  be  especially  emphasised. 
It  is  nearly  equivalent  to  the  accent  >,  but  is 
less  apt* to  be  overlooked  in  performance,  and 
is  therefore  used  in  aU  important  passages. 
Good  instances  occur  in  Beethoven's  Sonata  for 
violin  and  piano  in  C  minor,  op.  30,  No.  2, 
in  the  trio  of  the  Scherzo  ;  in  Schumann's 
Etudes  Symphoniques,  Variation  3,  etc.      M. 

SGAMBATI,  Giovanni,  a  remarkable  pianist 
and  composer,  bom  in  Rome,  May  28,  1843. 
His  mother,  an  Englishwoman,  was  the  daughter 
of  Joseph  Gott  the  sculptor,  a  native  of  London, 
who  had  for  many  years  practised  his  art  in 
Rome.  Giovanni  was  intended  for  his  father's 
profession,  that  of  an  advocate,  and  he  would 
have  been  educated  with  that  view  but  for  his 
strong  turn  for  music  [He  took  his  first  lessons 
in  pianoforte-playing  at  the  age  of  five  from 
Amerigo  Barberi,  author  of  a  treatise  on  har- 
mony, who  used  to  pride  himself  on  the  fact 
that  his  own  teacher  had  been  a  pupil  of 
Clementi.]  After  the  death  of  his  father  in 
1849  young  Sgambati's  mother  migrated  with 
her  two  children  to  Trevi  in  Umbria,  where 
she  married  again.  Here  Giovanni's  lessons, 
supplemented  by  a  course  of  hannony,  were 
continued  under  Natalucci,  a  former  pupil  of 
Zingarelli,  at  the  Conservatorio  of  Naples. 
From  the  age  of  six  the  boy  often  played  in 
public,  sang  contralto  in  church,  conducted 
small  orchestras,  and  was  known  as  the  author 
of  several  sacred  pieces.  In  1860  he  settled 
in  Rome  and  soon  became  famous  for  his  playing, 
and  for  the  classical  character  of  his  programmes. 
His  favourite  composers  were  Beethoven,  Chopin, 
and  Schumann,  and  he  was  an  excellent  in- 
terpreter of  the  fugues  of  Bach  and  Handel. 
Shortly  after  this  he  was  on  the  point  of  going 
to  Germany  to  study  when  the  arrival  of  Liszt 
in  Rome  saved  him  from  that  necessity.  With 
him  Sgambati  studied  long  and  diligently. 
[He  soon  began  to  give  orchestral  concerts  in 
the  'Galleria  Dantesca,'  which,  as  the  'Sala 
Dante,'  was  for  many  years  the  only  concert- 
hall  in  Rome.  Here,  under  Sgambati'sdirection, 
the  symphonies  and  concerts  of  the  German 
masters,  until  then  unknown  in  the  papal  city, 
at  length  found  a  hearing.  Beethoven's  •  Eroica ' 
was  introduced  to  the  Roman  public  and  the 
'  Emperor '  concerto  was  played  to  them  by 
Sgambati  for  the  first  time,  just  as  later  they 
learned  at  his  hands  to  know  and  appreciate 
Brahms,  Saint-Saens,  and  later  t^Titers.] 

At  the  same  time  Sgambati  was  busy  with 
his  compositions.  In  1864  he  wrote  a  string 
quartet;  in  1866,  a  pianoforte  quintet (F  minor. 


432 


SGAMBATI 


SGAMBATI 


op.  4),  an  overture  for  full  orchestra  to  Cossa's 

*  Cola  di  Rlenzi/  together  with  other  works, 
and  in    the   same  year  he  conducted   Liszt's 

*  Dante '  symphony  (Feb.  26)  with  great  success 
and  credit  to  himself. 

In  company  with  Liszt,  he  visited  Germany 
in  1869,  and  at  Munich  heard  Wagner's  music 
for  the  first  time.  Sgambati's  talent  naturally 
attracted  the  notice  of  Herr  von  Keudell,  the 
well-known  amateur  and  German  ambassador 
in  Rome.  At  the  orchestral  concerts  which  he 
conducted  at  the  embassy  many  of  his  works 
were  first  heard.  Here  also,  in  1876,  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Wagner  [in  whose  honour 
the  ambassador  one  evening  gave  a  concert 
consisting  entirely  of  Sgambati's  compositions, 
including  two  pianoforte  quintets  and  several 
songici.  Wagner,  much  surprised  to  find  in 
Rome  a  composer  who  made  music  of  this  kind, 
expressed  a  wish  to  hear  it  again,  and  on  the 
following  evening  the  programme  was  privately 
repeated  for  the  delectation  of  the  master,  who 
immediately  wrote  to  the  publishing-house  of 
Schott,  advising  them  to  purchase  and  print 
Sgambati's  works  without  delay.  The  firm 
then  published  the  two  quintets,  as  well  as  a 
prelude  and  fugue  for  pianoforte.] 

Encouraged  by  this  well-merited  recognition 
Sgambati  wrote  a  Festival-overture  and  a  con- 
certo for  pianoforte  and  orchestra.  His  Sym- 
phony in  D,  produced  at  a  concert  in  the  *  Sala 
Dante '  early  in  1881  and  repeated  on  March  28 
of  that  year  at  the  Quirinal,  being  the  first  work 
of  the  kind  ever  given  at  the  Italian  Court,  in 
the  presence  of  King  Humbert  and  his  Consort, 
Queen  Margherita,  to  whom  it  was  dedicated. 
In  1882  Sgambati  paid  his  first  visit  to  England 
and  played  his  pianoforte  concerto  at  the  Phil- 
harmonic concert  of  May  11.  His  symphony 
was  given  at  the  Crystal  Palace  on  June  10 
under  the  composer's  direction.  Both  works 
were  well  received,  but  the  symphony  made 
much  the  greater  impression  of  the  two. 
Though  original  in  its  ideas  and  character  it 
adheres  to  established  forms ;  it  is  at  once 
thoughtfully  worked  out  and  gracefully  ex- 
pressed, with  a  great  deal  of  effect,  and  no  lack 
of  counterpoint 

His  quartet  for  strings  in  D  flat,  printed 
about  this  time,  is  one  of  the  works  by  which 
Sgambati  is  best  known.  First  played  in 
London  by  the  Kneisel  quartet  of  Boston,  it  was 
afterwards  included  by  Joachim  and  Piatti, 
along  with  his  second  pianoforte  quintet,  in 
the  repertory  of  the  famous  Popular  Concerts, 
and  eventually  attained  wide  popularity  through- 
out Europe.  Two  years  later  (1884)  Sgambati 
conducted  the  symphony  in  Paris,  where  he  had 
been  invited  as  representative  of  Italy  at  the 
International  Concerts  given  in  the  Trocad^ro. 
In  1886  he  was  named  one  of  the  five  corre- 
sponding members  of  the  French  Institute  to 
fill  the  place  vacated  by  Liszt.     In  1887  he 


was  invited  to  conduct  his  second  symphony, 
in  £  flat  (written  in  1883  and  still  unpublished), 
and  to  execute  his  first  quintet  at  the  grea: 
musical  festival  of  theTonkiinstler-Yersammlung 
in  Cologne. 

[In  the  same  year  he  wrote,  in  honour  of  the 
wedding  of  the  Duke  of  Aosta,  an  '  Epitalamio 
Sinfonico,'  which  takes  the  form  of  a  sniu. 
though  considerably  more  developed  than  i-^ 
usuaUy  the  case  in  compositions  so  described. 
After  its  production  at  Turin  the  author  con- 
ducted performances  of  the  work  in  Milan  and 
Rome,  and  brought  it  to  London  on  the  occasion 
of  his  second  visit  in  1891,  when  it  was  giveu 
at  a  Philharmonic  concert.  During  the  santr 
season  he  gave  a  concert  of  his  own  composi- 
tions at  Princes'  Hall,  and  was  commanded  to 
Windsor  where  he  played  before  Queen  Victoria. 
One  of  the  most  memorable  journeys  made  br 
Sgambati  to  foreign  countries  included  a  visit 
to  Russia  in  the  autumn  of  1903.  Received  Hitli 
enthusiasm,  he  gave  concerts,  consisting  chieHy 
of  his  own  works,  at  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow, 
and  other  places  in  Northern  Europe,  with  sucli 
conspicuous  success  that  they  would  have  wel- 
comed him  gladly  another  year. 

To  commemorate  the  death  of  King  Humbert 
he  wrote  a  *  Messa  da  Requiem '  for  chorui!. 
baritone  solo,  and  orchestra,  which  was  produced 
at  the  Pantheon,  Jan.  1 7, 1896,  and  several  timts 
repeated.  It  was  also  given  in  Germany,  at 
Cologne  in  November  1906,  in  the  composer's 
presence,  and  at  Mayence  in  March  1907.  It^ 
reception  on  both  occasions  bore  testimony  to 
Grerman  appreciation  of  Sgambati,  whose  work 
was  highly  praised.  The  Requiem  is  a  iiue 
piece  of  religious  writing,  in  strict  oonformitr 
with  the  spirit  of  the  sacred  text,  modem  with 
out  extravagance  of  any  kind,  and  its  thenii^ 
well  developed,  though  not  so  diffusely  as  t<> 
render  it  unsuitable  for  performance  on  liturgic&l 
occasions.  It  is,  perhaps,  Sgambati's  most  am- 
bitious work,  and  the  author's  success  as  a  choral 
writer  occasions  regret  that  more  of  his  time 
had  not  been  given  to  compositions  of  the 
kind. 

He  preferred,  instead,  to  devote  the  energies 
of  his  best  years  to  teaching  ;  and,  as  a  result, 
must  be  considered  the  founder,  with  his 
colleague  Penelli,  of  the  liceo  Musicale  in  con- 
nection with  the  Accademia  di  S.  Cecilia  in  Boiit« 
(see  Rome).  Beginning  with  a  free  class  for 
the  pianoforte  in  1869  he  has  persevered  to  the 
present  day  (1907)  in  giving  instruction  of  the 
soundest  description.  Under  him  the  stndf  of 
the  instrument  in  Rome  has  reached  an  excep* 
tional  degree  of  development,  and  it  caiiDot  be 
doubted  that  had  Sgambati  chosen,  as  the  field 
of  his  labours,  a  city  of  central  Europe,  he  would 
have  attained  a  far  wider  celebrity  as  a  master. 

His  success  as  a  writer  for  the  pianoforte  i$ 
due  to  his  rare  knowledge  of  its  resources,  to 
his  facility  in  producing  required  efiiects  vith 


SGAMBATI 


SHAKE 


433 


the  simplest  means,  to  his  complete  command  of 
harmonic  combinations  of  the  subtlest  kind,  and 
to  the  exquisite  finish  given  to  even  the  least  of 
his  inspirations.  With  Sgambati  device  is  rarely 
efideut.  His  figures  of  accompaniment  are  as 
spontaneous  aa  the  melodies  they  sustain.  Cer- 
tain of  his  minor  compositions,  such  as  the 
beautiful  intermezzo  in  op.  21  and  certain 
Dniubers  in  his  *  Pieces  Lyriques '  (op.  23)  and 
in  his  'Melodies  po^tiques'  (op.  86)  may  be 
cited  as  exemplifying  a  level  of  artistic  per- 
fection which  in  little  descriptive  pieces  of  the 
kind  has  never,  perhaps,  been  surpassed.  His 
more  important  pianoforte  pieces,  his  chamber- 
moaic,  and  his  orchestral  writings,  taken  together, 
place  him  at  the  head  of  those  Italian  musicians 
of  the  latter  part  of  the  19th  century,  who, 
not  writing  for  the  stage,  have  moulded  their 
work  on  classic  models.  Sgambati,  in  appro- 
priating received  forms,  has  invested  them  with 
Muthem  feeling,  deep  but  restrained,  rich  and 
even  glowing,  but  utterly  free  from  the  mere- 
tricious sentiment  which  served  to  win  immediate 
{lopularity  for  Italian  composers  of  lesser  claims. 
Hij  writings,  in  a  word,  possess  the  qualities 
which  endure. 

His  native  city  owes  him  a  lasting  debt  as 
its  apostle  of  classical  music,  as  teacher,  per- 
former, and  director.  His  efforts  have  not  gone 
unrecognised  in  high  places.  His  influence 
has  been  felt  and  appreciated  at  the  Italian 
court,  where  he  was  appointed  pianist  and 
director  of  Queen  Margherita's  quintet,  and 
named,  by  motu  proprio  of  King  Victor 
Emmanuel  III.  in  1903,  Commendatore  of  the 
Order  of  SS.  Maurice  and  Lazarus.  But  by 
hia  countrymen  at  large  it  cannot  be  said 
that  Sgambati  s  talent  has  as  yet  been  esti- 
mated at  its  proper  value.  This,  in  a  nation  so 
quick  to  recognise  and  even  exaggerate  any  in- 
dication of  artistic  eminence,  is  little  short  of 
utounding.  The  omission  may  be  explained 
in  part  by  a  certain  indifference  in  the  musician 
himself,  though  not  sufficiently  to  account  for 
tlie  slow  awakening  of  Rome  and  Italy  to  the 
merits  of  a  man  who  was  honoured  as  a  confrere 
by  Liszt  and  Wagner.  Yet  it  is  certain,  as 
M.  Eugene  d'Haroourt  wrote  in  1906,  after 
he  had  been  commissioned  by  the  French 
government  to  report  on  the  state  of  music  in 
Italy,  that  'quand  la  musique  symphonique 
italienne  aura  une  histoire  et  qu'on  I'^crira,  il 
iandra  lui  reconnattre,  pour  veritable  fondateur, 
le  Romain  Giovanni  Sgambati.'] 

Some  of  the  works  mentioned  above  are  still 
ooprinted  ;  his  published  works  include  the 
following : — 

Op. 

}.  Al*>CLia  of  Ave  •ong*. 

i,  Al^ioxD  of  tso  Mas*- 

•■^  Notturno  for  pf. 

i-  Quintet,  pf.  aud  itrtDf*.  F  miiwr. 

S.  Qvttitrt,  pf.  Md  siiitio.  B  flat. 

^  Prelofle  and  tugwf  for  pf.  in  B  flat  luiaor. 
UL  Two  Ktad«*  for  pf..  D  flat  and  P  aharp  minor,  written  fur  the 
Xetlfid  of  Lebert  atid  Stark.  Stuttfart. 

VOL.  IV 


arraiiffedb 
n  Q  minor. 


bf  author. 


M.  Due  Pianl  for  violbi  and 

as.  Te^>eam  laadaiuaa,  andante  ■olenne,  for  itrlnca  and  organ 


18.  Fogll  volant!  tor  pt.  8  piw 
14.  Oftirotte  (or  pf.    nuy  edltl  _  _ 
U.  Concerto,  p£  and  orchestra.  In 
14L  SyiBphony  In  D. 

17.  Quartet  In  D  flat  for  •trlnn. 

18.  Qoftttn  peai  for  pf.     Preludlo.  Veochio  mlnoetto,  Nenia, 

Toccata. 
18.  Fbor  Italian  aouga. 

90.  Tre  Nottornl  for  pf.  . 

31.  Solte  for  pL  (Prelude.  Valae,  Air,  lutermeno,  Bttide  mflodlque). 
!S.  Pawlflore,  Toioe  and  pf. 
•23.  Pttoea  I^riqoei  (6)  for  pf. 
'^  ■  *  ■  plan* 

.  ^  iaant« 

The  Mune  for  full  orcheatm. 
20.  Oondolicra  for  violin  and  piano. 
SO.  Benedlalone  nudale  for  organ. 
31.  Plfth  Nocturne  for  pL 
8$.  Melodie  Urlefae,  four  longa. 
Sa  Sixth  Moctume  for  pf. 
31  •  Vom  est  In  luctum  ejrthara  mea '    Motet  tor  baritone,  organ, 

and  strlnn  (Included  in  opus  38). 
86,  quattro  melodie  per  una  vooe  e  pf. 
38.  MModies  podUanes  (18)  for  pf. 
97.  'Tout  baa.' Meiodla  per  canto. 
88.  Meaaa  da  Eequlon  per  ooro,  baritone  solo^  orchestra  ed  organo 

[The  following  are  without  opus  number.] 
Sersnata,  per  canto  e  pianoforte. 
Ballata.  per  teuore. 
Stomello  tosoano,  per  una  vooe  e  pianoforte. 

•  II  fbnt  aimer,'  Gavotte  cliant4e. 
L*  miA  Stella,  Melodla. 
Melodie  Urlche  (flre,  and  a  dnet). 
Two  soiige— 

1.  Flordlsiepe. 

8.  Poorl  di  porta. 

TKAHiCRimoKS. 


Unt.  Die  Ideale.  pf .  U 
Chopin.    Cauxoue  litoana,  pf.  solo. 
OluolE.    Melodla  deir  Orfeo,  pf.  solo. 

'Sepaxazione,'  old  Italian  folk- song  (edited  and  provided   with 
aooompanlment  by  O.  Sgambati). 

0.  ;  with  additions  in  square  brackets,  by 
u.  A.  w. 

SHAKE  or  TRILL  (Fr.  Trille,  formerly 
I'remblementf  Cadence ;  Ger.  Triller ;  Ital. 
Trillo),  The  shake,  one  of  the  earliest  in  use 
among  the  ancient  graces,  is  also  the  chief  and 
most  frequent  ornament  of  modem  music,  both 
vocal  and  instrumental.  It  consists  of  the 
regular  and  rapid  alternation  of  a  given  note 
with  the  note  above,  such  alternation  continuing 
for  the  full  duration  of  the  written  note.  [On 
other  instruments  and  on  the  voice,  this  defi- 
nition of  the  shake  holds  good;  text -books 
and  methods  wiU  give  examples  of  how  the 
shake  should  be  performed,  but  it  is  originally 
one  of  the  ornaments  designed  for  the  keyboard, 
and  most  effective  there.] 

The  shake  is  the  head  of  a  family  of  orna- 
ments, all  founded  on  the  alternation  of  a 
principal  note  with  a  subsidiary  note  one  degree 
either  above  or  below  it^  and  comprising  the 
Mordent  and  Pralltbiller  still  in  use,  and 
the  RiBATTUTA  (Ger.  Zuruckaehlag)  and  Bnttt- 
ment  *  (Ex.  1),  both  of  which  are  now  obsolete. 
(See  Aor£mens.) 

1.  BaUement, 


RlbatttUa, 


>  Bousaean  (Mcf.  de  MumUiw)  describes  tbs  Batttment  aa  a  trill 
which  dlflbred  from  the  ordinary  trill  or  tndtitc*  only  In  Ixwlnuinir 
with  tlie  principal  Instead  of  the  subsidiary  note.  In  thU  Le  is 
certainly  mistaken,  since  the  hnttement  Is  deM>r{)M>d  by  all  oth«>r 
writers  as  an  alternation  of  the  principal  note  with  the  note  Motp. 

2f 


434 


SHAKE 


SHAKE 


The  sign  of  the  shake  is  in  modem  muflic  tr, 
(generally  followed  by  a  waved  line  -^-^n^n^s^  if 
over  a  long  note),  and  in  older  music  ir,  >tv ,  *vi., 
and  occasionally  +>  placed  over  or  under  the 
note  ;  and  it  is  rendered  in  two  different  ways, 
beginning  with  either  the  principal  or  the 
upper  note,  as  in  example  2  : — 
2.  Written.     Performed.  Or  thus. 


These  two  modes  of  performance  differ  con- 
siderably in  effect,  because  the  accent,  which 
is  always  perceptible,  however  slight  it  may 
be,  is  given  in  the  one  case  to  the  principal 
and  in  the  other  to  the  subsidiary  note,  and  it 
is  therefore  important  to  ascertain  which  of  the 
two  methods  should  be  adopted  in  any  given 
case.  The  question  has  been  discussed  with 
much  fervour  by  various  writers,  and  the 
conclusions  arrived  at  have  usually  taken  the 
form  of  a  fixed  adherence  to  one  or  other  of 
the  two  modes,  even  in  apparently  unsuitable 
cases.  Most  of  the'  earlier  masters,  including 
Emanuel  Bach,  Marpurg,  Tiirk,  etc. ,  held  that 
all  trills  should  begin  with  the  upper  note, 
while  Pummel,  Gzemy,  Moscheles,  and  modern 
teachers  generally  (with  some  exceptions)  have 
preferred  to  begin  on  the  principal  note.  This 
diversity  of  opinion  indicates  two  different 
views  of  the  very  nature  and  meaning  of  the 
shake  ;  according  to  the  latter,  it  is  a  trembling 
or  pulsation — the  reiteration  of  the  principal 
note,  though  subject  to  continual  momentary 
interruptions  from  the  subsidiary  note,  gives  a 
certain  undulating  effect  not  unlike  that  of  the 
tremulant  of  the  organ ;  according  to  the  former, 
the  shake  is  derived  from  the  still  older 
appogffiaiura,  and  consists  of  a  series  of  ap- 
poggiaturas  with  their  resolutions — is  in  fact  a 
kind  of  elaborated  appoggiatura, — and  as  such 
requires  the  accent  to  fall  upon  the  upper  or 
subsidiary  note.  This  view  is  enforced  by  most 
of  the  earlier  authorities  ;  thus  Marpurg  says, 
'  the  trill  derives  its  origin  from  an  appoggiatura 
{Vorscklag  von  oben)  and  is  in  fact  a  series  of 
descending  appoggiaturas  executed  with  the 
greatest  rapidity.'  And  Emanuel  Bach,  speaking 
of  the  employment  of  the  shake  in  ancient 
(German)  music,  says  'formerly  the  trill  was 
usually  only  introduced  after  an  appoggiatura,' 
and  he  gives  the  following  example  : — 

8. 


Nevertheless,  the  theory  which  derives  the 
shake  from  a  trembling  or  pulsation,  and  there- 
fore places  the  accent  on  the  principal  note,  in 
which  manner  most  shakes  in  modem  music  are 
executed,  has  the  advantage  of  considerable,  if 
not  the  highest  antiquity.*     For  Cacoini,   in 

1  The  exact  date  of  the  Introduction  of  the  tzIU  la  not  known,  hnt 


his  Singing  School  (published  1601),  describes 
the  trUlo  as  taught  by  him  to  his  pupils,  and 
says  that  it  consists  of  the  rapid  repetition  of  a 
singU  note,  and  that  in  learning  to  execnte  it 
the  singer  must  begin  with  a  crotchet  and  strike 
each  note  afresh  upon  the  vowel  a  (ribtUim 
dascuna  nota  eon  la  gola,  sopra  la  vooale  a). 
Curiously  enough  he  also  mentions  anotho* 
grace  which  he  calls  Oruppo,  which  closely 
resembles  the  modern  shake. 


TriUo. 


And  Playford,  in  his  IrUroduetion  to  tht  SkiU 
o/Musiek  (1655)  quotes  an  anonymous  treatise 
on  'the  Italian  manner  of  singing,'  in  which 
precisely  the  same  two  graces  are  described.^ 
Commenting  on  the  shake  Playford  says,  'I 
have  heard  of  some  that  have  attained  it  after 
this  manner,  in  singing  a  plain-song  of  six  vat/ti 
up  and  six  down,  they  have  in  the  midst  of  every 
note  beat  or  shaked  with  their  finger  upon  their 
throat,  which  by  often  practice  came  to  do  the 
same  notes  exactly  without.'  It  seems  then 
clear  that  the  original  intention  of  a  shake  was 
to  produce  a  trembling  effect,  and  so  the  modem 
custom  of  beginning  with  the  principal  note 
may  be  held  justified. 

In  performing  the  works  of  the  great  masters 
from  the  time  of  Bach  to  Beethoven  then,  it 
should  be  understood  that,  according  to  the  rule 
laid  down  by  contemporary  teachers,  the  shake 
begins  with  the  upper  or  subsidiary  note,  but  it 
would  not  be  safe  to  conclude  that  this  rule  is 
to  be  invariably  followed.  In  some  cases  ve 
find  the  opposite  effect  definitely  indicated  by 
a  small  note  placed  before  the  principal  note 
of  the  shake,  and  on  the  same  line  or  space, 
thus — 

6.    Mozart  (ascribed  to),  *  Une  fi^vre,'  Var.  3. 
tr.  tr. 


and  even  when  there  is  no  small  note  it  is  no 
doubt  correct  to  perform  all  shakes  which  are 
situated  like  those  of  the  above  example  in  the 
same  manner,  that  is,  beginning  with  the 
principal  note.  So  therefore  a  shake  at  the 
commencement  of  a  phrase  or  after  a  rest  (Ex- 
6),  or  after  a  downward  leap  (Ex.  7),  or  when 
preceded  by  a  note  one  degree  below  it  (Ex.  8) 
should  begin  on  the  principal  note. 

It  is  also  customary  to  begin  with  the  principal 

Conaorit.  a  odelmted  atDt«T  (IBTO).  la  aaid  to  have  b«a  tiw  tat 
who  ooold  alng  » trUI  (SchilUnn,  LexShm  der  Temkmim- 

»  The  author  of  thia  tiwtiae  U  aaid  by  Flajrfbnl  ta  hav*  ^,.* 
pnpU  of  the  oelehnted  Beipione  deU*  taXim,  who  «m  al»  Ck^tei  • 


SHAKE 


SHAKE 


435 


6L     Bach,  Prelude  No.  16,  Book  I. 

tr. 

Mozart,  Concerto  in  Bb. 

Andante,     hhhbb        oMH^i^HaH  tr.  ■ 


Bach,  Art  of  Fugue,  No.  8. 


^  tr. 


SL  Bach,  Sonata  for  PF.  and  Flnte,  No.  6. 
tr. 


note  when  the  note  bearing  the  shake  is  preceded 
by  a  note  one  degree  above  it  (Ex.  9),  especially 
if  the  tempo  be  quick  (Ex.  10),  in  which  case 
the  trill  resembles  the  PrcUUriller  or  inverted 
mordent,  the  only  difference  being  that  the  three 
notes  of  which  it  is  composed  are  of  equal  length, 
instead  of  the  last  being  the  longest  (see  vol.  iiL 
p,  S08). 
9.  Bach,  Organ  Fugue  in  F. 

tr. 


la  MozABT,  Sonata  in  F. 

AUtffTo.  ^^  PlaytcL 


If,  however,  the  note  preceding  the  shake  is 
slurred  to  it  (Ex.  11a),  or  if  the  trill  note  is 
preceded  by  an  appoggiatura  (Ex.  115),  the 
trill  b^ns  with  the  upper  note ;  and  this 
upper  note  is  tied  to  the  preceding  note,  thus 
delaying  the  entrance  of  the  shake  in  a  manner 
precisely  similar  to  the  *  bound  Pralltriller ' 
(see  ToL  iii.  p.  260,  Ex.  18).  A  trill  so  situ- 
ated is  called  in  German  der  gehundene  Triller 
(the  bound  trill). 

u.  (a)  Bach,  Concerto  for  two  Pianos. 


{b)   Hatdn,  Trio  in  E  minor. 
tr. 


When  the  note  carrying  a  shake  \r  preceded 
by  a  short  note  of  the  same  name  (Ex.  12),  the 
upper  note  always  begins,  unless  the  anticipating 
note  is  marked  staccato  (Ex.  18),  in  which  case 
the  shake  begins  with  the  principal  note. 

12.        Bach,  Chromatic  Fantasia. 
tr.  tr. 


Mozart,  Sonata  in  C  minor. 

Played. 
,  ,  tr.      t  t  tr. 
■  p  P  »>ff 


In  modem  music,  when  a  triU  beginning  with 
the  subsidiary  note  is  required,  it  is  usually  indi- 
cated by  a  small  grace-note,  written  immediately 
before  the  trill-note  (Ex.  14).  This  grace-note 
is  occasionally  met  with  in  older  music  (see 
Clementi,  Sonata  in  B  minor),  but  its  employ- 
ment is  objected  to  by  Tiirk,  Marpurg,  and 
others,  as  liable  to  be  confused  with  the  real 
appo^atura  of  the  bound  trill,  as  in  Ex.  11. 
This  objection  does  not  hold  in  modem  music, 
since  the  bound  trill  is  no  longer  used. 

14    Beethoven,  Sonata,  Op.  53,  Finale. 


XI 


^^P 


etc. 


Immediately  before  the  final  note  of  a  shake 
a  new  subsidiary  note  is  generally  introduced, 
situated  one  degree  below  the  principal  note. 
This  and  the  concluding  principal  note  together 
form  what  is  called  the  turn  of  the  shake, 
though  the  name  is  not  strictly  appropriate, 
since  it  properly  belongs  to  a  separate  species 
of  ornament  of  which  the  turn  of  a  shake  forms 
in  fact  the  second  half  only.^  [See  Turn.] 
The  turn  is  variously  indicated,  sometimes  by 
two  small  grace-notes  (Ex.  15),  sometimes  by 
notes  of  ordinary  size  (Ex.  16),  and  in  old 
music  by  the  signs  a+v,  w;,  or  xm^co. 

lb.    Clementi, 
Sonata  in  C. 
tr. 


16.  Handel,  Gigue 
(Suite  14). 


^3^^^^*^=^ 


Sometimes  the  turn  is  not  indicated  at  all, 
but  it  has  nevertheless  to  be  introduced  if  the 
shake  is  followed  by  an  accented  note  (Ex.  17). 
If,  however,  the  next  following  note  is  un- 
accented, no  turn  is  required,  but  an  extra 

1  The  tarn  of  »  trill  l«  better  deKribed  by  it*  Oemun  name 
/faehmMoff,  or  oftcr-bait. 


436 


SHAKE 


SHAK£ 


prinoipal  note  ia  added  to  the  last  couple  of 
notes,  that  the  trill  may  end  as  well  as  begin 
with  the  principal  note  (Ex.  18).  When  the 
trill  is  followed  by  a  rest,  a  tarn  is  generally 
made,  though  it  is  perhaps  not  necessary  unless 
specially  indicated  (Ex.  19). 

17.  Mozart,  *  Lison  dormait,'  Yar.  8. 
tr.      ,       ^    Played,         -"7^ 


IS. 


19. 


GlementIi  Sonata  in  G. 


Beethoven,  Trio,  Op.  97, 

tr.      ^  tr.    ^ 


When  a  note  ornamented  by  a  shake  is  fol- 
lowed by  another  note  of  the  same  pitch,  the 
lower  subsidiary  note  only  is  added  to  the  end 
of  the  shake,  and  the  succeeding  written  note 
serves  to  complete  the  turn.  Even  when  the 
trill -note  is  tied  to  the  next  following,  this 
extra  lower  note  is  required,  provided  tlie 
second  written  note  is  short,  and  occurs  on  an 
accented  beat  (Ex.  20).  If  the  second  note  is 
long,  the  two  tied  notes  are  considered  as  form- 
ing one  long  note,  and  the  shake  is  therefore 
continued  throughout  the  whole  value. 

2a      Bach,  Fugue  No.  15,  Vol.  II. 
tr. 


Very  similar  is  the  rendering  of  a  shake  on  a 
dotted  note  : — the  turn  ends  on  the  dot,  which 
thus  takes  the  place  of  the  second  of  the  two 
notes  of  the  same  pitch.  Thus  the  effect  of  the 
two  modes  of  wTiting  shown  in  Ex.  21  a  and  6, 
would  be  the  same.  If,  however,  the  dotted  note 
is  followed  by  a  note  a  degree  lower,  no  turn  is 
required  (Ex.  22). 

21.    Handel,  Suite  10.     Allemande. 

(a)     tr.      tr.      tr.       tr.  (b)  tr.   ^  tr. 


22. 


Handel,  Suite  10. 

tr. 


Allegro. 

Played. 


Trills  on  very  short  notes  require  no  turn,  but 
consist  merely  of  a  triplet — thus, 

28.      Mozart,  *  Ein  Weib,'  Var.  6. 

tr.         tr.         tr.        tr. 


Besides  the  several  modes  of  ending  a  shake, 
the  conmiencement  can  also  be  varied  by  the 
addition  of  what  is  called  the  upper  or  lower 
prefix.  The  upper  prefix  is  not  met  with  in 
modem  music,  but  occurs  frequently  in  tht 
works  of  Bach  and  HandeL  Its  sign  is  a  tail 
turned  upwards  from  the  beginning  of  tfat- 
ordinary  trill  mark,  and  its  rendering  is  a^ 
follows — 

24.     Bach,  Partita  No.  1,  Sarabande. 

(ly^^  Played. 


The  lower  prefix  consists  of  a  single  lower  sah- 
sidiary  note  prefixed  to  the  first  note  of  a  shake 
which  begins  with  the  principal  note,  or  of  two 
notes,  lower  and  principal,  prefixed  to  the  fir»t 
note  of  a  shake  beginning  with  the  up^ier  noif. 
It  is  indicated  in  various  ways,  by  a  single  small 
grace-note  (Ex.  26),  by  two  (Ex.  26),  or  thm* 
grace-notes  (Ex.  27),  and  in  old  music  by  a  tail 
turned  downwards  from  the  commencement  of 
the  trill  mark  (Ex.  28),  the  rendering  in  all 
cases  being  that  shown  in  Ex.  29. 


From  a  composer's  habit  of  writing  the  lover 
prefix  with  one,  two,  or  three  notes,  his  inten- 
tions respecting  the  commencement  of  the  or- 
dinary shake  tcithotU  prefix,  as  to  whether  it 
should  begin  with  the  principal  or  the  subsidian* 
note,  may  generally  be  inferred.  For  since  it 
would  be  incorrect  to  render  Ex.  26  or  27  in 
the  manner  shown  in  Ex.  80,  which  inTolve^ 
the  repetition  of  a  note,  and  a  consequent  break 
of  legato — it  follows  that  a  composer  who 
chooses  the  form  Ex.  26  to  express  the  prctix 
intends  the  shake  to  begin  with  the  upper  note, 
while  the  use  of  Ex.  27  shoe's  that  a  shake 
beginning  with  the  principal  note  is  generallj 
intended. 

That  the  form  Ex.  25  always  implies  tbi 
shake  beginning  with  the  principal  note  is  noi 
so  clear  (although  there  is  no  doubt  that  it 
usually  does  so),  for  a  prefix  is  possible  vhidi 


SHAKE 


SHAKE 


437 


leaps  from  the  lower  to  the  npper  subeidiary 
note.  This  exceptional  form  is  frequently  em- 
ployed by  Mozart,  and  is  marked  as  in  Ex.  81. 
It  bears  a  close  resemblance  to  the  Double 
Appoggiatnra.     [See  that  word,  vol.  L  p.  99.] 

31.    yLozAXT,  Sonata  in  F.     Adagio. 


Among  modem  composers,  Chopin  and  Weber 
almost  invariably  write  the  prefix  with  two 
notes  (Ex.  26)  ;  Beethoven  nsee  two  notes  in 
his  earlier  works  (see  op.  2,  Ko.  2,  Largo, 
bar  10),  but  afterwards  generally  one  (see 
op.  57). 

The  upper  note  of  a  shake  is  always  the  next 
degree  of  the  scale  above  the  principal  note,  and 
may  therefore  be  either  a  tone  or  a  semitone 
distant  from  it,  according  to  its  position  in  the 
scale.  In  the  case  of  modulation,  the  shake 
must  be  made  to  agree  with  the  new  key, 
independently  of  the  signature.  Thus  in  the 
second  bar  of  Ex.  32,  the  shake  must  be  made 
with  Bq  instead  of  Bb,  the  key  having  changed 
from  G  minor  to  C  major.  Sometimes  such 
modulations  are  indicated  by  a  small  accidental 
placed  close  to,  or  above  the  sign  of  the  trill 
(Ex.  33). 

32.         Chopin,  Ballade,  Op.  67. 


-II 


:i:  si 


^^^^^^ 


a.      Bbkfhoven,  Choral  Fantasia. 


The  lower  subsidiary  note,  whether  employed 
in  the  turn  or  as  prefix,  is  usually  a  semitone 
distant  from  the  principal  note  (Ex.  34),  unless 
the  next  following  written  note  is  a  whole  tone 
below  the  principal  note  of  the  shake  (Ex.  35). 
In  this  respect  the  shake  follows  the  rules  which 
govern  the  ordinary  turn.     [See  Turn.] 

34.  Beethoven,  Sonata,  Op.  10,  No.  2. 


A  series  of  shakes  ascending  or  descending 
either  diatonically  or  chromatically  is  called  a 
Chain  of  Shakes  (Ital.  Catena  di  Trille  ;  Ger. 
TrillerkeUe).  Unless  specially  indicated,  the 
last  shake  of  the  series  is  the  only  one  which 
requires  a  turn.  Where  the  chain  ascends  dia- 
tonically, as  in  the  first  bar  of  Ex.  36,  each 
shake  must  be  completed  by  an  additional 
principal  note  at  the  end,  but  when  it  ascends 
by  the  chromatic  alteration  of  a  note,  as  from 
Gt]  to  Gff,  or  from  A  to  A$,  in  bar  2  of  the 
example,  the  same  subsidiary  note  serves  for 
both  principal  notes,  and  the  first  of  such  a  pair 
of  shakes  requires  no  extra  principal  note  to 
complete  it. 

36.      Beethoven,  Concerto  in  £b. 


In  pianoforte  music,  a  shake  is  frequently 
made  to  serve  as  accompaniment  to  a  melody 
played  by  the  same  hand.  When  the  melody 
lies  near  to  the  trill-note  there  need  be  no 
interruption  to  the  trill,  and  either  the  principal 
or  the  subsidiary  note  (Hummel  prescribes  the 
former,  Czemy  the  latter)  is  struck  together 
with  each  note  of  the  melody  (Ex.  37).  But 
when  the  melody  lies  out  of  reach,  as  is  often 
the  case,  a  single  note  of  the  shake  is  omitted 
each  time  a  melody-note  is  struck  (Ex.  88). 
In  this  case  the  accent  of  the  shake  must  be 
upon  the  upper  note,  that  the  note  omitted 
may  be  a  subsidiary  and  not  a  principal  note. 

87.  Crameb,  Study,  No.  11.* 


UfOo, 


88.      Beethoven,  Sonata,  Op.  109. 


& 
^ 


1  Von  Billow.  In  "hi*  edition  of  Cf»mer^  itudles,  Intetprets  tlii« 
punce  In  %  nrccitoljr  opportte  wdm  to  that  given  above,  directtaf 
tbe  tbake  to  he  performed  as  in  Example  38. 


438 


SHAKE 


SHALIAPIN 


The  above  arrangement  constitutes  what  is 
called  a  false  trill,  the  effect  of  a  complete  trill 
being  produced  in  spite  of  the  occasional  omission 
of  one  of  the  notes.  There  are  also  other  kinds 
of  false  trills,  intended  to  produce  the  effect  of 
real  ones,  when  the  latter  would  be  too  difficult. 
Thus  Ex.  39  represents  a  shake  in  thirds,  £x. 
40  a  shake  in  octaves,  and  £z.  41a  three-part 
shake  in  sixths. 

88.  Mendelssohn,  Concerto  in  D  minor. 

tr.  tr. 


4a  Liszt,  Transoription  of  Mendelssohn's 

*  Wedding  March.' 

Sod. 


4L  MtJLLER,  Caprice,  Op.  29,  No.  2. 


The  above  method  of  producing  a  shake  in 
three  parts  is  generally  resorted  to  when  great 
force  is  required,  otherwise  the  ordinary  method 
is  quite  practicable,  and  both  double  and  triple 
shakes  are  frequently  met  with  in  modem 
brilliant  music  (Ex.  42,  48). 

42.        Chopin,  Polonaise,  Op.  25. 
Ur. — 


43.    Beethoven,  Polonaise,  Op.  89. 


The  speed  of  a  shake  cannot  be  exactly  defined 
in  notes,  since  it  is  usually  better,  except  in  the 
case  of  very  short  trills  (as  in  Ex.  28),  that  the 
notes  of  the  shake  should  bear  no  definite  pro- 
portion to  the  value  of  the  written  note. 
Generally,  the  shake  should  be  as  rapid  as  is 
consistent  with  distinctness.  When  a  propor- 
tional shake  is  required  it  is  usually  written 
out  in  full,  as  at  the  end  of  the  Adagio  of 
Beethoven's  Sonata  in  Eb,  op.  72,  No.  1.    f.  T. 


SHAKESPEARE,  William,  composer,  vocal- 
ist, pianist,  bom  at  Croydon,  June  16,  1849. 
At  the  age  of  thirteen  he  was  appointed  organist 
at  the  church  where  formerly  he  had  attracted 
attention  in  the  choir.  In  1862  he  commenoed 
a  three  years'  course  of  study  of  hannony  and 
counterpoint  under  Mollque  ;  bat  after  that 
master's  death,  having  in  1866  gained  the 
King's  Scholarship  at  the  Boyal  Academy  ot 
Music,  continued  his  studies  there  for  five  yeai> 
under  Sir  W.  Stemdale  Bennett  Whilst  at 
the  Boyal  Academy  he  produced  and  peiformed 
at  the  students'  concerts  a  pianoforte  sonata,  a 
pianoforte  trio,  a  capriccio  for  pianoforte  and 
orchestra,  and  a  pianoforte  concerto ;  and 
attracted  some  notice  as  a  solo-player. 

He  was  elected  Mendelssohn  Scholar  in  1871, 
for  composition  and  pianoforte -playing,  aod 
in  accordance  with  the  wish  of  the  CommittM 
entered  the  Conservatorium  at  Leipzig.  There, 
whilst  under  the  instruction  of  the  director, 
Carl  Beinecke,  he  produced  and  conducted  in  thtr 
Gewandhaus  a  symphony  in  C  minor.  Having 
discovered  himself  to  be  the  possessor  of  a  tenor 
voice  he  was  sent  by  the  Mendelssohn  Scholar- 
ship Committee  to  study  singing  with  lam^^rti 
at  Milan,  and  there  remained  for  two  and  a  half 
years.  But  though  singing  was  his  chief  pursuit 
he  did  not  neglect  composition,  and  while  in  Italy 
wrote  two  overtures,  two  string  quartets,  and 
other  works. 

In  1875  he  returned  to  England,  and  entered 
upon  the  career  of  a  concert  and  oratorio  singer. 
He  was  appointed  in  1878  Professor  of  Singing, 
and  in  1880  conductor  of  the  concerts,  at  the 
Boyal  Academy  of  Music.  [Tliis  latter  office  be 
resigned  in  1886.  Shakespeare  was  oondactor 
of  the  Strolling  Players'  Orchestral  Society  in 
1901-6.] 

His  voice,  though  both  sweet  and  sympathetic 
in  quality,  is  somewhat  deficient  in  power ;  and 
his  success  as  a  singer  must  therefore  be  attri- 
buted to  the  purity  of  his  vocal  production  and 
to  his  complete  mastery  of  all  styles  of  music; 

His  compositions,  which  are  marked  by  con- 
siderable charm  and  elegance,  show  the  influence 
of  Schumann  and  Bennett ;  and  in  his  overture, 
performed  at  the  Crystal  Palace  in  1874,  and 
his  Pianoforte  Concerto,  at  the  Brighton  Festival 
of  1879,  he  proves  himself  an  adept  at  musical 
form.  J.  r.  o. 

SHALIAPIN,  Fedor  Ivanovich,  celebrated 
opera-singer,  bom  Feb.  11, 1873,  at  Kazan.  His 
father  was  a  peasant,  and  unable  to  give  his  son 
any  educational  advantages,  musical  or  other- 
wise. At  seventeen  the  young  man  joined 
a  provincial  opera-company,  and  was  soon  en- 
trusted with  leading  parts.  In  1892,  after  a 
tour  in  the  region  of  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the 
Caucasus,  he  found  himself  in  Tiilis,  where 
he  studied  for  a  year  with  Ousaatov.  Tvo 
years  later  he  began  to  sing  in  St.  Petenbnijr. 
at  the  Summer  Theatre,  the   Aquarium  and 


SHAMUS  (yBBIEN 


SHAW 


439 


tbeMAiyinsky  Theatre,  but itwas  not  until  1 896, 
when  he  was  engaged  at  the  Private  Opera  in 
Moscow,  that  Sh&liapin's  name  became  famous. 
This  enterprise,  supported  by  a  rich  hiwyer  of 
the  name  of  Mamontoy,  made  a  special  feature 
of  national  opera,  and  gave  the  young  singer  an 
opportunity  of  displaying  hisexoeptional  powers. 
Shaliapin  has  impersonated,  with  striking  power 
and  originality,  most  of  the  chief  bass  ports  in 
Russian  opera:  Ivan  the  Terrible  in  Bimsky- 
Korsakov's  '  Maid  of  Pskov,'  the  title-rdle  in 
Mouasorgsky's  '  Boris  Godounov,'  Melnik  in 
Daigomijsky's  '  Boussalka,'  Yeremka  in  Serov's 
'  Power  of  Evil,'  etc  He  is  an  admirable  Mephi- 
stopheles  in  *  Faust,'  but  hi3  predilection  for 
national  opera  is  perhaps  the  reason  for  his 
being  so  little  known  out  of  Bussia.  He  sang 
in  Milan  in  1901  (ten  performances  of  Boito's 
*•  Mefistofele '),  and  a^in  in  1904.  s.  n. 

SHAMUS  O'BBIBK.  Bomantic  comic  opera 
in  two  acts ;  text  by  G.  H.  Jessop  (after  J. 
Sheridan  Le  Fanu),  music  by  0.  Y.  Stanford, 
op. 6 1 .  Produced  at  the  Opera-Comique  Theatre, 
London,  March  2,  1896. 

SBARF (Diesis, tromhoLDivisio;  Fr.DOse), 
The  term  which  expresses  the  raising  of  a  note 
by  a  less  quantity  than  a  whole  tone.  F  sharp 
is  half  a  tone  higher  than  F  natural :  a  singer 
'  sang  sharp ' — that  is,  sang  slightly  higher  than 
the  accompaniment ;  '  the  pitch  was  sharpened ' 
— that  is,  was  slightly  raised. 

The  sign  for  a  sharp  in  practical  music  is  t, 
and  is  derived  from  the  same  source  as  the 
natural,  viz.,  the  b  quadraium  of  the  ancients, 
written  as  \  and  contrasted  with  the  h  mollis 
or  \y,  the  origin  of  our  flat  sign.  In  French 
the  same  signs  are  used,  but  the  raised  note  is 
entitled  di^ — Fa  di^e.  Be  di^,  etc.  ;  in 
German  Fis,  Dis,  etc,  just  as  £b,  Gi?,  are 
designated  £s,  Ges,  and  so  on. 

In  the  printed  music  of  the  17th  century, 
however,  the  sign  is  usually  :^,  and  the  single 
cross  X  was  also  used  to  indicate  the  sharp 
sign,  tliongh  now  it  is  the  sign  for  the  double- 
sharp. 

In  Germany  the  sign  was  used  to  express  the 
major  mode,  Q%  meaning  C  major,  A$,  A  major, 
and  so  forth.  Thus  Beethoven  has  inscribed 
the  overture  to  '  Leonora '  known  as  *  No.  1 ' 
(which  is  in  the  key  of  C)  with  the  words 
*  Oavertura  in  Cj{,  Characteristische  Ouverture.' 
The  Broica  Symphony,  in  £b,  was  even  an- 
nounced in  the  programme  of  Clement's  Concert, 
April  7,  1805,  as  '  Bine  neue  grosse  Sinfonie  in 
Dis'  (i.e.  DS).  Instances  of  the  practice  are 
frequent  in  the  Index  to  the  AUgemeinc  musi- 
IrUische  Skilung,  o. 

SHABP  (or  Acute)  MIXTUBE.  An  organ 
stop  consisting  chiefly  of  pipes  representing  the 
higher  partial  tones,  overtones,  or  harmonics. 

According  to  Dr.  E.  J.  Hopkins,  a  sharp 
mixture  is  one  of  four  Banks  giving  a  sharp 
clear  tone,  consisting  of  the  following  intervals 


in  relation  to  the  unison:  19th,  22nd,  26th, 
29th,  or  ^',  c",  f,  e'\  in  relation  to  CC  or 
8  ft.  C.  T.  E. 

SHABPE,  Ethel,  bom  in  Dublin,  Nov.  28, 
1872,  was  a  pupil  of  the  Boyal  Irish  Academy 
of  Music,  and  subsequently  of  the  Boyal  College 
of  Music,  where,  under  the  tuition  of  Mr. 
Franklin  Taylor,  she  became  a  pianist  of  re- 
markable accomplishment.  She  gave  her  first 
concert  in  Princes  Hall,  in  Nov.  1891,  and 
received  the  silver  medal  of  the  Musicians' 
Company  in  the  same  year.  Her  d^but  at  the 
Crystal  Palace  took  place  on  March  26,  1892, 
and  for  the  next  two  years  she  gained  experi- 
ence and  pursued  her  studies  on  the  continent, 
making  a  great  success  at  a  recital  in  Vienna 
in  1894.  During  her  stay  at  Vienna  she  en- 
joyed the  friendship  of  Brahms  and  other 
notable  musicians.  She  reappeared  in  London 
in  1895,  playing  again  at  the  Crystal  Palace. 
In  that  year  she  married  Mr.  Alfred  Hobday, 
a  distinguished  viola-player  {Brit,  Mus.  Biog. 
etc.).  M. 

SHABPE,  HsRBEBT  Francis,  bom  at  Hali- 
fax, March  1,  1861,  won  a  pianoforte  scholar- 
ship at  the  opening  of  the  National  Training 
School,  where  he  afterwards  succeeded  Eugene 
d 'Albert  as  Queen's  Scholar.  He  appeared  as 
a  finished  pianist  in  1882,  and  gave  many 
concerts  in  the  provinces  as  well  as  in  London, 
where  he  organised  several  series  of  very  inter- 
esting trio  concerts  in  1899-1902.  He  was 
appointed  a  professor  at  the  Boyal  College  of 
Music  in  1884,  and  in  1890  became  an  examiner 
for  the  Associated  Board.  He  has  written  a 
comic  opera  in  three  acts  (still  in  MS. ),  a  concert 
overture  for  orchestra,  pieces  for  one  and  two 
pianos,  for  flute  or  piano,  for  violin  and  piano, 
etc,  besides  part-songs,  vocal  trios,  and  songs. 
An  excellent  '  Pianoforte  School '  is  his  op.  60 
{BrU,  Mus,  Biog,)  M. 

SHAW,  Mary  (Mrs.  Alfred  Shaw), 
daughter  of  John  Postans,  messman  at  the  Guaid 
Boom,  St.  James's  Palace,  was  bom  in  1814. 
She  was  a  student  at  the  Boyal  Academy  of  Music 
from  Sept.  1828  to  June  1881,  and  afterwards 
a  pupil  of  Sir  George  Smart  Miss  Postans 
appeared  in  public  as  a  contralto  singer  in  1884, 
and  at  the  Amateur  Musical  Festival  in  Exeter 
Hall  in  November  of  that  year  attracted  great 
attention  by  the  beauty  of  her  voice  and  the 
excellence  of  her  style.  In  1835  she  was 
engaged  at  the  Concert  of  Ancient  Music  and 
the  York  Festival,  and  about  the  end  of  the 
year  became  the  wife  of  Alfred  Shaw,  an  artist 
of  some  repute.  In  1886  she  appeared  at  the 
Norwich  and  Liverpool  Festivals,  at  the  latter 
of  which  she  sang  the  contralto  part  in  '  St. 
Paul,'  on  its  first  performance  in  England.  In 
1837  she  was  engaged  at  the  Philharmonic  and 
Sacred  Harmonic  Societies  and  Birmingham 
Festival.  In  1888,  after  fulfilling  an  engage- 
ment at  the  Gloucester  Festival,  she  left  England 


440 


SHAWM 


SHEPHERD 


and  appeared  at  the  Qewandhaus  oonoerts,  tinder 
Mendelssohn.  A  letter  from  him  to  the  Directors 
of  the  Philharmonic  Society,  dated  Jan.  19, 
1839,  speaks  of  Clara  Novello  and  Mrs.  Shaw 
as  *,the  best  concert-singers  we  have  had  in  this 
country  for  a  long  time.'  From  Qermany  she 
proceeded  to  Italy,  and  appeared  at  La  Scala, 
Milan,  Nov.  17,  1839,  in  Verdi's  *Oberto.* 
She  returned  to  England  in  1842,  and  appeared 
at  Covent  Garden  with  Adelaide  Kemble ;  in 
1848  at  the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society  with  Clara 
Novello ;  and  afterwards  at  the  Birmingham 
Festival.  Her  brilliant  career  was  suddenly 
arrested  by  a  heavy  visitation.  Her  husband 
became  deranged,  and  the  calamity  so  seriously 
shocked  her  whole  system  that  the  vocal  organs 
became  affected,  and  she  was  unable  to  sing  in 
tune.  She  resorted  to  teaching,  for  three  or 
four  years  appearing  in  public  at  an  annual 
benefit  concert.  After  her  husband's  death  in 
1847  she  married  J.  F.  Robinson,  a  country 
solicitor,  and  retired  from  the  profession. 
She  died  at  Hadleigh  Hall,  Suffolk,  Sept.  9, 
1876.  w.  H.  H. 

SHAWM,  a  wind  instrument  of  the  oboe 
type,  with  a  double  reed  but  a  larger  conical 
bore  and  a  wide  bell.  The  name  is  generally 
said  to  be  a  corruption  of  the  French  ChalumeaUf 
but  it  would  be  more  correct  to  say  that  both 
words  have  been  derived  from  the  same  source, 
theLat.  CaZamiM,  *  a  reed, 'through  the  diminutive 
Oalamelltis.  In  mediaeval  times  the  word  appears 
as  Calamel,  Chalamellef  or  Chalemic  in  France  ; 
Caramillo  and  Charamella  in  Spain  and  Italy  ; 
Schalmei  or  SehaZmeym  Cermany ;  BXi&Shalmde, 
ShaZm,  or  Shawm  in  England.  It  is  not  until 
the  16th  century  that  the  form  Chalumeau 
occurs,  and  in  the  next  century  it  was  used  to 
denote  a  distinct  instrument  with  cylindrical  bore 
and  single  reed,  the  precursor  of  the  modern 
clarinet  As  shown  by  an  ancient  fresco  in  the 
British  Museum,  an  instrument  similar  to  the 
Shawm  was  known  to  the  Romans,  but  its 
popularity  in  Europe  is  traceable  to  the  Arabic 
and  Saracenic  influences  of  the  12th  and  13th 
centuries  (see  Pipes,  Evolution  op).  In 
the  16th  century  Shawms  were  made  of  various 
sires  from  high  treble  to  contra-bass,  the  larger 
forms  being  generally  known  on  the  Continent 
under  the  names  Pommer  and  Bombardt  In 
England  the  title  Shawm  included  all  sizes ; 
hence  Drayton  (Polyolbum,  vol.  iv.)  speaks  of 
the  'shrillest  Shawm,'  and  an  old  proverb  of 
the  time  of  Henry  VII.  formerly  inscribed  on  the 
walls  of  Leckingfield  Manor  House,  Yorkshire 
states  that : — 

A  shawme  makethe  a  swete  Bonnde  for  he  tunythe  [the] 

basse: 
It  mountithe  not  to  hy  but  kepithe  role  and  space : 
Yet  yf  it  be  blowne  withe  to  a  vehement  wynde, 
It  nukkithe  it  to  my^^veme  oute  of  his  kynde. 

(MS.  copy  Brit.  Mas.  Bib.  Reg.  18  D.  ii.) 

In  the  Privy  Purse  Expenses  of  Henry  VIII.  is 
the  following  entry : — 


1680.    For  U  sagbntt^s  U  Tenor  Sbalmes  and  two  tiebnll 
Shalmesse  x  li.  x  s. 

Illustrations  of  the  various  kinds  of  Shawms 
are  given  by  Virdung  {Musiea  OeUOadhty  1511), 
Praetorius  (Sdagrapkia,  1620),  and  Mersenne 
(Barmanu  univenelU,  1635);  also  ofezistiiig 
instruments  in  Day's  Mtuieal  Instruments  U 
the  Military  JBxhibUion(lS91),  Kappey'sJfi/Oar^ 
Mitsie,  and  in  MtiMeal  Times,  August  1906. 

The  high  treble  Shawm  is  still  used  on  the 
continent  with  the  bagpipe  (comemuse)  by 
itinerant  musicians  ;  in  Brittany  it  is  <»Ued 
Bombardt  and  in  Italy  Cionnamella  or  Cenna- 
mella  (see  Piffero).  The  word  Shawm  dis- 
appeared from  general  use  in  England  during 
the  early  part  of  the  17th  century,  in  favour  of 
the  title  Hoboy,  though  this  name  appears  as 
early  as  1661  in  the  opera  *  Ferrex  and  Porrex.' 
In  1607  the  Edinburgh  town  musicians  oonsistod 
of  players  on  'chalmis  and  howboyis,'  from 
which  it  may  be  inferred  that  by  that  time  the 
two  instruments  had  become  distinct 

For  the  term  *wayghte'  as  applied  to  the 
Shawm  see  Waits,  and  for  the  subsequent 
history  of  the  instrument  see  Obor.    f.  w.  g. 

SHE  STOOPS  TO  CONQUER.  A  Englisi 
opera,  in  three  acts ;  adapted  by  E.  Fitzball  from 
Goldsmith's  comedy  ;  music  by  G.  A.  Macfarren. 
Produced  at  Drury  Lane  Theatre  (Pyne  &  Har- 
rison), Feb.  11,  1864.  g. 

SHEDLOCK,  John  South,  bom  at  Reading, 
Sept  29, 1848,  wasapupilof  LUbeck  for  the  piano 
and  of  Edouard  Lalo  for  composition.  Before 
going  to  Paris  for  his  musical  studies  he 
had  taken  the  degree  of  B.A.  at  the  London 
University  in  1864.  From  the  time  of  his 
return  to  England  he  was  active  as  a  teacher, 
and  occasionally  played  in  public  In  1879  he 
was  appointed  critic  of  The  Academy,  in  snc- 
cession  to  Professor  Prout,  and  has  since  been 
engaged  almost  exclusively  in  musical  literature. 
He  was  appointed  critic  of  The  Athen/tum  in 
1901.  Besides  journalistic  work,  he  has  done 
much  of  an  archaeological  kind.  A  series  of 
articles  on  Beethoven's  sketch-books,  in  the 
Musical  Times,  1892,  led  to  his  discoveiy  of  a 
copy  of  Cramer 'sstudies  annotated  by  Beethoven, 
at  BA-lin.  This  was  published  as  '  The  Beet- 
hoven-Oamer  Studies'  in  1893.  In  1895  he 
edited  two  of  Euhnau's  *  Biblischen  Sonaten,' 
and  a  selection  of  harpsichord  pieces  by  Pasquini 
and  others.  In  the  same  year  appeared  his 
most  important  work,  a  treatise  on  The  Piano- 
forte Sonata,  which  was  translated  twoyears  after- 
wards into  German  by  Olga  Stieglitz.  His  chief 
composition  is  a  quartet  for  pianoforte  and 
strings,  written  in  1886.  u. 

SHEFFIELD  FESTIVAL.  See  Festivals, 
vol.  ii.  p.  29. 

SHEPHERD,  SHEPHEARD,  SHEPPAfiD, 
or  SHEPPERD,  John,  bom  in  the  early 
part  of  the  16th  century,  was  a  chorister  of 
St  Paul's  under  Tliomas  Mulliner.    In  1542  he 


SHEPHERD 


SHERWOOD 


441 


xras  appointed  Instrncior  of  the  choristers  and 
organist  of  Magdalen  GoUege,  Oxford,  which 
office  he  resigned  in  1543,  was  reappointed  to 
it  in  1645,  and  held  it  until  1547.  He  was 
a  Fellow  of  the  GoU^e  from  1549  to  1551. 
On  April  21, 1 554,  having  then  heen  a  student  in 
music  for  20  years,  he  supplicated  for  the  degree 
of  Mu8.D.,  but  it  does  not  appear  whether  he 
actually  took  the  degree.  John  Day's  '  Morning 
and  Erening  Prayer,'  etc.,  1560,  contains  two 
Anthems,  a  4,  by  him — 'I  give  you  a  new 
commandment,  *  and  *  Submit  yourselves. '  The 
former  is  reprinted  in  the  'Parish  Choir.' 
Another  book  of  Day's,  the  'Whole  Psalms 
in  foure  parts,*  1568,  has  a  'Prayer'  by  him, 
'  0  Lord  of  hoetes.'  Barnard  prints  a  four-part 
anthem,  '  Haste  thee.'  Hawkins  prints  a  motet 
in  three  parts  by  him,  'Steven  first  after  Christ 
for  Gods  worde  his  blood  spent,'  and  a  melodious 
little  '  Poynte  * — a  tagel  piece  for  four  voices  of 
seven  bars  length.  Bumey  (ii.  565)  complains 
that  the  motet  is  not  a  good  specimen,  and 
prints  another,  '  Esurientes,'  for  five  voices 
from  the  Christ  Churoh  MSS.,  on  which  he 
pronounces  Shepherd  to  have  been  superior  to 
any  composer  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  [In 
the  Durham  part-books,  the  anthem  '  O  Lord 
the  maker  of  all  thing'  usually  assigned  to 
Henry  YIIL,  is  accredited  to  Shepherd. 
It  is  more  probably  by  William  Mundy.  ]  Much 
of  his  church  music  is  preserved  in  the  Music 
School,  Oxford ;  the  MSS.  at  Christ  Church 
contain  five  complete  portions  of  the  'Magnificat' 
and  some  motets,  also  complete.  The  great 
majority  of  Shepherd's  motets  in  the  library  are 
incomplete,  as  the  tenor  part-book  is  wanting. 
[A  *Deu8  misereatur'  and  'Gloria'  in  short 
score,  written  on  two  six-lines  staves  and  barred 
with  twelve  minims  to  the  bar,  is  in  a  MS. 
organ -book,  (6).]  In  the  British  Museum 
(Add.  MSS.  15,166,  29,289,  80,480)  are  treble 
{Arts  of  many  of  his  English  compositions, 
amongst  them  2  M.  and  E.  Services  with  Creed ; 
2  Te  Deums  and  Magnificats,  2  Creeds,  and  7 
Anthems.  Add.  MSS.  4900,  29,246,  contain 
four  pieces  with  lute  accompaniment,  and  Add. 
MSS.  17,802-5  has  no  fewer  than  four  Masses— 
'  The  western  wynde,* '  The  French  Masse,*  '  Be 
not  afndde,'  and  '  Playn  song  Mass  for  a  Mene' ; 
four  Alleluias,  and  ten  Latin  Motets,  all  for  four 
voices  complete.  The  library  of  the  Royal  College 
of  Music  possesses  four  Latin  motets,  and  a 
•  First  Service '  by  him.  Morley  in  his  Intro- 
duction includes  him  amongst '  famous  English- 
men.'    The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown. 

Anotiier  John  Shepherd,  possibly  a  son  of  the 
above,  was  sworn  a  Gentleman  of  the  Chapel 
Sojal,  Dec.  1,  1606.  (Rimbault's  Old  Cheque- 
ftoot,  p.  43.)  Perhaps  it  was  he  who  added  a 
K3rrie  to  Johnson's  service  in  G,  in  the  Cathedral 
library^  Ely.  (See  Dickson's  Catalogue,  32,  37.) 
Perhaps,  also,  he  is  the  '  Thos.  Shepherd '  of 
Tndway  (iv.  72).  w.  h.  h. 


SHEPHERD,  William,  an  Edinburgh  com- 
poser, violinist,  and  music-pubHsher.  About 
1798  he  issued  a  'Collection  of  Strathspey 
Reels'  dedicated  to  Miss  Abercromby,  and  a 
similar  one  about  1802-3.  In  1796  he  entered 
into  partnership  with  Nathaniel  Gow,  in  a 
music-publishing  business,  at  41  North  Bridge, 
Edinburgh,  removing  before  1804  to  16  Princes 
Street. 

Gow  and  Shepherd  were  unfortunate  in  their 
speculations,  and  Shepherd  appears  to  have  been 
deeply  involved  at  his  death,  which  occurred  on 
Jan.  19,  1812.  r.  K. 

SHEPHERD'S  PIPE.  A  name  given  to  the 
pastoral  oboe  or  musette.  It  was  an  instrument 
with  a  double  reed  like  that  of  the  bagpipe 
chaunter  ;  and  seems  occasionally  to  have  been 
combined  with  a  windbag  as  in  the  latter  instru- 
ment. It  was  made  in  several  sizes,  constituting 
a  family  or  'consort'  similar  to  the  viols,  re- 
corders, and  other  instruments.  Its  origin  in 
the  simple  reed  is  well  given  in  Chappell's 
History  of  Music,  vol.  i.  p.  259. 

An  excellent  drawing  of  its  various  forms, 
with  the  method  of  holding  it,  is  to  be  found  in 
a  Traits  de  la  Afusette,  by  Jean  Girin  of  Lyons, 
1672,  where  it  is  distinguished  from  the  'Cro- 
mome '  and  '  Hautbois. '  The  bagpipe  form  with 
drones  and  windbag  is  also  engraved,  and  inter- 
esting details  are  given  as  to  celebrated  makers  ; 
many  of  whom,  like  the  *  luthiers '  of  Cremona, 
seem  to  have  handed  down  their  reputation  to 
their  descendants.  It  appears  to  have  had  six 
holes,  and  the  rudimentary  scale  and  compass  of 
the  oboe  ;  though,  of  course  when  played  from 
a  bag,  and  not  with  the  lips,  the  upper  harmonic 
register  must  have  been  deficient.       w.  H.  s. 

SHEREMETIEV,AlexanderDmitiiievich, 
Count,  bom  1859.  His  ancestor,  Peter  Borisov, 
had  been  one  of  the  first  noblemen  to  establish 
a  private  choir  in  the  17th  century,  while  his 
father's  church  choral  choir  had  become  widely 
famous  imder  the  b&ton  of  Lomakin.  Count 
Alexander  Sheremetiev  started  his  choir  in 
1884,  under  the  conductorahip  of  Archangelsky. 
In  1882  he  had  already  organised  a  symphony 
orchestra.  In  1898  he  began  to  give  national 
concerts  in  St.  Petersburg,  which  have  gradually 
acquired  the  character  of  symphony  concerts 
at  popular  prices,  and  are  now  very  highly 
rated  from  the  artistic  point  of  view.  In 
1902  Count  Sheremetiev  became  Intendant  of 
the  Imperial  Court  Chapels.  K.  N. 

SHERRINGTON,  Mme.  Lemmenb.  (See 
vol.  ii  p.  674.) 

SHERWOOD,  Percy,  bom  at  Dresden,  May 
23,  1866,  was  a  pupil  of  the  Conservatorium 
of  his  native  place,  studying  the  pianoforte  and 
composition  under  Draeseke,  W.  Roth,  etc.  in 
1885-88.  In  1889  he  won  the  Mendelssohn 
prize  with  a  requiem  for  voices  and  orchestra. 
He  was  appointed  a  professor  in  the  Dresden 
Conservatorium  in  1893.      He  has  won  con- 


442 


SHIELD 


SHIFT 


siderable  success  both  as  a  pianist  and  composer 
in  Germany.  His  works  include  a  piano  con- 
certo, a  symphony,  an  overture,  a  sonata  for 
violoncello,  music  for  piano,  organ,  etc.  as  well 
as  songs.  In  February  1907  he  gave  a  concert 
of  unpublished  compositions  of  his  own,  in  the 
Palmengarten,  Dresden,  the  programme  of 
which  consisted  of  a  sonata  for  two  pianos,  a 
suite  for  clarinet  and  piano,  and  a  quintet  for 
piano  and  strings.  (£rU.  Afus,  Biog, ;  Biemann's 
LexUconf  etc.)  H. 

SHIELD,  Willi  Air,  son  of  a  singing-master, 
was  bom  March  6, 1748,  at  Whickham,  Durham. 
He  received  his  first  musical  instruction  when 
six  years  old,  from  his  father,  but  losing  his 
parent  three  years  later,  he  was  apprenticed  to 
a  boat-builder  at  North  Shields.  His  master, 
however,  permitted  him  to  pursue  his  musical 
studies,  and  heobtained  some  lessons  in  thorough- 
bass from  Charles  Avison,  and  occasionally 
played  the  violin  at  music  meetings  in  the 
neighbourhood.  On  the  expiration  of  his 
apprenticeship,  having  acquired  sufficient  know- 
ledge to  lead  the  subscription  concerts  at  New- 
castle, he  determined  upon  making  music  his 
profession,  and  removed  to  Scarborough,  where 
he  became  leader  at  the  theatre  and  concerts. 
Whilst  there  he  produced  his  first  composition, 
an  anthem  for  the  opening  of  a  new  church  at 
Sunderland.  Having  been  heard  by  Fischer 
and  Borghi,  they  recommended  him  to  Giardini, 
by  whom  he  was  engaged  in  1772  as  a  second 
violin  in  the  Opera  band.  In  1773  he  was 
promoted  to  the  post  of  principal  viola — the 
favourite  instrument  of  composers — which  he 
held  for  eighteen  years,  and  which  he  also  filled 
at  all  the  principal  concerts.  In  1778  he  pro- 
duced, at  the  Haymarket,  his  first  dramatic 
piece,  the  comic  opera  'The  Flitch  of  Bacon.' 
This  led  to  his  being  engaged  as  composer  to 
Covent  Garden  Theatre,  a  post  which  he  occu- 
pied until  his  resignation,  1791.  During  his 
engagement  he  composed  many  operas  and  other 
pieces.  In  1791  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Haydn,  and  was  wont  to  say  that  in  four  days, 
during  which  he  accompanied  Haydn  from 
London  to  Taplow  and  back,  he  gained  more 
knowledge  than  he  had  done  by  study  in  any 
four  years  of  his  life.  In  the  same  year  he 
visited  France  and  Italy.  In  1792  he  was 
re-engaged  as  composer  at  Covent  Garden,  in 
which  capacity  he  acted  until  1797.  In  1807 
he  gave  up  all  connection  with  the  theatre. 
He  was  appointed  Master  of  the  King's  Musick 
in  1817. 

He  published  at  various  times,  '  A  Collection 
of  Favourite  Songs,  To  which  is  added  a  Duet 
for  two  Violins '  ;  '  A  Collection  of  Canzonets 
and  an  Elegy'  ;  and  'A  Cento,  consisting  of 
Ballads,  Rounds,  Glees,  etc.';  likewise  'Six 
Trios  for  two  Violins  and  Bass,'  and  'Six  Duos 
for  two  Violins.'  He  was  also  author  of  An 
Introduction  to   Harmony ^  1800  ;    and   Rudi- 


inents  of  Thorough  Bass,  about  1815.  His 
dramatic  compositions,  consisting  of  opens, 
musical  farces,  and  pantomimes,  were  as  follow : 

'The  FUtdk  of  Baoon,'  1778;  'Lord  Mayov's  D»y.'  ITB;  'Ik* 
Poor  Soldier,'  *Boain»,'  'Harlequin  Friar  Baeon.'  ITS;  'Bobiti 
Hood.'  'The  Noble  Peaaant.' '  Fontatneblaati.'  'The  Xigle Ckvcm.' 
1784;  'Lore In  a  Camp,'  'The  Smuattj,'  'The  Choleric  Fithen.' 
'Omai.'  1789;  'Biehard  C«Bar  de  Lion.*  'The  Bn^anied  CuUe.' 
1788;  'The  Highland  Beel.'  'Marian.'  'Tlie  Ftopbet.'  'Aliddui.- 
1788;  *ThaCnmde."ThePietcu«ofFaria,'17»;  'TheWoodau.' 
•OsrarandJIalvina'  (witlx  Beere).  ITU ;  'Hartford  Bridge.' 179S: 
'Harleqnin'aMoaeam,'  'The  Deaf  Lover.'  'TheMldnl^tiraa^Rn.' 
'  Sprigs  of  lAordl.' 1788;  'ArriTedatPortaino«tb."Tha&mi«iIm 
in  Swttierland.'  'NeUey  Abbey.'  1794;  'Tlie  Mjittrtt*  <d  tk» 
CaeUe.'  1796;  '  Abroad  and  at  Honaa.'  'Lock  and  Key,'  ITM;  H» 
Italian  Villagen.' '  Hie  Village  PtU.' '  Wieklov  Gold  Hioei.'  179;, 
'The  Ftumer,'  1798;  'Two  Faoee  under  a  Hood,'  1807. 

In  many  of  his  pieces  he  introduced  songs, 
etc.,  selected  from  the  works  of  other  composers, 
English  and  foreign  ;  and  was  thereby  the  means 
of  making  the  general  public  acquainted  with 
many  beautiful  melodies,  of  whudi  they  would 
otherwise  have  remained  ignorant 

Shield's  melodies  charm  by  their  simple, 
natural  beauty  ;  at  once  vigorous,  chaste,  and 
refined,  they  appeal  directly  to  tiie  hearts  of 
Englishmen.  But  he  also  wrote  songs  of  agility, 
to  display  the  powers  of  Mrs.  Billington  and 
others.  Among  his  most  popular  songs  are 
•The  Thorn,'  *The  Wolf,*  'The  heaving  of  the 
lead,'  '  Old  Towler,' '  The  Ploughboy,' and  'The 
Post  Captain ' ;  but  these  are  but  some  of  the 
most  prominent.  Shield  died  at  his  residence 
in  Bemers  Street,  Jan.  25,  1829,  and  was 
buried  on  Feb.  4  in  the  south  cloister  of  West- 
minster Abbey.  With  the  exception  of  iaa 
fine  tenor,  reputed  a  Stainer,  which  he  be- 
queathed to  George  lY.  (who  accepted  the  gift, 
but  directed  that  its  utmost  value  should  be 
paid  to  the  testator's  presumed  widow),  he  left 
his  whole  estate  to  his  '  beloved  partner,  Ann 
[Stokes],  Mrs.  Shield  upwards  of  forty  yean.' 
His  valuable  musical  library  was  sold  in  July 
1829.  [On  Oct.  19,  1891,  a  memorial  cross 
was  erected  to  his  memory  in  Whickham 
Churchyard,  Durham.]  w.  h.  h. 

SHIFT.  In  playing  the  violin,  or  any  of 
the  instruments  belonging  to  that  family,  an 
executant  effects  a  '  shift '  when  the  left  hand 
passes  from  one  established  position  to  another. 
Thus,  when  the  hand  moves  up  or  down  the 
finger-board  the  player  was  said  to  be  'on  the 
shift.'  The  term  was  also  used  to  denote  the 
positions  themselves,  the  second  position  being 
known  as  the  '  half-shift,'  the  thkd  position  as 
the  'whole -shift,'  and  the  fourth  position  as 
the  '  double-shift.'  This  technical  acquirement, 
which  is  now  an  exact  and  indispensable  means 
of  reaching  every  note  within  tiie  compaas  of 
the  violin,  evidently  originated  in  Italy.  There 
is  a  certain  amount  of  ambiguity  surroimding 
its  use  by  viol-players  previous  to  its  introdnc- 
tion  among  violinists ;  but  it  is  quite  certain 
that  before  the  17th  century  there  are  no 
indications  of  any  such  custom.  During  the 
17th  century,  however,  there  is  little  doobt 
that  it  was  employed  by  the  best  viol-playw* 
of   the   day.       Christopher   Simpson   clearly 


SHIFT 


SHIRREFF 


443 


demonjBtrates  its  use  in  The  Division  Viol 
(second  edition,  London,  1667),  wherein  he 
states,  under  *  Tlie  ordering  of  the  fingem  in 
greuiual  noia,*  that  '  In  any  point  of  Division 
which  reaches  to  the  lower  Frets  or  beyoTvd  them ; 
the  highest  note  thereof  is  always  stopt  either 
with  the  third  or  fourth  finger.'  The  first 
tentatiye  adyances  towards  the  adoption  of  the 
'shift'  took  the  form  of  an  extension  of  the 
little  finger  in  the  first  position,  and  the  feat 
of  touching  the  first  C  on  the  chanUrelle  of  the 
Tiolin  by  this  means  was  looked  upon  as  a 
daring  undertaking.  As  a  natural  consequence, 
the  executant's  ability  rested  almost  entirely 
upon  his  manner  of  playing  Vut,  and  so  sensa- 
tional was  the  effect  of  its  advent  upon  the 
listeners  that  an  involuntary  murmur  of  *  Gare 
Tut/  was  wont,  it  is  said,  to  escape  from  the 
lips  of  his  listeners.  Beyond  a  doubt,  many 
professional  violinists  could  shifl  in  the  first 
three  positions  by  the  year  1655,  for  Mersenne 
(ffarmonie  Universelle)  speaks  with  admiration 
of  those  players  who  could  mount  up  to  the 
octave  of  each  string.  Then  in  1658  Anthony 
Wood  in  his  Life  describes  the  wonderful  play- 
ing of  Thomas  Baltzar — the  Paganini  of  his 
day — whom  he  saw  '  run  up  his  fingers  to  the 
end  of  the  finger-board  of  the  violin  and  run 
them  back  insensibly  and  all  with  alacrity  and 
in  very  good  tune,  which  I  am  sure,'  says  he, 
'any  in  England  never  saw  the  like  before.' 
To  Signor  Mattaei — who  came  to  England  in 
1672 — is  accorded  the  invention  of  that  bUe 
noire  of  violinists,  the  'half  shift,'  or  second 
position.  But  although  the  '  shift '  was  favoured 
by  professional  players  of  exceptional  ability 
at  this  period,  its  adoption  was  far  from  general, 
owing  to  the  confused  methods  of  holding  the 
violin  which  continued  well  into  the  next 
century.  Lully,  who  was  himself  a  wonderful 
violinist,  gives  an  iaea  of  the  capacity  of  the 
ordinary  orchestral  technique,  by  choosing  a  test 
piece  for  those  desiring  to  gain  the  '  dignus  est 
intrare '  of  his  band,  in  which  no  C  on  the  cAa7i- 
terelle  occurred.  For  thirty  years  the  entr'acte 
from  his  opera  of  '  Atys '  served  this  purpose. 
Even  in  Leopold  Mozart's  time  the  question  of 
holding  the  violin  was  far  from  settled,  for,  in 
his  Violin  School  (1756),  he  mentions  that 
there  are  two  ways  of  holding  the  violin,  the 
first  being  '  against  the  breast ' — which  position 
he  regards  as  an  obstacle  to  '  shifting,' — and  the 
second  is  to  place  the  violin  under  the  chin  and 
rest  it  on  the  shoulder.  The  best  professional 
players  adopted  the  latter  method,  and  their 
example  finding  favour  with  lesser  artists  was 
the  means  of  abolishing  the  '  breast  position ' 
and  bringing  the  '  shift '  into  general  use. 

The  '  shift '  on  the  violoncello  was  doubtless 
derived  from  the  violin,  and  is  governed  by  the 
same  rules.  The  '  thumb  movement,'  or  '  shift- 
ing of  the  thumb'  which  was  the  means  of 
fiM^ilitating  the  use  of  the  high  positions  on  the 


violoncello,  was  first  employed — and  it  is  said 
invented — by  the  French  artist  Berteau  in  the 
first  half  of  the  18th  century. 

Huet,  Felix,  Aude  sur  Us  diff6renUs  ^coles 
de  Violon,  Ghalons-sur-Mame,  1880 ;  Mengy,  A., 
Quelques  Observations  sur  Vart  du  Violon^  Paris, 
1888  ;  Koeckert,  G.,  Lea  Principes  SeUionnels 
de  la  Technique  du  Violon^  Leipzig,  1904  ; 
Anon.,  The  Violin,  How  to  master  it,  Edin- 
burgh, 1889 ;  Courvoisier,  Carl,  Technics  of 
Violin-Flaying,  London,  1899.  o.  R. 

SHIFT,  in  trombone  playing,  signifies  an 
alteration  in  position  of  the  movable  slide,  by 
means  of  which  the  fundamental  length  of  the 
instrument  is  increased.  The  home  position 
of  the  slide  is  known  as  the  No.  1  'position,' 
and  the  successive  shifts,  lowering  tiie  pitch 
by  successive  semitones,  give  respectively  the 
second,  third,  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh 
'  positions,'  the  number  of  the  '  position '  being 
thus  always  one  higher  than  the  number  of 
semitones  by  which  the  pitch  is  lowered  (see 

TROirBONE).  D.  J.  B. 

SHINNER,  Emilt,  bom  at  Cheltenham, 
July  7,  1862,  began  the  study  of  the  violin  at 
the  age  of  seven.  In  1874  she  went  to  Berlin, 
and  for  two  years  studied  under  H.  Jacobsen,  a 
pupil  of  Joachim's,  female  violinists  not  being 
at  that  time  admissible  to  the  Hochschule.  In 
1876  this  restriction  was  taken  away,  and  Miss 
Shinner  was  among  the  first  admitted.  In 
October  1877  she  became  a  pupil  of  Joachim's, 
and  remained  with  him  for  three  years.  In 
Feb.  1881,  she  came  to  London,  and  after  being 
heard  at  several  private  concerts  (among  others 
at  one  given  by  the  Bach  Choir),  made  her 
debut  at  a  concert  given  by  Mr.  H.  B.  Bird  in 
the  Kensington  Town  Hall,  in  Brahms's  Sonata 
in  G,  etc.  At  the  London  Musical  Society's 
concert  of  June  29,  1882,  she  played  David's 
concerto  in  E  minor  with  great  success,  and 
from  that  time  held  a  high  position  among 
English  artists,  her  style  being  pure  and  refined, 
and  her  power  of  interpreting  works  of  a  high 
intellectual  order  being  very  remarkable.  She 
appeared  at  the  Popular  Concert  on  Feb.  9, 
and  at  the  Crystal  Palace  on  March  8,  1884  ; 
in  1887  she  organised  a  successful  quartet-party 
of  ladies.  In  January  1889  she  married  Capt. 
A.  F.  LiddeU.     She  died  July  17,  1901.     M. 

SHIRREFF,  Jane,  bom  1811,  soprano  singer, 
pupil  of  Thomas  Welsh,  appeared  at  Covent 
Garden,  Dec.  1,  1881,  as  Mandane  in  Ame's 
'  Artaxerxes,'  with  great  success.  In  1832  she 
sang  at  the  Concert  of  Ancient  Music,  the  Phil- 
harmonic Concert,  and  Gloucester  Festival,  and 
in  1834  at  the  Westminster  Abbey  Festival. 
Her  engagement  at  Covent  Garden  continued 
from  1831  to  1834-35.  In  1835  she  commenced 
an  engagement  at  Drury  Lane,  but  in  1837 
returned  to  Covent  Garden.  In  1838  she  went 
to  America,  in  company  with  Wilson,  E.  Seguin, 
and  Mrs.  K  Seguin,  where  she  became  a  universal 


444 


SHIRREFFS 


SHORT  OCTAVE 


favourite.  On  her  return  to  England  she  married 
Mr.  J.  Walcott,  and  retired  into  private  life.  Her 
voice  was  full -toned,  and  powerful  in  the  higher, 
but  somewhat  weak  in  the  lower  notes ;  her 
intonation  was  perfect,  and  she  was  a  much 
better  actress  than  the  generality  of  singers. 
Shedied  at  Kensington,  Dec.  23, 1883.    w.  H.  H. 

SHIRREFFS,  Andrew,  an  Aberdeen  musician 
and  poet  of  the  18th  century,  born  1762.  He 
wrote  a  once  popular  pastoral  musical  comedy 
'  Jamie  and  Bess,,  or  the  Laird  in  disguise '  in 
five  acts,  modelled  upon  Allan  Ramsay's  Gentle 
Shepherd,  This  was  published  in  1 787  ;  and  the 
musical  part  of  it  advertised  as  for  sale  in  1788. 
He  was  composer  of  *  Forty  Pieces  of  Original 
Music,'  published  by  Stewart  &  Co.,  Edinburgh. 
Shirreffs  was  a  M.A.  of  Marischal  College, 
Aberdeen  (1783),  and  edited  the  Ahei'deen 
Ohronicleaxid  the  Caledonian  Magazine,  He  came 
to  London  in  1798,  and  died  about  1807.  He 
was  originally  a  bookbinder,  was  lame,  and  his 
portrait  is  prefixed  to  his  volume  of  poems,  1790. 
Bums  mentions  having  met  him,  and  refers  to 
him  as  'a  little  decreped  body,  with  some 
abilities.'  f.  k. 

SHOPHAR,  or  SHOFAR  The  Je^vish  ram's- 
horn  trumpet,  used  in  the  synagogue  worship. 
The  natural  horn  is  flattened  in  section,  and 
a  cup  mouthpiece  is  formed  at  the  small  end. 
The  instrument,  or  an  imitation  of  its  effect^  is 
introduced  into  the  scores  of  Macfarren's  *  John 
the  Baptist '  and  Elgar's  *  Apostles. '    d.  j.  b. 

SHORE,  Mathias,  who  in  1665  was  one  of 
the  trumpeters  in  ordinary  to  James  II.  was,  a 
few  years  afterwards,  promoted  to  the  post  of 
Sergeant  Trumpeter,  in  which  he  distinguished 
himself  by  the  rigorous  exaction  of  his  fees  of 
office.  [See  Trumpeter.]  He  died  in  1700, 
leaving  three  children : — 

1.  William,  also  one  of  the  King's  trumpeters 
in  ordinary,  succeeded  his  father  as  Sergeant 
Tnimpeter,  died  in  December  1707,  and  was 
buried  at  St.  Martin's-in-the- Fields.  He  followed 
his  father's  example  in  the  severe  exaction  of  fees. 

2.  Catherine,  born  about  1668,  who  was 
a  pupil  of  Henry  Purcell  for  singing  and  the 
harpsichord.  In  1693  she  became  the  wife  of 
Colley  Gibber,  without  consent  of  her  father, 
whose  resentment  was  not,  however,  of  very  long 
duration,  as  when  he  made  his  will,  March  5, 
1695-96,  he  bequeathed  to  her  one-third  of  the 
residue  of  his  property.  Shortly  after  her 
marriage  Mrs.  Gibber  appeared  on  the  stage  as 
a  singer,  and,  among  other  songs,  sang  the 
second  part  of  Puroell's  air  *  Genius  of  En^and ' 
('  Don  Quixote,'  Part  II.),  to  her  brother  John's 
trumpet  accompaniment.  She  is  said  to  have 
died  about  1780. 

3.  John,  the  most  celebrated  trumpeter  of 
his  time,  in  1707  succeeded  his  brother  William 
as  Sergeant  Trumpeter.  Purcell  composed  for 
him  obbligato  parts  to  many  songs,  which  may 
be  seen   in  the    *  Orpheus    Britannicus,'   and 


which  fully  attest  his  skill.     His  playing  is 
highly  commended  in  the  OenUemans  Journal 
for  January  1691-92,  where  in  an  account  of  the 
celebration  on  St.  Cecilia's  day  in  the  preceding 
November,  we  read  '  Whilst  the  company  is  at 
table  the  hautboys  and  trumpets  play  suooes- 
sively.     Mr.  Showers  hath  taught  the  latter  of 
late    years   to    sound   with   all    the   sofbiess 
imaginable ;   they  plaid   us   some  flat  tunes 
made  by  Mr.  Finger  with  a  general  applause,  it 
being  a  thing  formerly  thought  imposidble  upon 
an  instrument  designed  for  a  sharp  key.'    His 
name  appears  in  1711  as  one  of  the  twenty-four 
musicians  to  Queen  Anne,  and  also  as  latenist 
to  the  Chapel  Royal.  ^     He  is  said  to  have  be^a 
the  inventor  of  the  tuning-fork,  and  also  to 
have  split  his  lip  in  sounding  the  trumpet,  there- 
by incapacitating  himself  for  performing.    He 
died  Nov.  20,  1752,  at  the  alleged  age  of  ninefy, 
but  it  is  very  probable  that  his  age  was  over- 
stated, and  did  not  exceed  eighty,      w.  h.  h. 

SHORT,  Peter,  an  early  London  music- 
printer  and  publisher,  who  printed  a  number  of 
madrigal  books  and  some  early  musical  treatises. 
He  worked  '  at  the  signe  of  the  Starre '  on  Bread 
Street  Hill,  from  about  1584,  and  his  issues 
include  Morley's  Plaine  and  Easie  IjUroduetion  to 
practical  Musickf  1697 ;  Holbome's  CiHham 
Schoole,  1597  ;  '  Seuen  Sobs  of  a  Sorrowfhll  Soule 
for  Sin,'  1697;  Dowland's  'First  Booke  of 
Songes,'  1597;  Morley's  'Oanzonets,'  1597; 
Famaby's  *  Canzonets,'  1698  ;  .Cavendish's 
*  Ayres,'  1599,  and  some  other  works.  He  was 
succeeded  in  business,  at  the  same  address, 
between  1603  and  1608,  by  Humfrey  Lowndes, 
who  reissued  Morley's  Iwtroduaion,         F.  K. 

SHORT  OCTAVE.  In  the  early  days  of 
harmony,  and  indeed  until  the  whole  circle  of 
keys  was  made  available  in  practical  music^  the 
chromatic  notes  in  the  lowest  octave  of  the 
keyboard  were  not  wanted,  since  they  were  not 
required  as  basses.  The  evidence  of  pictorial 
representations  shows  tliat  as  early  as  the  14  th 
century  the  expedient  was  adopted  of  omitting 
some  of  the  strings  or  organ  pipes  belonging  to 
such  keys,  and  letting  their  places  be  taken  by 
strings  and  pipes  tuned  to  notes  below  the  apparent 
notes.  Various  systems  of  these  eflfectinga  sav- 
ing of  space  in  the  organ  will  be  found  explained 
under  Organ,  vol.  iii.  p.  6286.  For  similar 
expedients  in  the  Spinet  see  below,  pp.  634-36. 
The  Fitzwilliam  Virginal  Book  contains  indirect 
evidence  that  'short  octaves'  were  in  general 
use  early  in  the  I7th  century ;  in  one  piece, 
the  player's  left  liand  is  required  to  strike  this 


chord 


,  which  is  of  course  impoesible 


on  a  full  keyboard  ;  on  one  with  a  short  octave 
in  which  the  low  G  sharp  key  is  attached  to 
the  string  tuned  to  the  low  E,  the  chord  does 

I  In  the  Cft«9iM  Boot  of  eke  Cfta/W  Jb>y«a  lie  ia  mM  to  tat*  !«■ 
appointed  lutenlat  In  1715.  bnt  the  entry  wm«  erfdcntly  B»t  nadt 
antn  some  time  Uter.  and  probaMy  finoin  memory  only. 


SHEUBSOLE 


SHUDI 


445 


not  exceed  the  limit  of  the  ordinary  player's 
hand.  m. 

SHBUBSOLE,  William,  oiganistand  hymn 
oompoaer.  He  waa  born  at  Canterbury  in 
January  1760,  and  was  for  seven  years  chorister 
at  the  Cathedral  there.  He  studied  the  organ 
durin^^  this  time,  and  was  in  1782  appointed 
oi^ganist  to  Bangor  Cathedral.  While  here  he 
gave  great  oifenoe  to  the  Dean  and  Chapter  by 
his  aaaociation  with  dissenters,  and  by  *  frequent- 
ing oonyenticles ' ;  this  led  to  his  dismissal  in 
1783.  He  came  to  London,  and  immediately  got 
a  poet  as  organist  at  Lady  Huntingdon's  Chapel, 
Spafields,  Clerkenwell,  which  he  'held  to  his 
death.  This  occurred  Jan.  18,  1806.  He  was 
buried  in  Bunhill  Fields,  and  his  monument 
waa  restored  in  1892,  mainly  by  the  exertions  of 
Mr.  F.  G.  Edwards. 

Shrubaole  is  best  remembered  by  the  com- 
position of  the  fine  hymn  tune  'Miles  Lane,' 
which  appeared  in  the  Oospel  Magazine  as  early 
as  1779.  F.  K. 

SHUDI,  famous  harpsichord  -  maker,  and 
founder  of  the  house  of  Broadwood.  Burkat 
Shudiy  as  he  inscribed  his  name  upon  his  instru- 
ments, was  properly  Burkhakdt  Tbchudi,  and 
was  a  cadet  of  a  noble  family  belonging  to  Glarus 
in  Switzerland.^  He  was  bom  March  13,  1702, 
and  came  to  England  in  1718,  as  a  simple 
journeyman  joiner.'  When  he  turned  to  harpsi- 
chord-making is  not  known,  but  we  are  told 
by  Bumey,  who  knew  Shudi  and  old  Kirkmau 
well,  that  they  were  both  employed  in  London  by 
Tabel,*  a  Fleming,  and  Bumey  calls  them 
Tabel's  foremen,  perhaps  meaning  his  principal 
workmen.  The  anecdote  given  by  Bumey,  in 
Rees's  Cydopcedia,  of  Kirkman's  hasty  wedding 
with  his  master's  widow,  and  acquisition  with 
her  of  Tabel's  stock-in-trade,  gives  no  informa- 
tion about  Shudi,  who,  according  to  the  Daily 
Advertiter,  Oct.  5,  1742,  'removed  from  Meard's 
Street  in  Dean  Street,  Soho,  to  Great  Pulteney 
Street,  Golden  Square  '  (the  house  occupied  by 
his  descendants,  the  Broadwoods,  until  1904). 
Shudi  WB8  then  styled  *  Harpsichord  Maker  to 
H.  R.  H.  the  Prince  of  Wales. '  [See  Broadwood  ; 

KiRKMAK.] 

Kirkman  had  the  King's  Arms  for  the  sign  of 
his  business  in  Broad  Street,  Camaby  Market ; 
Shudi,  the  Plume  of  Feathers  at  the  house  now 
38  Great  Pulteney  Street.  We  may  trace  the 
choice  of  signs  of  these  old  colleagues  and  now 
rival  makers  to  the  divided  patronage  of  the 
King  (Geoi^  II.)  and  Prince  of  Wales,  who 
were  notoriously  unfriendly.  No  doubt  Handel's 
friendship  was  of  great  value  to  Shudi  ;  few 
harpsichords  were  then  made,  as  owing  to  the 

1  Of  th«  Sehwsnden  branch.  HelnHch.  born  1074,  died  1149.  made 
Veodary  of  OUru  br  tbs  I^hIt  Oatte,  AbbcM  of  Seckingcn.  wu  tbc 
flnt  to  adopt  the  surname  Schudi  («<«).  The  faiully  tree  goes  bock 
to  Johann.  Mayor  of  Olanu,  bom  abont  870. 
t  8e«  ackmHtniteke  Lnctcnn,  Zurich.  1796,  art.  'Techudl.' 
s  Maeaia.  Broadwood'i  books  of  1777  mention  a  secondhand  harpsi- 
dunl  by  TahA  (written  Thble).  A  harpsichord  by  Tabel  with  two 
fi^mn-pu  uid  ir«ry  like  a  Kiriinian.  b  In  the  poeeonlan  of  Heleiui, 
CuQBleee  el  Badnor. 


relatively  high  price,  and  the  great  expense 
and  trouble  of  keeping  them  in  order,  they  were 
only  for  the  rich.  But  the  tuning  and  repairing 
alone  would  keep  a  business  going ;  harpsichords 
lasted  long,  and  were  submitted  to  restoration 
and  alteration  that  would  surprise  the  amateur 
of  the  present  day.* 

The  Shudi  harpsichord,  formerly  Queen  Char- 
lotte's, now  in  Windsor  Castle,  is  dated  1740. 
It  has  a  <Lute'  stop,  a  pleasing  variation  of 
timJbre,  and,  like  the  pedal,  of  English  invention 
in  the  previous  century. 

James  Shudi  Broadwood  (MS.  Notes,  1888)  ac- 
credits his  grandfather  Shudi  with  the  gift  of  a 
harpsichord  to  Frederick  the  Great,  Shudi  being 
a  staunch  Protestant,  and  regarding  Frederick 
as  the  leader  and  champion  of  the  Protestant 
cause.  Mr.  Broadwood,  moreover,  believed 
that  a  portrait  of  Shudi,  which  remained  until 
a  few  years  since  in  one  of  the  rooms  in  Great 
Pulteney  Street,  represented  him  as  engaged  in 
tuning  the  identical  harpsichord  thus  b^towed. 
Shudi's'wife  and  two  sons  are  also  in  the  picture,  a 
repi'oductlon  of  which  serves  as  the  frontispiece 
to  Rimbault's  History  of  the  Fiaiio/orte.  The 
elder  boy,  apparently  nine  years  old,  was  born 
in  1736.  This  synchronises  the  picture  with 
Frederick's  victory  and  the  peace  concluded  the 
following  year  (1745).  But  the  writer  could 
not  find  this  instrument  either  in  Potsdam  or 
Berlin  in  1881.  The  tradition  about  it  is, 
however,  strengthened  by  the  fact  that  in 
1766  Frederick  obtained  from  Shudi  two 
special  double  harpsichords  for  his  New  Palace 
at  Potsdam,  where  they  still  remain.  Instead 
of  the  anglicised  'Shudi,'  they  are  accurately 
inscribed  '  Tschudi.'  One  has  silver  legs,  etc. ; 
the  other  rests  upon  a  partially  gilded  stand. 
Following  Bumey,  who  however  only  describes 
the  first  one,  they  appear  to  have  been  placed 
in  the  apartments  of  the  Princess  Amelia,  and 
the  Prince  of  Prussia.  These  instruments,  like 
all  Shudi's  which  still  exist,  are  of  the  soundest 
possible  workmanship,  discrediting  Bumey's 
assei-tion  of  the  want  of  durability  of  his  harpsi- 
chords,* a  reproach,  however,  which  Bumey  goes 
on  to  say  could  not  be  alleged  against  Shudi's 
son-in-law  and  successor  Broadwood.  He  how- 
ever praises  Shudi's  tone  as  refined  and  delicate. 
The  Potsdam  harpsichords  were  made  with 
Shudi's  Venetian  Swell,  for  which  the  pedals 
still  exist,  but  it  was  probably  not  to  the 
German  taste  of  the  time,  and  was  therefore 
removed.  Hopkins,  in  his  comprehensive 
work  upon  the  Organ,  says  the  original  organ 
swell  was  the  'nagshead,'  a  mere  shutter,  in- 
vented by  Abraham  Jordan  in  1712.  But  to 
imitate  its  effect  in  the  harpsichord  wc  know 

*  While  planofortea  are  now  kepi  In  tune  by  yearly  con  tracts,  the 
reswu-cbre  of  Mr.  William  Dale,  iu  Messrs.  Broedwood's  old  liooks. 
show  that  harpsichords  in  the  18th  century  were  tuned  by  yuartertjf 
contracts! 

>  Bumey  given  as  his  authority  Bnetsirr  the  or|DUi>bulldpr,  whn 
attached  organs  to  some  of  Shudi's  harpsichorrlH,  and  wbm,  niorrfi^  it, 
Shudi's  intimate  friend  and  executor.  Bbudi  left  hini  his  rlny,  con< 
tainlng  a  portmit  of  Frederick  the  Great. 


446 


SHUDI 


SI 


that  Plenins  about  1750,  and  also  in  London,  by 
a  pedal  movement,  gradually  raised  and  lowered 
a  portion  of  the  top  or  cover.  This  coming 
into  general  use,  Shudi  improved  upon  it  by 
his  important  invention  of  the  'Venetian  Swell ' 
on  the  principle  of  a  Venetian  blind,  which  he 
patented  Dec.  18,  1769.  He  probably  delayed 
taking  out  the  patent  until  it  became  necessary 
by  his  partnership  with  John  Broad  wood,  who 
had  also  become  his  son-in  law,^  earlier  in  the 
same  year.  This  invention  was  subsequently 
transferred  to  the  organ.  [See  voL  ii.  p.  331,  and 
the  article  Swell.] 

A  harpsichord  exists  inscribed  with  the  joint 
names  of  Shudi  and  Broadwood,  dated  1770, 
although  Shudi  made  harpsichords  for  himself 
after  that  date  and  independent  of  the  partner- 
ship, as  we  know  by  existing  instruments  and 
by  fais  will.     About  1772  he  retired  to  a  house 


in  Charlotte  Street,  leaving  the  business  premises 
to  his  son-in-law,  John  Broadwood,  and  died 
August  19,  1773.  The  next  day  a  harpsichord 
was  shipped  to  *  the  Empress,'  ordered  by  Joseph 
II.  for  Maria  Theresa.  The  harpsichord  that 
was  Haydn's,  acquired  for  the  Museum  at  Vienna, 
at  a  cost  of  £110  sterling,  was  also  a  'Shndi 
and  Broadwood,'  but  this  was  the  younger 
Burkat  Shudi,  who  was  in  partnership  with 
John  Broadwood  from  1773  to  about  1782,  and 
died  in  1803. 

A  list  of  the  existing  harpsichords  by  Shudi 
and  Shudi  &  Broadwood,  as  far  as  is  known 
(1907),'  is  here  appended  :  all  but  one  are 
Double  harpsichords.  The  price  of  a  Single 
harpsichord,  about  1770,  was  35  guineas  ;  with 
Octava  (i.e.  Octave  string),  40  guineas ;  with 
Octava  and  Swell,  50  guineas.  A  Doable 
harpsichord  with  Swell,  was  80  guineas. ^ 


No. 

9i 
2» 

asj 

407 

611 
512 

eas 

839 

886 

691 

750 
7W2 
899 

903 
919 
1187 

Datt. 

1710 
1740 
1751 

1760 

1766 
1768 
1770 

1771 

ITTJ 

1773 

1775 
1775 
1781 

1781 
1782 
1790 

PrtrnntOwntr. 

ilrmorfa. 

Barlut  SbttdL 

Barkjit  TtehodL 

Borkat'shadl  et  JohAimw 

BrtMdwood. 
Barlut  SbadL 

Barkat  Shod!  et  JohaiuiM 
BnMdwood. 

H.M.  th*  Klnf .  WindMr  Curtle. 

Mr.  Warre. 

F.  F^ley,  bq..  HewcMtle^-Tme. 

W.  TMb.  Baq. 

Bmperor  of  Ocmuuiy.  Potodam. 

W.  Dale,  Ski. 

Ditto.    Lent  to  the  B«t.  Sir  P.  A.  O. 

Ooaeley.  Bart..  Tenbory. 
M.  Vlotor  Mahtllon.  BhumU. 

Metan.  Prloe  *  Sons.  YeoTU. 

M luikvereln.  Vieaua^ 

The  laU  T.  W.  TaphouM.  Oxford. 

IM  a  wreck.  Double.  5i  C-F.  6  atope,  no  machine  or  pedalu 
A  slnrle  keyboaixL     6  oct.  F-pTvltii  Wveet  F  aheip 

omitted.    Satope.       ^ 
Double.     6  Oct.  with  P|  onml  stopi.  added  ewcU  on  a 

cheet  of  drawers. 

Made  for  Frederick  the  Great.    (Both  of  54  oet. .  C-F. ) 
Wai  in  DaTid  Hartley's  famUy-  6  Btope.  2  pedals,  as  bave 

Played  upon   by  Moecheles  and   by    Bmst  Pauer  In 

Bought  of  Mr.  T.  W.  Taphouse.  188L 

Sent  to  'the  Brnpraas*  (Maria  Theren)  Aug.  90.  1771 
Obtained  by  M.  Victor  MahiUon  from  Vienna. 

6  Oct..  p.p.  7stopa,  2  oedala.    Game  from  Mn.  AnaoaX 

Sudbury  Bectory.  Dex^ 
5  Oct..  p.p.     Bestored  by  Mr.  Taphouee. 
Belonged  to  the  Wrottcaley  family. 
Instrument  mentioned  in  Mr.  Hinklna's  note*  in  tht 

appendix  to  the  first  edition  of  the  Dletionaty. 

SHUDI,  Joshua,  harpsichord  maker  and 
pupil  of  Burkat  Shudi,  appears  from  his  ad- 
vertisement in  the  Oazetteer  of  Jan.  12,  1767, 
to  have  set  up  for  himself  about  that  time  at 
the  Golden  Guitar,  Silver  Street,  Golden  Square, 
London.  An  advertisement  of  his  widow,  Mary 
Shudi,  then  of  Berwick  Street^  St  James's,  in 
the  Fublie  Advertiser  of  J a.n.  16, 1775,  announces 
his  death  and  her  continuance  of  the  business, 
and  as  there  is  a  fine  harpsichord  still  existing, 
said  to  have  a  romantic  history,  and  bearing 
the  name  and  date  of  Joshua  Shudi,  1779,  it 
is  evident  that  she  continued  to  use  her  late 
husband's  name,  or  dated  instruments  of  his 
make  when  she  sold  them.  a.  j.  h. 

SHUTTLEWORTH,  Obadiah,  son  of  Thos. 
Shuttleworth  of  Spitalfields,  who  had  acquired 
some  money  by  vending  MS.  copies  of  Corelli's 
works  before  they  were  published  in  England. 
He  was  an  excellent  violinist,  and  was  principal 
violin  at  the  Swan  Tavern  concerts,  Comhill, 
from  their  commencement  in   1728  until  his 


1  By  hU  marrtate  with  Barbwa  Shudi.  baptised  March  12. 1748 ; 
married  to  John  Broadwood.  Jan.  2.  1789 :  died  July  8.  1776.  The 
flnit  wife  of  John  Broadwood,  she  wan  the  mother  of  James  Shod! 
Broadwood  who  was  bora  Dee.  90,  1772.  died  Aug.   8.  1851 ;  and 

Kodmother  of  Henry  Fowler  Broadwood  and    waiter  Stewart 
ladwood. 


A-  J.  H. 

death.  He  was  also  a  skilful  organist,  and  in 
1724  succeeded  Philip  Hart  as  organist  of  St 
Michaers,  Comhill,  and  a  few  years  afterwards 
was  appointed  one  of  the  organists  of  the  Temple 
Church.  He  composed  twelve  concertos  and 
some  sonatas  for  the  violin,  which  he  kept  io 
MS.,  his  only  printed  compositions  being  two 
concertos  adapted  from  the  first  and  eleventh 
concertos  of  Corelli.  [These  were  published 
by  Joseph  Hare,  at  the  Viol  and  Flute  in 
Comhill,  and  were  engraved  by  T.  Cross:  th« 
date  is  about  1726.  F.  K.]  He  died  aboat 
1786.  w.  H.  H. 

SI.  The  syllable  used ,  in  the  musical  termin- 
ology of  Italy  and  France,  to  designate  the 
note  B,  and  adapted,  in  systems  of  Solmisation 
which  advocate  the  employment  of  a  morable 
starting-point,  to  the  seventh  degree  of  the 
scale. 

The  method  invented  by  Giiido  d'Arezzo,  in 
the  earlier  half  of  the  11th  century,  recognised 
the  use  of  six  syllables  only — ut^  re,  mi,  fa,  sol, 
la — suggested  by  the  initial  and  post-cssnnl 

>  Additions  to  the  original  list  are  here  made  from  the  V&  «M» 
Ultihy  Mr.  Hlpklna 

*  The  altered  value  of  money  should  be  bora*  in  mind  is  oaa- 
parinf  these  prices  with  thoae  of  modern  pianolortea. 


SI  CONTRA  FA 


SIBELIUS 


447 


syllables  of  the  hymn,  *  Ut  queant  laxis ' ;  the 
oompletion  of  the  octave  being  provided  for  by 
the  introduction  of  certain  changes  in  the  position 
of  the  root- syllable,  ul.^    Until  the  mediseval 
theory  of  the  scale  was  revolutionised  by  the 
discovery  of  the  functions  of  the  leading-note 
this  method  answered  its  purpose  perfectly  ;  but 
when  the  ecclesiastical  modes  were  abandoned  in 
favour  of  our  modem  form  of  tonality,  it  became 
absolutely  necessary  to  add  another  syllable  to 
the  series.     This  syllable  is  said  to  have  been 
first  used,  about  1590,  by  Erycius  Puteanus,  of 
Dordrecht,  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  music, 
entitled  Musathena  ;  and  tradition  asserts  that 
it  was  formed  from  the  initial  syllable  of  the 
fourth  verse — *  Sancte  Joannes ' — of  the  hymn 
already  alluded  to,  by  the  substitution  of  i  for 
a.    This  account,  however,  has  not  been  uni- 
versally received.     Mersennus^  attributes  the 
invention   to   a  French   musician,   named   Le 
Maire,  who  laboured  for  thirty  years  to  bring 
it  into  practice,  but  in  vain,  though  it  was 
generally  adopted  after  his  death.     Brossard^ 
givessubstantiallythesameaccount.    Bourdelot^ 
attributes  the  discovery  to  a  certain  nameless 
Oordelier,   of  the  Convent  of  Ave  Maria,   in 
Prance,  about  the  year  1675  ;  but  tells  us  that 
the  Abb4  de  la  Louette,  Mattre  de  ChapeUe  at 
Notre  Dame  de  Paris,  accorded  tlie  honour  to 
a  singing-master,  named  Metru,  who  flourished 
in  Paris  about  the  year  1676.     In  confirmation 
of  these  traditions  Bourdelot  assures  us  that 
he  once  knew  a  lutenist,  named  Le  Moine,  who 
remembered  both  Metru  and  the  Cordelier,  as 
having  practised  the  new  system  towards  the 
close  of  the  17th  century — whence  it  has  been 
conjectured  that  one  of  these  bold  innovators 
may  possibly  have  invented,   and  the  other 
adopted  it,  if  indeed  both  did  not  avail  them- 
selves of  an  earlier  discovery. 

Mersennus  tells  us  that  some  French  professors 
of  his  time  used  the  syllable  za  to  express  Bb, 
reserving  si  for  Blj.  Louli^,  writing  some  sixty 
years  later,  rejected  za,  but  retained  the  use  of 
n.*  The  Spanish  musician,  Andrea  Lorente,  of 
Alcala,u8ed  W  to  denote  Bt; ;®  while  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  17  th  century,  our  own  countryman, 
I>r.  "Wallis,  thought  it  extraordinary  that  the 
▼erse,  'Sancte  Johannes,'  did  not  suggest  to 
Guido  himself  the  use  of  the  syllable  sa — and 
this,  notwithstanding  the  patent  fact  that  the 
addition  of  a  seventh  syllable  would  have 
rtmck  at  the  very  root  of  the  Guidonian 
system.  w.  8.  R. 

SI  CONTRA  FA.     [See  Mi  contba  Fa.] 
SIBELIUS,  Jean,  bom  on  Dec.  8,  1866,  at 
Tavsstehus  in  Finland.     Like  so  many  other 
niusicians  he  was  at  first  made  a  law  student, 

\  Sn  BouiiiATiojr.     >  ffarm«nl«  Uniwenatts  (P»r1fl.  18»).  p.  I8S. 

'  UtUnmiain  4m  Muatqwm  (Amrterdam.  170S). 

*_^jfoht  tf«  la  Mu$hpt»,  compiled  from  the  MSS.  of  the  AbM 
worlelot,  and  thoea  of  hla  nrphew.  Bonnet  Boardelot.  and  sabM- 
vuntly  pabHshed  bj  Bonnet,  Pkyniniter  to  the  Lorda  of  the  ParlU- 
■^iwt  httis  iPfcrte.  170*  and  1716 ;  Amaterdun.  1T2B,  1748). 


.  _       J*  e«  PHnelpea  da  Muatqu*  (Amcterdam,  ISBB). 


but,  happily  for  the  honour  of  the  music  of 
Finland,  he  presently  found  that  his  real  talent 
lay  in  the  direction  of  Art,  and  his  real  power 
of  speech  could  only  display  itself  in  the  language 
of  music.  Accordingly,  he  placed  himself  under 
Wegelius  at  the  Helsingfors  Conservatorium  ; 
and  afterwards  studied  under  Becker  at  Berlin 
and  Qoldmark  at  Vienna.  After  his  return  to 
Finland  he  accepted  the  post  of  Principal  of  the 
Conservatorium  (which  he  still  holds),  and  was 
the  fortunate  recipient  of  a  handsome  annuity 
from  the  Senate,  which  enables  him  to  give  the 
greater  part  of  his  time  to  composition.  For  so 
young  a  man  he  has  written  much,  his  latest 
opus  number  being  58.  In  all  his  composi- 
tions he  displays  marked  ability,  a  strong 
individuality,  and  a  decided  bias  in  favour  of 
the  Folk-music  of  his  country.  Sibelius  is  a 
composer  who  must  be  taken  on  his  own  merits  ; 
it  would  be  difficult  to  compare  him  to  any  one 
else,  the  whole  atmosphere  of  his  work  is  so 
strange,  and  so  permeated  with  lights  and 
shadows  that  are  unfamiliar,  and  colours  that 
are  almost  from  another  world.  To  understand 
him  it  is  necessary  to  understand  both  the  racial 
descent  of  the  Finns,  and  their  strange,  deeply 
influencing  mythology ;  their  racial  character 
is  derived  partly  from  the  East,  and  partly  from 
the  West,  as  they  are  a  mixture  of  Mongolian 
and  Western  stock  ;  deriving  from  the  West, 
vigour  and  self-reliance,  and  from  the  East, 
languor  and  mysticism.  Even  more  important 
is  the  influence  of  their  mythology.  It  is  hardly 
too  much  to  say  that  SibeUus's  music  seldom  gets 
away  from  the  atmosphere  of  legend  and  rune. 
In  idea,  rhythm,  turn  of  melody  (diction),  colour 
of  thought  and  of  orchestration,  he  keeps  within 
touch  of  the  magic  halo  which  surrounds  the 
'Kalevala,'  which  is  the  great  collection  of 
Runes  and  Folklore  made  by  Dr.  Lonnrot  in 
1835  (the  year  in  which  the  university  of 
Helsingfors  was  founded).  The  *  Kalevala '  is  a 
poem  which  sets  forth  the  mythical  history  of 
the  Finnish  people,  just  as  the  *  Nibelungenlied ' 
sets  forth  the  mythical  history  of  the  Teutonic 
nations. 

The  Finnish  music,  like  the  Finnish  character, 
is  the  outcome  of  a  fearful  struggle  against 
unfavourable  environment, — a  struggle  which 
has  literally  been  for  life  or  death,  but  which 
has  resulted  in  a  triumphant  life.  Without 
some  understanding  of  the  Finnish  history, 
religion,  and  temperament,  Sibelius's  music  is 
more  or  less  unintelligible  ;  for  it  does  not  belong 
to  any  family  or  nation  except  the  Finnish. 
He  has  nothing  in  common  with  the  Russian 
or  German  ;  and  even  the  Swede  and  the  Dane 
are  foreign  to  him.  The  Finnish  Folk-Song  is 
also  a  thing  by  itself ;  the  chief  features  being 
the  prevalence  of  5-4  rhythms,  and  the  repeti- 
tion of  the  same  note  many  times  (see  Song). 
Sibelius  makes  free  use  of  the  latter  character- 
istic in  most  of  his  compositions,  although  he 


448 


SIBELIUS 


SIBONI 


himself  says  that  he  does  not  use  Folk-Song. 
Still,  it  is  obvious  that  he  does  not  altogether 
break  away  from  the  people's  song,  and  that 
his  mind  is  in  unison  with  his  national  trend 
of  thought.  His  chief  works  are  the  two  Sym- 
phonies in  £  and  D,  'The  Swan  of  Tuonela/ 
the  Overture  and  Suite  '  Karelia,'  '  En  Saga/ 
'Fiulandia/ZLemmink^en/  Incidental  music 
to  'Kuolema,'  and  the  Violin  Concerto.  With 
the  exception  of  the  two  first  named,  and  the 
last,  the  works  are  entirely  founded  on  the 
National  Legends  of  Suomi  (Finland),  in  which 
Tuonela  (Hades)  and  Kuolema  (Death)  play  a 
large  and  gloomy  part ;  so  that  there  is  natur- 
ally a  considerable  preponderance  of  the  weird 
in  the  music — for  example  in  *The  Swan'  it  is 
the  strange  wild  song  of  the  bird  swimming  on 
the  black  still  waters  which  separate  man  from 
Hades  that  inspires  awe  and  almost  terror. 
There  ia  nothing  human,  but  a  kind  of  dark 
dream  of  mysticism.  Again,  in  the  music  to 
Yarnfeldt's  drama  'Kuolema,'  the  ideas  are 
those  of  tragedy,  darkness,  and  horror.  The 
mother  is  dying,  and  in  her  delirium  thinks  she 
is  in  the  ball-room.  Her  son  cannot  detain 
her,  and  she  rises  and  dances  with  imaginary 
men.  At  the  height  of  her  frenzy  some  one 
knocks  ;  the  vision  dies ;  the  music  is  silent ; 
the  mother  shrieks,  for  the  visitor  is  Death. 
It  must  not  be  thought  that  Sibelius  is  morbid 
or  unmanly  from  these  examples, — on  the 
contrary  his  main  charactenstic  is  enormous 
power.  He  seems  at  times  to  be  almost  beating 
himself  to  pieces  in  the  struggle  to  lash  out 
with  his  emotions,  and  gain  expression  for  the 
feelings  that  are  bursting  within  him,  while 
every  now  and  then  he  gives  touches  of  inde- 
scribably sad  and  sweet  yearning.  He  is  the 
lawful  successor  of  KoUan,  Schartz,  Faltin,  and 
Kajanus ;  but  to  his  inheritance  he  brings  a 
character,  colour,  and  style,  which  are  entirely 
his  own.  Whether  composing  for  the  orchestra, 
the  chorus,  or  solo  voices,  Sibelius  has  much 
to  say  ;  much  that  is  new,  and  much  that  no 
one  else  could  either  imagine  or  express.  No 
notice  of  his  work  would  be  complete  without 
an  express  mention  of  his  songs,  which  are  truly 
remarkable  in  every  way,  and,  like  all  his  work, 
completely  foreign  to  conventional  Western 
thought  and  manner.  The  following  is  a  com- 
plete list  of  Sibelius's  compositions  ;  many  of 
the  opus  numbers  omitted  refer  to  arrangements 
of  works,  and  are  therefore  not  given  here. 

Op. 

6.  6  Impronipias,  PF. 

0.  Eu  Sagn.    Tooe-poem  for  orchMtm. 

10.  Overture  KareliA. 

11.  Suite  K»reltiu 

12.  Sonata.  PF.  Solo. 
in.  7  Songs. 

10.  Skonriet. 

1«.  FrUhlingsUed.  for  Orchestrii. 

17.  7SongB. 

18.  P)u:t-»ong«  for  Male  voloa. 

91.  Hymn  for  Male  volcm,  '  Natui  In  curai.' 

82.  Legend!  from  the  epic  'Kalevala'  (D«r  Schwann  Ton  Tuonela 

aitd  LomminkAluen  zteht  heimwttrta). 
88.  SuDgB  for  the  '  Promotions  perfonnanoea,'  1887  (mixed  Toloea). 
84.  Piano  pieces. 
88.  Flnlaudia  (No.  7).    Tone-poem  for  orchestra. 


Sf 


Incidental  Mnidc  to  Kln^  ChxiBtian  II. 


81.  Athenian  Song*,  for  boys  Toictt,aolo.  Malechonis.  Hareacptet, 

triangle,  eymbaU.  and  large  drum. 
S3.  Der  FUurmaunB  BtHnte.    Scena  for  Baritan«. 

88.  aSongs. 
37.  6  8ongi. 
86.  BBf.'iigK 

89.  BJ^!i^,^ii••ny  Nu.  1  in  E  minor. 
41.  KjUkki  I  Ljr  leal  pieces). 

43.  Syiii^'biiEty  Sit.  a  in  D  major. 

44.  Vsl'K  u^-i^    fiv^m  Kuolema. 

45.  Ttk\kt  !  iLii-£  tueizo.  for  oreheetra,  and  for  PF.  nlo. 
48.  Pell'-H'k.  liii  Mdliaande.    Oich.  Suite. 

47.  Vl>.tiii  O-LuiTUi  In  D  minor. 

48.  PolijTL'liiJi  t'Ai.ijfljter.    Symphonic  Fuitaaia. 
51.  BsTwitxr^  (Jib^ttuiaL    Symphonic  Fiantaaia. 

58.  Paii  •j.-l  E-tA'j.  D.  H. 

SIBONI,  Giuseppe,  bom  at  Forli,i  Jan.  27, 
1780,  made  his  d^but  as  a  tenor  singer  at 
Florence  in  1797,  and  after  singing  in  Genoa, 
Milan,  and  Prague,  appeared  at  the  King's 
Theatre,  London,  in  1806,  and  sang  for  the 
following  three  seasons.  In  1810,  1811,  1812, 
1818,  and  1814,  he  was  in  Vienna,  where  he 
sang  at  the  first  performances  of  Beethoven's 
'Wellington's  Sieg'  and  *Tremate  empL'  In 
1813  he  sang  at  Prague,  and  after  engagements 
at  Naples  and  St.  Petersburg  (1818)  settled  at 
Copenhagen  in  October  1819,  where  he  lived 
for  tlie  rest  of  his  Ufe,  occupying  the  post  of 
director  of  the  Royal  Opera  and  of  the  Con- 
servatorium.  He  was  married  three  times,  hi:> 
second  wife  being  a  sister  of  Schubert's  friend, 
von  Schober,  and  died  at  Copenhagen,  March 
29,  1839.  Many  of  Paer's  tonor  parts  were 
written  for  him.     His  son, 

Erik  Anton  Waldbmar,  bom  at  Copen- 
hagen, August  26,  1828,  learnt  the  pianoforte 
from  Courlander  and  Goetze,  composition  from 
F.  Vogel,  and  harmony  from  Prot  J.  P.  E. 
Hartmanu.  In  Sept.  1847  he  went  to  Leipzig, 
and  studied  under  Moscheles  and  Hauptmann, 
but  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Schleswig  Holstein 
insurrection  he  enlisted  as  a  volunteer  in  the 
Danish  army,  and  took  part  in  the  campaign  of 
1848.  In  1851  he  went  to  Vienna,  and  studied 
counterpoint  under  Sechter  until  1853,  when  he 
returned  to  Copenhagen,  visiting  Paris  on  his 
way.  Among  his  pupils  at  this  time  were  our 
own  Queen  Alexandra,  her  sister,  the  Empress 
of  Russia,  and  the  Landgrave  Frederick  William 
of  Hesse  Cassel.  In  1864  Herr  Siboni  was 
appointed  organist  and  professor  of  music  at 
the  Royal  Academy  of  Music  of  Soro,  in  Seeland. 
a  post  he  resigned  on  account  of  health  in  1883  ; 
he  returned  to  Copenhagen  and  died  there  Feb. 
22,  1892.  The  following  are  his  chief  com- 
positions:— ,.   pvi^rjgaMtK 

Thrae  Impromptoa  for  PP.  for  4  handa  (op.  1 );  Oiyan  Prelode* ; 
Quartet  for  PF.  and  String!  lop.  10) ;  Tragic  Overture  in  C  nliwr 
(op.  14) ;  Songs  and  PF.  pieces. 

a.  UxrcBUBSsn. 

Two  Danish  opera*—'  Loreley.'ln  1  art;  'Carl den  Andesu  Flngt.' 
In  3  acts  (Libretto  on  subject  from  English  History  by  PnWesaur 
Thomas  Ovenkoai.  sorcesitfally  performed  at  the  Royal  Theatrv  «t 
Copenhagen  in  1861 ;  Psalm  exl.  for  Bass  Solo,  Chorus,  and  Orrhertra  . 
'  Stabat  Mater.'  for  Solt.  Chorus.  Orohestra,  and  Orpui ;  CanUta. 
'  The  Battle  of  M urten.'  for  Soli,  Male  Cboros.  andOn^Mstra :  -  TW 
Aasault  of  Copenhagen.'  Oaotata  for  Soli,  Chorus,  and  OrdMrtrs; 
two  Symphonies :  Concert  Overture ;  PF.  Coneoto ;  String  Qasrt<^ ; 
PP.  Trio;  Duet  for  8  PPs..  Sonatas  for  PF.  and  Violin,  and  PP 
and  Yiolouoello,  etc. ,  many  of  them  perf  onned  at  conoerta  In  Copse 
hagen. 

1  FMs  gives  his  birthplace  as  Bologna,  and  tlie  date  as  1TB.  hat 
the  above  details  are  from  autoMognphical  note*  supplied  kr  ki» 


SICILIANA 


SIFACE 


449 


SICILIANA,  SICILIANO,  SICILIENNE, 
a  daaoe  rhythm  closely  allied  to  the  Pastorale. 
The  name  is  derived  £rom  a  dance-song  popular 
in  Sicily,  analogous  to  the  Tuscan  Rispetti.^ 
Walther  (Lexicon,  1732)  classes  these  composi- 
tions as  canzonettas,  dividing  them  into  Nea- 
politan and  Sicilian,  the  latter  being  like  jigs, 
written  in  rondo  form,  in  12-8  or  6-8  time. 
The  Siciliana  was  sometimes  used  for  the  slow 
moTement  of  Suites  and  Sonatas  (as  in  Bach's 
Violin  Sonata  in  G  minor),  but  ia  of  more  fre- 
quent occurrence  in  vocal  music,  in  which  Handel, 
following  the  great  Italian  masters,  made  great 
use  of  it.  Amongst  later  composers,  Meyerbeer 
has  applied  the  name  to  the  movement  '0 
fortune,  k  ton  caprice '  in  the  finale  to  Act  I. 
of  *  Robert  le  Diable,'  although  it  has  little  in 
common  with  the  older  examples.  The  Siciliana 
is  generally  written  in  6-8,  but  sometimes  in 
12-8  time,  and  \a  usually  in  a  minor  key.  In 
the  bar  of  six  quavers,  tiie  first  note  is  usually 
a  dotted  quaver,  and  the  fourth  a  crotchet, 
followed  by  two  semiquavers.  The  Siciliana  is 
sometimes  in  one  movement,  but  usually  ends 
with  a  repetition  of  the  first  part.  It  should  be 
played  rather  quickly,  but  not  so  fast  as  the 
Pastorale,  care  being  taken  not  to  drag  the  time 
and  to  avoid  all  strong  accentuation,  smoothness 
being  an  important  characteristic  of  this  species 
of  composition.  w.  b.  8. 

SICILIAN  BRIDE,  THE.  A  grand  opera 
in  four  acts ;  words  translated  by  Bunn  from 
St  Georges,  music  by  Balfe.  Produced  at 
Draiy  Lane  Theatre,  March  6,  1862.  g. 

SICILIAN  MARINER'S  HYMN.  A  hymn- 
tnne  at  one  time  very  much  in  vogue,  chiefly 
in  Nonconformist  chapels.  It  appears  to 
have  been  first  published  in  England  about 
1 794«  Mr.  James  T.  Lightwood,  in  Hj/mn  Tunes 
and  their  Storiea,  mentions  that  it  occurs  in 
Rev.  W.  Tattersall's  edition  of  Merrick's 
'Psalms,'  published  in  that  year.  Another 
copy  of  it,  as  'The  Prayer  of  the  Sicilian 
Mariner,'  is  found  in  the  fourth  volume  of 
Corri's  'Select  Collection  of  the  most  admired 
Songs,  Duetts,  etc.,'  circa  1794-95.  Later  ones 
are  printed  in  Hyde's  *  Collection,'  1798,  and  in 
Dr.  Miller's  'Dr.  Watt's  Psahns  and  Hymns,' 
1800.  Most  of  the  early  copies  are  in  three 
parts,  set  to  a  verse  beginning — 

O  Sanctlmimft,  O  PurlKsima. 

It  appears  to  have  at  once  become  much  in 
fashion  in  England  and  to  have  been  soon 
seized  upon  for  publication  in  hymnals,  having 
words  specially  written  to  it  to  replace  the 
original  ones.  F.  k. 

SIDE-DRUM  {Caisse  roularUe),  See  Drum 
3  ;  Military  Sounds  and  Signals  ;  Roll. 

SiteE  DE  CORINTHE,  LE.  Lyric  tragedy 
in  three  acts  ;  words  by  Soumet  and  Balocchi, 
music  by  Rossini.     Produced  at  the  Academic, 

>  For  ID  aooomt  of  Umm  SleOUn  wmgs  lee  O.  Pltrt,  Sui  Canti 
rvf6iaH  ateaimd,  Ftlmno,  1888. 

VOL.  IV 


Oct.  9,  1826.  It  was  an  adaptation  and  ex- 
tension of  'Maometto  Seoondo,'  produced  in 
1820.  The  Andante  of  the  overture,  entitled 
'  Marche  lugubre  grecque,'  is  framed  on  a  motif 
of  eight  bars,  taken  note  for  note  from  Marcello's 
21st  Psalm,  but  with  a  treatment  by  the  side- 
drum  {Caisse  rotUanU),  and  other  instruments, 
of  which  Marcello  can  never  have  dreamt.      o. 

SIEGE  OF  ROCHSLLE,  THK  A  grand 
original  opera,  in  three  acts ;  words  by  Fitzball, 
music  by  Balfe.  Produced  at  Drury  Lane  Theatre, 
Oct  29,  1835.  o. 

SIEGFRIED.  The  third  drama  of  Wagner's 
Nibelungen  tetralogy.      See  Ring  des  Nibe- 

LUNOEN. 

SIFACE,  Giovanni  Francesco  Gkossi, 
dbtto.  Too  few  details  are  known  about  the  life 
of  this  artist,  though  all  the  accounts  of  him 
agree  in  representing  him  as  one  of  the  very 
greatest  singers  of  his  time.  He  was  born  at 
Pescia  in  Tuscany,  about  the  middle  of  the  1 7  th 
century,  and  is  said  to  have  been  a  pupil  of 
RedL  If  so,  this  must  have  been  Tommaso 
Redi,  who  became  chapel -master  at  Loretto 
towards  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  although, 
as  he  was  Siface's  contemporary,  it  seems  im- 
probable that  he  should  have  been  his  instructor. 
Sifaoe  was  admitted  into  the  Pope's  chapel  in 
April  1675.  This  disproves  the  date  (1666) 
given  by  F^tis  and  others  for  his  birth,  as  no 
boys  sang  then  in  the  Sistine  choir.  He  would 
seem  at  that  time  to  have  been  already  known 
by  the  sobriquei  which  has  always  distinguished 
him,  and  which  he  owed  to  his  famous  im- 
personation of  Siface  or  Syphax  in  some  opera, 
commonly  said  to  be  the  '  Mitridate '  of  Scarlatti ; 
an  unlikely  supposition,  for  besides  that  Scarlatti's 
two  operas  of  that  name  were  not  written  till 
some  forty  years  later,  it  is  not  easy  to  see  what 
Syphax  can  have  to  do  in  a  work  on  the  subject 
of  Mithridates.     (See  Dent's  Scarlatti,  p.  87.) 

Siface's  voice,  an  artificial  soprano,  was  iiill 
and  beautiful ;  his  style  of  singing  broad,  noble, 
and  very  expressive.  Mancini  extols  his  choir- 
singing  as  being  remarkable  for  its  excellence. 
In  1679  he  was  at  Venice  for  the  Carnival, 
acting  with  great  success  in  the  performances  of 
PaUavicini's  'Nerone,'  of  which  a  description 
may  be  found  in  the  Mercure  gaZant  of  the 
same  year.  After  this  he  came  to  England,  and 
Hawkins  mentions  him  as  pre-eminent  among 
all  the  foreign  singers  of  that  period.  He  was 
for  a  time  attached  to  James  II. 's  chapel,'  but 
soon  returned  to  Italy.  In  the  second  part  of 
Pkyford's  collection,  'Musick's  Handmaid' 
(1689),  there  is  an  air  by  Purcell,  entitled 
'Sefauchrs  forewell,*  which  refers  to  Siface's 
departure  from  this  country. 

This  great  singer  was  robbed  and  murdered 
by  his  postilion,  while  travelling,  some  say  from 
Genoa  to  Turin,  others,  from  Bologna  to  Ferrara. 

*  BrelTii  heard  him  there,  Jan.  SO,  1687,  and  on  April  19  foUowing 
at  repys'ii  hooie.  He  qwalu  of  hlni  In  hlgUr  oommendatcwy  tenne. 

2g 


460 


SIGNA 


SIGNATURE 


According  to  Hawkins  this  happened  aboat  the 
year  1699.  He  is  referred  to  in  Durfey's  *  Foors 
Preferment'  (1688),  Act  I.  So.  i.        p.  a.  m. 

SIGNA.  Opera  in  two  acts,  libretto  (founded 
on  Ouida's  story)  by  G.  h  Beckett,  H.  Budall, 
and  F.  £.  Weatherley  ;  Italian  version  by  G. 
Mazzucato.  Music  by  Frederic  H.  Cowen. 
Produced  in  the  Italian  version  at  the  Teatro 
dal  Verme,  Milan,  Nov.»12,  1893,  in  four  acts, 
reduced  to  three,  and  ultimately  to  two.  At 
Oovent  Garden,  June  30,  1894.  m. 

SIGNALS.  The  drum  and  bugle  calls  or 
*  sounds '  of  the  army.  [See  vol.  iii.  p.  204  ff.  ]  o. 
SIGNATURE.  I.  Key  -  Signature  (Fr. 
Signes  aceiderUales  ;  Ger.  VorzeUhnung^  properly 
reguldre  Vorzeichnung).  The  signs  of  chromatic 
alteration,  sharps  or  flats,  which  are  placed 
at  the  commencement  of  a  composition,  imme- 
diately after  the  clef,  and  which  affect  all  notes 
of  the  same  names  as  the  degrees  upon  which 
they  stand,  unless  their  influence  is  in  any  case 
counteracted  by  a  contrary  sign. 

The  necessity  for  a  signature  arises  from 
the  fact  that  in  modem  music  every  major  scale 
is  an  exact  copy  of  the  scale  of  C,  and  every 
minor  scale  a  copy  of  A  minor,  so  far  as  regards 
the  intervals — tones  and  semitones — by  which 
the  degrees  of  the  scale  are  separated.  This 
uniformity  can  only  be  obtained,  in  the  case  of 
a  major  scale  beginning  on  any  other  note  than 
0,  by  the  use  of  certain  sharps  or  flats  ;  and 
instead  of  marking  these  sharps  or  flats,  which 
are  constantly  required,  on  each  recurrence  of 
the  notes  which  require  them,  after  the  manner 
of  Accidentals,  they  are  indicated  once  for 
all  at  the  beginning  of  the  composition  (or,  as 
is  customary,  at  the  beginning  of  every  line), 
for  greater  convenience  of  reading.  The  signa- 
ture thus  shows  the  key  in  which  the  piece  is 
written,  for  since  all  those  notes  which  have 
no  sign  in  the  signature  are  understood  to  be 
naturals  (naturals  not  being  used  in  the  signa- 
ture), the  whole  scale  may  readily  be  inferred 
from  the  sharps  or  flats  which  are  present, 
while  if  there  is  no  signature  the  scale  is  that 
of  C,  which  consists  of  naturals  only.  [See 
Key.]  The  following  is  a  table  of  the  signatures 
of  major  scales. 

1.  Sharp  Siffnatum, 


B  B        F  sharp    C  sharp. 

Flat  Signatures. 


B  flat  E  flat  A  fUt    D  flat      O  flat      0  flat. 


The  order  in  which  the  signs  are  placed  in 
the  signature  is  always  that  in  which  they  have 
been  successively  introduced  in  the  regular  for- 
mation of  scales  with  more  sharps  or  flats  out 
of  those  with  fewer  or  none.     This  will  be  seen 


in  the  above  table,  where  F^,  which  was  the 
only  sharp  required  to  form  the  scale  of  G, 
remains  the  first  sharp  in  all  the  signatures,  Cg 
being  the  second  throughout,  and  so  on,  and 
the  same  rule  is  followed  with  the  fiats.  The 
last  sharp  or  flat  of  any  signature  is  therefore 
the  one  which  distinguishes  it  from  all  scales 
with  fewer  signs,  and  on  this  account  it  is  known 
as  the  essential  note  of  the  scale.  If  a  sharp,  it 
is  on  the  seventh  degree  of  the  scale  ;  if  a  flat, 
on  the  fourth.  In  the  present  day  the  place 
of  the  signature  is  marked  only  once  on  the 
stave ;  but  in  the  18th  century  it  was  usoal 
to  mark  it  as  often  as  it  appeared,  ao  that  the 
keys  of  6  flat  and  E  flat  were  written  thus  :— 


and 


The  signature  of  the  minor  scale  is  the  same 
as  that  of  its  relative  major,  but  the  sharp 
seventh — ^which,  though  sometimes  subject  to 
alteration  for  reasons  due  to  the  construction 
of  melody,  is  an  essential  note  of  the  scale— is 
not  included  in  the  signature,  but  is  marked  as 
an  accidental  when  required.  The  reason  of 
this  is  that  if  it  were  placed  there  it  would  inter- 
fere with  the  regular  order  of  sharps  or  flats, 
and  the  appearance  of  the  signature  would  be- 
come so  anomalous  as  to  give  rise  to  possible 
misunderstanding,  as  will  be  seen  from  the 
following  example,  where  the  signature  of  A 
minor  (a)  might  easily  be  mistaken  for  that  of 
G  major  misprinted,  and  that  of  F  minor  (>') 
for  Eb  miyor.  [E.  J.  Lodor  tried  the  odd- 
looking  experiment  of  indicating  the  flat  sixth 
and  the  sharp  seventh  in  the  key  signature, 
as  at  (c)  in  his  'Moonlight  on  the  Ijake.'] 
2.      (a)  (b)  (c) 


In  former  times  many  composers  were  accus- 
tomed to  dispense  with  the  last  sharp  or  flat  of 
the  signature,  both  in  major  and  minor  keys, 
and  to  mark  it  as  an  accidental  (like  the  ahan> 
seventh  of  the  minor  scale)  wherever  required,  , 
possibly  in  order  to  call  attention  to  its  import- 
ance as  an  essential  note  of  the  scale,  or  more  | 
probably  on  account  of  the  influence  of  the 
ecclesiastical  modes.  Thus  Handel  rarely  wrote 
F  minor  with  more  than  three  flats,  the  D> 
being  marked  as  an  accidental  as  well  as  the  £: 
(see  '  And  with  His  stripes '  from  *■  Messiah ') ; 
and  a  duet  *Joys  in  gentle  train  appearing* 
(*  Athalia '),  which  is  in  reality  in  E  major,  has 
but  three  sharps.  Similar  instances  may  be 
found  in  the  works  of  Corelli,  Geminiani,  and 
others. 

When  in  the  course  of  a  composition  the  key 
changes  for  any  considerable  period  of  time,  it 
is  frequently  convenient  to  change  the  signature, 
in  order  to  avoid  the  use  of  many  aocidcntal& 
In  affecting  this  change,  such  sharps  or  flats  ss 


SIGNATURE 


SIGNATURE 


451 


are  no  longer  required  are  cancelled  by  naturals, 
and  this  is  the  only  case  in  which  naturals  are 
employed  in  the  signature.     (See  Auplosungs- 

ZSICREN.) 

In  such  a  case  the  modulation  must  be  into 
a  sufficiently  distant  key ;  modulations  into 
nearly  related  keys,  as,  for  instance,  into  the 
dominant,  in  the  case  of  the  second  subject  of 
a  sonata,  never  require  a  change  of  signature, 
howeyer  long  the  new  key  may  continue. 
Otherwise,  there  is  no  limit  to  the  frequency  or 
extent  of  such  changes,  provided  the  reading  is 
facilitated  thereby.  f.  t. 

IL  TiMB-SiONATURX  (Lat.  Signum  Modi,  vel 
Temparis,  vel  Prolaliania  ;  Germ.  Taktzeiehen). 
A  sign  placed  after  the  clef  and  the  sharps  or 
flats  which  determine  the  signature  of  the  key, 
in  order  to  give  notice  of  the  rhythm  in  which 
a  composition  is  written. 

Our  present  Time- Signatures  are  directly 
descended  from  forms  invented  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  Medieval  composers  used  the  Circle  to 
denote  Perfect  (or,  as  we  should  now  say,  Triple) 
Rhythm ;  and  the  Semicircle  for  Imperfect  or 
Duple  forms.  The  signatures  used  to  distinguish 
the  Greater  and  Lesser  Moods^  Perfect  or  Imper- 
fect— Signa  Modi,  Modal  Signs — were  usually 
yrxeeded  by  a  group  of  rests,*  showing  the 
number  of  Longs  to  which  a  Large  was  equal  in 
the  Greater  Mood,  and  the  number  of  Breves 
which  equalled  the  Long  in  the  Lesser  one — 
that  is  to  say,  three  for  the  Perfect  forms,  and 
two  for  the  Imperfect.  Sometimes  these  rests 
were  figured  once  only ;  sometimes  they  were 
twice  repeated.  The  following  forms  were  most 
commonly  used : — 


Greater  Hood  Perfeeti 


Combinations  of  the  Greater  and  Lesser  Moods, 
when  both  were  Perfect,  were  indicated  by  a 
Point  of  Perfection,  placed  in  the  centre  of  the 
Circle,  as  at  (a)  in  the  following  example. 
When  the  Greater  Mood  was  Perfect,  and  the 
Lesser  Imperfect,  the  Point  was  omitted,  as  at 
(ft).  When  both  Moods  were  Imperfect,  or  the 
Greater  Imperfect,  and  the  Lesser  Perfect,  the 
difference  was  indicated  by  the  groups  of  Rests, 
as  at  (c)  and  ((Q. 


3  ThercAdtf  mnii  beoMvfol  tootMnretheporftloD  of  theMlUaU ; 
briaoMlt  ia  only  when  thay  preoede  the  Circle  or  Semldrde  thnt 
thpy»r«iiaeduilciis.  When  thcr  foUov  It,  Ui«y  mint  be  counted 
M  marks  of  alleDoe. 


(a)  Both  MoodB  Perfect. 


(6)  Greater  Mood  Perfect, 
RDd  Lesser  Imperfect. 


The  Circle  and  the  Semicircle  were  also  used 
either  alone  or  in  combination  with  the  figures 
8  or  2,  as  signatures  of  time,  in  the  limited 
sense  in  which  that  term  was  used  in  the 
Middle  Ages  ;  Le,  as  applied  to  the  proportions 
existing  between  the  Breve  and  the  Somibreve 
only — three  to  one  Imperfect,  and  two  to  one  in 
Imperfect  forms. 

Perfect  Time. 


The  same  signs  were  used  to  indicate  the  pro- 
portion between  the  Semibreve  and  the  Minim, 
in  the  Greater  and  Lesser  Prolation ;'  but  gener- 
ally with  a  bar  drawn  perpendicularly  through 
the  Circle  or  Semicircle,  to  indicate  that 
the  beats  were  to  be  represented  by  minims  ; 
and  sometimes,  in  the  case  of  the  Greater 
Prolation,  with  the  addition  of  a  Point  of 
Perfection. 

The  Greater  Prolatloii. 


The  Lesser  Prolatioii. 
or 

Combinations  of  Mood,  Time,  and  Prolation 
sometimes  give  rise  to  very  complicated  forms, 
which  varied  so  much  at  different  epochs,  that 
even  Omithoparcus,  writing  in  1517,  complains 
of  the  diflSculty  of  understanding  them.'*  Some 
writers  used  two  Circles  or  Semicircles,  one 
within  the  other,  with  or  without  a  Point  of 
Perfection  in  the  centre  of  the  smaller  one.  The 
inversion  of  the  Semicircle  (  3)  always  denoted  a 
diminution  in  the  value  of  the  beats,  to  the  extent 
of  one-half ;  but  it  was  only  at  a  comparatively 
late  period  that  the  doubled  figure  (CO)  i^^i- 
cated  an  analogous  change  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion. Again,  the  barred  Circle  or  Semich*cle 
always  indicated  minim  beats ;  but  the  unbarred 
forms,  while  indicating  semibrevos  in  Mood  and 
Time,  were  used  by  the  Madrigal  writers  to 
indicate  crotchet  beats  in  Prolation. 

The  application  of  these  principles  to  modem 
time-signatures  is  exceedingly  simple,  and  may 
be  explained  in  a  very  few  words.  At  present 
we  use  the  unbarred  Semicircle  to  indicate  four 
crotchet  beats  in  a  bar ;  the  barred  Semicircle 
to   indicate   four  minim  beats,  in   the  Time 

S  See  voL  lU.  p.  823.  «  8m  Tol.  ill.  p.  825. 


452 


SIGURD 


SILB£BMANK 


called  Alia  breve,  and  two  minim  beats  in 
Alia  Cappella,  Some  German  writen  once 
used  the  doubled  Semicircle,  barred  (CD) 
for  Alia  hreve — which  they  called  the  Orosse 
Allabrevetakt,  and  the  ordinary  single  form, 
barred,  for  Alia  Cappella — Kleine  Allabreffetakt ; 
but  this  distinction  has  long  since  fallen  into 
disuse. 

The  Circle  is  no  longer  used  ;  all  other  forms 
of  rhythm  than  those  already  mentioned  being 
distinguished  by  fractions,  the  denominators 
of  which  refer  to  the  aliquot  parts  of  a  semi- 
breve,  and  the  numerators,  to  the  number  of 

2,8 
them  contained  in  a  bar,  as  ^  (=•),  |  (=«5»), 

etc.     And  even  in  this  we  only  follow   the 

mediisval  custom,  which  used  the  fraction  ^  to 
denote  Triple  Time,  with  three  minims  in  a  bar, 
exactly  as  we  denote  it  at  the  present  day. 

A  complete  list  of  all  the  fractions  now  used 
as  time-signatures  will  be  found  in  the  article 
Tike,  together  with  a  detailed  explanation  of 
the  peculiarities  of  each.  w.  s.  b. 

SIGURD.  Opera  in  five  acts ;  text  by  Dulocle 
and  A.  Blau,  music  by  Ernest  Beyer.  Produced 
at  Brussels,  Jan.  7,  1884  ;  at  Covent  Garden, 
July  15  of  the  same  year,  and  at  the  Grand 
OpSra,  Paris,  June  12,  1886. 

SILAS,  &DOUABD,  pianist  and  composer,  was 
bom  at  Amsterdam,  August  22,  1827.  His  first 
teacher  was  Neher,  one  of  the  Court  orchestra 
at  Mannheim.  He  first  appeared  in  public 
at  Amsterdam  in  1837  ;  he  studied  the  piano 
in  1839  with  Lacombe,  and  in  1842  he  was 
placed  under  Ealkbrenner  at  Paris,  and  soon 
afterwards  entered  the  Conservatoire  under 
Benoist  for  the  organ  and  Hal6vy  for  composi- 
tion, and  in  1849  obtained  the  first  prize  for 
the  former.  In  1850  he  came  to  England  ; 
played  first  at  Liverpool,  and  made  his  first 
appearance  in  London  at  the  Musical  Union, 
May  21.  From  that  date  Mr.  Silas  was  estab- 
lished in  London  as  teacher,  and  as  organist 
of  the  Catholic  Chapel  at  Eingston-on-Thames. 
His  oratorio  *Joash'  (words  compiled  by  G. 
Linley)  was  produced  at  the  Norwich  Festival 
of  1863.  A  Symphony  in  A  (op.  19)  was 
produced  by  the  Musical  Society  of  London, 
April  22, 1863  ;  repeated  at  the  Crystal  Palace, 
Feb.  20,  1864  ;  and  afterwards  published.  A 
Concerto  for  PF.  and  orchestra  in  D  minor  is 
also  published.  A  Fantasia  and  an  J^l^gie, 
both  for  PF.  and  orchestra,  were  given  at  the 
Crystal  Palace  in  1865  and  1878.  Three 
Mythological  Pieces  for  orchestra  were  played 
at  a  Philharmonic  Concert  in  1888.  In 
1866  he  received  the  prize  of  the  Belgian  com- 
petition for  saored  music  for  his  Mass  for  four 
voices  and  organ. 

Mr.  Silas  is  the  author  of  a  Treatise  on 
Musical  Notation,  and  an  Essay  on  a  new  method 
of  Harmony — ^both  unpublished.     He  has  still 


in  MS.  an  IMglish  opera,  '  Nitocris ' ;  overture 
and  incidental  music  to  '  Fanchette ' ;  a  musical 
comedietta,  *  Love's  Dilemma '  ;  a  Cantata ;  an 
*  Ave  Verum  * ;  two  *0  Salutaris* ;  a  Symphony 
in  G  major  ;  and  other  oompositiona.  The  hk 
of  his  published  instrumental  works  is  very 
large,  and  includes  many  PF.  pieces,  among 
which  the  best  known  are  Gavotte  in  £  minor, 
Bourr^  in  G  minor,  'Malvina'  (romanoe). 
Suite  in  A  minor,  op.  108,  Six  Duets,  etc  etc 

Mr.  Silas  was  for  many  years  a  teacher  of 
harmony  at  the  Guildhall  School  of  Music  and 
the  London  Academy  of  Music  c 

SILBERMANN.  A  £unily  of  oi^gui-Vuilders, 
clavichord  and  pianoforte  makers,  of  Saxon 
origin,  of  whom  the  most  renowned  were 
Andreas,  who  built  the  Strasburg  Oathednl 
organ,  and  Gottfried,  who  built  the  organs  of 
Freiberg  and  Dresden,  and  was  the  first  to  con- 
struct &e  pianoforte  in  Germany.  Authozities 
difier  as  to  whether  Andreas  and  Gottfried  were 
brothers,  or  uncle  and  nephew.  Following 
Gerber's  Lexicon  they  were  sons  of  Michael 
Silbermann,  a  carpenter  at  Eleinbobritzsch, 
near  Frauenstein  in  Saxony,  where  Akdreas 
was  bom  May  16,  1678.  He  was  brought  np 
to  his  father's  craft,  and  travelled,  according  to 
the  custom  of  the  country,  in  1700.  He  learnt 
organ-building,  and  in  1708  we  find  him  settled 
in  that  vocation  at  Strasbuig.  According  to 
Hopkins  and  Bimbault '  he  built  the  Strasbn?;^ 
organ — his  greatest  work  of  29  recorded  by 
them — in  1714-16.  He  had  nine  sons,  of  whom 
three  were  organ-builders,  and  after  the  father  s 
death,  March  16,  1784,  carried  on  the  business 
in  common.  Of  the  three,  Johann  Andreas, 
the  eldest  (bom  June  26,  1712,  died  Feh  11. 
1783),  built  the  Predigerkirche  organ  at  Stias- 
burg  and  that  of  the  Abbey  of  St.  Blaise  in  the 
Black  Forest.  In  all  he  built  fifty-four  organs, 
in  addition  to  writing  a  history  of  the  dt)'  of 
Strasburg,  published  1775.  His  son,  Johani] 
Josias  (died  June  3,  1786),  was  a  musical 
instrument  maker.  The  next  son  of  Andreas, 
Johann  Daniel,  bom  March  31,  1717,  died 
May  6,  1766,  in  Leipzig,  was  employed  by  his 
uncle  Gottfried,  and  was  intrusted  after  bis 
uncle's  death  with  the  completion  of  the  famotki 
organ  (in  the  Hofkirche)  in  Dresden.  Mooacr,- 
however,  who  claims  to  follow  good  anthoritifr', 
attributes  the  completion  of  this  instrument  to 
Zaoharias  Hildebrand.  Be  this  as  it  may, 
Johann  Daniel  remained  at  Dresden,  a  keyed- 
instrument  maker,  and  constructor  of  ingenious 
barrel-organs.  A  composition  of  his  is  preserred 
in  Marpurg's  *  Racoolta  '(1767).  Johann  Hein- 
rich,  the  youngest  son  of  Andreas,  bom  Sept  24, 
1727,  died  at  Strasburg,  Jan.  15,  1799.  His 
pianofortes  were  well  known  in  Paris  ;  he  made 
them  with  organ  pedals,  and  constracted  a  harp- 
sichord of  which  the  longest  strings  were  of 

1  7%9  Orftm,  ««  autonf  tmd  Comttrtietiom,  Lowloa,  ISi. 


SILBERMANN 


SILOTI 


453 


wbat  may  be  called  the  natural  length,  16  feet ! 
[The  above  dates  are  from  Riemann's  Lexikon,] 
Bat  the  greatest  of  the  Silbermann  family 
was  Gottfried,  who  was  bom  in  the  little 
village  of  Kleinbobritzsch,  near  Frauenstein,  in 
1688  (according  to  Mooser  on  Jan.  14).  He 
was  at  first  placed  with  a  bookbinder,  but  soon 
quitted  him  and  went  to  Andreas  at  Strasburg. 
Having  got  into  trouble  by  the  attempted 
abduction  of  a  nun,  he  had  to  quit  that  city  in 
1707  and  go  back  to  Frauensteiu,  where  he  built 
his  first  organ  (afterwards  destroyed  by  fire,  the 
fate  of  several  of  his  instruments).  He  appears 
to  have  settled  at  Freiberg  in  1709,  and 
remained  there  for  some  years.  [He  built  the 
cathedral  organ  there  in  1714.]  He  built,  in 
all,  forty-seven  organs  in  Saxony.^  He  never 
married,  and  was  overtaken  by  death  August  4, 
1753,  while  engaged  upon  his  finest  work,  the 
Dresden  Court  organ.  Although  receiving  what 
we  should  call  very  low  prices  for  his  organs, 
by  living  a  frugal  life  he  became  comparatively 
rich,  and  his  talent  and  exceptional  force  of 
character  enabled  him  to  achieve  an  eminent 
position.  His  clavichords  were  ss  celebrated  as 
his  organs.  Emanuel  Bach  had  one  of  them  for 
nearly  half  a  century,  and  the  instrument,  many 
years  after  it  was  made,  when  heard  under  the 
hands  of  that  gifted  and  sympathetic  player, 
excited  the  admiration  of  Bumey.  It  cannot  be 
doubted  that  he  was  the  first  German  who  made 
a  pianoforte.  He  was  already  settled  in  Dresden 
in  1725,  when  Konig  translated  into  German 
Scipione  Maffei's  account  of  the  invention  of  the 
pianoforte  at  Florence  by  Cristofori.  This  fact 
has  been  already  mentioned  [Pianoforte,  vol. 
iiL  pp.  719-20,]  and  we  now  add  some  further 
particulars  gained  by  personal  search  and  in- 
spection at  Potsdam  in  1881.  We  know  from 
Agricola,  one  of  J.  S.  Bach's  pupils,  that  in 
1736  Gottfried  Silbermann  submitted  two  piano- 
fortes of  his  make  to  that  great  master.  Bach 
finding  much  fault  with  them,  Gottfried  was 
annoyed,  and  for  some  time  desisted  from  further 
experiments  in  that  direction.  It  is  possible 
that  the  intercourse  between  Dresden  and 
Northern  Italy  enabled  him,  either  then  or 
later,  to  see  a  Florentine  pianoforte.  It  is 
certain  that  throe  grand  pianofortes  made  by 
him  and  acquired  by  Frederick  the  Great  *  for 
Potsdam — where  they  still  remain  in  the  music- 
rooms  of  the  Stadtschloss,  Sans  Souci,  and  Neues 
PalaiB,^  inhabited  by  that  monarch — are,  with 
unimportant  differences,  repetitions  of  the 
Cristofori    pianofortes    existing    at    Florence. 

>  Wn  of  9  mKouaU,  Frdbenr,  Zlttao,  and  FraiMnctaln ;  the 
FnuenklrdM  and  KatboUaoh*  Hofklrche  at  Dresden  ;  twent^-fonr 
cf  ainMnml»;flftoeiiof  liiiairoalwithp<dal«,and  three  of  1  manual 
vithoBt  pedala.    (Moomt.  p.  125.) 

<  Probablv  lo  VT4IL  Hie  peaee  of  Dreaden  «M  signed  bj  Frederick, 
Clirijittixu  Day,  1740 ;  he  iroold  haTe  tiine  after  that  event  to  inspect 
eilbcnnann's  ptaoofortes. 

3  The  Silbermann  piano  Barney  mentions  was  that  of  the  Keoes 
PahtisL  He  moet  have  heard  the  one  at  Sans  Soocl.  although  he  does 
n<it  say  eo.  In  all  probabtlltr  the  piano  J.  8.  Bach  played  npon 
tpnimilr,  an  the  oenalon  of  his  Tisit  to  Frederick  the  Oreat,  was 
the  one  still  in  the  Stadtacfaloas,  the  town  palace  of  Potsdam. 


Frederick  is  said  to  have  acquired  more  than 
three,  but  no  others  are  now  to  be  found.  Bumey's 
depreciation  of  the  work  of  Germans  in  their 
own  country  finds  no  support  in  the  admirable 
work  of  Gottfried  Silbermann  in  these  piano- 
fortes. If  its  durability  needed  other  testimony, 
we  might  refer  to  one  of  his  pianofortes  which 
Zelter  met  with  at  Weimar  in  1804,  and  praised 
to  Goethe  ;  and  to  another  spoken  of  by  M^ooser 
in  1857  as  having  been  up  to  a  then  recent  date 
used  at  the  meetings  of  the  Freemasons'  Lodge 
at  Freiberg.  Gottfried  Silbermann  invented  the 
Cembal  d'  Amore,  a  kind  of  double  clavi- 
chord. [It  is  described  in  Mr.  Hipkins's 
History  of  the  Piarvo,  p.  65.]  A.  J.  H. 

SILCHER,  Fbiedrioh,  well-known  composer 
of  Lieder,  bom  June  27,  1789,  at  Schnaith, 
near  Schomdorf  in  Wiirtemberg,  wss  taught 
music  by  his  father,  and  by  Auberlen,  organist 
at  Fellbach  near  Stuttgart.  He  was  educated 
for  a  schoolmaster,  and  his  first  post  was  at 
Ludwigsburg,  where  he  began  to  compose.  In 
1815  he  took  a  oonductorship  at  Stuttgart,  and 
composed  a  cantata,  which  procured  him,  in 
1817,  the  post  of  conductor  to  the  University 
of  Tiibingen.  This  he  held  till  1860,  when  he 
retired,  and  died  shortly  after  (August  26)  at 
Tubingen.  The  honorary  degree  of  Doctor  had 
been  conferred  upon  him  by  the  University  in 
1852.  His  most  important  publications  are — 
*  Sechs  vierstimmige  Hymnen  '  (Laupp),  *  Drei- 
stimmiges  wiirtemb.  Choralbuch '  (/6i/.),  and 
'  Swabian,  Thuringian,  and  Franconian  Yolks- 
lieder '  (12  parts),  many  of  which  are  his  own 
compositions.  Several  of  Silcher's  melodies  pub- 
lished in  his  *  Sammlung  deutscher  Yolkslieder,* 
etc.,  have  become  true  soiigs  of  the  people,  such 
as  'Aennchen  von  Tharau,'  'Morgen  muss  ich 
fort  von  bier,'  *Ich  weiss  nicht  was  soil  es 
bedeuten,'  'Zu  Strassburg  auf  der  Schanz,'  etc. 
The  Lieder  were  published  simultaneously  for 
one  and  two  voices,  with  PF.  and  for  four  men's 
voices.  He  edited  a  method  for  harmony  and 
composition  in  1851.  A  biographical  sketch  of 
Silcher  by  Edstlin  appeared  in  1877.      f.  o. 

SILOTI,  Alexander,  born  Oct.  10,  1863,  on 
his  father's  estate  near  Charkow  in  Southern 
Russia,  a  remarkable  pianist,  and  one  of  the  most 
eminent  of  liszt's  pupils.  Ho  studied  at  the 
Moscow  Conservatorium  from  1875  to  1881  under 
Swerew,  Nicolas  Rubinstein,  Tchaikovsky,  and 
Hubert,  and  irom  1883  to  1886  with  Liszt.  Since 
1888,  when  he  appeared  at  Leipzig  at  a  Concert 
of  the  Tonkiinstlerversammlung,  he  has  been 
regarded  as  one  of  the  leading  Russian  pianists, 
but  he  had  already  appeared  with  success  in 
Moscow  in  1880.  From  that  year  till  1890  he 
was  Professor  at  the  Moscow  Conservatorium  ; 
then  he  sojourned  for  several  years  out  of  his 
own  country  in  such  places  as  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main,  Antwerp,  and  Leipzig,  conducted  the 
Moscow  Philharmonic  concerts  in  1901-2,  and 
since  1903  has  figured  largely  as  a  conductor 


454 


SILVA 


SIMON 


in   St.    Petersburg,   and   other  great  Bussian 
cities.  H.  V.  H. 

SILVA,  Andkbas  de,  was  a  singer  in  the 
Papal  Chapel,  1519,  and  the  first  to  be  described 
as  Papal  composer  (Haberl,  Bausteine,  iii.  p. 
69).  In  1522  he  appears  to  have  been  in  the 
chapel  of  the  Duke  of  Mantua.  It  is  natural 
to  identify  him  with  Andreas  Sylvanus,  from 
whom  Glarean  quotes  the  Eyrie  and  Osanna  of 
a  very  peculiar  mass  for  three  voices,  '  Malheur 
me  bat, '  also  with  the  Andreas  Silvanus,  to  whom 
Sebastian  Virdung  refers  as  the  intimate  friend 
for  whom  he  wrote  his  Musica  QetiUschtf  1511. 
But  Eitner,  in  the  QueUen-Lexikon  and  MoruUs- 
he/Uy  XX vi.  p.  47,  refuses  to  accept  this  identifica- 
tion, because  he  thinks  Virdung's  friend  must 
have  been  a  German  ;  and  if  de  Silva  had  been 
a  German  it  is  unlikely  that  his  works  would 
have  found  their  way  into  French  collections 
like  those  of  Attaingnant,  or  Italian  collections 
like  those  of  Gardane  and  Petrucci.  This 
reasoning,  however,  is  not  very  convincing,  all 
the  less  that  Eitner  himself  assumes  that  the 
Sylvanus  who  is  the  author  of  the  mass  ^  Malheur 
me  bat'  is  identical  with  the  Silvanus  the 
friend  of  Virdung.  In  any  case  the  Sylvanus 
of  the  mass  *  Malheur  me  bat  *  is  more  likely  to 
have  been  a  Netherlander  than  a  German,  and 
to  be  identical  with  de  Silva  than  with  the 
Silvanus  of  Virdung.  That  de  Silva  was  known 
in  Germany  appears  from  the  reception  of  an 
Italian  madrigal  by  him,  'Ghe  sentisti  Madonna,' 
in  Ott's  *  Liederbuch, '  1544,  attributed  to  him 
in  all  the  four  part-books.  This  madrigal  has 
a  surprising  degree  of  expressiveness  for  the 
time  at  which  it  must  be  supposed  to  have  been 
written.  Besides  the  works  of  Silva  in  the 
collections  of  the  time,  there  cure  two  masses 
and  seven  motets  by  him  in  the  Archives  of  the 
Papal  Chapel.  One  of  the  motets,  *■  Illumina 
oculos  meos,  a  6,'  deserves  notice,  as  being  that 
on  which  Palestrina  based  one  of  his  more  im- 
portant masses  a  6,  bearing  the  same  title. 
Among  other  MS.  motets  of  Silva  enumerated 
in  the  QueUen-Lexikon^  there  are  two  mentioned 
together,  *Virtute  magna'  and  *0  Regem 
coeli,'  both  a  4.  Possibly  the  theme  of  the  two 
four-part  masses  of  Palestrina  in  his  first  book, 
1 554,  may  be  taken  from  these  motets,     j.  r.  m. 

SILVANA :  also  called  '  Silvana  das  Wald- 
madchen,*  or  *  das  stumme  Waldmadchen ' — the 
dumb  Wood-maiden.  A  romantic  opera  in  three 
acts  ;  words  by  F.  K.  Hiemer,  music  by  Weber  ; 
his  sixth  dramatic  work,  completed  Feb.  28, 
1810;  produced  at  Frankfort,  Sept.  16,  1810. 
It  is  probably  founded  to  some  extent  on  his 
early  opera  'Das  Waldmadchen'  (1800),  which 
was  afterwards  burnt ;  and  was  to  a  small  extent 
employed  in  'Abu  Hassan'  and  ' Freischiitz.' 
The  overture  was  used  by  Weber  as  the  prelude 
to  his  music  for  the  wedding  of  Prince  John  of 
Saxony ;  and  he  wrote  seven  variations  for 
clarinet  and  PP.,  for  H.  Barmann,  on  an  air 


from  it,  '  Wamm  musst^  ich.'  It  was  prodaoed 
in  English  (as  *  Sylvaua ')  at  the  Surrey  Theatre, 
under  EUiston's  management,  Sept.  2, 1828.  It 
was  again  revived,  with  a  revised  Ubretto  by  Heir 
Pasque,  and  with  '  musical  amplificatioiis,'  at 
Hamburg  and  Lilbeck  in  the  spring  of  1885.  c. 
SILVANI,  Groseffo  Antonio,  bom  at 
Bologna  late  in  the  17  th  century,  was  maestro 
di  cappella  at  S.  Stefano  from  1702  to  1725. 
He  inherited  the  publishing  business  of  Marino 
Silvani,  who  may  have  been  his  father,  and  who 
issued  several  important  collections  of  motets, 
etc.  Giosefib  died  before  1727.  His  pnblisfaod 
works  ure  as  follows  : — 

Op. 

1.  Litanl«  eonoertate  a  4  voeL    1702. 

2.  Iiuii8«crlp«rtuttorAnAoaTaocK>la.    17QS. 

3.  BacrlBeiponaorilper.  .  .  l»MUimuianatii.a4TQd.  I7i>4. 

4.  Innl  uctl  per  iatto  1'  anno  »  4  Tod.    ITOSL 

5.  Oaxit»t«  manli  e  tplrltnali  a  1,  8, 8  tocL    1707. 

6.  Stabiit  mater,  Benadictiu,  Mloerwe,  etc..  a  8  tocL    I7K. 

7.  MeiM  brevi  oonoertato,  a  4  vod.    1<11. 

8.  MotettiaSrocl.    1711. 

9.  Motefetl  oon  le  qoatro  Antifone  a  voce  aoU.    1713. 

10.  Motetti  a  S  e  3  vod.    1718. 

11.  Me«e  brevl  a  4  voci.    ITKL 

18.  Varri  deUa  tarba.  etc.  a  4  voci.    1784. 

13.  Bacre  LamentAsicmi  a  voce  sola.    17SS. 

14.  Utauie  della  B.  V.  a  4  vod  oouoertate.    ITSS. 

All  these  have  accompaniments  (some  ad 
libitum)  for  strings  or  organ.  {QueUen-Leri- 
kan.)  M. 

SIMAO.  [See  Poetuoal,  voL  iii  p.  797a.] 
SIMILI,  '  like ' ;  a  word  commonly  used  in  » 
series  of  passages  or  figures  of  similar  form,  to 
be  performed  in  exactly  the  same  way.  After 
the  first  few  bars  of  such  passages  or  figures  the 
word  simili  is  used  to  save  trouble  of  copying 
the  marks  of  expression  and  foroe  at  every 
recurrence  of  the  figure.     *  Simili  marks '  occui 


generally  in  MS.  or  old  printed  music,  and 
signify  that  the  contents  of  the  previous  bar 
are  to  be  repeated  in  every  consecutive  succeeding 
bar  in  which  the  marks  occur.  M. 

SIMON,  Anton  Yulievich,  composer,  bom 
in  France  in  1851,  received  his  musical  educa- 
tion at  the  Paris  Conservatoire  and  migrated 
to  Moscow  in  1871,  where  he  became  conductor 
to  the  Theatre  Bouffe.  He  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  the  pianoforte  to  the  school  of  the 
Philharmonic  Society,  in  1891,  and  a  year  or 
two  later  was  made  superintendent  of  the 
orchestras  of  the  Imperial  Theatres  in  Moscow, 
and  musical  director  of  the  Alexandrovsky 
Institute.  Simon  is  a  voluminous  composer, 
the  list  of  his  works  being  as  follows. 

A.  OrXEATIC. 

'Bolla'(op.40,  MoMov,  1882):  '  The  Soi«  of  Low  Triamiilitf  t ' 
(op.  46,  Ubretto  from  Toarg«iiBT  by  V.  Wilde.  M<mow.  Itm :  '  1^ 
FfBbere '  (opi  Bl.  libretto  from  VlctorHogo  br  N.Wnde,MoMo«.  I9aff> : 
'  The  Btara' (ballet  in  9  aeta.Mow»«.  1901):  •  UTliwFlovan'K^ 
88.  baUet  In  1  act) ;  '  Bnactalda'  (mimo^lmna  tn 4 aeti^  Vom>*- 
1903). 

B.  OacBBnuo. 

Orertnre  (op.  13):  Suite  (op.  89);  'Dame  BtjtMn' fop-  ^' 
Overture— Fuitada  on  Malo-BoMlaa  theme*  (op.  39 ;  9r»r^^\ 
poemi;  -The  Midnight  Beriew '  and  ' La  Pfchererte '  iof^ « »o^ 
44) ;  Trlamphal  Orertore  on  8  Biiadaa  themes,  ecwnpoeid  far  »* 
nnvdling  of  the  monmnent  to  Alezaader  II.,  Moaoow  (op.  M' 


SIMONE  BOCCANEGRA 


SIMPSON 


456 


C.  ISRKVXKSTAX.  An>  CUAMMMM  MOSIC. 

>  (op.  19) :  clazlikit  eooeerto  {op.  SO) ;  fantacl* 
for  ▼Moaeello  (opw  43) ;  two  pianoforte  trios  (opp.  Uand  IB) :  ■tring 
qxHjrttt  (opi.  Ml ;  qoutet  for  8  oom«t»4-piston  and  alto  and  tenor 
trcmbooce  (op.  23/ ;  82  eiuemble  pieces  for  wind  Inttmmenta  (op. 
as-  ;  4 aepCeU;  4  aextete.  6  Quintets ;  8 qnarteU 

A  eonsldenble  nnmber  of  pieces  for  one  and  two  pianos;  pieces 
for  Tioltnand  piatnCorle,  ineladiog  tlie  popolar '  Berceose '  (op.  88) ; 
»  Maes  (op.  28) ;  three  female  cfaortMS  (op.  18)  and  npwards  of  80 
"•■••^  R.  N. 

SIMONE  BOCOANEGRA.  An  opera  in 
three  acts,  with  prologue ;  libretto  by  Piave, 
music  by  YerdL  Produced  at  the  Fenice 
Theatre,  Venice,  March  12,  1857  ;  remodelled 
and  rescored,  with  a  fresh  libretto  by  Boito, 
and  reproduced  at  La  Scala,  Milan,  March  24, 
1881.  G. 

SIMONETTI,  AcHiLLE,  yiolinist  and  com- 
poser, was  bom  at  Turin,  June  12,  1859.  In 
early  youth  he  studied  the  yiolin  under  Signer 
Gamba,  and  composition  under  Maestro  Pedrotti, 
late  Principal  of  Boasini's  Consenratorio  in 
Pesaro.  Later,  proceeding  to  Genoa,  he  placed 
himself  into  the  hands  of  Camillo  Sivori,  who 
took  great  interest  in  him,  and  whose  clear-cut 
style  and  Italian  temperament  are  reflected  in 
his  playing.  After  some  successful  appearances 
in  Marseilles  and  Lyons  he  went  to  Paris  to 
receive  further  tuition  from  Charles  Dancla 
(yiolin),  and  Massenet  (counterpoint),  passed 
four  winters  at  Nice,  and  then  visited  England 
to  fiilfil  an  engagement  to  tour  with  the  Marie 
Roze  Company  and  B.  Schonberger  the  pianist. 
His  present  headquarters  are  in  London,  where 
he  is  frequently  heard  as  soloist  and  member 
of  the  so-called  'London  Trio'  (Simonetti, 
Amina  Goodwin,  and  W.  E.  Whitehouse),  whilst 
he  occasionally  visits  Vienna  and  other  conti- 
nental cities.  Besides  a  series  of  graceful  solos 
for  the  violin,  which  have  achieved  considerable 
popularity,  he  has  written  two  sonatas  for  violin 
and  pianoforte  and  two  string  quartets.  He 
plays  on  a  Carlo  Bergonzi  violin.       w.  w.  c. 

SIMOUTRE,  Nicolas  EuofeNK,  a  French 
violin-maker,  the  patentee  of  certain  inventions 
by  which  he  claims  to  improve  the  tone  of 
violins  and  instruments  of  that  class — either  of 
defective  or  feeble  timbre.  The  son  of  a  ItUhier^ 
he  was  bom  at  Mirecourt,  April  19,  1839,  and 
was  first  the  pupil  of  his  father,  then  of  Darche 
in  Paris,  and  lastly  of  Roth  in  Strasburg.  He 
began  work  as  an  independent  maker  at  Basle 
in  1859,  and  there  published  in  1883  his 
brochure  entitled  Aitx  Amatev/rs  du  Violon, 
In  1886  a  second  brochure — Un  Progris  en 
Zu^herie  appeared,  a  German  edition  being  pub- 
lished at  the  same  time  entitled  Ein  FortschrUt 
in  der  Geigeiibauhunst  (Rixheim,  1886,  2nd 
edition,  1 887).  In  1889  he  brought  out  a  small 
'Supplement'  to  the  above  pamphlets.  The 
two  last-named  works  deal  mainly  with  his 
inventions.  The  principal  of  these,  called  '  Le 
Support  Harmonique,'  was  based  upon  Savart's 
scientific  discovery  tibat  the  belly  of  a  violin 
vibrates  unequally.  Testing  the  nodal  lines 
formed  by  sand  distributed  upon  the  belly  of 


a  violin  when  in  vibration,  Mons.  Simoutre 
observed  that  the  fibres  of  the  wood  vibrated 
in  alternate  sections,  i,e.  one  and  three  vibrated 
in  unison,  likewise  two  and  four,  and  that  the 
vibrations  of  one  And  two  were  as  much  in 
opposition  to  one  another,  as  were  three  and 
four.  Starting  from  this  point,  he  applied 
himself  to  the  discovery  of  a  system  which 
should  stop  the  vibrations  of  alternate  fibre 
sections  so  as  to  allow  the  rest  to  vibrate  in 
unison,  and  this  he  claims  to  do  with  his  patent 
*  Support  Harmonique. '  Briefly,  this  invention 
consists  in  glueing  two  small  sections  of  wood — 
variable  in  form  and  dimensions  according  to 
the  effect  required — upon  the  centre  of  the  belly 
and  back  of  the  violin  transversely.  This 
method,  he  considered,  concentrated  the  vibra- 
tions near  the  sound-post — where  they  are  most 
numerous — and  by  so  doing,  increased  the 
sonority  of  the  instrument  so  furnished,  and  at 
the  same  time  prevented  the  belly  from  sinking 
under  the  pressure  of  the  bridge.  Various  ex- 
periments for  ascertaining  the  best  thickness 
and  forms  of  the  ^Support  Harmonique'  resulted 
in  the  discovery  that  an  innovation  in  the  form 
of  the  bass  baa*  was  necessary  where  the  new 
system  was  employed.  A  semi-detached  bar 
slightly  scooped  out  at  the  centre,  and  glued 
only  at  each  end  to  the  belly  of  the  violin,  was 
patented  by  Mons.  Simoutre,  that  form  proving 
most  efficacious  where  the  violin  was  free  from 
cracks,  etc.  A  third  patent  applies  to  the 
setting  of  the  sound -post  in  one  of  the  two 
small  circular  grooves  made  for  it  in  the  lower 
'Support  Harmonique.'  In  1890  this  maker 
settled  in  Paris  at  38  Rue  de  I'Echicquier,  where 
he  worked  for  many  years  in  partnership  with 
his  son. — Von  Lutgendorff,  Die  Geigen  wnd 
LaiUenmacher,  and  Mons.  Simoutre's  works 
already  mentioned.  e.  h-a. 

SIMPLIFICATION  SYSTEM  (Organ).  This 
refers  to  a  method  formerly  in  use  of  planting 
all  the  pipes  of  an  organ  in  semitonal  or  chro- 
matic order,  to  simplify  the  mechanism,  but 
now  discontinued   for  various  reasons.     (See 

VOGLER.)  T.  E. 

SIMPSON,  Christopher,  a  distinguished 
17  th  century  viola -da -gamba  player,  famous 
in  his  day  both  as  an  executant  and  a 
theoretic  musician.  Very  little  is  known  of 
his  life,  and  the  exact  date  of  his  birth  remains 
problematical,  but  the  few  facts  that  have  come 
to  light  reveal  him  to  have  been  the  son  of 
a  Yorkshire  yeoman — a  descendant  of  some 
Nottinghamshire  Simpsons,  who  spelt  their 
name  with  a  y  (vide  Harl.  MS.  5800) — a  man 
commended  by  his  fellows  for  his  upright 
habits,  and  a  staunch  upholder  of  the  Cavalier 
Party  against  the  Parliament.  He  joined  the 
Royalist  army  under  the  command  of  TVilliam 
Cavendish,  Duke  of  Newcastle,  in  1643.  He 
alludes  in  a  passing  phrase  to  the  hardships 
and  poverty  he  endured  at  this  period  in  his 


456 


SIMPSON 


SIMPSON 


'  Introduction  *  to  the  second  edition  of  his 
Diviinon  Viol^  1667,  when  he  thanks  his  patron 
— Sir  Robert  BoUes — for  the  'Cheerful  Main- 
tenance *  he  had  afforded  him.  This  Sir  Robert 
Bolles  and  his  family  were  Itll  fervent  Royalists 
and  ardent  patrons  of  music,  and  at  the  end 
of  the  civil  war  Christopher  Simpson  enjoyed 
their  hospitality  at  their  residence,  Scampton, 
Lincolnshire.  To  him  was  assigned  the  musical 
tuition  of  Sir  Robert's  son  and  heir,  John 
Bolles  and  a  certain  Sir  John  Barber,  and 
in  this  congenial  musical  atmosphere  Simpson 
began  to  write  his  valuable  book  of  instructions 
for  the  gamba,  which  he  called  The  Division 
Viol.  The  excellence  of  this  work  is  confirmed 
by  Sir  Roger  L'Estrange,  himself  a  distinguished 
gamba-player,  who  remarks  in  the  preface  to 
the  second  Edition  that  *  it  is  not  only  the  Best 
but  the  071^2^  Treatise  I  find  extant  upon  this 
argument.'  Simpson's  pupil,  John  Bolles,  at- 
tained a  high  degree  of  perfection  as  a  viol-da- 
gamba  player,  and  a  laudatory  '  Ode '  addressed 
to  him  while  in  Rome  is  inserted  by  Simpson, 
with  pardonable  pride,  in  the  second  edition  of 
his  Division  Viol,  On  assuming  the  title  at 
the  death  of  his  father  John  Bolles  showed  his 
regard  for  his  old  master  by  continuing  the 
patronage  which  had  previously  been  extended 
him  by  Sir  Robert.  This  was  fortunate ;  as 
was  also  the  fact  that  Simpson's  publications 
brought  him  in  a  good  income,  for  Sir  R.  Bolles, 
whose  will  he  witnessed,  left  him  only  the  sum 
of  £5.  Before  that  event  came  to  pass  the 
eminent  gambist  had  purchased  a  house  and 
farm — *  Hunt-house ' — near  Pickering,  in  York- 
shire, and  settled  this  property,  by  deed,  upon 
his  nephew  Christopher,  the  son  of  Stephen 
Simpson.  According  to  evidence  gained  from 
Simpson's  will,  he  died  in  the  year  1669,  between 
the  5th  May  and  the  29th  July.  Apparently 
his  demise  took  place  at  one  of  Sir  John  Bolles's 
residences,  for  although  Hawkins  (ffisL  Mus.) 
states  that  he  died  at  Turnstile,  Holbom,  where 
he  had  lived  for  many  years,  his  contemporary 
Anthony  k  Wood  records  'Anno  1669,  Mr. 
Christopher  Sympson,  a  famous  musitian, 
died  at  Sir  John  Bolles  house,  whether 
in  Lyncolnshire  or  London  I  know  not.' 
Although  nothing  is  definitely  known  as  to 
whether  Simpson  married  or  not,  it  may  be 
assumed,  from  his  leaving  all  his  property  to  his 
nephew,  and  all  his  '  musick-books  or  what- 
soever is  of  that  concernment,*  to  Sir  John 
Bolles,  that  he  was  not. 

Simpson's  skill  was  greatly  respected  by  his 
contemporaries,  and  musicians  such  as  Lock, 
Salmon,  Mace,  and  Sir  Roger  L'Estrange  have 
shown  their  esteem  by  their  various  compli- 
mentary allusions  to  him.  He  lived  in  an  age 
when  the  gamba  was  much  cultivated,  both  by 
professionals  and  amateurs ;  but  besides  being 
the  best  authority  on  that  instrument  he  was  a 
composer  of  talent,  and  Mace  (Musick's  Monu- 


mentt  1676)  ranks  him  with  William  Lawes 
and  John  Jenkins  as  a  composer  of  '  Fandes.' 
The  Oxford  Music  School  possesses  a  portrait  of 
Simpson. 

Lan  or  Publishxd  Wokkk. 

1.  Annotattoiu  on  Dr.  Campion's  Art  of  Diaeamt.  ISas. 

Thaw  TcnuirkB  were  Introdnccd  Into  the  second  edition  of  Flej* 
fonl'e  Brt^  Introduetion,  1600.  and  in  the  other  editlone  vntfl  MM. 

8.  The  DlvieioD  Vlolict  or  an  Introdoetion  to  tlie  plagrtag  npoe 
a  ground :  Dlrided  Into  two  parte.  The  first  Direetlxkg  the  Hand 
wiUi  other  Preparative  Instroetlona.  nte  second.  Lmjing  oneti  the 
Manner  and  Method  of  pUylng  Ez-terapore.  or  Conpoeinc  dlvisioa 
to  a  groaod.  To  which  are  Added  some  DlTiidons  nude  npas 
Oroonda  for  the  PnwTtloe  of  Learners,  lAndon.  166Bl  W.  GodhU, 
fteJ.PUyfonL  Fol.  (wlthportniit).  Dedicated  to  Sir  Robert  BoUes. 

SeeoDd  Bdltton  with  title  and  text  In  Latin  and  BngUsh  thas:- 

Chelys  minnritlonam  artUlclo  exomata :  siTe  Mlnaritfcines  ad 
Basin,  etlam  Extempore  Modolandl  Batlo.  In  tree  partea  dietrl* 
buta.  The  DlTision  Viol  or  the  Art  of  Flaying  Extempore  apoa  a 
Ground.  Divided  Into  Three  Parts.  London.  19BS.  FdL  with 
portrait.  A  fturther  supply  of  this  seeond  Edition  was  pabliahed 
by  W.  Godbid  for  Henry  Brome  at  the  Onn  in  Ivy  Lane  in  1667. 
PoL  with  portrait  by  Falthome  engtavcd  from  a  patnting  by  & 
Carwarden.    Dedicated  to  Sir  John  BoUes. 

Third  edition  published  by  Pearson,  wlthportrait  of  SimpssB 
engraved  by  Falthome,  appeared  in  1718.  with  two  Sonatas  tet 
the  gamba. 

S.  The  Principles  of  Praofelcle  Muslck.  .  .  .  either  in  ^tapog  or 
playing  upon  an  Instmmeiit,  Londoo,  166S.  Dedicated  to  Btr  Joha 
Badae— A  compendium  of  Pxactloall  Muslck  in  five  parte  tea<<itng 
by  a  now  and  eaaie  method.  1.  The  rudiments  of  Song.  S.  The 
principles  of  composition.  8.  The  use  of  dieeords.  4.  The  fans 
of  Figniate  Dlscant.  6.  The  contrivance  of  Canon.  W.  Godbid 
for  H.  Brome,  1607.  Dedicated  to  William  Cavendish.  Duke  lif 
Newcastle.  The  first  part  of  this,  the  RmdimtmtM  ^f  am§.  ««« 
roprinced  in  a  revised  form. 

Third  Edition.    London.  W.  Godbid  for  Henry  Brame.  ISTBl 

Fourth  Edition.    W.  Pearson  for  T.  Cnllen,  1706w 

Fifth  Edition.    London.  1714. 

Sixth  Edition.    London.  17SS. 

Seventh  Edition.    1787. 

Eighth  Edition.    17S8,  W.  PearsoB. 

Ninth  Edition,  with  portrait. 

In  Playford's  '  Oatch  that  Catdi  can.'  IVTS-TS.  there  is  a  eonpoii- 
tion  of  Simpson's,  and  Hawkins  {BUt,  t^  Mtute]  mentions  a  *  Dtviika 
on  the  Ground '  for  viola  da  gamba  by  Simpson  of  tbe  year  IflK. 

In  Thomas  Campion's  Are  9f  Sitting  or  Comjtotlmg  V  iAMfc  thef« 
Is  a  composition  by  Simpson  for  the  viola  da  g      * 


US.  CoMroBrnom. 


i  Add.  Mea. 


A  Series  of  Suites  in  Hiree  parts  (British  Mm 
18.040, 18,94t). 

Months  and  Seasons,  namely  Fancies,  Airs,  OalUarda  far  t«o 
Bnases  and  a  Treble  (/«.  31,496). 

Consorts  at  Parts  for  two  Pauses  and  two  Trebles  with  flgaied 
Baes.    (Heidelberg,  MS.  Sies.) 

Rules  of  Theory  (British  Musevm.  MB.  142). 

Fandes  for  a  viola  da  gamba  (Christ  Church,  Oxford). 

Fancies  and  Divisions  (British  Museum  MS.  a.438  and  BodMsa 
Library,  Oxford). 

Musgrave.  in  his  (Mtuarp.  mentions  a  MS.  (mnsle)  nnder  the 
date  1668,  by  Christopher  Simpson. 

Hawkins,  Eist.  Music  ;  Bumey,  ffist.  Musk  \ 
Mace,  Musiek's  MonwmerU  ;  Lock,  0hservati4ms\ 
Hart,  Tlve  Violin  and  its  Music  ;  Wasielewski, 
Die  Violoneell;  Quellen-Lexikon ;  F^is,  Biog, 
desMics, ;  Simpson,  The  Division  Viol ;  Anthony 
h  Wood,  Id/e.  e.  h-a. 

SIMPSON,  John,  a  London  music-publisher 
and  instrument-seller  of  some  note.  As  may  be 
gathered  from  one  of  his  early  engraved  labels, 
he  had  been  employed  by  Mrs.  Hare  of  Comhill, 
the  widow  of  Joseph  Hare  (see  vol.  ii.  p.  295). 
but  about  1784  he  began  business  on  bis  own 
account  at  the  *  Viol  and  Flute '  in  Sweeting*8 
Alley,  a  street  running  out  of  ComhiU,  at  tihe 
back  part  of  the  Boyal  Exchange.  In  Simpson's 
early  business  career  this  was  named  *  Swithen's 
Alley,'  but  in  1741  references  to  Simpson  give 
this  address,  indifferently,  with  'Sweeting's 
Alley.'  He  first  published  sheet  songs,  which 
he  afterwards  gathered  into  the  two  volumes  m 
Thesaurus  Mvsicus  {circa  1745-47),  and  had 
probably  bought  the  stock  and  plates  of  both 
Mrs.  Hare  and  B.  Cooke.  He  was  in  business 
connection  with  the  proprietors  of  the  *  Printing- 


SIMPSON 


SINCLAIR 


467 


hoaae  in  Bow  Church  yard/ who  were  sacceasors 
to  Claer  {q.v,). 

So  far  as  can  he  aaoertained  he  died  ahout 
1747. 

Simpeon's  most  notable  pnblications  are: 
'  ThesaoniB  Mnsicns,'  in  which  '  God  Save  the 
Kinj; '  probably  first  appeared  ;  Carey's  *  Musical 
Century,*  1740;  'Calliope,'  1746;  and  much 
other  miudc  now  of  considerable  antiquarian 
interest.  He  was  succeeded  by  John  Cox,  who 
reiasued  from  Simpson's  plates. 

At  Cox's  death,  or  retirement,  Robert  Brem- 
ner,  Thorowgood,  and  the  Thompson  family 
became  possessed  of  many  of  Simpson's  plates, 
and  republished  some  of  his  works.  In  1770, 
and  thirty  years  later,  Simpson's  premises  were 
oocopied  by  John  and  James  Simpsin,  appar- 
ently descendants,  who  were  flute-makers,  and, 
in  a  small  way,  music-publishers.  Later  than 
this  (circa  1825)  a  John  Simpson  was  manu- 
facturer and  teacher  of  the  flute  and  flageolet 
at  266  Regent  Street  f.  k. 

SIMPSON,  Thomas,  an  English  musician, 
who  settled  in  Germany,  and  in  1610  was  viola- 
player  in  the  Elector  Palatine's  band ;  in  1617-21 
he  was  in  the  band  of  the  Prince  of  Holstein 
Schanmbnrg.  He  was  subsequently  in  the  royal 
band  at  Copenhagen.  He  published  the  following 
works:  < Opusculum neuer  Pauanen,  GaUisrden, 
Cooranten  vnd  Yolten,'  Frankfort,  1610 ; 
'Pauanen,  Volten  und  Galliarden,'  fVankfort, 
1611  ;  *Opus  Newer  Paduanen,  Galliarden, 
Intraden,  .  .  .  mit  5  Stim.,' Hamburg,  1617, 
and  '  Taffel  Consort  allerhand  lustige  lieder  von 
4  Instrumenten  und  General-bass,'  Hamburg, 
1 621 ,  containing,  besides  pieces  by  Simpson  him- 
self, some  by  Peter  Phillips,  John  Dowland,  Robert 
and  Edwani  Johnson,  and  others,     w.  h.  h. 

SIMROCE.  A  yery  famous  German  music- 
publishing  house,  founded  in  1790  at  Bonn  by 
Nikolans  Simrock  (1752-1 834),  second  waldhom 
player  in  the  Elector's  band,  to  which  Beethoven 
and  his  father  belonged.  The  first  of  Beet- 
hofven's  works  on  which  Simrock's  name  appears 
as  original  publisher  i^  the  Ereutzer  Sonata, 
op.  47,  issned  in  1805.  But  he  published  for 
I^thoven  an  *  Edition  tr^  correcte '  of  the  two 
Sonatas  in  G  and  D minor  (op.  81,  Nos.  land  2), 
which  Nageli  had  printed  so  shamefuUy ;  and 
there  is  evidence  in  the  letters  that  Simrock  was 
concerned  in  others  of  Beethoven's  early  works. 
The  next  was  the  Sextet  for  strings  and  two 
horns,  op.  81ft  (1810) ;  then  the  two  Sonatas 
for  PF.  and  violoncello,  op.  102  (1817) ;  the  ten 
themes  with  variations  for  PF.  and  violin  or 
flute,  op.  107  (1820).  He  was  succeeded  in 
1834  by  Petbr  Joseph  Simrook,  who  died  in 
1868,  and  about  1870  his  successor,  Friedrich 
Simrock,  founded  the  Berlin  house,  and  there 
published  the  principal  works  of  Brahms. 
{QiulUn-LexikonJ)  o. 

SINCLAIR,  George  Robertson,  Mu8.D., 
son  of  Robert  Sharpe  Sinclair,  LL.D.,  Director 


of  Public  Instruction  in  India,  was  bom  at 
Croydon,  Oct.  28,  1863,  and  was  educated  at 
St  Michael's  College,  Tenbury,  and  at  the  Royal 
Irish  Academy  of  Music.  He  studied  succes- 
sively under  Sir  Frederick  Gore  Ouseley,  Sir 
Robert  Stewart,  and  Dr.  C.  H.  Lloyd.  In  1 879 
he  became  assistant  organist  of  Gloucester 
Cathedral,  and  organist  and  choirmaster  of 
St  Mary  de  Crypt,  Gloucester;  in  1880, 
at  the  age  of  seventeen,  he  was  appointed 
organist  and  choirmaster  of  Truro  Cathedral. 
Since  1889  he  has  fiUed  the  post  of  organist  of 
Hereford  Cathedral  with  distinction,  and  his 
conducting  of  the  Hereford  (Three  Choirs) 
Festivals  from  1891  to  1906  brought  him  into 
contact  with  the  most  eminent  English  musicians 
of  the  time,  and  ripened  his  experience  as  a 
conductor,  a  capacity  in  which  he  has  exhibited 
very  remarkable  powers,  being  in  sympathy 
with  every  school  of  excellence,  and  being  able 
to  impress  his  own  reading  of  the  classical  and 
other  works  upon  all  under  his  command.  He 
is  conductor  of  various  Hereford  and  Hereford- 
shire societies,  both  choral  and  orchestral,  and 
as  an  organist  he  played  at  six  successive 
Gloucester  Festivals.  In  1895  he  was  made 
an  honorary  member  of  the  Royal  Academy, 
having  been  L.RA.M.  since  1887;  in  1899 
he  was  appointed  conductor  of  the  Birmingham 
Festival  Choral  Society,  and  received  the  degree 
of  Mus.D.  from  the  ^chbishop  of  Canterbury. 
In  1904  he  was  made  an  honorary  fellow  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Organists.  (See  Musicdl  Times, 
1906,  pp.  168,  fl.)  He  is  also  an  ardent 
Freemason,  a  Past  Grand  Organist  of  England, 
a  Past  Master  of  the  Palladian  Lodge,  No.  120, 
and  Master  of  the  'Vaga'  Lodge,  No.  8146. 
His  impetuous  character,  his  skilful  pedal- 
playing,  the  barking  of  his  dog,  and  other 
things,  are  immortalised  in  the  eleventh  varia- 
tion of  Elgar's  <  Enigma '  set  for  orchestra.  m. 
SINCLAIR,  John,  bom  near  Edinburgh, 
Dec.  9, 1791,  was  instructed  in  music  from  child- 
hood, and  while  still  young  joined  the  band  of 
a  Scotch  regiment  as  a  clarinet  player.  He 
also  taught  singing  in  Aberdeen,  and  acquired 
sufficient  means  to  purchase  his  discharge  from 
the  regiment.  Possessed  of  a  fine  tenor  voice, 
he  was  desirous  of  trying  his  fortune  upon  the 
stage,  came  to  London  and  appeared  anony- 
mously as  Capt.  Cheerly  in  Shield's  *  Lock  and 
Key 'at  the  Haymarket,  Sept  7,  1810.  His 
success  led  to  his  becoming  a  pupil  of  Thomas 
Welsh.  He  was  engaged  at  Covent  Garden, 
where  he  appeared  Sept  80,  1 81 1 ,  as  Don  Carlos 
in  Sheridan  and  Linley's  *  Duenna. '  He  remained 
there  for  seven  seasons,  during  which  he  had 
many  original  parts.  He  was  the  first  singer 
of  the  long  popular  recitative  and  air  *The 
Pilgrim  of  Love'  in  Bishop's  'Noble  Outlaw,' 
produced  April  7,  1815.  He  also  sang  origin- 
ally in  Bishop's  *Guy  Mannering'  and  'The 
Slave,'  and  Davy's  'Rob  Roy,'  and  acquired 


458 


SINDING 


SINGAKADEMIE 


great  popularity  bj  his  performance  of  Apollo 
in  <  Midas.'  In  April  1819  he  visited  Paris  and 
studied  under  Pellegrini,  and  thence  proceeded 
to  Milan  and  placed  himself  under  BanderaU. 
In  May  1821  he  went  to  Naples,  where  he  re- 
ceived advice  and  instruction  from  Rossini.  In 
1822  he  sang,  mostly  in  Rossini's  operas,  at  Pisa 
and  Bologna.  In  1823  he  was  engaged  at  Venice, 
where  Rossini  wrote  for  him  the  part  of  Idreno 
in  *  Semiramide. '  After  singing  at  Grenoa  he  re- 
turned to  England,  and  reappeared  at  Covent 
Garden,  Nov.  19,  1823,  as  Prince  Orlando 
in  'The  Cabinet,'  his  voice  and  style  having 
greatly  improved.  He  continued  at  the  theatre 
for  a  season  or  two  ;  in  1828  and  1829  was  en- 
gaged at  the  Adelphi,  and  in  1829-80  at  Drury 
Leme.  He  then  visited  America  ;  on  his  return 
retired  from  public  life,  and  died  at  Margate, 
Sept  23,  1857.  w.  h.  u. 

SINDING,  Christian,  bom  Jan.  11,  1856, 
at  Kongberg  in  Norway ;  became  a  student  at 
Leipzig,  and  at  Munich,  and  at  Berlin.  A  very 
talented  pianist,  he  has  written  much  for 
his  own  instrument  as  well  as  for  stringed 
instruments.  His  highest  opus  number  is  now 
(1907)  51.  His  principal  works  are  the  Rondo 
infinite  for  Orchestra,  op.  42  ;  Violin  Concerto 
in  A,  op.  45  ;  Piano  Concerto  in  D  flat,  op.  6  ; 
Quintet  in  E  minor,  op.  5  ;  Trio  in  D  m^jor, 
op.  23  ;  Variations  for  two  pianos,  op.  2  ;  Suite, 
op.  3  ;  Studies,  op.  7  ;  Sonatas  for  Violin  and 
Piano  ;  Suite  for  Violin  and  Piano,  op.  14  ; 
Caprices,  op.  44 ;  Burlesques,  opu  48 ;  Six 
pieces,  op.  49  ;  besides  many  songs,  and  many 
arrangements  of  Folk-songs.  Sindlng's  music  is 
characterised  by  great  facility  in  construction, 
tunefulness,  variety,  and  elegance.  He  is 
always  intelligent,  and  even  if  not  deep  is  a 
very  pleasing  writer,  who  secures  the  interest 
of  his  auditor.  D.  H. 

8INF0NIA.     See  Symphony. 

SINFONIA  SACRA  (Sacred  Symphony). 
A  term  used  to  describe  certain  short  cantatas, 
in  which  an  unusual  closeness  of  musical  con- 
nection is  to  be  suggested,  such  as  Parry's 
'The  love  that  casteth  out  fear,'  and  *The 
Soul's  Ransom,'  Walford  Davies's  *  Lift  up  your 
Hearts,'  and  Stanford's  'Stabat  Mater.'     m. 

SINFONIE-CANTATK  The  title  of  Men- 
delasohn's  Lobgesang  or  Hymn  of  Praise  (op.  52). 
The  term — properly  '  Symphonie-Cantate ' — is 
due  to  Klingemann,  according  to  Mendelssohn's 
own  statement  in  his  published  letter  of  Nov.  1 8, 
1840.  Mendelssohn  was  so  much  in  love  with 
it  as  to  propose  to  bestow  it  also  on  the  *  Wal- 
purgisnight '  (see  the  same  letter  and  that  to  his 
mother  of  Nov.  28,  1842).  That  intention  was 
not,  however,  carried  out  o. 

SINGAKADEMIE,  The,  Berlin,  one  of  the 
most  important  art -institutions  in  Germany. 
Its  founder  was  Carl  Friedrich  Christian  Fasch, 
born  1736  and  appointed  in  1756  cembalist  to 
Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  after  whose  death 


he  led  a  quiet  and  retired  life  in  Berlin  as  music- 
teacher  and  composer.  The  Singakademie 
originated  with  some  attempts  made  by  Fasch 
and  a  few  of  his  pupils  and  musical  friends  to 
perform  his  own  sacred  compositions  for  mixed 
voices.  The  actual  Akademie  was  founded  on 
Thursday,  May  24,  1791,  and  up  to  the  present 
time  the  weekly  practices  are  still  held  on  a 
Thursday.  The  original  members  were  twenty- 
seven,  thus  distributed: — seven  soprani  five 
alti,  seven  tenors,  and  eight  basses.  The  Society 
was  at  first  entirely  private,  the  meetings  taking 
place  at  the  house  of  Frau  Voitus  (Unter  den 
Linden,  No.  59,  afterwards  CharlottenstrasBe 
No.  61).  This  character  it  retained  after  the 
practices  were  held  in  a  room  at  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Arts,  whence  the  name  of  the 
Society  was  suggested,  and  the  use  of  which  was 
granted  to  the  Singakademie,  Nov.  5,  1793. 
The  first  of  the  regular  public  performances  took 
place  at  Easter,  1801.  The  proceeds  were  at 
first  devoted  to  charitable  objects,  but  after  the 
Akademie  had,  in  1827,  erected  its  own  build- 
ings, where  the  meetings  are  still  held,  and 
which  contain  a  fine  concert-room,  it  became 
necessary  to  have  performances  for  the  benefit 
of  the  institution,  and  these  are  still  carried 
on.  The  object  of  the  founder  was  to  promote 
the  practice  of  sacred  music  both  accompanied 
and  unaocompanied,  but  especially  the  latter. 
The  Society  at  first  confined  itself  to  Fasch 's 
compositions,  singing,  amongst  others,  his 
16 -part  Mass  a  cappella,  but  in  a  short  time 
pieces  by  Durante,  Graun,  Leo,  Lotti,  etc,  were 
added.  The  first  oratorio  of  Handel's  put  in  re- 
hearsal was  *  Judas  Maccabeus  '(1795).  The  first 
performance  of  Bach's  Matthew- Passion  in  1829 
is  well  known,  and  indeed  marks  an  epoch,  but 
the  chief  credit  is  due,  not  to  the  Singakademie, 
but  to  the  conductor  of  the  performance,  Men- 
delssohn. 

The  Berlin  Singakademie  has  served  as  a 
model  for  most  of  the  vocal  unions  of  Germany. 
Its  structure  is  exceedingly  simple,  the  govern- 
ing body  consisting  of  a  director,  who  has  chai^ge 
of  all  musical  matters,  and  a  committee  of 
members  (ladies  as  well  as  gentlemen)  who 
manage  the  business.  All  of  these  are  elected 
at  general  meetings.  Since  1815  the  director 
has  had  a  fixed  salary  out  of  the  funds  of  the 
Society.  New  members  are  admitted  by  the 
director  and  the  committee.  There  is  a  special 
practice  on  Wednesdays  for  less  advanced 
members,  who  must  attain  a  certain  amount  of 
proficiency  at  this,  before  being  allowed  to  join 
the  main  body.  The  numbers  rose  in  1788  to 
114,  in  1813  to  301,  in  1827  to  486,  and  in 
1841  to  618. 

Fasch  died  in  1800,  and  was  succeeded  in  the 
directorship  by  his  pupil  Carl  Friedrich  Zelter. 
An  attempt  to  bring  in  Mendelssohn  baring 
failed,  Zelter  was  succeeded  by  Carl  Friedrich 
Bungenhagen  (1832  to  1851)  and  he  by  Eduard 


SINGING 


SINGING 


459 


August  Grell,  who  relinquished  the  directorship 
in  1876,  on  aoconnt  of  his  advanced  age,  but 
retained  a  seat  and  vote  in  the  committee,  with 
the  title  of  honorary  director.  Martin  Blumner, 
the  next  conductor,  was  bom  in  1827,  and  ap- 
pointed in  1876  ;  [he  wrote  a  history  of  the 
Society,  which  was  published  in  1891,  and 
shortly  before  his  death  in  1901  the  present  con- 
ductor, Georg  Schumann,  was  appointed.]  P.  8. 
SINGING  is  the  musical  expression  of  the 
voice.  It  is  part  of  our  natural  condition  to 
possess  oigans  for  the  production  of  sound,  and 
perceptions  to  make  them  musical,  and  being 
thus  equipped,  it  is  but  natural  that  the  art  of 
music  should  be  intimately  associated  with 
human  life. 

Like  many  of  the  other  animals,  we  express 
our  pain,  sorrow,  joy,  pleasure,  hunger,  rage, 
satisfaction,  and  love,  in  sounds  which  have 
their  vital  and  instinctive  meaning  like  any  of 
the  actions  or  gestures  associated  with  the 
elemental  functions  of  human  nature.  We 
have  no  more  necessity  than  they  have,  how- 
ever imitative  we  may  be,  to  look  to  external 
phenomena  for  the  origin  of  this  wonderfdl 
possession.  It  is  natural  to  the  infant  to  cry 
when  it  is  cold  or  hungry,  and  crow  when  it  is 
pleased.  So,  with  the  growth  of  sensibility  and 
perception,  a  little  child  knows  how  to  plead 
with  its  voice,  in  tones  quite  different  from 
thoee  of  mere  asking,  without  any  vocal  training 
whatever.  The  same  instinct  which  has  enabled 
the  child  to  appeal  to  its  parents  and  fellow- 
creatures,  has  taught  man  to  approach  his  God 
with  praise  and  supplication.  But  the  most 
'  remarkable  indication  of  the  instinotiveness  of 
song  is  the  characteristic  growth  of  the  voice 
organs  at  the  outset  of  manhood  and  woman- 
hood. It  is  as  if  the  full  development  of  the 
body  were  crowned  with  the  completion  of  the 
instruments  of  sound,  which  express  with  such 
particular  eloquence  the  passions  and  emotions 
attendant  upon  the  great  mystery  of  sex. 

Through  the  growth  and  refinement  of  our 
perceptions,  the  art  of  singing  becomes  the 
musical  expression  of  every  emotion  suggested 
by  thought  and  imagination. 

It  not  infrequently  happens  that  individuals 
are  bom  to  attain  by  the  light  of  nature  to  a 
high  degi-ee  of  perfection  in  this  art ;  and  even 
when  this  is  not  so,  the  inherent  sincerity  of 
imperfect  singing  can  sometimes  appeal  more 
powerfully  to  our  feelings  than  the  most  efficient 
training  could  make  it  do.  While  the  whole  of 
humanity  is  probably  in  some  measure  ac- 
quainted with  the  feeling  of  a  desire  to  sing, 
and  the  form  and  condition  of  the  vocal  instru- 
ments isippear  to  be  as  a  rule  normally  fitted  for 
the  production  of  musical  sound,  the  wonder  is 
that  everybody  cannot  do  it.  But  there  is  no 
doubt  that  the  fault  lies  more  often  in  defective 
musical  perception  than  in  the  condition  of  the 
oigans  of  voice. 


Music  demands  a  high  development  of  a 
particular  sense,  the  foundation  of  which  is 
inbom,  though  its  perfection  requires  cultiva- 
tion ;  and  therefore  there  are  individuals  who 
have  all  the  materials  for  singing,  but  are  still 
without  the  faculty  of  using  them  for  that 
purpose.  Another  important  obstacle  to  the 
acquirement  of  the  power  of  singing  is  that, 
with  the  intellectual  development  of  the  race 
has  arisen  a  demand  for  perfection  in  speech 
and  diction,  which  often  interferes  with  the 
process  of  vocal  training. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  language  is  a 
purely  artificial  acquisition  of  mankind.  We 
all  have  to  spend  years  in  acquiring  habits  of 
speech  so  that  we  may  understand  and  explain 
the  ordinary  circumstances  of  life.  So  local  is 
this,  that  we  grow  up  speaking  the  language 
which  prevails  around  us,  by  the  simple  process 
of  imitation,  without  thinking  whether  its 
sounds  are  musical  or  not,  and  this  introduces 
a  series  of  common  difficulties  which  are  more 
linguistic  than  vocal,  and  which  will  be  con- 
sidered more  fully  later  on. 

It  thus  becomes  apparent  that  the  art  of 
singing  has  within  it  a  great  deal  that  is  quite 
outside  the  province  of  music.  For  although 
the  musical  expression  of  the  voice  is  of  prime 
importance,  the  whole  foundations  of  the  instru- 
ments involved  belong  strictly  to  the  province 
of  Physiology,  like  any  of  the  other  natural 
functions  of  the  body,  and  by  far  the  greater 
share  of  its  educational  side  belongs  to  the  study 
of  the  speech  organs. 

The  science  of  Phonology  (i.e,  the  science  of 
vocal  sound)  has  been  specialised  from  its  parent 
science  of  Physiology,  so  that  it  may  occupy 
itself  solely  with  the  study  of  all  the  problems 
involved  in  this  important  subject,  and,  by  an 
obligatory  knowledge  of  music  and  languages, 
carry  out  its  conclusions  in  the  service  of  the 
art. 

The  first  step  towards  understanding  singing 
is  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  forces  and 
instruments  which  it  employs,  and  their  phono- 
logical outline  should,  therefore,  be  made  clear 
before  the  fuller  details  are  fiUed  in. 

The  voice  is  built  upon  the  same  physical 
principles  as  a  reed-pipe  of  a  church  organ. 
There  is  (1)  a  wind-chest  in  which  the  air  is 
compressed ;  (2)  a  '  reed '  which  vibrates  and 
produces  the  sound  ;  and  (3)  a  resonator,  which 
gives  it  certain  qualities. 

(1)  By  the  act  of  breathing  out,  we  compress 
the  air  which  has  been  taken  into  the  chest. 
This  force  in  being  liberated  causes  (2)  the  Vocal 
*  reed  '  to  vibrate  when  we  bring  it  into  position 
and  the  sound  thus  produced  is  then  modified 
by  (3)  the  Resonator,  formed  by  the  hollows  in 
the  neck,  mouth,  and  nose,  which  give  quality 
to  the  sound,  and  impress  upon  it  the  character- 
istics of  language. 

Under  these  headings  the  components  of  the 


460 


SINGING 


SINGING 


voice  can  be  studied  separately,  and  their 
complex  combined  performances  are  then 
easily  understood. 


\55!ar' 


more 
more 


The  Breath, — The  ordinary  breathing  of  every- 
day life  brings  oxygen  into  contact  with  the 
blood  in  the  lungs  and  carries  carbonic  acid  away 
from  it.  Elevation  of  the  ribs  expands  the  chest 
and  increases  its  circumference,  and  the  con- 
traction of  the  diaphragm  lowers  its  floor  and 
enlarges  its  capacity  in  a  downward  direction. 
The  two  actions  go  on  together  and  draw  a  suffi- 
cient volume  of  firesh  air  (30  cubic  inches)  into 
the  lungs  with  a  slow,  easy  movement.  The 
used  air  is  more  quickly  emitted,  principally  by 
the  elastic  recoil  of  the  lungs  and  chest,  and 
after  that  there  is  a  slight  pause.  This  occurs 
about  fifteen  times  a  minute. 

Breathing  for  singing  is  very  different.  Its 
whole  object  is  to  maintain  a  long  and  well- 
regulated  air-pressure  for  the  production  of 
sound.  A  full  breath  must  often  be  taken  very 
rapidly,  and  then  kept  in  a  state  of  controlled 
compression  for  as  much  as  20  seconds.  Thus 
the  number  of  respirations  possible  in  a  minute 
may  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  This  neces- 
sitates a  much  larger  volume  of  breath  than  is 
ordinarily  needed,  not  only  for  the  length  of 
time  the  sound  may  have  to  continue,  but  also 
for  the  supply  of  oxygen  to  the  blood.  The 
first  point  is,  therefore,  to  secure  the  power  of 
taking  in  a  large  volume  of  air  as  quickly  as 
possible.  The  second  point  is  to  give  it  out 
with  carefully  regulated  force,  for  upon  this  the 
controlled  production  of  sound  entirely  depends. 

Breathing  in — ^The  largest  amount  of  air  can 
be  inhaled  by  the  properly  combined  action 
of  raising  the  ribs  (costal  breathing)  and 
of  contracting  the  diaphragm  (diaphragmatic 
breathing).  The  latter  has  also  been  called 
**  abdominal "  breathing,  from  the  fact  that  the 


diaphragm  is  hidden  and  the  evidence  of  its 
contraction  is  the  protrusion  of  the  abdominal 
wall  caused  by  lowering  the  roof  of  that  cavity. 
Men  make  more  use  of  the  diaphragm  than 
women,  whose  upper  ribs  are  more  movable, 
but  singers  of  both  sexes  have  to  make  good  nae 
of  both  diaphragm  and  ribs. 

There  are  reasons,  especially  in  women,  against 
the  extreme  use  of  the  diaphragm  on  account 
of  the  pressure  it  exerts  upon  the  abdominal 
organs,  besides  the  difficulty  of  controlling  the 
breath  when  so  taken.  This  has  caused  a  great 
deal  of  misunderstanding  between  doctors  and 
singing-masters,  and  has  produced  extreme 
views  on  either  side,  neither  of  which  can  be 
supported  by  phonology. 

When  the  ribs  are  fully  raised,  and  especiallj 
the  lower  ones  (6th- 10th)  which  are  the  most 
elastic  and  movable,  and  correspond  to-  the 
thickest  part  of  the  lungs,  not  only  is  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  chest  increased  and  its  floor 
widened,  but  the  roof  and  upper  part  of  the 
abdomen  is  also  enlarged.  Under  these  dream- 
stances  a  considerable  contraction  of  the  dia- 
phragm will  cause  no  more  than  a  protrusion  of 
the  upper  part  of  the  abdomen,  that  is,  above 
the  waist  and  between  the  margins  of  the  ribs 
in  front,  without  causing  any  harmful  pressore 
upon  the  abdominal  organs.  The  more  the 
lower  ribs  expand,  the  more  the  diaphragm 
may  descend  with  impunity,  and  a  large  in-take 
of  breath  can  be  obtained  without  danger.  It 
has  been  called  *  Central  *  breathing,  because  the 
principal  expansion  takes  place  in  the  centre  at 
the  level  of  the  space  between  the  6th  and  7  th  ribs, 
and  is  designed  to  promote  a  good  proportion  of 
both  actions,  and  to  avoid  the  disproportionate 
or  exclusive  use  of  either  the  too  h^h  costal  and 
clavicular  breathing,  or  the  too  low  pnrdy 
abdominal  breathing,  both  of  which  are  some- 
times advocated  by  extremists. 

Breathing  out. — In  order  to  secure  an  even 
and  continuous  air-pressure  three  forces  have  to 
be  considered : — 

1.  The  elastic  recoil  of  the  inflated  lungs  and 
expanded  chest ; 

2.  The  contraction  of  abdominal  m\iscles 
that  assist  the  relaxed  diaphragm  to  return  to 
its  place ;  and 

8.  The  contraction  of  muscles  that  pull  down 
the  ribs. 

The  elastic  recoil  does  most  of  the  work  in 
ordinary  breathing  out,  and  is  most  useful  in 
producing  sound,  only  it  is  a  force  that  begins 
with  a  maximum  and  rapidly  diminishes. 

To  make  the  force  continuous,  it  must  be 
augmented  by  one  of  the  others.  These  may 
act  together  or  separately.  If  they  act  together 
they  must  maintain  their  proper  proportion 
throughout.  If  they  act  separately  the  dia- 
phragm must  be  replaced  by  abdominal  con- 
traction first,  that  is,  before  the  ribs  are  allowed 
to  descend,  for,  as  has  already  been  stated,  the 


SINGING 


SINGING 


461 


sabeidenoe  of  the  expanded  chest  while  the 
diaphragm  is  contracted,  causes  too  much  ab- 
dominal distension. 

Those  who  have  developed  a  good  expansion 
of  the  lower  ribs  wiU  be  able  to  maintain  that 
expansion  while  the  diaphragm  is  supported 
by  the  abdominal  muscles,  and  the  upper  part 
of  the  abdomen  becomes  concave  before  the  ribs 
are  allowed  to  descend.  In  this  manner  very 
great  delicacy  in  breath-control  can  be  exercised. 
When  the  capacity  is  large  enough  the  ribs  can 
be  kept  expanded  while  the  diaphragm  moves 
to  and  fro,  opposed  by  the  abdominal  muscles, 
and  thus  the  breathing  both  in  and  out  becomes 
entirely  diaphragmatic  or  icbdominal.  This  is 
the  only  form  in  which  this  is  permissible, 
namely,  when  the  ribs  are  fully  expanded  all  the 
time  and  the  movement  of  the  abdominal  wall 
is  confined  to  the  region  above  the  waist. 

Towards  the  end  of  a  very  long  phi-ase,  how- 
ever, the  ribs  will  have  to  come  down.  It  is 
better  then,  that  only  the  lower  ribs  should  be 
relaxed  while  the  upper  ribs  remain  raised  as 
part  of  a  permanent  position. 

The  permanent  expansion  of  the  ribs  is  partly 
secured  by  straightening  the  upper  part  of  the 
spine  in  standing  or  sitting  up  straight,  and  the 
larger  amount  of  residual  air  retained  in  the 
lungs  is  of  great  value  in  maintaining  continuity 
of  air-pressure  and  tone. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  form  of  breathing  here 
explained  and  advocated  is  practically  invisible. 
It  is  also  designed  to  add  to  volume,  the  con- 
tinuity and  control  of  air-pressure  necessary 
to  good  phrasing.  The  permanent  expansion  of 
the  ribs  also  assists  resonation  in  the  neck,  an 
advantage  which  will  be  dealt  with  later. 

The  vocal  reed  is  formed  by  two  elastic  mem- 
branes or  cords  which  can  be  drawn  together 
from  their  position  of  rest,  so  that  they  meet 
like  curtains,  and  completely  close  the  air- passage 
at  the  upper  end  of  the  windpipe,  where  the 
larynx  begins.  Their  front  ends  are  fixed  close 
together  to  the  shield  cartilage,  and  behind  they 
are  attached  to  two  small  triangular  cartilages 
which  move  very  freely  upon  the  thick  ring- 
shaped  cartilage  supporting  them.  During 
breathing  in  they  are  wide  apart,  and  during 
breathing  out  they  approach  one  another.  In 
the  act  of  whispering,  they  are  definitely  drawn, 
so  as  to  reduce  the  opening  between  their  edges 
considerably. 

As  soon  as  air-pressure  acts  upon  the  elas- 


ticity of  the  edges  of  the  membranes  they 
vibrate,  in  accordance  with  the  physical  laws 
which  govern  the  action  of  '  reeds '  in  general. 
This  may  happen  before  the  whole  passage  is 
occluded,  and  a  soft  *  breathy '  note  is  produced, 
but  the  reed  acts  most  strongly  and  perfectly 
when  the  two  cartilages  are  brought  into  close 
contact,  so  that  the  whole  air-pressure  acts  upon 
the  vibrating  edges  of  the  membranes,  and  is 
converted  into  sound. 

Singing  is  practically  confined  to  the  last 
position.  The  tremor  of  the  elastic  membranes 
rapidly  opens  and  closes  the  fine  slit  between  their 
edges  and  releases  the  air-pressure  in  a  quick  suc- 
cession of  minute  puffs.  One  group  of  muscles 
regulates  the  movements  of  the  small  triangular 
cartilages,  by  the  action  of  which  the  membranes 
are  brought  together  and  drawn  aside.  Another 
group  is  concerned  with  tightening  and  loosening 
the  membranes,  and  thereby  regulates  the  tension 
upon  which  the  rapidity  of  their  vibration 
depends. 

Every  vocal  reed  may  be  expected  to  have  a 
compass  of  two  octaves  which  can  be  controlled 
by  this  function  of  tension  and  relaxation,  and  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  this  tension  is  an 
unconscious  act  guided  solely  by  sound  percep- 
tion or  *ear,'  and  cannot  be  appreciated  by 
any  muscular  sense  as  in  the  case  of  a  voluntary 
movement. 

The  general  pitch  of  every  voice  is  determined 
by  the  size  of  the  membranes.  In  men  they  are 
both  wider  and  thicker  than  in  women,  and 
their  length  is  generally  estimated  at  about 
i^yths  of  an  inch  and  -^ths  of  an  inch  in  women. 

Roughly  speaking,  the  male  voice  is  about  an 
octave  lower  than  the  female,  but  in  either  sex 
all  degrees  of  general  pitch  exist  between  certain 
limits.  For  convenience  three  types  are  usually 
considered — high,  low,  and  middle.  The  majority 
of  voices  are  near  the  middle  type  in  both  sexes, 
while  exceptional  instances  of  abnormally  high 
or  low  are  sometimes  met  with. 

The  male  Alto  voice  has  an  intermediate 
position  between  the  two  groups,  but  being  an 
unnatural  product  it  cannot  bo  considered  with 
the  others. 

Thus  every  voice  has  its  middle  note  whence 
it  may  be  expected  to  range  to  the  extent  of  an 
octave  upwards  and  downwards  by  performing 
the  same  muscular  action.  In  the  figure  the 
middle  note  of  each  voice  is  indicated  by  a 
double  vertical  line. 

_SopranGL_ 


462 


SINGING 


SINGING 


Besides  the  tension  of  the  membranes  there 
is  another  physical  condition  which  undergoes 
variation  with  every  change  of  pitch,  and  that 
is  the  air-pressure  exerted  by  the  breath. 

From  experiments  (M'Kendrick,  Schafer's 
Physiology)  it  is  found  that  the  air-pressure 
varies  in  about  the  same  ratio  as  the  tension. 

Therefore,  in  a  general  plan  of  the  vocal  com- 
pass the  middle  note  may  be  regarded  as  the 
product  of  both  mean  tension  and  mean  air- 
pressure.  The  tension  is  well  known  to  vary 
in  the  ratio  of  the  square  of  the  vibrations,  and 
thus  both  the  tension  and  air-pressure  may  be 
represented  by  the  numbers  1,  4,  9,  16,  25, 
while  the  vibrations  are  as  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  in  the 
diagram  appended. 


Pressare  and     Vibra- 
Tension.         lions. 


Extreme =25  i  5 

High       =16  I  4 

=  .  s 

Mean      =4  2 


Low        =  1 
Extreme 


Com- 
pass. 


+ 

t 

Centre 

I 


+ 


Working  Capacity. 


The  working  capacity  of  the  voice  is  here 
represented  by  a  triangle  whose  apex  is  opposite 
the  centre  of  the  compass,  which  signifies  that 
the  middle  can  do  the  most  work  when  the 
whole  compass  is  evenly  balanced  throughout 
Then  by  a  common  control  of  tension  and 
pressure  the  vibrations  are  varied  so  that  the 
notes  of  a  two-octave  compass  can  be  used  at 
^vill.  With  training  an  extension  upwards  and 
downwards  of  a  third  more  may  still  be  possible, 
but  it  is  always  desirable  that  the  extremes  of 
the  voice  should  be  kept  for  exceptional  use  only. 
Composers  are  accustomed  to  fix  the  voices  for 
which  they  write  by  the  extreme  limits  only, 
which  is  not  phonological.  It  is  more  important 
to  adapt  the  principal  share  of  the  work  to  the 
centre  of  the  voice. 

A  more  or  less  exact  method  of  estimating 
the  amount  of  work  demanded  by  a  vocal  com- 
position has  been  made  use  of  in  the  ^song 
diagram,'  of  which  two  examples  are  here  given. 
Without  considering  accidentals,  the  values  of 
the  notes  are  added  together  and  arranged 
according  to  pitch.  Starting  from  a  vertical 
line  upon  which  the  pitch  is  indicated,  the 
total  values  are  expressed  in  horizontal  black 
lines.  The  diagram  so  obtained  shows  upon 
what  notes  the  principal  work  lies,  and  the 
application  to  that  of  the  centre  of  the  '  working 
capacity '  reveals  at  once  the  type  of  voice  to 
which  the  composition  is  suited. 

The  example  from  '  Tristan  and  Isolde '  shows 


that  Wagner  demands  for  the  part  of  Isolde  a 
high  soprano  voice  of  exceptional  development, 
with  its  centre  on  h\  and  a  full  compass  of  over 
two  octaves.     Mozart's   'U  mio  tesoro'  only 


Don  Giovanni.  Moaart 


Trbtut  uDd  Isolde.  TKTkgner 
Imtd^Actl  Sc3ft4 


once  touches  the  upper  limit  of  the  ordinaiy 
tenor  compass,  and  yet  it  lies  so  much  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  voice  that  it  is  best  suited  to 
a  high  tenor  with  a  centre  above  a. 

The  examination  of  a  great  number  of  these 
diagrams,  which  are  easily  made  upon  paper 
ruled  in  squares,  will  explain  a  great  deal  that 
is  interesting  to  the  practical  musician,  but 
they  do  not  supply  more  than  a  part  of  what  is 
called  the  *  tessitura '  of  vocal  music,  which  in- 
cludes the  length  and  distribution  of  phrases 
and  pauses,  as  well  as  the  declamatory  con- 
sideration of  the  question  of  vocality. 

Many  voices  have  been  ruined  by  composers' 
neglect  of  vocal  considerations,  and  it  is  not 
uncommon  to  find  soprano  singers  who  have 
lost  the  middle  of  the  voice  entirely.  It  is  not 
difficult  to  calculate  the  great  relief  to  the  forces 
of  tension  and  breath-pressure  which  even  slight 
transposition  will  give ;  and,  conversely,  the 
amount  of  strain  which  has  to  be  borne  by  the 
voice,  if  the  work  is  pitched  too  high,  cannot 
fail  to  wear  out  and  distort  the  instrument 
prematurely. 

These  considerations  might  with  advantage 
be  taken  into  account  by  those  who  are  respon- 
sible for  modem  musical  pitch.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  a  wider  phonological  knowledge  may  tend 
to  remove  some  of  the  bitter  struggles  that  are 
too  often  witnessed  in  the  performance  of  modem 
music. 

The  question  of  the  attack  of  a  note  has 
been  much  debated  among  masters.  Manuel 
Garcia, and  others  who  followed  him,  have  insisted 
upon  what  he  himself  described  as  a   'very 


SINGING 


SINGING 


463 


slight  cough '  hefore  a  note  in  order  to  secure 
ft  distinct  attack  upon  it. 

Ahove  the  yocal  membranes  and  parallel 
with  them  are  two  muscular  folds  called  the 
false  vocal  cords,  or  ventricular  bands.  In 
conjunction  with  the  muscles  that  bring  the 
membranes  together,  they  form  a  strong  con- 
strictor of  the  air-passage,  to  close  it  firmly  when 
required.  This  occurs  always  in  swallowing, 
when  the  chest  has  to  be  held  inflated  to  support 
a  strong  muscular  action,  and  also  in  coughing. 
The  elastic  vocal  membranes  are  themselves 
unable  to  restrain  any  air-pressure  in  the  chest, 
so  it  was  thought  necessary  to  accumulate  a 
little  force  by  constriction  with  these  ventricular 
bands,  and  by  suddenly  relaxing  them  to 
allow  the  force  to  impinge  upon  the  mem- 
branes which  were  supposed  to  be  held  in 
readiness  for  the  sudden  shock.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  a  crisp  attack  can  be  effected  in 
this  way,  but  the  sound  of  the  note  is  always 
preceded  by  an  explosive  noise  however  lightly 
it  may  be  done. 

The  first  phonological  objection  to  this  *  shock 
of  the  glottis'  {coup  de  gloUe)  is  that  it  is  quite 
unnecessary.  When  the  breath  is  under  control 
and  intimately  associated  as  it  ought  to  be  with 
the  production  of  sound,  the  simultaneous  onset 
of  breath  force  and  the  proper  approximation  of 
the  membranes  produces  a  perfectly  clear  and 
clean  attack,  straight  upon  the  note  by  the  or- 
dinary natural  action  performed  with  decision. 

The  introduction  of  any  constriction  above 
the  reed  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  natural  part 
of  the  action  of  attack.  Moreover,  the  quasi- 
spasmodic  act  of  constriction  produces  often  an 
unduly  hard  attack  which  is  not  good  for  the 
vocal  reed,  and  its  constant  repetition  produces 
congestion  of  the  parts  around  the  cartilages, 
and  a  troublesome  desire  to  clear  the  throat. 

Phonology  insists  that  the  production  of 
sound  is  always  the  result  of  an  expiratory 
act,  and  that  every  sound  effect,  whether  it  be 
strong  or  soft,  quick  or  gradual,  must  be  the 
outcome  of  a  similar  intention  in  the  breath 
controL  Such  control  leaves  the  throat  free  to 
its  unconscious  action,  which  would  be  destroyed 
by  any  muscular  constriction  in  the  larynx. 

The  '  shock  of  the  glottis '  is  part  of  a  time- 
worn  tradition  in  the  teaching  of  singing,  and  is 
often  heard  in  voices  that  are  beautiful  as 
well  as  in  those  that  are  hard  and  throaty ; 
it  is  sometimes  regarded  as  essential  to  the 
proper  pronunciation  of  Qerman  and  some  other 
languages  of  a  guttural  nature,  but  artificial 
fashions  of  speech  cannot  be  tolerated  if  they  are 
opposed  to  the  natural  uses  of  the  voice  organs. 

The  cessation  of  a  note  1b  brought  about  by 
the  withdrawal  of  the  membranes.  As  a  rule 
the  membranes  spring  back  elastically  to  their 
open  position,  and  some  breath  pressure  escapes 
in  a  puff  after  the  note.  The  amount  of  this 
escape,  and  consequently  the  sound  it  makes, 


is  a  matter  of  breath-controL  A  high  note  is 
naturally  followed  by  a  strong  burst,  because 
the  pressure  is  higher  than  that  of  a  low 
note.  The  free  release,  as  this  is  called,  is  not 
objected  to  in  operatic  singing,  and  there  is 
nothing  to  say  against  it  on  phonological 
grounds.  Moreover,  it  is  useful  in  getting  rid 
of  carbonic  acid,  and  in  facilitating  the  quick 
taking  of  another  breath.  It  may,  therefore,  be 
left  to  discretion,  to  make  the  sound  of  the 
release  inaudible  by  breath-controL 

Under  no  circumstances  should  the  note  be 
stopped  by  constriction  of  any  part  of  the  throat, 
which  is  frequently  associated  with  the  equally 
detrimental  attack  by  *  shock '  just  referred  to. 
Many  singers  deceive  themselves  in  the  belief 
that  their  throats  remain  open  when  their 
notes  cease. 

One  of  the  difficulties  in  showing  the  natural 
behaviour  of  the  vocal  membranes  with  the  laryn- 
goscope is  that  the  power  of  tolerating  a  mirror  in 
the  back  of  the  throat  itself  requires  a  long  course 
of  training  without  which  the  organs  under 
observation  cannot  act  naturally. 

The  second  vocal  instrument,  the  JSesoncUor, 
belongs,  as  such,  to  a  later  date  in  the  evolution 
of  the  voice  as  we  now  hear  it.  The  particular 
function  of  the  Besonator,  which  warrants  its 
being  treated  as  a  separate  instrument,  is  its 
power  of  modifying  sound  by  assuming  different 
shapes,  which  is  made  use  of  in  the  formation 
of  language. 

Every  hollow  space  enclosed  within  walls  but 
communicating  with  the  outer  air,  is  ca][)able 
of  allowing  only  certain  sound  vibrations  or 
waves  to  continue  within  it.  This  is  called  its 
Resonant  note,  and  its  pitch  corresponds  with 
the  size,  and  its  character  with  the  shape,  of 
the  resonant  cavity  or  Resonator.  The  pitch  is 
also  affected  by  the  size  of  its  opening.  Partly 
closing  it  not  only  changes  the  character  of 
the  note,  but  also  lowers  its  pitch. 

In  the  case  of  the  voice,  in  which  the  reed  is 
strong  and  the  Resonator  comparatively  weak, 
much  of  the  fulness  of  the  sound  must  de])end 
upon  keeping  the  openings  free.  At  the  same 
time  the  cavities  should  be  made  as  large  as 
possible  in  order  to  keep  their  resonant  pitches 
low,  and  thereby  impsui;  a  richer  tone  to  the 
voice. 

The  size  of  the  Resonator  varies  a  little  among 
men  ;  in  women  it  is  about  20  per  cent  smaller, 
and  in  children,  smaller  still.  But  all,  by  the 
same  physiological  action,  can  bring  it  into 
similar  positions,  and  thus  it  is  the  shape  of 
the  Resonator  that  gives  characteristic  qualities 
to  speech,  and  language  is  as  intelligible  in  the 
mouth  of  a  child  as  in  that  of  a  giant. 

The  sounds  of  language  are  divided  into  two 
groups. 

1.  Vowel  sounds,  due  to  open  and  expanded 
positions  of  the  Resonator  suitable  forcontinuous 
sounds  of  the  best  possible  quality. 


464 


SINGING 


SINGING 


2.  Consonants,  due  to  more  or  less  closed 
positions,  and  movements  of  the  Resonator 
vrhioh  give  certain  characters  to  the  approach 
to  and  departure  from  the  vowel  positions. 

The  position  of  the  Resonator  in  forming  the 
Yowel  sounds  is  a  most  important  question  in 
the  art  of  singing. 

So  much  latitude  is  permitted  in  ordinary 
speaking  that  pronunciation  in  singing  has 
been  looked  upon  as  something  quite  different 
from  it.  But  when  the  sound  of  the  voice  is 
at  its  best,  the  Resonator  is  in  the  position 
most  &vourable  to  sound.  This  principle 
applies  as  strongly  to  speaking  as  it  does  to 
singing,  and  when  singers  do  not  sing  as  they 
would  speak,  it  is  either  because  they  do  not 
speak  properly,  or  they  do  not  ase  the  Resonator 
naturally. 

It  cannot  be  too  strongly  insisted  upon  that 
if  the  principles  of  good  resonation  are  carefully 
adhered  to  from  the  first,  speech,  being  solely 
a  matter  of  education,  can  always  be  made 
beautifuL 

This  is  generally  neglected  in  our  schools, 
where  children  learn  their  habits  of  speech,  but 
it  is  absolutely  essential  to  singing,  and  not  in- 
frequently it  happens  that  a  great  part  of  vocal 
training  is  spent  upon  teaching  a  singer  to  use 
the  Resonator  properly,  for  the  first  time. 

Votoel  Sounds. — In  studying  the  sounds  be- 
longing to  the  five  signs  U,  O,  A,  E,  I,  the 
Italian  pronunciation  is  here  adopted — 

U       O        A        E        I 

English  Equivalent    (oo)     (or)     (ah)     (eh)     (ee) 

The  position  A  is  that  in  which  the  whole 
passage  is  open  and  expanded  to  the  fullest 
extent  convenient  (natural  habits  never  go 
to  extremes),  and  from  it  the  others  are  differ- 
entiated by  two  principal  actions. 

1.  Closure  of  the  opening  by  the  lips,  and 

2.  Raising  and  advancing  the  body  of  the 
tongue. 


ToDgae 


Since  A  is  taken  as  the  basis  of  our  Resona- 
tion, its  position  must  be  closely  defined. 

The  jaw  is  open  at  least  an  inch  between  the 
front  teeth. 

The  lips  are  at  rest  upon  the  teeth,  and  not 
retracted  at  the  sides. 

The  tongue  lies  flat  upon  the  floor  of  the 
mouth  with  its  tip  and  margins  touching  the 
backs  of  the  lower  teeth. 

The  base  of  the  tongue  is  flat  enough  to 
make  the  back  of  the  throat  visible  from  the 
front. 

The  palate  is  held  up  just  enough  to  prevent 


breath  passing  into  the  nose,  but  without  any 
conscious  effort. 

The  neck  is  fuUy  expanded  by  the  combined 
actions  of  holding  the  head  erect,  the  ribs 
raised,  and  drawing  down  the  laiynx,  more 
by  the  action  of  the  stemo-thyroid  masdet 
which  act  upon  the  larynx  from  below,  than  by 
the  stemo*hyoid  muscles  which  bring  down  Uie 
base  of  the  tongue.  This  position  has  the  form 
of  a  double  Resonator,  with  two  principal 
resonance  chambers  uniting  in  the  middle  at 
right  angles,  where  they  are  joined  by  a  third 
accessory  chamber,  the  nose. 

The  back  chamber  in  the  neck  is  shaped  Uke 
a  bag,  wide  below,  where  the  vocal  reed  is  placed, 
and  narrow  above,  where  it  opens  into  the  back 
of  the  mouth  by  an  oval  opening.  The  front 
chamber,  in  the  mouth,  is  shaped  like  anirregolar 
hemisphere,  with  a  flat  floor  and  an  arched  roof 
and  a  large  round  opening  in  frt>nt 

Although  the  whole  Resonator  acts  as  one, 
the  back  chamber  may  be  said  to  have  most  to 
do  with  the  full  resonation  of  vocal  sound ; 
while  to  the  more  variable  cavity  of  the  mouth 
is  given  the  office  of  forming  all  the  character- 
istics of  language.  The  accessory  cavity  of  the 
nose  adds  to  the  sound  the  nasal  resonance 
when  required,  through  the  opening  controlled 
by  the  soft  palate.  The  resonant  properties  of 
cavities  are  demonstrated  by  blowing  a  stream 
of  air  through  or  across  them,  so  that  their 
resonant  notes  can  be  heard  by  themselves.  This 
occurs  in  the  whispering  voice.  The  partly 
closed  glottis  allows  the  breath  to  rush  throngli 
it  without  producing  any  vocal  note,  and  the 
rushing  sound  awakens  the  resonant  notes  of 
the  air-chambers  so  distinctly  that  not  only  are 
all  the  qualities  of  language  distinguishable,  bat 
with  a  Uttle  practice  the  pitch  of  the  resonaat 
notes  of  the  various  vowel  sounds  can  be  detected. 
These  notes  are  moetdistinct,  and  deeplypitched 
in  the  whispering  here  employed,  which  requires 
a  fully  expanded  and  open  Resonator  and  a  reef 
out-breath  with  no  constriction  of  the  throat 
whatever. 

Following  these  rules  the  pitch  of  the  rowel 
A  is  commonly  found  to  be  (^  or  C^JT  among 
men — and  about  a  minor  third  higher  ^b  or  ^' 
among  women. 

The  double  nature  of  the  Resonator  can  be 
shown  by  introducing  a  tuning -fork  of  the 
right  pitch,  into  the  throat  A  strong  reinforce- 
ment occurs  in  that  position  indicating  a  *  node ' 
at  the  junction  of  the  two  chambers,  as  woold 
be  expected.  The  resonant  note  may,  therefore, 
be  said  to  belong  to  both  the  mouth  and  the 
neck  cavity  acting  in  unison.  This  is  an  im- 
portant acoustical  point,  which  receives  further 
confirmation  in  the  formation  of  the  other 
vowels. 

The  first  group  of  vowels  derived  from  A,  by 
closing  the  opening  with  the  lips,  are  three 
varieties  of  O,  and  U  which  is  the  most  cIosmL 


SINGING 


SINGING 


465 


By  varioQs  degrees  of  this  action,  but  keeping 
the  jaw  still  open  to  the  extent  of  an  inch 
between  the  front  teeth,  the  positions  are 
obtained  for : — 

A       05       oa      01       U 
English  Equivalent   ah       not       or       oh       oo. 

By  every  saccessiye  degree  of  closing,  the  pitch 
of  the  resonant  note  is  lowered,  and  thus  are 
indicated  the  several  positions  which  produce 
the  notes  of  a  scale  as  a  simple  way  of  fixing 
them. 

By  rounding  the  lips  enough  to  lower  the 
pitch  of  A  a  whole  fifth,  a  good  resonant  position 
is  foond  for  U  (oo),  and  the  deep,  middle,  and 
shallow  forms  of  O  find  their  proper  places 
upon  the  three  notes  intervening. 

It  will  be  noticed  in  practice,  as  well  as  in 
physiological  works,  that  with  the  closure  of 
the  lips  there  is  at  the  same  time  a  lowering  of 
the  larynx  and  a  slight  raising  of  the  base  of 
the  tongue.  Both  these  actions  tend  to  enlarge 
and  close  in  the  chamber  in  the  neck,  and  by 
thus  lowering  its  pitch,  they  maintain  the 
unison  of  the  two  chambers,  as  may  be  further 
sho«-n  by  tapping  the  cheek  and  the  neck,  when 
both  are  found  to  possess  the  same  note. 
Whisfcred  Beaonanee$, 


Arenge  3 

man     Is 

} 1 

=^ 

M^ 

— 1 

. — 1 — 1 

—C 

1           1 
TJ           Ol 
1 

1    ■ 

08             OS 

1               1 

A^ 

^"3^=*^=!= 

^ 

^ 

=^ 

-hcJ. — 1 

The  second  group  of  vowel  sounds  owe  their 
character  to  the  position  of  the  tongue.  The 
jaw  remains  open  about  an  inch  as  before,  then 
the  tongue,  with  its  tip  against  the  back  of 
the  front  teeth,  advances  and  rises.  The  lips 
remain  still,  the  larynx  is  drawn  upwards  by 
the  movement  of  the  tongue,  but  this  is  re- 
strained to  some  extent  by  maintaining  the 
expansion  of  the  neck  as  in  the  position  of  A. 
This  action  raises  the  resonant  pitch  of  the 
mouth  because  it  becomes  gradually  encroached 
upon  by  the  body  of  the  tongue,  but  while  it 
makes  the  mouth  cavity  smaller,  it  makes  the 
neck  cavity  lai^r.  When  the  tongue  is  so 
far  forward  as  to  touch  with  its  margin  the 
upper  molar  teeth,  the  pitch  of  the  mouth 
iiesonance  may  be  raised  a  sixth  and  the  neck 
resonance  lowered  a  third. 

This  is  the  position  allotted  to  the  vowel  £ 
(eh).  A  still  further  advance  of  the  tongue  to 
its  extreme  position,  when  it  has  raised  the 
mouth  resonance  an  octave,  and  lowered  the 

lUtonator  Soak  of  Whitpend  Vovxl  Sounds. 
I.         II.        in.        IV.        V.        VI.      VII.    VIII. 


A 

Average  Man 


■J    d 


Average  Man     3 

^ 

-P— 

spered  Betonawes  . 

A 

1 

Average  Woman     /■    ''{^ 

kM 

-hr^-^ 

neck  resonance  a  fifth,  will  give  a  suitable 
resonance  to  the  vowel  I  (ee). 

The  perfect  concords  of  an  octave  (1  to  2) 
and  a  twelfth  (1  to  3)  established  for  the  relation 
of  the  chambers  in  these  two  vowel  sounds  is 
not  a  mere  accident.  It  is  more  probable  that 
the  selection  of  these  sounds  as  pure  vowel 
sounds  in  all  languages,  has  been  due  to 
their  particular  resonant  advantages,  for  the 
resonance  of  a  double  resonator  can  only  go 
on  perfectly  when  the  component  chambers 
are  either  in  unison  or  simply  related.  A 
further  point  in  the  formation  of  the  vowel 
sounds  £  and  I,  is  that  the  orifice  between  the 
t\vo  chambers  is  made  smaller  by  the  approach 
of  the  tongue  to  the  hard  palate.  This  lowers 
the  pitch  of  both,  so  that  the  division  of  the 
chambers  does  not  take  place  in  linear  measure- 
ment as  upon  a  monochord. 

Intermeidiate  between  A  and  £  there  are 
several  positions  which  belong  to  some  of  the 
£nglish  vowel  sounds  in  common  use.  The  first 
movement  of  the  tongue  is  principally  forward, 
and  enlarges  the  opening  of  the  throat,  raising 
the  resonant  pitch  of  both  chambers  while  they 
remain  in  unison.  This  position  belongs  to 
the  sounds  of  the  unaccented  a  in  *&lone,'  the 
u  in  'up,'  and  the  o  in  'love.'  But  after  this 
the  unison  can  no  longer  be  maintained  owing 
to  the  disparity  of  the  chambers,  and  we  find 
their  pitches  a  third  apart,  which  is  not  very 
good  for  the  resonation  of  the  soimd  er  as  in 
'  earth.'  The  shallow  d  as  in  '  hat '  has  reson- 
ance chambers  a  fifth  apart,  and  in  the  short  B 
as  in  'get'  they  differ  by  a  sixth.  Hence  all 
these  indefinitely  resonated  sounds  are  those 
which  are  more  frequently  varied  in  pronuncia- 
tion than  any  others,  and  are  the  most  difficult 
to  fix  in  singing.  Between  £  and  I  is  the 
short  I  as  in  '  hit,'  in  which  the  chambers  are 
a  tenth  apart. 

The  full  BesoTiatoT  Scale  is  therefore  con- 
structed as  follows.  The  several  positions  are 
marked  by  Roman  numbers  to  indicate  them 
for  all  voices  in  relation  to  the  pitch  of  A, 
which  governs  that  of  the  others  in  each  indi- 
vidual case.    To  these  must  be  added  in  £nglish 


u 

01 

08 

OS 

A 

u 

oh 

or 

dn 

^ 

her       h&t 


VOL.  IV 


6 

B 

I          I 

get 

gate 

hit      heat 
2h 

466 


SINGING 


SINGING 


the  more  open  'oo'  sound  in  'good,*  'would/ 
etc.,  which  is  on  I  -  between  U  (oo)  and  0^  (oh). 
Besides  these  thii'teen  simple  soimds  in 
English  there  are  several  compounds  which 
require  a  movement  from  one  position  to  an- 
other while  the  breath  continues. 

Whispered  Bnonanees, 


VI. .  II.      XI.  -  VI.  VIII.-VI. 


The  use  of  the  resonator  scale  is  of  similar 
service  in  fixing  the  vowel  pronunciation  of 
other  languages,  and  French  and  German  sounds 
have  all  their  places  in  relation  to  the  sound 
of  A,  slight  differences  only  having  to  be 
made  to  suit  national  peculiarities. 

The  same  relations  will  be  found  to  exist, 
whatever  the  resonant  pitch  of  A  may  be.  The 
pitch  of  U,  a  fifth  lower,  and  of  I  (ee)  an  octave 
higher,  will  always  be  the  limits  of  the  scale  of 
twelve  notes,  although  in  languages  with  fewer 
vowels  some  of  the  notes  wiU  not  be  occupied. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  all  these  sounds 
have  to  do  solely  with  whispered  speech,  and 
are  in  no  way  connected  with  the  notes  of  the 
vocal  reed. 

With  a  little  practice  the  notes  of  the  Re- 
sonator Scale  can  be  heard  without  difficulty. 
By  tapping  with  the  finger  upon  the  neck,  the 
resonant  notes  of  the  back  chamber  will  be 
heard  to  rise  with  the  others,  up  to  No.  VL,  and 
then  fall  again  as  shown  in  the  scale.  They 
can  also  be  heard  by  the  subject  himself  when 
the  ears  are  completely  stopped. 

The  consonants  are  important  to  the  art  of 
speaking  and  therefore  also  to  singing,  for  they 
all  represent  different  methods  of  opening  and 
closing  the  vowel  positions.  They  are  con- 
veniently classified  as  follows  : — 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  jaw  is  only  closed 
when  the  teeth  ai*e  obliged  to  be  together  to 
form  S.SH,  and  their  sounding  companions 
Z.J  (soft),  otherwise  it  must  always  be  kept 
as  wide  open  as  the  consonant  will  allow,  in 
order  to  have  less  to  do  in  reaching  the  vowel 
positions,  which  are  all  open. 

What  is  generally  known  as  *  forward  diction ' 
depends  upon  this  condition,  and  the  free  use 
of  the  tip  of  the  tongue,  the  lips,  and  the 
teetli. 

The  base  of  the  tongue  in  K  and  G  is 
brought  forward  to  the  hard  palate,  and  not 
allowed  to  close  up  the  throat  at  the  back. 

This  action  is  easier  before  A,  O,  and  U, 
when  the  tongue  is  either  flat  or  its  base  some- 
what raised  ;  but  before  £  and  I,  in  which  the 
ft-ont  of  the  tongue  is  high  and  forward  in  the 


Larynx. 

Base  of  tongue. 

Tip  of  tongue. 

Lips. 

Lower  Up  and  upper  teeth. 

Teeth  and  tip  of  tongue. 

Teeth. 

Explosives  : 
Plain. 

With  Voice. 

..     K    T    P     

..     0    D    B     

CONTUnjAHTSWITH 

Voiob: 
Nasal. 
Non-nasaL 
RolL 

..    fjG  N    M     

(softXwft) 
..     ..     L     ..      V    Th    Z.J 

..     ..     B     

Aspirates 

(hard) 
H F    ThaSh 

Jaw— open 

»i       II          ... 
Veiy  slight  closing  . 
Closing  lips,  not  teeth     . 
Lower  Up  between  teeth . 
Tongue  Up     „        „     . 
Teeth  meet 

mouth,  the  consonants  K  and  G  have  been 
softened  by  all  races  who  have  come  under 
Latin  influence  (French,  Spanish,  Italian,  and 
part  of  English)  into  an  aspirated  or  partly 
explosive  sound  better  suited  to  the  position  of 
the  tongue. 

The  importation  of  language  into  the  art  of 
song  has  thus  involved  the  careful  cultivatioD 
of  those  positions  and  movements  of  the  ResoD- 
ator  which  are  best  calculated  to  liberate  the 
sound  of  the  vocal  reed,  and  at  the  same  time 
express  with  particular  distinctness  all  the 
various  qualities  of  speech.  But  the  aound  of 
the  voice  includes  yet  another  quality,  namely 
that  of  '  tone '  or  *  tone  colour,'  which  depends 
upon  whether  the  maximum  of  Resonation  is 
used  or  not.  This  is  the  especial  function  of 
the  chamber  in  the  neck. 

The  formative,  actions  of  the  front  of  the 
mouth  may  or  may  not  be  accompanied  by  the 
full  expansion  of  the  back  chamber  of  the 
Resonator,  and  thus  the  total  sound  will  be 
full  and  rich  or  shallow  and  light,  as  the  anger 
thinks  fit 

After  these  considerations  it  is  not  difficult 
to  perceive  that  the  question  of  Registers  has 


SINGING 


SINGING 


467 


been  confused  by  the  assumption  that  the 
different  tones  of  voice  were  produced  by 
different  actions  of  the  vocal  reed.  The  terms 
'head  register'  and  'chest  register'  have,  no 
doubt,  been  intended  to  mean  conditions  in 
which  the  singer  has  felt  the  sound  in  the 
head  and  in  the  chest  The  former  signifies 
the  absence,  and  the  latter  the  presence,  of 
expansion  in  the  neck. 

The  chest  itself  is  occupied  with  the  air- 
pressure  and  cannot  be  regarded  as  a  resonator, 
since  it  is  practically  closed,  except  for  the 
minute  slit  through  which  the  pressure  issues. 
The  '  head  register '  has  been  further  confounded 
with  the  compression  of  the  membranes  which 
also  occurs  in  the  upper  notes  of  many  voices. 

Certain  descriptions  of  the  vocal  membranes 
in  explanation  of  the  different  '  registers '  have 
been  given,  and  named  'lower  thick,'  'upper 
thick,'  'middle,'  'lower  thin,'  'upper  thin,* 
etc.  (Lennox  Browne),  but  they  have  not  been 
confirmed  by  further  observation. 

As  at  present  known  the  membranes  behave 
in  the  same  way  throughout  the  entire  compass, 
and  their  compression  in  the  high  notes  must 
be  regarded  as  a  departure  from  the  natural 
process. 

The  true  high  note  requires  a  development  of 
breath  power  and  control,  and  it  would  be  better 
for  their  instrument  if  singers  would  refrain 
from  singing  by  compression,  and  be  satisfied 
with  the  compass  that  their  breath  power  can 
give  them.  High  notes  might  become  rarer, 
but  their  sound  would  be  of  better  quality. 

Other  forms  of  '  register '  due  to  alternative 
resonation  are  used  as  the  singer  wishes  to 
express  different  tone-colour.  But  by  insisting 
upon  the  maintenance  of  the  double  character  of 
the  Resonator  with  all  articulation  in  the  front 
of  the  mouth,  and  resonant  control  in  the  neck, 
there  are  no  sudden  changes  which  could  produce 
an  obligatory  '  register.' 

Variety  of  colour  due  to  control  of  the  resona- 
tion of  tiie  neck  may  occur  in  all  parts  of  the 
voice.  When,  however,  the  base  of  the  tongue 
is  pressed  down  so  as  to  produce  a  heavy  resona- 
tion in  the  mouth,  at  the  expense  of  that  in  the 
neck,  as  well  as  to  the  detriment  of  good  diction 
which  requires  the  tongue  to  be  free,  it  may 
readily  occur  that  a  sudden  change  has  to  be 
made  near  the  middle  of  the  voice,  on  passing 
from  one  note  to  the  next. 

Phonology  is  as  much  opposed  to  fictitious 
tone  as  to  fictitious  notes,  and  prefers  to  sacrifice 
the  heavy  tone  of  a  voice  if  it  is  not  natural  to 
it,  that  is,  if  it  is  not  obtained  by  the  natural 
actions  which  are  known  to  govern  the  sounds 
of  the  voice,  in  this  case  by  expansion  of  the  neck. 
Therefore  the  so-called  'Registers'  cannot  be 
accepted  as  natural.  That  they  are  often 
acquired  is  beyond  doubt,  but  it  is  astonishing 
how  they  disappear  when  singers  are  relieved  of 
the  necessity  of  thinking  about  them. 


Phonology  does  not  acknowledge  some  of  the 
common  methods  of  singing  teachers,  but  it  is 
able  to  support,  on  rational  grounds,  some  of  the 
best  traditions  of  the  great  masters,  which  are 
the  foundation  of  the  following  picture  of  the 
use  of  the  singing  voice. 

The  singer  stands  erectwith  a  broadly  expanded 
chest.  He  takes  a  deep  breath  by  expanding 
both  chest  and  abdomen  at  the  level  of  the  6th- 
7th  rib.  He  opens  his  mouth  and  throat  to  the 
position  suitable  for  the  pronunciation  of  A  (ah), 
and  at  the  same  time  he  thinks  of  the  note  he 
is  about  to  sing.  Without  allowing  the  ribs 
to  yield  he  strikes  the  note  by  breathing  out 
with  decision,  by  a  contraction  at  the  upper  part 
of  the  abdomen  and  a  simultaneous  approxima- 
tion of  the  vocal  membranes.  If  the  note  is  in 
the  middle  of  his  compass,  he  will  sing  a  succes- 
sion of  notes  up  to  an  octave  higher  and  down 
to  an  octave  lower,  and  back  again,  without  any 
movement  of  his  mouth  or  ribs  ;  being  conscious 
only  of  the  breath  force,  which  produces  the 
notes  he  hears  in  his  mind.  The  notes  are 
lifted  up  and  let  down  upon  the  breath  pres- 
sure, controlled  by  the  muscular  action  felt  in 
the  region  of  the  lower  ribs. 

By  changing  the  position  of  the  Resonator 
other  vowel  qualities  can  be  given  to  the  whole 
process,  but  under  all  circumstances  the  produc- 
tion of  the  notes  remains  the  same.  By  move- 
ments of  the  resonator  before  and  after  the  open 
vowel  positions  the  effects  of  consonants  can  be 
introduced  for  the  formation  of  words.  By 
expanding  the  neck  from  below,  a  full  resonant 
tone  can  be  given,  or  withheld  according  to  the 
'  colour '  required.  The  throat  is  always  free, 
that  is,  relaxed,  open,  and  unconscious. 

This  is  a  brief  picture  of  what  singing  is  in 
the  individual,  illustrating  the  action  of  the  two 
instruments  which  combine  to  produce  the 
sound  of  the  voice.  The  one  instrument  expresses 
in  music  the  emotions  of  the  soul,  while  the 
other  expresses  in  words  the  poetic  thoughts  of 
the  mind.  It  is  the  office  of  the  musical  com- 
poser to  bring  these  two  together  into  the  foi-m 
of  song. 

Just  as  it  is  essential  to  the  writer  of  vocal 
music  to  understand  thoroughly  the '  technique  * 
of  the  living  instrument  for  which  he  writes, 
so  is  it  also  a  necessary  part  of  singing  to  be 
acquainted  with  the  manner  in  which  the  dual 
expression  is  conceived  in  the  song.  Phonology 
has  supplied  the  singer  with  an  absolutely 
material  estimate  of  work  to  be  done  by  the 
voice,  in  the  '  song  diagrams  *  already  referred 
to,  but  in  order  to  show  how  the  voail  instru- 
ments are  to  be  used  in  the  service  of  Art  its 
analysis  of  song  must  be  carried  farther. 

As  presented  upon  the  page,  a  song  consists 
of  a  line  of  music  written  upon  a  stave,  and  a 
line  of  words  below  it,  in  ordinary  character. 
It  is  evident  therefore  from  the  first  that  the 
vocal    reed   or  instrument  of   music   has   to 


468 


SINGING 


SINGSPIEL 


perfonn  a  musical  composition  ;  while  the  reson- 
ator or  instrument  of  speech  has  to  perform  a 
composition  in  verse.  All  that  can  be  said 
about  the  performance  of  music  by  an  instrument, 
or  about  the  recitation  of  verse,  is  applicable  to 
the  vocal  reed  and  the  resonator,  each  by  itself. 
The  vocal  reed,  however,  has  two  offices  to 
perform.  It  is  either  behaving  as  a  true  instru- 
ment of  music,  giving  utterance  to  feelings  in 
the  direct  manner  belonging  to  its  nature,  or  it 
is  lending  itself  as  an  instrument  of  sound  to 
assist,  by  emphasis  and  inflexion,  the  sense  of 
words.  In  the  former  case  its  action  is  melodic, 
in  the  latter,  declamatory. 

The  line  of  music  may  be  intended  by  the 
composer  to  be  interpreted  in  either  of  these 
senses,  or  it  may  happen  that  the  feeling 
suggested  by  the  words  is  so  perfectly  treated 
in  the  application  to  it  of  a  form  of  melody, 
that  both  are  satisfied,  and  the  song  is  both 
melodic  and  declamatory.  Examples  of  this 
are  rare,  and  it  more  often  happens  that  either 
one  or  the  other  element  predominates.  Not 
infrequently,  however,  it  occurs  that  they  clash, 
so  that  neither  is  satisfactory. 

The  rhythm  of  music,  with  its  division  into 
time  measures,  and  the  rhythm  of  words,  with 
their  arrangement  into  metrical  verse,  only 
indicate  motion,  and  when  these  are  applied 
to  one  another  only  the  rhythm  in  which 
they  may  move  together  is  emphasised,  and 
nothing  more.  This  cannot  be  regarded  as 
song  composition. 

It  is  the  sense  of  words  and  not  the  sound 
that  stimulates  the  musical  sense.  The  music 
thus  evolved  may  have  no  melodic  form  of  its 
own,  in  which  case  it  is  declamatory,  or  it  may 
add  to  the  words  the  power  of  its  own  form  of 
expresHion  and  become  melodic. 

Periodicity  in  poetic  expression  is  as  necessary 
to  verse  as  it  is  to  music,  and  the  study  of  the 
works  of  Heine  gives  a  striking  illustration  of 
its  force.  The  period  of  two  lines,  in  which 
he  usually  expressed  his  thoughts,  presented  to 
the  musician  the  simplest  foundation  for  melodic 
form,  and  how  that  appealed  to  the  melodic 
genius  of  Schubert  is  seen  distinctly  in  such  a 
masterpiece  as  'Am  Meer.'  If  other  poets 
could  speak  with  such  measured  simplicity  and 
directness,  the  art  of  song  would  be  richer  than 
it  is. 

The  suiting  of  music  to  words  may  appear 
to  be  a  subject  belonging  to  the  art  of  composi- 
tion, but  it  is  necessary  to  consider  it  from  the 
point  of  view  of  singing,  since  it  forms  the 
foundation  of  the  singer's  attitude  of  mind. 
The  singer  must  know  how  to  direct  his  techni- 
cal ability,  and  must  have  some  distinct  mental 
intention  in  singing,  or  the  performance  will  be 
nothing  more  than  the  mechanical  recitation  of 
words  and  notes. 

The  sense  of  the  words  is  always  to  be  con- 
sidered first,  since  that  is  generally  the  most 


obvious.  With  a  little  analysis  the  poet's  scheme 
of  conveying  a  succession  of  ideas  may  next  be 
detected.  It  will  not  then  be  difficult  to  see 
at  once  whether  the  composer  has  adapted  these 
ideas  to  a  corresponding  scheme  of  melodic  form, 
or  whether  he  hu  been  content  to  use  his  mnsic 
as  a  means  of  supporting  the  words  only  ;  and 
the  value  of  the  music  as  depicting  the  poetic 
intention  can  be  readily  estimated. 

It  is  not  within  the  scope  of  this  article  to 
carry  such  analysis  into  the  extensive  field  of 
existing  examples  of  song -writing.  Modem 
music  is  full  of  examples  of  declamatoiy  song 
distorted  and  exaggerated  by  the  musical  exi- 
gencies of  the  pianoforte  and  orchestral  aooom- 
paniment. 

The  melodic  form  is  regarded  as  a  smrvival 
of  the  past  which  does  not  really  lielong  to 
present  methods  of  musical  expression.  In 
fact,  the  sound  as  well  as  the  sense  of  the  voice 
has  been  almost  swamped  by  the  wealth  of 
instrumentation  which  is  considered  necessary 
for  modern  ears.  How  far  this  can  be  carried 
it  is  impossible  to  say,  but  it  is  quite  possible 
that  singing  will  soon  be  regarded  as  a  separate 
form  of  art,  and  composers  will  either  write  for 
the  voice,  or  for  the  orchestra,  but  not  for  both 
together. 

In  estimating  the  general  character  of  modem 
and  ancient  music  the  singer  can  thus  realke 
what  part  it  is  that  his  voice  has  to  take. 
Throughout  the  works  of  the  old  Italian,  English, 
and  German  masters,  up  to  the  end  of  the  ISth 
century,  he  will  find  abundant  opportunity  for 
the  full  exercise  of  the  natural  instronient  of 
song.  A  more  highly  cultured  and  inteUectoally 
restrained  form  was  the  outcome  of  the  literaiy 
period  which  we  owe  to  the  German  lyric  poets, 
and  perfection  of  diction,  with  a  refined  use  of 
musical  expression,  characterises  the  '  Lied/  and 
those  songs  of  other  nations  which  are  conceived 
ui>on  that  model. 

Of  the  vocal  necessities  of  modem  music  no 
more  need  be  said  than  that  the  singer  must 
be  able  to  realise  the  situation.  The  voice  is  a 
living  thing,  and  can  be  ruined  by  the  strain  of 
singing  too  loud  and  too  high,  as  only  too  many 
modem  singers  have  discovered,  but  its  powers 
of  endurance,  if  properly  treated,  are  remarkable, 
and  every  singer  who  understands  his  work 
ought  to  know  where  to  stop. 

Besides  an  excellent  technique  and  an  intelli- 
gent sense  for  music  and  poetry,  the  singer  only 
requires  the  sincerity  which  brings  to  his  art 
the  chaim  of  his  own  personality.  If  any 
technique  could  possibly  be  learned  in  order  to 
obtain  that  inestimable  quality,  phonoli^j 
would  certainly  point  to  the  exercise  of  the 
most  truly  vital  of  all  human  functions,  and 
recommend  the  free  and  unhindered  service  of 
the  breath.  w.  a.  a. 

SINGSPIEL.  This  term  has  been  in  uae  in 
Germany  for  the  last  300  years  to  denote  a 


SINGSPIEL 


SINGSPIEL 


469 


dramatic  representation  with  mnsic ;  not  any  one 
particalar  kind — ^singing  being  capable  of  being 
employed  in  such  various  ways — but  any  enter- 
tainment in  which  spoken  dialogue  and  singing 
alternate.  In  time  speech  gave  way  at  intervals 
not  only  to  singing,  but  to  singing  by  several 
voices  at  once.  Later,  when  the  spoken  dialogue 
had  been  brought  into  entire  subjection  to  music, 
as  was  the  case  in  Italy  after  the  revolution 
effected  in  the  whole  nature  of  dramatic  repre- 
sentation by  the  rise  of  opera,  not  only  concerted 
Tocal  pieces  were  introduced  into  the  German 
SingBpiel,  but  instrumental  music  and  its  prot^g^ 
monody  as  well.  We  find  the  earliest  traces  of 
the  Singspiel  in  the  German  miracle -plays, 
which  were  gradually  developed  outside  the 
churches  from  the  Passions  given  inside  them. 
The  Passions  were  sung  throughout,  while  in  the 
miracle-plays  six>ken  words  In  German  were 
introduced,  the  singing  still  being  in  Latin,  as  for 
example  in  the  'Ludus  paschalis  de  passione 
Domini'  MS.  of  the  18th  century.  In  course 
of  time  the  Latin  text  and  consequently  the 
murie  were  thrust  into  the  background.  In  a 
14th-centuiy  MS.  called  <  Marienklage,'  pre- 
served in  the  convent  of  Lichtenthal  near  Baden, 
^lary  sings  in  German.  Indeed  we  already 
find  the  typical  German  miracle-play  in  the 
'  Spiel  von  den  zehn  Jungfrauen  *  i)erformed  at 
Ksenach  in  1822,  in  which  all  the  words  sung 
are  German.  These  plays  were  generally  per- 
formed on  the  eves  of  the  great  festivals,  such 
as  Whitsunday,  Epiphany,  etc.  Gradually  the 
ecclesiastical  element  disappeared,  leaving  only 
the  secular,  and  thus  originated  the  Shrove 
Tuesday  plays,  in  which  the  characteristics  of 
whole  classes  of  society,  priests,  doctors,  travel- 
ling scholars,  etc,  were  held  up  to  ridicule. 
Nuremberg  and  Augsburg  were  specially  cele- 
brated for  these  plays,  written  for  the  most  part 
by  Hans  Rosenblut  (about  1405),  Hans  Folz  of 
Worms  (about  1480),  both  living  in  Nuremberg, 
and  Nicolaus  Mercator.  They  gradually,  however, 
degenerated  into  obscene  pieces,  until  in  the 
16th  century  Hans  Sachs  and  Jakob  Ayrer 
(both  of  whom  introduced  music  into  their  plays) 
started  the  movement  which  ended  in  the  re- 
formation of  the  German  stage.  By  Ayrer 
we  still  have  a  'Schons  neus  singets  Spiel,' 
*  Der  Miinch  im  Kesskorb,'  sung  in  1618  by  five 
persons  *  entirely  on  the  melody  of  the  English 
Roland.'  This  melody  is  repeated  fifty-four 
times,  and  one  cannot  help  suspecting  that  the 
English  stage  was  to  some  extent  Ayrer's  model. 
A  reaction  from  these  *  people's  plays '  (as  they 
might  be  called)  was  caused  by  the  'school  plays' 
in  Latin,  annually  performed  by  the  pupils  of 
the  Jesuits.  Between  the  acts  German  inter- 
ludes with  music  were  introduced,  and  these  were 
virtually  Singspiele  in  the  modem  sense.  The 
first  Singspiel  in  imitation  of  the  Italian  opera 
without  any  spoken  dialogue  was  the  lost 
'  Dafne,'  written  by  Martin  Opitz  and  composed 


by  Heinrich  Schutz  in  1627.  The  earliest  in- 
stance of  an  independent  German  Singspiel  with 
singing  and  spoken  dialogue  was  '  Seclewig,'  a 
sacred  Waldgedicht  or  Preudenspiel.  In  a 
spoken  play  of  Harsdorfler's  (1644)  were  intro- 
duced Arias  after  the  Italian  manner,  composed 
(see  the  Monatshefle  fiir  MusikgeschichUf  1881, 
Nos.  4,  5,  6)  by  Siegmund  Gottlieb  Staden. 
The  piece  is  intended  for  private  perform- 
ance, and  written  for  three  trebles,  two  altos, 
two  tenors,  one  bass,  three  violins,  three  flutes, 
three  reeds,  and  one  large  horn,  the  bass  being 
taken  throughout  by  a  tibeorbo.  No  two  voices 
ever  sing  at  the  same  time,  and  the  instruments 
have  short  symphonies  to  themselves.  The  only 
regular  stage  at  that  time  was  the  Italian  opera- 
house  of  each  capital  (tliat  of  Vienna  being  built 
in  1651,  and  that  of  Dresden  in  1667)  and  of 
Nurembei^g  and  other  Imperial  cities.  The 
German  Singspiel  foimd  a  home  in  Hamburg  in 
the  theatre  built  in  1678,  but  soon  encountered 
a  formidable  rival  in  German  opera,  founded  by 
Reinhard  Keiser.  After  this,  half  a  century 
went  by  before  the  Singspiel  was  heard  of  again. 
In  1748  the  Dobbelin  company  in  Berlin  pro- 
duced without  success  a  German  Liederspiel, 
'Der  Teufel  ist  los,'  founded  on  the  English 
piece  *The  Devil  to  pay,*  followed  by  Schiirer's 
*Doris'(l747)andScheibe's'Thu8nelda'(1749), 
both  very  successful.  Thus  encouraged,  Koch's 
company  began  to  play  Singspiele  in  Leijizig, 
Weimar,  and  Berlin,  their  first  piece  being  '  Die 
verwandelten  Weiber,'  another  version  of  *  The 
Devil  to  pay,'  written  by  C.  F.  Weisse,  composed 
by  J.  A.  Hiller,  and  produced  at  Leipzig  in  1 764 
with  great  success.  The  same  authors  produced 
a  succession  of  similar  pieces,  'Der  lustige 
Schuster'  (1765),    *Lottchen  am   Hofe,'  and 

*  Die  Liebe  auf  dem  Lande '  (1767),  *  Die  Jagd ' 
(1771),  * Aemdtekranz '  and  'Der  Dorfbar- 
bier'  (1772).  Neefe,  Reichardt,  Stegemann, 
Schweitzer,  and  others,  brought  to  perfection 
this  new  species,  now  called  Operetta. 

Independently  of  all  this  going  on  in  North 
Germany,  the  German  Singspiel  had  sprung 
up  in  Vienna,  starting,  curiously  enough,  with 

*  Die  doppelte  Verwandlung '  (1767),  an  adapta- 
tion from  the  French  'Le  Diable  k  quatre,' 
Sedaine's  version  of  *  The  Devil  to  pay.'  Wer- 
ner, Haydn's  predecessor  at  Eisenstadt,  had 
already  produced  at  the  Court  German  theatre 
a  Tafelstiick  (i.e.  piece  intended  for  private 
performance)  called  *Der  Wienerische  Tiindel- 
markt '  (1 760).  The  marionette  plays,  of  which 
Haydn  was  so  fond,  were  Singspiele,  and  he 
supplied  the  court  of  EsterhAz  wiUi  '  Philemon 
und  Baucis' (1778),  'Genoveva' (1777),  *Dido,' 
a  parody  on  a  grand  opera  (1778),  and  'Die 
erfiillte  Rache '  (1 780).  '  Der  krumme  Teufel,* 
to  words  by  Kurz,  was  a  real  Singspiel.  Ditters- 
dorfs  'Doctor  und  Apotheker,'  'Liebe  im 
Narrenhause,'  '  Hieronymus  Knicker,'  'Rothe 
Kiippchen,'    etc.,    produced   at    the    Imperial 


470 


SINIGAGLIA 


SIR  ROGER  DE  COVERLY 


Nationaltheater,  were  brilliant  successes.  Kauer 
(1751-1831)  composed  no  fewer  than  200  Sing- 
spiele,  and  Schenk  was  almost  equally  prolific. 
The  classic  Singspiel  was  founded  by  Mozart 
with  his  '  Entfiihrung '  (July  12, 1782),  which, 
according  to  Goethe,  threw  everything  else  of 
the  kind  into  the  shade.  The  'Zauberflote' 
(1791),  too,  was  styled  a  Singspiel  on  the  title- 
page  of  the  PF.  score.  From  this  point  the 
Singspiel  proper  becomes  continually  rarer, 
though  Wenzel  Midler's  'Schwester  von  Prag,' 
'Das  neue  Sonntagskind,*  and  a  few  more 
deserve  mention.  Lortzing's  works  are  a 
mixture  of  opera  and  Singspiel,  certain  numbers 
in  the  '  Czaar  und  Zimmermann,'  *  Watfen- 
schmied,'  and  'Undine'  being  quite  in  the  Lied- 
style,  and  the  music  consequently  of  secondary 
importance,  while  in  others  the  music  un- 
doubtedly assists  in  developing  the  characters, 
and  raises  these  portions  to  the  dignity  of  opera. 
We  are  here  brought  face  to  face  with  the  main 
distinction  between  Opera  and  Singspiel ;  the 
latter  by  no  means  excludes  occasional  recitative 
in  place  of  the  spoken  dialogue,  but  the  moment 
the  music  helps  to  develop  the  dramatic 
d^nodment  we  have  to  do  with  Opera  and  not 
with  Singspiel.  F.  G. 

SINIGAGLIA,  Leone,  bom  at  Turin,  August 
14,  1868,  was  a  pupil  of  the  Gonservatorio  of 
his  native  city,  and  subsequently  studied  with 
Mandyczewski  in  Vienna,  where  he  enjoyed 
the  friendship  and  advice  of  Dvofdk,  Goldmark, 
and  other  musicians.  His  early  works  include 
a  number  of  violin  and  violoncello  pieces,  songs, 
female  choruses,  etc,  and  one  of  these,  op.  5,  a 
'concert  ^tude'  for  string  quartet,  was  often 
played  by  the  Bohemian  Quartet  His  op.  19 
is  a  set  of  variations  on  Schubert's  '  Haiden- 
rbslein '  for  oboe  and  piano ;  op.  20  is  a 
brilliant  and  very  successful  violin  concerto  in 
A ;  op.  22  is  a  set  of  variations  on  a  theme 
by  Brahms,  for  quartet ;  op.  26  is  a  '  Rapsodia 
piemontese '  for  violin  and  orchestra ;  and  op. 
27  is  a  string  quartet  in  D,  which  has  won 
great  favour  from  many  of  the  continental 
organisations.  Two  pieces  for  horn  and  piano, 
op.  28,  and  a  romance  in  A  for  violin  and 
orchestra,  are  among  his  more  recent  works ; 
and  two  '  Danze  piemontese '  for  orchestra,  op. 
81,  are  arrangements  of  genuine  popular  themes. 
These  have  been  arranged  in  a  variety  of  ways, 
and  are  very  successful.  m. 

SINK-A-PAOE— also  written  Cinque-pace, 
CiNQUA-PAOE,  Cinque  Pass,  Cinque  Pas, 
SiNQUA-PACE,  Sinque-pace,  Zinck-pass  and 
SiNcopAS — a  name  by  which  the  original  Gal- 
liard  was  known.  Praetorius  (S^frUfigTna  Mus, 
vol.  iii.  chap.  ii.  p.  24)  says  that  a  Galliard 
has  five  steps  and  is  therefore  called  a  Cinque 
Pas.  These  five  steps,  or  rather  combinations 
of  steps,  are  well  described  in  Arbeau's  OrcfUao- 
graphic  (Langres,  1688).  In  later  times  the 
Galliard  became  so  altered  by  the  addition  of 


new  steps,  that  the  original  form  of  the  dance 
seems  to  have  been  distinguished  by  the  name 
Cinq  Pas.  It  is  frequently  mentioned  by  the 
Elizabethan  writers,  well-known  examples  being 
the  allusions  in  ShaJcespeare's  '  Much  Ado  about 
Nothing'  (Act  ii.  8c.  1),  'Twelfth  Night'  (Act 
i.  Sc.  3),  Marston*s  '  Satiromastix '  (Act  L), 
and  Sir  John  Davies's  '  Orchestra '  (stanza  67). 
The  following  less-known  quotation  is  from  the 
'  Histriomastix '  (Part  1)  of  Prynne  (who  was 
especially  bitter  against  this  danoe):  'Alas 
there  are  but  few  who  finde  that  narrow  way 
.  .  .  and  those  few  what  are  they?  Not 
dancers,  but  mourners:  not  laughers,  but 
weepers ;  whose  tune  is  Lachrymee,  whoee 
musicke,  sighes  for  sinne  ;  who  know  no  other 
Cinqua-pace  but  this  to  Heaven,  to  goe  rooom- 
ing  all  the  day  long  for  their  iniqnities;  jo 
mourne  in  secret  like  Doves,  to  chatter  like 
Cranes  for  their  owne  and  others  sinnes.'  The 
following  example  of  a  Cinque-pace  is  giren  by 
Wolfgang  Caspar  Printz,  in  his  PhrynU  Miti- 
lenaeus^  oder  Satyrisdier  Camponiat  (Dresden, 
1696),  as  a  specimen  of '  Trichonum  lambicum.' 
A  longer  example  will  be  found  in  Daoney's 
edition  of  the  17th-century  Skene  MS.  (Edin- 
burgh, 1838). 


W.  R.  8. 

SIR  ROGER  DE  COVERLY,^  the  only  one 
of  the  numerous  old  English  dances  which  has 
retained  its  popularity  until  the  present  day,  is; 
probably  a  tune  of  north-country  origin.  Mr. 
Chappell  (Papular  Music,  vol.  iL)  says  that  he 
possesses  a  MS.  version  of  it  called  '  Old  Roger 
of  Coverlay  for  evermore,  a  Lancashire  Horn- 
pipe,' and  in  'The  First  and  Second  Division 
Violin'  (in  the  British  Museum  Catalogue  at- 
tributed to  John  Eccles,  and  dated  1705)  an- 
other version  of  it  is  entitled  '  "Bioger  of  Coveriy 
the  true  CheiBere  way. '  Moreover,  the  Calverley 
family,  from  one  of  whose  ancestors  the  tune 
is  said  to  derive  its  name,'  have  been  from 
time  immemorial  inhabitants  of  the  Yorkshire 
village  which  bears  their  name.  The  editor  of 
the  Skene  MS.,  on  the  strength  of  a  MS.  version 
dated  1706,  claims  the  tune  as  Scotch,  and 
says  that  it  is  well  known  north  of  the  Tweed 
as  'The  Maltman  comes  on  Monday.'  Accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Rimbault  (Notes  and  Queries,  i.  No. 
8),  the  earliest  printed  version  of  it  occois  in 
Playford's  'Division  Violin'  (1685).  In  'The 
Dancing  Master '  it  is  first  found  at  page  167 

>  Or  more  eorrecilr  *  Bofer  of  CowHt.'  Ttf  prcAx  *  Sir '  u  net 
found  uuUl  after  Steele  utA  Addiaon  had  med  the  name  la  lh« 
Spectator. 

a  See  JTotn  and  qutrltt,  vol.  L  No.  S.  p.  MS. 


SIR  ROGER  DE  COVERLY 


SIREN 


471 


of  the  9th  edition,  published  in  1695,  where 
the  tone  and  directions  for  the  dance  are  given 
exactly  as  follows  : — 

Jioger  of  Coverly. 
LoDgways  for  v»  many  m  wUL 


J''  ^I'l'  "JJ^I 


The  1.  man  go  below  the  S.  vro.  then  ronnd,  and  so 
below  the  2.  man  into  bis  own  place ;  then  the  I.  wo.  go 
below  the  2.  man,  then  round  nim,  and  so  below  the  2. 
wo.  into  her  own  place.  The  I.  en.  [flrst  couple]  otobs 
OTcr  below  the  2.  cu.  and  take  hands  and  turn  round 
twice,  then  lead  up  through  and  cast  off  into  the  2.  en. 
P>«»-  W.  B.  8. 

The  Scots  song,  'The  Maltman  comes  on 
Monday,'  ia  not,  as  erroneously  asserted  by 
Chappell,  by  Allan  Ramsay,  sdthough  it  is 
inserted  in  the  first  Tolume  of  his  Tea- Table 
MisceOany,  1724.  The  English  title  is  not  so 
easily  disposed  of. 

The  Spectator,  2nd  number,  1711,  speaks  of 
Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  as  a  gentleman  of 
Worcestershire,  and  that  'His  great  grand- 
finther  was  the  inventor  of  the  famous  country 
dance  which  is  called  after  him.' 

Fanciful  as  this  is,  it  shows  that  the  dance, 
at  that  time,  was  considered  an  old  one. 
Another  origin  for  the  name  of  the  tune  is 
based  on  a  MS.  in  the  writer's  possession, 
inscribed  'For  the  violin,  Patrick  Gumming, 
bis  Book :  Edinburgh,  1728.'  At  the  end  the 
name  is  repeated,  and  the  date  1724  given.    The 

g,,^  The  MaUman,  or  JSoger  the  Cavalier. 

datnrm  (not  glrcn  Id  the  MB.). 


tune  stands  as  follows,  although  the  Scottish 
scordaiura  is  likely  to  puzzle  the  casual  reader, 
since  the  first  notes  which  appear  as  G,  A,  B,  C 
sound  A,  B,  C,  D.     (See  Scordatura.) 

It  is  well  known  that  the  name  *  Roger '  was 
bestowed  upon  the  Royalists  during  the  Civil 
War,  and  it  is  suggested  that  *  Coverly'  is 
really  a  corruption  of  *  Cavalier.' 

As  the  dance,  later,  was  almost  invariably 
used  at  the  conclusion  of  a  ball,  it  was  fre- 
quently called  'The  Finishing  Dance.'  See 
Wilson's  Companion  to  the  Ball-Hoom,  circa  1816, 
and  Chappell's  Popular  Mtisic  for  the  modem 
figure.  According  to  an  eaiiy  coiTespondent  of 
Notes  cmd  Queriea,  the  tune  was  known  in 
Virginia,  U.S.A.,  as  *  My  Aunt  Margery.'   f.  k. 

SIREN.  This,  though  not  strictly  a  musical 
instrument,  has  rendered  such  good  service  to 
acoustical  science  that  it  deserves  brief  notice  ; 
for  fuller  details  the  works  referred  to  below 
must  be  consulted.  Lord  Rayleigh  ^  describes 
it  as  '  a  stiff  disc,  capable  of  revohdng  about  its 
centre,  and  pierced  with  one  or  more  sets  of 
holes  arranged  at  equal  intervals  round  the 
circumference  of  circles  concentric  with  the 
disc.  A  windpipe  in  connection  with  bellows 
is  presented  perpendicularly  to  the  disc,  its  open 
end  being  opposite  to  one  of  the  circles,  which 
contains  a  set  of  holes.  When  the«  bellows  are 
worked,  the  stream  of  air  escapes  freely  if  a 
hole  is  opposite  to  the  end  of  the  pipe ;  but 
otherwise  it  is  obstructed.  As  the  disc  turns, 
puffs  of  air  in  succession  escape  through  it, 
until  when  the  velocity  is  sufficient,  these  blend 
into  a  note  the  pitch  of  which  rises  continually 
with  the  rapid  sequence  of  the  puffs.  One  of 
the  most  important  facts  in  the  whole  science 
of  Acoustics  is  exemplified  by  the  siren — namely 
that  the  pitch  of  a  note  depends  upon  the  period 
of  its  vibration.  The  size  and  shape  of  the 
holes,  the  force  of  the  wind,  and  other  elements 
of  the  problem  may  be  varied ;  but  if  the 
number  of  pufib  in  a  given  time,  such  as  one 
second,  remains  unchanged,  so  does  the  pitch. 
We  may  even  dispense  with  wind  altogether, 
and  produce  a  note  by  allowing  a  card  to  tap 
against  the  edges  of  the  holes  as  they  revolve  ; 
the  pitch  will  still  be  the  same.' 

The  Siren  may  be  defined  as  a  wind  instru- 
ment, in  which  the  successive  air-waves  are 
produced  not  at  random  or  by  consonance,  but 
by  circular  rotatory  motion,  which  is  susceptible 
of  accurate  adjustment  as  well  as  measurement. 
It  was  originally  invented  by  Cagniard  de  la 
Tour,  who  made  it  needlessly  complicated  by 
Tising  the  force  of  the  wind  to  drive  the  rotating 
disc  as  well  as  to  produce  the  required  note. 
For  this  purpose  the  speaking  holes  in  the  top 
of  the  small  wind-chest  were  pierced  in  an 
oblique  direction  ;  those  in  the  disc  sloping  in 
an  opposite  diagonal.  There  was  also  a  count- 
ing apparatus  attached  to  the  upper  part  of  the 

1  Thtory  9f  Bound,  vol.  1.  p.  5. 


472 


SIRfeNE,  LA 


main  axis,  with  two  dials  for  registering  the 
uumher  of  rotations  in  a  given  time.  This 
form  has  heen  faithfully  reproduced  in  every 
manual  of  Physics  up  to  now.^  The  name  is 
said  to  have  been  somewhat  fancifully,  and 
indeed  incorrectly,  given  it  from  Homer's  Sirens, 
on  account  of  its  property  of  singing  under 
water.  It  is  true  that  if  water  be  forced  through 
it  after  the  fashion  of  the  Turbine,  a  buzzing 
or  humming  sound  is  produced.  Seebeok  and 
others  effected  material  improvements,  but  the 
only  two  which  need  special  notice  are  the 
instruments  constructed  by  Uelmholtz  and 
Rudolph  Koenig  respectively.  The  former  is 
figured  and  described  in  that  author's  Totvemp- 
findungefif*  ajkd  consists  essentially  of  two  sirens 
united  on  a  single  axis,  each  disc  of  which 
possesses  four  rows  of  holes  susceptible  of  being 
separately  opened,  thus  giving  means  for  pro- 
ducing a  large  variety  of  intervals. 

The  upper  wind-chest,  which  looks  downwards, 
can  be  rotated  on  its  feeding-tube  so  as  to  bring 
about  varying  changes  of  phase  between  the  two 
discs.  With  this  instrument  Helmholtz  suc- 
ceeded in  producing  excellent  results,  using  a 
small  electromotor  for  driving  it  at  a  uniform 
rate. 

The  Sben  of  M.  Rudolph  Koenig  of  Paris  is 
a  far  more  imposing  instrument.  It  was  made 
for  W.  Spottiswoode,  Esq.,  P.RS.,  was  ex- 
hibited by  the  writer  at  the  British  Association 
meeting  at  York  in  1881,  and  is  now  in  the 
physical  laboratory  of  the  College  of  Science  at 
Bristol  It  is  furnished  with  more  than  a  dozen 
rotating  discs  of  different  kinds,  which  fit  on 
to  a  vertical  spindle,  above  a  wind-chest  of  large 
size  fitted  with  a  keyboard  of  eight  notes.  A 
strong  clockwork  actuated  by  heavy  weights 
forms  the  motive  power,  and  an  ingenious 
counting  apparatus  is  made  not  only  to  record 
the  number  of  rotations,  but  also  to  set  going 
automatically  a  watch  movement,  and  thus 
obtain  by  one  motion  of  the  observer's  hand 
the  speed  of  the  disc,  and  the  time  of  the 
observation.  By  properly  computing  the  rings 
of  perforations,  the  harmonic  series  is  given  by 
one  disc,  and  the  enharmonic  scale  by  another. 
Indeed  there  is  hai-dly  any  law  of  musical 
acoustics  which  it  cannot  be  made  to  illustrate.  ^ 
For  purposes  of  demonstration  the  siren  is 
excellent,  and  aUo  for  the  illustration  of  perfect 
musical  intervals ;  but  for  the  accurate  determina- 
tion of  absolute  pitch  it  is  far  inferior  to  Lissa- 
jous's  optical  method  ;  and  still  more  so  to  the 
tuning-fork  method,  described  under  Scheibler, 
and  to  Prof.  M^Leod's  Cycloscope.     w.  h.  s. 

SIRJIKE,  LA.  Op^ra-comique  in  three  acts  ; 
words  by  Scribe,  music  by  Auber.  Produced 
at  the  Op^ra-Comique,  March  26,  1844.      In 

>  Deschanri.  .Vat.  PhOoM.  It.  p.  892;  Bv«rltt'a  tmudAtion.  Ganot'i 
Php»ic$.  p.  IW;  Atfcliuon'i  tninal. 

3  Holmholti.  H«ninUU>n»  of  Tone,  Ellla't  tntul.  p.  243  «r  »eqq. 

a  A  description  of  thU  instrument  i«  to  be  found  in  PoggendorTa 
AHHoUn,  and  in  the  PhOoiopMeal  Magazine  for  1876. 


SIEMEN 

English  as  'The  Syren,'  at  Princess's  Theatre, 
Oct  14,  1844.  6. 

SIRMEN,  or  SYRMEN,  Maddalkna  Lom- 
BARDiNi,  a  distinguished  18th-century  vio- 
linist and  composer  for  her  instrument,  who 
later,  for  some  unknown  reason,  discarded  her 
first  profession  for  that  of  singer.  The  date 
of  her  birth,  which  it  is  believed  took  pUoe  at 
Venice  in  1735,  is  uncertain,  and  the  date  of 
death  is  unknown.  According  to  Dr.  Bumey, 
Maddalena  Lombardini  received  her  muacal 
education  at  the  Venetian  *  Conservatorio  dei 
Mendicanti,'  and  ten  or  more  years  before 
Tartini's  death  in  1770,  she  was  profitiiig  by 
his  tuition.  At  this  time  she  probably  lived 
in  Padua,  so  as  to  be  near  her  master,  but  in 
1760  she  had  apparently  returned  to  Venice, 
where  she  received  several  letters  from  him, 
testifying  to  the  keen  interest  he  took  in  her 
career.  The  carefully  written  instructions  as  to 
bowing  and  fingering  which  he  sent  her  in  a 
letter  dated  Padua,  March  5,  1760,  constitute 
a  valuable  treatiM  on  the  art  of  violin- playing. 
This  letter — the  autograph  of  which  is  preservod 
at  Venice — has  been  translated  into  German  by 
J.  A.  HiUer,  and  inserted  in  his  Lebennbrschrri- 
bungen  herUhmier  Musik-geUkrten,  Dr.  Burner's 
excellent  English  version  appeared  in  1 779,  with 
the  original  text  and  the  translation  on  opposite 
pages.  It  was  printed  in  London  *  forR.  Brenmer, 
opposite  Somerset  House  in  the  Strand  -,  by 
George  Bigg,  successor  to  Mr.  Dry  den  Leach.' 
Although  a  copy  of  this  work  is  rarely  met 
with  now,  the  substance  of  the  pamphlet  has 
been  frequently  quoted  and  reprinted  in  fuU  in 
modern  works  on  the  violin.  Between  1760 
and  1768  Maddalena  Lombardini  toured  in 
Italy,  where  she  is  said  to  have  proved  a  worthy 
rival  of  Tartini's  greatest  pupil, — NardinL 
During  her  travels  the  young  virttiosa  met 
Ludovico  Sirmen,  violinist  and  conductor  at 
St.  Maria  Maddalena  in  Bergamo.  The  ac- 
quaintance eventually  ended  in  marriage,  and  a 
visit  to  Paris,  where  the  couple  were  hea^d  at  a 
Concert  Spirituel  on  Monday  August  15,  1768. 
The  Merciire  de  Fratvee  speaks  in  glowing  terms 
of  M.  and  Madame  Sirmen's  execution  of  a 
double  violin  concerto  of  their  own  compoeitiott. 
In  1771,  Signora  Sirmen  came  to  London,  where 
her  d^but  took  place  at  the  King's  Theatre,  on 
Thursday,  Jan.  9.  Bach's  oratorio,  '  Gioas  R^  di 
Giuda '  was  thejpi^  de  r^gistanee  of  the  evening. 
Duport  (cadet)  played  a  violoncello  solo  after 
the  first  Act,  and  in  the  Second  Act,  after  the 
Duettino,  there  was  a  'Concerto  on  the  Violin  by 
the  celebrated  Mrs.  Lombardini  Sirmen.'  Her 
success  in  the  Metropolis  was  apparently  instan- 
taneous, and  was  repeated  on  tiie  lOUi,  16th, 
1 7th,  28rd,  and  24th  of  the  same  month.  Daring 
the  following  Febniary  she  played  frequently 
at  the  highest  class  concerts  in  London.  On 
Feb.  15  she  performed  a  violin  concerto  be- 
tween the  first  and  second  parts  of  Handel's 


SIRMEK 


SISTINE  CHOIR 


473 


*  Judas  Maccabseos '  at  Corent  Gardexii  and  on 
the  20th  between  the  first  and  second  parts  of 
the  'Messiah.'  Her  'Benefit  Concert/  under 
the  direction  of  Messrs.  Bach  and  Abel,  took 
phioe  at  Almack's  on  April  15,  Guadagni, 
Wendling,  Fischer,  and  other  celebrated  artists 
of  the  day  assisted  her ;  but  Madame  Sinnen, 
either  for  a  whim,  or  by  request,  abandoned 
for  this  oocasion  the  instrument  on  which  she 
excelled,  and,  according  to  the  advertisement  in 
the  Ptiblie  Advertiser  of  that  date,  played  *  A 
Concerto  on  the  Harpsichord.'  In  the  month 
of  May  her  services  as  violinist  were  in  constant 
requisition.  She  repeated  her  triumphs  at  the 
King's  Theatre,  and,  besides  playing  her  violin 
concertos,  contributed  some  violin  obbligati  to 
the  songs  of  the  principal  vocalists.  The  Public 
Advtrtiaer  of  May  28,  1771,  announces  *The 
celebrated  Signora  Sinnen  on  the  violin,  being 
her  last  performance  this  Season. '  The  following 
year  the  gifted  lady  returned  to  London,  and 
took  up  her  abode  in  Half  Moon  Street,  Picca- 
dilly. The  high  reputation  she  had  established 
for  herself  ensured  her  a  welcome  on  her  second 
arrival,  and  her  services  were  more  than  ever 
sought  after.  She  appeared  at  nearly  all  the 
Lenten  Oratorio  Concerts  at  Covent  Garden, 
playing  violin  concertos  between  the  parts.  On 
March  26, 1772,  she  had  another  benefit  concert, 
and  on  April  1  she  introduced  a  new  violin 
concerto  by  the  eminent  violoncellist  Signer 
Cirri,  after  the  second  part  of  Handel's  '  Messiah ' 
at  Covent  Garden.  Her  final  appearance  in 
England  is  so  announced  in  the  Public  Advertiser 
of  April  10,  at  the  newly  organised  'Concert 
Spiritnel '  held  in  the  same  building.  Apparently 
this  was  not  only  Signora  Sirmen's  last  perform- 
ance in  England,  but  it  was  the  end  of  her 
brilliant  career  as  a  violinist  Whether  she 
was  unable  to  sustain  the  high  reputation  she 
had  achieved,  or  whether  she  was  drawn  away 
from  her  original  bent  by  the  dazzling  example 
of  Miss  Schmeling  (afterwards  Madame  Mara), 
can  only  be  surmised.  In  any  case  she  came  to 
London  again  in  1774,  and  according  to  Dr. 
Bumey  ^  her  last  visit  to  the  metropolis  was  in 
the  capacity  of  a  singer,  in  which  her  success 
was  questionable.  '  In  "  Sofonisba  "  and  "  The 
Cid  "  '—runs  the  note — *  Madame  Syrmen,  the 
scholar  of  Tartini  who  was  justly  admired  for 
her  polished  and  expressive  manner  of  playing 
the  violin,  appeared  as  a  singer  in  the  second 
woman,  but  having  been  first  woman  so  long 
upon  her  instrument,  she  degraded  herself  by 
assfoming  a  character  in  which,  though  not 
destitute  of  voice  and  taste,  she  laid  no  claim  to 
superiority.'  After  this  unfortunate  attempt 
the  erstwhile  distinguished  violinist  drifted  to 
the  Continent  again,  and  in  1782  she  was  singing 
secondary  parts  at  the  Court  Theatre  in  Dresden. 
In  May  1785  she  made  her  last  recorded  ap- 
pearance as  a  violinist  at  a  Concert  Spiritnel  in 
1  nui.  jifui.  Toi.  111.  p.  800. 


Paris,  but  without  success,  by  reason,  according 
to  the  Mereure  de  France^  of  the  old-fashioned 
and  'worn-out  music  that  she  played.  The 
fulfilment  of  the  brilliant  promise  of  Signora 
Sirmen's  early  career  appears  to  have  been 
arrested  after  her  two  brief  seasons  in  London, 
and  for  this  reason  she  is  chiefly  remembered, 
not  so  much  as  a  violinist,  but  as  the  recipient 
of  Tartini's  notable  letter. 

Her  compositions  comprise : — 

1.  six  trloi  4  denz  Vloloiu  ct  Violoncello  obllg^  CBuTte  Pranler 
(Welck«r  and  G«ii»ud,  Soho).  2.  Six  Qnutettcs  4  deux  Vloluni.  Alto 
et  BaaM  (written  In  oonjonctlon  with  her  hnsbend).  Berault,  Fu-U 
(1700).  alao  Longmiui  *  Broderlp,  London.  8.  Blx  duete  for  two 
Tiolbu  (dedicated  to  the  Duke  of  Olouceater).  WllliAin  Napier, 
London.  4.  Blx  eonoertoi  for  violin  with  en  aooomiMUilment  for  two 
TloUne.  Alto,  Bue,  Hauthc^,  and  two  home.  Hnmmel.  Anuterdaui. 
8.  Six  Sonatee  4  denx  Vlolone.  Hummel,  Amsterdam.  In  the 
Berlin  BibUothek  a  copy  of  theee  Sonatae  la  embeUl»hed  with 
a  picture  of  Maddalena  Slimen.  &  Blx  Concertos  adapted  for 
the  Harpsichord  br  Blgnar  OlordanL  London,  1786.  Longman  * 
Broderlp,  Cheaijalde,  and  No.  8  Haymarket.  J.  A.  HiUer  mentions 
a  Concerto  which  was  pubUahed  in  Venice. 

Bumey,  History  of  Mu^iCt  The  Presetit  State  of 
Music  in  Italy  ;  Castil-Blaze,  L*Opira  Italien  ; 
Choron  and  Fayolle,  DietionTiaire  Hislorique 
des  Musiciens  ;  Mereure  de  France^  Sept.  1768  ; 
Public  Advertiser,  1771,  1772;  F^tis,  Biog. 
des  Mus.,  Quellen-Lexikon,      o.  R.  and  E.  h-a. 

SISTINE  CHOIR  (Ital.  II  Collegia  dei  Cap. 
pellani  Cantori  della  Cappella  Pontificia),  A 
Collegiate  Body,  consisting  of  thirty-two  Choral 
Chaplains,  domiciled — though  not  in  any  special 
buildings  of  their  own — at  Rome,  where,  for 
many  centuries,  they  have  enjoyed  the  exclusive 
privilege  of  singing  at  all  those  solemn  services 
and  ecclesiastical  functions  in  which  the  Pope 
ofiiciates  in  person. 

The  genealogy  of  the  Papal  Choir  may  be 
traced  back  to  a  period  of  very  remote  antiquity. 
It  is  said — and  the  tradition  is  worthy  of  credit 
— that  a  school  for  the  education  of  choristers 
was  founded  in  Rome  early  in  the  4th  century  • 
by  S.  Sylvester,  whose  Pontificate  lasted  from 
the  year  814  to  885.  That  S.  Hilarius  (461- 
468)  established  one,  not  much  more  than  a 
century  later,  is  certain.  These  institutions, 
after  the  lapse  of  another  hundred  years,  were 
supplemented  by  new  ones  on  a  larger  scale. 
On  the  destruction  of  the  monasteiy  of  Monte 
Cassino,  by  the  Lombards,  in  the  year  580, 
the  Benedictine  Fathers  fled-  to  Rome  ;  and, 
under  the  protection  of  Pope  Pelagius  II.  (577- 
590),  established  themselves  in  a  new  home, 
near  the  Lateran  Basilica,  where  they  opened 
schools  for  the  preparation  of  candidates  for 
holy  orders.  S.  Gregory  the  Great  (690-604) 
took  advantage  of  this  circumstance  while 
working  out  his  system  of  reform,  and  turned 
the  seminaries  to  account  as  schools  of  singing. 
Under  his  care  they  prospered  exceedingly, 
and  in  process  of  time  attained  proportions 
which  enabled  them  to  supply  the  various 
Basilicas  with  singers,  who  assembled  on  the 
greater  festivals,  and  attended  the  Pope  wherever 
he  officiated.  And  thus  arose  the  practice  to 
which  the  Church  was  eventually  indebted  for 
the  magnificent  services  of  the  Sistine  Chapel. 


474 


SISTINE  CHOIR 


SISTINE  CHOIR 


These  early  Scholae  Gantorum — sometimes 
called  Orphanotropia,  in  allusion  to  the  number 
of  fatherless  children  which  they  sheltered — <were 
governed  by  an  ecclesiastic,  of  high  rank,  called 
the  Primicerius,  who,  assisted  by  a  Secundi- 
cerios  destined  afterwards  to  succeed  him  in 
his  office,  exercised  absolute  control  oyer  the 
youths  and  children  committed  to  his  care. 
Boys  were  admitted  into  the  preparatory  school 
(Parviaium)  at  a  very  early  age ;  and,  if  of 
gentle  birth,  became,  at  the  same  time,  members 
of  the  papal  household,  holding  a  status  like 
that  of  the  pages  at  a  secular  court  After 
passing  through  the  necessary  preparation,  the 
choristers  were  permitted  to  take  part  in  the 
most  solemn  services  of  the  Church  :  and  when 
their  voices  changed,  were  either  prepared  for 
the  priesthood  or  provided  for  as  Gubicularii. 
The  older  members  of  the  Scholae  were  called 
Subdeacons ;  but  the  title  was  only  an  honorary 
one.  By  their  help  Rome  was  so  liberally 
supplied  mth  singers  that,  on  more  than  one 
occasion,  the  Pope  was  able  to  send  out  skilled 
instructors  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  the 
purest  style  of  ecclesiastical  singing  in  other 
countries ; '  and,  as  we  hear  of  no  important 
modification  of  the  system  before  the  beginning 
of  the  14th  century,  we  are  justified  in  believ- 
ing that  it  fulfilled  its  purpose  perfectly. 

A  great  change,  however,  took  place  dur- 
ing the  Pontificate  of  Clement  V.  (1305-14), 
who  in  the  year  1805  transferred  the  Chair  of 
S.  Peter  to  Avignon,  leaving  his  Primioerius 
and  Schola  Cantorum  behind  him  in  Rome. 
Too  much  oppressed  by  political  and  ecclesi- 
astical troubles  to  devote  his  time  to  the 
regulation  of  details.  Pope  Clement  naturally 
leH;  the  management  of  his  chapel  to  underlings, 
who  suffered  the  music  to  degenerate  to  a  very 
unsatisfactory  level.  His  successor,  John  XXII. 
(1316-34),  issued  in  1323  the  well-known 
Bull,  *Docta  sanctorum,'  for  the  purpose  of 
restraining  his  singers  from  corrupting  the 
simplicity  of  plain-song,  either  by  subjecting 
it  to  the  laws  of  measured  music,  or  by  over- 
loading it  with  ornamentation.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  the  provisions  of  this  Bull  were  fuUy 
carried  out  after  the  decease  of  its  author,  whose 
immediate  successor,  Benedict  XII.  (1334-42), 
was  too  fond  of  splendid  ceremonial  to  raise 
any  strong  objection  to  the  music  sung  by  the 
twelve  Choral  Chaplains  who  officiated  in  his 
private  chapel,  on  the  score  of  its  elaborateness. 
Indeed,  the  management  of  the  choir  employed 
by  Benedict  and  his  successors  at  Avignon 
differed  altogether  from  that  of  the  Roman 
Schola,  which  was  still  carried  on  under  the 
Primicerius.       In   Rome,    the  choristers  were 

>  For  thts  purpoM,  Johu  th»  Fnecviitor  wn*  Mnt  to  Bngland, 
daring  the  PriniAer  of  Theodore,  ArcfabUhop  of  Canterbury  (689- 
6B0).  At  the  request  of  King  Pepin  rTBO-TOS),  Simeon,  the  Seeundi. 
oerins  of  the  Boni»n  Schola.  wm  lent,  in  like  manner,  to  France, 
but  recalled  by  Pope  Paul  I.  in  763,  that  he  might  euecoed  to  the 
office  of  the  then  lately  deoeaaed  Prlmiceriua,  Georgiue ;  while  to- 
vanin  the  cloee  of  the  eameoentary.  two  celebrated  elngers.  Theodoras 
and  Benedlctns.  were  tent  by  Hadrian  I.  (77S-790)  to  CharlemagDC 


taught  on  the  old  traditional  system,  almost 
from  their  infancy.  At  Avignon,  the  most 
welcome  recruits  were  French  and  Flemish 
singers,  who  had  already  earned  a  brilliant 
reputation.  Now,  in  those  days  the  best  singers 
were,  for  the  most  part,  the  best  composers 
also  ;  and  in  the  Low  Countries  the  art  of 
composition  was  rapidly  advancing  towards  a 
state  of  perfection  elsewhere  unknown.  It  fol- 
lowed, therefore,  that  the  choir  at  Avignon  con- 
tained some  of  the  greatest  musicians  in  Europe, 
and  was  indebted  to  them  for  Faux-Boordocs 
and  other  polyphonic  music,  scarcely  ever  beard 
at  that  period  except  in  the  Netherlands. 

In  1377  Pope  Gregory  XI.  (1870-78)  re- 
turned to  Rome,  and  carried  his  choir  wldi 
him.  The  contrast  between  the  rival  schools 
now  became  more  apjiarent  than  ever ;  yet  by 
some  means  they  amalgamated  completely. 
The  probability  is  that  Gregory  himself  nnited 
them,  forming  the  two  choirs  into  one  body, 
which  was  no  longer  called  the  Schola  Cantoram, 
nor  governed  by  a  Primioerius,  but  was  hence- 
forth known  as  the  Collegio  dei  Cappellani 
Cantori,  and  placed  under  the  oommand  of  an 
ecclesiastic  who  held  the  appointment  for  life, 
and  bore  the  title  of  Maestro  della  Cappella 
Pontificia.  The  precise  year  in  which  this 
change  took  place  cannot  be  ascertained ;  thoo|^ 
it  is  certain  that  the  new  title  was  borne  by 
Angelo,  Abbot  of  S.  Maria  de  Rivaldis,  in 
1897 — twenty  years  after  the  return  from  Avi- 
gnon. After  this,  we  hear  of  no  other  Maestro 
till  1464,  when  the  appointment  was  conferred 
upon  Niccola  Fabri,  Governor  of  Rome,  who 
held  it  for  two  years.  From  1469  onwards  the 
list  includes  the  names  of  fourteen  eocledastics, 
of  whom  all,  except  the  last,  were  Bishops. 
The  most  celebrated  of  them  was  Elziario 
Genet,  of  Carpentras,  ^Yescovo  in  partibos' 
(1516-26?),  and  the  last  of  the  series  was 
Monsignor  Antonio  Boccapadule  (1574-86), 
whose  relations  with  the  reigning  Pope,  Sixtos 
y.  (1585-90),  were  disturb^  by  a  misunder- 
standing, particulars  of  which  will  be  found  in 
vol.  iii.  p.  605.  That  the  Pope  was  highly 
incensed  at  the  spirit  of  insubordination  shown 
by  his  Cantori  Cappellani  on  this  occasion  is 
well  known ;  and  it  was  probably  on  this 
account  that,  instead  of  appointing  a  saocessor 
to  Monsignore  Boccapadule,  whom  he  somewhat 
unceremoniously  deposed,  he  issued,  SepL  1, 
1586,  a  Bull  ('  In  suprema '),  by  virtue  of  which 
he  conferred  upon  the  coll^  the  right  of  elect- 
ing, from  among  their  own  body,  an  officer,  to 
whom  was  committed  the  duty  of  governing 
the  choir,  for  three,  six,  or  twelve  months,  or 
in  perpetuity,  according  to  the  pleasure  of  the 
Electors.^  It  was  clear  that  the  Maestri  so 
elected  must  necessarily  be  deprived  of  many 
of  the  privileges  eigoyed  by  the  eoclesiaatical 
dignitaries  who  had  preceded  them ;  bat,  by 

iBalDl,l.p.S7a.VotoSnL 


SISTINE  CHOIR 


SISTINE  CHOIR 


475 


way  of  compensatioD,  they  were  invested  with 
all  which  were  not  inseparable  from  the  status 
of  a  Bishop ;  and  these  were  still  farther  in- 
creased, by  Pope  Clement  XIII. ,  in  the  Bull 
*Cum  retinendi,'  August  31,  1762.  It  was 
ultimately  arranged  that  the  election  should 
take  place  annually,  and  this  custom  has  ever 
since  been  strictly  observed.  The  first  Maestro 
BO  chosen  was  Giovanni  Antonio  Merlo,  who 
served  during  the  year  1587.  Since  his  time, 
the  election  has  always  been  fixed  for  Dec. 
28  ;  and  for  very  many  years  it  has  been  the 
invariable  custom  to  elect  the  principal  bass. 

The  Flemish  singers,  having  once  obtained  a 
recognised  position  in  the  choir,  soon  began  to 
exercise  an  irresistible  influence  over  it,  and, 
through  it,  over  every  other  choir  in  Christendom. 
Among  the  first  of  whom  we  have  any  certain 
account,  was  Guglielmo  Dufay,  the  founder  of 
the  older  Flemish  school,  whose  name  is  men- 
tioned in  the  archives  of  the  Chapel  as  early 
as  1380,  three  years  only  after  the  formal 
settlement  of  the  college  in  Rome ;  whence  it 
has  been  coi^jectured  that  he  first  sang  at 
Avignon,  and  afterwards  accompanied  Pope 
Gregory  XI.  to  Italy.  Dufay  died  in  1482, 
leaving  many  talented  pupils. 

The  number  of  singers,  which  at  Avignon 
had  been  limited  to  twelve,  was  in  the  16th 
century  increased  to  twenty-four,  and  not  very 
long  afterwards  raised  to  thirty- two,  which 
figure  still  represents  the  normal  strength  of 
the  Choir,  though  the  assistance  of  additional 
ripieni  is  sometimes  permitted  on  extraordinary 
occasions.  After  the  formal  admission  of  the 
Netherlandera  the  compositions  sung  in  the 
Papal  Chapel  were  almost  entirely  supplied  by 
the  Cappellani  Cantori  themselves.  The  custom 
was,  when  any  member  of  the  college  had  pro- 
duced a  mass  or  other  great  work,  to  have  it 
roughly  written  out,  and  rehearsed  by  the  entire 
body  of  singers,  who  afterwards  decided  whether 
or  not  it  was  worthy  of  their  acceptance.  If 
the  votes  were  in  its  favour,  the  original  auto- 
graph was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  ScrUtori 
— of  whom  four  were  usually  kept  in  full  em- 
ployment— and  by  them  copied,  in  stencilled 
notes  large  enough  to  be  read  by  the  entire 
choir  at  once,  into  huge  put-books,  ^  formed  of 
entire  sheets  of  parchment,  of  which  a  large 
collection,  richly  illuminated  and  magnificently 
bound,  is  still  preserved  among  the  Archives 
of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  though  a  vast  number 
were  destroyed  in  the  conflagration  which  ensued 
on  the  invasion  of  Rome  by  Charles  V.  in  1527. 

In  the  year  1566  Pope  Pius  IV.  conferred 
upon  Palestrina  the  title  of  Composer  to  the 
Pontifical  Chapel,  with  an  honorarium  of  three 
scudi  and  thirty  baiocchi  per  month.  The  office 
was  renewed,  after  Palestrina's  death,  in  favour 
of  Felice  Anerio,  but  was  never  conferred  on 

1  M mdelMohn,  in  one  of  bi«  letters,  sires  ui  Amiuliu  dewnipilon 
of  one  of  tbcee  enormous  books,  which  be  saw  carried  in  frout  of 
Bainl,  m  he  wmlked.  In  procession,  up  the  nave  of  8.  Peter's. 


any  other  member  of  the  college.  The  most 
famous  musicians  who  sang  in  the  choir,  after 
the  expulsion  of  Palestrina  in  1655,  were  Giov. 
Maria  Kanini,  admitted  in  1577,  Luca  Marenzio 
(1694),  Ruggiero  Giovanelli  (1599),  and  Gre- 
gorio  Allegri  (1629-52).  Adami  also  mentions 
Yittoria,  whose  name,  however,  is  not  to  be 
found  in  any  official  register.  Among  more 
modem  Maestri  the  three  most  notable  were, 
Tommaso  Bai,  who  held  the  office  of  Maestro 
in  1714  ;  the  Cavaliere  Giuseppe  Santarelli — 
Dr.  Bumey's  Mend — who  entered  the  choir  as 
an  artificial  soprano  singer  in  1749,  and  died 
in  1790 ;  and  the  Abbate  Baini,  who  was 
received  into  the  college  in  1795,  became 
Maestro  in  1817,  and  died  in  1844.  By  special 
favour  of  Pope  Gregory  XVI.,  Baini  retained  his 
office  for  life — an  honour  to  which,  as  the 
greatest  ecclesiastical  musician  of  the  19th 
century,  he  was  most  justly  entitled  ;  but  no 
later  Maestro  has  enjoyed  the  same  privilege. 

The  two  settings  of  the  'Miserere'  by  Bai 
and  Baini,  which  for  many  years  past  have 
been  used  alternately  with  that  of  Allegri,  are 
the  only  works  added  to  the  repertory  of  the 
chapel  since  the  death  of  the  last-named 
Maestro.  Indeed,  neither  the  constitution  nor 
the  habits  of  the  college  have,  since  Pales- 
trina, undergone  any  important  change — except, 
perhaps,  in  one  particular,  to  be  mentioned 
presently  ;  and  hence  it  is  that  its  perform- 
ances are  so  infinitely  valuable,  as  traditional 
indices  of  the  style  of  singing  cultivated  at  the 
period  which  produced  the  '  Missa  Papae  Mar- 
celli,'  the  '  Improperia,'  and  the  'Lamentations.' 
Except  for  these  traditions,  the  works  of  Pales- 
trina would  be  to  us  a  dead  letter  ;  under  their 
safe  guidance  we  feel  no  more  doubt  as  to  the 
tempi  of  the  '  Missa  brevis '  than  we  do  con- 
cerning those  of  the  '  Sinfonia  Eroica.' 

The  one  point  in  which  a  change  has  taken 
place  is,  the  selection  of  voices  ;  and  it  is  neces- 
sary to  remark,  that,  as  the  change  did  not  take 
place  until  seven  years  after  Palestrina's  death, 
the  idea  that  we  cannot  sing  his  music,  in 
England,  as  he  intended  it  to  be  sung,  for  lack 
of  the  necessary  voices,  is  altogether  untenable. 
In  early  times,  as  we  have  already  seen,  the 
chapel  was  supplied  with  Soprani,  and  in  all 
probability  with  Contralti  also,  by  means  of  the 
Orphanotropia  or  Scholae  Cantorum,  exactly  as 
English  cathedrals  are  now  supplied  by  means 
of  the  Choristers'  Schools.  That  this  plan  was 
continued  until  quite  late  in  the  1 6th  century 
is  sufficiently  proved  by  the  fact  that,  between 
1561  and  1571,  Palestrina  held  the  joint  offices 
of  Maestro  di  Cappella  and  Maestro  dei  Fanciulli 
di  Coro  at  the  Church  of  St.  Maria  Maggiore, 
while,  between  1589  and  1558  the  post  of 
Maestro  de'  Putti,  at  the  Cappella  Giulia,  was 
successively  filled  by  Arcadelt,  Rubino,  Basso, 
Ferrabosco,  and  Roselli.  During  tlie  latter  half 
of  the  16th  century,  however,  these  youthful 


476 


SISTINE  CHOIR 


SIVORI 


treble  yoices  were  gradually  supplanted  by 
a  new  kind  of  adult  male  Soprano,  called  the 
Soprano  falsetto,  imported,  in  the  first  instance, 
from  Spain,  in  which  country  it  was  extensively 
cultivated  by  means  of  some  peculiar  system 
of  training,  the  secret  of  which  has  never  publicly 
transpired.^  At  the  close  of  the  16th  century, 
Spanish  Soprani  were  in  very  great  request ; 
and  were,  indeed,  preferred  to  all  others,  until 
the  year  1601,  when  a  far  more  momentous 
change  was  introduced. 

During  nearly  the  whole  of  the  17th  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  18th  centuries  the  theatres 
of  Europe  were  supplied  with  adult  male  Soprano 
and  Contralto  voices,  preserved  by  a  process  so 
barbarous,  that  at  one  time  it  was  forbidden  in 
Italy  on  pain  of  death.  Yet,  notwithstanding 
this  penalty  the  system  prospered,  and  enriched 
the  stage  with  many  of  its  most  accomplished 
ornaments,  such  as  Nicolini  Giimaldi,  Senesino, 
Carestini,  Pacchierotti,  Faiinelli,  and  others. 
It  has  been  said  that  Farinelli's  wonderful  voice 
was  accidentally  preserved,  and  the  story  is 
probably  true  ;  for  it  is  certain  that  very  fine 
voices  are  sometimes  preserved  by  accident,  and 
quite  reasonable  to  suppose  that  such  accidents 
may  very  frequently  hap])en,  though  should  the 
sufferers  possess  no  musical  talent  one  is  not 
likely  to  hear  of  them.  In  these  purely  acci- 
dental cases  no  singer,  with  a  good  voice,  has 
ever  been  refused  admission  into  the  Pontifical 
Choir  ;  but  the  transgression  of  the  law,  which 
was  formerly  punishable  ^vith  death,  now  renders 
the  offender  de  facto  excommunicate,  and  there- 
fore effectually  prevents  his  reception  into  the 
Collegio.  One  of  the  most  learned  and  accom- 
plished musicians  in  Rome,  in  command  of 
one  of  its  most  celebrated  choirs,  remembered 
the  admission  of  three  artificial  voices,  accident- 
ally produced,  while  he  was  studying  under 
Baini.  Two  of  them  proved  too  weak  to  be 
used,  except  as  ripieni  ;  but  the  third  developed 
into  a  magnificent  Soprano.  The  trained 
Soprano  falsetto,  which  needs  no  accident  to 
produce  it,  is  not  yet  extinct.^ 

Italian  choirmasters  draw  a  careful  distinc- 
tion between  the  different  voices  they  employ. 
The  Voce  Uanca  or  n/tiurale  is  by  no  means 
uncommon,  but  produces  only  Contralto  singers. 
The  true  adult  Soprano,  arte  fatta  (made  by 
method  3),  is  an  excessively  rare  voice,  produced 
*  rather  in  the  head  than  in  the  chest  or  throat,' 
and  lasting,  generally,  to  extreme  old  age,  to 
the  astonishment  of  the  uninitiated  hearer,  who 
cannot  understand  its  co-existence  with  a  long 
white  beard.  *  The  occurrence  of  such  phenomena 

I  NeTerth«lfl«,  thia  Mcret  doM  not  aeem  to  b«  altogether  loai.  A 
lady  traveller  In  Spain  and  Portugal,  amusingly  expreeeed  her 
Burprlw.  Oil  diaoorerlng  that  certain  high  flate-Ilke  notee,  which 
Khe  believed  to  have  been  produced  by  some  beautiful  young  girl, 
really  emanated  from  the  tbroat  of  a  burly  individual  with  a  huge 
bfark  hfard  and  lekUhmX 

^  These  atntemente  ore  founded  on  information  supplied  to  ua  by 
gentlemen  rraiident  in  Borne,  whoee  high  position  and  lonff  e; 
ence  render  their  evidence  more  than  ordinarily  trustworthy. 

>  i.€.  not  by  operation. 

*  In  Adaml  da  Bolaran'a  Omrvaxtont  (Roma,  1711)  will  be  found 


[pen* 


is,  however,  so  exceptional,  tliat  Pope  Pius  IX. 
founded  the  Scuola  di  S.  Salvatore,  near  St. 
Peter's,  for  the  express  purpose  of  supplying  the 
choirs  of  Rome  with  boys,  subject,  as  in  England, 
to  be  discharged  on  the  breaking  of  their  yoices. 

It  remains  only  to  say  a  few  words  concerning 
the  style  of  singing  practised  by  this  matchless 
choir,  and  the  lessons  to  be  learned  from  it. 

For  the  last  three  centuries  at  least  there  have 
been  preserved  certain  traditional  ornaments 
and  forms  of  expression  which  are  proiband 
mysteries  to  the  uninitiated.  For  instance, 
the  Second  and  Third  Lamentations,  on  the 
three  last  days  in  Holy  Week,  are  sung,  as  is 
generally  supposed,  by  a  high  voice  ;  but,  when 
that  voice  is  too  weak  for  the  task,  it  is  assisted 
by  another,  which,  even  in  the  most  difficult 
Ahhellvnewti  keeps  so  exactly  with  it,  that  the 
two  voices  are  invariably  mistaken  for  one. 
Again,  there  has  long  been  a  traditional  way 
of  making  crescendi  and  diminuendi,  which  haa 
astonished  even  the  most  experienced  choir- 
masters. The  secret  of  this  wonderful  effect 
is,  that,  not  only  the  amount  of  tone  produced 
by  each  individual  voice,  but  the  actual  number 
of  voices  employed,  is  gradually  increased  in 
the  one  case  and  diminished  in  the  other.  The 
marvellous  effects  produced  by  the  '  Miserere ' 
have  already  been  described  at  vol.  iii.  p.  216  ; 
and  those  associated  with  the  'Improperia,'  at 
vol.  ii.  p.  462.  Such  effects  would  no  doubt  be 
condemned  by  English  choirmasters  as  *  tricks  * 
—but  they  are  not  tricks.  No  means  can  be  so 
condemned,  with  justice,  provided  the  effect  they 
produce  be  artistic  and  legitimate.  [A  cata- 
logue of  the  singers  of  the  Cappella  Pontificia  is 
given  in  the  Riv,  Mus.  Ital.  for  1907.1    w.  8.  r. 

SIVORI,  Ernesto  Camillo,  a  great  violinist, 
bom  at  Genoa,  Oct.  25,  1815.  He  b^gan  the 
violin  at  five,  under  Restano,  and  continned  it 
under  Costa,  until  about  the  year  1823,  when 
Paganini  met  with  him,  and  was  so  much  struck 
with  his  talent,  as  not  only  to  give  him  lessons, 
but  to  compose  six  sonatas  and  a  concertino  for 
violin,  guitar,  tenor,  and  violoncello,  which  they 
were  accustomed  to  play  together,  Paganini 
taking  the  guitar.  This  was  sufficient  to  launch 
the  lad  into  Paganini's  style.  [After  a  stay  of 
six  months  in  his  native  dty,  Paganini  left  for 
a  tour  in  Germany  in  1824,  but  before  his  de- 
parture he  demonstrated  the  interest  he  took 
in  young  Sivori  by  desiring  that  he  should 
accompany  him  on  his  travels.  Owing  to  the 
child's  tender  years,  however,  his  parents  refused 
to  abandon  him  to  the  care  of  the  great  violinist. 
This  being  the  case,  Paganini  recommended  the 
elder  Sivori  to  place  his  son  with  his  own 
former  master,  Giacomo  Costa,  and  for  three 
years  this  teacher  guided  the  child's  studies  so 
adroitly  that  when  Paganini  returned  to  Genoa 
in   1827,   he  found  him  well  equipped  as  a 

numerous  portraits  of  Sopnml  and  Contralti,  with  long 
many  of  them  priests. 


SIVORI 


SIVORI 


477 


classical  jilayer.  Though  perfectly  satisfied  with 
the  progress  of  his  prcii^gi,  he  at  the  same  time 
considered  him  lacldng  in  virtuosity,  and  there- 
fore suggested  a  change  from  Costa's  scholastic 
method,  to  the  more  volatile  system  of  his 
intimate  friend  Dellepiane.  Again  the  boy's 
progress  was  astonishing,  and  at  length  his 
father,  conquering  his  objections  to  a  musical 
career  for  his  son,  became  desirous  that  he 
should  make  some  public  appearances  outside 
his  own  country.  Accordingly,  accompanied  by 
his  master  Dellepiane,  Camillo  Sivori  travelled 
first  to  Turin,  where  he  played  at  a  concert  on 
May  3,  1827.  He  next  appeared  at  Susa  on 
the  5th,  Saint  Michel  6th,  Chamb^  7th, 
Lyons  16th,  Paris  18th,  and  made  lus  d^but  in 
London  on  the  25th.  Two  days  later  he  was 
again  in  Paris,  where  the  Duchesse  de  Noailles, 
the  Due  de  Berri  and  most  of  the  dilettanti  of 
the  town  interested  themselves  in  him,  as  did 
likewise  Rossini,  Cherubini,  Baillot,  and  other 
eminent  musicians  of  the  day.  He  gave  a  very 
successful  concert  in  Paris  on  Dec.  4.  In 
1828,  Sivori  repeated  his  first  triumphs  in 
Paris  and  London.  The  autumn  of  the  same 
year  was  spent  by  him  in  touring  in  the 
French  provinces.  After  an  absence  of  eighteen 
months  he  at  length  returned  to  Genoa  in 
January  1829,  and  devoted  himself  earnestly 
to  studying  composition  with  Giovanni  Serra, 
a  profound  theorist  of  the  classical  school,  then 
occupying  the  post  of  musical  director  at  the 
Teatro  Carlo  Felice  in  Genoa.  During  the  year 
1829  Sivori  did  little  else  but  study,  only  acting 
at  intervals  as  Dellepiane's  substitute  at  the 
Teatro  Carlo  Felice,  and  also  at  the  Conservatorio 
when  the  latter  was  taken  ill.  He  generously 
gave  the  entire  benefit  of  these  services  to  his 
old  master,  and  after  Dellepiane's  death  ex- 
tended the  same  charity  to  his  impoverished 
widow  and  child  for  the  space  of  a  year. 
February  1834  found  Sivori  again  in  England 
making  his  d^but  as  a  quartet-player  in  the 
Queen's  Square  ^Select  Society'  meetings  at 
Mr.  Alsager's  house,  and  on  March  28  he 
played  in  the  first  performance  of  Cherubini's 
Requiem.]  He  next  traversed  Italy,  beginning 
with  Florence,  in  1839  ;  then  in  1841  and 
1842  visited  Prague,  Vienna,  Leipzig,  Berlin, 
Frankfort,  Brussels,  St.  Petersburg,  and  Moscow. 
On  Jan.  29,  1843,  he  made  his  rentrie  to  Paris 
with  a  movement  from  a  concerto  of  his  own, 
his  performance  of  which  carried  away  his 
audience  and  procm-ed  him  a  special  medal. 
He  also  made  a  vast  impression  in  chamber- 
music.  [The  brilliantly  successful  appearance 
of  Jan.  29, — when  he  played  his  own  Concerto 
in  £  flat,  Paganini's  Concerto  in  B  minor,  and 
the  same  composer's  'Mo'ise,'  for  the  G  string 
— took  place  at  the  Conservatoire,  and  that 
institution  presented  him  with  its  gold  medal 
of  honour.]  From  Paris  he  went  to  London, 
where  he  made  his  first  appearance  at  the  Phil- 


harmonic in  May,  playing  his  Concerto  in  A  at 
the  same  concerto  on  June  5,  1843,  and  re- 
peating it  on  the  19th  (Spohr  was  in  London 
at  the  same  time) ;  returned  in  1844,  when 
Mendelssohn,  Joachim,  Hall^,  Piatti,  and  Ernst 
were  here  also,  and  iu  1845,  when  he  assisted 
in  the  famous  performances  of  Beethoven's 
Quartets  at  Mr.  Alsager's  house  (see  vol.  L  p. 
72),  played  at  the  Musical  Union  on  June  24, 
etc.  etc.  [Tours  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
and  in  Holland  followed,  and  in  the  ensuing 
year  he  gave  a  concert  at  Brussels  (on  March  12), 
returning  from  thence  to  Paris  and  playing  en 
rotUe  at  Li^ge,  Antwerp,  Ghent,  etc.  The 
season  of  1844  was  again  successfully  occupied 
in  London  with  his  own  concert  at  Her  Majesty's 
Theatre,  an  appearance  at  a  Philharmonic 
concert  under  Mendelssohn :  a  farewell  concert 
at  Hanover  Square  Rooms,  where  he  played  the 
*  Kreutzer  Sonata  *  with  Julius  Benedict — a  per- 
formance which  was  repeated  at  the  Melodists' 
Club — and  numerous  private  engagements.  In 
Augast,  Sivori  in  company  with  Dohler,  Piatti, 
Henry  Russell,  and  Lablache,  jun.,  made  a 
tour  of  Great  Britain.  After  playing  at  Ham- 
burg, he  came  to  London  again  during  the 
season  of  1845.]  In  1846  he  was  again  here  ; 
on  June  27,  played  Mendelssohn's  Concerto  at 
a  Philharmonic  Concert,  and  was  solo  violin  at 
Jullien's  'Concerts  d'£t^.'  He  then  left  for 
America,  in  which  he  remained  till  1850, 
travelling  from  the  Northern  States,  by  Mexico 
and  Panama,  to  Valparaiso,  Rio,  Buenos  Ayi'es, 
and  Montevideo,  and  narrowly  escaping  death 
by  yellow  fever.  In  1 8  6  0  he  returned  to  Genoa, 
and  shortly  after  lost  nearly  all  the  money  he 
had  made  in  the  new  world  by  an  imprudent 
speculation.  In  1851  he  was  again  in  Great 
Britain,  touring  throughout  the  whole  country. 
[In  London  he  played  at  Professor  Ella's  Musical 
Union  concert  with  Golinelli  (pianist)  and  Piatti. 
In  1852  he  played  in  Beethoven's  Triple  concerto 
in  C — with  Piatti  as  violoncellist — at  the  New 
Philharmonic  Society  at  Exeter  Hall  under 
Berlioz's  b&ton.  A  tour  in  Scotland  in  1853 
was  followed  by  a  tour  in  Switzerland,  where 
he  broke  his  wrist  in  an  unfortunate  carriage 
accident  at  Geneva.  On  Dec.  15,  Sivori  played 
at  the  Pergola,  Florence,  returning  to  Genoa  in 
time  for  the  opening  of  the  Teatro  Apollonio. 
1854  brought  a  tour  in  France,  and  the 
following  year,  his  marriage  to  the  actress 
Ortensia  Damain,  after  which  he  toured  in 
Spain,  where  the  Queen  made  him  Knight  of 
the  Order  of  Carlos  III.  From  Spain  he  went 
to  Portugal,  where  the  King  made  him  Knight 
of  the  Order  of  Christ  the  King,  and  in  the 
spring  of  1856  he  made  appearances  in  Belgium, 
Holland,  and  Germany.  In  1857  Sivori  toured 
in  England  with  Piatti,  and  the  fourteen-year- 
old  pianist,  Arthur  Napoleon.]  In  1862  he 
scored  one  more  success  in  Paris  in  the  B  minor 
Concerto  of  Paganini.     In  1864  he  revisited 


478 


SIXTH 


SIXTH 


London,  and  appeared  at  the  Musical  Union 
and  elsewhere.  [In  1869  Sivori  appeared  at 
some  of  the  Monday  Popular  Concerts  in  London, 
and  in  1870  toured  in  France,  after  which  he 
returned  to  Genoa  and  there  led  a  quiet  life 
until  he  passed  away  at  his  house  in  the  Via 
Giulia,  on  Feb.  19,  1894.] 

As  a  man  he  was  always  liked — *  little,  good- 
tempered,  warm-hearted,  intelligent  Camillo 
Sivori '  is  the  description  of  him  by  an  English 
journalist.  He  was  the  only  direct  pupU  of 
Paganini,  and  his  playing  was  that  of  a  virtuoso 
of  the  Paganini  school,  with  a  prodigious  com- 
mand of  difficulties,  especially  of  double-stop- 
ping, second  only  to  his  master.  His  tone  was 
silvery  and  clear,  but  rather  thin.  His  style — 
judged  by  a  classical  standard — was  cold  and 
affected,  and  had  little  real  feeling. 

[HJa  oompgsltloiu  indoda  two  Concertos  for  VloUn  In  B  flat 
■nid  A ;  Capprlodo,  La  0<Sno!ae ;  op.  12,  Taraiitell«  Napolitaine,  VioUu 
and  orcheatoa,  or  piano ;  Deax  duo*  oonoertuiii  for  Pianoforte  and 
VloUn ;  Dnet  for  VloUn  and  Doable  Ban.  written  with  Botteeinl ; 
Fkntaiale  Caprice  in  E ;  Fkntaide  Etnd«,  op.  10 ;  Fant«i*ie,  Flenn 
d«  Naples;  Souvenir  de  Kwnia;  Camaval  de  Chili ;  Camaval  de 
Cuba;  CamaTai  Ain^ricaln;  Tempest  Huaio  (Milan,  I860);  Folies 
Espe^oles :  Variations  on  '  Nel  cor  non  plu  mi  sento '  and  '  Le 
Pirate';  Three  Fantasias  upon  ain  from  *Ia  Bonnambula.'  'I 
Puritani/  'Zapateado';  Vtotasla  on  airs  from  'Un  Ballo  in 
Maiichera,'  '  II  Trovature,'  '  Lucia  dl  lAmmermoor ' ;  Andante 
Spianato ;  '  Trolfl  Bomanees  sans  paroles,'  with  pianoforte  accom- 
paniment.] 

[Heron -Allen,  Camillo  Sivori,  The  Violin 
TiineSf  March  15, 1894,  No.  5,  yol.  i. ;  James,  £. 
(Ph.  and  Lit.  D.),  Camillo  Sivori,  a  Sketch  of 
his  Life,  etc  ;  Bonedit,  G.,  C,  Sivori  ^printed 
from  the  Semaphore,  Marseilles,  March  7, 1854)  ; 
Pierrette t,  AdMe,  Camillo  Sivori(with.  pictures) ; 
Fine,  G.  da,  C.  Sivori  arui F.  Romani)  Phipson, 
T.  L.,  Sketches  aiid  Aiuedotes  of  Celebrated 
Violinists]  Lahee,  H.  C,  Famous  Violinists, 
Musical  Standard,  Feb.  24,  1894 ;  Figaro, 
Paris,  April  1,  1894 ;  Journal  des  D^bats, 
Feb.  28,  1828  ;  SiScU,  Paris,  Feb.  6,  1848  ; 
Moniteur  Universel,  Paris,  Feb.  18,  1843 ; 
British  Minstrel,  vol.  ii  pp.  165-6 ;  F^tis, 
Biog.  des  Mus.'\  o.  ;  with  additions  in  square 
brackets  by  E.  h-a. 

SIXTH.  The  interval  which  embraces  six 
degrees  of  the  scale.  There  are  three  forms — the 
major,  the  minor,  and  the  augmented.  (1)  The 
major  sixth,  as  CA,  contains  9  mean  semitones, 
and  the  ratio  of  its  limiting  sounds  in  the  true 
scale  is  5  :  8.  It  is  a  concord,  and  in  harmony 
is  regarded  as  the  first  inyersion  of  the  minor 
common  chord.  (2)  The  minor  sixth,  as  CAb 
or  EC,  contains  8  semitones,  and  the  ratio  of  its 
limiting  sounds  is  8  : 5.  It  is  also  a  concord, 
and  in  harmony  regarded  as  the  fii-st  inversion 
of  the  miyor  common  chord.  (8)  The  augmented 
sixth,  which  is  arrived  at  by  flattening  the 
lower  or  sharpening  the  upper  extreme  sound 
of  a  major  sixth,  as  Db  B,  or  Ab  Ftf,  contains 
10  semitones,  and  the  ratio  of  the  limiting 
sounds  is  125  :  72.  The  augmented  sixth  is  a 
discord,  and  is  usually  resolved  by  moving  each 
note  a  semitone  outwards  to  the  octave,  the 
sharpening  or  flattening  of  one  of  the  extreme 
sounds  already  implying  a  straining  in  that 


direction.  [See  Habmony.]  Three  forms  of 
the  augmented  sixth  are  distingmshed  by  special 
names  :  when  it  is  accompanied  by  the  major 
third  it  is  caUed  <  Italian'  (see  a)  ;  when  to  this 
is  added  the  augmented  fourth,  it  is  called 
'  French '  (see  b)  ;  and  when  the  m^or  third 
and  fifth  are  present  (c)  it  is  called  *  German.' 
(a)  (6)  (c)  (d) 


The  Neapolitan  Sixth  is  the  name  by  which 
a  chord  consisting  of  a  minor  sixth  and  minor 
third  on  the  subdominant  has  long  been  known  ; 
as  (d)  in  the  key  of  C  minor. 

Theorists,  starting  from  different  radical  as- 
sumptions, suggest  difierent  derivations  for  this 
chord.  Some,  taking  the  mi^or  and  minor  scales 
to  comprise  all  the  notes  which  can  be  used  for 
essential  harmonies,  except  in  the  cases  where 
important  root  notes  in  those  scales  bear  funda- 
mental harmonies  on  such  principles  as  they 
accept,  derive  the  chord  from  a  combination  of 
two  roots  ;  so  that  the  dominant  is  the  root  of 
the  two  lower  notes  which  are  respectively  its 
seventh  and  minor  ninth,  and  the  tonic  of  the 
upper,  which  is  its  minor  ninth.  Others,  ac- 
cepting the  imquestionably  frequent  use  of  some 
chromatic  harmonies  in  relation  to  an  established 
Tonic,  by  many  great  masters,  indicate  the 
major  concord  on  the  minor  or  flat  supertonic 
(as  the  major  common  chord  of  Db  in  relation 
to  the  Tonic  C)  as  one  of  them,  and  hold  the 
*  Neapolitan  sixth '  to  be  its  first  inversion. 
Others,  again,  hold  this  sixth  to  be  found  in  the 
minor  scale  of  the  subdominant ;  and  others, 
yet  further,  that  it  is  merely  produced  by  the 
artificialloweringof  the  sixth  for  artistic  purposes, 
similar  to  the  artificial  sharpening  of  the  fifth 
which  is  commonly  met  with  ;  and  that  its 
object  may  either  be  to  bring  the  supertonic 
melodically  nearer  the  Tonic  in  downward  pro- 
gression, or  to  soften  the  harshness  which  results 
from  the  augmented  fourth  in  the  chord  of  the 
sixth  and  minor  third  on  the  subdominant  of 
the  usual  minor  scale.  In  the  theory  which 
explains  some  chromatic  combinations  as  reflec- 
tions of  the  old  ecclesiastical  modes,  this  chord 
would  spring  from  the  use  of  the  ecclesiastical 
Phrygian,  which  was  the  same  as  the  Greek 
Doric  mode.  c.  H.  h.  p. 

[Concerning  one  chord  of  the  sixth,  that  on 
the  supertonic  of  the  key,  a  good      n  - 

deal  of  doubtfully  authoritatiye  ^  g  j 
teaching  has  been  made  public,  in  •^  ^ 
regard  to  its  use  mainly  in  contrapuntal  work. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  motion  of  all  three 
parts  is  unimpeded  ;  though  the  B  may  usually 
proceed  to  0,  the  keynote,  the  F  moves  quite 
as  often  up  to  G  as  down  to  E.  Tet  a  certain 
school  of  theorists  still  maintain  that  the  chord 
is  the  second  inversion  of  the  dominant  seventh 
with  the  root  left  out.     (See  Prout,  Harmony, 


SJOGREN 


SKENE  MANUSCRIPT        479 


20th  impressioQ,  1903,  p.  106.)  No  explana- 
tion is  offered  concerning  the  freedom  of  motion 
which  is  admittedly  allowed.  The  fact  is  that 
the  chord  was  used  commonly  by  the  polyphonic 
masters  long  before  the  dominant  seventh  was 
considered  as  an  essential  part  of  the  key.  The 
circumstance  that  each  of  the  upper  parts  makes 
a  concord  with  the  lowest  was  held  to  excuse 
the  discord  between  the  two  upper  parts,  and 
the  same  liberty  of  movement  was  given  as  in 
the  case  of  an  undoubted  concord.  Its  occurrence, 
with  this  obvious  freedom  of  motion,  in  com- 
positions of  the  madrigalian  era,  is  too  common 
to  need  citation.] 

SJOGREN,  Emil,  bom  June  6,  1853,  at 
Stockholm ;  studied  first  at  the  Conservatoire 
there,  and  afterwards  at  Berlin  under  Kiel  for 
composition  and  Haupt  for  the  organ.  In 
1884-85  he  made  tours  through  Europe,  visiting 
Vienna,  Munich,  Venice,  and  Paris.  During  a 
stay  at  Meran,  he  was  for  six  months  imder  the 
influence  of  Lange  Miiller,  which  affected  his 
work  veiy  deeply.  Since  1891  Sjogren  has  been 
organist  at  the  Yohaunes-kyrka  at  Stockholm, 
where  he  has  been  employed  in  teaching,  and  in 
composition  of  all  kinds  ;  chiefly  for  piano  solo, 
violin  and  piano,  and  songs.  He  is  a  composer 
whose  works  do  not  display  the  almost  exclus- 
ively Scandinavian  character  of  Grieg  ;  but  who 
shows  an  infusion  of  German  ideas.  Among  his 
beet -known  works  are  'Der  Contrabandista,' 
op.  9,  for  bass  voice ;  *  Erotikon,'  op.  10,  for  piano ; 
Novelettes,  op.  14,  for  piano ;  the  three  Sonatas, 
op.  1 9,  op.  24,  op.  32,  in  G  minor,  E  minor,  and 
G  minor,  for  violin  and  piano ;  the  two  sonatas, 
op.  85  and  op.  44,  in  £  minor  and  A  major 
for  piano.  Besides  these  Sjogren  has  written 
a  great  number  of  melodies,  and  detached  pieces 
for  the  piano,  but  up  to  the  present  time  (1907) 
he  has  not  produced  any  compositions  in  the 
symphonic  style.  He  has  also  written  much  for 
the  voice,  as  well  as  many  pieces  for  the  organ.  His 
music  shows  a  certain  amount  of  Scandinavian 
style,  coupled  with  a  warm  emotionalism  which 
is  derived  from  more  southern  countries,    d.  h. 

SKENE  MANUSCRIPT.  A  collection  of 
airs,  chiefly  Scottish,  though  with  a  consider- 
able admixture  of  foreign  dance  tunes  and 
English  vocal  melodies,  supposed  to  have  been 
written  at  various  dates  between  1615  and 
1635.  In  1 8 1 8  the  MS.  came  into  the  possession 
of  the  Faculty  of  Advocates,  Edinburgh,  along 
with  a  charter  chest  of  documents,  by  bequest 
from  Miss  Elizabeth  Skene  of  Curriehill  and 
Hallyards  in  Midlothian.  She  was  the  last 
representative  in  line  of  the  family,  and  great- 
great-granddaughter  of  John  Skene  of  Hallyards, 
who  died  in  1644,  and  was  the  original  possessor 
and  probably  also  the  writer  of  some  parts  of 
the  MS.  It  consisted  originally  of  seven 
distinct  parts,  but  these  have  since  been  bound 
together,  and  now  form  one  tiny  oblong  volume 
6^  inches  by  4^.     It  is  written  in  tablature 


for  a  lute  with  five  strings.  As  amateur  scribes 
however  were  rarely  correct,  either  in  their 
barring  or  in  marking  the  lengths  of  the  notes, 
a  translator  into  modem  notation  requires 
much  patience,  as  well  as  knowledge  and 
ingenuity,  to  decipher  and  correct  the  un- 
certainties of  these  MSS.  In  the  present 
instance  the  work  of  translation  was  undertaken 
by  George  Farquhar  Graham,  whose  fitness  for 
the  task  is  sufficiently  shown  by  the  article 
'  Music '  which  he  wrote  for  the  7  th  edition  of 
the  Emcydopcedia  Britannica.  In  1838  Mr. 
William  Dauney,  F.S.A.Scot,  urged  by  his 
friends  and  encouraged  by  the  members  of  the 
Bannatyne  and  Maitland  Clubs,  published  the 
translation  in  4to  with  a  very  learned  prelimin- 
ary dissertation  on  the  music  of  Scotland,  and 
an  appendix  by  Finlay  Dun  containing  an 
analysis  of  the  structure  of  Scottish  music. 
[See  Dauney,  vol.  i  p.  6646.] 

The  MS.  contains  115  airs  ;  of  these  85  were 
published,  11  were  found  to  be  duplicates,  and 
the  rest  were  rejected  as  being  either  unintel- 
ligible or  uninteresting.  The  airs  of  Scottish 
origin  appear  to  be  about  45,  of  which  25  were 
previously  unknown.  Many  of  the  latter  are 
no  doubt  sufiiciently  commonplace  in  style,  but 
a  few  are  really  fine  melodies,  worthy  of  a  place 
in  our  present  collections,  and  worthy  of  the 
attention  of  rising  poets.  In  some  instances 
the  airs  are  in  a  simple  unadorned  vocal  state, 
a  few  being  even  pentatonie ;  of  which  '  Lady 
Eothiemay'sLilt,'  *Lady Laudian's  Lilt,'  and  the 
first  part  of  '  Kilt  your  coat,  Maggie,'  may  be 
named  as  examples.  In  most  cases  the  first 
half  strain  of  the  air  is  simple,  the  repetition 
more  florid ;  this  is  frequently  followed  by 
variations — or  divisions  as  they  were  then  called 
— consisting  of  scale  and  other  passages  well 
fitted  to  show  the  dexterity  of  the  player. 
Like  many  other  Scots  tunes,  a  considerable 
number  of  the  airs  are  either  pentatonie  or 
modal  as  regai'ds  their  scale. 

The  fact  of  so  many  duplicates  being  found 
in  the  MS.  has  caused  the  remark  to  be  made 
that  the  seven  parts  must  have  belonged  to 
different  individuals.  Nothing  can  be  inferred 
as  to  the  date  of  either  part.  Part  III.,  how- 
ever, differs  from  the  others  in  certain  respects, 
and  not  improbably  belonged  to  some  other 
member  of  the  family.  It  is  written  for  a  lute 
tuned  CFADG,  all  the  others  being  for  a  lute 
tuned  ADADA.  The  only  air  that  is  said  to 
bring  the  MS.  down  to  a  later  date  than  has 
been  claimed  for  it  (1685)  occurs  in  Part  VI. 
and  is  named  *  Peggie  is  ouer  the  sie  with  the 
souldier.'  This  is  the  tune  of  an  English  ballad 
included  in  the  catalogue  issued  by  Thackeray 
in  1689.  There  is  a  copy  of  the  ballad,  printed 
about  1655,  in  the  Euing  collection  of  Glasgow 
University,  and  a  still  earlier  copy  in  the  Rox- 
burghe  Ballads  ;  and  we  leani  from  Chappell's 
list  of  the  publishers  of  black-letter  ballads 


480        SKENE  MANUSCRIPT 


SKETCH 


that  its  date  is  from  1620  to  1629,  both  prior 
to  the  date  claimed  for  the  MS.  The  simple 
Skene  versions  of  some  of  our  old  melodies,  two 
of  which  liave  already  been  given  in  this  work 

Esee  Scottish  Music],  show  how  little  we  really 
:now  of  the  early  forms  of  our  airs.  The  dis- 
covery in  this  MS.  of  these  and  of  some  other 
tunes,  otherwise  unknown  until  the  middle  of  the 
following  century,  proves  that  iirst  appearance 
in  print  is  no  guide  whatever  to  actual  age.  The 
appearance  also  in  it  of  so  many  as  25  previously 
unknown  airs  leads  to  the  belief  that  the  loss 
of  ancient  melodies  may  have  been  as  great 
even  as  that  of  songs,  in  regard  to  which  Ritson, 
in  a  letter  to  George  Paton,  after  enumerating 
about  120,  adds  that  he  believes  he  has  the 
names  of  as  many  more,  none  of  which  he  had 
ever  been  able  to  recover.  Several  of  the  parts 
of  the  Skene  MS.  contain  airs  which  date  them- 
selves ;  such  as  Ostend  (taken  1604) ;  Prince 
Henry's  masque  (1610) ;  Lady  Elizabeth's 
masque  (1613). 

List  of  the  115  tunes  coiUauied  in  the 
seven  parts  of  the  Skene  MS. 

The  first  row  of  iigures  shows  the  order  in 
which  they  appear  in  the  original ;  the 
second  is  that  of  Mr.  Dauney's  volume.  The 
asterisks  point  out  the  duplicates,  and  the 
figures  after  the  names  show  their  place  in 
the  MS.  The  omitted  tunes  are  marked  by 
daggers.  The  double  dagger  in  the  first  line 
of  figures  between  29  and  30  shows  the  place 
of  a  tune  omitted  in  Mr.  Dauney's  list. 


1.  88. 
%  40. 

8.  78. 

i.  10. 
B.  83. 
&  8. 
7.  41. 
a    t 

9.  BO. 

10.  t 

11.  80. 

12.  47. 

13.  80. 
li.  90. 
IB.  68. 

16.  42. 

17.  78. 

18.  36. 

19.  t 
90.64. 

21.  22. 

22.  20. 

23.  0. 

24.  67. 


PABT  I.    (a4leaT«s.) 

Dctlh  111  jii[i  ILm>uX«, 

Of""    "      '    aliifw, 

Lo  iliE  iii4n. 

Tfa  fAdi<<. 

M]  '  '^-^tv  U  fjhnlMl  fn  me. 

II..-  fa  v^.nr  VelTf  J  h  fct  Lb.     NB. 

Flt'i  1 31  riii  Inchi  nsA  nuii'  of  It. 

A  IrrTlL-ll  ¥Olt. 

La  I  h   Kl  lu^wth'!  Mji4k«. 

Kc^/'   UolrdlB, 

TY  1 1  n  pwtani  Cnrrfciid,     •  t/L 

Jo:   I-  tbif  pL^ntj^nn. 

CoMi-'linnii  ukukc 

Ad    r>,,iLplJlt. 

8o' t^T«<nu.  HjukflL 

Jo!.  k  CltfTHwrjDeft  pEiit  a(  vlnt. 

I  c  iiiii'.Ht  tlufjtacl  wmnt  ih*^ 
I  itmtt  \tmr  In  th*  iitucli^we. 
Pwttie  *cll  IwtflLQU  »IA|U 

Pritifv  lli!iireii  MAJlif.    riota  quod  Sklne. 


PART  II. 


(8  leave*.) 
(Fragment.) 


9B.    t    lAdy  wilt  thou  love  i 
96.  37.  The  Lus  o  Olaflsuwe. 

27.  2S.  Shoe  loolu  m  shoe  wold  lett  me. 

28.  1.  Alace  yat  I  came  owr  the  moor  and  left  my  loTe  behind 

me.    •42. 

29.  84.  Bone  Jeane  makU  melklll  of  me. 

t   27.  Let  never  cmeltle  dlihononr  bewtle. 
SO.  17.  My  love  she  wlnna  not  her  away. 

31.  18.  Jeimet  drink*  no  water. 

PABT  III.    (12  leavn.) 

32.  81  A  Prenche. 

83.    •  ScerdiutU.    86. 

34.    •  My  Ladle  Bothemaye*  Lilt.    96. 

88.  21.  Blue  breikt. 

86.  t  Aberddna  Curraud. 

87.  •  ScnlllonM.    83. 

88..  lA.  My  Udle  Lftudlana  Ult    •»!. 

.«.  .-».  Lesleia  Lilt. 

40.  29.  The  Kelkinf  Glawe. 


41.  8.  To  dance  about  the  Balliele  dubb. 

42.  *    I  left  my  love  behind  me.    28. 

43.  12.  Alace  this  night  yat  we  raid  sluder. 

44.  68.  Pitt  on  your  ehlrt  (mail)  on  Monday.    •  66. 
46.    t   Horreie  Oalslanl.    •  19  (both  omitted). 

46.  28.  I  dowe  not  quune  (when)  cold. 

47.  33.  My  mlstrea  bludi  U  bonle. 

48.  *   I  long  for  her  verginitle.    7. 
40.     t    A  Saraband. 

60.    *    Tnuupeten  Cnmnt  (anonynunu).    13. 


PABT  IV.    (121eavae.) 
70.  What  if  a  day. 
77.  Floodia  of  tears. 
66.  Nightingale. 
74.  The  wiUow  trie. 
66.  Marie  me  marie  me  quoth  the  bonie  laaa. 

t   My  Lord  Haye'e  Cumnd. 

t   Jeane  la  beet  of  ouie. 
72.  What  hish  offenoee  hee  my  (air  love  taken. 

t    Alroau  Nicholaa. 
64.  Currand  Boyal  (Sir  John  Hope*  CnmuKl). 
46.  Huuter'e  Carrier. 

6.  Blue  ribbeun  at  the  bound  rod. 
49.  I  eerue  a  worthle  ladle. 


84.  8a  Otnariee. 


PABT  V.    (22  leavee.) 


Pitt  on  your  ehlrt  (mail)  on  Monday.    44. 

66.  71.  Bcerduatie.    •SS. 

67.  60.  She  mowplt  it  coming  owr  the  lie. 

68.  24.  Adew  Dundie. 

89.  81.  Thrie  eheipa  ikinna. 

70.  66.  Chrichtone  gud  nieht. 

71.  28.  Alaoe  I  He  my  alon  I  am  Uk  to  die  awld. 

72.  *    I  love  for  love  again.    98. 

73.  78.  Sinoopae  (Clnqne-paoe). 

74.  66.  Almane  Delorue. 

76.  61.  WTin  !i«imr-.1  v.-  u-  dance  and  a  towdlet 

76.  19.  B«i  <i   fn-'  II..    Li  .:tv>niuge. 

77.  t    L(iM-  .-  ^  |.,^...iir  hi  Taine. 

78.  96.  I  n^LT.^  n-;  ^.fr  I  lore  thee. 

79.  t   My  t^ml  Ulurw4]9i  Currand. 

80.  83.  BtmhtIU  ^^f  Tok-tu. 

81.  63.  PliLutal>nip. 

82.  87.  Alj4.'  AlTJiiuie  Morel  m. 

83.  81.  8cu]llork«.    *ri. 

84.  •    Mv  l^adjr  I^iidiAna  Lilt.    38. 
86.    t   Qtbt-LiJiCyrrnid. 

PABT  VL    (10  leaves.) 

86.  61.  Then  wilt  thou  goe  and  leave  me  her. 

87.  48.  I  will  not  goe  to  my  bed  Ull  I  auld  die. 

88.  13.  The  Flowree  of  the  Forest. 

89.  82.  The  fourth  measur  of  the  Bufflns. 

90.  89.  Shackle  of  Hay. 

91.  82.  Com  love  lett  us  walk  into  the  Springr. 

92.  46.  8a  merrie  as  we  have  bdn. 

93.  11.  Kilt  thy  coat  Magge.  cilt  thy  coat  U. 

94.  76.  tihipeherd  saw  thou  not. 

96.    2.  Peggie  la  ouer  ye  ale  wi  ye  aouldier. 

96.  4.  Udye  Bothem«yes  LUt    •9*, 

97.  82.  Omnia  vincit  amor. 

98.  6.  I  love  my  love  for  love  again.    *  72. 
90.  li.  Ostend. 

100.     t    Sir  John  Moresona  Cumuit. 
lOL    t    Preludlum. 

PABT  VIL    (14  leavw.) 
102.    t    Bxerciae*. 
108.  44.  Gilereichs  LUt. 
104.  43.  Blew  oappe. 

106.  80.  I^y  CaasUla  Lilt. 

108.  •   BlewBrelka.    36. 

107.  32.  Post  Ballangowue. 

106.    7.  John  Anderaonne  my  Ja 

109.  16.  Good  night  and  God  be  with  you. 

110.  t    ASanbaode. 

111.  t   Lik  as  the  dum  Solseqnium. 

112.  t   Come  aueat  love  lett  sorrow  cease, 
lis.  79.  VeseSetta. 

Hi.    t    A  Sarabande.  j^   jj^  .^y^ 

SKETCH  (ItaL  Schizzo ;  Germ.  Skizze ;  Fr. 
Esquisse).  I.  This  name  is  strictly  applied  to 
the  preliminary  jotting  down  of  a  musical  idea, 
or  to  memoranda  of  special  points  of  develop- 
ment or  orchestration,  used  by  composers  in  the 
process  of  bringing  their  works  to  perfection. 
To  analyse  the  various  books  of  extant  sketches 
by  great  masters  would  lie  outside  the  scope 
of  this  Dictionary ;  we  may  point  out  that 
various  sketch-books  of  Beethoven  have  been 
published,  which  are  essential  to  a  knowledge 
of  his  methods  of  working. 

II.  A  short  movement,  usually  written  for 
the  pianoforte,  and  deriving  its  name,  in  some 
cases,  from  its  descriptive  character,  in  others. 


SLIDE 


SLIDE 


481 


from  the  alightness  of  its  construction.  Men- 
delssohn's three  little  Capriccios,  written  in 
Wales  for  the  cousins  of  Professor  Taylor,  and 
now  known  as  op.  16,  have  also  been  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  Sketches,  and  may 
fairly  lay  claim  to  it,  though  it  was  not  given 
to  them  by  the  composer  himself.  Schumann's 
four  '  Skizzen '  for  the  pedal-pianoforte  (op.  58), 
are  of  an  altogether  different  class,  and  derive 
their  name  from  the  composer's  modest  appre- 
ciation of  *their  calibre ;  and  Sterndale  Bennett's 
three  sketches  (op.  10),  <The  Lake,'  'The  Mill- 
stream,'  and  *  The  Fountain,'  are  among  his  best 
and  most  popular  works.  w.  s.  R. 

SLIDE.  L  (Ger.  Sehlei/er ;  Fr.  Cauli).  An 
ornament  frequently  met  with  in  both  vocal  and 
instrumental  music,  although  its  English  name 
has  fallen  into  disuse.  It  consists  of  a  rapid 
diatonic  progression  of  three  notes,  either  ascend- 
ing or  descending,  of  which  the  principal  note, 
or  note  to  be  ornamented,  is  the  third,  and  the 
other  two  are  grace-notes,  and  are  either  written 
of  small  size  (Ex.  1),  or,  in  old  music,  indicated 
by  an  oblique  line  drawn  towards  the  principal 
note  from  the  note  preceding  (Ex.  2). 

1.  Beethovest,  Bagatelle,  Op.  119,  No.  6. 


WHUtn. 


Occasionally,  as  in   the   Fitzwilliam  Virginal 
Book,  the  slide  is  indicated  by  a  line  crossing  the 
stem  of  the  note  diagonally : — 
WrUUn,  Played, 

Another  method  of  indicating  it  is  by  means 
of  a  direct  (vr)  placed  upon  the  degree  of  the 
stave  on  which  the  slide  is  to  commence,  and 
having  its  right  extremity  prolonged  so  as  to 
extend  to  the  position  of  the  princi|)al  note 
(Ex.  3).  The  short  notes  of  the  slide  are  always 
executed  within  the  value  of  the  principal  note, 
and  not  before  it,  and  any  note  which  may 
accompany  it  must  fall  together  with  the  first 

VOL.  IV 


note,  as  in  Ex.  8.    The  accent  is  on  the  principal 
note. 

8.       Bach,  Suite  Fran^aise,  No.  3. 


.Wriitvfi, 


When  a  note  followed  by  another,  one  degree 
above  or  below  it,  is  ornamented  by  a  Nach- 
SCHLAO  of  two  notes  [vol.  iii.  p.  346,  Ex.  8],  the 
small  notes  present  exactly  the  appearance  of  a 
slide  to  the  second  large  note,  and  thus  a  mis- 
apprehension as  to  the  proper  rendering  might 
arise.  For  according  to  the  invariable  rule  of 
all  grace-notes,  the  small  notes  of  the  Nachschlag 
would  be  executed  during  the  latter  portion  of 
the  value  of  the  first  large  note  (Ex.  4),  but 
those  of  the  slide  not  until  the  commencement 
of  the  second  (Ex.  5).  Properly,  a  slur  should 
be  introduced  to  connect  the  grace-notes  with 
their  own  ^principal  note,  as  in  the  examples ; 
this  prevents  the  possibility  of  mistake,  but  in 
the  absence  of  the  slur — and  it  is  frequently 
omitted— the  performer  must  be  guided  by  his 
own  judgment. 


4.  Nachschlsg. 
Wfitteti, 


5.  Slide. 


Sometimes  the  first  note  of  a  slide  is  sustained 
for  the  duration  of  the  whole.  In  old  muslo  this 
was  indicated  by  writing  the  extreme  notes  of 
the  slide  on  a  single  stem,  and  drawing  an 
oblique  line  between  them,  either  upwards  or 
downwards,  according  to  the  direction  of  the 
slide  (Ex.  6).  In  modem  music  the  same  thing 
Is  expressed  (though  not  very  accurately)  by 
means  of  a  tie  (Ex.  7). 


WrUten, 


7.  Schubert,  'Momens  Musicals,'  No.  8. 
Vritten. 


'%L!^^=&f^^^^ 


Slides  of  greater  extent  than  three  notes  are 
not  infrequent ;  groups  of  three  notes  leading  to 
a  principal  note  are  often  met  with  (Ex.  8),  and 
slides  of  four  and  even  more  notes  occasionally 
(Ex.   9).      This  extended  slide  is  sometimes 

2l 


482 


SLIDE 


SLIDE 


called  Tirade  or  Tiraia  (from  tirare  to  draw,  or 
to  shoot).  E.  W.  Wolf,  in  his  Musikalische 
Unterriehi  (Dresden,  1788),  calls  such  passages 
*  sky-rockets.* 

8.  Meye&beeb,  'Boberto.' 


ft       Hummel,  <  Pianoforte- SchooL' 
Written. , 


Besides  the  above,  a  more  complicated  kind  of 
slide  is  mentioned  by  Emanuel  Bach  and  others, 
called  the  dotted  slide,  in  which  the  first  grace- 
note  received  the  addition  of  a  dot.  Its  execution, 
however,  varies  so  considerably — as  is  proved  by 
the  two  examples  by  Emanuel  Bach,  selected 
from  a  variety  of  others  (Ex.  10) — that  the  sign 
has  never  met  with  general  acceptance,  although 
the  ornament  itself,  written  out  in  notes  of 
ordinary  size,  is  of  constant  occurrence  in  the 
,  works  of  the  great  masters  (Ex.  1 1). 


10.     Written. 


Played, 


Haydn,  *  Sonata  in  G.' 


^      F.  T. 

II.  (Fr.  Glissade  or  PorU  de  Voix;  Ital. 
Portamento, )  To  violinists  the  '  slide '  is  one  of 
the  principal  vehicles  of  expression,  at  the  same 
time  affording  a  means  of  passing  from  one  note 
to  another  at  a  distance.  The  rules  governing 
the  *  slide'  are  not  restricted,  as  its  use  and 


effect  entirely  depend  upon  the  judgment  of 
the  player,  but  the  following  directions  are 
generally  observed  : — (1)  A  *■  slide '  is  effected 
by  allowing  the  finger  already  upon  the  string 
to  move  up  or  down  to  within  a  fourth  or  third 
of  the  new  note.  Care  should  be  taken  to  keep 
the  fingers  strictly  within  the  range  of  each  new 
position.  Another  kind  of  *  slide '  is  made  by 
moving  the  finger  over  two  or  more  adjoining 
semitones,  without  interruption. 

In  imitation  of  the  matchless  leffaio-vrhich.  the 
human  voicealone  can  attain,  violinists  frequently 
employ  a  *  slide'  limited  to  adjoining  notes. 
A  thinl  *  slide '  is  entirely  of  a  brilliant  type, 
and  belongs  to  the  virtuoso^  par  excellence^ 
having  originated  with  PaganinL  It  consists 
in  executing  chromatic  passages,  singly  or  in 
thirds,  octaves,  or  other  combinations,  entirely 
with  the  same  fingers.  Paganini's  music  abounds 
in  this  species  of  'slide,'  as  also  do  the  com- 
positions of  the  masters  of  the  Belgian  and 
French  school,  who  adopted  his  methods. 
This  *  slide '  did  not  come  into  general  use  until 
the  end  of  the  18th  century  or  beginning  of  the 
19th.  Yet  its  sister  acquirements,  the  tremolo, 
and  shift,  were  known  to  violinists  a  century 
earlier.  Mersenne  (Harm.  Universellt,  1686) 
speaks  with  delight  of  such  professional  violin- 
ists as  'les  Sieurs  Bocan,  Lazarin,'  and  others, 
who  employed  a  certain  *  tremblement  qui  ravi- 
sient  I'esprit,'  and  the  same  author  mentions  the 
violinists  who  could  mount  to  the  octave  on 
every  string.  Notwithstanding  the  lack  of  any 
direct  mention  of  the '  slide '  previous  to  the  1 8th 
century,  the  following  remark  by  Jean  Bousseau 
in  his  Traitd  de  la  Violc  (1 680),  might  indicate 
that  the  eminent  viola  da  gamba  player,  Hott- 
man,  was  acquainted  with  it.  .  .  .  'It  was 
he '  (Hottman),  says  Rousseau,  '  who  in  France 
first  composed  melodies  {jnhces  d^harmonie)  regu- 
lated for  the  viol,  so  as  to  make  the  effect  of 
beautiful  singing  (heaux  efiants)  in  imitation 
of  the  voice.'  Corelli  in  the  first  half  of  the 
17th  century  founded  the  correct  position 
and  independence  of  the  left  hand,  but  it  is 
doubtful  whether  he,  or  his  immediate  successors, 
knew  the  use  of  the '  slide. '  Even  at  the  beginning 
of  the  18th  century  the  generality  of  violinists 
relied  mostly  upon  every  species  of  turn  and 
flourish  to  give  expression  to  their  playing.  To 
the  'Beat,*  'Back  Fall,'  'Double  Backfall,' 
*  Springer, '  etc. ,  writers  of  violin  methods  devoted 
elaborate  attention,  and,  curiously  enough,  as 
though  foreshadowing  the  coming  of  the  ' slide,' 
these  very  turns  were  in  France  called  by  the 
name  now  employed  in  that  country  for  its  English 
equivalent,  i.e.  Forte  de  Voix.  Neither  Leopold 
Mozart  nor  Oeminani  in  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century  mentions  the  'slide,'  but  like  their  pre- 
decessors consider  good  taste  entirely  dependent 
on  the  judicious  employment  of  turns.  But  with 
Viotti's  advent,  and  his  establishment  of  the 
French  School,  the  old  methods  began  to  give 


SLIDE 


SLUR 


483 


vr&y  to  a  truer  mode  of  expression  which  found 
its  medium  in  the  change  of  position  on  the  same 
string.  Yiotti's  most  gifted  pupil,  Rode,  was 
particularly  devoted  to  this  method  of  playing 
tender  phrases,  and  no  yiolinist  cultivated  it 
more  carefully  than  Rode's  imitator  and  admirer 
Spohr.  The  compositions  of  the  latter  are  full 
of  examples  of  the  *  slide '  in  its  most  classical 
form,  and  his  Violin  School  contains  some  of 
the  best  instructions  and  examples  of  the  art 
to  be  found. 

Huet,  Felix,  Etudes  sur  les  DiffereTttes  £cole8 
de  Tiolon;  Geminani,  F.,  7%e  Art  of  Playing  the 
Violin  ;  Bailliot,  P.,  LArtdu  Violon  ;  Cartier, 
J.  B.,  l0*Art  du  Violon  ;  Mersenne,  JIarmonie 
Universelle  ;  Rousseau,  Jean,  TraiU  de  la  Viole, 
La  Ckronique  MtLsicale^  August  1873,  *Un 
Virtuose  en  1682';  Scudo,  P.,  La  Musiqtie 
Ancienne  et  Modeme  ;  Spohr,  Violin  School ; 
Playford,  John,  An  Introduction  to  the  Skill  of 
Musick,  o.  R. 

IIL  A  contrivance  fitted  in  some  form  or 
other  to  nearly  all  wind  instruments  for  the 
purpose  of  adjusting  the  pitch  by  altering  the 
length  of  the  vibrating  air-column.  It  is  also 
applied  in  a  special  form  to  trombones  and  to 
some  trumpets  for  the  purpose  of  filling  up 
those  notes  of  the  chromatic  scale  which  lie 
between  the  various  harmonics  or  '  open '  notes. 
For  this  particular  use  of  the  slide  principle 
see  Trombone  and  Trumpet, 

For  the  attainment  of  the  first  object  the 
slide  may  be  simple,  as  on  the  flute,  or  U-shaped, 
as  is  usual  on  brass  instruments.  As  the  slide 
is  used  only  for  the  general  a(^ustment  of  pitch, 
it  should  not  move  too  freely,  in  case  the  setting 
should  be  accidentally  altered.  In  instruments 
such  as  the  flute  and  clarinet,  the  speaking 
length  of  which  varies  with  the  opening  of  the 
diflerent  side-holes,  any  permissible  alteration 
of  pitch  by  means  of  the  tuning-slide,  or  its 
equivalent  in  the  form  of  socketed  joints,  is 
necessarily  small.  The  reason  for  this  is  that 
the  length  added  by  the  extension  of  the  slide 
cannot  bear  a  uniform  proportion  to  the  virtually 
different  lengths  of  the  instrumentas  determined 
by  the  diflerent  side-holes ;  therefore,  no  con- 
siderable alteration  of  pitch  can  be  obtained  on 
such  an  instrument  without  throwing  it  out 
of  tune  within  itself.  This  apparently  trifling 
matter  is  practically  important,  and  the  want 
of  apprehension  of  it  has  led  many  to  under- 
estimate the  difficulty  and  cost  of  carrying  out 
such  a  change  of  pitch  as  was  determined  on  by 
the  Philharmonic  Society  of  London  in  1896, 
when  the  present  (low)  pitch  was  introduced. 
The  slow  progress  of  the  change  is  largely  due 
to  the  limitation  of  the  eflBciency  of  the  slide, 
and  the  consequent  need  of  new  instruments 
constructed  to  the  required  pitch. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  adapt  the 
shifting  slide  as  used  on  the  trombone,  to  the 
French  horn,  but  the  particular  proportions  of 


this  instrument  and  others  of  the  horn  type 
do  not  admit  of  a  successful  application  of  the 
slide  in  this  way.  d.  j.  b. 

SLIVINSKI,  Joseph  von,  bom  at  Warsaw, 
Dec.  15,  1865,  studied  at  Warsaw  Conserva- 
torium  under  Strobl ;  at  Vienna  with  Leschetizky 
for  four  years ;  and  finally  with  Rubinstein  at 
St.  Petersburg.  His  first  appearance  in  public 
was  in  1890,  and  he  was  not  long  in  finding 
his  way  to  England,  where  he  first  appeared  at 
a  recital  of  his  own  in  St.  James's  Hall,  May  1 7, 
1892.  In  January  1893  he  played  at  one  of 
Henschel's  London  Symphony  Concerts;  at  the 
Crystal  Palace,  March  4 ;  and  at  the  Philharmonic, 
March  9  of  the  same  year.  In  the  following 
November  he. made  his  first  appearance  in  New 
York.  His  playing  is  remarkable  for  poetical 
feeling,  as  well  as  for  surprising  brilliance  of 
touch.     (Baker's  ^io^.  Diet,  of  Mus,  etc.)      M. 

SLOW  MOVEMENT.  A  generic  term  for 
all  pieces  in  slow  time,  whether  separate  or 
forming  part  of  a  larger  work.  It  is  specially 
applied  to  such  pieces  when  they  occur  in  a 
work  in  sonata-form.  The  right  of  any  move- 
ment to  this  title  must  depend  rather  on  its 
character  than  its  time  indication,  for  many 
movements  marked  Allegretto  are  strictly  slow 
movements.  m. 

SLUR.  This  word,  taken  in  its  original  and 
widest  sense,  signifies  an  effect  of  phrasing 
which  is  more  commonly  expressed  by  the 
Italian  term  legato,  i.e,  connected.  The  sign  of 
the  slur  is  a  curved  line  (Ger.  Schleifbogen  ;  Ft. 
Liaison)  drawn  over  or  under  a  group  of  notes, 
and  the  notes  included  within  its  limits  are  said 
to  be  slurred,  and  are  performed  with  smooth- 
ness, if  on  a  stringed  instrument,  by  a  single 
stroke  of  the  bow,  or  in  singing,  on  a  single 
syllable.  [See  Legato,  voL  ii.  p.  666.]  But 
although  this  was  originally  the  meaning  of  the 
word,  it  is  now  used  in  a  moi-e  restricted  sense, 
to  denote  a  special  phrasing  effect,  in  which  the 
last  of  the  notes  comprised  within  the  curved 
line  is  shortened,  and  a  considerable  stress  laid 
on  the  first.  This  effect  has  already  been  fully 
described  in  the  article  Phrasing  [vol.  iii.  p. 
718].  In  vocal  music  the  slur  is  employed  to 
indicate  the  use  of  Portamento,  and  it  is  also 
very  generally  placed  over  two  or  more  notes 
which  are  sung  to  a  single  syllable.  In  this 
case,  however,  the  sign  is  superfluous,  since  if 
the  passage  consists  of  quavers  or  shorter  notes, 
the  connection  can  be  shown  by  writing  them 
in  groups  instead  of  separate,  while  even  if  the 
notes  are  crotchets,  the  fact  of  there  being 
but  a  single  syllable  sufficiently  indicates  the 
legaio.  Moreover,  an  effect  analogous  to  the 
slur  in  instrumental  music,  whereby  the  second 
of  two  notes  is  curtailed  and  weakened,  is 
perfectly  possible  in  singing,  and  may  very 
probably  have  been  intended  by  the  earlier 
composers  where  the  sign  of  tlie  slur  is  employed. 
This  view  is  insisted  upon  by  Mendelssohn,  who 


484 


SMALL  OCTAVE 


SMART 


in  a  letter  to  G.  A.  Macfanren  ^  strongly  objects 
to  the  engravers  of  his  edition  of  *  Israel  in 
Egypt'  pUwing  the  slur  over  two  quavers  or 
semiquavers  which  are  to  be  sung  to  one  word. 

When  the  slur  is  used  in  combination  with  a 
series  of  dots,  thus  J  li  J  J,  it  indicates  the  effect 
called  mezzo  staccato,  in  which  the  notes  are 
made  of  longer  duration  than  if  marked  with 
the  staccato-sign  only,  being  sustained  for  nearly 
their  full  value,  and  separated  by  a  very  brief 
interval  of  silence.    [See  also  Staccato.]    f.  t. 

SMALL  OCTAVE.     See  C,  vol.  i.  p.  483. 

SMART,  George,  a  London  music-publisher 
who  had  some  skill  as  a  performer  on  the 
double  bass.  He  was  one  of  a  musical  family, 
and  his  son.  Sir  George  Smart,  and  other  relatives 
attained  distinction.  Before  entering  business, 
he  was  an  assistant  to  Robert  Bremner,  and 
liad  been  possibly  also  employed  by  William 
Napier.  He  be^n  in  the  music  trade  about 
1770,  his  shop  being  at  the  comer  of  Argyll 
Street,  and  numbered  881  Oxford  Street  He 
issued  many  minor  publications,  such  as  country 
dances  and  sheet  music,  and  remained  at  831 
Oxford  Street  until  one  of  the  earliest  years  of 
the  19th  century,  the  period  of  his  death. 
George  Smart  was  one  of  the  founders  of  a 
benevolent  society  for  musicians.  F.  K. 

SMART,  Sir  Georoe  Thomas,  Knight,  bom 
May  10,  1776,  son  of  the  above  George  Smart, 
received  his  early  musical  education  as  a  chorister 
of  the  Chapel  Royal  under  Dr.  Ayrton.  He 
learned  organ  -  playing  from  Dr.  Dupuis  and 
composition  from  Dr.  Arnold.  On  quitting  the 
choir  in  1791  he  obtained  the  appointment  of 
organist  of  St  James's  Chapel,  Hampstead 
R^ul,  and  was  also  engaged  as  a  violinist  at 
Salomon's  concerts.  At  a  rehearsal  of  a  sym- 
phony of  Haydn's  for  one  of  those  concerts  the 
drummer  was  absent,  and  Haydn,  who  was  at 
the  harpsichord,  inquired  if  any  one  present 
could  play  the  drums.  Yoimg  Smart  volunteered, 
but  from  inexperience  was  not  very  successful, 
whereupon  the  great  composer,  ascending  the 
orchestra,  gave  him  a  practical  lesson  in  the 
art  of  drumming.  About  the  same  time  he 
commenced  practice  as  a  teacher  of  the  harpsi- 
chord and  singing.  He  soon  showed  an  aptitude 
for  conducting  musical  performances.  In  1 8 1 1 , 
having  successfully  conducted  some  concerts  in 
Dublin,  he  was  knighted  by  the  Lord  Lieu- 
tenant. In  1813  he  was  chosen  one  of  the 
original  members  of  the  Philharmonic  Society, 
and  between  that  date  and  1844  conducted 
forty-nine  of  its  concerts.  From  1813  to  1825 
he  conducted  the  Lenten  oratorios  at  one  or 
other  of  the  patent  theatres,  at  one  of  which 
in  1814  he  introduced  Beethoven's  *  Mount  of 
Olives'  to  the  English  public.  In  1818  he 
directed  the  City  concerts  established  by  Baron 
Heath.     On  April  1,  1822,  he  was  appointed 

I  QmOm  tmd  Mendtttaokm,  2nd  ed.  p.  77. 


one  of  the  organists  of  the  Chapel  Royal  in  the 
room  of  Charles  Knyvett,  deceased.  In  1825 
he  accompanied  Charles  Kemble  to  Germany  to 
engage  Weber  to  compose  an  opera  for  Covent 
Guden,  and  when  Weber  came  to  EngUind  in 
1826  to  bring  out  his  <Oberon'  he  was  the 
guest  of  Sir  George  Smart,  in  whose  house  he 
died  on  June  5.  [See  Musical  Times,  1902, 
p.  533.]  It  was  mainly  by  the  exertions  of 
Sir  George  Smart  and  Sir  Julius  Benedict  that 
the  statue  of  Weber  at  Dresden  was  erected, 
the  greater  part  of  the  subscriptions  having 
been  collected  in  England.  In  1836  Sir  George 
introduced  Mendelssohn's '  St  Paul '  to  England 
at  the  Liverpool  Festival.  [On  his  duties 
in  connection  with  the  coronation  of  Queen 
Victoria,  see  the  Musical  Times,  1902,  p.  18.] 
On  the  death  of  Attwood  in  1838  he  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  the  composers  to  the  Chapel 
Royal.  To  careful  musicianship  he  added  an 
administrative  abQity  which  eminently  qualified 
him  for  the  conductorship  of  musical  festivals 
and  other  performances  on  a  large  scale,  and 
his  services  were  for  many  years  in  request  on 
such  occasions  all  over  the  country.  He  con- 
ducted festivals  at  Liverpool  in  1823,  1827, 
1830,  1833,  and  1836  ;  Norwich,  1824,  1827, 
1830,  and  1833  ;  Bath,  1824  ;  Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne,  1824  and  1842  ;  Edinburgh,  1824  ;  Bury 
St  Edmund's,  1828  ;  Dublin  and  Derby,  1831 ; 
Cambridge,  1833  and  1835 ;  Westminster  Abbey, 
1834  ;  Hull,  1834  and  1840  ;  and  Exeter  Hall 
and  Manchester,  1836.  He  was  long  resorted 
to  by  singers  desirous  of  acquiring  the  tradi- 
tional manner  of  singing  Handel's  songs,  which 
he  had  been  taught  by  his  father,  who  had 
seen  Handel  conduct  his  oratorios :  among  the 
many  he  so  instructed  were  Sontag  and  Jenny 
Lin(L  He  gave  lessons  in  singing  until  he  was 
past  eighty.  He  edited  Orlando  Gibbons's 
Madrigals  for  the  Musical  Antiquarian  Society, 
and  the  '  Dettingen  Te  Deum '  for  the  Handel 
Society.  He  took  an  active  part  in  procuring 
the  foundation  of  the  Mendelssohn  Scholarship. 
His  compositions  consist  of  anthems,  chants, 
Kyries,  psalm  tunes,  and  glees.  In  1863  he 
published  a  collection  of  his  anthems  and 
another  of  his  glees  and  canons.  Two  of  his 
glees,  *  The  Squirrel '  and  *  The  Butterfly's  Ball,' 
were  very  popular.  He  died  at  his  house  in 
Bedford  Square,  Feb.  23,  1867.  [A  volume 
entitled  Leaves  from  the  Journal  of  Sir  Chorge 
Smart,  by  H.  B.  Cox  and  C.  L.  £.  Cox,  was 
published  in  1907.]  A  younger  sea  of  Geoi^ 
Smart,  senior,  was  Charles  Frederick,  who 
was  a  chorister  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  and  after- 
wards a  double-bass  player  in  the  principal 
orchestras.  Older  than  Charles,  but  younger 
than  George,  was  another  brother, 

Henry,  bom  in  London  in  1778  [was  for  a 
time  in  his  father's  business,  and  subsequently 
(about  1803)  in  that  of  a  brewer.  This  latter 
trade  being  unsuccessful,  he  returned  to  the 


SMART 


SMETANA 


485 


musical  profession].  He  had  begun  his  musical 
education  at  an  early  age,  and  studied  the  violin 
under  Wilhelm  Cramer,  in  which  he  made  such 
progress  that  when  only  fourteen  he  was  engaged 
at  the  Opera,  the  Concert  of  Antient  Music, 
and  the  Academy  of  Ancient  Music  He  was 
engaged  as  leader  of  the  band  at  the  Lyceum 
on  its  being  opened  as  an  £nglish  Opera-House 
in  1809,  and  continued  so  for  several  seasons. 
He  was  leader  at  the  present  Drury  Lane  Theatre 
from  its  opening  in  1812  until  1821.  On  June 
12,  1819,  the  band  presented  him  witli  a  silver 
cup  as  a  token  of  their  regard.  He  was  leader 
of  the  Lenten  oratorios  from  the  time  they  came 
under  the  management  of  his  brother,  Sir 
George,  in  1813,  and  a  member  of  the  Phil- 
harmonic Society's  orchestra,  which  he  occa- 
sionally led.  In  1820  he  established  a  manu- 
factory of  pianofortes,  of  a  peculiar  construction, 
and  on  July  22,  1823,  obtained  a  patent  for 
improvements  in  the  construction  of  pianofortes. 
He  went  to  Dublin  to  superintend  the  d^but  of 
his  pupil.  Miss  Coward  (afterwards  Mrs.  Eeeley), 
where  he  was  attacked  by  typhus  fever,  and 
died,  Nov.  27,  1823.     His  son, 

Henry  Thomas  (known  as  Henry  Smart),  a 
prominent  member  of  the  modem  English  School, 
was  bom  in  London,  Oct.  26,  1813,  and  after 
declining  a  commission  in  the  Indian  army,  was 
articled  to  a  solicitor,  but  quitted  law  for  music, 
for  which  he  had  extraordinary  natural  faculties, 
and  which  he  studied  principally  under  W.  H. 
Keams,  though  he  was  to  a  great  extent  self- 
taught.  In  1 8  3 1  he  became  organist  of  the  parish 
church  of  Blackbum,  Lancashire,  which  he  re- 
signed in  1836.  While  at  Blackbum  he  composed 
his  first  important  work,  an  anthem  for  the  ter- 
centenary of  the  Reformation,  in  1835.  In  1836 
he  settled  in  London  as  organist  to  St.  Philip's 
Church,  Regent  Street.  In  March  1844  he  was 
appointed  to  the  organ  of  St.  Luke's,  Old  Street, 
where  he  remained  until  1864,  when  he  was 
chosen  organist  of  St.  Pancras.  He  was  an 
excellent  organ-player,  specially  happy  as  an 
accompanist  in  the  service,  a  splendid  extem- 
poriser,  and  a  voluminous  and  admirable  com- 
poser for  the  Instrument  But  his  compositions 
were  by  no  means  confined  to  the  organ.  On 
May  26, 1855,  an  opera  from  his  pen,  '  Berta,  or, 
The  Gnome  of  the  Hartzberg,'  was  successfully 
produced  at  the  Haymarket.  In  1864  he  com- 
posed his  cantata,  'The  Bride  of  Dunkerron' 
(his  best  work),  expressly  for  the  Birmingham 
Festival.  He  produced  two  cantatas,  'KingRen^'s 
Daughter,*  1871,  and  *The  Fishermaidens,' 
both  for  female  voices.  An  opera  on  the  subject 
of  *The  Surrender  of  Calais,'  the  libretto  by 
Planch^,  originally  intended  for  Mendelssohn, 
was  put  into  his  hands  by  Messrs.  Chappell, 
about  1852,  but  though  considerable  progress 
was  made  with  it,  it  was  never  completed.  A 
sacred  cantata,  'Jacob,'  was  written  for  the 
Glasgow  Festival,  produced  Nov.  10,  1878,  and 


two  large  anthems  for  solos,  chorus,  and  organ 
were  written  for  the  Festivals  of  the  London 
Choral  Choirs  Association  at  St.  Paul's  in  1876 
and  1878 — •  Sing  to  the  Lord,'  and  *  Lord,  thou 
hast  been  our  refuge.'  For  many  years  past  his 
sight  had  been  failing,  and  soon  after  1864  he 
became  too  blind  to  write.  All  his  compositions 
after  that  date  therefore  were  committed  to 
paper — like  those  of  another  distinguished 
English  composer.  Sir  G.  A.  Macfarren — Uirough 
the  truly  disheartening  process  of  dictation. 

It  is  as  a  composer  of  part-songs  and  a  writer 
for  the  organ  that  Henry  Smart  will  be  known 
in  the  future.  His  earlier  part-songs,  'The 
Shepherd's  Farewell,'  'The  Waves'  Reproof,* 
and  'Ave  Maria,'  are  lovely,  and  will  long  be 
sung  ;  and  his  organ  pieces  are  fiill  of  charming 
melody  and  effective  combinations.  He  edited 
Handel's  thirteen  Italian  duets  and  two  trios 
for  the  Handel  Society. 

His  health  had  for  several  years  been  very  bad, 
and  cancer  on  the  liver  gave  him  excmciating 
agony.  In  June  1879  the  Govemment  granted 
him  a  pension  of  £100  a  year  in  acknowledgment 
of  his  services  in  the  cause  of  music,  but  he  did 
not  live  to  enjoy  it,  for  he  died  July  6,  1879. 
He  was  buried  in  Hampstead  Cemetery.  His 
last  composition  was  a  Poetlude  in  £b  for  the 
organ,  finished  very  shortly  before  the  end.  His 
life  was  written  by  his  friend  Dr.  Spark  (Reeves, 
1881),  and  the  book  will  always  be  interesting, 
though  it  might  perhaps  have  been  more  usefully 
arranged  and  more  accurately  printed.  [See 
the  MiiMcaZ  Times  for  May  1902.]      w.  h.  h. 

SMART,  Thomas,  probably  brother  to  the 
elder  George  Smart,  was  an  organist  at  St. 
Clement's  Danes  in  1783.  He  composed  many 
songs  and  pieces  for  the  pianoforte  and  harpsi- 
chord. He  set  to  music  the  well-known  song 
on  the  death  of  General  Wolfe  by  Tom  Paine, 
beginning  'In  a  mouldering  cave  where  the 
wretched  retreat.'  Dates  of  birth  and  death 
not  ascertained.  f.  k. 

SMEGERGILL,  William.  See  C-bsar,  vol.  i. 
p.  443. 

SMETANA,  Friedrich,  bom  March  2, 1824, 
at  Leitomischl  in  Bohemia,  was  a  pupil  of 
Proksch  at  Prague,  and  subsequently  for  a  short 
time  studied  wdth  Liszt.  He  became  a  highly 
skilled  pianist,  and  opened  a  music  school  of 
his  own  at  Prague,  where  he  married  the  pianist 
Katharina  Koldr.  In  1856  he  accepted  the 
directorship  of  the  Philharmonic  Society  of 
Gothenburg  in  Sweden,  and  his  wife  died  there 
in  1860.  In  1861  he  made  a  tour  in  Sweden, 
and  on  the  foundation  of  the  National  Theatre 
in  Prague,  betook  himself  again  to  his  native 
country,  and  eventually  became  chief  conductor 
of  the  new  institution  in  1866,  the  year  of 
production  of  his  most  famous  work,  'Die 
Verkaufte  Braut.'  He  produced  three  other 
Bohemian  operas, '  DieBrandenburgerin  Bohmen' 
(1866),  'Dalibor'  (1868),  and  'Zwei  Witwen' 


486 


SMETANA 


SMITH 


(1874),  before  he  was  compelled,  by  increasing 
deafness,  to  resign  his  post.  Subsequently  to 
his  retirement   the  following  were  produced: 

*  Der  Kuss'  (1876),  *  Das  Geheimniss'  (1878), 
'Libussa'  (1881),  and  *  Die  Teufelswand ' 
(1882).  "During  his  tenure  of  the  conductor- 
ship  his  keen  interest  in  the  career  of  a  member 
of  his  orchestra,  Antonin  Dvofak,  had  a  great 
influence  on  the  younger  man's  work.  Smetana's 
other  works  are  of  great  importance  though 
they  are  not  very  numerous.  The  symphonic 
poem  *  Mein  Yaterland '  is  cast  in  six  sections, 
'Vysehrad'    (Visegrad),     *  Vltava'    (Moldau), 

*  Sarka,' '  Aus  Bohmens  Hain  und  Flur,*  *  Tabor,' 
and  'Blanik.'  It  is  a  work  of  remarkable 
power,  and  very  picturesque  in  treatment. 
There  are  besides  three  other  symphonic  poems, 

*  Wallenstein's  Lager, '  *  Richard  III. , '  and  *  Hakon 
Jarl ' ;  a  '  Triumphsymphonie '  dated  1858,  and 
*Prager  Kameval'  for  orchestra.  Two  string 
quartets  exist,  in  £  minor  and  0  major  ;  the  first, 
entitled  '  Aus  meinem  Leben,'  is  a  remarkable 
piece  of  chamber  music,  in  which  the  classical 
form,  somewhat  modified,  is  used  to  describe  the 
main  event  of  the  composer's  career,  and  in 
which  a  persistent  high  note  in  the  finale  is 
understood  to  be  a  deliberate  statement  concern- 
ing a  note,  similarly  persistent  to  his  own  ear, 
which  was  the  effect  of  his  deafness.  There  are 
also  a  trio  for  piano  and  strings,  part-songs,  a 
festival  march  for  the  Shakespeare  tercentenary, 
and  much  piano  music.  He  became  insane  at 
the  end  of  his  life,  and  died  in  an  asylum  at 
Prague,  May  12,  1884. 

Smetana  is  the  first  (and,  as  some  think,  the 
greatest)  Bohemian  composer  who  deliberately 
took  his  stand  as  an  exponent  of  the  art  of  his 
native  country.  But  he  is  a  great  deal  more 
than  this,  for,  though  his  music  has  been  long 
in  making  its  way  outside  Bohemia,  yet  it  has 
now  obtained  so  strong  a  hold  that  it  is  most 
unlikely  to  be  forgotten.  If  he  may  not  have 
succeeded  in  obtaining  for  his  national  polka- 
measure  the  entry  into  classical  structure  that 
Dvorak  won  for  the  furiant  and  dumkay  yet 
his  attempt  to  do  so  marks  a  point  in  the  history 
of  the  development  of  form.  Though  his  sym- 
phonic poems  are  not  realistic,  yet  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  they  carried  on  the  tradition 
of  that  form  from  the  hands  of  Liszt,  and  in- 
creased its  power  of  pictorial  expression.  The 
famous  opera  '  Die  Yerkaufte  Braut '  (^  Prodana 
Nevesta' — *The  Bartered  Bride* — is  the  ori- 
ginal Bohemian)  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of 
modern  comic  operas,  and  on  a  small  stage,  pre- 
sented by  performers  who  understand  the  true 
comic  traditions,  it  must  always  impress  itself 
on  the  audience.  Hitherto,  though  twice  brought 
out  in  London,  it  has  not  achieved  a  great  suc- 
cess with  the  general  public,  for  Govent  Garden 
and  a  company  accustomed  to  interpreting  the 
later  works  of  Wagner  are  not  the  ideal  condi- 
tions of  its  presentment.     It  was  first  given  by 


the  Ducal  company  of  Saxe-Goburg  and  Gotha 
at  Drury  Lane  on  June  26, 1895,  and  at  Govent 
Garden  on  Jan.  24,  1907.  There  is  plenty  of 
via  comica  in  it,  and  lovely  music  from  beginning 
to  end,  quite  original  and  characteristic  ;  but  so 
far  nothing  has  made  quite  such  a  success  as  its 
overture,  which,  under  the  name  of  '  Lustspiel ' 
or  'Gomedy'  overture,  was  widely  known  and 
dearly  loved  long  before  the  opera  was  produced 
in  England.  Monographs  on  the  composer  were 
written  by  B.  Wallek  in  1895  and  Hostinskh 
in  1901,  the  latter  being  in  Gzech  (Biemann's 
Lexikon,  etc.).  h. 

SMETHERGELL,  William,  a  pianist  in 
London,  was  author  of  A  Treatise  on  Thorough 
Bass  J  1794,  and  Mules  for  Thorough  Bass,  with 
three  sonatas  for  harpsichord  and  violin  (1796)  ; 
[he  composed  also  six  concertos  for  harpsichord 
or  pianoforte  with  two  violins  and  violoncello 
(1785),  six  duets  for  two  violins,  op.  17  (1800), 
six  easy  solos  for  violin  (1790),  six  lessons  for 
harpsichord,  six  overtures  in  eight  parts,  and  a 
second  set,  op.  8.  He  also  adapted  compositions 
from  Jommelli  and  other  composers,  and  wrote 
songs.  Brii.  Mus,  Biog.].  He  was  organist  of 
St.  Margaret  on  the  Hill,  Southwark,  and 
Allhallows  Barking.  w.  h.  h. 

SMITH,  Alice  Mary  (Mrs.  Meadows 
White),  a  distinguished  English  composer,  was 
bom  May  19,  1839.  She  was  a  pupil  of  Sir 
W.  Sterndale  Bennett  and  Sir  G.  A.  Macfarren  ; 
married  Frederick  Meadows  White,  Esq.,  Q.G. 
(afterwards  a  Judge  for  the  Gounty  of  Middle- 
sex), Jan.  2,  1867,  was  elected  Female  Profes- 
sional Associate  of  the  Philharmonic  Society  in 
November  1867,  Hon.  Member  of  the  Boyal 
Academy  of  Music  in  1884,  and  died  Dec  4, 
1884.  She  was  a  prolific  composer  of  works  of 
all  dimensions.  The  list  embraces  two  Sym- 
phonies, in  C  minor  (1868),  and  G  ;  Overtures 
to  *Endymion'  (1864,  rewritten  1871),  *Lalla 
Rookh '  (1865),  *  Masque  of  Pandora,'  with  two 
Intermezzi  (1878),  and  'Jason'  ^1879);  a 
Ooncerto  for  clarinet  and  orchestra  (1872)  ;  an 
Introduction  and  Allegro  for  PF.  and  orchestra 
ri865);  four  PF.  quartets,  in  Bb  (1861),  D 
(1864),  E,  and  G  minor;  a  PF.  trio  in  G 
(1862^  ;  three  String  quartets,  in  D  (1862),  A 
(1870),  and  G ;  ako  five  Gantatas  for  soli, 
chorus,  and  orchestral  accompaniment — *  Riides- 
heim  or  Gisela'  (Cambridge,  1865),  Kingsley's 
*  Ode  to  the  North-East  Wind '  (Hackney  Choral 
Association,  1880),  Collins's '  Ode  to  the  Passions ' 
(Hereford  Festival,  1882),  Kingsley's  'Song  of 
the  Little  Baltung'  (1888),  Kingsley's  'Red 
King'  (1884) ;  Part  Song,  'The  Dream'  (1863) ; 
Duet  (S.T.)  '  Maying' ;  many  solo-songs,  duets, 
etc.  'Her  music,'  says  the  Athenasum  of 
Dec.  13,  1884,  'is  marked  by  elegance  and 
grace  rather  than  by  any  great  individuality .  .  . 
that  she  was  not  deficient  in  power  and  energy  is 
proved  by  portions  of  the  "Ode  to  the  North-East 
Wind,"  and  "The  Passions."     Her  forms  were 


SMITH 


SMITH 


487 


always  dear  and  her  ideas  free  from  eocentrioity ; 
her  sympathies  were  eyidently  with  the  classic 
rather  than  with  the  romantic  school.'        o. 

SMITH,  Charles,  bom  in  London  in  1786, 
was  in  1796  admitted  a  chorister  of  the  Chapel 
Roys!  under  Dr.  Ayrton,  but  was  withdrawn 
from  the  choir  in  1798  and  became  a  pupil  of 
John  Ashley.  In  1800  he  sang  at  the  Oratorios, 
Banelagh,  etc.  Upon  the  breaking  of  his  voice 
in  1803  he  acted  as  deputy  organist  for  Knyyett 
and  Stafford  Smith  at  the  Chapel  Royal,  and 
soon  afterwards  became  organist  of  Croydon 
Church.  In  1807  he  was  appointed  organist 
of  Welbeck  Chapel.  He  composed  the  music 
for  the  following  dramatic  pieces :  *  Yes  or  No,* 

1809  ;  '  The  Tourist  Friend,'  and  *  Hit  or  Miss,* 

1810  ;  'Anything  New,'  1811 ;  *How  to  die 
for  Love ' ;  *  Xnapschou,  or  the  Forest  Fiend,' 
Lyceum,  1880.  In  1815  he  appeared,  with 
success,  at  the  Oratorios  as  a  buitone  singer. 
In  the  next  year  he  settled  in  Liverpool,  where 
he  resided  for  many  years.  He  composed  many 
songs  and  ballads,  the  best  of  which  is  'The 
Battle  of  Hohenlinden.'  He  published  in  1844 
a  work  called  '  Ancient  Psalmody,'  consisting  of 
adaptations  from  music  of  Ravenscroft,  Morley, 
etc.  He  ultimately  retired  to  Crediton,  Devon, 
where  he  died  Nov.  22,  1866.  w.  H.  H. 

SMITH,  Edward  Sydney,  bom  at  Dor- 
chester, July  14, 1839,  received  his  first  musical 
instraction  from  his  parents,  and  at  the  age 
of  sixteen  went  to  Leipzig,  where  he  studied  the 
piano  under  Moscheles  and  Plaidy  ;  the  violon- 
cello under  GrUtzmacher  ;  harmony  and  counter- 
point under  Hauptmann,  Richter,  and  Papperitz ; 
and  composition  under  Rietz.  He  returned  to 
England  in  1858,  and  in  the  following  year  he 
settled  in  Loudon,  where  he  long  enjoyed  con- 
siderable reputation  as  a  teacher.  His  com- 
positions, which  are  confined  to  PF.  pieces, 
were  extremely  popular  with  the  niunerous  class 
of  performers  whose  tastes  are  satisfied  by  a 
maximum  of  brilliance  combined  with  a  mini- 
mum of  difficulty.  The  most  successful  of 
his  many  pieces  were  *La  Harpe  &lienne,' 
*Le  Jet  d'Eau,'  'The  Spinning  Wheel,'  and  a 
'  Tarantella '  in  E  minor,  which  (like  most  of 
his  compositions)  have  been  published,  and  met 
with  the  same  popularity  on  the  Continent  as  in 
England.  Hedied  in  London,  March  3, 1 889,  and 
was  buried  in  Ken  sal  Green  Cemetery,     w.  b.  s, 

SMITH,  FATHER,  the  usual  appellation  of 
Bernard  Schmidt,  a  celebrated  organ-builder, 
bom  in  Germany  about  1630,  who  came  to 
England  in  1660  with  two  nephews,  Gerard  and 
Bernard,  his  assistants.  To  distinguish  him 
from  these  and  express  the  reverence  due  to  his 
abilities,  he  was  called  Father  Smith.  His  first 
organ  in  this  country  was  that  of  the  Royal 
Chapel  at  Whitehall,  which  Pepys  mentions  in 
his  Diary  as  having  heard  on  July  8,  1660. 
Subsequently  he  built  one  for  Westminster 
Abbey,  one  for  St.  Giles's-in-the-Fields  (1671), 


and  one  for  St.  Margaret's,  Westminster  (1675), 
of  which  in  the  following  year  he  was  elected 
organist  at  a  salary  of  £20  a  year.  He  was 
now  rapidly  acquiring  fame  and  was  appointed 
Oigan-maker  in  ordinary  to  the  King,  apart- 
ments in  Whitehall  being  allotted  to  him,  called 
in  the  old  plan  'The  Organ -builder's  Work- 
house.' 

In  1682  the  treasurers  of  the  societies  of  the 
Temple  had  some  conversation  with  Smith  re- 
specting the  erection  of  an  organ  in  their  church. 
Subsequently  Renatus  Harris,  who  had  warm 
supporters  amongst  the  Benchers  of  the  Inner 
Temple,  was  introduced  to  their  notice.  It  was 
ultimately  agreed  that  each  artist  should  set  up 
an  organ  in  the  church,  and  in  1684  both 
instraments  were  ready  for  competition.  In 
1685  the  Benchers  of  the  Middle  Temple  made 
choice  of  Smith's  organ  [which  was  played  by 
Heniy  Purcell]  ;  but  those  of  the  Inner  Temple 
dissented,  and  it  was  not  until  1688  that  Smith 
received  payment  for  his  instrument,  namely, 
£1000. 

In  1 688  he  contracted  for  the  organ  of  Durham 
Cathedral.  In  consequence  of  &e  reputation 
he  had  acquired  by  these  instruments,  he  was 
made  choice  of  to  build  an  organ  for  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral,  then  in  course  of  erection.  This 
instrument  was  opened  on  Dec.  2, 1697.  Smith 
became  Court  organ -builder  to  Queen  Anne,  and 
died  1708.  [His  portrait  is  in  the  Music  School 
Collection  at  Oxford.] 

According  to  Hawkins  and  Bumey  the  two 
nephews  of  Schmidt,  as  above  mentioned,  were 
named  Bernard  and  Gerard.  But  Horace 
Walpole  alters  Bernard's  name  to  Christian. 
These  two  are  very  little  known,  although  they 
built  several  fine  instruments. 

In  1755a  Mr.  Gerard  Smith  was  organ-repairer 
to  Chelsea  Hospital.  This  was  probably  a  grand- 
nephew  of  Father  Smith,  since  from  the  date  he 
could  hardly  have  been  his  nephew,      v.  de  p. 

SMITH,  George  Townshend,  son  of  Edward 
Woodley  Smith  (bom  May  23,  1775,  chorister 
of  St  Paul's  Cathedral,  afterwards  lay  vicar  of 
St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  from  1795  until 
his  deal£,  June  17,  1849),  was  bom  in  the 
Horseshoe  Cloisters,  Windsor,  Nov.  14,  1818. 
He  received  his  early  musical  education  as  a 
chorister  of  St.  George's,  Windsor.  On  quitting 
the  choir  he  became  a  pupil  of  Highmore  Skeats, 
the  Chapel  organist,  and  afterwards  came  to 
London  and  studied  under  Samuel  Wesley.  He 
next  obtained  an  appointment  as  organist  at 
Eastbourne,  whence  he  removed  to  King's  Lynn 
on  being  chosen  organist  there.  On  Jan.  6, 
1843,  he  was  appointed  organist  of  Hereford 
Cathedral.  As  such  he  became,  ex  officio^  con- 
ductor of  the  Meeting  of  the  Three  Choirs  at 
Hereford,  besides  discharging  the  duties  of  which 
ofiice  he  voluntarily  undertook  the  laborious 
office  of  honoraiy  secretary  to  the  festival,  and 
by  his  untiring  and  energetic  exertions,  in  the 


488 


SMITH 


SMITH 


course  of  the  twelve  triennial  festivals  which 
he  directed,  raised  it  musically,  from  a  low  to 
a  very  high  condition,  and  financially,  from  a 
heavy  loss  to  a  gain.  He  composed  an  8 -voice 
anthem  and  a  Jubilate  for  the  festivals,  and 
other  church  music,  as  well  as  piano  pieces  of  a 
popular  kind.  He  died,  very  suddenly,  August 
8,  1877,  universally  beloved  and  respected. 

His  brother  Alfrkd  Montem,  born  at 
Windsor,  May  13,  1828,  was  also  educated  in 
the  choir  of  St.  George's.  On  quitting  it  he 
became  a  tenor  singer,  and  after  belonging  to 
the  choir  of  St.  Andrew's,  Wells  Street,  succeeded 
J.  W.  Hobbs  as  lay  vicar  of  Westminster  Abbey  ; 
he  was  also  a  gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Boyal 
(1858).  He  was  distinguished  as  a  ballad  singer, 
and  for  his  skill  in  recitative.  He  was  a  pro- 
fessor of  singing  at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music 
and  the  Guildhall  School.  He  died  in  London, 
May  2,  1891. 

Another  brother,  Samuel,  was  bom  in  Eton, 
August  29,  1821.  In  1831  he  was  admitted  as 
one  of  the  children  of  the  Chapel  Royal  under 
William  Hawes.  Shortly  after  leaving  the 
choir  he  obtained  the  appointment  of  organist 
at  Hayes  Churoh,  Middlesex,  and  was  subse- 
quently organist  at  Eton  and  Egham.  In  1857 
he  became  organist  at  Trinity  Church,  Windsor, 
and  in  1861  organist  of  the  Parish  Churoh. 
He  issued  some  compilations  of  tunes  and 
chants.  w.  h.  h. 

SMITH,  John,  Mu8.D.,  was  born  at  Cambridge 
in  1797.  On  Nov.  23,  1816,  he  was  admitted 
to  a  situation  in  the  choir  of  Christ  Church 
Cathedral,  Dublin,  but  failed  to  secure  the 
appointment  of  vicar  choral  owing  to  his  having 
quarrelled  and  gone  to  law  with  the  Dean  in 
1824.  On  Feb.  5,  1819,  he  was  appointed  a 
vicar  choral  of  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral.  On 
July  7,  1827,  the  degree  of  Mus.D.  was  con- 
ferred upon  him  by  the  University  of  Dublin. 
He  afterwards  obtained  the  appointments  of 
Chief  Composer  of  the  State  Music,  Master  of 
the  King's  Band  of  State  Musicians  in  Ireland, 
and  Composer  to  the  Chapel  Royal,  Dublin ; 
and  in  1847  was  chosen  Professor  of  Music  in 
Dublin  University.  He  composed  *  The  Revela- 
tion,' an  oratorio,  some  church  music,  and 
several  prize  glees  and  other  compositions.  In 
1837  he  published  a  volume  of  Cathedral  Music 
containing  services  and  chants,  and  a  'Yeni, 
Creator.'     He  died  Nov.  12,  1861.      w.  H.  h. 

SMITH,  John  (organ-builder).    See  Vowles. 

SMITH,  John  Christopher,  bom  in  1712, 
was  son  of  John  Christopher  Schmidt,  of  Anspach, 
who,  a  few  years  later,  came  to  England  and 
became  Handel's  treasurer.  [He  was  agent  for 
the  sale  of  Handel's  music.  While  John  Cluer 
engraved  the  several  works  published  by  Handel 
on  his  own  behalf,  Meares  sold  them  in  St.  Paul's 
Churchyard,  and  Smith  at  the  sign  of  *The 
Hand  and  Musick-Book '  in  Coventry  Street] 
The   younger  Smith   showing  a  fondness  for 


music,  Handel  began  teaching  him  when  he 
was  thirteen  years  old.  He  afterwards  studied 
composition  under  Dr.  Pepusch  and  Thomas 
Roseingrave,  and  in  1732  produced  his  Eng- 
lish opera,  'Teraminta,'  and  in  1733  another 
opera,  *  Ulysses.'  In  1738  he  composed  an 
oratorio,  'David's  Lamentation  over  Saul  and 
Jonathan.'  About  1745  he  travelled  on  the 
Continent,' remaining  absent  about  three  years. 
In  1754  he  was  appointed  the  first  organist 
of  the  Foundling  Hospital  Chapel.  (See 
Musical  Times,  1902,  p.  377.)  When  Handel 
became  blind  Smith  was  employed  as  his 
amanuensis,  and  Handel's  latest  compositions 
were  dictated  to  him.  He  also  played  the 
organ  at  Handel's  oratorio  performances.  In 
1764  he  composed  the  opera  of  *The  Fairies,' 
altered  from  Shakespeare's  '  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream,'  which  met  with  great  success,  and  in 
1756  the  opera  of  *  The  Tempest,'  adapted  from 
Shakespeare's  play,  two  songs  in  which,  *  Full 
fathom  five,'  and  'The  owl  is  abroad,'  long 
continued  favourites;  and  in  1760  'The  En- 
chanter,' a  musical  entertainment.  Handel 
bequeathed  to  him  all  his  original  MS.  scores, 
his  harpsichord,  his  bust  by  Roubilliac,  and  his 
portrait  by  Denner.  After  Handel's  death 
Smith  carried  on  the  oratorios,  in  conjunction 
with  Stanley,  until  1774,  when  he  retired  and 
went  to  reside  at  Bath.  Besides  the  before- 
mentioned  works  he  composed  '  Paradise  Lost,' 
*  Rebecca,'  'Judith,*  *  Jehoshaphat,*  and  'Re- 
demption,' oratorios  (besides  compiling  two 
oratorios  from  Handel's  works,  'Nabal,'  and 
'Gideon');  'Dario,'  'Issipile,'  and  *I1  Giro 
riconosciuto,'  Italian  operas  ;  a  Burial  Service  ; 
and  several  miscellaneous  vocal  and  instrumental 
pieces.  (See  Anecdotes  of  O,  F.  Hdndd  and 
J,  C,  Smith.)  George  III.  having  continued  to 
Smith  a  pension  which  had  been  granted  by  his 
mother,  the  Princess  Dowager  of  Wales,  Smith 
evinced  his  gratitude  by 'presenting  to  the  King 
all  Handel's  MS.  scores — now  at  Buckingham 
Palace — the  harpsichord,  and  the  bust  by  Rou- 
billiac, retaining  only  the  portrait  by  Denner, 
He  died  Oct.  3,  1795.  Three  large  collections 
of  Handel's  works  exist  in  Smith's  MS.  :  one 
belonged  to  H.  B.  Lennard,  Esq.,  Hampstead, 
and  is  now  in  the  Fitzwilliam  Museum,  Cam- 
bridge ;  another  to  Dr.  Chrysander  ;  and  a  third 
to  the  Granville  family  of  Wellesbourne  Hall, 
Warwickshire.  w.  H.  H. 

SMITH,  John  Stafford,  son  of  Martin 
Smith,  organist  of  Gloucester  Cathedral  from 
1743  to  1782,  was  bom  at  Gloucester  in  1750. 
He  obtained  his  earliest  musical  instraction 
from  his  father,  and  was  soon  afterwards  sent 
to  London  to  study  under  Dr.  Boyce,  and  also 
became  a  chorister  of  the  Chapel  Royal  under 
James  Nares.  On  quitting  the  choir  he  sedu- 
lously pursued  his  studies,  and  became  an  able 
organist,  an  efficient  tenor  singer,  an  excellent 
composer,  and  an  accomplished  musical  anti- 


SMITH 


SMITH 


489 


qnary.  In  1773  he  was  awarded  two  prizes  by 
^e  Catch  dub,  one  for  a  catch,  'Here  flat,' 
and  the  other  for  a  canon,  *  0  remember  not  the 
sins.'  In  the  next  four  years  he  gained  prizes 
for  the  following  compositions:  'Let  happy 
lovers  fly,'  glee,  1774;  'Since  Phillis  has 
bubbled,'  catch,  and  '  Blest  pair  of  syrens,'  glee 
(five  voices),  1775;  'While  fools  their  time,' 
glee,  1776  ;  and  '  Return,  blest  days,'  glee,  1777. 
He  rendered  great  assistance  to  Sir  John  Hawkins 
in  the  production  of  his  History,  not  only  by 
reducing  ancient  compositions  into  modem 
notation,  but  also  by  the  loan  of  some  valuable 
early  MSS.  from  his  extensive  and  curious 
library,  from  which  Sir  John  culled  several 
pieces  to  enrich  his  Appendix.  In  1779  he 
published  'A  Collection  of  English  Songs,  in 
score,  for  three  and  four  voices,  composed  about 
the  year  1500.  Taken  from  MSS.  of  the  same 
age ' ;  among  which  is  the  Agincourt  song,  '  Our 
king  went  forth  to  Normandy.'  (See  '  English 
Carols  of  the  Fifteenth  Century.')  In  1780  he 
won  another  prize  from  the  Catch  Club  by  his 
ode,  'When  to  the  Muses'  haunted  hill.'  He 
published  at  various  times  Ave  collections  of 
glees,  containing  compositions  which  place  him 
in  the  foremost  rank  of  English  glee  composers. 
Besides  his  prize  glees  they  include  'As  on  a 
summer's  day,'  'What  shall  he  have  that  killed 
the  deer  ? ' '  Hark,  the  hollow  woods  resounding,' 
and  the  madrigal '  Flora  now  calleth  forth  each 
flower.'  Fourteen  glees,  fourteen  catches,  four 
canons,  two  rounds,  an  ode,  a  madrigal,  and  a 
motet  by  him  are  given  in  Warren's  collections. 
He  also  published  a  collection  of  songs  (1 785), 
and  '  Twelve  Chants  composed  for  the  use  of  the 
Choirs  of  the  Church  of  England. '  On  Dec.  16, 
1 784,  after  having  for  many  years  officiated  as 
a  deputy,  he  was  appointed  a  gentleman  of  the 
Chapel  Boyal,  and  on  Feb.  22,  1785,  a  lay 
vicar  of  Westminster  Abbey,  being  installed, 
after  his  year  of  probation,  April  18, 1786.  In 
1 790  he  was  engaged  as  organist  at  Gloucester 
Festival.  In  1793  he  published  a  volume  of 
'Anthems,  composed  for  the  Choir  Service  of 
the  Church  of  England.'  In  1802,  upon  the 
death  of  Dr.  Arnold,  he  was  appointed  one  of 
the  organists  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  and  on  May 
14,  1805,  upon  the  resignation  of  Dr.  Ayrton, 
succeeded  him  as  Master  of  the  Children.  In 
1812  he  produced  his  interesting  work  '  Musica 
Antiqua,'  fSee  vol.  iii.  pp.  328-9.1  In  June  1817 
he  resigned  the  Mastership  of  the  Children  of 
the  Chapel  Royal.  Besides  the  before-named 
compositions  he  produced  '  An  Ode  on  the  First 
of  April,'  for  voices  and  instruments,  which  was 
never  published.  A  MS.  Introduction  to  the  Art 
of  composing  Muaic,  by  him,  is  in  the  library  of 
the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society,  which  also  con- 
tains his  Musical  Commonplace  Book.  He  died 
in  London,  Sept  21,  1836.  By  his  will,  dated 
Jan.  21,  1834,  he  bequeathed  all  his  property  to 
his  only  surviving  daughter,  Gertrude  Stafford 


Smith,  and  appointed  her  sole  executiix.  A  few 
years  afterw<^ds  she  became  insane,  and  in  1844 
the  Commissioner  in  Lunacy  ordered  that  her 
property  should  be  realised  and  the  proceeds 
invested  for  her  benefit.  Through  ignorance  or 
carelessness  the  contents  of  her  house  (which  in- 
cluded her  father's  valuable  library,  remarkably 
rich  in  ancient  English  musical  manuscripts) 
were  entrusted  for  sale  to  an  incompetent 
auctioneer.  The  library  was  sold  April  24, 1 844, 
such  books  as  were  described  at  all  being  cata- 
logued from  the  backs  and  heaped  together  in 
lots,  each  containing  a  dozen  or  more  works ; 
2191  volumes  were  thrown  into  lots  described 
as  *  Fifty  books,  various,'  etc.  The  printed 
music  was  similarly  dealt  with  ;  the  MSS. 
were  not  even  described  as  such,  but  were 
lumped  in  lots  of  twenties  and  fifties,  and  called 
so  many  '  volumes  of  music'  578  volumes  were 
so  disposed  of,  and  there  were  besides  five  lots 
each  containing  'a  quantity  of  music'  The 
sale  took  place  in  Gray's  Inn  Road;  Smith's 
name  did  not  appear  on  the  catalogue  ;  nothing 
was  done  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  musical 
world,  and  two  dealers,  who  had  obtained  infor- 
mation of  the  sale,  purchased  many  of  the  lots  at 
very  low  prices.  These  after  a  time  were  brought 
into  the  market,  but  it  is  feared  the  greater 
part  of  the  MSS.  is  altogether  lost.  w.  H.  H. 
SMITH,  MoNTEH.  See  under  Smith,  George 

TOWNSHEND. 

SMITH,  Robert  Archibald,  bom  at  Read- 
ing, Nov.  16, 1780.  His  father,  a  Paisley  silk- 
weaver,  finding  his  trade  declining  in  Reading, 
removed  back  to  Paisley  in  1800.  Robert  soon 
showed  a  great  aptitude  for  music,  and  at  ten 
could  play  the  violin.  In  1 807  he  was  appointed 
precentor  at  the  Abbey  Church,  Paisley,  a  situa- 
tion which  he  filled  for  many  years.  While 
there  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Robert  Tan- 
nahill  the  poet,  many  of  whose  fine  lyrics  he  set 
to  music.  One  of  these,  '  Jessie,  the  Flow'r  o' 
Dunblane,'  published  in  1808,  at  once  made  its 
mark,  and  was  universally  admired. 

Smith  possessed  a  fine  vein  of  melody,  and  in 
vocal  composition  had  at  that  time  perhaps  no 
equal  in  Scotland.  In  1820  he  began  to  publish 
[edited  by  Lady  Naime  and  other  ladies]  *  The 
Scottish  Minstrel'  (6  vols.  8vo,  1820-24),  con- 
taining several  himdreds  of  the  best  Scottish 
songs,  not  a  few  of  them  his  own,  frequently 
without  indication.  It  is  still  considered  a  good 
compilation.  In  August  1823  he  obtained  the 
leadership  of  the  psalmody  at  St.  George's 
Church,  Edinburgh.  Besides  anthems  and 
other  pieces  (published  in  1810  and  1819,  most 
of  the  former  written  for  the  boys  of  George 
Heriot's  Hospital),  Smith  now  found  time  to 
publish  his  *  Irish  Minstrel,'  [which  was  sup- 
pressed owing  to  an  infringement  of  Moore's  copy- 
right,] followed  in  1826  by  an  '  Introduction  to 
Singing,'  and  in  1827  by  '  Select  Melodies  of  all 
Nations,'  in  one  volume,  one  of  his  best  works. 


490 


SMITH 


SMYTH 


In  1828  he  brought  out  his  'Sacred  Harmony 
of  the  Church  of  Scotland/  by  which  he  is  now 
best  known.  His  health  was  at  no  time  robust, 
and  he  suffered  from  dyspepsia,  under  which  he 
finally  sank,  Jan.  8,  1829.  He  was  buried  in 
St.  Cuthbert's  churchyard. 

'  Smith/  says  the  late  George  Hogarth,  '  was 
a  musician  of  sterling  talent.  .  .  .  His  com- 
positions are  tender,  and  tinged  with  melancholy ; 
simple  and  unpretending,  and  always  graceful 
and  unaffectedly  elegant  ...  He  had  the  ad- 
mirable good  sense  to  know  how  far  he  could 
safely  penetrate  into  the  depths  of  counterpoint 
and  modulation  without  losing  his  way  ;  and 
accordingly  his  music  is  entirely  free  from  scien- 
tific pedantry.'  His  most  popular  pieces  are 
the  songs,  'Jessie,  the  Flow'r  o'  Dunblane,'  and 

*  Bonnie  Mary  Hay ' ;  the  duet,  *  Row  weel,  my 
boatie  * ;  the  trio  *  Ave  Sanctissima ' ;  and  the 
anthems,  '  Sing  unto  God,'  and  *  How  beautiful 
upon  the  mountains ' ;  although  many  more 
might  be  named  which  are  yet  frequently  sung. 
Owing  to  the  modem  alterations  in  congrega- 
tional singing,  the  introduction  of  German 
chorales  and  ancient  ecclesiastical  melodies,  and 
the  change  from  florid  to  syllabic  tunes,  Smith's 

*  Sacred  Harmony '  is  to  a  great  extent  super- 
seded. But  it  stiU  has  its  value,  even  at  a 
distance  of  eighty  years  &om  its  publication. 
[An  excellent  memoir  of  Smith  is  attached  to  an 
edition  of  Tannahill's  poems  edited  by  Philip 
Ramsay,  Edinburgh,  1851.]  D.  B. ;  additions  in 
square  brackets  by  f.  k. 

SMITH,  Samuel.    See  under  Smith,  Geokqb 

TOWNSHBND. 

SMOLENSKY,  Stephen  Vassilibvioh,  a 
leading  authority  on  Russian  church  music, 
born  at  Kazan,  1848.  Having  had  unusual 
opportunities  of  gaining  an  insight  into  the 
customs  and  peculiarities  of  the  sect  known  as 

*  Old  Believers,'  who  have  preserved  the  church 
music  in  its  primitive  forms,  Smolensky  was 
led  to  make  a  special  study  of  the  old  manu- 
scripts of  the  Solovetsky  library,  preserved  in 
the  Clerical  Academy  at  Kazan.  In  1889  he 
became  director  of  the  Synodal  School  and 
Choir  in  Moscow,  and  in  the  same  year  was 
appointed  successor  to  the  ecclesiastic  Razou- 
movsky,  as  professor  of  the  history  of  church 
music  at  the  Moscow  Conservatorium.  While 
working  at  the  Synodal  School,  Smolensky  has 
formed  a  unique  collection  of  manuscripts  from 
the  15th  to  the  19th  century,  including  many 
rare  chants  and  other  examples  of  sacred  music. 
In  1901-3  he  directed  the  Imperial  Court 
Chapels.  Among  his  numerous  contributions 
to  the  abstruse  and  complicated  subject  on 
which  he  is  an  authority  the  principal  are :  A 
Course  of  Church-Chant  Singiiig  (Moscow,  1900, 
5th  edition) ;  Old  Choral  Manuxripts  in  the 
SunodaZ  School,  Moscow  {St  Petersburg,  1899)  ; 
Ancient  Notation  of  the  Russian  ChurehrChants 
(1901).  R.  N. 


SMORZANDO  (Ital.,  'fading  away'V  A 
term  with  the  same  meaning  as  Morenao,  but 
used  indiscriminately  in  the  course  of  a  piece. 
[See  MoRBNDO.] 

SMYTH,  Ethel  Mary,  bom  in  London, 
April  23,  1858.  Daughter  of  General  J.  H. 
Smyth,  late  of  the  Royal  Artillery.  For  a  short 
time  in  1877  she  studied  at  the  Leipzig  Con- 
servatorium, and  under  Heinrioh  von  Herzogen- 
berg  after  leaving  that  institution.  At  Leipzig 
a  quintet  for  strings  was  performed  with  suc- 
cess in  1884,  and  a  sonata  for  piano  and 
violin  in  1887.  This  latter  is  numbered 
op.  7,  opp.  3  and  4  being  books  of  songs.  After 
her  student  dfiys,  she  does  not  appear  to  have 
used  opus-numbers.  A  serenade  for  orchestra 
in  four  movements,  in  D,  was  given  at  the 
Crystal  Palace,  April  26,  1890  ;  and  an  over- 
ture, *  Antony  and  Cleopatra,'  on  Oct.  18  of 
the  same  year,  the  latter  being  repeated  at  one 
of  Henschel's  London  Symphony  Concerts  in 
1892.  A  far  more  important  work,  a  Solemn 
Mass,  in  D,  was  performed  at  the  Albert  Hall, 
under  Barnby's  direction,  Jan.  18,  1893.  This 
work  definitely  placed  the  composer  among  the 
most  eminent  composers  of  her  time,  and  easily 
at  the  head  of  all  those  of  her  own  sex.  The 
most  striking  thing  about  it  was  the  entire 
absence  of  the  qualities  that  are  usually  associ- 
ated with  feminine  productions  ;  throughout  it 
was  virile,  masterly  in  construction  and  work- 
manship, and  particularly  remarkable  for  the 
excellence  and  rich  colouring  of  the  orchestra- 
tion. Miss  Smyth  did  not,  however,  come 
into  her  own  until  she  was  recognised  as  an 
operatic  writer.  Her  'Fantasio'  (libretto 
founded  by  herself  on  De  Musset)  was  produced 
at  Weimar  in  1898  in  unfortunate  conditions, 
and  it  was  not  until  its  revival  at  Carlsruhe 
in  February  1901  that  it  could  be  properly 
judged.  The  one-act  *Der  Wald'  was  given 
at  Dresden  in  September  1901  ;  it  was  pro- 
duced at  Covent  Garden,  July  18,  1902,  with 
very  great  success,  given  again  at  the  Metro- 
politan Opera -House,  New  York,  in  March 
1903,  and  again  at  Covent  Garden  on  June  26, 
1903.  The  distinction  of  its  being  revived  in 
the  year  after  its  first  production  is  significant 
of  its  success,  to  all  who  know  the  singular 
methods  followed  by  English  operatic  managers. 
It  was  evident  that  here  was  a  work  of  highly 
romantic  character  (the  treatment  of  the  spirits 
of  the  wood  as  the  primary  agents  in  the  drama 
is  full  of  suggestive  beauty),  by  one  who  had 
mastered  not  only  all  the  secrets  of  stage  effect, 
but  who  understood  how  to  make  her  climaxes  im- 
pressive, and  how  to  differentiate  her  characters. 
The  German  libretto  of  this,  like  that  of  her 
former  work,  was  written  by  the  composer 
herself.  Her  crowning  achievement  so  far,  is 
the  three-act  opera,  '  Les  Naufrageurs '  ('  The 
Wreckers'),  produced  at  Leipzig  as  *  Strand - 
rechf  on  Nov.   11,  1906.     The  libretto,  by 


SNARES 


SOCIEDADE  DE  QUARTETOS    491 


H.  B.  Leforestier,  bears  some  slight  traces  of 
being  originally  intended  to  suit  the  con- 
ventions of  the  Paris  Op^ra-Comique  rather 
than  the  German  stage ;  but  in  any  language 
the  wonderful  power  of  the  conception,  musical 
and  dramatic,  must  make  itself  felt.  In  spite 
of  a  performance  which  was  so  far  from  ideal 
that  the  composer  refused  to  allow  it  to  be 
repeated  at  the  same  theatre,  the  work  created 
a  profound  impression.  It  was  given  with  far 
more  care  and  success  at  Prague  on  Dec  22  of 
the  same  year,  and  is  accepted  for  performance 
at  Vienna  (1908).  While  the  style  is  so 
far  modern  as  that  set  pieces  are  dispensed 
with  and  Wagner's  artistic  ideals  are  fulfilled, 
there  is  no  attempt  to  curry  favour  with  the 
lovers  of  ugly  music,  or  to  write  what  sounds 
bizarre  for  iJie  sake  of  making  a  sensation. 
The  fine  treatment  of  the  choruses  in  the  first 
act,  the  orchestral  introduction  to  the  second 
act,  and,  in  the  same  section,  the  great  love- 
duet  which  rises  in  intensity  of  emotion  with 
the  rising  of  the  beacon-flame  lit  by  the  lovers 
to  warn  ships  from  the  dangers  of  the  coast; 
and,  in  the  third  act,  the  whole  treatment  of 
the  final  situation,  in  which  the  lovers  are  left 
by  the  people  to  be  drowned  by  the  advancing 
tide,  all  these  points  are  among  the  most 
remarkable  things  in  modem  opera,  and  it  is 
difficult  to  point  to  a  work  of  any  nationality 
since  Wagner  that  has  a  more  direct  appeal  to 
the  emotions,  or  that  is  more  skilfully  planned 
and  carried  out.  Some  charming  and  delicately 
written  French  poems,  for  mezzo-soprano  and 
very  small  orchestra,  were  sung  at  the  Queen's 
HaU,  Nov.  12,  1907.  M. 

SNARES.  A  group  of  four  or  five  pieces  of 
catgut  rather  loosely  stretched  across  the  lower 
end  of  the  side-drum,  which  jarring  against  the 
parchment  when  the  drum  is  struck  at  the  other 
end  produces  a  peculiar  rattle  characteristic  of 
the  instrument.  F.  K. 

SNETZLER,  John,  was  bom  at  Passau  in 
Germany  about  1710.  This  truly  eminent 
organ-builder,  after  acquiring  some  fame  in  his 
own  country,  was  induced  to  settle  in  England 
[in  1740 ;  he  built  the  organ  for  Chesterfield 
Church  in  1741  and  opened  a  factory  in  London 
in  1 755.  w.  h.  o.  f.].  He  built  the  noble  instro- 
ment  at  Lynn  Regis  (1754)  ;  a  very  fine  one  at 
St  Martin's,  Leicester  (1774);  that  of  the 
German  Lutheran  Chapel  in  the  Savoy,  which  was 
the  first  in  this  country  provided  with  a  pedal 
clavier ;  and  many  others,  including  chamber 
organs  of  high  quality.  Two  stories  are  current 
of  his  imperfect  way  of  speaking  English  and 
his  quaint  expressions.  At  the  competition  for 
the  place  of  organist  to  his  new  organ  at  Halifax 
(1766),  he  was  so  annoyed  by  the  rapid  playing 
of  Dr.  Robert  Wainwright,  that  he  paced  the 
church,  exclaiming,  *  He  do  run  over  de  keys 
like  one  cat,  and  do  not  give  my  pipes  time  to 
shpeak.'     And  at  Lynn  he  told  the  church- 


wardens, upon  their  asking  him  what  their  old 
organ  would  be  worth  if  repaired,  *  If  they  would 
lay  out  £100  upon  it,  perhaps  it  would  be  worth 
fifty.' 

Snetzler  lived  to  an  advanced  age,  and  died 
at  the  end  of  the  18th  or  the  commencement 
of  the  19th  century.  Having  saved  sufficient 
money,  he  returned  to  his  native  country  ;  but 
after  being  so  long  accustomed  to  London  porter 
and  English  fore,  he  found  in  his  old  age  that 
he  could  not  do  without  them,  so  he  returned 
to  London,  where  he  died.  His  successor  was 
Ohrmann.    [See  Hill,  W.,  &  Son.]      v.  db  p. 

SNODHAM,  Thomas.  An  early  London 
music  printer.  He  was  the  son-in-law  of 
Thomas  Estx,  and  succeeded  to  the  latter's 
business  in  1609. 

He  published  a  great  number  of  the  madrigal 
books  of  his  period,  as  Byrd's  '  Psalms,  Songs, 
and  Sonnets,'  1611;  Maynard's  <The  XIL 
Wonders  of  the  World  set  and  composed  for 
the  Viol  de  Gamba,'  1611  ;  Robert  Tailour's 
*  Sacred  Hymns,'  1615;  a  second  edition  of 
'Pammelia,'  and  other  works.  By  reason  of 
some  of  his  imprints  reading  'Thomas  Este 
alias  Snodham,'  it  has  been  considered  that 
Este  changed  his  name.  This,  however,  is  a 
mistake,  the  fact  being  that  Snodham  (who  had 
married  into  the  family  and  obtained  Este's 
business),  merely  desired  to  be  associated  with 
the  better-known  name  of  Este,  Thomas  Este 
having  just  then  died.  F.  K. 

SNOW,  Valentine,  was  possibly  son  of 
Moses  Snow,  gentleman  of  the  Chapel  Royal 
from  1689  until  his  death,  Deo.  20,  1702,  and 
also  lay-vicar  of  Westminster  Abbey  (Mus.B. 
Cambridge,  1606),  and  a  minor  composer. 
Valentine  Snow  became  the  finest  performer 
upon  the  tmmpet  of  his  day ;  was  a  member 
of  Handel's  oratorio  orchestra ;  and  it  was  for 
him  that  the  great  composer  wrote  the  difficult 
obbligato  trumpet  parts  in  *  Messiah,' '  Samson,' 
'Dettingen  Te  Deum,'  'Judas  Maccabeeus,'  etc. 
No  better  evidence  of  his  ability  can  be  required. 
In  January  1753  he  was  appointed  (in  succession 
to  John  Shore,  deceased)  Sergeant  Tmmpeter 
to  the  King,  which  office  he  held  until  his  death 
in  December  1770.  w.  h.  h. 

SNUFFBOX,  Musical.     See  vol.  i.  p.  186. 

SOCIEDADE  DE  QUARTETOS  DO  PORTO 
(Quartet  Society  of  Oporto).  This  Society 
originated  in  private  musical  gatherings  at  the 
house  of  a  banker  of  Oporto  (Sr.  Joa3  Miranda 
Guimariies).  In  1 875  tJie  violoncellist  J.  Casella 
settled  in  Oporto,  and  it  was  resolved  to  give 
public  concerts.  The  first  subscription  was  for 
twelve  concerts,  and  resulted  in  a  net  profit  of 
about  £32.  Encouraged  by  these  results,  the 
same  little  body  of  musicians  has  continued  to 
give  two  series  of  chamber  concerts  yearly, 
twelve  in  the  autumn,  and  six  in  the  spring. 
They  take  place  on  Sunday  aftemoons  in  a 
small  concert -room  at  the  S.   Joao  Theatre. 


492 


SOCIETA  ARMONICA 


SOCIETY  OF  BRITISH  MUSICIANS 


The  programmes  are  entirely  instrumental,  and 
consist  of  movements  from  the  chamber-music 
of  the  great  masters,  as  well  as  from  the  works 
of  Grieg,  Dvofdk,  Saint- Saens,  Liszt,  Gradener, 
Svendsen,  Tchaikovsky,  and  Miguel  Angelo. 
Short  analytical  remarks  are  written  by  Sr. 
B.  v.  Moreira  de  84,  to  whose  energy  and 
enthusiasm  the  Society  owes  much  of  its 
success.  w.  B.  s. 

SOCIETA  ARMONICA.  Bounded  about 
1827  for  the  purpose  of  giving  subscription 
concerts  in  which  symphonies,  overtures,  and 
occasionally  instrumental  chamber  works  were 
intermingled  with  vocal  numbers  usually  drawn 
from  the  Italian  operas.  Mr.  H.  Forbes  was 
the  conductor,  and  Tolbecque  and  the  younger 
Mori  were  the  leaders  of  the  band.  Beethoven's 
Overture  in  C  major,  Berlioz's  Overture  to  *  Les 
Francs  Juges,'  Reissiger's  Overture  in  F  minor, 
and  the  Overture  to  *Les  Huguenots,'  were 
among  the  works  which  gained  a  first  hearing 
in  England  at  the  Society's  concerts ;  and 
Weber's  Mass  in  G  was  also  produced.  Among 
the  vocalists  who  assisted  in  the  concerts  were 
Mmes.  Grisi,  Persiani,  Albertazzi,  Bishop,  Alfred 
Shaw,  Miss  Clara  Novello,  and  Miss  Birch, 
Messrs.  Phillips,  Rubini,  Tamburini  and  La- 
blache,  Mario  and  Ivanoff.  The  band  included 
Spagnoletti,  A.  Griesbach,  Willy,  Wagstaff, 
Dando,  Patey,  Jay,  Alsept,  Lindley,  Hatton, 
Brookes,  Dragonetti,  Howell,  Card,  Ribas, 
Barrett,  Harper,  etc.  Henri  Herz,  the  pianist 
and  composer,  and  Hausmann  the  violinist, 
made  their  first  appearance  in  this  country  at 
the  Societa  Armonica.  The  concerts  were  suc- 
cessively held  at  the  Crown  and  Anchor  Tavern 
in  the  Strand,  Freemasons'  Tavern,  and  the 
Opera  Concert  room  in  the  Haymarket  They 
terminated  in  or  about  the  year  1860.    c.  m. 

SOCI^Tfi  DE  MUSIQUE  DE  CHAMBRE, 
POUR  INSTRUMENTS  X  VENT.  This  is  a  Society 
for  the  performance  of  chamber-music  for  wind 
instruments  in  Paris.  It  was  founded  by 
Mons.  Paul  Taffanel,  the  distinguished  flute- 
player,  and  the  first  concert  took  place  on 
Feb.  6,  1879.  Six  concerts  were  given  in  the 
February,  March,  and  April  of  each  year  at 
4  P.M.  on  alternate  Thursdays,  at  the  Salle 
Pleyel ;  subscription,  20  francs  per  season. 
The  executants  were  all  artists  from  the  Con- 
servatoire concerts,  or  those  of  Pasdeloup — such 
as  flute,  Taffanel ;  oboe,  Gillet  and  Boullard  ; 
clarinet,  Grisez  and  Turban  ;  bassoon,  Espaignet 
and  Bourdeau ;  horn,  Garigue  and  Br^mond  ; 
piano,  Louis  Dimmer.  A  Society  modelled  on 
this,  the  *Wind  Instrument  Chamber  Music 
Society,'  did  good  work  in  London  in  the 
years  1889-93.  o. 

SOClfiTfe  DES  CONCERTS  DU  CONSER- 
VATOIRE.    See  vol.  i.  pp.  574,  576. 

SOCIETY  OF  BRITISH  AND  FOREIGN 
MUSICIANS.  A  benevolent  society,  established 
in  1822  to  provide  a  fund  for  the  relief  of  its 


members  during  sickness ;  to  assist  in  the 
support  of  those  who,  by  old  age  or  unavoidable 
calamity  may  become  unable  to  follow  their 
profession ;  and  to  allow  a  certain  sum  at  the 
death  of  a  member  or  a  member's  wife.  The 
office  is  at  28  Gerrard  Street,  and  the  Secretary 
is  Mr.  F.  Orcherton.  c.  m. 

SOCIETY  OF  BRITISH  COMPOSERS. 
This  Society  was  founded  in  1905  with  the 
primary  object  of  promoting  the  publication  of 
works  by  British  composers.  As  a  proof  of  the 
need  of  something  of  the  kind,  it  may  be  pointed 
out  that  in  two  years  after  the  Society's  forma- 
tion the  number  of  members  (composers)  and 
associates  (others  interested  in  the  movement) 
was  264,  while  there  had  been  published- forty- 
four  works  of  various  kinds,  principally  chamber- 
music  and  songs.  The  Society  issues  a  Year- 
Book,  which  is  a  useful  volume,  being  a  complete 
list  of  its  members'  compositions,  published  or 
in  MS.  The  publication  of  music  is  undertaken 
by  the  Society,  either  by  defraying  the  whole 
or  part  of  the  cost,  subject  to  the  approval  of 
an  elected  council,  or  at  the  sole  expense  of  the 
composer  concerned ;  the  engraving  and  printing 
is  done  at  cost  price  and  the  terms  as  to  royalties, 
etc.,  are  of  an  exceedingly  favourable  nature. 
The  publications  are  issued  by  the  publishing 
company,  Charles  Avison,  Ltd.,  on  behalf  of 
the  Society,  and  the  trade  agents  are  Messrs. 
Breitkopf  &  Hartel.  N.  G. 

SOCIETY  OF  BRITISH  MUSICIANS,  The, 
was  founded  inl834  with  the  object  of  advancing 
native  talent  in  composition  and  performance. 
In  the  original  prospectus  of  the  Society  atten- 
tion was  called  to  the  contrast  between  the 
encouragement  offered  to  British  painting,  sculp- 
ture, and  the  tributary  arts  at  the  Royal 
Academy,  and  the  comparative  neglect  of  English 
music  and  English  musicians,  the  overwhelming 
preponderance  of  foreign  compositions  in  all 
musical  performances  being  cited  as  *  calculated 
to  impress  the  public  with  the  idea  that  musical 
genius  is  an  alien  to  this  country,'  and  as 
tending  also  '  to  repress  those  energies  and  to 
extinguish  that  emulation  in  the  breast  of  the 
youthful  aspirant,  which  alone  can  lead  to  pre- 
eminence.' One  of  the  rules  adopted  was  to 
exclude  all  foreign  music  from  the  programmes 
of  the  Society's  concerts  and  to  admit  none  but 
natives  of  Great  Britain  among  its  members ; 
but  this  was  set  aside  in  1841,  when  the  Com- 
mittee reported  in  favour  of  introducing  a 
limited  proportion  of  music  by  composers  not 
members  of  the  Society  eitlier  British  or  foreign, ' 
and  the  suggestion  was  adopted,  though  not 
without  strong  opposition,  in  which  the  editor 
of  the  Musical  World  joined  {Musical  World  of 
Oct.  14,  1841).  In  its  earlier  days  the  Society 
achieved  a  complete  success,  numbering  in  1886 
as  many  as  350  members,  while  its  finances 
were  also  in  a  prosperous  state.  It  not  only 
gave  concerts  of  works  of  established  merit,  but 


SOCIETY  OF  BRITISH  MUSICIANS 


SODERMAN 


49a 


adopted  a  system  of  trial  performances  at  which 
many  new  compositions  were  heard.  The  pro- 
grammes included  the  names  of  all  the  leading 
English  writers  of  the  day,  who  as  a  rule  con- 
ducted their  own  works,  among  them  Cipriani 
Potter,  G.  A.  Macfah-en,  W.  H.  Holmes,  W.  L. 
Phillips,  Stemdale  Bennett,  J.  Hullah,  J.  H. 
Griesbach,  T.  German  Reed,  W.  M.  Booke, 
H.  Westrop,  Joseph  Bamett,  H.  C.  Intolff, 
C.  Lucas,  T.  M.  Mudie,  James  Calkin,  and 
John  Goss.  The  music  included  orchestral  and 
chamber  compositions,  varied  by  vocal  solos  and 
part-music,  to  which  nearly  all  the  above-named 
composers  contributed  original  works,  and  the 
members  in  turn  directed  the  perfoimances. 
After  1887  the  Society  began  to  decline,  and 
even  when  the  introduction  of  music  by  foreign 
composers  was  resolved  upon,  in  the  hope  of 
creating  more  general  interest  in  the  concerts, 
it  failed  to  restore  the  Society  to  prosperity, 
and  after  another  period  of  far  from  successful 
management  a  special  appeal  for  support  was 
put  forth  at  the  close  of  1854.  At  that  date 
the  members  included  Messrs.  H.  C.  Banister, 
W.  S.  Bennett,  H.  Blagrove,  J.  B.  Calkin, 
C.  Coote,  J.  T.  Cooper,  W.  H.  Holmes,  C.  E. 
Horsley,  H.  Lazarus,  E.  J.  Loder,  Kate  Loder 
(Lady  Thompson),  C.  Neate,  W.  S.  Rockstro, 
C.  Severn,  C.  Steggall,  C.  E.  Stephens,  J.  W. 
Thirlwall,  H.  J.  Trust,  F.  Westlake,  H.  Westrop, 
J.  Zerbini,  and  Sir  George  Smart.  This  effort 
was  ridiculed  in  the  Musical  World  of  Dec.  16, 
1854,  on  the  ground  that  the  Society  had  no 
true  claim  to  its  title,  as  many  composers  and 
artists  of  note  held  aloof  from  it.  The  move- 
ment served,  however,  to  draw  some  new 
friends  to  the  ranks,  and  as  a  means  of  fulfill- 
ing its  objects  prizes  were  oflfered  for  chamber 
compositions,  which  were  gained  in  1861  by 
Ebenezer  Prout  and  Edward  Perry  for  string 
quintets  ;  in  1863  by  J.  Lea  Summers  and  W. 
Gibbons,  also  for  string  quintets ;  and  in  1864  by 
Ebenezer  Prout  and  J.  Lea  Summers,  for  quartets 
for  piano  and  strings.  The  umpires  on  these 
occasions  included  Joachim,  Molique,  Piatti, 
Cipriani  Potter,  G.  A.  Macfarren,  A.  Mellon, 
T.  M.  Mudie  and  H.  Leslie.  In  1865  the 
Society  was  dissolved,  its  libraiy  was  sold  by 
Messrs.  Puttick  &  Simpson,  and  Mr.  C.  E. 
Stephens  was  appointed  custodian  of  the  minute- 
books,  etc.  The  secretaries  of  the  Society  were 
Messrs.  J.  R.  Tutton  (its  founder),  1834-85  ; 
G.  J.  Baker,  1835  until  his  death  in  1851  ; 
J.  Rackham,  1851-54  ;  W.  W.  Grice,  1854-55. 
The  honorary  treasurers  were  the  three  brothers 
Erat,  in  succession  to  each  other,  in  1834-58  ; 
and  Cipriani  Potter  held  the  poet  in  1858-65. 
The  Society  and  its  library  were  housed  gra- 
tuitously at  23  Bemers  Street,  by  Messrs.  Erat, 
from  1884  until  1858,  when  they  gave  up  the 
premises ;  1858-69  in  Womum's  Music  Hall, 
Store  Street ;  1860  in  St.  Martin's  Hall  until 
its  destruction  by  fire  on   August   26,   1860 


(when  the  Society's  property  was  saved)  ;  1860- 
1862  at  44  Charlotte  Street,  Fitzroy  Square,  by 
permission  of  Mr.  H.  Webb;  and  1862-65  at 
Messrs.  Collard's,  Grosvenor  Street,  free  of  all 
expense.  For  the  first  five  years  the  concerts 
were  given  at  the  Hanover  Square  Rooms,  and 
the  trials  of  orchestral  and  chamber  works  were 
subsequently  held  at  those  rooms  or  at  the 
above-named  buildings.  On  July  20,  1843, 
the  Society  gave  a  complimentary  concert  to 
Spohr  at  Erat's,  and  on  June  15,  1844,  at  the 
same  place,  a  complimentary  concert  to  Mendels- 
sohn. 0.  M. 

SODERMAN,  August  Johak,  one  of  the 
greatest  Swedish  composers  of  modem  times, 
was  bom  in  Stockholm,  July  17,  1832— his 
father  being  director  of  the  orchestra  at  a 
minor  theatre — and  at  an  early  age  displayed 
traces  of  musical  genius.  When  eighteen  years 
of  age  he  was  selected  by  Stjemstrom,  the 
director  of  the  orchestra  at  the  Royal  theatre 
in  Stockholm,  as  instructor  to  a  company  of 
musicians,  then  on  a  tour  to  Finland.  On  his 
retum  Soderman  wrote  his  first  operetta,  with 
the  fantastic  title,  *  The  Devil's  first  Rudiments 
of  Learning,'  which  was  performed  at  the 
Mindre  theatre  at  Stockholm,  Sept.  14,  1856. 
During  the  following  two  years  he  stayed  in 
Leipzig,  studying  under  Richter  and  Haupt- 
mann ;  in  the  year  1860  he  was  appointed 
chorus-master  at  the  Royal  Opera  in  Stockholm  ; 
and  from  that  date  until  his  election  as  a 
member  of  the  Swedish  Academy  of  Music,  his 
life  was  occupied  in  such  minor  offices  in  the 
musical  world  as  are  too  often  the  lot  of  great 
composers  when  cast  in  a  small  community. 
But  however  poor  the  offices  he  held,  Soderaian 
filled  them  with  a  sincerity  and  zeal  which  many 
a  man  of  inferior  talents  might  have  envied. 
[About  1865  the  generosity  of  Jenny  Lind  en- 
abled him  to  continue  his  studies  in  Germany.  J 

His  works  are  about  sixty  in  number — 
operettas,  songs,  ballads,  part-songs,  funeral 
marches,  and  cantatas ;  of  which,  however, 
only  half  have  been  printed,  and  these  at  the 
expense  of  the  Swedish  Government  after  his 
death.  Of  the  printed  works  we  can  only 
mention  a  few,  besides  the  above-mentioned, 
namely,  two  operettas,  '  The  Wedding  at  UlfSLsa,' 
and  *  Regina  von  Emmeritz  * ;  overture  and 
incidental  music  to  '  The  Maid  of  Orleans ' ; 
songs ;  Trios  for  male  voices,  containing  the 
Finnish  national  air  '  Suonii  sang ' ;  a  quartet 
for  female  voices,  *Brollop,'  very  popular  in 
Germany,  a  Circassian  dance,  and  a  concert- 
overture,  also  '  Sacred  songs  for  organ,'  contain- 
ing a  number  of  hymns  of  great  beauty  and 
purity,  of  which  the  best  known  are  a  Benedictus 
and  an  Agnus  Dei.  Though  a  Protestant,  his 
ehef-{€(euvre  is  a  Mass  for  solos,  choras,  and 
orchestra,  which  has  only  been  rarely  performed 
in  Stockholm,  but  is  considered  by  his  country- 
men as  equal  to  any  by  the  great  composera,  and 


494 


SOGGETTO 


SOLESMES 


which  is  animated  by  such  sincere  devotion, 
and  stamped  by  such  a  high  degree  of  originality 
and  masterly  finish,  as  to  rank  among  the 
choioest  gems  of  Swedish  music. 

Another  of  his  works  worth  mention  is  his 
music  to  the  poetry  of  Bellman.  This  poet, 
whose  genius  is  akin  to  that  of  Marlowe,  has 
written  a  number  of  rhapsodies,  depicting  the 
gay,  jovial,  and  careless  nature  of  the  Swede, 
with  a  force  of  animal  spirit  and  genuine  origin- 
ality which  few  other  poets  have  equalled ; 
and  to  these  productions,  which  every  Swede 
knows  by  heart,  Soderman  set  music. 

The  foreign  composers  who  seem  to  have  in- 
fluenced his  more  elaborate  productions  are 
Beethoven,  Schubert,  and,  in  particular,  Schu- 
mann. His  compositions,  though  thoroughly 
Swedish,  are  not  national ;  they  bear  the  im- 
press of  the  vigorous  and  energetic  nature  of 
the  Northerner,  which  makes  Scandinavian  com- 
positions so  charming.  Soderman  died  Feb.  10, 
1876,  at  the  early  age  of  forty -four,  and  a 
national  subscription  was  at  once  raised  in' 
Sweden  for  the  benefit  of  his  widow  and 
children.  It  was  a  token  of  the  gratitude 
and  respect  of  a  musical  nation  for  a  great 
composer.  c.  s*. 

SOGGETTO  (Ital.  SvJbject  or  Thtme),  The 
true  subject  of  an  orthodox  Fugue  as  opposed 
to  the  Andamento,  which  is  asubject  of  abnormal 
length  ;  and  the  Attacco,  which  ^  a  mere  Point 
of  Imitation. 

In  its  most  regular  form,  the  Soggetto  consists 
of  a  single  homogeneous  section  ;  as  in  No.  1  of 
*Das  Wohltemperirte  Clavier,'  Occasionally, 
however,  its  division  into  two  sections  is  very 
clearly  marked ;  as  in  No.  7  of  the  same.  Subjects 
of  this  last-named  class  frequently  make  a  very 
near  approach  to  the  Andamento,  from  which 
they  sometimes  differ  only  in  their  less  extended 
dimensions.  [See  Andamento  and  Attacco, 
and  Fugue,  vol.  ii.  p.  116a.]  w.  s.  r. 

SOKALSKY,  Peter  Petrovich,  bom  at 
Kharkov,  Sept.  26,  1832  ;  died  at  Odessa  in 
March  1887.  He  was  educated  at  the  University 
of  Kharkov,  and  while  acting  as  under-master 
in  one  of  the  public  schools  in  the  town  began 
to  collect  the  folk-songs  of  the  district.  Later 
in  life  (1857-60)  he  was  Secretary  to  the 
Russian  Consulate  in  New  York,  and  on  his 
return  to  Russia  became  editor  of  the  Odessa 
News.  Sokalsky  composed  several  operas : 
*  Maria  '  (*  Mazeppa '),  *  A  Night  in  May,'  and 
*The  Siege  of  Doubno'  (from  Gogol's  Tarctss 
Boulba).  His  article  upon  The  Chinese  Scale  in 
JRussian  National  Music,  and  Russian  Naiional 
Music  (Kharkov,  1888),  are  valuable  to  students 
of  this  subject. 

Vladimir  Ivanovich,  his  nephew,  bom  at 
Heidelberg,  May  6,  1863,  studied  law  at  the 
university  of  Kharkov.  His  unpublished  com- 
positions include  a  symphony  in  G  minor 
(Kharkov,    1894),    a    dramatic    Fantasia,   an 


Eastern  March,  and  an  Andante  Elegiaco  for 
violoncello  and  orchestra.  His  pianoforte  pieces, 
'Impressions  Musicales'  op.  1,  the  pianoforte 
suite  '  In  the  Meadows,'  and  some  songs,  have 
been  published.  R.  N. 

SOKOLOV,  Nicholas*  Alexandrovicu, 
composer,  bom  in  St.  Petersburg,  1859.  Here 
he  studied  at  the  Conservatorium  from  1877 
to  1885  and  was  a  pupil  of  Rimsky-Korsakov. 
His  chief  compositions  are :  *  Elegy '  (op.  4), 
and  incidental  music  to  Shakespeare's  '  Winter's 
Tale,'  for  orchestra ;  three  string  quartets, 
opp.  7,  14,  and  20  ;  eight  pieces  for  violin  and 
pianoforte  ;  six  for  violonc^o  and  pianoforte ; 
seven  choruses  a  cappella ;  four  choruses  for 
female  voices  ;  about  eighty  songs,  and  a  ballet 
entitled  *The  Wild  Swans.'  R.  N. 

SOL.  The  fifth  note  of  the  natural  scale 
according  to  the  nomenclature  of  France  and 
Italy  ;  in  English  and  German  G.  In  the  old 
hymn  from  which  Guido  is  supposed  to  have 
formed  the  scale  it  occurs  as  follows  : — 

Ut  queant  laxis  resonare  fibris, 
Min  gestoram  >tunuli  tuorum, 
Solve  pollatis  tobia  reatis, 
Sancte  Johannes. 

SOLDAT,  Marie  (Madame  Soldat-Roger), 
violinist,  was  bom  at  Graz  on  March  25,  1864. 
In  her  fifth  year  she  studied  the  pianoforte 
under  her  father,  a  professional  organist  Two 
years  later  she  began  to  learn  the  organ,  and 
was  soon  able  occasionally  to  act  as  substitute 
for  her  father.  Then  in  her  eighth  year  she 
took  up  the  violin,  under  Pleiner,  and  appeared 
in  public  when  ten  years  of  age,  performing  the 
'  Fantaisie-Caprice '  of  Yieuxtemps,  a  type  of 
•music  with  which  she  has  not  since  been  identi- 
fied. Coming  under  the  influence  of  Joachim 
and  Brahms  she  resumed  study  in  the  Berlin 
Hochschule  in  1879,  remaining  there  till  1882 
and  gaining  the  Mendelssohn  prize.  She  sub- 
sequently took  private  lessons  from  Joacliim, 
whose  repertoire  both  of  solo  and  chamber  music 
she  adopted,  making  a  special  study  of  the 
Brahms  concerto,  which  she  introduced  for  the 
first  time  to  a  Viennese  audience  under  Richter. 
In  1889  she  was  married  to  Herr  Roger,  a 
lawyer  by  profession,  but  has  since  continued 
her  public  career.  She  has  travelled  a  great 
deal  as  a  soloist,  visiting  England  occasionally 
(playing  for  the  first  time  at  a  concert  of  the 
Bach  Choir,  March  1,  1888),  and  has  a  following 
among  those  who  admire  solid  before  brilliant 
acquirements.  w.  w.  c. 

SOLESMES.  A  village  near  Le  Mans,  whose 
Benedictine  monastery  has  become  famous 
through  the  labours  of  its  monks  in  the  restora- 
tion of  liturgical  music,  for  which  they  established 
a  printing  press,  with  special  type. 

The  order  of  the  '  Congregation  of  France,' 
better  known  in  England  as  the  '  Benedictines 
of  Solesmes,'  was  founded  in  1833  by  Dom 
Prosper  Gu^ranger,  who  became  the  first  Abbot. 


SOLESMES 


SOLESMES 


495 


Under  Gudranger  and  his  successors,  Solesmes 
became  a  centre  for  the  study  and  execution  of 
plain-song,  and  was  visited  by  many  students 
from  all  parts  of  Europe.  In  1901,  however, 
owing  to  their  non-compliance  with  the  new 
Law  of  Associations,  the  monks  were  expelled 
from  Solesmes,  and  moved  in  a  body  to  Appuldur- 
combe,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  where  they  still 
are ;  but  in  1908  they  propose  to  settle  at 
Quarr  Abbey,  near  Ryde.  Their  printing-press 
having  been  confiscated  by  the  French  Govern- 
ment, the  publication  of  their  works  is  now 
carried  out  by  the  firm  of  Desclee  et  Cie,  Toumai, 
Belgium.  Their  choir  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  is 
the  practical  exponent  of  their  method,  and 
they  hold  a  *  Summer  School,'  in  July  and 
August,  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  wish  to 
study  and  hear  plain-song. 

The  work  of  reform  began  under  Dom  Gue- 
ranger,  who,  wishing  to  restore  Gregorian  music 
to  its  earliest  known  form,^  engaged  his  col- 
leagues Dom  Pothier  and  Dom  Jausions(e2.  1870) 
to  examine  and  compare  manuscripts,  laying 
down  as  a  principle  that '  where  the  manuscripts 
of  different  periods  and  diflferent  countries  agree 
in  their  version  of  a  melody,  it  may  be  aflSrmed 
that  the  tnie  Gregorian  text  has  been  discovered. ' 

But  it  was  of  little  use  to  discover  the  true 
text  unless  the  proper  method  of  its  performance 
could  also  be  found.  At  that  time  Gregorian 
music,  following  the  traditions  of  Zarlino  and 
others,  was  sung  in  a  slow,  heavy,  unaccented, 
and  unrhythmical  style,  and  accompanied  on 
the  organ  by  a  separate  chord  to  each  note. 
This  style  was  afterwards  alluded  to  by  the 
Solesmes  monks  as  the  '  hammered,'  *  marUl^,* 
style.  Gu^ranger  and  Pothier,  on  studying  the 
theoretical  works  of  the  9th  and  10th  centuries, 
found  that  plain-song  had  anciently  a  rhythm 
peculiar  to  itself,  differing  in  important  pigidcu- 
lars  from  that  of  measured  music.  The  first 
result  of  this  discovery  was  that  Dom  Gueranger 
*wa8  able  to  give  the  singing  at  Solesmes  a 
rhythm  that  no  one  had  yet  dreamed  of,'  ^  and 
from  henceforth  the  chief  aim  of  the  musicians 
of  Solesmes  was  to  perfect  the  rhythmical  theory 
as  well  as  the  musical  readings. 

In'  1881  the  first  edition  appeared  of  '  Les 
Melodies  gr^riennes,  d'apr^  la  tradition,'  by 
Dom  Pothier,  treating  the  whole  theory  of 
plain -song  from  an  entirely  new  point  of  view. 
This  important  work  has  formed  the  basis  of 
all  subsequent  studies. 

The  investigations  now  went  on  more  earnestly 
than  ever.  Photography  was  called  in  to  aid, 
monks  were  sent  to  the  principal  libraries  of 
Europe  to  photograph  codices,  and  the  year 
1883  saw  the  publication  by  Dom  Pothier  of 
the  *  Liber  Gradualis  a  Gregorio  Magno  olim 
ordinatus,  cum  notis  musicis  .  .  .  restitutis  in 
usum  Congregationis  Benedictinae  Galliarum.' 

I  For  tb«  TCMon  why  the  earliest  form  It  preferablo  to  that  of 
the  time  of  P&leatrln«,  see  Plaim-Soiio,  toI.  ili.  p.  761. 
>  Ptain-Chant  and  Boletmm.     Cagln  and  Mocquereau. 


This  was  followed  in  1891  by  the  '  Liber  Anti- 
phonarius  pro  Vesperis  et  Completorio,'  also 
by  Pothier,  and  in  1896  by  the  *  Liber  Usualis 
Missae  et  Ofiicii,'  by  Mocquereau. 

But  others  besides  the  monks  of  Solesmes 
were  now  in  the  field,  endeavouring  to  reform 
the  liturgical  music.  Chief  among  them  was 
Frederic  Pustet  of  Ratisbon,  who  obtained  from 
Pius  IX.  a  decree  under  which  he  was  given,  by 
the  Congregation  of  Sacred  Rites,  the  sole  right 
for  thirty  years  of  republishing  the  celebrated 
*  Medicean '  edition,  authorised  by  Paul  Y.  in 
1614.  The  same  authority  recognised  Pustet's 
publication  as  the  official  version  of  plain-song, 
and  recommended  it  for  use  in  the  whole  of  the 
Roman  Church.  The  privileges  thus  given  were 
confirmed  by  the  next  Pope,  Leo  XIII. 

This  version  (known  as  the  *  Ratisbon'  edition), 
which  also  claims  to  be  the  tnie  music  of 
Gregory,  is  founded  on'  an  entirely  different 
principle  from  that  of  Solesmes.  It  is  explained 
thus  in  the  Maffister  Choralis  of  Haberl  (Ratis- 
bon, 1893):  *  Since  the  13th  century  a  prin- 
ciple has  existed  of  improving  the  melodies 
by  cutting  down  their  enormous  length,  which 
arose,  partly  through  a  bad  method  of  execution, 
and  partly  through  the  7/ia7iier<s7i  of  singers.  .  •  . 
The  revision  undertaken  by  the  Congregation 
of  Sacred  Rites  by  order  of  Pius  IX.  put  the 
foundation  of  the  Roman  Chant  on  the  system 
followed  since  the  Council  of  Trent. ' 

The  Solesmes  view  is  that  at  the  time  the 
Medicean  edition  was  authorised,  plain -song  had 
reached,  not  its  highest  development,  but  its 
most  decadent  stage  :  that  in  the  time  of  Pale- 
strina,  who  is  supposed  to  have  had  a  hand  in 
preparing  the  edition,  the  traditions  of  its 
proper  performance  had  been  forgotten  for 
centuries  ;  and  that  its  real  apogee  was  imme- 
diately after  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great,  when 
it  was  collected  and  written  down,  and  its 
method  of  performance  described  by  the  theo- 
retical writers. 

To  support  the  truth  of  these  views  Dom 
Andr^  Mocquereau  (now  Prior  of  the  Abbey), 
who  brought  exceptional  musical  training  to 
bear  on  the  work,  commenced  in  1 889  a  quarterly 
publication,  entitled  Paldographie  mvsicale, 
consisting  of  photographic  facsimiles  of  Gre- 
gorian, Ambrosian,  Mozarabic,  and  Gallican 
manuscripts,  together  with  exhaustive  discus- 
sions of  the  various  questions  involved.  The 
melodies  obtained  through  the  comparative 
study  of  many  manuscripts  on  the  principle  laid 
down  by  Gueranger,  when  sung  by  the  Solesmes 
choir  according  to  the  method  explained  in  the 
PMographie,  proved  to  be  of  greater  artistic 
and  aesthetic  excellence  than  any  other  form 
of  plain-song. 

Owing  to  the  support  given  to  the  Ratisbon 
edition,  the  monks  did  not  at  first  obtain 
recognition  beyond  their  monastery  and  a  few 
similar  establishments.     Their    labours  were, 


496 


SOLESMES 


SOLESMES 


however,  rewarded  when  in  1904  the  new  Pope, 
Pius  X.,  who  is  well  versed  in  music,  established 
a  Papal  Commission  to  prepare  a  new  Official 
Edition,  and  at  the  same  time  wrote  to  Dom 
Paul  Delatte,  the  present  Abbot,  appointing 
the  monks  of  Solesmes  to  be  the  editors.  *  This 
edition,  known  as  the  'Vatican  edition/  has, 
up  to  the  present  date  (1907),  embraced  the 
Kyriale,  or  ordinary  of  the  mass,  and  the 
Commune  Sanctorum.  It  is  primarily  based  on 
the  'Liber  gradualis';  but  in  the  preparation 
of  that  work  the  learned  editor  had  not  the 
abundant  means  of  research  at  his  disposal 
which  have  since  been  available  ;  ^  hence  certain 
deficiencies  became  apparent  when  the  book 
came  into  use.  These  are  removed  in  the  Vati- 
can edition,  while  the  monks  are  issuing  for 
their  own  use  a  special  Vatican  edition  containing 
the  marks  of  expression  as  performed  by  them. 

Thepracticalapplicationof  thelaws  of  Rhythm 
to  the  chant  is  described  in  the  various 
'  Methods  of  Plain-Chant '  that  have  issued  from 
the  Solesmes  and  other  presses.  The  theory 
underlying  what  is  known  to  modem  students 
of  plain-song  as  '  Free  Rhythm  '  may  be  briefly 
described  as  follows.  Free  Rhythm  arose  from 
the  setting  of  the  words  of  Scripture  to  music 
at  a  time  when  the  idea  that  melody  could 
have  a  rhythm  of  its  own,  to  which  the  words 
sung  must  conform  in  respect  of  time-duration, 
had  not  yet  been  thought  of.  Free  Rhythm 
practically  obeys  all  the  laws  of  modern  musical 
rhythm  except  that  of  definitely  fixed  time- 
relationship.  Writing  in  the  11th  century, 
when  its  laws  were  still  understood,  and  when 
what  we  call  '  Free '  was  called  by  musicians 
*  Prose  Rhythm,'  Aribo  says:  *Good  Prose 
Rhythm  requires  that  there  should  be  a  rough 
balance  in  the  groups  of  syllables,  and,  naturally, 
also  in  the  groups  of  accents,  and  in  the  members 
of  sentences :  but  they  are  not  to  be  subjected 
to  the  rigorous  laws  of  metre.' 

In  *  Syllabic  Plain-song, 'in  which  each  syllable 
has  a  single  note  (or  at  most  two  or  three  notes 
very  occasionally),  the  accentuation  of  the 
melody  is  ruled  by  that  of  the  words.  For 
rhythmical  purposes,  as  well  as  for  the  under- 
standing of  the  ideas  to  be  expressed  by  them, 
words  are  divided  into  accented  and  unaccented 
syllables,  and  are  also  grouped  into  sentences 
and  'members  of  sentences.'  This  is  a  law  of 
all  language,  and  Syllabic  Plain -song  is  simply 
prose  language  uttered  in  melody  instead  of 
being  spoken.  The  technical  plain-song  names 
for  sentences  and  members  of  sentences  are 
DisHnctionea  major  and  minor y  and  the  distine- 
Hones  are  separated  by  caesuras.  At  each 
csesura  there  is  a  Moravltimae  voeis  (ritardando) 
which  obeys  certain  rules. 

1  Two  monka  an  now  engaged  in  vlaltlng  all  the  chief  libraiiea 
of  Italy,  armed  with  letters  of  commendation  from  the  Pope  and 
the  Prime  Minister.  It  la  aaid  that  photncraphs  are  anivinf  at 
Appalduroombe  at  the  rate  of  1000  a  week,  and  Uie  lihrary  posssMCs 
aome  800  complete  codlcea  in  CaoaJmile. 


In  <  Melismatio  Plain -song,'  of  which  the  short 
passage  quoted  below  is  an  example,  the  same 
laws  of  '  distinctions,'  caesuras,  and  *  morae '  are 
applied,  the  syllables  and  words  of  prose  being 
represented  in  the  melody  by  the  groups  of 
neumes,  which  may  not  only  occur  in  connec- 
tion with  the  single  verbal  syllables,  but  may 
form  long  *  Melismata,'  apart  from  the  words. 
The  technical  name  for  the  melisma  is  '  Pneuma, ' 
i.e.  *  Breathing,'  which  must  not  be  confounded 
with  *  Neuma,'  a  note,  or  group  of  notes.  The 
intimate  relation  as  to  rhythm  between  the 
neume  in  melody  and  the  syllable  in  words  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  groups  of  notes  are  often 
called  *  Syllabae '  by  the  ancient  writers.  The 
chant  is  now  executed  more  rapidly  than  in 
the  days  of  the  '  hammered '  style ;  and  the 
notes  have  no  relative  time-value,  but  take 
their  duration  from  the  syllables  in  Syllabic, 
and  from  certain  rules  in  Melismatic  melody. 

The  opening  phrase  of  the  Gradual  'Justus 
ut  palma,'  as  found  in  the  Ratisbon  and  Solesmes 
books  respectively,  will  serve  to  show  the  dif- 
ference between  the  two  versions.  The  difference 
in  method  of  performance  can  only  be  observed 
by  a  visit  to  one  of  the  many  churches  in  whicli 
Solesmes  Plain-song  is  now  cultivated.  Below 
it  is  appended  the  Solesmes  example  in  modem 

Batibbok. 


S 


55: 


:t=X 


^^^i^-f- 


pal  -  ma  flo  • 


13=!: 


^5:*:*- 


dros   Li  -  ba  -  nl     mnl-tl-pIi*(oabltur) 
SOLE8MB8. 


>*\\  » 


Ju  -  atiu         at   pal  -  ma  flo  •  r4 


^  -  '  ^    '.fir,i.,  ,  f,s\ 


ai  •  out     oe    -    •    droa    .    .    .    .  Li  •  ba    •    -    -    ni 


t     ,11.,Jl'^'A 


mul  -  ti  -  pll-(cabitar) 


(When  ruAng  modem  notation  the  Soleamee  edltora  plaoa  dots  orer 
accented  notte:  the  dota  are  not  to  be  md  aa  staoeato  sifna.) 


SOL-FA 


SOLFEGGIO 


497 


notation,  as  nearly  as  its  rhythm  can  be  ex- 
pressed, free  rhythm  not  admitting  the  exact 
relation  implied  by  crotchets  and  quavers. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  more  important 
works  connected  with  plain-song  published  by 
the  monks  of  Solesmes.  The  dates  are  those 
of  the  latest  editions. 

1881.  LnH^lodiasR^rleDimd'aprlalATndlttoii.    Fothlcr. 

1883.  Uber  OndiuTis.    lV>thi«r. 

188B.  The  FtUdogmphie  mtulcale  wm  oommcnoed  hf  Dom  Moo- 
qamtmn,  who  hmt  acted  m  editor  and  chief  oontrilmtor.  Up  to  the 
preeent  It  hM  pnbllihed  :— 

Vol.  I.  Atttiphooale  niUnnun  Banetl  Oregorll.  lOth  oentwr. 
St.  Gall  Library.  Codex  SSB. 

Vol.  II.  and  III.  The  OiBdnal  'Jtiatoa  nt  palma,'  rtprodnced 
from  over  900  M88. 

Vol.  IV.  Antiphonale  mlaMram  Saiictl  Gregorli.  10th -llth 
cantory.    Llbnuy  of  Bliwiedelu.  Codex  I'Jl. 

Vol.  V.  and  VI.  The  aarlleet  known  Ainbtoelan  Antlphonary. 
12th  centary.    British  MuMium.  Codex  Add.  V8S.  U.  208. 

VoL  VII.  and  VIII.  Antipbonariiaui  Tooale  Minaram.  llth 
oentnry.  Libnry  of  the  School  of  Medldne.  Montpelller.  Codex 
H.  IW    ThU  va.bae  alphabetical  notatloa  above  the  oeamei. 

Vol.  IX.  Monartlc  Antlpbonary.  19th  eentory.  Capitular 
Library  of  Lueaa,  Oodex  001.    (In  progren.) 

In  addition  to  the  above,  there  U  a  aeoond  eerlee  of  the  Paldo- 
graphic  madoale.  not  publlahed  at  deflnlla  intenrale.  Hie  otily 
volonae  that  has  appeared  ae  yet  coutaina  the  Manaetle  Antiphon- 
ary  of  Hartker.    lOtb  century. 

188B.  Orlgine  et  ddreloppeinent  da  la  Notation  neuroattqoe. 
Mocquereao. 

1898.  QueatioD*  Grdforlennea.    Mooqoarean. 

1887.  LiberAutiphonarliuproVeeperiaetCoinpletorlo.  Pbthier* 
Libri  Antiphonarll  pro  dinniia  horla.    Pothier. 

1900.  Chant*  dee  OiBeea.    Moequenan. 

1902.  Manual  dc  la  Meeae.    Frrach  and  Latin.    Mooqueraao. 

1903.  Liber  Unualla  Viaaae  et  Offldia.    Moequereau. 
1008.  Liber  Uaualia  Miaaae  et  Offldia.    Mocqueraau. 

1M)7.  Kyrlale,  aea  Ordinarium  miane  cum  oantn  gregoriano,  ad 
exemplar  editlooi*  Vaticanae.  oonelnnatom  et  rhythinioia  aignia 
a  Solfunenalbaa  nionaehia  diligentar  omatum. 

1007.  In  the  Preaa.  V^thode  complMe  de  Chant  grdgorlen. 
Mooquervau.  q^  y.  A.  W. 

SOL-FA.  *To  sol-fa'  is  to  sing  a  passage 
or  a  piece  of  vocal  music,  giving  to  the  notes, 
not  the  words,  but  the  syllables,  Do  (C),  Re 
(D),  Mi  (E),  Fa  (F),  Sol  (G),  La  (A),  Si  (B), 
Do  (C).  Why  the  two  syllables  Sol  and  Fa 
should  have  been  chosen  to  designate  this 
process  in  preference  to  Do  Re,  or  Re  Mi,  does 
not  appear.  For  the  Tonic  Sol-fa  system,  see 
Tonic  Sol-fa. 

In  a  hymn  written  by  Arrigo  Boito  and 
composed  by  Mancinelli,  for  the  opening  of  the 
monument  of  Guido  d'Arezzo  at  Rome,  the 
seven  syllables  (see  Sol)  are  thus  employed : — 

Utll  di  Guido  rvgola  superna 
Jj^tsuratrice  yhcile  de'  suoni 
SoUnne  or  tu  laudo  a  t«  stesita  intuoni, 
.sniaba  eterna. 

The  roll  or  stick  with  which  the  conductors 
of  church  choirs  in  Italy  beat  the  time  is  called 
the  S61fa.  6. 

SOLFEGGIO,  £  GORGHEGGIO.  Solfeggio 
is  a  musical  exercise  for  the  voice  upon  the 
syllables  Ut  (or  Do),  Re,  Mi,  Fa,  Sol,  La, 
forming  the  Guidonian  Hexachord,  to  which 
was  added  later  the  syllable  Si  upon  the  seventh 
or  leading-note,  the  whole  corresponding  to  the 
notes  C,  D,  £,  F,  G^  A,  B  of  the  modem  Diatonic 
scale.  These  names  may  be  considered  the 
result  of  an  accident  ingeniously  turned  to 
account,  the  first  six  being  the  first  syllables 
of  half  lines  in  the  first  verse  of  a  hymn  for 
the  festival  of  St.  John  Baptist,  occurring  upon 
the  successive  notes  of  the  rising  scale,  with  a 
seventh  syllable  perhaps  formed  of  the  initial 

VOL.  IV 


letters  of  Sancte  Johannes.     [See  Sol,  Solmisa- 

TION.] 

The  first  use  of  these  syllables  is  ascribed  to 
Guido  d'Arezzo  as  an  artificial  aid  to  pupils  *  of 
slow  comprehension  in  learning  to  read  music,' 
and  not  as  possessing  any  special  virtue  in  the 
matter  of  voice-cultivation ;  but  it  is  by  no 
means  clear  that  he  was  the  first  to  use  them. 
At  any  rate  they  came  into  use  somewhere 
about  his  time.  It  is  probable  that  even  in 
Guide's  day  (if  voice-cultivation  was  carried  to 
any  grade  of  perfection — ^which  is  hardly  likely 
in  an  age  when  nearly  all  the  music  was  choral, 
and  the  capacities  of  the  voice  for  individual 
expression  were  scarcely  recognised),  as  soon  as 
the  notes  had  been  learned,  the  use  of  syllables 
was,  as  it  has  been  later,  superseded  by  vocalisa- 
tion, or  singing  upon  a  vowel.  The  syllables 
may  be  considered,  therefore,  only  in  their 
capacity  as  names  of  notes.  Dr.  Orotch,  in 
his  treatise  on  Harmony,  uses  them  for  this 
purpose  in  the  major  key,  on  the  basis  of  the 
movable  Do,  underlining  them  thus.  Do,  etc., 
for  the  notes  of  the  relative  minor  scales,  and 
gives  them  as  alternative  with  the  theoretical 
names — Tonic,  or  Do  ;  Mediant,  or  Mi  ;  Domi- 
nant, or  Sol,  etc.  The  continued  use  of  the 
sylUbles,  if  tJie  Do  were  fixed,  would  accustom 
the  student  to  a  certain  vowel  on  a  certain 
note  only,  and  would  not  tend  to  facilitate 
pronunciation  throughout  the  scale.  If  the  Do 
were  movable,  though  different  vowels  would 
be  used  on  different  parts  of  the  voice,  there 
would  still  be  the  mechanical  succession  through 
the  transposed  scale  ;  and  true  reading — which 
Hullah  aptly  calls  'seeing  with  the  ear  and 
hearing  with  the  eye,'  that  is  to  say,  the  mental 
identification  of  a  certain  sound  with  a  certain 
sign — would  not  be  taught  thereby.  Those 
who  possess  a  natural  musical  disposition  do 
not  require  the  help  of  the  sylUbles ;  and  as 
pronunciation  would  not  be  effieotually  taught 
by  them,  especially  after  one  of  the  most 
difficult  and  unsatis&ctory  vowels  had  been 
i-emoved,  by  the  change  of  Ut  to  Do,  and  as 
they  do  not  contain  all  the  consonants,  and  as, 
moreover,  voice-cultivation  is  much  more  readily 
carried  out  by  perfecting  vowels  before  using 
consonants  at  dl, — it  was  but  natural  that 
vocalisation  should  have  been  adopted  as  the 
best  means  of  removing  inequalities  in  the  voice 
and  difficulties  in  its  management.  Crescentini , 
one  of  the  last  male  soprani,  and  a  singing- 
master  of  great  celebrity,  says,  in  the  preface 
to  his  vocal  exercises,  'Gli  esercisg  sono  stati 
da  me  imaginati  per  1'  uso  del  vocalizzo,  cosa  la 
piu  necessaria  per  perfezionarsi  nel  canto  dopo 
lo  studio  fatto  de'  solfeggi,  o  sia,  nomtndcUura 
delle  note' — *I  have  intended  these  exercises 
for  vocalisation,  which  is  the  most  necessary 
exercise  for  attaining  perfection  in  singing, 
after  going  through  the  study  of  the  sol-fa,  or 
nomenclature  of  the  notes.'     Sometimes  a  kind 

2k 


498 


SOLFEGGIO 


SOLFEGGIO 


of  compromise  has  been  adopted  in  exercises  of 
agility,  that  syllable  being  used  which  comes 
npon  the  principal  or  accented  note  of  a  group 
or  division,  e,g. 

Do.  .  .  B«.  .  .  MI...  TW.  .  .     Do 

The  word  '  Solfeggio '  is  a  good  deal  misused, 
and  confounded  with  *  Vocalizzo '  in  spite  of 
the  etymology  of  the  two  words.  The  preface 
to  the  fourth  edition  of  the  'Solf&ges  d'ltalie' 
says  '  La  plupart  des  Solf&ges  nouveaux  exigent 
qu'ils  soient  SoljUs  sans  nommer  Us  notes,  *  Here 
is  an  absurd  contradiction,  and  a  confusion  of 
the  two  distinct  operations  of  Solfeggiare  and 
Vocalizzare.  We  have  no  precise  equivalent  in 
English  for  Solfeggio  and  Solfeggiare.  The 
French  have  Solf^e  and  Solfier.  We  say,  to 
Sol  •  fa,  and  Sol  -  faing.  As  a  question  of 
voice -production,  the  wisdom  of  vocalisation, 
chiefly  upon  the  vowel  a  (Italian),  and  certainly 
before  other  vowels  are  practised,  and  most 
decidedly  before  using  consonants,  has  been 
abundantly  proved.  The  use  of  the  words  in 
question  is  not  therefore  a  matter  of  much 
importance.  This  appears  to  be  in  direct 
opposition  to  the  advice  of  a  very  fine  singer 
and  an  eminent  master,  Pier  Francesco  Tosi, 
whose  book  upon  singing  was  published  at 
Bologna  in  1723,  the  English  translation  by 
Galliard  appearing  in  1742.  He  says,  'Let 
the  master  never  be  tired  in  making  the  scholar 
sol-fa  as  long  as  he  finds  it  necessary  ;  for  if  he 
should  let  him  sing  upon  the  vowels  too  soon, 
he  knows  not  how  to  instruct'  'As  long  as 
he  finds  it  necessary,'  however,  is  a  oonsiderable 
qualification.  The  world  lives  and  learns,  and 
Crescentini's  verdict  may  safely  be  accepted. 
The  vowel  a,  righlly  pronounced,  gives  a  position 
of  the  resonance-chambers  most  free  from  im- 
pediment, in  which  the  entire  volume  of  air 
vibrates  without  after-neutralisation,  and  con- 
sequently communicates  its  vibrations  in  their 
integrity  to  the  outer  air  ;  this,  therefore,  is  the 
best  pr3paration,  the  best  starting-point  for 
the  formation  of  other  vowels.  After  this 
vowel  is  thoroughly  mastered  the  others  are 
comparatively  easy,  whereas  if  i  or  u  (Italian) 
are  attempted  at  first,  they  are  usually  ac- 
companied by  that  action  of  the  throat  and 
tongue  which  prevails  to  such  a  disagreeable 
extent  in  this  country.  When  the  vowels  have 
been  conquered,  the  consonants  have  a  much 
better  chance  of  proper  treatment,  and  of  good 
behaviour  on  their  own  part,  than  if  attadced 
at  the  outset  of  study.  Vocalisation  upon  all 
the  vowels  throughout  the  whole  compass  of 
the  voice  should  be  practised  after  the  vowel  a 
is  perfected  ;  then  should  oome  the  practice  of 
sylUbles  of  all  kinds  upon  all  parts  of  the  voice ; 
and  then  the  critical  study  and  practice  (much 
neglected)  of  recitative. 


The  words  Ooroheogio  and  Goroheggiare, 
from  Oorga,  an  obsolete  word  for  *  throat,'  are 
applied  to  the  singing  of  birds,  and  by  analogy 
to  the  execution  of  passages  requiring  a  very 
quick  and  distinct  movement  or  change  of  note, 
such  as  trills  and  the  different  kinds  of  turn, 
also  reiterated  notes  and  quick  florid  passages 
in  general.  The  English  verb  'to  warble'  is 
given  as  the  equivalent  of  gorgheggiare,  but 
warbling  is  usually  accepted  to  mean  a  gentle 
wavering  or  quavering  of  the  voice,  whereas 
agility  and  brilliancy  are  associated  with  the 
Italian  word.  A  closer  translation,  'throat- 
singing,'  would  give  a  rendering  both  inadequate 
and  pernicious — inadequate,  as  throat-singing 
may  be  either  quick  or  slow,  and  pernicious  as 
suggesting  unnecessary  movement  of  the  larynx, 
and  helping  to  bring  about  that  defective 
execution  so  often  heard,  in  which  there  is 
more  breath  and  jar  than  music,  closely  re- 
sembling unnecessary  movement  of  the  hand 
when  using  the  fingers  upon  an  instrument. 
The  fact  is,  that  execution,  however  rapid, 
should  be  perfect  vocalisation  in  its  technical 
sense,  and  perfect  vocalisation  has  for  its  founda- 
tion the  Portamento.  The  Portamento  (or 
carrying  of  the  voice — the  gradual  gliding  from 
one  note  to  another)  removes  inequalities  in 
the  voice,  and  facilitates  the  blending  of 
registers.  Increased  in  speed  by  degrees,  the 
voice  learns  to  shoot  from  note  to  note  with 
lightning-like  rapidity,  and  without  the  above- 
named  convulsion  of  the  larynx  which  produces 
a  partial  or  total  cessation  of  sound,  or  at  any 
rate  a  deterioration  of  sound  during  the  instan- 
taneous passage  from  note  to  note.  It  is  this 
perfect  passage  from  note  to  note,  without 
lifting  off  or  interrupting  the  voice,  that  fills 
space  with  a  flood  of  sound,  of  which  Jenny 
Lind's  shake  and  vocalised  passages  were  a 
bright  example.  But  this  kind  of  vocalisation 
is  the  result  of  years  of  conscientious  practice 
and  the  exercise  of  a  strong  wilL  With  such 
books  as  those  of  Garcia,  Panseron,  Madame 
Sainton,  Randegger,  etc.  etc.,  and  of  course 
some  special  passages  for  individual  require- 
ments, to  say  nothing  of  those  of  Rossini,  and 
the  numberless  vocalizzi  of  Bordogni,  Nava, 
eta  etc.,  the  'Solf&ges  d'ltalie,'  and  the  'Sol- 
f^ges  du  Conservatoire,'  there  is  work  enough 
if  students  will  avail  themselves  of  it  Tosi, 
in  speaking  of  the  difficulties  in  teaching  and 
learning  the  shake,  says,  'The  impatience  of 
the  master  joins  witii  the  despair  of  the  learner, 
so  that  they  decline  further  trouble  about  it' 

The  first  of  the  two  great  works  just  named 
is  entitled  'Solf^es  d'ltalie,  avec  la  Basse 
chiffr^,  compost  par  Durante,  Scarlatti,  Hasse, 
Porpora,  Mazzoni,  Gaffaro,  David  Perez,  etc. 
D^i^  k  Mosseigneurs  les  premiers  Gentils- 
hommes  de  la  chambre  du  Roi  [Louis  XV.],  et 
recueillis  par  les  Srs.  Levesque  et  B^he,  oidi- 
naires  de  la  Musique  de  sa  M^jest^. '     The  work 


SOLFEGGIO 


SOLMISATION 


499 


is  therefore  obviously  a  collection  of  Italian  Sol- 
feggi made  in  France  by  Frenchmen.  Levesqae 
was  a  baritone  in  the  King's  Chapel  from 
1759  to  1781,  and  in  1763  became  master  of 
the  boys.  Beche  was  an  alto.  The  first  edition 
of  the  work  appeared  in  1768  ;  the  fourth, 
published  by  Cousineau,  at  Paris  in  1786.  It 
forms  one  large  oblong  volume,  and  is  in  four 
Divisions:  I.  The  'indispensable  principles' 
of  singing — names  of  notes,  etc.,  and  62  easy 
(anonymous)  Solfeggi  in  the  G  clef  with  figured 
bass.  II.  Solfeggi  63  to  152  for  single  voices 
in  various  clefs — including  G  def  on  second 
line  and  F  clef  on  third  line — in  common,  triple, 
and  compound  time,  all  with  figured  basses. 
III.  Solfeggi  153-241,  with  changing  clefs, 
and  increasing  difficulties  of  modulation  and 
execution — ending  with  the  ExclamaUones 
quoted  in  the  text;  all  with  figured  basses. 
Divisions  11.  and  III.  are  by  the  masters  named 
in  the  title ;  each  Solfeggio  bearing  the  com- 
poser's name.  IV.  12  Solfeggi  for  t^vo  voices 
and  figured  bass  by  David  Perez,  each  in  three 
or  four  movements.  The  forms  of  fugue  and 
canon  are  used  throughout  the  work,  and 
some  of  the  exercises  would  bear  to  be  sung 
with  words. 

A  later  and  very  complete  collection  of  exer- 
cises and  studies  is  that  published  in  Paris 
by  Heugel  under  the  title  of  'Solf^ges  du 
Conservatoire,  par  Cherubini,!  Oatel,  M^ul, 
Gossec,  et  Langl^,'  edited  by  Edouard  Batiste, 
Professeur  de  Solf^,  etc.  It  is  in  eight 
volumes  8vo,  including  a  hundred  preparatory 
exercises  by  Batiste  himself.  The  first  exercise 
in  the  main  collection  is  a  short  theme  with 
57  variations.  The  studies  increase  in  diffi- 
culty, and  the  later  ones  require  great  powers 
of  vocalisation.  Those  by  Gossec  abound  in  re- 
iterated notes  and  in  passages  of  extended  com- 
pass. There  are  duets  and  trios,  some  of  which 
are  very  elaborate.  A  curious  one  by  Cherubini 
is  in  free  fugal  imitation,  with  the  respective 
entries  of  the  second  and  third  voices  taking 
place  at  an  interval  of  24  bars.  Canons  and 
fugues  are  in  abundance,  amongst  them  a  fugue 
in  5-4  by  Catel.  One  exercise  by  Cherubini  is 
without  bars,  and  another  by  the  same  composer 
is  headed  'Contrepoint  rigoureux  h,  cinq  voix 
sur  le  Plain  Chant.'  If  these  two  collections  of 
vocalizzi  are  studied  and  conquered^  an  amount 
of  theoretical  and  practical  knowledge,  as  well 
as  control  over  the  voice,  will  have  been  gained 
that  will  fulfil  every  possible  requirement  pre- 
paratory to  acquaintance  with  the  great  operatic 
and  oratorical  works.  Mention  must  not  be 
omitted  of  Concone's  usehil  Exercises,  of  more 
modest  calibre,  which  have  gained  a  large  popu- 
larity throughout  musical  Europe  ;  nor  of  those 
of  Madame  Marchesi-Graumann,  which  give  a 

>  CheraUni's  Antogntph  CatsloKtie  [wa  vol.  i.  p.  S09ft]  oontains 
•a  imtnenM  number  of  Solfeijsi  written  between  the  yoara  1822 
»nd  1842.  in  bis  cmpwitj  of  Director  of  the  Conaerratoixe.  for  the 
•JURiinationa  of  the  puplla  of  that  Inctitution. 


great  deal  of  excellent  work,  and  were  highly 
approved  by  Rossini.  H.  c.  d. 

SOLl£,  Jean  Pierre  (real  name  Soulier), 
bom  at  Nimes,  1755,  died  in  Paris,  August  6, 
1812,  was  one  of  the  good  singers  and  composers 
at  the  Opera-Comique  in  its  early  days.  The 
son  of  a  violoncellist  he  learnt  that  instrument, 
and  had  a  good  musical  education  at  the  Nimes 
TnaUrise^  after  which  he  played  in  the  orchestra 
and  taught  singing  till  his  d^but  as  a  tenor  in 
1778.  His  success  in  the  provinces  tempted 
him  to  go  to  Paris,  but  he  failed  at  first,  in 
1782,  and  remained  away  till  after  three  years' 
success  in  the  largest  theatre  of  Lyons.  He  was' 
engaged  in  1787  for  the  Op^ra-Comique,  where 
he  remained,  gradually  making  his  way  upwards 
to  the  first  place  in  the  company,  especially 
after  relinquishing  the  part  of  tenor  de  gaUt  for 
that  of  baritone.  The  baritone  was  then  a 
novelty,  and  M^hul  wrote  for  Soli^  several  parts 
which  have  since  become  identified  with  his 
name.  He  next  tried  his  hand  at  composition, 
and  with  equal  success,  for  his  op6ras-comiques 
number  33  in  all,  'Jean  et  Genevieve'  (1792) 
being  the  first,  and  *  Les  M^nestrels,'  three  acts 
(1811)  the  last.  'Le  Jockey'  (Jan.  6),  'Le 
Secret'  (April  20,  1796),  <Le  Chapitre  Second' 
(June  17,  1799)  in  one  act ;  and  *  Le  Diable  h 
quatre '  (Nov.  30,  1809),  and  '  Mademoiselle  de 
Guise'  in  three  (March  17, 1808),  were  published. 
Though  this  music  is  now  entirely  out  of  date, 
many  of  its  pretty  airs  became  favourites  with 
the  vaudeville  writers,  and  were  set  to  a  variety 
of  words.  Several  may  be  found  in  the  *C1^ 
du  Caveau.' 

Soli^  had  several  sons ;  the  eldest  drowned 
himself  in  1802 ;  but  Emile  (bom  in  Paris, 
1801)  published  in  1847  two  pamphlets  on  the 
Op^ra-Comique  and  Opera,  also  some  short 
biographies  of  French  musicians.  He  left  a 
son,  Charles,  a  conductor,  who  produced  at 
Nice,  in  1879,  an  op^ra-comique,  'Scheinn  Baba, 
ou  I'intrigue  du  Harem,'  thi^e  acts.        g.  c. 

SOLMISATION  (Lat.  Samiaaiio).  The  art 
of  illustrating  the  construction  of  the  musical 
scale  by  means  of  certain  syllables,  so  associated 
with  the  sounds  of  which  it  is  composed  as  to 
exemplify  both  their  relative  proportions,  and 
the  functions  they  discharge  as  individual 
members  of  a  system  based  upon  fixed  mathe- 
matical principles. 

The  laws  of  Solmisation  are  of  scarcely  less 
venerable  antiquity  than  those  which  govern 
the  accepted  proportions  of  the  scale  itselfl 
They  first  appear  among  the  Greeks,  and  after 
making  the  necessary  allowance  for  difierences 
of  tonality,  the  guiding  principle  in  those  earlier 
times  was  precisely  the  principle  by  which  we 
are  guided  now.  Its  essence  consisted  in  the 
adaptation  to  the  Tetrachord  of  such  syllables 
as  should  ensure  the  recognition  of  the  Hemi- 
tone,  wherever  it  occurred.  Now,  the  Hemitone 
of  the  Greeks,  though  not  absolutely  identical 


600 


SOLMISATION 


SOLMISATION 


with  our  Diatonic  Semitone,  was  its  undoubted 
homologue ;  ^  and  'throughout  tlieir  system  this 
Hemitone  occurred  between  the  first  and  second 
sounds  of  every  Tetraohord  ;  just  as,  in  our 
major  scale,  the  semitones  occur  between  the 
third  and  fourth  degrees  of  the  two  diejunct 
Tetrachords  by  which  the  complete  octave  is 
represented.  Therefore,  they  ordained  that  the 
four  sounds  of  the  Tetrachord  should  be  repre- 
sented by  the  four  syUables,  ra,  re,  n;,  rto ; 
and  that,  in  passing  from  one  Tetrachord  to 
another,  the  position  of  these  syllables  should 
be  so  modified,  as  in  every  case  to  place  the 
'^  Hemitone  between  ra  and  re,  and  the  two 
following  Tones  between  re  and  n;,  and  rri  and 
rw,  respectively.' 

When,  early  in  the  11th  century,  Guido 
d'Arezzo  substituted  his  Hezachords  for  the 
Tetrachords  of  the  Greek  system,  he  was  so  fully 
alive  to  the  value  of  tMs  principle  that  he 
adapted  it  to  another  set  of  syllables,  sufficiently 
extended  to  embrace  six  sounds  instead  of  four. 
In  the  choice  of  these  he  was  guided  by  a  singu- 
lar coincidence.  Observing  that  the  melody  of 
a  hymn,  written  about  the  year  770  by  Paulus 
Diaconus,  for  the  festival  of  St.  John  the  Baptist, 
was  so  constructed,  that  its  successive  phrases 
began  with  the  six  sounds  of  the  Hexachord, 
taken  in  their  regular  order,  he  adopted  the 
syllables  sung  to  these  notes  as  the  basis  of  his 
new  system  of  Solmisation,  changing  them  from 
Hexachord  to  Hexachord,  on  principles  to  be 
hereafter  described,  exactly  as  the  Greeks  had 
formerly  changed  their  four  syllables  from  Tetra- 
chord to  Tetrachord. 


C  80l-fil-Ut 

Dla-$ol-re 

Bea-mi 

rf                 . 

Jl 

*        m          t  m 

■   •        ■   ■  ■ 

r  * ,    - 

■   ■  .   ■ 

5-!-!- 

UT  que«at  lax-i«    RK-so-na-n  fl>brlB      Ml-m  gei-to-rain 
T/a-ut  G«oI-rw-ta 


-H ■ — ■ = ■ 


FA-uu  -11      ta  -  o  -  rum 
A  la-nU-re. 

dOL-  TO  pol-In-tl 

rf     ■     ■     ■     .     •     ■ 

fL 

*                        ■ 

^      m              •      m 

■      .              ■ 

LA  •  bi  -  1      re  -  a  •  tnm         Sane  •  ta      lo  -  an  •  nM. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  example  that  the 
syllables,  Ut,  He,  Jfi,  Fa,  Sol,  La,^  were  origin- 
ally snug  to  the  notes  C,  D,  £,  F,  G,  A  ;  that  is 
to  say,  to  the  six  sounds  of  the  Natural  Hexa- 
chord ;  and  that  the  semitone  fell  between  the 
third  and  fourth  syllables,  Mi  and  Fa,  and  these 

1  The  Diatonic  Smnltene  la  wpreaentod  by  the  fraction  H !  ^h" 
Oreek  Hemltoua  by  |H,  that  la  to  aay.  tqr  a  Parfact  Fourth,  mlnua 
two  Oreatar  Tonea. 

*  Though  the  true  uronundatlon  of  the  Greek  Towela  U  loat,  we 
are  not  left  without  the  meana  of  fonulng  an  approximate  Idea  of 
it.  atnoe  Homer  oaaa  the  ayllable  /3i|  to  Imitate  the  bleating  of  the 


aheep. 
>  Oenrd  Voaaina.  In  hla  tract  De  guatuor  Artibui  popuiartbu$ 

(Amaterdam.  I«a0>.  mentiona  the  following  Dlatldi  aa  having  bea 

written,  abortly  after  the  time  of  Guido,  for  the  ptupoae  of  Impreaa- 

ing  the  aix  ayllablea  upon  the  leamer'a  memory— 

'  Cnr  adliibes  triati  nnmaroa  cantumqne  laborl  T 

UT  RBevat  (Mlaerau  FAtmn  SOLitoeque  LAborea.' 


only.  [See  Hexachobd.]  But,  when  applied  to 
the  Hard  Hexachord,  these  same  six  syllables 
represented  the  notes  G,  A,  B,  G,  D,  £  ;  while, 
in  the  Soft  Hexachord,  they  were  sung  to  F,  G, 
A,  Bb»  C,  D.  The  note  G  therefore  was  some- 
times represented  by  Ut,  sometimes  by  Fa,  and 
sometimes  by  Sol,  according  to  the  Hexachord 
in  which  it  occurred  ;  and  was  consequently 
called,  in  general  terms,  C  aol'/a-tU.  In  like 
manner  A  was  represented  either  by  La,  Mi,  or 
Re  ;  and  was  hence  called  A  lormi-re,  as  indi- 
cated in  our  example  by  the  syllables  printed 
above  the  stave.  But  under  no  possible  circum- 
stances could  the  semitone  occur  between  any 
other  syllables  than  Mi  and  Fa  ;  and  herein,  as 
we  shall  presently  see,  lay  the  true  value  of  the 
system. 

So  long  as  the  compass  of  the  melody  under 
treatment  did  not  exceed  that  of  a  single  Hexa- 
chord, the  application  of  this  principle  was 
simple  enough  ;  but,  for  the  Solmisation  of  melo- 
dies embracing  a  more  extended  range,  it  was 
found  necessary  to  introduce  certain  changes, 
called  Mutations,  based  upon  a  system  corre- 
sponding exactly  with  the  practice  of  the  Greeks. 
[See  Mutation.  ]  Whenever  a  given  melody  ex- 
tended (or  modulated)  from  one  Hexachord  into 
another,  the  syllables  pertaining  to  the  new  series 
were  substituted  for  &ose  belonging  to  tlie  old 
one,  at  some  convenient  point,  and  continued  in 
regular  succession  until  it  became  convenient  to 
change  them  back  again  ;  by  which  means  the 
compass  of  the  scale  could  be  enlarged  to  any 
required  extent. 

For  instance,  in  the  following  example  the 
passage  begins  at  (a),  in  the  Natural  Hexachord 
of  G,  but  extends  upwards  three  notes  beyond  its 
compass,  and  borrows  a  B^  from  the  Soft  Hexa- 
chord of  F.  As  it  is  not  considered  desirable  to 
defer  the  change  until  the  extreme  limits  of  the 
first  Hexachoid  have  been  reached  it  may  here 
be  most  conveniently  made  at  the  note  G.  Now, 
in  the  Natural  Hexachord,  G  is  represented  by 
the  syllable  Sol ;  in  the  Soft  Hexachord,  by  Be. 
In  this  case,  therefore,  we  have  only  to  substitute 
R6  for  Sol  at  this  point ;  and  to  continue  the 
Solmisation  proper  to  the  Soft  Hexachord  to  the 
end  of  the  passage,  taking  no  notice  of  the 
syllable  printed  in  italics. 


Soft  Hexachord. 


Natural  Hexachord. 
At  (h),  on  the  other  hand,  the  passage  extends 
(b)     Haid  Hexachord. 


IJB.   Sol    Fa    Mi    Re    m 
Natuxal  Hexachord. 


SOLMISATION 


SOLMISATION 


501 


downwards,  from  the  Hexachord  of  G,  into  that 
of  G.  Here,  the  change  may  be  most  conveniently 
effected  by  subetituting  the  Im  of  the  last-named 
Hexachoid  for  the  Et  of  the  first,  at  the  note  A. 
The  first  of  these  Mutations  is  called  Sol-rt^  in 
allnsion  to  its  peculiar  interchange  of  syllables  ; 
the  second  is  called  Be-la,  As  a  general  rule, 
Et  is  fonnd  to  be  the  most  convenient  syllable  for 
ascending  Mutations,  and  Im  for  those  which 
extend  downwards,  in  accordance  with  the  re- 
commendation contained  in  the  foUowingDistich. 

Vocibns  ntaris  solum  mutando  doabos 

Per  Tt  qnldem  sunuzn  mntatur,  per  Va.  deonooL 

This  role,  however,  does  not  exclude  the  occa- 
sional use  of  the  forms  contained  in  the  subjoined 
Table,  though  the  direct  change  from  the  Hard 
to  the  Soft  Hexachord,  and  viu  versa,  is  not 
recommended. 

Descending  Mutations. 

1.  FascL    From  the  Hard  to  the  Soft  Hexachord, 

changing  on  C. 

2.  MUla.     Nat  to  Hard  Hex.  changing  on  E.    Soft  to 

Nat  Hex.  changing  on  A. 
8.  Re-kL.     Hard  to  Nat  Hex.  changing  on  A.    Nat  to 

Soft  Hex.  changing  on  D. 
4.  Re-mi.    Hard  to  Soft  Hex.  changing  on  A. 
6.  Besol.    Nat  to  Haid  Hex.  changing  on  D.    Soft  to 

Nat  Hex.  changing  on  G. 

6.  Sol-la.     Hard  to  soft  Hex.  changing  on  D. 

7.  Ul-fik     Nat  to  Hazd  Hex.  changing  on  C    Soft  to 

Nat  Hex.  changing  on  F. 

8.  Ut^re.     Hard  to  Soft  Hex.  changing  on  O. 


9.  Fa-tU. 

10.  La-mi. 

11.  La.re. 

12.  La-9ol. 
18.  Mi-re. 

14.  Re-uU 

15.  Sol-ftjL 

16.  Sol-re. 

17.  Sol-uL 


Ascending  Mutations. 

Hard  to  Nat  Hexachord,  changing  on  C. 

Nat  to  Soft  Hex.  changing  on  F. 
Hard  to  Nat  Hex.  changing  on  B. 
Nat  to  Hard  Hex.  changing  on  A.    Soft  to 

Nat  Hex.  changing  on  D. 

Soft  to  Hard  Hex.  changing  on  D. 

Da  Do.        A. 

Da  Do.         G. 

Do.  Do.         C. 

Hard  to  Nat  Hex.  changing  on  D.    Nat  to 

Soft  Hex.  changing  on  G. 
Nat  to  Hard  Hex.  changing  on  G.    Soft  to 
Nat  Hex.  changing  on  C. 

The  principle  upon  which  this  ancient  system 
was  based  is  that  of  *  the  Movable  Ut  '^-or,  as 
we  should  now  call  it,  '  the  Movable  Do ' ;  an 
arrangement  which  assists  the  learner  very 
materially,  by  the  recognition  of  a  governing 
syllable,  which,  changing  with  the  key,  regulates 
the  poflition  of  every  other  syllable  in  the  series, 
calls  attention  to  the  relative  proportions  existing 
between  the  root  of  the  scale  and  its  attendant 
sounds,  and,  in  pointing  out  the  peculiar  charac- 
teristics of  each  subordinate  member  of  the 
system,  lays  emphatic  stress  upon  its  connection 
with  its  fellow  degrees,  and  thus  teaches  the  ear, 
as  well  as  the  understanding.  We  shall  presently 
have  occasion  to  consider  the  actual  value  of 
these  manifold  advantages  ;  but  must  first  trace 
their  historical  connection  with  the  Solmisation 
of  a  later  age. 

So  long  as  the  ecclesiastical  modes  continued 
in  use  Guide's  system  answered  its  purpose  so 
thoroughly,  that  any  attempt  to  improve  upon 


it  would  certainly  have  ended  in  failure.  But 
when  the  functions  of  the  leading -note  were 
brought  more  prominently  into  notice,  the 
demand  for  a  change  became  daily  more  and 
more  urgent  The  completion  of  the  octave 
rendered  it  not  only  desirable,  but  imperatively 
necessary  that  the  sounds  should  no  longer  be 
arranged  in  Hexaohords,  but  in  Heptachords  or 
Septenaries,  for  which  purpose  an  extended  syl- 
labic arrangement  was  needed.  We  have  been 
unable  to  trace  back  the  definite  use  of  a  seventh 
syllable  to  an  earlier  date  than  the  year  1599, 
when  the  subject  was  broached  by  Erich  van  der 
Pntten  (Erycius  Pnteanus)  of  Dordrecht,  who, 
at  pages  54,  55  of  his  Pallas  modulata,^  pro- 
posed the  use  of  BI,  deriving  the  idea  from  the 
second  syllable  of  la^L  No  long  time,  how- 
ever, elapsed  before  an  overwhelming  majority 
of  theorists  decided  upon  the  adoption  of  SI, 
the  two  letters  of  whidi  were  suggested  by  the 
initials  of  *  Sancte  loannes ' — tlie  Adonic  verse 
which  follows  the  three  Sapphics  in  the  Hymn 
already  quoted.  >  The  use  of  this  syllable  was 
strongly  advocated  by  Sethus  Calvisius,  in  his 
Baeercitatio  musicae  tertia,  printed  in  1611. 
Since  then,  various  attempts  have  been  made 
to  supplant  it,  in  favour  of  Sa,  Za,  Ci,  Bcy  Te, 
and  otiier  open  syllables ; '  but  the  suggested 
changes  have  rarely  survived  their  originators, 
though  another  one,  of  little  less  importance — 
the  substitution  of  Do  for  Ut  on  account  of  its 
greater  resonance — has,  for  more  than  two  hun- 
dred years,  been  almost  imiversally  accepted. 
[See  Do.]  Lorenzo  Penna,*  writing  in  1672, 
speaks  of  Do  as  then  in  general  use  in  Italy  ;  and 
Gerolamo  Gantone^  alludes  to  it,  in  nearly  similar 
terms,  in  1678,  since  which  period  the  use  of  Ut 
has  been  discontinued,  not  only  in  Italy,  but  in 
every  country  in  Europe  except  France. 

In  Germany  and  the  Netherlands  far  more 
sweeping  changes  than  these  have  been  pro- 
posed from  time  to  time,  and  even  tempo- 
rarily accepted.  Huberto  Waelrant  (1617- 
1595)  introduced,  at  Antwerp,  a  system  called 
*  Booedisation '  or '  Bobisation, '  founded  on  seven 
syllables — Bo,  Ce,  Di,  Oa,  Lo,  Ma,  Ni — which 
have  since  been  called  the  *  Voces  Belgicae.'  At 
Stuttgart  Daniel  Hitzler  (1576-1685)  based  a 
system  of '  Bebisation '  upon  La,  Be,  Ct,  De,  Me, 
Fe,  Oe.  A  century  later  Graun  (1701-59)  in- 
vented  a  method  of  '  Damenisation,'  founded 
upon  the  particles,  Da,  Me,  Ni,  Po,  Tu,  La,  Be. 
But  none  of  these  methods  have  survived. 

In  England,  the  use  of  the  syllables  Ut  and 
Re  died  out  completely  before  the  middle  of  the 
17th  century  ;  and  recurring  changes  of  Mi,  Fa, 
Sol,  La,  were  used,  alone,  for  the  Solmisation  of 
all  kinds  of  Melodies.      Butler  mentions  this 

1  PaOtu  modulata,  «<•»  Septtm  diteHndna  voeum  rMlUti,  1860), 
aftcrwaitls  reprinted,  under  the  tiUeof  Mumtkma  (Hanorer,  1602). 

*  It  hue  been  mfd.  that.  In  certain  reraloai  of  the  Melody,  the 
lint  syllable  of  the  Adonic  T«ne  U  actually  ■une  to  the  note  B ; 
but  we  have  never  met  with  raeh  a  version,  and  do  not  believe  In 


the  poMlblllty  of  its  extetcnoe. 
i  AUoH  tmuteali  (Bologna.  1673). 
s  Armtmla  erefforiana  (Turin.  1678). 


*  See  Si.  oitfe.  jk  448. 


■502 


SOLMISATION 


SOLO  ORGAN 


method  as  being  in  general  use,  in  1636;  ^  and 
Playford  calls  attention  to  the  same  fact  in  1655.^ 

In  France  the  original  syllables,  with  the 
added  Si,  took  firmer  root  tifian  «ver  in  Italy  ; 
for  it  had  long  been  the  custom,,  in  the  Nea- 
politan schools,  to  use  the  series  beginning  with 
£>o  for  those  keys  only  in  which  the  third  is 
Msgor.  For  Minor  keys,  the  Neapolitans  begin 
with  Me ;  using  Fa  for  an  accidental  flat,  and 
Mi  for  a  sharp.  Durante,  however,  when  his 
pupils  were  puzzled  with  a  difficult  Mutation, 
used  to  cry  out,  '  Only  sing  the  syllables  in  tune, 
and  you  may  name  them  after  devils,  if  you  like.' 

The  truth  is,  that,  as  long  as  the  syllables 
are  open,  their  selection  is  a  matter  of  very 
slight  importance.  They  were  never  intended 
to  be  used  for  the  formation  of  the  voice,  which 
may  be  much  better  trained  upon  the  sound 
of  the  vowel,  A,  as  pronounced  in  Italian,  than 
upon  any  other  syllable  whatever.  Their  use  is, 
to  familiarise  the  student  with  the  powers  and 
special  peculiarities  of  the  sounds  which  form 
the  scale  ;  and  here  it  is  that  the  arguments 
of  those  who  insist  upon  the  use  of  a  *  fixed,' 
or  a  *  movable  Do/  demand  our  most  careful 
consideration.  The  fiict  that  in  Italy  and  France 
the  syllables  Ut  (Do),  Be,  Mi,  Fa,  Sol,  La,  Si, 
are  always  applied  to  the  same  series  of  notes, 
C,  D,  £,  F,  G,  A,  6,  and  used  as  we  ourselves 
use  the  letters,  exercises  no  effect  whatever  upon 
the  question  at  issue.  It  is  quite  possible  for 
an  Italian,  or  a  Frenchman,  to  apply  the  '  fixed 
Do  system'  to  his  method  of  nomenclature, 
and  to  use  the  'movable  Do*  for  purposes  of 
Solmisation.  The  writer  himself,  when  a  child, 
was  taught  both  systems  simultaneously,  by  his 
first  instructor,  John  Purkis,  who  maintained, 
with  perfect  truth,  that  each  had  its  own  merits, 
and  each  its  own  faults.  In  matters  relating 
to  absolute  pitch,  the  fixed  Do  is  all  that  can 
be  desired.  The  *  movable  Do*  ignores  the 
question  of  pitch  entirely ;  but  it  calls  the 
student's  attention  to  the  peculiar  functions 
attached  to  the  several  Degrees  of  the  Scale  so 
clearly,  that,  in  a  very  short  time,  he  learns  to 
distinguish  the  Dominant,  the  Sub-Mediant,  the 
Leading-Note,  or  any  other  interval  of  any  given 
key,  without  the  possibility  of  mistake,  and 
that,  by  simply  sol-faing  the  passage  in  the 
usui^  manner.  It  is  this  quality  which  is  the 
strongest  point  in  the  Tonic  Sol-fa  system. 

One  of  the  strongest  objections  to  the  system 
of  the  fixed  Do  is  that  it  makes  no  provision  for 
the  indication  of  flats  or  sharps.  In  a  tract 
published  at  Venice  in  1746  ^  an  anonymous 
member  of  the  Boman  Academy  called  *  Arcadia, ' 
proposed  to  remove  the  difficulty,  by  adding  to 
the  sev^n  recognised  syllables  five  others, 
designed  to  represent  the  sharps  and  flats  most 
frequently  used  ;  viz.  Pa  (C«,  Db),  Bo  (D«,  Eb), 

t  PrineiplM  nfMualck.  by  C.  Butler  (London,  IffiM). 

*  Jntroduetton  to  thu  SkOl  <^  Jluabik  (IxindoD.  16B5). 

*  RllUtHonl  topra  alia  maggtor /aettUd  (Ae  trotoH  net  appmden 
«  eonte,  etc  etc.    (VeuezU.  1746w) 


Tu  (F«,  Gb),  De  (G«,  Ab),  No  (A«,  Bb).  This 
method  was  adopted  by  Hasse,  and  highly 
approved  by  Giambattista  Mancini ;  but  in 
1768  a  certain  Signer  Serra  endeavoured  to 
supersede  it  by  a  still  more  numerous  collection 
of  syllables  ;  using  Ca,  Da,  Ae,  Fa,  Oa,  A,  Ba,  t6 
represent  the  seven  natural  notes.  A,  B,  C,  D, 
E,  F,  G ;  Ce,  De,  E,  Fe,  Ge,  Ao,  Be,  to  repre- 
sent the  same  notes,  raised  by  a  series  of  sharps  ; 
and  a,  Di,  Oe,  Fi,  0%,  Au,  Bi,  to  represent 
them,  when  lowered  by  flats. 

[See  the  Sammelbdnde  of  the  Int  Mus.  Gcs. 
i.  685.]  w.  s.  K. 

SOLO  (Ital.  *  alone').  A  piece  or  passage 
executed  by  one  voice  or  performer.  Airs  are 
solos ;  a  pianoforte  piece  for  ti^'o  hands  is  a 
pianoforte  solo.  A  violin  solo,  strictly  speaking, 
is  a  piece  for  the  violin  alone,  like  Bach's  unac- 
companied sonatas  ;  but  the  term  is  often  used 
loosely  for  a  concerto  or  other  piece  in  which  the 
solo  instrument  is  accompanied  by  the  band, 
the  pianoforte,  etc. 

In  an  orchestral  piece  where  one  instrument 
has  a  passage  which  is  intended  to  sound  out 
prominently,  it  is  marked  *Solo,'  as  in  the 
second  subject  of  the  Adagio  in  Beethoven'e 
Symphony  No.  4,  which  is  for  the  Ist  clarinet, 
and  marked  Solo ;  in  the  flute  solo  near  the 
end  of  the  working-out  in  the  Leonora  Overture 
(where,  however,  tiie  bassoon,  equally  solo,  is 
merely  marked  '  1 ') ;  and  in  a  thousand  other 
instances.  In  arrangements  of  pianoforte  con- 
certos for  two  hands,  the  entry  of  the  solo 
instrument  is  marked  Solo,  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  compressed  accompaniment.  g. 

SOLO  ORGAN,  a  manual  or  clavier  of  an 
organ  having  stops  associated  with  it  which  for 
the  most  part  are  intended  for  use  90I0,  that  is, 
in  single  notes  as  opposed  to  chords.  The  solo 
organ  is  generally  a  fourth  manual  placed  above 
that  of  the  swell ;  but  it  occasionally  supersedes 
the  choir  organ,  and  is  then  placed  below  the 
'  Great '  manual.  The  stops  in  a  solo  organ  are 
most  frequently  (1)  Flutes  of  8  ft.  and  4  ft.  ; 
(2)  A  stop  of  darifiei-tojie  ;  (S)  a  stop  of  oboe- 
tone  (onjiestral  oboe)  ;  (4)  Beeds  of -8  ft.  and 
4  ft.of^rttmpc^-tone(tromba,tuba,etc.).  Larger 
solo  organs  contain  also  stops  imitative  of  the 
violin,  horn,  piccolo,  and  other  instruments ;  per- 
haps also  an  open  diapason,  and,  in  a  few  cases, 
a  carillon  or  glockenspiel.  The  solo  trumpet- 
stops  are  most  frequently  on  a  heavy  pressure  of 
wind,  and  in  order  to  obtain  special  brilliance 
are  sometimes  *  harmonic,'  as  are  also  the  flutes  ; 
that  LB,  they  have  tubes  of  twice  the  ordinary 
length,  pierced  with  a  small  hole  at  their  half 
length.  Some  of  the  stops  of  a  solo  organ  are 
often  used  in  chords,  such  for  instance  as  flutes 
and  reeds.  This  is  most  commonly  done  by 
means  of  a  coupler  *Solo  to  Great,'  by  which 
the  diapason  or  flute  tones  of  the  solo  organ  can 
be  used  as  a  valuable  reinforcement  of  the  found- 
ation stops  of  the  Great  manual ;  and  the  tone 


SQLO  STOP 


SOMERVELL 


503 


of  the  fall  Great  organ  can  be  similarly  enriched 
by  coupling  the  solo  reeds.  In  instruments 
which  contain  a  Vox  humana,  that  stop  is 
perhaps  more  often  found  associated  with  the 
Swell-manual  than  with  the  Solo-manual ;  but 
when  placed  on  the  solo  organ  its  pipes  are 
generally  shut  up  in  a  separate  box  with 
Venetian  shutters  worked  by  a  second  swell- 
pedal.  When  composition-pedals  are  made  to 
act  upon  the  Swell,  Great,  and  Choir  organs,  it 
is  evidently  wise  to  make  the  combinations  they 
produce  proceed  as  gradually  as  possible  from 
piano  to  fortissvnu).  But  this  simple  principle 
is  not  applicable  to  the  combinations  or  rather 
selections  of  solo-stops  which  are  made  by  means 
of  composition-pedals  or  pistons.  The  difficulty 
seems,  however,  to  be  overcome  by  a  method 
suggested  some  years  ago  by  the  writer  of  this 
article :  namely,  to  arrange  them  in  the  order 
in  which  the  instruments  are  found  in  a  modem 
full-score.  Thus,  six  combination-pedals  would 
act  on  the  solo-stops  in  ^he  following  system  : — 

(1)  Stops  of  Flute- tone. 

(2)  Stops  of  Oboe-tone. 


(8^  Stops  of  Clarinet  and  Bassoon  tones. 

i4)  Stops  of  Horn-tone. 
5)  Stops  of  Trumpet  and  Trombone  tones. 

(6)  Stops  of  Violin  and  Viola  tones. 

This  method,  which  is  at  once  simple  and 
exhaustive,  might  be  indefinitely  extended ; 
thus,  for  example,  a  carillon,  drum,  or  triangle, 
would  be  produced  by  a  compoeition-pedal  or 
piston  lying  between  the  trumpet-stops  and 
violin-stops ;  and  a  vox  humana  would  naturally 
follow  after  stops  of  the  violin-tone.  Smaller 
solo  organs  would  probably  be  easily  brought 
under  control  by  combination-pedals  or  pistons 
acting  on 

(1)  Flute. 

(2)  Oboe. 

(3)  Clarinet 

(4)  Trumpet. 

The  Solo  organ  is  an  introduction  of  modem 
times,  and  followed  naturally  upon  the  inven- 
tion of  pipes  closely  imitating  the  tones  of 
orchestral- instruments.  J.  s. 

SOLO  STOP.  (1)  A  stop  or  register  of  a  solo 
organ  or  fourth  manual.  (2)  Any  stop  which 
can  be  used  as  a  solo — that  is,  in  single  notes, 
«.(/.  a  clarinet  on  the  choir  organ  ;  a  oomopean, 
hautboy,  or  other  reed  on  the  swell  organ  ;  a 
clarabella  or  flute  on  either  of  the  three  manuals 
great,  swell,  or  choir.  The  name  Solo  stop  does 
not  necessarily  imply  that  full  chords  may  not 
be  used  upon  it.     [See  Solo  Organ.]     j.  s. 

SOLOMON.  L  A  serenata  by  William  Boyce, 
to  words  by  Edward  Moore,  produced  1743. 
The  song  *  Softly  rise,  0  southem  breeze '  was 
popular  for  many  years. 

II.  An  oratorio  of  Handel's ;  composed  be- 
tween 'Alexander  Bains'  and  'Theodora.'  It 
was  begun  on  May  5,  1748,  and  the  memoran- 
dum at  the  end  of  the  work  is  '  G.  F.  Handel, 


Juin  13,  1748,  setatis  63.  Vollig  geendiget.' 
The  words  of  the  oratorio  are  supposed  to  be  by 
Dr.  Morell ;  but  this  is  not  certain.  It  was  pro- 
duced at  Covent  Garden  Theatre,  March  17, 
1749,  'with  a  Concerto,'  and  was  revived  by 
Sir  G.  Smart  at  Exeter  HaU,  April  14, 1836. 
The  Sctcred  Harmonic  Society  followed,  Dec.  3, 
1838  ;  and  with  Costa's  additional  accompani- 
ments, April  8,  1870.  o. 

SOLOVIEV,  Nicholas  Theopbmptovich, 
bom  May  9  (April  27,  O.S.V  1846,  at  Petro- 
zavodsk. He  was  intended  for  the  medical 
profession,  but  entered  the  St  Petersburg 
Conservatorium  in  1868,  eventually  passing  into 
Zaremba's  class  for  composition.  In  1871, 
Serov,  being  then  upon  his  deathbed,  entrusted 
the  orchestration  of  his  music -drama,  'The 
Power  of  Evil,'  to  Soloviev.  About  this  time 
his  symphonic  picture, '  Russians  and  Mongols,' 
was  given  at  one  of  the  concerts  of  the  Russian 
Musical  Society.  In  1874,  Soloviev  became  a 
professor  at  the  St  Petersbnig  Conservatorium. 
Of  his  three  operas  *  Cordelia '  is  the  best  known, 
having  been  widely  performed  in  Russia,  and 
also  at  Prague  in  1890.  Other  compositions 
comprise  a  Cantata  for  the  bi- centenary  of  the 
birth  of  Peter  the  Great ;  an  Orchestral  Fantasia 
on  a  folk-song ;  and  a  number  of  songs  and 
pieces  for  pianoforte.  As  a  critic,  Soloviev  has 
written  for  the  Novoe  Vremya,  Nowsti,  Boasia, 
etc.  He  is  also  well  known  as  a  collector  of 
folk-songs.  R.  N. 

SOMBRlSlE  Foix  aombrie  is  the  French 
term  for  the  veiled  voice  or  voce  vekuta^  in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  voix  daire,  [See  Veiled 
Voice.]  g. 

SOMERVELL,  Arthur,  bom  at  Winder- 
mere, June  5,  1863,  was  educated  at  Upping- 
ham School  from  1877,  and  Cambridge  (King's 
College),  where  he  took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in 
1888.  During  his  residence  at  the  university 
he  studied  with  Stanford,  and  on  taking  his 
degree  he  went  to  Berlin  to  study  at  the  Hoch- 
schule,  where  his  masters  were  Kiel  and  Bargiel. 
Returning  to  England  in  1885  he  entered  the 
Royal  CoUege  of  Music,  and  after  two  years  there 
became  a  private  pupil  of  Parry  in  1887.  His 
charmingly  graceM  songs  obtained  a  wide  popu- 
larity, but  his  first  ambitious  introduction  to  the 
world  of  serious  music  was  in  his  Mass  in  0 
minor,  performed  by  the  Bach  Choir  in  1891. 
In  March  1893  the  Philharmonic  Society  per- 
formed his  orchestral  baUad,  'Helen  of  Kirk- 
connell,'  and  with  his  first  important  work  for 
an  important  festival,  '  The  Forsaken  Merman ' 
(Leeds  Festival,  1895),  he  took  a  position  among 
the  most  accomplished  composers  of  the  day. 
In  1901  he  was  appointed  Inspector  of  Music 
for  England,  Wales,  and  Scotland,  in  succession 
to  Stainer.  He  took  the  degree  of  Mus.D.  at 
Cambridge  in  1903.  Besides  the  works  already 
mentioned,  his  list  of  compositions  includes 
choral  works,  'A  Song  of  Praise '  (Kendal,  1891); 


504 


SOMIS 


SONATA 


'The  Power  of  Sound'  (Do.  1896);  'Elegy* 
(Robert  Bridges,  Hovingham,  1896);  'Charge  of 
the  Light  Brigade' (1896)  ;  'Ode  to  the  Sea' 
(with  soprano  solo),  Birmingham  Festival,  1897; 
'Intimations  of  Immortality'  (Wordsworth), 
Leeds  Festival,  1907.  '  In  Arcady,'  a  suite  for 
small  orchestra,  was  given  at  Brighton  in  1897  ; 
but  Somervell's  purely  orchestral  works  are  very 
few.  Of  sacred  works  the  most  important  is  his 
setting  of  the  Seven  Last  Words  from  the  Cross. 
A  quintet  for  clarinet  and  strings,  and  a 
symphony,  are  still  in  MS.  Two  sets  of  varia- 
tions for  two  pianos,  and  a  number  of  small 
pianoforte  pieces,  including  some  excellent 
concert -studies,  are  among  his  instrumental 
compositions ;  and  a  special  success  rewarded 
his  song-cycle  from  Tennyson's  'Maud,'  while 
other  songs  in  series  include  'A  Shropshire 
Lad,'  and  'James  Lee's  Wife'  (the  last  with 
orchestra).  His  '  Songs  of  the  Four  Nations,' 
and  other  books  of  arrangements,  are  an  im- 
portant addition  to  the  subject  of  folk-song ; 
and  his  many  songs  show  remarkable  skill  in 
writing  for  the  voice,  as  well  as  possessing  the 
charm  that  makes  for  popularity  while  avoiding 
all  that  could  be  thought  meretricious.       M. 

SOMIS,  Giovanni  Battista,  violinist,  was 
bom  in  Piedmont  in  1676.  He  studied  first 
under  Corelli  at  Rome,  and  afberwards  under 
Vivaldi  at  Venice.  After  his  return  to  Turin 
he  was  appointed  solo  violinist  to  the  King,  and 
leader  of  the  royal  band,  a  position  he  retained 
until  his  death,  which  occurred  on  August  14, 
1768.  After  having  once  settled  at  Turin  he 
appears  scarcely  ever  to  have  left  it ;  and  so 
few  of  his  compositions  were  published  that 
there  is  little  opportunity  of  directly  forming 
an  estimate  of  him  as  a  player ;  but  judging 
from  the  style  of  his  numerous  and  well-known 
pupils,  Somis  did  not  merely  hand  on  the 
traditions  of  the  great  Italian  masters,  but 
formed  a  style  of  his  own,  more  brilliant  and 
more  emotional,  marking  technically,  and  also, 
in  a  sense,  musically,  a  decided  forward  step 
in  the  art  of  playing  the  violin.  As  the  head 
and  founder  of  the  Piedmontese  School,  and  the 
teacher  of  Leclair,  Giardini,  Chiabran,  and 
Pugnani — the  latter  again  the  teacher  of  Viotti 
— he  occupies  a  prominent  place  in  the  history 
of  violin-playing,  and  forms  the  connecting  link 
between  the  classical  schools  of  Italy  and  France. 
F^tis  names  as  his  only  published  work  '  Opera 
prima  di  senate  a  violino  e  violoncello  o  cembalo. 
Roma  '1722 '  [but  a  set  of  sonatas,  op.  4,  was 
published  in  Paris  in  1726,  and  twelve  sonatas, 
op.  6,  in  1734.  Besides  these,  an  edition  of 
some  of  his  works  appeared  at  Amsterdam,  and 
a  concerto  is  in  MS.  in  the  royal  collection  at 
Dresden.     QuelleTi'Lexikan.]  p.  D. 

SOMMER,  Hans  (actual  name,  Hans  Fbied- 
RicH  August  Zinckbn,  the  last  name  occasion- 
ally transformed  into  'Neoxniz'),  bom  at 
Brunswick,  July   20,   1887,   was  educated  at 


Gbttingen,  where  he  became  Professor  of  Physics ; 
subsequently  he  was  appointed  Director  of  the 
technical  High  School  of  his  native  place,  a  post 
he  gave  up  in  1884.  In  1885  settled  in  Berlin, 
in  1888  in  Weimar,  and  in  1898  returned  to 
Brunswick.  He  has  won  success  on  the  operatic 
stage  with  his  later  dramatic  works  in  a  fantastic 
form :  '  Der  Nachtwachter '  and  '  Loreley '  were 
both  given  in  Brunswick — the  first  in  1865,  the 
second  in  1891 ;  in  1894,  a  one-act  piece,  'Saint 
Foix,'  was  given  at  Munich  ;  two  other  one-act 
operas  deserve  mention,  'Der  Meermann,'  at 
Weimar  in  1896,  and  '  Augustin ' ;  *  Miinch- 
hausen,'  in  three  acts,  and  'Riibezahl,'  wei« 
given  in  Brunswick  in  1904  ;  and  '  Riquet  k 
la  Houppe '  at  the  same  theatre  on  April  14, 
1907.  It  is  by  his  songs  that  Sommer's  name 
is  best  known  in  England :  his  op.  3,  'Madchen> 
lieder,'  from  Julius  Wolffs  IVilde  Jdger;  hia 
op.  4,  three  sets  of  songs  from  the  same  poet's 
Hunold  Singu/'f  his  op.  5,  a  set  from  Wolff's 
Tannhdt68er  ;  his  op.  6,  to  words  from  Carmen 
Sylva's  Sappho,  and  his  songs  to  words  of 
different  authors,  opp.  8,  9, 10,  11,  12,  and  16, 
contain  many  things  that  are  effective  for  the 
voice,  well  expressed,  original,  and  full  of  a 
sort  of  ingenuity  that  delights  all  cultivated 
amateurs.  In  particular,  his  '  Stelldichein ' 
from  op.  4,  a  vocal  obbligato  to  a  brilliant  piano- 
forte waltz,  and  '  Am  Waldteiche,'  in  which  the 
alternate  Latin  and  German  words  of  the  poem 
are  cleverly  set  to  music  in  different  styles,  are 
in  their  way  little  triumphs  of  art.  Here  and 
there  the  composer  drifts  into  rather  common- 
place ways  of  expressing  himself,  but  his  best 
songs  are  things  that  no  educated  singer  can 
afford  to  neglect.  He  has  made  several  con- 
tributions to  musical  literature,  such  as  his 
Ueher  die  WertschMztmg  der  Musik  (1898).    M. 

SOMMEROPHONK  An  instrument  of  the 
saxhorn  or  bombardon  class,  named  after  its  in- 
ventor. It  was  largely  played  in  the  Exhibition 
of  1 8  5 1 .  '  The  Euphonic  horn  of  Herr  Sommer ' 
is  honourably  mentioned  in  the  Reports  of  the 
Juries  (pp.  831,  335)  as  'an  instrument  of 
great  power  as  well  as  sweetness  of  tone.'  It 
possessed  no  very  special  peculiarities,  and  is 
now  seldom,  if  ever,  used.  w.  h.  s. 

SON  AND  STRANGER.     See  Heimkehr 

AUS  DER  FrEM  DE. 

SONATA.  The  history  of  the  Sonata  is  the 
history  of  an  attempt  to  cope  with  one  of  tlie 
most  singular  problems  ever  presented  to  the 
mind  of  man,  and  its  solution  is  one  of  the  most 
successful  achievements  of  his  artistic  instincts. 
A  sonata  is,  as  its  name  implies,  a  sound-piece, 
and  a  sound-piece  alone  ;  in  its  purest  and  most 
perfect  examples,  it  is  unexplained  by  title  or 
text,  and  unassisted  by  voices ;  it  is  nothing 
but  an  unlimited  concatenation  of  musical  notes. 
Such  notes  have  individually  no  significance  ; 
and  even  the  simplest  principles  of  their  relative 
definition  and  juxtaposition,  suchasarenecessary 


SONATA 


505 


to  make  the  most  elementary  musio,  had  to  be 
drawn  from  the  inner  self  and  the  conscionsness 
of  things  which  belong  to  man's  nature  only, 
without  the  possibility  of  finding  guidance  or 
more  than  the  crudest  suggestion  from  the 
observation  of  things  external.  Yet  the 
stmotural  principles  by  which  such  unpromis- 
ing materials  become  intelligible  have  been  so 
ordered  and  developed  by  the  unaided  musical 
instinct  of  many  successive  generations  of  com- 
posers, as  to  render  possible  long  works  which 
not  only  penetrate  and  stir  us  in  detail,  but  are 
in  their  entire  mass  direct,  consistent,  and  con- 
vincing. Such  works,  in  their  completest  and 
most  severely  abstract  forms,  are  sonatas. 

The  name  seems  to  have  been  first  adopted 
purely  as  the  antithesis  to  Cantata,  the  musical 
piece  that  was  sung.  It  .begins  to  come  into 
notice  about  the  same  time  as  that  form  of 
composition,  soon  after  the  era  of  the  most 
marked  revolution  in  music,  which  began  at  the 
end  of  the  16th  century  ;  when  a  band  of  en- 
thusiasts, led  by  visionary  ideals^  unconsciously 
sowed  the  seed  of  true  modem  music  in  an 
attempt  to  wrest  the  monopoly  of  the  art  in  its 
highest  forms  from  the  predominant  influence 
of  the  Church,  and  to  make  it  serve  for  the 
expression  of  human  feelings  of  more  compre- 
hensive range.  At  this  time  the  possibilities 
of  pol3rphony  in  its  ecclesiastical  forms  may 
well  have  seemed  almost  exhausted,  and  men 
turned  about  to  find  new  fields  which  should 
give  scope  for  a  greater  number  of  workers. 
The  nature  of  their  speculations  and  the  associa- 
tions of  the  old  order  of  things  alike  conspired 
to  direct  their  attention  firvt  to  Opera  and 
Cantata,  and  here  they  had  something  to  guide 
them ;  but  for  abstract  instrumental  music  of 
the  Sonata  kind  they  had  for  a  long  time  no 
clue.  The  first  suggestion  was  clearly  accidental. 
It  appears  probable  that  the  excessive  elabora- 
tion of  the  Madrigal  led  to  the  practice  of 
accompanying  the  voice  parts  with  viola ;  and 
from  this  the  step  is  but  short  to  leaving  the 
viols  by  themselves  and  making  a  vague  kind 
of  chamber  music  without  the  voices.  This 
appears  to  have  been  the  source  of  the  instru- 
mental Canzonas  which  were  written  in  tolerable 
numbers  till  some  way  into  the  18th  century. 
It  does  not  appear  that  any  distinct  rules  for 
their  construction  were  recognised,  but  the 
examination  of  a  large  number,  written  at  dif- 
ferent periods  from  Frescobaldi  to  J.  S.  Bach, 
proves  the  uniform  object  of  the  composers  to 
have  been  a  lax  kind  of  fugue,  such  as  might 
have  served  in  its  main  outlines  for  the  vocal 
madrigals.  Bumey  says  the  earliest  examples 
of  '  Sonatas '  he  had  been  able  to  discover  in 
his  devoted  inquiries  were  by  Turini,  published 
at  Venice  in  1624.  His  description  of  those 
he  examined  answers  perfectly  to  the  character 
of  the  canzonas,  for,  he  says,  they  consist  of  one 
movement,  in  fugue  and  imitation  throughout. 


Sonatas  did  not,  however,  rest  long  at  this 
point  of  simplicity,  but  were  destined  very 
early  to  absorb  material  from  other  sources ; 
and  though  the  canzona  kind  of  movement 
maintained  its  distinct  position  through  many 
changes  in  its  environment,  and  is  still  found  in 
the  Violin  Sonatas  of  J.  S.  Bach,  Handel,  and 
Porpora,  the  madrigal,  which  was  its  source,  soon 
ceased  to  have  direct  influence  upon  three  parts 
of  the  more  complete  structure.  The  suggestion 
for  these  came  from  the  dance,  and  the  newly 
invented  opera  or  dramatic  cantata.  The  former 
had  existed  and  made  the  chief  staple  of  instru- 
mental music  for  generations,  but  it  requii-es  to 
be  well  understood  that  its  direct  connection 
with  dancing  puts  it  out  of  the  category  of 
abstract  music  of  the  kind  which  was  now 
obscurely  germinating.  The  dances  were  under- 
stood through  their  relation  with  one  order  of 
dance  motions.  There  would  be  the  order  of 
rhythmic  motions  which,  taken  together,  was 
called  a  Branle,  another  that  was  called  a  Pavan, 
another  a  Gigue ;  and  each  dance-tune  main- 
tained the  distinctive  rhythm  and  style  through- 
out. On  the  other  hand,  the  radical  principle 
of  the  Sonata,  developed  in  the  course  of  genera- 
tions, is  the  compounding  of  a  limitless  variety 
of  rhythms  ;  and  though  isolated  passages  may 
be  justly  interpreted  as  representing  gestures  of 
an  ideal  dance  kind,  like  that  of  the  ancients, 
it  is  not  through  this  association  that  the  group 
of  movements  taken  as  a  whole  is  understood, 
but  by.  the  disposition  of  such  elements  and  others 
in  relation  to  one  another.  This  conception 
took  time  to  develop,  though  it  is  curious  how 
early  composers  began  to  perceive  the  radical 
difference  between  the  Suite  and  the  Sonata. 
Occasionally  a  doubt  seems  to  be  implied  by 
confusing  the  names  together  or  by  actually 
calling  a  collection  of  dance-tunes  a  Sonata ; 
but  it  can  hardly  be  questioned  that  from  almost 
the  earliest  times,  as  is  proved  by  a  strong 
majority  of  cases,  there  was  a  sort  of  undefined 
presentiment  that  their  developments  lay  along 
totally  different  paths.  In  Uie  first  attempts 
to  form  an  aggregate  of  distinct  movements, 
the  composers  had  to  take  th^ir  forms  where 
they  coiQd  find  them ;  and  among  these  were 
the  familiar  dance-tunes,  which  for  a  long  while 
held  a  prominent  position  in  the  heterogeneous 
group  of  movements,  and  were  only  in  late  times 
transmuted  into  the  Scherzo  which  supplanted 
the  Minuet  and  Trio  in  one  case,  and  the  Finale  or 
Rondo,  which  ultimately  took  the  place  of  the 
Gigue,  or  Chaconne,  or  other  similar  dance-forms 
as  the  last  member  of  the  group. 

The  third  source,  as  above  mentioned,  was 
the  drama,  and  firom  this  two  general  ideas 
were  derivable :  one  from  the  short  passages 
of  instrumental  prelude  or  interlude,  and  the 
other  from  the  vocal  portions.  Of  these,  the 
first  was  intelligible  in  the  drama  through  its 
relation  to  some  point  in  the  story,  but  it  also 


506 


SONATA 


early  attained  to  a  erode  condition  of  form  which 
was  equally  available  apart  from  the  drama. 
The  other  produced  at  first  the  vaguest  and 
most  rhapsodical  of  all  the  movements,  as  the 
type  taken  was  the  irregular  declamatory  recita> 
tive  which  appears  to  have  abounded  in  the 
early  operas. 

It  is  hardly  likely  that  it  will  ever  be  ascer- 
tained who  first  experimented  in  sonatas  of 
several  distinct  movements.  Many  composers 
are  mentioned  in  different  places  as  having  con- 
tributed works  of  the  kind,  such  as  Farina, 
Cesti,  Graziani,  among  Italians,  Bosenmiiller 
among  Germans,  and  John  Jenkins  among 
Englishmen.  Burney  also  mentions  a  Michael 
Angelo  Rossi,  whose  date  is  given  as  from  about 
1620  to  1660.  An  Andantino  and  Allegro  by 
him,  given  in  Pauer's  'Alte  Meister,'  require 
notice  parenthetically  as  presenting  a  curious 
puzzle,  if  the  dates  are  correct  and  the  author- 
ship rightly  attributed.  [These  pieces  are  now 
known  to  be  spurious  (see  p.  149a),  but  genuine 
specimens  of  Rossi's  works  are  in  Torchi's  *  Arte 
Musicale  in  Italia,'  voL  iii.  See  also  Oskar 
Bie's  The  PianoforU,  Engl.  transL  p.  82.] 
Though  belonging  to  a  period  considerably 
before  Corelli,  they  show  a  state  of  form  which 
certainly  was  not  commonly  realised  till  more 
than  a  hundred  years  later.  The  distribution 
of  subject-matter  and  key,  and  the  clearness 
with  which  they  are  distinguished,  are  like  the 
works  of  the  middle  of  the  18  th  rather  than 
the  17th  century,  and  they  belong  absolutely 
to  the  Sonata  oider,  and  the  conscious  style  of 
the  later  period.  The  actual  stracture  of  large 
numbers  of  sonatas  composed  in  different  parts 
of  Europe  soon  after  this  time,  proves  a  tolerably 
clear  consent  as  to  the  arrangement  and  quality 
of  the  movements.  A  fine  vigorous  example  is 
a  Sonata  in.C  minor  for  violin  and  figured  bass, 
by  H.  J.  F.  Biber,  a  German,  said  to  have  been 
first  published  in  1681.  This  consists  of  five 
movements  in  alternate  slow  and  quick  time. 
The  first  is  an  introductory  Largo  of  contra- 
puntal character,  with  clear  and  consistent 
treatment  in  the  fugally  imitative  manner  ;  the 
second  is  a  Pasdacaglia,  which  answers  roughly 
to  a  continuous  string  of  variations  on  a  short 
well-marked  period  ;  the  third  is  a  rhapsodical 
movement  consisting  of  interspersed  portions 
of  Poco  lento.  Presto,  and  Adagio,  leading  into 
a  Gavotte  ;  and  the  last  is  a  further  rhapsodical 
movement  alternating  Adagio  and  Allegro.  In 
this  group  the  influence  of  the  madrigal  or 
canzona  happens  to  be  absent ;  the  derivation 
of  the  movements  being — in  the  first,  the  contra- 
puntalism  of  the  music  of  the  Church,  in  the 
second  and  fourth,  dances,  and  in  the  third  and 
fifth,  probably  operatic  or  dramatic  declamation. 
The  work  is  essentially  a  violin  sonata  with 
accompaniment,  and  the  violin-part  points  to 
the  extraordinarily  rapid  advance  to  mastery 
which  was  made  in  the  few  years  after  its  being 


accepted  as  an  instrament  fit  for  high-class 
music.  The  writing  for  the  instrument  is  de- 
cidedly elaborate  and  difficult,  especially  in  the 
double  stops  and  contrapuntal  passages  which 
were  much  in  vogue  with  almost  all  composers 
from  this  time  till  J.  S.  Bach.  In  the  structure 
of  the  movements  the  fugal  influences  are  most 
apparent,  and  there  are  very  few  signs  of  the 
systematic  repetition  of  subjects  in  connection 
with  well-marked  distribution  of  keys,  which 
in  later  times  became  indispensable. 

Similar  features  and  qualities  are  shown  in 
the  curious  set  of  seven  Sonatas  for  Clavier  by 
Johann  Knhnau,  called  'Frische  Clavier  Frilchte,' 
etc.,  of  a  little  later  date ;  but  there  are  also 
in  some  parts  indications  of  an  awakening  sense 
of  the  relation  and  balance  of  keys.  The 
grouping  of  the  moYements  is  similar  to  those 
of  Biber,  though  not  identical ;  thus  the  first 
three  have  five  movements  or  divisions,  and  the 
remainder  four.  There  are  examples  of  the 
same  kind  of  rhapsodical  slow  movements,  as 
may  be  seen  in  the  Sonata  (No.  2  of  the  set) 
which  is  given  in  Pauer's  '  Alte  Meister ' ;  there 
are  several  fugal  movements,  some  of  them 
clearly  and  musically  written ;  and  there  are 
some  good  illustrations  of  dance  types,  as  in 
the  last  movement  of  No.  3,  and  the  Ciaccona 
of  No.  6.  But  more  important  for  the  thread 
of  continuous  development  are  the  peculiar 
attempts  to  balance  tolerably  defined  and  distinct 
subjects,  and  to  distribute  key  and  subject  in 
large  expanses,  of  which  there  are  at  least  two 
clear  examples.  In  a  considerable  proportion 
of  the  movements  the  most  noticeable  method 
of  treatment  is  to  alternate  two  characteristic 
groups  of  figures  or  subjects  almost  throughout, 
in  different  positions  of  the  scale  and  at  irregular 
intervals  of  time.  This  is  illustrated  in  the 
first  movement  of  the  Sonata  No.  2,  in  the  first 
movement  of  No.  1 ,  and  in  the  third  movement 
of  No.  5.  The  subjects  in  the  last  of  these  are 
as  follows : — 


Effiv^ 


The  point  most  worth  notice  is  that  the 
device  lies  half-way  between  fugue  and  trae 
sonata-form.  The  alternation  is  like  the  re- 
currence of  subject  and  comiter-subject  in  the 
former,  wandering  hazily  in  and  out,  and  for- 
wards and  backwards,  between  nearly  allied 
keys,  as  would  be  the  case  in  a  fugue.  But  the 
subjects  are  not  presented  in  single  parts  or 
fugally  answered.  They  enter  and  re-enter  for 
the  most  part  as  concrete  lumps  of  harmony, 
the  harmonic  accompaniment  of  the  melody 


SONATA 


507 


being  taken  as  part  of  the  idea ;  &nd  this  id 
essentially  a  quality  of  sonata-fonn.  So  the 
movements  appear  to  hang  midway  between  the 
two  radically  distinct  domains  of  form  ;  and 
while  deriving  most  of  their  disposition  from 
the  older  manners,  they  look  forward,  though 
obscurely,  in  the  direction  of  modem  practices. 
How  obscure  the  ideas  of  the  time  on  the  subject 
must  have  been,  appears  from  the  other  point 
which  has  been  mentioned  above  ;  which  is, 
that  in  a  few  cases  Kuhnau  has  hit  upon  clear 
outlines  of  tonal  form.  In  the  second  Sonata, 
for  instance,  there  are  two  Arias,  as  they  are 
called.  They  do  not  correspond  in  the  least 
with  modem  notions  of  an  aria  any  more  than 
do  the  rare  examples  in  Bach's  and  Handel's 
Suites.  The  first  is  a  little  complete  piece  of 
sixteen  bars,  divided  exactly  into  halves  by  a 
double  bar,  with  repeats  after  the  familiar 
manner.  The  first  half  begins  in  F  and  ends 
in  C,  the  second  half  goes  as  &r  as  D  minor 
and  back,  to  conclude  in  F  again.  The  subject- 
matter  is  irregularly  distributed  in  the  parts, 
and  does  not  make  any  pretence  of  coinciding 
with  the  tonal  divisions.  The  second  Aria  is 
on  a  different  plan,  and  is  one  of  the  extremely 
rare  examples  in  this  early  period  of  clear 
coincidence  between  subject  and  key.  It  is 
in  the  form  which  is  often  perversely  misnamed 
'  lied-form,'  which  will  in  this  place  be  called 
'primary  form*  to  avoid  circumlocution  and 
waste  of  space.  It  consists  of  twenty  bars  in 
D  minor  representing  one  distinct  idea,  com- 
plete with  close :  then  sixteen  bars  devoted  to 
a  different  subject,  beginning  in  Bb  and  passing 
back  ultimately  to  D  minor,  recapitulating  the 
whole  of  the  first  twenty  bars  in  that  key,  and 
emphasising  the  close  by  repeating  the  last  four 
bars.  Such  decisiveness,  when  compared  with 
the  unregulated  and  unbalanced  wandering  of 
longer  movements,  either  points  to  the  con- 
clusion that  composers  did  not  realise  the 
desirableness  of  balance  in  coincident  ranges  of 
subject  and  key  on  a  large  scale  ;  or  that  they 
were  only  capable  of  feeling  it  in  short  and 
easily  grasped  movements.  It  seems  highly 
probable  that  their  minds,  being  projected 
towards  the  kind  of  distribution  of  subject  which 
obtained  in  fugal  movements,  were  not  on  the 
look-out  for  effects  of  the  sonata  order  which  to 
moderns  appear  so  obvious.  So  that,  even  if 
they  had  been  capable  of  realising  them  more 
systematically,  they  would  not  yet  have  thought 
it  worth  while  to  apply  their  knowledge.  In 
following  the  development  of  the  Sonata,  it 
ought  never  to  be  foigotten  that  composers  had 
no  idea  whither  they  were  tending,  and  had  to 
use  what  they  did  know  as  stepping-stones  to 
the  unknown.  In  art,  each  step  that  is  gained 
opens  a  fresh  vista ;  but  often,  till  the  new 
position  is  mastered,  what  lies  beyond  is  com- 
pletely hidden  and  undreamed  of.  In  fact, 
each  step  is  not  so  much  a  conquest  of  new 


land,  as  the  creation  of  a  new  mental  or 
emotional  position  in  the  human  organism. 
The  achievements  of  art  are  the  unraveUlngs  of 
hidden  possibilities  of  abstract  law,  through  the 
constant  and  cumulative  extension  of  instincts. 
They  do  not  actually  exist  till  man  has  made 
them  ;  they  are  the  counterpart  of  his  internal 
conditions,  and  change  and  develop  with  the 
changes  of  his  mental  powers  and  sensitive 
qualities,  and  apart  from  him  have  no  validity. 
There  is  no  such  thing  as  leaping  across  a  chasm 
on  to  a  new  continent,  neither  is  there  any 
gulf  fixed  anywhere,  but  continuity  and  in- 
evitable antecedents  to  every  consequent ;  the 
roots  of  the  greatest  masterpieces  of  modem 
times  lie  obscurely  hidden  in  the  wild  dances 
and  barbarous  bowlings  of  the  remotest  ancestors 
of  the  race,  who  began  to  take  pleasure  in  rhythm 
and  sound,  and  every  step  was  into  the  unknown, 
or  it  may  be  better  said  not  only  unknown  but 
non-existent  till  made  by  mental  effort.  The 
period  from  about  1600  to  about  1725  contains 
the  very  difficult  steps  which  led  from  the  style 
appropriate  to  a  high  order  of  vocal  music — of 
which  the  manner  of  speech  is  poly2)honic,  and 
the  ideal  type  of  form,  the  fugue — to  the  style 
appropriate  to  abstract  instrumental  music,  of 
which  the  best  manner  is  contrapuntally- ex- 
pressed harmony,  and  the  ideal  type  of  form, 
the  Sonata.  These  works  of  Kuhnau's  happen 
to  illustrate  very  curiously  the  transition  in 
which  a  trae  though  crude  idea  of  abstract  music 
seems  to  have  been  present  in  the  composer's 
mind,  at  the  same  time  that  his  distribution 
of  subjects  and  keys  was  almost  invariably 
governed  by  fugal  habits  of  thinking,  even 
where  the  statement  of  subjects  is  in  a  harmonic 
manner.  In  some  of  these  respects  he  is  nearer  to^ 
and  in  some  further  back  from,  the  trae  solution 
of  the  problem  than  his  famous  contemporary 
Gorelli  ;  but  his  labours  do  not  extend  over  so 
much  space,  nor  had  they  so  much  direct  and 
widespread  influence.  In  manner  and  distribu- 
tion of  movements  they  are  nearer  to  his  pre- 
decessor and  compatriot  Biber;  and  for  that 
reason,  and  also  to  maintain  the  continuity  of 
the  historic  development  after  Corelli,  the 
consideration  of  his  works  has  been  taken  a 
little  before  their  actual  place  in  point  of  time. 
The  works  of  Gorelli  form  one  of  the  most 
familiar  landmarks  in  the  history  of  music,  and 
as  they  are  exclusively  instmmental  it  is  clear 
that  careful  consideration  ought  to  elicit  a 
great  deal  of  interesting  matter,  such  as  must 
throw  valuable  light  on  the  state  of  thought 
of  his  time.  He  published  no  less  than  sixty 
sonatas  of  different  kinds,  which  are  divisible 
into  distinct  groups  in  accordance  with  purpose 
or  constmction.  The  first  main  division  is  that 
suggested  by  their  titles.  There  are  twenty- 
four  '  Senate  da  Chiesa '  for  strings,  lute,  and 
organ,  twenty-four  *  Senate  da  Camera  *  for  the 
same  instruments,  and  twelve  Solos  or  Sonatas 


608 


SONATA 


for  violin  and  violoncello,  or  cembalo.  In  tliese 
the  first  and  simplest  matter  for  observation 
is  the  distribution  of  the  movements.  The 
average,  in  Church  and  Chamber  Sonatas  ab'ke, 
is  strongly  in  favour  of  four,  beginning  with  a 
slow  movement,  and  alternating  the  rest.  There 
is  also  an  attempt  at  balance  in  the  alternation 
of  character  between  the  movements.  The 
first  is  commonly  in  4 -time,  of  dignified  and 
solid  character,  and  generally  aiming  less  at 
musical  expression  than  the  later  movements. 
The  second  movement  in  the  Church  Sonata  is 
freely  fugal,  in  fact  the  exact  type  above  de- 
scribed as  a  Canzona ;  the  style  is  commonly 
rather  dry,  and  the  general  effect  chiefly  a 
complacent  kind  of  easy  swing  such  as  is 
familiar  in  most  of  Handel's  fugues.  In  the 
Chamber  Sonatas  the  character  of  the  second 
movement  is  rather  more  variable ;  in  some  it 
is  an  Allemande,  which,  being  dignified  and 
solid,  is  a  fair  counterpart  to  the  Canzona  in 
the  other  Sonatas :  sometimes  it  is  a  Courante, 
which  is  of  lighter  character.  The  third  move- 
ment is  the  only  one  which  is  ever  in  a  different 
key  from  the  first  and  last.  It  is  generally  a 
characteristic  one,  in  which  other  early  com- 
posers of  instrumental  music,  as  well  as  Corelli, 
clearly  endeavoured  to  infuse  a  certain  amount 
of  vague  and  tender  sentiment.  The  most 
common  time  is  8-2.  The  extent  of  the  move- 
ment is  always  limited,  and  the  style,  though 
simply  contrapuntal  in  fact,  seems  to  be  ordered 
with  a  view  to  obtain  smooth  harmonious  fnll- 
chord  effects,  as  a  contrast  to  the  brusqueness 
of  the  preceding  fugal  movement.  There  is 
generally  a  certain  amount  of  imitation  between 
the  parts,  irregularly  and  fancifully  disposed, 
but  almost  always  avoiding  the  sounding  of  a 
single  part  alone.  In  the  Chamber  Sonatas,  as 
might  be  anticipated,  the  third  movement  is 
frequently  a  Sarabande,  though  by  no  means 
always ;  for  the  same  kind  of  slow  movement 
as  that  in  the  Church  Sonatas  is  sometimes 
adopted,  as  in  the  third  Sonata  of  the  Opera 
Seconda,  which  is  as  good  an  example  of  that 
class  as  could  be  taken.  The  last  movement  is 
almost  invariably  of  a  lively  character  in  Church 
and  Chamber  Sonatas  alike.  In  the  latter, 
Gigas  and  Gavottes  predominate,  the  character 
of  which  is  so  familiar  that  they  need  no  descrip- 
tion. The  last  movements  in  the  Church 
Sonatas  are  of  a  similar  vivacity  and  sprightli- 
ness,  and  sometimes  so  alike  in  character  and 
rhythm  as  to  be  hardly  distinguishable  from 
dance -tunes,  except  by  the  absence  of  the 
defining  name,  the  donble  bar  in  the  middle, 
and  the  repeats  which  are  almost  inevitable  in 
the  dance  movements.  This  general  scheme  is 
occasionally  varied  without  material  difference 
of  principle  by  the  interpolation  of  an  extra 
quick  movement,  as  in  the  first  six  Sonatas  of 
the  Opera  Quinta  ;  in  which  it  is  a  sort  of  show 
movement  for  the  violin  in  a  '  Moto  continuo ' 


style,  added  before  or  after  the  central  slow 
movement.  In  a  few  cases  the  number  is  re- 
duced to  three  by  dropping  the  slow  prelude, 
and  in  a  few  others  the  order  cannot  be  sys- 
tematised. 

In  accordance  with  the  principles  of  classifi- 
cation above  defined,  the  Church  Sonatas  appear 
to  be  much  more  strictly  abstract  than  those 
for  Chamber.  The  latter  are,  in  many  cases, 
not  distinguishable  from  Suites.  The  Sonatas 
of  Opera  Quinta  are  variable.  Thus  the  attrac- 
tive Sonata  in  £  minor.  No.  8,  is  quite  in  the 
recognised  suite -manner.  Some  are  like  the 
Sonate  da  Chiesa,  and  some  are  types  of  the 
mixed  order  more  universally  accepted  later, 
having  several  undefined  movements,  together 
with  one  dance.  The  actual  structure  of  the 
individual  movements  is  most  uncertain.  Corelli 
clearly  felt  that  something  outside  the  domain 
of  the  fugal  tribe  was  to  be  attained,  but  he 
had  no  notion  of  strict  outlines  of  procedure. 
One  thing  which  hampered  him  and  other 
composers  of  the  early  times  of  instrumental 
music  was  their  imwillingness  to  accept  formal 
tunes  as  an  element  in  their  order  of  art.  They 
had  existed  in  popular  song  and  dance  music 
for  certainly  a  century,  and  probably  much 
more  ;  but  the  idea  of  adopting  them  in  high- 
class  music  was  not  yet  in  favour.  Corelli 
occasionally  produces  one,  but  the  fact  that 
they  generally  occur  with  him  in  Gigas,  which 
are  the  freest  and  least  responsible  portion  of 
the  Sonata,  supports  the  inference  that  they 
were  not  yet  regarded  as  worthy  of  general 
acceptance  even  if  realised  as  an  admissible 
element,  but  could  only  be  smuggled-in  in  the 
least  respectable  movement  with  an  implied 
smile  to  disarm  criticism.  A\^hether  this  was 
decisively  so  or  not,  the  fact  remains  that  till 
long  after  Corelli's  time  the  conventional  tune 
element  was  conspicuously  absent  from  instru- 
mental compositions.  Hence  the  structural 
principles  which  to  a  modem  seem  almost  in- 
evitable were  very  nearly  impracticable,  or  at 
all  events  unsuitable  to  the  general  principles 
of  the  music  of  that  date.  A  modem  expects 
the  opening  bars  of  a  movement  to  present  its 
most  important  subject,  and  he  anticipates  its 
repetition  in  the  latter  portion  of  the  movement 
as  a  really  vital  part  of  form  of  any  kind.  But 
association  and  common  sense  were  alike  against 
such  a  usage  being  universal  in  Corelli's  time. 
The  associations  of  ecclesiastical  and  other 
serious  vocal  music,  which  were  then  pre- 
ponderant to  a  supreme  degree,  were  against 
strongly  salient  points,  or  strongly  marked 
interest  in  short  portions  of  a  movement  in 
contrast  to  parts  of  comparative  unimportance. 
Consequently  the  opening  bars  of  a  movement 
would  not  be  expected  to  stand  out  in  suffi- 
ciently strong  relief  to  be  remembered  unless 
they  were  repeated  at  once,  as  they  would  be 
in  fugue.     Human  nature  is  against  it     For 


SONATA 


509 


not  only  does  the  mind  take  time  to  be  wrought 
up  to  a  fully  receptive  condition,  unless  the 
beginning  is  most  exceptionally  striking,  but 
what  comes  after  is  likely  to  obliterate  the 
impression  made  by  it.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  if 
all  things  were  equal,  the  portion  most  likely 
to  remain  in  the  mind  of  an  average  listener, 
is  tliat  immediately  preceding  the  strongest 
cadences  or  conclusions  of  the  paragraphs  of 
the  movement.  It  is  true,  composers  do  not 
argue  in  this  manner,  but  they  feel  such  things 
vaguely  or  instinctively,  and  generally  with 
more  sureness  and  justice  than  the  cold-blooded 
argumentation  of  a  theorist  could  attain  to. 
Many  examples  in  other  early  composers  besides 
Corelli,  emphasise  this  point  effectively.  The 
earliest  attempts  at  structural  form  must  inevit- 
ably present  some  simply  explicable  principle 
of  this  sort,  which  is  only  not  trivial  because 
it  is  a  very  significant  as  well  as  indispensable 
starting-point.  CoreUi's  commonest  devices  of 
form  are  the  most  unsophisticated  applications 
of  such  simple  reasoning.  In  the  first  place, 
in  many  movements  which  are  not  fugal,  the 
opening  bars  are  immediately  repeated  in  an- 
other position  in  the  scale,  simply  and  without 
periphrasis,  as  if  to  give  the  listener  assurance 
of  an  idea  of  balance  at  the  very  outset.  That 
he  did  this  to  a  certain  extent  consciously,  is 
obvious  from  his  having  employed  the  device 
in  at  least  the  following  Sonatas — 2,  8,  8,  9, 
10,  11,  of  Opera  1»»  ;  2,  4,  7,  8,  of  Opera  8» ; 
and  2,  4,  5,  and  11,  of  Opera  4^  ;  and  Tartini 
and  other  composers  of  the  same  school  followed 
his  lead.  This  device  is  not,  however,  either 
so  conspicuous  or  so  common  as  that  of  repeating 
the  concluding  passage  of  the  first  half  at  the 
end  of  the  whole,  or  of  the  concluding  passages 
of  one  half  or  both  consecutively.  This,  how- 
ever, was  not  restricted  to  Corelli,  but  is  found 
in  the  works  of  most  composers  from  his  time 
to  Scarlatti,  J.  S.  Bach  and  his  sons  ;  and  it  is 
no  extravagant  hypothesis  that  its  gradual 
extension  was  the  direct  origin  of  the  character- 
istic second  section  and  second  subject  of 
modem  sonata  movements.  In  many  cases  it 
is  the  only  element  of  form,  in  the  modem 
sense,  in  Corelli's  movements.  In  a  few  cases 
he  hit  upon  more  complicated  principles.  The 
Gorrente  in  Sonata  5  of  Opera  4^,  is  nearly  a 
miniature  of  modem  binary  form.  The  well- 
known  Giga  in  A  in  the  fifth  Sonata  of  Opera 
5ta,  has  balance  of  key  in  the  first  half  of  the 
movement,  modulation,  and  something  like 
consistency  to  subject-matter  at  the  beginning 
of  the  second  half,  and  due  recapitulation  of 
principal  subject-matter  at  the  end.  The  last 
movement  of  the  eighth  Sonata  of  the  Opera 
Terza,  is  within  reasonable  distance  of  rondo- 
form,  though  this  form  is  generally  as  con- 
spicuous for  its  absence  in  early  sonatas  as  tunes 
are,  and  probably  the  one  follows  as  a  natural 
consequence  of  the  other.    Of  the  simple  primary 


form,  consisting  of  corresponding  beginning  and 
end,  and  contrast  of  some  sort  in  the  middle, 
there  is  singularly  little. '  The  clearest  example 
is  probably  the  Tempo  di  Gavotta,  which  con- 
cludes the  ninth  Sonata  of  Opera  Quinta.  He 
also  supplies  suggestions  of  the  earliest  types  of 
sonata  form,  in  which  both  the  beginnings  and 
endings  of  each  half  of  the  movement  correspond ; 
as  this  became  an  accepted  principle  of  stmcture 
with  later  composers,  it  will  have  to  be  con- 
sidered more  fiilly  in  relation  to  their  works. 
Of  devices  of  foim  which  belong  to  the  great 
pol3rphonic  tribe,  Corelli  uses  many,  but  with 
more  musical  feeling  than  learning.  His  fugues 
are  not  remarkable  as  fugues,  and  he  uses  con- 
trapuntal imitation  rather  as  a  subordinate 
means  of  carrying  on  the  interest,  than  of  ex- 
pounding any  wonderful  device  of  pedantic 
wisdom,  as  was  too  common  in  those  days. 
He  makes  good  use  of  the  chaoonne-form,  which 
was  a  great  favourite  with  the  early  composers, 
and  also  uses  the  kindred  device  of  carrying  the 
repetition  of  a  short  figure  through  the  greater 
part  of  a  movement  in  different  phases  and 
positions  of  the  scale.  In  some  cases  he  merely 
rambles  on  without  any  perceptible  aim  what- 
ever, only  keeping  up  an  equable  flow  of  sound 
with  pleasant  interlacings  of  easy  counterpoint, 
led  on  from  moment  to  moment  by  suspensions 
and  occasional  imitation,  and  here  and  there  a 
helpful  sequence.  Corelli's  position  as  a  com- 
poser is  inseparably  mixed  up  with  his  position 
as  one  of  the  earliest  masters  of  his  instrument. 
His  style  of  writing  for  it  does  not  appear  to  be 
so  elaborate  as  that  of  other  contemporaries,  both 
older  and  younger,  but  he  gi*asped  a  just  way 
of  expressing  things  with  it,  and  for  the  most 
part  the  fit  things  to  say.  The  impression  he 
made  upon  musical  people  in  all  parts  of  the 
musical  world  was  strong,  and  he  was  long 
regarded  as  the  most  delightful  of  composers  in 
his  particular  line  ;  and  though  the  professors 
of  his  day  did  not  always  hold  him  in  so  high 
estimation,  his  influence  upon  many  of  his 
most  distinguished  successors  was  unquestion- 
ably powerful. 

It  is  possible,  however,  that  appearances  are 
deceptive,  and  that  influences  of  which  he  was 
only  the  most  familiar  exponent,  are  mistaken 
for  his  peculiar  achievement.  Thus  knowing 
his  position  at  the  head  of  a  great  school  of 
violinists,  which  continued  through  several 
generations  down  to  Haydn's  time,  it  is  difficult 
to  disunite  him  from  the  honour  of  having 
fixed  the  type  of  sonata  which  they  almost 
uniformly  adopted.  And  not  only  this  noble 
and  vigorous  school,  comprising  such  men  as 
Tartini,  Vivaldi,  Locatelli,  Nardini,  Veracini, 
and  outlying  members  like  Leclair  and  Bust, 
but  men  who  were  not  specially  attached  to 
their  violins,  such  as  Albinoni  and  Purcell, 
and  later.  Bach,  Handel,  and  Porpora,  equally 
adopted   the    type.      Of  Albinoni  not  much 


510 


SONATA 


seems  to  be  distinctly  known,  except  that  he 
was  GorelU's  contemporary  and  probably  junior. 
He  wrote  operas  and  instrumental  music.  Of 
the  latter,  several  sonatas  are  still  to  be  seen, 
but  they  are,  of  course,  not  familiar,  though  at 
one  time  they  enjoyed  a  wide  popularity.  The 
chief  point  about  them  is  that  in  many  for 
violin  and  figured  bass  he  follows  not  only  the 
same  general  outlines,  but  even  the  style  of 
OorellL  He  adopts  the  four-movement  plan, 
with  a  decided  canzona  in  the  second  place,  a 
slow  movement  first  and  third,  and  a  quick 
movement  to  end  with,  such  as  in  one  case 
a  Corrente.  Purcell's  having  followed  Corelli's 
lead  is  repudiated  by  enthusiasts ;  but  at  all 
events  the  lines  of  his  Golden  Sonata  in  F  are 
wonderfully  similar.  There  are  three  slow 
movements,  which  oome  first,  second,  and 
fourth  ;  the  third  movement  is  actually  called 
a  Canzona ;  and  the  last  is  a  quick  movement 
in  3-8  time,  similar  in  style  to  corresponding 
portions  of  Corelli's  Sonatas.  The  second 
movement,  an  Adagio,  is  the  most  expressive, 
being  happily  devised  on  the  principle  above 
refeired  to,  of  repeating  a  short  figure  in 
different  positions  throughout  the  movement. 
In  respect  of  sonata-form  the  work  is  about  on 
a  par  with  the  average  of  Corelli  or  Biber. 

The  domain  of  the  Sonata  was  for  a  long 
while  almost  monopolised  by  violinists  and 
writers  for  the  violin.  Some  of  these,  such  as 
Geminiani  and  Locatelli,  were  actually  Corelli's 
pupils.  They  clearly  followed  him  both  in 
style  and  structural  outlines,  but  they  also 
began  to  extend  and  build  upon  them  with 
remarkable  speed.  The  second  movement  con- 
tinued for  long  the  most  stationary  and  con- 
ventional, maintaining  the  Canzona  type  in  a 
loose  fugal  manner,  by  the  side  of  remarkable 
changes  in  the  other  movements.  Of  these  the 
first  began  to  grow  into  larger  dimensions  and 
clearer  proportions  even  in  CoreUi's  own  later 
works,  attaining  to  the  dignity  of  double  bars 
and  repeats,  and  with  his  successors  to  a  con- 
sistent and  self-sufficing  form.  An  example  of 
this  is  the  admirable  Larghetto  affettuoso  with 
which  Tartini's  celebrated  *  Trillo  del  Diavolo ' 
commences.  No  one  who  has  heard  it  could 
fail  to  be  struck  with  the  force  of  the  simple 
device  above  described  of  making  the  ends  of 
each  half  correspond,  as  the  passage  is  made  to 
stand  out  from  all  the  rest  more  characteristi- 
cally than  usual.  A  similar  and  very  good 
example  is  the  introductory  Largo  to  the  Sonata 
in  G  minor,  for  violin  and  figured  bass,  by 
Locatelli,  which  is  given  in  Feidinand  David's 
*  Hohe  Schule  des  Violinspiels.'  The  subject- 
matter  in  both  examples  is  exceedingly  well 
handled,  so  tliat  a  sense  of  perfect  consistency 
is  maintained  without  concrete  repetition  of 
subjects,  except,  as  already  noticed,  the  closing 
bars  of  each  half,  which  in  Locatelli's  Sonata 
are  rendered  less  obvious  through  the  addition 


of  a  short  coda  starting  from  a  happy  interrupted 
cadence.  It  is  out  of  the  question  to  follow 
the  variety  of  aspects  presented  by  the  intro- 
ductory slow  movement ;  a  fair  proportion  are 
on  similar  lines  to  the  above  examples,  others 
are  isolated.  Their  character  is  almost  uni- 
formly solid  and  large ;  they  are  often  ex- 
pressive, but  generally  in  a  way  distinct  from 
the  character  of  the  second  slow  movement, 
which  from  the  first  was  chosen  as  the  fittest 
to  admit  a  vein  of  tenderer  sentiment.  The 
most  important  matter  in  the  history  of  the 
Sonata  at  this  period  is  the  rapidity  with  which 
advance  was  made  towards  the  realisation  of 
modem  harmonic  and  tonal  principles  of  struc- 
ture, or,  in  other  words,  the  perception  of  the 
effect  and  significance  of  relations  between  chords 
and  distinct  keys,  and  consequent  appearance 
of  regularity  of  purpose  in  the  distribution  of 
both,  and  increased  freedom  of  modulation. 
Even  Corelli's  own  pupils  show  consistent  form 
of  the  sonata  kind  with  remarkable  clearness. 
The  last  movement  of  a  Sonata  in  C  minor,  by 
Geminiani,  has  a  clear  and  emphatic  subject  to 
start  with ;  modulation  to  the  relative  major, 
£b,  and  special  features  to  characterise  the 
second  section  ;  and  conclusion  of  the  first  half 
in  that  key,  with  repeat  after  the  supposed 
orthodox  manner.  The  second  half  begins 
with  a  long  section  corresponding  to  the  working 
out  or  '  free  fantasia '  portion  of  a  modem 
sonata  movement,  and  concludes  with  recapitu- 
lation of  the  first  subject  and  chief  features  of 
the  second  section  in  C  minor  ;  this  latter  part 
differing  chiefly  from  modem  ways  by  admitting 
a  certain  amount  of  discursiveness,  which  is 
characteristic  of  most  of  the  early  experiments 
in  this  form.  Similar  to  this  is  the  last  move- 
ment of  Locatelli's  Sonata  in  G  minor,  the  last 
movement  of  Veraoini's  Sonata  in  £  minor, 
published  at  Vienna  in  1714,  the  last  move- 
ments of  Tartini's  Sonatas  in  £  minor  and  D 
minor,  and  not  a  few  others.  It  is  rather 
curious  that  most  of  the  early  examples  of 
what  is  sometimes  called  first-movement  form 
are  last  movements.  Most  of  these  movements, 
however,  in  the  early  times,  are  distinguished 
by  a  peculiarity  which  is  of  some  importance. 
It  has  been  before  referred  to,  but  is  so  charac- 
teristic of  the  process  of  growth,  that  it  will 
not  be  amiss  to  describe  it  in  this  place.  Tlie 
simple  and  almost  homely  means  of  producing 
the  effect  of  structural  balance  by  making  the 
beginning  and  ending  of  each  half  of  a  movement 
correspond,  is  not  so  conspicuously  common  in 
its  entirety  as  the  correspondence  of  endings  or 
repetition  of  cadence  bars  only ;  but  it  never- 
theless is  found  tolerably  often,  and  that  in 
times  before  the  virtue  of  a  balance  of  keys 
in  the  first  half  of  the  movement  had  been 
decisively  realised.  When,  however,  this  point 
was  gained,  it  is  clear  tliat  such  a  process  would 
give,  on  as  minute  a  scale  as  possible,  the  very 


SONATA 


611 


next  thing  to  complete  modem  binaiy  form. 
It  only  needed  to  expand  the  opening  paasage 
into  a  first  subject,  and  the  figures  of  the 
Cadence  into  a  second  subject,  to  attain  that 
type  which  became  almost  uniyersal  in  sonatas 
till  Haydn's  time,  and  with  some  second-rate 
composers,  likeBeichardt,  later.  The  movements 
which  are  described  as  binary  must  be  therefore 
divided  into  two  distinct  classes: — that  in 
which  the  first  subject  reappears  in  the  comple- 
mentary key  at  the  beginning  of  the  second 
half,  which  is  the  almost  universal  type  of 
earlier  times  ;  and  that  in  which  it  appears  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  movement,  after  the 
working-out  portion,  which  is  the  later  type. 
The  experiments  in  Corelli  and  Tartini,  and 
others  who  are  close  to  these  types,  are  endless. 
Sometimes  there  are  tentative  strokes  near  to 
the  later  form  ;  sometimes  there  is  an  inverted 
order  reproducing  the  second  portion  of  the 
movement  first.  Sometimes  the  first  subject 
makes  its  appearanoe  at  both  points,  but  then, 
may  be,  there  is  no  balance  of  keys  in  the  first 
half,  and  so  forth.  The  variety  is  extraordinary, 
and  it  is  most  interesting  to  watch  the  manner 
in  which  some  types  by  degrees  preponderate, 
sometimes  by  combining  '^dth  one  another, 
sometimes  by  gradual  transformation,  some 
nearer  and  more  decisively  like  the  types  which 
are  generally  adopted  in  modem  times  as  fittest. 
The  later  tyx>e  was  not  decisively  fixed  on  at 
any  particular  point,  for  many  early  composers 
touched  it  once  or  twice  at  the  same  period 
that  they  were  writing  movements  in  more 
elementary  forms.  The  point  of  actual  achieve- 
ment of  a  step  in  art  is  not  marked  by  an 
isolated  instance,  but  by  decisive  preponderance, 
and  by  the  systematic  adoption  which  shows 
at  least  an  instinctive  realisation  of  its  value 
and  importance. 

These  writers  of  violin  sonatas  were  just 
touching  on  the  clear  realisation  of  harmonic 
form  as  accepted  in  modem  times,  and  they 
sometimes  adopted  the  later  type,  though  rarely, 
and  that  obscurely  ;  they  mastered  the  earlier 
type,  and  used  it  freely  ;  and  they  also  used  the 
intermediate  type  which  combines  the  two,  in 
which  the  principal  or  first  subject  makes  its 
appearance  both  at  the  beginning  of  the  first 
half  and  near  the  end,  where  a  modem  would 
expect  it.  As  a  sort  of  embryonic  suggestion 
of  this,  the  Tempo  di  Gavotta,  in  the  eighth 
Sonata  of  Corelli's  Opera  Seconda,  is  significant 
Complete  examples  are — the  last  movement  of 
Tartini's  fourth  Sonata  of  Opus  1,  and  the  last 
movement  of  that  in  D  minor  above  referred  to  ; 
the  last  movement  of  Geminiani's  Sonata  in  C 
minor ;  the  main  portion,  excluding  the  Coda, 
of  the  Corrente  in  Vivaldi's  Sonata  in  A  m^or  ; 
the  last  movement  of  a  Sonata  of  Kardini's,  in 
D  major  ;  and  two  Capriccios  in  Bb  and  C,  by 
Franz  Benda,  quoted  in  F.  David's  'Hohe 
Schnle,'  etc. 


The  four-movement  type  of  violin  sonata  was 
not  invariably  adopted,  though  it  preponderates 
so  conspicuously.  There  is  a  set  of  twelve 
sonatas  by  Locatelli,  for  instance,  not  so  fine 
as  that  in  F.  David's  collection,  which  are 
nearly  all  on  an  original  three-movement  plan, 
concluding  with  an  *  Aria '  and  variations  on  a 
ground-bass.  Some  of  Tartini's  are  also  in  three 
movements,  and  a  set  of  six  by  Nardini  are  also 
in  three,  but  always  beginning  with  a  slow  move- 
ment, and  therefore,  though  almost  of  the  same 
date,  not  really  approaching  the  distribution 
commonly  adopted  by  Haydn  for  Clavier  Sonatas. 
In  fact  the  old  Violin  Sonata  is  in  many  respects 
a  distinct  genus,  which  maintained  its  individu- 
ality alongside  the  gradually  stereotyped  Clavier 
Sonata,  and  only  ceased  when  that  type  obtained 
possession  of  the  field,  and  the  violin  was  re^ 
introduced,  at  first  as  it  were  furtively,  as  an 
accompaniment  to  the  pianoforte.  The  general 
characteristics  of  this  school  of  writera  for  the 
violin,  were  nobility  of  style  and  richness  of 
feeling,  an  astonishing  mastery  of  the  instm- 
ment,  and  a  rapidly-growing  facility  in  dealing 
with  stracture  in  respect  of  subject,  key,  modu- 
lation, and  development ;  and  what  is  most  vital, 
though  less  obvious,  a  perceptible  growth  in  the 
art  of  expression  and  a  progress  towards  the 
definition  of  ideas.  As  a  set-off  there  are  occa- 
sional traces  of  pedantic  mannera,  and  occasional 
oradities  both  of  stracture  and  expression,  de- 
rived probably  from  the  associations  of  the  old 
music  which  tiiey  had  so  lately  left  behind  them. 
At  the  crown  of  the  edifice  are  the  Sonatas  of 
J.  S.  Bach.  Of  sonatas  in  general  he  appeara 
not  to  have  held  to  any  decisive  opinion.  He 
wrote  many  for  various  instraments,  and  for 
various  combinations  of  instruments.  For 
clavier,  for  violin  alone,  for  flute,  violin,  and 
clavier,  for  viol  da  gamba  and  clavier,  and  so 
on  ;  but  in  most  of  these  the  outlines  are  not 
decisively  distinct  from  Suites.  In  some  cases 
the  works  are  described  as  '  Sonatas  or  Suites,' 
and  in  at  least  one  case  the  introduction  to  a 
church  cantata  is  called  a  Sonata.  Some  instra- 
mental  works  which  are  called  Sonatas  only, 
might  quite  as  well  be  called  Suites,  as  they 
consist  of  a  prelude  and  a  set  of  dance-tunes. 
Othera  are  heterogeneous.  From  this  it  appeara 
that  he  had  not  satisfied  himself  on  what  lines 
to  attack  the  Sonata  in  any  sense  approaching 
the  modem  idea.  With  the  Violin  Sonatas  it 
was  otherwise  ;  and  in  the  group  of  six  for  violin 
and  clavier  he  follows  almost  invariably  the  main 
outlines  which  are  characteristic  of  the  Italian 
school  descended  from  Corelli,  and  all  but  one 
are  on  the  four -movement  plan,  having  slow 
movements  firat  and  third,  and  quick  movements 
second  and  fourth.  The  sixth  Sonata  only  differa 
from  the  rest  by  having  an  additional  quick 
movement  at  the  beginning.  Not  only  this 
but  the  second  movements  keep  decisively  the 
formal  lineaments  of  the  ancient  type  of  free 


512 


SONATA 


fugue,  illustrated  with  more  strictness  of  manner 
by  the  Canzonas.  Only  in  calibre  and  quality  of 
ideas,  and  in  some  peculiar  idiosyncrasies  of 
structure  do  they  differ  materially  from  theworks 
of  the  Italian  masters.  Even  the  first,  third, 
and  fifth  Sonatas  in  the  other  set  of  six,  for  violin 
alone,  conform  accurately  to  the  old  four-move- 
ment plan,  including  the  fugue  in  the  second 
place ;  the  remaining  three  being  on  the  general 
lines  of  the  Suite.  In  most  of  the  Sonatas  for 
violin  and  clavier,  the  slow  movement  is  a  tower 
of  strength,  and  strikes  a  point  of  rich  and  com- 
plex emotional  expression  which  music  reached 
for  the  first  time  in  Bach's  imagination.  His 
favourite  way  of  formulating  a  movement  of  this 
sort,  y^as  to  develop  the  whole  accompaniment 
consistently  on  a  concise  and  strongly-marked 
figure,  which  by  repetition  in  different  conditions 
formed  a  bond  of  connection  throughout  the 
whole  ;  and  on  this  he  built  a  passionate  kind  of 
recitative,  a  free  and  unconstrained  outpouring 
of  the  deepest  and  noblest  instrumental  song. 
This  was  a  sort  of  apotheosis  of  that  form  of 
rhapsody,  which  has  been  noticed  in  the  early 
Sonatas,  such  as  Biber's  and  Kuhnau's,  and  was 
occasionally  attempted  by  the  Italians.  The 
six  Sonatas  present  diversities  of  types,  all  of  the 
loftiest  order ;  some  of  them  combining  together 
with  unfailing  expressiveness  perfect  specimens 
of  old  forms  of  contrapuntal  ingenuity.  Of  this, 
the  second  movement  of  the  second  Sonata  is  a 
perfect  example.  It  appears  to  be  a  pathetic 
colloquy  between  the  violin  and  the  treble  of  the 
clavier  part,  to  which  the  bass  keeps  up  the  slow 
constant  motion  of  staccato  semiquavers :  the 
colloquy  at  the  same  time  is  in  strict  canon 
throughout,  and,  as  a  specimen  of  expressive 
treatment  of  that  time-honoured  form,  is  almost 
unrivalled. 

In  all  these  movements  the  kinship  is  rather 
with  the  contrapuntal  writers  of  the  past,  than 
with  the  types  of  Beethoven's  adoption.  Even 
Bach,  immense  as  his  genius  and  power  of  di- 
vination was,  could  not  leap  over  that  period  of 
formation  which  it  seems  to  have  been  indispen- 
sable for  mankind  to  pass  through,  before  equally 
noble  and  deeply- felt  things  could  beexpressedin 
the  characteristically  modem  manner.  Though 
he  looked  further  into  the  future  in  matters  of 
expression  and  harmonic  combination  than  any 
composer  till  the  19th  century,  he  still  had  to 
use  forms  of  the  contrapuntal  and  fugal  order 
for  the  expression  of  his  highest  thoughts.  He 
did  occasionally  make  use  of  binary  form,  though 
not  in  these  Sonatas.  But  he  more  commonly 
adopted,  and  combined  with  more  or  less  fugal 
treatment,  an  expansion  of  simple  primary  form 
to  attain  structural  effect.  Thus,  in  the  second 
movements  of  the  first  and  second  Sonatas,  in 
the  last  of  the  third  and  sixth,  and  the  first  of 
the  sixth,  he  marks  first  a  long  complete  section 
in  his  principal  key,  then  tc^es  his  way  into 
modulations  and  development,  and  discussion 


of  themes  and  various  kinds  of  contrapuntal 
eigoyment,  and  concludes  with  simple  complete 
recapitulation  of  the  first  section  in  the  principal 
key.  Bach  thus  stands  singularly  aside  from 
the  direct  line  of  the  development  of  the  Sonata 
as  £Eir  as  the  structural  elements  are  concerned. 
His  contributions  to  the  art  of  expression,  to  the 
development  of  resource,  and  to  the  definition 
and  treatment  of  ideas,  had  great  eflect,  and  are 
of  the  very  highest  importance  to  instrumental 
music ;  but  his  almost  invariable  choice  of  either 
the  suite-form,  or  the  accepted  outlines  of  the 
violin  sonata,  in  works  of  this  class,  caused  him 
to  diverge  into  a  course  which  with  him  found 
its  final  and  supreme  limit.  In  order  to  con- 
tinue the  work  in  veins  which  were  yet  unex- 
hausted, the  path  had  to  be  turned  a  little,  and 
joined  to  courses  which  were  coming  up  from 
other  directions.  The  violin  sonata  continued 
to  make  its  appearance  here  and  there  as  has 
already  been  mentioned,  but  in  the  course  of  a 
generation  it  was  entirely  supplanted  by  the 
distinct  type  of  clavier  sonata. 

Meanwhile  there  was  another  composer  of  this 
time,  who  appears  to  stand  just  as  singularly 
apart  from  Uie  direct  high  road  as  Bach,  and 
who,  though  he  does  not  occupy  a  pedestal  so 
high  in  the  history  of  art,  still  has  a  niche  by 
no  means  low  or  inconspicuous,  and  one  which 
he  shares  with  no  one.  Domenico  Scarlatti  was 
Bach's  senior  by  a  few  years,  though  not  enough 
to  place  him  in  an  earlier  musical  generation ; 
and  in  fisust  though  his  works  are  so  different  in 
quality,  they  have  the  stamp  that  marks  them 
as  belonging  to  the  same  parallel  of  time. 

His  most  valuable  contributions  are  in  the 
immense  number  of  sonatas  and  studies  which 
he  wrote  for  the  harpsichord.  The  two  names 
are  used  as  synonyms,  for  each  of  the  thirty 
*  Esercizii  per  Gravicembalo '  is  separately  en- 
titled *  Sonata.'  But  whatever  they  are  called 
they  do  not  correspond  in  appearance  to  any  form 
which  is  commonly  supposed  to  be  essential  to 
the  Sonata.  Neither  can  they  be  taken  as  pure- 
bred members  of  the  fugal  family,  nor  do  they 
trace  their  origins  to  the  Suite.  They  are  in 
fact,  in  a  fair  proportion  of  cases,  an  attempt  to 
deal  with  direct  ideas  in  a  modem  sense,  without 
appeah'ng  to  the  glamour  of  conscious  association, 
the  dignity  of  science,  or  the  familiarity  of 
established  dance  rhytiims.  The  connection 
with  what  goes  before  and  with  what  comes  after 
is  alike  obscure,  because  of  the  daring  originality 
with  which  existing  materials  are  worked  upon  ; 
but  it  is  not  the  less  inevitably  present,  as  an  out- 
line of  his  stractural  principles  will  show. 

His  utterance  is  at  its  beet  sharp  and  incisive  ; 
the  form  in  which  he  loves  to  express  himself  is 
epigrammatic ;  and  some  of  his  most  effective 
sonatas  are  like  strings  of  short  propositions 
bound  together  by  an  indefinable  sense  of  con- 
sistency and  consequence,  rather  than  by  actual 
development.   Theseideasare  commonly  brought 


SONATA 


513 


home  to  the  hearer  by  the  singular  practice  of 
repeating  them  consecutively  as  they  stand,  often 
several  times  over ;  in  respect  of  which  it  is 
worth  remembering  that  his  position  in  relation 
to  his  audience  was  not  unlike  that  of  an  orator 
addressing  an  uncultivated  mob.  The  capacity 
for  appreciating  grand  developments  of  structure 
was  as  undeveloped  in  them  as  the  power  of 
following  widely  spread  argument  and  conclusion 
would  be  in  the  mob.  And  just  as  the  mob- 
orator  makes  his  most  powerful  impressions  by 
short  direct  statements,  and  by  hammering  them 
in  while  still  hot  from  his  lips,  so  Scarlatti 
drove  his  points  home  by  frequent  and  generally 
identical  reiterations  ;  and  then  when  the  time 
came  round  to  refer  to  them  again,  the  force  of 
the  connection  between  distant  parts  of  the  same 
story  was  more  easily  grasped.  The  feeling  that 
he  did  this  with  his  eyes  open  is  strengthened 
by  the  fact  that  e^en  in  the  grouping  of  the 
reiterations  there  is  commonly  a  perceptible 
method.  For  instance,  it  can  hanily  be  by 
accident  that  at  a  certain  point  of  the  movement, 
after  several  simple  repetitions,  he  should  fre- 
quently resort  to  the  complication  of  repeating 
several  small  groups  within  the  repetition  of 
large  ones.  The  following  example  is  a  happy 
illustration  of  his  style,  and  of  his  way  of 
elaborating  such  repetitions  : — 


jl-J^j-p-JSl 


m 


^^jiMmm 


Mm 


^a^^^a 


1^..^ 


VOL.  IV 


It  must  not  be  supposed  that  he  makes  a  law 
of  this  procedure,  but  the  remarkably  frequent 
occurrence  of  so  curious  a  device  is  certainly 
suggestive  of  conscious  purpose  in  structural 
treatment.  [It  is  only  right  to  point  out  the 
recognised  custom  of  repeating  phrases  on  the 
harpsichord  with  a  change  of  registration,  which 
may  account  in  some  measure  for  the  habit 
here  referred  to.]  The  result  of  this  mode  is 
that  the  movements  often  appear  to  be  crowded 
with  ideas.  Commonly  the  features  of  the 
opening  bars,  which  in  modern  times  would  be 
held  of  almost  supreme  importance,  serve  for 
very  little  except  to  determine  the  character  of 
the  movement,  and  do  not  make  their  appear- 
ance again.  On  the  other  hand,  he  carries 
the  practice  before  referred  to,  of  making  the 
latter  part  of  each  half  of  the  movement  corre- 
spond, to  an  extraordinary  pitch,  and  with 
perfect  success  ;  for  he  almost  invariably  adopts 
the  key  distribution  of  binary  form  in  its  main 
outlines  ;  and  though  it  would  not  be  accurate 
to  speak  of  such  a  thing  as  a  *  second  subject ' 
in  his  sonatas,  the  impression  produced  by  his 
distribution  of  repetition  and  the  clearness  of 
his  ideas  is  sufficient,  in  his  best  movements,  to 
give  a  general  structural  effect  very  similar  to 
complete  binary  form  on  a  small  scale.  In  order 
to  realise  to  what  extent  the  process  of  recapitula- 
tion is  carried  by  him,  it  will  be  as  well  to 
consider  the  outline  of  a  fairly  characteristic 
sonata.  That  which  stands  fifteenth  in  the 
easily  available  edition  of  Breitkopf  k  Hartel  ^ 
commences  with  eight  bars  only  in  £  minor ; 
the  next  forty -six,  barring  merely  a  slight  and 
unimportant  digression,  are  in  G  major.  This 
concludes  the  first  half.  The  second  half  begins 
with  reference  to  the  opening  figures  of  the 
whole  and  a  little  key  digression,  and  then  a 
characteristic  portion  of  the  second  section  of 
the  first  half  is  resumed,  and  the  last  thirty- 
four  bars  of  the  movement  are  a  recapitulation 
in  £  minor  of  the  last  thirty-five  of  the  first 
half,  the  three  concluding  bars  being  condensed 
into  two. 

In  many  respects  his  principles  of  structure 
and  treatment  are  altogether  in  the  direction 
of  modem  ways,  and  alien  to  fugal  principles. 
That  vital  principle  of  the  fugue — the  per- 
sistence of  one  principal  idea,  and  the  inter- 
weaving of  it  into  every  part  of  the  structure — 
appears  completely  alien  to  Scarlatti's  disposi- 
tion. He  very  rarely  wrote  a  fugue ;  and  when  he 
did,  if  it  was  successful  that  was  less  because  it 
was  a  good  fugue  than  because  it  was  Scarlatti's. 
The  fact  that  he  often  starts  with  imitation 
between  two  parts  is  unimportant,  and  the 
merest  accident  of  association.  He  generally 
treats  his  ideas  as  concrete  lumps,  and  disposes 
them  in  distinct  portions  of  the  movement, 

1  It  Ifl  also  the  flftenth  in  the  '  BMrddi ' ;  In  Fk^aer's  edition  it 
ia  No.  18 :  in  ttie  '  Trdaor  des  PianlstM.'  No.  19 :  and  oocun  on  p.  S3 
of  RoMingmvfl'a  iieooiKi  volume.  It  has  not  yet  appeared  in  Signer 
Longo's  oonptete  edition. 

2l 


5U 


SONATA 


which  is  essentially  an  unfugal  proceeding ; 
but  the  most  important  matter  is  that  he  was 
probably  the  first  to  attain  to  clear  conception 
and  treatment  of  a  self-sufficing  efifeotive  idea, 
and  to  use  it,  if  without  science,  yet  with 
management  which  is  often  convincingly  sue- 
cessfid.  He  was  not  a  great  master  of  the  art 
of  composition,  but  he  was  one  of  the  rarest 
masters  of  his  instrument ;  and  his  divination 
of  the  way  to  treat  it,  and  the  perfect  adaptation 
of  his  ideas  to  its  requirements,  more  than 
counterbalance  any  shortcoming  in  his  science. 
He  was  blessed  with  ideas,  and  with  a  style  so 
essentially  his  own,  that  even  when  his  music  is 
transported  to  another  instrument  the  character- 
istic effects  of  tone  often  remain  unmistakable. 
Vivacity,  humour,  genuine  fun,  are  his  most 
familiar  traits.  At  his  best  his  music  sparkles 
with  life  and  freshness,  and  its  vitality  is 
apparently  quite  unimpaired  by  age.  He  rarely 
approaches  tenderness  or  sadness,  and  in  the 
whole  mass  of  his  works  there  are  hardly  any 
slow  movements.  He  is  not  a  little  *  bohemian, ' 
and  seems  positively  to  revel  in  curious  effects 
of  consecutive  fifths  and  consecutive  octaves. 
The  characteristic  daring  of  which  such  things 
are  the  most  superficial  manifestations,  joined 
with  the  clearness  of  his  foresight,  made  him 
of  closer  kinship  to  Beethoven  and  Weber,  and 
«ven  Brahms,  than  to  the  typical  contra- 
puntalists  of  his  day.  His  works  are  genuine 
'  sonatas'  in  the  most  radical  sense  of  the  term — 
self-dependent  and  self-sufficing  sound-pieces, 
without  programme.  To  this  the  distribution  of 
movements  \b  at  least  of  secondary  importance, 
and  his  confining  himself  to  one  alone  does  not 
vitiate  his  title  to  be  a  foremost  contributor  to 
that  very  important  branch  of  the  musical  art. 
No  successor  was  strong  enough  to  wield  his 
bow.  His  pupil  Durante  wrote  some  sonatas, 
consisting  of  a  Studio  and  a  Divertimento  apiece, 
which  have  touches  of  his  manner,  but  with- 
out sufficient  of  the  nervous  elasticity  to  make 
them  important 

The  contemporary  writers  for  clavier  of 
second  rank  do  not  offer  much  which  is  of  high 
musical  interest,  and  they  certainly  do  not 
arrive  at  anything  like  the  richness  of  thought 
and  expression  which  is  shown  by  their  fellows 
of  the  violin.  There  appears,  however,  amongst 
them  a  tendency  to  drop  the  introductory  slow 
movement  characteristic  of  the  violin  sonata, 
and  by  that  means  to  draw  nearer  to  the  type 
of  later  clavier  or  pianoforte  sonatas.  Thus  a 
sonata  of  Wagenseil's  in  F  mijor  presents 
almost  exactly  the  general  outlines  to  be  met 
with  in  Haydn's  works— an  Allegro  assai  in 
binary  form  of  the  old  type,  a  short  Andantino 
grazioso,  and  a  Tempo  di  Minuetto.  A  sonata 
of  Hasse's  in  D  minor  has  a  similar  arrange- 
ment of  three  movements  ending  with  a  Gigue  ; 
but  the  first  movement  is  utterly  vague  and 
indefinite  in  form.     There  is  also  an  Allegro  of 


Hasse's  in  Bb>  quoted  in  Pauer's  *  Alte  Meister, ' 
which  deserves  consideration  for  the  light  it 
throws  on  a  matter  which  is  sometimes  said 
to  be  a  crucial  distinction  between  the  early 
attempts  at  form  and  the  perfect  achievement. 
In  many  of  the  early  examples  of  sonata-form, 
the  second  section  of  the  fint  part  is  character- 
ised by  groups  of  figures  which  are  quite  definite 
enough  for  all  reasonable  pwposes,  but  do  not 
come  up  to  the  ideas  commonly  entertained  of 
the  nature  of  a  subject ;  and  on  this  ground 
the  settlement  of  sonata-form  was  deferred  some 
fifty  years.  Hasse  was  not  a  daring  originator, 
neither  was  he  likely  to  strike  upon  a  crucial 
test  of  perfection,  yet  in  this  movement  he  sets 
out  with  a  distinct  and  complete  subject  in  Bb 
of  a  robust  Handelian  character : — 


and  after  the  usual  extension  proceeds  to  F,  and 
announces  by  definite  emphasis  on  the  Dominant 
the  well- contrasted  second  subject,  which  is 
suggestive  of  the  polite  reaction  looming  in  the 
future : — 


The  movement  as  a  whole  is  in  the  binary 
type  of  the  earlier  kind. 

The  period  now  approaching  is  characterised 
by  uncertainty  in  the  distribution  of  the  move- 
ments, but  increasing  regularity  and  definition 
in  their  internal  structure.  Some  writers  follow 
the  four-movement  type  of  violin  sonata  in 
writing  for  the  clavier ;  some  strike  upon  the 
grouping  of  three  movements  ;  and  a  good  many 
fall  back  upon  two.  A  sonata  of  Oaluppi's  in 
D  illustrates  the  first  of  these,  and  throws  light 
upon  the  transitional  process.  The  first  move- 
ment is  a  beautiful  Adagio  of  the  Arioso  type, 
with  the  endings  of  each  half  corresponc&ng, 
after  the  manner  traced  from  Corelli ;  the  second 
is  an  Allegro,  not  of  the  fugal  or  Oanzona  order, 
but  clear  binary  of  the  older  kind.  A  violin 
sonata  of  Locatelli's,  of  probably  earlier  date, 
has  an  Allemande  of  excellent  form  in  this 


SONATA 


616 


position,  but  this  is  not  sufficiently  definite  in 
the  inference  it  affords  to  throw  mnch  light  on 
any  transition  or  assimilatioii  of  violin  sonata- 
form  to  clavier  sonata-form.  Galuppi's  adoption 
of  a  movement  of  clear  sonata-qnalities  in  this 
place  sapplies  exactly  the  b'nk  that  was  needed  ; 
and  the  fugal  or  canzona  type  of  movement 
being  so  supplanted,  nothing  further  was  neces- 
sary but  expansion,  and  the  omission  of  the 
introductory  Adagio  (which  probably  was  not 
so  well  adapted  to  the  earlier  keyed  instruments 
as  to  the  violin),  to  arrive  at  the  principle  of 
distribution  adopted  in  the  palmiest  days  of 
formalism.  Later,  with  a  more  powerful  instru- 
ment, the  introductory  slow  movement  was  often 
reintroduced.  Galuppi's  third  movement  is  in 
a  solid  march  style,  and  the  last  is  a  Giga. 
All  of  them  are  harmonically  constructed,  and 
the  whole  work  is  solid  and  of  sterling  musical 
worth. 

Dr.  Ame  was  bom  only  four  years  after 
Galuppi,  and  was  amenable  to  the  same  general 
influences.  The  structure  of  his  sonatas  em- 
phasises the  fact  above  mentioned,  that  though 
the  order  of  movements  was  passing  through  a 
phase  of  uncertainty  their  internal  structure  was 
growing  more  and  more  distinct  and  uniform. 
His  first  sonata,  in  F,  has  two  movements.  An- 
dante and  Allegro,  both  of  which  follow  harmoni- 
cally the  lines  of  binary  form.  The  second,  in  £ 
minor,  has  three  movements,  Andante,  Adagio, 
Allegrissimo.  The  first  and  last  are  on  the 
binary  lines,  and  the  middle  one  in  simple 
primary  form.  The  third  Sonata  consists  of  a 
long  vague  introduction  of  arpeggios,  elaborated 
in  a  manner  characteristic  of  the  time,  an  Allegro 
which  has  only  one  subject  but  is  on  the  binary 
lines,  and  a  Minuet  and  two  Variations.  The 
fourth  Sonata  is  in  some  respects  the  most  in- 
teresting. It  consists  of  an  Andante,  Sidliano, 
Fuga,  and  Allegro.  The  first  is  of  continuous 
character  but  nevertheless  in  binary  form,  with- 
out the  strong  emphasis  on  the  points  of  division 
between  the  sections.  It  deserves  notice  for 
its  expressiveness  and  clearness  of  thought. 
The  second  movement  is  very  short,  but  pretty 
and  expressive,  of  a  character  similar  to  examples 
of  HandeVs  tenderer  moods.  The  last  move- 
ment is  particularly  to  be  noticed,  not  only  for 
being  decisively  in  binary  form,  but  for  the  in- 
genuity with  which  that  form  is  manipulated. 
The  first  section  is  represented  by  the  main  sub- 
ject in  the  treble,  the  second  (which  is  clearly 
marked  in  the  dominant  key)  has  the  same 
subject  in  the  bass,  a  device  adopted  also  more 
elaborately  by  W.  Friedemann  Bach.  The 
second  half  begins  with  consistent  development 
and  modulation,  and  the  recapitulation  is 
happily  managed  by  making  the  main  subject 
represent  both  sections  at  once  in  a  short  passage 
of  canon.  Others  of  Ame's  sonatas  affoid 
similar  though  less  clear  examples,  which  it  is 
superfluous  to  consider  in  detail ;  for  neither 


the  matter  nor  the  handling  is  so  good  in  them  as 
in  those  above  described,  most  of  which,  though 
not  rich  in  thought  or  treatment,  nor  impres- 
sive in  character,  have  genuine  traits  of  musical 
expression  and  clearness  of  workmanship. 

In  the  same  year  with  Dr.  Ame  was  bora 
Wilhelm  Friedemann  Bach,  the  eldest  son  of 
John  Sebastian.  He  was  probably  the  most 
gifted,  the  most  independent,  and  unfortunately 
the  wildest  and  most  unmanageable  of  that  re- 
markable family.  Few  of  ^lis  compositions,  are 
known,  and  it  is  said  that  he  would  not  take  the 
trouble  to  write  unless  he  was  driven  to  it.  Two 
sonatas  exist,  which  are  of  different  type,  and 
probably  represent  different  periods  of  his 
chequered  career.  One  in  D  major,  for  its  rich- 
ness, elaborateness,  expressiveness,  is  well  worthy 
of  the  scion  of  so  great  a  stock ;  the  other  is  rather 
cheap,  and  though  masterly  in  handling  and 
disposition  of  stmctural  elements,  has  more  traces 
of  the  elegance  which  was  creeping  over  the 
world  of  music  than  of  the  grave  and  earnest 
nobleness  of  his  father  and  similar  representa- 
tives of  the  grand  period.  The  first,  in  D,  is 
probably  the  most  remarkable  example,  before 
Beethoven,  of  original  ingenuity  manipulating 
sonata-form  under  the  influence  of  fugal  associa- 
tions and  by  means  of  contrapuntal  devices. 
The  whole  is  worked  out  with  careful  and 
intelligible  reasoning,  but  to  such  an  elaborate 
extent  that  it  is  quite  out  of  the  question  to 
give  even  a  complete  outline  of  its  contents. 
The  movements  are  three — Un  poco  allegro. 
Adagio^  Vivace.  The  first  and  last  are  specu- 
lative experiments  in  binary  form.  The  first 
half  in  each  represents  the  balance  of  expository 
sections  in  tonic  and  complementary  keys.  The 
main  subject  of  the  first  reappears  in  the  bass 
in  the  second  section,  with  a  new  phase  of 
the  original  accompaniment  in  the  upper  parts. 
The  development  portion  is  in  its  usual  place, 
but  the  recapitulation  is  tonally  reversed.  The 
first  subject  and  section  is  given  in  a  relative  key 
to  balance  the  complementary  key  of  the  second 
section,  and  thesecondsectionis  given  in  the  origi- 
nal key  or  tonic  of  the  movement ;  so  that  instead 
of  repeating  one  section  and  transposing  the 
other  in  recapitulation,  they  are  both  transposed 
analogously.  In  each  of  the  three  movements 
the  ends  of  the  halves  correspond,  and  not  only 
this  but  the  graceful  little  figure  appended  to 
the  cadence  is  the  same  in  all  the  movements, 
establishing  thereby  a  very  delicate  but  sensible 
connection  between  them.  This  figure  is  as 
follows ; — 


516 


SONATA 


fe.S=S= 


The  formal  pauses  on  familiar  points  of  har- 
mony chai-acteristic  of  later  times  are  conspicu- 
ously few,  the  main  divisions  being  generally 
marked  by  more  subtle  means.  The  whole 
sonata  is  so  uncompromisingly  full  of  expressive 
figures,  and  would  require  to  be  so  elaborately 
phi-ased  and  *  sung '  to  be  intelligible,  that  an 
adequate  performance  would  be  a  matter  of  con- 
siderable difficulty.  The  second  Sonata,  in  C,  has 
quite  a  different  appearance.  It  is  also  in  three 
movements — Allegro,  Grave,  and  Vivace.  The 
first  is  a  masterly,  clear,  and  concise  example  of 
binary  form  of  the  type  which  is  more  familiar 
in  the  works  of  Haydn  and  Mozart  The  second 
is  an  unimportant  intermezzo  leading  directly 
into  the  Finale,  which  is  also  in  binary  form 
of  the  composite  type.  The  treatment  is  t)ie 
very  reverse  of  the  previous  sonata.  It  is  not 
contrapuntal,  nor  fugal.  Little  pains  are  taken 
to  make  the  details  expressive ;  and  the  only 
result  of  using  a  bigger  and  less  careful  brush 
is  to  reduce  the  interest  to  a  minimum,  and 
to  make  the  genuineness  of  the  utterances  seem 
doubtful,  because  the  writer  appears  not  to 
have  taken  the  trouble  to  express  his  best 
thoughts. 

Wilhelm  Friedemann's  brother,  Carl  Philipp 
Emanuel,  his  junior  by  a  few  years,  was  the 
member  of  the  younger  family  who  attained  the 
highest  reputation  as  a  representative  composer 
of  instrumental  music  and  a  writer  on  that  sub- 
ject. His  celebrity  is  more  particularly  based 
on  the  development  of  sonata-form,  of  which  he 
is  often  spoken  of  as  the  inventor.  True,  his 
sonatas  and  writings  obtained  considerable  cele- 
brity, and  familiarity  induced  people  to  remark 
things  they  had  overlooked  in  the  works  of  other 
composers.  But  in  fact  he  is  neither  the  in- 
ventor nor  the  establisher  of  sonata-form.  It 
was  understood  before  his  day,  both  in  de- 
tails and  in  general  distribution  of  movements. 
One  type  obtained  the  reputation  of  supreme 
fitness  later,  but  it  was  not  nearly  always 
adopted  by  Haydn,nor  invariably  by  Mozart,and 
was  consistently  departed  from  by  Beethoven  ; 
and  Emanuel  did  not  restrict  himself  to  it ;  yet 
his  predecessors  used  it  often.  It  is  evident 
therefore  that  his  claims  to  a  foremost  place 


rest  upon  other  grounds.  Among  these,  most 
prominent  is  his  comprehension  and  employment 
of  the  art  of  playing  and  expressing  things  on 
the  clavier.  He  understood  it,  not  in  a  liew 
sense,  but  in  one  which  was  nearer  to  public 
comprehension  than  the  treatment  of  his  father. 
He  grasped  the  phase  to  which  it  had  arrived, 
by  constant  development  in  all  quarters ;  he 
added  a  little  of  his  own,  and  having  a  clear 
and  ready- working  brain,  he  brought  it  home  to 
the  musical  public  in  a  way  they  had  not  felt 
before.  His  influence  was  paramount  to  give 
a  decided  direction  to  clavier-playing,  and  it  is 
possible  that  the  style  of  which  he  was  the 
foster-father  passed  on  continuously  to  the 
masterly  treatment  of  the  pianoi'orte  by 
Clementi,  and  through  him  to  the  culminating 
achievements  of  Beethoven. 

In  respect  of  structure,  most  of  his  important 
sonatas  are  in  three  movements,  of  which  the 
first  and  last  are  quick,  and  the  middle  one 
slow  ;  and  this  is  a  point  by  no  means  insignifi- 
cant in  the  history  of  the  sonata,  as  it  represents 
a  definite  and  characteristic  balance  between 
the  principal  divisions,  in  respect  of  style  and 
expression  as  well  as  in  the  external  traits  of 
form.  Many  of  these  are  in  clear  binary  form, 
like  those  of  his  elder  brother,  and  his  admirable 
predecessor,  yet  to  be  noted,  P.  Domenico  Para- 
dies.  He  adopts  sometimes  tlie  old  type, 
dividing  the  recapitulation  in  the  second  half 
of  the  movement ;  sometimes  the  later,  and 
sometimes  the  composite  type.  For  the  most 
part  he  is  contented  with  the  opportunities  for 
variety  which  this  form  supplies,  and  casts  a 
greater  proportion  of  movements  in  it  tlian 
most  other  composers,  even  to  the  extent  of 
having  all  movements  in  a  work  in  different 
phases  of  the  same  form,  which  in  later  times 
was  rare.  On  the  other  hand,  he  occasionally 
experiments  in  structures  as  original  as  could 
well  be  devised.  There  is  a  Sonata  in  F  minor 
which  has  three  main  divisions  corresponding 
to  movements.  Tlie  first,  an  Allegro,  approaches 
vaguely  to  binary  form  ;  the  second,  an  Adagio, 
is  in  rough  outline  like  simple  primary  form, 
concluding  with  a  curious  barless  cadenza  ;  the 
last  is  a  Fantasia  of  the  most  elaborate  and 
adventurous  description,  ftiU  of  experiments  in 
modulation,  enharmonic  and  otherwise,  changes 
of  time,  abrupt  surprises  and  long  i)assagC8 
entirely  divested  of  bar  lines.  There  is  no 
definite  subject,  and  no  method  in  the  distribu- 
tion of  keys.  It  is  more  like  a  rhapsodical 
improvisation  of  a  most  inconsequent  and  un- 
constrained description  than  the  product  of 
concentrated  purpose,  such  as  is  generally 
expected  in  a  sonata  movement.  This  species 
of  experiment  has  not  survived  in  high-class 
modem  music,  except  in  the  rarest  cases.  It 
was  however  not  unfamiliar  in  those  days, 
and  su})erb  examples  in  the  same  spirit  were 
provided  by  John  Sebastian,  such  as  the  Fantasia 


SONATA 


617 


Oromatica,  and  parts  of  some  of  the  Toccatas. 
John  Ernst  Bach  also  left  something  more  after 
the  manner  of  the  present  instance  as  the  pre- 
lude to  a  fugue.  Emanuel  Bach's  position  is 
particularly  emphasised  as  the  most  prominent 
composer  of  sonatas  of  his  time,  who  clearly 
shows  the  tendency  of  the  new  counter-current 
away  from  the  yigour  and  honest  comprehensive- 
ness of  the  great  school  of  which  his  father  was 
the  last  and  greatest  representative,  towards  the 
elegance,  polite  ease,  and  artificiality,  which 
became  the  almost  indispensable  conditions  of 
the  art  in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century. 
Fortunately  the  process  of  propping  up  a  tune 
upon  a  dummy  accompaniment  was  not  yet 
accepted  universally  as  a  desirable  phenomenon 
of  high-class  instrumental  music  ;  in  fact  such 
a  stride  downward  in  one  generation  would 
have  been  too  cataclystic ;  so  he  was  spared 
the  temptation  of  shirking  honest  concentration, 
and  padding  his  works,  instead  of  making  them 
thoroughly  complete  ;  and  the  result  is  a  curious 
combination,  sometimes  savouring  strongly  of 
his  father's  style  : — 


and  sometimes  coldly  predicting  the  style  of 
the  future : — 


fiJA 


In  general,  his  building  up  of  movements  is  full 
of  expressive  detail,  and  he  does  not  spare  him- 
self trouble  in  enriching  his  work  with  such 
things  as  ingenuity,  genuine  musical  perception, 
and  vivacity  of  tliought  can  suggest.  He  occa- 
sionally reaches  a  point  of  tenderness  and  poetic 
sensibility  which  is  not  unworthy  of  his  descent, 
but  there  is  also  sometimes  an  uncomfortable 
premonition  in  his  slow  movements  of  the  pos- 
turing and  posing  which  were  soon  to  be  almost 
inevitable  in  well-bred  Adagios.  The  spirit  is 
indeed  not  greatly  deep  and  earnest,  but  in 
outward  things  the  attainment  of  a  rare  degree 
of  point  and  emphasis,  and  of  clearness  and 
certainty  in  construction  without  emptiness, 
sufficed  to  give  Philipp  Emanuel  a  foremost 
place  among  the  craftsmen  of  the  art. 

P.  Domenico  Paradies  was  Emanuel  Bach's 
senior  by  a  few  years.  Two  of  his  sonatas,  at 
least,  are  deservedly  well  known  to  musicians. 
The  structural  qualities  shown  by  the  whole  set 


of  twelve,  emphasise  the  opinion  that  binary 
form  was  familiar  to  composers  of  this  period. 
They  differ  from  Philipp  Emanuel's  chiefly  in 
consisting  uniformly  of  two  movements  only. 
Of  these,  the  first  movements  are  almost  invari- 
ably in  binary  form.  That  of  the  first  sonata 
is  perfectly  complete  and  of  the  later  type  ; 
many  of  the  others  are  of  the  early  type.  Some 
details  in  the  distribution  of  the  movements 
are  worth  noticing.  Thus  the  last  movement 
of  No.  4  is  a  very  graceful  and  pretty  minuet, 
which  had  hitherto  not  been  so  common  an 
ingredient  in  sonatas  as  it  afterwards  became. 
The  last  movement  *  of  No.  3  is  called  an  aria  ; 
the  arrangement  of  parts  of  which,  as  well  as 
that  of  the  last  movement  of  No.  9,  happens 
to  produce  a  rondo,  hitherto  an  extremely  rare 
feature.  His  formulation  and  arrangement  of 
subjects  is  extremely  clear  and  masterly,  and 
thoroughly  in  the  sonata  manner — that  is, 
essentially  liarmonical.  In  character  he  leans 
towards  the  style  of  the  latter  part  of  the  18th 
century,  but  has  a  grace  and  sincerity  which 
are  thoroughly  his  own.  In  a  few  cases,  as  in 
the  last  movements  of  the  Sonatas  in  A  and  D, 
Nos.  6  and  10,  which  are  probably  best  known 
of  all,  the  character  assumed  is  rather  of  the 
bustling  and  hearty  type  which  is  suggestive 
of  the  influence  of  Scarlatti  In  detail  they  are 
not  so  rich  as  tlie  best  specimens  of  Emanuel's, 
or  of  Friedemann  Bach's  workmanship  ;  but 
they  are  thoroughly  honest  and  genuine  all 
through,  and  thoroughly  musical,  and  show  no 
sign  of  shuffling  or  laziness. 

The  two-movement  form  of  clavier  sonata, 
of  which  Paradies's  are  probably  the  best  ex- 
amples, seems  to  have  been  commonly  adopted 
by  a  number  of  composers  of  second  and  lower 
rank,  from  his  time  till  far  on  in  the  century. 
Those  of  Durante  have  been  already  mentioned. 
All  the  set  of  eight,  by  Domenico  Alberti,  are 
also  in  thi»  form,  and  so  are  many  by  such  for- 
gotten contributors  as  Eoeser  and  Barth^lemon, 
and  some  by  the  once  popular  Schobert.  Alberti 
is  credited  with  the  doubtful  honour  of  having 
invented  a  formula  of  accompaniment  which 
became  a  little  too  familiar  in  the  course  of  the 
century,  and  is  sometimes  known  as  the 
*  Alberti  Bass.'  (See  vol.  i.  p.  63a.)  He  may 
not  have  invented  it,  but  he  certainly  called 
as  much  attention  to  it  as  he  could,  since  not 
one  of  his  eight  sonatas  is  without  it,  and  in 
some  movements  it  continues  almost  through- 
out. The  movements  approach  occasionally  to 
binary  form,  but  are  not  clearly  defined  ;  the 
matter  is  for  the  most  part  dull  in  spirit,  and 
poor  in  sound  ;  and  the  strongest  characteristic 
is  the  unfortunate  one  of  hitting  upon  a  cheap 
device,  which  was  much  in  vogue  with  later 
composers  of  mark,  without  having  arrived  at 
that  mastery  and  definition  of  form  and  subject 

I  In  Rome  rnodern  reprint*  of  this  soiuiU  the  order  of  theinoT»* 
nenta  ban  been  reveraed. 


518 


SONATA 


which  alone  made  it  endurable.  The  times 
were  not  quite  ripe  for  such  usages,  and  it  is 
fortunate  for  Paradies,  who  was  slightly  Alberti's 
junior,  that  he  should  have  attained  to  a  far 
better  definition  of  structure  without  resorting 
to  such  cheapening. 

There  are  two  other  composers  of  this  period 
who  deserve  notice  for  maintaining,  even  later, 
some  of  the  dignity  and  nobility  of  style  which 
were  now  falling  into  neglect,  together  with 
clearness  of  structure  and  expressiveness  of 
detail.  These  are  RoUe  and  George  Benda. 
A  sonata  of  the  former's  in  £b  shows  a  less 
certain  hand  in  the  treatment  of  form,  but  at 
times  extraordinary  gleams  of  musically  poetic 
feeling.  Points  in  the  Adagio  are  not  unworthy 
of  kinship  with  Beethoven.  It  contains  broad 
and  daring  effects  of  modulation,  and  noble 
richness  of  sentiment  and  expression,  which, 
by  the  side  of  the  obvious  tendencies  of  music 
in  these  days,  is  really  astonishing.  The  first 
and  last  movements  are  in  binary  form  of  the 
old  type,  and  contain  some  happy  and  musical 
strokes,  though  not  so  remarkable  as  the  con- 
tents of  the  slow  movement.  George  Benda 
was  a  younger  and  greater  brother  of  the  Franz 
who  has  been  mentioned  in  connection  with 
Violin  Sonatas.  He  was  one  of  the  last  writers 
who,  using  the  now  familiar  forms,  still  retained 
some  of  the  richness  of  the  earlier  manner. 
There  is  in  his  work  much  in  the  same  tone 
and  style  as  that  of  Emanuel  Baoh,  but  also 
an  earnestness  and  evident  willingness  to  get 
the  best  out  of  himself  and  to  deal  with  things 
in  an  original  manner,  such  as  was  by  this  time 
becoming  rare.  After  him,  composers  of  any- 
thing short  of  first  rank  offer  little  to  arrest 
attention  either  for  individuality  in  treatment 
or  earnestness  of  expression.  The  serious  in- 
fluences which  had  raised  so  many  of  the  earlier 
composers  to  a  point  of  memorable  musical 
achievement  were  replaced  by  associations  of 
far  less  genuine  character,  and  the  ease  with 
which  something  could  be  oonstruoted  in  the 
now  familiar  forms  of  sonata,  seduced  men  into 
indolent  uniformity  of  structure  and  common- 
place prettiness  in  matter.  Some  attained  to 
evident  proficiency  in  the  use  of  instrumental 
resource,  such  as  Turini  ;  and  some  to  a  touch 
of  genuine  though  small  expressiveness,  as 
Haessler  and  Grazioli  ;  for  the  rest  the  achieve- 
ments of  Sarti,  Saochini,  Schobert,  M^hul,  and 
the  otherwise  great  Cherubini,  in  the  line  of 
sonata,  do  not  offer  much  that  requires  notice. 
They  add  nothing  to  the  process  of  development, 
and  some  of  them  are  remarkably  behindhand 
in  relation  to  their  time,  and  both  what  they 
say  and  the  manner  of  it  is  equally  unimportant. 

Midway  in  the  crowd  comes  the  conspicuous 
form  of  Haydn,  who  raised  upon  the  increasingly 
familiar  structural  basis  not  only  some  fresh  and 
notable  work  of  the  accepted  sonata  character, 
but  the  great  and  enduring  monument  of  his 


symphonies  and  quartets.  The  latter  do  not 
fall  within  the  limits  of  the  present  subject, 
though  they  are  in  reality  but  the  great  instru- 
mental expansion  of  this  kind  of  music  for  solo 
instruments.  An  arbitrary  restriction  has  been 
put  upon  the  meaning  of  ike  word  Sonata,  and 
it  is  necessary  here  to  abide  by  it.  With  Haydn 
it  is  rather  sonata-form  which  is  important,  than 
the  works  which  fall  under  the  conventional 
acceptation  of  the  name.  His  sonatas  are  many, 
but  they  are  of  exceedingly  diverse  value,  and 
very  few  of  really  great  importance.  As  is  the 
case  with  his  quartets,  some,  which  internal 
evidence  would  be  sufficient  to  mark  as  early 
attempts,  are  curiously  innocent  and  elementary ; 
and  even  throughout,  with  a  few  exceptions, 
their  proportionate  value  is  not  equal  to  that 
of  other  classes  of  his  numerous  works.  But 
the  great  span  of  his  musical  activity,  reaching 
from  the  times  of  the  Bach  family  till  fairly  on 
in  Beethoven's  mature  years,  tlie  changes  in  the 
nature  of  keyed  instruments,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  their  resources  which  took  place  during 
his  lifetime,  make  it  inevitable  that  there  should 
be  a  marked  difference  in  the  appearance  and 
limits  of  different  members  of  the  collection. 
However,  he  is  always  himself,  and  though  the 
later  works  are  wider  and  more  richly  expressed, 
they  represent  the  same  mental  quidities  as  the 
earliest.  At  all  times  his  natural  bent  is  in 
favour  of  simplification,  as  against  the  old 
contrapuntal  modes  of  expression.  His  easy 
good-humour  speaks  best  in  simple  but  often 
ingeniously  balanced  tunes  and  subjects,  and  it 
is  but  rare  that  he  has  recourse  to  polyphonic 
expression  or  to  the  kind  of  idea  which  calls  for 
it.  Partly  on  this  account  and  partly  on  account 
of  narrowness  of  capacity  in  the  instrument  to 
which  in  solo  sonatas  he  gave  most  attention, 
his  range  of  technical  resource  is  not  extensive, 
and  he  makes  but  little  demand  upon  his  per- 
formers. His  use  of  tunes  and  decisively  outlined 
subjects  is  one  of  the  most  important  points  in 
relation  to  structure  at  this  period.  Tunes  had 
existed  in  connection  with  words  for  centuries, 
and  it  is  to  their  association  with  verses  balanced 
by  distinct  rhythmic  grouping  of  lines,  that  the 
sectional  tune  of  instrumentid  music  must  ulti- 
mately be  traced.  It  appears  not  to  be  a  genuine 
instrumental  product,  but  an  importation  ;  and 
the  fact  that  almost  all  the  most  distinguished 
composers  were  connected  with  opera  establish- 
ments, just  at  the  time  that  the  tune-element 
became  most  marked  in  instrumental  works, 
supports  the  inference  that  the  opera  was  the 
means  through  which  a  popular  element  ulti- 
mately passed  into  the  great  domain  of  abstract 
music.  In  preceding  times  the  definition  of 
subject  by  hard  outlines  and  systematic  conform- 
ity to  a  few  normal  successions  of  harmony  was 
not  universal ;  and  the  adoption  of  tunes  was 
rare.  In  Haydn  and  Mozart  the  culmination  of 
regularity  in  the  building  of  subjects  is  reached. 


SONATA 


619 


The  virtne  of  this  procees  is  that  it  simplifies  the 
conditions  of  structure  in  the  whole  movement. 
When  a  correct  system  of  centralisation  is  found 
by  which  the  subject  is  restrained  within  the 
limits  which  strictly  illustrate  but  one  single 
tonality,  the  feelings  which  this  suggests  to  the 
hearer  are  such  as  will  be  satisfied  with  equally 
simple  order  in  aU  other  parts  of  the  complete 
structure.  If  the  creative  power  is  not  sufficiently 
concentrated  and  disciplined  to  restrain  the 
direction  of  its  activity  within  comprehensible 
bounds,  the  result  can  only  be  to  make  perfect 
balance  and  proportion  impossible.  Thus  if  the 
first  section  of  a  movement  is  so  decentralised 
that  its  connection  with  any  particular  key  can- 
not possibly  be  followed  by  the  hearer,  one  of  the 
primary  conditions  of  abstract  music  has  been 
violated,  and  the  balance  of  parts  rendered  un- 
distinguishable.  Yet  the  subject  or  section  may 
range  broadly  in  its  course,  and  touch  upon  many 
alien  tonalities  without  violating  these  con- 
ditions ;  but  then  the  horizon  is  broadened  so 
as  to  necessitate  an  equal  relative  extension  in 
every  part  of  the  movement.  If  a  poet  sets  out 
with  a  passage  expanded  to  the  full  with  imagery 
and  implication,  in  which  almost  every  word  is 
suggestive  of  wide  horizons  of  thought,  and 
carries  inference  behind  it  as  complicated  as 
those  which  lie  in  simple  external  manifestations 
of  nature,  it  is  useless  for  him  to  go  back  after* 
wards  to  a  more  limited  and  statuesque  mode 
of  expression.  Even  a  person  of  little  cultiva- 
tion would  feel  at  once  the  violation  of  artistic 
proportion.  A  relative  degree  of  heat  and 
intensity  must  be  maintained  at  the  risk  of  the 
work  being  as  a  whole  unendurable.  But  if  a 
more  restricted  field  of  imagination  be  appealed 
to  at  the  outset,  the  work  may  be  the  more  easily 
and  perfectly  carried  out  in  simpler  and  narrower 
limits.  In  abstract  music,  balance,  proportion, 
equality  in  the  range  of  emotional  and  structural 
elements,  are  some  of  the  most  important  con- 
ditions. Not  that  there  is  to  be  equal  intensity 
all  through,  but  that  the  salient  and  subordinate 
parts  shall  be  fairly  proportionate ;  and  this 
cannot  be  tested  or  stated  by  formulas  of  science, 
but  only  by  cultivated  artistic  instinct.  In 
music  the  art  of  expressing  an  idea  within 
the  limits  and  after  the  manner  necessary  for 
abstract  music  had  to  be  discovered.  The  pro- 
cess of  selection  from  experimental  types  had 
brought  this  to  the  closest  point  consistent  with 
completeness  in  the  latter  half  of  the  18th 
century.  At  that  time  the  disposition  of  the 
musical  mind  was  specially  set  upon  obviously 
intelligible  order  and  certainty  in  the  structural 
aspect  of  works.  It  was  a  necessary  condition 
for  art  to  go  through  ;  and  though  not  by  any 
means  the  sole  or  supreme  condition  of  excellence, 
it  is  not  strange  that  the  satisfaction  derived 
from  the  sense  of  its  achievement  should  cause 
people,  in  social  circumstances  which  were 
peculiarly  favourable,  to  put  disproportionate 


stress  upon  it;  and  that  modern  writers  who 
have  not  been  able  to  keep  pace  with  the  in- 
evitable march  and  change  in  the  conditions  of 
musical  utterance  should  still  insist  on  it  as  if 
it  were  the  ultimate  aim  of  art ;  whereas  in  fiict 
its  prominence  in  that  epoch  was  a  passing  phase 
having  considerable  dependence  upon  unique 
social  conditions,  and  its  existence  in  art  at 
any  time  is  only  one  of  numberless  constituent 
elements.  The  condition  of  art  of  that  time 
enabled  the  greatest  composers  to  express  the 
utmost  of  their  ideas,  and  to  satisfy  their 
audiences,  within  the  limits  of  a  very  simple 
group  of  harmonies.  And  this  simplified  the 
whole  process  of  building  their  works  to  the 
utmost.  Haydn  manipulates  the  resources  which 
lie  within  such  limits  to  admiration.  Hardly 
any  composer  so  successfully  made  uniformity 
out  of  compounded  diversity  on  a  small  scale. 
He  delights  in  making  the  separate  limbs  of  a 
subject  of  different  lengths,  and  yet,  out  of  their 
total  sum,  attaining  a  perfect  and  convincing 
symmetry.  The  harmonic  progression  of  the 
subjects  is  uniformly  obedient  to  the  principles 
of  a  form  which  is  on  a  preconceived  plan,  and 
without  some  such  device  the  monotony  of  well- 
balanced  phrases  must  soon  have  become  weari- 
some. With  regard  to  the  actual  distribution 
of  the  movements,  Haydn  does  not  depart  from 
that  already  familiar  in  the  works  of  earlier 
composers.  Out  of  forty  sonatas,  comprising 
works  for  pianoforte  alone,  for  pianoforte  with 
accompaniment,  and  some  adaptations,  ten  have 
only  two  movements,  twenty-nine  have  three, 
and  only  one  has  four,  this  last  comprising  the 
only  Scherzando  in  the  whole  collection  of  one 
hundred  and  eleven  movements.  Nearly  all  the 
first  movements  are  in  binary  form  with  an 
occasional  rondo ;  the  last  is  often  a  rondo, 
more  often  in  binary  form,  and  occasionally  a 
theme  and  variations.  In  the  sonatas  which 
have  more  than  two  movements,  at  least  twice 
as  many  retain  the  old  adagio  as  those  which 
have  the  characteristic  minuet  and  trio ;  but 
as  a  set-off,  several  of  the  sonatas  either  conclude 
with  a  dance  form,  or  a  rondo,  or  set  of  varia- 
tions in  the  '  Tempo  di  Minuetto.' 

The  actual  structure  of  the  movements  pre- 
sents occasional  peculiarities.  In  a  few  cases  the 
pure  old  binary  type,  with  repeat  of  first  subject 
at  the  beginning  of  the  second  half,  reappears. 
A  considerable  number  are  in  the  composite 
form,  in  which  the  first  subject  makes  two 
distinct  reappearances  in  full  in  the  second  half, 
as  before  described.  The  two  halves  of  the 
movement  are  generally,  but  not  invariably,  re- 
peated— the  first  half  almost  invariably ;  in  fact, 
the  absence  of  the  double  bar  in  the  middle  of 
the  Sonata  in  D  major  (No.  32  in  Breitkopf  k 
Hartel's  edition)  appears  to  be  the  only  exception. 
The  distribution  of  subjects  in  balancing  keys 
appears  to  be  absolutely  without  exception,  as 
tonic  and  dominant,  or  tonic  minor  and  relative 


620 


SONATA 


major.  Each  movement  has  usually  two  distinct 
subjects,  but  occasionally,  as  is  observable  in 
Haydn's  predecessors,  the  second  is  not  strongly 
marked.  In  a  few  cases  the  same  subject  serves 
for  both  sections.  There  are  a  few  examples  of 
his  anticipating  Beethoven's  usage  of  introducing 
clear  accessory  subjects  to  carry  on  the  sections. 
Haydn  illustrates  forcibly  the  usefulness  of  de- 
fining the  main  division  of  the  movement,  not 
only  by  emphasising  the  harmonic  formula  of 
the  cadence,  but  by  appending  to  it  a  character- 
istic phrase  or  figure,  the  position  of  which, 
immediately  before  the  full  stop,  renders  it 
particularly  easy  to  recognise.  The  purpose  and 
fitness  of  this  has  been  already  discussed. 
Haydn's  cadence-figures  are  generally  peculiarly 
attractive,  and  seem  to  be  made  so  of  set  purpose. 
As  a  rule  the  outlines  of  his  binary  movements 
are  more  persistently  regular  than  those  of  his 
rondos.  Haydn  was  the  first  composer  of  mark 
to  adopt  the  rondo  with  frequency  in  sonatas. 
It  had  existed  in  isolation  and  in  suites  for  a 
long  while,  and  examples  there  are  in  plenty  by 
Couperin  and  other  early  Frenchmen,  who  were 
much  given  to  it ;  and  also  by  various  members 
of  the  Bach  family,  including  the  great  John 
Sebastian.  But  hundreds  of  sonatas,  from  the 
highest  to  the  lowest  grade,  may  be  taken  at 
random  with  a  fair  probability  of  not  finding  a 
single  example.  The  influence  of  the  opera  may 
probably  be  here  traced  again  ;  in  the  set  tunes 
and  dance  types  as  significantly  as  in  the  general 
structure.  However,  though  Haydn's  kind  of 
rondo  is  peculiarly  familiar  and  characteristic, 
he  does  not  make  use  of  the  form  in  his  sonatas 
nearly  so  proportionately  often  as  later  composers 
do.  The  proportion  in  comparison  with  Mozart 
is  almost  as  one  to  two.  The  value  and  appro- 
priateness of  this  form  is  a  matter  of  opinion. 
The  greatest  masters  have  used  it  frequently,  and 
Beethoven  with  the  profoundest  ejfect.  The 
usage  of  some  other  composers  may  be  fairly  de- 
scribed as  obtrusively  obvious,  and  it  lends  itself 
with  greater  readiness  than  any  other  plan  of  its 
scope  to  frivolity  and  commonplace.  Haydn's 
subjects  are  often  singularly  slight,  but  his  de- 
velopment of  the  form  is  almost  always  ingenious. 
Thus  he  varies  his  disposition  of  the  episodes, 
so  that  sometimes  the  main  subject  and  a  single 
episodical  subject  alternate  in  different  circum- 
stances throughout ;  at  other  times  they  are 
disposed  so  as  to  resemble  the  recapitulation  in 
binary  form.  In  the  returns  of  the  main  theme 
he  always  exercises  some  consideration.  In 
hardly  any  case  does  he  simply  repeat  the  theme 
as  it  stands  throughout ;  commonly  each  re- 
appearance is  a  fresh  variation.  Occasionally  the 
middle  repeats  are  variations,  and  the  first  and 
last  statements  simple  and  identical ;  and  some- 
times variations  of  theme  and  episode  alternate. 
In  all  such  points  his  readiness  and  energy  are 
apparent,  and  make  his  treatment  of  the  form  a 
model  in  its  particular  line. 


The  slow  movements  of  all  the  composers  of 
sonatas  till  Beethoven's  time  are  rather  artificial 
and  inclined  to  pose,  owing  partly  to  the  weak- 
ness and  want  of  sustaining  power  in  their  instru- 
ments. They  contain  too  little  of  the  deep  and 
liberal  feeling  which  is  necessary  to  make  the 
highest  impression,  and  too  much  decorative 
finger- play,  corresponding  no  doubt  to  the 
roulades  and  vocal  gymnastics  for  which  operatic 
singers  found  such  admirable  opportunities  in 
the  slow  beats  of  adagios.  Haydn's  management 
of  such  things  is  artistic,  and  he  occasionally 
strikes  upon  an  interesting  subject,  but  hardly 
any  of  the  movements  approach  to  the  qualities 
expected  in  the  ideal  slow  movement  of  modem 
times. 

His  distribution  of  the  keys  of  the  movements 
is  simple.  In  some  of  the  earlier  Sonatas  all 
three  are  in  the  same,  or  major  and  minor  of  the 
same  key.  In  more  mature  examples  he  adopts 
the  familiar  antithesis  of  subdominant,  which  in 
later  works,  preponderates  so  strongly.  In  one 
case  he  adopts  a  very  unusual  antithesis.  This 
is  in  the  largest  and  most  elaborate  of  all  the 
sonatas,  of  which  the  first  and  last  movements 
are  in  £b,  and  the  middle  movement  in  £(;. 

One  point  requires  notice  in  connection  with 
his  violin  sonatas,  viz.  that  they  are  the  very  re- 
verse of  those  of  the  great  school  of  half  a  century 
earlier ;  for  inasmuch  as  with  them  the  violp 
was  everything,  with  Haydn  it  was  next  to 
nothing.  Except  in  obviously  late  sonatas  it 
does  little  more  than  timidly  accompany  tlie 
pianoforte.  It  was  in  this  manner  that  the 
violin,  having  departed  grandly  by  the  front 
door  in  the  old  style,  crept  back  again  into 
modem  instramentaJ  music  by  the  back.  But 
small  as  such  beginnings  were,  Haydn's  later  and 
fuller  examples  are  the  ostensible  starting-point 
of  a  class  of  music  which  in  the  19th  century 
has  extended  the  domain  of  the  solo  sonata,  by 
enlarging  its  effective  scope,  and  obtaining  a  new 
province  for  experiment  in  the  combination  of 
other  instmments  with  the  pianoforte  upon  equal 
terms,  and  with  equal  respect  to  their  several 
idiosyncrasies. 

John  Christian  Bach,  the  youngest  son  of 
John  Sebastian,  was  Haydn's  contemporary  and 
junior  by  three  years.  In  his  day  he  was  con- 
sidered an  important  composer  for  the  pianoforte, 
and  his  style  is  held  to  have  had  some  influence 
upon  Mozart.  A  sonata  of  his,  in  Bb,  op.  17, 
is  fluent  and  easily  written,  but  not  particularly 
interesting,  and  thoroughly  in  the  style  of  the 
latter  part  of  the  18th  century.  It  consists  of 
three  movements,  all  in  binary  form  of  the  older 
type.  Another  sonata,  in  C  minor,  is,  for  the 
date,  in  very  singular  form  ;  beginning  with  a 
slow  movement,  having  a  fugue  in  the  middle, 
and  ending  with  a  'Tempo  di  Gavotta.'  Its 
style  is  not  strikingly  massive,  but  there  are 
many  traits  in  it  which  show  that  his  parentage 
was  not  entirely  without  influence.     The  fugue, 


SONATA 


621 


though  ably  written,  has  too  much  of  the  hybrid 
effect  coramon  in  such  works,  after  the  harmonio 
stnictural  ideas  had  kid  strong  hold  of  men's 
minds,  to  be  worthy  of  comparison  with  the 
genuine  achievements  of  his  father.  The  style 
of  the  work  is  broad,  however,  and  some  ideas 
and  turns  of  expression  may  not  unreasonably 
be  taken  to  justify  the  influence  attributed  to 
him. 

The  difference  of  age  between  Haydn  and 
Mozartwas  twenty-four  years,  but  in  this  interval 
there  was  less  change  in  the  form  of  the  sonata 
than  might  be  expected.  It  was,  in  fact,  an 
almost  stationary  period,  when  the  attainment 
of  satisfactory  structural  principles  by  the  labours 
of  a  century  and  more  of  composers  left  men  time 
to  pause  and  contemplate  what  appeared  to  them 
to  be  perfection  ;  the  rhythmic  wave  of  progress 
poised  almost  balanced  for  a  short  time  before 
the  rush  which  brought  about  an  unexpected 
culmination  in  Beethoven. 

The  difference  between  Haydn  and  Mozart  is 
plainly  neither  in  structure  nor  altogether  in 
style  of  thought  and  expression,  but  in  advantages 
of  temporal  position.  Haydn  began  nearer  to  the 
time  of  struggle  and  uncertainty.  He  found 
much  ready  to  his  hand,  and  he  tested  it  and 
applied  it  and  improved  it ;  and  when  Mozart 
came  there  was  little  to  do  but  adapt  his  supreme 
gifts  of  fluency,  clearness,  and  beauty  of  melody 
to  glorify  the  edifice. 

The  progression  of  artistic  instinct  is  at  pre- 
sent an  unexplained  phenomenon  ;  it  can  only 
be  judged  from  observation  that  the  children  of 
a  later  generation  are  bom  with  a  predisposed 
facility  to  realise  in  perfect  clearness  the  forms 
which  preceding  generations  have  been  wander- 
ingly  and  dimly  striving  after.  It  is  possible 
that  the  affinity  between  genuine  music  and  the 
mental  conditions  of  the  race  is  so  close  that  the 
progress  of  the  latter  carries  the  former  with  it 
as  pai-t  of  the  same  organic  development.  At  all 
events,  Mozart  was  gifted  with  an  extraordinary 
and  hitherto  unsurpassed  instinct  for  formal  per- 
fection, and  his  highest  achievements  lienotmore 
in  the  tunes  which  have  so  captivated  the  world, 
than  in  the  perfect  symmetry  of  his  best  works. 
Like  Haydn's  his  ideas  are  naturally  restricted 
within  limits  which  simplify  to  the  utmost  the 
development  of  the  form  which  follows  from  them. 
They  move  in  such  perfect  obedience  to  the  limits 
and  outlines  of  the  harmonic  progressions  which 
most  certainly  characterise  the  key,  that  the 
structural  sjrstem  becomes  architecturally  patent 
and  recognisable  to  all  listeners  that  have  any 
imderstanding.  In  his  time  these  formal  outlines 
were  fresh  enough  to  bear  a  great  deal  of  use 
without  losing  their  sweetness  ;  and  Mozart  used 
them  with  remarkable  regularity.  Out  of  thirty- 
six  of  his  best-known  sonatas,  twenty-nine  are 
in  the  now  familiar  order  of  three  movements, 
and  no  less  than  thirty-three  have  the  first 
movement  in  binary  form.     That  binary  form 


is  moreover  so  regular,  that  the  same  pauses  and 
the  same  successions  of  harmony,  and  the  same 
occurrences  of  various  kinds,  may  often  be  safely 
anticipated  at  the  same  point  in  the  progress  of 
the  movements.  He  makes  some  use,  often  con- 
spicuously, of  the  device  of  repeating  short 
phrases  consecutively,  which  has  already  been 
described  in  connection  with  Scarlatti's  work. 
Thus  in  a  Sonata  in  D  major  for  Violin  and 
Pianoforte,  the  first  section  of  the  first  movement 
may  be  divided  into  seven  distinct  passages,  each 
of  which  is  severally  repeated  in  some  form  or 
other  consecutively.  There  are  some  peculi- 
arities, such  as  the  introduction  of  a  new  subject 
in  the  working-out  portion  of  the  work,  instead  of 
keepingconsistently  to  development  of  the  princi- 
pal ideas;  and  thefillingof  the  episodes  of  a  rondo 
with  a  variety  of  different  ideas,  severally  dis- 
tinct ;  but  as  these  points  are  not  the  precursors 
of  further  development,  they  are  hardly  worth 
discussing.  It  only  requires  to  be  pointed  out 
that  occasionally  in  pianoforte  and  other  sonatas 
he  makes  experiments  in  novel  distribution  and 
entirely  original  manipulation  of  the  structural 
elements  of  binary  and  other  forms ;  which  is 
sufficient  to  prove  not  only  that  he  recognised 
the  fitness  of  other  outlines  besides  those  that 
he  generally  adopted,  but  that  he  was  capable 
of  adapting  himself  to  novel  situations,  if  there 
had  been  any  call  for  eflbrt  in  that  direction. 
As  it  happened,  the  circumstances  both  of  musical 
and  sociiJ  life  were  unique,  and  he  was  enabled 
to  satisfy  the  highest  critical  taste  of  his  day 
without  the  effort  of  finding  a  new  point  of 
departure. 

His  treatment  of  rondo-form  is  different,  and 
less  elementary  than  Haydn's.  Haydn  most  com- 
monly used  a  very  decisively  sectional  system, 
in  which  every  characteristic  portion,  especially 
the  theme,  was  marked  off  distinct  and  complete. 
This  accorded  with  the  primitive  idea  of  rondos 
as  exemplified,  often  very  happily,  in  the  works 
of  early  French  composers,  and  in  certain  forms 
of  vocal  music.  The  root-idea  appears  in  the 
most  elementary  stages  of  musical  intelligence 
as  a  distinct  verse  or  tune  which  forms  the 
staple  of  the  whole  matter,  and  is,  for  the  sake 
of  contrast,  interspersed  with  digressions  of  sub- 
ordinate interest.  It  is  so  obvious  a  means  of 
arriving  at  something  like  structural  balance, 
that  it  probably  existed  in  times  even  before  the 
earliest  of  which  evidence  remains.  In  the 
earliest  specimens  to  be  foimd  in  sonatas,  the 
traces  of  their  kinship  can  be  clearly  followed. 
Reference  has  been  already  made  to  the  two 
examples  in  the  sonatas  by  Paradies,  which 
consist  of  an  aria,  a  contrasting  passage,  and  then 
the  aria  pure  and  simple  again,  and  so  forth. 
Haydn  adopted  the  general  outline.  He  fre- 
quently begins  with  a  complete  theme  system- 
atically set  out  with  double  bars  and  repeats, 
and  a  full  conclusion.  He  then  begins  something 
entirely  difl*erent  either  in  anew  related  key,  or  in 


522 


SONATA 


the  minor  of  the  principal  key,  and  makes  a 
complete  whole  of  that  also,  and  so  on  right 
through,  alternating  his  main  tune  with  one  or 
more  others  all  equally  complete.  Under  such 
circumstances  his  principle  of  giving  variations 
at  each  return  of  the  theme  or  repetition  of  an 
episode  is  almost  indispensable  to  avoid  mono- 
tony. Mozart  rarely  makes  any  point  of  this 
plan  of  adopting  variations  in  his  sonata-rondos, 
because  it  is  not  required.  He  does  not  often 
cast  his  theme  in  such  extremely  distinct  out- 
lines. In  structure  it  is  more  what  an  oi-dinary 
binary  subject  would  be  ;  that  is,  complete  and 
distinct  in  itself  as  an  idea,  without  being  so 
carried  out  as  to  make  its  connection  with  the 
rest  of  the  movement  a  matter  of  secondary 
rather  than  intrinsic  consequence.  Haydn's 
conception  is  perfectly  just  and  rational,  but 
Mozart's  is  more  mature.  The  theme  and  its 
episodes  are  more  closely  interwoven,  and  the 
development  of  the  whole  has  a  more  consistent 
and  uniform  texture.  Mozart  does  not  avoid 
varying  his  theme ;  on  the  contrary,  he  con- 
stantly puts  in  the  most  delicate  strokes  of  detail 
and  of  graceful  adornment,  and  sometimes  resorts 
todeUghtfuUy  ready  development  of  its  resources ; 
but  with  him  it  is  not  so  indispensable,  because 
his  conception  of  the  form  gives  it  so  much  more 
freedom  and  elasticity. 

The  central  movement  of  his  three-movement 
sonatas  is  almost  invariably  a  slow  one,  com- 
monly in  the  key  of  the  subdominant.  The  style 
of  these  is  characteristic  of  the  time  ;  that  is, 
rather  artificial  and  full  of  graces,  which  require 
to  be  given  with  a  somewhat  conscious  elegance 
of  manner,  not  altogether  consonant  with  the 
spirit  of  later  times.  They  rarely  touch  the  point 
of  feeling  expected  in  modem  movements  of  the 
kind,  because  the  conception  formed  of  the 
proper  function  of  the  slow  movement  in  his 
time  was  clearly  alien  to  that  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury. As  specimens  of  elegance  and  taste, 
however,  Mozart's  examples  probably  attain  the 
highest  point  possible  in  their  particular  genus. 

The  teuhnique  of  his  sonatss,  from  the  point  of 
view  of  instrumental  resource,  is  richer  and  fuller 
than  Haydn's,  but  still  thin  and  rather  empty  in 
sound  to  ears  that  are  accustomed  to  the  wonder- 
ful development  of  the  resources  of  the  modern 
pianoforte  ;  but  the  refinement  and  self-contain- 
ment of  his  style  make  him  particularly  acceptable 
to  artists  who  idealise  finish  and  elegance  in  solo 
performance,  and  nicety  of  ensemble  in  works 
for  combined  instruments,  as  the  highest  and 
most  indispensable  condition  of  art.  His  in- 
stinct for  adapting  his  thoughts  to  instrumental 
idiosyncrasies  was  of  a  very  high  order  when  the 
instruments  were  familiar  and  properly  developed. 
This  with  the  pianoforte  was  not  yet  achieved, 
and  consequently  some  of  his  forms  of  expression 
are  hardly  adapted  to  its  nature,  and  seem  in 
these  days  to  be  rather  compromises  than  perfectly 
suitable  utterances. 


With  regard  to  the  technical  matter  of  the 
development  of  the  resources  of  the  pianoforte, 
Mozart's  contemporary,  MuzioClementi,  occupies 
a  most  important  position,  dementi,  in  his 
early  days,  according  to  his  own  admission, 
applied  himself  rather  to  the  development  of 
the  resources  of  playing  than  to  the  matter  to 
be  played,  and  attained  a  degree  and  a  kind  of 
mastery  which  no  one  before  his  time  had  heard 
the  like  of.  When  he  began  to  apply  himself 
more  to  the  matter,  this  study  served  him  in 
good  stead  ;  and  his  divination  of  the  treatment 
most  appropriate  to  the  instrument,  expanded 
by  this  means  in  practical  application,  marks 
his  sonatas  as  among  the  very  first  in  which 
the  genuine  qualities  of  modem  pianoforte  music 
on  a  laige  scale  are  shown.  They  begin  to 
approach  to  that  broad  and  almost  orchestral 
style  which  is  sometimes  said  to  be  character- 
istic of  Beethoven  ;  and  the  use  of  octaves  and 
fuller  combinations  of  sounds,  and  the  occasional 
irruption  of  passages  which  bring  into  play 
stronger  muscles  than  those  of  the  fingers,  are 
all  in  the  direction  of  modem  usage.  In  respect 
of  stmcture,  it  is  not  necessary  to  consider  more 
than  that  he  commonly  accepted  the  three- 
movement  type  of  sonata,  beginning  with  a 
movement  in  binary  form  and  ending  with  a 
rondo,  and  having  aslow  movement  in  the  middle. 
His  handling  is  free  and  at  the  same  time 
thoroughly  under  control.  One  of  his  character- 
istics is  the  love  of  importing  little  touches  of 
learning  or  scientific  ingenuity  into  the  treat- 
ment ;  as  in  the  Sonata  in  0  (of  four  movements) 
in  which  two  canons  in  direct  and  contrary 
motion  take  the  place  of  the  minuet  and 
trio.  In  another  sonata,  in  F,  one  figure  is 
woven  through  the  whole  substance  of  the  first 
movement,  appearing  in  the  difierent  sections 
diuiinished  and  inverted,  and  in  various  phases 
of  expression  which  quite  alter  its  aspect  His 
slow  movements  are  sometimes  equally  simple 
and  expressive,  but  also  frequently  of  that 
omamental  order  which  has  been  sufficiently 
commented  on. 

In  one  celebrated  case  he  anticipated  the 
modem  taste  for  programme  by  calling  one  of 
his  longest  and  most  pretentious  sonatas  *  Didone 
abbandonata.  Scena  tragica.'  But  appearance 
of  dramatic  purpose  does  not  turn  him  aside 
&om  regularity  of  form  any  more  than  in  other 
sonatas.  His  style  is  not  exempt  from  the 
family  likeness  which  is  observable  in  all  com- 
posers of  the  latter  part  of  the  century.  His 
ideas  are  large  and  broad,  and  not  unworthy  to 
have  exerted  some  influence  upon  both  Mozart 
and  Beethoven.  A  certain  dryness  and  reticence 
makes  him  unlikely  to  be  greatly  in  favour  in 
modem  times,  but  his  place  as  an  important 
figure  in  the  development  of  the  sonata  in  its 
relation  with  the  pianoforte  is  assured. 

One  further  composer  who  deserves  some 
consideration  in  connection  with   the  sonata 


SONATA 


523 


before  Beethoven's  time  is  J.  L,  Dussek,  who 
was  bom  ten  years  after  dementi,  and  soon 
after  Mozart.  His  most  noteworthy  character- 
istics are  an  individual,  though  not  incisive 
style,  and  an  instinct  of  a  high  order  for  the 
qualities  and  requirements  of  the  pianoforte. 
There  is  some  diversity  in  point  of  value  between 
his  early  and  his  later  sonatas.  The  former 
are  rather  narrow  in  idea  and  structure,  whereas 
the  latter,  such  as  op.  70  in  Ab»  are  quite 
remarkable  for  freedom  and  elaboration  of  form 
and  subject.  Both  in  this  sonata  and  in  the 
op.  77  he  makes  use  of  the  hitherto  almost 
unknown  device  of  extending  the  effect  of  the 
first  sections  by  subordinate  transitions  as  well 
as  by  accessory  subjects.  In  the  first  movement 
of  op.  70  there  is  the  unusual  feature  of  a  happy 
modulation  out  and  back  again  in  the  actual 
substance  of  the  second  subject — a  characteristic 
which  is  common  enough  in  the  works  of  such 
modems  as  Schumann  and  Brahms,  but  was 
exceedingly  rare  in  Dussek's  time.  Another 
characteristic  which  Dussek  has  in  common 
with  more  modem  writers  is  the  infusion  of  a 
certain  amount  of  sense  and  sentiment  even  into 
his  passages  and  flourishes,  which  with  his 
immediate  predecessors  had  been  too  commonly 
barren.  He  also  takes  thought  to  enliven 
his  recapitulations  by  variation  or  ingeniously 
diversified  transposition  of  order  in  the  ideas 
(as  in  op.  77).  His  writing  for  the  instrament 
is  brilliant  and  sparkling,  and  has  certain  pre- 
monitions of  Weber  in  it.  The  ideas  are  some- 
times, even  in  his  best  works,  trite  and  vapid, 
but  more  often  delicate  and  attractive.  The 
slow  movements  have  a  sustained  and  serious 
manner,  also  unusual  in  his  time,  and  said  to 
be  derived  from  his  having  studied  the  organ 
considerably  in  his  younger  days.  He  stands 
historically  with  giants  on  either  hand,  and 
this  has  contributed  to  make  him  appear  some- 
what of  a  parenthesis  in  the  direct  course  of 
sonata  development.  Their  vastness  of  artistic 
proportion  did  not  however  suppress  his  per- 
sonality, or  extingmsh  his  individuality,  which 
is  still  clear  in  his  own  line,  and  has  exerted 
some  influence  both  upon  the  modem  style  of 
playing  and  also  upon  the  style  of  musical 
thought  of  a  few  modem  composers  for  the 
pianoforte  to  whom  the  giants  did  not  strongly 
appeal. 

The  direct  line  of  development  after  Haydn, 
Mozart,  and  Clementi  is  obviously  continued 
in  Beethoven.  As  we  have  pointed  out,  the 
changes  which  took  place  after  Emanuel  Bach's 
labours  were  less  rapid  and  remarkable  than  in 
times  preceding.  The  finishing  touches  had 
been  put  to  the  structural  system,  and  men 
were  so  delighted  with  its  perfection  as  stmcture, 
that  they  were  content  to  hear  it  repeated  over 
and  over  again  without  calling  for  variety  or 
individuality  in  the  treatment,  and  very  often 
without  caring  much  about  the  quality  of  the 


thing  said.  The  other  side  of  development  was 
technical.  The  pianoforte  being  a  new  instm- 
ment,  the  manner  of  musical  speech  best  adapted 
to  it  had  to  be  discovered.  With  the  earlier 
composers  forms  of  expression  better  suited  to 
other  instromonts  were  adopted  ;  but  by  degrees 
experiments  in  effect  and  assiduous  attention 
to  the  capabilities  of  the  hand,  such  as  Clementi 
gave  in  his  early  years,  had  brought  the 
mechanism  of  expression  to  a  tolerably  consistent 
and  complete  state ;  so  that  when  Beethoven 
appeared  he  was  spared  the  waste  of  force 
incident  to  having  to  overcome  elementary 
problems  of  instrumental  technique,  and  the 
waste  of  effect  incidental  to  compromises,  and 
was  enabled  to  concentrate  all  his  powers  upon 
the  musical  material. 

Beethoven's  works  introduce  a  new  element 
into  the  problem,  and  one  that  complicates 
matters  immeasurably.  With  his  predecessors 
stmctural  simplicity  had  been  a  paramount 
consideration,  and  often  straitened  somewhat 
the  freedom  of  the  idea.  The  actual  subjects 
seem  drilled  into  a  regular  shape,  admitting  of 
very  little  variation,  in  order  that  the  develop- 
ment of  the  movement  might  march  direct  and 
undeviating  in  its  &miliar  course.  Musicians 
had  arrived  at  that  artificial  state  of  mind  which 
deliberately  chose  to  be  conscious  of  formal 
elements.  Their  misconception  was  a  natural 
one.  The  existing  conditions  of  art  might  lead 
a  man  to  notice  that  uncultivated  people 
delighted  in  simple  and  single  tunes,  and  that 
cultivated  people  eigoyed  the  combination  of 
several,  when  disposed  according  to  certain  laws, 
and  to  conclude  from  this  that  the  disposition 
was  of  more  importance  than  the  matter.  But, 
in  fact,  the  mind  is  led  from  point  to  point  by 
feelings  which  follow  the  ideas,  and  of  these 
and  t£eir  interdependence  and  development  it  is 
necessarily  conscious ;  but  of  the  form  it  is 
not  actively  conscious  unless  the  ideas  have  not 
sufiicient  force  to  possess  it,  or  the  necessities  of 
logical  consequence  are  outrageously  violated. 
It  is  only  under  peculiar  social  and  intellectual 
conditions  that  stmctural  qualities  can  be  so 
excessively  emphasised.  The  production  of  a 
genuine  master  must  be  ultimately  reducible  to 
logical  analysis,  but  not  on  the  spot  or  at  once  ; 
and  to  insist  upon  art  being  so  immediately 
verifiable  is  not  only  to  set  the  conclusion  to  be 
drawn  from  its  historical  development  upside 
down,  but  to  refer  the  ezgoyment  of  its  highest 
achievements  to  the  contemplation  of  dry  bones. 
The  imagination  and  the  reason  must  both  be 
satisfied,  but  before  all  things  the  imagination. 

In  the  middle  years  of  the  18th  century  the 
imaginative  side  had  not  a  fair  chance.  Music- 
was  too  much  dependent  upon  the  narrow  limits 
of  the  taste  of  polite  circles,  and  the  field  of 
appeal  to  emotion  was  not  iiree.  But  when  at 
last  the  natural  man  threw  off  the  incubus  that 
had  so  long  oppressed  him,  the  spiritual  uprising 


524 


SONATA 


and  the  broadening  of  life  brought  a  new  kind  of 
vigour  into  art  and  literature.  Beethoven  was 
the  first  great  composer  to  whom  the  limitless 
field  of  unconventionalised  human  emotion  was 
opened,  and  his  disposition  was  ready  for  the 
opportunity.  Even  in  the  ordinary  trifles  of  life 
he  sometimes  showed  by  an  apparently  super- 
fluous rebellion  against  polite  usages  his  anti- 
pathy to  artificiality,  and  conversely  the  bent  of 
his  sympathy  towards  unmistakable  realities  of 
human  feeling.  He  thus  became  the  prototype 
of  genuine  modem  music,  and  the  first  exponent 
of  its  essential  qualities  ;  and  the  sonata  form 
being  ready  in  its  main  outlines  for  his  use,  and 
artistic  instinct  having  achieved  the  most  perfect 
spontaneity  in  its  employment,  he  took  posses- 
sion of  it  as  an  appropriate  mode  of  formulating 
some  of  the  richest  and  most  impressive  of  his 
thoughts.  With  him  the  idea  asserted  its  rights. 
This  is  not  to  say  that  structure  is  ignored,  but 
that  the  utmost  expansion  and  liberty  is  ad- 
mitted in  the  expression  of  the  vital  parts  which 
can  be  made  consistent  with  perfect  balance  in 
the  unfolding  of  the  whole  ;  and  this  obviously 
depends  upon  the  powers  of  the  composer. 
Under  such  circumstances  he  can  only  be  guided 
by  the  highest  development  of  instinct,  for  the 
process  of  balance  and  distribution  becomes  so 
complicated  that  it  is  almost  out  of  the  reach  of 
conscious  analysis,  much  more  of  the  dictation  of 
science.  The  evolution  of  this  vital  ingredient, 
the  idea,  is  so  obscure  and  difficult  that  it  is  out 
of  the  question  to  enter  upon  it  in  this  place. 
It  is  an  unhappy  fact  that  the  scientists  who 
have  endeavoured  to  elucidate  music,  with  a  few 
great  and  honourable  exceptions,  foreseeing  that 
the  analysis  of  ideas  was  quite  beyond  their 
reach,  at  all  events  until  immense  advances  are 
made  in  the  sciences  which  have  direct  reference 
to  the  human  organism,  have  set  their  faces  to 
the  structural  elements,  as  if  music  consisted  of 
nothing  but  lines  and  surfaces.  The  existence 
of  idea  is  so  habitually  ignored  that  it  neces- 
sarily appears  to  be  non-existent  in  their  estimate 
of  art.  On  the  other  hand,  the  philosophers 
who  have  said  anything  about  it  appear  on  the 
surface  not  to  be  in  accord  ;  though  in  reality 
their  views  are  both  compatible  and  necessary, 
but  require  a  more  detailed  experience  of  the 
art  and  of  its  historical  development  to  explain 
their  interaction.  But  meanwhile  the  external 
method  of  the  scientists  gains  disproportionate 
pre-eminence,  and  conscientious  people  feel  un- 
easily that  there  may  be  no  such  things  as  ideas 
at  all,  and  that  they  will  be  doing  better  to 
apply  themselves  to  mathematics.  And  yet  the 
idea  is  everything,  and  without  it  music  is  abso- 
lutely null  and  void ;  and  though  a  great  and 
comprehensive  mathematician  may  make  an 
analysis  after  the  event,  a  synthesis  which  is 
merely  the  fruit  of  his  calculations  will  be 
nothing  more  than  a  sham  and  an  imposture. 
In  fact,  the  formulation  of  the  idea  is  a  most 


vital  matter  in  musical  histoiy,  and  its  progress 
can  be  traced  from  the  earliest  times,  proceeding 
simultaneously  with  the  development  of  the 
general  structure  of  the  sonata.  The  expressive 
raw  material  was  drawn  from  various  sources. 
The  style  of  expression  developed  under  the  in- 
fluences of  religion  in  the  ages  preceding  the 
beginnings  of  instrumental  music,  supplied 
something  ;  dance  music  of  all  orders,  mimetic 
and  merely  rhythmic,  supplied  much ;  the 
pseudo-realism  of  the  drama,  in  respect  of  vocal 
inflexion  and  imitations  of  natural  circumstances, 
also  something ;  and  the  instincts  surviving  in 
the  race  from  countless  past  ages,  the  actual 
cries  arising  from  spontaneous  nervous  reaction, 
and  many  other  similar  causes,  had  a  share  in 
suggestion,  and  in  actual,  though  unrealised, 
motive  power.  And  all  these,  compounded  and 
inseparably  intermingled,  supplied  the  basis  of 
the  expressive  element  in  music  Through  all 
the  time  from  Monteverde  to  Beethoven  this 
expressive  element  was  being  more  and  more 
clearly  drawn  into  compact  and  definite  propor- 
tions ;  floating  at  first  vaguely  on  the  surface, 
springing  out  in  flashes  of  exceptional  brightness 
here  and  there,  and  at  times  presenting  almost 
perfect  maturity  by  fits  of  individual  good 
fortune  ;  but  hairdly  ever  so  free  but  that  some 
of  the  matrix  is  felt  to  be  clinging  to  the  ore. 
It  obtained  complete  but  restricted  symmetry 
with  the  composers  immediately  preceding  Beet- 
hoven, but  arrived  only  at  last  with  him  at  that 
expansion  which  made  it  at  once  perfect  and 
intelligible,  and  yet  boundless  in  range  within 
the  limits  of  the  art-material  at  the  composer's 
command. 

Prior  to  Beethoven,  the  development  of  a  long 
work  was  based  upon  antitheses  of  distinct  tunes 
and  concrete  lumps  of  subject  representing 
separate  organisms,  either  merely  in  juxtaposi- 
tion, or  loosely  connected  by  more  or  less  empty 
passages.  There  were  ideas  indeed,  but  ideas 
limited  and  confined  by  the  supposed  necessities 
of  the  structure  of  which  they  formed  a  part 
But  what  Beethoven  seems  to  have  aimed  at 
was  the  expansion  of  the  term  *  idea '  from  the 
isolated  subject  to  the  complete  whole  ;  so  that 
instead  of  the  subjects  being  separate,  though 
compatible  items,  the  whole  movement,  or  even 
the  whole  work,  should  be  the  complete  and 
uniform  organism  which  represented  in  its 
entirety  a  new  meaning  of  the  word  'idea,'  of 
which  the  subjects,  in  their  close  connection  and 
inseparable  affinities,  were  subordinate  limbs. 
This  principle  is  traceable  in  works  before  his 
time,  but  not  on  the  scale  to  which  he  carried 
it,  nor  with  his  conclusive  force.  In  fact,  the 
condition  of  art  had  not  been  sufficiently  mature 
to  admit  the  terms  of  his  procedure,  and  it  was 
barely  mature  enough  till  he  made  it  so. 

His  early  works  were  in  conformity  with  the 
style  and  structural  principles  of  his  predecessors ; 
but  he  began,  at  least  in  pianoforte  works,  to 


SONATA 


525 


build  at  once  upon  the  topmost  stone  of  their 
edifice.  His  earliest  sonatas  (op.  2)  are  on  the 
scale  of  their  symphonies.  He  began  with  the 
foar-mo7ement  plan  which  they  had  almost  en- 
tirely reserved  for  the  orchestra.  In  the  second 
sonata  he  already  produces  an  example  of  his  own 
peculiar  kind  of  slow  movement,  full,  rich,  deci- 
sive in  form,  unaffected  in  idea,  and  completely 
divested  of  the  elaborate  graces  which  had  been 
before  its  most  conspicuous  feature.  In  the 
same  sonata  also  he  produces  a  scherzo,  short 
in  this  instance,  and  following  the  lines  of 
the  minuet,  but  of  the  genuine  characteristic 
quality.  Soon,  in  obedience  to  the  spread  of  his 
idea,  the  capacity  of  the  instrument  seems  to 
expand,  and  to  attain  an  altogether  new  richness 
of  sound,  and  a  fulness  it  never  showed  before, 
as  in  many  {uirts  of  the  fourth  Sonata  (op.  7), 
especially  the  Largo,  which  shows  the  unmistak- 
able qualities  which  ultimately  expanded  into 
the  unsurpassed  slow  movement  of  the  opus  106. 
As  early  as  the  second  Sonata  he  puts  a  new 
aspect  upon  the  limits  of  the  first  sections  ;  he 
not  only  makes  his  second  subject  in  the  fiist 
movement  modulate,  but  he  develops  the 
cadence -figure  into  a  very  noticeable  subject. 
It  is  fortimately  unnecessary  to  follow  in  detail 
the  various  ways  in  which  he  expanded  the 
structural  elements  of  the  sonata,  as  it  has 
already  been  described  in  the  article  Beethoven, 
and  other  details  are  given  in  the  article  Form. 
In  respect  of  the  subject  and  its  treatment,  a 
fortimate  opportunity  is  offered  by  a  coincidence 
between  a  subordinate  subject  in  a  sonata  of 
Haydn's  in  C,  and  a  similar  accessory  in  Beet- 
hoven's Sonata  for  violoncello  and  pianoforte  in 
A  major  (op.  69),  which  serves  to  illustrate 
pregnantly  the  difference  of  scope  which  charac- 
terises their  respective  treatment.  Haydn's  is 
as  follows : — 


Ep=FE^p^rf?^f^?=F^^^^ 


I  CeUopizz. 


^^ 


f""        r      •""    T      ''      r      ''  etc. 


^"rttt 


T 

As  has  been  already  explained,  an  expansion  of 
this  kind  makes  inevitable  a  similar  expansion 
in  the  whole  structure  of  the  movement,  and  a 
much  wider  choice  of  I'elative  keys  than  simple 
tonic  and  dominant  in  the  expository  sections  ; 
or  else  a  nmch  freer  movement  in  every  part  of 
the  sections,  and  emphasis  upon  unexpected 
relations  of  harmony.  Even  without  this,  the 
new  warmth  and  intensity  of  the  subject  pre- 
cludes mere  reiteration  of  die  accustomed  usages, 
and  necessitates  a  greater  proportionate  vitality 
in  the  subordinate  parts  of  the  work.  The 
relative  heat  must  be  maintained,  and  to  fall 
back  upon  familiar  formulas  would  clearly  be  a 
jarring  anomaly.  In  this  manner  the  idea 
begins  to  dictate  the  form.  But  in  order  to 
carry  out  in  equal  measure  the  development  of 
the  idea,  every  resource  that  the  range  of  music 
can  supply  must  be  admissible  to  him  that  can 
wield  it  with  relevance.  Hence  Beethoven,  as 
early  as  op.  31,  No.  2,  reintroduces  instru- 
mental recitative  with  extraordinary  effect. 
Later,  he  resumes  the  rhapsodical  movement 
which  Bach  and  earlier  composers  had  employed 
in  a  different  sense,  as  in  the  Sonata  in  £b,  op. 
81,  and  in  the  third  division  of  that  in  A, 
op.  101,  and  in  the  most  romantic  of  romantic 
movements,  the  first  in  E  major  of  op.  109. 
And  lastly,  he  brings  back  the  fugue  as  the 
closest  means  of  expressing  a  certain  kind  of 
idea.  In  these  cases  the  fugue  is  not  a  retro- 
gression, nor  a  hybrid,  but  a  new  adaptation  of 
an  old  and  invaluable  form  under  the  influence 
of  perfectly  assimilated  harmonic  principles. 
The  great  fugue^in  the  Sonata  in  Bb,  op.  106, 
for  instance,  is  not  only  extraordinary  as  a  fugue, 
but  is  distributed  in  a  perfectly  ideal  balance  of 
long  contrasting  periods  in  different  states  of 
feeling,  culminating  duly  with  a  supreme  rush 
of  elaborate  force,  as  complex  and  as  inexorable 
as  some  mighty  action  of  nature.  In  these 
sonatas  Beethoven  touches  all  moods,  and  all 
in  the  absolute  manner  free  from  formality  or 
crude  artifice,  which  is  the  essential  character- 
istic of  genuine  modern  music.  In  a  few  of  the 
earlier  sonatas  he  reverts  to  manners  and 
structural  effects  which  are  suggestive  of  the 
principles  of  his  predecessors.  But  these  occa- 
sional  incursions  of  external  influence  are  with 
rare  exceptions  inferior  to  the  works  in  which 
his  own  original  force  of  will  speaks  with  genuine 
and  characteristic  freedom.  The  more  difiicult 
the  problem  suggested  by  the  thought  which  is 
embodied  in  the  subject,  the  greateris  the  result. 
The  full  richness  of  his  nature  is  not  called  out 
to  the  strongest  point  till  there  is  something 


526 


SONATA 


pretematnraUy  formidable  to  be  mastered. 
The  very  statement  of  the  opening  bars  of  such 
sonatas  as  that  in  D  minor,  op.  31,  No.  2 ;  C 
mtgor,  op.  63  ;  F  minor,  op.  57  ;  Bb,  op.  106  ; 
G  minor,  op.  Ill,  is  at  such  a  level  of  daring 
breadth  and  comprehensive  power,  that  it  be- 
comes  obvious  in  a  moment  that  the  work  can- 
not be  carried  out  on  equal  proportionate  terms 
without  almost  superhuman  concentration,  and 
unlimited  commaiKl  of  technical  resources,  both 
in  respect  of  the  instrument  and  the  art  of 
expression.  In  such  cases,  Beethoven  rises  to 
a  height  which  has  only  been  attained  by  two 
or  three  composers  in  the  whole  history  of  music, 
in  that  sublimity  which  is  almost  his  peculiar 
monopoly.  But,  fortunately  for  average  beings, 
and  average  moods  of  people  who  have  not 
always  a  taste  for  the  sublime,  he  shows  else- 
where, on  a  less  exalted  scale,  the  highest  ideals 
of  delicate  beauty,  and  all  shades  of  Uie  humours 
of  mankind,  even  to  simple  exuberant  playful- 
ness. The  beauty  and  the  merriment  often 
exist  side  by  side,  as  in  the  exquisite  little 
Sonata  in  G,  op.  14,  No.  2,  and  in  that  in  ¥% 
major,  op.  78  ;  and  in  a  loftier  and  stronger 
spirit  in  company  with  more  comprehensive 
ranges  of  feeling,  in  the  Sonata  in  A,  op.  101. 
In  all  these  and  many  more  there  is  an  ideal 
continuity  and  oneness  which  is  musically  felt 
even  where  there  Is  no  direct  external  sign  of 
the  connection.  In  a  few,  however,  there  are 
signs  of  more  than  this.  In  the  Bb  Sonata, 
op.  106,  for  instance,  the  similar  disposition  of 
intervals  in  the  subjects  of  the  various  move- 
ments has  led  to  the  inference  that  he  meant 
to  connect  them  by  transformations  of  one 
principal  subject  or  germ.  The  same  occurs 
with  as  much  prominence  in  the  Sonata  in  Ab, 
op.  110,  which  is  in  any  case  a  specimen  where 
the  oneness  and  continuity  are  peculiarly  felt. 
It  is  possible  that  the  apparent  transformations 
are  not  so  much  conscious  as  the  result  of  the 
conditions  of  mind  which  were  necessary  to  pro- 
duce the  oneness  of  effect,  since  concentration 
upon  any  subject  is  liable  to  exert  influence 
upon  closely  succeeding  action,  whether  of  the 
mind  or  body,  and  to  assimilate  the  fruit 
unconsciously  to  the  form  of  the  object  con- 
templated. This,  however,  would  not  lessen 
the  interest  of  the  fact,  but  would  possibly 
rather  enhance  it.  It  only  affects  the  question 
whether  or  no  Beethoven  consciously  reasoned 
about  possible  ways  of  extending  and  enhancing 
the  opportunities  of  sonata-form — too  large  a 
subject  to  be  entered  upon  here.  As  a  rule, 
great  masters  appear  to  hit  upon  such  germinal 
principles  in  the  process  of  composition,  with- 
out exactly  formulating  them  in  so  many 
equivalent  terms ;  and  those  who  come  after 
note  the  facts  and  apply  them  as  useful  resources, 
or  sometimes  as  invaluable  starting-points  of  fresh 
lines  of  development.  It  is  a  noticeable  fact 
that  Beethoven  only  seldom  indicated  a  pro- 


gramme, and  it  is  extremely  rare  in  him  to  find 
even  the  dimmest  suggestions  of  realism.  In 
fiM!t»  as  must  be  true  of  all  the  highest  music, 
a  work  of  his  is  not  representative  of  a  story, 
but  of  a  mental  process.  £v«i  if  it  deals  with 
a  story  it  does  not  represent  the  circumstances, 
but  the  condition  of  mind  which  results  from 
its  contemplation ;  or,  in  other  words,  the 
musical  coimterpart  of  the  emotion  to  which  it 
gives  rise  ;  and  it  is  the  coherency  and  consis- 
tent sequence  of  the  emotions  represented  which 
produce  the  effect  of  oneness  on  the  colossal 
scale  of  his  greatest  works,  which  is  Beethoven's 
crowning  achievement  With  him  the  long 
process  of  development  appears  to  find  its  utmost 
and  complete  culmination ;  and  what  comes 
after,  and  in  sight  of  his  work,  can  be  little 
more  than  commentary.  It  may  be  seen,  with- 
out much  effort,  that  mankind  does  not  achieve 
more  than  one  supreme  triumph  on  the  same 
lines  of  art  When  the  conditions  of  develop- 
ment are  fulfilled  the  climax  is  reached,  but 
there  is  not  more  than  one  climax  to  each  cres- 
cendo. The  conditions  of  human  life  change 
ceaselessly,  and  with  them  the  phenomena  of 
art,  which  are  their  counterpart  The  charac- 
teristics of  the  art  of  any  age  are  the  fruit  of 
the  immediate  past,  as  much  as  are  the  emotional 
and  intellectual  conditions  of  that  age.  They 
are  its  signs,  and  it  is  impossible  to  produce  in 
a  sucoeeding  age  a  perfect  work  of  art  in  the 
same  terms  as  those  which  are  the  direct  fruit 
of  a  different  and  earlier  group  of  causes  ;  and 
it  is  partly  for  this  reason  that  attempts  to  return 
to  earlier  conditions  of  art,  which  leave  out  the 
essential  characteristics  of  contemporary  feeling, 
invariably  ring  false. 

The  time  produced  other  real  men  besides 
Beethoven,  though  not  of  his  stamp.  Weber 
and  Schubert  were  both  of  the  genuine  modem 
type,  genuinely  musical  through  and  through, 
though  neither  of  them  was  a  bom  writer  of 
sonatas  as  Beethoven  was.  Beethoven  possessed, 
together  with  the  supremest  gift  of  ideas,  a 
power  of  prolonged  concentration,  and  the  cer- 
tainty of  self-mastery.  This  neither  Weber  nor 
Schubert  possessed.  Beethoven  could  direct  his 
thought  with  infallible  certainty  ;  in  Weber  and 
Schubert  the  thought  was  often  too  much  their 
master,  and  they  both  required,  to  keep  them 
perfecUy  certain  in  the  direction  of  their  onginal 
musical  matter,  the  guiding  principle  of  a  con- 
sciously realised  dramatic  or  lyrical  conception, 
which  was  generally  supplied  to  them  from 
without.  Ajb  should  be  obvious  from  the  above 
survey  of  the  process  of  sonata  development,  the 
absolute  mastery  of  the  structural  outlines,  the 
sureness  of  foot  of  the  strong  man  moving,  un- 
aided, but  direct  in  his  path,  amidst  the  con- 
flicting suggestions  of  his  inspiration,  is  indis- 
pensable to  the  achievement  of  great  and  genuine 
sonatas.  The  more  elaborate  the  art  of  expres- 
sion becomes,  the  more  difficultthesuocess.  Beet- 


SONATA 


527 


hoven  probably  stood  just  at  the  poLot  where 
the  extremeet  elaboratioii  and  the  most  perfect 
mastery  of  combination  on  a  large  scale  were 
possible.  He  himself  supplied  suggestion  for  yet 
further  elaboration,  and  the  result  is  that  the 
works  of  his  successors  are  neither  so  concen- 
trated nor  so  well  in  hand  as  his.  Weber  was 
nearest  in  point  of  time,  but  his  actual  mastery 
of  the  art  of  composition  was  never  very  certain 
nor  thoroughly  regulated,  though  his  musical 
instincts  were  almost  marvellous.  He  had  one 
great  advantage,  which  was  that  he  was  a  great 
pianist,  and  had  the  gift  to  extend  the  resources 
of  the  instrument  by  the  invention  of  new  and 
characteristic  effects  ;  and  he  was  tolerably  suc- 
cessful in  avoiding  the  common  trap  of  letting 
effect  stand  for  substance.  Another  advantage 
was  his  supreme  gift  of  melody.  His  tunes  are 
for  the  most  part  of  the  old  order,  but  infused 
with  new  life  and  heat  by  a  breath  from  the 
genius  of  the  people.  His  two  beet  sonatas,  in 
Ab  and  D  minor,  are  rich  in  thought,  forcible, 
and  genuinely  full  of  expression.  He  always 
adopts  the  plan  of  four  movements,  and  disposes 
them  in  the  same  order  as  Beethoven  did.  His 
treatment  of  form  is  also  full  and  free,  and  he 
often  imports  some  individuality  into  it.  As 
simple  instances  may  be  taken — the  use  of  the 
introductory  phrase  in  the  first  movement  of  the 
Sonata  in  0,  in  the  body  of  the  movement ; 
the  rondo  structure  of  the  slow  movements, 
especially  in  the  Sonata  in  D  minor,  which  has 
a  short  introduction,  and  elaborate  variations  in 
the  place  of  exact  returns  of  the  subject ;  and 
theinterspersionof  subjects  in  the  first  movement 
of  the  Sonata  in  E  minor,  op.  70,  so  as  to 
knit  the  two  sections  of  the  first  half  doubly 
together.  An  essentially  modem  trait  is  his 
love  of  completing  the  cycle  of  the  movement 
by  bringing  in  a  last  allusion  to  the  opening 
features  of  the  whole  movement  at  the  end, 
generally  with  some  new  element  of  expres- 
sion or  vivacity.  Specially  noticeable  in  this 
respect  are  the  first  and  last  (the  '  Moto  per- 
petuo')  of  the  C  major,  the  last  of  the  Ab, 
and  the  first  and  last  in  both  the  D  minor 
and  E  minor  Sonatas.  Weber  had  an  excep- 
tional instinct  for  dance -rhythms,  and  this 
comes  out  very  remarkably  in  some  of  the 
minuets  and  trios,  and  in  the  last  movement 
of  the  £  minor. 

As  a  whole  the  Weber  group  is  a  decidedly 
important  item  in  pianoforte  literature,  instinct 
with  romantic  qualities,  and  aiming  at  elaborate 
expressiveness,  as  is  illustrated  by  the  numerous 
directions  in  the  Ab  Sonata,  such  as'  con  anima,' 
*  con  duolo,'  *  con  passione,'  *  con  molt'  affetto,' 
and  so  forth.  These  savour  to  a  certain  extent 
of  the  opera,  and  require  a  good  deal  of  art  and 
musical  sense  in  the  variation  of  time  and  the 
phrasing  to  give  them  due  effect ;  and  in  this 
they  show  some  kinship  to  the  ornamental 
adagios  of  the  times  previous  to  Beethoven, 


though  dictated  by  more  genuinely  musical 
feelings. 

Schubert's  sonatas  do  not  show  any  operatic 
traits  of  the  old  manner,  but  there  is  plenty 
in  them  which  may  be  called  dramatic  in  a 
modem  sense.  His  instincts  were  of  a  pre- 
eminently modem  type,  and  the  fertility  of  his 
ideas  in  their  superabundance  clearly  made  the 
self-restraint  necessary  for  sonata -writing  a 
matter  of  some  difficulty.  He  was  tempted 
to  give  liberty  to  the  rush  of  thought  which 
possessed  him,  and  the  result  is  sometimes 
delightful,  but  sometimes  also  bewildering. 
There  are  movements  and  even  groups  of  them 
which  are  of  the  supremest  beauty,  but  hardly 
any  one  sonata  which  is  completely  satisfactory 
throughout  His  treatment  of  form  is  often 
daring,  even  to  rashness,  and  yet  from  the  point 
of  view  of  principle  offers  but  little  to  remark, 
though  in  detail  some  perfectly  magical  feats  of 
harmonic  progression  and  strokes  of  modulation 
have  had  a  good  deal  of  influence  upon  great 
composers  of  later  times.  The  point  which  he 
serves  to  illustrate  peculiarly  in  the  history  of 
music  is  the  transition  from  the  use  of  the  idea, 
as  shown  in  Beethoven's  Sonatas  on  a  grand  and 
richly  developed  scale,  to  the  close  and  intensely 
emotional  treatment  of  ideas  in  a  lyrical  manner, 
which  has  as  yet  found  its  highest  exponent  in 
Schumann.  In  this  process  Schubert  seems  to 
stand  midway — still  endeavouring  to  conform 
to  sonata  ways,  and  yet  frequently  overborne 
by  the  invincible  potency  of  the  powers  his  own 
imagination  has  called  up.  The  tendency  is 
further  illustrated  by  the  exquisite  beauty  of 
some  of  the  smaller  and  more  condensed  move- 
ments, which  lose  nothing  by  being  taken  out  of 
the  sonatas  ;  being,  like  many  of  Schumann's, 
specimens  of  intense  concenti-ation  in  short 
space,  the  fruit  of  a  single  flash  of  deep  emotion. 
Among  the  longer  movements,  the  one  which 
is  most  closely  unified  is  the  first  of  the  A 
minor,  op.  143,  in  which  a  feature  of  the  first 
subject  ia  made  to  preponderate  conspicuously 
all  through,  manifestly  representing  the  per- 
sistence of  a  special  quality  of  feeling  through 
the  varying  phases  of  a  long  train  of  thought 
Like  many  other  movements,  it  has  a  strong 
dramatic  element  but  more  under  appropriate 
control  than  usual 

As  a  whole,  though  illustrating  richly  many 
of  the  tendencies  of  modem  music,  the  Sonatas 
cannot  be  taken  as  representing  Schubert's 
powers  as  a  composer  of  instrumental  music  so 
satisfactorily  as  his  Quartets,  his  String  Quintet, 
and  some  of  his  finest  Symphonies.  In  these 
he  often  rose  almost  to  the  highest  point  of 
musical  possibility.  And  this  serves  ftirther  to 
illustrate  the  fact  that  since  Beethoven  the 
tendency  has  been  to  treat  the  sonata-form  with 
the  fresh  opportunities  afforded  by  combinations 
of  instraments,  rather  than  on  tiiie  old  lines  of 
the  solo  sonata. 


528 


SONATA 


Two  other  composers  of  sonatas  of  Beethoven's 
time  require  notice.  These  are  Woelfl  and 
Hummel.  The  former  chiefly  on  account  of  his 
once  celebrated  sonata  called  *  Ne  plus  ultra/ 
in  which  he  showed  some  of  the  devices  of  tech- 
nique which  he  was  considered  to  have  invented 
— such  as  passages  in  thirds  and  sixths,  and 
ingenious  applications  of  the  shake.  The  matter 
is  poor  and  vapid,  and  as  throwing  light  upon 
anything  except  his  powers  as  a  player,  is 
worthless.  Its  very  title  condemns  it,  for 
Woelfl  had  the  advantage  of  being  Beethoven's 
junior  ;  and  it  is  astonishing  how,  by  the  side 
of  the  genuine  difficulty  of  Beethoven's  master- 
pieces, such  a  collection  of  tricks  could  ever  have 
been  dignified,  even  by  the  supposition  of  being 
particularly  difficult.  It  seems  impossible  that 
such  work  should  have  had  any  influence  upon 
genuinely  musical  people ;  but  the  sonata  has 
all  the  signs  of  a  useful  piece  for  second-rate 
popular  occasions  ;  for  which  the  variations  on 
'  lafe  let  us  cherish '  would  doubtless  be  par- 
ticularly eflective. 

Hummel  in  comparison  with  Woelfl  was  a 
giant,  and  certainly  had  pre-eminent  gifts  as  a 
pianoforte- player.  Like  Weber  he  had  an  apti- 
tude for  inventing  effects  and  passages,  but  he 
applied  them  in  a  different  manner.  He  was  of 
that  nature  which  cultivates  the  whole  technical 
art  of  speech  till  able  to  treat  it  Mrith  a  certainty 
which  has  all  the  eflect  of  mastery,  and  then 
instead  of  using  it  to  say  something,  makes  it 
chiefly  serviceable  to  show  oflf  the  contents  of 
his  finger  repertoire.  However,  his  technique 
is  large  and  broad,  full  of  sound  and  brilliancy, 
and  when  the  works  were  first  produced  and 
played  by  himself  they  must  have  been  ex- 
tremely astonishing.  His  facility  of  speech  is 
also  wonderful,  but  his  ideas  were  for  the  most 
part  old-fashioned,  even  when  he  produced  them 
— for  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  he  was  eight 
years  younger  than  Beethoven  and  twenty-six 
younger  that  Clementi.  The  spirit  which  seems 
to  rule  him  is  the  consciousness  of  a  pianist 
before  an  audience,  guided  by  the  chances  of 
display.  His  modulations  are  free  and  bold, 
but  they  are  often  superfluous,  because  the  ideas 
are  not  on  the  level  of  intensity  or  broad  freedom 
which  necessitates  or  even  justifies  them.  He 
probably  saw  that  modulation  was  a  means  of 
effect,  but  did  not  realise  that  there  is  a  ratio 
between  the  qualities  of  subject  and  the  develop- 
ment of  the  movement  that  springs  from  it. 
From  this  it  will  be  obvious  that  his  sonatas 
are  not  written  in  the  mood  to  produce  works 
that  are  musically  important.  He  had  the 
very  finest  possible  opportunities  through  living 
in  Mozart's  house  during  his  most  impressionable 
days,  and  the  fruit  is  sufficiently  noticeable  in 
the  clearness  with  which  he  distributes  his 
structural  elements,  and  in  much  of  his  manner 
of  expressing  himself ;  but  he  had  not  the  in- 
ventive gift  for  musical  ideas,  which  contact 


and  even  familiar  intercourse  with  great  masters 
seems  inadequate  to  supply.  The  survival  of 
ti-aits  characteristic  of  earlier  times  is  illustrated 
by  some  of  his  slow  movements,  in  which  he 
brought  the  most  elaborate  forces  of  his  finished 
technique  to  serve  in  the  old  style  of  artificial 
adagio,  where  there  is  a  hyper-elaborated  grace 
at  every  comer,  and  a  shake  upon  every  note 
that  is  long  enough  ;  and  if  a  chord  be  suitable 
to  rest  upon  for  a  little,  it  is  adorned  with 
quite  a  collection  of  ingenious  finger  exercises, 
artificially  manipulated  scales  and  arpeggios,  and 
the  like  contrivances ;  which  do  not  serve  to 
decorate  anything  worthy  of  the  honour,  but 
stand  on  their  own  merits.  There  are  occasional 
traits  of  expression  and  strokes  of  force  in  the 
sonatas,  but  the  technique  of  the  pianist  pre- 
ponderates excessively  over  the  invention  of  the 
composer.  At  the  same  time  the  right  and 
masterly  use  of  the  resources  of  an  instrument 
is  not  by  any  means  a  matter  of  small  moment 
in  art,  and  Hummel's  is  right  and  masterly  in 
a  very  remarkable  degree. 

After  the  early  years  of  the  19th  century, 
the  sonata,  in  its  conventional  sense  of  instru- 
mental work  for  a  solo  or  at  most  for  two  instru- 
ments, occupies  a  smaller  and  decreasing  space 
in  the  domain  of  music.  Great  composers  have 
paid  it  proportionately  very  little  attention,  and 
the  few  examples  they  afford  have  rather  an 
effect  of  being  out  of  the  direct  line  of  their 
natural  mode  of  expression.  In  Chopin,  for 
instance,  the  characteristic  qualities  of  modem 
music,  in  the  treatment  of  ideas  in  short  and 
malleable  forms  specially  adapted  to  their  ex- 
pression, are  found  abundantly,  and  in  these 
his  genuine  qualities  are  most  clearly  displayed. 
His  sonatas  are  less  successful,  because,  though 
quite  master  enough  to  deal  with  structure 
clearly  and  definitely,  it  was  almost  impossible 
for  him  to  force  the  ideas  witliin  the  limits 
which  should  make  that  stmcture  relevant  and 
convincing.  They  are  children  of  a  fervid  and 
impetuous  genius,  and  the  classical  dress  and 
manners  do  not  sit  easily  upon  them.  Moreover 
the  luxuriant  fancy,  the  richness  and  high 
colour  of  expression,  the  sensuous  qualities  of 
the  harmony,  all  tend  to  emphasise  detail  in 
a  new  and  peculiar  manner,  and  to  make  the 
sonata-principle  of  the  old  order  appear  irrele- 
vant. The  most  successful  are  the  Sonatas  in 
Bb  minor  for  pianoforte,  op.  85,  and  that  for 
pianoforte  and  violoncello  in  6  minor,  op.  65. 
In  both  these  cases  the  first  movements,  which 
are  generally  a  sure  test  of  a  capacity  for  sonata- 
writing,  are  clearly  disposed,  and  free  from 
superfluous  wandering  and  from  tautology. 
There  are  certain  idiosyncrasies  in  the  treatment 
of  the  form,  as  for  instance  in  the  recapitulation, 
which  in  both  cases  is  almost  limited  to  the 
materials  of  the  second  section,  the  opening 
features  of  the  movement  being  only  hinted  at 
in  conclusion.     The  subjects  themselves    ar& 


SONATA 


629. 


fairly  appropriate  to  the  style  of  movement, 
and  are  kept  well  in  hand,  so  that  on  the  whole, 
in  these  two  cases,  the  impression  conveyed  is 
consistent  with  the  sonata-  character.  In  scherzos 
Chopin  was  thoroughly  at  home,  and  moreover 
they  represent  a  province  in  which  far  more 
abandonment  is  admissible.  In  both  sonatas 
they  are  saccessful,  but  that  in  the  Pianoforte 
Sonata  ia  especially  fascinating  and  character- 
istic, and  though  the  modulations  are  sometimes 
rather  reckless  the  main  divisions  are  well 
proportioned,  and  consequently  the  general 
effect  of  the  outlines  is  sufficiently  clear.  The 
slow  movements  of  both  are  very  well  known  ; 
that  of  the  Pianoforte  Sonata  being  the  Funeral 
March,  and  the  other  being  a  kind  of  romance 
in  Chopin's  own  free  manner,  which  ^  familiar 
to  players  on  the  violoncello.  The  last  move- 
ment of  the  Pianoforte  Sonata  is  a  short  but 
characteristic  outbreak  of  whirling  notes,  in 
general  character  not  unlike  some  of  his  Preludes, 
and  equally  free  and  original  in  point  of  form, 
but  in  that  respect  not  without  precedent  among 
the  last  movements  of  early  masters.  In  the 
mind  of  the  composer  it  possibly  had  a  poetical 
connection  with  the  Funeral  March.  The  other 
last  movement  is  a  free  kind  of  rondo,  and 
therefore  more  consonant  with  the  ordinary 
principles  of  form,  and  is  appropriate,  without 
being  so  interesting  as  the  other  movements. 
The  total  effect  of  these  sonatas  is  naturally  of 
an  entirely  different  order  from  that  of  the 
earlier  types,  and  not  so  convincing  in  oneness 
as  the  works  of  great  masters  of  this  kind  of 
form  ;  they  are  nevertheless  plausible  as  wholes, 
and  in  details  most  effective ;  the  balance  and 
appropriate  treatment  of  the  two  instruments 
in  the  op.  65  being  especially  noteworthy. 
The  other  sonatas  for  pianoforte,  in  C  minor 
and  B  minor,  are  more  unequal.  The  first 
appears  to  be  an  early  work,  and  contains  some 
remarkable  experiments,  one  of  which  at  least 
has  value,  others  probably  not.  As  examples 
may  be  mentioned  the  use  of  5-4  time  through- 
out the  slow  movement,  and  the  experiment 
of  beginning  the  recapitulation  of  the  first 
movement  in  B|^  minor,  when  the  principal  key 
is  C  minor.  In  this  sonata  he  seems  not  to 
move  with  sufficient  ease,  and  in  the  B  minor, 
op.  58,  with  something  too  much  to  have  the 
general  aspect  of  a  successful  work  of  the  kind. 
The  technical  devices  in  the  latter  as  in  the 
others  are  extremely  elaborate  and  effective, 
without  being  offensively  obtrusive,  and  the 
ideas  are  often  clear  and  fascinating ;  but  as  a 
complete  and  convincing  work  it  is  hardly 
successful. 

Sonatas  which  followed  implicitly  the  old 
lines  without  doing  more  than  formulate  subjects 
according  to  supposed  laws  do  not  require  any 
notice.  The  mere  artificial  reproduction  of  forms 
that  have  been  consciously  realised  from  observa- 
tion of  great  works  of  the  past  without  importing 

VOL.  IV 


anything  original  into  the  treatment,  is  often 
the  most  hopeless  kind  of  plagiarism,  and  far 
more  deliberate  than  the  accidents  of  coinci- 
dence in  ideas  which  are  obvious  to  superficial 
observers. 

As  examples  of  independent  thought  working 
in  a  comparatively  untried  field,  Mendelssohn's 
six  sonatas  for  the  organ  have  some  im}x>rtance. 
They  have  very  little  connection  with  the  Piano- 
forte Sonata,  or  the  history  of  its  development ; 
for  Mendelssohn  seems  to  have  divined  that  the 
binary  and  similar  instrumental  forms  of  large 
scope  were  unsuitable  to  the  genius  of  the  instru- 
ment, and  returned  to  structural  principles  of  a 
date  before  those  forms  had  become  prominent 
or  definite.  Their  chief  connection  with  the 
modem  sonata  type  lies  in  the  distribution  of 
the  keys  in  whicii  the  respective  movements 
stand,  and  the  broad  contrasts  in  time  and 
character  which  subsist  between  one  division  or 
movement  and  another.  Different  members  of 
the  group  represent  different  methods  of  dealing 
with  the  problem.  In  the  large  movements 
fugal  and  contrapuntal  principles  predominate, 
sometimes  alternating  with  passages  of  a  de- 
cidedly harmonic  character.  In  movements 
which  are  not  absolute  fugues  the  broad  outlines 
of  form  are  commonly  similar  to  those  already 
described  as  exemplified  in  Bach's  Sonatas,  and 
in  the  first  and  last  movements  of  his  Italian 
Concerto.  This  form  in  its  broadest  significance 
amounts  to  a  correspondence  of  well-defined 
sections  at  the  beginning  and  end,  with  a  long 
passage  of  '  free  fantasia,'  sometimes  fugally  de- 
veloped, in  the  middle.  The  clearest  example 
in  these  sonatas  is  the  first  movement  of  the 
third  Sonata,  in  A  major,  in  which  the  corre- 
sponding divisions  at  either  end  are  long,  and 
strongly  contrasted  in  the  modem  quality  and 
more  simultaneous  motion  of  the  parts,  with  the 
elaborate  fugal  structure  of  the  middle  division. 
In  the  last  movement  of  the  Sonata  in  Bb  the 
corresponding  sections  are  very  short,  but  the 
effect  is  stmcturally  satisfying  and  clear.  In 
no  case  is  the  stmctural  system  of  keys  used 
with  anything  approaching  the  clearness  of  a 
pianoforte  sonata.  MateriiJ  is  contrasted  with 
material,  sometimes  simply  as  subjects  or  figures, 
sometimes  even  in  respect  of  style  ;  as  a  chorale 
with  recitative,  chorale  with  fugal  passages,  or 
harmonic  passages  with  contrapuntal  passages. 
Sometimes  these  are  kept  distinct,  and,  some- 
times, as  in  the  first  movement  of  fjie  Sonata  in 
Bb,  they  are  combined  together  at  the  end.  The 
general  laying  out  of  the  complete  works,  though 
based  on  the  same  broadest  radical  principles,  is 
in  actual  order  and  manner  quite  distinct  from 
that  of  pianoforte  sonatas.  The  longer  move- 
ments alternate  with  very  short  ones,  which 
commonly  resemble  Romances,  Lieder  ohne 
Worte,  or  such  expressive  lyrical  types ;  and 
occasionally  the  whole  sonata  concludes  with  a 
little  movement  of  this  sort,  as  No.  3  in  A  and 

2m 


530 


SONATA 


No.  6  in  D.  They  are  generally  in  the  simplest 
kind  of  primary  form  with  a  proportionately 
important  coda.  In  point  of  actual  style  and 
treatment  of  the  instrument  there  is  a  great 
diversity  in  different  sonatas.  In  some  the  solid 
old  contrapuntal  style  predominates,  in  similar 
proportion  to  that  in  the  organ  preludes,  sonatas, 
etc.  of  Bach  ;  but  this  rarely  occurs  without 
some  intermixture  of  modem  traits.  The  most 
completely  and  consistently  modem  in  style  is 
the  Sonata  in  D  major,  No.  5,  which  is  practi- 
cally in  three  divisions.  The  first  is  a  chorale, 
the  second  a  kind  of  '  song  without  words '  in  B 
minor,  and  the  third  a  species  of  fiintasia,  in 
which  the  sections  are  balanced  by  distinct 
figures,  without  more  tonal  stracture  than 
emphasis  upon  the  principal  key  at  the  beginning 
and  end,  and  variety  of  modulation  with  some 
thematic  development  in  the  middle.  In  other 
sonatas  different  modes  of  writing  for  the  in- 
strument are  used  as  a  means'of  enforcing  the 
contrast  between  one  movement  and  another. 
Thus  in  the  second  Sonata  the  first  division  is 
a  kind  of  prelude  in  a  modem  manner,  chiefly 
homophonic  and  orchestral ;  the  second  corre- 
sponds to  a  distinct  romance  or  '  song  without 
words '  with  dearly  defined  melody  and  graceful 
and  constantly  flowing  independent  accompani- 
ment. In  the  third  movement,  which  though 
in  8-4  time  has  something  of  a  march  quality, 
the  modem  harmonic  character  is  very  promi- 
nent, and  the  last  movement  is  a  fugue.  Similar 
distribution  of  styles  and  modes  of  writing  are 
as  clearly  used  in  the  first  and  fourth  Sonatas  ; 
in  the  former  more  elaborately. 

Among  the  few  attempts  which  have  been 
made  to  add  something  genuine  to  the  literature 
of  the  Pianoforte  Sonata,  that  in  Fjt  minor,  op. 
11,  by  Schumann,  first  published  under  the 
pseudonym  of  Florestan  and  Eusebius,  is  most 
interesting.  This  was  clearly  an  attempt  to 
adapt  to  the  sonata- form  the  so-called  romantic 
ideas  of  which  Schumann  was  so  prominent  and 
successful  a  representative.  The  outward  aspect 
of  the  matter  is  twofold.  First,  the  absolute 
subordination  of  the  sectional  distribution  to  the 
ideas  contained,  and,  secondly,  the  interchange 
of  the  subject-matter  so  as  to  connect  the  move- 
ments absolutely  as  well  as  intrinsically.  The 
first  point  is  illustrated  by  the  continuity  of  the 
Allegro  Vivace  and  the  constant  shifting  and 
swaying  of  modulation  and  changing  of  tempo  ; 
also  by  the  variety  of  the  subjects  and  the  ap- 
parently irregular  manner  of  their  introduction, 
if  judged  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  older 
sonatas.  Thus  the  part  which  corresponds  to 
the  first  section  comprises  a  first  subject,  con- 
taining a  figure  which  may  be  called  the  text  of 
the  movement,  and  many  subsidiary  features  and 
transitions.  The  second  section  follows  con- 
tinuously, with  new  matter  and  allusions  to  the 
first  subject,  all  in  a  constant  sway  of  transition, 
till  at  the  end  of  the  first  half  of  the  movement 


a  long  continuous  subject  in  A  is  reached,  which 
in  its  sustained  and  eamest  calmness  seems  to 
supply  the  point  of  rest  after  the  long  preceding 
period  of  activity.  This  same  subject  is  the  only 
one  which  is  given  with  complete  fulness  at  the 
end  of  the  whole  movement,  the  rest  of  the 
subject-matter,  though  all  represented  in  the 
recapitulation,  being  considerably  condensed 
and  curtailed.  The  second  point  is  illustrated 
by  the  connection  between  the  introduction  and 
the  two  following  movements.  The  introduction 
itself  is  in  an  elaborate  kind  of  primary  form« 
Its  impressive  principal  subject  is  reintroduced 
in  the  middle  of  the  succeeding  allegro  ;  and  the 
subject  of  the  middle  portion  serves  as  the  main 
staple  of  the  beautiful  aria  which  is  the  central 
movement  of  the  whole  sonata.  The  success  of 
such  things  certainly  depends  on  the  way  in 
which  they  are  done,  and  mere  description  of 
them  gives  very  littie  impress  of  their  effective- 
ness in  this  case.  There  can  hardly  be  a  doubt 
that  in  these  devices  Schumann  hit  upon  a  trae 
means  of  applying  original  thought  to  the  de- 
velopment of  the  stractural  outlines,  following 
the  suggestion  which  is  really  contained  in  Beet- 
hoven's work,  that  the  stmcture  is  perceptible 
through  the  disposition  of  the  ideas,  and  not 
only  by  emphasising  the  harmonic  sections.  The 
actual  distribution  of  the  stmcture  which  is 
hidden  under  the  multiplicity  of  ideas  is  remark- 
ably careful  and  sjrstematic.  Even  in  the  de- 
velopment portion  there  is  method  and  balance, 
and  the  same  is  trae  of  large  expanses  in  the  last 
movement.  The  freedom  with  which  Schumann 
uses  subordinate  transitions  makes  the  balance 
of  keys  a  matter  requiring  great  concentration  ; 
but  it  is  remarkable  in  his  work,  as  contrasted 
with  similar  modem  examples  by  other  com- 
posers, that  he  rarely  makes  random  and  un- 
restrained flights,  but  keeps  within  the  bounds 
which  make  proportionate  balance  possible.  It 
is  no  doubt  a  matter  of  very  great  difficulty  to 
carry  out  such  principles  as  this  work  seems  to 
embody  ;  but  if  the  sonata  form  be  really  capable 
of  any  fresh  extension  it  will  probably  be  to  a 
great  extent  on  such  lines. 

Schumann's  second  Sonata,  in  G  minor,  op. 
22,  though  written  during  almost  the  same 
period,  seems  to  be  a  retrogression  from  the 
position  taken  up  by  that  in  Ftf  minor.  It  is 
possibly  a  more  effective  work,  and  from  the 
pianist's  point  of  view,  more  capable  of  being 
made  to  sound  convincing.  And  yet  in  detail 
it  is  not  so  interesting,  nor  is  it  technically  so 
rich,  nor  so  full  and  noble  in  sound.  He 
seems  to  aim  at  orthodoxy  with  deliberate  pur- 
pose, and  the  result  is  that  though  vehement 
and  vigorous  in  motion,  it  is  not,  for  Schumann, 
particularly  warm  or  poetical.  The  second 
subjects  of  the  first  and  last  movements  are 
characteristic,  and  so  is  a  great  part  of  the 
peculiarly  sectional  and  epigrammatic  scherzo. 
The  andantino  also  has  remarkable  points  about 


SONATA 


531 


it,  but  is  not  so  fascinatiBg  as  the  slow  move- 
ment of  the  F|  minor  Sonata. 

The  principles  indicated  in  the  sonata  opus 
11  reappear  later  with  better  results,  as  far  as 
the  totol  impression  is  concerned,  in  larger  forms 
of  instrumental  music,  and  also  in  the  D  minor 
Sonata  for  violin  and  pianoforte.  In  this  there 
is  a  close  oonnection  between  the  introduction 
and  the  meet  marked  feature  of  the  succeeding 
quick  movement,  and  similar  linking  of  scherzo 
and  slow  movement  by  means  of  a  reference  to 
the  subject  of  the  former  in  the  progress  of  the 
latter,  with  a  distinctly  poetic  purpose.  The 
Sonata  in  A  minor  for  the  same  combination  of 
instruments  is  not  on  such  an  elaborate  scale, 
nor  has  it  as  many  external  marks  to  indicate  a 
decided  purpose  ;  but  it  is  none  the  less  poetical 
in  effect  which  arises  in  the  first  movement 
from  the  continuity  of  structure  and  the  mys- 
terious sadness  of  spirit  which  it  expresses,  and 
in  the  slow  movement  from  its  characteristic 
tenderness  and  sweetness. 

Liszt,  in  his  remarkable  Sonata  in  B  minor 
dedicated  to  Schumann,  undoubtedly  adopts 
the  same  principles  of  procedure,  and  works 
them  out  with  more  uncompromising  thorough- 
ness. He  knits  the  whole  sonata  into  an  un- 
broken unity,  with  distinct  portions  passing 
into  one  another,  representing  the  usual  separate 
movements.  The  interest  is  concentrated  upon 
one  principal  idea,  to  which  the  usual  second 
subjects  and  accessories  serve  as  so  many 
commentaries  and  antitheses,  and  express  the 
influences  which  react  upon  its  course.  This  is 
further  illustrated  by  the  process  sometimes 
defined  as  'transformation  of  themes,'  already 
referred  to  in  connection  with  Beethoven's 
Sonatas  in  Bb  and  Ab  ;  which  is  really  no  more 
than  a  fresh  way  of  applying  that  art  of  varia- 
tion which  had  been  used  from  abnost  the  earliest 
timesof  sonata- writing,  in  recapitulatingsubjects 
in  the  progress  of  a  movement,  as  well  as  in  regu- 
lar set  themes  and  variations ;  though  it  had  not 
been  adopted  before  to  serve  a  poetical  or  ideal  con- 
ception pervading  and  unifying  the  whole  work. 
In  the  actual  treatment  of  the  subject-matter, 
Liszt  adopts,  as  Beethoven  had  done,  the  various 
opportunities  afforded  not  only  by  harmonic 
structural  principles,  but  by  the  earlier  fugal 
and  contrapuntal  devices,  and  by  recitative, 
adapting  them  with  admirable  breadth  and 
freedom  to  a  thoroughly  modem  style  of  thought 
It  seems  almost  superfluous  to  add  that  the 
purpose  is  carried  out  with  absolute  mastery  of 
technical  resource,  in  respect  both  of  the  instru- 
ment and  of  the  disposition  of  the  parts  of  the 
movement. 

The  pianoforte  sonatas  of  Brahms  are  as 
astounding  specimens  of  youthful  power  and 
breadth  and  dignity  of  style  as  exist  in  the  whole 
range  of  the  art ;  but  it  must  at  present  be  con- 
sidered doubtful  if  they  represent  his  maturer 
convictions.      All  three  appear  to  have  been 


written  before  he  arrived  at  the  age  of  twenty  ; 
and  it  is  certain  that  he  was  then  more  influenced 
by  the  romantic  theories  which  Schumann 
represented,  than  he  was  in  his  later  works. 
His  adoption  of  shorter  and  more  individual 
forms,  such  ascappriccioe,  intermezzi,  rhapsodies, 
in  his  mature  age,  lends  at  least  indirect  counte- 
nance to  the  view  that  the  tendency  of  music 
is  to  subordinate  form  to  idea  ;  and  that  if  the 
classical  form  of  the  sonata  is  not  expansible 
enough,  other  forms  must  be  accepted  which 
will  admit  of  more  freedom  of  development 
This  implies  a  question  as  to  the  proper  meaning 
of  the  word  '  sonata, '  and  a  doubt  as  to  its  being 
legitimately  assimilable  to  the  tendency  to  oen- 
tndise  the  interest  upon  the  idea,  as  a  contrast 
to  the  old  practice  of  making  an  equal  balance 
between  two  main  subjects  as  a  means  of  struc- 
tural efilBct  If  the  word  is  to  be  so  restricted, 
it  will  only  be  another  conventional  limitation, 
and,  it  may  be  added,  must  before  long  put  an 
end  to  further  enrichment  of  the  literature  of 
so-called  sonatas. 

In  the  finest  of  Brahms's  three  early  sonatas, 
that  in  F  minor,  op.  5,  the  first  slow  movement 
is  headed  by  a  quotation  from  a  poem  of  Stemau, 
and  another  movement  is  called  RUckblick. 
These  are  clearly  external  marks  of  a  poetical 
intention.  In  the  actual  treatment  of  the 
subjects  there  is  no  attempt  to  connect  the 
movements  ;  but  the  freedom  of  transition,  even 
in  the  actual  progress  of  a  subject  (see  the  second 
subject  of  the  first  movement),  is  eminently 
characteristic  of  the  composer,  and  of  a  liberal 
view  of  sonata  development  In  the  last  move- 
ment— a  rondo — the  most  noticeable  external 
mark  of  continuity  is  the  elaborately  ingenious 
treatment  of  the  subject  of  the  second  episode 
in  the  latter  j>art  of  the  movement.  Brahms 
added  no  more  to  the  list  of  solo  pianoforte 
sonatas,  but  he  illustrated  the  tendency  to  look 
for  fresh  opportunities  in  combinations  of  solo 
instruments,  as  in  his  pianoforte  quartets  and 
quintet,  which  are  really  just  as  much  sonatas 
as  those  usually  so  designated  ;  in  fact,  one  of 
the  versions  of  the  quintet,  which  stands  as  a 
duet  for  two  pianofortes,  is  in  that  form  pub- 
lished as  a  'sonata.'  The  three  for  pianoforte 
and  violin  require  notice  as  the  work  of  a  great 
master,  but  throw  very  little  light  on  any  sort 
of  extension  of  the  possibilities  of  sonata-form. 
There  seems  to  be  a  sort  of  poetic  design  in  the 
complicated  arrangement  of  the  first  half  of  the 
first  movement  in  the  first  Sonata,  op.  78,  in 
which  the  characteristic  figures  of  the  first 
subject  reappear,  as  if  to  connect  each  section 
with  the  centre  of  interest ;  and  the  half  con- 
cludes with  a  complete  restatement  of  the  first 
subject  simply  and  clearly  in  the  original  key, 
as  is  the  case  also  in  the  same  composer's  Sere- 
nade in  A  for  small  orchestra.  It  may  be 
observed  in  passing  that  this  device  curiously 
recalls  the  early  composite  form,  in  which  the 


532 


SONATA 


first  sabject  reappears  at  the  beginning  of  the 
second  half  [see  pp.  510,  511].  There  is  one 
other  slightly  suggestive  point — namely,  the 
reappearance  of  the  introductory  phrase  of  the 
alow  movement  in  one  of  the  episodes  of  the 
final  Rondo.  [In  the  second  sonata  we  may 
notice  the  fusion  of  the  Scherzo  and  slow  move- 
ment into  one.] 

Certain  traits  in  his  treatment  of  form,  such 
as  the  bold  digressions  of  key  at  the  very  outset 
of  a  movement,  and  the  novel  effects  of  transi- 
tion in  the  subjects  themselves,  have  already 
been  described  in  the  article  Form.  It  is  only 
necessary  here  to  point  out  that  Brahms  seems 
most  characteristically  to  illustrate  the  tendency 
in  modem  music  which  has  been  styled  'intellect- 
ualism ' ;  which  is  definable  as  elaborate  develop- 
ment of  all  the  opportunities  and  suggestions 
offered  by  figures,  harmonic  successions,  or  other 
essential  features  of  subjects  or  accessories,  so 
as  to  make  various  portions  of  the  work  appear 
to  grow  progressively  out  of  one  another.  This 
sometimes  takes  the  form  of  thematic  develop- 
ment, and  sometimes  that  of  reviving  the  figures 
of  one  subject  in  the  material  or  accompaniment 
of  another,  the  object  being  to  obtain  new 
aspects  of  close  and  direct  logical  coherence  and 
consistency.  Beethoven  is  the  prototype  of 
this  phase  of  modem  music,  and  the  examples 
of  it  in  his  later  instrumental  works  are  of  the 
finest  description.  There  are  several  examples 
which  illustrate  this  tendency  in  the  F  minor 
Quintet.  One  of  the  most  obvious  is  the  case 
in  which  the  cadence  concluding  a  paragraph 
IS  formulated,  as  in  the  following  example  at 
(a),  the  phrase  being  immediately  taken  up  by 
a  different  instrament  and  embodied  as  a  most 
significant  feature  in  the  accessory  subject  which 
follows,  as  at  (b). 
(a)  Piftnoforte. 


Upder  the  same  head  of  Intellectualism  is  some- 
times erroneously  included  that  broad  and  liberal 
range  of  harmony  which  characterises  the  best 
composers  of  the  day.  This  may  doubtless 
call  for  intellectual  effort  in  those  who  are 
unfamiliar  with  the  progress  of  art,  or  of  in- 
expansive  powers  of  appreciation,  but  in  the 
composer  it  does  not  imply  intellectual  purpose, 
but  only  the  natural  step  onwards  from  the 
progressions  of  harmony  which  are  familiar  to 
those  which  are  original.     With  composers  of 


second  rank  such  freedom  is  often  experimental, 
and  destractive  to  the  general  balance  and 
proportion  of  the  strocture,  but  with  Brahms 
it  appears  to  be  a  special  study  to  bring  every- 
thing into  perfect  and  sure  proportion,  so  that 
the  classical  idea  of  instrumental  music  may  be 
still  maintained  in  pure  severity,  notwithstand- 
ing the  greater  extension  and  greater  variety 
of  range  in  the  harmonic  motion  of  the  various 
portions  of  the  movement.  In  fact  Brahms 
appears  to  take  his  stand  on  the  possibility  of 
producing  new  instrumental  works  of  real  artistic 
value  on  the  classical  principles  of  abstract 
music,  without  either  condescending  to  the 
popular  device  of  a  programme,^  or  accepting 
the  admissibility  of  a  modification  of  the  sonata- 
form  to  suit  the  impulse  or  apparent  require- 
ments of  a  poetical  or  dramatic  principle. 

A  sonata  which  bears  more  obviously  on  the 
direction  of  modem  art  in  the  poetic  sense  is 
that  of  Stemdale  Bennett,  called  <The  Maid 
of  Orleans.'  This  is  an  example  of  programme- 
music  in  its  purest  simplicity.  Each  of  the 
four  movements  has  a  quotation  to  explain 
its  purpose,  and  in  the  slow  movement  the 
second  section  has  an  additional  one.  Neverthe- 
less the  movements  are  simple  adaptations  of  the 
usual  forms,  the  first  standing  for  an  introduc- 
tion, the  second  representing  the  usual  binary 
allegro,  the  third  a  slow  movement  in  condensed 
binary  form,  and  the  last  a  rondo.  There  is 
but  little  attempt  at  using  any  structural  means, 
such  as  original  distribution  of  subject-matter, 
to  enforce  the  poetic  idea ;  so  the  whole  can 
only  be  taken  as  an  illustration  of  a  poem  in 
sonata  form.  But  this  nevertheless  has  some 
importance,  as  showing  the  acceptance  of  the 
aptitude  of  sonata-form  for  such  purposes  by  a 
composer  who  was  by  no  means  in  frill  sympathy 
with  the  lengths  to  which  Schumann  was  pre- 
pared to  carry  the  romantic  theories. 

Among  other  recent  composers  who  treat 
sonata- form  in  a  poetic  fashion,  we  may  name 
Raff*  and  Rubinstein.  The  works  of  the  former 
are  always  admirable  in  the  treatment  of  the 
instmments,  and  both  composers  frequently 
present  subjects  of  considerable  fascination  ; 
but  neither  have  that  weight  or  concentration 
in  stractural  development  which  would  demand 
detailed  consideration.  Poetic  treatment  is 
commonly  supposed  to  absolve  the  composer 
from  the  necessity  of  attending  to  the  stmctural 
elements ;  but  this  is  clearly  a  misconception. 
Genuine  beauty  in  subjects  may  go  far  to  atone 
for  deficiency  and  irrelevancy  in  the  develop- 
ment, but  at  best  it  is  only  a  partial  atonement, 
and  those  only  are  genuine  masterpieces  in  which 
the  form,  be  it  ever  so  original,  is  just  as  clear 
and  convincing  in  the  end  as  the  ideas  of  which 
it  is  the  outcome. 

The  whole  process  of  the  development  of  the 
Sonata  as  an  art-form,  frx)m  its  cradest  begin- 
nings to  its  highest  culmination,  took  nearly 


SONATA 


633 


two  hundred  years ;  and  the  progress  was  almost 
throughout  steady,  continuous,  and  uniform 
in  direction.  The  earlier  history  is  chiefly 
occupied  by  its  gradual  differentiation  from  the 
Suite-form,  with  which  for  a  time  it  was  occa- 
sionally confounded.  But  there  always  was  a 
perceptible  difference  in  the  general  tendency 
of  the  two.  The  Suite  gravitated  towards 
dance-forms,  and  movements  which  similarly 
had  one  principal  idea  or  form  of  motion  pervad- 
ing them,  so  that  the  balance  of  contrasts  lay 
between  one  movement  and  another,  and  not 
conspicuously  between  parts  of  the  same  move- 
ment. The  Sonata  gravitated  towards  more 
complicated  conditions  and  away  from  pure 
dance-forms.  Diversity  of  character  between 
subjects  and  figures  was  admitted  early  into 
single  movements,  and  contrasts  of  key  were 
much  more  strongly  emphasised  ;  and  while  in 
the  Suite,  except  in  extremely  rare  cases,  all 
the  movements  were  in  one  key,  amongst  the 
very  earliest  Sonatas  there  are  examples  of  a 
central  movement  being  cast  in  a  different  key 
from  the  rest. 

In  a  yet  more  important  manner  the  capacity 
of  the  Sonata  was  made  deeper  and  broader  by 
the  quality  and  style  of  its  music.  In  the  Suite, 
as  we  have  said,  the  contrasts  between  one  move- 
ment and  another  were  between  forms  of  the 
same  order  and  character — that  is,  between 
dance-forms  and  their  analogues ;  but  in  the 
Sonata  the  different  movements  very  soon  came 
to  represent  different  origins  and  types  of  music. 
Thus  in  the  early  violin  sonatas  the  slow  intro- 
ductory first  movement  generally  shows  traces  of 
ecclesiastical  influence  ;  the  second,  which  is  the 
solid  kind  of  allegro  corresponding  to  the  firat 
movement  of  modem  sonatas,  was  clearly  derived 
from  the  secular  vocal  madrigals,  or  part  music 
for  voices,  through  the  instrumental  canzonas, 
which  were  their  closest  relations.  The  third, 
which  was  the  characteristic  slow  movement, 
frequently  showed  traces  of  its  descent  from  solo 
vocal  music  of  various  kinds,  as  found  in  operas, 
cantatas,  or  other  similar  situations ;  and  the 
last  movement  earliest  and  latest  showed  traces 
Of  dance  elements  pure  and  simple.  A  further 
point  of  much  importance  was  the  early  tendency 
towards  systematic  and  distinct  structure,  which 
appears  most  frequently  in  the  last  movement. 
The  reason  for  the  apparent  anomaly  is  not 
hard  to  find.  The  only  movement  in  the  group 
on  a  scale  corresponding  to  the  last  was  the 
second,  and  this  was  most  frequently  of  a  fugal 
disposition.  The  fugue  was  a  form  which  was 
comparatively  well  understood  when  the  modem 
harmonic  forms  were  still  in  embryo  ;  and  not 
only  did  it  suffice  for  the  constraction  of  move- 
ments of  almost  any  length,  but  it  did  not  in 
itself  suggest  advance  in  the  direction  of  the 
sonata  kinds  of  form,  though  it  was  shown  to  be 
capable  of  amalgamation  with  them  when  they 
in  their  turn  had  been  definitely  brought  to 


perfection.  In  the  dance  movements  on  the 
other  hand,  when  the  fugal  fomis  were  not  used, 
all  that  was  supplied  as  basis  to  work  upon  was 
the  type  of  motion  or  rhythm,  and  the  outlines 
of  structure  had  to  be  found.  As  long  as  the 
movements  were  on  a  small  scale  the  stracture 
which  obtained  oftenest  was  the  equal  balance  of 
repeated  halves  without  contrasting  subjects,  of 
which  the  finest  examples  are  to  be  found  in 
Bach's  Suites.  The  last  movement  was  in  &ct 
so  long  a  pure  suite  movement.  But  when  it 
began  to  take  larger  dimensions,  emphasis  began 
to  be  laid  upon  ^at  part  of  the  first  half  of  the 
movement  which  was  in  the  dominant  key  ;  then 
the  process  of  characterising  it  by  distinct  figures 
or  subjects  became  prominent ;  and  by  degrees 
it  developed  into  the  definite  second  section. 
Meanwhile  the  opening  bara  of  the  movement 
gradually  assumed  more  distinct  and  salient 
features,  making  the  passage  stand  out  more 
clearly  from  its  immediate  context ;  and  in  this 
form  it  was  repeated  at  the  beginning  of  the 
second  half  of  the  movement,  the  second  section 
being  reserved  to  make  a  complete  balance  by  con- 
cluding the  whole  in  a  manner  analogous  to  the 
conclusion  of  the  first  half.  So  far  the  change 
frx>m  the  suite  type  of  movement  rests  chiefly  on 
the  clearer  definition  of  parts,  and  more  positive 
exactness  in  the  recapitulation  of  the  subjects  ; 
but  this  is  quite  sufficient  to  mark  the  character 
as  distinct,  for  in  the  movements  of  the  Suite 
(excluding  the  prelude)  balance  of  subject  and 
key  was  never  systematically  recognised.  The 
further  development  of  binary  form,  in  which 
the  recapitulation  of  the  distinct  subjects  was 
reserved  for  the  conclusion,  took  some  time  to 
arrive  at,  but  even  at  this  early  stage  the 
essential  qualities  of  sonata -form  are  clearly 
recognisable.  The  Violin  Sonata  was  naturally 
the  kind  which  firat  attained  to  perfection,  since 
that  instrument  had  so  great  an  advantage  in 
point  of  time  over  the  keyed  instruments  used 
for  similar  purposes  ;  and  its  qualities  and  re- 
quirements so  reacted  upon  the  character  of 
the  music  as  to  make  it  appear  almost  a  distinct 
species  from  the  Clavier  Sonata.  But  in  fact 
the  two  kinds  represent  no  more  than  divergence 
from  a  similar  source,  owing  to  the  dissimilar 
natures  of  the  instraments.  Thus  the  intro- 
ductory slow  movement  was  most  appropriate 
to  the  broad  and  noble  character  of  the  violin, 
and  would  appeal  at  once  by  its  means  to  an 
audience  of  any  susceptibility  ;  whereas  to  the 
weak  character  of  the  early  keyed  instruments, 
so  deficient  in  sustaining  power,  it  was  in  general 
inappropriate,  and  hence  was  dropped  very 
early.  For  the  same  reason  in  a  considerable 
proportion  of  the  early  clavier  sonatas,  the  third 
or  principal  slow  movement  was  also  dropped, 
so  that  the  average  type  of  sonatas  for  clavier 
was  for  a  time  a  group  of  two  movements,  both 
generally  in  a  more  or  less  quick  time.  In  these 
the  canzona  movement  was  early  supplanted  by 


534 


SONATA 


one  more  in  aooordance  with  the  modem  idea, 
auoh  as  is  typified  in  the  clavier  sonata  of 
Qalnppi  in  four  movements  [see  p.  514],  and 
by  oooasional  allemandes  in  the  earlier  sonatas. 
As  keyed  instruments  improved  in  volume  and 
sustaim'ng  power  the  central  slow  movement 
was  resumed ;  but  it  was  necessary  for  some 
time  to  make  up  for  deficiencies  in  the  latter 
respect  by  filling  in  the  slow  beats  with  elaborate 
graces  and  trills,  and  such  ornaments  as  the 
example  of  opera-singers  made  rather  too  invit- 
ing. The  course  of  the  violin  solo-sonata  was 
meanwhile  distinctly  maintained  till  its  climax, 
and  came  to  an  abrupt  end  in  J.  S.  Bach,  just 
as  the  clavier  sonata  was  expanding  into  definite 
importance.  In  fact  the  earliest  landmarks  of 
importance  are  found  in  the  next  generation, 
when  a  fair  proportion  of  works  of  this  class 
show  the  lineaments  of  clavier  sonatas  familiar 
to  a  modem.  Such  are  the  disposition  of  the 
three  movements  with  the  solid  and  dignified 
allegro  at  the  beginning,  the  expressive  slow 
movement  in  the  middle,  and  the  bright  and 
gay  quick  movement  at  the  end ;  which  last 
continued  in  many  cases  to  show  its  dance 
origin.  From  this  group  the  fugal  element 
was  generally  absent,  for  all  the  instinct  of 
composers  was  temporarily  enlisted  in  the  work 
of  perfecting  the  harmonic  structure  in  the 
modem  manner,  and  the  tendency  was  for  a 
time  to  direct  special  attention  to  this,  with 
the  object  of  attaining  dear  and  distinct  sym- 
metry. In  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century 
this  was  achieved ;  the  several  movements  were 
then  generally  cast  on  nearly  identical  lines, 
with  undeviating  distribution  of  subjects,  pauses, 
modulations,  cadences,  and  double  bars.  The 
style  of  thoughtconformed  for  awhile  sufficiently 
well  to  this  discipline,  and  the  most  successful 
achievements  of  instmmental  music  up  to  that 
time  were  accomplished  in  this  manner.  £x- 
trinsically  the  artistic  product  appeared  perfect ; 
but  art  could  not  stand  still  at  this  point,  and 
composers  soon  felt  themselves  precluded  from 
putting  the  best  and  most  genuine  of  their 
thoughts  into  trammels  produced  by  such  regular 
proc^ure.  Moreover,  the  sudden  and  violent 
changes  in  social  arrangements  which  took 
place  at  the  end  of  the  century,  and  the  trans- 
formation in  the  ways  of  regarding  life  and  its 
interests  and  opportunities  which  resulted  there- 
from, opened  a  new  point  of  public  emotion, 
and  introduced  a  new  quality  of  cosmopolitan 
human  interest  in  poetry  and  art.  The  appeal 
of  music  in  its  higher  manifestations  became 
more  direct  and  immediate ;  and  the  progression 
of  the  idea  became  necessarily  less  amenable  to 
the  control  of  artificialities  of  stracture,  and  more 
powerful  in  its  turn  of  reacting  upon  the  form. 
This  is  what  lies  at  the  root  of  much  which, 
for  want  of  a  more  exact  word,  is  frequently 
described  as  the  poetic  element,  which  has  be- 
come BO  prominent  and  indispensable  a  quality 


in  modem  music.  By  this  change  of  position 
the  necessities  of  stractural  balance  and  pro- 
portion are  not  supplanted,  but  made  legitimate 
use  of  in  a  different  manner  from  what  they 
previously  were ;  and  the  sonata-form,  while 
still  satisfying  the  Indispensable  conditlonB 
which  make  abstract  music  possible,  expanded  to 
a  fuller  and  more  co-ordinate  pitch  of  emotional 
material  Partly  under  these  influences,  and 
partly,  no  doubt,  owing  to  the  improvements  in 
keyed  instruments,  the  Clavier  Sonata  again 
attained  to  the  group  of  four  movements,  but 
in  a  different  arrangement  from  that  of  the 
Violin  Sonata.  The  slow  introduction  was 
sometimes  resumed,  but  without  representing 
an  ingredient  in  the  average  scheme.  The  first 
movement  was  usually  the  massive  and  dignified 
Allegro.  The  two  central  portions,  consisting 
of  a  highly  expressive  slow  mbvement,  and  the 
scherzo  which  was  the  legitimate  descendant 
of  the  dance  movement,  were  ruled  in  their 
order  of  succession  by  the  qualities  of  the  first 
and  last  movements,  and  the  work  ended  with 
a  movement  which  still  generally  maintained 
the  qualities  to  be  found  in  a  last  movement 
of  Corelli  or  Tartini.  The  tendency  to  unify 
the  whole  group  increased,  and  in  so  far  as  the 
influence  of  intrinsic  character  or  of  the  idea 
became  powerful  itmodified  the  order  and  quality 
of  the  movements.  For  particular  purposes 
which  approve  themselves  to  musical  feeling  the 
number  of  movements  varied  considerably,  some 
exceedingly  fine  and  perfect  sonatas  having 
only  two,  and  others  extending  to  five.  Again, 
it  is  natural  that  in  certain  moods  composers 
should  almost  resent  the  call  to  end  with  the 
conventional  h'ght  and  gay  movement ;  and  con- 
sequently in  later  works,  even  where  the  usual 
form  seems  to  be  accepted,  the  spirit  is  rather 
ironical  than  gay,  and  rather  vehement  or  even 
fierce  than  light-hearted.  The  same  working 
of  the  spirit  of  the  age  had  powerful  effect  on  the 
intrinsic  qualities  of  the  Scherzo ;  in  which  there 
came  to  he  found,  along  with  or  under  the  veil 
of  ideal  dance  motions,  sadness  and  tenderness, 
bittemess,  humour,  and  many  more  phases  of 
strong  feeling ;  forwhichtheidealdancerhythms, 
when  present,  are  made  to  serve  as  a  vehicle : 
but  in  some  cases  also  are  supplanted  by 
different  though  kindred  forms  of  expression. 
In  other  respects  the  last  movement  moved 
farther  away  from  the  conventional  type,  as  by 
the  adoption  of  the  fugal  form,  or  by  new  use 
of  the  Variation-form  in  a  more  continuous  and 
consistent  sense  than  in  early  examples.  In 
many  cases  the  movements  are  made  to  pass 
into  one  another,  just  as  in  the  earlier  stages 
the  strong  lines  which  marked  off  the  different 
sections  in  the  movements  were  gradually  toned 
down ;  and  by  this  means  they  came  to  have 
less  of  the  appearance  of  separate  items  than 
limbs  or  divisions  of  a  complete  organism.  This 
is  illustrated  most  clearly  by  the  examples  of 


SONATA 


SONATINA 


636 


slow  movements  which  are  so  modified  as  to 
be  little  more  than  Intermezzi,  or  introductory 
divisions  appended  to  the  last  movement ;  and 
more  strongly  by  a  few  cases  where  the  distinct 
lines  of  separation  are  quite  done  away  with, 
and  the  entire  work  becomes  a  chain  of  long 
divisions  representing  broadly  the  old  plan  of 
four  distinct  movements  with  kindred  subjects 
continuing  throughout.  Since  Beethoven  the 
impetus  to  concentrate  and  individualise  the 
character  of  musical  works  has  driven  many 
genuine  composers  to  the  adoption  of  forms 
which  are  less  hampered  by  any  suspicion  of 
conventionality ;  and  even  with  sonatas  they 
seemed  to  have  grasped  the  object  in  view  with 
less  steadiness  and  consiBtency  than  in  previous 
times.  Some  have  accepted  the  artifice  of  a 
programme,  others  admit  some  doubtful  traits 
of  theatrical  origin  ;  others  develop  poetic  and 
ffisthetic  devices  as  their  chief  end  and  object, 
and  others  still  follow  up  the  classical  lines, 
contenting  themselves  with  the  opportunities 
afforded  by  new  and  more  elaborately  perfect 
treatment  of  details,  especially  in  music  for 
combinations  of  solo  instruments.  In  the  latter 
case  it  is  clear  that  the  field  is  more  open  than 
in  sonatas  for  single  instruments,  since  the 
combination  of  such  instruments  as  the  piano- 
forte and  violin  or  pianoforte  and  violoncello 
in  large  works  has  not  been  dealt  with  by  the 
great  masters  so  thoroughly  and  exhaustively 
as  the  solo  sonata.  But  in  any  case  it  is  ap- 
parent that  fresh  works  of  high  value  on  the 
classical  lines  can  hardly  be  produced  without 
increasing  intellectualism.  The  origin  and 
reason  of  existence  of  abstract  music  are,  at  least 
on  one  side,  intellectual ;  and  though  up  to  a 
certain  point  the  process  of  development  tended 
to  reduce  the  intellectual  effort  by  making  the 
structural  outlines  as  clear  and  certain  as  pos- 
sible, when  these  were  decisively  settled  the 
current  naturally  set  in  the  direction  of  compli- 
cation. The  inevitable  process  of  accumulating 
one  device  of  art  upon  another  is  shown  in  the 
free  range  of  modulation  and  harmony,  and  in 
the  increasing  variety  and  richness  of  detail 
both  in  the  subjects  and  in  the  subordinate 
parts  of  works.  In  such  cases  the  formal  outlines 
may  cease  to  be  strictly  amenable  to  a  definite 
external  theory  ;  but  if  they  accord  with  broad 
general  principles,  such  as  may  be  traced  in  the 
history  of  abstract  music  so  far,  and  if  the  total 
effect  is  extrinsioally  as  well  as  intrinsically 
complete  and  convincing,  it  appears  inevitable 
to  admit  the  works  to  the  rank  of  'Sonatas.' 
The  exact  meaning  of  the  term  has  in  fact  been 
enforced  with  remarkable  uniformity  during  the 
whole  period  from  the  beginning  to  the  present 
day,  and  decisively  in  favour  of  what  is  caUed 
abstract  music.  Fair  examples  of  the  successful 
disregaixl  of  form  in  favour  of  programme  or  a 
dramatic  conception  can  hardly  be  found ;  in 
fact,  in  the  best  examples  extant,  programme 


is  no  more  than  the  addition  of  a  name  or  a 
story  to  an  otherwise  regular  formal  sonata ; 
but  on  the  other  hand  there  is  plenty  of  justi- 
fication of  the  finest  kind  for  abstract  works  in 
free  and  more  original  forms,  and  it  rests  with 
composers  to  justify  themselves  by  their  works, 
rather  than  for  reasoning  to  decide  finally  where 
the  limit  shaU  be.  o.  h.  h.  p. 

SONATINA.  This  is  a  work  in  the  same 
form  and  of  the  same  general  character  as  a 
sonata,  but  shorter,  simpler,  and  slenderer.  The 
average  form  of  the  sonata  appears  to  be  the 
most  suocessfiil  yet  discovered  for  pure  instru- 
mental works  of  laige  scope.  It  is  admirably 
adapted  for  the  expression  and  development  of 
broad  and  noble  ideas  ;  and  the  distribution  of 
the  various  movements,  and  the  clearness  with 
which  the  main  sections  and  divisions  of  each 
movement  are  marked  out»  give  it  a  dignity  and 
solidity  which  seem  most  appropriate  in  such 
circumstances.  But  the  very  clearness  of  the 
outlines  and  the  strength  of  contrast  between 
one  division  and  another,  make  the  form  less 
fit  for  works  of  smaller  scope.  As  long  as  such 
a  work  is  laid  out  on  a  scale  sufficiently  large 
to  admit  variety  of  treatment  and  freedom  of 
movement  within  the  limits  of  these  divisions, 
there  is  fiiir  chance  of  the  work  having  musical 
value  proportionate  to  the  composer's  capacity  ; 
but  if  the  limits  are  so  narrow  as  to  admit  little 
more  than  mere  statement  of  the  usual  form, 
and  no  more  than  the  conventional  order  of 
modulations,  the  possibilities  of  musical  sense 
and  sentiment  are  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and 
a  want  of  positive  musical  interest  commonly 
results.  Consequently  sonatinas  form  one  of 
the  least  satisfactory  groups  of  musical  products. 
The  composers  who  have  produced  the  greatest 
impression  with  short  and  concLse  movements 
in  modem  times  have  uniformly  avoided  them, 
and  adopted  something  of  a  more  free  and  lyrical 
cast,  in  which  there  is  a  more  appropriate  kind 
of  unity,  and  more  of  freedom  and  individuality 
in  the  general  outlines.  It  might  be  quite 
possible  to  group  these  smaU  pieces  so  as  to 
present  a  very  strong  analogy  to  the  sonata  on 
a  small  scale  ;  but  it  has  not  been  attempted, 
owing  possibly  to  a  feeling  that  certain  limita- 
tionsof  style  and  character  are  generally  accepted 
in  the  musical  world  as  appropriate  for  works 
of  the  sonata  class,  and  that  it  would  be  super- 
fluous to  violate  them. 

The  sonatina  form  has,  however,  proved 
peculiarly  convenient  for  the  making  of  pieces 
intended  to  be  used  in  teaching.  The  familiar 
outlines  and  the  systematic  distribution  of  the 
principal  harmonies  afford  the  most  favourable 
opportunities  for  simple  but  useful  finger- 
passages,  for  which  the  great  masters  have  sup- 
plied plentiful  formulas;  and  they  furnish  at 
the  same  time  excellent  means  of  giving  the 
student  a  dignified  and  conscientious  style,  and 
a  clear  insight  into  the  art  of  phrasing  and  into 


536 


SONG 


the  simpler  rules  of  classical  form.  These  works 
may  not  have  any  strong  interest  of  a  direct 
kind  for  the  musical  world,  but  they  have  con- 
siderable value  in  so  far  as  they  fulfil  the  purposes 
they  are  meant  to  serve.  The  most  famous  and 
most  classical  examples  of  this  kind  are  de- 
menti's sonatinas,  of  opp.  36,  87,  and  38.  And 
much  of  the  same  character  are  several  by 
F.  Knhlau,  which  are  excellently  constructed 
and  pure  in  style.  Of  modem  works  of  a  similar 
kind  there  are  examples  by  L.  Eoehler.  Those 
by  Carl  Reinecke  and  Hermann  Ooetz  are  equally 
adapted  for  teaching  purposes,  and  have  also  in 
general  not  a  little  agreeable  musical  sentiment, 
and  really  attractive  qualities.  Some  of  Beet- 
hoven's works  which  are  not  definitely  described 
as  such  are  sufficiently  concise  and  slight  to  be 
called  sonatinas  :  as  for  instance  those  in  G  and 
G  minor,  op.  49,  which  were  first  announced  for 
publication  as  *  Senates  faciles '  in  1805.  That 
in  G  major,  op.  79,  was  published  as  a  '  Sona- 
tine  'in  1810,  though  it  is  rather  larger  in  most 
respects  than  the  other  little  examples.  Prior 
to  Beethoven  the  average  scale  of  sonatas  was 
so  small  that  it  seems  difficult  to  see  how  a 
diminutive  could  be  contrived  ;  and  indeed  the 
grand  examples  which  made  the  degrees  of  com- 
parison specially  conspicuous  were  not  yet  in 
existence.  A  modem  work  on  such  a  scale,  and 
made  in  the  conventional  manner,  would  prob- 
ably be  considered  as  a  Sonatina,  and  apart 
from  teaching  purposes  it  would  also  be  likely 
to  be  an  anachronism.  c.  H.  H.  p. 

SONG.  Introduction.  In  relation  to  the 
study  of  music,  a  Song  may  be  defined  as  a 
short  metrical  composition,  whose  meaning  is 
conveyed  by  the  combined  force  of  words  and 
melody. 

The  Song,  therefore,  belongs  equally  to  poetry 
and  music.  For  the  purposes  of  this  Dictionary 
the  subject  should  properly  be  treated  with 
exclusive  regard  to  music ;  but  the  musical 
forms  and  structure  of  songs  are  so  much 
determined  by  language  and  metre,  and  their 
content  by  the  emotions  the  words  express, 
that  their  poetic  and  literary  qualities  cannot 
be  put  aside.  In  the  strictest  sense,  lyrical 
pieces  alone  are  songs ;  but  adherence  to  so 
narrow  a  definition  would  exclude  many  kinds 
of  songs  whose  importance  in  the  history  of 
music  demands  that  they  should  be  noticed. 
Attention,  however,  will  be  directed  chiefly  to 
homophonio  forms  of  secular  songs — i,e.  songs 
for  one  voice  or  unisonous  chorus. 

It  should,  moreover,  be  mentioned  that  the 
history  of  the  Song  in  this  article  will  be 
treated  in  regard  to  country  and  not  to  period. 
For  the  study  of  any  other  branch  of  music 
among  the  leading  nations  of  Europe,*  a  chrono- 
logical arrangement  would  probably  be  more 
scientific  and  instractive  ;  but  the  Song  is  that 

1  ScotUnd.  IrclkDd,  Mid  W»le«  are  porptwely  left  out  of  this 
wheme.  u  the  krtlclM  in  thlt  Dlctlonkry  on  the  mnrio  of  thoM 
«oantrl«  five  auffleietit  infotmatlon  on  the  SoDga. 


branch  of  music  in  which  national  peculiarities 
and  idioms  linger  longest,  and  international 
affinities  grow  most  slowly.  Again,  without 
attempting  to  trace  the  origin  of  Song,  or  to 
say  whether  or  not  Song  preceded  speech  or 
language,  it  nuiy  safely  be  asserted  that  certain 
successions  of  sounds  or  intervals  vaiying  with 
different  nationalities,  have  in  all  ages  possessed 
some  particular  significance  and  conveyed  some 
message  of  meaning  from  man  to  man.  So 
that  the  music  of  each  nation  has  qualities  and 
idioms  of  its  own  as  distinct  and  definite  as 
those  of  its  language. 

Vocal  music  is  probably  the  oldest  branch  of 
the  art ;  but  from  the  fact  that  dance-songs 
preponderate  in  the  music  of  nations  whose 
musical  culture  remains  in  a  primitive  stage,  it 
is  reasonable  to  conclude  that  vocal  music  may 
have  been  at  first  a  mere  accessory  of  the  dance. 
(See  Dance -Rhythm.)  Choral  singing  at 
religious  and  other  festivals  was  also  a  practice 
of  veiy  remote  antiquity.  Recitations  by  bards, 
commemorative  of  the  exploits  of  heroes,  were  a 
further  and  distinct  development  of  vocal  music 
Hence  the  work  done  by  the  minstrels,  Trouba- 
dours and  Trouveres,  Minnesinger  and  Meister- 
singer,  will  call  for  notice  in  their  different 
countries. 

During  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  the 
Song  as  a  branch  of  music  has  assumed  great 
importance.  "With  regard  to  the  Folk-song, 
scientific  musicians  and  composers  in  most 
European  countries  have  deemed  it  worthy  of 
serious  study.  They  have  assiduously  collected 
and  made  use  of  what  remains  of  the  indigenous 
musical  material  still  left  untouched  by  the 
hand  of  civilisation.  Governments  have  given 
aid  to  such  enterprises,  thereby  showing  the 
value  they  attach  to  the  preservation  of  the 
songs  of  their  people.  Folk-lore  has  become  a 
scientific  study  ;  societies  have  been  formed  to 
collect  and  arrange  in  musical  notation  the 
songs  orally  handed  down  by  uncultured  singers, 
and  tmly  the  object  is  well  worthy  of  the 
labour.  For  the  folk-song  is  the  origin  of  all 
our  modem  music.  From  it  we  have  derived 
not  only  our  scales,  but  the  shape  of  our 
melodies,  the  outlines  of  our  musical  form,  and 
indirectly  even  the  art  of  our  harmony  and 
cadences.^  Hence  in  treating  the  history  of 
the  Song  in  each  successive  country,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  folk-song  should  hold  its  place. 

There  is  another  form  of  Song  which,  for  want 
of  a  better  term  (where  a  distinction  is  neces- 
sary), it  is  convenient  to  designate  by  theGemjan 
phrase  KunsUiedy  or  Art- Song.  These  songs 
are  more  regular  and  finished  compositions, 
written  with  conscious  art  by  men  who  have 
made  music  their  study.  But  formerly  there 
was  no  branch  of  music  so  freely  handled  by 
inferior  and  unpractised  hands.  The  lyric  song 
may  not  need  so  accurate  a  knowledge  of  formal 

s  Sm  V»xrf\  AH  9f  Mu»tc,  p.  OS  «(  ««. 


SONG 


637 


principles  as  other  kinds  of  music,  but  it  both 
demands,  and  at  last  has  received,  the  care  and 
serious  attention  necessary  for  its  proper  cultiva- 
tion and  appreciation.  For  the  art-song  simple 
'  guitar '  accompaniments  no  longer  suffice  ;  the 
instrumental  part  must  have  a  beauty,  a  fulness 
and  elaboration  of  its  own  apart  from  the  voice, 
though  primarily  its  duty  is  to  enhance  and 
support  the  melody  and  the  meaning  of  the 
woids.  Further,  composers  have  now  recognised 
that  no  song  can  be  really  good  without  correct 
accentuation  and  emphasis ;  they  have  turned 
their  attention  to  the  study  of  accent,  and  to 
the  proper  relations  of  musical  cadence  to 
grammatical  punctuation.^  (See  Accent,  De- 
clamation (iii.)- 

The  importance  of  the  choice  of  words  is 
happily  now  manifesting  itself  in  every  country, 
for  the  necessary  dependence  of  the  Song  upon 
poetry  is  obvious.'  Until  the  poet  supplies 
lyrics  of  adequate  power  and  beauty  of  form, 
the  skill  of  the  composer  alone  cannot  develop 
the  full  capacities  of  the  Song.  When,  however, 
poets  and  composers  of  the  first  rank  have  worked 
together  in  mutual  sympathy  and  admiration, 
as  did  the  German  poets  and  composers  of 
Goethe's  age,  the  Song  has  quickly  mounted  to 
the  loftiest  heights  of  art  Time  alone  can 
produce  men  of  genius  and  breathe  the  inspira- 
tion of  great  events,  but  poets  and  composers 
are  alike  the  children  of  their  age,  and  vividly 
reflect  the  dominant  emotion^  of  the  hour  and 
the  scene  in  which  they  live.  History  colours 
every  branch  of  art,  and  none  more  so  than  the 
Song,  for  it  is  the  first  and  simplest  mode  of 
giving  expression  to  strong  feeling.  Men 
naturally  sing  of  what  fills  their  heads  and 
hearts  ;  and  thus  there  is  a  close  correspondence 
between  great  historic  events  and  the  multitudes 
of  songs  to  which  they  generally  if  not  invari- 
ably gave  birth. 

Enough  has  now  been  said  to  show  the  right 
the  Song  has  to  be  cultivated  as  a  branch  of 
pure  art,  and  it  remains  to  attempt  to  trace 
its  history,  so  far  as  possible,  in  each  civilised 
country.  In  some  countries  the  art  of  music 
has  not  advanced  beyond  the  most  primitive 
stage  of  national  melody,  but  in  others  the 
development  of  music  can  be  followed  from 
the  simplest  folk-song  to  the  highest  form  of 
artistic  composition. 

France 
As   France  was  the  original  home  of  the 
Troubadours,  France  may  legitimately  occupy 

>  In  M.  Mathla  Lawy'i  1>ttit*  ttf  VMxpmtfon  mutieatt  clear 
ralra  will  b«  found  for  the  eorrespoDdence  between  the  mnaioil 
rhythm  and  the  vene  rhythm,  with  exunplce  which  diow  bow  the 
■enN  of  the  maeioil  phnwe  may  be  destroyed,  if  it  be  interrapted 
by  a  new  line  of  the  verse,  and  how  the  verse  in  tnm  maybe  marred 
by  the  interruption  of  resta  or  pauses  in  the  musical  phmse.  There 
the  student  may  learn  why  the  strong  and  weak  accents  of  the 
music  should  coincide  respectively  with  the  long  and  short  syllables 
of  the  Terse,  and  when  the  departures  from  this  rule  are  Justifiable. 
This  excellent  treatise  was  translated  into  Bnglish  by  M .  B.  von 
Olehn.  and  published  by  Novello  *  Co. 

2  That  the  poet's  share  in  the  Song  is  at  length  recognised,  is 
proved  by  the  poet's  name  being  given  nearly  as  often  as  that  of 
the  compoeer  in  the  progzammea  ol  the  picsent  day. 


the  first  place  in  this  scheme.  Another  valid 
reason  for  treating  this  country  first  is  that 
it  possesses,  perhaps,  one  of  the  oldest  songs  in 
existence.     This  is  a  ComplainU  on  the  death 

Ex.  1.  Facsimile  OF 'Planotus  Earoli.*' 

/"    T    -^  r 

r  -^  ^  5  ^ . 

C      unxer 7-Tft^  ti  Ttnt  i 

I-yi       ^ 

K^iiwic/^iiTiilfro  y 

3  VMM,  BUt9(r$  gtntrdU  d$  to  JTnifffse,  iv.  474. 


638 


SONG 


of  Charlemagne,  813.  It  may  be  found  in  a 
MS.  in/ondS'laiin  dated  1154,  in  the  Biblio- 
th^ue  Nationale  in  Paris,  ^  and  has  been 
attributed  to  S.  Columbanus.  The  music  has 
been  reduced  to  modem  notation  by  both 
Gottssemaker  and  F^tis,  but  their  yersions 
vary.  It  must  be  remembered  that  there  is 
leas  certainty  on  the  subject  of  early  music 
than  on  early  language,  for  music  was  handed 
down  solely  by  oral  tradition.  And  even 
when  about  the  year  1000  the  necessity  was 
felt  for  some  method  of  musical  notation,  the 
plans  adopted  were  so  numerous  and  confused 
that  the  question  of  time  or  rhythm  or  actual 
notes  of  a  mediseval  MS.  is  constantly  interpreted 
differently  by  musical  historians.  We  therefore 
give  in  facsimile  afragment  of  the  MS.  (see  p.  537), 
and  a  few  bars  of  both  versions  for  comparison : — 

Bx.  2.      C0U88BMAKF.R*6  YeBSION.' 


▲     lo-Ua 

n               ■ — 

or    • 

ta 

oi-qiM   ad    00     - 

4Jr[jJ  J 

■■-^ 

^ 

m       ' 

JJ^<' 

^ **=»— 

oi-dn>-a  Llt'to-a  mm  •  ti» 

Ex..  8.  Fixis's  Version. 


The  melody  has  only  four  notes  ;  indeed,  up 
to  the  last  phrase  only  three,  showing  that 
the  peculiar  French  fondness  for  a  small  com- 
pass has  survived  for  1000  years.  Since  the 
10th  centuiy  the  practice  existed  of  using 
well-known  tunes  (which  later  would  be  called 
tirribrea)  to  different  Latin  words.'  And  most 
of  the  Crusaders'  songs  which  have  come  down 
to  us  from  the  11th  century  are  in  Latin.  ^ 
But  an  important  exception  amongst  them  is 
a  song  commencing  '0  Marie,  Deu  maire,' 
dated  1096,  which  is  in  the  vernacular,  and 
this  date  marks  the  epoch  when  the  Latin 
language  began  to  be  superseded  by  the  French. 

It  is  necessaiy  to  emphasise  the  close  con- 
nection which  has  ever  existed — and  perhaps 
in  France  more  than  in  any  other  country — 
between  the  folk-song  and  the  Church.  There 
Ib  reason  to  believe  that  some  melodies,  or 
fragments  of  melodies,  of  Celtic  origin  have 
been  preserved  from  the  days  before  Christianity 
was  introduced  into  France.     The  old  heathen 

I  Another  aong  In  the  mme  MS.  on  the  liattle  of  Pontanet.  841. 
la  aaid  to  be  br  one  Annlbert,  a  Fnuikiah  wmnlor.  vbo  «aa 
IVMcnt.    P«t]e.  BUtotrt  gMrnU  dt  la  Mutiqu*,  Iv.  47S  e«  ««. 

s  Wekertln,  'Cbanaona  Popw  da  Pa/a  de  Prance.'  L  sa 

>  P4tla  apMka  of  two  Latin  poeroa  aong  to  tonea  called  Modnu 
UUdhUM  (i'ttir  de  ramov).  and  Modu$Jlorum  (I'alr  dea  fleaia).  IbU. 
It.  49a 

4  Such  aa  the  beaotlfnl '  Jeniaalem  VlraMlU.'  which  la  a  aolemn 
piece,  like  a  aragorian  hymn,  and  protmhly  rang  by  the  people  In 
the  open  air.    /»<<<.  It.  40. 


popular  songs  were  in  the  early  centuries  of 
the  Christian  era  a  subject  of  much  trouble 
to  the  Church,  and  Christian  people  were  for- 
bidden to  frequent  places  where  they  were 
sung.  Even  Charlemagne,  who  ordered  a  collec- 
tion of  epic  songs  to  be  inade,  condenmed  the 
vulgar,  reprehensible  type  of  songs  which  were 
sung  round  about  the  Churches.  In  speaking 
of  the  musicof  the  Church  it  must  be  remembered 
that  it  had  two  distinct  groups ;  first,  the 
liturgical  portion,  or  plain-song,  without  regular 
rhythm  ;  and  second,  the  music  to  the  hymns 
(prose  or  sequence,  sequentia),  which  was  both 
melodious  and  rhythmical,  and  represented  the 
popular  part  of  the  service.  By  degrees,  the 
secular  spirit  crept  into  these  proses  ^  and  from 
the  11th  century  onwards  popular  songs'  are 
to  be  found  in  the  vulgar  tongue  side  by  side 
with  the  Latin  canticles.  These  were  called 
proses  farcies  or  epUres  farciesJ  Laudable 
attempts  also  were  made  by  the  Church  to 
adapt  secular  festivals  and  customs  to  Christian 
purposes.  Thus  the  Christian  festival  of  Easter 
corresponded  with  the  heathen  celebration  of 
the  spring.  Many  of  the  old  Celtic  May-day 
songs  ^  still  exist,  and  a  great  similarity  of 
melody  can  be  traced  between  them  and  the 
Easter  music  of  the  Church.  The  origin  of  the 
well-known  Easter  hymn  '  0  filii  et  filiae '  is 
unknown,  but  it  is  certainly  as  old  as  the 
12th  century,  and  has  usually  been  attributed 
to  French  sources.  It  is  unlike  Gregorian 
music  in  character,  but  its  affinity  with  some 
of  the  following  examples  of  old  May-day  songs, 
called  Chansons  de  qiiUe,  still  sung  in  different 
parts  of  France,  is  incontestable.* 


^Bx.4. 


t4.  ^aataa-Joor    •    dlivl  qn'U    ImjA  chanter. 


•  LaTols,  La  Mutifu*  Fraimgalm,  p.  90. 
'  Uanallr  OomplmhUM,  reoognlaalAe 
T  Por  aaanple  aee  Ptftia,  T.  lOa 


by  their  riiythm. 


•  Theae  contain   strange  reI1«a  of  old  Oeltle  worda.  anch  aa 
TrimamMtH.    See  Tleraot,  ^liMrt,  p.  19S. 

*  Tleraot.  Bi$toif  de  to  dUnuon  PoptAatr*  m,  /Vonea,  pw  181. 
Other  pagan  or  Oeltlo  fMlTala.  aoeh  aa  midwinter  (called  lafiU  4» 


SONG 


539 


Another  example  of  the  resemblance  between 
the  Church  and  folk-songs  is  afforded  by  the 
Tonus  Peregrinus,  the  chant  sung  to  the  Psalm 
*  When  Israel  came  out  of  Egypt.'  Again  the 
origin  is  obscure,  but  already  in  the  9th  century 
it  was  held  to  be  very  old.  Like  '  0  filii  et 
filiae  *  it  differs  in  many  ways  from  Gregorian 
music,  but  several  old  French  songs  could  be 
given  where  the  melody  is  almost  note  for  note 
that  of  the  Tonus  Peregrinus.  For  instance, 
the  *  Chant  des  Livr^es,'  a  very  old  song  still 
sung  at  country  weddings ;  or  the  beautiful 
16th-century  » Rossignolet  des  bois.'  ^ 


,Ex.  7. 


Qui    a'ast  Touln     nm  •  rl    -   er;    Hais      Un'entend 


I'a  •  aa  •  g9       Oomme  o'est  qiiMl  fant  af  •  mer. 

Though  there  is  no  definite  evidence  in  this 
case  that  the  Church  adopted  a  popular  melody 
for  the  chant,  nor  that  the  people  used  a  chant 
which  they  heard  in  church  for  their  own  songs, 
it  proves  the  popularity  of  this  fine  melody,  and 
that  it  was  common  property  to  both.  And  it 
will  be  seen  that  this  practice  of  intermixing 
sacred  and  secular  music  has  continued  from 
those  early  centuries  to  the  present  day. 

It  was  incidentally  remarked  in  the  introduc- 
tion to  this  article  that  the  folk-songs  have 
given  us  our  scales ;  and  these  scales  include 
not  only  the  modem  mi^or  and  minor  but  also 
the  ecclesiastical  or  Gregorian  scales  and  modes. 
Modal  melodies  have  existed  for  hundreds  of 
years,  and  still  exist  all  over  France.  It  must, 
however,  be  admitted  that  the  commonest 
scales  for  the  French  folk-songs  are  the  modem 
major  and  minor  scales.^  Among  the  most 
beautiful  modal  tunes  are  those  found  in 
Brittany,  such  as  '  Le  Clerc  du  Trdm^lo,'  which 
is  in  the  ecclesiastical  Dorian  or  first  mode  ; 
a  singularly  pathetic  religious  song  sung  in 
a  time  of  famine,  '  Disons  le  chapelet '  in  the 
Phrygian  or  third  mode  ;  and  the  well-known 
'  Ma  douce   Annette,'   or   the  beautiful    '  Le 


Paradis  *  (given  below)  in  the  Aeolian  or  ninth 
mode.3 


VAauOanet^f  or  rAffutOimm/)  or  mldsnromer.  anvwerlDg  reaiMoi- 
Irely  to  the  Church  iMtlTalsoiChrlstmai  (weCAROL),  the  l^lphany. 
or  St.  John  the  BapilBt^  gave  rlee  to  nisMes  of  eonBi  ■till  rang  in 
Franoe.  and  oominon  to  both  kinds  of  music.  Space  debars  farther 
mention  of  this  sabieet,  hot  full  Aid  Interesting  Infbrmation  will 
be  found  in  M.  Tiersot'e  above-qnotad  rolame,  p.  186  0C  «?. 
(fn  this  same  chapter  the  famous  'Maumari^'  Cktuuom  are 
alluded  to.) 

I  Tiersot.  '  Mdlodiee.'  p.  7S. 

3  lUd..  liisMre,  p.  S22. 


^Kx.8. 

to^pjj^gl^-p^ 

i^J-jLjiJ: 

Je  eroia  an  pa  •  ra^lls 
J<- SOS  BOOS  la   pro-mla. 

n 

J'ee-pte«al.l«r    ua 
1st             2nd. 

fe:-t= 

^gf^M^ 

J.  J  ill  ;h 

Jour    an       glo  •  rl  •  eux    ai  -   ]our. 


The  narrative  form  of  song  is  very  popular 
in  France,  and  the  generic  terms  for  this  class 
of  song  is  the  ComplairUe,  The  old  Celtic  epics 
and  the  later  collection  of  epics  made  by  Charle- 
magne, the  cfumsons  de  geste,  the  early  romances, 
the  ligendes  of  the  Passion  and  of  the  Christian 
saints,  and  the  old  pathetic  ballades  of  the 
peasants  would  all  come  under  that  name.  The 
wonderful  I4gende  called  the  <  Ballade  de  J^sus 
Christ '  is  still  sung  in  Picardy  .*  The  simplicity 
of  the  language  and  the  modal  melody  point  to 
its  being  of  popular  origin.  The  '  Chanson  de 
la  Perronelle,' which  has  lived  in  the  mouths  of 
the  people  for  centuries,*  resembles  the  oldest 
complainies  in  its  poetic  form,  consisting  of 
couplets  of  two  lines  without  a  refrain.^ 


M.  Tiersot  calls  attention  to  the  strange  fact, 
that  although  these  chansons  narratives  were 
known  to  exist,  they  were  far  less  often  included 
in  the  collections  made  from  the  18th  to  the 

>  The  aboTe  are  included  in  M.  Bounault-Duooudraj's  'Trente 
Melodies  Populaires  de  la  Basse  Brstamie^ ;  and  here  It  wou  Id  be  con  • 
Ten  lent  to  state  briefly  M.  Bourganlt-Ducoudray 's  theory.  He  den  ies 
that  these  modal  songs  have  their  origin  In  the  Church.  H  is  argU' 
ment  is  that  the  modes  ftnind  in  these  and  other  popular  melodies, 
not  only  of  Franoe,  bat  of  Ireland.  Sootland.  Greece,  etc.,  are  actually 
the  survival  of  music  common  to  the  eariy  Indo-European  race. 
He  maintains  thi^  the  Greeks  alone  cultivated  music  as  an  art; 
that  the  Church,  taking  Its  scales  from  Greece  and  afterwards 
carrying  them  to  oUier  countries,  brought  to  Brittany,  for  instance, 
a  kind  of  mxulo  which  was  already  familiar  to  the  Bretons  in  their 
popular  songs;  that  the  so-called  modes  may  be  as  old  and  as 
common  to  many  nationalitica  as  many  of  the  familiar  words 
eommou  to  the  dUTerent  languages  of  the  Indo-European  family. 
On  the  strength  of  this,  Ducond ray's  nomenclature  of  the  modes 
Is  the  Greek  and  not  the  ecclesiastical,  and  this  has  been  adopted 
fay  other  continental  writers  (see  Modbs).  Throushout  this  article, 
however,  the  Church  names  and  Gregorian  numbers  of  the  modes 
are  retained,  except  in  the  section  relating  to  Song  in  Greece. 

•  This  legend  is  widely  spread  In  France.  It  Is  found  in  connect 
tion  with  several  saints  in  the  Lmnda  Aurm  of  Jacobus  d« 
Vorsgine.  See  Cbampfleury  and  Wekerlln's  '  Chansons  pop.  des 
provinces  de  France.' 

•  The  earliest  record  of  the  words  and  mnsle  of  this  song  is  to  be 
fonnd  in  a  MS.  in  the  Blbliothique  Nattonale  called '  Chansons  du 
l^kne  Bi^e.'  published  by  Gaston  Faris  and  Oeraert 

•  Tiersot,  HUtotn,  p.  1% 


540 


SONG 


17  th  oenturies  than  the  chansons  saUHques^ 
chansons  d'amouVy  pastourelUSf  etc.  Of  recent 
years  their  extreme  beauty  has  claimed  more 
attention,  and  many  modem  collections  of  them 
have  been  pablished. 

To  trace  the  development  of  song  it  is  now 
necessary  to  return  to  the  early  Middle  Ages. 
Some  strong  impulse  was  evidently  given  to  the 
human  mind  in  £urope  towards  the  close  of  the 
11th  century,  and  the  songs  of  the  Troubadours, 
like  the  numerous  schools  of  philosophy  which 
illuminated  the  12  th  century,  were  fruits  of 
an  awakened  ardour  for  intellectual  pursuits. 
With  the  Troubadours  a  new  type  of  music  was 
introduced,  which  may  be  described  as  songs 
written  with  conscious  art.  These  versifiers, 
the  Troubadours  and  Trouvftres  to  whom  music 
and  literature  owe  much,  derived  their  names 
from  *  trobar  *  or  *  trouver  *  (to  find  or  invent). 
They  belonged  respectively  to  the  south  and 
north  of  France,  and  wrote  in  the  Langue  d'Oc 
and  Langue  d'Oil.  It  was  not  unnatural  that 
in  Provence  and  Languedoc  the  new  life  should 
especially  express  itself  in  music  and  verse, 
for  the  circumstances  of  those  provinces  were 
favourable  to  the  development  of  sentiment  and 
imagination.  The  rise  of  the  Troubadours  in 
southern  France  was  quickly  followed  by  the 
appearance  of  the  Trouv^res  in  northern  France. 
There  was  less  gaiety  about  these  northern 
versifiers  than  about  the  southern,  but  in  other 
respects  the  resemblance  between  them  was  very 
close.  At  first  the  Troubadours  and  Trouv&res 
sang  their  own  verses,  but  the  functions  of  the 
poet  and  singer  soon  became  distinct.  Hence 
a  class  of  professional  musicians  arose,  who 
sang  the  songs  of  their  own  lords  and  other 
composers.  These  wandering  singers  from 
Provence  and  Picardy,  known  as  Jongleurs 
or  Chanieors  in  the  south,  and  MenMriers  or 
minstrels  in  the  north,  ^  went  from  court  to 
court,  country  to  country,  and  joining  the 
Crusaders  they  returned  from  the  Holy  Land 
filled  with  enthusiasm  and  singing  songs  of 
love  and  war.  The  war-songs  or  chansons  de 
gesU  were  musically  uninteresting ;  they  were 
merely  long  chanted  tales  where  the  melody 
only  occurs  in  the  short  refrain.  But  the  love- 
songs  were  poems  of  exquisite  grace,  perfect 
rhythm,  and  highly  expressive.  Their  very 
names  reveal  their  origin,  such  as  the  pastourelle, 
aZba  and  serena,  tensons  and  sirvente,^    To  the 

1  The  VmiHrier  Meini  to  bavo  fttUined  »  higher  stand»rd  of 
caltare  and  tiute  than  the  Jongleur,  who  soon  added  other  modei 
of  popolar  diversion  (Baoh  «•  Joggling  and  acrobatic  frata)  to  his 
maaicsl  acooinpHshments.  It  must,  however,  he  remembered  that 
the  lower  els  sees  la  France  were  untoorhed  hy  the  Troubadour 
movemeut,  which  covered  the  time  from  the  11th  to  the  14th 
centuties.  They  had  nothing  more  in  common  with  the  laU, 
Hrventet.  etc.  than  they  had  with  the  old  cAansoiM  de  gette.  The 
Jongleurs  ware  the  sole  connecting  link  between  the  people  and  the 
courts. 

>  In  the  patUmrtOe  the  poet  feigned  to  meet  and  woo  a  shepherd. 
ess ;  the  tdba  and  lemna  were  aufaades  anu  serenades.  The  ttnaona 
wore  mettical  dialogues  of  livelj  repartee  on  some  disputed  point 
of  gsllantiT.  and  the  tirvente  was  an  address  of  a  devoted  lover  to 
his  mistrebs.  To  this  latter  foim  of  composition,  which  was  also 
much  employed  In  satire,  a  special  oelebiliy  belongs,  because  its 
metre— the  terta,  r<ni»— was  adopted  by  Dante  and  Fetiarch. 


Troubadours  likewise  may  be  ascribed  the  canzo 
and  canzons,  the  sovZa  (soulagement),  a  merry 
song,  and  iJie  laij^  which  is  of  a  melancholy 
character ;  and  to  the  Trouveres  more  especially 
the  romance,^  The  Troubadours  and  Trouveres 
were  not  less  fertUe  in  the  invention  of  dance 
songs,  combining  solo  and  chorus.  Such  were 
the  famous  carol  or  rondet  de  carol,  the 
espringerie  (or  jumping  dance),  and  the  ballaia^ 

The  earliest  of  the  Troubadours  on  record 
was  Guillaume,  Duke  of  Guienne,  who  joined 
the  first  Crusade  in  1096.  And  among  the 
illustrious  Troubadours  and  Trouveres  of  the 
12th  and  13th  centuries,  whose  names  survive 
and  many  of  whose  melodies  have  come  down 
to  us,  there  were :  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion, 
Bertran  de  Bom,  Pierre  Rogier,  Bemart  de 
Yentadour,  the  Ch&telain  de  Coucy,  Guirant 
de  Bomeil,  Blondel  de  Nesle,  Gace  Brul^, 
Hugues  de  Lusignan,  Thibaut  de  Champagne 
(King  of  Kavarre),  Jehan  Erars,  Giraut  de 
Calenson,  Perrin  d'Angecourt,  Adam  de  la 
Bass^,  Adenet  le  Roi,  and  Adam  de  la  Hale. 
The  prime  of  the  Troubadours  was  past  when 
in  the  year  1820,  the  Troubadour  Academy  of 
Toulouse  was  founded  for  the  cultivation  and 
preservation  of  their  art.^    (See  Troubadour.) 

The  Troubadours  and  Trouvferes  owe  great 
debts  to  the  Church  and  to  the  Folk-song. 
Their  music  was  a  compound  of  the  folk-song 
for  its  melody  and  form  ;  and  of  tlie  Gregorian 
chant  for  its  declamation  and  ornament.  But 
inasmuch  as  the  art  of  literature  was  then 
highly  developed,  and  music  was  still  in  its 
infancy,  it  was  impossible  to  combine  the 
elaborate  and  highly  finished  forms  of  poetry 
with  the  music  then  existing,  and  a  new  kind  of 
song,  more  artistic  and  more  developed,  was  the 
result.  The  Troubadours  were  eager  to  invent 
new,  ingenious  and  graceful  phrases,  metres,  and 
rhythms,^  and  their  work  was  of  real  value  in 
handing  down  the  rhyming  stanza  as  the  most 
perfect  vehicle  for  lyrical  expression.  Also, 
by  the  preference  the  Troubadours  gave  to  the 
modem  major  scale  they  helped  to  establish 
it  in  European  music  before  the  close  of  the 
18th  century.  In  this,  and  in  the  simple 
repetitions  of  their  musical  phrases,  they  followed 
the  popular  instinct.  And  though  the  Trouba- 
dour melodies  are  more  developed  and  finished 
than  those  of  the  chanMns  popukdrcs,  it  is  in 
many  cases  impossible  to  state  with  certainty 
which  are  folk-songs  and  which  are  the  work 
of  trained  musicians.  For  instance,  a  pastoral 
song,  *La  reine  d'Avril,'  belonging  to  the  12th 

S  See  F.  Wolf.  Utber  die  Lots, 

*  The  romanet  is  the  lyilesl  outcome  of  the  nsrraUve  eomplalnttt 
and  eharuoni  dt  getU  in  Northern  France.  '  Belle  Yolans '  of  the 
ISlh  century  is  an  example.    See  Tiersot,  nUtetre,  i>.  414. 

s  There  were  schools  in  other  carts  of  Fiance  where  the  Gay 
Science  was  taught,  and  whither  the  Troubadours  repaired  in  Lent 
(when  not  allowed  to  appear  in  public)  to  learn  new  songs  and 
melodies.  The  minstrels  also  liad  rights  gisnted  to  them  to  form 
coipoiations  or  guilds  In  seveial  towns.  The  esrllest  charter  dates 
lins.  signed  by  Robert  de  Caveian.  and  lasted  nntll  the  18th 
century. 

<  See  P.  Aubry.  La  rkjfCAmt^ue  mtiiceato  des  Trouhadwtn,  etc., 
Paris.  1907. 


SONG 


541 


century,  is  said  to  be  of  popular  origin  ;  it 
is  melodious  and  rhythmicid,  it  has  a  refrain, 
and  the  first  little  phrase  is  four  times  repeated. 
*  L'autrier  par  la  matinee,*  by  Thibaut,  King 
of  Navarre  (1201-54),  opens  with  a  phrase 
exactly  similar,  which  is  also  repeated.^  There 
is  the  same  charm  of  sincerity  and  pretty  senti- 
ment about  an  older  song,  the  Oh&telain  de 
Coney's  (1192)  '  Qoant  le  rossignol,'^  though 
the  form  is  less  concise.  It  is  composed  in 
phrases  of  seven  bars  each,  like  many  other 
mediseval  songs.  ^  Both  are  good  illustrations 
of  Troubadour  songs.  ^ 

Bz.  la  QuarU  le  Bossignol, 

ChAtslain  db  Couct. 


Very  few  aiirvenies,  but  many  pastourelles, 
have  been  preserved  from  the  12  th  century. 
This  period  was  specially  rich  in  sacred  and 
secular  dramatic  representations  ;  and,  as  before 
stated,  proses  and  canticles  in  plain -chant 
melody  are  found  side  by  side  with  light, 
rhythmical  popular  tunes.  It  is  thus  in  '  Daniel 
Ludus '  by  one  Hilaire,  played  in  1250.     The 

1  Ambnw.  ar^ktehf*  der  MuaOt.  11.  927.  and  Tlenot.  BUt..  p.  871. 

*  Ambm,  Ibid.  11.  S23.  Bat  ne^  and  Perne  put  these  into  modem 
notation,  and  where  thejr  differ,  Barney's  are  the  lower  notes. 

'  Another  of  Thlbaat's  songs,  '  Je  me  quidole  partlr  d'amoar.' 

Sren  by  Ambros,  11.  328,  has  an  alternating  rhTtbm  of  two  and 
ree  bsra.  but  It  preserres  a  pet  feet  symmetoy  of  form. 

*  Faither  examples  of  Truobadonr  songs  will  be  fonnd  In  Wolfs 
Ueber  dte  Lais.  Klcaewetter's  Hehfeksatt  vnd  Bnekt^^thtit  d$» 
wtUlicktn  gtmnjfn ;  J.  Stafford  Smith's  '  Musica  Antlana,'  and  In 
the  historic*  of  mnslc  by  Ambros,  Ftftis,  Bamey,  and  otnen.  Also 
for  modernised  reislons  see  Wekerlln's  *  Bchoe  du  Tamps  passtf, 
ToL  1. 


*  Jeu  de  S.  Nioolas '  and'  '  Le  Juif '  were  of  the 
same  type,  at  once  sacred  and  comic  The 
character  of  the  mysteries  remained  faithful  to 
tradition  ;  these  were  only  a  continuation  of 
the  liturgical  dramas  of  the  11th  century.^ 
But  by  the  end  of  the  13th  century  the 
Trouv^res  had  broken  loose  from  the  Church, 
and  resorted  to  little  village  histories  or  love- 
stories  for  their  material.  '  Aucassin  et  Nico- 
lete,'  the  well-known  chant -/abUf  belongs  to 
this  time.  Musically  more  important  was 
Adam  de  la  Hale's  celebrated  pastorale  *  Le  jeu 
de  Robin  et  de  Marion,'  which  was  played 
at  the  court  of  Charles  of  Anjou  at  Naples  in 
1285.  This  work  has  long  been  attributed 
solely  to  Adam  de  la  Hale's  own  invention,  but 
M.  Tiersot  has  now  shown  that  A.  de  la  Hale 
probably  wrote  the  play,  and  then  strung 
together  a  number  of  popular  tunes  (many  of 
them  of  far  older  date)  to  suit  his  words.  ^ 
Thus  this  pastoral  comedy  forms  probably  the 
oldest  collection  of  French  folk-times  in  exist- 
ence. Adam  de  la  Hale,  together  with  Guil- 
laume  de  Machault,  should  more  properly  be 
classed  among  the  Chansonniers,  or  the  early 
musicians,  who  in  the  18th  century  paved  the 
way  for  the  contrapuntal  school,  which  for  t^o 
centuries  was  to  be  the  predominating  influence 
in  European  music     A.  de  la  Hale,  sumamed 

*  Le  bossu  d' Arras, '  was  bom  in  1240  ;  Machault 
in  1285,  thus  forming  the  link  between  the 
Trouv^ree  and  the  scholar  musicians  of  a  little 
later  time.  Like  the  Trouv^res  they  often 
invented  both  the  words  and  the  melodies  of 
their  songs,  but  they  also  attempted  to  write 
in  the  polyphonic  form  of  composition  ;  and 
raw  and  imperfect  as  these  efforts  were,  they 
marked  a  step  in  advance.  To  Adam  de  la 
Hale  and  G.  de  Machault  French  music  owes 
much ;  not  only  can  the  form  of  the  future 

Ex.  11. 


h^^^^i^^^^ig 


Boblos     m'a 


^ 

1^^ 

^ 

i^^ 

-^^ 

-'^ 

.  .  tn   oo  .  td-le    d 
-9 1 r 

'ea  •  ear    • 

la  •  te     bonne    et  belle 
Dal  Segno  al  Fine, 

A=^ 

^p^ 

i^ 

^^ 

d^bb 

i 

S^ 

■ooa  kra  -  nl  •  e  et  chain  •  tu  •  re  •  le     4    leor    Ira. 


vaudevUU  be  detected  in  the  pastorale  *  Robin 
et  Marion,'  but  its  chansons  are  strictly  similar 

•  See  lAToIx,  La  MhulqtM  fYanfoiaf.  p.  41. 

•  Space  prohibits  quoting  here  at  length  M.  Tlenot's  Intcreeting 
and  eoncluslve  arguments.  They  are  given  In  different  places  In 
hla  Biataire  dm  la  C%angan  Pop.  See  especially  p.  4SB  e(  sag.,  and 
the  article  Halx,  Adam  de  la,  voL  11.  p.  SfTS. 


542 


SONG 


in  struoture  and  character  to  chansons  of  modem 
date.  In  the  old  and  new  alike  we  find  a 
strongly  marked  rhythm,  easy  intervals,  and  a 
paucity  of  notes,  repetition  of  one  short  melodic 
phrase,  the  major  mode,  the  favourite  6-8  time, 
and  an  extreme  simplicity  of  general  plan.^ 
Though  hundreds  of  years  have  passed  since 
*  Bobin  et  Marion '  was  written,  the  song  'Robin 
m'aime'  (ex.  11)  is  still  sung  in  Hennegau.^ 

In  two  volumes  of  old  French  and  Latin 
poems,  the  author  Guillaume  de  Machault  is 
styled  poet  and  musician.  The  forms  of  the 
poems  are  very  varied,  and  among  them  are  a 
great  number  oflais,  virelais,  bcUlades,  rondeaiiXj 
and  rondeletSt  ^th  description  of  the  music  to 
which  they  are  set^  Machault  seems  to  have 
been  most  renowned  for  his  graceful  and  rhyth- 
mical balletUs,  which  are  written,  as  a  rule,  in 
triple  or  compound  time.  It  should  be  noted 
that  in  the  songs  of  this  early  period  the  melody 
is  never  protracted  and  drawn  out  to  the  detri- 
ment of  the  words,  but  closely  follows  the  quick 
succession  of  syllables  without  visible  effort 
And  these  old  melodies  often  have  the  Iambic 
rhythm,  for  instance  * 


Ex.  12. 


Adam  db  la  Hals. 


Contemporary  with,  or  a  little  junior  to 
Machault,  was  Jehannot  Lescurel,  who  wrote 
romances  which  are  still  extant  in  MS.  One 
of  these,  *  A  vous  douce  d^bonnaire,'  which  has 
been  translated  into  modem  notation  by  F^tis,'^ 
exhibits  a  more  developed  melody  and  a  more 
modem  tendency  than  other  productions  of  the 
same  date. 

If  it  be  tme  that  during  the  14th  and  15th 
centuries,  the  Church  exercised  an  exclusive 
dominion  over  music,  she  was  nevertheless  a 
friend  to  secular  songs.  By  taking  popular 
tunes  for  the  themes  of  their  masses  and  motets, 
such  as  'L'omme  arm^,'  'Tant  je  me  d^duis,' 
*  Se  la  face  ay  pale '  (used  by  Dufay) ;  or 
'  Baisez-moi '  (by  Roselli),  '  Malheur  me  bat '  (by 
Josquin  des  Pr^),  etc.,<^  the  musicians  of  the 
Church  preserved  many  a  melody  which  would 
otherwise  have  perished.  *  L'omme  arm6 '  is 
undoubtedly  the  most  famous  song  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  it  owes  its  notoriety  not  so 
much  to  its  beauty  as  to  the  fact  that  contra- 
puntal composers,  from  Dufay,  at  the  end  of 
the  14th  century,  to  Palestrina,  used  it  more 
than  any  other  folk-song.  (See  L'Homme 
ARMfe,  vol.  ii.  p.  687.)  From  want  of  such 
adoption  by  the  Church,  some  of  the  airs  have 
been  lost  to  which  the  curious  old  Noels,  printed 

1  TIenoi,  Blatoire,  n.  373. 

s  Thi«  example  U  taken  from  V.  hawaj  and  B.  Darid'e  Blatoirt 
d*la  NotaUim  MualedU,  v.  105. 

s  The  Tolumea  were  found  in  1747  by  Coant  de  Oayloc  In  a  royal 
UbrarylnFianoe.    'BxuiMy,  ai$L  t^f  Mum.  ML  9», 

*  Ambroe.  Om.  d&r  MutOt,  11.  9B6. 

»  This  aong  to  to  be  found  In  the  Bemm  MuatetOt,  toL  zlL  No.  14 

e  Ambroe.  Qm.  4tr  MutOL  Hi.  IS  «(  My. 


in  black  letter  at  the  end  of  the  15  th  century, 
were  sung,  though  the  names  of  the  airs  (such 
as  'Faulce  trahison,'  etc.)  remain  as  super- 
scriptions.    (See  Noel.)  7 

In  that  great  age  of  serious  polyphonic  music 
a  high  place  was  held  by  the  French  school,  or, 
to  speak  more  correctly,  by  the  Gallo-Belgian 
school,  for  during  the  14  th  and  15th  centuries 
no  distinction,  as  regards  music,  can  ie  drawn 
between  northern  France  and  Flanders. 

The  direct  use  made  of  secular  music  for 
ecclesiastical  purposes  is  remarkably  illustrated 
by  the  works  of  Clement  Marot  He  was  a 
translator  of  a  portion  of  the  Psalms  ;  and  the 
first  thirty  of  tjiem,  which  he  dedicated  to  his 
king,  Fran9oiB  I.,  were  set  or  '  parodied '  to  the 
favourite  dance-airs  of  the  Court  ^  Popularity 
was  thus  at  once  secured  for  the  Psalms,  whidii 
members  of  the  Court  could  sing  to  their 
favourite  caurarUeSf  sarcibandes^  and  hourries. 
After  Marot's  death  B^  continued  his  work  at 
Calvin's  instance.^  Much  doubt  existed  for  a 
long  while  as  to  whom  belonged  the  credit  of 
having  set  the  Psalms  to  music.  Some  ascribed 
it  wholly  to  Marot,  others  to  Goudimel ;  but 
M.  Douen  has  now  made  it  clear  that  these 
men,  together  with  Jambe  de  Fer,  Franc, 
Claudin,  and  others,  adapted  the  Psalms  to  old 
secular  songs.  ^^  In  the  'Psautier  Flamand 
Primitif'  (1540)  all  the  psalms  are  for  one 
voice,  and  with  only  two  exceptions  they  can 
all  be  traced  back  to  their  sources  in  popular 
French  and  Flemish  songs.**    (See  Psalter,) 

While  secular  music  was  thus  made  to 
minister  to  the  Church,  it  had  a  separate 
though  less  conspicuous  sphere  of  its  own. 
This  is  attested  by  the  vaux-de-viTt  (or 
drinking-songs),*^  voix-de-mlU  (better  known 
by  their  modem  name  of  vaudevilles)  and  airs- 
de-cour,  collected  and  published  in  t)ie  16th 

7  A  Itot  of  oolleotione  of  NoOe  to  given  by  Tieraot.  Bist..  n.  942. 

8  WekerUn  eaya  in  hie  '  Bchoe  da  Tempe  paae^'  Hi.  1911.  that 
when  any  dance -air  became  popular,  rfaymen  Immediately 
'  parodied '  it,  <.«.  put  ironto  to  it,  eo  that  it  could  be  eung.    The 

term  'p-r^«lT-' tht,fi>tc-?  --  "•niwnf  b-nrif?wnir.  >«ut  Itrtmply  a " 

adii'i'-'i'Ti       ']'li^    Hf^M'irUi    t(4iir<1    h   lijoiintitf    at   H 
'LVH  iiHJiLc,'  a  vTtill-tnuwD  BitaTFi|iic,  l«  fuiltj  a.  minnet. 

*  i':  iH  hi,  wbG  detei[t«l  the  orli,  r«cijfijujf-r](9«'f  ranirie.n( 
from  Mii^  i^nrdy  utlllitir~kaii  ihjIiji  ai  vitw,  '  [n  parole  cbanttequi 
po>-  f  ■  ■  [  irtkU(^puii  pill*  fort.  ■ 

1  '  ^>^  '4;  <  'liTTvu^f  Jinf^it  4^  i*  t^VtUfitlT  ttlijftif^itrt ,  1.  fl06.  One  of  the 
in<.  <  n.^f-Hi  |»  ^f\i-  iinnrniflwnt  Hutfu^iti'it  futtlm  Hymu,  'Que  Dieu- 

se  ■■    •■■'■■  — i -■  f  ■  ■  f'- 1-  ►^i  -  "«■' ■ .  -i i«d  •  lA  Maraeillaise 

Hi  (in.  and  it  appeared 

flr 

^^  AM  ^*Mi*^u^,  ukvibov*^,  M.  >k^',i  M  M.U  ..Liii  .ind  pealroa.  eecnlar 
aire  were  openly  utlliaed.  And  aooording  to  Douen  (pp.  688  and 
709)  the  Bonian  Catholics  have  never  ceased  to  adapt  eecular  aim 
to  eoeleslastical  nses  from  the  16th  century  down  u>  the  preaant 
time.  He  supports  this  statement  by  reference  to  '  La  please 
alonette  avec  son  tire-lire ;  ChaDSons  SpMtneUce,  to  plupart  sur  lea 
aim  mondains,  par  Ant.  de  to  Cauohle.  1819 ' ; '  Imitationi  de  J6sus- 
Christ  en  Oantiquee  sur  des  airs  d'Opdraa  et  de  Vandev  Ulee,  par  Abb4 
Petoarin.  1727'  (Farlsl ;  and  'OoncerU  Eh^rituels.'  a  oolleetioB 
publtohed  at  Avignon  in  18SS,  of  masses,  hymns,  requiems,  pray  en, 
etc..  on  operatic  melodies  by  Gluek.  PlcdUDi,  Mosart,  Ciroaroaa. 
Bosalni,  M<hal.  and  others. 

u  Basaelln  and  Jean  le  Honx.  who  lived  in  the  UtUe  valleys  (emtc) 
around  Vire  in  Normandy,  in  the  second  half  of  the  16th  oentury. 
wrote  many  favourite  dilnking*aongs,  and  henoe  drink tng-eongt 
came  to  be  called  wnuB-de-etfrs.  Some  wiltci*  have  eonfuaed  this 
term  with  the  wrfx-rfe-sOle,  which  applied  to  chaoeons  sung  in  the 
streets,  and  toter  to  any  sougs  with  gay  airs  and  light  words.  Jehaa 
Chardavoine's  fsmons  collection  of  monodie  songa  of  the  16th 
century  to  described  as  containing  vaux-dm-vOU  and  •o<s<cle-cat«. 
chansons  de  villc,  pitees  litt^rairas  avec  tour  muatque  ortginiile, 
telle  que  'Mignoiine.  alloiis  voir  si  to  roee.'  by  Ronaard.  etc  See 
Ticrsot.  Biitotrt,  pp.  998  and  433  for  other  similar  collectiooa. 


SONG 


543 


century.  Much  grace,  indeed,  and  gaiety  were 
eyinced  in  the  poetry  and  music  of  the  songs 
and  rtmianees  of  this  period,  and  it  would  be 
wrong  to  disparage  such  writers  as  Onillaume 
le  Heurteur,  Noe  Faignient,  Pierr^  Vermont,  and 
Fran9oiB  I.,  whose  song,  *0  triste  d^partir,' 
with  music  by  A.  Muret,  is  full  of  feeling.  But 
more  important  work  was  undoubtedly  being 
done  by  their  polyphonic  contemporaries.^ 

The  effects  of  the  great  change  which  came 
over  vocal  music  at  the  end  of  the  16th  century 
were  perhaps  more  marked  in  France  and  in 
the  Netherlands  than  elsewhere.  Polyphonic 
music,  whether  in  masses  or  in  madrigals,  had 
been,  as  we  have  seen,  the  glory  of  the  Oallo- 
Belgian  School ;  but  when  once  the  monodic 
system  had  gained  universal  recognition  poly- 
phonic music  began  to  decline,  even  where  it 
had  flourished  most ;  and  the  French-Flemish 
School  surrendered  its  individuality  by  absorp- 
tion into  the  Italian  SchooL  The  French  com- 
posers were  likewise  influenced  by  two  other 
great  innovations  of  this  time,  namely,  the 
creation  of  discords  by  Monteverde,  and  the 
application  of  music  to  the  drama.  Hence- 
forward original  melodies  of  their  own  invention 
were  expected  of  musicians,  and  the  old  practice 
of  choosing  themes  for  their  compositions  in 
folk-songs  or  popular  dance -songs  died  out, 
though  its  disappeamnce  was  gradual.  ^  Soogs 
for  one  voice,  such  as  the  'Airs  de  Cour'  of 
the  early  17th  century,  accompanied  by  lute  or 
harpsichord,  began  to  find  favour  and  to  drive 
airs  for  several  voices  from  the  ground  they  had 
occupied  for  more  than  150  years.  And  that  most 
characteristic  type  of  French  song,  the  romanGey 
was  soon  to  commence,  or  rather  resume,  a  reign 
of  popularity  which  is  not  yet  ended. 

Scudo  '  defines  the  romance  as  a  song  divided 
into  several  'couplets,'  the  air  always  simple, 
naive,  and  tender,  the  words  to  treat  of  sentiment 
and  love.  Unlike  the  charuon  it  is  never 
political  or  satirical.  It  was  one  of  the  very 
earliest  fruits  of  French  grace,  sensibility,  and 
gallantry  ;  and  though  its  attributes  may  have 
varied  firom  time  to  time,  it  remaineid  un- 
changed in  its  essence  from  the  era  of  the 
Troubadours  until  the  19th  century.     There 

1  A  oelebntad  oolleetion.  trlth  a  d«llc»tlon  to  CharlM  IX..  by 
SoniMrd.  wa«  pablUh«d  in  1078.  onder  the  tltla  of  '  Mcalangai  de 
ehaiMona,'  and  It  eontalncd  aonga  tor  toar,  alx,  and  someilmca  elfht 
Toleai  bf  all  the  beat -known  Gallo-Balgian  uowpoeew.  aach  aa 
JceqnJn,  Mooton,  Claodfn.  etc  Theie  aonn,  like  othen  of  the 
■une  date,  hare  atronflr  melodiea,  and  are  fall  of  eanonle  devSoea. 
Pierre  BonMrd'h  aonnete  were  eet  to  nraaie  br  Pblllxme  de  Monte.  In 
five,  aix,  and  leven  parte,  and  his  aonge  In  foar  parte,  by  Bertnnd 
and  Beynard.  Mention  aboald  alao  be  made  of  Creapel.  Balf.  and 
Clement  Janneqnln.  whoae  deeerlpU-ve  eonga  (aach  aa  the  CrU  4t 
Pmrlt)  formed  a  new  featnra  In  mnele.  alao  Gombert  and  Carton. 
Bat  with  the  true  polyphoiite  eonf  this  article  la  not  concerned. 

s  When  paUle  opinion  firrt  ceaeed  to  aporove  thla  ptactloe.  oom- 
poeen  did  not  at  onoe  abandon  It,  bat  they  no  lonaer  prodnoed 
Tooal  pieoee  which  were  aTowedly  parodlee  or  adaptationa ;  it  now 
became  their  habit  to  attach  their  namea  to  all  their  melodlee, 
whether  they  were  original  or  borrowed.  Ai  a  typical  caae  Chaiu 
XARTB  GAMIIBLI.B  iMj  be  qiioted :  neither  the  words  of  whldi 
were  by  Henri  IV.  nor  the  maaio  fay  hia  mattre  de  ebapttlle,  Da 
Caarroy.  The  afr  la  really  an  old  Nod  of  unknown  aathonhip, 
and  probably  some  coart  poet,  Dcsportea,  perhapa.  wrote  the  woida. 
See  alao  J.  B.  Wekerlln,  'Cbanaone  FopalairBs  dn  Faya  de  Ftanoe.' 
11.  n7. 

Oritffiie  «t  UUtra*m9  muHealm,  roL  11. 


was,  it  is  true,  a  period  after  the  disappearance 
of  the  Troubadours,  when  the  romance  was 
threatened  ¥ath  extinction,  by  its  fonnidable 
rival,  the  polyphonic  chamon,  but  the  I7th 
century  saw  it  again  in  possession  of  all  its 
old  supremacy.  Louis  XIII.  wrote  several ;  and 
his  music-master,  Pierre  Gu^ron,  was  perhaps 
the  foremost  composer  of  romances  of  that  time. 
One  of  the  best  examples  of  his  work,  'Aux 
plaisirs,  aux  d61ices,  berg^res,'  ^  contains  modu- 
lations which  are  remarkable  for  that  date. 
Gu^dron's  son-in-law,  BoSsset,  was  the  author  of 
a  very  &mous  romaTicBf  'Gachez  beaux  yeux.' 
And  the  names  of  Beaulieu,  Deschamps,  Oolasse, 
Bemier,  LefSvre,  Lambert,  and  Pierre  Ballard 
may  be  recorded  as  composers  of  this  age.  The 
last  (whose  'Belle,  vous  m'avez  bless^,'  was  a 
favourite)  was  a  member  of  the  famous  BaUard 
family  of  music-printers  and  also  composers. 
As  printers  they  preserved  a  large  quantity  of 
hnmettes  (see  BrunettbX  musettes^  and  other 
dance -songs  and  drinking-songs.  Several 
brunettes  were  included  in  ^e  great  collection 
of  the  old  French  popular  songs  which  A. 
Philidor  copied  out  with  hia  own  hand,  and 
dedicated  to  Louis  XIV.  Many  were  un- 
doubtedly written  on  old  Noel  airs,  especially 
those  in  parts.*  After  the  17th  century  they 
became  scarcely  distinguishable  from  romances. 
For  excellent  and  typical  specimens  of  the 
romances  of  the  18th  century  we  may  quote 
J.  J,  Rousseau's  'Le  Rosier'  and  'Au  fond 
d'une  sombre  valine,'  both  of  which  are  found 
in  his  collection  entitled  '  Les  Gonsolations  des 
Misk^  de  la  vie.'  The  musicians  of  this  period 
seem  to  have  been  inspired  by  the  grace  and 
delicacy  of  contemporary  poetry  to  create  tender 
and  simple  melodies.  Insipid  as  these  songs 
must  seem  to  us  now,  they  are  thoroughly 
representative  of  the  age  which  produced  them. 
It  was  the  time  of  that  singular  phase  of  thought 
and  feeling  which  will  be  for  ever  associated 
with  the  name  of  J.  J.  Rousseau ;  a  time  of 
yearnings  to  return  to  some  imagined  state  of 
native  innocence,  to  an  ideal  pastoral  life  in 
some  visionary  and  often  artificial  Arcadia. 
All  this  was  faithfully  reflected  in  the  works  of 
its  poets  and  musicians.  Monsigny  instinctively 
returned  to  the  style  of  the  folk-song,  even  to 
the  pastourdle  and  eomplainte.  His  frequent 
use  of  the  minor  seventh  of  the  scale  gives  a 
touch  of  mediievalism  to  hia  songs : ' 

«  PnUlahed  In  Wekerlln'a '  Behos  da  Tempe  paae^.'  toL  IIL  p.  la 
It  is  taken  from  a  Tery  rare  colleetlon  entitled  *Aln  da  Coar 
de  dllMiente  aatean,  5  Uvxva.  public  de  1615  4  108.  Farla.  ehea 
Pierre  Ballard.'    (OnMron's  melody  la  in  the  first  bodk.) 

*  Here  we  may  mention  the  drone-baai  whidi  ooears  ao  frequently 
in  mnaettea  and  other  danoe-eonga.  Noroerooa  examplas  may  be 
foand  in  Wekerlln'a  *  Bchoe  dn  Tempe  paasA.' 

*  In  Wekerlln'a  second  vol.  of  hb  'Behos  dn  Tempe  paas<'  he 
eUtes  that  this  eolleetian  especially  eharaeterlaas  tt«  27th  and 


18th  oentttriea.  and  '  though  written  earlier  the  eona  wvre  only 
pnbUthed  when  their  popalaiity  waa  gnat  enoag^  to  Joatlljr  It.' 
Wekerlln  givee  a  Talnabfe  Uet  of  the  eoUeetkoe  drawn  npon  for 


thia  Ttdame.  with  fall  desoriptlons  and  datee.     The  btvooxlte 
*  Menuct  d'Bxandet'  (Bxandet  was  a  famoos  dancing-master),  with 
worde  by  Favart  is  Ineluded  among  the  «)k«NM0Ni  d  ^ 
these  dance-eongs.  except  the  mlnnet,  are  in  c 
and  in  regular  periods. 
7  Ttanot.  Etitoirt,  p.  OK. 


534 


SONATA 


one  more  in  accordance  with  the  modem  idea, 
such  as  is  typified  in  the  clavier  sonata  of 
Galuppi  in  foor  movements  [see  p.  614],  and 
by  occasional  allemandes  in  the  earlier  sonatas. 
As  keyed  instruments  improved  in  volume  and 
sustaining  power  the  central  slow  movement 
was  resumed ;  but  it  was  necessary  for  some 
time  to  make  up  for  deficiencies  in  the  latter 
respect  by  filling  in  the  slow  beats  with  elaborate 
graces  and  trills,  and  such  ornaments  as  the 
example  of  opera-singers  made  rather  too  invit- 
ing. The  course  of  the  violin  solo-sonata  was 
meanwhile  distinctly  maintained  till  its  climax, 
and  came  to  an  abrupt  end  in  J.  S.  Bach,  just 
as  the  clavier  sonata  was  expanding  into  definite 
importance.  In  fact  the  earliest  landmarks  of 
importance  are  found  in  the  next  generation, 
when  a  fair  proportion  of  works  of  this  class 
show  the  lineaments  of  clavier  sonatas  fiimiliar 
to  a  modem.  Such  are  the  disposition  of  the 
three  movements  with  the  solid  and  dignified 
aUegro  at  the  beginning,  the  expressive  slow 
movement  in  the  middle,  and  the  bright  and 
gay  quick  movement  at  the  end ;  which  last 
continued  in  many  cases  to  show  its  dance 
origin.  From  this  group  the  fugal  element 
was  generally  absent,  for  all  the  instinct  of 
composers  was  temporarily  enlisted  in  the  work 
of  perfecting  the  harmonic  structure  in  the 
modem  manner,  and  the  tendency  was  for  a 
time  to  direct  special  attention  to  this,  with 
the  object  of  attaining  clear  and  distinct  sym- 
metry. In  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century 
this  was  achieved ;  the  several  movements  were 
then  generally  cast  on  nearly  identical  lines, 
with  undeviating  distribution  of  subjects,  pauses, 
modulations,  cadences,  and  double  bars.  The 
style  of  thought  conformed  for  awhile  sufficiently 
well  to  this  discipline,  and  the  most  successfiil 
achievements  of  instramental  music  up  to  that 
time  were  accomplished  in  this  manner.  £x- 
trinsically  the  artistic  product  appeared  perfect ; 
but  art  could  not  stand  still  at  this  point,  and 
composers  soon  felt  themselves  precluded  from 
putting  the  best  and  most  genuine  of  their 
thoughts  into  trammels  produced  by  such  regular 
procedure.  Moreover,  the  sudden  and  violent 
changes  in  social  arrangements  which  took 
place  at  the  end  of  the  century,  and  the  trans- 
formation in  the  ways  of  regarding  life  and  its 
interests  and  opportunities  which  resulted  there- 
from, opened  a  new  point  of  public  emotion, 
and  introduced  a  new  quality  of  cosmopolitan 
human  interest  in  poetry  and  art.  The  appeal 
of  music  in  its  higher  manifestations  became 
more  direct  and  immediate ;  and  the  progression 
of  the  idea  became  necessarily  less  amenable  to 
the  control  of  artificialities  of  stracture,  and  more 
powerful  in  its  turn  of  reacting  upon  the  form. 
This  is  what  lies  at  the  root  of  much  which, 
for  want  of  a  more  exact  word,  is  frequently 
described  as  the  poetic  element,  which  has  be- 
come so  prominent  and  indispensable  a  quality 


in  modem  music.  By  this  change  of  position 
the  necessities  of  stractural  balance  and  pro- 
portion are  not  supplanted,  but  made  legitimate 
use  of  in  a  diflerent  manner  from  what  they 
previously  were ;  and  the  sonata-form,  while 
still  satisfying  the  indispensable  conditions 
which  make  abstract  music  possible,  expanded  to 
a  fuller  and  more  co-ordinate  pitch  of  emotional 
materiaL  Partly  under  these  influences,  and 
partly,  no  doubt,  owing  to  the  improvements  in 
keyed  instruments,  the  Clavier  Sonata  again 
attained  to  the  group  of  four  movements,  but 
in  a  different  arrangement  from  that  of  the 
Violin  Sonata.  The  slow  introduction  was 
sometimes  resumed,  but  without  representing 
an  ingredient  in  the  average  scheme.  The  first 
movement  was  usually  the  massive  and  dignified 
Allegro.  The  two  central  portions,  consisting 
of  a  highly  expressive  slow  nlbvement,  and  the 
scherzo  which  was  the  legitimate  descendant 
of  the  dance  movement,  were  ruled  in  their 
order  of  succession  by  the  qualities  of  the  first 
and  last  movements,  and  the  work  ended  with 
a  movement  which  still  generally  maintained 
the  qualities  to  be  found  in  a  last  movement 
of  Oorelli  or  Tartini.  The  tendency  to  unify 
the  whole  group  increased,  and  in  so  far  as  the 
influence  of  intrinsic  character  or  of  the  idea 
became  powerful  itmodified  the  orderand  quality 
of  the  movements.  For  particular  purposes 
which  approve  themselves  to  musical  feeling  the 
number  of  movements  varied  considerably,  some 
exceedingly  fine  and  perfect  sonatas  having 
only  two,  and  others  extending  to  five.  Again, 
it  is  natural  that  in  certain  moods  composers 
should  almost  resent  the  call  to  end  with  the 
conventional  b'ght  and  gay  movement ;  and  con- 
sequently in  later  works,  even  where  the  usual 
form  seems  to  be  accepted,  the  spirit  is  rather 
ironical  than  gay,  and  rather  vehement  or  even 
fierce  than  light-hearted.  The  same  working 
of  the  spirit  of  the  age  had  powerful  effect  on  the 
intrinsic  qualities  of  the  Scherzo ;  in  which  there 
came  to  be  found,  along  with  or  under  the  veil 
of  ideal  dance  motions,  sadness  and  tenderness, 
bitterness,  humour,  and  many  more  phases  of 
strong  feeling ;  forwhich  the  ideal dancerhythms, 
when  present,  are  made  to  serve  as  a  vehicle : 
but  in  some  coses  also  are  supplanted  by 
different  though  kindred  forms  of  expression. 
In  other  respects  the  last  movement  moved 
farther  away  from  the  conventional  type,  as  by 
the  adoption  of  the  fugal  form,  or  by  new  use 
of  the  Variation-form  in  a  more  continuous  and 
consistent  sense  than  in  early  examples.  In 
many  cases  the  movements  are  made  to  pass 
into  one  another,  just  as  in  the  earlier  stages 
the  strong  lines  which  marked  off  the  different 
sections  in  the  movements  were  gradually  toned 
down  ;  and  by  this  means  they  came  to  have 
less  of  the  appearance  of  separate  items  than 
limbs  or  divisions  of  a  complete  organism.  This 
is  illustrated  most  clearly  by  the  examples  of 


SONATA 


SONATINA 


535 


slow  movements  which  are  so  modified  as  to 
be  little  more  than  Intermezzi,  or  introductory 
divisions  appended  to  the  last  movement ;  and 
more  strongly  by  a  few  cases  where  the  distinct 
lines  of  separation  are  quite  done  away  with, 
and  the  entire  work  becomes  a  chain  of  long 
divisions  representing  broadly  the  old  plan  of 
four  distinct  movements  with  kindred  subjects 
continuing  throughout.  Since  Beethoven  the 
impetus  to  concentrate  and  individualise  the 
character  of  musical  works  has  driven  many 
genuine  composers  to  the  adoption  of  forms 
which  are  less  hampered  by  any  suspicion  of 
conventionality  ;  and  even  with  sonatas  they 
seemed  to  have  grasped  the  object  in  view  with 
less  steadiness  and  consistency  than  in  previous 
times.  Some  have  accepted  the  artifice  of  a 
programme,  others  admit  some  doubtful  traits 
of  theatrical  origin  ;  others  develop  poetic  and 
{esthetic  devices  as  their  chief  end  and  object, 
and  others  still  follow  up  the  classical  lines, 
contenting  themselves  with  the  opportunities 
afforded  by  new  and  more  elaborately  perfect 
treatment  of  details,  especially  in  music  for 
combinations  of  solo  instruments.  In  the  latter 
case  it  is  clear  that  the  field  is  more  open  than 
in  sonatas  for  single  instruments,  since  the 
combination  of  such  instruments  as  the  piano- 
forte and  violin  or  pianoforte  and  violonceUo 
in  large  works  has  not  been  dealt  with  by  the 
great  masters  so  thoroughly  and  exhaustively 
as  the  solo  sonata.  But  in  any  case  it  is  ap- 
parent that  fresh  works  of  high  value  on  the 
classical  lines  can  hardly  be  produced  without 
increasing  intellectualinn.  The  origin  and 
reason  of  existence  of  abstract  music  are,  at  least 
on  one  side,  intellectual ;  and  though  up  to  a 
certain  point  the  process  of  development  tended 
to  reduce  the  intellectual  effort  by  making  the 
structural  outlines  as  clear  and  certain  as  pos- 
sible, when  these  were  decisively  settled  the 
current  naturally  set  in  the  direction  of  compli- 
cation. The  inevitable  process  of  accumulating 
one  device  of  art  upon  another  is  shown  in  the 
free  range  of  modulation  and  harmony,  and  in 
the  increasing  variety  and  richness  of  detail 
both  in  the  subjects  and  in  the  subordinate 
parts  of  works.  In  such  cases  the  formal  outlines 
may  cease  to  be  strictly  amenable  to  a  definite 
external  theory  ;  but  if  they  accord  with  broad 
general  principles,  such  as  may  be  traced  in  the 
history  of  abstract  music  so  far,  and  if  the  total 
efiect  is  extrinsically  as  well  as  intrinsically 
complete  and  convincing,  it  appears  inevitable 
to  admit  the  works  to  the  raxUc  of  *  Sonatas.' 
The  exact  meaning  of  the  term  has  in  fact  been 
enforced  with  remarkable  uniformity  during  the 
whole  period  from  the  beginning  to  the  present 
day,  and  decisively  in  favour  of  what  is  called 
abstract  music.  Fair  examples  of  the  successful 
disregard  of  form  in  favour  of  programme  or  a 
dramatic  conception  can  hardly  be  found ;  in 
fact,  in  the  best  examples  extant,  programme 


is  no  more  than  the  addition  of  a  name  or  a 
story  to  an  otherwise  regular  formal  sonata; 
but  on  the  other  hand  there  is  plenty  of  justi- 
fication of  the  finest  kind  for  abstract  works  in 
free  and  more  original  forms,  and  it  rests  with 
composers  to  justify  themselves  by  their  works, 
rather  than  for  reasoning  to  decide  finally  where 
the  limit  shall  be.  o.  h.  h.  p. 

SONATINA.  This  is  a  work  in  the  same 
form  and  of  the  same  general  character  as  a 
sonata,  but  shorter,  simpler,  and  slenderer.  The 
average  form  of  the  sonata  appears  to  be  the 
most  successful  yet  discovered  for  pure  instru- 
mental works  of  large  scope.  It  is  admirably 
adapted  for  the  expression  and  development  of 
broad  and  noble  ideas  ;  and  the  distribution  of 
the  various  movements,  and  the  clearness  with 
which  the  main  sections  and  divisions  of  each 
movement  are  marked  out,  give  it  a  dignity  and 
solidity  which  seem  most  appropriate  in  such 
circumstances.  But  the  very  clearness  of  the 
outlines  and  the  strength  of  contrast  between 
one  division  and  another,  make  the  form  less 
fit  for  works  of  smaller  scope.  As  long  as  such 
a  work  is  laid  out  on  a  scale  sufficiently  large 
to  admit  variety  of  treatment  and  freedom  of 
movement  within  the  limits  of  these  divisions, 
there  is  fair  chance  of  the  work  having  musical 
value  proportionate  to  the  composer's  capacity  ; 
but  if  the  limits  are  so  narrow  as  to  admit  little 
more  than  mere  statement  of  the  usual  form, 
and  no  more  than  the  conventional  order  of 
modulations,  the  possibilities  of  musical  sense 
and  sentiment  are  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and 
a  want  of  positive  musical  interest  commonly 
results.  Consequently  sonatinas  form  one  of 
the  least  satisfactory  groups  of  musical  products. 
The  composers  who  have  produced  the  greatest 
impression  with  short  and  concise  movements 
in  modem  times  have  uniformly  avoided  them, 
and  adopted  something  of  a  more  free  and  lyrical 
cast,  in  which  there  is  a  more  appropriate  kind 
of  unity,  and  more  of  freedom  and  individuality 
in  the  general  outlines.  It  might  be  quite 
possible  to  group  these  small  pieces  so  as  to 
present  a  very  strong  analogy  to  the  sonata  on 
a  small  scale  ;  but  it  has  not  been  attempted, 
owing  possibly  to  a  feeling  that  certain  limita- 
tions of  style  and  character  are  generally  accepted 
in  the  musical  world  as  appropriate  for  works 
of  the  sonata  class,  and  that  it  would  be  super- 
fluous to  violate  them. 

The  sonatina  form  has,  however,  proved 
peculiarly  convenient  for  the  making  of  pieces 
intended  to  be  used  in  teaching.  The  familiar 
outlines  and  the  systematic  distribution  of  the 
principal  harmonies  afford  the  most  favourable 
opportunities  for  simple  but  useful  finger- 
passages,  for  which  the  great  masters  have  sup- 
plied plentiful  formulas ;  and  they  furnish  at 
the  same  time  excellent  means  of  giving  the 
student  a  dignified  and  conscientious  style,  and 
a  clear  insight  into  the  art  of  phrasing  and  into 


546 


SONG 


nature  and  its  elements,  of  the  earth  and  of 
the  growths  of  the  soil  has  asserted  its  empire 
in  the  kingdom  of  art.  ^  But  while  the  influence 
of  the  folk-song  conduced  to  simplicity,  another 
influence  stamped  French  song  with  a  new 
impress.  C^sar  Franok  (a  Belgian  by  birth 
but  a  naturalised  Frenchman),  a  profound 
scholar,  an  idealist  by  character  and  aims 
alike,  raised  the  lerel  of  contemporary  art  to  a 
greater  seriousness,  and  gave  it  a  more  complete 
emancipation.  In  his  works,  depth  of  feeling, 
profound  humanity  and  austere  beauty  combined 
with  a  consummate  mastery  of  technique  are 
undeniable  qualities.  But  the  special  quality 
assimilated  by  the  younger  school  of  French 
song-writers  is  the  element  of  mysticism.  In 
C^r  Franck's  song,  <La  Procession,'  a  noble 
simplicity  and  fervid  mysticism  are  displayed, 
which  exemplifies  what  has  been  said  above. 
In  adopting  Franck's  mysticism,  it  is  stated 
that  some  of  his  followers  have  forfeited  their 
race  qualities  of  clearness  of  design  and  straight- 
forwardness of  expression.  But  their  gains  are 
manifest  if  we  study  the  songs  of  Gabriel  Faur^, 
yincentd'Indy,and  Alfred  Bruneau,andcompare 
them  with  the  romances  and  songs  of  the  older 
school.  Among  this  younger  generation  song- 
writing  is  on  a  fkr  higher  plane.  Gabriel  Faure 
is  a  song-writer  par  excellence.  Both  in  quality 
and  quantity  he  ranks  highest.  His  kinship 
with  Schumann  and  C^sar  Franck  is  apparent, 
but  withal  he  is  original  The  exquisite  form 
of  his  melodies,  the  fancy  displayed  in  his 
accompaniments,  his  whimsical,  but  always 
justified  harmonies  and  modulations  are  all  his 
own.  In  many  of  Faur^'s  songs  there  is  a 
profound  sadness  and  deep  pathos,  but  without 
crudeness.  Again,  over  others  there  ia  cast  a 
dark  veil  of  mysticism  which  necessitates  an 
intimate  knowledge  of  the  songs  before  they  can 
be  appreciated.  In  A.  Bruneau's  songs  there  is 
more  strength  and  freedom,  humanity  and 
realism,  yet  great  rhjrthmical  beauty.  Vincent 
d'Indy's  songs  show  extreme  delicacy  and 
refinement,  but  a  somewhat  morbid  restlessness. 
Claude  Debussy  possesses  originality,  and  a 
certain  aloofness  of  thought.  He  seems  to 
wish  to  express  not  what  he  feels  and  sees,  but 
the  passing  impressions  of  his  dreams  and  ideals, 
and  the  atmosphere  of  the  poem  he  sets. 

To  the  above  names  may  be  added  many 
others  who  have  treated  the  form  of  song 
with  the  same  serious  aims.  The  following 
have  produced  songs  of  real  distinction  and 
interest:  G.  Oharpentier,  Reynaldo  Hahn,  E. 
Chausson  ;  also  L.  Wurmser,  C.  Blanc,  E.  Moret, 
P.  de  Br^ville,  H.  Duparc,  H.  de  Gorsse,  R 
Tr^misot,  L.  Moreau,  P.  Vidal,  G.  Marty, 
S.  Rousseau,  Hillemacher  fr^res,  G.  Ropartz, 
A.  Chapuis,  A.  G^dalge,  De  Gastillon,  G.  Hue, 
M.  Ravel,  and  many  others. 

>  Brana»tt'«  '  Lleds  d«  Fmnoe,*  »ad  '  ChMiMM  4  Daomt  '  form  a 
sirlklng  cjuunplc  of  th«  above  qoaUtf««. 


It  is  necessary  to  add  that  modem  French 
poets  have  had  a  great  influence  on  these 
composers,  and  there  exists  a  close  sympathy 
between  them.  Obscurity  of  form,  eccentricity, 
a  feverish  egoism  which  tends  to  over-subjective- 
ness,  a  subUety  which  to  an  exaggerated  degree 
substitutes  suggestion  for  expression  are  the 
worst  features  of  the  schooL  An  aptitude  for 
intensity  in  the  presentment  of  emotional 
themes,  and  an  acute  perception  of  the  artistic 
values  of  personal  emotion,  a  keen  appreciation 
of  evasive  effects,  of  the  ifugitive  and  illusive 
beauty  of  sounds,  implied  or  felt  rather  than 
heard, — these  are  amongst  the  gifts  they  have 
utilised  to  the  full. 

To  sum  up  we  may  quote  M.  Bruneau's  words,* 
that  the  young  French  song-writers  have  all 
the  same  aim  in  view,  though  they  approach 
it  by  different  roads.  Some  by  the  old  healthy 
conventional  methods,  some  through  the  free 
paths  of  life  and  nature,  and  others  through 
the  labyrinth  of  unreality  and  mysticism.  But 
their  aim  is  the  same — that  of  pure  art  and 
beauty. 

The  folk-BongB  of  France  vary  widely  in  evezy  part, 
and  each  province  is  worthy  of  separate  study. 
Fortunately  a  vast  number  of  these  sonn  have  been 
carefullv  collected ;  and  all  that  can  be  attempted  her» 
is  to  indicate  the  general  characteristics,  and  refer  the 
student  to  the  various  collections.'  In  Paris  and  the 
other  lat^ge  cities  in  France,  the  popular  songs  of  the 
hour  are  only  finvourite  tunes  firom  comic  operas,  or 
those  which  have  been  heard  at  a  caf^-chantant.^  But 
in  the  country  the  real  folk-songs  still  exist,  and  their 
distinct  attributes  are  generally  determined  by  the 
locality  to  which  they  belong.  The  airs  of  Southern 
France  are  distinguished  by  exuberant  gaiety  and 
graceful  poetic  sentiment  Many  of  them  resemble 
the  old  Troubadour  Songs,  as  for  instance  the  well- 
known  *  O  Magali.'  6  The  songs  of  Auveigne  and  Bour- 
bonnais  are  chiefly  b(mrrie$f  and  Burgundy  is  rich 
in  Noels >  and  drinking-songs.  The  Beamoia  airs 
are  patriotic  and  melodions,7  and  their  words  mostly 
of  love;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  sul^ects  of 
the  songs  of  Normandy  are  generally  supplied  by 
the  ordinary  pursuits  and  occupations  of  life.  The 
mill-songs  and  the  begging-songs,  called  dtansonM  de  part 
d  iHett,  are  especially  common  in  Normandy,  and  have  a 
character  of  their  own.  The  couplets  of  the  former 
consist  of  two  lines  with  a  refrain.  This  r^/Vain,  in 
which  the  audience  Joins,  forms  the  principal  part  of  the 
song.  The  words  are  usually  meanfnsless  syllables  of  a 
merry  kind,  such  as  tra  2a  to,  or  ton  raoton^  ton  fontoin^, 
la  UmUiiiM,  But  the  rtfrain$  occur  in  the  folk-songs  of 
every  part  of  France ;  each  province  having  its  own 
kind  01  rtfrain  of  apparent  nonsense-syllables,  which  can 
only  be  explained  in  paUriM,  The  May-time  songs  of 
Champagne  and  Lorraine  are  very  numerous  and 
beautlftii.8  The  character  of  the  songs  of  Brittany  has 
been  best  described  by  Rousseau:  *Les  airs  ne  sont. 
pas  piquants,  mats  ils  ont  Je  ne  sais  quoi  d'antique  et  de 
doux  qui  louche  a  la  longue.'    But  their  grave  beauty 


*  La  Mu$lqu»  /VoWfBto. 

9  Bee  wpedally  ChampflsiUTatid  Wekariln'a '  CluDKma  PoiraUlrcs 
dM  provinoes  de  Pmnee.'  where  Indivldiial  euunplee  are  given  from 
every  part  of  Fmnoe  with  intereetios  remarki. 

*  A  few  «iinpneet»  h»ve  attemptccf  to  mnppXf  eonn  of  thia  kind. 
Bueh  M  Piem  Doponi.  wLo  wrote  for  the  p«wpl4,  Daroier  for  the 
oturrier,  and  Nadaad  for  the  fcmryeefa  elaae. 

*  Ambroe  qootea  the  modeni  Proven^  air  m  having  a  etranc 
reeemblanoe  to  an  old  danoe-eons.  anterior  in  date  even  to  the  ISth 
oentniv.    OewMdUe  «tor  JVimI*. li.  ML 

9  PhUibert  le  Dno  haa  collected  aome  cariona  NoBla  in  hfa 


7  ChampAenry  flvea  a  heavtifal  old  emn{Ae:  the  'Cuitiqne 
Antomnat^  by  Jeanne  d'Alhret '  en  aeeonehant  Henri  IV.' 

*  In  nearly  every  ca«iuefi  de  Mai,  from  Lorraine,  the  cvrlona  oM 
word  TrimaMo  oooon.  the  meaning  of  whioh  la  aa  obecure  aa  that  of 
the  WQtd  fWrnoHMMe  mentioped  above. 


SONG 


647 


and  pathos  can  onl^  be  ftilly  felt  by  those  who  have 
heard  the  peasants  sing  them.  Georges  Sand  and  G.  de 
Nerval  did  much  to  arouse  interest  in  the  songs  ttom 
Berry  and  the  Tie  de  France  by  describing  the  airs  and 
the  carious  words  and  customs.  Bat  at  the  present  day 
the  fo]k*song  is  regarded  from  a  more  seientlflc  point  of 
view. 

BiBUooKiiniy 

Bani«7.  Dr.    i7itfory  qT  JTtufe  (Mpeeially  Tol.  ii.).    ITTS-W. 
Ddabotde.  J.  B.,  ud  Roimier.  P.  J.     JCnai  mar  la  MuttqiM. 

Parla.  1780. 
QHUj,  A.  B.  M .    M4meiru  om  XnaU  tur  la  MuHfut.    Patla.  1796. 
Tonlmon.  Bottte  de.    Ihla  C^anwa  Mtu.  cm  iV«wio«.    Plula,  1896^ 
Wolf.  P.     Utber  dU  LaU.    Hciddbng,  1841.  I 

ficudo.  J.  P.    CHt{qu0  et  JMtiratun  nmaieaie*.    Tula.  1880. 188B.      | 
Choaquet.  6.    iM  ChanU  Jfatkmaux  <U  la  Fnmte*  {L'Art  Muahal, 

October  1807). 
Ambim,  A.  W.    ettekkikf  der  Mtuik  (eapcdally  ▼oln  li.  and  111.). 
FMla.  P.  J.    Miatotn  gtniraU  d*  la  MuHqmm  (aapedally  toL  iv.). 

I80B. 
Bartach,  C.    Romameet  et  PatUmrtUm.    Lslpcig,  1870. 
Hneflto-,  P.    Tht  TroubadmtrM.    1878. 

Doaen.  B.  O.    CUmtnt  Marot  et  U  PaauUtr  Bugumot.    187a 
]>aTld.  B..  at  Loaaj.  M.    A'iMra  da  la  NaUaitn  muaieaU.    FUia. 

188a 
JuUlaD.A.    MutkdemiraMiowr^hui.    Pula.  1889: 
Tieraot,  J.    JBittoht  d*  la  ChoMmm  pop.  an  Frane:    Paria.  188B. 
Lavotx,  B.    La  Mustqut/raitnaUe.    1801. 
ImbMLH.    Pro/IUdeMutichm.    Fkrla,  1888L   Pvrtratti  et  KtrndM. 

Puia.1804. 
BiHDCMi.  A.    La  Mtutgue/tanoalm^    1901. 
Harvey.  A.    Ma$t«n  9f  Fnmeh  Mutks,  1804 ;  FrtmA  JTnifc  in  the 

XJXtkOemt.    1904. 
DlaU.  P.    Ae6eii  tHid  Werkt  dm-  Troubadourt.    Braalan,  18824B. 

CoLLBunonai 

Oapalle.  P.    •  La  Cl«  da  OaTeait.'  ftid  ed.  181& 

Rlvarai.  PlMarla    *  CSbaiiaODa  at  aln  pop.  dn  B^am.'    P^n,  1844. 

BoalUei.J.  B.    'Albam  AuTngnat.'    MoQlina.  1848. 

Wekarlln,  J.  B.    '  Behoa  dn  Tempa  paaad.'    ParU.  18B5. 

Kaatnar,  GeoTf  aa.    '  Laa  Vols  de  Prk'    Paiia.  18S7. 

Dmnemn,  and  Colat.  F.    '  Chanta  et  Cbanaona  Popalalxva  de  la 

Ptanoe.'    Parla.  1880. 
Cbmmpflenry.   et   Wokerlln,  J.  B.     'Chanaona    Popalalraa  dea 

provinoea  de  Prance.'    FtuiM,  1860. 
Arfaftud,  Dunaa.    'Chanta  popi  de  1»  Provence.'    Alx.  18H!^64. 
OagnoD.  B.    '  CbaAkona  pop.  dn  Canada.'    Qaebee.  1804.  1880, 1804, 

and  1900. 
Poymalgre.  B.  da.   'Cbanta  Popalalraa  reeaellUa  dana  le  paja 

Meaaln.'  PturU  and  Meti,  186ft. 
Niaard.  M.  B.  C.    '  Dea  CbanaoDa  popalalraa.'    Farla,  1867. 
VlllemarquA.  Heraat  de  U.    '  Barxaa  Breia,  Chanta  popolalrea  de  bk 

Bretagne.'    Plirla.  1887. 
Piarla.  Gaaton,  et  Gevaert,  A.    'Chanaona  du  XV*  aUcle.'    Piarla. 

187B. 
Montel  et  Lambert    'Chanta  pop.  de  Lannedoc.'    Pula.  1880. 
Rolland.  E.    '  Beoaell  de  Chanaona  popolalrea.'    Pkrla,  188B. 
Bovnaalt-Daeoudrar.  L.  A.     'Trante  m^Iodiaa  popniairea  de  la 

Bane-Bretafne.'   188S. 
"nenot,  Jullen.    *  VAodlea  pop^  dea  provinoea  de  Pianoet.*    S  vola. 

IVrla.  1887. 1800-91. 
d'Indy.  v..  et  Tieraot.  J.    'Chanaona  tecnellllea  dana  le  Vivaxala  et 

le  Veroora.'    Parle.  189S. 
Bngeaad,  J.    '  Chanta  et  Chanaona  pop.  de  I'Oneat.'    1809.  , 

Tieraot,  J.    'Chanaona  pop.  dea  Alpea  francaiaea.'    Grenoble.  lOOS.    | 
Wekerlln,  J.  B.    'Chanaona  pop.   da  Pays  de  Prance.'    2  vola.    , 

Parla.1903. 
Oolllenn.  H.    *  ReenHl  de  Chanta  pop.  hretona  du  Paya  de  Cor- 

nooaillaa.'    Beiinea.  1906. 
Bnnchet.  L..etPlantadea.  J.  *  Chanaona  pop.  duLimooaln.'  Parla, 

190S. 
Wdierlin.  J.  B.    '  Chanaona  pop.  de  I'Alaaoe.' 
Dondeux,  O.    '  La  Roroanoero  pop.  de  la  Prance.' 

Nnmerona  old  ooUectlona  of  Pranch  polyphonic  aonga  are 
mentioned  In  Tleraot'a  BUtotrt  de  la  Chanton  pop.  en  Franm. 
Parla.  1880. 

rrhe  writer  la  alao  Indehted  to  If  r.  Walter  Pord  for  permlaalon 
to  qoote  from  hla  Lectorea  on  Preneh  Song.  1900.) 


Spain  and  the  Basque  Country 

In  Spain  and  Portugal  the  Song  can  scarcely 
be  said  to  have  a  history.  While  both  oonntries 
can  bcMist  of  numerouB  celebrated  composers 
of  secular  and  ecclesiastical  polyphonic  music, 
in  neither  has  there  been  any  systematic 
development  on  the  monodio  side.  The  latter 
remains  what  it  was  in  the  earliest  times  ;  and 
all  the  beet  songs  of  Spain  and  Portugal  are 
the  compositions  of  untaught  and  unlettered 
musicians.     With  regard  to  these  folk-songs 

1  Moat  of  tlM  oollectlona  contain  valaaUe  loformatton  about  the 
aonga  given. 


there  is  an  initial  difficulty  in  determining 
whether  they  are  more  properly  songs  or  dances, 
because  the  favourite  songs  of  Spain  are,  with 
a  few  exceptions,'  sung  as  accompaniments  to 
dancing. 

Spanish  literature  is  rich  in  remains  of  antique 
poetry,  and  of  poetry  which  from  the  time  of 
the  T^ubadours  was  intended  to  be  sung.  The 
art  of  these  singers,  called  La  gaya  Cienda  or 
Oaya-Saber,  soon  crossed  over  the  border  from 
southern  France,  and  flourished  especially  in 
the  Courts  of  Aragon  and  Castile.  The  words 
referred  chiefly  to  the  adventures  of  heroes 
defending  their  country  against  the  Moors, 
and  dealt  with  their  deeds  of  chivalry  and 
gallantry ;  but  the  dialect,  melodies,  and  even 
the  notation  so  forcibly  remind  one  of  their 
Provenfal  origin,  that  it  is  scarcely  necessary 
to  dwell  on  the  subject  [see  France].  Besides 
her  Trobadores  Spain  had  also  her  Juglares^ 
(Jongleurs)  and  ZaharroTies,  who  were  of  a  lower 
class  than  the  Juglares.^  Like  France,  Spain 
counted  kings,  princes,  and  nobles  among  her 
Trdbadores ;  for  instance,  Alfonso  II.  and  X., 
Pedro  III.  and  IV.,  the  Infante  D.  Federigo, 
afterwards  King  of  Sicily,  Hugo  de  Mataplana, 
Giraldo  de  Cabrera,  Manuel  de  £sca,  Pons  de 
Ortafa,  etc  The  most  prominent  names  of 
later  Trobadorea  were  Pedro  Lopez  de  Ayala, 
Feman  Perez  de  Guzman,  Sanchez  Calavera, 
and  Ausius  Marc,  called  the  Spanish  Petrarch.^ 

Among  the  most  precious  relics  Spain 
possesses  are  two  parchment  volumes  preserved 
in  the  Library  of  the  Escurial.  The  first  con- 
tains over  400  Cantigas  (called  the  CanHgas  de 
Santa  Maria),  with  numerous  melodies,  some  in 
gallego  and  Portuguese  dialect,  and  some  in  the 
Castilian  of  that  time.  The  second  volume 
consists  of  200  Novenias  in  the  same  languages 
and  in  the  same  musical  notation.  These  were 
composed  in  the  18th  century  by  the  Troubadour 
King,  Alfonso  el  Sabio ;  but  Soriano  Fuertes  ^ 
thinks  some  are  of  older  date,  and  were  only 
collected  by  Alfonso.  A  third  MS.  (formerly 
at  Toledo)  is  in  the  Biblioteca  l^acional  at 
Madrid.  Nearly  all  the  songs  which  have  their 
melodies  attached  to  them,  are  sacred,  relating 
to  miracles  or  various  festivals.  It  is  un- 
fortunate that  the  secular  tunes  were  not 
preserved ;  but  the  reason  probably  was  that 
these  were  improvised  by  the  Juglares,  and  too 
popular  and  well  known  to  need  writing  down.^ 
The  following  example^  reduced  to  modem 
notation  by  Ambros,  is  entitled : — 

*  Such  aa  the  oaaof  and  piaiforat. 

'  There  were  alao  Joglamat,  i.e.  women  who  roamed  about  with 
Jogtart*  (or  Juglarea),  chiefly  aa  player*.  PcOeogn^a  EtpaHota, 
P.  Ratevan  de  Teneroe.  1788,  p.  82. 

*  Marqu^  de  Pldal  glvea  a  good  aoooant  of  the  Jttgfaret  In  hla 
Imtrodveeton  at  Cametonero  de  Baema  eobre  la  poeela  tM  riglo  XIV, 
yXV. 

»  BUtoHa  de  la  Muetea  SepafMa,  Mariano  Soriano  Fuertea,  L  96. 
laeteeq. 

**  Soriano  Fuertea,  1.  96. 

7  The  pocma  (without  the  mualc)  were  edited  by  the  Manni^  de 
Val  mar  and jpubllabed  in  1S80. 

>  Sorlnno  Fuertea  glvea  nuuertma  *^*«"r1i»  i^t  th«  end  of  voL  L 
of  hla  hiatoiy. 


548 


SONG 


Prologo  des  milagros  y  loores  de  S,  Maria, 
«Bx.  1. 


The  *  Cancionero  musical  de  los  Siglos  XV. 
y  XVI.,'  edited  in  1890  by  Francisco  Asenjo 
Barbieri,  is  in  the  library  of  the  Royal  Palace 
at  Madrid,  and  contains  nearly  500  sacred  and 
secular  songa  in  parts.  ^  Juan  del  Eucina  is 
one  of  the  principal  contributors,  and  about 
sixty  other  native  composers  are  named ;  but 
many  of  the  songs  are  anonymous.  Close 
examination  will  show  that  the  Spaniards  of 
the  15th  century  stood  nearly  as  high  as  the 
French  and  the  Italians  in  music.  Similar  and 
also  somewhat  later  collections  exist  in  Toledo 
and  Seville.  Among  such  literary  relics  are 
the  celebrated  caticioneros  and  romanceros  of 
the  15th  and  16th  centuries,  in  which  a  great 
number  of  canciones,  invcnciones,  preguntaSy 
mllancicoSf  and  ballads  will  be  found.  ^  The 
romanceros  consist  chiefly  of  ballads  in 
8 -syllabled  verse  in  assonance,  the  vowels  only 
rhyming.  The  tones  arc  stated  to  have  been 
transmitted  by  blind  ballad-singers  who  sang 
them  in  the  streets  ;  and  not  one  note  of  music 
was  written  down.  But  these  old  ballads  are 
still  sung  by  the  people  in  Spain  to  traditional 
airs  which  have  passed  from  mouth  to  mouth 
through  many  generations. 

The  vUlandcos  have  always  been  an  important 
feature  in  the  musical  life  of  Spain.  The  terra 
has  been  variously  applied :  it  may  mean  the 
sacred  songs  sung  at  great  festivals,  ^  or  it  may 
apply  to  the  peasant's  songs  in  general  with 
their  refrains  or  burdens  *  {estribUlo8\  but  most 
probably  the  villancicos  of  Spain  answer  to  the 
Twels  of  France.^  Towards  the  close  of  the 
15th  century  secular  music  was  introduced 
into  the  churches  in  order  to  induce  the  con- 
gregation to  join  in  the  singing.  Miracle  plays 
and  mysteries  (especially  those  relating  to  the 
Nativity)  were  also  allowed  to  be  held  in  the 
churches,  and  to  the  chanted  dialogues  between 

1  See  also  Oa/ord  Hiat.  qf  Mutie.  it.  908  H  ttq..  H.  Wooldridge. 

s  The  fusion  of  making  «uch  coliectioiu,  generally  called  earn- 
cUmerot,  was  very  common  in  Spain  Juit  before  and  after  the 
Introduction  of  printing ;  and  many,  both  printed  and  in  manu- 
■orlpt.  have  been  well  prewrved.  Juan  F.  Bialio.  in  hi*  Jfotai  on 
Eariy  Spaniih  Jtufic,  gives  deKriptlom  and  examplea  of  over  seventy 
medtoDval  MSS.  exiitlnf  chiefly  in  Toledo  and  Madrid,  and  ranging 
from  the  lOth  to  the  Idth  century.  The  Blbliothique  Nat.  Farie. 
contains  no  lees  than  seven  collections.  See  OatoUoga  d«  MBS. 
Stpanott9  en  la  BWMeea  X«al  da  ParU.  378-098.  Farie,  18M.  See 
also  Ticknor'e  HUlorf  i^SpaniUk  UUraturt,  xxiil.  381. 

9  Riemann, 

4  Soriano  Faertee  derive*  the  term  from  the  peawnt'i  songs 
called  viUanas.  1.  M. 

s  F<<ti8  deri  vfM  rilUmeleoa  from  vfUano  —peasant,  because  the  shep- 
herds were  the  first  to  announce  the  birth  of  Our  Lord,  and  moet 
HUaneietu  were  Nativity  Plays  or  Songs.  BUtoirt  gen.  de  la 
Mut.  V.  144.  *  ••  IT- 


priest  and  people,  the  name  vUla'ncicos  was 
given.  The  greater  number  refer  to  the  Nativity, 
such  as  the  following  example,  which  dates 
about  the  end  of  the  15th  century : — 

Bx.  2. 


mL        De     quen       por    al  • 

There  are  numerous  mllandcos  of  later  date,  and 
those  for  six  voices  by  Puebla  and  the  collec- 
tions of  P.  de  Ruimente,®  S.  Raval,  Araniez,^ 
and  Pardiiias^  prove  that  learned  musicians 
turned  their  attention  to  them.  But  in  pro- 
portion to  the  quantity  of  extant  words  very 
little  of  the  music  has  come  down  to  us.  Other 
church  festivals,  such  as  the  Feast  of  the  Asses 
(in  memory  of  the  Flight  into  Egypt),  the  Feast 
of  the  FooIb,  and  of  the  Innocents  contain 
burlesque  villancicos  with  long  nonsensical 
verses.**  (See  No£L,  vol.  iii.  p.  385.)  Still,  in 
Sjiain,  the  tone  of  these  songs  was  never  so  in- 
decorous as  in  the  northern  countries  of  Europe. 

For  historic  reasons  there  was  frequent  and 
close  intercourse  between  Si)ain  and  the  Nether- 
lands, and  many  Flemish  composers  are  known 
to  have  resided  in  Spain,  and  left  the  deep 
impress  of  their  learned  school.  But  although 
many  of  the  Spanish  polyphonic  composers  may 
have  used  Flemish  folk-songs  for  their  masses 
and  motets,  there  are  scarcely  any  Spanish  folk- 
songs preserved  in  this  way.  A  few  exceptions 
may  be  mentioned,  such  as,  '  Una  musque  de 
buscgaya,'  used  by  Josquin  des  Pr^  '^^ : — 

Ex.  s. 


and  *  Nunquam  fue  pena  mayor*  by  P.  de  la  Rue. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  also  many 
Spanish  folk-song  survivals  in  Jewish  worship- 
music. 

A  most  interesting  and  trustworthy  recoixi 
of  the  songs  of  the  16th  century  is  to  be  found 
in  a  book,  written  in  Latin  by  Franceso  de 
Salinas  of  Burgos,  who  died  in  1590.^*  In  his 
chapter  on  rhythm,  Salinas  quotes  as  examples 
numerous  popular  songs  of  his  period,  belonging 

'  '  Bl  Farnaeo  B«p%fiol  de  Madriffales  y  Villancicos'  for  sevet»I 
voices,  published  at  Antwerp  like  so  much  other  Spanish  mnelc. 

7  •  Villancicos  de  NaUvldad,'  IQM. 

•  To  Pardtftas  are  alM>  attributed  tho«  Cantarm  gaOegoe  which, 
like  the  vtUaneSeo*,  were  eunc  by  troops  of  pilgrims. 

>  Soriano  Foertes,  i.  217.  gives  a  sonf  from  the  Feast  of  the  Asses. 
See  also  F^tis.  v.  130  et  teg.  for  variants  of  same. 

>o  Printed  in  Petraoei's '  CsntI  C.  nnmero  Cento  OInqnanta.*  1B03. 
This  tune  was  also  used  by  H.  Isaak.    See  Ambros,  il.  SSS. 

11  Several  editions  of  the  book  of  this  learned  blind  organist  were 
Issued  At  Salamanca  between  1577  and  18B2. 


SONG 


54& 


to  various  districts.    This  gives  us  the  authentic 
age  of  many  tunes  still  heard  in  Spain,  such  as : 
Ex.  4. 


P 

^se 

r-fJlr-er 

t«# 

^d^ 

Gft-a^m*ll    pa-dnoonnn  ea-ba-Ue-roGa^dabo-nmi 

ir^^=^ 

:itz3^ 

^ 

^^^^ 

^ 

cT 

hi-Ja      di  on    pe'Oharoy    jo     no  le    ny. 

The  national  songs  of  Spain  widely  differ  in 
the  several  provinces,  and  it  is  the  easiest  plan 
to  divide  them  into  four  geographical  groups : 
(1)  those  of  Biscay  and  Kavarre ;  (2)  Galicia 
and  Old  Castile ;  (8)  Southern  Spain  (Andalusia, 
etc.) ;  (4)  Eastern  Spain  (Catalonia).  In  the 
lirst  of  these  groups  are  the  songs  of  the 
Basques,  who  are  believed  to  be  the  oldest 
inhabitants  of  the  Peninsula. 

(1)  The  exclusiveness  with  which  the  Basques 
have  kept  themselves  a  distinct  and  separate 
race  has  made  it  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to 
trace  their  music  to  any  primeval  source.  *  Even 
at  first  glance  we  see  that  the  Basque  songs  and 
dances  have  nothing  in  common  with  the  Greoo- 
Roman  or  medisevaJ  music.  ^  Therefore  if  the 
music  of  the  Basques  is  of  great  antiquity,  it 
must  have  sprung  up  under  wholly  different 
conditions  from  that  of  other  nations.  It  has 
a  strange  affinity  with  modem  music,  but  this 
modern  effect  may  be  due  to  the  constant  use 
of  the  leading  note  and  the  rapid  and  incessant 
changes  of  key.  The  Basque  melodies  are  not 
founded  on  any  particular  scale ;  augmented 
intervals,  whole  tones,  semitones,  and  even 
quarter -tones  are  freely  intermixed,  and  a 
curious  result  is  obtained  by  the  constant  repeti- 
tion of  a  short  phrase  with  alternating  major 
and  minor  thirds.  The  time  and  rhythm  of  the 
Basque  songs  are  irregular  and  complicated.  The 
sorzicOf  for  instance,  is  in  6-8  or  7-4  time  thus : — 

Bx.  5, 


Idogul'pui'OW  DM    eiMen  d-llA-can-oioa 


etc 


But  generally  the  bar  has  two  beats,  a  weak  and 
strong,  which  alternate  in  position.  The  first 
note  of  a  song  is  usually  surrounded  by  a 
gricpeUo,^  which  gives  it  an  indefinite  and  un- 
certain effect  The  grupetto,  though  less  elabo- 
rate, also  sometimes  occurs  before,  or  on  the 
last  note  of  a  song  (see  above),  but  usually  the 
last  note  has  a  firm,  loud,  and  long-sustained 

^  There  hu  been  a  good  deal  of  ipecnlatlon  on  this  point.  It  le 
not  nece^mty  to  put  forward  the  nnmeroui  oonjeetures  ae  to  ita 
origin  or  to  its  relationahlp  with  other  Buropean  nations,  bnt  the 
vritor  has  noticed  a  oert«in  likeness  between  the  Basque  tones  and 
those  of  other  nations  of  Turanian  origin,  such  as  the  Hungarians 
and  Tlnn^  M.  Georges  Kmt,  in  an  article  on  Istueta's  ooliection 
of  Basque  d«noe*tunes.  renmrks  '  that  many  remind  him  of  Haydn, 
which  is  quite  possible  when  we  think  how  many  of  Haydn's 
melodies  are  borrowed  from  Hungarian  themes.' 

2  These  remarks  are  taken  from  Buikara,  an  organ  1a  the  Interest 
of  the  Basque  Society,  and  quoted  Yff  W.  Brambach. 

3  Madame  de  Vindhdlio  speaks  in  her  collection  of  '  Airs  Basques ' 
of  '  one  sorte  de  grupetto  Intraduisiblei  qui  est  i  la  phrase  muslcale 
(*«  qn'est  une  parapbe  prfonrseur  d'nne  majuscule  dans  certalnes 
cxerciaes  oalllgraphiques.' 


sound.  The  rhythmical  grouping  of  the  phrases 
is  absolutely  irregular  ;  the  periods  are  unequal 
in  number,  and  none  corresponds  with  the  other. 
In  many  cases  the  last  Imu*  of  a  period  is  at 
the  same  time  the  beginning  of  a  new  melodic 
phrase.  Even  the  short  and  comparatively 
simple  'Sant  Basque,'  which  F.  Michel  quotes 
{Le  Pays  Bcuq^Uy  p.  541)  as  the  most  popular 
tune  which  the  Basques  possess,  is  surprisingly 
irregular.  This  imperfect  description  gives, 
however,  little  idea  of  the  originality  and 
peculiar  charm  of  the  music  of  this  people ; 
like  their  language  it  stands  apart. 

In  Aragon  and  Kavarre  the  popular  dance  is 
thejota,  and  according  to  the  usage  of  Spain 
it  is  also  the  popular  song.  The  jota  is  almost 
always  sung  in  thirds,  and  has  the  peculiarity 
that  in  the  ascending  scale  the  minor  seventh 
is  sung  in  place  of  the  nugor.     (See  Jota.) 

(2)  The  songs  of  the  second  group  are  less 
interesting.  The  rule  of  the  Moors  over  Galicia 
and  Old  Castile  was  too  brief  to  impart  an 
Eastern  colouring  to  the  music  of  those  pro- 
vinces. It  is,  however,  gay  and  bright,  and  of  a 
strongly  accented  dance-rhythm.  The  words  of 
the  songs  are  lively,  like  the  music,  and  in  per- 
fect accord  with  it.  To  this  geographical  group 
belong  the  boleros,  manchegaSj  and  seg^Udillas, 
but  this -last  class  of  songs  is  also  heard  in  the 
Moorish  provinces.  Examples  are  given  in 
every  collection,  and  as  they  are  also  referred 
to  under  their  own  headings  in  this  work,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  dwell  on  them  here. 

(8)  The  third  group  is  the  most  'worthy  of 
study.  Of  all  true  Spanish  songs  those  of  Anda- 
lusia are  the  most  beautiful.  In  them  the 
Eastern  element  is  richest  and  deepest,  and  the 
unmistakable  sign  of  its  presence  are  the  follow- 
ing traits :  first,  a  profusion  of  ornaments  around 
the  central  melody ;  secondly,  a  *polyrhythmic' 
cast  of  music — the  simultaneous  existence  of 
different  rhythms  in  different  parts ;  and  thirdly 
the  peculiarity  of  the  melodies  being  based  on 
a  curious  scale,  founded  apparently  on  the 
Phrygian  and  Mixolydian  modes.*  Another 
indication  of  the  oriental  element  is  the 
guttural  sound  of  the  voices.  Of  these  charac- 
teristics the  most  obvious  is  the  rhythm.  In  the 
Andalusian  songs  there  are  often  three  different 
rhythms  in  one  bar,  none  predominating,  but 
each  equally  important  as  the  different  voices  are 
in  real  polyphonic  music.     For  example  : — 

Ex.  6. 


etc. 


etc 


«  IfUntdwtion  to  the  Blud$  qf  irationtA  Muiks,  C,  Bngel. 


550 


SONG 


Or  it  may  be  that  the  accents  of  the  accompani- 
ment do  not  at  all  correspond  with  the  accents 
of  the  melody  ;  thus : — 


K*.  7. 


^^  etc 


The  songs  of  Southern  Spain  are  generally  of  a 
dreamy,  melancholy,  passionate  type ;  especially 
the  caflas  and  playeras  which  are  lyrical.  These 
are  mostly  for  one  voice  only,  as  their  varied 
rhythm  and  uncertain  time  preclude  the  possi- 
bility of  their  being  sung  in  parts.  In  some 
cases  they  are,  however,  sung  in  unison  or  in 
thirds.  They  always  begin  with  a  high  note 
sustained  as  long  as  the  breath  will  allow  ;  and 
then  the  phrase  descends  with  innumerable 
turns,  trills,  and  embellishments  into  the  real 
melody.  The  cafias  are  inferior  as  regards 
simplicity,  ;both  of  poetry  and  music,  to  the 
dance -songs — faTidanffos,  rcmdeiiasy  and  mcU- 
offueflaSf^  which  have  also  more  symmetry  and 
animation.  They  usually  consist  of  two  divi- 
sions :  the  copla  (couplet),  and  the  ritomcl, 
which  is  for  the  accompanying  instrument,  and 
is  frequently  the  longer  and  the  more  important 
of  the  two,  the  skilful  guitar-player  liking  to 
have  ample  scope  to  exhibit  his  execution. 

(4)  In  Catalonia  and  the  acyacent  provinces, 
where  the  Proven9al  language  has  predominated 
since  the  9th  century,  the  songs  are  of  a  totally 
different  character  from  those  of  the  rest  of 
Spain.  Like  the  language,  the  songs  both  in 
melody  and  rhythm  have  far  more  in  common 
with  those  of  Southern  France.  The  subjects, 
too,  of  the  folk-songs  are  often  identical,  as  for 
instance,  *  La  bona  viuda '  and  the  French 
'  Jean  Benaud,'  ^  though  the  tunes  vary  : — 

Ex.  8. 


^J^t 


i^Q^TC^ 


Mft-r*    ml-*,      mn-ra,     ten  •  to  gtmo  m  •  i  -  do 
Ne  aon  1m  cam  •  br»-rM.  qua  aal-toay      ria-hen. 


Yo  no  dor-mo      no.      no    e»>tlch4      donnida. 

The  time  is  constantly  altered  during  the 
Catalan  songs,   and  a  great  quantity  possess 

1  SoDffi  and  dances  often  dnlre  their  name  trom  the  provinoei 
or  towne  in  which  they  are  indigenoue;  thus  rMulefta  from  Bonda, 


tnalagueHa  from  Malaga. 
*  Tix9  many  varying  i 


many  varying  varriona  of  thia  fMnona  eonfr.  known  In 

Italy  a*  'Conite  Angiolino'  and  In  Brittany  and  Scandinavia  a* 
'  Sire  nan.'  and  '  Sire  Olaf.'  are  ^miliar  to  all  atudenta  of  folk-lore. 
A.  Btanchet  and  Gaston  Paria  have  published  articlea  on  thie 
■ong  in  the  Jt0m«  eritiqu*  dtittotre  eT  d»  ttttiruturt.  It  la  remark- 
able  hov  many  Oatalan  aonga  have  their  coanterparla  among 
Bcandioavian  aonga.  eapecially  a«  regarda  the  words. 


tcmadas  (refrains  or  burdens),  which  are  an 
intrinsic  part  of  the  song,  and  may  occur  in  the 
middle  or  at  the  end,  as  in  '  La  dama  d'  Arago.' 
This  is  one  of  the  most  popular  songs  in 
Catalonia : — 


It  -  a  n>b-a    •    -    do-ra  del  a 


ay  del  a-mor. 


Numbers  of  old  ballads  of  great  length,  epic, 
lyrical,  and  dance -songs  will  be  found  with 
valuable  notes  in  a  collection  of '  Cants  populars 
Catalans'  by  Francesch  Pelay  Briz.^  The 
religious  or  legendary  songs  are  especially 
numerous,  and  the  melodies  are  very  beautiful.^ 
The  old  Proven9al  troubadour  spirit  seems  to 
have  lingered  in  many  of  the  lovely  little  lyrics 
still  sung  in  Catalonia,  and  both  words  and 
music  might  belong  to  that  bygone  age. 

A  few  words  must  be  said  on  three  essentially 
national  forms  of  music  which  have  helped  to 
preserve  the  songs  of  Spain.  The  villaneicos 
have  been  already  dealt  with,  and  there  remain 
the  tonadUlaa  and  zarzttelas.  In  the  early  part 
of  the  17th  century  the  Umadillas  were  in- 
discriminately called  ciuUros  de  empezar,  to7is, 
tonadcu,  and  Umadillas,  and  were  pieces  sung  by 
women -voices  in  theatres  before  the  raising  of 
the  curtain.  The  words  were  chosen  from 
favourite  poets  and  set  to  popular  tunes  ;  they 
had  nothing  to  do  with  the  acted  piece  or 
opera. ^  Later  all  kinds  of  (AmadiUas  existed, 
alternately  idyllic  or  burlesque  ;  and  composers 
(like  for  instance  Rodriguez  de  Hita)  turned 
their  attention  to  this  form,  and  cleverly 
interwove  such  national  dances  as  the  holeroy 
Jota,  tiraHa,  or  seffuidUlas,  and  the  street-cries 
of  the  towns.  It  may  be  incidentally  remarked 
that  the  street-cries,  called  los  pregoives,  are  a 
distinct  feature  in  Spanish  town -life.  They 
vary  in  the  different  districts  and  according  to 
the  time  of  year.  The  following  example  is 
centuries  old  ® : — 

*  Bee  Collectlona  at  end. 

*  The  Fkaaion  aonga  which  are  anng  from  door  to  door  during 
Lent  are  among  the  beat.  St.  Peter  and  the  cock  are  eapc^tlalty 
dwelt  on  in  n<«rly  all.  'Ia  Fualo'  in  vol.  ilL  of  Pelay  Brls's 
collection  ia  a  remarkably  fine  example. 


>  Soriano  Fuertca  glvea  many  examples  in  hia  fburth  volaroe. 
*  From  a  letter  from  Antonio  Jfachada  y  AUares  to  S.  D. 
Piti4. 1882. 


J. 


SONG 


551 


Ex.  10. 


Los   P&EOONES. 

Canles  delflarero. 


pnr^jM^JU^.^^ 


Aqul  hay  oapa  jos  oon  el  oabo  tujo  oon  el  oabo  ra-i 

yo. 

The  Zarzuelas  form  the  most  truly  national 
ly&Tt  of  Spanish  art.  They  are  described  in 
their  own  place. 

In  the  art-songs  of  Spain  there  is  nothing 
on  which  it  is  profitable  to  dwell.  If  publishers' 
collections  may  be  accepted  as  evidence,  the 
favourite  song -writers  would  appear  to  be 
Tapia,  Yradier,  Sors,  Garcia,  Leon,  Barbieri, 
Murgia,  Saldoni,  Eslava,  Arietta,  Albenlz, 
Perez,  Cuellar,  Tadeo.  But  although  most  of 
these  composers  have  made  contributions  to 
song-literature,  they  have  won  higher  laurels  in 
other  branches  of  music.  ^  The  limited  capa- 
bilities of  the  guitar  and  mandoline — the 
invariable  accompanying  instruments — have 
naturally  dwarfed  and  stunted  the  development 
of  accompaniments  in  Spanish  songs. 

BiBLiooRAnrr 
Ternnros  y  Pando.  Ectovui  de.    Paleografia  Etpa^oia.    Madrid. 

1758. 
T  '  VjoaMfsli  LitifTtH»rf.    >ew  York,  1849. 

1-     '         ■  ■;    I    .no,    /f ^q«Vj^ «/■: f^  Jtf Mf ji-ia JS^tpoAola.    4vol8. 

Hiehi^l,  rrmni.'l«]Utt,     £4  Pujw  J^Ai^aU!.     {"krii,  1857. 

J(ll&  y  Ftiqt4iijilA.     Jdv  f«w  tf%it<idarv*  «i  J^jwiflo.    Baroelona,  1861. 

MenOfll.     Spttmtteho  Mmwtk.     iJfKt.  Oim.  iM.i 

XwnmOm  r  Fekyo,  M,    Sittirtia  d«  l4u  tdfOA  «$tkica»  en  Stpctfia. 


BlaAo^  Juan  F.      (^ritkAt  nnd  flfiJiQffraj>A.iial   Ao€e$  on   Karij/ 

Br«niWh.  W.     U9brr  ^AAiMPha  Miu^k.    {V^tri«lJakrm:hrift,\9S7.) 
JUdal,  lIan]«H  ri«.    Jntrodutcimi  4U  C'tnr^mi^o  d*  Bama,  aobrt  la 

poa^a  49l  tfyl9  XfV.  g  XK 
Vinson.  J.     Ufittk-lvn  du  Payt  Basque.    Paris.  1888. 
Aaenjo  BarbleH.  Franciaoo.    Canekmero  mueieal  de  toe  itfftee  XY.  jr 

X  VI.  transcrtao  y  eomentado.    Mndrid,  1880. 
Boubles.  A.     Miutgue  Btpagnole.    1890. 
Pedrell.  F*llpe.     Folk-lore  muetcal  CaHUUm  du  XVI.  tUeU.  8am- 

nutlbande  of  the  I.M.O.  1900.  vol.  ill. 

C0LL.BCTI05B 

Keetner.  H.     'Atuwahl  cpanlacber  and  portogloalacher  Lleder.' 

Hanover.  1846-M. 
Abaad.  D.     'Chants  pop.  de  la  Provence'  (contains  many  Cata- 

Ionian  Noiigm.    Alx.  1802^. 
Cahallero,  F.    '  Cuentos  y  Poesias  populares  Andalnces.'    Ldpcig. 

1864. 
Berg?re«n.  A.  P.   '  Spanake  Folke-Sange  og  Melodler.'   Copenhsgen, 

18fl«. 
Pelay  Briz,  P.,  Candl.  C.  and  Salto,  J.    'Cansons  de  la  Terra' 

(Cants  popnlara  Catalans).    Barcelona,  1866-74. 
Lacome.  P. .  et  Pnig  y  Alsnbide,  J.    '  Echos  d'Espo^e.'    Paris.  1872. 
Ocon.  Dr.  E..  y  Rivaa.     'Cantos  EspaAolea.'    Malaga,  1874. 
Deraofllo.     '  Colecdon  de  Cantos  flamencos.'    Seville,  1881.* 
Fonquler,  A.     'Chants  populaires  ERpaarnol*.'    Paris.  1882. 
Rodrigues  Marin,   F.        'Cantos  populares  Espafloles.'      Seville, 

1882-88. 
Bertran  y  Bros.  P.     'Cansons  y  Follies  popnlara.'    Barcelona,  1886. 
Calleja.  R.     'Cantos  de  la  montaSa.'    Madrid.  1901. 
Murphy.    Don    G.     'Die   spanischen    Lantenmetster  de*   16ten 

Jahrhnndrrt '  (contains  many  songs  for  one  voice).  Leipsig.  1902. 
Olmeda,  P.    '  Folklore  de  Castllla.  6  Candonero  popular  de  Burgos.' 

Seville.  lOOa 
Ronenet.  J.,  et  Oafll,  E.  N.     'Repertoire  de  mustqae  Arabe  et 

Manre.'    Alfrer  (en  cours  de  pablication).  1900. 
WolflT,  O.     'Album  Spanischer  Volkslieder  und  Oesttnge.'    Berlin. 
Insenga.  J.      'Cantos  y  Bailee  populares  de  EspaAa.'    Madrid. 
Nunez  Robres.  L.     'Coleccion  de  Cantos  Espafioles.'    Madrid. 

Bajiqub  CoLLicnovs 
Iitupta's  and  Moldiateguian's  collections  of  Basque  music.    1894  and 

1836  (consisting  chiefly  of  dance-tunesl. 
Bnntesteban,  J.  A.    '  Coll.  de  aires  Vascongadaa.'    San  Sebastian, 

1860. 
Halaberry,  J.  D.  J.   '  Chants  popnlaires  du  Pays  haaqnos.'  Bayonne, 

1870. 
Santesteban,  J.  A.    '  Chansons  basques.'    Bayonne,  1870. 

I  See  EsLATA. 

s  The  '  Csntoa  Flamencos '  are  songs  of  three  or  four  verses  in  the 
A-ndalnsian  dialect,  composed  by  the  glpdes.  and  are  rarely  printed 
in  collections. 


Bordsa,  C.    'Cent  ohanaona  populalrai  bamuea.'    Piaria,  1894. 
Bordaa.  C.    '  IS  noSla  baaques  anclena.'    ntrla,  1867. 
VlU^4Uo,  Mm«.  da.    '  Douae  aira  baaqon.' 
lAmasott'a  '  Chanta  ^rr4ntena '  contalna  many  Baaqne  aonga. 
De  Paymalgra'a  'Chanta  pc^  de  la  valUe  d'0«an '  oontaina  many 
Baaque  aonga. 

Portugal 

The  folk -music  of  Portugal  bears  a  close 
affinity  to  that  of  Spain,  especially  in  dance- 
songs.  But  there  are  certain  clearly-marked  dif- 
ferences. The  Portuguese  is  more  pensive  and 
tranquil  than  the  fiery  excitable  Spaniard  ;  and 
as  all  national  music  is  more  or  less  a  reflection 
of  racial  characteristics,  there  is  a  repose  and 
subdued  melancholy,  and  an  absence  of  exag- 
geration in  Portuguese  music,  qualities  seldom 
found  in  the  more  vivacious  and  stirring  music 
of  Spain.  From  the  same  cause,  and  perhaps 
because  the  Moorish  ascendancy  was  of  briefer 
duration  in  Portugal  tlian  in  Spain,  there  is 
less  ornament  in  what  music  remains  to  us  of 
an  undoubtedly  oriental  character.  The  poetry 
of  the  two  countries  has  also  much  in  common. 
Most  of  the  Portuguese  epics  are  of  Spanish 
origin,  and  even  at  the  present  day  the  Spanish 
and  Portuguese  romance  forms  are  almost 
identical. 

In  the  lyrics  of  bbth  races  the  rhyme  follows 
the  assonance  principle,  and  is  a  more  important 
element  than  the  metre.  Moreover,  the  national 
poets  of  Portugal  used  the  Castilian  language 
for  centuries  as  much  as  their  own,  especially 
for  poetry  intended  to  be  sung. 

Portugal  is  less  rich  than  her  neighbour  in 
collections  of  early  music.  And  unfortunately 
a  mass  of  valuable  manuscript  and  printed 
music  which  existed  in  the  splendid  library 
founded  by  King  D.  JoSo  IV.  (1604-66), 
perished  in  the  Lisbon  earthquake  in  1755. 
Much  was  also  destroyed  during  the  demolition 
of  the  monasteries  and  convents  which  followed 
the  revolution  of  1834. 

The  earliest  and  most  important  musical 
records  preserved  in  Portugal  belong  to  the 
Troubadour  period.^  D.  Diniz,  sixth  King  of 
Portugal  (1279-1826),  who  founded  a  university 
with  a  chair  for  music  at  Coimbra,  was  a  grand- 
son of  Alfonso  el  Sabio,  and  well  versed  in  the 
art  of  the  Troubadours.  Of  D.  Diniz's  bastard 
sons  D.  Pedro,  Count  of  Barcellos,  and  D. 
Alfonso  Sancho  we  have  nine  trovas,  and  a 
carwioneiro^  consisting  of  the  work  of  their 
father  and  of  127  other  Portuguese  troubadours. 
Two  copies  are  extant ;  one  in  the  Vatican  and 
one  in  the  Ajuda  at  Lisbon.  The  former  has 
the  melody  indicated  for  each  line,  and  the 
other  has  pictures  of  the  various  musical  instru- 
ments then  in  use.^    The  Jogral  (jongleur)  also 

>  Soriano  Foertca,  In  his  Htetorfa  de  la  mtutea  Xepatkcla^  i.  117. 

gves  a  hymn  of  a  somewhat  earlier  date,  written  by  D.  Frandioo 
>ntlfio.  Count  of  Marialva,  in  the  same  notation  as  Alfonso  el 
Sabio  \Lsed. 

*  A  eancioneiro  always  means  a  collection  of  romances.  Troea 
has  the  same  meaning  as  in  Provence,  only  the  term  continued  to 
be  applied  in  Portugal  to  all  extemporised  songs,  until  the  18Ui 
century  (Portvgieeitehe  Mueik,  Mendel's  Lexikon)  (Platon  von 
Waxel). 

s  Troviur  Cantartt  do  Omde  de  BarceOoa,  F.  A.  von  Varnhagen, 
Madrid,  1849. 


562 


SONG 


played  an  important  part  in  Troubadour  life 
in  Portugal ;  and  the  last  was  Gil  Vicente 
(1470-1536),  at  once  poet,  actor,  musician,  and 
composer.  His  works,  which  give  interesting 
information  about  the  various  customs  and 
forms  of  song  of  his  time,^  are  written  partly 
in  Portuguese  and  partly  in  Castilian.  Inter- 
spersed in  his  pieces  are  vilhanceUa,  cangonetas, 
eantigaSf  romances,  can^oes  pastoris,  cantigas  de 
ber^,  cantigas  marUijnas,  etc  ;  and  in  his 
enselladas  songs  with  Latin  and  French  words 
also  occur,  such  as  the  chanson,  <Ay  do  la 
noble  ville  de  Paris.' 

The  vilhancetes  or  vilhandcos,  avios,  and  lods 
were  similar  to  the  Spanish  in  character  ;  semi- 
sacred,  popular,  and  yet  a  form  which  learned 
musicians  adopted  and  elaborated,  such  as  Fr. 
Francisco  de  Santiago,  Gkibriel  Diaz,  and  many 
contrapuntists  from  Duarte  Lobo's  celebrated 
school,  as,  for  instance,  Felipe  de  MagalhSes 
and  Lesbio.  The  earliest  vilhaTieicos  we  hear 
of  were  those  by  Juan  del  Encina^  and  Gil 
Vicente^  in  the  late  15th  century,  and  the  last 
by  the  Abbot  Luiz  Calisto  da  Costa  e  Feria  in 
1723.* 

The  old  Pagan  festivals  and  the  mediseval 
Christian  festivals  blended  in  Portugal  as  else- 
where, and  heritages  from  those  times  are  the 
Maias  and  Janeiras  songs.  These  festival  songs 
are  still  sung  on  certain  days  of  the  year  ;  the 
principal  ones  are  *0  S5o  Jo2U),*  sung  on  St. 
John  the  Baptist's  Day  (Midsummer)  ;  '  As 
Janeiras,'  sung  at  the  New  Year ;  and  *  Os  Beis,' 
sung  at  the  Epiphany.^ 

Various  forms  of  songs  are  given  in  the  works 
of  the  poets  of  the  Renaissance,  Ribeiro,  Juan 
del  Encina,  Gil  Vicente,  Sk  de  Miranda,  and 
Camoens,  and  these  were  clearly  intended  to  be 
sung,  as  the  accompanying  instruments  and  the 
manner  of  singing  them  are  frequently  recorded.  <^ 
Many  are  identical  with  the  Troubadour  forms, 
for  example  the  serratihilha  and  soldo,  which 
answer  to  the  pastoraZla  and  sovJa,  We  read 
also  of  the  endeixas  or  funeral  songs ;  the 
celeumas  sung  in  chorus  by  sailors  or  workmen  ;7 
the  descantes  which  are  always  8-syllabled  and 

1  It  Is  nid  that  Bnsmiu  learnt  PortugUMe  limply  to  be  able  to 
read  Gil  Vloenie'e  woriu.  Seveml  volnmee  of  various  editions  are 
in  the  British  M tueom. 

s  It  is  doubtful  whether  Juan  del  Encina  is  Spanish  or  Portuguese. 

*  Gil  Vicente  was  among  the  first  to  write  autot, '  religions  pieces 
resembling  in  their  nature  the  miracle -plays  common  all  over 
Europe  at  the  time.  .  .  .  Most  of  these  are  Christmas  pieces,  and 
the  dramatists  often  took  advantage  of  the  storr  of  the  shepherds 
to  introduce  the  elements  of  what  may  be  called  pastoral  oomedy.' 
HUeory  ofPortuaaZ,  by  Morse  Stephens. 

«  VaaoonceUos.  li.  101. 

fi  '  As  Janeiras '  and '  Os  Reis '  are  especially  sung  on  the  reqMctive 
•res  of  the  New  Year  and  of  the  Epiphany.  The  minstrels  go  from 
door  to  door  in  the  evening,  singing  the  praises  of  the  Inmates  of 
the  house,  and  accompanying  their  songs  with  metal  triangles, 
bells,  etc  They  are  generally  rewarded  by  the  master  of  the  house 
with  money,  satissges,  or  dried  figs.  Bat  if  they  get  nothing  they 
sing:— 

'  Etta  caaa  eheira  a  bren 
Aqui  mora  algum  Juden.' 
(This  house  smells  of  tar ;  some  Jew  lives  here) ;  or  else 
'  Esta  casa  eheira  a  unto 
Aqui  mora  algum  def  unto.' 
(This  house  smells  of  ointment ;  there  is  a  dead  body  in  it). 

«  Oil  Vicente  speaks  of  'the  pleasing  way  the  mmeto$  were 
sung  with  guitar  aooompanlment'  See  Th.  Braga's  SUtoHa  da 
JMUratura  Fortuffueta,  voL  vlll.  p.  298. 

1  See  CamoBns,  LutUidM,  il.  IB. 


have  estribilhos  (refrains),  and  the  sonetos.  And 
among  the  dance-songs  the  xacara  (a  gipsy  song) 
and  the  chtda  which  is  similar  to  it,  the  captiva 
or  nunirisca  and  the  judenga.  The  two  latter 
naturally  disappeared  with  the  expulsion  of  the 
Moors  and  Jews.^ 

It  is  difficult  to  trace  the  music  of  the  above- 
mentioned  songs.  Still  no  one  can  deny  the 
antiquity  of  many  of  the  cantigcts  and  can^des 
still  sung  among  the  peasants  in  the  country 
districts  of  Portugal ;  and  here,  unlike  Spain, 
the  dance -songs  are  not  more  prevalent  than 
other  kinds.  In  some  the  oriental  element 
is  still  evident ;  there  is  a  careless  ease,  tinged 
with  melancholy  about  them,  which  is  the  secret 
of  their  charm.  They  are  generally  sung  by 
one  voice  without  any  accompaniment ;  and 
to  the  ears  of  foreigners  have  the  sound  of 
recitatives,  as  the  rhythm  is  often  wholly 
obscured  by  the  singer.  *  The  following  little 
song,  which  the  women  sing  whilst  reaping, 
always  inventing  now  verses,  is  a  fair  example : — 

Ex.  1. 


Foimeaod-fa  aoPor*toSaii*to  As  ce>a-rasama -ra-la& 

And  on  the  plains  the  shepherds  and  labourers 
may  be  heard  any  evening  chanting  in  a  minor 
key,  with  a  pointless,  halting  roeitsure  and 
vague  rhythm  cantigas  which  are  purely  Moorish 
in  character.^®  In  the  province  of  Minho  it  is 
quite  common  to  hear  one  peasant  in  his  harsh, 
guttural  Eastern  voice  challenge  another  to  sing 
one  or  more  verses  against  him.  The  curious 
custom  for  the  men  and  women  to  sing  in 
fourths  and  fifths  still  exists  in  the  southern 
province  of  Alemtejo.  This  example,  wholly 
Moorish  in  character,  was  heard  on  a  popular 
feast-day  in  the  little  town  of  S.  Thiago  do 
Cacem  in  1897  »  :— 


Ex.  2. 


Bibandeira, 


Although  the  words  cantiga  and  can^o  are 
used  indiscriminately  for  all  kinds  of  songs, 
the  so-called  Cantiges  das  ruas  are  a  special 
form,  and  chiefly  sung  in  the  towns  by  blind 
beggars.     Many  of  the  tunes  are   very   old, 

a  See  PortugteaUeht  Muatk,  Mendel's  Jfut.  Con.  L»x.  p.  4»  M  tag. 
(Platon  von  waxel). 

B  Nos.  3, 7,  and  II  of  J.  A.  lUbas's  eolleetion  gi vi»  some  idot  of  this 
kind  of  song,  but  they  are  spoilt  by  their  accompaniment. 

10  It  is  curious  that  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  Portugal  no 
Arab  music  is  heard.    The  voices  also  are  swc<>ter. 

»  Bent  by  D.  Augusts  Machado  (Director  of  the  Lisbon  Conserva* 
toire)  to  A.  Hammerich.    Shidim  Uber  iddndiaelui  Murik,  r 
bdnde,  I.M.O.  189B,  p.  341. 


SONG 


553 


but  the  words  are  constantly  changed.^  The 
fado  is  the  most  purely  national  type  of  dance- 
song  which  exists  in  Portugal,  and  it  has  always 
maintained  its  integrity.'  It  is  seldom  heard 
outside  towns,  and  properly  belongs  to  the 
lowest  classes  of  the  population,  though  during 
the  last  century  it  acquired  popularity  among 
the  higher  classes.'  The  guitar  (which  is  much 
less  used  than  in  Spain)  is  always  employed  for 
the /a<io9,  and  has  a  strongly  rhythmical  and 
uniform  accompaniment : — 
^  Ex.  8. 


There  are  many  varieties  of /ados  a,nd  fadinhos 
in  the  different  towns,  but  they  are  all  binary 
in  form  and  haye  the  same  rhythm. 

Except  during  the  period  when  the  Kether- 
landers  exercised  their  influence  upon  the 
ecclesiastical  music  of  Portugal  (that  is,  during 
the  16th  and  17th  centuries)  this  country  can 
claim  no  great  composers,  nor  school  of  its  own. 
For  when  not  avowedly  borrowing  various  forms 
from  other  countries,  Portugal  fell  unconsciously 
under  their  influence.  The  trovas  (Troubadour 
songs)  were  merely  adopted  Proven9al  forms, 
the  vilhaneicoSf  autoa,  and  lods  were  borrowed 
from  Spain  and  France ;  the  polyphonic  17th 
century  tonos  were  in  reality  Italian  madrigals 
written  to  Spanish  words,  with  estribilhos  added 
to  them.  And  late  in  the  18th  century  all 
attempts  to  form  a  national  opera  failed,  owing 
to  the  invasion  of  the  Italian  opera,  which  has 
exercised  complete  hold  over  Portuguese  music 
for  the  last  two  centuries. 

It  is  only  in  two  small  and  unimportant 
forms  of  vocal  music,  the  fcuio  and  the  mJodinhat 
that  Portugal  can  claim  to  have  created  and 
established  a  distinct  genre  of  her  own.  Of 
t\iQfado8  we  have  already  spoken.  The  7nodinha, 
which  is  the  only  kind  of  art-song  that  Portugal 
has  as  yet  produced,  is,  moreover,  the  direct 
offspring  of  the  Italian  opera.  Though  written 
by  trained  musicians  and  sung  by  educated 
people,  neither  as  regards  form  nor  character 
can  the  modinhaa  be  assigned  high  rank  as 
artistic  music.  Still  they  have  retained  their 
popularity  from  early  in  the  18th  century  down 
to  the  present  day,  and  are  written  as  a  matter 
of  course  by  every  Portuguese  composer. 

These  modinhas,  or  Portuguese  romances,  are 
of  a  literary  as  well  as  a  musical  form.^    The 

>  Nttmerotis  examples  are  glTen  In  Daa  Nevei'  and  other 
cDllectione. 

2  Platon  Ton  Wnxel  derives  ihle  danoe-form  from  the  xaeara  o( 
the  Portuvaeee  gipeiee,  and  the  word  from  fatUU  or  vene-nutker. 
See  alio  M.  Roeder'a  Emuj  Dal  Taeeuino.  p.  146. 

*  A  oelebraied  modem  singer  of  /adot  waa  Joe4  DIaa  (188449). 
who  improvieed  with  wonderful  skill.  He  was  a  great  favourite 
at  the  Coart,  and  In  the  salons  at  home  and  abroad.  Pinto  de 
Carvalho  and  Alberto  Pimentel  have  written  on  the  Fhdoa. 

*  The  derivation  of  the  word  Is  donbtf  uL  Some  my  it  came  from 
mot«  or  moda.  and  that  It  had  its  origin  in  Braxil.  We  certainly 
read  In  a  folio  dated  17S9  (AnnaU  of  the  BM.  nf  Rio  de  JcmHro,  if. 
129)  th«t  on  a  wedding-fea«t  of  the  Viceroy  *  urn  aiegre  dieeHtmmto 
mu$ieo  de  Canttgat  e  Jtodaa  da  terra,  de  gue  ha  tuumdaneia  n'«ite 


pai*.'  Alw  m»ny  trsvellen  of  that  time 


q%i»ha 
dcMril 


ibe  with  admimtion 


first  mention  of  them  occurred  in  the  so-called 
'  Jewish  operas,'^  which  rapidly  became  popular. 
In  the  burgher  classes  inodinJuu  remained  simple 
sentimental  melodies ;  but  at  the  Court  and 
among  the  more  educated  classes  they  developed 
into  highly  elaborate  brilliant  arias,  and  cele- 
brated composers  and  poets  did  not  disdain  to 
use  this  form.  In  Das  Neves*  CancioTieiro  de 
Mttsicus  poptUares  there  are  twelve  songs 
(Modinhaa)  from  Gonzagas'  Afarilia  de  Dirceu, 
which,  according  to  good  evidence,^  were  set  to 
music  by  Marcos  Antonio,  better  known  as 
Portogallo.  In  1793  F.  D.  Milcent  published 
a  monthly  Jomal  de  Modinhaa  at  Lisbon,  from 
which  the  following  example  is  taken,  to  show 
the  brilliant  type  of  modinha  : — 

Ex.  4. 

Moda  a  Solo  del  S,  AnL  da  S,  Leite  M,  de 
Capela  no  Porte, 


Since  the  16th  century,  when  Portugal 
colonised  Brazil,  there  has  been  continual 
intercourse  between  these  countries  ;  and  during 
the  first  quarter  of  the  19th  century,  whilst 
the  Poi-tuguese  Court  was  domiciled  in  Brazil, 
the  modinhas  were  as  fashionable  there  as  in 
Portugal.  But  they  diffiered  in  character  ;  the 
modinhas  hrasileiras  were  always  very  primitive 
in  form,  devoid  of  workmanship,  somewhat 
vulgar,  but  expressive  and  gay.  In  short,  a 
mixture  between  the  French  romance  of  the 
18th  century  and  couplets  from  the  vaudevilles. 
And  this  description  applies  to  the  type  of 
Portuguese  modinhas  of  the  present  day,  which 
are  written  for  one  or  two  voices,  strophic  in 
form,  with  easy  guitar  or  pianoforte  accompani- 
ments. 

A  complete  listof  greater  and  lesser  composers, 
who  have  tried  their  hand  at  this  form  of  song, 
is  too  long  to  give,  but  the  following  are 
amongst  the  most  celebrated.  In  the  18th 
century  Portogallo  and  also  Cordeiro  da  Silva 
and  Jo9o  de  Sousa  Carvalho  ;  a  little  later, 
Rego,  Bomtempo,  Soares,  Pereira  da  Costa, 
Coelho,  Cabral,  and  JoSo  de  Mesquita.  In 
Coimbra,^  Jos^  Manricio ;  in  Oporto,  Silva  Leite, 

the  modinkat  brtulMnu.  For  further  Information  see  Th.  Brafa> 
Hittoria  da  iAtteratura  Portugueia  {FfUnto  Kliftkt  e  o$  dinidente* 
da  Arcadia),  vol.  zx.  p.  603  et  teg. 

>  Thus  named  from  Antonio  Jiw6  da  Silva,  bom  in  1706.  a  h»ptlzed 
Jew  from  Braxil,  who  wrote  Portugaeae  comedies  with  these  inter- 


0  Braga.  IttUoria  da  IMteratttra  Portuguna,  vol.  xv.  p.  004.  note. 
7  The  modinhaa  v&ry  somewhat  in  the  dlfllrrent  district*. 


554 


SONG 


Nunes,  Pires,  JoSo  Leal,  and  Edolo ;  ^  and 
nearer  our  own  time,  Domingos  Schiopetta,  the 
two  monks  J.  M.  da  Silva  and  Jos^  Marquis  de 
Santa  Rita,  Frondoni  (an  Italian,  long  resident 
in  Lisbon),  R.  Varella,  and  VasconoelloB  de  Sk. 
Bat  the  most  popular  modinhaSf  such  as  <A 
Serandinha,'  *0  Salvia,'  *As  Peneinis,'  *Mari- 
quinhas  men  Amor,'  >  and  '  Tem  minha  amada  '^ 
are  anonymous.  An  exception  is  Vasooncellos 
de  Sk's  can^So,  'Margarida  vae  k  fonte,'  which 
is  the  favourite  modinha  of  the  moment^ 

There  are  many  patriotic  and  political  songs 
in  every  collection.  The  pianist  Innocencio 
wrote  a  whole  series  ;  Portogallo's  '  Hymno  da 
Patria'  was  the  customary  national  anthem 
until  King  Pedro  IV.*  composed  his  *  Hymno 
da  Carta'  in  1826;  and  Frondoni  was  the 
author  of  the  popular  hymn  of  the  revolution 
of  Maria  da  Fonte  in  1848. 

Of  late,  serious  attention  has  been  directed 
to  the  national  poetry  and  music  of  Portugal. 
One  of  the  first  to  do  so  was  the  poet  Almeido 
Garrett  in  his  Romaiiceiro.  He  was  followed 
by  Vasooncellos  and  Th.  Braga,  who  in  his 
numerous  volumes  on  the  history  of  Portuguese 
literature  often  touches  on  the  musical  form.® 
Leading  musicians,  such  as  B.  Moreira  de  Sk, 
A.  Machado  (Director  of  the  Conservatoire),  and 
J.  Vianna  da  Motta  and  others  have  ^own 
their  practical  interest  in  the  subject. 

BlBLIOORAraT 

Mwhado,  D.  B.    BOMoiheca  lAultana.    Llabon.  I7414B. 

Wolf,  F.     Prob«H  PaHugieahehn-  und  Catalamiteher  roOttUtdar 

und  Romanatn.    VieDDa,  1896. 
BellennanD,  C.    F.     Portuffttaitch*    roOtMedar  umd   Xomaiuan. 

Leipzig,  imi. 
Meodel'B   .Vim.    Onu.    Lax.;    Portugtaalaeha   Muatk  (Platon  von 

Waxel). 
Oeueta  da  Madeira  1888-tt.     A  Mutksa  am  Fortuaal  (Flaton  Ton 

Wuel). 
Marqnei.  Jooqulm  J.     Jhtudlca  aobn  a  hiatoria  da  mualea  em 

Portugat. 
Brag*.  Th.    Biatorla  da  LUtaratura  Pvrlvin'^aa.    Biat.  da  Poaata 

Pop.  PoTtuffuezfi,    Oporto,  1807. 
VuconcoIloM,  Joaqaiiu  de.    0$  Jfitateoa  Portuguataa.    Oporto,  1890. 
Boeder.  Martin.     La  muatea  aH  PartogaUo;  Dal  Taeeuino,  etc. 

Milan.  l^TTT. 
Lelte  de  Vaeconcelloa,  J.    gomaneat  popularaa  partuguaaaa.    1880 ; 

Tradt^aa  fopularet.    Oporto.  1883 ;  At  Metia  (M«y-day  eongB). 
Comta  de  Pay  ma  igre.  Ramanoatro ;  Choix  daviaux  Chant*  Portuffott ; 

rradttiU  et  annotHt.    Paria.  1881. 
Soubiea,  A.    Mtatofra  da  la  mualqua  an  Portugal.    1896. 

(The  writer  !■  also  indebted  to  Senbor  Bernardo  Moreltm  de  84 
for  much  inforioatiun  kindly  eapplied  to  her  by  letter.) 

COLLBCTIOKB 

Milcent,  P.  D.     'Jomal  de  Modiuhas,  com  aeompanhamento  de 

Cravo.  peloe  inllhores  autoree.'    Llabon,  17BS. 
JowS  do  Reeo.  A.     'Jomal  de  Modinhaa.'    1813. 
Kdolo.  Joe£     'Jomal  de  Modinhaa.'    1828. 
Fernira.  Antonio  J.     'Collect  de  Modinhaa  Portngaeiaa  •  Bnuri> 

lleraa.'    18S9. 
Kcstner,  B.  'Auairahl   apanlaeher  nnd   portogieeiaeher  Ueder.' 

Hanover.  1808. 
Garcia.  Joe4  M.,  and  Machado.  R.  Ckielho.    Two  large  collections  of 

BrasilUn  Modinhaa.    1831. 
Berggreen,  A.  P.    '  Portuglaiake  Folke-aange  og  Melodier.'    1808. 
Rlfaaa.  J.  A.    '  Album  de  musicaa  nacionaeii  portugueraa.' 
Nevea,  A.  dan  e  Mello-fllhu.     '  Musicaa  e  can^dcs  populana.' 
Plree.    'Can^Vw  popalares  do  Aleintejo.' 
Oola^,  A.  R.    'Collect  de  Fados.' 
Thomas.  F.  Pedro.   ' CanoAaa  popularea  da  Belra '  (with  introdvotion 

by  Lelte  de  VaeconcelloM). 


>  Between  1820  and  1840  Joe6  Sdolo,  a  violiniiit  at  the  opera,  waa 
the  favontlte  contributor  to  the  Jomal  dr  Modinhaa. 

>  Theae  last  two  are  included  in  Ribas'a  CoUeetlon. 
sin  Berggreen'a  collection. 

*  The  difference  between  the  canfUaa  and  medhiha$  is  slight,  and 
the  namea  are  oonaUntty  interchanged. 

A  Dom  Pedro  IV.,  the  flrat  constitutional  king  of  Purtugal.  was  a 
pupil  of  Biglsmund  Keukomm,  and  wrote  several  choral  and  operatic 
works. 

«  Braga  also  collected  the  folk-songs  of  the  Asores. 


SalvinI,  O.  R.    'Candondro  mna.  portuguaL*    Lisbon.  1884. 

CUslng.J.  H.    •ZwUfbrasUlanischeVoTkslieder.'    Hambosg. 

Neves,  C^sardaa,  and  Campos,  Gualdinode.  'Canelonerode  Musicaa 
FUpularos.'  S  Tols.  Porto.  1808-88.  (These  volumes  contain 
▼afnable  prefaoes  by  Th.  Braga,  Vit«rbo  and  Ramaa,  and  con- 
alst  of:  eafifBes,  afrwiofai,  cikutea.  dastfoa,  daaaamUia,  eantifoa 
dot  aan^ut  a  daa  ruaa,  fadot,  romonesa,  hgmmu  naeionaa% 
ctmtM  patrioUeot,  eaudtgaa  raUgtoaaa  da  aHgam  popadar,  eoif 
Mees  MtiiryieM  pt^tdariaekdoa,  euadOanaa,  can^Qat  do  bergo,  •tc> 

Italy 

Italy  was  more  slowly  caught  by  the  poetic 
flame  which  the  Provenfal  Troubadours  had 
kindled,  than  other  southern  countries.  For 
not  until  the  middle  of  the  18th  century,  when 
Raymond  Berenger,  Count  of  Provence,  visited 
the  Emperor  Frederick  II.  at  Milan,  bringing 
Troubadours  and  Jongleurs  in  his  train,  do  we 
hear  of  them  in  this  coimtry.  A  similar  patron- 
age was  extended  to  them  by  Baymond's  son-in- 
law,  Charles  of  Anjou,  king  of  Naples  and  Sicily. 
Through  which  of  these  two  gates  the  Proveufal 
language  entered  Italy  has  ever  been  a  disputed 
point.  But  taught  by  these  singers,  whom  the 
common  people  called  Uomini  di  Corti^  Italy 
soon  produced  her  own  Trwjalori  and  Gioeolinu 
At  first  they  deemed  their  native  dialect 
unsuitable  to  poetry,  and  used  the  Provenfal 
language.  But  it  is  certain  that  already,  by 
the  time  of  Dante,  the  volgcw  poesia^  which 
sprang  from  it,  had  reached  a  stage  when  it 
was  capable  of  receiving  rules  and  of  being 
taught  in  the  schools  founded  for  the  purpose. 
After  Dante,  no  Italian  could  longer  doubt  the 
capacities  of  his  own  tongue  for  all  forms  of 
poetry.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the 
term  rima,  used  by  the  Provencal  troubadours 
for  the  sirvenUy  was  adopted  by  Dante  for  the 
'Divina  Commedia'  and  by  Petrarch  in  his 
*Trionfi.'  But  soon  the  verse  of  the  Trouba- 
dours began  to  pale  before  the  splendours  of 
the  great  poet ;  and  towards  the  middle  of  the 
14th  century,  the  Trovatm  declined  in  numbers 
and  popularity,  and  after  1450  were  heard  of 
no  more.^ 

Notwithstanding  the  subordination  of  lyric 
song  to  other  branches  of  poetry  and  music  in 
Italy,  her  long  and  careful  study  of  la  melica 
poesia — poetry  wedded  to  music — has  not  been 
surpassed  elsewhere.  Dante's  sonnets  and 
Petrarch's  'Trionfi'  were  among  the  earliest 
poems  set  to  music.  Dante's  own  contemporary 
and  friend  Casella^  (bom  1300),  who  set  his 
sonnet  'Amor  che  nella  mente'  to  music,  is 
believed  to  have  also  composed  the  music  for  a 
ballcUa  by  Lemmo  da  Pistoja,  still  extant  in 
the  Vatican.  ^^  The  ballate  and  iiUtumate  were 
perhaps  the  oldest  forms  of  songs  written  in  the 
vernacular ;  both  were  love -songs  sung  to  a 
dance.  ^^  After  them  the  maggiolate  or  May-day 

I  So  called  beoaose  these  singers  appeared  as  retainen  fkiMn 
princely  courts.  Also  Ctariatant,  because  the  exptoits  of  Charte> 
magna  were  a  constant  theme  of  their  songs. 

H  For  further  information  shout  the  Troaatort  see  H.  Ton  der 
Hagen'a  work  on  the  Minntalniiara,  vol.  I  v. 

»  8ee  the  fourth  Canto  of  the '  Purgatorio/  and  the  second  Oansone 
in  the  'Convito,'  where  Casella's  name  occurs  several  times. 

le  Bumey  tells  us  that  the  Vatican  MS.  No.  8214  ia  a  poem  on  the 
margin  of  which  ia  written :  '  Lnnmo  da  Piatoja,  e  Gaaella  dlede  il 
suono.' 

II  Arteaga  gives  the  words  of  a  btdtata  at  the  18th  oentury  by 


•SONG 


555 


songs  had  their  popularity.  These  also  wore 
love-songs,  sung  in  the  spring-time  by  bands 
of  young  men.  The  hunting-songs  or  ccuxi^ 
equally  deserve  mention.  The  most  celebrated 
were  written  by  Soldanieri  and  Sacohetti,  and 
the  words  are  far  better  than  their  music  by 
Nicolaus  da  Perugia,  Laurentius,  and  Ghirar- 
dellus.  Some  are  realistic,  imitating  the  sounds 
of  the  hunt ;  *  others  are  canonic  in  form,  and 
others  again  interesting  from  the  historic  side, 
as  they  bring  in  the  street-cries  of  the  time.' 
When  later  the  Canti  Camascialeschi  came  into 
vogue  they  at  first  were  Carnival  songs,  but 
under  the  skilful  hand  of  Lorenzo  di  Medici 
a  kind  of  consecutive  drama  grew  out  of  them.^ 

During  the  14th  century  there  existed  a  class 
of  dilettante  musicians  called  camtori  a  liiUo^ 
whose  business  it  was  to  set  other  poets'  verses 
to  music  and  sing  them.  They  differed  from 
the  Trovatori  who  were  poets,  and  who  sang 
their  own  verses  to  their  own  music  or  to  that 
of  others,  and  equally  from  the  CaTdori  a  Hhro, 
who  were  the  learned  professional  musicians.^ 
Casella  (see  above)  and  Minuocio  d'  Arezzo, 
mentioned  by  Boccaccio,®  would  belong  to  the 
carUori  a  InUo.  It  was  the  habit  of  these 
musicians  to  improvise,^  for  until  the  16th 
century  musical  notation  remained  so  difficult 
that  only  learned  musicians  were  able  to  avail 
themselves  of  it.  This  is  the  reason  why  the 
melodies  of  the  strophic  songs,  which  contem- 
porary writers  ^  show  to  have  been  so  popular 
and  universal  during  the  1 4th  and  1 5th  centuries, 
have  not  survived. 

The  compositions  of  the  Netherlands  school 
of  music,  with  their  severe  contrapuntal  style, 
found  their  way  into  Italy  in  the  15th  century, 
and  in  time  began  to  exercise  a  strong  influence 
there.  But  the  prevailing  type  of  Italian 
secular  songs  continued  to  be  of  a  very  light 
order  during  this  and  the  following  century. 
Potrucci,  who  issued  in  1502  the  motets  and 
masses  of  the  Netherland  composers,  had 
nothing  better  to  offer  of  native  productions 
than  froUole  and  vUlanelle,  tuneful  but  light 
part-songs.  In  form  the  vUlanelle  adhered  to 
the  contrapuntal  style,  though  in  spirit  they 

Fmlsrlck  II.,  and  of  aaothsr  by  Dante.  See  U  BtveluHmi  del 
Ttatro  mtuieale  Italiano,  1.  pp.  187.  190. 

>  They  inxy  have  been  written  •pedaUy  for  hnQting.  but  Gacpart. 
In  hii  history  of  Italian  Literature,  provesthat  any  quick  movanent 
at  that  time  would  be  called  a  Caecia, 

s  In  this  they  reaemblo  the  Fbottols. 

s  They  are  counterparts  of  the  CrU  de  PuHm,  which  Jann«qnln 
brought  into  his  motet  'Voulei  oayr  les  oris  de  Fkris.'  the 
•Cries  of  London.'  and  'Court  Cries'  used  by  Bichard  Deering. 
See  J.  Wolfs  article  norms  in  der  MutOtfetehiehf  dea  tMm 
JohrhundtrU,  Samnulbdndt,  I.M.O..  1901-9.  lit. 

«  Many  of  these  were  written  by  special  InvitaUon  by  Heinrich 
Isaak  (born  IMS).    Nauniann's  Hitt.  <\f  JTtu.  i.  4S8. 

•  The  Important  part  played  in  Italian  music  by  sudi  a  on*  as 
7rance«»  Landini  (1330-90)  is  well  described  by  Fdtis,  t.  810  «t  ttq. 

«  Dtcam.  Giom  X.  No.  7.    See  Ambros.  ffei.  dar  Mut.  il.  497. 

'  The  •  improTisatore'  has  been  for  centuries  a  well-known  figure 
in  lUlian  Ufe. 

*>  We  nad  in  Sacchettl's  norels  that  Uante's  hatttU*  were  every- 
where  known  and  sung,  and  how  Dante  overheard  a  blacksmith 
singing  his  song  and  scolded  him  for  having  altervd  it  And 
Truochi  quotes,  in  proof  of  Dants  having  made  tho  music  for  his 
own  poems,  an  anonymous  writer  of  the  13th  century,  who  says 
Dante  was  '  dllettoasi  nel  canto  e  in  ognl  suono '  {Pont*  ItaUana 
trmlits,  11.  140).  See  also  Ambros.  Oea.  d«r  Mtu.  11.  489.  lor  further 
account  of  the  songs  in  the  i)ecanicron. 


were  essentially  popular.  Gradually  the  term 
froUola  disappeared  ;  the  more  serious  froUole 
passed  into  the  madrigal,  while  the  gayer, 
merrier  type  was  merged  in  the  villanelle*^ 
But  although  the  froUoU  were  despised  by 
contrapuntists  they  showed  a  sense  of  form 
in  repeating  the  first  part  again,  and  attention 
was  paid  to  the  words  by  having  different 
music  for  each  verse,  whereas  the  villanelle 
were  strophical — that  is,  the  same  melody  was 
repeated  for  each  stanza.'^  Other  songs,  light  in 
character,  were  the  rustic  songs.  Canzone  Filla- 
neache,  or  Villotte,  which  peasants  and  soldiers 
used  as  drinking-songs.  More  refined  and  yet 
more  trifling  were  the  Villotte  alia  Napoletana,^^ 
The  so-called  fa-la-la  was  a  composition  of  a 
somewhat  later  date  and  more  merit.  Those 
which  Gastoldi  wrote  (about  1590)  were  good, 
and  so  too  his  halletii. 

The  vocal  music  to  which  our  attention  has 
been  thus  far  directed,  consisted  either  of  songs 
in  parts,  or  unisonous  chorus  with  little  or  no 
accompaniment.  Sometimes  the  principal  or 
upper  voice  had  a  sort  of  cantilena,  but  solo- 
singing  was  yet  unknown.  The  first  instance 
of  solo-singing  is  supposed  to  have  occurred  in 
1539,  when  Sileno  sang  in  an  Intermezzo  '^  the 
upper  part  of  a  madrigal  by  Cortecda,  accom- 
panying himself  on  the  violone,  while  the 
lower  parts  which  represented  the  satyrs  were 
taken  by  wind  instruments.  But  the  piece 
itself  shows  it  was  far  from  being  a  song  for  one 
voice  with  accompaniment ;  the  under  parts 
are  as  much  independent  voices  as  the  upper 
one.     (See  Ex.  1  on  next  page.) 

During  the  last  decades  of  the  16th  century 
a  sweeping  change  came  over  music  in  Italy. 
Hitherto  the  highest  art -music  belonged  ex- 
clusively to  the  Church,  from  which  the  elements 
of  rhythm,  modern  tonality,  and  human  ex- 
pression were  rigorously  excluded.  But  the 
spirit  of  the  Renaissance,  which  had  affected 
the  other  arts  of  poetry,  painting,  and  sculpture 
many  years  earlier,  gradually  asserted  an  in- 
fluence over  music.  With  tiie  awakening  of 
the  human  mind,  and  its  liberation  from  the 
bonds  of  the  mediseval  Church,  which  is  the 
real  meaning  of  the  Renaissance,  it  was  inevit- 
able that  men  should  seek  for  a  new  form  in 
music  wherein  to  express  themselves.  Each 
individual  now  desired  to  think  and  speak  for 
himself,  and  was  no  longer  content  to  be  merged 

•  Aftottola,  printed  In  Junta's  Soman  ooUeetlon  of  1028.  evidently 
became,  ere  long,  a  wManMa,  for  it  is  still  snug  in  Venice  with  the 
same  words  and  melody.  'Le  son  tre  Fftntlnelle,  tutU  tre  da 
martdar.'  Originally,  however,  H  was  a  part-song  with  the  tune 
in  the  tenor.    Ambros,  Hi.  49B.      * 

M  Bee  Fkottola,  also  Ambros.  iv.  180  *e  mq.'.  Flcrem  in  d«r 
MuHkffetchMUe  d.  IMen  JahrhwndmrtB.J.  Wolf;  AsmmcfMnds. 
I.  V.O..  1901-2 .  ill. ;  DU  FnHtoU  in  iltm  Jahrhundtrt,  R.  Schwan : 
rierttHa^ramshrl/t/.  JfuMwiMaeniefu^.  1880. 

"  These  were  gallant  addresses  from  singing- masters  to  their 
femlnluo  pupils.  They  were  as  popular  in  northern  Italy  as  in 
Naples.  For  examples,  see  in  Kieaewetter's  HeMekMdf  und  Betrhr\f- 
fnUuit  dm  weUliOtni  Oraitngei.  app.  Nos.  12.  and  IS  by  Canibio 
aM7)  and  Donati  (IS.NS).  Several  oollections  of  these  songs  still 
exist  In  the  various  libraries,  and  a  specially  Important  one  at 
Naples. 

u  The  Intermeni  were  usually  madrigals  Interspened  In  the 
earlier  Italisn  plays. 


556 


SONG- 


Fragment  of  a  Madrigal.  SoruUo  da  Sileno 
con  violoney  sonando  twUe  le  parti^  e  can- 
tando  H  Sopramjo, 


COBTBCdA,  1689. 


^^^^§ 


in  the  mass.  Thus  ecclesiastical  music  was 
gradually  driven  from  the  field  by  secular 
music  ;  and  choral  or  collective  song  by  pure 
solo-song,  which  was  the  medium  best  fitted 
for  the  expression  of  the  thoughts,  emotions, 
and  actions  of  individuals.  Poetry,  which  had 
hitherto  been  smothered  in  the  web  of  contra- 
puntal music  (where  many  voices  were  simul- 
taneously singing  different  words)  once  again 
asserted  herself,  and  claimed  attention  to  her 
meaning  and  form.  ^  Further,  the  art  of  singing, 
which  by  the  close  of  the  16th  century  had 
reached  a  highly  advanced  stage,  demanded  the 
prominence  of  the  solo -singer.  In  short,  a 
different  kind  of  music  was  now  required,  and 
the  monodic  style  supplied  the  want.  Who 
were  the  actual  inventors  of  this  kind  of  music 
it  is  impossible  to  decide.  Historians  have 
clearly  shown  that  the  latent  germs  must  have 
been  present  wherever  folk -music  existed.^ 
The  predilection  for  a  marked  rhythm,  the 
disuse  of  the  old  Ghu^h  scales,  the  feeling  for 
the  dominant,  the  use  of  the  leading -note 
which  is  an  essential  feature  in  melody,^ — 
all  these  elements,  which  form  the  basis  of 
modem  music,  were  instinctively   present  in 

>  Ambroc,  It.  ITB.  «t  $t>q. 

>  8««  Parry's  Arti^Mwtie.  and  Mojtodia  (vol.  lii.  p.  947). 

9  Ziu-lino  writes  in  1 568  that  the  peasant*  who  sing  vlthoatanj 
art  all  proceed  by  the  iotenral  of  ttie  semitone  in  forming  their 
closes. 


folk- music  before  being  formulated  and  taught 
in  schools. 

According  to  the  historian  G.  B.  Doni,  * 
y.  Galilei  was  the  first  composer  who  wrote 
actual  melodies  for  one  voice.  ^  He  further 
tells  us  that  Galilei  set  to  music  the  passage  of 
the  'Inferno,'  which  narrates  the  tragic  fate  of 
Count  Ugolino,  and  that  he  performed  it  him- 
self *  very  pleasingly, '  with  viola  accompaniment. 
But  be  that  as  it  may,  an  epoch  in  musical 
history  was  undoubtedly  marked  by  Giulio 
Caccini,  when  he  published  in  1601,  under  the 
title  of  'Le  Nuove  Musiche,'  a  collection  of 
madrigali,  eanzoni,  and  arte  for  one  voice. 
These  compositions  have  a  figured  bass,  and 
some  are  embellished  with  fioriture.  In  the 
preface  ^  to  his  collection,  Caccini  gives  minute 
directions  as  to  the  proper  mode  of  singing 
Ills  pieces,  and  his  airs  are  well  supplied  with 
marks  of  expression,  as  the  following  example 
will  show  ^  : — 


Ex.  2. 
{Scemar  di  voe^    EidamasUme  spUitoBou) 


Gaccikx. 


in  armonia  oon  la  ntddetta  spreMsatura.)     iTrillo.) 


t^^^^-^=J^ 


za-te    pe-ze-gzl-ne  In      qnee-ta  par-te  eqtiel  • 


1^^^^ 


(E$d.) 


*  Op,  Omn.    Florence.  17BS.  torn.  II. 

s  Hiis  statement  may  be  doubted,  as  we  hear  of  Caccini,  Vladana, 
Peri,  and  Oavalleri  all  exhibiting  the  same  double  talent  as  Cor- 
teceia  and  Galilei  at  the  same  period,  <.«.  In  the  laat  decades  of  the 
16th  century. 

«  TYanslated  into  Genn&n  in  Kiesewetter's  SckiekadU  und  Be- 
tchOigjmheH,  etc. 

7  For  other  examples  see  the  beautiful  aria  '  Faro  SelTaive.'  r»> 
printed  in  Gevaert's  'Lea  Gloires  de  lltalie,'  and  'Amarilli  mla 
bella'  in  Parlsottl's  '  Arte  Antlcfae.' 


SONG 


557 


{Esd,  coil  misura  pJH  largti.) 


2n3;      (Esd.  rinf.T]^TriUownamezza  haUuta,) 


Jacopo  Peri  succeeded  Caocini  with  a  work 
entitled  *Le  vane  musiche  del  Sig.  J.  Peri  a 
una,  due,  tre  voci  per  cantare  nel  Clavicembalo 
o  Chitarrone'  (Florence,  1609).  They  are 
simpler  than  those  by  Caccini,  and  leas  de- 
clamatory.^ Caccini  had  numerous  followers 
in  the  path  he  had  opened,  and  thus  the 
*  expressive  Monodia,'  t.e.  the  attempt  to  render 
certain  thoughts  and  feelings  in  music,  and  to 
adapt  music  to  the  meaning  of  the  words,  was 
virtually  established.  But  these  early  pioneers 
of  solo-song  were  amateurs,  and  it  remained  for 
trained  musicians  to  carry  on  their  work 
systematically.  With  Monteverde  (1 562- 1654) 
a  turning-point  in  music  was  reached.  To  him 
we  owe  that  revolution  in  harmony  which 
showed  the  use  of  discords  as  an  effective  means 
of  representing  the  element  of  expression  ;  and 
the  development  of  the  recitative  which  led  to 
the  beginning  of  the  Opera — the  most  important 
moment  in  the  whole  history  of  music.  We 
also  owe  to  him  a  debt  in  the  history  of  Song 
for  having  established  the  so-called  ternary 
form  which  was  soon  to  become  stereotyped 
for  the  aria  and  song.  This  consisted  of  an 
air  in  three  parts ;  the  last  part  being  a  mere 
repetition  of  the  first,  while  the  middle  part 
contained  a  passage  of  contrast.  This  form 
was  already  familiar  in  the  folk-songs  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  but  its  first  appearance  in  art- 
music  would  seem  to  be  in  Monteverde's 
'Lamento*  from  'Ariadne'  (1610)*  (Ex.  3). 
Although  in  this  article  the  aria  proper  should 
be  excluded,  having  already  been  treated  (see 
Aria),  it  is  necessary  to  allude  to  it  here,  as 
the  secular  monodic  song  henceforth  chiefly 
showed  itself  in  the  aria- form  and  became,  in 
short,  identical  with  it  Monteverde's  successors, 
Cesti  and  Gavalli,  both  showed  aptitude  for 
pleasant  melodious  solo -music  of  this  form, 
although  Cavalli  sometimes  wrote  arias  with 
only  two  contrasting  portions. 

>  See  '  BeI1i«im»  Regin*'  in  Parlioitrt '  Piccolo  album.' 
9  This  WM  ftfterwAtds  anHnged  as  a  madrigal  In  Ave  parU.  See 
Tarry,  ilutks  qf  th«  antmtemth  Omttny  {Oxford  BUtory  of  MuHe), 
p.  47.  Parry  further  clearly  ahowi  how  this  aimple  form  later 
dominated  one  branch  of  mneic  comjdetely,  and  indeed '  became  the 
bane  of  one  period  of  Italian  art.' 


1"  r 


Other  composers  of  the  transition  period  which 
witnessed  the  growth  of  the  opera  and  cantata 
were  Radesca  da  Foggia,  who  published  five 
books  of  *  Monodie '  in  1616  ;  A.  Brunelli,  who 
published  in  the  same  year  and  in  1618  two 
books  of  '  Scherzi,  Arie,  Canzonette,  and  Madri- 
gali ' ; '  G.  F.  Capello,  whose  most  remarkable 
work  was  a  set  of  '  Madrigali  a  voce  sola ' ; 
G.  Fomacci,  celebrated  for  his  '  Amorosi  Respiri 
Musicali,'  which  appeared  in  1617 ;  Sigismondo 
d'  India,  Pietro  della  Yalle,  Luigi  Rossi,  ^  and 
finally  Salvator  Rosa.^  A  great  quantity  of 
these  vocal  compositions  are  treated  in  the 
strophio  form,  and  the  words  of  all  are  love- 
poems  of  a  stilted,  artificial  character.^ 

If  Corteccia's  madrigal  be  compared  with 
the  following  example  fh>m  Capello,  it  will  be 
seen  how  great  an  advance  had  been  made  in 
solo-singing  in  less  than  a  century.  And  a 
striking  resemblance  may  be  observed  between 
Capello  and  his  successor  Stradella. 

*  BnineUi'a  collection  indaded  eoveral  piecea  by  other  compoaers 
of  the  Florentine  group. 

*  For  the  numexoos  exirtinf  ooUeetiona  of  Beesi'*  '  Monodie'  aee 
Rossi. 

A  Salvator  Roaa  certainly  was  Oarlsslml's  oontemponuy,  bat  the 
example  Barney  gives  shows  that  he  wrote  much  like  Uie  afore- 
mentioned composers.  *  Ambroe,  iv.  390. 


558 


SONG 


Bx.  4. 
MadrigaU  a  voce  Boia.  O.  F.  Capsllo. 

Pal.U.det  •  tomio  ao    .    •    to      a  tmri 


Daring  the  17th  century  the  inflnence  of 
Carissimi  was  great.  He  had  a  strong  sense  for 
modem  tonality  and  for  secular  rhythm,  and 
hence  his  style  grew  different  from  tiiat  of  the 
older  school.  ^Die  Cantata,  which  was  to  be- 
come the  chief  form  of  chamber-music,  reached 
a  high  stage  of  maturity  under  Carissimi, 
Legrenzi,  Caldara,  Stradella,  and  finally  A. 
ScarlattL  Legrenzi's  '  Cantate  e  Canzonette  a 
voce  sola'  (published  1676)  show  his  position 
in  the  development  of  the  art  of  his  time. 
(See  Cantata.)  With  A.  Scarlatti's  name  the 
da  capo  form  of  the  aria  is  associated,  and  for 
the  many  other  debts  the  classical  aria  owes 
him,  both  in  the  opera  and  the  cantata.  (See 
Scarlatti.) 

We  know  how  fierce  the  battles  were  between 
the  monodic  and  polyphonic  systems  in  Italy. 
But  although  the  monodic  form  finally  pre- 
vailed, it  proved  to  be  merely  the  prelude  to 
the  dramatic  and  not  to  the  lyric  form  of  song. 
No  sooner  were  the  '  expressive  monodia '  and 
the  recitative  started  than  the  opera  became 
firmly  established.  And  in  the  same  way  the 
madrigal  and  the  cantata,^  which  were  both 
important,  at  least  as  regards  vocal  chamber- 
music  during  the  16th  and  17th  centuries,  were 
doomed  to  insignificance  by  the  use  of  this 
great  and  overshadowing  rival  For  an  account 
of  the  origin  and  marvellous  popularity  of  the 
Opera,  the  reader  must  turn  to  that  article. 
It  need  only  be  said  here  that  all  other  kinds  of 
secular  vocal  music  had,  and  still  have  to  yield 
precedence  in  Italy  to  the  opera  and  its  ofishoots, 
the  scena^  eavatina^  and  aria. 

If  we  closely  examine  the  vocal  works  of  the 
great  composers  of  the  17th  and  18th  centuries, 
we  see  how  little  the  am,  arieiUf  eamcneUe, 

1  CuiUtaa,  whi4^  an  rmUr  voetA  loiiataa,  bacMiie  bjr  depw  a 
mixture  of  the  flomaal  aria  and  rtcltativa.  Then  wu  DraetloBJIj 
no  dlfferenoe  In  etnaetor*  and  ityle  between  the  arlaa  from  tbeee 
'  elieee  out  of  the  opera '  and  the  opeia  Itaelf .  Parry.  Mu$le  qf  tkt 
atwmttmth  Cmlury  (Oa^/brtf  HUtorp  ef  Mutle). 


etc,  published  separately  in  collections'  difler 
either  in  form  or  spirit  from  the  arias  extracted 
from  their  cantatas  and  operas.  In  the  latter 
class  some  of  the  most  beautiful  examples  of 
pure  lyrics  may  be  found,  like  Salvator  Rosa's 

*  Star  vicino ' ;  Cesti's  *  Intomo  all*  idol  mio ' ; 
StradeUa's  'Bagion  sempre addita' ;  Leo's  'A hi, 
che  la  pena  mia';  A.  Scarlatti's  'Voi  ftiggiste,* 

*  Le  Yiolette,'  and  ^  Oara  Tomba ' ;  and  Caldara's 

*  Come  raggio  di  Sol.'  Many  of  the  operas  and 
cantatas  from  which  such  lovely  airs  are  taken 
are  dead  and  forgotten,  or  their  names  only 
remain  in  history  as  the  shells  which  contained 
such  treasures. 

Turning  to  another  branch  of  the  subject, 
namely  the  folk-song,  it  is  clear  that  in  Italy 
it  never  held  the  same  place  as  among  other 
nations.  That  Italian  composers  ranked  the 
folk-songs  of  other  countries  higher  is  proved 
by  their  choosing  French  or  Gallo-Belgian  folk- 
songs for  tlieir  masses  and  motets  in  preference 
to  their  own.^  In  Petrucci's  'Canti  Cento 
Cinquanta,'  published  in  1508,  the  best  songs 
belong  to  France,  Germany,  and  the  Nether- 
lands ;  and  the  part-songs  called  Canzoni  alia 
francese  *  were  among  the  most  popular  songs 
in  Italy  in  the  early  16th  century.  Traces  no 
doubt  exist  of  carUi  popolari  of  the  15th,  16th, 
and  17th  centuries,  but  very  few  have  come 
down  to  us  in  their  complete  or  native  form. 
It  was  in  the  gay,  busy  town  of  Venice  that 
the  folk-song  first  became  recognised,  and  found 
free  development  It  was  there  that  Petruoci 
printed  the  many  froUoUf  hallate,  harcajuoliy 
etc.,  which  contained  folk-songs  like  *Le  son 
tre  fantinelli '  (mentioned  above),  or  the  popular 

*  La  Bemardina  *  used  by  Josquin  des  Pres,  or 
*Lirum  bilirum'  and  *Quando  andarete  al 
monte '  used  respectively  by  Rossini  di  Mantua 
and  J.  B.  Zesso.  It  was  here,  too,  that  6.  Scotto 
printed  the  Venetian  master  A.  Willaert's  collec- 
tion which  has  preserved  to  us  the  celebrated 
'Canzon  di  Ruzante.'*  But  though  many  of 
the  songs  used  for  the  polyphonic  works  bear 
Italian  titles,  there  is  nothing  to  prove  their 
Italian  origin.  Only  in  a  few  instances  have 
the  words  been  preserved  in  their  integrity,  and 
the  melodies  have  no  distinguishing  character- 
istics. They  are  somewhat  dull  and  formless.^ 
Much  more  akin  to  the  t3rpical  eaiUi  popolari 
in  liveliness  and  simplicity  of  style  were  tlie 

t  See  radi  eoUeettone  ae— 'Arte  antidie,'  'Plooolo  anNsim  di 
Miuica  Antioa.'  FariaotU;  'Echl  d'  Italia.'  Vlardot;  'Glolree  de 
ritelle/  GeTaert :  'Teiiori  antichl.'  M.  Roeder ;  * Gemwc d'  antldittk.' 

Ebliiihed  by  Aehdown ;  '  Alt-Itallenladke  Cuuonetten  und  Allen.' 
ndner. 

*  '  L'hoDime  arm^'  la  a  well-known  eaample.  It  'moat  not  be 
forgotten  though,  that  Italj  «»  tor  many  centvrlca  the  meetlng- 
plaoe  for  miulclane  from  all  ooimtriai,— henoe  the  coemopoUtan 
character  of  the  themee  choeen  for  the  great  oontt»|Hintal  worka. 

4  'OJiaoQl  Franoeel  a  due  Tod,  bnone  da  eaatare  e  raoaare,' 
pablbhed  \n  Oardano,  Venice,  1030.  The  words  are  love-eoDgi,  and 
the  marie  chiefly  hf  Sermley,  Peletler.  Hertenr,  and  Oardano  Mm- 
aelf.  Gardano  had  pnbllahed  In  the  previoos  year  '  Venttdnane 
eansoni  franceee.'oonaiatinsdiieflyof  four^pari  eonnbr  Jannequin. 

»  Thia  ooUeotion  la  eallMl 'Canson  VUlanesdte  alia  NapoUtana  dl 
]f  ceaer  Adrlano ;  a  qoattro  vod  con  la  canaon  di  Rnaania.  IJbro  L 
Vcnesia,  Gtrolano  Sootto.  15ML' 

«  For  an  example  aee '  L*  Benardloa '  In  Kicaewetter'a  SoMelaal^ 
etc.  App.  p.  IS. 


SONG 


559 


hymn -tones,  known  as  'Landi  Spiritaali' 
These,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  were  introduced  in 
the  oratorios  in  order  to  popularise  such  per- 
formanoes ;  and  the  connection  between  these 
Laudi  with  popuhur  dance -songs  is  obvious. 
(See  Laudi  Sfirituali.) 

But  although  we  find  within  recent  years 
that  the  study  of  the  folk-lore  of  Italy  has 
reoeiyed  serious  attention,  materials  for  a  satis- 
factory treatment  of  the  canti  popclari  do  not 
exist.  Much  has  been  written  about  the  words 
of  traditional  songs,  and  innumerable  collections 
of  popular  poetry  have  been  published,^  but  no 
attempt  has  been  made  towards  a  scientific  and 
systematic  work  on  the  melodies,  tracing  their 
origin  and  deyelopment  and  various  forms. 
In  the  many  volumes  of  the  Archivio  per  lo 
Studio  delle  tradiziom  popolariy  edited  by 
Giuseppe  Pitr^  and  S.  Salomone-Marino,  and  in 
G.  Pitx^'s  excellent  work,  Bibliografia  delle 
tradizioni  popolaH  d'ltcUia  (Clausen,  Turin, 
1894),  mention  is  made  of  the  various  collections 
of  canti  popolari ;  and  in  the  former  volumes 
there  are  occasional  short  articles  which  refer 
to  the  tunes,  and  give  a  few  musical  examples. 
During  the  latter  half  of  the  last  century 
Rioordi  and  other  publishers  have  issued  large 
quantities  of  modem  canti  popolari  in  volumes 
entitled  'Ganzonette  Veneziane,'  'Stomelli  Toe- 
cani,'  'Canti  Lombardi,'  ' Napolitani,'  'Sicili- 
ani,'  etc.,  purporting  to  be  local  songs  belonging 
to  the  several  provinces  of  Italy.  But  whether 
these  songs  can  be  accepted  as  the  genuine 
productions  they  profess  to  be,  or  whether  they 
are  new  compositions,  or  at  any  rate  new 
arrangements  of  old  popular  tunes,  and  whether 
they  are  really  sung  by  the  peasants  in  the  form 
in  which  they  are  here  given,  ia  very  doubtful.^ 
There  are  exceptions,  such  as  the  '  Canti  Lom- 
bardi,' the  melodies  at  least  of  which  are 
genuine ;  also  the  '  Canti  Siciliani,'  edited  by 
Frontini,  and  the  'Canti  Abruzzesi,'  collected 
by  P.  Tosti  and  G.  Finamore.  The  latter,  in 
an  interesting  article '  on  the  harvest-songs  of 
this  district,  draws  attention  to  the  solemn, 
religious  character  of  the  melodies,  in  contrast 
to  the  words,  which  are  meny  love-songs.  This 
peculiarity  Finamore  attributes  to  the  great 
antiquity  of  the  melodies,^  which  have  remained 
unchanged  for  centuries,  though  the  words  have 

i  See.  for  InsUnoe,  O.  Pltii'i  atwdit  dt  poeriaptmetart  (Pitlenno, 
1879 ;  Bablerl's  atoria  deUa  pomla  popolar*  itoAtana  (FloranoA, 
1877):  A.  D'  Anoooa's  La  potaa  yopMorB  UaUana  (Lefbom.  1678). 
8«e  alao  Cardnod's  Oamtilsiu  •  BattaU,  atramtoUi  «  Madrtaall  net 
Mc  Xf//.  •  XIV.  (PlM.  Ign) :  and  an  interarttof  bat  nnflnldMd 
work  entitled  Canttmi  antUkt  det  popoto  ItaUano,  HprodMt 
meomdo  U  reedHt  ttampe  a  evra  4i  Mario  JfemghitU^  Rome. 

s  Speaking  of  Tomku  aona,  Mlae  Bosk  ■howa  how  in  tlicae  da^ 
of  cheap  printing  and  half -educated  editing  'the  literary  aonga 
(i.e.  art-aonga)  have  got  mixed  np  with  thefolk-eonob'  Aa  inatanoaa. 
sheqaotea '  Stella  Confldente,'  'If  on  mi  aniara,' '  Bltenial  ohe  famo' 


which  were  aongin  London  drawlng-romna  aa  mndi  aa  on  the  way- 
aidea  and  in  the  alnma  of  Italy.  Boeh  aonga  alao  aa  Toatila  '  YomA 
morira '  are oonatantly  heaid  in  the  atreeta.  The  mt-mntgt  itf  Italg, 
p.  981  «(  mq. 

3  JTelotMa  popoUtH  AbrutMmi;  ieanti  daUa  MiHHmu,  O.  Flaa- 
more:  aee  roL  IS  of  the  AreUvio  ptr  to  atmtOo  daOa  trndtatrnd 
popotaH,  18M. 

*  'CSiaque  acte  de  la  vie  de  ragrlcnltarc  Malt  accompagn^  de 
aarrifloe.  et  on  extoitait  lea  tmvanx  en  rfcitant  deahymnea  aaerte.' 
De  Coulangea.  La  CM  Antttuo,  p.  184. 


altered.  The  following  Canti  della  Mietitura 
(harvest)  are  amongst  ^e  commonest ;  the  ton- 
ality of  both  is  curious,  the  first  being  pure 
Lydian  and  the  second  of  more  or  less  Phrygian 
character.^ 


Bx.  6. 


Given  by  O.  Finamobb. 


la-di  la       flj  •  Je. 

Aria  della  notte.^ 


Some  of  the  songs  from  the  Abruzzi  collected 
by  Tosti  are  of  extreme  beauty  in  form,  melody, 
and  words.  Many  of  the  Sicilian  and  Nea- 
politan songs  begin  with  a  long-drawn  high 
note ;  they  are  sung  very  fast  and  strongly 
accented. 

The  wealth  of  canti  popolari  is  prodigious, 
and  although  (as  mentioned  above)  they  vary 
greatly  in  the  different  districts,  their  general 
characteristics  are  the  same.  The  harmonic 
and  formal  structure  is  simple.  The  accompani- 
ment, which  is  usuaUy  intended  for  the  guitar, 
consists  merely  of  the  tonic  and  dominant  diords, 
and  rarely  modulates  into  anything  except  the 
nearest  related  keys.^  Few  modal  canti  popo- 
lari are  extant,  although  the  flattened  supertonio 
which  is  characteristic  of  the  Sicilian  and 
Neapolitan  folk-songs  recalls  the  Phrygian 
mode.^  The  time  is  more  frequently  triple 
than  duple,  and  this  especially  applies  to  the 
dance-songs.  The  largest  proportion  of  folk- 
songs consists  of  eight-lined  verses  of  eleven 
syllables,  and  are  variously  called  stramboUi, 
rispelti,^  dispetU,  giciliani,  or  oUavi,  The  three- 
lined  verses  are  called  ritomelli,  stonieUi,  fiori 
OTftoreUe.  But  it  should  be  added  that  the 
terms   canlif  eanzoni,  oawsoneUe,  stomelli  are 

s  Vmn  the  Vaato  diatrlot,  noted  by  L.  Anelll.  It  ahould  be 
aeeompanied  by  the  eomemnae. 

•  From  the  Onardiagrelle  dlatrict,  noted  by  M.  Bruai.  Finamore 
adda  that  they  are  avng  In  torn  by  one  voioe  at  a  time,  aooompanied 
by  the  ekUarra  banmt*,  a  aort  of  oelaaoiofM.  Tike  vcraea  are  of 
interminable  length. 

7  A  weak  and  very  modem  colouring  la  Imparted  to  the  harmony 
of  the  paMiahed  fouk-eonga  by  an  ex«eaaiT«  uae  of  the  chord  of  the 
•eventh. 


aapertonic  may  be  fonnd  in 
by  Vinci  and  Leo ;  and  that 


the  oanaonette  from  the  oomic  operaa  vj  ▼  laci  mm  mjov  ;  anu  »iw» 
an  air  Iran  A.  Scarlattl'a  cantata  '  Andate  o  miel  aoaplri/  marked 
aB»  aMUana,  haa  the  aame  duracteriatie.  ahowing  that  BearUtU 
realiaed  it  aa  eaaentSal  to  the  native  quality  of  the  melody.  (Bee 
B.  J.  Dent'a  A.  Bearlatti.  HU  Uft  tntd  Worki,  190B.) 

*  RiMptUi  are  alwaja  aung.  and  aa  eight  linea  la  the  nonnai 
number,  the  popular  mode  of  eMaking  either  of  iUTenting  or  aiafing 
them  la,  dmr  Vottama.    B.  Buak,  The  fW>mmg»9f  Italg,  pi  SO. 


560 


SONG 


very  loosely  and  indiscrimiiuitely  employed.^ 
But  speaking  generally,  stomeUi  are  Uyely 
songs  of  love,  canzoni  and  camxmetU  narrative 
songs,  and  caiUo  is  a  generic  term  applicable  to 
almost  any  form.  Modem  composers  generally 
use  the  word  mdodia  for  a  lyric  song  (Lied). 

A  strong  claim  to  the  title  of  '  canti  popolari ' 
may  be  adyanced  in  fayour  of  the  popular 
melodies  taken  from  operas.  Ambros  tells  us 
that  during  the  I7th  and  18th  centuries, 
favourite  '  couplets '  from  operas,  which  at  first 
had  nothing  in  common  with  the  folk-song 
beyond  being  melodious  and  simple,  acquired 
by  degrees  a  place  similar  to  that  held  by  the 
Volkslied  in  Germany.^  And  the  immense 
popularity  of  operatic  tunes  in  Italy  during  the 
lastcentury  cannot  surprise  us  when  we  remember 
the  theatre  is  an  ubiquitous  institution  there, 
and  that  the  quick  ear  of  the  Italian  instantly 
catches  melodies  with  a  distinct  rhythm  and 
an  easy  progression  of  intervals.*  Having  regard, 
therefore,  to  the  wide  diffusion  of  the  opera 
and  its  influence  on  all  classes  during  nearly 
three  centuries,  it  is  reasonable  to  conclude 
that  it  may  have  checked  the  normal  develop- 
ment of  songs,  and  perhaps  helped  to  obliterate 
the  traces  of  old  traditional  tunes.  It  will  be 
seen  later  that  the  exactly  contrary  process 
took  place  in  some  northern  countries,  where 
in  order  to  make  their  operas  popular,  com- 
posers introduced  favourite  folk-songs  or 
dances,  or  indeed  whole  operas  were  based  on 
national  melodies. 

The  so-called  canti  Tiazionali  belong  to  a 
period  commencing  about  the  year  1821.  They 
have  all  been  inspired  by  the  political  movement 
of  the  last  century  for  the  regeneration  of  Italy. 
Their  tone  is  naturally  warlike,  but  the  melodies 
are  ultra-simple  and  rather  weak.  The  most, 
celebrated  of  them  are  :  *  Addio,  mia  bella ' ;  ^ 
*0  dolce  piacer,  goder  liberty ' ;  *  Daghela  avanti 
unpasso';*  *InnodiMameli';  *Fratellid' Italia'; 
*La  bandiera  tricolore  *  ;  *Inno  di  Garibaldi,' 
and  *  All'  armi '  by  Fieri.  The  years  in  which 
Italy  has  been  most  deeply  stirred  by  struggles 
for  independence  were  1821,  1848,  and  1859, 
and  all  the  songs  whose  names  have  just  been 
cited  can  be  traced  to  one  or  other  of  those 
revolutionary  periods. 

For  many  important  forms  of  both  vocal 
and  instrumental  music  we  are  primarily  and 
especially  indebted   to    the   Italians,    but   as 

I  Canmiu  It  the  BlcilUn  equlvAlant  of  rispttto,  and  eturi  of  ttor- 
imUo.  The  children's  wmgi  in  Italy  are  very  numerous,  and  are 
nsoally  called  Ninna-Nemne  or  Nan»  in  Venice.    Boak,  op.  eit.  p.  47. 

*  Orloff  reooanta  how  an  aria  from  an  opera  hy  P.  Cafaro  (born 
1706). '  Belle  Ind/  waa  for  halt  a  oentary  the  beet-knoirn  and  most 
wldely-Banff  song  all  over  Italy ;  the  melody  was  even  painted  on 
china  and  embroidered  on  robes  (Smai  mr  FBUtohv  de  Utmtudqtu 
*H  Itaite,  i.  2iKI).  See  also  the  acconnt  of  the  popularity  of  Pioclnni's 
opera  '  La  Cecchlna '  in  the  Oifitrd  BUtvm  qf  JfuaSe,  voL  S.  Tkt 
rienwste  Period,  p.  97.  W.  H.  Hadow. 

9  The  chorus  of  an  opera  is  frequently  choaen  from  amongst  the 
workmen  and  labourera  of  the  place  where  it  is  performed :  and 
thus  even  difllealt  choruses  may  be  heard  in  the  streets  and  suburbs 
of  towns  which  poasess  a  theatre. 

*  This  is  an  adaptation  of  Italian  wonts  to  *  Partant  pour  la  Syrie.' 
and  waa  probably  made  during  the  war  of  1K90.  in  which  Fianoe 
assisted  Italy  to  liberate  herself  from  the  yoke  of  Austria. 

s  A  ballet-song  written  by  F.  Giorsa  in  1S88. 


regards  the  art-song  proper  we  owe  them  little. 
From  the  latter  part  of  the  17  th  to  the  early  part 
of  the  19th  century,  the  eanzani,  and  camaneUe 
da  camera  exhibited  neither  merit  nor  improve- 
ment. Several  collections  were  published  at 
intervals,  yet  apparently  they  attracted  little 
attention.  Many  were  of  a  religious  tendency  ; 
not  hymns  but  cajieoni  spirUuali  e  morali,  as 
they  were  called.  £ven  when  the  eamoni 
madrigalexhi  were  reduced  to  two  voices  (as, 
for  instance,  those  by  Benedetto  Maroello,  pub- 
lished at  Bologna  in  1717)  they  continued  to 
be  essentially  polyphonic,  one  voice  imitating 
the  other. 

During  the  18th  century  the  lyric  poet  Meta- 
stasio  exercised  a  certain  effect  on  vocal  music, 
and  many  of  his  arieUe  were  set  by  contemporary 
musicians ;  but  his  influence  was  not  lasting. 
A  little  later,  a  few  inferior  composers,  such  as 
Asioli,  Bami,  Federici,  Blangini,  and  Roma- 
gnesi  ^  (all  bom  in  the  second  half  of  the  18th 
century)  turned  their  attention  to  song-writing, 
and  published  quantities  of  ariette,  canaonette, 
rondi,  noUumi,  and  romame,  but  they  were 
too  weak  to  stand  the  test  of  time,  and  such 
popularity  as  they  may  once  have  known  has 
been  brief  and  fleeting.  In  fact,  few  Italian 
composers  of  merit  ever  deemed  it  worth  while 
to  bestow  pains  on  tlus  kind  of  work  ;  to  write 
an  opera  was  their  natural  ambition,  and  on 
this  they  concentrated  their  powers.  'With  all 
the  best  talent  devoted  to  the  service  of  the 
Church  or  the  theatre  there  was  little  room 
left  for  the  more  solitary  and  self-contained 
expression  of  lyric  feeling. '^  Nor  was  there 
any  demand  for  lyric  songs.  Just  as  the 
'  couplets '  and  favourite  tunes  from  the  operas 
supplied  the  people  with  many  canti  popolari, 
the  aria  and  cavatina  provided  the  vocal  pieces 
which  the  educated  classes  preferred.  If  we 
look  through  the  work  of  Paisiello,  Cimarosa, 
Mercadante,  Bellini,  Donizetti,  Verdi,  and  other 
celebrated  composers  of  opera,  very  numerous 
examples  of  the  above-mentioned  miscellaneous 
kinds  of  songs  may  be  found,  but  none  evince 
any  serious  thought.  They  were  obviously 
thrown  off  in  lebure  moments,  and  now  they 
are  never  heard  of.  An  exception,  however, 
must  be  made  in  favour  of  Rossini,  some  of 
whose  songs  have  fine  melodies  and  interesting 
accompaniments.^  Among  song -writers  who 
lived  nearer  our  own  time  Gordigiani,  Mariani, 
and  Giordani  are  undoubtedly  the  best  for  simple 
melodious  songs. '  They  wrote  in  the  true 
Italian  style,  with  the  utmost  fluency  and 
sentimentality. 

*  Those  last  two  oouposers  were  better  known  In  Paris  than  In 
their  own  country. 

7  W.  H.  Hadow.  Oxford  BiA.  t^fMutic,  v.  SSS. 

8  See  for  example  'Ia  BcgaU  Veneciaiw,'  No.  2.  where  the 
rhythmical  fleure  in  the  left  hand  represents  the  regular  movement 
of  the  oars,  wfaiUt  the  right  hand  has  continuous  ttgato  paaaagea 
In  double  notea. 

>  Rossini  once  apUy  summed  up  the  Italian  ideal  of  a  song ;  '  n 
diletto  dev*  easere  U  baaa  a  lo  soopo  dl  quest'  arte— Melodla  somplic* 
— Ritmo  chiaro.' 


SONG 


561 


With  few  exceptionB  Italian  songs  are  marked 
in  a  greater  or  less  degree  by  the  same  qualities. 
The  voioe-part  is  ever  paramount  in  them,  and 
all  else  is  made  to  yield  to  it.  The  beautiful 
quality  and  the  wide  compass  of  Italian  yoioes,^ 
and  the  facility  with  which  they  execute  difficult 
vocal  phrases,  tempt  the  composer  to  write 
brilliant  and  effective  passages  where  a  simple 
melody  would  be  far  more  appropriate  to  the 
words.  The  words  may  indeed  give  the  form 
to  the  song,  and  the  music  may  substantially 
agree  with  them,  but  we  miss  that  delicate 
subtle  imderstanding  between  the  poet  and  the 
musician,  where  the  music  often  interprets  the 
words,  or  a  single  word  gives  importance  to  a 
note  or  passage.  Again,  the  accompaniment 
holds  a  very  subordinate  place.  Its  sole  use  is 
to  support  the  voice  ;  rarely  has  it  any  artistic 
value  of  its  own,^  and  seldom,  if  ever,  does  it 
assist  in  expressing  the  poetic  intention  of  the 
work. 

It  would  be  wrong,  however,  to  apply  these 
criticisms  without  reserve  to  all  modem  Italian 
composers.  P.  Tosti,  for  instance,  knows  how 
to  rise  above  the  common  defects  of  his  country- 
men if  he  chooses  ;  he  possesses  a  genuine  lyric 
talent,  and  some  of  his  melodies  are  charming. 
Clever  accompaniments  also  are  met  with  in 
the  compositions  of  Marco  Sala,  Faocio,  Bozzano, 
Coronaro,  and  Smareglio.  The  last  two  have 
paid  especial  attention  to  the  words  of  their 
songs.  A  cycle  of  songs,  entitied  '  La  Simona,' 
by  Benedetto  Junck,  would  have  a  high  rank 
assigned  to  them  in  any  country  ;  and  the 
same  can  be  said  of  Sgambati's  beautiful  songs, 
with  their  highly  developed  accompaniments. 
£.  de  Leva's,  Enrico  Bossi's,  P.  Tirindelli's, 
and  Rotoli's  songs  have  merit ;  and  an  interest- 
ing new  composer,  Leone  Sinigaglia,  writes  with 
grace  and  originality,  though  his  songs  are 
scarcely  Italian  in  character,  and  he  approaches 
nearer  to  the  German  school  of  song-writers. 

Amongst  the  works  of  the  most  celebrated 
composers  of  modem  Italy,  such  as  Martucci, 
Boito,  Mancinelli,  Catalan!,  Mascagni,  Leon- 
cavallo, Giordano,  Franchetti,  Puccini,  and 
Cilea,  etc.,  the  writer  has  searched  in  vain  for 
any  mention  of  songs.  It  seems  as  if  that 
branch  of  music  has  not  yet  aroused  the  interest, 
nor  attained  the  rank,  in  Italy  which  are 
accorded  to  it  in  other  countries. 

BlBLIOOKAFHY 

ArteagA.  8.    La  JUvoiiafone  «M  Uatro  mm.  Ital.    Venloe,  1788. 

Orloff.  O.     AMitf  $ur  rhUtoin  ds  la  hum.  en  ItaUt,    Purla.  ]8>SL 

Uchtenthal.  P.    Mgionarlo  »  BibUog.  delta  Mustea.    MiUn,  1898. 

Von  dar  H«cen.  P.    DI0  Mhrnrntngmr.    LdfKlc.  1838. 

DleU.  P.    Leb«n  und  Wmrhe  du  Trouhadimn. 

Wolf.  P.     V^btTdimLaU.    Held«lb«v.  1841. 

Kiewwetter.  R.  Q.     BehkikmiU  immI   Bmeliag^iAtU  dm  mW.  0«- 

fon^M.   LfldiNdg,  1841.  OMc*ieftt«  dmr  Kurop.-abtrkOdnd.  MtuOt, 

Leiprig,  18»4. 

I  It  la  cQrloiM  to  not«  how  Uuiltcd  is  the  oompus  of  toIo*  for 
which  modem  Italian  compoMm  write  •onga  intended  for  drculft- 
tlon  In  foreign  coantrlee,  while  the  eonge  they  write  for  the  home- 
market  often  exceed  the  eompaa  of  two  octaree. 

'  ▲  point  to  be  taken  into  ooneideration  as  greatly  Imporeriahing 
Mid  limiting  the  aooompaniments  la.  that  on  ainoant  of  the 
climate  and  the  outdoor  life  the  Italians  lead,  the  guitar  and 
mandoline  are  aa  much  osed  as  the  pianoforte. 

VOL.  IV 


Sal 
Pel 
Cm 


IslriuiL'     H  — 

papu  lta.m 
a.    '  Veo  <A^\im  humtm.tiil'L.'    mUn.  1881 -84. 


Ambroa.W.    OmdUelUt  dtrJiwa.    Braalau.  Laipcig,  ISes-Se. 
Pkjrlmo.  P.    Ctmw  atoHee  mOla  teuola  Mua.  <M  ^ajwH.    Maplea. 

18B8-71. 
Nanmann.  B.    JtaUtmimAt  TvndMkttr.    Berlin.  18««. 
Pfleldenr.K.    DaaUal.  ValktmB^dtgettetnerroUtiUeder.    Leipiig. 

1879. 
Fltr«.  O..  e  Salomone-Marlno.  S.   ArekMo  ptr  lo  atudio  delU  tradi- 

tiotUpap.    Palermo.  1882.  etc. 
Boak.  EaeheL    Tht  Folk'tomgn^  Ital^f.    London.  1887. 
ChJleeotti.  O.    aMamtUtdiapvtKdMOimputmUo.    Milan.  1889. 
Parry.  C.  H.  H.    Muaie  V  Urn  Bvmntntuh  Cmhtrw  {Oa^^vrd  SUtory 

oTiTtufe.  ▼oLili.).    Oxford.  1902. 
The  writer  also  owes  her  thanks  to  Blcnor  Domenloo  ComparettI 
for  information  on  the  folk-eonga  of  Itaqr. 

Coixxcnoe 
Plorimo.P.    •XcodiMapoU.'    Napoli.  18«>«. 
Tbmmaaeo.  N.    'Canti  pop.  Toecani.'    Venloe.  1841-S. 
Alvet*.  Andrea.    'Cantl  pop.  tradiaionall.'    Vloenia,  1844. 
Gordiglanl.  L.     'CoUesione  del  Canti  pop.  toecani';  'Stomelli 

d'  Areiao ' ;  *  Boo  dett'  Amo.'  etc    Milan.  ISOa 
Pea.  L.  A.    'Chants  pop.  de  la  Oorae.'    Paris.  1800. 
BlconU.  G.    'Canti  pop.  lombardi.'    1807-1900. 
Oiamboni,  A.    '  I  Teri  Canti  pop.  dl  Pirense.'    Milano.  1802. 
ComparetU,  D.     '  Saggi  del  dIaletU  greei  dcir  Italia  merid.'    Pisa. 

180S. 

10, 8.    '  CAii'ti  p»p.  Kioiiihui,'    nti«iTi,iii,  1887. 

,ul4.L  pup.  Kcmftrrl  rj  L '     Tnrtn,  ItfTO. 

intl  pu|.i.  AvWt  pTuvliielfr  nifrld/    ^uils.  1871-72. 

C'lminL  nu.  eIrllA  I^guivA.'     Mil^n,  IJ^TS. 
Ms  J       'C4lltt  -  -    - 

Iv4.  \      'Ciuitl  pen.  Ii 
D"  Au^cnm  A.     '<^tl  I 
OiA;<lmNO..  vRiAirdl.l 
De  .V1 1^  1  Id,  V.    ■  m  Oaaimtl  puik  M  apcaiUn  I . '    B  (la 

Pi] i^re.  f3.     '  CwtiU  pOfm  AbrusHwL'     M  J  Un.  Iflft 

T»- 1    K.  F.     ■  Ckiiti  ^Q^  AbnussL-    MUsii^  VHm, 
PnnLiul,  F,     'EtodiiJIaHldlla.'     Milan,  IRSL 
BiXt  .i.iKlta.  O.     ■  HtnETudll  d'  Ainara.'     fklarmD,  18S4. 
JuJ  1 1. .  .<^ .     "  lUcI, ' '  Nil]  uv-  ysD  uf.  •     Na^«,  ladL 
Ort  '<lu  .1,  F,  B^     '  Lm  TDLvri  A*  I'Uc  is  Chicsa.''     Pkrti,  IfSt, 
Ni^i  1^.  i.''jDat.     'Cuhti  iH>p,  dia  Piecuimtfl.'    Turin^  3888. 
Pat-li^'ittl.  A      *  L«  Picluxlild  jiup.  r  itihuie'^ '     Bdbiil 
Tei^'  JiU'T,  r>.  W.    'RiUMiiiluiif  JtzJi£AJSEJM:r  VMUtsllvdcj-,' 
Par,.   I.  ^J.  C.    '  K™  dell  FriuH/    Tr^m^, 

Pllr. .  iS    *t»ntl  iKiji,  8km«»U'  rVleniiJi,  J»H  ;  -  BILUonafla delle 
Irv.ilx    1'.  t".  >!'  iULLa,'  Fmite  11.  "Ouktl  •  m^lv^l^*}    Torino, 
i'Ai^riuo.  IJWL 
Oiannini.  O.    'Cantl  pop.  Lncchesi.'    Lueoa,  1890<92. 
SaTlottl.  A.    'Canti  e  Nlnne-Naoue  Arpinatl.'    Palermo,  1891. 

Switzerland 
Although  this  country  is  bound  together  by 
a  strong  national  feeling,  it  contains  great 
diversities  of  idiom.  More  than  half  the 
population  speak  German ;  the  rest  either 
French  or  Italian,  and  a  small  fraction  Romansch 
or  Ladin.  Hence  there  is  little  specifically 
national  music,  as  it  generally  resembles  that 
of  the  country  to  which  it  lies  nearest.  For 
instance,  the  folk-songs  on  the  southern  side 
are  essentially  Italian  in  character,  while  the 
French-Swiss  and  German-Swiss  folk-songs  are 
included  in  the  collections  of  France  and 
Germany.  A  purely  indigenous  feature  in 
Swiss  music  is  the  cow- call,  or  Kuhreiherif 
which  has  been  already  treated.  (See  Ranz 
DE8  Yaches.)  The  old  watchman-songs  should 
also  be  mentioned.  These  date  back  for 
centuries,  but  are  probably  of  German  origin  ; 
as  in  the  canton  of  Tessin,  where  Italian  is  the 
common  language  spoken,  the  night  watch-call 
is  still  sung  in  Old  German.  Nearly  all  the 
true  Alpine  songs  can  be  played  on  the  Alphom, 
to  which  in  fact  they  owe  their  birth.  The 
Swiss  peasants  have  always  possessed  a  remark- 
able harmonic  aptitude.  The  herdsmen  can 
skilfully  improvise  songs  in  many  parts,  and 
vary  them  with  Jodels  as  ritomels  or  refrains. 
In  many  of  the  dance-songs  the  rhythm,  too,  is 
highly  developed,  necessitating  constant  changes 
of  time-signature.  Otherwise  the  melodies, 
like  the  poetry,  are  of  the  simplest  character 
in  form  and  metre. 

2o 


562 


SONG 


Looking  bock  on  the  past  history  of  music 
in  Switzerland  we  find  that  the  composers  of 
any  note  in  this  coantry  have  generally  identified 
themselves  with  other  nationalities.  Thus  in 
the  16th  century  the  great  contrapuntist, 
Ludwig  Senfl's^  name  appears  among  German 
composers ;  in  the  18th,  J.  J.  Rousseau  is 
claimed  by  France,  just  as  Niigeli,  Raff,  and 
Schnyder  von  Wartensee,  nearer  our  own  time, 
are  by  Germany,  But  Switzerland  has  never 
been  without  her  own  musicians,  who  have 
striven  in  all  ages  to  keep  up  the  national 
feeling,  although  their  names  are  now  scarcely 
remembered. 

The  Reformation  exerted  a  great  influence 
in  French  Switzerland.  The  Psalms  of  G. 
Franc,  the  two  Bourgeois  and  Davantes  are 
still  heard  around  Geneva.  Some  of  the 
ooraules  of  the  Fribourgeois  have  beautiful 
refrains,  recalling  the  ecclesiastical  sequences ; 
and  in  many  of  the  old  songs  used  in  the 
peasants'  Festspiele  are  traces  of  Goudimel's  fine 
hymns  adapted  to  secular  words.  These  festival- 
plays,  in  which  the  peasants  represent  some 
national  legend  or  historic  event  by  word, 
dance,  and  song,  are  held  in  different  districts, 
and  form  a  powerful  factor  in  the  musical  life 
of  Switzerland.  In  recent  years  they  have 
incited  some  of  the  younger  Swiss  musicians, 
such  as  Baud-Bovy,  G.  Doret,  and  F.  Niggli, 
to  take  down  the  songs  sung  on  these  occasions 
by  the  peasants  and  to  write  simple  popular 
melodies  in  the  same  spirit  Whilst  the 
Church  cultivated  the  taste  for  hymns  and 
chorales,^  the  frequent  wars  gave  rise  to 
innumerable  songs  of  satire,  strife,  and  politics. 
Some  of  the  earliest  French  collections  of  these 
songs  were  printed  by  P.  de  Vingle  at  Neuch&tel 
in  tiie  16th  century.^  He  also  printed  many 
books  of  carols  (Noels  Nouveaultx,  1588), 
usually  with  very  irreverent  words  set  to 
favourite  sacred  and  secular  tunes. 

In  the  17th  and  18th  centuries  music-schools 
were  formed  in  the  various  towns  of  Zurich, 
Basle,  Berne,  and  Ooire,  and  their  libraries 
have  preserved  numerous  collections  of  songs 
by  Dillhem,  Simler,  Eruger,  Briegel,  Musculi, 
the  Molitora,  Dietbold,  Menzingen,  and  especially 
L.  Steiner (bom  1 688), — the  first  Swiss  composer 
to  cultivate  a  love  for  his  country's  music. 
J.  Schmidli,  who  set  Lavater's  'Chansons 
Suisses '  to  music,  and  Egli,  who  published 
several'ChansonsSui88e8avecm61odie8,'followed 
in  his  steps.  After  Egli's  death  in  1810,  his 
pupil  Walder  carried  on  his  work,  together  with 
Otty  Albertin,  Bachofen  (a  special  favourite) 

I  Banil  eontribatad  buidr  to  the  Taxiooa  «dl«cUoiia  of  the 
16th  «eDt«ry;  end  In  one  of  th«c  celled  BlehUa  GtJUea,  dated 
1548,  there  oocnre  the  oldeet  known  veralon  of  »  Aon*  dm  Vaehn. 

*  Towerde  the  end  of  the  IBth  century  I*  Moecr  of  Beele  oon- 
trlhnted  laxvel/  to  the  popularlaetlon  of  the  Chareh  eonga.  Hie 
book.  Bin  m«<  milkd1iirfhg6  MaUri^  eto.  eonteine  a  lerte  nwnber  of 
German  wogs  adapted  to  familiar  Church  melodies  See  Becker, 
aU€.  d$  la  Muatqtu  Aitee. 

*  The  collection  of  ISOQ  oontaina  the  celebrated  comflalntg  on 
the  herettoa  burnt  at  Berne :  '  Die  war  Mietory  von  den  vier  Xetcar 
rfeedlier  ordena  *a  Bern  in  dea  Bydgenoeeenechift  Terbcannt' 


Greuter,  Felix  Huber,  Kuhn,  and  Zwinger,  some 
of  whom  were  national  poets  as  well  as  musicians 
and  collectors.  J.  G,  Nageli  (as  much  a 
German  as  a  Swiss  song -composer)  did  much 
to  promote  musical  education  in  the  country  of 
his  birth.  He  was  joined  in  this  movement 
by  Kunlin,  Wachter,  Krausskopf,  the  brothers 
IVohlich,  and  Ferdinand  Huber.  As  song- 
writers Karl  Attenhofer,  F.  Grast,  and  Ignaz 
Heim  should  be  especially  mentioned,  the  latter 
being  perhaps  the  most  popular.  Zwyssig 
composed  the  *Cantique  Suisse'  (the  national 
hymn)  and  Baumgartner  the  fine  chant  *  O  ma 
Patrie.'  The  names  of  Methfeesel,  C.  and  F. 
Munziger,  G.  Weber,  A.  Meyer,  and  F.  Hegar 
(who  is  principally  famous  for  his  choral  songs) 
may  complete  the  list  of  that  period. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  19th  century, 
a  new  impetus  has  been  given  to  Swias  music 
by  a  group  of  young  and  enthusiastic  musicians, 
who  have  strongly  felt  the  necessity  of  pre- 
serving the  traditional  treasures  of  their  country 
and  developing  them  with  all  the  resources 
of  modem  art  They  have  hereby  endeavoured 
to  prove  the  essential  unity  of  feeling  in  the 
nation.  Though  composed  of  such  various  races, 
the  same  patriotism,  love  of  liberty,  and  inde- 
pendence have  animated  this  little  republic 
in  all  times  of  its  history.  The  leaders  of  this 
movement  are  Hans  Huber  and  £.  Jaques- 
Dalcroze  ;  the  former  bears  an  honoured  name 
in  other  branches  of  music  besides  songs,  and 
the  latter  is  a  refined  poet,  as  well  as  being 
a  prolific  composer.  His  numerous  volumes  of 
'  Chansons  romandes,'  '  Chansons  populaires  et 
enfantines,'  'Chansons  des  Alpes,'  'Chansons 
patriotiques,'etc.  contain  graced  little  pictures 
of  national  life,  in  which  Jaques-Dalcroze 
cleverly  introduces  the  types  of  melody,  har- 
mony, and  rhythm  characteristic  of  the  various 
cantons.^ 

In  the  year  1900  the  'Union  of  Swiss 
musicians'  was  formed,  which  now  numbers 
over  300  members,  and  holds  yearly  festivals 
for  the  performance  of  new  works  of  all  kinds 
by  these  composers.  Elspecial  interest  is 
attached  to  those  of  the  younger  generation, 
all  of  whom  have  included  song  as  an  important 
branch  of  their  art  The  principal  names  are 
as  follows:  £.  Jaques-Dalcroze,  V.  Andrae, 
Otto  Barblan,  £.  Bloch,  £.  Combe,  A.  D^^reaz, 
G.  Doret,  F.  Klose,  H.  Kling,  E.  Reymond, 
Fritz  Niggli,  J.  Ehrhart,  R.  Ganz,  F.  Karmin, 
J.  Lauber,  W.  Pahnke,  P.  Maurice,  W.  Rehberg, 
G.  Pantillon,  L.  Eempter,  etc. 

The  revelation  of  so  much  home  talent  may 
surprise  the  world,  but  it  proves  that  *  a  Swiss 
school  of  music  is  rapidly  rising,  and  may  in 
time  hold  its  own.'  ^ 

«  Jaqnee-Daleroee  haa  done  mndi  to  develop  the  rhythmical 
dement  among  hU  countrymen  by  hla  dioral.  dance,  and  gamc- 
aon«B.  and  '  Gymnaattqnee  Rhythmiqnoa.'  See  alao  hie  atrikinir 
article  *  Ia  pedacogla  del  ritmo'  In  the  MHtta  MtulctJt*  nmUama, 
Annoxlil. 

•  B.  Jaqnee-Dalcroee.  IMe  Jimtik  In  der  SAmtlK. 


SONG 


663 


BlBUOQMkmT 

TMdw.    Apfmmm$am' apradkmAtUM.    Zarleh,  1887. 

SdraUgw.  A.     JH«  aArngtrtO^d*  St.  OaOtm  «gm  Mm  bit  itMi 

JaiHimidtrt.    Btudadelii.  Nev  Yock,  18B& 
Becker,  O.    La  nwcffiM  m  Ai4h«  4<!pH<i  to  Cen^  to  jrfM  fWKto 

>iMgu'aiajlM(l«/«iiMaMele,elc    Geneva,  1874. 
Becker,  O.    JTyltiiiifcfaterftefce  flMwm  tm$  dtr  roiiiaitto>eii  Jptoefa. 

isre. 

8<mU<e,A.    gtdmtiHUMndelaJfutltMt).    FimtU.  18BB. 
JMOee-Oalcrow.  B.     M»  Muttk  In  dn-  flafc—fc  (/Me  JTiMft,  July. 
IMS.) 

GOLLBOnOHB 


Zoxldi, 


Hmnbreebtlkon,  Greater  de.    'Bmidtner  Lleder.'    Colz«,178B. 
Bfll.J.  H.    'BehwelMrUeder.'    Zurich.  17W. 
Walder.J.J.  '  Ueder  mm  geeellephafUinhen  Ve»gnBgBn.' 

1804. 

Wagner,  &  von.    *  Acht  Bohweiaer  Kuhrdhen.'    Berne.  180B. 
Knhn.  O.    *  Sammhing  tod  Schwdaer  Kahreilien  mid  alten  Yolke' 

liedem.'    Berne,  1812-18. 
Ikteiuie.G.  'BeehereheesorleeBMudeeVedieeoaeiirleioluuuona 

peator»]ee  dee  Beicere  de  1«  Butoe  avec  mnaiqiie.'    Puie,  18U. 
Wth.  J.,  and  Hnber,  P.,  edited  the  4tb  edition  of  Kohn'*  woric  in 

laas. 

Hnber.  Felix.    'Sehwelaerllederbaeh' (682  Lleder).    Aann,  1891 

'BeeneUdeBattsdeYaohee.'    \SKk 
Boehbols.  B.    *  Btdgenfledaohe  LiederOironlk.'    Berne,  1838-48. 
Hnber,  Felis.    *  Chants  poor  la  Rnerre  da  la  CoaMd4ratioD.'    Beme^ 

1840. 
Otto.  F.   *  8ehi*ttlaer-aiicea  In  Balladen.  Bomanin  imd  Legendan.' 

BMle.1842. 
Twbodl.    4  Tola,  of  old  Swiaa  aongi. 
'Chante  Yalanfiaolt  aooompagn^a  da  testes  histoiiqnea.'    Kon« 


'alanfiai 

iTiaS 


Forbee.  Dr.  John.  *  A  Physfdan's  Holiday,  or  a  meoth  In  Switser* 
lasuL'  (This  contains  some  Interesting  apedmens  of  the  hymns 
and  ohants  nsed  by  the  night- iraidimen  in  Swltaerland.) 
London,  184a 

Roehhola.  B.  '  Alenuuralsahes  Klnderllsd  and  Ktnderapiel  aos  der 
Sehweis '  (no  mosic).    Leipalg.  1807. 

Kars,H.   'Sohlaeht.  vndVolkslleder  der  Behwelser.'  Zurich.  1800. 

BahlOT,  J.  A.    *  Osnsans  en  hmgata  rhUto-nnnanerh  '    Oolxe,  180Bw 

Kuella.    *  Chansonnler  Sniase.'    Zorieh.  1882. 

Wyas,  J.,  and  Baber,  F.  '  Der  Sehweiaer^Knger.'  Looeme,  1883. 
'  Chansons  et  Coranles  tribonxgeoises.'    Fnboorg,  1884. 

•  Chants  et  Coraules  de  la  Gray4re.'    Leipalg.  1884. 

•  Chansonnler  dee  ZoJlnglens  de  la  Boisae  imnande '   Tranaanne, 

1884. 
DiHerioh.O.  A.    'zzli  Alpenlieder.'    Stottgart. 

ROUHANIA 

Boumania  is  a  Romance  country,  and  embraces 
both  Moldavia  and  Wallachia.  The  character 
of  its  national  music  is,  therefore,  very  mixed. 
Among  the  educated  classes,  a  preference  is 
shown  for  French  and  Italian  music,  and  thus 
the  Latin  origin  is  betrayed.  The  real  folk- 
music  has  also  much  in  common  with  its  Slavonic 
neighbours,  and  the  gipsy  element  is  strongly 
represented  by  the  Laoutari,^  Without  these 
gipsy  lutenists,  no  christening,  wedding,^  or 
funeral  is  held  to  be  complete  among  the  peas- 
ants, though  at  funerals  in  Roumania,  as  in 
Russia,  it  is  the  village  women  who  are  the 
professional  *wailers.'  Their  song  of  wailing, 
is  a  monotonous  recitative  chanted  on  a  few 
notes,  interspersed  by  a  succession  of  sharp 
little  cries,  whilst  the  words  enumerate  all  the 
qualities  of  the  deceased. 

The  most  beautiful  of  the  Roumanian  folk- 
songs are  enshrined  in  their  doinas.^  This  is 
a  generic  term,  as  it  includes  songs  of  various 
origins.  In  times  past,  both  pastoral  and  war- 
songs  were  alike  called  doinas,  but  at  the  present 
time  they  resemble  the  French  eomplaintea,  as 
indeed  their  name — <2oina= lament — indicates. 
They  are  usually  in  the  minor  key  ;  the  melody 
is  fall  of  turns,  trills,  and  other  embellishments, 
yet  throughout  they  are  of  a  melancholy  cast 

I  Both  Verdi  and  Lisst  have  testified  their  apfptoval  of  the  loow 
titH  In  enthnsisstio  language.  See  J.  Schorr, '  Moslk  la  Boamlnlen,' 
in  /Me  JTiMft,  1808,  Vo.  88. 

s  A  Rouraanian  proverb  saya:  *  Kariage  aana  XoohIih^  c'est-iKlira 
aiioss  ImpoaaiUe.' 

*  The  name  dotma,  aeoocdlng  to  HIadeii.  Is  of  Daclan  origin,  and 
may  also  be  found  in  Saoaoilt.  as  d'totaa. 


Though  the  folk-songs  may  be  less  original  and 
striking  than  the  national  dances,  they  are  ex- 
tremely melodious  and  full  of  sentiment.  The 
poetry  is  rhymed  and  often  in  five- lined  stanzas. 
The  metre  is  irregular,  and  refrains  frequently 
occur  either  at  the  end  of  the  line  or  the  stanza, 
as  the  following  well-known  folk-song  (cdntee 
popular)  shows : — 


Ex.  2. 


PerUru  tine  Jano, 

tr.  tr.  tr. 


A-m8ndoi  at  ne    iu  • 


The  oldest  and  most  celebrated  dance  is  the 
horUf  a  slow  choral  dance  written  in  rondo  form 
usually  in  this  rhythm  ; — 

Ex.  8. 


Another  dance,  equally  written  in  rondo  form, 
but  usually  in  a  major  key,  is  the  9&rbd  (or 
Hrba),  Though  the  prevailing  tendency  of  this 
country's  national  music  is  melancholy,  some  of 
the  dance-tunes  are,  nevertheless,  gay  and  light 
The  occurrence  of  the  augmented  second  between 
unusual  intervals  is  frequent,  and  doubtless 
due  to  gipsy  influence.  Melodies  of  more 
recent  date  consist  usually  of  the  first  phrase 
in  the  migor  and  the  second  and  concluding 
phrases  in  the  relative  minor,  as  in  so  many 
Slavonic  tunes. 

As  mentioned  above,  the  Roumanians  seldom 
sing  at  all  themselves ;  the  songs  are  sung  to 
them  as  solos  by  the  Laoutari,  and  singing  in 
harmony  is  quite  unknown.  The  melody  is 
also  often  played  by  the  chief  singer  on  the 
cobzaf  a  sort  of  flute. 

The  renaissance  of  music  in  this  country  did 
not  begin  until  the  middle  of  the  19th  century, 
and  its  principal  promoters  were  Professor 
Wachmann  (who  especially  called  attention 
to   the  national  music),   Flechtenmacher  and 


664 


SONG 


Caudella.  The  latter  was  the  creator  of  the 
Roumanian  national  opera,  and  together  with 
Ventura,  Scheletti,  and  Cavadi,  oompoeed  numer- 
ous and  fayourite  songs.  These  closely  resemble 
the  typical  French  and  Italian  romances,  and 
have  little  in  common  with  the  German  or 
Russian  art -song.  Mention  should  also  be 
made  of  Eduard  Hiibsch,  the  composer  of  the 
national  hymn.  Musioescn  and  Kiriao  haye 
reproduced  in  their  compositions  the  old  Rou- 
manian church  and  folk-songs.  Maigaritesoo, 
Steph&nesou,  Spiresou,  Ciran,  £roole,  and  Dumi- 
tresco  haye  written  numerous  songs  and  ballads, 
besides  other  works ;  and  among  the  younger 
generation,  Enescu  and  Lcarlatescu,  who  haye 
already  won  for  themselyes  European  reputations 
in  more  than  one  branch  of  music,  perhaps 
stand  the  highest 

The  cultiyation  of  the  national  poetry  and 
songs  is  due  to  the  poet  Vasili  Alezandri,^  to 
Asaki,  Oarmen  Sylya,  H.  Yacaresoo,  Wachmann, 
Adamescu,  Eogolniceanu,  and  others.  And  the 
establishment  of  Gonseryatoires  at  Bucarest 
and  Jassy,  where  young  musicians  can  obtain  a 
scientific  training  in  their  own  country,  augurs 
well  for  the  future  of  Roumanian  song-writers. 

There  is  also  a  considerable  Roumanian 
colony  of  Balkan  origin  in  Hungary,  who  first 
established  themselyes  here  in  1280.  They 
lead  a  more  or  less  wandering  life  among  the 
mountains,  pasturing  flocks.  Their  language, 
of  a  Latin  stem,  is  much  intermixed  with 
Albauiau,  Slayonic,  and  Hungarian  words,  but 
their  folk-songs  and  dances  are  quite  distinct, 
and  essentially  their  own.  Among  the  danoes 
we  find  the  true  Roumanian  A^o,  sirba,  tarina, 
and  ardeleana ;  and  their  innumerable  songs 
and  ballads  are  of  Balkan  rather  than  Hungarian 
origin.  The  oldest  are  theological  or  mystical 
in  subject,  but  in  the  historical  ones  the  heroes 
fight  against  the  Turks.  Among  the  kolindcUf 
the  religious  kind  are  the  commonest,  treating 
of  the  life  of  our  Lord,  of  the  Virgin  and  saints, 
and  the  melodies  are  in  plain-song.' 

BlBUOO&AmT 

SnlMT.  F.  J.     emoMokU  dm  trmualptiUmshtH  IMriww.     Yimmm, 

1781-2. 
Mtuuutd  dtr  Muttk  hi  d$r  Mtldau,  AUg.  Muttk.  MwUwmg,  uUL 

Ldprif.  laa. 

GrenTineXiuny.  B.  a    DoUm,  or  eJh«  jrta1«mU  Bomgt  mtd  Uganda 
9f  Saumamim.    London.  1864. 


'arrwr.  O.      IXu  mmtfiiinte  rttkaUti,   SaoMMlMiid*,  LX.O. 
1902, 1. 
Schorr.  J.    MtuOt  in  Sumdntmt,  Die  JiutOt,  1909,  Vo.  2^ 

(The  principal  material  for  the  aborg  ■ketch  wee  kindly  enimUed 
to  the  writer  br  K.  ]Cergnrltem\  Bnoereet.) 


Fuin.  A.    '0&nteoedeet«e'{CeatiqneedeKolI).   Booeraet.  1891MB. 
MwlceKm,  G.    '  18  Melodil  netlonele  ermonlate.'    Jaenr.  1880. 
Oetwuer.  C.  end  Fed^.  M.  '  yolkalleder  nnd  Volketllnee.^  Bneanet 
Wachmann.  J.  A.    'M^lodlee  yalaqoee  ponr  le  pleno.'    KtUIer. 

yienna.    'BantoiKheyolkunetodien.'    yienna,  lB8By 
Mikuli,  C.    '  Airi  natlonaux  roamalne.'    LfopoL 
lonewm.  M.    'CoL  dc  cAnteee  natlonale.'    Bncareet. 
Vacareaook  H.    'Aire  pop.  roamalne.'    Boearaet,  UOQl 


1  VaelU  Alexandrl  wee  the  flnrt  to  collect  the  foIk-liaJlada.  Hie 
collecUon  wne  publlahed  In  1802.  See  Otto  Waaner'e  artlde  'Dee 
mmKaleehe  VotkeUed.'  Sammtlbditd*.  I.M.O.  No.  1.  IMS.  where  the 
tnatncnt  of  the  Utenuy  aide  o<  the  folk-eonf  U  ter  eaperior  to  the 
mnelcel. 

*  Theee  Bonmanlane  belong  to  the  Greek  Chnrdi.     See  O. 

XdMaaa'a  article 'DtoBumiaer' In  IMer  

M«naKeM»,  voL  ri. 


8.    'Alhom  wktlooal.  eotoeklane  de  eili  romaneMi.* 
It.  U02. 

Chltailctai  looiin'  (OolceUmM  de  arti  el  raoaBti  nationafe . 
Baeaawt.  ISOL  ^  ^  ^ 

Klriae,D.a.    'Corarf  popalueronaaaetl.'   Bocanet,  IMM. 

Modern  Grbbce 

It  is  difficult  if  not  impossible  to  ayoid  the 
mention  of  Oriental  Songs,  when  treating 
those  of  Greece,  because  in  the  islands  and  on 
the  mainland  the  songs  are  intermingled. 
M.  Bourgault-Ducoudray  says  that  in  Greece 
the  oriental  chromatic  scale  is  often  found  : — 

Ex.  1. 


And  again  in  Smyrna  and  other  parts  of  Asia 
Minor  the  Aeolian  scale  ^  is  in  constant  use. 
The  melodies  sung  along  the  coast  and  in  the 
Ionian  islands  are  yery  Italian  in  character, 
and  are  easily  distinguished  from  the  genuine 
Greek  melodies  by  being  in  the  European 
minor  scale.  But  inland,  and  away  from  the 
coast  of  Asia  Minor,  the  pure  Greek  songs 
predominate.^ 

Until  within  a  recent  period  there  existed  a 
number  of  minstrels  or  bards  who  combined 
the  profession  of  musidaus  with  that  of 
chroniclers,  and  whose  function  it  was  to  band 
down  by  word  of  mouth,  and  thus  keep  aliye, 
the  great  traditions  of  their  country's  history. 
These  men  were  held  in  high  esteem  in  their 
time  ;  but,  as  in  other  countries,  education  and 
the  introduction  of  printing  haye  brought 
about  their  rapid  disappearance.  Yet  we  are 
told  that  only  a  few  years  ago,  an  old  and 
blind  minstrel,  by  name  Barba  Sterios,^  sat, 
surrounded  by  a  crowd,  on  the  roadside  by  the 
gate  of  Ealamaria  in  Thessalonica.  He  played 
and  sang  in  a  melancholy  and  monotonous  tone 
to  his  Xi/pa,^  without  raising  his  yoice  to  a 
high  pitch,  and  in  pathetic  parts  drew  deep 
emotion  from  his  audience.  In  epic  recitations, 
of  this  kind  the  lyre  is  only  used  as  an 
accompaniment  in  succession  to  the  chanted 
words,  and  not  with  them.  For  instance,  the 
old  man  to  whom  reference  has  just  been  made, 
would  start  by  touching  a  prelude  on  his  lyre, 
and  then  commence  intoning  a  couple  of  yerses, 
after  which  the  instrument  came  in  again,  and 
so  on  to  the  end,  alternately  playing  and 
singing.7 

*  The  Greek  namee  of  the  modee  are  here  ivtalned  in  pceferenee- 
to  the  eorleiUatloal,  and  thoee  readen  not  conveieant  with  the 
interohange  of  nomenolatore  an  referred  to  the  ertlde  on  Moone, 
BucLBiAencAU 

*  M.  Boarfanlt-Dvoondraj  aaye  In  the  prefkee  to  hie  *T»«nte 
M^lodlee  Popnlairee  de  Grtee  et  d'Orient'  (nelng  the  Greek  nnmoe) 
that  the  Greek  Hjrpodorlan,  which  only  dlfltee  from  the  Bnropean 
A  minor  eoale  by  the  afaeenoe  of  the  leedlnf-note.  ie  ot  fTeqnnit 
ooonrrence  among  the  popolar  mdodlee  of  Greeea.  The  Greek 
Dorian,  nuytlen.  Hypophtyglen.  and  Mlzelydian  modee  are  eJao 
fairly  often  met  with ;  and  the  Hypoivdlan  with  the  fonrth  lowered 
(which  majr  eeeilv  be  eontneed  with  the  Weetam  major  eeale  of  F) 
le  at  the  preeent  time  the  eomrooneet  of  all. 

*  aarba  ^aude.  le  need  ee  a  term  of  endearment,  like  dgrndga-' 
nnde  In  Roeelan. 

*  A  rough  eort  of  etitnged  Inetrument.  rMaOlng  the  deaele  Avpa 
with  Are  eheep-inU :  the  bow  oonelBtlng  d  a  etldt  bent  at  one  end 
and  a  bnnch  of  horee-hnir  etrang  along  It. 

I      iQ.r.  Abbott'e  Snv»  qT  JTedem  grttoe. 


SONG 


565 


The  Tpayo^a  rod  x^P^t  or  choral  songs, 
are  ballads  in  the  original  sense  of  the  word, 
for  they  are  sung  as  an  acoompaniment  to  a 
complicated  set  of  steps  and  mimic  evolutions. 
At  weddings,  Christmas,  on  May -Day,  and 
similar  festivals,  men  and  women  may  be  seen 
dancing  together  in  a  ring,  hand  in  hand,  out- 
side their  countiy  inns.  The  leader  of  the 
dance  as  he  sweeps  on,  waves  a  handkerchief 
and  sings  a  verse,  accompanying  it  with  ap- 
propriate gestures,  while  the  rest  of  the  dancers 
sing  alternate  verses  in  chorus.  There  are  also 
other  danoe-songs,  which  are  sung  antiphonally 
by  distinct  sets  of  voices.  This  music  is  of  a 
light  and  gay  kind,  consisting  of  short  phrases 
which  often  end  on  the  high  octave  : — 

Ex.2. 


with  little  or  no  variety  in  melody  or  rhythm. 
The  words  of  the  many  Greek  cradle-songs  are 
of  great  beauty,  but  the  melodies  are  monotonous 
and  limited  in  compass.'  Greater  interest  is 
imparted  to  the  lyric  folk-songs  belonging  to 
the  eastern  parts  of  Greece  and  the  adjacent 
islands  (where  the  melodies  are  naturally  of  an 
oriental  character),  by  the  irregular  rhythms 
and  constant  change  of  time,  such  as  alternate 
2-4  and  3-4  time. 

The  Greeks  have  a  gift  for  improvising  or 
reciting  in  verse,  and  the  preponderance  of 
open  vowels  and  the  facility  of  rhyming  in 
the  Romaic  language  ^  render  their  task  easy. 
Also  they  are  keenly  sensitive  to  emotions 
roused  by  striking  events,  and  incidents  both 
of  past  and  present  history.  Many  of  their 
songs  have  reference  to  the  customary  periods 
of  absence  from  home,  when  the  villagers,  who 
follow  the  professions  of  merchants  or  pedlars, 
descend  from  their  hills  to  ply  their  trades  in 
foreign  lands.'  Thus  a  youtii  who  quits  his 
home  for  the  first  time  is  aocompanied  a  certain 
distance  on  the  road  by  his  family  and  friends. 
Before  taking  final  leave  of  her  son  the  mother 
laments  his  departure  in  a  song  either  impro- 
vised or  traditional,  and  in  response  the  youth 
bewails  the  hard  fate  which  drives  him  from 
his  home.^  There  is  proof  that  among  the 
mass  of  folk-poetry  still  extant,  much  of  it 
dates  back  to  old  classical  times.  For  example, 
the  famous  swallow-songs,  when  boys  go  about 
the  streets  greeting  in  song  the  reappearance 
of  the  swallows,  embody  a  very  ancient  custom.^ 

1  The  lullftbies  Are  called  Bav«aAi)fMi'ra,  Ntyv/Kir/Mira,  Nava- 
pia-ii.a  from  vafopc^as,  to  lull  to  sleep.  * 

'  The  words  of  the  folk-soDgs  are  ell  In  modem  Greek,  <.«. 
Bomaio.  though  they  y*rr  in  dialeet.  The  ▼emaealer  lAngosge  is 
ne^er  taoght,  but  msny  of  the  best  modem  poets  hare  adopted  It, 
and  the  eflbrt  made  at  the  time  of  the  War  of  Tndependenoe  for 
the  restotatiain  of  the  classical  language  has  had  but  a  poor  suooess. 

The  Romaic  language  Is  more  easily  translated  Into  Italian  than 
any  other  tongue.  Henee  the  reason  that  song-oolleoton  sudi  as 
Booisaolt-Ducoadiay.  Barehnor.  and  others,  make  use  of  It. 

>  Like  the  K7«ete  in  the  Valley  of  &g»ri  who  go  to  Spain. 

*  See  Gamett's  tffwft  /M*-/>os<y.  and  Passow's  song  'The  Kxile.' 

A  For  the  words  of  the  Swallow  and  May-tlroe  songs  see  Kind 
andPassow.  Many  hare  been  translated  Into  KngUdi  fay  Kiss  Lney 
Garnett  In  ffrss*  Folk-Po«$if  and  OrseJk  Fotk-mmgt. 


Serenades  and  aubades  are  most  in  vogue  in  the 
large  towns,  and  each  province  has  its  own 
special  songs ;  but  there  are  some  ancient  songs 
of  great  celebrity,  such  ss  *  The  Fall  of  Con- 
stantinople,' which  are  the  common  heritage  of 
all  the  provinces. 


Bx.  8. 


Tht  Fall  of  Constaniinople.^ 


6ll-KtV,  TO 


In  .the  Greek  folk-songs,  as  among  other 
nations,  the  last  words  or  lines  are  often  repeated, 
or  the  words  are  broken  up  into  meaningless 
syllables,  recurring  three  or  four  times  before 
the  word  is  completed.  Or  it  may  be  that  the 
words  are  interrupted  by  interjections  or  refrains. 
It  should  be  noted  also  that  the  accents  of 
the  words  and  music  do  not  always  agree,  which 
clearly  proves  that  different  words  were  set  to 
already  extant  melodies.  It  is  difficult  to 
represent  these  Eastern  songs  in  our  present 
notation,  but  the  following  example,  of  which 
a  few  bars  are  given,  is  a  love-story  from  the 
Island  of  Samos,^  and  shows  many  of  the  above- 
mentioned  features,  including  the  peculiar 
tonality,  limited  compass,  changing  time  and 
deep  melancholy,  inherent  to  them.     Stringed 

Bx.  4. 
Andante,      Say  ct    •    •    vai  i««  -  <ray    •    cT  • 


^  etc. 


instruments  are  used  to  accompany  these  songs, 
and  nowadays  principally  guitars  andmandolines. 
The  literary  revival  which  followed  the  War 
of  Independence,  and  the  abundance  of  poetry 
written  in   the  present   day,   have,  however, 

0  This  song  was  taken  down  by  BUrchner  from  an  old  woman  ol 
eighty,  who  again  had  heard  It  from  her  infaney,  song  by  old 

7  BQrchner.  'Grieehlsehe  Volksweisen.'  p.  400. 


566 


SONG 


produced  no  effect  on  the  musio  of  the  oountry. 
The  Greek  song-writers  worthy  of  mention  are 
lamentably  few ;  the  generality  of  their  pub- 
lished songs  are  with  few  exceptions  either 
trivial  or  sentimental.  Among  the  Greek 
composers  who  have  won  European  fame,  Spiro 
Samara  may  be  noted  as  the  best  At  an  early 
period  of  his  career  he  achieved  success  in  Paris 
by  his  graceful  little  songs.  Other  song- 
composers  scarcely  known  beyond  their  o¥m 
oountry  are :  Zacharopouloe,  Sidere,  Beloudion, 
Lampalete,  EarrSre,  Rodios,  and  Leonardos. 

The  few  and  best  exceptions  to  the  general 
average  of  songs  are  those  in  which  either  the 
composer  has  taken  the  folk-song  as  his  model, 
or  the  actual  folk-songs  themselves,  such  as  are 
to  be  found  in  L.  A.  Bourgault-Ducoudray's 
'  Trente  M^odies  Populaires  de  Gr^  et 
d'Orient ' ;  and  more  recently  in  the  collection 
of  M.  Pakhtikos,  Director  of  the  School  of  Music 
in  Constantinople,  who  personally  noted  them 
down  in  remote  districts  of  Thrace,  Macedonia, 
Crete,  the  Aegean  Islands,  etc 


BiBLZooBAnrr  amd  CoLLacriom 


(The  BlbU< 


asf'^ 


uid  CoUectlom  of  this  eoimtiy  are  porpoMly 


1781-68.  3  Tola.     (Contidiu 


mwolpMHioMn  Daetau.     Vienna, 
Greek,  WaUacfabni.  and  Tnzkiali 

Fanziel.  C'.    ChanU  populairet  de  la  Griet  modtrtu  (no  mnaie). 

Fttfla.l8M. 
Kleaewettar,  B.    Tefter  die  Jluatk  der  nmeren  Grieohen,    Lolpalg. 

1838. 
Banden.  D.    Dot  roOdeben  der  Neuarieehen,    Mannhtim.  1844. 
Klnd.Tb.    •  Nengrieehlache  Volkalledar.'    Lelpatg.  1840. 
~  iw>ir,  A.     LUbee-  uatd  JOa^tUeder  det  JTeuffrieehieBlten  VoUtet 

(no  moaic).    ]Ca«deburK.  1881;  'Bomaio  Sonsa'  (Tpayovdta 

TantoliOM.  E.    '  Collection  of  aonsa.  Including  nursery  rhymea  and 

achool-aongs  with  mualc.'     Athena,  1876. 
BourBanlt-Duooudray.     '  Trente  M41odlea  Fopnialxea  de  Oitee  et 

d^Drient'    Farla.  187& 
Bangabtf.  A.  B.    EUMre  UtOnire  de  la  Oriee  modeme.    ftala. 

1877. 
Slgala,  A.    '  BeoaeU  de  Chanta  natioiianz.'    Athena,  188Q. 
Mataa,  Perldea.    '  80  m^lodlea  grecqnea.'    Constantinople,  1883. 
QAmett,  L..  and  Stnart-GIennle,  J.   Oretk  fbUc-Oongw  (nothing  about 

mnalc).    London.  1888. 
Ownett.  L.,  and  Stuart -Olennle,  J.    Greek  FUk^Poetg.    London. 

1886. 
Abbott.  O.F.  AMVS(tfJV«ism0fW(w(nomuaie).    Ckmbrldgo.  1900. 
BOrohner.  L.    'Oriechlache  Volkswelsen.'    {fiauMmdbdnde  of  the 

LM.O.  111.  «B.) 
Pemot.  H..  and  le  Flem,  P.     'Md.  poD.  de  Ohio  en  pays  tnr&' 

Appendix.    Ikrls.  IMS. 
PakhUkoa.  O.  D.   '300  Greek  aonga  (Asia  Minor,  Xacedo&la,  Oypma. 

Albania. etc)'   Athena,  1900. 


Russia 

No  country  is  richer  in  national  music  than 
Russia,  and  nowhere  has  it  been  more  carefully 
preserved  from  neglect  or  oblivion.  For  many 
years  the  folk-songs  and  dances  of  the  most 
remote  districts  have  been  collected  by  order  of 
the  Government :  musicians  and  savants  of  the 
highest  rank  ^  have  joined  in  folk-song  research 
and  assisted  in  the  task  of  compilation.  This 
was  all  the  more  necessary  as  civilisation  is 
everywhere  gradually  killing  oral  tradition,  and 
it  is  only  the  old  people  in  the  villages  who 
still  sing  the  ancient  epic  songs.  Moreover,  the 
modem  school  of  Russian  music,  which  holds 
so  important  a  place  in  art,  owes,  in  part,  its 

1  Such  aa  Balakirar,  Blmaky-KonakoT.  Seror.  MelgounoT,  and 
others. 


strength  and  magnetic  attraction  to  the  ingrain 
colour  derived  from  race  temperament.  Though 
Russian  musio  has  only  lately  achieved  European 
renown,  it  has  always  been  loved  and  cultivated 
in  its  own  oountry.  Hence  from  birth  onwards 
the  peculiar  harmonies  and  rhythms  of  his  native 
land  have  so  possessed  the  ear  of  every  Russian 
musician,  that  consciously  or  unconsciously  he 
re-echoes  them  in  his  works. 

The  oldest  form  of  national  poetry  would 
seem  to  be  the  buiZini,  of  which  there  is  evidence 
that  they  existed  1000  years  ago.  They  are 
national  epics  akin  to  the  historical  romances ; 
of  great  length  and  in  unrhymed  metre.'  The 
music,  which  is  a  kind  of  monotonous  chant, 
accompanies  one  line,  or  at  most  two  lines  q{ 
the  song,  repeating  to  the  end. 


AsU 
Ex.  1. 

befdl  in  the  eapOal  Kitff? 

^^ 

§#« 

\          etc.: 

The  hoTGnoodi  or  choral  songs  belong  solely  to 
the  Slav  races.  They  celebrate  the  change  of 
seasons  and  the  successive  festivals  of  the  ecclesi- 
astical or  agricultural  calendar,  while  some  are 
especially  appropriate  to  various  peasant  ooonpa- 
tions.^  These  horovodi  are  sung  in  a  carious 
manner:  the  first  voice  sings  a  melody,  the 
other  voices  in  succession  sing  variants  of  the 
same  melody,  and  as  the  voices  fall  in  with  one 
another  a  kind  of  harmony  is  established,  whilst 
each  voice  retains  its  independence. 


The  historian  Melgounov,  one  of  the  highest 
authorities  on  Russian  folk -music,  contends 
that  from  the  earliest  time  it  was  essentially 
polyphonic  in  structure,  and  he  refutes  the 
general  idea  that  folk-songs  were  sung  in  unison.^ 
In  taking  down  the  songs  from  the  peasants  be 
carefully  recorded  each  voice  separately,  and 
attributed  great  importance  to  the  preservation 
of  the  popular  counterpoint.  His  examples  show 
that  the  secondary  parts  (fiodgoloaki)  constitute 
really  a  free  imitation  of  &e  main  melody  : 

*  One  of  the  most  intereatlnff  email  ooUectlona  of  ImOhd  waa 
made  \iy  B.  James,  an  English  clergyman,  who  spent  the  wfntw  of 
16191ntheearnarthof  Bnssla.  His  MB&  are  now  In  the  Bodldan 
library. 

a  Blmaky*KonBkoT,'ChantanatIoDauxBuaaea,'Nal.  (Coaununl- 
oated  by  Itouseonaky.) 

«  The  aingera  of  the  christening,  wedding,  funeral,  or  eran  eon- 
acrlption  songs  are  always  elderly  women,  and  no  oeremony  is 
oonsldered  properly  conducted  without  them,  lliey  are  to  ao«ne 
extent '  ImprovliAtrid  '—reflecting  In  their  song,  past  and  pnaent. 
individual  and  general  condltlona.  See  preface  to  Dioatah.  Ua- 
pounoT,  and  Istomln's  '  Bongs  of  the  Bussian  PeopleL' 

•  See  preface  to  J.  MdgounoVs'BusBlanSaoga.*  and  see  toL  IIL 
P.10U. 


SONG 


66? 


4th  Voice. 

The  piesmii  or  solo  songs  are  very  often  song 
to  the  accompaniment  of  the  balalaika,  a  gnitar- 
like  instrument.  These  are  mainly  lyrical  in 
character,  and  reflect  the  emotions  and  episodes 
of  peasant  life.  Some  of  the  love-songs  are 
beautiful,  and  the  wailing  songs — zaplaehki — 
most  pathetic.  The  melancholy  and  monotonous 
cradle-songs  haye  a  strange  charm  of  their  own  ; 
and  the  so-called  '  laudatory '  songs  (glorifying 
some  individual  indiscriminately,  before  or  after 
death),  which  are  the  peculiar  property  of  the 
Slav,  rank  high  in  importance  among  the  songs 
of  the  peasants.^ 

The  rhythm  of  Russian  folk-songs  is  often 
characterised  by  extreme  irregularity.  The 
tunes  usually  begin  on  the  first  beat  of  the 
bar,  but  the  phrases  are  of  unequal  length ; 
they  are  frequently  in  7-4  or  5-4  time,  or  2-4 
and  S-4  time  alternating ;  but  it  must  be  re- 
membered on  the  authority  of  Sokalski  and 
others,  that  the  division  of  the  melodies  into 
bars  is  arbitrary.^  The  original  tunes,  handed 
down  by  oral  tradition,  owed  their  rhythm  to 
no  symmetrical  repetition  of  accents,  but  to  the 
cadences  suggested  by  the  flow  of  the  verse 
itself.  Again  it  frequently  happens  that  the 
accent  of  the  verse  varies,  which  renders  it 
difficult  to  arrange  under  l^e  regular  metrical 
accentuation  of  the  time  system.  The  accent 
moves  from  one  syllable  or  one  word  to  another, 
for  instance,  gdTn/  or  gotii  (hills)— as  if  to  avoid 
monotony ;  and  the  inequality  of  the  number 
of  syllables  in  each  half  verse,  each  of  which 
has  one  main  accent,  appears  to  be  one  of  the 
characteristics  of  Russian  folk-songs.^  Naturally 
the  dance-songs  have  more  regular  accents  and 
rhythms,  especially  those  of  gipsy  origin,  when 
the  dancers  mark  the  time  with  their  feet. 
Peasants  do  not  like  singing  solos ;  they  prefer 
to  sing  in  artel  or  companies,  in  which  each 
member  is  a  performer  and  composer,  owing  to 
the  above-mentioned  structure  of  the  songs. 

Glinka  and  many  other  theorists  have  made 
the  peculiar  tonality  and  harmonisation  of 
Russian  songs  their  life-long  study.  Melgounov 
says  that  they  are  based  on  the  so-called  natural 
(untempered)  scale,  which  is  impossible  to 
represent  in  our  present  notation ;  and  that 
the  foundation  of  the  major  and  minor  scales 

1  The  nvmeroiu  oUiar  kinds  of  Kniga  which  the  above  duriftca- 
tlons  do  not  include  cannot  here  be  dealt  with.  Ther  will  be  found 
under  their  dlihrent  haadlnp  in  any  standard  coIleotioD.  Bee  also 
Balaton's  Songi  t^the  RuMrian  JPeopTe,  pp.  34,  88  «( t&q. 

3  Bokalski's  Rumtan  ntk^Songt. 

>  Bee  i>rafaoe  to  LinefTs  '  Peasant  Songs  of  Great  Buala.' 


1^  contained  in  this  simple  formula :  11^111^. 
That  is,  if  the  relative  minor  of  the  scale  of  C 
is  taken  descending  from  dominant  to  its  octave, 
the  result  is : — 

e  y^d  ^c  ^b  ^a  y^g  ^f  ^e. 
This  when  reversed  will  be  found  to  be  identical 
with  the  ecclesiastical  Phrygian  mode.*  Cer- 
tainly there  is  an  indisputable  connection  be- 
tween the  musical  theory  of  the  ancient  Greeks 
and  the  oldest  and  actually  existing  Slavonic 
melodies  founded  on  these  scales,  more  especially 
those  of  the  western  part  of  Russia.  To  modern 
ears  the  tonality,  therefore,  is  of  an  uncertain 
character,  and  many  melodies  commence  in 
the  major  and  bear  distinctly  the  stamp  of  the 
major  key,  until  towards  the  end,  where  they 
modulate  into  the  minor  key  in  which  they 
conclude.  Further  they  more  often  begin  and 
end  on  the  supertonic,  or  indeed  on  any  d^ee 
of  the  scale  rather  than  the  tonic.  Another 
peculiarity  we  find  in  the  folk  and  art-songs 
alike  are  the  florid  passages  on  one  syllable ; 
for  instance  in  '  The  Cossack  of  the  Don '  and 
some  of  Rubinstein's  songs.  This  and  many 
other  features  in  Russian  Song  could  be  traced 
to  Asiatic  influence,  for  in  Russia  the  eastern 
and  western  temperaments  meet  and  inter- 
mingle.* 

Early  in  the  19th  century  national  representa- 
tion was  lacking  in  Russian  music.  It  awaited 
emancipation  from  the  foreign  influences  under 
which  it  had  so  long  lain.  It  was  Glinka  who 
first  began  to  effect  its  liberation,  and  the 
importance  of  his  work  cannot  be  exaggerated. 
Though  his  national  opera,  'La  vie  pour  le  Czar ' 
(except  for  a  few  bars  in  the  opening  chorus), 
incorporates  no  single  folk-song,  Glinka  so 
identified  himself  with  the  feeling  and  spirit  of 
the  national  music,  that  his  melodies  became  at 
once  familiar  to  his  countrymen.  Glinka  has 
truly  been  named  the  father  of  the  Russian  art- 
song.  Previous  to  him,  other  song-composers, 
such  as  Alabiev,  Yarlamov,  Eozlovsky,  Yerstov- 
sky,*  and  Lvov,  wrote  songs  of  the  simple, 
popular  type,  imitating  so  faithfully  the  ex- 
ternal qualities  of  the  real  folk-song,  that  some, 
such  as  Alabiev's  '  Nightingale'  and  Yarlamov's 
<  Red  Sarafan '  have  been  accepted  as  national 
melodies.  Lvov  was  the  composer  of  the 
Russian  national  hymn,^  the  tune  of  which, 
though  fine  and  suitable  to  the  words,  is  not 
Russian    in    character.^      Again,    others    like 

•  Tchaikovsky's  remarks  on  the  diaracter  of  the  folk^onfs  are 
worth  quotinff.    In^vrltlng  to  Tbistoi  to  acknowledge  some  i 


worth  quoting.  In^vrlting  to  Tbistoi  to  acknowledge  some  song* 
he  had  sent  him,  Tdiaikovsky  says, '  I  miut  fmnkly  lay  the  songs 
have  not  been  skUfnlly  treated,  and  thereby  all  their  original  beauty 
'  '  "  "  t  fault  is,  that  they  have  been  forced  Into 
m.  The  buiUni  have  nothing  in  common 
es  this,  the  arsater  part  of  these  songs  are 
D  major  soOe.  and  this  does  not  agree  in 
Ity  of  the  true  Bussian  Volkslied,  'whlcb.  is 


has  been  lost.  The  chief  fault  is,  that  they  have  been  forced  Into 
a  regular,  formal  rhythm.  The  buUhU  have  nothing  in  common 
with  the  dances.    Besides  this,  the  g    ^  '  ^" 

written  in  the  cheerful  D  major  m 
the  least  with  the  tonality  of  the  t 

always  of  an  unoertaln  tonality,  so  that  one  can  really  only  com- 
pare them  with  the  old  church  modes.' 

•  C.  Cui  remarks  that  the '  Tartar  influence  is  so  strong  that  there 
is  hardly  one  Busslan  folk.song  not  afDected  by  it.' 

>  Verstovsky.  who  was  hailed  for  a  time  as  the  true  Messiah  of 
Busaian  music,  owed  his  fleeting  popularity  to  his  operas  more  than 
to  his  songs. 

t  Composed  to  order  in  1888.  the  words  by  Shukovsky. 

*  It  has  recently  been  stated  that  Lvov  was  not  the  true  compoeer 


568 


SONG 


GnrilaT,  YaaileT,  and  Diilroqiie  amuiged  a 
namber  of  natimul  asn,  especially  the  aoncalled 
gipay  tnnesy  to  modern  words  in  rhyme  and 
fonr-line  stanzas,  with  a  simple  pianoforte  ac- 
companiment. Glinka's  songs  stand  on  a  higher 
lerel,  though  they  vary  in  merit ;  some  of  the 
earlier  ones  betray  the  Italian  influence,  and 
hare  elementary  accompaniments;  some  are 
in  danoe-rhythm  pervaded  by  a  local  colouring ; 
others  are  pore  lyrics  and  very  expressive,  bat 
his  finest  eflbrt  is  the  powerful  ballad  *The 
Midnight  Review/  Daigomgsky  was  nearly 
Glinka's  contemporary,  and  diared  the  same 
enthusiasm  for  his  country's  musia  His  songs 
show  more  dramatic  power ;  many  consist  of 
short  declamatory  phrases  akin  to  recitative, 
and  all  evince  a  high  regard  for  the  meaning  and 
metre  of  the  woids.  Daxgomgsky  has,  more- 
over, caught  the  intense  but  languorous  spirit 
of  the  East.  His  ballads  take  high  rank, 
especially  one  called  '  Knight  Errant ' '  Rubin- 
stein is  a  strange  panuloz.  More  cosmopolitan 
and  western  in  feeling  than  any  other  Russian 
composer,  it  is  his  eastern  songs  which  are  the 
best  Many  of  his  songs  belong  to  the  German 
Lied,  the  accompaniments  being  clearly  based 
on  Schumann  as  a  model,  as  for  instance,  *  Nun 
die  Sohatten  dunkeln'  (Geibel),  and  'Nacht' 
(Eichendorfl).  But  hissettings  of  Mirza  Schaffy "s 
words  are  by  far  the  most  beautiful  and  original 
of  all  his  songs,  and  all  are  essentially  voad. 

The  following  five  composers  may  be  said  to 
constitute  the  new  school  of  Russian  music: 
Borodin,  Balakirev,  Cui,  Moussorgsky,  and 
Rlmsky-Korsakov.  They  are  fnmkly  pro- 
gressive ;  their  aims  are  high  and,  generally 
speaking,  they  maintain  their  ideal.  They 
formulated  certain  principles  of  their  art,  one 
of  which  directly  concerns  Song,  *  that  vocal 
music  should  be  in  perfect  accordance  with  the 
meaning  of  the  text'  And  though  each  com- 
poser with  his  individual  tendencies  produced 
different  work,  they  were  unanimous  on  this 
point,  as  may  be  seen  on  closer  examination  of 
their  songs.  They  were  mostly  cultivated 
men,  and  with  regard  to  the  euUe  of  their 
native  music  they  were  directly  under  the 
influence  of  Glinka  and  Dargomysky.  Borodin's 
songs  are  of  rare  beauty  and  distinction.  They 
are  original  in  form,  and  remarkable  for  certain 
peculiarities  of  harmony.  Borodin  had  a  strong 
predilection  for  the  rhythms  and  modes  of  the 
East.'  Balakirev,  one  of  Glinka's  true  disciples, 
Mrrote  only  twenty-five  songs  ;  they  are  chiefly 
lyrical  in  feeling,  and  all  are  scrupulously  finished 
and  polished.     For  his  words,  he  chose  only 

of  thl*  hymn,  bat  merelr  took  tho  mdody  of  tlM  trio  of  %  OtaOmtnd- 
marmsk,  oompoMd  Iqr  F.  Bofduioritch  Haas,  bandniaatcr  of  the 
St.  Petarabarg  rsflinont  of  the  OiiM<d«,  and  pablidicd  in  a  March 
OoUartloQ  In  ItOO.  The  notes  an  Sdentloal,  the  onlf  cbange  balof 
made  In  tlw  time. 

1  O.  Cni  says  of  this  ballad :  '  It  U  impossible  to  pot  Into  adequate 
words  all  the  laconic  strength,  the  picturesqne  qnalities  and  Tlrld 
realinn  oonreyed  by  this  song.  It  breathes  the  spirit  of  the  past 
and  appeals  to  the  mind  as  vlridly  as  a  niotare.' 

*  See  Borodin  and  Li$U,  by  Alfred  Habets.  trandated  by  Hn. 
Newmaroh. 


from  the  best  Russian  poet&  His  'Song  of 
the  golden  fish,'  with  its  developed  and  in- 
teresting aooompaoiment,  is  one  of  the  most 
perfect  specimens  of  modem  Russian  8ong& 
Among  C^sar  Cni's  best  songs  are  those  set  to 
French  words,  which  may  be  explained  by  the 
French  blood  in  his  veins.  But  he  has  a  special 
gift  for  song-writing,  and  among  his  numerous 
songs — over  150  in  number — not  one  is  lacking 
in  melody,  grace,  and  polish.  Dargomijsky's 
direct  successor  may  be  said  to  be  Moussorgsl^, 
an  interesting  but  unequal  composer.  Gloom, 
trsgedy,  and  grim  humour  are  to  be  found  in  his 
songs,  but  there  also  exist  sincerity  and  pathos. 
Rimsky-Korsakov's  love  for  his  country's 
music  and  his  valuable  collections  have  been 
already  alluded  to,  and  throughout  his  songs 
this  nstional  spirit  may  be  felt  His  songs  are 
neither  long  nor  numerous,  and  their  beauty  is 
of  a  restrained  kind.  Their  chief  characteristics 
are  'beautiful  and  uncommon  harmonies  and 
elaborated  accompaniments,  by  which  he  gives 
relief  to  the  melodic  phrases. '^  Rimsky-Eorukov 
has  excelled  in  the  composition  of  eastern 
songs,  and  'all  are  characterised  by  a  certain 
languid  monotony,  in  keeping  with  the  oriental 
style  of  the  words. '^  Tchaikovsky  cannot  be 
classed  in  any  school ;  he  stands  alone.  He 
was  more  cosmopolitan  than  the  afore -men- 
tioned composers,  and  more  individual  than 
national  in  his  music.  The  emotional  value 
and  the  beautiful  melodies  of  his  songs  com- 
pensate for  the  inadequacy  of  ill-chosen  words 
and  for  the  defects  of  a  certain  diffuseness  of 
treatment  But  notwithstanding  these  artistic 
demerits,  as  an  expression  of  passion,  tragic 
or  triumphant,  his  songs  make  a  direct  appeal 
and  elicit  a  direct  response.  To  this  qucJity 
may  be  attributed  his  wide  popularity  in  non- 
Slavonic  countries. 

Sacred  and  spiritual  songs  are  greatly  sung 
in  Russia,  and  in  connection  with  them  Lvov, 
Bortniansky,  Bachmetiev,  and  Dmitriev's  names 
are  well  known.  The  eminent  antagonistic 
critics  Stassov  and  Serov  also  deserve  mention, 
although  song-writing  was  not  their  forte. 

In  conclusion  it  remains  to  give  the  names 
of  some  other  contemporary  song -writers ; 
Alpheraky,  Antipov,  Arensky,  Artcibouchev, 
S.  and  F.  Blumenfeld,  Davidov,  Glazounov, 
Gretchaninov,  Grodsky,  Kopylov,  laadov, 
Liapounov,  Rachmaninov,  Rebikov,  Scriabin, 
Sokolov,  Stcherbatchev,  Wihtol,  etc  Some  of 
these  musicians  are  young,  and  their  work  varies 
in  merit,  but  it  cannot  be  denied  that  in  Russia, 
Song,  both  the  folk-  and  art-song,  is  regarded 
as  a  serious  branch  of  music,  and  treated  with 
care  and  reverence. 


ne  genenl  histories  ol  Bnarian  mnsle  by  Toari  von  Arnold, 
nmlntsine  (on  old  Slavonic  mwdc),  SaodiettI,  Beresovsky, 
Sokalskl  (Polk-Soof  ),  et«. 

*  Mrs.  Newmardi,  Th»  Art-tkmat  qfRmula,  SammMdndf,  I.X.O. 
ill.  9.  «  Md. 


SONG 


569 


BawmmoTiky.    U  dkant  dt  V^Um  en  Jtmmi»,    Momow,  18flT-6B. 
Ralston,  W.  B.  B.    Sonft  <if  tkt  RuaaUm  Pwople,    London,  UTL 
Cai.a    lanuutfueenJhmta.    Pteto,  U8a 
^rqMUtelne.^  HUtory  ati^UMeticnmy  qfJtuulan  Jfuate.    UB4. 


Habeta,  A.    3orodtn€tnd 

Soubies,  A.    MTUtoin  d«  la  nm*lq%im  «n  Rtimi*.    PftrU,  1886. 

Mtkhntovitdi.    Vaptir^  d»  rkUUtin  tte  kt  mutlvut  m  Jttintt. 

LectAres  and  artlel«i  by  Mrs.  Newmareh. 

8m  alao  the  RoMlan  edition  of  Kl0niann*R  XsxUion  with  anpide* 

ment  by  J.  JIngeL    Jargenaon,  Konow,  IMS. 
ExtenstTe  work  haa  alao  bean  dona  l^  the  St.  Patanbatr  floBig 

CommlMlosi  of  tho  Imperial  GeogtanhloBl  BodeCj,  and  the 

M  oeeow  Kttiioo  Bthnogxaphlo  Committee. 

CoLUKxiom 
TroatoTsky,  V.  F.    *  Riwtan  Sonsa.'    Cnxe  flnt  ooneetlon.)    178S. 
Pnch.Ivaii.   *  BoMlan  FOi».  Songa.'   8t  Fetenbaig.  1806  and  ISIB. 

(IntrodootUm  by  N.  A.  Ltot.)    iTOa 
Doppelmalr.  G.  Tou.    *  Bnariaehe  VolluUeder.'    Lelpdg.  ISOOi 
Goe&e.  P.  O.  v.    '  SUmrnen  dei  niM.  Volka  In  Uedera/  Btntt 

1838. 
BUnoTiteh,  K. 
Bakarcnr.  I.  P. 


'Beoaeildediaotapop.  nuHs.'    18S4 

'Bongi  of  the  Bneelan  Peo^'    St.  Petenbois, 


Klrreevaky,  P.  Y.    '  RoMian  Fdlk-Bongi.' 

Buiimikov.  P.  N.    'Bonga  of  the  BiHBtan  People.'    Bt.  PBtenbnzg, 

1881-fl7. 
Kaahin.  D.    'U6  Bnalan  NaUonal  Bongk'    Koaoow.  1836,  18«1. 

1688. 
nernard.  M.    'Ghantapopi  roans.'    Bt.  Petenbnrg.  1888. 
Sdliehka.    'ChanU  Natlonaax  de  la  PBtlte-RuaBie.'    Bt  Patan- 

barg,  1868. 
PhlllppoT  and  BImaky-KonakoT.     'Chants  nationanx  Ttnimnn' 

HlUaHng.A.    'CoUeettonof  Baillni(^Unas).'    187S. 
Prokoanin,  K.,  and  Tchaikovsky ,  P.  '  Chants  popw  mssi 

187S. 

Melgoanor,  J.    'BwBlaiiFtolk-8ong&'    Moeoow,  18f70. 
fiokaUU.  P.  P.    'BnsslanPolk-eongi.'    Kharkor.  1886. 
Dloatsh,  LlapoanoT.  and  Istomln.    '  Bongs  of  the  Rnsstan  Peopla' 

Bt.  Petersboig.  IBM. 
PaltcblnoT.  N.    'FMsanW  Bongs.'    Moaoow,  1866b 
Balakirev.  M .    *  BeeucU  de  Chants  pop.  niaaea.'    Leipaig.  18B6. 
Istomlne  and  Nekxaaor.   '80  Chants  dn people: '   ""  *"  " 

ban.  1001. 
Llnefr,  Bafinie.  *  Peasant  Bongs  of  Oreat  ] 

'     Bt  Ptttersborg  and  LoBdon. : 


Kosoow. 


'i^' 


inscribed  tram 


South  and  other  Slavonic  Nations 

Much  that  has  been  said  about  the  natioiial 
music  of  Russia  would  apply  also  to  other 
branches  of  the  Slavonic  people.^  There  are, 
nevertheless,  important  variations  in  the  traits 
they  appear  to  have  in  common,  and  certain 
characteristicspeouliar  to  each  nation  which  claim 
notice.  The  remarks  will,  however,  refer  chiefly 
to  the  folk-music,  as  in  many  of  the  countries 
music  remains  still  in  its  primitive  state,  or 
■can  hardly  be  said  to  have  developed  beyond 
the  stage  of  national  airs  ;  no  musical  schools 
have  been  formed,  and  the  composers  would 
merely  be  classed  under  the  generic  term,  Sla- 
vonic. 2  But  of  the  beauty  and  enormous  wealth 
of  the  folk-songs  in  these  countries  proof  has 
been  afforded  by  the  many  and  valuable  collec- 
tions which  already  exist  and  yearly  increase. 

Indigenous  to  the  Ukraine  ^  is  a  kind  of  epic 
song  of  irregular  rhythm  recited  to  a  slow  chant. 
These  doumas  were  originally  improvised  by 
the  Banduriats,  but  these  wandering  minstrels 
are  now  nearly  extinct,  and  their  function  has 
devolved  upon  the  village  women,  whoinventboth 
the  poetry  and  melodies  of  tiie  songs  which 

■  Bonghly  speaking  the  SlaTonle  people  may  be  thus  divided. 
Eiut  Blars :  Great  Boasians  and  Little  Bnsslana  with  Buthenes. 
Ukrainians,  and  the  White  Bnssians.  West  Slavs :  Gnchs,  Slovaks, 
Moravians,  Poles,  and  Wends.  Booth  Slavs :  Slovenes.  Croats,  Serbs, 
and  Bnlgarlans,  inelndingBoanians,  Dalmatiana,  and  Montenegrina. 

*  Aa  for  iiutanoe  Bonidin,  who  la  a  Oeorgiaa  oompoeer.  ia  men* 
tioned  under  Buaaia. 

3  '  Le  dialeete  de  HOnkralne  en  est  toot  dlflSirent  dn  Basse. 
Ce  u'est  pas  an  patds,  o'est  un  dialeete  oonstita^,  qai  poasMe  ane 
brtUaate  litt^mtare.  C'est  sartoot  U  noblvse  de  Kiev,  de  U 
Volhynie,  Podolie  qui  a  sub!  I'inAuenoe  polonaise ;  le  motiJUe  de 
roukralne  est  rest^  en  dehors  de  son  action  par  la  nature  de  sa  vie. 
et  Rurtout  par  la  dilUrenoc  de  religion,  ear  11  pratique  toujoun  le 
rite  grec.'  Dr.  A.  Bonmarioge,  Ifa€e$  povr  ta  JZiosfo  tTJSurvpt, 
p.  4aOeemq. 


they  sing.  Among  the  peculiarities  of  these 
interesting  songs,  one  is,  that  if  the  song  ends 
on  the  dominant  or  lower  octave,  the  last  note 
of  the  closing  verse  is  sung  very  softly,  and 
then  without  a  break  the  new  verse  begins  loud 
and  accented,  the  only  division  between  the 
two  being  such  a  shake  as  described  by  the 
German  phrase  BoektrUUr,  This  feature  is 
common  also  to  Gossaok  songs,^  and  to  the 
songs  of  that  Wendic  branch  of  the  Slavonic 
race  which  is  found  in  a  part  of  Saxony. 


Ex.  1. 


JVendic  Folk-aong, 


P     PF '/ 

The  Wendic  songs,  except  when  dance-tunes, 
are  generally  sung  tremolaTido  and  very  slowly. 
And  the  exclamation  'Ha'  or  'Hale,'  with 
which  they  almost  invariably  commence,  may 
be  compared  with  the  *  Hoj '  or  *  Ha '  of  the 
Buthenians  and  the  'Aoh'  of  Great  Russia. 
One  of  the  most  popular  Ruthenian  songs  is 
'  Ein  Eosakritt,'  better  known  under  the  name 
of  'Schone  Hinka.'^  The  superior  charm  of 
the  songs  of  Little  Russia  is  due,  for  the  most 
part,  to  a  prevailing  cast  of  melancholy. 
Inhabited  by  a  people  who  vie  with  the  Poles 
in  susceptibility  to  poetic  sentiment,  Little 
Russia  is  naturally  ridi  in  songs.  The  greater 
part  are  in  the  minor,  or  based  on  the  Church 
scales,  of  a  slow  tempo,  and  frequently  with 
a  halt  or  drag  in  the  rhythm  produced  by 
shortening  the  first  syllable  and  prolonging  the 

second,  thus : 

Croatian  peasants,  men  or  women,  never  use 
songs  already  composed  ;  they  improvise  the 
vrorda  as  well  as  the  melodies  themselves. 
Hence  only  those  songs  which  sprang  from  the 
people  are  sung  by  them.^  This  does  not  apply 
to  the  ritual  songs  which  have  been  handed 
down  by  oral  tradition  for  centuries,  and  in 
which  the  Croatians  are  very  rich.  The  follow- 
ing song  is  sung  at  Midsummer  as  the  men 
and  women  leap  and  dance  round  the  fires 
lighted  on  the  hill-tops  and  call  to  the  heathen 
goddess  'Lado.'7 
Ex.8. 


La^lol  Ls^do!   Bog  pomana  tomnstanu  liepa  J'  La^io ! 

«  The  Don  Coaaaoka  are  Great  Buaslana,  and  the  Zaparogaes 
Cossacks  are  Little  Baasians.  Dr.  A.  Bonmariage,  i^oCss  pomr  la 
Aiuste  dPEmtrop;  p.  417. 

•  The  muaio  and  original  words  are  given  in  Prach's  collection, 
and  the  German  version  in  Fink's  JAis.  HeuumskaUt  No.  1B7.  8<>« 
also  BohOmx  Xivka. 

•  P.  KnhaS  in  a  letter  to  Kr.  Bareb^  Squtxe  from  Agram  in  1808. 
7  From  F.  Z.  Knbajfs  article  In  the  OMUrfteMMtA-^mgai 

Monardtie,  vol.  vii.  p.  110  et  mq. 


570 


SONG 


The  chief  dance -song  of  the  Croations  and 
Serbs  is  the  kolo,  of  which  there  are  many 
kinds.  To  the  oro  kolo  the  peasants  sing 
religious  songs ;  to  the  junaSko  kolo  heroic 
ballads  ;  to  the  zensko  kolo  loye-songs ;  and  to 
the  Saigivo  kolo  humorous  songs.  There  is 
a  marked  difference  between  the  town  and 
village  songs.  The  latter  exhibit  the  truest 
Croatian  feeling ;  the  town  songs  are  more 
cosmopolitan,  and  are  much  influenced  by  the 
wandering  TanburisUy  who,  like  the  Hungarian 
gipsies,  sing  and  play  the  tanhura  (the  national 
instrument)  in  taverns. 

Since  the  Illyrian  movement  of  1886,  a 
national  school  of  music  has  arisen  in  Croatia, 
and  been  fostered  by  educated  musicians  of  the 
countiy.  Previous  to  this,  a  Conservatoire  of 
music  had  been  founded  at  Agram,  but  it  was 
not  until  1846,  when  Vatroslav  Lisinski's  popu- 
lar opera  '  Ljubovi  zlova '  was  given,  that 
Croatian  art -music  gained  notice.^  Lisinski, 
Ferdo  Livadid,  Ferdo  Rusan,  Ivan  Zajc  and  his 
pupil  G.  Eisenhuth,  the  historian  V.  Klaid,  and 
the  young  composer  Vilko  Novak  have  contri- 
buted to  the  lyric  music  of  Croatia.*  F.  Z. 
Kuhad's  large  collection  of  South  Slavonic 
folk-songs  is  of  great  value.  The  composer 
of  the  Croatian  national  anthem,  '  Liepa  nada 
domovina,'  was  an  officer  named  Josip  Runjanin. 

All  the  Serb  songs  are  of  remarkable  beauty 
and  expressiveness,  and  although  they  resemble 
the  Russian  songs  as  regards  their  scale  and  ton- 
ality and  the  same  elastic  metre  prevails,  yet  the 
melodies  are  more  sustained  and  flowing.     And 

I  Mutik  in  Croalten,  \xf  Ferdo  Miler,  p.  174  «t  teq.  In  09H,-ung. 
Mon. 

i  Altliougb  Haydn  wu  %  CroatUui  by  Urth  and  freely  used  his 
native  folk-Mogs  In  bli  initrumeuUl  wwka,  be  la  rlgbtly  elaaaed 
amoiitf  German  ooinpoeera.  But  the  remarkable  reeemblanoe 
b«twe«n  hie  greatest  Oennan  song,  'Gott  erhalte.'  the  Auetrlan 
National  Hymn,  and  a  folk-aong  from  the  Blatritx  district  of 
Croatia  cannot  bo  passed  over  In  silence.  It  hss  given  rise  to 
much  dlscosslon  ;  see  for  Instanoe.  H.  Belmann  and  F.  Kafaad  in 
the  AUaemein«d0Ut9ch«Mu»aa*itung,  1888  (Noa.  4(M8) ;  also  Ungo 
Conrat's  article  in  /M«  Mtutk,  Jan.  1. 1906 ;  and  Jot^  Bapdn,  hy 
Dr.  Kuba£.    The  tune  is  aa  follows  :— 

Ex.  3.  Stal  w  Jetem. 


O.  Fleischer,  whilst  admitting  the  resemblance  of  Haydn's  melody 
to  the  folk-song,  prefers  to  trace  its  origin  baok  to  the  Chvroh, 
and  quotes  many  examples  of  hymiu  which  open  with  the  nme 
phnue  as  '  Gott  erhalte,'  thus  :— 
Ex.  4. 


Di   •  es      1    -    rae        XH  • 
from  the  Franciscan  Requiem  ;  and 
Ex.  b. 


a  StebAt  Mater  from  Cantarium  S.  GalH.  18tf  (see  Xur  wryMdken- 
dtn  /J04for»elhtng  I  aammelbdnd§  of  the  I.K.O.  IIL  2).  See  also 
Hadow,  A  Oroattan  Oompottr. 


among  these  south-eastern  nations  the  affinity 
with  the  music  of  the  Arabs  and  other  nations 
of  Western  Asia  is  more  often  indicated.  The 
Servian  drinking-songs  are  noticeable ;  grave, 
solemn,  and  devotional,  they  are  quite  unlike 
those  of  any  other  country  ;  but  as  among  the 
Serbs  the  hymns  and  secular  songi  are  so 
frequently  intermingled,  this  may  be  accounted 
for.  Most  of  the  Servian  and  many  of  the 
Bulgarian  songs  end  on  the  supertonio,  as  in 
the  Servian  national  hymn  : — 
Ex.  6. 


The  Bulgarian  songs  are  also  quite  irregular  in 
metre,  and  far  more  fragmentary  than  the 
Servian : — 


5^-p^Jta^^a 


The  Bulgarians  have  a  great  love  for  the  folk- 
lore of  their  country,  and  the  volumes  of  the 
Sbomik,  which  the  State  publishes  yearly, 
contain  legends,  ballads,  and  songs  with  music. 

BUUOOKAFHT 

The  best  information  on  the  songs  of  the  above  nations  is 
contained  in  the  different  volninca  of  /Ws  Oe^et'i «lc*toe>Hiivar<se>s 
MonartMe  and  the  prefaces  to  the  collections. 

CoLLicnows 

liplnski.  C.    '  Chants  du  peuple  de  Gallide.'   Lembeif ,  U8B. 

Kollar.J.    'NirodnieZpiewanky.'    Buda  Feat,  18S4. 

Aohasel  and  Korytho.    '  Camiollan  Bongs.'    183B. 

Fkiull.  I.  Z.    'PielneludnRuskleKowOsliiqrl.'    Lenberg,  18SMB. 

Hanpt  und  Bcfanisler.    '  Volkslieder  der  Wenden.'    Grimma.  1841 

Kraslnskl.  H.    '  The  Cuasacks  of  the  Ukraine.'    London.  1M& 

Koelpinkim,  A.     'Chansons  pop.  russes  en  Podolie,  rOnkralne, 

etc.'    1882. 
Bonbeta.  A.  'Chansons pop.  de  I'Ouknine.'  Xosoow,  1872;  'Gban- 

sons  pop.  petit-mssiens.'    St.  Petersburg,  187B. 
KnhaS,  F.  Z.    '  Gbansona  nationales  des  Slaves  dn  Sod.*    Agram. 

1878-81.    (This  contains  Servian.  Dalmatian.  Bosnian.  Croatian. 

etc.  songs.) 
Chod2ko,A.B.    'Les  ChsntshlstorlquesdenJkralne.'  Farla,I879. 
DeVoIIau.  'Butheno^Salldsn  Folk-songs.'  I88S.  (PnbL  by  Ruadan 

Geog.  Soo.) 
StolanoT  and  Ratachow.    '  24  Chsnsons  not^es  (bulgares).'    1887. 
Kalans,A.    'Serbische  Volksmelodien.'    Vienna,  189a 
Vasllev.  O.  P.    '225  Chansons  pop.  bulgares.'    Tlmovo,  IflU. 
The  publications  in  the  Sborntk  vols,  for  1884  and  1607. 
Bosifjeva,  8.      'Album  des  Chansons  natlonsles  de  la  Bosnia.' 

Agram.  1806. 
Georgewitch,  V.  R.    'Mflodies  nattonalas  seibes.'    Beignwle.  180S. 
Gemtchounov.  A.  and  VI.    'Les  Chants  des  Oosaqnes  de  I'OuiaL* 

St.  Petetsburg.  1800. 
Btffhr,  A.    'Album  Croatlen.'  _. 

D<u  muaUuMuihe  Oettemieh  contains  Croatian,  GamtoUan,  JM- 

matlan,  and  Bosnian  Songs.    Vienna. 
Parlovie.    '  Servian  Songs.'    Agram. 

KoooriL    '  15  Chants  nationaux  des  Serbes  Lusaciena.'    Prague. 
Manteuffel.   Oustav.    FnJherr   von.      'Dentaohe  altllvlindlscbc 

Volkslieder.'    1906. 

Poland 

The  songs  of  the  Poles  are  mainly  presented 
to  us  in  the  form  of  hymns,  or  in  the  form  of 
i^eir  national  dance -rhythms.  One  of  the 
earliest  and  most  celebrated  examples  of  the 
former,  dating  from  the  10th  century,  is  St. 
Adalbert's  hymn  to  the  Virgin  ('  Boga  Roda^a '), 
which  is  engraved  in  plain-chant  on  his  tomb 


SONG 


671 


in  the  cathedral  of  Gneseo,^  Here  and  at 
Dombrova  on  the  Warka,  it  is  still  sung  every 
Sunday.  The  hymn  is,  however,  well  known 
throughout  Poland,  as  it  is  used  on  all  solemn 
occasions,  for  triumphant  or  sad  ceremoniak 
and  on  the  battlefield  ^ : — 


Another  familiar  hymn  is  the  '  Hajnaly,'  which 
is  heard  every  morning  from  the  towers  of 
Cracow  to  awaken  the  sleeping  town.  In  the 
old  sacred  song -books  called  Kancyonaly  or 
CwncUmaUs '  preserved  in  cathedrals,  convents, 
and  in  the  libraries  of  the  great  nobles,  many 
old  secular  folk-songs  are  to  be  found  in- 
corporated in  masses  and  motets;^  likewise 
many  kolendas  which  are  peculiar  to  the 
Polish  people.  These  kolendas  (noels)  are  old 
folk-songs,  some  dating  from  the  18th  century, 
and  are  still  sung  in  every  house  and  street  at 
Christmas  time,  and  it  is  in  one  of  these  kolendas 
that  we  meet  with  the  rhythm  of  the  polonaise : — 


W  Zl(Mc  lezy. 


a.  Jmu  ao-wi  Ohrys-tn  ao-wl  Dmb  nam  sa-Tod-co  rsm-o. 
Ru-tan  ko-wle     pny*b]r - vaj - de,    JemuwdJde eisle 


The  Poles  have  ever  loved  their  simple,  dignified 
hymns,  and  are  so  familiar  with  them  that  they 
may  be  truly  called  their  national  music.  ^ 

Unlike  the  Russian  and  other  Slavonic  races 
the  Poles  are  singularly  exempt  from  Asiatic 
influences,  and  are  far  more  European  in  feeling. 
At  an  early  date  they  accepted  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith  ;  and  while  adhering  to  the  Slav 
language,  they  adopted  the  characters  of  the 
Latin  alphabet     The  Poles  are  excitable  and 

1  St.  Adalbert  was  born  in  988.  Ending  life  a  membar  of  tba 
Fbllah  hieranhv,  St.  Adalbert  belongs  to  Polsnd:  by  birth,  how- 
«var,  he  was  Bohemian,  and,  at  one  time.  Bishop  ol  iSrague. 

*  For  the  hymn  (tianslated  into  modem  notation  by  P.  Lesssl)  sea 
Bovinskl,  Lsa  MtuieiefU  PolonttU,  p.  6i. 

3  The  Bohemian  Brothers  first  printed  the  Canetoiuatt  at  Prague 
and  at  Craoow,  in  1SS8. 

*  Tills  Is  not  the  place  to  speak  of  the  interesting  poly]dionlo 
school  of  music  whidi  floaiished  in  Poland  during  the  late  16th 
and  16th  centuries,  and  of  the  work  done  by  the  so-called  College  of 
Roratists  at  Craoow.  This  school  was  represented  by  such  composers 
as  Felsstyn,  Leopolita.  Siamotulski,  Bsadek.  etc,  all  of  whom  were 
clearly  under  Flemish  influence. 

s  Twohvmnsto  the  Virgin  and  a  KcsnrrecUon  hymn  are  especially 
celebrated,  and  thcae  were  printed  by  the  Ahtii  Miodoxewaky  in  his 
oolleotions  of  sacrsd  songs  at  Craoow  in  18S8.  For  further  infor- 
mation on  these  historic  hymns,  see  B.  OlofT,  PotnUehe  LiedtT' 
-     -••{«.  1744. 


more  finely  susceptible  to  romance  than  the 
Russians,  and  their  music  is  full  of  fire  and 
passion.  Their  songi  are  somewhat  wanting 
in  melodic  invention,  though  this  deficiency 
is  hidden  by  the  wonderful  skill  with  which 
they  are  varied  and  embellished  ;  and  they 
are  marked  by  a  poetic  melancholy  which 
makes  them  attractive.  In  colouring,  they 
are  instrumental  rather  than  vocal,  as  revealed 
in  their  difficult  intervals : — 


Ex.  s. 


:etc. 


ED  e]     sla  •  cy     dow.k 


ej     ej       wedie 


It  is  rather  to  their  characteristic  and  striking 
rhythms,  free,  varied,  and  elastic  and  yet  con- 
tained in  dance  forms,  such  as  the  poloneZf 
krakormak,  and  especially  the  nuzzur  or  maeurekf 
that  they  owe  their  rare  beauty  and  brilliance. 
The  inaawrek^  is  usually  a  melancholy  yet 
quick  and  strongly  accented  dance-song  in  3-4 
time  ;  the  tempo  is  irregular  and  cloeely  follows 
the  words.  These  may  treat  of  peasant  occupa- 
tions— ^hay-making,  harvest,  vintage,  or  of  love, 
sorrow,  parting,  or  meeting.  Some  of  the 
oldest  mazurSf  polonezes,"^  and  more  especially 
the  hymns,  take  their  name  from  a  battie  or 
historic  event  recounted  in  the  text.  The 
krakounak^  is  described  by  C.  Miaskowski  in 
a  book  of  poems  published  in  1632,  proving 
that  this  lively  dance-song  in  duple  time  has 
long  been  popular  in  the  country.  And  to  the 
same  date  and  genre  belong  the  gregorianki — 
songs  which  the  market-women  of  Cracow  sing 
on  tiie  festival  of  their  patron-saint 

In  scientific  and  ecdeeiastical  composers 
Poland  excelled  for  many  centuries,  but  in  the 
17th  century  these  gave  place  to  Italian  musicians 
who  reigned  supreme  at  Court.  The  first  efforts 
to  counteract  the  Italian  influence  were  made  by 
Kaminsky,  J.  Stefani,  and  J.  Eisner  in  the  second 
half  of  the  18th  century.  These  founders  of 
Polish  national  opera,  by  incorporating  a  large 
number  of  their  country's  songs  into  their  works, 
won  immense  popularity.  £lsner  also  wrote 
many  volumes  of  songs,  besides  two  treatises  on 
the  rhythm  and  prosody  of  the  Polish  language 
and  its  suitableness  for  singing.  Eisner's 
melodies  are  simple  and  facile  ;  and  though 
scarcely  known  beyond  the  borders  of  Poland, 
there,  he  is  still  one  of  the  favourite  composers. 

Rather  earlier  in  the  same  century  the  charm- 
ing poems  of  Fran9ois  Karpinski  were  set  to 
music — either  to  original  or  adapted  tunes,  and, 
sung  by  rich  and  poor  alike,  belonged  in  their 
turn  to  the  national  song -group,  such  for 
instance,  as  *Yuz  miesionQ  zeszell'  (*Dejifc  la 
lune  se  live'),  which  is  still  heard.  In  1816 
the  poet  Niemcewicz  published  his  great 
work,  Spietoy  hisforpczne  z  muxyka  i  rycinami 

•  See  Kasvuca.  ?  See  Pomvaisb. 

8  Sc^Cracotirsiib. 


672 


SONG 


(Historical  Songs  ^ith  Music),  and  invited  the 
best-known  musicians  (men  and  women)  of  the 
day  to  compose  or  arrange  melodies  for  it. 
This  work,  which  included  some  of  the  oldest 
hymns  (amongst  them  the  celebrated  'Boga 
Bodzifa'),  war  songs,  and  legends,  stimulated  t£e 
patriotism  of  the  Polish  nation,  and  is  cherished 
by  every  class. 

In  most  of  the  songs  belonging  to  the  early 
part  of  the  last  century  the  national  character- 
istics are  to  be  found  ;  and  especially  is  this  the 
case  with  those  of  Ig.  F.  Dobrzynski,  K  Jenicke, 
W.  Kazynski,  Ig.  Eomorowskl,  M.  Madeyski, 
J.  Nowakowski,  A.  Sowinski,  C.  J.  Wielhorski, 
K.  Wy809ki,  and  A.  Zarzycki.  But  while  these 
composers  are  hardly  known  beyond  their  native 
country,  Chopin  and  Moniuszko  have  attained 
a  world-wide  reputation.  Though  neither  are 
wholly  Poles  by  birth,  they  have  closely  identi- 
fied themselves  with  the  Polish  national  spirit. 
Moniuszko  was  bom  in  Lithuania,  but  this 
country  has  long  been  connected  with  Poland.  ^ 
Both  he  and  Chopin  have  drawn  from  the 
beautiful  Lithuanian  folk-music,  and  especially 
from  the  daiTios,^  which,  monotonous  as  they 
are,  yet  possess  a  peculiar  charm.^  Moniuszko 
borrowed  many  traditional  tunes  from  other 
Slavonic  provinces,  but  all  his  songs,  whether 
original  or  borrowed,  are  delicate,  fresh,  and 
varied,  and  through  them  all  rings  a  strange 
but  attractive  personal  note.  liey  are  de- 
servedly loved  and  sung  throughout  Poland, 
Galicia,  and  Lithuania.  Chopin's  songs  would 
take  higher  rank  had  they  not  been  eclipsed 
by  his  instrumental  works.  Though  partly  of 
French  extraction,  the  poetic,  chivalrous,  and 
patriotic  spirit  of  the  true  Pole  permeated 
Chopin's  whole  being.  His  seventeen  songs, 
op.  74,  were  written  at  different  periods  of  his 
life,  and  vary  widely  in  character.  The  words 
of  most  are  by  his  friend  S.  Witwicki,  others 
are  by  A.  Mickiewicz,  Zaleski,  and  Erasinski. 
Some  of  the  songs  may  be  traced  to  traditional 
sources,  so  far  as  the  melody  goes,*  but  Chopin's 
exquisitely  refined  harmony  raises  them  to  a 
high  artistic  value.  Three  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful are  the  'Lithuanian  Song'  (written  in  1831), 
the  tender  and  sad  'Melodya'  (1847),  and  the 
strange  *  Dwojaki  koniec '  (Two  corpses),  with 
the  simple  chorale-like  air.  But  those  in  the 
mazurka  form,  such  as  'Zyczenie'  ('Maiden's 
Desire'),  1829;  'MojaPieszezotka' ('My  Joys'), 
and  'Pierecien'  ('The  Ring'),  1844,  are  more 
widely  known  and  sung. 

Ig.  Paderewskl  resembles  Chopin  in  one  re- 
spect ;  he  is  national  without  being  a  slave  to 

>  Hie  LfthumtATU  are  nid  to  b«  of  Suiaerit  origin,  and  tbeir 
Isngnaee  dlffien  widely  trom  that  of  other  Slavonic  uatione. 

9  A  term  for  aacolar  eonge  In  oontmdlstincUon  to  g^tme,  auoed 
•onga. 

*  U  D.  Blieia  ooUeeted  a  lane  quantity  of  old  Lithuanian  eonga, 
and  pnUtehed  them  at  Berlin  In  189B,  with  remarks  on  their  matre 
and  rhythm. 

*  Karaeowaki  states  that  many  songs  sung  by  the  people  in 
Poland  are  attribnted  to  Chopin,  and  chief  among  them  one  called 
'  The  third  of  If  ay/  Ff.  Chipin,  p.  IflS. 


it,  and  yet  on  heiuring  his  songs  one  feels  that 
no  one  but  a  Pole  could  have  written  them. 
In  some  an  undercurrent  of  sadness  prevails, 
veiled  by  a  proud  reserve,  as  for  instance  in  op.  7. 
Others  are  brilliant  and  effective,  and  the  ac- 
companiments always  developed  and  interesting. 

BlSLIOOaArHY 

Oloff.  B.    PolnUeUt  LUdtr^Mektekf.    Dansig.  17M.     (Chiefly  on 


Potockl.Tg.    lMUUSratur9mu$.poloiialm.    1818L 
81korBki.J.    AMAJTMVvmy.    1887-0. 
Sowinski.  A.    Lm  muHettiu  poltmaia.    Paris,  1897. 
Chodsko,J.  L.    IlUtotrepojnda*red«laJ»oloffne.    Paris,  1864. 
Gloger.  Z.    atmgt  noch  daipolmimsht  Volk. 
Jaixemakl,  A.    HUMre  da  la  Jlurtgue  en  Fologm. 

COLLBCnONS 

Pontana,  J.    •  Polish  NaUonal  Kelodiea.'    Chappell.  London.  1880. 
Sowinski.  J.    '  Chants  polonais  iiatlonanx.'    Parts.  1832. 
Konopka.J.    '  Pioini  ludu  Krakowakicfo.'    Cnu»w,  1810. 
Rhesa.R.a    'Dalnoe.  Oder  Utlhannlsdie  Volksl.'    Berlin.  1841 
MlodnsaewiU    (Abb4}.      'Fastonlki  i    Kolendy  z    Melbdyaral.* 

Craoow.  1848. 
Kesselmann.     '410  Uaiiioa,  mit  deutscher  Ueberseta.  und  Xna.' 

Berlin.  1843. 
Kolbng.H.  O.    '  Pietoi  Indu  polskiego.'    Wanaw,  1857-80. 
Soger.  J.    'PieAie  ludn  Polakiego  w  Uoniym  fialaaka.'     Bnslau. 


•  Folke-Sange  og  Melodler.' 
'     ullw 


KolKig,  H.  O.  •  Pielnllndu  Utewikiego.'  Cmcow.  187a 
Ologer,  Z.  '  Bnthenisehe  nnd  litbanische  Volksweisen.' 
Bsiteob.  a    •  Daina  BalsaL    Melodian  litbaulecber  Volkalleder.' 

Heidelberg,  188M0. 
Kolbetg,  H.  O.    •  Ia  MaK>wae.'    Craoow.  188S40. 
Ologer,  Z..  and  Nosskowikl.  Z.    '  Plefai  Indn.'    Cimoow,  1882. 
Nact,L.    'DieVoIksUederderUthaaer.'    Tilsit,  18M. 
Jusdclewlcz,  A.    '  Litaoische  Volksweisen'  (new  edition).   Czacow, 

1900. 

Bohemia 

When  Christianity  was  first  introduced  into 
Bohemia,  the  influence  of  the  Church  was 
strenuously  exerted  to  suppress  the  songs  of 
the  people ;  but  the  effort  was  made  in  vain, 
and  the  nation  continued  to  sing  its  popular 
songs.  The  Koledy  (Ansingelieder),  which  are 
still  in  use,  are  generally  acknowledged  to  be 
of  pagan  origin.  As  in  other  countries,  the 
early  Christian  Church  allowed  the  congregation 
to  join  in  the  Kyrie  Eleison,  and  the  oldest 
Bohemian  hymn  is  merely  a  translation  and 
development  of  this  <  Kr lei. '  Tradition  ascribes 
it  to  St.  Adalbert  * ;  it  was  really  a  prayer  for 
peace  and  mercy,  and  was  sung  both  in  churches 
and  on  the  battlefield  as  the  national  song. 
Another  celebrated  hymn,  which  holds  the  same 
place,  was  dedicated  in  the  13th  century  to 
St.  Wencelas,  the  patron  saint  of  Bohemia.® 
These  national  hymns,  and  the  so-called 
RoroiUy'^  are  a  compound  of  liturgical  melodies 
and  secular  folk-songs.  They  are  peculiar  to 
Bohemia,  and  were  allowed  to  be  sung  in  the 
vernacular,  and  thus  belonged  to  the  people 
not  less  than  the  Church.  Then  later,  during 
the  Hussite  movement,  a  like  popular  spirit 
reasserted  itself  in  the  Church.  Ilie  Hussites 
and  the  Bohemian  Brothers  chose  many  secular 
melodies  for  their  hymns,  and  thus  again  the 
hymns  passed  into  genuine  folk-songs.^    One 

ft  It  is  giT«n  in  faosimlle  in  HoetlDiky'B  article  on  Bohemian 
Made  in  ZMs  OmL.'vmg.  Monorchia, 


"  This  hymn  was  oomposed  hr  Amest,  Archbishop  of  Ptagne, 

id  is  given  in  Hostinsky's  artide  referred  to  abore. 

^  The  Rorate  are  Joyful  Adrent  hymns,  and  some  haTo  been  pre- 


served in  a  bcau^fnl  Oanetemate  of  the  I4th  century  at  Prague. 

*  To  John  Hna  (Hues)  only  one  sacred  song  can  with  authority 
* -"-••— ^-«       "Btala  matka  salostiva,'  whi<di  oontains  three 


be  attributed. 


strophes  of  equal  length,  and  a  melisma  of  three  notes  to  a  syllaUe, 
and  is  nearly  diatonic. 


SONG 


67a 


of  the  earliest  and  most  famous  of  examples 
belonging  to  the  first  half  of  the  15th  oentoiy 
is  the  Hussite  Battle-Song,  of  which  the  first 
line  runs  thus : — 

Kdoijatebo-iibojo    ....  a  lA-ke-n*  Je-ho, 

As  samples  of  the  secular  musio  of  the 
15th  and  16th  centuries  the  folk-songs  pre- 
served in  the  CanciomUea  are  of  great  value. 
The  Hussite  songs  are  for  the  most  part  of  a 
grave  and  stem  character ;  while  those  of  the 
Bohemian  or  Moravian  Brothers  have  a  more 
tender  and  sensuous  cast  It  should  be  observed 
that  the  Bohemians  have  long  been  called 
Czechs,  and  that  name  has  been  adopted  for 
the  national  language  and  music  But  in  their 
origin  the  Czechs  were  only  one  of  the  many 
Slavonic  tribes  which  constitute  the  nationality 
of  Bohemia  and  Moravia.  There  are  some 
differences  between  the  Bohemian  and  Moravian 
songs.  In  the  former  there  is  a  predominance 
of  songs  in  the  m^jor  scale,  while  those  which 
seem  to  be  in  the  minor  scale  more  properly 
belong  to  the  ecclesiastical  modes.  In  Moravia 
the  balance  is  equal ;  the  tunes  are  of  a  bold 
decisive  character,  with  a  strongly  marked 
rhythm.  In  this  country  also,  the  songs  of  each 
district  are  distinct,^  and  hence  flows  a  greater 
wealth  and  variety  of  song.  In  Bohemia,  on 
the  other  hand,  which  is  homogeneous,  all 
parts  being  alike,  a  fuller  unity  exists  in  the 
songs.  They  are  more  tuneful  and  tender, 
their  rhythm  is  simpler,  and  the  form  is  more 
regular  and  developed  owing  to  the  influence 
which  German  music  has  exercised  in  Bohemia.^ 
Common  to  both  and  characteristic  of  all 
Bohemian  songs  is  a  vein  of  natural,  unaffected 
humour,  and  a  close  connection  between  the 
verbal  and  musical  accents.  The  tunes  rarely 
begin  on  the  weak  beat  of  the  bar,  just  as  in 
the  speaking  language  the  accent  is  always  on 
the  first  word,  or  first  syllable.  The  form  is 
sometimes  in  three-bar  phrases,  which  in  the 
longer  songs  develops  into  four  bars  in  the 
middle,  returning  again  to  the  three-bar  phrase 
for  the  dose : — 


Ex.  2. 


Ti4kinii-«l-t«  ri>noTslAt,TiBkinti-«i*te     xi-no  TrtAt. 

The  harmony  is  always  simple,  and  except  in 

*  Tha  Btovmka  and  Sl&Tonle  CsmIm  an  the  principal  InhaMtants 


«  It  U  Inienatinf  to  note  the  difltoenoe  between  the  two  SlaTonlo 
ooantrice.  The  eong  may  belong  to  both  of  them,  bat  with  dietlnot 
variantu,  though  more  pcrhapn  In  the  words  than  in  the  mneio. 
The  love  of  natare  1*  a  etrongly  marked  ohaiaeteriatlo  in  the 
Bohenlaa  folk-eongB.  For  inetanee  moat  of  their  eonga  refer  to  a 
flower,  or  a  tree,  or  a  bird,  or  a  ittcani,  or  a  lake,  whether  it  be 
«nplofM  in  a  Utenl  or  metaphoriflal  awiMk 


the  Gipsy  songs,  the  western  scales  universally 
prevail.  Bohemians  have  an  innate  passion 
for  dancing,  which  imparts  marked  and  exhilar- 
ating rhythms  to  their  dance  songs.  They  are 
generally  sung  in  chorus,  and  the  influence  of 
their  national  instrument,  the  'Dudy,'  or  bag- 
pipe, is  often  apparent 

Their  many  and  varied  dances  (such  as  the 
beaeda,  dudik,  furicmt^  hulan^  kozak,  poUca, 
sedldk,  trinos^,  etc.)  take  their  names  from 
places  or  from  the  occasions  on  which  they 
have  been  danced,  or  even  more  frequently 
from  the  songs  with  which  they  are  accompanied. 
There  is  adose  association  between  the  folk-songs 
and  the  folk-dances  of  Bohemia.  The  greater 
part  of  the  songs  met  with  in  modem  collec- 
tions are  of  no  older  date  than  the  18th  century, 
but  there  are  several  exceptions,  such  as  the 
Hussite  Battle- Song,  or  the  tune  of  'Prou 
Kalino,'  which  was  constantly  sung  in  the  15th 
and  16th  centuries,  and  *  Sedlik  z  F^hy,'  which 
was  composed  in  1609. 

In  the  17th  century  there  was  a  widespread 
cultivation  of  music  in  Bohemia ;  both  part- 
singing  and  instrumental  music  were  salient 
features  of  domestic  life.  Wenzel  Earl  Holan 
(Rovensky)  published  a  large  song-book  called 
'  Eaplaokr&lovski,'  which  reflected  the  musical 
taste  of  his  time,  and  betrayed  deterioration 
and  the  secularisation  of  sacred  songs,  which 
was,  however,  in  effect  partly  due  to  Italian 
influence.  Nevertheless,  the  harmony  is  bold 
and  varied,  and  the  accompaniments  for  lute 
and  violin  or  more  often  wind-instruments,  are 
skilfully  composed. 

In  the  18th  century  foreign  influences  were 
still  more  marked.  German,  French,  and  Italian 
musicians  crowded  the  principal  towns  of 
Bohemia,  while  the  native  musicians,  such  as 
Benda,  Dussek,  Reicha,  Gyrowetz,  etc.,  on  the 
other  hand,  sought  to  win  laurels  abroad, 
where  their  compositions  were  more  likely  to 
attract  notioe  and  interest  Meanwhile,  the 
troe  national  music  of  the  country  was  being 
kept  alive  chiefly  by  the  village  schoolmasters, 
who  acted  as  organists,  choir  and  bandmasters. 
Each  parish  had  its  own  choir,  choras  and 
band  ;  and  every  child  was  taught  the  study 
of  music  with  as  much  precision  as  reading, 
writing,  and  arithmetic.  Naturally,  therefore, 
village  music  attained  to  a  high  level  under 
such  conditions.' 

Then  early  in  the  19th  century  attempts 
were  made  by  the  Czech  composers,  F,  Dionys 
Weber,  J,  Kalliwoda,  J.  Kittl,  and  others  to 
restore  the  lost  prestige  of  their  country's  music 
and  language.  One  of  the  first  composers  of 
real  Bohemian  songs  wsa  Ryba,  who  was  followed 
by  Kanka,  Dolezalek,  and  Knlze.^    But  a  more 

»  See  Bnmey'a  Prttmt  SttUe  t^f  MU$le  in  Cermanp.  ii.  IS,  14,  4L 

*  Knfie'a  popuh»r  ballad  'Bretlalara  Jitka'  ia  to  be  foond  in 

moat  eolleetlona.     For  other  well  •known  aonga,  anch  aa  Kro^a 

*  Hoattaki.'  Skroap'a  *  Kdedomo^  muj.'  Boaenknuui'a '  Chaloinka,* 

Dletrich'a  'Moravo,'  aee  Fr.  Zahotakf'a  'Ccakfeh  nArodnleh  piani/ 


opera.  The  first  and  for  a  long  time  the 
favourite  opera  was  written  by  F.  Skroup  (or 
Skraup)  and  the  poet  Chmelensky.  Skroup's 
name  will,  however,  be  best  preserved  by  his 
famous  song  *  Kde  domo^  mig  ?'  *  (*  Where  is  my 
home  ?'),  which  remains  to  this  day  the  most 
popular  of  Bohemian  songs.  Between  1823 
and  1830  Chmelensky  and  F.  Skroup,  together 
with  Tomaschek  and  Th.  EroiF  published  many 
songs.  Tomaschek  was  less  successful  in  his 
songs  than  in  his  other  compositions,  but  he 
was  privileged  to  win  Goethe's  approval  of  his 
settings  of  German  words.  Amongst  KroiF's 
many  songs  with  Bohemian  words  his  Hussite 
song  'Te§me  se  blahon'  has  become  national^ 
Yet  another  stimulus  to  the  cultivation  of 
native  songs  was  the  collection  edited  by 
Chmelensky  and  Skroup  entitled  'Venec* 
(*The  Garland'),  which  contained  songs  by 
thirty -three  Czech  composers.  Among  them 
are  the  names  of  Ru^i5ka,  Drechsler,  Ya^ik  (or 
YaSak)  Skftvan,  Tomaschek,  F.  Kittl,  J.  Yorel, 
Karas,  and  Rosenkranz,  the  author  of  the 
popular  song  *  Yystavim  se  skromnov  chaloupka' 
( *  Let  us  build  a  modest  hut ').  In  lat^r  editions 
of  the  *Yenec'  issued  by  other  editors,  songs 
were  added  by  Suohdnek,  Stasny,  Yeit,  and 
A,  Gyrowetz.  Again  in  1844  the  Moravian 
composer  Ludwig  Ritter  von  Dietrich  published 
a  volume  of  songs,  which  included  his  fine 
patriotic  song  'Morava,  MoraviSk^  mild.' 
Among  other  song-writers  there  may  be  cited 
the  names  of  Zvonaf,  Prochazka,  J.  N.  Skroup, 
Kolesovsky,  Zelenski,  K.  Slavik,  F.  Laub, 
E.  Napravnik,  Shukersk^,  Yojaffek,  and  Y. 
Zavertal.  To  sum  up  the  general  characteristics 
of  their  songs,  they  may  be  described  as  a 
flowing  and  clear  carUiUruif  recalling  to  mind 
the  traits  of  Italian  song.  Their  harmony  and 
rhythm  are  very  simple ;  and  their  sentiment 
and  humour  have  the  grace  of  spontaneity.  By 
their  own  people  these  songs  are  dearly 
cherished,  but  in  the  scale  of  musical  composi- 
tions their  intrinsic  worth  is  slight. 

F.  Smetana  was  the  first  to  reproduce  in  his 
own  original  works  the  true  Bohemian  spirit, 
and  mostly  so  in  his  national  operas  and  sym- 
phonic poems.  In  the  latter  he  has  used  many 
old  folk-songs,  and  one  called  *  Tabor '  is  really 
a  splendid  polyphonic  fantasia  on  the  Hussite 
battle-song.  Nor  are  the  national  songs  for- 
gotten in  A.  Dvorak's  music.  In  the  overture 
called  *Husitska'  he  introduces  the  St.  Wencelas 
and  the  Hussite  hymns  ;  and  in  another  called 
*  Mein  Heim '  he  has  made  use  of  *  Kde  domov^ 
muj  '  as  thematic  material  Dvofdk,  W.  Blodek, 
Rozkosny,  Sebor,  Hfimaly,  Earel  Bendl,  and 
Rezuicek  have  tried  to  carry  the  merry  humorous 

1  This  i«  the  blind  flddler't  •aag  which  Bkroap  wrote  for  J.  TjVu 
muical  play  FUUnKUika,  in  18S1 

«  Thli  lOTnewhMt  oommonplwQ  ione  oeni*ini  a  ehonio  in  th« 
mlttrl]''.  nnd  hu  Itwti  uwid  bf  Umm%.  ^Fb  (In  the  '  Bdb»ii1  ui  f]  trl  ] 
■nil  oLhi-ti*.     iln  Ki.ih[H-]rV  '  H^a^t  Qt  EiutclU  KtiTOpr  '  Uin  d^X^  ]  lHli 


and  the  beauty  of  Bendl's  and  Dvofak's  tender 
yet  brilliant  gipsy -songs  is  incontestable. 
Antonin  Dvorak  is  the  most  Slavonic  and  the 
least  German  of  Czech  composers.  He  betrays 
in  his  songs  both  the  merits  and  the  defects 
of  his  nationality  and  origin.  He  has  all  the 
Czech  wealth  of  ideas,  freshness  of  invention, 
and  spontaneity  of  melody,  but  is  somewhat 
lacking  in  self-control  and  intellectual  grasp. 
The  simplicity  of  his  themes  shows  that  the 
folk-songs  of  his  childhood  influenced  the  whole 
tone  of  his  music;  and  his  greatest  works 
(such  as  the  Stabat  Mater,  in  which  the  solo 
numbers  are  unmistakably  national  in  origin) 
are  those  in  which  he  spoke  in  the  idiom  of  his 
own  country.  Perhaps  the  most  beautiful  of 
his  songs,  after  the  already  mentioned  Zigeuner- 
lieder,  op.  55,  are  the  four  songs,  '  Im  Yolkston,' 
op,  73,  and  the  seven  liebeslieder,  op.  83. 
In  these  we  find  richness  of  harmonic  colour 
and  bold,  unexpected  modulations  combined 
with  the  simplest  and  most  naive  tunes. 
Thoughout  his  songs  we  can  trace  a  close  and 
intimate  sympathy  with  Franz  Schubert,  of 
whose  works  he  made  a  special  study.  Z. 
Fibich's  few  published  songs,  on  the  other  hand, 
clearly  show  the  influence  of  Schumann  in  their 
delicate  refined  workmanship. 

The  extraordinary  development  of  Bohemian 
music  during  the  last  forty  or  fifty  years  is 
mainly  owing  to  the  enthusiasm  of  modem  Czech 
composers  for  their  country's  melodious  folk- 
songs and  merry  dances.  And  if  a  Bohemian 
school  of  music  can  now  be  said  to  exist,  it  is 
as  much  due  to  the  peasant  as  to  the  conscious 
efforts  of  Bendl,  Smetana,  Fibich,  A.  Stradal, 
and  Dvof  dk.  For  every  peasant  in  Bohemia  is  a 
real  music-lover,  and  in  this  country  at  least  it 
is  not  likely  that  the  folk-songs  will  ever  die  out. 

BlBUaaRAPHT 

Artidee  in  Bohemian  newapapcn  DaUbor,  and  UHrdmi  prOoha, 
18B0-6B.    L.  Zvonai. 

Melia,B.     BithmUOte  Muttk. 

ArUdee   in    IH«   OetUrreteh.- 
(a)  VoOtdML  uiMi  Tarn  tier  I 
O.  Hostinsky.  ia04-0& 

Vanrloe.  B.     Bohemia  from  fke  eaaiiUut  tirnn,  etc.    London.  18B8. 

8oabiee.A.    HUtoire  ds  la  MutUiw.    Bokhmf,    Pari*.  18B& 

GeachichU  dm  vorhumitUehen  getanga  in  BShmm  (pub.  by  the 
Kgl.  bOhniiMhe  Gewllwhaft).    Pragne.  1904. 

Batka.  R.    GetOttdO*  der  Muafk  in  Btfkmen  (sUll  appearing)  Ut  toL 
Prague,  1906. 

CoiXBcnoiis 

Kamaryta.  J.  W.    'Cedti  narodol  dudiownj  Pfsn^.'    Prague.  ISSS. 

Ritter  von  Rittenberg.    '  Moravian  Songs.'    leSO. 

Krolinus  and  Diahomd.    Collection.  1846-47. 

Erben.  K.  J.    '  Pjstij  niirodn]  w  Sechidi.'    Prague,  1888-60. 

SuiU,  F.    'lloravik<  Narodnl  Pitni.'    Brunn,  1859^. 

Berggreen,  A.  P.    *  Folke49ange  og  Melodier.'    Stockholm,  186& 

Zahn.J.    'DlegeiatlidtenLtederderBraderinBeaimen.'    Nurem- 
berg. 1875. 

Zehonky,  F.    *  Ceik^di  nirodnidi  plani '  (no  words).    Brunswick. 

ValitJan.    'Ceak^  nirodni  Poklad.'    Prague,  188^«. 
Rrben,  K.  J.    '  Chansons  tch^ues  populairoa.'    Prague.  1886. 
BartoS,F.    'N&rodni  ptsne  moravskd.'    Brunn.  1889i 
Hruschka.  A.,  and  tolwher,   W.      'Deutsche  Volkdieder  aua 

BShmen.'    Pngue,  188L 
Swoboda.  'DltJ^  VlasU.  100 OeskM Niirodnioh  Plmi.'   Ptagne,  18BS. 
Heydok,  F.    *  SpoleSensky  ZpSvnik  ivakf.'    Prague.  1901. 

Hungary 

The  flonps!  i>f  Hungary  com  prise  boLli  tliou 
of  til©  Slovaks  and  tlie  MftgyarSj  but  the  miieic 


-  unpariteihe    JtfonoreM*  :    BSkmen  ; 
ar  Staven ;   (6)  Muttt  in  Bdhmm,  br 


SONG 


575 


of  the  Slovaks  who  inhabit  the  north -west 
part  of  the  Hungarian  kingdom  has  sach  a 
close  affinity  with  the  mnsio  of  the  Slavonic 
nations  that  it  requires  no  separate  notice. 
The  music  of  the  Magyars,^  which  is  generally 
accepted  as  the  national  music,  is  of  Oriental 
origin.  It  should  be  observed  that  the  Hun- 
garian language  has  nothing  in  common  with 
the  Indo-Germanic.  Together  with  the  Finnish, 
and  Turkish  (and  possibly  Basque)  languages, 
it  stands  isolated  in  Europe,  and  belongs  to  the 
Turanian  or  Ural-Altaic  family. 

Gipsy  music  also  plays  an  important  part  in 
Hungary,  but  it  must  be  clearly  understood 
that  Hungarian  music  is  quite  distinct  firom 
gipsy  music.  Indeed  the  gipsies  do  not  com- 
pose ;  they  simply  imitate  and  perform  the 
music  of  their  adopted  countries.  It  is  difficult 
to  discover  with  any  certainty  the  origin  of 
this  wandering  race  ;  but  they  are  supposed  to 
have  come  from  the  North- West  provinces  of 
India,  and  to  have  entered  Hungary  as  well  as 
other  parts  of  Europe  in  the  beginning  of  the 
15th  century.  It  has  been  pointed  out  that 
the  gipsies  flourish  most^  'among  the  Span- 
iards, Roumanians,  and  Hungarians,  where  the 
national  music  excels  in  originality,  fantastic 
rubaioSy  and  a  certain  rhapsodical  spirit.'  And 
it  is  a  recognised  fact,  that  although  the  same 
melodic  intervals  and  rhythmic  peculiarities 
occur  in  Tsigane  music  all  over  the  world,  it 
was  in  Hungary,  where  an  affinity  of  scale 
existed,  that  gipsy  music  reached  its  highest 
point.  Among  the  Magyar  gipsies — i,e,  those 
gipsies  who  live  among  the  Magyars  and  can 
speak  their  language,  the  songs  may  have  gipsy 
words,  but  the  actual  tune  and  rhythm  are 
Magyar.  Moreover,  the  gipsies  rarely  sing  and 
nearly  always  play  the  songs  of  other  nations, 
imparting  their  own  fire,  impetuosity,  and  em- 
bellishments to  the  music  of  their  adoption.^ 
It  is  often  difficult,  when  the  gipsies  play  the 
csdrddSy  verbunkos,  hcUlgcUda,  or  palatos  and  other 
dances,  to  recognise  the  original  folk-song  on 
which  they  are  based.  So  full  of  imagination 
are  they,  that  the  execution  of  the  extremely 
difficult  music  always  appears  to  be  spontaneous 
and  improvised.  It  delights  Hungarians  to 
hear  their  own  music  played  and  embellished 
by  these  wandering  musicians,  and  thus  it  was 
in  Hungary  that  gipsy  music  first  became  a 
recognised  factor  in  Art.  Many  composers, 
such  as  Haydn,  Hummel,  and  others,  loosely 
and  indiscriminately  employed  the  words  all* 
ongareae  and  cUla  zinga/nse,  sometimes  with 


1  The  origin  of  th«lrlangiias«  can  Iwrdly  be  traced  with  oerUintjr. 
HiingMlau  philologbta  are  divided;  the  'Oiientalirta'  a«Mrt  Its 
•Stinitj  with  the  Turoo-T^rtaiie  lansoageii,  while  the  'Flnniate' 
contend  that  it  belongB  to  the  Ugrie  branch  of  the  nnnleh  group. 
That  aome  llkenea  exists  between  the  Magyar  and  Finnish 
language  and  mosle  has  long  been  recognised. 

2  See  iratttmalUp  in  Mutte,  ¥.  Korbaj. 

'  TRie  tmegipsy  songs  are  never  sung  by  the  '  professional '  gipsy 
in  pnblie.  l%oae  songs  are  reserved  exclusively  for  themselves  in 
their  tented  wanderinn,  and  there  they  are  never  played  but 
always  sung.  See  Ardiduke  Joseph's  article  in  voL  vi  (UngarH) 
of  Die  Ottttmich.^ngaritcha  MonartMt^  1M2. 


one  meaning  and  sometimes  with  the  other. 
Likewise  Schubert,  Liszt,  and  Brahms,  when 
they  coloured  their  music  with  the  Hungarian 
character,  took  the  real  Magyar  folk-songs  with 
their  peculiar  rhythm  and  scale,  and  used  also 
thegrace-notes,  arabesques,  and  ornaments  which 
the  gipsies  had  added  to  the  melodies  with  such 
skill  that  they  had  become  an  essential  feature 
of  the  melody.  In  short,  it  is  clear  that 
although  the  gipsies  have  done  much  to  preserve 
the  folk-music  of  other  nations  by  imitation  and 
adoption,  they  cannot  be  regarded  as  creators  of 
national  music  in  any  strict  sense.  ^ 

As  in  other  countries,  so  in  Magyar-land,  the 
introduction  of  Christianity  was  followed  by  a 
burst  of  hymn-poetry.  But  so  strong  was  the 
national  feeling  that  the  hymns  were  sung 
even  in  the  churches  in  the  vernacular  instead 
of  Latin  ;  also  it  seems  that  the  ecclesiastical 
tonal  system  never  took  the  same  hold  of  the 
sacred  music  as  it  did  elsewhere.  A  few  of 
these  venerable  hymns  are  still  sung.  Such, 
for  instance,  is  one  sung  to  the  Vii^gin,  by 
Andreas  Vdsarheli  (printed  at  Nuremberg,  1484) 
and  another  to  King  Stephen,  the  patron  saint 
of  Hungary.  Again,  the  influence  of  the  Re- 
formation was  deeply  felt  both  in  music  and 
poetry  ;  and  there  arose  among  the  Protestants 
a  literature  of  hymn-music,  such  as  had  already 
been  stirred  among  the  Hungarian  Roman 
Catholics.  In  1560  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
forbade,  under  severe  penalties,  the  use  in 
Church  of  any  popular  Magyar  songs,  but  the 
old  collections  of  both  churches  offer  proof  that 
the  tunes  of  the  secular  songs  were  always  freely 
used,  set  either  to  Latin  or  Hungarian  sacred 
words. 

Further  evidence  of  the  cultivation  of  music 
in  the  16th  century  is  supplied  by  the  Hoff"- 
graff  collection'*  and  by  the  songs  of  Sebastian 
Tin6di,  both  published  by  G.  Matray  in  1859. 
Tin6di,  commonly  called  Sebastian  the  Lutenist, 
died  about  1559,  and  was  the  last  survivor  of 
Hungary's  wandering  minstrels.  His  *  Cronica, ' 
dedicated  to  King  Ferdinand,  contains  songs  of 
battles  lost  and  won,  of  the  joys  and  sorrows  of 
the  Magyar  people,  and  the  vicissitudes  of  their 
destiny.  Such  songs  being  truly  national  in 
their  spirit  soon  ponied  into  folk-songs,  and  are 
sung  at  this  day.<^  It  should  also  be  noticed 
that  dramatic  representations  interspersed  with 
songs  were  introduced  by  these  wandering  min- 
strels, harpists,  and  lutenists,  and  secured  a 
great  popidarity. 

Neither  in  the  17  th  nor  18  th  century  did  the 
development  of  music  keep  pace  with  that  of 
poetry,  except  in  sacred  lyrics.     The  diflerence 

*  For  further  infonnation  about  gipsy  musle.  see  Archduke 
Joseph's  article ;  Me  Mig«m»er*nUftgam,IHe  Oe$t»rreieh.-tmgari*aM 
itonardde,  toL  vl. ;  L.  A.  Smith,  Tknmth  Komaii9  Simif-Umd,  1889. 
p.  8«<  SB?.;  UmmI,  Die  gigemur  und  ikre  Muatk  In  Vngam,  Frees- 
burg.  1861. 

A  The  collection  contains  nineteen  songs,  chiefly  biblical  nanrntive 
songs,  by  K.  BaJnaJ.  M.  SsArUry.  M.  Tarjal.  A.  Fhrkas,  and  others. 

•  For  TinMl's  life  see  Aron  Sitlidy's  Mgi  Magyar  KStOk  nirci.  a 
recent  woric  on  old  Magyar  poets. 


on  the  other  is  curious  and  worthy  of  note. 
The  Roman  Catholic  melodies  were  of  a  florid 
and  ornamented  character,  with  passing  notes 
and  chromatic  intervals,  which  may  have  heen 
dne  to  the  instrumental  music  used  in  their 
churches.  But  the  Protestants  adhered  to 
severely  simple  melodies  in  the  style  of  Goudimel, 
for  a  time  at  least.  As  the  hymns  became  folk- 
songs, the  strong  national  rhythm  prevailed, 
and  changed  their  character.     Thus : — 


(a)  GoDDiMEU    Ptalmxvi. 


The  most  remarkable  feature,  both  of  the 
poetry  and  the  music  of  the  Hungarians,  is  the 
rhythm.  At  an  early  date  their  lyric  poetry 
shaped  itself  into  sharp  and  bold  strophical 
sections,  and  their  melodies  underwent  a  corre- 
sponding division  into  distinct  phrases  and 
periods.  Great  diversity  of  accents,  and  the 
unequal  length  of  the  lines,  impart  richness  and 
variety  to  the  musical  rhythm.  In  the  music 
of  some  nations  there  is  a  rhythmical  and 
metrical  sameness,  but  in  Hungarian  it  is  £u: 
more  varied.  The  prevailing  metrical  feet  are 
the  choriambus :  |  -  ^  ^  - 1  and  the  antispastus : 
jw — w|.      Most  tetrapodics   are   like    this: 

constantly  three  or  even  five  and  seven-bar 
rhythms  are  met  with.  The  correct  accentua- 
tion and  phrasing  of  Hungarian  music  is  closely 
interwoven  with  the  language.  Every  first 
syllable  has  an  emphasis  of  its  own,  whether 
short,  as  in  £x.  2,  or  long,  as  in  £x«  3,  and 


eta 


Ex.  S. 

Far  and  High  the  Cranes  give  Cry, 


etc. 


hence  the  reason  why  no  song  begins  with  the 
up-beat.^     The  constant  recurrence  of  syncopa- 

1  F.  KorlMor.  S^atkmaHtp  in  Mutle. 


the  Hungarian  method  of  hannoniaing  the 
airs  is  peculiar,  for  where  the  Germans  would 
employ  '  contnuy  motion '  they  prefer  '  direct.' 
Aj^,  the  scales  in  which  the  songs  fall 
are  very  varied  ;  numerous  instances  of  the 
Dorian  and  Phiygian  modes  occur,  nor  are 
the  augmented  seconds  in  the  minor  scale  so 
prevalent  as  is  generally  believed.  In  many, 
however,  the  tonality  is  most  curious,  such  as 

Ex.  4. 


The  following  example  begins  with  the  peculiar 
'  call '  found  in  many  Hungarian  songs  * :  — 

Ex.5. 


Long  patue. 


^iS^^^^SJ&nJJJj'jj 


All  Hungarian  music  has  a  strongly  indi- 
vidual character.  Its  abrupt  transition  from 
deep  melancholy  to  wild  merriment,  its  varia- 
tions of  tempo,  its  richly  applied  csesuras, 
constant  ^  on  different  beats  of  the  bar,  its 
uneicpected  modulations,  and  its  many  peculiari- 
ties, both  melodic  and  rhythmic,  give  to  it  the 
charm  of  distinctive  originality.  A  few  bare 
of  this  beautiful  folk-song  ^  will  suffice  to  indi- 
cate the  characteristics  hero  named. 

Ex.  e. 
Slow.  ^ 


The  time  of  Hungarian  national  airs,  whether 
songs  or  dances,  is  mostly  2-4.  Triple  and 
compound  time  are  rare,  excepting  5-4  or  5-8, 
or  7-4  and  7-8,  of  which  many  examples  may 
be  found  in  any  collection.  The  Hungarians 
are  rich  in  their  historic  ballads  relating  to 
national  events.  For  instance,  during  the 
Rakoczy  period  the  celebrated  and  sturdy 
Kurutzen  songs,  or  old  Crusaders'  songs,  were  re- 
vived  and  widely  sung^  (see  Rakoczv  Mabch). 
The  ballads  from  the  Szekler  district  are  very 
old  ;  they  are  mostly  sad  and  simple,  as  may 
be  seen  from  this  example.^ 

*  Olvm  by  MU  BartAk.  An  •xanlmtSon  of  anj  good  oollecUiw 
of  thoM  folk-«oogi  would  wore  the  tnith  o<  the  »bov«  remarks. 

s  Ckltod  *  Antamn'  in  J.  KApper**  '  Sonfi  of  BMtena  Europe.' 

«  Jultna  KAIdy  paldbhcd  In  fsQS  about  thfitv  *  Uedweiaen  aos 
der  ThflkAly-  und  Bakoosl-nit.'  under  the  title  of '  KamtMatlcder/ 

<  Tbia  «raa  taken  down  from  the  llpa  of  the  peaaaata  hy  th« 
anthuslaBUe  folk-aong  ooUeetor,  IMU  Bart^k. 


SONG 


577 


Many  districts  have  kept  strictly  to  their 
own  special  songs  ;  and  have  jealously  excluded 
any  outside  influence  or  innovation.  Such 
are  the  above-named  Szekler  ballads,  the  oldest 
and  the  most  beautiful  of  the  national  Hun- 
garian songs ;  or  the  Puszten  songs,  in  which 
the  true  Magyar  peasant  life  is  reflected,  and 
the  Betyar  songs.  The  different  classes  of 
songs  also  fall  into  clearly  distinct  sets,  such 
as  love  and  wedding  songs,  drinking,  soldiers*, 
peasants',  funeral,  and  satirical  songs,  all  of 
which  M.  Jokai  has  described  in  an  interest- 
ing manner.^ 

The  excitable  temperament  and  sensitive 
organisation  of  the  Hungarian  render  him 
keenly  susceptible  to  the  refinements  of  melody 
and  rhythm  ;  to  those  qualities  he  owes  also 
his  wealth  of  poetry  and  songs,  which  are  of 
unsurpassed  beauty  as  regards  national  music. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  exclusiveness  with 
which  he  clings  to  his  own  music  and  his 
neglect  of  the  music  of  other  countries  has 
proved  a  hindrance  to  the  progress  of  his 
musical  cultivation.  The  list  of  Hungarian 
composers  does  not  present  many  celebrated 
names  until  we  reach  the  19  th  century. 

The  first  national  opera  ('Bala's  Flight') 
was  written  in  1823  by  Ruzsicska,  and  though 
a  slight  work  it  contained  some  songs  which 
immediately  became  popular.  Heinisch  and 
Bartay  followed,  but  the  first  unmistakably 
successful  opera  was  Franz  Erkel's  'Maria 
Bathori,*  given  in  1840,  with  words  by  the 
famous  Benjamin  Egressy ;  and  Erkel  may 
with  justice  be  designated  as  the  creator  of 
the  Hungarian  national  opera.  Erkel  was 
also  a  prolific  composer  of  songs,  some  of  which 
were  embodied  in  his  operas ;  and  he  was  the 
author  of  the  Hungarian  national  hymn.  Other 
successful  writers  of  opera  were  F.  and  E. 
Doppler,  Beyer,  K.  Huber,  Szerdahelyi,  A. 
Erkel,  G.  Os^dr,  and  most  of  these  composers 
freely  used  their  country's  folk-songs.  More- 
over, there  is  a  specifically  Hungarian  form  of 
drama  called  the  folk -play  (Volkschauspiel), 
the  matter  for  which  is  taken  from  the  domestic 
life  of  the  people,  and  its  music  consists  entirely 
of  folk-songs  and  folk-dances.  £.  Szigligetti 
was  the  originator  of  this  form,  and  J.  Szerda- 
helyi, Ig.  Bognar,  Jul.  Kdldy,  Jul.  Erkel, 
A.  Nikolits  and  others  have  contributed  to 
establish  it.     These  folk-plays  have  at  least 

1  Dt*  (M«n^>«c».HMvarMk«  JfomtrcM»  iUngam),  voL  L  p.  847. 
VOL.  IV 


served  to  rescue  many  beautifol  melodies  from 
oblivion. 

Among  the  song- writers  of  the  19th  century, 
who  adhered  to  the  national  school,  the  best- 
known  names  are  Michael  Mosonyi^  and  his 
pupils,  the  two  Erkels  and  £.  Mihalovich. 
The  Magyar  songa  of  this  last-mentioned  com- 
poser are  more  especially  beautiful  and  poetical. 
B^la  M.  V^olgyi  is  also  worthy  of  notice  on 
account  of  the  originality  and  popularity  of  his 
songs  entitled  *  Szerelmi  dalok ' ;  and  not  less 
worthy  of  notice  is  his  valuable  collection  of 
national  airs  under  the  title  of  *N^pdal- 
gyongyok.'  Other  names  may  be  cited,  such  as 
E,  Sz^kely,  Cornel,  L.  Zimay,  K.  Huber,  Abrinyi 
senior  (ids  ballads  are  essentially  Hungarian), 
E.  Bartay,  K  Mo6r,  S.  Bartalus,  and  V.  Langer, 
whose  song-cycle  '  dgyek's  songs '  is  especially 
noteworthy.  Benjamin  Egressy  likewise  main- 
tained a  great  popularity  among  the  peasants 
and  burghers  during  the  first  half  of  the  19th 
century.  His  songs  may  be  found  in  every 
national  collection,  together  with  those  of 
E.  Szentirmay,  Limbay,  Simonffy,  Erkel,  Hor- 
v4th,  Fiiredy,  Janko,  Bolla,  Zagonyi,  etc. 

F.  Korbay's  songs,  either  original  or  arranged, 
are  well  known  in  England.  In  the  two  volumes 
entitled  'Hungarian  Songs,'  and  the  volume 
of  'Twelve  Magyar  Songs,'  Korbay  has  taken 
some  of  the  most  beautiful  songs  of  his  country,^ 
to  which  he  has  added  skilful  and  interesting 
accompaniments,  keeping  the  while  true  to  the 
national  characteristics  of  harmony  and  rhythm. 
Some  of  the  songs  included  are  of  Slavonic  origin, 
as  for  instance^  'Azt  mondjik  nem  adnak.' 
Neither  Yolkmann  (Hungarian  by  adoption) 
nor  Goldmark  has  added  much  to  song  literature, 
though  both  have  incorporated  the  spirit  of  the 
national  songs  in  their  instrumental  works. 

The  greatest  Hungarian  song-writer  is  Franz 
Liszt ;  although  considering  the  fact  that  the 
larger  number  of  his  songs  have  German  texts 
they  would  be  more  accurately  classed  as 
belonging  to  the  German  school.  Moreover,  the 
national  elements — the  Magyar  rhythms  and 
melodies,  and  the  gipsy  ornaments  which  abound 
in  his  instrumental  music — are,  with  two  excep- 
tions— 'Farewell*  and  the  'Three  Gipsies' — 
absent  &om  his  vocal  music.  ^ 

Among  Hungarian  song- writers  of  the  present 
day,  Emil  Abranyi,  Pista  Dank6,  B^la  Bart6k, 
and  Emo  Lanyi  stand  on  a  high  level.  Many, 
such  as  Erdilyi,  Bartalus,  Kdldy,  Bognai-, 
Bart6k  and  others,  have  devoted  their  time  to 
exploring,  collecting,  arranging,  and  publishing 

>  HI*  real  name  «m  M idiul  Bnndt 

>  Amonatthemwrenl  by  BlemteSieiitinnAj,  Benjamin  EgrsMy, 
Flliedy,  Kalman  de  Simonfly,  ate 

*  (Vol.  L  NOb  13.)  Bven  among  the  ooUectlone  of  trne  Manar 
■ongi  unmietakable  Slavonic  melodies  are  to  be  foinid.  Tbe 
asternal  eTldflmce  of  their  origin  may  lie  in  the  leeaatrongly  marked 
rhyUima,  the  flattened  aeventhe  and  the  absenoe  of  augmented 
Interrala,  bat  alao  it  ia  clearly  shown  in  the  whtde  character  of  the 
■one.  Compare,  for  inetanoe.  the  above-mentioned  long,  vol.  i.  Na  13 
of  Korbay'e  •  Hungarian  Songi.' '  No.  they  my,'  with  Vo.  8  of  the 
lame  volume—'  Far  and  high  the  cmoee  give  cry.' 

»  For  detailed  deecriptions  aee  Liux :  also  Vogel'B  away  imbUihed 
by  Kahnt.  Leipaig,  1887,  and  FindL'a  8oti(f$  and Bonff-WrUen. 

2p 


greatly  assistea  by  the  Aistaludy  society,  wnicn 
was  fonned  for  the  express  purpose.  The  Baaber 
collection,  which  is  still  appearing,  must  also 
be  named. 

BiBUOOKArHY 

Uot,  F.  IH»  gIgmuuT  «mm{  ttr«  Mu$tk  in  Unffom.  PrMbnis,  1861. 

IH0  OutamtehUeh'Uitffartaehe  MonariMe :  toL  i.  ( Uiiffom)  eontalni, 
DU  Jtanortaeke  roUttdiehtuHg,  by  M.  Jokai ;  Die  %mgaHteKe 
PaitutfmuOt  und  cite  roUuUed0r,  tr  8.  BarUlus.    1888. 

Vol.  m.  DU  KtrekUehg  Mutik,  by  B.  Bartiaiu,  and  Me  WetOMU 


■  ooUeettoiu  of  aonga  ars  given 


JlveUt,  b/  Julius  Kildy. 
(Detailed  aoooouto  of  1 

In  the  aboTe  articles.) 
Sonbios^A.    nongrte.    (MUt.  de  la  Muetque),  raxia,  18016. 
Korbay.  F.    NaUvHoUtp  <n  Muele. 
Dr.  Frenel's  aoconnt  of  Hungarian  moatc  In  vol.  zxzrl.  of  the 

Neue  JteUaekrift  /Br  Mtutk,  and  the  article  on  llagTar  mnale 

la  this  Dictionary. 

(The  writer  also  owes  her  wannest  thanks  to  H.  B<la  Bart6k  tar 
information,  and  for  examples  tromhls  MB.  collection  of  fbUc-eonga.) 

COLUKTnOVB 

Matray.G.  '  Ifsgyarn^pdalcA,  etc.'  Boda-Pest,  180 
Fllxedl.  H.  'lOOMsgfarN^al.'  Bnda-Fest.  1808. 
Butalus.  8.    'The  Hmigarliui  Orpheus.'    180B.    (A  oollection  of 

18th  and  19th  oentnry  music,  containing  many  old  ftdkHnngs 

from  the  Adam  Palood-Horvath  Ha) 


Bartalus,  8.    '  Magyar  n^pdalok.'    (7  vols.) 

OyArfly.J.    'BO  Magyar  n^pdal,  etc.'    Bnda-Pest»  187L 

Lasslo,  Araay.    'Magyar  n«pk61tM  gyuJtAndny.'     Boda-Peet, 


1899.8L 

FOldes,  J.,  and  Demeter.  B.    *  BmMk.'    Buda-Pest.  187S. 
Kalmany,  I^    '  Saeged  ntoe.'    Antdon,  1881-82, 188S. 
OoU,  J.     '  Enektan  polfflri  iskoUk.'    Buda-Pest.  18BM8. 
Bamemisma.  T.    '  100  Bordal.  etc.'    Bnda-Pest,  1888. 
Beig«r- Henderson, Mme.  'Album  of  16  Hungarian  Songs.'  London. 

DeAk.O.'  'DaloskAnyvKMdsharomsi61amu.eta'  Bnda-Pest,  18QS. 
KAldy,  O.  '8ohItaederaltenungHriaohenMusik'(167S-1888).  Btuia- 

Pest,18e9. 
VagvOlgyl.  B.  M.    'N^pdalgyOngrOk.' 
Blem^r,  Llmfaay,  BoUa  O..  and  NemesoTlts.  B.     'Magyar  dal 

Album.'    Bnda-Pest. 
Korbay,  F.    '  Hungarian  Songs '  and '  12  Msgyar  Songs.' 
Usd6,Kftn.    'lOOSN^pdalok.^  (Still  appearing).  1905.    « A  Magyar 

DaL'    BudarPMt,  S  toIs.  1906-7. 
Palotaey.  O.    '  101  Legsiebb  Magyar  Nepdal.'    Bnda-Pest. 

Finland 

Finland  (Finnish  Suamt)  ia  'the  land  of  a 
thousand  lakes/  vast  stretches  of  moors,  deep 
silent  woods,  and  long  dark  winters.  These 
elements  and  scenery  are  reflected  in  the 
gloomy,  mystical,  fantastic  yet  monotonous 
poetry  and  music  of  the  in -dwellers.  No 
country  is  more  poetic  than  Finland,  as  the 
JCcUevala  proves.  This  glorious  national  epic 
of  nearly  23,000  verses  has  been  transmitted 
from  generation  to  generation  from  long  past 
ages.  The  Finns  also  possess  a  very  large 
quantity  of  lyric  songs  and  ballads ;  and  to 
Elias  L5nnrot  (who  died  in  1884)  the  credit  is 
due  for  having  given  the  nation  these  two 
treasures  in  a  collected  form :  the  national 
epics  which  form  the  Kalevala  and  the  collection 
of  lyrics  which  are  entitled  the  KdnUletar, 

The  Finnish  language,  a  branch  of  the 
Finnish -Ugric  stem,  is  peculiarly  melodious 
and  lull  of  open  vowels.  The  verse  metre  is 
simple,  and  consists  mostly  of  trochees,  four 
times  repeated — the  last  foot  being  lengthened 
in  order  to  mark  the  close  of  the  line : 

h11w&  I  kell5  I  kaiiwiU  |  kuiiluh 
This  is  the  usual  explanation  of  the  five-beat 
rhythm  in  the  music,  which  is  the  commonest 
in  the  old  Finnish  songs  or  runosj^ 

1  JSime  or  rumaloMlua  means  'air'  or  'ballad,'  and  has  nothing 
to  do  with  the  Anglo-Saxon  runet  or  runic  wtlting-stones. 


KKwy  kaaky  tai.wa  haa-ta,  KKwy  kaaky  tal-wa  has-ta, 

Kalkan  luoodon  Hal-dl  al-da,  Kalken  Inondoa  Haldl  al-da.  < 
Ex.  2.  RUNO. 


Ar-ma  •  ha-nl   as*te  - 


.d,  as-U 


and  it  is  clear  that  in  aiming  to  make  these 
melodies  agree  with  their  poetry  the  irregular 
and  unsymmetrical  5-  or  7-time  did  not  appear 
to  the  Finns  either  forced  or  unnatural. 

As  in  all  other  national  music,  the  musical 
instruments  are  closely  connected  with  the 
melodies  of  the  country.  In  Finland  the  oldest 
and  most  popular  instrument  is  the  kanUle^  a 
kind  of  lyre  or  harp  with  live  copper  strings 
tuned  g,  a,  &b>  c,  d,  on  which  five  notes  a 
large  mass  of  the  old  rvno  melodies  are  formed 
(see  above  example).  These  melancholy  and 
monotonous  runolaulua,  characterised  by  con- 
stant repetition,  are  usually  accompanied  by 
the  kantele.  Mention  is  made  in  the  Kalevala 
of  this  instrument  being  used  to  accompany 
the  songs  ;  also  of  the  *  sighing  verses '  which 
in  the  JRuno  songs  are  a  refrain  of  actual  realistic 
sobbing  sighs.  Dance  tunes  also  adhere  to  the 
kantele  intervals,  and  at  the  same  time  to  the 
song-rhythms,  as: — 

Bx.  8. 


Some  writers,'  however,  deny  that  this  instru- 
ment had  so  great  an  influence  on  the  old 
Finnish  tunes,  and  contend  that  as  vocal  music 
is  older  than  instrumental,  it  is  more  probable 
that  the  melodies  were  based  on  the  pentatonio 
scale.  A  further  proof  of  this  theory  is  that 
the  Finnish-Ugric  race  is  of  Asiatic  origin. 

The  KatUeUtar  is  a  large  collection  of  lyrics 
and  ballads.  These  songs  reflect  the  restrained 
melancholy  of  the  national  character  ;  they  are 
full  of  deep  feeling  and  tenderness,  and  absol- 
utely natural  and  spontaneous.  A  few  of  these 
lyric  songs  are  to  be  found  in  5-time,  though 
this  time  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  old  sacred 
folk-songs,  and  more  especially  to  the  ancient 
runo  melodies.     In  common  with  other  folk- 

*  nmarl  Kmhn.  In  an  artlde  entitled  De  la  mtmm  rl  t*nq  tempt 
dane  la  mnutqve  populaire  ftnnotae,  Sammelbdnde  of  the  Int.  Mas. 
Ge*.  it  1. 1900.  oonsldsrB  that  the  above  example  (whl^  Is  a  type 
of  the  Kalevata  melodies)  is  wrongly  noted,  and  snggests  two  altei^ 
native  metrical  schemes. 

>  See  Bngel,  Jntroduetkm  U  the  Studg  tf  JratUmal  jrk<fr.  p.  89 
ettet. 


SONG 


679 


songs  of  Western  Europe,  some  of  the  Finnish 
melodies  have  their  basis  in  the  ecclesiastical 
modes  ;  but  there  are  traces  of  an  older,  and  as 
yet  unfathomed  and  unexplained  tonal  influence 
which  giyes  a  peculiar  interest  to  the  music 
of  this  country.  Those  which  come  from  the 
southern  part  of  Finland,  where  nature  is  less 
severe,  possess  a  certain  idyllic  cheerfulness, 
and  many  which  are  sung  along  the  coast  are 
undoubtedly  of  Scandinavian  origin.  These 
melodies  range  over  a  wider  compass,  the  rhythm 
is  more  varied,  and  they  are  usually  in  common 
or  triple  time,  and  more  often  than  not  in  our 
modem  tonality  * ; — 
Ex.  4. 


Taonon  bwten  Uo-l»-tal-U  nuuian  n«i-to- j«n    pl-d*l-li. 


The  herdsmen's  songs  (Paimen  loiloUamiu),  as 
in  Scandinavia,  are  numerous.  They  are  closely 
akin  to  the  notes  of  the  herdsman's  pipe,  and 
of  no  detinite  form  in  tune  or  words. 

Between  the  12th  and  14th  centuries,  Sweden 
took  possession  of,  and  christianised  Finland, 
but  it  was  only  in  towns  and  at  Court  that 
the  Swedish  language  was  used.  Finland  has 
always  been  an  apple  of  discord  between  Sweden 
and  Russia,  and  the  perpetual  wars  hindered 
this  country's  artistic  development  Finally, 
since  early  in  the  last  century  (1809),  when  it 
was  conquered  by  Russia,  strenuous  efforts  to- 
wards its  complete  Russification  have  never 
ceased.  It  is,  however,  highly  improbable  that 
Russia  will  ever  succeed  in  taking  away  from 
Finland  her  own  peculiar  character  and  culture. 
Her  national  poetry  and  songs  have  long  stood 
alone  and  aloof,  independent  of  foreign  bondage 
and  influence. 

The  modem  history  of  music  in  Finland 
begins  early  in  the  19th  century,  when  F. 
Pacius  and  B.  Orasell,  both  Germans  by  birth, 
settled  there.  By  using  Finnish  folk-songs  in 
their  works,  and  taking  the  words  of  Finnish 
poets,  such  as  Runeberg,  Qvanten,  Topelius, 
etc. ,  for  their  national  songs  and  hymns,  they 
awoke  the  spirit  of  patriotism  in  Finland,  and 
hence  have  been  justly  called  the  fathers  of 
Finnish  music.  Pacius,  who  died  at  a  great 
age  in  1891,  wrote  many  fresh  and  effective 
songs,  but  his  name  will  live  for  having  given 
Finland  her  national  hymns:  *Our  Country* 
('  Vart  Land ')  and  *  Finland's  Song '  (*  Suomen 
laulu '),  which  every  Finn  knows  and  sings  firom 
his  childhood.     (See  Ex.  5.) 

His  son-in-law,  Karl  Kollan,  wrote  also  patri- 
otic songs  in  the  peculiar  march-like  rhythm 
which  is  popular  in  Finland.     Cmsell  was  a 

1  For  aome  of  the  moiit  bcMxUfnl,  Me  O.  Hltgg'a  oollectlon, 
*  Soreixnmat  Solimnt  Saomeeta.' 


F.  Pacius. 


prolific  and  favourite  composer,  but  his  melodies 
are  commonplace.  E.  Greve,  L.  Bergstrom,  M. 
Wegelius,  Ph.  von  Schantz,  G.  Wasenius,  F. 
Ehrstrom,  £.  Flodin,  S.  Lins^n,  H.  Borenius, 
R.  Faltin,  and  a  younger  generation  which  in- 
cludes 0.  Merikanto  (a  very  popular  but  some- 
what shallow  writer),  O.  Katilainen,  P.  Hanni- 
kainen,  and  S.  Palingren  all  belong,  more  or 
less,  to  the  same  school  of  song- writers.  Whilst 
introducing  many  of  the  old  Finnish  folk-songs 
into  their  works,  and  choosing  the  words  of 
Finnish  poets  for  their  songs,  the  music  practi- 
cally belongs  to  the  German  Mendelssohn-Spohr 
period,  and  cannot  in  any  sense  be  called  racial. 

The  true  national  period  of  Finnish  music 
begins  with  R.  Eajanus.  Imbued  with  the 
classic-romantic  traditions,  yet  heart  and  soul 
a  Finn,  Kajanus  drew  his  inspirations  from  the 
Kalevala,  and  did  much  to  originate  and  stimu- 
late interest  in  his  countiy's  music.  But  the 
actual  representative  of  Finnish  music  is  Jean 
Sibelius.  His  art  reflects  the  grave  and  austere 
beauty  of  Finland's  scenery  and  poetry,  and  ex- 
presses the  inner  life  of  the  people — the  despair- 
ing and  passionate  struggles  and  yearnings, 
the  childlike  simplicity  and  proud  melancholy. 
Hence  the  worship  Sibelius  evokes  among  his 
countrymen,  and  his  power  and  influence  over 
his  young  disciples.  His  songs,  whilst  original, 
dramatic,  and  powerful,  are  the  true  counter- 
part of  the  Furnish  folk-song.  Essentially 
modem  in  feeling,  yet  Sibelius  uses  frequently 
the  old,  simple  scale,  limited  harmony,  and 
the  curious  uneven  rhythm  of  the  folk-songs. 
One  of  his  most  beautiful  songs,  with  a  modal 
melody,  is  '  Men  min  Fogel  marks  dock  icke ' ; 
'Svarta  Rosar'  ('Black  Roses')  is  effective; 
and  *  Atinares  Sang,'  perhaps  the  best  known, 
is  a  fine  war -song  in  march -rhythm.  If 
Sibelius  be  the  lyric  and  dramatic  representa- 
tive of  Finnish  music,  A.  Jarnefelt  may  be 
called  the  epic.  He  has  written  many  songs, 
but  it  is  the  peculiarly  national  ballad -lUce 
feeling  in  his  orchestral  works  which  arrests 
attention.  Mention  must  also  be  made  of 
Ilmari  Krohn  and  E.  Melartin  (bom  in  1875), 
whose  songs  are  of  distinct  merit. 

The  enthusiasm,  patriotism,  sseal,  and  activity 
of  the  younger  generation  of  composers,  com- 
bined with  the  keen  interest  and  research  by 
students  and  historians  among  the  national 


BlBUOOBAPBY 

VOtf  dU  JinnUeke  Mudk  (Netu  Zettaekrift  f.  MtuBt),  voL  xxxlr. 

p.  aO0u    L«ip>ig.  1851. 
VUMn.  K.    Die  Sutwtckttttmg  der  MuaOt  in  FhuOand  [Dla  Muaik, 

Jahnunz  U.) 
Krdm,  llinari.    Zto  te  fiMmrv  d  5  tompatiaiu  to  «n«i<(tMjMgNilalr« 

Fhumtae.    aammMArtde,  I.M.O.  L  ISOO. 
MendeL    itus.  UxOon. 

WUIibratMl.  M.  tod.    ftnlamde  «n  X/Xmt  SlhAe.    Pluia,  190a 
Podor.  H.    MuT  QtmMOtU  dtr  Mutik  in  Flnnland.    8ammMdnd0, 

LSLO..  II.  1.  1900. 
(The  writer  ia  alw  indebted  to  Dr.  Ilmarl  Krohn  for  hia  kind 

CouncnoKa 
BchrMer.    '  Finniiche  Rosen.'    Btattffwt,  IBM. 
KoHan,  K.,  and  Bcinhohn.  A.     'Soomen  Kanaan  Laatastoja, 

HeMngfon.  18« ;  and '  YalitnlU  gnnnnalaWa  Kanaan-LMloJn. 

HeUingfon,  18B4. 
nbers,  F.  V.    •Siumudaiain  Kanaan-Laolnja  Ja  Soetelniln.*    Hd- 

alngfon,  1887. 
Borenina.  A.,  and  Unadn,  O.      'Bnrnnalaiaia  Kanaan-lAnlnJa.' 

HelaJngfora,  IfflO. 
Krobn,  Ilmari.    '  Uuala  SnoaalaiBia  KamaDlaalnJa.'   Hdaingfora, 

1888. 
Lflfua,  B.     'NyUndaka  Folkvlaor'  (9  parte).    HeUngfora,  1887- 


KaJanna,  B.    '  Snoman  Kanaan  aKvelinlS.'    Helatngfon, 

•Soomen  Kanaan  flilTelmia'  (Helodlea  of  the  Flnnlafa  People). 

tbrae  aeriea,  pnbllahed  b^  the  Flnniah  Literary  Society  ^  at  Hel- 

atngfon:  lat  aexlea.  'HengelllaUt  SKvelmU'  (Sacred  Ifelodlei). 


1808  (atill  in  progreaa);  2nd  aeriea,  'KanaanlanluJa'  (Popolar 
Songs),  1888;  Srd  aeriea,  'Kanaantanaaeja'  (PopaUr  Danoea), 
1888  (complete  with  Qerman  lutroduoUon).    The  whole  work 


ia  edited  hy  I.  Krohn. 
:.  O.    '  Soreimroat  Solnnut 
'    i).190«. 


Songs),  1888;  Srd  aeriea,  'Kanaantanaaeja'  (Popalar 
-         "  n).    ^ 

Stockholm  (Bth  edl* 

Scandinavia 

To  this  group  belong  Sweden,  Norway, 
Denmark,  parts  of  Finland,  Iceland,  and  the 
adjacent  islands.  There  is  a  great  affinity 
between  the  Scandinavian  languages.  At  the 
present  time  Danish  is  the  language  of  the 
educated  class  in  Norway,  although  it  has  a 
harder  pronunciation.^  And  in  an  article 
written  early  in  the  last  century,  entitled 
Alie  Volksmelodien  des  Nordens,^  it  was  pointed 
out  that  the  Swedish  songs  only  difTereid  from 
the  Danish  in  dialect  and  not  in  language. 
Danish  is  also  as  much  spoken  as  Norwegian  in 
the  Faroe  Islands,^  where  also  many  Icelandic 
and  Danish  songs  are  heard. 

The  poetry  of  Scandinavia  is  peculiarly  rich 
in  ballads,  legends,  and  tales  of  ancient  and 
mediseval  warriors  on  sea  or  land — the  heroic- 
epic  element  being  abundant,  while  the  lyric 
element  plays  little  part  except  in  the  refrains 
to  the  ballads.  The  Scandinavians  have  always 
been  a  music -loving  nation,  but  not  until 
comparatively  recent  times  have  systematic 
collections  of  their  folk -music  been  made.^ 
Collectors  have  found  great  difficulty  in  taking 
down  the  music  of  the  Kampainsor,^  owing  to 
the  free  declamatory  way  in  which  they  were 
sung.     The  formal  melody  occurs  only  in  the 

1  Suomalatten  KirJalUsuuden  aeura.  Dr.  Dmari  Krohn  aaya 
that  this  publication,  which  Is  still  in  progreaa,  will,  when  com- 
pleted, be  the  fullest  and  moat  aystematlo  collection. 

s  Chambers's  JrneyetonacUa,  1891  edition. 

s  AUfi.  Mia.  MeUttng,  No.  3S.  August  18.  1818. 

*  roMf.  Dtehtung  und  Oemmg  tuif  den  F&rdtm,  aammM&nde  of 
the  J.M.Gt,  III.  pt.  11.  190S.  H.  Thuren. 

•  T.  Norlind,  In  hla  History  nf  Swedtth  MuHe,  speaks  of  certein 
isolated  collections,  aoch  aa  'Petri  Piae  Cantionea,'  dated  1082, 
which  contains  folk-songs  written  in  parte  to  sacred  words.  He 
nils  attention  especially  to  the  melodious  'School  and  Spring 

the  heroic  epic  folk -poetry  or  ballads  of  the  Middle 


Songa.' 
•^t  is. 


Agea    The  wandering  players  called  LMarar  (or  In  modem  Danish 

" ifesRjr--' • -■ — ' -•" — "" 

peri*   . 

aa  honoured  gneste  of  the  northern  kings  and  nobles. 


ligmn)  ware  the  profesRional  ^raaerrera  or 
navian music  at  that] 


spreadeni '  of 
lod,  and  are  mentioned  In  the  old  chronicles 


doubtedly  of  very  ancient  origin,  forms  an 
important  part  of  northern  songs.  ^  It  may  be 
a  line  at  the  end  of  each  verse,  used  to  strengthen 
the  meaning  of  the  poem,  or  a  line  interpolated 
in  the  middle  of  the  verse  corresponding  with 
its  contents;  or  it  may  contain  satirical  or 
contemptuous  remarks  sung  by  a  chorus ;  or 
it  may  only  concern  the  reciter,  applauding  and 
encouraging  him.''  Musically  the  Omkvad  was 
the  most  important  part  of  the  song,  and 
remained  always  intact  and  unvaried,  whereas 
the  actual  song  was  often  improvised  or  changed 
according  to  the  solo-singer's  desire.  In  the 
Faroe  Mands,  for  instance,  the  old  ballads  are 
still  sung  to  the  mediaeval  dances,  and  collectors 
often  find  variants  in  the  songs  themselves, 
whilst  the  refrains  are  identical  in  every  part 
of  the  islands.  The  Omkvad  naturally  influ- 
ences both  the  form  and  harmony  of  the  songs. 
It  necessitates  the  extension  or  repetition  of 
a  musical  phrase,  and  sometimes  a  change  of 
time  and  accent,  which  impart  a  great  freedom 
of  form  to  the  Scandinavian  songs.  Again,  if 
the  song  be  in  the  minor,  the  Omkvad  would 
be  in  the  major,  or  vice  versa  ;  also  if  the  song 
be  sung  as  a  solo,  or  in  unison,  the  Omkv&d  is 
most  frequently  sung  in  parts. 


Ex.  1. 


Och  Jwmgfrun. 


Oeh,  Jnngfmn  hon  sknl-le  alg  At     ot-te  aftn-gen  g&; 
Oh!  the  maiden  ahe  hnrrlea        to        erensong; 
»  Omkvad. 


But  i  wot  that    aorxow  is  heavy. 


These  refrains  are  universal  in  Scandinavian 
songs,  and  occur  as  often  in  other  forms  as  in 
the  Kampavisor, 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  (and  has  been  briefly 
alluded  to  in  several  sections  of  this  article) 
that  some  of  the  most  famous  folk-songs  of 
different  countries  are  founded  on  the  same 
subject,  whether  it  be  a  legendary  or  historical 
event,  or  an  incident  of  ordinary  life.  The 
accessories  of  course  vary,  and  impart  a  local 
colouring  to  each  version  of  the  song,  but  the 
central  theme  is  in  all  the  same.  In  like 
manner  the  same  tunes  are  the  property  of 

"1  Om (German  vm)* round, about;  ffwsd --song, singing,  'qnoth.* 
*  Jamieaon,  In  his  Popvlar  BdUadt  and  Bongt,  Edinboigh.  1808, 
reniaika :  '  In  our  andent  aonga  equally  remarkable  and  incompiw- 
hensible  Omqvadg  occur.' 

»  Geijer  contends  In  bia  Ihentka  /bl»-«laor.  p.  290,  that  the 
Omk9ad0  had  no  other  signincance  than  that  the  extemporlser  of 
the  song  or  the  listener  ubould  use  them  to  gain  time— the  one  to 
produce  hia  own  thoughto,  and  the  other  to  remember  what  he 
hadjoatheaitl. 


SONG 


581 


different  countries.^  Their  identity  may  not, 
perhaps,  be  detected  at  first,  beneath  the 
disguises  in  which  it  is  enveloped  by  national 
varieties  of  scale  and  rhythm  and  harmony ; 
but  it  is  certain  that  closer  examination  would 
establish  many  relationships  hitherto  unsus- 
pected. An  especially  strong  affinity  exists 
between  the  English,  Scotch,  Welsh,  German, 
and  Scandinavian  folk-poetry.  This  interesting 
subject,  which  is  well  worth  separate  study, 
can  only  be  dwelt  on  shortly,  and  a  few  examples 
given.  Ge^er  in  his  *Svenska  Folk -visor* 
quotes  three  lines  of  a  Norwegian  folk-song, 
also  heard  in  Wermland  and  Smaland — 

M&nan  sklnar  (the  moon  shines), 
Dodman  rider  (dead  men  rideX 
Ar  da  inte  radder  an,  Bolla? 

(Are  you  not  afraid  thereof,  BoUaT) 


which 
ballad  s 


corres{)ond    to    the    (rerman    Lenore 

Der  Mond  scheint  so  helle, 
Die  Todten  reiten  schnelle, 
Feins  Liebchen  1  grant  Dir  nicht? 

Geger  also  gives  the  Swedish  version  of  the 
legend  of  the  Swimmer,^  the  classical  story  of 
Hero  and  Leander,  which  has  a  local  habitation 
in  Holland,  Germany  ('  Ach  Elslein '),  Russia, 
etc.  '  The  Jolly  Beggar '  of  Scotland  is  identical 
with  the  *  Bettlerlied  *  still  sung  in  many  parts 
of  Germany  and  Sweden.*  The  *  Edward' 
ballad  as  given  in  Percy's  Bdiquea  Ib  the 
well-known  Swedish  <Sven  i  Rosengard,'  the 
Danish  'Svend  i  Rosensgaard,'  and  the  Finnish 
'Welisurmaaja.'* 
Ex.  2. 


giird?     Jag    bv        Tm-rlt     i      sUllet.    KK  ■  r»  moder 
-  garden  T     I      hara    been    in  the  stable,    Dear     mother 

Burden. 


Tftrl  I   TibitenmIraent,nien)eckofuuneraId  •  rig. 

ofoun!       A  •  wait  me  late,  bnt  I   oome         nerer. 


Ex.  3. 


% 


hvor  har  dn  vaeret  na    laange,       Svend  i  ] 
vhare  have  ye  been  ao      long,     Swain  In  the  Boee 


gaardT     Og  Jeg  bar  Taeret  f     Lun  -  den, 
garden  f    I  have  been  In  the  grove, 


KJaerModer 
Dear  Mother 


1  Sm  F.  BShme'e  '  Altdeutaches  Liederbnch/  and  Oscar  Flel- 
iicher's  Xur  wergteUAenden  Liedfonekuttf,  SammMbdnd*,  I.M.G. 
III.,  il.  1902. 

3  See  al«>  *Flalr  Margaret  and  Sweet  William,'  and  'Margaret's 
Ohrxit'  in  Percy's  ReUqiua. 

^  Hee  'Svenska  Folk-Tiaor,'  vol.  L  p.  108.  and  vol.  il.  p.  2ia 


«  See  Crosby's  CUtedonkm  Miuteal  Rtpodtory,  1811.  p.  i 

9  The  Swedish  and  Danish  songs  are  jdven  In  Beiggreen'a  coUee- 

tlnns:   the   Finninh   in   BohrOter's   'Finnische   Runen'  and    in 

'  Hnoinalaisen  Kiijalllsnnden  Scaran  Toimittiksia ; '  Helctagfors, 

1S48. 


Burden. 


▼or  I  I       Ten  •  te  mig  saent  ellrr      aid  -  rig. 

of  ovnl  A  •  wait         me  late        or      never. 


Bx.  4. 


JVelisurmaaja, 


Maren  Taa>nal>ta, 


The  tunes  of  the  three  last-named  countries 
appear  to  have  a  common  origin,  but  the  tune 
of  the  '  Edward '  ballad  cannot  with  certainty 
be  traced.  Still,  as  Engel  {)oints  out,  many  of 
our  old  English  tunes  bear  a  strong  resemblance 
to  the  Scandinavian,  both  in  character  and  con- 
stniction ;  and  the  remarkable  affinity,  especially 
between  the  Welsh  and  Danish  songs,  has  been 
noticed  by  Dr.  Ootch  and  others.® 

But  although  the  Scandinavian  nations  may 
have  many  songs  in  common,  it  \a  evident,  on 
comparing  as  a  whole  the  collections  of  the 
different  countries,  that  there  is  a  great  difference 
in  their  general  character.^  The  Swedish  folk- 
songs are  the  most  beautlfiil  and  poetical,  and 
though  tinged  with  melancholy  they  are  not 
gloomy  and  tragic  like  the  Norwegian,  nor 
monotonous  and  regular  like  the  Danish.  The 
latter,  however,  possess  a  peculiarly  idyllic  and 
pastoral  beauty  of  their  own ;  they  recall  the 
upland  meadows,  fertile  plains,  and  wooded 
valleys  of  the  country.  The  4-  or  8 -bar  rhythm 
is  usually  clearly  defined,  independently  of  the 
refrain  ^ ; — 

Bx.  5. 


nd   fra     Hald,  og        der  de  Komme  ti  Brat-tings- 

OUKVAD. 


roa,    de  don  •  ake  boCmond  der  de  nd 


*  Bngel  says. '  One  of  the  most  popular  of  the  Welsh  tunes, "  Ar  byd 
y  nte,"  Is  also  corrent  in  Denmark,  especially  among  the  peassnfay 
in  Jutland.  It  may  be  worth  noticing  that  Jutland  is  ganerallj 
believed  to  have  been  Inhabited  in  ancient  times  by  the  same  Celtio 
raoe  which  we  find  in  Wales.  Bnt  whether  the  tune  originated  in 
Denmark  or  In  Wales  is  a  question  which  will  probably  never  be 
solved'  {/ntrediuetUm  to  th0  8h»dp  «f  Natkmai  Mutks,  p.  380).  In 
the  introduction  to  his  Battad  Book,  AUlngham  calls  attention  to 
the  slmUarity  between  many  Scotch  ballads,  such  as  the  '  Douglas 
Tragedy.'  'Mary  Colvin,'  'Clerk  Saunders,'  and  others,  and  those 
ooniaJned  in  the  Swedish  Folk-song  collection  by  AfiMlius  and 
Arvidsaon.  See  also  Motherwell's  MtmtrHty,  AneUmt  and  Modnn^ 
Olawow,  1887. 

7  Berggreen.  the  great  Danish  collector  of  folk-songs,  draws 
attention  to  the  close  connection  between  the  word-accent  and  the 
melodic  outline  of  the  three  nations'  songs. 

"  "This  is  from  the  (dd  song-cycle, '  King  Dietrich  Bern,'  and  is  one 


The  northern  melodies  nsn&IIy  b^gin  with 
the  np-beat,  and  by  preference  with  the  step  of 
the  fourth  (as '  Och  Jongfrun ').  They  are  very 
frequently  in  common  or  2-4  time,  and  adhere 
to  the  simplest  modnlations.  The  phiaoes  are 
not  repeated  on  different  steps  of  Uie  scale  as 
in  so  many  other  oonntries,  and  this  gives  the 
melodies  great  variety.  The  '  Vermelimdsvisa/ 
one  of  the  most  beantifol  folk-songs  in  the 
world,  exemplifies  the  above  qualities;  it 
begins  thus : — 

Bx.  «.  Vermelandsvim. 


A-ri-kM       Ua    -   dm. 

It  may  be  safely  asserted  that  nine  out  of  every 
twelve  Scandinavian  songs  are  in  the  minor, 
or  partly  so,  for  many  begin  in  the  minor, 
and  end  in  the  major  or  vice  versa.  Some  6f 
the  older  melodies  recall  the  Church  scales,  and 
especially  the  Mixolydian  and  Phrygian  modes, 
but  these  occur  most  frequently  among  the 
Norwegian  and  Danish  songs.*  The  epic  songs 
which  have  been  collected  in  Telemarken  (in 
the  S.W.  of  Norway)  are  evidently  of  great 
antiquity,  as  for  instance,  the  following  relating 
to  Sigurd's  fight  with  the  dragon,  with  its 
curious  rhythmandmelancholy original  melody. > 

Ex.  7. 

Sltno. 


onnln      i       T  •  w-laad     n  -  tl 


Important  sections  of  the  people's  songs  are 
those  of  the  foresters  and  wood-cutters  and  the 
herdsmen.  The  words  of  these  songs  are  often 
mere  exclamations,  and  contain  no  formal 
verses.  The  herdsman  or  girl  calls  the  cattle 
home  from  the  mountain-side,  either  with  the 
cowhom  or  Lur,  or  by  singing  a  melody  with 

of  Um  few  «M>l7  northern  •on«  prBwrved  In  wrlUnf.  At  hew 
liven  it  «M  noted  down  In  1979  by  J.  Lorents.  an  organlrt  at 
Copeohagen. 

>  There  are  many  examplee  of  modal  tunea  In  Kriateneene 
'OydekeFolkerieer.'  ^       .    .    .     « 

>  Thoe  glTWi  by  Lindemann.  In  Telemarken  the  refialn  la  often 
called  Htm,  bat  the  STcv  oonalata  really  of  improrlaed  veraea  of  love 
or  aat(r«.  annff  on  oertain  featlve  oeoaalona  and  gatharlnga.  to 
traditional  tnnea.  See  Landatad  and  Dr.  von  Bavn  In  Mandela 
ItxOeon. 


the  echo  formed  on  that  instroment.  Anotner 
class  of  songs  are  those  of  the  sailors  and 
fishermen.  Many  old  bsJlads  relating  the 
brave  deeds  of  the  sea-fighting  heroes  are  to  be 
found  in  the  Swedish  and  Norwegian  collections, 
and  many  typically  naotical  songs  in  the  more 
modern.^ 

The  national  dances  have  greatly  influenced 
the  melodies,  though  the  Syvtpring,  Slangdan- 
aar,  Hailing,  and  many  others  are  not  uraally 
accompanied  by  singing.^  The  &moas  ring  or 
chain-dances,  and  children's  game-songs,  and 
oertain  festival-songs  (such  as  the  old  Hay-Day 
and  Epiphany  songs)  are  relics  from  medieval 
times.  In  the  province  of  Dalecarlia  the  3--4 
time  dance-songs  are  especially  cultivated  ;  one 
called  'Necken's  Polska'^  is  widely  known. 
The  Norwegian  Springer  is  its  equivalent. 
Both  dances  are  sung,  whilst  the  drone  fifths 
in  the  bass  show  the  old  national  instrument 
used.  The  UardangerfeU  (/'<;/e= fiddle)  be- 
longing to  the  Norw^;ian  highlands  is  the 
most  perfect  of  their  instruments,  but  it  is 
only  used  for  marches  and  dances.  The  peasant 
marks  the  time  by  double  tapping  of  the  toe 
and  heel  uninterruptedly,  playing  all  the  while 
brilliantly.  The  richest  districts  in  national 
songs  are  Telemarken  in  the  S.W.  of  Norway, 
the  centre  of  Jutland,^  and  the  southern  part 
of  the  Faroe  Islands.  These  islands  were  ever 
in  close  connection  with  Iceland,  and  many 
songs  show  their  Icelandic  origin.  Doubtless 
the  Icelandic  Sagas  incited  many  Scandinavian 
songs,  and  the  poetry  and  language  of  this 
island  have  much  in  common  with  the  rest  of 
Scandinavia  ;  but  the  music  is  of  such  a  totally 
different  character  that  a  few  words  must  be 
devoted  to  its  most  salient  points. 

Iceland  has  ever  been  a  land  of  history. 
With  true  love  and  devotion  its  inhabitants 
have  preserved  their  old  tales,  traditions,  and 
customs.  Their  language,  which  the  Norwegians 
brought  with  them  when  they  settled  there  at 
the  close  of  the  9th  century,  remains  unchanged, 
as  also  their  strangely  mediseval  music. 

The  chief  source  for  studying  Icelandic  music 
is  the  Amamagnoan  MS.  in  the  University 
Library  at  Copenhagen.  And  if  we  compare 
this  collection  with  those  of  a  far  later,  or  even 
quite  recent  date,  we  find  the  same  forms  now 
as  then.  There  has  been  no  development  of 
music  in  Iceland  ;  it  hss  been  stationary.  Ice- 
land, indeed,  adopted  the  form  prevailing  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  has  clung  to  it  up  to  the 

s  See  L.  A.  Bmith'a  Mutte  of  tht  Waten,  ^  n& 

«  ThU  doea  not  wply  to  the  Faroi  lalanda.  where  mnaical 
Inatnimenta  are  iiractioally  unknown.  Here  the  inhaUtanta  an 
paaaionKtely  food  of  dancing,  and,  aa  mentioned  above.  aecomjanT 
their  dancea  with  alnging  the  old  eploa  and  ballade. 

•  Lindgren  In  hla  Ur  Avnaka  Muathtru  HAfdtr,  p.  1S7.  t^l*  ^* 
that  the  Polaka  ia  not  of  national  origin,  bat  waa  Intrudooat^  "^ 
Pbland  in  the  17th  centary  in  the  Late-booka  under  the  n^nMol 
PoUmetaa  (polonaiae). 

Thla  diatrict  waa  called  the  '  knitting-diatriot.'  becvnae  until 


qnlte  recently  the  pcaaanta  need  to  meet  daring  the  vrliiter 
eveninga  in  different  hoaaea  knitting  woollemjnoda.  and  relatJng  o^ 
ainglng  talea,  aonga,  ballade,  and  legeiida.    Tlielr  wealth  of  aoiir> 


waa  ao  great  that  in  many  plaoea  the  aame  eong  waa  not  allowed  tv 
be  aang  more  than  once  a  year. 


SONG 


583 


•  present  century.  The  music  of  her  secular  songa^ 
^  is  of  an  ecclesiastical  character ;  instrumental 
.    music  hardly  exists ;  the  old  scales  or  modes 

.  are  retained,^  for  the  wave  of  modem  tonality 

•^  which  swept  over  Europe  in  the  I7th  century 

never    reached    Iceland.      An   even    stronger 

.  evidence  of  mediseva]ism  than  the  modal  tonality 

.   is  afforded  by  the  peculiar  form  of  part-singing 

..   in    Iceland,    called    Tmsdngu/rf   which  closely 

■.   resembles  Huobald's  Organum,     Examples  are 

to  be  found  in  the  Amamagnaan  MS.  of  the 

15th  century  ;  and  although  earlier  traces  of  it 

are  extant  in  other  countries,  Iceland  alone  has 

retained  it  for  her  secular  music  down  to  the 

•  present  day.  This  is  proved  by  the  following 
example  taken  from  the  *  Icelandic  Student's 
Songbok/of  ISOiSt- 


Ex.  8. 


Lenlo. 


National  Song — Island. 

Given  by  Pastor  THORsruiiasoif. 


lHlandlfw-Mel-<lAfr6ii,  og 
Tenor  (Melody). 


hriuhTlU  mMir! 


0                               ^ 

P^ 

P^ 

fl            1          1       ^ 

nann-diS-lnfantt 

MF^^]r^\Fr^ 

^^ 

f=r^^ 

Until  the  last  generation  the  Tvisongur  held 
its  own  all  over  Iceland  ;  but  now  in  the  20th 
century  it  only  exists  in  certain  isolated 
localities.  The  increasing  development  of  com- 
munication with  other  countries,  coupled  with 
the  knowledge  of  musical  notation,  the  spread 
of  choral  societies,  and  the  publication  of 
numerous  collections  of  songs  and  hymns,  have 
all  combined  to  induce  the  Icelanders  to  adopt 
at  last  the  more  modem  methods  of  music. 
*The  TvisSngur  is,  thereforCj  fast  dying  out, 
and  with  it  the  last  remains  of  an  interesting 
episode  in  musical  history.** 

The  so-called  Scandinavian  school  of  music 
is  of  very  recent  birth  ;  for  until  the  close  of 
the  18th  century  it  was  greatly  under  foreign 
influence.  Thus,  during  the  16th  centuiy,  the 
Court-music  of  Denmark  was  chiefly  in  the 
hands  of  Flemish  musicians,  whilst  in  the  17th, 
Dowland  and  many  other  Englishmen,  besides 
French,  German,  Polish,  and  Italian  composers, 
visited  and  settled  in  Copenhagen  and  Stock- 
holm.    The  latter  part  of  the  17th  and  the 

1  See  wpedalljr  Olsfitr  DaTidMon's  *  IslenikAr  Skemtaiiir.' 

3  The  Icelandon  ta«Te  an  especlml  love  for  the  LydUn  mode  with 
its  tritone. 

3  The  panllel  fifths  do  not  loand  aohanh  If  the  melody  ia  taken 
b7  loud  full  Tolcea,  and  the  aeoond  (upper)  part  by  a  few  ilncera, 
very  rabdoed,  and  the  whole  long  sang  very  slowly  and  empnatl- 
cally. 

«  Studimt  Hbgr  UUmUtdu  MhuOt,  by  A.  Hammerlch  laamrnabdnde 
of  the  I.M.O.  I.  ill.  1900).  to  whom  the  writer  is  indebted  for  the 
above  Information. 


first  part  of  the  18th  were  monopolised  by 
the  ballet,  and  French  melodies  (especially  in 
Sweden)  predominated  over  aU  others.  A  fresh 
impetus  was  given  to  northern  music  by  the 
operas  and  Singspiele  of  German  composers, 
such  as  B.  Keiser,  J.  A.  P.  Schulz,  and  Kunzen. 
And  in  the  imitations  of  these  by  Weyse, 
Euhlau,  and  Hartmann,^  Scandinavian  folk- 
songs were  first  introduced  on  the  stage.  The 
compositions  in  which  the  vemacular  was  first 
used  were  the  sacred  and  secular  cantatas, 
oratorios  and  hymns,  both  by  Danish  and 
German  composers,  such  as  Iversen,  A.  Scheibe, 
and  J.  £.  Hartmann  in  Denmark,  and  in 
Sweden,  J.  Roman,  Per  Frigel,  and  J.  B.  Strove. 
But  the  chief  impulse  towards  a  national  school 
of  music  was  given  by  the  literature  of  the 
country.  Towutls  the  end  of  the  18th  century 
the  didactic  school  of  poetry  began  to  give  way 
to  a  more  natural  lyrical  style ;  and  by  the 
beginning  of  the  19th  (influenced  by  the 
romanticism  of  Germany)  a  strong  intellectual 
national  movement  arose  in  Nortiiem  poetry. 
It  was  greatly  promoted  in  Denmark  by  the 
poet  Oehlenschlager,  in  Norway  and  Sweden 
by  the  patriotic  'Norwegian  Society,'  and  by 
the  founding  of  the  so-called  '  Gotiska  fdrbun- 
det '  (Gothic  union).  About  this  time  the  first 
collections  of  national  songs  appeared.  Poets 
and  musicians  became  interested  in  the  old 
epics  and  ballads,  with  their  beautiful  melodies, 
and  their  wealth  of  new  materials  both  in  ideas 
and  form,  and  hastened  to  avail  themselves  of 
the  treasure.  Thus  within  the  last  hundred 
years  or  so  a  new  school  of  music  has  arisen,  con- 
taining in  its  ranks  the  distinguished  names 
of  Lindblad,  Gade,  Kjerulf,  Grieg,  Sjogren, 
Sinding,  etc. 

Denmark.  —  In  Denmark  the  homely,  hu- 
morous, or  idyllic  Singspiele  especially  took 
root,  and  it  would  be  legitimate  to  say  that 
the  Kunstlied  originated  in  the  theatre-songs. 
Some  of  these  melodies  by  the  elder  Hart- 
mann, Schulz,  Kunzen,  and  Zinck — singing  of 
social  pleasures,  friendship,  and  wine,  or  those 
of  a  more  romantic  and  sentimental  type— are 
still  popular  in  Denmark,  in  the  Faroe  Islands, 
and  far  into  the  north  of  Norway.  It  is  worthy 
of  notice  that  the  three  founders  of  the  Danish 
school  of  music,  C.  E.  F.  Weyse,  F.  Kuhlau, 
and  J.  Hartmann,  were  Germans  by  birth,  and 
that  a  strong  tinge  of  the  German  element  has 
prevailed  through  the  works  of  Danish  musicians 
to  the  present  day.  J.  Hartmann,  the  founder 
of  the  Hartmann  family  of  composers,  is  the 
author  of  one  of  Denmark's  most  national  songs, 
'King  Christian  stood  by  the  mast.'  Weyse 
is  considered  the  creator  of  the  Danish  romance. 
Full  of  romantic  feeling,  and  possessing  a  fluent 
gift  of  melody,  the  songs  from  his  Singapieky 
his  child -like,  pious   'Morning  and  Evening 

S  Knhlan's  romantie  *I)er  KrlenhOger  (1898),  and  later  J.  P. 
Hartmann's  '  Uden  KIrsten '  (1846),  (the  latter  canslsUnf  almost 
wholly  of  fblk-eongs)  are  still  popular  In  Denmark. 


Songs '  to  words  by  the  national  lyrists  Oehlen- 
schlager,  Ewald,  Gnmdtvig,  Heiberg,  and 
Winther,  are  justly  popular.  Later  in  life 
Weyse  devoted  himself  to  collecting  and  har- 
monising two  volumes  of  *  Gamle  Ksmpewise- 
Melodier '  (Old  Hero-songs).  He  died  in  1842. 
His  contemporary,  F.  Kuhlau,  also  loved  the 
simple,  noble  melodies  of  the  Kdmpemser,  which 
he  had  noted  down  in  his  youth.  These  he 
used  later  with  success  in  the  romance  form, 
and  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  them  firom  the 
genuine  folk-songs  of  this  kind.  Still  Kuhlau 
never  cared  for  Danish  poetry,  and  always 
preferred  to  use  German  words.  Contemporary 
native  musicians  were  less  celebrated,  and 
Sorenson,  Clans  Schall,  and  Niels  Schiorring 
are  names  now  scarcely  remembered.  But 
the  improvement  in  literature  due  to  the 
poets  Oehlenschlager,  Heiberg,  Hertz,  Hans  C. 
Andersen,  and  the  publications  at  Copenhagen 
of  the  numerous  collections  of  Scandinavian 
folk-songs,  naturally  influenced  and  stimulated 
the  musical  feeling  and  inventive  powers  of  the 
song-writers.  The  consequent  development  of 
Danish  song  we  owe  to  J.  P.  £.  Hartmann, 
Niels  Gade,  and  P.  Heise.  The  songs  of  the 
latter  vary  very  much  in  merit,  but  his  fine 
song -cycles,  *Gudrun'8  Sorg*  and  'Dyvekes 
Sange'  (words  by  Drachmann),  have  never 
received  their  due  appreciation.  J.  P.  E. 
Hartmann's  songs  are  gloomy  and  northern  in 
colouring,  and  in  form  less  perfect  than  Heise's 
and  Gade's.  Among  the  best  are  the  six  to 
Winther 's  poem  'Hjortens  Flugt,'  and  the  nine 
entitled  '  Salomon  and  Sulamith,'  op.  52  ;  but 
at  the  present  day  they  sound  somewhat  old- 
fashioned.  At  first,  Gade,  who  was  steeped  in 
the  atmosphere  of  Schumann  and  Mendelssohn, 
wrote  only  German  songs.  But  by  degrees — 
influenced,  doubtless,  by  his  old  master,  Berg- 
green  (the  great  folk-song  collector) — he  became 
more  national  in  feeUng,  and  joined  the  ranks 
of  the  northern  romanticists,  writing  music 
to  Oehlenschlager's  and  Heiberg's  romances. 
His  influence  has  been  great  over  all  subsequent 
Scandinavian  composers,  and  Gade's  cultured 
musical  taste  and  true  cosmopolitan  feeling 
never  allowed  his  art  to  become  bounded  by 
too  narrow  an  horizon.  Gade's  lyrics  are  always 
expressed  in  the  simplest  language,  and  sufler 
from  a  certain  poverty  of  rhythm.  He  shares 
with  other  Danes  the  preference  for  the  mono- 
tonous, swaying  6-8  time,  and  he  rarely  modu- 
lates beyond  the  nearest  keys.  A  group  of 
composers  who  have  treated  the  song  in  the 
same  simple  and  popular  way  are :  H.  Rung, 
Bamekow,  A.  Winding,  J.  0.  Homemann,  S. 
Salomon ;  and  Gade's  pupils,  K.  Attrup  and 
L.  Schy  tte.  More  individual  and  more  developed 
in  the  accompaniment  are  those  by  Emil  C. 
Hartmann,  C.  F.  Homemann,  A.  Hamerik,  O. 
Mailing,  A.  Enna,  and  notably  R.  Hansen  and 


i:.  £1.  jLau]{^iuuii«r,  wjioae  oauunii»u  cyci« 
is  interesting,  and  as  well  known  abroad  as  in 
Denmark.  A  new  note  in  Danish  music  has 
been  touched  by  Carl  Nielsen  (b.  1865).  He 
has  written  only  a  few,  but  remarkable  songs, 
evincing  in  his  rhythm  and  modulation  a  strong 
originality. 

NoEWAY. — Although  Norway  was  for  a  time 
joined  to  Sweden,  and  in  the  past  shared  the 
destinies  of  Denmark,  whose  language  it  still 
retains,  it  ever  remained  the  most  independent 
branch  of  the  Scandinavian  kingdom.  The 
people  are  intelligent  and  well  educated,  and  in- 
tensely jealous  of  their  national  rights.  Foreign 
music  and  literature  never  had  the  same  influ- 
ence in  Norway  as  in  Sweden  and  Denmark,  and 
the  Singgpid  and  the  opera  were  never  popular. 
The  modem  period  in  poetry  and  music  began 
with  the  awi^ening  of  national  life  which  re- 
ceived its  first  impulses  in  1772,  from  the 
'  Norwegian  Society'  ;^  from  the  national  poets, 
Wergeland  (called  liie  Schiller  of  Norway), 
Welhaven,  Miinch,  Moe,  and  Jensen  ;  from  the 
folk -tale  collector  Faye,  the  hymn -writer 
Landstad,  and  most  of  all  from  the  folk-song 
collectors  Bagge  and  L.  M.  Lindemann.  The 
latter  did  valuable  work  in  familiarising  the 
national  melodies  of  his  country.  He  published 
them  as  psalms,  hymns,  songs,  and  dances,  and 
his  work  was  carried  on  by  C.  Elling.  The 
first  real  song-writer  of  Norway  was  Halfdan 
Kjerulf,  whose  lyrics  long  suffered  from  un- 
accountable  neglect.  His  two  books  of  '  Sanger 
och  Visor '  contain  songs  of  real  beauty,  as  for 
instance,  'Lokkende  Toner,'  'Karlekspredikan,' 
'Saknaden,'  *£remiten,'  'Mit  Hjerte  pg  min 
Lyre '  (*My  Heart  and  Lute  *),  and  *  Natten  pas 
Fjorden.'  The  voice-part  and  accompaniments 
are  well  written  and  interesting,^  and  there  is  no 
straining  for  effect  or  originality.  Among  the 
song- writers  bom  between  the  years  1887  and 
1847,  we  find  the  same  inclination  to  represent 
the  national  spirit  in  their  art  But  neither 
Winter-Hjelm,  J.  Selmer,  C.  Cappelen,  nor  even 
J.  S.  Svendsen,  who  wrote  two  books  of  highly 
expressive  songs,  touched  the  trae  note.  This 
was  reserved  for  K  Nordraak  and  Eduard 
Grieg.  Nordraak  was  a  cousin  of  the  poet- 
novelist  Bjomson,  and  modelled  his  songs, 
which  are  of  a  homely  and  popular  type,  after 
Bjomson's  peasant-novels.  Nordraak  died  young 
in  1866,  but  his  patriotism  and  intimate 
knowledge  and  love  of  his  country's  songs 
exercised  a  strong  influence  on  his  friend  Grieg, 
whose  taste  when  young  had  hitherto  been 
essentially  German.  Grieg's  talent  is  curious 
and  delicate.  It  is  strongly  stamped  with 
his  own  individuality,  and  not  without  power, 

*  A  band  of  patilotio  Norwagiana  IWlnc  In  Copenhaaen.  vbo 
combined  to  found  a  natlra  nnlveralty  in  Cnrlaiiania  In  1811,  and 
to  raoovar  thalr  natlva  Indapandenca  in  1814. 

>  To  a  certain  dmraa  Kjerulf  raacmblaa  tha  Garman  ■ong-vritar 
Bobnt  Ftana.  Both  pay  tha  atinia  rtriet  regard  to  the  vorda  and 
aorent,  and  in  both  the  aceompanlmmta  are  often  treated  poJjr- 
phonlcalljr.    (Sea  for  example  Kjamira  op.  23,  Xa  %.) 


SONG 


585 


humour,  and  pathos,  \mt  it  is  limited.  His 
songs,  romances,  and  ballads,  especially  those 
set  to  the  northern  poets  Drachmann,  Bjomson, 
Miinch,  Moe,  and  Ibsen  constitate  a  oharac- 
teristic  portion  of  his  best  work.  Owing  to 
the  exigencies  of  the  concise  song-form,  and  to 
Grieg's  close  study  of  the  folk-music,  and  his 
aim,  above  all,  to  be  simple  in  form  and  melody, 
his  songs,  though  essentially  national  in  colour, 
never  become  wearisome  or  mannered.  They 
may  be  lacking  in  intensity  of  passion,  and  in 
the  deeper  psychological  qualities,  but  they  are 
full  of  poetry  and  imagination. 

An  intimate  friend  of  Grieg's,  a  celebrated 
pianist,  Agathe  Backer-Grondahl,  has  written 
simple  and  expressive  songs,  which  are  very 
popular  in  Norway.  Other  song-writers,  bom 
in  the  second  half  of  the  last  century,  are  :  J. 
Holier,  Ole  Olsen,  C.  Sinding,  Per  Winge,  and 
his  cousin  Per  Lasson,  C.  Elling,  J.  Halvorsen, 
Andersen,  Alnaes,  and  Sigurd  Lie.  The  last- 
named  highly  gifted  composer  was  bom  in 
1871  and  died  young.  He  has  left  few  songs, 
but  they  are  of  rare  beauty  and  poetry.  Sinding 
has  an  abundance  of  melodic  ideas,  and  is  full 
of  energy,  character,  and  expression,  and  the 
strength  which  works  with  simple  means.  He 
responds  to  every  phase  of  northern  thought ; 
and  such  songs  as  '  Es  schrie  ein  Yogel,'  with 
its  harsh  colouring,  or  *  Viel  Triiume,'  with  its 
tender  intimacy,  or  the  fine  national  song  '  Vi 
vil  OS  et  Land,'  show  the  intensity  with 
which  he  realises  and  reproduces  a  situation. 

Sweden. — In  the  16th  century  musical  art  in 
Sweden  reached  a  high  level.  Gustav  Vasa  was  a 
connoisseur  in  music,  and  encouraged  composers 
of  the  Netherland  and  Italian  Schools  to  his 
court.  The  Thirty  Years'  War  brought  Sweden 
into  contact  with  other  European  nations,  and 
many  Germans  flocked  thither.  Under  Charles 
XII.,  French  music  reigned  supreme,  and  long 
held  its  sway  over  all  native  composers.  The 
Diiben  family  (Germans  by  origin),  who  settled 
in  Sweden  early  in  the  17th  century,  and  have 
been  called  the  'founders  of  Swedish  music,' 
hardly  deserve  this  name,  for  though  they  did 
much  to  further  and  develop  music  in  Sweden 
they  were  entirely  under  foreign  influence. 
Gustav  Diiben  (died  1690)  wrote  songs  of  the 
type  of  Heinrich  Albert  in  Germany,  whilst 
his  brother  Anders  Diiben,  who  inclined  more 
to  French  music,  wrote  only  little  arias  for  the 
Court  of  the  French  chanson  kind.  In  the 
18th  century  the  music  of  German  and  Italian 
composers,  such  as  Fux,  Graun  and  Handel, 
Scarlatti  and  Lotti,  predominated,  but  simul- 
taneously the  Swedish  composers  J.  H.  Roman, 
Agrell,  and  Zellbell  were  pursuing  the  right 
road  towards  founding  a  national  school,  by 
using  the  vernacular  in  their  vocal  works.  The 
opera,  which  has  always  played  an  important 
I>art  in  Stockholm,  remained  chiefly  French 
under  Dalayrac  and  Monsigny,  though  German 


dramatic  influence  was  exerted  by  Gluck, 
Naumann,  Haeflher,  etc.  The  only  dramatic 
composer  of  Swedish  descent  was  the  popular 
K.  Stenboig,  who  used  his  native  folk-songs 
in  his  operas,  and  led  the  way  through  Dupuy 
and  Bandel  to  Hallstrom,  the  real  creator  of 
the  national  opera. 

The  song  of  the  Gustavian  period  (i.e.  the 
close  of  the  18tli  century)  answers  exactly  to 
that  of  J.  A.  Hiller,  Schulz,  Reichardt,  and 
Zelter  of  Germany,  and  bore  the  same  homely, 
popular  character,  without^  however,  being  in 
any  sense  national.  The  foremnner  of  the 
trae  Swedish  Song  was  Olof  Ahlstrom,  who 
published  at  the  b^;inning  of  the  1 9th  century 
a  collection  of  eighteen  volumes  called  *  Skalde- 
stycken  Satte  i  Musik,'  containing  songs  by 
himself,  by  Haeifiier,  Stenborg,  Palm,  and 
others.  Many  songs  in  this  collection,  as  well 
as  those  by  Dupuy,  Nordblom,  Crusell,^  etc., 
still  show  the  same  tendency  towards  the 
Berlin  School,  but  the  words  of  Swedish  poets 
were  used,  and  attention  was  thus  called  at 
last  to  ^Swedish  composers.  A  yet  greater 
service  Ahlstrom  did  was  to  edit  Uie  songs  of 
that  strange  original  genius  C.  M.  Bellmann, 
under  the  title  of  'Fredmans  Epistlar  och 
Sanger'  (1790-95).  These  are->in  reality 
splendidly  humorous  pictures  of  Stockholm  life, 
skilfully  adapted  to  favourite  foreign  (chiefly 
French)  and  native  airs ;  very  few  tunes  are 
original,  but  they  remain  household  words  in 
Sweden  to  the  present  day. 

Literature  and  music  kept  pace  during  the 
early  19th  century,  and  both  drank  from  the 
same  national  source.  It  is  difficult  to  say 
whether  poetry  or  music  owes  most  to  the  so- 
called  Gothic  revival,  of  which  Geyer,  Afzelius, 
Tegner,  Arwidsson,  and  Atterbom  were  the 
leaders.  The  first  impetus  towards  the  new 
lyric  was  given  by  Afzelius  and  Ge^'er  in  their 
publication  of  old  Swedish  folk-songs  in  1814- 
1816.2  The  melodies  in  these  volumes  were 
revised  and  harmonised  by  Haefiner  and  Green- 
land. A  little  later  IMk  Drake  published 
another  series,  in  which  Afzelius  joined.  Arwids- 
son (a  Dane  by  birth)  devoted  himself  to  the 
same  subject,  and  published,  between  1888 
and  1837,  three  volumes  of  old  war,  hunting, 
and  love  songs ;  Bergstrbm,  Hoyer,  R.  Dybeck, 
and  E.  Sbdling  following  suit. 

The  earliest  composers  who  breathed  the 
romantic  national  atmosphere  and  sang  the 
characteristic  melodies  of  Sweden,  were  Geijer, 
A.  Lindblad,  J.  A.  Josephson,  Wennerberg, 
Berwald,  Hallstrom,  Rubenson,  L.  Norman, 
and  A.  Sodermann.  The  classic  time  of  the 
Romanze  belongs  to  the  three  first  named. 
Ge\jer's  songs  are  impregnated  with  the  trae 

1  CniaaU  woald  really  he  raiiiidered  a  Finnlah  oompoaer,  but  the 
Jnterasta  and  dertiniw  of  Finland  and  Sweden  have  been  doeelj 
interwoven.  This  Indeed  applleg  to  moet  of  the  Uteratnn  and 
music  of  the  Scandinavian  countries,  and  it  is  often  hard  to  define 
to  which  country  the  several  poets  and  composers  belong. 

>  These  volumes  contain  valuable  prefaces  and  notes. 


lolK-8ong  spirit,  ana  are  powertui  ana  ex- 
pressive, but  Lindblad's  won  wider  fame. 
These  also  bear  the  national  stamp ;  they  are 
pure,  natural,  unaffeoted,  and  withal  really 
poetic  and  graceful  compositions.  Among  the 
most  interesting  are  those  to  Atterbom's  words, 
especially  'Trohet'^  And  others  worthy  of 
mention  are  'Saknad,'  *0  kom,  n\j  droj,'  *Am 
Aaren  See,'  'Strykningsvisa,*  and  the  nine 
Heine  songs  which  have  more  developed  and 
original  accompaniments.  Lindblad's  songs 
owe  their  fame  and  popularity  in  a  great 
measure  to  having  been  sung  by  Jenny  Lind. 
Josephson  surpasses  the  others  in  the  real  lyric ; 
and  the  melancholy  tenderness  which  pervades 
his  songs  is  a  racial  characteristic.  Wenner- 
berg's  collection  of  duets,  '  Gluntame  '  (Scenes 
of  student-life  in  Upsala),  were  once  famous, 
but  though  his  thoughts  show  independence, 
his  musical  treatment  is  somewhat  amateurish. 
Norman  was  a  truly  idyllic  composer,  and 
amongst  his  songs  the  beautiful  *  Skogs  S&nger ' 
and  '  Manestr&lar '  should  be  better  known. 
With  the  great  ballad  composer,  A.  Soder- 
mann,  Swedish  romanticism  reached  its  highest 
point.  Among  his  solo -ballads  and  songs, 
such  as  'Tannhiiuser,'  '  Kvamruinen,'  and  the 
'Black  Knight,'  we  find  a  great  development 
in  the  accompaniment.  Sodermann  filled  the 
old  forms  with  new  dramatic  life,  and  is  there- 
fore considered  the  great  reformer  of  Swedish 
Song.  Less  well-known  names  are  those  of 
J.  A.  Hiigg,  A.  Kbrling  (whose  songs  *Weisse 
Rosen '  and  '  Abendstimmung,'  of  the  Mendels- 
sohn type,  are  favourites),  A.  Myrberg,  V.  Sved- 
bom,  F.  Arlberg  (also  a  fine  singer),  Henneberg, 
Kjelander,  Bystrbm,  Nordquist,  A.  Bergenson, 
ete.  Among  living  song-writers,  Emil  Sjogren 
holds  an  important  place.  Grieg's  influence  may 
be  traced  in  his  harmonies  and  Schumann '-s  in 
his  rhythms,  but  withal  he  is  an  independent  and 
interesting  composer.  The  constant  repetition 
of  melodic  phrases,  and  the  sequences  of  harsh 
and  ugly  discords  which  occur  in  his  songs, 
always  have  their  meaning  and  justification. 
His  settings  of  Geibel's  Spanish  Cycle  cannot 
rank  with  Jensen's,  but  the  beauty  of  such 
songs  as  '  I  drommen  du  ar,*  *  Sa  far  dA  viil,'  or 
*Drom,*  with  its  lovely  vague  harmony,  and 
'Alia  mina  drommer,'  with  its  strange  impres- 
sive tonality,  is  incontestable. 

During  the  last  twenty-five  years  a  change 
lias  come  over  Swedish  music.  The  genius  of 
Berlioz,  Liszt,  and  Wagner  has  dominated  the 
talents  of  the  living  representatives  of  Swedish 
romanticism.  Of  the  youngest  school  of 
song- writers,  Vilhelm  Stenhammar,  bom  1871, 
stands  pre-eminent.  His  father,  P.  W.  Sten- 
hammar, was  a  prolific  composer  of  ultra-simple 
religious,  old-fashioned  songs.  Y.  Stenhammar 
is  equally  successful  in  any  form  of  song  he 
touches,  whether  it  be  the  ballad,  such  as  his 

1  Written  on  the  death  of  the  poet'a  vifei 


nne  setting  ot  *J<iorez  ana  Diancninur,  or  a 
little  folk-song  like  '  Irmelin  Rose,'  or  the  true 
lyric,  such  as  the  splendid  song  *  Fylgia.'  In 
^eshness,  warmth,  and  wealth  of  harmony  and 
melody,  none  of  the  younger  composers  have 
surpassed  Stenhammar.  In  W.  Peterson- 
Berger's  Swedish  songs,  'Svensk  Lyrik'  and 
the  cycle  entitled  '  Ut  Fridolin's  Lustgard,'  the 
tender,  melancholy  national  tone  is  reflected ; 
whereas  in  his  German  songs,  such  as  the 
'Gesange  nach  Nietzsche,'  he  is  more  directly 
under  Wagner's  spell.  Hugo  Alfv^,  Tor 
Aulin,  alid  £.  Akerberg  belong  also,  with 
others,  to  this  group. 

In  aU  the  modem  Scandinavian  composers' 
songs  there  is  the  same  strong  feeling  for  tone- 
colour,  which  may  be  traced  to  the  innate, 
deep-rooted  love  and  reverence  for  the  folk-music 
of  their  respective  homes.  And  nowhere  in 
Europe  has  the  spirit  of  romanticism  exercised 
a  stronger  and  higher  influence  than  in  these 
northern  countries. 

SCAVDOrATlAK  BlBUOORAPaY 

Bavn.  Dr.  von.    BOumdinavbeha  Mutfk  (Mendel). 

Htllpher,  A.     BitUr.  AfhandUng  om  Mudk  odb  /mtnwwitfw. 

Werteiie,  1778. 
AlU  VaiktmekHUen  de$  IfordMU.  [AOg.  MwXkaL  Ultmtg).    Angust 

1816. 
Lindgren.  A.     Vr  averuka  MiuOunu  HAfitr. 
Crlrtal.M.    VAHaoandhuiM.    Pari*,  1874 
OrOnToM.  Aimar.    Ifonke  JtutUun,    Chrlrtlanla.  188K. 
ValenUn,  Carl.     ShtdUm  lUm-  dU  Sekimdiaekm   VtUetrntMHen. 

Ldpslg,  1885. 
Schweitier.     GgaehMUe  eL  akandina9t$ek0n  Uteratur.     Leindc. 

1886^. 
Bpitta.?.    JfieU  &ad0,  Ztir  Mtialk,    Berlin,  18B2. 
NorUnd,  Toblae.    Sohwdlteh*  MuttkgMekMtU.    Load.  1901.    Mur 

GetaMckte  der  SchwedUohm  Mtutk  (Die  JVueft).    Angnst  1901 

Dim   MutUffemAieht*   Sekw^deiu   in    den  Jahrtn  j6jo-/7ja. 

ISammelbdnde,  I.M.O..  I.  ii.  1900.) 
Thnran,  HJalmar.    Taru,  DMUung  und  Oetanff  OMf  den  Fdrttm. 

iammnMapde,  I.H.6..  ni.  li.  1902.) 
Sonblei.  A.    Itatt  Seandintum.    {MUtotn  de  la  MiulqvM.)    Paris 

1901-8. 
Niemann.  W.  Dh  SekwedUdkg  TonktmU.    {/SammMOndm,  LILG.. 

V.  L  190S). 
Niemann.  W.    JHe  MtuBt  SkandinmfUna.    Ldpalg.  190«. 

CoujBCTioa* 
Abrahamion.  Nyemp.  and  Rahbek.    'Udvalgte  danske  Viaer  fxm 
.     Middelaldoren.'    Copenhagen,  1812-14. 

Ahlrtr^m  and  AfaeUaiL    •  Traditloner  af  Sveneka  Folkvlnr.'  1814. 
Gelier    and    AfiteliTia.       'Svenaka    Folk-Tlaor    frta    Fomtiden.* 

Stockholm.  181418. 
Baamuwen  und  Nyenip.    *  Udvalg  al  Danake  Vinr.'    Copenhagen. 

1821. 
I^jmRbye,  H.  C.    '  Foer^e  Qroeder.'    Banden.  1822  (no  moalc). 
Arwidaeon,  A.    'Svenaka  Fome&nger.'    Stockholm,  18M-42. 
Lindemann.  L.    'Aeldre  og  njera  Moreke  FJeldmelodier.'    Chri»- 

tlanla,lSM. 
D7beok.B.    'Sveneka  Vail  viaer  och  HomUtar.'    Stockholm,  18tf: 

'  8chwedi«d)e  Weiaen,'  1847-48 ;  '  Svenake  Vlaer.'  1863-98. 
Ijuidatad.  M .  B.    '  Nonke  Folkeriaer.'    ChriatJania.  1888L 
Betggreon.  A.  P.    'Danake,  Norake,  and  Srenake  Frikaanngr  og 

melodier.'    Copenhagen,  1801-83. 
Lnndquiat.    '100  Svenaka  Folkviaer.'    Stockholm,  180& 
Kriatenaen,  E.    '  Jydake  Folkeviacr,'  1871-76-91. 
BohUn.  K.  T.  P.    '  PolktSner  fr«n  JSmtland.'    Stockholm.  1881 
Hanaen.  W.    •  Danake  Melodier.'   (Melodier  fra  alle  Umde,  toL  L) 

Copenhagen.  1886. 
Hammerahalmb,    V.     'Foer^Mc   Anthologl.'     Oopenhagen,   189L 

(Chieily  djuioea  and  dance  aonga. ) 
Carlhelm-Gyllendciaid.  V.    •  Vlaer  och  Melodier.'  Stockholm.  189* 
Lanb.  T.    'Danake  Folkeviacr  med  gamle Melodier.'    Gcq^enhagm. 

Oarborg,  H.    '  Nonke  Folkeviaor.'     (In  pragraaa)  1903.    No.  8  ol 

the  *  Nonke  Folkeakriften.') 
'  Anguat  Bottdeaon'a  Viabok.'    Stockholm.  1908. 
Hanaen.  W.     'Svenake  og  Nonke  Melodier.'    (Melodier  fra  aUe 

liuide,  vol.  11.)    Ccnpenhagen. 
Bocke.  L.     •  Nonliache  Volkalleder.' 
IhlstrOm.  J.    'SOD  Svmaka  Folkeviaer.'    Stodcholm.     'Nordiaka 

Folkeviaer.'    Stockholm. 
Bogge,  J.    '  73  Polkakor  frftn  Gottland.'    Stockholm. 
Weyae,  C.  B.  F.    'BOganile  Kaiupevlae  melodier.' 
Blumenthal.  I.  O.    '  Delaboatintena  Viaor '  (in  progreaa). 

ICKLAMDIC.— BlBUOaBAraV  AXD  OoUBCTlOXa 

D«  la  Borde.  J.  B.    Sttat  mr  la  Mutiauo  ancietuu  H  modfrm, 
(Several  Icalandio  aonga  in  voLlL  p.  387  ecaav)    Pkria,  1780. 


SONG 


587 


lergerreen,  A.  P.    '  Folke<£knge  xng  M elodlcr '  (vol.  L).   CktpenlUffBQ, 

^avidsaoD.  Olafvr.    *  IiUmilmr  Skemtanlr.*    OopeDbaffen,  188M8. 

'  S0ngb6k  hliM  lal«Dzks  StodentafJelagB.'    B«7kJ»Tlk.  18M. 
Llet.  Raymond.    ^mhwIIm  Arekitim  ifw  Miuiem  tetemti/lqum  et 

UttSrairm  (toI.  viL  pp.  94»-2n).    Puia,  1807. 
anuin  and  Behrand.    lUtutrlertt  MtuUtkUtorte  (vol.  L  p.  44,  faaa  » 

referenoe  to  tho  TwUB/ngur).    Copenhagen,  1897-1906. 
Uuiimeilch,  Angul.    atudUn  Wmt  iddntUtckt  MuaO.    (l 


bdnde,  I.M.O.,  I.  iU.  1900.) 
liUTen,  Hjalmar.    Tanu,  JHehhtnff  und  Ouan^  mi/  d*n  fUHtem. 
(Thia  conUlna  many  Icalandle  aongl.)    AomnMC&tfMto,  LM.O., 
III.  il.  1908. 

The  Netherlands 

Under  this  comprehensive  term  are  included 
he  countries  which  extend  from  the  North 
iea  to  the  Somme  in  France,  comprising 
Holland,  Flanders,  Belgium,  the  Walloon 
lountry  and  the  chief  part  of  the  old  province 
►f  Artois.  The  population  is  partly  Teutonic, 
epresented  by  the  Flemings ;  jmrtly  of  Romance 
►rigin,  represented  by  the  Walloons.  Two 
anguages  are  spoken — Dutch  and  French,  for 
ricmish  is  nearly  akin  to  Dutch,  and  the 
iomance  dialect  spoken  by  the  Walloons  is 
ilosely  allied  to  French,  which  is  the  official 
anguage  of  Belgium.  Still,  until  the  19th 
tentury  when  Holland  and  Belgium  were 
ormed  into  independent  kingdoms,  the  Nether- 
ands  was  practically  one  country.  In  dealing 
vith  the  folk-songs,  however,  a  distinction 
nust  be  made,  as  each  division  of  the  country 
possessed  its  own  songs.  Yet  even  so  the 
lubject  is  confusing,  for  while  the  official 
iesignation  of  *  Netherlands '  is  retained  by 
vhat  we  now  call  Holland,  the  'Spanish 
!^etherlands,'  which  in  the  16th  and  early  17th 
tenturies  played  so  important  a  part  in  history, 
tnd  gave  birth  to  the  finest  songs,  comprised 
-ather  the  districts  of  Flanders  and  Belgium. 
Vgain,  the  songs  of  the  North  of  France  and 
u^landers,  and  the  Low  German  and  Dutch 
tongs,  have  so  much  in  common,  that  to  write 
:he  history  of  one  is  to  write  the  history  of 
;he  other.*       , 

The  Trouvires  of  tliQ  11th  and  12th  centuries, 
svith  their  Icmgue  d*oll,  belonged  equally  to 
Northern  France  and  to  Belgium,  and  as  they 
have  already  been  mentioned  under  France 
it  is  unnecessary  to  refer  to  them  again  here. 
Further,  the  Old  French  and  Flemish  schools 
of  music  were  practically  identical,  and  the 
Gallo- Belgian  School,  whose  most  successful 
period  lies  between  1360  and  1460,  was  con- 
sidered by  other  nations  as  French,  and  the 
composers  indiscriminately  called  GalH  (see 
ante,  p.  542).  But  with  the  Netherland  School 
proper  we  are  treading  on  different  ground. 
This  school  penetrated  into  every  cultured 
country  in  Western  Europe,  formed  schools  of 
its  own,  identified  itself  with  other  nationalities, 
and  was  held  in  universal  esteem  until,  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  16th  century,  the  Italians 
became  the  leading  musical  nation  in  Europe. 
This  great  school,  however,  was  essentially 
polyphonic,  and  with   it  and   its  chief  repre- 

<  Bee  Connemaker's  Chant*  des  FtamancU  4$  Franet;  and 
B5hine's  *  AltdeatachM  Uederbuch.' 


sentatives  (such  as  Okeghem,  Obrecht,  Josquin 
des  Pr^,  Gombert,  Orlandus  Lassns,  and  others) 
this  article  is  only  indirectly  concerned.  These 
prefatory  remarks  will  explain  to  some  extent 
the  complex  character  of  the  history  of  song  in 
the  Netherlands. 

Among  the  earliest  traces  of  the  langue  d'oU 
is  the  'Gantique  de  S^  Eulalie '  (without  music), 
preserved  in  the  Valenciennes  Library,  and  be- 
longing to  the  9th  or  early  10th  century.  ^ 
This  language  of  the  Trouv^es  was  spoken  in 
Northern  Fiance  and  Belgium  for  some  centuries, 
and  during  the  11th,  12th,  and  13th  numerous 
songs  were  composed  which,  with  their  melodies, 
still  exist  With  regard  to  the  Flemish  songs, 
F^tis  says  it  is  more  difficult '  to  decide  with 
certainty  whether  they  are  as  old  as  they  are 
reputed  toJ)e.  Of  these,  one  famous  song,  to 
judge  by  the  character  of  the  poetry,  reaches 
back  to  the  Norman  traditions  of  the  10th 
century.*  It  is  known  by  the  name  of  *  Heer 
Halew^jn/  and  Willems,  who  published  the 
song  in  1836  with  the  original  text,  says  it  is 
still  heard  in  Brabant  and  Flanders.^  The 
many  versions  of  the  melody  make  it  impossible 
to  date  it  with  accuracy,  but  the  following  (in 
the  Hypomixolydian  mode)  is  considered  the 
oldest  and  purest : — 


Ex.  1. 


Heer  HcUewijn, 


p 

-^gpjTgJM^tep 

^^ 

%J                  '                           ■■         ■    •-    '"-    - 

Heer  Halewijn  song  een  Ue^e-kljn,  al  die  dat  hoor-de 

0                               -^                                  ""^ 

m=r^ 

^^ 

-^^=^=f^ 

^^^ 

a.  zljn,  al  dledathoor-de  wou  bi  hem  lijn. 


Although  it  is  true  that  the  aim  of  tlie 
representative  Netherland  School  (1426-1626) 
was  polyphonic,  it  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that 
the  work  of  these  learned  contrapuntists  was 
the  only  form  of  music  prevailing  in  the  country 
at  this  time.  National  songs  existed  con- 
temporaneously with  it ;  and  the  tunes  these 
great  masters  used  as  themes  for  their  glorious 
masses,  motets,  and  polyphonic  chansons  were 
practically  their  own  folk-songs.  That  such 
historic  French  and  Flemish  tunes  as  'L'Homme 
arm^,'  *  Cents  mills  ecus,'  *  Forseulement,' 
*  Je  me  demande,*  *Myn  Hert,'  *  *  Het  daghet,'  ^ 
were  not  merely  worthy  of  local  recognition  is 
proved  by  their  constant  use  throughout  Europe. 

>  F^fcia.  BiHotn  Otn.  d«  la  Mut,  It.  480. 

>  Ibid.  r.Ketteq. 

«  OM»r  FlelMfaer,  in  «n  Kapitel  vtrgUkhtftdtr  MvHkwimnaehaft 

gammMMnde,  I.M.O. .  1. 1. 1809).  ahow*  the  rwemblance  between  the 
alewlln  melody  and  a  Brittany  ballad,  ■  Die  drei  Monnlken ' 
(see  ViUemarqnd.  p.  18B).  and  the  melody  of  a  hymn, '  Sldos  aolare,' 
Crom  a  Neapolitan  HS.  of  the  11th  and  12th  centurle*.  and  dis- 
cuaeee  which  la  the  older. 

•  F.  van  Dayae  oorrobozatea  this  by  laying  that  Pol  de  Mont 
(poet  and  folk-Iorlst)  heard  the  '  Halewijnalled '  in  1896  in  the 
en-virona  of  Leu  wen.  (See  JSM  ouda  A^ttUnrlaivUehe  IA»A,  i.  13.)  In 
thia  atandard  work  Duyae  practically  incladea  all  the  aonga  fuand 
in  the  Netherlanda  with  the  words  and  tone  of  each,  and  their 
Tarlanta.  The  valuable  preface  explains  the  verae  metre,  rhythm, 
acalea,  and  general  form,  and  la  indlspenaable  to  the  student. 

0  Used  by  Pierre  de  la  Rue  in  a  4-part  chanson.  See  Amhros. 
ill.  941. 

1  Used  by  Clemens  non  Papa  in  a  3-part  chanson.  See  Duyae. 
1.124. 


The  Netberland  masters,  however,  rarely  gave 
the  whole  melody  even  to  the  leading  part, 
and  seldom  more  than  one  couple  of  the  words, 
and  hence  the  fragmentary  character  of  the 
songs  they  bequeathed  to  us.  But  gradually 
the  spirit  of  the  folk-song  began  to  influence 
their  highest  forms  of  composition,  and  they 
realised  that  in  their  ckansons^  vUlanelleSj  and 
camonetteSj  written  in  four,  five,  six,  seven,  or 
eight  parts,  *  mechanical  invention  must  be 
subservient  to  idea,  and  euphony  and  expres- 
sion should  equally  be  the  objects  of  the  com- 
poser. ' '  Amongst  the  works  of  Dufay,  Binchois, 
Faugues,  Busnois,  and  in  Petrucci's  *Ganti 
cento  cinquanta,'  there  are  songs  which,  in 
regularity  of  form  and  simplicity  of  character, 
rival  the  folk-songs.  Nor  are  examples  want- 
ing in  the  minor  works  of  Okeghen^,  Pierre  de 
la  Eue,  Josquin  des  Pr&,  Gombert,  Willaert,^ 
Ooudimel,  Clemens  non  Papa,  Jannequin,^ 
Arcadelt,  and  Orlandus  Lassus,  of  secular 
melodies  conceived  in  a  strain  of  freshness, 
naivete,  humour,  and  brightness,  or  marked  by 
a  power  of  lyric  expression  belonging  to  a  much 
later  time. 

The  picture  of  an  age  and  its  culture  is  always 
vividly  reflected  in  its  folk-songs ;  it  was  therefore 
the  natural  result  of  the  intensity  of  the  impulse 
given  to  religious  life  by  the  *  mystics '  that  so 
great  a  number  of  sacred  songs  were  created 
during  the  14th  century.*  The  ground  had 
already  been  prepared  by  the  celebrated  ascetics 
Greert  Groote  and  Johann  Ruysbrock,  and  the 
numerous  sacred  Minne-aongs^  were  the  especial 
outcome  of  the  mystic  movement.  About  the 
middle  of  the  15  th  century  the  early  Hederykers^ 
(who  correspond  with  the  German  Mcisterainger) 
substituted  for  the  harshly  realistic  secular 
songs  of  the  day  their  own  carefully  prepared 
sacred  songs.  ^  For  these  they  either  altered 
the  words  of  the  secular  songs  to  give  them  a 
sacred  meaning,  or  they  adapted  totally  new 
religious  words,  retaining  the  secular  tune  un- 
changed.^ And  this  practice  prevailed  in  the 
Netherlands  throughout  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries.  In  1561  Tyhnan  Susato  published 
his  '  Souterliedekens,'  consisting  of  portions  of 
the  Psalms  according  to  the  rhymed  Flemish 
version,  set  unaltered  to  the  popular  song-tunes 

1  Nanmium's  HUt.  (\f  Mia.  1.  388. 

*  In  Wlllaert  we  cleiirly  we  the  modem  spirit,  not  only  In  wh»t 
he  did  for  harmony  bat  also  for  hl«  recognition  of  the  valne  of  the 
■olo-Toioe.  In  12)36  he  »rrui«ed  some  ctf  Vordelot'e  madrividi  for 
solo-aonff  with  •ooompaniment  of  lat«. 

s  Wof^dridge  ffiree  a  lovely  little  aong,  'Ce  Hoys  de  JIal/  hy 
Janneqain,  showing  the  transition  between  the  two  style*,  where 
the  harmony  is  In  plain  chords,  bnt  'the  polyphonic  element  in 
still  present  in  the  mdodions  flow  and  independent  interest  of  the 
separate  parts.'    Oa/ord  BUt,  of  Mutie,  ii.  S77. 

«  See  W.  BKumker,  Nitderl&ndiache  gtUtUeh*  Umd«r,  ngrMiakn- 
aehri/t,  1888. 

>  All  those  songs  deal  with  Christ  as  the  Brideipw>m  fbr  Whom 
the  loving  soul  yearns. 

«  For  information  on  the  guilds  of  poets  and  mnsielaiis  in  the 
Ketherlands.  see  MoUey's  Mte  oftht  Jhttclh  SapubUe,  i.  78  stse^. 


7  For  examples  from  the  later  rsderyter.  M.  van  Castelyn's  songs 
Mveraehm  UtftUrkent).  see  Duyse,  11. 1830  et  »tq.  One  of  Castelyn's 
songs.  ■  Ohepeys.  Ohepeys,  vol  Tsm  eurijen/  la  included  in  most 


colleottons. 

8  In  this  manner  many  secular  aonga  hare  been  preserved  intact, 
instead  of  only  In  a  fragmentary  or  matilated  fonn,  such  as  we 
have  seen  the  polyphonic  writen  reduced  them  to. 


of  the  day.  This  publication  was  succeeded 
by  Fruytier's  *  Eoclesiasticus '  (1565)  and  the 
various  Roman  Catholic  song -books,  such  as 
*Theodotus,'  '  Het  Paradijs  *  (Antwerp,  1621), 
which  similarly  contained  a  mass  of  secular 
melodies.  WMlst  the  Church  scales  were  still 
in  use  the  greater  part  of  the  earlier  melodies 
were  in  the  Dorian  mode,  though  the  Phrygian 
and  Lydian  were  also  represented.^ 

Very  different  in  character  from  the  sacred 
songs  of  the  mystics,  of  the  rederykers,  of  the 
Roman  Catholics,  or  those  which  the  Reforma- 
tion produced,  were  the  songs  of  liberty  and 
patriotism  sung  a  generation  later  during  the 
Spanish  oppression.  Amongst  other  collections 
the  famous  song-book  of  the  Gueux  ^^  ('Geusen- 
Liedenboecxkens,'  1588),  and  Adrianus  Valerius' 
*Gedenck-Clanck'  (1621-26)"  (see  Valerius), 
contain  the  classics  of  Dutch  musical  literature, 
and  are  historically  of  inestimable  value. 
They  give  us  the  ballads  of  'Egmont  and 
Horn,'  the  *  Storm  of  Leyden*;  the  splendid 
political  songs  of  satire  on  the  Spanish  generals, 
such  as  the  'Spotlied  op  de  Bossu,'  'Spotlied 
op  de  Alva,'  or  the  patriotic  songs  such  as 
'Ein  Liedje  op  den  Briel,*  or  *De  Geuzen  bij 
Antwerpen,'  and  *  Wilhelmus  van  Nassouwe ' — 
the  Dutch  national  anthem.  (See  Wilhelmus 
VAN  Nassouwe.)  These  grand  old  Netherland 
songs  breathe  a  spirit  of  protest  against  tyranny, 
and  of  warlike  determination  tempered  with 
resignation  under  disaster,  which  sets  them  on 
a  distinct  plane  of  their  own.  In  many  of  the 
collections  only  the  name  of  the  tune  (stem)  is 
mentioned  to  which  the  song  was  sung.  Such 
is  the  case  with  those  in  the  '  Geusen  Lieden- 
boecxkens,'  but  Valerius  has  given  the  actual 
melodies  as  well.  Many  tunes  are  derived  from 
foreign  sources,  and  especial  interest  is  attached 
to  those  of  English  origin,  of  which  the  follow- 
ing collections  contain  the  most:  'Friesche  Lus- 
thof(1621);«  'Gedenck-Clanck' (1621-26) ;13 
*  Den  singende  Zwaen '  (1664)  ;  '  Stichtelycke 
Rymen'  (1624)  ;i*  ' Bellerophon '  (1633) ;i^  and 
Thysius's  and  Vallet's  lute-books.  At  the  time 
of  Queen  Elizabeth,  when  the  cultivation  of 
music  in  England  was  at  its  height,  intercourse 
between  this  country  and  the  Netherlands  was 
most  frequent.  English  traders  arrived  in 
Dutch  harbours,  English  students  studied  at 
Leyden,  English  actors  played  in  Amsterdam,'® 

9  Blomker  has  given  examples  of  these  interchangeable  sacred 
and  secular  songs  nrom  two  old  MS.  ooUootions :  one  is  in  the  K.  K. 
Fideikommisblbliothek  in  Vienna,  and  the  other  in  the  KOnJgltdM 
Bibllothek  in  Berlin.  The  tunes  are  nearly  all  to  be  found  in 
BOhme's  'Altdeutsohes  Liederbuoh.'  and  frequently  ooenr  agii^  in 
Dutch  coUecttons.  See  also  'Oeistliche  nnd  Weltllche  Compel- 
tionen  des  XV.  Jshrfaunderts,'  bearbeltet  von  Ouido  Adler  und 
Ovwald  Koller. 

i(>  Or 'Gentlemen  beggars.'  Forthe  origin  of  the  word  see  Motley's 
Rimi^ftht  Dutck  KeptMie,  L  43See  ss?. 

>i  Dr.  A.  Loman  has  harmonised  a  selection  from  the  Geiuen- 
licdeuboeexkens '  and  the  *  Oedeneic-Clanck.'  Both,  with  his  interest- 
ing prefaces  and  notes,  were  published  by  the  MaatsdaappiJ  tot 
bevordering  der  Toonkunst  for  1871  and  18f^    (See  Vkkxkhiouto.) 

>s  J.  SUrter. 

»  See  J.  P.  Iju>d's  article  on  Valerius's '  Oedendc-Clanck '  in  voL  1. 
of  the  Tifdaehiift  Oer  tervmiffinf  voor  JVoovd-IffderlandM  Mutiek- 
gmehdedeitM.  (Land's  references  are  to  the  let  edition  of  Chwnidl'h 
Pop.  Jitule.)  i«  Cam^aysen.  u  D.  P.  Pen. 

i«  Die  ainff$pM4  der  mglimAtn  KomSdIanUn,  Dr.  J.  Bolte.  18831 


SONG 


58& 


and  English  soldiers  fought  side  by  side  with 
the  Dutch  against  the  Spaniards.  And  it  is 
clear  that  Dutch  musicians  were  well  acquainted 
with  English  ballads,  for  certain  songs,  such  as 
*  Fortune/  *What  if  a  day*  (identical  with 
'  Wilhelmus  van  Nassouwe '),  *  Barafostus' 
Dream,*  and  the  *  CJobbler's  Jig,**  were  evidently 
favourites,  as  they  occur  so  frequently.  The 
last-named  tune  is  used  in  the  'Gedenck-Clanck* 
for  the  song  '  Wie  dat  sich  selfs  verheft,'  and 
Valerius  calls  the  stem  '  Engelslapperken.*  On 
comparing  this  Dutch  song  of  satire  on  Alva's 
standard  with  the  English  version,  it  will  be 
seen  that  not  a  note  has  been  altered. 


Ex.  2. 


TVie  dat. 


Wia  dat  aich  aeiU  T«r-heft  te-met,  vert  v«l  e«n  ar-int 
duo  d'Alf  v  beeld,  tot  ipljt  g0-«et,  wacr  af>ge-bro-ken 


BtriJ-dlg  to  met 


on-aer  Landen  ataet. 


llj  -  dig  to  «n 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  songs  in  this  collec- 
tion, '  Waer  datmen  sich  al  keerd  of  wend '  (a 
fine  patriotic  poem  by  Valerius),  set  to  the  stem 
'  Pots  hondert  du\jsent  *  slapperment '  (named 
also  by  Valerius  *  AUemande  Pekelharing'),  bears 
a  strong  resemblance  to  *  Walking  in  a  country 
town.'  3 

Ex.  3.  IFaer  datmen,* 

Wa«r  dat-mcn  sich  al  keerd  of  wend, End'  waer*men 
Waer  dat-men  reljet  of  rotat,o(  rend  .End'  waer-men 


1  8ee  CbappeU's  Old  MngUA  Pop.  MuaUs  (new  edition).  1.  78.  lOQL 
14S.  279. 

-  Ttauent  in  tome  yeralons.  See  Starter'a,  from  whom  Valeriue 
pomlbly  took  the  time. 

3  ChappelU  1.  117. 

4  Ttaiu  amnfed  by  Loman.  (The  openlntr  phzase  recalto  the 
Swedish  song  'O  Wermetond.') 


Zee.   Ato 


door  het  boaeh  de     Leenw. 


Valerius  has  also  included  nineteen  purely  Dutch 
folk -tunes  in  the  'Gedenck-Clanck,'  and  one 
cannot  fail  to  be  struck  by  the  bold  sweeping 
melodic  lines,  massive  structure,  and  stately 
dignity  of  these  songs.  The  Dutch  and  North 
Flemish  folk-songs  have,  in  fact,  much  in 
common  with  the  German  Volkslied,  which  is 
explicable  when  we  consider  the  consanguinity 
of  the  races,  the  resemblance  of  temperament, 
and  the  similarity  of  language  and  poetical 
forms.  ^  Many  of  the  tunes  are  modal,  and  yet 
have  a  feeling  for  harmony  which  is  unusual 
in  such  tunes.  The  melodies  most  frequently 
begin  on  the  up-beat,  and  as  the  musical  rhythm 
follows  the  words  very  closely  ^  frequent  changes 
of  time  are  necessitated,  although  the  actual 
rhythmical  figures  present  little  variety  : — 


Ex.  4. 


Het  daghetJ 


ken,    ocfa 


The  songs  are  by  no  means  always  in  regular 
periods ;  constantly  the  first  jmrt  consists  of 
eight  and  the  second  part  of  five  or  six  bars,  or 
of  five  and  seven  bars  each  as  in  the  *  Spotlied. ' 
(See  p.  590,  Ex.  5.)  Sometimes  only  one  bar  is 
added,  as  if  to  give  emphasis  to  the  last  words. 
Melodic  melismas  are  of  frequent  occurrence, 
even  in  strophical  songs,  and  are  probably  du& 
to  the  influence  of  the  Church.  And  yet, 
paradoxical  as  it  may  seem,  the  songs  never 

9  It  may  be  wfely  aaeerted  that  two-thirde  of  the  songs  given  in 
Dnyse's  funons  ooUeotion  ooonr  also  In  F.  Bllhme's  *  Altdentsehes 
liederbndi'  and  other  German  oollectiona,  with  only  slight  differ- 
ences in  the  words  and  melodies.  A»  one  example,  take  'Daer 
staet  een  olooster  in  Oostenrlje'  (Dnyse,  1.  473)  and  'Bs  llegt  eln 
Behloss  Im  Oesterreleh '  (WAime.  164).  BShme  drew  attention  to 
thto  point  in  his  preface,  saying :  '  The  German  and  old  Netherland 
folk-songs  are  indiatinguishabTe,  for  from  the  last  half  of  the  IBth 
to  the  end  of  the  16th  oentuzy  they  hod  a  fnnd  of  folk-poetiy  in 
common.  And  amongst  tiie  son^s  contained  in  the  Netherland 
collections  (see  especially  those  in  the  Antwerp  Bong-book  of  1044) 
many  were  written  both  In  High  and  Low  German ;  and  in  the 
German  collections  (see  tat  instance,  Bhaw's  '  Blcinia')  songs  occur 
with  Netherland  text  and  sometimes  with  the  mark  Brubantiea 
annexed.  This  interchange  need  caose  no  surprise  when  the  dose 
intercourse  promoted  by  the  Hanseatlo  Lea^e  to  taken  Into 
account.* 

0  Following  the  verse-metre  oloeely  to  pecnltorly  oharactertotfo  of 
Dutch  folk-songs. 

7  Thto  ISth-oentury  song  to  set  to  Ftalm  It.  in  the  'Sontei^ 
Uedekena'  (1040),  and  was  used  by  Clemens  non  Papa  in  a  dumson 
for  three  roicei,  and  published  in  Antwerp  in  1660.  It  occurs  atoo 
in  a  diiftrent  form  in  the  Gueux  song-book  (1876),  set  to  'Oeh  God 
will  doch  vertroosten.'  also  in  Oamphuysen's  and  many  other  collec- 
tions.   See  Duyse,  1. 134. 


AX     9.  tjpU^tCV,  VJ/  %JUi  JJWSU, 


d-pMl.  dlt  l»d  iok  mlj  1 


lose  their  classical  character  of  regularity  of 
form. 

Belgium  being  a  bilingual  country  the  folk- 
songs are  divided  into  two  classes,  Flemish  and 
Walloon.'  The  Flemish  are  more  numerous 
and  widespread ;  indeed  they  extend  north 
into  Holland^  where  they  Intermingle  with  the 
Dutch.  The  Walloon  songs  are  more  local, 
though  they  include  all  those  sung  in  French 
or  in  the  curious  Walloon  dialect.'  Just  as  the 
Flemish  people  show  affinity  with  the  German, 
the  Walloons  resemble  the  French.  The  grace 
and  liveliness  of  the  French  cAaTuon,  the  love 
the  French  have  for  satirical  words  and  strongly 
marked  dance-rhythms,^  are  qualities  exhibited 
by  the  Walloons.  In  the  district  round  Li^ 
a  particular  genre  of  satirical  song  exists,  called 
la  paaqneye,  and  amongst  the  numerous  Belgian 
dance -songs,  the  'Cr&mignona'  of  the  same 
district  should  be  especially  noticed.  The 
following  is  a  favourite  : — 


Ex.  «. 


Cramignon,^ 


^Ss^^^i^S 


FteaT'  molMl    qmnta  iA-tA'   tat    WIh'  dont 


po  dil  1«   m  •  tnM.  Vo  •  ebal  vl-now*  r*. 

jUtT      ||2nd.  I&rfo. 


molM.rarrefiM  llmolM. 


PMiT*  molM  I  qau  n'tu  tky^ 


tat   WW      dont        po    dri  !«■    A  .  boiu 


tat   WW      dont        po    dri  !«■    A 

The  traditional  ballads  of  the  old  French 

1  1%te  HiBg  doM  not  appaar  In  tha  flnt  edltloBa  of  th«  Gaenz 
wnir-brok.  but  th«  melody  la  ciron  In  Lnther'i  bymn-took  of  ]«M 
to  woidii  by  Speratu.  •  E«  irt  dM  Hell' ;  aftonranU  It  wm need  by 
tiie  BohemUn  Brothan,  and  by  the  Lnthatuu  In  Antwerp  In  imz. 
WlntMfeld  M^s  In  hia  Mvang.  Xfrakm^Maiv.  L  41.  that  In  Ita 
original  form  It  waa  nndonbtedly  a  aaenlar  folk-aonc. 


waa  nndonbtedly  a  aaenlar  folk-aona. 

•  -i^v-  i.-?'  ?^^  **••  P«wlno"  Balgea'  (preface).  Bmeat 

*  Thla  dlaleet  waa  dyln*  out.  bat  wlttiln  the  laat  twenty  yean 


'Cbanaooa  pop.  dee 


tCIoaion. 


•ftwti  hare  been  made  by  the  Ll«ce  poet  Nloolaa  Defnohenx  and 
by  folk-loriata  to  pnaerve  It. 


<  M  and  frS  time  are  Tery  eommon  among  the  Walloon  aonga. 
•Terry  and  ChaamoBt'a  eoUeetlon.  firam  which  the  abore  1 


pruvm«»B,  ixiiraine,  ncaray,  Jiuveigne,  ana 
Provence,  survive  in  the  Ardennes.  In  the 
Walloon  songs  the  rrfraitu  follow  much  the 
same  lines  as  other  countries  ;  rhyme  is  by  no 
means  universal,  and  is  often  replaced  by  mere 
assonance  ;  the  dialogue  form  is  veiy  common, 
and  consists  of  innumerable  strophes.*  Modal 
melodies  are  frequently  found  amongst  the 
Noels  and  other  religious  songs.  The  profound 
sincerity  and  naivete  of  the  Noels  must  appeal 
to  all,  and  if  a  vein  of  realistic  familiarity, 
attractive  to  the  peasantry,  is  repellent  to  the 
more  cultivated  taste,  none  will  deny  that 
they  possess  a  touching  charm  of  their  own, 
difficult  to  convey  in  words. 

It  is  inevitable  that  songs  handed  down 
century  after  century  should  undergo  changes, 
but  this  is  less  so  in  the  Netherlands  than  in 
most  other  countries.  Conscious  of  their  value, 
Flemish  and  Dutch  musicians  have  at  all  times 
been  assiduous  in  forming  collections  of  their 
songs  and  thus  preserving  them  in  their  original 
condition.  7  This  has  not  been  the  case  with 
the  French  and  Walloon-speaking  inhabitants 
of  the  country.  They  have  depended  on  oral 
tradition,  and  hence  their  songs  have  suffered 
considerable  deterioration  in  the  course  of  time. 
Indifference  to  the  folk-song  steadily  gained 
ground  among  this  people,  and  their  preference 
for  debased  tunes  from  the  vaudeville  and  op&a- 
comique  was  fostered  by  inferior  composers, 
who  wrote  in  accordance  with  the  prevailing 
taste.  Fortunately  this  evil  is  now  being 
counteracted  by  earnest  musicians, ^  who  are 
devoting  themselves  to  the  task  of  rescuing  the 
folk-songs  from  neglect,  and  issuing  exhaustive 
collections  from  the  various  districts.  The 
wealth  of  songs  and  their  beauty  have  fully 
justified  their  labours. 

After  the  16th  century,  the  glory  of  the 
Flemish  school  *  waned  ;  the  contrapuntal  age 
was  over  and  monody  reigned  in  its  place. 
From  henceforth  very  few  musicians  of  any 
importance  devoted  their  talents  to  vocal  music. 
As  representative  songs  of  the  18th  century  we 
may  mention  those  by  the  Flemish  composer 
6.  de  Fesch,  who  came  over  to  England  about 
1780  and  published  there  a  volume  entitled 
*Ganzonette  ed  Arie  a  voce  sola.'  They  are 
sentimental  like  the  French  songs  of  the  period, 
regular  in  form,  with  fairly  agreeable  harmony. 
Of  greater  interest  are  the  songs  interspersed  in 

*  The  (Flemish)  laoe>niak«ra  for  IncUnoe  hare  their  own  eapeeltl 
■onga  with  apparently  meanlna leaa  worda,  bat  which  nprtaent  to 
them  a  given  nnmber  or  kind  of  atltdL  Bach  worker  tak«  np 
one  of  theaa  endleaa  yeraea  In  turn.    Bee  Lootona  and  Fey'a '  ChanU 


era  of  the  XaataehapBlJ  tot  bervnlariog 
Intereatlng  pablloaUona  hare  grMtly 
H.  Bogge.  J.  P.  Land.  A.  D.  Loman. 
1.  n.  PrSohenleer.  and  Bneohed4  alao 


'  The  eflbrts  of  the  membera  of  the  1 
der  Toonknnat  and  their  I   . 
oontribnted  to  thla  end.    H.  1 

J.  lUtatgen,  F.  ran  Doyae,  T , 

deeerve  apedal  reoognltlon  In  thia  conneeUon. 

*  Among  theee  the  namea  of  L.  Terry  and  Chanmont,  Looteof  and 
Feya.  L.  Jonrrt.  X.  ClaeBon,  O.  Golaon  (the  director  of  the  IMft 
review  WaXUmta,  which  eontalna  mnch  infomation  abont  the 
Walloon  folk-aongs).  and  the  ourA  J.  Bole  hold  an  honoored  plae«u 

*  Teehnleally.  the  term  Flemish  haa  no  longer  the  eame  alcnlft* 
canoe  ae  It  had  earlier ;  that  la  to  aay.  It  la  now  roon  IdentllM 
with  Belgian  than  with  Doteh  art. 


SONG 


591 


the  short  allegorical,  mythological,  and  pastoral 
plays  then  much  in  vogue.  Van  der  Straeten  * 
gives  as  a  characteristic  example,  a  pretty 
little  'Berg^re  Flamande,'  from  Lambrecht's 
*  Vlaemsche  Vrede-Vreucht' ;  but  whether  it 
was  original  or  an  adopted  folk-song  is  an  open 
question.  *  Le  Yoegge  de  Chofontaine, '  an  op^ra- 
bouffe  by  the  Liege  composer  G.  Noel  Hamal, 
contained  the  favourite  couplets  and  dances  in 
the  district  in  which  it  was  written.*  By 
degrees,  however,  these  unimportant  local  operas 
died  out,3  and  composers  sought  their  laurels  in 
Paris.  Both  Belgium  and  France  lay  claim  to 
Gossec  and  Gr^try  as  national  composers  ;  and 
similarly  Grisar,  C^sar  Franck,  and  many  others, 
who,  although  Belgians  by  birth,  are  practically 
regarded  as  French  composers,  having  identified 
themselves  with  the  French  schooL 

Belgium. — The  year  1834  witnessed  the 
constitution  of  Belgium  as  a  separate  kingdom, 
and  the  formation  of  a  Belgian  nationality. 
Up  to  that  date  there  are  no  songs  worthy  of 
mention,  with  the  possible  exception  of  La 
BRABANgoNKE,  the  national  song  of  Belgium, 
composed  by  Van  Campenhout  in  1880.  The 
generality  of  composers  had  hitherto  continued 
to  use  indiscriminately  French  and  Flemish 
words  for  their  songs,  until  within  recent  years 
a  small  group  of  musicians  arose  who  avowedly 
are  endeavouring  to  give  Flemish  art  once 
more  a  national  character.  This  has  been 
designated  the  mouvement  flamingantj  and  the 
foremost  personalities  belonging  to  it  were 
P.  Benoit,  whose  songs  set  to  Flemish  words 
are  full  of  life  and  colour,  and  Edgar  Tinel. 
The  latter  is  an  interesting  composer  with  a 
strong  individuality,  but  his  songs  are  few. 
Many  other  excellent  musicians,  who  have 
all  written  ballads  and  songs,  joined  this 
movement,  such  as  Lenaerts,  Wambach,  and 
Jan  Blockx,  the  most  brilliant  of  them  all. 
Mention  must  also  be  made  of  Blockx's  pupil, 
Yleeshower,  and  of  Van  den  Eeden,  who  suc- 
ceeded Hubert!  as  director  of  the  Mons  Con- 
servatoire. Less  exclusively  Flemish  song- 
writers are  Eyken  and  Tilman,  who  chiefly 
confined  themselves  to  sacred  songs ;  Miry, 
C.  Meerens,  and  A.  Goovaerts,  who  wrote  for 
the  most  part  nursery  or  school  songs ;  and 
Van  Gheluwe,  J.  Radoux,  A.  Samuel,  J.  Meer- 
tens,  G.  Huberti,  and  E.  Mathieu,  who  are  the 
best-known  names.  Mathieu  has  set  many  of 
(Toethe's  ballads,  in  which  the  accompaniments 
are  highly  elaborate,  and  the  melodies  at  times 
expressive.  But  they  lack  proportion  and 
unity,  and  their  great  length  detracts  from 
their  effect.  In  Mathieu's  shorter  songs  the 
interest  is  better  sustained.  Meertens  and 
Huberti  have  written  songs  both  graceful  and 

1  £a  MvHqtu  ma  Paw^BoM,  JL  Vander  Stxm«t«n,  111.  SS. 

2  The  open  «m  revived  %  ehort  time  fo  in  Fuia,  edited  hy  Lb 
Tirry. 

3  In  1610  Van  der  Olnste  wrote  an  open  with  Flemieh  worda ; 
and  later  MI17,  Van  den  Acker,  and  Meerfeeae  attempted  Flemish 
vaadovmoa,  adilevlng.  however,  onlj  local  ■ooceea. 


melodious,  and  of  a  simple  character ;  whilst 
those  of  Jan  Blockx,  G.  Lekeu,  Paul  Gilson, 
and  the  younger  school  of  composers,  if  some- 
what eclectic,  manifest  originality,  novelty,  and 
boldness  of  invention.  The  curious  phase  of 
thought  and  the  peculiar  qualities  shown  in  the 
literature  of  Belgium  by  the  writings  of  Maeter- 
linck, Bodenbach,  and  Verhaeren,  cannot  fail 
to  leave  their  mark  also  on  the  music  of  the 
period. 

Holland. — After  the  numerous  song-books 
which  appeared  in  Holland  between  1600 
and  1700,  Dutch  composers  devoted  them- 
selves principally  to  instrumental  music 
Even  on  the  title-pages  of  vocal  pieces  we 
find  om  te  singen  of  te  spelen ;  and  Swee- 
linck's  skilftil  organ  and  clavier  variations  on 
the  songs  were  greater  favourites  than  the 
songs  themselves.  As  lutenists,  organists, 
carillonneurs,  or  theoreticians,  Dutch  musicians 
held  a  high  place  in  Europe ;  *  and  although 
among  the  works  of  various  members  of  musical 
&milies  (and  music  in  Holland  was  an  essenti- 
ally hereditary  gift)  we  find  incidental  mention 
of  songs  or  song -collections,  it  is  evident  that 
this  form  of  art  was  on  the  wane.  Hooft's 
anonymous  publication,  'EmblemataAmatoria,' 
is  the  last  collection  of  any  value  in  the  17  th 
century,  though  Jacques  Vredeman  (a  member 
of  the  Vredeman  family  of  lutenists)  is  known 
to  have  written  some  eamom  and  villanelle  to 
words  in  the  Frisian  dialect. 

To  the  18th  century  belong  De  Koninck 
and  Snep,  who  were  the  authors  of  some 
'  Nederlandsche  liederen  met  een  en  twe 
Stemmen,'  with  figured  bass,  but  these  are 
of  no  musical  value.  Tlie  same  may  be  said 
of  the  vocal  works  of  the  following  com- 
posers who  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the 
19th  century:  A.  Ten  Gate,  J.  G.  Wilms, 
G.  Hutschenru^jter,  G.  W.  Smits,  J.  Boers, 
and  D.  H.  D^jkhu^'zen.  Their  names  still 
appear  in  all  poptdar  collections  of  school 
and  patriotic  songs,  together  with  those  by 
composers  of  a  later  date  and  higher  rank,  such 
as  J.  Viotta,  J.  Antheunis,  Van  Eyken,  Richard 
Hoi,  S.  de  Lange  (the  elder),  Prudens  van 
Duyse,  and  J.  van  Riemsd^jk.  The  songs  of 
the  last-named  composers  are  best  described 
under  the  German  term  volksthiimlieh,  though 
some  of  them  have  shown  more  interesting  and 
original  work,  as,  for  example,  Riemsd^k  in 
his  '  Tranenkruikje  '  and  'Sant  Jans  Gheleide,' 
from  the  Loverkens.^ 

The  most  typical  Dutch  composers  of  the 
last  century,  the  words  of  whose  songs  are  in 
the  vernacular,  were  undoubtedly  Richard  Hoi, 
J.  Verhulst,  and  W.  F.  G.  Nicolai.  The  first 
named  is  better  known  for  his  patriotic  songs 
and  choruses.      Nicolai,   who   was  a   prolific 

*  D.  F.  Befaearleer  glTas  an  interesting  pictnre  of  moalcal  life  in 
Holland,  Amtterdam  in  d*  mu  «nHe«.  Set  MutMt  lewn.  The 
HsfQe,  1904. 

•  Hoffinann  von  Fallerdeben's  LoMrkttu  were  favourlta  wonis 
withDatoho 


ling  Mendelssohn.  Yerhalst  was  one  of  the 
most  gifted  Dutch  musicians,  a  friend  of  Schu- 
mann's, and  also  well  known  abroad.  He  has 
set  a  number  of  the  Flemish  poet  He^'e's  words 
to  music,  amongst  others  a  volume  of  children's 
songs,  *  Kinderleeven,  29  Liederen  voor  eem 
stem, '  which  are  of  great  charm.  Another  very 
favourite  writer  of  children's  songs  in  Holland 
is  Gatarina  van  Rennes. 

Modem  Dutch  song-writers  approach  more 
closely  to  the  German  school  than  to  the  French  ; 
and  although  at  this  moment  a  strong  national 
feeling  is  asserting  itself  amidst  some  of  the 
Dutch  composers,  the  general  tendency  towards 
Germany  cannot  be  denied.  Space  forbids  more 
than  the  mere  enumeration  of  the  following 
names,  many  of  whom  have  written  songs 
possessing  high  qualities:  J.  Brandts- Buys, 
J.  Wagenaar,  Hendrika  van  Tussenbroek,  J. 
Smnlders,  S.  de  Lange,  Diepenbrock,  Gottfried 
Mann,  Julius  Rontgen,  B.  Zweers,  E.  Euiler, 
A.  Spoel,  J.  H.  Loots,  H.  Viotta,  van  Brucken- 
Fock,  and  Comelie  van  Oosterzee. 

BXBUOOKAniT 

Lejeone,  J.  C.  W.    LHterkmndig  099rrigt  m  Preewtbt  9tm  de  y^dgr- 

UtndtOu  roUtmitffm  mdert  d*  ted  mhw.    GnToaiid*,  1828. 
CoaKMODaker.  C.  R.  H.  de.    EUtotre  d*  Fharmonie  «ut  moif«'*  dge. 

PUla,1882. 
OHgolr.  B.  O.    Bmai  kittorlque  mr  la  mu$tqtu  tt  !«■  muafateiu 

cfofw  Vo$  Pajf^BoM,    BnnMlSt  1881> 
DinaujL.  A.    Let  Troumirtt  d»  la  FUmdr* ;   Treuwiret,  JomgUun 

«e  M*nettTtU  du  Nord  d»  la  i^aneg  eC  dit  Midi  dm  la  BOfivua. 

Pvta.1883. 
Struton.  E.  Vuidar.    La  miulq%i»  aux  Paif-Ba»  aomt  le  XlXmt 

rndtm,    BroMels.  1807.  etc. 
Kalff,  Dr.  G.    H«t  U»d  *n  d»  MiddOaewiKii,    Le7«l«n.  1884. 
SoublM.  A.    ib^9<9«M.  U  XlXme  SUeU ;  SoUande,  Ut  XlXme  BUeU. 

Fuis.1901. 
Duyie.  F.  run.    Set  entttemmlg,  Fraiuth  en  N«dniandaA»  nKttid- 

Hik  Utd.    Bnunls.  1868.    D«  MetodU  van  hat  Ifederlandmshe 

JUed  en  hare  i*gtkmiaiAe  eomun.    The  Hague.  IMSL 
Variotu  •rtldee  In  the  Tifdtehrift  dtr  rereeniatuff  eoer  Noerd- 

Xederiandt  MudekgeeeMedtnm,  and  Bonenl  hUtoriM  by  FMis. 

NaamMui,  Ambroa,  etc. 

Coixacnova.    a.  Qvo 
(Thli  list  eontalne  only  the  most  bmou  of  the  old  ooUectlaiM.) 
Snsato,  Tylman.    '  SouterlledeikeiUw'    Antwerp,  1961. 
Vniytien.  Jan.    '  Boeledarttena.'    Antwerp,  1588. 

'  Getnen-Lieden  Boeezkena.'    1088.  etc 
Vallet,  Nlcoloa.    '  Le  Secret  dea  Muaea.'    Anuterdam.  1618-19. 
ValeriOB.  A.    '  NederLuidMhe  Oedenck-GUuick.'    Haarlem,  1698. 
Starter.  J.    '  Frlaacha  Luathof.'    Amaterdam,  1831. 
Qtm^uyaen,  D.  IL    '  Nlouwen  Jenchtaplcgel '  (no  mnalo).    169). 

'StichtelyokeBymen.'    laSM. 
Theodotaa.  S.    'HetParadiJs.'    164& 
8waen,G.  de.    '  Den  Bingende  Zwaen.'    Antwerp,  1664. 
'  Het  Llatboek  Tan  ThriToa.' 
'  Capldo's  Loathof '  (no  moaic).    1613. 
Pen,  D.  P.    'Bellerophon.*    1633. 

CoixBcnomL    ft.  Modkrv  ajtd  GBnE&AX. 
Falleraleben,  Hoflhiann  von.     '  HoUMndlacbe  Volkalleder.'  BrealaQ. 

1833 ;  *  Horae  Belgicaeb'    (Thia  oontalni  the '  Antweriiah  Uede* 

book  van  1H4.') 
Oarton,  C.    '  Ond  Tlaenuohe  liederen  en  andere  Oedlchten  der  141^ 

eu  IS*  eeawen.'    (Ylaem.  Biblioph.)  1847. 
Willems.  J.  F.      'Oude  Vlaemaohe  Liederen.'    (Thii  oontains  a 

Talnable  Uat  of  printed  and  MS.  oollectiona.)    Ghent.  184S. 
Gevaert.  F.  A.    '  VencameUng  van  adit  oode  VUenuohe  Liederen.' 

Ghent  1864. 
OooMemaker.  C.  &  H.  de.     'Chanta  pop.deaFlamand8  de  Franoe.' 

Ghent,  1896. 
Snellaert,  F.  A.    *  Oude  en  nienwe  liedjec'    Ghent.  1864. 
WytKman.  Klemena.   '  Anclens  ain  et  cdi.  pop.  de  Termonde.'  186a 
Brandta-BujB,    M.  A.     'Liedjea  Tan  en  toot  KMerlands  Volk.' 

Leyden.  1875. 
Lammd.  H.  J.  Tan.    *  Nleuw  Oenienlledboek.'    Utrecht.  1874  and 

18BQ. 
Lootena.  A.,  and  Fejra,  J.     'Chanta  pop.  flamanda  reonellUai 

Bmgea.'    Bmcoa.  1878. 
Seheltenia.  J.  H.    '  NederL  Liederen  uit  rtoggeieu  tljd.'    Leyden, 

1889. 
Wilder.  V.     'Chaoiona  pop.  flamandee  xt.  xtI.  et  xtU.  dfidea.' 

Parla. 
TtexT,  L..  et  Cbanmont.  L    '  BacueU  d'ain  de  Cr&mlgnona  at  d'airs 

pop.4U4g«.'    Li4ge.l88B. 


Rlemadijk.  J.  C.  Tan.    *  VIer  en  twintig  Uederen  nit  de  1B<^  en  16^ 
eenw  met  geertelljken  en  wereMliJken Tekat.'  Anutardaai.  1880. 

V1ot«ni,  J.  van.  and  Bmndta-Baya.  M.    *  Nederlaadaelt 
kindeiTiJmen.     Leyden.  ISIM. 

Jouret,  L.    *Chaoaon8  dn  paya  d'Ath.'    Bmaada,  1884. 

Ollaon,  P.    *  Chaoaona  pop.  dn  paya  Boraln.'    1884. 

Frederlcq,  F.      'Onae  hiaL  volkal.    van  vMr  « 
beroerten  der  16d«  eenw.'    Ghent,  18M. 

'Nederlandaofae  Uedarboek'  (pnb.  by  the  Willematond).    Ghent. 


liuife,  ] 
VoU 


D.  de.  Riamadipc  C.  Tan.  and  Kalff.  G. 
rolksUederenboek.'    Amsterdam.  1886. 
Loon.  J.  Tan.  and  Boer,  M.  de.    'Ftyak  Uetebo^k.'    Leeawaadoi, 

1880. 
BIyan.  A.,  and  Tuaeel.   M.     'lepench  (Yprea)  ood   Uedboek/ 

Ghent.1900.    <In  progreaa.) 
Cock,  A.  de.  and  XUrllnck.  L    'Klnderapel  i  Kinderinst  en  Znid- 

Nederland.'    Ghent,  1903. 
Ooen.  F.  R.     'Uederboek  Tan  Oroot-Kederland.'    Amatenlam. 


Bflntgen.   JuUua.     '  Altniederliindisehe  Krlega- nnd  Sicaealledcr 

naeh  A.  Valerlna'  0696):  '14  AltniederlXndlaefae  VoUEaUeder 

nach  A.  Valerlna.'    Leipaig.  1908. 
Cloaaon,  E.    'Chanaona pop.  dee  prorlnoea  Belgea.'    Bmaaela.  1906. 
Dnyae.  F.  Tan.     'Het  oode  Nederlandache  Lied.'     The  Hague. 

190M. 
Troelatm,  P.  J.,  and  Groot.  P.  de.    (New  edition  by  Balbcxtona.) 

'  NiJ  Fiyak  Ueteboek.     Leenwaaden,  1906. 
See  alao  the  pnbUcationa  of  the  IfaataehappiJ  tot  beTordetlng  dcr 

Toonkunat.  and  of  the  MaatKhappi  J  der  Vlaemaehe  BibUopldlen. 

The  writer  owea  her  warm  thanka  1 
of  Amaterdam  for  hla  kind  hdp. 


>  Ftofeaaor  Jnllua  BOntgen 


England 

Never  within  historic  times  has  England 
been  indifferent  to  the  art  of  music.  If  John 
Dunstable  who  lived  early  in  the  15th  century 
cannot  claim  to  have  invented  polyphony,  at 
least  he  was  one  of  the  first  to  bring  scientific 
and  artistic  order  into  the  chaos  of  harmony, 
and  raise  vocal  music  to  the  rank  of  a  structural 
art.  But  about  the  year  1240  ^ — two  centuries 
before  the  time  of  Dunstable — the  song  *  Smner 
is  ioumen  in  *  was  written  by  John  of  Fomsete, 
a  monk  of  Reading  Abbey.  Whether  this 
beautiful  canon,  still  extant,  is  the  sole  survivor 
of  many  such  compositions,  or  was  a  solitary 
inspiration,  is  hidden  from  us,  but  it  certainly 
implied  a  long  previous  course  of  study  and 
practice. 

As  Franoe  gave  birth  to  the  Troubadours,  and 
Germany  to  the  Minnesingers,  so  did  Elngland 
in  a  remote  age  produce  her  own  Bards  and 
afterwards  her  Scalds  and  Minstrels,  her 
Gleemen  and  Harpers,  all  of  whom  were  held 
in  high  repute  by  their  countrymen.  And 
there  is  a  record  of  a  company  or  brotherhood, 
called  '  Le  Pui,'  formed  by  some  merchants  in 
London,  at  the  end  of  the  13th  century,  for  the 
encouragement  of  musical  and  poetical  composi- 
tions. With  this  purpose  they  assembled 
periodically,  and  competitions  were  held,  though 
the  reluctance  of  the  brotherhood  to  admit  any 
but  members  to  those  meetings  prevented  their 
influence  being  widespread.  The  name  denotes 
a  French  origin,  which  is  easily  possible 
considering  the  close  intercourse  between  France 
and  England  after  the  Norman  Conquest  and 
during  the  time  of  the  Crusades,*     Of  the 

1  Or  1936.  aooordlng  to  Dr.  WUlbald  Kagel'a  geaehMa*  der  MutU 
<n  Sn^nd,  L  76,  «(  asy,  where  an  intereatlng  diaevaalon  of  that 
aong  will  be  found.    (See  Bvmkr  ib  icunur  VK^ 

a  Bee  H.  I.  Riley'e  tMer  Ouetttmarum,  p.  9881  The  langnagM  of 
lAtin.  French,  and  Bngliah  were  for  a  time  intermingled,  but  by  the 
middle  of  the  14th  century  Frendi  had  beoome  a  foreigB  langnage. 
'   for  eeeleaiaatloi   and  adtolan,  and  erery 


SONG 


693 


ibundance  of  popular  tones  in  the  14th  century 
ividence  is  supplied  by  the  number  of  hymns 
vritten  to  them.  For  instance,  *  Sweetest  of 
kU,  sing/  *  Good-day,  my  leman  dear/  and 
uany  otheTs  were  secular  stage-songs,  to  which 
he  Bishop  of  Ossory,  who  lived  about  1850, 
vrote  Latin  hymns.  While  the  minstrels 
lourished,  notation  was  difficult  and  uncertain, 
ind  they  naturally  trusted  to  memory  or 
mprovisation  for  the  tunes  to  which  their  tales 
hould  be  sung.  [See  Minstrels.]  But  with 
lie  end  of  the  15th  century  the  Minstrels 
[isappeared,  their  extinction  accelerated  by  the 
Qvention  of  printing.  When  the  pedlar  had 
legun  to  traverse  the  coimtry  with  his  penny 
K)oksand  his  songs  on  broadsheets  the  Minstrel's 
lay  was  past.*  To  the  time  of  the  Minstrels 
•elongs,  however,  the  famous  *  Battle  of  Agin- 
ourt '  song,*  with  the  date  1416. 


Ex.  1. 


The  Song  of  Agincourt. 


.  .  depro    Tie -to    - 

.     rl   - 

a. 

Owra  kjDge  vut  forth  to 

<P,    g^    ^  1 ^- 

:^P=3: 

-r-h— 

— I 

^r  ^  [■=->— 

i^E^^ 

a^fztjj. 

\^ 

:=t= 

Nor-mui-dy,  With  gxmoe  and  myght  of        tbj-rtl  •  ry : 


^^^^^^ 


Tber  God  for     him  wrought  xnar-Teliu-ly.     Wher-fore  Eng- 


i^g 


Si; 


T'f  r  J)^-^sL 


'  londe  nMj  call  and  ciT    De 
Chorus. 


o   gra   •    -   d  • 


b  the  reigns  of  Henry  VI.  and  Edward  IV. 
eloug  also  many  carols,  and  amongst  them 
16  celebrated  *  Nowell,  Nowell '  and  the  *  Boar's 
Lead '  Carol,  sung  even  now  every  Christmas 

iglishman,  high  or  low,  apoke  his  own  tongue.  Qe$.  d.  Muaik  in 
ifffand.  Dr.  W.  Nagal,  il.  »tt  mq. 

1  For  further  Infonnation  about  the  minotrelB  eee  Old  XngUA 
■inUfir  Jftu.,  Chappell.  Lletug.;  and  Gt$.  d.  Jtutik  in  Bntfiand, 
igeU  l.Wetmrq. 

t  Old  Snffltth  Popular  Mutie,  i.  S8.  Chappell  further  aaya  that 
I  en  Henry  V.  entered  the  dty  of  London  in  triumph  after  the 
ttle  of  Agincourt  .  .  .  boys  with  pleasing  ▼oloee  were  pUoed  in 
tiflcial  turrets  iginff  Teraei  in  hla  pralee.  But  Henry  ordered 
iM  part  of  the  pageantry  to  cease,  and  commanded  that  for  the 
:  ure  no  ditties  should  be  made  and  sung  by  minstrels  or  others  in 
ti»«  of  the  recent  victories  'for  that  he  would  whollle  have  the 
ti.sc  and  thanks  altogether  giTen  to  God.'  KevertheleBs  among 
my  othem,  a  minstrel  pieoe  soon  appeared  on  the  Setfg*  ef  Harjhtt 
.txtleur),  and  the  BaUaiOe  of  Aatrnkourt,  evidentW,  says  Warton. 
npt«d  to  the  harp,  and  of  which  he  has  printed  some  portions 
ijitorif  of  Kngliih  Poetrjf,  11.  257).  The  above  song,  which  was 
lilted  in  the  18th  century  by  Percy.  Bumey,  and  J.  Stafford 
lith.  from  a  MS.  in  the  Pepysian  colleetion  in  the  Library  of 
iur(lM.Iene  College.  Cambridge,  has  been  shown  by  ICr.  Puller 
litl&ud  to  be  an  incomplete  teanseript  from  one  in  Trinity  College, 
inbridge.  In  which  the  melody  stands  aa  aboTc.  (See  'English 
rola  of  the  15th  Century.') 

VOL.  IV 


at  Queen's  College,  Oxford.'  Some  of  these 
carols  may  have  been  composed  by  John 
Dunstable  or  his  contemporaries.  Although 
in  England  there  is  little  left  of  this  earliest 
English  School  of  composers,  on  the  Continent 
recent  discoveries  have  been  important.  *0 
rosa  bella, '  a  three-part  love-song,  by  Dunstable, 
was  found  at  Rome,  and  afterwaids  in  a  different 
version  at  Dijon,*  and  it  is  evidently  counter- 
point on  a  popular  song.  A  number  of  other 
MSS.  of  English  composers'  works  of  this  period 
exist  at  Modena  and  Trent,  and  the  latter 
library  contains  another  secular  song  '  Puisque 
m'amour '  by  Dunstable.^  (See  Dunstable.) 
In  the  period  between  1485  and  1547,^  which 
covers  the  reigns  of  Henry  VII.  and  Henry 
VIII.,  social  and  political  ballads  multiplied 
fast ;  and  among  the  best-knoi^-n  productions 
of  these  reigns  are  the  following :  *  Pastyme  with 
good  companye,'  composed  by  Henry  VIII. 
himself ;  *  The  three  ravens,'  *  John  Dory,*  *  The 
hunt  is  up,*  7  *We  be  three  poor  Mariners,' 
'Robin,  lend  me  thy  bow,'  *My  little  pretty 
one,*  *Sellenger's  Round,*  *Westron  Wynde,'^ 
etc.  It  should  be  noticed  here  that  many 
variations  in  the  copies  of  old  tunes  indicate 
uncertainty  in  oral  traditions.  Formerly  the 
general  opinion  was  that  the  old  secular  music 
of  European  countries  was  based  upon  the  same 
scale  or  mode  as  the  modern  major  scale,  i.e. 
the  Ionian  mode.  But  it  is  now  generally 
acknowledged  that  the  ecclesiastical  modes  were 
fully  used  in  England  in  the  composition  of  all 
kinds  of  secular  music  until  early  in  the  17th 
century,  and  many  of  the  popular  songs  were 
written  throughout  this  period  in  the  Dorian, 
Mixolydian,  and  other  modes.®  Thus,  amongst 
the  early  songs,  *  The  King's  Ballad,'  *  Westron 
Wynde,'  and  others  agree  in  some  of  their 
many  versions  with  the  Dorian  mode.  And 
as  will  be  later  shown,  modal  influences  exist 
to  the  present  day  in  our  simplest  folk-songs. 
But  in  the  16th  century  the  easy  Ionian 
mode  was  the  favourite  of  strolling  singers  and 
ballad-mongers;  and  in  spite  of  prohibition 
and  censure  by  the  Church  and  the  disdain 
with  which  skilled  musicians  treated  what  they 

3  The  words  to  this  carol  were  printed  by  Wynkyn  de  Worde  la 
1921,  but  the  music  appears  to  be  of  an  earlier  date. 

«  See  Ambros.  OMcUeMe  der  JiuaUt,  Muslk  Beilage,  p.  28.  where 
the  Boman  version  is  reprinted. 

'  These  were  discovered  in  1898  by  Kr.  W.  Barclay  Squire,  and 
copies  are  now  In  the  British  Museum. 

"  Here  the  chapter  on'  The  BnglLih  School '  in  Prof.H.  Wooldridge's 
second  vol.  of  the  Oj^fard  Sitt.  t^Jiu*.  may  be  studied  with  advantage. 

^  Any  aong  Intended  to  arouse  in  the  morning,  even  a  lore-song, 
was  formerly  called  a  hunt's  up  (Shakespeare  so  employs  it  in 
Amwo  and  JuUtt,  Act  111.  Scene  5).  There  are  many  diflbrent 
versions  of  the  tune. 

n  This  song  Is  famous  for  being  the  only  secular  song  which  our 
Church  oompoeers  employed ;  it  was  the  subject  of  three  Masses  bv 
Tkvemer,  Tye,  and  Shepherde  in  the  19th  century.  See  Chappell, 
op.  eit.  i.  38  for  the  melody. 

*  At  the  time  the  previotu  editions  of  Chappell's  work  were 
published  this  &ct  had  not  been  freely  accepted,  and  a  certain 
number  of  the  tones  had  had  sharps  and  flats  added  to  them,  which 
transformed  an  ecclesiastical  mode  into  a  major  or  minor  key.  In 
the  present  edition,  1883,  these  signs  have  been  removed.  Moreover, 
in  this  edition  it  is  stated  that  there  are  44  Dorian,  19  Mixolydian. 
and  IS  Aeolian  times  out  of  I1&  The  other  43  are  mostly  in  the 
major.  The  Phrygian,  and  Lydian  modes  occur  less  often,  however, 
in  English  music  than  in  that  of  other  countries.  See  Wooldridse'a 
preface  to  Chappell's  Old  Bng,  Pop.  MuHe. 

2q 


lapse  of  the  Gregorian  system,  and  has  formed 
the  basis  of  our  modem  system  of  scales  and 
keys. 

Of  secular  songs  antecedent  to  the  middle  of 
the  16th  century  few  have  come  down  to  us. 
The  principal  relics  are  the  songs  in  the  Fayr- 
fax  MS.^  This  manuscript,  which  once  belonged 
to  and  was  probably  written  down  by  Dr.  Robert 
Fayrfax,  an  eminent  composer  of  the  reigns  of 
Henry  VII.  and  Henry  VIII.,  consists  of  forty- 
nine  songs  by  the  best  musicians  of  that  time.^ 
They  are  all  written  in  2,  3,  and  4  parts  in  the 
contrapuntal  style  ;  some  in  the  mixed  measure 
— four-time  in  the  one  part  and  three-time  in 
another — which  was  common  at  the  end  of  the 
15  th  century.  But  owing  to  the  want  of  bars 
the  time  is  often  difficult  to  discover,  and  there 
is  also  a  great  confusion  of  accents.  During 
the  latter  half  of  the  16th  century  musicians  of 
the  first  rank  seldom  composed  airs  of  the  short 
rhythmical  kind  appropriate  to  ballads,  and 
poets  rarely  wrote  in  this  metre,  for  ballad- 
writing  haid  become  a  separate  employment. 
It  should  also  be  noted  that  English  Church 
composers  did  not  take  popular  or  folk-songs 
for  the  subjects  of  their  masses  and  motets  as 
was  the  custom  in  foreign  countries,  though 
they  were  freely  used  as  themes  for  variations, 
or  canii  fermi  for  polyphonic  works  by  instru- 
mental composers. 

In  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign  music  was  gene- 
rally cultivated,  and  song  was  universal : 
<  tinkers  sang  catches  ;  milkmaids  sang  ballads  ; 
carters  whistled  ;  each  trade,  even  the  beggars, 
had  their  special  songs. '^  The  best -known 
songs  of  this  period  from  1558  to  1603  were  *  The 
Carman's  Whistle,'  'All  in  a  Garden  Green,' 
*Dulcina,*  *The  British  Grenadier^,*  *  Death 
and  the  Lady,'*  *Near  Woodstock  Town,' 
*  Light  o*  Love,'  'Children  in  the  Wood,'^ 
*The  Bailiff's  Daughter  of  Islington,'  'Willow 
Song,'®  'Greensleeves,*  'The  Friar  of  Orders 
Gray,'  '0  Death,  rock  me  asleep,'^  and  'Frog 
Galliard.'  This  last  song  by  John  Dowland  ia 
almost  the  only  instance  to  be  found  in  the 
Elizabethan  period  of  a  favourite  folk -tune 
known  to  have  come  from  the  hand  of  a  cele- 
brated composer.  Dowland  originally  wrote  it 
as  a  part-song  to  the  words,  *  Now,  O  now,  I 
needs  must  part,'  but  afterwards  adapted  it  for 

1  Mention  moiit  tiiao  b«  made  of  three  MSB.  in  the  Brltleh 
Hnaeinn.  Add.  M88.  Be6a  oontnins  aome  b»n«da.  Thli  MS.  viu 
disooTered  by  Bitaon,  and  a  few  pieeea  were  printed  in  J.  8.  Hinlth'i 
'Mualea  Antlqoa.'  Add.  MBS.  31,922  la  a  Tolume  cootalninfr  no  Icaa 
than  thirty-three  aonga  by  Kini;  Henry  VIII.  (amontrat  them 
'  Green  grow  the  holly,'  which  ia  a  fine  aong),  the  rest  by  Comiahe, 
Farthing.  John  Fluyd.  Pygntt.  and  othera.  Royal  MSS.  appendix 
68  contains  tenor-parta  of  twenty  aecalar  aonga,  perhaps  written 
before  1900.  Thta  collection  containa  many  danoe-tnnM,  auch  aa 
'  My  LMly  Carew'a  Dompe,'  alao  printed  in  '  Mnaioa  Antiqaa,'  with 
neveral  of  the  older  aonga.    Davey,  MUtonf  of  EngUak  Mutio,  p.  94 

s'ls'umey.  ii.  5»).  *  Chappell,  i.  fia 

4  A  mriea  of  ballade  from  '  The  Dance  of  Doith.' 
>  '  Chevy  Chnoe '  was  eung  to  thla  tune. 
B  '  A  poor  aoul  aat  lighlng.' 

f  Thia  waa  the  flrit  ballad  known  to  have  an  independent  aocom- 
paniment ;  It  waa  for  the  lute.    Chappell.  i.  111. 


XA&10     ■JXCK/bJ.\/«7    V±     WAXIUItK 


AVI      dbJlCl     VIIC    Ul 


many  voices  seems  to  have  been  common  iu 
England,  as  in  Italy ;  and  in  both  countries 
the  lute  or  theorbo  sustained  the  under  parts 
when  sung  by  one  voice.  Dowland's  con- 
temporary,  Thomas  Ford,  published  songs  for 
one  or  four  voices,  one  of  which,  '  Since  first  1 
saw  your  jace,'  not  only  still  retains  its  popu- 
larity, but  is  remarkable  as  being  one  of  the 
earliest  melodies  written  by  a  trained  musician 
in  modem  tonality.  William  Byrd's  adoption 
of  the  '  Carman's  Whistle '  in  the  Fitzwilliam 
Virginal  Book  is  well  known ;  it  is  a  dance- 
tune,  and  so  also  ia  'Greensleeves,'  and  many 
others.  In  fact,  nearly  all  the  dance-tunes 
contained  in  these,  and  somewliat  later  col- 
lections of  lute  and  virginal  music,  are  the  most 
valuable  sources  we  possess  for  accurate  and 
trustworthy  versions  of  the  music  of  the  folk- 
songs. They  are  trustworthy  because  they  were 
written  down  at  the  time  by  skilled  musicians, 
and  therefore  escaped  the  risks  of  transmission 
by  ear  alone.  The  names  or  words  of  many 
ballads  are  handed  down  to  posterity  in  the 
works  of  Shakespeare^  and  other  Elizabethan 
dramatists.^ 

A  few  words  may  be  introduced  here  on  the 
form  of  popular  English  ballads,  or,  in  other 
words,  folk- songs. ^^  In  dance,  or  march,  or 
ballad  music  which  has  grown  from  the  recita- 
tion of  words  to  a  chant,  or  to  a  short  rhythmical 
tune,  the  musical  design  is  found  to  reside  chiefly 
in  the  rhythm,  and  not  in  the  balance  of  keys. 
The  ordinary  rhythm  of  ballads  was  the  even 
fashion  of  four-bar  phrases,  as,  for  instance,  in 
*  The  hunt  is  up ' : — 

E5x.  2.  The  Hunt  is  up, 

1st  Phrase.  1  2  8  4 


The  hunt  is  up,  ttie  hunt  ia  up,  and  it  ia  well  nigh  day; 
id  Phrase.    12  S  4 


And  Harry  our  King  ia  gone  banting  to  bring  hla  deer  to  bay. 

The  three-bar  phrase  rhythm  is  generally  met 
with  in  the  jig  and  hornpipe  tunes  of  England, 
such  as  'Bartholomew  Fair,'  but  it  sometimes 
occurs  in  songs  of  other  kinds.  Of  the  rhjrthm 
in  *  My  little  pretty  one,'  which  has  three 
phrases  of  two  bars  each,  and  a  fourth  of  three 
bars,  there  are  several  other  examples ;  and, 

"  The  following  are  aome  of  the  ballade  Shakespeare  refets  to : 
■The  hnnt  ia  up,' ' Heartaoaae'*  Willow,  WUlow.'  •  It  was  a  lonr 
and  his  laas,'  *  Greenaleeves,'  '(Tiider  the  greenwood  tree,'  'Bonnr 
Sweet  Robin,'  etc. 

*  Ben  Jonaon'a  poem,  'Drink  to  me  only,'  ia  for  erer  aasodatH 
with  the  equally  beantifQl  18th-oenttti7  tnne  ascribed  to  C«l 
Melltsh.  aboat  lim. 

>o  The  word  '  ballad '  waa  applied  in  aloone  senae  to  every  kind  of 
song.  The  ballad  of  this  period  and.  Indeed,  np  to  the  IBth  oentury. 
iimially  means  'pieoea  of  narmtive  rerae  in  etanaM,'  thr  nioric  of 
the  first  stanaa  baing  remated  for  every  sneeoasivc  one  It  w 
also  used  in  Rngland  for  tJiat  which  in  other  coantriea  is  dcklgiiaU*) 
a  '  folk-aong,'  and  this  term  has  of  recent  yean  been  aim  acccptra 
in  England  for  any  form  of  song  which  essentially  belongs  to  the 
people. 


3^ife*^ 


WUh  K  ln?rk  Btj«  ocflfor*  alMn,  wltli  a  wlnflu  »lia  *il     be  jjqh. 


fei^^^^itas 


Ho  daaht  rnhv  U 


□I       Mil  tlml    rt  ■  1!^     I       ae& 


iiult'cd,  there  are  almndamt  Ttim'tUa  of  irregular 
iJiytJim,  But  it  may  l>e  hM  as  a  general  con- 
dn-sion  that  tlje  ninsical  rhythm  folJows  the 
rhythm  and  mptro  of  the  words,  and  varies  with 
them,  Comj»ouHd  thno  la  very  common  in 
English  Imlla^Ja,  e3]ieonilly  during  and  after  the 
reign  of  Charlea  II.,  and  iimy  l>e  accounted  for 
hy  the  iriflu*^nce  of  the  French  iknire-nnisie, 
which  Charles  II,  brought  into  England.  In 
mixiulations  they  exhihit  tmt  little  variety.  The 
most;  frequent  arrangtn lent  is  the  half-dose  on 
the  dominant,  and  the  leading  note  preeeding 
rhe  tonic  at  the  end  of  thr  rnelody,  as  in  *  l*he 
hunt  is  ri]k/  In  another  arrangement  the  half- 
t  lose  in  t\t\  the  mvb-doniinant,  and  the  peuulti- 
umtfi  Tiote  is  on  the  3U|X'rtonie.  In  miuor-key 
ball  ad  .5  tJie  n  lative  major-key  often  takes  the 
l)1aee  whieh  ia  hehi  hy  the  d^Jininant  in  major- 
key  ballads.  Another  iK?culiarity  of  many  old 
ballads  are  'burdens.*  Sc>nietime9  tlie  liurden 
was  sung  by  the  bima  or  basses  underneath  the 
melody  to  aupjtort  it,  as  in  '  SuTiier  is  icunieu 
in  '  ;  or  It  took  the  shape  of  '  ditties, '  the  end 
of  old  ballads,  introdneed  to  c?]ic  out  the  words 
of  tlie  story  to  the  length  of  the  musical  phrage, 
as  in  thi^  'Willow  Song.*  In  this  ease  the 
burden  Wiissung  eontiuuously  by  the  same  voice, 


Chorujt^ 


Sir       ^  -  lA-mon!,  that      TA'lL&nt  ksljfht,   Pa     1> 


iiknky  doffD  duty.    And 


mmk^£^^^^^^^^ 


hm  Tuda  D'«r  Jim  UDd  dulct  All 


,  It  Chemii. 


aroi'tl     mpon     bii       nhM  of    mM, 


Ik       h      U      U,  ITm.    U.        lM.n\f     tltnrn  dUl^ 

'  .r.    StArtriri'l  aniltti'ff  'Man.  AiiT./  L.  m,  taJtJ-n  fiuin  th*  'HetTV 
IrMtElri')'  L'lJiiiploit.' 


ehorua  at  the  end  of  a  solo  song,  or  aolo  and 
ehonis  rjombined,  as  for  instance  in  tfie  burden 
of 'Sir  Kglamore."  The  burdens  often  consk£ 
of  meaningless  syllables ^  as  in  *  It  waa  a  lover 
and  his  lass/  or  the  last  example  quotejJ.^ 

With  the  advent  of  the  ]  Tth  century  tln^re 
eoniuienced  a  iwriod  of  transition  in  the  history 
of  musie,  ajid  more  especial ly  in  the  hi»tery 
of  Song,  The  change  was  marked  by  the 
aeceptance  of  many  nei^^  pririeiples  in  inusiiml 
composition,  and  by  a  steady  growth  of  skill 
in  instrumental  performaneea.  Hnt  itsi  most 
diatinguishirig  feature  was  an  increase  of  atten- 
tion to  the  oonfonuity  of  note^  with  words  ;  that 
Is,  to  the  diligent  study  of  everything  that  goea 
to  perfect  what  ia  railed  expression  in  music. ^ 
And  this  waa  the  natural  development  of  the 
monodic  revolution  whose  origin  in  Italy  has 
already  l»ecn  de^ribed.'*  But  the  sueeeaa  of 
the  new  departure  Mas  at  first  as  partial  and 
imperfect  i  u  England  as  elsewhere.  In  Buraey "s 
words,  '  Harmony  and  contrivance  were  re- 
linquished without  c<imi>ensation.  Simplicity 
indeed  was  obtained,  hut  devoid  of  accent,  grace, 
or  invention.  .  .  ♦  The  tirst  attempts  at  air  and 
recitative  \\ere  awkwaivi,  and  the  basses  thin 
and  unmeaning.  Indeed  the  compoacrs  of  this 
kind  of  music  had  the  single  merit  to  boast  of 
alfording  the  singer  an  cipportunity  of  letting 
the  woi-ds  l>€s  perfectly  well  understood,  aa  their 
melndies  In  general  consisted  of  no  more  notes 
than  syllables,  wliile  the  treble  accompardnient, 
if  it  snbsist^jd,  btung  in  unison  with  the  voice 
jKirt,  could  occasion  no  embaiTassment  or  con- 
fusion. ' " 

Nothing  waa  more  significant  of  the  change 
eonung  over  music  in  England  at  the  beginning 
of  the  17tb  century  than  the  numerous  collec- 
tions of  '  Ay  res  '  or  '  Ay  res  and  Dialogues  '  for 
solo  TO  ices  J  or  for  groufis  of  voices  accomifcanied 
by  the  lut*.  Thwe  collections  also  were  remark- 
able for  the  daiiity  and  delicate  poems  they 
contained  ;  in  nuiny  cases  the  poet  and  the 
comiKJser  were  one  and  the  same  person. '^  Solo 
songs  with  instrumenbd  aecomiianiment  had 
been  com]JOScd  by  Byrd,'  but  they  were  re- 
arranged  for  several  voices  when  he  published 
them  in  1588.  The  first  collections  of  songs 
published  as  solos  apjieared  about  the  year  1600, 
contributed  by  the  most  eminent  composers  of 
thisjieriodj  Jones,  Ho.'?seter,  Morley,'*Co]ierario, 
Ford,  Ferrabosco,  Campion  and  Johnson.^    The 

>  tVjT  Iht  *boTC  tvIiHirka  *in  ffinii.  »w  Mjm  O.  rrmcr^tt'a  iU-tkil« 

J  Hullmli'i  TrantitUm  l*^ri(id  u/ Mu*i€iit  JTittor^,  p.  183, 

i  Burn^>  iiiati*ry.  vnl.  Ill,  p.  mt. 

7  Twt]ve  Ih  ttis  cDllButlEin  c«Il«il  rrmUinq,  ikMveU,  aiitl  Rotvh  oI 
aiuinmiAMil  Hiitlij/ 

hM  '  Flnt  hookvat  Aina  or  ^iLtli^  Short  Snugt*  (v  iJlnir  fc4i^  iirny 
to  tlir  butti  'With  the  bue^VIoI.'tD  KtDQ  ;  nn^l  Kavnl  r^yn  thnt  pr^ 
vkiujir  [n  IH^  1i*  hil4  nrrmngid  n  JwrHfti  ut  fatumm^'lti  by  TtAriiih 
M-ni  Eii^lli^b  ooiiiiiKii^n  M  m,  ffcUccthia.   tin  oiiit  «'4i1ly  vitK  |iit« 

Ni^i.  iL  ina 

*  J<iliiiMiii'ii  bcAutllul  iilf,  '  A»  J  wslkerl  forth  dii«  Ritttnfciir'i  div;.' 
ii  ffirca  iii  UuU&li'ft  '  Sn^liiitii  Hniiiifi  at  tlie  ITtJi  mid  iBUt  CWiitarjV 


style  of  their  solo  songs,  consisting  of  a  very 
simple  unaffected  tune  supported  by  simple 
harmonies,  had  a  close  resemblance  to  the  part- 
songs,  though  in  some  few  cases  a  melodious 
declamation  was  attempted.  In  Rosseter,  Jones, 
Ford,  and  Campion,  the  lyric  element  was  more 
pronounced  than  in  Ferrabosoo.^  Nearly  all 
the  above-mentioned  composers  were  among  the 
contributors  to  the  collection  published  by  Sir 
W.  Leighton  in  1614.  This  collection  was 
entitled  '  Teares  or  Lamentacions  of  a  sorrow- 
full  soule,*  but  its  contents  were  mostly  songs 
in  four  parts.*  Ford's  song,  *  Since  first  I  saw 
your  face, '  shows  the  kind  of  lute  accompaniment 
employed  for  these  songs.  ^ 

The  popularity  of  masques  at  Court  offered 
opportunities  to  composers  for  the  introduction 
of  lyric  songs  and  dance-tunes.  Some  scientific 
musicians  may  have  disdained  this  kind  of 
work,  which  only  required  simple  little  ditties 
akin  to  the  folk-songs.  Nevertheless  Campion, 
Johnson,  and  later  on  Henry  Lawes,  won  great 
favour  in  this  branch.  Henry  Lawes  merits  a 
special  mention  as  a  composer.  Known  as  a 
professed  writer  of  songs,  he  was  the  first 
Englishman  who.  made  it  a  study  to  give  ex- 
pression to  words  by  inusical  sounds,*  and  the 
care  with  which  he  set  words  to  music  won  him 
recognition  from  the  chief  poets  of  his  day. 
One  of  his  best-known  songs,  'Sweet  Echo,'  is 
taken  from  Milton's  *Comus.'  Lawes  published 
also  several  books  of  Ayres  and  Dialogues  for 
one,  two,  and  three  voices,  with  the  assistance 
of  his  brother,  "William  Lawes,  whose  fame  chiefly 
rests  on  his  music  to  Herrick's  words  *  Gather 
ye  rosebuds.'  At  this  epoch  the  influence  of 
the  Italian  recitative  style  can  be  plainly  traced 
in  all  English  com^xxsers.  Henry  Lawes  was 
undoubtedly  familiar  with  the  works  of  his 
Italian  contemporaries  and  recent  predecessors, 
and  especially  with  Monteverde,  whose  blemishes 
and  beauties  were  reflected  in  his  own  music. 
A  good  illustration,  both  of  his  skill  and  of  the 
fragmentary  cliaracter  of  his  melody,  will  be 
found  in  his  music  to  Waller's  '  While  I  listen 
to  thy  voice. '  *» 

It  was  a  custom  with  poets  in  the  16th 
and  17th  centuries  to  write  new  words  to 
favourite  old  tunes,  and  this  practice  has  made 
it  almost  impossible  to  assign  precise  dates  to 
many  songs  and  ballads.  Thus  in  Sir  Philip 
Sidney's  poems  the  heading  'to  the  air  of  etc. 
— often  a  French  or  Italian  tune — constantly 

>  Pftny.  Mutte  qf  ttu  Setent«eiUh  Century  ((ktfvrd  HUt.  TOl.  lit), 
p.  108  «<  t9q. 

0  Want  of  ipnoe  preclndei  mention  in  detail  of  Plajfoid's,  Barens- 
croft's,  D'Urfey'ii.  Lefghton's  and  the  varioun  IntexeetlDg  collections 
of  others,  and  the  reader  to  refeired  to  the  articlee  under  their 
■evenU  names  in  this  Dlotionary. 

3  Given  In  Parry'*  Muaic  cfthe  Sevrnteenih  Cmlurjf,  p.  198. 

*  Ree  Sonnet  addressed  to  Iawcs  by  Milton  in  1045-40. 

(  Page  13  of  '  Aries  and  Dialogues  for  One,  Tvu  and  Thrse  Voycee. 
Bj  Henry  Iawcs,  servant  to  his  late  Ma^^^  in  bto  puhlick  and 
private  mualck.  The  Pint  Booke,  London.  Printed  by  T.  H.  for 
JTohu  Play  ford,  and  are  to  be  sold  at  his  Shop,  in  the  Inner  Temple, 
near  the  Chnrch  door  IStS.'  Beprlnted  in  Book  1.  of  Playford's 
'Treaanry  of  Mnslok'  In  1(169.  Ths  song  will  be  found  with  an 
expanded  aooompanlmeut  in  Hallah's  'd8  KnglUh  Songs  of  the 
Seventeenth  and  Eighteenth  Centuries.' 


recurs  ;  and  many  of  the  folk- tunes  were  sang 
to  three  or  four  sets  of  words  bearing  difierent 
dates,  and  having  little  or  no  relation  to  each 
other.  Among  songs  to  be  found  in  the 
principal  collections  of  the  first  half  of  the  17th 
century  was  the  tune  of  '  Cheerily  and  Merrily,' 
afterwards  sung  to  George  Herbert's  'Sweet  day,' 
and  better  known  by  its  later  name.  *  Stingo,  or 
oil  of  barley,'  *The  country  lass,'  and  'Cold 
and  raw '  were  aU  sung  to  the  same  tune,  and 
many  another  example  might  be  adduced. 

During  the  Commonwealth  secular  music 
flourished  in  England,  and  notwithstanding 
the  abolition  by  the  Puritans  of  cathedral 
chiHTS  and  theatre  music,  domestic  music  was 
much  cultivated.  A  few  of  the  favourite 
ballads  of  that  time,  both  Puritan  and  Loyalist, 
were,  *Hey  then,  up  we  go,*  *Love  lies 
bleeding,*  *I  live  not  where  I  love,'  'When 
love  was  young,'  'When  the  king  enjoys  his 
own  again,'®  and  *  I  would  I  were  in  my  o^ti 
country.*  At  the  end  of  the  Commonwealth 
the  secularisation  of  music  was  complete,  and 
with  the  Restoration  of  the  Stuarts  in  1660  a 
lighter  and  more  melodious  kind  of  music  was 
introduced.  In  his  exile  Charles  II.  had 
grown  fond  of  French  dance  music.  Ballads, 
too,  came  into  popular  favour  again,  as  the  king 
was  partial  to  lively  tunes  with  strongly  marked 
rhythms.  Of  the  abundant  songs  of  that  period, 
amongst  the  most  celebrated  were:  'Here's  a 
health  unto  his  Majesty,'  *  Come  lasses  and  lads,' 
« Troy  Town,  * '  Barbara  Allen, ' « Under  the  green- 
wood tree,'  'Dulce  Domum,*  'Lilliburlero,''^ 
and  'May  Fair,'  now  better  known  as  'Golden 
Slumbers.'^ 

As  already  mentioned,  educated  musicians  of 
England  were  about  this  time  very  much  under 
the  influence  of  the  Italian  and  French  schools. 
The  style  of  Pelham  Humphrey,  whom  Charles 
II.  sent  to  France  to  study  under  LuUy,  was 
entirely  founded  on  that  of  his  teacher ;  and 
on  his  return  to  England  Humphrey  effected 
a  revolution  in  English  music  Few  artists 
have  exercised  a  more  powerful  influence  on 
their  countrymen  and  contemporaries  than 
Humphrey  ;  and  his  work  was  all  accomplished 
in  the  brief  space  of  seven  years.  He  returned 
from  Paris  in  1667,  and  died  in  1674,  at  the 
early  age  of  twenty-seven.  His  song,  *  I  PJ** 
all  my  hours  in  a  shady  old  grove, '•  has  hardly 
yet  ceased  to  be  sung,  and  it  is  a  good  example 
of  his  work,  *  which  shows  a  continually  varying 
adaptation  of  music  to  changing  sentiment  of 
words,  and  the  most  fastidious  observance  ol 

8  Ritson  calls  this  the  most  fkmouk  and  popolar  air  e^^er  hoard 
in  this  country.    Bee  Chappell.  i.  914. 

7  See  L1LLIBVRI.KI10.  .  ^  jouixl 

9  During  the  17th  century  many  of  our  ballad-tunes  n*"  j^j^ 
their  way  Into  the  Netherlands,  and  were  there  ftnUA  7"°JrWei. 
words  (only  prww>lng  the  English  tlUes)  to"*'**  °\  TTno'  and 
laneous  collections  of  songs.  For  Instance  'The  hunt  »«*  ^ 
•Fortune  my  foe'  appear  severally  in  the  I^^*"  .?^uM«<b 
the '  Nederlandtflche  Gedenck-Clanck/ 1628.  ChapjWlV^^^i, 
Poputar  Muuc.  L  xv.  W.  84  (See  7»e  jy«<A«rl<M««  ■«?"«»  «* 
article.! 

»  The  words  are  attributed  to  Charles  11. 


SONG 


597 


their  emphasis  and  quantity.'  ^  Many  songs  of 
his  may  be  found  in  the  various  collections  of 
the  time.^  A  fellow- student  in  the  Chapel 
Royal,  to  whom  Humphrey  taught  much,  was 
John  Blow.  In  1 700  Blow  published  a  volume 
of  his  own  songs  under  the  title  of  *  Amphion 
Anglicus,'  and  his  setting  of  Waller's  'Self- 
Banished  '  is  evidence  that  he  could  sometimes 
compose  with  tenderness  and  grace.  Then 
Matthew  Lock,  the  famous  masque -composer 
who  wrote  'The  delights  of  the  bottle,'  a  most 
popular  song  in  its  day,  is  worthy  of  notice,  and 
he  had  the  honour  paid  to  him  of  an  elegy  by 
Purcell  at  his  death  in  1677. 

Had  Henry  Purcell  never  written  anything 
but  songs,  he  would  still  have  established  his 
claim  to  be  the  greatest  of  English  musicians. 
In  dignity  and  grandeur,  in  originality  and 
beauty  he  has  no  equal  among  English  song- 
writers. After  bis  death,  his  songs  were 
collected  under  the  title  of  'Orpheus  Brit- 
annicus,'  and  'Full  fathom  five,'  'Gome  unto 
these  yellow  sands,'  'From  rosy  bowers,*  'I 
attempt  from  love's  sickness  to  fly,'  amongst 
otliers,  have  been  sung  down  to  our  own  times. 
He  was  a  contributor  also  to  Playford's  publica- 
tion 'Choice  Ayres  and  Dialogues/  but  his 
finest  songs  will  be  found  in  the  operas  and 
plays  for  which  he  composed  the  incidental 
music.  '  Dido's  Lament '  should  be  noted  for 
the  skill  with  which  the  whole  song  is  con- 
structed on  a  ground  bass  of  five  ban.  This 
is  repeated  without  intermission  in  the  lowest 
part,  but  so  unconstrained  are  the  upper  parts, 
so  free  and  developed  is  the  rhythm,  so  pathetic 
and  varied  is  the  melody,  that  the  device  would 
easily  escape  observation.^  Between  1683  and 
1690  Purcell  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
the  great  Italian  masters,  and  their  teachings 
are  manifest  in  his  music  He  did  not  indeed 
lose  any  of  his  individuality,  but  the  melody  of 
his  songs  became  henceforth  smoother  and  more 
flowing,  and  the  accompaniments  more  varied. 
A  common  fault  of  the  music  of  Purcell's  time 
was  a  too  servile  adherence  to  the  meaning  of 
the  text,  and  the  changing  sense  of  the  words 
was  too  often  blindly  followed  to  the  sacrifice 
of  musical  construction.^  Purcell  avoided  these 
faults  ;  with  his  fine  instinct  for  melody  and 
harmony,  and  his  thorough  scientific  education, 
no  extravagances  of  any  school  could  lay  a 
strong  or  permanent  hold  upon  his  genius. 

From  1700  to  1800  England's  previous  re- 
pute as  a  land  of  music  sank  to  a  low  ebb. 
Purcell  had  no  successor  as  a  great  creative  and 
original  musician.  There  were,  however,  a 
number  of  tunes  produced  in  the  18th  century 
w^hich  are  still  familiar  to  us.      John  Eccles 

I  Hnllah's  TnuuUimi  Period  qf  Jiuiieal  HUtory,  p.  SOS. 

i  J.  Stafford  Smith  print*  Ave  songs  in  'Mas.  Ant.'  il.  170  et  Mg., 
and  also  one  of  John  Blow's. 

•1  Thin  Rong  is  indaded  In  Hnllah's  'Songs  of  the  Seventeenth 
and  Eighteenth  Centuries.' 

»  1  n  f»iot  LaweH'n  meritorious  eflbriw  In  this  direction  were  soon 
t>xnu:i;erat«d  and  overdone  by  his  followers. 


and  Richard  Leveridge  published  large  selectiona 
of  songs  ;  and  to  the  latter  we  owe  the  famous 
songs,  '  Black-eyed  Susan '  and  '  The  Boast  Beef 
of  Old  England.'  A  beautiful  song  called 
'Felton's  Gavotte,'  or  'Farewell,  Manchester,' 
said  to  have  been  played  by  the  troops  of 
Charles  Stuart  in  quitting  Manchester  in 
December  1745,  was  originally  part  of  a 
concerto  composed  by  the  Rev.  W.  Felton. 
Other  popular  songs  of  this  period  were  'Old 
King  Cole, ' '  Down  among  the  dead  men,' '  Cease 
your  funning,*  '  The  Vicar  of  Bray,'  and  '  Pretty 
Polly  Oliver.'  A  marked  stimulus  was  given  to 
song-culture  in  George  II. 's  reign  by  the  Ballad- 
operas,  of  which  the  'Beggar's  Opera'  (1727) 
was  the  first ;  and  it  was  these  operas  which 
brought  about  the  first  reaction  of  the  popular 
taste  against  Italian  music.  They  were  spoken 
dramas  with  songs  interspersed,  the  songs  being 
set  to  old  ballad  tunes,  or  imitations  of  them.^ 
Thenceforth  most  of  the  popular  songs  were 
composed  by  educated  musicians,  but  the  great 
and  enduring  popularity  of  some  would  entitle 
them  to  be  classed  as  national  songs.  In  regard  to 
musical  structure  they  are  generally  strophical, 
with  an  easy  accompaniment,  a  marked  rhythm, 
and  a  pleasing  melody  veiy  simply  harmonised. 

Very  popular  in  his  day  was  Henry  Carey, 
to  whom  our  splendid  national  anthem  was  for 
a  time  attributed.^  William  Boyce  also  claims 
recognition  for  the  spirited  'Come,  cheer  up, 
my  lads' ('Heart  of  Oak*),  which  he  wrote 
to  Garrick's  words  in  1759.  A  yet  greater 
composer  was  Thomas  Ame,  who  has  been  pro- 
nounced to  be  our  most  national  song-writer. 
'  Rule,  Britannia '  was  written  by  Ame  in  1 740 
as  a  finale  for  the  masque  of  '  Alfred ' ;  and 
as  the  song  passed  from  mouth  te  mouth  it 
soon  grew  pre-eminent  among  national  airs.  It 
was  said  by  Wagner  that  the  first  eight  notes 
of  '  Rule,  Britannia '  express  the  whole  character 
of  the  British  people.  In  that  same  year  Ame 
produced  his  beautiful  songs  in  Aa  You  Like  It^ 
which  he  followed  with  songs  in  other  plays 
of  Shakespeare.  In  later  years  Ame's  style 
deteriorated.  An  imitator  of  Handel  without 
his  genius,  Ame  overloaded  his  airs  with  florid 
passages,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  songs  of  his 
opera,  '  Artaxerxes.'  The  obligations  of  the 
English  people  to  opera -writers  and  of  the 
latter  to  them,  have  been  reciprocal.  While 
some  of  the  best  national  airs  were  due  to  the 
opera-writers,  they  in  turn  won  applause  by 
the  free  introduction  of  current  popular  songs 
into  their  operas.^ 

Passing  on  to  another  generation,  we  meet 
with  William  Jackson  of  Exeter,  who  was  thirty 

s  See  Balx^d  Opska.  «  See  Gon  Saw  tbk  Kixo. 

7  Moet  indeed  of  the  best  eongs  of  »  period  extending  from 
Puroell's  time  dovm  to  the  earij  part  of  the  I9th  century  were 
onoo  embedded  in  dramatic  pieces ;  bnt  these  pieces  have  faded 
into  oblivion,  while  the  songs  have  survived  through  successive 
generations.  A*  dramatic  forms  of  song,  these  compositions  lie 
outside  the  scope  of  this  article,  bnt  as  national  and  popular  songs, 
they  come  within  it.  A  list  of  forty  operas  entirely  set  to  enrrent 
popular  airs  is  given  under  Bsolish  Opkka. 


bliClC7        V/llllKO 


OCllO^       ML        M»lI.I.CllCOO      CUIU, 


insipidity,  but  in  his  day  no  collection  was 
held  to  be  complete  without  his  *  Time  has  not 
thinned  my  flowing  hair,'  or  *When  first  this 
humble  roof  I  knew,'  Among  his  contempo- 
raries, but  a  little  junior  to  him,  were  Thomas 
Carter,  Samuel  Arnold,  Samuel  Webbe,  and 
Charles  Dibdin,  who  was  a  patriotic  ballad- 
writer  rather  than  a  musician.  The  pathos  of 
*Tom  Bowling*  has  rescued  it  from  neglect, 
but  only  by  sailors  are  his  other  songs  remem- 
bered now.  To  Dibdin's  generation  also  belonged 
John  Percy,  the  composer  of  'Wapping  Old 
Stairs,'  and  James  Hook,  best  known  for  'The 
Lass  of  Richmond  Hill,'  and  ''Twas  \^'ithin  a 
mile  of  Edinboro'  Town,*  a  pseudo-Scotch  song, 
like  Carter^s  *  0,  Nanny,  wilt  thou  gang  with 
me  ? '  Two  better  musicians  than  the  foregoing 
appeared  a  little  later,  namely,  William  Shield 
and  Stephen  Storace,  both  of  whom  were  dis- 
tinguished by  a  gift  of  melody.  But  their  songs 
are  seldom  heard  now,  excepting  perhaps  *  The 
death  of  Tom  Moody '  by  Shield,  and  Storace's 
*With  lonely  suit*  A  well-known  song  of 
that  period  was  *The  Bay  of  Biscay'  by  John 
Davy  of  Exeter. 

The  special  merit  of  English  songs  of  the 
late  18th  century  is  their  melody,  which  seems 
to  have  then  been  a  common  gift ;  but  the 
strongest  feeling  of  the  nation  was  patriotism, 
and  the  compositions  that  survive  are  almost 
all  short  songs,  expressive  of  patriotic  sentiment, 
or  connected  with  it  by  their  nautical  subjects.  ^ 
John  Braham,  Charles  Horn,  and  Henry  Bishop 
were  all  bom  in  the  18  th  century,  but  so  near 
its  close  that  their  works  must  be  ascribed  to 
the  19th  century.  Braham  himself  was  a 
celebrated  singer,  and  his  sea-song  *  The  Death 
of  Nelson '  ^  merits  the  fame  which  it  has  won. 
To  Horn  we  owe  *  Cherry  Ripe,*  and  *  The  deep, 
deep  sea.*  Sir  Henry  Bishop  stood  foremost 
among  all  his  contemporaries  and  immediate 
predecessors,  alike  in  science,  taste,  and  facility, 
and  possibly  also  in  invention.  His  accompani- 
ments are  varied  and  skilful,  and  though  his 
melodies  contain  rapid  divisions  requiring 
vocal  skill,  they  are  graceful  and  effective. 
With  such  care  also,  did  he  study  correctness 
of  accent,  that  in  his  songs  the  metre  of  the 
poetry  is  seldom  disturbed  by  the  rhythm  of 
the  music.  *Bid  me  discourse,'  'Should  he 
upbraid,'  and  *  Home,  Sweet  Home '  are  well- 
established  favourites,  which  need  no  eulogj'. 
As  other  illustrations  of  the  songs  of  the  first 
part  of  the  19th  century  may  be  mentioned, 
*  I'd  be  a  butterfly,'  by  Haynes  Bayly ;  *  She 
wore  a  wi-eath  of  roses,'  by  Knight ;  *  The  blue 
bell  of  Scotland,'  by  Mrs.  Jordan,  and  others 
by  Rooke,  Rodwell,  Thomas  Cooke,  Lee,  and 

t  Davejr'B  mteonr  cfSnglUk  ilude.  p.lSSet  seq. 

9  On  the  (ntrious  sliuiUu-lty  of  niTwioal  idea  between  thin  and 
Mdhul's  '  ChAut  du  d^iiart '  (amounting  almost  to  Identity),  see 
Davey,  op.  cU.  p.  477. 


UllU,     Ul     UXCUIJ 


no     XAIk.C7      bliCUl,     bXlCll      DUIV     CM&U 


only  merit  consisted  in  the  voice -part  being 
pleasant  and  melodious,  and  the  accompani- 
ments very  easy.  Weighed  in  the  balance  of 
pure  and  scientific  music  they  have  little  value. 

It  can  be  easily  understood  that  although 
this  type  of  song  was  i)opular,  it  had  nothing 
in  common  with  the  genuine  folk-song.  There 
is  indeed  an  impression  that  by  the  end  of  the 
18th  century  traditional  song  had  died  out  in 
England, 3  but  this  is  by  no  means  the  case. 
The  many  valuable  books  of  traditional  songs 
collected  and  published  during  the  19  th  and 
present  centuries,  aflbrd  proof  that  the  popularity 
of  song  has  never  been  lost  in  England.  Each 
part  of  England  preserves  its  special  songs  as 
much  as  its  own  customs  for  certain  days  and 
seasons.  And  collectors  of  songs  can  bear 
witness  that  the  habit  of  inventing  songs  is 
not  yet  extinct  among  the  country  people. 
This  circumstance  may  account  for  the  existence 
of  many  quite  distinct  airs  for  a  set  of  favourite 
words.  ^  Recent  collections  also  show  that  the 
modal  influence  (already  spoken  of  in  this  article) 
is  stiU  evident  in  many  of  the  English  folk- 
songs. Numerous  examples  of  tunes  clearly 
belonging  to  the  ecclesiastical  modes  could  be 
given,  did  space  permit.  Many  of  the  more 
recently  collected  folk-songs  are  mere  variants 
of  older  versions,  and  it  is  often  very  difficult  to 
trace  them  back  to  their  original  form.  The 
districts  where  music  is  largely  cultivated 
among  the  poorer  classes  are  not  those  where 
the  old  tunes  are  most  carefully  preserved  and 
handed  down.  The  reason  of  this  is,  that  the 
popular  song  of  the  day  is  ever  the  enemy  of  folk- 
music  ;  andalthough  the  neighbourhood  of  a  town 
may  afford  opiwrtunities  of  musical  instruction 
and  cultivation,  it  likewise  offers  facilities  for 
acquiring  familiarity  with  this  commoner  and 
less  desirable  class  of  song.  As  a  general  rule 
the  English  folk-songs  are  diatonic  in  melody 
and  regular  in  form,  and  lack  any  striking 
characteristics  as  regards  either  rhythm  or 
harmony.  They  hold,  however,  a  high  place 
among  the'folk-songs  of  other  nations,  and  they 
owe  it  to  symmetry  of  form,  simplicity  and 
directness  of  melody,  and  the  absence  of 
sentimentality.* 

It  would  be  difficult  at  this  date  to  write  a 
just  appreciation  of  English  songs  of  the  19th 
century.  Although  there  have  been  many  com- 
posers of  real  merit,  the  standard  of  the  general 
public  taste  was  low,  and  the  demand  for  high 
or  serious  work  was  limited.  A  numerous  sec- 
tion of  song-writers  clung  to  the  ever-popular 

9  Chappell'ii  'Old  English  Popular  Mniic'  ends  with  the  doee  of 
the  18th  century. 

*  See  preface  to  '  Bnglirii  County  Songs/  by  Lucy  Broadwood  and 
J.  A.  Fuller  MaitUuid. 

A  Sir  Hubert  Parry  satd  In  his  inaugniml  address  to  the  Polli-«>nK 
Society  :  'The  (ulk -songs  are  oharacteristie  of  our  raoe:  of  the 


uniet  reticence  uf  our  oonntry  folk,  courageous  aitd  content  to  meet 

...  ...      -         heart.    AU  ^•- '^ •^-* 

okentheoua 

and  as  a  faithful  reflection  of  ourselves,  we  needs  mnst  cherish  it.' 


uDtry  foil 

what  chance  shall  bring  with  a  bimve  heart.    AU  the  things  that 
mark  the  folk-music  of  the  race  also  betoken  the  qualities  of  the  nee. 


SONG 


599 


ballad- form,  and  as  they  considered  the  voice- 
part  to  be  their  paramount  consideration,  they 
attempted  nothing  more  than  the  simplest  har- 
monies and  accompaniments,  and  disregarded 
alike  the  accent  and  meaning  of  the  poem  for 
tlie  sake  of  repeating  the  same  commonplace 
tune  again  and  again.  Yet  within  these  narrow 
limits  there  are  songs  of  various  degrees  of 
merit ;  some  composers  have  raised  their  songs 
by  force  of  natural  gifts  and  instinctive  taste 
to  a  high  level. 

For  a  considerable  period  it  seemed  as  if 
England  knew  not  how  to  speak  her  own 
language  in  music.  It  is  an  open  question 
whether  the  effects  produced  by  the  Italian 
oi)era  in  Handel's  time,  and  succeeded  later  by 
the  strong  influence  of  Mendelssohn,  were 
baneful  or  beneficial  to  £Inglish  music.  But  it 
is  certain  that  during  the  first  two-thirds  of 
the  last  century,  very  few  genuine  English 
songs — that  is,  purely  English  in  idiom  and 
turn  of  expression,  as  well  as  in  thought  and 
feeling — could  be  met  with.  Of  these  few 
excp[)tion8  we  may  name  J.  L.  Hatton's  *  To 
Anthea,'  and  *  Simon  the  Cellarer,*  J.  Hullah's 
'  Three  Fishers,'  F.  Clay's  '  The  Sands  of  Dee/ 
A.  S.  Sullivan's  '  Orpheus '  and  his  other  songs 
from  Shakespeare  and  Tennyson.  In  excellence 
of  workmanship  many  of  the  above  songs 
cannot  compete  with  those  of  a  perfectly  distinct 
class  of  writers,  among  whom  "VV.  Sterndale 
Bennett  stands  pre-eminent.  Of  the  refinement, 
delicacy,  and  perfect  symmetry  of  his  songs, 
such  as  *  May  Dew '  and  *  Dawn,  gentle  flower ' 
there  could  be  no  question  ;  and  had  he  not 
shared  in  common  with  Mendelssohn  a  tiresome 
mannerism  of  frequent  repetition  of  the  same 
phrase,  his  songs  would  have  been  more  fully 
recognised  and  appreciated.  To  much  the  same 
period  belong  the  songs  of  E.  J.  Loder,  whose 
graceful  '  Brooklet '  is  one  of  the  best  of  Eng- 
lish songs,  W.  Davison,  G.  A.  Macfarren,  Henry 
Hugo  Pierson,  and  Edward  Bache.  The  last 
died  very  young,  but  not  before  he  had  given 
promise  of  high  merit  in  the  clearness  of  his 
ideas.  Pierson's  songs  displayed  strength  and 
originality,  but  wholly  neglected  the  rules  of 
form.  The  true  English  ring  of  Arthur 
Sullivan's  songs  has  already  been  noticed,  but 
there  was  some  other  undefined  quality,  which 
contributed  to  secure  his  great  successes.  It 
was  not  his  brilliant  humour,  for  that  quality 
hardly  appears  in  his  songs.  Possibly  the 
charm  lay  in  some  veiled  touch  of  emotion. 
He  wrote  various  kinds  of  songs :  some  nearly 
descended  to  the  drawing-room  ballad,  while 
others  rose  to  a  far  higher  level,  such  as  his 
Sliakespeare  songs  and  the  setting  of  Tennyson's 
'The  Window,  or  the  Loves  of  the  Wrens.' ^ 

1  Them  words  were  written  by  Tennyaon  exprewly  for  SullivMi 
at  Sir  George  Grove'n  reqaest.  The  latter  had  proposed  In  October 
I8)>6  to  Tennyson,  to  write  a  '  Llederkreis '  for  Mlllais  to  IJlusttnte. 
and  Sullivan  to  set  to  music.  Uf9  and  Letten  of  Sir  Gmrge 
Grove,  by  C.  L.  Graves,  p.  188. 


In  this  last  beautiful  little  cycle  there  are  a 
tenderness  and  grace  combined  with  fine 
workmanship  which  are  enduring  qualities. 
The  last  word  of  the  ballad-type  of  song  seems 
to  have  been  said  by  Sullivan  ;  since  his  time, 
this  class  of  song  has  not  been  considered  worthy 
of  notice  by  musicians.  Popular  taste  may  not 
yet  have  changed,  but  the  aims  and  work  of 
serious  musicians  have  perceptibly  done  so. 

During  the  last  thirty  or  forty  years  Song 
in  Englsjid  has  once  more  been  regarded  as 
one  of  the  most  important  forms  of  art,  and 
men  have  approached  it  in  a  different  spirit. 
Once  more  the  importance  of  the  words  has 
been  fully  recognised,  and  it  is  now  established 
that  there  is  no  insuperable  barrier  to  the 
setting  of  English  poetry  to  music.  Some 
difiicidties  may  no  doubt  arise  from  the  irregular 
occurrence  of  the  accents  in  English  poetry ; 
but  accent  is  a  study  which  has  at  last  received 
attention,  and  much  is  owed  to  the  care  and 
thought  which  Sir  Hubert  Parry  has  bestowed 
on  the  due  correspondence  of  the  accents  of  the 
verse  with  the  rhythm  of  his  music.  In  his 
several  books  of  '  English  Lyrics '  the  respect 
with  which  he  treats  the  meaning  of  the  words, 
is  also  plainly  shown,  and  his  influence  on  this 
point  is  evident  in  the  works  of  the  younger 
generation  of  English  composers.  Parry, 
Stanford,  Mackenzie,  Elgar,  and  Goring  Thomas 
have  adhered,  more  or  less,  to  the  high  standard 
of  song-writing;  but  though  their  names  are 
grouped  together  as  the  modem  leaders  of  music 
in  England,  each  composer  has  his  own 
individuality.  No  two  composers,  indeed,  stand 
farther  apart  in  their  songs  than  Parry  and 
Goring  Thomas.  The  latter's  songs,  with  their 
long-drawn-out  phrases  and  peculiar  romantic 
atmosphere,  are  more  French  in  feeling,  while 
Pany's  songs,  with  their  elaborate  polyphonic 
accompaniments,  incline  more  to  the  German 
school,  though  throughout,  his  melodies  have  a 
thoroughly  English  ring.  Sir  Charles  Stanford 
has  written  striking  and  manly  ballads,  and  a 
vein  of  true  melody  traceable  to  his  Irish 
descent  pervades  his  lyrics.  In  Elgar's  works 
an  exceptionally  poetic  imagination  and  great 
technical  skill  are  manifest,  which  encourage 
the  hope  that  he  may  turn  his  attention  more 
frequently  to  song-writing.  Feminine  song- 
writers are  abundant  now,  but  none  have 
reached  the  position  attained  by  Maude  Y. 
White,  whose  ever-effective  songs  are  full  of 
expression  and  refinement ;  and  a  conspicuous 
merit  with  her  is  her  choice  of  good  words. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  among  the  band  of 
earnest  young  song-writers,  the  pains  and  skill 
bestowed  upon  the  accompaniments  of  their 
songs.  The  accompaniment  is  now  rightly 
held  to  be  an  integral  part  of  the  whole  com- 
position, and  as  instrumental  skill  has  reached 
a  very  high  level,  technical  diflSculties  can  be 
ignored.      Whether  the  voice  -  part  is  aH'ays 


surpassed  the  song  of  former  days. 

Criticism  in  detail  of  the  works  of  living  and 
rising  composers  is  always  an  invidious  task. 
We  stand  too  near  to  judge  their  work  without 
awakening  suspicions  of  prejudice  or  partiality. 
Time  alone  is  the  true  touchstone  of  merit, 
and  before  that  high  tribunal,  the  work  of 
the  following  song -writers  must  be  judged: 
Granville  Bantock,  W.  H.  Bell,  Frederick 
Cowen,  H.  Walford  Davies,  Fritz  Delius,  Edward 
German,  W.  H.  Hadow,  Noel  Johnson,  C.  A. 
Lidgey,  S.  Liddle,  Hamish  McCunn,  Albert 
MaUinson,  Roger  Quilter,  Cyril  Scott,  Arthur 
Somervell,  S.  Coleridge  -  Taylor,  E.  Walker, 
R.  Walthew,  Amherst  Webber,  R.  Vaughan 
Williams,  and  others. 

BinUOOKAPHY 

Barncj,  Dr.  CharlM^    HUtorg  «/  Muiie.    Lofodon,  177IM81 

Hawkins,  Sir  John,    nutory  of  MuMle.    Edition  of  18D3. 

Httllah,  John.    The  Third  «r  TramMom  Pwriod  qT  MutkaA  SUUrw. 

London,  2nd  edition,  187& 
Boekstro,  W.  B.    MUtorp  qf  lixutle.    London,  1888. 
>'aiunjuin.  Bmil.    HIttoty  9f  Mwde  (cdltwl  and  added  to  Vy  Sir 

F.  Gore  Onaeley).    London.  I88S-S8L 
PIUX7.  Sir  C.  H.  H.     Thm  £m)luUon  qf  th»  Art  <if  ifutic    London. 

18M. 
Na«d,  Dr.  Willbald.   Ouohiehtt  d*r  MutUt  l»  MngUmd.  Stnu barg; 

]8B44Xr. 
DaT«sr.  H.    HUtwy  «tf  WmglUh  Muete.    London.  1886. 
Panr,  Sir  C.H.  H.    Mtute  of  the  Srvent^mtk  Omtun/ (Oiffbrd  Jittt. 

qfMuMie,  vol.  111.).    Oxford,  1902. 
Follor  Maitlaiid.  J.  A.    The  Aae  t^f  Baeh  ami  BamUl  {Oxford  BUI, 

of  JHuete.  ToL  !▼.).     Oxford,  1909. 
Wooldridge.  H.    The  Poln»honle  Period  {OaM^  BieU  of  Jifutle,  toL 

IL).    Oxford.  1906. 
Sbarp.CoeUJ.    BitgUak  mk-8ong,  m>me  Gmehulom.    1907. 

COUiBCnOSTB 

Smith.  J.  Stafford.    '  Mnsloa  AnUqna.'    London.  18U. 
RaudjB,  W.  'Chrlatmaa  Carol*,  Ancient  and  Modem.'  London,  183S. 
Chappcdl,  W.   '  Popular  Mtule  of  the  Olden  Time.'  London,  1855-08. 
Wouldtli^  H.     A  new  edition  of  abore.  called  'Old  EngUih 

Popniar  Moale.'    London.  1808. 
Hnllah,  John.    '08  Bogllih  Bongs  of  the  I7th  and  18th  Centuir.' 

London,  1871. 
Smith.  Laura.    '  The  Jioaic  of  the  Waters.'    London,  1888. 
Barrett,  W.  A.   >*  Bnglleh  Folk-Songs.'    London,  1801. 
Oould.  8.  Baring,  and  Sheppard,  H.    '  Bongs  of  the  West'   London, 

1891. 
Kldeon,  F.    'TradlUonal  Tunes.'    Oxford.  1881. 
BomerreU.  A.    '  Bongs  of  the  Four  Nationa'    London,  1892. 
Broadwood,  L.  E.,  and  Fuller  Maltland,  J.  A.    '  English  County 

Songs.'    1868. 
Gould,  BTBarinf.  andJBheppanl,  H.  J.     'A  Garland  of  Country 

and  Ballads  of  Northern  Bngland.' 


Bong.'    London.  1805-97. 
DkoeTj. 


StokoeTJ..  and  Beay,  S.    ' 

Newcastle  and  London, 
Sharp.  CeoiL    'A  Book  of  British  Song.'    1903. 
Moflht.  Alfred,  and  Kidson,  Frank.     '  The  Mliutrelay  of  England.' 

1909. 
Hadow,  W.  H.    '  Bongs  of  the  British  Islands.'    London,  1008. 
O'Neill,  Norman.    '  A  Golden  Treasury  of  Bong.'    London.  1908. 
NtchoLMm.  Sydney.     'British  Bongs  for  British  Boys.'    1908. 
Sharp.  C.  J.,  and  Xarson,  C  L.      'Folk -Bongs  from  S<mienet.' 

1905-7. 
Dnnoan,  Bdmonstonne.     "The  Jlinstrvlsy  of  England.'    London. 

1905. 
Stanford,  Sir  C  V.    '  The  National  Song-Book.'    London  and  New 

York,  1908. 
Gould,  8.  Baring,  and  Sharp,  C.    '  English  Folk-Songs  for  Schools.' 

London,  1908. 
Kidson,  Frank,  and  Mofht,  Alfred.    *  English  Songs  of  the  Oeorgtan 

Period.'    London,  1907. 
See  also  the  Journal  of  the  Folk«Song  Society,  1899.  etc. 

America 
The  United  States. — Unlike  most  other 
countries,  America  has  no  distinctive  charac- 
teristics of  her  own  in  music.  Her  inhabitants 
are  of  too  mixed  a  character  to  constitute  a 
genuine  nationality.  From  all  parts  of  the 
world  representatives  of  every  race  have  flocked 
to  the  United  States  of  America.  Dutch,  Eng- 
lish, Irish,  German,  Scandinavian,  Slavonic,  and 
other  races  have  followed  each  other  in  quick 


the  music.  Deprived  as  it  has  been  of  its 
natural  foundation,  i,e.  the  folk-song,  her 
national  music  must  be  formed  on  the  indi- 
viduality of  her  composers. 

Moreover,  it  should  not  be  overlooked  that 
what  may  be  called  America's  musical  civilisa- 
tion is  of  comparatively  recent  origin.  Strangel y 
enough,  it  was  to  the  Puritan  settlers  of  the 
17th  century  that  America  owed  her  first 
awakening  to  music.  The  art  remained  in  a 
crude  and  stagnant  state  at  first,  developing  in 
the  18th  century  in  the  direction  only  of  rough 
psalmody,  under  William  Billings.  Then 
followed  Stephen  Foster,  who  in  the  first  half 
of  the  19th  century  attempted  to  interpret  the 
spirit  of  the  Southerners  with  his  so-called 
'plantation'  or  negro -melodies.  Excessively 
sentimental  and  poorly  harmonised  as  these 
songs  are,  no  one  will  deny  their  melodiousness, 
nor  disparage  the  hold  they  have  obtained  on 
white  and  black  men  alike.  (See  Negro  Music,  y 

It  is  only  within  the  last  fifty  years  that 
American  song- writers  have  claimed  attention 
in  the  musicil  world.  The  first  composer 
of  musical  scholarship  was  John  K.  Paine. 
Although  he  himself  paid  little  heed  to  the 
Song,  it  is  a  form  much  cultivated  by  Americans, 
and  Paine's  numerous  pupils  have  won  distinc- 
tion in  this  line.  Prominent  among  them  ia 
Arthur  Foote,  whose  graceful  little  *  Irish  Folk- 
Song,'  and  'I'm  wearing  awa','  are  favourite 
songs  also  in  Europe.  G.  W.  Ghadwick  and 
his  pupil  Horatio  Parker,  are  names  of  greater 
weight.  Parker  has  done  more  important 
work  in  other  branches  of  music,  but  the  ac- 
companiments of  his  songs  are  interesting  and 
varied.  Chad  wick's  -songs  are  very  numer- 
ous and  widely  sung.  His  fine  song  'King 
Death '  may  be  quoted  as  one  of  his  best  com- 
positions. Walter  Damrosch's  and  Mrs.  Beach's 
songs  are  refined  and  well -written,  and  never 
commonplace  or  vulgar.  The  same  cannot  be 
said  of  many  other  American  composers,  whose 
songs,  whilst  eiyoying  a  great  popularity, 
descend  almost  to  the  lowest  level  of  vocal 
music  These  composers  have  obviously  chosen 
the  modem  English  'ballad'  form  as  their 
model.  Fortunately  others  have  fallen  more 
under  the  influence  of  Schumann,  R.  Franz 
and  Grieg,  and  have  produced  songs  of  a  far 
higher  standard.  Edward  MacDowell  (d.  1908), 
who  justly  held  the  first  place  among  American 
song -writers,  shows  traces  of  his  Scottish 
ancestry  and  European  education.  But  though 
no  distinct  nationality  is  discernible  in  his 
music  there  is  distinct  personality.  His  songs 
are  those  of  a  tine  and  cultivated  musician ; 
the    voice    and    instrumental    part  alike  are 

1  The  patriotic  songs  such  sa  '  HaU  Columbia,' '  Tankoe  Doodle.' 
etc,  are  not  alluded  to  here  as  they  have  been 'dealt  vith  under 
Bcpemte  headlngn  in  this  Dictionary. 


SONG 


601 


moulded  and  finished  with  care,  whilst  .the 
emotional  and  poetical  qualities  are  seldom 
lacking.  The  most  popular  of  his  songs  are 
'Thy  beaming  eyes/  *The  robin  sings  in  the 
apple -tree,*  and  *I8  it  the  shrewd  October 
wind  ? ' ;  but  the  eight  songs  to  words  by 
Howells  are  among  his  best  and  most  original. 
Philip  Dalmas's  settings  of  Walt  Whitman's 
words  are  original  and  impressive. 

The  following  are  the  names  of  a  few  other 
song-composers  of  various  kinds  and  degrees  of 
merit :  Ethelbert  Nevin,  R.  de  Koven,  Van  der 
Stncken,  S.  Schlesinger,  B.  O.  Klein,  Victor 
Herbert,  G.  Osgood,  G.  Hawley,  Clayton  Johns, 
E.  Stillman  Kelley  (whose  settings  of  Poe's 
'Eldorado,'  and  his  song,  'The  lady  picking 
mulberries,'  written  in  tiie  pentatonic  scale, 
have  attracted  attention) ;  H.  Holden  Huss, 
V.  Harris,  Apthorp,  Spalding,  Dudley  Buck, 
Whitney  Coombs,  E.  Finck,  etc 

BlMJOUKAPBY 

Hood.O.    HUeorp  qf  MwHe  fn  Nng  Bngland.    Boston.  1846. 
Goold,  N.  D.    Sitt«rg  t^f  Oturek  Mvde  tfn  Ameriea.    Boston,  IBBS. 
Raymond-Bitter.  F.    8omm  Fammu  Amuh.     London,  1878. 
Ritter.  Dr.  F.  L.    MuHe  in  AnurUM.    London.  1884. 
Mathews.  W.  8.  B.    Nimdred  Ttan  qf  Afutte  in  America.   Ghiongo, 

1889. 
DTonUc.A.    Mtute  in  America.    Marper'M  Magadne,  Feb.  1806. 
FJaon.  Louis  C.    The  Jfational  JfuHe  nf  Ameriea.    Bostod.  1900. 
Hughes,  Knpert.    Contemparairjf  Ameriean  Oomposan.    1900. 
Pinck.  H.    Urniffa  and  Song-witer*.    London,  1901. 
-  Die  Mnsik.  Amerik»-Hsfl'    Hay  190S. 

COLXBCTIOHS 

Wilson.  J.    '  National  Song-Book.'    181S. 

Binerick.  A.  C.     'Sonf  '     " "    '    ' 

'  Slave  Songs  < 

Ware,  ant 

Fenncr.  T.  P.   '  GaUn  and  Plantation  Songsas sung  hj  the  Hampton 

Students.'    Mew  York.  1974. 
Trotter.  J.  M.    *  Music  and  some  highly  musical  People.' 
tiouaa.  J.  P.    'National,  PistrioUc.  and  Typical  Airs,  etc.,  for  all 

Countries.'    1880. 
Seward.  T.  F.    *  The  Story  of  the  Jubilee  Singers  with  their  Songs.' 

London.  1897. 

Germany 

In  no  country  has  the  Song  held  so  prominent 
a  place  as  in  Germany,  and  in  no  other  country 
has  this  form  of  music  been  carried  to  greater 
perfection.  Its  history  has  been  so  thoroughly 
explored  by  German  writers  that  its  course  may 
be  followed  from  very  remote  ages,  when  Song 
was  scarcely  distinguishable  from  speech,  and 
singen  and  sagen  were  convertible  terms.*  But 
until  the  time  of  the  Minnesinger  the  Song  had 
not  acquired  form  either  in  metre  or  melody, 
and  this  therefore  must  be  our  starting-point. 

The  Minnesinger  were  the  German  counter- 
parts of  the  Troubadours,  but  they  were  of 
rather  later  date,  and  the  tone  of  their  com- 
positions was  somewhat  different.     While  the 
Troubadourssang  generally  of  love  and  gallantry , 
the    Minnesinger  constantly  introduced    into  | 
their  songs  praises  of  the  varied  beauties  of  I 
nature.     And  the  expressions  of  homage  to  the  I 
Virgin,  or  of  other  devotional  feeling,  which  | 
burst  so  frequently  from  their  lips  were  the 

>  Fragments  exist  of  the  Hildebrandlied  of  the  8th  century  (see 
list  of  M88.  and  printed  oollectlous  at  end  of  this  seeUon),  of  which  I 
the  well-known  Volkslied  of  the  13th  century  '  Ich  will  su  Land 
aunrelten '  is  an  oflhhoot  (BShme,  '  Altdeutsches  Llederbuoh.'  p.  S). 
Also  of  the  Ludwigslled  which  was  sung  in  honour  of  Ludwig  III. 
when  he  gained  the  victory  over  the  Normans  in  882  at  Sancourt.  I 
Thew  are  the  earliest  songs  in  the  German  language. 


c.  A.  C.    '  Songs  for  the  People.'    1848. 

longs  of  the  United  States.*^  Edited  hy  W.  F.  AUen.  C.  P. 

re,  and  L.  M.  Garrison.    New  York.  1887. 


outcome  of  a  deeper  religious  sentiment  than 
any  to  which  the  light-hearted  Provengals  were 
ever  subject.  The  Minnesinger  always  sang  and 
accompanied  their  own  compositions,  and  took 
no  remuneration  for  the  entertainment  they 
gave.  They  were  more  numerous  in  Southern 
than  in  Northern  Germany ;  Austria  was  especi- 
ally prolific  in  them.     (See  Minnesinger.) 

The  most  representative  names  in  the  first 
period,  1150-1190,  were  Dietmar  von  Aiate, 
Meinloh  von  Sevelingen,  Der  von  Kiirenberc 
and  Spervogel.  The  second  and  best  period, 
which  was  tibe  stage  of  maturity,  was  covered 
by  the  last  years  of  the  12th  century,  and 
at  least  half  of  the  18th  centuiy.  To  this 
period  belonged  Heinrich  von  Veldecke,  Fried- 
rich  von  Hansen,  Heinrich  von  Morungen, 
Beinmar  der  Alte  (the  master  of  Walther  von 
der  Vogelweide),  Hartmann  von  der  Aue  (the 
author  of  the  celebrated  poem  *  Der  arme 
Heinrich'),  and  Walther  von  der  Vogelweide 
himself,  whose  fine  lyrics  won  for  him  a  place 
among  national  poets.  Early  in  the  Idth 
century  the  Sangerkrieg,  or  Minstrel -contest, 
was  held  on  the  Wartburg  by  the  Landgrave 
Hermann  of  Thuringia,  and  among  the  champions 
who  took  part  in  it,  were  Heinrich  von  Ofter- 
dingen,  Tannhauser,  and  Wolfram  von  Eschcn- 
bach.  Wolfram's  Minnelieder  had  some  suc- 
cess, but  higher  renown  was  gained  for  him 
by  his  Wiichterlieder  and  his  'Parsifal.'  The 
third  period  was  a  time  of  decline,  and  of 
transition  to  the  Meistersinger.  The  art  of 
the  Minnesinger  then  descended  to  trivial  and 
unpoetic  themes,  and  a  growing  carelessness  as 
to  the  forms  of  poetry  plainly  'revealed  its 
deterioration.  Nithart  von  Reuenthal  (whose 
poems  were  chiefly  descriptive  of  peasant  life), 
Ulrich  von  Lichtenstein,  Beinmar  von  Zweter, 
der  Mamer,  and  Konrad  von  Wurzburg  were 
the  principal  Minnesinger  of  this  period. 

Me(^i8eval  MSS.  contain  a  great  number  of  the 
poems  of  the  Minnesinger,  and  the  large  Jena 
and  Golmar  MSS.  the  melodies  also.  These 
remains  attest  the  especial  pains  bestowed  on 
the  poetic  words,  the  finish  of  their  verses  as 
regards  metre  and  rhythm,  and  in  short  the 
superiority  of  their  poetry  to  their  music.  But 
this  perfection  was  of  course  only  reached  by 
degrees.  Beginning  with  alliterative  words 
they  advanced  to  regular  rhymes,  and  then 
rules  of  composition  were  laid  down  prescribing 
the  number  of  lines  of  which  diflerent  kinds 
of  song  should  consist  The  structure  of  the 
verses  was  closely  followed  by  the  Minnesinger 
melodies,  and  as  there  was  necessarily  a  pause 
wherever  the  rhyme  fell,  a  certain  form  was 
thus  imparted  to  them.  Their  mode  of  notation 
was  similar  to  that  then  used  in  the  Church, 
and  their  melodies  were  founded  on  the  ecclesi- 
astical modes.  There  were  three  principal  kinds 
of  Minnesong :  the  Lied  (song),  the  Leich  (lay), 
and  the  Spruch  (proverb).    The  Lied  was  usually 


U*T*UO\A     IllbV     VltlW       I'M  H 


were  called  Slollen  (proi«),  and  were  of  the  same 
metre.  These  constituted  the  Au/geaartg,  The 
third  or  concluding  section,  the  length  of  which 
was  not  prescribed,  was  called  the  Ahgeaang. 
This,  after  beginning  with  a  contrasting  metre 
and  melody,  usually  (but  not  invariably)  repeated 
the  Stollen,  A  good  example  is  the  'Biigelied  ' 
from  the  Jena  MS.,  arranged  by  B.  von  Kralik 
thus » :~ 

Rugelied. 
Ex.  1.  Hebmaiw  vok  Dambk. 


S^lE^^^feSi 


(HtolUn)  HMtt'  ieh  aU   d«r 
(jMoOm)  Oott  Toneih'  ihm 


-  ten  Hal  -  den, 
ne    Schnl-den, 

Ahgeaang. 


^^^^^^ 


ich     eln         M  -  Ilf     MMin. 
nor     aiif     MlMfanat  mwi. 


Ieh  weUa  gar 


Eg3E£i55ii-3-~Jf^^^gEg 


viel    der  ScliwBchen 


die  den  Bie-dorn 


Im  •  nier  nei  •  den   und  daa  BOs'ate  Ton  llun  aa  -  •  gen. 

The  Leich,  according  to  its  character,  was  formed 
either  from  the  Church  sequences  or  from  the 
old  dance  tunes  (Jleigen).  If  the  latter  was 
the  case  the  I^ich  was  composed  of  differently 
constructed  strophes  and  each  of  these  had  a 
different  melody.  If  taken  from  the  sequentia 
it  exhibited  the  same  monotony  and  absence  of 
rhythm  as  the  ecclesiastical  melodies  of  that 
time*: — 


er>Bte  Syn-gen     hie    no 


Hejniieh  Ton  Ofterdlngen  In  dei  e^eln  ror  -  aten   dhon. 

The  Spnich  was  composed  of  one  entire  strophe, 
or,  if  other  strophes  were  added  they  could  be 
all  sung  to  the  same  tune.  Walther  von  der 
Vogelweide's  solitary  surviving  song  (which  is 
in  the  Colmar  MSS.,  folio  734)  is  a  Spruch^ ; 
it  is  clearly  meant  to  be  sung,  and  di£fers  from 
the  ordinary  didactic  SprUcho,  It  must  be 
remembered  that  in  speaking  of  the  *  tone '  of 
a  song,  the  Minnesinger  referred  exclusively  to 
the  metrical  structure  of  the  strophe,  and  the 

»  Pomie  und  Jiutlk  der  Jfinneibtffer,  B.  v.  Kralik.  {Die  MuMtk, 
April  1.  19W.) 

»  Prom  the  J«nA  MBS.  Fr.  Heinrlch  ron  der  Hagen  frirea  thit  ex- 
ample  In  lt«  orl^nal  noUtion  (It.  M.T  No.  xxix.).  His  work  on 
the  M innevinger  U  the  bout  anthority  to  ooiunlt.  In  the  fourth 
volume  a  rery  inntrnctiTe  emay  on  the  muelc  of  the  Minneeinger 
will  be  fonnd.  together  with  many  exampln  of  their  melodie*. 
aome  of  which  xn  trannrrlbed  in  facsimile,  whilst  othwrw  are  given 
In  modem  notation.  Bee  alao  the  new  edttlons  of  the  Colmar  MSS. 
by  P^ul  Rnnse  and  Hugo  Rleinnnn  (1896) :  and  of  the  Jena  M88.  t^ 
O.  Holz.  B.  Bemouilll.  and  Fr.  Saran  (19031. 

9  R.  von  Kralik  gi  vm  this  song  in  his  above-mentioned  work.  It 
Is  too  long  to  quote,  and  the  words  are  certainly  of  later  date. 


especial  melody  or  mode. 

The '  fahrenden  Sanger '  (wanderingminstrels), 
also  called  merely  die  Fahrenden  or  Gatikler, 
formed  a  link  between  nobles  and  people.  Be- 
longing clearly  to  the  *  Jongleur'  class,  dis- 
couraged by  the  priests  and  patronised  by  courts, 
they  were  at  once  acrobats,  ballad-mongers, 
and  performers  on  various  instruments.  Their 
ranks  comprised  unfrocked  monks,  disbanded 
crusaders,  soldiers,  serving-men.  Essentially 
musical,  they  made  known  the  people's  songs 
at  courts,  and  transmitted  the  songs  of  Church 
and  Minnesinger  to  the  |)eople.  The  music  was 
a  fusion  of  secular  and  ecclesiastical  elements, 
their  language  a  mixture  of  German  and  Latin. ^ 
But  they  especially  loved  the  Volkslied,  and  it 
is  to  them  that  we  owe  the  preservation  of  these 
priceless  songs  which  found  their  way  into  the 
numerous  collections  published  in  the  first  half 
of  the  16th  century.* 

In  the  14th  century  feudalism  had  passed  its 
prime.  With  the  extinction  of  the  art-loving 
Hohenstaufen  dynasty,  the  taste  for  poetry 
and  music  declined  at  court,  and  with  it  the 
patronage  extended  to  the  Minnesinger.  Power 
was  slipping  from  the  grasp  of  princes,  prelates, 
and  nobles  into  the  hands  of  burghers  and 
artisans.  Out  of  these  middle  classes  came 
the  Meistersinger,^  who  supplanted  the  more 
patrician  Minnesinger.  The  name  of  Heinrlch 
von  Meissen  (1260-1818),  commonly  called 
Frauenlob,  forms  the  connecting-link,  for  by 
some  he  is  considered  the  last  of  the  Minne- 
singer and  by  others  the  founder  of  the  Meistei- 
singer.  In  1811  he  came  to  Mainz,  and  insti- 
tuted a  guild  or  company  of  singers,  who  bound 
themselves  to  observe  certain  rules.  Though 
somewhat  stiff  and  pedantic,  Frauenlob's  poems 
evince  intelligence  and  thought ;  ^  and  the 
example  set  by  him  was  widely  imitated.  Guilds 
of  singers  soon  sprang  up  in  other  large  towns 
in  Germany ;  and  it  became  the  habit  of  the 
burghers,  especially  in  the  long  winter  evenings, 
to  meet  together  and  read  or  sing  narrative  or 
other  poems,  either  borrowed  from  the  Minne- 
singer and  adapted  to  the  rules  of  their  own 
guild,  or  original  compositions.  By  the  end  of 
the  14th  century  there  were  regular  schools  of 
music  at  Colmar,  Frankfort,  Mainz,  Prague,  and 
Strasbuig,  and  a  little  later  they  were  found  also 
in  Nuremberg,  Augsburg,  Breslau,  Regensbuig, 

«  Schneider.  I>a$  mutOaUMiM  LML,  i.  lOS. 

s  The  '  fahrenden  SKnger '  were  also  oonnted  as  XetatenlDger,  bn 
belonged  to  a  diffenrnt  circle.  In  the  19th  century,  the  greatest 
was  MiiduMl  Beheim  (or  Behatm),  who  was  a  favourite  in  the  courts 
of  the  princes  on  the  Rhine  and  Danube  and  at  Copenhagen.  Bel* 
inann  in  his  collection  gives  an  example  of  his  songs,  and  the 
DKMlen  MSS.  of  the  15th  oentuiy  contain  some  mystical  hymn* 
to  the  Virgin  by  Behatm.  (R.  v.  Liliencron.  Dmitsekes  Li*f»  "* 
Volkairdumisao.) 

«  The  origin  of  the  term  Metsterelnger  Is  nncertaln.  Arobn* 
says  th»t  it  was  applied  to  every  Minnesinger  who  was  not  a  now. 
and  thus  became  the  distinguishing  appellation  of  the  bwiiMr 
minstrels.  Reissmann.  however,  maintains  that  the  title '  Meintf 
indicated  excellence  in  any  act  or  trade :  and  that  having  heM  >t 
first  conferred  only  on  the  best  singera.  it  was  afterwards  exteodee 
to  all  members  of  the  guild.  .  j  i. 

7  A  complete  collection  of  Frauenlob's  poeme  were  published  in 
1S43  by  SttmaUer,  Quedlinbnif . 


SONG 


603 


nd  Ulm.  In  short,  during  the  15th  and  16th 
enturies,  there  was  scarcely  a  town  of  any 
lagnitude  or  importance  throughout  Germany 
rhich  had  not  its  own  Meistersinger.  The 
7  th  century  was  a  period  of  decline,  both  in 
Lumbers  and  repute.  The  last  of  these  schools 
•f  music  lingered  at  Ulm  until  1839,  and  then 
eased  to  exist ;  and  the  last  suryivor  of  the 
klelstersinger  is  said  to  have  died  in  1876. 

Famous    among    Meistersinger    were    Hans 
iosenbliit,  Till  Eulenspi^gel,  Muscatbliit,  Hein- 
ich    von    Miiglin,    Puschman,    Fischart,    and 
)eb.    Brandt;  but  the  greatest  of  all  by  far 
vas    Hans  Sachs,  the  cobbler  of  Nuremberg, 
vho    lived   from   1494  to   1576.     His  extant 
vorks  are  6048   in  number,  and  fill  84  folio 
T'olumes.     4275  of  them  are  Meisterlieder  or 
Bar,  as  they  were  called.  ^     To  Sachs's  pupil, 
A.dam  Puschman,  we  are  indebted  for  accounts 
Df    the    Meistergesang.^      The   works   of   the 
Meistersinger  had  generally  a  sacred  subject, 
siud    their  tone  was  reHgious.     Hymns  were 
their  lyrics,  and  narrative  poems  founded  on 
Scripture  were  their  epics.    Sometimes,  however, 
they  wrote   didactic  or   epigrammatic   poems. 
But  their  productions  were  all  alike  wanting 
in   grace  and  sensibility ;  and  by  a  too  rigid 
observance  of  their  own  minute  and  complicated 
rules  of  composition  or  Tablatur  (as  they  were 
termed)  they  constantly  displayed  a  ridiculous 
pedantry.     The  Meistersinger  clearly  adopted 
(especially   in   lyiic-song)   the   forms   of    the 
Minnesinger,  such  as  the  two  Stollen,  and  the 
Auf'  and   Abgesang,  but  without   the  instru- 
mental   preludes,    interludes    or    postludes.^ 
Churches  were  their  ordinary  place  of  practice. 
At  Nuremberg,  for  instance,  ttieir  singing-school 
was  held  in  St.  Katherine's  church,  and  their 
public   contests   took   place   there.     The   pro- 
ceedings commenced  with   the  Freisingeyi,  in 
which  any  one,  whether  a  member  of  the  school 
or  not,  might  sing  whatever  he  chose,  but  no 
judgments  were  passed  on  these  preliminary 
performances.      Then  followed  the  contest,  in 
which    Meistersinger    alone    might    compete. 
They  were  limited  to  Scriptural  subjects,  and 
tlieir  relative   merits  were  adjudged  by  four 
Merker  or  markers  who  sat  hidden  by  a  curtain 
at  a  table  near  the  altar.     It  was  the  duty  of 
one  of  the  four  to  heed  that  the  song  faithftilly 
adhered  to   Holy   Writ ;   of  another  to   pay 
special  attention  to  its  prosody  ;  of  a  third  to 
its  rhyme,  and  of  the  fourth  to  its  melody. 
Should  the  singer  fail  in  any  of  the  rules  of  the 
TdbUutuT,  the  Merker  declared  him  versungen 

1  The  celebrated  chorale  '  Waxum  betrllbit  du  dich,  meln  Hen,' 
•WM  long  believed  to  be  the  work  of  Hmu  Bacha  ;  but  it  has  been 
coTK.liisiTely  shotra  by  BOhme  ('A1tdeutK$hes  Llederbucfa.' n.  748) 
th»t  the  word*  were  vritten  by  O.  A.  Oeniler,  and  then  act  to  the 
ol'i  f^erulor  tune.  '  Deln  gBund  mein  Freud.' 

■i  They  bear  the  titles  of  GrOndlidter  Borteht  du  deut$ehm 
Mritter'iftang*  (GOrlitx.  1071) ;  and  GrOndUelter  Berieht  der  dnit' 
$ehen  Reimen  oder  litthmen  (Frankfurt  a.  O..  1696).  Both  are 
partially  reprintedl  in  the  8ammlun</  fSkr  altdeuttcJuf  Uteratur, 
e(ilt<«(l  by  F.  H.  r.  der  Haffen.  J.  G.  BQachlng.  and  othem.  Breilau, 
1X12.  See  alao  Deu  Stnyebueh  da  A.  Pwtchman  nebtt  dm  Oriffincd- 
nwlodu'n  det  M.  Behaim  und  H.  Sttehs,  by  O.  MUnser  (LeipxlK.  1906). 

3  Von  den  Mehtmintem  und  ihrrr  .Viitik.    Curt  Mey,  1903. 


and  vertkan,  and  the  competitor  who  had  the 
fewest  faults  obtained  the  prize,  a  chain  with 
coins.  One  of  the  coins,  bearing  the  image  of 
King  David,  had  been  the  gift  of  Hans  Sachs, 
and  hence  the  whole  Oeadnge  were  called  the 
*  David  '  and  the  prizeman  tiie  *  Davidwinner.* 
Every  Davidwinner  might  have  his  apprentices, 
but  no  chaise  was  made  for  teaching.  The 
term  *  Meister '  (strictly  speaking)  apphed  only 
to  those  who  invented  a  new  metre  or  melody  ; 
the  rest  were  simply  *  Sanger.' 

The  Meistersinger  possessed  a  store  of  melodies 
for  their  own  use  ;  and  these  melodies  were 
labelled  with  distinctive  but  apparently  mean- 
ingless names,  such  as  the  blue- tone, ^  the 
red-tone,  the  ape-tune,  the  rosemary-tune,  the 
yellow-lily-tune,  etc.  A  Meistersinger  might  set 
his  poems  to  any  of  these  melodies.  The  four 
principal  were  called  the  gekrimten  Tone,  and 
their  respective  authors  were  Miiglin,  Frauenlob, 
Mamer,  and  Regenbogen.  So  far  were  the 
Meistersinger  carried  by  their  grotesque  pedantry 
that  in  setting  the  words  of  the  twenty-ninth 
chapter  of  Genesis  to  Miiglin's  laiige  Ton,^  the 
very  name  of  the  book  and  the  number  of  the 
chapter  were  also  included.     Thus  : — 

Bx.  8. 


•  ne  -  aU  am  neau  und  zwan-zig-aten  una  berlcht. 


|^)b    J  r)  f-TTE^^ 


wle     Ja  •  cob  floh  vor  aein  Bru-der  B  •  aau    ent  -  wicht 


Daa  er     In   Me  -  ao  •  i>o  -  ta  -  ml  •  am  kom  -  men. 

To  all  external  appearance  the  melodies  of 
the  Meistersinger  (like  those  of  the  Minnesinger) 
had  a  strong  affinity  with  Church  music  and 
kept  to  the  Ecclesiastical  modes.  But  on  closer 
scrutiny  many  melodies  may  be  found  which 
would  sound  just  like  our  major  and  minor 
scales,  were  it  not  for  their  modal  cadences  and 
the  many  liturgical  fragments  introduced.  Still 
their  songs  are  for  the  most  part  poor  and 
simple,  and  too  devoid  of  rhythm  ever  to  be 
really  popular,  and  very  few  of  them  found 
sufficient  favour  to  become  Volkslicder  in  the 
15th  and  16th  centuries.^  On  the  other  hand, 
the  Meistersinger  themselves  sometimes  appro- 
priated  Yolkslieder.      Thus   Hans   Sachs  has 

4  with  the  Melatersinger  the  word  Ton  referred  to  the  mualc 
only,  and  not  to  the  poetry,  aa  with  the  Mlnneainger. 

9  Wagner  haa  made  na  Samlliar  with  MQglln'a  lange  Ton,  in  hla 
Melateninger  fanfare  :— 


and  it  ia  evident  that  Wagner  atudied  and  fully  imderatood  the 
Meistersinger  melodlea.  and  adopted  uiany  genuine  onea. 

0  Acoordiug  to  BOhme.  in  the  preface  to  hla  '  Altd.  Liederbnch.' 
p.  xxlli,  the  writera  of  the  VoUulleder  never  aigned  their  names, 
whilst  the  MeiRteralnger  generally  introduced  hta  own  name,  and 
very  often  the  date  of  hia  oomposition,  into  the  last  rhyme  of  the 
poem.  A  Meiatersinger's  song  can  thus  be  diatinguiahed  from  a  true 
I   Volkalied. 


reproduced  the  beautiful  old  Mailied  (May-song) 
in  his  Fastnaehtstpiel,  '  Der  Neydhart  mit  dem 
Feyhel/  written  Feb.  7,  1562.1  He  calls  it  a 
Meigen  or  roundelay,  and  its  original  date  was 
evidently  anterior  to  the  14th  centuiy.  In  its 
16th-century  form  it  is  as  follows  : — 

Ex.4. 


Pzl^^^ 


^ 


Der    Meje,   do-     Meye    brlngtaniidcrBianilein 


wHm  wol,  wein  Ichi  wll,         Gott  w«Im  wol.wem  Ichs  wiL 


In  fine,  the  Meistersinger  cannot  be  said  to 
have  reached  a  high  level  of  excellence  either 
in  poetry  or  in  music,  but  they  undoubtedly 
exercised  an  important  influence  on  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Song  by  the  attention  they  paid  to 
rhyme,  and  by  their  numerous  inventions  of 
new  metrical  arrangements.  And  they  rendered 
a  still  greater  service  to  music  when  they  carried 
it  into  every  German  home,  and  made  it  a  grace 
and  pastime  of  domestic  life. 

While  more  regular  and  formal  varieties  of 
the  Song  were  thus  being  studied  and  practised, 
it  had  never  ceased  to  issue  in  its  own  spon- 
taneous form  of  Yolkslied  from  the  untutored 
hearts  of  a  music -loving  people.  From  that 
source  it  came  in  native  vigour,  unforced  and 
untrammelled.  And  far  more  was  done  for 
melody  and  harmony  by  the  obscure  authors 
of  the  Volkslieder  than  was  ever  done  by 
Minnesinger  or  Meistersinger.  As  Ambros  has 
pointed  out, 2  the  importance  of  the  part  played 
by  the  Yolkslied  in  the  history  of  the  music  of 
Western  Europe  was  second  only  to  that  of  the 
Gregorian  modes.  Further,  the  moral  struggle 
against  the  anti- humanism  of  the  mediaeval 
church  found  victorious  expression  in  the  asser- 
tive humanism  of  the  folk-song — anathematised 
by  spiritual  authority.  A  partial  reconciliation 
of  the  contending  forces  followed  when  the  great 
polyphonic  masters  adopted  Yolkslied  melodies 
as  theme  or  foundation  of  their  greatest  sacred 
and  secular  works.  Later,  a  yet  closer  union 
was  effected  in  the  Chorale  of  the  Reformation 
period.  Whoever  were  the  authors  of  the 
Yolkslieder,  it  was  not  their  habit  to  write 
them  down  ;  the  songs  lived  on  the  lips  and  in 
the  hearts  of  the  people.  But  happily,  even  in 
remote  times,  there  were  collectors  who  made  i 
it  their  business  to  transcribe  these  popular 
songs  ;  and  of  collections  thus  made  none  are 
more  important  than  the  *  Limburger  Chronik ' 
and  the  *  Locheimer  Liederbuch. '  The  former 
work  consists  of  Yolkslieder  which  would  seem 

>  Bm  Bfltime's  '  Altd.  Lted<>rbiidi,'  p.  36fL 
!*  AmbTtM.  Oetch,  der  Mtu.  ii.  276. 


to  have  been  in  vogue  from  1347  to  1380  ;* 
while  songs  of  a  little  later  date  are  found  in 
the  other  collection. '*  This  book  contains  forty- 
four  songs,  some  of  great  melodic  beauty,  and 
showing  considerably  developed  rhythm  and 
structure  as  well  as  a  delicate  sense  of  poetic 
feeling.  The  Lehroompendium  of  H.  de  Zee- 
landia  also  contains  some  very  fine  Yolkslieder 
of  the  14th  and  15th  centuries.^  Finally, 
among  the  many  Minnesinger  and  Meistersinger 
and  other  MS.  collections  named  after  the 
various  towns  (such  as  the  Nuremberg,  Prague, 
Dresden  MSS.),  numbers  of  genuine  Yolkslieder 
are  to  be  found.® 

The  subjects  of  the  earliest  Yolkslieder  were 
historical ;  ^  they  were  indeed  epic  poems  of 
many  stanzas  set  to  a  shott  melcxly.  But  by 
the  time  that  the  Yolkslied  had  attained  to  its 
meridian  splendour,  about  the  beginning  of  tlie 
16th  century,  almost  every  sentiment  of  the 
human  heart  and  every  occupation  of  life  had 
its  own  songs.  Students,  soldiers,  huntsmen, 
pedlars,  apprentices,  and  other  classes  had  their 
own  distinctive  songs.  The  best  are  undoubtedly 
the  love-songs — those,  in  fact,  where  feeling  is 
the  strongest.  Amongst  them  the  songs  of 
parting  (Abschiedslieder)  are  the  most  numerous 
and  beautiful,  especially  the  Wiichterlieder  ®  or 
Tagelieder,  in  which  the  watchman  announces 
the  dawn.^  As  a  rule,  the  music  of  the  Yolkslied 
was  better  than  the  words.  So  loose  was  the 
structure  of  the  verse  that  syllables  without  any 
sense  were  inserted  to  fill  up  the  length  of  the 
musical  phrase,  as : 

Dort  oben  anf  dem  Berge 
D(}lpel.  ddlpel,  dolpel 
Da  stdht  ein  hohm  Haus. 

or  a  sentence  was  broken  off  in  the  middle,  or 
meaningless  unds  and  abers  were  lavishly  inter- 
spersed. But  notwithstanding  these  laxities  of 
composition  there  was  a  close  connection  be- 
tween the  words  and  the  melody. 

The  Yolkslied  was  always  strophical  in  form, 
and  therein  differed  from  the  Seqitanees  and 
Proses  of  the  Church  and  the  Lei4:hen  of  the 
Minnesinger.  Another  marked  feature  was  its 
rhyme.  When  the  final  rhyme  had  been 
substituted  for  mere  alliteration  and  assonance, 
a  definite  form  was  imparted  to  the  verse,  and 
its  outline  was  rendered  clearer  by  the  melody 
of  the  Yolkslied  which  emphasised  the  final 
rhyme,  and  by  covering  two  lines  of  the  poetry 

3  III  the  *  Umbarger  Chronik '  we  are  told  of  a  leper  monk  Uvinp 
by  the  Rhine,  o.  1370.  Despite  his  lenroey.  the  beauty  of  hie  com- 
poeltioDe  drew  men  to  hi«  cell  from  all  quertert. 

«  Ambroi.  <7«mA.  der  Mu$.  III.  87S. 

A  Prom  the  Prague  MS.  Ambroe  (it.  977)  gives  oue, '  Hetr  Conrsd 
gtng.'  both  in  Ite  original  and  in  modem  notation. 

<  For  the  hlfltory  of  the  MeiRteninger  aee  J.  C.  WageneeU'e 
Buch  ron  der  M^Utrninger  holdMUgtn  Kun$t.    16B7. 

f  For  the  beet  authority  omsult  B.  vou  Lilieneron'a  /He  M*- 
toritehen  YtOkdMier,  etc. 

"  A  WKchterlled  Htlll  rang.  '  Der  Wficht4>r  anf  dem  Thftrmlein 
BM.'  ii  given  In  Brk'i '  Deuteche  Uederhoit/  No.  IW. 

'  Theae  Abeehiedalieder  are  <nll  of  the  aonnds  of  natore— deeeribed 
with  poetic  charm.    They  were  the  special  property  of  the  Minne- 
singer (Wolfram  von  Emhenbaeh's  were  Che  most  ' 
equally  loved  by  the  people. 


)  most  famous),  but 


Ex.  5.     Meine  Hebe  Fran  Mutter. 


He  •  be  Fxau  Mut-ter,  mit  mlr  tst'i  Jax^ ;  Jetxt 
b«ld 


l^g^P 


wer<den»  mich  bald  f Oh-xeu  belm  Sohand-thor  hJn«  f 

ana. 

It  will  be  noted  in  the  above  example  that  the 
half-close  is  on  the  dominant  harmony  and  the 
full-close  on  the  tonic,  and  this  principle,  which 
was  originally  a  peculiar  attribute  of  the 
Yolkslied,  has  been  gradually  introduced  into 
all  other  kinds  of  music,  and  it  is  now  one  of 
the  most  important  factors  of  form.  (See 
Form.)  Many  of  the  Volkslieder  were  com- 
posed in  different  ecclesiastical  modes,  but  by 
degrees  the  Ionian  mode,  in  which  alone  the 
dominant  principle  can  have  full  weight, 
obtained  pre-eminence.  The  form  of  the 
Volkslied  is  generally  very  concise  as  in  the 
above  example,  and  this  perhaps  is  the  secret 
of  its  great  charm.  But  looser  forms  are 
sometimes  met  with,  and  were  probably  due  to 
the  influence  of  the  Church.  To  the  same  in- 
fluence may  be  ascribed  the  melodic  melismata 
or  Tocal  flourishes  which  occur  even  in  strophical 
songs.  In  the  Gregorian  music,  where  little 
attention  was  paid  to  rhythm,  the  melody  might 
be  indefinitely  prolonged  upon  any  syllable ; 
and  similarly  we  sometimes  find  in  the  Volkslied 
many  notes  given  to  one  word,  as  in  this  ex- 
ample : — 


Ex.6. 


Abachied, 


grEF:Ert:---[:^L±:gEgi:EZh£=-.^r--.^*H 


JRnt  •  l»ubet  Ut  der  Wal  •  de  gegn  die  -  nem  Win  •   • 
Be-nubt  werd'  Ich,  bo  bal  -  de  uielu  Feloelieb  macht  .  . 


macht  inir  schwe 


These  melodic  jnelisinata  also  allow  the  Toice 
great  scope  in  the  so-called  Kehrreim  or  refrain. 
Another  noticeable  peculiarity  of  rhythm  in  the 
Volkslied  is  the  variety  of  ways  in  which  the 


illustrates  a  diflerent  representation  of  the  metre 
in  every  line  of  the  stanza.  *  Few  of  the  Volks- 
lieder begin  on  the  first  beat  of  the  bar ;  and 
therefore  the  usual  metre  is  Iambic,  thus  : — 


leh       will    yu    Land    auj  •  rel    •    ten. 

and  a  preference  has  always  been  shown  by  the 
Germans  for  equal  or  common  time ;  it  is 
a  quieter  and  more  formal  time  than  the  triple, 
which  is  essentially  dance- rhythm. >  Other 
conmion,  though  not  invariable  attributes  of 
the  Volkslied  were  a  diatonic  intervallic  pro- 
gression, the  reiteration  of  one  note,  a  limited 
compass,  the  key  or  mode  steadily  adhered  to, 
and  unlike  the  songs  of  many  other  countries, 
the  melody  of  the  Volkslied  always  maintained 
a  complete  independence  of  the  accompanying 
instrument.  In  character  the  old  Volkslieder 
are  marked  by  a  certain  earnestness  and  dignified 
self-restraint  They  aie  cheerful  and  even  gay, 
but  without  impetuosity  or  excitability.  There 
is  no  attempt  at  word-painting  ;  the  same  time 
must  serve  for  the  numerous  verses.  Hence 
the  necessity  for  concise  melodies.  The  tendency 
of  the  German  spirit  is  to  look  inwards,  to  por- 
tray the  deeper  and  more  permanent  emotions 
rather  than  the  transient  and  superficial ;  to 
aim  less  at  beauty  than  expression. 

The  Volkslied  would  seem  to  have  fixed,  as  it 
were,  instinctively  our  modem  major  tonal 
system  ;  and,  moreover,  songs  even  of  the  15th 
century  are  extant,  which  correspond  to  our 
minor  keys.  The  following  example  clearly 
belongs  to  the  old  system,  but  the  beginnijig  and 
close  and  the  intervals  on  which  the  principal 
rhymes  fall,  make  it  evident  that  the  key  of  A 
minor  was  intended. ^ 


Ex.7. 


AcJi  Elslein. 


^^^ 


Ach  Ha  •  leln,Ue*bea  Ela  •  lein  meln,  wie  gern  wUr*  Ich  bel  dir  I 


^PfFf^^ggfefgp^ 


Bo  ilnd  zwel  tief-e  Wai  •  -  -  ^er  wol  iwiacheu  dlr  and  mlr  I 

In  Hans  Judenktinig's  (1523)  and  Hans 
Neusiedler's  (1636)  Lute-books  this  melody  is 
always  in  A  minor  with  the  Gj  marked.     In 

>  See  BOhme.  p.  SSS,  No.  2S7.  The  melody  and  worda  of  thla  eonr 
are  taken  from  the  9tu§enhaweHtn,  1636,  No.  1.  There  are  many 
▼erdona  of  thia  fine  melody ;  and  in  oollectione  rabaequent  to  1640 
it  ia  often  to  be  found  aet  to  the  morning  hymn '  Idi  dank  I>ir. 
lieber  Merre,'  and  with  thla  aetting  It  appean  in  all  chorale  booka 
down  to  the  pmeut  day. 

s  BOhme.  however,  nukintaina  that  nntil  the  14th  oentaty  no 
trace  of  any  time  except  Ttmiju*  perf«ctum  (which  means  triple 
time)  can  be  found.    'Altd.  Liederbuch,'  Preface,  p.  64. 

'  Another  good  examine  ia  'Be  warb  ein  achOner  Jilngllng' 
(Oeorg  Forster,  iNn  it  M/fatt^lTiiter  oiler  unrf  tteMwr  r«tf«tdk«r  JUedZeffi. 
etc.,  1889-1666.  i.  40).  Thia  and  'Ach  Elslein.  liebea  Blaleln,' are 
■ome  of  the  uumeroaa  reniona  of  the  legend  of  the  Swimmer.  '  Ach 
Elaleln '  la  foond  in  all  the  old  oollectiona  of  the  16th  century.  Fbr 
ineta&oe.  In  Joh.  Ott.  1634,  No.  S7:  Bchmaltsel.  Qnodllbet  x.  1644  > 
Khaw,  Bldnia,  li.  1648,  No.  19.  etc  ' 


but  undoubtedly  always  used. 

Consideration  has  tlius  far  been  given  to  the 
very  important  contributions  of  the  Volkslied 
to  the  determination  of  permanent  form  in 
music ;  but  its  influence  on  contemporary  music 
also  requires  notice. 

It  has  already  been  shown  that  the  composers 
of  other  countries  in  the  14th,  15th,  and  16th 
centuries,  took  secular  tunes  as  themes  for  their 
masses,  motets,  and  other  sacred  works.  The 
German  composers  did  the  same  to  a  certain 
extent,  but  they  more  commonly  employed  the 
secular  tunes  in  their  secular  polyphonic  works. 
Nevertheless,  as  regards  Church  music  the  Volks- 
lied occupied  a  higher  place  in  Germany  than 
elsewhere  ;  for  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that 
more  than  half  the  melodies  of  the  chorale-books 
were  originally  folk-songs,  and  these  melodies 
were  among  tiiie  simplest  and  most  beautiful 
ever  created.  (See  Chorale.)  Heiniich  von 
Lauffenberg  (or  Loufenberg)  in  the  15th  century 
systematically  set  his  sacred  words  to  secular 
tunes,  ^  especially  using  the  favourite  Tage  and 
Wackterlieder ;  but  the  Reformation  made  the 
practice  very  much  more  common.  The  Reformers 
wished  the  congregation  to  join  as  much  as 
possible  in  the  singing  of  hymns,  and  with  that 
object  they  naturally  preferred  words  in  the 
vernacular,  and  melodies  which  were  familiar 
with  the  people.  2  A  well-known  example  of 
the  combination  of  sacred  words  and  secular 
melody  is  the  song  '  Isbruck,  ich  muss  dich 
lasscn,'  set  by  Heinrich  Isaak  in  four  parts  in 
1475,3  with  the  melody  in  the  upper  part — a 
rare  arrangement  at  that  time.  After  the 
Reformation  this  tune  was  adapted  by  Dr.  Hesse 
to  the  sacred  words  '0  Welt,  ich  muss  dich 
lassen';  and  in  1633  Paul  Gerhardt  wrote  to 
it  the  evening  hymn  *  Nun  ruhen  alle  Wiilder,' 
in  which  form  it  still  remains  a  favourite  in  all 
Lutheran  churches.^  After  many  transforma- 
tions the  old  love-song  'Mein  Gmiith  ist  mir 
verwirrt '  *  now  lives  in  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
and  solemn  chorales  of  both  the  Lutheran  and 
Roman  Catholic  churches,  namely  'O  Haupt 
voll  Blut  und  Wunden,'  which  Bach  has  intro- 
duced so  often  in  his  Passion  music  according 
to  S.  Matthew.  Again  '  Kont  ich  von  hertzen 
singen '  (one  of  the  most  famous  of  the  many 
WdcfUerluder  and  Tageweisen  melodies  the 
Church  borrowed)  was  adapted  to  the  chorale 


1  Ambnw.  ill.  37S. 

a  Kaammui  {BUt.  ^  Mua.  p.  4M  eC  Kq.)  points  oat  thftt  Luther 
being  both  a  nrMtloal  and  theoretical  miuldao  saw  ekarly  how 
powerful  a  flHctor  the  Vollulled  had  beoome  In  tonal  pmctloe.  and 
In  oalns  It  he  IniUted  on  the  importance  of  the  approprlatenev  of 
the  melody  to  the  aacred  words,  and  og>  oorrectneae  of  accent. 

*  Oeorv  Ponter,  L  No.  S6.  liie  worda  are  euppoied  to  be  by  the 
Emperor  Maximilian  L  in  whose  oourv  iMak  was  liTing. 

*  See  laAAK.  AIm  BShme,  '  Altd.  Llederbneh,'  p.  S3S,  where  the 
•oner  !•  given  In  its  original  form  with  a  mtUama,  BOhme  also 
gives  an  int<nwstlng  remark  on  the  admiration  Bach  and  Moiart 
evinced  for  thU  song. 

*  This  soiig  is  to  be  found  in  Hans  Leo  Hasder's  iMUgarUnnmier 
UuttcKer  Ottdngt,  etc.,  Nuremberg.  1001.  The  melody  was  also  used 
fbr  a  dsath-eong  *  Hendich  thut  mlch  verlangen,'  and  latn:  It  was 
set  to  the  universally  sung '  Beflel  du  delne  Wwe '  (Handel  employed 
it  in  1709,  previous  to  Bach). 


firewlein  klagen '  to  '  Hilf  Gott,  wem  soil  ich 
klagen ' ;  '  O  lieber  Hans,  versorg  dein  Gans  * 
to  *  O  lieber  Gott,  das  dein  Gebot' ;  and  'Venus 
du  und  dein  Kind '  to  '  Auf  meinen  lieben  Gott.' 
Many  dance -songs,  especially  the  so-called 
Hingel  and  Heigentdrue,  were  likewise  set  to 
sacred  words.® 

It  is  clear  that  the  chorale  gained  rather 
than  lost  by  the  adoption  of  secular  melodies  ; 
they  emancii)ated  it  from  stiffness  and  formality ; 
they  gave  it  heart  and  living  warmth.  So  far 
removed  from  irreverence  were  the  secular 
melodies,  and  so  appropriate  to  the  sacred 
text,  that  the  music  is  generally  more  expressive 
of  the  words  in  the  Chorale  than  in  the  Volks- 
lied. But  perhaps  the  true  explanation  of  this 
is,  that  in  the  case  of  the  Chorale,  the  words 
were  either  written  expressly  for  a  chosen 
melody,  or  the  melody  was  selected  for  its 
appropriateness  to  particular  words.  ^  The 
melody  of  that  just  mentioned,  '  O  Haupt  voU 
Blut  und  Wunden,'  is  obviously  secular,  but 
what  melody  could  better  express  a  deep  and 
poignant  religious  sorrow  ?  In  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  the  use  of  the  Volkslied  was 
chiefly  confined  to  the  hymns  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin  {Maritiitveder)  and  to  the  Saints,  and 
to  the  Christmas  Carols,  especially  the  sacred 
cradle-songs,  such  as  the  lovely  'Josef,  lieber 
Josef  mein.'  But  upon  the  whole,  the  Roman 
Catholic  hymns  are  all  conceived  in  the  '  tradi- 
tional fixed  cadence  of  the  Gregorian  song.' 

The  progress  of  polyphonic  music  in  Germany 
had  been  checked  by  the  discontinuance  of  the 
mass  after  the  Reformation,  but  a  new  impetus 
was  given  to  it  by  the  contrapuntal  treatment 
of  the  Volkslied  by  great  composers.  As 
examples  of  such  treatment  may  be  mentioned 
'AUein  dein  G'stalt,'  *Ach  herzig's  herz,*  by 
H.  Finck  ;  *  Mir  ist  ein  roth  Goldfingerlein/  by 
L.  Senfl  ;  '  Der  Gutzgauch  auf  dem  Zaune  sa^,' 
by  L.  Lemlin.  This  brings  us  to  the  Kunst- 
lied,  which  in  its  primary  sense  signified  only 
the  contrapuntal  treatment  of  the  song  by 
learned  musicians.^  With  the  polyphonic 
Kunstlied  we  have  here  no  concern,  beyond 
what  just  sufiices  to  point  out  the  changes 
through  which  it  successively  passed,  and  the 
important  part  the  Volkslied  held  in  it.  The 
composers  who  used  the  Volkslied  thus  were 
masters  of  every  form  of  counterpoint ;  some- 
times  they  worked  one  melody  with  another, 
as  Arnold  von  Bruok,  who  combined  the  song 
*  Es  taget  vor  dem  Walde '  with  *  Kein  Adler 
in  der  Welt'  ;•  or  if  they  did  not  treat  the 
melody  as  a  canon,  as   Eckel   treated    'Ach 

«  See  BShme,  'Alid.  Uederbueh.'  p.  908  cc  soy.  BAhme  gives  a 
list  at  p.  810  of  secular  melodies  with  sacred  words. 

7  The  racred  VoUcsIieder  (pvMMeAe  retJcai4HUr)  difltor  from  the 
chorale  in  that  the  former  were  printed  on  broadsheets  and  sung 
by  the  people  of  everr  class,  whereas  the  chorales  were  written  lor 
and  sung  by  the  cultivated  nnlv. 

0  The  very  much  wider  signlflestlon  whldi  the  term  JFiffuCHstf 
afterwards  acquired  has  been  referred  to  at  the  ontnet  of  this 
article.  •  Beissmann,  Oeteh.  d,  deuUdken  LUde»,  p.  O. 


SONG 


607 


iingfrau,  ihr  seid  wolgemuth,'  ^  they  broke  it 
p  into  fragments  for  imitation.  They  were 
krefiil  always  to  choose  familiar  and  favourite 
iiies,  so  that  they  might  stand  oat  and  be 
isily  recognised  amidst  the  web  of  other  parts 
Lirrounding  them.  When  composing  their 
wn  melodies,  they  always  adhered  to  the 
cxslesiastical  modes,  using  the  new  system  only 
rhen  they  adopted  a  Volkslied.*  The  contra- 
•uiital  treatment  had,  however,  one  great 
isadvantage — it  constantly  necessitated  the 
everance  of  the  melody  into  fragments,  and 
hua  the  clear,  concise  form  of  the  song,  which 
he  Volkslied  had  done  so  much  to  establish, 
vaa  in  danger  of  disappearing.  But  happily 
tt  this  juncture  (about  1600)  Hans  Leo  Hassler 
'Ame  to  its  rescue.  Having  studied  in  Italy, 
16  breathed  into  his  songs  the  light,  secular 
ipirit  of  the  Italian  VUlanella  and  Fa-la-la^ 
Hid  gave  more  prominence  to  the  melody  than 
:o  the  other  voice-parts.  His  dance-songs  also, 
kvith  their  short  rhythmical  phrases,  did  much 
bo  restore  the  concise  form.  Similar  charac- 
teristics are  noticeable  in  Melchior  Franck's, 
Eiegnart's,  and  other  contemporary  collections 
of  songs.  3 

In  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century  solo 
songs  were  first  heard  in  Germany.  There,  as 
everywhere  else,  the  introduction  of  the  monodic 
system  was  due  to  the  influence  of  Italy.  The 
revolution  begun  by  that  country  would  seem 
to  have  first  affected  the  Church  music  rather 
than  the  secular  music  of  Germany.  Innova- 
tions of  Italian  origin  are  plainly  discernible  in 
the  sacred  works  of  Praetorius  and  Heinrich 
Schiitz  ;  but  neither  of  these  composers  im- 
proved the  secular  monodic  song.  German 
poetry  had  now  fallen  to  a  debased  condition. 
It  produced  nothing  better  than  songs  of  a 
vapid  and  artificial  sentiment  addressed  to  a 
conventional  Phyllis  or  Amaryllis.  And  the 
language  it  employed  was  a  nondescript  mixture 
of  French,  Latin,  and  stilted  German.  Since 
Luther's  death  the  simple  vernacular  had  ceased 
to  be  in  repute.  But  on  August  24,  1617,  a 
meeting  of  German  patriots  was  held,  who  set 
themselves  to   restore  their  native  tongue  to 

1  ReiBsnumn.  Getch.  d.  deutachen  IAede»,  p.  72. 

2  Oeorg  Forater'a  collectioiu  oonUiu  a  large  qnantltr  of  aongs 
thru  treated.    See  Foutcb. 

3  See.  for  example.  *  Trid  nia  nova  lieblicher  amorodacher  GeaKnge 
mil  Bchdnen  poetiwshen  Texten  gerieret  und  etliober  Maoan  nach 
ItHlienischer  Art  mlt  Flelm  oomponlrt  darrh  Melchior  Fruicken,' 
NUrnberx.  1611 ;  and  '  Karavellige  teatsohe  Lleder  sa  dreien 
Httnimen  nach  Art  der  Neapolitanen  oder  Welachen  Vlllanellen 
dnrch  Jocobos  Begnart  In  Dru-Tr  ^-<r~'—^'-^  •  •"••—» ■•'"« 

The  so-cnlled  OtmlUehafUll  lea 

belong  to  thia  cattery  of  i  raa 

cultivated  among  the  bnrgher  ■;■!  in^linf  il  i-^i-  ^ •■  --^  hiijh  i  % n.-ot. 
and  ceased  with  the  effbrta  of  i.'nr  ^^Upplati  ^vi*  ju  IflJ".  At  flrat 
they  rf^'i'tnbled  the  Volkslied  *n  fL'riii  afiil  i^lrit.  bnt  imtmr  they 
approached  more  oloaely  to  Hh'  Kuii*tLlwi.  31  [»t  LvntuiniHiT^ry 
inuslcianj  took  part  in  this  r-,i|jrtU*hr  d^vclupiiuiit  nf  niiuk-,  and 
i-onei:t«d  and  arranged  tiie  fnv.>iT]°jt«  mnt*  'i^  tba  time  in  i»krta, 
i-lther  retaining  or  altering  th-'  itiittIj.  Th«'  frill*sr*  and  pnbf  Luti era 
I'uoonraged  the  introduction  ol  1  tiiE hn  inttlti'l le^  ^Wti  tntiu i^trA  or 
iinitAted  worda.  Between  154  u  iLnd  11^14.  th<'  roHtiwCtiif  um>tEit4na 
lanioTif^t  many  othera)  iaan^J  oinllfnTliH tnm  at  mu/ch.  stUif^  :  Ooorg 
Forstcr,  Orlandna  lAsaua,  I^m  li^  Vi-ntu,  .Tii<  .^i^  Ri'/ 1 1 n ri ,  .toh. 
WrarA.  C.  Demantiua.  H.  L.  iJaaler,  M.  Pfa^iluriUM,  ii..  ;-A«<.ck, 
E.  WidTiiann.  H.  Schein,  and  aeveral  Itallana.  For  further  informa- 
tion R«o  Hnffrnann  von  Fallemleben,  Die  cUnttsdun  OttMlUehafU- 
Ueder,  etc.,  and  R.  v.  Liliencron.  DnUKhet  Leben  hn  VolkaUed,  etc 


honour,  and  with  that  view  to  study  the  intro- 
duction of  method  and  rule  into  its  grammar 
and  poetry.  Other  patriotic  groups  were  soon 
formed  with  a  like  purpose,  and  by  the  year 
1680  these  associations  numbered  890  members. 
Their  labours  quickly  bore  good  fruit.  The 
success  of  a  group  of  Konigsberg  poets  was 
specially  remarkable,  and  was  doubtless  due  in 
a  great  measure  to  the  skill  with  which  one  of 
the  best  of  them — Heinrich  Albert — set  his  own 
and  his  associates'  songs  to  music.  His  com- 
positions consequently  won  great  popularity, 
and  he  has  been  named  *  the  father  of  the  volks- 
thiimliches  Lied. '  Schein  and  Hammerschmidt 
had  preceded  Albert  in  the  right  path,  but 
their  taste  and  talent  had  been  frustrated  by 
the  worthlessness  of  the  words  they  set  to  music. 
The  poetry  on  which  Albert  worked  was  not  by 
any  means  of  a  high  order,  although  it  had  suffi- 
cient merit  to  demand  a  cei'tain  measure  of  at- 
tention. And  from  his  uncle,  Heinrich  Schiitz, 
Albert  had  learnt  the  new  Italian  methods  of 
singing  with  correct  expression  and  brilliant 
execution,  introducing  vocal  embellishments.*^ 
Several  of  his  songs  are  for  one  voice  with 
clavicembalo  accompaniment,  but  their  harmony 
is  poor.  The  movement  begun  by  Albert  was 
carried  on  by  J.  R.  and  J.  G.  Able,  and  Adam 
and  Joh.  Krieger.  Johann's  songs  are  good, 
and  exhibit  a  marked  improvement  in  grace  and 
rhythm.  The  first  bars  of  his  song,  *  Komm', 
wir  wollen  wandeln,'  have  all  the  clearness  of 
the  best  Volkslieder  : — 


Ex.  8. 


Meanwhile  the  Kunstlied  or  polyphonic  song 
had  ceased  to  advance.  Other  branches,  especi- 
ally instrumental  and  dramatic  music,  had 
absorbed  composers,  songs  began  to  be  called 
*  odes '  and  *  arias,'  and  French  and  Italian 
influence  was  strongly  felt,  both  in  music  and 
literature.  Writing  in  1698,  Keiser  tells  us 
that  cantatas  had  driven  away  the  old  German 
songs,  and  that  their  place  was  being  taken  by 
songs  consisting  of  mixed  recitatives  and  arias.^ 

*  In  the  preface  to  the  fborih  part  of  hla  Arlen  Albert  aaya  he 
baa  borrowed  aome  melodlea  from  other  compoaera, '  Aua  Liebe  und 
Wohlgefallen  sa  denaelhen  Weiaen.'  He  rarely  namea  the  com- 
poaera. but  merely  oalla  the  aonga  'Aria  galUca.'  'Aria  polonica/ 
etc.  He  only  oaed  one  Italian  air,  which  ia  the  more  curioua,  aa  in 
the  prefiioe  to  the  aixth  part  of  hia  Arien  he  aaya,  *  Waa  fQr  herr- 
liche  und  geiatreiche  Compoeitionen  ana  Italten  .  .  .  aehe  Ich 
oftmala  mit  hOchster  Verwunderung  an.'  See  L.  H.  Flacher. 
Fremda  Mt/UMen  in  H.  AVbeH't  Arien,  VierU^eihnaehrift.  1886. 

B  See  the  preface  to  hia  cantata  ooUeetlon.  See  alao  Lindner, 
GeaOt.  d.  dtuUeken  Uede$,  p.  SS. 


almost  invariably  called  their  songs  '  odes '  and 

*  arias'  were  Graon,  Agrioola,  Sperontes, 
Telemann,  Quantz,  Doles,  Kimberger,  0.  P. 
K  Bach,  Marpurg,  Nichelmann,  J.  O.  Erebs, 
Neefe,  and  many  others.  Also  large  quantities 
of  collections  of  *  Arien  und  Oden '  were  pub- 
lished at  this  time,  either  separately  or  in 
numbers,  of  which  the  most  famous  was 
Sperontes'  'Singende  Muse  an  der  Pleisse' 
(Leipzig,  1 742-45).  1  J.  P.  Kimberger  has  been 
called  (perhaps  not  with  perfect  accuracy)  the 
inventor  of  the  '  durchcomponirtes  Lied/  that 
is,  a  song  with  different  music  for  every  stanza. 
G.  P.  K  Bach  used  the  same  form,  and  his 
best-known  vocal  work  is  his  setting  of  Gellert's 
*Geistliche  Oden'^  (1758);  but  he  was  a 
musician  of  a  higher  and  more  genial  type  than 
the  afore-mentioned.  Still,  this  group  of  com- 
posers rendered  some  services  to  tlie  song. 
They  set  a  good  example  of  attention  to  the 
words,  both  as  regards  metre  and  expression  ; ' 
they  varied  the  accompaniments  by  arpeggios 
and  open  chords,  and  displayed  a  thorough 
command  of  the  different  forms  they  employed. 
But  notwithstanding  these  merits  their  songs 
(with  few  exceptions)  must  be  pronounced  to 
be  dry,  inanimate,  and  either  deficient  in 
melody,  or  the  melody  is  overburdened  with 
florid  passages  and  tasteless  ornaments,  and 
rarely,  if  ever,  spontaneous.^ 

It  might  strike  the  reader  as  strange  if  the 
great  names  of  J.  S.  Bach  and  Handel  were 
passed  by  in  silence  ;  but  neither  Bach  nor 
Handel  ever  devoted  real  study  to  the  Song. 
Such  influence  as  they  exercised  upon  it  was 
indirect.  Bach,  it  is  true,  wrote  a  few  secular 
songs,  and  a  little  love-song,  *  Bist  Du  bei  mir, ' 
is  simple  and  sincere.^  His  two  comic  cantatas 
also  contain  several  of  great  spirit,  and  show 
his  use  of  the  Volkslied.^  And  amongst  his 
'  Geistliche  Arien '  we  have  the  beautiful  *  Gieb 
dich  zufrieden '  and  *  Schlummert  ein,  ihr 
matten  Augen. '  But  these  are  isolated  instances, 
and  it  was  through  his  choral  works  that  he 
most  powerfully  affected  the  song.  Handel's 
name  frequently  occurs  to  songs  in  18th- 
century  English  song-books,  or  single  sheets, 
or  in  collections,  but  it  is  difficult  to  say  which 
are  original,  and  which  are  adaptations  of  Italian 

>  SchneMer,  Da»  mu*.  Litrd,  ii.  906.  Mid  B.  Seyfert,  Dot  mu*. 
90lk$th&mUeke  Ued.  Although  thia  collection  wm  popuUr.  It  wma 
of  a  venr  mixed  nature,  containing  aolonin  odes.  Tulgnr  drlnklng- 
aongs.  parodiee,  or  anrnngementa  of  French  instrumental  piece*, 
and  Italian  ariae. 

s  In  hia  life  of  C.  P.  B.  Bach.  C.  Bitter  eaya:  'Mit  dieeem 
aohOnen.  edlen  Werka  i«t  C.  Bach,  der  BegrOnder  and  SchOpfer 
dM  deatachen  Liedee  in  eelner  Jetilgeu  Bedeatung  gvworden.' 
1. 14S. 

'  OenerallT  epeaking.  expreaaion  and  tempo  marks  were  sparlnglj 
uaed  antil  tae  end  of  the  18th  eentnnr.  But  it  la  curious  to  see 
how  the  oompoeera  of  this  period  indicated  the  tempo  by  such 
worda  tMfrShUeh,  munter,  dngttUch,  trawrig,  ahowlog.  thereby,  their 
wish  to  expreaa.  abore  all.  the  niixid  or  character  of  the  aong. 

*  Full  iaformation  and  abundant  examplea  of  these  aouga  will 
be  found  in  Lindner's  and  Schneider's  histories  of  the  Song. 

*  Another  in  praise  of  tobaooo.  of  a  dillbrent  chamotar,  la  in  the 
same  book. 

«  P.  Spltta.  J.  g.  Baek.  ii.  MI  H  tea.     The  Engliah  folk-sons. 

*  When  Adam  waa  tint  created '  (see  Kidaon'a  TradUUmal  Tune*, 
p.  1S3).  waa  uaed  by  Bach  In  one  of  these  cantatas. 


'Stand  round,  my  brave  boys,''  'From  scourging 
rebellion,'  ^  *  The  unhappy  lovers,'  •  and  *'Twas 
when  the  seas  were  roaring'^®  were  some  of  the 
best-known  examples.  The  Handel-Geeellachaft 
have  published  a  whole  volume  of  *  Germain 
Italian,  and  English  Songs  and  Airs,'  but 
Handel's  real  influence  upon  the  Song  was 
through  his  operas  and  oratorios,  and  there  it 
waa  immense.^  Equally  indirect,  as  will  be  seen 
presently,  were  the  effects  produced  on  it  by 
the  genius  of  Gluck,  Haydn,  and  even  of  Mozart. 
At  the  period  we  have  now  reached,  namely 
the  end  of  the  18th  century,  a  group  of  poets, 
called  the  *  Gottinger  Dichterbund,'  or  *  Hain- 
bund,'  were  actively  engaged  in  providing 
simple  lyrics  for  the  people.^'  Simultaneously 
in  music,  a  new  and  popular  form  of  the 
Konstlied  appeared  which  was  the  '  volksthiim- 
liohes  Lied. '  This  term  defies  exact  translation  ; 
but,  speaking  broadly,  it  means  a  simple  and 
popular  form  of  the  art-song.  The  decline  of 
the  Volkslied  during  the  17th  century  has  been 
sometimes  attributed  to  the  distracted  state  of 
Germany ;  and  certainly  the  gloomy  atmosphere 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  the  desolation  of 
the  Palatinate,  cannot  have  been  favourable  to 
it.  But  no  political  or  social  troubles  could 
affect  its  existence  so  deeply  as  an  invasion 
upon  its  own  ground  by  the  Kunstlied.  So 
long  as  the  Kunstlied  dwelt  apart  among 
learned  musicians  the  Volkslied  had  little  to 
fear.  But  when  once  it  had  become  simple  and 
melodious  enough  to  be  caught  by  the  people 
the  Volkslied  was  supplanted.  In  churches  and 
schools,  at  theatres  and  concerts  the  public 
grew  habituated  to  the  Kunstlied,  and  where 
civilisation  existed  the  old  Volkslieder  faded 
from  memory.!'  xhe  'volksthiimlichesLied'  is, 
in  short,  a  combination  of  the  Volkslied  and  the 
Kunstlied,  and  its  area  of  capacity  is  a  very  wide 
one.  It  may  rise  to  a  high  level  of  poetic  beauty, 
and  may  descend  to  low  depths  of  stupidity 
or  triviality  without  ceasing  to  be  <  volksthum- 
lich.'  Songs  there  were,  undoubtedly,  before  the 
time  of  J.  A.  Hiller,  to  which  this  epithet  oould 
be  properly  applied,  but  he  was  the  first  to 
secure  for  them  a  thorough  recognition.  ^^     He 

"f  A  aong  made  for  the  Gentlemen  Volontean  of  the  city  of 
London,  and  printed  In  the  London  Jlagadm,  Morcmber  174ft. 


«  London  Uagatinti.  July  1746. 
•  Mtnry  JfuaMon,  iv.  p  S3,  e.  17S3L 
I       10  From  a  5e<«er  OMsetUm  fif  EngUah  amiftvrtth  tkelroHainai 
I   Air$,  by  J.  Ritaon.  London.  ISItL 

n  Bee  Schneider.  Dot  nuu.  U«d,  iL  n.  IBOi 
u  Thia  group  conslated  of  the  poeta  Bote,  HSty.Orerbeok.  Bttiser. 
Claudlua,  Voaa.  and  the  Stolbergs.    They  revend  Klopatodc.  and 
oppoeed  the  French  tendency. 

»  It  la.  howerer.  well  to  remember  that  thJa  new  departor*  of 
German  aong  which  we  hare  been  deeeribfng  may— panMloxlcal  a* 
it  liounds— be  traced  to  the  seal  displayed  iay  Herder,  Goethe,  aawl 
others  In  oollecting  and  anmsing  the  enUinalasm  for  the  folk-poeirr 
of  Germany  and  other  kindred  nations.  It  was  the  aame  dealx«  to 
return  to  eimple.  natural  forma,  though  It  led  in  poetry  aa  In  muafc 
in  diflbrent  dlrertlona. 
I  >«  It  would  have  aeemed  mora  methodical  to  tmea  the  tiae  and 
'   decline  of  particular  kinds  of  aonga  in  separate  and  clea«ly  deflned 


naepafatea 
ler  impoasil 


aectiona  of  time,  but  thia  la  altogether  imponible.  baoauae  their 
reapeetlTe  perloda  are  interlaced  with  one  another.  Thna  the  roIk«- 
tharalichea  Lied  had  come  into  existence,  while  the  Ode  and  the 
Aria  were  at  their  aeiiith ;  and  again  compuaen  were  ndng  the 
aria  form  even  after  the  Introduction  of  the  lyric  song. 


SONG 


609 


belonged  to  the  second  half  of  the  18th  century, 
.nd  was  really  an  operatic  composer.  It  was 
ndeed  the  songs  in  his  Singspiele  which  took  so 
trong  a  hold  of  the  public,  and  a  favourite  tune 
»f  his,  '  Die  Jagd,'  will  serve  as  a  specimen  of 
lis  work  : — 

Die  Jagil. 

J.  A.  HiLLER. 


Ex.  9. 


Commodetto. 


schlag  eln  Fall  dem  Armen  daa  Ilnke  Belu  ent-zwd  1 1 

4i- 


;g^^g^g^jE^^ 


Another,  *Ohne  Lieb  und  ohne  Weib,'  taken 
from  his  Singspiel  *  Der  Teufel  ist  los,'  and 
still  sung  in  Germany  with  much  zest,  was  one 
of  the  first  Kunstlieder  to  be  received  into  the 
ranks  of  the  Volkslieder.  J.  Andre,  the  author 
of  the  'Rheinweinlied,'  and  J.  A.  P.  Schulz, 
were  contemporaries  of  Hiller's,  and  did  much 
for  the  volksthiimliches  Lied.  Schulz  was  care- 
ful above  others  of  his  time  to  select  poetic 
words  for  his  music,  and  so  long  as  he  kept  to 
the  simpler  forms,  he  was  always  successful ; 
many  of  his  songs  are  still  the  delight  of  Ger- 
man children.  Composers  were  now  provided 
with  a  store  of  fresh  and  natural  poems  of  a 
popular  type  by  the  poets  of  the  Gottingen 
school,  to  whom  later  the  names  of  Korner, 
Brentano,  Amim,  and  Uhland  ^  may  be  added ; 
and  the  love  of  poetry  and  song  steadily  in- 
creased in  the  German  nation. 

Starting  from  Hiller  and  Schulz,  the  volks- 
thiimliches Lied  pursued  two  different  roads. 
Its  composers  in  the  Hiller  school,  such  as  F. 
Kauer,  Wenzel  Miiller,  and  Himmel  were  shallow 
and  imperfectly  cultivated  musicians,  whose 
sentimental  melodies  had  for  a  time  a  certain 
superficial    and    undeserved    repute,    such   as 

>  KOrner's  patriotic  poem*  and  th«  publication  of  *  Deo  Knabra 
WuQderhorn '  acted  as  powerf nl  incentives  to  long. 


Himmel's  'An  Alexis  send'  ich  dich,'  or  '  Yater, 
ich  rufe  dich. '  The  dramatic  composers  Winter 
and  Weigl  may  be  reckoned  among  this  school, 
in  so  far  as  they  were  song-writers ;  and  its 
tendencies  reappeared  nearer  our  own  day  in 
Reissiger  and  Abt  On  the  other  hand,  Schulz's 
followers  were  real  musicians ;  and  if  they  became 
too  stiff  and  formal  it  was  the  outcome  of  a  strict 
regard  to  form  and  symmetry,  and  of  a  praise- 
worthy contempt  for  false  sentiment.  When- 
ever they  chose  the  volksthiimliches  Lied  they 
proved  their  mastery  of  it ;  but  most  of  them 
could  write  at  will  in  more  than  one  style,  and 
their  names  must  therefore  be  mentioned  in 
more  than  one  class  of  song.  The  first  and  best 
of  Schulz's  school  was  Mendelssohn's  favourite 
J.  F.  Reichardt,  but  his  most  valuable  services 
to  the  Song  were  given  on  other  ground,  as  will 
appear  later.  Next  to  him  came  Kunzen,  A. 
Weber,  and  Nageli.  Zelter,  Klein,  L.  Berger, 
and  F.  Schneider  are  entitled  by  their  songs  for 
male  chorus  to  be  counted  among  the  followers 
of  Schulz.  The  operatic  songs  of  C.  Kreutzer  and 
H.  Marschner,  and  the  simple  melodious  songs 
by  C.  Erebs,  F.  Kiicken,  Silcher,  Gersbach,  and 
Gustav  Reichardt  have  proved  themselves  to  be 
truly  volksthiimlich  by  their  firm  hold  on  the 
hearts  of  the  people. 

In  the  many  collections  of  so-called  Volks- 
lieder, beginning  with  the  South  German  *  Blu- 
menlese '  (1782)  and  the  North  German  '  Mild- 
heimisches  Liederbuch'  (1799),  down  to  those 
which  are  continually  issuing  from  the  musical 
press  of  to-day,  there  will  be  found  numerous 
volksthiimliche  Lieder  converted  into  Volks- 
lieder. Some  of  these  are  by  celebrated  authors 
whose  fame  was  won  in  other  fields,^  and  some 
by  men  who  wrote  nothing  but  volksthiimliche 
Lieder.  Of  many  songs  the  authorship  is  wholly 
unknown,  and  of  others  it  is  disputed. ^    Worthy 

9  The  Btumenleu,  edited  by  H.  P.  Boesler,  contains  Beethoven's 
earliest  song.  '  SchildentnR  eines  lUidchens.'  composed  when  he  was 
eleven.  A  very  good  and  typical  example  of  the  volksthttmlichee 
Lied  may  here  be  added.  It  is  taken  from  his  Sketch-book  of  1815  and 
1816  (cited  by  Nottebohm  in  the  Jfu*.  WockenNatt,  Nov.  1878). 


Ex.  10.  ^^  Zufriedcniieit, 


BSKTHOVEK. 


Was  frac*  ich  viel  nach  Oeld  nnd  Gnt,«enn  ich  sufrle  •  den 


b^-r^g^:gEg^:g^^^ 


Oiebt  Gott  mir  nor  go    -    son  •  dee  Blut,so 


^E^g^^^j-^^^^g 


bin  ich     fio    •    her  Sinn,  und  sing  ans  dankbar- 

^^^^^^^ 

em  Gemttth.  mein  Morgen-    und    mein     Abendlied. 

The  words  of  the  song  are  by  J.  If  Oiler.    It  has  been  set  also  by 
Monrt  and  Neefe. 

>  Bahine,  in  his  work  entiUed  VdlJathanMche  LUdt>rd«r  Deuttchen 
im  iS.  und  /9.  Jahrhundert,  has  done  much  to  rectify  current  erron 

2b 


M.U    \jrKfi,\^JO     XMkbJi 


'Ach,  wie  ist's  moglich  dann ' ;  *Prinz  Eugenius ' ; 
'  Zu  Mantua  in  Banden ' ;  '  Wir  hatten  gebaut 
cin  stattliches  Haus ' ;  '  £s  zogen  drei  Burschen ' ; 
'  Morgen  mass  ich  fort  von  hier ' ;  *  Aennchen 
von  Tharaa ' ;  '  Bekriinzt  mit  Laub ' ;  *  Gandea- 
mus ' ;  *  £8geht  bei  gedampftem  Trommelklang  * ; 

*  Was  blasen  die  Trompeten  * ;  *  Morgenroth  '  ; 

*  Ich  weiss  nicht,  was  soil  es  bedeuten ' ;  '  In 
einem  kuhlen  Grunde ' ;  *  Madele  ruck,  ruck, 
ruck ' ;    'So  viel  Stem  am  Himmel  stehen ' ; 

*  £s  kann  ja  nicht  immer  so  bleiben ' ;  '  Der  Mai 
ist  gekommen ' ;  '  O  Tannenbaum' ;  '  Ich  hatt' 
einen  Kameraden ' ;  *  Was  ist  des  Deutschen 
Vaterland' ;  *Die  Wacht  am  Rhein/  etc.*  None 
of  these  songs  are  vulgar,  nor  even  commonplace. 
They  are  familiar  in  all  classes,  young  and  old  ; 
and  the  heartiness  with  which  they  are  every- 
where sung  attests  their  vitality.  Singing  in 
unison  is  comparatively  rare  among  Germans  ; 
their  universal  love  and  knowledge  of  music 
naturally  predispose  them  to  singing  in  parts. 
A  regiment  on  tiie  march,  a  party  of  students 
on  a  tour,  or  even  labourers  returning  from 
work,  all  alike  sing  their  favourite  songs  in 
parts,  with  remarkable  accuracy  and  precision. 
And  the  natural  aptitude  of  the  nation  for  this 
practice  is  perpetually  fostered  by  the  Sing- 
vereine  which  exist  in  the  most  secluded 
comers  of  Germany. 

The  mere  enumeration  of  the  qualities  by 
which  the  volksthiimliches  Lied  can  be  recog- 
nised explains  its  popularity.  It  is  strophical 
in  form,  and  is  easy  to  sing  ;  it  has  an  agreeable, 
usually  diatonic  melody,  a  simple  and  pure 
harmony,  an  unpretentious  accompaniment,  a 
regular  rhythm,  and  words  inspired  by  natural 
sentiment.  But  it  lacked  the  poetic  and 
thoughtful  treatment,  both  of  words  and 
music,  which  subsequently  raised  the  lyric 
song  to  the  level  of  true  art. 

It  is  now  time  to  inquire  in  what  manner 
the  Song  was  treated  by  some  of  the  greatest 
composers  of  the  18th  and  19th  centuries — by 
Gluck,  Haydn,  Mozart,  Beethoven,  Spohr,  and 
Weber.  Gluck  was  the  contemporary  of  Graun, 
Agricola,  and  Kirnberger ;  and  like  them  he 
called  most  of  his  songs  odes.  But  the  stand- 
point from  which  he  regarded  the  song  was 
very  different  from  theirs.  Applying  his 
theories  about  the  Opera  to  the  Song,  he  stead- 
fastly aimed  at  a  correct  accentuation  of  the 
words  in  the  music,  and  the  extinction  of  the 
Italian  form  of  the  melody,  which  required 
the  complete  subordination,  if  not  the  entire 
sacrifice  to  itself,  of  every  other  element  of 
composition.     *  The  union,'  wrote  Gluck  to  La 

M  regardi  th«  ftothonhlp  of  tbeae  songa,  raoh  m  attrlbaiiDg '  Hera, 
meln  Hen.  wanim  m>  tnnrlg '  to  BaatboTen  iiiatmd  of  to  F.  Oiaek, 
And  'Wlllit  da  doin  Hen  mir  achenken'  to  J.  &  Bach  inetaul  of 
to  (lloTMinmi.  etc. 

>  In  the  Titriona  oolleetions  mentioned  »t  the  end  of  thla  article, 
the  reader  will  And  a  maltltude  of  other  aiinUar  anaga,  incloding 
mudtnten-,  Soldaten-.  THnk-,  ntt-,  Tanx-,  Jtatienal;  Befprdbtifta-, 
etiUUche-,  KtndeHitder,  etc 


ouviuu.    %m  ou  Mujcn    ituau   Mic 


^nioij 


ill    BJIVUIU    i 


made  for  the  music  no  less  than  the  music  for 
the  poem,'  and  he  conscientiously  strove  to  be 
true  to  this  ideal  in  all  his  work.  But  though 
he  revolutionised  the  Opera,  he  left  no  deep 
mark  on  the  Song,  for  indeed,  he  never  devoted 
to  it  the  best  of  his  genius.  His  few  songs, 
chiefly  Elopstock's  odes,  have  no  freshness  about 
them,  they  are  dry  and  pedantic ;  and  with 
all  Gluck's  superiority  to  his  contemporaries  in 
aims  and  principles  of  composition,  his  odes 
are  scarcely  better  than  theirs.' 

With  Jos.  Haydn  the  influence  of  the  Volks- 
Ued  is  once  more  apparent.  Hence  the  vitality 
of  his  melodies  where  this  element  is  strongest 
His  finest  song,  the  Austrian  National  Anthem, 
*  Gott  erhalte  Franz  den  Kaiser, '  closely  resembles 
a  Croatian  folk-song  ^  (see  Emperor's  Hymn), 
and  in  his  instrumental  works  numerous  in- 
stances of  his  use  of  his  native  songs  could  be 
adduced.  Yet,  taking  the  bulk  of  Haydn's 
songs  it  cannot  be  denied  that  they  are  lacking 
in  the  freshness  displayed  in  his  instrumental 
works.  The  melodies  are  carefully  and  elabor- 
ately written,  and  the  accompaniments  often 
interesting  and  developed  (see  for  instance  '  0 
siisser  Ton,'  'Riickerinnerung,'  or  'Der  erste 
Kuss ')  ;  but  his  want  of  interest  in  the  words 
he  chose,  and  his  disregard  both  for  their 
meaning  and  proper  accentuation,  rob  them  of 
the  first  conditions  necessary  for  the  true  lyric 
His  songs  are  conceived  too  exclusively  from 
the  instramental  point  of  view.  As  Schneider 
truly  says,  Haydn  'treats  the  vocal  melody 
exactly  as  a  pianoforte  or  violin  motif,  under 
which  he  places  some  words  which  only  super- 
ficially agree  in  rhythm  with  the  melody.'* 
Freest  from  these  defects  and  amongst  his  best 
and  most  popular  songs  are  the  twelve  canzonets, 
containing  such  graceful  and  melodious  numbers 
as  'My  mother  bids  me,'  'Recollection,'  and 
'The  Mermaid.'  These  and  such  simple  little 
German  songs  as  '  Jede  meint  das  holds  Kind ' 
and  the  pretty  serenade  '  liebes  Aladchen,  hor' 
mir  zu '  will  never  lose  their  charm. 

The  versatility  of  Mozart's  powers  is  visible 
in  his  songs.  Some  of  them  might  be  described 
as  arias,  and  others  as  volksthiimliche  Lieder  ; 
some  are  lyrical,  and  others  dramatic,  and  yet 
Mozart  cannot  be  said  to  have  impressed  his 
own  great  individuality  upon  the  Song  except 
in  a  few  instances.  It  was  in  the  Opera  that 
he  put  forth  his  whole  strength,  and  his  operatic 
songs  often  derive  from  their  simple  joyous 
melodies  a  truly  popular  character.  It  is 
evident  that  he  treated  Song,  pure  and  simple, 
as  mere  recreation,  and  bestowed  little  pains 
thereon.  Many  faults  of  accentuation  could 
be  pointed  out  in  his  songs,  but  his  exquisite 

>  For  a  good  example  aae  *  WlllkominMi,  o  ailberae  Mond.'  glTaa 
by  Schneider,  ii.  287. 
3  See  the  SouUi  BlaTonle  aecUon  of  thla  article,  p.  070.  note  2. 
*  Schneider.  Dm  iniM.  Ued,  11.  288. 


volksthiimliche  Lieder ;  some  humorous,  like 
<  Die  Alte '  (with  its  amusing  expression-mark, 
*  Bin  wenig  durch  die  Nase  zu  singen ') ;  some  fresh 
and  joyous  as  *  Komm',  lieber  Mai,'  and  the 
favourite  *  Ich  mochte  wohl  der  Kaiser  sein. '  ^ 
But  it  is  in  the  form  of  the  Aria  and  durch- 
cmnponirtes  Lied  that  we  find  his  most  perfect 
song- writing.  '  Abendempflndung,'  with  the 
beautiful  opening  phrases  expressive  of  the  calm 
moonlight  evening,  and  his  masterpiece,  *  Das 
Veilchen,'  which  he  wrote  to  words  by  Goethe, 
are  on  a  level  with  his  best  work  in  other 
branches. 

Some  of  Beethoven's  earlier  songs,  such  as 
'An  einen  Saugling,'  'Das  Kriegslied,'  'Molly's 
Abschied,'  and  'Der  freie  Mann,'  are  volksthiim- 
lich  ;  the  form  is  small,  and  the  accompaniment 
nothing  more  than  the  melody  simply  har- 
monised. The  structure  is  similar  in  Gellert's 
sacred  songs,  op.  48,  except  in  the  '  Busslied,' 
where  there  is  a  f^ler  development,  both  of 
voice  and  accompaniment.  '  Adelaide '  is  also 
an  early  work,  but  it  is  written  in  a  larger 
form,  and  shows  signs  of  the  dramatic  treatment 
which  for  a  while  influenced  Beethoven's  vocal 
writing.  Many  other  songs  cast  in  the  scena 
and  aria  form  could  be  instanced,  but  of  iax 
higher  interest  are  those  written  in  the  lyrical 
vein.  He  set  six  poems  of  Goethe's,  as  op.  75, 
and  three  as  op.  83,  and  although  there  is 
much  in  these  songs  which  might  have  tempted 
Beethoven  to  use  the  scena  or  the  cantata  form, 
he  resisted  it.  He  adhered  to  the  strophical 
divisions,  and  left  it  to  the  instrumental  part 
to  satisfy  their  dramatic  requirements.  In 
Mignon's  song,  'Kennst  du  das  Land,'  each 
stanza  has  the  same  beautiful  melody,  and  the 
accompaniment  alone  varies  and  intensifies.  In 
Jeitteles'  Liederkreis,  'An  die  feme  Geliebte,' 
op.  98,  the  unity  which  makes  the  cycle  is 
wholly  the  work  of  the  composer,  and  not  of 
the  poet.  It  is  Beethoven  who  binds  the 
songs  together  by  short  instrumental  interludes 
modulating  into  the  key  of  the  next  song,  and 
by  weaving  the  exquisite  melody  with  which 
the  cycle  begins  into  the  last  song.  Most  of 
the  songs  of  this  immortal  cycle  are  strophical, 
but  with  great  variety  of  accompaniment ;  and 
the  just  balance  of  the  vocal  and  instrumental 
parts,  and  the  warmth  and  fervour  of  the 
expression,  equally  contribute  to  the  faithful 
representation  of  lyric  thought  and  feeling. 
Enough  stress  cannot  be  laid  on  the  importance 
of  Beethoven's  work  in  song-writing,  for  having 
effectively  shown  the  power  of  harmony  and 
modulation  as  means  of  expression  ;  also  for 
having  enlarged  the  part  sustained  by  the  piano- 
forte. He  taught  his  instrument,  as  it  were, 
to  give  conscious  and  intelligent  utterance  to 


1  The  little  endle^ong.  'Schlafe,  meln  Prinschen,*  lone  attrl- 
vnted  to  Moisrt.  hu  recently  been  proved  by  I>r.  Max  Frieolftnder 
to  bave  been  wilttea  by  Bemfaard  Fliei. 


uiuro,  we  uiusb  ruuugniae  uiat  aiuiuugu  i>0ei- 
hoven's  genius  rose  to  its  loftiest  heights  in 
other  branches  of  music,  it  was  he  who  first 
raised  Song  from  the  entirely  subordinate  posi' 
tion  it  had  hitherto  held  to  an  honourable 
place  in  the  ranks  of  musical  art 

Spohr  also  wrote  lyric  songs,  and  was  fitted 
for  the  work  by  his  romantic  and  contemplative 
nature.  But  his  songs  are  marred  by  excessive 
elaboration  of  minutiae,  and  in  the  profusion  of 
details  .clearness  of  outline  is  lost.  Again,  his 
modulations,  or  rather  chromatic  transitions* 
are  so  frequent  as  to  be  wearisome.  Of  all  his 
songs,  'Der  Bleicherin  Kachtlied'  and  'Der 
Rosenstrauch '  are  freest  from  these  faults,  and 
they  are  his  best. 

A  greater  influence  was  exercised  upon  the 
Song  by  Carl  Maria  von  Weber.  *  He  published 
two  books  of  Yolkslieder,  op.  54  and  op.  64, 
perfect  in  their  simplicity  and  of  real  distinc- 
tion. Of  his  other  seventy -eight  songs  the 
most  celebrated  are  those  from  Komer's  *  Leyer 
und  Schwert';  the  cradle-song,  'Schlaf  Herzens- 
sbhnchen,'  'Die  gefangenen  Sanger,'  and  the 
finest  of  all,  '  Das  Madchen  an  das  erste  Schnee- 
glockchen. '  These  songs  deserve  their  celebrity, 
and  there  are  indeed  many  others  which  are 
not  so  well  known,  nor  as  often  heard  as  they 
deserve  to  be.  Weber's  fame  as  a  song-writer 
has  perhaps  suflered  somewhat  from  the  circum- 
stance that  many  of  his  best  songs  are  in  his 
operas,  and  it  has  been  partially  eclipsed  by 
the  supreme  excellence  of  one  or  two  composers 
who  were  immediately  subsequent  to  him. 

Incidental  reference  has  already  been  made 
more  than  once  to  Goethe,  to  whom  the  obli> 
gations  of  the  Song  are  great.  The  fine  out- 
burst of  lyi-ic  song  which  enriched  the  music 
of  Germany  in  his  lifetime  was  very  largely  due 
to  him.  The  strong  but  polished  rhythm,  and 
the  full  melody  of  his  verse,  were  an  incentive 
and  inspiration  to  composers.  J.  Fr.  Reichardt 
was  the  first  to  make  it  a  systematic  study  to 
set  Goethe's  lyrics  to  music,  and  between  1780 
and  1810  he  issued  several  collections.^  So 
long  as  Reichardt  merely  declaimed  the  words 
in  melody,  or  otherwise  made  the  music  subor- 
dinate to  the  verse,  he  was  successful.  Goethe's 
words  were,  in  short,  a  sure  guide  for  a  talent 
like  his.  Reichardt  was  not  a  great  master,  but 
he  may  claim  the  honour  of  having  struck  the 
true  keynote  of  lyrical  songs,  and  greater  artists 
than  himself  immediately  followed  in  his  foot- 
steps. Nothing  he  ever  wrote  is  better  than  his 
setting  of  Tieck's  '  Lied  der  Nacht,'  and  in  this 
song  he  clearly  shows  himself  to  be  the  fore- 

s  It  la  worth  while  to  note  that  Weber  himaeli  aaya  in  hia 
literary  works,  that  'strict  truth  in  declamation  is  the  fint  and 
foremost  requisite  of  vocal  mniia  .  .  .  Any  Tocal  mnaie  tltat 
alter*  or  efface*  the  poet's  meaning  and  IntentJon  is  a  failure.' 

s  Some  of  Ooethes  words  appeared  among  Relchardt's  nilsoel- 
laneouB  sotigs  as  early  as  1780 :  but  in  1788  he  published  a  separate 
oolleetion,  entitled  '  Ooethes  lyiische  Gedlehte.'  containing  thirty 
poems.  And  in  1809  he  issued  a  more  comidete  collection  under 
the  title  of  '  Ooethes  Lieder,  Oden,  Balladen,  und  Bomanaen  mlt 
MuBik.  von  J.  Fr.  Beichardt.' 


runner  of  Schubert  and  Schumann.  A  younger 
contemporary,  Zelter,  also  made  hia  reputation 
by  setting  Goethe's  words  to  music.  Zelter  was 
himself  a  friend  of  Goethe's,  and  so  great  an 
admirer  was  the  poet  of  Zelter's  settings  that 
he  preferred  them  to  Reichardt's,  and,  through 
some  strange  obliquity  of  taste  or  judgment, 
to  those  of  Beethoven  and  Schubert.  Zelter's 
early  songs  were  strophical,  but  in  later  years 
he  adopted  more  fi-eely  the  durchkomponirte 
form.  Others  of  this  gi-oup  of  writers  were 
Ludwig  Berger  and  Bernard  Klein,  albeit  they 
differed  somewhat  in  their  treatment,  both  of 
the  voice  and  instrumental  parts. 

If  the  general  results  of  the  period  through 
which  we  have  just  passed  be  now  regarded  as 
a  whole,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  various  condi- 
tions requisite  for  the  perfection  of  the  Song 
had  matured.  The  foundations  and  all  the 
main  structure  had  been  built ;  it  required  only 
to  crown  the  edifice.  Starting  from  the  tjolks- 
thUnilicJies  Lied,  the  Berlin  composers  had 
demonstrated  the  necessity  of  full  attention  to 
the  words.  Mozart  and  Weber  had  given  it  a 
home  in  the  Opera.  Mozart  and  Beethoven 
had  developed  its  instrumental  and  dramatic 
elements  ;  and  had  further  shown  that  the 
interest  of  the  Song  is  attenuated  by  extension 
into  the  larger  scena-form.  Nothing,  therefore, 
of  precept  or  example  was  wanting,  by  which 
genius  might  be  taught  how  to  make  the  com- 
pact form  of  the  song  a  perfect  vehicle  of  lyrical 
expression.  The  hour  was  ripe  for  the  man  ; 
and  the  hour  and  the  man  met  when  Schubert 
arose. 

This  wonderful  man,  the  greatest  of  song- 
writers, has  been  so  fully  and  appreciatively 
treated  in  other  pages  of  this  Dictionary,*  that 
it  would  be  superfluous  to  do  more  here  than 
examine  the  development  of  the  Song  under  him. 
So  fertile  was  Schubert's  genius  that  we  have 
more  than  600  of  his  songs,  and  their  variety 
is  as  remarkable  as  their  number.  He  was 
master  of  the  Song  in  every  stage — whether  it 
were  the  Volkslied,  or  the  Ode,  or  the  volksthum- 
Ikhes  Liedf  or  the  pure  lyric  song,  or  the  Ballade 
and  Ronianze.  And  the  secret  of  his  greatness 
was  largely  due  to  his  complete  recognition  of 
the  principle  that  the  balance  between  the 
melodic  form  and  emotional  meaning  should  be 
perfectly  adjusted.  The  essence  of  true  Song, 
as  Schubert  clearly  saw,  is  deep,  concentrated 
emotion,  enthralling  words  and  music  alike. 
Full  of  poetry  himself,  he  could  enter  into  the 
very  heart  and  mind  of  the  poet ;  and  so  wide 
was  his  range  of  sympathetic  intuition  that  he 
took  songs  from  all  the  great  German  poets, 
and  as  their  styles  varied,  so  did  his  treatment. 
His  best  compositions  are  lyrical,  and  it  is 
scarcely  possible  to  conceive  higher  excellence 
than  is  displayed  in  these  masterpieces.    Beauty 

>  Th«  reader  ahonld  also  consult  Reininann'a  Iku  deuttdi«  Lied  in 
mtt%«r  hiatarltehtn  Sniwiektiung  and  hU  09$chte1U9  dea  deutiehvn 
Liedet.    Alto  Hadow's  Tol.  r.  of  the  Oxford  aUiory  K>f  JluHe. 


and  finish 
both  on  til 
ment,   that 
either  take 
music  whi 
legendary, 
*Der  Tauc 
Collins's  * 
or  Goethe 'i 
the  aocom] 
voice-part, 
cycle  diffei 
as  Schube- 
the  set,  I 
communit 
separately 
reise,'  whi 
of  their  c 
otherwise 
finest  son] 
have  a  cb 
both,  for 
the  word 
them  wit 

Mende 
bert,  belc 
His  songi 
the  Berli 
melodiou 
they  lac 
Schubert 
fact  that 
self  comj 
setting ; 
or   incen 
already 
also  adh- 
of  meloc 
bear  a  s 
preferre< 
indepent 
variatioi 
Hence  1 
exercise< 
granted 
spring- 1 
composi 
and  the 
have  Ti 
sense  of 

Meye 
known 
lished 
remark 
instanc 
'Surle 
Still,  tl 


1  It  is  a 
ealtnrean 

I  the  poet, 
lunilo  bet 

I  woHV  mf 
'Uebe'ft 
strange  c 

I  0tefp«d  ii 
ptuifment 


SONG 


613 


that  they  are  too  pretentions  and  exaggerated, 
ind  are  wanting  in  naivete  and  spontaneity. 
Methods  were  adopted  by  Meyerbeer  more 
suitable  to  the  exigencies  of  opera  than  to  the 
simple  song. 

With  Robert  Schumann  we  approach  a  new 
rleparture  in  song-writing ;  and  no  composer 
since  Schubert  has  exerted  so  wide  and  deep  an 
influence  upon  the  subsequent  dev^elopment  of 
this  art,  both  in  Germany  and  in  other  countrie& 
Schumann  was  at  once  poet  and  musician. 
His  songs  are  the  very  soul  of  romantic  poetry. 
With  scrupulous  art  he  reproduces  all  that  runs 
in  the  poet's  mind,  be  it  ever  so  subtle  and 
delicate,  but  he  also  permeates  it  with  a  deeper 
shade  of  meaning.  This  may  be  seen  especially 
in  his  settings  of  the  poets  Heine,  Reinick, 
Kemer,  Geibel,  Chamisso,^  Riickert,*  and 
Eichendorif,  the  last  five  of  whom  were  essenti- 
ally romantic  poets.  ,  Schumann's  kindred 
imagination  was  stimulated  into  full  activity 
by  the  supernatural  splendour,  mediseval  charm, 
and  mystic  vagueness  of  their  conceptions. 
Visions  of  midnight  scenes  arise  in  prompt 
obedience  to  the  spell  of  Schumann's  music. 
It  conjures  up  for  eye  and  ear  the  dark  vault 
of  the  staiTy  heavens,  the  solitudes  of  haunted 
woods,  the  firefly's  restless  lamp,  the  song  of 
nightingales,  the  accents  of  human  passion 
idealised,  and  all  else  that  makes  the  half-real 
and  the  half-unreal  world  in  which  the  romantic 
spirit  loves  to  dwell  It  is  to  Heine  that 
Schumann's  nature  most  deeply  responded. 
Whether  the  poet  be  in  a  mood  of  subtle  irony 
or  bitter  mockery,  of  strong  passion  or  delicate 
tenderness,  of  joy  or  sorrow,  with  equal  fidelity 
is  he  portrayed  in  the  composer's  music. 
What  Schubert  was  to  Goethe,  Schumann  was 
to  Heine  ;  but  the  requirements  of  the  two 
poets  were  not  the  same.  Goethe's  thought  is 
ever  expressed  in  clear  and  chiselled  phrase ; 
while  it  is  a  habit  of  Heine  to  veil  his  meaning 
and  leave  whatever  may  be  wanting  to  be 
supplied  by  the  reader's  imagination.  The 
composer  who  would  adequately  interpret  him 
must,  therefore,  have  poetic  fancy  no  less  than  a 
mastery  of  his  own  art.  This  Schumann  had, 
and  none  of  his  songs  rank  higher  than  the 
s})lendid  cycle  '  Dichterliebe  *  from  Heine's 
Bivch  der  Ideder.  Their  melodic  treatment  is 
declamatory ;  not  in  recitative,  but  in  perfectly 
clear-cut  strophes,  with  great  attention  bestowed 
on  the  accentuation  of  emphatic  words.  As  a 
general  rule  the  instrumental  part  of  Schumann's 
songs  is  too  important,  too  independent  to  be 
called  an  accompaniment ;  it  is  an  integral 
factor  in  the  interpretation  of  the  poem.  While 
the  voice-part  often  seems  only  to  suggest,  the 

>  Chmnliw'a  cycle  *FraQ«nllebe  nnd  Leben'  Is  deacrlbed  fully 
under  ScHvif  Aivir. 

>  Riickeri'i  verse  did  not  perhape  evoke  In  Schumann  lo  fall  a 
measure  of  ■pontaneone  melody  m  Bichendorff  and  Kerner.  The 
mo«t  melodiouB,  and  perhaps  the  beet  knoirn  of  the  Roekert 
•  niii^tion.  are  Noe.  2,  4,  and  11,  and  these  are  by  Fran  Clara 
Bchumann. 


pianoforte  part  unfolds  the  sentiment  of  the 
song,  and  evolves  from  thQ  poem  a  fuller  signifi- 
cance than  it  could  ever  have  owed  to  the  poet's 
own  unaided  art.3  These  few  remarks  will 
have  sufficed  to  show  that  together  with  Schubert 
in  music,  and  Goethe  and  Heine  in  literature, 
Schumann  has  lifted  Song  to  a  higher  pinnacle 
of  excellence  than  it  ever  reached  before. 

We  will  here  allude  to  another  branch  of 
modem  German  song,  which  comprises  tlie 
Ballade,  the  Boiname,  and  the  Ilhapaodie.  In 
the  ordinary  English  sense,  the  ballad  is 
primarily  a  poem  descriptive  of  an  event  or 
chain  of  incidents,  leaving  the  reader  to  gather 
sentiment  and  reflection  from  bare  narration. 
But  the  Ba^ladey  as  a  German  form  of  song,  has 
some  other  properties.  Goethe  says  it  ought 
always  to  have  a  tone  of  awe-inspiring  mystery, 
which  fills  the  reader's  mind  with  the  presence 
of  supernatural  powers,  and  contain  sti*ong 
dramatic  elements.  The  Bomame  is  of  the 
same  class  as  the  Ballade,  but  is  generally  of 
more  concise  form,  and  by  more  direct  refer- 
ences to  the  feelings  which  its  story  evokes 
approaches  nearer  to  the  lyric  song.  As  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Ballade  and  Romanze,  the 
Bhapsodie  is  deficient  in  form,  and  its  general 
structure  is  loose  and  irregular.  The  first  poet 
who  wrote  poems  of  the  true  Ballade  type  was 
Burger ;  his  example  was  followed  by  Goethe, 
Schiller,  Uhland,  and  others,  and  then  the  at- 
tention of  composers  was  soon  caught.  Inspired 
by  Schiller,  Zumsteeg  composed  in  this  vein, 
and  his  work  is  interesting  as  being  the  first  of 
its  kind.  But  Zumsteeg  had  too  little  imagina- 
tion to  handle  this  form  successfully,  and  his  best 
songs  belong  more  correctly  to  the  Romanze. 
We  miss  in  his  Balladen  the  bold,  melodic,  prin- 
cipal theme  (which  should  stand  out  in  relief 
from  all  secondary  themes  and  ideas,  and  be 
repeated  wherever  the  story  needs  it),*  although 
in  some  of  them  the  details  are  very  well  and 
truthfully  painted — for  instance,  the  tine  gloomy 
opening  phrase  of  the  *  Pfarrers  Tochter.' 
Neither  Reichaidt  nor  Zelter  succeeded  any 
better  with  the  Ballade.  They  treated  the  *  Erl- 
konig '  as  a  Romanze,  and  Schiller's  Balladen, 
*  Ritter  Toggenburg,'  and  *  Der  Handschuh,'  as 
Rhapsodies.  And  even  Schubert  in  his  longer 
pieces  was  inclined  to  compose  in  a  rhapsodical 
form.  In  some,  such  as  *Der  Tauoher,'  *Die 
Biirgschaft,'  *Der  Sanger,'  where  he  is  faithful 
to  the  Ballade  form,  and  where  there  are  exquisite 
bits  of  melody  appositely  introduced,  and  the 
accompaniments  are  thoroughly  dramatic,  the 
general  effect  of  the  piece  is  overlaid  and 
marred  by  multiplicity  of  elaborate  details,  and 
drawn  out  to  too  great  length.  To  the  Romanze 
Schubert  gave  the  pure  strophical  form,  as,  for 
instance,  in  Goethe's  '  Heidenroslein.' 

*  Further  evidence  of  the  Importonoe  of  Schumann's  innovations 
in  Bong-writlng  will  be  found  under  ScHVMAinr. 

*  Loewe'B  ballads  strikingly  illnstrata  the  value  of  this 
characteristic 


was  J.  0.  G.  Loewe,  who  caught,  as  it  were  in- 
stinctively, the  exact  tone  and  form  it  required. 
His  method  was  to  compose  a  very  short, 
distinct,  though  fully-rounded  melody  for  one 
or  two  lines  of  a  stanza,  and  then  repeat  it 
throughout  with  only  such  alterations  as  were 
demanded  by  the  narrative.  This  secures 
unity  for  the  Ballade,  but  it  necessitates  a 
richly-developed  acoompaniment  to  contribute 
to  the  dramatic  colouring  of  the  incidents. 
The  simpler  the  metrical  form  of  the  Ballade, 
the  better  will  this  treatment  suit  it.  Take, 
for  example,  Uhland's  *  Der  Wirthin  Tochter- 
lein.'  All  Loewe's  music  to  it  is  developed 
from  the  melody  of  the  first  line  ;  though  other 
resources  are  brought  into  play  as  the  tragic 
close  draws  near,  the  original  idea  is  never  lost 
to  view,  and  the  character  with  which  the  ac- 
oompaniment began  is  preserved  intact  to  the 
end.  Still  more  importance  is  given  by  Loewe 
to  the  pianoforte  part  in  the  gloomy  Northern 
Balkden  *  Herr  Olaf  and  *Der  Mutter  Geist,' 
and  to  his  wonderful  setting  of  *  Edward,* 
*  Archibald  Douglas, '  and  the  *  Erlkonig. '  But 
his  popular  Balladen  are  *  Heinrich  der  Vogler,' 
'Die  Glocken  zu  Speier,'  and  *  Goldschmieds 
Tochterlein.'  These  have  fresh  and  genial 
melodies,  accompaniments  fliU  of  characteristic 
expression,  and,  stroke  upon  stroke,  they  effect 
a  vivid  presentment  of  animated  scenes. 

Mendelssohn  never  touched  the  Ballade  form 
for  the  solo  voice  ;  and  Schumann  greatly  pre- 
ferred the  Romanze.  To  his  subjective  lyric 
cast  of  mind  the  underlying  thought  was  of 
more  concern  than  external  facts.  In  his 
beautiful  music  to  Kemer's  *  Stirb,  Lieb'  und 
Freud' '  he  treats  the  melody  as  a  Romanze,  and 
puts  the  Ballade  form  into  the  accompaniment. 
On  the  same  plan  are  his  'Entfiieh'  mit  mir,' 
*Loreley,'  and  *Der  arme  Peter,'  from  Heine. 
More  developed  is  the  powerful  '  Lbwenbraut,' 
and  the  most  perfect  as  regards  unity  in  variety 
and  impressiveness  is  '  Die  beiden  Grenadiere.' 
When  Schumann  essayed  to  treat  the  Ballade 
melodramatically  he  faAled,  Singing,  in  his 
opinion,  was  a  veil  to  the  words  ;  whenever, 
therefore,  he  -wished  them  to  have  emphatic 
prominence  he  left  them  to  be  spoken  or  *  de- 
claimed,' and  attempted  to  illustrate  the 
narrative  of  the  song  by  the  musical  accompani- 
ment. Still  the  Ballade  form  was  too  small 
and  contracted  for  this  kind  of  treatment, 
which  is  better  suited  to  larger  and  more 
dramatic  works  aided  by  the  orchestra.  Subse- 
quent composers  have  used  the  Ballade  and 
Romanze  form  in  various  ways,*  but  with  the 
exception  of  Martin  Pliiddemann  none  can  be 
said  to  have  devoted  themselves  exclusively  to 
it.  Pliiddemann  was  at  first  under  Wagner's 
influence :  in  his  musical  phrases  he  attempted 
to  introduce  the  peculiarly  pathetic  declamatory 

I  See  Bnhms'B  '  Balladeii  nnd  Roiitanzni.' 


instance,  * Volkers  Nachtgesang'  or  'Jung 
Siegfried ').  But,  later,  he  recognised  Loewe  to 
be  the  only  true  exponent  of  this  form,  and  on 
Loewe's  methods  Pliiddemann  achieved  his  great- 
est success.  It  is  a  vexed  question  whether  the 
repetition  of  the  melody  for  every  verse,  or  its 
variation  throughout  is  the  better  structure  for 
the  Ballade  ;  but  the  former  arrangement  would 
seem  to  be  the  best  adapted  for  short  and  simple 
pieces,  and  the  latter  for  lengthier  ones.  If 
the  melody  be  repeated  for  every  verse  in  long 
Balladen,  and  unless  the  varied  instrumental 
part  be  of  paramount  importance,  an  impression 
of  monotony  is  apt  to  be  created,  and  the 
necessarily  varying  aspects  of  the  poem  arc 
imperfectly  represented  in  the  music' 

The  lyric  song  continued  to  hold  in  Germany 
the  high  place  to  which  it  was  raised  by  Schubert 
and  Schumann,  and  th^ir  traditions  have  been 
worthily  sustained  by  their  successors,  Robert 
Franz  and  Johannes  Brahms.  Franz  devoted 
himself  almost  exclusively  to  the  Song,  which 
was  the  form  of  music  best  suited  to  his  lyrical 
temperament  His  favourite  poets  are  writers 
of  quiet,  pensive  verse  like  Osterwald,  Lenau, 
Geibel,  and  Eichendorff.  There  is  no  lack  of 
melody  in  his  songs,  but  the  chief  interest  lies 
in  the  acoompam'ments,  which  are  as  finely 
worked  out '  and  highly  finished  as  miniatures. 
Franz's  songs  are  frequently  akin  to  the  old 
Volkslied  and  Chorale,  as  the  modal  harmony 
and  peculiar  sequential  structure  of  the  melody 
in  his  '  Zu  Strassbui^  an  der  Sohanz '  (Dorian) 
or  •  Es  klingt  in  der  Luff  (Phrygian),  among 
many  other  examples,  will  prove.  Most  are 
strophical  as  regards  the  voice -part,  but  the 
richness  and  fulness  of  the  instrumental  part 
grow  with  each  successive  stanza ;  or  else  the 
harmony  is  slightly  altered  to  suit  the  words, 
as  in  the  subtle  change  that  occurs  in  the 
second  stanza  of  'Des  Abends.'  Indeed,  the 
perfection  of  truth  with  which  Franz  renders 
every  word  is  one  of  his  highest  merits.  There 
is  not,  perhaps,  enough  spontaneity  and  passion 
in  Franz's  compositions  to  carry  us  away  in  a 
transport  of  enthusiasm,  but  the  finish  of  his 
workmanship  compels  our  deliberate  admiration. 

All  the  best  tendencies  of  the  10th  centuiy 
were  summed  up  in  the  songs  of  Johannes 
Brahms.  The  perfection  of  formal  structure, 
the  high  distinction  of  melody,  the  beauty  and 
fitness  of  the  accompaniments,  the  depth  of 
thought,  and  throughout  the  ring  of  truth  and 
sincerity  place  his  songs  among  the  immortal 
works  of  the  great  classical  masters.  At  all 
times  Brahms  gave  earnest  attention  to  the 
Volkslied.*    The  simple  sentiment  and  origin- 

*  See  VIecher'fl  AMtJuHk.  pt  lil.  p.  886;  Albert  !!«*]■  »*•  fT; 
BaUad  ;  Belnuuuin'a  JDom  d»ut»eke  LML,  p.  «WL"^lri«i 
aelMln-  und  dim  BdOodmrnuMtk  [Dt*  Muttk.  4-/»>>»"v^«'*/ii;*i-r 

3  In  hli  ekllfal  polyphonio  eooompuiliDent,  »och  m  »^.' 
■tn«  mich  Etir  Buh'/Pmnt  eho**  hta  doee.  lovlnf  ''"^y  "  ""*■ 
inHhode. 

4  P.  Spitto.  Mur  Mtutk. 


SONG 


615 


ality  of  conception  in  the  poetry  of  the  folk- 
songs of  his  own  and  other  countries  were  a 
strong  incitement  to  him,  and  were  reflected 
in  his  music  with  unsurpassable  truth.     Even 
where    he  uses   Hungarian  or   other    idioms, 
his  language  is  always  his  own.^     His  use  of 
tlie  old  modes  and  of  complex  rhythms  which 
had    long   fallen   into   disuse,^  show   he   had 
drunk  deeply  of  the  past  in  music,  but  he  ever 
amalgamated  it  with  his  own  liying  musical 
utterance.    Brahms's  full,  rich  accompaniments 
have  also  a  character  of  their  own.     It  is  dear 
that  he  attached  the  highest  importance  to  the 
fundamental  bass,  and  there  are  many  songs  in 
which  the  bass  alone  is  sufficient  to  support 
the  voice.    Again,  whilst  his  consummate  skill 
in  the  contrapimtal  line  is  shown  by  the  melodic 
life  he  has  given  the  inner  parts,  his  complete 
mastery  over  every  technical  resource  of  his 
art  is  visible  in  the  multifarious  rhythms  and 
exquisite  harmonies  he  employs.^     His  accom- 
paniments sometimes  lead,   sometimes   follow 
the  voice,  or  they  pursue  their  own  independent 
course.     Many  instances  of  these  occur  in  the 
magnificent  song-cycle  from  Tieck's  Mageltme, 
The    poetical    and    intellectual    qualities    of 
Brahms's  songs,  as  well  as  their  more  serious  and 
spiritual  properties,  have  been  fully  described 
elsewhere  ;  and  it  suffices  to  say  that  the  songs 
of  this  great  artist  make  it  hard  to  believe  that 
the  highest  development  of  the  German  Lied 
has  not  been  attained. 

Turning  to  a  side-group  of  composers  who 
have  worked  more  on  the  lines  laid  down  by 
Mendelssohn,  we  find  the  names  of  Curschmann, 
Taubert,  F.  Lachner,  F.  Ries,  Eckert,  Rietz, 
Rcinecke,  Raff,  and  Fanny  Hensel.  Their  best 
work  is  unpretending  and  simple,  but  they  lack 
the  higher  qualities  of  song-writing.  Far  more 
interesting,  and  very  different  names  are  those 
of  Cornelius,  Jensen,  Briickler,  Herzogenberg, 
and  Lassen.  Jensen  was  richly  responsive  to 
the  vein  of  tender  sentiment  brought  into  pro- 
minence by  the  romantic  school.  The  exquisite 
'Dolorosa'  cycle,  the  brilliant  *Spanisches 
Liederbuch '  and  gay  student  songs  have  won 
success  for  him.  Both  he  and  Hugo  Briickler, 
whose  posthumous  songs  Jensen  edited,  possessed 
the  true  lyric  feeling  for  melody,  and  both 
wrote  elaborate  and  interesting  accompaniments. 
But  in  each  of  these  song-writers  we  find  a 
want  of  self-restraint  and  self-criticism,  and  an 
over-feverish  imagination.  Heinrich  von  Her- 
zogenberg did  not  err  in  this  respect ;  his 
refined  and  thoughtful  songs,  if  lacking  in 
spontaneity,    are    carefully   worked    out,    and 

>  To  Bhow  the  power  Bnhins  hud  to  limit  this  form  to  lis  own 
compiict  structure,  »nd  without  change  evolve  freeh  meaning  (or 
every  vene.  eee  the  pathetic  Volkiilied  '  Schweeterleln.'  And  that 
be  coald  equally  raiw  it  to  the  highest  development  of  the  art-aong 
Is  exemplified  hy  bia  treatment  of  the  Wendic  folk-aong  *  Von  ewlger 
Llebe.' 

2  Compare  hi«  use  of  the  h«mMia  with  thoae  which  occur  in 
HHndel'a  '  Duetti  da  Camcm. '    Spltta.  gur  MuHk. 

3  i^ee.  for  example. '  Frllhlingstroet '  and '  O  want'  Ich  doch,'  from 
op.  63. 


appeal  to  those  who  care  for  the  intellectual 
side  of  song-writing.  The  number  of  E.  Lassen's 
songs  is  great,  and  they  vary  much  in  merit. 
He  had  a  sensitive  feeling  for  the  aesthetic  side 
of  art ;  and  the  slightness  of  means  and  material 
wherewith  he  obtains  his  effects  is  admirable.* 
But  his  over -sentimentality  and  desire  for 
popularity  place  Lassen  on  a  far  lower  level 
than  the  above-mentioned  composers.  P.  Cor- 
nelius stands  on  a  wholly  different  plane,  being 
as  much  a  poet  as  a  musician,  and  having  too 
strong  an  individuality  in  thought  and  mode 
of  expression  to  belong  to  any  school.  In 
Cornelius's  personality  there  is  a  strange  com- 
bination of  subtle  mysticism  and  transparent 
simplicity,  which  imparts  a  rare  charm  to  his 
songs.  The  beautiful  *  Weihnachtslieder  *  cycle, 
with  their  childlike  sincerity,  and  the  ex- 
quisitely poetical  *  Brautlieder '  cycle  represent 
his  best  work,  but  all  his  songs  need  to  be 
intimately  studied  before  they  can  make  their 
fuU  impression. 

The  history  of  German  song  during  the  last 
centuiy  bears  witness  to  a  continuous  attempt 
towards  heightening,  by  means  of  melody, 
harmony,  and  rhythm,  the  effect  of  the  words. 
The  musical  idea,  nevertheless,  did  not  subserve 
the  hterary,  nor  were  the  essentials  of  pure 
musical  art  forgotten.  The  latest  development 
of  German  song  has  carried  to  the  extreme 
the  tendency  of  giving  a  place  of  primary 
importance  to  the  words,  and  musical  form  is 
sacrificed  to  literary  construction.  The  com- 
poser selects  poems  with  regard  to  their  literary 
value  ;  the  exigencies  of  verbal  accent  are  en- 
forced ;  repetition  or  alteration  of  words  and 
other  verbal  licences  countenanced  in  past  days 
are  prohibited.  Musically  regarded,  the  import- 
ance and  independence  of  the  instrumental  part 
has  reached  its  climax  ;  declamatory  passages 
have  replaced  melodic  phrases  ;  all  the  resources 
of  modem  music  in  modulation,  in  harmonic 
and  rhythmical  combinations  have  been  ex- 
pended on  the  song-form  with  a  lavish  and  often 
undiscriminating  hand.^  Sounds,  musically 
chaotic,  are  tolerated  by  the  cesthetic  principle 
which  recognises  no  obligation  save  the  obliga- 
tion to  emphasise  the  mood  or  meaning  of  the 
verse.  Expression,  not  beauty,  is  now  the 
composer's  ideal.  This  song- formula  was 
adopted  by  Hugo  Wolf  and  Richard  Strauss, 
and  carried  to  its  apogee  by  Max  Roger 
and  others  belonging  to  the  same  school  of 
thought — each  engrafting  thereon  his  indi- 
vidual qualities  and  idiosyncrasies.  No  one 
can  deny  the  sincerity  of  these  composers* 
methods  of  writing.  They  have  realised  the 
(esthetic  value  of  complexity  and  ugliness,  and 
it  needs  no  defence  in  their  minds.     And  yet 

«  See  p.  Bachmann'a  eiway  on  Laesen  In  Dh  MutOt^  Feb.  1904. 

9  The  application  of  Wagner**  methods  to  the  Bong  cannot  here 
he  diecumed,  aa  he  practically  atood  apart  from  thla  form,  althongh 
bis  indirect  influence  upon  Bong  has  Wn  undeniable,  and  the  few 
examples  be  left  are  of  great  beauty. 


— every  resource  in  musical  art  being  at  their 
command.^  Strauss  and  Reger  will  probably 
not  rank  among  musicians  primarily  as  song- 
writers, but  with  Hugo  Wolf  his  songs  are 
his  master-work,  and  as  such  he  justly  holds 
the  highest  place.  His  earliest  works  show  an 
unerring  penetration  into  the  very  heart  of  the 
poet.  His  art  demanded  lyrical  objectivity,  and 
he  deliberately  avoided  the  subjective  poets. 
This  objectivity  of  theme  requires  a  more  vivid 
imaginative  grasp  and  a  wider  sympathy  than 
is  necessary  to  a  composer  who  makes  the  songs 
only  represent  his  own  emotion.  There  is  no 
difluseness  in  Wolfs  writing  ;  the  finest  thought 
is  compressed  into  the  smallest  possible  space. 
He  seems  to  have  triumphantly  solved  the 
problem  of  imparting  a  feeling  of  unity  into  the 
most  declamatory  and  fragmentary  phrases  of 
his  songs.  He  produces  the  effect  on  the  one 
hand  by  concentration  of  imaginative  concep- 
tion, and  on  the  other  hand  by  the  more 
mechanical  method  of  retaining  one  figure  or 
molif  throughout  the  whole  song,  which  adapts 
itself  with  wonderful  elasticity  to  each  change 
in  the  situation.  Wolfs  accompaniments  are 
usually  polyphonic,  or  consist  of  kaleidoscopic 
and  unconventional  successions  of  chords  and 
discords,  the  latter  extended  also  to  the  voice- 
part.  Songs  of  extreme  beauty  are  to  be  found 
both  in  the  '  Italienisches '  and  *  Spanisches 
Liederbuch,'  and  the  *  Greistliche  Lieder '  of  the 
latter  cycle  testify  to  the  depth  of  his  nature. 
In  short,  what  music  Wolf  wrote  was  in  all 
sincerity  what  Wolf  felt  Fantastic,  realistic, 
and  original  he  may  be,  but  never  wilfully 
affected  or  extravagant. 

Many  interesting  and  beautiful  songs  have, 
moreover,  been  written  by  Weingartner,  Hen- 
schel,  Hans  Schmidt,  Hans  Sommer,  K  d' Albert, 
Max  Schillings,  Th.  Streicher,  and  others.^  It 
may  also  be  said  that  every  German  composer  of 
modern  times,  with  every  diversity  of  talent, 
has  cultivated  the  Song  as  a  serious  branch  of 
his  art.  And  the  reverence  of  devotion  with 
which  the  Song  is  regarded  bears  full  promise 
for  the  future. 

In  connection  with  essential  requisites  of  the 
Song,  much  might  be  said  about  the  sound  of 
the  words  in  the  voice-part,  about  the  incidence 
of  open  words  on  certain  notes  and  careful 
combination  of  consonants.  Much,  too,  of  the 
duties  and  responsibilities  of  the  singer  with 
regard  to  accentuation  and  phrasing ;  and  the 
varied  delivery  and  interpretation  the  different 
kinds  of  song  require.  But  the  discussion  of 
such  topics  would  carry  us  far  beyond  the  limits 
of  this  article.     It   is  hoped,   however,   that 

I  Wolfa  'VerborgcnhAlt,'  Stiaua*' '  Traam  dareh  dl«  TVkmmtmna ' 
and  'Heiinliche  Auffbrdernng.'  and  Uegw'*  '  Mit  Rosen  beatreut' 
may  b«  mwiUoned  ••  iaoUted  example*. 

s  Bee  Dr.  Kretsschmar's  article.  Daa  deutteke  Ued  rndt  drm  T9d» 
R.  Wofttert,  in  the  Jahrbueh  der  MuaOtbMMJuk  Petert,  1868. 


Song    offers  a   fruitful   field   for  the   highest 
faculties  of  musical  research  and  exposition. 

BiMUOOKArHT   AMO  CoLUHTIOXe 

A.  J/HS.  from  theBthtotke  nth  Centurg 

1.  PrafmenU  of  the '  Uildebrandlled '  (8th  oentnry)  in  the  Luidee- 
bibliothek.  Caawl.  (Faoaimile  pabliahed  by  W.  Grimm  in  1830. 
See  U.  Schade'e  AlttU:uUehe$  Um>bttek,  180U-08.) 

2.  The  WolfenbUttel  1188.  (10th  oentary).  in  the  Ducal  Uhrarr. 
WolfenbUtteL  (Cuutaine  eome  of  the  oldest  aecolar  ■ooffi  in 
Germany.) 

3.  MBS.  of  the  ■  Lodwigslied '  OOth  oentary)  In  the  Valepctomnm 
Libiary.     (See  Schade'e  AttdeuUek^  Ut^ueh.) 

4.  The  8t.  Gall  Cod.  Lat.  No.  888  aith  century). 

5.  '  Nithart'a  Song  book '— M 88.  (18th  century).  In  the  poaeeMloo 
of  ProfeMor  v.  der  Hagcsi.  (Printed  in  his  work  on  the  Minne- 
singer.) 

6.  The  Umbaig  Chronicle  (1347-80).  In  the  Limbarg  Library. 
(This  MB.,  reprinted  in  1617.  1806,  and  1880,  cootalns  chiefly 
Knights'  and  Monks'  songs.) 

7.  The  'Jena  Minneninger Oodex '  (14th  oentary)  In  the  UniTenlty 
Library.  (Contains  fine  specimens  of  Minnesinger  mdodles. 
and  amongst  them  Vogelweide's  'Beiaelied.'  Latest  reprint 
1002.) 

8.  The  Oolmar  Minnesinger  M8&  (]4Ui  century),  at  Munich, 
(latest  reprint,  1808.) 

9.  H.  Ton.  Loufenberg'B  Bong-book  (1415-4S).  at  Strmsburg.  (De- 
stroyed by  fire.  1870.  but  copied  preriously  by  Wackernagel. ) 

10.  SpOrl's  Song-book  (end  of  14th  and  beginning  of  15th  century), 
in  the  Imperial  Library,  Vienna. 

11.  The  Plague  MS.  (early  l&th  century),  in  the  Unirersity  Library, 
entitled  Etn  mutOmUscher  Lekreompendium  d.  B.  dg  Jtee- 
landta.) 

12.  The  Lochelm  Song-book  (1482-80).  in  the  Ducal  Ubrary.  Wenii- 
gf  rode.    (Edited  in  liKh  century  by  Arnold  and  Bellermann.) 

IS.  the  Dresden  Minnesinger  MS.  (IBth  century),  in  the  Boyml 
Public  Library.    (Contains  M.  Behaim's  hymns.) 

14.  The  Vienna  Song-book  asSS).  in  the  Imperial  Ubrmry.  (Con- 
sists of  sacred  and  secular  part-books,  words  and  music) 

15.  Hager's  Meisterliederbuch  (1800).  (Contains  portrait  of  Hana 
Hachs.  and  many  Melsterlieder  melodies  from  the  Nuremberg 
SchooL) 

16.  WerUn's  Song-book  (IMS),  in  the  Royal  Stote  Libimry.  Mnuicfa. 
(Contains  many  thotisand  songs  ;  some  are  genuine  Volkslieder 
of  the  15th  and  16th  century,  and  other*  later  and  more 
artificial.) 

B.  Modem  CoUeetiom  t^f  rolktUeder.  VoUathikmtMu  tAeder,  and 
ChorolM,  and  Work*  rrlaHng  to  tke  Hittonf  ^  Oerman  Son^, 
chronologieaUjf  arrangod.'^ 

Becker.  R.Z.     'Mildheimischea  Liederbnch.'    Gotha.  17B6. 
Achim  T.  Amim.«  L..  and  C.  Breotana  '  DesKnabenWonderhom.' 

Berlin.  1806-46. 
Herd«r.<»    '  Btinunen  der  VOlker.'    TUbingen.  1807. 
BUsching,  J.  G.  G..  and  F.  H.  t.  d.  Hagcn.    '  Sammlung  Deatscher 

Volkslieder.'    Berlin.  1807. 
Orinim.  J.   Uebtr  dm  altdeuUdten  MeUUrgmamg.  Oflttingen.  1811. 
G«rres,  J.  Ton.     Altdeutwhe  VoUu-  und  MeisterUeder  (f ram  MB8. 

in  the  Heidelberg  Ubmry).    Frankfurt  a/M..  1817. 
Erlach,  P.  K.  Ton.    Die   VolktUeder  der  DeuUeken,    Mannheim. 

1834-37. 
Sildier.  F.     *  Deutache  Volkslieder.'  etc    Tubingen.  1897-40. 
Zuocalmaglio    and    Kretiscbmar.    A.     'Deutsche    Volkslieder.' 

Brk.  L..  and  Irmer.  W.    'Die  Deutschen  VolksUedw.'    BerUn. 

1888-45. 
Hagen.  F.  H.  t.  d.     Me  Minwttnger.    Leipilg.  1838. 
Becker,  C.  F.     '  Die  Hausmusik  in  Deutschlaud  in  dem  IC,  17.  and 

18.  Jahrhunderte.'  etc     Leipaig.  184a 

Wolf.  P.     Ueber  die  LaU,  Seq^temen  und  LetdU.    Heidelberg.  1841. 

Pallenileben.  Hoffmann  Ton,  and  Richter.  R.  *  Schleslsche  Volks- 
lieder.' etc.     Leipzig.  1842. 

Becker.  C.  P.  'Lieder  und  Weiaen  vergangener  Jahrhunderte.' 
Leipaig.  1848-53. 

Lyra.  J.,  and  LOwensteln.  R.    'Deutsche  Ueder.'    Leipsig.  184S-B8. 

Fink,  O.  W.     '  Mns.  Haussohate  der  Deutschen.'    Leipzig.  1$I4S-7B. 

Schottky.  J.,  and  Ziska,  P.  'Oesterreichische  VoUtslleder.'  Peath. 
1844. 

Pallersleben.  HofTmann  t.     Me  DeuUchen  OemtUOu^/tM  Ueder  dea 

19.  und  n.  JakrhunderU.     Leipzig,  1844^. 

Uhland.  L."  Alt*  Bock-  und  /fi*dt!rdeutm*e  VoUaHiedtr.  Stutt- 
gart. 1844-46. 

Spaun.  A.  T.    'Die  Oesterreichiachen  Volksweisen.'    Vienna.  1845. 

Winterfeld.  Carl  T.  Der  Kvangeiiache  Kirtkengeeang,  tUi.  Leipaig. 
1843-47.  "ir— y  t--. 

Fallenileben.  HoflVnann  V.    'Deutaches  VoUisgesangboeh.'  Leipaig. 

1848. 
Meister.  CB.    Daa  katkoUeekt  deMteeke  Kirehenlied.  vlt.    Frdbarg. 

1802.    (Later  edition  with  BKumker.  1883-91. 1 
Stade,  W.,  and  Liliencron,  R.  t.     Ueder  und  UprOcke  auM  der 

leUten  MeU  de$  Mhmnangea.     Weimar.  1854. 
Becker.  C.  P.    D4e  Tonnerkm  d.  19.  und  17.  JakrhunderU.    Leincig. 
1854; 

s  It  was  considered  adTisable  to  combine  the  bibliography  and 
collections  together  in  this  section,  as  the  one  work  freqnently 
embraces  both.  Take,  for  instance.  BMime's  '  A  Itdeutachea  Ueder- 
buch,'  which  is  at  onoe  the  best  history  of  the  Volkslied  and  the 
beet  collection. 

«  This  work  contains  practically  no  music,  but  is  necessary  to 
the  student  of  the  German  Volkslied. 

»  DUto.  *  Mtto. 


\ 


«  anner  ntMtontcnen  jsiwmtam' 


jg.  1888-88. 


Keuinukiui.  A.    utu  aettaau 

lung.    OuKl.  }881. 
AmbroB.A.W.  &«Mekiekt«derMuttk. 
Schneider.  C.  B.    J)a$mtuiJtaHteh«  Uedini 

lung.     Lelpiiff.  1883-85. 
Wackeniag«l.C.K.P.  Ikudma*«it«KirthtnUed,elc  Leipxig.  1888-77. 
Liliencron.  &.  t.    /Ms  hittorUehen  VoUulUderder  DeuUoktH,  etc. 

LdiHtlg.  1865-88. 
nSrtel.  A.    '  DentMhes  Ueder-lexJcon.'    Leipiig.  1867. 
Vllniar.  A.    '  Handbttchleiii  f llr  Freuzide  d.  deutaehen  Volkalledei.' 

MarbQiv,  1807. 
FAllenlebeu,  HoOmann  t.    Vnaere  volUlhnmiiehen  Ueder,  Leindg. 

1889. 
Lindner.  E.  O.     VtmMehte  d.  devttchen  LMea  im  XVlll.  Jahr- 

htmdert.    Leipslg.  1871. 
Von  CMolifeld,  Schnorr.     lur  OtaehldU*  d.  deuttdten  MeUttr- 

getanget.    Berlin,  1879L 
Banui.  A.    Sobert  Fram  und  d.  d«ut$ehe  Fottriied.    Leipzig.  1878. 
RelmuMn.  A.     GtatMOOe  d.  deuUehtn  lAedn.    BerUn,  1874. 
Kchnr^.  K.    Uittoire  du  Lied.    Paris.  1876. 
BItner,  R.    Dom  dmUtdU  Lied  d.  IB.  und  /«.  JahrkMndgrtM.    Berlin. 

1878-80. 
BShme.  F.  M.     AUdnUmike*  Lt«derbueh  out  dem  ta.  hit  turn  ft. 

Jakrlmmdsrt,  etc    Leipzig.  1877. 
Lillenoxin.  B.  t.    DmtUAu  Lebm  im  VoUttUed  wm  fS30.    Leipsig. 

1884. 
BObme.P.M.    6nckMUe  d«$  Tamm  in  Deutaddtmd.   Lelpiig.l88& 
Neckbeim.  H.    '  Kitrathner  Liedcr.'    1881 -liwa. 
FriedUnder.  M.    '  Commersbnch.'    Letpsig,  1888. 
Reiuann.  H.    '  Dns  dentaehe  Lied.'    Berlin.  18B2-a3L 
Wolfram.  E.  H.    '  NaMaolache  Volkalieder.'    Berlin,  18»4. 
Erk,  L.,  and  BShme.  F.  M.    '  DeutKhe  Llederhort'    Leipsig,  18M. 
Btfhme.  F.  M.     VotkathitmUehs  Ueder  der  LnttmAen  im  18.  und  19. 

Jahrhundert.    Leipsig.  1886. 
Kafferath.  M.    Let  Mattre$-Chanteur$  de  K.  Wagntr.    Parla.  18B6. 
Mey.  Kurt.    Der  JteUterge§ang  in  0«M*<eUe  und  KunMt.    Leipaig. 

1901. 
FriedUuder.  U.    Dot  deuUeke  Lied  im  /«.  Jahrhundert.    Berlin, 

1902. 
Rleiuann.  H.    0«$thiehte  dea  luueren  detOtdun  LiedM.    Leipalg, 

1904. 
XII Uer  Ton  der  Werra.  F.  C.  '  AUgameine  Beicha-Kommenbnebfar 

deatecbo  Btudenten'  (edited  by  Felix  Dehn  and  C.  Relneeke). 

Leipzig.  1904. 
Riemann.  H.     GcaeMdUe  der  Murik  dec  19.  Jahrkunderta,    Leip- 
sig. 1909. 
BLKhoff,  H.    Jku  deutathe  Lied.    Leipzig,  1906. 
Liliencron.  R,  v.    'Neue  dontacbe  Volkalleder-Sainmlimg.'    Leip- 
zig. 1906l 
Arttclee  in  the  rierteljahrmihrift  fikr  MueObieiaimeehaft,  Monata- 

htftefOr  Muaikgeadtiehte,  and  Sammelbdnde  of  the  I.U.GA 

For  further  additions  to  thia  list  ref«r  to  F.  M.  B&hme's  'Alt- 
deutechea  Llederbnch'  and  '  VolkithUmliche  Lieder  der  Dentaehen.' 
where  ample  catalogues  at  end,  irith  annotations,  will  be  fonnd.< 

A.  H.  W. 

SONG-SOHOOL.  A  considerable  part  in  the 
development  of  the  art  of  music  has  been  played 
by  Song-Schools.  It  was  the  establishment  of 
the  Seholacantorum  at  Rome(see  Sistine  Choir) 
that  led  to  the  development  of  Gregorian  Plain- 
song  in  the  5th  and  6th  centuries,  and  it  was 
the  establishment  of  other  such  schools  at  St. 
Gall,  Reichenau,  Metz,  etc.,  which  disseminated 
widely  the  knowledge  of  the  Roman  music.  In 
England  such  musical  centres  were  set  up  in 
the  earliest  days  of  the  Boman  mission,  and  in 
the  6th  and  7th  centuries  there  was  great  en- 
thusiasm and  much  good  vrork  done  under  a 
succession  of  teachers  who  came  from  the  Roman 
Schola,  After  the  Danes  had  devastated  mon- 
astic life,  and  with  it  the  bulk  of  Saxon  culture, 
musical  and  other,  the  recovery  took  place. 
Under  S.  Ethelwold  a  Benedictine  revival  took 
place  which  recovered  music  among  other  things, 
and  English  music  long  preserved  some  special 
features  which  it  had  learnt  in  French  Benedic- 
tine music-schools,  particularly  at  Fleury-sur- 
Loire. 

In  the  later  period  before  the  Reformation 
two  forces  were  at  work  in  giving  practical 
musical    training.      In    connection    wdth    the 

>  The  writer  wishes  also  to  exprees  her  thanks  to  Mr.  Walter 
Ford  for  permission  to  quote  from  his  Lectures  on  German  Song. 

2  See  also  Pierre  Aiibry's  Afwiisc  ^une  Btbliographie  de  la 
Ckanaon  populaire  en  Europe.    Pfcrls,  1900. 


Biiy.  in  sucn  song-scnoois  not  oniy  loreigners, 
like  Guido  of  Arezzo  or  Regino  of  Pinira,  learnt 
their  music,  but  English  musicians  too,  such  as 
Odington,  Tunsted,Hothby,  Fairfax,  and,  finally, 
Tallis.  At  Durham,  for  example,  there  was  in 
the  monastic  days  a  song- school  in  which  six 
children  were  taught  and  kept  under  a  master, 
who  was  also  bound  to  play  the  organ  at  the 
chief  services.  After  the  dissolution  the  build- 
ing was  pulled  down,  but  the  school  continued 
under  its  old  master  in  a  different  position  ; 
and  still  the  song-school  flourishes  in  connec- 
tion with  the  present  cathedral.  Like  the 
monasteries  the  secular  cathedrals  had  also  a 
song -school,  and  others  were  maintained  not  only 
by  the  King  for  the  Chapel  Royal,  but  also  by 
great  ecclesiastics  and  nobles.  Secondly,  the 
foundation  of  chantries  tended  to  multiply  song- 
schools  ;  for  the  work  stipulated  for  from  the 
chantry  priest  after  he  had  said  his  Mass  daily 
was  usually  schoolmaster's  work,  and  in  many 
cases  either  a  song-school  or  a  grammar  school 
was  annexed  to  the  foundation.  Hundreds  of 
these  smaller  schools  were  mostly  destroyed 
when  Edward  YI.  confiscated  the  chantries,  and 
English  music  has  never  recovered  from  the 
loss.  The  prevalence  of  song -schools  made  it 
possible  for  England  to  be  a  nation  of  musicians 
in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries  ;  but  few  sur- 
vived the  Reformation,  except  in  connection 
with  great  collegiate  or  cathedral  churches, 
and  England  lost  its  skill.  w.  h.  f. 

In  Scotland  'Sang  Schools'  flourished  from 
the  18  th  century  onwards.  A  'scule'  for 
teaching  singing  existed  in  almost  every  one  of 
the  cathedral  cities  in  Scotland,  and  in  many 
of  the  smaller  towns,  such  as  Ayr,  Dumbarton, 
Lanark,  Cupar,  and  Irvine.  Even  in  the  far 
north,  in  1544,  Bishop  Reid  founded  and  endowed 
a  *  Sang  School '  in  Orkney.  Prior  to  the  Re- 
formation the  teaching  in  these  schools  was 
principally  confided  to  *  musick,  meaners,  and 
vertu,'  but  at  a  later  date  it  extended  to  the 
proverbial  *  three  R's.'  Music,  however,  seems  to 
have  been  the  chief  course  of  instruction,  and 
the  original  idea  of  confining  its  study  to  the 
cathedral  singers  was  so  far  enlarged,  that  lay- 
men were  admitted  to  the  schools,  in  w^hich  the 
Gregorian  chant  had  naturally  an  early  and  im- 
portant place.  The  master  of  the  school  was 
held  in  high  esteem,  and  was  occasionally  selected 
from  the  clergy,  the  appointment  at  times 
leading  to  important  preferment — thus  William 
Hay,  master  of  the  Old  Al)erdeen  School  in  1 658, 
was  made  Bishop  of  Moray  ;  and  John  Leslie, 
Bishop  of  Ross,  was  once  a  teacher  in  the 
Aberdeen  School. 

Great  attention  seems  to  have  been  paid  by 
the  Parliament  of  the  day  to  the  study  of  music, 
for  a  statute  was  passed  in  1574  'instructing 
the  provest,  baillies,  and  counsale,  to  sett  up 
ane  sang  scuill,  for  instruction  of  the  youth  in 


SONNLEITHNER 


SONS  OF  THE  CLERGY      619 


including  Beethoven's '  Leonore '  from  the  French 
3f  du  Bouilly  (the  title  of  which  was  changed 
eigainst  the  composer's  wish  to  'Fidelio');^ 
'  Agnes  Sorel '  and  others  for  Gyrowetz  ;  '  Kaiser 
Hadrian,'  and  *Die  Weihe  der  Zukunft' — a 
pUce  cPoccasUm  for  the  visit  of  the  Allies — for 
VVeigl ;  *  Faniska '  for  Cherubini ;  an  oratorio, 
*  Die  vier  letzten  Dinge, '  for  Eybler,  and  numerons 
plays  from  various  languages.  He  edited  the 
Viennese  Theater- Almanack  for  1794,  1796, 
and  1796,  which  contains  valuable  biographies, 
and  articles  on  the  then  condition  of  music  in 
Vienna.  For  his  services  as  founder  (1811)  and 
honorary  secretary  of  the  '  Gesellschaft  adeliger 
Frauen  zur  Beforderung  der  Guten  und  Nlitz- 
lichen '  he  was  made  a  counsellor.  With  in- 
defatigable energy  he  next  applied  himself  to 
founding  (1818)  the  Gesellschaft  der  Musik- 
freunde,  and  continued  to  act  as  its  honorary 
secretary  till  his  death,  devoting  himself  unre- 
mittingly to  the  welfare  of  the  society.  Another 
institution  in  which  he  took  equal  interest  was 
the  Conservatorium,  founded  in  1817.*  The 
formation  of  the  archives,  and  especially  of  the 
library,  was  almost  entirely  his  work,  through 
his  acquisition  of  Gerber's  literary  remains  in 
1819,  and  his  legacy  of  41  MS.  vols,  in  his  own 
hand,  full  of  valuable  materials  for  the  histoiy 
of  music.  [His  discovery  of  the  S.  Gall  Anti- 
phoner  in  1827  was  an  important  event  in  the 
history  of  old  litui:gical  music.  The  curious  in- 
cident of  the  unique  copy  of  Forkel's  collection 
of  16th  century  church  music,  undertaken  at 
Sonnleithner's  instance,  has  been  narrated  under 
FoRKEL,  vol.  ii  p.  726.]  He  lived  in  close 
friendship  with  Schubert  and  Grillparzer  up  to 
his  death,  which  took  place  Dec.  26,  1886.  He 
received  the  Danebrog  Order  and  honorary 
diplomas  from  several  musical  societies.  His 
nephew,  Leopold  Edler  von  Sonnleithner, 
son  of  Ignaz,  advocate  and  eminent  amateur, 
born  Nov.  16,  1797,  was  a  great  friend  of  the 
sisters  Frohlich,  Schubert,  Schwind  the  painter, 
and  Grillparzer.  He  took  great  care  to  preserve 
Schubert's  songs,  and  to  introduce  the  composer 
to  the  musical  world,  by  publishing,  with  the 
help  of  other  friends,  his  <  Erlkonig '  and  other 
early  songs,  for  the  first  time.  The  *  Erlkonig ' 
was  sung  by  Gymnich  '  at  a  soiree  of  the  Gesell- 
schaft der  Musikfreunde,  Jan.  25, 1821,  and  for 
the  first  time  in  public  on  the  7th  of  March 
following,  at  the  old  Kamthnerthor  theatre,  by 
Vogl,  with  immense  success.  As  member  of  the 
Gesellschaft  der  Musikfreunde  (from  1860  an 
honorary  one),  Sonnleithner  took  an  unwearied 
interest  in  the  concerns  of  the  society,  to  whose 
archives  he  left,  among  other  papers,  his  highly 
valuable  notes  on  the  operas  produced,  on  con- 
certs, and  other  musical  events  in  Vienna.    His 

1  Reviaed  yjj  TrdtMbke  lor  th*  nrlval  of  the  open  in  1814.    [See 
vol.  I.  p.  191.1 
'^  The  flnt  scheme  of  Irutrvictlon  wu  drawn  up  by  Hofrath  Ton 

MU!I<!>1. 

3  Augiiat  von  Gymnich,  an  Imperial  oAdal,  and  a  much  esteemed 
tenor,  died  Oct.  8.  1821.  aged  thlrty-«lx. 


numerous  articles  on  music  are  scattered  through 
various  periodicals.  He  was  an  intimate  fnend 
of  Otto  Jahn's,  and  furnished  him  with  much 
valuable  material  for  the  life  of  Mozart,  as  Jahu 
acknowledges  in  his  prefiice.  Leopold  von  Sonn- 
leithner was  Ritter  of  the  Order  of  the  Iron 
Crown,  an  honorary  member  of  the  Gesellschaft 
der  Musikfreunde,  and  of  the  Musikvereine  of 
Salzburg,  Innsbruck,  etc.  He  died  March  3, 
1878,  and  with  him  disappeared  a  most  persever- 
ing investigator  and  collector  of  facts  connected 
with  the  history  of  music  in  Vienna,  a  class  which 
daily  becomes  rarer,  though  its  labours  were 
never  of  more  value  than  in  the  present  age  of 
new  appearances  and  general  progress,  c.  f.  v. 
SONS  OF  THE  CLERGY,  The  Corpora- 
tion of  the.  This  venerable  institution,  which 
was  founded  in  1666  by  sons  of  clergymen,  has 
for  its  objects  the  assisting  necessitous  clergymen, 
pensioning  and  assisting  their  widows  and  aged 
single  daughters,  and  educating,  apprenticing, 
and  providing  outfits  for  their  children.  To  aid 
in  procuring  funds  for  these  purposes  it  holds 
an  annual  festival  (at  no  fixed  date),  consisting 
of  a  choral  service  with  a  sermon,  followed  by 
a  dinner.  The  first  sermon  was  preached  in 
the  year  of  foundation  at  St.  Paul's  Cathedi*al 
by  the  Rev.  George  Hall,  D.D.,  minister  of 
St.  Botolph's,  Aldersgate  Street.  That  similar 
meetings  took  place  in  following  years  is  most 
probable,  but  tiiere  are  no  means  of  proving  it, 
owing  to  the  unfortunate  destruction  of  the 
early  records  of  the  institution  by  fire,  in  1888. 
We  find,  however,  that  in  1674  and  1675  ser- 
mons were  preached  at  St.  Michael's,  CornhiU  ; 
that  from  1676  to  1696  they  were  delivered  at 
Bow  Church,  Cheapside ;  and  that  from  1697 
down  to  the  present  year  (1907)  they  have  been 
invariably  given  at  St.  Paul's  Cathedral.  The 
association  was  incorporated  by  charter  of  Charles 
II.  in  1678.  It  was  in  1698,  according  to  the 
records,  that '  music '  (i.e.  orchestral  accompani- 
ment to  the  service  and  anthems)  was  first  in- 
troduced at  the  festivals.  The  compositions  then 
performed  were  Purcell's  Te  Deum  and  Jubilate 
in  D,  composed  for  the  celebration  on  St.  Cecilia's 
Day,  1694,  and  these  were  annually  repeated 
until  1718,  when  Handel's  Te  Deum  and  Ju- 
bilate, composed  on  the  Peace  of  Utrecht,  were 
given,  from  which  time  the  two  compositions 
were  alternately  performed  until  1743,  when 
both  were  laid  aside  in  favour  of  the  Te  Deum 
composed  by  Handel  to  celebrate  the  victory  at 
Dettingen,  which  continued  to  be  annually  per- 
formed (with  the  exception  of  one  or  two  years 
when  Purcell's  Te  Deum  was  revived)  until 
1843,  after  which  its  performance  was  discon- 
tinued in  consequence  of  the  services  of  the 
instrumental  band  being  dispensed  with  in  de- 
ference to  the  wishes  of  the  Bishop  of  London 
(Blomfield).  Handel's  overture  to  the  oratorio 
'Esther'  was  almost  invariably  played  as  a 
prelude  to  the  service  from  near  the  time  of  its 


production  in  1/20  until  1843.  Ur.  v\ .  Mayes 
was  at  one  time  conductor  of  the  festivals,  and 
added  instrumental  parts  to  the  Old  Hundredth 
Psalm  tune  for  their  use.  Dr.  Boyce  also  was 
for  many  years  their  conductor,  and  composed 
for  them  his  t>vo  anthems,  '  Lord,  Thou  hast 
been  our  refuge,'  and  *  Blessed  is  he  that  con- 
sidereth  the  poor  and  needy,'  besides  adding 
accompaniments  to  Purcell's  Te  Deum  and 
Jubilate,  and  expanding  several  movements  in 
them.  After  1843  the  services  were  for  some 
thirty  years  accompanied  by  the  organ  only, 
the  choir  being,  as  before,  very  largely  augmented. 
Since  1873  orchestral  accompaniment  has  again 
been  called  into  requisition  ;  Evensong  has 
taken  the  place  of  Matins ;  and  modem  com- 
positions by  various  living  composers,  often 
written  expressly  for  the  festival,  have  been 
introduced.  [A  history  of  the  corporation, 
by  Rev.  K  H.  Pearce,  was  published  in 
1904.]  w.  H.  H. 

SONTAG,  Henriettb,  Countbss  Rossi,  was 
bom  at  Coblenz,  Jan.  3,  1806.  Her  father 
was  a  ^ood  comedian,  her  mother  an  actress  of 
no  ordinary  merit,  to  whom  the  daughter,  when 
at  the  height  of  fame,  continued  to  turn  for 
instmction.  At  six,  Henriette  made  her  first 
public  appearance,  at  the  Darmstadt  theatre, 
as  Salome,  in  Kauer's  *  Donauweibchen.'  Three 
years  later  her  mother,  then  a  widow,  settled 
at  Prague,  where  Weber  was  conductor  at  the 
theatre.  Hei*e  Henriette  acted  in  juvenile  parts, 
and  in  1815  was  admitted,  though  under  the 
prescribed  age,  as  a  pupil  to  the  Conservatorinm 
of  the  city.  She  studied  singing  under  Bayer 
and  Frau  Czegka,  and  when  only  fifteen  was 
suddenly  called  upon  to  replace  the  prima 
donna  at  the  opera  in  the  part  of  the  Princess 
in  Boieldieu's  'Jean  de  Paris.'  Her  precocity, 
appearance,  and  vocal  gifts  at  once  created  a 
great  impression,  but  shortly  afterwards  her 
mother  removed  with  her  to  Vienna,  where  the 
next  few  years  were  spent,  Henriette  Sontag 
singing  both  in  Italian  and  German  opera,  and 
deriving,  according  to  her  own  statement,  in- 
calculable benefit  from  the  counsels  and  example  I 
of  Mme.  Fodor-Mainvielle.  Here  Weber,  in 
1 823,  after  hearing  her  in  tlie  *  Donna  del  Le^,' 
went  next  day  to  offer  her  the  title-rdle  in  his 
*  Euryanthe,'  whose  production,  Oct  26,  was  a 
triumph  for  Mile.  Sontag.  Beethoven  could 
not  hear  her,  but  'How  did  little  Sontag 
sing  ? '  was  his  first  question  to  those  who  had 
been  at  the  performance.  When,  in  1824, 
his  Kinth  Symphony  and  Mass  in  D  were  pro- 
duced, it  was  she  who  sustained  the  difficult 
and  ungrateful  soprano  part.  She  was  next 
engaged  at  Leipzig,  and  then  for  Berlin,  making 
her  first  appearance  at  the  Konigstadt  theatre, 
August  3,  1825,  as  Isabella  in  the  '  Italiana  in 
AlgierL* 

Henceforward  her  career  was  one  unbroken 
triumph.    She  made  her  debut  in  Paris  in  June 


1 826,  as  Jiosina  in  the  *  itorbiere,  and  became 
a  favourite  at  once.  Her  introduction  of  Rede's 
air  and  variations  created  a  furore.  She  sang 
also  in  the  '  Donna  del  Lago '  and  '  Italiana  in 
Algieri,'  and  returned  to  Germany  in  July  with 
heightened  prestige.  Everywhere  her  beauty, 
charming  voioe,  and  exquisite  vocalisation  com- 
bined to  excite  an  admiration  amounting  to 
frenzy.  At  Gottingcn  her  post-chaise  wasthrow^n 
into  the  river  by  the  ardent  crowd,  no  mortal 
being  counted  worthy  to  make  use  of  it  after 
her.  Even  Ludwig  Bome,  after  commenting 
humorously  on  the  extravagance  of  the  public, 
confesses  to  have  yielded  in  his  turn  to  the  pre- 
vailing infatuation.  Her  figure  was  slender  and 
mignonnef  her  hair  between  auburn  and  blonde, 
her  eyes  large,  and  her  features  delicate.  Her 
voioe,  a  soprano  of  clear  and  pleasing  quality, 
was  specially  good  in  the  upper  register,  reaching 
the  £  in  alt  with  facility,  and  in  perfection  of 
execution  she  seems  to  have  been  unsurpassed 
by  any  singer  of  her  time.  But  she  was  deficient 
in  dramatic  power,  and  only  appeared  to  the 
highest  advantage  in  works  of  a  light  and  placid 
style.  On  her  return  to  Paris,  in  January  1828, 
she  essayed  parts  of  a  different  order,  such  as 
Donna  Anna  and  Semiramide,  with  success,  but 
in  passion  and  emotion  never  rose  to  the  distinc- 
tion she  attained  as  a  songstress. 

In  England  she  appeared  first  on  April  19, 
1828,  at  the  King's  Theatre,  as  Rosiiia,  and 
met  with  a  most  flattering  reception,  sharing 
with  Malibran  the  honours  of  that  and  the 
succeeding  season. 

At  Berlin,  Mile.  Sontag  had  formed  the 
acquaintance  of  Count  Rossi,  then  in  the 
diplomatic  service  of  Sardinia.  An  attachment 
sprang  up  between  them,  and  was  followed  by 
a  secret  marriage.  It  was  feai'ed  that  the  yoimg 
diplomat's  future  might  be  compromised  were 
he  to  acknowledge  an  artist  of  low  birth  as  his 
wife.  But  after  a  time  Count  Rossi's  efforts  to 
procure  Court  sanction  to  his  union  were  suc- 
cessful— the  King  of  Prussia  bestowed  a  patent 
of  nobility  on  the  lady,  who  henceforth  appeared 
in  documents  as  n^  de  Launsiein,  and  she 
definitely  bade  farewell  to  artistic  life.  As 
Countess  Rossi  she  accompanied  her  husband 
to  the  Hague,  where  he  was  representative  of 
the  Sardinian  Court.  Occasionally  she  would 
sing  for  public  charities,  in  concerts  or  oratorio 
— a  style  in  which  she  is  said  to  have  been 
unrivalled ;  still,  for  nearly  half  her  lifetime 
she  remained  lost  to  the  musical  public,  follow- 
ing the  career  of  her  husband  at  the  Courts  of 
Holland,  Germany,  and  Russia.  As  to  her 
domestic  felicity  and  the  character  of  her 
husband,  we  quote  the  positive  testimony  of 
her  brother,  Carl  Sontag:  'Rossi  made  my  sister 
happy,  in  the  truest  sense  of  the  word.  Up  to 
the  day  of  her  death  they  loved  each  other  as 
on  their  wedding-day  ! '  But  the  disorders  of 
1847-48  had  impaired  their  fortunes,  and  she 


SONTAG 


SOPRANO 


621 


^as  tempted  to  return  to  the  o|)ei'a.  It  was 
lotified  to  Rossi  that  he  might  retain  his  am- 
bassador's post  if  he  would  formally  separate 
rom  his  wife — on  the  tacit  understanding  that 
o  soon  as  her  operatic  career  was  concluded 
he  sliould  be  allowed  to  return  to  him.  This 
le,  however,  at  once  refused,  and  resigned  his 
)ost,  though  remaining  on  a  friendly  footing 
vitli  the  Court.  Lumley,  then  manager  of  Her 
tfajesty's  Theatre,  having  offered  the  Countess 
loss!  £6000  for  six  months,  it  was  accepted, 
ind  in  July  1849  her  reapi)earance  in  London 
IS  '  Linda '  was  announced.  The  curiosity 
txcited  was  extreme.  Her  voice  and  charms 
vere  unimpaired,  and  the  unanimous  opinion 
leems  to  have  been  that,  in  the  words  of  Adolphe 
\.dam,  she  now  united  to  youtli  and  freshness 
:}ie  qualities  of  a  finished  artist.  As  Amina, 
;hough  Jenny  Lind  was  fresh  in  the  public 
iieniory,  she  was  rapturously  received,  as  also 
n  Desdemona,  and  Susanna  in  the  'Nozze,' 
)ne  of  her  favourite  parts,  and  pronounced  by 
i  German  critic  the  most  perfect  thing  he  had 
jeon  on  any  stage.  Her  extraordinary  preserva- 
:ion  of  her  powers  was  partly  due,  no  doubt,  to 
ong  exemption  from  the  wear  and  tear  of 
ncessant  public  singing ;  but  Sontag  was  always 
jxtremely  careful  of  her  voice,  discarding  any 
•ole  that  did  not  Ue  well  within  her  register. 
Thus,  in  an  early  contract  at  Berlin,  she  ex- 
pressly stipulates  that  she  shall  not  be  bound 
to  sing  in  the  operas  of  Spontini ! 

After  a  tour  in  the  English  provinces  in  the 
winter  of  1849,  she  went  to  Paris,  where  a  suc- 
.-essful  series  of  concerts,  also  under  Lumley's 
nanagement,  preceded  in  the  spring  of  1850  her 
reapi^earance  at  Her  Majesty's  to  win  fresh 
laurels  as  Norina  in  *■  Don  Pasquale, '  Elvira  in 
the  *  Puritani,'  and  Miranda  in  Halevy's  new 
opera  *La  Tempesta.'  As  Zerlina  and  the 
'  Figlia  del  Reggimento,'  she  appeared  for  the 
first  time,  and  with  pre-eminent  success.  In 
the  autumn  of  1850  she  sang  in  Italian  opera 
at  Paris,  Lumley  again  being  director  of  the 
company.  During  this  season  Alary's  'Tre 
Nozze'  was  produced,  and  the  polka-duet  be- 
tween Sontag  and  Lablache  never  failed  to  send 
the  public  into  ecstasies.  It  was  brought  out  in 
London  in  1851,  with  similar  results.  During 
this  season,  Mme.  Sontag's  last  in  London,  she 
sang  in  a  round  of  her  favourite  parts,  and  in 
the  production  of  *  L' Enfant  Prodigue.' 

In  Gennany,  wherever  she  went  she  carried 
all  before  her.  At  a  concert  at  Munich  she 
was  expressly  requested  to  stay  to  hear  the  last 
piece.  It  proved  to  be  a  'Huldigungs  Chor' 
— verses  composed  expressly  in  her  honour  by 
the  Crown  Prince,  and  set  to  music  by  Lachner. 

In  1852,  Mme.  Sontag  received  offers  from 
the  United  States,  which  tempted  her  thither 
with  her  husband  in  the  autumn.  The  results 
were  brilliant.  Her  voice  was  strengthened  by 
the  climate,  and  at  tliis  time  she  could  sing  in 


'Lucrezia  Borgia'  and  the  'Figlia  del  Reggi- 
mento'  on  a  single  evening  without  over-fatigae  f 
Her  last  appearance  was  made  in  *  Lucrezia '  at 
Mexico,  in  1854.  She  was  attacked  by  cholera, 
and  on  June  17  a  brief  illness  cut  short  a  life 
of  unchequered  prosperity. 

Berlioz,  remarking  on  the  fact  that  Sontag 
had  less  to  suffer  than  other  equally  famous 
singers  from  hostile  criticism  and  party  spirit, 
ascribes  it  to  her  having  so  many  favourite 
qualities — sweetness  unsurpassed,  fabulous  agi- 
lity, perfect  intonation,  and  expression.  In  this 
last  her  scope  was  limited,  and  warranted  Cata- 
lani's  7notf  '  Elle  est  la  premiere  dans  son  genre, 
I  mais  son  genre  n'est  pas  le  premier.'  Her  suc- 
cess in  certain  pathetic  rdles  must  be  attributed 
to  the  charm  of  her  singing.  She  used  to  say, 
'A  Donna  Anna  over  her  father's  corpse,  a 
Pamina  in  the  air  "Ach  ich  fiihl's,"  who  can- 
not move  the  public  to  tears,  has  no  idea  of 
Mozart.'  By  her  delivery  of  the  short  phrase 
alone,  'Tamino,  halt!  ich  muss  ihn  sehn,' 
sung  by  Pamina  behind  the  scenes,  she  could 
rouse  the  house  to  the  stormiest  applause.  She 
was  a  thorough  and  conscientious  artist,  and 
her  style  won  her  the  special  favour  of  eminent 
musicians.  Mendelssohn  entertained  the  highest 
admiration  for  her,  and  she  obtained  a  like 
tribute  of  praise  from  connoisseura  in  every 
country.  It  fell  to  her  lot  to  achieve  an  inter- 
national popularity  and  fame  never  before 
accorded  to  a  German  singer.  B.  T. 

SOPRANO.    The  human  voice  of  the  highest 

pitch  or  range.     Its  peculiar  clef  is  the 

C-clef  upon  the  lowest  line  of  the  stave  ;  -m — • 
but  in  modem  times  this  has  been  almost  |n| 
universally  supei-seded  by  the  treble  or  G-clef 
on  the  second  line. 

The  word  'Soprano'  is  etymologically  synony- 
mous with  *Sovrano,'  the  head,  chief,  or  highest. 
In  the  present  day  the  soprano  is  the  highest 
natural  voice  of  women  and  boys — the  artificial 
soprani  belonging  to  the  past ;  and  in  women 
it  is,  perhaps,  the  voice  which  varies  most  in 
compass.  That  of  Aoujari  is  the  highest  and 
most  extended  on  record,  and  that  of  Tietjenk 
one  of  the  largest  in  quality  and  power.  But, 
as  with  other  voices,  it  is  not  a  question  of 
compass  alone,  but  of  timbre.  Many  mezzo- 
soprani  can  sing  higher  notes  than  many 
soprani ;  but  there  is  a  middle  to  every  voice, 
which,  as  a  rule,  it  is  not  difficult  to  find,  and 
about  this  the  tessitura  (literally  textile)  of 
the  music  and  the  practice  should  be  woven. 
Tessitura  is  the  technical  term  used  by  the 
Italians  to  signify  the  notes  or  part  of  the  scale 
upon  which  music  is  framed,  and  though,  as 
said  above,  a  mezzo-soprano  may  sing  higher 
notes  than  a  soprano,  it  would  generally  be 
found  distressing  to  the  former  voice  to  dwell 
upon  that  part  of  the  scale  upon  which  even  a 
limited  soprano  part  is  written.  [See  Tessi- 
tura.]   Faustina,  Cuzzoni,  Mingotti,  Anastaaia 


soprani  of  bygone  days,  poaseasing  exception- 
ally good  voices ;  and  those  of  Grisi,  Clara 
Novello,  Tietjens,  Adelina  Patti  [and  Melba] 
may  perhaps  be  considered  the  best  natoral 
soprano  voices  of  modem  times.  H.  c.  d. 

SORCERER,  THE.  Comic  opera  in  two 
acts ;  libretto  by  W.  S.  Gilbert,  mnsic  by 
Arthur  Sullivan.  Produced  at  the  Op^ra- 
Comiqae  Theatre,  Nov.  17,  1877. 

SORDINO,  Mnte,^  or  Damper  (Fr.  Sourdiru  ; 
Ger.  Dampfery.  The  violin  Sordino  is  described 
below. 

In  the  pianoforte  the  contrivance  Ib  called  in 
English  the  damper.  The  first  pianofortes,  as 
we  find  Cristofori's  and  Silbermann's,  were  made 
Avithont  stops.  In  coarse  of  time  a  practice 
common  with  the  harpsichord  was  followed  in 
the  pianoforte,  and  led  the  way  to  the  now  in- 
dispensable pedals. 

The  first  stops  were  used  to  raise  the  dampers  ; 
and  by  two  brass  knobs  on  the  player's  left 
hand  the  dampers  could  be  taken  entirely  off 
the  strings  in  two  divisions,  baas  and  treble. 
C.  P.  £.  Bach,  in  his  VeriwJiy  makes  few  refer- 
ences to  the  pianoforte ;  but  in  the  edition  of 
1797  he  remarks  (p.  268)  that  the  undamped 
register  of  the  Fortepiano  is  the  most  agreeable, 
and  that,  with  due  care,  it  is  the  most  charming 
of  keyed  instruments  for  improvising  (*  fanta- 
siren ').  The  higher  treble  of  the  piano  is  not 
now  damped.  These  short  strings  vibrate  in 
unison  with  the  overtones  of  deeper  notes,  and, 
as  a  distinguished  pianoforte-maker  has  said, 
give  life  to  the  whole  instrument*  The  terms 
^Senza  sordini'  and  'Con  sordini'  applied  to 
the  damper  stops  were  used  exclusively  by  Beet- 
hoven in  his  earlier  sonatas.  He  did  not  use 
the  now  familiar  '  Ped.'  or  '  Pedal,'  because  the 
pedal  was  of  recent  introduction,  and  was  less 
commonly  employed  than  the  stops,  which  every 
little  square  piano  then  had.  The  *Genouilliere,' 
or  knee-pedal,  replaced  the  damper  stops  in  the 
German  Grands.  For  the  Italian  wonds  signi- 
fying Without  and  With  dampers  the  signs  ^ 
and  ^  were  substituted  by  Steibelt,  and  eventu- 
ally became  fixed  as  the  constant  equivalents. 
The  oldest  dated  square  piano  existing,  one  of 
Zumpe's  of  1 766,  has  the  damper  stops  ;  as  to 
the  Genouilli^re,  Mozart  tells  us  (letter,  October 
1777)  how  Stein  had  one  in  his  improved  Grand, 
and  M.  Mahillon's  Stein  of  17 80,  or  thereabouts, 
accordingly  has  one.  There  is  one  in  Mozart's 
Walther  Grand  at  Salzburg,  and  in  each  of  the 
two  Huhn  (Berlin)  Grands  of  1790,  or  earlier, 
preserved  at  Potsdam.  The  action  of  the 
Genouilli^re  consists  of  two  levers  which  descend 
a  little  below  the  key-bottom  of  the  piano,  and 

1  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  metaphon  at  the  root  of  the  Italian 
and  BnglUh  terine  are  deafncea  In  one  cum  and  dmnbneu  in  the 
other. 

s  Even  in  Virdang.  a.d.  1511.  we  find  the  pnusUoe  o(  leaving 
■Tinpathetic  ttringi  In  the  clavichonle ;  ea  he  aaye  to  ctrengihen 
the  reeunanco. 


thrust  moves  a  bar  which  takes  the  whole  of 
the  dampers  off  the  strings.  [See  Hipkins's 
History  of  the  Fiano/orUy  pp.  93,  108,  and  110 
(footnote).] 

Contemporaneous  with  the  employment  of 
the  Genouilli^re  was  that  of  the  piano  stop 
(German  ffarfenaug,  Fr.  Cile8U\  afterwards 
transferred,  like  the  dampers,  to  a  pedaL  An 
interesting  anonymous  Louis  Quinze  square 
piano  belonging  to  the  painter  M.  Gosselin  of 
Brussels  had  this  Create  as  a  stop.  Its  origin 
is  clearly  the  harp-stop  of  the  harpsichord,  the 
pieces  of  leather  being  turned  over  so  as  to  be 
interposed  between  the  hammers  and  the  strings. 

A  note  of  directions  for  the  use  of  the  pedals 
prefixed  to  Steibelt's  three  sonatas,  op.  35, 
gives  an  approximate  date  to  the  use  of  the 
pedals  becoming  recognised,  and  put  under  the 
composer's  direction,  instead  of  being  left  entirely 
to  the  fancy  of  the  player.  He  says:  'The 
Author  wishing  to  make  more  Variety  on  the 
Piano  Forte  finds  it  necessary  to  make  use  of 
the  Pedals,  by  which  alone  the  tones  can  be 
united,  but  it  requires  to  use  them  with  care, 
without  which,  in  going  from  one  chord  to 
another.  Discord  and  Confusion  would  result. 
Hereafter  the  Author  in  all  his  Compositions 
wiU  make  use  of  the  following  signs  to  denote 
the  Pedals. 

^  The  Pedal  which  raises  the  dampers. 

*  The  Piano  Pedal. 

.  To  take  the  foot  off  the  Pedal  that  was 
used  before.' 

Steibelt's  op.  85  was  published  in  1799,  by 
Longman,  Clementi  k  Co.^ 

The  leather  was  applied  in  one  length  to  mute 
the  strings  more  effectually,  and  was  then  called 
in  French  '  Sourdine.'  John  Broadwood  was  the 
first  to  put  the  'sordin' — as  it  is  called  in 
his  patent  of  1783 — upon  a  foot -pedal  ;  he  put 
the  dampers  upon  a  pedal  at  the  same  time,  and 
for  fifty  years  the  pedal-foot  was  cloven,  to  divide 
the  dampers  into  bass  and  treble  sections,  as  the 
stops  had  previously  been  divided  for  the  same 
purpose.  The  use  of  the  pianissimo  mute  was 
indicated  by  the  Italian  word  'Sordino.'  Mr. 
Franklin  Taylor  has  pointed  out  to  the  writer 
the  use  of  this  term  in  the  sense  of  a  mute  as 
late  as  Thalberg's  op.  41  (Ashdown's  edition). 

The  *  Verschiebung,'  or  shifting  pedal,  for 
shifting  the  hammer  first  to  two  strings  and 
then  to  one  (una  corda),  ultimately  gained  the 
day  over  the  muted  pedals  or  stops.  The  effect 
of  the  'una  corda '  was  charming,  and  is  expressly 
indicated  by  Beethoven  in  his  G  major  Concerto, 
in  op.  106,  etc.  The  pp  and  ppp  soft  pedal  in 
course  of  time  shared  the  fate  of  the  divided 

s  steibelt  gives  a  deeeriptlon  of  the  pedals,  with  hie  dgni  for  them. 
In  hie  ilithode  de  Piano,  Hxtt  published  by  Janet,  Paris.  180ft.  He 
names  dementi.  Dnseek,  and  Cramer  as  having  adopted  hl«  aigna. 
They  diflbr  from  and  are  better  than  Adam's  tJtMiode  de  PUmo  dm 
OomtnoMrt),  alaopuUished  in  Paris,  ISOS.  Steibelt  calls  the  'una 
oorda'csletre. 


six-pedal  Viennese  Grand  of  Nannette  Stein  at 
Windsor  Castle,  the '  Verachiebung'and  *Harfen- 
zug'  co-exist^  The  latter  has  of  late  years 
again  oome  forward,  at  first  in  oblique  pianos 
that  could  not  shift,  and  since  more  generally  ; 
and  has,  to  a  certain  extent,  gained  the  favour 
of  amateurs.  The  material  used  is  cloth  or  felt. 
[See  also  the  glossary  of  terms  in  Hipkins's 
Hidory  of  the  FiaiwftyrU^  p.  123.]     A.  J.  H. 

Most  instruments  are  capable  of  having  their 
tone  dulled  for  particular  eflects,  and  this  is 
accomplished  by  partially  preventing  the  vibra- 
tions by  the  interposition  of  a  foreign  substance. 
Violins  are  muted  either  by  placing  an  ebony, 
xylonite,  or  brass  instrument  upon  the  bridge. 


Violin  Mute. 

or  by  slipping  a  coin  or  strip  of  horn  between 
the  strings  above  the  bridge.  These  two  means 
produce  different  results.  The  brass  mute  is 
so  heavy  as  entirely  to  extinguish  the  tone, 
especially  of  a  small  or  inferior  violin,  while  the 
strip  of  horn  sometimes  produces  scarcely  any 
effect  at  all.  A  penny  squeezed  between  the 
bridge  and  tailpiece  produces  just  the  right 
effect.  The  brass  mute  should  be  reserved  as  a 
special  effect  of  itself.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
mutes  for  the  violoncello  and  double-bass  are 
rarely  made  heavy  enough,  and  this  has  given 
rise  to  the  erroneous  idea  that  mutes  do  not 
produce  much  effect  on  these  instruments.  The 
double-bass  mutes  used  by  the  present  writer 
are  of  brass,  and  weigh  rather  over  a  pound. 
They  produce  a  beautiful  veiled  tone,  and  it  is 
probable  that  larger  patterned  basses  would  bear 
even  a  heavier  mute. 

Brass  instruments  can  be  muted  in  three  ways. 
The  first  and  most  effective  is— as  in  *  stopping ' 
a  horn — the  introduction  of  the  closed  hand  or 
a  rolled-up  handkerchief  into  the  bell.  This 
raises  the  pitch  of  the  instrument,  but  produces 
a  good  muffled  tone.  The  second  way  is  by 
inserting  a  pear-shaped  piece  of  wood  covered 
with  leather  into  the  bell,  which  it  fits,  small 
studs  allowing  a  portion  of  the  wind  to  pass. 

>  Th«  rpmalnlng  pediiUln  Nannette  Stein's  Grand  are  the '  Fsffoi- 
mg.'  by  which  a  pioc*  of  card  or  rtlff  paper  U  brought  Into  partial 
contact  with  tha  atringa,  and  tho  '  Janlaaarjr'  drum  and  triaiigic 
Sm  Stuv. 


('  Siegfried,'  Acts  1  and  2  ;  'Meistersinger,'  last 
scene)  as  a  comic  effect,  imitating  the  sound  of 
a  toy-trumpet.  The  third  means  produces  a 
very  distant- sounding,  but  still  more  nasal 
quality  of  tone,  and  is  known  to  orchestral 
players  as  the  *■  ooffee-pot  effect. '  It  is  obtained 
by  allowing  the  sound  to  issue  from  the  small 
end  of  a  small  double  cone  of  metal,  styled  the 
'  echo  attachment.'  A  good  comet  player  can, 
by  these  three  devices,  produce  on  his  instrument 
exact  imitations  of  the  horn,  oboe,  and  bagpipe. 

Trombones,  Tubas,  etc,  can  also  be  muted  in 
the  same  way,  and  the  effect  of  the  former  has 
been  tried  in  Richard  Strauss's  *Heldenleben.' 
For  muting  by  means  of  the  hand  in  the  bell, 
see  Horn,  vol.  ii.  p.  431a. 

It  has  been  frequentiy  stated  that  *■  Berlioz 
muted  the  Clarinet  by  enveloping  the  bell  in  a 
bag  of  chamois  leather,'  and  that '  The  Oboes  in 
Handel's  time  were  muted  by  placing  a  ball  of 
cotton  wool  in  the  bell.*  But  these  devices  only 
affect  the  bottom  note  of  the  instrument,  as  all 
others  issue  from  the  holes  and  not  from  the  bell 
at  all. 

The  laying  of  any  substance,  even  a  handker- 
chief, on  the  kettiedrums  is  sufficient  to  check 
the  vibrations  and  produce  a  muffled  effect.  In 
the '  Dead  March '  the  big  drum  is  usually  beaten 
enveloped  in  its  cover. 

Various  means  have  been  used  to  obtain  sour- 
dine  effects  from  voices.  Berlioz,  like  Gosseo 
before  him  [see  vol.  ii.  p.  208],  has  employed  the 
device  of  a  chorus  in  a  room  behind  the  orchestra 
('L'Enfance  du  Christ'),  and  the  interposition 
of  a  veil,  or  curtain  {*  L^lio ').  He  has  also 
suggested  that  the  chorus  should  hold  their 
music  before  their  mouths,  or  should  sing  with 
their  backs  to  the  audience.  One  important 
effect,  however,  deserves  more  attention  than 
it  has  received.  French  composers,  especially 
Gounod,  are  fond  of  the  device  called  d  louche 
ferm^e.  The  choir  hu^ns  an  accompaniment 
without  words,  keeping  the  mouth  quite,  or 
nearly,  closed.  But  composers  have  lost  sight 
of  the  fact  that  several  totally  distinct  effects 
may  be  thus  produced,  and  they  usually  con- 
fuse the  matter  still  more  by  writing  the  sound 
'A-a-a'  underneath  the  music — just  the  very 
sound  which  can  not  possibly  be  ])roduced  by 
a  closed  mouth.  The  effect  would  be  better 
designated  by  writing  the  exact  sound  intended, 
and  consequently  the  exact  position  of  the 
mouth.  For  instance,  byclosingthe  lips  entirely, 
the  sound  of  *  n '  or  *m '  may  be  hummed  through 
the  nose.  By  opening  the  lifts  slightly  either 
of  the  vowel-sounds  may  be  used,  each  making 
a  distinct  effect.  F.  c. 

SORIANO  (or  Suriano,  Surianus,  or 
SuRiANi),  Francesco,  was  bom  at  Rome  in 
1549,  and  at  the  age  of  fifteen  entered  the  choir 
at  S.  John  Lateran.     After  the  breaking  of  his 


G.  M.  Nanini,  and  lastly  of  Palestrina.  After 
this  his  fame  went  on  always  increasing.  In 
1581  we  find  him  Maesti*o  di  cappella  at 
S.  Ludovico  dei  Francesi ;  in  1583  he  was  at 
the  Court  of  Mantua  ;  in  1587  at  S.  Maria 
Maggiore ;  in  1599  at  S.  John  L&teran.  He 
returned,  however,  to  S.  Maria  Maggiore,  and  in 
1603  made  his  final  step  to  the  head  of  the 
choir  of  S.  Peter's.  He  retired  in  June  1620, 
died  about  1621,  and  was  buried  at  S.  Maria 
Maggiore.  Soriano  published  his  first  work 
in  1581,  a  book  of  madrigals,  a  5.  This  was 
followed  by  a  second  in  1592  ;  by  a  book 
of  motets,  a  8,  1597  ;  by  a  second  book  of 
madrigals,  a  4,  1601,  1602  ;  by  a  book  of 
masses  for  4,  5,  and  6  voices,  1609  ;  by  a 
collection  of  110  canons  on  *  Ave  Maris  Stella,' 
1610,  and  by  a  second  book  of  psalms  and 
motets,  a  8,  12,  and  16,  1616.  His  last  work 
was  a  Magnificat  and  Passione,  a  4,  Kome,  1619, 
containing  his  portrait.  A  complete  list  of  his 
works  is  given  in  the  Qitellen-Lexikon.  He 
will  be  remembered  longest  for  having  arranged 
Palestrina's  Missa  Papae  Marcelli  for  8  voices. 
The  Passion  already  mentioned,  a  Magnificat 
and  five  Antiphons,  are  included  in  Proske's 
*Musica  Divina,'  vols.  iiL  and  iv.,  and  two 
Masses  in  the  *  Selectus  novus.'  o. 

SORIANO- FUERTES,  Mariano,  bom  in 
Murcia,  1817,  a  Spanish  com  looser  and  liUe- 
rctUur,  according  to  Riemann  was  the  son  of  a 
musician,  and  so  determined  in  his  pursuit  of 
music  that  though  forced  into  a  cavalry  regiment 
he  left  it  for  the  musical  career.  His  works  were 
many,  and  in  many  spheres  ;  in  1841  he  founded 
a  periodical,  Iberia  musiccU  y  lUeraria  ;  in  1843 
became  teacher  in  the  Conservatoire  at  Madrid  ; 
in  1844  director  of  the  Lyceums  at  Cordova, 
Seville,  and  Cadiz  ;  conductor  of  the  opera  at 
Seville,  Cadiz,  and  (1852)  at  Barcelona,  where 
he  founded  the  Gcuxta  Musical  Barcelonesa  in 
1860.  During  this  period  he  wrote  several 
*  Zarzuelas '  or  operettas  ;  but  it  is  from  his 
literary  works  that  he  vnll  derive  his  chief  fame 
— Afusica  Arabo-Espatiola  (1853);  History  of 
Spanish  Music  from  the  Ph^snicians  doum  to 
1850  (4  vols.,  1855-59)  ;  Meinoir  on  the  Choral 
Societies  of  Spain  ;  and  Spain^  Artistic  and 
Industrial f  in  the  Exposition  of  1867,  Soriano 
died  at  Madrid,  March  26,  1880.  g. 

SOSTENUTO,  *  sustained '  ;  a  direction 
which  has  of  late  come  to  be  used  with  a 
considerable  degree  of  ambiguity.  It  originally 
signified  that  the  notes  were  to  be  held  for  their 
ft  J 11  vnUic,  and  was  ttina  onui  vale  lit  to  tt'niUo  ; 
but  ill  iiiuiiic:  of  the  motlem  "  roouintic; '  achool  it 
very  ofteu  has  tlie  same  Tueaiiiti^  as  jaeito  jumxu^ 
or  aamiitiiiiig  Wtween  that  mid  riienuk^—t.^., 
tbw  pas^ii*^  so  marked  iti  to  b«  played  at  u 
uniform  rate  of  decrcis^d  speed  until  the  words 
a  tempo  ocour.  No  p7e<nie  nile  can  bu  given 
for  its  iuterprotationj   u  iti  use  varieu   Mith 


by  the  same  master.  m. 

SOSTINENTE  PIANOFORTE.  The  term 
implies  a  pianoforte  cai)able  of  producing  a  sus- 
tained sound,  such  as  that  of  the  organ,  har- 
monium, or  violin.  It  must,  however,  be  borne 
in  mind  that  by  giving  the  pianoforte  this 
power  of  sustaining  soimd,  the  special  character 
of  the  instrument  is  transformed,  and  in  point  of 
fact  the  *'  soetinente '  pianoforte  is  a  pianoforte 
in  name  only.  It  is  the  rapid  diminution  of  the 
fugitive  tone  that  raises  the  ordinary  pianoforte 
to  that  ideal  terrain  wherein  it  finds  one  of  its 
chief  excellences,  the  prerogative  of  freedom 
from  cloying ;  the  emotion  of  the  hearer 
entering  actively  into  the  appreciation  of  its 
unsubstantial  and  ethereal  tones.  Under  the 
head  of  Piano -Violin  the  Hurdy-gurdy  is 
referred  to  as  the  germ  of  sostinente  keyed 
instruments  ;  and  allied  to  the  harpsichord  we 
next  meet  with  it  in  the  Gambenwerk  of  Hans 
Hayd n  of  Nuremberg,  dating  about  1610.  The 
Lyrichord,  patented  by  Roger  Plenius  in  Loudon 
in  1741,  demands  notice  as  being  a  harpsichord 
strung  with  wii-e  and  catgut,  made  on  the  sosti- 
nente principle,  and  actuated  by  moving  wheels 
instead  of  the  usual  quills,  so  that  the  bow  of  the 
violin  and  the  organ  were  imitated.  There  is  no 
specification  to  the  patent,  but  a  magazine  article 
of  1755,  in  the  possession  of  the  writer,  gives  a 
drawing  and  complete  description  of  the  in- 
strument, which,  was  otherwise  remarkable  for 
sustaining  power  by  screws,  springs,  and  balanced 
tension  weights  for  tuning  ;  for  silver  covering  to 
the  bass  strings,  like  the  largest  *  Bass-violins  * ; 
for  the  use  of  ir&n  to  counteract  the  greater  pull 
of  the  octave-strings  (in  the  drawing  there  are 
apparently  four  iron  bars  connecting  the  wrest - 
plank  and  sound-board,  thus  antici|)ating  the  later 
introduction  of  steel  arches  in  grand  pianofortes 
for  similar  service)  ;  and  lastly  for  the  Swell  ob- 
tained by  dividing  the  lid  or  cover  into  two  parts, 
one  of  which  is  movable  up  and  down  by  means 
of  a  pedal  governed  by  the  foot  of  the  player, 
a  practice  followed  by  Eirkman  in  his  harpsi- 
chords, and  perhaps  by  Shudi,  until  ho  intro- 
duced, about  1766,  his  important  improvement 
of  the  Venetian  Swell.  Another  patent  of 
Plenius,  in  1746,  added  the  *  Welch  harp,'  or 
buff  stop  (in  his  patent  by  a  pedal),  to  the 
instrument.  We  have  thus  dwelt  upon  the 
Lyrichord  because  as  an  ingenious  combination 
of  inventions  its  importance  cannot  be  gainsaid.  ^ 
Another  *  Sostinente '  harpsichord  was  the 
'Celestina'  of  Adam  Walker,  patented  in  London 
in  i77if.  An  inijiortaut  '  Sii>tiiir]ite '  inntni' 
nient  ivas  the  *  Claviol '  or  '  Kiiigoi- keyed  Viol,' 
tlio  invention  of  Dr»  .John  Inaac  Hawkins  of 
Bordertawn,  New  Jerspy,U.S.  A.,au  Eugliabnian 
by  birth,  who  jnveritod  the  real  upright  piano, 
forte,     Thia    upright   piano   (tailed    '  |>or table 

»  riflnim  If  md  to  bAfi  itMtu  thm  Mfn  t»  <4iMtiijd  |p  maMm  a^ 


SOTO 


SOUND-HOLES 


625 


and  *)  and  the  *  Claviol,*  whicli  was  in  form 
cc  a  cabinet  piano,  with  ringbow  mechanism 
r  the  sostinente,  were  introduced  to  the 
iblic  in  a  concert  at  Philadelphia,  by  the 
venter,  June  21,  1802.  There  is  a  de- 
ription  of  the  Claviol  in  Bees' 8  Cyciopcedia, 
i^l9,  and  also  in  the  Mechanic  8  Magtizine 
V  1845,  No.  1150,  p.  123.  About  Haw- 
ins  himself  there  are  interesting  particulars 
i  Scribner*8  Magazine  (1880),  in  an  article 
i\  *  Bordertown  and  the  Bonapartea.'  Haw- 
ins  was  in  England  in  1813  and  1814,  ex- 
i biting  his  Claviol,  and  in  the  latter  year 
:>inplained  of  his  idea  being  appropriated  by 
thers  through  the  expiration  of  his  patent, 
lo  afterwards  lived  here  and  was  a  prominent 
1  ember  of  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers, 
saac  Mott's  '  Sostinente  Piano  Forte,'  patented 
»y  him  in  1817,  was  a  further  development  of 
lie  idea,  and  is  fully  described  in  the  patent, 
*^o.  4098.  Mott  claimed  the  power  to  increase 
»r  diminish  the  tone  at  will  ;  and  by  rollers  act- 
II g  on  silken  threads,  set  in  action  by  a  pedal, 
he  'sostinente'  was  brought  into  action  or 
i topped.  Mott's  instrument  had  some  success, 
le  being  at  the  time  a  fashionable  piano- 
orte-maker.  See  Piano- Violin  and  Melo- 
?IAN0.*  [See  also  p.  95  of  Hipkins's  History 
>/  (he  Pianoforte,']  A.  J.  H. 

SOTO,  Fkanoisoo,  bom  1534,  at  Langa  in 
Spain,  entered  the  college  of  the  Pope's  Chapel, 
hine  8,  1562.  He  was  a  friend  of  St.  Philip 
S'eri,  and  in  Decembei  1575  took  the  direction 
>f  the  music  in  the  Oratory  founded  by  him. 
H.e  also  founded  the  first  Carmelite  convent  in 
Elome.  He  published  the  3rd  and  4th  books 
3f  Laudi  Spirituali  (1588,  1591)  in  continuation 
3f  the  two  edited  by  G.  Animuccia,  and  died  as 
Dean  of  the  Pope's  Chapel,  Sept.  25,  1619.     o. 

SOTTO  VOCE,  'under  the  voice,'  in  an 
undertone  ;  a  direction  of  frequent  occurrence  in 
instrumental  as  well  as  vocal  music.  M. 

SOUBIES,  Albert,  bom  in  Paris,  May  10, 
1846,  was  educated  at  the  Lyc^e  Louis-le-Grand, 
but,  after  studying  for  the  legal  profession,  music 
was  too  strong  for  him,  and  he  entered  the 
Conservatoire,  where  he  studied  under  Savard, 
Bazin,  and  Guilmant  His  first  essay  as  a 
writer  on  music,  a  career  in  which  he  has  had 
remarkable  success,  was  in  the  continuation 
of  the  Almaruich  Dxuheane  under  the  title  of 
Almanack  des  Spectacles  (1874  onwards).  His 
princiiMil  work  has  been  a  histoiy  of  music 
in  a  series  of  small  volumes  arranged  under 
different  countries  :  Allenuigne  et  Russie  occupy 
two  volumes ;  VEspagne,  three  more ;  Le  Portu- 
gal, La  HoTiginCf  et  la  Bohhixe^  three  :  Suisse  and 
HoUande^  one  each ;  Belgique,  two ;  Etats  Scandi- 
nairs,  three  ;  and  lies  BrilanniqueSf  two.  Les 
Grands  Thidtres  Parisians  is  in  four  volumes, 
dealing  respectively  with  the  Comedie  Pran9aise, 

<  Mr.  R.  B.  ProMer  of  tli«  P&t«iit  Office  hM  rapplied  the  rafereuon 

totbeCUvlol. 

veil.  IV 


the  Op^ra  (for  sixty-seven  years),  the  Op^ra- 
Comique  (for  sixty-nine  years),  and  the  Theatre 
Lyrique,  1851-70.  Une  Premiere  par  jour  wta 
crowned,  with  other  of  Soubies's  works,  by  the 
Academie,  and  other  non-musical  books  are  in 
his  list.  He  has  collaborated  with  Ch.  Mal- 
herbe  in  the  Histoire  de  V OpSra-Coinique  (1840- 
1887)t  Milanges  sur  Richard  Wagner,  L'CEuvre 
dramatique  de  Richard  Wa,gner,  and  in  a 
l^eeis  de  V histoire  de  V Opera'Comique,  the  last 
under  the  name  of  B.  de  Lomagne.  He  has 
written  for  the  Soir  since  1876,  and  for  the 
Revue  de  VArt  dramatique  since  1886.  He  is 
a  frequent  contributor  to  the  Guide  Musical, 
the  M&nestrel,  etc.  g.  f. 

SOUND-BOARD  or  SOUNDING-BOARD. 
I.  In  the  organ  the  sound-board  is  the  upper 
portion  of  the  wind-chest,  upon  which  the  pipes 
stand. 

II.  In  the  pianoforte  the  sound -board  is 
usually  called  the  Belly.     See  vol.  i.  p.  2986. 

SOUND-HOLES,  or  ff  HOLES  (Fr.  ouie  ; 
Ital.  oechi  ;  Ger.  Sehalloeh).  Tlie  two  apertures 
in  the  form  of  italic  f*B  which  face  one  another 
in  the  bellies  of  violins — and  the  instmrnents 
of  that  family — on  either  side  of  the  bridge. 
These  exercise  a  powerful  influence  upon  the 
tone,  regulating  as  they  do  the  entire  system  of 
vibrations  of  the  various  parts  of  the  instm- 
ments,  by  governing  the  amount  of  air  which  is 
contained  within  the  body.  Scientific  investi- 
gation has  proved  that  the  best  tonal  results  are 
arrived  at  when  the  contained  mass  of  air  in  the 
body  of  a  violin  answers  to  612  vibrations  {i.e, 
answering  to  middle  C),  and  for  this  reason 
that  standard  of  vibration  has  been  generally 
adopted  by  all  good  violin-makers  since  the 
days  of  Stradivarius,  whose  violins  are  perfect 
examples  of  this  systeuL  The  principle,  how- 
ever, cannot  be  applied  by  way  of  extension  to 
the  viola,  or  violoncello,  a  fact  which  was  proved 
by  those  large  violoncellos  made  by  17th  cen- 
tuiy  ItUhiers  in  accordance  with  violin  measure- 
ments by  mere  augmentation,  all  of  which  have 
had  to  be  reduced  in  size.  According  to  M. 
Savart  {M6)noire  sur  la  Construction  des  Instru- 
Tnents  d  Cordes  et  d  Archet)  the  pitch  of  the 
viola  being  a  fifth  below  that  of  the  violin,  and 
an  octave  above  the  violoncello,  the  instrument 
should  contain  a  mass  of  air  answering  to 
341 '33  vibrations  (/:  a  system,  however,  not 
generally  followed)  ;  and  the  violoncello,  being 
pitched  a  fifth  plus  an  octave  below  the  violin, 
should  give  170*66  vibrations  (F) — neither  of 
which,  again,  can  be  said  to  be  arbitraiy  laws. 
The  form  of  the  jjT  holes  and  tlieir  position  are 
therefore  matters  of  great  importance.  Savart 
at  first  questioned  the  necessity  of  curved  sound- 
holes,  but  his  later  experiments  proved  that  any 
deviation  from  the  /  form,  where  the  belly  was 
arched,  had  a  disastrous  effect  upon  the  tone  of 
the  instniment.  He  also  tested  the  effect  of 
dispensing  with  one  sound-hole  by  covering  it 

2s 


immeaiaceLy  aimmisnea,  ana  uie  noce  given  oy 
the  contained  mass  of  air  was  flattened.  A 
similar  effect  is  produced  when  the  holes  are 
too  small ;  but  when  they  ai-e  too  large  the 
vibratory  note  of  the  air  rises.  Practically  the 
proportions  of  the  ff  holes  must  depend  upon 
the  dimensions,  thickness,  height,  etc.,  of  the 
instrument,  and  they  must  be  cut  in  strict 
relation  to  these  conditions. 

Although  an  established  form  and  position  of 
the  sound-holes  did  not  exist  until  the  latter  half 
of  the  16  th  century,  still  there  are  evidences 
that  sound-holes  were  employed,  in  very  early 
times.  The  monochord  attributed  to  Ptolemy 
{circa  A.D.  139)  was  apparently  provided 
with  a  circular  sound-hole,  like  some  of  the 
guitars  depicted  in  ancient  Egyptian  frescoes, 
which  show  small  sound-holes  pierced  in  the 
upper  table,  on  either  side  of  the  strings.  To- 
day those  presumptive  descendants  of  the 
original  inhabitants  of  Egypt— the  Berbers — 
monopolise  a  musical  instrument  called  the 
*  kissar,'  considered  to  be  of  very  ancient  origin, 
which  has  a  circular  sound-hole  placed  in  the 
now  generally  adopted  position.  In  the  9th 
century  we  find  a  figure  from  the  MS.  found  by 
Gerber  in  the  Monastery  of  St  Blasius  in  the 
Black  Forest,  and  copied  by  him,  which  shows 
(Fig.  1)  C-shaped  sound-holes  well  placed,  but 
from  that  time  to  the  ^— >. 

16th  century  pictorial  \C)\ 

and  sculptural  repre-  nTv^ 

sentations  afford  evi- 
dence that  the  various 
small  predecessors  of 
the  viol  properly  so 
called  depended  en- 
tirely upon  the  whim 
of  their  makers  for 
the  shape  of  their 
sound-holes.  Some  of 
tlie  viol's  forerunners 
had  as  many  as  six 
sound -holes  pierced 
in  their  diminutive 
bodies,  others  had 
four,  and  others  two, 
but  none  among  them 
approached  the/  form 
finally  adopted  by  the 
violin  -  makers  proper. 
At  the  beginning  of 
the  16  th  century, 
makers  liegau  to  show 
more  dexterity  in  cutting  the  sound -holes, 
and  even  in  the  previous  century  some  Italian 
makers  had  already  come  very  near  to  realising 
their  correct  position.  A  glance  at  Fig.  2,  re- 
produced from  an  early  woodcut  representation 
of  a  seven-stringed  viol  which  ornaments  the 
front  page  of  the  'First  Book  of  Songs*  by 
'Aurelius    Auguroilus    Arimineusis'  (Verona, 


Fial. 


sriusn  museum,  wui  corroDorate  tnis  state- 
ment During  the 
first  half  of  the  16th 
century  the  woodcut 
illustrations  of  bow 
instruments  which 
appeared  in  the  works 
of  Sebastian  Yirdung 
(Mu9ica  getutschtf 
1611),  of  Martin 
Agricola  (Aftiaioa  In- 
atrumentaliSf  1528), 
and  of  Hans  Gerle 
(Afusica  Teuschy 
1532),  show  rebecs 
with  the  C-shaped 
sound- holes  on  either 
side  of  the  strings — 
sometimes  turned  in- 
ward and  sometimes 
outward ;  also  viols 
with  a  'rose'  in  tlie 
centre  and  the  C- 
shaped  sound  -  holes 
set  high  up  in  the 
upper  bouts.  Far  in 
advance  of  the  Ger- 
man work  was  that  of  the  contemporary 
Italians  as  revealed  by  Ganassi  del  Fontego 
(Venice,  1542),  in  his  JUgola  Riibertina^ 
wherein  graceful  viols  with  large  /-shaped 
sound-holes  appear,  and  later  in  the  century 
the  still  more  elegant    curves    portrayed    in 


FiQ.  2. 


Fio.  s. 

Domenichino's  bass,  in  his  picture  of  St 
Cecilia  (Fig.  3).  Another  form  of  sound-hole 
prevalent  among  viol-makers  and  extensively 
employed  by  them'  for  the  viola  da  gamba  is  that 
shown  in  Fig.  4,  known  as  the  'flaming sword.' 
Generally  speaking,  the  true  era  of  the /-shaped 
sound-hole  began  with  Andreas  Amati  (Cremona, 
about  1520-80)  and  Gasparo  da  Sal6  (Brescia, 
1 542-1 609),and  was  the  outcome  of  the  ceaseless 
pursuit  of  perfection  which  marked  tlie  period 


SOUND-HOLES 


SOUND-POST 


627 


the  Renaissance.  The  C-shaped  (Fig.  2) 
md -holes,  it  was  observed,  lacked  grace,  so 
kers  began  to  twist  them  about  until  they 


Fio.  4. 


Fig.  5 


ssumed  the  greater  elegance  of  form.  An  ex- 
mple  of  this  progression  is  shown  in  Fig.  5, 
hich  is  taken  from  a  tenor  viol  on  one  of  the 
Lrved  screens  of  Cremona  Cathedral,  dating 
*om  the  first  part  of  the  16th  centuiy.  This 
'as  a  distinct  step  in  the  right  direction  ;  but 
either  Gasparo  da  Sal6  nor  Andreas  Amati 
ould  quite  throw  aside  the  C-shape,  and 
he  first  employed  that  form  for  some  of  his 
rand  tenors.  Gasparo  da  Sal6's  ff  holes  are 
ery  long  and  pointed,  stiff  in  appearance  and 
arallel  in  position,  while  Andreas  Amati's  lack 
ymmetry  by  reason  of  their  being  out  too  wide. 
}asparo's  pupil  Paolo  Maggini  (Brescia,  1590- 
640),  according  to  Savart's  experiments,  com- 
nitted  the  same  error,  the  muffled  tone  of  his 
tistruments  being  due  to  this  cause,  the  con- 
ained  volume  of  air  within  the  body  of  his 
lolins  answering  to  the  vibrations  of  middle  D. 
?he  brothers  Amati  and  Jerome's  son  Nicolas — 
vho  added  a  touch  of  boldness  to  his  father's  j5^ — 
>ut  grace  of  design  into  their  sound-holes,  but 
•ebbed  their  violins  of  power  by  placing  them 
CO  far  apart  on  the  belly.  The  fallacies  in- 
icrent  to  these  first  attempts  were  discovered 
ind  rectified  by  Antonius  Stradivarius(Cremona, 
1644-1737),  whose  graceful,  converging jO^  holes 
ire  acknowledged  to  be  perfect  in  form,  posi- 
;ion,  proportion,  and  intent  Although  Stradi- 
vari had  an  ingenious  method  for  ascertaining 
;he  correct  place  for  his  ^  holes  on  the  belly  of 
;lie  violin,  and  fixed  upon  the  main  features  of 
:liese,  yet  on  no  two  of  his  instruments  can  the 
/holes  be  called  identical.  The  spontaneous 
'eoling  and  charm  which  characterised  the 
tvork  of  his  predecessors,  who  knew  neither 
template  nor  pattern,  or  at  least  did  not  employ 
tlieni,  were  by  him  presented  with  an  added 
kouch  of  necessary  exactitude.  He  realised  the 
^flicacy  of  flatter  surfaces  and  the  influence  ex- 
svcised  by  the  contained  mass  of  air,  and  made 
Ills  ;/ holes  to  suit  these  ruling  factors  with  a 
tesulting  balance  of  parts  impossible  to  surpass. 
Deviations  from  the  form  or  position  established 
by  Stradivari  have  never  proved  satisfactory. 


What  Joseph  Guarnerius  gained  in  power  by  his 
more  heroic  form  of  sound -hole — magnificent 
as  it  is  in  many  cases — was  at  the  sacrifice  of 
the  tone  of  the  G  string.  The  £  A  D  of  his 
violins  are  sonorous  and  brilliant,  but  the 
fourth  string  suflers  from  combined  eflects  due 
to  the  excessive  thickness  of  tlie  plates,  and 
the  size  of  the  sound -holes.  In  these  days 
the  form  and  position  of  the  sound-holes  have 
reached  a  point  of  almost  mechanical  perfection. 
With  the  exception  of  the  attempted  innovations 
made  by  Savart  and  Chanot,  the  present /shape 
has  retained  its  position  unchallenged  for  quite 
300  years.  Most  makers  now  content  them- 
selves with  copying  the  pattern  of  some  one 
of  the  great  masters,  and  at  the  large  violin 
manufactories  at  Mitten wald  in  Saxony  and 
MiRBCOURT  the  imitation  is  mechanical  in 
the  extreme.     See  the  article  Violin- ma  kino. 

Savart,  M4moire  aur  la  Construction  des  In- 
strumenis  a  Cordes  et  a  Archet ;  Gallay,  Les 
Lvihiers  ItaZiens ;  Vidal,  Le$  Instruvunts  d 
Archet ;  Yussopofl*,  LtUhonumographie ;  Mordret, 
Luth^rieArtistique ;  Maugin  et  Maigne,  Nauveau 
Manuel  complet  du  LtUhier  ;  P.  Davidson,  The 
Violin;  Hart,  The  Violin;  Hill,  Antonio  Stradi- 
vari; Heron -Allen,  Violin  -  making  ;  Violin 
Monthly  Magazine^  No.  5  (edited  by  J.  M. 
Fleming) ;  Gallay,  Les  Aiidtres  du  Violon ; 
Gerber,  Musical  Lexikon ;  von  Lutgendorff, 
Die  Geigen  und  ZautenTnacher  ;  Bachmann,  Le 
Violon.  K.  H-A. 

SOUND-POST  (Ft.  dme  ;  Ital.  anima ;  Ger. 
Siimmstock).  A  small  pillar  of  pine  wood  which 
stands  vertically  within  the  body  of  the  violin 
and  the  other  instruments  of  that  family. 
Originally  it  was  a  mere  structural  precaution, 
brought  about  by  the  introduction  of  the  higher 
pitch,  and  consequent  greater  pressure  upon  the 
belly  of  the  instrument ;  but  it  is  in  reality  the 
centre  round  which  the  vibrations  of  the  body 
of  the  instrument  focus,  and  from  which  they 
proceed.  This  important  tone-producing  factor 
is  made  either  of  fine-grained  Swiss  pine  or 
spruce  wood,  and  it  is  placed  so  that  the  fibres 
of  its  wood  run  at  right  angles  to  those  of  the 
belly.  Closely  fitting  against  the  arching  of  the 
back  and  belly  of  the  instrument,  it  retains  its 
position  under,  and  slightly  behind,  the  right 
foot  of  the  bridge,  and  is  kept  in  position  solely 
by  the  pressure  of  the  strings  upon  the  belly. 
Its  length  depends  upon  the  deptii  between  the 
back  and  belly  of  the  instrument  for  which  it 
is  intended,  and  its  diameter  is  subject  to  slight 
alteration,  according  to  the  modelling.  If  the 
sound-post  is  too  slight,  the  tone  of  the  instru- 
ment in  which  it  is  placed  will  be  relatively 
thin,  and  the  opposite  eflect  is  produced  where 
it  is  too  thick.  The  correct  position  to  be  assigned 
to  the  sound-post  is  an  important  matter,  as 
the  smallest  variation  of  position  materially 
alters  the  tone.  The  extreme  range  over  which 
it  may  be  moved  is  comprised  within  an  area 


rule,  when  the  vibrations  of  the  back  of  an 
instrument  are  sluggish  and  require  to  be 
accelerated  before  the  highest  quality  of  tone 
of  which  it  is  capable  can  be  produced,  the 
sound-post  should  be  brought  nearer  the  bridge  ; 
in  a  contrary  condition  of  things  it  should  be 
moved  fartheraway ;  and  high-built  instruments 
require  the  sound-x)ost  nearer  the  bridge  than 
do  those  of  flatter  model. 

The  interesting  series  of  experiments  made 
In  connection  with  tlie  sound-post  by  Mons. 
Savart,  and  later  by  Sir  William  Huggins,  have 
proved  the  following  axioms : — 

( 1 )  That  the  sound  -post  conveys  the  combined 
vibrations  of  the  belly  and  sides  to  the  back 
of  the  instrument,  controlling  the  action  of 
these  parts,  and  bringing  them  into  unison  and 
equilibrium  with  the  contained  mass  of  air  in 
the  body  of  the  instrument. 

(2)  That  the  material  of  which  the  sound- 
post  is  made  influences  the  tone  of  the  in- 
strument, as  was  evidenced  by  Sir  W.  Huggins's 
introduction  of  lead,  and  of  sealing-wax,  into 
the  centre  of  the  post,  whereby  the  volume  of 
tone  was  diminished  greatly.  A  sheet  of 
india-rubber  firmly  wedged  in  at  the  upper  and 
lower  end  of  the  sound-post,  when  in  position, 
influenced  the  tone  in  a  still  more  disastrous 
manner. 

(3)  That  the  sound-post  placed  directly  under 
the  right  foot  of  the  bridge  diminished  the 
intensity  of  tone,  rendering  it  as  meagre  in 
quality  as  it  is  when  the  sound- post  is  dispensed 
with  ;  placed  under  the  left  foot  of  the  bridge, 
on  the  same  side  as  the  bass -bar,  similarly 
unsatisfactory  results  were  produced. 

The  object  of  the  sound-post,  therefore,  is  not 
so  much  to  convey  the  vibrations  of  any  of  the 
sections  of  the  violin  one  to  another,  as  to 
render  the  vibrations  regular  and  consonant, 
and  experiment  has  proved  that  these  results 
are  best  obtained  by  placing  the  sound-post 
slightly  behind  the  right  foot  of  the  bridge. 
This  conclusion  has  been  borne  out  by  the  fact 
that  trial  has  shown  the  fallacy  and  inefficaoy 
of  all  innovations  such  (to  name  but  a  few)  as 
M.  Petizeau's  hollow  glass  sound-post  (brought 
before  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Paris  a  few 
years  ago) ;  Haussel's  broad,  flat,  thin  sound- 
post  (described  in  the  Allgemeine  Afusikalischa 
Zeitungy  1881  (p.  75);  and  Mr.  P.  Davidson's 
sound-post  with  drilled  holes,  together  with 
such  patents  as  David  Herring's  sound -post 
made  elastic,  so  as  to  double  the  amplitude  of 
the  vibrations  (No.  18,028)  ;  Simoutre's  round- 
legged  or  oval  sound -post  (No.  11,936),  and 
others  to  be  found  in  the  AMdgements  of  Specifi- 
eationsrelabingto  Afiisic  and  MttsicallnstrumetUs, 
published  by  the  Commissioners  of  Patents. 

Huggins,  Sir  W.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  On  the 
Function  of  the  Sound-post  (1883)  ;  Savart, 
Felix,  Mimoire  3ur  la  Construction  des  Instru- 


'  Celebrated  Italian  Viohn -makers ;  Gallay,  J., 
Les  LtUhiers  Italiens ;  Maugin,  J.  C,  Manuel 
de  Luihier ;  Davidson,  P.,  The  Violin;  Heron- 
Allen,  Violin-maM7ig,  E.  h-a. 

SOUPIB  (a  sigh).  The  French  name  for  a 
crotchet  rest.  A  quaver  rest  is  called  un  demi- 
sotipir  ;  a  semiquaver  ditto,  un  quart  de  soupir, 
and  so  on.  G. 

SOURDINE.  An  obsolete  instrument  of 
wood,  with  a  small  cylindrical  bore,  played  with 
a  double  reed.  The  larger  instruments  of  this 
family  had  two  parallel  tubes  arranged  much  in 
the  same  way  as  those  of  the  bassoon,  and  were 
furnished  with  several  keys,  as  well  as  six  finger- 
holes.  [For  Sourdine  in  the  sense  of  Mute  see 
Sordino.]  d.  j.  b. 

SOUSA,  John  Philip,  popular  bandmaster 
and  composer,  especially  of  marches,  was  bom 
in  Washington,  D.O.  (U.S.),  on  Nov.  6,  1856. 
In  1877  he  was  a  violinist  in  the  orchestra 
which  Offenbach  led  on  his  visit  to  the  U.S., 
and  soon  after  became  conductor  of  traveUing 
troupes.  In  1880  he  enlisted  in  the  service  of 
the  U.S.,  and  was  appointed  leader  of  the  band 
of  the  United  States  Marine  Corps,  developing 
great  proficiency  among  the  musicians  and  lay- 
ing the  foundations  for  the  eminence  which  he 
achieved  throughout  America  and  in  European 
lands  with  his  own  oi^nisation  later.  He  re- 
signed from  the  service  and  organised  his  band  in 
1892.  Facilities  which  his  oflicial  post  brought 
him  enabled  him  to  compile  a  nsefnl  collection 
of  musical  pieces  entitled  *  National,  Patriotic 
and  Typical  Airs  of  All  Countries,'  which  he 
dedicated  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy*  He  i» 
the  composer  also  of  a  number  of  comic  operettas, 
some  of  which  had  considerable  vogue,  though 
hia  reputation  rests  on  his  marches,     h.  e.  k. 

SPACE.  The  stave  is  made  up  of  five  lines 
and  four  spaces.  The  spaces  in  the  treble  stave, 
counting  upwards,  make  the  word  facb,  which  » 
useful  as  a  mcTnoria  teehnica  for  beginners,    o. 

SPAGNOLETTI,  P.  This  violinist,  who 
held  the  post  of  leader  of  the  King's  Theatre 
orchestra  for  nearly  thirty  years,  was  born  at 
Cremona  in  1708  (not,  as  the  QueHen-Lexikon 
says,  in  1761),  and  died  in  London  on  Sept.  28, 
1884.  No  complete  biographical  notice  ol 
Spagnoletti  has  apparently  appeared  hitherto, 
but  according  to  some  MS.  notes  sent  by  the 
late  Mr.  George  Bently— who  was  acquamtwi 
with  some  of  Spagnoletti's  relatives— to  ^'  ^ ' 
Lamb  Phipson  in  1877,  this  artist's  real  name 
was  Paolo  Diana.  At  the  age  of  twelve  he  was 
introduced  to  the  Director  of  the  Naples  Con^ 
servatorio  as  a  very  promising  pupil,  ^^®^?J?^ 
the  director  placed  an  elaborate  compositiou 
before  the  young  aspirant,  who,  it  ^^.v^ 
astonished  his  auditors  by  glancing  at  i 
printed  sheet  for  a  few  moments,  and  tJ»«^P  ^ 
ing  the  piece  through  with  the  music  tun^eu 
upside  down  before  him.     About  1802  he  ^ 


SPAGNOLETTI 


SPARK 


629 


rouglit  to  London  by  the  celebrated  tenor 
agnoni,  who  heard  him  play  at  Milan,  and 
lortly  after,  lie  was  engaged  as  second  violin 
L  the  King's  Theatre  orchestra.  In  1812  he 
as  leading  the  orchestra  at  the  Pantheon,  where 
Dalian  O^iera  was  being  played,  under  the 
atronage  of  many  of  the  nobility  who  had  be- 
)me  disgusted  with  the  management  of  the 
ing's  Theatre.  The  following  year  with  the 
itablishment  of  the  Philharmonic,  Spagnoletti 
ecame  one  of  the  first  thirty-eight  Associates 
r  that  Society,  and  led  a  Septuor  with  Vaccari, 
rind  ley,  Hill,  Petuder,  Cramer,  and  Holmes, 
t  one  of  the  first  of  the  season's  concerts  on 
.pril  19,  1818.  In  1817  he  was  leader  of  the 
[ing's  Theatre  orchestra,  and  his  services  were 
squisitioned  by  nearly  every  important  orches- 
ral  society  in  London.  At  the  Lenten  Oratorios 
t  the  King's  Theatre,  at  the  Ancient  Concerts, 
t  the  Philharmonic,  at  the  Royal  Academy  of 
lusic  concerts  in  the  Hanover  Square  Rooms, 
t  numberless  benefit  concerts  during  the  season, 
pagnoletti  invariably  led  the  orchestra,  besides 
•hich  he  frequently  led  Quartets  at  the  Phil- 
armonic,  and  gave  a  benefit  concert  in  the 
Ligyll  Rooms  each  year.  Frequent  notices  of 
is  performances,  *  which  were  characterised  by 
n  excellent  and  spirited  attack,'  appear  in 
be  Hdmumieon  between  the  years  1828  and 
S3 3.  When  Paganini  came  to  London  in 
831,  the  management  proposed  to  engage 
nother  leader  for  his  concerts ;  bat  when  the 
renoese  virtuoso  heard  of  this,  he  Immediately 
emanded  that  Spagnoletti  should  be  engaged 
jr  all  his  performances,  accompanying  his 
equest  with  a  well-merited  compliment  on  his 
bilities.  This  occasioned  some  unpleasant 
eeling between  the  leader  and  Laporte,  especially 
vhen  the  latter  underpaid  Spagnoletti  for  his 
ervices  at  thirteen  Paganini  concerts.  A  law- 
nit  ensued,  and  a  letter  from  Spagnoletti  on 
lie  subject  appeared  in  the  Hamumicon  of  that 
rear.  Spagnoletti  was  of  a  modest,  retiring 
lisposition,  and  so  ardently  devoted  to  his  art 
;liat  he  invariably  put  it  before  all  private 
uterests,  the  result  of  which  was  his  acknow- 
edged  pre-eminence  as  an  orchestral  leader  rather 
:han  as  a  virtuoso.  One  of  his  last  appearances — 
f  not  his  last — was  at  Mr.  Alsager's  *  Queen's 
Square  Select  Society '  on  March  28,  1834,  some 
nonths  before  his  death,  when  he  led  the  first 
.lerfoi-mance  of  Cherubini's  *  Requiem  *  in  Eng- 
and.  For  several  years  he  had  been  in  a  delicate 
jtate  of  health,  owing  to  two  severe  strokes  of 
paralysis,  and  it  was  a  third  seizure  which 
leprived  him  of  speech  and  the  use  of  one  side 
Df  his  body,  and  to  which  he  eventually 
juccumbed.  He  was  buried  beside  Madame 
Spagnoletti  in  Brompton  Cemetery,  but  all 
trace  of  the  grave -stone  which  marked  the 
place  where  he  rested  has  disappeared.  Spagno- 
letti's  favourite  violin  was  a  Joseph  Guamerius 
of  excellent  tone  but  poor  preservation.      It 


eventually  became  the  property  of  the  late  Sir 
Howard  Elphinstone,  V.C.,  at  one  time  comp- 
troller to  the  household  of  H.R.H.  the  Duke 
of  Edinburgh.  An  engraving  of  Spagnoletti  and 
Lindley  was  published  by  Sharp,  after  a  picture 
by  Mrs.  Wigley  of  Shrewsbury,  in  1836.  He 
composed  various  rather  unimportant  violin 
pieces  and  some  songs. — Vaxke,  Musical  Memoirs ; 
Mason  Clarke,  Biog,  Did,  Fiddlers^  Musical 
Worldy  vol.  ii.  ;  James  T.  Brown,  Biog.  Diet, 
Mu3.,  Quellen-Lexikony  The  Marmonicon  (from 
1828  to  1841),  Musical  World  (1886)  ;  W. 
Gardiner,  Music  and  FriendSf  Musical  Eecollec- 
turns  ofOie  last  Half  Century ,  chap.  iv.  vol.  i. ;  T. 
Lamb  Phipson,  Celehraled  Violinists,  The  Times, 
and  Morning  Post,  Sept.  26,  1834.      E.  h-a. 

SPARK,  William,  Mus.D.,  son  of  a  lay- vicar 
of  Exeter  Cathedral,  was  bom  at  Exeter,  Oct.  28, 
1828.  He  became  a  chorister  there,  and  in 
1840  was  articled  for  five  years  to  Dr.  S.  Sebas- 
tian Wesley.  On  Wesley's  leaving  Exeter  for  the 
Parish  Churcli,  Leeds,  his  pupil  went  with  him, 
and  soon  became  deputy-organist  of  the  parish 
church,  and  organist  of  the  churches  of  Chapel- 
town  and  St.  Paul's  successively.  He  was 
next  chosen  organist  to  Tiverton,  Devon,  and 
Daventry,  Northampton  ;  and  on  Wesley's  re- 
moval to  Winchester,  in  1860,  was  appointed  to 
St.  George's  Chiurch,  Leeds.  His  activity  in 
Leeds,  outside  his  own  parish,  was  remarkable. 
Within  a  year  of  his  appointment  he  founded 
the  Leeds  Madrigal  and  Alotet  Society,  and  the 
People's  Concerts,  held  in  the  Town  Hall,  just 
then  built  [Municipal  business  had  long  re- 
quired a  new  Town  Hall,  the  central  portion  of 
which  has  ever  since  served  the  city  for  its  chief 
concert-room.]  The  organ  was  built  by  Gray  k 
Davison,  from  the  designs  of  Henry  Smart  and 
Spark.  The  hall  was  opened  April  1, 1859,  and 
after  a  severe  competition  Spark  was  elected  the 
Borough  organist,  a  post  he  held  until  his  death, 
which  took  place  in  Leeds  on  June  16,  1897. 
He  took  his  degree  as  Doctor  of  Music  at  Dublin 
in  1861.  In  1869  he  started  the  'Organists' 
Quarterly  Journal '  (Novello).  It  was  followed 
by  the  Practical  Choir-master  (Metzler),  and  in 
1881  by  a  biography  of  Heniy  Smart  (Reeves, 
8vo).  [Musical  Memoirs  (1888),  and  Musical 
Jieminiscences  (1892),  contain  an  amusing 
picture  of  his  time,  and  he  did  good  work 
in  many  Yorkshire  towns  as  a  lecturer  on 
music]  He  also  published  three  cantatas, 
various  anthems,  services,  glees,  and  other 
compositions. 

[His  brother,  Frederick  Robert  Spark,  bom 
Feb.  26,  1881,  became  editor  and  publisher  of 
the  Leeds  Express  in  the  fifties.  He  was 
ofiicially  connected  with  the  Leeds  Festival 
from  its  commencement  in  1858,  being  honorary 
secretary  from  1877.  A fter  the  festival  of  1 9 0  7 
he  retired  from  active  service,  and  was  presented 
with  a  portrait  of  himself  jiainted  by  Sir 
George  Reid.     He  is  joint  author,  with  Joseph 


SPEAKER- KEYS.  On  wind  instnunents 
of  the  reed  femily,  certain  keys  are  fitted  to 
facilitate  the  prodaction  of  hannonics.  These 
are  known  as  '  speaker-keys.'  Two  are  nsnally 
supplied  on  the  oboe,  and  one  on  the  clarinet, 
giring  octaves  on  the  one  instrnnient  and 
twelfths  on  the  other.  These  keys  open  small 
holes  by  which  the  continuity  of  the  air-colnmn 
is  broken,  and  the  setting  np  of  a  'loop,'  or 
point  of  least  variation  of  pressure,  is  made 
easy.  The  theory  of  the  action  of  speaker-keys 
is  of  much  interest  in  acoustics,  but  would  re- 
quire more  space  for  exposition  than  can  be 
allowed  in  this  work.  d.  j.  b. 

SPEAKING- LENGTH.  The  pitch  of  the 
ordinary  open  flue-pipe  on  the  organ  is  chiefly 
determined  or  controlled  by  the  length  of  the 
portion  above  the  mouth  of  the  pipe,  which  is 
called  the  *  speaking-length.'  Instances,  how- 
ever, occur  in  which  the  speaking-length  differs 
from  the  true  open  flue  length.  See  Stopped 
Pipe,  Harmonic  Stops,  and  Diapasons,    t.  e. 

SPECIFICATION.  The  working  specifica- 
tion of  an  organ  consists  of  a  detailed  description 
of  the  stops,  materials,  pipes,  action  movements, 
etc.,  and  the  method  of  procedure  requiring  to 
be  followed  in  building  the  instrument  It  is 
usual  to  submit  the  specifications  of  an  organ- 
builder  to  an  organist  or  musical  expert  for 
bis  approval.  t.  e. 

SPECIMENS,  Dr,  Crotch's.  An  interesting 
collection  of  musical  examples  having  for  its 
title :  Specimens  of  various  styles  of  music  referred 
to  in  a  course  of  lectures  read  at  Oxford  and 
London  and  adapted  to  keyed  instruments  by 
William  Cfrotch,  8  vols,  folio,  London,  Robt. 
Birchall  for  the  author.  The  lectures  themselves 
were  published  separately  in  octavo,  and  were 
delivered  in  1800-4  and  1820.  The  first 
volume  of  this  music  was  issued  by  subscription 
shortly  before  1807.  The  second  is  dated  in 
the  preface  1808,  and  the  third  came  out  a 
little  later.  The  first  volume  is  proljably  of 
the  greatest  general  interest.  It  consists  of 
854  melodies  of  different  nations,  some  published 
for  the  first  time,  and  others  gathered  together 
from  scattered  sources.  There  are  a  number 
of  Scandinavian,  Russian,  Chinese,  East  Indian, 
Native  American  airs,  and  the  like.  The  Old 
English,  Welsh,  Scotch,  and  Irish  tunes  are 
mainly  from  early  printed  copies.  The  con- 
tents of  the  other  volumes  are  given  below  ; 
they  are  what  Crotch  states  to  be  'Scientific 
music,  by  which  is  to  be  understood  such  as 
was  comjwsed  with  a  view  to  harmony.*  They 
are  taken  from  MSS.  and  scarce  printed  works, 
and  comprise  much  early  Church  music.  In 
the  work  Dr.  Crotch  was  greatly  assisted  by  a 
Mr.  Malchair,  a  clever  musician  and  equally 
gifted  water-colour  artist,  who  then  resided  at 
Oxford.     Dr.  Crotch  was  at  that  time  Professor 


interesting  MS.  volume  of  airs  noted  by  Mal- 
chair. It  was  originally  one  of  a  series,  and 
shows  how  deeply  Crotch  was  indebted  to  Mal- 
chair for  his  'Specimens.'  Malchair  seems  to 
have  been  very  learned  in  national  music. 

The  prefaces  to  the  volumes,  besides  pointing 
out  from  where  the  specimens  were  obtained, 
are  otherwise  of  interest. 


VOLUm  L 


Sjmphony  to  Sonunl  D«L    Han- 


mphon: 
deL 


Put  of    Orerton    to    Ifl«teic. 

GlQck. 
Mom*  and  theChOdrm  of  IrmL 

Haadd. 
Hov  excellent  (openlof ).    Da 
Wbo  ia  Uko  onto  Thee.    Do. 
He  rebaked.  and  He  led  them. 

Do. 
Mcnoet  In  BcrenicB.    Do. 
Sonata  for  harpaichord  (D).     D. 

Scariatti. 
Sanctua.    O.  Gibbona. 
Allegretto,       F       (Sympbooy). 

Haydn. 
Jewiah  Made.  5  ezamplea. 
Iriih  Moaic,  60  exanplea. 
8cotch  Moaie.  76  examplea. 
WeUb  Moaic.  43ezajnplei. 
Old  Eiigliah  Mnaic.  37  eiamplm. 
French  National  Music,  90  ex- 


Italian  National  Moaic.  1  ex- 
ample. 

Svla  National  Mnaic.  S  ex- 
amplea. 

Gcnnaa  Natiowd  Mode,  8  ex- 
amplea. 

Spanish  Natkmal  Mnaic.  19  ex- 
amples. 

PoUah  National  Mnaic.  4  ex- 
amplea. 

ScandinaTUn  National  Mvic,  S 

Norvcfian  National  Mnaic.  a 
examplea. 

Daniah  National  Moaic  1  ex- 
ample. 

Rosaian  Moaic.  16  fxamplfa 

Turiciah  MoRic.  10  examplea. 

Chinese  Mnsie.  6  examples. 

East  Indian  Tnnea.  S2  examplesi 

Mnsie  of  Nortli  America,  6  ex- 


VAmiocs  Sttlbl 
Ambrosian  Chant.  a.o.  984. 
Plain  Chant.    Guldo  (1022). 
Other  Harmonies.    Do. 
Uannony.    Franco. 
Chant.    Joeqnin  dee  Pr^ 
I>t  Psalm  O.  V.    Martin  LntJiCT. 
.tSih  Psalm  O.  V. 
Slut  Psalm  O.  V. 

)  1 1th  Pasim  O.  V.    French  Tone. 
I  will  exalt  Thee.    Tye. 
Lord,  for  Thy  tender  merdes'saka. 

Farrant. 
Gloria  Patri.    Do. 
Depoenit  Potentea.    Paleetrina. 
We  have  heard  with  onr  ears. 

Do. 
Gloria  Pktri.    Tsllls. 
'DisRial'amatamia.'  Marenxio. 
Bow  thine  ear.    WUIiam  Byrd. 
Non  nobis  Domine.    Do. 
Double  Chant.    Morley. 
Symphony,  8  flutes.    Peri. 
Fate  Festa  al  Bifnore.     E.  del 

Cavalieri. 
Hoesnna.    O.  Gibbona 
Almighty  and  eTerlaiting.    Da 
God  is  gone  up.    Do. 
Gloria  Patri.    Do. 
The  Silver  Swan.    Do. 
Awake,  Sweet  Lore.    Dowland. 
B'  in  ch'  havro  Bplrio.   CariaslTnl. 
Movement  from  Amanteehe  dite. 

Carisslnil. 
Hodie  Simon  Petms.    Do. 
Kt  ulolsntes— Jephtha.    Do. 
Ahiit  ergo  in  moiites.    Do. 
Plorate  fliin  Israel.    Do. 
Deum  de  Deo.    Do. 
Part  of  a  Cantata,  Fortunati  miei 

martlre.    A.  Boirlatti. 
Aria,  Perohe  geme  O  tortorella. 

Do. 
Do.   Vogllo  amar.    Do. 
I  Hi.  NondapiupeiiiOcara.  Do. 
Do.  Che  pin  braml.     Do. 
Do.   II  seno  de  mia  vita.    Da 
Cantata.  Son  ferlto.    Do. 
Aria,  Stnda  pens  re.    Da 
Do.   II  dentin.    Do. 
Do.   Illustreil  sangiiemlo.    Do. 
Do.  Con  r  arte  del  mio  cor.     Do. 
Do.   Miel  fldi  a  vendetta.     Do. 
Do.   L'innoccntediffcndete.  Do. 
Duet,  Non  son  piu.    Do. 
Aria.  Due bcllisaimepupille.  Do. 
Do.   IlmioBgllo.    Do. 
Part  of  Cnntata.  Che  mesta  horti 

•oepiro.    Do. 
Mutet,  Domine  quinque  talenta. 

L.  Rossi. 
Anthem.    Teach    me,    O    Lord. 

Rogers. 


Single  Chant.    T.  Pureell. 

Aria,  Opri  U  fata    Anon. 
Do.  Nononamera    Da 
Da   Doe  vaghe  popiUe.     Da 
Da  Del  tuo  cor  temprL    Da 
Da  Sctncredi.    Da 
Do.  Tsnto  basti  per  fsr.     Do. 
Do.  Bella  booeadicinabro.    Da 
Da  FogUolieve.    Do. 
Da    Tu  foggiaU  O  caro.     Do. 
Da  Crine  Tessoae.    Do. 
Da  Dolce  Amor  mi  dice  spent. 

Da 
Da   Losingami  spctania.    Da 
Da  Begl'    oochi    perdonatemL 

Da 
Da  Col  treddo  sno  velen.    Da 
Do.  Be  il  mIo  labbra.     Da 
Do.  Giacheamor.    Da 
Do.  Se  verssati  da   tool   lomL 

Da 
Do.  Fantaami  orribllL    Do. 

Cantata,  Tsci  O  cnida.    Do. 

Aria,  Begl'  oochi  d' amore.    Da 
Da  Migrarit  Jnda.    Da 
Da  Gloria  PMrl.    Dr.  Child. 
Da  Dormi    dormi     ben     mia 
Ceftl. 

PkJl  ofrantate,DiteaIei.    Stra- 

Cs  riTJita,  &ijf\(me,  sei  To.    Do. 

Cs  n  wjtpt,  Cli  I  *l!ra.    Da 

AriA.    VM*>   ben    spessa     Balr. 

tinea, 
GU^rlM  n^trl.    mow. 
A  r<  rJi  em,  1  « J II  arise.   Crey^ton. 
Ddi't,     DuruilBo    I'aore   cstive. 

Duranbe. 
7th  Concerto.    A.  Corelll. 
Part  of  9nd  Sonata,  op.  1.    Da 
Fugue  from  the  4th  Sonata,  op.  3. 

Da 
Part  of  the  7th  Sola    Do. 
Part  of  the  11th  Solo.    Da 
Anthem.  Out  of  the  deep.     Al- 

drich. 
Do.  O  God.  Thou  hast  cast  us 

out.    H.  Pureell. 
Gloria  Patri  (4  settings). 
Part  of  Ist  Sonata.    1st  set.    Do 
From  6th  Sonata,    let  set.    Da 
Fiom  9th  Sonata.    2nd  set.     Do. 
In  guilty  night.    Da 
Overture  to  King  Arthur.    Do. 
Charon  ne,  before  the  Play.    Da 
Brave  souls  to  be  renowned.    Da 
Gloria  Patri.    Dr.  Croft. 
Qui  diliglt  Mariam.    StefRusi. 
Dixit  Dominus.     Leo. 
Part  of  a  Mass.    Pemoleri. 
Euridioe.  dove  sei  (Orfeo).    Da 
Gloria  in  Excelais.    Da 
4th  Psalm.    Msroella 


SPEYER 


SPINET 


631 


.b  PBalm.     Mareollo. 
rorn  l>er  Tod  Jwu.    Onrnn. 
e  glorioaus  (Te  Deaxn).    Do. 
vertur«  to  I  Pellegrini.    Haaee. 
«  Porto  noi  dlaem.    Do.    Do. 
ollegrlno  d  1'  uomo.    Do.    Do. 
vertura  to  Futor  Fldo.  HandeL 


Ari»,Souoonfam(Poro).  HwideL 
He  ia  my  Ood  (Inmal  In  Effypt). 

Do. 
ChotufltThelUtenlngorowd.  Do. 
Do.  M«y  no  n«h  intnider.    Do. 
Double  Choros,  He  gave  them 

hallstonee.    Do. 


VOLUME  III. 


OTertore.  Toimn  D'Or.    Vogel. 
Fart  of  SonaU  8.    VanbAll. 
Pwta(BonaU8.op.9.   Sehobert. 
Mintwtand  trio.  Sonata  1.  opi  6. 

Do. 
Part  erf  Quintet  8.  op.  18.    Boo- 

eherini. 
SonaU  S,  op.  SS.    Koaeluch. 
Pari;   of    Quartet    1.     8th   let. 

Pleyel. 

Do.  6,  op.  &    Do. 

Partof  Sonata  1,  op.  12.   Knunp- 

holt*. 
Do.  3,  op.  11.    HullmandeL 
Do.  8.  op.  4.    Clementi. 
Adagio  from  op.  11.    Do. 
Fart  of  Sonata  4»  op.  12:    Do. 
Recordare  from  Bequiem.     Mo- 

BUt. 

Benedlciui  from  Do.    Do. 
Overture.  Le  Noon  di  Figaro.  Do. 
Part  of  Quartet  8,  op.  76.    Haydn. 
Slnfonta,  in  th.    Do.     p    ^ 


"ngue  (in  B).    Bach. 

ro.  2  of  the  18  euloe  for  the  Violin. 

Tartini. 
klr,  Pnpillette  Tefsoeette,  from 

OrmlHda.     Vind. 
Wlr.  Iiifelioe  abbandonata.    Do. 
Concerto  6,  op.  8.    Oeminiaoi. 
:k>noerto  2.     Riedotti. 
^»rt  of  Sonata  10.    Paradlei. 
lequiein.    Jommelli. 
::horu8,  Santa  Speme  (Paarione). 

Do. 
lonata  3.     Criapi. 
Part  of  Sonata  4.    Dou 
fantasia.     C.  P.  K  Bach. 
Concerto  for  a  full  Band.    J.  0. 

Bach. 
Overture  to  Iphigtole  en  Anllde. 

Oluck. 
:7horuB.  Que  d'attraita. 
Overture,      Pierre     le     Orand. 

G retry. 
Do.    Don    Quiohotte.     Cham- 

piguy. 

SPEYER,  WiLHELM,  composer,  was  bom 
June  21,  1790,  at  Frankfort- on -the -Main, 
where  he  died  April  5,  1878.  He  received  his 
musical  education  at  Offenbach  under  Thieriot 
(the  friend  of  Weber)  and  Andr^.  He  was 
already  a  prominent  violinist  when  he  went  to 
Paris  in  1812,  to  become  a  pupil  of  Baillot,  from 
whose  instruction  and  from  the  acquaintance  of 
such  men  as  Cherubini,  Boieldieu,  M^hul,  etc., 
he  derived  much  benefit.  Returning  to  Germany 
afterwards,  he  settled  down  at  Frankfort  and 
exchanged  the  musical  profession  for  that  of  a 
merchant,  but  continued  to  compose — at  first 
chiefly  chamber  music.  He  published  string 
quartets  and  quintets,  and  also  violin  duets, 
which  last  became  widely  popular.  He  after- 
wards devoted  himself  chiefly  to  vocal  music, 
and  it  is  as  a  writer  of  songs  that  his  name  is 
best  known.  Amongst  his  lieder — of  which 
he  published  several  hundred — many,  such  as 
*The  Trumpeter,'  'Rheinsehnsucht,'  *  Die  drei 
Liebchen,'  etc.,  acquired  great  popularity.  He 
also  wrote  vocal  quartets  and  some  choral 
works.  o, 

SPIANATO  (Ital.),  level,  even.  A  word 
used  by  Chopin  in  the  Andante  which  precedes 
the  Polonaise  in  Eb,  op.  22,  to  denote  a  smooth 
and  equal  style  of  performance,  with  but  little 
variety.  F.  T. 

SPICCATO  (Ital.),  accurately  *  separate,' 
*  distinct.'  A  term  applied  in  violin-playing 
to  a  particular  vibratory  style  of  bowing. 
'  Spiccato  '  and  *  Saltato  '  are  both  explained 
under  the  head  of  Springing  Bow.  o. 

SPIES,  Hermine,  was  bom  Feb.  25, 1857,  at 
the  Lbhnberger  foundry,  near  Weilburg,  Nassau, 
daughter  of  the  resident  manager.  She  was 
taught  singing  by  Frau  Fichtenberg  at  the 
Conservatorium  of  Wiesbaden,  by  Sieber  at 
Berlin,  and  by  Stockhausen  at  Frankfort.  In 
July  1880,  while  still  a  student,  she  sang  at 
the  Mannheim  Festival,  and  in  1882  she  made 
her  d^but  at  a  concert  at  Wiesbaden  ;  in  1883 


she  sang  in  concerts  at  Leipzig,  Berlin,  etc, 
speedily  establishing  her  reputation  as  an  excel- 
lent mezzo-soprano  or  contralto  singer.  She 
also  sang  in  Austria,  Hungary,  Holland,  Den- 
mark, and  Russia.  On  June  3,  1889,  she  made 
her  d^but  in  England  at  St.  James's  Hall  at  a 
Rlchter  Concert,  when  she  sang  *  Che  far6  '  and 
lieder  of  Schubert,  Schumann,  and  Brahms. 
She  attracted  immediate  attention  on  account 
of  her  fine  voice  and  her  excellent  phrasing, 
expression,  and  general  intelligence.  She  con- 
firmed her  success  at  her  two  recitals  in  a  selec- 
tion of  Schumann's  *  Dichterliebe,'  etc.,  also  at 
the  Philharmonic,  where  she  sang  in  English 
Handel's  *Retum,  O  God  of  hosts,'  etc.  In 
1892  she  married  Dr.  W.  A.  F.  Hardtmuth,  of 
Wiesbaden,  a  doctor  of  jurisprudence,  and  died 
there  Feb.  26,  of  the  folloi^'ing  year,  to  the  re- 
gret  of  all.  She  was  unrivalled  in  her  singing 
the  contralto  part  in  Brahms's  Rhapsody,  op. 
53,  and  in  the  lieder  of  the  same  composer.  Her 
reading  of  *  Vergebliches  Standchen '  in  particu- 
lar  was  a  perfect  work  of  art.  A  memoir  by 
her  sister,  Minna  Spies,  appeared  in  1894.   A.  c. 

SPINA,  Carl  Anton.  The  successor  of  the 
Diabellis  in  that  famous  publishing  house  at 
Vienna,  which  for  so  long  stood  in  the  Graben, 
No.  1133,  at  the  comer  of  the  Braunerstrasse. 
He  succeeded  them  in  1852,  and  was  himself 
succeeded  by  F.  Schreiber  in  July  1872.  During 
that  period  Spina's  activity  showed  itself  especi- 
ally in  the  publication  of  Schubert's  works,  a 
mass  of  whose  MSS.  he  acquired  from  Diabelli. 
Chief  among  these  were  the  Octet,  Quintet  in  C, 
Quartets  in  D  minor,  G,  and  Bb  ;  the  Overture 
in  the  Italian  style,  those  to  *  Alfonso  und  Est- 
rella, '  *  Fierrabras, '  *  Rosamunde, '  with  Entr'actes 
in  B  minor  and  Bb  ;  the  B  minor  Symphony, 
Sonata  for  PF.  and  Arpeggione,  etc,  all  in  score. 
Herr  Spina's  enthusiasm  for  Schubert  was  not 
that  of  a  mere  publisher,  as  the  writer  from  per- 
sonal experience  of  his  kindness  can  testify.  It 
was  he  who  allowed  the  Crystal  Palace  Company 
to  have  copies  of  several  of  the  orchestral  works 
for  playing,  long  before  there  was  sufficient  public 
demand  to  allow  of  their  being  published.       o. 

SPINDLER,  Fritz,  pianoforte  -  player  and 
composer  for  that  instroment,  born  Nov.  24, 
1817,  at  Wurzbach,  Lobenstein,  was  a  pupil  of 
F.  Schneider  of  Dessau,  and  was  for  many  years 
resident  in  Dresden.  His  published  works  are 
more  than  330  in  number,  the  greater  part 
brilliant  drawing-room  pieces,  but  amongst  them 
much  teaching -music,  and  some  works  of  a 
graver  character — trios,  sonatinas,  t>vo  sym- 
phonies, concerto  for  PF.  and  orchestra,  etc.  His 
most  favourite  pieces  are — *  Wellenspiel '  (op. 
6)  ;  *  Schneeglocklein  '  (op.  19);*  Silberquell ' 
(op.  74)  ;  *  Husarenritt ' ;  six  dance  themes ; 
Transcriptions  of 'Tannhauser'  and  *  Lohengrin.' 
He  died  at  Niederlbssnitz,  near  Dresden,  Dec. 
26,  1905.  G. 

SPINET    (Fr.    ^pinette,    Clavicarde ;     Ital. 


AJ//*r«COy       r    yi  %f  PlV^JIrtt Jm 


UkiJOUi  \A,tt*X>U,  V}       TV  A  l#Xl 


plectra  or  jacks,  used  in  the  16th,  17th|  and 
18  th  centories  ;  according  to  Bumey  {Rces'a 
Cycl.  1819,  Harpsichord)*  a  small  harpsichord 
or  virginal  with  one  string  to  each  note.*  The 
following  definitions  are  from  Florio's  New 
World  of  Words,  1611  :—' Spinetta,  a  kind  of 
little  spina  .  .  .  also  a  paire  of  Yirginalles ' ; 
'  SpiiieUegiare,  to  play  upon  Yirginalles ' ; 
'  SpiiveUo,  a  thicket  of  brambles  or  briars '  (see 
Rimbault's  History  of  the  Pianoforte,  1 860).  We 
first  meet  with  the  derivation  of  spinet  from 
spina,  'a  thorn/  in  Scaliger's  Poetices  (1484- 
1550 ;  lib.  i.  cap.  Ixiii.).  Referring  to  the  plectra 
or  jacks  of  keyed  instruments,  he  says  that,  in  his 
recollection,  points  of  crowquill  had  been  added 
to  them,  so  that  what  was  named,  when  he  was 
a  boy,  *clavicymbar  and  *harpichord*  (sic), 
was  now,  from  these  little  points,  named  *  spinet.' 
[See  Jack.]  He  does  not  say  what  substance 
crowquill  superseded,  but  we  know  that  the  old 
cithers  and  other  wire-strung  instruments  were 
twanged  with  ivory,  tortoiseshell,  or  hard  wood. 
(See  vol.  it  p.  328.)  Another  origin  for  the 
name  has  been  discovered,  to  which  we  believe 
that  Signer  Ponsioohi  {II  Pianoforte,  Florence, 
1876)  was  the  first  to  call  attention.  In  a  very 
rare  book,  Conelusioni  nel  suono  delV  organo,  di 
D,  Adriano  Banchieri,  Bolognese  (Bologna, 
1608),  is  this  fuissage  :~ 

Spinetta  riceve  tal  nome  dall'  Inventore  di  tal  forma 
longa  quadrata,  il  quale  til  un  maestro  Giovanni  Spinetti, 
Venetiano,  ed  uno  di  tali  atromenti  h6  veduto  io  alle 
man!  di  Franceaco  Btivori,  organiata  della  magnlttca 
comaniti  di  Montagnana,  dentrovi  queata  inaerizione : 

JOANXES  8PINBTUS  VBNETUS  P£CIT.     A.D.  1508. 

According  to  this,  the  spinet  received  its  name 
from  Spinetti,  a  Venetian,  the  inventor  of  the 
oblong  form,  and  Banchieri  had  himself  seen 
one  in  the  possession  of  Stivori,  bearing  the 
above  inscription.  M.  Becker  of  Geneva  (Bevue 
et  Gazette  musicale,  in  the  Mtisical  World,  June 
15,  1878)  regards  this  statement  as  totally 
invalidating  the  passage  from  Scaliger  ;  but 
not  necessarily  so,  since  the  year  1503  is  syn- 
chronous with  the  youth  of  Scaliger.  The 
invention  of  the  crowquill  points  is  not  claimed 
for  Spinetti,  but  the  form  of  the  case — the  oblong 
or  table  shape  of  the  square  piano  and  older 
clavichord,  to  which  Spinetti  adapted  tlie 
plectrum  instrument ;  it  having  previously  been 
in  a  trapeze-shawled  case,  like  tlie  psaltery,  from 
which,  by  the  addition  of  a  keyboard,  the  in- 
strument was  derived.  [See  Virginal  ;  and 
also  for  the  different  construction  and  origin  of 
the  oblong  clavichord.]  Putting  both  state- 
ments together,  we  find  the  oblong  form  of  the 
Italian  spinet,  and  the  crowqaill  plectra,  in 
simultaneous  use  about  the  year  1500.  Before 
that  date  no  record  has  been  found.  The  oldest 
German  writers,  Virdung  and  Arnold  Schlick, 
whose  essays  appeared  in  1511,  do  not  mention 
the  spinet,  but  Virdung  describes  and  gives  a 


V  C    WWiX   «. 


Btl    WICIU    bAiJAO 


it  was  an  instrument  with  plectra  in  an  oblong 
case.  Spinetti's  adaptation  of  the  case  Imd 
therefore  travelled  to  Germany,  and,  as  we  shall 
presently  see,  to  Flanders  and  Brabant,  very 
early  in  the  16th  century ;  whence  M.  Becker 
conjectures  that  1503  represents  a  late  date  for 
Spinetti,  and  that  we  should  put  his  Invention 
back  to  the  second  half  of  the  15th  century,  ou 
account  of  the  time  required  for  it  to  travel, 
and  be  accepted  as  a  normal  form  in  cities  so 
remote  from  Venice.  Considerable  liglit  has 
been  thrown  upon  the  hitherto  profoundly 
obscure  invention  of  the  keyboard  instrument 
subsequently  known  as  the  spinet,  by  that 
enidite  searcher  and  scholar,  M.  £dmond  Vander 
Straeten,  in  La  Musique  aux  Pays-Bos,  vol.  vii. 
(Les  musiciens  nSerlandais  en  £spagne,  1" 
I)artie),  Brussels,  1885.  He  quotes,  p.  246, 
from  a  testamentary  inventory  of  musical  instru- 
ments which  had  belonged  to  Queen  Isabella, 
at  the  Alcazar  of  Segovia,  dated  1503:  'Bos 
Glavicinbanos  viejos'  that  is  to  say,  two  old 
clavecins  (spinets).  One  of  her  chamberlains, 
Sancho  de  Paredes  (p.  248),  owned  in  1500  'Dos 
Clabiorganos ' — two  claviorgans  or  oiganised 
clavecins.  In  a  previous  inventory,  dated 
1480  (and  earlier),  the  same  chamberlain  appears 
to  have  possessed  a  manioorde  or  clavichord 
with  tangents.  But  M.  Vander  Straeten  is 
enabled  to  give  a  positive  date,  1387  (p.  40,  et 
seq,),  when  John  the  First,  King  of  Aragon, 
had  heard  and  desired  to  possess  an  instrument 
called  *exaquir,*  which  was  certainly  a  key- 
board stringed -instrument.  He  describes  it 
later  on  as  resembling  an  organ  but  sounding 
with  strings.  The  name  'exaquir'  may  be 
identified  with  *  I'eschuaqueil  d'Angleterre,' 
which  occurs  in  a  poem  entitled  *  La  Prise 
d'Alexandrie,'  written  by  Guillaume  de  Ma- 
chault  in  the  14th  century.  M.  Vander  Str^ 
ten  inquires  if  this  appellation  can  be  resolved 
by  *  ^chiquier '  (chequers)  from  the  black  and 
white  arrangement  of  the  keys  ?  The  name 
echiquier  occurs  in  the  romance  *  Chevalier  di 
cygne '  and  in  the  *  Chanson  sur  la  journ^  de 
Guinegate,'  a  15th-century  poem,  in  which  the 
poet  asks  to  be  sounded — 

Orgius,  harpea,  naquaires,  challemellea, 
Bona  echiquiera,  guiatemes,  doucemelles. 
The  inquirer  is  referred  to  the  continuance  of 
M.  Vander  Straeten 's  notes  on  this  interesting 
question,  in  the  work  above  mentioned.      It  w 
here  sufficient  to  be  enabled  to  prove  tliat  a 
kind  of  organ  sounding  with  strings  was  exist- 
ing in  1387-~and  that  clavecins  were  catalogu<?a 
in  1503,  that  could  be  regarded  as  old  ;  al«> 
that  these   dates  synchronise   with  Ambi-oss 
earliest  mention  of  the  clavicymbaluui,  u^ 
MS.  of  1404, 

M.    Vander    Straeten    {La.    Musiq^^     «'** 
Pays-Bos,  vol.  i.)  has  discovered  the  foIJowwig 


counts  ot  Margaret  of  Austria : — 

A  ung  organiste  de  la  Ville  dAnvers,  la  aomme  de 
livxes  auquel  madicte  dame  en  a  fait  don  en  fiiveur  de 
que  le  xv«  Jour  d'Octobre  xv.  xxii  [1522]  ila  amene  d( 
Jennes  enffana,  filz  et  flUe,  qu'Us  ont  Jouh6  but  t 
espinette  et  cbante  4  son  diner. 

A  I'organiste  de  Monsieur  de  Fiennes,  sept  livres  d< 
Madame  lui  a  &it  don  en  faveur  de  ce  que  le  second  j< 
de  Decembre  zt.xxtI  [1626]  il  est  venu  Jouherd'un  inst 
moiit  dit  espinette  devant  elle  4  son  diner. 

The  inyentory  of  the  Chateau  de  Pont  d'A: 
1531,  mentions  ^una  espinetta  cum  suo  etu 
a  spinet  with  its  case ;  meaning  a  case  fr( 
which  the  instrument  could  be  withdrawn, 
was  customaxy  at  that  time.  M.  Becker  trs 
scribes  also  a  contemporary  reference  from  t 
Munich  Library  : — 

Quartorze  Oaillardes,  neuf  Pavannes.  sept  Branslefi 
deux  Bassea-Dances,  le  tout  redulct  ae  muslque  en 
tablaturedu  ieu  (Jeu)  Doiguee,  Espinettes.  Manicordi< 
et  telz  semblables  Inatruments  niusicauz,  impiimte 
Paris  par  Pierre  Attaignant  MDXXIX. 

The  manichord  was  a  clavichord.  Olemc 
Marot  (Lyons,  1551)  dedicated  his  version 
the  Psalms  to  his  countrywomen : — 

Et  vos  dolgts  sur  les  Espinettes, 
Pour  dire  Siaintes  Chansonettes. 

With  this  written  testimony  we  have  fortunat< 
the  testimony  of  the  instruments  themselv* 
Italian  oblong  spinets  (Spinetta  a  Tavola), 
those  graceful  pentangular  instruments,  withe 
covers  attached,  which  are  so  much  prized  : 
their  esLtemal  beauty.  Miss  Marie  Decca  o\\ 
a  Rosso  spinet  dated  1550,  and  there  is  anotl 
by  the  same  maker  (signed  Annibalis  Med 
lanesis)  dated  1569,  recently  in  the  possessi 
of  Herr  H.  Kohl,  Hamburg,  who  obtained 
from  the  palace  of  the  San  Severino  fami! 
at  Crema,  in  Lombardy.  These  spinets  ( 
usually  made  entirely  of  one  wood,  the  sour 
board  as  well  as  the  case.  The  wood  appei 
to  be  a  kind  of  cedar,  from  its  odour  wh 
planed  or  cut,  at  least  in  some  instances  tl 
have  come  under  the  writer's  notice.  The  nc 
oldest  bearing  a  date  is  in  the  Conservatoire 
Paris,  by  Francesco  di  Portaluj^is,  Veroi 
1523.  The  next  by  Antoni  Patavini,  1550, 
at  Brussels.  In  the  Bologna  Exhibition,  18£ 
Historical  Section,  was  shown  a  spinet  beari 
the  inscription  '  Alessandro  Pasi  Modenese,'  a; 
a  date,  1490.  It  was  exhibited  by  Count  L.  Ma 
zoni.  It  is  a  true  Italian  spinet  in  a  bad  state 
repair.  The  date,  which  has  been  verified,  d( 
not  invalidate  the  evidence  adduced  from  Scali^ 
and  Banchieri  concerning  the  introduction 
the  spinet,  but  it  places  it  farther  back  a: 
before  Scaliger,  who  was  bom  in  1484,  ecu 
have  observed  it.  This  Bologna  Loan  CoUecti 
contained,  as  well  as  the  earliest  dated  spin* 
the  latest  dated  har]>8ichord  (1802,  Clemen 
known  to  the  writer.  We  have  at  S.  Kensin 
ton  two  by  Annibal  Rosso  of  Milan,  1555  a: 
1577,  and  one  by  Marcus  Jadra  (Marco  c 
Cembali ;  or  dalle  Spinette),  1568.    [A  spinet 


ment  there  are  specimens  m  nearly  all  mnseams  ; 
the  Italian  name  for  it  being  *  Ottavina '  (also 
*  Spinetta  di  Serenata ').  We  find  them  fixed  in 
the  bent  sides  of  the  long  harpsichords,  in  two 
remarkable  specimens ;  one  of  which,  by  Hans 
Backers,  1  is  preserved  in  the  Knnst-nnd-Gewerbe 
Moseam,  Berlin  (there  is  a  painting  of  a  similar 
doable  instmment  inside  the  lid) ;  the  other  is  in 
the  liaison  Plantin,  Antwerp,  and  was  made  as 
late  as  1734-35,  by  Joannes  Josephas  Coenen 
at  Raremonde  in  Holland.  In  rectangalar 
instruments  the  octave  one  was  removable,  as 
it  was  in  those  doable  instruments  mentioned 
under  Ruckerh  (p.  183),  so  that  it  could  be 
played  in  another  part  of  the  room. 

According  to  Mersenne,  who  treats  of  the 
spinet  as  the  principal  keyed  instrument  {Uar- 
monie,  1636,  liv.  3,  p.  1 01,  etc),  there  were  three 
sizes  :  one  of  2^  feet,  tuned  to  the  octave  of  the 
'ton  de  chapelle'  (which  was  about  a  tone 
higher  than  our  old  *  Philharmonic '  or  high 
concert  pitch)  ;  one  of  3^  feet,  tuned  to  a 
fifth  above  the  same  pitch  ;  and  the  large 
5-feet  ones,  tuned  in  unison  to  it.  We  shall 
refer  to  his  octave  spinet  in  another  paragraph. 

The  compass  of  the  OUavine  was  usually  from 
E  to  C,  three  octaves  and  a  sixth  (a)  ;  of  the 
larger  16th-century  Italian  spinetU,  four  octaves 
and  a  semitone,  from  £  to  F  (6).  The  French 
ipinettes  of  the  1 7th  century  were  usually  deeper, 
having  four  octaves  and  a  semitone  from  B 
to  C  (c). 


(«) 


(b) 


(0 


iipi*ii|iii^^ 

The  reason  for  this  semitonal  beginning  of  the 
keyboard  is  obscure  unless  the  lowest  keys  were 
used  for  '  short  octave '  measure,  an  idea  which 
suggested  itself  simultaneously  to  the  writer 
and  to  Professor  A.  Kraus,  whose  conviction  is 
very  strong  as  to  the  extended  practice  of  the 
short  octave  arrangement.  The  Flemish  picture 
of  St.  Cecilia,  in  Holyrood  Palace,  shows  unmis- 
takably a  short  octave  organ  keyboard  as  early 
OS  1484.2 

Fortunately,  we  are  not  left  to  such  sugges- 
tion for  the  spinet  short  octave.  Mersenne,  in 
a  passage  which  has  liitherto  escaped  notice 
(J{arnwnie,  liv.  3,  p.  107),  describing  his  own 
spinet,  which,  according  to  him,  was  one  of  the 

>  ^im  antr.  p.  I^S,  So.  5. 

s  Hat)prt.  or  Jan  \'nn  Erck'a  St.  Ceclli*,  In  the  (amoaa  'Myittic 
lAHib,'  tiiAT  be  ri'fpired  to  here  althoagh  appertaining  to  the  oqnLn 
and  not  the  apinrt,  as  a  r.ilnable  note  hj  the  way.    The  original 

CLintinii.  now  at  Rerlin,  wan  probably  paintaci  Iwfore  1426  and  oer- 
inly  before  141*2.  The  painter"*  minute  accuracy  U  unquestionable. 
It  containii  a  chromatic  keybnani  like  the  oldest  Italian,  with  box- 
wood nstiirali  and  black  sharps.  The  compass  begins  in  the  bsjM 
»^  the  half-tone  E.  Th^re  Is  no  Indication  of  a  '  short  octave.'  but 
there  is  one  key  by  Itself,  convenient  to  the  player's  left  hand: 
above  thl»  key  th<*re  is  a  latchet  acting  as  a  atch.  which  may  be 
Intended  to  hold  it  down  as  a  pedal.  D  is  the  probable  note,  and 
we  have  in  Van  Kyck's  organ.  It  seems  to  ns.  the  same  conipiss. 
but  an  octave  lower,  as  is  the  German  Positif  of  the  next  century 
at  South  Kenslnfton— vis.  D.  E.  then  three  chromatic  octaves  from 
F.  and  Anally  ra.  O.  A.  There  is  no  bottom-rail  to  the  keyboard, 
Ror  is  thars  in  th«  painting  at  Holyraod. 


little  more  than  a  foot  length  between  the  two 
bridges.  It  has  only  thirty-one  steps  in  the 
keyboard,  and  as  many  strings  over  the  sound- 
board, so  that  there  are  five  keys  hid  on  account 
of  the  perspective  (referring  to  the  drawing) — 
to  wit,  three  principals  and  two  chromatics 
("feintes"),  of  which  the  first  is  cut  in  two  ; 
but  these  chromatics  serve  to  go  down  to  the 
third  and  fourth  below  the  first  step,  or  C  sol. 


in  notation  ^  '    I  "^ ,  in  order  to  arrive  at  the 


third  octave,  for  the  eighteen  principal  steps 
only  make  an  eighteenth ;  that  is  to  say,  a 
fourth  over  two  octaves.'  Here  is  the  clearest 
confirmation  of  short -octave  measure  in  the 
spinet,  the  same  as  in  the  organ,  both  key- 
boards, according  to  Mersenne,  being  conform- 
able. But  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  woodcut 
represents  a  different  spinet  from  that  described 
(apparently  descending  to  B),  the  description  is 
not  clear.  To  reach  the  third  octave  would 
require  an  F,  for  which  one-half  the  cut  chromatic 
in  the  spinet  described  may  be  reserved.  But 
the  B  of  the  drawing  would,  by  known  analogy 
with  OT^n  practice,  sound  G,  and  A  would  be 
found  on  the  CS,  the  B  also  on  the  Ds  key, 
though  this  is  generally  found  retained  as  £^ 
on  account  of  the  tuning.  ^  It  is  inferred  that 
F  was  reached  by  dividing  the  lowest  nataral 
key ;  these  diagrams  therefore  represent  what 
we  will  call  the  G  short  measure,  as  that  note 
gave  the  pitch. 


A  B 


A  Eb 


F    ABorBb 


iruaiffiHTE 


O  C  D  E  F 


O  C  D  E  F 


OOD  E  F 


Mersenne's  express  mention  of  G  as  the  longest 
string  shows  that  the  still  deeper  G  and  A  were 
made  so,  in  his  spinet,  by  weight :  an  important 
fact,  as  we  have  not  seen  a  spinet  in  which  it 
could  have  been  otherwise,  since  in  large  in- 
struments the  bridge  is  always  unbroken  in  its 
graceful  curve,  as  it  is  also  in  the  angles — always 
preserved — of  the  bridge  of  an  octave  one.  The 
intimate  connection  of  the  spinet  and  organ 
keyboards  must  palliate  a  trespass  upon  ground 
that  has  been  authoritatively  covered  in  Organ 
(vol.  iiu  p.  529).  It  is  this  connection  that 
incites  inquiry  into  the  origin  of  the  short 
octaves,  of  which  there  are  two  measures,  the 
French,  Gennan  or  English  G  one,  which  we 
have  descril)ed,  and  the  Italian  F  one,  which 
we  will  now  consider.  We  propose  to  call  this 
F,  from  the  pitch  note,  as  before.  We  have 
reason  to  believe  these  pitch  notes  originally 
sounded  the  same,  from  which  arose  the  original 

9  It  may  hare  be<>n  on  account  of  the  toning  that  A  and  D  w«r» 
left  unfrettod  in  the  old  'gvbunden'  or  fretted  clavichords:  bat 
the  double  Irish  harp  which  Galilei  {Mmertaihm  <m  Anctemt  anA 
Mntltrrn  Miule,  A.n.  16A1)  says  had  been  adopted  in  Italy,  bad  thoM 
notes  always  doubled  in  the  two  rows  of  strings,  an  importanea  oag 
tuning  hypothesis  fails  to  explain. 


SPINET 


SPINET 


635 


ivergence  of  high  and  low  church-pitch ;  the 
'  instrument  being  thus  thrown  a  fourth  higher, 
^he  Italian  short  measure  having  been  mis- 
pprehended  we  have  submitted  the  question 
'f  its  construction  to  the  high  authority  of 
*rofessor  Kraus,  and  of  Mr.  W.  T.  Best,  who 
ncuie  a  careful  examination  of  the  organs  in 
taly.  Both  are  in  perfect  agreement  Pro- 
essor  Kraus  describes  the  Italian  short  octave 
Ls  a  progression  of  three  dominants  and  tonics, 
vith  the  addition  of  B  inolle  (b)  and  B  quouiro 
C; )  for  the  ecclesiastical  tones.  The  piinciple, 
le  writes,  was  also  applied  to  the  pedal  key- 
:)oard8,  which  are  called  'Pedaliera  in  Sesta,' 
>r  *Pedaliera  a  ottava  ripiegata.'^  Professor 
ivraus  maintains  the  nearly  general  use  of  the 
ihort  octave  in  Italian  spinets,  harpsichords, 
;Iavichords,  and  organs,  and  to  some  harpsi- 
chords he  adds  even  another  dominant. 


D  E  6b 


G    D  BBb 


m\  m 


C  P  G  A  Bg  c 


CFG  ABflC 


According  to  this,  the  oldest  harpsichord 
known  to  exist,  the  Roman  one  of  1521,  at 
3.  Kensington,  is  a  short-octave  F  instrument. 
When,  in  the  18th  century,  the  C  short  octaves 
were  made  long,  it  was  by  carrying  down  the  G 
and  A,  and  giving  back  the  semitonal  value  to 
the  B  and  Ct  (sometimes  also  the  D$)  ;  but  0% 
was  not  introduced,  since  it  was  never  required 
IS  a  drone.  The  drones  had  sometimes  given 
ivay  to  semitones  as  early  as  the  14th  and  15  th 
jenturies. 

What  was,  then, the  original  intention  of  *  short 
measure'?  We  find  it  indicated  in  Mersenne's 
Psaltery  (G  C  D  E  F  G  A  Bb  C  d  e  f  g)  and  in 
many  delineations  of  Portatives  or  Regals  in 
pictures  of  the  old  masters,  whose  sincerity, 
seeing  the  accurate  manner  in  which  they  have 
painted  lutes,  cannot  be  questioned.  We  will 
confine  our  references  to  Orcagna's  *  Coronation 
of  the  Virgin '  (1350),  in  the  National  Gallery, 
London,  and  Master  Stephen's  'Virgin  of  the 
Rosary'  (1450),  at  Cologne,  with  the  Holyrood 
]ncture  of  1484,  already  referred  to  as  an  illus- 
tration of  a  Positive  organ  with  short  measure. 
May  not  Dr.  Hopkins's  quotation  [Organ, 
vol.  iii.  p.  525]  of  two  long  pipes  in  an  organ 
of  1418  count  as  evidence  for  short  measure  as 
much  as  for  pedals  ?  We  think  so.  In  fine,  we 
regard  short  measure  as  having  been  intended 
to  siip)>Iy,  in  deeper- toned  instruments,  drones 
for  cadences,  and  in  the  shriller  regals  (which 
were  no  more  than  boxes  of  pitch-pipes,  one, 
two,  or  three  to  a  key),  to  prompt  the  intona- 
tion of  the  plain-song.     The  contraction  of  the 

'  But  not  '  Ottava  Ruhatji,'  which  ■ome  Inaccurately  apply  to  the 
low.»<.t  fX'tAve  of  the  nhort  octave  mannal.  Thla  U  a  contrivance  in 
itiii'i  II  (•r^iiiiN  with  pedaU  to  difl«uira  the  want  of  the  lowest  dlapnMin 
o<'':ive  on  the  manunl,  by  coupling  on  to  it  the  oontrabaato  of  the 
}M-iliiU  with  the  retfister  of  the  octave  above. 


keyboard,  whether  diatonic  or  chromatic,  to 
suit  the  size  of  the  hand,  was  probably  due  to 
these  small  instruments— 

Orgnes  avait  bien  maniablea, 
A  une  Mulle  niain  portables, 
Oa  il  mesmes  soome  et  touche. 

Riman  de  la  Rom, 

The  contraction  to  the  short-octave  measure 
might  have  been  intended  to  get  rid  of  the 
weight  of  the  heavier  pipes  not  needed  for 
dominants  or  intonation,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
to  keep  the  keyboard  narrow.  Both  contractions 
— the  keyboard  and  the  short  measure — were 
thus  ready-made  for  the  spinet,  harpsichord  and 
clavichord,  when  they  came  into  use. 

The  short-octave  group  was  finally  partially 
doubled,  so  as  to  combine  with  the  dominant 
fourths  the  ordinary  chromatic  scheme,  by 
dividing  the  lowest  sharps  or  chromatics,  of 
which  there  is  an  example  in  a  spinet  by  Pleyer 
or  Player,  made  between  1710  and  1720, 
exhibited  by  Messrs.  Kirkman  at  S.  Kensington 
in  1872.  This  instrument,  with  black  naturals, 
and  apparently  4|  octaves  from  B  to  D,  has  the 
lowest  C%  and  D$  divided,  called  in  the  quota- 
tion  in  the  Catalogue  (p.  12)  'quarter  tones.' 
But  it  is  difiicult  to  imagine  enharmonic  inter- 
vals provided  for  the  deepest  notes.  We  believe 
it  to  have  been  intended  for  a  'short  octave,' 
and  to  be  thus  explained : — 

Db       Eb 
C«       D« 
Apparent  notes  B    C         D         £ 
Cn       Eb 
A         B 
Real  notes  G     C  D  E, 

C«        D« 

Db       Eb 
or  Apparent  notes  B     C         D         E 
A^      _5. 
Ctf       Eb 
Real  notes  G     C         D  £ 

A  detailed  examination  of  instruments  con- 
tributed to  the  Historic  Loan  Collection  (1885) 
proves  that  the  natural  keys  of  the  Patavini 
Spinet  mentioned  on  p.  633  are  marked  with 
their  names.  The  lowest  E  key  is  clearly  inscribed 
Do— C  ;  on  the  next,  the  F,  is  written  F.  This 
writing  is  not  so  early  as  1550,  because  Do  was 
not  then  used  for  Ut.  The  probable  date  is 
about  one  hundred  years  later,  when  the  solmisa- 
tion  was  finally  giWng  way  before  the  simple 
alphabetic  notation.  There  are  other  instances. 
As  to  tlie  cut  sharps :  ^  the  small  Maidstone 
clavichord,  said  to  have  been  Handel's,  has 
the  two  nearer  or  front  divisions  intended  for 

3  The  oldest  spinet  with  cut  nharps  in  the  Historic  Loan  Collection 
waa,  acoordinf;  to  the  Faclw,  by  Kd  ward  Blount ;  but  on  the  first  key, 
and  leos  legibly  on  the  JackR,  Is  written  '  ThoinaM  Hitchcock  hin  niiike 
In  1664.'  A  similar  autographic  inncrlption  of  this  nuikor,  but  dat«d 
1703.  has  been  brouKht  forward  ^  [the  latel  Mr.  Taphouse  of  Oxford. 
We  are  thus  enabieri  to  find  Thomas  Hitchco<;k's  workinK  time. 
We  think  John  Hitchcock  came  after  him.  and  was  probably  bla 


tones. 

A  spinet  by  Keene,  dated  1685,  in  possession 
of  Mr.  H.  J.  Dale,  Cheltenham,  and  one  by  the 
same  maker  belonging  to  Mr.  £.  R.  Hughes,  of 
Chelsea,  have  the  same  apparently  enharmonic 
arrangement.  One  by  Player  («tc),  sent  to  South 
Kensington  about  1882,  is  to  be  included  with 
Messrs.  Kirkman's  and  the  Keenes,  and  also  a 
Player  which  belongs  to  Dr.  A.  H.  Mann  of 
Cambridge  ;  but  a  Keene  of  Sir  George  Grove's, 
undated,  has  not  the  cut  sharps,  which  we  are 
disposed  to  regard  as  for  mixed  dominants  and 
chromatics,  because  the  independent  keynote 
value  of  the  chromatics  was,  about  a.d.  1700, 
beginning  to  be  recognised,  and  the  fretted 
clavichords  were  soon  to  give  way  to  those  with- 
out frets.  It  was  the  dawn  of  Bach,  who  set 
bU  notes  free  as  tonics.  We  see  in  Keene  and 
Player's  spinets  the  blending  of  old  and  new — 
that  which  was  passing  away,  and  our  modem 
practice. 

Returning  to  the  Spinetta  Traversa,  we  find 
this  model  preferred  in  England  in  the  Stuart 
epoch,  and  indeed  in  fashion  for  150  years.  The 
favourite  makers  during  the  reigns  of  Charles  I. 
and  II.  were  Thomas  and  John  Hitchcock  and 
Charles  Haward ;  but  there  is  an  unaccountable 
difference  between  John  Hitchcock's  and  Charles 
Haward's  spinets  in  the  fine  specimens  known 
to  the  writer,  both  the  property  of  Mr.  William 
Dale  of  London,  the  latter  of  much  older  char- 
acter, though  probably  made  after  the  former. 

Thomas  Hitchcock's  spinets  are  better  known 
than  John's.  The  one  in  the  woodcut  belongs 
to  Messrs.  Broad  wood,  and  is  numbered  1879.^ 
(The  highest  number  we  have  met  with  of 
Thomas  Hitchcock,  is  1547.)    Messi's.  Broad- 


wood's  differs  from  the  John  Hitchcock  of 
1630  in  ha\nng  a  curved  instead  of  an  angular 
bent  side,  and  from  the  naturals  being  of  ivory 
instead  of  ebony.  The  compass  of  these  instru- 
ments—  five  octaves,  from  G^  to  (/" — ia  so 
startling  as  to  be  incredible,  were  it  not  for  the 
facts  that  several  instruments  are  extant  ^nth 

'  This  ia  the  inatramcnt  In  UllUta'i  picture  of  "The  Minuet,' 
1862.    TboiiiM  dated  hla  apinets  ;  Johu  uumbered  theu. 


ence  [see  Ruckeks,  ante,  p.  184]  mentions 
that  a  greater  compass  obtained  in  England  in 
the  time  of  Charles  I.  than  was  expected  or 
required  on  the  Continent  The  absence  also 
of  the  sound-hole,  regarded  as  essential  in  all 
stringed  instruments  of  that  .time,  where  the 
sound- board  covered  the  whole  internal  space, 


shows  how  eminently  progressive  the  Hitchcocks 
must  have  been.  Not  so  Haward,  in  the  instru- 
ment hei*e  represented.  Chas.  Hawai-d  appears 
to  have  been  contemporary  with  the  Hitchcocks, 
and  yet  he  is  as  conservative  to  old  Italian  or 
French  practice  as  if  John  Hitchcock  had  never 
made  an  instnmient  in  England.  The  Haward 
spinet  belonging  to  the  Rev.  L.  K,  Hilton,  of 
Semley,  Shaftesbury,  is  nearly  like  a  Hitchcock, 
which  proves  that  Haward  did  not  remain  with 
the  model  figured  on  this  page.  Mr.  Kendrick 
Pyne  acquiied  a  Haward  spinet  (now  in  Mr. 
Boddington's  collection)  dated  or  numbered 
1687,  that  has  sharps  like  the  Hitchcocks,  with 
a  strip  of  the  colour  of  the  naturals  let  in,  in 
this  instance  black. 

A  John  Hitchcock  spinet,  numbered  1676, 
has  lately  come  under  our  notice.  Thomas  and 
John  were  probably  father  and  son.  The  Charles 
Haward  spinet  is  small,  with  short  keys  and 
limited  compass,  being  only  of  4  octaves  and  a 
semitone,  B^-<j'".  The  naturals  are  of  snake- 
wood,  nearly  black  ;  the  sharps  of  ivory.  There 
are  wires  on  each  bridge  over  which  the  strings 
pass,  and  along  the  hitchpin  block,  precisely 
the  same  as  in  a  dulcimer.  The  decoration  of 
the  sound-board,  surrounding  an  Italian  rose,  is 
signed  *I  H,'  with  *Carolus  Haward  Fecit* 
above  the  keys  ;  and  the  name  of  each  key  is 
distinctly  written,  which  we  shall  again  have 
occasion  to  refer  to.  Pepys  patronised  Hawanl 
(or  Hay  ward,  as  he  sometimes  writes  the  name). 
We  read  in  his  Diary  : — 


SPINET 


SPITTA 


637 


April  4,  1668.  To  White  Hatl.  Took  Aldgate  Street 
&  my  way  and  there  called  upon  one  Hayward  that 
takes  Vii^nalls,  and  there  did  like  of  a  little  eepinette, 
id  -will  have  him  finish  it  for  nie:  for  I  had  a  mind  to 
small  harpsichon,  but  this  takes  up  less  room. 

J  u  ly  10, 1668.  To  Ha  ward's  to  look  npon  an  Espinette, 
nd  I  did  come  near  to  buying  one,  oat  broke  off.  I 
ave  a  mind  to  have  one. 

July  IS,  1668.  I  to  buy  my  espinette,  which  I  did  now 
pn^e  for,  and  did  at  Haward's  meet  with  Mr.  Thacker, 
ikI  heard  him  pli^  on  the  harpsichon,  so  as  I  never 
eard  man  before,  I  think. 

July  15, 1668.    At  noon  is  brought  home  the  espinette 

bought  the  other  day  of  Hawara ;  costs  me  bl. 

Another  reference  concerns  the  purchase  of 
Triangles  for  the  spinet — a  three-legged  stand, 
la  in  our  illustration.  A  curious  reference  to 
Charles  Haward  occurs  in  A  Findieation  of  an 
Essay  to  the  Advancement  o/Afusickf  by  Thomas 
Salmon,  M.A.,  London,  1672.  This  writer 
s  advocating  a  new  mode  of  notation,  in  which 
the  ordinary  clefs  were  replaced  by  B.  (bass), 
M.  (mean),  and  T.  (treble)  at  the  signatures : — 

Here,  Sir,  I  must  acquaint  you  in  Ikvour  of  the  afore- 
said  B.  M.  T.  that  t'other  day  I  met  with  a  curious  pair 
3f  Phanatical  Harpsechords  made  by  that  Arch  Heretick 
Charles  Haward,  which  were  ready  cut  out  into  octaves 
Cas  I  am  told  he  abusively  contrives  ail  his)  In  so  much 
that  by  the  least  hint  of  B.  M.  T.  all  the  notes  were 
easily  found  as  lying  in  the  same  posture  in  every  one  of 
their  octaves.  And  that.  Sir,  with  this  advantage,  that 
so  soon  as  the  scholar  had  learned  one  hand  he  under- 
stood them,  because  the  position  of  the  notes  were  for 
both  the 


The  lettering  over  the  keys  in  Mr.  W.  Dale's 
Haward  spinet  is  here  shown  to  be  original.  It 
is  very  curious,  however,  to  observe  Haward's 
simple  alphabetical  lettering,  and  to  contrast  it 
with  the  Hezachord  names  then  passing  away. 
There  is  a  virginal  (oblong  spinet)  in  York 
Museum,  made  in  1651  by  Thomas  White,  on 
the  keys  of  which  are  monograms  of  Gamaut 
(bass  G)  and  the  three  clef  keys,  Ffaut,  0  sol 
fa  vi,  and  G  sol  re  ut  I 

Mace,  in  Musick^sAfonumeTU  {London,  1676), 
refers  to  John  Hayward  as  a  *  harpsichon '  maker, 
and  credits  him  with  the  invention  of  the  Pedal 
for  changing  the  stops.  There  was  a  spinet  by 
one  of  the  Haywards  or  Hawards  left  by  Queen 
Anne  to  the  Chapel  Royal  boys.  It  was  used 
as  a  practising  instrument  until  the  chorister 
days  of  the  late  Sir  John  Qoss,  perhaps  even 
later. 

Stephen  Keene*  was  a  well-known  spinet- 
maker  in  London  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne. 
His  spinots,  showing  mixed  Hitchcock  and 
Haward  features,  accepting  Mr.  Hughes's  instru- 
ment as  a  criterion,  reached  the  highest  perfec- 
tion of  spinet  tone  possible  within  such  limited 
dimensions.  The  Baudin  spinet,  dated  1728 
(said  to  have  belonged  to  Simon  Eraser,  Lord 
Lovat),  which  belonged  to  the  late  Dr.  Rimbault, 
and  is  engraved  in  his  History  of  the  PiaTioforte, 
p.  69,  was  afterwards  in  the  possession  of  the 
late  Mr.  Taphouse  of  Oxford.  Of  later  18th- 
century  spinets  we  can  refer  to  a  fine  one  by 

>  Mr.  H.  C.  Moflhtt.  J.P..  of  Goodrich  Court,  Rom.  owtm  a  floe 
virginal  with  this  inwiiptloii  on  the  lack  raU :— •  BtephiiTiiu 
Keen(>,  Londlnl  fecit  1868.'  Th«  intwval  between  1068  nntl  1723  is 
vot  y  long  for  the  work  of  one  man. 


Mahoon,  dated  1747,  belonging  to  Dr.  W.  H, 
Cummings,  and  thera  is  another  by  that  maker, 
who  was  a  copyist  of  the  Hitchcocks,  at  S. 
Kensington  Museum.  The  late  Sir  F.  G. 
Ouseley  owned  one  by  Haxby  of  York,  1766  ; 
and  there  is  one  by  Baker  Harris  of  London, 
1776,  in  the  Music  School  at  Edinburgh.  Baker 
Harris's  were  often  sold  by  Longman  &  Broderip, 
the  predecessors  in  Oheapside  of  Clementi  and 
Collard.  It  is  not  surprising  that  an  attempt 
should  have  been  made,  while  the  pianoforte 
was  yet  a  novelty,  to  construct  one  in  this 
pleasing  wing-shape.  Crang  Hancock,  of  Tavis- 
tock Street,  Covent  Garden,  made  one  in  1782 
which  was  long  in  the  possession  of  the  late 
Mr.  Walter  Broadwood.  It  is  now  at  Godal- 
ming.  A.  J.  H. 

SPIRITOSO,  i.«.  *  spiritedly,'  is,  like  Con 
Spirito,  a  designation  of  style  rather  than  of 
pace.  It  is  occasionally  met  with  in  Haydn, 
rarely  in  Mozart,  and  in  not  one  of  Beethoven's 
original  works.  In  his  many  arrangements  of 
national  airs  'Spirituoso'  occurs  not  unfVe- 
quently,  as  in  op.  107,  No.  10  ;  op.  108,  Nos. 
18,  22  ;  but  he  probably  found  it  on  the  copies 
sent  him.  Brahms,  with  a  touch  of  wonted 
conservatism,  uses  Con  Spirito  in  the  Finale  of 
his  Second  Symphony.  g. 

SPITTA,  Julius  August  Philipp,  a  well- 
known  musical  lUtSraieur,  son  of  the  author  of 
the  *  Psalter  und  Harfe '  ;  bom  at  Wechold, 
Hanover,  Deo.  27, 1841  \  studied  at  Gottitigen, 
and  afterwards  taught  at  Reval,  Sondershausen, 
and  Leipzig,  where  he  took  part  in  the  founding 
of  the  Bachverein  in  1874.  So  great  was  his 
progress  during  this  time,  that  in  1875  he  wa» 
made  Professor  of  Musical  History  in  the  Berlin 
University,  and  Perpetual  Secretary  to  the 
Academy  of  Arts  there.  At  Easter  of  the  same 
year  he  became  teacher  of  Musical  History  in 
the  Hochschule  fur  Musik  ;  in  1876  entered  the 
direction,  and  at  midsummer  1882  became 
a  permanent  director  of  that  establishment. 
His  principal  literary  work  is  J.  S,  Bach,  in  two 
vols.  (B.  &  H.;  vol.  i.  1878,  vol  ii.  1880)— an 
accurate  and  perfectly  exhaustive  treatise  of  all 
relating  to  the  subject,  but  sadly  wanting  a 
better  index.  A  translation  by  Clara  Bell  and 
J.  A.  Fuller  Maitland  was  published  in  three 
volumes  by  Novell©  &  Co.  in  1884-86.  He 
published  a  smaller  biography  of  the  same 
master,  forming  No.  1  of  Breitkopf  k  Hartel's 
Musikalische  Vbrtrdge,  and  another  of  Schu- 
mann, which,  though  issued  as  Nos.  87,  88  of 
the  same  series,  was  written  for  this  Dictionary. 
[Qteante,  pp.  346-888.]  His  article  on  Spontini, 
in  this  work,  is  the  first  adequate  treatment  of 
that  singular  individual.  An  article  on  Homi- 
lius  will  be  found  in  the  A  IJg,  DeiUsche  Biographic, 
and  many  other  productions  of  his  pen  in  the 
Leipzig  Allg.  Musikaliachc  Zeitung  for  1875- 
1878,  1880-82,  and  in  the  earlier  numbers  of 
Eitner's  Monatsihcfte  fUr  Musikgeschichte.     Ho 


\ne  y  veruijatvnacnrtji  jur  musucunsaenscMijif 
from  1885  to  his  death.  His  critical  edition  of 
the  organ  works  of  Buxtehude,  in  two  volumes 
(B.  &  H.  1875,  1876),  is  an  admirable  specimen 
of  editing,  and,  in  addition  to  the  music,  con- 
tains much  valuable  information.  He  also 
edited  the  complete  edition  of  Heinrich  Schiltz, 
and  wasa  prominent  member  of  the  directorate  of 
the  *  Denkmaler  deutscher  Tonknnst'  He  died 
ill  Berlin,  April  13,  1894.  A  monument  by 
Hildebrandt,  the  eminent  sculptor,  was  erected 
to  his  memory  in  Berlin.  o. 

SPITZFLOTE,  SPITZFLUTE ;  i,e.  Pointed 
flute.  An  organ  stop,  so  called  because  its  pipes 
are  slightly  conical,  that  is,  taper  gradually  from 
the  mouth  upwards.  The  diameter  of  the  top 
is  generally  one-third  of  that  of  the  pipe  at  its 
mouth.  The  tone  is  thin  and  reedy,  but  pure 
and  effective.  The  Spitzflote  may  be  of  8  ft, 
4  ft.,  or  2  ft.  pitch ;  in  this  country,  stops  of  this 
kind  are  most  commonly  of  4  ft.  pitch,     j.  s. 

SPOFFOBTH,  Reginald,  glee  composer,  bom 
in  1770  at  Southwell,  Nottingham,  where  his 
uncle,  Thomas  Spofforth,  was  organist  of  the 
Minster.  From  him  and  from  Dr.  Benjamin 
Cooke  he  probably  derived  all  his  instruction  in 
music.  About  1787  or  1788  he  wrote  a  glee — 
probably  his  first — for  three  male  voices,  'Lightly 
x>*er  the  village  green,'  and  in  1798  obtained 
two  prizes  from  the  'Glee  Club,'  for  his  glees 
*  See  !  smiling  from  the  rosy  East,'  and  *  Where 
are  those  hours,'  which  brought  him  prominently 
forward.  About  1 7  99  he  published  a  '  Set  of  Six 
Glees,'  one  of  which,  'Hail,  smiling  mom,'  at 
x>nce  caught  the  public  ear,  and  has  ever  since 
retained  its  popularity.  Another,  'Fill  high 
the  grape's  exulting  stream,'  gained  a  prize  in 
1810.  Spofforth's  masterpieces,  however,  are  not 
among  his  prize  glees,  and  '  Come,  bounteous 
May,'  'Mark'd  you  her  eye,'  'Health  to  my 
dear,'  and  'How  calm  the  evening' — all  for 
male  voices — are  among  the  finest  specimens  of 
his  genius.  Few  English  composers,  perhaps, 
have  excelled  Spofforth  in  lively  fancy  joined 
to  pure,  chaste  style.  For  several  years  before 
his  death  his  health  was  bad,  and  he  died  at 
Brompton,  Sept.  8,  1827.  He  was  buried  at 
Kensington,  where  a  monument  was  erected  to 
his  memory  in  St.  Mary  Abbotts  Church. 
After  his  death  W.  Hawes  published  a  number 
of  his  MS.  glees,  but  some  of  these  pieces  are 
crude  and  imperfect,  and  probably  not  intended 
for  publication.  Reginald's  younger  brother, 
Samuel,  was  born  in  1780,  appointed  organist 
of  Peterborough  Cathedral  when  only  eighteen, 
and  in  1807  was  made  organist  of  Lichfield 
Cathedral.  He  died  in  London,  June  6,  1864, 
and  is  now  best  known  as  the  composer  of  a 
once  popular  cliant.  D.  B. 

SPOHR,  Louis,  *  great  violinist  and  famous 
composer,  was  bora  April  5,  1784,  at  Bruns- 

i  So.  and  not  Ludwlg.  h«  ciUb  hlinwlf  In  his  Atttobl<vnphy. 


man.  iwo  years  aicer,  nis  latner,  a  young 
physician,  took  up  his  residence  at  Seesen,  and 
it  was  there  that  young  Spohr  spent  his  early 
childhood.  Both  parents  were  musical :  tlie 
father  played  the  flute  ;  the  mother  was  pianist 
and  singer.  The  boy  showed  his  musical  talent 
very  early,  and  sang  duets  with  his  motlier 
when  only  four  years  of  age.  At  five  he  began 
to  play  the  violin,  and  when  hardly  six  was 
able  to  take  the  violin-part  in  Kalkbrenner's 
trios.  His  first  teachers  were  Riemenschneider 
and  Dufour,  both  amateurs.  The  latter,  a  French 
emigr^,  was  so  much  impressed  with  his  pupil's 
exceptional  talent,  that  he  persuaded  the  father 
to  send  him  for  further  instmction  to  Brunswick. 
Along  with  his  first  studies  on  the  violin  went 
his  earliest  attempts  at  composition,  which 
consisted  chiefly  of  violin  duets. 

At  Brunswick  he  attended  the  grammar-school 
and  continued  his  musical  studies.  His  teacliers 
were  Kunisch,  a  member  of  the  Duke's  band, 
for  the  violin,  and  Hartung,  an  old  organist, 
for  counterpoint.  This  was  the  only  instmction 
in  the  theory  of  music  he  ever  received. 
According  to  his  own  statement,  it  was  princi- 
pally through  an  eager  study  of  the  scores  of  the 
great  masters,  especially  Mozart,  that  he  acquired 
mastery  over  the  technicalities  of  composition. 
His  first  public  appearance  was  at  a  school- 
concert,  when  he  played  a  concerto  of  his  own 
with  so  much  success  that  he  was  asked  to  i-epeat 
it  at  one  of  the  concerts  given  by  the  Duke's 
band.  Kunisch  then  insisted  on  his  taking 
lessons  from  Maucourt,  the  leader  of  the  band, 
and  the  best  violinist  at  Bmnsvi'ick.  Spohr 
was  only  fourteen  when  he  undertook  his  first 
artistic  tour.  With  a  few  letters  of  introduction 
in  his  pocket  he  set  out  for  Hamburg.  But 
there  he  failed  even  to  get  a  hearing,  and  after 
some  weeks  had  to  return  to  Brunswick  on 
foot,  greatly  disappointed,  his  slender  means 
thoroughly  exhausted.  In  his  despair  he  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  presenting  to  the  Duke  a 
petition  asking  for  means  to  continue  his  studies. 
The  Duke  was  pleased  with  the  lad's  open  bear- 
ing, heard  him,  was  strack  with  his  talent,  at 
once  gave  him  an  appointment  in  his  band, 
and  after  a  short  time  expressed  his  willingness 
to  defray  the  expenses  of  his  further  musical 
education  under  one  of  the  great  recognised 
masters  of  the  violin.  Viotti  and  Ferdinand 
Eck  both  declined  to  receive  a  pupil,  but  tlie 
latter  recommended  his  brother,  Franz  Eck, 
who  was  just  then  travelling  in  Germany.  He 
was  invited  to  Brunswick,  and  as  the  Duke  was 
greatly  pleased  with  his  performances,  an 
agreement  was  made  tliat  young  Spohr  should 
accompany  him  on  his  journeys  and  receive  his 
instmction,  the  Duke  paying  one -half  of  the 
travelling  expenses  and  a  salary  besides.  In 
the  spring  of  1802  they  started,  master  and 
pupil,  for  Russia.     They  made,  however,  pro- 


SPOHR 


SPOHR 


639 


;ed  stays  at  Hamburg  aud  Strtlitz,  and  it 
on  these  occcasions  that  Spohr  profited 
t  from  his  master's  tuition.  Latterly  this 
inie  very  irregular.  Spohr,  however,  derived 
:h.  benefit  from  constantly  hearing  £ck,  who 
^inly  was  a  very  excellent  violinist,  though 
an  indifferent  musician.  At  this  period 
»lir,  who  had  an  herculean  frame  and  very 
yng  constitution,  often  practised  for  ten 
irs  a  day.  At  the  same  time  he  composed 
ustriously,  and  among  other  things  wrote 
•  first  of  his  published  violin  concertos  (op.  1) 
ieh  is  entirely  in  the  manner  of  Rode,  and 

0  the  violin  duets  op.  S.  In  St.  Petersburg 
met  Clementi  and  Field,  of  whom  he  tells 

ne  curious  traits ;  and  after  having  passed 
i  -winter  there  without  playing  in  public, 
.iirnedto  Brunswick  in  the  summer  of  1808. 
lere  he  found  Rode,  and  heard  him  for  the 
at  time.  The  playing  of  this  great  master 
led  him  with  the  deepest  admiration,  and  for 
me  time  it  was  his  chief  aim  to  imitate  his 
y\e  and  manner  as  closely  as  possible.  After 
.ving  given  in  a  public  concert  highly  satis- 
ctory  proof  of  the  progress  made  during  his 
isence,  he  again  entered  on  his  duties  in  the 
uke's  band.  An  intended  journey  to  Paris  in 
)04  was  cmelly  cut  short  by  the  loss  of  his 
-ecious  Guainerius  violin,  the  present  of  a 
ussian  enthusiast.  Just  before  entering  the 
ites  of  Gottingen  the  portmanteau  containing 
le    violin  was  stolen  from   the  coach,    and 

1  endeavours  to  recover  it  proved  fruitless, 
^e  returned  to  Brunswick,  and  after  having 
jquired,  with  the  help  of  his  generous  patron, 
le  Duke,  another,  though  not  equally  good 
iolin,  he  started  on  a  tour  to  Berlin,  Leipzig, 
Dresden,  and  other  German  towns.  His  success 
ras  everywhere  great,  and  his  reputation  spread 
apidly.  At  his  Berlin  concert  he  was  assisted 
ty  Meyerbeer,  then  only  a  boy  of  thirteen,  but 
.Iready  a  brilliant  pianist. 

In  1805  Spohr  accepted  the  post  of  leader  in 
he  band  of  the  Duke  of  Gotha.  It  was  there 
le  met  and  married  his  first  wife,  Dorette 
5cheidler,  an  excellent  harp-player,  who  for 
nany  years  appeared  with  him  in  all  his  concerts, 
md  for  whom  he  wrote  a  number  of  sonatas  for 
violin  and  harp,  as  well  as  some  solo-pieces. 
Having  at  his  disposal  a  very  fair  band,  Spohr 
now  began  to  write  orchestral  works  and  vocal 
3ompo8itions  of  larger  dimensions.  His  first 
opera,  *Die  Priifung,'  which  belongs  to  this 
period,  was  performed  at  a  concert.  In  1807 
he  made  a  very  successful  tour  with  his  wife 
through  Germany,  visiting  Leipzig,  Dresden, 
Prague,  Munich,  Stuttgart  (where  he  met 
Weber),  Heidelberg,  and  Frankfort.  In  1808 
he  wrote  his  second  opera,  *  Alruna  * ;  but  this, 
afijain,  never  reached  the  stage,  although  accepted 
for  representation  at  Weimar  and  apparently 
gaining  the  approval  of  Goethe,  at  that  time 
manager  of  the  Weimar  theatre,  who  was  present 


at  a  trial-rehearsal  of  the  work.  In  the  course 
of  this  year  Napoleon  held  the  famous  Congress 
of  Princes  at  Eifurt.  Spohr,  naturally  anxious 
to  see  the  assembled  princes,  went  to  Erfurt, 
where  a  French  troupe,  comprising  Talma  and 
Mars,  performed  every  evening  to  a  pit  of 
monarchs.  But  on  arrival  he  heard,  to  his  great 
disappointment,  that  it  was  impossible  for  any 
but  the  privileged  few  to  gain  admittance  to 
the  theatre.  In  this  dilemma  he  hit  on  a 
happy  expedient.  He  persuaded  the  second 
horn-player  of  the  band  to  allow  'him  to  take 
his  place  ;  but  as  he  had  never  before  touched 
a  horn,  he  had  to  practise  for  the  whole  day 
in  order  to  produce  the  natural  notes  of  the 
instrument.  'V\^en  the  evening  came,  though 
his  lips  were  black  and  swollen,  he  was  able  to 
get  through  the  very  easy  overture  and  entr'actes. 
Napoleon  and  his  guests  occupied  the  first  row 
of  stalls  ;  but  the  musicians  had  strict  orders  to 
turn  their  backs  to  the  audience,  and  not  to 
look  round.  To  evade  this  fatal  regulation 
Spohr  took  with  him  a  pocket  looking-glass, 
and  by  placing  it  on  his  desk  got  a  good  view 
of  the  famous  personages  assembled. 

In  1809  he  made  another  tour  through  the 
north  of  Germany,  and  at  Hamburg  received  a 
commission  for  an  opera,  '  Der  Zweikampf  mit 
der  Geliebten  * — or  *  The  Lovers'  Duel '—  which 
was  produced  with  great  success  the  year  after. 
At  this  time  he  had  already  written  six  of  his 
violin-concertos,  and  as  a  player  had  hardly  a 
rival  in  Germany.  The  year  1809  is  memor- 
able for  the  First  Music  Festival  in  Germany, 
which  was  celebrated  under  Spohr's  direction  at 
Frankenhausen,  a  small  town  in  Thuringia.  It 
was  followed  by  another,  in  1811,  for  which 
Spohr  composed  his  first  symphony,  in  Eb.  In 
1812  he  wrote  his  first  oratorio,  *Das  jiingste 
Gericht'  (not  to  be  confounded  with  *Die 
letzten  Dinge,'  or  *  The  Last  Judgment '),  on  the 
invitation  of  the  French  Governor  of  Erfurt,  for 
the  '  FSte  Napoleon '  on  August  15.  He  naively 
relates  ^  that  in  the  composition  of  this  work  he 
soon  felt  his  want  of  practice  in  counterpoint 
and  fugue-writing  ;  he  therefore  obtained  Mar- 
purg's  treatise  on  the  subject,  studied  it  assidu- 
ously, wrote  half-a-dozen  fugues  after  the  models 
given  therein,  and  then  appears  to  have  been 
quite  satisfied  with  his  proficiency  !  The 
oratorio  was  fairly  successful,  but  after  two  more 
performances  of  it  at  Vienna  in  the  following 
year,  the  composer  became  dissatisfied,  and  laid 
it  aside  for  ever.  In  autumn  1812  he  made  his 
first  appearance  at  Vienna,  and  achieved  as 
performer  a  brilliant,  as  composer  an  honourable, 
success.  The  post  of  leader  of  the  band  at  the 
newly  established  Theatre  *  an-der-Wien  '  being 
offered  to  him  under  brilliant  conditions,  he  gave 
up  his  appointment  at  Gotlia  and  settled  at 
Vienna.  During  the  next  summer  he  composed 
his  opera  'Faust,'  one  of  his  best  works,  and 

1  SelUaHogr.  i.  169. 


Leipzig,  a  great  patnotic  cantata.  iSut  neither 
of  these  works  was  performed  until  after  he  had 
left  Vienna.  Daring  his  stay  there  Spohr 
naturally  came  into  contact  with  Beethoven ; 
but  in  spite  of  his  admiration  for  the  master's 
earlier  compositions,  especially  for  the  quartets, 
op.  18,  which  he  was  one  of  the  first  to  perform 
at  a  time  when  they  were  hardly  known  outside 
Vienna  (indeed,  he  was  the  rety  first  to  play 
them  at  Leipzig  and  Berlin) — yet  he  was  quite 
unable  to  understand  and  appreciate  the  great 
composer's  character  and  works,  as  they  appeared 
even  in  his  second  period.  His  criticism  of  the 
C  minor  and  Choral  Symphonies  has  gained  for 
Spohr,  as  a  critic,  an  unenviable  reputation. 
He  disapproves  of  the  first  subject  of  the  C  minor 
as  unsuited  for  the  opening  movement  of  a 
symphony ;  considers  the  slow  movement, 
granting  the  beauty  of  the  melody,  too  much 
spun  out  and  tedious  ;  and  though  praising  the 
Scherzo,  actually  speaks  of  *  the  unmeaning  noise 
of  the  Finale.'  The  Choral  Symphony  fares 
still  worse  ;  he  holds  the  first  three  movements, 
though  not  without  flashes  of  genius,  to  be 
inferior  to  all  the  movements  of  the  previous 
eight  symphonies,  and  the  Finale  he  calls  *  so 
monstrous  and  tasteless,  and  in  its  oonception 
of  Schiller's  Ode  so  trivial,  that  he  cannot 
understand  how  a  genius  like  Beethoven  could 
ever  write  it  down.'  After  this  we  cannot 
wonder  that  he  finishes  up  by  saying :  *  Beethoven 
was  wanting  in  sesthetio  culture  and  sense  of 
beauty.'  ^  But  perhaps  no  great  artist  was  ever 
so  utterly  wrapped  up  in  himself  as  Spohr. 
What  he  could  not  measure  by  the  standud  of 
his  own  peculiar  talent,  to  him  was  not  measur- 
able. Hence  his  complete  absence  of  critical 
power,  a  quality  which  in  many  other  cases  has 
proved  to  be  by  no  means  inseparable  irom 
creative  talent. 

Although  his  stay  at  Vienna  was  on  the  whole 
very  sucoessfbl,  and  did  much  to  raise  his 
reputation,  he  left  it  in  1815,  after  having 
quitted  his  appointment  on  account  of  dis- 
agreements with  the  manager  of  the  theatre. 
He  passed)  the  summer  at  the  country-seat  of 
Prince  Carolath  in  Bohemia,  and  then  went  to 
conduct  another  festival  at  Frankenhausen, 
where  he  brought  out  his  Cantata  *  Das  befreite 
Deutschland,'  after  which  he  set  out  on  a  tour 
through  the  west  and  south  of  Germany,  Alsace, 
Switzerland,  and  Italy.  On  his  road,  with  the 
special  view  of  pleasing  the  Italian  public,  he 
wrote  the  eighth  Concerto — the  well-known 
*  Scena  Cantante.'  He  visited  all  the  principal 
towns  of  the  Peninsula,  played  the  concerto  in 
Rome  and  Milan,  and  made  acquaintance  with 
Rossini  and  his  music — without  approving  much 
of  the  latter,  as  will  be  readily  believed. 

Returned  to  Germany,  in  1817  he  visited 
Holland,  and  then  accepted  the  post  of  conductor 

1  Mh^Mogr.  1. 902,  etc 


m  1018,  nis  opera  'J^aust  was  nrst  produced. 
It  was  quickly  succeeded  by  'Zemire  and 
Azor,'  which,  though  hardly  equal  to  <  Faust,' 
gained  at  the  time  even  greater  popularity. 
Owing  again  to  difierences  with  the  manager 
he  left  Frankfort,  after  a  stay  of  scarcely  two 
years.  In  1820  he  accepted  an  invitation  from 
the  Philharmonic  Society  in  London,  and  paid 
his  first  visit  to  England.  He  appeared  at  the 
opening  concert  of  the  season  (March  6),  and 
played  with  great  success  his  Concerto  No.  8, 
'  Nello  stilo  drammatico.'  [At  a  miscellaneous 
concert  on  March  22,  Spohr  was  described  on 
the  programme  as  making  his  first  appearance 
in  England.]  At  the  second  Philharmonic 
concert  he  led  his  Solo  Quartet  in  £.  At  the 
next  he  would  naturally  have  been  at  the  head 
of  the  violins  to  lead  the  band,  while  Ries, 
according  to  the  then  prevailing  fashion,  presided 
at  the  piano.  But,  after  having  overcome  the 
opposition  of  some  of  the  directors,  Spohr  suc- 
ceeded in  introducing  the  conductor's  stick  for 
the  first  time  into  a  Philharmonic  concert.  It 
was  on  this  occasion  (April  10)  that  he  con- 
ducted his  MS.  Symphony  in  D  minor,  a  fine 
work,  composed  during  his  stay  in  London.  At 
the  last  concert  of  the  season  another  Symphony 
of  his  was  played  for  the  first  time  in  England, 
as  well  as  his  Nonetto  for  strings  and  wind 
(op.  31).  Spohr  was  delighted  with  the 
excellent  performance  of  the  Philharmonic 
Orchestra,  especially  the  stringed  instruments. 
Altogether  his  sojourn  in  London  was  both 
artistically  and  financially  a  great  success.  At 
his  farewell  concert,  his  wife  made  her  last 
appearance  as  a  harp-player,  and  was  warmly 
applauded.  Soon  after  she  was  obliged,  on 
account  of  ill-health,  to  give  up  the  harp  for 
the  piano,  on  which  she  would  occasionally  play 
in  concerts  with  her  husband,  who  wrote  a 
number  of  pianoforte  and  violin  duets  especially 
for  her. 

On  his  journey  home,  Spohr  visited  Paris  for 
the  first  time.  Here  he  made  the  personal 
acquaintance  of  Kreutzer,  Viotti,  Habeneck, 
Cherubini,  and  other  eminent  musicians,  and 
was  received  by  them  with  great  cordiality  and 
esteem.  His  success  at  a  concert  which  he  gave 
at  the  Opera  was  complete,  although  his  quiet 
unpretentious  style  was  not,  and  could  not  be,  as 
much  to  the  taste  of  the  French  as  it  was  to  that 
of  the  German  and  English  public.  Cherubini 
appears  to  have  felt  a  special  interest  in  Spohr 's 
compositions,  and  the  latter  takes  special  pride 
in  relating  how  the  great  Italian  made  him  play 
a  quartet  of  his  three  times  over.  Returned 
to  Germany,  Spohr  settled  at  Dresden,  where 
Weber  was  just  then  engaged  in  bringing  out 
his  *Freischiit2.*  Spohr  was  no  more  able  to 
appreciate  the  genius  of  Weber  than  that  of 
Beethoven.  It  is  curious  that,  without  knowing 
of  Weber's  opera,  he  had  had  the  intention  of 


SPOHR 


SPOHR 


641 


uiiig  a  libretto  on  the  same  story  ;  but  when 
beard  that  Weber  had  treated  the  subject,  he 
'e  it  up.  During  Spohr's  stay  at  Dresden, 
iher  received  an  offer  of  the  post  of  Hofcapell- 
ister  to  the  Elector  of  Hesse-Cassel ;  but  being 
(villing  to  leave  Dresden,  he  declined,  at  the 
ae  time  strongly  recommending  Spohr,  who 
»n  after  was  offered  the  appointment  for  Ufe 
der  the  most  favourable  conditions.  On  New 
ar's  Day,  1822,  he  entered  on  his  duties  at 
ssel,  where  he  remained  for  the  rest  of  his  life. 
»  had  no  difficulty  in  gaining  at  once  the  re- 
set and  obedience  of  band  and  singers,  and 
>n  succeeded  io  procuring  a  more  than  local 
lutation  for  their  performances.     Meanw^hile 

bad  finished  his  <  Jessonda,'  which  soon  made 
B  round  of  all  the  opera-houses  in  Germany, 
th  great  and  well-deserved  success.     It  must 

regarded  as  the  culminating  point  of  Spohr's 
tivity  as  a  composer.  At  Leipzig  and  Berlin, 
lere  he  himself  conducted  the  first  perform- 
Lces,  it  was  received  with  an  enthusiasm  little 
ferior  to  that  roused  a  few  years  before  by  the 
^Veischiitz.'  In  the  winter  of  1824  he  passed 
me  time  in  Berlin,  and  renewed  and  cemented 
le  friendship  with  Felix  Mendelssohn  and  the 
embers  of  his  family,  which  had  been  begun 
hen  they  visited  him  at  Cassel  in  1882.  In 
B26  he  conducted  the  Rhenish  Festival  at 
ILsseldorf,  when  his  oratorio  '  The  Last  Judg- 
len  t '  (Die  letzten  Dinge)  was  performed  (see  vol. 
.  p.  6486).  It  pleased  so  much  that  it  was 
speated  a  few  days  later  in  aid  of  the  Greek  In- 
irgents.  His  next  great  work  was  the  opera 
Pietro  von  Abano,'  which  however,  like  his 
ext  operas,  *  Der  Berggeist '  and  *  Der  Alchy- 
list,'  had  but  a  temporary  success.  In  1831 
6  finished  his  great  Violin  School,  which  has 
ver  since  its  publication  maintained  the  place 
f  a  standard  work,  and  which  contains,  both 
ti  text  and  exercises,  a  vast  amount  of  extremely 
iiteresting  and  useful  material.  At  the  same 
ime,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  it  reflects  some- 
v^hat  exclusively  Spohr's  peculiar  style  of  playing 
»nd  is  therefore  of  especial  value  for  the  study 
>f  his  own  violin-compositions.  It  is  also  true 
hat  its  elementary  part  is  of  less  practical  value 
roni  the  fact  that  the  author  himself  had  never 
Aught  beginners,  and  so  had  no  personal  ex- 
perience in  that  respect. 

The  political  disturbances  of  1832  caused  a 
prolonged  interruption  of  the  opera  performances 
it  Cassel.  Spohr,  incensed  by  the  petty  despot- 
ism of  the  Elector,  proved  himself  at  tJiis  time, 
lud  still  more  during  the  revolutionary  period 
[>f  184S  and  1849,  a  strong  Radical,  incurring 
thereby  his  employer's  displeasure,  and  causing 
liim  innumerable  annoyances.  However  he  made 
good  use  of  the  interruption  to  his  official  duties, 
by  writing  his  Symphony  *  Die  Weihe  der  Tone' 
(The  Consecration  of  Sound,  No.  4,  op.  86), 
which  was  produced  at  Cassel  in  1 832.  During 
the  next  year,  which  was  saddened  by  the  death 

VOL  IV 


of  his  wife  in  1834,  he  composed  the  oratorio 
'  Des  Heiland's  letzte  Stunden '  (Calvary),  on  a 
libretto  which  Rochlitz  had  offered  to  Mendels- 
sohn, but  which  the  latter,  being  then  en- 
gaged on  'St.  Paul,'  had  declined.  Spohr's 
oratorio  was  first  performed  at  Cassel  on  Good 
Friday,  1835.  [In  1836  he  married  Marianne 
Pfeiffer,  a  pianist,  who  survived  him,  dying  at 
Cassel,  Jan.  4,  1892.]  In  1839  he  paid  his 
second  visit  to  England,  where  meanwhile  his 
music  had  attained  great  popularity.  He  had 
received  an  invitation  to  produce  his  *  Calvaiy ' 
at  the  Norwich  Festival,  and  in  spite  of  the 
opposition  offered  to  the  work  by  some  of  the 
clergy  on  account  of  its  libretto,  his  reception 
appears  to  have  surpassed  in  enthusiasm  any- 
thing he  had  before  experienced.  It  was  a  real 
success,  and  Spohr  for  the  rest  of  his  life  refers 
to  it  as  the  greatest  of  his  triumphs.  Soon  after 
his  return  to  Cassel  he  received  from  Professor 
Edward  Taylor  the  libretto  of  another  oratorio, 
*The  Fall  of  Babylon,'  with  a  request  that  he 
would  compose  it  for  the  Norwich  Festival  of 
1842.  [For  the  circumstance  of  the  Norwich 
Festival  performances,  see  AwncUs  of  the  Norfolk 
and  Norwich  Musical  Festivals,  by  R  H.  Legge 
and  W.  E.  HanseU,  1896.]  In  1840  he 
conducted  the  Festival  at  Aix  -  la  -  Chapelle. 
Two  years  later  he  brought  out  at  Cassel  Wag- 
ner's '  Der  Fliegende  Hollander.'  That  Spohr, 
who,  in  the  case  of  Beethoven  and  Weber,  ex- 
hibited such  inability  to  appreciate  novelty — 
and  who  at  bottom  was  a  conservative  of  con- 
servatives in  music — should  have  been  the  very 
first  musician  of  eminence  to  interest  himself 
in  Wagner's  talent  is  a  curious  fact  not  easily 
explained.  To  some  extent  his  predilection  for 
experiments  in  music — such  as  he  showed  in 
his  *  Weihe  der  Tone,'  his  Symphony  for  two 
orchestras,  the  Historic  Symphony,  the  Quartet- 
Concertante  and  some  other  things — mayaccount 
for  it ;  while  his  long  familiarity  with  the  stage 
had  doubtless  sharpened  his  perception  for  dra- 
matic effect,  and  thus  enabled  him  to  recognise 
Wagner's  eminently  dramatic  genius.  But  there 
was  in  Spohr,  both  as  man  and  as  artist,  a 
curious  mixture  of  the  ultra-Conservative,  nay 
almost  Philistine  element,  and  of  the  Radical 
spirit. 

To  the  great  disappointment  of  himself  and 
his  English  friends,  he  was  unable  to  conduct 
the  *  Fall  of  Babylon '  at  Norwich,  since  the 
Elector  refused  the  necessary  leave  of  absence. 
Even  a  monster  petition  from  his  English  ad- 
mirers and  a  special  request  from  Lord  Aberdeen, 
then  at  the  head  of  the  Government,  to  the 
Elector,  had  not  the  desired  result.  The  oratorio, 
however,  was  performed  with  the  greatest 
success,  and  Spohr  had  to  be  satisfied  with  the 
reports  of  his  triumph,  which  poured  in  from 
many  quarters.  On  the  first  day  of  his  summer 
vacation,  he  started  for  England,  and  soon  after 
his  arrival  in  London  conducted  a  performance 

2  T 


ception  here  was  of  the  most  enthusiastic  kind. 
The  oratorio  was  repeated  on  a  Urge  scale  by 
the  Sacred  Harmonic  Society  in  Exeter  Hall. 
The  last  Philharmonic  Concert  of  the  season 
(July  3)  was  almost  entirely  devoted  to  Spohr, 
having  in  its  programme  a  symphony,  an  over- 
ture, a  violin-concerto,  and  a  vocal  duet  of  his. 
By  special  request  of  the  Queen  and  Prince 
Albert  an  extra  concert  with  his  co-operation 
was  given  on  July  10,  in  which  also  he  was 
well  represented.  A  mostenjoyable  tour  through 
the  South  and  West  of  England,  and  Wales, 
brought  this  visit  of  Spohr's  to  a  happy  end. 

The  year  1844  was  marked  by  the  compo- 
sition of  his  last  opera,  '  Die  Ereuzfahrer '  (The 
Crusaders),  for  which  he  had  himself  arranged 
the  libretto  from  a  play  of  Kotzebue.  It  was 
performed  at  Cassel  and  Berlin,  but  had  no 
lasting  success.  During  his  vacations  he  made 
a  journey  to  Paris,  and  witnessed  at  the  Od^n 
the  32nd  performance  of  the  '  Antigone  *  with 
Mendelssohn's  music.  The  members  of  the 
Conservatoire  orchestra  arranged  in  his  honour 
a  special  performance  of  his  'Consecration  of 
Sound.'  In  the  same  year  he  conducted  the 
'  Missa  Solemnis '  and  the  Choral  Symphony  at 
the  great  I^thoven  Festival  at  Bonn.  The 
year  1847  saw  him  again  in  London,  where  the 
Sacred  Harmonic  Society  announced  a  series  of 
three  concerts  for  the  production  of  his  principal 
sacred  compositions:  *The  Fall  of  Babylon,' 
'Calvary,'  *The  Last  Judgment,'  'The  Lord's 
Prayer,*  and  Milton's  84th  Psalm.  However, 
on  grounds  similar  to  those  which  had  roused 
80  much  opposition  at  Norwich,  *  Calvary '  was 
omitted  from  the  scheme,  and  'The  Fall  of 
Babylon '  repeated  in  its  place. 

On  his  return  to  Cassel,  Spohr  seems  to  have 
been  quite  absorbed  by  the  great  political  events 
then  going  on  in  Germany.  In  the  summer  of 
1848  he  spent  his  vacations  at  Frankfort,  where 
the  newly  created  German  Parliament  was  sit- 
ting, and  he  was  never  tired  of  listening  to  the 
debates  of  that  short-lived  political  assembly. 
In  1849  he  composed  a  fresh  symphony,  'The 
Seasons ' — ^his  ninth.  With  1850  a  long  chain 
of  annoyances  began.  When  his  usual  summer 
vacation  time  arrived,  the  Elector,  probably 
intending  to  show  displeasure  at  his  political 
opinions,  refused  to  sign  the  leave  of  absence — 
a  mere  formality,  as  his  right  to  claim  the  vaca- 
tion was  fixed  by  contract.  After  several  fhiitless 
attempts  to  obtain  the  signature,  Spohr,  having 
made  all  his  arrangements  for  a  long  journey, 
left  Cassel  without  leave.  This  step  involved 
him  in  a  law-suit  with  the  administration  of  the 
theatre,  which  lasted  for  four  years,  and  which 
he  finally  lost  on  technical  grounds. 

For  the  London  season  of  1852  Spohr  had 
received  an  invitation  from  the  new  Opera  at 
Covent  Garden  to  adapt  his  '  Faust '  to  the 


some  further  additions  and  alterations.  It  was 
produced  with  great  success  under  his  own 
direction  on  July  15,  the  principal  parts  being 
sustained  by  Castellan,  Ronconi,  Formes,  and 
Tamberlik.  In  1853,  after  many  fruitless  at- 
tempts which  were  regularly  frustrated  by  the 
Elector,  he  at  last  succeeded  in  bringing  out 
Wagner's  '  Tannhauser '  at  CasseL  In  reference 
to  it  he  says  in  his  Autobiography,  '  This  opera 
contains  a  great  deal  that  is  new  and  beautiful, 
but  also  some  things  which  are  ugly  and  ex- 
cruciating to  the  ear,'  and  speaking  of  the  2nd 
finale  he  says :  '  In  this  finale  now  and  then 
a  truly  frightful  music  is  produced.'  That  he 
considered  Wagner  by  far  the  greatest  of  all 
living  dramatic  composers  he  declared  as  soon 
as  he  became  acquainted  with  'The  Flying 
Dutchman.'  From  'Tannhauser'  he  would  have 
proceeded  to  *  Lohengrin,'  but  owing  to  the  usual 
opposition  of  the  court,  all  his  endeavours  to 
bring  it  out  were  frustrated.  In  the  same  year 
he  came  for  the  sixth  and  last  time  to  England, 
to  fulfil  an  engagement  at  the  New  Philharmonic 
Concerts.  At  three  of  these  he  conducted  not 
only  many  of  his  own  works — especially  the 
Symphony  for  two  orchestras — but  also  the 
Choral  Symphony.  At  the  same  time  '  Jessonda' 
was  in  preparation  at  Covent  Garden.  But  as 
it  could  not  be  produced  before  the  close  of  his 
vacation,  Spohr  was  unable  to  conduct  it 
himself. 

From  this  time  his  powers  began  to  decline. 
He  still  went  on  composing,  but  declared  him- 
self dissatisfied  with  the  results.  In  1857  he 
was  pensioned  off,  very  much  against  his  wish, 
and  in  the  winter  of  the  same  year  had  the 
misfortune  to  break  his  arm,  which  compelled 
him  to  give  up  violin-playing.  Once  more,  in 
1858,  at  the  celebration  of  the  fiftieth  anniver- 
sary of  the  Prague  Conservatorium,  he  con- 
ducted his  'Jessonda'  with  wonderful  energy. 
It  was  his  last  public  appearance.  He  died 
quietly  on  Oct  22,  1859,  at  Cassel,  and  thus 
closed  the  long  life  of  a  man  and  an  artist  who 
had  to  the  full  developed  the  great  talents  and 
powers  given  to  him ;  who  throughout  a  long 
career  had  lived  up  to  the  ideal  he  had  conceived 
in  youth ;  in  whom  private  character  and 
artistic  activity  corresponded  to  a  rare  degree, 
even  in  their  foibles  and  deficiencies.  That 
these  last  were  not  small  cannot  be  denied. 
His  utter  want  of  critical  power  in  reference 
both  to  himself  and  to  others  is  fully  exposed 
in  his  interesting  Autobiography,*  which,  how- 
ever, bears  the  strongest  possible  testimony  to 
his  rare  manly  straightforwardness  and  sincerity 
in  word  and  deed,  and  to  the  childlike  purity 
of  mind  which  he  preserved  from  early  youth 
to  latest  age.     Difficult  as  it  is  to  understand 

I  Louis  Spohr't  MbUMoarapkiei  Oiiwl  und  asttiiigcD,  O.   H. 
Wlgasd,    1880.      Two    volUDes,    with    portrait    and 


SPOHR 


SPOHR 


643 


."amons  criticisms  on  Beethoyen  and  his 
est  for  Wagner,  their  sincerity  cannot  he 
'ted  for  a  moment.  According  to  his  lights 
ii^er  stood  up  for  the  dignity  of  his  art,  with 
ia.me  unflinching  independence  of  character 
^w^hich  he  ckimed,  not  without  personal 
tlie  rights  of  a  free  citizen.  It  is  true 
lie  caUed  himself  a  disciple  of  Mozart. 
tlie  universality  of  Mozart's  talent  was  the 
reverse  of  Spohr's  exclusive  individualism  ; 
except  in  their  great  regard  for  form,  and 
certain  similarity  of  melodic  structure,  the 
masters  have  hardly  anything  in  common, 
hr  certainly  was  a  born  musician,  second 
7  to  the  very  greatest  masters  in  true  musical 
inct ;  in  power  of  concentration  and  of  work 
lly  inferior  to  any.  But  the  range  of  his 
nt  was  not  wide ;  he  never  seems  to  have 
a  able  to  step  out  of  a  given  circle  of  ideas  and 
bliiients.  He  never  left  the  circle  of  his  own 
ividuality,  but  drew  everything  within  it. 
the  same  time  he  left  much  outside  of  that 
lie,  and  his  ignorance  of  the  achievements  of 
ers  was  often  astounding.  This  is  illustrated 
a  well-authenticated  story.  A  pupil  of  his 
;  him,  and  went  for  some  time  to  Leipzig  to 
dy  the  piano  and  other  branches  of  music 
his  return  to  Cassel  he  called  on  Spohr,  and 
s  asked  to  play  to  him.  The  pupil  played 
eth  oven's  sonata  in  E  minor,  op.  90.  Spohr 
s  much  struck,  and  when  the  piece  was  finished 
xie  the  singular  inquiry,  *  Have  you  composed 

ich  more  in  that  style,  Herr ? ' 

He  was  fond  of  experiments  in  composition — 
3h  as  new  combinations  of  instruments  (to  wit 
B  Double  Quartets,  the  Symphony  for  two 
^hestras,  the  Quartet-Concerto,  and  others), 
adoption  of  programmes  ('Consecration  of 
•und'  ;  Concertino,  *Past  and  Present,*  etc.), 
id  thus  showed  his  eagerness  to  strike  out  new 
tths.  But  after  all,  what  do  we  find  under 
lese  new  dresses  and  fresh-invented  titles  but 
16  same  dear  old  Spohr,  incapable  of  putting 
1  a  really  new  face,  even  for  a  few  bars  ? 
Napoleon,' says  Robert  Schumann*  (jipropos 
.■  Spohr's  Historical  Symphony),  *  once  went  to 
masked  ball,  but  before  he  had  been  in  the 
)om  a  few  minutes  folded  his  arms  in  his  well- 
uown  attitude.  "  The  Emperor !  the  Emperor ! " 
t  once  ran  through  the  place.  Just  so,  through 
lisgiiises  of  the  Symphony,  one  kept  hearing 
*  Spohr,  Spohr"  in  every  comer  of  the  room.' 
lence  there  is  considerable  sameness — nay, 
nonotony,  in  his  works.  Be  it  oratorio  or  con- 
jerto,  opera  or  string-quartet — he  treats  them 
ill  very  much  in  the  same  manner,  and  it  is  not 
?o  much  the  distinctive  styles  peculiar  to  these 
several  forms  of  music  that  we  find,  as  Spohr's 
peculiar  individuality  impressed  upon  all  of 
them.  He  certainly  was  not  devoid  of 
originality — in  fact  his  style  and  manner  are 
80  entirely  his  own  that  no  composer  is  perhaps 

1  Oecammeft«  Bdirijtm^  Iv.  80. 


80  absolutely  unmistakable  as  he  is.  That  an 
originality  so  strong  and  so  inalienable,  unless 
supported  by  creative  power  of  the  very  first 
order  and  controlled  by  self-criticism,  would 
easily  lead  to  mannerism  is  obvious ;  and  a 
mannerist  he  must  be  called.  Certain  melodious 
phrases  and  cadences,  chromatic  progressions  and 
enharmonic  modulations,in  themselves  beautiful 
enough,  and  most  effective,  occur  over  and  over 
again,  until  they  appear  to  partake  more  of  the 
nature  of  mechanical  contrivances  than  to  be  the 
natural  emanations  of  a  living  musical  organism. 
The  present  lack  of  interest  in  Spohr's  music  is 
probably  only  the  natural  reaction  from  an 
unbounded  and  indiscriminating  enthusiasm, 
which,  in  England  at  one  time,  used  to  place 
Spohr  on  the  same  level  with  Handel  and  Beet- 
hoven. These  temporary  fluctuations  will, 
however,  sooner  or  later  subside,  and  then  his 
true  position  as  a  great  master,  second  in  rank 
only  to  the  very  giants  of  ai*t,  will  be  again 
established. 

The  technical  workmanship  in  his  composi- 
tions is  admirable,  the  thematic  treatment  his 
strong  point ;  but  it  would  appear  that  this  was 
the  result  rather  of  a  happy  musical  organisation 
than  of  deep  study.  He  cannot  be  reckoned 
amongst  the  great  masters  of  counterpoint,  and 
the  fugues  in  his  oratorios,  though  they  run 
smoothly  enough  and  are  in  a  sense  effective, 
can  hardly  be  called  highly  interesting  from  a 
musical  point  of  view. 

Symmetry  of  form  is  one  of  the  chief 
characteristics  of  his  works  ;  but  this  love  of 
symmetry  grew  eventually  into  a  somewhat 
pedantic  formalism.  A  cadenza  without  its 
preceding  '  passage  and  shake '  he  is  reported 
to  have  held  in  abhorrence.  His  instrumenta- 
tion shows  the  master-hand  throughout,  although 
his  predilection  for  extreme  keys  presents  much 
difficulty  to  the  wind  instniments,  and  some- 
times, especially  in  his  operas,  the  orchestra 
is  wanting  in  perspicuity,  and  not  free  from 
monotony. 

To  his  violin-concertos — and  among  them 
especially  to  the  7th,  8th,  and  9th — must  be 
assigned  the  first  place  among  his  works.  They 
are  only  surpassed  by  those  of  Beethoven  and 
Mendelssohn,  and  are  probably  destined  to  live 
longer  than  any  other  of  his  works.  They  are 
distinguished  as  much  by  noble  and  elevated 
ideas  as  by  masterly  thematic  treatment ;  while 
the  supreme  fitness  of  every  note  in  the  solo- 
part  to  the  nature  of  the  violin,  need  hardly 
be  mentioned.  They  are  not  likely  to  disappear 
soon  from  the  repertory  of  the  best  violinists. 
His  duets  and  concertantes  for  two  violins, 
and  for  violin  and  viola,  are  of  their  kind  un- 
surpassed. By  the  frequent  employment  of 
double  stops  great  sonority  is  produced,  and,  if 
well  played,  the  eftect  is  charming.  The  mass 
of  his  chamber-music,  a  great  number  of  quartets, 
quintets,  double  quartets,  trios,  etc.,  is  nowa- 


favourites  with  amateurs  of  the  older  generation, 
they  are,  with  few  exceptions,  all  but  unknown 
to  the  musicians  of  the  present  day.  The  reason 
for  this  must  be  found  in  the  fact  that  a  severer 
standai*d  of  criticism  is  applied  to  chamber- 
music  in  general,  and  especially  to  the  stringed 
quartet,  than  to  any  other  form  of  musical 
composition,  not  even  excepting  the  symphony. 
Spohr  as  a  composer  of  quartets  was  rarely  able 
to  shake  off  the  great  violin-virtuoso.  Some 
of  the  quartets — the  so-called  Quatuors  brillants 
or  Solo  Quartets — are  avowedly  violin-concertos 
accompanied  by  violin,  viola,  and  violoncello, 
and  appear  to  have  been  written  to  supply  a 
momentary  want.  And  even  those  which  claim 
to  be  quartets  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term, 
almost  invariably  give  to  the  first  violin  an 
undue  prominence,  incompatible  with  the  true 
quartet-style.  Allowing  all  this,  it  must  be 
maintained  that  many  of  the  slow  movements 
are  of  great  beauty  ;  and  altogether,  in  spite  of 
undeniable  drawbacks,  his  quartets  contain  so 
much  fine  and  noble  music  as  certainly  not  to 
deserve  the  utter  neglect  they  have  fallen  into. 

His  oratorios,  still  enjoying  a  certain  popu- 
larity in  England,  are  but  rarely  heard  in  other 
countries,  'fhey  contain,  no  doubt,  much  beauti- 
ful music,  and  occasionally  rise  even  to  grandeur 
and  sublimity.  Yet  one  cannot  help  feeling 
a  certain  incongruity  between  the  character  of 
the  words  and  the  musical  treatment — between 
the  stem  solemnity  of  such  subjects  as  *  Calvary  * 
or  *  The  Last  Judgment '  and  the  quiet  charm 
and  sweetness  of  Spohr's  music,  which  even  in 
its  most  powerful  and  passionate  moments  lacks 
the  all-conquering  force  here  demanded. 

Of  his  many  songs  a  few  only  have  attained 
gr^t  popularity,  such  as  *  The  Bird  and  the 
Maiden,'  and  some  more. 

As  an  executant  Spohr  counts  amongst  the 
greatest  of  all  times.  Through  Franz  £ck  he 
received  the  solid  principles  of  the  Mannheim 
School,  and  Bode's  example  appears  afterwards 
to  have  had  some  influence  on  his  style.  He 
was,  however,  too  original  to  remain  fettered 
by  any  school,  still  less  under  the  influence  of 
a  definite  model.  He  very  soon  formed  a  style 
of  his  own,  which  again — ^like  his  style  as  a 
composer — was  a  complete  reflex  of  his  peculiar 
individuality.  It  has  often  been  remarked  that 
he  treated  the  violin  pre-eminently  as  a  singing 
instrument,  and  we  can  readily  believe  that  the 
composer  of  the  Scena  Cantante  and  of  the  slow 
movements  in  the  9th  and  other  Concertos, 
played  with  a  breadth  and  beauty  of  tone  and 
a  delicacy  and  refinement  of  expression  almost 
unequalled.  A  hand  of  exceptional  size  and 
strength  enabled  him  to  execute  with  great 
facility  the  most  difficult  double-stops  and 
stretches.  His  manner  of  bowing  did  not 
materially  differ  from  that  of  the  old  French 
School  (Viotti,  Rode).    Even  in  quick  passages 


most  brilliant  and  effective,  moderately  quick, 
every  note  firmly  marked  by  a  movement  of  the 
wrist.  The  lighter  and  freer  style  of  bowing, 
that  came  in  with  Paganini,  and  has  been 
adopted  more  or  less  by  all  modem  players,  was 
not  to  his  taste.  He  appears  to  have  had  a 
special  dislike  to  the  use  of  the  *  springing  bow,' 
and  it  is  a  characteristic  fact  that,  when  he  first 
brought  out  Mendelssohn's  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream  Overture  at  Cassel,  he  insisted  on  the 
violins  playing  the  quick  passage  at  the  opening 
with  finn  strokes. 

If  Spohr's  compositions  for  the  violin  do  not 
present  abnormal  difficulties  to  the  virtuoso  of 
the  present  day,  such  was  not  the  case  at  the 
time  when  they  were  written.  They  were  then 
considered  the  ne  plus  ultra  of  difficulty.  We 
must  also  remember  that  he  was  too  great  an 
artist  and  musician  to  care  for  display  of  execu- 
tive skill  for  its  own  sake,  and  that  in  conse- 
quence the  difficulties  contained  in  his  work^ 
do  not  by  any  means  represent  the  limit  of  his 
powers  as  an  executant.  He  had  a  large  number 
of  pupils,  the  best  known  of  whom  were  St. 
Lubin,  Pott,  Ferdinand  David,  Kompel,  Bla- 
grove,  Bott,  Bargheer.  Henry  Holmes  belonged 
to  his  school,  but  was  never  his  pupil.  Spohr 
was  considered  one  of  the  best  conductois  of 
his  time.  An  unerring  ear,  imperturbable 
rhythmical  feeling,  energy  and  fire,  were  com- 
bined with  an  imposing  personal  appearance 
and  great  dignity  of  bearing. 

As  a  man  he  was  universally  respected, 
although,  owing  to  a  certain  reserve  in  his 
character  and  a  decided  aversion  to  talking,  he 
was  not  rarely  reproached  with  coldness  and 
bmsqueness  of  manner.  At  the  same  time  he 
gained  and  kept  through  a  long  life  certain 
intimate  friendships — with  Hauptmann*  and 
others — and  in  many  instances  showed  great 
kindness,  and  extended  not  a  little  courtesy,  to 
brother  artists.  That  this  was  not  incompatible 
with  an  extraordinary  sense  of  his  own  value 
and  importance  is  evident  in  every  page  of  his 
Autobiography,  a  most  amusing  work,  deserving 
a  better  translation  than  it  has  yet  found.' 

His  works,  of  which  a  catalogue  is  given 
below,  comprise  9  great  Symphonies ;  a  large 
number  of  Overtures  ;  17  Violin-Concertos  and 
Concertinos ;  many  other  Concert  pieces  (Pot- 
pourris, Variations,  etc.)  for  the  violin,  for  violin 
and  harp  ;  15  Violin-Duets ;  Duets  for  violin 
and  PF.  ;  4  Concertos  and  other  pieces  for 
clarinet ;  33  String  Quartets ;  8  Quintets ; 
4  Double  Quartets ;  6  PF.  Trios ;  2  Sextets ; 
an  Octet ;  and  a  Nonet ;  4  great  Oratorios ; 
a  Mass;  several  Psalms  and  Cantatas;  10 
Operas ;  a  great  many  Songs,  Part-Songs  and 
other  vocal  pieces — over  200  works  in  all. 


1  HMvtmuin's  lettora  to  Spobr  1i»t»  bean  pnMtab«d »»?  9J*2d 

edited  bjr  A.  D.  Coleridge  (18BS). 
3  LouU  Spokr'a  AutoHofraph^,  laogxauM,  IMS- 


SPOHR 


SPONDEE 


645 


Catalogtu  of  Spohr*s  printed  Works, 

mded  on  the  Catalogue  edited  by  H.  M. 
Schlotterer  (B.  k  H.,  1881).i 


mcerto  for  Violin  (No.  1, 

\.  in  in.). 

wicorto    for   V.  (No.  3.  D 

iiin.l. 

OaoH  Conoertamta  for  S  V. 

Btriiig  Quartet*  (C,  O). 

li-Ht    Potpoorri  on  Air  of 

L>fi.ljiyni>o  for  V.  with  ace. 

of  '2uil  v..  Viol»  and  Baw. 

a.rtation«  (No.  1.  D)  for  V. 

Nolo.   2nd    v.,  Viola,  and 

'oiicerto    for  V.    (No.  S,  C 
niln.). 

/ariationa  (No.  2,  A  min.) 
for  V.  solo.  2ud  V.,  Viola. 

fuid  Ban. 
:  I)uo«  Conoertanta  lor  2  V. 

(Noa.4,5). 
•oucerto  for  V.  (No.  4.  B 

luin.). 
QuHtuor  Brlllant  for  S  V.. 

Viola  and  Voello  (No.  S.  D 

min.K 
Overture  (No.  1,  0  min.). 
Orand  Duo  for  V.  and  Viola 

(No.  6). 

2  String  Qnarteta  (Noa.  4.  6 

C.  A). 
.  Overture  (No.  8.  D).  'Die 

PrUfung.' 
C;rande  Sonate  for  FF.  (or 

Harp)  and  V.  (B.). 
Concerto  for  V.  (No.  5,  Eb). 


First       Symphony       {So] 

Peters.  _, 

Overture  (No.  3.  Eb).  'Al- 

runa.' 
Potpourri  on  themea  of  Mo- 
zart (No.  2.  Ebl  for  V.  with 
ace.  of  2nd  V..  Viola,  and 
Bwn. 

.   Pfitpourri  on  themea  of  Mo- 
zart  (No.  8.  6)  for  V.  with 
Her.  of  Qnartet.  Flute.  Oboe, 
Clarinet.  2  Baaaoona,  and  2 
HomB. 
.  Potp»inrri  on  Themea  of  Mo- 
zart (No.  4,  B)  for  V.  with 
ace.  of  2nd  v..  VioU.  and 
Bau. 
•.  6  Qerman  Bonn, 
k  Concerto  for  Clariuet  (No.  1, 

Cmin.l. 
r.  Quartet  for  2  V.,  Viola,  and 

Violone  (No.  6.  O  min.). 
».  Concerto  for  V.  (Na  6.  G 

min.). 
9.  :^  string  Qnarteta  (Noa.  7.  8. 

9;  EI7.C  min..  Pmin.). 
0.  Ktring  Qnartet  (No.  10.  A), 
tl.  (inind  Nonetto  (P.  maj.)  for 
v..    Viola.    Voello.     Baas. 
Flute.  Oboe.  Clarinet.  Baa- 
iK>on,  and  Horn. 
«.  OcUit   (R   maJ.)   for   V.,    2 
VioUu,  Voello.  Clarinet.  2 
Homt,  and  Baas. 
Xi.  2  Qulnteta  for  2  V..  2  Violaa. 
and  Voello  (Na  1.  Eb :  No. 
2,0). 
^4.  Nottumo  (in  C)  for  wind  in- 
Rtruinenta    and    Turldah 
liand. 
av  Fantasia  for  Harp  (Ab). 
M\,  Variationi  for  Harp  (F). 
:{7.  6  Gvmian  songs  (2Dd  book  of 

Sonp). 
38.  Concei-to  for  V.  (No.  7.  B 

min.). 
S9.  3  Duets  for  V.  (Noa.  7.  8.  9 ; 
D  min..  Eb,  E|. 

40.  Onnde  Polonaiat  (A  min.) 

for  V.  with  Orch. 

41.  6  German  Songi  (3rd  book  of 

Songs). 
4*1  Potpourri.  Arrangement  for 

V.  and  PP.  of  op.  24. 
4.!.  Qnatuor       Brlllant        for 

Rtringed  inatr.  (No.  II.  B). 
44.  6  4 -part  Songs   for   male 

voico. 
4.\  3  String  QuarteU  (No«.  12. 

13.14;  C.Emln..  Fmin.). 


46.  Introduction  and  Rondo  (B) 

for  FF.  and  V. 

47.  Concerto  for  V.  No.  8.  A 

min.       *In    modo    d'una 
Boena     eantante.'      ('Ge- 
aangaaoene '). 
4&  First  Concertante  for  2  V. 
and  Orch.  (A  min.). 

48.  Second  Symphony  (D  min.) 

Ded.  to  Philharmonie  So- 
ciety. 
00.  Potpourri  (Ft  min.)  for  V. 

and  FF.  on  Airs  from  '  Die 

ZauberflOte.'    Peters. 
81.  Grand  Bondo  for  V.  and  FF. 

ooncertanta. 
62.  Quintet    for    PF..     FIut«. 

Clarinet.  Horn,  and  Baa- 

aoon  (C  min.). 
53.  Arrangement  of  op.  52  for 

PF.  and  stringed  inatr. 
64.  Masa  for  6  Solo  Voicea  and  2 

6-part  Choirs. 
06.  Concerto  for  V.   (No.  9,  D 

min.). 
88.  Potpourri  for  V.  and  PF.  on 

Aira  from  'Daa  uuterbro- 

ehene  Opferfeat.' 

67.  Concerto  for  Clarinet  (No.  2. 

Bb). 

68.  3  String  Quarteta  (Noa.  18. 

17,  18 :  Eb.  A  min..  G). 

80.  Potpourri  (A  min.)  on  Iriah 

Airs  for  V.  and  Orch. 

60.  '  Fkust.' Opera. 

61.  Quatuor        Brillant        for 

stringed  instr.  (No.  16.  B 
mlD.). 

62.  Concerto  for  V.  (No.  10.  A 

min.). 

63.  " 
64. 


Potpourri  (Ab)  on  Alrafrom 

'Jemonda.'    for    V.    and 

Voello  with  Orch. 
Double  String  Quartet  (No. 

1,  D  min.). 
Potpourri  (A  min.)  on  Aira 

from  '  Jeaaonda,'  for  V.  and 

Orch. 
3  Duoa  Concertanta  for  2  V. 

(Noa.  10. 11. 12;  A  min..  D. 

G  min.). 
Quatuor   BrUhmt   (Na   19. 

A). 
Quintet  fur  stringed  Insir. 

(Na3,Bmin.). 
Concerto  for  V.  (No.  11.  G). 
Scena  and  Aria  for  Soprano. 
6  German  Songs  (Book  4  of 

Sonn). 
'Der  Berggeist.'  Opera. 
3  String  Quarteta  (Noa.  20. 

21.   22;    A   min..    Bb.    D 

min.). 
Overture.      '  Macbeth '      (B 

min.). 

•I  ■  .1,      V',.,M,..'Cli,5». 

D<       ■  v'^ft'1  I'f    Eiii.ged 

l..>^^,  i\...  ;:,  iill, 
Tl.lrJ  ^>iiijii1i4^<i]y  (C  min). 
C<<TRiarto  fyr  V.  <A  da  in.). 
Pcitprmnl  for  Clarinet  \F). 
FkrttulA  and  Variationi  for 

(Ijinnft  iHbf, 
3  String  </uartrtj  (N»^  23. 

U.^i  R.  a.  A  ntiu.\. 
QtiAtnur  Biillntit  hit  >(tH;]|ed 

ir»«l.r.  iHn.  30,  t^L 
3  Htrinia'  f^tart^t*  \ii\M.  27, 

Jr.    -5^1.    1»    I'lln.,    Ab,    B 

min.). 
3  Prilms  for  Double  Choir 

and  Solo  Voicea 
Fourth     Symphony,     '  The 

Consecration    *  - 


Double  Quartet  for  stringed 

instr.  (Na  8,  B  min.). 
Second  Concertante  for  2  V. 

with  Orch. 
'  Brinnerung  an  Marienbad,' 

Valaea  for  Orch.  (A  min.). 
6    4-part    Songa    for   Male 

Voice*. 
Quintet  for  stringed  instr. 

(No.  4.  G  min.). 
Concertino   for   V.    (Na  2. 

EmaJ.I. 


>  An  earlier  catalogue,  imperfect  but  very  useful  in  ita  time,  was 
that  "t  Jmiusa-renHehntu.  etc..  Caasel.  Lnckhardt. 

*  Unltnown  and  not  to  be  found  in  Sehletterer's  Catalogxie. 
Protably  represented  by  works  left  in  manuscript. 


Op. 
W.  Quatuor  Brillant  for  stringed 

instr.  (Na  SO.  A  min.). 
M.  6   Songa   for  Contralto   or 

Baritone  (Book  6  of  Songs). 
9Sl  Duo  Conoertant  for  PF.  and 

V.  (G  min.). 

96.  Duo  Conoertant  for  PF.  and 

V.  (F). 

97.  Hymn.  '  St  Caedlia.'    Cho- 

rus. Soprano  Sola 
97a.  Psalm  24.  for  Chonu,  Solo 

Voice*,  and  PF. 
OS.  Hymne.  'Gott,  du  blstgroaa' 

(God.  thou  art  great),  for 

Chorua.  Solo  Voicea,  and 

Orch. 
89.  Fantasia  on  Baupaeh's  '  Die 

Tbohter  der  Luft'  in  form 

of  a  Concert-Overture  for 

Orch.  (aee  op.  109). 
00.  • 
101.  6  German  8oog»  (Botdc  6  of 

Songa). 
[02.  Fifth  Symphony  (C  min.). 

Fkntasia  op.  99  used  as  flrat 


.  60eraian8ong»wlthaoet.of 

PF.  and  Clarinet  (Book  7 

of  Songa). 
.  'Vater    unaer'   (words    by 

Klopstook). 
.  6  Songs  (Book  8  of  Bongs). 
.  Quintet  for  stringed  instr. 

(Na  6.  G  min.). 
.  3   Duets  for  Soprano  and 

T«nor  with  PF. 
3  Duets  for  2  Sopranos. 

C<»certino  for  V..  'Sonst 

und  Jetat '  (No.  3.  A  min.). 
Rondo  alia  Bpagnuola  (C)  for 

PF.  and  V. 
Duo  Conoertant  for  PF.  and 

V.  (No.  8.  E). 

lonate  Concertanl 

andV.  (EbiT 

Do.  m. 

Da(Ab). 

Historical  Symphony  (Na  6. 
G).  Dedicated  to  the  Phil- 
harmonic Soc..  London. 

Fantasia  for  PF.  and  V.  on 
A  ira  from  *  Der  Alchymlst. ' 

Fantasia  for  PF.  (or  Harp) 
and  V.  on  Aira  of  Handel 
and  Abt  Vogler. 

Trio  Conoertant  (E  min.)  for 
PF..  v..  and  VoeUa 

6  4-part  Songa  fbr  mixed 
Voices. 

Double  Symphony.  '  Irdi- 
mAxn  und  Gftttllchea  im 
Menschenleben.'  for  Double 
Orch. 

Psalm  198.  Chorus  and  Solo 
Voicea  with  Org»n  or  PF. 

Trio  Conoertant  for  PF..  V.. 
and  Voello  (No.  2.  F  m*l.). 

Trio  Conoertant  for  PF..  V.. 
and  Voello  (No.  3.  A  min.). 

SonaU  (Ab)  for  PF.  Dedi- 
cated to  Mendelasohn. 

Concert-Overture.  *  Im  em- 
stenStyr(D). 

'Elegisch  u.  humorlstisch.' 
6  Duettinoa  for  PF.  and  V. 

Concerto  for  V.  (Na  16.  E 
min.). 


Op. 

199.  Quintet  fbr  strlnied  Inatr. 
(Na  6.  B  min.). 

130.  Quintet  for  PF..  2  V..  Viola. 

andVoella 

131.  Quartet  Concerto  for  2  V.. 

VloUand  VoeUo.with  Orch. 

132.  String  Quartet  (No.  31.  A). 

133.  Trio  for  PP..  V..  and  Vcello 

(Na  4.  Bb). 

134.  Psalm  84  (Milton).    Chorus 

and  Solo  Voices  with  Orch. 
136.  Sechs   Salonst&cke    for   V. 
andPF. 

136.  Double  Quartet  (Na  4.  Bb). 

137.  Symphony  (Na  8.  G  min.). 

Dedicated  to  the  Philhar- 
monie Soc.  of  London. 

138.  Sonatina  for  PF.  and  Voice. 

'  An  Sie  am  Clavier.' 

139.  6  Songs   (Book  9).     LQek- 

hardt. 

140.  Sextet  for  2  V..  2  Violaa. 

and  2  Vcellos  (C  mi^). 

141.  Quartet  (Na  32.  C). 

142.  Trio  for  PP..  v..  and  Vcdlo 

(Na  6.  G  min.). 

143.  Symphony    'The    Seasons' 

<Na  9). 

144.  Quintet  for  stringed  Instr. 

(Na  7.  G  min.). 
146.  Sechs   SalonstQrke    for    V. 
and  PF. 

146.  String  Quartet  (Na  38.  O). 

147.  Septet  for  PF..  Flute,  Clari- 

net. Horn.  Bassoon.  V..  and 

Voello. 
14&  8  Dueta  for  2  V.  (No.  1.  F)- 

dedlcated  to  the  brothers 

Holmes.  (See  opp.  160. 163.) 
140.  Rondoletto  for  PF.  (O). 

180.  3  Duet*  for  2  V.  (No.  2.  D). 

(See  opp.  148. 163.)    Peters. 

181.  6  4-part  Soogs  for  mixed 

Voicea. 

182.  String  Quartet.  No.  34  (Eb). 
168.  3  Duets  for  2  V.  (Na  8.  C). 
164.  6  Songs  for  a  Baritone  voice 

with  ace.  of  V.  and  PF. 

WoKEa  WITHOUT  Orca-iiuiiBKK. 

'  Der  Zwelkampf  mlt  der  Ge- 
liebten.'    Open. 

Overture  and  Baas  Air  from  the 
Cantata,  'Dm  befreite  Deutach- 


Zemlre  and  Acor.'    Opera. 

:e'  (The  La 


'Die  letxten  Dinge' 


Judgment).    Oratoria 

'  vater  Unser '  (worda  by  Mahl- 
man). 

'  Der  Alchymist.'    Opera. 

Violinschule. 

'  Des  Heilands  letzte  Stunden ' 
(Calvary).    Oratorio. 

Overture  and  Song  for  the  play 
Der  Matrose.' 

'Der  Fall  Babvlona.'   Oiatoria 

'Die  Kreuzfahrer'  (The  Cru- 
saders).   Opera. 

36  Violin  Studies  by  Fiorillo, 
with  a  2nd  V.  part  added,  flngered 
and  bowed. 

A  number  of  Songs,  written  for 
and  published  In  various  Albums 
and  Collectiona 

A     considerable    number    of 
works  remain  in  manuscript. 
P.  D. 


SPONDEE  (Lat.  SponcUzus),  A  metrical  foot, 
consisting  of  two  long  syllables  ( — ),  the  first 
of  which  is  enforced  by  an  accent.  Its  effect  is 
well  illustrated  in  Handel's  *  Waft  her,  Angels.' 


It  is  also  frequently  employed  in  instramental 
movements,  as  in  the  thinl  subject  of  the  Rondo 
of  Beethoven's  *  Sonate  path^tique. '     w.  s.  R. 


etc. 


Nov.  14, 1774,  at  Majolati,  near  Jeai  (the  birth- 
plaoe  of  Pergolesi),  of  simple  peasants.  Three 
of  his  brothers  took  orders,  and  Gasparo  was  also 
destined  for  the  priesthood.  An  uncle  on  the 
father's  side  took  chaige  of  the  delicate  child  of 
eight,  and  gave  him  elementaiy  instruction.  It 
happened  that  a  new  organ  was  to  be  built  for 
this  uncle's  church,  and  the  builder,  who  had 
been  sent  for  from  Recanati,  took  up  his  abode 
for  the  time  at  the  parsonage.  Here  he  brought 
his  harpsichord,  and  found  an  earnest  listener  in 
Spontini,  who  would  try  to  pick  out  for  himself 
what  he  had  heard,  whenever  the  organ-builder 
was  absent.  The  latter  noticed  the  boy's  talent, 
and  advised  his  uncle  to  have  him  educated  as 
a  musician ;  but  to  this  the  priest  would  by 
no  means  consent,  resorting  indeed  to  harsh 
measures  to  drive  the  music  out  of  him.  The 
result  was  that  Spontini  ran  away  to  Monte  San 
Vito,  where  he  had  another  uncle  of  a  milder  dis- 
position, who  procured  him  music  lessons  from  a 
certain  Quintiliani.  In  the  course  of  a  year  the 
uncle  at  Jesi  relented,  took  back  his  nephew,  and 
had  him  well  grounded  by  the  local  musicians. 

In  1791  his  parents  took  him  to  Naples, 
where  he  was  admitted  into  the  Conservatorio 
de'  Turchini.  His  masters  for  counterpoint  and 
composition  were  Sala  and  Tritto,  for  singing, 
Tarantino.^  In  the  Neapolitan  Conservatories 
a  certain  number  of  the  more  advanced  pupils 
were  set  to  teach  the  more  backward  ones. 
These  *  monitors,'  as  we  should  say,  were  called 
maestrini  or  maeslrieelli,*  In  1795  Spontini 
became  a  candidate  for  the  post  of  fourth  Tnaes- 
triTWy  but  the  examiners  gave  the  preference  to 
another  pupil.  This  seems  to  have  roused  the 
lad  to  special  industry,  and  in  a  short  time  he* 
was  appointed  first  maestrino.  His  exercise  for 
the  competition  of  1795  has  been  preserved,  and 
is  now  in  the  archives  of  the  Real  CoUegio  di 
Musica  at  Naples.  It  must  be  the  earliest  of 
his  compositions  now  in  existence. ^ 

Spontini  had  already  composed  some  cantatas 
and  church -music  performed  in  Naples  and  the 
neighbourhood,  and  in  1796  had  an  opportunity 
of  attempting  opera.  The  invitation  came  from 
one  of  the  directors  of  the  Teatro  Argentina  in 
Rome,  who  had  been  pleased  with  some  of 
Spontini's  music  which  he  had  heard  at  Naples. 
The  professors  seem  to  have  refused  him  leave 
to  go,  so  he  left  the  Conservatorio  by  stealth, 
and,reaching  Rome,  quickly  composed '  I  puntigli 
delle  donne'  with  brilliant  success.  He  was 
readmitted  into  the  Turchini  at  the  intercession 
of  Piccinni,  who  had  lived  at  Naples  since  lus 
return  in  1791,  and  gave  Spontini  valuable  ad- 
vice with  regard  to  composition,  particularly  for 
his  next  opera, '  L'Eroismo  ridicolo.* *    This  also 

t  Florlmo's  C0nno  Horieo  lulln  aeiuta  mutieale  di  IfemU  (Naples. 
186B).  ToL  L  p.  sa     On  p.  873  Florlmo  RpnikB  of  Salleii  and  not 


Tatanttsou  Bpontlul'L 

*  Uehtenthal,  Dttkmario  e  BOlioffraJla  dMa  Mtutea  (Milan.  1826). 
Tol.  U.  p.  90.  9  Floiimo,  -pfi.  800.  000,  and  elaewhor. 

*  X  oan  find  no  qnita  satisfactory  groand  for  the  at»t«ment  m  often 


*  n  finto  Pittore '  (1798).  Next  foUowed  three 
operas  for  Florence,  all  in  1798.  Meantime 
Naples  had  begun  to  fix  its  attention  on  Spon- 
tini. *  L'Eroismo  ridicolo '  (one  act)  was  given 
at  the  Teatro  Nuovo  during  the  Carnival  of 

1798,  and  reproduced  in  two  acts  as  'La  finta 
Filosofa '  at  the  same  house  in  the  summer  of 

1799.  In  the  Carnival  of  1 800  the  same  theatre 
brought  out  a  new  work  by  the  industrious  com- 
poser, *■  La  fuga  in  maschera.'  ^  It  is  doubtfiil  if 
he  was  present  at  the  performance  ;  for  on  Dec. 
21,  1798,  the  Court,  alarmed  at  the  advance  of 
the  French  troops,  took  flight  to  Palermo,  and 
Cimarosa,  who  as  maestro  di  cappella  should 
have  gone  too,  refusing  to  stir,  Spontini  was  put 
in  his  place,  and  during  1800  composed  for  the 
Court  in  Palermo  no  less  than  three  operas,  in  the 
facile  and  rapid  style  of  a  true  disciple  of  the 
Neapolitan  School.  This  is  specially  worth 
noting,  as  he  afterwards  completely  changed  in 
this  respect,  and  elaborated  most  slowly  and 
carefully  the  very  works  on  which  his  European 
fame  rests.  In  Palermo  he  also  began  to  teach 
singing,  but  towards  the  end  of  1800  was  forced 
to  leave,  as  the  climate  was  affecting  his  health. 
After  supplying  more  operas  for  Rome  and 
Venice,  he  paid  a  visit  to  Jesi,  and  then  took 
ship  at  Naples  for  Marseilles.  His  objective 
was  Paris,  and  there  he  arrived  in  180S. 

From  Lulli  downwards  all  Italian  composers 
seem  to  have  been  impelled  to  try  their  fortunes 
in  the  French  capital.  And,  with  the  solitary 
exception  of  Gluck,  we  may  say  that  each  fresh 
development  of  French  opera  has  originated  with 
an  Italian.  Invariably,  however,  these  foreign 
artists  have  had  to  encounter  the  onslaughts  of 
the  national  jealousy.  The  Bouffonists,  Gluck, 
Cherubini,  all  went  through  the  same  experience ; 
it  was  now  Spontini's  turn.  The  work  by  which 
he  introduced  himself  at  the  Theatre  Italien  (as 
arranged  in  1801),  '  La  finta  Filosofa,'  was,  it  is 
true,  well  received  ;  but  when  he  entered  on  the 
special  domain  of  the  French  op^ra-oomique  he 
was  roughly  disillusioned.  His  first  work  of  the 
kind,  '  Julie,  ou  le  pot  de  fleurs '  (March  1804), 
failed,  and  though  remodelled  by  the  composer 
and  revived  in  1805,  could  not  even  then  keep 
the  boards.^  The  second,  '  La  petite  Maison ' 
(June  23,  1804),  was  hissed  off.  This  fate  was 
not  wholly  undeserved.  Spontini  had  fancied 
that  the  light,  pleasing,  volatile  style,  which 
suited  his  own  countr3rmen,  would  equally  please 
the  Parisians.  The  composition  of  '  La  petite 
Maison '  (three  acts)  occupied  him  only  two 
months,  and  *  Julie '  considerably  less.  I  only 
know  the  latter,  which  was  also  produced  (with- 

made  In  print  that  It  waa  Cimaroaa  and  not  IMoclnnl  *bo  gare 
Spontini  Inatractlon  In  compoaitlon. 

B  Ftftla  speak  ■  of  yet  another  opera.  *  L'  A  mora  aegreto*  (Naplea, 
1700).  but  there  is  no  mention  of  it  in  Florlmo's  4th  volome. 

*  At  least  so  says  Fdtls.  who  was  living  in  Paris  from  the  middle 
of  1804  to  1811,  and  who  not  only  took  great  intereet  in  Spontini's 
works  but  waa  personally  aoqwiinted  with  him.  Ledebor.  in  his 
BerUner  TonkftnUter-Uxteon  (BerUn.  1861),  p.  801,  give*  a  wholly 
oppoaite  account,  but  F^tls  seems  the  more  credible  wltncsa. 


SPONTINI 


647 


success)  in  Berlin,  Dec.  5,  1808.  Here 
there  some  isolated  bit  of  melody  recalls  the 
x>ser  of  the  '  Yestale, '  but  that  ia  all.  F^tis 
krks  that  the  forms  of  this  opera  are  identical 
.  those  of  the  earlier  Neapolitans,  Guglielmi, 
arosa,  and  Paisiello.  This  is  true  ;  but  it 
t  be  added  that  Spontini  by  no  means  at- 
a  to  the  sprightliness  and  charm  of  his  prede- 
ors.  The  melodies,  though  veiy  attractive, 
often  trivial.  Stronger  work  than  this  was 
led  to  beat  the  French  composers,  with 
lul  at  their  head,  and  Boieldieu,  who  had 
ady  written  the  ^  Calife  de  Bagdad,'  in  their 
ks.  Spontini,  however,  was  not  discouraged, 
nng  IJiis  period  F^tis  met  him  occasion- 
'•  at  a  pianoforte -maker's,  and  was  struck 
h  his  invincible  confidence  in  himself, 
was  making  a  livelihood  by  giving  singing- 
tons. 

-Seeing  that  he  had  no  chance  of  making  an 
[)ression  with  his  pi'esent  style  he  broke  away 
III  it  entirely,  and  tried  a  new  ideal.  His 
•y  next  opera,  *  Milton'  (Nov.  27,  1804),  a 
ule  work  in  one  act,  is  of  an  entirely  different 
iracter,  the  melodies  more  expressive,  the 
rmony  and  orchestration  richer,  the  whole 
>i*e  carefully  worked  out,  and  the  sentiment 
.ogether  more  earnest.  But  the  most  interest- 
^  point  in  the  score  is  the  evidence  it  affords 
Mozart's  influence.  One  is  driven  to  the 
Qclnsion  that  Spontini  had  now  for  the  first 
ne  made  a  solid  acquaintance  with  the  works 
the  German  masters.  As  Cherubini  saw  in 
aydn,  so  Spontini  henceforth  saw  in  Mozart 
lid  shortly  afterwards  in  another  German 
m  poser)  a  pattern  of  unattainable  excellence, 
i-en  in  old  age  he  used  to  speak  of  Don  Juan 

*  that  immortal  chef-d'oeuvre/  and  it  was  one 
the  very  few  works  besides  his  own  which 

'  conducted  when  director -general  at  Berlin. 
he  fine  hymn  to  the  Sun  (No.  4)  has  some- 
ling  of  the  mild  solemnity  which  Mozart 
►ntrived  to  impart  to  the  *  Zauberflote,*  and 
so  to  his  compositions  for  the  Freemasons. 
he  most  remarkable  number  is  the  quintet 
^0.  7).  Here  warmth  and  nobility  of  melody, 
iipressive  declamation,  rich  accompaniment, 
id  chann  of  colour  are  all  united.  Such  a 
icee  as  this  is  indeed  scarcely  to  be  found  in  his 
ter  works.  With  the  Neapolitan  school  it 
as  nothing  in  common,  but  is  for  the  most 
M't  drawn  from  the  Mozartean  fount  of  beauty, 
ith  traces  of  that  grandeur  and  nobility  so 
riphatically  his  own.  The  change  of  style 
Inch  separates  his  later  works  from  his  earlier 
nes  is,  at  any  rate  in  this  quintet,  already 
jinplete.  In  other  pieces  of  the  opera  the 
[eapolitan  is  still  discernible,  as  for  instance, 
1  the  crescendo,  which  became  so  celebrated  in 
Rossini's  works,  though  known  to  others  besides 
pontini  before  Rossini's  day. 

*  Milton '  took  at  once  with  the  French,  and 
lade  its  way  into  Germany,  being  produced  in 


Berlin  (translation  by  Treitsohke)  March  24, 
1806,1  Weimar,  Dresden,  and  Vienna. 

The  writer  of  the  libretto,  ^tienne  Jouy, 
played  a  considerable  part  in  Spontini's  life. 
He  was  present  at  the  performance  of  *  La  petite 
Maison,'  but  its  complete  fiasco  (the  work  of  a 
jealous  clique)  had  no  effect  upon  him.  He  saw 
in  Spontini  a  man  of  great  dramatic  talent,  and 
found  in  the  despised  work  a  host  of  beauties 
of  the  first  rank.  Meeting  the  composer  the 
following  morning,  he  offered  him  a  libretto  of 
his  own,  which  Spontini,  in  no  way  disheartened 
by  his  failure,  immediately  accepted.  This 
libretto  was  not  *  Milton,'  but  *La  Vestale.'* 
It  was  originally  intended  for  Cherubini,  but  he 
could  not  make  up  his  mind  to  compose  it,  and 
after  a  long  delay  returned  it^  To  Spontini  it 
afforded  the  means  of  ranking  himselif  at  once 
with  the  first  operatic  composers  of  the  day. 

How  'Milton'  and  'Yestale'  stand  to  each 
other  in  matter  of  date  it  is  impossible  to  ascer- 
tain. That  the  latter  was  composed  before 
'  Milton '  was  put  on  the  stage  is  not  probable, 
since  in  that  case  the  two  must  have  been  written 
within  less  than  six  months.  What  probably 
happened  was  this — an  opportunity  offered  to- 
wards the  close  of  1804  of  producing  a  small 
opera  at  the  Th^tre  Feydeau,  and  Spontini 
then  broke  off  the  longer  work  upon  which  he 
was  already  engaged  to  avail  himself  of  this  new 
chance.  He  may  not  have  been  sorry  too  to 
make  a  preliminary  trial  of  his  new  style  upon 
the  public.  On  tlie  other  hand,  we  know  for 
certain  that  the  score  of  the  *  Vestale '  was  finished 
in  1805.  Jouy  says  that  it  took  three  years  to 
overcome  the  opposition  to  its  production,  and 
the  first  performance  took  place  Dec.  15,  1807. 

He  was  now  fortunately  in  favour  with  the 
Empress  Josephine — to  whom  he  dedicated  the 
score  of  ^Milton' — and  was  appointed  her  'Com- 
positeur particulier.'  A  cantata,  *  L'  Eocelsa 
Gara,'  performed  Feb.  8, 1806,  at  the  fgtes  given 
in  honour  of  Austerlitz,  helped  to  increase  this 
goodwill,  which  proved  of  vital  importance  to 
Spontini  in  maintaining  his  ground  against  the 
opposition  of  the  Conservatoire.  To  such  a 
length  was  this  opposition  carried  that  at  one 
of  the  Concerts  Spirituels  in  Holy  Week,  1807, 
an  oratorio  of  his  was  yelled  off  the  stage  by 
the  students.  Meantime,  however,  through  the 
Empress's  patronage,  '  La  Vestale '  was  in 
rehearsal  at  the  Op^ra.  But  so  prejudiced 
were  the  artists  against  the  work  that  the 
rehearsals  went  on  amid  ridicule  and  opposition, 

1  THehmann'a  UUraiy  Semalm,  edlt«d  bj  DlngelBtedt  (Stntt- 
gart,  CotU.  186S),  p.  415. 

>  See  JotiT'8  own  •ooouni,  A'oMf  aneetlotivuet  ntr  Voptra  d»  la 
rmale.  in  the  Tk6Atn  d'JVImfie  Jou^  (Fmi*.  1894).  to).  IL  i».  149 

>  So  »7«  ytftls.  Othen  h».re  vUted  that  berides  CbernblDl  it  had 
been  offiured  to  ll6hnl,  Boieldlea.  PMhr,  and  othen.  and  that  the 
then  unknown  Spontini  was  a  last  rmource.  That  the  latter  part  of 
theatatenientia  poeitiTely  nntnte  we  know  from  Jouy  hiinMlf,  and 
the  rest  will  not  bear  examination.  The  mlitakea  as  to  the  details 
of  Spontlni'a  life  are  very  numerons.  Jony  even  did  not  know  the 
oorreet  date  of  his  birth,  for  he  speaks  of  him  in  1804  as  '  k  peine 
ig6  de  vingt-cinq  ans.'  For  a  long  time  he  was  universally  supposed 
to  have  been  bom  in  1778. 


in  the  '  Finta  Filosofa '  the  orchestra  was  said 
to  have  drowned  the  voices.*  Whether  this  was 
justified  I  cannot  sav,  but  there  is  some  ground 
for  it  in  the  'Yestale,'  which  also  fell  short  in 
many  other  points.  ^  F^tis  attended  the  re- 
hearsals, and  is  an  unimpeachable  witness  on 
this  point.  Spontini's  thoughts  were  through- 
out fresh  and  significant,  but,  not  having  before 
attempted  lyric  tragedy,  he  did  not  in  all  cases 
succeed  in  giving  them  a  satisfactory  form. 
Then  began  an  interminable  altering  and  re- 
modelling on  his  part ;  the  most  trying  ex- 
periences at  rehearsals  did  not  discourage  him 
from  again  and  again  re-casting  passage  after 
passage,  until  he  had  hit  on  the  best  possible 
form.  This  indefatigable  polishing  and  ex- 
perimenting became  henceforth  one  of  his 
characteristics,  and  instead  of  diminishing,  as 
he  acquired  command  of  his  means,  as  might 
have  been  expected,  each  new  work  seemed  to 
strengthen  the  habit  He  would  alter  a  passage 
four  and  five  times,  each  time  pasting-on  the 
new  version,  and  not  unfrequently,  after  all  this 
experimenting,  he  would  revert  to  the  original 
form. 

The  rehearsals  were  at  length  brought  to  a 
close  after  endless  trouble,  when,  at  the  last 
moment,  the  performance  was  all  but  postponed, 
by  a  command  from  the  Emperor  that  Lesueur's 
'  LaMort  d' Adam, '  which  had  long  been  accepted, 
should  be  given  before  it.  When,  however,  the 
copyist  was  about  to  set  to  work,  by  some 
accident  Lesueur's  score  could  not  be  found, 
and  thus  Spontini  secured  precedence  for  the 
'  Vestale.'  Its  success  was  the  most  brilliant 
imaginable,  and  it  long  remained  a  favourite 
with  the  Parisians,  having  been  performed  200 
times  as  early  as  the  year  1824.  The  cast  on 
the  first  night  was  as  follows :  Licinius,  Nourrit ; 
Cinna,  Lais ;  the  High-Priest,  D^rivis ;  the 
Chief- Augur,  Bonel ;  A  Consul,  Martin  ;  Julia, 
Mme.  Branchu ;  the  Chief  Vestal,  Mme. 
Armand.  Both  composer  and  poet  received 
permission  to  dedicate  the  work  to  the  Empress. 
A  higher  distinction  than  this,  however,  awaited 
Spontini.  Napoleon  had  founded  a  prize  to  be 
given  every  ten  years  to  the  new  opera  which 
should  have  made  the  greatest  success  within 
that  period.  The  time  of  the  award  drew  near. 
M^hul,  Gossec,  and  Gr^try  were  the  judges,  and 
their  bestowal  of  the  prize  on  the  '  Vestale,' 
instead  of  on  Lesueur's  'Bardes,'  was  a  tacit 
acknowledgment  that  the  organised  opposition 
to  the  foreigner  was  at  an  end.  The  opera  soon 
became  known  beyond  France.     The  first  per- 

>  AOf.  MuaUt.  leUung  for  1604.  p.  S8S. 

*  The  '  Vestale '  wa«  A  marvel  of  nolMfor  iteday.sndAgoodatory 
waa  current  aboat  it  in  Fuia  at  the  time.  A  well-known  ph  jaldan 
had  advtaed  a  friend  to  wo  and  hear  it  aa  a  remedy  for  bis  deafneee. 
and  aooompanied  him  to  the  theatre.  After  one  of  the  londeet 
burata.  '  Dootor,'  cried  the  friend  in  eostaey,  'Doctor.  I  can  hear ! ' 
bat  alas,  the  doctor  made  no  reepunee,  the  Mine  noiae  which  had 
cured  hla  friend  had  deafened  him. 


Sept.  8,  1811,3  ^.jth  Isabella  Colbran  as  Julia. 
It  made  a  great  sensation,  and  Spontini  might 
perhaps  have  found  a  worthy  successor  among 
his  own  countrymen  in  Nicola  Antonio  Manfrooe 
had  this  talented  young  man  not  been  carried 
off  by  an  early  death.  On  the  title-page  of 
the  '  Vestale '  Spontini  styles  himself  Chamber- 
composer  to  the  Empress,  and  Maestro  di  cap- 
pella  to  the  Conservatorio  of  Naples.  Whether 
this  title  was  a  new  honour,  or  whether  he 
brought  it  with  him  to  Paris  I  know  not. 
Vigano  adapted  the  *  Vestale '  as  a  ballet,  and 
in  this  form  also  it  was  imiversally  popular  in 
Italy.  In  Berlin  the  first  performance  took 
place  Jan.  18,  1811,toa  translation  by  Herklots. 
It  was  given  at  Munich  on  Jan.  14,  and 
Wiirzburg,  Jan.  10,  1812. 

Jouy  drew  the  material  of  his  poem,  the  action 
of  which  takes  place  in  the  year  of  Rome 
269,  from  Winckelmann's  '  Monumenti  antichi 
inediti.'  It  still  ranks  as  one  of  the  best 
librettos  of  the  19th  century,  and  justly  so. 
As  for  the  music  it  is  so  entirely  new,  and  so 
utterly  unlike  the  Neapolitan  style,  that  it  is 
not  to  be  wondered  at  if  the  malicious  story 
that  Spontini  was  not  the  composer  of  it  has 
occasionally  been  believed.  Not  that  this  could 
have  happened  if  '  Milton '  had  been  bettei* 
known,  for  in  that  little  opera  the  metamorphosis 
of  his  style  is  already  complete.  His  new  style 
Spontini  did  not  evolve  entirely  from  his  own 
resources.  Of  the  influence  of  Mozart  we  have 
already  spoken,  but  that  of  Gluck,  with  whose 
works  he  became  acquainted  in  Paris,  was  more 
important  stilL  *  Iphig^nie  en  Aulide '  is  said 
to  have  been  the  opera  the  first  hearing  of  which 
showed  him  his  future  path.  Not  that  Gluck 
was  in  his  eyes  a  greater  master  than  Mozart 
Some  years  later,  at  a  banquet  given  in 
Spontini's  honour  at  Berlin,  some  one  said  in 
his  praise  that  as  a  composer  he  had  fulfilled 
all  the  requirements  of  a  master  of  the  musico- 
dramatic  art,  when  he  exclaimed  hastily,  '  No, 
it  is  only  Mozart  who  has  done  that.'-^  But 
still  it  is  obvious  that  Gluck  was  nearer  of  kin 
to  him  than  Mozart.  With  Gluck  he  shares 
that  touch  of  grandeur,  the  refined  melancholy 
of  which  is  often  so  peculiarly  attractive,  though 
as  a  rule  the  depth  of  Gluck's  sentiment  is 
beyond  the  reach  of  the  Italian  master.  As 
with  Gluck  too  the  dramatic  gift  preponderates 
in  Spontini  over  the  purely  musical.  The 
moment  that  personal  vindictiveness  against 
Spontini  ceased  it  could  not  but  be  acknowledged 
that  *  La  Vestale '  was  full  of  beauties,  and  that 
it  seized  the  audience  by  its  grand  melodies  and 
fiery  outbursts,  its  depth  of  passion  and  truth 
of  expression,  its  genuinely  tragic  style,  and 

s  See  Florimo.  aeuUa  MuHe&U  M  NaptM,  Iv.  188.  In  hla  eariier 
work,  Oatno  Horieo  miUa  Awola  iiuMieale  di  NapUi  (Napka,  1«»). 
p.  031.  he  aufs  the  flfRt  performance  took  plaoe  In  1809. 

<  H.  Donate  Aw  mtintm  Vtbm,  pt.  8.  p.  8 ;  Berlin.  Behr.  1870L 


SPONTINI 


649 


the  singularly  liappy  way  in  which  the  scenes 
and  characters  were  individualised.  On  the 
other  hand  there  were  great  shortcomings  which 
could  not  be  ignored.  These  chiefly  lay— out- 
side a  certain  monotony  in  the  moyements — in 
the  harmony.  When  Berlioz  afterwards  ventured 
to  maintain  that  scarcely  two  real  faults  in 
harmony  could  be  pointed  out  in  the  score,  he 
only  showed  how  undeveloped  was  his  own  sense 
of  logical  harmony.  It  is  in  what  is  called 
unerring  instinct  for  the  logic  of  harmony  that 
Spontini  so  sensibly  falls  short  in  *  La  Yestale.' 
This,  no  doubt,  arose  from  the  fact  that  his 
early  training  in  Naples  was  insufficient  to  de- 
velop the  faculty,  and  that  when  he  had  dis- 
covered the  direction  in  which  his  real  strength 
lay  it  was  too  late  to  remedy  the  want.  Zelter, 
who  in  reference  to  Spontini  never  conceals  his 
narrow-mindedness,  made  a  just  remark  when 
he  said  that  the  composer  of  the  *  Yestale  '  would 
never  rise  to  anything  much  higher  than  he  was 
then,  if  he  were  over  twenty-five  at  the  time 
that  it  was  written.  ^  He  never  really  mastered 
a  great  part  of  the  material  necessary  for  the 
principal  effects  in  his  grand  operas.  His  slow 
and  laborious  manner  of  writing,  too,  which  he 
retained  to  the  last,  tliongh  creditable  to  his 
conscientiousness  as  an  artist,  is  undoubtedly  to 
be  attributed  in  part  to  a  sense  of  uncertainty. 
Between  the  '  Vestale, '  which  we  take  to  have 
been  finished  in  1806,  and  Spontini's  next  opera, 
four  years  elapsed.  To  this  period  apparently 
belongs  a  collection  of  six  songs,  with  accom- 
paniment for  PF.  or  harp,  entitled  '  Sensations 
deuces,  m^lancoliques  et  douloureuses,  exprim^ 
en  vers  par  M.  de  G. — L.,  et  en  musique  avec 
accompagnement  de  Piano  ou  Harpe  par  Gaspare 
Spontini,  Maitre  de  Ghapelle  dn  Gonservatoire 
de  Naples. '  Some  special  series  of  events  seems 
to  have  given  rise  to  these  pieces,  but  whether 
affecting  the  poet  or  the  composer  is  not  known. 
The  first  two  are  called  '  Sentimens  d'amour,'  the 
third  and  fourth  'Regrets  d' Absence,'  and  the 
last  two  '  Plaintes  sur  la  tombe.'  As  might  be 
expected  they  are  all  very  theatrical,  and  exhibit 
'  many  awkwardnesses  in  the  harmony.  No.  4 
is  the  best,  and  its  opening  phrase  deserves 
quoting  as  a  specimen  of  refined  melancholy  : — 
Moderato.  .-^ 


His  next  opera  was  *  Femand  Gortez, '  the  first 
performance  of  which  took  place  Nov.  28,  1809, 
with  Lavigne  and  Mme.  Branohu  in  the  prin- 
cipal parts.  The  libretto  was  again  by  Jouy, 
and  not  by  Esm^nard,^  who  merely  made  some 
alterations  and  additions.  Napoleon  took  an  in- 
terest in  the  production  of  *  Gortez,'  from  an  idea 

•i  Riehl  {MutOeatUehe  ChardkterM^,  Stb  ed..  Stattgart.  OotU, 
18176.  ToL  1.  p.  192) ;  following  Baool  Kochette.  /roeicthiHoHqum  tur 
la  vie  et  let  ouvraeet  de  M.  SporUini  (Paris,  Flrmln  Didot,  1888). 


that  it  might  influence  public  opinion  in  favour 
of  his  plans  for  the  Spanish  war,  then  in  progress. 
As  soon  as  the  preparations  began  Jouy  was 
warned  by  the  Minister  of  the  Interior  to  intro- 
duce into  the  piece  more  distinct  allusions  to 
the  topics  of  the  day.  He  was  specially  to 
strengthen  the  contrast  between  the  humane 
views  of  Gortez  and  the  fanaticism  of  the  Mexi- 
cans, and  thus  suggest  a  comparison  between  the 
liberal-minded  French  and  the  bigoted  Spaniards 
of  the  day.  Jouy  declining  to  make  these 
alterations,  the  Minister  proposed  Esm^nard  for 
the  work.  Napoleon  was  present  at  the  first 
performance,'  but  the  result  d;d  not  fully  answer 
his  expectations.  Spontini  had  thrown  so  much 
life  into  the  character  of  the  Spaniards,  and  had 
made  them  so  bold,  patriotic,  and  fearless  of 
death,  that  the  sympathies  of  the  audience  were 
enlisted  in  behalf  of  Spaniards  in  general, 
and  Napoleon  ran  the  risk  of  witnessing  an 
exactly  opposite  efiect  to  that  which  he  intended. 
The  success  of  the  opera  was  very  great,  equalling 
if  not  exceeding  that  of  the  '  Yestale.'  On  the 
whole  we  should  not  be  wrong  in  pronouncing 
*  Gortez '  the  more  finished  work  of  the  two. 
The  faults  of  harmony  are  fewer,  the  tendency 
(latterly  so  exaggerated)  to  pile  up  means  in 
order  to  produce  imposing  efiects  is  still  kept 
within  due  bounds.  Remarkable  skill  is  shown 
in  the  treatment  of  the  masses,  and  the  construc- 
tion of  the  laiger  dramatic  forms.  The  martial 
tone  demanded  by  the  subject  is  well  maintained 
throughout,  the  savage  passions  are  delineated 
with  an  energy  often  startling,  while  some  pieces 
aredistinguishedbygrace  and  dignity.  Through- 
out we  are  brought  in  contact  with  an  individual 
artist,  who  has  created  for  himself  his  own  means 
of  expression.*  The  certainty  of  touch,  too, 
in  the  different  characters,  especially  Gortez, 
Amazily,  and  Telasco,  is  worthy  of  all  praise. 
The  way  especially  in  which  the  opposite  nature 
of  the  Spaniards  and  Mexicans  is  brought  out 
shows  consummate  creative  power.  Here  Spon- 
tini is  seen  to  be  a  worthy  successor  of  Gluck, 
who  was  the  first  to  attempt  this  kind  of  problem 
in  his  *  Paris  et  H^lfene.'  Gluck  had  many  able 
successors,  such  as  Winter  in  Germany  and 
M^hul  in  France,  but  Spontini  comes  still  nearer 
to  the  great  model,  and  has  in  his  turn  served 
as  an  example  for  others.  Neither  Rossini's 
'  Guillaume  Tell '  nor  Marschner's  *  Templer  und 
Jiidin '  would  have  been  quite  what  they  are  but 
for  him. 

The  form  in  which  we  know  *  Gortez '  is  not 
that  in  which  it  first  appeared.  After  a  long 
interval  it  was  revived  May  26,  1817,  in  an 
entirely  new  shape.  Esmenard  was  dead,  and 
for  the  alterations  in  the  poem  Jouy  was  entirely 
responsible.  Tlie  third  act  now  became  the  first, 

>  nSdtre  a&imme  Joup,  vol.  ii.  p.lWetteq. 

*  In  fiMe  of  thU  wlf-fividont  fact  but  little  iinport»nc«  vill  be 
Attaohed  to  the  dlacorery  made  in  Pari*  that  the  Trio  'Crdatenr 
de  oe  noareav  monde/  van  an  imitation  of  an  '  O  wilutarls  boetia' 
of  GoMiee's.    See  Journal  det  Mbata  for  Jnne  1,  1817. 


huv  biJiru  ;  BUU16  pEUiaa|^ii  woro  isupprtsaswu  luiu 

others  added,  and  the  part  of  Montezuma  was 
entirely  new.  Jouy  had  introduced  Montezuma 
into  his  original  sketch,  but  thinking  the  part 
weak  and  undramatic  had  omitted  it  in  the  first 
libretto.  It  now  reappeared.  The  part  of 
Amazilj  is  simplified  as  regards  her  appearances, 
but  the  character  is  strengthened.  The  piano- 
forte score,  arranged  by  F.  Naue,  and  published 
by  Hofmeister  of  Leipzig,  gives  the  opera  as  it 
stood  after  a  third  and  final  revision  made  by 
the  poet  Theauleon.  The  full  score  came  out 
in  Paris  in  the  fortieth  year  after  Spontini's 
retirement  from  Berlin.  The  third  act  in  its 
second  form  may  be  found  in  Jouy's  (Euvrcs 
complies,  vol.  ii.  p.  187. 

In  1810  Spontini  became  conductor  of  the 
Italian  opera,  which  was  united  with  the 
Comddie  Fran9aise  under  the  title  of  '  Th^Htre 
de  r  Imperatrice, '  and  located  at  the  Od^n.  He 
formed  a  distinguished  company  of  singers,  im- 
proved the  orchestra,  and  threw  more  variety 
into  the  repertoire.  One  signal  service  was  his 
production,  for  the  first  time  in  Paris,  of  *  Don 
Juan '  in  its  original  form.  He  remodelled  Catel's 
*  Semiramide,'  with  fresh  numbers  of  his  own, 
and  revived  it  with  some  success.  He  also  in- 
stituted Concerts  Spirituels,  at  which  he  success- 
fully introduced  such  works  as  Mozart's  Re- 
quiem, Haydn's  Symphonies,  and  extracts  from 
the  *  Creation.'  But  he  did  not  keep  the  con- 
ductorship  long.  Difibrences  arose  between  him- 
self and  Alexandre  Duval,  the  director  of  the 
theatre,  and  in  1812  Spontini  was  dismissed 
from  his  post  by  M.  de  Remusat,  surintendant 
of  the  Imperial  theatres. 

On  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  in  1814 
Spontini  was  reinstated,  but  soon  gave  up  the 
post  to  Catalani  for  a  money  consideration.  His 
conduct  as  conductor  of  the  opera  does  not  give 
a  favourable  idea  of  his  character.  When  Count 
Briihl  was  in  Paris,  Spontini  was  described  to 
him  by  the  managers  of  the  Op^ra  as  '  grasping 
and  indolent ;  ill-natured,  treacherous,and  spite- 
ful.' ^  Catalani,  too,  always  averred  that  he  had 
treated  her  badly.  Some,  however,  took  a  more 
favourable  view,  and  maintained  that  he  had 
been  both  zealous  and  successful  in  his  efforts 
for  the  furtherance  of  art.  F^tis  believed  that 
it  was  not  Spontini  but  Duval  who  should  have 
been  dismissed  in  1812.  It  is  curious  thus  to 
find  the  same  difference  of  opinion  in  Paris  with 
regard  to  Spontini's  character  which  was  after- 
wards so  noticeable  in  Berlin. 

On  May  30,  1814,  Louis  XVIIL  became 
king  of  France,  and  in  commemoration  of  the 
event  Jouy  and  Spontini  wrote  a  festival-opera 
in  two  acts  called  '  Pelage,  ou  le  Roi  de  la  Paix.' 
The  first  performance  took  place  August  23, 1814. 
The  work  is  of  no  value,  and  must  have  been 
very  quickly  composed.     The  subject  is  idyllic, 

1  Letter  of  Bctthl  to  Frederiek  William  III..  Oct.  8, 1819. 


urvijr  uuukiiftry  \»  uie  uubuiv  ui  opuuvuu  b  uueuu 
The  opera  was  dedicated  to  the  king,  who 
appointed  Spontini  his  '  Dramatic  composer  in 
ordinary. '  It  is  often  said  that  Spontini's  music 
displays  the  spirit  of  the  age  of  Napoleon.  The 
remark  is  true  so  far  as  the  martial  splendour, 
the  vehement  energy,  the  overpowering  massive 
effect  of  his  grand  operas  are  concerned.  In  all 
this  the  spirit  of  the  time  is  recognisable  enough. 
But  it  resides  in  the  music  only  ;  and  it  would 
be  very  wrong  to  conclude  that  Spontini  him- 
self was  an  adherent  of  Napoleon's  politics  or 
person.  He  was  as  little  of  an  imperialist  as 
Weber  (notwithstanding  his  songs  in  the  cause 
of  liberty)  was  a  democrat.  Art  and  Politics 
are  two  distinct  things,  and  if  Spontini  did  do 
homage  to  Louis  after  enjoying  the  favour  of 
Napoleon  there  is  no  need  to  blame  him. 

He  next  took  part  with  Persuis,  Berton,  and 
Kreutzer  in  an  opera-ballet,  '  Les  Dieux  rivaux,' 
produced  June  21,  1816,  in  honour  of  the 
marriage  of  the  Due  de  Berri.  Spontini's  share 
was  confined  to  two  or  three  dances,  and  a  song, 
*  Voici  le  Roi,  Fran9ais  fiddles,'  of  little  value. 
Other  ballet -music  however,  composed  for 
Salieri's  'Danaides,'  rises  to  the  level  of 
*Cortez*  and  the  'Vestale.'  The  opera,  re- 
vived with  this  addition  Oct.  22,  1817,  was 
enthusiastically  received. 

But  these  pUces  d* occasion  sink  into  insignifi- 
cance before  the  grand  opera  *01ympie,  *  *  imitated' 
by  Briffautand  Dieulafoy  from  Voltaire's  tragedy. 
Spontini  took  a  most  unusual  length  of  time  for 
the  composition.  He  was  at  work  upon  the  last 
act  in  December  1815,  and  yet  the  opera  was 
not  finished  by  January  1819.2  ^ter  so  mucli 
trouble  and  pains  he  not  unnaturally  considered 
it  his  best  work.  *  This  score,'  he  writes  Nov. 
27,  1819,  *must  be  ranked  higher,  for  import- 
ance  and  range  of  subject,  than  those  of  *'  I* 
Vestale  "  and  **  Cortez  " ' ;  and  to  this  opinion  he 
adhered,  in  spite  of  many  proofs  that  the  public 
judged  otherwise.  At  the  first  performance 
(Paris,  Dec.  16,  1819)  a  bitter  disappointment 
awaited  him,  for  the  opera  failed  in  spite  of 
his  numerous  supporters,  and  of  the  genenuly 
favourable  disposition  of  the  Parisians  towards 
him.  Spontini  however  was  not  the  ™*'V*^ 
throw  up  his  cause  for  a  first  failure,  /he 
libretto  was  chiefly  to  bhime.  The  wnters 
had  adhered  too  closely  to  Voltaire,  without 
remembering  the  requirements  of  the  ^^^}^ 
the  established  forms  of  Grand  Opera.  J^^ 
tragical  conclusion  especially  was  objected 
as  an  innovation.  This  was  remedied  first  o 
all,  and  a  happy  ending  substituted-  J 
February  1820,  Spontini  was  at  work  on  tne 
revision,  which  he  completed  in  less  yf**"^ 
year,  and  the  opera  was  produced  in  iw  n 
form.  May  14,  1821,  at  Berlin.     I^  ^^^^ 

•  Letters  from  Spontini  to  Count  Bitthl.  dated  Tkf.  »•  ^^ 
Jan.  14,  ISia. 


SPONTINI 


661 


was  again  revised,  the  changes  this  time  being 
in  the  airs  for  Olympie  and  Cassandre,  the  duet 
for  the  same  in  the  first  act,  and  a  new  scene 
with  terzetto  in  the  third.  As  this  last  is  not 
included  in  the  printed  edition  it  looks  as  if  the 
final  form  of  the  opera  had  not  even  yet  been 
attained.  Schlesinger  of  Berlin  published  a  com- 
plete pianoforte-score  in  1826.^  The  opera  was 
again  put  on  the  stage  in  Paris,  Feb.  28,  1 826, 
and  by  March  15  it  had  already  been  played 
six  times.  ^  Elach  time  it  pleased  more,  and  at 
last  Spontini  was  able  to  count  it  among  his 
great  triumphs.  It  was,  however,  only  in  Berlin, 
where  he  settled  in  1820,  that  it  kept  a  per- 
manent place  in  the  repertory.  It  had  a  short 
run  at  Dresden  and  Darmstadt  in  1822,  and 
was  proposed  at  Vienna,  but  the  performance 
did  not  take  place.  The  opera  has  now  com- 
pletely disappeared  from  musical  life,  a  fate  it 
shares  with  Cherubini's  *  Medee.'  That  no 
attempts  have  been  made  to  revive  it  must  be 
attributed  partly  to  the  enormous  demands 
which  it  makes  on  the  dramatic  and  scenic 
resources  of  a  theatre,  and  also  to  the  fact 
that  Spontini's  operas  are  of  an  individual  type 
and  require  a  peculiar  style  of  representation. 
The  few  living  musicians  who  remember  the  per- 
formances of  Spontini's  operas  in  Berlin  between 
1820  and  1830  know  the  kind  of  interpretation 
he  used  to  give  of  them^-one  which  by  no  means 
lay  on  the  surface.  Dom,  in  his  Hecollectioiis^^ 
says  that  at  Leipzig  in  1829  the  final  chorus  in 
tlie  second  act  of  the  *  Vestale '  was  ridiculed  as 
a  mere  waltz-tune.  When  Dom  undertook  the 
direction  of  the  opera,  and  had  to  conduct  the 
*  Vestale,'  he  made  such  good  use  of  his  recol- 
lections of  the  way  in  which  it  was  conducted 
by  the  composer,  that  the  chorus  in  question 
was  scarcely  recognised,  and  all  adverse  com- 
ments were  silenced.  'Another  fifty  years,' 
continues  he,  '  and  the  Spontini  traditions  will 
have  disappeared,  as  the  Mozart  traditions  have 
already  done.'  It  would  be  more  correct  to  say 
that  both  have  disappeared.  Tlie  Spontini  tradi- 
tions might  possibly  have  lived  longer  had  his 
work  in  Germany  been  more  successful  than  it 
was.  But  there  is  enough  to  account  for  this, 
and  more,  in  the  unsettled  condition  of  all  stage 
matters  in  Germany  for  many  years  past. 

'  Olympie '  and  *  Agnes  von  Hohenstaufen ' — 
written  ten  years  later — stand  alone  among 
operas  of  the  19th  century  for  grandeur  of  con- 
ception. True,  in  isolated  scenes  of  the  '  Hugue- 
nots '  and  the  *  Proph^te,'  Meyerbeer  approached 
his  predecessor,  but  he  never  succeeded  in  creat- 
ing a  whole  of  such  magnificent  proportions. 
The  unity  of  design  is  remarkable,  each  act 
seems  to  be  cast  in  one  mould  ;  and  this  from 
the  fact  that  musically  the  several  scenes  of  each 
act  run  into  each  other  in  a  much  more  marked 
manner  than  in  *  Cortez '  or  the  '  Vestale. '  There 

1  A  full  score.  In  3  vols,  wu  pubHahed  hy  Biani  at  Pkrla. 

9  Marx's  Berlttur  AUgtm,  Urn.  Meitung  for  1828.  p.  104. 

*  Am  meinem  Leten-Srinnerungvn  (Berlin.  1870).  p.  131 «( teq. 


is  also,  throughout,  the  closest  connection  be- 
tween the  music,  the  scenes  on  the  stage,  and 
the  development  of  the  plot — the  cachet  of  the 
true  dramatic  artist.  The  principal  characters 
are  well  defined,  and  the  tone  assigned  to  each 
at  the  start  is  skilfully  maintained.  The  first 
entrances,  always  the  most  important  moment 
in  opera  for  fixing  the  character  of  a  part,  are 
always  very  significant.  For  instance,  it  is  inter- 
esting to  observe  the  entirely  different  nature  of 
the  music  at  the  entrances  of  Olympia  and  of 
Statira.  The  latter,  the  principal  character  in 
the  piece,  has  no  rival,  unless  it  be  Cherubini's 
*  Medde, '  or  perhaps  Gluck's  *  Armide.  *  A  sorrrow- 
fal  woman,  burdened  with  horrible  memories 
and  burning  for  revenge,  she  is  yet  a  Queen  fi^m 
the  crown  of  her  head  to  the  sole  of  her  foot, 
and  a  heroine,  as  all  must  acknowledge,  worthy 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  Bearing  in  mind  the 
grandeur  of  the  subject,  and  its  background  of 
history,  the  composer's  choice  of  material  does 
not  seem  exaggerated. 

But  these  great  qualities  are  accompanied  by 
considerable  delects.  Apart  from  the  falsified 
history  of  the  plot,  which  might  easily  disturb 
a  cultivated  spectator  in  these  days  of  accuracy, 
the  happy  conclusion  weakens  the  interest  in 
the  fate  of  the  chief  characters.  The  part  of 
Statira,  at  any  rate,  was  far  more  consistent 
and  homogeneous  when  the  ending  was  tragic. 
The  music,  undeniably  grandly  sketched  as  a 
whole,  lacks  charm  in  the  details.  Spontini  was 
not  an  instrumental  composer.  His  overtures, 
dances,  and  marches,  are  in  all  cases  music 
without  any  independent  existence,  simply  in- 
tended to  introduce  or  accompany.  Instru- 
mental music,  from  its  immense  plasticity  and 
variety,  is  the  best  possible  school  for  develop- 
ing all  the  rich  resources  of  the  musical  art ;  but 
in  this  school  Spontini  had  never  been  properly 
disciplined,  and  the  neglect  makes  itself  felt  in 
his  larger  dramatic  forms.  These  are  monotonous 
and  wearisome,  while  his  basses  are  poor,  and  his 
accompaniments  wanting  in  variety.  It  seems 
strange  that  with  his  great  reverence  for  Mozart 
— the  great  model  in  this  respectalso — he  should 
never  have  been  aware  of  this  want  in  himself. 
His  melodies  lack  plasticity,  that  bold  free  move- 
ment which  is  absolutely  essential  if  the  melody 
is  to  remain  dominant  over  all  the  accumulated 
masses  of  sound.  He  has  not  sufficient  command 
Qf  language  to  have  always  ready  to  his  hand 
suitable  means  of  expression  for  the  rapid  changes 
of  sentiment  in  the  course  of  a  scene.  Nor  has 
he  the  power  of  assigning  the  instrumental  music 
its  due  share  in  the  dramatic  development.  If 
all  the  work  is  done  by  the  singing  and  acting, 
one  is  tempted  to  ask  what  is  the  object  of  all 
this  overwhelming  apparatus  in  the  orchestra  ? 
The  important  part  played  by  the  instrumental 
music  in  an  opera,  that  of  preparing  and  eluci- 
dating the  sentiments,  midcing  them  subject- 
ively more  credible,  and  objectively  clearer,  this 


he  was  far  surpassed  by  Cherubini  and  Weber, 
each  in  his  own  line. 

Whilst  Spontini  was  busy  in  Paris  composing 
*  Olympie,'  the  way  was  being  prepared  for  the 
most  important  event  in  the  second  half  of  his 
life — his  summons  to  Berlin.  As  no  authentic 
account  of  the  circumstances  of  his  going  there, 
or  of  his  twenty-two  years*  sojourn  and  work  in 
the  Prussian  capital,  has  yet  been  published,  we 
must  treat  the  subject  somewhat  in  detail, 
from  MS.  authorities  hitherto  unused.^  King 
Frederick  William  III.,  during  a  visit  of  two 
months  to  Paris  (March  31  to  the  beginning  of 
June  1814),  heard  Spontini's  operas  several 
times,  and  was  deeply  impressed  by  them.  Not 
only  was  '  Cortez '  at  once  put  in  rehearsal  at 
Berlin  and  produced  Oct.  15,  1814,  but  the 
king,  on  the  return  of  peace,  occupied  himself 
with  various  plans  for  improving  the  state  of 
music  in  Prussia.  An  establishment  for  the 
promotion  of  church  music  was  thought  of ;  a 
Conservatoire  for  music  and  declamation  was 
projected,  like  that  at  Paris,  and,  above  all, 
fresh  impulse  was  to  be  given  to  the  Court 
Opera  by  engaging  a  conductor  of  acknowledged 
ability.  For  this  last  post  Spontini  was  the 
man  fixed  upon.  So  far  back  as  the  autumn 
of  1814  proposals  had  been  made  to  him  at 
Vienna,  offering  him  the  then  immense  salary 
of  5000  thalers  (£750)  on  condition  of  his 
furnishing  two  operas  a  year  for  Berlin.  Spontini 
was  inclined  to  accept,  but  the  plan  did  not 
meet  with  the  approval  of  the  Intendant  of  the 
Royal  theatre — Count  Briihl,  who  had  succeeded 
Iffland  in  Feb.  1816.  Briihl's  opinion  was 
entitled  to  the  more  weight  as  there  had  scarcely 
ever  been  a  theatrical  manager  in  Germany  who 
knew  his  business  so  welL  He  was  himself 
an  actor  of  great  experience,  had  studied  several 
parts  at  Weimar  under  Goethe's  durection,  had 
sung  Sacchini's  'CEdipe'  in  French,  and  taken 
other  parts  in  grand  operas  at  Rheinsberg, 
Prince  Henry's  palace.  He  had  even  played 
the  horn  for  months  together  in  the  band.  He 
was  no  inefficient  scene-painter;  had  studied 
drawing  with  Genelli,  and  archaeology  with  Hirt 
and  Botticher,  had  devoted  some  time  to  archi- 
tecture, and  was  personally  acquainted  with 
nearly  all  the  important  theatres  in  Germany, 
Paris,  and  London.  Add  to  this  his  refined 
taste,  ideal  turn  of  mind,  and  high  social  position, 
and  it  will  be  seen  that  he  possessed  qualities 
rarely  found  united  in  the  perron  of  a  theatrical 
manager.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  Briihl 
ignored  the  advantage  of  having  so  distinguished 
an  artist  at  the  head  of  the  Berlin  opera.  It 
was,  however,  by  no  means  certain  that  Spontini 
had  had  the  necessary  practice  as  a  conductor, 
for  in  Paris  no  composer  conducts  his  own  operas. 

1  Th«  principal  wnireM  npon  which  we  have  dnwn  an  p«p«n 
belonnlng  to  the  royal  theatres  of  Berlin,  and  to  the  Piuvian  Royal 
FmnJly. 


stand  each  other,  but  would  also  prevent  his 
composing  a  German  opera.  As  yet  he  had  only 
composed  two  operas  of  acknowledged  merit, 
and  it  was  possible  that  he  would  not  be  able 
to  supply  two  new  ones  each  year ;  and  if  he 
were  able,  the  price  paid  for  them  would  be 
exorbitant,  unless  it  were  quite  certain  that  as 
interpreted  under  his  own  direction  they  would 
mark  a  decided  step  in  advance.  At  this  point 
therefore  the  negotiations  himg  fire,  until  the 
king  returned  to  Paris  in  July  1815,  when  he 
renewed  his  offer  to  Spontini  in  person,  and 
accepted  the  dedication  of  a  piece  of  military 
music  At  his  request  Spontini  sent  a  collection 
of  his  marches  to  Briihl,  following  it  on  Dec.  22, 
1815,  with  a  letter,  in  which  he  begged  him  to 
exert  his  influence  in  arranging  the  matter. 
This  not  availing,  he  got  a  personal  appeal  made 
to  him  from  the  Prussian  embassy.  On  March 
28,  1816,  Briihl  returned  an  evasive  answer, 
and  on  Kov.  3  wrote  decisively  that  the  king 
had  settled  the  affair  adversely  to  Spontini's 
wishes,  and  that  he  must  abandon  with  regret 
the  pleasure  of  seeing  him  settled  in  Berlin. 

The  matter  now  appeared  wholly  at  an  end, 
the  king  having  yielded  to  the  representations 
of  his  Intendant.  Spontini  had  at  that  time 
no  settled  appointment  in  Paris,  beyond  that 
of  court-composer,  and  it  is  easy  to  understand 
how  tempting  so  brilliant  an  offer  from  Berlin 
must  have  seemed.  He  now  entered  into  a  fresh 
connection  with  Naples,  and  received  in  the 
following  year  the  title  of  'nuustro  di  cappella 
to  the  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  The  French 
king  also  gave  him  a  salary  of  2000  francs,  and 
thus  all  thoughts  of  Berlin  seemed  for  the  time 
to  have  vanished. 

In  1 8 1 7  King  Frederick  William  came  to  Paris 
for  the  third  time,  heard  *  Cortez '  in  its  new 
form,  was  so  delighted  that  he  attended  four 
representations,  and  directed  that  the  score 
should  be  secured  at  once  for  Berlin.  Spontini 
received  the  title  of  Premier  mattre  de  ehapelle 
honoraircy  and  was  permitted  to  dedicate  to  the 
king  his  grand  '  Bacchanale,'  composed  for 
Salieri's  '  Danaides. '  This  he  was  shrewd  enough 
to  arrange  for  a  Prussian  military  band,  intro- 
ducing an  air  from  the  *  Yestale,'  '  La  paix  est 
en  ce  jour  la  fruit  de  vos  oonqnetes.  *  To  confirm 
himself  in  the  king's  favour  he  even  composed 
a  Prussian  national  anthem,  completed  between 
Nov.  25,  1817,  and  Oct.  18,  1818.  The  words, 
written  by  the  king's  private  secretary  J.  F.  L. 
Duncker,  begin 

Wo  ist  daa  Volk  das  ktihn  von  That 
Der  Tyrannei  den  Kopf  zertiut? 

On  the  latter  date  (the  anniversary  of  the 
battle  of  Leipzig),  Briihl  had  the  work  performed 
for  the  first  time  at  the  Berlin  opera-house,  and 
from  1820  to  1840  it  was  played  every  year  on 
the  king's  birthday,  August  3.     A  Volkslied, 


SPONTIKI 


653 


from  inherent  reasons,  it  never  could  become  ; 
but  it  has  a  certain  chiyalrous  stateliness  and 
distinction  of  its  own.  After  the  death  of 
Frederick  William  III.  it  gradually  disappeared 
from  the  musical  life  of  Berlin.  The  king,  how- 
ever, decreed  in  March  1818  that  the  '  Yestale ' 
should  be  performed  every  year  on  April  1,  in 
remembrance  of  the  first  time  he  passed  in 
Paris  in  1814. 

This  year  also  ended  without  realising  the 
king's  project  of  attaching  Spontini  to  his  court 
Spontini,  aware  that  BrUhl  was  opposed  to  his 
coming,  contrived  to  carry  on  the  negotiations 
through  Major-General  von  Witzleben,  an  ardent 
admirer  of  his  music,  and  the  person  who  had 
suggested  his  composing  the  Pkissian  national 
anthem.  The  contract  was  at  length  drawn  up 
in  August  1819,  and  signed  by  the  king  on 
Sept.  1.  It  provided  that  Spontini  should 
receive  the  titles  of  chief  Capellmeister,  and 
General  Director  of  Music,  with  an  additional 
one  of  *  Superintendent-General  of  the  Royal 
Music '  to  be  borne  abroad.  He  was  to  take  the 
general  superintendence  of  all  musical  affairs, 
and  to  compose  two  new  grand  operas,  or  three 
smaller  ones,  every  three  years.  He  was  bound 
to  conduct  only  at  the  first  performances  of  his 
own  works ;  at  other  times  he  might  conduct 
or  not  as  he  pleased.  In  addition  he  was  to 
compose  pUces  d' occasion  for  the  court  festivals, 
and  whenever  the  king  pleased.  Any  other 
works  he  chose  to  compose  and  produce  at  the 
theatre  were  to  be  paid  for  separately.  He  was 
also  at  liberty,  with  slight  restrictions,  to  pro- 
duce his  operas  for  liis  own  benefit  elsewhere, 
and  to  sell  them  to  publishers.  His  salary  was 
fixed  at  4000  thalers,  payable  half-yearly  in 
advance,  besides  an  annual  benefit,  guaranteed 
to  yield  at  least  1050  thalers,  and  a  benefit 
concert,  with  the  theatre  free,  and  the  gratuitous 
assistance  of  the  members  of  the  Royal  opera 
and  orchestra.  He  was  to  have  four  months* 
leave  of  absence  every  year,  and  an  adequate 
l^ension  after  ten  years'  service.  The  Prussian 
ambassador  interfered  to  procure  his  release 
from  his  engagement  at  Naples,  and  the  king 
undertook  to  pay  any  necessary  damages. 

Although  nominally  subordinate  to  Briihl, 
Spontini  was  by  this  contract  virtually  made 
his  colleague.  BrUhl's  experienced  eye,  how- 
ever, soon  detected  certain  passages  in  the 
document  admitting  of  two  interpretations,  and 
exposing  the  management  to  all  the  dangers  of 
a  divided  authority.  He  could  not  help  feeling 
mortified  at  the  way  he  had  been  superseded  in 
the  business ;  this  would  naturally  make  him 
mistrust  Spontini,  and  thus  the  two  came  to- 
gether under  unfavourable  auspices.  According 
to  the  contract  Spontini  should  have  begun 
work  at  Berlin  on  Feb.  16, 1820,  but  he  obtained 
leave  to  postpone  his  coming,  first  to  March  15, 
and  then  to  May  15,  and  did  not  arrive  until 
May  28,  1820.     The  corps  dramaiiquef  piqued 


at  the  exorbitant  terms  of  his  engagement,  did 
not  meet  him  in  the  friendliest  spirit,  but 
Berlin  society  was  favourably  disposed  towards 
him,  particularly  the  court  circle.  The  news- 
papers were  full  of  the  subject,  and  thus  it 
came  to  pass  that  all  classes  were  keenly 
interested. 

The  Opera  was  at  this  time,  thanks  to  Briihl's 
exertions,  in  a  high  state  of  efficiency.  The 
company  was  unusually  good — including  such 
singers  as  Milder -Hauptmann,  Seidler-Wran- 
itzky,  Schulz-Eillitschky,  and  Eunicke  ;  Bader, 
Stiimer,  Blume,  and  Eduard  Devrient.  The 
band  had  been  well  trained  by  Bemhard  Weber. 
Briihl  took  immense  pains  to  secure  finish  in 
the  performances,  had  added  to  the  repertoire 
all  the  great  masterpieces,  and  had  intioduced 
*Fidelio'  and  'Armida,'  besides  establishing 
other  operas  of  Gluck's  permanently  in  Berlin. 
He  had  also  mounted  the  *  Vestal '  and  '  Cortez ' 
with  the  utmost  care  and  intelligence,  and  was 
entitled  to  boast  that  he  had  made  the  Berlin 
opera  the  first  in  Germany,  as  indeed  every  one 
allowed.  Spontini  found  neither  blemishes  to 
remove  nor  reforms  to  introduce.  He  had  at 
his  disposal  a  company  of  first-rate  artists,  his 
power  over  them  was  practically  unlimited,  and 
the  king's  confidence  in  him  imbounded.  Hi& 
obvious  duty  was  to  keep  matters  up  to  the 
standard  to  which  Briihl  had  raised  them. 

He  started  with  the  best  intentions.  Briihl 
was  informed  of  various  plans  for  increasing  the 
orchestra,  establishing  a  training-school  for  the 
chorus,  and  introducing  new  methods  into  the 
existing  singing-school.  He  was  considering 
the  best  means  of  educating  the  singers  in  the 
dramatic  part  of  their  art,  and  drew  up  a  new 
set  of  rules  for  the  band.  Little,  however,  came 
of  all  this,  partly  because  several  of  Spontini's 
proposals  were  already  in  existence  in  other 
forms,  and  partly  because  of  his  own  want  of 
purpose  and  temper.  In  fact,  it  soon  came  to 
a  trial  of  strength  between  him  and  BriihL  The 
latter  insisted,  a  little  too  firmly,  on  his  rights 
as  supreme  manager,  and  even  appealed  to  the 
public  through  the  press.  Spontini,  despotic,, 
and  exceedingly  sensitive  as  to  publicity,  referred 
to  his  contract,  which  had  been  drawn  up  with- 
out Briihl's  concurrence,  and  which  he  declined 
to  interpret  according  to  Briihl's  views,  and 
stated  specifically  that  he  was  subject  to  no  one 
but  the  King,  or  possibly  the  Home-Minister 
also.  Unacquainted  with  Berlin  or  the  German 
language,  and  surrounded  by  a  crowd  of 
parasites,  he  soon  fell  into  mistakes  which  it 
was  extremely  difficult  to  rectify  with  so 
suspicious  a  person.  A  few  months  of  ill-con- 
cealed irritation  on  both  sides  led  to  open 
collision.  On  Oct.  25,  at  a  meeting  to  arrange 
the  repertoire  for  the  week,  with  Briihl  in  the 
chair,  Spontini  spoke  of  the  latter's  sketch  as 
* l)arfaitement  ridicule,'  because  it  did  not  con- 
tain at  least  two  grand  operas,  the  *  Yestale " 


most  violent  way  of  the  Count's  bad  manage- 
ment. Briihl  tried  to  give  him  an  idea  of  -what 
subordination  meant  in  Prussia,  but  subordina- 
tion Spontini  would  not  hear  of.  *  Don't  attempt 
to  treat  me/  he  writes  on  Nov.  12,  <  as  a  mere 
subordinate,  for  I  am  nothing  of  the  kind, 
neither  by  my  person,  my  character,  my  con- 
tract, nor  my  talent ;  for  although  my  post 
happens  to  be  included  in  your  department,  it 
is  so  in  a  wholly  different  sense  from  what  you 
appear,  or  pretend,  to  think.'  The  whole  letter 
is  very  angry,  and  very  rude,  and  it  was  long 
before  the  two  were  again  on  terms  of  even  out- 
ward civility.  Briihl  took  his  grievance  straight 
to  the  king,  and  peace  was  at  length  re- 
established. The  following  extract  will  show 
Bruhl's  opinion  of  Spontini  at  this  time  : — 

*  He  is,'  he  writes  to  Witzleben, '  extremely  passionate, 
and  once  in  a  passion  oversteps  all  bounds  ;  uses  expres- 
sions which  no  man  of  honour  can  pardon,  and  then 
considers  his  natural  bad  temper  excuse  enough  for 
anything.  He  is  very  suspicious,  and  at  the  same  time 
very  credulous,  putUng  himself  at  the  mercy  of  any  one 
who  will  flatter  nis  vanity;  and  in  consequence  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  host  of  unsatislkctory  characters,  who 
make  him  their  shuttlecock.  His  pride  and  vanity  have 
really  reached  the  sublime  of  the  ridiculous  ;  and  temper, 
sometimes  assuming  the  guise  of  modesty,  directs,  or 
rather  misdirects,  all  his  actions.  .  .  .  And  to  such  a 
man  has  been  confided  the  conduct  of  business  of  more 
than  ordinary  intricacy !  * 

This  description,  written  under  obvious  irrita- 
tion, should  in  justice  be  counterbalanced  by 
the  consideration  of  Spontini's  great  qualities 
as  an  artist.  But  that  Briihl's  estimate  wcw  in 
the  main  coiTect,  the  sequel  will  show. 

During  the  preparations  for  the  first  perform- 
ance of '  Olympia,*  Spontini  had  an  opportunity 
of  appearing  before  the  court  and  public  with  a 
new  composition.  In  the  beginning  of  1821 
the  Grand  Duke  Nicholas,  heir-presumptive  to 
the  throne  of  Russia,  and  his  consort,  paid  a 
visit  to  Berlin,  and  court  festivities  on  a  grand 
scale  were  instituted  in  their  honour.  Moore's 
'  Lalla  Rookh '  was  then  much  talked  of,  and 
Briihl  conceived  the  idea  of  representing  the 
principal  scenes  in  a  series  of  tableatix  vivants, 
Schinkel  undertook  the  scenery  and  arrangement 
of  the  groups,  and  Spontini  composed  the  songs, 
introductory  march,  and  dance -music.  The 
performance  took  place  Jan.  27,  1821,  at  the 
Royal  Palace,  and  was  pronounced  to  be  the 
most  brilliant  and  quaintly  beautiful  thing  of 
the  k  ind  ever  seen.  The  actors  were  all  members 
of  the  court  circle.  On  Feb.  11  the  performance 
was  repeated  before  a  select  audience  comprising 
the  most  distinguished  artists  and  scientific  men 
in  Berlin.  Hensel,  Fanny  Mendelssohn's  hus- 
band, was  commissioned  by  the  King  to  paint 
the  tahleauXf  for  presentation  to  the  Grand 
Duchess.  *  A  sort  of  running  commentary  on 
the  representation  was  furnished  by  a  number 

>  Th«  ImportaiMM  of  thla  event  in  HeoMl's  Ui*  may  be  seen  from 
the  J/entUlM$ohn  nmtUw,  vol.  i.  p.  96. 


from  the  opera  and  asmall  orchestra.^  Spontini's 
work  consists  of  four  instrumental  and  six  vocal 
pieces.  One  of  the  latter  is  a  chorus  of  genii 
(3  soprani  and  1  tenor)  sung  while  Nourmahal 
is  sleeping,  and  a  real  work  of  genius.  The 
singers  vocaUse  on  A,  while  the  instruments  are 
playing  a  light  accompaniment  The  other 
YQcal  pieces  are  the  songs,  the  second  being  a 
free  translation  of  the  opening  of  *  Paradise  and 
the  Peri.'  Spontini's  work  now  suffers  from 
inevitable  comparison  with  Schumann's  music 
As  an  Italian  he  had  neither  romantic  imagina- 
tion nor  depth  of  expression  enough  for  the 
subject.  But  taking  the  piece  as  a  whole,  it  is 
possibly  more  in  character  with  Moore's  poetry 
than  the  oratorio  form  chosen  by  Schumann. 

The  first  performance  of  *  Olympia '  was 
eagerly  anticipated.  March  5,  1821,  was  first 
fixed,  but  it  was  postponed  till  May  14,  a  delay 
for  which  Spontini  was  entirely  to  blame.  The 
translator,  E.  A.  Hoffmann,  only  got  the  last 
act  from  him  bit  by  bit,  the  chorus-master  had 
not  seen  a  note  of  it  by  Feb.  18,  nor  had  tlie 
ballet-master  been  consulted.  Spontini  insisted 
on  at  least  three  months'  rehearsals.  The  ex- 
penditure on  the  mise-en-aUTie  was  so  lavish 
that  even  the  king  remonstrated.  Statira  was 
played  by  Milder,  Olympia  by  Schulz,  and 
Cassander  and  Antigonus  by  Bader  and  Blume. 
The  chorus  and  orchestra  were  materially 
strengthened,  the  scenery  was  by  Schinkel  and 
Gropius,  and  there  were  forty-two  rehearsals. 
The  result  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant  and 
perfect  performances  ever  seen,  and  an  enormous 
success.  Even  Briihl  was  carried  away,  and 
wrote  to  Milder,  '  you  have  given  us  a  perfect 
representation,  and  added  another  flower  to  your 
crown  as  an  artist.'  Spontini's  triumph  was 
complete.  Even  his  opponents  acknowledged 
that  'Olympia'  had  no  rival  among  modem 
operas.  Zelter  wrote  to  Goethe  that  he  did 
not  like  the  work,  but  could  not  help  going 
again  and  again. 

Spontini's  supremacy  in  the  musical  world 
lasted  exactly  five  weeks,  for  on  June  18,  1821, 
'  Der  Freischutz '  was  produced  at  the  newly 
erected  theatre  in  Berlin.  Its  immediate  success 
may  not  have  more  than  equalled  that  of 
*  Olympia,'  but  it  soon  became  evident  that  the 
chief  effect  of  the  latter  was  astonishment,  while 
the  former  set  the  pulse  of  the  German  {leople 
beating.  *  Olympia '  remained  almost  restricted 
to  the  stage  of  Berlin,  while  the  '  Freischutz ' 
spread  with  astonishing  rapidity  throughout 
Germany  and  the  whole  world.  Spontini  could 
not  conceal  that  he  had,  on  the  morrow  of  a 
great  triumph,  been  completely  vanquished  by 
an  obscure  opponent,  and  that  too  after  con- 
sciously  doing  his  very  utmost.     Even  this 

>  *  Ijkll*  Bakh .  A  f eeilv»l  ptey  with  mmgt  and  dancea,  pafrformed 
at  the  Royal  PaJaee  of  Berlin.  Jus.  i7, 18S1.  Bdlted  by  Count  BiOhl 
and  &  H.  Bpiker.    Berlin,  L.  W.  Wltticli.  1822.' 


SPONTINI 


655 


might  not  have  discouraged  him,  bat  that  in 
'  Der  Freischiitz '  he  was  brought  face  to  face 
with  a  phase  of  the  German  character  totally 
beyond  his  comprehension.  He  had  no  weapons 
wherewith  to  encounter  this  opponent.  A  man 
of  weaker  will  would  have  contented  himself 
with  such  success  as  might  still  be  secured  in 
Germany ;  but  Spontini  could  brook  no  rival, 
and  finding  that  he  could  not  outdo  Weber's 
music,  tried  to  suppress  him  by  means  wholly 
outside  the  circle  of  art.  As  director-general 
of  music  many  such  lay  ready  to  his  hand,  and 
that  he  knew  how  to  use  them  is  shown  by  the 
fate  of  'Euryanthe'  and  'Oberon'  in  Berlin. 
The  success  of  '  Freischiitz '  did  not  improve 
Spontini's  relations  with  Briihl,  a  personal  Mend 
of  Weber's,  and  a  great  admirer  of  his  music. 

From  the  first  night  of  *  Der  Freischiitz '  the 
public  was  divided  into  two  parties.  The 
national  party,  far  the  strongest  in  intellect  and 
cultivation,  rallied  round  Weber.  The  king 
and  the  court  persistently  supported  Spontini, 
though  even  their  help  could  not  make  him 
master  of  the  situation.  The  Censorship  inter- 
fered to  check  the  expression  of  public  opinion 
against  him,  and  his  complaints  of  supposed 
slights  were  always  attended  to.^  But  his 
artistic  star,  which  had  shone  with  such  lustre 
after  the  first  night  of  'Olympia,'  was  now 
slowly  setting. 

The  excellence  of  that  first  performance  was 
acknowledged  even  by  Weber  himself,^  and  this 
may  be  a  good  opportunity  for  some  remarks  on 
Spontini  as  a  director.  Whether  he  had  a  specific 
talent  for  conducting  cannot  be  determin^,  for 
as  a  rule  he  conducted  only  two  operas  besides 
his  own — *  Armida '  and  *  Don  Juan,'  and  these 
he  knew  thoroughly. ^  For  the  rest  of  the  work 
there  were  two  conductors,  Seidel  and  Schneider, 
and  two  leaders,  Moser  and  Seidler.^  When 
Spontini  came  to  Berlin  he  had  had  very  little 
practice  in  conducting,  and  at  first  declined  to 
liandle  the  bdton,  but  made  the  leader  sit  by 
liim  in  the  orchestra,  and  give  the  tempo  ac- 
cording to  his  directions.  Indeed  he  never  com- 
pletely mastered  the  technicalities  of  the  art, 
his  manner  of  conducting  recitatives  especially 
being  clumsy  and  undecided.  So  at  least  says 
Dorn,^  a  competent  witness,  who  had  often  seen 
him  conduct.  In  reccing  a  score  too  he  was 
slow  and  inexpert ;  ^  and  at  the  Cologne  Festival 
of  1847  could  scarcely  find  his  way  in  his 
own  score  of  '  Olympia,'  which  he  had  not  con- 
ducted for  some  time.  He  was  thus  very  slow 
in  rehearsing  a  work,  though  not  for  this  reason 
only,  for  the  same  laborious  accuracy  which  he 
showed  in  composing  was  carried  into  every 

1  Gubltx.  SHelmisae,  vol.  ill.  p.  241.    Berlin.  1809. 

a  CaH  Maria  «en  Weber,  by  Max  tod  Webor.  voL  11.  p.  806.  Leip- 
zig. 1864. 

3  He  oandueted  the  SMh  peifomumoe  of '  Der  Pniachttts '  (Not.  6. 
1826).  for  the  beneflt  of  Weber's  widow  and  children,  which  wme 
much  to  his  credit,  considering  his  dislike  to  the  piece. 

«  Bembard  Weber  died  March  SS,  1881. 

ft  Aut  metmnn  Lebm,  Part  ill.  p.  & 

•  Devrient's  lUeoUectiom  i^  MendOttohn,  p.  SSL 


detail  of  the  performance.  He  never  rested  tiU 
each  part  was  reproduced  exactly  as  it  existed  in 
his  own  imagination,  which  itself  had  to  be 
cleared  by  repeated  experiments.  Inconsiderate 
and  despotic  towards  his  subordinates,  he  wearied 
his  singers  and  band  to  death  by  endless  repeti- 
tions, his  rehearsals  not  unfrequently  lasting  from 
8  A.M.  till  4  P.M.,  or  from  5  p.m.  till  11  at  night 
He  only  treated  others,  however,  in  the  same 
way  that  he  treated  himself,  for  no  trouble  was 
too  great  for  him  to  take  in  revising  his  work 
down  to  the  smallest  particulars.  When  the  first 
night  arrived,  every  member  of  the  orchestra 
knew  his  work  by  heart,  and  Spontini  might 
beat  as  he  liked,  all  went  like  clockwork.^  If 
scenery  or  costumes  which  had  been  expressly 
prepared  did  not  please  him  he  ordered  others, 
regardless  of  cost.  Being  a  true  dramatic  artist, 
his  eye  was  as  keen  on  the  stage  as  his  ear  in 
the  orchestra,  and  everything,  down  to  the 
smallest  accessories,  must  be  arranged  to  express 
his  ideas.  Soon  after  his  arrival  he  fell  out  with 
Bnihl,  because  in  the  '  YestaUn '  he  wanted  Frau 
Milder  to  carry  the  Palladium  in  public,  whereas 
Briihl  maintained,  on  Hirt's  authority,  that  the 
Palladium  was  never  shown  to  the  people.  He 
was  furious  when  it  was  suggested  that  the  burn- 
ing of  the  fleet  in  '  Cortez '  should  not  take  place 
on  the  stage  ;  and  he  once  went  so  far  as  to  send 
his  wife  to  Briihl  to  request  that  a  sleeve  of 
Schulz's  dress  might  be  altered  !  In  choosing  his 
actors  he  not  only  studied  voice,  temperament, 
and  dramatic  skill,  but  was  most  particular 
about  appearance.  A  distinguished  bass  singer, 
recommended  to  him  by  Dom  for  high-priest 
parts,  was  not  even  allowed  to  open  his  mouth 
because  he  was  *  at  least  a  foot  and  a  half  too 
short'  He  insisted  on  the  complete  fusion  of 
the  vocal  and  instrumental,  the  dramatic  and 
the  musical  elements,  and  demanded  from  the 
chorus,  as  well  as  the  solo- singers,  an  entire 
absorption  in  their  parts,  and  an  intelligent 
rendering  of  each  situation.  His  love  for  the 
grandiose  and  the  awe-inspiring  led  him  to 
employ  all  the  resources  of  decoration,  and 
what  then  seemed  enormous  masses  of  musicians, 
singers,  and  dancers ;  and  also  to  employ  the 
strongest  accents  and  most  startling  contrasts. 
*His/orfe,'  says  Dom,  *was  a  hurricane,  his 
piaTW  a  breath,  his  crescendo  made  every  one 
open  their  eyes,  his  diminttendo  induced  a  feel- 
ing of  delicious  languor,  his  sforzando  was 
enough  to  wake  the  dead.'  ^  In  this  respect  he 
exacted  the  very  utmost  from  his  singers  and 
musicians.  He  insisted  on  Milder  putting  her 
whole  force  into  Statira's  exclamation  'Cas- 
sander  ! '  and  on  one  occasion  she  so  overstrained 
herself  as  to  lose  her  voice  for  the  rest  of  the 
evening.  From  that  moment  he  considered  her 
useless,  and  in  1829  had  her  pensioned  off. 
Seidler-Wranitzky  was  delicate,  and  her  style 

7  Blame  on  AMdor,  in  the  Theatre  archives. 
^  Aut  mehum  L^en,  first  collection,  p.  127. 


exquisite  singing.  'II  faut  braver,  Madame/ 
shouted  he,  when  she  showed  symptoms  of  ex- 
haustion at  a  rehearsal  of  the  '  Vestale ' ;  and 
he  was  scarcely  moved  when  she  fainted.  It 
was  not  because  he  wrote  unvocally,  or  over- 
loaded his  voices  with  accompaniment,  that  his 
parts  were  so  trying — for  he  was  too  thorough 
an  Italian  not  to  rely  upon  the  voice  for  his 
chief  eflfects ;  but  it  was  his  propensity  to 
extreme  contrasts,  and  his  want  of  consideration 
in  rehearsing.  It  soon  became  a  general  com- 
plaint among  women  singers  thatSpontini  mined 
the  voice.  Seidler  asked  leave  to  retire  on  this 
account  in  1826  ;  in  1823  Milder  b^^ged  that 
*  Olympia '  might  not  be  given  more  than  once 
a  fortnight,  and  Schechner  refused  an  engage- 
ment because  she  was  afraid  of  Spontini's  operas. 
Even  Schulz,  who  was  devoted  to  him,  was  so 
angry  in  March  1824  at  the  continual  strain  of 
her  heavy  parts,  as  to  lose  her  temper  at  re- 
hearsal, and  speak  so  rudely  that  she  would 
have  been  punished  had  he  not  changed  his 
mind. 

Spontini's  appearance  at  the  head  of  his 
musicians  was  almost  that  of  a  general  leading 
an  army  to  victory.  When  he  glided  rapidly 
through  the  orchestra  to  his  desk  every  member 
of  the  band  was  in  position,  and  on  the  alert  to 
begin.  At  such  moments  he  looked  an  aristocrat 
to  the  backbone,  but  also  an  autocrat  who  would 
insist  on  subjugating  all  other  wills  to  his  own. 
The  pedantic  side  of  his  character  also  came 
out  in  many  little  traits — he  could  only  conduct 
from  a  MS.  score,  and  his  desk  must  be  of  a 
certain  peculiar  construction.  His  b^ton  was  a 
thick  stick  of  ebony  with  a  solid  ivory  ball  at 
each  end  ;  this  he  grasped  in  the  middle  with 
his  whole  fist,  using  it  like  a  marshal's  staff.  ^ 

By  May  14,  1821,  the  *  Vestalin,*  *  Cortez,' 
and  'Olympia'  had  all  been  produced  accord- 
ing to  the  composer's  own  ideas  at  the  Berlin 
opera,  where  they  long  remained  stock-pieces. 
But  their  frequent  repetition  was  more  to  gratify 
the  king  than  the  public,  and  indeed  the  theatre 
had  soon  to  be  filled  by  a  large  issue  of  free 
admissions.  Thus,  for  'Olympia,'  on  Dec.  21, 
1821,  Spontini  obtained  from  the  office  fifty 
free  tickets,  besides  buying  twenty-five  more. 
In  September  1824  he  urged  the  Intendantnot 
to  raise  the  prices  for  grand  operas  (meaning 
his  own),  or  the  public  would  soon  cease  to 
come  at  all,  and  begged  to  have  'ordinary 
prices '  in  large  letters  on  the  bills  for  the  next 
performance  of  the  '  Vestalin.'  A  new  opera 
of  his  was  however  still  an  exciting  event, 
partly  because  of  his  own  personality  and  posi- 
tion, partly  because  the  public  was  sure  of  a 
splendid  spectacle.  He  was  bound  to  furnish 
two  grand  operas  every  three  years  ;  '  Olympia ' 

I  Richard    Wagner's    Xrinnentng    an    Sptrnttni ;    OttammiUt 
Uekrifttn,  voL  v.  p.  116(Uipiig.  Frltnche.  1872). 


tion  he  chose  the  '  Feast  of  Boses,'  from  Moore's 
'  Lalla  Rookh,'  influenced,  no  doubt,  by  the 
success  of  his  earlier  Festspiel,  and  the  prospect, 
welcome  to  a  slow  worker,  of  using  portions  of 
his  old  material ;  but  the  subject  did  not  seem 
very  congenial.  The  libretto  was  written  by 
Herklots,  librettist  to  the  Opera.  On  March 
22  Spontini  wrote  to  Briihl  that  he  was  working 
17  hours  a  day  on  the  first  act,  and  that  there 
were  only  two.  The  first  performanoe  of 
'  Nurmahal '  took  place  May  27,  1822,  m 
honour  of  the  marriage  of  the  Princess  Alex- 
andrina  of  Prussia,  to  whom  the  Emperor 
dedicated  the  PF.  score  (Schlesinger).  This  is 
not,  as  has  often  been  said,  merely  a  revised 
version  of  '  Lalla  Bukh,'  comparatively  little  of 
that  music  having  been  used  in  it.  The  intro- 
ductory march  became  No.  8  of  the  opera; 
Nourmahal's  song,  No.  26  ;  the  drum  chorus 
of  genii  No.  20 ;  and  the  ballet-music  \v«s 
mostly  retained.  A  song  was  also  introduced 
from  his  'Dieux  rivaux,'  and  the  ballet  from 
the  '  Danaides '  (Nos,  10  and  14). 

The  merits  of  the  librettos  of  the  '  Vestah'n,' 
'  Cortez,'  and  '  Olympia,*  outweigh  their  defects. 
Not  so,  however,  that  of '  Nurmahal ' ;  its  plot 
and  characters  are  alike  insipid,  and  it  is  iu 
fact  a  mere  pike  d'oocasion.  The  oriental 
colouring,  which  must  have  been  its  attraction 
for  Spontini,  still  forms  its  sole  interest.  But, 
inferior  as  it  is  to  '  Oberon,'  it  gives  a  high  idea 
of  its  author's  dramatic  instinct,  when  we 
consider  the  utter  inability  of  French  and  Italian 
composers  as  a  rule  to  deal  with  the  fantastic 
and  mythical.  Its  best  numbers  are  the  first 
finale,  the  duet.  No.  17,  and  the  duet  with 
chorus.  No.  20.  There  is  a  striking  passage  iit 
the  finale — the  lovers  lying  on  opposite  sides  of 
the  stage,  and  the  people  dancing  about  them 
to  a  bacchante-like  strain,  when  suddenly  the 
dance  ceases,  and  the  voices  hold  on  a  chord  of 
the  seventh  on  E,  with  an  indescribable  effect 
of  unsatisfied  longing.  It  is  a  stroke  of  tnie 
genius  of  which  any  German  composer  of  the 
romantic  school  might  be  proud.  The  duet 
No.  17  contains  some  conventional  thoughts, 
but  the  vehemence  of  its  passion  is  iiresistible, 
and  it  seems  to  have  been  the  earliest  instance 
of  a  kind  of  sentiment  firat  employed  among 
German  compoeera  by  Marschner,  e,g.  in  No. 
17  of  his  'Templer  und  Jiidin.'  The  spirit 
chonis  No.  20  has  a  charming  sound,  produced 
by  means  entirely  new  ;  though,  compared  with 
Weber's  tone -pictures,  it  strikes  the  hearer  as 
superficial.  It  is  impossible  to  help  this 
comparison  for  many  reasons,  one  being  that  in 
No.  21  of  'Nurmahal*  one  of  Spontini's  genii 
sings, '  From  Chindara's  warbling  fount  I  come.'* 
A  glance  at  the  two  compositions  is  enough  to 

s  Wflbac^s  aattinc  of  thew  woitb  «a«  hla  lut  eomPMitko.  datH 
London.  May  28,  ISM.  P.  W.  Jlbn*.  C.  M.  ton  Wi^mr  in  $ot»t» 
W«rtten,  p.  400.    Berlin,  Bchleatngar,  1871. 


SPONTINI 


667 


show  how  far  he  fell  short  of  the  equalities 
required  for  this  kind  of  work.  The  piece  con- 
tains much  that  is  beautiful,  especially  some 
passages  in  the  Andantino  malinconico,  of 
startling  novelty  and  expression,  the  gay  intro- 
ductory chorus,  and  the  melodious  Nos.  3,  4, 
and  5,  so  entirely  in  Spontini's  Neapolitan 
manner  that  they  might  have  been  taken  from 
his  early  operas.  Here  and  there  are  touches 
recalling  Mozart  The  overture  and  ballets 
are  briUiant  and  festal,  and  the  overture  has 
an  open-airiness  of  style  often  found  in  Italian 
overtures.  Clumsy  accentuation  of  words, 
however,  constantly  betrays  the  fact  that  the 
composer  is  dealing  with  an  unfamiliar  language. 

On  June  9,  1821,  Spontini  started  for  a  seven 
months'  leave.  He  went  first  to  Dresden,  and 
there  met  Weber.  Weber  was  cordial  and 
obliging,  while  Spontini,  though  polite  in 
manner,  took  pains  to  make  his  rival  feel  the 
newness  of  his  reputation  as  a  composer.^  By 
June  29,  he  was  in  Vienna  trying  to  arrange 
a  performance  of  'Olympia*  for  the  following 
season  ;  but  this  did  not  take  place.  Thence 
he  went  to  Italy,  revisiting  his  birthplace  ;  and 
by  September  was  in  Paris  at  work  on  the 
revision  of  *01ympia,'  He  also  made  some 
experiments  on  *  Milton,'  telling  Briihl  (Jan. 
12,  1823)  that  he  would  put  it  before  him  in 
tliree  different  forms.  By  the  end  of  January 
he  was  back  in  Berlin,  apparently  anxious  to 
keep  on  good  terms  with  Briihl,  though  such 
good  resolutions  seldom  lasted  long.  One  of  their 
many  differences  was  on  the  subject  of  star- 
singers  (Oastspteler),  These  Briihl  wished  to 
encourage,  as  a  means  of  testing  the  artists, 
and  their  chance  of  popularity  ;  but  Spontini 
disliked  the  system.  An  appearance  of  Carl 
Devrient  and  Wilhelmine  Schroder  in  the 
summer  of  1823  evoked  another  impertinent 
letter  to  Briihl,  who  in  reply  (July  7)  told  him 
to  mind  his  own  business. 

He  had  now  been  in  office  four  years,  and 
the  stipulated  two  grand  operas  every  three 
years,  or  smaller  one  each  year,  were  only 
represented  by  a  sce^ia  or  two  for  *01ympia,' 
and  a  couple  of  pieces  for  *  Nurmahal.'  It  was 
plain  that  he  had  undertaken  a  task  wholly 
beyond  his  strength,  owing  to  his  pedantic 
manner  of  working.  He  thought  (August  2, 
1823)  of  turning  *  Milton '  into  a  grand  opera 
with  recitatives,  choruses,  and  ballets,  but  soon 
relinquished  the  idea,  and  by  Oct.  17  was  *  busy, 
night  and  day,  with  "  Alcidor." '  The  libretto 
was  by  Theauleon,  who  had  formerly  altered 
*Cortez.'  On  coming  to  Berlin,  in  Nov. 
1823,  Theauleon  found  the  first  scene  already 
composed,  and  his  business  was  to  fit  words  to 
the  music.  His  task  was  not  easy  :  *  If  I  wrote 
lines  of  ten  syllables,'  he  says,  *  Spontini  wanted 
them  of  five  ;  scarcely  had  I  hammered  out  an 
unfortimate  stanza  of  five,  when  it  had  to  be 

1  CM.  von  Weber,  by  Max  Ton  Weber.  U.  43S. 
VOL.  IV 


lengthened  to  twelve  or  fifteen,  and  if  I  ex- 
postulated, on  the  ground  that  lines  of  that 
length  were  not  admissible  in  French  poetry, 
he  would  reply  in  a  sort  of  recitative,  accom- 
panying himself  on  the  piano,  **  The  translation 
will  make  it  all  right"  •  Never  did  so  poor  a 
poem  cost  its  author  so  much  trouble. ' '  It  is 
evident  from  this  that  Spontini  composed  to 
French  words,  which  were  afterwards  translated 
by  Herklots.  Schinkel  and  Gropius  again 
painted  the  scenery.  The  rehearsals  began  in 
Sept  1824,  and  the  first  performance  took  place 
May  23,  1825,  Its  reception  by  Spontini's 
adherents  was  unmistakably  hearty,  and  many 
outsiders  were  dazzled  by  its  new  effects  of 
scenery  and  music,  but  the  national  party  were 
louder  than  ever  in  their  disapprobation.  Among 
the  adverse  critiques  was  a  parody  in  the  true 
Berlin  style,  in  which  *  Alcidor  eine  Zauberoper ' 
was  converted  into  <  Allziidoll  eine  Zauderoper.'^ 
Zelter  alone  was  impartial,  but  he  was  no  doubt 
infiuenced  by  his  prejudice  against  Weber,  and 
all  that  he  can  say  is  '  The  piece  was  written  by 
Theauleon  in  French,  and  set  to  French  music, 
so  we  have  at  last  a  real  BerUn  original — that 
is  a  new  coat  turned ' ;  and  again,  '  Spontini 
always  reminds  me  of  a  Gold-King,  flinging 
his  gold  at  the  people,  and  breaking  their  heads 
with  it. '  *  Not  even  a  PF.  score  of  *  Alcidor  ' 
was  published  ;  nor  did  it  make  its  way  beyond 
Berlin,  any  more  than  *  Nurmahal '  had  done. 

Another  grand  opera  was  due  for  the  summer 
of  1826,  and  a  week  after  the  production  of 
*  Alcidor '  Spontini  asked  Count  Briihl  whether 
a  revised  and  lengthened  version  of  *  Milton  * 
would  do  for  the  purpose.  The  Count  thought 
the  material  too  scanty,  but  the  King  (June  29) 
agreed  to  the  proposal.  Spontini  having  ob- 
tained eleven  months'  leave,  started  for  Paris, 
where  he  was  present  at  a  revival  of  '  Olympic ' 
on  Feb.  28,  1826,  returning  immediately  after- 
wards to  Berlin.  Nothing  more  was  heard  of 
'  Milton, '  and  during  this  year  he  furnished  no 
work  for  the  King's  theatre.  Ernst  Raupach 
was  now  Ubrettist  to  the  Opera,  and  Spontini 
agreed  with  him  on  a  subject  from  Geiman 
medieval  history,  which  eventually  became  the 
opera  *  Agnes  von  Hohenstaufen.'  The  first  act 
— long  enough  for  a  complete  opera — ^was  ready 
by  1827,  and  performed  May  28.  The  whole 
three  acts  were  finished  in  1829,  and  produced 
June  12  for  the  marriage  of  Prince  Wilhelm, 
(afterwards  the  Emperor  William  I. ).  Spontini, 
dissatisfied  with  his  work,  had  the  libretto 
altered  by  Baron  von  Lichtenstein  and  other 
friends,  and  made  more  vital  changes  in  the 
music  than  in  almost  any  other  of  his  grand 
operas.  In  this  form  it  was  revived  Dec.  6, 1837. 

German  medieval  history  at  this  time  occupied 
much  attention,  and  thus  no  doubt  influenced 

s  Ledebnr,  Berititer  TonkOntOtr-Lexteon,  p.  964. 
•  AUsudoU,  VQlgftriam  for  Allmtoll >qiiite  too  mad;  ZRoderoper 
■rslov  open,  because  of  the  ttme  It  had  taken  to  writa. 
«  Brt^ttoeehMl  eon  Ooethe  und  Xelter,  Iv.  39.  40, 

2u 


with  the  ■enoosneaB  which  was  hu  mam  chanc- 
teiistic  M  an  artist;  read,  stadied,  and  did 
eyerything  to  imbue  himself  with -the  spirit  of 
the  epoch,  one  wholly  foreign  to  anytldng  he 
had  before  attempted.  ^  The  libretto  in  its  final 
form  was  a  good  one  on  the  whole.  The  scene 
is  laid  at  Mayence  in  1194,  during  the  reign  of 
the  Emperor  Henry  YI.  of  Hohenstaofen,  and 
the  plot  tnms  on  the  fiMstions  of  the  Qnelphs 
and  Ohibellines.  The  mnsio  is  thoroughly 
C^erman,  the  harmonies  richer  and  more  satis- 
fying, ti^e  melodies  qoite  national  in  character  ; 
isolated  passages  recalling  Spohr,  and  even 
Weber,  tiiongh  without  anything  like  servile 
imitation.  It  is  throughout  the  result  of  an 
entire  absorption  in  the  dramatic  situation  and 
characters.  A  comparison  of  it  with  the  senti- 
mental ballad-like  effusions  of  even  good  German 
composers  in  similar  circumstances  will  serye  to 
accentuate  the  difference  between  them  and 
Spontini.  Neither  is  there  any  sign  of  exhaustion 
of  inyentive  power.  The  stream  of  melody  flows 
as  freely  as  eyer ;  indeed  there  is  a  breadth,  an 
^an,  and  a  fire  in  some  of  these  melodies,  to 
which  he  rarely  attains  in  his  earlier  operas — 
instance  the  terzetto  in  the  second  act^  '  Ja,  statt 
meines  Kerkers  Grauen,'  and  Agnes's  solo  *  Main 
Konig  droben.*  The  criticisms  of  the  day  were 
most  unjustly  severe  ;  but  though  the  music  was 
never  published  the  MS.  score  exists,  and  an 
examination  of  it  will  fully  bear  out  all  that 
we  have  said.  It  is  not  too  late  to  form  an 
impartial  judgment,  and  Germans  should  re- 
cognise that  they  have  a  duty  to  perform  to 

*  Agnes  von  Hohenstaufen,'  as  the  only  opera 
which  deals  worthily  with  a  glorious  period  of 
German  history.  When  this  has  been  fairly 
acknowledged  it  will  be  time  enough  to  look  out 
for  its  defects. 

It  was  the  last  opera  which  Spontini  com- 
pleted. Various  new  plans  and  schemes  con- 
tinued to  occupy  him,  as  before,  especially  during 
the  latter  part  of  his  stay  in  Paris,  when  '  Louis 
XI.,' '  La  Colore  d'Achille,'  and  '  Artaserse '  had 
in  turn  been  thought  of  for  composition.  For 
a  successor  to  'Olympia'  he  thought  first  of 

*  Sappho  'or  of  *  Die  Horatier,'  and  then  of  two  of 
Werner's  tragedies,  *  Das  Kreuz  an  der  Ostsee  ' 
and  '  Attila,'  but  none  of  these  projects  appear 
to  have  advanced  far  enough  even  for  a  pre- 
liminary rehearsal.  More  progress  was  made 
with  a  poem  by  his  old  friend  Jouy,  '  Les 
Ath^nionnes,'  first  offered  him  in  1819,  and  ac- 
cepted in  a  revised  form  in  1822.  In  a  review 
of  the  poem^  written  in  1830,  Goethe  implies 
that  the  music  was  complete,  but  at  Spontini's 
death  nothing  was  found  but  unimportant 
fragments. 3      An    opera   founded   on   English 

t  Sptmttnt  M  DtmUdOand,  p.  lOS  (Lstpilf.  St«iJM4±er  Qnd  Hui- 
knoch.  I&'K)). 

s  Ooeth«'s  Wortta,  Ooedaeka'a edition,  vol.  xliL  p. «»,  CotU.  Alao 
BpontftU  in  Deutmhland,  p.  99.     Lripcig.  1890. 

3  Bobert'a  apmUlni,  p.  M.    Barlin,  UR8. 


mentioned  the  revision  of  his  'Milton.'      His 
studies  for  this  deepened  his  interest  in  the 
English  histoiy  of  the  17th  oentoiy.      In  1830 
Banpach  wrote  a  libretto  for  a  grand  opera, 
<  Milton,'  which  was  bought  by  the  committee  of 
management  for  30  Friedrichs  d'or,  and  placed 
at  Spontini's  disposaL^   The  only  portion  of  the 
smaller  opera  retained  was  the  fine  Hymn  to  the 
Sun.     After  completing  the  revision  of  *  Agnes 
von  Hohenstaufen,'  Spontini  wrote  to  the  Inten- 
dant  (May  9, 1887)  that  he  hoped  in  the  winter 
of  1838  to  produce  *  Miltons  Tod  nnd  Basse  fur 
Konigsmord '  (Milton's  death,  and  repentance  for 
the  ^ng's  execution).    He  spent  the  sommer  of 
1888  in  England,  studying  historical,  national, 
and  local  colouring  for  this  'historioo-romantic' 
opera.     Baupach's  poem,  extended  and  revised 
by  Dr.  Sobernheim,  had  now  assumed  a  politicil 
and  religious  tendency,  so  distasteful  to  tiie  King 
as  to  make  him  prohibit  the  opera.     Further 
alterations  ensued,  and  it  became  *  Das  verlorene 
Paradies'  (Paradise  Lost).     By  May  1840  the 
score  of  pajt  of  the  1st,  and  two-thirds  of  the 
2nd  act  was  complete.     Up  to  March  1841  he 
certainly  intended  finishing  it,  bat  not  a  note 
of  it  has  ever  been  heard.     We  may  add  that  on 
June  4,  1838,  he  mentioned  a  faliy-opera  to  the 
King,  and  in  Dec.  1840  professed  himself  ready 
to  begin  a  new  comic  opera.    He  was  apparently 
bent  on  composing  fresh  dramatic  works,  and 
often  complained  that  the  management  did  not 
offer  him  sufficient  choice  of  librettos  ;  but  he 
was  incapacitated  from  creation  by  his  increasiiig 
pedantry,  and  by  the  perpetual  state  of  irritation 
in  which  he  was  kept  by  his  critics. 

Spontini's  other  compositions  during  his  re- 
sidence in  Berlin  are  unimportant.  A  hymn  for 
the  coronation  of  the  Emperor  Nicholas  of  Bussis, 
to  words  by  Baupach,  was  performed  at  Berlin, 
Dec.  18, 1826,  and  May  9,  1827.*  A  cantata  to 
Herklots'  words,  '  Gott  segue  den  Konig,'  had  a 
great  success  at  the  Halle  Musical  Festival  in 
Sept.  1829,  which  Spontini  conducted  so  much 
to  the  general  satisfaction  as  to  procure  him  sn 
honorary  Doctor's  degree  from  the  Univerai^, 
and  a  gold  medal  inscribed  JUrieae  Tragoediae 
Principi  Oermania  merUorum  cuUrix,  A  *  Vo- 
mine  salvum  fac  regem,'  a  12,  with  accompani- 
ment of  organs,  trumpets,  violoncelli,  and  basses, 
was  written  on  Oct.  15,  1840,  for  presentation 
to  the  King.  Besides  these  he  pubUshedanumbtf 
of  French,German,and  lUlian  vocal  pieces,  vith 
PF.  accompaniment,  the  best  of  which  is  *Dm 
Cimbem, '  a  war-song  for  three  men's  voices.  As 
a  mere  matter  of  curiosity  may  be  mentioned 
that  he  set  Goethe's  *  Kennst  du  das  Land,  and 
the  Italian  canzonet  'Ninfe,  se  liete,'  in  whicii 
he  again  clashed  anoonsciously  with  Weber  s 

«  In  BpomtiM  in  i)mUektM»d  thto  Ifbntto  b  Mid  y^^^i'JSi 
I  hive  not  been  »b1e  to  uccrtftln  whtitur  it  wm  Joay  •  »«*  ""^ 
bj  lUnpach.  or  an  original  prodnetioD.  ,  .   .    ^.^  «va 

»  lUapuh  hud  intended  to  hay  nMtams  wiM^  *>  •" 
■tMine ;  but  thfa  wm  not  eutled  ont. 


SPONTINI 


669 


very  graceful  composition  to  the  same  words 
{1811).i 

Conaidering  his  great  position,  Spontini  did 
not  accomplish  much  for  music  in  Berlin.    At 
the  opera  he  made  the  band  play  with  a  fire,  an 
expression,  and  an  ensemble,  hitherto  unknown, 
forced  the  singers  to  throw  themselres  dramati- 
cally into  their  parts,  and  used  every  exertion 
to  fose  the  different  elements  into  one  coherent 
whole.     He  endeavoured  to  improve  the  exist- 
ing school  for  singers  and  founded  one  for  the 
orchestra.     But  Ms  efforts  as  a  rule  were  con- 
centrated on  the  operas  which  he  himself  con- 
ducted— that    is  to    say,    his  own,    Gluck's 
'Armida,'   and   'Don  Juan.'      These  works, 
through    his    genius,    Ms    influence    on    his 
subordinates,  and  Ms  almost  absolute  power, 
he  brought  to  a  perfection  then  unequalled. 
The  pieces  directed  by  Ms  vice-conductors  went 
badly,  partly  because  Spontini  exhausted  the 
singers,  and  partly  because  he  took  little  interest 
in  the  general  repertoire.    He  had,  too,  no  power 
of  organisation  or  administration.     As  long  as 
the  excellent  material  lasted  which  Brilhl  trans- 
ferred to  Mm  in  1820  this  defect  was  not  glaring, 
but  when  Ms  solo-singers  began  to  wear  out  and 
had  to  be  replaced,  it  was  found  that  he  had  not 
the  judgment,   the  penetration,  nor   the  im- 
partiality necessary  for  such  business.     Up  to 
the  autumn  of  1827  he  only  concluded  one  en- 
gagement himself,  and  in  that  instance  it  was 
a  solo-singer  who  proved  only  fit  for  the  chonis. 
On  the  other  hand  he  lost  Sieber,  a  good  bass, 
by  insisting  on  reducinghis  salary  to  100  thalers, 
and  had  shortly  afterwards  to  re-engage  him  at 
200,  as  there  was  no  bass  in  the  company  capable 
of  taking  the  parts  in  his  own  operas.     The  art 
of  divining  the  taste  of  the  public,  of  at  once 
meeting  it,  elevating  and  moulding  it — the  art, 
in  fact,  of  keeping  the  exchequer  full  without 
sacrificing  artistic  position — this  was  wholly  out 
of  his  reach.  At  the  King's  theatre,  the  audiences 
steadily  fell  off,  especially  after  the  opening  of 
the    Kbnigstadt  theatre  in   1823.     At  times 
Spontini  seems  to  have  felt  his  incapacity,  but 
unfortunately  he  was  deluded  by  his  own  vanity 
and  domineering  temper,  and  the  insinuations 
of  so-called  friends,  into  believing  that  the  de- 
cline of  the  opera  was  owing  to  Briihl,  whereas 
Briihl  might  have  retorted  that  everytMng  he 
proposed  was  met  by  a  despotic  and  unreasoning 
veto.     The  Count  at  length,  in  1828,  wearied 
out  by  the  unceasing  opposition,  resigned,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Count  Redem,  who  received 
from   the  King  a  fresh  code  of  instructions, 
somewhat  circumscribing  Spontini's  powers,  and 
concentrating  those  of  the  management.     Op- 
portunities for  fresh  differences  still  constantly 
arose,  and  Count  Redem  had  much  to  contend 
with  in  Spontini's  increasing  irritability  and  in- 
consistency.    In  time  even  the  admirers  of  his 

I  T.<edebar  glvm  a  tolemUy  comftleto  catalofme  of  Spontini's 
dttir]  ler  work* ;  M«  p.  570.  AIm  Harx,  in  the  BtrUtur  Allg.  J/ui. 
ZrUung  for  1896,  pw  306. 


music  felt  that  his  personal  influence  was  bad, 
and  that  the  opera  would  never  prosper  as  long 
as  he  remained  at  its  head. 

Spontini  was  to  have  the  receipts  of  the  first 
nights  of  Ms  own  operas  for  his  annual  benefit, 
or  in  default  of  such  representations  a  sum  of 
4000  francs.  In  the  latter  case  he  might  give 
a  concert,  and  in  fact  he  gave  a  considerable 
number,  both  vocal  and  instrumental.  <My 
concerts,'  in  his  own  words,  'are  dedicated  to 
the  great  masters,  whose  memory  I  strive  to 
keep  alive  with  the  public,  while  testifying  my 
own  respect  by  performing  their  works  in  the 
most  brilliant  and  complete  manner  possible.'^ 
His  programmes  consisted  principally  of  German 
music,  Handel,  Haydn,  Mozart,  and  Beethoven. 
The  first  performance  in  Berlin  of  Beethoven's 
Symphony  in  A  was  at  a  concert  of  Spontini's 
on  May  12,  1824,  and  on  April  80,  1828,  he 
gave  Beethoven's  C  minor  Symphony,  the  Kyrie 
and  Gloria  from  his  Mass  in  D,  the  overture  to 
*  Coriolan,'  and  the  Credo  from  Bach's  B  minor 
Mass.  As  Bach's  Mass  had  only  just  been 
published  by  Nageli  of  Zurich,  Spontini  was  the 
first  to  introduce  a  portion  of  it  to  the  public 
of  Berlin,  as  he  had  been  to  acquaint  them  with 
Beethoven's  Masses.  The  performance  itself 
seems  to  have  been  a  poor  one,and  indeed  it  could 
hardly  be  otherwise,  Spontini  not  having  much 
in  common  with  Bach  ;  but  the  attempt  was 
praiseworthy.  3  Another  point  to  his  credit  was 
that  he  gave  his  support  to  Moser's  concerts. 
The  King's  band  could  not  play  without  his 
permission,  so  he  might  have  made  difiiculties 
if  he  had  chosen. 

As  we  have  already  mentioned,  Spontini's 
late  operas  had  no  success  outside  Berlin.  Except 
a  couple  of  stray  performances  of  *  Olympia '  at 
Dresden  and  Darmstadt,  they  did  not  even  gain 
a  hearmg.  Occasionally  he  conducted  one  of 
his  own  works,  as  for  instance  the  '  Vestalin ' 
at  Munich*  (Oct  7  and  11,  1827),  and  Ham- 
burg *  (Sept.  18,  1884).  But  such  personal 
contact  does  not  seem  to  have  led  to  sympathetic 
relations.  Speaking  generally,  the  '  Vestalin  ' 
and  'Cortez'  were  the  only  operas  of  his 
appreciated  in  Germany. 

In  Berlin  itself,  each  year  added  to  the  num- 
ber of  his  opponents.  In  1824  Marx  entered 
the  lists  in  his  behalf  in  his  ZeUung,  and  was 
seconded  by  Dom ;  but  Dom  left  Berlin  in 
March  1828,  and  Marx,  though  sincerely  at- 
tached to  Spontini,  occasionally  admitted  adverse 
criticisms.  Spontini  was  morbidly  sensitive  to 
public  opinion,  and  the  loss  of  Ms  defenders 
was  a  serious  one.  Against  the  advice  of  judicious 
friends  he  replied  in  person  to  anonymous  at- 
tacks, suffered  flatterers  to  use  unpractised  pens 
in  his  behalf,  and  even  called  in  the  Censorship. 

3  GttUts'a  Srltbnime,  Hi.  342. 

>  Marx.  Berlkfur  Allg.  Mu*.  ZeUung.  1858,  pp.  IM  and  102. 

«  Gnuulaur,  Ckrona  de$  k6nigL  Thtattn  in  JUkndttn.  pi  106. 
Monlch,  187& 

»  Schmidt's  DvnkwiMUgMtgn.  Edited  V7  Ubdc  Ptart  U.  p.  814. 
Stuttfart.  Cotto,  1878. 


opposition  was  headed  by  Rellstab,  the  editor 
of  the  Vossiache  Zeitung^  an  experienced  littera* 
tear  with  some  knowledge  of  music,  a  great  ally 
of  Weber's,  and  a  bUnd  opponent  of  everything 
foreign.  In  Noe.  23  to  26  of  the  year  1827  of 
Marx's  ZeUuivg  appeared  an  article  utterly 
demolishing  the  first  act  of  '  Agnes  von  Hohen- 
staufen.'  Dom  made  a  successful  reply  in  Noa. 
27  to  29,  but  far  from  being  silenced  Rellstab 
published  a  book,  Ueher  inein  Verhaltniss  als 
Kritiker  zu,  Herm  Sponiini,^  in  which  he  un- 
sparingly attacked  Spontini  as  a  composer  and 
director,  and  exposed  the  absurd  tactics  of  the 
Spontini  clique. *  The  clique  put  forth  a  defence 
called  Spontini  vi  Germany,  an  impartial  eon- 
sideration  of  his  productions  during  his  ten  years* 
residence  in  that  country  (Leipzig,  1830).  It 
was,  however,  anything  but  impartial,  was 
ignorant  and  badly  done.^ 

Spontini's  ten  years' con  tract  finished  in  1830 ; 
it  was  renewed,  on  terms  more  favourable  to 
the  lutendant-General,  and  this,  with  the  fact 
of  his  ceasing  to  compose,  gave  an  opportunity 
to  his  enemies,  and  an  unfortunate  indiscretion 
on  the  part  of  one  of  his  friends  played  into  their 
hands.  Dorow  of  Halle,  the  archaeologist,  in  a 
collection  of  autographs  (1837)  inserted  a  letter 
from  Spontini  (Marienbad,  August  12,  1836) 
lamenting  the  degeneracy  of  the  dramatic  com- 
posers of  the  day.  It  was  done  in  good  faith, 
Dorow  honestly  believing  that  he  was  serving 
Spontini  by  thus  publishing  his  opinions  without 
authority  ;  but  his  opponents  issued  the  letter 
in  a  separate  pamphlet  with  a  German  transla- 
tion, and  'explanatory'  remarks,  in  which 
Spontini  was  fiercely  attacked  in  terms  of  ironical 
respect.^  In  the  same  year,  in  Nos.  101  and 
102  of  the  Komet  appeared  a  pasquinade  by  > 
student  named  Thomas,  stating  that  Spontini 
had  opposed  the  production  of  'Robert  le  Diable,' 
the  '  Postilion  de  Longjumeau,'  and  '  La  Muette 
de  Portici,'  till  obliged  to  yield  to  the  express 
command  of  the  King ;  that  a  new  code  of 
instructions  had  altered  his  position,  and  made 
him  entirely  subordinate  to  the  Intendant ;  that 
he  had  been  reprimanded  for  selling  his  free 
admissions,  and  had  had  them  withdrawn  ;  that 
the  engagements  of  certain  singers  contained 
a  clause  stipulating  that  they  should  not  be 
obliged  to  sing  in  Spontini's  operas,  etc  etc. 

Thomas,  when  called  to  account,  referred  to 
an  *■  official  of  high  position '  as  his  authority. 
And  indeed  there  was  a  certain  amoimt  of  truth 
in  the  charges.     Without  directly  opposing  the 

1  Lelpslf.  Whittling.  18Z7. 

*  But  am  Rklutab,  auto,  p.  6S6.  It  tau  been  often,  uid  ereu 
ncttntly.  stated  th*t  two  articles  by  B«lUt»b  In  CHeUia  Uu»  dem 
NatMoMM  elfiM  Junaon  KUnatUra),  vol.  It.  pp.  1-42,  and  Julius.  Mna 
mu*iJctUt$ek«  NowSu,  rol.  rl.  pp.  1-106)  refer  to  Spontini.  This  la 
quite  untrue,  but  it  shows  how  carelessly  damaging  statemenU 
about  Spontini  are  repeated. 

>  Attributed,  quite  untruly,  to  Dom. 

*  The  LamnU  of  Strr  KUter  Otuparo  Spoutini  .  .  .  o^tr  th«  de- 
tUnt  nf  dramuUie  mutie.  Trandated  from  the  French.  wUh  ex- 
piafudorjf  remarit  fry  o  bodp  e/fHeruU  and  etimtrvn  9f  the  great 
master.    Lelpilg.  Miebelseu,  1897. 


hesitated  openly  to  avow  his  dislike  of  them  : 
no  new  code  of  instructions  had  just  then  been 
issued,  but  thatof  1831  didmateriaUy  strengthen 
the  Intendant's  position,  and  to  a  certain  extent 
make  the  Director -general  his  subordinate. 
Spontini  had  not  himself  sold  free  admissions, 
but  his  servant  had,  and  in  consequence  the 
allotted  number  had  been  diminished,  very  much 
to  his  mortification.  It  was  advisable,  however, 
to  prevent  such  a  newspaper  scandal  from 
reaching  the  King's  ears,  so  Count  Bedem 
replied,  contradicting  all  the  false  statements, 
and  passing  over  in  silence  all  the  true  ones  ; 
Thomas  was  induced  to  make  a  public  apology, 
and  the  affair  seemed  at  an  endl  But  Spontini's 
troubles  were  not  yet  over  ;  and  his  unpopularity 
was  so  great  that  worse  attacks  might  be 
expected. 

On  June  7, 1840,  King  Frederick  William  III. 
died,  and  Spontini's  one  mainstay  was  gone. 
Though  obliged  occasionally  to  express  dis- 
pleasure at  his  perpetual  squabbles  with  the 
Intendant,  the  King  had  been  steadfast  in  his 
attachment  to  Spontini  and  his  music.  The 
new  King  made  no  change  in  his  position,  but 
his  sympathies  were  in  a  different  direction,  and 
no  place  was  destined  for  Spontini  in  the  grand 
designs  he  was  elaborating.  This  soon  became 
known.  If  Spontini  could  have  kept  himself 
quiet  the  change  might  have  been  delayed,  but 
he  was  injudicious  enough  to  lay  before  the  King 
a  paper  complaining  of  the  Management  and  of 
Count  Redem.  The  King  questioned  the  In- 
tendant, and  was  satisfied  with  his  explanations, 
but  to  obviate  all  appearance  of  partisanship  he 
appointed  a  commission  to  inquire  into  Spon- 
tini's grievances.  In  the  meantime  the  press 
had  taken  up  the  matter.  A  definite  attack 
was  made,  to  which  Spontini  was  unwise  enough 
to  reply  (Leipzig  AUgemdne  Zeitung  of  Jan.  20, 
1841)  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  Count  Redem 
ground  for  an  indictment  for  Use-majest^y  and 
(on  Feb.  5)  to  a  direct  reprimand  from  the  King. 

But  this  disgraceful  treatment  of  the  royal 
house  by  a  foreigner  who  had  enjoyed  for  yeais 
almost  unexampled  Court  favour  immensely 
increased  the  public  feeling  against  Spontini, 
and  for  two  months  he  remained  in  private. 
On  April  2,  however,  in  spite  of  repeated 
warnings,  he  took  his  seat  to  conduct  'Don 
Juan.'  His  appearance  was  the  signal  for  a 
tremendous  uproar,  and  cries  of  '  hinans ! 
hinaus  ! ' — *  off !  off ! '  He  stood  firm,  b^gan 
the  overture,  and  would  have  proceeded  with 
the  opera,  but  a  rush  was  made  to  get  at  him 
on  the  stage,  and  he  was  forced  to  retire  from 
the  theatre.  He  never  entered  it  again  as 
conductor. 

The  trial  kept  Spontini  m  Berlin  all  the 
summer,  but  he  obtained  leave  from  Aug.  31 
to  Dec.  10,  and  went  to  Paris.  His  connection 
with  the  opera  was  severed  by  the  King  ou 


SPONTINI 


661 


Aug.  25,  on  terms  of  royal  generoeity.  He  was 
to  retain  his  title  and  full  salary,  and  live  where 
he  pleased,  '  in  the  ho^  that  in  repose  he  might 
produce  new  works,  which  the  King  would  hisdl 
with  pleasure  if  he  chose  to  conduct  them  in 
person  at  Berlin. '  To  these  muniiicent  arrange- 
ments no  conditions  whatever  were  attached. 
Spontini  was  convicted  of  Use-majesUf  and 
condemned  to  nine  months'  imprisonment,  a 
sentence  confirmed  by  the  higher  court  to  which 
he  appealed,  but  remitted  by  the  King.  In 
the  face  of  all  this  he  had  the  effrontery  to 
demand  a  further  sum  of  46,850  thalers,  on  the 
ground  that  the  Management  had  not  supplied 
him  with  a  sufficient  number  of  librettos, 
whereby  he  had  lost  the  sum  guaranteed  him 
for  first  nights,  besides  profits  from  other  per- 
formances and  from  publishers — reckoned  at 
3000  thalers  for  each  opera  !  The  King  referred 
him  to  the  Law  Courts,  but  Spontini's  better 
nature  seems  at  length  to  have  prevailed,  and 
he  withdrew  his  application  Dec  28,  1841. 
When  he  finally  left  Berlin  in  the  summer  of 
1842,  the  King  granted  him  a  further  sum  of 
6000  thalers.  His  friends  gave  him  a  fEirewell 
concert  on  July  13,  1842,  for  which  he  wrote 
both  words  and  music  of  an  '  Adieu  h.  mes  amis 
de  Berlin. '1 

He  left  few  friends  behind  him.  His  suc- 
cessor at  the  opera  was  Meyerbeer,  who,  with 
Mendelssohn,  received  the  title  of 'Greneralmusik- 
director.'  Neither  had  very  friendly  feelings 
towards  him,  and  their  paths  as  artists  widely 
diverged  from  his.  He  was,  however,  long,  and 
gratefully  remembered  by  the  members  of  the 
King's  band.  The  orchestra  were  proud  of  their 
majestic  conductor,  who  so  often  led  them  to 
triumph,  and  who,  moreover,  had  a  tender  care 
for  their  personal  interests.  The  poorer  members 
found  his  purse  ready  of  access,  and  in  1826  he 
established  a  fund  for  them,  called  by  special 
permission  the  *  Spontini- Fonds,*  to  which  he 
devoted  the  whole  proceeds  of  his  annual  benefit 
concerts.  The  fund  speedily  attained  to  con- 
siderable proportions,  and  still  exists,  though 
the  name  has  been  changed. 

That  he  was  badly  treated  by  the  Berlin  public 
is  indisputable.  His  ill-natured,  unjust,  spiteful 
attacks  must  have  been  very  irritating,  as  even 
those  who  do  not  belong  to  the  super-sensitive 
race  of  artists  can  understand,  but  the  last  scene 
at  the  opera  looks  like  a  piece  of  simple  brutality, 
unless  we  remember  that  the  real  ground  of 
offence  was  his  being  a  foreigner.  The  political 
events  of  the  period  beginning  with  the  War  of 
Liberation  had  roused  a  strong  national  feeling 
in  Prussia.  The  denial  of  a  Constitution  had 
concentrated  attention  on  the  stage,  which  thus 
became  a  sort  of  political  arena ;  and  that  a 
foreigner,  and  moreover  a  naturalised  French- 
man, should  be  laying  down  the  law  in  this 
stronghold  was  intolerable. 

1  Robert,  p.  52,  etc 


In  Spontini's  character  great  and  mean  quali- 
ties were  almost  equally  mixed,  so  that  both 
friends  and  foes  could  support  their  statements 
by  facts,  while  each  shut  their  eyes  to  the 
qualities  which  they  did  not  wish  to  see.  After 
his  friends  had  been  silenced  by  the  catastrophe 
of  1841  the  verdict  of  his  opponents  prevailed,  at 
any  rate  throughout  Germany  ;  but  this  verdict, 
we  say  emphatically,  was  unjust  The  charge 
that  he  despised  and  neglected  German  music  is 
simply  untrue.  That  he  admired  and  loved  the 
great  German  masters  from  Handel  to  Beethoven 
he  proved  through  life  in  many  ways.  Robert 
relates  on  unquestionable  authority  that  he  made 
great  sacrifices  for  the  family  of  Mozart.  When 
Kissen  published  his  biography  Spontini  exerted 
himself  immensely  to  get  subscribers,  personally 
transmitted  the  money  to  the  widow,  superin- 
tended the  translation  of  the  book  into  French, 
and  rendered  all  the  help  in  his  power.*  A  pre- 
ference for  his  own  works  must  be  conceded  to 
any  artist  actively  engaged  in  production,  nor  is 
it  reasonable  to  expect  from  him  an  absolutely 
impartial  judgment  of  the  works  of  others. 
Weber's  music  was  incomprehensible  and  anti- 
pathetic to  Spontini,  and  this  did  him  as  much 
injury  in  Berlin  as  anything  else.  But  his  dalay 
in  performing  *  Euryanthe '  and  *  Oberon '  was 
caused  more  by  inaction  than  opposition.  For 
Spohr  he  had  a  great  respect,  as  he  often 
proved.  3  In  Meyerbeer  he  took  a  great  interest, 
until  the  appearance  of  *  Robert  le  Diable,' which 
he  could  not  bear,  calling  it '  un  cadavre ' ;  but 
this  is  no  reflection  on  his  taste.  For  the  non- 
performance of  the  '  Huguenots  '  he  was  not  re- 
sponsible, as  the  prohibition  was  the  King's.  He 
was  certainly  not  justified  in  calling  Marschner's 
'  Templer  und  Judin '  an  '  arrangement  after 
Spontini ' — always  supposing  that  the  expression 
was  his — but  everybody  knows  that  Marschner 
was  deeply  influenced  by  him.  He  was  by  no 
means  free  from  envy  and  jealousy,  but,  taking 
for  granted  that  he  allowed  himself  to  be  swayed 
by  his  passions,  foreign  composers  suffered  just 
as  much  at  his  hands  as  German  ones.  Of 
Cherubini  he  thought  very  highly  (he  mounted 
'Les  Abenc^rages'  and  sent  the  composer  a 
considerable  sum  from  the  proceeds),  but  Auber's 
'Muette  de  Portici,'  and  Hal^vy's  *Juive'  he 
thoroughly  disliked,  took  no  trouble  about  their 
production,  and  was  much  annoyed  at  their 
pleasing  the  public.  Nor  did  he  like  Rossini, 
his  own  countryman.  His  horizon  was  limited, 
but  if  it  is  possible  to  reconcile  genius  with 
narrow-mindedness,  if  Spohr  may  be  forgiven 
for  appreciating  Beethoven  only  partially,  and 
Weber  not  at  all,  we  must  not  be  too  hard  on 
Spontini.  It  is  sad  to  see  the  incapacity  of  even 
cultivated  people  in  Berlin  to  be  just  towards 

*  Bobert,  p.  86,  etc. 

s  The  ttatement  In  the  MendeUtohn  FtmOly,  vol.  i.  p.  124,  that 
he  threw  obet»elee  In  the  way  of  the  performance  of  '  Jenonda' 
la  qnite  nnfonnded.  The  minutee  of  the  King's  Theatre  prore  the 
osmtnxj. 


showed  many  kindnesses,  were  never  on  good 
terms  with  him  after  the  appearance  of  the 
'  Hochzeit  des  Camacho.'  ^  He  may  not  haye 
done  justice  to  that  youthful  work,  but  it  is  a 
pity  that  the  noble-minded  Mendelssohn  should 
have  permitted  himself  the  angry  and  contemp- 
tuous expressions  to  be  found  in  his  letters.' 
The  painful  close  of  Spontini's  career  was  enough 
to  atone  for  all  his  shortcomings. 

Of  his  last  years  there  is  little  to  relate.  On 
leaving  Berlin  he  went  to  Italy,  and  in  Jan. 
1843  was  in  Majolati.  He  had  visited  his 
native  land  several  times  since  1822.  In  1835 
he  was  in  Naples,  at  San  Pietro  in  Majella,  and 
they  showed  him  an  exercise  he  had  written 
forty  years  before  when  a  pupil  at  the  *  Turchini. ' 
He  looked  at  it  with  tears  in  his  eyes,  and  then 
b^^ged  the  librarian  to  tear  up  '  queste  meschine 
e  sconce  note '  (those  wretched  misshapen  notes) 
and  throw  them  in  the  fire.^  In  1838  he  was  in 
Rome,  and  wrote  (June  4)  to  the  King  offering 
his  services  as  mediator  between  himself  and  the 
Pope  on  the  subject  of  the  disturbances  in 
Cologne.^  In  1843  he  left  Italy  and  settled  at 
Pafis,  where  he  had  many  pleasant  connections 
through  his  wife,  an  Erard,  whom  he  had 
married  soon  after  the  production  of  '  Cortez.' 
He  had  been  a  member  of  the  Institute  since 
1838.  In  1844  the  Pope  made  him  Count  of 
S.  Andrea,  and  other  distinctions  followed.  But 
the  hope  expressed  by  King  Frederick  William 
IV.  that  he  would  produce  other  works  was  not 
realised  ;  Berlin  had  broken  him  down  physically 
and  mentally.  He  revisited  Germany  twa  or 
three  times.  In  1844  he  was  in  Dresden,  where 
Richard  Wagner  had  prepared  for  him  a  per- 
formance of  the  *  Vestale,'  which  he  conducted 
with  all  his  old  energy.^  He  was  invited  to  the 
Cologne  Musical  Festival  of  May  1847  to  con- 
duct some  excerpts  from  'Olympia,'  and  had  a 
warm  reception,  but  was  too  infirm  to  conduct, 
and  his  place  was  taken  by  Dom,  then  Oapell- 
meister  at  Cologne.^  In  August  he  visited 
Berlin,  and  was  most  graciously  received  by  the 
King,  who  gave  him  an  invitation  to  conduct 
some  of  his  own  operas  at  Berlin  during  the 
ensuing  winter.  He  was  much  delighted,  and 
thought  a  great  deal  about  the  performances 
after  his  return  to  Paris,  and  also  of  the  best 
manner  in  which  he  could  express  his  gratitude 
and  devotion  to  the  King  ;  but  the  project  was 
never  realised,  as  he  was  ill  all  the  winter.  In 
1848  he  became  deaf,  and  his  habitual  gravity 
deepened  into  depression.  He  went  back  to 
Italy,  and  settled  at  Jesi,  where  he  occupied 

>  Derrlant't  ReocOtottoHi.  p.  SS. 

*  Among  othen  tee  Deviient.  p.  74. 
'  Floriino.  Cmmio  StoHco,  p.  666. 

«  MThether  anything  oamc  of  thU  otter  i>  not  known,  but  Orogory 
XVI.  had  a  high  esteem  for  Spoutini,  and  aaked  for  hia  riewi  on  the 
restontion  of  CathoUo  church-mtulo. 

s  For  a  clever  and  amusing  account  of  It  aee  Wagner's  e«$am- 
mtUe  SckrVtun,  v.  114. 

*  Dora's  Au4  mtinem  Lebtn,  voL  IIL  p.  21. 


Uti,  and  there  died  Jan.  14, 1851.  Having  no 
children  he  left  all  his  property  to  the  poor  of 
Jesi  and  MajolatL  P.  s. 

SPONTONE,  or  SPONTONI,  Bartolom  mko, 
a  madrigal  composer,  of  whom  nothing  appears 
to  be  Imown  beyond  the  facts  that  he  was  a 
pupil  of  Nicola  Mantovano,  and  was  maestro  di 
cappella  in  the  cathedral  of  Verona ;  that  he 
published  a  first  book  of  Masses,  a  5,  6,  and  8,  in 
1 588 ;  a  book  of  four-part  madrigals  in  1 558 ;  and 
three  sets  of  madrigals  for  five  voices  at  Venice 
in  1561  (2nd  ed.  1583),  1567,  and  1583. 
Others  are  contained  in  the  collections  of  Wael- 
rant  (1594)  and  others.  Cipriano  de  Rore  prints 
a  Dialogo,  a  7,  by  him  in  1568.  A  Mass,  a  6,  is 
in  voL  ii  of  Torchi's  *  L*Arte  Musicale  in  Italia.' 
A  fine  four-part  madrigal  of  Spontone's,  *The 
joyous  birds, '  is  given  in  Hullah's  Part  Music,  g. 

SPRING  GARDEN.     See  Vauxhall. 

SPRtJCHE — proverbs  or  sentences — are  sung 
in  the  Lutheran  service  of  the  Berlin  Cathedral 
after  the  reading  of  the  Epistle : 

1.  On  New  Year's  Day,  *Herr  Gott,  du  bist 

unser  Zuflucht* 

2.  On    Good   Friday,    '  Um  unser  Slinden 

willen.' 

3.  On  Ascension  Day,  *  Erhaben,  o  Herr.' 

4.  On    Christmas    Day,    'Frohlocket,    ihr 

Volker.' 
Mendelssohn  set  these  for  eight-part  chorus  ; 
and  in  addition  two  more  : 

5.  For  Passion  Week,  *  Herr,  gedenke  nicht 

unser  Ubelthaten.' 

6.  For  Advent,  *  Lasset  uns  frohlocken.' 
The  six  form  op.  79  of  his  works.  No.  3  (*  Er- 
haben ')  begins  with  the  same  phrase  as  his  1 1 4th 
Psalm,  op.  51,  but  there  the  resemblance  ceases. 
No.  2  is  dated  Feb.  18,  1844,  and  No.  5  (in 
minims  and  for  4-part  chorus)  Feb.  14, 1844,  and 
each  of  the  two  is  inscribed  '  vor  dem  Alleliga ' 
— before  the  Alleluia.  They  are  mostly  short, 
the  longest  being  only  fifty  bai-s  in  length. 
Schumann  entitled  one  of  his  little  PF.  pieces 
*  Spruch. '  [The  three  *  Feet-  imd  Gedenkspriiche ' 
of  Brahms,  op.  109,  are  for  eight-part  chorus 
a  cappella:  —  (i.)  *Un8ere  Vater  hoiften  auf 
dich,'  Ps.  xxii.  4  ;  (ii)  *Wenn  ein  starker 
Gewappneter,'  Luke  xi  21, 17  ;  (iii)  *  Wo  ist  ein 
so  herrlich  Volk,'  Deut  iv.  7,  9.]  o. 

SQUARCIALUPI,  Antonio  (also  called 
Antonio  degV  organi),  a  feunous  Florentine 
organist  who  lived  in  the  15th  century,  and  who 
was  living  in  Siena  in  1450,  and  at  the  Floren- 
tine Court  in  1467,  as  organist  of  Santa  Maria. 
He  died  there  about  1475.  None  of  lus  com- 
positions are  extant,  and  he  is  only  known  ss 
an  esteemed  contemporary  of  Dufay.  A  letter 
written  by  him  to  Dufay,  dated  1467,  is  given  by 
Otto  Kade  in  the  Monatshe/U  for  1885,  No.  2. 
See  also  Haberl's  *  Dufay  *  in  the  VierUljahn- 
schrifty  i.  436.     A  volume  of  music  by  varions 


SQUIBE 


STABAT  MATER 


663 


early  compoeers,  which  was  in  Squarcialupi's 
possession,  is  in  the  BibL  Laurenziana  in  Flor- 
ence, and  is  described  in  J.  Wolfs  Oeackichte 
der  Mensural 'Notation^  pp.  228  ff.  There  is 
a  monument  to  his  memory  in  the  Dnomo 
at  Florence.  Quellen-Lexikon,  Riemann's 
Lexikon,  M. 

SQUIRE,  William  Henbt,  was  bom  at 
Ross,  August  8,  1871.  HIb  father  was  a  clever 
amateur  violinist,  and  the  boy's  first  teacher. 
He  gained  a  violoncello  scholarship  at  the  Royal 
College  of  Music  in  1883,  which  was  extended 
for  a  further  period  of  three  years.  He  studied 
under  Edward  Howell,  and  made  his  d^but  at 
a  concert  of  Sehor  Albeniz  at  St.  James's  Hall, 
Feb.  12,  1891.  At  the  Crystal  Palace  he  first 
appeared  on  April  20,  1895,  in  Saint-Saens's 
Concerto  in  A.  In  the  same  year  he  held  the 
place  of  principal  violoncello  at  the  Royal  Opera, 
Covent  Garden.  He  was  elected  an  associate 
of  the  Royal  College  in  1889.  He  has  written 
a  concei-to  for  his  instrument,  very  numerous 
and  successful  works  in  a  popular  style,  many 
songs,  two  operettas  (unpublished),  and  has 
had  a  useful  and  prosperous  career  as  a  concert- 
player  and  in  orchestras  ;  he  was  a  prominent 
member  of  the  original  Queen's  Hall  Orchestra, 
and  for  some  time  after  the  secession  belonged 
to  the  London  Symphony  Orchestra.  His  sister, 
Mme.  Emily  Squire,  is  a  successful  soprano 
singer,  a  pupil  of  the  Royal  College  and  the 
Royal  Acaideroy  ;  she  first  appeared  at  Bath  in 
1888,  and  at  the  Crystal  Palace  in  1891.       M. 

STABAT  MATER  [This  mediteval  poem, 
which  has  had  a  greater  popularity  than  any 
similar  composition,  is  of  uncertain  authorship. 
It  is  generally  ascribed  to  Jacopone  or  to  Pope 
Innocent  III.,  but  on  no  sufficient  evidence.  It 
was  not  Uturgical,  and  had  originally  no  music 
of  its  own  ;  but  it  came  into  popular  use  as  a 
devotion  in  the  13th  century  ;  indulgences  were 
granted  to  those  who  used  it,  and  finally  it  crept 
into  liturgical  books  and  was  provided  with 
musical  settings.  It  did  not  obtain  its  place  in 
the  Roman  Missal  as  a  Sequence  till  1 727,  nor  did 
a  cento  from  it  obtain  a  place  as  a  Hymn  in  the 
Breviary  till  even  later.  The  musical  history 
of  the  poem,  therefore,  is  concerned  with  the 
polyphonic  and  later  writers.] 

The  beauty  of  the  poem  has  rendered  it  so 
great  a  favourite  with  composers,  that  the  number 
of  fine  settings  we  possess  is  very  great.  The 
earliest  example  that  demands  special  notice  is 
the  '  Stabat  Mater '  of  Josquin  des  Pr^s,  founded 
upon  the  Canto  fermo  just  mentioned,  in  the 
Thirteenth  Mode  transposed.^  So  elaborate  is 
the  construction  of  this  work,'  that  not  one  of 
the  most  highly  developed  of  the  composer's 

I  Pletro  Aron  qnotea  this  fine  eoinporitlon  m  an  example  of  the 
Fifth  Mode :  and  Zarllno,  as  one  of  the  Eleventh.  The  work  wae 
flret  printed  In  Petmocl's  '  Hotetti  della  Corona,'  Lib.  111.  No.  6 
(FoMombrone,  1S19).  About  1840,  Choron  reprinted  It  in  aeore.  in 
Pari* :  and  in  1881  it  was  given  In  the  Notenbeilagen  to  Amhroe'a 
G^trhiehu  der  Muttk,  p.  81.  The  '  Oluck  Society '  performed  it.  in 
London,  on  llajr  24,  \9Si. 


Masses  surpasses  it.  The  Canto  fermo  is  sua- 
tained  by  the  tenor,  in  Laiges,  Longs,  and 
Breves  throughout,  while  four  other  voioes 
accompany  it,  in  florid  counterpoint,  in  constant 
and  ingenious  imitation  of  the  most  elaborate 
character. 


SeewndaPan. 


But  not  even  Josquin's  masterpiece  will  bear 
comparison  with  the  two  grand  settings  of  the 
'  Stabat  Mater '  by  Palestrina,  either  of  which, 
as  Baini  observes,  would  alone  have  sufiiced  to 
immortalise  him.  The  first  and  best-known  of 
these,  written  for  a  double-choir  of  eight  voices, 
has  long  been  annually  sung,  in  the  Sistine 
Chapel,  on  the  Thursday  in  Holy  Week,  and  was 
first  published  by  Bumey  in  his  *La  Musica 
della  Settimana  Santa,'  on  the  authority  of  a 
copy  given  to  him  by  Santarelli.*  It  is  enough 
to  say  that  the  composition  signalises  the  author 
of  the  *  Missa  Papae  MarcelU '  in  eveiy  page  ; 
and  that  the  opening  phrase,  containing  a 
progression  of  three  major  chords,  on  a  bass 
descending  by  major  seconds,  produces  one  of 
the  most  original  and  beautiful  effects  ever 
heard  in  polyphonic  music. 


ChorasL 


Palestrina's  second  '  Stabat  Mater '  is  written 
for  twelve  voices,  disposed  in  three  choirs  ;  and 
is  in  every  way  a  worthy  companion  to  the  pre- 
ceding work.'  Ambros,  indeed,  denies  its 
authenticity,  and  on  the  authority  of  an  entry 
in  the  catalogue  of  the  Altaemps-Ottoboni  Col- 
lection in  the  Library  of  the  Collegio  Romano 
refers  it  to  Felice  Anerio,  notwithstanding 
Baini's  decisive  verdict  in  its  favour :  but  the 
internal  evidence  afforded  by  the  work  itself 

>  Tt  was  aftenrmrdi  jmbllBhed,  In  Parii,  by  Choron ;  and  by  Alflerl, 
in  hie  *  Xtaccolta  dl  Mudca  sacra.'  vol.  vl.  (Boma.  184S).  For  an 
Intereetlng  oriticiem  npon  it  aee  Oulibichefe  NowmUc  BUtgrapMe 
<to  Moiart,  11.  7L  He  was  perhaps  the  flrrt  to  call  attention  to  It. 
It  waemore  reoently  edited,  vith  marks  of  expreaeion,  introdacUon 
of  solo  voice,  and  other  chanffes,  by  Waipier. 

s  Flrrt  printed  in  AUlcrl's  *  Raooolta.'  vol.  vli.  (B<nna,  1846). 


finest  Palestrina  ever  wrote.  For  the  effect 
produced  by  the  anion  of  the  three  choirs  at 
the  words,  'O  quAm  tristis,'  as  well  as  the 
manner  of  their  alternation,  in  other  parts  of 
the  Sequence,  we  must  refer  oar  readers  to  the 
work  itself,  in  the  7th  volume  of  Breitkopf  k 
Hartel's  complete  edition. 

Few  modem  settings  of  the  '  Stabat  Mater,' 
with  orchestra  accompaniments,  are  finer  than 
(1)  that  by  Pergolesi,  for  Soprano  and  Contralto, 
accompanied  by  Strings  and  Organ  (to  which 
Paisiello  afterwards  supplied  additional  accom- 
paniments for  wind).  (2)  Haydn's  'Stabat 
Mater'  is  a  treasury  of  refined  and  graoefol 
melody.  (8)  Next  in  importance  to  this  we 
must  rank  a  very  fine  one  for  six  voices  with 
accompaniments  for  two  violins,  three  viole, 
basso,  and  oigano,  composed  by  Steffani,  who 
presented  it  to  the  '  Academy  of  Antient  Musick ' 
in  London, on  his  election  as  Honorary  President 
for  life,  in  1 724.  (4)  Clari  wrote  another  beauti- 
ful one,  which  is  among  the  Fitzwilliam  MSB. 
at  Cambridge.  (6)  A  nearly  contemporary  work, 
by  Astorga,  is  one  of  the  best  Italian  productions 
of  its  period.^  (6)  Winter's  Stabat  Mater  may 
be  taken  as  a  happy  example  of  his  refined  and 
graceful  style  ;  and,if  not  a  great  work,  is  at  least 
a  remarkably  pleasing  one.  (7,  8,  9,  10)  The 
Boyal  College  of  Music  possesses  a  Stabat  Mater, 
a  3,  by  Pietro  Baimondi,  with  one  composed 
by  Padre  Vito,  in  1783,  and  two  others,  by 
Gesualdo  Lanza,  and  the  Spanish  composer, 
Angelo  Inzenga.  (1 1)  The  Chevalier  Neukomm 
also  wrote  one  which  was  very  popular  among 
his  disciples.  (12)  Very  different  from  all  these 
is  Rossini's  setting  of  the  text,  which  has  made 
its  words  familiar  to  thousands,  who  would 
never  otherwise  have  heard  of  them.  (13)  Yet 
even  this  does  not  represent  the  latest  interpre- 
tation of  these  beautiful  verses,  which  have  been  j 
illustrated,  in  still  more  modem,  and  very  j 
different  musical  phraseology,  by  Dvofak.*  [Two 
important  English  compositions  deserve  men-  ! 
tion;  (14)  by  Ernest  Walker,  still  in  MS.;  (15)  i 
by  Sir  C.  V.  Stanford,  performed  at  the  Leeds 
Festival,  1907.]  w.  s.  r. 

STABILINI,  GiROLAMO  (or  Hieronymo),  a 
violin-player,  bora  at  Rome  about  1 762.  Having 
attained  some  distinction  in  Italy  he  was  in- 
vited to  Edinburgh,  to  replace  Giuseppe  Puppo, 
as  leader  of  the  St.  Cecilia  Hall  concerts. 

Stabilini  arrived  at  Edinburgh  in  1788,  and 
died  of  dropsy  there  on  July  13,  1815,  being 
buried  in  the  graveyard  of  St.  Cuthbert's  or 
the  *  West  Kirk.'  His  tombstone  is  still  to  be 
seen  built  into  an  old  boundary  wall.  Stabilini, 
though  he  does  not  appear  to  have  been  of  very 
extraordinary  talent,  was  eminently  popular  in 
Scotland,  a  popularity  not  decreased  by  his  per- 

>  Pabliihcd  In  aeon  by  Breitkopf  *  HKrtel  0879).  .         ^ , 

*  'BMmt  Mater  far  Soli.  Chor.  v.  OrdiMtcr'  (Slmrock,  1881). 
PfrfamMd  bj  th*  London  Mndcal  Society,  Ifareh  1883. 


associated  with  him. 

There  is  a  head  of  him  in  Kay's  Bdinbur^ 
FortraiU.  y,  k. 

STACCATO  (ItaL  ;  Ger.  abgestossen),  'de- 
tached,' in  contradistinction  to  legato,  'con- 
nected.' The  notes  of  a  staccato  passage  are 
made  short,  and  separated  from  each  other  by 
intervals  of  sUenoe.  Staccato  effects  are  obtainid 
on  the  pianoforte  by  raising  the  hand  from  tiie 
keys  immediately  after  striking,  nsaally  by  a 
rapid  action  of  the  wrist  (this  is  called  *  wrist- 
touch'),  though  sometimes,  especially  in,  fortU- 
simo,  from  the  elbow ;  and  there  is  idso  a  third 
kind  of  staccato -touch  called  'finger -staccato,' 
which  is  less  frequently  used,  and  which,  as 
described  by  Hummel,  consists  in  '  hnnying 
the  fingers  away  from  the  keys,  very  lightly 
and  in  an  inward  direction.'  This  kind  of 
touch  is  of  course  only  applicable  to  passages  of 
single  notes. 

On  stringed  instruments  staccato  passages  are 
generally  bowed  with  a  separate  stroke  to  each 
note,  but  an  admirable  staccato  can  also  be  pro- 
duced, especially  in  solo  music,  by  means  of  a 
series  of  rapid  jerks  from  the  wrist,  the  bow 
travelling  meanwhile  in  one  direction,  from  the 
]X)int  to  the  nut.  Staccato  on  wind  instruments 
is  effected  by  a  rapid  thrusting  forward  of  the 
tongue,  so  as  to  stop  the  current  of  air  ;  and  in 
singing,  a  staccato  sound  is  produced  by  an  im- 
pulse from  the  throat  upon  an  open  vowel,  and 
instantly  checked.  A  striking  example  of  vocal 
staccato  occurs  in  Mozart's  air,  '  Gli  angui  d'  in- 
ferno,' from  '  Die  Zauberflbte.'  Upon  the  harp, 
or  any  similar  instrument,  and  likewise  upon 
the  drum,  a  staccato  note  requires  the  immediate 
application  of  the  palm  of  the  hand  to  the 
vibrating  string  or  parchment,  to  stop  the 
sound. 

The  signs  of  staccato  are  pointed  dashes  f ' « '. 
or  rounded  dots  •  •  •  -,  placed  over  or  under  the 
notes,  the  former  indicating  a  much  shorter  and 
sharper  sound  than  the  latter.  [See  Dash,  vol. 
i.  p.  664.]  But  besides  the  difference  thus 
shown,  the  actual  duration  of  staccato  notes 
depends  to  some  extent  upon  their  written 
length.  Thus  in  the  following  example  the 
minims  must  be  played  longer  than  the  crotchets 
(though  no  exact  proportion  need  be  observed), 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  both  are  marked  staccato 
alike: — 

BsETHOVEN,  Sonata  Path^tiqoe. 


When  dots  placed  over  or  under  notes  src 
covered  by  a  curved  line,  an  effect  is  intended 
which  is  of  great  value  in  the  rendering  of 
expressive  and  earUahile  phrases.  This  is  called 
mezzo  staccato  (half- detached),   and  the  notes 


STADEN 


STADEN 


665 


are  sustained  for  nearly  their  full  value,  and 
separated  by  a  scarcely  appreciable  interval. 
On  stringed  and  wind  instruments  indeed  they 
are  frequently  not  separated  at  all,  but  are 
attacked  with  a  certain  slight  emphasis  which 
is  instantly  weakened  again,  so  as  to  produce 
almost  the  effect  of  disconnection  ;  on  the  piano- 
forte, however,  they  must  of  necessity  be  separ- 
ated, though  but  for  an  instant,  and  they  are 
played  with  a  close,  firm  pressure,  and  with  but 
little  percussion.  The  following  is  an  example 
of  the  use  of  mezzo  staccato,  with  its  rendering, 
as  nearly  as  it  is  possible  to  represent  it  in 
notes: — 

Beethoven,  Sonata  in  G,  Op.  53. 
WriUen. 


Played. 


Jfanxito  ma  iriano.  ^^-^ 


When  a  movement  is  intended  to  be  staccato 
throughout,  or  nearly  so,  the  word  is  usually 
written  at  the  commencement,  with  the  tempo- 
indication.  Thus  Mendelssohn's  Prelude  in  B 
minor,  op.  85,  No.  8,  is  marked  *  Prestissimo 
Staccato,'  and  Handel's  chorus,  'Let  us  break 
their  bonds  asunder, '  is  '  Allegro  e  staccato.'  F.  T. 

STADEN,  JoHANN,  was  bom  at  Nuremberg 
in  1581  (not  1579,  as  stated  in  the  Quellen- 
Lexikov),  From  1608  to  about  1616  he  was  in 
the  service  of  the  Margrave  Christian  Ernst  of 
Kulmbach  and  Bayreuth  as  Oourt-Oiganist.  In 
1616  he  returned  to  Nuremberg,  where  he  re- 
ceived the  appointment  of  organist,  first  to  the 
St.  Lorenz-Kirche,  and  shortly  afterwards  to 
the  more  important  St.  Sebald  -  Kirche,  in 
which  latter  post  he  remained  till  his  death, 
Nov.  15,  1684.  Staden  occupies  a  place  of  some 
importance  in  the  transition  period  of  musical 
history  at  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century, 
when  German  musicianship  was  endeavouring 
to  combine  with  the  older  style  of  pure  vocal 
music  the  advantages  of  the  newer  style  of  in- 
strumental accompaniment  with  its  greater  free- 
dom of  harmonic  modulation.  Staden,  however, 
was  on  the  whole  more  conservative  and  less 
enthusiastically  progressive  than  his  contempo- 
raries Michael  Praetorius  and  J.  H.  Schein, 
not  to  mention  Heinrich  Schiitz.  His  publica- 
tions were  fairly  numerous,  though  all  are  not 
preserved  complete.  There  are  six  of  church 
works  proper,  partly  with  Latin,  partly  with 
German  texts,  entitled  respectively,  *  Harmoniae 
Sacrae  pro  festis  praecipuis'  4-8  voc.,  1616; 
'  Harmoniamm  sacrarum  continuatio  '1-12  voc., 
1621  ;  'Kirchen-musik,'  1  Theil  mit  2-14  St., 
1625;  *Kirchen-musik,'  2  Theil  zu  1-7  St, 
mit violen und anderen  Inst,  1626  ;  'Harmoniae 
novae '  8-12  voc,  1628  ;  *  Harmoniae  Yariatae,' 


1-12  voc.  ,1623.  In  these  works  three  styles  of 
church  music  are  represented :  the  pure  vocal 
Motet,  in  which  Basso  Oontinuo  is  not  required  ; 
the  Motet  with  only  Basso  Continno  ;  and  the 
Sacred  Concerto  with  obbligato  accompaniment 
and  instrumental  preludes  and  interludes  de- 
nominated respectively  Symphonies  and  Ritor- 
nelli  Another  series  of  Staden's  publications 
consists  of  sacred  music  on  German  texts  in- 
tended more  for  private  or  domestic  performance, 
a  kind  of  music  which  would  seem  to  have  been 
much  in  vogue  among  the  Nuremberg  citizens 
of  those  days.  His  chief  publication  of  the  sort 
is  expressly  entitled '  Haus-musik,'  which  origin- 
ally appeared  in  four  separate  parts  in  1628-28, 
and  afterwards  in  a  complete  edition  in  1646. 
This  work  contains  118  mostly  short  and  com- 
paratively simple  pieces  a  8-4  for  voices,  or  in- 
struments ad  libitum^  in  a  few  cases  instruments 
obbligali.  Another  work  of  the  same  kind,  a 
little  more  elaborate,  is  entitled  '  Musicalischer 
Freuden-  u.  Andachtswecker  oder  geistliche  Ge- 
sanglein '  zu  4-6  St ,  1 630.  Other  works  belong- 
ing to  the  same  class  entitled  '  Hertzentrosts- 
Musica,'  1680,  and  'Geistlicher  Music- klang,' 
1638,  contain  mostly  Lieder  for  one  voice  only 
with  continuo  accompaniment  for  organ,  lute, 
or  theorbo.  Several  of  Staden's  Lieder  found 
their  way  into  later  Chorale -Books.  Another 
department  of  Staden's  activity  as  a  composer 
consists  of  secular  songs  and  instrumental 
dances.  Three  collections  of  secular  songs  a  4-5 
with  an  appendix  of  instrumental  dances  ap- 
peared 1606,  1609,  and  1610.  Two  other 
collections  of  dances  alone,  Pavanes,  Galliardas, 
Courantes,  etc,  appeared  1618  and  1625.  A 
comprehensive  collection  of  instrumental  works 
by  Staden  was  published  posthumously  in  1643, 
containing  not  only  dances,  but  pieces  described 
as  Sonatas,  Symphonies,  and  Canzonas.  Staden 
would  appear  to  have  been  incited  to  the  com- 
position of  these  instrumental  works  by  his 
official  connection  for  a  time  with  the  Stadt- 
pfeifer  or  town  musicians  of  Nuremberg.  It 
only  remains  to  add  that  a  recent  volume  ( Jahrg. 
viii.  Bd.  i.)  of  the  Denkmaler  der  Tonkunst 
in  Bayem  contains  a  selection  of  Staden's  vocal 
works,  including  ten  Latin  Motets  a  4-8  and 
twenty-five  German  pieces  a  8-8,  with  a  full 
biographical  and  critical  introduction.  A  selec- 
tion from  his  instrumental  works  is  promised  in 
a  succeeding  volume.  j.  r.  m. 

STADEN,  SiGMUND  Gottlieb  (or  Theophil), 
son  of  Johann  Staden,  was  bom  in  1607.  At 
the  age  of  thirteen  he  was  sent  by  the  town 
authorities  of  Nuremberg,  at  the  request  of  his 
father,  to  receive  further  musical  instruction 
from  Jacob  Baumann,  Organist  and  Stadtpfeifer 
or  town  musician  of  Augsburg.  This  might 
seem  strange,  considering  that  Johann  Staden 
was  himself  a  more  distinguished  musician 
than  Baumann,  but  Baumann  appears  to  have 
had  during  his  lifetime  a  greater  reputation  as 


of  the  Kuremberg  authorities  to  Berlin  to  reoeive 
instruction  in  the  playing  of  the  Viola  bastaida, 
a  form  of  the  Gamba,  finom  one  Walter  Bowe  or 
Boy,  an  English  instrumentalist  in  the  service 
of  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg.  In  1627 
Staden  received  an  appointment  as  one  of  the 
Stadtpfeifer  or  town  musicians  of  Nurembei^. 
On  the  death  of  his  father  in  1684,  Gottlieb 
or  Theophil  Staden,  as  he  is  indifferently  called, 
became  organist  to  the  St.  Lorenz-Kirche  in 
succession  to  Valentin  Dretzel,  who  took  the 
elder  Staden's  place  as  organist  to  the  St.  Sebald- 
Kirche.  Whether  Staden  received  any  further 
promotion  is  unknown.  His  death  took  place 
at  Nuremberg,  July  30,  1655.  This  younger 
Staden  is  now  chiefly  known  as  the  compoeer 
of  the  first  German  operatic  work  that  was  ever 
published,  an  allegorical  Singspiel,  the  full 
title  of  which  is  'Dasgeistliche  Waldgedicht  oder 
Freudenspiel  genannt  Seelewig.  Gesangweis  auf 
Italianische  Art  gesetzet,  1644.'  The  work  is  an 
interesting  example  of  the  early  monodic  style 
for  solo  voices  vrith  accompaniment  of  figured 
Bass,  but  having  also  short  instrumental  pre- 
ludes and  interludes,  sometimes  for  viols  or 
violins  only,  sometimes  for  three  flutes,  at  other 
times  for  two  or  three  'schalmeien'  or  oboes. 
It  has  been  republished  by  Robert  Eitner  in 
modem  form  with  the  harmonies  of  the  figured 
Bass  written  out.  The  text  is  by  G.  P. 
Harsdorffer,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Pegnitz- 
schiiferei  Gesellschaft  in  Nuremberg,  who 
brought  from  Italy  to  Nuremberg  the  peculiar 
taste  for  artificial  pastoralism  in  poetry,  and 
for  the  Florentine  monodic  style  of  music  in 
association  with  allegorical  and  spiritual  dramas. 
Other  poetical  texts  by  Harsdorffer  were  set 
by  Staden  as  simple  Lieder  for  one  voice  with 
figured  Bass.  He  did  not,  however,  forsake 
altogether  the  older  style  of  choral  music.  In 
1637  he  put  forth  a  new  edition  of  Hans  Leo 
Hassler's  *  Eirchengesange  mit  vier  stlmmen 
simpUciter  gesetzt '  (1608),  in  which  he  included 
eleven  new  chorale-tunes  and  settings  by  his 
father,  and  five  by  himself.  He  also  followed 
in  the  wake  of  his  father  in  the  encouragement 
of  domesticsaored  music,  by  publishing,  in  1644, 
two  collections  entitled  *  Seelenmusik,'  with  set- 
tings of  hymns  a  4  with  Basso  Continue,  and 
furnishing  new  melodies  to  the  various  Gesang- 
biioher  of  the  time.  The  Quellen-Lexikon 
mentions  an  Instruction- Book  for  singing  by 
him,  1648.  j.  R.  M. 

STABLER,  Maximilian,  Abbot,  a  sound 
and  solid  composer,  born  August  4,  1748,  at 
Melk,  in  Lower  Austria.  At  ten  became  a 
chorister  in  the  monastery  of  Lilienfeld,  where 
he  leamt  music,  completing  his  education  in 
the  Jesuit  College  at  Vienna.  In  1 766  he  joined 
the  Benedictines  at  Melk,  and  after  taking 
priest's  orders  worked  as  a  parish  priest  and 


TTUU    UilU    UVbftVCU 


.10    vrigau-^xBjrJU4|^    auohao    ■■■iii 

abbot  first  of  Lilienfeld,  and  three  years  later  of 
Kremsmiinster.  Here  his  prudence  averted  the 
suppression  of  that  then  famous  astronomical 
observatory.  After  this  he  lived  at  various 
country-houses,  then  privately  at  linz,  a&d 
finally  settied  in  Vienna.  [Between  1803  and 
1816  he  was  parish  priest  at  Alt-Lerchenfeld  and 
afterwards  in  Bohemia.]  Haydn  and  Mozart 
had  been  old  friends  of  Lis,  and  at  the  request 
of  the  widow  he  put  Mozart's  musical  remains 
in  order,  and  copied  from  the  autograph  score 
of  the  *  Requiem,'  the  Requiem  and  Eyrie,  and 
the  Dies  irae,  both  copy  and  original  being  now 
in  the  Hofbibliothek  at  Vienna.  [See  voL  liL 
p.  308a.]  He  also  came  forward  in  defence  of 
the  Requiem  against  Gottfried  Weber,  in  two 
pamphlets  —  Veriheidigung  der  Ecktheit  des 
MozarCaehen  Hequiem  (Vienna,  1825-26),  and 
NadUrag  zur  Kertheidigung,  etc.  (i6.  1827). 
Stadler  was  an  excellent  contrapuntist,  and  an 
authority  in  musical  literature  and  history. 
His  printed  compositions  include  Sonatas  and 
fugues  for  PF.  and  organ ;  part-songs ;  two 
requiems  ;  several  masses  ;  a  Te  Deum  ;  '  Die 
Friihlingsfeier,'  cantata,  with  orchestra,  to 
Elopstock's  words ;  psalms,  misereres,  responses, 
offertoriums,  etc  ;  also  a  response  to  Haydn's 
farewell-card  for  two  voices  and  PF.  [See  voL 
•ii  p.  362.]  Among  his  numerous  MSS.  are 
fine  choruses  for  Collin's  tragedy,  *  Polyxena." 
Stadler's  greatest  work,  'Die  Be&eiung  von 
Jerusalem,'  an  oratorio  in  two  parts,  words  by 
Heinrich  and  Matthias  von  Collin,  was  given 
with  great  success  in  1816  at  the  annual  extra 
concert  of  the  Gesellschaft  der  Musikfreunde, 
for  the  benefit  of  the  proposed  Conservatorium, 
and  in  1829  at  Zurich.  [For  list  of  works  see 
Qudlen-Lexikon.  ] 

Stadler  died  in  Vienna,  Nov.  8,  1888,  highly 
esteemed  both  as  man  and  musician.      c.  F.  p. 

STADLMAYR,  Johann,  was  bom  at  Freising 
in  Bavaria.  F^tis  dates  his  birth  1560,  but 
in  the  absence  of  precise  documentary  evidence 
Eitner,  in  the  Quellen-Lexikon,  considers  this 
far  too  early,  as  the  works  published  by  the 
composer  himself  only  begin  in  1603  and  con- 
tinue to  1645.  On  the  basis  of  the  indications 
furnished  by  the  title-pages  and  dedications  of 
his  works,  Eitner  gives  the  appointments  which 
he  held,  as  stated  below.  In  1603  Stadlmayr 
subscribes  himself  as  a  musician  in  the  service 
of  the  Archbishop  of  Salzburg.  In  1610  he 
was  Capellmeister  to  the  Archduke  Maximilian 
of  Austria  probably  at  Innsbruck.  In  1625 
he  acts  in  tiie  same  capacity  to  the  Archduke 
Leopold  at  Innsbruck,  and  from  1636  he 
subscribes  himself  as  Music -director  to  the 
Archduchess  Claudia  at  Innsbruck.  His  death 
took  place  at  Innsbruck  on  July  12,  1648,  and 
he  is  then  described  as  having  been  Hofcspell- 
meister.      Stadlmayr's  works  are  all  for  the 


STANDCHEN 


STAINER 


667 


serrices  of  the  Boman  Church,  but  ahow  the 
gradual  supersession  of  the  earlier  pure  vocal 
style  of  church  music  by  the  modem  style  of 
instrumental  acoompaniment.  There  is,  first, 
the  regular  employment  of  Basso  Continuo, 
followed  by  the  substitution  ad  libitum  of  an 
instrumental  choir,  a  4  or  8  as  the  case  may  be, 
for  one  or  other  of  the  vocal  choirs,  and  the 
culminating  point  is  reached  in  the  definite 
specification  of  instruments  which  are  now 
written  for  in  a  definitely  instrumental  style. 
The  dates  and  titles,  somewhat  abbreviated,  of 
Stadlmayr's  chief  publications  as  given  below, 
will  serve  to  confirm  what  we  have  said : — 


1608.    MaffQifloat  a  5«  10  n. 
BofthlB      


(So  msntion  of  Baaao  Continue  in 
the  Utl«  of  thlB  or  tb«  vork  foUolring.) 

1608,    M«gDiflnta4«.18n.. 

1610.    Hinae  8  toc,  eum  dnpUd  Bamo  ad  Orfuinm.    S  n. 

1614b  Macniflcat.  Symphoniaa  Tarlaa  aaenndum  Tarloa  modoa 
mualcoa,  allae  octooiB,  ana  19  too.,  cum  Be. 

1616.    lflaaael8Toe.,cnmtrlplieiBe. 

161&  Cantlei  Mazianl  aeptiea  Tariatl  com  19  toc  c.  tiipUcI 
Baaa.  Org. 

183B.  Moaloa  anper  oaatum  gregoriantim.  Fan  1.  Vlaaaram 
douiinioallmn  Introitoa.  .  .  09  n.  Fan  11.  Faatonun  introitna. 
90  n.    SToa    c.    BcadlOUum. 

162&  Hymul  totiua  annl ...  a  4.  qnlbua  at  alll  pro  Fectia  aolem- 
nlorlbua  cum  Symphonlla  a  4-8,  aoceaaanint  In  qulbua  pro  raiiono 
rariarl  poaaunt  inatnunenta  Muaica  cum  Baaao  oontlnoo. 

1631.  Minaeooncertataa  a  6  adJunctoChoroaeoiindoalTOXiplanl. 

1638.    Odaa  aaorae.  .  .  a  5  r.,  et  toiidom  Inatr. 

1G40.    Sa]mla9etST.    c.  9  V.  o  Comattl. 

1641.  Pnlmi  iataigrl  a  4  roe.  eonoartantibua,  quatuor  allla  aooaa- 
aorliaad  lib.  aodnendia  cum  9  Comet,  alve  Violin. 

1642.  Miaaaa  Conoertataa  a  10-19  et  inatnun.,  onm  4  partlbaa 
pro  aecando  ohoro. 

1643.  If  laaae  ix  too.  prlmo  ehoro  conoart.  a  B  toc.  Seoondo 
pleno  cum  Symphoniia. 

1646.  Apparatna  moaieua  Sacimrum  oantorlnm  ^94  rocib.  et 
inatr. 

Of  all  these  works,  the  only  one  which  has  as 
yet  appeared  in  a  modem  reprint  is  the  Hynmi 
a  4,  1628,  edited  by  J.  E.  Habert  for  the 
Denkmaler  der  Tonkunst  in  Oesterreich,  Band 
III.  Erster  Theil.  But  Habert  has  only  given 
the  simple  Hymns  a  4,  without  accompaniment. 
It  might  have  been  more  interesting,  historically, 
if  he  had  also  given  the  Hymns  with  instm- 
mental  accompaniment  and  ritomelli.     J.  R.  M. 

STiNDCHEN  (Ger.),  'Serenade/ 

STAFFORD,  William  Cooke,  bom  in  1793 
at  York,  published  at  Edinburgh  in  1880  a 
12mo  volume  entitled  A  History  of  Music,  a 
work  chiefly  noted  for  its  inaccuracy,  but  which 
notwithstanding  was  translated  into  French 
(12mo,  Paris,  1832)  and  German  (8vo,  "Weimar, 
1886).  [He  died  at  Norwich,  Dec.  28,  1876. 
Brit.  Mus,  Biog,"]  w.  H.  H, 

STAGGINS,  Nicholas,  was  taught  music 
by  his  father,  a  musician  of  little  standing. 
Although  of  slender  ability  he  won  the  favour 
of  Charles  II.,  who,  in  1682,  appointed  him 
Master  of  the  King's  Band  of  Musick  ;  and  in 
the  same  year  the  University  of  Cambridge, 
upon  the  King's  request,  conferred  upon  him 
the  degree  of  Mu8.D.  The  performance  of  the 
customary  exercise  being  dispensed  with,  great 
dissatisfaction  was  occasioned,  to  allay  which 
Staggins,  in  July  1684,  performed  an  exercise, 
whereupon  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Music 
in  the  University,  being  the  first  who  held  that 
office.  Staggins  composed  the  Odes  for  William 
III.'s  birthday  in  1693  and  1694,  and  for  Queen 


Anne's  birthday,  1705.  [In  1698  he  was  allowed 
£200  per  annum  as  Master  of  the  Muaick 
(Calendar  of  Treasury  Papers),  w.  H.  o.  f.  In 
1697  he  gave  a  concert  of  his  own  musio  in 
York-buildings,  London  ;  in  the  following  year 
Eocles  succeeded  him  as  Master  of  the  King's 
Musick.  QudUn-LexikonJ]  Songs  by  him  are 
contained  in  'Choice  Ayres,  Songs  and  Dia- 
logues,' 1675,  and  other  collections  of  the  time ; 
and  a  dialogue,  '  How  unhappy  a  lover  am  I,' 
composed  for  Dryden's  *  Conquest  of  Granada,' 
Part  II.,  is  included  in  J.  S.  Smith's  'Musica 
Antiqua.'     He  died  in  1706.  w.  h.  h. 

STAHLSPIEL  (Ger.  stafU,  'steel,'  and  spiel, 
*play').  1.  An  instrument  consisting  of  a  series 
of  accurately- tuned  steel  bars  loosely  fsistened  to 
a  frame  and  generally  played  by  means  of  two 
small  hammers — one  in  each  hand  of  the  per- 
former,— but  sometimes  constructed  so  as  to  be 
played  from  a  keyboard.  It  is  used  in  military 
music  and  known  by  the  name  Lyra,  the  steel 
bars  being  arranged  on  a  lyre-^aped  frame. 
For  orchestral  use  the  bars  are  arranged  in  two 
rows,  in  the  exact  relative  positions  of  the  white 
and  black  keys  of  the  pianoforte.  The  compass 
is  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  octaves,  and  the 
tone  incisive  and  penetrating,  but  although  the 
instrument  is  susceptible  of  very  charming  efiects 
it  should  be  sparingly  used.  It  is  very  fi^equently 
written  for  under  the  names  Glockenspiel  and 
Carillon,  so  much  so  that  in  modem  use  the 
three  names  are  alternatives  for  one  and  the 
same  thing.  Originally  the  two  latter  were 
applied  to  an  instrument  consisting  of  a  series 
of  small  hells  ;  but  steel  bars  have  been  found  to 
be  more  convenient,  more  easily  manipulated, 
better  in  tone — being  free  from  the  dissonant 
overtones  so  particularly  prominent  in  small 
bells, — and  capable  of  the  most  accurate  tuning. 
Excellent  examples  of  the  efi^ective  treatment 
of  the  instrament  will  be  found  in  the  works 
of  Wagner  (*  Walkiire '  and  '  Meistersinger '), 
Tchaikovsky,  Strauss,  Elgar,  Parry,  Mackenzie, 
Cowen,  etc. 

2.  An  organ  stop  consisting  of  a  series  of  steel 
bars  played  from  the  manuals  and  generally 
extending  from  middle  C  upwards,  but  rarely 
exceeding  three  octaves  in  compass,      w.  w.  s. 

STAIKEB,  Jacob,  a  celebrated  German  vio- 
lin-maker, bom  at  Absam,  a  village  near  Hall, 
about  one  German  mile  from  Innsbruck,  July  14, 
1621  ;  died  1683.  According  to  one  story,  the 
boy  had  a  love  of  music,  which  induced  the 
parish  priest  to  send  him  to  an  organ-builder  at 
Innsbrack.  This  trade,  however,  he  found  too 
laborious.  He  therefore  took  to  making  stringed 
instruments,  serving  his  apprenticeship  to  an 
Innsbmck  '  Lautenmacher ' ;  after  which  he 
proceeded  to  travel,  after  the  usual  fashion  of 
German  apprentices.  In  the  course  of  his  travels, 
according  to  tradition,  he  visited  and  worked  at 
Cremona  and  other  places  in  Italy ;  and  the 
common  story  is  that  he  worked  under  Antonius 


of  Vimercati.  Of  all  this,  however  there  is  not 
a  particle  of  evidence.  It  may  be  said  that 
violins  are  in  existence,  signed  by  Stainer  and 
dated  from  Cremona ;  bat  these  are  now  believed 
to  be  spurious.  Probably  he  found  Italian  vio- 
lins in  use  among  the  Italian  musicians  at  the 
court  of  the  Archduke  Ferdinand  Charles,  Count 
of  the  Tyrol,  at  Innsbruck,  and  after  examining 
their  construction  and  contrasting  them  with 
the  rude  workmanship  of  the  ordinary  German 
Lautenmacher,  conceived  the  idea  of  making 
violins  on  Italian  principles.  He  began  at  a 
very  early  age,  if  we  may  trust  an  apparently 
genuine  label  dated  1641.  His  reputation  was 
very  quickly  made,  for  in  1643,  according  to  the 
Jahreshencht  des  Museums  in  Salzburg  for  1858, 
he  sold  a  '  Viola  bastarda '  to  the  Archbishop  of 
Salzburg  for  30  florins.  It  is,  however,  possible 
that  there  may  be  a  mistake  as  to  this  date. 
He  married  in  1645  Margaret  Holzhammer,  by 
whom  he  had  eight  daughters,  and  one  son,  who 
died  in  infancy.  Henceforward,  to  his  death  in 
1683,  the  life  of  Stainer  shows  little  variety. 
He  made  a  great  number  of  stringed  instruments 
of  all  sorts,  which  he  chiefly  sold  at  the  markets 
and  fairs  of  the  neighbouring  town  of  Hall. 
The  forests  of  '  Haselfichte '  [see  Elotz],  which 
clothe  the  slopes  of  theLafatschand  the  Gleirsch, 
supplied  him  with  the  finest  material  in  the 
world  for  his  purpose  ;  and  tradition  says  that 
Stainer  would  walk  through  the  forest  carrying 
a  sledge-hammer,  with  which  he  struck  the 
stems  of  the  trees  to  test  their  resonance  ;  and 
at  the  falling  of  timber  on  the  mountain- 
slopes,  Stainer  would  station  himself  at  some 
spot  where  he  could  hear  the  note  yielded  by 
the  tree  as  it  rebounded  from  the  mountain  side. 
In  1648  the  Archduke  Ferdinand  Charles  paid 
a  visit  to  Hall,  in  the  course  of  which  Stainer 
exhibited  and  played  upon  his  fiddles,  and 
the  Archduke  thenceforth  to  his  death  in  1662 
became  his  constant  patron.  Ten  years  later  he 
received  by  diploma  the  title  of  Hof-geigen- 
macher  to  the  Archduke,  and  in  1669  (Jan.  9) 
the  office  was  renewed  to  him  by  a  fresh  diploma 
on  the  lapse  of  the  county  of  Tyrol  to  the 
Emperor  Leopold  I.  Stainer  seems  to  have  been 
always  in  embarrassed  circumstances,  owing 
partly  to  his  dealings  with  Solomon  Hiibmer, 
a  Jew  of  Kirchdorf,  with  whom  he  was  constantly 
at  law.  In  1 669,  having  fallen  under  a  suspicion 
of  Lutheranism,  he  was  imprisoned  and  forced 
to  recant  In  1672  he  sold  a  viola  da  gamba 
and  two  tenor  viols  at  Salzburg  for  72  florins, 
and  in  1675  at  the  same  place  a  violin  for  22  fl. 
4  kr.  He  was  still  at  work  in  1677,  in  which 
year  he  made  two  fine  instruments  for  the 
monastery  of  St.  Georgenburg.  Soon  after  this 
date  he  ceased  from  his  labours.  In  the  same 
year  he  presented  an  ineflectnal  petition  to 
the  Emperor  for  pecuniary  assistance.     In  lus 


in  wuicu    ouuuiuun  lie  uieu  lu    xooo,    itsaTin^ 

his  wife  and  several  daughters  surviving  him  : 
and  in  1684  his  house  was  sold  by  his  creditors, 
his  family  having  disclaimed  his  property  on 
account  of  the  debts  with  which  it  was  bnrdened. 
His  wife  died  in  great  poverty  in  1689.  There 
is  therefore  no  truth  whatever  in  the  story  of 
his  retirement  after  the  death  of  his  wife  to  a 
Benedictine  monastery,  where  he  is  said  to  have 
devoted  himself  to  the  manufacture  of  a  certain 
number  of  violins  of  surpassing  excellence, 
which  he  presented  to  the  Electors  and  the 
Emperor.  Stainer  undoubtedly  made  violins, 
probably  of  special  excellence,  for  the  orchestras 
of  some  of  the  Electors  ;  but  such  instruments 
were  made  and  sold  in  the  ordinary  way  of  trade. 
In  course  jof  time,  when  one  of  his  best-finished 
Instruments  turned  up,  the  contrast  between  it 
and  the  crowd  of  common  ones  which  bore  his 
name  caused  it  to  be  looked  on  as  one  of  these 
*  Elector  Violins.'  These  violins,  however,  can- 
not have  been  the  work  of  his  last  years,  during 
wliich  he  was  insane,  and  had  to  be  confined  in 
his  house  at  Absam,  where  the  wooden  bench 
to  which  he  was  chained  is  still  to  be  seen. 

Stainer's  place  in  the  history  of  German 
fiddle-makingis  strongly  marked,  and  it  accounts 
for  his  fame  and  his  substantial  success.  He 
was  the  first  to  introduce  into  Germany  those 
Italian  principles  of  construction  which  are  the 
secret  of  sonority.  The  degree  of  originality 
with  which  Stainer  is  to  be  credited  cannot  be 
precisely  determined.  Some  trace  his  model  to 
the  early  Tyrolese  viol -makers,  but  in  the 
opinion  of  other  authorities  the  peculiarities 
of  the  Stainer  violins  are  strictly  originaL  As 
a  mere  workman  Stainer  is  entitled  to  the 
highest  rank,  and  if  he  had  but  chosen  a  better 
model,  his  best  instruments  would  have  equalled 
those  of  Stradivarius  himself.  Like  that  cele- 
brated maker  he  was  famous  for  the  great 
number  as  well  as  the  excellence  of  his  produc- 
tions. He  made  an  immense  number  of 
instruments,  some  more,  and  others  less,  finely 
finished,  but  all  substantially  of  the  same 
model:  and  the  celebrity  which  he  gained 
caused  his  pattern  to  be  widely  copied,  in  (Ger- 
many, in  England,  and  even  in  Italy,  at  a  time 
when  Stradivarius  and  Joseph  Guamerius  were 
producing  instruments  in  all  respects  enormously 
superior.  This  endured  more  or  less  for  a 
century ;  but  the  fashion  passed  away,  and  his 
imitators  took  to  imitating  those  Italian  makers 
whose  constructive  principles  he  had  adopted. 
All  Stainer's  works  bear  his  peculiar  impress. 
The  main  design  bears  a  rough  resemblance  to 
that  of  the  .Arnati,  but  the  model  is  higher ; 
the  belly,  instead  of  forming  a  finely-rounded 
ridge,  is  flattened  at  the  top,  and  declines 
abruptly  to  the  margins  ;  the  middle  carves  are 
shallow  and  ungraceful ;  the/-hole8  are  shorter, 
and  have  a  square  and  somewhat  mechanical 


STAINER 


STAINER 


669 


cut ;  the  top  and  bottom  volutes  of  theys  are 
rounder  and  more  nearly  of  a  size  than  in  the 
Cremona  instruments,  but  the  wood  is  of  the  finest 
quality ;  the  finish,  though  varying  in  the 
different  classes  of  instruments,  invariably  indi- 
cates a  rapid  and  masterly  hand ;  and  the 
varnish  is  always  rich  and  lustrous.  It  is  of 
all  colours,  from  a  deep  thick  brown  to  a  fine 
golden  amber,  equal  to  that  of  Cremona ;  and 
in  his  best  works  the  exterior  alone  would  justii'y 
the  celebrity  of  tHe  maker.  But  to  understand 
the  secret  of  Stainer's  success  the  violin  must 
be  opened,  and  it  then  appears  that  the  thick- 
nesses of  the  wood  and  the  disposition  of  the  blocks 
and  linings  are  identical  with  those  of  the 
Cremona  makers.  The  difference  will  become 
more  obvious  when  an  old  German  viol  is 
examined.  It  will  be  found  that  the  older 
German  makers,  though  they  finished  their 
instruments  with  great  care  and  sometimes 
with  laborious  ornament,  settled  their  dimensions 
and  thicknesses  by  guess,  and  used  no  linings 
at  all.  Stainer's  instruments  are  poor  in  respect 
of  tone.  The  combination  of  height  and  flatness 
in  the  model  diminishes  the  intensity  of  the 
tone,  though  it  produces  a  certain  sweetness  and 
flexibility.  Popular  as  the  model  once  was,  the 
verdict  of  musicians  is  now  unanimous  against 
it,  and  the  Stainer  instruments  are  now  valued 
less  for  practical  use  than  as  curiosities.  The 
violins,  which  are  found  of  three  different  sizes, 
are  the  best  worth  having ;  the  tenors  aro  good 
for  little.  The  violins  are  abundant  enough, 
even  after  allowing  for  the  vast  number  of 
spurious  instruments  which  pass  under  the 
maker's  name  ;  but  they  vary  greatly  in  value, 
according  to  their  class,  and  the  condition  in 
which  they  are.  Their  value  greatly  decreased 
during  the  19th  century.  A  fine  specimen 
that  would  have  brought  £100  a  century 
ago  will  now  scarcely  produce  £20,  and  the 
inferior  instruments  have  depreciated  in  pro- 
portion. Small  instruments  of  the  common 
sort,  which  may  be  bought  very  cheap,  are  use- 
ful for  children.  Stainer's  best  instruments 
have  written  labels  :  some  of  the  common  ones 
have  in  very  small  Boman  letterpress  in  the 
middle  of  a  large  slip  of  paper,  '  Jacobus  Stainer 
in  Absom  prope  Oenipontum  Anno  (1678).' 
It  is  not  impossible  that  some  of  these  may 
have  been  made  by  other  hands  under  his 
direction.  E.  J.  p. 

[On  the  authority  of  Herr  S.  Kiif,  whose 
narrative  of  Stainer's  life  the  above  account 
follows,  Stainer's  father — Martin  Stainer — 
married  Sabina  Grafinger,  by  whom  he  had  three 
sons:  (1)  Paul,  who  became  a  master-joiner 
and  married  Ursula  Dankler ;  (2)  Mark,  who 
migrated  to  Austria  where  he  established  himself 
as  a  violin-maker  but  attained  no  celebrity ; 
(3)  Jacobus,  the  subject  of  this  biography. 
This  last,  by  his  marriage  with  Margaret  Holz- 
hammer,  left  eight  daughters,  two  of  whom  died. 


single  and  in  poverty,  shortly  after  their  mother 
in  1689.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
generally  accepted  date  of  Stainer's  death,  1683, 
is  only  approximate.  This  date  appears  on  the 
tabletattached  to  hishouse,  and  alsoonthe  hand- 
some monumental  stone  erected  to  his  memory 
in  Absam  Church  in  1842  by  the  Pastor  Herr 
Lechlatner.  The  sole  evidence  that  goes  to 
prove  that  Stainer  no  longer  existed  in  1684  is 
the  purchase  of  his  house  by  his  brother-in-law 
Blasius  Kiel,  after  which  Stainer's  widow  and 
eight  daughters  became  homeless  wanderers. 
This  house  is  to-day  *  a  well-to-do  picturesque 
chdlet,  standing  in  its  own  garden  and  court- 
yard, half  overgrown  by  a  flourishing  plum-tree 
that  springs  from  the  south-east  comer. '  It  was 
bought  by  Stainer  from  his  brother-in-law, 
Paul  Holzhammer,  on  Nov.  12,  1666,  and 
Blasius  Kiel,  as  already  mentioned,  bought  it 
for  seven  hundred  florins  in  1684.  On  a  tablet 
afiixed  to  the  front  of  the  house  is  the  following 
inscription — 

In  diesem  Hanse  lebte  seiner  Eunst  Jakob  Stainer, 
der  Vater  der  deutschen  Geige,  Geboren  zu  Abeam  14 
JuU  1621,  bier  gestorben  1688. 

Although  this  house  was  restored,  and  to 
some  extent  reconstructed  in  1820,  the  balcony 
on  which  Stainer  was  known  to  store  his  wood 
still  remains  and  is  employed  by  its  present 
owners  for  the  like  purpose.  Within,  the  house 
is  bereft  of  all  relics  of  the  great  violin-maker, 
save  the  actual  bench  at  which  Stainer  laboured. 

No  attempt  to  gather  any  record  of  Stainer's 
life  was  made  for  over  one  hundred  years  after 
his  death  ;  but  the  deficiency  was  filled  in  with 
numberless  romances  about  *  the  father  of  the 
German  fiddle,'  from  1825,  when  the  Orangen- 
Uuter  published  a  story  entitled  *  Jacob 
Stainer,'  to  1 878,  when  a  version  of  Dr.  Schuler's 
novel  was  published  at  Innsbruck  in  the  form 
of  a  play  from  the  pen  of  Josef  Erler,  which 
adaptation  was  entitled  Bes  Kaisers  Ongenmacher 
in  Tirol.  Other  fanciful  versions  of  Stainer's 
life  have  appeared  from  time  to  time  in  various 
German  newspapers  and  periodicals  ;  a  full  list 
of  these,  together  with  the  earliest  trustworthy 
account  of  Stainer,  is  given  by  Herr  S.  Ruf  in 
his  biography  of  the  maker. 

Riif,  Der  GeigeninaeJier  Jacobus  Stainer  von 
Absam  in  Tirol,  Innsbruck,  1872  ;  Oka,  F., 
J,  S.  der  erste  devische  Meister  in  Oeigenbau 
published  in  the  Neue  Berliner  Musikzeittmg 
Nos.  22,  23,  31,  May  7,  June  1854  ;  Otto, 
A  Treatise  on  the  Structure  and  Preservation  oj 
the  Violin  (first  edition  (German),  1817  ;  three 
English  editions  translated  by  John  Bishop) ; 
Stoeving,  Von  der  Violine ;  Wasielewski,  Die 
Violine ;  Von  Lutgendorff,  Die  Oeigen-  und 
LaiUenmacher ;  Hawkins,  History  of  Music ; 
Vidal,  Les  InstrumcTUs  d  Archet ;  Grillet,  Les 
AncUres  du  Violon ;  Pearce,  Violins  and  Violin-  • 
Making  ;  Reade,  A  Lost  Art  Revived  ;  Racster, 
Chats  on  Violins  (containing  an  English  transla- 


Heron- AUen,  A  PUgrimage  to  the  House  of  Jacob 
Stainer  (Muneed  Times,  August  1900).  E.  H-A. 
Stainer,  Marcus,  brother  of  the  last  men- 
tioned, a  celebrated  Tyroleee  violin -maker. 
Mark  Stainer  learned  his  trade  from  Jacob,  and 
set  up  for  himself  at  the  village  of  Lanfen.  The 
fiunous  Florentine  player  Veracini  had  two 
violins  by  this  maker,  christened  'St.  Peter' 
and  *  St.  Paul,'  and  he  reckoned  them  snperior 
to  all  Italian  violins.  In  sailing  from  London 
to  Leghorn  in  1746  Veracini  was  shipwrecked 
and  the  fiddles  were  lost.  The  instroments  of 
this  maker  are  extremely  rare.  They  are  made 
of  unnsnally  fine  material,  of  somewhat  large 
size,  covered  with  dark  varnish,  and  are  sweet 
though  decidedly  feeble  in  tone.  like  those 
of  Jacob  Stainer,  they  usually  contain  written 
labels.  One  of  these  runs  thus :  '  Marcus 
Stainer,  Burger  nnd  G^genmacher  in  Eiifstein, 
anno  1659.'  Occasionally  Marcus  Stainer 
yielded  to  an  obvious  temptation,  and  sold  his 
violins  under  the  name  of  his  more  famous 
brother.  e.  j.  p. 

STAINER,  Sir  John,  Mus.D.,  son  of  a 
schoolmaster,  was  bom  in  London,  June  6, 
1840,  entered  the  choir  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral 
in  1847 — ^by  which  time  he  was  already  a  re- 
markable player  and  an  excellent  sight-singer — 
and  remained  there  till  1856,  very  often  taking 
the  organ  on  occasion.  In  1854  he  was  ap- 
pointed organist  and  choirmaster  of  St  Benedict 
and  St.  Peter,  Paul's  Wharf,  of  which  the  Rev. 
J.  H.  Coward,  classical  master  to  the  choristers, 
was  Rector.  At  the  same  time  he  learnt  har- 
mony from  Bayley,  master  of  the  St  Paul's 
boys,  and  counterpoint  from  Dr.  Steggall,  for 
whom  he  sang  the  soprano  part  in  his  Mus.D. 
exercise  at  Cambridge  in  1852.  Through  the 
liberality  of  Miss  Hackett  he  received  a  course 
of  lessons  on  the  organ  from  George  Cooper  at 
St  Sepulchre's.  In  1856  he  was  selected  by 
Sir  F.  Ouseley  as  organist  of  his  then  newly- 
founded  College  at  Tenbury,  where  he  remained 
for  some  time.  In  1859  he  matriculated  at 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  took  the  degree 
of  Mus.B.  Shortly  after,  he  left  Tenbury  for 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  where  aftersixmonths' 
trial  he  was  appointed  organist  and  informator 
choristarum.  He  then  entered  St.  Edmund 
Hall  as  a  resident  undergraduate,  and  while 
discharging  his  duties  at  Magdalen,  worked 
for  his  B.A.  degree  in  Arts,  which  he  took  in 
Trinity  Term  1863.  Meantime,  on  the  death 
of  Stephen  Elvey,  he  had  been  appointed  organist 
of  the  University  of  Oxford,  and  was  conductor 
of  a  flourishing  College  Musical  Society  and  of 
another  association  at  Exeter  College.  But 
nothing  interfered  with  his  duties  at  Magdalen, 
k  where  he  raised  the  choir  to  a  very  high  state  of 
efiicienoy.  In  1865  he  proceeded  to  his  Mu8.D. 
degree,  and  1866  to  his  M.A.,  and  became  one 


St  Paul's  Cathedral.  The  services  were  at  that 
time  by  no  means  what  they  should  have  been  ; 
bat  Stainer  possessed  the  confidence  of  the  Dean 
and  Chapter,  and  his  hard  work,  knowledge, 
and  tact,  at  last  brought  them  to  a  worthier 
pitch  of  excellence. 

Dr.  Stainer  did  not  confine  his  activity  to  his 
own  University.    He  was  a  member  of  the  Board 
of  Musical  Studies  at  Cambridge,  and  for  two 
years  was  also  examiner  for  the  As^tte  of  Mas.D. 
there.      He  was  examiner  for  musical  degrees 
in  the  University  of  London  ;  an  Hon.  Member 
of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music,  and  Hon. 
Fellow  of  the  Tonic  Sol-fa  College;  a  Vice- 
President  of  the  College  of  Oiganists,  and  a  Vice- 
President  of  the  Musical  Association,  of  which 
he  was  virtually  the  founder.     He  was  a  juror 
at  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1880,  and  at  its  doee 
was  decorated  with  the  Legion  of  Honour.    He 
was  attached  to  the  National  Training  School, 
London,  as  a  Professor  of  Organ  and  Harmony, 
frt>m  its  foundation,  and  at  Easter  1881  suc- 
ceeded Sullivan  as  Principal.     In  1882  he  suc- 
ceeded Hullah  as  Inspector  of  Music  in  the 
Elementary  Schools  of  England  for  the  Privy 
Council.     He  was  also  a  Member  of  Council  of 
the  Royal  College  of  Music.     [In  1888  he  was 
obliged  to  resign  his  post  at  St  Paul's  owing  to 
his  failing  sight    In  the  same  year  he  received 
the  honour  of  knighthood.     He  was  appointed 
Professor  of  Music  in  the  University  of  Oxford 
in  1889,  was  Master  of  the  Company  of  Musicians 
in  1900,  died  at  Verona,  March  SI,  1901,  and 
was  buried  at  Holywell  Cemetery,  Oxford,  April 
6,  of  the  same  year.    See  Musical  Times,  1901, 
pp.  297,  etc.]     His  compositions  embrace  an 
oratorio,  *  Gideon  * ;  a  cantata,  *  The  Daughter 
of  Jairus,'  composed  by  request  for  the  Wor- 
cester Festival  of  September  1878  ;  a  cantata, 
'  St  Maiy  Magdalen '  (Gloucester  Festival,  1888); 
and  an  oratorio,   *The  Crucifixion' — his  most 
popular  work — 1887.      He  also  wrote  many 
services  and  anthems,  and  among  his  most  suc- 
cessful and  artistic  pieces  of  church  music  must 
be  named  the  well-known  'Sevenfold  Amen.' 
He  is  the  author  of  the  two  very  popular  manuals 
of  Harmony  and  ITie  Organ  in  Novello's  series, 
and  of  a  work  on  Bible  music,  and  was  part 
editor  with  W.  A.  Barrett,  of  a  Dictionary  of 
Musical  Terms  (Novello,  1876  and  1898).    He 
also  edited  the  interesting  Dufay  and  his  Con- 
temporaries,  1898.     Sir  J.  Stainer  was  beloved 
and  esteemed  by  all  who  knew  him,  and  was  an 
admirable  and  efficient  musician  in  all  branches ; 
but  his  great  excellence  was  in  his  oigan-playing, 
and  especially  his  accompaniments,  which  were 
unsurpassed.    He  was  a  shining  example  of  the 
excellent  foundation  of  sound  musical  knowledge 
which  may  be  got  out  of  the  various  duties  and 
shifts  of  the  life  of  a  clever  chorister  in  one  of 
our  cathedrals.  o. 


STAMATY 


STANFORD 


671 


STAMATY,  Gamille  Maub,  son  of  a  Qreek 
father  and  a  very  musical  French  mother,  was 
''  bom  at  Borne,  March  23, 1811.  After  the  death 
of  his  father  in  1818  his  mother  returned  to 
France,  remained  some  time  at  D^on,  and  finally 
went  to  Paris.  There,  after  long  coquetting 
between  music  and  business  as  a  profession, 
Stamaty,  in  1828,  took  an  employe's  post  in  the 
■'  Prefecture  of  the  Seine.  But  music  retained  its 
:•  influence  on  him,  and  under  Feasy  and  Ealk- 
.<  brenner  he  became  a  remarkable  player.  An 
;  attack  of  rheumatism  forced  him  from  playing 
to  the  study  of  composition.  In  March  1835 
he  made  his  first  public  appearance  in  a  concert, 
the  programme  of  which  contained  a  concerto 
and  other  pieces  of  his  composition.  This  led  to 
hiB  being  much  sought  after  as  a  teacher.  But 
he  was  not  satisfied,  and  in  Sept.  1886  went  to 
Leipzig,  attracted,  doubtless,  by  the  fame  of  Men- 
delssohn and  Schumann,  then  both  resident  there. 
After  a  short  course  of  instruction  from  Mendels- 
sohn, he  returned  to  Paris  early  in  1887,  and 
introduced  much  more  classical  music — Bach, 
Mozart,  Beethoyen,  etc — into  his  programmes. 
In  1846  he  lost  his  mother,  in  1848  he  married, 
in  1862  was  made  Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of 
Honour,  and  on  April  19,  1870,  closed  a  long 
career  of  usefulness.  From  a  crowd  of  pupils 
it  is  sufficient  to  name  Crottschalk  and  Saint- 
Saens.  His  most  permanent  works  are  educa- 
tional— *  Le  Rhythme  des  doigt8,'much  praised ; 

*  Etudes  progressives '  (opp.  87-89)  ;  *  Etudes 
concertantes'  (opp.  46, 47)  ;  '  Esqmsse'  (op.  19)  ; 

*  Etudes  pittoresques '  (op.  21)  ;  '  Six  Etudes 
caract^ristiques  sur  Ob^ron,'  and  12  transcrip- 
tions entitled  *  Souvenir  du  Conservatoire.' 

Besides  these,  his  solo  sonatas  in  F  minor  and 
C  minor  ;  a  PF.  trio,  op.  12  ;  a  concerto  in  A 
minor,  op.  2 ;  sonatas,  opp.  8  and  14  ;  and  other 
works,  were  muob  esteemed  at  the  time.  The 
concerto  and  some  brilliant  variations  on  an 
original  theme  (op.  8)  were  reviewed  very 
favourably  by  Schumann  {Ges,  Schri/terif  ii. 
155,  181).  o. 

STAMITZ  (sometimes  called  STEINMETZ). 
A  Bohemian  musical  family  of  much  renown  in 
the  1 8th  century.  (1)  Johann  Wenzl  Anton  ^ 
bom  June  19,  1717,  son  of  the  schoolmaster 
at  Deutschbrod ;  a  man  evidently  of  great  origin- 
ality and  force.  In  1742  he  took  part  as  a 
solo  violinist  in  the  festivities  at  the  coronation 
of  the  Emperor  Carl  VII.,  and  shortly  afterwards 
was  taken  to  Mannheim  by  the  Elector,  who  in 
1745  appointed  him  his  leading  violin  and 
director  of  chamber-music ;  he  remained  there  till 
his  death  on  or  before  March  27, 1757.  He  wrote 
much  music  for  the  violin,  which  shows  him  to 
have  been  a  great  and  brilliant  player.  Six  con- 
certos, 3  sets  of  6  sonatas,and  some  solo  exercises, 
giving  the  efiect  of  duets,  were  published  at  Paris, 

1  The  confiulon  between  Johann  and  Carl,  hia  eon  (we  below),  is 
made  wone  bjr  the  habit  of  calling  the  father '  Johum  Oftrl '  u 
many  authorltiee  have  done.  Eltneruys  that hlsion  Carl  aometiniei 
used  the  name  Johann. 


and  21  concertos  and  9  solos  are  still  in  MS. 
He  also  wrote  symphonies,  of  which  several  sets 
of  6  were  published,  as  weU  as  concertos  and 
sonatas  for  the  harpsichord.  [The  thematio 
catalogae  of  45  symphonies  and  10  orchestral 
trios  is  given  in  Jhrg.  iii  1  of  the  *  Denkmaler 
deutscherTonkunst  in  Bayem,'  where  four  of  the 
symphonies  and  one  trio  are  reprinted.  The 
introduction  by  Hugo  Riemann  is  the  most 
detailed  account  of  the  family  that  has  yet 
appeared.]  The  music  shows  a  great  advance 
in  effect  and  expression  on  anything  that  pre- 
ceded them.  (2)  His  brother,  Anton  Thad- 
PiEUS,  bom  1721,  was  a  violonceUo-player ; 
according  to  Gerber,  he  was  also  in  the  Mann- 
heim band.  He  became  a  priest,  rose  to  many 
dignities,  and  died  at  Altbunzlau  August  23, 
1768.  Another  brother,  Joseph,  was  distin- 
guished as  a  painter.  Cannabich  was  one  of 
Johann's  pupils  ;  but  a  still  more  memorable  one 
was  (8)  his  eldest  son,  Carl,  bom  at  Mannheim, 
May  7,  1746,  and  like  his  father  a  remarkable 
violinist  and  composer.  [He  was  a  second 
violin  in  the  Mannheim  band  in  1762-70.] 
In  1 770  he  went  to  Paris,and  was  known  there  as 
a  player  of  the  violaand  violad'amore.  He  played 
in  London  in  1778.  His  opera,  *  Der  verliebte 
Yormund, '  was  given  at  Frankfort.  In  1 785  he 
returned  to  Germany,  and  in  1787  we  find  him 
at  Prague  and  Nuremberg,  in  1790  at  Cassel,  and 
then  at  St.  Petersburg,  where  he  remained  for 
some  years,  and  where  he  brought  out  a  grand 
opera,  'Dardanus.'     He  died  at  Jena  in  1801. 

His  works  include  70  symphonies,  many 
published  in  opp.  1,  2,  8,  4,  6,  9,  18,  15,  16, 
18,  19,  and  24  ;  others  are  in  MS.  They  are 
mostly  for  a  larger  orchestra  than  that  employed 
by  his  father ;  some  have  two  *ooncertante '  violin 
parts  ;  there  are  also  many  concertos,  quartets, 
trios,  etc.  (see  the  summary  in  Biemann's  preface 
to  Denkmaler  deutscher  Tonkunst,  Jhgr.  iiL  1). 
(4)  Another  son  of  Johann  was  Anton,  bom 
at  Mannheim,  1758.  He  went  to  Paris  with 
Carl,  and  published  18  symphonies,  8  piano 
concertos,  a  violin  concerto,  a  violoncello  con- 
certo, and  many  quartets,  trios,  and  duets.  [The 
family  had  a  great  iniluence  on  the  development 
of  the  symphonic  form ;  the  father  raised  the 
band  to  a  pitch  of  superlative  excellence,  and 
Carl's  experiments  in  orchestration  pointed  the 
way  for  later  men.  See  Riemann's  Lexikon,  the 
Quellen-Lexikontetc']  He  died  about  1820.     o. 

STANF0RD,SirCharlb8  Villiers,  Mus.  D.  , 
D.  C.  L. ,  LL.  D. ,  was  bom  Sept  80, 1 852,  at  Dub- 
lin, where  his  father,  an  enthusiastic  amateur 
vocalist,  was  Examiner  in  the  Court  of  Chancery. 
His  first  teachers  were  Arthur  O'Leary  and  Sir 
Robert  Stewart,  and  various  efforts  in  songs, 
piano  pieces,  etc.  ,were  published  while  he  was  yet 
a  child.  His  firot  composition  is  stated  to  have 
been  a  march  composed  in  1860,  and  played  in 
the  pantomime  '  Puss  in  Boots,'  at  the  Theatre 
Boyal,  Dublin,  1868-64  (see  Mus.  Times,  1898» 


appointment  in  1873  to  the  important  post  of 
organist  to  Trinity  College,  in  succession  to 
Dr.  J.  L.  Hopkins,  he  *  migrated '  as  an  under- 
graduate to  that  college,  from  which  he  gradu- 
ated in  1874  in  Cla^ical  Honom-s.  He  had 
filled  the  post  of  conductor  of  the  Cambridge 
Amateur  Vocal  Guild  for  a  year  or  two  before 
this,  and  had  brought  Sir  R.  Stewart's  cantata, 
*The  Eve  of  St.  John,*  to  a  hearing  in  1872. 
This  Society  was  soon  joined  to  the  Cambridge 
University  Musical  Society  (the  choir  of  which 
had  hitherto  consisted  of  male  voices  only), 
and  Stanford  raised  the  position  of  the  Society  to 
a  remarkably  high  level,  incidentally  making 
Cambridge  an  important  musical  centre.  He 
was  appointed  conductor  of  the  Society  in  1873, 
and  his  activity  was  not  long  in  bearing  good 
fruit,  in  the  first  performances  in  England  of 
Schumann's  *  Faust'  (Part  iii.)and  many  other 
things,  such  as  Bitkhms's  *  Rhapsodie.'  In  each 
year,  from  1874  to  1876,  he  was  given  leave  of 
absence  in  order  to  prosecute  his  studies  first 
with  Reinecke  at  Leipzig,  and  then  with  Kiel 
at  Berlin.  In  the  spring  of  1876,  on  the  pro- 
duction of  Tennyson's  *  Queen  Mary'  at  the 
Lyceum  Theatre,  the  incidental  music  was 
provided  by  Stanford,  having  been  composed 
at  the  poet's  suggestion.  This  work,  and  a 
symphony  which  gained  the  second  prize  in  a 
competition  held  at  the  Alexandra  Palace,  in 
the  same  year,  brought  the  young  composer's 
name  into  prominence,  and  from  that  time 
onwards  he  has  been  more  or  less  regularly 
before  the  public  as  composer  and  conductor. 
In  1877,  when  he  proceeded  M.A.,  he  organised 
and  directed  a  concert  at  which  works  by  Brahms 
and  Joachim  were  performed  for  the  first  time 
in  England,  on  the  occasion  when  the  Honorary 
Mns.D.  degree  was  offered  to  both  composers, 
and  accepted  by  the  latter.  This  was  the 
first  of  many  concerts  at  which  the  recipients 
of  honorary  musical  degrees  were  similarly 
honoured.  In  1877,  too,  a  Festival  Overtui-e 
was  played  at  the  Gloucester  Festival,  and 
subsequently  given  at  the  Crystal  Palace.  A 
setting  of  Psalm  zlvi.  was  produced  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  afterwards  at  a  Richter  concert. 

The  symphony  just  mentioned,  in  B  flat,  was 
played  at  the  Crystal  Palace  in  March  1879, 
but  like  a  second  'Elegiac*  symphony  in 
D  minor,  played  at  Cambridge  in  1882,  con- 
certos for  PF.  and  for  violoncello,  etc.,  is  not 
included  in  the  list  of  opus-numbers.  Stanford's 
first  opera,  *The  Veiled  Prophet  of  Khorassan,' 
to  a  libretto  by  W.  Barclay  Squire,  produced 
at  the  Court  Theatre,  Hanover,  Feb.  6,  1881, 
was  only  given  once  in  England,  at  Covent 
Gaiden,  July  26,  1893  ;  an  orchestral  serenade 
(op.  17)  was  produced  at  the  Birmingham 
Festival  of  1882.  In  1883  he  received  the 
hon.  degree  of  Mu8.D.  at  Oxford,  and  the  same 


Bach  Choir,  and  in  1887  was  elected  Professor 
of  Music  in  the  University  of  Cambridge,  on 
the  death  of  Sir  G.  A.  Macfarren.  He  de- 
voted his  energies  to  improving  the  standard 
of  general  education  required  for  the  musical 
degrees  at  Cambridge,  and  in  this  and  many 
other  ways  his  influence  on  the  music  of  the 
University,  and  the  country  at  large,  has  been 
of  great  importance.  On  the  opening  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Music  he  became  Professor  of 
Composition,  oonductor  of  the  orchestra  and 
of  the  annual  operatic  performances,  which  have 
maintained  a  high  standard  of  excellence,  and 
which  have  brought  many  neglected  works,  old 
and  new,  to  a  hearing.  In  1892  he  resigned 
the  post  of  organist  to  Trinity  College,  and  has 
since  lived  in  London.  In  1901  he  was 
appointed  conductor  of  the  Leeds  Festival,  and 
received  the  honour  of  knighthood  ;  in  1902  he 
gave  up  the  conductorship  of  the  Bach  Choir. 
In  1904  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Arts  at  Berlin. 

Stanford's  Irish  descent  gives  his  music  a 
strong  individuality,  which  is  not  only  evident 
in  his  arrangements  of  Irish  songs  and  in  his 
work  as  a  collector  (see  Irish  Music),  but  stands 
revealed  in  his  *  Irish  Symphony  '  (op.  28),  in 
the  opera,  'Shamus  O'Brien*  (op.  61),  the  two 
orchestral  *  Irish  Rhapsodies '  (opp.  78  and  84), 
the  *  Irish  Fantasies '  for  violin,  and  in  many 
other  definitely  Irish  compositions.  The  easy 
flow  of  melody,  and  the  feeling  for  the  poetical 
and  romantic  things  in  legendary  lore  (illustrated 
in  the  early  song,  <  La  Belle  Danie  sans  Merci,' 
the  <  Voyage  of  Maeldune,'  and  many  other 
places),  are  peculiarly  Irish  traits  ;  but  his  rare 
mastery  of  every  resource  of  orchestra  or  voices, 
the  thoroughness  of  his  workmanship,  and  his 
remarkable  skill  as  a  teacher  of  composition, 
are  qualities  not  generally  associated  even  with 
the  more  brilliant  natives  of  Ireland.  His 
wonderful  versatility  allows  him  to  adopt,  suc- 
cessfully, styles  far  removed  from  one  another ; 
that  of  the   Latin  settings  of    'Te    Deum,' 

*  Requiem,'  '  Stabat  Mater,'  and  of  the  Mass  in 
G,  has  an  affinity  with  the  Italian  composers 
of  the   18th  century.     Part  of  his  oratorio, 

*  Eden,'  is  strictly  modal  in  utterance,  a  large 
number  of  his  instrumental  compositions  are  in 
tlie  classical  idioms  of  Germany,  and  his  use  of 
the  fantastic  or  rhapsodical  style  of  Ireland  has 
been  already  referred  to.  In  yet  another  style 
he  has  won  what  is  perhaps  the  greatest  success 
he  has  yet  achieved  :  the  early  song,  *  In  praise 
of  Neptune,'  from  op.  19,  may  have  been  a  kind 
of  essay  in  the  nautical  style,  which  reached  its 
full  fruition  in  the  splendid  *  Revenge'  (Leeds 
Festival,  1896),the  choral  ballad  which  isknown 
and  loved  wherever  tlie  best  choral  music  is 
practised.  The  five  '  Songs  of  the  Sea '  (op.  91), 
for  baritone  solo,  male  chorus,  and  orohertrs. 


STANFORD 


STANFORD 


678 


have  had  hardly  a  less  success,  and  in  all  these 
^here  is  a  breezy  and  unmistakably  English 
%tmoephere  that  endears  them  to  all  hearers. 
<Hls  use  of  orchestral  colour  is  full  of  interest, 
-'^and  his  scores  are  models  of  effective  yet  not 
'^exaggeitited  writing ;  but  in  one  and  all  the 
<:oloiu'ing  is  properly  subordinated  to  the  design, 
^  and  in  the  thematic  development  of  his  subjects 
iwill  be  found  the  central  interest  of  these  com- 
c positions.      Although   his    'Shamus   O'Brien' 
):was  a  great  success,  running  for  many  weeks, 
rhis  more  serious  operas  have  not  as  yet  been 
c  heard  by  enough  English  people  to  be  pro|ierly 
!i  assessed  on  their  real  merits.     The  first,  already 
a  mentioned,  was  only  given  for  one  extra  night 
!  after  the  close  of  one  of  Harris's  seasons ;  his 
!  second,  <  Savonarola,'  brought  out  at  Hamburg 
I  April  18,  1884,  was  only  performed  for  a  single 
night  under  Riohter  at  Covent  Garden,  July  9, 
1884,  owing  to  difficulties  connected  with  its 
publication ;  the  third,   *  The  Canterbury  Pil- 
grims,' had  four  performances  at  Drury  Lane 
Theatre  by  the  Carl  Rosa  Company,  in  1884  ; 

*  Much  Ado  about  Nothing '  (words  by  Julian 
Sturgis)  was  produced  with  great  care  and  effect 
at  Covent  Garden,  May  SO,  1900,  but  in  spite 
of  the  success  of  its  two  performances  it  also 
disappeared  quickly  from  the  repertory.  Of 
course  it  is  necessary  to  remember  the  singular 
methods  of  operatic  management  in  England 
before  assuming  that  these  works  have  failed 
to  attract  the  English  public.  Neither  'Savona- 
rola '  nor  *  The  Canterbury  Pilgrims  *  has  a  really 
good  libretto  ;  the  former,  which  begins  with 
a  |)assionately  emotional  prologue,  loses  its 
dramatic  interest  before  the  end  is  reached,  and 
the  frequent  allusions  to  the  lovely  'Angelus 
ad  virginem,'  though  beautiful  musically,  are 
of  small  value  on  the  stage.     In  the  same  way, 

*  Sumer  is  icumen  in '  is  used  as  a  kind  of  motto 
to  'The  Canterbury  Pilgiims,'  and  with  all  the 
brightness  of  its  first  act,  and  the  romantic 
chann  of  the  second,  the  impression  left  by  the 
trial  in  the  third  act  is  not  very  strong.  *  Much 
Ado  about  Nothing, 'alone  of  these  works,  has 
a  remarkably  effective  close,  and  the  dirge  to 
Hero  stiikes  a  note  of  welcome  pathos.  *  Shamus 
O'Brien '  was  furnished  with  regular  recitatives 
iu  place  of  the  original  spoken  dialogue,  for  the 
performance  in  Germany  (Breslau,  1907);  in 
its  original  form,  and  interpreted  by  capable 
actors,  it  is  deliciously  bright  and  characteristic, 
Avith  a  touch  of  wild  and  fantastic  beauty  in  the 
'  caoine '  of  the  banshee. 

The  Ust  of   Stanford's  compositions  is  as 
follows  : — 

(Unpubllshfld  woxiis  are  Indicated  bjr  anacteriak.) 
Op. 

1.  Eight  Bongt  from  George  Eliot's  *  Spaniah  Gypsy.* 

2.  Suit«  forpf. 

''i.  Toccata  for  pf. 

4.  Hix  aongs  by  Heine. 

5.  '  Die   Atiferatehung.'  Resxirrection  Hymn  by  Klopatock.  for 

choir  and  ordioatra. 

6.  Iiiciileiital   moaic  for  Tennyaou's    'Queen   Mary.'     (Lyceum 

Theatre,  1878.) 
^.  Six  Hongfl  by  Heine. 

VOL.  IV 


Op. 

8.  Pi.  klvL  im  laU  ^  choir,  msid  a 

9.  Bon«tj>,  l*L  aud  Tcello,  in  A, 

10.  Mom  J  ng,  Cctiu  in  uulori.  a.ad  Syening  Sarrloe  in  B  flat. 

11.  Bonn Uf IT  [if.  aijd  vEn.  Id  I>, 

la.  Evftiiitti  BfTficB  in  X  tF«*ti>L«iof  tbeSonaof  tbeClmgy,  1880). 

for  chuir,  (ircl3«itr^,  mjn4  >  I'gan. 
18.  Thi<»«!  Inlenuumi,  p(.  ft,iiii '  iuinct. 
li.  Six  Msijtfi  r  B^uie*i>t.'  '  4  Kle  to  the  SkTlark,' '  Sweeter  than 

the  v4i4e^' '  Tntre  !«  Uihu  of  Beauty's  daughtets,'  'TnmOdie.' 

aiTid  '  h^  )}!l«li  V Lent  Til  tti.iiirriiant'}. 

15.  Quarh;l,   pt  im*i  atiiittii  In  P. 

16.  '  Afntliv,  uiy  hoart,'  Ujiurt  hj  Klopstoek. 

17.  Berntuul*  fur  luU  Drchflctm.  Lii  O. 

18.  Thnw  C^fallDr  Houjfn  ( lln.  i«^  i  ling),  for  baritone  and  male  choir. 
IB.  Six  wufif  i'  A  Hymn  in  ^j  k.:  ^  of  Neptune.'  *  LnllatHr.'   '  To  the 

Kuev,    'Cmiis  io  m«  wii*t\x  th*  earth  la  fair/  *Bost  Song.' 

* thr  ^{naWtaa '). 
20.  Pf.  iSonata  In  i>flat' 
81.  EleglH?  i>de  {Walt  WhltmaD),  for  soli  and  chorus  and  orch. 

(KoiF»i,.h  FettlTal,  l^»4^ 
S2.  Oral  I  M.,  'Th«  Tbmt  Bc^ly  ChUdren.'  (Birmingham  Festival, 

laoo.; 
33.  Inddental  Music  to  the  '  Bumenidea.'    (Cambridge,  1889.) 
M.  '  The  Bevenge '  (Tennyson),  choral  ballad.  (Laeds  VesUral,  1888.) 
8S.  Quintet  for  pf.  and  strings,  iu  D  minor. 
28.  Oarman  Saeculare  (Tennyson),  for  soprano  solo,  and  chorus. 

Composed  for  Queen  Victoria's  Jubilee,  1887. 
S7.  Psalm  cL  for  soprano  and  choma.   (Opening  of  Manchester  Bxhi> 

biUun,  1887.) 

28.  '  Irish  Symphony '  in  F  minor.    Bichtar,  188(7. 

29.  Incidental  muaic  to  the*  Oedipus  Tyraiinna.'  (Cambridgs,  1887.) 
10.  A  Child's  Garland  of  Bongs  (Sterenson). 

81.  Symphony  in  F.    (Berlin,  Jan.  li,  and  Crystal  Pfelao^  Feb.  23, 

82.  Suite  for  vin.  and  orchastra.  (Berlin.  Jan..  and  Pliilharmoulc, 

March  S8. 188B.) 
88.  Orerture,  *  Queen  of  the  Seas.*    (Armada  Terocntary.) 
8i.  '  The  Vojrage  of  Maeldune '  (Tennyson),  soli,  choir,  and  orchestra. 

(LMds  FestiTal.  188a) 
38.  Trio  in  B  flat  for  pf.  and  strings. 
36.  Morning,  Communion,  and  Bvening  Service  in  F. 
87.  Two  Anthems. 

38.  Anthem,  '  The  Lord  is  my  Shepherd.' 
80.  Second  Sonata  for  pf.  and  voello  in  D  minor. 

40.  Oratorio, 'BdenMBobert  Bridges).  (Birmingham  Festival,  1881.) 

41.  Choral  Ballad.  'Ilie  Battle  of  the  BalUc'    (Hereford  Festival, 

1801.) 

42.  Six  Pf.  pieces.* 

43.  Six  Songs,  to  poems  by  B.  Bridges. 

44.  String  Quartet  in  O. 

40.  String  Quartet  in  A  minor. 

46.  Mass  in  O,  for  soli,  choir,  and  orchestra. 

47.  Four  part-songs. 

48.  Incidental  Muaic  to  Tennyson's  'Becket.'     (I^ceum  Theatre, 

18B8.)« 
40.  Six  Kliasbethan  Psstorals  for  unaccompanied  choir,  1st  set. 

50.  Ode,  '  The  Bard '  (Gray),  for  baritone,  chorus,  and  orchestra. 

51.  Three  M6tets  for  unaccompanied  chorus. 

02.  Ode  '  East  to  West '  (Swinburne)  for  chorus  and  orchestra. 

03.  Six  Elixabethan  Pastorals.  2nd  set. 

54.  Six  Irish  Fantsaies  for  vln.  and  pf. 

55.  Opera,  'Lorensa.** 

00b  Symphony  in  O.  *  L' Allegro  ed  il  Pensicroso.'  • 
57.  nntasia  and  Toccata  for  organ. 

56.  Ten  Dances  for  pf.  (Ave  of  them  also  scored  for  orohsstra  at 

a  Suite  of  Ancient  Dances). 
80.  Concerto,  pf.  and  orchestn,  in  G.* 

60.  Moore's  Irish  Melodies,  restored,  edited,  and  arranged. 

61.  Or^TK,  '  Bhamns  O'BrlnD.'    (Opera-Comique,  London,  March  2, 


J  = 


B.l 


62.  Cliural  Bdljid, 'fhaEidiMf  C'nj]nrKTr«'(J.S.  LeFanu).forchoiraud 

uri£:Liatni.      cNarwirh  ft^LiTal.  1806.) 

63.  lU^^iLikm  fur  Kdl,  iibulr,  Mjui  orchestra  in  memory  of   Lord 

Li:J«hiiin.     iBIrmiD^bHiik  ftatival,  1807.) 

64.  BtrUktf  Quartet  ka  D  miniar. 

66.  Ttir  Cki*ia's  Bongs  tmm  '  Tattfth  Night.' 

66.  Te  Dtfuin.  kirmtlU ch^jtr. ;>u.l ircbiistra.    (Leeds FesUval.  1806.) 

67.  81^  BBxalwtlMUi  Fajitoial^.  ;)rlk«i, 

68.  O}4jl0 of  Qoaitata  trmn  Ivviuymu'B  'Princess'  with  pf.  acoom- 

I  >llll<llUf!lit. 

69.  Oi-ini.* 

70.  Scimta  fi>r  pi.  «rul  rlli.  in  0.* 

7L  VixTiatiunt   cu  an   Eufhih  Hume  ('Down  among  the  dead 
men ')  for  pf .  and  orchestra. 

72.  Ballad, '  Die  Wallfkhrt  naoh  Iftvlaar '  (Heine),  voice  and  pf. 

73.  Trio,  No.  2,  for  pf.  and  strings  in  O  minor. 

74.  Concerto  for  Tin.  and  orchestn  in  D.     (Leeds  Festival.  1904.) 

75.  'The  Lsst  Post '  (Henley),  for  choir  and  orchestra.    (Hereford 

Festival,  190a) 

76.  '  Bongs  of  Erin,'  a  collection  of  50  Irish  folk-songs. 

70a.  Opera,  *  Much  Ado  about  Nothing.'    (Covent  Garden,  May  30. 
1900;  Ldpsig,  1902.) 

77.  An  Irish  Idyll  (Moira  O'NeUl).  for  voice  and  pf. 

78.  Irish  BhaiMndy,  No.  1  in  D  minor. 

79.  Four  Irish  Dances  for  Orchestra. 

80.  Ooncerto  for  clarinet  and  orchestra.* 

81.  Morning,  Communion,  and  Evenlne  Service  in  6. 

88.  Five  sonnets  from '  The  Tliumph  of  Love  '  (B.  Holmes),  for  voice 
and  pf. 

83.  Motat. '  The  Lord  of  Might '  for  chorus  and  orchestra.   (Festival 

of  the  Sons  of  the  Clergy,  1903.) 

84.  Irish  Bhapsody.  No.  2.  for  orchestra.* 

85.  fi^intet  for  strings.  No.  1,  in  F.* 

96.  Qaiutet  for  strings.  No.  2.  iu  C  minoi.* 
87. 

88.  Blx  Preludes  for  Organ. 

89.  Four  Irish  Dances  for  orchestra. 

90.  Overture  in  the  style  of  a  Trsgedy.* 

2z 


r  pf .  aolo. 

I.  uid  pf.  (alio  for  Toello and 


92.  Three  Bba.p«Pd£Bi.  fmtu  Il4St«,  f.. 
98.  FiTH  CtunctierlflUc  Fimni  ItT  vl; 

Pt 

9i.  Bymplteaj  In  E  OkL"    ^tti  m«na4irtam  O.  F.  WatU.) 
9&  SersBV^NDnel,  iu  F  rorttrili^  nad  wind.* 
90.  Stiibat  Mat«r,  l^jr  mrhu]]  ic  CftotaU  for  aoli,  choir,  and  orehertnL 

97.  Six  'jWMfftor  PftHb  '  iTonp^Hon  ^nd  Walt  Whitman). 

98.  EiU'iittij  SerrlOT  on  flmfc^riau  Tmiea. 

99.  Strinf  QiwrU;t  In  O  bvini>r.* 

100.  W«f]NnKt'>D  n'enny»i>ii|'  for  fei>1:il.  liToms.  and  orchflstTa. 

101.  Six  r^hiiTt  rr>-]uiJei  aiiJ  Fu«tlij4Jr>  for  Oroao,  Istaet. 

102.  Ov4.flLm<  jLnrI   Iiu^Hdvutja   Mtulr   to  'AttiU'  (Blnjon).     (His 
M&JeatT'i  Ttawtre.  1IUT.^« 


Fantasia  and  Fofae  for  o 

StriDff  Quartst  in  B  flat.     , 

Six  Short  Preludes  and  PosUndes  for  organ,  2nd  set. 


orvan. 
.    (In  1 


memoriam  Joseph  Joachim.) 


WlTHOITT  OrUS-NtWBKM. 

Ftatival  Orertare.    (Oloooester  Festival.  1877.) 
Sjmphooy  in  B  fiat.    (Alexandra  Palace,  187S.) 
Elegiac  Symphony,  in  D  minor.    (Cambridge.  USSL) 
Scherzo  in  B  minor  for  pf.* 

Bongs—'  Irish  Byes,'  *  A  Valentine.'  '  Three  Ditties  of  the  olden 
T* — "T-i    F-nl^f  r*- -TH  MmH/  'V '.<-«•  fBTr>wBinsr\ 

Kiiij  i.Whui:hr*L«r^  i  IiIlkd  tujr  3*JV*>  j^mLr,  t*»  atbunj  xd 
T»«lrF  New  BaniEi  by  firltfab  Ccimpowni,  l«Slif. 

ArtauinfUKintA  nf  Irkiii  flongi— '  SoDgft  iif  UtiJ  Lrfelaiui/  188S :  '  TlHlh 
^JOM  anil  Balladi.-  LRUS. 

The  ■  FietfleCo11«ctian  of  Irlali  Kcufc  'wtteAlUfi  bf  dtaDfiinl  ^lr  tbe 
Irish  Ubamrj  Snelety  fa  !««  9, 

ThV'Op^FM^  'The  V«f  M  Prupb«it,' '  Aarcwvirol*^"  and  Itli* '  Cautdi^hDry 
Filgrlffif,'  wbti^h  biVf'  ma  (ipiU'EtUiiiben,  are  referred  'Lit  abtire. 

Mtdtdoll  ihottld  nj  H  be  ia.<*4t  vt  nn  InatniUlUyn  OdIq  lur  tbc  <TbaEhiLvl|i>r 
of  t^  tTiitt^raitj  itb-  Dukc'il  I)«Tvn«blr«K  io  ll^in  vhK^b  Is  a 
^atuodllbct'  au  *BU-k  nrjiWti  tuun.  |B««  for  tbia  KtKl  tci^tny 
DUie<rdflL>lIm{  Htaiifurd'i  aaami.  thm  Mattati  TimBttit  l^tiB, 
W.  7«  ff,>  M. 

STANLEY,  Charles  John,  Mus.B.,  bom  in 
London,  Jan.  17,  1713,  at  two  years  old  became 
blind  by  accident,  at  seven  began  to  leam 
music  from  John  Reading,  organist  of  Hackney, 
and  a  few  months  later  was  placed  with  Mauiice 
Greene,  under  whom  he  made  such  rapid 
progress  that  in  1724  he  was  appointed  organist 
of  All  Hallows,  Bread  Street,  and  in  1726 
organist  of  St.  Andrew's,  Holbom.  On  July 
19,  1729,  he  graduated  as  M:us.B.  at  Oxford. 
In  1734  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  organists 
of  the  Temple  Church,  In  1742  he  published 
'Six  Cantatas,  for  a  Voice  and  Instruments,' 
the  words  by  Hawkins,  the  future  historian  of 
music,  which  proved  so  successful  that  a  few 
months  later  he  published  a  similar  set  to  words 
by  the  same  author.  In  1757  he  produced 
his  *  Jephthah,'  and  in  1760  joined  J.  C.  Smith 
in  carrying  on  the  oratorio  performances  formerly 
conducted  by  Handel,  for  which  he  composed 
'Zimri,'  1760,  and  *The  Fall  of  Egypt,'  1774. 
In  1761  he  set  to  music  Robert  Lloyd's  dra- 
matic pastoral,  *  Arcadia,  or  The  Shepherd's 
Wedding,'  written  in  honour  of  the  marriage 
of  George  III.  and  Queen  Charlotte.  [Eight 
solos  for  a  German  flute,  violin  or  harpsichord 
appeared  as  op.  1,  and  Six  Concertos  in  seven 
parts,  for  strings,  as  op.  2  ;  another  set  of  flute 
solos  was  made  from  these  latter  J  He  pub- 
lished also  <  Three  Cantatas  and  Three  Songs 
for  a  Voice  and  Instruments,'  and  three  sets, 
of  ten  each,  of  Organ  Voluntaries.  In  1774, 
on  the  retirement  of  Smith,  he  associated 
Thomas  Linley  with  himself  in  the  conduct  of 
the  oratorios.  In  1779  he  succeeded  Boyce  as 
Master  of  the  King's  Band  of  Music.  Bumey 
says  he  was  'a  neat,  pleasing,  and  accurate 
performer,  a  natural  and  agreeable  composer, 
and  an  intelligent  instructor.'      He  died  May 


finely  engraved  by  Mary  Ann  Rigg  (afterwards 
Scott),  and  another  portrait,  at  the  organ,  wa3 
engraved  by  Mac  ArdeU.  w.  h.  h. 

STAKSBURY,  George  Frederick,  son  of 
Joseph  Stansbury,  a  player  upon  the  Ante, 
bassoon,  and  viola,  residing  in  Bristol,  was  born 
in  that  city  in  1800.  When  only  twelve  yean 
old  he  was  proficient  on  the  pianoforte,  violin, 
and  flute,  and  at  nineteen  was  engaged  by  Mme. 
Catalani  as  aocompamst  during  a  concert  torn- 
through  England.  He  was,  in  1820-23,  musical 
director  at  the  Theatre  Royal,  Dublin.  In  1828 
he  appeared  at  the  Haymarket  Theatre  as  Capt 
Macheath  in  *  The  Bexar's  Opera,'  and  on  Jan. 
15, 1829,  at  Covent  Garden  in  A.  Lee's  *  Nymph 
of  the  Grotto.'  He  sang  there  and  at  Druiy 
Lane  for  several  years.  [He  was  re-engaged  at 
Dublin  from  1833  to  1835  ;  his  music  for  '  Life 
in  Dublin '  was  given  there  in  1834.  w.  H.  g.  f.] 

He  was  engaged  as  musical  director  and  con- 
ductor at  the  St.  James's,  the  Surrey,  and  other 
theatres.  He  composed  music  for  '  Waverley ' 
(with  A.  Lee),  and  *  Puss  in  Boots,'  1832; 
*The  Elfin  Sprite,'  and  'Neuha's  Cave,'  1838, 
and  other  pieces,  besides  many  songs,  etc.  His 
voice  was  of  poor  quality,  but  he  was  an  excel- 
lent musician,  and  a  ready  composer.  He  died 
of  dropsy,  June  3,  1846.  w.  H.  H. 

STANSFIELD,  Ely,  a  Yorkshire  musician, 
settled  at  or  near  Halifax  in  the  early  part 
of  the  18th  century.  He  issued  *  Psalmody 
Epitomiz'd,  being  a  brief  collection  of  plain  and 
useful  Psalm  Tunes,  both  old  and  new,  in  four 
parts,  London,  seconded.,  1731,  Svo.'  The  book 
is  of  considerable  interest  as  a  volume  of  York- 
shire psalmody,  many  of  the  tunes  being  by 
Stansfield  himself,  and  named  after  Lancashire 
and  Yorkshire  towns.  f.  k. 

STAR  SPANGLED  BANNER,  THK  An 
American  national  song,  the  melody  being  that 
of  an  English  lyric  commencing,  *  To  Anacreon 
in  Heaven.'  The  story  of  the  verses  is  as 
follows  :  Francis  Scott  Key,  a  young  lawyer  of 
Baltimore,  during  the  English  and  American 
war  in  1814,  sought  the  release  of  a  medical 
friend  who  had  been  captured  by  the  English, 
and  who  was  detained  on  one  of  the  English 
vessels.  With  a  flag  of  truce  and  a  letter 
from  the  President,  he  rowed  out  on  Sept  13, 
1814,  and  obtained  his  request ;  but  as  there 
had  been  planned  an  attack  on  Fort  M 'Henry, 
they  were  not  allowed  to  leave  until  the  next 
day.  During  the  bombardment  the  Baltimore 
lawyer  anxiously  watched  the  stars  and  stripes 
floating  over  the  fort  until  nightfall,  and  when 
morning  dawned,  to  his  great  joy,  the  flag  still 
held  its  position.  Scott  Key  wrote  the  first 
verse  during  his  detention  and  completed  the 
song  ashore.  It  was  immediately  published  on 
a  broadside,  and  in  a  newspaper,  llie  BaUimare 
American  for  Sept.  21,  1814.  The  author  had 
adapted  it  to  the  English  air  which  had  more 


STARCK 


STASSOV 


676 


'  once  formed  the  yehicle  for  American 

*  ttic  soogs,  *  Adams  and  Liberty '  being  one 

"ese  effusions.     This  American  popularity 

~    ich  songs  has  caused  several  claims  to  be 

0  for  the  American  origin  of  the  air.     For 

)f  these  see  the  MusiccU  Times  for  August 

-  ^p.  616ff. 

«e  English  song  associated  with  the  tune, 
Anacreon  in  Heaven/  was  written   for, 

-  sung  at  all  important  meetings  of  the 

-  icreontic    Society/    held  chiefly   at   The 
:  /n  and  Anchor  in  the  Strand.    These  words 

by  Ralph  Tomlinson,  a  president  of  the 
.  .3ty,  and  the  music  was  by  John  Stafford 
:h,  who  claimed  it  as  his  in  his  Fifth  Book 
'amonets,  ditches,  and  Glees  {circa  1780), 
.  after  its  popularity  had  been  established, 
early  appearance  of  the  words  is  in  The 
xl  Magazine,  1778.  After  that  date  they 
i  reprinted  in  nearly  every  subsequent  col- 

Q  America,  as  before  stated,  the  song  was 
.   itly  sung,  and  its  fine  tune  was  adapted  to 
nerous  songs  of  a  patriotic  cast.     The  Free- 
sons,  too,  iJso  used  it  for  one  or  more  songs 
iting  to  their  Order.     It  is  effectively  intro- 
;ed  into  Puccini's  *  Madama  Butterfly.'  F.  K. 
STARCK   (von    Bronsart),    Ingeborg,   was 
-n  at  St.  Petersburg,   of  Swedish  parents, 
/24    August   1840.      Henselt    was    one   of 
*  first  masters.      When  eighteen  she  studied 
some  time  under  Liszt  at  Weimar,  and  then 
ide  a  long  concert  tour  through  the  principal 
.vns  of  Germany,  playing  at  the  Gewandhaus 
'ncerts  in  1858  and  1859,  at  Paris  and  St 
tersburg.     In  1862  she  married  Hans  von 
-onsart     After  staying  some  time  in  Leipzig, 
i-esden,   and  Berlin,   Herr  Bronsart  and  his 
Ife  settled  in  Hanover,  where  he  was  Intendant 
the  theatre.    Here  she  devoted  herself  entirely 
•  composition.      An  opera  by  her,  *  Die  Gottin 
)n  Sais,'  had  been  unsuccessful  in  Berlin  ;  but 
er  next  dramatic  work,  a  setting  of  Goethe's 
Jery  und   Bately,*   was    played  with    great 
access   in  Weimar,   Cassel,   and  many  other 
laces.     In  1870  she  wrote  a  'Kaiser  Wilhelm 
larch,'  which  was  played  at  Berlin  at  a  state 
>erformanoe,  to  celebrate  the  return  of  the 
roops.      In  1891  her  four- act  opera,  '  Konig 
-iiarne,*  was  produced,  the  libretto  by  Hans 
/on   Bronsart  and  Friedrich  von  Bodenstedt. 
'  *  Manfred,'  a  dramatic  tone-poem  in  five  pictures, 
was  given  at  Weimar  in  1901.]     After  settling 
in  Hanover,  Frau  von  Bronsart,  who  is  a  pianist 
of  rare  excellence,  was  seldom  heard  in  public. 
Her  compositions  include  a  concerto  and  other 
PF.   pieces,  many  songs,  and  some  music  for 
strings.  w.  b.  s. 

STARK,  LuDWio,  was  bom  at  Munich,  June 
19,  1831  ;  was  educated  at  the  University  there, 
and  learned  music  in  the  good  school  of  the 
Lachners.  In  1856  he  went  to  Paris,  and 
after  a  short  residence  there  removed  to  Stutt- 


gart, and  in  conjunction  with  Faisst,  Lebert, 
Brachmann,  and  Laiblin,  founded  the  Stuttgart 
Music  School,  which  has  since  become  so  well 
known.  Among  the  teachers  in  the  School 
were  Speidel,  Pischek,  Levi,  and  other  well- 
known  names.  Dr.  Stark's  energies  were  since 
that  time  continually  concentrated  on  the 
school,  which  has  flourished  accordingly,  and 
in  July  1865  was  allowed  to  assume  the  title 
of  Gonservatorium. 

A  large  number  of  works  have  been  prepared 
for  the  use  of  the  students,  among  which  the 
^Grofise  Klavierschule '  of  Lebert  and  Stark, 
in  4  vols.,  is  conspicuous.     Also  by  the  same— 

*  Instruktive   Klavierstucke '   in   four   grades  ; 

*  Jugendbibliothek'  and  '  Jugendalbum,'  each  in 
twelve  parts ;  *  Instruktive  klassicher  Ausgabe,' 
of  various  writers,  in  21  vols.,  by  Lebert,  Faisst, 
I.  Lachner,  Liszt,  and  Biilow  ;  and  many  more. 
The  famous  Gotta  edition  of  Beethoven's  pf. 
sonatas  is  the  best-known  of  these  publications. 

Dr.  Stark  was  made  Royal  Professor  in  1868, 
and  Hon.  Dr.  Ph.  1873,  and  had  many  other  dis- 
tinctions ;  he  died  at  Stuttgart,  March  22, 1884. 

STASSOV,  Vladimir  Vassilibvich,  a  cele- 
brated art  critic,  and  the  literary  champion  of 
the  New  Russian  School  of  Music.  Bom  in  St. 
Petersburg,  Jan.  14,  1824,  he  was  the  son  of  an 
architect  of  great  talent.  Stassov  was  educated, 
like  Serov  and  Tchaikovsky,  at  the  School  of 
Jurisprudence,  which  he  left  in  1848.  From 
1851  to  1854  he  resided  abroad,  chiefly  in  Rome 
and  Florence,  as  private  secretary  to  Prince 
Demidov.  In  the  former  city  he  wrote  his  first 
important  contribution  to  musical  literature, 
VAhM  Santini  et  sa  collection  musiccUe  a  lioine. 
On  his  return  to  St.  Petersburg  he  began  by 
being  private  assistant  to  the  director  of  the 
Imperial  Public  Library,  Baron  Korf,  and  in 
1872  was  himself  appointed  director  of  the 
department  of  Fine  Arts,  a  position  which  he 
held  until  his  death  on  Oct  23,  1906.  He 
wrote  indefatigably  on  a  great  number  of 
subjects,  artistic  and  literary,  and  was  much  pre- 
occupied with  the  theory — which  he  shared 
with  Glinka — that  the  national  epics  of  Russia 
were  mainly  of  Eastern  origin.  His  earlier 
musical  articles  had  chiefly  an  eradite  and 
archaeological  interest,  but  with  the  birth  and 
struggles  of  the  young  Russian  School  they 
assumed  a  new  and  for  more  vigorous  character, 
and  henceforth  he  stood  as  the  representative 
champion  of  nationality  in  art.  His  views  are 
clearly  and  trenchantly  defined  in  such  remark- 
able essays  as  TwerUy-five  Years  of  Russian  Art, 
The  Tracks  of  Russian  Art,  Art  in  the  XlXth 
Century,  etc  His  style  is  intensely  individual, 
his  sincerity  unquestionable ;  while  his  views 
invariably  incline  to  the  progressive  and  liberal 
side.  The  value  of  his  criticisms  is  increased 
by  his  extensive  and  accurate  learning,  which 
enabled  him  to  use  comparative  methods  most 
effectually.     Apart  from  polemics,  Stassov  has 


materials  for  the  biographies  of  the  chief  Russiaii 
composers.  His  monographs  upon  Glinka, 
Moossorgsky,  Borodin,  Cni  and  Rimskj-Kor- 
sakoY  are  indispensable  to  those  who  desire 
to  study  the  development  of  Russian  national 
music  His  influence  on  contemporary  Russian 
art  was  immense,  and  can  best  be  realised  in 
the  number  of  works  undertaken  at  his  sagges- 
tion,  and  dedicated  to  him.  His  collected  works 
from  1847  to  1886  were  published  by  his  admirers 
in  a  jubilee  edition  (8  vols.  St.  Petersburg, 
1894),  and  a  fourth  volume,  dedicated  to  Count 
Tolstoi,  was  added  in  1905.  B.  N. 

STATUE,  LA.  Op^ra-comique  in  three  acts, 
text  by  Garr^  and  Barbier ;  music  by  Ernest 
Reyer.  Produced  at  the  Op^ra-Comique,  Paris, 
April  11,  1861.  Revived  as  a  grand  opera  at 
the  Op^ra,  1903. 

STAUDIGL,  Joseph,  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished and  accomplished  singers  of  modern 
times,  bom  April  14,  1807,  at  Wollersdorf,  in 
Lower  Austria.  His  father  destined  him  for 
his  own  calling,  that  of  Imperial  huntsman 
(Revieijager),  but  for  this  he  was  not  suflSciently 
strong,  and  in  1816  he  entered  the  Gymnasium 
of  Wiener  Keustadt,  where  his  beautifnl  soprano 
voice  soon  attracted  attention  in  the  church. 
In  1823  he  attended  the  philosophical  college 
at  Kreros,  and  was  persuaded,  in  1825,  to  enter 
upon  his  noviciate  in  the  Benedictine  Monastery 
at  Melk.  Here  his  voice,  which  had  developed 
into  a  fine  sonorous  bass,  was  invaluable  for  the 
church  services.  A  vague  impulse  drove  him 
in  Sept.  1827  to  Vienna  to  study  surgery,  but 
money  ran  short,  and  he  was  glad  to  accept  a 
place  in  the  chorusat  the  KamthnerthorTheatre. 
Here  he  took  occasional  secondary  parts,  until 
the  sudden  illness  of  one  of  the  solo  singers 
brought  him  forward  as  Pietro  in  the  *  Stumme 
von  Portici '  (*  Masaniello '),  after  which  all  the 
principal  parts  fell  into  his  hands.  High  as 
was  his  position  on  the  stage,  he  was  still  greater 
as  a  singer  of  oratorio  and  church  music.  In 
1831  he  ^vas  admitted  to  the  Court  Chapel,  and 
in  1837  sang  for  the  first  time  at  the  great 
musical  festival  of  the  Gesellschaft  der  Musik- 
freunde  in  the  *  Creation.'  In  1883  he  sang  in 
the  '  Seasons '  for  the  Tonkiinstler  Societat,  a 
society  to  which  he  rendered  the  greatest  services. 
Though  not  even  a  member,  he  sang  at  no  less 
than  eighty  of  its  concerts,  and  absolutely  de- 
clined to  accept  any  fee.  Differences  with  the 
management  of  the  Court  Theatre  led  him  to 
the  Theatre  *  an  der  Wien '  on  its  reopening  in 
1845.  There  he  acted  as  chief  manager,  and, 
with  Pischek  and  Jenny  Lind,  entered  on  a  series 
of  fresh  triumphs.  He  returned  to  the  Court 
Theatre  in  1848,  but  only  to  exix»e  himself  to 
fresh  annoyance  up  to  February  1864,  when  an 
abrupt  dismissal  embittered  the  rest  of  his  life. 
His  last  appearance  in  public  was  in  *  St.  Paul,' 
at  the  Tonkunstler  Societat,  on  Palm  Sunday, 


itself,  and  he  was  taken  to  an  asylum,  which  he 
never  quitted  alive.  His  repeated  tours  abroad 
spread  his  fiune  far  and  wide,  and  he  had  many 
admirers  in  England,  which  he  often  visited, 
and  where  he  sang  in  English.  He  created  the 
part  of  '  Elijah '  at  the  Birmingham  Festival  of 
1846,  singing  the  music  at  sight  at  the  grand 
rehearsal.  As  a  singer  of  Schubert's  Lieder  he 
was  without  a  rival.  He  died  March  28,  1861, 
and  half  Vienna  followed  him  to  the  grave. 

His  youngest  son,  Joseph,  bom  March  18. 
1850,  possesses  a  flexible  sonorous  baritone, 
which  he  cultivated  with  success  under  Roki- 
tansky  at  the  Vienna  Conservatorium  till  1874, 
when  he  left  He  made  his  mark  as  an  oratorio 
singer  in  the  principal  towns  of  Germany  and 
Switzerland.  In  1875-83  he  was  frequently 
engaged  at  the  Court  Theatre  of  Carlsruhe,  and 
was  chamber-singer  to  the  Grand  Duke.  [In 
1885  he  married  Gisele  Koppmayer,  an  Austrian, 
pupil  of  Mme.  Marchesi,  who  was  a  favourite 
contralto  singer  in  opera  at  Hamburg,  Berlin, 
Bayreuth,  etc.  She  and  her  husband  sang 
together  in  a  concert  tour  in  America  (Afu^. 
WoehenblaU,  1888,  p.  349).  a.  c]     c.  f.  p. 

STAVE  (Lat  Systema  ;  Ital.  Sistetna  ;  Germ. 
LiniensysUnif  SysUia  ;  Fr.  PorUc  ;  Eiig.  Slave, 
Staff),  A  series  of  horizontal  lines,  so  arranged 
that  the  signs  used  for  the  representation  of 
musical  notes  may  be  written  upon  or  between 
them. 

Though  the  etymology  of  the  term  cannot  be 
proved,  its  derivation  from  the  familiar  Saxon 
root  is  too  obvious  to  admit  of  doubt  Its  use, 
as  applied  to  the  verses  of  a  Psalm,  Canticle,  or 
ditty  of  any  kind,  is  very  ancient,  and,  as  we 
shall  presently  show,  the  music  sung  to  such 
verses  was  originally  noted  down  in  such  close 
connection  with  the  verbal  text  that  it  may  fairly 
be  said  to  form  part  of  it  When  a  system  of 
lines  and  spaces  was  engrafted  on  the  primitive 
form  of  notation,  the  old  term  was  still  re- 
tained ;  and  we  now  apply  it  to  this,  even  mon> 
familiarly  than  to  the  verse  itself.  The  best 
proof  that  this  is  the  true  deiivation  of  the  term 
lies  in  the  fact  that  Morley  calls  the  Stave  a 
Verse,  and  describes  the  Verse  as  consisting  of 
Rules  ^  and  Spaces.  [For  the  early  forms  of 
notes  see  Notation.] 

About  the  year  900  a  single  horizontal  Iin<« 
was  drawn  across  the  parchment  to  serve  as  a 
guide  to  the  position  of  the  Neumes  written 
upon,  above,  or  below  it  This  line,  the  germ 
of  our  present  Stave,  has  exercised  more  direct 
influence  upon  the  art  of  notation  than  any 
other  invention,  either  of  early  or  modem  date. 
It  was  originally  drawn  in  red.  All  Neumes 
placed  upon  it  were  understood  to  represent  the 
note  F.  A  Neume  written  immediately  above 
it  represented  G ;  one  immediately  below  it, 
£.     The  places  of  three  signs  were,  therefore, 

1  •  Ruin.'  i.0.  Unas.    Prtnten  bUU  «aplo7  tlM  aun«  tvm. 


STAVE 


STEFFANI 


677 


definitely  iixed ;  while  those  -written  at  greater 
distances  above  or  below  the  line,  though  less 
certain  in  tlieir  signification,  were  at  least  more 
intelligible  than  they  had  been  under  the 
previous  system. 

A  yellow  line  was  soon  afterwards  added,  at 
a  little  distance  above  the  red  one.  Neumes 
written  on  this  line  represented  the  note  C, 
and  the  position  of  a  whole  septenary  of  signs 
Avas  thus  fixed  with  tolerable  clearness ;  for 
signs  placed  exactly  half-way  between  the  two 
lines  would  naturally  represent  A,  while  the 
positions  of  D  and  B  above  and  below  the 
yellow  line,  and  G  and  E  above  and  below  the 
red  one  were  open  to  very  little  doubt  in 
carefully-written  MSS.  When  black  lines  were 
used  instead  of  coloured  ones  the  letters  F 
and  C  were  written  at  the  beginning  of  their 
respective  *  rules ' ;  and  because  these  afforded 
a  key  to  the  Notation  they  were  called  Claves, 
or,  as  we  now  say.  Clefs, 

Early  in  the  11th  century  two  more  black 
lines  were  added  to  the  stave ;  one  above  the 
yellow  line,  and  the  other  between  the  yellow 
and  red  ones.  The  upper  black  line  then 
represented  £,  and  the  lower  one  A ;  and  the 
combined  effect  of  the  whole  was  to  produce 
a  four-lined  stave  ;  and  when  convenience  sug- 
gested tlio  practice  of  changing  the  position  of 
the  clefs  from  one  line  to  another,  there  remained 
but  little  to  distinguish  the  notation  of  the 
1 2th  and  Idth  century  from  that  now  invariably 
used  for  plain-song. 

[For  examples  of  a  stave  in  which  the  si>ace8 
i)etween  the  h'nes  were  only  used,  and  one  in 
which  the  lines  were  used  without  the  spaces, 
see  vol.  iiL  p.  397.]  These  collateral  inventions 
soon  fell  into  disuse.  The  system  of  alternate 
lines  and  spaces  was  adopted,  to  the  exclusion 
of  all  others,  in  every  country  in  Europe. 
Henceforth,  the  only  difference  lay  in  the 
number  of  lines  employed.  The  natural  tendency 
it  first  was  to  multiply  them.  In  early  MSS. 
sve  constantly  find  staves  of  six,  eight,  twelve, 
fifteen,  and  even  a  still  greater  number  of  lines, 
embracing  a  compass  sufficient  for  the  tran- 
scription of  an  entire  vocal  score.  After  a 
Lime  the  difficulty  of  reading  so  many  lines  at 
nice  led  to  the  adoption  of  a  more  commodious 
form,  consisting  of  two  groups,  with  four  black 
lines  in  each,  separated  by  a  single  red  line,  on 
A'hich  no  notes  were  written.  Staves  of  this 
vind  are  rare  ;  but  an  example  may  be  seen  at 
'ol.  201a  of  the  Chaucer  MS.  in  the  British 
Museum.*  Finally,  these  variable  forms  were 
•clinquished  in  favour  of  a  fixed  standard, 
»vliich  in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries  admitted 
:he  use  of  four,  five,  or  six  lines  only.  The 
jt4ive  of  four  lines  was  used  exclusively  for 
:>lain-song,  and  is  retained  for  that  purpose  to 
tlie  present  day.  That  of  six  lines  was  used 
for  organ  Music,  and  music  for  the  virginals. 

1  Anindel  MSS.  S4& 


[It  is  not  impossible  that  the  six -line  stave 
remained  in  vogue  because  paper  ruled  for  lute- 
music  could  be  employed.]  That  of  five  lines 
was  used  for  all  vocal  music  except  plain-song, 
and,  after  the  invention  of  printing,  for  music 
of  every  kind.  w.  8.  B. 

STAVENHAGEN,  Bernhard,  bom  Nov.  24, 
1862,  at  Greiz  (Benss),  studied  with  Kiel  and 
Rudorff,  and  became  one  of  the  most  beloved  if 
not  the  favourite  of  Liszt's  own  pupils.  He 
received  the  Mendelssohn  prize  for  pianoforte- 
playing  in  1880,  and  lived  till  1885  in  Berlin, 
since  when  he  settled  in  Weimar,  where  in  1890 
he  became  Court  pianist  to  the  Grand  Duke  and 
in  1895  Capellmeister.  In  1898  he  went  to 
Munich  in  the  latter  capacity,  and  was  elected 
director  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music  there 
in  1901,  but  gave  up  the  post  in  1904  and 
returned  to  Weimar,  where  he  still  lives  as 
teacher,  pianist,  and  conductor.  He  has  com- 
posed some  piano  pieces,  of  which  a  minuet  is 
well  known.  In  1890  Stavenhagen  married  the 
singer,  Agnes  Denis.  H.  v.  H. 

STCHERBATCHEV,  Nicholas  Vladimiro- 
YICH,  pianist  and  composer,  bom  August  24, 
1858.  He  spent  part  of  his  youth  in  Rome, 
but  on  his  return  to  Russia  became  closely 
associated  with  the  young  Russian  School. 
His  compositions,  mostly  published  by  Belaiev 
in  Leipzig,  are  as  follows : — 

A.  OrdkMlral.—'  Serenade,'  op.  83 ;  two  Idyll*. 

B.  Pian<(fort0.  —  * F^rim  et  P&ntomimM.'  op.  8  (two  books); 
'Moealcs,'  op.  IB;  'Scherao-Oftprlce,'  op.  17;  'Bcfaoei.'  op.  18; 
'  A11«ro  Appaadonato,'  op.  28 ;  three  Idylls,  op.  28 ;  two  pieces, 
opw  28;  ' Expromptti,'  op.  29;  ' MeUncholla,'  op.  81:  'The  First 

^Barcarolle,' 


Snow,'  op.  Xtj 


Dlle,'  op.  80:  'two  Expromptas, 


op. 


'  Impromptn  Vllanelle,'  op.  88 ;  '  Valses.'  op.  21  (8),  op.  27  (2),  op.  84 
(Vnlse  entr'acte);  Mazurkas,  opp.  16.  40,  42;  Preli  '  '  ' 


86; 

,      .84 

les  and  Inter* 


I.  3S.  87 ;  Etndes.  opp.  19,  26,  80. 

*    by  Coant  A.  Tolstot,  op.  94 ; 


ludes,  opp.    ..  .    . 

C.  roeal.— Six  songs  to  words 
songs  to  words  by  Heine. 

Andrew  Vladimirovich,  born  Jan.  29, 
1869,  in  the  Government  of  Poltava,  Entered 
the  St.  Petersburg  Conservatoire  in  1887,  where 
he  studied  under  F.  Blumenfeld,  Liadov,  and 
Rimsky-Eorsakov.  The  composer  of  a  march  for 
orchestra,  op.  5,  a  pianoforte  sonata,  op.  6,  and 
a  considerable  number  of  songs  and  piano 
pieces.  r.  n. 

STEFFANI,  AoosTiNO.  This  very  remarkable 
man  was  bom  July  25,  1653,  at  Castelfranco. 
Of  his  parentage  nothing  is  known.  He  appears 
to  have  entered  one  of  the  Conservatorios  early, 
and  become  a  singing -boy  at  St.  Mark's  in 
Venice,  where  in  1667  he  was  heard  by  a  Count 
von  Tattenbach,  probably  an  emissary  of  the 
Court  of  Bavaria.  The  Count  was  so  delighted 
with  his  voice  and  intelligence,  that  he  carried 
him  off  to  Munich.  He  was  educated  at  the 
expense  of  the  Elector  Ferdinand  Maria,  as 
appears  from  a  decree  ^  of  July  26,  1668,  order- 
ing a  payment  of  150  florins  to  Count  Tatten- 
bach for  the  board  and  lodging  of  the  '  Welscher 
Musikus  Augustin  Steffani '  during  the  previous 
year.      By  another  decree  of  July  9,   1668, 

S  See  Rtidhardt's  Ouekiekte  der  Optr  am  Httf9  tu  MUnehen,    Naeh 
OTckiveUtKhen  qtuOm  bearbelUt.    £nUr  ThaU,  JH*  ItaUanimskt 

Oper,  1CIU-17S7. 


the  young  '  Churfiiratlicher  Kammer-  und  Hof- 
musikus'  had  been  already  apprenticed  to 
Johann  Kaspar  Kerl  to  learn  to  play  (schlagen) 
the  organ,  and  to  be  boarded,  for  the  yearly 
sum  of  432  florins.  A  farther  entry  of  the  pay- 
office  shows  that  the  yearly  cost  of  the  Hof-  und 
Eammermusikus  was,  for  1669,  903  fl.  12  kr.  ; 
for  1670,  997  fl.  He  remained  with  Kerl  till 
Oct.  1,  1671,  from  which  day  he  was  boarded 
and  lodged  by  the  Churfurstlicher  Kammer- 
diener  Seyler  for  1 66  fl.  a  year.  As  Hofmusikus, 
StefTani  received  300  fl.,  in  addition  to  a  clothing 
allowance  of  300  fl.  a  year,  by  a  decree  of  Jan. 
15,  1672.  At  the  commencement  of  Oct.  1673 
he  travelled  to  Rome  in  order  to  perfect  himself 
in  his  art  Here  he  began  to  compose  assida- 
ously,  for  there  is  a  small  oblong  volume  of 
motets  in  the  Fitzwilliam  Museum  at  Cambridge, 
an  original  MS.,  of  which  there  seems  no  reason 
to  doubt  the  authenticity.  In  it  we  find  the 
following  compositions,  all  dated  except  one. 
To  speak  of  them  chronologically :  the  first, 
dated  Nov.  1678,  is  a  'Laudate  Pueii'  a  9. 
The  next,  dated  Dec.  30,  1673,  is  a  splendid 
'Laudate  Dominum'  for  8  canti  concertati, 
divided  into  two  choirs.  Again  in  1673,  with 
no  month  given,  we  have  a  '  Tribuamus  Domino' 
— one  short  movement  for  two  choirs  of  S.S.  A.T. 
In  the  following  year  we  have  a  *  Sperate  in  Deo  * 
for  S.S.A.T.B.  in  three  fine  movements,  the 
last  a  fugue.  The  remaining  piece,  not  dated, 
is  a  *Beatus  vir*  for  S.S.B.,  with  two  violins 
and  a  bass. 

In  Rome  he  appears  to  have  had  a  long  ill- 
ness, as  he  received  50  crowns  extra  for  expenses 
incurred  while  laid  up.  Bemabei  succeeded 
Kerl  as  Capellmelster  at  Munich  in  that  year. 
After  his  return  Steflani  again  took  up  his  posi- 
tion as  Kammermusikus  with  a  pay  of  770  fl. 
20  kr.,  and  almost  immediately  published  his 
first  work,  *  Psalmodia  vespertina  volans  8 
plenis  vocibus  concinenda  ab  Augost.  Steflana 
in  lucem  edita  aetatis  suae  anno  19,^  Monachii, 
1674.'  This  work  was  a  brilliant  success  for 
the  young  composer,  and  a  portion  of  it  was 
thought  worthy  of  being  included  by  Padre 
Martini  in  his  Saggio  di  ContrappuntOf  published 
just  a  hundred  years  later.  On  March  1,  1675, 
he  was  appointed  comi;  organist. 

Bnt  music  was  not  the  only  study  which  had 
occupied  his  mind ;  ho  had  studied  mathematics, 
philosophy,  and  theology  with  so  much  success 
that  in  1680  he  was  ordained  a  priest  with  the 
title  of  Abbate  of  Lepsing  ;  and  such  was  the 
favour  shown  to  him  by  the  new  Elector,  his  old 
friend  Ferdinand  Maria  having  died  the  year 
before,  that  a  decree  of  Nov.  8,  1680,  accords 
to  the  *  Honourable  priest.  Court  and  Chamber 
musician,  and  Organist  Steflani,'  a  present  of 
1200  florins  for  *  certain  reasons  and  favours ' 
(gewissen  Ursachen  und  Gnaden).    Hitherto  he 

>  [On  tbia  erroneous  stateroeat  of  ace  aee  the  QtMOra-LexIfeon. 
It  !•  from  tbe  wme  dedicAtlons  Uut  w«  know  him  to  hare  learnt 
from  BetnabeL] 


had  confined  himself  to  the  composition  of 
motets  and  other  church  music,  but  now  ap- 
peared his  first  work  for  the  stage.  The  title, 
taken  from  the  contemporary  MS.,  evidently 
the  conducting  score,  in  the  Royal  Musical 
Library  at  Buckingham  Palace,  in  an  Italian 
hand,  probably  that  of  his  secretary  and  copyist 
Gregorio  Piva,  runs  thus  : — *  Marco  Aurdio, 
Dramma  posto  in  Musica  da  D.  Agostino  Stefi*- 
ani,  Direttor  della  Musica  di  Camera  di  S.  A.  S. 
etc'di  Baviera,  Tanno  1681.'  It  will  be  seen 
that  a  frirther  step  had  been  gained — ^he  was 
now  Director  of  Chamber-music  In  1683  ap- 
peared some  Senate  da  Camera  for  two  violins, 
alto,  and  bass,  and  in  1685  a  collection  of 
motets  entitled  'Sacer  Janus  Quadrifrons  3 
voc.  Monachii,'  but  no  trace  of  tiiese  works  is 
to  be  found.  For  the  Carnival  of  1685  he  com- 
posed the  opera  *  Solone,'  which  appears  to  have 
been  an  opera  bufla  in  three  acts ;  the  score, 
however,  like  all  the  Munich  operas  by  Steifani 
with  the  exception  of  'Marco  Aurelio,'  is 
lost.  He  also  composed  in  this  year  a  musi- 
cal introduction  for  a  tournament,  with  the 
title :  *  Audacia  e  Bispetto.*  The  new  Elector 
Maximilian  Emanuel  was  married  at  the  end 
of  1685  to  the  Archduchess  Maria  Antonla, 
daughter  of  Leopold  I.,  and  the  wedding  fes- 
tivities in  Munich  in  the  first  days  of  January 
1686  began  with  the  opera  'Servio  Tullio,* 
again  by  Steflani,  with  ballets  arranged  by 
Rodier,  and  music  to  them  by  Dardespin,  the 
Munich  Concertmeistcr,  danced  by  twelve  ladi^ 
and  gentlemen  of  the  court,  with  costumes  frt)m 
Paris.  The  music  made  its  mark,  as  we  shall 
see  hereafter.  On  Jan.  18,  1687,  the  birthday 
of  the  young  Electress,  we  have  an  opera — the 
text  of  which  was  by  the  new  Italian  secretary 
Luigi  Orlandi,  whose  wife  sang  on  the  stage — 
called  *  Alarioo  il  Balta,  cioe  1'  audaoe,  r^  del 
Gothi,'  with  ballets  composed,  arranged,  and 
danced  as  before.  For  this  opera  fresh  Italian 
singers  were  brought  from  Italy.  Of  the  value 
of  Steflani's  music  to  it  no  record  is  given.  In 
1688  he  composed  the  opera  *  Niobe,  regina  di 
Tebe,*  probably  for  the  Carnival,  the  text  again 
by  Orlandi.  This  was  his  last  work  for  the 
Court  of  Munich. 

Various  reasons  have  been  put  forward  to  ac- 
count for  his  leaving  a  court  where  he  had  been 
so  well  treated,  and  where  the  art  of  music  was 
held  in  such  esteem,  for  Munich  had  not  only  at 
this  time  good  singers,  a  good  orchestra,  and 
experienced  and  intelligent  audiences,  but  had 
likewise  a  splendid  musical  history.  The  Elector 
had  granted  him  750  florins  on  account  of  his 
two  operas  and  for  a  '  Badekur '  in  Italy  in  June 
1686.  In  May  1688  gracious  permission  was 
given  to  him  to  go  again  to  Italy,  in  considers* 
tion  of  his  twenty-one  years*  service  ;  his  salary 
was  not  only  paid  to  the  end  of  June,  but  from 
the  beginning  of  July  he  was  given  three  years' 
salary  as  a  reward  !    Not  only  so,  but  his  debts 


STEFFANI 


STEFFANI 


679 


were  paid  by  the  Court  Treasurer  out  of  this, 
and  the  balance  was  sent  to  him  in  Venice, 
where  he  had  gone.  The  main  reason  for  his 
deserting  Munich  was  no  doubt  that  on  the  death 
of  the  elder  Bemabei  at  the  end  of  the  year 
1687  his  son,  who  had  come  from  Italy  in  1677 
to  fill  the  post  of  Vice-Capellmeister,  was  in 
the  early  part  of  1688  made  Gapellmeister,  thus 
debarring  Steffani  from  further  promotion. 
Added  to  this,  the  Duke- of  Brunswick,  Ernst 
August,  who  had  been  present  at  the  festivities 
when  •  Servio  TuUio '  was  performed,  was  so  de- 
lighted with  Steffani's  music  and  singing  that  he 
had  already  made  him  an  offer  to  go  to  Hanover, 
and  Steifani  appears  actually  to  have  made  use 
of  the  leave  granted  for  the  Badekur  in  Italy 
in  1686  to  spend  his  time  in  Hanover  instead  of 
tliere.  The  appointment  then  of  the  younger 
Bemabei  to  the  Munich  Capellmeistership  must 
have  decided  him  at  once  to  leave  Munich,  and 
from  Venice  at  the  end  of  1688  or  early  in 
1689  he  made  his  way  to  Hanover,  there  to 
remain  and  become  Gapellmeister,  and  a  good 
deal  besides. 

If  Munich  was  a  pleasant  place  for  a  musician 
of  genius,  Hanover  was  not  far  behind  it.  It 
might  not  have  the  same  glorious  musical  his- 
tory ;  but  Steffani  found  there  congenial  society, 
and  singers  and  players  of  great  excellence. 
The  Court  of  Hanover  was  renowned  for  its 
magnificence  and  courtesy,  which  were,  however, 
combined  with  a  friendly  simplicity  held  to  be 
the  best  in  Germany.^  One  of  its  principal 
ornaments  was  the  great  philosopher  Leibniz, 
who  had  resided  there  since  1676,  and  who,  with 
the  Duchess  Sophia,  had  raised  the  tone  of  the 
Court  to  a  very  high  intellectual  standard. 
There  was  also  the  court  poet,  Abbate  Ortensio 
Mauro,at  once  Geheimer  Secretar,  Hofceremoniel- 
meister,  and  political  agent,  who  came  to  Han- 
over in  1679,  and  in  whom  the  Duchess  placed 
gi'eat  confidence.  Steffani  became  the  friend 
of  these  men.  Up  to  this  time  the  operas  at 
Hanover  (chiefly  imported  from  Venice)  were 
given  in  the  small  French  theatre,  but  that  being 
deemed  too  small,  a  new  opera-house  was  built, 
which  was  pronounced  to  be  the  most  beautiful 
in  all  Germany.  It  created  the  reputation  of 
its  architect  Thomas  Giusti,  and  caused  him  to 
be  called  to  Berlin  and  other  towns  for  similar 
purposes.  The  new  house  was  opened  in  1689 
with  'Henrico  Leone,'  by  Mauro  and  SteflFani. 
Tlie  score  in  Buckingham  Palace  gives  a  list 
of  the  scenes,  machinery,  etc.,  which  might 
astonish  even  a  20th-century  reader.  It  had 
a  veiy  great  success,  was  given  in  German 
in  1696  at  Hamburg  and  in  1697  at  Bruns- 
wick, and  acquired  great  celebrity.  The  opera 
shows  marked  advance  on  *  Marco  Aurelio.'  A 
remarkable  change  is  found  in  the  instrumenta- 
tion. There  are  flutes,  hautboys,  bassoons, 
three  trumpets  and  drums,  in  addition  to  the 

I  See  CbiyMnder'i  Handel. 


strings,  in  four  parts.  There  are  delightful 
contrapuntal  devices  in  the  scoring,  all  the 
wind  instruments  have  obbligato  passages,  one 
air  a  vigorous  fagotto  obbligato  throughout. 
Chrysander  states  (Handel)  that  the  opera- 
company  in  Hanover  was  divided  into  two 
camps,  an  instrumental  (French)  and  a  vocal 
(Italian),  both,  however,  working  harmoni- 
ously. The  singers  must  have  been  of  the 
best  if  they  could  execute  these  difficult  arias ; 
the  band,  too,  must  have  been  excellent  The 
leading  violin  in  the  orchestra  was  Farinelli 
(uncle  of  the  famous  singer),  who  had  been  much 
in  France  and  in  Spain.  Oorelli  was  a  great 
fnend  of  Concertmeister  Farinelli,  and  during 
his  tour  in  Germany  spent  some  time  at 
Hanover,  where  he  became  acquainted  with 
the  Electoral  family.  The  hautboys,  too, 
were  particularly  good,  and  Chrysander  sup- 
poses that  Handel  wrote  his  first  hautboy 
concerto  for  this  orchestnu 

*  Henrico  Leone '  was  followed  in  the  summer 
of  this  year  by  'La  lotta  d'Alcide  con  Achelao,'  a 
divertimento  drammatico  in  one  act,  a  charming 
work,  written  probably  also  by  Mauro.  It  seems 
to  have  been  performed  at  the  Smnmer  Theatre  at 
Herrenhausen.  The  next  opera  was  'Lasuperbia 
d'  Alessandro,'  in  1690  (the  conducting  score 
gives  1691  as  the  date),  the  words  by  Mauro  ; 
a  fine  work.  Many  songs  have  obbligato  instru- 
mental parts,  especially  one  in  the  second  act, 
where  two  flutes  obbligati  are  sustained  by  muted 
violins  and  alto — a  beautiful  piece ;  also  one  song 
with  harpsichord  solo.  This  opera  also  found  its 
way  to  Hamburg  and  Brunswick  in  a  German 
trajislation.  'Orlandogeneroso'cameoutin  1691 
— another  fine  work  written  in  conjunction  with 
Mauro.  '  Le  Bivali  concordi '  appeared  in  1692, 
written  again  by  Mauro,  and  afterwards  per- 
formed at  Hamburg.  We  now  come  to  *  La 
liberty  contenta'  (Mauro)  in  1698,  in  which 
evidence  is  given  of  great  further  progress,  for 
nothing  of  such  importance  had  hitherto  come 
from  his  pen.  It  is  fuU  of  beauties  of  all  kinds 
— a  fine  overture,  fine  counterpoint,  beautiful 
melodies,  very  difficult  arias,  and  powerful 
recitatives.  It  had  the  greatest  success,  and 
was  most  highly  thought  of  at  Hamburg.  The 
movements  are  longer  and  more  developed  than 
in  his  previous  works. 

It  was  in  the  next  year  that  Steffani  issued 
his  celebrated  pamphlet,  entitled  Quanta  cer- 
tezza  hahhia  da  sum  Fi-incipii  la  Mitsica,  ed 
in  quaZ  pregio  fosse  perdb  presso  gli  Antieki. 
Amsterdam,  1695.  Risposta  di  D.  A.  Steffani 
Abbate  di  Lepsing  Protonotario  della  San  Sede 
Apostolica.  Ad  una  lettera  del  S**.  March". 
A.  G.  In  difesa  d'  una  Proposizione  sostenuta 
da  lui  in  una  Assemblea.  Hannovera  Sett. 
1694,  72  pp.  in  12.  It  was  translated  twice  into 
German  :  in  1699  by  Andreas  Werckmeister  at 
Quedlinburg ;  in  1760  by  Jean  Laurent  Albrecht 
at  Miihlhausen.      Steffani  ably  discusses  the 


science.  In  1695  we  have  the  opera  '  I  trionfi 
del  FatOy  o  le  glorie  d'  Enea,'  another  charming 
work.  It  found  its  way  to  Hamburg  in  1699. 
An  opera  in  one  act,  *  Baccanali/  was  also 
composed  this  year  for  the  small  theatre  in 
Hanover.  For  the  Carnival  of  1696  the  grand 
opera  of  'Briseide*  was  composed,  the  words 
by  Palmieri,  Comes  Italus.  No  composer's 
name  is  mentioned,  and  Chrysander  thinks  it 
is  not  by  Steifani ;  but  the  two  scores  and 
collections  of  Steffani's  songs  at  Buckingham 
Palace  leave  little  doubt  on  examination  that 
it  is  his  work,  and  in  his  usual  manner. 

A  change  was  now  about  to  take  place  in 
Steffani's  circumstances.  He  was  no  longer  to  be 
the  active  composer  of  operas,  and  capellmeister, 
but  from  this  time  forth  was  destined  to  devote 
his  time  chiefly  to  diplomacy,  though  he  never 
forsook  the  art  of  which  he  was  so  great  an 
ornament  Ernst  August  had  sent  6000  men 
to  assist  the  Emperor  against  the  Turks,  and 
some  8000  against  the  French  ;  his  two  eldest 
sons,  Geoige  (afterwards  King  of  England)  and 
Frederick  Augustus,  had  served  in  the  field, 
and  three  others  had  been  killed  in  the  wars. 
The  Emperor  as  a  reward  determined,  in  1692, 
to  create  a  ninth  Elector,  and  raise  the  younger 
branch  of  the  house  of  Brunswick-Liineburg  to 
the  Electorate.  This  was  generally  deemed 
just,  but  many  difficulties  stood  in  the  way, 
and  during  four  years  the  position  of  Ernst 
August  as  Elector  became  more  and  more 
difficult,  so  that,  in  1696,  it  was  determined 
to  send  an  Envoy  Extraordinary  round  to  the 
various  German  Courts  to  smooth  matters  over, 
and  Ernst  August  and  Leibniz  could  find  no 
one  among  the  court  personnel  in  Hanover  so 
well  fitted  for  the  post  as  Abbate  Steffani. 
With  the  title  of '  Envoye  Extraordinaire '  he  set 
out  on  his  mission,  and  so  admirably  did  he 
succeed,  that  at  the  end  of  the  mission  he  was 
not  only  granted  a  considerably  larger  salary 
than  he  had  hitherto  had  at  Court,  but  Innocent 
XI.  was  induced  to  raise  him  in  1706  to  the 
dignity  of  Bishop  {in  parlibus  infidelium)  of 
Spiga  in  Anatolia,  Asia  Minor — the  ancient 
Cyzicus.  This  was  also,  perhaps  in  recognition 
of  Steffiini's  services,  aided  by  the  tolerant 
Leibniz,  in  procuring  for  the  Roman  Catholics 
in  Hanover  the  privilege  of  holding  public 
worship.  Steffani  was  now  an  accomplished 
courtier  and  diplomatist.  In  the  early  part  of 
1698  he  was  sent  to  Brussels  as  Ambassador, 
and  there  had  his  first  audience  on  March  1. 
In  this  year  the  Elector  Ernst  August  died, 
and  Steffani  afterwards  transferred  his  services 
to  the  Elector  Palatine  at  Diisseldorf,  where  he 
became  a  Privy  Councillor  as  well  as  the  Pope's 
Protonotarius  for  North  Germany,  though  at 
what  time  this  occurred  is  not  known.  In 
1709  we  find  Steffani  again  with  two  new  operas. 


Buckingham  Palace  to  be  by  Gregorio  Piva— 
his  secretary,  whose  name  he  adopted  for  his 
compositions  after  he  became  a  statesman,  and 
this  is  the  earliest  date  at  which  it  occurs  in 
any  of  the  MSS.  of  his  works,  as  far  as  I  know. 
The  opera  given  at  Hanover  is  called  '  Enea,  or 
Amor  vien  dal  destine,'  in  the  large  copy,  but 
in  the  conducting  score  *  II  Tumo ' — in  three 
acts,  and  is  a  very  fine  work  ;  again  an  advance 
on  any  previous  effort.     The  Diisseldorf  opera, 
'Tassilone  Tragedia  in  5  Atti,'  is  only  repre- 
sented at  Buckingham  Palace  by  a  vocal  score ; 
the  overture  and  all  instrumental  effects  are 
wanting,  only  the  bass  beinggiven  to  the  different 
pieces  ;  but  the  singers'  names,  all  Italian,  are 
mentioned.      The  music  is  mostly  excellent. 
The  movements  of  both  these  operas  of  1709 
are  all  long,  well  developed,    and  broad,  and 
our  composer  has  not  failed  to  march  with  the 
times.     There  remains  one  more  opera  to  s^eak 
of,  '  Arminio,'  which,  according  to  the  full  score 
(one  of  those  brought  from  Hanover  by  George 
I.),  was  composed  for  the  Court  of  the  Elector 
Palatine  in  1707.      Though  bearing  no  com- 
poser's name,  it  is  without  doubt  a  composition 
of  Steffani,  entirely  in  his  manner  and  one  of 
his  very  finest ;  the  instrumental  colouring  still 
more  flill  and  varied  than  in  any  other  opera 
of  his.     And  what  further  establishes  its  claim 
to  be  considered  Steffani's  is  the  fact  tliat  the 
fine  air,  with  fagotto  obbligato  from  '  Henrico 
Leone,'  is  introduced  with  other  words,  and  for 
a  soprano  instead  of  a  tenor  voice.     This  opera, 
and  *  Tassilone,'  show  that  the  Palatine  Conrt 
at  that  time  possessed  a  very  fine  orchestra, 
and  a  splendid  company  of  singers.     It  is  quite 
possible  that  Steffani  composed  more  operas 
than  these,  and  that  several  may  have  been 
written  for  Diisseldorf  which  have  not  come 
down  to  us  ;  but  what  we  have,  form  a  splendid 
series  of  masterly  works  that  establish  him  as  a 
composer  of  the  first  rank,  equal  to  Lulli,  greatly 
his  superior  as  a  contrapuntist,  if  possibly,  and 
only  possibly,  inferior  to  him  in  dramatic  force. 
In  Hamburg  his  reputation  was  so  great  that 
no  music  was  thought  equal  to  his.     There 
Bach  and  Handel  as  young  men  must  have 
listened  to  his  operas. 

Though,  however,  his  operas  were  his  greatest 
works,  they  could  not  attain  the  same  universal 
popularity  as  his  well-known  duets  for  various 
voices,  with  a  bass  accompaniment  These  are 
mostly  in  three  long  movements,  some  with 
recitatives  and  solos,  in  the  cantata  form, 
following  Carissimi  and  Stradella.  Of  these 
celebrated  ^uets  there  are  more  than  a  hundred 
in  the  British  Museum,  and  in  the  splendid 
copy  in  8  vols,  in  Buckingham  Palace.  The 
words  were  mostly  by  Ortensio  Mauro,  Averara, 
Abbate  Conti,  Conte  Francesco  Palmieri,  etc. 
The  testimony  to  the  great  excellence  of  these 


STEFFANI 


STEFFANI 


681 


compositions  is  abundant.  Barney  says  in 
speaking  of  these  dnets,  *  Those  of  the  admiTable 
Abbate  Steffani  were  dispersed  in  MS.  through- 
out Europe.'  Mattheson  again,  *  In  these  duets 
Steffani  is  incomparable  to  all  I  know,  and 
deserves  to  be  a  model,  for  such  things  do  not 
easily  become  old.'  Chiysander  also  writes, 
'  These  duets  are  the  greatest  of  their  kind.' 
To  the  foregoing  it  is  useless  to  add  further 
commendation.  The  most  renowned  singers, 
Senesino,  Strada,  and  others,  delighted  in  them, 
and  used  them  constantly  for  practice  in  both 
expressive  and  florid  singing.^  No  copies  of 
these  duets  are  dated,  but  they  were  probably 
all  composed  after  he  went  to  Hanover;  and 
some  of  them  are  known  to  have  been  written 
for  the  Princess  Sophia  Dorothea. 

The  Duke  of  Brunswick,  Anton  Ulrich,  was 
converted  to  Romanism  in  1710,  and  we  find 
Steffani  going  from  Diisseldorf  to  Brunswick 
to  accept  in  the  name  of  the  Pope  a  piece  of 
ground  as  a  site  for  a  Catholic  church.  At  the 
time  of  the  Carnival  of  this  year  we  find  him 
in  Venice  in  company  with  Baron  Eielmansegge, 
and  he  there  met  Handel,  whom  he  induced  to 
visit  Hanover  on  his  way  to  London.  Handel 
testifies  to  Steffani's  great  kindness  to  him 
while  in  Hanover ;  he  was  anxious,  too,  that  he 
should  become  Capellmeister  at  this  Court. 
About  the  year  1712  the  new  church  in  Bruns- 
wick was  so  far  ready  that  the  Pope  sent 
Bishop  Stefiani  to  consecrate  the  building  and 
perform  the  opening  service.  Two  years  later 
the  Elector  of  Hanover  became  King  of  England, 
but  Steffani  did  not  accompany  him  to  London  ; 
indeed,  we  do  not  meet  with  his  name  again 
till  1724,  when  the  Academy  of  Ancient  Music 
in  London  unanimously  elected  him  its  Hon. 
President  for  life.  This  Academy,  of  which 
Handel  was  a  great  supporter,  had  been  insti- 
tuted by  Dr.  Pepusch,  J.  E  Galliard  (the  only 
known  pupil  of  Steffani),  and  other  musicians, 
and  had  become  well  known  abroad.  Many 
eminent  musicians  of  the  Continent  were  made 
honorary  members,  Steffani  among  the  number, 
who  appears  to  have  sent  over  the  following 
four  works  for  performance — the  fine  and  well- 
known  Madrigal  '  Qui  diligit  Mariam,'  for 
S.S.  A.T.B.  ;  another  madrigal,  called  '  La 
Spagnuola,'  '  Al  rigor  d'  un  bel  sembiante,'  for 
two  altos  and  tenor,  not  so  remarkable ;  and 
the  beautiful  madrigal,  *6ettano  i  R^  dal  soglio. ' 
These  are  generally  found  in  the  MS.  collec- 
tions of  the  time.  The  fourth  piece  was  the 
gi-eatStabat  Mater,  composed  for  S.  S.  A.  T.  T.  B. , 
accompanied  by  strings  and  organo,  and  xm- 
doubtedly  one  of  the  finest  works  of  any  com- 
poser of  the  period  immediately  preceding  that 
of  the  giants  Bach  and  Handel.  His  great 
contemporaries  Alessandro  Scarlatti  and  Purcell 
produced  nothing  finer.     No  exact  dates  can 

>  [Several  morements  from  thoM  duets  ve  ladtided  In  'Duettl 
da  Cainen.'  edited  by  J.  A.  Fuller  MAitlaod.] 


be  assigned  to  these  four  works,  but  they  all 
belong  to  his  later  manner.  In  Steffani  is  to 
be  found  the  perfection  of  counterpoint  without 
stiffness,  and  with  that  real  sign  of  genius, 
exhaustless  variety.  As  in  Bach,  there  is 
marvellous  freedom  in  the  movement  of  the 
parts,  and  no  hesitation  at  a  good  clashing  dis- 
sonance produced  by  this  freedom.  He  was  an 
adept  too  at  writing  the  charming  minuets  and 
gavottes  which  were  then  so  fashionable,  and 
in  which  his  operas  abound.  At  the  British 
Museum  there  is  likewise  a  glorious  'Confitebor' 
for  three  voices  with  violins  and  bass  in  £  minor, 
said  to  be  of  the  year  1709,  with  a  splendid 
bass  solo  (*  Sanctum  et  terribile ') — a  species  of 
accompanied  recitative  ;  the  whole  work  being 
full  of  exquisite  beauties.  No  notice  of  this 
piece  has  yet  appeared  in  any  life  of  SteffanL 
In  the  library  of  the  Royal  College  of  Music 
there  is  a  book  of '  XII  Motteta  per  celeberrimum 
Abbatem  Stephanum'  for  three  voices  with 
solos  and  recitatives,  but  it  is  only  a  vocal 
score,  without  the  symphonies  and  accompani- 
ments which  all  undoubtedly  had.  In  another 
book  in  the  same  library,  however,  we  find  two 
of  them  complete. 

Early  in  1727  Steffani  was  once  more  and  for 
the  last  time  in  Italy ;  and  Handel  met  him 
at  Rome  in  March,  where  he  was  living  at  the 
Palace  of  Cardinal  Ottoboni.  This  latter  en- 
thusiast still  kept  up  his  Monday  performances 
of  music,  at  which  Steffani,  now  seventy-four 
years  old,  occasionally  sang.  Handel  tells  us 
(through  Hawkins)  that  *he  was  just  loud 
enough  to  be  heard,  but  that  this  defect  in  his 
voice  was  amply  recompensed  by  his  manner, 
in  the  chasteness  and  elegance  of  which  he  had 
few  equals.'  From  Hawkins  we  also  learn  that 
'  as  to  his  person  he  was  less  than  the  ordinary 
size  of  men,  of  a  tender  constitution  of  body, 
which  he  had  not  a  little  impaired  by  intense 
study  and  application.  His  deportment  is  said 
to  have  been  grave,  but  tempered  with  a  sweet- 
ness and  affisibility  that  rendered  his  conversa- 
tion very  engaging  ;  he  was  perfectiy  skilled  in 
all  the  extemid  forms  of  polite  behaviour,  and, 
which  is  somewhat  unusual,  continued  to  observe 
and  practise  them  at  the  age  of  fourscore. '  He  was 
back  in  Hanover  in  a  short  time,  and  the  next 
year,  going  to  Frankfort  on  some  public  business, 
died  there  after  a  short  illness,  Feb.  12,  1728. 

The  last  word  has  not  yet  been  said  about 
this  remarkable  musician,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  some  of  his  duets,  and  perhaps  his  glorious 
Stabat  Mater  and  Confitebor,  may  still  be  heard 
in  the  concert-room.  His  career  was  certainly 
one  of  the  most  extraordinary  in  musical  history. 
Bom  of  obscure  parents,  he  raised  himself  by 
his  talents  and  industry  from  the  position  of  a 
poor  choir  boy,  not  only  to  be  one  of  the  fore- 
most musicians  of  his  age,  but  likewise  the 
trusted  confidant  of  princes  and  the  friend  of 
such  a  man  as  Leibniz.    The  only  other  instance 


oe  louna  in  Dae  pamier  Auoens.  ine  macenais 
for  this  notice  have  been  chiefly  gathered  from 
Rudhardti  Hawkins,  and  Chrysander,  the  latter 
having  obliged  me  with  some  important  in- 
formation hitherto  unpublished.  [Besides  these 
authorities  the  following  may  be  consulted : 
A.  Neisser's  Dissertation  on  *  Servio  Tullio,' 
1902 ;  F.  W.  Woker's  article  in  the  Femw- 
schrijien  of  the  Gbrresgesellsohaft,  Bonn,  1886- 
1886.  For  list  of  extant  works,  see  the  QueUm- 
LexikonA  w.  o.  c. 

STEFFKINS,  Theodore,  or  Theodorus, 
was  a  foreign  professor  of  the  lute  and  viol, 
who  lived  in  London  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
17th  century.  He  is  commended  in  Thomas 
Salmon's  Essay  to  the  Advaneetnent  of  Music, 
1672.  His  brother,  Dietricht,  was  one  of 
the  band  of  Charles  I.  in  1641,  and  his  two 
sons,  Frederick  and  Christian,  were  famous 
performers  on  the  viol.  They  were  members  of 
the  King's  band  in  1694,  and  Christian  was 
living  in  1711.  w.  h.  h. 

STEGGALL,  Charles,  Mus.D.,  bom  in 
London,  June  3,  1826,  was  educated  in  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Music,  from  June  1847, 
principally  by  Stemdale  Bennett.  In  1848  he 
became  organist  of  Christ  Church  Chapel, 
Maida  Hill ;  in  1851  a  professor  at  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Music,  and  in  the  same  year  ac- 
cumulated the  degrees  of  Mus.B.  and  Mus.D.  at 
Cambridge.  In  1855  he  was  appointed  organist 
of  Christ  Church,  Lancaster  Gate,  and  in  1864 
organist  of  Lincoln's  Inn  Chapel.  [In  1884  he 
was  elected  on  the  Board  of  Directors  of  the  Aca- 
demy, and  in  1887  was  one  of  those  who  carried 
on  the  duties  of  head  of  the  institution  between 
the  death  of  Macfarren  and  the  appointment  of 
Mackenzie.  In  1903  he  resigned  his  professor- 
ship. He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Organists  in  1864,  and  was  exem[iiner 
for  the  Mus.D.  degree  at  Cambridge  in  1882 
and  1883.  He  was  Hon.  Sec.  to  the  Bach 
Society,  founded  by  Bennett,  from  1849  to  its 
dissolution  in  1870.  He  died  in  London, 
June  7,  1905.]  He  composed  anthems  and 
other  church  music,  and  lectured  upon  music 
in  the  metropolis  and  elsewhere.       w.  h.  h. 

His  youngest  son,  Reginald  Steggall,  was 
bom  in  London,  April  17,  1867,  and  was 
educated  at  the  Bloyal  Academy  of  Music,  where 
he  gained  the  Balfe  Scholarship  in  1887,  after- 
wards becoming  an  Associate,  in  due  course 
a  Fellow,  and,  in  1895,  organ  professor.  In 
1886  he  was  appointed  to  the  post  of  organist 
of  St.  Anne's  Church,  Soho,  and  some  years 
afterwards  became  his  father's  assistant  at 
Lincoln's  Inn  Chapel,  being  appointed  to  suc- 
ceed him  in  1905. 

He  belongs  to  the  more  advanced  school  of 
young  English  composers,  and  first  came 
prominently  before  the  public  at  a  concert 
organised  by  Mr.  Granville  Bantock  in  1896  at 


penormea  ;  an  '  Ave  jaana  was  given  av 
another  concert  of  the  same  kind,  and  his 
seena  *  Alcestis '  was  given  at  the  Crystal 
Palace  earlier  in  the  year.  A  symphony,  and 
a  mass,  together  with  many  anthems,  a  Festival 
Evening  Service,  and  organ  pieces,  are  indaded 
among  his  compositions.  m. 

STEIBELT,  Daniel,  a  musician  now  almost 
entirely  forgotten,  but  in  his  own  day  so  cele- 
brated as  a  pianoforte-player  and  composer 
that  many  regarded  him  as  the  rival  of  Beet- 
hoven, was  a  native  of  Berlin,  where  his  father 
was  a  maker  of  harpsichords  and  pianofortes  of 
considerable  skill  and  repute.  The  date  of  his 
birth  is  quite  uncertain.  Most  of  his  bio- 
graphers state  that  he  was  bom  in  1 755  or  1756, 
but  Fj^tis  declares  from  personal  knowledge  that 
he  was  only  about  thirty-six  years  of  age  in  1801 
which  would  place  his  birth  some  eight  to  ten 
years  later.  The  details  of  his  early  life  are  as 
much  involved  in  doubt  as  the  time  of  his  birth. 
It  is,  however,  certain  that  his  aptitude  for  music 
was  early  manifest,  and  that  in  some  way  it 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  Crown  Prince  of 
Prussia,  afterwards  Frederick  William  11.  Bam- 
berger was  then  the  leading  musician  of  Berlin, 
and  to  him  the  Crown  Prince  entrusted  the  in- 
struction of  his  prot^6  in  the  harpsichord  and 
composition.  How  long  Steibelt  was  a  pupil  of 
Eimbeiger  it  is  impossible  to  say,  but  not  a 
trace  of  the  learned  and  somewhat  pedantic  style 
of  his  master  is  to  be  found  in  his  method  either 
of  playing  or  writing.  Indeed  the  musical 
world  of  Berlin,  then  under  the  despotism  of 
Frederick  the  Great,  ^  does  not  present  any  in- 
fluences to  account  for  the  peculiarities  which 
so  strongly  marked  Steibelt's  after-life,  though 
it  may  be  fairly  conjectured  that  in  Ms  father  s 
workshops  he  obtained  that  fSswniliarity  with  the 
mechanism  of  the  pianoforte  which  he  was 
always  ready  to  turn  to  the  best  account 
Whatever  his  musical  education  may  have  been, 
it  was  interrupted  by  his  joining  lie  army  for 
a  while,  2  and  was  finally  brought  to  an  end,  as 
far  as  Berlin  was  concerned,  by  his  departure 
from  that  city,  an  event  which  perhaps  took 
place  as  early  as  1784. 

In  what  direction  he  turned  his  steps  seems 
wholly  unknown,  but  his  career  as  a  composer 
and  virtuoso  commences  with  his  arrival  in  Y^ns 
at  some  date  between  1787  and  1790.  He  did 
not  take  up  his  residence  there  permanently  till 
the  last-named  year,  as  he  was  at  Munich  m 
1 788,  and  in  1 789  was  giving  concerts  in  Saxony 
and  Hanover,  whence  he  journeyed  to  Paris  by 
way  of  Mannheim ;  but  hisrivalry  with  H«""f°J 
at  Court  would  appear  to  suggest  that  1^®  .^ 
been  in  Paris  before  the  year  that  was  sigwa naea 
by  the  taking  of  the  Bastile.  However  tms 
may  be,  Steibelt  appeared  at  the  French  capitoi 

»  For  an  Intensting  account  of  mmlc  In  Bwiin  »t  this  peri 
Jahn's  Matart,  ch.  SO  (vol.  11.  p.  J74.  eUx  In  Bng.  t»o«.;. 


STEIBELT 


STEIBELT 


683 


as  a  fnll-fledged  performer  and  composer,  and 
was  not  long  in  proving  his  superiority  to  his 
rivaL  The  reasons  for  his  success  are  obvious. 
Though  Hermann's  technique,  which  was  that 
of  the  school  of  G.  P.  £.  Bach,  was  considered 
more  correct  than  that  of  his  opponent,  he  was, 
nevertheless,  emphatically  a  player  of  the  old 
style.  Steibelt,  as  emphatically,  belonged  to 
the  new.  Their  different  characteristics  are 
clearly  brought  out  in  the  very  curious  Sonata 
for  the  Pianoforte  called ' La  Coquette,'  composed 
for  Marie  Antoinette  by  the  two  rivals,  each  of 
whom  contributed  one  movement  to  it.  Her- 
mann's movement,  the  first,  is  good,  solid, 
rather  old-fashioned,  harpsichord  music ;  Stei- 
belt's  movement,  the  Rondo,  by  its  variety  of 
phrasing  and  the  minutie  of  its  marks  of  expres- 
sion reveals  in  every  line  an  acquaintance  with 
the  resources  oflFered  by  the  pianoforte.  The 
issue  of  a  contest  in  which  the  combatants  were 
so  unequally  matched  could  not  be  doubtful, 
and  Steibelt  was  soon  installed  as  reigning 
virtuoso.  But  no  musician  who  aspires  to  fame 
in  France  can  neglect  the  stage,  and  Steibelt 
accordingly  resolved  to  essay  dramatic  composi- 
tion. One  of  his  patrons,  the  Vicomte  de  S^gur, 
a  lUt&rcUeur  of  some  pretensions,  who  had  written 
for  the  Opera  a  libretto  founded  on  Shakespeare's 
'Romeo  and  Juliet,'  entrusted  the  composition 
of  the  music  to  Steibelt  The  score  was  finished 
in  1792,  but  the  work  was  rejected  by  the 
Academic.  Its  authors,  nothing  daunted,  pro- 
ceeded to  alter  the  piece.  The  recitatives  were 
suppressed  and  replaced  by  prose  dialogue,  and 
in  this  shape  the  opera  was  produced  at  the 
Theatre  Feydeau  on  Sept.  10,  1798,  with 
Madame  Scio  as  Juliet.  The  Moniteur  of  Sept. 
23  describes  the  music  as  '  learned,  but  laboured 
and  ugly' — a  criticism  which,  with  the  music 
before  one,  it  is  impossible  to  understand. 
Theatre-goers  were  of  a  different  opinion,  and 
*  Romeo  et  Juliette '  was  a  decided  success.  It 
was  performed  with  success  in  Stockholm  on  Jan. 
30,  1815  (and  again  in  1819),  and  was  revived 
with  great  applause  in  Paris  at  the  Op^ra- 
Comique  in  1822.  It  does  not  appear  that  it 
was  ever  brought  forward  on  the  German  stage, 
but  the  overture  was  played  in  Vienna  in  1841. 
The  concert  given  after  Steibelt's  death  for  his 
son's  benefit  was  closed  with  the  Funeral  Chorus 
from  the  third  act. 

The  success  of  this  operatic  venture  completely 
confirmed  Steibelt's  position  in  Paris.  His 
music,  though  considered  difficult,  was  extremely 
popular,  and  as  a  teacher  he  counted  amongst 
his  pupils  the  most  eminent  ladies  of  the  time, 
including  the  future  Queen  of  Holland.  On  his 
first  coming  to  Paris  he  had  been  received  with 
great  kindness  by  Boyer  the  publisher,  who  had 
not  only  procured  for  him  powerful  patronage 
but  even  took  him  into  his  own  house.  His 
services  were  ill  rewarded.  Steibelt  had  already 
published  some  Sonatas  for  the  Pianoforte  and 


Violin  (opp.  1  and  2)  at  Munich.  He  now 
added  to  them  a  violoncello  cuL  libUum  part, 
which  merely  doubled  the  bass  of  the  pianoforte 
part,  and  sold  them  to  Boyer  as  new  works. 
The  fraud  seems  to  have  been  discovered  about 
1796,  and  though  Steibelt  made  reparation  by 
presenting  to  the  aggrieved  publisher  his  Piano- 
forte Concertos,  Nos.  1  and  2,  this  transaction, 
combined  with  other  irregularities,  so  injured 
his  reputation  that  he  felt  it  desirable  to  leave 
Paris,  at  any  rate  for  a  time.  England  attracted 
his  attention,  and,  journeying  by  way  of 
Holland,  he  reached  London  about  the  close  of 
1796.1 

By  this  proceeding  Steibelt  challenged  com- 
parisons quite  as  dangerous  as  those  which  he 
had  recently  risked  by  bringing  out  an  opera  in 
Paris.  Pianoforte  music  had  originated  in 
London  a  quarter  of  a  century  before,  and  at 
Steibelt's  arrival  no  fewer  than  three  players  and 
composers  of  the  first  magnitude  were  resident 
there,  Clementi,  Dussek,  and  Cramer.  Few 
particulars  of  Steibelt's  life  in  London  have  been 
recorded.  His  first  public  performance  seems 
to  have  been  at  Salomon's  Benefit  Concert  on 
May  1,  1797,  and  a  fortnight  later  (May  15)  he 
played  a  pianoforte  concerto  of  his  own  at  an 
opera  concert.  Not  long  after  this  he  wrote  the 
Hanoforte  Concerto  in  E  (No.  3),  containing  the 
*  Storm  Rondo.'  Whatever  may  be  thought  of 
the  merits  of  this  work  now,  its  popularity  at  the 
beginning  of  the  19th  century  was  enormous,  and 
far  exceeded  that  accorded  to  any  other  of  Stei- 
belt's compositions.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say 
that  it  was  played  in  every  drawing-room  in 
England ;  indeed,  the  notorious  '  Battle  of 
Prague '  alone  could  compete  with  it  in  popular 
favour.  It  was,  in  all  probability,  first  performed 
in  public  at  Salomon's  concert  on  March  19, 
1798.  At  the  close  of  the  same  year  (Dec.  11) 
its  author  again  came  forward  as  a  composer 
for  the  stage,  and  again  met  with  a  favourable 
reception.  His  work  on  this  occasion  was  an 
English  opera,  or,  as  it  was  described  in  the 
Covent  Garden  play-bill,  '  a  new  grand  Heroic 
Romance,  in  three  acts,  called  Albert  and 
Adelaide ;  or  the  Victim  of  Constancy.'  It 
must  have  been  an  extraordinary  medley.  The 
first  two  acts  were  a  translation  from  the  German 
of  Schoerer,  who  had  taken  them  from  the 
French,  and  the  third  act  was  added  from 
another  French  play.  The  music  was  only  in 
part  original,  and  was  eked  out  by  the  insertion 
of  a  Quintet  from  'Lodoiska'  and  the  like 
expedients.  Even  the  '  original '  music  was  not 
all  written  by  Steibelt,  as  Attwood  contributed 
some  of  it^  Yet,  after  all,  the  most  curious 
part  of  this  curious  production  must  have  been 

1  Accordinc  to  F^tia.  8teib«lt  did  not  leave  Fwls  till  ITBS:  bat 
Meeua.  Broadwood  ft  Son*  h«Te  records  In  their  poaeeeaioa  which 
prove  that  he  waa  eetablUhed  In  London  by  Jan.  S,  171)7.  ThU 
information  Is  doe  to  the  kindneu  of  Mr.  A.  J.  Hlpklna. 

>  Thia  Information  la  derived  from  an  ad vertiaeinent  of  Longman. 
Clementi  *  Co.  In  the  Maming  ChronMg  of  Jan.  23,  1790.  Theee 
pastlccloa  were  common  enough  then,  and  until  the  end  of  the  first 
quarter  of  the  19th  century. 


684 


STEIBELT 


STEIBELT 


the  Overture,  which  was  'enlivened  by  a 
pantomime ' !  Such  aa  it  was,  however,  the 
piece  proved  sufficiently  attractive  to  keep  the 
boards  for  some  time,  and  the  Overture,  ar- 
ranged for  the  pianoforte,  was  published  in 
France,  and  sold  in  Germany.  As  teacher 
and  performer  Steibelt  appears  to  have  been 
as  fully  employed  during  his  stay  of  three 
years  or  so  in  London  as  he  had  been  previously 
in  Paris.  Whether  he  was  as  much  liked  by 
his  brother  artists  as  by  the  amateurs  seems  very 
problematical ;  at  any  rate  his  music  is  con- 
spicuous by  its  absence  in  the  concert  pro- 
grammes of  the  time.  Two  other  circumstances 
of  interest  connected  with  Steibelt's  visit  to 
England  have  been  preserved.  The  first  of  these 
is  the  fact  that  he  conceived  a  decided  predi- 
lection for  English  pianofortes,  always  using 
them  in  preference  to  any  others :  the  second  is 
his  marriage  with  a  young  Englishwoman, 
described  as  possessed  of  considerable  personal 
attractions  and  as  a  good  player  on  the  piano- 
forte and  tambourine.  The  last-named  accom- 
plishment led  her  husband  to  add  a  tambourine 
accompaniment  to  many  of  his  subsequent  pieces. 
Steibelt  now  resolved  on  visiting  his  native 
country,  from  which  he  had  been  absent,  accord- 
ing to  some  authorities,  as  much  as  fifteen  years. 
He  reached  Hamburg  in  September  or  October 
1799,  but  made  no  great  stay  there.  His  next 
stopping-place  was  Dresden,  where  he  met  with 
a  very  enthusiastic  reception.  Besides  several 
more  or  less  private  performances,  he  gave  a 
concert  of  his  own  on  Feb.  4,  1800,  with  the 
greatest  success.  Almost  immediately  after  this 
he  went  to  Prague.  His  concert  in  the  Bohemian 
capital  attracteid  a  large  audience  of  the  upper 
classes  and  brought  him  no  less  than  1800 
gulden  ;  but  his  playing  made  little  impression, 
and  he  went  on  forthwith  to  Berlin.  ^  Before 
the  end  of  April  he  had  given  two  performances 
in  his  native  city.  It  was  not  very  likely  that 
his  style  would  please  audiences  who  stiU  held 
to  the  traditions  of  the  school  of  Bach,  and 
the  main  result  of  his  visit  seems  to  have  been 
to  give  great  offence  to  his  brother  artists. 
From  the  capital  of  Prussia  he  turned  to  the 
capital  of  Austria,  then  the  metropolis  of  the 
musical  world,  where  he  arrived  about  the 
middle  of  May.  We  are  told  that  his  reputation 
was  such  as  to  cause  some  anxiety  even  to 
Beethoven's  friends.  If  such  was  the  case  they 
were  speedily  relieved.  At  the  first  meeting  a 
sort  of  armed  truce  was  observed  ;  but  at  the 
second,  Steibelt  was  rash  enough  to  issue  a 
distinct  challenge.  Beethoven  was  not  the  man 
to  decline  such  a  contest,  and  his  victory  was 
so  decided  that  his  rival  refused  to  meet  him 
again.  [See  Beethoven,  vol.  i.  pp.  223a,  2346.] 
This  adventure  was  not  likely  to  contribute  to 

I  All  authorities  mem  to  place  the  vl«lt  to  Berlin  between  hla 
concert  at  'Pngixe  and  his  aniTal  at  Vienna.  Otherwis«,  it  vould 
be  natnml  to  conjecture  from  the  dates  that  he  went  to  Berlin 
before  going  to  Dresden. 


Steibelt's  success  at  Vienna,  and  a  concert  that 
he  gave  at  the  Augarten-Saal  was  rather  thinly 
attended.     His  German  tour  as  a  whole  ms 
only  partially   successful,  and  Steibelt  deter- 
mined toretum  to  the  more  congenial  atmosphere 
of  Pans.  He  arrived  there  in  August  1 800,  carry- 
ing with  him  the  score  of  Haydn's  '  Creation.' 
Pleyel,    Haydn's    favourite   pupil,    had    been 
despatched  to  request  the  veteran  compoeer  to 
come  and  conduct  his  own  work.     Pleyel,  how- 
ever, was  unable  to  reach  Vienna   [Pletel, 
vol.  iii  p.  7735],  and  the  field  was  thns  left 
open  to  Steibelt.     He  made  the  meet  of  his 
opportunities.     Not    content   with   obtaining 
4000  francs  from  Erard  for  himself  and  his 
assistant,  M.  de  S^r,  as  the  price  of  the  trans- 
lation   adapted    to    the   music,    8600    francs 
for  himself,  and  2400  francs  for  his    fellow- 
translator  from  the  administration  of  the  Op^ra, 
where  the  work  was  to  be  performed,  he  trans- 
posed the  part  of  Adam  to  suit  the  tenor  Garat, 
and  in  many  places  even  attempted  to  improve 
Haydn's  music  by  additions  and  alterations  of 
his  own.     In  spite  of  these  drawbacks,    th« 
performance,  which  took  place  on  Christmas 
Eve,  1800,  proved  a  decided  sncoesa.      Public 
curiosity  was  much  excited  ;  a  fortnight  hefctn 
the  performance  not  a  box  was  to  be  had  ;  an 
eager  crowd  surrounded  the  Opera -House  at 
nine  in  the  morning ;  at  the  end  of  the  first 
part  a  subscription  was  started  to  strike  a  medal 
in  honour  of  the  composer  (nay,  so  much  was 
the  work  on  every  one's  lips  that  one  of  the 
vaudeville  theatres  produced  a  parody  of  it  three 
days  later  called  *La  r^reation  dn  monde'). 
Rey  directed  the  performance  and  Steibelt  pre- 
sided at  the  pianoforte.     The  adaptation  of  the 
words  seems  to  have  been  fairly  performed  ;  at 
the  alterations  made  in  the  score  competent 
judges  were,  naturally  enough,  extremely  in- 
dignant.    Moreover,  the  circumstances  of  his 
departure  some  four  or  five  years  before  had  not 
been  forgotten,  and  thus,  in  spite  of  the  ^dat 
of  the   *  Creation,'  Steibelt  did  not  feel  very 
comfortable  in  Paris.     Even  the  success  of  his 
ballet  '  Le  Retour  de  Zephyr '  at  the  Op^,  on 
March  S,  1802,  did  not  reconcile  him  to  his 
position,    and  he  embraced  the   opportnnitr 
afforded  by  the  conclusion  of  the  Treaty  of 
Amiens  on  the  22nd  of  the  same  month,  and 
returned   to    London.     [About  this  time   he 
entered  into  partnership  with  Mile.  Erard  in 
a  music-publishing  business  in  Paris  ;  in  1805 
he  gave  two  concerts  in  Brussels.] 

The  next  six  years  of  his  life,  about  equally 
divided  between  London  and  Paris,  were  among 
the  busiest  of  his  busy  career.  His  popularity 
in  London  was  as  great  as  ever ;  he  lived  in  th« 
most  fashionable  part  of  the  town,  and  was  re- 
ceived with  applause  wherever  he  went.  For 
the  King's  Theatre  in  the  Haymarket  he  wrote 
two  ballets,  *  Le  Jugement  du  berger  P&ris  *  in 
3  acts  (produced  May  24,  1804),  and  'La  belk 


STEIBELT 


STEIBELT 


685 


Laiti^'  (produced  Jan.  26,  1805).  It  seems 
very  oharacteristic  of  the  composer  that  his  work 
was  not  ready  on  either  occasion.  In  the  former 
case  several  airs  had  to  be  written  at  a  very 
short  notice  by  Winter,  who  was  also  responsible 
for  the  scoring  of  the  second  act ;  ^  in  the  latter 
case  an  apology  was  circulated  for  the  omission 
of  the  denouement  of  the  piece,  '  Mr.  Steibelt  not 
having  finished  that  part  of  the  music'  *  Both 
ballets  were,  nevertheless,  received  with  great 
favour,  the  march  in  the  first  act  of  '  Le  Juge- 
ment '  and  the  pastoral  scene  in  the  second  act 
of  '  La  belle  Laiti^re '  obtaining  special  applause. 
He  also  played  his  Pianoforte  Concerto  Ko.  5 
('^  la  Chasse,'  op.  64)  at  the  Opera  concerts, 
apparently  in  the  summer  of  1802,  with  great 
success.  After  his  return  to  Paris  Steibelt 
followed  up  his  dramatic  achievements  in 
England  with  an  Intermezzo,  '  La  Fete  de  Mars,' 
composed  in  celebration  of  the  Austerlitz  cam- 
paign, and  performed  at  the  Op4ra  on  March 
4,  1806.  Encouraged  by  these  successes  he 
again  tried  his  hand  on  a  larger  work,  'La 
Princesse  de  Baby  lone,'  an  opera  in  three  acts. 
This  was  accepted  by  the  Acad^ie,  and  was  in 
active  preparation  when  the  importunity  of  his 
creditors  compelled  the  composer  to  leave  Paris 
suddenly  in  the  autunm  of  1808.  But  his 
energies  were  by  no  means  confined  to  writing 
for  the  stage.  Several  of  his  chief  sonatas  date 
from  these  years.  Still  more  important  are  the 
two  Concertos  in  £b  (Nos.  4  and  5)  for  the 
pianoforte,  and  the  '  M^thode '  for  that  instru- 
ment published  in  French,  German,  and  Spanish, 
in  which  he  claims  to  have  invented  the  signs 
for  the  use  of  the  Pedals  adopted  by  Clementi, 
Dussek,  and  Cramer.  [See  Sordino,  ante,  p. 
6226.]  Above  all,  it  was  on  his  return  to  Paris  in 
1806  that  he  published  his  £tude — a  collection 
of  fifty  studies  in  two  books, — undoubtedly  the 
best  of  his  pianoforte  works.  In  the  midst  of 
all  this  occupation  he  found  time  to  meditate 
further  travels.  Russia,  a  country  that  in  the 
previous  century  had  attracted  Galuppi,  Paisiello, 
Sarti,  Cimarosa,  and  Clementi,  had  just  furnished 
an  asylum  to  Boieldieu  and  a  home  to  Field, 
was  then  a  sort  of  Promised  Land  to  French 
musicians,  and  it  is  not  strange  that  Steibelt 
should  have  been  more  than  willing  to  go  there, 
when  he  received  in  1808  the  offer  of  a  very 
advantageous  appointment  from  the  Emperor 
Alexander.  Owing  to  causes  already  mentioned 
he  left  Paris  for  St.  Petersburg  in  October  1808. 
His  journey  was  not,  however,  very  speedy  when 
he  felt  himself  out  of  the  reach  of  his  creditors. 
He  stopped  at  Frankfort  to  give  a  great  concert 
on  Nov.  2,^  and  at  Leipzig  made  a  stay  of  some 
weeks  and  repeated  the  programme  of  the 
Frankfort  concert.  During  his  sojourn  in  Leipzig 
he  put  forth  (Nov.  24,  1808)  a  notice  in  which 
he  complains  that  some  German  publishers  had 

1  Mvrtdng  Chrtmiel*,  Kat  S6.  1801  >  Ibid.  Jan.  28. 180B. 

s  The  correapondont  of  the  A.M.I,  (xl.  170)  oddly  describee  him 
M '  Steibelt  of  London.' 


issued  very  faulty  editions  of  his  works,  even 
going  so  far  as  to  annex  his  name  to  composi- 
tions by  other  people,  and  announces  his  intention 
of  having  all  Ma  future  works  published  by 
Breitkopf  k  Hartel,  an  intention  that  was  not 
very  consistently  carried  out.  Even  after  leaving 
Leipzig  he  lingered  at  Brealau  and  Warsaw  to 
give  concerts,  so  that  he  could  hardly  have 
reached  St  Petersburg  till  the  beginning  of  the 
spring  of  1809. 

Here,  at  last,  his  wanderings  came  to  an  end. 
He  was  appointed,  it  is  not  very  clear  when, 
director  of  the  Op^ra  Fran9ai8,  and  when  Boiel- 
dieu left,  at  the  close  of  1810,  Steibelt  received 
the  title  of  *  Maitre  de  Chapelle '  to  the  Emperor 
in  his  place.  It  was,  however,  a  title  to  which 
no  emoliiment  was  attached,  and  which  in  na 
way  relieved  its  possessor  from  professional 
duties.  In  managing  and  writing  for  the  Opera, 
and  in  teaching  and  composing  for  the  piano- 
forte, the  remaining  years  of  Steibelt's  life  wer& 
spent.  About  the  year  1814  he  ceased  to  play 
in  public,  and  did  not  appear  again  for  six  years, 
when  the  production  of  his  £ighth  Pianoforte 
Concerto  induced  him  to  come  forward  onc& 
more  as  a  performer  on  March  16,  1820.  Mean- 
while his  pen  was  not  idle.  His  early  years  at 
St.  Petersburg  were  marked  by  the  ballets  '  La 
F6te  de  I'Empereur '  in  1809,  and  '  Der  blode 
Ritter '  (before  the  end  of  1812) ;  and  the  three 
Concertos  for  pianoforte,  Nos.  6,  7,  and  8, 
appear  to  belong  to  the  period  of  his  abstention 
from  playing  in  public  For  the  theatre  he 
wrote  two  operas,  each  in  three  acts,  *  Cendrillon** 
and  *  Sargines ' ;  a  third,  *  Le  Jugement  de- 
Midas,'  he  did  not  live  to  finish.  He  also  spent 
some  time  in  revising  'Rom^o  et  Juliette.'  In 
the  midst  of  these  avocations  he  was  seized  with 
a  painful  disease,  of  which,  after  lingering  some 
time,  he  died  on  Sept.  20,  1828.  A  number 
of  his  friends  combined  to  honour  him  with  a 
quasi-public  funeral,  and  the  military  governor 
of  St.  Petersburg,  Count  Milarodowitsch, 
organised  a  subscription-concert  for  the  benefit 
of  his  family,  who  were  left  in  very  straitened 
circumstances. 

Comparatively  little  has  been  recorded  of 
Steibelt's  personal  character,  but  the  traits 
preserved  are,  to  say  the  least  of  it,  far  from 
prepossessing.  Almost  the  only  occurrence 
that  presents  him  in  a  pleasing  light  is  his 
death-bed  dedication  of  the  revised  score  of 
*  Rom^  et  Juliette '  to  the  King  of  Prussia,  in 
token  of  gratitude  for  the  kindnesses  received 
from* that  monarch's  father.  He  appears  to 
have  been  perfectly  eaten  up  with  vanity,  which 
exhibited  itself  unceasingly  in  arrogance,  in- 
civility, and  affectation.  His  respect  for  his 
art,  never  too  great,  was  destroyed  by  the 
quantity  of  worthless  music  that  he  wrote 
hastily  to  meet  temporary  difliculties,  and  he 

t  It  i«  worth  noting  that  aoine  authorities  declare  thli  wu  written, 
for  Parle.    This  opera  hu  been  oonaldwed  hie  gzeateet  vork. 


686 


STEIBELT 


STEIBELT 


not  unfrequently  stooped  to  expedients  still 
more  unworthy.  One  of  these  has  been  already 
mentioned,  but  it  was  not  the  only  one.  A 
device  that  seems  to  have  been  specially  common 
was  to  add  a  violin  part  to  a  published  set  of 
pianoforte  sonatas  and  then  bring  out  the  result 
as  an  entirely  new  work. 

Most  of  his  numerous  pianoforte  sonatas 
have  no  slow  movement  at  all,  consisting  merely 
of  an  Allegro  and  a  Rondo.  When  an  Adagio 
or  Andante  is  interpolated,  it  is  either  an  in- 
significant trifle  of  some  thirty  or  forty  bars  in 
length,  or  else  a  popular  melody,  such  as  '  If  a 
body  meet  a  body,*  *  *Twas  within  a  mile  of 
Edinbro'  town,'  or  the  like.  He  does  not  seem 
to  have  ever  realised  the  powers  of  the  pianoforte 
for  an  Adagio,  and  when  a  violin  part  is  added, 
as  is  often  the  case  in  his  sonatas,  he  almost 
invariably  assigns  the  melody  to  the  latter  in- 
strument and  accompanies  it  with  a  tremolo  on 
the  pianoforte.  His  Allegros  and  Rondos,  on 
the  contrary,  particularly  the  former,  are  often 
of  remarkable  merit,  and  many  of  his  sonatas, 
such  as  that  dedicated  to  Madame  Bonaparte 
(in  £b,  op.  45),  are  really  fine  and  original 
compositions.  Yet,  even  at  his  best,  a  want  of 
sustained  power  makes  itself  felt.  Though  the 
absence  of  records  as  to  his  early  life  makes  it 
probable  that  his  musical  training  was  not 
sacrificed  to  the  profitable  speculation  of  exhibit- 
ing a  youthful  prodigy,  his  constructive  skill 
was  never  developed.  All  his  music  sounds 
like  a  clever  improvisation  that  happens  to  have 
been  committed  to  paper.  Whenever  a  new 
idea  occurs  to  the  writer  it  is  straightway  thrust 
in,  and  when  no  fresh  idea  presents  itself  one 
of  the  old  ones  is  repeated.  Hence  it  is  that 
his  music  is  now  totally  forgotten,  for,  whatever 
the  opinion  of  contemporaries  may  be,  posterity 
has  invariably  consigned  to  oblivion  all  music, 
no  matter  what  other  qualities  it  may  possess, 
that  is  deficient  in  design.  ^  His  contemporaries 
pronounced  the  *  ^tude '  his  best  work,  and 
time  has  confirmed  their  opinion.  It  has  been 
often  republished,  and  may  indeed  be  said  to 
be  the  only  work  of  his  that  still  lives.  To  a 
modern  pianist  one  of  the  most  striking  features 
of  the  collection  is  the  fact  that  several  of  the 
pieces  {e,g.  Nos.  8  and  8)  anticipate  in  a  very 
noteworthy  manner  the  style  made  popular  by 
Mendelssohn  in  his  'Songs  without  Words.' 
The  vast  mass  of  Airs  with  variations.  Fan- 
tasias, Descriptive  Pieces,  Potpourris,  Divertisse- 
ments, Bacchanals,  and  the  like,  that  had  a 
great  sale  in  their  day,  are  now  deservedly 
forgotten.  In  Germany  his  reputation  was  com- 
paratively nil.  His  pianoforte  works,  however, 
good  and  bad,  have  all  the  great  merit  of  feasible- 
ness, and  invariably  lie  well  under  the  hand. 

For  the  orchestra  and  other  instruments 
Steibelt  wrote  comparatively  little — wisely,  in 

1  Vine.  Arab«]laGoddard,  amonsher  numerous  rerlTals,  indnded 
Stclbelt'i  Sonata  in  Eb.  op.  46,  and  aome  Studies. 


the   judgment    of  one    of  his    bioigiaphss.  * 
Unfortunately,  the  scores  of  many  of  Ids  opastae 
works,  especially  those  written  for  St.   Peten- 
burg,    are  inaccessible  and  perhaps    lost.    It 
cannot,  however,  be  said  that  an  ex&minfttkr 
of  the  score  of  '  Rom^  et  Juliette  '  quite  besji 
out  the  sentence  just  quoted.     We    are  tcli 
that  an  even  division  of  the  interest  of  tbs 
music  between  the  various  instruments  is  oa^ 
great  mark  of  skilful   orchestral  writing.     If 
this  be  so,  Steibelt's  opera  is  in  one  respect 
skilfully  written,  for  almost  every  instmmeiit 
in  the  orchestra  comes  to  the  front  in  tura. 
More  than  this,  the  composer  uses  the  forces 
at  his  command  with  power  and  freedom.     Th? 
trombones  are  introduced  to   an   extent  thes 
unusual,  though  not  excessive.       Many  of  tlk« 
resources  of  modem  scoring  are  to  be  fonnd. 
especially  the  employment  of  wood-wind  and 
strings  in  responsive  groups.      The  main  com- 
plaint that  can  be  sustained  against  the  work  is 
that  the  concerted  pieces  are  unduly  protracted 
and  impede  the  action — this  is  certainly  tia 
case  with  the  Trio  in  the  first  act      It  should, 
moreover,  be  observed  that  when  Steibelt  writs 
for  the  pianoforte  and  other  instrumentB,  as  in 
his  quintets,  the  pianoforte  is  not  allowed  to 
monopolise  the  interest.      His   concertos  are 
formed  on  the  orthodox  Mozartean  model,  aod 
it  must  be  added  that  they  contain,  especiallj 
in  their  first  movements,  some  excellent  writing. 
'  The  instrumentation  of  the  first  movement  i& 
quite  exceptionally  beautiful '  was  the  opinicm 
of  one  who  listened  to  the  performance  of  his 
Eighth  Concerto  in  London,^  and  even  when  the 
work  as  a  whole   is  weak,  as   in   the    Sixth 
Concerto,  the  instrumentation  is  not  deficient 
in  skill  and  novelty. 

Steibelt's  originality  as  a  composer  was 
questioned  in  his  own  day.  It  was  said  that 
his  famous  *  Storm  Rondo '  was  a  feeble  copy 
of  a  work  for  the  organ  by  the  Abb^  Vogler,  a 
statement  on  which  the  thoroughly  piaiu^orie 
character  of  Steibelt's  music  throws  considerable 
doubt  His  enemies  also  averred  that  *  Romeo 
et  Juliette '  was  a  mere  plagiarism  from  Geoig 
Benda's  opera  of  the  same  name — an  allegation 
that  is  certainly  unfounded.  More  aerioos 
objection  may  be  taken  to  his  Sixth  Pianoforte 
Concerto,  '  Le  Voyage  au  Mont  St.  Bernard,' 
in  which  not  only  the  general  idea,  but  even 
the  most  striking  details  —  the  hymn  of  th« 
monks,  the  tolling  of  the  convent  bell,  and  the 
national  music  of  the  Savoyard  with  accompani- 
ment of  triangles  — are  borrowed  from  Chembini's 
opera  of  '  Elisa,  ou  le  Voyage  au  Mont  Bernard.' 
It  is,  in  fact,  as  it  has  been  aptly  described, 
'the  work,  not  of  an  architect,  but  of  a 
decorator.'  On  the  other  hand,  Steibelt  must 
be  credited  with  some  contributions  to  musical 
progress.  Modulation  he  used  with  a  freedom 
unknown  before  him.     The  following  passage, 


a  A.M.I.  XXV.  p.  738. 


*  IbU.  zxlT.  No.  2S. 


STEIBELT 


STEIBELT 


687 


for  instance,  from  the  Andante  of  the  first  Sonata, 
in  op.  37, 


was  an  unheard-of  thing  in  1799.  Of  course, 
nothing  is  easier  than  to  carry  such  innovations 
to  excess,  and  he  may  be  fairly  said  to 
have  overstepped  the  line  when  in  the  'work- 
ing-out '  of  his  Sonata  |or  pianoforte  and  violin 
in  £  minor,  op.  32,  he  introduces  the  second 
subject  in  £b  major,  changing  the  signature 
for  fifty -six  bars.  Many  other  instances  ot 
such  boldness  are  to  be  found. 

The  list  of  his  works  which  follows  has  been 
compiled  with  considerable  trouble.  Not  only 
had  Steibelt  a  careless  and,  it  is  to  be  feared, 
dishonest  habit,  of  publishing  different  works 
under  the  same  opus  number,  and  the  same  or 
a  slightly  altered  work  under  different  numbers, 
but,  according  to  his  own  protest  already  men- 
tioned, works  were  published  under  his  name 
with  which  he  had  nothing  to  do.  In  such 
circumstances  the  task  of  drawing  up  a  complete 
and  accurate  list  is  well-nigh  hopeless,  and  this 
catalogue,  though  compiled  with  all  the  care 
possible,  does  not  profess  to  be  more  than  a 
contribution  towards  a  complete  and  exact  list. 
An  asterisk  attached  to  a  work  means  that  it 
certainly  contains  one  sonata  (or  the  number 
given)  and  may  contain  more.  A  date  has 
been  added  in  some  cases,  where  it  seemed 
likely  to  be  of  any  value. 

Op. 
1.  S  SonatM.  PF.and  Vln.  (1788).  |  SonaU.  PP.  |  8  Sonatas,  PP.  |  8 

Sonatas,  PF.  |   S  Sonatas,  Harp  with  Vln.  and    Vcello.  ad 

lib.  I  6  Sonatas  PP..  with  Flttt«  or  Vln.  and  Vcello. 
a.  •  Sonata.  PP.  and  Vln.  (1788).  |  Sonata,  PP.  I  Sonata.  PF.  and 

Vln.  (1791).  I  3  Sonatas,  PP..  the  flnt  with  Vln.i  |  2  Sonatas. 

PP.  I  3  Sonatas,  PP..  Vln.,  and  Vcella 
8.  Sonata,  PP..  Vln.,  and  Vcello.  (1791).  |  Turkish  Overture, PF. Vln. 

and  Voello.3 

4.  8  Sonatas,  PF.  and  Vln.  I  •  Sonata.  PP.,  Vln..  and  Vcello.  (1791). 

I  8  Sonatas.  PP.,  the  first  with  Vln.  obblisato.' 

5.  Premier  Caprice,  PF.  (1792).  |  Preludes  and  three  pieces,  PF. 

(1792).4  I  3  Preludes,  PF.» 

6.  Second  Caprice,  PF.  |  Grand  Sonata.  PF.  and  Vln. ;  A  (1792). 

I  3  Sonatas.  PF.  |  2  Sonatas  and  *  La  Coquette,'  PP.,  the  first 
with  Vln.  I  •  Sonata,  PF.  I  Rondo  from  Srd  PP.  Concerto. 

7.  8  Grand  SonatuB.  PF.  (1798).  |  Turkish  Overture.  PP.,  Vln.,  and 

Vcello.«  I  3  Sonatas. 

8.  Grand  Sonata,  PF.  and  Vln. ;  D  (1798).  |  6  Grand  Preludes  or 

Exen:iae8.rF.(1794).  I  8  Quartets  for  Strings  (17«9).'7 1  *  Enfant 
chM  des  Dames,'  with  var.  PF.  (I79e).a  |  8  SonaUs,  PP.,  the 
third  with  Vln. 

9.  6  DlTertissemeuts,  PF.  (1793).  |  9  Grand  Sonatas,  PF.  |  'La 

Coquette.'  PF. ;  A» 

10.  Melange  d'alrs  et  chansons  en  Forme  de  Sotee.  PF.  (1794).>o 

11.  8  Sonatas,  PP.  and  Flute,  or  Vln. ;  Bb,  A,  D  (1783).  |  6  Sonatas, 
PF.  and  Vln.  |  6  Sonatas,  PF.  |  6Sonatas,  PP.,  Nos.  1. 4. 5,  and 
«.  with  Vln.  obbligato,  Nos.  2  and  8  with  Flute  obbligato.  |  3 
"       ■      — --  —       "lim 


IZ 


Sonatas,  PP..  Vln.,  and  Vcello.  |  3  Sonatas,  PF.  with  Vln.  ace 
(ded.  to  Mme.  Eugenia  de  Beaumarohois). 


13.  9A\t%  with  Tar.,  PF.  |  Duo,  PF.  and  Harp. 

14.  2  Grand  Sonatas.  PF.  (1790).  |  Duo,  Harp  and  PF. 

15.  Grand  Sonata.  PF. 

18.  Grand  Sonata,  PF.  |  Mdlange  d'alrs." 

17.  3  QuarteU  for  Strings  ;  Eb.  C,  F  min.  a797).>a 

1  Bee  op.  4.  «  See  op.  7.  'See  op.  2. 

*  This  appears  to  have  been  also  styled  Preludes  and  Gaprlccioa. 
^  Six  Preludes  are  also  published  as  op.  fi.    They  are  probably  a 
combination  of  the  Preludes  in  the  works  given.  *  Bee  op.  8. 

^  Probably  part  of  op.  84.  and  perhaps  the  same  as  op.  17. 
"  See  op.  32.  "  Fiom  op.  6.  ">  See  op.  16. 

i>  See  op.  la  IS  Perhaps  the  same  as  op.  8. 


18.  3 Sonatas.  PP..  Nos.  Sand  8  with  Vln.  0797).  1 8 

with  ace  for  Flute  or  Vln. ;  O.  C,  Bb  0799). 

19.  8  Sonatas.  PF.  (1797). 
90.  Sonatas,  PF. 

21. 
22. 

23.  Or^nd  Sunata,  PF-  ;  t)  tnln. 

24.  Pi<  ]ij'ii:«.  PF.  a^J7}.  r  Ladles'  AbiUseiunit, '  TV.^  I  Truli  dp- 

I  ii^  irli  f^n£lui>l«,  PF.  ]  IwiTiAta^  PV.  %  G, 
SS.  Grind  Biilllltial-L'Amaut<]dijip«ra£a>,  PP.  t  CI  mljL  (ITWf.  I  Pr* 
lildts,  FT. )  SlBi^ikata^.  PT.  ui4  Vln.  ;  C'.  tsf. 

28.  8  *^f  OuBMAMit,  Pl^H  and  V  hi, ;  £t.  A.  P  (ITWii, 

97.  6fy.^nAt}i0.  PF.  and  Vln,  i,dwt  tu  gau«a  kA  Prmsi*} ;  C.  th.  B,  ^. 

O,  uiidl  A  ilTTTTJ.'* 

98.  SQoJnbrt*,  1>F,  an4  tittiuft :  Nn,  1.  Oj  No.  %  Di  Si.,  3Hl5W^i*  j  I 

t^4jQaLA«,py,  ^  .1  loalJii  il^h.  t'  I  '  Ametottdk  btUn/B^mdu^ 
PF.Vlii.andVivlii).;  ffcaTWij'^  |  Jea*y  (>lviirlij«raiiiaiU,Pr. 

29.  8  0iiL»d  AntL^tM,  I'F,  [a  Ri-ndiw,  PP, :  F.  ll. 

80.  8  Fiin/ibui,  Vi'.  aiti]  Mil  \  Onbd  Ouoatik,  PP.  with  jm5C  tuT  Vln.  r 

Hb,  J  EHt^nilcw.  PP.;  F,  A, 
«L  Qv.>H,\  Tn<  .,  PP.,  Vifl,,an4Bw!  A  {i;tttf.i?  |  Flr»t<jmjit*t.PV. 

-.Lrttl  HlTLTIRl  ;:    fi.^^ 

82.Gn>jiiJ  S4;,jj^tik,  PF.  with  ih^.  luitTln.  j  E  min,  |  ^  £rLfkitC  c\iixit\m 

Umm.-*:  Air  wlUii-ar.,  PF.,Vlli..aiiil  VosJIa,;  Q?.»  [  'J8oiiaUi 

fwith  ^.vu'b  minu  PP.S' 
88.  4S.]iiAU*^i|  i!rc>«r«H<btP  ^imDuJtj,  PF..*ith  VJn.  oJ  t(b. ;  C,  P, 

O,  l>  i\7\*it.  ]  tWt-rrtt.  Ko.  J  ('  tb«  iitami ' i,  PF,  Mml  Orch.  i 

R  ii7m%-^  I  '2  ikiTiatms  P¥.,  ^itb  Vln.  ftnd  V«Uu.   EHf  nk  i 

EtJ^  F.^   I  &  Kond^  H\  ;  C.  F,  0,  P,  Jib,  P. 
84.  6  QuatUi^TTi  wnMrtanto  for  StriUBD.  in  itrO  UHrki  nTfllBl.a*  I  94 

WaltiM,  PF,  with  v^.  Ur  Tmrnhfrnritw  tiivii  TiiaoKW  asouj.ai 
88.  8  Sonatas.  PF,,  w^h  V\T1.  wt  ttb.  ^  Hb,  P.  A  ilTOOi.  L  a^aiidran- 

oerto.  Sii.  ^  ('Tljc  f^tortit  '> ;  S(]7Wj.lfl  [ '  AmoseiueEkt  pour  )w 

EMr»Kd  ■  lifliij  PF,  plirtw}.*? 

86.  SI&iiUiaUji  ittL-i;!  tn'Mjitt'.  liv  Bui^el',  PP.  w[tii  ani,  tvr  Flut^.  ■■F 

Vln.  J  F.  Hbn  A  4^T1Mj.s«  |  ^j  Dl T¥rtiivc^i?uU  4li'L  R  H^tftpln^,  VF. 
[ITWh  I  S  OFUiy  iH^ertlsvuiiiqts  PP.  Kt  flM(y  lMi-4pnL>wM]]«litB 
ami  Afr»  frt  Lli  rar, .  PF,  |  Ei-inaU  for  £  PP.-  U«nU?.  |!  IL2  W^altui, 
rF.,i«l[hi]UN:.f[»t^Tiii^j|jnurJii.<a,TK)T^taiP0la.^  |  Coli i bn t  JS sl^nlH 
PP..  with  Vlu.  wNiTrHlMr  i^uil  Gr.Tlujiboarad  Itt.h  *4».» 

87.  3  J^ifiHrUji,  VF.,  lAi'ttli  Vln,  oti  ti$,     Vht!  llttt  luu  also  a  Tntnbaitr' 

\\\p  K*l'ti])t^iV-'-,  IJ,  A,  i^l9,^l  13.  Pn«h!wlV#  ficmatat,  PP.  ;  C, 
Utr,  P,  (  a  i*i>H«U*  of  piniip^wil^TS'dincUttr.  PP.,  wtlJi  VllL 
Bin!  Vn\i0.  Hfllf!!..  ]  tkilittbi,  FF..  Krith  Vln,  tfd  /it,  ;  J^.3i) 

88L  8  l^natajt,  FF,,  w]t.|i  axK.  for  Flute,  or  \  in. ;  C,  Vl^t,  v,.9\^ 
t^tinntu,  PF.,  *SLti  ace.  for  Flute  or  Vln.  ;  A,  If,  tip.  J 13 
l>liV(.TtlsKjnuiits  iSlajicbjH,  Wsltiwi.  unii  Bfiliiiiif}^  PP.*  wiih. 
ace.  for  Tpun  tionrl  ni', 

38.  8  ft'.inat.jut  \'iifl  U'  ITTlf.  ^1^  TSn-Firrn'^  ?F.,,  Trith  tir^.  frtr  Fltitu  la- 


40.  S( 


Ut'. 


If.,    WJU4     Tui.     (M*   iwv.  i  iio.  I  a    i«i^isr«Hlvo    Lemmtut    <al«0 

called  Sonatas),  PF. ;  C,  Bb,  F.  |  8   favourite  Bondos,  PF. ; 

0  A.  TV 

4L  3  F N-   FF. and  Flute  (ISW?   !  Ct^utUt  VmL  PF., It0a,m\  » 

U  r ,:  .,,  FF  .with  Flat*  f,r  \liu3  A.  D.Bt^  |  S  BonatkA.  Wji 
C  II :^  (;. "  \s  eu7.  ptpM^ug,  hikl  PtxtfTOMiiTe  Bdsiataa  :PF,|  CC 
BH.  F    I  Kojfi  ecjuatfti.  PF,  ami  vln.  fK«Wf  HuOfcta,  PP. 

42.  6  4SJ  njjd  plr«»lT>ir  iiulintllia*  :  IkH>k  1,  O.  &fi,C:  Bonk  3,  T>, 
ia>.  A,  I  .i  naiir  SfKiMitaa,  FF.  snd  Vln.  ',  H  |4<,ualaji.  PF.,  wltll 
F]ul«  i*r  Vlu. :  A,  D,  So.^J  '  Alamma  mla,'  atraucwj  M  ft 
n(»tiilHj.  FF,  :  £b.  [  .Naval  FJf ht,  a  ^fratld  tiaUamX  jA9», FfM 

48.  8  lkM.itts«,  FF. ;  [1,  m.  m.  \  |1«hIu.  FP.  ;  ti,  j  '  jftrmi-Hnimt 
pout  l«i  Dnlne^H'  PF^*' 

44.  OnkAri  tfkjiir^tB,  FF..  ^Ith  Flube  or  Vln. ;  A*  \  PiatMsIa  wl Ui nt. 
ott  '  Iter  Vmpclfilnger,"  pF. 

46.  3  BonAtai^H  PP^h  «ith  ace  l<.w  Vtollliir  A»  ib.Pb.  I  OTWElRaliata 
M-'.J.  r..Mm--.  «.Pi,L].niHi.-  ■  i'^'  :  i'-^-  ,  ;«H..*riftt*i,PF.,  ^dtlisn:. 
J-  ■  -•  '-^'.JiTuH'lh.j  A.  I  tiraod 

1  ■  ..  .,  PF. 

46.  8  bwuMMkB  \  tu  wujwu  •!«  luMvaycvU  mjtxno  admired  airs,'),  FF.. 
with  ace  for  Flute  or  Vln.  ;  Bb,  A,  D.« 


10  See  opp.  SS  and  48. 

14  Seteeliom  from  these  six  appear  to  have  been  also  published  as 
op.  27. 

u  Six  similar  Quintets  appeared  in  the  following  year  (see  op.  81). 
These  Quintets  were  especially  famous. 

10  These  were  followed  the  nest  year  by  a  fourth,  published 
separately. 

"  Also  published  for  Harp  and  PF.  The  air  comes  from  Falsiello's 
•  La  If  odisU  nggiratrice.' 

IB  This  appears  to  have  been  also  published  for  PP.,  Flute,  and 
Voello.  »  See  op.  28. 

tt  This  was  also  published  for  FF.  and  Harp.    See  op.  & 

>i  See  opp.  46  and  62.  <2  See  op.  8S. 

»  These  2  Sonatas  are  described  as  *  Liv.  2,'  so  that  another  book 
mav  have  been  published. 

M  These  Quartets  appear  to  be  some  sort  of  arrangement  or 
selection. 

SA  In  2  books,  each  containing  12  Wal^tes.  The  first  book  was  also 
published  (1)  for  Harp,  'nunbourine.  Flute,  and  Triangle;  (2)  for 
2  Violins  ;  (3)  for  2  Flutes.    One  book  was  also  published  as  op.  86. 

M  See  op.  83.  ^  Also  published  as  op.  43.    See  op.  24. 

^  These  appear  to  have  been  also  published  as  op.  39. 

»  Also  published  for  PF.,  Violin,  and  Triangle.  These  Waltses  are 
part  of  op.  84.  "See  opp.  41  and  42. 

31  In  1802, 5  Sonatas  with  Violin  ad  lib.  are  announced  as  forming 
this  work. 

32  It  is  possible  that  all  the  works  numbered  op.  87  are  variants 
of  the  first  mentioned.  »  This  was  also  published  as  op.  41, 

M  These  appear  to  have  been  also  published  as  op.  86. 
^  See  opp.  36  and  42.  »  See  op.  88. 

37  Thexe  were  also  published  as  opi  4S.  They  may  be  identical  with 
the  preceding.  ^  See  opp.  86  and  41. 

3B  Also  published  as  op.  85.    See  op.  24. 
M  Also  published  as  op.  4S. 
41  The  'admired  airs^  are— in  No.  1,  "Twas  within  a  mile  of 


6  Soiutu  (in  2  books).  PF.  |  Duet  for  Harp.  |  3 


IQwurtotal 


StrlngB.  I  6  Sonatln—  of  progrB— tre  difflenltT, 
6  faToorite  (alao  oaU«d  proffreMive)  SonatM,  PP. ;  C.  Bb,  O,  D, 

Ito.  A. 
S8onaUa.PF.;C.  O.  F.  |  Qoartot.  PP..  Vlii..VloU.MidyoeUa:  A. 

6  BxThMial*.  PP..  with  aoc.  for  Plot*.  Tamboorincaadlrteogle. 


SOtaad  SoiMtM. 
PF.,Vlii.. 


.|fi 


3  OruMl  BanatM,  PF.  aud  Yin. :  C.  D,  Bb. 

PF.  with  Yin.  ad  lib.'.  A  mln.,  P.  a  1  3 

and  Vcello.  |  2  Sonataa.  PP. ;  Eb.  E. 
SSoodaa.PF.;,C.  Bb.  A. 
Bondo.  PF. ;  Bb.  _, 

SooaU.  PP.,  with  VIn.  ad  lib. ;  1^.  |  OiBiid 

ata,  PP..  Vln..  and  Yoello. 
BonaU  (ded.  to  Dnchanof  Conrland),  PF. ;  Sb.  I  8  Bonataa,  PF. 

|SBondoa.PP.:  P.  A. 
Oimnd  Sonata.  PF. ; ».  |  Sflooataa.  PP..wlth  VlnjUMl  YoaUo.  |  2 

Sonataa.  PP.,  with  Vln.  and  VoeUo.(a(<IMi):0.  BbTl  28aoata>. 

»P    ■Tt*h-r-  fr-'" ^v-^ii«  •  P  T>  1  28ouataa.PF..Vln.. 

?..Vlu.,  and  Vcello.* 
■J  I-.  U]^s^>J  ,  PF. ;  £b.  G.  C.  I  J 

Ith  Vltt.  ur  I  I  ,G. 

r"  llyn^mJHiin.i  F,  D (1802).  |  Sonata. 

1  .  .,  ,    _:  ILapiwJ  A  t'ajnu!.:.   2:,.,u.T  Pkntaalaonan  air 

Grmnd  CoucHrti').  SV  Qil'  ^  la  CliaMu 'i,  ^r.  ukd  Orch. ;  «  (ISOS). 
I  Qrmod  Scituta.  FP, ;   a.  |  Sd^ud  MlUUry  FuitMia  with  a 

7  BanaUi,  PF,,  Vln..  and  Vixlkkl  JAxhIm,  PF.  |  '  Ls  Bappd  k 

VvmHe:  Ml  lltAf  r  Faataala,  PF. ;  WJ  |  «Sondo.  PP. 
3  anonl  &»ivtaii,  FP..  Mth  Mb,  lor  Flitls  or  Vln.  add«l  by  L 

flcyd;  F^U.  A  iLUti.  1 1  Boimtu,  FF.  uid  Vln.  12  Sooataa. 

PF. ;  F,  A."  »  Air  fiiTori  do  ■  L<ksim '  ^  it-M.  PP. ;  D.' 
3  Hijiutaa,  F?.  [  Onuid  tkniiatji,  I'F.,  wllti  .«c.  for  Vim.,  Sonata. 

FF..  wltb  Fluto  or  Vln. ;  D. 
S  Sonataa.  PP..   with    Vln.  od  M6.  |  2  maj  Sonataa.  PF.  |  8 

BiterhasiaU.  PP.,  with  Tunbourlne  ad  lib. 
SSotiAi^.  PP,  «ltli  'i»lp;.;<r  Voello..  or  ByKwa  oMtUgato. 


k 

O 
SSc 

P 
8  0i 

II- 
38o 

B 
3  St 


SSc 
P 

3Gi 
V 

6Sc 


Ifato. 
FF.  Mjl  \\u.  obbUgato:  G  min.  |  *  Lea  Pkpil- 
FF. ;  l^.  1 1  Sonataa.  PP..  Vln..  and  VoaUa  | 
PF;  Scf 

.  with  F]iit«  or  Vln. ;  O,  Bb.  O.  |  8  Sonataa. 
r.  \   ■  Honata  for  Harp. 

Vln.  obblinto ;  G  min..  O,  Bb. 
r  Doport).  PP.  and  Pluta. 
I'    I.      I'      nd  vln.,orFlote:  C.  Eb.  G.  I 'Irk 
I  AM  t.v  1    .  >  m).  with  Tar. :  PP. ;  O. 

..  P.  A.a  I  Fantaaia  with  8  Tar.  on 

I  >.  A,  B  min.  I  6  Waonhanale,  PP.. 

Sonataa.  PP..  with  Vln.  ad  Ub. ; 

E.  I  Fkntaaia.  PP. 
.10 1  New  Turkiah  OTertora.  PP.. 


i*.    FF.    mlHl    Vln 


•     M  F&iiUaI«  with  6  Tar.  on  the  Bnmanoe  of 

-  u«.u».u  *y^ui  de  Uott.'  PF. ;  C. 
Stode  for  PP..  oontalnlng  50  czarclMe  of  diUlBreot  kind*  (In  2 

book*)  (1806).  I  6  Baorhenali.  PP..  with  Tunbourtne  ad  Ub. 
m  3  Sonataa.  PF.  and  Flute ;  G.  P.  A.»  |  Grand  Sonata.  PP.  and 

Vln.  obblicato ;  E. 
80.  Grand  Sonata.  PP.  with  Vln.  obbligato;  Bb.  I  MUltarr  Fku- 

taaia  on  '  La  Sentinelle.'  PP. ;  a>« 
SL  30rand  Sonataa.  PP.;  A.  G.  A».u  |  Grand  Sonata.  PF.  and  Vln. 

obbligato :  Bb. 
83.  Gmnd  Martial  SoiMta.  PF. ;  D.w  |  Grand  Pkntaiia  with  Tar.. 

PF. ;  D. 
83.  Grand  SonaU.  PP..  with  Vln. ;  E  min.  |  2  Sonataa,  PP. ;  C.  F. 
84b  Grand  Sonata.  PP..  with  aoo.  for  Vln.  or  Flute ;  G.  |  8  Sonataa. 

PP. :  B.  O.  Eh. 
85.  Grand  SonaU.  PF.  ;  C.  |  Grand  Sonata,  PF. ;  D. 
86w  6  Sonatlnaa.  PF. 

87.  Grand  Honata.  PP..  with  Vln. :  Bb. 
8a  Grand  Martial  Soiiata.  PF. ;  D.n 

88.  Grand  Sonata,  PF.  and  Flute :  G. 

90.  Fkntaaia  en  forme  de  Sotoe,  PF. ;  F  min.  |  Fantaaia  en  forme 

de  8o6ne.  PP. ;  G. 
M.  Sonata,  PF. ;  C. 
92.-100.>8 


Edlubro'  town'  and  "The  Caledonian  Beauty':  in  No.  2.  "The 
Maid  of  Selma'  and  '  Life  let  ua  cheriah.' 

i  Theae  appear  to  hare  been  alao  publiahed  (1)  for  PP.  and  Vln.. 
(2)  for  PP..  Vln..  and  Vcello. 

3  Theae  last  flTe  works  are  aospidoualy  like  the  aame  thing  In 
dliTerent  dlaguiaea. 

*  The  following  ain  are  introduoed— in  No.  1.  '  If  a  body  meet  a 
body.'  and  Sir  DaTld  Hunter  Blalr'a  Beel ;  in  No.  2. '  Jeaae  Ifacphar- 
lane'  (tie),  and  '  La  chantrenae.' 

<  Alao  publiahed  aa  op.  OB.  •  Alao  publiahed  aa  op.  OS. 

*  The  second  moTement  of  the  first  Sonata  la  on  a  Sooton  aong. 
and  the  third  movement  on  a  Russian  theme. 

7  '  Lfouoe'  was  an  opera  by  Isouard.  18^5. 

•  TheM  appear  to  hare  been  also  published  for  Flute,  both  as 
op.  73  and  as  op.  79. 

•  '  B^liatire '  waa  an  air  by  Oarat.       >»  Also  published  as  op.Sl. 
11  Not,  apparently,  the  same  as  op.  7. 

i>  Selectioua  from  theae  aix  aeem  to  faaTe  been  also  pnblisbed  aa 
op.  77. 

u  See  op.  73.  >«•  La  Sentinelle '  waa  an  air  by  Choron. 

u  Alao  publiahed  aaop.  TH.  >•  Also  publiahed  aaop.  8& 

"  Also  published  aa  op.  82. 

H  At  thia  point,  about  the  date  of  Steibelt'a  arrlvml  in  BoMta, 
almost  all  reoord  of  his  works  disappears. 


18M).^ 


PP.;  G. 
103-100. 
UO.  Fantasia  (Battle  of  Neerwinde).  PF.  (17»). 

WOBKS  WITHOUT  OPUB-NUMBKBS 

1.  Vocal  astd  OucnwtnAL. 

tHx  Optra*    '  Rmato  et  Juliette,'  tn  3  acts  ;  prodoeed  at  Th^4ti* 

Feydean.  Sept  10. 170S.  |  'Albert and Adelaide.'^in 3 acts,  an  Engliab 

opera,  not  wholly  original,  produced  at  CoTent  G«rd«a.  Dec.  11. 

17B&I  •LaPrinoceeedeBabylone.'inSaeta.l  •Cendrilkm.'inBact*. 

I  'Sarginca.'  in  thrse  acts.  |  'La  JiigBment  de  Midaa.'  imflnisheii. 

hot  apparently  performed. 
Ftm  BaiUf—'  Le  Betour  de  Z^phixe'  (Paris  Opdra.  MardiS.  1802 . 
La  Jugement  du  berger  Pirta'  (King's  Theatre.  London.  May  SA. 

_JM).i*  I  *  La  belle  Lalti«re.  ou  Blanche.  Beine  de  Castile'  (Kui«« 

nieatre.  Jan.  28, 180B).  |  '  La  P<te  de  I'Emperenr '  (St.  pBterabuig. 

IBOB).  1  *Der  bUde  Bitter'  (St.  Petenbnrg,  before  1819) ;   and  sa 

Intermeno.  'La  F«te  de  Man'  (Paria  Op^ra.  March  4. 1806). 
Fecal  ihislc.— The20Songsof  Estelle,  with  ace.  for  FF.  or  Har)>.* 

1 30  Songs  with  ace.  for  PP.  or  Harp,  in  5  Tola.,  each  of  6  songs. 
Mmtie  for  OrekeiCra.— OuTsruap  en  Symphonle  (1796).  I  waltsea  , 

lor  Orch.  |  Grand  Concerto  for  flarp.  with  Ordi  ace.  rPotpoarri. 

arranged  as  Couoerto,  with  aoc  for  Ordi.  |  8  Concertoa  for  PF.  and 

Orch..  Tic- 
No.  1.  In  cans). 

2.  In  E  min.  with  ace.  for  Vln.  or  Full  Orch.  adlA.(i;W}|. 

3.  In  E  (•  The  Storm ').    Op.  33  or  35  (I796-fc«). 

4.  In  09. 

9.  InEb('ilaChasae-).    Op.  64  (1804) 

6.  in  O  min.  ('  Le  Voyafre  au  Mont  St.  Bernard ' )  (about  IBM). 

7.  In  E  min.  (Grand  MilitBry  Concerto,  'dans  le  Ocnrr  de* 

Oreca.'  with  2  Ordiestrss)  (before  1817). 

8.  In  S»  (with  Bacrhanallan  Bondo.  ace.  by  Chorus}.    (Pro- 

duced at  St.  Petersbun    "      " 
Neat«  at  the  London  I 
35.1822.) 

2.  PiAXoroaTK. 
FmUaitat.    Of  these  there  are  some  30,  part  with  vailatlooa. 
besides  those  which  have  opua-numben.     A  rast  quantity  of 
Bondoa.  Aln  with  Tariations.  Putpourris.  and  spedmans  of  Pro- 
gramme Music  exists. 

8.  MxacKLUuriocs. 
L  Amongst  the  higher  class  of  music  that  falls  under  this  bwd 
may  be  noticed  :— 

MMhode  de  PF.  ooatenant  les  principes  n/reeeslriw  pour  biea 
toucher  de  oet  instrument,  des  gammea  dana  tooa  lea  tous.desexer- 
cicea  pour  lea  doubles  cadences.  12  petites  lefous,  8  sonatas  d'one 
difficult^  gradnalle.  et  des  grands  eaerdoea.  le  t«mt  doigtt.  et  enfln 
une  instruction  sur  la  manitee  de  ae  aenrir  dee  pMalea.  1800. 1  U 
Sonataa,  PF.  44  handat— the  flrst  6  in  P.  G.  G,  C.  Bb.  F.  I  6 Sonata* 
for  BLarp.  |  3  Dueta.  P/.  and  Harp.  |  6  DueU  or  Sonataa.  2  PF.a.  or 
PP.  and  Harp.  I  6  Sonataa  for  Harp,  with_acc.  for  Vln.  aodVoeUo.  I  4 


:.  March  16,  1830.  and  played  bjr 
Concert  o£  March 


Peterabourg 
promptu,  PI 
NouTelles  W 


es  pdriodlques  (one  with  Vln.  ur  Flute  ad  lib.}.  PP.  |  S  Ptv 
ludes.  PP.  1 12  SoiiHUnas  in  2  Books-Bk.  1.  C.  B^.  G.  D,  Eiy.  A :  Bk. 
2.  C.  G.  P.  D.  Bb.  E*^ :  PF.  I  3  Sonatas  (for  beglnnen).  PP.  |  SonaU  for 
Harp  with  Vln.  tut  lib.  El^e  (on  the  death  of  Marshal  Prtnor 
Soltykofn.  PP.;  D  min.  (1816).  |  2  Ain  by  Braham  ('The  beantifttl 
maid '  and  '  NeTer  think  of  meeting  sorrow ')  In  Beeve's  opera  '  Tb* 
Cabinet'  arranged  aa  a  Sonata.  PP.;  Bb.  I  La Chasse.  Sonata,  PP.. 
with  Vln.  ad  lib. :  D.  |  Sonata.  PP..  with  Vln. ;  C  min.  ]  OrtBrtoir 
and  Bondo,  PF.  i  OTorture  and  Polunalae.  PF. 

XL  The  following  are  among  the  chief  of  his  lighter  works  :— 
12  Bacchanals,  PP.  (with  Tambourine  adUb.\.\  2  Books  of  Sem 
ades.PP.  I  12Capriocioa.PP.  |  TurkUh  March.  PF.  |  MarcfaedePMcr- 
hof.  1811.  PP.  I  Triumphal  March  ou  the  entry  of  Alex.  L  and  Fred. 
WilL  IIL  into  Paria,  1814.  PP.  I  Ls  Betour  deCaraUerie  Rnase  4  ttt. 
~         '  le  14  Oct.  1814,  pitee  militaire,  PF.  |  Le  Depart,  Im- 

-T. ;  C.  I  Caprice  on  '  Non  plA  aiulrai.'  PP.  (1816).  ,  « 
Walses  itroia  malna  (the  6th  Walts  U  a  parody  of  the 
flnaleof  the  •  Vestole ').  PF.  I  Polonaiae,  PP.;  D.  t  Turkiah  Bondo  (or 
Harp,  with  Vlu.  and  Tambourine  od  Mfr.  |  Air  ('  Enfant  chirt  '1  with 
Tar.  PP.  and  Harp^  |  Favourite  Bondo  for  Guitar  and  FluU  ur 
Vln. :  D.  ^  _.  ^ 

In  the  third  hook  of  '  Pandean  Muaic'  for  the  PP..  publiahed  bjr 
N.  Corri  of  Edinburgh,  the  flrst  number  ia  'Air  from  Bbdae  et 
Babet  by  Steibelt ' ;  but  no  single  item  of  informaUon  about '  BIai» 
et  Babet '  U  forthcoming,  except  that  it  does  not  seem  to  faaTs  baeo 
a  piece  brought  out  in  Liiiidon.  j^   |{,   y[, 

STEIGLEDER,  Hans  Ulrich,  came  of  an 
organist  family  settled  at  Stuttgart  The 
date  of  his  birth  is  given  as  1580.  After 
serving  as  organist  at  Lindau  on  the  Bodensee, 
he  was  appointed  in  1617  Stifts- Organist  at 
Stuttgart,  in  which  capacity  he  had  also  to 
serve  as  musician  generally  to  the  Court  of 
Wiirtemberg.  He  died  1635.  For  theoigaii 
he  published  two  works,  the  first  of  which  is 
so  fiir  remarkable  as  being  the  first  specimen 
in  Germany  of  copper-plate  engraving  for  organ 
or  ckvier  music.      As  the  title  informs  us,  the 

w  The  original  aoore  of  thia  work  came  into  the  poaaaasioa  of 
MoschelM.  and  was  sold  by  him  on  leavinc  London  in  1847. 

»  Some  authoriUea  declare  that  Steibeit  only  wrota  flTS  ol  uu» 
set  of  20  aonga. 


STEIN 


STEIN 


689 


engi-aving  was  by  his  own  hands,  ^Bicei-car 
Tabulatnra,  Organis  et  Organoedis  nnice  inser- 
viens  et  maxime  condacens  adomata  a  J.  U.S.  .  . 
ejusdemqne  Autoris  sumptibus  et  manibus  pro- 
priis  Aeri  Cupreo  insculpta  et  excusa.  Anno 
1624.'  Although  mentioned  by  Gerber,  this 
work  was  unknown  to  modem  musicians,  until 
a  copy  sent  from  the  Royal  Library  at  Stuttgart 
was  shown  at  the  Vienna  Musical  Exhibition 
of  1892.  The  engraving  is  said  to  be  rather 
coarsely  done.  Some  account  of  the  music  is 
given  in  Seiffert,  Oeschichle  der  Klaviermimkf 
Bd.  I.  p.  105.  It  consists  of  Bicercari  of  the 
earlier  Italian  fugal  type.  The  other  published 
work  of  Steigleder  is  entitled,  ^Tabulatur- 
Buch  darinnen  dass  Vater  Unser  auf  2,  3  und 
4  Stimmen  componirt  und  vierzig  mal  variirt 
wiirdt  .  .  .  auf  Orgehi  und  alien  andem 
Instrumenfcen  ordentlich  zu  appliciren  .  .  . 
1627.'  This  work  consists  of  forty  Bearbei- 
tungen  or  Variations  on  the  melody  of  the 
*  Vater  Unser  im  Himmelreich,'  which  show 
the  influence  of  the  newer  technique  of  the 
English  -  Dutch  Variation  School  of  Sweelinck, 
as  well  as  of  the  South  German  toocata  style  of 
George  Muffat.  Two  specimens  are  given  in 
Ritter,  Oeschichte  des  Orgelspiels,  Nos.  87  and 

S8.  J.  R.  M. 

STEIN,  a  family  of  pianoforte -makers  and 
players. 

1.  JoHANN  Andreas,  the  founder  of  German 
pianoforte-making,  was  bom  at  Heidesheim  in 
the  Palatinate  in  1728.  ^Nothing  is  known  of 
his  early  life,  but  he  appears  to  have  been  in 
Paris  in  1768,  and  to  have  remained  there  for 
some  years.  We  may  conclude  that  he  was 
engaged  in  organ-building  and  harpsichord- 
making,  since  he  was  not  only  a  good  musician, 
but  a  proficient  in  both  handicrafts,  before  he 
turned  to  pianoforte-making.  After  Paris  we 
find  him  at  Augsburg,  organist  of  the  Barfiisser- 
kirche,  the  famous  organ  of  which  he  built,  as 
well  as  that  of  the  Kreuzkirche.  When  the 
article  Pianoforte  was  written,  special  inquiries 
were  made  in  Vienna  and  elsewhere,  to  discover 
any  pianofortes  remaining  of  Stein's  make,  but 
without  success.  [Several  examples  of  Stein's 
pianoforte,  exhibited  at  Vienna  in  1892,  are 
now  in  the  collection  of  Mr.  Steinert  of  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  U.S.A.]  These  inquiries,  how- 
ever, led  to  the  discovery  of  a  grand  piano, 
which  was  secured  by  M.  Victor  Mahillon,  of 
the  Museum  of  the  Conservatoire,  Bmssels.  It 
is  inscribed 

Jean  Andr6  Stein 

Facteur  d'orgaes  et  des  Clavecins 
Oi^aniste  i  rEglise  des  Minorites 
Augsboung  1780. 1 

The  action  of  this  bichord  grand  piano  is  the 
same  as  that  in  vol.  iii.  p.  725,  Fig.  10  of  this 
Dictionary,  which  was  copied  from  a  scarce 
pamphlet  preserved   in   the    Library    of    the 

>  The  iMt  flgvn  !•  Indistinct,  and  M.  MahUlon  thinks  that  It 
might  be  5  or  6  instead  of  0. 

VOL.  IV 


Gesellsohaft  der  Musiklreunde  at  Vienna.  The 
wedge  damper  is  Oristofori's  ;  the  escapement 
and  other  parts  of  the  action  differ  entirely 
from  that  maker's  and  from  Gottfried  Silber- 
mann's  as  preserved  in  three  instruments  at 
Potsdam,  in  which  the  Florentine  maker  Cristo- 
fori  is  closely  followed.  This  instrument  has 
also  the  gerumill'Ure  or  knee-pedal  for  raising 
the  dampers,  which  preceded  the  foot-pedal. 
[See  Sordino.]  The  genouiUi^re  and  Stein's 
escapement  are  described  by  Mozart  with  great 
ffusto  in  a  letter  addressed  to  his  mother,  in 
October  1777,  only  a  very  few  years  before  M. 
Mahillon 's  piano  was  made.  What  action  was 
used  by  Spaeth  of  Ratisbon,  also  referred  to  by 
Mozart,  we  do  not  know,  but  M.  Mahillon's 
discovery  at  Brussels  of  a  square  piano,  with 
the  rudiments  of  Stein's  action — that  is,  the 
same  centred  percussion  without  the  hopper 
escapement — leads  directly  to  the  conclusion 
that  this  simple  action,  clumsy  as  Mozart  found 
it  without  the  escapement,  was  in  common  use 
before  Stein  brought  his  inventive  genius  to 
bear  upon  its  improvement. 

Welcker  von  Gontershausen  (Der  Clavierbau, 
Frankfort,  1870,  p.  173)  gives  a  drawing  of  this 
action  without  hopper  escapement,  attributing 
it  to  Silbermann  ;  but,  as  far  as  we  can  see, 
without  proof.  Many  of  the  early  German 
pianos  have  neither  date  nor  inscription,  which 
makes  the  attribution  to  a  maker  difficult. 
We  are  disposed  to  think  that  Silbermann 
would  not  have  abandoned  the  good  action  of 
Cristofori,  which  he  knew  how  to  finish  well, 
for  a  crude  tentative  mechanism  ;  we  therefore 
conclude  that  the  Seven  Years'  War  having 
entirely  stamped  out  Saxon  pianoforte-making, 
a  now  era  began  with  the  restoration  of  peace, 
and  that  the  merit  of  founding  that  German 
pianoforte-making  which  was  so  long  identified 
with  the  School  of  Vienna,  belongs  to  Stein, 
whose  inventive  talent  and  artistic  devotion 
were  displayed  in  the  good  instruments  he  made, 
which  by  1790  at  latest,  were  adopted  as  models 
both  in  North  and  South  Germany,  as  the  two 
grand  pianos  formerly  belonging  to  Queen 
Louise,  made  by  Huhn,  *  Organ -bmldert*  of 
Berlin,  2  and  preserved  in  memory  of  her  at 
Potsdam,  unmistakably  show. 

Gerber,  in  his  Lexieofiy  has  preserved  a  list 
of  numerous  inventions  by  Stein  [of  one,  the 
*  Melodica,'  the  inventor  published  an  account 
in  1772],  of  which  none  are  now  of  value  save 
the  escapement  and  the  keyboard  shifting  by 
means  of  a  pedal.  He  introduced  the  latter  in 
his  <  Saitenharmonica '  in  1789,  carrying  the 
hammers  from  three  strings  to  one,  which  he 
spaced  rather  away  from  the  other  two  unisons. 
This    'una  corda'   he   named    *  Spine ttchen.' 

*  One  of  these  Instrunients,  and  apparentlj  the  older  one,  bran 
no  name  oatside,  but  internal  examination  show*  that  the  maker 
was  the  same  who  made  the  17S0  one  ;  both  cloaely  resemble  Hoxart's 
piano  br  Walther,  at  Salzburg,  and  the  original  model  by  Stein  of 
1780. 

2  Y 


690 


STEIN 


STEIN 


A.  W.  Thayer^  nnearthed  a  record  of  Pastor 
Junker,  showing  that  Beethoven  in  1791,  when 
residing  at  Bonn,  always  used  an  instrument  of 
Stein's. 

Stein  died  in  1792,  leaving  two  sons,  Mat- 
thaus  Andreas  and  Friedrich  (see  below),  and  a 
daughter,  Maria  Anna,  known  as  Nannbtte, 
who  in  1794  married  Streioher,  and  was  really 
the  most  prominent  of  the  group. 

Though  Streicher  ultimately  succeeded  to  the 
business,  which  had  been  removed  from  Augsburg 
to  Vienna,  his  name  does  not  appear  for  several 
years  in  connection  with  it.  [See  footnote  to 
PiANOPOETB,  vol.  iii.  p.  725a,  note  2.]  The 
firm  as  late  as  1801  was  'Geschwister  Stein ' ; 
subsequently  *  Nannette  Stein '  only,  which 
appears  as  the  maker's  name  on  a  grand  piano- 
forte with  six  pedals,  existing  (1882)  in  Windsor 
Castle.  For  the  continuation  of  the  Stein 
business  see  Streicher.  a.  j.  h. 

2.  Maria  Anna,  or  Nannbttb  Stein,  was 
born  Jan.  2,  1769,  at  Augsburg.  When  barely 
eight  she  played  to  Mozart  on  his  visit  to 
Augsburg  in  1777,  and,  in  spite  of  the  bad 
habits  she  had  contracted,  he  said  of  her  *  She 
may  do  yet,  for  she  has  genius  '  (Jahn,  i.  368). 
Her  talent  and  capacity  were  so  obvious  that 
her  father  early  initiated  her  into  the  details  of 
his  business,  and  on  his  death,  Feb.  29,  1792, 
she  carried  it  on,  in  conjunction  with  her  brother 
Matthaus  Andreas,  with  a  decision  and  energy 
almost  masculine.  In  1793  she  married  Johann 
Andreas  Streioher,  an  excellent  pianist  and 
teacher  from  Stuttgart,  and  then  she,  her 
husband,  and  mother,  moved  to  Vienna.  The 
new  firm  of  *  Nannette  and  Andreas  Stein  * 
(constituted  by  Imperial  decree  Jan.  17,  1794) 
established  itself  in  the  '  Bed  Rose,'  No.  301 
in  the  Landstrasse  suburb.  In  1812  the  factory 
was  removed  to  premises  of  their  own,  which 
had  been  rebuilt  and  enlarged  some  years 
before.  No.  27  in  the  Ungargasse.  In  1802 
the  brother  and  sister  dissolved  partnership, 
each  setting  up  for  themselves,  as  'Matthaus 
Andreas  Stein,'  and  *  Nannette  Streicher,  ge- 
borene  Stein.'  Streicher,  who  had  hitherto  man- 
aged only  the  commercial  part  of  the  business, 
now  took  his  full  share  of  the  work.  Both  firms 
endeavoured  to  perfect  their  instruments  in 
every  possible  way,^  while  still  adhering  to  the 
traditions  of  their  father,  and  Stein  of  Vienna 
became  as  celebrated  as  Stein  of  Augsburg  had 
been.  In  1823  the  Streichers  took  into  partner- 
ship their  son  Johann  Baptist  (bom  in  Vienna, 
1796).  Nannette  Streicher  was  at  once  an 
energetic  and  capable  woman  of  business,  a 
pianist  of  remarkable  excellence,  a  person  of 
great  general  cultivation,  and  a  model  wife  and 
mother.  Her  name  is  closely  connected  with 
that  of  Beethoven.     It  is  well  known  that  she 

1  AmTAowh,  1.  300-215. 

s  From  this  period  dates  the  lo-called '  Viennese  mechanism,'  the 
principle  of  which  was  really  the  same  as  th«t  of  the  Augsbnn; 
pianos. 


did  much  to  help  him  in  his  domestic  amcr- 
ments,  lightened  the  burden  of  his  hooseknf 
ing,  and  even  looked  after  his  bodily  hiiv 
Thayer,  in  his  Beethoven  (iii.  239),  gives  tb; 
striking  picture  of  their  relationship.  [S«e  &L^ 
vol.  i.  of  this  Dictionary,  pp.  247,  -24! 
Nannette  Streicher  died  Jan.  10,  1838,  &Q<i  n 
followed  by  her  husband  on  May  25  of  tb- 
same  year.  The  business  was  carried  on  soce^ 
sively  by  their  son,  J.  B.  Streicher,  m  L- 
son,  Emil.     Her  brother, 

3.  Matthaus  Andreas  Stein,  was  bom  >: 
Augsburg,  Dec  12, 1776,  accompanied  his  ^k 
to  Vienna,  set  up  for  himself  in  1802,  marc- 
Nov.  12,  1796,  and  died  May  6,  1842.  Hissi 

4.  Earl  Andreas,  also  a  pianoforte-sus-* 
and  composer,  was  bom  in  Vienna,  Sept  4, 1';' 
early  showed  talent  for  music,  and  became  ^i 
excellent  pianist  and  teacher.  He  was  a  jq 
of  Fbrster  in  harmony  and  compositioQ,  iL. 
published  a  considerable  number  of  vt-i 
principally  for  his  instrument.  He  also  left : 
MS.,  among  others,  two  PF.  concertos  wv. 
orchestra,  two  orchestral  overtures,  and  &  rci. 
opera  <  Die  goldene  Cans,'  words  by  Langbti: 
He  appeared  several  times  in  public,  bat  Uttrr 
devoted  himself  entirely  to  the  fiwtory,  inr 
working  of  which  his  father  had  early  m: 
ated  him.  In  1829  a  patent  was  gnutd 
him.  Karl  Andreas  travelled  much,  audi 
pianos  were  appreciated  abroad,  as  well  as  ^ 
the  first  artists  of  his  own  country.  In  l^^ 
he  was  appointed  Oonrt  pianoforte-maker.  H. 
book  *  on  the  playing,  tuning,  and  presemo^ 
of  Stein  pianofortes,'  ^  contains  valuable nai* 
He  died  August  28,  1863.  c.  f.  p. 

5.  His  uncle,  Friedrich,  was  bom  at  kir 
burg,  May  26,  1784,  and  at  the  age  of  tenfci 
to  Vienna,  and  studied  counterpoint  and  «?: 
position  with  Albrechtsberger.  He  became  ?' 
of  the  first  pianoforte-players  of  the  capital.  »:- 
was  considered  to  be  a  very  promising  compos' 
He  appeared  rather  frequently  in  the  Aogart- 
and  Burgtheater  concerts  as  a  player  of  ooDcef.  ^ 
especially  those  of  Mozart.  Beichardt  (Af^ 
1809)  calls  him  :  *  A  performer  of  great  p- 
and  genius.  ...  A  rare  power,  combined  «i 
the  deepest  feeling,  characterised  hisperfo't 
ance.  He  played  some  of  Beethoven's  i5^ 
difficult  pieces,  and  variations  of  his  ovn  cc 
position,  full  of  invention  and  deep  sentiim- 
and  of  monstrous  difficulty.  Since  then  I  bs' 
heard  him  at  home  on  his  magnificent  StRsi'' 
pianoforte,  and  am  confirmed  in  my  opinion 
his  assiduous  study  and  great  talents.'  Tt> 
eulogies  are  borne  out  by  other  eontemr^^'' 
notices. 

Friedrich  Stein  is  the  subject  of  Ries's  antes  • 
{Notiaeny  p.  115).  Beethoven  hadplayfd- 
Concerto  in  G  at  his  own  concert,  Dec.  22, 1" 
(see  voL  i.  p.  244),  with  astonisiiiiig  spirit  «^ 


F.  p.,  etc,  Wien, 


rktuwn  1 
,  1801. 


STEINBACH 


STEINWAY  &  SONS 


691 


speed,  and  immediately  after  called  npon  Ries 
to  play  it  in  public,  with  only  five  days  for  its 
study.  Bies  naturally  shirked  such  a  task, 
preferring  to  play  the  C  minor  one  instead. 
At  this  his  master  was  offended,  and  turned  to 
Stein,  who  accepted  the  task,  but  was  unable  to 
accomplish  it,  and  played  the  C  minor  instead, 
not  satisfactorily. 

Stein  was  an  industrious  composer,  but  few  of 
his  vocal  compositions  reached  the  stage.  Heieft 
three  operettas  and  a  ballet,  of  which  only  one 
— '  Die  Fee  Badiante  * — came  to  public  perform- 
ance. Also  a  set  of  Songs,  a  Violin  Concerto, 
a  Grand  Sonata  for  the  PF.,  and  a  PF.  Trio. 
He  also  arranged  Beethoven's  Fourth  and  Sixth 
Symphonies  for  two  PF.s.  A.  w.  t. 

STEINBACH,  Emil,  bom  Nov.  14,  1849,  at 
Lengenrieden  in  Baden,  studied  at  the  Leipzig 
Conservatorium  1867-69,  and  in  1877  became 
conductor  of  the  Town  Band,  and  in  1898Director 
of  the  Town  Theatre  of  Mainz.  He  has  com- 
posed much  chamber  and  orchestral  music  and 
many  songs. 

Fritz,  bom  June  17,  1856,  at  Griinsfeld 
in  Baden,  brother  of  the  above,  whose  pupil  he 
was  till  he  went  to  the  Leipzig  Conservatorium 
in  1873.  In  1880  he  became  second  CapeU- 
meisteratMainz  till  1886,  when  he  was  summoned 
by  the  Grand  Duke  of  Meiningen  to  the  post 
of  conductor  of  his  celebrated  orchestra,  and  later 
on  became  his  general  music-director.  In  1902 
he  visited  England  with  the  whole  of  the  Mein- 
ingen orchestra,  and  made  one  of  the  greatest 
sensations  that  has  been  caused  by  any  musical 
perfoimanoes  within  recent  years  in  this  country, 
his  renderings  of  Bach  and  Brahms  being 
specially  appreciated.  All  the  four  symphonies 
of  Brahms  were  included  in  his  programmes. 
In  1902  he  succeeded  Wiillner  as  Town  Capell- 
meister  and  Director  of  the  Conservatorium  at 
Cologne.  He  is  also  well  known  as  a  composer, 
chiefly  through  his  septet  (op.  7)  and  a  violon- 
cello sonata.  H.  v.  h. 

STEINWAY  &  SONS,  an  eminent  firm  of 
pianoforte-makers  in  New  York,  distinguished 
by  the  merit  of  their  instruments  and  by  their 
commercial  enterprise,  which,  in  comparatively 
few  years,  have  placed  their  firm  in  equal  rank 
with  those  famous  older  makers  in  Europe  whose 
achievements  in  the  improvement  and  develop- 
ment of  the  instrament  have  become  historical. 

Henry  Engelhard  Steinway  (originally  Stein- 
WEG,  see  below)  was  bom  Feb.  16,  1797,  at 
Wolfshagen,  in  the  Duchy  of  Branswick.  The 
youngest  of  a  family  of  twelve,  at  the  early  age 
of  fifteen  he  was  the  sole  survivor  of  his  family. 
From  the  age  of  seventeen  to  twenty-one  he 
served  in  the  army,  and  during  that  time  his 
natural  taste  for  music  led  him  to  learn  the 
zither.  On  his  discharge,  which  was  honourably 
obtained,  from  the  army,  he  thought  of  becoming 
a  cabinet-maker,  but  was  too  old  to  serve  the 
five  years'   apprenticeship  and   five  years  as 


journeyman  which  the  guild  required  prior  to 
his  becoming  a  master.  He  therefore  went  for 
a  year  to  an  irregular  master,  and  then  turned 
to  organ-building,  which  was  free  from  the 
narrow  limits  of  a  guild.  Circumstances,  how- 
ever, allowed  him  in  1826  to  marry  and  settle 
as  a  cabinet-maker  at  Seesen,  near  the  Harz 
Mountains,  where  he  had  been  already  working ; 
and  in  that  year  (Nov.  26)  his  eldest  son  Theo- 
dore was  bom.  Steinway  in  a  few  years  tumed 
liis  attention  to  piano -making,  and  in  1839 
exhibited  a  grand  and  two  square  pianos  at  the 
State  Fair  of  Brunswick.  Seesen  being  in 
Hanoverian  territory,  the  foundation  of  the 
Prussian  *Zollverein'  in  1845  brought  Stein- 
way's  hitherto  flourishing  business  to  a  stand- 
still, and  the  revolution  of  1848  destroyed  it 
entirely.  The  course  of  events  now  induced 
Steinway  to  leave  Germany,  and  in  April  1849 
he  emigrated  to  New  York,  whither  his  family, 
with  the  exception  of  Theodore,  the  eldest  son, 
followed  him  the  next  year.  For  three  years 
the  father  and  the  three  sons,  Charles,  Henry, 
and  William,  worked  in  different  New  York 
piano  factories.  In  March  1863  they  agreed 
to  unite  and  start  in  business  on  their  own 
account,  and  the  firm  of  *  Steinway  &  Sons '  was 
established.  In  1866  they  exhibited  a  square 
piano  in  which  the  American  iron  frame  principle 
of  a  single  casting  was  combined  with  a  cross 
or  over-strung  scale,  forming  the  foundation  of 
the  so-called  *  Steinway  system,'  which,  as 
applied  to  grand  pianos,  attracted  great  attention 
in  the  London  Intemational  Exhibition  of  1862. 
Both  Charles  and  Henry  Steinway  dying  in 

1866,  Theodore,  the  eldest  son,  disposed  of  his 
business  in  Bmnswick  and  became  a  partner  of 
the  New  York  firm.  Their  spacious  concert- 
room  there  was  built  and  opened  in  1866. 
About  this  time  the  Steinways  began  to  make 
upright  pianos,  and  their  instmmentsof  aU  kinds 
shown  at  Paris,  in  the  Universal  Exhibition  of 

1867,  not  only  gained  them  success,  but  became 
models  for  Germany,  to  the  great  improvement 
of  the  German  make  and  trade.  Henry  Stein- 
way, the  father,  died  in  1871.  In  1876  the 
firm  opened  a  branch  in  London,  to  which  a 
concert-room  is  attached,  and  in  1880  another 
branch  establishment  at  Hamburg,  a.  j.  h. 
[Tlie  first  grand  piano  was  made  by  Steinway 
k  Sons  in  April  1866,  the  upright  in  April 
1862.  In  May  1876  the  firm  was  incorporated 
with  a  capital  of  $1,600,000,  William  Steinway 
being  elected  president  ;  the  capital  stock  was 
increased  to  $2,000,000  in  1891.  William 
Steinway,  bom  March  6,  1836,  at  Seesen,  re- 
mained its  financial  head  and  prime  factor  in 
its  development  until  his  death  on  Nov.  SO, 
1896.  C.  F.  Theodore  Steinway,  bom  in  Seesen, 
Nov.  6, 1826,  died  March  6, 1889,  at  Bmnswick, 
was  the  scientific  constractor  to  whom  were  due 
many  of  the  inventions  which  gave  the  Steinway 
pianos  their  high  position.     The  officers  of  the 


president ;  Frederick  T.  Steinway  (son  of  Heniy 
Stein  way,  bom  Feb,  9,  1860),  vice-president ; 
Nahum  Stetson,  secretary  ;  Friedrich  Reide- 
meister,  treasurer.  These  gentlemen,  together 
yrith  Henry  Ziegler  (grandson  of  the  founder  of 
the  house,  bom  Oct.  30,  1857),  oonstmctor, 
form  the  Board  of  Directors.  Among  the  junior 
members  of  the  house  are  two  sons  of  William 
Steinway,  Theodore  E.  and  William  R.  Stein- 
way. Nahum  Stetson  entered  the  service  of 
the  corporation  as  salesman  in  1876 ;  Mr. 
Reidemeister  has  been  in  the  service  of  the  house 
since  1891.  H.  E.  K. 

STEIN  WEG,  the  original  of  SxEiNvirAY 
(Grotian,  Helfferich,  Schulz,  Th.  Steinwegs 
Nachfolger).  This  firm  of  pianoforte-makers 
in  Brunswick  succeeded,  as  the  style  implies, 
to  Mr.  Theodor  Steinweg  or  Steinway,  when  he 
retired,  in  1865,  from  the  business  founded  by 
his  father,  to  join  the  New  York  fimi  of  Stein- 
way k  Sons,  of  which,  being  the  eldest  brother, 
he  became  the  senior  partner.  Soon  after  the 
Steinway  system  of  construction  was  brought 
out  in  America,  he  introduced  it  in  Germany, 
and  in  the  season  of  1860-61  his  concert  instru- 
ments, made  on  that  principle,  were  publicly 
used.  His  successors  in  Branswick  have  main- 
tained the  good  reputation  he  founded  for  these 
instnunents,  which  are  favoured  with  the  pre- 
ference of  some  eminent  pianists ;  notably  of 
Madame  Schumann,  who  from  1870  used  them 
exclusively  in  Germany  for  her  public  perform- 
ances. Although  the  present  firm  preserve 
the  Steinway  model  in  the  main,  they  claim 
to  have  made  deviations  and  alterations,  par- 
ticularly in  the  action,  that  give  the  instmments 
of  'Th.  Steinwegs  Nachfolger'  their  own 
cachet.  a.  j.  h. 

STENHOUSE,  William,  a  writer  on  Scot- 
tish music,  was  born  in  Roxburghshire,  in 
1773,  and  died  Nov.  10,  1827.  He  was  an 
accountant  in  Edinburgh,  and  before  1817 
conceived  the  idea  of  annotating  Johnson's 
Scots  Musical  Museum^  with  historical  references 
regarding  both  words  and  music.  He  contributed 
specimens  of  these  notes  to  Blackwood^ 8  Magazine 
for  July  1817.  For  a  republication  of  the 
Scots  Musical  Museum^  Stenhouse's  notes  were 
printed  in  1820,  but  laid  aside  for  a  considerable 
period,  being  ultimately  published  in  1839 
and  again  in  1853.  Stenhouse's  work  has  been 
a  bone  of  contention  among  musical  antiquaries 
since  its  publication. 

There  is  undoubtedly  a  vast  mass  of  interest- 
ing and  trustworthy  information  in  the  notes, 
together  with  many  careless  and  slipshod 
references  which  have  caused  the  whole  work 
to  be  condemned. 

Stenhouse  edited  the  musical  portion  of 
James  Hogg's  Jacobite  Belies,  1819-21.     f.  k. 

STEPHENS,  Catherine,  bom  in  London, 


having  given  early  indications  of  aptitude  for 
music,  was  in  1807  placed  under  the  instruction 
of  Gesualdo  Lanza,  whose  pupO  she  remained 
for  five  years.  Early  in  1812  she  appeared  in 
subordinate  parts  at  the  Pantheon  as  a  member 
of  an  Italian  Opera  Company.  Soon  afterwards 
her  father,  dissatisfied  with  the  apparently 
small  progress  she  made  under  Lanza,  placed 
her  under  the  tuition  of  Thomas  Welsh.  On 
Sept.  23,  1813,  she  appeared  anonymously  at 
Covent  Garden  as  Mandane  in  'Artaxerxes' 
with  decided  success.  She  repeated  the  part 
on  Sept.  28,  as  '  Miss  Stevens,'  and  on  Sept.  30, 
under  her  proper  name.  On  Oct.  22,  she  sang 
Polly  in  *The  Beggar's  Opera,'  Riosetta  in 
*Love  in  a  Village,'  and  afterwards  Clara  in 
'The  Duenna,'  in  each  gaining  ground  in 
public  favour.  In  March  1814  she  was  en- 
gaged at  the  Concert  of  Antient  Music,  and 
later  in  the  year  she  sang  at  the  festivals  at 
Norwich  and  Birminghajn.  [She  sang  in 
Edinburgh  in  1814,  and  at  Dublin  in  1816, 

1821,  and  1825.  Diet,  of  Nat.  Biog."]  She 
continued  at  Covent  Garden  from  1813  until 

1822,  when  she  broke  with  the  managers  on 
a  question  of  terms  and  transferred  her 
services  to  Drury  Lane.  She  occupied  the 
principal  position  on  the  English  operatic  stage, 
at  the  first  concerts,  and  the  festivals,  until 
1835,  when  she  retired  into  private  life.  Her 
voice  was  a  pure  soprano,  rich,  full,  and  power- 
ful, and  of  extensive  compass,  and  her  execution 
neat,  although  not  very  remarkable  for  brilliancy. 
She  somewhat  lacked  dramatic  instinct  and 
power,  and  her  enunciation  was  very  bad,  but 
she  excelled  in  the  expression  of  quiet  devotional 
feeling  and  simple  pathos.  In  such  songs  as 
Handel's  '  Angels,  ever  bright  and  fair,'  and 
*  If  guiltless  blood,'  and  in  ballads  like  '  Auld 
Robin  Gray,'  and  *  Savoumeen  Deelish,'  slie 
captivated  every  hearer.  On  April  19,  1838, 
she  was  married  to  the  widowed  octogenarian 
Earl  of  Essex  in  his  house  No.  9  Belgrave 
Square,^  and  on  April  23,  1839,  became  his 
widow.  She  survived  him  for  nearly  forty- 
three  years,  dying  in  the  house  in  which 
she  was  married,  Feb.  22,  1882.  [A  portrait 
by  John  Jackson  is  in  the  National  Portrait 
Gallery.]  w.  H.  H. 

STEPHENS,  Charles  Edward,  nephew  of 
the  preceding,  was  bom  in  Edgware  Road, 
March  18,  1821.  Displaying  early  tokens  of 
musical    organisation,    he   was    placed    under 

>  lathe  Parish  Bcslvter  of  St  Oeorge'a,  Hanover  Square.  Vht 
inaniaff«  was  oriclnally  entered  ae  h«vlng  been  eelebnted  In  *  the 
Farleh  Church.'  These  last  three  wonls  were,  however,  sabaequentlT 
0rat9d  (ill  two  places)  wUh  a  iharp  inMrumant,  and  *9  Belgrmw 
Square'  written  upon  the  erasures,  but  without  tnj  note,  or 
authentication  of  the  alteration  beinir  made  in  the  Register.  The 
original  entry  is  invved  by  the  words  '  the  Farl^  Church 'naaafD- 
ing  unaltered  in  the  oerUfled  coi^  of  the  Register  at  Somenei 
House,  until  March  1882.  when  the  discrepancy  was  pointed  <mt  by 
the  present  writer,  and  measures  taken  for  Its  correction.  It  Is  to 
be  hoped  that  this  is  a  solitary  instance  of  so  flagrant  a  vloUtfon 
of  the  directions  of  the  Act  of  Parliament  as  to  the  mode  in  wbl<da 
erroneous  entries  in  Registers  are  to  be  rectified. 


STEPHENS 


STERLING 


693 


Cipriani  Potter  for  pianoforte,  J.  A.  Hamilton 
for  harmony,  counterpoint,  and  composition, 
and  Henry  Blagrove  for  the  violin.  In  1843  he 
vfas  elected  organist  of  St.  Mark's,  Myddelton 
Siniare,  and  subsequently  held  the  same  office 
at  Holy  Trinity,  Paddington,  1846  ;  St.  John's, 
Hampstead,  1856 ;  St  Mark's,  St.  John's  Wood, 
1862-63;  St  Clement  Danes,  1864-69,  and 
St  Saviour's,  Paddington,  1872-75.  In  1860  he 
was  elected  an  associate,  and  in  1857  a  member 
of  the  Philharmonic  Society,  of  which  he  was 
repeatedly  chosen  a  director.  In  1865  he  was 
olected  a  Fellow  of  the  College  of  Organists,  in  1 8  70 
an  honorary  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Music,  and  in  1877  a  licentiate,  fwnaris  eausA^  of 
Trinity  College,  London.  His  first  important 
composition  was  a  trio  for  pianoforte,  violin,  and 
violoncello,  produced  at  the  Society  of  British 
Musicians,  himself  performing  the  pianoforte 
part ;  his  works  also  include  several  concert 
overtures  of  merit.  No.  4  of  which,  *A  Dream 
of  Happiness,'  was  played  at  the  Crystal  Palace, 
Nov.  18,  1875.  He  also  composed  many  works 
for  pianoforte  and  organ,  and  much  vocal  music, 
comprising  anthems  and  services,  songs,  ballads, 
|)art-song8,  etc.  His  part-song, '  Come,  fill  ye  right 
merrily,'  gained  the  prize  given  by  Mr.  Henry 
Leslie's  Choir  in  1858,  and  in  April  1879  he 
was  awarded  both  the  first  and  second  prizes 
given  by  Trinity  College,  London,  for  the  best 
string  quartet  [His  sjniipbony  in  G  minor 
was  performed  at  the  Philharmonic  Concert  in 
March  1891.  He  died  in  London,  July  18, 1892, 
and  was  buried  at  Kensal  Green.]    w.  h.  h. 

STEPHENS,  John,  Mus.D.,  educated  as  a 
chorister  in  Gloucester  Cathedral,  in  1746 
succeeded  Edward  Thomson  as  organist  of 
Salisbury  Cathedral.  He  graduated  as  Mus.D. 
at  Cambridge  in  1763,  conducted  the  Gloucester 
Festival  in  1766,  and  died  Dec.  15,  1780. 
A  volume  of  *  Cathedral  Music '  by  him, 
edited  by  Higlmiore  Skeats,  was  published 
in  1805.  w.  H.  H. 

STERKEL,  JoHANN  Feanz  Xaver  (Abb^ 
Sterkel),  bom  at  Wiirzburg,  Dec  3,  1750,  was 
a  distinguished  amateur.  Though  music  formed 
a  part  of  his  education  it  was  only  a  part.  He 
went  through  his  college  course  at  Wiirzburg 
University,  took  orders  and  became  vicar  and 
organist  of  Neumiinster.  In  1 7 78  he  was  called 
to  the  Court  of  the  Elector  of  Mainz  at  Aschaf- 
fenburg  as  chaplain  and  pianist  Next  year 
the  Elector  sent  him  on  a  journey  through  Italy ; 
success  attended  him  everywhere,  and  at  Naples 
he  brought  out  an  opera,  'Famace,*  in  1780, 
with  ^lat  In  1781  he  returned  to  Mainz  and 
was  promoted  to  a  canonry.  All  this  time  he 
was  composing  as  well  as  playing  in  all  depart- 
ments of  music.  He  wrote  about  this  date  some 
German  songs  which  were  great  favourites,  and 
he  formed  some  excellent  pupils — among  com- 
posers Hofmann  and  Znlehner,  among  singers 
Griinbaum   and   Kirschbaum.     In    September 


1791  occurred  the  great  musical  event  of 
Sterkel's  life,  though  he  probably  did  not  know 
its  significance — his  meeting  with  Beethoven, 
then  a  youth  of  twenty.  Beethoven  came  to 
Aschaifenburg  with  the  band  of  the  Elector  of 
Bonn,  and  was  taken  by  Ries  and  Simrock  to  call 
on  the  great  player,  whose  reputation  was  some- 
thing like  that  of  Liszt  in  after  years.  Sterkel 
was  the  first  great  executant  that  Beethoven 
had  ^eard,  and  the  extreme  refinement  and 
finish  of  his  style  evidently  struck  him  much. 
He  ¥ratched  him  with  the  closest  attention,  and 
not  unnaturally  declined  to  play  in  his  turn,  till 
Sterkel  induced  him  to  do  so  by  speaking  of  his 
twenty -four  variations  on  Righini's  'Venni 
Amore. '  They  had  been  published  only  a  few 
months  previously,  and  Sterkel  declared  that 
they  were  so  hard  that  he  did  not  believe  even 
the  composer  could  play  them.  Beethoven 
played  what  he  could  recollect,  and  improvised 
others  fully  equalling  the  originals  in  difficulty 
— but  the  curious  thing  was  that  he  adopted 
Sterkel's  delicate  style  all  through.  They  do 
not  appear  to  have  met  again.  In  1793 
Sterkel  succeeded  Righini  as  Capellmeister  to  the 
Elector,  and  this  threw  him  still  more  into  seri- 
ous composition  ;  but  the  French  war  forced  the 
Elector  to  leave  Mainz,  and  his  Capellmeister 
returned  to  Wiirzburg.  In  1805  he  became 
Capellmeister  at  Ratisbon,  where  all  his  old 
energy  revived,  and  he  taught  and  com^xwed 
with  the  greatest  vigour  and  success.  The 
war  of  1818  at  length  drove  him  back  from 
Ratisbon  to  Wiirzburg,  and  there  he  died  Oct 
21,  1817. 

The  list  of  Sterkel's  published  compositions 
is  immense.  \BeQ  tha  QueUen'LexilamJ\  Item- 
braces  10  symphonies  ;  2  overtures  ;  a  string 
quintet ;  a  quartet  for  PF.  and  strings  ;  6  string 
trios ;  6  do.  duos  ;  6  PF.  concertos ;  a  very 
large  number  of  sonatas  for  PF.  both  for  two  and 
four  hands ;  variations,  and  minor  pieces ;  10 
collections  of  songs  for  voice  and  PF. ;  Italian 
canzonets,  duets,  etc.  The  number  of  editions 
which  some  of  these  went  through  shows  how 
widely  popular  Sterkel  was  in  his  day.  [A 
Mass,  and  a  Te  Deum  are  in  MS.]  o. 

STERLING,  Antoinette,  bom  Jan.  23, 
1850  (?),  at  Sterlingville,  in  the  State  of  New 
York.  She  possessed,  even  in  childhood,  a  voice 
of  extraordinary  range,  which  after^-ards  settled 
into  a  contralto  of  great  richness  and  volume, 
with  a  compass  from  cb  to  f.  Her  first 
serious  study  of  singing  began  in  1867  in  New 
York  under  Signer  Abella,  better  known  as  the 
husband  of  Mme.  d' Angri.  She  came  to  England 
in  1868  and  remained  a  few  months,  singing 
chiedy  in  the  provinces,  en  route  for  Germany. 
There  she  was  first  a  pupil  of  Mme.  Marchesi 
at  Cologne,  then  of  Pauline  Viardot  at  Baden- 
Baden,  and  lastly  of  Manuel  Garcia  in  London. 
She  returned  to  America  in  1871,  and  soon  took 
a  high  position  as  a  concert-singer.     On  May 


in  a  concert  at  tne  Irving  Hall,  lioston,  amved 
in  England,  and  made  her  first  appearance  on 
Nov.  5  at  the  Covent  Garden  Promenade  Con- 
cert, under  the  conductorship  of  Sir  Julius 
Benedict.  At  the  Crystal  Palace  she  first  sang 
on  Dec.  6,  and  shortly  after  appeared  at  the 
Saturday  Popular,  Feb.  21,  1874,  Sacred 
Harmonic,  Philharmonic,  Albert  HaU,  and 
London  Ballad  Concerts.  At  Gloucester,  in 
the  following  September,  she  sang  at  the 
Festival.  She  was  married  on  Easter  Sunday 
1875,  at  the  Savoy  Chapel,  to  Mr.  John 
MacKinlay ;  and  from  that  time,  excepting  a 
few  months  in  the  same  year,  when  she  sang 
in  America  in  a  series  of  forty  concerts  under 
Theodore  Thomas,  resided  in  London,  and  was 
one  of  the  most  popular  singers  there.  She  was 
not  unknown  in  classical  music.  On  her  first 
arrival  here  she  sang  the  Cradle  Song  from 
Bach's  Christmas  Oratorio  with  much  effect, 
and  her  repertory  contained  songs  of  Mendels- 
sohn and  Schumann.  But  she  was  essentially 
a  ballad  singer.  Her  voice  was  one  of  great 
beauty  and  attractiveness  ;  but  it  was  her 
earnestness  and  intention,  the  force  which  she 
threw  into  the  story — especially  if  it  was  weird 
or  grim,  such  as  *  The  three  fishers,*  *The 
sands  of  Dee,*  or  *  The  three  ravens  * — and  tlie 
distinctness  with  which  she  declaimed  the 
words,  that  formed  the  real  secret  of  her  success. 
[She  died  at  Hampstead,  Jan.  9,  1904,  and  was 
cremated  at  the  Golder's  Green  Crematorium. 
Her  son,  Mr.  Sterling  MacKinlay,  a  baritone 
singer,  published  a  memoir  in  1906.]  g. 

STERN,  Julius,  was  born  at  Breslau,  August 
8,  1820,  but  removed  at  an  early  age  to  Berlin, 
where  he  learned  music  under  Maurer,  Ganz, 
and  Rungenhagen,  at  the  Singakademie  and  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Arts  and  soon  began  to  com- 
pose. '  Please  enquire  about  Mr.  Julius  Stem 
of  Berlin,'  says  Mendelssohn,^  'who  has  sent 
me  a  book  of  songs  with  a  kind  note.  From 
the  first  glance  I  think  they  show  talent,  but 
I  have  not  seen  or  heard  anything  else  about 
him.*  In  1843  he  received  a  travelling  scholar- 
ship from  the  King,  which  led  him,  first  to 
Dresden  for  tlie  special  study  of  singing,  and 
then  to  Paris,  where  he  soon  became  known  as 
conductor  of  the  German  '  Gesangverein. '  Here 
he  performed  the  'Antigone, '  first  in  the  studio  of 
Henry  Lehmann  the  painter,'  and  then  at  the 
Od^on  Theatre,  which  drew  from  Mendelssohn  a 
very  characteristic  letter  (May  27,  1844).  In 
1846  he  returned  to  Berlin,  and  in  1847  founded 
the  well-known  Singing  Society  which  bore  his 
name.  The  first  performance  of  'El^ah'  in 
Oct.  1847  gave  a  specimen  of  the  powers  of 
the  new  Association,  and  the  level  has  since 
been  fully  maintained  by  performances  of  a 
very  wide  range  of  works  both  ancient  and 
modem.     In  1872  the  Society  celebrated  its 


I  JV«ii<(eI«0ftn  ftomfly.  U.  07. 


s  /Md.  p.  2W. 


conclusively  showed  how  wide  and  deep  was  tne 
public  feeling.  In  1 8 7 4  ill-health  obliged  Stem 
to  retire  from  the  conductorship,  and  he  was 
succeeded  by  StockhaUxSEN,  who  was  succeeded 
in  1878  by  Max  Bruch  (till  1880),  Emil 
RuDORFF  (1880-90),  Fr.  Gernsheim  (1890- 
1904),  and  Oskar  Fried  (1904  to  the  present 
time). 

Meantime,  in  1850,  with  Kullak  and  Marx, 
he  had  founded  his  Conservatorium,  which, 
notwithstanding  the  defection  of  his  two  col- 
leagues, still  flourishes  and  has  educated  many 
good  musicians.  From  1869  to  1871  he  con- 
ducted the  Berlin  '  Sinfonie-Capelle,'  and  at 
Christmas  1873  undertook  the  Reichshall  Con- 
certs, which,  however,  were  not  commercially 
successful,  and  only  lasted  for  two  seasons.  He 
then  confined  himself  to  his  Conservatorium  till 
his  death,  Feb.  27,  1883.  Stem  has  published 
many  vocal  pieces  and  arrangements,  but  his 
most  enduring  work  will  probably  be  his  edition 
of  Exercises  by  Vaccaj  (Bote  k  Bock),  Cres- 
centini  (Peters),  etc.  He  was  made  a  *  Konigliche 
Musikdirector *  in  1849,  and  'Konigliche  Pro- 
fessor' in  1860.  G. 

STERN,  Leopold  Lawrence,  violoncellist, 
bom  at  Brighton,  April  6, 1862.  He  belonged 
to  a  musical  family,  his  father  being  a  German 
violinist  and  his  mother  (7i4e  Annie  Lawrence) 
an  English  pianist  From  his  early  youth  he 
showed  strong  musical  leanings,  and  as  a  boy 
played  the  drum  in  the  *  Brighton  Symphony 
Society,*  of  which  his  father  was  the  conductor. 
In  1877  he  became  a  student  at  the  South 
Kensington  School  of  Chemistry,  keeping  up  his 
music  meanwhile,  and  eventually  began  the 
violoncello  under  Hugo  Daubert.  In  1 880  he  ac- 
cepted a  business  appointment  at  Thomliebank 
near  Glasgow  ;  but  three  years  later  he  finally 
abandoned  chemistry  in  favour  of  music  and, 
returning  to  London,  entered  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Music,  studying  the  violoncello  first  under 
Signer  Pezze  and  then  under  Piatti,  and  subse- 
quently visiting  Leipzig  in  order  to  take  lessons 
from  Julius  Klengel  and  Davidov.  Returning 
to  England  in  1886,  he  played  both  in  London 
and  the  Provinces,  accompanied  Patti  on  one 
of  her  tours,  and  later  on  played  in  concerts  with 
Sauret  and  Paderewski.  In  Paris  he  played 
with  Godard  and  Massenet.  In  1 895  he  visited 
Prague,  where,  being  favourably  impressed  by 
his  playing,  Dvof-Ak  selected  him  to  bring  out 
his  Violoncello  Concerto,  and  came  himself  to 
London  to  conduct  in  person  the  first  public 
performance  of  the  same,  which  took  place  at 
the  Philharmonic  Concert  in  March  1896,  when 
Stem  achieved  his  greatest  success.  He  subse- 
quently played  it  at  Prague,  the  Leipzig  Gewaud- 
haus,  and  the  Berlin  Philharmonic. 

In  1897  and  1898  Stem  toured  through  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  and  hencefort;h  ap- 
peared but  rarely  before  an  English  audience. 


STEVENS 


STEWART 


695 


Of  somewhat  delicate  health,  the  strain  of  public 
playing  slowly  undermined  his  constitution, 
and  finally  compelled  him  in  1893  to  abandon 
an  American  tour  and  return  to  London,  where, 
after  a  lingering  illness,  he  died  at  the  early  age 
of  forty-two  on  Sept.  10,  1904. 

Stem  was  twice  married  :  firstly,  in  1891,  to 
Nettie  Carpenter,  a  violinist  of  some  distinction ; 
and  secondly,  in  1898,  to  Suzanne  Adams,  the 
accomplished  operatic  singer. 

In  his  early  years  Leo  Stem  played  upon  a 
violoncello  by  Guidantus,  later  on  the  '  General 
Kyde*  Stradivari  (an  instrument  of  large 
proportions),  and  finally  on  the  ^Baudiot' 
Stradivari.  w.  w.  c. 

STEVENS,  BiCHARD  John  Sahxtel,  bom  in 
London,  March  27,  1757,  was  educated  in  St. 
Paul's  Cathedral  choir  under  William  Savage. 
He  distinguished  himself  as  a  glee  composer, 
and  obtained  prizes  from  the  Catch  Club  for  his 
glees,  *See,  what  horrid  tempests  rise,*  1782, 
and  'It  was  a  lover  and  his  lass,'  1786.  He 
was  appointed  organist  of  the  Temple  Church, 
1786,  organist  of  the  Charter  House,  1796 
(retaining  his  appointment  at  the  Temple),  and 
on  March  17,  1801,  was  elected  Professor  of 
Music  in  Gresham  College.  He  published  three 
sets  of  glees,  three  harpsichord  sonatas  (op.  1), 
and  songs.  Nine  glees  and  a  catch  by  him  are 
included  in  Warren's  collections.  Among  his 
best  glees  may  be  mentioned  'Ye  spotted 
snakes,'  *  Blow,  blow,  thou  winter  wind,' 
'Crabbed  age  and  youth,'  'Sigh  no  more,  ladies,' 

*  The  cloud-capt  towers,'  *  From  Oberon  in  fairy 
land,'  all  of  which  still  retain  their  popularity 
vnth.  lovers  of  that  class  of  composition.  He 
edited  '  Sacred  Music  for  one,  two,  three  and 
four  voices,  from  the  works  of  the  most  esteemed 
composers,  Italian  and  English,'  an  ezceUent 
collection  in  3  vols.  fol.  He  died  Sept.  23, 
1837.  [He  left  a  valuable  collection  of  music 
to  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music]     w.  h.  h. 

STEVENSON,  Sir  John  Andrew,  Knight, 
Mus.D.,  son  of  John  Stevenson,  a  violinist  in 
the  State  Band  in  Dublin,  was  bom  in  Dublin 
about  1762.  In  1 7 71  he  was  admitted  a  chorister 
of  Christ  Church  Cathedral,  Dublin,  and  in 
1775-80  was  in  the  choir  of  St.  Patrick's  Cathe- 
dral. He  became  a  vicar-choral  of  St.  Patrick's 
in  1783  and  of  Christ  Church  in  1800.  He 
composed  new  music  to  O'Keeffe's  farces,  *  The 
Son-in-Law'  (1781),  'The  Dead  Alive'  (1781), 
and  'The  Agi-eeable  Surprise' (1782),  to  enable 
them  to  be  performed  in  Dublin,  and  also  com- 
posed for  the  Irish  stage  some  of  the  music  of 

*  The  Contract,'  1782  ;  *  Love  in  a  blaze,'  1799  ; 
'  The  Patriot,'  1810 ;  *  The  Burning  of  Moscow,' 
and  'Bedouins,'  1801.  He  obtained  his 
honorary  Mus.D.  degree  at  Dublin  in  1791,  and 
his  knighthood  from  the  Lord-Lieutenant  (Lord 
Hardwicke)  in  1803.  [In  1814  he  was  ai>- 
pointed  the  first  organist  and  musical  director 
at  the   Castle  Chapel.]     He  composed  some 


Services  and  Anthems  (a  coUection  of  which  he 
published,  with  his  portrait  prefixed,  in  1825), 
'  Thanksgiving '  (Dublin  Musical  Festival,  Sept. 
1831),  an  oratorio,  and  numerous  glees,  duets, 
canzonets,  songs,  etc  But  the  work  by  which 
he  is  best  known  is  the  symphonies  and  accom- 
paniments to  the  collection  of  Irish  Melodies, 
the  words  for  which  were  written  by  Thomas 
Moore.  He  died  at  Headfort  House,  while  on 
a  visit  to  his  daughter,  the  Marchioness  of 
Headfort,  Sept.  14,  1838.  [A  monument 
was  erected  to.  his  memory  in  St.  Patrick's 
CathedraL  A  biographical  sketch,  by  John 
Bumpus,  appeared  in  1893.]  w.  h.  h.  ;  addi- 
tions and  corrections  by  w.  H.  o.  F. 

STEWART,  Neil.  One  of  the  early  Edin- 
burgh music-publishers.  In  1759  he  was  at 
the  sign  of  the  '  Violin  and  German  Flute '  in 
the  Exchange,  but  before  1761  he  had  removed 
to  a  shop,  'opposite  the  Head  of  Blackfriar's 
Wynd,'  which  had  probably  been  Bremner's 
place  of  business.  He  again  removed  to  the 
Exchange,  and  then  to  Miln's  Square  (now 
demolished),  facing  the  Tron  Church.  After- 
wards the  business  was  in  Parliament  Square, 
and  finally  in  South  Bridge  Street.  The  stock- 
in-trade  and  plates  were  sold  off  by  auction  in 
1805.  Originally  foxmded  by  the  elder  Neil 
Stewart,  the  business  afterwards  developed  into 
a  partnership  as  'Neil  Stewart  &  Company,' 
and  finally  belonged  to  Neil  and  Malcolm 
Stewart,  the  two  sons. 

The  Stewart  publications  comprise  a  great 
bulk  of  important  works  of  Scottish  music,  and 
include  republications  of  M  'Gibbon ;  collections  of 
reels  and  country  dances ;  marches  and  minuets ; 
M'Glashan's  works ;  Scots  Songs ;  and  great 
quantities  of  interesting  music  sheets,     f.  k. 

STEWART,  Sir  Robert  Prescott,  Knight, 
Mus.D.,  son  of  Charles  Frederick  Stewart,  libra- 
rian of  the  King's  Inns,  Dublin,  was  bom  in 
Dublin,  Dec.  16,  1825.  He  was  educated  as  a 
chorister  of  Christ  Church  Cathedral,  Dublin, 
of  which  he  was  appointed  organist  in  1844, 
in  which  year  he  was  also  appointed  organist 
of  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  In  1846  he  became 
conductor  of  the  University  of  Dublin  Choral 
Society,  the  members  of  which  defrayed  the 
expenses  of  the  performance  of  his  music  for 
degrees  of  Mus.B.  and  Mus.D.  which  took 
place  in  1851,  besides  presenting  him  with  his 
graduate's  robes  and  a  jewelled  bslton.  In 
1852  he  became  a  vicar-choral  of  St.  Patrick's 
Cathedral,  and  in  1861  was  appointed  Professor 
of  Music  in  the  University  of  Dublin.  For 
the  great  Peace  Festival  held  at  Boston  in 
America,  in  1872,  he  composed  a  fantasia  on 
Irish  airs  for  orchestra,  organ,  and  chorus,  but 
declined  the  invitation  to  represent  Ireland 
there.  On  this  occasion  he  received  knight- 
hood from  the  Lord-Lieutenant  (Earl  Spencer) 
[and  became  Professor  of  Theory  in  the  Royal 
Irish  Academy  of  Music].      In  1873  he  was 


momc.  ne  aiea  m  uuDim,  Murcn  Z4,  I5if4. 
Amongst  Sir  Bobert  Stewart's  many  oomposi- 
tions,  his  glees  deserve  particular  mention. 
In  this  brandti  of  his  art  he  won  numerous  prizes 
and  well-merited  renowa.  His  more  important 
works  include  an  ode  for  the  opening  of  the 
Cork  Exhibition  of  1 852 ;  *  Ode  on  Shakespeare, ' 
produced  at  the  Birmingham  Festival,  1870 ; 
and  two  Cantatas,  <  A  Winter  Night's  Wake  ' 
and  'The  Eve  of  S.  John.'  He  edited  the 
Irish  <  Church  Hymnal '  (1876). 

Sir  Bobert  Stewart  enjoyed  a  high  reputation 
as  an  organist  and  extemporiser  ;  his  playing 
at  the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851  and  at  that  of 
Manchester  in  1857  excited  general  admiration. 
As  occupant  of  the  Dublin  Chair  of  Music,  his 
excellent  lectures  and  writings  on  music  bore 
evidence  to  his  wide  culture  and  literary  skill, 
as  well  as  to  his  high  musical  attainments. 
[He  was  the  first  to  require  candidates  for  the 
musical  degrees  to  pass  a  literary  test,  and 
the  good  example  was  afterwards  followed  at 
Cambridge.  A  portrait  by  Sir  T.  A.  Jones  is 
in  the  Royal  Irish  Academy  of  Music,  and  his 
statue  is  on  Leinster  Lawn,  Dublin.  A  biography 
by  Olinthus  John  Vignoles  appeared  in  1898, 
and  Dr.  Culwick's  The  Works  of  Sir  R,  P. 
SUnfartf  with  a  catalogue  of  his  compositions 
(Dublin,  1902),  may  be  consulted.]  His  musical 
memory  was  remarkable.  w.  H.  H. 

STI ASTN  ^,  BernardWknzel,  violoncellist, 
was  bom  at  Prague  in  1770.  Little  is  known  of 
him  except  that  he  was  a  member  of  the  Prague 
orchestra,  studied  with  Seegr  and  was  prob- 
ably professor  at  the  Conservatorium,  to  which 
he  dedicated  his  work  on  the  violoncello. 
It  is  remarkable  for  what  may  be  almost  called 
a  treatise  on  the  accompaniment  of  recitative 
as  it  was  then  practised. 

STiASTNf ,  JoHANN,  brother  of  the  above,  was 
bom  at  Prague  in  1774.  We  know  scarcely 
anything  of  his  career  except  that  he  was  in 
the  orchestra  at  Prague  in  1800-20.  He  seems 
to  have  studied  harmony  and  the  yioloncello  at 
Prague,  under  his  brother,  but  he  must  have 
soon  left  that  city,  as  he  is  described  on  the 
title  of  his  op.  3  as  '  Yioloncelle  de  S.  A.  R.  le 
Grand  Due  de  Frankfort'  According  to  F^tis 
he  was  musical  director  at  Nuremberg  in  1820, 
and  from  thence  went  to  Mannheim.  He  is 
known  to  have  been  in  London,  and  he  dedicated 
two  of  his  finest  compositions  to  Lindley  and 
Crosdill,  as  well  as  his  three  duets,  op.  8,  to  Sir 
W.  Curtis.  His  last  and  perhaps  finest  work 
was  published  and  probably  written  in  London. 
He  was  also  in  Paris,  where  he  arranged  his  op. 
1 1  for  violoncello  and  piano,  and  he  dedicated  his 
op.  3  to  the  pupils  of  the  Conservatoire.  There 
exists  a  beautiful  French  edition  of  his  six 
grand  duets,  op.  1,  and  also  of  his  two  sonatas, 
op.  2,  the  latter  in  score.  Though  the  list  of 
his  works  only  amounts  to  thirteen  in  number, 


mm  i»  rauK  among  ine  very  nrsc  writers  tor 
the  instrument.     A  list  of  his  works  follows : — 

Op. 

I.  six  gruid  doeU  far  tvo  roello*,  dedicated  to  Us  brother. 
8.  Two  MoatM  flbr  ToeUo  aolo  vtth  aceonipuiliiMDt  for  a  aaeand 

▼oello. 
8.  DlT«rtliwment  for  TosUoaolovitli  aoeiwipanimenU  for  tenor 

and  eercind  vcdlo. 
4.  Twoive '  PeUteepUcM  poor  TioloneeUe  et  tmrne  k  Vvaugt  de  eom- 


B.  SlxpMoeofMUMflorToelloandlMa. 

6.  ThzM  giaiiddaatofortiroTeeUoa. 

7.  Conoeriiiio  for  ToeUowith  aeoomiMiiiineBts  for  flute,  twotenar^ 

▼oello  and  oontimlMaa,  dadloted  to  UndJcy. 
a  lliree  dnats  fbr  two  roaUoa. 
9.  Six  pUcea  facilea  for  ToeUoaad  taws. 
IOl  Andante  with  variations  fbr  voeUoaolo  with  aeeompanlmanta 

for  flute,  two  violins,  tenor,  and  ToaUo,  dedicated  to  CnwdilL 
IL  Six  aoloa  for  Toello  and  baaa. 

1^  Tliemewithvarlationsand  rondo  with  qnartetaeeompanlment. 
U.  Grand  trio  for  voeUo  solo  with  aooorapaniment  for  tenor  and 

seoood  voeUo,  pubUsbed  in  London  by  Welsh  *  Hawea.  bat 

unknown  on  the  Continent.  q    ^ 

STICCADO-PASTKOLE.  An  early  name 
for  a  kind  of  wooden  dulcimer  formed  of  a 
graduated  series  of  rods  which  being  struck  give 
forth  musical  sounds.  (See  Xylophone.)  A 
trade  card,  in  date  about  1770,  advertises  that 
'6.  Smart,  Sticcado-Pastrole  maker,  from  Mr. 
Bremner's  music-shop  .  .  .  continues  to  make 
the  above  instruments  with  improyements.' 
The  above  G.  Smart  was  afterwards  a  muaiC' 
publisher,  and  was  the  father  of  Sir  George  Smart 
the  musician.  f.  k. 

STICH,  JoHANN  Wbnzel,  known  as  Punto, 
eminent  horn -player,  bom  about  1755  in 
Bohemia,  was  taught  music  and  the  French-horn 
by  Matiegka  and  Hampel  of  Dresden,  at  the 
expense  of  Count  Thun.  On  his  return  to  the 
Count's  household  he  considered  himself  ill- 
treated,  and  ran  away  with  some  of  his  com- 
rades. To  avoid  recognition  he  Italianised  his 
name  to  Punto,  and  travelled  in  Germany  and 
France,  settling  for  a  time  in  Wurzbuig,  Treves, 
Coblenz,  Paris,  etc.,  and  attracting  considerable 
attention.  In  Paris  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Mozart,  who  composed  for  him  a  Sinfonie 
concertante  for  flute,  oboe,  horn,  and  bassoon, 
never  played  and  now  unfortunately  lost. 
'  Punto  plays  magnificently '  (blast  magnijiquey, 
writes  Mozart  to  his  father.  In  1788  he  was 
engaged  by  Mara  (with  Graff,  Fischer,  and 
Florio)  for  her  concerts  at  the  Pantheon,  London. 
In  Vienna,  Beethoven  composed  his  sonata 
for  PF.  and  horn  (op.  17)  for  him,  and  they 
played  it  together  without  rehearsal,  at  Punto's 
concert,  April  18,  1800.  It  was  received 
enthusiastically,  and  at  once  encored.  After 
this  Punto  made  another  tour  with  Duasek, 
returned  to  Prague  and  gave  a  concert  at  the 
theatre  there  in  1801.  He  died  after  a  long 
illness,  Feb.  16,  1803,  and  his  epitaph  runs 

Omne  talit  punctum  Pnnto,  cui  Musa  Bohema 
Ut  plausit  vivo,  sic  morienti  gemit. 

His  compositions  were  published  in  Paris  by 
Sieber,  Nadermann,  Cochet,  Imbault,  Le  Due, 
and  Pleyel.  c  p.  p. 

STICKER.  A  light  wooden  rod  used  in  organ 
action  for  conveying  motion  by  a  pushing 
movement     (See  Tkacker.)  t.  k. 


STIEHL 


STOBAEUS 


697 


STIEHL,  Heinrich,  bom  at  LUbeck,  August 
5,  1829,  secoud  son  of  J.  D.  Stiehl  (1800-73), 
an  esteemed  organist  there.  He  studied  at 
Liibeok  and  Weimar,  and  at  Leipzig  under 
Moscheles,  Gade,  and  Hauptmann.  In  1853 
he  settled  in  St.  Petersburg  as  organist  to  the 
St.  Peter's  Church,  and  Director  of  the  Sing- 
akademie.  In  1867  he  moved  to  Vienna,  and 
after  staying  there  two  years  went  on  to  Italy. 
In  1872  and  1873  he  was  in  London,  and  from 
Oct.  1874  to  1877  resided  in  Belfast  as  conductor 
of  the  Philharmonic  Society  and  founder  of  the 
Cecilia  Society  there.  He  then  returned  to 
England,  settling  as  a  teacher  at  Hastings,  and 
in  1880  was  called  to  Beval  in  Russia,  where 
he  held  a  leading  position  as  professor  of  music, 
organist,  and  conductor  of  the  Musical  Society 
of  the  town.  He  gave  an  excellent  performance 
of  Bach's  ^Matthew -Passion'  (the first  in  Russia) 
on  March  17,  1888,  and  repeated  it  at  St. 
Petersburg,  April  6.  He  died  at  Reval,  May  1, 
1886. 

Stiehl's  compositions  are  numerous.  They 
include  two  operas,  'Der  Schatzgraber,'  and 
*  Jery  und  Bately . '  A  little  orohestraJ  piece  called 
'The  Vision'  was  produced  at  the  Crystal 
Palace,  April  12, 1873,  and  was  much  applauded 
for  its  delicate  fanciful  character.  A  *  Hezen- 
tanz,'  '  Ungarisch,'  Waltzes,  and  a  Gavotte  are 
also  well  known  in  Germany.  He  published 
three  PF.  Trios,  a  sonata  for  PF.  and  Vcello, 
Sonata  quasi  Fantasia  for  PF.  solo,  and  many 
other  works,  the  latest  being  a  string  quartet, 
op.  172.  G. 

STIMME  (Germ.),  is  used  both  for  the 
human  voice  and  for  the  individual  parts  in 
polyphonic  composition  or  concerted  music, 
whether  vocal  or  instrumental. 

STIMMFUHRUNG  (Germ.),  Part- writing, 
which  see. 

STIMPSON,  James,  a  well-known  Birming- 
ham musician,  bom  at  Lincoln,  Feb.  29,  1820, 
son  of  a  lay  vicar  of  the  cathedral,  who  removed 
to  Durham  in  1822,  where  James  became  a 
chorister  in  1827.  In  February  1884  he  was 
articled  to  Mr.  Ingham,  organist  of  Carlisle 
Cathedral ;  in  June  1836  was  appointed  organist 
of  St.  Andrew's,  Newcastle  ;  and  in  June  1841, 
on  Ingham's  death,  was  made  organist  of 
Carlisle. 

In  February  1842  James  Stimpson  was 
unanimously  chosen  organist  at  the  Town  Hall 
and  St.  Paul's,  Birmingham,  out  of  many  com- 
petitors, and  in  the  following  year  justified  the 
choice  by  founding  the  Festival  Choral  Society 
and  its  Benevolent  Fund,  in  connection  with 
the  Triennial  Festivals.  He  continued  oi*ganist 
and  chorus-master  to  the  Society  tmtil  1855. 
His  activity,  however,  did  not  stop  here.  In 
1844  he  was  instrumental  in  starting  the  weekly 
Monday  Evening  Concerts,  of  which,  in  1859, 
he  took  the  entire  responsibility,  to  relinquish 
them  only  after  heavy  losses  in  1867. 


In  1845  Mr.  Stimpson  had  the  satis&ction 
of  having  the  pedals  of  the  Town  Hall  organ 
increased  from  2  to  2-^  octaves,  so  that  he  was 
able  to  perform  the  works  of  J.  S.  Bach  un- 
mutilated.  From  his  weekly  recitals  in  the 
Town  Hall,  given  throughout  the  year  to 
audiences  varying  from  600  to  1000,  many  a 
young  amateur  has  derived  his  first  taste  for 
classical  music.  He  was  permanent  organist 
of  the  Birmingham  festivals,  and  Mendelssohn's 
last  visit  there  was  to  conduct  *  Elijah '  for  Mr. 
Stimpson's  benefit,  April  25,  1847.  He  intro- 
duced Sims  Reeves  and  Charles  Hall^  to 
Birmingham,  and  laboured  from  1849  until 
1868,  in  many  ways,  in  the  service  of  good 
music,  gaining  thereby  the  gratitude  and  respect 
of  his  fellow-townsmen.  He  was  for  many  years 
Professor  of  Music  at  the  Blind  Institution.  He 
died  at  Birmingham,  Oct.  4,  1886. 

D'Almaine  published  in  1850  *The  Organists' 
Standard  Library,'  edited  by  Mr.  Stimpson, 
consisting  principally  of  pieces  hitherto  unpub- 
lished in  this  country.  His  other  publications 
consist  mostly  of  arrangements  and  a  manual 
of  theory  published  by  Rudall,  Carte  &  Co.    G. 

STIRLING,  Elizabeth,  an  eminent  English 
organist  and  composer ;  bom  at  Greenwich, 
Feb.  26,  1819 ;  learned  the  organ  and  piano 
from  W.  B.  Wilson  and  Edward  Holmes,  and 
harmony  from  J.  A.  Hamilton  and  G.  A.  Mac- 
farren.  She  attained  a  remarkable  degree  of 
execution  on  the  organ  pedals,  as  may  be  in- 
ferred from  her  first  public  performance,  given 
at  St.  Katherine's  Church,  Rent's  Park,  when, 
out  of  fourteen  numbers,  the  programme  con- 
tained five  pedal  fugues  and  preludes,  three  pedal 
trios,  and  other  pieces,  by  J.  S.  Bach.  In  Nov. 
1839  she  was  elected  organist  of  All  Saints', 
Poplar,  which  she  retained  till  Sept.  1858, 
when  she  gained  the  same  post  at  St.  Andrew's 
Undershaft,  by  competition.  This  she  resigned 
in  1880.  In  1856  she  submitted  an  exercise 
(Ps.  cxxx.  for  five  voices  and  orchestra)  for  the 
degree  of  Mus.B.  Oxon.  ;  but  though  accepted 
it  was  not  performed,  owing  to  the  want  of 
power  to  grant  a  degree  to  a  lady.  She  pub- 
lished some  original  pedal  fugues  and  slow 
movements,  and  other  pieces  for  her  instrument, 
as  well  as  arrangements  from  the  works  of 
Handel,'  Bach,  and  Mozart  Also  songs  and 
duets,  and  many  part-songs  for  four  voices,  of 
which  a  well-established  favourite  is  '  All  among 
the  barley.'  In  1863  she  married  Mr.  F.  A. 
Bridge,  and  died  in  London,  March  25, 1895.  G. 

STOBAEUS,  JoHANN,  was  bom  July  6, 1580, 
at  Graudenz,  a  town  in  West  Prussia  on  the 
river  Vistula.  In  1595  he  was  sent,  for  his 
further  education,  to  Kbnigsberg,  where  also 
from  1600  he  attended  the  University.  In 
1599  he  became  the  pupil  in  music  of  Johann 
Eccard,  then  Ducal  Capellmeister  at  Konigs- 
berg.  In  1601  Stobaeus  was  bass-singer  in 
the  Ducal  Chapel,  and  in  1602  was  appointed 


appointment  of  GapellmeiBter  to  the  Elector  of 
Brandenburg  at  Ebnigsberg,  which  he  retained 
till  his  death  on  Sept.  11,  1646.  Stobaeus 
followed  Eccard  in  the  contrapuntal  setting  of 
the  Chorale-tunes  for  voices  alone,  in  a  style 
midway  between  that  of  the  motet  proper,  and 
that  of  mere  note-for-note  harmony.  In  1634 
he  published  *6eistliche  Lieder  auf  gewohn- 
liche  Preussisohe  Eirchen-Melodeyen  durchaus 
gerichtet  und  mit  fiinff  Stimmen  oomponirt.' 
This  work  contains  102  settings  a  5  of  the 
Chorale-Tunes,  half  of  them  by  Eccard,  the 
remainder  by  Stobaeus.  In  1642  and  1644 
appeared  two  parts  of  <  Preussisohe  Fest-lieder 
mit  5,  6,  8  Stimmen,'  27  by  Eccard,  21  by 
Stobaeus.  In  this  work  the  tunes,  as  well  as 
the  settings,  are  by  the  composers.  It  has  been 
reproduced  in  modern  score  by  Teschner.  An 
earlier  publication  of  Stobaeus  is  his  *  Cantiones 
Sacrae  5,  6,  7,  8,  and  10  vocibus  item  aliquot 
Magnificat  5  et  6  vocibus  adomatae, '  Frankfort, 
1624.  The  Konigsberg  Library  also  contains 
a  large  number  of  occasional  compositions  by 
Stobaeus,  sacred  and  secular.  J.  lu  M. 

STOCK,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  August, 
violinist,  composer,  and  conductor  of  the  Theo- 
dore Thomas  Orchestra  in  Chicago,  U.S.A.,  was 
bom  in  Yiilich,  Germany,  on  Nov.  11, 1872,  the 
son  of  a  bandmaster  in  the  German  army.  Under 
him  he  began  his  musical  studies,  entered  the 
Cologne  Conservatory  at  fourteen  years  of  age, 
was  graduated  as  a  violinist,  and  then  took  up 
seriously  the  study  of  theory  and  composi- 
tion under  Engelbert  Humperdinck,  Heinrich 
Zollner,  Gustav  Jensen,  and  Franz  Wiillner.  In 
1895  he  went  to  America  to  become  a  member 
of  the  Chicago  Symphony  Orchestra,  and  in 
1899  was  appointed  assistant  to  Theodore 
Thomas  (g.v.),  then  conductor  of  that  organisa- 
tion. In  1903  he  conducted  the  concerts  given 
by  the  orchestra  outside  the  city  of  Chicago,  and 
on  the  death  of  Mr.  Thomas  in  January  1905, 
he  succeeded  him  in  the  conductorship.  Mr. 
Stock  has  written  a  considerable  number  of 
works  in  the  larger  forms, — overtures,  symphonic 
poems,  a  set  of  symphonic  variations  which  have 
been  repeatedly  played  in  Chicago,  and  were 
brought  forward  by  Franz  Kneisel  (q.v.)  at  the 
festival  of  1906  in  Worcester  ;  Mr.  Kneisel  has 
also  taken  into  his  repertory  of  chamber-music 
a  string  quartet  of  marked  originality  and 
strength.  In  harmonisation  and  orchestration 
Mr.  Stock  belongs  to  the  latter-day  German 
school  of  vivid  colourists.  h.  e.  k. 

STOCK  AND  HORN,  a  rude  musical  instru- 
ment mentioned  by  early  writers  as  being  in  use 
among  the  Scottish  peasantry.  It  appears  to  have 
been  identical  with  or  similar  to  the  Pibcom  (see 
vol.  iiL  p.  739).  The  instrument  is  figured  in  a 
vignette  in  Ritson's  Scotish  SongSy  1794,  also  on 
the  frontispiece   to   the   editions   of  Ramsay's 


for  Robert  Bums,  the  poet,  had 
much  difficulty  in  obtaining  one. 
It  appears  to  have  been  made  in 
divers  forms,  with  either  a  wooden 
or  a  bone  stock,  the  horn  being 
that  of  a  cow.  Bums,  in  a  letter 
to  George  Thomson,  Nov.  19, 
1794,  thus  describes  it:  'Tell 
my  friend  Allan  .  .  .  that  I 
much  suspect  he  has  in  his  plates 
mistaken  the  figure  of  the  stock 
and  horn.  I  have  at  last  gotten 
one ;  but  it  is  a  very  rude  instm- 
Stock  and  Horn.  ment.  It  is  composed  of  three 
parts,  the  stock,  which  is  the 
hinder  thigh  bone  of  a  sheep  .  .  .  the  horn 
which  is  a  common  Highland  cow's  horn  cut 
off  at  the  smaller  end  imtil  the  aperture  be 
laige  enough  to  admit  the  stock  to  be  poshed 
up  through  the  hom,  until  it  be  held  by  the 
thickerendof  the  thigh  bone ;  andlastly,an  oaten 
reed  exactly  cut  and  notched  like  that  which 
you  see  every  shepherd -boy  have,  when  the 
com  stems  are  green  and  full  grown.  The 
reed  is  not  made  Uat  in  the  bone,  but  is  held  by 
the  lips,  and  plays  loose  on  the  smaller  end  of 
the  stock ;  while  the  stock  with  the  hom  hanging 
on  its  larger  end,  is  held  by  the  hand  in  playing. 
The  stock  has  six  or  seven  ventages  on  the 
upper  side,  and  one  back  ventage,  like  the  com- 
mon flute.  This  of  mine  was  made  by  a  man 
from  the  braes  of  Athole,  and  is  exactly  what 
the  shepherds  are  wont  to  use  in  that  country. 
However,  either  it  is  not  quite  properly  bored 
in  the  holes,  or  else  we  have  not  the  art  of 
blowing  it  rightly,  for  we  can  make  little  of  it.* 
The  illustration  given  is  the  Stock  and  Hom 
as  depicted  by  David  Allan.  f.  k. 

STOCK  EXCHANGE  ORCHESTRAL  AND 
CHORAL  SOCIETY,  THE.  The  Orchestral 
Society  was  founded  in  Nov.  1883,  and 
gave  its  first  concert  on  March  5,  1885.  On 
Dec.  18,  1885,  the  first  subscription  con- 
cert was  given  at  Prince's  Hall ;  and  continn- 
ously  from  that  date  the  Society  has  given  « 
series  of  concerts  in  each  season  at  St.  James's 
and  Queen's  Hall.  The  Male  Voice  Choir  was 
established  in  Oct.  1886,  and  gave  its  first 
concert  in  Feb.  1887.  The  choir  made  its 
first  appearance  with  the  orchestra  in  May  1 888, 
and  since  has  always  been  a  regular  feature  at 
the  concerts.  In  Oct.  1899  the  orchestra  and 
choir  amalgamated  under  the  present  title.  One 
of  the  objects  of  the  Society  is  the  production 
of  new  works  by  native  composers,  and  the 
committee  is  prepared  to  consider  original 
choral  and  orchestral  compositions  when  sub- 
mitted to  them.  Mr.  George  Kitchin,  an  ama> 
teur,  was  honorary  conductor  of  both  orchestra 
and  choir  from  their  foundation  until  his  retire- 
ment  in  1897.      Mr.  Arthur  W.   Ptiyne   has 


STOCKFLOTE 


STOCKHAUSEN 


699 


conducted  the  orchestra  from  Oct.  1897  to  the 
present  date,  and  Mr.  Munro  Davison  the  choir 
from  Oct.  1898. 

The  subscription  for  members  of  the  orchestra 
or  of  the  choir  and  for  subscribers  is  from  £1 :  Is. 
upwards.  Membership  of  the  Society  is  not  re- 
stricted to  the  Stock  Exchange,  though  members 
of  that  body  take  precedence  in  all  yacancies 
occurring  in  the  orchestra  and  choir.  The 
orchestra  numbers  130,  and  the  Male  Voice  Choir 
60  members.  Three  subscription  concerts,  at 
least,  are  always  given  in  each  season,    s.  J.  s. 

STOCKFLOTE.  (See  Czakan,  vol.  i.p.649.) 

STOCKHAUSEN,  Madame,  was  bom  Mar- 
garete  Schmuck,  at  Gebweiler  in  1803,  and 
trained  in  Paris  as  a  concert-singer  by  Cartruffo. 
She  became  the  wife  of  the  harpist  and  composer 
Franz  Stockhausen  (1792-1868),  and  the  mother 
of  the  singer  Julius  Stockhausen.  Husband 
and  wife  travelled,  giving  not  very  remunerative 
concerts  in  Switzerland  (1825).  Paris  was 
visited  later,  but  Mme.  Stockhausen's  greatest 
successes  attended  her  in  England,  where  she 
was  induced  to  return  almost  every  year  from 
1828  to  1840,  singing  at  some  of  the  concerts 
of  the  Philharmonic  and  Vocal  Societies,  and  also 
taking  part  in  the  principal  private  and  benefit 
concerts.  She  had  little  or  no  dramatic  feeling, 
but  as  she  gained  in  power  she  grew  in  public 
favour,  and  came  to  be  recognised  as  a  true 
musician  and  an  accomplished  singer.  She 
was  frequently  engaged  at  provincial  festivals, 
and  her  delivery  of  the  music  of  Mary  in  Spohr's 
*  Calvary  *  evoked  special  praise  among  her 
oratorio  parts. 

A  few  years  after  her  farewell  appearance  in 
London,  a  home  was  made  in  Colmar,  whither 
the  Stockhausens  retired  to  devote  themselves 
to  the  education  of  their  six  children.  Up  to 
1849  I^lme.  Stockhausen  was  heard  with  her 
son  at  local  concerts ;  she  left  Alsace  only 
occasionally  to  appear  in  public,  and  in  her  last 
visit  to  Paris  (1849)  her  singing  showed  a  great 
falling  off.  She  died  Oct.  6,  1877,  nearly  ten 
years  after  her  husband,  much  regretted  by  her 
many  friends.  L.  M.  M. 

STOCKHAUSEN,  Julius,  son  of  the  fore- 
going, one  of  the  most  remarkable  singers  of 
hi3  time,  was  bom  at  Paris,  July  22,  1826. 
His  gifts  showed  themselves  early,  and  his 
mother  was  accustomed  to  say  that  he  could 
sing  before  he  could  speak.  He  and  his  younger 
brother  Edward  (who  died  early)  accompanied 
their  parents  on  a  concert  tour  to  England,  and 
leamt  there  to  sing  Bishop's  duet,  *  Where  are 
you  going,  sweet  sister  Fay  ?*  In  1883  Julius 
was  placed  at  a  school  at  Gebweiler  in  Alsace, 
where  he  remained  till  1840,  with  a  view  to 
the  clerical  profession.  But  such  intentions 
were  dispelled  by  the  violent  turn  for  music 
which  asserted  itself  after  a  concert  at  Basle  in 
1842,  at  which  Mme.  Stockhausen  made  her 
last  appearance.     He  took  a  prominent  part  in 


the  concerts  at  Gebweiler  as  singer,  accompanist, 
violin-player,  and  even  drummer.  In  1844  he 
moved  to  the  seminary  of  Strasburg,  and  there 
his  jierformances  on  the  violoncello  and  organ 
sealed  his  fate  as  a  priest.  In  1845  and  1846 
he  visited  Paris  with  his  father,  took  lessons  in 
the  piano  from  Charles  Halle  and  Stamaty, 
and  in  singing  from  Manuel  Garcia,  and  entered 
thoroughly  into  the  abundant  musical  life  of 
the  French  capital,  to  the  great  advantage  of 
his  musical  education.  His  devotion  to  the 
profession  of  music  was,  however,  not  absolutely 
decided  till  1848,  when,  at  the  invitation  of 
Ernst  Reiter,  the  conductor,  he  suddenly  took 
the  part  of  EHijah  in  a  performance  of  that 
oratorio  at  Basle.  His  success  decided  his 
future  course,  and  he  at  once  threw  himself 
energetically  into  the  art,  and  for  the  next  few 
years  travelled  in  all  directions,  singing  at 
innumerable  concerts  Schubert's  *  Schone  Mill- 
lerin'  and  other  songs.  In  1849  he  came  to 
England,  renewed  his  lessons  with  Garcia  and 
sang  at  various  concerts.  In  1851  he  returned, 
and  sang  three  times  at  the  Philharmonic, 
April  7,  in  the  Choral  Symphony,  April  28,  in 
two  trios,  and  June  9  in  a  scena  from  Boieldieu's 
'Chaperon  Rouge.'  Taste  in  England  was  not 
then  sufficiently  advanced  to  call  for  the  Lieder 
just  mentioned.  To  these,  at  the  instance,  of 
Schroder- Devrient,  he  shortly  added  Schumann's 
'  Dichterliebe '  and  others.  His  first  appearance 
on  the  stage  seems  to  have  been  at  Mannheim 
in  1852-53,  and  he  joined  the  Opera-Comique 
at  Paris  in  1857-59,  taking  such  parts  as  the 
Seneschal  in  'Jean  de  Pans.'  At  this  time  he 
became  intimate  with  Ary  Scheffer ;  and  with 
Mme.  Viardot,  Berlioz,  Duprez,  Saint-Saens,  and 
others,  formed  one  of  the  circle  by  whom  much 
German  music  was  performed  in  the  studio  of 
the  great  painter. 

1859  to  1862  were  occupied  in  more  concert 
tours,  and  it  was  during  this  time  at  Leipzig 
and  Cologne  that  he  first  attempted  Schumann's 
*  Faust '  music.  In  1862  he  came  to  an  anchor 
at  Hamburg  as  Director  of  the  Philharmonic 
Concerts  and  of  the  Singakaderoie,  a  position 
which  he  retained  till  1869,  when  he  was  made 
Kammersinger  to  the  King  of  Wiirtemberg  at 
Stuttgart  with  a  salary  of  2000  gulden,  residing 
at  Canstatt  During  all  this  time  he  took  many 
concert  tours,  especially  with  Mme.  Schumann, 
Joachim,  and  Brahms.  In  the  latter  part  of 
1870  he  brought  over  his  pupil  Sophie  Lowe  to 
England,  sang  at  the  Popular  Concerts,  and 
remained  till  late  in  1871.  He  once  more  sang 
at  the  Philharmonic,  and  appeared  at  the  Crystal 
Palace,  and  the  Monday  Populars,  where  he 
introduced  several  fine  unknown  Lieder  of 
Schubert.  He  and  Frl.  Lowe  reappeared  here 
the  next  winter,  and  remained  till  the  end  of 
the  summer  season  of  1872. 

In  1874  he  moved  from  Stuttgart  to  Berlin, 
and  took  the  direction  of  the  Vocal  Society 


which  under  his  genial  and  able  direction  rose 
to  the  highest  point  of  excellence.  In  the  four 
years  that  he  conducted  it  there  were  no  less 
than  twenty-eight  i)erformances  of  great  works, 
including  Beethoven's  Mass  in  D,  Mozart's 
Requiem,  Bach's  Matthew- Passion,  Schumann's 
'Faust 'music  (complete),  and  'Paradise  and  the 
Peri, '  Brahms's  Requiem,  etc.  In  1 8  7  8  he  again 
changed  his  residence,  this  time  to  Frankfort, 
to  take  the  department  of  singing  in  the  Gonser- 
vatorium  founded  by  Dr.  Hoch,  and  presided 
over  by  Raff.  This  post,  however,  he  soon  gave 
up,  and  retired  to  his  house  at  Frankfort, 
teaching  the  many  private  pupils  who  resorted 
to  him  there.  After  the  death  of  Raff  in  1882 
he  returned  to  the  Conservatorium.  In  1886-87 
he  published  his  Method  of  Singing  (translated 
by  Mme.  Sophie  Lowe,  new  edition,  1907).  He 
died  Sept.  22,  1906. 

Stockhausen's  singing  in  his  best  days  must 
have  been  wonderful.  Even  to  those  who,  like 
the  writer,  only  heard  him  after  he  had  passed 
his  zenith,  it  is  a  thing  never  to  be  forgotten. 
Perhaps  the  maturity  of  the  taste  and  expression 
made  up  for  a  little  falling  off  in  the  voice. 
His  delivery  of  opera  and  oratorio  music — ^his 
favourite  pieces  from  *Euryanthe,'  *Jean  de 
Paris,*  '  Le  Chaperon  rouge,'  and  *  Le  Philtre '  ; 
or  the  part  of  Elijah,  or  certain  special  airs  of 
Bach — was  superb  in  taste,  feeling,  and  execu- 
tion ;  but  it  was  the  Lieder  of  Schubert  and 
Schumann  that  most  peculiarly  suited  him,  and 
these  he  delivered  in  a  truly  remarkable  way. 
The  rich  beauty  of  the  voice,  the  nobility  of  the 
style,  the  perfect  phrasing,  the  intimate  sym- 
pathy, and,  not  least,  the  intelligible  way  in 
which  the  words  were  given — ^in  itself  one  of 
his  greatest  claims  to  distinction — all  combined 
to  make  his  singing  of  songs  a  wonderful  event. 
Those  who  have  heard  him  sing  Schubert's 
*  Nachtstiick,'  'The  Wanderer,'  'Memnon,'  or 
the  Harper's  songs ;  or  Schumann's  '  Friih- 
lingsnacht,'  or  *  Fluthenreicher  Ebro,'  or  the 
'  Lowenbraut,'  will  corroborate  all  that  has  just 
been  said.  But  perhaps  his  highest  achievement 
was  the  part  of  Dr.  Marianus  in  the  third  part 
of  Schumann's  'Faust,*  in  which  his  delivery 
of  the  scene  beginning  '  Hier  ist  die  Ansslcht 
frei,'  with  just  as  much  of  acting  as  the  con- 
cert-room will  admit — and  no  more — was  one 
of  the  most  touching  and  remarkable  things 
ever  witnessed.  o. 

STOCKHORN.  A  reed  instrument  on  the 
principle  of  the  bagpipe  practice  -  chanter, 
but  with  two  parallel  cylindrical  tubes  and 
independent  reeds.  These  tubes  were  pierced 
in  a  single  block  of  wood,  furnished  with  a  horn 
bell-mouth  at  one  end,  and  the  reeds  were 
sounded  by  means  of  a  cap  or  covering-piece 
placed  between  the  lips,  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  mouth-piece  of  the  flageolet. 

An  interesting  example  in  the  Museum  of 


finger-holes,  and  two  thumb-holes  at  the  back, 
arranged  in  pairs,  so  that  each  finger  closes  or 
opens  two  holes  at  once.  The  total  length  of 
this  instrument  is  about  twenty-two  inches, 
with  a  bell-mouth  expanding  to  2\  inches,  and 
its  scale  is  from  f  to  ^',  The  object  of  the 
double  bore  appears  to  have  been  the  production 
of  a  strong  beating  tone  from  mistuned  conson- 
ances as  is  common  in  certain  native  Egyptian 
instruments  at  the  present  day.  D.  J.  B. 

STODART.  A  family  of  eminent  pianoforte- 
makers,  whose  business  was  founded  in  Wardoor 
Street,  Soho,  about  the  year  1776,  by  Robert 
Stodart  It  is  said  he  had  been  in  tj^e  Boyal 
Horse  Guards,  to  be  a  private  in  which  corps 
involved  at  that  time  the  payment  of  £100,  an 
amount  that  must  now  be  estimated  by  the  then 
higher  value  of  money.  Having  little  duty  and 
much  leisure,  Stodart  became  a  pupil  of  John 
Broadwood  to  learn  pianoforte-making,  and  in 
the  books  of  Broadwood's  firm  appears,  during 
the  year  1775,  to  have  taken  his  share  in  tuning 
for  customers.  It  was  while  he  was  under 
Broadwood  that  he  had  the  privilege,  enjoyed  by 
them  as  friends,  of  assisting  Americus  Backers 
in  the  invention  of  the  new  movement  for  the 
grand  pianoforte  since  generally  known  as  the 
<  English  *  action.  After  Backers's  death,  Stodart, 
now  upon  his  own  account,  entered  upon  grand 
pianoforte  making  with  energy  and  ability,  and 
soon  made  a  considerable  reputation.  The 
pianoforte  was  at  that  time  hardly  emancipated 
from  the  harpsichord,  and  there  were  frequent 
endeavours  to  combine  both  principles  in  one 
instrument.  An  endeavour  of  this  nature  was 
patented  by  Stodart  in  1777,  which  is  otherwise 
remarkable  by  the  first  mention  of  the  word 
'  grand  '  in  connection  with  a  pianoforte.  In 
it  he  worked  his  crow-quill  registers,  and  also  a 
swell,  by  means  of  pedals. 

We  find  the  business  in  '1795  removed  to 
Golden  Square,  William  Stodart  in  that  year 
taking  out,  from  that  address,  a  patent  for  an 
•Upright  Grand.*  This  was  the  horizontal 
grand  turned  up  vertically  in  the  same  way  the 
upright  harpsidiord  had  been.  The  giraffe-like 
upright  grand  was  then  coming  into  fashion, 
and  the  speciality  of  Stodart*s  patent  was  to 
introduce  one  in  the  form  of  a  bookcase.  Of 
the  highest  importance  was  the  patent  of  James 
Thom  and  William  AUen,  who  were  in  Stodart's 
employ,  a  compensating  framing  of  metal  tubes 
and  plates  at  once  secured  by  Stodart's  firm. 
This  meritorious  invention,  which  was  really 
Allen's,  was  brought  out  in  1820,  and  paved 
the  way  to  the  general  introduction  of  iron  in 
pianofortes  as  a  resisting  power.  [See  Piano- 
forte and  the  writer's  Pianoforte  Primer,  p.  1 6.] 
When  Malcolm  Stodart,  who  had  shown  great 
promise,  died,  the  interest  of  the  survivors 
ceased,  and  the  business,  which  had  been  de- 
clining, came,  in  1861,  to  an  end.     A.  J.  h. 


STOKES 


STOLTZER 


701 


STOKES,  Cha rles.  This  excellent  musician 
was  bom  in  1784,  and  received  his  first  instruc- 
tions as  a  chorister  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral. 
He  was  afterwards  a  pupil  of  Webbe,  the  glee 
composer,  who  was  his  godfather — and  of  other 
masters ;  but  he  was  most  indebted  for  his 
musical  knowledge  to  Samuel  Wesley,  witli 
whom  he  was  long  and  intimately  acquainted. 
He  officiated  for  several  years  as  assistant-organist 
to  Callcott,  at  St  Paul's,  Covent  Garden,  and 
Bartleman  at  Croydon ;  but  he  latterly  pre- 
ferred the  quiet  pursuit  of  his  own  studies,  in 
domestic  retirement,  to  the  exertion  and  fatigue 
of  public  engagements.  Yet  his  musical  acquire- 
ments were  of  the  highest  order.  Vincent 
Novello  speaks  of  him  as  a  most  able  teacher, 
an  excellent  organist,  a  delightful  pianoforte- 
player,  a  refined  and  tasteful  composer,  and  one 
of  the  most  profound  musical  theorists  then 
living.  His  name  was  little  known,  and  his 
published  music  was  almost  confined  to  the 
pieces  printed  in  Novello's  *  Select  Organ  Pieces ' 
(from  which  this  notice  is  derived).  That 
collection  contains  ten  pieces  by  Stokes,  full  of 
quiet  feeling,  and  real,  though  somewhat  anti- 
quated, musicianship.  Novello  also  published 
an  Anthem  of  his,  '  I  will  lay  me  down  in  peace.' 
He  died  in  London,  April  14,  1839,  o. 

STOLTZ,  Rosin  E,  celebrated  French  singer, 
whose  chequered  life  has  afforded  materials  for 
more  than  one  romance,  was  bom  in  Paris, 
Feb.  13,  1816.  According  to  F^tis  her  real 
name  was  Victorine  Noeb,  but  she  entered 
Ramier's  class  in  Choron's  school  in  1826  as 
Rose  Niva.  She  became  a  choiiis-singer  at  one 
of  the  theatres  after  the  Revolution  of  1830, 
and  in  1882  made  a  very  modest  debut  at 
Brussels.  In  1833  she  sang  at  Lille  under  the 
name  of  Rosine  Stoltz.  Her  knowledge  of  music 
was  deficient,  and  she  never  became  a  perfect 
singer,  but  nevertheless  made  a  considerable 
mark  in  lyric  tragedy.  The  first  time  she  dis- 
played her  powers  was  when  acting  with  A. 
Nourrit  as  Rachel  in  *  La  Juive '  at  Brussels  in 
1836.  She  reappeared  in  the  part  at  the  Op^ra 
in  Paris,  August  26,  1837.  Though  inferior 
to  Mile.  Falcon,  who  had  created  the  rdle,  the 
public  was  interested  by  a  talent  so  original  and 
fiiU  of  fire,  though  so  unequal,  and  Mme.  Stoltz 
became  a  favourite  from  the  day  she  appeared 
in  parts  written  expressly  for  her.  Indeed 
throughout  L^on  Fillet's  management  (1841 
to  1 8  4  7  )  she  reigned  without  a  rival.  She  created 
the  following  mezzo-soprano  parts :  Lazarillo 
in  Marliani's  'Xacarilla'  (1830);  L^onore  in 
*La  Favorite'  (1840);  Agathe  in  'Der  Frei- 
schiitz'  (1841);  Catarina  in  *La  Reine  de 
Chypre'(1841);  Odette  in  ♦Charles  VL' (1843); 
Zayda  in  Donizetti's  'Dom  Sebastien'  (1843); 
Beppo  in  Hal^vy's  'Lazzarone,'  Desdemona  in 
*  Otello,'  and  *  Marie  Stuart '  in  Niedermeyer's 
opera  (1844);  Estrelle  in  Balfe's  *Etoile  de 
Seville*  (1846);  David  in  Mermet's  opera  of 


that  name,  and  Marie  in  Rossini's  pasticcio 
'Robert  Bruce'  (1846).  The  kst  three  were 
failures,  and  in  1849  she  left  Paris,  but  appeared 
for  some  time  longer  in  the  provinces  and  abroad. 
Then  no  more  was  heaid  of  her  excepting  the 
fact  of  her  successive  marriages  to  a  Baron  and 
two  foreign  princes.  Schoen  published  in  her 
name  six  melodies  for  voice  and  PF.  in  1870. 

Among  the  works  based  on  the  life  of  Rosine 
Stoltz  may  be  mentioned  Scudo's  Histaire  d'une 
cantatrice  de  VOpira ;  Lamer 's  Mme.  Bosiiie 
Stoltz  (Paris,  1847,  16mo) ;  Cantinjou's  Les 
Adieuxde  Mnie,  Stoltz  (Paris,  1847,  18mo),  and 
Mile.  Eugdnie  P^rignon's  JtostTie  Stoltz  (Paris, 
1847,  8vo).  G.  c. 

STOLTZER,  Tbomas,  a  musician  of  the 
earlier  part  of  the  16th  century,  born  at 
Schweidnitz  in  Silesia,  which  was  then  part  of 
the  independent  kingdom  of  Bohemia.  He 
became  CapeUmeister  at  Ofen  or  Buda  to  King 
Louis,  who  reigned  over  both  Hungary  and 
Bohemia  from  1617  to  1626.  F^tis  gives  the 
date  of  Stoltzer's  death  as  August  29, 1626,  but 
although  the  fact  has  not  been  noticed  by 
musical  historians,  it  is  somewhat  significant 
that  this  is  merely  the  date  of  the  Battle  of 
Mohacs,  at  which  King  Louis  with  the  flower 
of  the  Hungarian  nobility  fell  in  fighting  against 
the  Turks.  But  there  is  no  evidence  that 
Stoltzer  was  with  King  Louis  on  this  occasion, 
or  that  his  life  came  to  an  end  with  the  taking 
of  Buda  shortly  afterwards  by  the  Turks.  It 
is  very  probable  that  he  was  still  alive  between 
1636  and  1644,  when  the  greater  part  of  his 
works  appeared  in  the  Collections  of  the  time. 
A  letter  of  his,  addressed  to  Duke  Albert  of 
Prassia,  dated  Feb.  23,  1526,  is  extant,  which 
seems  to  refer  to  some  offer  made  to  him  from 
the  Duke  to  become  his  CapeUmeister  at  Kbnigs- 
berg.  He  sent  to  the  Duke  an  elaborate  com- 
position of  the  37th  Psalm  in  Luther's  German 
Prose  version  in  seven  divisions  ('motettisch 
gesetzt ')  for  three  to  seven  voices.  There  are 
four  other  Psalms  of  the  same  kind  which,  with 
the  one  above  mentioned.  Otto  Kade  considers 
to  represent  the  high-water  mark  of  Stoltzer's 
abilities  as  a  composer.  The  MSS.  of  these  are 
now  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Dresden,  for  which 
Kade  negotiated  their  purchase  in  1868,  and  one 
of  them.  Psalm  xii.,  'Hilf,  Herr,  die  Heiligen 
sind  abgenommen,'  he  has  since  published  in 
score  in  the  Beilagen  to  Ambros's  Oeachichte. 
Ambros  gives  considerable  praise  to  the  Latin 
Psalms  and  Motets  of  Stoltzer,  which  appeared 
in  the  various  collections  1638  to  1646  and 
1669.  This  praise  he  largely  qualifies  in  the 
case  of  the  thirty-nine  settings  a  4-6  of  Latin 
Church  Hymns,  which  constitute  Stoltzer's  con- 
tribution to  Rhau's  'Hymni  Sacri'  of  1642. 
These  latter  he  considers  somewhat  heavy, 
though  showing  solid  workmanship.  Other 
German  works  of  Stoltzer  are  seven  settings  of 
Geistliche  Gesange  and  ten  of  Weltliche  Lieder 


*  Entlanbet  ist  der  Walde/  deserves  mention, 
because  the  time  in  Stoltzer's  tenor  was  after- 
wards adopted  as  the  Chorale -tune  for  the 
Hymn  *  Ich  dank  dir,  lieber  Herre.*  The  tune 
itself  is  said  to  have  been  known  about  1452, 
and  it  also  appears  in  Hans  Gerle's  Lautenbuch 
of  1 532.  Harmonised  by  Bach,  it  forms  the  con- 
clusion of  his  Cantata,  *  Wer  da  glaubet  und 
getauft  wird.'  It  is  given  with  Stoltzer's  own 
harmony  in  Schoberlein's  Sckatz^  Bd.  iii.  n.  448. 
One  of  the  Greistliche  Gesange  also  deserves 
mention,  *Konig,  ein  Herr  ob  alle  Reich,' 
because  the  first  words  of  the  three  verses  form 
the  acrostic  'Eonig  Ludwig'  (King  Louis  of 
Hungary),  and  the  hymn  itself  first  appears  in 
company  with  the  better -known  *Mag  ich 
Ungliicic  nicht  widerstehn,'  which  also  forms 
the  acrostic  'Maria,'  for  Queen  Maria,  the  wife  of 
Louis,  and  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Charles  Y. 
A  large  number  of  Latin  Motets  by  Stoltzer 
exist  in  MS.  in  the  Library  at  Zwickau.  J.  R.  M. 

8T0NARD,  William,  Mus.B.  Oxon.  1608, 
was  organist  of  Christ  Church  Cathedral,  Oxford. 
Some  of  his  compositions  are  preserved  in  the 
Music  School,  Oxford,  and  an  Evening  Service 
in  C  in  the  Tudway  Collection  (HarL  MS.  7337). 
The  latter  is  printed  in  the  publications  of  the 
Motet  Society,  vol.  ii.  p.  78.  The  words  of 
some  of  his  anthems  are  in  Clifford's  Collection. 
He  died  in  1630.  w.  H.  h. 

STOPPED  PIPE.  An  organ  pipe,  the  upper 
end  of  which  is  closed  by  a  wooden  plug,  or  cap 
of  metal.  The  pitch  of  a  stopped  pipe  is  one 
octave  lower  (roughly  speaking)  than  that  of  an 
open  pipe  of  the  same  length  ;  it  is  usual,  there- 
fore, in  a  specification,  to  state  the  pitch  of  a 
stopped  pipe  instead  of  its  length  ;  thus,  *  Open 
Diapason  1 6  ft. , '  *  Bourdon  1 6  ft.  -tone,'  etc.  By 
the  former  it  is  understood  that  the  longest  pipe 
is  16  ft.  long;  by  the  latter  that  the  longest 
pipe  (though  only  8  ft.  in  length)  gives  the 
same  note  as  an  open  pipe  of  16  ft  For  the 
acoustic  law  which  governs  the  pitch  of  closed 
pipes,  see  Pipes,  Vibration  of  air  in,  vol.  iii. 
pp.  752-754.  J.  8, 

STOPPING  is  the  term  used  for  the  action  of 
the  fingers  of  the  left  hand  in  playing  instru- 
ments with  strings  stretched  over  a  fingerboard, 
in  order  to  produce  the  intermediate  sounds  lying 
between  the  notes  sounded  by  the  *  open '  strings. 
When  a  higher  note  than  the  fundamental  sound 
of  the  string  is  required,  the  vibrating  part  of 
the  string  must  be  shortened  by  stopping  the 
vibration  at  a  certain  point  between  nut  and 
bridge,  i.e.  by  using  one  of  the  fingers  of  the 
left  hand  as  an  artificial  nut  or  stopping-point. 
The  nearer  this  point  is  to  the  bridge,  the  shorter 
the  vibrating  part  of  the  strings,  and  the  higher 
in  pitch  therefore  the  sound  produced.  A 
correct  intonation  or  playing  in  perfect  tune 
obviously  depends    entirely   on   exactness   of 


A^i\M^sa,\j£%  Ax^ta^ 


For  stopping  as  applied  to  brass  instroments, 
see  Horn. 

STOPS  (HARPSICHORD).  Like  the  oi^, 
the  harpsichord  had  stops,  by  which,  wiiii 
double  keyboard,  contrasts  as  well  as  changes 
could  be  znade.  The  principle,  borrowed  from 
the  organ,  was  the  simple  movement  of  each 
rack  of  jacks  forming  a  register,  so  that  the 
quills  of  the  jacks  might  or  might  not  touch 
the  strings.  The  earUest  notice  of  stops  to  a 
keyed  stringed  instrument  appears  in  the  PriTy 
Purse  Expenses  of  Henry  VIII,,  April  1680, 
published  by  Sir  N.  Harris  Nicholas  in  1827 
(Rimbault,  History  of  the  Piano/orU,  1860, 
p.  83).  The  item  mentions  *  ii  payer  of  Virgi- 
nails  in  one  coffer  with  iiii  stoppes.'  The  term 
*  Virginals '  in  England  under  the  Tudois  and 
up  to  the  Commonwealth,  had,  like  *Clarier' 
in  German,  the  general  signification  of  any 
keyed  stringed  instrument.  [See  Virginal.] 
We  therefore  interpret  this  quotation  as  a 
double  harpsichord,  in  one  case,  with  four  stops. 
If  this  be  so,  we  must  perforce  limit  Hans 
Ruckers's  invention  to  the  'ottava,'  the  octare 
string  [see  Ruckers],  withdrawing  from  him 
the  double  keyboard  and  stops.  In  all  unaltered 
Ruckers  harpsichords,  we  find  the  registers 
made  as  in  the  old  Positive  organs,  ^  by  the  pro- 
longation of  the  racks  as  rails  or  slides,  so  as  to 
pass  through  and  project  beyond  the  right-hand 
or  treble  side  of  the  case.  Each  rail-end  has  a 
short  loop  of  cord  to  pull  it  by.  The  late  Miss 
Twining's  Andries  Ruckers  of  1640  (antij 
p.  188,  No.  74),  and  the  Countess  of  Dudley's 
Hans  Ruckers  the  younger  of  1642  (ante^ 
p.  187,  No.  41)  have  only  this  simple  arrange- 
ment. But  subsequently,  to  be  nearer  the 
hands,  the  registers  were  shifted  by  iron  crank 
levers,  and  manipulated  by  brass  knobs  divided 
into  two  groups  on  either  side  of  the  nameboard, 
and  immediately  above  the  keys.  The  older 
instruments  were  often  altered  and  modernised 
by  the  addition  of  this  contrivance.  The  U'o 
unison  stops  were  placed  to  the  player's  right 
hand,  and  as  the  reversed  position  of  the  quills 
when  acting  upon  the  strings  required,  could  be 
brought  into  play  by  squeezing  the  t^vo  brass 
knol»  together,  or  made  silent  by  pushing  them 
apart  The  ottava  was  placed  t-o  the  player's 
left  hand,  with  the  Lute  and  Harp  stops,  which 
were  of  later  introduction,  and  require  separate 
description. 

The  Lute,  a  timbre  or  colour  stop,  doubtless 
arose  from  observation  of  the  power  which  lute- 
players,  like  viol-  and  guitar -players,  had  of 
changing  the  quality  of  the  tone  by  touching 
the  strings  closer  to  the  bridge.  Perhaps  the 
earliest  reference  to  an  attempt  to  imitate  these 
instruments  on  the  harpsichord  has  been  found 

>  Bee  tbe  otnn  depicted  In '  llaaie.'  attribated  to  lleltxao  d* Forli 
(1438-94).  in  the  Nationul  Gallenr,  Tendon. 


STOPS  (HARPSICHORD) 


STORAGE 


703 


by  Count  L.  F.  Valdrighi,  of  Modena,  in  a 
letter  in  the  Este  records  dated  March  3, 1595, 
by  Giacomo  Alsiae,  horn-maker  of  Padua,  who 
says :  '  I  have  let  Messer  Alessandro  see  and 
hear  .  .  .  one  of  my  quill  instruments  (da 
penna),  of  new  invention,  that  with  two  unisons 
(due  mani  di  corde)  forms  three  changes  of 
sound.'  The  passage  is  obscure,  but  if,  as  is 
probable,  two  jacks  touched  one  string  in  Alsiso's 
instrument,  one  must  touch  nearer  the  bridge 
than  the  other,  and  produce  a  different  quality 
of  sound.  This  might  seem  far-fetched  were 
not  Lady  Dudley's  Antwerp  harpsichord  of  1642 
actually  so  made.  Here  are  four  certainly 
original  changes,  with  three  strings,  two  unisons 
and  an  octave,  and  the  different  quality  is  sought 
for  upon  the  octave  string.  A  few  years  later, 
and  in  England,  Thomas  Mace  (Mtunek's  Monu- 
mentf  1676)  speaks  of  the  *Theorboe'  stop, 
which  may  have  been  only  another  name  for 
the  Lute  stop.  Certainly  in  England  in  the 
next  century  the  use  of  the  Lute  stop,  with  its 
fascinating  oboe  quality,  was  universal,^  and  it 
was  frequently  added  to  old  harpsichords. 

The  second  fancy  stop,  the  'Harp,'  was  con- 
trived to  push  small  pieces  of  firm  leather 
against  the  second  unison.  ^  We  have  unquestion- 
able authority  for  this  in  a  double  harpsichord 
of  Shudi's,  of  1771,  that  has  never  been  dis- 
turbed. From  the  material  being  leather,  this 
is  often  called  the  *  buff'  stop,  and  a  single 
harpsichord,  now  at  Torquay,  inscribed  *  Long- 
man k  Broderip,'  but  bearing  inside  the  real 
maker's  name,  '  Culliford,'  and  date  1775,  which 
has  all  the  stops  named,  has  this  one  marked 
'  Silent. '  The  earliest  mention  of  the  Harp 
stop  (as  *  Welch  harp ')  is  in  a  patent  taken  out 
by  Roger  Plenius  in  1745.  The  combination  of 
the  Lute  stop  by  the  first  unison  on  the  upper 
keyboard,  and  the  second  unison,  which  could 
be  muted  by  the  Harp  stop  on  the  lower,  was 
effected  by  a  pedal  for  the  left  foot.  But  to 
allow  thlB  pedal  to  be  used,  a  stop  placed  inside 
the  case,  at  the  bass  end  of  the  keyboards, 
away  from  the  other  stops,  had  to  be  pushed 
back.  Culli ford's  harpsichord  gives  the  name 
for  this  pedal  stop,  the  *  Machine,'  derived  from 
the  ironwork  of  the  pedal  movement  placed 
outside  the  case,  and  usually  concealed  by  a  box 
covering.  The  alternation  of  Lute  and  Harp  with 
the  normal  registers  of  the  upper  and  lower 
keyboards,  is  the  most  pleasing  colour  effect  of 
the  harpsichord.  In  Kirkman's  harpsichord  we 
find  the  Lute  muted,  without  knowing  for  certain 
if  this  was  the  original  plan.  This  muting  has 
the  high  authority  of  the  late  Carl  Engel,  who 
transferred  Messrs.  Kirkman's  description  of 
the  stops  from  the  CdtaZogue  of  the  Special 

1  Queen  ChArlotte's  Shndi  harpdchord  at  Windaar  Caatle  bu  an 
original  Late  stop,  and  the  date  fa  1740.  This  Instrament,  long  at 
Kew  Falaoe,  -naa  probably  made  for  Frederick,  Prince  of  Walce. 
Qeonre  the  Third's  father. 

'  Shadl  pat  a  spring  on  the  Moond  nnlaon  slide,  so  that  it  eoold 
not  he  poshed  off  without  moving  a  rail  outside  the  case,  next  the 
'  Machine.' 


Exhibition  at  South  Kensingtonf  1872,  to  his 
admirable  Qensretl  Catalogue  of  Musical  InstrU' 
merUs  in  the  Museum^  1874,  p.  352. 

The  right-foot  pedal  is  for  the  Swell.  [See 
Swell  (Harpsichord).]  Mace  attributes  the 
invention  of  the  harpsichord  pedal  to  John 
Hayward,  a  '  harpsichon '  maker.  Kirkman 
and  ^hudi  did  not  place  their  fancy  stops  alike. 
Kirkman's  arrangement  (and  Culliford's),  pro- 
ceeding from  the  bass,  was  Harp,  Lute,  Octave  ; 
Shudi's  was  Lute,  Octave,  Harp.  In  all,  the 
Lute,  Octave,  and  first  Unison  move  to  the 
right ;  the  Harp  and  second  Unison  to  the  left 
Shudi  marked  this  on  Frederick  the  Great's 
harpsichords,  still  preserved  at  Potsdam,  with 
arrows  and  the  £nglish  words  'ring'  and 
*dumb';  the  Machine  stop,  'open,*  *shut.' 
The  Germans  do  not  appear  at  that  time  to 
have  cared  for  the  varieties  in  the  harpsichord 
given  by  stops.  C.  P.  E.  Bach  makes  no 
remarks  in  his  Versuch  about  them.  He 
merely  says  (1758,  p.  131)  that  on  a  Fliigel 
with  more  than  one  keyboard,  the  player  has 
the  forte  and  piano ;  that  is  to  say,  the  lower 
and  upper  keyboards  make  those  changes.^ 
[See  Pianoforte  Primer,  p.  86.]  A.  j.  H. 

STOPS  (ORGAN).  This  word  is  used  in 
two  senses — for  the  handles  or  draw-stops  which 
are  placed  near  the  organ-player,  and  by  which 
he  can  shut  off  or  draw  on  the  various  registers  ; 
and  for  the  registers  themselves.  Thus  we 
speak  of  a  '  stop '  being  half-out,  meaning  the 
actual  handle  communicating  with  the  sliders, 
and  at  the  same  time  we  speak  of  'an  organ 
having  twenty  stops,'  meaning  twenty  registers. 
The  latter  use  of  the  word  has  caused  the 
appearance  of  a  new  expression,  namely, 
'  sounding  stops  *  or  stops  acting  on  pipes,  as 
opposed  to  couplers  and  other  accessory  move- 
ments governed  also  by  a  stop-handle.  "When 
the  pipes  governed  by  a  stop  do  not  go  through 
the  whole  compass,  it  is  said  to  be  a  'short- 
stop,' *  incomplete  stop,*  or  *  half-stop.'  When  a 
complete  row  of  pipes  is  acted  upon  by  means 
of  two  stops,  treble  and  bass,  it  is  called 
a  'divided  stop.'  [See  Organ,  vol.  iii.  p. 
546J  J.  s. 

STORACE,  Ann  (otherwise  Anna)  Selina, 
daughter  of  Stefano  Storace  (originally  Sorace), 
an  eminent  Italian  contrabassist  who  had  settled 
in  England  [and  who  lived  and  taught  in 
Dublin  in  1750-56],  was  born  in  London  in 
1766.  She  was  first  instructed  in  music  by 
her  father,  and  when  only  eight  years  old 
appeared  as  a  singer  at  the  Haymarket  Theatre, 
in  a  concert  given  by  Evans,  the  harper,  April 
15,  1774.  She  was  afterwards  a  pupil  of 
Rauzzini,  and  in  1777  sang  in  the  oratorios  at 
Covent  Garden  and  at  Hereford  Festival.  On 
April  27,  1778,  she  had  a  benefit  concert  at 
the  Tottenham    Street    Rooms   (subsequently 

*  In  the  poethnmous  seoond  edition,  1797.  he  recommends  Hohl- 
feld's  pedal,  vhlch  appears  to  have  been  a  soetemente.  for  a  dynamlo 
change. 


intends  to  go  to  Italy  in  the  course  of  the 
ensuing  summer.'  She  accordingly  repaired  to 
Venice,  where  she  became  a  pupil  of  the  Con- 
servatorio  dell'  Ospedaletto,  under  SacchinL 
In  1780  she  appeared  at  La  Pergola,  Florence, 
with  great  success.  [See  Michael  Kelly's  iSsmtn- 
iscences  and  the  Did.  of  Nat.  Biog,^  In  1781 
she  sang  at  Parma,  and  in  1782  at  La  ScaU, 
Milan.  In  1784  she  was  engaged  at  the 
Imperial  Theatre,  Vienna,  at  a  salary  equal  to 
£500  sterling  for  the  season,  a  then  unpre- 
cedented sum.  During  her  stay  in  the  Austrian 
capital  two  important  eyents  in  her  career 
happened,  (1)  her  appearance  on  May  1,  1786, 
as  the  original  Susanna  in  Mozart's  '  Kozze  di 
Figaro,'  and  (2)  her  ill-starred  marriage  with 
Fisher  the  violinist  [See  Fisher,  John 
Abraham.]  She  returned  to  England  in  March 
1787,  and  appeared  at  the  King's  Theatre, 
March  24,  as  Gelinda,  in  Paisiello's  'Oil 
Schiavi  per  amore,'  and  afterwards  in  other 
comic  operas,  but  she  soon  abandoned  the 
Italian  for  the  English  stage,  on  which  she 
made  her  first  appearance  at  Drury  Lane, 
Nov.  24,  1789,  in  her  brother's  opera,  'The 
Haunted  Tower,'  and  for  several  years  after- 
wards sustained,  with  the  greatest  success,  a 
variety  of  characters  in  comic  opera.  In  1791 
she  sang  at  the  Handel  Festival  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  and  in  1792  at  Hereford  Festival  [She 
formed  an  intimacy  with  Braham,  and  toured 
^vith  him  on  the  Continent.]  In  1801  she  was 
engaged  at  Covent  Garden,  where  she  continued 
to  perform  till  May  30,  1808,  when  she  took 
her  leave  of  the  public  in  the  opera  of  'The 
Cabinet'  She  lived  at  Dulwich  until  her 
death,  August  24,  1817,  and  was  buried  at  St 
Mary's,  Lambeth.  She  accumulated  a  consider- 
able fortune,  and  by  her  will,  dated  August  10, 
1797  (twenty years  before  herdeath),  bequeathed 
upwards  of  £1 1,000  in  pecuniary  legacies  alone, 
including  two  munifioent  gifts  of  £1000  each 
to  the  old  Musical  Fund  (Royal  Society  of 
Musicians)  and  New  Musical  Fund.  This  will 
was  proved  Oct.  11,  1817,  the  personalty  being 
sworn  under  £50,000.  It  was  said  in  1820 
that  after  payment  of  all  the  legacies,  there 
remained  but  little  short  of  £40,000  for  her 
cousin,  Miss  Trusler,  the  residuary  legatee. 
Her  studious  concealment,  after  her  return  to 
England,  of  her  marriage,  is  evidenced  by  her 
having  made  her  will  in  her  maiden  name  and 
avoided  any  description  in  it  of  her  quality 
or  condition,  and  also  by  the  fact  that  her 
executor,  in  proving  the  will,  describes  her  as  a 
spinster.  [A  miniature  of  her  is  in  the  Soane 
Museum.]  w.  h.  h. 

STOEACE,  Stephen,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, was  bom  in  London,  Jan.  4,  1763. 
His  early  taste  for  music  was  cultivated  by  his 
father,  so  that  when  ten  years  old  he  was  able 


day — with  correctness  and  steadiness.  When 
twelve  years  old  he  was  placed  in  the  Consrr- 
vatorio  of  St  Onofrio  at  Naples,  where  he 
studied  the  harpsichord,  violin,  and  composi- 
tion. On  his  sister's  arrival  in  Italy,  a  few 
years  later,  he  joined  her  and  visited  with  her 
the  principal  cities  of  that  country,  and  event- 
ually went  to  Vienna,  where  he  produced  his 
two  operas,  '  Gli  Sposi  malcontenti '  (June  1, 
1785)  and  'Gli  Equivoci,'  the  subject  takeu 
from  Shakespeare's '  Comedy  of  Errors,'  Dec.  27, 
1786.  He  gained  great  advantage  whilst  there 
from  his  association  with  Mozart  [He  wrottr, 
no  doubt,  during  his  Viennese  period,  tvo 
quintets  and  a  sestet  Many  amusing  stories 
of  Storace  and  his  sister  are  told  in  Michael 
Kelly's  liemini8cences.'\  In  March  1787  here- 
turned  to  England  and  was  engaged  to  superintend 
the  production  of  the  opera  in  which  his  sister 
appeared  at  the  King's  Theatre,  but  soon  becsnic 
di^fusted  with  the  prevalent  petty  jealousies 
and  intrigues,  and  retired  for  a  time  to  Bath, 
where  he  devoted  his  attention  to  drawing,  for 
which  he  had  considerable  talent  He  returned 
to  his  musical  pursuits  in  the  ensuing  year, 
and  on  Oct  25,  1788,  produced  at  Drury  Lane 
the  musical  farce  of  'The  Doctor  and  the 
Apothecary,'  adapting  some  of  the  well-known 
'Doctor  imd  der  Apotheker'  of  Dittersdorf. 
On  Nov.  24,  1789,  he  brought  out  his  three- 
act  opera,  *The  Haunted  Tower,'  the  suc- 
cess of  which  was  unbounded ;  it  was  perfonned 
fifty  nights  in  the  first  season  and  kept  its 
place  upon  the  stage  for  nearly  half  a  century. 
On  April  16,  1790,  he  produced  his  chArmiDg 
little  opera,  '  No  Song  no  Supper,'  in  which  he 
introduced  some  of  the  music  of '  Gli  Equivoci.' 
[In  the  same  year  he  wrote  music  for  'U 
Cameriera  Astuta.']  Jan.  1,  1791,  witnessed 
the  production  of  the  opera,  *The  Siege  of 
Belgrade,'  in  which  he  introduced  much  of  the 
music  of  Martini's  '  La  Cosa  rara.'  This  also 
long  continued  an  established  favourite.  On 
May  8,  in  the  same  year,  he  produced  the  '  Cave 
of  Trophonius,*  an  adaptation  of  Salieri's  'La 
Grotta  di  Trofonio,'  with  some  additional  music 
by  himself,  but  with  no  success.  He  &r^ 
better  when,  on  Nov.  20,  1792,  he  brought 
out  *The  Pirates,'  in  which  he  incorporated 
several  pieces  from  *61i  Equivoci*  The  finale 
to  the  first  act  is  regarded  as  his  masterpiece. 
In  the  same  year  he  produced  his  opera,  *  Dido, 
Queen  of  Carthage,'  which  met  with  but  small 
success,  notwithstanding  that  the  heroine  was 
undertaken  by  Mara.  'The  Prize,'  musical 
entertainment,  first  performed  on  his  sister's 
benefit  night,  March  11,  1793;  *My  Grand- 
mother,' musical  farce,  produced  Dec.  16, 1793 ; 
*  Lodoiska,'  musical  romance,  the  music  partly 
adapted  from  Cherubini  and  Kreutzer,  and 
partly  composed  by  himself,  performed  June  9, 


STORNELLO 


STRADA  DEL  P6 


705 


1794  ;  '  The  Glorious  First  of  June/  occasional 
piece,  produced  July  2,  1794  ;  the  ballet  of 
'Venus  and  Adonis'  (1794),  and  the  'Cherokee,' 
comic  opera,  Dec.  20,  1794,  were  all  well 
received,  as  was  also  *  The  Three  and  the  Deuce,' 
musical  drama,  performed  Sept.  2,  1795.  On 
March  12,  1796,  Colman's  'Iron  Chest,' with 
Storace's  music,  was  performed  for  the  first  time, 
and  although  the  play,  owing  to  accidental 
circumstances,  failed  to  produce  an  immediately 
favourableimpression,  the  music  was  rapturously 
received.  But  few,  however,  if  any,  of  the 
gratified  and  applauding  auditors  knew  or 
thought  that  anxiety  for  the  success  of  that 
music  had  impelled  its  composer  to  a  course  which 
had  laid  him  upon  his  deathbed.  He  was 
then  recovering  from  a  severe  attack  of  gout 
and  fever ;  yet  urged  by  a  sense  of  duty,  he 
determined,  despite  the  entreaties  of  his  family, 
to  attend  the  first  rehearsal.  The  conse- 
quence was  fatal ;  he  took  cold,  the  gout 
attacked  his  stomach,  and  on  March  19,^  he 
expired,  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-three  years. 

At  the  time  of  his  death  he  had  an  opera, 
'Mahmoud,  or  The  Prince  of  Persia,*  in  pre- 
paration for  Braham's  d^but  in  London.  This 
work  was  left  incomplete,  but,  by  the  assistance 
of  Kelly,  and  the  selection  of  some  music  by 
the  composer's  sister,  A.  S.  Storace,  it  was 
fitted  for  performance  and  produced  for  the 
benefit  of  his  widow  (a  daughter  of  John  Hall 
the  engraver)  and  his  children,  April  30,  1796, 
was  well  received,  and  performed  many  times. 
Storace's  melodies  are  thoroughly  English  in 
character,  whilst  in  his  instrumentation  the 
influence  of  Mozart  and  the  Italian  composers 
is  evident.  He  was  almost  the  first  English 
composer  who  introduced  into  his  works  the 
modem  finale,  in  which  the  business  of  the 
scene  is  carried  on  by  concerted  music.  ^  Some 
fine  examples  occur  in  his  works.  There  is 
reason  for  believing  that  his  early  death  delayed 
for  many  years  the  advance  in  that  direction 
which  mightotherwise  have  been  made.    w.  H.  H. 

STORNELLO.  *  A  short  poem,  in  lines  of 
eleven  syllables  each :  it  is  peculiar  to,  and 
liked  by  the  people  in  Tuscany,  who  extemporise 
it  with  elegant  simplicity.*  This  is  the  defini- 
tion of  Stornello  we  find  in  Mons.  Tommaseo's 
Dictionary,  and,  in  this  matter  at  least,  we  are 
not  aware  of  any  greater  authority.  The  *  Vocabo- 
lario  degli  Accademici  della  Crusca,'  the  strong- 
hold of  the  purity  of  the  Italian  language,  does 
not  contain  the  word ;  this  fact  added  to  the 
other,  not  less  significant,  that  neither  Crescim- 
beni,  nor  Quadrio,  nor  Tiraboschi,  mention  the 
woi*d  in  their  elaborate  works,  inclines  us  to 
believe  that  the  word  Stornello  has  not  the 
definite  meaning  that,  for  instance,  SontieUo 
has,  but  is  merely  a  name  given  in  some  parts 
of  Italy  to  very  short  poems,  more  with  regard 

1  The  day  of  hi*  death  la  given  on  hi*  monument  ae  the  18th. 
>  Dibdln  had  foreihadowed  it  in  his  '  Quaker.' 

VOL.  IV 


to  their  purport  than  their  form.  Tommaseo 
again,  somewhere  else,  speaking  of  Tonio  and 
Beatrice,  two  peasants  who  sang  and  recited 
popular  songs  and  popular  poems  to  him,  says  : 
'  Tonio  makes  a  difference  between  BispeUi  and 
Bamanzetti  ;  the  latter  are  composed  of  only 
three  lines,  the  former  of  eight  or  ten.  And 
those  that  Tonio  called  Jiamanseiti  Beatrice 
called  StramboUiy  as  Matteo  Spinello  and  King 
Manfredi  did ;  and  in  the  territory  of  Pistoja 
and  in  Florence  they  are  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  StonicllV  Although  in  the  true 
popular  songs  of  Italy  there  is  a  great  freedom 
in  the  number  of  lines  and  rules  of  rhyming, 
the  two  Stomelli  we  subjoin  may  be  taken  as 
fair  examples  of  this  kind  of  poem.^ 

(1)  Tutta  la  notte  in  sogno  mi  venite  ; 
Dltemi,  bella  mia,  perch^  lo  fate  ? 
B  chi  viene  da  voi  quando  dormite  ? 

(2)  Fioridipepe. 

So  giro  intorno  a  voi  come  fa  1'  ape 
Che  gira  intomo  al  Acre  della  siepe. 

The  first  line  may  contain  either  five  or  eleven 
syllables  ;  the  other  two  are  of  eleven  syllables 
each.  The  first  line  rhymes  with  the  third,  i.e. 
the  two  have  the  last  syllable,  and  the  vowel  of 
the  last  syllable  but  one,  alike  ;  the  intermediate 
line,  while  corresponding  in  its  last  syllable  with 
the  last  syllable  of  the  other  two  lines,  changes 
the  vowel  of  the  accented  one.  [In  the  second 
form  given  above,  the  verse  begins  with  the 
name  of  a  flower.  A  Stornello  is  embodied  in 
Browning's  'Fra  Lippo  Lippi,'  and  Lola,  in 
'Cavalleria  Rusticana,'  sings  one.] 

The  etymology  of  *  Stornello  is  very  un- 
certain ;  Tommaseo,  however,  has  some  ground 
for  asserting  that  it  is  a  corruption  of  '  Ritor- 
nello,*  or  *  refrain.'  o.  M. 

STRADA  DEL  P5,  Anna.  An  Italian  so- 
prano, brought  from  Italy  by  Handel  in  1729, 
with  Bemacchi,  Merighi,  Fabri,  and  others,  for 
the  opera  in  the  Haymarket.  She  appeared 
therein  *  Lotario,'  Dec.  2, 1729  ;  in  'Partenope,' 
Feb.  24,  1730;  '  Poro,' Feb.  2,  1781  ;  *Ezio,' 
Jan.  15,  1732  ;  *Sosarme,'  Feb.  19,  1732  ;  in 
'Acis  and  Galatea,'  June  10,  1732  ;    and  in 

*  Orlando,'  Jan.  28,  1788.  She  was  the  only 
one  of  Handel's  company  who  did  not  desert 
him  for  the  rival  new  opera  in  Lincoln's  Inn  in 
the  end  of  1783,  and  she  remained  faithful  to 
him  till  her  departure  from  this  country  in 
June  1738,  when  a  quarrel  with  Heidegger,  the 
manager,  put  an  end  to  her  connection  with 
England.  In  the  interval  between  1733  and 
the  last-named  date  she  took  part  in  Handel's 
*Ariodante,*  *  Alcina,'  'Atalanta,'  *Arminio,' 

*  Giustino,*  *  Berenice ' ;  also  in  *  Athaliah '  and 

*  Alexander's  Feast.' 

Even  on  her  arrival,  though,  accoixiing  to 
Handel,^  *a  coarse  singer  with  a  fine  voice,' 

9  From  Tlgri'e  '  Canto  Populare  Toacani  '  (Florence,  1869). 
«  Barney's  HUtory,  Ir.  842.    The  above  infonnation  is  compiled 
from  the  aame  volume,  pp.  399-427. 

2z 


for  the  first  air  which  she  sang  on  those  boards 
contains  no  less  than  thirty  opportunities  to 
display  her  shake.  Coming  after  Cuzzoni  and 
Faustina,  and  having  so  little  to  recommend 
her  to  the  eye  that  she  was  nicknamed  the  *  pig,  * 
it  took  her  some  time  to  get  into  favour.  But 
Handel  took  pains  with  her,  wrote  for  her,  and 
advised  her,  and  at  length  rendered  her  equal 
to  the  first  singers  of  the  Ck>ntinent.  o. 

STRADELLA,  Alessandro,  an  Italian 
composer  of  the  17th  century.  The  earliest 
and  only  detailed  account  of  him  is  given  by 
Bonnet-Bourdelot,  in  his  Hisloire  de  la  musiqvs 
etde  MS  effetSj  Paris,  1715.  This  is  the  source 
of  the  romantic  story  of  his  eloping  with  the 
mistress  of  a  Venetian  nobleman,  of  the  attempt 
to  murder  the  composer,  of  the  effect  of  Strad- 
ella's  music  upon  the  assassins,  and  of  the 
ultimate  success  of  the  nobleman's  plot  *  about 
the  year  1670 ' ;  there  seems  no  good  reason 
to  believe  the  story,  which  occurs  in  a  book 
that  is  untrustworthy  in  many  particulars. 
The  narrative  failed  to  obtain  credence  from 
M.  Richard^  or  M.  Catelani,^  whose  re- 
searches, however,  have  not  led  to  any  positive 
result 

The  place  of  Stradella's  birth  is  unknown. 
Wanley^  thinks  he  was  a  Venetian,  while 
Bumey  ^  states  he  was  a  Neapolitan,  apparently 
for  no  other  reason  than  that  he  sends  Stradella 
andOrtensia,  en  roiUe  for  Rome,  to  Naples,  which, 
he  adds,  was  '  the  place  of  Stradella's  nativity. ' 
F6tis,^  evidently  on  Bumey's  statement,  but 
without  quoting  his  authority,  describes  him  as 
born  at  Naples  about  1645,  and  the  assertion 
is  now  an  accepted  statement.^  The  dates  both 
of  his  birth  and  death  are  in  fact  unknown. 
But  though  we  reject  the  story  of  his  murder 
at  Genoa,  it  is  not  impossible  that  he  ended 
his  life  there,  since  the  composition,  which  we 
may  presume  to  have  been  his  last,  is  dated 
from  thence. 

The  date  of  his  death  was  probably  about 
1681,  since  there  exists  in  the  Biblioteca  Pala- 
tina  of  Modena,  a  cantata,  'II  Barcheggio,'^ 
written  for  the  wedding  of  Carlo  Spinola 
and  Paola  Brignole,  at  Genoa,  July  6,  1681. 
The  poem  contains  numerous  aUiisions  to 
it,  and  the  names  of  both  bride  and  bride- 
groom ;  no  mistake  is  possible  as  to  the  real 

1  Lt  Ufwnervl.  1S65.  pp.  81.  09 ;  1896.  pp.  1  to  6.  and  IS  to  18. 

*  DOle  open  dl  A.  BtradMa  uttstentt  nrtt  AreMHo  Jltuieal*  dtUa 
R,  Blblbtteea  Palatlna  M  Modvna.     Modenm  1806. 

*  A  CaUOoyut  of  the  EarUian  MantuerlpU  in  the  BrMA  Muitmm, 
▼ol.  1.  p.  642,  ood.  12?!. 

*  A  Chneral  ffUtorg  of  MutU.  Iv.  100.  101. 
'  Biographic  unl9ermU«  dea  nutsieimu, 

*  See  Dictionnain  g6nirtd  de  BiographU  H  SBUMre  (Flwla, 
18S71 :  Metionnain  da  to  Ootufenation  et  dela  UctvTr{V%xi;  1858) ; 
iLtsatie\.ituM.ConvenatUm»-LexOBon  (1877);  ^Vtm»nn.Mtutk-Lexaum. 

"^  On  the  flnt  pase  o(  the  acora  in  written;  'II  BKreheggio,  del 
81(  AleeMndro  Stradella  1681.    L' ultima  doUeniesinfonle.    After 
the  overture,  and  before  the  dnet  with  which  the  noene  opene.  at 
the  top  of  the  pace  in  written  *  Innentiatie  per  un  Borcfaeggio.  1681. 
16  Oiotrno.     L'  nltiina  compoelKtone  del  Big.  Alenamlro  Stradella.'    j 
Thla  \»  a  cantata  for  Mpraoo.  tenor,  and  haae,  in  two  parts.    Each    < 
part  la  preoeded  by  an  overture.    The  eoore  is  for  two  Tlollne,    i 
comet  or  trumpet,  and  baea :  a  trombone  di  rlnforao  at  times  with    : 
thebaea.  j 


1670  and  1678,  given  by  iiourdeiot  and 
Bumey  respectively  for  his  death,  are  evidently 
wrong.  8 

The  statements  that  besides  being  a  composer 
Stradella  was  a  singer,*  '  an  exquisite  performer 
on  the  harp, '  ^**  *  a  great  performer  on  the  violin, '  '* 

*  excelled  in  an  extraordinary  hand,  so  as  to  have 
been  accounted  the  best  organist  in  Italy,' ^ 
'was  a  Latin  and  perhaps  also  an  Italian  poet, '  ^ 
are  all  more  or  less  gratuitous,  and  except  com- 
posing, it  cannot  be  proved  that  he  possessed 
any  of  these  qualifications.  Qis  name  is  never 
met  with  in  any  of  the  best  treatises  of  Italian 
literature,  either  as  a  Latin  or  an  Italian  poet,^* 
and  with  respect  to  his  skill  on  the  organ,  we 
have  been  unable  to  find  anything  to  justify 
Wanley's  assertion,  beyond  a  short  Sonata  in  D 
for  two  violins  and  basso  continue  per  TOigano.^^ 
As  to  the  statements  in  the  Penny  CyclcpoBdia^ 
that  '  Stradella  was  not  handsome,  but  remark- 
able for  the  symmetry  of  his  form,  his  wit  and 
polished  manners,'  and  in  Wanley's  catalogue, 
that '  he  was  a  comely  person  and  of  an  amorous 
nature,'  I  can  do  no  more  than  submit  them  to 
the  reader,  as  striking  instances  of  the  way  in 
which  mythical  statements  gather  round  a 
central  figure. 

Nothing  can  be  positively  asserted  as  to  his 
having  been  married  to  Ortensia  after  the 
attempted  murder  at  Turin,  because  the  archives 
of  S.  Giovanni  di  Torino,  the  parish  of  the 
court,  have  been  destroyed  by  fire. 

Where  or  with  whom  Stradella  studied  is 
entirely  unknown.  In  the  archives  of  the 
Royal  Conservatorio  di  Musica  in  Naples, 
where  all  the  documents  formerly  belonging 
to  the  superseded  Conservatori  are  most  care- 
fully kept,  his  name  does  not  occur ;  nor  is 
it  mentioned  in  Lichtenthal's  catalogue.  ^^  None 
of  his   numerous  operas  are  known  to   have 

•  Barney's  miatake  Is  eaaUy  explicable,  beeanaa,  when  he  wrote. 

*  II  Barchegglo '  had  nut  yet  been  discovered,  and  be  waa  in  noeen 
slon  of  a  libretto  '  Im  forca  dell'  amor  patemo.'  Oenga.  1878.  dedicated 
to  Signoia  Tereaa  Baggl  Boali  by  AleMandro  StradaUa,  the  dedk»- 


tlon  apparently  written  by  Stradella  hlniaelf.  The  facu  tliat  the 
oratorio  *S.  Giovanni  Battlata '— auppoeed  to  be  that  whldi  aaved 
its  author's  life  in  Borne— bean  the  date  *  Bome,  1676 '  aod  the  fsct 
that  Bourdelot's  account  Implies  a  period  of  two  yearn  between 
Stradella'a  singing  In  Borne  and  hia  murder  in  Oenaa.indaoed  Bonwy 
to  believe  that  Stradella  might  have  met  hla  death  In  Genoa  whOe 
attending  the  rehearaals  of  hia  new  opeta.  However,  that  Uhtvtto 
waa  aeen  by  Bumey  only,  and  haa  dnoe  dlaappeared. 

•  Bourdelot  and  all  biographen. 

M  Hawkins'a  HUtoiy,  vol.  Iv.  bk.  9,  chap.  10. 

1^  Bumey.  A  General  BUtorp  <^f  Mtute,  iv.  100. 

»  A  Cataloffue  of  the  HarMan  MSB. 

u  Catelani.  DeUs  optre  dt  A.  atradeOa  esWcNM,  etc: 

i«  JMla  atorta  e  detta  Xa^ns  di  amU  PouUt,  di  F.  B.  Quadricv 
Bologna- Milano,  1730-49.  Tlraboaehl.  Aerte  delta  tettm'otmtm 
itaUana.  Ginguen^  i7<rtoif«l<««ralr»4'/taUa.  Olovaa  Mario  Cree- 
dmbeni,  DatF  latoHa  delta  wotfar  J^oeela.  In  thla  laat  woHk.  Stra- 
della is  apoken  of  only  where  the  author,  dealing  with  the  Catumtm, 
thua  ezpreaaea  himself :  '  They  are  pretty  thinga  and  the  beet  and 
moat  pleaaant  diversion  that  one  can  enjoy  in  any  honoorahla  and 
noble  con  veraatlon :  especially  when  aet  to  mualc  by  eminent  mmmttt, 
aa.  amongst  the  old  onea.  are  thoae  by  the  tamoua  Alaaaandro  Btia- 
dcdla,  one  of  whidt  waa  sung  not  long  ainee  in  the  Aemtamy  of  the 
Oardinal  Ottoboni  by  Andrea  Adami  detto  fl  Boleena.'  VoL  1.  iit 
iv.  chi^.  xll.  p.  330.  Thia  paasage  ia  quoted  tnm  the  third  aditicn. 
ITSI. 

u  '  Bcielta  delle  luonate  a  due  violini  con  11  Baaao  ecaitlmio  per 
r  Organo,  raooolte  da  diversi  eocellentl  autorl.*  In  Bolofma  par 
Giaeomo  Monti,  1680.  With  the  exception  of  thla  Sonata,  no  other 
of  Stradella's  compoeitiona  was  printed  in  the  17th  eentory. 

t«  IHMlonarieeMbUogr«^deUaMtukMdetD.Pi0tr0Uektaiakei, 


STRADELLA 


STRADIVARI 


7(n 


been  performed  in  his  lifetime,^  with  the  ex- 
ception of  *  11  Trespolo.'  ^ 

Stradella  as  a  composer  is  known  to  modem 
audiences  by  the  Aria  di  Chiesa,  *  Pietk^  Signore ! ' 
attributed  to  him.  It  is  enough  to  say  that  no 
musician,  even  though  but  slightly  acquainted 
with  the  works  that  are  indisputably  by  Stra- 
della, will  attribute  it  to  him.  The  composer  of 
'  that  beautiful  composition  is  almost  certainly 
Rossini.  The  words  are  taken  from  the  second 
stanza  of  Arsenic's  aria  in  Alessandro  Scarlatti's 
oratorio  '  Santa  Teodosia/  two  copies  of  which 
are  in  the  Biblioteca  Palatina  of  Modena,  and 
bear  the  signature  *  A.  S. ' 

Stradella's  name  has  lately  been  invested  with 
fresh  interest  on  account  of  a  Serenata  attributed 
to  him,  in  which  the  subjects  of  many  of  the 
pieces  in  '  Israel  in  Egypt '  exist  in  a  more  or 
less  crude  form.  [See  vol.  ii.  pp.  2866,  5146.] 
A  copy  of  this,  formerly  belonging  to  Dr. 
Gauntlett,  is  in  the  Library  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Music,  London,  and  another  (older) 
in  that  of  the  Conservatoire,  Paris  ;  the  original 
is  not  known.  For  a  review  of  the  work,  by 
Prof.  Prout,  see  Monthly  Musical  Eecordy  Dec 
1,  1871. 

Bumey  (iv.  105)  gives  an  analysis  of  his 
Oratorio  di  S.  Gio.  Battista,  and  mentions  a 
MS.  of  his  opera  '  La  Forza  dell'  Amor  patemo,' 
dated  Genoa,  1678, 

There  are  148  of  Stradella's  compositions  at 
Modena :  amongst  them  six  oratorios  and  six 
dramas.  The  library  of  S.  Marco  in  Venice 
possesses  a  collection  of  *  Canti  a  voce  sola  del- 
r  insigne  A.  Stradella,  legate  alia  Biblioteca 
S.  Marco  di  Venezia  dalla  nobile  famiglia 
Contarini.'  Some  of  his  compositions  are  also 
at  the  Conservatorio  at  Naples,  and  some  in 
that  at  Paris.  Many  are  in  the  British  Museum. 
(See  the  Quellen-Lexikon.)  The  Christ  Church 
Library,  Oxford,  contains  one  motet  for  two 
voices,  and  eight  cantatas  for  one  and  two 
voices.  o.  M. 

STRADELLA.  1.  French  lyric  drama,  music 
by  Flotow.  Produced  at  the  Palais  Royal  theatre, 
Paris,  Feb.  1837.  Then  recomposed,  as  a  Grand 
Opera,  and  produced  at  Hamburg,  Dec  80, 1844, 
as  'Alessandro  Stradella.'  In  English  (altered 
by  Bunn)  as  *  Stradella,'  at  Drury  Lane,  June  6, 
1846.  2.  Opera  in  five  acts,  by  Niedermeyer  ; 
produced  at  the  Academic,  March  3,  1837.     6. 

STRADIVARI,  Antonio,  'brought  the  violin 
to  the  highest  perfection  and  left  to  Cremona 
an  imperishable  name  as  master  of  his  craft.' 
Thus  the  inscription  now  affixed  by  the  munici- 
pality of  Cremona  to  the  house  in  the  Piazza 
Roma  where  the  great  violin-maker  passed  the 

1  The  following  1b  the  list  of  bookR  In  which  the  names  of  Stra- 
della's oiKtue  should  hare  been  mentioned.  If  any  of  them  had  been 
perromtod.  Leone  Allacci,  Drammaturifia.  Groppo.  Catalogo  di 
tvtfl  i  drantme  per  TRtuieo.  Bonlinl.  Le  gtorie  deUa  Poetia  «  detta 
Mutica.  C.  F.  Xenestrler.  DeM  rvpritentatUmt  en  mtaUttu  oHeienne 
et  modems,  Paris,  1881.  Pletro  Napoli  SlgnorelU.  Storla  erUiea  da 
tfotri  aiUUM  «  modermi.  Ditto,  Mieorto  tCorieo  critico  da  tgrtire 
di  lume  alia  ttoria  dei  teatri. 

3  Performed  at  Bologna,  1879.  and  at  Modena,  lQS8w 


most  successful  years  of  his  life,  and  where  he 
died  on  Dec.  18,  1737. 

It  should  be  stated  at  once  that  the  history, 
that  is  to  say,  the  whole  of  the  facts  available 
as  the  reward  of  untiring  effort  and  affectionate 
research,  concerning  the  family  of  the  great 
'Stradivarius,'  as  well  as  his  own  personality 
and  work,  have  been  amassed  in  the  monumental 
study  which  has  been,  it  may  be  said,  the  life- 
work  of  the  sons  of  William  Ebsworth  Hill — 
Antonio  Stradivari,  his  Life  and  Work  {1644- 
17S7\  by  W.  Henry  Hill,  Arthur  F.  Hill,  F.S. A. 
and  Alfred  Hill  (London,  1902).  Beyond  what 
is  collected  in  this  volume  there  is,  probably, 
nothing  more  to  be  discovered  or  discussed. 
To  this  work  the  writer  acknowledges  his  great 
indebtedness. 

Regarding  the  etymology  of  the  name  Mr.  £. 
J.  Payne,  in  the  firstedition  of  the  Dictionary,  pro- 
nounced it  to  be  derived  from  *  the  plural  form  of 
**  Stradivare,"  a  Lombard  variety  of  "  Stradiere," 
a  tollman  or  douanier,  a  feudal  official  who  was 
posted  on  the  Strada  (or  high  road)  for  the 
purpose  of  exacting  dues  from  passengers' ;  while 
Signor  MandeUi,  quoting  from  the  catalogue  of 
ancient  rolls  of  the  community  of  Cremona, 
compiled  by  the  Piedmontese  professor,  Aste- 
giano,  to  the  year  1300,  and  printed  at  Turin 
in  1899,  states  that:  *The  form  of  the  name 
"de  Stradaverta"  as  used  in  1298  is  derived  from 
**  Strada  Averta  "  of  the  Cremonese  dialect ;  in 
Italian  '  *  Strada  Aperta. "  A  further  outcome  of 
Signor  Mandelli's  researches  is  the  remarkable 
genealogy  of  the  Stradivari  family  which  he 
has  traced  down  to  1883.  Beginning  with 
Giulio  Cesare  Stradivari  of  the  parish  of  S. 
Michele  Yecchio,  who  married  Doralice  Milani, 
a  widow  of  the  cathedral  parish,  on  April  10, 
1600,  we  find  Antonio  Stradivari's  father  re- 
corded in  the  register-entry  of  the  son  bom  to 
them  two  years  later  and  christened  Alessandro, 
on  Jan.  15  in  the  same  church.  Later  we  find 
this  same  Alessandro,  son  of  Giulio  Cesare 
Stradivari,  entering  into  the  bonds  of  matrimony 
with  Anna,  daughter  of  Leonardo  Moroni,  on 
August  80,  1622,  which  fact  is  duly  recorded 
in  the  marriage  register  of  the  parish  of  8. 
Prospero.  Three  children  are  recorded  to  have 
been  bom  of  this  union  :  Giuseppe  Giulio  Cesare, 
bom  March  1623  ;  Carlo  Felice,  bom  Sept. 
1626 ;  Giovanni  Battista,  bom  Oct  1628. 
After  the  birth  of  the  last -mentioned  child 
documentary  evidence  concerning  the  family 
ceases  entirely,  and  no  effort  has  yet  dissipated 
the  obscurity  which  enshrouds  the  birth  of 
Antonio  Stradivari.  Every  record  relating  to 
the  subject  has,  it  would  seem,  been  destroyed, 
or  lost,  and  the  only  available  explanation  of 
this  singular  deficiency  has  been  furnished  by 
the  wars  and  famine  which  visited  Cremona  in 
1628,  the  year  Giovanni  Battista  was  bom, 
and  again  in  1629.  Again  in  1630  the  inhabit- 
ants were  further  harassed  by  the  ravages  of 


compelled  all  those  who  could  do  so,  to  leave 
the  city.  It  is  further  recorded  that  Hieronymus 
Amati,  his  wife  and  his  daughters,  succumbed 
to  the  disease  ;  but  there  is  no  indication  that 
Alessandro  Stradivari  and  his  family  were  still 
at  Cremona  at  the  time,  and  Mandelli  has 
perhaps  rightly  interpreted  the  complete  lack 
of  documentary  evidence  regarding  the  date 
and  place  of  Antonio  Stradivari's  birth,  to 
signify  that  his  parents  had  fled  to  some  haven 
of  refuge  where  in  the  fulness  of  time  Antonio 
first  saw  the  light.  The  names  of  the  three 
children  above  mentioned  are  the  only  entries 
to  be  found  in  the  birth  registers  relating  to 
children  bom  in  wedlock  to  Alessandro  Stradi- 
vari, and  the  only  direct  allusion  to  the  relation- 
ship existing  between  Antonio  and  Alessandro 
Stradivari  is  furnished  by  the  contract  for  the 
purchase  of  his  house  wherein  he  signs  himself 
'  Antonio  Stradivari,  son  of  the  late  Alessandro. ' 
The  earliest  authentic  evidence  of  Antonio 
Stradivari's  residence  in  Cremona  has  been 
supplied  by  a  violin— dated  1666 — recorded  by 
Alfred  Hill,  in  whose  hands  it  has  been.  The 
original  label  in  this  instrument  runs  as  follows  : 

*  Antonius  Stradiuarius  Cremonensis  Alumnus 
Nicolai  Amati,  Faciebat  Anno  1666,'  followed 
by  the  familiar  Maltese  cross  and  the  initials 
A.  S.  enclosed  within  a  double  circle.  He  was 
then — as  will  be  gathered  later — twenty -two 
years  of  age  and,  it  may  be  assumed,  had  prob- 
ably served  an  apprenticeship  to  Nicolo  Amati 
for  the  seven  or  eight  preceding  years.  It  is 
quite  possible  that  he  began  to  insert  his  own 
labels  some  years  before  1666,  but  this  date 
may  be  said  to  have  marked  the  later  limit  of 
his  pupilage ;  in  any  case  it  proved  his  com- 
petence to  claim  the  authorship  of  his  own 
instruments,  and  the  labels  found  in  his  violins 
of  the  following  year  bear  no  allusion  to  Nicolo 
Amati,  nor  is  there  any  further  reference  to  his 
master  on  the  labels  of  any  of  his  later  instru- 
ments. Following  the  same  lines  of  deduction, 
the  year  in  which  Antonio  Stradivari  was  bom 
has  been  generally  accepted  as  1644,  by  reason 
of  his  custom  of  adding  his  age  to  his  labels 
during  the  latter  part  of  his  life.  It  would  seem 
as  though  the  venerable  maker,  with  a  pardon- 
able pride,  desired  to  impress  his  contempor- 
aries, as  well  as  succeeding  generations,  with  his 
unflagging  vigour  and  skill  by  recording  his  age 
within  his  instruments.  In  1732  he  states 
himself  to  be  *  89,*  in  1736,  *  92 '  and  in  1737, 

*  93.'  Another  noticeable  feature  of  these 
labels  is  the  alteration  in  the  s{)el]ing  of  his 
name.  About  the  year  1730  he  seems  to  have 
discarded  the  first  orthography,  i,c.  *  Antonius 
Stradiuarius,*  and  replaced  the  u  with  a  roman 
V.  The  origin  of  this  change  may  have  been 
a  chance  misprint  which  commended  itself  to 
him  ;  but  it  was  certainly  not  due  to  any 
orthographical  vidws  on^e  part  of  the  Stradi- 


to  employ  the  earlier,  while  Francesco  adopted 
the  later  spelling. 

Accepting  the  year  of  Antonio  Stradivarius's 
birth  as  1644,  we  find  that  he  was  twenty-three 
years  of  age  when  he  married  Francesca  Fen- 
boschi  in  1667.  This  lady  was  the  widow  of 
Giovanni  Giacomo  Capra,  who  had  committed 
suicide  in  the  Piazza  S.  Agata,  Cremona,  three 
years  previously,  and  was  Stradivari's  senior  by 
a  few  years.  After  the  union  Stradivari  and 
his  wife  settled  in  a  house  known  as  the  Casa 
del  Pescatore,  which  was  situated  in  his  wife's 
parish  of  S.  Matteo ;  and  a  year  after  the 
marriage  the  Cremona  census  reports  record 
that  a  daughter,  christened  Giulia  Maria,  had 
been  bora  to  them.  Until  1680  Stradivari 
continued  to  live  at  the  Casa  del  Pescatore, 
where  his  family  was  increased  by  the  birth 
of  a  second  daughter,  Gatterina,  bom  March 
25,  1674  (died  June  17,  1748),  and  four  sons: 
Francesco,  bom  Feb.  6,  1670 — who  only  lived 
a  week ;  Francesco,  born  Feb.  1,  1671  (died 
May  11, 1743)  ;  Alessandro,  bom  May  26, 1677 
(died  June  26, 1732)  ;  Omobono,  bora  Nov.  14, 
1679  (died  June  8,  1742).  The  year  following 
the  birth  of  Omobono  Stradivari  and  his  family 
removed  to  the  house  he  had  purchased  in  the 
Piazza  San  Domenico  of  a  Cremonese  family 
named  PicenardL  According  to  the  deed  of  sale, 
first  brought  to  light  by  Signer  Lombardiiii 
{AntoTvio  Stradivari  e  la  celebre  aeuola  CremoMy, 
1872),  and  now  preserved  in  the  National 
Archives  of  Cremona,  Stradivari  paid  7000 
imperial  Ures  (about  £840)  for  his  new  home. 
2000  lire  of  this  amount  he  paid  in  cash,  4990 
he  agreed  to  pay  within  four  years,  and  the 
balance  of  ten  lire  was  foregone  by  the  vendors 
provided  he  paid  the  canons  of  the  Cathedral 
the  yearly  tithe  of  six  imperial  sols.  Until  his 
death  Stradivari  resided  in  this  house,  known 
in  his  day  as  No.  2  Piazza  San  Domenico,  but 
since  1870  as  No.  1  Piazza  Roma,  and  for  nine 
years  after  his  demise  the  remaining  members 
of  his  family  lived  there.  In  1746  it  was  let 
to  Stradivari's  pupil,  Carlo  Bcrgonzi,  who  oc- 
cupied the  house  until  1758.  In  the  following 
year  it  was  tenanted  by  Giacomo  Caraffe,  and 
until  1777  by  Giuseppe  Paleari  and  others; 
but  in  that  year  Stradivari's  grandson,  named 
Antonio  after  him,  sold  the  house  to  Signor 
Giovanni  Ancina.  During  these  years  the 
building  escaped  alteration,  but  in  1^88  th« 
proprietor  of  the  adjoining  eaff^  purchased  it 
and  carried  out  such  extensive  alterations  that 
little  of  the  original  form  of  the  structure  now 
remains.  ^        . 

Eighteen  years  of  domestic  tranquillity  fol- 
lowed the  establishment  of  the  Stradivari  famiy 
—which  included  Susanna  Capra,  his  wife's  only 
daughter  by  her  first  husband— in  their  new 
abode,  until  May  26,  1698,  when  a  break  was 
caused  in  the  home-drcle  by  the  death  of  tne 


STRADIVARI 


STRADIVARI 


709 


yiolin-maker's  wife,  Francesca  Feraboschi.  She 
was  buried  with  conspicuous  honours  in  a  tomb 
situated  in  the  choir  of  the  church  of  St. 
Domenico,  and  fifteen  months  after  her  death 
Stradivari  consoled  himself,  becoming  united 
in  August  1699  to  Signora  Antonia  Maria 
Zambelli,  daughter  of  Antonia  Zambelli,  of  the 
parish  of  S.  Donato.  This  second  marriage  was 
blessed  with  five  children :  one  daughter — named 
after  the  first  wife — Francesca  Maria,  bom  Sept. 
19,  1700  (died  Feb.  11,  1720);  Giovanni 
Battista  Giuseppe,  bom  Nov.  6,  1701  (died  July 
8,  1702);  Giovanni  Battista  Martino,  born 
Nov.  11,  1703  (died  Nov.  1,  1727) ;  Giuseppe, 
who  became  a  priest,  bom  Oct.  27,  1704  (died 
Dec.  2, 1781)  ;  Paolo  Bartolomeo,  bom  Jan.  26, 
1708,  who  was  a  cloth-merchant  (died  Oct. 
14,  1776).  The  last  named,  together  with 
Stradivari's  first  child,  Giulia  Maria  (by  his  first 
wife),  were  apparently  the  only  members  of  his 
family  who  married. 

Immersed  in  the  absorbing  interest  of  his 
work,  it  may  be  safely  said  that  the  years  passed 
swiftly  over  Stradivari's  head,  so  that,  notwith- 
standing the  loss  of  several  of  his  children,  the 
thought  of  purchasing  a  family  vault  did  not 
occur  to  him  imtil  eight  years  before  his  own 
death.  It  was  in  1729  that  he  is  recorded  to 
have  purchased,  from  the  heirs  of  Francesco 
Yillani,  the  burial-place  and  tombstone  belong- 
ing to  that  noble  family.  The  exact  locality  of 
this  vault  has  been  entirely  lost  since  the  total 
destmction  of  the  church  of  S.  Domenico  and  its 
chapel — named  after  the  Blessed  Virgin  of  the 
Rosary — which  contained  the  Villani,  after- 
wards the  Stradivari  tomb.  No  funds  for  the 
restoration  of  this  handsome  church  were  avail- 
able, and  it  gradually  fell  into  such  a  state  of 
decay  that  the  city  authorities  had  the  building 
demolished  in  1869,  converting  the  site  into  the 
existing  public  garden.  Here  a  commemorative 
inscription  on  one  of  the  decorative  vases  in  the 
grounds  perpetuates  the  memory  of  the  church 
of  S.  Domenico,  but  the  fact  that  it  was  the 
last  resting-place  of  the  illustrious  violin-maker 
is  not  alluded  to.  The  Villani  tombstone, 
however,  from  which  the  coat -of- arms  and 
family  inscriptions  were  so  imperfectly  effaced 
that  they  are  still  visible  under  Stradivari's 
name,  ia  now  preserved  in  the  Municipal 
Museum,  and  the  Parish  Register  of  S.  Matteo 
records  that  Stradivari's  second  wife  was  in- 
terred in  the  Villani  vault  on  March  4,  1737. 
She  was  the  first  member  of  the  family  to  be 
buried  there,  and  nine  months  later  she  was 
followed  by  her  husband,  who  was  laid  to  rest 
on  Dec.  19,  1737.  The  following  members  of 
his  family  were  also  interred  in  the  same  vault : 
Omobono  Stradivari,  June  9,  1742  ;  Francesco 
Stradivari,  May  13,  1743  ;  Paolo  Bartolomeo 
Stradivari,  Oct.  15,  1776  ;  Giuseppe  Antonio 
Stradivari,  Dec.  3,  1781  ;  Catarina  Stradivari 
(spinster),  June  18,  1784. 


Little  or  nothing  is  known  concerning  the 
disposition  of  Stradivari's  property  after  his 
death.  The  census  returns  reveal  that  his  family 
continued  to  reside  in  the  Piazza  Roma  house 
until  1746.  Possibly  his  sons  and  daughters 
divided  their  father's  possessions  amicably  among 
themselves,  and  we  may  presume  that  the 
privilege  of  using  his  workshop  and  tools  fell 
to  the  share  of  Francesco  and  Omobono,  who 
survived  their  father  for  five  and  six  years  re- 
spectively. After  the  departure  of  Stradivari's 
son  Paolo  Bartolomeo,  with  his  wife  Elena 
Templari  and  their  four  children,  in  1746,  the 
new  tenant,  Bergonzi,  presumably  became  the 
owner  of  Stradivari's  tools  and  violin- making 
appurtenances  ;  but  during  the  thirty-nine  years 
or  so  which  elapsed  between  Stradivari's  death 
and  the  sale  of  his  designs,  moulds,  etc.,  by  his 
descendants  to  Count  Cozio  di  Salabue,  many 
of  these  interesting  relics  necessarily  became 
scattered  abroad  and  passed  into  different  hands. 
With  the  exception  of  his  callipers,  the  great 
Cremona  maker's  tools  were  not  included  in 
the  Count's  collection,  which  now  belongs  to 
the  Marchese  Dalla  Valle  in  Turin.  There  are 
sixteen  moulds  for  violins,  and  three  for  violas, 
in  this  collection,  besides  various  drawings  and 
designs  for  the  minutest  details  of  his  art,  which 
are  of  great  interest  M.  Vuillaume,  it  is  said, 
also  preserved  some  of  Stradivari's  moulds,  and 
these  were  presented  by  him  to  the  Mus^e  of 
the  Paris  Conservatoire,  whilst  the  French  lu  thier, 
M.  Chanot-Chardon,  owns  a  set  of  small  planes 
said  to  have  belonged  to  Stradivari. 

As  no  genuine  portrait  of  the  great  Creihona 
maker  exists,  we  still  have  to  rely  on  the  verbal 
description  of  Stradivari  handed  down  to  us 
by  Polledro  from  his  master  Pugnani,  for  an 
idea  of  his  personal  appearance.  According  to 
M.  F^tis  (Biog,  dea  Mu8.\  on  whose  authority 
we  have  the  account,  Polledro,  formerly  first 
violin  at  the  court  of  Turin  (died  1822),  records 
that  his  master,  Pugnani,  knew  Stradivari  during 
the  latter  part  of  his  life,  and  delighted  in 
talking  about  him.  He  described  him  as  tall 
and  thin.  As  a  rule  his  head  was  covered  with 
a  white  woollen  cap  in  the  winter,  and  a  white 
cotton  cap  in  the  summer  ;  over  his  clothes  he 
wore  an  apron  of  white  leather,  and,  as  he  rarely 
ceased  from  work,  his  costume  varied  seldom. 
M.  F^tis  also  recounts  that  Stradivari's  untiring 
industry  and  his  fmgal  habits  brought  him  to 
an  old  age  of  such  easy  circumstances  that  his 
afiluence  became  a  standard  of  comparison  to 
the  people  of  Cremona,  who  adopted  the  phrase 
Ricco  come  Stradivari, 

In  the  opinion  pf  Messrs.  Hill,  Stradivari 
was  undoubtedly  an  apprentice  in  Nicolo  Amati's 
workshop,  but  they  unhesitatingly  repudiate 
the  idea  that  Stradivari  assisted  Amati  in  the 
construction  of  his  later  instruments,  and  this 
on  the  grounds  that  there  is  no  indication  of 
any  such  help  to  be  found  in  the  latter's  work. 


placed  him  in  a  high  position  of  trust,  freed 
him  from  many  of  the  duties  exacted  from 
his  comrades,  and  gave  him  the  privilege  of 
making  his  own  instruments  and  using  his 
own  labels.  The  question  must  still  be  some- 
what a  matter  of  surmise,  but  the  above  con- 
clusion is  certainly  ^itrengthened  by  the  excellent 
violins  which  issued  from  Stradivari's  hands 
whilst  apparently  he  still  worked  in  the  studio 
of  the  great  Amati.  Again,  the  termination  of 
Stradivari's  apprenticeship  can  only  be  approxi- 
mately stated  to  have  taken  place  a  couple  of 
years  before  he  purchased  his  house  in  the  Piazza 
Roma  in  1680.  Already  in  1 666 — and  possibly 
as  early  as  1660 — Stradivari  was  making  violins 
in  which  he  affixed  his  own  labels.  These 
early  violins  are  particularly  noticeable  for  their 
poor  material,  thick  yellow  varnish,  solid  build, 
and  their  proportions,  which  follow  those  of 
Amati's  smaller  pattern,  i,6.  about  13|^  long ; 
7^1-  width  of  lower  bouts  ;  6|-  width  of  upper 
bouts  ;  1  rV  lower  ribs  ;  1^  upper  ribs.  With 
one  or  two  exceptions,  notably  the  ornamented 
violin  known  as  the  'Hellier'  Strad  (1679), 
which  tends  towards  the  grand  Amati  in 
measurement,  and  is  remarkably  heavy  in  style 
of  work,  Stradivari  adhered  to  the  small  model 
until  1684,  after  which  date  he  definitely  turned 
his  attention  to  larger-built  instruments.  There 
is  little  doubt  that  by  this  time  he  had  gained 
some  prestige  as  a  maker,  and  tlus,  combined 
with  the  loss  of  his  master's  living  influence, 
gave  freedom  to  and  further  awakened  his 
inventive  faculties.  Until  1684  he  merely 
proved  himself  to  be  an  uncommonly  skilled 
craftsman,  but  the  years  which  intervened 
between  1684  and  1700  marked  the  progress 
of  those  experiments  which  were  to  cidminate 
in  the  uttermost  perfection  of  form  and  balance. 
It  must  be  observed,  however,  that  notwith- 
standing the  changes  which  took  place  in 
Stradivari's  work  during  this  period — generally 
alluded  to  as  the  *  Amatis^  period ' — the  perfect 
poise  and  equilibrium,  so  characteristic  of  his 
later  work,  is  to  some  extent  lacking.  That 
Nicolo  Amati's  precepts  still  strongly  influenced 
him  is  proved  by  his  first  innovation,  which 
consisted  in  adopting  a  standard  of  length, 
varying  from  14  inches  to  14^  inches,  and 
proportions  similar  to  those  of  the  *  grand' 
Amati.  In  some  instances  he  flattened  the 
model,  in  others  arched  it  almost  to  a  central 
point,  more  generally  he  adhered  entirely  to  the 
Amati  model,  though  the  solidity  of  his  edges 
always  remained  the  same.  The  scrolls  also, 
during  these  years,  evidence  the  master's  inde- 
cision by  the  deviating  vigour  and  occasional 
feebleness.  A  marked  alteration  in  the  detail 
of  his  work  took  place  in  1688,  when  Stradivari 
first  outlined  the  curves  of  the  scroll  in  black, 
and  also  similarly  accentuated  the  centre-line 


him  and  to  his  patrons  as,  with  but  few  excep- 
tions, he  continued  to  place  it  on  his  scrolls 
until  the  end  of  his  life.  Briefly  to  summarise 
this  early  period,  we  may  say  that,  between  1684 
and  1690,  Stradivari  principally  strove  to  avoid 
the  defects  of  others,  whUe  seeking  new  paths 
for  himself ;  but  in  the  meantime  the  beauty, 
accuracy,  and  finish  of  his  work  was  gaining 
steadily  every  year.  The  cutting  of  Ids//  holes, 
the  carving  of  his  scrolls,  the  exquisite  precision 
of  the  purfling,  all  prove  the  complete  dexterity 
with  which  he  handled  his  knife.  Then,  as  a 
crowning  point  to  this  perfect  craftsmanship 
a  new  set  of  proportions  suddenly  suggested 
themselves  to  his  maturing  brain,  and  we  find 
him  in  1690  creating  the  'Long  Strad.'  The 
abrupt  appearance  of  this  complete  innovation 
is  not  easy  to  account  for,  but  the  growing 
demand  for  strongly  toned  instruments  for  use 
in  the  churches  doubtless  influenced  Stradivari 
in  the  first  place,  and  as  the  authors  of  Oio.  Paolo 
Magginif  his  Life  ajid  Work  (Hill  k  Sons)  state, 
the  form  and  proportions  were  suggested  by  a 
Maggini  violin  which  came  under  his  notice. 
This  search  for  power  in  Stradivari's  work  is 
observable  from  the  moment  that  he  threw  off 
the  yoke  of  the  'small'  Amati  pattern.  He 
gradually  increased  his  breadths  year  by  year, 
and  even  contemporaneously  with  the  'Long 
Strad,'  he  made  violins  in  1691  and  1692  of 
still  larger  proportions,  by  combining  extreme 
breadth  with  the  utmost  length  of  the  long  pat- 
tern. The  dimensions  of  a  typical '  Long  Strad ' 
of  1690  will  be  found  recorded  in  Messrs.  Hills' 
Appendix  to  their  work  already  mentioned. 

During  the  years  following  1684  the  varnish 
upon  Stradivari's  violins  became  gradually 
deeper  in  colour,  and,  as  on  the  '  Long  Strads,' 
it  is  of  a  rich  hue  of  amber  and  light  red.  Until 
1698  Stradivari  adopted  the  'long  pattern' 
almost  entirely,  then  came  a  return  to  the  pro- 
portions which  preceded  the  year  1690,  and 
we  get  violins  of  about  14  inches  in  length,  with 
widths  similar  to  those  of  the  '  Long  Strad, ' 
but  with  outlines  more  curved,  comers  longer, 
body  fuller,  and  a  whole  of  more  harmonious 
appearance.  It  is  interesting  to  note  before 
leaving  this  period  that  the  backs  of  the  *  Long 
Strads  '  are  nearly  always  cut  in  one  piece ;  that 
the  model  is  rather  flat,  but  sloping  gracefully 
from  the  centre  to  the  purfling ;  that  the  ff 
holes,  to  fall  in  with  the  general  design,  are 
set  rather  upright,  nearer  together,  and  more 
open  ;  the  pine  is  fine  grained,  the  mitres 
square,  and  the  exquisitely  carved  scrolls  are 
proportionately  long. 

With  the  year  1700  dawned  the  finest  decade 
of  the  great  Cremona  master's  greatest  period. 
Slowly  but  surely  he  discarded  the  Amati 
tradition  which  had  again  asserted  itself  in 
1698  and  continued  to  a  certain  extent  until 


STRADIVARI 


STRADIVARI 


711 


about  1 702.     We  find  him  still  adhering  to  the 
14 -inch  length,  but  broadening,   developing, 
and  arching  the  model,  until  it  assumes  an  un- 
surpassable grandeur  and  symmetry.    His  years 
of  experiment  have  resulted  in  a  neatly  com- 
pacted instrument,  with  light  edges,  accurate 
corners,  round   arching,    broadly  treated  but 
exquisitely  graceful  sound-holes  and  scroll,  and 
a  varnish  soft  in  texture,  which  shades  deliciously 
from  orange  to  red.  From  1 703  until  about  1 709, 
the  year  of  those  famous  violins  '  La  Pucelle ' 
and  the  *  Viotti,'  Stradivari  seems  to  have  settled 
upon  cei*tain  points  of  construction,  from  which 
he  rarely  departed  afterwards.     A  slight  varia- 
tion of  curve  is  observable,  but  the  main  features 
and  general  dimensions  agree  with  one  another. 
Then  followed  years  of  indecision,  in  which  no 
consistency  of  plan  is  to  be  traced,  and  until  the 
end  of  his  career,  some  minute  changes  of  thick- 
ness, width,  or  length,  characterise  his  work. 
Yet,  in  spite  of  these  diversities,  the  years  follow- 
ing 1710  undoubtedly  mark  the  production  of 
some  of  his  finest  instruments.      In  1711  he 
made  the  fine  violin  known  as  the  *  Parke  ' ;  in 
1713,  the  '  Boissier  *  belonging  to  Sarasate  ;  in 
1714  the  'Dolphin';  in  1716  the  *Gillot'  and 
the  '  Alard,'  which  experts  look  upon  as  the 
master's  finest  creation  ;  and  in  1716  came  the 
*  Messiah.'     These  years  also  mark  the  produc- 
tion of  some  of  his  grandest  violoncellos,  such 
as  the  *  Duport,'  1711  ;  the  *  Batta,'  1714  ;  and 
— the  most  superb  of  all — the    *Piatti'   in 
1720.     All  of  these  are  instruments  of  smaller 
proportions  (about  29^  inches  long)  than  those 
he  made  anterior  to  the  years  following  1700, 
which  kept  to  the  dimensions  of  his  contempor- 
aries.    That  Stradivari  did  not  occupy  himself 
with  the  proportions  of  the  violonceUo,  as  he 
did  with  those  of  the  violin,  is  hardly  to  be 
wondered  at,  seeing  that  the  capacities  of  the 
violoncello  were  hardly  understood  in  his  day. 
It  was  not  until  the  latter  years  of  his  life  that 
such  artists  as  Franciscello  employed  it  as  a 
solo  instrument,  and  Stradivari — with  his  usual 
quick  responsiveness  to  the  demands  of  artistic 
appreciation — gradually  modified  the  propor- 
tions of  his  instruments  from  about  31^  inches 
to  about   29-J-  inches  in  length,  as   the  pro- 
gressing technique  of  the  contemporary  virtuosi 
exacted  a  diminution  in  size. 

His  violas  bear  a  more  distinctive  stamp  of 
his  creative  genius  than  do  his  violoncellos. 
The  changes  so  apparent  in  his  violins  are  quite 
as  evident  in  these  larger  instruments,  and 
the  models  marked  *  TV '  and  CV  '  preserved  in 
the  Dalla  Valle  collection  evidence  that  he 
made  these  in  two  sizes,  i.e.  *  Tenor  Viola '  and 
'  Contralto  Viola.'  Before  1690  the  influence 
of  the  Brescian  school,  and  of  the  Amatis,  still 
ruled  the  proportions  of  his  violas,  but  after 
that  year  he  adopted  a  smaller  model — about 
16^  in  length — and  to  this  he  mainly  adhered. 
These  three  members  of  the  string  quartet  seem 


to  have  occupied  Stradivari's  attention  almost 
exclusively.  No  authentic  double  basses  or  any 
designs  for  the  same  have  as  yet  come  to  light, 
and  with  the  exceptions  of  the  remains  of  a 
viola-da-gamba,  a  kit, — now  in  the  Mus^e  of 
the  Paris  Conservatoire, — two  handsome  guitars, 
dating  from  the  early  years  of  his  career,  and 
the  head  of  a  third,  it  may  be  said  with  truth 
that  Stradivari's  fame  rests  entirely  upon  his 
violins,  violas,  and  violoncellos.  His  principles 
of  construction  are  analysed  in  detail  in  the 
work  already  quoted. 

Stradivari's  methods  have  been  preserved 
from  century  to  century,  until  they  have  become 
the  fundamental  basis  of  the  art  of  violin- 
making.  No  detail  of  his  work  was  too 
unimportant  for  the  master's  vigilant  observa- 
tion. That  he  personally  designed  the  pegs, 
finger  -  boards,  tail  -  pieces,  iiUaid  patterns, 
bridges,  and  even  the  minutest  details  of  his 
violin  cases,  is  attested  to  by  the  numerous 
drawings  of  these  in  the  Dalla  Valle  collection, 
while  the  several  sketches  for  bow-tips  and 
nuts  reveal  the  interesting  fact  that  he  also 
made  bows.  His  material,  as  already  stated, 
was  not  always  of  the  finest,  owing  to  the 
restriction  of  limited  funds  during  the  early 
part  of  his  career.  However,  it  may  be  said 
that  in  the  classification  of  the  relative  import- 
ance of  the  various  factors  required  to  make  a 
perfect  violin,  material  and  dimensions  are 
subservient  to  varnish,  and  it  was  in  the 
application  of  this  that  Stradivari  surpassed 
his  contemporaries,  rather  than  in  the  dis- 
covery of  any  new  compound  for  the  same. 
Generally  speaking,  the  so-called  '  Lost  Cremona 
Varnish '  was,  in  the  writer's  opinion,  no  secret 
in  Stradivari's  lifetime,  but  the  common  pro- 
perty of  the  luthiers  of  the  day  who  com- 
pounded it  from  the  materials  used  by  the 
great  painters  of  the  epoch.  Space  will  not 
admit  of  our  discussing  the  many  theories  put 
forth  regarding  the  component  parts  which 
constituted  this  varnish.  Suffice  it  to  state  here, 
that  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer — an  opinion 
which,  it  must  be  said,  is  controverted  with 
some  skill  by  Messrs.  Hill — the  late  Charles 
Reade's  hypothesis  of  an  oil  varnish  over  a 
spirit  varnish  is  the  most  fundamentally  correct 
solution  of  Stradivari's  varnishing  (vide  Headi- 
ana  and  the  Pall  Mall  Gazette,  Letters,  1872). 
The  exigej^cies  of  time -limits  which  have 
brought  a  demand  for  quick-drying  varnishes 
in  modem  times  sounded  the  death-knell  of 
the  brilliant,  tender,  transparent  varnish  of 
the  Cremona  School,  so  that  the  world  has 
been  forced  to  acknowledge  that  it  is  now  a 
mere  memory.  Stradivari's  own  recipe  was 
inscribed  on  the  fly-leaf  of  a  &mily  Bible,  but 
his  descendant  Giacomo  Stradivari  destroyed 
this,  though  it  is  said  that  he  kept  a  copy  of  it 
which  he  carefully  preserved  for  any  future 
members  of  the  family  who  might  adopt  the 


Synopsis  of  the  most  Noticeable  Violins,  etc., 
made  by  Antonio  Stradivari, — ^According  to 
Messrs.  Hills'  careful  calculations  Stradivari 
made  1116  instruments  between  the  years  1666 
and  1737  ;  of  these,  540  violins,  twelve  violas, 
and  fifty  violoncellos  are  actually  known  to 
them  to-day,  whilst  they  have  traces  (uncon- 
firmed) of  over  one  hundred  more.  The  earliest 
dated  instruments  seen  by  them  are  of  the  years 
1666,  1667,  and  1669.  Count  Cozio  di  Salabue 
states,  however,  that  Stradivari  was  working 
and  inserting  his  own  labels  in  1659.  The 
following  are  the  names  of  some  of  Stradivari's 
most  noticeable  violins:  The  'Hellier,'  1679  ; 
the  'Selliere,'  made  between  1666  and  1680  ; 
the  'Tuscan,'  1690  (see  Mosbl)  ;  the  *Betts,' 
1704;  the  *  Ernst,'  1709  (presented  to  Lady 
Halle  by  Earl  Dudley  and  others) ;  '  La 
Pucelle,'  1709  ;  the  '  Viotti,'  1709 ;  the  *  Vieux- 
temps,'  1710 ;  the  '  Parke,'  1711 ;  the  'Boissier,* 
1713  ;  the  'Dolphin,'  1714  (so  named  from  its 
iridescent  varnish);  the  *Gillot,'  1715;  the 
*Alard,'  1715;  the  'Cessol,'  1716;  the 
'Messie,'  1716  (preserved  in  Count  Cozio  di 
Salabue's  collection  for  fifty  years  without 
being  played  on ;  hidden  by  Luigi  Tarisio  for 
thirty  years  in  an  isolated  farm  near  the  village 
of  Fontenato,  Italy  ;  purchased  by  Vuillaume 
when  Tarisio  died  in  1854  ;  preserved  by  him 
in  a  glass  case  in  his  shop  ;  sold  to  Mr.  E. 
Crawford,  an  enthusiastic  musical  amateur,  for 
£2000,  and  now  the  property  of  Messrs.  William 
Hill).  The  *  Sassemo,'  1717;  the  *Maurin,' 
1718;  the  'Lauterbach,'  1719;  the  'Blunt,' 
1721  ;  the  'Sarasate,'  1724  ;  the  'Rode,'  1722  ; 
the '  Deurbroucq, '  1 7  2  7 ;  the  *  Kiesewetter ,  '1731; 
the  'Habeneck,'  1736 ;  the  'Muntz,'  1736  (both 
of  these  show  the  shaky  hand  of  the  veteran 
master). 

Violas:  The  'Tuscan,'  1690,  preserved  in 
the  Municipal  Institute,  Florence — it  bears 
Stradivari's  monogram  stamped  on  the  mortice 
of  the  neck,  the  original  finger-board,  tail-piece, 
tail-nut,  and  bridge  ;  two  violas,  1696,  belong- 
ing to  the  quintet  of  inlaid  instruments  for 
some  years  owned  by  King  Philip  IV.  of  Spain  ; 
the  *  Archinto,'  1696  (named  after  Count  Arch- 
into  who  owned  a  Quartet  of  Strads) ;  the 
'  Macdonald ,'  1701;  Paganini's  viola,  1731, 
which  inspired  Berlioz  to  write  his  symphony 
'Harold  in  Italy.* 

Violoncellos:  The  'Archinto,'  1689;  the 
'Tuscan,'  1690  ;  the  'Aylesford,'  1696  ;  the 
'Cristiani,'  1700;  the  'Servais,'  1701;  the 
'Gore-Booth,'  1710;  the  'Duport,'  1711; 
the  'Adam,'  1713;  the  'Batta,'  1714;  the 
'Piatti,'  1720;  the  'Baudiot'  and  'Gallay,' 
1725,  compriuse  some  of  the  finest  instruments 
made  by  Stradivari  (see  also  Quartets  of 
Instrumbnts). 

Bibliography, — Alfonso  Mandelli,  Nnove  In- 


Biografica  Cremonese ;  Carl  Schulze,  Stradi- 
vari* s  Oeheimniss ;  Horace  Petherick,  Antoniu 
Stradivari;  Federico  Sacchi,  Gli  insirutnenti 
di  Stradivari  {EstraUo  delta  CfazseUa  M%si- 
eale),  Milano,  anno  1892 ;  Edouard  Roche, 
Stradivarius ;  Juliet  von  Lepel  Guitz  {tue 
Buchanan- Austin),  Mn  Stradivaritts ;  Anony- 
mous {Enrico  Stradivari),  Cenni  suUa  eel^ 
scuola  Crem/mesCf  Cremona,  1872  ;  F.  J.  Fetis« 
Antonio  Stradivari  Luthier  cdebre.  Pans,  1 856 
(English  translation  by  John  Bishop,  Londoo, 
1864)  ;  H.  R.  Haweis,  My  Musical  Life,  pp. 
314-328,  Stradivarius  of  Cremona,  his  Hou^\ 
0.  Reade,  Crem/ma  Violirts  (vide  Jteadiana) ; 
Anon.,  A  Short  Account  of  a  Violin  by  Stradi- 
vari dated  1690;  W.  E.  Hill  k  Sons,  7%.? 
Tiiscan  Strad;  E.  J.  Payne,  The  Violins  of 
Stradivari,  pp.  202-4  ;  Musical  Standard,  voL 
xxxiv.,  London,  1888  ;  Giovanni  di  PicoolelliB, 
Liutai  Anlichi  e  Modemi ;  Jules  Gallay,  Les 
Luthiers  Italiens  aux  XVII  et  XVIII  Siiele, 
Paris,  1869  (only  500  copies  printed)  ;  Jules 
Gallay,  Les  Instruments  des  Ecoles  Italiennrs; 
Richard  G.  White,  Antonius  Stradivarius  {The 
Atlantic  Monthly),  Boston,  voL  xlv.  p.  253, 
1880 ;  The  Stradivarius  case  at  the  Violin 
Loan  Exhibition  {Mttsical  Star),  Edinburgh 
(secular).  No.  167,  July  1885  ;  J.  M.  Fleming, 
The  Stradivarius  Violin,  the  Emperor,  London, 
1891  ;  Joseph  Pearce  (jun.),  Violins  and  Violin- 
milkers ;  A.  Vidal,  Les  Instrum>ents  d  Archct ; 
G.  Hart,  The  Violin;  The  Salabue  Strad 
(the  Messie),  W.  E.  Hill  k  Sons,  London, 
1891  ;  Louis  Perrard,  Le  violon,  son  Ristoire ; 
Von  Lutgendorff,  Die  Oeigen-  und  LaiUenmueher ; 
George  Eliot,  '  Stradivari '  (poem) ;  Longfellow, 
Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn;  Robert  Fissore,  Les 
MaUres  Luthiers,  E.  h-a. 

STRADIVARI,  Francesco  and  Omobono, 
sons  of  the  above  by  his  first  wife,  nie  Fran- 
cesca  Feraboschi.  Francesco  was  bom  at 
Cremona  on  Feb.  1, 1671  ;  died  May  11,  1743  : 
and  Omobono  was  also  born  at  Cremona  on  Nov. 
14,  1679  ;  died  June  8,  1742.  Both  were  in- 
terred in  the  Villani  vault.  They  were  the  only 
members  of  Stradivari's  family  who  embraced 
their  father's  profession,  and  although  their 
work  is  not  .without  merit,  their  brilliant  and 
long-lived  father  entirely  eclipsed  them.  Daring 
the  latter  years  of  Stradivari's  life  there  is  little 
doubt  that  they  assisted  him,  probably  in  con- 
junction with  Carlo  Bergonzi,  in  constnicting 
his  violins.  This  would  account  for  those 
specimens  of  the  great  master's  work  that  fre- 
quently give  rise  to  controversy.  But  for  the 
hand  of  the  vandal  these  'doubtful'  instruments 
would  bear  the  label  'sotto  ladiscipUna  d' Antonio 
Stradivari,'  by  which  inscription  he  distin- 
guished the  instruments  made  in  co-operation 
with  his  sons.  These  tickets  have,  however, 
in  almost  every  case,  been  removed,  and  fresh 


STRAIGHT  &  SKILLERN 


STRATHSPEY 


713 


ones,  bearing  Antonio  Stradiyari's  name  alone, 
inserted.  Of  the  two  brothers,  Francesco  was 
the  better  luthier.  His  work  is  not  without 
originality,  the  outline  of  his  j^  holes  in  par- 
ticular differing  greatly  from  that  of  his  father. 
A  picture  of  one  of  his  violas  is  included  in 
Mr.  George  Hart's  The  Fiolin,  b.  h-a. 

STRAIGHT  k  SKILLERN,  a  firm  of  London 
music-publishers.  Thomas  Straight  and  Thomas 
Skillem  were  established  in  Great  Russell  Street, 
Covent  Garden,  and  issued  a  set  of  Country 
Dances  for  1768.  On  the  death  of  James 
Oswald  about  1769,  they  appear  to  have  taken 
over  his  business  at  17  St.  Martin's  Lane,  and 
to  have  reissued  some  of  the  Oswald  publications, 
in  some  instances  in  conjunction  with  William 
RandalL  Aboutl777or  1778,  Thomas  Straight 
either  died  or  gave  up  business,  and  Skillem 
was  left  alone  at  17  St.  Martin's  Lane,  where  he 
remained  until  about  1799  or  1800,  at  which 
time  his  death  occurred,  his  plates  and  stock- 
in-trade  being  bought  by  Preston.  Skillem's 
son  (presumably)  now  went  into  partnership 
with  Challoner  (evidently  Neville  Butler  Chal- 
loner,  the  harpist)  at  25  Greek  Street ;  they 
afterwards,  circa  1815,  were  near  the  comer  of 
Regent  Street  and  Oxford  Street. 

Thomas  Straight,  jun. ,  after  his  father's  death, 
set  up  a  music-business  at  138  St.  Martin's  Lane, 
removing  about  1796,  and  apparently  devoting 
himself  to  music-engraving  solely,  at  7  Lambeth 
Walk.  Another  address  of  the  same  or  another 
Straight  is  4  Green  Street,  Leicester  Square,  f.k. 

STRAKOSCH,  Maurice  and  Max,  brothers 
well  known  in  the  United  States  as  entrepreneurs 
of  operatic  and  concert  ventures. 

Maurice  Strakosch,  the  elder  of  the  two,  was 
bom  at  Lemberg  in  Moravia  in  1825  (Baker's 
Did,),  or  1823  (Miis,  World),  He  studied  at 
the  Vienna  Conservatorium,  and  from  1845  to 
1860  lived  in  the  United  States,  first  as  a  teacher 
and  then  as  an  impresario.  After  Rossini's 
death  he  gave  performances  of  the  *  Messe  Solen- 
nelle '  at  the  Salle  Ventadour,  Paris,  where  he 
organised  a  successful  opera  season  in  1873-74. 
He  was  European  agent  for  his  sister-in-law, 
Mme.  Patti,  from  her  d^but  in  1859  until  her 
marriage,  and  also  for  many  other  distinguished 
singers.  He  joined  his  brother  in  management 
of  the  Apollo  Theatre  in  Rome  in  1884-85.  In 
1887  he  published  a  volume  of  memoirs,  and 
died  suddenly,  Oct.  9,  of  the  same  year.  His 
younger  brother.  Max,  remained  in  America, 
when  Maurice  went  to  Europe,  and  managed  in 
his  stead.  He  directed  many  successful  enter- 
prises of  Italian  opera,  managed  the  Apollo 
Theatre,  in  Rome,  with  his  brother  in  1884-85, 
and  died  in  New  York,  March  17,  1892.     a.  c. 

STRALOCH  MS.,  a  famous  MS.  collection  of 
airs  written  in  lute  tablature,  for  Robert  Gordon 
of  Straloch,  and  dated  1627  and  1629.  The 
MS.  was  in  small  oblong  octavo  of  ninety- two 
leaves,  and  was  entitled,  'An  playing  Booke 


for  the  Lute.  Where  in  ar  contained  many 
ovrrents  and  other  mvsical  things.  ...  At  Aber- 
dein.  Notted  and  Collected  by  Robert  Gordon 
[Sir  Robert  Gordon  of  Straloch].  In  the  year 
of  our  Lord  1627.  In  Februarie. '  On  the  back 
of  the  title  was  a  sketch  of  a  person  playing 
on  the  lute. 

It  was  given,  in  1781,  by  Dr.  George  Skene 
of  Aberdeen,  to  Dr.  Bumey,  who  does  not  appear 
to  have  mentioned  it  or  to  have  made  any  use 
of  it.  It  afterwards  came  into  the  possession  of 
Mr.  James  Chalmers  of  London,  at  the  sale  of 
whose  effects  it  disappeared.  In  1839  it  was 
lent  to  George  Farquhar  Graham,  who  made  some 
extracts  from  it.  Graham's  original  transcript 
was  in  the  library  of  the  late  T.  W.  Taphouse 
of  Oxford,  and  was  sold  in  1905.  A  fair  copy 
was  made  by  Graham,  and  deposited  in  the 
Advocates'  Library,  Edinburgh  ;  other  copies, 
too,  have  been  made  from  the  original  transcript, 
one  by  the  present  writer.  Though  the  Straloch 
appears  to  be  the  earliest  MS.  containing  Scottish 
airs,  yet  the  list  of  contents  (see  Gentleman's 
Magaaine,  Febmary  1823)  shows  how  small  a 
proportion  they  bear  to  the  English  and  foreign 
airs.  F.  K. 

STRANIERA,  LA  (The  Stranger).  Italian 
opera  in  two  acts ;  libretto  by  Romani,  music 
by  Bellini.  Produced  at  the  Scala,  Milan,  Feb. 
14,  1829.  In  London  at  the  King's  Theatre, 
June  23,  1832,  for  Tamburini's  d^but.       g. 

STRATHSPEY,  a  Scottish  dance,  closely 
allied  to  the  Reel,  derives  its  name  from  the 
strath  or  valley  of  the  Spey,  in  the  North  of 
Scotland,  where  it  appears  to  have  first  been 
danced.  The  word  does  not  appear  in  connec- 
tion with  music  till  late  in  the  18th  century, 
but  much  earlier  than  that  tunes  are  found 
suited  for  the  style.  Though  slower  in  time 
than  the  Reel,  the  Strathspey  calls  for  more 
exertion.  The  former  is  a  gliding  dance,  while 
the  Strathspey  abounds  in  those  jerky  motions 
which  call  every  muscle  into  play.  Thus  the 
music  of  the  Reel  is  composed  of  a  series  of 
passages  of  equal  quavers,  while  the  Strathspey 
consists  of  dotted  notes  and  semiquavers.  The 
latter  frequently  precede  the  long  note,  and  this 
peculiarity  has  received  the  name  of  the  '  Scotch 
snap.'  That  the  two  words  were  formerly 
almost  synonymous,  is  shown  by  a  volume 
which  is  still  of  the  highest  authority  and  of 
which  the  title-page  runs  thus — *  A  Collection 
of  Strathspeys  or  Old  Highland  ReeUs,  with  a 
Bass  for  the  Violincello,  Harpsichord,  or  Piano- 
forte. By  Angus  Gumming,  at  Granton. 
Strathspey.  1780.'  The  word  Strathspey  is 
here  printed  in  very  large  letters,  while  *  Old 
Highland  Reells '  are  in  the  smallest.  Moreover, 
throughout  the  volume,  the  word  Strathspey 
is  not  once  used,  but  always  JReell  So-and-so. 
No.  5,  for  example,  though  clearly  a  Strathspey, 
is  entitled  '  Achamae  Reell.'  Reels,  and  the 
dance  music  of  Scotland  generally,  have  been 


regard  to  Strathspeys  specially.  One  point  of 
difference  between  them  and  the  Reel  is  in  the 
tempi  o{  the  two  ;  in  the  Reel^=126  Maelzel, 
in  the  Strathspey^'  =  94 .  Another  is  the  smooth- 
ness of  the  notes  in  the  Reel  as  compared  with 
the  broken  notes  of  the  Strathspey. 

Rexl.     Cflydeside  Lasses. 


It  will  be  seen  that  in  the  above  all  is  written 
in  smooth  notes,  while  the  Strathspey  consists 
almost  entirely  of  broken  ones. 

Strathsfet.     Tullochgonim. 


etc. 


With  the  Reels  and  Strathspeys  of  Scotland 
the  name  of  Gow  is  indissolubly  associated. 
Niel  Gow,  the  founder  of  the  family,  was  a  man 
of  strong  original  genius  and  admittedly  the 
greatest  player  on  the  fiddle  of  Scottish  dance- 
music.  In  a  short  notice  of  him  (published  in 
the  Scots  Magazine,  1809),  Dr.  M^Knight,  who 
had  frequently  heard  him  play,  and  who  was 
himself  a  famous  fiddler,  thus  describes  his  style 
of  execution  :  '  His  bow-hand  as  a  suitable  in- 
strument of  his  genius  was  uncommonly  power- 
ful ;  and  when  the  note  produced  by  the  up-how 
was  often  feeble  and  indistinct  in  other  hands, 
it  was  struck  in  his  playing  with  a  strength  and 
certainty  which  never  failed  to  surprise  and 
delight  skilful  hearers.  .  .  .  We  may  add  the 
effect  of  the  sudden  shout  with  which  he  fre- 
quently accompanied  his  playing  in  the  quick 
tunes,  and  which  seemed  instantly  to  electrify 
the  dancers,  inspiring  them  with  new  life 
and  enei^,  and  rousing  the  spirits  of  the  most 
inanimate.' 

Burns  wrote  some  of  his  finest  verses  to  Strath- 
speys. Thus  in  *  Rothiemurchus'  Rant,*  the 
first  part  of  the  tune  is  almost  note  for  note  that 
of  the  Strathspey ;  the  second  part  has  been 
altered  so  as  to  make  the  music  more  vocal  in 
its  character,  the  original  being  strictly  instni- 
mental  music,  with  difficulties  which  the  voice 
could  not  well  overcome. 

Another  fine  specimen  is  *  Green  grow  the 
Rashes  O' ;  an  early  version  of  this  tune  is  in  the 
Straloch  MS.  It  was  styled  '  a  daunce '  then, 
as  it  was  later,  but  has  none  of  the  dotted  notes 
Ko  characteristic  of  the  Strathspey.  In  the 
'  Collection  of  Original  Scotch  Tunes,'  published 
by  H.  Playford,  1700,  there  are  a  few  Reel 
tunes  in  addition  to  the  large  number  of  Scotch 
measures  which  it  contains.  One  called  '  Oron- 
stoune '  is  a  very  good  specimen  of  the  Reel, 
whether  quick  or  alow.  Another  entitled  *  The 
Birks  of  Plunketty '  is  a  good  Strathspey,  but 


'The  Cummers  (Comm^res)  of  Largo,'  is  styled 
a  Reel ;  being  in  9-8  time  we  should  now  term 
it  a  Jig. 

Many  other  specimens  could  be  given,  but  the 
above  may  suffice  for  our  present  purpose.  T.  l.  s. 

'STRAUS,  LuDWio,  an  excellent  violin - 
player,  was  bom  at  Pressburg,  March  28, 
1835  ;  entered  the  Vienna  Conservatorium  In 
1848,  and  remained  there  till  the  revolution 
in  1848  ;  was  pupil  of  Bbhm  for  the  violin, 
and  Preyer  and  Nottebohm  for  counterpoint  ; 
made  his  first  appearance  (at  the  same  time 
with  Fraulein  Csillag)  in  a  concert  at  the  hall 
of  the  Musikverein,  Vienna,  in  June  1850. 
During  the  next  few  years  he  made  various 
public  appearances,  besides  playing  in  the 
private  concerts  of  several  patrons  of  music, 
especially  Ober-Finanzrath  Baron  von  Heintl, 
at  whose  reunions  he  played  second  fiddle  to 
Mayseder  for  three  years.  At  the  Mozart 
Centenary  Festival  in  1856  he  met  laszt,  and 
like  many  other  young  artists  benefited  by  his 
kindness.  Straus's  first  concert  tour  was  made 
in  1855,  and  extended  as  far  as  Venice  and 
Florence.  In  1857  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Piatti,  with  whom  he  took  a  second  tour 
through  Germany  and  Sweden.  In  I860  he 
was  appointed  concertmeister  of  the  theatre 
(till  1862)  and  of  the  Museum -concerts  in 
Frankfort  (till  1864),  giving  also  quartet  con- 
certs, and  leading  the  subscription  concerts  in 
the  neighbouring  towns.  In  1860  he  first  visited 
England,  played  at  the  Musical  Union,  June  5, 
etc.,  and  at  the  Monday  Popular  Concert  of 
June  18.  In  1861  he  returned,  and  appeared 
twice  at  the  Philharmonic,  April  29  and  June 
24. 

In  1864  he  took  up  his  residence  in  Eng- 
land, settling  after  a  time  in  Manchester, 
where  he  was  leader  of  Halle's  orchestra.  But 
he  often  visited  London,  to  take  either  first 
fiddle  or  viola  in  the  Popular  Concerts,  or  to 
play  solos  at  the  Crystal  Palace  or  the  Phil- 
harmonic ;  during  his  residence  in  England  he 
played  at  Dresden,  Vienna,  etc  Straus  was  a 
member  of  the  Queen's  private  band,  and  '  Solo 
Violinist'  to  Queen  Victoria.  [In  1888  he 
resigned  the  leadership  of  the  HaU6  orchestra, 
and  settled  altogether  in  London.  In  1893  he 
gave  up  all  active  work,  being  crippled  witli 
arthritis ;  he  went  to  live  at  Cambridge, 
where,  a  short  time  after  his  retirement,  his 
many  friends  and  admirers  presented  him  with 
a  fine  Stradivarius  violin.  He  died  there 
Oct  28  (not  15th  as  Riemann  states),  1899, 
retaining  to  the  last  his  wide  interest  in  the 
best  music,  and  endearing  himself  to  a  large 
circle  of  friends  by  his  modesty,  artistic  in- 
tegrity, and  splendid  musicianship.]  o. 

STRAUSS,  JoHANN,  composer  of  dance-music 
of  world-wide  celebrity,  bom  in  Vienna,  March 


STRAUSS 


STRAUSS 


715 


14,    1804.     Ab  a  child  lie  showed  talent  for 
music,  and  a  love  for  the  violin,  but  his  parents, 
small  innkeepers,  apprenticed  him  to  a  book- 
binder, from  whom  he  ran  away.     A  friend  met 
him,  took  him  back,  and  persuaded  the  parents 
to  entrust  him  with  the  boy's  education  as  a 
musician.     With  the  son  of  this  benefactor  the 
little  Strauss  learnt  the  violin  from  Polyschan- 
sky,  afterwards  studying  harmony  and  instru- 
mentation with  Seyfried.     He  soon  played  the 
viola  in  string-quartets  at  private  houses,  and 
at    fifteen   entered    Famer's  orchestra  at   the 
*  Sperl,'  a  favourite  place  of  amusement  in  the 
Leopoldstadt.      At   that    time    the  excellent 
playing  of  Lanner  and  the  brothers  Drahanek 
was  exciting  attention  ;  Strauss  offered  himself, 
and  was  accepted  as  fourth  in  the  little  band. 
Soon,   however,  their  numbers  had  to  be  in- 
creased to  meet  their  numerous  engagements, 
and  Strauss  acted  as  deputy-conductor  till  1825, 
when  he  and  Lanner  parted.     In  the  Carnival 
of  1826   Strauss  and    his    little  orchestra  of 
fourteen  performei-s  appeared   in   the  hall  of 
the  *  Swan '  in  the  Roseau  suburb,  and  took 
the  hearts  of  the  people  by  storm.     His  op.  1, 
the  *Tauberl-\Valzer*  (Haslinger),  was  speedily 
followed  by  others,  the  most  successful  being 
the   *  Kattenbriicken-Walzer,*  called  after  the 
Hall  of  that  name.      Strauss  was  next  invited 
to  return  with  his  now  enlarged  orchestra  to 
the  *  Sperl,'  and  with  such  success  as  to  induce 
the  proprietor,  Scherzer,  to  engage  him  for  six 
years,  which  virtually  founded  the  reputation 
of  the   *  Sperl*  and  its  orchestral  conductor. 
Meantime  Strauss  was  appointed  Gapellmeister 
of  the  first  Burger-regiment,  and  entrusted  with 
the  music  at  the  court  f^tes  and  balls.     As  his 
band  was  daily  in  request  at  several  places  at 
once,  he  increased  the  number  to  over  200, 
from  which  he  formed  a  select  body  for  playing 
at  concerts,  in  music  of  the  highest  class.     He 
now  began  to  make  tours  in  the  provinces  and 
abroad,  visiting  Pesth  in  18S3  ;  Berlin,  Leipzig, 
and  Dresden  in  1834  ;  West  Germany  in  1885  ; 
and  North  Germany,   Holland,  Belgium,  and 
the  Rhine,  in  1836.      His  next  tour  began  in 
Oct.    1837,    and    embraced  Strasburg,    Paris, 
Rouen,    Havre,    Belgium,    London,    and  the 
larger  towns  of  Great  Britain  ;  he  then  returned 
to  Belgium,  and  back  to  England  and  Scotland. 
His  success  in  Paris  was  unprecedented,  notwith- 
standing the  formidable  rivalry  of  Musard  and 
Dufresne,  with  the  former  of  whom  he  wisely 
joined  for  a  series  of  thirty  concerts.      A  dis- 
agreeable intrigue  nearly  made  him  throw  up 
the  journey  to  England,  but  it  was  only  there 
that  his  profits  at  all  remunerated  him  for  his 
enormous  expenses.     In  London  he  played  at 
seventy-two  concerts,  and  at  innumerable  balls 
and  fetes  given  in  honour  of  the  Queen's  corona- 
tion (June  28, 1838).  On  his  second  visit  he  had 
great  difficulty  in  keeping  his  band  from  dispers- 
ing, so  weary  were  they  of  continual  travelling. 


He  managed,  however,  to  go  again  to  Birming- 
ham, Liverpool,  and  Dublin,  besides  visiting 
Reading,  Oheltenham,  Worcester,  Leicester, 
Derby,  Nottingham,  and  Sheffield.  At  Sheffield 
his  receipts  were  small,  and  at  Halifax  still  less, 
but  when  the  amateurs  of  both  places  discovered 
the  kind  of  musician  they  had  been  neglecting, 
a  deputation  was  sent  with  post-horses  to  Leeds 
to  bring  him  back  again.  He  was  taken  ill  at 
Derby,  and  only  reached  Vienna  with  great 
difficulty  in  Dec.  1888.  His  first  reap- 
pearance at  the  'Sperl'  was  quite  a  popular 
fSte.  On  May  6,  1840,  he  conducted  for  the 
first  time  in  the  Imperial  Volksgarten,  which 
was  crowded  whenever  his  band  performed. 
Strauss  now  introduced  the  quadrille,  which  he 
had  studied  in  Paris,  in  place  of  the  galop. 
His  first  work  of  the  kind  was  the  *  Wiener 
Cameval-Quadrille '  (op.  124).  Henceforward, 
except  waltzes — among  which  the  'Donaulieder' 
(op,  127)  are  still  played — he  composed  only 
quadrilles,  polkas,  and  marches,  including  the 
favourite  *Radetzky- March.'  On  April  16, 
1848,  he  and  the  band  of  his  oldBiirger-regiment 
accompanied  the  body  of  his  old  eolleague 
Lanner  to  the  grave.  An  excursion  to  Olmiitz, 
Troppau,  etc.,  in  the  autumn  of  1844,  was 
succeeded  in  the  next  autumn  by  one  to  Dresden, 
Magdeburg,  and  Berlin,  where  he  was  immensely 
fSted.  The  king  appeared  in  person  at  KroH's 
Garden,  and  invited  Strauss  to  play  at  the 
palace.  The  Prince  of  Prussia,  afterwards  the 
Emperor  William  I.,  ordered  a  performance  at 
KroU's  by  more  than  200  bandsmen,  conducted 
by  the  Gapellmeister  General  Wipprecht,  before 
Strauss  and  his  orchestra,  when  the  royal  princes, 
the  generals,  and  the  pick  of  the  nobility, 
attended.  On  his  departure  a  grand  torchlight 
procession  and  serenade  weregiven  in  his  honour. 
On  his  return  to  Vienna  he  was  made  conductor 
of  the  court  balls.  In  the  autumn  of  1846  he 
went  to  Silesia,  and  the  year  following  again 
to  Berlin  and  Hamburg,  where  he  revenged 
himself  for  some  slights  caused  by  professional 
jealousy  by  giving  a  concert  for  the  poor.  He 
returned  to  Vienna  by  Hanover,  Magdeburg, 
and  Berlin.  During  the  stormy  days  of  March 
1848  he  did  homage  to  the  spirit  of  the  times 
in  the  titles  of  his  pieces,  but  Strauss  was  at 
heart  a  Viennese  of  the  olden  time,  a  fact  which 
caused  him  much  unpleasantness  on  his  next 
tour,  in  1849,  by  Munich,  Stuttgart,  Frankfort, 
and  the  Rhine,  Brussels,  and  England.  He 
stayed  in  London  and  the  provinces  from  April 
to  July.  After  a  brilliant  farewell-concert  he 
was  accompanied  down  the  Thames  by  a  fieet 
of  boats,  one  of  which  contained  a  band  playing 
the  popular  air,  '  So  leb*  denn  wohl  du  stilles 
Hans,'  from  Raimund's  '  Verschwender.'  In 
the  midst  of  this  gay  scene  poor  Strauss  was 
oppressed  with  a  presentiment  that  he  should 
never  revisit  London.  Shortly  after  his  return 
to  Vienna  he  was  taken  ill  with  scarlet  fever, 


of  Viennese  life,  and  that  the  people  theroaelves 
felt  this  was  shown  by  the  vast  concourse  at 
his  funeraL  A  Requiem  was  performed  in  his 
honour  on  Oct.  11  by  his  own  band,  and  the 
Mannergesangverein  of  Vienna,  the  solos  being 
sung  by  Mesdames  Hasselt  and  Ernst,  Aloys 
Ander  and  Staudigl,  all  from  the  court  opera. 
Strauss  married,  in  1824,  Anna  Streim,  daughter 
of  an  innkeeper,  who  bore  him  five  children,  Jo- 
hann,  Joseph,  Eliduard,  Anna,  andTherese.  They 
separated  after  eighteen  years,  on  the  ground  of 
incompatibility  of  temper.  There  are  numerous 
portraits  from  which  an  idea  can  be  gathered  of 
Strauss's  personal  appearance.  Though  small 
he  was  well  made  and  distinguished-looking, 
with  a  singularly  formed  head.  His  dress  was 
always  neat  and  well  chosen.  Though  lively 
in  company  he  was  naturally  rather  silent. 
From  the  moment  he  took  his  violin  in  his  hand 
he  became  another  man,  his  whole  being  seem- 
ing to  expand  with  the  sounds  he  drew  from  it. 

As  an  artist  he  furnished  many  pleasant  hours 
to  thousands,  and  high  and  low  combined  to  do 
him  honour,  while  great  masters  like  Mendels- 
sohn, Meyerbeer,  and  Cherubini,  acknowledged 
his  talent.  He  raised  dance-music  to  a  higher 
level  than  it  had  ever  reached  before,  and 
invested  his  copious  melodies  i^ith  all  the  charm 
of  brilliant  instrumentation.  Full  of  fire,  life, 
and  boisterous  merriment,  they  contrasted  well 
with  Lanner's  softer  and  more  sentimental  airs, 
and  must  be  judged  by  a  totallydifierentstandard 
from  that  of  mere  dance-music  As  a  conductor 
it  was  his  constant  endeavour  to  mingle  classical 
names  in  his  programmes,  and  thus  to  exercise 
an  elevating  influence  on  the  masses.  His 
works,  published  almost  entirely  by  Haslinger, 
number  251,  and  comprise  152  waltzes,  24 galops, 
6  cotillons  and  contredanses,  32  quadrilles, 
13  polkas,  and  18  marches,  including  some 
without  opus-numbers.  The  bulk  of  these  have 
made,  so  to  speak,  the  tour  of  the  world  ;  each 
new  waltz  was  in  its  way  an  event,  not  only  in 
Vienna,  but  wherever  the  first  printed  copies 
penetrated.  Innumerable  pens,  including  those 
of  poets,  celebrated  his  works,  and  the  stage 
itself  took  part  in  the  general  homage,  '  Strauss 
and  Lanner '  being  the  title  of  a  one-act  comedy 
by  Topfer,  and  a  three-act  piece  by  Anton 
linger.  [His  complete  works  were  published  in 
1889  by  Breitkopf  k  Hartel,  in  seven  volumes.] 

Of  his  three  sons,  the  eldest,  Johann,  scarcely 
less  gifted  than  his  father,  was  bom  in  Vienna, 
Oct.  25,  1825.  In  accordance  with  the  father's 
wish  that  none  of  his  sons  should  adopt  his  own 
line  of  life,  Johann,  after  finishing  his  education 
at  the  Gymnasium  and  Polytechnic  Institute, 
became  a  clerk  in  the  savings  bank,  although 
he  had,  with  his  mother's  help,  long  taken 
lessons  in  secret  on  the  violin,  and  even.studied 
composition  with  Drechsler.     When  only  six 


first  waltz,  which  was  performed  on  his  fiftieth 
birthday  as  *£rster  Godanke.'  The  oonstrunt 
put  upon  him  became  at  length  unbearable,  and 
on  Oct.  15,  1844,  he  first  appeared  as  a  con- 
ductor at  Dommayer's,  at  Hietzing,  playing 
compositions  of  his  own,  and  his  father's  *  Loreley 
Walzer.'  His  success  on  that  occasion  decided 
his  future  career.  After  his  father's  death  he 
incorporated  the  two  bands,  and  made  a  tour 
to  the  country  towns  of  Austria,  Warsaw,  and 
the  m  ore  important  towns  of  Germany.  He  also 
undertook  for  ten  years  the  direction  of  the 
summer  concerts  in  the  Petropaulowski  Park 
at  St.  Petersburg.  On  August  28,  1862,  he 
married  the  popular  singer  Henriette  (*  Jetty ') 
Treffz,  and  in  1863  became  conductor  of  the 
court  balls.  This  post  he  resigned  after  his 
brilliant  success  on  the  stage,  but  he  had  in  the 
meantime  composed  nearly  400  waltzes,  of  as 
high  a  t3rpe  as  those  of  his  father.  His  music 
is  penetrated  with  Viennese  gaiety  and  spirit, 
and  has  made  its  way  into  all  countries.  The 
waltz,  'An  der schbnen  blauen  Donau '  (op.  314), 
became  a  kind  of  musical  watchword  in  Vienna, 
and  was  played  on  all  festive  occasions.  [ '  Tausend 
und  eine  Nacht,*  *Man  lebt  nur  einmal,' 
*  Wiener  Blut,'  and  *  Kiinstlerleben '  are  among 
the  most  famous.]  Besides  Russia,  Strauss 
visited  Paris  (during  the  Exhibition  of  1867), 
London,  New  York,  Boston,  and  the  lai^ger 
towns  of  Italy.  The  Theatre  *an  der  Wien'  was 
the  scene  of  his  triumphs  as  a  composer  of 
operettas,  which  rapidly  spread  to  all  the 
theatres,  large  and  small.  'Indigo  und  die 
vierzig  Rauber '  (his  first,  1871),  *  Der  Kameval 
in  Rom'  (1878),  *Die  Fledermaus'  (1874), 
*CagUostro'  (1875),  'Prinz  Methusalem'  (1877), 
'Blindekuh'  (1878),  *Das  Spitzentuch  der 
Konigin'  (1880),  *Der  lustige  Krieg'  (1881), 
*Eine  Nacht  in  Venedig'  (1883),  *Der  7a- 
geunerbaron'(1885),  *Simplicius'(1887),  *Ritter 
Pasman'  (1892),  'Fiirstin  Ninetta'  (1893), 
*Jabuka'  (1894),  '  Waldmeister '  (1896),  and 
'  Die  Gbttin  der  Vemunft  *  (1897),  all  published 
by  Spina,  were  soon  known  all  over  the  world, 
and  were  sung  everywhere.  Posthumously  pro- 
duced were  a  ballet  *  Aschenbrbdel  *  and  an 
orchestral  piece  *Traumbilder.'  He  died  in 
Vienna,  June  3,  1899.  A  biography  by  R.  von 
Proch&zka  is  in  Reimann's  series  of  ierUhmU 
Musiker,  (See  Riemann's  Leankon.)  After  the 
death  of  his  wife  on  April  8,  1878,  he  married 
another  dramatic  singer,  Angelica  Dittrich. 

His  next  brother,  Joseph,  bom  August  22, 
1827,  in  Vienna,  was  also  obliged  to  accom- 
modate himself  to  his  father's  wishes,  and  be- 
came an  architect.  He  had,  however,  studied 
music  in  secret,  and  during  an  illness  of  his 
brother's  in  1853  he  conducted  for  him  with  a 
b&ton,  as  he  did  not  learn  the  violin  till  later. 
He  next  collected  a  band,  began  to  compose, 


STRAUSS 


STRAUSS 


717 


and  published  in  rapid  succession  283  works 
(HasUnger  and  Spina)  not  less  popular  than 
those  of  his  brother.  He  had  always  been 
delicate,  and  the  excitement  incidental  to  his 
calling  increased  the  mischief  year  by  year.  A 
visit  to  Warsaw  in  1870,  against  the  wish  of 
his  friends,  was  very  disastrous.  Some  Russian 
officers,  having  sent  for  him  in  the  middle  of 
the  night  to  play  for  them,  so  shamefully  ill- 
treated  him  for  his  refusal  that  he  had  to  take 
to  his  bed.  Under  the  devoted  nursing  of  his 
wife  (married  in  1857)  he  rallied  sufficiently  to 
return  to  Vienna,  but  sank  a  few  days  after- 
wards, July  22,  1870. 

The  youngest  of  his  brothers,  Eduard,  was 
bom  at  Vienna,  Feb.  14,  1835,  and  educated 
at  the  Schotten  and  Akademien  Gymnasiums. 
His  father  having  died  before  he  grew  up  he 
devoted  himself  entirely  to  music,  learnt  the 
harp,  and  studied  composition  with  Preyer. 
In  1862  he  made  his  first  appearance  as  a  con- 
ductor in  the  Dianasaal,  and  was  well  received 
for  his  father's  sake.  In  1865  he  took  his 
brother  Johann's  place  at  the  concerts  in  St. 
Petei-sburg,  and  in  1870  became  conductor  of 
the  court  balls.  He  and  his  band  have  made 
repeated  tours  to  Dresden,  Leipzig,  Breslau, 
Berlin,  Hamburg,  Frankfort,  etc.  He  appeared 
regularly  in  Vienna  on  fixed  days  at  the  Volks- 
garten,  and  in  the  winter  in  the  large  hall  of 
the  Musikverein,  when  his  programmes  were 
always  attractive.  He  composed  over  200 
pieces  of  dance-music,  published  by  Haslinger, 
and  latterly,  with  few  exceptions,  by  Spina 
(Schreiber).  Eduard  Strauss  married  in  1863. 
[In  1885  his  orchestra  was  engaged  at  the 
Indentions  Exhibition  in  London,  when  the 
daily  concerts  created  a  furore.  He  came  also  a 
few  years  later  and  played  at  the  Imperial 
Institute.]  c.  f.  p. 

STRAUSS,  Richard,  was  bom  June  11, 
1864,  at  Munich,  where  his  father,  Franz  Strauss 
(bom  Feb.  26,  1822),  was  first  horn-player  in  the 
Court  orchestra.  The  boy  began  to  play  the 
piano  at  four  years  old,  and  tried  his  hand  at 
composition  from  the  age  of  six  onwards.  In 
his  schooldays  he  had  lessons  on  piano  and 
violin,  and  while  at  the  Gymnasium  (1874- 
1882)  studied  composition  seriously  with  the 
Court  Capellmeister,  F.  W.  Meyer.  At  school 
concerts  were  performed  a  couple  of  choral  works, 
in  1880  three  of  his  songs  were  sung  in  public, 
and  the  Walter  Quartet  played  his  string 
quartet  in  A  in  1881,  in  which  year  Hermann 
Levi  performed  a  symphony  in  D  minor  in  four 
movements.  Most  of  these  childish  and  student 
efforts  are  still  unpublished.  In  1882-83 
Strauss  was  at  the  University.  An  unpublished 
overture  in  C  minor  was  played  under  Radecke 
in  Berlin,  and  a  serenade  for  wind  instru- 
ments at  Meiningen  under  Biilow.  Theo- 
dore Thomas  performed  his  symphony  in  F 
minor,  op.  12,  for  the  first  time,  in  New  York, 


in  Dec.  1884 ;  and  in  1885,  on  the  occasion 
of  a  visit  of  tlie  Meiningen  orchestra  to  Munich, 
Biilow  made  him  conduct  his  suite  for  thirteen 
wind  instruments  (still  unpublished),  and  he 
came  so  successfully  through  the  ordeal  that  he 
was  appointed  in  1885  to  succeed  Biilow  as  sole 
conductor.  He  had  gone  to  Meiningen  to  profit 
by  Billow's  hints  on  conducting,  and  while  there 
he  appeared  as  a  pianist  in  the  solo  part  of 
Mozart's  concerto  in  C  minor.  If  BUlow  fired 
him  with  his  own  ardent  admiration  for  Brahms, 
to  Alexander  Ritter  belongs  the  responsibility 
of  having  turned  the  young  composer's  ideas 
into  the  direction  of  the  more  advanced  music, 
in  which  he  was  destined  to  make  such  a  mark. 
In  April  1885  he  resigned  the  post  of  conductor, 
and  travelled  in  Italy  for  a  couple  of  months. 
In  August  he  was  appointed  as  third  Capell- 
meister at  Munich  under  Levi.  In  1889  he 
became  assistant  to  Lassen  at  Weimar  as  Court 
Capellmeister ;  in  1892  he  had  a  dangerous 
illness  caused  by  overwork,  and  went  on  a 
journey  to  Greece  and  Egypt  on  his  recovery ; 
he  returned  with  the  completed  opera  of  *  Gun- 
tram,'  which  was  produced  at  Weimar  on  May 
12,  1894.  Later  in  the  year  he  married  FrL 
Pauline  de  Ahna,  a  young  singer  who  had 
created  the  principal  part  in  his  opera  ;  in  the 
same  year  he  became  Court  Capellmeister  at 
Munich,  and  in  1899  a  similar  position  was 
conferred  upon  him  at  Berlin.  In  1896-98  he 
undertook  extensive  tours  in  different  parts  of 
Europe,  with  the  object  of  making  known  his 
maturer  works  ;  he  visited  London  in  1897,  and 
in  June  1908  a  'Strauss  Festival'  was  given 
in  St.  James's  Hall,  with  the  Amsterdam  Or- 
chestra. The  composer  showed  himself  a  super- 
latively fine  conductor,  one  to  whom  every 
detail  of  orchestral  resources  was  perfectly 
clear,  and  who  possessed  the  power  of  getting 
exactly  what  he  wanted  from  his  band.  Such 
are,  in  brief,  the  main  facts  of  the  career  of 
one  who  has,  more  effectually  than  any  man 
since  Wagner,  divided  the  musical  world  into 
two  camps. 

The  process  of  his  artistic  development  is 
very  curious,  for  he  began  as  a  follower  of  the 
classical  ideals,  and  many  of  his  earlier  composi- 
tions show  the  influence  of  Brahms.  In  a 
minute  analysis  of  his  work  by  Gustav  Brecher 
(Leipzig,  1900)  no  fewer  than  six  periods  are 
recognised  in  his  work,  and  as  that  division 
only  goes  down  to  '  Heldenleben '  we  are  prob- 
ably justified  in  assuming  a  new  period  for 
each  of  the  most  important  subsequent  composi- 
tions. But  only  the  earlier  stages  can  be  taken 
as  authoritatively  analysed.  According  to  this, 
opp.  1-11  represent  the  growth  of  his  technical 
skill  in  absolute  music  along  the  classical  lines. 
It  cannot  be  said  that  the  violoncello  sonata  or 
the  horn  concerto  contains  anything  that  is 
very  striking  in  the  way  of  original  thought  or 
beautiful  ideas,  and  even  the  songs  of  the  same 


•>J  A  MMJ^  V/  i.JK« 


period  have  not  attained  the  same  popularity 
as  the  composer's  later  lyrics,  if  we  except 
'  AUerseelen/  the  last  of  op.  10.  In  the  next 
period  (opp.  12-19)  the  gradual  transition  from 
the  classical  to  the  modem  ideal  seems  to  be 
traced  in  the  pictorial  mood  of  the  symphonic 
fantasia  *  Aus  Italien/  which  of  course  is  frankly 
landscape-painting  in  music  The  violin  sonata 
is  stiU  absolute  music,  and  is  a  favourable  speci- 
men  of  the  composer's  early  works.     When 

*  Aus  Italien '  was  first  given  in  London,  at  one 
of  Henschel's  Symphony  Concerts,  some  dis- 
appointment was  felt  at  the  work  not  being 
played  in  its  entirety  ;  it  only  transpired  later 
that  the  finale,  being  based  on  a  tune  which 
Strauss  no  doubt  imagined  to  be  a  genuine  folk- 
song, was  scarcely  suitable  to  be  played  before 
an  audience  already  sated  with  the  air,  and 
fully  aware  that  Signer  Denza  was  its  author. 
The  third  period  embraces  little  beside  *  Macbeth ' 
(op.  23)  and  '  Don  Juan '  (op.  20),  the  latter 
written  after  the  former,  though  provided  with 
an  earlier  opus-number.  This»  in  the  opinion 
of  those  b^  able  to  judge,  represents,  with 
'  Tod  und  Yerkliirung,'  the  composer's  highest 
point  so  far  ;  both  are  sincerely  felt,  and  there 
is  a  famous  theme  in  'Don  Juan'  which  has 
a  distinction  all  too  rare  in  the  later  works. 

*  Tod  und  Verklarung,'  op.  24,  and  the  opera, 
'Guntram,'  op.  25,  make  up  the  fourth  period, 
for  reasons  which  may  be  clear  to  those  who 
have  seen  the  opera  on  the  stage.  There  is 
much  of  Liszt's  influence  in  the  symphonic 
poem,  and  probably  a  good  deal  of  Wagner's  in 
the  opera.  At  this  point  the  composer  seems 
to  have  fully  realised  the  fact  that  his  eccen- 
tricities of  style  were  a  great  attraction  to  the 
public,  and  to  have  considered  it  his  duty  to 
startle  his  hearers  with  some  new  piece  of  in- 
dependence (not  to  say  impertinence)  with  each 
successive  production.  The  first  work  of  the 
fifth  period,  'Till  Eulenspiegel'slustigeStreiohe,' 
op.  28,  is  a  brilliant  grotesque  ;  and  its  real,  if 
rather  gruesome,  humour  more  than  excuses  the 
realistic  details,  such  as  that  of  the  twitching 
limbs  of  the  knave  after  he  is  hung.  As  a 
philosophical  treatise,  '  Also  sprach  Zarathustra ' 
may  be  a  valuable  addition  to  the  literature  of 
the  subject,  and  it  may  be  a  commentary  on, 
or  a  confutation  of,  the  Kietzschian  doctrines 
that  suggested  it;  but  here  we  reach  the 
vexed  question  of  what  is  permissible  or 
possible  to  express  in  terms  of  mere  music  ;  and 
the  flat  contradiction  of  one  key  by  another 
at  the  close  is  a  bold  step  in  the  direction  of 
Strauss's  new  ideal.  In  that  ideal  it  would 
appear  that  musical  beauty  has  no  kind  of  place  ; 
as  neither  music  nor  mere  noise  is  competent 
of  itself  to  inform  the  hearers  of  the  subject 
that  is  being  illustrated,  there  is  from  hence- 
forth the  absolute  necessity  for  elucidatory 
pamphlets  on  the  subject  of  each  composition, 
and  the  composer's  aim  is  apparently  to  do 


nothing  more  than  to  follow  the  verbal  sug- 
gestions of  the  programme,  mostly  by  means  of 
his  wonderful  command  of  orchestral  devices  of 
all  kinds.  He  is  a  master  of  the  art  of  sooriiig, 
but  though  he  has  gone  far  beyond  Wagner  in 
the  quantity  of  instruments  he  employs,  there 
is  this  great  difference,  that  while  Wagner 
puts  no  single  touch  into  his  score  that  has 
not  its  place  in  the  general  audible  scheme, 
Strauss  allows  very  many  of  his  effects  to  be 
entirely  lost  even  by  the  most  attentive  ear. 
In  many  places  throughout  his  works  elaborate 
harp-passages  are  seen  in  the  score,  and  the 
listener  may  watch  the  persevering  exertions 
of  the  harpists  in  the  orchestra  ;  but  the  notes 
that  are  played  on  these  instruments  might  as 
well  be  left  out  for  any  effect  they  produce 
upon  the  ears  of  the  audience,  llie  set  of 
orchestral  variations,  called  'Don  Quixote,' 
op.  35,  with  which  the  sixth  period  begins, 
is  famous  for  the  extremely  realistic  bleating 
of  sheep  that  is  produced  by  orchestral  means 
that  are  almost  legitimate,  but  the  introduction 
of  a  theatrical  'wind-machine'  to  give  the 
effect  of  wind  suggests  that  a  real  flock  of 
sheep  might  as  well  be  used  for  the  effect 
just  referred  to.  With  each  successive  work, 
the  inevitable  discussion  on  the  legitimacy 
of  the  means  employed  and  the  composer's 
meaning  has  given  fine  opportunity  to  journa- 
lists and  others,  both  admirers  and  detractors, 
to  bring  themselves  into  public  notice ;  but 
each  discussion  has  been  forgotten  as  soon 
as  the  next  work  has  appeared,  so  that  there 
is  some  danger  of  forgetting  the  suo 
blows  that  the  composer  has  administered!  to 
the  old  ideals  of  fieauty,  grace,  and  fitne 
'  Ein  Heldenleben,'  op.  40,  for  example,  liV 
almost  passed  into  the  class  of  the  things  thaV 
are  forgotten,  since  the  writers  on  music  liave^ 
had  the  '  Sinfonia  Domestica '  to  quarrel  about ;  ' 
and  in  both  of  these  works  the  use  of  the 
explanatory  pamphlet  has  been  newly  demon- 
strated. For  as  it  is  never  stated  in  so  many 
words  that  the  pamphlet  is  written  by  authority 
of  the  composer,  one  class  of  his  admirers  can 
always  say  that  the  explanation  is  far-fetched 
and  goes  beyond  the  composer's  intentions, 
while  the  others  can  quote  it  as  an  authori- 
tative explanation  of  the  meaning  of  the 
work.  It  was  hotly  denied,  for  example, 
that  'Ein  Heldenleben'  was  a  piece  of  not 
too  modest  autobiography,  and  in  the  '  Sinfonia 
Domestica '  the  usually  accepted  theory  of  the 
baby's  toilet  was  ascribed  by  European  com- 
mentators to  the  wicked  ingenuity  of  the 
American  critics  (the  work  having  been  first 
performed  in  the  United  States).  But  in  the 
scores  of  both  works,  scores  which  can  hardly 
lack  the  composer's  sanction,  are  clear  indi- 
cations that  the  accepted  explanations  are  right 
in  both  cases.  In  the  former,  quotations  from 
Strauss's  own  earlier  works  are  introduced  and 


STRAUSS 


STRAUSS 


719 


combined  with  a  good  deal  of  skill  of  a  certain 
kind  ;  and  in  the  latter  printed  words  occur  in 
the  score,    which  identify  the  two   trumpets 
I     with  aunts  who  remark  *  Ganz  der  Papa  ! '  and 
the  third  trombone  with  uncles  who  similarly 
detect  a  likeness  to  the  mother.     It  does  not 
g^reatly  matter,   after  all,  what  is  the  exact 
topic  of  any  of  the  symphonic  poems,  for  the 
L     ultimate  verdict  on  them  must  necessarily  be 
based  on  their  merits  as  music,    since  they 
are   for  choice   expressed  in  terms  of  music. 
In   this  aspect  the  question  is,  not  <  What 
^      poetical  or  prosaic  idea  does  the  music  illus- 
trate ?  *  but   *  Is  the   frequent  harshness  and 
the   conspicuous  and   constant  lack  of  grace 
£     in  the  bulk  of  the  work  compensated  by  any 
idea  of  such  beauty  that  the  heai-er  can  feel 
he   has  not  wasted   his   time?'     About   the 
middle  of  the  '  Domestic  Symphony '  there  is  a 
section  that  is  sonorous  and  more  melodious 
than   the  rest ;  and  as  many   people  find  it 
pleasant  to  listen  to,  no  more  need  be  said ; 
although  it  may  perhaps  be  pointed  out  that  the 
'      fondness  of  various  distinguished  conductors 
for    these  extraordinary  works  is  admittedly 
caused    by    the    interest    that    must    always 
attach  to  a  task  that  is  especially  difficult  of 
accomplishment. 

For  the  pi-esent  it  would  seem   as  if  the 
composer's  wish  to  startle  the  frequenters  of 
concerts  were  in  abeyance,  and  he  has  turned 
his  attention  to  the  possibly  harder  work  of 
shocking  continental  opera-goers.    As  his  forth- 
coming opera,  'Elektra,'  has  been  stated,  on 
i    good   authority,   to  contain  points  that  will 
I    offend,  or  at  least  surprise,  the  most  hardened 
£    admirers   of   <Salom6,'   there  is  no  injustice 
t    in   mentioning  this  as  the  primary  object  of 
I      the  compositions.     In  the  earlier  one-act  opera, 
*Feueranot'   (produced   in    Dresden  in   Nov. 
1901),  the  dramatic  suggestion  of  the  libretto 
was  followed  with  admirable  exactitude,  and 
the  central  situation  lent  itself  to  an  instiii- 
mental  interlude  that  could  be  considered  as 
agreeably  'risky,'  though  it  was  musically  far 
more  conventionally  melodious  than  any  of  the 
instrumental  compositions  of  the  same  period. 
The  author's  passion  for  notoriety  is  no  doubt 
responsible  in  great  measure  for  his  choice  of 
Oscar  Wilde's  'Salom^'  as  the  subject  of  an 
opera,  but  in  the  work  as  produced  at  Dresden, 
Dec.  9, 1905,  and  as  performed  on  all  the  princi- 
pal stages  of  Germany  within  a  short  time  (six 
special  performances  were  given  in  Paris  in  the 
following  year),  the  expected  shock  came  from 
the  drama  rather  than  from  the  music.     For 
music  itself  cannot  be  prostituted  to  base  uses, 
though   various  qualities  incidental  to  music 
may  be  turned  to  the  purposes  of  pornography. 
There  is  plenty  of  passion  in  the  work,  and 
there  is  no  doubt  that  on  the  average  hearer  it 
produces  a  sense  of  nausea ;  but  it  would  be 
going  too  far  to  say  that  any  of  the  music  by 


itself  would  have  a  morally  harmful  influence 
on  any  one.  The  overture  to  'Tannhauser' 
and  the  second  act  of  '  Tristan '  still  remain  as 
the  most  vivid  musical  illustrations  in  existence 
of  the  sexual  passions.  The  famous  *  Dance  of 
the  Seven  Veils'  is  oddly  lacking  in  musical 
attraction,  but  this  may  arise  from  the  fact 
that  a  good  chance  has  been  lost,  since  the 
oriental  dances,  of  which  this  is  meant  as  a 
specimen,  gain  their  power  over  the  hearers' 
senses  by  their  monotony  of  rhythm,  while  this 
dance-music  halts  in  a  kind  of  compromise  with 
the  ballet-music  of  more  conventional  opera. 
The  ill-timed  realism  of  the  orchestration  at 
the  moment  when  the  Baptist's  head  is  cut  off 
is  thoroughly  chaiiicteristic  of  the  composer 
of  <  Till  £ulenspiegel ' ;  and  that  he  should 
not  see  the  incongruity  of  introducing  such 
a  touch  at  such  a  moment  speaks  of  the 
same  want  of  the  finer  perceptions  which  years 
before  led  him  to  accept  *  Funiculi,  funiculi ' 
as  a  real  Italian  folk-song. 

It  is  of  course  too  soon  to.guess  what  Stranss's 
position  among  the  musicians  of  the  world  may 
ultimately  be ;  while  he  is  still  young  enough 
to  admit  that  his  main  object  is  to  shock  and 
8tartle,he  is  not  too  old  to  change  his  convictions, 
as  he  has  already  changed  them  once  before. 
There  is  a  theory  that  in  his  later  works  he  is 
merely  laughing  at  those  who  profess  an  un- 
bonnded  admiration  for  all  he  does,  but  this 
seems  hardly  credible,  particularly  in  the  face 
of  some  of  his  lyrical  work,  which,  in  spite  of 
various  rather  dull  choral  works,  like  the 
'Sturmlied,'  *Taillefer,'  some  male  choruses, 
two  anthems,  etc.,  reach  a  very  high  level  of 
beauty  in  the  songs  of  all  the  various  periods. 
The  lovely  *Standchen*  from  op.  17;  the 
splendid  '  Heimliche  Aufforderung '  from  op. 
27,  with  its  irresistible  swing  ;  *  Morgen '  from 
the  same  set,  a  really  expressive  song ;  the 
picturesque  'Traum  durch  die  Dammerung' 
from  op.  29;  '  Ich  trage  meine  Minne '  from 
op.  32  ;  and  the  characteristic  *  Lied  des  Stein- 
klopfers '  from  op.  49,  are  things  that  appeal  to 
every  one  by  their  musical  worth  and  their  fit- 
ness for  the  way  in  which  the  feeling  of  the 
words  is  followed.  The  more  ambitious  *  Gesang 
der  Apollopriesterin '  and  other  songs  with 
orchestral  accompaniment  are  less  remarkable, 
and  in  the  incidental  music  to  Tennyson's 
'  Enoch  Arden '  there  is  not  much  to  divert  the 
hearer's  attention  from  the  poem. 

Alistof  Strauss's  compositions  is  appended : — 

Op. 

1.  FMtiTKl  March  for  OKhortxm. 
8.  Strlnff  Quartet  In  A. 
3.  Fire  pieoa  for  PV.  aolo. 

6.  PP.  Sonata  in  B  minor. 

«.  Sonata  for  PP.  and  Voello. 

7.  Serenade  for  wind  Inetranrata. 

8.  Violin  Oonoerto. 

9.  SUmmnngBbilder.  Are  pieoM  for  PP. 
la  Bight  SongB. 

11.  Oonoerto  for  French  Horn. 

12:  Symphony  in  F  minor. 

13.  Quartet  for  PP.  and  afcringa. 

14  Wanderan  Stormlied  for  6-pari  choir  with  oroheatTa. 

16.  ViyeSonge. 


Six  Sougii. 

SonaU.  vln.  and  PF.  in  E  flat. 

8ix  8ouc«  (■  LotwbUtter'L 

IXiii  Juan,  tone-poem  for  orchwtra. 

Five  Songa  ('  Bcfalichte  Weiaeu  '). 

Four  Bonga  ('  Miidcheublamen '). 

Macbeth.  tone-po«m  for  orchMtia. 

Tod  and  VerkliLning,  tone-poem  fororcheatnt. 

Ountnun,  opera  lu  three  acta. 

TwoSonga. 

Four  Sougi. 

Till  Eulenspiegel's  lostige  Btrdche.  tone-poem  (or  on^estn. 

Three  Soon. 

Alao  apnuih  Zarathottra,  toue-poein  for  orcheati«. 

Four  Songa. 

FiTe  Boaga. 

Four  Songa,  with  oreheatral  aooompuilment. 

Two  antheiua  (or  16-part  chonu. 

Don  Quixote.    Fantastic  Tariatloiu  (or  orcheetra. 

Four  SoQga. 

BixSongi. 

Enoch  Arden,  melodrama  (uuaio  (or  racitatloBj. 

Five  Bongs. 

Bin  Heldenleben,  tone-poam  for  ondieatsa. 

Five  Bongs. 

Two  male  choroBee. 

Three  Bonga. 

Two  '  irrtVaiere  OeeKnge '  (or  deep  Toioe,  with  orcheatnl  aocom- 

panimeut. 
Three  choruses  tor  male  Toioei. 
Five  Bonga. 
Five  Bongs. 
Five  Bongs. 
Eight  Bongs. 

Feuersnot.  opera  in  one  act. 
Das  Thai,  (or  liass  voice  and  orcheetnu 

Tailiflfor,  choral  ballad  with  solos,  orchestral  aooompaniniant. 
Bymphotiia  (afc)  Doiuestlpa,  fur  orehsstna. 
Opera,  BalomiS,  lu  one  act. 

WiTHODT  OrVB-VCVBKlia. 

(See  also  above  for  early  anpabUahad  works.) 


Burleske  (or  piano  s 
Boldatenlied  lormale  chorua. 


M. 


STR££T,  JosiAH.  A  Yorkshire  musician, 
who  issued  ^A  Book  containing  great  vaiicty 
of  Antheins  in  two,  three,  and  four  parts.' 
London,  second  edition,  1746.  This  was 
published  by  Joseph  Lord  of  Wakefield.  A 
previous  edition  is  stated  to  be  circa  1729,  but 
this  is  probably  too  early.  A  later  one  is  dated 
1785.  F.  K. 

STK£ICH£R,  Johann  Andreas,  a  professor 
of  music  in  Vienna,  and,  by  marriage  with 
Nannette  Stein,  the  founder  of  the  pianoforte- 
making  firm  in  that  city,  derived  from  Stein  of 
Augsburg,  that  was  to  become  in  course  of  time 
the  famous  house  of  Streicher  und  Sohn.  J.  A. 
Streicher  was  born  at  Stuttgart,  Dec.  13,  1761  ; 
he  was  a  man  of  education  and  great  intelligence, 
and  was,  moreover,  distinguished  by  his  friend- 
ship with  Schiller.  He  brought  up  his  son, 
Johann  Bafiist,  who  was  born  Jan.  3,  1796, 
to  the  business,  and  long  before  his  death, 
which  took  place  May  25,  1833,  resigned  it  to 
the  son's  complete  control.  Johann  Baptist 
maintained  the  excellent  traditions  of  his  worthy 
predecessors ;  and  when  he  died,  March  28, 
1871,  left  his  son  Emil  the  proprietor  of  this 
historical  business,  the  services  of  which  in  the 
improvement  of  pianoforte  construction  are  duly 
recognised  in  the  articles  Pianoforte  and 
Stein.  Ernst  Pauer  was  a  grandson  of  J.  A. 
Streicher  and  Nannette  Stein,  and  a  great-grand- 
son of  the  object  of  Mozart's  admiration,  J.  A. 
Stein  of  Augsburg.     [See  Pauer.]    a.  j.  h. 

STREICHINSTRUMENTEN  (Germ.). 
Stringed  Instruments,  or  Strings. 

STRETTO(Ital.),  literally  *  close 'or  ^narrow' ; 


ways.  1.  In  Fugue  it  designates  the  foUow- 
iug  of  response  to  subject  at  a  closer  interval 
of  time  than  at  first.  This  device  is  usually 
employed  towards  the  end  af  a  fugue,  so  aA  to 
give  some  impression  of  climax.  But  there  are 
plenty  of  exceptions  to  that  custom ;  e,g. 

Bach  48,  No.  1, 


which  occurs  close  to  the  beginning.  Some 
subjects  will  bear  more  than  one  stretto,  in 
which  case  the  closer  naturally  comes  last ;  e.g. 


^fagrjk-^^Srt^g 


from  the  *  Amen '  chorus  of  Handel's  '  Messiah.' 
(The  inner  iwirts  ai-e  omitted  for  the  sake  of 
clearness.)  Still  more  remarkable  instances 
will  be  found  in  the  fugue  of  Bach's  harpsi- 
chord Toccata  in  D  minor.  [When  several 
strettos  occur  in  a  fugue,  the  last  is  usually 
called  the  StreUo  maest7-ale,'] 

2.  The  second  use  of  the  word  oocuie  more 
especially  in  Italian  opera,  when  towards  the 
end  of  a  piece  the  time  is  quickened,  bringing 
the  accents  closer  together.  Thus  the  title 
might  be,  and  sometimes  is,  applied  to  the  last 
prestissimo  of  the  Choral  Symphony.  It  is 
sometimes  used,  but  quite  wrongly,  as  a  direc- 
tion equivalent  to  accelerando,  instead  of  in  its 
proper  sense  of  piii  mosao,  F.  c. 

STRICT  COUNTERPOINT  (Lat.  Conira- 
punctus  propriusy  tod  severus ;  Ital.  Contrap- 
punto  severe ;  Conirappicnloalla  Cappdla ;  Germ. 
StrengerSatz,  Kapellsiyl;  Fr.  Conlrepoint  s^vire). 
The  ai-t  of  writing  in  parts  for  two  or  more 
voices  without  the  employment  of  unprepared 
discords. 

The  term  is  not  very  well  chosen.  The  laws 
of  free  part- writing  are  quite  as  severe  as  those 
of  the  so-called  strict  style.  But  the  couA-en- 
tional  application  of  the  term  *  strict'  to  the 
method  which  forbids  the  direct  percussion  of 
a  fundamental  dissonance,  and  *free'  to  that 
which  permits  it,  has  so  long  been  generally 
accepted,  that  it  would  be  impossible  now  to 
introduce  a  more  exact  form  of  terminology. 

The  laws  of  Stiict  Counterpoint  are  not  open, 
like  those  of  Harmony,  to  scientific  discussion  ; 


STRICT  COUNTERPOINT 


STRICT  COUNTERPOINT     721 


for  Counterpoint  is  not  a  science  but;  an  art. 
It  is  true  that  its  most  important  rules,  when 
tested  by  the  principles  of  natural  science,  are 
found  to  coincide  with  them  in  all  essential 
particulars  ;  and  to  this  circumstance  alone  are 
they  indebted  for  their  unassailable  position 
and  promise  of  future  security.      Their  mathe- 
matical accuracy  fails,  however,  to  account  for 
their  univei-sal  acceptance  as  a  code  of  artistic 
regulations.      Their  authority    for  this  rests 
solely  upon  the  praxis  of  the  great  masters  of 
the  polyphonic  schools  ;  which  praxis  was  from 
first   to   last  purely   empiricaL      The  refined 
taste  and  musical  Instinct  of  Josquin  des  Pres, 
"VVillaert,   Byrd,  Tall  is,    Palestrina,   and  their 
contemporaries,   rebelled   against  the   hideous 
combinations  demanded  by  the  rules  of  Dia- 
X)honia    and   Organum,^    and   substituted   for 
them  the  purest  and  most  harmonious  progres- 
sions that  art,  aided  by  a  cultivated  ear,  could 
produce  ;  but  in  their  search  for  these  they 
were   guided   by  no  acoustic  theory.      They 
simply  wrote  what  they  felt ;  and  because  the 
instincts  of  true  genius   can  never  err,   that 
which  they  felt  was  uniformly  good  and  true 
and  logical,  and  based  Tmconsciously  upon  a 
foundation  firm  enough  to  stand  the  test  of 
modem  mathematical  analysis.     The  leaders  of 
the  monodic  school   rejected   the  teaching  of 
these  great  masters  ;  and  in  their  insane  desire 
for  progress,  invented  new  forms  of  cacophony 
not  a  whit  less  rude  than  those  practised  by 
the   Diaphonists  of  the   13th  century.      All 
Italy  followed  their  baneful  example,  and  for 
a   time   relapsed   into  chaos.       But   German 
musicians,  unwilling  to  destroy  the  old  land- 
marks, retained,  in  their  full  force,  the  time- 
honoured  laws  relating  to  the  use  of  Perfect 
and   Imperfect   Concords,    Syncopations,    and 
Notes   of  Regular  and    Irregular  Transition, 
while  they   extended  the  system  by  promul- 
gating new  regulations  for  the  government  of 
Fundamental  Discords  introduced  witliout  the 
customary  forms  of  preparation ;  and  because 
such  discords  had  never  before  been  sanctioned 
this  new  method  of  part-WTiting  was  called  *  free,' 
though  its  rules  were  really  more  numerous 
than  those  of  the  older  one. 

It  was  not  until  some  considerable  time 
after  the  invention  of  printing  that  tli^  laws 
of  Strict  Counterpoint  were  given  to  the  world 
in  the  form  of  a  systematic  code.  Franchinus 
Gafurius,  in  his  Pr<Ktica  Mimce  published  at 
Milan  in  1496,  gave  a  tolerably  intelligible 
epitome  of  certain  rules  which  at  that  period 
were  supposed  to  embody  all  the  information 
that  it  was  necessary  for  the  student  to  ac- 
quire. The  Musical  aetivae  Micrologics  of 
Ornithoparcus,  printed  at  Leipzig  in  1516,  set 
forth  the  same  laws  in  clearer  language.  The 
Toscanello  in  Musica  of  Pietro  Aron,  printed 
at  Venice  in  1523,  and  the  Dodecachcrdon  of 

1  8«e  DiAPROViA ;  Ouaxyvu ;  PoLYPaoaiA. 
VOTi.  IV 


GUreanus  (1647),  were  illustrated  by  examples 
of  great  value  to  the  tyro,  whose  labours  were  still 
further  assisted  by  the  appearance  of  Zarlino's 
IstUiUioni  harmoniche  in  1558,  and  Zacconi's 
Frattica  di  Musica  in  1596.  In  1597  Thomas 
Morley  published  his  Plaine  and  ecuric  Introduc- 
tion to  Fracticall  Musicke — the  earliest  treatise 
of  importance  in  the  English  language  ;  and 
in  1609  John  Douland  printed  an  English 
paraphrase  of  the  Micrologus  of  Ornithoparcus. 
These  works  set  forth,  with  gradually  increas- 
ing clearness,  the  regulations  which  in  the 
15  th  century  had  been  transmitted  from 
teacher  to  pupil  by  tradition  only.  The  com- 
positions of  the  great  polyphonic  masters  formed 
a  living  commentary  upon  the  collective  rules  ; 
and  with  an  endless  succession  of  such  works 
within  his  reach  the  student  of  the  period  ran 
little  risk  of  being  led  astray.  But  when  the 
line  of  polyphonic  composers  came  to  an  end, 
the  verbal  treatises,  no  longer  illustrated  by 
living  examples,  lost  so  much  of  their  value 
that  the  rules  were  in  danger  of  serious  miscon- 
struction, and  would  probably  have  been  to  a 
great  extent  forgotten,  had  not  Fux,  in  his 
Gradus  ad  Pamassumy  published  at  Vienna  in 
1725,  set  them  forth  with  a  systematic  cleaniess, 
which,  exhausting  the  subject,  left  nothing 
more  to  be  desired.  This  invaluable  treatise, 
founded  entirely  on  the  practice  of  the  great 
masters,  x^layed  so  important  a  part  in  the 
education  of  the  three  greatest  composers  of  the 
school  of  Vienna,  Haydn,  Mozart,  and  Beet- 
hoven, that  it  is  impossible  to  overestimate  its 
influence  upon  their  method  of  part-writing. 
So  clear  are  its  examples,  and  so  reasonable  its 
arguments,  that  it  has  formed  the  basis  of  all 
the  best  treatises  of  later  date,  of  which  two 
only — Albrechtsberger's  Griindliche  Anweisuvg 
zur  Composition  (Leipzig,  1790),  and  Cherubini's 
Coursde  Contrepoint et dela Fugue  (Paris,  1835) — 
are  of  any  real  importance.  These  two,  however, 
are  especially  valuable ;  not,  indeed,  as  substi- 
tutes for  the  *  Gradus,*  but  as  commentaries 
upon  it.  For  Fux  treats  only  of  strict  counter- 
point, and  ^vrites  all  his  examples  in  the  old 
ecclesiastical  modes  ;  but  Albrechtsberger  deals 
both  with  the  strict  and  the  free  styles,  while 
Cherubini  accommodates  the  laws  of  the  strict 
style  to  the  tonality  of  the  modem  scale,  with 
such  consummate  skill,  that  they  bear  all  the 
appearance  of  having  been  originally  enacted  in 
connection  with  it ;  thus  solving  for  the  modem 
student  a  very  difficult  problem,  which  Haydn, 
Mozart,  and  Beethoven  were  left  to  work  out 
for  themselves. 

In  most  important  particulars  these  three 
great  teachers  follow  the  same  general  plan. 
All  write  their  examples  on  Canti  fermi,  con- 
sisting entirely  of  semibreves ;  all  make  their 
Canti  fermi  close  by  descending  one  degree  upon 
the  tonic  or  the  final  of  the  mode ;  and  all 
agree    in    dividing   their    exercises   into    five 

3a 


thus  epitomised : — 

General  Laws.  The  eaily  Contrapuntists 
insist  strongly  upon  the  observance  of  the  four 
following  '  Cardinal  Rules '  {Uegulae  cardinales), 

I.  One  Perfect  Concord  may  proceed  to  an- 
other in  contrary  or  oblique  motion,  but  not 
in  similar  motion. 

II.  A  Perfect  Concord  may  proceed  to  an 
Imperfect  Concord  in  all  the  three  kinds  of 
motion. 

III.  An  Imperfect  Concord  may  proceed  to  a 
Perfect  Concord  in  contrary  or  oblique  motion, 
but  not  in  similar  motion. 

IV.  One  Imperfect  Concord  may  proceed  to 
another  in  all  the  three  kinds  of  motion. 

The  intention  of  these  rules  is  to  prevent 
the  possibility  of  Consecutive  or  Hidden  Fifths, 
Octaves,  and  Unisons. 

First  Order  (Note  against  note).  One 
semibreve  must  be  written,  in  each  part,  against 
each  semibreve  in  the  Canto  fermo.  All  pro- 
gressions must  be  purely  diatonic  ;  the  employ- 
ment of  chromatic  intervals  being  utterly  pro- 
hibited, both  in  harmony  and  in  melody,  in 
this  and  all  the  succeeding  Orders.  No  discords 
of  any  kind  are  admissible.  In  two  parts  the 
only  |iermitted  intervals  are  the  three  Perfect, 
and  the  four  Imperfect  Concords ;  t>.  the 
Unison,  Octave,  and  Perfect  Fifth ;  *  and  the 
Major  and  Minor  Thirds  and  Sixths.  In  three 
or  more  parts  the  only  harmonies  permitted 
are  the  Major  and  Minor  Common  Chords,  and 
the  chord  of  the  Sixth.  The  chord  of  the  6-4 
and  the  Augmented  and  Diminished  Triads  are 
prohibited  ;  but  the  First  Inversion  of  the 
Diminished  Triad  is  admissible,  because  none 
of  its  intervals  are  in  dissonance  with  the  bass. 
In  three  parts  each  chord  should,  if  possible, 
consist  of  a  Root,  Third,  and  Fifth  ;  or  a  Bass- 
note,  Third,  and  Sixth.  In  four  parts  the 
Octave  should  be  added.  But  in  cases  of 
necessity  any  interval  may  be  doubled  or 
omitted.  The  separate  parts  may  proceed 
either  in  conjunct  movement,  by  Major  or 
Minor  Seconds ;  or  disjnnctly  by  leaps  of  a 
Major  or  Minor  Third,  a  Perfect  Fourth,  a 
Perfect  Fifth,  a  Minor  Sixth,  or  an  Octave. 
All  other  leaps,  including  that  of  the  Major 
Sixth,  are  absolutely  prohibited.  The  first 
semibreve,  in  two-part  counterpoint,  must  be 
accompanied  by  a  Perfect  Concord  ;  in  three  or 
more  parts,  one  part  at  least  must  form  a  Perfect 
Concord  with  the  bass.  In  the  remaining 
semibreves.  Imperfect  Concords  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred in  two  parts. 

In  this,  and  all  other  Orders  of  Counterpoint, 
the  parts  may  cross  each  other  to  any  extent. 

1  In  Counterpoint  th«  Perfect  Foarth.  wlien  OMd  alone,  or 
rtM'kundKl  from  the  Bnw-note,  is  held  to  be,  and  treated  aa  a  Diacord. 
M'hfn  It  oociua  among  the  upper  note*  of  a  chord,  the  bau  takitif 
no  Khare  in  ita  formation,  it  U  treated  as  a  Perfect  Concord.  The 
snino  rule  anpliea  to  the  AuRtiientad  Fourth  (Tritouat)  and  the 
L^mintshed  Fifth  (QninU  falsa). 


of  parts.  In  four  or  more  parts  Consecutive 
Fifths  are  pennitted  in  contrar}'  motion,  but 
only  as  a  last  resource.^  This  licence,  however, 
does  not  extend  to  Consecutive  Octaves,  which 
were  far  more  carefully  avoided  by  the  great 
masters  than  Consecutive  Fifths,  even  in  con- 
trary motion.  But  Consecutive  Fifths  and 
Octaves  are  only  forbidden  when  they  occur 
between  the  same  two  parts.  When  produced 
by  different  parts,  or  by  making  the  parts  cross 
each  other,  they  are  p^ectly  lawful.  Hidden 
Fifths  and  Octaves  are  as  strictly  forbidden  in 
two  parts  as  real  Consecutives ;  but  in  four  or 
more  parts,  as  at  {d)  in  Ex.  3,  the  great  masters 
never  troubled  themselves  to  avoid  them.^ 

The  False  Relation  of  the  Tritonus  (Aug- 
mented Fourth)  is  strictly  forbidden  in  two 
^mrts  ;  but  permitted  in  three  or  more.  That 
of  the  Octave  is  forbidden,  even  in  eight  {>art8. 

In  two  parts,  the  Unison  is  forbidden,  except 
in  the  first  and  last  notes.  The  Octave  is  per- 
mitted in  oblique  motion,  and  in  contrary 
motion  also,  provided  it  be  approached  by 
separation — Le,  by  the  mutual  divergence  of 
the  parts  which  produce  it ;  as  at  (c)  in  £x.  2. 
Its  employment  by  approximation — Le,  by  the 
convergence  of  the  parts,  as  at  (6)  in  Ex.  2 — is 
only  permitted  in  the  final  cadence.^ 

In  two-part  Counterpoint  of  this  order  it  is 
forbidden  to  take  more  than  three  Thirds  or 
Sixths  in  succession,  unless  the  parts  be  made 
to  cross  each  other. 

The  final  Cadence  is  formed,  either  by  a  Major 
Sixth  followed  by  an  Octave,  as  at  (c),  in  Ex.  2  ; 
or  by  a  Minor  Third  followed  by  an  Octave,  or 
a  Unison,  as  at  {a)  in  Ex.  1.  In  two  parts, 
these  intervals  will  complete  the  necessary  for- 
mula. In  more  than  two  parts  the  same  inter- 
vals must  be  given  to  the  Canto  fermo  and  one 
other  part,  while  the  other  parts  fill  up  the 
harmony,  in  accordance  with  the  laws  already 
laid  down,  as  at  {e)  in  Ex.  3.  If  the  last  chord 
be  not  naturally  Major,  it  must  be  made  so  by 
an  accidental  Sharp  or  NaturaL^ 


Ex.1. 
CaiUofenM, 


wmm^ 


(«) 


""^Jl.^^^ 


(c)good. 


>  It  irill  be  seen  that  in  this  particular  the  strict  style  is  more 
indalir'nt  than  the  free.  Plalestrina  oonstantly  availed  hiuiaelf  U, 
the  licence,  esiicdally  when  writing  for  equal  Toieea. 

9  Re«  HtDUEX  Firrns  Axn  Octavb.  toL  ii.  pp.  908,  387. 

4  The  earlier  writers  on  Counterpoint  insist  very  stroorly  on  the 
observance  of  this  rule ;  and  extend  its  action,  vith  even  greater 
severity,  to  the  unison  in  the  few  esses  in  which  Uie  eninloytneait 
of  this  interval  is  pennitted.  Fnx  ipp.  59.  Mr  is  inclined  to  traat 
it  with  indulgence.  pro\ided  the  oonvctging  parta  proceed  In  odd- 
Jnnct  moreuient.  but  only  on  this  con>1ition.  Alhrechtaberiger 
fnibids  the  progression  in  two  parts,  but  sanctions  it  in  three. 
Cherubinl  makes  no  mention  of  the  rule. 

B  For  examples  of  Cadencvs  in  all  the  EcdesiastloAl  Modee.  aw 
lIvsiCA  FicTA.  TuL  iii.  pp^  XMKOS. 


STRICT  COUNTERPOINT 


STRICT  COUNTERPOINT     723 


Bx.  S. 


bzEiE 


Order  ;  one  of  the  sounds  necessary  to  form  the 
chai-acteristic  intervals  being  assigned  to  the 
Canto  fermo,  and  the  other,  eitiier  to  the  part 
which  contains  the  minims — £x.  4  (A) ;  Ex. 
5  (i) — or  to  some  other  part  written  in  semi- 
breves. 


Canto /ermo.^  J  J 

I  s  a  a  «  i  i 

Second  Order  (Two  notes  against  one).  In 
this  order  two  minims  must  be  written  in  one 
of  the  parts  against  each  semibreve  in  the 
Canto  fermo,  except  the  last,  unless  the  exercise 
should  be  in  triple  time,  in  which  case  three 
minims  must  be  written  against  each  semi- 
breve.^ The  other  parts  must  all  move  in 
semibreves.  In  the  ])art  which  contains  the 
minims  the  same  note  may  not  be  struck  twice 
in  succession.  The  first  bar  should  begin  with 
a  minim  rest,  followed  by  a  minim  in  Perfect 
Concord.  In  the  remaining  bars  the  first 
minim  must  always  be  a  Concord,  Perfect  or 
Imi)erfect.  The  second  minim  may  be  either 
a  Concord  or  a  Discord.  If  a  Concord,  it  may 
proceed  either  in  conjunct  or  disjunct  move- 
ment.— Ex.  4  (g).  If  a  Discord,  it  must  be 
both  approached  and  quitted  in  conjunct 
movement,  and  lie  between  two  Concords.  In 
other  words  it  mast  be  treated  as  a  Passing 
Note. — Ex.  4  (/).  Tlie  part  which  contains 
the  minims  is  not  permitted  to  make  the  leap 
of  a  Major  Sixth  in  any  circumstances ;  and 
not  even  that  of  a  Minor  Sixth,  except  as  a 
last  resource  in  cases  of  extreme  difficulty.^ 
Consecutive  Fifths  and  Octaves  between  the 
first  Minims  of  two  successive  bars  are  strictly 
forbidden.  Between  the  second  Minims  they 
are  tolerated,  but  only  for  the  pur2X)se  of 
escaping  from  a  gi-eat  difficulty. 

Except  in  the  first  and  last  bars  the  Unison 
is  forbidden  on  the  Thesis  or  accented  part  of 
the  measure  ;  but  permitted  on  the  Arsis  or 
unaccented  beat.  The  Octave  on  the  Arsis 
may  be  used  with  discretion ;  but  the  Octave 
on  the  Thesis  (Ital.  OtUiva  baUiUa ;  Germ. 
Streick-Oclav)  is  only  permitted  when  ap- 
proached, as  in  the  First  Order,  either  in 
oblique  motion  or  by  separation.  Its  employ- 
ment by  approximation,  as  in  Ex.  4,  bar  5,  is 
permitted  only  in  the  final  cadence.  ^ 

In  these  and  all  other  cases  the  first  minims 
of  the  bar  are  subject  to  the  same  laws  as  the 
semibreves  of  the  First  Order ;  and  the  more 
closely  these  laws  are  observed,  the  better  the 
Counterpoint  will  be.  If  the  elimination  of  the 
second  minim  in  every  bar,  except  the  first, 
and  the  last  but  one,  should  produce  good 
Counterpoint  of  the  First  Order,  no  stronger 
proof  of  excellence  can  be  desired. 
The  Cadence  is  treated  like  that  of  the  First 

>  8w  Pax.  p.  63. 

2  8«e  Chei-ahinl,  p.  lib  of   Mn.  Cowden  Cl&rke'B  tninilation. 
<Novdlo  ACo.1. 
'  See  (ooUiote  4  ou  prevloua  page. 


Bx.4. 

Canto  fermo. 


(/)    _G7)    bad. 


I       as       94       crsialT       aa        i 


Ex.  5. 


:  i  i 


Third  Order  (Four  notes  against  one).  In 
this  Order  four  crotchets  must  be  written,  in 
one  of  the  parts,  against  each  semibreve  in  tlie 
Canto  fermo,  except  the  last ;  the  other  parts 
moving  in  semibreves.  The  first  bar  should 
begin  with  a  crotchet  rest,  followed  by  three 
crotchets,  the  first  of  which  must  form  a  Perfect 
Concord  with  the  Canto  fermo.  The  first 
crotchet  in  the  succeeding  bars  is  subject  to 
the  same  laws  as  the  fii-st  minim  in  the  Second 
Order.  The  three  remaining  crotchets  may 
form  either  Concords  or  Discords,  provided 
that,  in  the  latter  case,  they  proceed  in  conjunct 
movement,  and  lie  between  two  Concords ;  in 
which  respect  they  must  be  treated  like  the 
imaccented  minims  in  the  Second  Order. 

When  the  second  crotchet  forms  a  Discord 
with  the  Canto  fermo,  in  a  descending  passage, 
it  may,  by  licence,  fall  a  Third,  and  then  ascend 
to  the  necessary  Concord,  as  at  (j)  in  Ex.  6, 
and  (/)  in  Ex.  7.  This  very  beautiful  pro- 
gression, though  forbidden  by  Cherubini,  is 
sanctioned  by  the  universal  practice  of  the 
great  masters  of  the  16th  century.* 

The  employment  of  the  Tritonus  or  the  False 
Fifth,  as  an  interval  of  Melody,  is  forbidden,  not 
only  by  leap,  but  even  when  the  intervening 
sounds  are  filled  in  ;  thus,  the  progressions,  F, 
G,  A,  B,  and  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  are  as  contrary 
to  rule  as  F,  B,  or  B,  F.  Tliis  law,  however,  is 
only  enforced  when  the  dissonant  sounds  form 
the  limits  of  the  passage ;  F,  G,  A,  B,  C,  is 
therefore  perfectly  lawful.  Consecutive  Fifths, 
Octaves,  and  Unisons  are  forbidden  between 
the  first  and  third  crotchets  in  the  bar ;  between 
the  first  or  third  crotchets  of  two  successive 
bars  ;  and,  of  course,  between  the  last  crotchet 
of  one  bar,  and  the  first  of  the  next. 

The  Cadence  will  be  formed  by  the  Canto 
fermo  either  in  conjunction  with  the  part  con- 
taining the  crotchets,  or  with  one  of  the  parts 
written  in  semibreves,  on  the  same  principle  as 

*  Fux,  p.  68. 


Ex.7. 


(J)        __  («    


Ig^gEg^^Z^gp^^gj 


CkiiUo  fermo. 

Fourth  Order  (With  Syncopations).  In 
this  Order  one  part  must  be  written  in  synco- 
pated notes ;  while  the  others  accompany  the 
Canto  fermo  in  semibreves. 

The  first  bar  must  begin  with  a  minim  rest, 
followed  by  a  minim  in  Perfect  Concord  with 
the  Canto  fermo  ;  which  minim  must  be  tied  to 
the  first  minim  in  the  following  bar,  which 
must  always  form  a  Concord  with  the  lowest 
part  Ex.  9  (?•). 

The  remaining  bars  (except  the  last)  will  each 
contain  two  minims  ;  the  first  of  which  must  be 
tied  to  the  second  minim  of  the  preceding  bar  ; 
and  the  second  to  the  first  minim  of  the  bar 
which  follows.  The  tied  minims,  now  known  as 
Syncopations,  were  formerly  called  Ligatures. 

The  second  or  unaccented  minim  must  always 
form  a  Concord  with  the  Canto  fermo. 

The  tied  or  accented  minim  may  form  either 
a  Concord  or  a  Discord  with  the  Canto  fermo. 
In  the  first  case — Ex.  8  (o)  ;  Ex.  9  («) — it  may 
proceed  upwards  or  downwards,  either  In  con- 
junct or  di^'unct  movement.  In  the  second 
—  Ex.  8  (n)  ;  Ex.  9  (r)— it  must  descend  one 
degree  upon  a  Concord,  which  forms  its  natural 
resolution,  and  may  also  serve  to  prepare  a  Dis- 
cord in  the  succeeding  bar,  as  at  (p)  in  Ex.  8. 
In  no  case  but  that  of  the  Ninth  is  it  allowable 
to  let  the  note  into  which  the  Discord  is  about 
to  resolve  be  heaid  simultaneously  with  the 
discord  itself  in  any  other  part  than  the  Bass. 

Consecutive  Fifths,  Octaves,  and  Unisons 
are  strictly  forbidden  between  the  unaccented 
minims  of  two  successive  bars,  which  must  here 
be  guarded  as  strictly  as  the  accented  minims 
of  the  Second  Order.  Indeed,  the  most  severe 
test  that  can  be  applied  to  this  kind  of 
Counterpoint  is  the  excision  of  the  first  minim 
of  every  bar.  If  this  operation  should  produce 
good  Counterpoint  of  the  First  Order,  nothing 
more  can  be  desired. 

All  the  diatonic  discords  may  be  used  by 
Syncopation.  But  a  succession  of  Ninths,  re- 
solving into  Octaves,  or  of  Sixths,  followed  by 
Fifths,  is  forbidden  ;  because  in  these  cases  the 
excision  of  the  accented  minims  would  produce 
progressions  of  real  Fifths  and  Octaves. 

The  Cadence,  formed  always  by  the  Canto 
fermo  and  the  part  containing  the  Syncopations, 


an  Octave — Ex.  8  (q)  ;  Ex.  9  (t)  ;  or,  should  the 
Canto  fermo  be  placed  above  the  Syncopations 
of  a  suspended  Second,  resolving  into  a  Minor 
Third  and  followed  by  a  Unison  or  Octave. 
This  Cadence  was  called  by  the  old  masters 
the  Diminished  Cadence,  and  was  used  at  the 
close  of  almost  every  polyphonic  composition. 


i^r^t^^f^r^j^ 


Canto  fervw. 

Fifth  Order  (Florid  Counterpoint).  In  this 
Order  one  part  will  contain  a  judicious  mixture 
of  all  the  preceding  Orders ;  while  the  other 
parts  accompany  the  Canto  fermo  in  consonant 
semibreves. 

Dotted  notes,  though  forbidden  in  all  other 
Orders,  may  here  be  introduced  into  the  Florid 
part  with  excellent  effect ;  and  Quavers  also, 
if  used  sparingly,  and  with  discretion,  as  at 
Ex.  10  (v).  Tied  notes  are  permitted,  on  con- 
dition that  the  length  of  the  second  note  does 
not  exceed  that  of  the  first  In  modem  pas- 
sages it  is  sometimes  convenient  to  use  a  tied 
note  instead  of  a  dotted  one. 

By  a  licence  analogous  to  that  mentioned 
with  regard  to  the  Third  Order,  a  syncopated 
Discord,  suspended  by  a  tied  crotchet,  may 
descend  a  Third  or  a  Fifth,  and  afterwards  re- 
ascend  to  its  resolution,  *  as  at  (ar),  in  Ex.  11  ; 
or  it  may  ascend  a  Fourth  or  a  Second,  and 
then  redcscend  to  the  necessary  Concord,  as  at 
(r)  in  Ex.  10. 

A  minim,  preceded  in  the  same  bar  by  two 
crotchets,  should  always  be  tied  to  a  minim, 
or  crotchet  in  the  succeeding  bar.*     Ex.  10  («). 

The  Diminished  Cadence— Ex.  10  (w)-^is 
used  in  this  Order  as  well  as  in  the  Fourth 
with  many  graceful  modifications,  rendered 
possible,  as  in  Ex.  11  (2),  by  the  employment 
of  dotted  and  tied  notes. ^  These  modifications 
form  part  of  a  long  list  of  licences,  peculiar  to 
the  Fifth  Order,  and  greatly  conducing  to  its 
beauty,  as  in  Ex.  11  (y),  though,  unfortunately, 
too  numerous  for  detailed  notice  in  our  present 
article. 


Bx.  10.  (u)  (V)  (w) 

^Uo  fermo,  ^*"**^ 


fermo, 

1  See  Fux.  p.  76l 


*  Ibid.ip.9li. 


3  lUd.  p.  TS. 


STRICT  COUNTERPOINT 


STRIGGIO 


726 


Ex.  11. 


(X)       (y)        W 


^^^^IW 


^^ 


^s=fe 


CaTUo/ermo. 

Students  who  have  mastered  all  the  difficul- 
ties of  the  Five  Orders  are  recommended  by 
Fux  and  his  sucoessoi"s  to  employ  two  or  more 
Orders  simultaneously,  in  place  of  filling  in  the 
free  parts  with  semibreves,  and  to  follow  up 
this  exercise  by  employing  the  Fifth  Order  in 
all  the  parts  except  that  which  contains  the 
Canto  fermo. 

It  will  be  readily  understood  that  the  rules 
we  have  here  endeavoured  to  epitomise  form 
but  a  very  small  proportion  of  those  laid  down 
by  Fux  and  his  successors  for  the  student's 
guidance ;  more  especially  with  regard  to  the  Five 
Orders  of  Counterpoint  in  two  parts,  the  laws 
of  which  are  excessively  severe.  We  have,  in 
fact,  confined  ourselves  for  the  most  part  to 
the  regulations  which  serve  most  dearly  to  dis- 
tinguish the  Strict  Style  of  the  16th  century 
from  the  Free  Part-writingof  the  18th  and  19th. 
The  true  value  of  these  rules  lies  in  the  unvary- 
ing purity  of  the  harmony  produced  by  their 
observance.  Obedience  to  their  provisions 
renders  harshness  of  effect  impossible.  It  was 
for  this  reason  that  they  were  so  diligently 
studied  by  the  great  masters  of  the  school  of 
Vienna  ;  and  after  them  by  Mendelssohn  and 
the  composers  of  the  later  period.  It  is  tme 
that  these  composers,  one  and  all,  have  written 
exclusively  in  the  Free  Style.  But  we  have 
already  explained  that  the  laws  of  the  Free  Style 
are  not  antagonistic  to  those  of  Strict  Counter- 
point. In  their  treatment  of  Consonant  Har- 
monies, of  Susi)ensions,  and  of  Passing  Notes, 
the  laws  of  the  two  styles,  as  set  forth  in  the 
works  of  the  great  classical  writers,  are  absol- 
utely identical.  It  is  only  when  dealing  with 
Chromatic  Progressions,  Appoggiaturas,  and  Un- 
prej)ared  Discords  generally,  that  the  Free  Style 
supplements  the  older  code  with  new  enactments. 
And  since  these  new  enactments  concern  pro- 
gressions altogether  unknown  to  the  Contra- 
puntists of  the  16th  century,  they  cannot  be 
fairly  said  to  oppose  the  earlier  system.  Except 
when  entering  upon  new  ground  they  neither 
increase  nor  diminish  the  severity  of  the  ancient 
method.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  a  well-known 
fact  that  the  greatest  writera  in  the  Free  Style, 
and  the  most  fearless,  are  those  who  have 
worked  hardest  at  Strict  Counterpoint.  Hence 
Beethoven's  bon  mot  concerning  the  necessity 
for  learning  rules  in  order  that  one  might  know 
how  to  break  them,  so  often  misquoted  in 
defence  of  those  who  break  them  through  ignor- 

'  Licence.  FJfth*  nnv^  by*  tied  crt.tchet.  on  the  authority  of 
Palestriiia.    At  liai-  5  the  tenor  crw«M.-«  IhjIow  the  bum. 


ance.  Hence  Mendelssohn's  microscopic  atten- 
tion to  the  minutest  details  in  the  lessons  he 
gave  in  Free  Part-writing ;  and  Hauptmann's 
determined  insistence  on  rules,  which,  though 
mentioned  by  Fux,  are  unnoticed  by  Chembini. 
All  these  accomplished  musicians  used  Strict 
Counterpoint  as  a  stepping-stone  to  the  Free 
Style ;  and  if  we  would  know  how  much  the 
process  profited  them,  we  have  only  to  examine 
Mozart's  *  Zauberflote, '  Beethoven's  Seventh 
Symphony,  and  Mendelssohn's  *St  Paul.' 
[See  also  the  article  Counterpoint,  vol.  i. 
pp.  618-623.1  w.  s.  R. 

STRIGGIO,  Alessandro,  gentleman  of 
Mantua,  was  bom  there  about  1535.  In  the 
judgment  of  his  contemporaries  he  was  a  culti- 
vated musician,  an  organist  of  renown,  a  fine 
lutenist  and  viola-player.  Bartoli  {Bagi(mamenti 
(uxaderinid,  1567,  p.  376)  writes  that  Striggio 
was  most  excellent  in  playing  of  the  viola  *■  e  far 
sentir  in  essa  quatro  parti  a  uu  tratto  con  tanta 
leggiadria  e  con  tanta  musica,  che  fa  stupire  gli 
ascoltanti,'  adding  that  his  compositions  were 
as  musical  and  as  good  as  any  to  be  heard  at  that 
time ;  andGarzoni  (Xa/yia2saM7in-tfr«i&,  Venetia, 
1585,  p.  450)  mentions  among  famous  players 
of  various  instruments  '  il  Striggio  passato  nel 
lauto.'  From  about  1560  Striggio  was  at 
Florence,  attached  to  the  Court  of  Cosmo  de 
Medici,  who  died  1574  ;  on  the  title-pages  of 
Striggio's  works  published  in  1660,  1565-66, 
and  1569,  he  is  described  as  ^  gentilhuomo  man- 
tovano.  Servitore  dell'  illustrissimo  et  eccellen- 
tissimo  Cosmo  de  Medici,  Duca  di  Firenze  e  di 
Siena,'  but  from  1570  to  1585,  he  is  merely 
*  gentilhuomo  mantovano '  and  probably  was 
living  in  Mantua  at  this  later  period.  He  was 
certainly  there  in  1574,  the  bearer  of  a  letter 
dated  Sept.  1,  1574,  in  which  the  Emperor 
Maximilian  II.  recommends  Striggio,  'a  man 
eminent  in  the  art  of  music,'  to  the  good  offices 
of  the  Duke  Guglielmo  of  Mantua,  with  the 
result  that  Striggio  was  released  from  a  drag- 
ging lawsuit  in  which  he  had  been  involved.  He 
died  in  Mantua  soon  after,  Sept  22,  1587. 

Striggio  was  one  of  the  first  to  compose  music 
for  the  lutermedii  in  rei)resentations  at  Court 
festivities.  An  interesting  example  and  one  of 
the  earliest  is  La  Cofanaria,  Comedia  di  Fran- 
cesco d'Amhra,  con  gV  interniedii  di  O.  B.  Cini. 
Firenze,  1566,  written  on  the  occasion  of  the 
maiTiage  of  Francesco  de  Medici  with  Johanna 
of  Austria.  Striggio  set  the  first,  second,  and 
fifth  intermedio  to  nmsic.  A  copy  of  this  work 
is  in  the  British  Museum ;  on  p.  1 6  a  description 
of  the  music  is  given  with  a  list  of  the  instru- 
ments required,  including : — 

4  Ornvioenibali  doppl. 

4  Viole  d'  hfco. 

2  Troniboul. 

y  Tenori  dl  FlAuti. 

1  Cometto  uiut«. 

1  Ti-Rver«a. 

*2  L«uti.  a  DolzMin*,  a  Stortina,  and  a  Ribechlno. 

In  the  DialmjJd  di  Massimo  Troiano  (Venetia, 


VI.  of  Bavaria  and  Renata  di  Loreno,  mention 
is  made  (Lib.  8,  p.  147)  of  a  motet  in  40  parts 
composed  by  Striggio,  *  il  quale  fn  degno  d'  ogni 
honore  e  laiide' ;  it  was  written  for  8  tromboni, 
8  viole  da  arco,  8  flauti  grossi,  uno  instrumento 
da  penna,  and  un  liuto  grosso,  the  rest  of  the 
parts  being  supplied  by  voices,  and  was  twice 
performed  before  large  audiences. 

In  a  little  book  published  at  Florence  in 
1679,  Feste  nelle  nozze  del  sereniss,  Doni  Fran- 
cesco Medici,  e  della  sereniss.  Sig,  Bianca  Cap- 
pellOf  da  Baffaello  ChuUteroUi,  p.  20,  there  is 
an  allusion  to  the  '  diverse  musiche,  con  molte 
voci  ed  infiniti  strumenti '  composed  by  Striggio, 
that  most  excellent  musician.  He  was  also 
responsible  for  music  to  the  first,  second,  and 
fifth  intermedio  in  the  Commedia  written  for 
the  wedding  of  Cesare  d'  Este  and  Virginia  de 
Medici  at  Florence  (Bastiano  de'  Rossi,  De- 
Bcrizione.     Firenze,  1585). 

Striggio  also  composed  a  great  many  madrigals ; 
Morley  in  his  Plaine  and  easie  iTUroduction, 
1597,  p.  85,  gives  illustrations  of  various 
proportions  in  '  measured  '  music  from  Striggio's 
madrigal  *  AH'  acqua  sagra '  for  six  voices,  and 
also   includes   Striggio's   name  in  the  list  of 

*  practitioners  the  moste  parte  of  whose  works 
we  haue  diligently  perused,  for  finding  the  true 
use  of  the  moods.'  Burney  scored  several  of 
the  madrigals :  one,  '  Invidioso  amor '  for  five 
voices,  from  the '  Secondo  libro  de  la  muse,  '1559, 
is  in  the  British  Museum,  Add.  MS.  11,583  ;  and 
another,  *Gravi  pene'  from  *  Madrigali  a  4  voci 
di  Cipriano  e  Annibale,'  1575,  is  in  the  Add. 
MS.  11,588.  Another  of  his  madrigals,  'Chi 
fara  fed'  al  cielo  '  for  four  voices,  afterwards  used 
by  Peter  Philips  as  a  theme  for  a  fantasia  (in 
the  Fitzwilliam  Virginal  Book,  i.  812),  is  to 
be  found  rather  unexpectedly  in  a  rare  book 
published  at  Frankfort  in  1615,  called  Les 
raisons  des/orces  mouvanUsavec  diversesmachiTies, 
etc.,  par  Salomon  De  Cans  ;  in  the  account  of 

*  La  roue  musicale  (un  orgue  m^nique)  '  it  is 
the  '  pi^e  de  musique  qui  est  pos^e  sur  ladite 
roue,'  and  the  music,  the  four  parts  scored,  is 
reproduced  on  the  back  of  plate  88. 

The  following  works  by  Striggio  were  pub- 
lished, some  during  his  lifetime,  others  after  his 
death  by  his  son  Alessandro  : — 

DI  AI«w\ndro  Striggio.  gentirhnnmo  mintoTano.  «erTitorB  del- 
V  illiiatrlH.  at  «c«»11entUt.  Cocrnin  de  Medici.  Duca  di  Firenze  e  di 
BietM.    n  pritno  libro  da  mitdrig&li  a  wi  voci. 

(The  earlient  edition  o(  thin  book  ia  not  known.  It  wma  reprinted  in 
Venice  by  Antonio  Oard^no  in  1800.  1969,  1509  ;  and  later  editions 
w«re  pabllahod  there  bjr  Franceacn  Raninaxetto  in  1906.  by  Oirolamo 
Sootto  and  hie  ■nccen«or«  In  1966,  1878,  and  196S,  and  by  Angelo 
a»rdano  In  1979  and  1802.) 

n  aecondo  libro  de  niadrigali  a  wd  voei. 

(Thia  wan  alao  reprinteil  In  Veni(*e.  by  Glrolamo  Scotto  and  hia 
laoreaaon  in  1871,  1573,  1879.  and  1682,  and  by  Angelo  Oardano  in 
1992;  the  earliest  edition  la  nnknown.) 

DI  Aloaaandro  Striggio.  Qentirhaonio  mantovano.  aerrltora,  etc. 

II  primo  libro  de  madrigali  a  cinque  voci. 

(Of  thia  work  iw^atn  only  reprlnto  are  known,  by  Antonio  Oardano 
In  1960  and  in  1909,  by  Scotto  in  1960,  1866,  and  1588.  and  by  Ft. 
Rampaxetto,  cirra  1966.) 

II  aeconiio  libro  de  madrigali  a  einqne  rod  dl  K.  Aleaaandro 
Btrl^io,  gentil'hnomo  maTitoTano.  nouainente  poati  in  lace. 

In  Viuegia  appreew  Oirolamo  Sootto,  167Q. 


(Dedicated  to  the  Duke  of  Mantua  by  Strigglo'a  aon  Alcaaandrp. 
who  111  alluding  to  hla  father,  writca  of  thia  work  '  d'  uno  die  Meqae 
auo  auddlto  e  vine  alcun  tempo  aervitore  della  felloe  awmaria  del 
eerenlaa.  Sig.  auo  Fkdre,  che  aia  in  gloria,  e  moti  flnal  wente  aerrende 

r  A.V.') 

II  quarto  Ubro  de  madrigali  a  dnque  voci.  ate  Vcueti&.  Angela 
Oftrdano,  IBM. 

n  qainto  Ubro  de  madrigali  a  8  rod.  etc.    Venctia.  Anfeb 
Oardano,  1807. 
(Both  booka  edited  by  Strigglo'a  aon.) 

n  cioalamento  dclle  Doiino  al  buoato  et  la  eacda  di  Al— nitre 
Striggio,  Con  un  lamento  di  Df  done  ad  Bnca  per  la  aoa  partann  dl 
Clpnano  Bore,  a  4,  5.  6  e  7  vod.  Di  nouo  poeto  in  Inoe  per  OInile 
Bonaglonta  da  San  Oeneei.  inuaioo  della  iUua.  SigDorla  dl  Vencsialii 
&  Maroo.  Vinegia.    Glrolamo  Sootto,  1897. 

(Reprinted  In  1869.  and  again  in  1864.  wlUa  a  alightly  dllfcraat 
tlUe)  :— 

11  Ctcalamento  delle  donne  al  buoato  e  la  eaoda  dl  Aleaeuidm 
Striggio  a  4.  8.  6  e  7  voci.  oun  11  gioco  dl  primleta  a  dnqiM  vod  del 
medeaimo.  novamente  aglouto. 

(There  la  a  inanuacrlpt  copy  in  five  part-books  tn  Ch.  Ch.  libraiy. 
Oxford.) 
Other  MSS.  ai«  to  be  found  In  the  llbrariea  at 
AnKin.— MS.  Z.  98.  date  l&W.  a  aoore  of  •  Fadem  tnan  '(* naaet 
la  peua'(  for  dx  voloea;  the  aaow  compodtioB  in 
MS.  Z.  32.  a  16th-oentury  lute-book.    (Bitoer.) 
Arfegno.— A  1618  MS.  oontaina  four  madrigala  for  dx  voioea  in 

aoore.    (Gasperini'a  Gat.) 
Ariiig.— Imperfect  oopiea  of  '  Kaaoe  la  pena.'    (Kuhn'a  Gat.) 
AntaMla— Madrigala  in  M&  2»0.    (Fetia.  BOL  ilowale.) 
Miywte.— Eight  madrigala  for  dx  vdoa.    (Pfndd^a  Oat.) 
Jfflafi.— Cooaervatoire.— A  maaa  for  four  voloea  and  a  mi 

five  voieea.  (Canal.) 
Jfecfeno.— Bibl.  palatina.  A  canzone  with  lute  aoeompanlment. 
jrimiek.— M&  S18.  dated  1628.  'Ad  nitlda'  CChi  fan)  for  five. 
'  Naadtnr  cum  dollx^e '  ('  Naace  la  pena  mia ')  for  aix. 
'Quae  mulier'  ('All'  apparir')  for  eifht  voioea 
(Maler'a  C  ' 


I  for 


a  Cat.) 


Create  XAfYny.— In  Md.  774  and  7B,  thirteen  madrigala.  (Eltner.) 

Jtogal  College  <tf  Muaie.—ln  MS.  1881.  four  part-booka  of  17th 
century, '  Love  hath  proclaimed '  Ibr  dx  voioea.  A 
lute  piece  in  MS.  1964. 

UpaaUi — MS.  J.  mua.  108.  a  piece  in  orgMi  tablatnre. 

JTwidkoM — MS.  732,  dated  1887.  *  Boce  beatnm  lucem '  a  40  rodboi 
in  4  ehori.  Baaaone  oanato  dalle  parte  plA  baaac  dd 
40  peraone.  Choma  T.  dght  volcea ;  Choma  IL  tan 
voioea ;  Chonu  III.  dxteen  volcce ;  Choma  IV.  aix 
voioea.    (Vollhardt'a  Gat) 

About  41  of  Strigglo'a oouipoaitf one  werealao  pabliahcd  at  Venieeln 
collected  worka,  ranging  from  the  year  1559  to  1696.  Five  of  hia 
madrigala  are  in  Torch!.  Art«  mutteaU  im  ItaUa,  \  ol.  1.  C  S. 

STRIKING  REED.  A  beating  reed.  One 
in  which  the  vibrator  or  tongue  strikes  the  face 
of  the  reed.     (See  Reed  and  Reedstop.)     t.  k. 

STRINASACCHI,  Regina,  a  distinguished 
violin-player,  bom  at  Ostiglia  near  Mantua  in 
1764,  and  educated  at  the  Conservatorio  della 
Vietk  in  Venice,  and  in  Paris.  From  1780  to 
1783  she  travelled  through  Italy,  and  won  great 
admiration  by  her  playing,  her  good  looks,  and 
her  attractive  manners.  She  next  went  to 
Vienna,  and  gave  two  concerts  at  the  National 
Court  Theatre  in  the  Burg  on  March  29  and 
April  24,  1784.  For  the  second  of  these 
Mozart  composed  a  sonata  in  Bb  (Kcichel  464), 
of  which  he  wrote  out  the  violin-part  complete, 
but  played  the  accompaniment  himself  from  a 
few  memoranda  which  he  had  dashed  down  on 
the  PF.  staves.  *  The  Emperor  Joseph,  noticing 
from  his  box  above  the  blank  look  of  the  paper 
on  the  desk,  sent  for  Mozart  and  obliged  him  to 
confess  the  true  state  of  the  case.  *  Strinasacchi 
plays  with  much  taste  and  feeling,*  writes  Mozart 
to  his  father,  who  quite  agreed  with  him  after 
hearing  her  at  Salzburg.  *  Even  in  symphonies^  * 
Leopold  writes  to  his  daughter,  *ahe  always  plays 
with  expression,  and  nobody  could  play  an 
Adagio  more  touchingly  or  with  more  feeling 
than  she ;  her  whole  heart  and  soul  is  in  the 

»  Thia  Intereding  MS.  b  now  In  the  poaaeasion  of  Mr.  P.  G-Knrti 
of  Liverpool.  Mn«art  filled  in  the  complete  accompaniment  aft«T- 
waniH  in  an  ink  of  diRhtly  dlffwwjt  colnnr  from  thatwhldibe  flnt 
employed,  au  that  the  atate  of  the  MS.  at  the  flrat  performance  oui 
be  readily  aeeu. 


congenial  to  her  own  character.  She  played 
his  quartets  before  the  Court  at  Lndwigslust, 
and  also  at  Frau  von  Banzow's,  with  peculiar 
naivett^  and  humour,  and  was  much  applauded 
for  her  delicate  and  expressive  rendering  of  a 
solo  in  one  of  them.  She  is  also  said  to  have 
been  an  excellent  guitar-player.  She  married 
Johann  Conrad  Schlick,  a  distinguished  violon- 
cellist in  the  ducal  chapel  at  Gotha.  The  two 
travelled  together,  playing  duets  for  violin  and 
violoncello.  Schlick  died  at  Gotha  in  1825,  two 
years  after  the  death  of  his  wife.         o.  F.  p. 

STRING  (Fr.  Corde  ;  Ital.  Corda ;  Germ. 
Saite),  A  slender  length  of  gut,  silk,  or  wire, 
stretched  over  raised  supports  called  bridges, 
between  which  it  is  free  to  vibrate.  When 
weighted  to  resist  the  drawing  power  or  tension, 
the  rapidity  of  its  transverse  vibrations  depends 
upon  the  tension,  the  length,  and  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  material ;  and  in  exact  ratio  with 
this  rapidity  the  ear  is  sensible  of  the  difference 
of  musical  pitch.  From  the  6th  centuiy  H.a 
the  monochord  or  single  string,  stretched  over  a 
sound -board  and  measured  by  movable  bridges, 
has  been  the  canon  of  musical  intervals,  the 
relative  scale  pitch.  The  string  by  itself  would 
give  but  a  faint  tone  in  the  surrounding  air, 
and  a  sound-board  is  necessary  to  reinforce  the 
tone,  and  make  it  sufficiently  audible. 

Of  the  materials  employed  for  strings,  silk 
has  been  much  used  in  the  East,  but  in  European 
instruments  gut  and  wire  have  had  the  constant 
preference.  Gut  (x^pdi^  in  Greek,  whence  the 
familiar  *  chord')  was  the  musical  string  of 
the  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Romans ;  wire  was 
practically  unknown  to  them,  since  wire-draw- 
ing was  invented  only  about  a.d.  1350,  sjm- 
chronising  with  the  probable  invention  of  keyed 
instruments  with  strings,  such  as  the  clavichord, 
harpsichord,  or  virginal.  From  that  epoch  gut 
and  wire  have  held  divided  rule,  as  they  do  in 
our  own  day  in  the  violin  and  the  piano.  The 
general  name  for  gut  strings  is  catgut,^  but 
it  is  really  made  from  the  intestines  of  sheep 
and  goats,  chiefly  the  former  ;  the  best  and 
strongest  being  of  lamb's  gut  when  the  lamb  is 
of  a  certain  age  and  development,  whence  it 
comes  that  September  is  the  month  for  fiddle- 
string  making  ;  particularly  for  first  (or  E) 
fiddle-strings,  which  are  the  smallest  though 
they  have  to  bear  the  greatest  strain  of  the 
four.  According  to  Mr.  Hart  (The  Violin ^ 
London,  1875)  the  best  catgut  strings  are  the 
Italian  (Roman  par  excellence)  ;  next  rank  the 
German,  then  the  French  ;  last  of  all,  the 
English.  The  author  attributes  the  superior 
quality  of  the  Italian  to  climate,  an  important 
part  of  the  process  of  manufacture  being,  in 
Italy,    carried  on  in  the   open  air,  which  is 

>  The  orlfftn  of  the  term  cntgnt  hu  not  yet  been  traced,     o. 


According  to  J.  Rousseau  {TraiU  de  la  FioUf 
1687)  this  loading  of  the  string  was  intro- 
duced in  France  by  Sainte  Colombe  about  a.d. 
1675.  The  tension  of  the  four  strings  of  a 
violin  was  stated  by  Tartini,  in  1734,  to  be 
63  lb.  Mr.  Hart,  for  the  English  high  pitch 
[happily  now  discredited]  estimates  it  at  about 
90  1b. 

Wire  strings  were  originally  of  latten  or  brass, 
with  which  psalteries  and  dulcimers  were  strung. 
As  late  as  the  first  half  of  the  18th  century, 
clavichords  were  generally  strung  with  brass 
wire  only  ;  pianofortes  retained  a  batch  of 
brass  strings  until  about  1830.  Steel  wire,  as 
the  special  iron  music-wire  was  called,  was,  how- 
ever, very  early  introduced,  for  Virdung  {Musica 
getutscht  und  aitagezogenf  A.D.  1511)  expressly 
states  that  the  trebles  of  clavichords  were 
then  strung  with  steel.  Early  in  the  19th 
century  Nuremberg  steel  was  in  great  request, 
but  about  1820  the  Berlin  wire  gained  the 
preference.  The  iron  of  both  came  from  the 
Harz  Mountains.  About  1834  Webster  of 
Birmingham  brought  out  cast  steel  for  music 
wire,  and  gave  piano  strings  a  breaking  weight 
of  about  one-third  more  than  the  German. 
But  in  1850  Miller  of  Vienna  was  able  to 
contend  for  the  first  place,  and  in  the  following 
year  actually  gained  it  at  the  Great  Exhibition, 
for  cast  steel  wire-drawing.  After  that,  Pohl- 
mann  of  Nuremberg  came  forward  and  was 
considered  by  some  experts  to  have  surpassed 
Miller.'  Webster's  firm  has  not  been  idle 
during  a  competition  to  the  results  of  which 
the  present  power  of  the  pianoforte  to  stand 
in  tune  owes  so  much.  A  trial  made  under 
direction  of  the  writer  gives  for  average  breaking 
weight  of  24  inches,  of  No.  17i  wire,  Pohlmann's 
297  lb.,  Miller's  275  lb.,  Webster  and  Horsfall 
257  lb.,  all  nearly  doubling  the  tension  required 
for  use.  It  is  not,  therefore,  with  surprise  that 
we  accept  the  eminent  authority  of  Dr.  William 
Pole,  who  regarded  cast  steel  music-wire  as  the 
strongest  elastic  material  that  exists.  The 
earliest  covered  piano  strings,  about  a  hundred 
years  ago,  spun  in  long  interstices  of  brass  over 
steel,  have  in  time  become  close  spun  in  single, 
double,  and-even  treble  overlayings  of  copper,  or 
mixed  metal  composed  of  spelter  and  copper, 
gaining  in  the  largest  strings  a  diameter  of 
0*21  of  an  inch,  and  considerable  power  of 
strain.  The  greatest  tension  of  a  string  re- 
corded by  Messrs.  Broadwood  in  the  technical 
part  of  their  Exhibition  book  of  1862  is  316  lb. 
—  for  the  highest  single  string  of  a  Concert 
Grand.  They  give  the  whole  tension  at  that 
time  for  Philharmonic  pitch  (viz.  A  454,  C  640 
double  vibrations  per  second)  of  two  of  their 

*  UnpubliHhefl  correspondence  o(  Theobald  BOhm.  the  flautiat, 
•hows  Uiat  PShlinann  wu  Indebted  to  htm  for  improving  hia  manti* 


lb.  (15  tons  9  cwt.  etc.)  ;  the  otlier,  a  longer 
scale,  37,160  lb.  (16  tons  11  cwt.  etc.).  In 
later  years  tension  was  much  increased,  but  not 
sufficiently  so  to  account  for  the  much  higher 
totals  or  for  the  breaking  -  weights  of  wire 
recorded  in  Mendel's  Lexikon,  [See  the 
writer's  History  of  the  Pianoforte,  pp.  39,  83, 
86.]  A.  J.  H. 

STRING.  The  terms  *  Strings,'  *  Stringed  in- 
struments,' *  String-quartet,'  *  String- trio,'  have 
come  to  be  applied  in  England  to  instruments 
of  the  violin  tribe  only,  the  terms  answ^ering  to 
the  German  SireicJiquartelly  Streichiiistrumcnte. 
The  term  is  understood  to  exclude  strings  that 
are  not  bowed,  such  as  the  harp  and  piano. 
Thus  a  quartet  for  four  stringed  instruments, 
usually  two  violins,  viola,  and  violoncello,  is 
called  a  String-quartet,  to  distinguish  it  from 
a  pianoforte  quartet — that  is,  for  piano  and  three 
other  instruments  ;  or  for  any  other  combination 
of  four,  such  as  a  quartet  for  four  horns,  four 
flutes,  etc.  G. 

STRINGENDO,  'forcing,  compelling';  press- 
ing or  hastening  the  time.  This  word  conveys, 
besides  the  idea  of  simple  acceleration  of  pace, 
that  of  growing  excitement,  workmg  up  to  some 
climax.  H. 

STRlJifG-'PLATK{Fr.  Sommier  en  fer;  Ital. 
Cordiera  ;  Germ.  AnhdngcplcUte,  Metcdlner  Sai- 
teiihalter).  The  iron  plate  on  the  hitch-pin  block 
of  pianofortes  to  which  the  further  ends  of  the 
strings  are  now  attached.  It  forms  with  the 
tension  bars  the  metal  framing  of  the  instru- 
ment; the  wooden  framing  being  a  bracing 
more  or  less  complete  of  wooden  beams,  in  con- 
nection with  the  wrest-plank,  which  is  also  of 
wood,  and  sometimes  covered  wdth  metal.  [See 
Wrest- Plank  and  History  of  the  Pianoforte,  pp. 
13,  16,  16.]  The  service  of  the  string-plate  is 
one  of  weight ;  it  bears  an  important  share  in 
resisting  the  continual  draught  of  the  strings. 
It  was  invented,  rather  with  the  idea  of  com- 
pensation than  resistance,  by  William  Allen, 
a  tuner  in  Stodart's  employ,  and  was  patented 
by  James  Thom  and  Allen  in  January  1820.  A 
rigid  string-plate  was  introduced  by  James  and 
Thomas  Broadwood  in  the  following  year ;  it 
was  the  invention  of  one  of  their  workmen, 
Samuel  Herve.  The  single  casting  for  string- 
plate  and  general  resistance  was  the  idea  of 
Alpheus  Babcock,  of  Boston,  U.S.,  1825  ;  and 
was  meritoriously  improved  and  rendered  practic- 
able by  Conrad  Meyer  of  Philadelphia,  U.S.,  in 
1833.  The  important  systems  of  construction 
that  have  arisen  from  the  use  of  iron  in 
string-plates  and  bars  are  described  under 
Pianoforte.  a.  j.  h. 

8TR0GERS,  Nicholas,  an  organist  in  the 
reign  of  James  I.,  composer  of  a  Morning  and 
Evening  Service  printed  by  Barnard.  TV'o 
anthems  by  him,  *  Domine  non  est  exaltatum  * 


latter  is  in  the  library  of  Ely  Cathedml.    In 
Christchurch,  Oxford,  are  two  entire  Services 

iA  minor,  D  minor),  two  Motets,  and  Fancies. 
A  Fantasia  for  virginal  is  in  the  Fitzwilliam 
Virginal  Book  (i.  357),  and  a  piece  in  Benjamin 
Cosyn's  book  is  possibly  the  same.  A  piece  for 
lute  is  in  Brit.  Mus.  Eg.  MS.  2046.]      w.  H.  H. 

STROHMEYER,  Carl,  a  bass  singer,  a 
Kammersanger  at  Weimar,  who  sang  in  a  fes- 
tival at  Frankeuhausen  in  June  1810,  and  is 
mentioned  by  Spohr  for  the  extraordinary  com- 
pass of  his  voice  from  D  to  5^  (see  Spohr's  Sdbst- 
biograpkie,  i.  142).  He  was  bom  in  the 
StoUberg  district  in  1780,  and  was  employed 
successively  at  Gotha  and  at  Weimar,  at  which 
latter  place  he  died,  Nov.  11,  1845.  o. 

STROLLING  PLAYERS'  AMATEUR  OR- 
CHESTRAL  SOCIETY,  The,  was  founded  iu 
1882  by  Mr.  Norfolk  Megone,  who  gave  up  his 
position  as  conductor  of  the  School  of  Mines 
Orchestra  to  fulfil  the  duties  of  honorary  con- 
ductor. He  remained  at  the  head  of  the  Society's 
operations  for  a  space  of  twenty  years,  being 
succeeded  in  1902  by  Mr.  William  Shakespeare, 
who  conducted  the  concert  till  1905,  when 
Mr.  Joseph  Ivimey  was  appointed.  The  first 
concert  was  given  Dec.  13,  1882,  at  the  School 
of  Dramatic  Art,  Argyll  Street,  London.  Soon 
afterwards  St.  James's  Hall  was  used  for  the 
'  Ladies'  Concerts,'  the  smoking  concerts  being 
held  in  St.  Andrew's  Hall,  Newman  Street 
Now  the  concerts  of  both  kinds  are  given  in 
the  Queen's  HalL  The  President  is  H.R.H. 
the  Duke  of  Connaught,  and  the  Hon.  Secretary 
is  Mr.  W.  K  Garstin.  The  annual  subscription 
for  members  {i.e,  non-performing  members)  and 
for  orchestral  members  alike  is  two  guineas,    u. 

STRONG,  George  Templeton,  an  American 
composer  whose  career  has  been  made  chiefly 
in  Europe,  was  bom  in  New  York  City,  May  26, 
1856.  Both  of  his  parents  werc  musical.  His 
mother  was  a  good  pianist  and  sang  agreeably, 
and  his  father,  G.  T.  Strong,  a  lawyer  associated 
w^ith  the  cori)oration  of  Trinity  Church  and  a 
trustee  of  Columbia  College,  was  an  amateur 
organist,  and  for  four  years  was  president  of  the 
Philharmonic  Society  of  New  York  (see  Sym- 
phony Concerts  of  the  U.S.).  Naturally 
the  classics  were  the  lad's  daily  artistic  food. 
He  began  the  study  of  the  pianoforte  and  violin 
at  an  early  age,  and  made  essays  in  composition 
when  he  was  thirteen  years  old.  A  strong 
predilection  for  the  oboe  led  him  to  abandon 
pianoforte  and  violin  for  that  instrument,  on 
which  he  became  a  professional  performer,  when 
a  disagreement  between  himself  and  his  father 
on  the  choice  of  a  career  cost  him  the  protection 
of  the  parental  roof.  In  1879  he  went  to  Leip- 
zig, where  he  entered  the  Conservatorium,  abao- 
doned  the  oboe  in  favour  of  the  viola,  studied 
harmony  with  Richard  Hofmann,  counterpoint 


rieipzig  ne  oeiongea  lo  loe  coiene  oi  iaszi 
champions  of  which  men  like  Siloti,  Friedheim, 
Dayas,  and  Eranse  were  members,  and  frequently 
visited  that  master  in  Weimar.  From  1886  to 
•1889  he  lived  in  Wiesbaden,  associating  much 
with  his  friend  and  fellow-countryman  Mac- 
Dowell,  and  falling  under  the  influence  of  Raff. 
He  then  took  up  a  residence  in  Vevey,  Switzer- 
land, where  he  still  lives,  having  spent  one  year 
(1891-92)  in  the  United  States  as  teacher  at 
the  New  England  Conservatory  of  Music  in 
Boston.  In  Vevey  he  turned  his  thoughts  for 
a  time  to  water-colour  painting,  and  founded 
the  Society  Faudoise  dcs  Aquardlistes,  having 
become  discouraged  by  the  failure  of  American 
composers  to  find  recognition  in  their  native 
land.  Of  Mr.  Strong's  published  pieces  the 
most  important  are  two  for  soli,  male  chorus, 
and  orchestra :  *  Wie  ein  fahrender  Hornist  sich 
ein  Land  erblies,'  op.  26,  and  *  Die  verlassene 
Miihle,*  op.  80,  and  a  symphony  entitled  *  Sin- 
tram,'  based  on  de  la  Motte  Fouqu^'s  romance 
of  that  name  and  Diirer's  famous  print  '  Bitter, 
Tod  und  Teufel.*  A  symphonic  poem  *  Undine ' 
and  a  symphony  '  In  den  Bergen '  have  been 
successfully  played  at  home  and  abroad.  A 
considerable  number  of  chamber  music-pieces, 
two  *  American  Sketches '  for  violin  solo  and  or- 
chestra, a  short  dramatic  cantata,  arrangements 
for  four  hands  pianoforte  of  some  of  Bach's 
organ  works,  songs,  instrumental  solos,  etc., 
remain  in  manuscript.  H.  £.  K. 

STROUD,  Charles,  bom  about  1705,  was 
educated  as  a  chorister  of  the  Chapel  Royal 
under  Dr.  Croft.  After  quitting  the  choir  he 
officiated  as  deputy  organist  for  his  instructor 
and  became  organist  of  Whitehall  Chapel.  He 
died  April  26, 1726,  and  was  buried  in  the  west 
cloister  of  Westminster  Abbey.  He  is  known 
as  a  comixyser  by  his  beautifid  anthem,  '  Hear 
my  prayer,  O  God,'  included  in  Page's  *  Har- 
monia  Sacra.'  w.  n.  H. 

STRUNGK,  Delphin,  was  born  1601,  and 
died  1694  at  Brunswick.  He  was  a  capable 
organist,  and  held  posts  successively  at  the 
Wolfenbiittel  Hauptkirche,  1630-32  ;  at  Celle, 
and  at  the  church  of  St.  Martin,  Brunswick. 
In  a  complimentary  dedication  to  the  Burgo- 
master of  Brunswick  of  his  work  on  music 
published  in  1652,  Conrad  Matthaei  alludes  to 
*der  sehr  beriihmte  Organist,  Herr  Delphin 
Stnuigk'  (Vogel,  Ilandschr,  zu  H^olfenbutUl,  ' 
1890,  p.  182). 

Strungk  composed  music  for  the  organ — an  ! 
example  is  printed  in  Hitter's  Ocschiihie  dcs  ' 
OrgelspiclSf  1884,  IL  207,  a  Choral vorspiel  in  ' 
4-part  writing  *  Lass  mich  dein  sein ' ;  Dr.  Max  ] 
Seiffert  published  two  more.  In  a  Liineburg  , 
MS.  there  are  six  of  these  organ  arrangements 
(Prof.  Junghans,  ^fick  als  Schuler,  1870); 
other  compositions  for  voices  -^vith  instruments, 


MS.  ot  music  lor  nve  voice  ana  eigut  instru- 
mental parts,  composed  in  June  1671,  'Musika- 
lischer  Gliickwunschender  Zuruff  (Kommt  und 
sehet  die  Wercke  des  Herm)  als  .  .  .  Rudolphus 
Augustus,  Herzog  zu  Braunschweig  und  Liine- 
burg in  der  Erbhuldigungsstadt  Braunschweig 
den  Gottesdienst  in  der  Kirchen  zum  Briidem 
erstesmahls  beigewohnt.'     His  son, 

Nicolas  Adam  Strungk,  or  Stbtjnck,  was 
bom  at  Celle  in  November  1640.  He  studied 
music  with  his  father,  Delphin  Strungk,  and 
at  the  age  of  twelve  was  acting  as  organist 
at  the  Magnuskirche,  Brunswick.  Later  he 
entered  Helmstadt  University,  and  worked  there 
for  some  years,  taking  violin  lessons  in  the 
vacations  from  Schnittelbach  of  Liibeck.  In 
1660  he  was  appointed  first  violin  in  the 
Wolfenbiittel  Hofkapelle,  but  changed  subse- 
quently to  a  similar  post  at  Celle,  with  a  yearly 
salary  of  200  thalers.  In  1665  he  joined  the 
Hofkapelle  of  the  Elector  Johann  Friedrich  of 
Hanover. 

About  this  time  he  paid  his  first  visit  to 
Vienna,  and  played  the  violin  before  the  Emperor 
Leopold  I.  In  1678  he  was  appointed  director 
of  music  in  Hamburg,  where  a  great  effort  was 
being  made  to  foster  German  musical  talent,  so 
long  overshadowed  by  Italian  influences.  There 
he  wrote  and  produced  many  operas :  '  Der 
glUckselig-steigende  Sejanus, '  and  *  Der  ungluck- 
lich-fallende  Sejanus'  in  1678,  the  German 
libretto  by  Christ  Richter  being  adapted  from 
the  Italian  of  Nicola  Minato ;  *  Esther, '  *Die  drei 
Tbchter  Cecrops,'  'Doris,'  and  *  Alceste'  in  1680 ; 
*  Theseus,*  *  Semiramis,*  and  *  Floretto '  in  1688. 

Friederich  Wilhelm  of  Brandenburg,  when 
visiting  Hamburg,  tried  to  secure  Strungk's  ser- 
vices as  capellmelster,  but  this  was  not  allowed, 
Hanover  having  a  prior  claim.  The  Elector 
Ernst  August  appointed  Strungk  chamber  or- 
ganist, and  presented  him  to  a  canonry  at 
Einbeck,  and  eventually  Strungk  accompanied 
him  to  Italy  and  remained  there  some  time.  It 
was  at  Rome  that  the  meeting  between  Strungk 
and  Corelli  took  place,  so  graphically  described 
by  Hawkins  (ed.  1875,  vol.  ii.  p.  676).  Strungk 
again  visited  Vienna,  this  time  playing  on  the 
clavier  before  the  Emperor  with  mucli  success. 
From  1682  to  1686  he  remained  a  member  of 
the  Hanover  Hofka^ielle,  but  on  Jan.  26,  1688| 
Johann  Georg  II.  of  Saxony  appointed  him 
Kammerorganist  and  Vice-cai)ellmeister  to  the 
Dresden  Hofkapelle,  witli  a  salary  of  500  thaler. 
He  was  the  successor  of  Carlo  Pallavicini,  who 
died  on  Jan.  29,  leaving  an  unfinished  opera 
which  Strungk  was  asked  to  complete.  The 
libretto  was  by  Pallavicini's  son  Stefano. 
Strungk  apparently  contributed  the  music  to  the 
third  act,  and  the  opera,  *  L'Antiope,'  was  per- 
formed four  times  in  Feb.  1689,  at  Dresden. 
Strungk  seems  to  have  suffered  at  Dresden  from 


730 


STKUNGK 


SUBJECT 


the  usual  friotion  between  the  Italian  and 
German  musicians,  although  the  Germans  were 
gradually  gaining  the  upper  hand,  foi*  on  March 
30,  1688,  Elector  Johann  Georg  III.  was  ap- 
pealed to  because  the  Italians  refused  to  join  in 
any  performance  of  Strungk's  compositions,  and 
would  only  acknowledge  his  authority  when  Bem- 
hard  the  capellmeister  was  absent  through  ill- 
ness. This  resulted  in  the  dismissal  of  the 
ringleader  Fedeli  in  the  following  September. 
Bemhard  died  on  Nov.  14,  1692,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Strungk,  who  composed  some  music 
in  his  memory. 

On  June  13,  1692,  Strungk  obtained  permis- 
sion from  Johann  Georg  IV.  of  Saxony  to  found 
an  opera-house  in  Leipzig.  With  the  aid  of 
two  associates,  Glaser  and  Sartorio,  an  architect, 
the  work  was  put  in  hand  in  March  1693,  and  a 
theatre  of  wood  was  erected  in  the  Briihl,  at  a  cost 
of  10,000  thaler.  It  was  opened  on  May  8, 1693, 
with  Strungk's  opera  *  Alceste ' ;  the  German 
libretto  by  Paul  Thiemich  was  adapted  from  the 
original  Italian  of  Aurelio  Aureli.  A  contem- 
porary chronicle  narrates  that  pictured  an- 
nouncements were  suspended  in  the  streets  of 
Leipzig,  giving  a  description  of  the  opera,  and 
the  time  of  its  performance  (Leipzigisches  Oe- 
8chicht-Buch,  1714,  p.  883).  Johann  Georg  IV. 
came  from  Dresden  to  be  present  at  the  opening 
performance.  In  1693  Strungk's  opera  *  Nero ' 
was  also  given,  and  his  *■  Agrippina '  in  1699. 
Strungk  was  financially  much  embarrassed  by  his 
Leipzig  undertaking,  although  he  retained  his 
Dresden  post  and  salary  until  1697,  when  he 
retired  with  a  pension.  He  died  Sept.  23,  1700, 
at  Dresden.  His  daughters  Philippine  and 
Elisabeth  were  two  of  the  principal  singers  in 
the  Leipzig  theatre  from  1705  to  1709. 

Very  little  of  Strungk's  music  is  known  at 
the  present  day,  and  it  nearly  all  remains  in  MS. 
He  composed  a  *  Ricercar  auf  den  Tod  seiner 
Mutter,  verfertiget  zu  Venedig  am  20.  Deo. 
1685,'  also  *  Die  Auferstehung  Jesu,'  first  per- 
formed on  April  21,  1688  ;  and  he  published  at 
Dresden  in  1691  '  Mnsikalische  Uebung  auf  der 
Violin  oder  Viola  da  gamba,  so  wohl  zur  Ehre 
Gottes  als  menschlicher  ErgotzUchkeit  beste- 
hend,  in  etlichen  Sonaten  liber  die  Festgesiinge, 
dann  auch  etliche  Ciaconen  mit  zwei  Violinen.* 
A  selection  of  his  opera  airs  was  published  in 
Hamburg,  1684,  *  Ein  hundert  auserlesene  Arien 
zweyer  Hamburgischen  Operen,  Semiramis  und 
Esther.  Mit  beigefiigten  Ritomellen.'  A  MS. 
copy  is  in  the  Konigsberg  Library  as  well  as 
some  MS.  Choral vorspiele  also  attributed  to 
Strungk,  although  they  may  be  the  work  of  his 
father,  Delphin  Stmngk  (see  Miiller's  Cat.). 
MS.  copies  of  a  sonata  for  two  violins  and  viola 
da  gamba,  and  a  sonata  for  six  strings,  are  in 
the  Upsala  Library.  Various  MSS.  are  also  in 
the  Berlin  and  Dresden  Libraries,  and  in  the 
Wolfenbiittel  Library,  MS.  253  *  Les  Aires  avec 
les   Flauts   douces   pour  son  Altesse   Soren*"® 


monseigneur  le  Prince  Ludwig  Rudolf,  Due  de 
Bruns.  et  Luneberg,'  containing  ten  numbers, 
chiefly  dances.  c.  s. 

STUDIES.     See  Etudes. 

STUCK  (Ger.  *  Piece'). 

SUB.  The  Latin  preposition  'under*  is 
used  in  connection  with  the  organ,  and  denotes 
the  octave  below,  as  *Sub  Basa,'  *Sub  Octave 
couples,*  etc.     [See  Coupler.] 

SUBDIAPENTK  A  polyglot  word,  part 
Latin,  part  Greek,  to  signify  a  fifth  below,  just 
as  '  Epidiapente '  signified  a  fifth  above.  A 
'  Canon  in  Subdiapente  '  was  a  canon  in  which 
the  answer  was  a  fifth  below  the  lead.  Similarly 
*  Subdiatessaron  '  is  a  fourth  below,  and  '  Epi- 
diatessaron  '  a  fourth  above.  6. 

SUBDOMINANT.  The  fourth  note  of  the 
scale  upwards.  The  note  below  the  dominant, 
as  F  in  the  key  of  C.  The  radical  bass  of  the 
penultimate  chord  in  the  Plagal  cadence.  When 
groups  of  movements  are  balanced  together  in 
threes  the  central  one  is  most  frequently  in  the 
key  of  the  subdominant,  as  in  sonatas  of  three 
movements,  the  minuet  and  trio  form,  marches, 
valses,  etc.  In  the  actual  body  of  a  large  move- 
ment in  forms  of  the  sonata  order,  the  key  of 
the  subdominant  is  not  antithetically  acceptable, 
and  examples  of  its  occurrence  in  modem  music 
as  the  key  of  the  second  section  or  second  subject 
are  extremely  rare,  and  evidently  not  well  ad- 
vised. But  in  dependence  on  the  tonic  key  it  is 
one  of  the  most  important  of  harmonic  centres, 
and  digressions  in  that  direction  are  very  common 
in  modem  music.  c.  H.  H.  P. 

SUBJECT.  The  theme,  or  leading  idea,  on 
which  a  musical  composition  is  based.  A  piece 
of  music  can  no  more  be  composed  without  a 
Subject  than  a  sermon  can  be  preached  without 
a  text.  Rich  harmonies  flmd  graceful  passages 
may  be  strung  together  in  any  number  ;  but  if 
they  be  not  suggested  by  a  leading  thought, 
they  will  mean  nothing.  The  *  leading  thought  * 
is  the  Subject ;  and  the  merit  of  the  composition 
based  upon  that  Subject  will  depend,  in  the  first 
place,  upon  the  worthiness  of  the  idea,  and  in 
the  second,  upon  the  skill  with  which  the  com- 
poser discourses  upon  it. 

Subjects  may  be  divided  into  as  many  classes 
as  there  are  classes  of  composition ;  for  every 
definite  art -form  is  based  upon  a  Subject  in 
harmony  with  its  own  peculiar  character. 

I.  The  earliest  known  form  of  Subject  is  the 
ecclesiastical  Cantus  finnus.^  The  most  im- 
portant varieties  of  this  are  the  plain -song 
melodies  of  the  antiphon^  and  those  of  the 
hymn. 3  The  former  admits  of  no  rhythmic  ictus 
beyond  that  demanded  by  the  just  delivery  of 
the  words  to  which  it  is  set  The  latter  fell, 
even  in  very  early  times,  into  a  more  symmet- 
rical vein  suggested  by  the  symmetry  of  the 
verse  or  prose,  cultivated  by  the  great  mediieval 

1  See  Plaix-Aono.  *  S««'AimrHO!r. 

s  Sc«  HYMy. 


that  it  developed  itself  in  Germany  into  the 
perfectly  rhythmic  and  metrically  regular  melody 
of  the  Chorale.^ 

Upon  a  phrase  of  this  plain-song  the  inventors 
of  harmony  discoursed  at  will ;  in  other  words, 
they  treated  it  as  a  Subject.  Compoeers  of  the 
11th  century  discoursed  upon  it  by  singing  a 
second  part  against  the  given  Subject,  in  plain 
counterpoint — note  against  note.'  They  sang 
this  part  extempore  ;  and,  because  it  was  sung 
by  a  second  voice,  it  was  called  Discantus — the 
literal  meaning  of  which  is,  a  song  sung  by  two 
voices.     See  Discant. 

When  extempore  discant  gave  place  to  written 
coimterpoint,  the  CajUusfirmuswaAstillretaiTied, 
and  sung  by  the  tenor  in  long  sustained  notes, 
while  other  voices  discoursed  upon  it,  no  longer 
note  against  note,  but,  as  art  progressed,  in 
passages  of  imitation,  sometimes  formed  from 
the  actual  notes  of  the  Canto  fermOf  sometimes 
so  contrived  as  to  contrast  with  it,  in  pure 
harmony,  but  with  unlimited  variety  of  rhythm.  ^ 
And  this  arrangement  brought  two  classes  of 
theme  into  simultaneous  use — the  plain-song 
basis  of  the  whole,  and  the  point  of  imitation  : 
the  first  of  which  was  technically  distinguished 
as  the  Canto  fermo,  while  the  last,  in  process 
of  time,  approached  very  nearly  to  the  true 
Subject  of  the  modem  schools.  The  two  forms 
are  very  clearly  shown  in  Palestrina's  'Missa 
Ecce  Sacerdos  magnus,'^  in  which  the  long 
notes  of  the  Canto  fermo  never  fail  to  present 
themselves  in  one  or  other  of  the  vocal  parts, 
however  elaborate  may  be  the  imitations  carried 
on  in  the  rest. 

II.  By  a  process  not  uncommon  in  the  develop- 
ment of  specific  art-forms,  the  long-drawn  notes 
of  the  Canto  fermo,  after  giving  birth  to  a  more 
vivacious  form  of  Subject,  fell  gradually  into 
disuse, — appearing,  if  at  all,  by  diminution,  or 
double  diminution,  in  notes  as  short  as  those 
formerly  used  for  points  of  imitation.  In  this 
manner  the  ancient  Canto  fenno  became  a  Sub- 
ject properly  so  called  ;  and,  as  a  Subject,  was 
made  the  groundwork  of  a  regular  fugue.  This 
proce&s  of  development  is  sti'ikingly  exemplified 
in  Palestrina's  '  Missa  L'Homme  arm^,'  in  some 
of  the  movements  of  which  the  quaint  old  melody 
is  treated,  in  Longs  and  Ijarges,  as  a  Canto  fertno, 
while  in  others  it  is  written  in  Semibreves  and 
Minims,  as  a  fugal  Subject.* 

We  do  not  mean  to  imply  that  Palestrina 
invented  tliis  mode  of  treatment ;  but  only  that 
he  availed  himself  of  all  the  good  things  that 
had  been  used  by  his  predecessors.  The  laws 
of  fugue  were  established  more  than  a  century 
before  his  time.  Not  the  laws  of  what  we  now 
call  fugue  ;  but  those  of  the  Real  Fugue  of  the 

1  BMCnoRALB.  *  SeeSTBtcrCoT^NTXRroiiiT. 

9  8«>e  POL\rHOMIA. 

«  PablUhcd  m  Brbitkopf  *  HUrter*  edition,  vol.  x. 

S  S««  L'HOMMB  ARMli. 


by  the  great  masters  of  the  18th  century.  Real 
Fugue  was  of  two  kinds — Limited,  and  Free.° 
In  Limited  Real  Fugue,  the  imitation  was 
carried  on  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the 
composition,  forming  what  we  now  call  Canon. 
In  Free  Real  Fugue  it  was  not  continued  beyond 
the  duration  of  the  Subject  itself.  In  the  former 
case  the  theme  of  the  composition  was  called 
a  Ouida — that  is,  a  Subject  which  serves  as  a 
*  guide'  to  the  other  parts,  which  imitate  it, 
note  for  note,  throughout  In  Free  Real  Fugue 
the  theme  was  called  Subjectum,  Propositio,  or 
Dux :  Soggetto,  Proposta,  or,  if  very  short, 
Attaoco  ;  Fiihrer,  Aufgabe,  or  Hauptsatz.  The 
early  English  writers  called  it  Point ;  but  this 
word  is  now  applied,  like  the  Italian  Attacco,  to 
little  passages  of  imitation  only,  and  the  leading 
idea  of  the  fugue  is  simply  called  the  Subject. 

The  Subject  of  the  Real  Fugue — except  in  the 
Limited  species — was  always  very  short,  fre- 
quently consisting  of  no  more  than  three  or  four 
notes,  after  the  statement  of  which  the  part  was 
free  to  move  in  any  direction  it  pleased.  But 
the  treatment  of  these  few  notes  was  very  strict. 
Every  interval  proposed  by  the  leading  part  was 
answered  by  the  same  interval  in  every  other 
part.  The  Answer,  therefore,  corresponded 
exactly  with  the  Subject  eit^her  in  the  fifth,  or 
fourth,  above,  or  below ;  and  it  was  necessary 
that  its  solmisation  should  also  correspond  with 
that  of  the  Subject  in  another  hexachord.' 
But  the  Subject  and  the  Answer  had  each  a 
distinguishing  name.  The  Theme  and  its  Reply 
were  called,  in  various  languages.  Dux  and 
Ck>mes,  Propositio  andResponsum,  or  Antecedens 
and  Consequens ;  Proposta  and  Risposta,  or 
Antecedente  and  Consequenza ;  Fiihrer  and 
Gefahrte,  or  Antwort ;  Demande  and  R^ponse. 
In  English,  Subject  and  Answer ;  or,  more  rarely^ 
Antecedent  and  Consequent. 

III.  So  long  as  the  Ecclesiastical  Modes  re- 
mained in  use.  Real  Fugue  was  the  only  species 
possible  ;  but,  as  these  were  gradually  replaced 
by  our  modem  system  of  tonality,  composers 
invented  a  new  kind  of  Fugue,  formed  upon  a 
Subject  the  character  of  which  differed  entirely 
from  that  used  by  the  older  masters.  This  fomi 
of  composition  is  now  called  Tonal  Fugue.®  It 
is  generally  described  as  differing  from  Real 
Fugue  chiefly  in  the  construction  of  the  answer. 
Undoubtedly  this  definition  disposes  of  its  most 
essential  characteristic.  But  there  are  other 
differences  between  the  two  forms  which  cannot 
be  thus  lightly  passed  over.  So  far  as  the 
answer  is  concerned,  it  is  enough  to  say  that 
its  intervals  do  not  fumish  an  exact  reproduction 
of  those  of  the  Subject ;  being  governed,  as  to 
their  arrange  ,  by  laws  which  scarcely  fall 
within  the  of  our  present  article.     The 

«  Sw  ToL  IL  7  8m  Hbxachord;  SoLMrtiATioi;. 

w  ToL  11.  pp.  182-a. 


732 


SUBJECT 


SUBJECT 


Subject,  on  the  other  hand,  presents  so  many 
varieties  of  form  and  expression,  that  it  cannot 
be  too  carefully  considered.  In  the  hands  of 
the  great  masters  it  presents  an  epitome  of  the 
entire  Fugue,  into  which  nothing  is  admissible 
which  is  not  in  some  way  suggested  by  it ;  and, 
in  order  that  it  may  serve  this  comprehensive 
purpose,  it  must  needs  be  very  carefully  con- 
structed. The  Subjects  employed  by  the  great 
fuguists  are  always  found  to  be  capable  of 
suggesting  a  logical  Answer,  and  one  or  more 
good  Counter-subjects  ;  ^  of  being  conveniently 
and  neatly  broken  into  fragments,  for  purposes 
of  collateral  discussion  ;  of  intertwining  their 
various  members  among  the  involutions  of  an 
ingenious  Stretto ;  and  of  lending  themselves 
to  a  himdred  other  devices,  which  are  so  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  conduct  of  the  Fugue 
itself,  that  the  necessary  qualities  of  the  Subject 
will  be  better  understood  by  reference  to  our 
general  article  on  Tonal  Fugue  (vol.  ii.  p.  122 
et  seq.)f  than  by  separate  description  here. 

IV.  We  have  shown  how  the  fathers  of  com- 
position treated  the  CaiUo  fermo  ;  how  their 
immediate  successors  enveloped  it  in  a  network 
of  ingenious  points  of  imitation  ;  how,  by  fusing 
the  points  of  imitation,  and  the  Camio  fenno 
which  suggested  them,  into  a  homogeneous 
theme,  the  polyphonic  composers  gave  birth 
to  that  important  factor  in  composition  which 
we  call  a  Subject ;  and  how  that  Subject  was 
treated  by  the  great  fuguists  of  the  1 8  th  century. 
We  have  now  to  see  how  these  fuguists  revived 
the  Canto femio,  and  employed  it  simultaneously 
with  the  newer  Subject.  Not  that  there  was  ever 
a  period  when  it  fell  into  absolute  desuetude  ; 
but  it  was  once  so  little  used,  that  the  term, 
revived,  may  be  very  fairly  applied  to  the  treat- 
ment it  experienced  from  Handel  and  Bach,  and 
their  great  contemporaries. 

And  now  we  must  be  very  careful  to  remem- 
ber clearly  the  process  by  which  the  Subject 
grew  out  of  the  CaiUo  fertrw.  The  German 
composer  of  the  18th  century  learned  the 
melody  of  the  chorale  in  his  cradle,  and  used 
it  constantly :  treating  *  Kommt  Menschen- 
kinder,  riihmt,  und  preist,'  and  'Nun  ruhen 
alle  Walder,'as  Palestrina  treated  *  Ecce  Sacerdos 
magnus,'  and  '  L'Homme  armd.'  Sometimes  he 
converted  the  traditional  melody  into  a  regular 
Subject,  as  in  the  *  Osanna '  of  the  last-named 
mass.  Sometimes  he  retained  the  long  notes, 
enriching  them  with  a  florid  counterpoint,  as 
in  the  *  Kyrie.'  In  the  first  instance,  there  was 
no  doubt  about  the  nomenclature ;  the  term 
Subject  was  applied  to  the  choral  melody  as  a 
matter  of  course.  In  the  other  case  there  was 
a  choice.  When  the  melody  of  the  chorale  was 
made  to  pass  through  the  regular  process  of 
Fugal  Exposition,  and  a  new  contrapuntal 
melody  contrasted  with  it  in  shorter  notes,  the 
former  was  called  the  Subject,  and  the  latter 

I  See  CouxTU-ScBJECT. 


the  Counter -subject.  When  the  counterpoint 
furnished  the  exposition,  and  the  chorale  was 
occasionally  heard  against  it,  in  long  sustained 
notes,  the  first  was  called  the  Subject,  and  the 
second  the  Catdo  fermvo,  Seb.  Bach  has  left  us 
innumerable  examples  of  both  methods  of  treat- 
ment, in  his  *  Choral -Vorapiele,'  *  Kirchen- 
Cantaten,'  and  other  works.  Perhaps  the 
grandest  example  is  the  o^iening  movement  of 
the  *  Credo '  of  the  Mass  in  B  minor,  in  which 
the  plain -song  intonation,  'Credo  iu  unum 
Deum,'  is  developed  into  a  regular  Fugue  by 
the  voices,  while  an  uninterrupted  counterpoint 
of  crotchets  is  played  by  the  instrumental  bass. 
In  neither  of  these  cases  ivould  it  be  easy  to 
misapply  the  w^ords  Subject,  Counter -subject, 
or  Caido  fermo ;  but  the  connect  terminology 
is  not  always  so  clearly  apparent.  In  the  year 
1747  Bach  was  invited  to  Potsdam  by  Fi-ede- 
rick  the  Great,  who  gave  him  a  Subject  for  the 
purpose  of  testing  his  powers  of  improvisation. 
We  may  be  sure  that  the  great  fiiguist  did  full 
justice  to  this  at  the  moment ;  but,  not  con- 
touted  with  extemporising  upon  it,  he  paid  the 
royal  amateur  the  compliment  of  working  it  up 
at  home  in  a  series  of  movements  ^vhich  he 
afterwards  presented  to  King  Frederick,  under 
the  title  of  *  Musikalisches  Opfer.'  In  working 
this  out  he  calls  the  theme,  in  one  place,  '  II 
Soggetto  Reale ' ;  and,  in  another,  *  Thenia  re- 
gium.'  It  is  quite  clear  that  in  these  cases  he 
attached  the  same  signification  to  the  terms 
Thema  and  Soggetto,  and  applied  both  to  the 
principal  Subject,  treating  the  violin  and  flute 
passages  in  the  sonata,  and  the  florid  motivo  in 
the  canon,  as  Counter-subjects.  But  in  another 
work,  founded  on  a  theme  by  Legreuzi,  lie 
applies  the  torm  *  Thema'  to  the  principal 
motivo,  and  *Subjectum*  to  the  subordinate 
one.^  We  must  suppose,  therefore,  that  the  two 
terms  were  in  Bach's  time,  to  a  certain  extent, 
interchangeable. 

Handel,  though  he  did  occasionally  use  the 
Canto  fermo  as  Bach  used  it,  produced  his  best 
effecte  in  quite  a  different  way.  In  the  'Funeral 
Anthem'  he  treate  the  Chorale,  *Herr  Jesu 
Christ,'  first  as  a  Canto  femio  and  then,  in 
shorter  notes,  as  a  regularly -worked  Subject 
'  As  from  the  power  of  sacred  lays '  is  founded 
upon  a  chorale,  sung  in  plain  counterpoint  by 
all  the  voices  ;  it  therefore  stands  as  the  Subject 
of  the  movement,  while  the  Counter-subject  is 
entirely  confined  to  the  instrumental  accompani- 
ment. In  *0  God,  who  from  the  suckling's 
mouth,'  in  the  'Foundling  Anthem,*  the  melody 
of  '  Aus  tiefer  Noth '  is  treated  as  an  orthodox 
CarUofermo,  But  this  was  not  Handel's  usual 
practice.  His  CarUifermi  are  more  frequently 
confined  to  a  few  notes  only  of  Plain-song,  sung 

s  'TbeiiiA  Lmeiutanum  iiedalitcr  elabomtuxn  cum  mbjMtA.' 
The  oiiifiiua  218.  of  thii  work  hiu  dlnppeRred.  Memn.  IVken.  ef 
lielpsig,  have  publii»hfld  it  in  Cnhler  4  of  their  edltlou  of  the  Orfpin 
Worka,  on  the  authority  of  n  copy  by  Andrena  Bach :  fand  it  is  ^xra, 
but  without  the  title  quoted,  lu  the  B.-G.  edition,  xxzvUL  p.  9i\ 


*  Utrecht  Te  Deum,'  the  second  in  the  'Jubilate,' 
the  second  Chandos  Anthem,  *Let  God  arise,' 
the  last  choTOS  in  *  Esther,'  and  other  places  too 
numerous  to  mention.^ 

The  use  of  the  long-drawn  Canto  fermo  is  fast 
becoming  a  lost  art ;  yet  the  effect  with  which 
Mendelssohn  has  introduced  *  Wir  glauben  all* 
an  einen  Gott,*  in  combination  with  the  primary 
Subject  of  *  But  our  God  abideth  in  Heaven,'  in 
'  St.  Paul,'  has  not  often  been  surpassed.  Mozart 
also  has  left  us  a  magnificent  instance,  in  the 
last  finale  of  'Die  Zauberflote,'  where  he  has 
enveloped  the  Chorale,  *  Ach  Gott  vom  Himmel 
sieh  darein,'  in  an  incomparable  network  of  in- 
strumental counterpoint ;  and  Meyerbeer  has 
introduced  two  clever  and  highly  effective  imita- 
tions of  the  real  thing  in  'Les  Huguenots,'  at 
the  'Litanies*  and  the  'Conjuration.' 

V.  The  similarity  of  the  CarUi  fcmx%  and 
even  of  the  true  Subjects,  used  by  great  com- 
posers, and  handed  on  from  generation  to 
generation,  has  given  rise  to  much  ingenious 
speculation.  1.  A  remarkable  instance  of  this 
is  a  passage  of  slow  notes,  rising  from  the  tonic 
to  the  subdominant,  and  then  descending  to- 
wards the  note  from  whence  it  started.  This 
passage  is  constantly  found  in  old  ecclesiastical 
melodies ;  among  othera,  in  that  of  the  hymn 
'  Aetema  Christi  munera.'  Zarlino  used  it  as 
a  theme  for  his  examples  in  counterpoint.  In 
Morley's  Plaine  wnd  easie  IrUrodiictionf  Philo- 
mathes  gives  it  to  Polymathes,  as  a  Point 
'  familiar  enough,  and  easie  to  bee  maintained ' 
— i.e,  developed;  while  the  'Master*  calls  it 

*  a  most  common  Point,*  which  *  though  it  were 
giucn  to  all  the  Musicians  of  the  world,  they 
might  compose  vpon  it,  and  not  one  of  their 
Compositions  bee  like  vnto  that  of  another.' 
Byrd  used  it  in  *  Non  nobis  * ;  Palestrina,  in 
the  first  *  Agnus  Dei  *  of  his  '  Missa  brevis  * ; 
Bach,  in  the  'Gratias  agimus'  and  'Dona*  of 
his  Mass  in  B  minor ;  Handel,  in  '  Sing  ye  to 
the  Lord,'  the  'Hallelujah  Chorus,*  the  last 
Chorus  in  the  *  Utrecht  Te  Deum,'  the  Chamber 
Duet,  *  Tacete,  ohime  !  *  and  many  other  places  ; 
Steffani,  in  his  Duet,  '  Tengo  per  infallibile ' ; 
Perti,  in  a  Fuga  a  8,  *  Ut  nos  possimus  *  ; 
Mendelssohn,  in  'Not  only  unto  him,'  from 
'  St.  Paul ' ;  and  Beethoven,  in  the  Trio  of  the 
Ninth  Symphony.  The  tmth  is,  the  passage  is 
simply  a  fragment  of  the  scale,  which  is  as  much 
the  common  property  of  musicians,  whether 
fuguists  or  composers  of  the  later  schools,  as 
the  alphabet  is  the  common  property  of  poets. 

2.  Another  Subject,  scarcely  less  universal 
in  its  application,  embraces  a  more  extended 
portion  of  the  scale.  Bach  uses  this  in  the 
'  Christmas  Oratorio  * ;  Handel,  in  the  '  Hail- 

i  A  Imrned  mndenx  ciitlo  finds  fitnlt  with  Barney  for  calli 
Cnnfo  fermo  In  'SIm  ye  to  the  Lord'  a  Coanter-eubject,  h\ 
Into  the  name  error  hlnueU  In  describing  the  Utrecht '  Jnb 


Palace  ;  in  '  Worthy  is  the  Lamb ' ;  in  *  When 
his  loud  voice,'  and  in  many  other  places. 
Mozart  used  it,  in  a  form  all  but  identical  with 
Handel's,  and  also  in  the  inverted  form,  in  the 
Jupiter  Symphony.  Beethoven  used  it  in  his 
first  symphony ;  in  his  pianoforte  sonata, 
op,  31,  No.  1  ;  and  in  the  inverted  form,  in 
his  symphony  in  C  minor ;  Schumann,  in  his 
sti'ing  quartet.  No.  1,  and  his  PF.  quartet, 
op.  47  ;  and  Brahms,  in  the  finale  to  his 
symphony  in  C  minor. 


3.  These  examples  deal  only  with  the  scale. 
But  there  are  certain  progressions  which  are  as 
much  common  property  as  the  scale  itself ;  just 
as  there  are  certain  combinations  of  letters 
which  are  as  much  common  property  as  the 
alphabet.  First  among  these  stand  the  leaps  of 
fifths  or  fourths,  with  which  countless  Subjects 
begin ;  and  scarcely  less  common  are  the 
sequences  of  ascending  fourths,  and  descendinp^ 
fifths,  which  we  so  frequently  find  associated 
with  them  ;  as  in  Bach's  fugue  in  Eb — No.  31 
of  the  *  48  * ;  Mozart's  overture  to  'Die  Zauber- 
flote,*  and  a  hundred  other  cases. 

4.  Closely  allied  to  these  sequences  of  fourtlis 
and  fifths  is  a  form  in  which  a  descending  thinl 
is  followed  by  an  ascending  fourth.  This  was 
used  for  a  Canon  by  Turini  in  the  17th 
century  ;  in  Handel's  second  hautboy  concerto 
and   third  organ    fugue ;    Morley's   canzonet, 

*  Cruel,  you  pull  away  too  soon  * ;    Purcell's 

*  Full  fathom  five ' ;  and  numerous  other  cases, 
including  a  subject  given  to  Mendelssohn  for 
improvisation  at  Rome,  Nov.  28,  1830. 

5.  A  Subject,  characterised  by  the  prominent 
use  of  a  diminished  seventh,  and  familiar  as 
that  of  'And  with  His  stripes,*  is  also  a  very 
common  one.  Handel  himself  constantly  used 
it  as  a  theme  for  improvisation  ;  and  other  com- 
posers have  used  it  also — notably  Mozart,  in  the 
Kyrie  of  the  *  Requiem  * ;  see  (a). 

(a) m 


6.  The  Intonation  and  Reciting- Note  of  the 
second  Gregorian  Tone — used  either  with  or 
without  the  first  note  of  the  Mediation — may 
also  be  found  in  an  infinity  of  Subjects,  both 
ancient  and  modem,  including  that  of  Bach's 
Fugue  in  E,  No.  83,  and  the  Finale  of  the 
Jupiter  Symphony  ;  see  (6). 

The  number  of  Subjects  thus  traceable  from 
one  composer  to  another  is  so  great  that  it 
would  be  impossible  to  give  even  a  list  of  them. 
The  treatment  may  be  original,  though  the 
Subject  has  been  used  a  thousand  times ;  and 


these  constantly-recurring  Subjects  are  founded 
upon  progressions  which,  more  than  any  otliers, 
suggest  new  Counter-subjects  in  infinite  variety. 

VI.  The  Subject  of  Canon  differs  from  that 
of  Fugue,  in  that  it  is  continuous.  The  Subject 
is  as  long  as  the  Canon  itself.  Hence  it  is  called 
the  Guida  or  Guide  ;  each  note  in  the  leading 
part  directing  those  that  are  to  be  sung  by  all 
the  other  voices  in  turn.  Subjects  of  this  kind 
will  be  found  in  vol.  iii.  pp.  77-8,  886a,  388-9, 
and  other  places  ;  and  many  more  may  be  seen 
in  the  pages  of  Burney  and  Hawkins.  Examples 
Df  the  method  of  fitting  these  Subjects  together 
will  be  found  in  vol.  i.  pp.  4556,  and  in  voL  iii. 
pp.  77-8.  .  The  number  of  passages  that  can  be 
made  to  fit  together  in  Canon  is  so  limited,  that 
the  same  notes  have  been  used  over  and  over 
again  by  writers  of  all  ages.  A  remarkable 
instance  of  this  is  afforded  by  *  Non  nobis.  *  We 
have  seen  how  many  composers  have  chosen  this 
as  a  Fugal  Subject ;  and  an  account  of  it,  with 
jsome  solutions  in  Canon  not  generally  known, 
will  be  found  at  vol.  iii.  p.  3886.  It  must  not, 
however,  be  supposed  that  the  older  comix)ser8 
alone  were  able  to  produce  fine  Canons.  Haydn 
thoroughly  understood  the  art  of  writing  them 
fsee  vol.  ii.  p.  3076]  ;  and  so  graceful  are 
Mozart's  that  their  Subjects  might  very  easily  be 
mistaken  for  those  of  an  ordinary  part-song.^ 

VII.  Closely  allied  to  the  Subjectof  theCanon 
is  that  of  the  *  Rota  *  or  Round.  In  this,  and 
in  its  comic  analogue  the  Catch,  the  Guida  is 
followed  by  every  voice  in  turn  ;  for  which  reason 
the  composition  was  formerly  written  on  a  single 
stave.  It  will  be  found  so  written  in  AfacsitniU 
x>f  the  oldest  example  we  possess,  in  the  article 
Sum  BR  IS  icuMEN  IN ;  and  it  is  virtually  so 
written  even  at  the  present  day ;  though,  in 
modern  copies,  the  Guida  is  doubled  back^  so  to 
speak,  each  time  a  new  voice  enters,  so  as  to 
give  the  outward  appearance  of  a  score.  That 
it  is  not  really  a  score  is  evident,  from  the  fact 
that  there  is  not  a  separate  part  for  each  voice  ; 
but  there  is  a  substantial  difference  between 
this  and  the  Canon,  though  the  subject  of  both 
is  called  a  Guida.  In  the  Canon,  the  Subject 
forms  the  whole  composition.  In  the  Round, 
it  continues  only  until  the  entrance  of  the  second 
voice,  the  latter  sections  of  the  Guida  represent- 
ing Counter -subjects  only,  and  continuing  to 
furnish  new  Counter-subjpcts  as  often  as  new 
voices  enter. 

It  is  remarkable  that  this,  the  oldest  form  of 
secular  part -writing  in  existence,  should  not 
only  have  been  invented  in  England,  but  should 
still  be  more  highly  esteemed  in  England  than 
in  any  other  country — for  it  is  only  in  England 
that  the  art  of  singing  a  round  is  practised  with 
success,  and  the  success  with  which  we  practise 
it  dates  from  the  time  of  the  Plantagenets.2 

VIII.  In  turning  from  the  leanied  complexi- 

1  See  a  I«r(if>  cnllMiion  of  ^xnmplen  in  Merrick's  Kiiglish  Traoala- 
tion  of  AlbrechUberKrr.  vol.  ii.  pp.  415-4J2. 
'<>  See  Rovno ;  Sum  ex  m  icvmck  ix. 


ties  of  Fugue  and  Canon,  to  the  simple  Subject 
of  the  Dance-tune,  we  are  not,  as  might  be  sup- 
posed, retracing  our  steps,  but  following  the  line 
traced  out  for  us  by  the  natural  development  of 
art.  When  instrumental  music  first  began  to 
attract  attention,  the  Fugue  was  regarded  as  the 
embodiment  of  its  highest  expression.  Lulli 
ended  his  overtui-es  with  a  Fugue  ;  but  as  time 
progressed  this  form  of  finale  was  sui)erseded  by 
that  of  the  Dance-tune.  The  most  common 
types  were  those  of  the  Minuet,  the  Gavotte,  the 
Bourr^e,  the  Couraute,  the  Cliaconue,  the  Sara- 
bande,  the  Giga,  and  the  closely  allied  tunes  of 
the  AUemande,  the  Ritomello,  the  Air,  and  the 
March.  They  originally  consisted,  for  the  most 
part,  of  two  short  strains,  the  fii-st  of  which 
stated  the  Subject,  while  the  second  develoi»cd 
it  according  to  its  means.  It  was  de  rigueur 
that  the  Minuet  should  be  written  in  triple  time, 
and  that  each  phrase  of  its  Subject  should  begin 
with  the  down-beat  of  the  bar — though,  in  later 
times,  most  Minuets  began  with  the  third  beat ; 
that  the  Gavotte  should  be  in  ^2/a  breve  time, 
beginning  at  the  half-  bar ;  that  the  Bourree 
should  be  in  common  time,  beginning  on  the 
fourth  beat ;  that  the  AUemande  should  be  iu 
common,  and  the  Giga  in  com^jound  common 
time,  each  beginning,  as  a  general  rule,  with  a 
single  short  note  ;  and  so  with  the  rest.  It  was 
indispensable  that  the  first  strain,  representing 
the  Subject,  should  be  complete  in  itself,  though 
it  did  not  always  end  in  the  key  in  which  it 
began.  The  development  of  the  Subject  in  the 
second  strain  usually  consisted  in  the  prolonga- 
tion of  the  melody  by  means  of  phrases,  which, 
in  the  finer  examples,  were  directly  derived  from 
itself :  sometimes  carrying  a  characteristic  figure 
through  two  or  more  closely-related  keys ;  some- 
times returning,  after  this  process,  to  the  in- 
itial strain,  and  thus  completing  the  symmetry 
of  the  movement  in  accordance  with  principles 
of  the  deepest  artistic  significance.  The  most 
highly-developed  forms  were  those  of  the  Cour- 
ante  and  AUemande.  In  these,  the  first  strain, 
if  in  the  major  mode,  almost  invariably  modu> 
lated  to  the  dominant  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
ceeding to  a  formal  close  in  that  key  ;  if  in  the 
minor  mode,  it  proceeded,  in  like  manner,  to 
the  relative  major.  The  second  strain  then 
started  with  a  tolerably  exact  reproduction  of 
the  initial  Subject  in  the  new  key,  or  some  oilier 
closely  related  to  it ;  and  the  reprise  terminated 
with  the  transposition  to  the  original  key  of  that 
portion  of  the  first  strain  which  had  first  ap- 
peared in  the  dominant  or  relative  major.  In 
these  forms  the  share  of  interest  allotted  to  the 
process  of  development  was  very  small  indeed, 
compared  with  that  absorbed  by  the  Subject 
itself;  insomuch  that,  in  many  very  fine  ex- 
amples, the  entire  movement  consisted  of  little 
more  than  a  Subject  artfully  extended  by  the 
articulation  of  two  members  of  not  very  unequal 
proportions. 


SUBJECT 


SUBSIDIARY 


736 


IX,  Very  different  from  this  was  the  next 
manifestation  of  progressive  power.  Taking  the 
lines  of  the  Allemande  as  the  limit  of  the  general 
contour,  the  first  experimenters  in  *  Sonata-form ' 
(see  Sonata)  used  a  primary  Subject,  of  com- 
paratively limited  dimensions,  as  the  foundation 
of  a  movement  of  greater  length  and  higher 
development  than  any  previously  attempted. 
For  this  form  a  good  Subject  was  of  paramount 
importance ;  but  its  office  was  that  of  a  text, 
and  nothing  more  ;  the  real  interest  of  the 
movement  lay  in  the  completeness  of  its  treat- 
ment. The  essential  features  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful form  that  the  art  has  yet  shown  have  been 
treated  in  the  articles  Form,  Sonata. 

There  remains  another  class  of  Subjects  to 
which  we  have  as  yet  made  no  allusion,  but 
which,  nevertheless,  plays  a  very  important 
part  in  the  economy  of  musical  composition. 
We  allude  to  the  Subjects  of  dramatic  move- 
ments, both  vocal  and  instrumental.  It  is 
obvious  that  in  Subjects  of  this  kind  the  most 
important  element  is  the  peculiar  form  of 
dramatic  expression  necessary  for  each  individual 
theme.  And  because  the  varieties  of  dramatic 
expression  are  practically  innumerable,  it  is 
impossible  to  fix  any  limit  to  the  varieties  of 
foim  into  which  such  Subjects  may  be  con- 
sistently cast  At  cei-tain  epochs  in  the  history 
of  the  lyric  drama  consistency  has  undoubtedly 
been  violated,  and  legitimate  artistic  progress 
sei-iously  hindered  by  contracted  views  on  this 
point.  In  the  days  of  Hasse,  for  instance,  a 
persistent  determination  to  cast  all  Melodies, 
of  whatever  character,  into  the  same  stereotyped 
form,  led  to  the  })etrifaction  of  all  natural  ex- 
pression in  the  most  unnatural  of  all  mechanical 
contrivances — the  so-called  *  Concert -Opera.* 
Against  this  perversion  of  dramatic  truth  all 
true  artists  conscientiously  rebelled.  Gluck, 
with  a  lai^er  orchestra  and  stronger  chorus  at 
command,  returned  to  the  principles  set  forth 
by  Peii  and  Caccini  in  the  year  1600.  Mozart 
invented  Subjects,  faultlessly  proportioned,  yet 
always  exactly  suited  to  the  character  of  the 
dramatic  situation,  and  the  peculiar  form  of 
passion  needed  for  its  expression.  These  Sub- 
jects he  wrought  into  movements,  the  symmetry 
of  which  equalled  that  of  his  most  finished 
concertos  and  symphonies,  while  their  freedom 
of  development  and  elaborate  construction 
not  only  interposed  no  hindrance  to  the  most 
perfect  scenic  propriety,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
carried  on  the  action  of  the  drama  with  a 
power  which  has  long  been  the  despair  of  his 
most  ambitious  imitators.  Moreover,  in  his 
greatest  work,  'II  Don  Giovanni,'  he  used  the 
peculiar  form  of  Subject  now  known  as  the 
'  Leading  Theme '  with  unapproachable  effect ; 
entrusting  to  it  the  responsibility  of  bringing 
out  the  point  of  deepest  interest  in  the  Drama 
— a  duty  which  it  performs  with  a  success  too 
well  known  to  need  even  a  passing  comment. 


In  *Der  Freischiitz,*  Weber  followed  up  tliis 
idea  with  great  effect ;  inventing,  among  other 
sti-iking  Subjects,  two  constantly -recurring 
themes,  which,  applied  to  tiie  heroine  of  the 
piece  and  the  Demon,  invest  the  scenes  in 
which  they  appear  with  special  interest. 

[In  the  later  works  of  Wagner  the  use  of  the 
Leitmotiv  or  Leading  Subject  was  developed 
to  the  greatest  possible  extent,  and  almost  all 
dramatic  music  since  his  day  illustrates  the 
principle  he  brought  to  such  perfection.  Not 
merely  the  characters  and  the  external,  tangible 
objects  of  the  drama  were  identified  with  special 
musical  phrases,  but  the  inner  dramatic  factors, 
the  'motives'  in  the  non-musical  sense,  were 
provided  with  themes,  and  in  the  finest  instances, 
as  tliroughout  'Tristan,'  *Die  Meistersinger,* 
or  *  Parsifal,'  the  themes  are  not  arbitrarily 
associated  with  the  elements  of  the  play,  but 
are  inherently  eloquent,  so  that  the  hearer  who 
is  not  acquainted  with  the  labels  tacked  on  to 
the  various  themes  feels  unconsciously  how 
greatly  they  enhance  the  appeal  of  the  drama.] 

The  different  forms  of  Subject  thus  rapidly 
touched  upon  constitute  but  a  very  small  pro- 
portion of  those  in  actual  use ;  but  we  trust 
that  we  have  said  enough  to  enable  the  student 
to  judge  for  himself  as  to  the  characteristics  of 
any  others  with  which  he  may  meet,  during  the 
course  of  his  researches,  and  the  more  so,  since 
many  Subjects  of  importance  are  described  in 
the  articles  on  the  special  forms  of  com|)Osition 
to  which  they  belong.  w.  s.  R. 

SUBMEDIANT.  The  sixth  note  of  the  scale 
rising  upwards.  The  note  next  above  the  domi- 
nant, as  A  in  the  key  of  C.  The  submediant  of 
any  me^or  scale  is  chiefly  brought  into  prominence 
as  the  tonic  of  its  relative  minor.        c.  h.  h.  p. 

SUBSIDIARY,  in  a  symphonic  work,  is  a 
theme  of  inferior  importance,  not  strictly  form- 
ing part  of  either  first  or  second  subject,  but 
subordinate  to  one  or  the  other.  The  spaces 
between  the  two  subjects,  which  in  the  early  days 
before  Beethoven  were  filled  up  by  *  padding '  in 
the  shape  of  formal  passages  and  modulations, 
are  now,  in  obedience  to  his  admirable  practice, 
occupied  by  distinct  ideas,  usually  of  small  scojie, 
but  of  definite  purport.  [See  vol.  i.  p.  263.  j 
The  *  Elroica '  Symphony  affords  early  and  strik- 
ing examples  of  subsidiary  subjects  in  various 
positions.  Thus,  on  the  usual  dominant  passage 
precedingthe  secondsubject  appears  the  plaintive 
melody : — 


.ri^y^i.^ 


which  becomes  of  so  much  importance  in  the 
second  part.  And  the  same  title  belongs  also 
to  the  fresh  subject  which  appears  transieutiy 
during  the  'working-out*  with  so  much  effect : — 


736 


SUCCEXTOR 


SUCHER 


r^r"'t? 


Equally  noticeable  is  the  phrase  in  a  similar 
situation  in  the  fourth  Symphony  : — 


while  the  melody  which  Schubert  interpolated 
as  an  afterthought  in  the  Scherzo  of  his  great 
C  major  Symphony  is  too  well  known  to  require 
quotation. 

These  two  last,  however,  are  not  worked,  and 
can  therefore  hardly  be  classed  as  *  themes/  but 
are  more  of  the  nature  of  *  episodes.' 

In  some  cases  a  Subsidiary  acquires  so  much 
importance  in  the  working  out  as  to  rank  as 
a  third  subject  The  Italian  Symphony  of 
Mendelssohn  supplies  a  type  of  this.  The 
subject — 


which  appears  shortly  after  the  double  bar  in 
the  first  movement,  though  properly  speaking 
merely  a  Subsidiary,  is  so  insisted  upon  and 
elaborated  in  the  working-out  and  coda  as  to 
rival  the  first  subject  itself  in  importance,      r.  c. 

SUCCENTOR,  te.  Sub-cantor.  A  cathedral 
officer,  deputy  to  the  Precentor.  His  duty  is 
to  supply  his  principal's  place  during  absence, 
in  the  regulation  of  the  service,  and  other  duties 
of  the  Precentor.  o. 

SUCH,  Henry,  violinist,  son  of  Edwin  C. 
Such,  Mus.B.,  was  born  in  London  on  March 
81,  1872.  Commenced  studying  at  the  age  of 
six,  and  made  his  first  public  appearance  when 
eight  years  old.  Following  the  advice  of 
Joachim  he  entered  the  Hochschule  at  BerUn 
in  1885,  remaining  thera  till  1892,  in  which 
year  his  first  public  appearance  in  Berlin  was 
successfully  made.  After  touring  in  Germany 
he  studied  during  1895-96  with  Wilhelmj,  and 
again  travelled  in  Holland  and  Scandinavia.  He 
then  visited  Vienna,  meeting  and  playing  with 
Brahms,  and  in  1898  made  two  public  appear- 
ances with  Richter  conducting.  Settled  in 
London  in  1898,  and  was  appointed  Professor 
at  the  Guildhall  School  of  music.  He  has  a 
large  repertory  and  an  excellent  technique. 
His  violin  is  one  of  the  Stradivari  instruments 
formerly  possessed  by  Paganini.        w.  w.  c. 

SUCH,  Percy  Frederick,  brother  of  the 
above,  was  bom  in  London  on  June  27,  1878. 
In  1887  went  to  Berlin  and  commenced  studying 
the  violoncello  under  Herr  Otto  Ludemann, 
pupil  of  Professor  Hausmann,  who  accepted 
him  as  private  pupil  in  1889,  and  continued  to 
give  him  lessons  when  he  joined  the  Hochschule 


in  1892.  In  the  latter  institution  he  remained 
until  1898,  having  the  advantage  of  lessons  in 
ensemble-playing  from  Joachim.  His  first  public 
appearance  in  Berlin  was  with  the  Philharmonic 
Orchestra  in  1898.  Besides  playing  as  soloist, 
he  assisted  the  Joachim  Quartet  as  second  violon- 
cello at  many  concerts  in  Germany  and  Holland, 
including  the  Beethoven  Festival  at  Bonn  in 
1899.  Appeared  in  London  first  at  St.  James's 
Hall  with  the  Joachim  Quartet  in  1901,  and 
followed  with  a  series  of  recitals.  Held  the 
post  of  principal  violoncello  during  the  two 
final  seasons  of  the  Popular  Concerts.  His 
training  and  purity  of  style  fit  him  especially 
for  the  performance  of  chamber  music.  He 
plays  upon  an  exceptionally  fine  Gagliano  violon- 
cello, w.  w.  c. 

SUCHER,  Josef,  bom  at  Dobor,  Eisenburg, 
Hungary,  Nov.  23,  1844,  was  brought  up  in 
the  Lowenburg  Convict  at  Vienna,  as  a  chorister 
in  the  Hofkapelle,  which  he  joined  on  the  same 
day  with  Hans  Richter,  the  conductor.  On 
completing  his  course  at  the  Convict  he  began 
to  study  law,  but  soon  threw  it  aside,  worked 
at  counterpoint  with  Sechter,  and  adopted 
music  as  his  profession.  Beginning  as  sub- 
conductor  of  a  Singing  Society  in  Vienna,  he 
advanced  to  be  *  Repetitor '  of  the  solo  singers 
at  the  Imperial  Court  Opera,  and  conductor  at 
the  Comic  Opera,  and  in  1876  went  to  Leipzig 
as  conductor  of  the  City  Theatre.  In  the 
following  year  he  married  Friiulein  Rosa  Hassel- 
beck,  the  then  prima  donna  of  the  same  house. 
She  was  bom  Feb.  23,  1849,  at  Velburg  in  the 
Upper  Palatinate  (Brockhaus's  Lexikon  ;  but 
Rieraann  gives  the  year  of  birth  as  1845),  and 
is  the  daughter  of  one  musician  and  the  niece 
of  another.  Her  first  engagement  was  at 
Treves.  Thence  she  went  to  Konigsberg  and 
thence  to  BerUn  and  Danzig,  where  she  was 
engaged  by  her  future  husband  for  Leipzig. 
From  Leipzig  in  1879  husband  and  wife  went 
to  Hamburg,  where  they  settled  as  conductor 
and  prima  donna,  and  where  the  latter  attracted 
immediate  attention  by  her  perfovnance  of 
Chryssa  in  Rubinstein's  *Nero.*  They  visited 
England  in  1882,  and  Mme.  Sucher  proved  her 
eminent  qualities  both  as  a  singer  and  an  actress 
by  the  extraordinary  range  of  parts  in  which 
she  appeared  at  the  German  opera  at  Drury 
Lane.  She  made  her  d^but  as  Elsa  on  May  1 8, 
and  besides  singing  as  Elizabeth  and  Senta,  she 
sang  Eva  on  May  30,  and  Isolde  on  June  20, 
on  the  respective  productions  in  England  of  *  Die 
Meistersinger '  and  *  Tristan,*  and  as  Euryanthe 
on  the  revival  of  that  opera.  Her  husband 
produced  a  *  Scene  *  or  Cantata  entitled  •  Wald- 
friiulein '  (*  The  Wood  Maiden ')  for  soli,  dionis, 
and  orchestra,  at  the  Richter  Concert  of  June  5. 
Composition  is  no  novelty  to  Herr  Sucher ; 
even  in  his  chorister  days  we  hear  of  songs, 
masses,  cantatas,  and  overtures,  one  of  which, 
to  an  opera  called  *  Use,*  was  brought  forward 


StJSSMAYER 


SUITE 


737 


at  a  concert  in  Vienna  in  1873.  One  of  his 
best-known  pablished  works  is  a  Liedercyclus 
entitled  'Ruheort.'  Frau  Sucher  gained  great 
renown  by  her  singing  of  Isolde  at  Bayreuth  in 
1886.  In  1888  her  husband  was  appointed  to 
the  post  of  conductor  at  the  Hofoper  at  Berlin ; 
[he  retired  in  1899,  and  died  April  4, 1908].  G. 
[Frau  Sucher,  after  successful  performances  of 
kundry  and  Eva  at  Bayreuth  in  1888,  became  a 
prima  donna  at  Berlin,  where  she  remained  until 
1898,  as  a  noted  Wagner  singer.  On  leave 
of  absence,  she  gave  *  Gastspielo '  at  Bayreuth 
and  other  cities  of  Germany,  and  in  1892  sang 
l)oth  at  Ck)vent  Garden  and  Drury  Lane  as 
Briinnhilde  in  'Siegfried,'  and  once  as  Isolde,  and 
was  warmly  received.  She  would  have  played 
Isolde  again  but  for  a  peremptory  recall  to 
Berlin,  where  her  services  were  urgently  required. 
On  Nov.  3,  1903,  she  took  a  final  farewell  of 
the  stsLf^  at  Berlin  as  Sieglinde.     a.  c] 

SUSSMAYER,!  Franz  Xaver,  composer  and 
Capellmeister,  bom  1766  at  Steyer  in  Upper 
Austria,  and  educated  at  the  monastery  of 
Kremsmiinster,  whei-e  he  attempted  composition 
in  several  branches.  [Some  MS.  operas  still 
existing  at  Eremsmiinster  are  mentioned  in 
the  Qiiellen-Lexikon,']  At  Vienna  he  had  in- 
stntction  from  Salieri  and  Mozart  With  the 
latter  he  formed  the  closest  attachment,  becom- 
ing, to  use  Seyfried's  expression,  *the  inseparable 
companion  of  the  immortal  Amphion.'  Jahn 
details  the  work  he  did  for  the  'Clemenza  di 
Tito  *  on  its  production  at  Prague,  whither  he 
accompanied  Mozart.  Siissmayer  was  at  the 
composer's  bed-side  the  evening  before  Mozart's 
death,  while  the  latter  tried  to  give  him  the 
necessary  instructions  for  completing  his 
Requiem,  a  task  for  which  he  was  peculiarly 
fitted  by  his  knack  of  imitating  Mozart's  hand- 
^viiting.  Jahn  has  stated  in  detail  (ii.  172) 
how  much  of  that  work  is  in  all  probability 
Siissmayer's.     [See  vol.  iii.  p.  808.] 

As  a  composer  Siissmayer's  name  (as  '  pupil 
of  Salieri  and  Mozart ')  first  appears  at  Schika- 
neder's  Theatre,  where  his  opera,  'Moses,'  was 
brought  out  May  4,  1792,  revived  in  1796, 
and  again  in  concert- form  in  1800.  Tliis  was 
followed  by  *  L*  Incanto  superato,'  a  *musico- 
roraantic  fable'  (Burgtheater,  1793),   and  by 

*  Der  Spiegel  von  Arkadien  *  (Schikaneder's 
Theatre,  1794),  libretto  by  Schikaneder,  which 
became  a  favourite,  and  was  eulogised  by  the 
Wiener  Zeitung,  He  became  in  1794  com- 
poser, and  in  1795  Capellmeister,  to  the  Karnth- 
nerthor  Court  Theatre,  where  he  produced 
successively  *Die  edle  Eache'  (1795),  'Die 
Freiwilligen '  (1796),  'Der  Wildfang'  (1797), 

*  Der  Marktschreier '  and  '  Soliman  der  Zweite ' 
(1799),  'Gulnare'  (1800),  and  'Phasma' 
(1801).  His  patriotic  cantata,  'Der  Better  in 
Gefahr,'  was  performed  at  an  entertainment  to 
the  Vienna  volunteers  in  the  large  Redouten- 

I  He  Blgiu  himwlf  on  •  sTinphony  SiEiisiiAm. 
VOL.  IV 


saal  at  a  time  of  threatened  war  (1796),  and 
several  times  repeated  in  the  same  building, 
and  by  the  Tonkiinstler  Societat.  Siissmayer 
also  composed  two  operas  for  Prague.  Several 
of  the  above  works  were  printed,  some  only  iu 
jmrt,  while  others — masses,  and  smaller  church - 
works,  instrumental  pieces,  etc — exist  only  in 
MS.  Though  wanting  in  depth  and  originality 
his  works  are  melodious,  and  have  a  certain 
popular  character  peculiar  to  himself.  He  might 
perhaps  have  risen  to  a  higher  flight  had  he  not 
been  overtaken  by  death  after  a  long  illness, 
Sept.  17  (or  16,  according  to  Thayer),  1803. 
Prince  Esterhazy  bought  his  entire  MSS.  from 
his  widow.  c.  f.  p. 

SUITE.  In  the  period  between  the  latter 
part  of  the  16th  and  the  beginning  of  the  18  th 
century  the  most  conspicuous  feature  of  uni- 
versal instrumental  music  is  the  profusion  of 
dance  tunes.  All  the  most  civilised  nations  of 
that  time  took  equal  pleasure  in  them ;  and 
partly  owing  to  the  itinerant  'musicians  who 
traversed  divers  countries,  and  partly  to  the 
wars  which  brought  representatives  of  different 
nationalities  into  frequent  contact,  both  friendly 
and  hostile,  the  various  characteristic  types 
were  spread  from  one  land  to  another,  were 
adopted  universally  by  composers,  irrespective 
of  nationality,  and  were  so  acclimatised  as  to 
become  in  many  cases  as  characteristic  of  and 
as  popular  in  the  countries  of  their  adoption 
as  in  that  of  their  origin.  This  is  sufficiently 
illustrated  in  Morley's  well-known  Plaine  and 
easie  Irrirodudion,  1597.  For  when  he  comes 
to  treat  of  dance-music,  the  first  things  he  takes 
notice  of  are  Pavans  and  Galliards,  Almanes 
and  Branles ;  of  which  the  first  two  are  of 
Italian  origin,  the  third  probably  Suabian,  and 
the  last  French.  The  first  two  were  not  only  in 
common  use  for  dancing  purposes  in  Queen 
Elizabeth's  time,  but  were  adopted  by  the  great 
composers  of  the  day  and  a  little  later  as  a 
favourite  basis  lor  instrumental  pieces,  which 
were  intended  as  much  for  private  enjoyment  as 
music  as  for  accompaniments  to  dances ;  and  they 
are  found  plentifully  scattered  in  such  collections 
as  the  Fitzwilliam  Virginal  Book  and  *Par- 
thenia,'  among  sets  of  variations,  preludes,  and 
fantasias.  A  large  proportion  of  such  dances 
were  naturally  taken  singly,  but  composers 
early  perceived  the  advantage  of  contrasting 
one  with  another.  Thus  Morley,  in  the  same 
part  of  the  work  just  mentioned,  speaks  of  the 
desirableness  of  alternating  Pavans  and  Gal- 
liards ;  since  the  first  was  '  a  kind  of  staid 
musick  ordained  for  grave  dancing,'  and  the 
latter  'a  lighter  and  more  stirring  kind  of 
dancing ' ;  and  he  further  describes  more  ob- 
scurely the  contrast  arising  from  the  4-time  and 
3-time  which  subsists  between  them.  Spitta,  in 
his  Life  of  Bach  (i.  681,  Engl,  trans,  ii.  73),  men- 
tions the  same  contrast  as  popular  in  Germany  a 
little  later,  and  refers  to  the  publication  of  thirty 

3b 


738 


SUITE 


SUITE 


Paduaus  and  Gaillards  by  Johaiin  Ghro  of  Dres- 
den in  1604.  In  such  a  manner  originated  the 
idea  of  joining  different  dance- tunes  together  to 
make  an  artistic  balance  and  contrast,  and  in  this 
lies  the  gerfn  of  the  Suite  ;  in  which,  by  select- 
ing dances  of  various  nationalities,  and  dis- 
posing them  in  the  order  which  displayed 
their  relative  bearings  on  one  another  to  the 
best  advantage,  composers  established  the  fii'st 
secular  instrumental  cyclic  art-form. 

It  is  not  possible,  for  want  of  materials,  to 
trace  fully  the  process  of  selection.  The  Pavans 
and  Oalliards  dropped  out  of  fashion  very  early, 
and  Allemandes  and  Courantes  came  in,  and 
soon  became  a  sort  of  established  nucleus,  to 
which  was  sometimes  appended  a  Sarabaude,  or 
even  several  other  dance  movements,  and  a  Pre- 
lude. Indeed,  when  the  principle  of  grouping 
movements  together  was  once  accepted,  the 
speculations  of  composers  in  that  line  seem  to 
have  been  only  limited  by  their  knowledge  of 
dance-forms.  It  was  in  fact  by  experimenting 
with  various  methods  of  grouping  that  the  most 
satisfactory  succession  was  arrived  at ;  and  thus 
many  of  the  earlier  suites  contain  a  greater  pro- 
fusion and  variety  than  is  found  in  those  of  the 
maturer  period.  In  Purcell's  suites,  for  instance, 
which  date  from  the  last  ten  or  twenty  years  of 
the  17th  century,  besides  the  Allemande  and 
Courante,  which  occupy  just  the  very  position 
in  which  they  are  found  in  the  Suites  of  Bach 
and  Handel,  in  one  case  the  group  also  com- 
prises a  Sarabande,  Cebell,  Minuet,  Riggadoon, 
Intrade,  and  March  ;  while  another  contains  a 
Trumpet  tune  and  a  Chacone,  and  another  a 
Hornpipe.  One  of  the  most  curious  features  in 
them  is  the  absence  of  the  Jig,  which  in  the 
mature  suite-form  was  the  only  one  admitted 
of  English  origin.  The  opening  with  a  Prelude 
is  almost  invariable ;  and  this  is  not  astonishing, 
since  this  kind  of  movement  (which  can  hardly 
be  described  as  a  '  form ')  was  as  familiar  as  the 
dances,  from  having  been  so  often  attempted 
by  the  early  instrumental  composers,  such  as 
Byrd,  Orlando  Gibbons,  Bull,  and  Blow  among 
Englishmen.  The  order  of  four  movements 
which  served  as  the  nucleus  in  the  large  propor- 
tion of  suites  of  the  mature  period  is  also 
occasionally,  by  accident,  found  very  early  ;  as 
for  instance  in  one  of  the  Suites  of  Froberger, 
which  Nottebohm  says  was  written  in  1649  ; 
and  another  by  Lully,  which  was  probal)ly 
written  early  in  the  second  half  of  the  same 
century. 

These  groups  had,  however,  as  yet  no  uniform 
distinctive  title.  In  England,  in  common  with 
other  combinations  of  divisions  or  movements, 
they  were  generally  called  Lessons,  or  Suites  of 
Lessons,  and  continued  to  be  so  called  till  after 
Handel's  time.  In  Italy  similar  groups  were 
called  Senate  da  Camera  ;  in  Germany  they  were 
called  Parties  or  Partitas,  as  in  the  Clavier- 
iibung  of  Kuhnau  published  in  1689,  and  the 


set  of  six  by  Johann  Krieger  ^  published  in  1697 ; 
and  in  France  they  were  as  yet  commonly  known 
as  Ordres.  Thus  the  fact  evidently  existed 
universaUy  for  some  time  before  the  name  by 
which  it  is  now  known  came  into  general  use. 

The  composers  of  different  countries  illustrated 
in  different  degrees  the  tendency  towards  con- 
solidation which  is  inevitable  in  an  art-form. 
The  steps  taken  by  the  Italians  appear  to  be 
particularly  important  as  illustrating Uie  distinct 
tendencies  of  the  Suite  and  the  Sonata.  Corelli's 
earlier  Senate  da  Camera  are  scarcely  dis- 
tinguishable from  the  suite  type,  as  they  consist 
of  a  string  of  dance- tunes  preceded  by  a  prelude. 
The  later  sonatas  or  solos  of  his  Opera  Quinta, 
however,  represent  different  types.  Some  stiU 
consist  of  dance-tunes,  but  many  also  show  a 
fair  proportion  of  movements  of  more  abstract 
nature  ;  and  in  several  the  dance  element  is,  in 
name  at  least,  quite  absent.  These  are  indeed 
a  sort  of  combination  of  the  church  and  chamber 
sonata  into  a  secular  form,  adding  a  cauzona  or 
free  fugal  movement  in  the  place  of  the  alle- 
mande, and  transmuting  the  other  dance  types 
into  movements  with  general  qualities  analogous 
to  the  earlier  sonatas.  Where  this  abstract 
character  prevailed,  the  type  approached  more 
distinctly  to  that  of  the  modem  sonata ;  ajid 
where  the  uniformity  of  a  dance  rhythm  pre- 
vailed throughout,  it  approached  more  nearly 
to  the  suite  type.  In  these  cases  the  arrange- 
ment had  already  ceased  to  be  a  mere  crude 
experiment  in  antithesis,  such  as  the  early 
balance  of  galliard  and  pavan,  and  attained  to 
the  dignity  of  a  complete  art-form.  "With  the 
Italians  the  remarkable  distinction  of  their  ^ 
violin  school  led  to  the  greater  cultivation  of  the 
Violin  Sonata,  which  though  retaining  a  few 
dance-forms,  differed  markedly  in  their  distribn- 
tion,  and  even  in  the  structure  of  the  movements. 
In  both  France  and  Germany  more  attention 
seems  to  have  been  i>aid  to  the  clavier,  and  with 
it  to  the  suite  foi-m.  Tlie  former  country  very 
early  showed  many  proofs  of  appreciation  of  its 
principles ;  as  an  instance,  the  suite  by  Lnlly 
in  E  minor,  mentioned  above,  has  the  complete 
series  of  allemande,  sarabande,  courante,  minuet, 
and  gigue.  But  a  little  later,  theatrical  influ- 
ences seem  to  have  come  into  play,  and  Hameaa 
and  Couperin,  though  in  many  cases  adopting 
the  same  nucleus  to  start  with,  added  to  it  a 
profusion  of  rondeaus  and  other  short  move- 
ments called  by  various  eccentric  names.  In 
one  of  Couperin's  Ordres  the  number  of  little 
pieoes  amounts  to  no  less  than  twenty-three ; 
and  in  such  a  case  it  is  clear  that  a  sense  of  form 
or  complete  balance  in  the  whole  can  hardly 
have  been  even  aimed  at.  The  movements  are 
strmig  together  in  the  same  key,  according  to 
the  recognised  rule,  as  a  series  of  agreeable  ballet 
pieces,  and  the  titles  point  to  their  belonging  to 
quite  a  different  order  of  art  from  that  illustrated 


1  Bm  Mut^c*A  rtntM,  1901,  p.  16a. 


>  Sc«  SuSATA. 


Couperin,  the  first  number  is  called  *  La  Triom- 
phante'  and  also  *  Bruit  de  Guerre.*  In  the 
eleventh  Ordre  a  series  of  pieces  represents  *  Les 
Fastes  de  la  gi*ande  etancienne  Mxnxstrxndxsx,' 
in  five  acts,  the  fourth  of  which  is  'Les 
Invalides,'  etc.,  in  which  the  right  hand  is  made 
to  represent  *  Les  Disloqu^ '  and  the  left  *  Les 
Boiteux/  and  the  last  is  'D^rdre  et  d^route 
de  toute  la  troupe :  caus^  par  les  Yvrognes,  les 
Singes,  et  les  Ours.' 

In  Germany,  composers  kept  their  faces  more 
steadfastly  set  in  the  direction  of  purer  art- form, 
and  the  prevalence  of  uniformity  in  their  distri- 
bution of  movements  soon  became  remarkable. 
Euhnau's  examples  have  been  already  referred 
to,  and  an  example  given  in  Pauer's '  Alte  Clavier 
Musik '  illustrates  the  usual  order  absolutely. 
Spitta  mentions  that  the  famous  organist  Buzte- 
hude  made  a  complete  suite  out  of  variations  on 
the  choral  *  Auf  meinem  lieben  Gott '  in  the  form 
of  sarabande,  courante,  and  gigue.  Twelve  sets 
of  *  Pikjes  de  Clavecin '  by  Mattheson,  which  were 
published  in  London  as  early  as  1714,  t\i'o  years 
befoi-e  Couperin's  first  set,  are  remarkably  regu- 
lar. The  first,  in  D  minor,  has  a  prelude,  alle- 
mande  and  double,  courante  and  double,  sara- 
bande, and  gigue.  The  second  begins  with  a 
toccatina,  the  fifth  with  a  fantasia,  the*ninth 
with  a  *Boutade,'  and  the  tenth  with  a 
*  Symphonic,'  but  in  other  respects  most  of  them 
follow  the  same  outlines  of  general  distribution. 
The  '  Six  Suits  of  Lessons '  of  the  Dutchman 
Johann  Loeillet,  published  a  little  earlier  still, 
are  equally  precise.  From  these  facts  it  is  quite 
clear  that  by  the  beginning  of  the  18  th  oentuiy 
<5ertain  definite  principles  of  grouping  the  move- 
ments were  generally  known  and  accepted  ;  and 
that  a  nucleus,  consisting  of  allemande,  courante, 
sarabande,  and  gigue,  had  become  the  accepted 
type  of  the  art-form. 

The  differences  between  the  stnicture  of  suite 
movements  and  sonata  movements  have  already 
been  traced  in  the  article  Sonata.  It  remains 
liere  only  to  summarise,  with  more  special  re- 
ference to  the  suite.  While  sonata  movements 
•constantly  increased  in  complexity,  suite  move- 
ments remained  almost  stationary.  They  were 
based  upon  the  persistence  of  the  uniform  type 
of  a  dance  rhythm,  throughout  the  whole  of  each 
several  movement.  Hence  the  ground  principles 
•of  subject  in  sonata  and  suite  are  altogether 
•different.  In  the  former  the  subjects  are  con- 
-crete,  and  stand  out  in  a  marked  manner  both  in 
•contrast  to  one  another  and  to  their  immediate 
context ;  and  it  is  a  vital  point  in  the  form  that 
■they  shall  be  fully  and  clearly  recapitulated. 
In  the  suite,  on  the  other  hand,  the  subject  does 
not  stand  out  at  all  prominently  from  its  con- 
text, but  is  only  a  well-marked  presentation 
•of  the  type  of  motion  and  rhythm  which  is  to 


In  a  few  cases — which  must  be  regarded  as  ac- 
cidents in  relation  to  the  logical  principles  of  the 
form — the  opening  bars  happen  to  be  sufficiently 
marked  to  have  something  of  the  character  of  a 
sonata  subject ;  and  in  such  cases  it  may  also 
happen  that  they  are  repeated  with  sufticient 
simplicity  to  have  the  effect  of  recapitulation. 
But  nevertheless  it  must  be  maintained  that  this 
is  not  |)art  of  the  principle  of  construction. 
And  with  reference  to  this  point  it  is  well  to 
remember  that  com|X)sers  did  not  attain  the 
ultimate  distinct  outlines  of  sonata  and  suite 
with  a  definite  purpose  and  plan  before  them  ; 
but  that  in  working  with  particular  materials 
they  were  led  almost  unconsciously  to  differ- 
entiate the  two  forms.  Tlie  plan  is  found  to 
exist  when  tlie  work  is  done  ;  but  it  is  not 
theoretically  propounded  and  then  worked  up 
to.  It  is  not  therefore  a  matter  for  surprise 
that  in  early  times  some  points  in  the  develop- 
ment of  abstract  form  of  the  sonata  kind  were 
worked  out  in  dance  movements  of  the  suite 
type,  and  applied  and  extended  afterwards  in 
works  which  had  more  distinctly  the  sonata 
character.  Nevertheless  the  sonata  is  not  an 
outgrowth  from  the  suite  ;  but,  inasmuch  as  both 
were  descended  from  a  kindred  stock,  before  the 
distinctions  had  become  well  defined,  it  is  natural 
that  many  works  should  have  continued  to  ex- 
hibit suggestions  and  traits  of  both  sides  promis- 
cuously. On  the  whole,  however,  it  is  remarkable 
how  soon  the  distinct  types  came  to  be  generally 
maintained ;  and  from  the  nmnber  of  instances 
which  conform,  the  system  can  be  fairly  deduced. 
The  most  marked  external  point  is  the  uni- 
formity of  key.  In  Corelli's  earlier  Senate  da 
Camera,  which  in  general  are  decided  suites, 
the  one  exception  which  marks  a  sonata  tendency 
is  that  the  slow  dance  is  often  in  a  different  key 
from  the  rest  of  the  movements.  In  later  suites 
of  all  sorts  the  uniformity  of  key  throughout  is 
almost  universal.  In  the  whole  of  Bach's  the 
only  exceptions  are  the  second  minuet  of  the 
fourth  English  Suite,  and  tlie  second  gavotte  in 
that  known  as  the  *  Overture  in  Fi-ench  Style.  '^ 
Hence  the  contrast  is  purely  one  of  character 
between  the  several  movements  ;  and  this  is 
emphasised  by  the  absence  of  any  marked  con- 
trast of  key  or  subject  in  the  movements  them- 
selves. They  are  almost  invariably  constnicted 
upon  the  simple  principle  of  balanced  halves, 
each  representing  the  same  material  in  different 
]>hase8,  and  each  strengthened  by  rei)etitiou. 
Tlie  first  half  sets  out  from  the  tonic  key,  and 
without  any  marked  pause  or  division  modulates 
so  as  to  settle  into  t^  '  r  of  the  dominant  or 
relative  major,  an '  in  that  key.     The 

second  half  begir  .  xv  ^  .    •  , 

proceeding  in  r 


the  subdominant,  settles  well  back  again  into 
the  original  key  and  concludes.  The  only  break 
therefore  is  in  the  middle  ;  and  the  two  halves 
are  made  purposely  to  balance  one  anotlier,  as 
far  as  may  be,  without  definite  recapitulation. 
In  a  few  movements,  such  especially  as  sara- 
bandes  and  intermezzi,  the  second  half  is  some- 
what extended  to  admit  of  a  little  development 
and  free  modulation,  but  tlie  general  princijjles 
in  the  average  number  of  cases  are  the  same, 
namely,  to  diffuse  the  character  of  the  principal 
figures  and  features  throughout,  rather  than  to 
concentrate  the  interest  of  the  subject  in  definite 
parts  of  the  movement.  In  order,  however,  to 
strengthen  the  effect  of  balance  between  the  two 
halves,  certain  devices  are  common  and  charac- 
teristic, especially  with  regard  to  the  beginnings 
and  endings  of  each  half.  Thus  though  com- 
posers do  not  seem  to  have  aimed  at  recapitulation , 
there  is  frequently  a  clear  relation  between  the 
opening  bars  of  each  half.  This  often  amounts 
to  no  more  than  a  subtle  equivalence  in  the 
distribution  of  the  group  of  rhythms  in  the  bar, 
or  a  very  loose  transcript  of  its  melodic  features. 
But  in  some  cases,  most  es][)ecially  in  Bach,  the 
opening  bars  of  the  latter  half  present  a  free  in- 
version of  the  beginning  of  the  first  half,  or  a 
sort  of  free  shuffling  of  the  parts  approximating 
to  double  counterpoint.  The  first  mode  is 
clearly  illustrated  by  the  Courante  of  the  fhird 
Partita  in  A  minor  as  follows  : — 


ist  h&lt. 


The  AUemande  of  the  fourth  Suite  Anglaise 
supplies  a  remarkable  example  of  free  inversion 
of  figures  and  parts  at  the  same  time  : — 


The  other  point,  of  even  more  common  occur- 
rence, is  the  correspondence  of  the  ends  of  each 
half,  which  prevails  particularly  in  allemandes, 
courantes,  and  gigues.  A  very  fine  and  full 
example  is  supplied  by  the  AUemande  of  Bach's 
first  Suite  Anglaise  ;  the  Courante  of  his  second 
Suite  Fran9aise  supplies  another  of  some  length  ; 
and  among  works  of  other  composers  the  AUe- 
mande of  LuUy's  Suite  in  E  minor,  the  Courante 
of  Mattheson's  Suite  No.  5  in  C  minor,  the 
Courante  of  Handel's  fourth  Suite,  the  Gigne 
of  his  eighth  Suite,  and  most  of  his  Alle- 
mandes, are  instances  to  the  point.  In  the 
particular  manner  of  the  suite  movements 
both  these  devices  are  exceedingly  effective  as 
emphasising  the  balance  of  halves,  and  in  the 
finest  movements  the  balance  of  material  and 
modulation  is  carefully  distributed  for  the  same 
end.  Thus  much  of  form  applies  more  or  less 
to  all  the  movements  which  are  based  on  dance 
rhythms,  or  developed  on  that  principle. 

Each  of  the  movements  has  also  severally 
distinct  characteristics,  upon  which  the  form  of 
the  suite  as  a  whole  is  mainly  based.  For  the 
better  understanding  of  this  it  will  be  best  to 
take  the  group  which  forms  the  average  nucleus 
or  so-called  canon  of  the  Suite.  In  the  severest 
simplicity  of  the  form  the  AUemande  comes 
first,  as  in  all  Bach's  French  Suites,  in  some  of 
Couperin's, .  and  many  by  earlier  composers. 
The  oAgin  of  the  movement  is  obscure,  and  it 
is  maintained  that  it  is  not  based  upon  any 
dance,  since  the  AUemande  of  Suabian  origin, 
said  to  be  the  only  dance-form  of  that  name 
known,  is  quite  distinct  from  it.  However 
that  may  be,  its  constitution,  which  is  most 
important,  consists  mainly  of  moderately  slow 
4 -time,  with  regular  smooth  motion — most 
frequently  of  semiquavers — distributed  in  a 
figurate  manner  between  the  various  parts,  and 
its  character  has  been  generally  regarded  as  ap- 
propriately quiet  and  sober  ;  which  Mattheson 
described  as  the  'Ruhe  des  Anfangs.'  To  this 
the  Courante,  which  almost  invariably  follows 
it  in  the  mature  suite,  is  supposed  and  intended 
to  supply  a  contrast,  but  it  cannot  be  maintained 
that  it  always  does  so  successfuUy.  The  char- 
acter of  this  movement  varies  considerably, 
owing  chiefly  to  the  fact  that  there  are  two 
decidedly  distinct  forms  derived  from  different 
sources.  The  one  of  Italian  origin  which  is 
found  most  frequently  in  CoreUi's  Sonatas,  in 
most  of  Handel's,  in  some  but  not  all  of  Purcell's 
Suites,  and  in  Bach's  fifth  and  sixth  French 
Stutes,  and  fifth  Partita,  is  in  3-4  time,  of 
quick,  light,  and  direct  movement,  fuU  of  rapid 
passages  of  simple  character,  with  simple  rhytlun, 
and  free  from  complication.  This  in  general 
supplies  in  an  obvious  sense  a  fair  contrast  to 
the  AUemande.  The  other  Courante,  of  French 
origin,  is  nominally  in  3-2  time,  but  its  char> 
acteristic  is  a  peculiar  intermixture  of  8-2 
and  6-4,  which  is  supposed  to  produce  a  stronger 


aci^nsuc  was  cnieny  connnea  lo  ine  lasi  oars 
of  each  half,  but  in  mature  suite  movements 
it  was  elaborately  worked  into  the  body  of  the 
movement  with  very  curious  effect.  The 
quality  is  shown  as  early  as  Kuhnau,  but  more 
frequently  in  Couperin's  Suites,  from  whom  it  is 
said  Bach  adopted  it.  The  following  example 
from  Couperin's  third  Suite  is  characteristic : — 


^  T  J.    J        etc. 


r^^ 


It  is  possible  that  Bach  adopted  tliis  form  as 
affording  opportunities  for  rhythmic  experi- 
ments ;  he  certainly  carried  it  to  great  lengths, 
such  as  giving  the  right  hand  a  passage  in 
3-2  and  the  left  in  6-4  :— 


but  the  result  is  not  on  the  whole  very  success- 
ful. In  most  cases  the  French  Courantes  are 
the  least  interesting  movement  of  his  Suites, 
and  as  contrasts  to  the  Allemande  do  not  com- 
pare favourably  with  the  Italian  Courante.  As 
an  element  of  contrast  the  crossing  of  the  time 
is  rather  theoretical  than  real,  and  the  necessity 
of  keeping  the  time  moderate  in  order  to  make 
it  intelligible  brings  the  strong  beats  and  the 
average  quickness  of  the  shortest  notes,  as  well 
OS  the  full  spread  of  the  bar,  too  near  to  those 
of  the  Allemande  ;  and  in  the  general  effect  of 
the  Suite  these  externals  tell  more  strongly  than 
the  abstract  restlessness  of  crossing  rhythms. 
It  is  possible,  however,  that  the  French  Courante 
has  one  advantage  over  the  Italian  :  that  inas- 
much as  the  latter  has  more  stability  in  itself, 
it  calls  less  for  a  succeeding  movement,  and 
presents  less  perfectly  the  aspect  of  a  link  in 
the  chain  than  of  a  movement  which  might  as 
well  stand  alone.  There  is  a  slight  touch  of 
uneasiness  about  the  French  C  which,  as 

a  step  towards  the  Sarabande,  i  )ropriate. 

In  this  latter  movement,  wl  '  Spanish 

or  possibly  Moorish  origin,  principle 

is  very  pronounced,  and  at  t'  le  simple. 


as  IS  cieany  iiiusn-area  in  nanaei  s  t^araoanae 
in  theG  minor  Suite,  in  his  '  Lascia  ch'io  pianga, ' 
and  in  the  Sarabande  of  Bach's  F  major  Suite 
Anglaise.  This  is  an  obvious  source  of  contrast 
with  both  the  preceding  members  of  the  suite, 
since  in  both  Allemande  and  Courante  there  is 
no  pronounced  and  persistent  rhythm,  and  the 
pace,  though  not  necessarily  quick,  scarcely 
ever  comes  within  the  range  of  motion  or  style 
characteristic  of  definitely  slow  movements. 
There  is  also  a  further  and  equally  imi^ortant 
element  of  contrast  The  first  t\v'0  numbers  are 
characterised  in  a  considerable  proportion  of 
instances  by  a  similar  free  motion  of  parts. 
The  process  of  can*ying  on  the  figures  is  some- 
times knit  by  a  kind  of  free  imitation,  but, 
however  desii*able  it  may  be  theoretically  to 
regard  them  so,  they  cannot  fairly  be  described 
as  movements  of  imitation.  The  process  is 
rather  that  of  free  figuration  of  two  or  three 
parts,  giving  in  general  a  contrapuntal  effect  to 
the  whole.  In  the  Sarabande  the  peculiar 
rhythmic  character  puts  both  systematic  imita- 
tion and  regulai*  contrapuntal  motion  equally 
out  of  the  question.  Consequently  as  a  rule 
a  more  decidedly  hannonic  style  obtains  ;  the 
chords  are  fuller,  and  move  more  simultaneously 
as  blocks  of  haimouy.  The  chai*acter  of  the 
finest  examples  is  necessarily  very  pliable,  and 
varies  betSveen  free  melody  with  simple  accom- 
})anying  harmony,  such  as  those  in  Bach's  Suites 
Anglaises  in  F  and  D  minor,  Handel's  Suites  in 
G  minor  and  £  minor ;  examples  in  which  the 
prominent  melodic  features  are  distiibuted  suc- 
cessively without  regularity  between  the  parts, 
as  in  those  in  the  Suites  Anglaises  in  G  minor 
and  A  minor,  the  Suite  Fran9aise  in  B  minor,  the 
Pai*tita  in  Bb,  and  several  of  Couperin's  ;  and  a 
few  examples  in  which  a  figure  or  chai-acteristic 
mode  of  motion  is  made  to  prevail  almo&t 
throughout,  as  in  the  Suite  Fran9aise  in  £b. 
The  genei-al  effect  of  the  sarabandes  is  noble  and 
serious,  and  the  music  is  more  concentrated  than 
in  any  other  member  of  the  group  of  movements. 
It  is  thus  in  various  respects  the  central  point 
of  the  suite  : — in  position  ;  in  musical  interest 
and  unique  quality ;  and  in  the  fact,  as  observed 
and  curiously  commented  on  by  Nottebohm, 
that  the  preceding  movements  generally  tend  to 
the  solidity  and  the  succeeding  movements  to 
lightness  and  gaiety.  The  order  is  in  this 
respect  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  average 
sonatas,  and  seems  to  be  the  art-ex}>osition  of 
the  same  ideas  of  form  from  the  point  of  view 
of  the  musical  sense,  though  differently  carried 
out  as  far  as  the  actual  manner  and  material  oi 
the  movements  are  concerned. 

In  the  most  concise  examples  of  the  Suite  the 
Sarabande  is  followed  by  the  final  Gigue ;  but 
it  is  so  common  with  all  the  most  notable 
writers  of  suites  to  interpolate  other  movements, 


that  it  may  be  well  to  notice  them  first.  These 
appear  to  have  been  called  by  the  older  writers 
Galanterien,  and  more  lately  Intermezzi ;  and 
seem  to  have  been  regarded  as  a  sort  of  concession 
to  iK)pular  taste.  But  in  any  way  they  answer 
the  purposes  of  form  exceedingly  well.  A  very 
gi'eat  variety  of  dances  is  introduced  at  this 
point  The  most  familiar  are  the  Gavottes, 
Boun'^es,  Minuets,  and  Passepieds.  But  besides 
these  the  most  distinguished  writers  introduced 
Loures,  Polonaises,  movements  called  Arias,  and 
other  less  familiar  forms.  Their  character  on 
the  average  is  especially  light  and  simple,  and  in 
the  dance  numbers  it  is  remarkable  that  they 
alwa3's  preserve  their  dance  character  more 
decidedly  and  obviously  than  any  other  mem- 
ber of  the  group.  It  is  not  possible  to  describe 
them  all  in  detail,  as  they  are  too  numerous,  but 
their  aspect  in  the  group  is  for  the  most  part 
similar,  and  is  analogous  to  that  of  the  Scherzo 
or  Minuet  and  Trio  in  the  modem  sonata.  They 
evidently  strengthen  the  balance  on  either  side 
of  the  sarabando  both  in  quality  and  amount. 
In  many  cases  there  is  a  considerable  group  of 
tliem,  and  in  these  cases  it  is  that  the  Aria  is 
sometimes  introduced.  This  movement  has  little 
connection  with  the  modem  piece  of  the  same 
name,  as  it  is  generally  a  short  movement  in 
the  same  balanced  form  as  the  other  movements, 
but  free  from  the  dance  basis  and  mle  of  time. 
It  is  generally  moderately  slow,  and  sometimes 
consistently  melodious,  as  in  Mattheson's  Suite 
in  A  ;  but  often  it  is  little  more  than  a  string  of 
figures,  without  even  melody  of  much  importance. 
The  group  of  Intermezzi  is  generally  contrasted 
with  the  Sarabande  and  the  Gigue  either  by  a 
square  time  or  by  the  interchange  of  moderate 
movement,  such  as  that  of  the  Minuet ;  and  the 
conciseness  and  distinctness  of  the  type  is  always 
sufiicient  to  make  the  relations  on  both  sides 
perfectly  clear. 

The  Gigue  which  concludes  the  series  is 
theoretically,  and  in  most  cases  actually,  of 
light  and  rapid  style.  It  is  usually  based  on 
some  rhythmic  combination  of  3  feet,  but  even 
this  is  not  invariable.  The  balance  is  in  favour 
of  12-8  time  ;  but  6-8  is  also  common,  and 
12-16  and  3-8  not  unfrequent ;  while  a  few 
are  in  some  form  of  common  time,  as  the  slow 
Gigue  in  the  first  French  Suite  of  Bach,  and 
the  remarkable  example  in  his  last  Partita  in 
E  minor.  The  old  fancy  for  concluding  «  work 
with  a  fugue  is  illustrated  by  the  common 
occurrence  of  fugal  treatment  in  this  member 
alone  of  the  regular  group  of  the  tnie  suite 
series.  The  treatment  is  met  with  in  all  direc- 
tions ;  in  Kuhnau,  Mattheson,  Handel,  Couperin, 
as  well  as  Bach.  The  method  of  application  is 
commonly  to  begin  and  carry  out  a  free  sort  of 
fugue  in  the  first  half,  concluding  like  the  other 
movements  in  the  dominant  key  ;  and  to  take 
up  the  same  subject  freely  *  al  rovescio '  or  by 
contrary  motion  in  the  second  half,  with  regular 


answer  as  in  a  fresh  fughetta,  and  carry  it  out 
on  that  basis  with  the  usual  direction  of 
modulation,  concluding  in  the  original  key. 
Thus  the  fugal  treatment  is  an  accessory  to 
the  usual  form  of  the  suite  movement,  which 
is  here  as  regularly  and  invariably  maintained 
as  in  the  other  members  of  the  gi-oup. 

The  most  important  accessory  which  is  com- 
monly added  to  this  nucleus  is  the  Prelude.  It 
appears  in  a  variety  of  forms,  and  under  a  great 
variety  of  names.  (It  is  worth  noticing  that  all 
six  introductory  movements  of  Bach's  Partitas 
have  different  titles.)  The  chief  point  which  is 
most  obvious  in  relation  to  the  other  movements 
is  that  their  characteristic  form  of  nearly  equal 
halves  is  systematically  avoided ;  in  fact  any 
other  form  seems  to  have  been  taken  in  pre- 
ference. In  many  important  examples  it  is  the 
longest  and  most  elaborate  movement  of  alL 
In  some  it  is  a  sort  of  rhapsody  or  irregular 
group  of  arpeggios  and  other  figures  based 
on  simple  series  of  chords.  Bach  commonly 
developed  it  on  the  same  broad  outlines  as 
some  of  his  largest  sonata  movements,  and  the 
first  and  last  of  the  Italian  Concerto — that  is, 
the  distinct  balancing  section  of  clear  musical 
character  and  full  close  at  the  beginning  and 
end  of  the  movement,  and  the  long  passage  of 
development  and  modulation  in  the  middle, 
sometimes  embracing  new  figures.  This  is 
illustrated  by  the  Preludes  to  the  Suites 
Aifglaises  in  A  minor,  G  minor,  F  and  E  minor. 
In  other  examples  the  treatment  is  fugal,  or 
contains  a  complete  fugue  along  with  other 
matter  of  more  rhapsodical  cast,  as  in  the 
Toccata  of  the  Partita  in  E  minor ;  or  yet 
again  it  is  in  the  form  of  a  Fantasia,  or  of  the 
Overture  as  then  understood.  The  effect  is 
certainly  to  add  breadth  and  stability  to  the 
group  in  no  mean  degree,  and  the  contrast 
with  the  rest  of  the  movements  is  in  every 
respect  unmistakable.  This  completes  the 
general  outline  of  the  Suite  in  its  finest  and 
most  consistently  complete  form,  as  illustrated 
in  Bach's  Suites  Anglaises,  which  must  be 
regarded  as  the  culminating  point  of  the  Saite 
as  an  art-form. 

In  the  matter  of  actual  distribution  of 
movements  there  are  plenty  of  examples  of 
experiments,  even  in  the  time  when  the  usual 
nucleus  had  come  to  be  generally  recognised  ; 
in  fact,  there  is  hardly  any  large  collection  of 
suites  which  does  not  present  some  exceptions 
to  the  rules.  Bach's  departures  from  the  usual 
outlines  are  chiefly  in  the  earliest  examples,  such 
OS  the  Partitas,  in  one  of  which  he  concludes 
with  a  rondo  and  a  caprice.  The  *Ouverture 
h  la  mani^re  Fran^aise,*  for  Clavier,  is  in 
appearance  a  Suite,  but  it  is  clear  that  Bach 
had  not  only  the  Clavier  Suite  type  in  his 
mind  in  laying  out  its  plan,  but  also  the  freer 
distribution  of  numbers  in  the  so-called  French 
Overture  said  to  date  from  Lully.      In   this 


wiin  an  'Jiicno  aicer  ino  uigiie.  ine  worKS 
of  his  which  are  now  commonly  known  as 
Orchestral  Suites  must  be  put  in  the  same 
category.  For  the  inference  suggested  by 
Dehn's  trustworthy  observations  on  the  MSS. 
is  that  Bach  regarded  them  as  Overtures,  and 
that  the  name  Suite  was  added  by  some  one 
else  afterwards.  They  depart  from  the  average 
order  of  the  Clavier  Suite  even  more  conspicu- 
ously than  the  above-mentioned  work.  In 
his  later  compositions  for  Clavier,  as  has  been 
already  remarked,  he  was  very  strict.  Handel's 
Suites  on  the  other  hand  are  conspicuous 
departures  from  the  usual  order.  They  are,  in 
fact,  for  the  most  part  hybrids,  and  very  few 
have  the  genuine  suite  character  as  a  whole. 
The  introduction  of  airs  with  variations,  and 
of  fugues,  in  the  body  of  the  work,  takes  them 
out  of  the  category  of  strict  interdependent  art 
forms,  and  makes  them  appear  rather  as  casual 
strings  of  movements,  which  are  often  as  fit  to 
be  taken  alone  or  in  different  groups  as  in  the 
group  into  which  he  has  thrown  them.  More- 
over they  illustrate  somewhat,  as  Nottebohm 
has  also  observed,  the  peculiar  position  which 
Handel  occupied  in  art,  as  not  pure  German 
only,  but  also  as  representative  of  some  of  the 
finest  traits  of  the  Italian  branch  of  the  art. 
The  tendency  of  the  Italians  after  Corelli  was 
towards  the  Violin  Sonata,  a  distinct  branch 
from  the  original  stem,  and  to  this  order  some 
of  Handel's  Suites  tend  to  approximate.  It 
was  chiefly  by  thorough  Germans  that  the  suite- 
form  was  developed  in  its  auaterest  simplicity  ; 
and  in  that  condition  and  in  relation  to  their 
keyed  instruments  it  seems  tliat  the  usual 
group  is  the  most  satisfactory  that  has  been 
devised. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  Suite  as  an  art- form  is 
far  more  elementary  and  in  expansive  than  the 
Sonata.  In  fact  it  attained  its  maturity  long 
before  the  complete  development  of  the  latter 
form  ;  and  not  a  little  of  the  interest  which  at- 
taches to  it  is  derived  from  that  and  collateral 
facts.  It  was  tlie  first  instrumental  form  in 
which  several  movements  were  combined  into  a 
complete  whole.  It  was  the  first  in  which  the 
ecclesiastical  influences  which  had  been  so 
powerful  in  all  high-class  music  were  completely 
supplanted  by  a  secular  type  of  equally  high 
artistic  value.  Lastly,  it  was  the  highest 
representative  instrumental  form  of  the  con- 
trapuntal period,  as  the  Sonata  is  the  highest 
of  the  harmonic  period.  It  was  brought  to 
perfection  when  the  modem  sonata  was  still  in 
its  infancy,  and  before  those  ideas  of  key  and 
of 'the  relations  of  harmonies  which  lie  at  the 
root  of  sonata-form  had  become  tangible  realities 
to  men's  minds.  In  some  respects  the  complete 
plan  has  the  aspect  of  formalism  and  rigidity. 
The   uniformity   of   key   is   sometimes    taken 


somewnac  oi  a  arawoacK ;  out  ic  must  oe 
remembered  that  the  form  is  a  representative 
product  of  a  peculiar  artistic  period,  and  devised 
for  a  particular  keyed  instrument,  and  for  minds 
as  yet  unaccustomed  to  the  varied  elaboration 
of  the  sonata.  The  results  are  remarkable  and 
valuable  in  a  high  degree ;  and  though  this 
may  be  chiefly  owing  to  the  exceptional  powers 
of  the  composers  who  made  use  of  the  form,  it 
is  possible  that  as  a  pattern  for  the  combination 
of  small  pieces  it  may  still  be  worthy  of  regard. 
In  fact  the  combination  of  short  lyrical  move- 
ments such  as  are  characteristic  of  modern 
times  has  strong  points  of  analogy  with  it. 
Moreover,  since  it  is  obviously  possible  to 
introduce  modifications  of  some  of  the  details 
which  were  too  rigid  in  the  early  scheme  with- 
out destroying  the  general  principles  fof  the 
form,  it  seems  that  genuine  and  valuable  musical 
results  may  still  be  obtained  by  grafting  charac- 
teristics of  modem  treatment  and  expression 
upon  the  old  stock.  There  already  exist  several 
experiments  of  this  kind  by  modem  composers 
of  mark ;  and  the  Suites  for  orchestra,  piano- 
forte, violoncello,  or  violin,  by  Lachner,  Raff", 
Bargiel,  Saint- Saens,  Tchaikovsky,  Ries,  and 
Cowen,  are  not  by  any  means  among  their  least 
successful  eflbrts.  c.  H.  h.  p. 

SUK,  Josef.  See  Bohemian  String 
Quartet. 

SULLIVAN,  Sir  Arthur  Seymour,  was 
born  in  London,^  May  13,  1842.  His  father, 
a  native  of  County  Cork,  was  a  bandmaster, 
and  chief  professor  of  the  clarinet  at  Kneller 
Hall ;  he  was  thus  bom  amongst  music.  His 
first  systematic  instmction  was  received  from 
the  Rev.  Thomas  Helmore,  Master  of  the 
Children  of  the  Chapel  Royal,  which  he  entered 
April  12,  1854,  and  left  on  the  change  of  his 
voice,  June  22,  1867.  While  at  the  Chapel 
Royal  he  wrote  many  anthems  and  small 
pieces.  One  of  them,  '0  Israel,'  a  'sacred 
song,*  was  published  by  Novellos  in  1855.  In 
1866  the  Mendelssohn  Scholarship  was  brought 
into  active  existence,  and  in  July  of  that  year 
Sullivan  was  elected  the  first  scholar.  With- 
out leaving  the  Chapel  Royal  he  began  to  study 
at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music  under  Goss  and 
Stemdale  Bennett,  and  remained  there  till  his 
departure  for  Leipzig  in  the  autumn  of  1858. 
An  overture  *  of  considerable  merit '  is  men- 
tioned ^  at  this  time  as  having  been  played  at 
one  of  the  private  concerts  of  the  Academy. 
At  Leipzig  he  entered  the  Conservatorium  under 
Plaidy,  Hauptmann,  Richter,  Julius  Rietz,  and 
Moscheles,  and  remained  there  in  company 
with  Walter  Bache,  John  F.  Bamett,  Franklin 
Taylor,  and  Carl  Rosa,  till  the  end  of  1861. 

»  A] 
Time* 


744 


SULLIVAN 


SULLIVAN 


He  then  returned  to  London,  bringing  with 
him  his  music  to  Shakespeare's  'Tempest' 
(op.  1  a,  dedicated  to  Sir  George  Smart),  which 
was  produced  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  April  5, 
1862,  and  repeated  on  the  12th  of  the  same 
month. 

This  beautiful  composition  made  a  groat 
sensation  in  musical  circles,  and  launched  him 
into  London  musical  society.  Two  very  grace- 
ful pianoforte  pieces,  entitled  'Thoughts,'  were 
among  his  earliest  publications.  The  arrival 
of  the  Princess  of  Wales  in  March  1868,  pro- 
duced a  song,  'Bride  from  the  North,'  and  a 
Procession  March  and  Trio  in  Eb  ;  and  a  song 
entitled  'I  heard  the  Nightingale'  was  pub- 
lished April  28  of  the  same  year.  But  his 
next  work  of  importance  was  a  cantata  called 
'  Kenilworth,'  words  by  the  late  H.  F.  Chorley, 
>vritten  for  the  Birmingham  Festival  of  1864, 
and  produced  there.  It  contains  a  fine  duet, 
for  soprano  and  tenor,  to  Shakespeare's  words, 
'On  such  a  nj[ght  as  this.'  His  music  to  the 
ballet  of  'L'lle  enchant^e*  was  iiroduced  at 
Covent  Garden,  May  16,  1864. 

At  this  date  he  lost  much  time  over  an 
opera  called  '  The  Sapphire  Necklace,'  also  by 
Chorley ;  the  undramatic  character  of  the 
libretto  of  which  prevented  its  representation. 
The  music  was  used  up  in  other  works.  In 
March  1866  Sullivan  produced  a  Symphony  in 
E  at  the  Crystal  Palace,  which  has  been  often 
played  subsequently,  there  and  at  the  Philhar- 
monic, etc.  In  the  same  year  he  expressed  his 
grief  for  the  loss  of  his  father  in  an  overture 
entitled  '  In  Memoriam,'  which  was  produced 
(Oct.  30)  at  the  Norwich  Festival  of  that  year. 
A  concerto  for  violoncello  and  orchestra  was 
played  by  Piatti  at  the  Crystal  Palace  on 
Nov.  24.  This  was  followed  by  an  overture, 
'Marmion,'  commissioned  by  the  Philharmonic 
Society,  and  produced  by  them  June  3,  1867. 
In  the  autumn  of  that  year  he  accompanied 
his  friend  the  Editor  of  this  Dictionary 
[Sir  George  Grove]  to  Vienna,  in  search  of 
the  Schubert  MSS.,  which  have  since  be- 
come so  well  known.  At  the  same  time  his 
symphony  was  played  at  the  Gewandhaus 
at  Leipzig.  In  1869  he  composed  a  short 
oratorio  on  the  story  of  the  '  Prodigal  Son,'  for 
the  Worcester  Festival,  where  it  was  produced 
on  Sept  8.  In  1870  he  again  contributed  a 
work  to  the  Birmingham  Festival,  the  *  Over- 
ture di  Ballo '  (in  Eb),  which,  while  couched 
throughout  in  dance-rhythms,  is  constructed  in 
perfectly  classical  form.  To  continue  the  list 
of  his  commissioned  works:  in  1871,  in  com- 
pany with  Gounod,  Hiller,  and  Pinsuti,  he 
wrote  a  piece  for  the  opening  of  the  '  Annual 
International  Exhibition*  at  the  Albert  Hall, 
on  May  1 — a  cantata  by  Tom  Taylor  called 
'  On  Shore  and  Sea,'  for  solo,  chorus,  and  or- 
chestra. On  the  recovery  of  the  Prince  of  Wales 
from  illness,  he  composed,  at  the  call  of  the 


Crystal  Palace  Company,  a  Festival  Te  Deum, 
for  soprano  solo,  orchestra,  and  chorus,  which 
was  performed  there  May  1,  1872.  At  this 
time  he  was  closely  engaged  in  editing  the 
collection  of  '  Church  Hymns  with  Tunes  *  for 
the  Christian  Knowledge  Society,  for  which 
he  wrote  twenty -one  original  tunes.  In  1873 
he  made  a  third  appearance  at  Birmingham, 
this  time  with  the  leading  feature  of  the  Festival, 
an  oratorio  entitled  '  The  Light  of  the  W^orld,' 
the  words  selected  from  the  Bible  by  himself. 
The  success  of  this  work  at  Birmingham  was 
great,  and  it  has  often  since  been  performed. 
Sullivan  succeeded  Sir  Michael  Costa  as  con- 
ductor of  the  Leeds  Festival  of  1880,  and  wrote 
for  it '  The  Martyr  of  Antioch,*  to  words  selected 
from  Milman's  play  of  that  name.  The  work 
lies  between  an  oratorio  and  a  cantata,  and  was 
enthusiastically  received.  He  conducted  the 
Leeds  Festivals  from  1888  to  1898,  composing 
for  the  latter  'The  Golden  Legend,'  to  words 
selected  by  Joseph  Bennett  from  Longfellow's 
poem. 

We  will  now  go  back  to  those  works  which 
have  made  Sullivan's  name  most  widely  known, 
not  only  in  Europe  but  in  Australia  and  America 
— his  comic  operettas,  and  his  songs.  '  Cox  and 
Box,  a  new  Triumviretta/  was  an  adaptation  by 
F.  C.  Burnand  of  Madison  Morton's  well-known 
farce,  made  still  more  comic  by  the  interpola- 
tions, and  set  by  Sullivan  with  a  brightness  and 
a  drollery  which  at  once  put  him  in  the  highest 
rank  as  a  comic  composer.^  It  was  first  heard 
at  Moray  Lodge  (Mr.  Arthur  J.  Lewis's)  on 
April  27,  1867,  and  produced  in  public  at  the 
Adelphi  a  fortnight  after,  on  May  11.  The 
vein  thus  struck  was  not  at  first  very  rapidly 
worked.  '  The  Contrabandista '  (2  acts,  words 
by  Burnand)*  followed  at  St.  George's  Opera 
'  House  on  Dec.  18,  1867  ;  but  then  there  was  a 
pause.  '  Thespis,  or  the  Gods  grown  old  ;  an 
operatic  extravaganza,'  by  Gilbert  (Gaiety, 
Dec  26,  1871),  and  'The  Zoo,  an  original 
musical  folly,'  by  B.  Rowe  (St.  James's,  June  5, 
1875),  though  full  of  fim  and  animation,  were 
neither  of  them  sufficient  to  take  the  public 
*  Trial  by  Jury,  an  extravaganza ' — and  a  very 
extravagant  one  too — words  by  W,  S.  Gilbert, 
produced  at  the  Royalty,  March  25,  1875,  had 
a  great  success,  and  many  representations,  owing 
in  part  to  the  very  humorous  conception  of  the 
character  of  the  Judge  by  Sullivan's  brother 
Frederick.  But  none  of  these  can  be  said  to 
have  taken  a  real  hold  on  the  public.  'The 
Sorcerer,  an  original  modem  comic  opera,'  by 
W.  S.  Gilbert,  which  first  established  the  popu- 
larity of  its  comijoser,  was  a  new  departure,  a 
piece  of  larger  dimensions  and  more  substance 
than  any  of  its  predecessors.  It  was  produced 
at  the  Op^ra-Comique,  Strand,  Nov.  17,  1877, 
and  ran  uninterruptedly  for  175  nights.     The 

I  See  ntiut  of  May  13. 1887. 

3  This  op«ra  «•■  written,  oompoaed,  and  prodaced  In  the  cxtn- 

ordinarily  abort  apnea  of  aixteen  days. 


smiin,  was  mainuunea  m  ue  Dexi,  -  n.m.o. 
Pinafore/  i)rodnced  at  the  same  house,  May  25, 
1878.  This  Dot  only  ran  in  London  for  700 
consecutive  nights  (besides  an  unauthorised 
series  of  performances  at  another  theatre),  but 
had  an  extraordinary  vogue  in  the  provinces, 
and  was  adopted  in  the  United  States  to  a  degree 
exceeding  all  previous  record.  To  protect  their 
interests  there,  Sullivan  and  Gilbert  visited  the 
United  States  in  1879,  and  remained  for  several 
months.  An  attempt  to  bring  out  the  piece  at 
Berlin  as  '  Amor  am  Bord '  ^  failed,  owing  to 
the  impossibility  of  anything  like  political  carica- 
ture in  Germany.  But  it  was  published  by 
Litolflf  in  1882,  The  vein  of  droll  satire  on 
current  topics  adopted  in  the  last  two  pieces  was 
fully  kei>t  up  in  *The  Pirates  of  Penzance' 
(April  3,  1880),  and  'Patience,  an  aesthetic 
opera '  (April  26, 1881),  during  the  run  of  which 
the  company  moved  to  the  Savoy  Theatre  built 
especially  for  these  operas,  and  opened  on 
Oct.  10,  1881.  ['lolanthe'  was  brought  out 
on  Nov.  26,  1882,  'Princess  Ida*  on  Jan.  5, 
1 884,  and  the  most  successful  of  the  whole  series, 
*The  Mikado,' on  March  14,  1886.  *Ruddi- 
gore*  followed  it  on  Jan.  22, 1887,  *  The  Yeomen 
of  the  Guard '  on  Oct  3,  1888,  and  •  The  Gon- 
doliers'  on  Dec  7,  1889.  Up  to  this  time  the 
happy  partnership  formed  between  Sullivan, 
Gilbert,  and  D'Oyly  Carte  had  remained  un- 
broken, and  uniform  favour  crowned  their  suc- 
cessive undertakings,  the  run  of  each  opera  only 
ceasing  with  the  production  of  its  successor. 
From  the  time  of  the  rupture,  the  management 
relied  on  revivals  of  the  i-epertory  that  had  been 
formed,  and  upon  attempts  by  others  to  carry 
on  what  were  called  the  *  Savoy  traditions.' 
Sullivan  himself  contributed  'Uaddon  Hall'  to 
a  libretto  by  Sydney  Grundy,  and  it  w^as  pro- 
duced on  Sept.  24,  1892.  The  reconcilement  of 
the  Savoy  differences  was  a  matter  of  national 
rejoicing,  and  on  Oct.  7, 1893,  the  next  Gilbert 
and  Sullivan  opera  was  seen,  called  'Utopia 
Limited ' ;  for  the  next  production,  a  revival  of 
the  '  Contrabandista' — to  a  libretto  of  Bumand's 
— with  various  modifications  of  the  original,  was 
given  as  'Tlie  Chieftain,'  on  Dec.  12,  1894. 
On  March  7,  1896,  'The  Grand  Duke,'  a  new 
Gilbert  and  Sullivan  piece,  was  produced,  but 
after  a  revival  of  '  The  Gondoliers,'  the  continu- 
ance of  the  famous  collaboration  was  once  more 
broken,  and  '  The  Beauty  Stone,'  to  a  libretto 
by  Messrs.  Comyns  Carr  and  A.  W.  Pinero,  was 
produced  on  May  28,  1898.  With  the  produc- 
tion of  'The  Rose  of  Persia,'  to  a  libretto 
by  Captain  Basil  Hood,  on  Nov.  29,  1899,  a 
new  period  of  success  seemed  to  have  been 
begun,  and  the  reception  of  the  work  by  the 
public  was  almost  as  great  as  that  given  for  so 
many  years  to  the   two  collaborators.     'The 

>  Amnged  for  the  Gemuui  aUge  by  Ernst  Dohm. 


composer  a  aeain ;  me  music  was  nnisnea  uy 
Edward  German,  who  in  'Merrie  England'  and 
'  A  Princess  of  Kensington '  made  an  excellent 
effort  to  continue  the  genre.  For  one  reason 
or  another  it  was  found  impossible  to  keep 
the  vogue  the  theatre  had  so  long  enjoyed  ; 
but  in  these  latter  days,  now  that  the  fashion 
of  the  rule  of  the  so-called  '  musical  comedy ' 
seems  a  little  on  the  wane,  the  more  educated 
portions  of  the  public  have  shown  a  decided 
inclination  to  return  to  the  Savoy  form  of 
entertainment ;  and,  while  all  over  the  country 
the  popularity  of  the  Gilbert  and  Sullivan  operas 
has  never  decreased,  the  curious  prohibition  of 
'  The  Mikado,'  and  the  still  more  curious  with- 
drawal of  that  prohibition,  have  placed  the 
work  higher  in  popular  Dsivoui*  than  it  ever  was 
before.  It  was  generally  felt  that  Sullivan  was 
devoting  himself  too  exclusively  to  the  light 
music  in  which  he  was  so  accomplished  a  master  ; 
and  in  the  first  edition  of  this  Dictionary  Sir 
George  Grove  expressed  the  hope  that  he  would 
'  apt^ly  his  gifts  to  the  production  of  a  serious 
opera  on  some  subject  of  abiding  human  or 
national  interest.'  When  «  new  theatre  was 
built  at  Cambridge  Circus  by  D'Oyly  Caite,  for 
the  special  purpose  of  realising  this  hope,  public 
interest  and  encouragement  reached  an  extra- 
ordinary intensity;  and  'The  Royal  English 
Opera  House'  was  o|)ened  on  Jan.  31,  1891, 
with  the  grand  opera  'Ivanhoe,'  in  three  acts, 
to  a  libretto  by  Julian  Sturgis.  Everything 
was  done  to  ensure  the  success  of  the  important 
undertaking,  which,  had  the  scheme  been  a 
little  bolder  and  more  widely  based,  would  no 
doubt  have  reached  the  permanent  success  at 
which  it  aimed.  Various  circumstances  con- 
tributed to  the  ultimate  failure  of  the  scheme, 
and  to  the  establishment  of  the  '  Palace  Theatre 
of  Varieties '  in  its  stead.  The  composer  had 
apparently  found  it  difficult  to  throw  over  all 
the  Savoy  traditions  at  once,  and  accordingly 
he  interspersed,  with  scenes  in  which  real 
dramatic  interest  was  displayed,  some  which 
were  in  a  flimsy  style,  quite  incongruous  with 
the  rest.  The  impression  at  the  time  was  that 
unless  a  piece  ran  for  at  least  one  hundred 
nights  consecutively,  it  could  not  rank  as  a 
success,  and  in  order  to  secure  this  long  run, 
and  in  view  of  the  impossibility  of  any  singers 
repeating  trpng  parts  for  six  or  seven  perform- 
ances per  week,  two  casts  of  principal  singers 
were  engaged  ;  but  it  was  impossible  to  foresee 
which  representatives  would  api>ear  on  any 
given  night,  and  as  the  seats  had  to  be  booked 
long  beforehand,  the  admirers  of  the  composer  at 
last  got  tired  of  the  uncertainty  and  withdrew 
their  patronage  from  the  undertaking.  Another 
mistake  was  made,  for  although  rumours  were 
heard   t  )us  new   English   operas   being 

prepare  ke  the  place  of  '  Ivanhoe,'  none 


was  i-eady  when  its  popularity  was  over,  and 
Messager's  pretty  *  Basochc '  was  produced  ;  at 
the  close  of  the  run  of  this  piece,  the  theatre 
was  transformed  into  a  music-hall.  Sullivan 
wrote  a  good  many  sets  of  incidental  music  to 
plays,  beside  *The  Tempest/  "mth.  which  his 
first  recognition  had  been  obtained.  'The 
Merchant  of  Venice,'  at  the  Prince's  Theatre, 
Manchester,  1871  ;  *The  Merry  Wives  of 
Windsor,'GaietyThcatre,1874;  *  Henry  VIII.,' 
Manchester,  1878 ;  *  Macbeth/  Lyceum  Theatre, 
1888  ;  Tennyson's  *  Foresters,'  1892  (first  pro- 
duced in  America,  and  afterwards  at  Daly's 
Theatre) ;  and  Comyns  Carr's  *  King  Arthur,' 
Lyceum  Theatre,  1894,  are  the  most  important 
of  these  compositions.  The  Diamond  Jubilee 
of  Queen  Victoria  was  celebrated  by  Sullivan 
in  two  compositions  :  the  ballet,  *  Victoria  and 
Merrie  £Ingland,'  produced  at  the  Alhambra, 
May  25,  1897,  in  which  a  danced  fugue  was 
the  best  and  most  interesting  number ;  and  a 
*  Festival  Te  Deum, '  given  at  the  Chester  Festival 
of  1897.  The  opening  of  the  Imperial  Institute 
in  1893  suggested  a  March,  and  various  public 
events  of  the  same  kind  were  celebrated  by 
compositions,  for  in  some  sort  Sullivan  ranked 
as  a  poet  laureate  of  music]  Such  unpre- 
cedented recognition  speaks  for  itself.  But  it 
is  higher  praise  to  say,  with  a  leading  critic, 
that  *  while  Mr.  Sullivan's  music  is  as  comic 
and  lively  as  anything  by  Offenbach,  it  has  the 
extra  advantage  of  being  the  work  of  a  cultivated 
musician,  who  would  scorn  to  write  ungram- 
matically even  if  he  could.* 

Sullivan's  songs  were  in  their  day  as  well 
known  as  his  operettas.  They  are  almost  always 
of  a  tender  or  sentimental  cast ;  and  some  of 
them,  such  as  *  Sweet  day  so  cool,  so  calm,  so 
bright '  ;  the  *  Arabian  Love  Song,'  by  Shelley  ; 
*0  fair  dove,  0  fond  dove,'  by  Jean  Ingelow  ; 
the  Shakespeare  Songs  and  the  Song -cycle  of 
*The  Window,'  written  for  the  purpose  by 
Tennyson,  stand  in  a  very  high  rank.  None  of 
these,  however,  have  attained  the  popularity  of 
others,  which,  though  slighter  than  those  just 
named,  and  more  in  the  ballad  style,  have  hit 
the  public  taste  to  a  remarkable  degree.  'Such 
are  '  Will  he  come  ? '  and  *  The  Lost  Chord,'  *  0 
ma  charmante'  (V.  Hugo)  ;  *  The  Distant  Shore ' 
and  *  Sweethearts  '  (both  by  W.  S.  Gilbert),  etc. 
[His  last  composition,  in  the  shape  of  a  single 
song,  was  'The  Absent- Minded  Beggar'  to 
words  by  Kipling  ;  this  served  its  purpose  of 
obtaining  substantial  aid  for  charities  conse- 
quent upon  the  Boer  War.] 

The  same  tunefulness  and  appropriateness 
that  have  made  his  songs  such  favourites  also 
distinguish  his  numerous  Anthems.  Here  the 
excellent  training  of  the  Chapel  Royal  shows 
itself  without  disguise,  in  the  easy  flow  of  the 
voices,  the  display  of  excellent,  and  even  learned, 
counterpoint,  when  demanded  by  words  or  sub- 
ject, and  the  frequent  examples  throughout  of 


that  melodious  style  and  independent  treatment 
that  marks  the  anthems  of  certain  periods  of 
the  old  English  school.  His  part-songs,  like 
his  anthems,  are  flo^ving  and  spirited,  and  always 
appropriate  to  the  words.  There  are  two  sets  : 
one  sacred,  dedicated  to  his  friend  Franklin 
Taylor,  and  one  secular,  of  which  *  0  hush  thee, 
my  babie '  has  long  been  an  established  favourite. 

His  Hymn- tunes  are  numerous — 66  in  all — 
and  some  of  them,  such  as  '  Onward,  Christian 
Soldiers,'  have  become  great  favourites.  The 
whole  were  republished  in  a  volume  by  Novello 
in  1902. 

If  his  vocal  works  have  gained  Sir  Arthur 
Sullivan  the  applause  of  the  public,  it  is  in  his 
orchestral  music  that  his  name  will  live  among 
musicians.  His  music  to  *  The  Tempest '  and 
*  The  Merchant  of  Venice,*  his  oratorios,  his 
Overture  di  Ballo,  and,  still  more,  his  Symphony 
in  E — unfortunately  his  only  work  in  this  de- 
partment— show  what  remarkable  gifts  he  had 
for  the  orchestra.  Form  and  symmetry  he 
seemed  to  possess  by  instinct ;  rhythm  and 
melody  clothe  everything  he  touched  ;  the  music 
shows  not  only  sympathetic  genius,  but  sense, 
judgment,  proportion,  and  a  complete  absence 
of  pedantry  and  pretension  ;  while  the  orches- 
tration is  distinguished  by  a  happy  and  original 
beauty  hardly  surpassed  by  the  greatest  roasters. 

During  the  early  part  of  his  career  Sullivan 
was  organist  of  St.  Michael's  Church,  Chester 
Square.  After  this,  in  1867,  he  undertook  the 
direction  of  the  music  at  St.  Peter's,  Cranley 
Gardens,  for  which  many  of  his  anthems  were 
composed,  and  where  he  remained  till  1871.  He 
was  musical  adviser  to  the  Royal  Aquarium  Com- 
pany from  its  incorporation  in  July  1874  down 
to  May  1876,  organised  the  admirable  band  with 
which  it  started,  and  himself  conducted  its  per- 
formances. For  the  seasons  1878  and  1879  he 
conducted  the  Promenade  Concerts  at  Covent 
Garden  for  Messrs.  Gatti ;  and  for  those  of  1875- 
1876,  and  1876-77,  the  Glasgow  Festivals.  He 
was  Principal  of  the  National  Training  School  at 
South  Kensington  from  1876  to  1881,  when  his 
engagements  compelled  him  to  resign  in  favour 
of  Dr.  Stainer,  and  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Council  of  the  Royal  College  of  Music.  He  re- 
ceived the  Honorary  Degree  of  Doctor  of  Music 
from  the  University  of  Cambridge  in  1876,  and 
Oxford,  1879.  In  1878  he  acted  as  British 
Commissioner  for  Music  at  the  International 
Exhibition  at  Paris,  and  was  decorated  with  the 
Legion  d'honmur.  He  also  bore  the  Order  of 
Saxe-Coburg  and  Gotha,  and  on  May  22,  188S, 
was  knighted  by  Queen  Victoria. 

[At  the  Leeds  Festival  of  1898  it  was  evident 
that  he  was  in  failing  health,  but  he  accomplished 
the  difficult  task  of  conducting  the  performances, 
although  suffering  much  pain.  He  died  in 
London,  Nov.  22,  1900,  and  was  buried  in  St, 
Paul's  Cathedral  on  the  27th.  A  preliminary 
funeral  service  was  held  in  the  Chapel  Royal. 


six  sacred  part-ao^gs,  three  carols,  arrangements, 
sacred  songs,  etc.  (See  Musical  TiiticSy  1901, 
p.  24.)  In  1868  nine  part-songs,  an  ode  for 
baritone  and  orchestra,  *  I  vnah  to  tune,*  were 
composed.  The  popular  *  The  long  day  closes ' 
is  among  the  former.  Songs  to  the  number  of 
about  seventy  were  published  in  his  earlier  years, 
most  of  them  before  the  vogue  of  the  Savoy 
operas  began.  Among  instrumental  works  are 
to  be  mentioned,  beside  the  symphony,  the 
concerto,  and  the  marches  already  referred  to,  a 
'Duo  concertante'  for  piano  and  violoncello, 
and  nine  short  pieces  for  piano  solo,  dating  from 
about  1862  to  1867. 

The  penalty  of  excessive  contemporary  popu- 
larity has  been  paid  since  Sullivan's  death,  for 
although  that  event  came  like  a  national 
disaster,  his  more  important  compositions  have 
been  almost  entirely  neglected  from  that  time. 
Even  the  beautiful  *  Golden  Legend,'  which 
enjoyed  enormous  popularity  for  many  years, 
has  been  only  heard  comparatively  seldom  of 
late  years.  It  is  quite  probable  that  the  pen- 
dulum will  swing  back  some  day  and  a  new 
period  of  popularity  begin.]  o, 

SUL  PONTICELLO.     See  vol.  iii.  p.  790. 

SULZER,  Salomon,  Precentor  of  the  Jews' 
synagogue  in  Vienna,  and  reformer  of  their 
musical  service,  was  bom  March  30,  1804,  at 
Hohenems  in  Vorarlberg.  The  name  was  de- 
rived from  Sulz  in  Wiirtemberg,  the  ancient  resi- 
dence of  the  family.  When  only  thirteen  he 
was  made  cantor  of  the  synagogue  at  his  native 
village  by  the  Emperor  Franz  I.,  and  in  1825 
was  called  to  Vienna  to  conduct  the  music  at 
the  nowly  built  synagogue  there.  There  he 
took  lessons  in  composition  from  Seyfried,  and 
set  himself  earnestly  to  reform  the  service 
by  reducing  the  old  melodies  to  rhythm  and 
harmonising  them.  His  collection  of  Jewish 
hymns,  under  the  name  of  *  Schir  Zion  *  (the 
Harp  of  Zion),  was  ase<l  all  over  Germany,  Italy, 
and  even  America ;  but  it  was  not  till  1838 
that  he  could  succeed  in  publishing  it.  It 
contains  a  setting  of  the  92nd  Psalm  (in  Moses 
Mendelssohn's  version)  by  Schubert,  for  bari- 
tone solo,  anrl  four  men's  voices,  made  in  July 
1828,  the  autograph  of  which  is  in  possession 
of  the  synagogue  (Nottebohm's  Catalogxvey  p. 
229).  In  1842  a  second  edition  appeared,  and 
in  1865  a  second  volume.  A  collection  of  home 
and  school  songs,  entitled  *  Dudaim '  (Man- 
drakes), appears  to  be  still  in  MS.  In  1866  a 
fete  was  held  in  his  honour  and  a  silver  laurel 
presented  to  him  with  the  inscription  'The 
Artists  of  Vienna  to  the  Artist  Sulzer.'  From 
1844  to  1847  he  was  Professor  of  Singing  at  the 
Vienna  Conservator-"''".  He  was  a  Ritter  of 
the  Order  of  Fran  iph  (1868),  and  carried 

tho  medals  of  va  locieties.     His  voice,  a 

baritone,  is  said  been  magnificent,  and 


Vienna,  Jan.  18,  1890.  g.       ^ 

SUMER   IS    ICUMEN   IN   (Latin    words,  ^^ 
Perspice   Xpieola  =  Christicola),     A    *  Rota '  or  \Jifhj&U^ 
Round  of  great  antiquity,  the  original  MS.  of  ^     h  3i 
which  is  preserved  in  vol.  978  of  the  Harleian        '  » 
collection,  in  the  British  Museum. 

So  important  are  the  questions  raised  by  this 
document,  in  connection  not  only  with  the 
history  of  the  English  School,  but  with  that  of 
Medieval  Music  in  all  other  European  countries, 
that  we  cannot  too  earnestly  recommend  them  to 
the  consideration  of  all  who  are  interested  in 
tracing  the  development  of  our  present  system 
to  its  earliest  sources.  The  accompanying  fac- 
simile is  reduced  by  photography  from  7fVx 
5tV  in-»  to  6|  X  4^,  and  we  add  (pp.  750-51)  a 
solution  of  the  Canon,  in  modern  notation,  but 
othenvise  scored  in  exact  accordance  with  the 
Latin  directions  appended  to  the  original  MS. 
The  only  characters  employed  in  the  original 
are,  the  C  clef;  the  B  rotundum  (=Bb) ; 
square  black-tailed  notes,  sometimes  perfect  by 
position,  and  sometimes  imperfect ;  one  square 
black  note  Avithout  a  tail ;  and  black  lozenge- 
shaped  notes,  also  without  tails  ;  except  in 
one  solitary  case  which  we  can  scarcely  con- 
ceive to  be  accidental — the  first  of  the  three 
notes  sung  to  the  word  *  in.  *  These  are  replaced, 
in  the  reduction,  by  the  G  clef  for  the  four  upper 
parts,  and  the  F  clef  for  the  two  lower  ones, 
forming  the  Pes  ;  by  dotted  semibreves  for  tlie 
tailed  notes,  when  perfect,  and  semibreves  with- 
out dots  for  those  that  are  imperfect ;  by  a 
semibreve  without  a  dot  for  the  single  untailed 
square  note  ;  by  minims  for  the  untailed  lozenge- 
shaped  notes  ;  and  by  a  dotted  minim,  followed 
by  a  crotchet,  for  the  solitary  lozenge-shaped 
note  with  a  tail.  For  the  time-signature,  wo 
have  used  the  circle,  and  the  figure  3,  indicative 
of  Perfect  Time,  in  combination  with  the  Lesser 
Prolation — a  form  closely  corresponding  with 
the  signature  3-2  in  modem  music. 

We  have  thought  it  necessary  to  print  the 
solution  of  the  Canon  in  extmso,  because,  to  the 
best  of  our  belief,  no  correct  Score  has  hitherto 
\i,e,  in  1883]  been  published.  Hawkins  clearly 
misunderstood  the  two  Ligatiires  in  the  Pcs^ 
and  misprinted  the  passage,  at  every  repeti- 
tion. Bumey  corrected  this  mistake  ;  but  l>oth 
historians  have  given  an  erroneous  adaptation 
of  the  text  to  the  notes,  in  bars  Wet  aeq.,^  at  the 
words  *  Wei  singes  thu  cuccu  ne  swik  thu  nauer 
nu ' ;  and  both,  in  bar  40,  have  systematically 
misprinted  the  note  sung  to  the  second  syllable 
of  '  cuccu,'  giving  G  instead  of  A  every  time  it 
occurs.  It  is  true  that  in  certain  bars  G 
agrees  better  than  A  with  Hawkins's  misprinted 
PeSy  but  with  Bumey's  correct  Pes^  it  makes  a 
horrible  discord. 

>  The  r«frtr*no«i  are  to  onr  own  pcore.  the  bftni  in  which  ar* 
numbered  for  the  render's  convenience. 


*'f  '7'^ 


y*     ^     *  V     T  ^    1    "      ^^ 


'^er(ftK;>yittaEl><ff(gr  ^ijTmcio^  cellcar^  arttoo--- 


JU-4-     -'• 


U    too  ttHar"^'>;;qg  ■  fiUo-—  Marij> 


xUr 


Man|egcgnf(igftiu^ 


\m^xmihkji^ma^ 


i^ 


^«ftt^ 


opinions  hazarded,  from  time  to  time,  on  the 
antiquity  of  the  Rota  ;  which  opinions  we  shall 
now  proceed  to  consider  in  detail. 

The  MS.  was  first  described  by  Mr.  Wanley, 
the  famous  antiquary,  who,  acting  in  the 
capacity  of  Librarian  to  the  Earl  of  Oxford, 
wrote  an  account  of  it  in  his  Catalogue  of  th^ 
Harleian  MSS,  about  the  year  1709  ;  assigning 
to  it  no  positive  date,  but  pronouncing  it  to  be 
by  far  the  oldest  example  of  the  kind  he  had 
ever  met  with^ — an  assertion  which  must  be 
received  with  all  respect,  since  Mr.  Wanley  was 
not  only  a  learned  antiquary,  but  an  accom- 
plished musician. 

In  the  year  1770  Sir  John  Hawkins  men- 
tioned the  Rota  in  the  first  volume  of  his 
History  of  Miisic,  illustrating  his  description 
by  a  copy  of  the  Gtdda,  in  the  original  square 
black  notes,  followed  by  a  not  very  correct 
solution  of  the  canon,  scored  for  six  voices, 
including  those  which  sing  the  Pes.  Hawkins 
imagines  the  term  *  Rota '  to  ai)ply  to  the  Latin 
rather  than  the  English  '  words  ;  and  refera  the 
MS.  to  *  about  the  middle  of  the  16th  century, 
on  the  ground  that  the  !Music  is  of  the  kind 
called  Cantics  JiguratuSf  which  appears  to  have 
been  the  invention  of  John  of  Dunstable,  who 
wTote  on  the  Canttis  menstirdbilis^  and  died  in 
1455.'  This  statement,  however,  involves  an 
anachronism  which  renders  Hawkins's  opinion 
as  to  the  date  of  the  MS.  absolutely  worthless. 

Dr.  Bumey,  in  the  second  volume  of  his 
History^  described  the  composition  as  not  being 
much  later  than  the  18th  or  14th  century, 
printed  a  copy  of  the  Canon  in  the  original 
mediseval  Notation,  and  subjoined  a  complete 
score,  more  correct  than  that  supplied  by  Haw- 
kins, yet  not  altogether  free  from  errors. 

Ritson  referred  the  MS.  to  the  middle  of  the 
13th  century  ;  and  fancied — not  without  reason 
— that  neither  Hawkins  nor  Burney  cared  to 
risk  tlieir  reputation  by  mentioning  a  date 
which  could  scarcely  fail  to  cause  adverse 
criticism. 

In  1819  Dr.  Busby  reprinted  the  Rota,  follow- 
ing Bumey's  version  of  the  score,  note  for  note, 
including  its  errors,  and  referring  the  MS.  to 
the  15th  century.* 

In  April  1862  Sir  Frederick  Madden  wrote 
some  memoranda  on  the  fly-leaf  of  the  volume, 
referring  the  entire  MS.,  *  except  some  writing 
on  flf.  16-17 '  (with  which  we  are  not  concerned), 
to  the  18  th  century  ;  and  stating  his  belief  that 
*the  earlier  portionof  this  volume  [i.^.  that  which 
contains  the  Rota]  was  written  in  the  Abbey  of 
Reading,  about  the  year  1240.  Compare  the 
Obits  in  the  Calendars  with  those  in  the  Calendar 

1  See  Catnloffu*  of  tfut  ffari*ian  JfSS.  (rol.  l.  So.  979).  In  the 
Library  of  the  British  T 

>  On  thla  point,  he  g*  luthority  uf  Du  Cange.  who  mjn  that 

the  term  '  Rota '  wu '  applied  to  certain  hymue. 

3  A  Qmerat  Blttor  .  toI.  L  pp.  885^1  (London,  1819). 


In  1855  Mr.  William  Ghappell  descnbed  the 
MS.  minutely  in  his  Popular  Mime  of  the  Olden 
Timej  illusti*ating  his  remarks  by  a  facsimile  of 
the  MS.  printed  in  the  original  colours."*  Tlie 
author  took  an  intense  interest  in  this  most 
valuable  MS.  ;  and,  after  much  laborious  re- 
search, collected  evidence  enough  to  lead  him  to 
the  belief  that  it  was  written  at  the  Abbey  of 
Reading,  by  a  monk  named  John  of  Fomsete, 
about  the  year  1226,  or  quite  certainly  not  moi*e 
than  ten  years  later.  For  the  grounds  on  which 
he  bases  this  conclusion  we  must  refer  our  readers 
to  his  own  writings  on  the  subject.  One  of  his 
discoveries,  however,  is  so  important  that  we 
cannot  pass  it  over  without  special  notice.  The 
volume  which  contains  the  Rota  contains  also  a 
number  of  satirical  poems,  written  in  rhymetl 
Latin  by  Gualt«rus  Mahap  (Walter  Mapes,  Arch- 
deacon of  Oxford).^  Among  these  is  a  Satire 
entitled  Apiid  avaros,^  bristling  with  puns,  one 
of  which  closely  concerns  our  present  subject, 
and  helps,  in  no  small  degree,  to  establish  the 
antiquity  of  the  Rota.  The  Poet  counsels  his 
readers  as  to  the  best  course  to  bo  pursued  by 
those  who  wish  to  'move'  the  Roman  Law- 
Courts.  After  numerous  directions,  each  enforced 
by  a  pun,  he  writes  as  follows : — 

Commisso  notario  munera  snfTunde, 

Btatiin  causae  subtrahet,  quando,  cur,  et  unde, 

Et  formae  sul^lciet  canones  rotundae.? 

Apud  avaroSf  69-71. 

Now,  the  significance  of  this  venerable  pun, 
as  a  proof  of  the  antiquity  of  the  Rota,  is  very 
remarkable.  In  a  poem,  transcribed,  as  Sir 
Frederick  Madden  assures  us,  long  before  the 
middle  of  the  13th  century,  Walter  Mapes,  an 
English  ecclesiastic,  s}>eaks  of' subjecting  Canons  . 
to  the  form  of  (the)  Round,'  with  a  homely 
naivete  which  proves  that  his  readers  must  have 
been  too  familiar  with  both  Round  and  Canon, 
to  stand  in  any  danger  of  mistaking  the  drift  of 
the  allusion.  This  form  of  music,  then,  must 
have  been  common,  in  England,  before  the  middle 
of  the  1 8th  century.  Walter  Mapes  bears  witness 
to  the  fact  that  the  first  English  school,  as  repre- 
sented by  the  Rota,  is  at  least  a  century  and  a 
half  older  than  the  first  Flemish  school  as 
represented  by  the  works  of  Dufay,  and  we 
are  indebted  to  Chappell  for  the  discovery  of 
the  jeu  d'eaprU  in  which  the  circumstance  is 
recorded. 

Turning  from  English  to  Continental  critics, 
we  first  find  the  Rota  introduced  to  the  German 
musical  world  by  Forkel,  who,  in  the  year  1788, 
described  it  in  his  Allgemehve  Oeschiehte  der 
Miisik  ;  reproducing  Bumey's  copy  of  the  Guida, 

«  Popular  iituk  <^r»«  Oldm  Thne.  S  Tola.  (London.  1896-8!)). 
s  See  Wanley'a  mnarks.  In  the  CtUaloffu»  tiftht  Hart.  MM. 
«  HarL  MSS.  978.  fol.  89a  (formerly  numbered  83a.  and  lC6a). 
7     When  thou  art  sent  to  the  Notary  pour  in  thy  gift«. 

He  will  then  at  once  extricate  thee  from  the  chum.  when,  why, 
or  whencesoerer  It  may  hare  ariwn. 

And  will  aabjeot  the  Canons  tv  the  form  of  the  Round. 


CAirrua  I.      [x 


Sum  -  er      U      1    •   cuni-«n     in, 
P«r  'tpi  •  c«     JTp  •  <  -  CO  •  la,\ 
^Cantus  II. 


Lhnd  -  •     sinff  cue  •  en. 


Orow-eth  aed  and  hlov-cth 
0$  '  U  '  cut  ag  '  ri  '  CO- 
+ 


Basbcs  L 


CO 
A* 


Bassub  II. 


sing  cue    •    •    ca 


cue    •    •    en. 


SiDg         coc 


1^ 


SiD(  cue 

(»3l 


SlDf         cnc    -    '    en 


1^ 


SJiig  euc  •    •  en. 

fai] 


^^^m 


med    and  •pringth  the  wod.«      nn. 
la        Pro     H'tia       H-et  -  o. 


BIng  cue  •    •  en. 


Aw  .  e    bl«t-«tii    af  .ter 
A'oHpar-e$nt  ve-pt  -  m  • 


Orow.«th  Md  and  blow-eth   med         and  ipriiigth  the  wod  -  e     nu. 
C<i  ■  li  -  eua     a  •  fri  •  09  -  (a  Pro        H  •  tU     ot  -  et    '    o. 


Sing        ene 


in.  Lhud  •  e   Bing  cue  •  en. 

la,  que  dig  •  na  -  et  •  o. 


Orow.«th    Md  and  blow.eth  med  and  ■pringth  the  wod.«     an. 
Ot-U'CM    a-pH-oo    -   la  Pro  9i  'tU     *<-ei  -  ow 


Sain^er      U     1   •   enm-cn    in. 
Ptr  •  9<  •  ce    Xf  '  i  -  CO  •  lOt 


Lhud^e     alng  ene  •  en. 
jfiM    4ig-na-ci 


Oroweth    aed  and  bloweth 
0»-U.e«M     a-pH-ee- 


Sing  cue    •    en. 


BIng  ene    •    •    en  nn,         Sing 


lomb,  Ibouth  af  •  ter       cal  •  re     cu. 
te       Mor  '  tU     tx    -    i    .    H   '   o. 


Bnl  -  Ine    Btert-«th.  buck  •  e     Tcrt  •  eth.    mn -He     Ung  cws 
«»f  ea/»   •    rf .  MS       M  •  ml  .  W  .  wM       a  mp  >  pU  .  ci . 


t  Abbnrlated  fonn  of  CkrUUeda. 


not    in    c«    •    U 


buck  -  e     vert  -  etb,     inu  •  ri«    aing    cue   •  cv 
M  -  mi    •    «<  -  «M       A     tup  •  pli  -  ei    '    o 


'w.«     -     -     cu. 


cue     ■    .     en,  Welsinr 

do    •    •    .    not,  et    m  • 


*-^^ 


=^: 


=P^ 


-j^ 


Bui  -  luc    ateit^Ui,    buck  • «      T«rt-«th,     mo  •  rie      sing    cue  •  cu. 
Qui  cap  -  ti  •  90t        m  •  mi  •  wi  •  1/0$        A    tup  •  jdi  •  ei    -    o 


Cue  < 
U    . 


ftf  •   ter  lomb,  Ihonth  •!  •  ter     calv  •  e       cu. 
pM  •  u    '    it      Mwr  -  U»     «x    •    i   '  ci    •    0, 

.a- 


Bul-luo  Btert-eth,  back  -  e       rert-«th,    xau  •  i 
Hui  cap  -  ti  •  vo*       m-  mt   •   9i  ' 


^^^^^ 


^=4 


Slag 


Sing  cno 


BiDg 


^^3^-^ 


Sing 


cue  -   •   •   cu 


nu,  Bing 


Sing 


!l=^l^p-^^=?HE^^fe? 


_JS7l_ ]6i] «i*lL, 


Grow-cth  Md   »nd  bIow-«th   med       and  ajvlngth  the  wod  •  e     nn. 
Ce    -    It  ^  cu$    a  '  gri  -  CO  -  la  Pro  wl   -   ti*      H  •  e<  •  o. 


Bing 


Uind  •  e    alng  cue  •  en. 
'  na  •  d  '  0. 


Orow-eth    Md    ajid  blow-eth  med 
Ce   -   li  •  cut    a  '  gri  '  eo  •  la 


«-=i-=-2=izi 


and   springth  the  wod  •  c     nn. 
vi-tU      wi-et  •  o. 


1^1 


Sum  -  er     Is       1  •  cnm  •  en     in, 
For-tpl  •  ce    Ip  •  i  •  eo-la, 
* 


^^^^i^m^^^^^^^Ml 


Lhnd  -  e    ting  cue  •  en. 
que    dig  -na  '  H  -  o. 


Lbxid  -  e    alng    enc-cu. 
91M    dig  •na  •  ei  •  o. 


=^ 

■wlk  thn  nau  •  er   nn. 
•  U       to  '  li  .  0. 


m^M\^m^^^^^^^^ 


Bnm-er     la      1  •  cum  •  en    Jd, 
•  oe      JT^  •  <  •  CO  •  la. 


Lhud  •  e    sing  cue  •  en. 
gue   dig-na  •  d   •  e. 


<  Ding  cue    •    • 


Bing 


i  Barnej  and  Bawkins  have  both  miRtaken  this  nnti«  f< 
follow,  the  words  and  moale  are  Incorrectly  fitted  together  1 

41  Ancientlr.  enrfa  voice  ceased  at  the  end  of  the  Guida,  t 
to  oontinue  nntll  they  reach  a  point  at  which  they  may  all 


Bing 


CO. 


quite  certainly  A  In  the  original  MS.    In  the  four  ban  w] 
IB  editions. 

I  denoted  br  the  sign  ^.    The  prwent  custom  is  for  all  the 
r  cloee  together,  as  indicated  by  the  pause. 


752 


SUMER  IS  ICUMEN  IN 


in  the  old  black  square-headed  notation  {Gros- 
Fa),  and  also  his  modernised  score,  in  semibreves 
and  minims,  accompanying  these  by  Wanley's 
remarks,  copied  from  the  Harleian  Catalogue. 
To  this  he  added  a  corollary  of  his  own  to  the 
effect  that  though  the  MS.  proves  this  species  of 
Canon  to  have  been  well  known  in  the  middle 
of  the  15th  century,  and  probably  much  earlier, 
the  musicians  of  that  period  were  not  sufficiently 
learned  to  combine  it  with  good  harmony — 
assertions  which  lose  much  of  their  weight  from 
the  self-evident  fact  that  they  rest  upon  informa- 
tion obtained  entirely  at  second-hand,  and  not 
even  corroborated  by  examination  of  the  original 
MS.,  which  it  is  clear  that  Forkel  never  saw.^ 

The  next  German  critic  to  whom  it  occurred 
to  touch  on  the  subject  was  Ambros,  who,  in 
volume  ii.  of  his  great  work,  follows  Forkel's 
example,  by  quoting  Wanley's  description,  and, 
on  the  authority  of  Hawkins,  referring  the  MS. 
— which  he  himself  clearly  never  saw — to  the 
middle  of  the  16th  century."  It  is  indeed  quite 
certain  that  at  this  period  at  least  Ambros 's 
knowledge  of  the  history  of  English  art  was 
derived  entirely  from  the  pages  of  Hawkins  and 
Burney. 

In  1865  the  subject  was  taken  up  by  the 
Belgian  savant  Coussemaker,  who  described  the 
MS.  as  ^vritten  in  the  year  1226 — or  at  the 
latest,  1236 — by  John  of  Fomsete,  *  a  Monk  of 
the  Abbey  of  Reading,  in  Berkshire.*'  But  the 
statement  rests  entirely  on  information  derived 
from  Mr.  Chappell,  Coussemaker  himself  never 
having  seen  the  MS.  True,  in  another  work,* 
he  speaks  more  independently  ;  and  in  his  own 
name  asserts  the  Rota  to  have  been  ^vritten  by 
*the  Monk  of  Reading,'  before  the  year  1226. 
But  he  nowhere  tells  us  that  he  examined  the 
MS.  for  himself. 

In  1868  the  argument  was  resumed  by  Am- 
bros, who,  in  the  fourth  volume  of  his  History, 
confessed  himself  convinced  by  the  arguments 
of  Coussemaker,  and  undoubtedly  I'efersthe  Rota 
to  the  year  1226.  But  here  again  it  is  clear 
that  the  opinion  is  not  his  own  ;  and  that  he 
himself  never  saw  the  original  MS.* 

And  now,  having  compared  the  views  enter- 
tained by  the  best  historians  of  the  past  with 
those  set  forth  by  the  latest  and  moat  com- 
petent critics  of  the  present  day,  it  remains 
only  that  we  should  place  before  our  readers  the 
results  of  our  own  careful  and  long-continued 
study  of  the  original  MS.* 

While  receiving  with  due  respect  the  judg- 
ment of  the  writers  already  quoted,  we  cannot 
but  feel  that  in  most  cases  their  authority  is 
weakened,  almost  to  worthlessness,  by  the  cer- 
tainty that  it  rests  on  evidence  collected  entirely 
at  second-hand.    Neither  Forkel,  Coussemaker, 

>  Ang.  OMchksh/t  d.  WutOc,  If.  490-000.    (Lofpilff.  17B8.) 

9  OeacMchtg  der  MuMik.  torn.  li.  pp.  473-47».    (BrenUu.  1882.) 

>  L'Art  harmtnilque  €mx  xH.  ft  xHi.  $iivlM,  pp.  144,  150.    (Pftri*, 
1H».) 

«  LetHarmofiitUudeMxii.  tt  xiU.  »iMc»,  p.  11. 

ft  (/«MAfcM«  der  Murik,  Una.  Iv.  pp.  440-441.    (BrwUa,  1808.) 


nor  Ambros  ever  saw  the  original  document; 
their  statements,  therefore,  tend  rather  to  con- 
fuse than  to  enlighten  the  inquirer.  Still, 
great  as  are  the  anomalies  with  which  the 
subject  is  surrounded,  we  do  not  believe  them 
to  be  irreconcilable.  Some  critics  have  trusted 
to  the  peculiar  counterpoint  of  the  Rota,  as  the 
only  safe  guide  to  its  probable  antiquity. 
Others  have  laid  greater  stress  upon  the  freedom 
of  its  melody.  We  believe  that  the  one  quality 
can  only  be  explained  by  reference  to  the  other, 
and  that  the  student  who  considers  them 
separately,  and  without  special  reference  to  the 
caligraphy  of  the  MS.,  stands  but  a  slender 
chance  of  arriving  at  the  tnith.  We  propose 
to  call  attention  to  each  of  these  three  points, 
beginning  with  that  which  seems  to  us  the 
most  important  of  all — the  character  and  condi- 
tion of  the  MS. 

1.  The  style  of  the  handwriting  corresponds 
so  closely  with  that  in  common  use  during  the 
earlier  half  of  the  13th  century  that  no  one 
accustomed  to  the  examination  of  English  MSS. 
of  that  period  can  possibly  mistake  it.  So 
positive  are  the  indications  on  this  point,  that 
Sir  Frederick  Madden— one  of  the  most  learned 
palaeographers  of  the  19th  century— did  Eot 
hesitate  to  express  his  own  conviction,  in  terms 
which  leave  no  room  for  argument.  The  present 
librarian.  Sir  E.  Mannde  Thompson,  unhesitat- 
ingly endorses  Sir  F.  Madden's  judgment ;  and 
the  Palaeographical  Society  has  also  corroborated 
it,  in  connection  with  an  autotype  facsimile — 
Part  VIII.  Plate  125  (London,  1878)— referred 
to  the  year  1240. 

Fortunately  the  MS.  is  in  such  perfect  pre- 
servation that  the  corrections  made  during  its 
preparation  can  be  distinctly  traced.  In  a  few 
places  the  ink  used  for  the  Antiphon  on  the 
preceding  page  can  be  seen  through  the  Vellum  ; 
but  apart  from  the  spots  traceable  to  this  cause, 
there  are  a  considerable  number  of  evident 
erasures,  clearly  contemporary  with  the  original 
handwriting,  and  corrected  by  the  same  hand, 
and  in  the  same  ink.  The  second  note  on 
stave  1  was  originally  an  F.  The  first  and 
second  notes  on  stave  4  were  originally  two  C's ; 
the  fourth  note  was  a  D ;  and  the  fifth  a  C. 
Between  the  sixth  and  seventh  notes,  in  the 
same  Stave,  there  are  traces  of  a  D,  and  also  of 
an  F  :  the  D  has  certainly  been  erased  to  make 
room  for  the  present  notes ;  the  appearance  of 
the  F  is  produced  by  a  note  shoA\ing  throujjh 
from  the  opposite  side.  The  eighth  note  on 
this  stave  was  an  E.  Over  the  ligature  which 
immediately  follows  there  are  traces  of  a  C ; 
and,  towards  the  end  of  this  stave,  a  last 
erasure  has  been  made,  for  the  insertion  of 
the  solitary  black  square  note.  The  marks 
which  show  through  the  vellum  are  to  be  found 
near  the  beginning  of  stave  8,  and  in  several 
other  places.  Neither  these  nor  the  erasures 
are  to  be  seen  in  our  facsimile,  though  traces  of 


has  puzzled  many  an  able  commentator ;  for, 
side  by  side  with  passages  of  rudest  Discant,  it 
exhibits  progressions  which  might  well  have 
passed  nncensured  in  the  JEar  later  days  of 
Palestrina.  Tlie  4th,  6th,  7th,  8th,  and  24th 
bai-s  are  in  Strict  Two-Part  Counterpoint  of  the 
Fii"st  and  Second  Order,  of  irreproachable 
purity.^  But,  in  passing  from  the  9th  to  the 
10th,  and  from  the  13th  to  the  14th  bars,  a 
flagrant  violation  of  the  fii-st  cardinal  rule^ 
results  in  the  formation  of  Consecutive  Fifths 
between  the  first  and  third  Cantus  parts,  in  the 
one  case,  and  between  the  second  and  fourth 
Cantus  in  the  other.  The  same  rule  is  broken, 
between  Cantus  II.  and  Bassus  I.,  in  passing 
from  bar  17  to  bar  18  ;  and,  in  bars  37,  38, 
89,  a  similar  infraction  of  the  rule  produces  no 
less  than  three  Consecutive  Fifths  between 
Cantus  I.  and  Bassus  II.  Between  bars  29  and 
30,  Cantus  I.  and  II.  sing  Consecutive  Unisons  ; 
and  the  error  is  repeated,  between  bars  33,  34, 
by  Cantus  II.  and  Cantus  III.,  simultaneously 
with  Consecutive  Fifths  between  both  these 
Parts  and  Cantus  I.  Similar  faults  are  repeated, 
as  the  Rota  proceeds,  with  persistent  regularity. 

Now,  the  smooth  progressions  shown  in  the 
4th,  8th,  and  24th  bars  are  as  stringently  for- 
bidden in  the  Diaphonia  of  the  11th  and  12  th 
centuries  as  the  Consecutive  Fifths  in  bars  37, 
38,  and  39  are  in  the  Counterpoint  of  the  15th 
and  16th,  or  even  in  that  of  the  14th  century. 
To  which  of  these  epochs,  then,  are  we  to  refer 
the  Rota  ?  The  peculiarity  of  the  Part-writing 
clearly  aflbrds  us  no  means  whatever  of  answer- 
ing the  question,  but  is  calculated  rather  to 
mislead  than  to  throw  new  light  upon  the 
point  at  issue. 

3.  Turning  from  the  Part -Writing  to  the 
melody,  we  find  this  pervaded  by  a  fi-eedom  of 
rhythm,  a  merry  graceful  swing,  immeasurably 
in  advance  of  any  kind  of  polyphonic  music  of 
earlier  date  than  the  Fa-las  peculiar  to  the  later 
decades  of  the  16th  century — to  which  decades 
no  critic  has  ever  yet  had  the  hardihood  to 
refer  the  Rota.  Bat  this  flowing  rhythm  is 
not  at  all  in  advance  of  many  a  Folk-song  of 
quite  unfathomable  antiquity.  Tlie  merry  grace 
of  a  popular  melody  is  no  proof  of  its  late  origin. 
The  dates  of  such  melodies  are  so  uncertain, 
that  the  element  of  chronology  may  almost  be 
said  to  have  been  eliminated  from  the  history 
of  the  earlier  forms  of  national  music.  In  most 
cases  the  original  poetry  and  music  owed  their 
origin,  in  all  probability,  to  the  same  heart  and 
voice.  The  melodies  were  not  composed,  but 
inspired.  If  the  verses  to  which  they  wAr*)  in- 
debted  for  their  existence  were  light  :rip- 

ping,  so  were  they.     If  the  verses  we  my, 

the  melodies  naturally  corresponded  em. 

1  See  BraicT  Coustkrpoivt.  anUt.  pp.  723-23.  ?22. 

VOL.  IV 


sung  in  the  ecclesiastical  modes,  they  naturally 
conformed,  in  most  cases,  to  the  tonality  of 
those  venerable  scales.  We  believe  the  melody 
of  the  Rota  to  be  an  inspiration  of  this  kind — 
a  folk-song,  pure  and  simple,  in  the  transposed 
Ionian  Mode,  owing  its  origin  to  the  author 
either  of  the  Engl^h  or  the  Latin  verses  to 
which  it  is  Wedded. 

Now,  some  folk-songs  of  great  antiquity 
possess  the  rare  and  very  curious  peculiarity  of 
falling  into  Canon  of  their  own  accord.  An 
old  version  of  *  Drops  of  brandy '  forms  a  very 
fair  Canon  in  the  unison  for  two  voices.  The 
melody  of  the  Rota — if  we  are  right  in  be- 
lieving it  to  be  a  genuine  folk-song — possesses 
this  quality  in  a  very  remarkable  degree.  What 
more  probable,  then,  than  that  a  light-hearted 
young  Postulant  should  troll  it  forth,  on  some 
bright  May -morning,  during  the  hour  of  recrea- 
tion ?  That  a  second  Novice  should  chime  in  a 
little  later  ?  That  the  effect  of  the  Canon  should 
be  noticed,  admired,  and  experimented  upon, 
until  the  brethren  found  that  foiu*  of  them  could 
sing  the  tune,  one  after  the  other,  in  very  pleasant 
harmony  ?  There  must  have  been  many  a  learned 
Discantor  at  Reading  callable  •of  modifying  a 
note  or  two  of  the  melody,  here  and  there,  for 
the  purpose  of  making  its  phrases  fit  tlie  more 
smoothly  together.  So  learned  a  musician 
would  have  found  no  difficulty  whatever  in 
adding  the  pes  as  a  support  to  the  whole — 
and  the  thing  was  done.  The  harmony  sug- 
gested, in  the  first  instance,  by  a  veritable 
*  Dutch  Concert,*  became  a  Round  or  Canon  of 
the  kind  proved  by  Chappell's  opportune  dis- 
covery of  the  Latin  pun  [see  above],  to  have 
been  already  familiar  to  English  ears  ;  for  which 
very  reason  it  was  all  the  more  likely,  in  a  case 
like  the  present,  to  have  been  indebted  for  its 
confection  to  a  happy  accident. 

The  foregoing  suggestion  is  of  com'se  purely 
hypothetical.  We  do  not,  however,  make  it 
with  the  intention  of  evading  a  grave  chrono- 
logical difficulty  by  a  mere  idle  guess.  The 
influence  exercised  by  the  point  we  are  consider- 
ing upon  the  history  of  medieeval  music  in 
general,  and  that  of  the  £arly  English  school  in 
{articular,  is  of  so  great  importance,  that  the 
element  of  conjecture  would  be  altogether  out  of 
place  in  any  chain  of  reasoning  professing  to 
solve  the  difficulties  of  an  enigma  which  has 
puzzled  the  best  musical  antiquaries  of  the  age. 
We  venture,  therefore,  to  propose  no  conjectural 
theory,  but  simply  to  epitomise  the  results  of  a 
long  course  of  study  which  has  rendered  the 
Reading  MS.  as  familiar  to  us  as  our  own 
handwriting  ;  submitting  it  to  our  readers  with 
all  possible  deliberation,  as  a  means  of  account- 
ing for  certain  peculiarities  in  the  Rota  whicli 
would     othen^'ise    remain    inexplicable.       It 

30 


764       SUMER  IS  ICUMEN  IN 


SUNDERLAND 


accounts  for  a  freedom  of  melody  immeasurably 
in  advance  of  that  attained  by  the  best  poly- 
phonists  of  the  15th  century,  whether  in  the 
Flemish  or  Italian  school.  It  accounts  for  the 
transcription,  in  a  handwriting  of  the  13th 
century,  of  progressions  which  were  not  sanc- 
tioned by  scholastic  authority  until  the  15  th  ; 
and  at  the  same  time  for  the  admixture  with 
these  of  other  progressions,  which  in  the  15  th 
century  would  have  been  peremptorily  for- 
bidden ;  in  other  words,  it  accounts  for  simul- 
taneous obedience  to  two  distinct  codes  of  law 
diametrically  opposed  to  each  other ;  two 
systems  of  part-writing  which  never  were,  and 
never  could,  by  any  possibility,  be  simultaneously 
enforced — viz.  the  law  of  counterpoint,  which, 
in  the  14th  and  15th  centuries,  forbade  the 
approach  to  a  Perfect  Concord  in  similar  motion  ; 
and  that  of  Diaphonia,  which  in  the  11th  and 
12th  practically  enjoined  it,  by  employing  no 
other  intervals  than  doubled  Fourths,  Fifths,  and 
Octaves.  It  accounts  for  the  erasures  to  which 
we  have  already  called  attention  ;  placing  them 
in  the  light  of  improvements,  rather  thaja  that 
of  necessary  corrections.  Moreover,  it  accounts, 
with  still  greater  significance,  for  the  otherwise 
inexplicable  absence  of  a  whole  army  of  familiar 
progressions,  conventional  forms  of  ornamenta- 
tion, Cadences 'true,  false,  plain,  diminished, 
modal,  or  medial,  and  of  licences  innumerable, 
which,  after  the  substitution  of  Counterpoint 
for  Discant,  never  failed  to  present  themselves 
at  every  turn  in  Polyphonic  compositions  of 
every  kind,  produced  in  every  school  in  Europe. 
These  anomalies  have  not  been  accounted  for 
by  any  critic  who  has  hitherto  treated  the 
subject.  Yet  siurely  those  who  doubt  the 
antiquity  of  the  Rota,  on  the  ground  of  its  ad- 
vanced constniction,  owe  us  some  explanation  as 
to  the  presence  of  this  advanced  style  in  certain 
passages  only.  We  sorely  need  some  information 
as  to  how  it  came  to  -pass  that  the  piece  was 
written  in  three  distinct  styles ;  two,  of  part- 
writing,  separated  by  an  interval  of  two  or 
three  centuries  at  least ;  and  one,  of  melody, 
which,  if  not  the  result  of  an  inspired  folk-song, 
of  remotest  antiquity,  must  bring  us  down  to 
a  period  subsequent  to  the  invention  of  Monodia 
in  the  1 7th  century.  Our  theory,  if  admissible  at 
all,  explains  all  these  things.  A  learned  musician, 
deliberately  intending  to  write  a  Canon  for  six 
voices  would,  had  he  lived  in  the  12th  century, 
have  adopted  the  style  observable  in  bars  37, 
38,  and  39,  as  that  of  the  entire  composition. 
Another,  flourishing  in  the  15th  century,  would 
have  confined  himself  to  that  shown  in  bars  in  4, 
6,  8,  and  24.  But,  though  the  laier  savant  would 
never  have  passed  the  Fifths  and  Octaves,  the 
earlier  one,  had  he  possessed  sufficient  natural 
genius  to  enable  him  to  rise  above  the  pedantry 
of  the  age,  would  surely  have  excused  a  great 
deal  of  what  he  considered  and  taught  to  be 
licence.     Finding  that  a  popular  melwiy  of  the 


day  fitted  together,  in  certain  places,  in  a — to 
his  ear — delightful  succession  of  similar  Perfect 
Concords,  he  would  surely  have  foi^ven  certain 
other  passages  which  defied  his  rules,  but^ 
judged  by  his  natural  instinct,  did  not  *  sound 
bad.*  Whether  John  of  Fomsete  did  really 
construct  the  Rota  on  this  principle  or  not 
we  can  never  know  for  certain  ;  but,  since  the 
accident  we  have  suggested  certainly  has  hap- 
pened, and  been  turned  to  advantage  in  other 
cases,  there  is  nothing  improbable  in  the  sup- 
position that  it  may  have  happened  before,  in 
that  which  we  are  now  considering. 

The  fact  that  no  other  English  Rota  of  equal 
antiquity  with  this  has  as  yet  been  brought  to 
light  proves  nothing.  The  wonder  is,  not  that 
we  can  find  no  similar  examples,  but  that  even 
tMs  one  should  have  escaped  the  wholesale 
destruction  which  devastated  our  Cathedral  and 
Monastic  Libraries,  first,  during  the  reign  of 
King  Henry  YIIL,  and  afterwards,  during  the 
course  of  the  Civil  Wars.  Moreover,  we  must 
not  forget  that  the  Reading  MS.,  though  it 
contains  only  one  Rota,  contains  no  less  than 
three  Latin  Antiphons,  two  for  three  voices, 
and  one  for  four  ;  and  that  the  Chaucer  MS.^ 
of  veiy  little  later  date,  contains  several  com- 
positions for  t^vo  voices,  all  tending  to  prove  the 
early  date  at  which  the  art  of  polyphonic  com- 
position was  cultivated  in  England.  *     w.  s.  r, 

SUNDERLAND,  Mrs.,  [whose  maiden  name 
was  Susan  Sykes,  was  bom  at  Brighouse,  York- 
shire, April  30,  1819,  and  was  the  daughter 
of  a  gardener.  Her  voice  first  attracted  the 
attention  of  Luke  Settle,  a  blacksmith  at  a 
village  near  Brighouse,  who,  hearing  her  singing 
in  her  father's  garden,  offered  to  teach  her. 
She  afterwards  joined  the  Halififtx  Choral  Society, 
under  the  leadership  of  Dan  Sugden,  who  gave 
her  her  first  fee,  of  five  shillings,  for  singing 
a  solo  at  the  quarterly  concert  of  the  Society. 
Her  next  important  appearance  as  a  solo  singer 
was  on  Feb.  19,  1838,  at  a  concert  given  in 
the  Exchange  Rooms,  Bradford.  She  next 
had  five  months*  training  in  London,]  and  soon 
became  a  local  celebrity,  was  styled  the  *  York- 
shire Queen  of  Song,'  and  for  more  than  a 
quarter  of  a  century  was  the  leading  vocalist 
in  the  North  of  England.  She  was  physically 
robust,  and  her  voice  was  a  high  soprano  of 
great  force  and  volume,  which  she  managed 
with  much  expression.  Her  repertory  was 
chiefly  composed  of  the  principal  songs  in  the 
*  Messiah,* '  Judas,'  and  the  '  Creation ' ;  but  she 
had  also  some  secular  songs,  mostly  of  a  popular 
kind.  Her  first  appearance  in  London  was  in 
the  'Messiah'  at  Exeter  Hall,  Nov.  2, 1849,  and 
she   continued   to  sing  first  soprano  for   the 

>  Anindel  MSB.  Ko.  848.    8«e  ScoRX.  oitfe.  p.  SSRL    The  Xoni- 
pellier  MB.  Ib  certainly  no  older  thita  this, and  jirolaftMr  not  m  old. 

a  FoslnokA.  in  his  JMtiih  MonaekUm  (voLa  p.  11».  Mb  «s  ihM% 
the  aong  of  th«  AnKlo>Biizon  monka  oonalstcd  of  a  method  of  flgvnta 
IMscaitt,  in  which  the  varioDS  Toic««,  following  one  anotlier.  vera 
perpetually  repeating  diflierent  worda  at  the  aame  timm.  ~ 
this  eaToun  strongly  of  the  'form  of  the  lUnuid.' 


ER 


SUPP6 


755 


and  other  bodies  in  the 

Ilijah,'  etc.,  until  1866. 

lent  Concerts  esteemed 

1  so  much  that  they 

d  for  further  tuition. 

raining  equalled  the 

her  natural  feeling, 

that  she  would  have 

ral   eminence.     [Slie 

concerts,  notably  at 

.11  by  Queen  Victoria 

the  Leeds  Festivals 

last  appearance   in 

1,'  at  Huddersfield, 

land  married  at  the 

d  being  a  butcher. 

)  celebrated   by   a 

proceeds  of  which 

nd  Vocal  Prize  for 

:  Yorkshire.     She 

dditions  in  square 

position,  *  above,' 

f  to   denot.e  the 

ffl,  but  of  course 

(see  Coupler). 

a  theatre,    who 

*i  do  not  speak, 

ailed  *  Supers.' 

d  note  of  the 

y  of  C.     It  is 

;e    in    modem 

the  dominant 

find  the  chief 

key,   and   to 

movement  in 

lake  for  that 

»d,  necessarily 

t-note  of  the 

V  to  its  tonic 

t  of  the  new 

)ne.     It  has 

lat  its  major 

jventh  built 

eely  used  as 

38pective  of 

y  originally 

tiese  chords 

Df  the  key, 

the  most 

combina- 

the  chord 

e   Sixth, 

-.  H.  p. 

N  Supp*, 

imily  for 

ma  ;    he 

lip  near 

Antismal 

3ILD0 

»  for 
amed 
ifteen 


produced  a  mass  at  the  Franciscan  church  at 
Zara.  [A  piece  called  *  Der  Apfel '  was  produced 
privately  at  Zara  in  1 834 . ]  His  father,  however, 
had  other  views  for  him,  and  sent  him  to  the 
University  of  Padua.  But  music  asserted  itself ; 
he  learned  from  Cigala  and  Ferrari,  and  wrote 
incessantly.  At  this  moment  his  father  died, 
the  mother  settled  in  Vienna,  where  Francesco 
joined  her ;  and  after  a  little  hesitation  between 
teaching  Italian,  practising  medicine,  and 
following  music,  he  decided  on  the  last,  got 
lessons  from.  Seyfried,  and  obtained  a  gratuitous 
post  as  Conductor  at  the  Joeephstadt  theatre. 
This  was  followed  by  better  engagements  at 
Pressburg  and  Baden,  and  then  (about  1862) 
at  the  theatres  *  an  der  Wien, '  Quai,  and  Leopold- 
stadt  in  Vienna,  ^vith  the  last-named  of  which 
he  was  connected  from  1865*  until  his  death 
May  21,  1895.  His  work  at  these  houses, 
though  for  long  mere  patching  and  adding,  was 
excellent  practice,  and  he  gradually  rose  to  more 
independent  things.  In  1 8 44  a  '  Sommemachts- 
traum,'  founded  on  Shakespeare,  and  composed 
by  him,  is  mentioned  in  the  A,M.Z,  'Der 
Eriimer  und  sein  Commis'  followed.  In  1847 
he  was  at  the  Theatre  *an  der  Wien '  and  (Aug.  7) 
brought  out  a  piece,  '  Das  Madchen  vom  Lande ' 
(The  country  girl),  which  met  with  wild  success. 
Ten  years  later  (Jan.  8,  1858)  a  Singspiel, 
'Paragraph  8,'  spread  his  fame  into  North 
Germany,  and  from  that  time  a  stream  of  pieces 
flowed  from  his  pen.  His  works  are  said  by 
the  careful  Wurzbach  ^  to  reach  the  astonishing 
number  of  2  grand  operas,  165  farces,  comedi- 
ettas, and  vaudevilles,  etc.,  as  well  as  a  mass 
('Missa  dalmatica,'  Spina,  1877),  a  Requiem 
produced  at  Zara  in  1860  under  the  title  of 
'L'  estremo  Giudizio,'  etc.  etc.  A  list  of  49 
of  his  operatic  pieces  is  given  by  Wurzbach, 
but  a  few  only  are  dated.  Another  list  of  21 
is  given  by  Batka  in  Pougin's  supplement  to 
Fetis,  but  the  titles  are  French,  and  it  is  hard 
to  make  the  dates  agree.  Some  of  the  pieces 
are  mere  parodies,  as  *  Tannenhauser,'  *  Dinorah, 
Oder  die  Tumerfahrt  nach  Hiitteldorf.'  One, 
*  Franz  Schubert,*  is  founded  on  the  life  of 
Schubert,  and  contains  five  of  his  songs.  In 
Riemann's  Lexikon  the  number  of  his  operettas 
is  given  as  31,  and  180  'possen'  and  slighter 
pieces  are  mentioned.  The  only  pieces  of 
Suppe's  known  out  of  Germany  are  *  Fatinitza,' 
produced  at  Vienna,  Jan.  5,  1876 ;  at  the 
Alhambra,  London,  June  20,  1878,  and  at  the 
Nouveaut^,  Paris,  March  1879;  and  'Boc- 
caccio' (originally  produced  in  1879,  and 
brought  out  in  London,  at  the  Comedy  Theatre, 
April  22,  1882).  Tlie  overture  to  'Dichter 
und  Bauer,'  the  only  one  of  his  overtures 
known  in  England,  must  be  his  most  popular 
work  abroad,  since  it  has  been  arranged  for  no 
less  than  59  different  combinations  of  instru- 
ments, all  published  by  Aibl  of  Munich.         o. 

1  Biog.  Uxikon  dtt  Onttrrtieh,    P&rt  40 ;  1880. 


756 


SURIANO 


SUSPENSION 


SURIANO.  [See  Sobiaxo,  ante,  p.  623.] 
SUSANNA.  An  oratorio  in  three  parts  by 
Handel ;  the  author  of  the  words  is  not  known. 
The  overture  was  begun  on  July  11,  1748,  a 
month  after  the  completion  of  'Solomon/  and 
the  work  was  finished  on  the  24th  of  the 
following  month.  It  was  produced  during  the 
season  of  1749.  g. 

8USAT0,  Tylmax,  printer  and  composer  of 
music,  was  bom  at  or  near  Cologne  probably 
towards  the  end  of  the  15  th  century.  His 
name  is  regularly  written  by  himself  in  the  ftill 
form  given  above,  although  the  spelling  of  the 
first  part  of  it  is  extremely  irregular.^  A 
document  referred  to  by  Fetis^  describes  Susato 
as '  SOD  of  Tylman. '  It  is  therefore  only  through 
an  inexplicable  forgetfiilness  of  diplomatic  usage 
that  Fetis  and  others  ^  have  taken  Tylman  for 
a  surname.^  These  writers  have  also  accepted 
a  conjecture  of  Dehn  ^  that  '  Susato '  indicated 
the  place  of  the  composer's  birth,  namely  the 
town  of  Soest  {SumUujh)  ;  in  one  of  his  books, 
however,  he  expressly  describes  himself  as 
'  Agrippinensis,'®  which  can  only  refer  to 
Cologne.^  Consequently  we  have  to  consider 
*  Susato '  (or  '  de  Susato ' — as  it  once  occurs, 
iu  a  document  of  1543^)  as  a  family  name, 
*van  (or  *von')  Soest,'  doubtless  originally 
derived  from  the  Westphalian  town.  By  the 
year  1529  Tylman  is  found  settled  at  Antwerp), 
where  he  maintained  himself  by  transcribing 
music  for  the  chaijel  of  the  Virgin  in  the 
cathedral ;  in  1531  he  is  mentioned  as  taking 
(Kirt,  as  trumpeter,  in  the  performance  of  certain 
masses  there.  He  was  also  one  of  the  five 
musicians  8up|x>rted  by  the  city  ('stadsspeel- 
liedeu '),  and  as  such  possessed,  according  to  a 
list  of  1532,  two  trumpets,  a  *  velt-trompet,* 
and  a  *  teneur-pipe.'  Losing  his  post  on  the 
arrival  of  Philip  II.  in  1549,  he  appears,  for 
some  unexplained  reason,  never  to  have  been 
again  employed  by  the  city.  Before  this  date 
however,  in  1543,  he  had  found  another 
occupation  as  a  printer  of  music.  For  a 
short  time  °  he  worked  in  company  with  some 
friends;  but  from  1543  onwards  he  published 
on  his  own  account,  bringing  out  between 
that  year  and  1561  more  than  fifty  volumes 
of  music,  nearly  every  one  of  which  contains 

1  In  works  vlth  Latin  title*  Siuato  write*  hlinarlf  in  a  gnnt 
iiMjurity  of  oum  TiUmaHnuM',  TMmamuu,  Tilmantuu.  T}fl«' 
}nanniui.  Mid  TUmantuu,  occurtinK  but  rarely.  IuFlaiul«h  hi* 
(avourittf  form  aeenw  to  have  boen  TMman.  In  French  Tglman, 
th*  apelling  adapted  by  Fctia  and  Mendel  1*  found  most  frequently ; 
ThMuuiH.  which  is  preferred  by  X.  Otiovaerte  ia  leas  uaual :  while 
TUtntin,  the  ■pelllnir  which  in  adopted  by  X.  Vander  Btraeten  and 
ia  now  practically  the  accepted  on*  in  the  Netherlands,  is  met  with 
only  twice. 

s  nUi-ir.  untf.  tUfi  Uusie.  rill.  276;  9ad  ed. 

3  Thus  Mettdel  and  BeUsiuann.  Jluatkal.  Cona9n.-lMt.  x.  359 ; 
Berlin.  18HI. 

*  Cp.  Alphoiiae  Oooviterta.  ffUMre  0t  BlbUoffraphie  d«  la  Typo- 
ffraphU  mtiaicftiA  tlatu  Im  Pay»-ba»,  p^  38, 87;  Antwerp,  18tW. 

»  Hee  his  letter  iu  P^tis.  l.e. 

"  OoovaerU.  p.  191. 

1  At  the  aaiiie  time.  K.  Ooovaerte  nntes  (pp.  28.  S7).  we  are  not  to 
confound  Knantrj.  as  FMis  and  Xeiidel  have  done,  with  a  cunteiii< 
IKirary  Thiclnutn  vmd  Ceulen.  who  was  a  brewer,  and  whose  father's 
iiM  uio  was  Adolf. 

*«  Bdmond  Vander  Htimeten,  Im  M*ulqu$  aux  Papi-bat  arantU 
Kixmt  Mielf.  T.  398 ;  Brussels,  ISUO. 

c  Ooovaerts,  pp.  l^iS. 


some  compositions  of  his  own.     He  died  before 
15«4.«> 

Susato*8  first  publication  is  a  first  book  of  four- 
part  'Chansons '  (1543),  and  his  next  is  entitled 
'  Premier  Livre  de  Chansons  a  trois  Parties, 
auquel  sont  Contenues  Trente  £t  Una  Nowelles 
Chansons  conuenables  Tant  a  la  Voix  comme 
aux  Instmmentz  '(1544).  Eight  of  these  pieces 
are  by  himself.  The  rest  of  his  publications, 
so  Dgir  as  they  are  now  extant,  include  (1)  in 
French,  sixteen  books  of  'Chansons'  in  3-^ 
parts;  (2)  '^ladrigaU  e  Canzoni  franoesi  a  5 
voci'  (1558);  (3)  in  Latin  three  books  of 
'Carmina,'  three  of  Masses,  one  of  *  Evangelia 
Dominicarum,'  fifteen  of  'Ecclesiastical  Cau- 
tiones'  or  motets  (1553-60),  'Motecta  quinis 
vocibus,  auctore  Clemente  non  Papa'  (1546), 
and  five  books  of  '  Cantiones  sacrae  quae  vulgu 
Moteta  vocant'  [sic]  (1546).  Finally  (4)  iii 
Dutch  there  are  his  three  books  of  songs,  etc., 
(1551),  entitled  '  Musyck  boexken,*  and  one  book 
(1561),  api>arently  the  second  of  a  series  of 
'  Souter-Liedekens '  (Psalter-ditties),  which  are 
of  peculiar  interest  The  third  of  the  Musyck 
boexken  contains  some  dances  by  Susato  him- 
self, which  are  described  "  as  *  full  of  character  * 
and  excellently  written.  The  souterliedekens, 
which  Ambros  further  ^^  states  to  be  found  iu 
four  more  Musyck-boexken,  are  pieces  from  the 
Psalms  according  to  ihe  rhymed  Flemish  version, 
set  witliout  change  to  the  popular  song-tunes 
of  the  day  ('gemeyne  bekende  liedekens' ^3). 
The  charm,  however,  of  these  compositions  lies 
less  in  the  airs  adapted  in  them  than  in  the 
independence  and  originality  of  the  part- writing, 
an  art  in  which  Susato  was  so  proficient  that 
some  of  his  three-part  songs  are  composed  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  be  suitable,  he  states, 
equally  for  three  and  for  two  voices  with 
omission  of  the  bass.  Susato  appears  also  to 
have  co-operated  with  Clemens  non  Pai>a  io 
some  of  his  work,  and  not  to  have  been  merely 
his  publisher.  Still  it  is  as  a  publisher  ^^  that 
Susato  has  hitherto  been  almost  exclusively 
known,  the  masters  whose  works  he  printed 
being  very  numerous,  and  including  such  names 
as  Crequillon,  Gombert,  Goudimel,  O.  de  Lassus, 
P.  de  Manchicourt,  J.  Moutou,  C.  de  Bore, 
A.  WiUaert,  etc.  [See  also  the  QuelUti-Lexthm 
for  other  coni|>osition8.]  r.  l.  v. 

SUSPENSION  is  the  process  of  arresting  the 
conjunct  motion  of  one  or  more  parts  for  a  time, 
while  the  rest  of  the  com|K>nents  of  the  choni 
proceed  one  step  onwards,  and  thereby  come  to 
represent  a  different  root.  Tlie  part  which  i» 
stayed  in  this  manner  commonly  produces  dis- 
sonance, wliich  is  relieved  by  its  then  passing  on 

"  /AW.  p.  81. 

<>  Vander  Straeten.  t.  961,  who  says  that  these  dances  have  twro 
teprinted  by  Eituer  iu  tha  J/onattk^te  fur  JlutiJtft9ehteht9.  Jahir- 
vil.  No.  6. 

la  Oesekifhte  dsr  Jiutik.  ill.  SIS  (Breslau,  1888).  Theer.  bo«e«tf. 
are  not  mentioned  by  X.  Ooo>aerU.  whose  yeneral  aovuncy  n^J 
lead  one  to  suspect  a  mistake  on  Ambros's  part 

»3  Ambroa.  111.  ."JIS. 

X  His  publication n  are  rarely  found  Iu  BogUad.  the  Britvs 
Museum  only  ixwsessinc  one  volume  uf  masses. 


taneoiis.  Thus  m  the  progression  of  the  chord 
of  the  Dominant  seventh  to  Tonic  harmony  (or), 
the  part  which  takes  the  upper  note  (or  seventh) 
can  be  delayed  and  made  to  follow  into  its 
]x>8ition  after  the  rest  of  the  chord  has  moved, 
as  in  (6),  thereby  producing  a  fourth  in  place  of 
a  third  for  a  time.  Similarly  the  fifth,  or  the 
fifth  and  third,  can  be  suspended,  producing  a 
ninth,  or  a  ninth  and  seventh,  against  the  tonic 
note  ;  and  the  dissonant  effect  is  similarly  re- 
lieved by  their  passing  on  to  their  normal 
position  in  the  chord  aftenvards,  as  in  (c).  In 
all  such  cases  the  first  occurrence  of  the  note  in 
the  part  whose  motion  is  suspended  is  called 
the  'Preparation,*  as  in  the  first  chord  of  (b) 


and  of  (r)  :  the  moment  of  dissonance  resulting 
from  the  motion  of  the  other  parts,  is  called  the 
^  Percussion '  of  the  discoi*d,  and  the  release  of 
the  dissonance,  when  tlie  part  proceeds  to  its 
natural  place  in  the  harmony,  is  called  the 
'Resolution.' 

Suspension  was  among  the  very  first  methods 
discovered  by  the  early  harmonists  for  introduc- 
ing dissonance  into  their  music.  In  the  earliest 
times  composers  depended  chiefly  upon  the 
different  degrees  and  qualities  of  consonances — 
sixths,  thirds,  fifths  and  octaves — to  obtain  the 
necessary  effects  of  contrast  between  one  musical 
moment  and  another.  Then,  when,  in  the 
natural  order  of  tilings,  something  stronger  was 
required,  it  was  found  in  this  process  of  suspen- 
sion. But  for  some  time  it  was  used  very 
sparingly,  and  composers  required  no  more  tlian 
the  least  dissonant  forms  to  carry  out  their 
purposes.  For  a  long  while,  moreover,  all  dis- 
cords appeared  to  the  early  writers  as  no  more 
than  artificial  manipulations  of  the  motion  of 
the  parts  of  this  kind,  and  it  was  only  by  the 
use  of  such  means  that  they  even  learnt  to  use 
some  discords,  which  are  at  the  present  day 
looked  upon  in  a  totally  different  light.  About 
the  beginning  of  the  1 7th  century  they  began  to 
realise  that  there  was  a  radical  difference  in  the 
character  and  constitution  of  certain  groups  of 
discords,  and  to  use  at  least  one  freely  as  an 
independent  or  fimdamental  combination.  From 
that  time  discords  began  to  be  classified,  in- 
stinctively, into  definite  groups.  Certain  of  the 
less  dissonant  combinations  have  in  course  of 
time  been  grouped  into  a  special  class,  which  is 
freed  from  the  obligation  of  being  prepared,  and 
thereby  loses  one  of  the  most  essential  charac- 
teristics of  suspension.  These  are  ominant 
discords  of  the  minor  seventh  jor  and 
minor  ninths ;  certain  correspo^  ^matic 
chords  on  Tonic  and  Superto  which 
liave  been  naturally  affiliate*  key  ; 


been  created  by  some  theorists,  which  is  much 
more  intimately  connected  with  the  class  of  sus- 
pensions ;  if  indeed  they  are  not  actually  suspen- 
sions slightly  disguised.  These  are  the  discoi-ds 
which  are  arrived  at  by  the  same  process  of 
staying  or  suspending  the  motion  of  a  part,  but 
which  are  distinguished  by  further  motion  of 
the  other  x^arts  simultaneously  with  the  resolu- 
tion of  the  discord,  thereby  condensing  two 
motions  into  one ;  as  in  (rf)  and  (e).  When 
treated  in  this  manner  the  chords  are  described 
by  some  theorists  as  '  Prepared  discords.'  The 
province  of  suspensions  appears  by  this  process 


to  have  been  reduced,  but  what  was  lost  by  the 
process  of  classification  has  been  amply  made  up 
by  the  invention  of  a  great  variety  of  new  forms. 
About  the  time  that  composers  first  began  to 
realise  the  character  of  the  dominant  seventh, 
they  also  began  to  use  a  greater  variety  and  a 
harsher  description  of  suspensions.  The  earliest 
experiments  of  note  in  both  directions  are 
commonly  ascribed  to  the  same  man,  namely 
Monteverde.  Since  his  time  the  progress  has 
been  tolerably  constant  in  one  direction  ;  for  the 
tendency  to  look  for  fresh  and  more  ^ivid  points 
of  contrast  necessarily  leads  to  the  use  of  sus- 
pensions of  more  complicated  and  harsher  char- 
acter. At  the  present  time  the  varieties  of 
possible  suspensions  are  so  numerous  that  it 
would  be  almost  as  absurd  to  endeavour  to  make 
a  catalogue  of  them,  as  it  would  be  to  make  a  list 
of  possible  combinations  of  sounds.  But  if  the 
principle  be  properly  understood,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  give  more  than  illustrative  examples; 
for  the  like  niles  apply  to  all ;  and  their  kinds 
are  only  limited  by  the  degree  of  harshness  con- 
sidered admissible,  and  by  the  possibility  of 
adequate  and  intelligible  resolution.  Classical 
authority  not  only  exists  for  a  great  variety  of 
chromatic  suspensions,  often  derived  from  no 
stronger  basis  than  a  combination  of  chromatic 
passing  or  ornamental  notes ;  but  also  for  re- 
markable degrees  of  dissonance.  Beethoven  for 
instance,  in  the  Bb  Quartet,  op.  180,  used  the 
suspended  fourth  together  with  the  third  on 
which  it  is  to  resolve,  and  put  the  latter  at  the 
top,  and  the  former  at  the  bottom  (,/)  ;  and  Bach 
supplies  many  examples  of  similar  character. 
Certain  simple  rules  are  almost  invariably 
observed — such  as  that  the  moment  of  percussion 
shall  fall  upon  the  strong  beat  of  the  bar  ;  and 
that  the  progression  shaU  not  imply  a  violation 


of  rules  against  consecutive  perfect  concords, 
which  would  occur  if  the  artificial  suspension  of 
the  part  were  removed,  as  in  (g). 

Composers  early  discovered  a  means  of  varying 
the  character  of  the  process  by  interpolating 
notes  between  the  sounding  of  the  discord  and 
its  resolution,  as  in  (h).     Instances  are  also  to 


be  found  in  which  some  such  forms  were  used  as 
sufficient  to  constitute  resolution  without  arriv- 
ing at  the  normal  note, — ^habit  and  familiarity 
with  a  particular  form  of  motion  leading  to  the 
acceptance  of  a  conventional  formula  in  place  of 
the  actual  solution.  The  following  examples 
from  Corelli's  1st  Sonata  of  opera  2da  and  5  th 
of  opera  4ta  are  clear  illustrations. 


^^^^^^^ 


This  particular  device  is  characteristic  rather 
of  the  early  period  of  harmonic  music  up  to 
Corelli's  time  than  of  a  later  period.  The  follow- 
ing passage  from  Schumann's  andante  and  varia- 
tions for  two  pianofortes  (op.  46)  is  character- 
istic of  modem  uses  of  combined  and  chromatic 
suspension,  and  also  of  interpolation  of  notes 
(fit)  Ist  Piano. 


^!^^^j^ 


9 =^-.^=£— ^-J=.T- 


■i —  J-         ■fi'^. 


between  percussion  and  resolution.    Some  theor- 
ists distinguish  the  combinations  which  resolve 


upwards  from  those  that  re» 
styling  the  former  Retardatiou 
DATiON  ;  Harmony.] 

SVENDSEN,  JohanSevkri 
30, 1840,  at  Christiania,  when 
military  bandmaster.     At  the 
wrote  his  first  composition  for  1 
fifteen  he  enlisted  in  the  army 
bandmaster.     Even  at  that  a^ 
considerable  skill,  flute,  cUriii 
soon  left  the  army,  and  work( 
few  years  in  the  orchestra 
theatre,  and  at  a  dancing  aca< 
arranged  some  etudes  by  Pa^ 
for  dancing.  A  strong  desire 
at  twenty-one,  on  a  roving  tc 
of  Sweden  and  North  Gemiai 
being  in  Lubeck  in  extreni* 
stances,  he  fortunately  mef 
Norwegian  Consul  Herr  Lec' 
gained,  and  who  shortly  aft( 
for  him  from  Charles  XV 
perfect  himself  as  a  violin 
afterwards  attacked  with  p 
he  was  compelled  to  give 
position.     He  went  to  Lei 
works  being  already  know? 
in  the  finishing  class  of 
receiving,  however,  instr 
theory  of  music,  which  he  ] 
His  instructors  were  Haupt 
and  Reinecke.     He  wrot 
Octet  and  a  Quintet,  all 
for  male  voices  ;  and  a  S 

On  leaving  Leipzig  ii 
great  honoi-ary  medal  of 
travelling  in  Denmark, 
Svendsen  went  in  1868 
Empire  was  then  at  its 
in  the  capital  of  Fran 
poser  to  a  very  great 
he  played  in  Musard'i 
Od^n,  and  became  int 
Wilhelmine  Szarvady, 
and   Leonard.      He    ; 
music  to  Coppee's  *  Le 
Sarah  Bernhardt  and 
the  whole  his  Paris 
Concerto  for  violin  in . 
ments  of  studies  by 
also  began  'Sigurd  S 
Norwegian  drama  of ' 
at  the  beginning  of  t) 
where  he  had  been 
of  the  well-known 
however  were  discor 
At  a  great  musical 
same  year,  he  first  ' 
his   octet  was  play 
David,  Hellmesberg 
mann,  with  great  . 
following  year  his  Sj 
at  the  Gewandhaus 


American  lady,  whom  he  had  met  in  Paris,  and 
returned  the  same  year  to  Leipzig,  where,  after 
the  end  of  the  war,  he  undertook  the  leadership 
of  the  Euterpe  concerts  for  one  year.  There 
he  finiBhed  the  overture  to  'Sigurd  Slembe,' 
which  was  played  at  the  Euterpe  then,  and  in 
the  following  year  at  the  musical  festival  at 
Cassel,  both  times  with  great  success.  In  this 
year  he  met  Wagner  at  Bayreuth,  and  soon 
became  his  intimate  associate.  For  the  next 
five  years  (1872-77)  he  was  conductor  of  the 
Ghristiania  Musical  Association  and  teacher  of 
composition,  and  composed  comparatively  few 
works,  which  may  be  explained  by  the  unfor- 
tunate want  of  pecuniary  independence.  The 
pieces  of  this  period  are  numbered  opp.  10-22 
in  his  list.  In  1874  his  labours  found  some 
appreciation  from  his  countrymen  in  the  shape 
of  an  annuity  granted  by  the  Storthing,  and 
several  decorations  conferred  on  him  by  the 
king.  After  five  years  of  hard  work,  he  was 
enabled  once  more  to  proceed  abroad.  In  1877 
he  revisited  Leipzig,  and  conducted  a  new  work 
at  the  Gewandhaus ;  went  thence  to  Munich, 
and  eventually  to  Rome,  where  he  spent  the 
winter.  In  1878  he  visited  London  for  the  first 
time,  and  there  met  Sarasate,  who  assisted  him 
in  the  |)erformance  of  his  quartet,  quintet,  and 
octet  From  London  he  went  to  Paris,  where 
he  stayed  until  1880,  during  which  time  his 
works  were  several  times  performed — as  also  at 
Angers,  where  the  post  of  conductor  was  offered 
him  by  the  Musical  Association.  But  Svendsen 
refused  this  lucrative  appointment,  and  in  the 
autumn  of  that  year  we  again  find  him  in  his 
old  post  as  conductor  of  the  Musical  Association, 
in  Ghristiania.  In  1883  he  became  court  con- 
ductor at  Copenhagen:  in  1888  he  visited 
England  again,  conducting  his  Symphony  in  D 
at  the  Philharmonic  Concert  of  May  31.  In 
recent  years  he  has  produced  only  some  minor 
com]^)ositions,  besides  arranging  for  orchestra 
several  studies  by  foreign  composers. 

Svendsen's  music  is  all  of  very  high  character, 
remarkable  for  strong  individuality,  conciseness, 
and  the  absence  of  anything  national  or  Scandi- 
navian ;  as  well  as  for  an  elaborate  finish  strictly 
in  harmony  with  the  traditions  of  the  great 
masters.  He  is  one  of  the  most  cosmopolitan 
composers  of  the  age. 

His  printed  works  are  as  follow : — 

Op.  I  Op. 

1.  string  quartet  in  A  minor.     III.  ZonUutyde.  legend  for  orch. 
a.  Souga  for  men's  Toioec  12.  Polonalae  for  orch. 

3.  Octet  for  stringt  in  A  minor.  13.  Coronation  march  for  Oecar 

4.  Hymphonjr  in  D.  |  11. 

5.  Btrliig  quintet  in  C.  14.  Manrlage  Cantata,  for  ohor. 


6.  Cuucerto  for  violin  and  onsb. 

In  A. 

7.  Do.  for  violoncello  and  orch. 

in  D  minor. 
&  Overture  in  C  to  BMrneon's 

dnuna  of  '  Sigurd  Slembe.' 
9.  Camaval  k  Paris,  for  orrh. 
10.  Funeral   march   for   Charles 

XV. 


and  orch. 

15.  Symphony  No.  3  In  Bb. 

16.  Camaval    dee  artistes   Nor* 

v^ens. 

17.  BhapsodieNotT^enneNd.1. 

for  orch. 

18.  Overture     to     Romeo     and 

Juliet. 

19.  BhapsudieNorvdgienneNo.2. 


No*.  S.  4.  for  violoncello  and  FV. 

23.  Five  songs,  French  and  0«r-  98.  fiouianoe  for  violin  and  orch. 

man.  for  voice  and  FF.        1  in  O.  q^  gs. 

SVENDSEN,  Oluf,  a  distinguished  flute- 
player,  bom  in  Christiania,  April  19,  1832. 
He  learnt  the  rudiments  of  playing  from  his 
father,  a  musician ;  when  twelve  years  old 
played  the  flute  in  small  orchestras  ;  and  at 
fourteen  was  engaged  as  first  flute  in  the 
Christiania  theatre.  In  1851  he  went  to  Copen- 
hagen, and  took  lessons  from  Nils  Petersen, 
then  a  flute-player  there.  In  1853  he  entered 
the  Conservatoire  at  Brussels,  where  he  studied 
for  two  years,  after  which  he  was  engaged  by 
Jullien  for  his  Concerts  in  London.  In  Sept. 
1856,  he  joined  the  Band  of  the  Crystal  Palace, 
Sydenham,  where  he  remained  till  the  end  of 
1858.  In  1861  Svendsen  was  appointed  first 
flute  in  the  Queen's  private  band,  and  the  same 
year  joined  the  Philharmonic  orchestra.  He 
was  ten  years  in  the  orchestra  at  Her  M^'esty's 
theatre  ;  and  from  1867  was  professor  of  his 
instrument  at  the  Royal  Academy  of  Music. 
He  was  well  known  as  a  solo-player  throughout 
Belgium,  Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark,  and 
France.     He  died  in  London,  May  1 5, 1 888.    o. 

SWEELINCK,  or  SWELINCK,»  Jan  Pie- 
TERszooN,  the  greatest  of  Dutch  oiganists,  was 
bom  of  a  Deventer  family  in  the  summer  of  1562. 
His  father,  'Mr.  Pieter,*  was  organist  of  the 
Old  Church  at  Amsterdam,  which  place  disputes 
with  Deventer  the  honour  of  having  given  the 
son  birth.*  Of  Sweelinck's  boyhood  we  know 
nothing,  except  that  he  was  taught  by  Jacob 
Buyck  (Buchius),  the  pastor  of  the  Old  Church. 
There  is  a  tradition  that  he  was  sent  to  Venice 
to  study  music  under  ZaiUno  and  Gabrieli ;  but 
with  this  is  connected  a  mistake  of  old  stand- 
ing, which  places  his  birth  in  1540,  twenty- two 
years  too  early.  ^  Now,  as  we  know  that  he  was 
in  Holland  fix>m  1577,  at  latest,  onwards,  it  be- 
comes barely  credible  that  the  lad  of  fifteen  could 
have  followed  the  instraction  of  the  Venetian 
masters  to  any  important  extent ;  and  it  is  likely 
that  the  whole  story  is  based  upon  the  close  study 
which  his  works  prove  him  to  have  devoted  to 
those  of  *  the  apostle  of  musical  science,'  ^  whose 

1  Of  the  seven  or  more  ways  in  vhich  the  name  is  spelled,  these 
two  have  the  warrant  of  the  mosleian's  own  signature.  The  Germans 
of  the  time  seem  to  have  naturalised  him  as  Schweling ;  in  Amster* 
dam  he  was  known  as  plain  Jan  Pieterss. 

*  Deventer  Is  consistently  mentioned  by  Sweelinck's  later  bio- 
graphers ;  but  the  Amsterdam  claim  has  the  support  of  the  official 
entry  of  his  marriage  there  in  1960.  in  which  his  birthplace  is  not 
stated.  The  omission  was  the  rule  when  the  person  was  a  native 
of  the  city.  Else  documentary  evidence  is  eciually  wanting  on 
both  sides. 

9  The  correction  of  this  and  the  rest  of  the  mistakes  which  confuse 
every  single  date  in  Sweelinck's  life  is  due  to  the  essay  of  F.  H.  J. 
Tiedeman.  J.  P.  SteMhtek,  etn  bio-bMiogni/Udie  ScMrtM.  published 
by  the  Vereeniging  voor  Nederlandeebe  Muslekgeschiedenis  (A  mster- 
dam.  1876).  which  supersedes  a  shoncr  sketch  published  by  the  «ame 
writer  as  an  introduction  to  the  '  Begins  Coeli,'  in  liM9.  Both  are 
based  upon  a  biography  (which  remains  in  MS.  in  the  pomeeslon  of 
the  Vereeniging)  by  Robert  Eltner,  who  baa  done  good  service  by 
rescuing  the  works  of  Sweellnek  from  the  obscurity  of  the  Graue 
Kloster  at  Berlin. 

*  So  Zarlino  U  entitled  by  his  modem  biographer,  F.  Caffl,  Delia 
rita  e  (Wle  Open  da  Pr0tt  O.  Marlino  (Venice.  1898).  Neither  hers 
nor  in  the  chapters  on  Zarlino  and  Andrea  Gabrieli  oontained  in  his 
Utoria  della  MitMica  Saera.  vol.  i.  p.  1»,  etc.  (Venice,  18M),  does  Caffl 


appointed  to  the  organistship  previously  held 
by  his  father  (who  died  in  1573)  ;  and  this  post 
he  tilled  until  his  death,  Oct.  16, 1621.  For  a 
generation  he  was  the  glory  of  Amsterdam. 
When  he  played  the  organ  there,  says  a  con- 
temporary, '  there  was  a  wonderful  concourse 
every  day  ;  every  one  was  proud  to  have  known, 
seen,  heard  the  man. '  *  And  when  he  died  it 
was  the  greatest  of  Dutch  poets,  Vondel,  who 
wrote  his  epitaph,  and  surnamed  him  *  Phoenix 
of  Music'  He  must  also  have  been  a  distin- 
guished figure  in  the  society  of  Amsterdam, 
then  in  its  greatest  brilliancy,  not  only  for  his 
unmatched  powers  as  an  organist,  but  also  for 
his  skill,  fancy,  and  charming  versatility  on  the 
clavicymbel.'  The  town  bought  him  for  public 
service  a  new  *  clavecimpbel '  from  Antwerp  at 
a  cost  of  200  gulden  ;  and  the  instrument 
seems  to  have  travelled  with  him  all  over  the 
country.* 

What  was  published,  however,  by  Sweelinck 
in  his  lifetime  was  entirely  vocal  music,  and 
includes — ^besides  occasional  canons,  marriage- 
songs,  etc., his  'Chansons  fran9aises'  (three  parts, 
Antwerp,  1592-94),  'Rimes  fran9oises  et  itali- 
ennes '  (Leyden,  1612),  and  the  great  collections 
of  sacred  music  on  which,  with  his  organ  works, 
his  fame  chiefly  rests.  These  are  the  '  Pseaumes 
mis  en  musique*  for  4-8  voices  (published  in 
several  editions  at  Leyden,  Amsterdam,  and 
Berlin),  and  the  *  Cantiones  Sacrae '  (Antwerp, 
1619.  A  Regina  Ck>eli  from  the  latter,  three 
Chansons,  and  eight  Psalms  in  six  parts  were 
reprinted,  in  organ -score,  by  the  Association 
for  the  History  of  Dutch  Music  (pts.  i.  v.  vi. 
and  vii.  ;  Utrecht  and  Amsterdam,  1869-77); 
which  has  also  published  for  the  first  time  seven 
of  Sweelinck's  organ  works*  (pt.  iii.)  [Veu- 
EENiGiN-a.  In  1894-1901  Breitkopf  &  Hiirtel 
published  Sweelinck's  complete  works  in  twelve 
volumes,  edited  by  Max  Seiffert,  who  added 
prefaces,  etc.,  see  below.  The  chanson,  'Tu 
as  tout  seul'  is  in  vol.  i.  of  '  Arion,'  and  two 
of  the  Italian  madrigals  are  in  *  Ausgewdhlte 
Madrigale.'  The  beautiful  '  Hodie  Christus 
natus  est'  is  in  the  Bach  Choir  Magazine,  etc.] 

The  psalms  make  an  interesting  link  between 
the  tranquillity  of  the  old  polyphonists  and  the 
rhythm  of  modem  music.  Formally  tliey  stand 
nearest  to  the  earlier  style,  but  the  strictness  of 

take  any  notice  of  the  Dateh  acholar.  Kor  have  I  been  able  to  die- 
covrr  Hoy  trace  of  his  reeideDce  at  Venice  in  the  MB.  ooUectioos  of 
H.  Hara>. 

>  MB.  at  Hamburg,  formerly  belonging  to  the  great  organist 
Relncke. 

2  Sweertlos.  In  Tledeman.  ^  16.  Sweelinck's  portrait  at  Dann- 
stAdt  iri%-es  his  strong  Irregular  features  a  kindly  expression,  with 
a  touch  of  ssdness  In  them.  It  Is  reproduced  in  photograph  by 
Mr.  Tledeman. 

3  On  this  he  was  the  master  of  Christina  Tan  Erp,  the  famous 
latenist,  and  wife  of  the  more  famous  poet,  Pieter  ComellsKon 
Hooft.    See  the  Bouwiteenen  of  the  Vereenlglng,  Tol.  i.  pp.  18  f . 

*  Bee  an  anecdote  In  Baadarttas,  Jt^morjftn,  xllL  p.  163;  cited 
by  TIpdf  man,  p.  16^ 

'<  The  bibllograpby  of  Sweelinck  Is  given  at  length  by  Tledeman. 
pp.  43-73.  To  this  should  be  added  some  supplementary  particulars 
voinmunloated  by  Dr.  J.  P.  HelJe  In  the  Bouwtteentn,  vul.  1.  pp. 
»M6. 


freedom  of  effect,  very  pure  and  full  of  melody, 
to  a  greater  degree  than  is  common  in  works  of 
the  time.  The  oi^n  pieces  are  also  historically 
of  signal  importance.  Though  they  may  not 
justify  the  claim  made  for  Sweelinck  as  *  the 
founder  of  instrumental  music, '^  they  at  all 
events  present  the  first  known  example  of  an  in- 
dependent use  of  the  pedal  (entrusting  it  with 
a  real  part  in  a  fugue),  if  not  with  the  first 
example  of  a  completely  developed  organ-fugue. 

It  is  as  an  organist  and  the  founder  of  a  school 
of  organists  that  Sweelinck  had  most  influence, 
an  influence  which  made  itself  felt  through 
the  whole  length  of  northern  Germany.^  In 
the  next  generation  nearly  all  the  leading 
organists  there  had  been  his  scholars ;  his 
learning  and  method  were  carried  by  them  from 
Hamburg  to  Danzig.  His  pupil  Scheidemann 
handed  down  the  tradition  to  the  great  Reincke  ^ 
— himself  a  Dutchmann — from  whom,  if  we 
accept  a  statement  supported  alike  by  unanimous 
testimony  and  by  exhaustive  analysis  of  their 
works,  it  turned  to  find  its  consummation  in 
Sebastian  Bach.° 

[The  contents  of  the  complete  edition  are  as 
follows : — 

1.  Organ  and  ClaTier  works. 
Book  I.  of  Psalms. 

Iv.  and  V.  Book  II.  of  PMlma. 

vl.  Book  III.  of  Psalnts. 
vii.  Book  IV.  of  Psalms. 
vlU.  Osntlooes  SaciM. 

ix.  Chansons  a  I. 

X.  Rimes  Fran^ees  et  Italiennes. 

xl.  Miscellaneous  and  occasional  compoaitloua. 
xii.  Compoeitlons-Begelii,  ed.  by  Dr.  H.  Oehnoaon. 

Two  portraits  are  reproduced,  and  the  pre- 
faces by  Dr.  Seiffert  are  given  in  Dutch  and 
German.]  R.  l.  p. 

SWELL  (HARPSICHORD).  The  desire  for 
a  power  of  increase  and  decrease  on  keyboard 
instruments  like  the  harpsichord  and  organ,  so 
as  to  emulate  the  bow  instruments,  and  even  the 
human  voice,  in  that  flow  and  ebb  which  are  at 
the  foundation  of  form  no  less  than  of  expression, 
has  led  to  the  contrivance  of  mechanical  swells 
as  the  only  possible  approach  to  it.  A  swell  was 
first  attempted  on  the  Organ  ;  the  harpsichord 
swell  was  introduced  by  Robert  Plenius  in  a 
sosteuente  variety  of  the  instniment,  named  by 
him  *  Lyrichord,*  and  is  described  (in  1756)  as 
the  raising  of  a  jwi-tion  of  the  lid  or  cover  of 
the  instrument  by  means  of  a  pedal.  Kirkman 
adopted  this  very  simple  swell,  and  we  find  it 
also  in  many  small  square  pianos  of  the  1 8th 
century.  About  1765  Shudi  introduced  the 
Venetian  swell,  and  patented  it  in  1769.  This 
beautiful  piece  of  joinery  is  a  framing  of  louvres 
which  open  or  close  gradually  by  means  of  the 
right  pedal  and  thus  cause  a  swell,  which  may 

«  See  BItner'B  preface  to  the  edition,  and  Tledeman.  p|t.  H  «. 

'  The  wide  distribution  of  his  works  Is  shown  by  early  traiMcripts 
existing  in  the  BHtlsh  Museum,  and  by  copiwof  theextremdy  lare 
printed  works  prceerved  in  the  BlbIloth«qne  Nationale.  Curiously 
enough  not  a  single  MR.  of  SweeUnck  remaliu  iu  HdUnd. 

**  Or  Reinken. 

»  Bpitt*.  J.  H.  naek,  1.  86.  IPS'SIS. 


SWELL-ORGAN 


SWIETEN 


761 


\>e  as  gradual  as  tlie  perfomier  pleases.  Shudi 
l)equeathed  this  patent  to  John  Broadwood,  who 
inherited  it  on  the  death  of  Shudi  in  1773. 
AVhen  the  patent  expired,  Kirkman  and  othera 
adopted  it,  and  it  was  fitted  to  many  old  harpsi- 
chords, and  even  to  pianos,  but  was  soon  proved 
unnecessary  in  an  instrument  where  power  of 
nuance  was  the  very  first  principle. 

The  English  organ-buildei-s  perceived  the  great 
advantage  of  Shudi's  Venetian  swell  over  the 
rude  contrivance  they  had  been  using  [see 
Oroan,  vol.  iii.  p.  536&],  and  it  became  gener- 
ally adopted  for  organs,  and  has  since  been  con- 
stantly retained  in  them  as  an  important  means 
of  effect.  A.  J.  H. 

SWELL-ORGAN.  The  clavier  or  manual  of 
an  organ  which  acts  upon  pipes  enclosed  in  a 
box,  such  box  having  shutters,  by  the  opening  of 
which,  by  means  of  a  pedal,  a  crescendo  is  pro- 
duced. The  shutters  are  made  to  fold  over  each 
other  like  the  woodwork  of  a  Venetian  blind, 
hence  the  expressions  'Venetian  Swell'  and 
'  Venetian  Shutters '  sometimes  found  in  specifi- 
cations. To  the  swell-organ  a  larger  number  of 
reed- stops  is  assigned  than  to  other  manuals. 

The  first  attempt  at  a  *  swelling-organ  '  was 
made  by  Jordan  in  1712.  The  crescendo  was 
obtained  by  raising  one  large  sliding  shutter 
which  formed  tlie  front  of  the  box.  The  early 
swell-organs  were  of  very  limited  compass,  some- 
times only  from  middle  C  upwards,  but  more 
generally  taken  a  fourth  lower,  namely,  to  fiddle 
G.  For  many  years  the  compass  did  not  extend 
below  tenor  C,  and  even  now  attempts  are 
sometimes  made  to  reduce  the  cost  of  an  organ 
by  limiting  the  downward  compass  of  some  of 
the  stops  of  the  Swell ;  but  in  all  instruments 
with  any  pretension  to  completeness  the  stops 
nin  throughout  the  compass  to  CC,  with  the 
possible  exceptions  of  the  Vox  Angelica  or  the 
Voix  Celeste.  [See  Organ,  vol.  iii.  p.  536,  etc., 
and  section,  p.  645.]  J.  8. 

SWELL-PEDAL.  The  pedal  in  the  organ 
and  harpsichord  by  which  the  shutters  of  the 
.swell  are  opened  and  closed.  T.  E. 

SWERT,  Jules  de,  a  representative  violon- 
cellist of  the  Belgian  school,  was  bom  at 
Louvain,  August  16,  1843.  His  disposition  for 
music  was  shown  very  early.  When  only  eight 
years  of  age  he  began  playing  in  public,  though 
his  studies  were  not  completed  until  1858,  in 
which  year  he  took  first  prize  in  the  class  of 
Servais  at  the  Brussels  Conservatoire.  His  sub- 
sequent career  was  that  of  a  travelling  virtuoso 
until  1866,  when  he  became  Concertmeister  at 
Diisscldorf.  Between  1869  and  1873  he  resided 
at  Berlin,  where  his  functions  were  those  of  royal 
Concertmeister  and  professor  at  the  Hochschule. 
He  also  held  appointments  at  Weimar,  Wies- 
baden, Leipzig,  and  finally  at  Ostend.  At  the 
latter  town  he  was  appointed  in  1888  director 
of  the  local  music  school,  acting  also  as  professor 
at  the  neighbouring  Conservatoires  of  Bruges 


and  Ghent,  until  his  death,  which  took  place  at 
Ostend,  Feb.  24,  1891.  As  a  soloist  he  visited 
London  first  in  1876,  and  was  esteemed  as  a 
warm,  temperamental  player,  producing  a  tone 
of  exceptional  volume.  As  a  composer  he  is  less 
favourably  known  here.  He  signed  his  name 
to  many  trashy  pieces,  probably  written  to  order, 
for  violoncello  with  pianoforte  and  with  orches- 
tra, but  occupied  himself  also  with  serious  work. 
Three  concertos,  one  of  which  was  produced 
with  great  success  at  the  Berlin  Philharmonic  in 
1886  ;  a  Symphony,  '  Nordseefahrt ' ;  and  tv^'O 
operas,  *Die  Albigenser '  (Wiesbaden,  1878)  and 
*Graf  Hammerstein,*  testify  to  this  ;  but  it  is 
as  soloist  that  he  is  best  remembered,  w.  w.  c. 
SWIETEN,  Gottfried,  Baron  VAN.  A 
musical  amateur  of  great  importance,  who  resided 
at  Vienna  at  the  end  of  the  18th  century  and 
beginning  of  the  19th  century.  The  family 
was  Flemish,  and  Gottfried's  father,  Gerhard,^ 
returned  from  Ley  den  to  Vienna  in  1745,  and 
became  Maria  Theresa's  favourite  physician. 
Gottfried  was  born  in  1734,  and  was  brought 
up  to  diplomacy,  but  his  studies  were  much 
disturbed  by  his  love  of  music,  and  in  1769  he 
committed  himself  so  far  as  to  compose  several 
of  the  songs  in  Favart's  'Rosiere  de  Salency* 
for  its  public  production  at  Paris.  In  1771  he 
was  msuie  ambassador  to  the  Court  of  Prussia, 
where  the  music  was  entirely  under  the  influence 
of  Frederick  the  Great,  conservative  and  classi- 
cal. This  suited  Van  Swieten.  Handel,  the 
Bachs,  and  Haydn  were  his  favourite  masters  ; 
in  1774  he  commissioned  C.  P.  E.  Bach  to 
write  six  symphonies  for  orchestra.  He  returned 
to  Vienna  in  1778  ;  succeeded  his  father  as 
Prefect  of  the  Public  Library,  and  in  1781  was 
appointed  President  of  the  Education  Commis- 
sion. He  became  a  kind  of  musical  autocrat  in 
Vienna,  and  in  some  respects  his  influence  was 
very  good.  He  encouraged  the  music  which 
he  approved  ;  had  regular  Sunday -morning 
meetings  for  classical  music,  as  well  as  perform- 
ances of  the  great  choral  works  of  Bach, 
Handel,  and  Hasse,  etc.;  employed  Mozart 
to  add   accompaniments   to   Handel's    '  Acis,' 

*  Messiah,'  *St.  Cecilia,'  and  'Alexander's  Feast,' 
and  Starzer  to  do  the  same  for  *  Judas ' ;  trans- 
lated  the  words   of  the   *  Creation'  and  the 

*  Seasons '  into  German  for  Haydn  ;  and  himself 
arranged  Handel's  *  Athaliah  '  and  '  Choice  of 
Hercules.'  He  supplied  Haydn  now  and  then 
with  a  few  ducats,  and  gave  him  a  travelling- 
carriage  for  his  second  journey  to  England.  ^ 
In  his  relation  to  these  great  aitists  he  seems 
never  to  have  forgotten  the  superiority  of  his 
rank  to  theirs  ;  but  this  was  the  manner  of  the 
time.  Van  Swieten  patronised  Beethoven  also 
[see  vol.  i.  p.  232a] ;  but  such  condescension 
would  not  be  at  all  to  Beethoven's  taste,  and  it 
is  not  surprising  that  we  hear  very  little  of  it. 

»  Evldentiy  not  a  very  yriwt  peraon.     Bee  Carlyle's  Fr«derick,  Bk. 
xxl.  ch,  8. 
a  Grieelnger,  Biog.  A'ot.  p.  dfl. 


*  Musikalische  Gesellsohaft,'  or  Musical  Society, 
consisting  of  twenty-five  members  of  the  highest 
aristocracy,  with  the  avowed  object  of  creating 
a  taste  for  good  music — a  forerunner  of  the 

*  Gesellschaft  der  Musikfreunde,'  founded  in 
1808. 

Van  Swieten  died  at  Vienna,  March  29,  1803. 
His  music  has  not  survived  him,  but  it  would 
be  interesting  to  hear  one  of  the  six  symphonies 
which,  in  Haydn's  words,  ^  were  *as  stiff  as 
himself.'  6. 

SWINEY,  Owen,  frequently  called  Mac 
Swiney,  [was  born  near  Enniscorthy,  Ireland, 
in  1680,  and  was  the  son  of  the  rector  of  that 
l>lace.  w.  H.  G.  F.]  In  a  letter,*  dated  Oct. 
5,  1 706,  and  addressed  to  v  >lley  Gibber,  whom 
he  calls  in  turn  'puppy,'  *his  Angel'  (twice), 
'his  Dear,'  and  finally  *  Unbeliever,' — this 
singular  person  describes  how  Rich  had  sent 
for  him  from  his  *  Quarters  in  the  North,*  and 
how  *  he  was  at  a  great  charge  in  coming  to 
town,  and  it  cost  him  a  great  deal  of  money 
last  winter,'  and  *  he  served  him  night  and  day, 
nay,  all  night  and  all  day,  for  nine  mouths.' 
He  had  '  quitted  his  post  in  the  army '  on  the 
faith  of  promises  that,  in  return  for  managing 

*  the  playhouse  in  the  Haymarkett '  under  Rich, 
he  was  to  have  *  100  Guineas  per  annum  Salary, 
a  place  at  Court,  and  the  Devil  and  all.'  This 
was  the  somewhat  inauspicious  beginning  of 
Swiney's  theatrical  career.  Having  come  up 
to  London,  as  described,  in  1705,  he  soon  found 
tliat  Rich  intended  nothing  seriously  for  his 
advantage ;  and  he  announces  (in  the  same  letter) 
that,  in  consequence  of  the  general  discontent 
of  the  actors  with  Rich,  and  although  Rich 
might  have  had  the  house  for  £3  or  £3  :  10s.  a 
day,  he  (Swiney)  had  taken  a  lease  for  seven 
yeara  at  £5  a  day,  and  meant  to  begin  in  a 
few  days. 

lu  1707  we  find  him  in  partnership  with 
Wilks,  Dogget,  and  Gibber  in  the  King's 
Theatre,  having  taken  the  lease  from  Yanbrugh, 
aud  very  soon  quarrelling  with  them  and  peti- 
tioning the  Lord  Ghamberlain's  interference  in 
his  favour.  He  was  mixed  up  in  most  of  the 
quarrels  and  intrigues  of  the  time. 

In  May  1709  Swiney  engaged  the  famous 
Nicolini  for  three  years,  that  great  singer  having 
recently  made  a  most  successful  debut  in  London. 
Before  the  completion  of  this  term,  however, 
Swiney  appears  to  have  *  absented  himself  from 
his  creditors '  and  become  banknipt. 

After  this  he  lived  for  some  yeara  in  Italy  ; 
but  on  his  return  to  England  a  place  in  the 
Custom-house  was  found  for  him,  and  he  was 
appointed  Keeper  of  the  King's  Mews.  While 
in  Italy  with  Lord  Boyne  and  Walpole,  he 
wrote  to  Colman  (July  12,  1730)  from  Bologna, 

1  Orlmlnger,  Btoj/.  Xot.  p.  ifT. 
3  la  the  writer's  paneeelon. 


Oct.  2,  1754,  leaving  his  fortune  to  Mrs. 
Woffington.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
dramatic  pieces,  viz.  'The  Quacks,  or  Love's 
the  Physician'  (1705);  'Camilla'  (1706); 
'Pyrrhus  and  Demetrius'  (1709);  and  an 
altered  version  of  the  first  piece. 

Two  years  before  his  death  a  fine  portrait  of 
Swiney,  after  Yan  Loo,  was  scraped  in  mezzotint 
by  J.  Faber,  junr.  It  represents  him,  in  black 
velvet,  holding  in  his  himd  a  book,  of  which 
the  title  seems  to  be  Don  Quixote,  J.  m. 

SYLPHIDE,  LA.  One  of  the  most  famous 
ballets  on  record  ;  in  two  acts ;  libretto  by  A. 
Nourrit  the  singer,  music  by  Schneitzhoffer. 
Produced  at  the  Grand  Op^ra,  Paris,  March  12, 
1832.  The  part  of  La  Sylphide  was  danced  by 
Taolioni,  and  was  one  of  her  greatest  parts, 
both  in  Paris  and  in  London,  where  the  piece 
was  brought  out  at  Covent  Garden  Theatre,  for 
her  benefit,  July  26,  1882.  Thackeray  has 
embalmed  it  in  Pendennis  (chap,  xxxviii.)     g. 

SYLYANA.     See  Silvana. 

SYLYIA,  OU  LA  NYMPHE  DE  DLiNE. 
'  Ballet- pantomime '  in  two  acts  and  three 
tableaux ;  libretto  by  Barbier,  music  by  L^o 
Delibes.  Produced  at  the  Grand  Opera,  Paris, 
June  14,  1876.  o. 

SYMPATHETIC  TONE,  RESONANCE,  or 
YIBRATION  is  the  term  used  to  describe  one 
of  the  commonest  and  most  beautiful  of  accous- 
tical  phenomena.  Any  sound-producing  body, 
such  as  a  stretched  string,  or  any  cavity,  has 
one  particular  note  to  which  it  will  respond  if  the 
same  note  be  sounded  in  its  neighbourhood.  The 
easiest  illustration  of  the  fact  is  given  by  raising 
the  dampers  from  the  strings  of  a  piano  by 
pressing  the  right  pedal,  and  then  singing  a  note 
over  the  strings  ;  these  will  be  found  to  give 
forth  the  same  notes  uttered  by  the  voice,  in 
faint '  sympathy. '  The  fact  has  been  turned  to 
account  in  various  ways  in  practical  music.  The 
viola  d'amore  was  provided  with  *  sympathetic ' 
strings  below  the  finger-board,  w^hich  were  usually 
tuned  to  the  chord  of  D  mt^or,  and  resounded 
when  notes  of  that  chord  were  played.  The 
charm  of  the  pianoforte  pedal  is  not  so  much  in 
prolonging  the  tone  of  the  notes  that  are  actually 
struck,  as  in  allowing  the  sympathetic  resonance 
to  be  heard  from  the  strings  corresponding  to 
the  upper  partial  tones  of  the  lower  notes.  This 
power,  again,  is  easy  to  analyse  by  placing  the 
fingers  successively  or  simultaneously  u^wn  the 
notes  of  the  choixl  of  C  major  ftom  middle  G 
upwards  (without  sounding  them),  and  then 
striking  the  bass  G  firmly  ;  on  releasing  this 
latter  key,  the  upper  notes,  or  overtones,  of  the 
chord  will  be  distinctly  heard,  sounded  by  sym- 
pathetic vibration  from  the  upper  strings.  The 
effect  of  all  sympathetic  vibration  is  to  enrich 
the  quality  of  the  tone  produced  ;  and  the  fact 
that  the  harp,  with  its  obvious  poverty  of  tone 


SYMPHONIC  POEMS 


SYMPHONY 


763 


as  a  solo  instrument,  is  one  of  the  most  effective 
members  of  the  full  orchestra,  is  no  doubt  partly 
due  to  the  sympathetic  vibration  reacting  on 
the  lai*ge  surface  of  strings  that  are  capable  of 
resonance.  M. 

SYMPHONIC    POEMS   (Germ.    Symphmi- 
ische  UichtuTigen  ;  Fr.  Po^ntes  SympJKmiques)^  a 
term  iii-st  applied  by  Liszt  to  his  series  of  twelve 
orchestral  compositions  which,  freed  from  the 
conventions  of  actual  symphonic  form,  seemed 
to  him  to  require  some  new  title.     It  has  been 
since  adopted  by  Saint-Saens,  and  many  other 
followers  of  the  new  ideals  in  music ;   it  ap- 
jiarently  is  always  held  to  imply  the  presence 
of  a  '  programme,'  in  which  the  function  of  the 
ifiusic  is  to  illustrate  the  poetic  material,  not  to 
be   self-subsistent,  as  in  all  classical  composi- 
tions.     At  present,  too,  it  would  seem  that  the 
absence  of  any  recognisable  design  in  the  com- 
position is  considered  essential  to  success,  and 
Liszt's  device  of  transforming  his  themes  and 
presenting  them  in  new  disguises,  ratlier  than 
developing  them  according  to  the  older  prin- 
ciples, seems  also  to  be  a  rule  of  the  form.     As 
existing  specimens  from  Liszt  to  Richard  Strauss 
in  Gei*many,  and  from  Saint-Saens  to  Debussy 
in  France,  have  so  very  little  in  common  with 
the  design  of  the  true  symphony,   the  term 
*  Tone-Poem  *  or  *  Tondichtung  *  is  preferred  by 
some  composers,  who  very  likely  feel  relieved  of 
all  responsibility  by  the  adoption  of  the  vaguer 
title.  M. 

SYMPHONY  (SiNFOXiA,  Sinfonib,   Sym- 
phonie).     The  terms  used  in  connection  with 
any  branch  of  art  are  commonly  very  vague  and 
indefinite  in  the  early  stages  of  its  histoiy,  and 
are  applied  without  much  discrimination  to  differ- 
ent things.    In  course  of  time  men  consequently 
find  themselves  in  difficulties,  and  try,  as  far  as 
their  opportunities  go,  to  limit  the  definition  of 
the  terms,  and  to  confine  them  at  least  to  things 
which  are  not  obviously  antagonistic.     In  the 
end,  however,  the  process  of  sifting  is  rather 
guided  by  chance  and  external  circumstances 
tlian  determined  by  the  meaning  which  theorists 
see  to  be  the  proper  one  ;  and  the  result  is  that 
the  final  meaning  adopted  by   the  world  in 
general  is  frequently  not  only  distinct  from  that 
which  the  original  employers  of  the  word  in- 
tended, but  also  in  doubtful  conformity  with  its 
derivation.     In  the  case  of  the  word   '  Sym- 
j)hony,'  as  with  *  Sonata,'  the  meaning  now 
accepted  hapi^ens  to  be  in  very  good  accordance 
with  its  derivation,  but  it  is  considerably  removed 
from  the  meaning  which  was  originally  attached 
to  the  word.     It  seems  to  have  been  used  at 
first  in  a  very  general  and  comprehensive  vray, 
to  express  any  portions  of  music  or  passages 
whatever  which   were   thrown   into   relief  as 
purely  instrumental  in  works  in  which  the 
chief  interest  was  centred  upon  the  voice  or 
voices.  Thus,  in  the  operas,  cantatas,  and  masses 
of  the  early  part  of  the  17th  century,  the  voices 


had  the  most  important  part  of  the  work  to  do, 
and  the  instruments'  chief  business  was  to 
supply  simple  forms  of  harmony  as  accompani- 
ment. If  there  were  any  little  portions  which 
the  instruments  played  without  the  voices,  these 
were  indiscriminately  called  Symphonies  ;  and 
under  the  same  head  were  included  such  more 
particular  forms  as  Overtures  and  Ritomelli. 
The  first  experimentalists  in  harmonic  music 
generally  dispensed  with  such  independent  in- 
strumental passages  altogether.  For  instance, 
most  if  not  all  of  the  cantatas  of  Cesti  and  Rossi^ 
are  devoid  of  either  instrumental  introduction 
or  ritornel ;  and  the  same  appears  to  have  been 
the  case  with  many  of  the  operas  of  that  time. 
There  were,  however,  a  few  independent  little 
instrumental  movements  even  in  the  earliest 
operas.  Peri's  *  Euridice,'  which  stands  almost 
at  the  head  of  the  list  (having  been  performed 
at  Florence  in  1600,  as  part  of  the  festival  in 
connection  with  the  marriage  of  Henri  IV.  of 
France  and  Marie  de'  Medici),  contains  a  '  Sin- 
fonia '  for  three  flutes,  which  has  a  definite  form 
of  its  own  and  is  very  characteristic  of  the  time. 
The  \ise  of  short  instrumental  passages,  such  as 
dances  and  introductions  and  ritornels,  when 
once  fairly  begun,  increased  rapidly.  Monte- 
verde,  who  followed  close  upon  Peri,  made  some 
use  of  them,  and  as  the  century  grew  older,  they 
became  a  more  and  more  important  element  in 
dramatic  works,  especially  operas.  Tlie  indis- 
criminate use  of  the  word  '  symphony,'  to  denote 
the  passages  of  introduction  to  airs  and  recita- 
tives, etc.,  lasted  for  a  very  long  while,  and  got 
so  far  stereotyped  in  common  usage  that  it  was 
even  applied  to  the  instrumental  portions  of  airs, 
etc.,  when  played  by  a  single  performer.  As  an 
example  may  be  quoted  the  following  passage 
from  a  letter  of  Mozart's — *  Sie  (meaning  Strina- 
sacchi)  spielt  keine  Note  ohne  Empfindung ; 
sogar  bei  den  Sinfonien  spielte  sie  alles  mit 
Expression,'  etc.^  [The  same  use  of  the  name 
for  the  ritomelli  between  the  verses  of  a  song 
was  common  in  England  down  to  the  middle  of 
the  19th  century.]  With  regard  to  this  use  of 
the  term,  it  is  not  necessary  to  do  more  than 
point  out  the  natural  course  by  which  the 
meaning  began  to  be  restricted.  Lully,  Aless- 
andro  Scarlatti,  and  other  great  composers  of 
operas  in  the  l7th  century,  extended  the  ap- 
pendages of  airs  to  proportions  relatively  con- 
siderable, but  there  was  a  limit  beyond  which 
such  dependent  passages  could  not  go.  The 
independent  instrumental  portions,  on  the  other 
hand,  such  as  overtures  or  toccatas,  or  groups 
of  ballet  tunes,  were  in  different  circumstances, 
and  could  be  expanded  to  a  very  much  greater 
extent ;  and  as  they  grew  in  importance  the 
name  *  Symphony '  came  by  degrees  to  have  a 
more  special  significance.  The  small  instru- 
mental appendages  to  the  various  airs  and  so 

1  HSS.  In  the  ChiiatChorch  Library.  Oxford. 

2  '  She  dcMw  not  play  a  note  without  feellug,  aud  even  In  the  Syu- 
phonies  played  all  with  expreuion.' 


troductory  moyement ;  and  the  more  it  grew 
in  importance  the  more  distinctive  was  this 
application  of  the  term. 

The  earliest  steps  in  the  development  of  this 
portion  of  the  opera  are  chiefly  important  as 
attempts  to  establish  some  broad  principle  of 
form  ;  which  for  some  time  amounted  to  little 
more  than  the  balance  of  short  divisions,  of 
slow  and  quick  movement  alternately.  Liilly 
is  credited  with  the  invention  of  one  form, 
which  came  ultimately  to  l)e  known  as  the 
'Ouverture  a  la  mani^re  Fran9aise.'  The 
principles  of  this  form,  as  generally  understood, 
amounted  to  no  more  than  the  succession  of  a 
slow  solid  movement  to  begin  with,  followed  by 
a  quicker  movement  in  a  lighter  style,  and  an- 
other slow  movement,  not  so  grave  in  character 
as  the  first,  to  conclude  with.  LuUy  himself 
was  not  rigidly  consistent  in  the  adoption  of 
this  form.  In  some  cases,  as  in  *  Pers^,* 
'Thesee,'  and  *BeUerophon,*  there  are  two 
divisions  only — the  characteristic  grave  opening 
movement,  and  a  short  free  fugal  quick  move- 
ment. *  Proserpine,'  *  Phaeton,'  *  Alceste,' and 
the  Ballet  piece,  *Le  Triomphe  de  I'amour,' 
are  characteristic  examples  of  the  complete 
model.  These  have  a  grave  opening,  which  is 
repeated,  and  then  the  livelier  central  move- 
ment, which  is  followed  by  a  division  marked 
'  lentcment ' ;  and  the  last  two  divisions  are 
repeated  in  full  together.  A  few  examples  are 
occasionally  to  be  met  with  by  less  famous 
composers  than  Lully,  which  sbow  how  far  the 
adoption  of  this  form  of  overture  or  symphony 
became  general  in  a  short  time.  An  opera 
called  'Venus  and  Adonis,'  by  Desmarets,  of 
which  there  is  a  copy  in  the  Library  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Music,  has  the  overture  in 
this  foi-m.  *  Amadis  de  Grfece,'  by  Des  Touches, 
has  the  same,  as  far  as  can  be  judged  from 
the  character  of  the  divisions ;  *  Albion  and 
Albanius,'  by  Grabu,  which  was  licensed  for 
publication  in  England  by  Roger  Lestrange  in 
1687,  has  clearly  the  same,  and  looks  like  an 
imitation  direct  from  Lully  ;  and  the  *  Venus 
and  Adonis  *  by  Dr.  John  Blow,  yet  again  the 
same.  So  the  model  must  have  been  extensively 
appreciated.  The  most  imjwrtant  composer, 
however,  who  followed  Lully  in  this  matter, 
was  Alessandro  Scarlatti,  who  certainly  varied 
and  improved  on  the  model  both  as  regards  the 
style  and  the  form.  In  his  oi)era  of  *  Flavio 
Cuniberto, '  ^  for  instance,  the  *  Sinfonia  avanti 
r Opera'  begins  with  a  division  marked  (jrraTVj, 
which  is  mainly  based  on  simple  canonical 
imitations,  but  has  also  broad  expanses  of 
contrasting  keys.  The  style,  for  the  time,  is 
noble  and  rich,  and  very  superior  to  Lully 's. 
The  second  division  is  a  lively  allegro,  and  the 
last  a  moderately  quick  minuet  in  6-8  time. 

J  MS.  In  Chrirt  Church  Library. 


Presto  in  the  middle,  and  a  movement,  not 
defined  by  a  tempo,  but  clearly  of  moderate 
quickness,  to  end  with.  This  form  of  *  Sinfonia ' 
survived  for  a  long  while,  and  was  expanded  at 
times  by  a  succession  of  dance  movements,  for 
which  also  Lully  supplied  examples,  and  Handel 
at  a  later  time  more  familiar  types  ;  but  for  the 
history  of  the  modem  symphony,  a  form  whicli 
was  distinguished  from  the  other  as  the  *  Italian 
Overture,'  ultimately  became  of  much  greater 
importance. 

This  form  appears  in  principle  to  be  the  exact 
opposite  of  the  French  Overture ;  it  was  similarly 
divided  into  three  movements,  but  the  first  and 
last  were  quick  and  the  central  one  slow.  Who 
the  originator  of  this  form  was  it  seems  now 
impossible  to  decide ;  it  certainly  came  into 
vogue  very  soon  after  the  French  Overture,  and 
quickly  supplanted  it  to  a  great  extent  Certain 
details  in  ite  structure  were  better  defined  than 
in  the  earlier  form,  and  the  balance  and  dis- 
tribution of  characteristic  features  were  alike 
freer  and  more  comprehensive.  The  firat  al- 
legro was  generally  in  a  square  time  and  of 
solid  character ;  the  central  movement  aimed 
at  expressiveness,  and  the  last  was  a  quick 
movement  of  relatively  light  character,  generally 
in  some  combination  of  three  feet  The  history 
of  its  early  development  seems  to  be  wrapped 
in  obscurity,  but  from  the  moment  of  its 
appearance  it  has  the  traits  of  the  modem 
orchestral  symphony,  and  composers  very  soon 
obtained  a  remarkable  degree  of  mastery  over 
the  form.  It  must  have  first  come  into  definite 
acceptance  about  the  end  of  the  17th  or  the 
beginning  of  the  18th  century ;  and  by  the 
middle  of  the  latter  it  had  become  almost  a 
matter  of  course.  Operas,  and  similar  works, 
by  the  most  conspicuous  composers  of  this 
time,  in  very  great  numbers,  have  the  same 
form  of  overture.  For  instance,  the  t^vo  distinct 
versions  of  *La  Clemenza  di  Tito'  by  Hasse, 
*Catone  in  Utica*  by  Leonardo  Vinci  (1728), 
the  *  Hypermnestra,*  'Artaserse,'  and  oUiers  of 
Perez,  Piccinni's  *Didone,'  Jommelli's  *Betulia 
liberata,'  Saochini's  *(Edipus,'  Galuppi's  *  II 
mondo  alia  reversa  * — produced  the  year  before 
Haydn  wrote  his  first  symphony — and  Adam 
Hiller's  'Lisuart  und  Dariolette,'  *Die  Liebe 
auf  dem  Lande,'  *  Der  Krieg,*  etc.  And  if  a 
more  conclusive  proof  of  the  general  acceptance 
of  the  form  were  required,  it  would  be  fonnd 
in  the  fact  that  Mozart  adopted  it  in  his  boyish 
operas,  *La  finta  semplice'  and  'Lucio  SUla.' 
With  the  general  adoption  of  the  form  came 
also  a  careful  development  of  the  internal 
structure  of  each  separate  movement,  and  also 
a  gradual  improvement  both  in  the  combination 
and  treatment  of  the  instruments  employed. 
Lully  and  Alessandro  Scarlatti  were  for  the 
most  part  satisfied   with   strings,   w^hich   the 


SYMPHONY 


765 


former    used   qrudely  enough,  but  the  latter 
^vith   a  good  deal  of  perception  of  tone  and 
appropriateness  of  style  ;  sometimes  with  the 
addition  of  wind  instruments.     Early  in  the 
18th   century  several  wind  instruments,  such 
as  oboes,  bassoons,  horns,  trumpets,  and  flutes 
were    added,   though  not   often   all  together; 
and  they  served,  for  the  most  part,  chiefly  to 
strengthen   the  strings   and   give   contrasting 
degrees  of  full  sound  rather  than  contrasts  of 
colour  and  tone.     Equally  important  was  the 
rapid    improvement   which   took  place  simul- 
taneously in  internal  structure  ;   and  in  this 
case  the  development  followed  that  of  certain 
other  departments  of  musical  form.      In  fact 
the  progress  of  the  *  Sinfonia  avanti  1'  Opera ' 
in    this    respect  was    chiefly  parallel  to    the 
development  of  the  Clavier  Sonata,  which  at 
this  time  was  beginning  to  attain  to  clearness 
of  outline  and  a  certain  maturity  of  style.     It 
will  not  be  necessary  here  to  repeat  what  has 
elsewhere  been  discussed  from  diflerent  points 
of  view  in  the  articles  on  Form,  Sonata,  and 
Suite  ;  but  it  is  important  to  realise  that  in 
point  of  time  the  form  of  this  'Sinfonia  avanti 
r  Opera '  did  not  lag  behind  in  definition  of 
outline    and    mastery   of   treatment ;    and   it 
might  be   diflicult   to   decide  in   which   form 
(whether  orchestral  or  clavier)  the  important 
detail  first  presents  itself  of  defining  the  first  and 
second  principal  sections  by  subjects  decisively 
distinct.     A  marked  improvement  in  various 
respects  appears    about    the    time   when    the 
symphony  first  began  to  be  generally  played 
apart  from  the  opera  ;  and  the  i-easons  for  this 
are   obvious.     In  the  first  place,  as  long  as 
it  was  merely  the  appendage  to  a  drama,  less 
stress  was  laid  upon  it ;  and,  what  is  more 
to  the  ijoint,  it  is  recorded  that  audiences  were 
not  by  any  means  particularly  attentive  to  the 
iusti-umental  portion  of  the  work.     The  descrip- 
tion given  of  the  behaviour  of  the  public  at 
some  of  the  most  important  theatres  in  Europe 
in  the  middle  of  the  18th  century  seems  to 
correspond  to  the  descriptions  which  are  given 
of  the  audience  at  the  Italian  Operas  in  England 
iu  the  latter  half  of  the  19th.     Burney,  in  the 
account  of  his  tour,  refei-s  to  this  more  than 
once.     In  the  first  volume  he  says,  '  The  music 
at  the  theatres  in  Italy  seems  but  an  excuse 
for  people  to  assemble  together,  their  attention 
being  chiefly  placed  on  play  and  conversation, 
even  during  the  performance  of  a  serious  opera.' 
In  another  place  he  describes  the  card-tables, 
and  the  way  in  which  the  *  people  of  quality ' 
reser>'ed  their  attention  for  a  favourite  air  or 
two,  or  the  performance  of  a  favourite  singer. 
The  rest,  including  the  overture,  they  did  not 
regard  as  of  much  consequence,  and  hence  the 
composers  had  but  little  inducement  to  put  out 
the  best  of  their  powers.     It  may  have  been 
partly  on  this  account  that  they  took  very  little 
pains  to  connect  these  overtures  or  symphonies 


with  the  opera,  either  by  character  or  feature. 
They  allowed  it  to  become  almost  a  settled 
principle  that  they  should  be  independent  in 
matter  ;  and  consequently  there  was  very  little 
difficulty  in  accepting  them  as  independent 
instrumental  pieces.  It  naturally  followed  as 
it  did  later  with  another  form  of  overture. 
The  *  Symphonies'  which  had  more  attractive 
quaUties  were  played  apart  from  the  operas, 
in  concerts ;  and  the  precedent  being  thereby 
established,  the  step  to  writing  independent 
works  on  similar  lines  was  but  short ;  and  it 
was  natural  that,  as  undivided  attention  would 
now  be  given  to  them,  and  they  were  no  more 
in  a  secondary  position  in  connection  with  the 
opera,  composers  should  take  more  pains  both 
in  the  structure  and  in  the  choice  of  their 
musical  material.  The  Symphony  had,  however, 
reached  a  considerable  pitch  of  development 
before  the  emancipation  took  place ;  and  this 
development  was  connected  with  the  progress 
of  certain  other  musical  forms  besides  the 
Sonata,  aheady  referred  to. 

It  will  accordingly  be  convenient,  before 
proceeding  farther  with  the  direct  history  of 
the  Symphony,  to  consider  some  of  the  more 
important  of  these  early  branches  of  Musical 
Art.  In  the  early  harmonic  times  the  relation- 
ships of  nearly  all  the  diflerent  branches  of 
composition  were  close.  The  Symphony  was 
related  even  to  the  early  Madrigals,  through 
the  'Sonate  da  Chiesa,'  which  adopted  the 
Canzona  or  instrumental  veraiou  of  the  Madrigal 
as  a  second  movement.  It  was  also  closely 
related  to  the  early  Fantasias,  as  the  earliest 
experiments  in  instrumental  music,  in  which 
some  of  the  technical  necessities  of  that  depart- 
ment were  grappled  with.  It  was  directly 
connected  with  the  vocal  portions  of  the  early 
operas,  such  as  airs  and  recitatives,  and  derived 
from  them  many  of  the  mechanical  forms  of 
cadence  and  harmony  which  for  a  long  time 
were  a  necessary  part  of  its  form.  The  solo 
Clavier  Suite  had  also  something  to  do  with  it, 
but  not  so  much  as  might  be  expected.  As 
has  been  pointed  out  elsewhere,  the  suite- form, 
being  very  simple  in  its  principle,  attained  to 
definition  very  early,  while  the  sonata-form, 
which  characterised  the  richest  period  of  har- 
monic music,  was  still  struggling  in  elementary 
stages.  The  ultimate  basis  of  the  suite-form 
is  a  contrast  of  dance-tunes  ;  but  in  the  typical 
early  Symphony  the  dance- tunes  are  almost  in- 
variably avoided.  When  the  Symphony  was 
expanded  by  the  addition  of  the  Minuet  and 
Trio,  a  bond  of  connection  seemed  to  be  estab- 
lished ;  but  still  this  bond  was  not  at  all  a 
vital  one,  for  the  Minuet  is  one  of  the  least 
characteristic  elements  of  the  suite- form  proper, 
being  clearly  of  less  ancient  lineage  and  type 
than  the  Allemande,  Courante,  Sarabande,  or 
Gigue,  or  even  the  Gavotte  and  Bourree,  which 
were  classed  with  it,  as  Intermezzi  or  Galan- 


teriei.  The  form  of  the  Clavier  Suite  move- 
ments was  in  fact  too  inelastic  to  admit  of  such 
ex|)ansion  and  development  as  was  required  in 
the  orchestral  works,  and  the  type  did  not 
supply  the  characteristic  technical  qualities 
which  would  be  of  service  in  their  development 
The  position  of  Bach's  Orchestral  Suites  was 
somewhat  different ;  and  it  appears  that  he 
himself  called  them  Ovei-tures.  Dehn,  in  his 
preface  to  the  tirst  edition  printed,  says  that 
the  separate  MS.  parts  in  the  Bach  archives  at 
Hamburg,  from  which  he  took  that  in  C,  have 
the  distinctive  characteristics  of  the  handwriting 
of  John  Sebastian,  and  have  for  title  '  Ouverture 
pour  2  Yiolons,'  etc.  ;  and  that  another  MS., 
probably  copied  from  these,  has  the  title  *  Suite 
pour  Orchestre.'  This  throws  a  certain  light 
upon  Bach's  position.  It  is  obvious  that  in 
several  departments  of  instrumental  music  he 
took  the  French  for  his  models  rather  than  the 
Italians.  In  the  Suite  he  followed  Couperin, 
and  in  the  Overture  he  also  followed  French 
models.  These  therefore  appear  as  attempts 
to  develop  an  independent  orchestral  work 
analogous  to  the  Symphony,  upon  the  basis,  of 
a  form  which  had  the  same  reason  for  existence 
and  the  same  general  purpose  as  the  Italian 
Overture,  but  a  distinctly  different  general 
outline.  Their  chief  connection  with  the  actual 
development  of  the  modem  symphony  lies  in 
the  treatment  of  the  instruments ;  for  all 
experiments,  even  on  different  lines,  if  they 
have  a  common  quality  or  principle,  must  react 
upon  one  another  in  those  respects. 

Another  branch  of  art  which  had  close  con- 
nection with  the  early  symphonies  was  the 
Concerto.  Works  under  this  name  were  not 
by  any  means  invariably  meant  to  be  show 
pieces  for  solo  instruments,  as  modem  concertos 
are ;  and  sometimes  the  name  was  used  as 
almost  synonymous  with  symphony.  The 
earliest  concertos  seem  to  have  been  works  in 
which  groups  of  *solo'  and  *ripieno'  instru- 
ments were  used,  chiefly  to  obtain  contrasts  of 
fulness  of  tone.  For  instance,  a  set  of  six 
concertos  by  Alessandro  Scarlatti,  for  two 
violins  and  violoncello,  'soli,'  and  two  violins, 
tenor,  and  bass,  '  ripieni,*  present  no  distinction 
of  style  between  one  group  and  the  other. 
The  accompanying  instruments  for  the  most 
part  merely  double  the  solo  parts,  and  leave  off 
either  to  lessen  the  sound  here  and  there,  or 
because  the  passages  happen  to  go  a  little  higher 
than  usual,  or  to  be  a  little  difficult  for  the 
average  violin-players  of  that  time.  When  the 
intention  is  to  vary  the  quality  of  sound  as 
well,  the  element  of  what  is  called  instmmenta- 
tion  is  introduced,  and  this  is  one  of  the  earliest 
phases  of  that  element  which  can  be  traced  in 
music.  The  order  of  movements  and  the  style 
of  them  are  generally  after  the  manner  of  the 
Sonate  da  Chiesa,  and  therefore  do  not  present 
any   close   analogy  with   the  subject  of  this 


article.  But  very  soon  after  the  time  of  CorelU 
and  Alessandro  Scarlatti  the  form  of  the  Italian 
overture  was  adopted  for  concertos,  and  about 
the  same  time  they  began  to  show  traces  of 
becoming  show-pieces  for  great  performers. 
Allusions  to  the  performance  of  concertos  by 
great  violin  -  players  in  the  churches  form  a 
familiar  feature  in  the  musical  literature  of  the 
18th  century,  and  the  three -movement  form 
(to  all  intents  exactly  like  that  of  the  sym- 
phonies) seems  to  have  been  adopted  early. 
This  evidently  points  to  the  fact  that  this  form 
appealed  to  the  instincts  of  composers  generally, 
as  the  most  promising  for  free  expression  of 
their  musical  thoughts.  It  may  seem  curious 
that  J.  S.  Bach,  who  followed  French  models 
in  some  important  de^iartments  of  instrumental 
music,  should  exclusively  have  followed  Italian 
models  in  this.  But  in  reality  it  appears  to 
have  been  a  matter  of  chance  with  him  ;  he 
always  followed  the  best  models  which  came  to 
his  hand.  In  this  department  the  Italians 
excelled  ;  and  Bach  therefore  followed  them, 
and  left  the  most  important  early  specimens  of 
this  kind  remaining — almost  all  in  the  three- 
movement  form,  which  was  becoming  the  set 
order  for  symphonies.  Setting  aside  those 
specially  imitated  from  Vivaldi,  there  are  at 
least  twenty  concertos  by  him  for  all  sorts  of 
solo  instruments  and  combinations  of  solo 
instmments  in  this  same  form.  It  cannot 
therefore  be  doubted  that  some  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  symphony- form  took  place  in  this 
department.  But  Bach  never  to  any  noticeable 
extent  yielded  to  the  tendency  to  break  the 
movements  up  into  sections  with  corresponding 
tunes ;  and  this  distinguishes  his  work  in  a 
very  marked  manner  from  that  of  the  generation 
of  composers  who  followed  him.  His  art  belongs 
in  reality  to  a  different  stratum  from  that  which 
produced  the  greater  forms  of  abstiuct  instru- 
mental music.  It  is  probable  that  his  form 
of  art  could  not,  without  some  modification, 
have  produced  the  great  orchestral  symphonies. 
In  order  to  get  to  these,  composers  had  to  go 
to  a  different,  and  for  some  time  a  decidedly 
lower,  level.  It  was  much  the  same  process  as 
had  been  gone  through  before.  After  Palestrina 
a  backward  move  was  necessary  to  make  it 
possible  to  arrive  at  the  art  of  Bach  and  Handel. 
After  Bach  men  had  to  take  up  a  lower  line  in 
order  to  get  to  Beethoven.  In  the  latter  case 
it  was  necessary  to  go  through  the  elementary 
stages  of  defining  the  various  contrasting 
sections  of  a  movement,  and  finding  that  form 
of  harmonic  treatment  which  admitted  the  great 
effects  of  colour  or  varieties  of  tone  in  the  mass, 
as  well  as  in  the  separate  lines  of  the  oonnter- 
point.  Bach's  position  ^va8  so  immensely  high 
that  several  generations  had  to  pass  before  men 
were  able  to  follow  on  his  lines  and  adopt  his 
principles  in  harmonic  music.  The  generation 
that  followed  him  showed  scarcely  any  trace  of 


SYMPHONY 


767 


tiis  infliience.  Even  before  he  had  passed 
aAvay  the  new  tendencies  of  music  were  strongly 
apparent,  and  much  of  the  elementary  work  of 
"the  modem  sonata-form  of  art  had  been  done  on 
cliff erent  lines  from  his  own. 

The  '  Sinfonia  avanti  1'  Opera '  was  clearly  by 
'this  time  sufficiently  independent  and  complete 
to  be  appreciated  without  the  opera,  and  with- 
out either  name  or  programme  to  explain  its 
meaning ;  and  within  a  very  short  period  the 
demand  for  these  sinfonias  became  very  great. 
Burney's  tours  in  search  of  materials  for  his 
History,  in  Frauce,  Italy,  Holland,  and  Ger- 
many,  were  made  in  1770  and  1772,  before 
Haydn   had  wi-itten  any  of  his  greater  sym- 
]>honies,  and  while  Mozart  was  still   a  boy. 
His  allusions  to  independent  *  symphonies '  are 
very  frequent.     Among  those  whose  works  he 
mentions  with  most  favour  are  Stamitz,  Ema- 
nuel Bach,  Christian  Bach,  and  Abel.    Works 
of  the  kind  by  these  composers  and  many  others 
of  note  are  to  be  seen  in  great  numbers  in  sets 
of  part-books  in  the  British  Museum.     These 
furnish  most   excellent  materials  for  judging 
of  the  status  of  the  Symphony  in  the  early 
stages  of  its  independent  existence.     The  two 
most  important  points  which  they  illustrate 
are  the  development  of  instrumentation  and 
the  definition  of  form.     They  appear  to  have 
been  generally  written  in  eight  parts.     Most  of 
them  are   scored   for  two  violins,   viola,  and 
bass ;    two  hautboys,  or  two   flutes,  and  two 
'cors  de  chasse.'     This  is  the  case  in  the  six 
symphonies  of  op.  3  of  John  Christian  Bach  ; 
the  six  of  Abel's  op.  10,  the  six  of  Stamitz's 
op.  9,  op.  13,  and   op.  16  ;    also   in   a  set  of 
*  Overtures  in  8  parts'  by  Ame,  which  must 
have  been  early  in  the  field,  as  the  licence 
from  Qeorge  II.,  printed  in  full  at  the  beginning 
of  the  first  violin  part,  is  dated  January  17^ J. 
The  same  orchestration  is  found  in  many  sym- 
phonies by   Galuppi,   Ditters,  Schwindl,  and 
others.     WagenseU,  who  must  have  been  the 
oldest  of  this  group  of  composers  (having  been 
bom  in   the  17th  century,  within  six  years 
after    Handel,    Scarlatti,    and     Bach),    wrote 
several  quite   in   the   characteristic  harmonic 
style,    '  k   4    parties   obligees    avec    Cors    de 
Chasse  ad   libitum.'      The   treatment  of  the 
instniments  in  these  early  examples  is  rather 
crude  and  stiff.     The  violins  are  almost  always 
playing,  and  the  hautboys  or  flutes  are  only 
used  to  reinforce  them  at  times  as  the  '  ripieni ' 
instniments  did  in  the  early  concertos,  while 
the  homs  serve   to  hold   on   the   harmonies. 
The  first  stages  of  improvement  are  noticeable 
in  such  details  as  the  independent  treatment 
of  the  strings.     In  the  *  symphonies  before  the 
opera '  the  violas  were  cared  for  so  little  that 
in  many  cases'   not  more   than  half-a-dozen 
bars  are  written  in,  all  the  rest  being  merely 

>  It  ix  notorioTia  that  Mozart  gave  fuHer  nrti  to  the  second  violin 
becaiiw  of  the  incompetence  of  tlie  viola-iuayen. 


'col  basso.'  As  examples  of  this  in  works  of 
more  or  less  illustrious  ^vriter8  may  be  men- 
tioned the  *  Sinfonias '  to  Jommelli's  '  Passione ' 
and  '  Betulia  Liberata,'  Sacchini's  'CEdipus,' 
and  Sarti's  *Giulio  Sabino.'  One  of  the  many 
honoui-s  attributed  to  Stamitz  by  his  admiiing 
contemporaries  was  that  he  made  the  violas 
independent  of  the  basses.  This  may  seem 
a  trivial  detail,  but  it  is  only  by  such  details, 
and  the  way  in  which  they  struck  contemporary 
writers,  that  the  character  of  the  gradual 
progress  in  instrumental  composition  can  now 
be  understood. 

The  general  outlines  of  the  form  were  ex- 
tremely regular.  The  three  movements  as 
above  described  were  almost  invariable,  the 
first  being  a  vigorous  broad  allegro,  the  second 
the  sentimental  slow  movement,  and  the  third 
the  lively  vivace.  The  progress  of  internal 
structure  is  at  first  chiefly  noticeable  in  the 
first  movement.  In  the  early  examples  this  is 
always  condensed  as  much  as  possible,  the 
balance  of  subject  is  not  very  clearly  realisable, 
and  there  is  hardly  ever  a  double  bar  or  repeat 
of  the  first  half  of  the  movement.  The  divisions 
of  key,  the  short  •  working-out '  portion,  and 
the  recapitulation,  are  generally  present,  but 
not  pointedly  defined.  Examples  of  this  con- 
dition of  things  are  supplied  by  some  MS. 
symphonies  by  Paradisi  in  the  Fitzwilliam 
Museum  at  Cambridge,  which  in  other  respects 
possess  excellent  and  characteristically  modem 
traits.  The  first  thing  attained  seems  to  have 
been  the  relative  definition  and  balance  of  the 
two  subjects.  In  Stamitz,  Abel,  J.  C.  Bach, 
and  Wagenseil,  this  is  already  commonly 
met  with.  The  following  examples  from  the 
first  movement  of  the  fifth  symphony  of 
Stamitz's  op.  9  illustrate  both  the  style  and 
the  degree  of  contrast  between  the  two  prin- 
cipal subjects. 


The  style  is  a  little  heavy,  and  the  motion 
constrained,  but  the  general  chai-acter  is  solid 
and  dignified.  The  last  movements  of  this  period 
are  curiously  suggestive  of  some  familiar  ex- 
amples of  a  maturer  time  ;  very  gay  and  obvious, 
and  very  definite  in  outline.  The  following  is 
very  characteristic  of  Abel : — 


^^- 


^^u^i^ 


It  is  a  noticeable  fact  in  connection  with  the 
genealogy  of  these  works,  that  they  are  almost 
as  frequently  entitled  *  Overture '  as  *  Symphony ' ; 
sometimes  the  same  work  is  called  by  the  one 
name  outside  and  the  other  in  ;  and  this  is  the 
case  also  with  some  of  the  earlier  and  slighter 
symphonies  of  Haydn,  which  must  have  made 
their  appearance  about  this  period.  One  further 
point  which  it  is  of  importance  to  note  is  that  in 
some  of  Stamitz's  symphonies  the  complete  form 
of  the  mature  period  is  found.  One  in  D  is 
most  complete  in  every  respect.  The  first  move- 
ment is  Allegro  with  double  bars  and  repeats  in 
regular  binary  form  ;  the  second  is  an  Andante 
in  G,  the  third  a  Minuet  and  Trio,  and  the 
fourth  a  Presto.  Another  in  Eb  (which  is  called 
No.  7  in  the  part- books)  and  another  in  F  (not 
definable)  have  also  the  Minuet  and  Trio.  A 
few  others  by  Schwindl  and  Ditters  have  the 
same,  but  it  is  impossible  to  get  even  approxi- 
mately to  the  date  of  their  production,  and 
therefore  little  inference  can  be  framed  upon  the 
circumstance,  beyond  the  fact  that  composers 
were  beginning  to  recognise  the  fourth  move- 
ment as  a  desirable  ingredient. 

Another  composer  who  precedes  Haydn  in 
time  as  well  as  in  style  is  Emanuel  Bach.  He 
was  his  senior  in  years,  and  began  writing  sym- 
phonies in  1741,  when  Haydn  was  only  nine 
years   old.      His  most  important  symphonies 


were  produced  in  1776  ;  while  Haydn's  most  im- 
portant examples  were  not  produced  till  after 
1790.  In  style  Emanuel  Bach  stands  singu- 
larly alone,  at  least  in  his  finest  examples.  It 
looks  almost  as  if  he  purposely  avoided  the  fomi 
which  by  1776  must  have  been  familiar  to  the 
musical  world.  It  has  been  shown  that  the 
binar}'  form  was  employed  by  some  of  his  con- 
temporaries in  their  orchestral  works,  but  he 
seems  determinedly  to  avoid  it  in  the  fii*st  moye- 
ments  of  the  works  of  that  year.  His  object 
seems  to  have  been  to  produce  striking  and 
clearly  outlined  passages,  and  to  balance  and 
<»nti*ast  them  one  with  another  according  to  his 
fancy,  and  with  little  regard  to  any  systematic 
distribution  of  the  successions  of  key.  The 
boldest  and  most  striking  subject  is  the  first  of 
the  Symphony  in  D  : — 


The  opening  passages  of  that  in  £b  are  hardly 
less  emphatic.  They  have  little  connection  with 
the  tendencies  of  his  contemporaries,  but  seem 
in  every  respect  an  experiment  on  independent 
lines,  in  which  the  interest  dej^nds  ui)ou  the 
vigour  of  the  thoughts  and  the  unexpected 
turns  of  the  modulations ;  and  the  result  is 
oei-tainly  rather  fragmentary  and  disconnected. 
The  slow  movement  is  commonly  connected 
\iith  the  first  and  last  either  by  a  special 
transitional  passage,  or  by  a  turn  of  modalatioD 
and  a  half-close.  It  is  short  and  dependent  id 
its  character,  but  graceful  and  melodious.  The 
last  is  much  more  systematic  in  structure  than 
the  first ;  sometimes  in  definite  binary  form, 
as  was  the  case  with  the  early  violin  sonatas. 
In  orchestration  and  general  style  of  expression 
these  works  seem  immensly  superior  to  the  other 
early  symphonies  which  have  been  described. 
They  are  scored  for  horns,  flutes,  oboi,  fagotto, 
strings,  with  a  figured  bass  for  *  cembalo,*  which 
in  the  symphonies  previously  noticed  does  not 
always  appear.    There  is  an  abundance  of  anisoa 


SYMPHONY 


769 


cl  octave  passages  for  the  strings,  but  there  is 
lo  good  free  writing,  and  conti-asts  between 
ixd  and  strings ;  the  wind  being  occasionally 
it;  q[\iit«  alone.  All  the  instraments  come  in 
^ca,8ioIlally  for  special  employment,  and  con- 
dering  the  proportions  of  the  orchestras  of  the 
me  Bach's  effects  must  have  been  generally 
Leaj:  and  good.  The  following  is  a  good  specimen 
f  liis  scoring  of  an  ordinary  full  passage  : — 


It  has  sometimes  been  said  that  Haydn  was 
chiefly  influenced  by  Emanuel  Bach,  and  Mozart 
by  John  Christian  Bach.  At  the  pi-esent  time, 
and  in  relation  to  symphonies,  it  is  easier  to 
understand  the  latter  case  than  the  former. 
In  both  cases  the  influence  is  more  likely  to  be 
traced  in  clavier  works  than  in  those  for  orchestra. 
For  Haydn's  style  and  treatment  of  form  bear 
far  more  resemblance  to  most  of  the  other  com< 


'I         CellL 
I         Fagotto. 

Buflfli  e  CembAlo. 


[^^ 


tien. 


^^  i 


posers  whose  works  have  been  referred  to,  than 

'£  to   Emanuel  Bach.     There   ai-e  certain  kinds 

r  of  forcible  expression  and  Ingenious  turns  of 

modulation  which  Haydn  may  have  learnt  from 

|_  him ;  but  their  best  orchestral  works  seem  to 

1^  belong  to  quite  distinct  families.     Haydn's  first 

-  symphony  was  written  in  1 759  for  Count  Morzin. 

Like  many  other  of  his  early  works  it  does  not 

seem  discoverable  in  print  in  England.    But  it 

;    is  said  by  Pohl,*  who  must  have  seen  it  some- 

:    where  in  Germany,  to  be  '  a  small  work  in  three 

movements  for  two  violins,  viola,  bass,  two  oboes, 

and  two  horns '  ;    from  which   particulars   it 

.     would  appear  to  correspond  exactly  in  externals 

, ,    to  the  examples  above  described  of  Abel's  and 

J.  C.  Bach's,  etc.    In  the  course  of  the  next  few 

'.    years  he  added  many  more  ;  most  of  which 

appear  to  have  been  slight  and  of  no  great  his- 

,7    torical  importance,  while  the  few  which  present 

,     peculiarities  are  so  far  isolated  in  those  respects 

that  they  do  not  throw  much  light  upon  the 

course  of  his  development,  or  upon  his  share  in 

^     building  up  the  art- form  of  the  Symphony.    Of 

such  a  kind  is  the  movement  (dramatic  in  char- 

f,     acter,  and  including  long  passages  of  recitative) 

'^.     in  the  Symphony  in  C,  which  he  wrote  as  early 

as  1761.*    For,  though  this  kind  of  movement 

is  found  in  instrumental  works  of  an  earlier 

period,  its  appearance  in  such  a  manner  in  a 

I  Joteph  Haydn,  vol.  1.  p.  284  (187S). 
a /M4.  pp.  387,  397. 

VOL.  IV 


symphony  is  too  rare  to  have  any  special  his- 
torical bearings.  The  course  of  his  development 
was  gradual  and  regular.  He  seems  to  have 
been  content  with  steadily  improving  the  edifice 
of  his  predecessors,  and  with  few  exceptions  to 
have  followed  their  lines.  A  great  deal  is  fre- 
quently attributed  to  his  connection  with  the 
complete  musical  establishment  which  Prince 
Esterhazy  set  up  at  his  great  palace  at  Esterhdz  ; 
where  Haydn  certainly  had  opportunities  which 
have  been  the  lot  of  scarcely  any  other  com- 
poser who  ever  lived.  He  is  described  as  making 
experiments  in  orchestration,  and  ringing  the 
bell  for  the  band  to  come  and  try  them  ;  and, 
though  this  may  not  be  absolutely  true  in  fact, 
there  can  scarcely  be  a  doubt  that  the  very  great 
improvements  which  he  eflected  in  every  depart- 
ment of  orchestration  may  to  a  great  extent  be 
attributed  to  the  facilities  for  testing  his  works 
which  he  ei^joyed.  At  the  same  time  the  really 
important  portion  of  his  compositions  were  not 
produced  till  his  patron,  Prince  Nicolaus  Ester- 
hazy,  was  dead,  and  the  musical  establishment 
broken  up ;  nor,  it  must  be  remembered,  till 
after  that  strange  and  important  episode  in 
Haydn's  life,  the  rapid  flitting  of  Mozart  across 
the  scene.  When  Haydn  w^rote  his  first  sym- 
phony, Mozai-t  was  only  three  years  old  ;  and 
Mozart  died  in  the  very  year  in  which  the  famous 
Salomon  concerts  in  London,  for  which  Haydn 
wrote  nearly  all  his  finest  symphonies,  began. 

3d 


770 


SYMPHONY 


Mozart's  work,  therefore,  comes  bet^veen  Haydn's 
lighter  period  and  his  greatest  achievements  ; 
and  his  symphonies  are  in  some  respects  prior 
to  Haydn's,  and  certainly  had  an  effect  upon  his 
later  works  of  all  kinds. 

According  to  Kochel,  Mozart  wrote  altogether 
forty-nine  symphonies.  The  first,  in  Eb,  was 
written  in  London  in  1764,  when  he  was  eight 
years  old,  and  only  five  years  after  Haydn 
wrote  his  first.  It  was  on  the  same  pattern  as 
those  which  have  been  fully  described  above, 
being  in  three  movements  and  scored  for  the 
usual  set  of  instniments — namely,  two  violins, 
viola,  bass,  two  oboes,  and  two  horns.  Three 
more  followed  in  close  succession,  in  one  of 
which  clarinets  are  introduced  instead  of  oboes, 
and  a  bassoon  is  added  to  the  usual  group  of 
eight  instruments.  In  these  works  striking 
originality  of  purpose  or  style  is  hardly  to  be 
looked  for,  and  it  was  not  for  some  time  that 
Mozart's  powers  in  instrumental  music  reached 
a  pitch  of  development  which  is  historically 
important ;  but  it  is  nevertheless  astonishing  to 
see  how  early  he  developed  a  free  and  even  rich 
style  in  managing  his  orchestral  resources. 
With  regard  to  the  character  of  these  and  all 
but  a  few  of  the  rest  it  is  necessary  to  keep  in 
mind  that  a  symphony  at  that  time  was  a  very 
much  less  important  matter  than  it  became 
fifty  years  later.  The  manner  in  which  sym- 
phonies were  poured  out,  in  sets  of  six  and 
otherwise,  by  numerous  composers  during 
the  latter  half  of  the  18th  century,  puts 
utterly  out  of  the  question  the  loftiness  of  aim 
and  purpose  which  has  become  a  necessity  since 
the  early  years  of  the  19th  century.  They 
were  all  rather  slight  works  on  familiar  lines, 
with  which  for  the  time  being  composers  and 
public  were  alike  quite  content ;  and  neither 
Haydn  nor  Mozart  in  their  early  specimens 
seem  to  have  specially  exerted  themselves.  The 
general  survey  of  Mozart's  symphonies  presents 
a  certain  number  of  facts  which  are  worth  noting 
for  their  bearing  upon  the  history  of  this  form 
of  art.  The  second  symphony  he  wrote  had  a 
minuet  and  trio  ;  but  it  is  hardly  possible  that 
he  can  have  regarded  this  as  an  important  point, 
since  he  afterwards  wrote  seventeen  others 
without  them  ;  and  these  spread  over  the  whole 
period  of  his  activity,  for  even  in  that  which  he 
wrote  at  Prague  in  1786,  and  which  is  last  but 
three  in  the  whole  series,  the  minuet  and  trio 
are  absent.  Besides  this  fact,  which  at  once 
connects  them  with  the  examples  by  other  com- 
posers previously  discussed,  there  is  the  yet 
more  noticeable  one  that  more  than  twenty  of 
the  series  are  written  for  the  same  peculiar 
little  group  of  instruments,  viz.  the  four  strings, 
a  pair  of  oboes  or  flutes,  and  a  pair  of  horns. 
Although  he  used  clarinets  so  early  as  his  third 
symphony,  he  never  employed  them  again  till 
his  thirty-ninth,  which  was  written  for  Paris, 
and  is  almost  more  fully  scored  than  any.     In 


the  whole  forty-nine,  in  fact,  he  only  used 
clarinets  five  times,  and  in  one  of  these  cases 
(viz.  the  well-known  G  minor)  they  were  added 
after  he  had  finished  the  score.  Even  bassoons 
are  not  common  ;  the  most  frequent  addition  to 
the  little  nucleus  of  oboes  or  Antes  and  horns 
being  trumpets  and  drums.  The  two  which  are 
most  fully  scored  are  the  Parisian,  in  D,  just 
alluded  to,  which  was  written  in  1778,  and 
that  in  Eb,  which  was  written  in  Vienna  in 
1788,  and  stands  first  in  the  famous  triad. 
These  facts  explain  to  a  certain  extent  how  it 
was  possible  to  write  such  an  extraordinary 
number  in  so  short  a  space  of  time.  Mozart's 
most  continuoiLsly  prolific  period  in  this  branch 
of  art  seems  to  have  been  when  he  had  returned 
to  Salzburg  in  1771  ;  for  between  July  in  that 
year  and  the  beginning  of  1773,  it  appears  to 
be  proved  that  he  produced  no  fewer  than 
fourteen.  But  this  feat  is  fairly  surpassed  in 
another  sense  by  the  production  of  the  last  three 
in  three  successive  months,  June,  July,  and 
August  1788 ;  since  the  musical  calibre  of  these 
is  so  immensely  superior  to  that  of  the  earlier 
ones. 

One  detail  of  comparison  between  Mozart's 
ways  and  Haydn's  is  curious.  Haydn  began 
to  use  introductory  adagios  very  early,  and 
used  them  so  often  that  they  became  quite  a 
characteristic  feature  in  his  plan.  Mozart,  on 
the  other  hand,  did  not  use  one  until  his  44th 
Symphony,  written  in  1783.  AVhat  was  the 
origin  of  Haydn's  employment  of  them  is 
uncertain.  The  causes  that  have  been  sug- 
gested are  not  altogether  satisfactory.  In  the 
orthodox  form  of  symphony,  as  written  by  the 
numerous  composers  of  his  early  days,  the  open- 
ing adagio  is  not  found.  He  may  possibly  have 
observed  that  it  was  a  useful  factor  in  a  certain 
class  of  overtures,  and  then  have  used  it  as  an 
experiment  in  symphonies,  and  finding  it  answer, 
may  have  adopted  the  expedient  generally  in 
succeeding  works  of  the  kind.  It  seems  likely 
that  Mozart  adopted  it  from  Haydn,  as  its  first 
appearance  (in  the  symphony  which  is  believed 
to  have  been  composed  at  lAnz  for  C!ount  Thun) 
coincides  with  the  period  in  which  he  is  con- 
sidered to  have  been  first  strongly  influenced 
by  Haydn. 

The  influence  of  these  two  great  composers 
upon  one  another  is  extremely  interesting  and 
curious,  more  especially  as  it  did  not  take  effect 
till  comparatively  late  in  their  artistic  careers. 
They  both  began  working  in  the  general  direc- 
tion of  their  time,  under  the  influences  which 
have  been  already  referred  to.  In  the  depart- 
ment of  symphony  each  was  considerably 
influenced  after  a  time  by  a  special  circnm- 
stance  of  his  life  ;  Haydn  by  the  appointment  to 
Esterhaz  before  alluded  to,  and  the  opportunities 
it  afforded  him  of  orchestral  experiment ;  and 
Mozart  by  his  stay  at  Mannheim  in  1777.  For 
it  appears  most  likely  that  the  superior  abilities 


SYMPHONY 


771 


tlie  Mannheim  orchestra  for  dealing  with 
rely  instrumental  music,  and  the  traditions  of 
LTnitz,  ivho  had  there  eifected  his  share  in  the 
i'tory  of  the  Symphony,  opened  Mozart's  eyes 
■the  possibilities  of  orchestral  performance, 
cl  encouraged  him  to  a  freer  style  of  compo- 
i^ion  and  more  elaborate  treatment  of  the 
oliestra  than  he  had  up  to  that  time  attempted. 
h.e  Mannheim  band  had  in  fact  been  long  con- 
dered  the  finest  in  Europe ;  and  in  certain 
flings,  such  as  attention  to  nimnces  (which  in 
3Li.-ly  orchestral  works  had  been  looked  upon  as 
ither  unnecessary  or  out  of  place),  they  and 
heir  conductors  had  been  important  pioneers  ; 
.Xid  thus  Mozart  must  certainly  have  had  his  ideas 
in  such  heads  a  good  deal  expanded.  The  quali- 
iies  of  the  symphony  produced  in  Paris  early  in 
tlie  next  year  were  probably  the  first-fruits  of 
tliese  circumstances  ;  and  it  happens  that  while 
tliis  symphony  ia  the  first  of  his  which  has 
maintained  a  definite  position  among  the  im- 
l^ortant  landmarks  of  art,  it  is  also  the  first  in 
■which  he  uses  orchestral  forces  approaching  to 
those  commonly  employed  for  symphonies  since 
the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century. 

Both  Haydn  and  Mozart,  in  the  course  of  their 
respective  careers,  made   decided  progress   in 
managing  the  orchestra,  both  as  regards  the 
treatment  of  individual  instruments,  and  the 
distribution  of  the  details  of  musical  interest 
among  them.     It  has  been  already  pointed  out 
that  one  of  the  earliest  expedients  by  which 
contrast  of  effect  was  attempted  by  writers  for 
combinations  of  instruments,  was  the  careful 
<  listribution  of  portions  for  *  solo '  and  *  ripieno  * 
instiTiments,  as   illustrated  by  Scarlatti's  and 
later  concertos.     In  J.  S.  Bach's  treatment  of 
the  orchestra  the  same  characteristic  is  familiar. 
The  long  duets  for  oboes,  flutes,  or  bassoons, 
and  the  solos  for  horn  or  violin,  or  viola  da 
gainba,  which  continue  throughout  whole  reci- 
tatives or  arias,  all  have  this  same  principle  at 
bottom.    Composers  had  still  to  learn  the  free 
and  yet  well-balanced  management   of  their 
string  forces,  and  to  attain  the  mean  between 
the  use  of  wind  instruments  merely  to  strengthen 
the  strings  and  their  use  as  solo  instruments  in 
long  independent  passages.     In  Haydn's  early 
symphonies  the  old  traditions  are  most  apparent. 
The  balance  between  the  different  forces  of  the 
orchestra  \b  as  yet  both  crude  and  obvious.    In 
the  symphony  called  *  Le  Matin '  for  instance, 
which  appears  to  have  been  among  the  earliest, 
the  second  violins  play  with  the  first,  and  the 
violas  with  the  basses  to  a  very  marked  extent 
—in  the  first  movement  almost  throughout. 
This  first  movement,  again,  begins  with  a  solo 
for  flute.  The  slow  movement,  which  is  divided 
into  adagio  and  andante,  has  no  wind  instru- 
ments at  all,  but  there  is  a  violin  solo  through- 
out the  middle  portion.     In  the  minuet  a  con- 
trast is  attained  by  a  long  passage  for  wind  band 
alone  (as  in  J.  S.  Bach's  second  Bounce  to  the 


*  Ouverture  '  in  C  major)  ;  and  the  trio  consists 
of  a  long  and  elaborate  solo  for  bassoon.  Haydn 
early  began  experiments  in  various  uses  of  his 
orchestra,  and  his  ways  of  gi-ouping  his  solo  in- 
struments for  effect  are  often  curious  and  original. 
C.  F.  Pohl,  in  his  life  of  him,  prints  from  the 
MS.  parts  a  charming  slow  movement  from  a 
Bl>  symphony,  which  was  probably  written  in 
1766  or  1767.  It  illustrates  in  a  singular  way 
how  Haydn  at  first  endeavoured  to  obtain  a 
special  effect  without  ceasing  to  conform  to 
familiar  methods  of  treating  his  strings.  The 
movement  is  scored  for  first  and  second  violins, 
violas,  solo  violoncello  and  bass,  all  *  con  sordini.' 
The  first  and  second  violins  play  in  unison 
throughout,  and  the  violoncello  plays  the  tune 
with  them  an  octave  lower,  while  the  violas  play 
in  octaves  with  the  bass  all  but  two  or  three 
bars  of  cadence  ;  so  that  in  reality  there  are 
scarcely  ever  more  than  two  parts  playing  at  a 
time.  The  following  example  will  show  the 
style : — 


Violini  1  &  2. 


^^^^i^^^S^ 


Violoncello  Solo. 


Towards  a  really  free  treatment  of  his  forces  he 
seems,  however,  to  have  been  led  on  insensibly 
and  by  very  slow  degrees.  For  over  twenty  years 
of  symphony- writing  the  same  limited  treatment 
of  strings  and  the  same  kind  of  solo  passages  are 
commonly  to  be  met  with.  But  there  is  a  grow- 
ing tendency  to  make  the  wind  and  the  lower 
and  inner  strings  more  and  more  independent, 
and  to  individualise  the  style  of  each  within 
proportionate  bounds.  A  fine  symphony  (in  E 
minor,  *  Letter  I '),  which  appears  to  date  from 
1772,  is  a  good  specimen  of  Haydn's  inter- 
mediate stage.  The  strings  play  sdmost  inces- 
santly throughout,  and  the  wind  either  doubles 
the  string  parts  to  enrich  and  reinforce  them, 
or  else  has  long  holding  notes  while  the  strings 
play  characteristic  figures.  The  passage  from 
the  last  movement,  given  on  the  next  page,  will 
serve  to  illustrate  pretty  clearly  the  stage  of 
orchestral  expression  to  which  Haydn  had  at 
that  time  arrived. 

In  the  course  of  the  following  ten  years  the 
progress  was  slow  but  steady.  No  doubt  many 
other  composers  were  writing  symphonies  besides 
Haydn  and  Mozart,  and  were,  like  them,  im- 
proving that  branch  of  art.  Unfortunately  the 
difiiculty  of  fixing  the  dates  of  their  productions 


is  almost  insuperable  ;  and  so  their  greater  re- 
presentatives come  to  be  regarded,  not  only  as 
giving  an  epitome  of  the  history  of  the  epoch, 
but  as  comprising  it  in  themselves.  Mozart's 
first  specially  notable  symphony  falls  in  1778. 
This  was  the  one  which  he  wrote  for  Paris  after 
his  experiences  at  Mannheim  ;  and  some  of  his 
Mannheim  friends  who  happened  to  be  in  Paris 
with  him  assisted  at  the  performance.  It  is  in 
almost  every  respect  a  very  great  advance  upon 
Haydn's  E  minor  Symphony,  just  quoted.  The 
treatment  of  the  instruments  is  very  much  freer, 
and  more  individually  characteristic.  It  marks 
an  important  step  in  the  transition  from  the 
kind  of  symphony  in  which  the  music  appears 
to  have  been  conceived  almost  entirely  for 
violins,  with  wind  subordinate,  except  in 
special  solo  passages,  to  the  kind  in  which 
the  original  conception  in  respect  of  subjects, 
episodes,  and  development,  embraced  all  the 
forces,  including  the  wind  instruments.  The 
first  eight  bars  of  Mozart's  symphony  are 
sufficient  to  illustrate  the  nature  of  the  artistic 
tendency.  In  the  firm  and  dignified  beginning 
of  the  principal  subject,  the  strings,  with  flutes 
and  bassoons,  are  all  in  unison  for  three  bars, 
and  a  good  body  of  wind  instruments  gives  the 
full  chord.  Then  the  upper  strings  are  left 
alone  for  a  couple  of  bars  in  octaves,  and  are 
accompanied  in  their  short  closing  phi-ase  by 
an  independent  full  chord  of  wind  instruments, 
piano.  This  chord  is  repeated  in  the  same  form 
of  rhythm  as  that  which  marks  the  first  bars  of 
the  principal  subject,  and  has  therefore  at  once 
musical  sense  and  relevance,  besides  supplying 
the  necessary  full  harmony.  In  the  subddiary 
subject  by  which  the  first  section  is  carried  on, 
the  quick  lively  passages  of  the  strings  are 
accompanied  by  short  figures  for  flute  and 
horns,  with  their  own  independent  musical 
significance.  In  the  second  subject  proper, 
which  is  derived  from  this  subsidiary,  an 
excellent  balance  of  colour  is  obtained  by  pairs 
of  wind  instruments  in  octaves,  answering  with 
an  independent  and  very  characteristic  phrase 


of  their  own  the  group  of  strings  wliich  give 
out  the  first  part  of  the  subject.  The  same 
well-balanced  method  is  observed  throughout 
In  the  working  out  of  this  movement  almost 
all  the  instruments  have  something  special  and 
relevant  of  their  own  to  do,  so  that  it  is  made 
to  seem  as  if  the  conception  were  exactly 
apportioned  to  the  forces  which  were  meant  to 
utter  it.  The  same  criticisms  apply  to  all  tlie 
rest  of  the  symphony.  The  slow  movement 
has  beautiful  independent  figures  and  phrases 
for  the  wind  instruments,  so  interwoven  with 
the  body  of  the  movement  that  they  supply 
necessary  elements  of  colour  and  fulness  of 
harmony,  without  appearing  either  as  definite 
solos  or  as  meaningless  holding  notes.  The 
fresh  and  merry  last  movement  has  much  the 
same  characteristics  as  the  first  in  the  matter 
of  instrumental  utterance,  and  in  its  w'orking- 
out  section  all  the  forces  have,  if  anything, 
even  more  independent  work  of  their  own  to 
do,  while  still  supplying  their  appropriate 
ingredients  to  the  sum  total  of  sound. 

The  succeeding  ten  years  saw  all  the  rest 
of  the  work  Mozart  was  destined  to  do  in  the 
department  of  symphony  ;  much  of  it  showing 
in  turn  an  advance  on  the  Paris  Symphony, 
inasmuch  as  the  principles  there  shown  were 
worked  out  to  greater  fidness  and  perfection, 
while  the  musical  spirit  attained  a  more  definite 
richness,  and  escaped  farther  from  the  formalism 
which   characterises  the    previous  generation. 
Among  these  symphonies  the  most  important 
are  the  following :  a  considerable  one  (in  £^) 
composed  at  Salzbiurg  in  1780  ;  the  'Haffner' 
(in  D),  which  was  a  modification  of  a  serenade, 
and  had  originally  more  than  the  usual  group 
of  movements  ;  the  '  Linz '  Symphony  (in  C  ; 
*  No.  6  *)  ;  and  the  last  four,  the  crown  of  the 
whole  series.     The  first  of  these  (in  D  major) 
was  written  for  Prague  in  1 786,  and  was  received 
there  with  immense  favour  in  Jan.  1787.    It 
appears  to  be  far  in  advance  of  all  its  predeoessorft 
in  freedom  and  clearness  of  instnimentation,  in 
the  breadth  and   musical  significance  of  the 
subjects,  and  in  richness  and  balance  of  form. 
It  is  one  of  the  few  of  Mozart's  which  open 
with  an  adagio,  and  that  too  of  unusual  pro- 
portions ;  but  it  has  no  minuet  and  trio.    This 
symphony  was  in  its  turn  eclipsed  by  the  tliree 
great  ones  in  £  flat,  G  minor,  and  C,  which 
were  composed  at  Vienna  in  June,  July,  and 
August  1788.     These  symphonies  are  ahnost 
the  first  in  which  certain  qualities  of  musical 
expression  and  a  certain  method  in  their  treat- 
ment stand  pronunent  in  the  manner  which 
was  destined  to  become  characteristic  of  the 
great  works  of  the  early  part  of  the  1 9th  century. 
Mozart  having  mastex^   the   principle  upon 
which  the  mature  art-form  of  symphony  was 
to  be  attacked,  had  greater  freedom  for  the 
expression  of  his  intrinsically  musical  ideas,  and 
could  emphasise  more  freely  and  consistently 


SYMPHONY 


773 


e  typical  characteristics  which  his  inspiration 
1   liim  to  adopt  in  developing  his  ideas.     It 
ixst    not,    however,   be    supposed    that    this 
inciple  is  to  be  found  for  the  first  time  in 
tese  works.     They  find  their  counterparts  in 
orks  of  Haydn's  of  a  much  earlier  date  ;  only, 
lasmuch  as  the  art- form  was  then  less  mature, 
le  element  of  formalism  is  too  strong  to  admit 
t'    the  musical  or  poetical  intention  being  so 
Learly  realised.     It  is  of  course  impossible  to 
'lit    into    words  w^ith  certainty  the  inherent 
liaracteristics  of  these  or  any  other  later  works 
>ii  the  same  lines ;  but  that  they  are  felt  to 
lave  such  characteristics  is  indisputable,  and 
:lieir  perfection  as  works  of  art,  which  is  so 
commonly  insisted  on,   could  not  exist  if  it 
were   not  so.     Among  the^  many  writers  who 
have    tried  in   some  way 'to    describe   them, 
l>robably  the  best  and  most  responsible  is  Otto 
Jahn.      Of  the  first  of  the  group  (that  in  Eb), 
lie  says,    *We  find  the  expression  of  perfect 
liappiness  in  the  charm  of  euphony '  which  is 
one  of  the  marked  external  characteristics  of 
the  whole  work.     *  The  feeling  of  pride  in  the 
consciousness  of  power  shines  through  the  mag- 
nificent introduction,  while  the  Allegro  expresses 
the  purest  pleasure,  now  in  frolicsome  joy,  now 
in  active  excitement,  and  now  in  noble  and 
dignified  composure.     Some  shadows  appear,  it 
is  true,  in  the  Andante,  but  they  only  serve  to 
throw  into  stronger  relief  the  mild  serenity  of 
a  mind  communing  with  itself  and  rejoicing 
in  the  peace  which  fills  it.     Thi^  is  the  true 
source  of  the  cheerful  transport  which  rules  the 
last  movement,  rejoicing  in  its  own  strength 
and  in  the  joy  of  being.'     Whether  this  is  all 
perfectly  true  or  not  is  of  less  consequence  than 
the  fact  that  a  consistent  and  uniform  style 
and  object  can  be  discerned  through  the  whole 
work,  and  that  it  admits  of  an  approximate 
description  in  words,  without  either  straining 
or  violating  familiar  impressions. 

The  second  of  the  great  symphonic  trilogy — 
that  in  G  minor — has  a  still  clearer  meaning. 
The  contrast  with  the  Eb  is  strong,  for  in  no 
symphony  of  Mozart's  is  there  so  much  sadness 
and  regretfulness.  This  element  also  accounts 
for  the  fact  that  it  is  the  most  modem  of  his 
symphonies,  and  shows  most  human  nature. 
E.  T.  A.  Hoffmann  (writing  in  a  spirit  very 
different  from  that  of  Jahn)  says  of  it,  *  Love 
and  melancholy  breathe  forth  in  purest  spirit 
tones  ;  we  feel  ourselves  drawn  with  inexpres- 
sible longing  towards  the  forms  which  beckon 
us  to  join  them  in  their  flight  through  the 
clouds  to  another  sphere.'  Jahn  agrees  in 
attributing  to  it  a  character  of  sorrow  and 
complaining  ;  and  there  can  hardly  be  a  doubt 
that  the  tonality  as  well  as  the  style,  and  such 
characteristic  features  as  occur  incidentally, 
would  all  favour  the  idea  that  Mozart's  inspira- 
tion took  a  sad  cast,  and  maintained  it  so  far 
throughout;  so  that,  notwithstanding  the  formal 


passages  which  occasionally  make  their  appear- 
ance at  the  closes,  the  whole  work  may  without 
violation  of  probability  receive  a  consistent 
psychological  explanation.  Even  the  orchestra- 
tion seems  appropriate  from  this  point  of  view, 
since  the  prevailing  effect  is  far  less  soft  and 
smooth  than  that  of  the  previous  symphony. 
A  detail  of  historical  interest  in  connection 
with  this  work  is  the  fact  that  Mozart  originally 
wrote  it  without  clarinets,  and  added  them 
afterwards  for  a  performance  at  whjch  it  may 
be  presumed  they  happened  to  be  specially 
available.  He  did  this  by  taking  a  separate 
piece  of  paper  and  rearranging  the  oboe  parts, 
sometimes  combining  the  instruments  and  some- 
times distributing  the  parts  between  the  two, 
with  due  regard  to  their  characteristic  styles  of 
utterance. 

The  last  of  Mozart's  symphonies  has  so 
obvious  and  distinctive  a  character  throughout, 
that  popular  estimation  has  accepted  the  definite 
name  *  Jupiter*  as  conveying  the  prevalent 
feeling  about  it.  In  this  there  is  fiar  less  human 
sentiment  than  in  the  G  minor.  In  fact, 
Mozart  appears  to  have  aimed  at  something  lofty 
and  self-contained,  and  therefore  precluding 
the  shade  of  sadness  which  is  an  element  almost 
indispensable  to  strong  human  sympathy.  When 
he  descends  from  this  distant  height,  he  assumes 
a  cheerful  and  sometimes  playful  vein,  as  in  the 
second  principal  subject  of  the  first  movement, 
and  in  the  subsidiary  or  cadence  subject  that 
follows  it.  This  may  not  bo  altogether  in 
accordance  with  what  is  popularly  meant  by 
the  name  *  Jupiter,'  though  that  deity  appears 
to  have  been  capable  of  a  good  deal  of  levity  in 
his  time ;  but  it  has  the  virtue  of  supplying 
admirable  contrast  to  the  main  subjects  of  the 
section ;  and  it  is  so  far  in  consonance  with 
them  that  there  is  no  actual  reversal  of  feeUng 
in  passing  from  one  to  the  other.  The  slow 
movement  has  an  appropriate  dignity  which 
keeps  it  in  character,  and  reaches,  in  parts,  a 
considerable  degree  of  passion,  which  brings  it 
nearer  to  human  sympathy  than  the  other 
movements.  The  Minuet  and  the  Trio  again 
show  cheerful  serenity,  and  the  last  movement, 
with  its  elaborate  fugal  treatment,  has  a  vigorous 
austerity,  which  is  an  excellent  balance  to  the 
character  of  the  first  movement.  The  scoring, 
especially  in  the  first  and  last  movements,  is 
fuller  than  is  usual  ^vith  Mozart,  and  produces 
eflects  of  strong  and  clear  sound  ;  and  it  is 
also  admirably  in  character  with  the  spirit  of 
dignity  and  loftiness  which  seems  to  be  aimed 
at  in  the  greater  portion  of  the  musical  subjects 
and  figures.  In  these  later  symphonies  Mozart 
certainly  reached  a  far  higher  pitch  of  art  in 
the  department  of  instrumental  music  than  any 
hitherto  arrived  at.  The  characteristics  of  his 
attainments  may  be  described  as  a  freedom  of 
style  in  the  ideas,  freedom  in  the  treatment  of 
the  various  parts  of  the  score,  and  independence 


774 


o  1  MrnuiM  1 


and  appropiiateness  of  expression  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  various  groups  of  instrimients 
employed.  In  comparison  with  the  works  of 
his  predecessors,  and  with  his  own  and  Haydn's 
earlier  compositions,  there  is  throughout  a  most 
remarkable  advance  in  vitality.  The  distribu- 
tion of  certain  cadences  and  passages  of  tuUi 
still  appear  to  modem  ears  formal ;  but  compared 
with  the  immature  formalism  of  expression, 
even  in  principal  ideas,  which  was  prevalent 
twenty  or, even  ten  years  earlier,  the  improve- 
ment is  immense.  In  such  structural  elements 
as  the  development  of  the  ideas,  the  concise 
and  energetic  flow  of  the  music,  the  distribution 
and  contrast  of  instrumental  tone,  and  the 
balance  and  proportion  of  sound,  these  works 
are  generally  held  to  I'each  a  pitch  almost 
unsurpassable  from  the  point  of  view  of  technical 
criticism.  Mozart's  intelligence  and  taste, 
dealing  with  thoughts  as  yet  undisturbed  by 
strong  or  passionate  emotion,  attained  a  degree 
of  perfection  in  the  sense  of  pure  and  directly 
intelligible  art  which  later  times  can  scarcely 
hope  to  see  approached. 

Haydn's  symphonies  up  to  this  time  cannot 
be  said  to  equal  Mozart's  in  any  respect ;  though 
they  show  a  considerable  improvement  on  the 
style  of  treatment  and  expression  in  the  'Trauer ' 
or  the  '  Farewell '  Symphonies.  Of  those  which 
are  better  known  of  about  this  date  are  *La 
Poule '  and  *  Letter  V,'  which  were  ^vritten  (both 
for  Paris)  in  1786  and  1787.  'Letter  Q,'  or 
the  *  Oxford '  Symphony,  which  was  performed 
when  Haydn  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Music  from  that  university,  dates  from  1788, 
the  same  year  as  Mozart's  great  triad.  *  Letter 
V '  and  *  Letter  Q  *  are  in  his  mature  style,  and 
thoroughly  characteristic  in  every  respect.  The 
orchestration  is  clear  and  fresh,  though  not  so 
sympathetic  nor  so  elastic  in  its  variety  as 
Mozart's  ;  and  the  ideas,  with  all  their  geniality 
and  directness,  are  not  up  to  his  o^vn  highest 
standard.  It  is  the  last  twelve,  which  were 
written  for  Salomon  after  1790,  which  havereally 
fixed  Haydn's  high  position  as  a  composer  of 
symphonies  ;  these  became  so  popular  as  practi- 
cally to  supersede  the  numerous  works  of  all  his 
predecessors  and  contemporaries  except  Mozart, 
to  the  extent  of  causing  them  to  be  almost  com- 
pletely forgotten.  This  is  owing  partly  to  the 
high  pitch  of  technical  skill  which  he  attained, 
partly  to  the  freshness  and  geniality  of  his  ideas, 
and  partly  to  the  vigour  and  daring  of  harmonic 
progression  which  he  manifested.  He  and  Mozart 
together  enriched  this  branch  of  art  to  an  extra- 
ordinary degree,  and  towards  the  end  of  their  lives 
began  to  introduce  far  deeper  feeling  and  earnest- 
jiess  into  the  style  than  had  been  customary  in 
early  works  of  the  class.  The  average  orchestra 
had  increased  in  size,  and  at  the  same  time 
had  gained  a  better  balance  of  its  component 
elements.  Instead  of  the  customary  little  group 
of  strings  and  four  wind  instruments,  it  had 


come  to  comprise,  besides  the  strings,  two  flutes, 
two  oboes,  two  bassoons,  t\i'o  horns,  t^'o 
trumpets,  and  drums.  To  these  were  occasion- 
ally added  two  clarinets,  as  in  Haydn's  last 
three  (the  t>vo  in  D  minor  and  one  in  Eb),  and 
in  one  movement  of  the  Military  Symphony. 
Neither  Mozart  nor  Haydn  ever  used  trombones 
in  symphonies ;  but  uncommon  instruments 
were  sometimes  employed,  as  in  the  *  Military,' 
in  which  Haydn  used  a  big  drum,  a  triangle  and 
cymbals.  In  his  latest  symphonies  Haydn's 
treatment  of  his  orchestra  agrees  in  general  with 
the  description  already  given  of  Mozart's.  The 
bass  has  attained  a  free  motion  of  its  own  ;  the 
violas  rarely  cling  in  a  dependent  manner  to  it, 
but  have  their  own  individual  work  to  do,  and 
the  same  applies  to  the  second  violins,  which  no 
longer  so  often  appear  merely  *  col  Imo.'  The 
wind  instruments  fill  up  and  sustain  the  har- 
monies as  completely  as  in  former  days  ;  but 
they  cease  merely  to  hold  long  notes  without 
characteristic  features,  or  slavishly  to  follow  the 
string  parts  whenever  something  livelier  is  re- 
quired. They  may  still  play  a  great  deal  that 
is  mere  doubling,  but  there  is  generally  method 
in  it ;  and  the  musical  ideas  they  express  are 
in  a  great  measure  proportioned  to  their  char- 
acters and  style  of  utterance.  Haydn  was 
rather  fond  of  long  passages  for  wind  alone,  as 
in  the  slow  movement  of  the  Oxford  Symphony, 
the  opening  passage  of  the  first  allegro  of  the 
Military  Symphony,  and  the  *  working  out  *  of 
the  Symphony  in  C,  No.  1  of  the  Salomon  set 
Solos  in  a  tune-form  for  wind  instruments  are 
also  rather  more  common  than  in  Mozart's  works, 
and  in  many  respects  the  various  elements  which 
go  to  make  up  the  whole  are  less  assimilated 
than  they  are  by  Mozart.  The  tunes  are 
generally  more  definite  in  their  outlines,  and 
stand  in  less  close  relation  with  their  context. 
It  appears  as  if  Haydn  always  retained  to  the 
last  a  strong  sympathy  with  simple  people's- 
tunes  ;  the  character  of  his  minuets  and  trios, 
and  especially  of  his  finales,  is  sometimes 
strongly  defined  in  this  respect ;  but  his  way  of 
expressing  them  within  the  limits  he  chose  is 
extraordinarily  finished  and  acute.  It  is  possible 
that,  as  before  suggested,  he  got  his  taste  for 
surprises  in  harmonic  progression  from  C.  P.  £• 
Bach.  His  instinct  for  such  things,  considering 
the  age  he  lived  in,  was  very  remarkable.  The 
passage  on  the  next  page,  from  his  Symphony 
in  C,  just  referred  to,  iSustrates  several  of  the 
above  points  at  once. 

The  period  of  Haydn  and  Mozai-t  is  in  every 
respect  the  principal  crisis  in  the  history  of  tlie 
Symphony.  When  they  came  upon  the  scene, 
it  was  not  regarded  as  a  very  important  form 
of  art.  In  the  good  musical  centres  of  those 
times — and  there  were  many — there  was  a  great 
demand  for  symphonies;  but  the  bands  for 
which  they  were  written  were  small,  and  appear 
from  the  most  natural  inferences  not  to  have 


SYMPHONY 


775 


en  very  efficient  or  well  organised.  The 
^TicLard.  of  performance  was  evidently  rough, 
id.  coinxKwers  could  neither  expect  much  atten- 
an  to  piounos  and  forUs^  nor  any  ability  to 
rapple  ^with  technical  difficulties  among  the 
layers  of  bass  instruments  or  violas.  The 
iidiences  were  critical  in  the  one  sense  of  requir- 
ng  good  liealthy  workmanship  in  the  writing 
>r  the  pieces — in  fact  much  better  than  they 
vould  demand  in  the  present  day ;  but  with 
-ogard    to   deep  meaning,  refinement,   poetical 


intention,  or  originality,  they  appear  to  have 
cared  very  little.  They  wanted  to  be  healthUy 
pleased  and  entertained,  not  stirred  with  deep 
emotion  ;  and  the  purposes  of  composers  in  those 
days  were  consequently  not  exalted  to  any  high 
pitch,  but  were  limited  to  a  simple  and  unpre- 
tentious supply,  in  accordance  with  demand  and 
opportunity.  Haydn  was  influenced  by  these 
considerations  till  the  last.  There  is  always 
more  fun  and  gaiety  in  his  music  than  pensive- 
ness  or  serious  reflection.     But  in  developing 


tlie  technical  part  of  expression,  in  proportion- 
ing the  means  to  the  end,  and  in  organising  the 
forces  of  the  orchestra,  what  he  did  was  of  the 
utmost  importance.  It  is,  however,  impossible 
to  apportion  the  value  of  the  work  of  the  two 
masters.  Haydn  did  a  great  deal  of  important 
and  substantial  work  before  Mozart  came  into 
prominence  in  the  same  field.  But  after  the 
first  great  mark  had  been  made  by  the  Paris 
Symphony,  Mozart  seemed  to  rush  to  his  culmin- 
ation ;  and  in  the  last  four  of  his  works  reached 
a  style  which  appears  richer,  more  sympathetic, 
and  more  complete  than  anything  Haydn  could 
attain  to.    Then,  again,  when  he  had  passed 


away,  Haydn  produced  his  greatest  works.  Each 
composer  had  his  distinctive  characteristics,  and 
each  is  delightful  in  his  own  way  ;  but  Haydn 
would  probably  not  have  reached  his  highest 
development  without  the  influence  of  his  more 
richly  gifted  contemporary  ;  and  Mozart  for  his 
part  was  undoubtedly  very  much  under  the 
influence  of  Haydn  at  an  important  part  of  Ills 
career.  The  best  that  can  be  said  by  way  of 
distinguishing  their  respective  shares  in  the 
result  is  that  Mozart's  last  symphonies  intro- 
duced an  intrinsically  musical  element  which 
had  before  been  wanting,  and  showed  a  supreme 
perfection  of  actual  art  in  their  structure  ;  while 


Haydn  in  the  long  series  of  his  works  cultivated 
and  refined  his  own  powers  to  such  an  extent 
that  when  his  last  symphonies  had  made  their 
appearance,  the  status  of  the  symphony  was 
raised  beyond  the  possibility  of  a  return  to  the 
old  level.  In  fact  he  gave  this  branch  of  art  a 
stability  and  breadth  which  served  as  the  basis 
upon  which  the  art  of  succeeding  generations 
appears  to  rest ;  and  the  simplicity  and  clear- 
ness of  his  style  and  structural  principles 
supplied  an  intelligible  model  for  his  successors 
to  follow. 

One  .of  the  most  important  of  the  contem- 
poraries of  Haydn  and  Mozart  in  this  department 
of  art  was  F.  J.  Gossec.  He  was  bom  in  1733, 
one  year  after  Haydn,  and  lived  like  him  to  a 
good  old  age.  His  chief  claim  to  remembrance 
is  the  good  work  which  he  did  in  improving 
the  standard  of  taste  for  instrumental  music  in 
France.  According  to  Fetis  such  things  as  in- 
strumental symphonies  were  absolutely  unknown 
in  Paris  before  1764,  in  which  year  Gossec  pub- 
lished his  first,  five  years  before  Haydn's  first 
attempt.  Gossec's  work  was  carried  on  most 
effectually  by  his  founding,  in  1770,  the  *  Concert 
des  Amateurs,'  for  whom  he  wrote  his  most  im- 
portant works.  He  also  took  the  management 
of  the  famous  Concerts  Spirituels,  with  Gavini^ 
and  Leduc,  in  1773,  and  furthered  the  cause  of 
good  instrumental  music  there  as  well.  The 
few  symphonies  of  his  to  be  found  in  this 
country  are  of  the  same  calibre,  and  for  the 
same  groups  of  instruments,  as  those  of  J.  0. 
Bach,  Abel,  etc.,  already  described  ;  but  F^tis 
attributes  importance  to  him  chiefly  because 
of  the  way  in  which  he  extended  the  dimen- 
sions and  resoiu'ces  of  the  orchestra.  His 
Symphony  in  D,  No.  21,  written  soon  after 
the  founding  of  the  Concert  des  Amateurs,  was 
for  a  full  set  of  strings,  flutes,  oboes,  clarinets, 
bassoons,  horns,  trumpets,  and  drums  ;  and 
this  was  doubtless  an  astonishing  force  to  the 
Parisians,  accustomed  as  they  had  been  to  regard 
the  compositions  of  LuUy  and  Rameau  as  the 
best  specimens  of  instrumental  music.  But  it 
is  clear  from  other  indications  that  Gossec  had 
considerable  ideas  about  the  ways  in  which 
instrumental  music  might  be  improved,  analo- 
gous on  a  much  smaller  scale  to  the  aspirations 
and  attempts  of  Berlioz  at  a  later  date.  Not  only 
are  his  works  carefully  marked  with  pianos  and 
fortes,  but  in  some  (as  the  Symphonies  of  op. 
xii.)  there  are  elaborate  directions  as  to  how 
the  movements  are  to  be  played.  Some  of 
these  are  curious.  For  instance,  over  the  first 
violin  part  of  the  slow  movement  of  the  second 
symphony  is  printed  the  following :  '  La  diffi^- 
rence  du  Fort  au  Doux  dans  ce  morceau  doit  6tre 
excessive,  et  le  mouvement  mod^r^,  h  I'aise, 
qu'il  semble  se  jouer  avec  la  plus  grande  facility.' 
Nearly  all  the  separate  movements  of  this  set 
have  some  such  directions,  either  longer  or 
shorter ;    the    inference   from   which   is   that 


Gossec  had  a  strong  idea  of  expression  and  style 
in  performance,  and  did  not  find  his  bands  very 
easily  led  in  these  respects.  The  movements 
themselves  are  on  the  same  small  scale  as  those 
of  J.  C.  Bach,  Abel,  and  Stamitz  ;  and  very 
rarely  have  the  double  bar  and  repeat  in  the 
first  movements,  though  these  often  make  their 
appearance  in  the  finales.  The  style  is  to  a 
certain  extent  individual  ;  not  so  robust  or  so 
full  as  that  of  Bach  or  Stamitz,  but  not  without 
attractiveness.  As  his  works  are  very  difficult 
to  get  sight  of,  the  following  quotation  from 
the  last  movement  of  a  symphony  in  Bb  will 
serve  to  give  some  idea  of  his  style  and  manner 
of  scoring : — 

Alltgro  holkthilt*      "^a  _! 

nbni.  ,  ^     ^      I  ^n     I 


M 


S^ 


1 


Cello  e  B&9SO. 


^^. 


j^baj^TTi^^H 


It   * 


P^^^^i^^ 


i^ 


E3^^ 


Another  composer  of  symphonies,  who  is  often 
heard  of  in  juxtaposition  with  Haydn  and 
Mozart,  and  sometimes  as  being  preferred  to 
them  by  the  audiences  of  the  time,  is  Gyrowetz. 
His  symphonies  appear  to  be  on  a  larger  scale 
than  those  of  the  prior  generation  of  composers 
of  second  rank  like  himself.  A  few  of  them 
are  occasionally  to  be  met  with  in  collections 
of  *  Periodical  overtures, '  *  symphonies, '  etc. ,  pub- 
lished in  separate  orchestral  parts.  One  in  C, 
scored  for  small  orchestra,  has  an  introductory 


SYMPHONY 


777 


Adaj^o,  an  Allegro  of  about  the  dimensions  of 
Haydn's  earlier  first  movements,  with  double  bar 
in  the  ihiddle  ;  then  an  Andante  con  sordini  (the 
latter  a  favourite  device  in  central  slow  move- 
ments) ;  then  a  Minuet  and  Trio,  and,  to  end 
vT'ith,  a  Rondo  in  2-4  time,  Allegro  non  troppo. 
Others,  in  £b  and  Bj^,  have  much  the  same 
distribution  of  movements,  but  without  the  in- 
;    troductory  Adagio.     The  style  of  them  is  rather 
mild  and  complacent,  and  not  approaching  in 
any  way  the  interest  or  breadth  of  the  works  of 
his  great  contemporaries ;  but  the  subjects  are 
clear  and  vivacious,  and  the  movements  seem 
fairly  developed.    Other  sjrmphony  writers,  who 
had  vogue  and  even  celebrity  about  this  time 
and  a  little  later,  such  as  Krommer  (beloved  by 
>     Schubert),  the  Rombergs,  and  Eberl  (at  one  time 
^     preferred  to  Beethoven),  require  no  more  than 
passing   mention.      They  certainly  furthered 
the    branch   of  art  very  little,  and  were   so 
completely  extinguished  by  the  exceptionally 
[      great  writers  who  came  close  upon  one  another 
at  that  time,  that  it  is  even  difficult  to  find 
traces  of  them. 
^  The  greatest  of  all  masters  of  the  Symphony 

followed  so  close  upon  Haydn,  that  there  is  less 
of  a  gap  between  the  last  of  Haydn's  Symphonies 
and  his  first  than  there  was  later  between  some 
of  his  own.  Haydn's  last  was  probably  written 
in  1795.  AVhen  Beethoven  wrote  his  first 
cannot  be  ascertained  ;  sketches  for  the  Finale 
are  found  as  early  as  the  year  last  mentioned  ; 
but  it  was  not  actually  produced  in  public  till 
April  2,  1800.  Like  Schumann  and  Brahms 
in  later  days,  he  did  not  turn  his  attention  to 
this  branch  of  composition  till  comparatively 
late.  The  opus-number  of  his  first  symphony  is 
21 .  It  is  preceded  by  eleven  pianoforte  sonatas, 
several  works  for  pianoforte  combined  with 
other  instruments,  the  well-known  Septuor  in 
E[>,  and  several  chamber  compositions  for  strings. 
So  that  by  the  time  he  came  to  attacking 
Symphony  he  had  had  considerable  practice  in 
dealing  with  structural  matters.  The  only 
works  in  which  he  had  tried  his  strength  with 
the  orchestra  were  the  two  piano  concertos — 
the  Bb,  op.  19,  which  was  written  in  or  about 
1795,  and  the  C  major,  op.  15,  which  was 
written  about  1796.  He  showed  himself  at 
once  a  master  of  the  orchestra  ;  but  it  is  evident 
that  at  first  he  stepped  cautiously  in  expressing 
hiraselfwith  such  resources.  The  first  Symphony 
is  less  free  and  rich  in  expression,  and  has  more 
elements  of  formality,  than  several  works  on  a 
smaller  scale  which  preceded  it.  This  is  explic- 
able on  the  general  ground  that  the  orchestra, 
esi^cially  in  those  days,  was  not  a  fit  exponent 
of  the  same  kind  of  things  which  could  be 
expressed  by  solo  violins,  or  the  pianoforte. 
The  scale  must  necessarily  be  larger  and  broader  ; 
the  intricate  development  and  delicate  or  subtle 
sentiment  which  is  quite  appropriate  and  in- 
telligible in  the  intimacy  of  a  domestic  circle,  is 


out  of  place  in  the  more  public  conditions  of 
orchestral  performance.  This  Beethoven  must 
have  instinctively  felt,  and  he  appears  not  to  have 
found  the  style  for  full  expression  of  Iris  per- 
sonality in  either  of  the  first  symphonies.  The 
second  is  even  more  curious  in  that  respect  than 
the  first,  as  it  comes  after  one  of  the  richest  and 
most  interesting,  and  another  of  the  most  per- 
fectly charming  and  original  of  the  works  of  his 
early  period,  namely  the  Sonatas  in  D  minor 
and  Eb  of  op.  81.  However,  even  in  these  two 
symphonies  there  is  a  massiveness  and  breadth 
and  seriousness  of  purpose,  which  mark  them  as 
products  of  a  different  and  more  powerfully 
constituted  nature  than  anything  of  the  kind 
produced  before.  At  the  time  when  the  first 
Symphony  appeared,  the  opening  with  the  chord 
of  the  minor  7  th  of  C,  when  the  key  of  the 
piece  was  C  major,  was  looked  upon  as  extremely 
daring ;  and  the  narrow-minded  pedants  of  the 
day  felt  their  sensitive  delicacy  so  outraged  that 
some  of  them  are  said  never  to  have  forgiven  it. 
The  case  is  very  similar  to  the  famous  introduc- 
tion to  Mozart's  C  major  String  Quartet,  about 
which  the  pedants  were  little  less  than  insulting. 
Beethoven  had  to  fight  for  his  right  to  express 
what  he  felt  to  be  true  ;  and  he  did  it  without 
flinching ;  sometimes  with  an  apparent  relish. 
But  at  the  same  time,  in  these  early  orchestral 
works  he  seems  to  have  experimented  with 
caution,  and  was  content  to  follow  his  predeces- 
sors in  a  great  deal  that  he  put  down.  There 
are  characteristic  things  in  both  sjrmphonies ; 
for  instance,  in  the  first  the  transitional  passage 
which  begins  at  the  65th  bar  of  the  Allegro, 
]>as8ing  from  G  to  G  minor  and  then  to  Bb  and 
back  again,  and  the  corresponding  passage  in 
the  second  half  of  the  movement.  The  working 
out  of  the  Andante  cantabile  and  the  persistent 
drum  rh3rthm  are  also  striking  points.  In  the 
second  Symphony  the  dimensions  of  the  Intro- 
duction are  unusual,  and  the  character  of  all 
the  latter  part  and  the  freedom  of  the  transitions 
in  it  are  decisive  marks  of  his  tendencies.  The 
Slow  Movement  has  also  a  warmth  and  sense  of 
genuine  sympathy  which  is  new  ;  the  Scherzo, 
though  as  yet  short,  has  a  totally  new  char- 
acter about  it,  and  the  abrupt  sforzandos,  and 
short  striking  figures  and  still  more  the  coda, 
of  the  Finale,  are  quite  his  own.  In  the  or- 
chestra it  is  worth  noting  that  he  adopted 
clarinets  from  the  first,  apparently  as  a  matter 
of  course  ;  in  the  first  two  symphonies  he 
continued  to  use  only  the  one  pair  of  horns,  as 
his  predecessors  had  done;  in  the  third  he 
expanded  the  group  to  three.  In  the  fourth 
he  went  back  to  two,  and  did  not  use  four  till 
the  ninth.  The  disposition  of  his  forces  even 
in  the  first  two  is  more  independent  and  varied 
than  his  predecessors.  The  treatment  of  the 
several  groups  of  instruments  tends  to  be  more 
distinct  and  appropriate,  and  at  the  same  time 
more  perfectly  assimilated  in  the  total  effect  of 


the  music.  The  step  to  the  third  Symphony  is 
however  immense,  and  at  last  shows  this  branch 
of  composition  on  a  level  with  his  other  works 
of  the  same  period.  It  is  surrounded  on  both 
sides  by  some  of  his  noblest  achievements. 
Op.  47  was  the  Sonata  in  A  for  violin  and 
pianoforte,  known  as  the  *Kreutzer.'  Op. 
63  is  the  Sonata  in  C  major,  dedicated  to 
Count  Waldstein.  Op.  54  is  the  admirable 
little  Sonata  in  F  major.  Op.  65  is  the  Sym- 
phony, and  op.  57  the  Sonata  known  as  the  *Ap- 
passionata.'  It  appears  that  Beethoven  had  the 
idea  of  writing  this  symphony  as  early  as  1798, 
but  the  actual  work  was  probably  done  in  the 
summer  and  autumn  of  1 8 08 .  There  seems  to  be 
no  doubt  that  it  was  written  under  the  influence 
of  his  admiration  for  Napoleon.  His  own  title- 
page  had  on  it  ^  Sinfonia  grande.  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte,' and,  as  is  well  known,  the  name  *  Eroica ' 
was  not  added  till  Napoleon  became  Emperor  ; 
after  which  event  Beethoven's  feelings  about  him 
naturally  underwent  a  change.  To  call  a  great 
work  by  the  name  of  a  great  man  was  quite  a 
different  thing  from  calling  it  by  the  name  of  a 
crowned  ruler.  However,  the  point  remains  the 
same,  that  the  work  was  written  with  a  definite 
purpose  and  under  the  inspiration  of  a  special 
subject,  and  one  upon  which  Beethoven  himself 
assuredly  had  a  very  decided  opinion.  The  result 
was  the  richest  and  noblest  and  by  far  the  biggest 
symphony  that  had  ever  yet  appeared  in  the 
world.  It  is  very  possible  that  Beethoven  meant 
it  to  be  so  ;  but  the  fact  does  not  make  the  step 
from  the  previous  s3rmphonies  any  the  less  re- 
markable. The  scoring  throughout  is  most 
freely  distributed.  In  the  first  movement 
especially  there  is  hardly  any  one  of  the  numerous 
subjects  and  characteristic  figures  which  has  not 
properties  demanding  different  departments  of 
the  orchestra  to  express  them.  They  are  obviously 
conceived  with  reference  to  the  whole  forces  at 
command,  not  to  a  predominant  central  force 
and  appendages.  The  strings  must  necessarily 
have  the  greater  part  of  the  work  to  do,  but  the 
symphony  is  not  written  for  them  with  wind  as 
a  species  of  afterthought.  But  it  is  still  to  be 
noticed  that  the  balance  is  obtained  chiefly  by 
definite  propositions  and  answers  between  one 
group  and  another,  and  though  the  effect  is 
delightful,  the  principle  is  rendered  a  little 
obvious  from  the  regularity  of  its  occurrence. 
The  second  movement  is  specially  noticeable  as 
reaching  the  strongest  pitch  of  sentiment  as  yet 
shown  in  an  orchestral  slow  movement.  In  the 
earliest  symphonies  these  movements  were  nearly 
always  remarkably  short,  and  scored  for  fewer 
instruments  than  the  first  and  last.  Frequently 
they  were  little  better  than  'intermezzi, 'attached 
on  both  sides  to  the  more  important  allegros. 
Even  Mozart's  and  Haydn's  latest  examples  had 
more  grace  and  sweetness  than  deep  feeling,  and 
frequently  showed  a  tendency  to  formalism  in  the 
expression  of  the  ideas  and  in  the  ways  in  which 


the  ornamental  fioriture  were  introduced.     In 
the  Eroica  the  name  '  Marcia  funebre '  at  once 
defines  the  object ;  and  though  the  foiin  of  a 
march  is  to  a  certain  extent  maintained,  it  is 
obvious  that  it  is  of  secondary  importance,  since 
the  attention  is  more  drawn  to  the  rich  and  noble 
expression  of  the  finest  feelings  of  humanity  over 
the  poetically  imagined  death  of  one  of  the 
world's  heroes,  than  to  the  traditional  march 
form.     The  music  seems  in  fact  to  take  almost 
the  definiteness  of  speech  of  the  highest  order ; 
or  rather,  to  express  the  emotions  which  belong 
to  the  imagined  situation  with  more  fulness  and 
comprehensiveness,  but  withscarcely  lessdefinite- 
ness,  than  speech  could  achieve.     In  the  third 
movement  appears  the  first  of  Beethoven's  large 
orchestral  scherzos.    Any  connection  between  it 
and  the  typical  Minuet  and  Trio  it  is  hard  to  see. 
The  time  is  quicker  and  more  bustling  ;  and  the 
character  utterly  distinct  from  the  suave  grace 
and  somewhat  measured  paces  of  most  of  the 
previous  third  movements.     The  main  points  of 
connection  with  them  are  firstly  the  general  out- 
lines of  form  (that  is,  the  principal  portion  of  the 
Scherzo  corresponding  to  the  Minuet  comes  first 
and  last,  and  the  Trio  in  the  middle)  and  secondly 
the  humorous  element.    In  this  latter  particular 
there  is  very  great  difference  between  the  'iiaif 
and  spontaneous  fun  of  Haydn  and  the  grim 
humour  of  Beethoven,  sometimes  verging  upon 
irony,  and  sometimes,  with  evident  purpose,  upon 
the  grotesque.    The  scherzo  of  the  Eroica  is  not 
alloyed  ^vith  so  much  grimness  as  some  later 
ones,  but  it  has  traits  of  melancholy  and  serious- 
ness here  and  there.     The  effect  in  its  pla^e 
is  chiefly  that  of  portraying  the  fickle  crowd 
who  soon  forget  their  hero,  and  chatter  and 
bustle  cheerfully  about  their  business  or  pleasure 
as  before ;  which  has  its  humorous  or  at  least 
laughter-making  ironical  side  to  any  one  large- 
minded  enough  to  avoid  thinking  of  all  such 
traits  of  humanity  with  reprobation  and  di^ut. 
The  last  movement  is  on  a  scale  more  than  equal 
to  that  of  all  the  others,  and,  like  theui,  strikes 
an  almost  entirely  new  note  in  symphonic  finales. 
The  light  and  simple  character  of  Haydn's  final 
rondos  is  familiar  to  every  one ;  and  he  was 
consistent  in  aiming  at  gaiety  for  conclusion. 
Mozart  in  most  cases  did  the  same ;  but  in  the 
0  minor  Symphony  there  is  a  touch  of  rather 
vehement  regretfulness,  and  in  the  C  m^or  of 
strength  and  seriousness.    But  the  Finale  of  the 
Eroica  first  introduces  qualities  of  massiyeness 
and  broad  earnest  dignity  to  that  position  in  the 
symphony.     The  object  is  evidently  to  crown 
the  work  in  a  totally  different  sense  from  the 
light  cheerftil  endings  of  most  previous  sym- 
phonies, and  to  appeal  to  fine  feelings  in  the 
audience  instead  of  aiming  at  putting  them  m 
a  cheerful  humour.      It   is  all  the  difference 
between  an  audience  before  the  revolutionary 
epoch  and  after.      The  starting-point  of  tfie 
movement  is  the  same  theme  from  the  rro- 


movement  li  mainly  the  variation-fonn,  inter- 
spersed with  fugal  episodes  ;  and  a  remarkable 
feature  isthe  long  Andante  variation  immediately 
before  the. finale  Presto— a  somewhat  unusual 
feature  in  'such  a  position,  though  Haydn  intro- 
duced a  l^ng  passage  of  Adagio  in  the  middle  of 
the  las€  movement  of  a  symphony  in  F  written 
about  1777,  but  of  course  in  a  very  different 
spirit.  The  Finale  of  the  Eroica  as  a  whole  is 
so  unusual  in  form,  that  it  is  not  wonderful  that 
opinions  have  varied  much  concerning  it.  As 
a  piece  of  art  it  is  neither  so  perfect  nor  so  con- 
vincing as  the  other  movements  ;  but  it  has 
very  noble  and  wonderful  traits,  and,  as  a  grand 
experiment  in  an  almost  totally  new  direction, 
has  a  decided  historical  importance. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  go  through  the  whole 
series  of  Beethoven's  Symphonies  in  detail,  for 
one  reason  because  they  are  so  generally  &miliar 
to  musicians  and  are  likely  to  become  more  and 
more  so  ;  and  for  another  because  they  have  been 
so  fully  discussed  from  different  points  of  view  in 
this  Dictionary.  Some  short  simple  particulars 
about  each  may,  however,  be  useful  and  interest- 
ing. The  order  of  composition  of  the  works 
which  succeeded  the  Eroica  Symphony  is  almost 
impossible  to  unraveL  By  opus-number  the  4th 
Sjrmphony  in  Bb,  comes  very  soon,  being  op.  60; 
but  the  sketches  for  the  last  movement  are  in 
the  same  sketch-book  as  parts  of '  Fidelio,'  which 
is  op.  72,  and  the  Concerto  in  G,  which  is 
op.  58,  was  begun  after  '  Fidelio '  was  finished. 
It  can  only  be  seen  clearly  that  his  works  were 
crowded  close  together  in  this  part  of  his  life, 
and  interest  attaches  to  the  fact  that  they  re- 
present the  warmest  and  most  popular  group  of 
all.  Close  to  the  Bb  Symphony  come  the  Over- 
ture to  'Coriolan,'  the  three  String  Quartets, 
op.  59,  the  Violin  Concerto,  the  PF.  ditto  in 
G  major,  the  Symphony  in  C  minor,  and  the 
'Sinfonia  Pastorale.'  The  B^  ia  on  a  smaller 
scale  than  its  predecessor,  and  of  lighter  and 
gayer  cast.  The  opening  bars  of  the  Introduc- 
tion are  almost  the  only  part  which  has  a  trace 
of  sadness  in  it ;  and  this  is  probably  meant  to 
throw  the  brightness  of  the  rest  of  the  work  into 
stronger  relief.  Even  the  Slow  Movement  con- 
tains more  serenity  than  deep  emotion.  The 
Scherzo  is  peculiar  for  having  the  Trio  repeated 
— altogether  a  new  point  in  symphony-writing, 
and  one  which  was  not  left  unrepeated  or  un- 
imitated.  What  the  sjrmphony  was  meant  to 
express  cannot  be  known,  but  it  certainly  is  as 
complete  and  consistent  as  any. 

The  C  minor  which  followed  has  been  said  to 
be  the  first  in  which  Beethoven  expressed  him- 
self freely  and  absolutely,  and  threw  away  all 
traces  of  formalism  in  expression  or  development 
to  give  vent  to  the  perfect  utterance  of  his 
musical  feeling.  It  certainly  is  so  far  the  most 
forcible,  and  most  remote  from  conventionalism 


bohm  says  the  first  two  movements  were  written 
in  1805  ;  and,  if  this  is  the  fact,  his  work  on 
theBb  and  on  the  C  minor  must  have  overlapped. 
Nothing,  however,  could  be  much  stronger  than 
the  contrast  between  the  two.  The  C  minor 
is,  in  the  first  and  most  striking  movement, 
i*ugged,  terrible  in  force ;  a  sort  of  struggle 
with  fate,  one  of  the  most  thoroughly  charac- 
teristic of  Beethoven's  productions.  The  second 
is  a  contrast :  peaceful,  though  strong  and 
earnest.'  The  Scherzo  again  is  one  of  his  most 
original  movements ;  in  its  musical  spirit  as 
utterly  unlike  anything  that  had  been  produced 
before  as  possible.  Full  of  fancy,  fun,  and 
humour,  and,  notwithstanding  the  pauses  and 
changes  of  time,  wonderful  in  swing  ;  and  con- 
taining some  devices  of  orchestration  quite 
magical  in  their  clearness,  and  their  fitness  to 
the  ideas.  The  last  movement,  which  follows 
without  break  after  the  Scherzo,  is  triumphant ; 
seeming  to  express  the  mastery  in  the  wrestling 
and  striving  of  the  first  movement.  It  is 
historically  interesting  as  the  first  appearance 
of  trombones  and  contrafagotto  in  modem 
symphony ;  and  the  most  powerful  in  sound 
up  to  that  time.  The  next  symphony,  which 
is  also  the  next  opus-number,  is  the  popular 
*  Pastoral,'  probably  written  in  1808,  the  second 
of  Beethoven's  which  has  a  definitely  stated 
idea  as  the  basis  of  its  inspiration,  and  the 
first  in  which  a  programme  is  suggested  for 
each  individual  movement ;  though  Beethoven 
is  careful  to  explain  that  it  is  *  mehr  Empfindung 
als  Malerei.'  Any  account  of  this  happy  in- 
spiration is  clearly  superfluous.  Tlie  situations 
and  scenes  which  it  brings  to  the  mind  are 
familiar,  and  not  likely  to  be  less  beloved  as 
the  world  grows  older.  The  style  is  again  in 
great  contrast  to  that  of  the  C  minor,  being 
characterised  rather  by  serenity  and  content- 
ment ;  which,  as  Beethoven  had  not  heard  of 
all  the  troubles  of  the  land  question,  might 
naturally  be  his  feelings  about  country  life. 
He  used  two  trombones  in  the  last  two  move- 
ments, but  other^^ise  contented  himself  with 
the  same  group  of  instruments  as  in  his  earliest 
symphonies. 

After  this  there  was  a  pause  for  some  years, 
during  which  time  appeared  many  noble  and 
delightful  works  on  other  lines,  including  the 
pianoforte  trios  in  D  and  Ei^,  the  Mass  in  0 
minor,  op.  86,  the  music  to  ^Egmont,'  op.  84, 
and  several  sonatas.  Then  in  one  year,  1812, 
two  symphonies  appeared.  The  first  of  the 
two,  in  A  major,  numbered  op.  92,  is  looked 
upon  by  many  as  the  most  romantic  of  all  of 
them  ;  and  certainly  has  qualities  which  increase 
in  attractiveness  the  better  it  is  known  and 
understood.  Among  specially  noticeable  points 
are  the  unusual  proportions  and  great  interest 
of  the  Introduction  (jpoco  sostenitto) ;  the  singular 


and  fascinating  wilfulness  of  the  first  movement, 
which  is  enhanced  by  some  very  chai^acteristic 
orchestration ;  the  noble  calm  of  the  slow 
movement ;  the  merry  humour  of  the  Scherzo, 
which  has  again  the  same  peculiarity  as  the 
fourth  Symphony,  that  the  trio  is  repeated  (for 
which  the  worid  has  every  reason  to  be  thankful, 
as  it  is  one  of  the  most  completely  enjoyable 
things  in  all  symphonic  literature)  ;  and  finally 
the  wild  headlong  abandonment  of  the  last 
movement,  which  might  be  an  idealised  national 
or  rather  barbaric  dance-movement,  and  which 
sets  the  crown  fitly  upon  one  of  the  most 
characteristic  of  Beethoven's  works.  The 
Symphony  in  F,  which  follows  immediately  as 
op.  93,  is  again  of  a  totally  different  character. 
It  is  of  specially  small  proportions,  and  has 
rather  the  character  of  a  return  to  the  old  con- 
ditions of  the  Symphony,  mth  all  the  advant- 
ages of  Beethoven's  mature  powers  both  in  the 
development  and  choice  of  ideas,  and  in  the 
treatment  of  the  orchestra.  Beethoven  himself, 
in  a  letter  to  Salomon,  described  it  as  *eine 
kleine  Symphonic  in  F,'  as  distinguished  from 
the  previous  one,  which  he  called  *Grosse 
Symphonic  in  A,  eine  meiuer  vorziiglichsten.' 
It  has  more  fun  and  light-heartedness  in  it 
than  any  of  the  others,  but  no  other  specially 
distinctive  external  characteristics,  except  the 
substitution  of  the  graceful  and  humorous 
'  Allegretto  scherzando '  in  tlie  place  of  the  slow 
movement,  and  a  return  to  the  Tempo  di  Menu- 
etto  for  the  scherzo.  After  this  came  again  a 
long  pause,  as  the  greatest  of  all  symphonies  did 
not  make  its  appearance  till  1 824.  During  that 
time,  however,  itis  probable  that  symphonic  work 
was  not  out  of  his  mind,  for  it  is  certain  that  the 
preparations  for  putting  this  symphony  down  on 
l>aper  spread  over  several  years.  Of  the  intro- 
duction of  voices  into  this  form  of  composition, 
which  is  its  strongest  external  characteristic, 
Beethoven  had  made  a  previous  experiment  in 
the  Choral  Fantasia ;  and  he  himself  8ix>ke  of 
the  symphony  as  '  in  the  style  of  the  Choral 
Fantasia,  but  on  a  far  larger  scale.'  The  scale 
is  indeed  immensely  larger,  not  only  in  length 
but  in  style,  and  the  increase  in  this  respect 
applies  to  it  equally  in  comparison  with  all  the 
83rmphonies  that  went  before.  The  first  move- 
ment is  throughout  the  most  concentrated 
example  of  the  qualities  which  distinguish 
Beethoven,  and  the  new  phase  upon  which  music 
entered  with  him,  from  all  the  composers  of  the 
previous  half-century.  The  other  movements 
are  not  less  characteristic  of  him  in  their 
]>articular  ways.  The  second  is  the  largest 
example  of  the  typical  scherzo  which  first  made 
its  appearance  for  the  orchestra  in  the  Eroica  ; 
and  the  supreme  slow  movement  (the  Theme 
with  variations)  is  the  finest  orchestral  example 
of  that  special  type  of  slow  movement ;  though 
in  other  departments  of  art  he  had  previously 
illustrated  it  in  a  manner  little  less  noble  and 


deeply  expressive  in  the  slow  monenpnts  of  the 
Bb  Trio  and  the  Bb  Sonata  (op.  1^).  These 
movements  all  have  reference,  *Mflf  X)r  less 
intelligible  according  to  the  oi^ganisation  and 
sympathies  of  the  hearer,  to  th%  ^^oftte  .of  the 
Symphony,  which  consists  of  a  setti^ogf^hiller's 
ode  *An  die  Freude.*  Its  deveiofltaient  into 
such  enormous  proportions  is  of  a  pie^^with  the 
tendency  shown  in  Beethoven's  pirevk»As  sym- 
phonies, and  in  some  of  his  soilataj^^lso,  to 
supplant  the  conventional  type  of  gdyfas^fnove- 
ment  by  something  which  shall  be  a  lo^cal  or 
poetical  outcome  of  the  preceding  ^•t%n^nts, 
and  shall  in  some  way  clench  thefb,  or  crown 
them  with  its  weight  and  power.  Thp  intro- 
duction of  words,  moreover,  gives  a  n^w  force  to 
the  definite  interpretation  of  the  whdie  ba  a  single 
organism,  developed  as  a  poem  might  be  in 
relation  to  definite  and  coherent  ideas.  The 
dramatic  and  human  elements  w^hich  Beethoven 
introduced  into  his  instrumental  music  to  a 
degree  before  undreamed  of,  find  here  their  fullest 
expression  ;  and  most  of  the  forms  of  music  are 
called  in  to  convey  his  ideas.  The  fitpt  move- 
ment of  the  symphony  is  in  binary  form  ;  the 
second  in  scherzo,  or  idealised  minuet  and  trio 
form ;  the  third  in  the  form  of  theme  and 
variations.  Then  follows  the  curious  passage 
of  instrumental  recitative,  of  which  so  many 
people  guessed  the  meaning  even  before  it  was 
defined  by  the  publication  of  the  extracts  from 
the  MS.  sketch-books  in  the  Berlin  Library; 
then  the  entry  of  the  noble  tune,  the  theme  of 
the  entire  Finale,  introduced  contrapuntally  in 
a  manner  which  has  a  clear  analogy  to  fhgal 
treatment ;  and  followed  by  the  choral  part, 
which  treats  the  theme  in  the  form  of  variations 
apportioned  to  the  several  verses  of  the  poem, 
and  carries  the  sentiment  to  the  extremest  pitch 
of  exultation  expressible  by  the  human  voice. 
The  instrumental  forces  employed  are  the  fullest; 
including,  with  the  usual  complement,  four 
horns,  three  trombones  in  the  scherzo  and  finale, 
and  contrafagotto,  triangle,  cymbals,  and  big 
drum  in  the  finale.  The  choral  forces  include 
four  solo  voices  and  full  chorus,  and  the  senti- 
ment expressed  is  proportionate  to  the  forces 
employed. 

In  Beethoven's  hands  the  Symphony  has  again 
undergone  a  change  of  status.  Haydn  and 
Mozart,  as  above  pointed  out,  ennobled  and 
enriched  the  form  in  the  structural  sense.  They 
took  up  the  work  when  there  was  little  more 
expected  of  the  orchestra  than  would  have  been 
expected  of  a  harpsichord,  and  when  the  objecfc 
of  the  piece  was  slight  and  almost  momentaiy 
entertainment.  They  left  it  one  of  the  most 
important  branches  of  instrumental  music, 
though  still  to  a  great  extent  dependent  on  formal 
perfection  and  somewhat  obvious  artisticmanage- 
ment  for  its  interest.  Their  office  was  in  fact 
to  perfect  the  form,  and  Beethoven's  to  use  it 
But  the  very  use  of  it  brought  about  a  new 


SYMPHONY 


781 


ouB  elements.     In  his  work 

a  proportion  between  the 

nd  the  nobility  and  depth  and 

Lce  of  the  mosical  ideas.     In 

eatest  and  most  pliable  means 

'  composer  could  be  no  longer 

and  triviality,  but  only  for 

of  an  adequate  standard.     It  is 

composers  saw  the  advantage 

ireadth  of  style  and  largeness  of 

writing  for  the  orchestra  ;  but 

^    resulted  in  positive  dulness.     It 

|i^AMMb  f ould  only  be  when  the  circum- 
aJHIRnlOTy  had  undergone  a  violent  change 
>n  sentiment  could  reach  that  pitch 
*  eneas  which  in  Beethoven's  work 
iphony  to  the  highest  pitch  of 
feeling:  and  the  history  of  his 
development  is  chiefly  the  co-ordination  of  all 
the  compovnt  elements  ;  the  proportioning  of 
the  expi^i^ion  and  style  to  the  means ;  the 
expansion  ^the  form  to  the  requirements  of 
the^preAJh  ;  the  making  of  the  oi^chestration 
]yeTf0^\yM^Q»  but  perfectly  just  in  every  detail 
of  ex^esSon,  and  perfectly  balanced  in  itself ; 
and   the  Vindication  of  idl  traces  of  conven- 
tionai^sm  Joth  in  the  details  and  in  the  principal 
outliiles,  snd'also  to  a  great  extent  in  the  treat- 
ment of  the  instruments.     It  is  chiefly  tlirough 
Beethovefi's  work  that  the  s3rmi)hony  now  stands 
at  tl^%ead  of  all  musical  forms  whatever  ;  and 
though  other  composera  may  hereafter  misuse 
and  degrade  it  as  they  have  degraded  the  opera, 
the  cantata,  the  oratorio,  the  mass,  and  such 
other  forms  as  have  equal  possibilities  with  the 
symphony,   his  works   of  this  kind  stand  at 
such  an  elevation   of  human   sympathy  and 
emotiDn,  and  at  such  a  pitch  of  individuality 
aud  p^wer,  in  expression  and  technical  mastery, 
that  It  is  scarcely  likely  that  any  branch  of 
musical  art  will  ever  show  anything  to  surpass 
them.  •     • 

It  mighi;  seem  almost  8Ui)erfluous  to  trace  the 
historf  df  Symphony  further  after  Beethoven. 
Nothing  %ince  his  time  has  shown,  nor  in  the 
chaigfti^ci^it^ns  of  the  history  of  the  race  is 
it  lU^ly  anything  should  show,  any  approach 
to  tlRViial^y  and  depth  of  his  work.  But  it 
is  ju9t  th^i^  chajiging  conditions  that  leave  a 
littte*  opening  fey:  .composers  to  tread  the  same 
path  fritlf  hyn. ,  In  the  millions  of  the  human 
spedes  there  are  %idless  varieties  of  mental  and 
emotnnal  qtialities  grouped  in  different  indi- 
vidui((,  and  diflerent  bands  or  sets  of  men  ;  and 
the  many-sided  qualities  of  artistic  work,  even 
far  below  the  highest  standard,  find  their 
excuse  and  explanation  in  the  various  groups 
and  types  of  mind  whose  artistic  desires  they 
satisfy.  Those  who  are  most  highly  organised 
in  such  respects  find  their  most  perfect  and 
most  sustained  gratification  in  Beethoven's 
works ;  but  others  who  feel  less  deeply,  or  are 
less  #ie  in  their  sympathies,  or  have  fewer  or 


different  opportunities  of  cultivating  their  tastes 
in  such  a  musical  direction,  need  musical  food 
more  in  accordance  with  their  mental  and 
emotional  organisation.  Moreover,  there  is 
always  room  to  treat  an  accepted  form  in  the 
mode  characteristic  of  the  period.  Beethoven's 
period  was  much  more  like  ours  than  that  of 
Haydn  and  Mozart,  but  yet  it  is  not  so  like  that 
a  work  expressed  entirely  in  his  manner  would 
not  be  an  anachronism.  Each  successive  genera- 
tion takes  some  colour  from  the  combination  of 
work  and  changes  in  all  previous  generations  ; 
in  unequal  quantities  proportioned  to  its  amount 
of  sympathy  with  particular  periods.  By  the 
side  of  Beethoven  Uiere  were  other  composers, 
working  either  on  parallel  lines  or  in  a  different 
manner  on  the  same  lines.  The  succeeding 
generations  were  influenced  by  tliem  as  well  as 
by  him ;  and  they  have  introduced  some  elements 
into  symphony  which  are  at  least  not  prominent 
in  his.  One  of  the  contemporary  composers 
who  had  most  influence  on  the  later  generation 
was  Weber  ;  but  his  influence  is  derived  from 
other  departments,  and  in  that  of  Symphony 
his  contribution  is  next  to  nothing — two  only, 
so  slight  and  unimportant,  as  probably  to  have 
had  no  influence  at  all. 

Another  composer's  symphonies  did  not  have 
much  immediate  influence,  chiefly  because  they 
were  not  performed  ;  what  they  will  have  in  the 
future  remains  to  be  seen.  In  delightfulness, 
Schubert's  two  best  works  in  this  department 
stand  almost  alone  ;  and  their  qualities  are 
unique.  In  his  earlier  works  of  the  kind  there  is 
an  analogy  to  Beethoven's  early  works.  Writing 
for  the  orchestra  seemed  to  paralyse  his  par- 
ticular individuality  ;  and  for  some  time  after 
he  had  written  some  of  his  finest  and  most 
original  songs,  he  continued  to  write  symphonies 
which  were  chiefly  a  mild  reflex  of  Haydn  and 
Mozart,  or  at  most  of  the  early  style  of  Beet- 
hoven. His  first  attempt  was  made  in  1813, 
the  last  page  being  dated  October  28  of  that 
year,  when  he  was  yet  only  sixteen  years  old — 
one  year  after  Beethoven's  Symphonies  in  A  and 
F,  and  more  than  ten  years  before  the  great  D 
minor.  In  the  five  following  years  he  wrote 
five  more,  the  best  of  which  is  No,  4,  the  Tragic, 
in  0  minor  ;  the  Andante  especially  being  very 
fine  and  interesting,  and  containing  many 
characteristic  traits  of  the  master.  But  none 
of  the  early  works  approach  in  interest  or 
original  beauty  to  the  unfinished  one  in  B  minor, 
and  the  very  long  and  vigorous  one  in  C  major  ; 
the  first  composed  in  1822,  before  Beethoven's 
No.  9,  and  the  second  in  1828,  after  it.  In 
these  two  he  seems  to  have  struck  out  a 
real  independent  symphony -style  for  himself, 
thoroughly  individual  in  every  respect,  both  of 
idea,  form,  and  orchestration.  They  show 
singularly  little  of  the  influence  of  Beethoven, 
or  Mozart,  or  Haydn,  or  any  of  the  composers 
he  must  have  been  familiar  with  in  his  early 


days  at  the  Convict ;  but  the  same  spirit  as  is 
met  with  in  his  songs  and  pianoforte  pieces,  and 
the  best  specimens  of  his  chamber  music.  The 
first  movement  of  the  B  minor  is  entirely  unlike 
any  other  symphonic  first  movement  that  ever 
was  composed  before.  It  seems  to  come  direct 
from  the  heart,  and  to  have  the  personality  of 
the  composer  in  it  to  a  most  unusual  degree. 
The  orchestral  forces  used  are  the  usual  ones, 
[excepting  only  that  he  uses  three  trombones, 
an  unusual  thing  in  first  movements  at  the 
date,]  but  in  the  management  of  them  there 
are  numbers  of  effects  which  are  perfectly  new 
in  this  department  of  art,  indicating  the  tend- 
ency of  the  time  towards  direct  consideration  of 
what  is  called  '  colour '  in  orchestral  combina- 
tions, and  its  employment  with  the  view  of  en- 
hancing the  degree  of  actual  sensuous  eigoyment 
of  a  refined  kind,  to  some  extent  independent 
of  the  subjects  and  figures.  Schubert's  mature 
orchestral  works  are,  however,  too  few  to  give 
any  strong  indication  of  this  in  his  own  person  ; 
and  what  is  commonly  felt  is  the  supreme 
attractiveness  of  the  ideas  and  general  style. 
As  classical  models  of  form  none  of  Schubert's 
instrumental  works  take  the  highest  rank  ;  and 
it  follows  that  no  compositions  by  any  writer 
which  have  taken  such  hold  upon  the  musicians 
of  the  present  time,  depend  so  much  upon  their 
intrinsic  musical  qualities  as  his  do.  They  are 
therefore  in  a  sense  the  extremest  examples 
that  can  be  given  of  the  degree  in  which  the 
status  of  such  music  altered  in  about  thirty 
years.  In  the  epoch  of  Mozart  and  Haydn,  the 
formal  elements  absolutely  predominated  in 
importance.  This  was  the  casein  1795.  The 
balance  was  so  completely  altered  in  the  course 
of  Beethoven's  lifetime,  that  by  1824  the 
phenomenon  is  presented  of  works  in  the  highest 
line  of  musical  composition  depending  on  the 
predominating  element  of  the  actual  musical 
sentiment  It  must  be  confessed  that  Schubert's 
position  in  art  is  unique  ;  but  at  the  same  time 
no  man  of  mark  can  be  quite  unrepresentative 
of  his  time,  and  Schubert  in  this  way  represents 
the  extraordinary  degree  in  which  the  attention 
of  musical  people  and  the  intention  of  composers 
in  the  early  years  of  the  19th  century  were 
directed  to  the  actual  material  of  music  in  its 
expressive  sense  as  distinguished  from  the 
external  or  structural  aspect. 

The  relation  of  the  dates  at  which  more 
or  less  well-known  symphonies  made  their 
appearance  about  this  time  is  curious  and 
not  uninstructive.  Mendelssohn's  Reformation 
Symphony  was  produced  only  two  years  after 
Schubert's  great  Symphony  in  C,  namely  in 
1830.  His  Italian  Symphony  followed  in  the 
next  year ;  and  Stemdale  Bennett's,  in  G  minor, 
in  1834. 

The  dates  and  history  of  Spohr's  productions 
are  even  more  striking,  as  he  was  actually  a 
contemporary  of    Beethoven's  and  senior  to 


Schubert,  while  in  all  re.i 
style  is  characteristic  it  represen 
generation.     His  first  Symph<     ^ 
composed  in  1811,  before  Beethoven's 
and  9th,  and  when  he  himself 
years  old.    This  was  followed 
which  are  not  without  merit, 
sufficient  historical  importance  to 
consideration.     The  symphony  •! 
best  known  at  the  present  day  is 

*  Weihe  der  Tone,'  which  at  onl 
great  celebrity.     The  history  of  this 
follows.     He  intended  first  to        ^ 
same  name  by  his  friend  Pfeifte: 
the  setting  in  1832,  but  finding  it 
he  abandoned  the  idea  of  using  tl 
as  a  programme ;    in   which 
appended  to  the  score.    The  full  dd 
purpose  of  the  work  as  expressed  oniU\^  title  is 

*  Characteristisches  Tongemalde  inform  einer 
Sinfonie,  nach  einen  Gedicht  von  C 
and  a  printed  notice  from  the  coiri 
pended  to  the  score  directing  th&t 
to  be  either  printed  or  recited  al^fl 
the  symphony  is  to  be  performed.  ¥ 
ment  also  has  its  title,  like,th^4|^tqml  of 
Beethoven ;  but  it  differs  from  t^R^^onp  not 
only  in  its  less  substantial  interest^  JAit  Hap  in 
a  much  more  marked  depattuXQ^  froi^p  the 
ordinary  principles  of  form,  and  the  st^le  of  the 
successive  movements.  *     *       i 

The  earlier  part  of  the  work  correspond^fairly 
well  with  the  usual  principles  of  structure.     It 
opens  with  a  short  Largo  of  vague  character, 
passing  into  the  Allegro,  which  is  a  continuous 
movement  of  the  usual  description,  in  a  sweet 
but  rather  tame  style.     The  next  movement 
might  be  taken  to  stand  for  the*  tl9uaj*slow 
movement,   as  it  begins  Andantino  ';•  hxA  'the 
development  is  original,  as  it  is  hrdken  up  by 
several  changes  of  tempo  and  time^sigpatures, 
and  is  evidently  based  upon  a  pro^pme,  for 
which  its  title  supplies  an  explanatioE.     The 
next  movement  again  migh^be  takfnfas  su 
alternative  to   the    Minuet  iffd^^, 'bwng 
marked  '  Tempo  di  Marcia,'  ^idTMh  ^|ilt3  A^|est 
the  same  general  outline  of  ^ritf**  Bul^the 
development  is  again  indepenilent^ani  iSSst  he 
supposed  to  follow  its  title.  *•  Fr^'this  Jjint 
all  connection  with  the  usual*  ou){^i^s  ceases. 
There  is  an  Andante  maestoao^#b(u^up<iLthe 
plain-song  of  the  Te  Deum,  a  mrg^ttiS  ctmin- 
ing  a  second  hymn-tune,  and*a  &hdk;*All9^^ 
in  simple  primary  form  to  conclude'wifli.  JFrora 
this  description  it  will  be  obvious  thai  the  work 
is  an  example  of  thoroughgoing   *  programme 
music*      It  is   clearly  based*  nither  on  the 
musical  portrayal  of  a  succession  of  ideas  in  them- 
selves independent  of  music,'  than  upon  the 
treatment  of  principles  of  abstract  form,  and 
ideas  intrinsically  musical.      It  derives  from 
this  fact  a  historical  importance  which  itsmQsicftl 
qualities  taken  alone  would  notwarmn{f%B  ^^ 


SYMPHONY 


783 


t   one  of  the  very  first  German  examples  of  its 
Irxd  possessing  any  high  artistic  excellences  of 
iroatment,  expression,  and  orchestration.      It 
oxktains  a  plentiful  supply  of  Spohr's  character- 
»t^ic  faults,  and  is  for  the  most  part  superficial, 
cxkI  deficient  in  warmth  of  feeling  and  nobility  of 
:^1x ought ;  but  it  has  also  a  fair  share  of  his  good 
ti-skits — delicacy  and  clearness  of  orchestration, 
cLxid  a  certain  amount  of  poetical  sentiment.    Its 
avLccess  was  considerable,  and  this,  rather  than 
£bii.y  abstract  theorising  upon  the  tendencies  of 
xn.odem  music,  led  him  to  several  further  experi- 
ments in  the  same  line.      The  symphony  (in  C 
xiiinor)  which  followed  the  *Weihe  der  Tone '  was 
on   the  old  lines,  and  does  not  require  much 
xiotice.     It  contains  experiments  in  unifying  the 
Avork  by  unusual  references  to  subjects,  as  in  the 
iiTst  movement,  where  conspicuous  reference  is 
made  in  the  middle  part  of  the  Allegro  to  the 
characteristic  feature  of  the  slow  introduction  ; 
and  in  the  last,  where  the  same  subject  is  some- 
what transformed,  and  reappears  in  a  difierent 
time  as  a  prominent  feature  of  the  second  section. 
In  the  next  symphony,  and  in  the  7th  and  9th, 
Spohr  again  tried  experiments  in  programme. 
Two  of  these  are  such  curiosities  as  to  deserve 
description.     The  6th,  op.  116,  in  G  is  called 
*  Historische  Symphonie,'  and  the  four  move- 
ments are  supposed  to  be  illustrations  of  four 
distinct  musical  periods.    The  first  is  called  the 
Period  of  Handel  and  Bach,  and  dated  1720  ; 
the  second,  the  Period  of  Haydn  and  Mozart, 
and  dated  1780  (i.e.  before  any  of  the  greatest 
instrumental  works  of  either  Haydn  or  Mozart 
were  produced) ;    the  third  is   the  Period  of 
Beethoven,  and  dated  1810  ;  and  the  fourth, 
*  Allemeueste  Periode,*  and  dated  1840.     This 
last  title  seems  to  imply  that  Spohr  regarded 
himself  as  belonging  to  a  different  generation 
from  Beethoven.    The  first  period  is  represented 
by  an  introductory  Largo  in  contrapuntal  style, 
and  an  Allegro  movement,  part  after  the  manner 
of  the  old  Canzonas,  and  part  a  Pastorale,  intro- 
duced for  contrast.     The  style  has  scarcely  the 
least  aflBnity  to  Bach,  but  the  Handelian  char- 
acter is  extremely  easy  to  imitate,  and  hence  in 
some  respects  it  justifies  its  title  fairly  well. 
The  slow  movement  which  follows  has  good 
qualities  and  graceful  points.     It  has  more  the 
flayour  of  Mozart  than  Haydn,  and  this  is  en- 
hanced by  the  Mozartian  turns  and  figures  which 
are  introduced.    One  which  is  very  conspicuous 
is  the  short  figure — 


which  is  found  in  several  places  in  Mozart's 
works.  The  second  subject,  moreover,  is  only 
an  ingenious  alteration  of  the  second  subject  in 
the  slow  movement  of  Mozarf  s  Prague  Sym- 
phony in  D : — 


^J    ^j    ^j    ^ 


Nevertheless,  the  whole  effect  of  the  move- 
ment is  not  what  its  title  implies.  The  scoring 
is  fuller,  and  the  inner  parts  richer  and  freer  in 
their  motion  than  in  the  prototypes,  and  the 
harmonisation  is  more  chromatic,  after  Spohr's 
manner.  The  Scherzo  professes  to  be  in  Beet- 
hoven's style,  and  some  of  his  characteristic 
devices  of  harmony  and  rhythm  and  treatment 
of  instruments  are  fairly  well  imitated  (e,g. 
the  drums  in  G,  D,  and  £b),  though  in 
a  manner  which  shows  they  were  but  half 
understood. 

The  last  movement,  representing  the  then 
'latest  period,'  has  of  course  no  names  ap- 
|)ended.  Spohr  probably  did  not  intend  to 
imitate  any  one,  but  was  satisfied  to  write  in 
his  own  manner,  of  which  the  movement  is  not 
a  highly  satisfactory  example.  It  is  perhaps 
rather  to  the  composer's  credit  that  his  own 
characteristics  should  peep  out  at  all  comers 
in  all  the  movements,  but  the  result  can  hardly 
be  called  an  artistic  success.  However,  the 
experiment  deserves  to  be  recorded  and  de- 
scribed, as  unique  among  works  by  composers 
of  such  standing  and  ability  as  Spohr  ;  and  the 
more  so  as  it  is  not  likely  to  be  often  heard  in 
future.  His  next  Symphony  (No,  7,  in  C  major, 
op.  121)  is  in  many  respects  as  great  a  curiosity 
of  a  totally  different  description.  It  is  called 
'Irdisches  und  Gottliches  in  Menschenleben,' 
and  is  a  double  symphony  in  three  movements 
for  two  orchestras.  The  first  movement  is  called 
'  Kinderwelt,'  the  second  *Zeit  der  Leiden- 
schaften,'  and  the  last  (Presto)  '  Endlicher  Sieg 
des  Gbttlichen.'  In  the  first  two  the  second 
orchestra,  which  is  the  fuller  of  the  two,  is 
little  more  than  an  accompaniment  to  the  first. 
In  the  last  it  has  a  good  deal  of  work  to  do, 
uttering  chiefly  vehement  and  bustling  passages 
in  contrast  with  quiet  and  sober  passages  by 
the  first  orchestra  ;  until  near  the  end,  when  it 
appears  to  be  subdued  into  consonance  with  the 
first  orchestra.  The  idea  seems  to  be  to  depict 
the  divine  and  the  worldly  qualities  more  or 
less  by  the  two  orchestras ;  the  divine  being 
given  to  the  smaller  orchestra  of  solo  instru- 
ments, and  the  worldly  to  the  fuller  orchestra. 
The  treatment  of  the  instrumental  forces  is 
on  the  whole  very  simple  ;  and  no  veiy 
extraordinary  effects  seem  to  be  aimed  at. 

Spohr  wrote  yet  another  programme  sym- 
phony after  this  (No.  9,  in  B,  op.  148)  called 
*Die  Jahreszeiten,'  in  which  Winter  and 
Spring  are  joined  to  make  Part  I.,  and 
Summer    and    Autumn    to    make    Part    II. 


784 


SYMPHUJNY 


The  work  approaches  more  nearly  to  the 
ordinary  outlines  of  the  Symphony  than  his 
previous  experiments  in  programme,  and  does 
not  seem  to  demand  so  much  detailed  descrip- 
tion. In  fact,  but  for  his  having  been  so  early 
in  the  field  as  a  \mter  of  thoroughgoing  pro- 
gramme-music, Spohr's  position  in  the  history 
of  the  Symphony  would  not  be  an  important 
cue  ;  and  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  his  being 
80  at  all  appears  to  have  been  an  accident. 
The  *  Weihe  der  Tone '  would  not  have  been  a 
programme  symphony  but  for  the  fact  that 
Pfeiffer's  poem  did  not  turn  out  to  be  very 
suitable  for  a  musical  setting.  It  is  not  likely 
that  the  work  would  have  attained  such  popu- 
larity as  it  did  but  for  its  programme ;  but 
after  so  good  a  result  in  relation  to  the 
public,  it  was  natural  that  Spohr  should  tiy 
further  experiments  on  the  same  lines ;  and 
hence  he  became  one  of  the  earliest  repre- 
sentatives of  artistic  speculation  in  a  direction 
which  has  become  one  of  the  most  conspicuous 
subjects  of  discussion  among  modem  musical 
philosophers.  As  &r  as  intrinsic  qualities  are 
concerned  it  is  remarkable  how  very  little 
influence  he  has  had  upon  the  subsequent 
history  of  the  Symphony,  considering  the  re- 
putation he  eigoyed  in  his  lifetime.  His 
greatest  excellence  was  his  treatment  of  his 
orchestra,  which  was  delicate,  refined,  and 
extremely  clear  ;  but  it  must  be  confessed 
that  he  erred  on  the  side  natural  to  the 
virtuoso  violinist,  and  was  too  fond  of  bring- 
ing his  first  violins  into  prominence.  His 
ideas  and  style  generally  were  not  robust 
or  noble  enough  to  stand  the  test  of  time. 
His  melodies  are  not  broad  or  strong ;  his 
harmonisation,  though  very  chromatic  to  look 
at,  is  not  radically  free  and  vigorous  ;  and  his 
rhythm,  though  sometimes  complicated  and 
ingenious,  is  neither  forcible  nor  rich  in  variety. 
None  of  his  works,  however,  can  be  said  to  be 
without  their  good  points,  and  the  singularity 
of  his  attempts  at  programme-music  give  them 
an  interest  which  the  unlikelihood  of  many 
performances  in  the  future  does  not  by  any 
means  diminish. 

An  interesting  fact  in  connection  with  Spohr 
and  the  history  of  the  Symphony  is  that  he  was 
the  first  to  conduct  an  orchestra  in  England 
with  a  baton ;  the  practice  having  previously 
been  to  conduct '  at  the  pianoforte.'  The  occa- 
sion was  one  of  the  Philharmonic  Concerts  in 
1820.  [See  Baton,  Conducting,  Spohr.] 
The  habit  of  conducting  at  the  pianoforte  was 
evidently  a  tradition  continued  from  the  days 
when  the  Symphony  was  an  appendage  of  the 
Opera,  when  the  principal  authority,  often  the 
composer  in  person,  sat  at  the  principal  clavier 
in  the  middle  of  the  orchestra  giving  the  time 
at  his  instrument,  and  filling  in  the  har- 
monies under  the  guidance  of  a  figured  bass. 
Almost  all  the  earlier  independent  symphonies, 


including  those  of  Philip  Emanuel  Bach 
of  1776,  and  some  of  Haydn's  earlier  ones, 
have  such  a  figured  bass  for  the  clavier- 
player,  and  an  extra  bass  part  is  commonly 
found  in  the  sets  of  parts  which  may  be 
reasonably  surmised  to  be  for  his  use.^  The 
.practice  was  at  last  abrogated  in  England  by 
Spohr,  possibly  because  he  was  not  a  clavier  but 
a  violin  player.  In  Germany  it  was  evidently 
discontinued  some  time  earlier. 

The  most  distinguished  composers  of  sym- 
phonies who  wrote  at  the  same  time  as  Spohr, 
were  entirely  independent  of  liim.     The  first  of 
these  is  Mendelssohn,  whose  earliest  symphonies 
even  overlap  Beethoven,  and  whose  better-known 
works  of  the  kind,  as  before  mentioned,  begin 
about  the  same  time  as  Spohr's  best  examples, 
and  extend  over  nearly  the  same  period  as  his 
later  ones.      The  earliest  which  survives  in 
print  is  that  in  C  minor  dedicated  to  the  Lon- 
don Philharmonic  Society.      This  work   was 
really  his  thirteenth  symphony,  and  was  finished 
on  March  81,  1824,  when  he  was  only  fifteen 
years  old,  in  the  very  year  that  Beethoven's 
Choral  Symphony  was  first  performed.       The 
work  is  more  historically  than  musically  in- 
teresting.   It  shows,  as  might  be  expected,  how 
much  stronger  the  mechanical  side  of  Mendels- 
sohn's artistic  nature  was,  even  as  a  boy,  than  his 
poetical  side.      Technically  the  work  is  extra- 
ordinarily mature.    It  evinces  not  only  a  perfect 
and  complete  facility  in  laying  the  outline  and 
carrying  out  the  details  of  form,  but  also  the 
acutest  sense  of  the  balance  and  proportion  of 
tone  of  the  orchestra.    The  limits  of  the  attempt 
are  not  extensive,  and  the  absence  of  strong 
feeling  or  aspiration  in  the  boy  facilitated  the 
execution.    The  predominant  influence  is  clearly 
that  of  Mozart.     Not  only  the  treatment  of  the 
lower  and  subordinate  parts  of  the  harmony,  but 
the  distribution  and  management  of  the  different 
sections  and  even  the  ideas  are  like.     There  is 
scarcely  a  trace  of  the  influence  of  Beethoven, 
and  not  much  of  the  features  afterwards  charac- 
teristic of  the  composer  himself.     The  most 
individual  movements  are  the  slow  movement 
and  the  trio.     The  former  is  tolerably  free  from 
the  influence  of  the  artificial  and  mannered  slow 
movements  of  the  Haydn  and  Mozart  style,  and 
at  the  same  time  does  not  derive  its  inspiration 
from   Beethoven :  it  contains  some  very  free 
experiments  in   modulation,    enharmonic  and 
otherwise,  a  few  characteristic  figures  similar  to 
some  which  he  made  use  of  later  in  his  career, 
and  passages  of  melody  clearly  predicting  the 
composer  of  the  Lieder  ohne  Worte  and  the  short 
slow  movements  of  the  organ  sonatas.      The 
Trio  is  long  and  very  original  in  intention,  the 
chief  feature    being    ingenious    treatment    of 
arpeggios  for  the  strings  in  many  parts.     The 
other  movements  are  for  the  most  part  formal 

1  Kendelnohn'i  mxir  Sympbontes  u«  natlud  '  EUTi»r  mlt  d«m 
'    [SMToLUl.p.ll4a.iiot«l.] 


SYMPHONY 


785 


<3  Minuet  is  extraordinarily  like  that  of 
>za,rt'8  G  minor  Symphony,  not  only  in  accent 
cX  style,  but  in  the  manner  in  which  the 
~\^-kgs  and  the  wind  are  grouped  and  balanced, 
pecially  in  the  short  passage  for  wind  alone 
■ilch  occurs  towards  the  end  of  each  half  of  the 
ovement.  It  was  possibly  owing  to  this 
rcnnistance  that  Mendelssohn  substituted  for 
t^lie  orchestitU  arrangement  of  the  Scherzo  of 
13  Octet  when  the  work  was  performed  later 
1  liis  life.  In  the  last  movement  the  most 
t\a.racteri8tiG  passage  is  the  second  subject, 
ritli  the  short  chords  of  pizzicato  strings,  and 
He  tune  for  the  clarinet  which  comes  after  the 
onipletion  of  the  first  period  by  strings  alone. 
■le  used  the  same  device  more  than  once  later, 
md.  managed  it  more  satisfactorily.  But  it  is 
I  list  such  suggestions  of  the  working  of  the 
iiiLisical  spirit  in  the  man  which  make  an  early 
work  interesting. 

His  next  symphony  happened  to  illustrate 
tlie  supposed  tendency  of  the  age  towards  pro- 
gramme.    It  was  intended  for  the  tercentenary 
festival  of  the  Augsburg  Protestant  Confession 
ill  1830,  though  owing  to  political  circumstances 
its    performance  was  deferred   till  later.     He 
evidently  had  not  made  up  his  mind  what  to 
call  it  till  some  time  after  it  was  finished,  as 
lie  wrote  to  his  sister  and  suggested  Confession 
Symphony,  or  Symphony  for  a  Church  Festival, 
as  alternative  names.      But  it  is  quite  evident 
nevertheless  that  he  must  have  had  some  sort 
of  programme  in  his  mind,  and  a  purpose  to 
illustrate  the  conflict  between  the  old  and  new 
forms  of  the  faith,  and  the  circumstances  and 
attributes  which  belonged  to  them.    The  actual 
form  of  the  work  is  as  nearly  as  possible  what 
is  called  perfectly   orthodox.     The  slow  in- 
troduction, the  regular  legitimate  allegro,  the 
simple  pretty  scherzo  and  trio,  the  short  but 
completely  balanced  slow  movement,  and  the 
regular  last  movement  preceded  by  a  second  slow 
introduction,  present  very  little  that  is  out  of 
the  way  in  point  of  structure  ;  and  hence  the 
work  is  less  dependent  upon  its  programme  than 
some  of  the  examples  by  Spohr  above  described. 
But  nevertheless  the  programme  can  be  clearly 
seen  to  have  suggested  much  of  the  detail  of 
treatment  and  development  in  a  perfectly  con- 
sistent and  natural  manner.    The  external  traits 
which  obviously  strike  attention  are  two  ;  first, 
the  now  well-known  passage  which  is  used 
in  the  Catholic   Church  at   Dresden  for  the 
Amen,  and  which  Wagner  has  since  adopted 
as   one   of   the    most    conspicuous    religious 
motives  of  *  Parsifal ' ;  and  secondly,  the  use  of 
Luther's  famous  hymn,   *  Ein*  feste  Burg,'  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  work.      The  Amen  makes  its 
appearance  in  the  latter  part  of  the  opening 
Andante,  and  is  clearly  meant  to  typify  the  old 
church ;  and  its  recurrence  at  the  end  of  the 
working  out  in  the  first  movement,  before  the 
recapitulation,  is  possibly  meant  to  imply  that 

VOL.  IV 


the  old  church  still  holds  its  own  :  while  in 
the  latter  portion  of  the  work  the  typical  hymn- 
tune,  introduced  softly  by  the  flute  and  by 
degi*ees  taking  possession  of  the  whole  orchestra, 
may  be  taken  to  represent  the  successful  spread 
of  the  Protestant  ideas,  juat  as  its  final  utterance 
fortissimo  at  the  end  of  all,  does  the  establish- 
ment of  men's  right  to  work  out  their  own  salva- 
tion in  their  own  way.  There  are  various  other 
details  which  clearly  have  purpose  in  relation  to 
the  programme,  and  show  clearly  that  the  com- 
poser was  keeping  the  possible  succession  of  events 
and  circumstances  in  his  mind  throughout.  The 
actual  treatment  is  a  very  considerable  advance 
upon  the  Symphony  in  C  minor.  The  whole 
work  is  thoroughly  Mendelssohnian.  There  is  no 
obvious  trace  either  in  the  ideas  themselves,  or 
in  the  manner  of  expression  of  the  Mozartian 
influence  which  is  so  noticeable  in  the  symphony 
of  six  years  earlier.  And  considering  that  the 
composer  was  still  but  twenty-one,  the  maturity 
of  style  and  judgment  is  relatively  quite  as 
remarkable  as  the  facility  and  mastery  shown 
in  the  work  of  his  fifteenth  year.  The  orchestra- 
tion is  quite  characteristic  and  free ;  and  in 
some  cases,  as  in  part  of  the  second  movement, 
singularly  happy.  The  principle  of  programme 
here  assumed  se^ms  to  have  been  maintained  by 
him  thenceforward  ;  for  his  other  symphonies, 
though  it  is  not  so  stated  in  the  published 
scores,  are  known  to  have  been  recognised  by 
him  as  the  results  of  his  impressions  of  Italy 
and  Scotland.  The  first  of  them  followed  very 
soon  after  the  Reformation  Symphony.  In  the 
next  year  after  the  completion  of  that  work  he 
mentioned  the  new  symphony  in  a  letter  to  his 
sister  as  far  advanced  ;  and  said  it  was  *the 
gayest  thing  he  had  ever  done.'  He  was  in 
Rome  at  the  time,  and  it  appears  most  probable 
that  the  first  and  last  movements  were  written 
there.  Of  the  slow  movement  he  wrote  that 
he  had  not  found  anything  exactly  right,  *  and 
would  put  it  off  till  he  went  to  Naples,  hoping 
to  find  something  to  inspire  him  there.'  But' 
in  the  result  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  that 
Naples  can  have  had  much  share.  Of  the 
third  movement  there  is  a  tradition  that  it  was 
imported  from  an  earlier  work  ;  and  it  certainly 
has  a  considerable  flavour  of  Mozart,  though 
coupled  with  traits  characteristic  of  Mendelssohn 
in  perfect  maturity,  and  is  at  least  well  worthy 
of  its  position  ;  and  even  if  parts  of  it,  as  is 
possible,  appeared  in  an  earlier  work,  the 
excellences  of  the  Trio,  and  the  admirable 
effect  of  the  final  Coda  which  is  based  on  if, 
point  to  considerable  rewriting  and  reconstruc- 
tion at  a  mature  period.  The  actual  structure 
of  the  movements  is  based  upon  familiar' 
principles,  though  not  without  certain  idio- 
syncrasies ;  as  for  instance  the  appearance  of  a 
new  prominent  feature  in  the  working-out 
portion,  and  the  freedom  of  the  recapitulation 
in  the  first  movement.     In  the  last  movement, 

3e 


called  Saltarello,  he  seems  to  have  given  a 
more  frae  rein  to  his  fancy  in  portraying  some 
scene  of  unconstiuined  Italian  gaiety  of  which 
he  was  a  witness ;  and  though  there  is  an  un- 
derlying consistency  in  the  usual  distribution 
of  keys,  the  external  balance  of  subjects  is  not 
so  obvious.  The  last  movement  is  hence  the 
only  one  which  seems  to  dei)end  to  any  extent 
upon  the  programme  idea  ;  in  all  other  I'espects 
the  symphony  belongs  to  the  '  classical '  oi*der. 
Indeed  such  a  programme  as  the  purpose  to 
reproduce  impressions  of  particular  countries  is 
far  too  vague  to  lend  itself  to  exact  and  definite 
musical  portrayal  of  external  ideas,  such  as 
might  take  the  place  of  the  usual  outlines  of 
structure.  In  fact  it  could  lead  to  little  more 
than  consistency  of  style,  which  would  be 
equally  helpful  to  the  composer  and  the 
audience ;  and  it  may  well  have  served  as  an 
excuse  for  a  certain  laxity  and  profusion  in  the 
succession  of  the  ideas,  instead  of  that  difficult 
process  of  concentrating  and  making  relevant 
the  whole  of  each  movement  upon  the  basis  of 
a  few  definite  and  typical  subjects.  The  char- 
acteristics of  the  work  are  for  the  most  part 
fresh  and  genial  spontaneity.  The  scoring  is  of 
course  admirable  and  clear,  without  presenting 
any  very  marked  features ;  and  it  is  at  the 
same  time  independent  and  well  proportioned 
in  distribution  of  the  various  qualities  of  sound, 
and  in  fitness  to  the  subject-matter. 

In  orchestral  effects  the  later  symphony — 
the  Scotch,  in  A  minor — is  more  remarkable. 
The  impi'essions  which  Mendelssohn  received  in 
Scotland  may  naturally  have  suggested  more 
striking  points  of  local  colour  ;  and  the  manner 
in  which  it  is  distributed  from  first  page  to 
last  serves  to  very  good  purpose  in  unifying 
the  impression  of  the  whole.  The  effects  are 
almost  invariably  obtained  either  by  using  close 
harmonies  low  in  tlie  scale  of  the  respective 
instruments,  or  by  extensively  doubling  tunes 
and  figures  in  a  similar  manner,  and  in  a 
sombre  part  of  the  scale  of  the  instruments ; 
giving  an  effect  of  heaviness  and  darkness 
which  were  possibly  Mendelssohn's  principal 
feelings  about  the  grandeur  and  uncertain 
climate  of  Scotland.  Thus  in  the  opening 
phrase  for  wind  instnmients  they  are  crowded 
in  the  harmonies  almost  as  thick  as  they  will 
endure.  In  the  statement  of  the  first  principal 
subject  again  the  clarinet  in  its  darkest  region 
doubles  the  tune  of  the  violins  an  octave  lower. 
The  use  of  the  whole  mass  of  the  strings  in 
three  octaves,  with  the  wind  filling  the  har- 
monies in  rhythmic  chords,  which  has  so  fine 
and  striking  an  effect  at  the  beginning  of  the 
"  working  out '  and  in  the  coda,  has  the  same 
basis ;  and  the  same  effect  is  obtained  by 
similar  means  here  and  there  in  the  Scherzo ; 
OS  for  instance  where  the  slightly  transformed 
version  of  the  principal  subject  is  introduced 
by  the  wind  in  the  Coda.     The  same  qualities 


are  frequently  noticeable  in  the  slow  movement 
and  again  in  the  coda  of  the  last  movement 
As  in  the  previous  symphony,  the  structure  is 
quite  in  accoi-dance  with  familiar   principles. 
If  anything,  the  work  errs  rather  on  the  side 
of  squareness  and  obviousness  in  the  outlines 
both  of  ideas  and  structure  ;  as  may  be  readily 
perceived  by  comparing  the  construction  of  the 
opening  tune  of  the  introduction  with  any  of 
Beethoven's  introductions  (either  that  of  the 
D  or  Bb  or  A  Symphonies,  or  his  overtures) : 
or  even  the  introduction  to  Mozart's  Prague 
Symphony.       And     the    impression     is    not 
lessened  by  the  obviousness  of  the  maimer  in 
which   the  succeeding  recitative  passages  for 
violins  are  introduced ;  nor  by  the  squareness 
and  tune-like  qualities  of  the  first  subject  of 
the  fijrst  movement,  nor  by  the  way  in  which 
the   square   tune    pattern  of   the   Scherzo  is 
reiterated.     In  the  manipulation  of  the  familiar 
distribution  of  periods  and  phrases,  however, 
he   used   a   certain   amount   of  consideration. 
For  example,  the  persistence  of  the  rhythmic 
figure  of  the  first  subject  of  the  first  allegro, 
in  the  inner  parts  of  the  second  section  of  that 
movement,  serves  very  good  purpose ;  and  the 
concluding  of  the  movement  with  the  melancholy 
tune  of  the  introduction  helps  both  the  senti- 
ment and  the  structural  effect.     The  scherzo  is 
far  the  best  and  most  characteristic  movement 
of  the  whole.     In  no  department  of  his  work 
was  Mendelssohn  so  thoroughly  at  home  ;  and 
the  obviousness  of  the  formal  outlines  is  less 
objectionable  in  a  movement  where  levity  and 
abandonment  to  gaiety  are  quite  the  order  of 
the  day.     The  present  Scherzo  has  also  certain 
very  definite  individualities  of  its  own.    It  is  a 
departure  from  the  *  Minuet  and  Trio'  fomi, 
as  it  has  no  break  or  strong  contrasting  portion 
in  the  middle,  and  is  continuous  bustle  and 
gaiety  from  beginnmg  to  end.     In  technical 
details  it  is  also  exceptionally  admirable.     The' 
orchestral  means  are  perfectly  suited  to  the  end, 
and  the  utterances  are  as  neat  and  effective  as 
they  could  well  be ;  while  the  perfect  way  in 
which  the  movement  finishes  off  is  delightful  to 
almost  every  one  who  has  any  sense  for  art.     The 
slow  movement  takes  up  the  sentimental  side 
of  the  matter,  and  is  in  its  way  a  good  example 
of  his  orchestral  style  in  that  respect.     The  last 
movement.  Allegro  vivacissimo,  is  restless  and 
impetuous,  and  the  tempo-mark  given  for  it  in 
the  Preface  to  the  work,   'Allegro  guerriero,' 
affords  a  clue  to  its  meaning.     But  it  evidently 
does  not  vitally  depend  upon  any  ideal  i>ro- 
gramme  in  the  least ;  neither  does  it  directly 
suggest  much,  except  in  the  curious  independent 
passage  with  which  it  concludes,  which  has  mor« 
of  the  savour  of  programme  about  it  than  any 
other  portion  of  the  w^ork,  and  is  scarcely  ex- 
plicable on  any  other  ground.     It  is  to  be  noticed 
that  directions  are  given  at  the  beginning  of  the 
work  to  have  the  movements  played  as  quickly 


SYMPHONY 


787 


.s  possible  after  one  another,  so  that  it  may  have 

iiore  or  leas  the  effect  of  being  one  piece.     Men- 

lelssohii's  only  other  symphonic  work  was  the 

L^obgesaiig,  a  sort  of  ecclesiastical  counterpart  of 

1  ieethoveii*s  ninth  Symphony.     In  this  of  course 

"the    programme  element  is  important,  and  is 

illustrated  by  the  calls  of  the  brass  instruments 

-a-iid  their  reiteration  with  much  effect  in  the 

olioral  part  of  the  work.    The  external  form,  as  in 

Beethoven's  ninth  Symphony,  is  that  of  the  three 

xisual  earlier  movements  (1)  Introduction  and 

Allegro,  (2)  Scherzo,  or  Minuet  and  Trio,  and 

-(^S)  Slow  Movement  (which  in  the  present  case 

liave   purposely  a  xnetistic  flavour),  with  the 

¥inale  ot  last  movement  supplanted  by  the  long 

vocal  part. 

The  consideration  of  these  works  shows  that 
though  Mendelssohn  often  adopted  the  appear- 
ance of  programme,  and  gained  some  advantages 
by  it,  he  never,  in  order  to  express  his  external 
ideas  with  more  poetical  consistency,  relaxed 
any  of  the  familiar  principles  of  structure  which 
are  regai-ded  as  orthodox.     He  was  in  fact  a 
thoroughgoing  classicist.     He  accepted  formulas 
with  i)erfect  equanimity,  and  aimed  at  resting 
the  value  of  his  works  upon  the  vivacity  of  his 
ideas  and  the  great  mastery  which  he  had  attained 
in  technical  expression,  and  clearness  and  cer- 
tainty of  orchestration.     It  was  not  in  his  dis- 
])08itiou  to  strike  out  a  new  path  for  himself. 
The   perfection  of  his  art  in  many  respects 
necessarily  appeals  to  all  who  have  an  apprecia- 
tion for  first-rate  craftsmanship  *,  but  the  standard 
of  his  ideas  is  rather  fitted  for  average  musical 
intelligences,  and  it  seems  natural  enough  that 
these  two  circumstances  should  have  combined 
successfully  to  obtain  for  him  an  extraordinary 
popularity.     He  may  fairly  be  said  to  present 
that  which  appeals  to  high  and  pure  sentiments 
ill  men,  and  calls  upon  the  average  of  them  to 
feel  at  their  best.     But  he  leads  them  neither 
into  the  depths  nor  the  heights  which  are  be- 
yond them  ;  and  is  hence  more  fitted  in  the  end 
to  please  than  to  elevate.     His  work  in  the 
department  of  Symphony  is  historically  slight. 
In  comparison  with  his  great  predecessors  he 
established  positively  nothing  new ;  and  if  he 
had  been  the  only  successor  to  Beethoven  and 
Schubert  it  would  certainly  have  to  be  confessed 
that  the  department  of  art  represented  by  the 
Symphony  was  at  a  standstill.     The  excellence 
of  his  orchestration,  the  clearness  of  his  form, 
and  tlie  accuracy  and  cleverness  with  which  he 
balanced  and   disposed  his  subjects  and   his 
modulations,  are  all  certain  and  unmistakable  ; 
but  all  these  things  had  been  attained  by  great 
masters  before  him,  and  he  himself  attained  them 
only  by  tlie  sacrifice  of  the  genuine  vital  force 
and  power  of  harmonic  motion  and  freedom  of 
form  in  the   ideas  themselves,   of  which  his 
predecessors  had  made  a  richer  manifestation, 
it  is  of  course  obvious  that  different  orders  of 
minds  require  different  kinds  of  artistic  food. 


and  the  world  would  not  be  well  served  without 
many  grades  and  standards  of  work.  Mendels- 
sohn ddd  good  service  in  supplying  a  form  of 
symphony  of  such  a  degree  of  freshness  and  light- 
ness as  to  appeal  at  once  to  a  class  of  people 
for  whom  the  sternness  and  x)ower  of  BeeUioven 
in  the  same  branch  of  art  would  often  be  too 
severe  a  test.  He  six)ke  also  in  the  spirit  of  his 
time,  and  in  harmony  with  it ;  and  as  illustra- 
tions of  the  work  of  the  j)eriod  in  one  aspect  his 
symphonies  will  be  among  the  safest  to  refer  to. 

Among  his  contemporaries  the  one  most 
natural  to  bracket  with  himis  Sterndale  Bennett, 
whose  views  of  art  were  extraordinarily  similar, 
and  who  was  actuated  in  many  respects  by  similai- 
impulses.  His  published  contribution  to  tlie 
de)>artment  we  are  considering  is  extremely 
slight.  The  symphony  which  he  produced  in 
1834  was  pi-actically  withdrawn  by  him,  and  the 
only  other  work  of  the  kind  which  he  allowed 
to  be  published  was  the  one  which  was  written 
for  the  Philharmonic  Society,  and  first  played 
in  1864.  The  work  is  slight,  and  it  is  recorded 
that  he  did  not  at  first  put  it  forward  as  a 
sjrmphouy.  It  had  originally  but  three  move- 
ments, one  of  which,  the  charming  minuet  and 
trio,  was  imported  from  the  Cambridge  Installa- 
tion Ode  of  1862.  A  slow  movement  called 
Romanze  was  added  afterwai-ds.  Stenidale 
Bennett  was  a  severe  classicist  in  his  views  about 
form  in  music,  and  the  present  symphony  does 
not  show  anything  sufficiently  marked  to  call  for 
record  in  that  respect.  It  is  singularly  quiet 
and  unpretentious,  and  characteristic  of  the 
composer,  showing  his  taste  and  delicacy  of 
sentiment  together  with  his  admirable  sense  of 
symmetry  and  his  feeling  for  tone  and  refined 
orchestral  effect. 

The  contemporaiy  of  Mendelssohn  and  Stem- 
dale  Bennett  who  shows  in  most  marked  contrast 
with  them  is  Robert  Schumann.  He  seems  to 
represent  the  opposite  pole  of  music  ;  for  as  they 
depended  upon  art  and  made  clear  technical 
workmanship  their  highest  aim,  Schumann  was 
in  many  respects  positively  dependent  upon  his 
emotion.  Not  only  was  his  natural  disposition 
Titterly  different  from  theirs,  but  so  M*as  his 
education.  Mendelssohn  and  Sterndale  Bennett 
went  through  severe  technical  drilling  in  their 
early  days.  Schumann  seems  to  have  developed 
his  technique  by  the  force  of  his  feelings,  and 
was  always  more  dejxindent  ujwn  them  in  the 
making  of  his  works  than  upon  general  prin- 
ciples and  external  stock  rules,  such  as  his  two 
contemporaries  were  satisfied  with.  The  case 
affords  an  excellent  musical  parallel  to  the 
common  circumstances  of  life  :  Mendelssohn  and 
Sterndale  Bennett  were  satisfied  to  accept  certain 
rules  because  they  knew  that  they  were  generally 
accepted  ;  whercas  Schumann  was  of  the  nature 
that  had  to  prove  all  things,  and  find  for  him- 
self that  which  was  good.  The  result  was,  as 
often  happens,  that  Schumann  affords  examplen 


of  technical  deficiencies,  and  not  a  few  things 
winch  his  contemporaries  had  reason  to  compare 
unfavourably  with  the  works  of  Mendelssohn 
and  Sterndfde  Bennett ;  but  in  the  end  his  best 
work  is  far  more  interesting,  far  more  deeply  felt, 
and  far  more  really  earnest  through  and  through 
than  theirs.  It  is  worth  observing  also  that  his 
feelings  towards  them  were  disinterested  admira- 
tion and  enthusiasm,  while  they  thought  very 
slightly  of  him.  They  were  also  the  successful 
composera  of  their  time,  and  at  the  head  of  their 
profession,  while  he  was  looked  upon  as  a  sort 
of  half  amateur,  part  mystic  and  part  incom- 
petent. Such  circumstances  as  these  have  no 
little  effect  upon  a  man's  artistic  development, 
and  drive  him  in  upon  his  own  resources.  Up 
to  a  certain  point  the  result  for  the  world  in 
this  instance  was  advantageous.  Schumann 
developed  altogether  his  own  method  of  educa- 
tion. He  began  with  songs  and  more  or  less 
small  pianoforte  pieces.  By  working  hard  in  these 
departments  he  developed  his  own  emotional 
language,  and  in  course  of  time,  but  relatively 
late  in  life  as  compared  with  most  other  com- 
posers, he  seemed  to  arrive  at  tlie  point  when 
experiment  on  the  scale  of  the  Symphony  was 
possible.  In  a  letter  to  a  friend  he  expi-essed 
his  feeling  that  the  pianoforte  was  becoming  too 
narrow  for  his  thoughts,  and  that  he  must  try 
orchestral  composition.  The  fruit  of  this  resolve 
was  the  Bb  Symphony  (op,  88),  which  was 
produced  at  Leipzig  in  1841,  and  was  probably 
his  first  important  orchestral  work.  It  is  quite 
extraordinary  how  successfully  he  grappled  with 
the  difficulties  of  the  greatest  style  of  composition 
at  the  first  attempt.  The  manner  is  thoroughly 
symphonic,  impressive  and  broad,  and  the  ideas 
are  more  genuinely  instrumental  both  in  form 
and  expression  than  Mendelssohn's,  and  fkr  more 
incisive  in  detail,  which  in  instrumental  music 
is  a  most  vital  matter.  Mendelssohn  had  great 
readiness  for  making  a  tune,  and  it  is  as  clear 
as  possible  that  when  he  went  about  to  make  a 
large  instrumental  work  his  first  thought  was 
to  find  a  good  tune  to  begin  upon.  Schumann 
seems  to  have  aimed  rather  at  a  definite  and 
strongly  marked  idea,  and  to  have  allowed  it  to 
govern  the  form  of  period  or  phrase  in  which  it 
was  presented.  In  this  he  was  radically  in  accord 
with  both  Mozart  and  Beethoven.  The  former 
in  his  instrumental  works  very  commonly  made 
what  is  called  the  principal  subject  out  of  two 
distinct  items,  which  seem  contrasted  externally 
in  certain  characteristics  and  yet  are  inevitable 
to  one  another.  Beethoven  fi-equently  satisfied 
himself  with  one  principal  one,  as  in  the  first 
movements  of  the  Eroica  and  the  C  minor ;  and 
even  where  there  are  two  more  or  less  distinct 
figures,  they  are  joined  very  closely  into  one 
phrase,  as  in  the  Pastoral,  the  No.  8,  and  the 
first  movement  of  the  Choral.  The  first  move- 
ment of  Schumann's  B^^  Symphony  shows  the 
same  characteristic.       The  movement    seems 


almost  to  depend  upon  the  simple  but  very 
definite  first  figure  quoted  on  p.  375a  which  is 
given  out  in  slow  time  in  the  Introduction,  and 
worked  up  as  by  a  mind  pondering  over  its 
possibilities,  finally  breaking  away  with  vigorous 
fi*eshness  and  confidence  in  the  '  Allegro  molto 
Vivace.'  The  whole  first  section  depends  upon 
the  development  of  this  figure ;  and  even  the 
horns,  which  have  the  last  utterances  before  the 
second  subject  appears,  continue  to  repeat  its 
rhythm  with  diminishing  force.  The  second 
subject  necessarily  presents  a  different  aspect 
altogether,  and  is  in  marked  contrast  to  the  first, 
but  it  similarly  depends  upon  the  clear  character 
of  the  short  figures  of  which  it  is  composed, 
and  its  gradual  work  up  from  the  quiet  ban- 
ning to  the  loud  climax,  ends  in  the  reappear- 
ance of  the  rhythmic  form  belonging  to  the 
principal  figure  of  the  movement  The  whole 
of  the  working-out  portion  depends  upon  the 
same  figure,  which  is  presented  in  various  aspects 
and  with  the  addition  of  new  features  and  ends 
in  a  climax  which  introduces  the  same  figure  iu 
a  slow  form,  very  emphatically,  corresponding 
to  the  statement  in  the  Introduction.  To  this 
climax  the  recapitulation  is  duly  welded  on. 
The  coda  again  makes  the  most  of  the  same 
figure,  in  yet  fresh  aspects.  The  latter  part  is 
to  all  intents  independent,  apparently  a  sort  of 
reflection  on  what  has  gone  before,  and  is  so  far 
in  definite  contrast  as  to  explain  itself.  The 
whole  movement  is  direct  and  simple  in  style, 
and,  for  Schumann,  singularly  bright  and  cheer- 
fuL  The  principles  upon  which  he  constructed 
and  used  his  principal  subjects  in  this  movement 
are  followed  in  the  first  movements  of  the  other 
symphonies  ;  most  of  all  in  the  D  minor  ;  clearly 
in  the  C  major;  and  least  in  the  E^,  which 
belongs  to  the  later  period  of  his  life.  But  even 
in  th^  last  he  aims  at  gaining  the  same  result, 
though  by  different  means  ;  and  the  subject  i& 
as  firee  as  any  from  the  tune-qualities  which 
destroy  the  complete  individuality  of  an  instru- 
mental subject  in  its  most  perfect  and  positive 
sense.  In  the  first  movement  of  the  D  minor 
he  even  went  so  far  as  to  make  some  important 
departures  from  the  usual  outlines  of  form,  which 
are  rendered  possible  chiefly  by  the  manner  in 
which  he  used  the  characteristic  figure  of  his 
principal  subject.  It  is  first  introduced  softly  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  Introduction,  and  gains 
force  quickly,  so  that  in  a  few  bars  it  breaks 
away  in  the  vigorous  and  passionate  allegro  in 
the  following  form — 


which  varies  in  the  course  of  the  movement  to 


SYMPHONY 


789 


^    one    or   other  of  these  forms  it  continues 
Lxnost  ceaselessly  throughout  the  whole  move- 
:k.ont,    either  as  actual   suhject  or  accompani- 
:k.eTit  ;  in   the  second  section  it  serves  in  the 
uLtter  capacity.     In  the  latter  part  of  the  work- 
1^^-oat  section  a  fresh  suhject  of  gentler  char- 
koter    is     introduced,    seeming    to    stem   and 
1  litigate    the    vehemence    expressed    by    the 
t»riiici|>al  figures  of  the  first  subject ;  from  the 
t^iine  this  new  subject  makes  its  appearance  there 
oontinues  a  sort  of  conflict  between  the  two ; 
tAxe  vehement  subject  constantly  breaking  in 
^vith  apparently  undiminished  fire,  and  seeming 
SLt,  times  to  have  the  upper  hand,  till  just  at 
"t-lie  end  the  m^jor  of  the  original  key  (D  minor) 
is  taken,  and  the  more  genial  subject  appears 
in  a  firm   and  more  determined  form,    as   if 
a.sserting  its  rights  over  the  wild  first  subject ; 
a.nd  thereupon,  when  the  latter  reappears,  it  is 
in  a  much  more  genial  character,  and  its  reitera- 
tion at  the  end  of  the  movement  gives  the 
impression  of  the  triumph  of  hope  and  trust 
in  good,  over  the  seeds  of  passion  and  despair. 
The  result  of  the  method  upon  which  the  move- 
ment is  developed  is  to  give  the  impression  of 
both  external  and  spiritual  form.     The  require- 
ments  of  key,   modulation,   and  subject  are 
fulfilled,   though,   from  the  point  of  view  of 
classical    orthodoxy,    with    unusual    freedom. 
The  spiritual  form, — the  expression  in  musical 
terms  of  a  type  of  mental  conflict,  so  depicted 
that  thinking  beings  can  perceive  the  sequence 
to  be  true  of  themselves — is  also  very  prominent, 
and  is  the  most  important  element  in  the  work, 
as  is  the  case  in  all  Schumann's  best  works  ; 
moreover  in  this  movement  every  thingis  strongly 
individual,  and  warm  with  real  musical  Hfe  in 
his  own  style ;  which  was  not  altogether  the 
case  with  the  first  movement  of  the  Bb.     In 
the  C  major  Symphony  (op.  61)  the  first  allegro 
is  ushered  in  by  a  slow  introduction  of  important 
and  striking  character,  containing,  like  those 
of  the  two  jost  mentioned,  anticipations  of  its 
principal  figures.       In    the    allegro   the   two 
principal  subjects    are    extremely    strong    in 
character,  and  the  consistent  way  in  which  the 
whole  movement  is  developed  upon  the  basis 
of  their  constituent  figures,  with  allusions  to 
those  of  the  introduction,  is  most  remarkable. 
Here  again  there  is  a  sort  of  conflict  between  the 
principal  ideas.     The  first  subject  is  just  stated 
twice  (the  second  time  with  certain  appropriate 
changes),  and  then  a  start  is  instantly  made  in 
the  Dominant  key,   with  new  figures  charac- 
teristic of  the   second   section  ;   transition   is 
made  to  flat  keys  and  back,  and  an  allusion  to 
the  first  subject  ends  the  first  half ;  but  all  is 
closely  consistent,  vigorous,  and  concise.     The 
development  portion  is  also  most  closely  worked 
upon  the  principal  subjects,  which  are  treated, 
as  it  seems,  exhaustively,  presenting  especially 
the  figures  of  the  second  subject  in  all  sorts  of 
lights,   and    with   freshness  and  warmth   of 


imagination,  and  variety  of  tone  and  character. 
The  recapitulation  is  preceded  by  allusions  to 
the  characteristic  features  of  the  introduction, 
considerably  tiansformed,  but  still  sufficiently 
recognisable  to  tell  their  tale.  The  coda  is 
made  by  fresh  treatment  of  the  figures  of  the 
principal  subjects  in  vigorous  and  brilliant 
development. 

The  Symphony  in  £{>  hasno  introduction,  and 
Schumann  seems  to  have  aimed  at  getting  his 
strong  effects  of  subject  in  this  case  by  means 
other  than  the  vigorous  and  clear  rhythmic  forms 
which  characterise  the  first  movements  of  the 
earlier  symphonies.  The  eflect  is  obtained  by 
syncopations  and  cross  rhythms,  which  alter- 
nately obscure  and  strengthen  the  principal 
beats  of  the  bar,  and  produce  an  effect  of 
wild  and  passionate  effort,  which  is  certainly 
striking,  though  not  so  immediately  intelligible 
as  the  rhythmic  forms  of  the  previous  sym- 
phonies. The  second  subject  is  in  strong  con- 
trast, having  a  more  gentle  and  appealing 
character  ;  but  it  is  almost  overwhelmed  by  tlie 
recurrence  of  the  syncopations  of  the  principal 
subject,  which  make  their  appearance  with  per- 
sistency in  the  second  as  in  the  first  section, 
having  in  that  respect  a  very  clear  poetical  or 
spiritual  meaning.  The  whole  development  of 
the  movement  is  again  consistent  and  impressive, 
though  not  so  fresh  as  in  the  other  symphonies. 
As  a  point  characteristic  of  Schumann,  the 
extreme  conciseness  of  the  first  section  of  the  first 
movement  in  the  Bb,  D  minor,  and  G  major 
Symphonies  is  to  be  noticed,  as  it  bears  strongly 
upon  the  cultivated  judgment  and  intelligence 
which  mark  his  treatment  of  this  great  instru- 
mental form.  The  first  half  is  treated  almost  as 
pure  exposition ;  the  working-out  having  logic- 
ally the  greater  part  of  interesting  development 
of  the  ideas.  Tlie  recapitulation  is  generally 
free,  and  in  the  D  minor  Symi)hony  is  practically 
supplanted  by  novel  methods  of  balancing  the 
structure  of  the  movement.  The  coda  either 
presents  new  features,  or  takes  fresh  aspects 
of  the  piincipal  ones,  enhanced  by  new  turns 
of  modulation,  and  ending  with  the  insistence 
on  the  primary  harmonies  of  the  principal  key, 
which  is  necessary  to  the  stability  of  the  move- 
ment. In  all  these  respects  Schumann  is  a 
most  worthy  successor  to  Beethoven.  He  re- 
presents his  intellectual  side  in  the  consistency 
with  which  he  develops  the  whole  movement 
from  a  few  principal  features,  and  the  freshness 
and  individuality  with  which  he  treats  the 
form  ;  and  he  shows  plenty  of  the  emotional 
and  spiritual  side  in  the  passionate  or  tender 
qualities  of  his  subjects,  and  the  way  in  which 
they  are  distributed  relatively  to  one  another. 
Schumann's  symphonic  slow  movements  have 
also  a  distinctive  character  of  their  own.  Though 
extremely  concise,  they  are  all  at  the  same  time 
rich  and  full  of  feeling.  They  are  somewhat  in 
the  fashion  of  a  '  Romanze,'  that  in  the  D  minor 


Symphony  being  definitely  80  called  ;  and  their 
development  depends  rather  upon  an  emotional 
than  an  intellectual  basis ;  as  it  seems  most  just 
that  a  slow  movement  should.  His  object 
appears  to  have  been  to  find  some  noble  and 
Aspiring  strain  of  melody,  and  to  contrast  it 
with  episodes  of  similar  character,  which  carry 
on  and  bear  upon  the  principal  idea  without 
diverting  the  chain  of  thought  into  a  different 
channel.  Hence  the  basis  of  the  movements  is 
radically  lyrical ;  and  this  affords  an  important 
element  of  contrast  to  the  first  movement,  in 
which  there  is  always  an  antithetical  element 
in  the  contrast  of  the  two  principal  subjects. 
The  romanze  of  the  D  minor  is  constructed  on 
a  different  principle  ;  the  sections  and  musical 
material  being  strongly  contrasted ;  this  may 
be  partly  owing  to  the  closeness  of  its  connec- 
tion with  other  parts  of  the  symphony,  as  will 
be  noticed  farther  on.  The  scherzos,  including 
that  in  the  *  Overture,  Scherzo,  and  Finale' 
(op.  52),  have  a  family  likeness  to  one  another, 
though  their  outlines  are  different ;  they  all 
illustrate  a  phase  of  musical  and  poetical 
development  in  their  earnest  character  and  the 
vein  of  sadness  which  pervades  them.  The 
light  and  graceful  gaiety  of  most  of  the  minuets 
of  Haydn  and  Mozart  is  scarcely  to  be  traced 
in  them  ;  but  its  place  is  taken  by  a  certain 
wild  rush  of  animal  spirits,  mixed  up  in  a  strange 
and  picturesque  way  with  expressions  of  tender- 
ness and  regret.  These  scherzos  are  in  a  sense 
unique  ;  for  though  following  in  the  same 
direction  as  Beethoven's  in  some  respects,  they 
have  but  little  of  his  sense  of  fun  and  grotesque, 
while  the  vein  of  genuine  melancholy  which 
pervades  them  certainly  finds  no  counterpart 
either  in  Spohr  or  Mendelssohn  ;  and,  if  it  may 
be  traced  in  Schubert,  it  is  still  in  comparison 
far  less  prominent.  In  fact  Schumann's  scherzos 
are  specially  curious  and  interesting,  even  apart 
from  the  ordinary  standpoint  of  a  musician,  as 
illustrating  a  phase  of  the  intellectual  progress 
of  the  race.  Schumann  belonged  to  the  order 
of  men  with  large  and  at  the  same  time  delicate 
sympathies,  whose  disposition  becomes  so  deeply 
impressed  with  the  misfortunes  and  unsolvable 
difficulties  which  beset  his  own  lot  and  that  of 
his  fellow-men,  that  pure  unmixed  lighthearted- 
ness  becomes  almost  imi>088ible.  The  poeti6al 
and  thoughtful  side  of  his  disposition,  which 
supplied  most  vital  ingredients  to  his  music, 
was  deeply  tinged  ^vith  sadness  ;  and  fram  this 
he  was  hardly  ever  entirely  free.  He  could 
wear  an  aspect  of  cheerfulness,  but  the  sadness 
was  sure  to  peep  out,  and  in  this,  among 
thoughtful  and  poetically  disposed  beings,  he 
cannot  be  looked  upon  as  singular.  Hence  the 
position  of  the  scherzo  in  modem  instnimental 
music  presents  certain  inevitable  difficulties. 
The  lively,,  almost  childish,  merriment  of  early 
examples  cannot  be  attained  without  jarring 
upon  the  feelings  of  earnest  men  ;  at  least  in 


works  on  such  a  scale  as  the  symphony,  where 
the  dignity  and  importance  of  the  form  inevit- 
ably produce  a  certain  sense  of  responsibility 
to  loftiness  of  purpose  in  the  carrying  out  of 
the  ideas.  A  movement  corresponding  to  the 
old  scherzo  in  its  relation  to  the  other  move- 
ments had  to  be  formed  upon  far  more  compli- 
cated conditions.  The  essential  point  in  which 
Schumann  followed  his  predecessors  was  the 
definition  of  the  balancing  and  contrasting 
sections.  The  outlines  of  certain  groups  of  bars 
are  nearly  always  very  strongly  marked,  and 
the  movement  as  a  whole  is  based  rather  upon 
effects  attainable  by  the  juxtaposition  of  such 
contrasting  sections  than  upon  the  continuous 
logical  or  emotional  development  which  is 
found  in  the  other  movements.  The  structural 
outline  of  the  old  dance-forms  is  still  recog- 
nisable in  this  respect,  but  the  style  and 
rhythm  bear  little  trace  of  the  dance  origin  ; 
or  at  least  the  dance  quality  has  been  so  far 
idealised  as  to  apply  rather  to  thought  and 
feeling  than  to  expressive  rhythmic  play  of 
limbs.  In  Schumann's  first  Symphony  the 
scherzo  has  some  qualities  of  style  which  con- 
nect it  with  the  minuets  of  earlier  times,  even 
of  Mozart ;  but  with  these  there  are  genuine 
characteristic  traits  of  expression.  In  the 
later  scherzos  the  poetical  meaning  seems  more 
apparent.  In  fact  the  scherzo  and  the  slow 
movement  are  linked  together  as  the  two  sec- 
tions of  the  work  most  closely  representative 
of  human  emotion  and  circumstance  ;  the  first 
and  last  movements  having  more  evident  de- 
pendence upon  what  are  called  abstract  qualities 
of  form.  In  its  structural  outlines  Schumann's 
scherzo  presents  certain  features.  In  the  Sym- 
phonies in  Bt^  and  C  he  adopts  the  device  of  two 
trios.  Beethoven  had  repeated  the  trio  in  two 
symphonies  (4th  and  7th),  and  Schumann  ad- 
vanced in  the  same  direction  by  writing  a  second 
trio  instead  of  repeating  the  first,  and  by  mak- 
ing the  two  trios  contrast  not  only  with  the 
scherzo,  but  also  with  each  other ;  and  as  a 
further  result  the  trios  stand  centrally  in  re- 
lation to  the  first  and  last  statement  of  the 
scherzo,  while  it  in  its  turn  stands  centrally 
between  them,  and  thus  the  whole  structure  of 
the  movement  gains  in  interest.  It  is  worthy 
of  note  that  the  codas  to  all  Schumann's  scherzos 
are  specially  interesting  and  full  ;  and  some 
of  them  are  singular  in  the  fact  that  they  form 
an  independent  little  section  conveying  its  own 
ideas  apart  from  those  of  the  principal  subjects. 
His  finales  are  less  remarkable  on  general 
grounds,  and  on  the  whole  less  interesting 
than  his  other  movements.  The  diflficulty  of 
conforming  to  the  old  type  of  light  movements 
was  even  more  severe  for  him  than  it  was  for 
Beethoven,  and  hence  he  was  the  more  con- 
strained to  follow  the  example  set  by  Beethoven 
of  concluding  with  something  weighty  and 
forcible,  which  should  make  a  fitting  cro\ni 


SYMPHONY 


791 


'tHe  ivork  in  those  respects,  rather  than 
tlie  principle  of  sending  the  audience  away 
fk  good  humour.  In  the  Bj^  Symphony 
^ly  does  the  last  movement  aim  at  gaiety  and 
gVktness  ;  in  the  other  three  symphonies  and 
:i.e  Overture,  Scherzo,  and  Finale  the  finales 
ire  all  of  the  same  type,  with  broad  and  simple 
\i.\>jects  and  strongly  emphasised  rhythms. 
riie  rondo  form  is  only  obscurely  hinted  at  in 
>xie  ;  in  the  others  the  development  is  very  free, 
b\it  based  on  binary  form  ;  and  the  style  of 
expression  and  development  is  purposely  devoid 
of  elaboration. 

Besides  the  x>oints  which  have  been  already 
ixientioned  in  the  development  of  the  individual 
movements,    Schumann's  work  is  conspicuous 
for  his  attempts  to  bind  the  whole  together  in 
various    ways.      Not  only  did   he  make   the 
movements  run  into  each  other,  but  in  several 
places   he   connects  them  by  reproducing  the 
ideas  of  one.  movement  in  others,  and  even  by 
vising  the  same  important  features  in  different 
gnlses  as  the  essential  basis  of  different  move- 
ments.     In  the  Symphony  in  C  there  are  some 
interesting  examples  of  this  ;  but  the  Symphony 
in  D  minor  is  the  most  remarkable  experiment 
of  the  kind  yet  produced,  and  may  be  taken  as 
a  fit  type  of  the  highest  order.     In  the  first 
place  all   the  movements  nin  into  each  other 
except  the  first  and  second ;  and  even  there 
the  first  movement  is  purposely  so  ended  as  to 
give  a  sense  of  incompleteness  unless  the  next 
movement  is  proceeded  with  at  once.     The  first 
subject  of  the  first  movement  and  the  first  of 
the  last  are  connected  by  a  strong  characteristic 
figure,  which  is  common  to  both  of  them.     The 
persistent  way  in  which  this  figure  is  used  in 
the  first  movement  has  already  been  described. 
It  is  not  maintained  to  the  same  extent  in  the 
last  movement ;  but  it  makes  a  strong  impres- 
sion in  its  place  there,  paitly  by  its  appear- 
ing conspicuously  in  the  accompaniment,  and 
partly  by  the  way  it  is  led  up  to  in  the  sort  of 
intermezzo  which  connects  the  scherzo  and  the 
last  movement,  where  it  seems  to  be  introduced 
at  first  as  a  sort  of  reminder  of  the  beginning 
of  the  work,  and  as  if  suggesting  the  clue  to  its 
meaning  and  purpose  ;  and  is  made  to  increase 
in  force  with  each  repetition  till  the  start  is 
made  with  the  finale.     In  the  same  manner 
the  introduction  is  connected  with  the  slow 
movement  or  romanze,  by  the  use  of  its  musical 
material  for  the  second  division  of  that  move- 
ment ;  and  the  figure  which  is  most  conspicuous 
in  the  middle  of  the  romanze  nms  all  through 
the  trio  of  the  succeeding  movement.     So  that 
the  series  of  movements  are  as  it  were  interlaced 
by  their  subject-matter  ;  and  the  result  is  that 
the  whole  gives  the  impression  of  a  single  and 
consistent  musical  poem.     The  way  in  which 
the  subjects  recur  may  suggest  different  ex- 
planations to  difierent  people,  and  hence  it  is 
dangerous  to  try  and  fix  one  in  definite  terms 


describing  particular  circumstances.  But  the 
important  fact  is  that  the  work  can  be  felt  to 
represent  in  its  entirety  the  history  of  a  series 
of  mental  or  emotional  conditions  such  as  may 
be  grouped  round  one  centre ;  in  other  words, 
the  group  of  impressions  which  go  to  make  the 
innermost  core  of  a  given  story  seems  to  be 
faithfully  expressed  in  musical  terms  and  in 
accordance  with  the  laws  which  are  indispens- 
able to  a  work  of  art.  The  conflict  of  impulses 
and  desires,  the  different  phases  of  thought  and 
emotion,  and  the  triumph  or  failure  of  the 
different  forces  which  seem  to  be  represented, 
all  give  the  impression  of  belonging  to  one 
personality,  and  of  being  perfectly  consistent 
in  their  relation  to  one  another ;  and  by  this 
means  a  very  high  example  of  all  that  most 
rightly  belongs  to  programme  music  is  presented. 
Schumann,  however,  wisely  gave  no  definite  clue 
to  fix  the  story  in  terms.  The  original  auto- 
graph has  the  title  '  Symphonische  Fantaisie 
fur  grosses  Orchester,  skizzirt  im  Jahre  1841  ; 
neu  instrumentirt  1851.'  In  the  published 
score  it  is  called  'Symphony,'  and  numbered 
as  the  fourth,  though  it  really  came  second. 
Schumann  left  several  similar  examples  in 
other  departments  of  instrumental  music,  but 
none  so  fully  and  carefully  carried  out.  In 
the  department  of  Symphony  he  never  again 
made  so  elaborate  an  experiment.  In  his  last, 
however,  that  in  Eb,  he  avowedly  worked  on 
impressions  which  supplied  him  with  something 
of  a  poetical  basis,  though  he  does  not  make 
use  of  characteristic  figures  and  subjects  to 
connect  the  movements  with  one  another.  The 
impressive  fourth  movement  is  one  of  the  most 
singular  in  the  range  of  symphonic  music,  and 
is  meant  to  express  the  feelings  produced  in 
him  by  the  ceremonial  at  the  enthronement  of 
a  Cardinal  in  Cologne  Cathedral.  The  last 
movement  has  been  said  to  embody  *  the  bustle 
and  flow  of  Rhenish  holiday  life,  on  coming 
out  into  the  town  after  the  conclusion  of  the 
ceremony  in  the  Cathedral. '  *  Of  the  intention 
of  the  scherzo  nothing  special  is  recorded,  but 
the  principal  subject  has  much  of  the  *  local 
colour '  of  the  German  national  dances. 

As  a  whole,  Schumann's  contributions  to  the 
department  of  Symphony  are  by  far  the  most 
important  since  Beethoven.  As  a  master  of 
orchestration  he  is  less  certain  than  his  fellows 
of  equal  standing.  There  are  passages  which 
rise  to  the  highest  points  of  beauty  and  effective- 
ness, as  in  the  slow  movement  of  the  C  major 
Symphony  ;  and  his  aim  to  balance  his  end 
and  his  means  was  of  the  highest,  and  the  way 
in  which  he  works  it  out  is  original ;  but  both 
the  bent  of  his  mind  and  his  education  inclined 
him  to  be  occasionally  less  pellucid  than  his 
predecessors,  and  to  give  his  instruments  things 
to  do  which  are  not  perfectly^  adapted  to  their 

>  For  Schumann's  Intention  see  Waslelenkl,  Srd  ed.,  pp.  2C0. 
Sf72. 


•792 


SYMPHONY 


idiosyncrasies.  On  the  other  hand,  in  vigour, 
richness,  poetry,  and  earnestness,  as  well  as  in 
the  balance  which  he  was  able  to  maintain 
between  originality  and  justness  of  art,  his 
works  stand  at  the  highest  point  among  the 
moderns  whose  work  is  done  ;  and  have  had 
great  and  lasting  effect  upon  his  successors. 

The  advanced  point  to  which  the  histoiy  of 
the  Symphony  has  arrived  is  shown  by  the  way 
in  which  composers  have  become  divided  into 
two  camps,  whose  characteristics  are  most  easily 
understood  in  their  extremest  representatives. 
The  growing  tendency  to  attach  positive  mean- 
ing to  music,  as  music,  has  in  course  of  time 
brought  about  a  new  position  of  affairs  in  the 
instrumental  branch  of  art  We  have  already 
pointed  out  how  the  strict  outlines  of  form  in 
instrumental  works  came  to  be  modified  by  the 
growing  individuality  of  the  subject.  As  long  as 
subjects  were  produced  upon  very  simple  lines, 
which  in  most  cases  resembled  one  another  in  all 
but  very  trifling  external  particulars,  there  was  no 
reason  why  the  structure  of  the  whole  movement 
should  grow  either  complex  or  individual.  But 
as  the  subject  (which  stands  in  many  cases  as 
a  sort  of  text)  came  to  expand  its  harmonic  out- 
lines and  to  gain  force  and  meaning,  it  reacted 
more  and  more  upon  the  form  of  the  whole  move- 
ment ;  and  at  the  same  time  the  musical  spirit 
of  the  whole,  as  distinguished  from  the  technical 
aspects  of  structure,  was  concentrated  and  unified, 
and  became  more  prominent  as  an  important 
constituent  of  the  artistic  ensemJbU,  In  many 
cases,  such  as  small  movements  of  a  lyrical  char- 
acter for  single  instruments,  the  so-called  classi- 
cal principles  of  form  were  almost  lost  sight  of, 
and  the  movement  was  left  to  depend  altogether 
upon  the  consistency  of  the  musical  expression 
throughout  Sometimes  these  movements  had 
names  suggesting  more  or  less  of  a  programme  ; 
but  this  was  not  by  any  means  invariable  or  neces- 
sary. For  in  such  cases  as  Chopin's  Preludes,  and 
some  of  Schumann's  little  movements,  there  is 
no  programme  given,  and  none  required  by  the 
listener.  The  movement  depends  successfully 
upon  the  meaning  which  the  music  has  sufficient 
character  of  its  own  to  convey.  In  such  cases  the 
art  form  is  still  thoroughly  pure,  and  depends  U(K)n 
the  development  of  music  as  music.  But  in  pro- 
cess of  time  a  new  position  beyond  this  has  been 
assumed.  Supposing  the  subjects  and  figures  of 
music  to  be  capable  of  expressing  something 
which  is  definite  enough  to  be  put  into  words, 
it  is  argued  that  the  classical  principles  of  struc- 
ture may  be  altogether  abandoned,  even  in  their 
broadest  outlines,  and  a  new  starting-point  for 
instrumental  music  attained,  on  the  principle  of 
following  the  circumstances  of  a  story,  or  the 
succession  of  emotions  connected  with  a  given 
idea,  or  the  flow  of  thought  suggested  by  the 
memory  of  a  placp  or  person  or  event  of  history, 
or  some  such  means  ;  and  that  this  would  serve 
as  a  basis  of  consistency  and  a  means  of  unify- 


ing the  whole,  without  the  common  resources 
of  tonal  or  harmonic  distribution.    The  story  or 
event  must  be  supposed  to  have  impressed  the 
composer  deeply,  and  the  reaction  to  be  an  oat- 
flow  of  music  expressing  the  poetical  imagining 
of  the  author  better  than  words  would  do.     lu 
some  senses  this  may  still  be  pure  art ;  where 
the  musical  idea  has  really  sufficient  vigour  and 
vitality  in  itself  to  be  appreciated  without  the 
help  of  the  external  excitement  of  the  imagina- 
tion which  is  attained  by  giving  it  a  local  habi- 
tation and  a  name.     For  then  the  musical  idea 
may  still  have  its  full  share  in  the  development 
of  the  work,  and  may  pervade  it  intrinsically  as 
music,  and  not  solely  as  representing  a  story 
or  series  of  emotions  which  are,  primarily,  ex- 
ternal to  the  music.     But  when  the  element 
of  realism  creeps  in,  or  the  ideas  depend  for  their 
interest  upon   their  connection  with  a  given 
programme,  the  case  is  different.    The  test  seems 
to  lie  in  the  attitude  of  mind  of  the  composer. 
If  the  story  or  programme  of  any  sort  is  merely 
a  secondary  matter  which  exerts  a  general  influ- 
ence upon  the  music,  while  the  attention  is  con- 
centrated upon  the  musical  material  itself  and 
its  legitimate  artistic  development,  the  advan- 
tages gained  can  hardly  be  questioned.     The 
principle  not  only  conforms  to  what  is  known  of 
the  practice  of  the  greatest  masters,  but  is  on 
abstract  grounds  pe^ectly  unassailable  ;  on  the 
other  hand,  if  the  programme  is  the  primary 
element,  upon  which  the  mind  of  the  composer 
is  principally  fixed,  and  by  means  of  which  the 
work  attains  a  specious  excuse  for  abnormal  de- 
velopment, independent  of  the  actual  musical 
sequence  of  ideas,  then  the  principle  is  open  to 
question,  and  may  lead  to  most  unsatisfactory 
results.     The  greatest  of  modem  programme 
composers  came  to  a  certain  extent  into  this 
position.     The  development  of  pure  abstract 
instrumental  music  seems  to  have  been  almost 
the  monopoly  of  the  German  race ;    French 
and  Italians  have  had  a  readier  disposition  for 
theatrical  and  at  best  dramatic  music.     Berlioz 
had  an  extraordinary  perception  of  the  possi- 
bilities of  instrumental  music,  and  appreciated 
the  greatest  works  of  the  kind  by  other  com- 
posers as  fully  as  the  best  of  his  contemporaries  ; 
but  it  was  not  his  own  natural  way  of  expressing 
himself.     His  natural  bent  was  always  towards 
the  dramatic  elements  of  effect  and  dramatic 
principles  of  treatment     It  seems  to  have  been 
necessary  to  him  to  find  some  moving  circum- 
stance to  guide  and  intensify  his  inspiration. 
When  his  mind  was  excited  in  such  a  manner 
he  produced  the  most  extraordinary  and  original 
effects ;    and  the   fluency  and  clearness  with 
which  he  expressed  himself  was  of  the  highest 
order.     His  genius  for  orchestration,  his  vigor- 
ous rhythms,  and   the  enormous  volumes  of 
sound  of  which  he  was  as  much  master  as  of  the 
most  delicate  subtleties  of  small  combinations 
of  instruments,  have  the  most  powerful  effect 


SYMPHONY 


793 


01:1  the  hearer  ;  while  hia  vivid  dramatic  per- 
p'tion   goes  very  far  to  supply  the  place  of 
e     intrinsically  musical  development  which 
>a.racterises  the  works  of  the  greatest  masters 
abstract  music.    But  on  the  other  hand,  as 
inevitable  from  the  position  he  adopted,  he 
CLs    forced   at  times  to  assume  a   theatiical 
ia.nner,   and  a  style  which  savours  rather  of 
tie  stage  than  of  the  true  dramatic  essence  of 
lie  situations  he  deals  with.     In  the   'Sym- 
tlionie    Fantastique/  for  instance,    which   he 
Aho  called  'Episode  de  la  Vie  d'un  Artiste,' 
lis  management  of  the  programme  principle  is 
;liorough  and  well-devised.     The  notion  of  the 
;<leal    object   of  the  artist's    affections    being 
represented  by  a  definite  musical  figure,  called 
the  *  id^  fixe,'  unifying  the  work  throughout 
by  its  constant  reappearance  in  various  aspects 
and  surroundings,  is  veiy  happy  ;  and  the  way 
in  which  he  treats  it  in  several  parts  of  the 
lirst  movement  has  some  of  the  characteristic 
qualities  of  the  best  kind  of  development  of 
ideas  and  figures,  in  the  purely  musical  sense  ; 
-while  at  the  same  time  he  has  obtained  most 
'  successfully    the    expression    of   the    implied 
sequence  of  emotions,  and  the  absorption  con- 
sequent upon  the  contemplation  of  the  beloved 
object.     In  the  general  laying  out  of  the  work 
'    he  maintains  certain  vague  resemblances  to  the 
^     usual  symphonic  type.     The  slow  introduction, 
and  the  succeeding  Allegro  agitato — represent- 
ing his  passion,  and  therefore  based  to  a  very 
great  extent  on  the  *  id^  fixe ' — are  equivalent 
to   the   fiimiliar   opening   movements    of  the 
classical  symphonies ;  and  moreover  there  is 
even  a  vague  resemblance  in  the  inner  structure 
of  the  Allegro  to  the  binary  form.     The  second 
movement,  called  *  Un  bal,'  corresponds  in  posi- 
tion to  the  time-honoured  minuet  and  tiio ; 
and  though  the  broad  outlines  are  very  free 
there  is  a  certain  suggestion  of  the  old  inner 
form  in  the  relative  disposition  of  the  valse 
section  and  that  devoted   to  the   *id^  fixe.' 
In  the  same  way   the    'Sc^ne  aux  Champs' 
corresponds  to  the  usual  slow  movement.     In 
the   remaining    movements    the     programme 
element  is  more  conspicuous.     A  'Marche  au 
supplice '  and  a  *  Songe  d'nne  nuit  de  Sabbat ' 
are  both  of  them  as  fit  as  possible  to  excite  the 
composer's  love   of    picturesque   and    terrible 
effects,  and  to  lead  him  to  attempt  realistic 
presentation,  or  even  a  sort  of  musical  scene- 
painting,  in  which  some  of  the  characteristics 
of  instrumental  music  are  present,  though  they 
are  submerged  in  the  general   impression  by 
characteristics  of  the  opera.     The  effect  pro- 
duced is  of  much  the  same  nature  as  of  that  of 
passages  selected  from  operas  played  without 
action  in  the  concert -room.      In  fact,  in  his 
little  preface,  Berlioz  seems  to  imply  that  this 
would  be  a  just  way  to  consider  the  work,  and 
the  condensed  statement  of  his  view  of  pro- 
gramme music  there  given  is  worth  quoting : 


*  Le  compositeur  a  eu  pour  but  de  developper, 
dans  ce  qu'eUes  ont  de  musical,  diff^rentes 
situations  de  la  vie  d'un  artiste.  Le  plan  du 
drame  instrumental,  priv6  du  secours  de  la 
parole,  a  besoin  d'etre  expos^  d'avance.  Le 
programme  (qui  est  indispensable  k  I'intelligence 
complete  du  plan  dramatique  de  I'ouvrage)  doit 
done  Stre  consider^  comme  le  texte  parl4  d'un 
Opera,  servant  k  amener  des  morceaux  de 
musique,  dont  il  motive  le  caract^re  et  I'expres- 
sion.'^  This  is  a  very  important  and  clear 
statement  of  the  position,  and  marks  sufficiently 
the  essential  difference  between  the  principles 
of  the  most  advanced  writers  of  programme 
music  and  those  adopted  by  Beethoven.  The 
results  are  in  fact  different  forms  of  art.  An 
instrumental  drama  is  a  fascinating  idea,  and 
might  be  carried  out  perfectly  within  the  limits 
used  even  by  Mozart  and  Haydn ;  but  if  the 
programme  is  indispensable  to  its  comprehension 
those  limits  have  been  passed.  This  does  not 
necessarily  make  the  foim  of  art  an  illegitimate 
one  ;  but  it  is  most  important  to  realise  that  it 
is  on  quite  a  different  basis  from  the  type  of 
the  instrumental  symphony ;  and  this  will  be 
better  understood  by  comparing  Berlioz's  state- 
ment with  those  Symphonies  of  Beethoven  and 
Mendelssohn,  or  even  of  Baffand  Rubinstein, 
where  the  adoption  of  a  general  and  vague  title 
gives  the  semblance  of  a  similar  use  of  pro- 
gramme. Beethoven  liked  to  have  a  picture  or 
scene  or  circumstance  in  hia  mind ;  ^  but  it 
makes  all  the  difference  to  the  form  of  art 
whether  the  picture  or  story  is  the  guiding 
principle  in  the  development  of  the  piece,  or 
whether  the  development  follows  the  natural 
implication  of  the  positively  musical  idea.  The 
mere  occurrence,  in  one  of  these  forms,  of  a 
feature  which  is  characteristic  of  the  other,  is 
not  sufficient  to  bridge  over  the  distance  between 
them  ;  and  hence  the  *  instrumental  drama '  or 
poem,  of  which  Berlioz  has  given  the  world  its 
finest  examples,  must  be  regarded  as  distinct 
from  the  regular  type  of  the  pure  instrumental 
symphony.  It  might  perhaps  be  fiiirly  regarded 
as  the  Celtic  counterpart  of  the  essentially 
Teutonic  form  of  art,  and  as  an  expression  of 
the  Italo-Gallic  ideas  of  instrumental  music  on 
lines  parallel  to  the  German  symphony  ;  but  in 
reality  it  is  scarcely  even  an  offshoot  of  the  old 
symphonic  stem  ;  and  it  will  be  far  better  for 
the  understanding  of  the  subject  if  the  two 
forms  of  art  are  kept  as  distinct  in  name  as 
they  are  in  principle. 

The  earliest  and  most  eminent  follower  of  Ber- 
lioz, working  on  similar  lines  to  his  in  modem 

1 '  The  composer  haa  aimed  at  developing  varloua  aituationa  in  the 
life  of  au  artist,  «o  far  aa  aeemed  mnalcally  pomible.  The  plan  of 
an  iiutrumental  draina.  being  without  words,  requirea  to  be 
explained  beforehand.  The  programine  (which  la  indispenBable  to 
the  perfect  comprehenaion  of  the  dramatic  plan  of  the  work)  ought 
therefore  to  be  considered  in  the  livht  of  the  spoken  text  of  au 
Opera,  serving  to  lead  up  to  the  pieces  of  music,  and  indicate  the 
character  and  expression.' 

>  This  Important  admission  was  made  by  Beethoven  to  Ncate : 
'  I  have  always  a  picture  in  my  thoughts  when  I  am  oomposlng, 
and  work  to  It.'    (Thayer,  Hi.  S43.) 


794 


SYMPHONY 


times,  is  Liszt ;  and  his  adoption  of  the  name 
'  Symphonic  poem '  for  such  compositions  suffi- 
ciently defines  their  nature  without  bringing 
them  exactly  under  the  head  of  symphonies.  Of 
these  there  are  many,  constnicted  on  absolutely 
independent  lines,  so  as  to  appear  as  musical 
|x>ems  or  counterparts  of  actual  existing  poems, 
on  such  subjects  as  Mazeppa,  Prometheus, 
Orpheus,  the  battle  of  the  Huns,  the  *  Preludes  * 
of  Lamartine,  Hamlet,  and  so  forth.  A  work 
which,  in  name  at  least,  trenches  upon  the  old 
lines  is  the  *  Faust  Symphony,'  in  which  the  con- 
nection with  the  programme-principle  of  Berlioz 
is  emphasised  by  the  dedication  of  the  piece  to 
him.  In  this  work  the  connection  with  the  old 
form  of  symphony  is  perhaps  even  less  than  in 
the  examples  of  Berlioz.  Subjects  and  figures 
are  used  not  for  the  purpose^  of  defining  the 
artistic  form,  but  to  describe  individuals,  ideas, 
or  circumstances.  The  main  divisions  of  the 
work  are   ostensibly  three,   which   are   called 

*  character -pictures'  of  Faust,  Margaret,  and 
Mephistopheles  severally ;  and  the  whole  con- 
cludes with  a  setting  of  the  *  Chorus  mysticus.* 
Figures  are  used  after  the  manner  of  Wagner's 

*  Leit-motiven '  to  portray  graphically  such  things 
as  bewildered  inquiry,  anxious  agitation,  love, 
and  mockery,  besides  the  special  figure  or  melody 
given  for  each  individual  as  a  whole.  These  are 
so  interwoven  and  developed  by  modifications 
and  transformations  suited  to  express  the  circum- 
stances, as  to  present  the  speculations  of  the 
composer  on  the  character  and  the  philosophy 
of  the  poem  in  various  interesting  lights  ;  and 
his  great  mastery  of  orchestral  expression  and 
fluency  of  style  contribute  to  its  artistic  import- 
ance on  its  own  basis ;  while  in  general  the 
treatment  of  the  subject  is  more  psychological 
and  less  pictorially  realistic  than  the  prominent 
portions  of  Berlioz's  work,  and  therefore  slightly 
nearer  in  spirit  to  the  classical  models.  But 
with  all  its  striking  characteristics  and  successful 
points  the  music  does  not  approach  Berlioz  in 
vitality  or  breadth  of  musical  idea. 

The  few  remaining  modern  composers  of  sym- 
phonies belong  essentially  to  the  German  school, 
even  when  adopting  the  general  advantage  of 
a  vague  title.  Prominent  among  these  are  Raff 
and  Rubinstein,  whose  methods  of  dealing  with 
instrumental  music  are  at  bottom  closely  related. 
Ratr  almost  invariably  adopted  a  title  for  his 
instrumental  works ;  but  those  which  he  selected 
admit  of  the  same  kind  of  general  interpretation 
as  those  of  Mendelssohn,  and  serve  rather  as  a 
means  of  unifying  the  general  tone  and  style  of 
the  work  than  of  pointing  out  the  lines  of  actual 
development.  The  several  Seasons,  for  instance, 
serve  as  the  general  idea  for  a  symphony  each. 
Another  is  called  *  Im  Walde.'  In  another 
several  conditions  in  the  progress  of  the  life  of  a 
man  serve  as  a  vague  basis  for  giving  a  certain 
consistency  of  character  to  thestyle  of  expression, 
in  a  way  quite  consonant  with  the  pure  type.  In 


one  case  Raff  comes  nearer  to  the  Berlioz  ideal, 
namely  in  the  Lenore  Symphony,  in  some  parts 
of  which  he  clearly  attempts  to  depict  a  suc- 
cession of  events.  But  even  when  this  is  most 
pronounced,  as  in  the  latter  part  of  the  work, 
there  is  very  little  that  is  not  perfectly  intel- 
ligible and  appreciable  as  music  without  re- 
ference to  the  poem.  As  a  matter  of  fact  Raff 
is  always  rather  free  and  relaxed  in  his  form  ; 
but  that  is  not  owing  to  his  adoption  of  pi*o- 
gramme,  since  the  same  characteristic  is  observ- 
able in  works  that  have  no  name  as  in  those  that 
have.  The  ease  and  speed  with  which  he  wrote, 
and  the  readiness  with  which  he  could  call  up  a 
certain  kind  of  genial,  and  often  very  attractive 
ideas,  both  interfered  with  the  concentration 
necessary  for  developing  a  closely-knit  and  com- 
pact work  of  art.  His  ideas  are  clearly  defined 
and  very  intelligible,  and  have  much  poetical 
sentiment ;  and  these  facts,  together  with  a  very 
notable  mastery  of  orchestral  resource  and  feeling 
for  colour,  have  ensured  his  works  great  success ; 
but  there  is  too  little  self-restraint  and  concentra- 
tion both  in  the  general  outline  and  in  the  state- 
ment of  details,  and  too  little  self-criticism  in  the 
choice  of  subject-matter,  to  admit  the  works  to 
the  highest  rank  among  symphonies.  In  the 
broadest  outlines  he  generally  conformed  to  the 
principles  of  the  earlier  masters,  distributing  hia 
allegros,  slow  movements,  scherzos,  and  finales, 
according  to  precedent.  And,  allowing  for  the 
laxity  above  referred  to,  the  models  which  he 
followed  in  the  internal  structure  of  the  move- 
ments are  the  familiar  ty|)es  of  Haydn,  Mozart, 
and  Beethoven.  His  finales  are  usually  the  most 
irregular,  attimesamounting  almost  to  fantasias ; 
but  even  this,  as  already  described,  is  in  con- 
formity ^ith  tendencies  which  are  noticeable 
even  in  the  golden  age  of  symphonic  art  Taken 
as  a  whole,  Rafl*s  work  in  the  department  of 
symphony  is  the  best  representative  of  a  charac- 
teristic class  of  composition  of  modem  times — 
the  class  in  which  the  actual  ideas  and  general 
colour  and  sentiment  are  nearly  everything, 
while  their  development  and  the  value  of  the 
artistic  side  of  structure  are  reduced  to  a 
minimum. 

Rubinstein's  works  are  conspicuous  examples 
of  the  same  class  ;  but  the  absence  of  concentra- 
tion, self-criticism  in  the  choice  of  subjects,  and 
care  in  statement  of  details,  is  even  more  con- 
spicuous in  him  than  in  Raff.  His  most  im- 
portant symphonic  work  is  called  *  The  Ocean  ' 
— the  general  title  serving,  as  in  Raffs  sym- 
phonies, to  give  unity  to  the  sentiment  and  tone 
of  the  whole,  rather  than  as  a  definite  programme 
to  work  to.  In  this,  as  in  Raff,  there  is  much 
spontaneity  in  the  invention  of  subjects,  and  in 
some  cases  a  higher  point  of  real  beauty  and 
force  is  reached  than  in  that  composer's  works ; 
and  there  is  also  a  good  deal  of  striking  interest 
in  the  details.  The  most  noticeable  external 
feature  is  the  fact  that  the  symphony  is  in  six 


SYMPHONY 


795 


movements.  There  was  originally  the  familiar 
group  of  four,  and  to  these  were  added,  some 
years  later,  an  additional  slow  movement,  which 
stands  second,  and  a  further  genuine  scherzo, 
which  stands  fifth,  both  movements  being  de- 
vised in  contrast  to  the  previously  written 
adagio  and  scherzo.  Another  symphony  of 
Rubinstein's,  showing  much  vigour  and  origin- 
ality, and  some  careful  and  intelligent  treatment 
of  subject,  is  the  *  Dramatic'  This  is  in  the 
usual  four  movements,  with  well-devised  intro- 
ductions to  the  first  and  last.  The  work  as  a 
whole  is  hampered  by  excessive  and  unnecessary 
length,  which  is  not  the  result  of  the  possi- 
bilities of  the  subjects  or  the  necessities  of 
their  development ;  and  might  be  reduced  with 
nothing  but  absolute  advantage. 

The  greatest  representative  of  the  highest  art 
in  the  department  of  Symphony  is  Johannes 
Brahms.  His  four  examples  *  have  that  mark 
of  intensity,  loftiness  of  purpose,  and  artistic 
mastery  which  sets  them  above  all  other  con- 
temporary work  of  the  kind.  Like  Beethoven 
and  Schumann  he  did  not  produce  a  symphony 
till  a  late  period  in  his  career,  when  his  judg- 
ment was  matured  by  much  practice  in  other 
kindred  forms  of  instrumental  composition, 
such  as  pianoforte  quartets,  string  sextets  and 
quartets,  sonatas,  and  such  forms  of  orchestral 
composition  as  variations  and  two  serenades. 
He  seems  to  have  set  himself  to  prove  that  the 
old  principles  of  form  are  still  capable  of  serving 
as  the  basis  of  works  which  should  be  thoroughly 
original  both  in  general  character  and  in  detail 
and  development,  without  either  falling  back 
on  the  device  of  programme,  or  abrogating  or 
making  any  positive  change  in  the  principles, 
or  abandoning  the  loftiness  of  style  which  befits 
the  highest  form  of  art ;  but  by  legitimate 
expansion,  and  application  of  careful  thought 
and  musical  contrivance  to  the  development. 
In  all  these  respects  he  is  a  thorough  descendant 
of  Beethoven,  and  illustrates  the  highest  and 
best  way  in  which  the  tendencies  of  the  age  in 
instrumental  music  may  yet  be  expressed.  He 
difiera  most  markedly  from  the  class  of  composers 
represented  by  Raff,  in  the  fact  thathis  treatment 
of  form  is  an  easential  and  important  element 
in  the  artistic  effect.  The  care  with  which  he 
develops  it  is  not  more  remarkable  than  the 
insight  shown  in  all  the  possible  ways  of  enrich- 
ing it  without  weakening  its  consistency.  In 
appearance  it  is  extremely  free,  and  at  available 
points  all  possible  use  is  made  of  novel  effects 
of  transition  and  ingenious  harmonic  subtleties  ; 
but  these  are  ased  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  dis- 
turb the  balance  of  the  whole,  or  to  lead  either 
to  discursiveness  or  tautology.  In  the  laying 
out  of  the  principal  sections  as  much  freedom 
is  used  as  is  consistent  with  the  possibility  of 
being  readily  followed  and  understood.  Thus 
in  the  recapitulatory  portion  of  a  movement 

1  CS«e  below  m  to  the  third  uid  touTth.] 


the  subjects  which  characterise  the  sections  are 
not  only  subjected  to  considerable  and  interesting 
variation,  but  are  often  much  condensed  and 
transformed.  In  the  first  movement  of  the 
second  symphony,  for  instance,  the  recapitula- 
tion of  the  first  part  of  the  movement  is  so 
welded  on  to  the  working-out  portion  that  the 
hearer  is  only  happily  conscious  that  this  point 
has  been  arrived  at  without  the  usual  insistence 
to  call  his  attention  to  it.  Again,  the  subjects 
are  so  ingeniously  varied  and  transformed  in 
restatement  that  they  seem  almost  new,  though 
the  broad  melodic  outlines  give  sufficient  assur- 
ance of  their  representing  the  recapitulation. 
The  same  effect  is  obtained  in  parts  of  the 
allcgrettos  which  occupy  the  place  of  scherzos 
in  both  symphonies.  The  old  type  of  minuet 
and  trio  form  is  felt  to  underlie  the  well-woven 
t«xture  of  the  whole,  but  the  way  in  which  the 
joints  and  seams  are  made  often  escapes  observa- 
tion. Thus  in  the  final  return  to  the  principal 
section  in  the  Allegretto  of  the  second  Symphony, 
which  is  in  G  major,  the  subject  seems  to  make 
its  appearance  in  F%  major,  which  serves  as  domi- 
nant to  B  minor,  and  going  that  way  round  the 
subject  glides  into  the  principal  key  almost  insen- 
sibly. 2  In  the  Allegretto  of  the  Symphony  in  0 
minor  the  outline  of  a  characteristic  feature  is  all 
that  is  retained  in  the  final  return  of  the  princi- 
*pal  subject  near  the  end,  and  new  effect  is  gained 
by  giving  a  fresh  turn  to  the  harmony.  Similar 
closeness  of  texture  is  found  in  the  slow  move- 
ment of  the  same  symphony,  at  the  point  where 
the  principal  subject  returns,  and  the  richness 
of  the  variation  to  which  it  is  subjected  enhances 
the  musical  impression.  The  efi*ect  of  these 
devices  is  to  give  additional  unity  and  consist- 
ency to  the  movements.  Enough  is  given  to 
enable  the  intelligent  hearer  to  understand  the 
form  without  its  appearing  in  aspects  with  which 
he  is  already  too  familiar.  Similar  thorough- 
ness is  to  be  found  on  the  other  sides  of  the 
matter.  In  the  development  of  the  sections, 
for  instance,  all  signs  of  *  padding*  are  done 
away  with  as  much  as  possible,  and  the  interest 
is  sustained  by  developing  at  once  such  figurq^ 
of  the  principal  subjects  as  will  serve  mos^ 
suitably.  Even  such  points  as  necessary  equiva- 
lents to  cadences,  or  pauses  on  the  dominant, 
are  by  this  means  infused  with  positive  musical 
interest  in  just  proportion  to  their  subordinate 
relations  to  the  actual  subjects.  Similarly,  in 
the  treatment  of  the  orchestra,  such  a  thing  as 
filling  up  is  avoided  to  the  utmost  possible  ;  and 
in  order  to  escape  the  over-complexity  of  detail 
so  unsuitable  to  the  symphonic  form  of  art,  the 
forces  of  the  orchestra  are  grouped  in  masses  in 
the  principal  characteristic  figures,  in  such  a  way 
that  the  whole  texture  is  endowed  with  vitality. 
The  impression  so  conveyed  to  some  is  that 
the  orchestration  is  not  at  such  a  high  level  of 

*  For  ftconnterpArt  to  thia  m^  the  ftnt  movement  of  Beethoven  i 
pianoforte  Sonata  In  F,  op.  10.  No.  2. 


796 


SYMPHONY 


perfection  as  the  other  elements  of  art ;  and 
certainly  the  composer  does  not  aim  at  subtle 
combinations  of  tone  and  captivating  effects  of 
a  sensual  kind  so  much  as  many  other  great 
composers  of  modern  times ;  and  if  too  much 
attention  is  concentrated  upon  the  special  element 
of  his  orchestration  it  may  doubtless  seem  at 
times  rough  and  coarse.  But  this  element  must 
only  be  considered  in  its  relation  to  all  the 
otliers,  since  the  composer  may  reasonably  dis- 
pense with  some  orchestral  fascinations  in  order 
to  get  broad  masses  of  harmony  and  strong 
outlines  ;  and  if  he  seeks  to  express  his  musical 
ideas  by  means  of  sound,  rather  than  to  disguise 
the  absence  of  them  by  seductive  misuse  of  it, 
the  world  is  a  gainer.  In  the  putting  forward 
and  management  of  actual  subjects,  he  is  guided 
by  what  appears  to  be  inherent  fitness  to  the  occa- 
sion. In  the  first  movement  of  the  Symphony 
in  G  minor,  attention  is  mainly  concentrated 
upon  one  strong  subject  figure,  which  appears 
in  both  the  principal  sections  and  acts  as  a 
centre  upon  which  the  rest  of  the  musical 
materials  are  grouped  ;  and  the  result  is  to  unify 
the  impression  of  the  whole  movement,  and  to 
give  it  a  special  sentiment  in  an  unusual  degree. 
In  the  first  movement  of  the  Symphony  in  D 
there  are  even  several  subjects  in  each  section, 
but  they  are  so  interwoven  with  one  another, 
and  seem  so  to  fit  and  illustrate  one  another,* 
that  for  the  most  part  there  appears  to  be  but 
little  loss  of  direct  continuity.  In  several  cases 
we  meet  with  the  devices  of  transforming  and 
transfiguring  an  idea.  The  most  obvious  instance 
is  in  the  Allegretto  of  the  symphony  in  D,  in 
which  the  first  Trio  in  2-4  time  (a)  is  radically 
the  same  subject  as  that  of  the  principal  section 
in  3-4  time  (&),  but  very  differently  stated. 
Then  a  very  important  item  in  the  second  Trio 
is  a  version  in  3-8  time  (c)  of  a  figure  of  the 
first  Trio  in  2-4  time  (rf). 


Of  similar  nature,  in  the  Symphony  in  C  minor, 
are  the  suggestions  of  important  features  of 
subjects  and  figures  of  the  first  Allegro  in  the 
opening  introduction,  and  the  connection  of  the 
last  movement  with  its  own  introduction  by 
the  same  means.     In  all  these  respects  Brahms 


illustrates  the  highest  manifestations  of  actual 
art  as  art ;  attaining  his  end  by  extraoi-dinary 
mastery  of  both  development  and  expression. 
And  it  is  most  notable  that  the  great  impression 
which  lus  larger  works  produce  is  gained  more 
by  the  effect  of  the  entire  movements  than  by 
the  attractiveness  of  the  subjects.  He  does  not 
seem  to  aim  at  making  his  subjects  the  test  of 
success.  They  are  hardly  seen  to  have  their  full 
meaning  till  they  are  developed  and  expatiated 
upon  in  the  course  of  the  movement,  and  the 
musical  impression  does  not  depend  upon  them 
to  anything  like  the  proportionate  degree  that 
it  did  in  the  works  of  the  earlier  masters.  This 
is  in  conformity  with  the  principles  of  progress 
which  have  been  indicated  above.  The  various 
elements  of  which  tlie  art- form  consists  seem 
to  have  been  brought  more  and  more  to  a  fair 
balance  of  functions,  and  this  has  necessitated  a 
certain  amount  of  *give  and  take '  between  them. 
If  too  much  stress  is  laid  upon  one  element  at 
the  expense  of  others,  the  i)erfection  of  the  art- 
form  as  a  whole  is  diminished  thereby.  If  the 
effects  of  orchestration  are  emphasised  at  the 
expense  of  the  ideas  and  vitality  of  the  figures, 
the  work  may  gain  in  immediate  attractiveness, 
but  must  lose  in  substantial  worth.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  over-predominance  of  subject- 
matter.  The  subjects  need  to  be  noble  and  well 
marked,  but  if  the  movement  is  to  be  perfectly 
complete,  and  to  express  something  in  its  entirety 
and  not  as  a  string  of  tunes,  it  will  be  a  draw- 
back if  the  mere  faculty  for  inventing  a  striking 
figure  or  passage  of  melody  preponderates  exces- 
sively over  the  pow^er  of  development ;  and  the 
proportion  in  which  they  are  both  carried  upwards 
together  to  the  highest  limit  of  musical  effect 
is  a  great  test  of  the  artistic  perfection  of  the 
work.  In  these  respects  Brahms's  Symphonies 
are  extraordinarily  successful.  They  represent 
the  austerest  and  noblest  form  of  art  in  the 
strongest  and  healthiest  way  ;  and  his  manner 
and  methods  have  already  had  some  influence 
upon  the  younger  and  more  serious  composers  of 
the  day.  [The  third  and  fourth  symphonies  of 
Brahms  more  than  fulfil  the  expectations  raised 
by  the  first  two,  here  reviewed.  The  third,  in 
F,  op.  90,  is  given  remarkable  unity  by  the  use, 
before  the  first  subject  of  the  opening  movement, 
of  a  kind  of  motto-theme  which  reappears  in  the 
finale  unaltered,  and  plays  no  insignificant  ^mrt 
in  the  slow  movement.  The  first  subject  of  the 
opening  section,  too,  recurs  at  the  very  end  in 
the  form  of  a  subtle  allusion  in  the  violins  as 
their  tremolando  passages  descend  to  the  last 
chords.  The  poco  allegrcUo  of  this  symphony 
is  one  of  Brahms's  most  individual  inspirations, 
one  which  for  plaintive  grace  and  delicate  ex- 
pression has  not  its  feilow  in  music.  The  fourth 
symphony  in  £  minor,  op.  98,  is  a  masterpiece 
of  thematic  development,  and  is  remarkable  for 
the  adoption  of  the  Passacaglia  form  for  tlie 
finale.] 


SYMPHONY  CONCERTS 


SYMPHONY  CONCERTS       797 


It  would  be  invidious,  however,  to  endeavour 
to  point  out  as  yet  those  in  whose  works  his 
influence  is  most  strongly  shown.  It  must  suf- 
fice to  record  that  there  are  still  many  younger 
composers  who  are  able  to  pass  the  symphonic 
ordeal  with  some  success.  Among  the  most 
successful  are  the  Bohemian  composer  Dvorak, 
and  the  Italians  Sgambati  and  Martucci ;  and 
among  English  works  may  be  mentioned  with 
much  satisfaction  the  Scandinavian  Symphony 
of  Cowen,  which  was  original  and  picturesque 
in  thought  and  treatment ;  the  Elegiac  Sym- 
phony of  Stanford,  in  which  excellent  workman- 
ship, vivacity  of  ideas,and  fluency  of  development 
combine  to  establish  it  as  an  admirable  example 
of  its  class  ;  and  an  early  symphony  by  Sullivan, 
which  had  such  marks  of  excellence  as  to  show 
how  much  art  might  have  gained  if  circum- 
stances had  not  drawn  him  to  more  lucrative 
branches  of  composition.  It  is  obvious  that 
composers  have  not  given  up  hopes  of  developing 
something  individual  and  complete  in  this  form 
of  art.  It  is  not  likely  that  many  will  be  able 
to  follow  Brahms  in  his  severe  and  uncom- 
promising methods  ;  but  he  himself  has  shown 
more  than  any  one  how  elastic  the  old  principles 
may  yet  be  made  without  departing  from  the 
genuine  type  of  abstract  instrumental  music ; 
and  that  when  there  is  room  for  individual  expres- 
sion there  is  still  good  work  to  be  done,  though 
we  can  hardly  hope  that  even  the  greatest  com- 
posers  of  the  future  will  surpass  the  symphonic 
triumphs  of  the  past,  whatever  they  may  do  in 
other  fields  of  composition.  [Among  modem 
writers  there  are  very  few  whose  fame  rests 
mainly  on  their  symphonies,  apart  from  the  com- 
posers of '  symphonic  poems.  *  Anton  Bruckner's 
eight  complete  symphonies,  Gustav  Mahler's  six, 
and  Weingartner's  two,  have  achieved  great 
success  in  Germany  at  different  dates ;  but  among 
those  that  have  attained  universal  acoeptanoe 
all  over  the  cultivated  world,  none  ar»  more 
remarkable  than  the  three  later  works  of  Tchai- 
kovsky, and  the  seven  of  Glazounov.  The  last 
composition  of  the  former  reached  an  astounding 
degree  of  popularity  in  London  owing  to  the 
circumstances  of  the  composer's  death  just  at  the 
time  of  its  introduction  into  England  ;  in  the 
matter  of  form  it  differs  from  his  other  sym- 
phonies, which  are  on  strict  classical  lines,  in 
certain  particulars,  such  as  ending  with  the  slow 
movement,  and  giving  to  the  second  subject  of 
the  first  movement  a  rate  of  speed  as  well  as  a 
character  in  sharp  contrast  with  those  of  the 
first  subject]  c.  h.  h.  p. 

SYMPHONY  CONCERTS,  Under  this  title 
are  grouped  the  descriptions  of  some  of  the 
most  famous  organisations  in  Great  Britain  and 
America,  at  which  the  performance  of  sym- 
phonic works  is  the  main  object  in  view.  The 
occasional  performance  of  a  symphony  at  a 
miscellaneous  or  choral  concert  is  not  enough 
to  justify  the  title  of  *  Symphony  Concert,*  and 


the  attempt  here  made  must  be  understood  to 
deal  only  with  more  or  less  permanent  insti- 
tutions. There  is  little  hope  that  it  can  be 
complete,  even  for  the  countries  already  named  ^ 
in  Germany,  where  every  small  town  has  its 
orchestral  concerts  as  a  matter  of  course,  and  in 
France,  where  there  is  much  less  centralisation 
than  among  ourselves,  the  task  of  cataloguing 
even  the  names  of  the  various  bodies  which  are 
founded  for  the  performance  of  symphonic  works 
would  be  impracticable. 

London 

The  first  English  organisation  of  the  kind 
is  the  Philharmonic  Society,  founded  1813, 
for  which  see  vol.  iii.  pp.  698-703.  The  New 
Philharmonic  Society  (see  voL  iii.  p.  366) 
was  the  next,  founded  in  1852.  In  1855  the 
famous  Crystal  Palace  Saturday  Concerts  began 
their  long  and  useful  career,  which  was  carried 
on  until  1901,  being  for  all  that  time  under 
the  able  direction  of  August  Manns.  (See  vol. 
iii.  p.  42,  for  their  early  history.)  The  con- 
certs began  with  the  first  Saturday  in  October, 
and  lasted,  with  an  interval  at  Christmas, 
till  the  end  of  April.  The  orchestra  consisted 
of  16  first  and  14  second  violins,  11  violas,  10 
violoncellos,  and  10  double  basses,  with  single 
wind,  etc.  The  programmes  usually  contained 
two  overtures,  a  symphony,  a  concerto,  or  some 
minor  piece  of  orchestral  music,  and  four  songs. 
The  distinguishing  feature  of  the  concerts  was 
their  choice  and  performance  of  orchestral 
music.  Not  to  mention  the  great  works  of 
Haydn,  Mozart,  Beethoven,  Mendelssohn,  Spohr, 
Weber,  and  other  time-honoured  classics,  the 
audience  were  familiar  with  Schumann's  sym- 
phonies and  overtures,  and  with  Schubert's 
symphonies  and  *  Rosamunds '  music,  at  a  time 
when  those  works  were  all  but  unknown  in  the 
concert-rooms  of  the  metropolis.  Mendelssohn's 
.Reformation  Symphony  was  first  played  here  ; 
so  was  his  overture  to  'Camacho';  Brahms's 
Symphonies,  Pianoforte  Concertos,  Variations  on 
a  theme  of  Haydn  and  *  Song  of  Destiny '  ; 
Raff"s  various  Symphonies  ;  Liszt's  '  Ideale  ' ; 
Rubinstein's  Symphonies ;  Goetz's  Symphony, 
Concerto,  and  Overtures  ;  Smetana's  *  Vltava ' ; 
Schubert's  Symphonies  in  chronological  order  ; 
Wagner's  *  Faust '  Overture ;  Sullivan's  *  Tem- 
pest '  Music  and  Symphony  in  E ;  Benedict's 
Symphony  in  G  minor,  and  many  other  works 
were  obtained  (often  in  MS.)  and  performed 
before  they  were  heard  in  any  other  place  in 
the  metropolis.  Bennett's  *  Parisina '  was  first 
played  there  after  an  interval  of  a  quarter  of  a 
•century.  A  very  great  influence  was  exercised 
in  the  renaissance  of  English  music  by  the  fre- 
quent performance  of  new  works  of  importance 
by  Mackenzie,  Parry,  Stanford,  Cowen,  and 
others. 

A  disposition  was  apparent  in  the  managers 
of  the  concerts  to  present  the  audience  with 


798       SYMPHONY  CONCERTS 


SYMPHONY  CONCERTS 


pieces  of  special  interest ;  such  as  the  MS.  works 
of  Schubert,  and  of  Mendelssohn  ;  Beethoven's 
arrangement  of  his  Violin  Concerto  for  the  piano, 
and  his  Overture,  *  Leonora  No.  2 ' ;  an  al- 
ternative Andante  written  by  Mozart  for  his 
Parisian  Symphony  ;  the  first  version  of  Men- 
delssohn's '  Hebrides '  Overture,  and  other  rare 
treasures  of  the  same  nature. 

The  performances  were  of  that  exceptional 
quality  which  might  be  inferred  from  the  ability, 
energy,  and  devotion  of  the  conductor,  and  from 
the  i^t  that  owing  to  the  wind  and  a  portion 
of  the  strings  of  the  orchestra  being  the  per- 
manent band  of  the  Crystal  Palace,  Manns 
had  opportunities  for  rehearsal  which  were  at 
that  time  enjoyed  by  no  other  conductor  in 
London.  o. 

The  establishment  of  the  Richter  Concerts 
in  1879  was  the  next  event  in  the  history  of 
symphony  concerts  in  London.  For  these  see 
ftiUe,  pp.  93-94. 

The  history  of  the  first  series  called  London 
:Sym PHONY  Concerts  has  been  related  under 
the  heading  Henschel,  vol.  ii.  p.  381.  The 
concerts  were  founded  in  1886,  and  brought 
to  an  end  with  a  notable  i)erformanco  of  the 
'Matthew- Passion*  on  April  1,  1897. 

The  opening  of  the  Queen's  Hall  in  1893 
was  followed  by  the  formation  of  the  Queen's 
Hall  Choral  Society,  and  in  1895  the  experi- 
ment was  tried  of  reviving  public  interest  in 
Promenade  Concerts,  which  had  for  some 
.seasons  languished  in  London.  Mr.  Henry  J. 
Wood  tried  the  bold  experiment  of  giving  the 
public  at  large  an  opportunity  of  hearing  tlie 
great  masterpieces  of  music,  and  the  result 
showed  that  the  attempt  was  surprisingly 
successful.  Although  symphonies  were  given 
regularly  at  these  concerts,  not  at  first  on 
every  occasion,  the  regular  series  of  Saturday 
Symphony  Concerts  began  on  Jan.  30, 
1897,  and  have  been  carried  on  ever  since. 
They  were  at  first  given  weekly  (subsequently 
fortnightly)  up  to  the  end  of  May,  and 
their  influence  was  less  important  on  British 
music  than  on  that  of  the  contemporary 
Russian  school,  tlie  chief  representyitives  of 
which  obtained  frequent  hearings  for  their 
works.  The  *  Pathetic '  symphony  of  Tchai- 
kovsky, though  introduced  at  a  Philharmonic 
Concert,  acquired  its  great  popularity  under 
Mr.  Wood,  and  for  some  years  its  continual 
performances  stood  in  the  way  of  more  inter- 
esting work  being  done ;  but  in  due  time  the 
views  of  the  authorities  have  become  broader, 
and  tlie  programmes  have  shown  a  more 
catholic  taste,  as  well  as  giving  opportunities, 
more  or  less  frequent,  to  the  younger  English 
composers.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the 
question  of  Sunday  concerts  was  importantly 
affected  by  the  series  of  Sunday  Afternoon  Or- 
chestral Concerts  founded  in  Oct.  1 895,  with  Mr. 
Randegger  as  conductor.    Air.  Wood  became  the 


regular  conductor  in  the  third  season,  1897-98  ; 
in  Nov.  1898  a  dispute  as  to  the  legality  of 
Sunday  concerts,  and  licensing  questions,  made 
it  im^ierative  to  close  the  hall  on  Sunday,  Nov. 
27,  1898,  and  led  to  the  formation  of  a  Sunday 
Concert  Society,  by  means  of  which  it  vas 
found  possible  to  continue  the  concerts  without 
transgressing  the  existing  laws.  The  Sunday, 
as  well  as  the  Promenade  Concerts,  and  the 
Saturday  Afternoon  Symphony  Concerts,  are 
still  flourishing. 

In  1902  a  large  number  of  the  orchestra, 
who  had  acquired  under  Mr.  Wood  a  very 
remarkable  degree  of  excellence,  particularly 
in  accompaniment,  refused  to  re-engage  them- 
selves  to  the  Queen's  Hall  managers,  owing  to 
differences  of  opinion  as  to  the  right  to  employ 
deputies,  and  other  points  into  which  it  is  not 
necessary  to  enter.  In  course  of  time  a  new 
body  of  players  was  formed  by  Mr.  Wood,  and 
the  malcontents  organised  tliemselves  into  the 
London  Symphony  Orchestra,  an  institution 
whose  internal  economy  diflei-s  fi-om  that  of 
other  English  bodies  of  the  kind.  It  is  ran 
at  the  joint  risk  of  the  members,  who  share  in 
the  profits  and  have  a  voice  in  the  direction  of 
the  affairs.  No  |)ei*manent  conductor  is  en- 
gaged, but  various  distinguished  English  con- 
ductors have  appeared  from  time  to  time,  and 
certain  illustiious  foreign  conductors  have  also 
directed  them.  The  Richter  Concerts  have  been 
virtually  transferred  to  this  orchestra,  a  great 
part  of  whose  concerts  are  now  directed  by  that 
great  conductor.  Excellent  work  has  been 
done  in  regard  to  performances  and  programmes 
by  this  body,  so  that  the  breach  with  the  older 
institution  has  brought  about  nothing  but 
artistic  good. 

Of  Mr.  Thomas  Beecham's  New  Symphony 
Orchestra  it  is  perhaps  rather  early  to  speak, 
as  its  organisation  is  scai-cely  as  yet  finally 
settled.  In  several  seasons  very  interesting 
programmes  liave  been  given,  the  conductor 
being  a  man  of  wide  musical  reading,  who  has 
adopted  the  \vi8e  plan  of  reviving  the  older 
works  written  for  a  small  orchestra  under  the 
original  conditions.  For  the  S^-mphony  Con- 
certs given  in  London  by  the  various  amateur 
bodies  of  players'  societies,  see  Royal  Amateur 
Orchestral  Society  {mUe,  p.  172);  Stock 
Exchange  Orchestral  akd  Choral  Society 
{aivU,  p.  698) ;  and  Strolling  Players' 
Orchestral  Society  {ante,  p.  728).         m. 

Bournemouth. 

In  1893  Mr.  Dan  Godfrey  was  engaged  to 
provide  a  military  band  of  thirty  performer 
for  the  summer  season ;  gradually,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Cr}'stal  Palace  Concerts,  the  authori* 
ties  ventured  upon  classical  concerts,  and  in 
1895  a  series  of  Symphony  Concerts  was 
organised  and  given  in  the  Winter  Gardens 
with  full  orchestra.     These  were  so  successful 


SYMPHONY  CONCERTS 


SYMPHONY  CONCERTS  IN  U.S.  799 


that  the  Hunicipality  decided  to  make  the 
undertaking  a  permanent  one,  and  the  annual 
series  of  concerts  have  attained  great  importance, 
being  given  on  Monday  and  Thursday  afternoons 
during  the  season.  Many  centenaries  and  other 
anniversaries  in  musical  history  have  been 
observed  more  carafully  than  has  usually  been 
the  case  in  London,  and  very  frequently  com- 
posei-s  have  conducted  their  own  works  at  the 
concerts,  Mr.  Godfrey  filling  the  post  of  regular 
conductor  with  great  distinction.  M. 

Bradford. 

The  Bradford  Permanent  Orchestra  was 
founded  in  1892,  and  is  partly  professional, 
partly  amateur.  The  band  ia  about  eighty 
strong,  and  the  post  of  conductor  has  been 
held  successively  by  Mr.  W.  B.  Sewell,  Mr. 
A.  £.  Bartle,  Dr.  Cowen,  and  Mr.  Allen  Gill, 
the  last  of  whom  has  been  in  office  five  years. 
The  season  1907-8  included  five  concerts,  at 
vrhich  works  by  most  of  the  classical  com- 
posers, and  of  modem  musicians  like  Sibelius, 
Humperdinck,  German,  and  York  Bowen,  were 
performed.  The  orchestra  is  a  private  and 
self-supporting  institution.  It  is  now  usually 
engaged  for  the  concerts  of  the  Bradford  Festival 
Choral  Society.  Among  the  conductors  who 
have  directed  their  own  works  have  been 
Sir  Arthur  Sullivan,  Sir  Hubert  Parry,  Sir 
C.  v.  SUnfoid,  Sir  Edward  Elgar,  and  Mr. 
£.  German.  h.  t. 

Harrogate. 

Here  also  a  permanent  Municipal  Orchestra 
has  lately  been  formed  and  is  now  under  the 
direction  of  Mr.  Julian  CliiTord.  On  Wednesday 
afternoons,  during  a  gi-eat  part  of  the  year, 
symphony  concerts  are  given,  and  '  composers' 
afternoons '  take  ])lace  frequently.  m. 

Hull. 

The  Hull  Symphony  Orchestra  consists  of 
local  players  who  are  engaged  at  theatres  and 
music-halls,  so  that  the  concerts  are  given 
always  in  the  afternoon.  They  were  estab- 
lished in  1906,  and  under  the  conductorship  of 
Arthur  Wallerstein  have  done  good  work. 

Leeds. 

The  Leeds  Municipal  Orchestra  was  organised 
in  the  autumn  of  1903  by  Mr.  A.  H.  Fricker, 
organist  of  the  Tovra  Hall ;  the  first  concert 
was  given  on  Oct.  17  of  that  year.  The 
orchestra  at  first  consisted  of  fifty  of  the  best  pro- 
fessional musicians  in  the  immediate  neighbour- 
hood, and  the  number  has  since  been  increased 
to  over  sixty.  It  has  no  direct  subsidy  from 
]mblic  money,  but  as  the  conductor  receives  no 
further  remuneration  than  his  stipend  as 
organist,  and  as  the  concerts  take  the  place  of 
the  customary  Saturday  evening  organ  recitals, 
there  is  no  expense  for  hall,  lighting,  etc.,  and 


the  small  charges  made  for  admission  (2d.,  6d., 
and  Is*)  have  hitherto  just  sufficed  to  maintain 
the  institution.  The  scheme  for  the  season  of 
1907-8  consisted  of  ten  conceits,  at  which 
symphonies  by  Haydn,  Beethoven,  Schubert, 
Tchaikovsky,  and  Dvofdk,  together  with  or- 
chestral pieces  by  Mozart,  Weber,  Mendelssohn, 
Liszt,  Saint-Saens,  Brahms,  Svendsen,  Smetana, 
Sibelius,  Debussy,  Elgar,  German,  were  given. 
Among  the  composers  who  have  conducted 
their  own  works  are  Sir  0.  V.  Stanford,  Mr. 
E.  German,  Dr.  Vaughan  Williams,  Mr.  York 
Bowen,  Mr.  J.  W.  NichoU,  Mr.  F.  Cliffe,  Mr. 
Havergal  Brian,  Dr.  Bairstow,  Mr.  William 
Wallace,  Mr.  Joseph  Holbrooke,  Mr.  Percy 
Godfrey,  and  Mr.  F.  K.  Hattei-sley.       H.  t. 

Liverpool. 

For  the  Liverpool  Philharmonic  Society,  see 
vol.  iL  p.  754. 

Maxchesteb. 

For  the  Gentleman's  Concerts  and  Halle 
Concerts,  see  vol.  iii  pp.  86-37. 

New  Brighton. 

For  the  excellent  series  of  concerts  organised 
at  the  Tower,  New  Brighton,  by  Mr.  Granville 
Bautock,  in  1897-1901,  see  vol.  i.  p.  181. 

Scotland. 

See  Scottish  Orchestra,  ante,  p.  402. 

SYMPHONY  CONCERTS  IN  THE 
UNITED  STATES.  Throughout  the  18th 
century  the  concert  life  of  America,  so  far  as  it 
existed  in  the  principal  cities  of  the  Atlantic 
coast  (such  as  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Boston, 
Baltimore,  and  Charleston),  was  in  every  par- 
ticular a  reflex  of  the  concert  life  of  London. 
Practically  all  the  influences  were  English,  and 
English  they  remained  for  a  full  century ;  the 
colonists,  as  soon  as  they  were  in  a  position  to 
ei\joy  the  embellishments  of  civilisation,  sought 
them  in  their  English  manifestations.  As  an 
illustration  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  'Rane- 
lagh  Gardens'  were  opened  in  1765,  at  which 
*  a  complete  band  of  music '  was  engaged,  and 
'  Yaux  Hall  Gardens '  in  Charleston  in  1767,  and 
New  York  in  1769.  As  to  the  vigour  with 
which  instnmiental  music,  still  subordinate  to 
vocal  the  world  over,  was  cultivated  in  America 
under  the  auspices  of  organisations  of  amateurs 
and  professionals  corresponding  to  the  Collegia, 
muaiea  of  Germany,  it  may  suffice  here  to  say 
that  concerts  in  which  solos  on  the  harpsichord, 
violin,  oboe,  bassoon,  flute,  and  horn  were 
played  date  back  to  the  fourth  decade  of  the 
18th  century  ;  and  that  the  symphonies  of 
Haydn,  Pleyel,  Stamitz,  Gyrowetz,  and  their 
fellows,  the  overtures  of  Handel,  Gretry,  Gossec, 
and  others,  as  well  as  the  ccncerti  grossi  of  Corelli, 
figured  largely  on  the  programmes  of  the  con- 
certs given  in  New  York  and  Philadelphia  in 


800  SYMPHONY  CONCERTS  IN  U.S. 


SYMPHONY  CONCERTS  IN  U.S. 


the  latter  half  of  the  same  century.  Charleston, 
S.  C. ,  still  maintains  a  Caecilia  Society,  organised 
in  1762,  which  gave  fortnightly  concerts  from 
the  beginning  of  its  career  with  a  band  of 
amateurs,  helped  out  by  professionals,  and  in 
1771  advertised  in  the  newspapers  of  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  and  Boston  for  a  first  and  second 
violin,  2  hautboys,  and  a  bassoon  with  whom  the 
Society  was  willing  to  enter  into  a  contract  for 
one,  two,  or  three  years.  There  is  little  evidence 
to  be  found  concerning  the  size  and  constitution 
of  the  bands  of  this  period,  though  the  intima- 
tions of  the  programmes  are  suggestive.  In 
1786,  at  a  *  Grand  Concert  of  Sacred  Music  *  in 
Philadelphia,  which  had  been  inspired  by  the 
Handel  Commemoration  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
the  chorus  numbered  230  and  the  band  50.  It 
is  worthy  of  note  in  this  connection  that  a 
number  of  musicians  who  sat  in  the  band  at 
the  Commemoration  were  large  factors  in  the 
development  of  instrumental  music  in  America 
afterwards ;  among  them  were  Gillingham,  Bein- 
agle,  Gehot,  Pick,  Phillips,  Mallet,  and  R.  Shaw. 
(Readers  desirous  of  pursuing  this  branch  of 
the  subject  further  are  recommended  to  read  Mr. 
0.  G.  Sonne^k's  Early  Concert-Life  in  America 
{1781-1800),  published  by  Breitkopf  k  Hiirtel, 
1907.) 

German  influences  began  to  make  themselves 
felt  in  the  second  quarter  of  the  19th  century, 
and  to  them  is  largely  due  the  present  status 
of  symphonic  culture  in  the  United  States,  with 
one  phase  of  which  this  article  is  particularly 
concerned.  The  intermediate  stage  between  the 
instrumental  elements  of  the  concerts  of  the  1 8th 
century  and  the  symphony  concerts  maintained 
in  the  musical  centres  of  the  country  is  still 
disclosed  in  a  latige  number  of  cities  where  the 
theatre  has  a  sufficient  patronage  to  justify 
the  employment  of  a  considerable  number  of 
orchestral  musicians.  In  these  cities — Cleve- 
land, Detroit,  Indianapolis,  St  Louis,  Denver, 
New  Orleans,  New  Haven,  St.  Paul,  Minneapolis, 
and  San  Francisco  may  be  taken  as  examples 
— ^the  local  orchestral  musicians  are  brought 
together  a  few  times  in  each  season,  and  concerts 
given  at  the  instance  of  either  an  enthusiastic  or 
ambitious  local  leader  or  of  a  body  of  citizens 
who  are  prompted  to  make  the  inevitable  financial 
sacrifice  by  a  mixture  of  musical  love  and  civic 
pride.  Each  of  the  larger  and  more  firmly 
grounded  institutions,  whose  stories  are  to  be  told 
presently,  moreover  carries  on  a  propagandism 
within  a  large  radius  of  its  home  ;  and  there  is, 
therefore,  wide  familiarity  with  orchestral  music 
of  the  highest  class,  at  least  in  the  larger  towns 
and  cities  of  the  northern  tier  of  states.  It 
is  the  custom  to  speak  of  all  the  orchestras 
(except  one)  which  come  in  for  discussion  below 
as  '  permanent.'  The  purpose  of  this  is  to  dis- 
tinguish them  as  organisations  whose  members 
play  only  at  symphony  concerts  during  the 
regular  season  and  under  a  single  conductor. 


from  the  bands  which  are  assembled  for  occa- 
sions, and  whose  members  otherwise  play  as 
they  list  It  may  be  well  to  remember  that 
the  term  is  loosely  applied  ;  for  no  orchestra  in 
the  country  is  so  firmly  grounded  as  the  Phil- 
harmonic Society  of  New  York  which,  through 
sixty-five  years  of  good  and  evil  fortune,  has 
never  failed  to  give  a  series  of  symphony  con- 
certs every  season,  and  has  maintained  the 
loftiest  standard  in  programme  and  per- 
formance ;  yet  its  members  are  variously  em- 
ployed in  theatre  and  other  concert  bands,  when 
not  called  on  for  duty  by  their  own  corporation. 
Permanency  would  seem  to  call  for  an  endowment 
in  perpetuity,  since  no  orchestra  in  the  country 
has  yet  succeeded  in  making  receipts  and  ex- 
penses cover  each  other  except  the  New  .York 
Philharmonic,  which  lives  on  the  co-operative 
plan.  The  Chicago  Orchestra  has  an  endowment 
in  its  hall  built  by  popular  subscription ;  the 
Boston  Orchestra  is  the  philanthropic  enterprise 
of  an  individual ;  the  others  depend,  year  after 
year,  on  the  generosity  and  public  spirit  of  their 
guarantors,  and  may,  therefore,  be  said  to  be  just 
as  permanent  or  impermanent  as  the  moods  and 
motives  of  the  patrons.  h.  e.  k. 

Boston. 

The  Boston  Symphony  Orchestra  owes 
its  existence  and  its  large  perpetual  endowment 
to  the  generosity  and  taste  of  Mr.  Henry  Lee 
Higginson,  a  well-known  citizen  of  Boston,  and 
affords  a  good  instance  of  the  munificent  way 
in  which  the  Americans  apply  their  great  riches 
for  the  public  benefit  in  the  service  of  education 
and  art  Mr.  Higginson  had  for  long  cherished 
the  idea  of  having  '  an  orchestra  which  should 
play  the  best  music  in  the  best  way,  and  give 
concerts  to  all  who  could  pay  a  small  price.' 
At  length,  on  March  30,  1881,  he  made  his 
intention  public  in  the  Boston  newspapers  as 
follows : — The  orchestra  to  number  sixty,  and 
their  remuneration  to  include  the  concerts  and 
'careful  training.'  Concerts  to  be  twenty  in 
number,  on  Saturday  evenings,  in  the  Music 
Hall,  from  middle  of  October  to  middle  of  March. 
Single  tickets  from  75  to  25  cents  (38.  to  Is.)  ; 
season  tickets  (concerts  only)  10  to  5  dollars  ; 
one  public  rehearsal,  Is.  entrance. 

Mr.  Georg  Henschel  was  appointed  conductor, 
and  Mr.  B.  Listemann  loader  and  solo  violin. 
A  full  musical  library  was  purchased,  and  the 
first  concert  took  place  on  Oct  22,1881.  There 
were  twenty  concerts  in  all,  and  the  last  ended 
with  the  Choral  Symphony.  o. 

Mr.  Henschel  remained  as  conductor  of  the 
orchestra  for  three  years.  He  was  succeeded 
at  the  beginning  of  the  season  of  1884-85  by 
Wilhelm  Gericke  of  Vienna.  Mr.  Gericke's 
advent  led  to  important  improvements  in  the 
orchestra,  many  changes  in  the  personnel  by  the 
importation  of  young  and  ambitious  musicians 
from  Europe,  especially  from  Vienna,  and    t!ic 


SYMPHONY  CONCERTS  IN  U.S. 


SYMPHONY  CONCERTS  IN  U.S.  801 


establishment  of  a  higher  standard  of  efficiency 
in  performance.  One  of  his  most  important 
steps  was  the  engagement,  as  leader,  of  Franz 
Kneisel,  beginning  with  the  season  of  1885-86, 
who  occupied  that  highly  important  post  until 
the  end  of  the  season  1902-3.  After  five 
years,  during  which  Mr.  Gericke  had  raised  tlie 
standard  of  the  orchestra  to  a  plane  approxi- 
mating the  founder's  ideal,  he  was  succeeded  by 
Arthur  Nikisch,  who  remained  conductor  for 
four  years.  After  him  came  Emil  Paur  for 
five  years,  when,  in  the  autumn  of  1898, 
Gericke  was  recalled.  He  continued  as  con- 
ductor until  the  end  of  the  season  of  1906-6, 
when  Dr.  Karl  Muck,  of  Berlin,  was  engaged 
for  two  years. 

The  orchestra  has  been  consideralily  enlarged 
since  its  establishment  It  now  (1908)  numbers 
an  effective  force  of  about  ninety-seven  men. 
The  support  given  to  the  orchestra  in  Boston  is 
loyal  and  enthusiastic ;  the  concerts  are  crowded, 
and  a  system  of  premiums  for  choice  of  seats  at 
the  regular  subscription  sale  each  season  greatly 
increases  the  normal  receipts.  Only  in  one 
season,  however,  have  the  receipts  equalled  the 
expenditures.  In  the  other  seasons  the  deficits 
met  by  Mr.  Higginson  have  ranged  from  $2000  to 
$40, 000.  The  annual  series  of  concerts  nownum- 
bers  twenty-four,  given  on  Saturday  evenings, 
with  public  rehearsals  (which  are  to  all  intents 
and  purposes  the  same  as  the  concerts)  on  the 
preceding  Friday  afternoons.  For  twenty  years 
the  concerts  were  given  in  the  old  Music  Hall. 
In  the  autumn  of  1901,  however,  the  orchestra 
took  possession  of  a  fine  new  Symphony  Hall, 
built  especially  for  its  accommodation.  A 
series  of  nightly  popular  concerts,  extending 
over  a  period  of  two  months,  is  given  every 
summer. 

An  important  element  of  its  work  which  has 
reached  a  firmly  established  basis  in  recent  years 
is  that  accomplished  outside  of  Boston.  Besides 
ap^iearing  frequently  in  New  England  cities 
near  Boston  the  orchestra  makes  five  trips  a 
year,  in  season,  to  Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  and 
New  York,  giving  one  concert  on  each  visit  to 
the  first  two  cities  and  three  in  New  York  (two 
in  the  Borough  of  Manhattan  and  one  in  the 
Borough  of  Brooklyn).  The  concerts  in  New 
York  have  been  given  unintemiptedly  since 
1887,  In  1 903  the  orchestra  took  an  important 
step  in  establishing  a  pension  fund,  formed  by 
the  self-assessment  of  the  members,  the  proceeds 
of  tvvo  special  concerts  given  annually,  and  con- 
tributions of  friends  of  the  organisation,    n.  a. 

Brooklyn. 

The  Philharmonic  Society,  incorporated 
1857,  has  for  its  declared  object  'the  advance- 
ment of  nmsic  in  the  city  of  Brooklyn,  ])y 
procuring  the  public  performance  of  the  best 
works  in  this  department  of  art.'  Its  affairs 
are  controlled  by  a  directorate  of  twenty- five 

VOL.  IV 


members,  chosen  annually  from  which  a  govern- 
ment is  appointed.  Membership  is  secured  by 
payment  of  the  subscription  annually  designated 
by  the  directors,  who  also  prescribe  the  number 
of  these  subscriptions,  limited,  for  several  years, 
to  1200.  Beginning  in  the  autumn  of  1857,  five 
or  more  concerts  have  been  given  in  each  season, 
that  at  the  close  of  the  twenty-first  season,  May 
10,  1879,  being  the  108th— each  preceded  by 
three  public  rehearsals.  During  the  fii*st 
five  seasons  the  concerts  were  given  at  the 
Brooklyn  Athenteum.  Since  1862  the  Brooklyn 
Academy  of  Music,  a  large  theatre  holding 
nearly  3000  people,  has  been  made  use  of. 
The  orchestral  conductors  have  been — Theodore 
Eisfeld,  1867-62  ;  Theodore  Thomas,  i)art  of 
1862  ;  Mr.  Eisfeld  again,  until  the  election  of 
Carl  Bergmann,  Sept.  5,  1865  ;  Mr.  Thomas, 
re-elected  Sept  4, 1866  ;  Mr.  Bergmann  again, 
1870-73  ;  succeeded  May  26,  1878,  by  Mr. 
Thomas,  who  retained  the  position  until  his 
departure  for  Chicago  (see  below),  assisted  by 
William  G.  Dietrich,  who  had  charge  of  the 
orchestra  at  the  first  two  rehearsals  of  each 
concert.  The  concerts  have  always  been  of  a 
high  order ;  the  orchestra  large  and  composed 
of  the  best  musicians  procurable ;  the  pro- 
grammes of  a  catholic  nature,  no  especial  school 
of  music  having  undue  prominence.  Important 
works  have  been  produced  for  the  first  time  in 
America, including  several  by  native  composers. 
Large  choral  works  have  occasionally  figured 
on  the  Society's  programmes,  as  well  as  solos 
and  instnimental  concertos.  The  Society's 
Library  contains  the  scores  and  parts  of  over 
100  orchestral  works.  F.  H.  J. 

What  was  formerly  the  city  of  Brooklyn, 
N.Y.,  is  now  a  borough  of  the  American 
metropolis.  Nevertheless  the  Philharmonic 
Society  retains  the  corporate  name  by  which  it 
has  been  known  since  1857.  Theodore  Thomas, 
with  his  orchestra,  gave  its  concerts  from  1873 
till  1891.  On  his  departure  for  Chicago  an 
arrangement  was  made  by  which  the  concerts 
(five  annually,  by  the  Boston  Symphony 
Orchestra)  were  continued  under  the  joint 
auspices  of  the  Philharmonic  Society  and  the 
Institute  of  Arts  and  Sciences.  After  the 
destruction  of  the  Academy  of  Music,  Nov.  29, 
1903,  the  concerts  were  transferred  to  the 
Baptist  Temple.  ii.  £.  k. 

Chicago. 

The  Theodore  Thomas  Orchestra  of 
Chicago  is  in  several  things  unique  amongst 
the  concert  institutions  of  the  United  States, 
but  in  none  so  much  as  its  history,  which 
illustrates  achievement  through  the  persistence 
of  a  man  of  dominant  ambition  and  iron  will, 
the  courage  and  steadfastness  of  a  coterie  of 
friends  and  music-lovers,  and  the  public  spirit 
of  a  young  city  of  amazing  resource  and  in- 
domitable energy.      The  orchestra  is  the  only 

3f 


802  SYMPHONY  CONCERTS  IN  U.S.         SYMPHONY  CONCERTS  IN  U.S. 


one  in  the  United  States  which  bears  officially 
the  name  of  its  creator  ;  it  is  also  the  only  one 
of  its  kind  which  occupies  its  own  hall.  This 
hall  is  its  endowment,  an  endowment  which 
may  fairly  be  said  to  be  more  enduring  than 
that  of  any  other  concert  institution  in  the 
country,  inasmuch  as  it  does  not  depend  upon 
the  wealth  and  inclination  of  an  individual,  a 
body  of  guarantors  or  the  interests  of  the  players 
themselves  as  is  the  case  of  one  or  the  other  of 
the  Societies  discussed  in  this  article.  The 
management  of  the  Theodore  Thomas  Orchestra 
is  in  the  hands  of  the  Orchestral  Association  of 
Chicago,  and  for  fifteen  years  it  was  known  as 
the  Chicago  Orchesti'a,  though  popularly  spoken 
of  by  the  name  by  which  it  is  now  officially 
known.  It  had  its  origin  primarily  in  the 
admiration  excited  by  Mr.  Thomas  (9. v.)  in  the 
metropolis  of  the  Middle  West  in  the  course  of 
a  long  series  of  concerts  given  by  him  when  he 
was  still  the  leader  of  an  itinerant  orchestra 
which  went  out  from  New  York,  and  a  series 
which  he  gave  every  summer  for  a  number  of 
years  in  a  building  erected  for  exposition  pur- 
poses on  the  Lake  Front.  The  first  Thomas 
concert  was  given  in  Chicago  in  1869,  when  the 
city  was  only  thirty- four  years  old  as  a  muni- 
cipal corporation,  and  when  it  was  surpassed  in 
population  by  Cincinnati  and  St  Louis.  But 
the  love  of  good  music  which  Mr.  Thomas 
implanted  in  the  city  would  not  have  yielded 
its  present  fruit  had  it  not  been  for  the  disasters 
which  overwhelmed  Mr.  Thomas's  private  enter- 
prises during  the  last  few  years  of  his  sojourn 
in  New  York  City.  The  chief  causes,  which 
operated  against  his  efforts  to  maintain  his  own 
orchestra  in  the  American  metropolis  may  be 
looked  for  in  the  variety  and  number  of  interests 
developed  by  the  growth  of  musical  culture  in 
New  York.  In  1890,  when  he  ended  his  labours 
in  the  city  which  had  been  his  home  since 
childhood,  orchestral  concerts  were  regularly 
given  by  the  Philharmonic  and  Symphony 
Societies,  the  Boston  Symphony  Orchestra,  and 
the  band  conducted  by  Anton  Seidl.  Mr. 
Thomas  had  himself  helped  to  raise  the  Philhar- 
monic Society  to  a  proud  position,  and  many 
circumstances  conspired  to  prevent  him  from 
commanding  the  large  allegiance  which  his 
ambition  and  ideals  exacted.  Moreover,  Grand 
Opera,  which  hitherto  had  been  an  exotic,  had 
taken  firm  root  in  the  Metropolitan  Opera-House 
(see  Opera  in  the  United  State-s,  vol.  iii.  pp. 
466-472)  and  gathered  unto  itself  a  munificent 
public  patronage.  In  a  sense,  Mr.  Thomas's 
missionary  labours  were  done  in  New  York, 
and  it  was  for  the  good  of  music  that  he  trans- 
ferred his  work  to  Chicago. 

It  was  in  the  summer  of  1890,  when  Mr. 
Thomas  had  abandoned  all  of  his  individual 
enterprises  in  New  York,  that  he  was  met  by 
C.  Norman  Fay,  his  brotber-in-law,  of  Chicago, 
and  from  him  received  tlie  suggestion  that  he 


come  to  that  city  and  organise  an  orchestra 
there.  He  agreed,  (irovid^  that  a  guarantee 
fund  of  $50,000  a  year  for  three  years  should  be 
raised.  Fifty -two  citizens  of  Chicago  were 
found  who  subscribed  $1000  a  year  for  three 
years,  an  official  invitation  was  extended  and 
accepted,  and  Mr.  Thomas  took  a  habitation  in 
the  city  in  1891,  spending  the  intermediate  time 
in  organising  his  new  band.  Meanwhile  the 
Orchestral  Association,  which  was  conceived  as 
a  self- perpetuating  body,  was  oi^ganiaed  by 
N.  K.  Fairbank,  C.  Norman  Fay,  E.  B.  M*Cagg, 
A.  C.  Bartlett,  and  C.  D.  Hamill.  This  associa 
tion  entered  into  an  agreement  with  Mr.  Thomas 
and  the  guarantors  to  give  two  concerts  a  week, 
on  Friday  afternoons  and  Saturday  evenings, 
for  twenty  weeks  each  season  for  three  years. 
The  musicians  were  engaged  for  twenty -eight 
w^eeka,  eight  of  which  were  devoted  to  concerts 
outside  Chicago.  The  Chicago  concerts  were 
given  in  the  Auditorium,  a  new  theatre  with 
a  seating  capacity  of  betrfreen  4000  and  5000. 
At  the  end  of  the  conti'act  period  the  losses 
entailed  by  the  concerts  amounted  to  $153,000. 
which  fact,  together  with  certain  unpleasan£ 
experiences  in  which  Mr.  Thomas  had  become 
involved  as  Musical  Director  of  the  World's 
Fair  held  in  1893,  had  a  discouraging  effect 
upon  the  guarantors.  Originally  there  wen' 
fifty- two ;  two  of  them  failed  to  pay  their 
assessments,  and  twenty  declined  to  renew  their 
subscriptions.  The  Orchestral  Association  was 
now  reorganised,  and  new  subscriptions  were 
asked  on  a  basis  of  a  unit  of  $50,  each  unit  to 
entitle  the  subscriber  to  a  vote  for  the  trustees 
who  were  to  take  over  the  financial  administra- 
tion. An  effort  to  create  another  three  years' 
term  failed,  and  the  guarantee  fund  for  the  fourth 
season  amounted  to  only  $80,000,  which  proved 
to  be  $4000  less  than  the  cost  of  the  concerts. 
The  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  seasons  created 
deficits  of  $27,000  and  $39,000  respectively, 
the  last  largely  due  to  injudicious  travelling. 
The  guarantee  for  these  seasons  being  only 
$22,000  for  each  year  a  debt  of  $30,000  ac- 
cumulated, for  which  a  special  subscription  was 
raised.  This  was  done,  the  debts  paid,  and  & 
contingent  fund  of  $30,000  was  created,  which 
soon  disappeared  under  the  flood  of  losses.  Ou 
guarantees  raised  from  year  to  year  the  orchestra 
continued  the  concerts  until  the  final  phase  of 
the  enterprise  was  reached.  On  Feb.  13,  1903, 
the  patrons  of  the  concerts  were  asked  by  thf 
trustees  of  the  Association  to  subscribe  to  a  fund 
for  the  purpose  of  building  a  hall  which  should 
be  a  permanent  home  of  the  organisation,  tht* 
theory  of  the  trustees  being  that  a  hall  with  a 
seating  capacity  of  2500  would  secure  better 
supiK>rt  than  one  with  so  many  seats  that  then 
was  little  if  any  inducement  to  subscribe  for  tht 
season.  It  was  argued,  besides,  that  the  saving 
in  rentals  and  an  income  from  the  same  source 
would  put  the  orchestra  on  a  self-supportini; 


SYMPHONY  CONCERTS  IN  U.S.         SYMPHONY  CONCERTS  IN  U.S.  803 


basis.  A  system  was  adopted  which  appealed 
for  subscriptions  to  all  classes  of  the  population, 
and  8000  subscriptions  were  secured,  ranging 
in  amount  from  10  cents  to  $25,000,  and 
amounting  to  |650,000.  Building  operations 
were  begun  in  May  1904,  and  the  hall  which 
cost  $750,000  was  dedicated  on  Dec.  14  of  the 
same  year.  Up  to  this  time  the  losses  on 
each  season  had  been  as  follows;  1st  season 
$53,000;  2nd,  $51,000;  3rd,  $49,000;  4th, 
$34,000  ;  6th,  $27,000  ;  6th,  $27,000  ;  7th, 
$39,000  ;  8th,  $16,000  ;  9th,  $16,000  ;  10th, 
$26,000;  11th,  $30,000;  12th,  $20,000; 
13th,  $21,000  ;  14th,  $19,000  ;  15th,  $15,000. 
In  March  1907  the  treasurer,  Frederick  J* 
Wessels,  wrote  touching  the  result  of  the  new 
policy  of  the  Orchestral  Association :  *  The 
theory  of  the  Trustees  has  proved  correct.  The 
ticket  sales  have  increased  every  year,  thedemand 
for  seats  being  sufficient  to  induce  the  Trustees 
to  lengthen  the  season  of  24  weeks  (48  concerts) 
to  28  weeks  (56  concerts).  Tlie  present  patron- 
Ag^i  together  with  the  building  rentals  and 
hiring  of  the  hall  for  outside  attractions  is 
sufficient  to  keep  the  orchestra  on  a  no-loss  basis, 
notwithstanding  the  large  interest  and  tax 
expenditures  to  be  met'  Mr.  Thomas  lived  to 
conduct  only  five  concerts  in  the  new  hall,  the 
last  on  Dec.  24,  1904.  He  died  on  Jan.  4, 
1905,  and  was  succeeded  by  Frederick  A.  Stock 
(q.v,)^  who  had  been  his  assistant.         H.  E.  k. 

Cincinnati. 

The  Cincinnati  Symphony  Orchestra. 
Concerts  of  symphonic  music  were  given  by  this 
organisation  from  Jan.  1895  to  April  1907, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Cincinnati  Orchestra 
Association,  whose  affairs  are  administered  by 
a  Board  of  Directors  composed  of  women,  and 
supported  financially  by  bodies  of  shareholders, 
stockholders,  and  subscribers  to  a  guarantee 
fund.  The  Association  was  organised  in  1895 
for  the  purpose  of  promoting  the  culture  of  high- 
class  orchestral  music,  which  for  fifteen  years 
had  been  dependent  upon  the  somewhat  de- 
sultory and  sporadic  efforts  of  the  College  of 
Music  of  Cincinnati.  The  concerts  of  the  first 
season,  given  between  January  and  April  of 
1895,  were  divided  into  three  series  of  three 
concerts  each,  preceded  by  afternoon  public 
reheai-sals,  and  were  conducted  by  Frank  Van 
der  Stucken,  Anton  Seidl,  and  Henry  Schradieck. 
Mr.  Van  der  Stucken  was  then  engaged  as  sole 
conductor,  and  remained  such  for  t^velve  years, 
during  which  period  ten  afternoon  and  ten 
evening  concerts  were  given  annually.  At  the 
close  of  the  thirteenth  season  (1906-7),  the 
Orchestra  Association,  rather  than  submit  to 
the  dictation  of  the  American  Federation  of 
Musicians,  disbanded  the  orchestra  and  re- 
solved to  invite  the  orchestras  of  the  eastern 
cities  and  Chicago  to  give  concerts  under  its 
auspices,  h.  e.  k. 


New  York. 

The  Philharmonic  Society  op  New 
York  is  the  oldest  orchestral  body  in  con- 
tinuous service  in  the  United  States  devoted  to 
the  performance  of  instrumental  music.  In- 
cidentally it  also  extends  help  to  its  su{)eranuu- 
ated  members,  and  to  that  end  maintains  a 
pension  fund  created  by  gifts  from  its  friends, 
one  half  of  the  initiation  fees  paid  by  new 
members  on  their  election,  fines  assessed  against 
members  and  a  share  of  the  earnings  of  the 
concerts.  It  is  a  communistic  body  of  profes- 
sional musicians,  with  three  classes  of  members, 
viz.  Actual,  Honorary,  and  Honorary  Associate. 
In  the  first  class  there  are  none  but  professional 
players  upon  orchestral  instruments.  The  title 
of  Honorary  Member  is  bestowed  by  vote 
of  the  Society  upon  musicians  whose  emin- 
ence entitles  them  to  that  distinction  in  the 
eyes  of  the  members ;  that  of  Honorary 
Associate  upon  laymen  for  the  same  reason. 
Election  to  membership  in  the  three  classes 
requires  a  unanimous  vote.  Active  devotion  to 
the  Society's  interests  is  enforced  on  the  part 
of  the  Actual  Members  by  a  system  of  fines. 
At  the  concerts  of  the  Society,  which  take 
place  only  in  the  regular  musical  season 
the  actual  members  constitute  a  little  less 
than  two-thirds  of  the  performers,  generally 
numbering  from  90  to  110.  The  additional 
players  are  engaged  by  the  Directors  in  the 
ordinary  way,  and  paid  the  ruling  rate  of  wage. 
At  the  end  of  each  season  the  money  in  th^ 
hands  of  the  Treasurer,  save  a  small  sum  withheld 
for  contingent  expenses,  is  divided  equally 
among  the  members  who  have  participated  in 
the  concerts.  All  the  officers  of  the  Society  are 
musicians  except  the  President,  who  as  a  nile, 
is  a  citizen  of  New  York  distinguished  by  love 
of  music  and  devotion  to  its  interests.  The 
conductor  need  not  be  a  member  of  the  Society, 
but  must  be  elected  like  the  other  officers.  His 
salary  is  fixed  by  agreement  between  him  and 
the  Boaixi  of  Directore.  The  regular  subscription 
concerts  of  the  Philharmonic  Society  now  (in 
1908)  number  sixteen  in  each  season,  and  are 
given  in  pairs  on  Friday  afternoons  and  Saturday 
evenings  from  November  to  April,  the  pro- 
grammes of  each  pair  of  concerts  being  identical. 
Until  1906  it  was  a  rule  of  the  Society  that  its 
name  should  not  be  used  for  any  concerts 
except  those  given  under  its  own  auspices  ;  but 
the  advent  of  'star  conductors'  led  to  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  rule  in  the  hope  that  the  Society  might 
participate  in  other  concerts  than  its  own,  thus 
adding  to  its  income  and  recouping  it  for 
the  large  salaries  demanded  by  the  'stars.' 
The  results  of  the  first  season  did  not  justify 
the  change.  Among  the  Honorary  Members 
of  the  Society  since  its  foundation  have 
been  Vieuxtempe  (the  first  one,  elected  in 
1843),  Spohr,  Mendelssohn, Jenny Lind,  Sontag, 


804   SYMPHONY  CONCERTS  IN  U.S. 


SYMPHONY  CONCERTS  IN  U.S. 


Alboni,  William  Vincent  Wallace,  Thalberg, 
Mnie.  Parepa-Rosa,  Franz  Liszt,  Richard  Wag- 
ner, Joachim  Raff,  Anton  Rubinstein,  and 
Dvofak. 

The  history  of  the  Philharmonic  Society  of 
New  York  had  its  beginning  at  a  meeting  of 
professional  musicians  called  by  Ureli  Corelli 
Hill  (an  American  musician,  violinist,  and  con- 
ductor, pupil  of  Spohr  in  Cassel)  held  on  Apiil 
2,  1842.  The  impulse  to  organise  such  a 
Society  seems  to  have  come  from  the  artistic 
success  achieved  at  a  '  Musical  Solemnity '  given 
iu  June  1839,  in  honour  of  the  memory  of  Daniel 
Schlesinger,  one  of  the  first  thoroughly  trained 
musicians  to  make  his  home  in  New  York. 
The  most  prominent  musicians  in  the  city  were 
]»resent  at  this  meeting  and  the  meetings  which 
followed,  at  which  the  organisation  of  the 
Society  was  perfected.  Among  them  were  Mr. 
Hill  ;  A.  P.  Heinrich,  an  eccenti'io  Bohemian 
composer  who  presided  at  the  first  meeting,  but 
took  no  further  interest  in  the  affair ;  Charles 
E.  Hora  (?.r.)  ;  William  Vincent  Wallace,  who 
was  a  member  during  the  first  two  years  ; 
Alfred  Boucher,  a  connection  of  Alexandre 
Jean  Boucher  (q.v.) ;  Dr.  Edward  Hodges, 
an  English  Cathedral  musician,  afterwards 
organist  of  Trinity  Church  ;  H.  C.  Timm  and 
William  Scharfenberg,  pianists  of  German  birth 
and  training ;  George  Loder,  a  member  of  the 
English  family  of  musicians  of  that  name  ;  and 
D.  G.  Etienne,  a  French  pianist  who  could  play 
the  horn  when  required.  To  Loder,  who  was 
connected  with  the  Society  throughout  the  first 
decade,  fell  the  honour  of  conducting  the  first 
performance  in  the  United  States  of  Beethoven's 
Choral  Symphony  at  a  concert  of  the  Society 
on  May  20,  1846.  Three  concerts  were  given 
in  the  first  season  (1842-43),  and  the  first 
programme  is  such  excellent  testimony  to  the 
seriousness  of  the  founders'  aims  that  it  deserves 
publication  here. 

Ftrit  dmetrtf  Dec.  7,  1B42— Symphony  No.  5.  In  C  minor,  Beet- 
hoven (oondncted  by  U.  C.  Hill);  .Scoua  from  'Oberou,' Weber 
(MadAine  Otto) ;  Quintet  In  D  minor,  tor  pUnoforte.  violin,  viola, 
violoncello,  and  double-lMisH.  Hummel  (Menrs.  Scharfenberg,  Hill, 
Derwort,  Boucher,  and  Rosier);  Overture  'Oberon,'  Weber,  (con- 
ducted by  Mr.  Etienne) ;  Duet  from '  Armida,'  Botaini  (Madame 
Otto  and  Mr.  C.  £.  Horn) ;  Bcena  f  rr»m '  Fldelio, '  Beethoven  ( Mr.  C.  E. 
Horn) ;  Aria  Bravura,  from  '  The  Seraglio.'  Mourt  (Madame  Otto) ; 
New  Overture  in  D.  KKlllwodu.  (conducted  by  Mr.  Timm>.  The 
orchestra  during  the  vocal  music  waa  directed  by  H.  C.  Timm. 

For  the  next  sixteen  years  four  regular 
concerts  were  given  each  season,  then  for  ten 
years  five.  In  the  twenty-seventh  season  the 
number  was  increased  to  six,  and  this  remained 
the  rule  until  the  fifty-sixth  season,  when  the 
number  was  increased  to  eight.  Out  of  a 
custom  of  admitting  amateurs  to  the  rehearsals 
of  tlie  Society  which  was  inaugurated  in  the 
second  season  there  grew  the  so-called  public 
rehearsals,  which  for  several  decades  differed  in 
nothing  but  name  and  the  time  of  performance 
from  the  regular  concerts.  In  1906  the  title 
*  public  rehearsals  *  was  abandoned  for  *  After- 
noon Concerts.'      This  explains  the  statement. 


heretofore  made,  that  now  the  Society  gives 
sixteen  subscription  concerts  annually.  It  was 
the  custom  during  the  early  years  of  the  Society, 
when  the  president  was  a  professional  musician 
and  necessarily  a  member  of  the  Society,  to 
leave  the  conducting  of  the  concerts  in  his 
hands,  though  for  a  number  of  years  tliat 
official  found  it  expedient  to  share  the  duty 
with  the  leading  members  of  the  Society, 
especially  such  as  were  at  the  head  of  singing 
and  other  musical  societies.  Thus  in  the  first 
season,  though  only  three  concerts  were  given, 
five  members  officiated  at  the  conductor's  desk, 
\'iz:  U.  C.  Hill,  H.  C.  Timm,  W.  Alpei-s, 
Alfred  Boucher,  and  George  Loder.  D.  G. 
Etienne  aided  Hill,  Loder,  and  Alpers  in  the 
second  season.  Two  new  men,  one  of  whom 
was  destined  to  play  an  im|X)rtant  r61e  in  the 
history  of  the  Society,  appeared  in  the  seventh 
season.  They  were  Theodore  Eisfeld,  who 
came  from  Euro^ie  with  experience  gained  in 
conducting  concerts  in  Paris  and  elsewhere ; 
and  Max  Martezek,  whose  real  activities  belonged 
in  the  field  of  opera.  In  Eisfeld's  second  season 
the  directors  changed  their  policy  and  elected 
Eisfeld  sole  director  for  the  season.  In  1854 
Carl  Beromann  was  associated  with  him  and 
H.  C.  Timm,  who  was  then  president,  and 
thereafter  for  ten  years,  save  the  fifteenth  and 
sixteenth  seasons  conducted  solely  by  Eis- 
feld and  the  fourteenth  and  seventeenth  con- 
ducted by  Bergmann,  these  two  men  conducted 
alternately.  Bergmann  was  sole  conductor 
from  1865  to  1876.  Then  came  an  interregnum 
of  three  years  with  Dr.  Leopold  Damrosch, 
Theodore  Thomas,  and  Adolph  Neuendorff  as 
conductors.  JVIr.  Thomas  was  conductor  for 
the  next  twelve  years,  Anton  Seidl  for  the  next 
seven  (holding  the  position  at  the  time  of  his 
death  on  March  28,  1898) ;  and  Emil  Paur 
for  four.  Under  the  artistic  administration  of 
Messrs.  Thomas  and  Seidl,  the  Society  grew 
steadily  in  prosperity  and  reached  its  zenith.  A 
falling  off  in  popular  interest  during  the  Paur 
regimeand  the  one  season,  the  sixty-first,  in  which 
Walter  Damrosch  was  conductor,  led  to  the 
adoption  of  the  custom,  which  had  gained  a 
foothold  in  some  of  the  European  capitals,  of 
engaging  a  different  conductor  for  each  concert, 
instead  of  one  for  the  entire  season.  These 
'guests*  in  the  sixty -second  season  wei-e 
Edouard  Colonne  of  Paris,  Gustav  F.  Kegel  of 
Frankfort,  Henry  J.  Wood  of  London,  Victor 
Herbert  of  Pittsburgh,  Felix  Weingartner  of 
Munich,  and  Richard  Strauss  of  Berlin.  In  the 
sixty- third  season  the  conductors  were  Gustav 
F.  Kogel,  Edouard  Colonne,  Wassili  Safonoff  of 
Moscow,  Felix  Weingartner,  and  Karl  P&nzner 
of  Bremen  ;  Theodore  Thomas,  who  had  also 
accepted  the  invitation  of  the  directors,  died 
before  the  concert  which  he  was  to  conduct,  and 
Herr  Kogel  was  called  back  from  Frankfort  to 
take  his  place.     In  the  sixty-fourth  season  the 


SYMPHONY  CONCERTS  IN  U.S. 


SYMPHONY  CONCERTS  IN  U,S.  805 


Society's  invitation  was  accepted  by  Willem 
Mengelberg  of  Amsteidam,  Victor  Herbert, 
Max  Fiedler  of  Hamburg,  M.  Safonoff,  Dr. 
Ernst  Kunwald  of  Frankfort,  and  Fritz  Stein- 
bach  of  Cologne.  At  the  end  of  this  season  an 
engagement  was  made  ^vith  M.  Safonoff  as  sole 
conductor  for  three  years.  To  carry  out  tliese 
new  policies  a  number  of  public-spirited  citizens 
placed  a  considerable  fund  at  the  service  of  the 
Society. 

(For  a  history  of  the  Society  see  The  Philhar- 
monic  Society  of  New  York,  a  memorial  by 
Henry  Edward  Krehbiel  published  on  the 
occasion  of  the  Fiftieth  Anniversary  of  the 
founding  of  the  Society,  April  1892,  London, 
Novello,  Ewer  k  Co.)  h.  e.  k. 

The  New  York  Symphony  Socieitt.  This 
organisation  is  a  successor,  dejure  if  not  de  facto, 
of  a  Society  of  like  name,  which  was  founded  in 
1878  by  Dr.  Leopold  Damrosch.  During  the 
early  years  of  its  existence  the  New  York 
Symphony  Society  maintained  an  exceedingly 
active  competition  with  the  orchestra  of  Theodore 
Thomas,  and  the  rivalry  of  the  organisations 
had  much  to  do  with  familiarising  the  New- 
York  public  mth  the  works  of  the  German, 
French,  and  Russian  composers  as  fast  as  they 
were  published,  and  even  before,  since  Dr. 
Damrosch  and  Mr.  Thomas  were  both  in  the 
habit  of  securing  manuscript  copies  of  their 
compositions  from  the  leading  authors  of  Europe. 
After  the  death  of  Dr.  Damrosch  in  1886  his 
sou  Walter  succeeded  to  the  conductorship  of 
the  Society,  and  has  remained  its  administrative 
as  well  as  artistic  head  ever  since.  The  Society 
has  passed  through  many  vicissitudes,  and  has 
several  times  appeared  to  be  moribund,  only  to 
be  awakened  to  renewed  life  by  its  energetic 
and  indefatigable  conductor.  The  concerts  were 
permitted  to  lapse  in  1899,  when  Mr.  Damrosch 
devoted  a  year  to  composition  ;  again  when  he 
travelled  with  his  own  opera  company,  and  still 
again  when  he  became  conductor  for  a  season 
(1902-8)  of  the  Philharmonic  Society  of  New 
York  {q.v.)»  Retiring  from  that  post  Mr.  Dam- 
rosch organised  what  for  four  years  was  called 
the  New  York  Symphony  Orchestra,  on  a  co- 
operative basis,  profit  and  loss  being  shared  by 
the  members  of  the  organisation  and  a  committee 
of  guarantors.  The  plan  proved  to  be  unsatis- 
factory, and  in  the  spring  of  1907  the  guarantors 
called  the  old  Symphony  Society  back  to  life, 
and  resolved  to  proceed  mider  the  old  style  and 
in  the  old  manner,  paying  the  players  weekly 
wages  throughout  the  season,  and  assuming  aU 
financial  responsibilities.  At  the  same  time  it 
was  determined  to  increase  the  number  of 
concerts  in  New  York  City  to  twenty-eight, 
half  of  them  to  be  given  on  Sunday  afternoons. 
In  the  season  1906-6  Felix  Weingartner  alter- 
nated with  Mr.  Damrosch  in  conducting  concerts 
in  New  York  and  other  cities  ;  for,  unlike  the 
Philharmonic  Society,  this  band  makes  tours 


to  many  cities  and  towns  in  the  United  States. 
It  also  remains  intact  during  the  summer  months, 
and  provides  music  for  large  and  fashionable 
resorts  near  Philadelphia  and  Chicago,   h.  e.  k. 

People's  Symphony  Concerts  of  New- 
York.  Under  this  title  a  series  of  concerts  are 
annually  given  in  the  chief  American  city  by 
an  orchestra  of  excellent  proportions  and  artistic 
character,  and  with  progi-ammes  of  a  high  class, 
for  which  there  is  little  more  than  a  nominal 
charge  for  admission,  the  prices  varying  from 
ten  cents  to  fifty.  The  concerts  are  also  given 
in  pairs,  first  in  the  large  hall  of  Cooper  Union, 
situated  in  the  densely  i)opulated  district  known 
as  the  East  Side ;  then  in  Carnegie  Hall,  the  home 
of  all  the  fashionable  concerts,  the  purpose  being 
to  reach  all  classes  of  the  people  whose  tastes 
the  concerts  are  designed  to  educate.  Under 
the  title  *The  People's  Symphony  Concerts' 
auxiliary  chamber  concerts  are  also  given  by 
local  combinations  of  players.  All  the  concerts, 
which  were  called  into  being  by  Franz  Xavier 
Arens  in  1902  and  have  been  directed  by  him 
ever  since,  are  given  under  the  auspices  of  an 
organisation  incorporated  under  the  laws  of  the 
State  of  New  York,  and  are  maintained  largely 
by  the  contributions  of  philanthropic  peraons 
interested  in  musical  culture. ,  These  contribu- 
tions range  from  $2600,  which  sum  entitles  the 
donor  to  be  a  founder,  to  a  dollar  a  year. 
Receipts  and  expenses  are  about  $12,000  a  year, 
and  at  the  end  of  1906  the  organisation  had 
a  permanently  invested  fund  of  the  same 
amount.  h.  e.  k. 

Young  People's  Symphony  Concerts  of 
New  York.  For  the  purpose  of  giving  children 
and  young  people  an  opportunity  not  only  to 
hear  standard  symphonic  works  but  also  to 
become  familiar  with  their  structure  and  con- 
tents Frank  Damrosch  organised  an  annual 
series  of  concerts  under  the  above  title  in  1898. 
Apx>reciation  of  the  compositions  is  helped  by 
explanatory  remarks  made  by  the  conductor,  in 
which  the  forms  are  brielly  analysed  and  the 
poetic  contents  suggested,  themes  and  jihrases 
being  played  in  illustration  by  the  orchestra. 
The  concerts  are  given  at  popular  prices,  and 
teachers  and  pupils  of  the  public  schools  of  the 
city  receive  tickets  at  half  price.  Inasmuch  as 
the  orchestral  has  full  symphonic  dimensions, 
that  of  the  New  York  Symphony  Society  being 
employed  and  solo  artists  are  frequently  en- 
gaged, the  expenses  are  not  always  covered, 
though  for  years  all  the  seats  in  Carnegie  Hall 
have  been  subscribed  for,  and  the  resulting  deficit 
is  usually  met  by  private  subscription  of  public- 
spirited  music-level's.  The  management  of  the 
concerts  is  in  the  hands  of  a  small  committee  of 
ladies ;  there  is  no  oflicial  organisation,    h.  e.  k. 

Philadelphia. 

The  Philadelphia  Orchestra,  whose  aftairs 
are  administered  by  the  Philadelphia  Orchestra 


OV/vi     »^x  aIXJ.  xxv/x'i  X      \j\^^t  y^jJdLv^Kj     j.^ 


Association,  aided  by  committees  of  ladies 
from  towns  and  cities  contiguous  to  Phila- 
delphia, was  organised  in  1900.  The  Orchestra 
Association  is  composed  of  about  300  men  and 
women,  prominent  in  social  and  artistic  affairs, 
who  annually  guarantee  the  cost  of  the  enter- 
prise. Until  now  (1908)  the  yearly  losses  have 
ranged  from  $5  0, 000  to  $70, 000,  but  Philadelphia 
has  repeated  the  story  of  Chicago  in  its  self- 
sacrificing  devotion  to  the  ideal  which  it  has  set 
for  itself  in  respect  of  orchestral  music.  The 
history  of  the  Philadelphia  Orchestra  does  not 
differ  essentially  from  that  of  a  number  of  the 
other  institutions  discussed  in  this  article  ; 
though  the  desire  of  the  city's  society  element 
to  have  adequate  performances  of  opera  as  a 
feature  of  the  social  season  was  largely  instru- 
mental in  its  formation.  Readers  of  the  article 
in  this  Dictionary  on  Opera  in  the  U.S.  (vol. 
iii.  pp.  466-472)  will  have  observed  tliat  for  a 
long  time  in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  and  the 
first  decades  of  the  19th  centuries  Philadelphia 
was  a  vigorous  rival  of  New  York  in  operatic 
activity,  but  that  in  the  course  of  time 
supremacy  went  to  the  latter  city.  So  long  as 
Theodore  Thomas  was  a  factor  in  the  orchestral 
music  of  the  eastern  cities,  his  orchestra  gave 
concerts  with  greater  or  less  regularity  in  Phila- 
delphia ;  but  the  abandonment  of  his  individual 
enterprises  in  1891  left  the  music-lovers  of  the 
old  Federal  capital  without  regular  concerts  of 
high-class  orchestral  music  The  Boston  Or- 
chestra, on  its  travels,  supplied  the  want  for 
several  years,  but  could  not  satisfy  the  ambitions 
of  a  city  properly  proud  of  the  part  which  it 
had  played  in  the  political,  commercial,  social, 
and  artistic  history  of  the  country.  In  the 
season  of  1894-95  there  was  something  like  an 
awakening  of  thedormantmusioal  interests  of  the 
city.  In  1895-96  a  conmiittee  was  formed  to 
promote  an  opera  season,  and  a  season  of  opera 
in  English  of  forty  performances  was  ^ven  under 
a  guarantee  with  Mr.  Gustav  Hinrichs  as 
director.  In  the  next  season  Mr.  Walter 
Damrosch  supplied  local  operatic  needs ;  in 
1897-98  Messrs.  Damrosch  and  Ellis,  and 
in  1898-99  Mr.  Charles  Ellis  alone  with  Mr. 
Damrosch  as  conductor  and  director.  There- 
after,, the  local  committee  of  opera  guarantors 
made  annual  arrangements  for  opera  from  year 
to  year  with  Maurioe  Gran  and  Heinrich 
Conried. 

During  this  period  of  operatic  interest  or- 
chestral matters  were  also  in  a  ferment.  While 
Mr.  Hinrichs  was  director  of  the  opera  he  gave 
orchestral  concerts,  and  tried  to  develop  a  sym- 
phonic band  out  of  the  material  which  he  found 
at  hand.  In  the  same  season  the  Musical  Fund 
Society,  an  old  foundation,  created  conditions 
which  made  it  possible  for  a  local  concert  or- 
chestra, the  Germania,  to  increase  the  number 
of  its  members  and  to  give  a  series  of  Friday 
afternoon  concerts  under  the  direction  of  William 


Stoll,  Jr.,  a  well-known  violinist  The  concerts 
of  the  Grermania  continued  for  two  years,  where- 
upon Henry  Gordon  Thunder,  director  of  the 
Philadelphia  Choral  Society,  took  up  the  work 
and  out  of  the  same  material  organised  a  Phila- 
delphia Orchestra  ;  his  concert8,like  those  of  Mr. 
Stoll,  however,  were  tentative  in  character,  and 
served  chiefly  to  disclose  the  inadequacy  of  the 
players.  After  five  years  of  these  praisewortliy 
but  futile  efforts  a  number  of  the  most  prominent 
men  and  women  in  social  and  musical  circles 
formed  the  Orchestral  Association.  Some  of 
the  foremost  workers  in  the  new  enterprise 
were  tlie  cultivated  amateurs  who  had  formed  a 
'  Symphony  Society  of  Philadelphia '  in  1893, 
with  Dr.  W.  W.  Gilchrist  as  conductor ;  this 
Society  gave  concerts  from  time  to  time  until 
the  new  orchestra,  a  brief  forerunner  of  the 
present  organisation,  appeared  on  the  field. 
This  new  orchestra  gave  two  concerts  in  the 
spring  of  1900  with  Fritz  Scheel  as  conductor. 
Mr.  Scheel  had  been  an  assistant  to  Dr.  von  Billow 
in  Hamburg,  and  was  a  man  of  fine  musical  parts 
and  splendid  energy.  The  success  of  the  two  con- 
certs was  such  as  to  induce  the  Association  to 
send  him  abroad  to  recruit  the  orchestoi,  and 
make  of  it  a  first-class  symphonic  oi^ganisation. 
The  first  regular  season  of  the  newly  recruited 
orchestra  was  given  in  1900-1,  and  from  that 
time  till  his  death  in  February  1907,  Air. 
Scheel  remained  conductor  of  the  band  ;  he  ^ras 
succeeded  in  the  season  of  1907-8  by  Karl 
Pohlig.  The  Philadelphia  Orchestra  does  not 
confine  its  ministrations  to  Philadelphia,  but 
besides  twenty  afternoon  and  twenty  evening 
concerts  there,  gives  concerts  each  year  in  other 
neighbouring  towns  and  cities,  such  as  Wil- 
mington, Del.,  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  Trenton,  N.J., 
Easton,  Pa.,  Reading,  Pa.,  Baltimore  and 
Washington.  M.  e.  k. 

Pittsburgh. 

Pittsburgh  Symphony  Orchestra.  The 
incentive  to  organise  a  permanent  concert 
orchestra  in  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania,  came 
with  Andrew  Carnegie's  gift  to  the  city  of  a 
building  that  should  contain  a  library,  art 
gallery,  museum,  and  music  hall.  The  building 
was  dedicated  in  1895,  and  the  Art  Society 
undertook  to  raise  funds  to  support  an  orchestra 
for  three  years.  The  first  season  of  the  Or> 
chestra  was  begun  on  Feb.  27,  1896.  Frederic 
Archer  was  conductor.  Twenty  concerts 
were  given  that  year  in  Pittsburgh,  and  in 
the  two  years  following,  twenty  in  Httsbnzgh 
and  in  other  towns,  seven  in  the  season  1896-97, 
and  five  in  1897-98.  Mr.  Archer  was  chiefly 
known  as  an  organist,  but  he  had  had  some  ex- 
perience in  the  English  provinces  as  a  conductor. 
He  was  succeeded  as  conductor  by  Victor  Hkr- 
bert  in  1898.  In  the  season  of  1898-99  the  con- 
certs given  numbered  twenty  in  Pittsburgh  and 
nine  in  other  places.  The  next  season  the  number 


SYMPSON 


SYREN 


807 


in  the  regular  aeries  was  increased  to  thirty -six, 
and  sa  it  remained  for  the  next  five  years.  At 
the  same  time  the  Orchestra  entered  upon  a 
much  greater  activity  in  giving  concerts  outside 
of  Pittsburgh.  Tours  were  undertaken,  and  the 
concerts  varied  in  number  from  twenty-seven  to 
forty- five.  In  1904  Mr.  Herbert  was  succeeded 
by  Emil  Paur,  who  for  five  years,  from  1893  to 
1898,  had  been  conductor  of  the  Boston  Sym- 
phony Orchestra.  The  nimiber  of  concerts  in 
the  Pittsburgh  season  was  reduced  to  thirty  ; 
but  in  that  season  forty-three  concerts  were 
given  in  other  cities  and  towns  and  eighty -five 
in  the  season  of  1905-6. 

From  the  beginning  the  Art  Society  of  Pitts- 
burgh has  been  responsible  for  the  Orchestra ; 
but  it  has  asked  of  the  public  guarantees  of  a 
fixed  sum  in  periods  of  three  years,  each  repre- 
senting the  teim  for  which  the  conductor  is 
engaged.  The  first  year  the  total  guarantee 
was  125,000.  Each  year  the  sum  has  been  in- 
creased, until  for  the  three-year  term  beginning 
with  the  season  of  1904-5  the  amount  was 
$40,000  a  year.  At  no  time  in  the  history 
of  the  organisation  has  it  been  necessary 
to  ask  the  guarantors  to  pay  the  maximum  of 
their  subscriptions,  but  the  deficit  in  the  first 
eleven  years  was  over  $250,000.  It  is  not 
expected  that  the  Orchestra  shall  pay  expenses  ; 
in  fact,  the  Committee  of  the  Art  Society  has 
declared  that  its  maintenance  ought  to  be 
regarded  as  an  obligation  upon  the  public- 
spirited  and  well-to-do  citizens  of  Pittsburgh. 
The  out-of-town  concerts  have  formed  an  in- 
creasingly important  part  of  the  activities  of 
the  Orchestra,  and  through  them  its  influence 
has  been  great  in  Cleveland,  Buffalo,  Toledo, 
and  Detroit,  and  particularly  in  Toronto  and 
other  Canadian  cities  and  to^'ns.  As  at  pre- 
sent (1908)  constituted,  the  Orchestra  numbers 
sixty-five  players.  R.  a. 

SYMPSON,  Christopher.  See  Simpson, 
antCy  pp.  455-456. 

SYNCOPATION.  [An  alteration  of  regular 
rhythm,  produced  by  placing  the  strongest 
emphasis  on  part  of  the  bar  not  usually  accented. 
In  a  bar  of  common  time,  the  simplest  form  of 
syncoi>ation  is  produced  by  giving  three  notes 
of  the  value  of  a  crotchet,  a  minim,  and  a  crotchet 
respectively.  This  last  crotchet  is  often  tied 
on  to  the  first  crotchet  of  the  next  bar,  so 
that  for  several  bars  the  displaced  accentuation 
obtains  the  mastery.  The  fourth  species  of 
Strict  Counterpoint  (see  aiUe,  p.  724)  is  in 
in  syncopation.]  In  the  Coda  of  the  great 
Overture  '  Leonora  No.  8 '  Beethoven  has  a 
passage  given  out  syncopated  on  the  wind 
and  naturally  on  the  strings,  then  ttux  versa. 
It  was  not,  however,  always  sufficient  for 
Beethoven's  requirements,  as  may  be  seen 
from  a  well-known  place  in  the  Scherzo  of 
the  Eroica,  where  he  first  gives  a  passage  in 
syncopation — 


ffiPfr     r  :_^^E: 


^E^^ 


=PIP==II 


and  then  repeats  it  in  common  time,  which  in 
this  instance  may  be  taken  as  an  extreme  form 
of  syncopation. 


Schumann  was  fonder  of  syncopation  than 
any  other  composer.  His  works  supply  many 
instances  of  whole  short  movements  so  synco- 
pated throughout  that  the  ear  loses  its  reckon- 
ing, and  the  impression  of  contra-tempo  is  lost : 
e.g.  Kindersceuen,  No.  10 ;  Faschingsschwank, 
No.  1,  and,  most  noticeable  of  all,  the  opening 
bar  of  the  *  Manfred '  Overture. 


Wagner  has  one  or  two  examples  of  exceed- 
ingly complex  syncopation  :  an  accompaniment 
figure  in  Act  2  of  *  Tristan  und  Isolde,'  which 
runs  thus  throughout 


Andante. 


and  a  somewhat  similar  figure  in  Act  1  of  '  Got- 
terdammerung '  (the  scene  known  as  '  Hagen's 
watch '),  where  the  quavers  of  a  12-8  bar  are 
so  tied  as  to  convey  the  impression  of  6-4. 
The  prelude  to  Act  2  of  the  same  work  presents 
a  still  more  curious  specimen,  no  two  bars 
having  at  all  the  same  accent. 

MoUo  Moderaio.    .  . 


^mmmm 


[The  figure  at  the  beginning  of  Tchaikovsky's 
string  quartet  in  D,  op.  11,  is  an  interesting 
instance  of  syncopation  carried  out  for  many 
bars  at  a  time. 


^^^^^ 


Brahms's  favourite  device  of  crossing  rhythms 
in  triple  time  is  not  usually  called  syncojta- 
tion,  thougli  it  belongs  to  the  same  class  of 
devices  i  k.  c. 

SYNTAGMA  MUSICUM.  See  Praetorius, 
vol.  iii.  pp.  805-808. 

SYREN.     [See  Siren,  ante,  p.  471.] 


808 


SYRINX 


SZYMANOWSKA 


SYRINX.  [See  Pandean  Pipe,  vol.  iii. 
pp.  611,  612.] 

SYSTEM .  The  collection  of  staves  necessary 
for  the  complete  score  of  a  piece — in  a  string 
quartet,  or  an  ordinary  vocal  score,  four  ;  a 
PF.  trio,  four  ;  a  PF.  quartet,  five  ;  and  so  on. 
Two  or  more  of  these  will  go  on  a  page,  and 
then  we  speak  of  the  upper  or  lower  system, 
etc.  G. 

SZARVADY,  Madame.  See  Clauss-Szar- 
VADY,  vol.  i.  p.  548,  and  add  date  of  death, 
in  Paris,  Sept.  1,  1907. 

SZYMANOWSKA,  Marie,  a  distinguished 
pianist  of  her  day,  who  would,  however,  hardly 
have  been  remembered  but  for  Goethe's  infatua- 
tion for  her.  She  was  born  about  1790,  of 
Polish  parents  named  Wolowski,  and  was  a 
pupil  of  John  Field's  at  Moscow.  She  travelled 
much  in  Germany,  France,  and  England,  and 
died  at  St.  Petersburg  of  cholera  in  August  1831. 
One  of  her  daughters  married  the  famous  Polish 
poet  Mickiewicz,  whom  she  had  introduced  to 
Goethe  in   July  1829.     Goethe  knew  her  as 


early  as  1821,  and  even  then  overpraised  her, 
setting  her  above  Hummel  ;  *  but  those  who 
do  so,'  says  Felix  Mendelssohn,  who  was  then 
at  Weimar,*  *  think  more  of  her  pretty  face 
than  her  not  pretty  playing.'  Goethe  renewed 
the  acquaintance  in  August  1823,  at  Eger,  where 
she  and  Anna  Milder  were  both  staying,  calls 
her  'an  incredible  player,'  and  expresses  his 
excitement  at  hearing  music  after  an  interval 
of  over  two  years  in  a  remarkable  letter  to 
Zelter  of  August  24,  1823,  again  comparing  her 
with  Hummel,  to  the  latter's  disadvantage. 
Mme.  Szymanowska  appears  to  have  helped  to 
inspire  the  *Trilogie  der  Leidenschaft,'  and  the 
third  of  its  three  poems,  called  '  Aiissiihmmg,' 
is  a  direct  allusion  to  her.  In  1824  she  wa.<%  in 
Berlin.  *She  is  furiously  in  love  (rasend 
verliebt)  with  you,*  says  Zelter  to  the  poet, 
*and  has  given  me  a  hundred  kisses  on  my 
mouth  for  you.' 

Her  compositions  were  chiefly  for  the  PF., 
with  a  few  songs.  o. 

>  aoetke  and  Mendel$»okn,  p.  SS. 


4 


END   OP   VOL.   IV 


Printed  by  R.  &  R.  Clark,  Limited,  Edinburgh, 


ADDENDA  ET  COBRIGENDA  FOR  VOL.  in 


P.  6,  art  MacDOWELL,  add  that  he  died 
at  New  York,  Jan.  24,  1907. 

P.  9,  art  MACKENZIE,  eecond  column, 
line  81,  /or  *F.  N.  Jewson'  read  *F.  B. 
Jewson.' 

P.  12,  art.  MACPHERSON,  /or  'Charles 
Stewart'  read  *  Stewart.* 

P.  16,  art.  MADRIGAL,  line  7  from  end  of 
first  column, /or  *  merchant  *  read  *  choirman  of 
St  Paul's.' 

P.  17,  same  article,  lines  2-3  of  first  column, 
for  'Sacred  Harmonic  Society'  read  *  Royal 
College  of  Music' 

P.  18,  art  MADRIGAL  SOCIETY,  line  6, 
for  'Europe*  read  'London.  The  Hibernian 
Catch  Club  is  said  to  be  the  oldest  society  in 
Europe.' 

P.  19,  same  article,  line  8  from  end  of  second 
column,  for  *  Mr.*  read  *  Dr.* 

P.  36,  art  MALIBRAN,  lines  3-4  of  first 
column,  for  *  The  Morley  Arms,  Matlock,*  read 
'The  Mosley  Hotel,  Manchester.' 

P.  38,  art  MANCINELLI,  last  line  but 
one,  for  'oratorio'  read  'cantata,'  and  add 
that  his  opera,  '  Paolo  e  Francesca,'  was  produced 
at  Bologna,  Nov.  11,  1907. 

P.  43,  art  MANNS,  line  26  of  first  column, 
for  '  1847  '  read  '  1857.'  At  end  add  date  of 
death,  March  1,  1907. 

P.  53,  art.  MARCHESI,  add  at  end  that  he 
died  in  Paris,  Feb.  20,  1908. 

P.  58,  art  MARIO,  as  to  the  date  of  birth, 
the  register  of  his  baptism  in  the  cathedral  of 
Santa  Cecilia  at  Cagliari,  Oct  18,  1810, 
supports  the  date  given  by  Baker. 

P.  59,  same  article,  line  4  from  end,  add 
that  his  farewell  appearance  took  place  at 
Coven t  Garden  in  1871,  in  'La  Favorita.* 

P.  62,  art.  MARSCHNER,  line  35  of  first 
column,  add  tliat  '  Hans  Heiling  *  was  produced 
at  Berlin,  not  Hanover, 

P.  65,  art.  MARTIN,  Su-  G.  C,  line  19, 
dele  the  first  words  'and  Evening.* 

P.  102,  art  MEIBOM,  last  line  but  two,  for 
'  Jais  *  read  '  Jan.  * 

P.  152,  art.  MENDELSSOHN,  line  16  of 
first  column,  for  *  1466  *  read  '  146a.' 


P.  181,  art  MERSENNUS,  line  16,  add 
that  his  most  important  work  is  Harmonie 
Universelle  (1636),  as  mentioned  at  the  end  of 
the  article.  Line  6  from  end,  dele  '  TraicU  de 
rorgite  (1685),'  as  that  is  part  of  the  Harmome 
Universelle, 

P.  200,  art.  MIDAS,  line  9,  add  that  it  was 
played  privately  at  Lurgan  in  1760,  and  brought 
out  at  the  Crow  Street  Theatre,  Dublin,  Jan.  22, 
1762.      w.  H.  G.  F. 

P.  201,  art  MIDSUMMER  NIGHT'S 
DREAM,  last  line  but  two,  for  *  Sunday  *  read 
'Saturday.' 

P.  243,  art  MONK,  E.  G.,  line  16,  f(yr 
'  Collins 'rearf  'Calkin.' 

P.  258,  art  MOOREHEAD,  line  16,  f(yr 
'  1880  '  read  *  1800.' 

P.  262,  art.  MORITZ,  Landgraf  of  Hesse- 
Cassel,  for  an  account  of  Dowland's  visit,  see 
vol.  i.  p.  726a,  and  Peacham's  ComplecU  Gentle- 
man (1634),  p.  99,  for  a  tribute  to  the  Land- 
grafs  skill 

P.  278,  art  MOUNTAIN,  add  that  in  1751 
he  was  one  of  the  Rotunda  Band  in  Dublin, 
and  in  1766-85  was  leader  of  the  Dublin  City 
Music.  He  was  appointed  to  Covent  Garden 
in  1 794  in  succession  to  Baumgarten.     w.  h.  o.  f. 

P.  316,  art.  MttHLFELD,  add  date  of  death, 
June  1,  1907. 

P.  318,  art.  MUFFAT,  the  date  of  'Com- 
ponimenti  musicali'  is  shown  by  Mr.  P. 
Robinson,  of  Rusholme,  Manchester,  to  be  a 
good  deal  later  than  1727.  The  Grand  Duke 
of  Tuscany  referred  to  in  the  title  did  not 
become  Grand  Duke  till  July  1787,  and  was 
not  even  selected  (provisionally)  till  Oct.  1735. 
As  the  Emperor  died  in  1740,  we  get  1735  and 
1740  as  the  extreme  limits. 

P.  325,  art  MUSIC- PRINTING,  line  19 
from  end  of  first  column,  for '  changed  his  name 
to'  read  'was  followed  by.* 

P.  327,  same  article,  lines  4-8  from  end  of 
second  column,  the  sentence  in  square  brackets 
refers  to  the  first  use  of  lithography  in  English 
music-printing  ;  Alois  Senefelder,  the  inventor 
of  lithography,  printed  music  from  the  first,  i.e, 
about  1796  ;  he  was  connected  with  the  firm 


ADDENDA  ET  CORRIGENDA  FOR  VOL.  Ill 


of  Andr^  at  Offenbach.  See  the  notice  of 
Senefelder  in  the  Allgem.  Deutsche  Biographie. 

P.  837,  art  MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS, 
COLLECTIONS  OF,  in  the  list  in  second  column, 
Leyden,  now  in  section  6,  under  Germany, 
should  be  placed  in  section  7,  under  Hol- 
land. 

P.  347,  art.  NXGELI,  in  the  second  line  of  the 
musical  illustration  in  first  column,  add  a  bass 
clef  before  the  last  chord. 

P.  349,  art  NANINI,  G.  M.,  add  that  a 
bibliography  of  his  works  is  in  the  Kirchen- 
mugikaluches  Jahrbtuh  for  1891 ;  see  the  same 
publication  for  1898,  p.  29. 

P.  852,  art  NAPRAVNIK,  line  2,  far 
*  12/29*  read  '12/24.* 

P.  363,  art  NERUDA,  line  11  of  second 
column,  add  that  Ludwig  Norman  died  in 
1885. 

P.  387,  art  NOEL,  line  13  from  end  of 
article, /or* J.  L.  Hotton* read  'J.  C.  Hotton.' 

P.  892,  art  NORWICH  FESTIVAL,  add 
that  a  reference  to  Annals  of  the  Norfolk  and 
Norwich  Triennial  Musical  Festivals  by  R.  H. 
Legge  and  W.  E  Hansell,  1896. 

P.  412,  art  NOVELLO,  add  that  Clara 
Novello  (Countess  GiglincciWied  at  Rome,  March 
12,  1908. 

P.  416,  art  OAKELEY,  add  that  he  died 
at  Eastbourne. 

P.  421,  art  OBOE  D'AMORE,  add  that  it 
is  used  in  the  score  of  Strauss's  *  Heldenleben. ' 

P.  448,  art.  OPERA,  line  26  of  second  column, 
dele  the  words  *  though  he  was  by  birth  an 
Italian.' 

P.  483,  art  ORATORIO,  line  29  from  end 
of  second  colnmn,/or  '  Friedmann '  read  *  Friede- 
mann.' 

P.  672,  art.  O'SULLIVAN,  add  that  he 
died  at  Columbus,  Ohio,  Feb.  1,  1908. 

P.  677,  art.  OUSELEY,  first  line  of  second 
column,  for  *  Church '  read  '  College.* 

P.  696,  art  PAGANINI,  line  6  from  end  of 
second  column,  for  *T.  B.  Cramer'  read 
*J.  B.  Cramer.' 

P.  620,  art.  PARISIAN  SYMPHONY,  Une 
9  from  end  of  second  column,  for  *  1788 '  read 
1778.' 

P.  626,  art  PARRY,  line  4  from  end  of 
second  column,  for  *  1866 '  read  '  1886.'  Add 
that  Parry  was  compelled,  through  ill-health, 
to  resign  the  Oxford  Professorship  in  1908. 

P.  630,  art  PART- BOOKS,  line  27  of 
second  column,  for  *  1560 '  read  *  1667,'  and 
three  lines  below,  for  *  1606 '  read  *  1614.' 

P.  643,  art  PASSACAGLIA,  add  that 
Rheinberger  wrote  an  example  in  which  the 
theme  appears  on  successive  degrees  of  the 
scale,  and  Arensky  devised  one  of  six  crotchets 
in  6-4  time,  so  that  each  note  in  turn  receives 
the  accent 

P.  664,  art.  PATRICK,  Richard,  the 
service  referred  to  in  lines  8-6  is  by  Nathaniel 


Patrick,    organist  of  Worcester  Cathedral   in 
1597. 

P.  663,  art.  PEDAL,  line  11, /or  *  1785* 
read  *  1772.' 

P.  677,  art.  PERGOLESI,  in  list  of  worics. 
Section  III.,  add  another  'Laudate  pueri'  for 
canto  solo,  vocal  quartet,  strings  and  wind,  the 
MS.  of  which  is  in  the  Santini  Library. 

P.  679,  art  PERI,  line  22  from  end  of  article, 
add  that  Peri  died  in  1683.  Two  lines  below, 
add  that  some  numbers  of  '  Dafne '  were  dis- 
covered at  Brussels. 

P.  680,  art  PERIODICALS,  MUSICAL, 
line  4  of  article,  dele  *  small. '  Line  1 8  of  second 
column,  for  *  March  10  *  read  *  M.arch  18.* 

P.  681,  same  article,  line  6  of  first  column, 
for  '1847 'read  '1862.'  Line  30  of  second 
column,  for  *  8vo  '  read  *  quarto.' 

P.  683,  same  article,  line  7  of  second  column, 
for  *  monthly '  read  '  weekly.' 

P.  684,  same  article,  line  7  of  first  column, 
add  that  the  Irish  Musical  Monthly  existed  from 
March  1902  to  Feb.  1908. 

P.  696,  art.  PFEIFFER,  G.  J.,  add  that  he 
died  in  Paris,  Feb.  14,  1908. 

P.  707,  art  PHILIPS,  line  22  from  end  of 
second  column,  add  that  another  arrangement  of 
the  same  pavan,  entitled  *  Wy  Engelen  gret,'  is  in 
W.  Swart's  *  Den  Liist-Hof  der  nieuwe  Mnsycke ' 
(Amsterdam,  1603),  p.  38. 

P.  709,  at  end  of  same  article,  add  that  a 
volume  of  masses  was  published  posthumously, 
(see  the  Ktrchenmusikalisehes  Jahrbuchy  1899, 
p.  89).  This  is  identical  with  a  book  entered 
in  a  list  of  the  musical  Library  of  John  IV., 
King  of  Portugal  (1649),  as  No.  699  :— 'Mii»aa 
y  Salmos  .  .  .  a  8  &  9  .  .  .  Obras  posta- 
mas.'  After  this  comes  a  volume  of  '  Mottetea 
...  a  8,  2  partes,'  also  described  as  posthu- 
mous works,  though  it  seems  doubtful  whether 
an  eight-part '  Cantiones  sacrae '  of  1613  be  not 
intended.  Of  the  Masses  and  Psalms  no  copy 
is  at  present  known  to  exist. 

P.  723,  art  PIANOFORTE,  line  21  of  second 
column,  add  that  J.  C.  Bach  published  a  Sonata 
for  the  Battle  of  Rosbach,  'pour  le  Clavecin 
ou  Forte-Piano,' about  1767-68,  not  later  than 
the  latter  year. 

P.  732,  same  article,  lines  16-17  of  second 
column,  for  the  title  of  C.  P.  E.  Bach's  treatise, 
read  '  Fersueh  iiber  die  toahre  Art  das  Clavier 
zuspielen,* 

P.  796,  art  PORTMAN,  Richahd,  add 
that  he  taught  the  virginals  in  1651,  and  that  in 
1666  he  is  mentioned  as  having  recently  died. 
(Quellen'Lexikon, ) 

P.  816,  art  PROFESSOR,  line  8  from  end 
of  first  column,  for  '  1 847 '  read  '1845.'  Line 
13-19  of  second  column,  this  sentence  refers 
to  the  condition  of  the  professorship  in  former 
times,  the  present  Professor  not  being  expected 
to  live  in  Dublin,  or  to  conduct  the  Choral 
Society. 


for  1894,  with  a  diary  kept  by  Proske  while  in 
Italy. 

P.  832,  art.  PSALTER,  line  26  from  end  of 
first  column,  for  *  psalms  *  rtad  •  compositions.' 

P.  833,  line  6  of  second  column,  add  that 
between  1650  and  1558  six  editions  of  Stem- 
hold  were  printed. 

P.  888,  footnote  3,  for  *  The  unique  copy ' 
read  *The  copy  consulted.* 

P.  834,  line  9  from  end  of  second  column, /<?r 
'  two  Interesting  attempts '  read  *  a  most  in- 
teresting attempt '  Line  6  from  end,  for  *  One ' 
read  *  It.'  Line  5  from  end,  dele  *  the  other  to 
the  68th.'     For  '  In  both '  read  *  Here.' 

P.  885,  col.  1,  after  the  title  of  the  1560 
edition  add  the  reference  to  footnote  1,  and  add 
'The  same  title,  practically  word  for  word, 
appears  in  the  English  edition  of  1561,  the  only 
known  copy  of  which  is  in  the  library  of  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries,'  etc.  Line  5  from  end 
of  column  remove  the  footnote  reference  after 
the  word  'afterwards.'  Line  4  from  end, /or 
'  this  work '  read  *  the  edition  of  1 560.' 

P.  885,  second  column,  lines  8-4, /or  '  forty- 
four,  of  which  twenty- three '  read  *  forty-two, 
of  which  twenty- four.'  Line  7, /or  *  five '  read 
•six.'  Line  10,  after  '180th'  add  *60th, 
127th,  129th,  and  "Commandaments."'  Omit 
lines  18-19  of  same  paragraph.  Line  8  before 
the  musical  example,  for  *  sixty-three '  read 
'  sixty- two.'    Same  line,  for  *  twenty-two '  read 

*  twenty- four.'  The  harmonised  version  of 
Ps.  100  in  the  same  column  is  from  Claudin  le 
Jeune's  collection,  Leyden,  1633. 

P.  886,  column  1,  lines  3-4,  omit  the  sentence 
beginning  'The  145th,'  and  add  the  footnote 
reference  at  the  end  of  the  paragraph. 

P.  837,  line  13  of  first  column,  for  'the 
unique  copy  is  in  the  John  Ryland '  read  '  a 
copy  is  in  the  John  Ry lands.'  Line  2  below 
the  title  of  1562  edition,  after  'sixty-five'  add 
'including  a  few  duplicates.*     Same  line, /or 

*  1 4  '  read  *  10,'  and  in  the  next  line,/or '  Seven' 
read  '  Nine.'  Lines  6-12,  below  the  same  title, 
omit  the  sentences  from  '  Nothing  more  has 
been  taken '  down  to  '  set  to  similar  words.' 


of  1570,  1573,  1583,  1584,  1588,  1590.' 

P.  839,  second  column,  in  the  title  of 
Daman's    1579    psalter,  for   'Damon'   read 

*  Daman '  and  for  *  unseemly '  read '  unseemely.' 

P.  840,  first  column,  line  28,  omit  '  four.' 
Omit  also  note  1  on  same  page. 

P.  840,  second  column,  in  the  titl0  of 
Daman's  second  book,  for  '  differing  from  the 
former  in  respect  that'  read  'in  which  Sett.' 
After  the  title,  line  7,  for  'Twelve'  read 
'Fourteen,'  line  8, /or  'one'  read  'five,'  and 
for  'in  single  common  measure'  read  'among 
them  the  tune,'  etc.  Line  10  from  end  of  same 
column,  for  'twenty-nine'  read  'thirty-one.' 
Line  9   from  end,  for   'twenty-seven  '  read 

*  twenty-six. '    Line  3  from  end,  for  '  Five '  read 
'Four.' 

P.  841,  lines  2  and  3  of  first  column,  omit 
the  words  '  two '  and  '  London  and.'  Same 
column,  line  16,  for  '  two  *  read  *  three.' 

P.  842,  second  column,  line  25,  for  'five' 
read  'four.'  line  26,  for  'three*  read 
'two.* 

P.  848,  line  5  after  title  in  first  column,  omit 
'  forty. '  Line  15  from  end  of  same  column,  for 
'100'  read  '105,'  and  for  '88'  read  '28.' 
Line  12  from  end,  for  '  31 '  read  '  a  large  pro- 
portion.' Line  11  from  end,  for  '  Douland  and 
Hooper  have  each '  read '  Douland  has. '  Second 
column  after  musical  example,  line  7,  for  *Cran- 
ford,  2,'  read  'Oranford,  1,*  and  a  line  below, 
for  ' Ravenscroft,  48,*  read  'Martin  Pierson,  1, 
and  Ravenscroft,  51.' 

P.  844,  line  10  of  second  column,  for  *  1686 ' 
read  *  1688,*  and  for  the  first  words  of  the  title, 
read  'A  paraphrase  upon  the  Divine  Poems,' 
etc. 

P.  845,  after  title  of  Playford's  psalms, 
in  first  column,  line  2,  for  '  tiirty-five '  read 
'  thirty- four. '  Line  5  after  title,  after  *  Church 
tunes*  add  *  one  from  Wither.'  Line  27  after 
title,  for  *  one  other,  not  a  Church  tune,*  read 
'Southwell,  and  the  Lamentations.'  For  the 
first  line  after  the  title  in  the  second  column, 
read  '  Apart  from  the  reasons  given  by  Playford 
for  setting  the  tunes.* 


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