Guidelines for monitoring shore protection structures in the Great Lakes

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(my-hoe9-Soo)
Guidelines for Monitoring Shore
Protection Structures in the Great Lakes

MISCELLANEOUS PAPER 2-75
| FEBRUARY 1975

AEN |
pOCUME i)
COLLECTION /

Approved for public release;
distribution unlimited

U.S. ARMY, CORPS OF ENGINEERS
COASTAL ENGINEERING

os RESEARCH CENTER

450
Weg Kingman Building
we. 2-75) Fort Belvoir Va. 22060

Reprint or republication of any of this material shall give appropriate
credit to the U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Center.

Limited free distribution within the United States of single copies of
this publication has been made by this Center. Additional copies are
available from:

National Technical Information Service
ATTN: Operations Division

5285 Port Royal Road

Springfield, Virginia 22151

The findings in this report are not to be construed as an official
Department of the Army position unless so designated by other
authorized documents.

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Miscellaneous Paper

6. PERFORMING ORG. REPORT NUMBER

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GUIDELINES FOR MONITORING SHORE PROTECTION
STRUCTURES IN THE GREAT LAKES

7. AUTHOR(s)

10. PROGRAM ELEMENT, PROJECT, TASK

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
AREA & WORK UNIT NUMBERS

Department of the Army
Coastal Engineering Research Center (CEREN-EV)
Kingman Building, Fort Belvoir, VA 22060

B 31238
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February 1975

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Coastal Engineering Research Center
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Great Lakes Shore Protection Structures Revetments
Shore Erosion Groins Breakwaters
Seawalls

20. ABSTRACT (Continue on reverse side if necesaary and identify by block number)
The extent of wave damage to shores is difficult to predict; it is

advisable to observe the behavior of the shore to determine if some protective
action is required. After installation of a shore protection structure it is
important to continue monitoring shore behavior; and also to inspect for
structural changes to determine if the structure is functioning as designed.
Optimum and minimum plans for recording shoreline changes and monitoring groins,
seawalls, revetments, and offshore breakwaters are given. Simple shore erosion
computations and a data analysis program are presented.

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PREFACE

This report is published to assist in the collection of reliable,
quantitative data on the behavior of shore erosion control structures
in the Great Lakes. Although these guidelines are oriented for use
in the Great Lakes, many features are applicable to any coastal zone.
The work in preparing these guidelines was carried out under the coastal
construction research program of the U.S. Army Coastal Engineering
Research Center (CERC).

This report was prepared by the staff of the Engineering Develop-
ment Division of CERC. Special acknowledgment is expressed to Messrs.
Dennis W. Berg and Adrian J. Combe III for their technical contributions
to these guidelines. The guidelines were reviewed in the early stage
of preparation by the U.S. Army Engineer Division, North Central,

Corps of Engineers; comments and suggestions from the Division Engineer,
North Central, were incorporated into the final report.

The Coastal Engineering Research Center and its predecessor, the
Beach Erosion Board, have published numerous technical papers concerning
coastal engineering and the oceanographic forces which affect the coast.
Information and copies of these publications may be obtained from:

National Technical Information Service (NTIS)
ATTN: Operations Division

5285 Port Royal Road

Springfield, Virginia 22151

Prices vary according to age and size of publication. Microfiche copies
are $2.25, hard copies are $3.00 to $6.00. Requestors should write
NTIS for titles and price quotations.

Comments on this publication are invited.

Approved for publication in accordance with Public Law 166, 79th
Congress, approved 31 July 1945, as supplemented by Public Law 172, 88th
Congress, approved 7 November 1963.

Colonel, Corps of Engineers
Commander and Director

I INTRODUCTION .
II METHODS FOR RECORDING SHORELINE CHANGES
III MONITORING SHORE PROTECTION STRUCTURES ......
IV COMPUTATION OF SHORELINE CHANGES .
V DATA ANALYSIS
VI CONCLUDING REMARKS .
LITERATURE CITED .
APPENDIX
A GLOSSARY OF SELECTED COASTAL ENGINEERING TERMS .
B ALTERNATIVE SHORE PROTECTION METHODS DATA SHEET
TABLES
i Mitoneoulby ehyenreyye) Neue NEWENS 6966 6 55 6 6 6
2 Maintenance requirements for shore protection structure
3 Categories of upland shore types .
FIGURES
1 Schematic plan; optimum shoreline surveillance program .
2 Schematic plan; minimum shoreline surveillance program .
3 Typical distance measurements
4 Schematic plan; optimum groin surveillance program .
5 Schematic plan; minimum groin surveillance program .
6 Schematic plan; optimum revetment surveillance program .
7 Schematic plan; minimum revetment surveillance program .

CONTENTS

Page

10

Ad

10

11

CONTENTS

FIGURES-Continued

Schematic plan; optimum breakwater surveillance program
Schematic plan; minimum breakwater surveillance program
Example of profiles and volumetric change computation

U.S. Army Engineer Division and District boundaries
and offices for the Great Lakes (North Central)

20

24

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Da ma a

GUIDELINES FOR MONITORING SHORE PROTECTION STRUCTURES
IN THE GREAT LAKES

I. INTRODUCTION

In recent years increased rates of shore erosion in the Great Lakes
have resulted from unusually high water levels, although erosion may
continue at any level of the lakes (Berg, 1965). Erosion is especially
critical where the shore is characterized by narrow beaches backed by
bluffs or high dunes. Landslides often result on this type of shore
when high waves, caused by storms over the lake, attack the base of
bluffs or dunes. The landslide material that falls onto the beach or
nto the water is then attacked by the waves; since most of this
material is generally fine it is moved offshore and alongshore, out of
the area. An irretrievable loss of consolidated land results and
potential loss of buildings and associated development is threatened.

If the loss of land is too costly or the shoreline is retreating too
fast, it may be necessary to install some type of shore protection
structure to prevent complete loss of upland development. The Coastal
Engineering Research Center (CERC) has published a comprehensive manual
concerned with designing coastal structures for shore stabilization or
Navigation improvement (U.S. Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engi-
neering Research Center, 1973).

Alternative shore protection methods for a given problem are presented
along with construction guidelines in a Help Yourself brochure recently
published by the U.S. Army Engineer Division, North Central!.

Since the extent of damage caused by waves is difficult to predict,
it is advisable to monitor the behavior of the lakeshore after construc-
tion of a protective structure. In this way the effectiveness of the
shore protection can be determined. To ensure best results from a
monitoring program, the method used to determine erosion rates and per-
formance of the protective structure must be systematic. These guide--.
lines provide methods for determining changes in location of the shore
and bluff, and for analyzing the effectiveness of various types of
structures which may be installed. The guidelines are intended for use
by city, county, and State agencies in setting up and managing data
collection on the behavior of shore erosion control structures. A
glossary of terms is iricluded in Appendix A.

II. METHODQ FOR RECORDING SHORELINE CHANGES

An optimum program for recording shoreline changes is to survey
profiles near property lines and at the center of the property using
Standard surveying techniques (Allen, 1931; Ruby, Lommel, and Todd, 1950;

IThis brochure may be obtained free of charge by writing to: Department
of the Army, North Central Division, Corps of Engineers, 536 S. Clark
Street, Chicago, Illinois 60605.

Breed, Hosmer, and Bone, 1958) three times each year on a regular sche-
dule in addition to surveys after major storms (Fig. 1). Historical
profile data, if available for the region being monitored, may exhibit
some depth below which no significant changes in bathymetry occur;
profiles should then be surveyed to this depth. If historical data are
not available, profiles should extend to the -12-foot contour. Past
experience in the Great Lakes suggests that only minor changes in bathy-
metry occur lakeward of this contour.

Elevations or depth measurements should be referencéd to the
International Great Lakes Datum (IGLD). Table 1 gives IGLD elevations
of low water datum (LWD) for each of the Great Lakes, including maximum
and minimum stage of record.

A minimum program for recording shoreline changes is to measure the
distance from a building to the water's edge and the length of the
property lines in early spring, mid-summer, and late fall (Fig. 2).
These lengths should be measured in a horizontal plane and extend out to
the shoreline or to a convenient wading depth. The location of the top
of a bluff or dune should be noted in all cases (Fig. 3).

An optimum surveillance program could be downgraded to a minimum
program after 2 years if analysis of the survey data indicates that
extensive survey coverage is not warranted. Programs can be developed
on an individual basis anywhere between the minimum and the optimum,
e.g., the program could be weekly surveys using the Jacob's Staff Method
(Emery, 1961; and Urban and Galvin, 1969) or thrice-yearly surveys using
standard survey methods (Allen, 1931; Ruby, Lommel, and Todd, 1950; and
Breed, Hosmer, and Bone, 1958). Typical survey schemes for minimum and
optimum survey programs for three structure types are shown in Figures
4 through 9.

III. MONITORING SHORE PROTECTION STRUCTURES

A program to monitor shore protection structures should continue for
at least 3 years, providing the structure does not fail in the meantime.
If one of the purposes of the program is to determine the economic or
effective life of the structure, it generally will be necessary to
continue the monitoring longer than 3 years. A surveillance program
should, as a minimum, cover three cycles of the normal expected storm
segments of the year. For the Great Lakes this would include three
periods of late fall or early spring. In some cases longer periods of
monitoring will be required to ensure adequate measurements covering
periods of exposure to changing conditions.

The following items of data collection should be included in the
surveillance program of the constructed works:

a. Condition Surveys. Hydrographic and topographic surveys,
including dimensions and elevations of the shore protection structure
referenced to survey monuments, should be made immediately before and

6-Foot Contour

are 6 cng

Figure 1.

NOTES

1. A survey baseline should be sufficiently landward to ensure protection
against shoreline erosion.

2. Profiles (a) should be taken generally parallel to each other and
approximately perpendicular to the shoreline, (b) should extend from baseline
to 12-foot depth contour.

3. Length, L, is distance between property lines at shoreline.

4. The spacing between profiles should not exceed 200 feet.

5. All elevations refer to International Great Lakes Datum as measured above
mean water level at Father Point, Quebec (1I.G.L.D., 1955).

Schematic plan; optimum shoreline surveillance program.

Table 1. Monthly average lake levels!

Lake Lake Lake Lake
Superior | Michigan-Huron | St. Clair | Erie

602.3 582.0 576.2 573.5
600.0 576.8 SVa7/ 568.6
598.3 575.4 569.9 567.5

Lake
Ontario

Levels

Maximum Stage*
Lake Datum?

242.8

Minimum Stage

1. Recorded lake levels for the preceding 18 months and
probable levels for a 6-month period can be obtained from:

Monthly Bulletin of Lake Levels

Lake Survey Center, NOAA

U.S. Department of Commerce

630 Federal Building and U.S. Courthouse
Detroit, Michigan 48226

2. International Great Lakes Datum (1955). Elevations are

in feet above mean water level in Gulf of St. Lawrence
at Father Point, Quebec, Canada.

10

Shoreline

Property Line

NOTES

1. d, and d, are distances from building corners to shoreline.

2. d, and d, are distances along property lines from centerline of

road to the shoreline.

Figure 2. Schematic plan; minimum shoreline surveillance program.

11

NOTES
1. Distance measurements must be horizontal level lines.

2. If profiles are taken instead of distance measurements, obtain elevations
at changes in grade or every 20 feet.

3. If ground has low relief, use judgment in spacing out profile points.

4. All elevations refer to International Great Lakes Datum as measured above
mean water level at Father Point, Quebec (I1.G.L.D., 1955).

Baseline or
Centerline of Road

Toe Distance
< *, \sShore Distance

Distance to Bluff Crest (
Steep Bluff Water's Edge
Shore Existing Water Level

LWD

Distance to Shore

Water's Edge
Existing Water Level

MD
une
ore EWE

Figure 3. Typical distance measurements.

12

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18

after construction. The optimum survey frequency is three repeat

surveys per year (early spring, mid-summer, and late fall) using standard
surveying techniques. The minimum desirable survey frequency is two
repeat surveys, in early spring and late fall.

b. Supplemental Data. In monitoring the behavior of shore protec-
tion structures, the following supplemental data should be obtained:

(1) Photography. Photograph the installation from two or more
permanent locations immediately after construction. Repeat the photo-
graphs with each condition survey.

(2) Plans and Specifications. Obtain all available documents.

(3) Materials. List types, quantities, and costs of structural
materials.

(4) Labor. List type, quantities, and costs for labor.

(5) Maintenance. Record the frequency, time, materials and
cost, and labor and costs required to effect repairs.

(6) Ownership. Provide as much information as practicable
about ownership and responsibility for the structure. Sample forms for
obtaining and recording this supplemental data are given in Appendix B.

c. Wave and Currents. The availability of statistical wave and
current data (Berg, 1969; Szuwalski, 1970; and Bruno and Hiipaka, 1973)
should be investigated with the local U.S. Army Engineer Districts
(Fig. 10). Short-term water level rises associated with local storm
winds can affect the structure function and life. These vary from
locality to locality. Information on specific occurrences affecting
the monitored-structure should be obtained from the appropriate U.S.
Army Engineer Districts (Fig. 10) or the Lake Survey Center, National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (Table 1). It should be
emphasized that an accurate record must be kept of dates of surveys,
photographs and other items relating to the surveillance program.

In addition to surveillance of the functional behavior of a shore
protection structure, observation of the structural behavior of the
installation is also important. Shore protection structures require
varying degrees of maintenance depending upon structure type and degree
of exposure to wave action. Information on maintaining protective
structures is given in Table 2. The surveillance program should include
provisions for special inspections of the structure after storms in
addition to regular or periodic inspections.

If failure of the structure occurs, all possible data should be
obtained on the type and time of failure, and the wave and water level
conditions to which it was subjected at the time of failure.

19

Baseline
20 =

Survey 2(5Sep'70)

Rane Ares AA'BIC
Sah
>

C Reference Plane (-/2)

as
= A
=
ey
ri {|() :
=
2 '
8 Survey | (I|Jun 70)
ss Area AA'BC
= 0
fe
£

Elevation
1
ro)

O 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Distance Along Profile from Baseline

ens. (A) (SE BSTC)

Unit Volume for Survey | = V, = —— 3 = 195 Cu.Yd.
27 a7ttr.yVyd.
; LyA _ (Ift.)(4955ft.2 )
Unit Volume for Survey 2 = Vy = Sorta EE te 184 Cu.Yd.
27 a7tt/yd.
Change in Unit Volume = AVy = 184-195 = —II Cu. Yd.
AVy (365 I84yd3-195yd>) (365days
Annual Rate = AVy (365) 3 Gigs yore Woes MABE oye) = -42Cu.Yd.
(to-t)) (5Sep 70-I!uJun 70)
(96 days)

Figure 10. Example of profiles and volumetric change computation.

20

Type of Structure

Stone revetment or
broken concrete
revetment.

Gabion revetment;
stone-filled wire
mattress.

Sacked concrete,
slope paving,
gobi block
paving.

Crib or fence
revetment.
Large concrete-
filled bags.
Small sandbags.

Groins, steel,
concrete, timber.

Seawalls, steel,
concrete, timber.

Offshore break-
waters, perched
beach, or jetties.

Table 2.

Excessive settlement, increased
voids and loss of filter
material, erosion behind or at
end of structure.

Broken wire, excessive move-
ment, erosion behind or at
ends of structure.

Any movement, cracks in
surface, undercut end
sections, erosion at toe or
behind structure.

Rocking, broken wires or
Members, excessive dis-
placement, erosion behind
structure.

Loss of fill material, erosion
behind the groin, and tipping.

Lakeward movement, erosion
behind at the toe or at the
end of structure.

Excessive movement of
structure, settling displace-
ment, or rock-facing material.

Maintenance requirements for shore

Scour at toe, flanking
undersized stone or
inadequate height,
improper placement.

Scour at toe, flanking
excessive strain caused
by displacement,
rusting, and inadequate
height.

Subsidence undermining,
flanking, sliding and
hydrostatic pressure,
inadequate height.

Rusting, rotting, theft
of materials, vandalism,
subsidence, flanking,
sliding, and inadequate
height.

Flanking, scouring at
end of structure,
inadequate penetration.
Lack of littoral drift.

Loss of foundation
support, inadequate
penetration, scour at
toe, flanking,
inadequate height.

Foundation failure,
undersize stone,
inadequate section.

21

protection structure

Maintenance or

Place additional rock at toe;
restore to original elevation
section and thickness; reduce
excessive void ratio; back-
fill behind structure;
extensive upgrading in size
of material may be required.

Replace all broken wires and
reinforce at points of
severe strain with No. 9
wire ties.

Restore structure to original
section after each storm;
backfill behind structure.

Reestablish support by back-
filling, construction or
underpinning, and foundation
protection. Reopen weep
holes; fill cracks with a
suitable sealing material.

Replace broken and weakened
wires or mesh as necessary.
Replace missing parts, add
additional cables. These
structures are relatively
low cost and may require
replacement after major
storms.

Fill groins with beach
material; provide riprap toe
protection at end of groin.
Place additional rock at mid
point to stabilize structure;
add bulkhead at landward

end to prevent flanking.

Reestablish support by under-
pinning, tie backs, systems
of anchor piling, walers and
tie rods. Place rock or
rockfilled mattress at toe

of structure to prevent scour.
Backfill where necessary.

Restore structure to original
section. Extensive upgrading
in size of material may be
required.

IV. COMPUTATION OF SHORELINE CHANGES

Shoreline changes are generally expressed as feet of horizontal
movement, or volumetric change per foot of beach per year. The rate of
horizontal advance or retreat is the algebraic of distances measured
along the same line perpendicular to the shore between successive
surveys converted to an annual basis. Volumetric accretion and erosion
rates are usually computed using the average end-area method (Allen,
1931; Ruby, Lommel, and Todd, 1950; and Breed, Hosmer, and Bone, 1958)
as given by the formula:

iy 2 (A BS)
2 2

where the volume is in cubic yards and the length, L, is the distance
in feet between the two proviles, and A, and A, are the areas at each

profile between the surveyed surface and an arbitrary datum elevation.
The volume at the later survey date is subtracted from the volume at

the earlier survey date so that a positive result indicates accretion

and a negative result indicates erosion. The result is then divided by
the distance, L, and converted to an annual basis in cubic yards per foot
of beach per year.

Assuming that the distance between adjacent profiles is about the
same, and that the locations of the profiles are representative of the
section of beach being studied, the volumetric computation can be
simplified by modifying the average end-area formula. This is accom-
plished by replacing the distance between profiles with a unit length,
Ly, te. 8-5 lL foot). | The result as that at cach profile, ay volumes

computed using the formula:

lig SOA
v, =§ +—
ue 27

where V,, is the unit volume in cubic yards per foot of beach at the
profile location; L, is the unit length (e.g., 1 foot); A is the area
between the surveyed ground line and a reference plane, usually the
deepest depth of survey (at least -12 feet) in the Great Lakes; and the
factor 27 converts from cubic feet to cubic yards. These unit volumes
at each profile from one survey can be compared with unit volumes from
other surveys at the same profile and reduced to annual volumetric
accretion rates at the profile. After tabulating these values for the
beach being studied, the means (averages) are easily calculated. An
example of this computation is given in Figure 10.

V. DATA ANALYSIS

After a system of monitoring programs has been established in an
area, the city, county, or State beach erosion district should begin to
collate the data collected on the behavior of shore protection struc-
tures. Initially, data should be collated from 10 shoreline types

22,

which may occur in the area (Table 3). Then, this division should be
further subdivided into the five primary structural groups: grotns,
sequalls and bulkheads, offshore breakwaters, revetments, and mtscella-
neous types. For each subcategory, the shoreline change rate, volumetric
accretion rate, and supplemental data should be compiled. The final
output from this data compilation should result in guidelines for shore
property owners on what methods result in the greatest benefits per
dollar invested. If a substantial number of structures of one type are
studied, that subdivision could be further subdivided into concrete,
steel, timber, and rubble-mound types.

Table 3. Categories of upland shore types

Artificial fill area

High bluff erodible, 30 feet or higher
High bluff nonerodible, 30 feet or higher
Low bluff erodible, less than 30 feet high

Low bluff nonerodible, less than 30 feet high

High sand dune, 30 feet or higher

Low sand dune, less than 30 feet high
Erodible low plain

Nonerodible low plain

Wetlands

VI. CONCLUDING REMARKS

The primary reasons for monitoring shore protection structures are
to determine if structural maintenance is required and at what cost,
and to evaluate whether the installation is effective in combating
erosion. A program to maintain structural integrity must continue
throughout the life of the structure. These guidelines contain minimum
and optimum programs for evaluating the effectiveness of shore protec-
tion structures. The concept that a small amount of data is better
than none is not always valid, because the small amount of data may
indicate performance for a year that is completely different from
the long-range, average annual performance. Unless sufficient system-
atically collected data are gathered for a number of structures, it
will be difficult if not impossible to evaluate the relative effective-
ness or economy of different structures.

Assistance in establishing a monitoring program can be obtained from
a U.S. Army Engineer Division or District office, Division and District
boundaries, and offices for the Great Lakes, with addresses and phone
numbers are shown in Figure 11.

23

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LITERATURE CITED

’ ALLEN, C.F., Ratlroad Curves and Earthwork, McGraw-Hill, New York and
Londen, 1931.

BERG, D.W., "Factors Affecting Beach Nourishment Requirement at Presque
Isle Peninsula, Erie, Pennsylvania,'' Publication No. 13, Great Lakes
Research Division, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1965.

BERG, D.W., "Systematic Collection of Beach Data," Proceedings of the
11th Conference on Coastal Engineering, American Society of Civil
Engineers, 1969 (Also CERC Reprint R4-69, NTIS number AD 697 533).

BREED, C.B., HOSMER, G.L., and BONE, A.J., The Principles and Practtce
of Surveying, Volume 1. Elementary Surveying, gth ed., Wiley,
New York, 1958.

BRUNO, R.O., and HIIPAKA, L.W., "Littoral Environment Observation Pro-
gram in the State of Michigan," Proceedings of the 16th Conference on
Great Lakes Research, International Association of Great Lakes Research,
1973, pp. 492-507, (Also CERC Reprint R4-74, NTIS number AD 777 706).

EMERY, K.O., "A Simple Method of Measuring Beach Profiles ,"" Limnology
and Oceanography, Vol. 6, No. 1, 1966, pp. 90-93.

RUBY, H., LOMMEL, G.E., and TODD, M.W., Engineering Surveys: Elementary
and Applied, 2nd. ed., Macmillan, New York, 1950.

SZUWALSKI, A., "Littoral Environment Observation Program in California-
Preliminary Report, February-December 1968," MP 2-70, U.S. Army, Corps
of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Washington, D.C.,
Feb. 1970.

URBAN, H.D., and GALVIN, C.J., ''Pipe Profile Data and Wave Observations
from the CERC Beach Evaluation Program,'' MP 3-69, U.S. Army, Corps
of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Washington, D.C.,
Sept. 1969.

U.S. ARMY, CORPS OF ENGINEERS, COASTAL ENGINEERING RESEARCH CENTER,

Shore Protectton Manual, Vols. I, II, and III, Stock No. 0822-00077,
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1973, 1,160 pp.

25

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APPENDIX A

GLOSSARY OF SELECTED COASTAL ENGINEERING TERMS!

ACCRETION - May be either Natural or ARTIFICIAL. Natural accretion is
the buildup of land solely by the action of the forces of nature,
on a BEACH by deposition of waterborne or airborne material.
Artificial accretion is a similar buildup of land by reason of an
act of man, such as the accretion formed by a groin, breakwater,
or beach fill deposited by mechanical means.

ALONGSHORE - Parallel to and near the shoreline; same as LONGSHORE.

ARTIFICIAL NOURISHMENT - The process of replenishing a beach with material
(usually sand) obtained from another location.

BACKSHORE - That zone of the shore or beach lying between the foreshore
and the coastline and acted upon by waves only during severe storms
especially when combined with exceptionally high water. Also
backbeach. It comprises the BERM or BERMS.

BAR - A submerged or emerged embankment of sand, gravel, or other
unconsolidated material built on the sea floor in shallow water by
waves and currents.

BATHYMETRY - The measurement of depths of water in oceans, seas, and
lakes; also information derived from such measurements.

BEACH - The zone of unconsolidated material that extends landward from
the low water line to the place where there is marked changed in
material or physiographic form, or to the line of permanent vege-
tation (usually the effective limit of storm waves). The seaward
limit of a beach - unless otherwise specified - is the mean low
water line. A beach includes FORESHORE and BACKSHORE.

BEACH BERM - A nearly horizontal part of the beach or backshore formed
by the deposit of material by wave action. Some beaches have no

berms, others have one or several.

BEACH EROSION - The carrying away of beach materials by wave action,
tidal currents, littoral currents, or wind.

BLUFF - A high steep bank or cliff.

A more detailed listing of terminology used in coastal engineering
is given in A Glossary of Coastal Engineering Terms, MP 2-72, and the
Shore Protectton Manual, Vol. III.

BY

BREAKER - A wave breaking on a shore, over a reef, etc. Breakers may be
classified into four types:

Spilling - bubbles and turbulent water spill down front face of
wave. The upper 25 percent of the front face may become
vertical before breaking. Breaking generally across over
quite a distance.

Plunging - crest curls over air pocket; breaking is usually with
a crash. Smooth splash-up usually follows.

Collapsing - breaking occurs over lower half of wave. Minimal
air pocket and usually no splash-up. Bubbles and foam
present.

Surging - wave peaks up, but bottom rushes forward from under wave,
and wave slides up beach face with little or no bubble produc-
tion. Water surface remains almost plane except where ripples
may be produced on the beachface during runback.

BREAKWATER - A structure protecting a shore area, harbor, anchorage,
or basin from waves.

BULKHEAD - A structure or partition to retain or prevent sliding of the
land. A secondary purpose is to protect the upland against damage
from wave action.

CLIFF - A high, steep face of rock; a precipice.

COAST - A strip of land of indefinite width (may be several miles) that
extends from the shoreline inland to the first major change in
terrain features.

COASTLINE - (1) Technically, the line that forms the boundary between
the COAST and the SHORE. (2) Commonly, the line that forms the
boundary between the land and the water.

CONTOUR - A line on a map or chart representing points of equal eleva-
tion with relation to a DATUM. It is called an Isobath when
connecting points of equal depth below a datum.

COVE - A small, sheltered recess in a coast, often inside a larger
embayment.

CURRENT, LITTORAL - Any current in the littoral zone caused primarily by
wave action, e.g., longshore current, rip current.

CURRENT, LONGSHORE - The littoral current in the breaker zone moving

essentially parallel to the shore, usually generated by waves
breaking at an angle to the shoreline.

28

DATUM, PLANE - The horizontal plane to which soundings, ground elevations,
or water surface elevations are referred. Also Reference Plane.
The plane is called a Tidal Datum when defined by a certain phase
of the tide. The following datums are ordinarily used on hydro-
graphic charts:

Mean Low Water - Atlantic coast (U.S.), Argentina, Sweden,
and Norway;

Mean Lower Low Water - Pacific coast (U.S.);

Mean Low Water Springs - United Kingdom, Germany, Italy, Brazil,
and Chile;

LOW WATER DATUM - Great Lakes (U.S. and Canada) ;

Lowest Low Water Springs - Portugal;

Low Water Indian Springs - India and Japan;

Lowest Low Water - France, Spain, and Greece.

A common datum used on topographic maps is based on Mean Sea Level.

DEEP WATER - Water so deep that surface waves are little affected by
the ocean bottom. Generally, water deeper than one-half the surface
wavelength is considered deep water.

DIKE (DYKE) - A wall or mound built around a low-lying area to prevent
flooding.

DOWNDRIFT - The direction of predominant movement of littoral materials.

DRIFT (noun) - (1) Sometimes used as a short form for Littoral Drift.
(2) The speed at which a current runs. (3) Also floating material
deposited on a beach (driftwood). (4) A deposit of a continental
ice sheet, as a drumlin.

DUNES - (1) Ridges or mounds of loose, wind-blown material, usually
sand. (2) Bed Forms smaller than bars but larger than ripples that
are out of phase with any water-surface gravity waves associated
with them.

EROSION - The wearing away of land by the action of natural forces. On
a beach, the carrying away of beach material by wave action, tidal
currents, littoral currents, or by deflation.

FETCH - The area in which SEAS are generated by a wind having a rather
constant direction and speed. Sometimes used synonymously with
Fetch Length. Also Generating Area.

FOREDUNE - The front dune immediately behind the backshore.

FORESHORE - The part of the shore lying between the crest of the seaward
berm (or upper limit of wave wash at high tide) and the ordinary low
water mark, that is ordinarily traversed by the uprush and backrush
of the waves as the tides rise and fall.

29

GROIN (British, GROYNE) - A shore protection structure built (usually
perpendicular to the shoreline) to trap littoral drift or retard
erosion of the shore.

GROIN SYSTEM - A series of groins acting together to protect a section
of beach. Commonly called a groin field.

GULF - A large embayment in a coast; the entrance is generally wider
than the length.

HEADLAND (HEAD) - A high steep-faced promontory extending into the sea.

HIGH WATER LINE - In strictness, the intersection of the plane of mean
high water with the shore. The shoreline delineated on the nautical
charts of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey is an approximation of
the high water line. For specific occurrences, the highest eleva-
tion on the shore reached during a storm or rising tide, including
meteorological effects.

IMPERMEABLE GROIN - A groin through which sand cannot pass.

INLET - (1) A short, narrow waterway connecting a bay, lagoon, or similar
body of water with a large parent body of water. (2) An arm of the
sea (or other body of water), that is long compared to its width,
and may extend a considerable distance inland.

ISTHMUS - A narrow strip of land, bordered on both sides by water, that
connects two larger bodies of land.

JETTY - (1) (U.S. usage) On open seacoasts, a structure extending into
a body of water, and designed to prevent shoaling of a channel by
littoral materials, and to direct and confine the stream or tidal
flow. Jetties are built at the mouth of a river or tidal inlet to
help deepen and stabilize a channel. (2) (British usage) Jetty is
synonymous with "wharf" or "pier."

LAGOON - A shallow body of water, as a pond or lake, usually connected
to the sea.

LEADLINE - A line, wire, or cord used in sounding. It is weighted at one
end with a plummet (sounding lead).

LEVEE - A dike or embankment to protect land from inundation.
LITTORAL - Of or pertaining to a shore, especially of the sea.

LITTORAL DRIFT - The sedimentary material moved in the littoral zone
under the influence of waves. and currents.

30

LITTORAL TRANSPORT - The movement of littoral drift in the littoral
zone by waves and currents. Includes movement parallel (longshore
transport) and perpendicular (on-offshore transport) to the shore.

LITTORAL TRANSPORT RATE - Rate of transport of sedimentary material
parallel to or perpendicular to the shore in the littoral zone.
Usually expressed in cubic yards (meters) per year. Commonly
used as synonymous with LONGSHORE TRANSPORT RATE.

LITTORAL ZONE - In beach terminology, an indefinite zone extending sea-
ward from the shoreline to just beyond the breaker zone.

LONGSHORE - Parallel to and near the shoreline.

LONGSHORE TRANSPORT RATE - Rate of transport of sedimentary material
parallel to the shore. Usually expressed in cubic yards (meters)
per year. Commonly used as synonymous with LITTORAL TRANSPORT
RATE.

LOW WATER DATUM - An approximation to the plane of mean low water that
has been adopted as a standard reference plane.

MARSH - An area of soft, wet, or periodically inundated land, generally
treeless and usually characterized by grasses and other low growth.

MOLE - In coastal terminology, a massive land-connected, solid-fill
structure of earth (generally revetted), masonry, or large stone.
It may serve as a breakwater or pier.

NEARSHORE (ZONE) - In beach terminology an indefinite zone extending
seaward from the shoreline well beyond the breaker zone. It defines
the area of NEARSHORE CURRENTS.

NEARSHORE CURRENT SYSTEM - The current system caused primarily by wave
action in and near the breaker zone, and which consists of four
parts: The shoreward mass transport of water; longshore currents;
seaward return flow, including rip currents; and the longshore
movement of the expanding heads of rip currents.

NOURISHMENT - The process of replenishing a beach. It may be brought
about naturally, by longshore transport, or artificially by the
deposition of dredged material.

OFFSHORE - (1) In beach terminology, the comparatively flat zone of
variable width, extending from the breaker zone to the seaward edge
of the Continental Shelf. (2) A direction seaward from the shore.

OUTFALL - A structure extending into a body of water for the purpose of
discharging sewage, storm runoff, or cooling water.

Bil

OVERTOPPING - Passing of water over the top of a structure as a result
of wave runup or surge action.

OVERWASH - That portion of the uprush that carries over the crest of a
berm or of a structure.

PENINSULA - An elongated body of land nearly surrounded by water, and
connected to a larger body of land.

PERMEABLE GROIN - A groin with openings large enough to permit passage
of appreciable quantities of littoral drift.

PIER - A structure, usually of open construction, extending out into the
water from the shore, to serve as a landing place, a recreational
facility, etc., rather than to afford coastal protection. In the
Great Lakes, a term sometimes improperly applied to jetties.

PILE - A long, heavy timber or section of concrete or metal to be
driven or jetted into the earth or seabed to serve as a support
or protection.

PILE, SHEET - A pile with a generally slender flat cross section to be
driven into the ground or seabed and meshed or interlocked with like
members to form a diaphragm, wall, or bulkhead.

POCKET BEACH - A beach, usually small, in a coastal reentrant or between
two littoral barriers.

POINT - The extreme end of a cape, or the outer end of any land area
protruding into the water, usually less prominent than a cape.

PORT - A place where vessels may discharge or receive cargo; may be the
entire harbor including its approaches and anchorages, or may be the
commercial part of a harbor where the quays, wharves, facilities for
transfer of cargo, docks, and repair shops are situated.

PROFILE, BEACH - The intersection of the ground surface with a vertical
plane; may extend from the top of the dune line to the seaward limit
of sand movement.

PROMONTORY - A high point of land projecting into a body of water; a
HEADLAND.

QUAY (Pronounced KEY) - A stretch of paved bank, or a solid artificial
landing place parallel to the navigable waterway, for use in loading
and unloading vessels.

RECESSION (of a beach) - (1) A continuing landward movement of the

shoreline. (2) A net landward movement of the shoreline over a
specified time.

32

REVETMENT - A facing of stone, concrete, etc., built to protect a scarp,
embankment, or shore structure against erosion by wave action or

currents.

RIDGE, BEACH - A nearly continuous mound of beach material that has been
shaped up by wave or other action. Ridges may occur singly or as
a series of approximately parallel deposits.

RIPARIAN RIGHTS - The rights of a person owning land containing or
bordering on a water course or other body of water in or to its
banks, bed, or waters.

RUBBLE-MOUND STRUCTURE - A mound of random-shaped and random-placed
stones protected with a cover layer of selected stones or specially
shaped concrete armor units. (Armor units in primary cover layer
may be placed in orderly manner or dumped at random.)

RUNUP - The rush of water up a structure or beach on the breaking of a
wave. Also UPRUSH. The amount of runup is the vertical height
above stillwater level that the rush of water reaches.

SCARP, BEACH - An almost vertical slope along the beach caused by erosion
by wave action. It may vary in height from a few inches to several
feet, depending on wave action and the nature and composition of
the beach.

SCOUR - Removal of underwater material by waves and currents, especially
at the base or toe of a shore structure.

SEAWALL - A structure separating land and water areas, primarily
designed to prevent erosion and other damage due to wave action.
See also BULKHEAD.

SEICHE - (1) A standing wave oscillation of an enclosed water body that
continues, pendulum fashion, after the cessation of the originating
force, which may have been either seismic or atmospheric. (2) An
oscillation of a fluid body in response to a disturbing force having
the same frequency as the natural frequency of the fluid system.
Tides are now considered to be seiches induced primarily by the
periodic forces caused by the sun and moon. (3) In the Great Lakes
area, any sudden rise in the water of a harbor or a lake whether or
not it is, oscillatory. Although inaccurate in a strict sense, this
usage is well established in the Great Lakes area.

SETUP, WAVE - Superelevation of the water surface over normal surge

elevation due to onshore mass transport of the water by wave
action alone.

33

SHALLOW WATER - (1) Commonly, water of such a depth that surface waves
are noticeably affected by bottom topography. It is customary to
consider water of depths less than one-half the surface wavelength
as shallow water. See DEEP WATER. (2) More strictly, in hydro-
dynamics with regard to progressive gravity waves, water in which
the depth is less than 1/25 the wavelength.

SHORE - The narrow strip of land in immediate contact with the sea,
including the zone between high and low water lines. A shore of
unconsolidated material is usually called a beach.

SHORELINE - The intersection of a specified plane of water with the shore
or beach. (e.g., the highwater shoreline would be the intersection
of the plane of mean high water with the shore or beach.) The line
delineating the shoreline on U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey
nautical charts and surveys approximates the mean high water line.

SLIP - A berthing space between two piers.

SOUNDING - A measured depth of water. On hydrographic charts the
soundings are adjusted to a specific plane of reference (Sounding
Datum).

SOUNDING LINE - A line, wire, or cord used in sounding. It is weighted
at one end with a plummet (sounding lead). Also LEADLINE.

SPIT - Small point of land or a narrow shoal projecting into a body of
water from the shore.

STILLWATER LEVEL - The elevation that the surface of the water would
assume if all wave action were absent.

SURF - The wave activity in the area between the shoreline and the
outermost limit of breakers.

SURF ZONE - The area between the outermost breaker and the limit of
wave uprush.

TOMBOLO - A bar or spit that connects or "'ties'' an island to the
mainland or to another island.

UPDRIFT - The direction opposite that of the predominant movement of
littoral materials.

UPRUSH - The rush of water up onto the beach following the breaking of
a wave. Also Swash, RUNUP.

34

WATERLINE - A juncture of land and sea. This line migrates, changing
with the tide or other fluctuation in the water level. Where
waves are present on the beach, this line is also known as the
limit of backrush. (Approximately the intersection of the land
with the stillwater level.)

WAVE DIRECTION - The direction from which a wave approaches.

WAVE HEIGHT - The vertical distance between a crest and the preceding
trough.

WAVELENGTH - The horizontal distance between similar points on two
succesSive waves measured perpendicular to the crest.

WIND SETUP - (1) The vertical rise in the stillwater level on the
leeward side of a body of water caused by wind stresses on the
surface of the water. (2) The difference in stillwater levels on
the windward and the leeward sides of a body of water caused by
wind stresses on the surface of the water. (3) Synonymous with
Wind Tide and Storm Surge. Storm Surge is usually reserved for
use on the ocean and large bodies of water. WIND SETUP is usually
reserved for use on reservoirs and smaller bodies of water.

35

APPENDIX B
ALTERNATIVE SHORE PROTECTION METHODS DATA SHEET

CODE NUMBER: 73 ASPM: 00002
DATE: 13 December 1974
BY: A.J. Combe

PHOTOGRAPH:

TYPE: Longard Tube Groin

OWNER: State of Michigan, Department of Natural Resources

LOCATION: Lincoln Township near Stevensville (T-55 - R. 19W)
Ain Berrien County, Michigan

DATE CONSTRUCTED: October 1973

36

7. PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT:
General: Moderate Energy Area
Wave climate: Height: 1.7 feet!; Period: 4.2 seconds!
Tides - water levels: No tides, Lake Level dependent on nunoks
Currents: 0.29 foot per second to south.!
Winds: Southerly and offshore winds predominate.
Sediments: FAne sand
8. DESIGN DATA:
a. Sketch:

ho a Oo fo ®

—————_—_——_ a=

LINCOLN = =TOWNSHIP , MICHIGAN

TOE OF BLuSF --- HOUSE*
ee.
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se SURVEY 10-27-73 ——
SURVEY 1-26-74 ---- LAKE MICHIGAN
“3 SURVEY 4-20-16 —--—

SCALE omens

STRUCTURAL DIMENSIONS: DIAMETER: 40 INCHES; LENGTH: 100 FEET

b. Forces: Not known

c. Structural Behavior: Tube settled as a nesult of beach erosion
during stonms. Tube subject to puncture, repair possible. Structure
neponted to have trapped sand and protected the bkugs.
9. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT::

a. Physical: Slight effects

b. Biota: Sight and temporary effects

c. Aesthetics: Strong contrast between black tube and white
beach.

1annual average from observed surf data.

37

10. CONTRACTOR: Information unavatlable.
11. COST OF BASIC STRUCTURE: $57.00 per foot of structure (installed).

12. REFERENCE:

a. BRATER, E.F., ARMSTRONG, J.A., and McGILL, M.R., "Shore
Enxosion Engineering Demonstration Project Post-Constwuction--
Season Progness--Interim Report," Coastak Zone Laboratory,
University of Michigan, Feb. 1974.

b. JAKOBSEN, P.R., and NIELSON, A.H., "Some Experiments with
Sand Fikled Flexible Tube," Proceedings of 12th Coastal
Engineering Conference, Washington, D.C., 1970.

13. NOTES:

Reference a: The tube has shown good resistance to the forces
acting on 4t; 4t 44 essential to pay careful attention to the probLem
of bottom protection...some attempts were tried with filter cloth but
were not properly executed.

Reference b: The tube settled to conform with the winter profile;
but indicates that the structure trapped a slight amount of sand.

38

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