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I 



l»«."* ■ 




■».--■ - w^ — =^ 



THE 

ENGLISH AND FOREIGN 

PHILOSOPHICAL LIBRARY. 



VOLUME XXX. 




baarni ^^« Kin o^j6 non 
f DK» 133^ in pa^ D3n 

Di^ n jaa^ anp* b^K d3dk 
i>33 naKD 131^303 wn 



[Brit. Moa. MS. Harl 6525.] 



/ 



THE 



GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED 



OF 



MAIM0NIDE8, 



TBANSLATED FBOM THE ORIGINAL AND ANNOTATED 



BY 



M. FRIEDLANDER, Ph.D. 



VOL. III. 




LONDON: 
TBUBNER & CO., LUDGATE HILL. 

1885. 

[All right* raened.] 



BALLANTYNK, HANSON AND CO. 
EDINBURf.H AND LONDON 



i tf 2 2 3 






\ 



CONTENTS. 



PAQK 

Preface — ix 

Arabic Text x 

Hebrew Versiona xi 

Latin, German, <S^c, Translations xv 

Commentaries and other Works xviii 

Controversy xxiii 

The Author's Introduction and Apology for publishing, contrary 
to the teaching of the Mishnah, an interpretation of 

Ezek. i 1-3 

CBAP. 

I. The '* Four faces " are human faces with four different 

peculiarities 3 

II. The Hayyoth and the Ofannim 5 

III. Farther explanation of the Hayyoth and the Ofannim 

derived from Ezek. x. 11 

IV. The rendering of Ofan by OilgcU in the Targum of Jona- 

than 13 

V. The Vision of Ezekiel is divided into three stages : (1.) 
Hayyoth (=the Spheres) ; (2.) Ofannim (= Earthly 
elements) ; and (3.) the man alx)ve the Hayyoth 
(as Intelligences) 15 

VI. On the Difference between the Vision of Ezekiel and that 

of Isaiah (vi.) 18 

VII. The Different ways in which the Prophet perceived the 

three parts of the mercabhah (chariot) . . . .19 

VIII. Man has the power to control his bodily wants and 

earthly desires 24 

IX. The material element in man prevents him from attain- 
ing perfection 31 



VI CONTENTS, 

CHAP. FAOK 

^ X. God is not the Creator of evil 32 

^ XI. Man is the cause of his own misfortunes ... 36 

^ XII. Three kinds of Evil : (1.) That caused hy the nature of 

man ; (2.) Caused hy man to man ; (3.) Caused by 
man to himself 37 

XIII. The Universe has no other purpose than its own exist- 
ence 45 

XIV. It is the Will of the Creator that the Spheres regulate 

the affairs of mankind 55 

XV. Impossible things are not ascribed to the Creator, but 
it is difficult to prove the impossibility in each indi- 
vidual case 59 

XVI. On God's Omniscience 62 

XVII. Five theories concerning Providence .... 65 

XVIII. Every individual member of mankind enjoys the In- 
fluence of Divine Providence in proportion to his 
intellectual perfection 79 

XIX It is an ancient error to assume that God takes no 

notice of man 82 

XX. God's knowledge is different from man's knowledge . 86 

XXI. The Creator's knowledge of His production is perfect . 91 

XXII. Object of the Book of Job, and Explanation of the first 

two chapters 93 

XXIII. Job and his friends discuss the various theories con- 

cerning Providence 101 

XXIV. On Trials and Temptations Ill 

XXV. The actions of God are not purposeless . . .118 

\ XXVI. The Divine Precepts serve a certain purpose . .124 

[ XXVII. The object of the Divine Precepts is to secure the 

well-being of man's soul and body . . . .129 

XXVIII. This object is easily seen in some precepts, whilst in 

others it is only known after due reflection . .131 

XXIX. On the Sabeans or Star-worshippers .... 134 



CONTENTS. yi 

CHAP. PAOS 

XXX. It is one of the objects of the Law of Moses to oppose 

Idolatry 146 

XXX L The Law promotes the well-being of man by teach- ^ 

ing Truth, Morality, and Social Conduct . . • 148 ^ 

XXXIL Why did God give Laws to oppose Idolatry instead 

of uprooting it directly f 149 

XXXIII. Another chief object of the Law is to train man in 

mastering his Appetites and Desires . . • 158 NA 

XXXIY. The Law is based on the ordinary condition of man . 161 / 
XXXV. Division of the Precepts into fourteen classes • •163 

XXXVI. First Class of Precepts, to know, love, and fear God . 168 

XXXVIL Second Class, Laws concerning Idolatry . . . 170 

XXXVIII. Third Class, Moral Precepts 182 

XXXIX. Fourth Cla ss^ Laws relating to Charity . . .183 



XLl Fifth Class, Compensation for Injury and the duty 

of preventing sin ...... . 188 

XLL Sixth Class, Punishment of the sinner . . . 193 V 

XLII. Seventh Class, Equity and Honesty .... 207 

XLIIL Eighth Class, Sabbath and Festivals .... 210 

XLIV. Kinth Class, Prayer, TeJUlin^ TnUith, and Mezuzah . 216 

XLV. Tenth Class, The Temple, its Vessels, and its Mini- 
sters 217 

XLVL Eleventh Class, Sacrifices . ... . .226 

XL VII. Twelfth Class, Distinction between clean and un- 
clean ; and on Purification 242 

XLVIIL Thirteenth Class, Dietary Laws 261 

XLIX Fourteenth Class, Marriage Laws . . . . 266 

L. On Scriptural Passages with seemingly purposeless 

contents 272 

LL How God is worshipped by a perfect man . . . 278 

LII. On the Fear of God 294 



J 



VIU CONTENTS. 

CHAP. PA OB 

LIII. Explanation of Cheud (Love), Mishpat (Judgment), and 

Tsedahah (Righteousnese) 296 

^ LIV. On True Wisdom 298 

Index of Scriptural Passages 307 

Index of Quotations from the Targum 318 

Index of Quotations from the Midrashim 319 

Index of Quotations from the Talmud 320 

Index of References to other Works of Maimonides . . . 322 

Index of References to Works of Science and Philosophy . . 322 

Alphabetical Index 323 

Corrigenda 327 



PREFACE. 




In presenting the third and last volume of the Translation 

of Maimonides' Guide of the Perplexed, I will briefly 

review the literature connected with this book, viz. : — I. The 

Arabic Text ; II. Translations ; III. Commentaries ; lY. 

Controversy concerning it. 

I. The Arabic Text, — The editio princeps, the only edition 

of the original text of the Guide (in Arabic, Dilil, or DdUdat 

alr^hairin), was undertaken and executed by the late S. Munk. 

Its title is: Le Guide des Sgaria, traiti de TlUologie et de Fhilo- 

wphie par M(nse ben Maimon, public pour la premUrefoia dans 

Pariffinal Arabe, et accompa^nS d'une traduction Franfaise et 

de notes critiques, litt&aires et explicatives^par S. Munk (Paris, 

1850-1866). The plan was published, 1833, in BSJUxions 

sur le culte des ancient Hibrevx (La Bible, par S. Cahen, 

voL iv.), with a specimen of two chapters of the Third Part. 

The text adopted has been selected from the several MSS. at 

his disposal with great care and judgment. Two Leyden 

MSS. (cod. 18 and 221), various MSS. of the BibliotJUgue 

Nationale (No. 760, very old ; 761 and 758, written by E. 

Saadia ibn Danan), and some MSS. of the Bodleian Library 

were consulted. In the notes which accompany the French 

translation, the various readings of the different MSB. are 

discussed with such completeness that the student of the 

Dalalat al-'halrin is spared the trouble of consulting the 

MSS., and he will find little to add by consulting those 

MSS. which were not yet known or not accessible to 

Munk. At the end of the third volume a list is added 

b 



X PREFACE. 

of '' Yariantes des Manuscrits Arabes et des deux Versions 
H^braiques." ^ 

The library of the British Museum possesses two copies of 
the Arabic text ; the one Or. 1423 is complete, beautifully 
written, with explanatory notes in the margin and between 
the lines. The name of the copyist is not mentioned, nor 
the date when it has been written. The volume has in the 
beginning an incomplete index to the Scriptural passages 
referred to in the Guide, and at the end fragments of Ps. 
cxli. in Arabic and of an astronomical table. 

The second copy of the Dalalat aWhavrin is contained in 
the MS. Or. 1423, written in large Yemen Eabbinic charac- 
ters. It is very fragmentary. The first fragment b^ins 
with the last paragraph of the introduction ; there are a few 
marginal notes in Hebrew. 

In the Bodleian Library there are the following copies of 
the Dalalat al-havrin ;-^ 

No. 1236.^ The text is preceded by Jehndah al-Charizi's index of the 
chapters, and by that of Biblical passages referred to in the book. In 
the margin there are notes, containing omissions, by different hands, 
two in Arabic characters. The volume was written 1473. 

No. 1237. The Arabic text, with a few marginal notes containing 
various readings ; the text is preceded by three Hebrew poems, begin- 
ning, De'i' holech^ Bi-^deh thebhunoihy and Binu be-dath Mosheh, Fol. 
212 contains a fragment of the book (III., xxix.) 

No. 1238. Text with a few marginal notes. 

No. 1239. The end of the work is wanting in this copy. The second 
part has forty-nine chapters, as the introduction to Part II. is counted 
as chapter i. ; Part III. has fifty-six chapters, the introduction being 
counted as chapter i., and chapter xxiv. being divided into two chapters. 
The index of passages from the Pentateuch follows the ordinary mode 
of counting the chapters of the Quide. 

No. 1240. Arabic text transcribed in Arabic characters by Saadiah b. 
Levi Azankot for Prof. Golius in 1646. 

No. 1241. First Part of the Dalalat al-^haXTin^ written by Saadiah b. 
Mordechai b. Mosheh in the year 1431. 

No. 1242 contains the same Part, but incomplete. 

^ A specimen of thre« pages, Arabic text, Latin translation and notes, 
prepared by Th. Hyde (16C0), is possessed by the Bodl. Libr. Th. 4"* m 13. 

' The numbers refer to Dr. Neubauer^s Catal. of the MSS. in the Bodl. 
Library not yet issued. 



PBEFACE. XI 

Nob. 1243, 1244, 1245, and 1246 contain Part XL of the Arabic text 
incomplete in NO0. 1245 and 1246. 

Kas. 1247, 1248, and 1249 have Part IIL; it is incomplete in the two 
last numbers. No. 1249 waa written 1291, and begins with III., viii. 

A fragment of the Arabic text, the end of Part IIL, is contained in 
No. 407, 2. 

No. 2508 includes a fragment of the original (I. ii.-xzziL), with a 
Hebrew interlineary translation of some words and a few marginal 
notesw It is written in Yemen square characters, and is marked as 
•' holy property of the Synagogue of Alsiani." 

A fragment (I. i.) of a different recension from the printed is con- 
tained in 2422, 16. On the margin the Commentaries of Shem-tobh and 
Ephodi are added in Arabic. 

A copy of the DcUalcU h also contained in the Berlin Royal Library 
MS. Or. Qo., 579 (105 Cat Steinschneider) ; it is defective in the begin- 
ning and at the end.^ 

II. Translations, a, Hebrew. — As soon as European Jews 
heard of the existence of this work, they procured its trans- 
lation into Hebrew. Two scholars, independently of each 
other, undertook the task : Samuel Ibn Tibbon and Jehudah 
al-Charizi. There is, besides, in the Moreh ha-moreh of Shem- 
tobh Palquera an original translation of some portions of the 
Moreh. In the Si/the yeshenim (No. 112) a rhymed transla- 
tion of the DakUat by Eabbi Mattithyahu Kartin is men- 
tioned. Comparing the two first-named versions with each 
other, Ibn Tibbon's version is more accurate ; he sacrificed 
elegance of style to the plan of conscientiously reproducing 
the author's work, so ad not to omit even any particle, how- 
ever unimportant it may appear. Ibn Tibbon went in his 
anxiety to retain peculiarities of the original so far as to 
imitate its ambiguities, e.g., tnetsiuth (I. Iviii.) is treated as a 
masculine noun, only in order to leave it doubtful whether 
a pronoun which follows agrees with metsiuth, " existence," 
or with nimtsa, " existing being," both occurring in the same 
sentence (Br. Mus. MS. Harl. 7586, marg. note by Ibn Tibbon). 
When he met with passages that offered any difficulty he con- 
sulted Maimonides. Charizi, on the other hand, was less 

1 I am sorry that I could not ascertain whether the Cambridge University 
Library possesses any MS. copies of the Arabic text or the Hebrew version of 
the Guide. I asked the chief librarian, but received no reply, j^ 



ZU PREFACE. 

conscientious about words and particles, and wrote in a supe- 
rior style. Vox poptUi, however, decided in favour of the 
version of Ibn Tibbon, the rival of which became almost 
forgotten. Also Abraham, the son of Moses Maimonides, in 
MUchamoth Jiashem, describes Charizi's version as being inac- 
curate. Most of the modern translations were made from 
Ibn Tibbon's version. There are, therefore, MSS. of this ver- 
sion almost in every library containing collections of Hebrew 
books and MSS. It has the title, Mareh-nebhiichim, The 
British Museum has the following eight copies of Ibn 
Tibbon's version : — 

Harl, 7586 A. This codex was written in the year 1284, for Rabbi 
Shabbathai ben Rabbi Mattithyahu. In the year 1340 it came into the 
possession of Jacob b. Shelomoh ; his son Menachem sold it in the 
year 1378 to R. Mattithyahu, son of R. Shabbathai, for fifty gold florins. 
It was again sold in the year 1461 by Yechiel ben Joab. There is this 
peculiarity in the writing, that long words at the end of a line are 
divided, and written half on the one line, half on the next ; in words 
which are vocalised, paihah is frequently found for kametz. There are 
numerous various readings in the margin. The text is preceded by a 
poem, written by Joseph Ibn Aknin, pupil of Maimonides, in praise of 
his master, and beginning Adon yitsro. This poem is attributed to R. 
'Yehudah ha-Levi, in his Divan (Luzzatto, Bethutathr-bath-Yehudah, p. 
104). At the end the copyist adds an epigram, the translation of which 
is as follows : — 

"The Moreh is finished — Praise to Him who formed and created 
everything — written for the instruction and benefit of the few whom 
the Lord calleth. Those who oppose the Moreh ought to be put to 
death ; but those who study and understand it deserve that Divine 
Glory rest upon them, and inspire them with a spirit from above.'' 

Earl. 7586 B, This codex, much damaged in the beginning and at the 
end, contains the version of Ibn Tibbon, with marginal notes, consisting 
of words omitted in the text, and corrections. The version ia followed 
by the poems Kardbh meodfi^ &c., and ZVi' holech^ &c. 

Harl. 5507 contains the Hebrew version of Ibn Tibbon, with the 
translator's preface and marginal notefl, consisting of various readings 
and omissions from the text The work of Maimonides is followed by 
Ibn Tibbon's Vocabulary {milloth-zaroih)^ Meshareth-moshehf Arugoth ha- 
fnezimm(ih,MiUothhiggay(mjRiui(^'ChenjA\f&T&hV8/Ja^h'h^ a Hebrew- 
Italian vocabulary of logical terms, and an explanation of kotebh. The 
passage in Part I., chap. Ixxi., which refers to Christianity, has been 
erased. 



• • • 



PREFACE. ZUl 

HarL 5525 was the property of Shimshon Eohen Modon. The MS. 
begins with Charizi's KavancUh ha-perakim/ then follows the text, with 
a few mai^inal notes of a later hand, mostly adverse criticisms and 
references to Arama's Akedah and the Biblical commentaries of Abar* 
banel. There is also a note in Latin. The text is followed by Ibn 
Tibbon's Vocabulary (MUloth-zaroth) and Masoreth ha-peavkim (Index to 
the Biblical quotations in the Moreh). In a poem, beginning Morek 
other mennu cPraehav gaJtiChUy the Moreh is compared to a musical instru- 
ment, which delights when played by one that understands music, but 
is spoiled when touched by an ignorant person. 

AdL 27068 (Almanzi coll.). At the end the following remark is 
added : I, Samuel Ibn Tibbon, finished the translation of this work in 
the month of Tebheth 4965 (1205). The text is preceded by the well- 
known epigrams, 2Vi' holech and MoreK-ndikuchim »a sMlomi ; the last 
page contains the epigram Karchh nCod, There are some notes in the 
margin, mostly referring to various readings. 

Add. 14763. This codex, written 1273 at Viterbo, contains the preface 
of Charizi to his translation of the Moreh and his index of contents, 
Ibn Tibbon's version with a few marginal notes of diflferent hands, 
including some remarks of the translator, and the contents of the 
chapters. The codex contains besides the following treatises : Com- 
mentary of Maimonides on Abhoth ; Comm. of Maim, on Mishnah 
Sanhedrin x. 1 ; Letter of Maimonides on the Resurrection of the 
Dead ; Vocabulary of difficult words by Samuel Ibn Tibbon ; Maimo- 
nides^ Letter to the wise men of Marseilles ; his Letter to Rabbi 
Jonathan ; Kefher-mdUhuthy Jfeshareth-motheh^ Ruach-ehenf Othoth Ao- 
Aamayim^ translated from the Arabic by Samuel Ibn Tibbon ; Hath- 
chaioih ha-nimtsaoth, of Alfarabi ; Sefer Jui-tappuaehj MishU chamiihim 
^talmidimj' on the seven zones of the earth ; a fragment of a chronicle 
from the exile of Babylon down to the fourth year of the Emperor 
Nicephoros of Constantinople, and a poem, which begins asher ytshat^ 
and has the following sense : — *' If one asks the old and experienced 
lor advice, you may expect his success in all he undertakes ; but if one 
consults the young, remember the fate of Rehaboam, son of Solomon." 

Add. 14764. In addition to the Hebrew version of Ibn Tibbon (from 
end of I. xxvii.) with a few marginal notes and index, the codex con- 
tains at the end of Part I. an index of references made by the author to 
explanations given in preceding or succeeding chapters. At the end of 
the text the statement is added, that the translation was finished in the 
month of Tebheth 968 (1208). The Moreh is followed by Ruaeh^chen^ 
and Ibu Tibbon's Vocabulary of mtUothrzaroth (incomplete), and is pre- 
ceded by four poems in praise of the Moreh, beginning Shim'u nebhone 
M, Mcreh nebhtiehim ta shelomif Dt^i holech and Nofeth machkinu 

Bibl. R^, 16 A, xi. This codex, written in Prov. curs, characters 
m the year 1308, has in front a fragment of III. i., then follows the 
poem of Mesbullam, beginning Fehffu mezimmoihai (Qratz LekeUthoihan-' 



Zir PREFACE. 

ninif p. 151), and other poems (Morek-nebhuehim hacharesh, Aden 
yitsro). The text is followed by a few poems (beginning Yehffu 
maimmoikiii^ Emeth morek emetk, Kar^cha keehinnor, Karobh m'od, 
Obhde elU »amu Voihotham). The name of the owner on the last pa^e 
has been erased. 

The following MS. copies of Ibn Tibbon's Hebrew version of 
the Moreh are included in the Oxford Bodleian Library ; the 
numbers refer to Dr. Neubauer's catalogue of the MSS. : — 

1250. An index of the passages from the Bible referred to in the 
work and an index of the contents precede the version. The marginal 
notes contain chiefly omissions. 

1251. This codex was written in 1675. The marginal notes contain 
omissions and explanations. 

1252. The marginal notes contain the translator's remarks on I. 
Ixxiv. 4, and III. xlvii. The version is followed by Ibn Tibbon's 
vocabulary, and his additional remarks on the reasons for the com- 
mandments. The MS. was bought by Samuel ben Moses from a 
Christian after the pillage of Padua, where it had belonged to a Syna- 
gogue of foreigners (lo'azim) ; he gave it to a Synagogue of the same 
character at Mantua. 

1253. The marginal notes include that of the translator on III. xlvii. 
1254, 1. Text with mairginal notes containing omissions. 

1255. The marginal notes include those of the translator on I. xlvi. 
and Ixxiv. 5. 

1256. The marginal notes contain various readings, notes relating to 
Charizi's translation and the Arabic text ; on fol. 80 there is a note in 
Latin. There are in this codex six epigrams concerning the Moreh. 

1257. Text incomplete ; with marginal notes. 

Fragments of the Version are contained in the following codices : 
2047, 3, p. 65 ; 2283, 8 ; 2309, 2, and 2336. 

Among the MS. copies of the Moreh in the Bibl. Nat. in 
Paris, there is one that has been the property of R Eliaii 
Mizrachi, and another that had been in the hands of Azariab 
de Eossi (No, 685 and No. 691) ; the Giinzburg Library (Paris) 
possesses a copy (No. 771), that was written 1452 by Samuel 
son of Isaac for Babbi Moses de Leon,^ and Eliah del Medigo'3 
copy of the Moreh is in the possession of Dr. Ginsburg (Lon- 
don) ; it contains six poems, beginning Moreh nehhuchim sa ; 
Emeth moreh emeth; Bi-leshan esh ; Mah-baaru; Kamumorc 
shav. 

^ Other MS. copies of the Moreh are enumerated_in Steinachneider*8 Cat. 



PREFACE. XV 

The editio princeps of this version has no statement as to 
where and when it was printed, and is without pagination. 
According to Fiirst (Bibliogr.) it is printed before 1480. The 
copy in the British Museum has some MS. notes. Subsequent 
editions contain besides the Hebrew text the Commentaries 
of Sbem-tob and Efodi, and the index of contents by Charizi 
(Venice, 1551, foL) ; also the Comm. of Crescas and Voca- 
bulary of Ibn Tibbon (Sabionetta, 1553,i foL; Jessnitz, 1742, 
fol &c.) ; the Commentaries of Narboni and S. Maimon 
(Berlin, 1791); the commentaries of Efodi, Shem-tobh, 
Crescas and Abarbanel (Warsaw, 1872, 4to) ; German trans- 
lation and Hebrew Commentary {Biur) Part I. (Krotoschin, 
1839, 8vo) ; Grerman translation and notes. Part XL (Wien. 
1864), Part III. (Frankfort-a-M., 1838). 

The Hebrew version of Ibn Tibbon (Part I. to oh. Ixxii.) 
has been translated into Mishnaic Hebrew by M. Levin 
(Zolkiew, 1829, 4to). 

There is only one MS. known of Charizi's version, viz., 
No. 682 of the Biblioth^que Nationale at Paris. It has 
been edited by L. Schlosberg, with notes. London, 1851 
(Part I.), 1876 (II.), and 1879 (IIL) The notes on Part L 
were supplied by S. Scheyer. 

The first Latin translation of the Moreh has been dis- 
covered by Dr. J. Perles among the Latin MSS. of the Munic 
Library, Catal. Cod. latinorum bibL regiae Monacensis, tom 
1, pars iii. pag. 208 (Kaish. 36 b), 1700 (7936 b). This 
version is almost identical with that edited by Augustinus 
Justinianus, Paris, 1520, and is based on Charizi's Hebrew 
version of the Moreh. The name of the translator is not 

Cod. Hebr. Bibl. Acad. Lugd. Bat (No. 18, 221) ; Cat d. Hebr. Handacbr. 
in der Stodtbibl. zu Hamburg (Nob. 261, 262, 268) ; die Hebr. Handachr. der 
K. Hof-n. StaatsbibL in MUnchen (Noa. 99 and 297). There are aeveral copies in 
tbe Vatican Library (Assemani, 266 (written 1868), 262, 263, 264, and Urbinat, 
^); (>asanata, Angelica, Eacnrial ; St Petersburg Library (No. 82), and 
Ttibmgen Library. (See Or. Literaturbl. iv. 748.) 

' A copy in the possession of Dr. A. Asher (London) contains marginal 
notes by Bhimshon (T Kaliri, commentator of MUloth higgayon) and Moses 
Mendelssohn ; also poems in praise of the Moreh by the former. 



XVI PBEFACE. 

mentioned. In the Commentary of Moses, son of Solomon 
of Salerno on the Moreh, a Latin translation is quoted, and 
the quotations agree with this version. It is called by this 
commentator haatakath Jia-notsrith (lit. "the Christian 
translation "), and its author, ha-macUik ha-notser (lit. " the 
Christian translator"). Dr. Perles is, however, of opinion 
that these terms do not necessarily imply that a Christian 
has made this translation, as the word Ttotser may have been 
used here for " Latin." He thinks that it is the result of the 
combined efforts of Jewish and Christian scholars connected 
with the court of the German Emperor Frederic IL,^ espe- 
cially as in the thirteenth century several Jewish scholars 
distinguished themselves by translating Oriental works into 
Latin. See Gratz Monatschrift, 1875, Jan.-June, " Die in 
einer Miinchener Handschrift aufgef undene erste lateinische 
Uebersetzung," &c., von Dr. J. Perles. The title has been 
variously rendered into Latin: Director neutrorum, direc- 
torium dubitantium, director neutrorum, nutantium or dubi- 
tantium ; doctor perplexorum. 

Gedaliah ibn Yachyah, in Shalshdeth ha-kahhalah, men- 
tions a Latin translation of the Moreh by Jacob Monteno ; 
but nothing is known of it, unless it be the anonymous 
translation of the Munic MS.^ mentioned above. Augustinus 
Justinianus edited this version (Paris, 1520), with slight 
alterations and a great number of mistakes. Joseph 
Scaliger's opinion of this version is expressed in a letter to 
Casaubonus, as follows : Qui latine vertit, Hebraica, non 
Arabica, convertit, et quidem ssepe hallucinatur, neque 
mentem Authoris assequitur. Magna seges mendorum est 
in Latino. PrsBter ilia quee ab inertia Interpretis peccata 

^ That the Moreh was much studied by Christians and Mahometans is 
asserted by Joseph Caspi in his Comm. on the Moreh, and by Simeon Duran in 
his Magen-abhotk (74 b.) The relation of the Moreh to the writings of Albertus 
Magnus and Thomas d' Aquino has been shown by Dr. Joel in ** Verhaltniss 
Albert des Grossen zu Moses Maimonides," Breslau, 1863, and Dr. Perles, 
Lc Emile Saisset, in Bevue det deux Mondes (Jan. 15, 1862), says : '*Mai- 
monide est le precurseur de saint Thomas d' Aquino et le Mord Neboukhim 
annonoe et prepare la autuma theologice,** 



PBEFACB. XVU 

sunt accessit et inertia Librariorum aut Typographorum, 
eg., prophetiae pro philosophias ; altitude pro aptitude ; boni- 
tatem pro brevitatem. (Buxtorf, Doctor Perplexorum, Praef.) 
Johannes Buxtorfius, FiL, translated the Hebrew version 
of Ibn Tibbon into Latin (Basilese, 1629, 4to). In the Prse- 
fatio ad Lectorem, the translator discusses the life and the 
works of MaimonideSy and dwells especially on the merits 
and the fate of the Moreh-nebhuchim, The preface is fol- 
lowed by a Hebrew poem written in praise of an edition of 
the Moreh with the Commentaries of Ephodi, Shem-tobh 
and Crescas, by Eabbi Eaphael Joseph of Trfeves. 

Italian was the first living language into which the Moreh 
has been translated. This translation was made by Yedidyah 
ben Moses (Amadeo de Moi'se di Secanati), and dedicated by 
him to "divotissimo e divinissimo Signer mio il Signer 
Immanuel da Fane ({.e., the Kabbalist Menachem Azar- 
riah). The translator dictated it to his brother Eliah, who 
wrote it in Hebrew characters ; it was finished the 8th of 
February 1583. The MS. copy is contained in the Eoyal 
Library at Berlin, MS. Or. Qu. 487 (M. Steinschneider 
Catal., &c.) — The Moreh has been translated into Italian a 
second time, and annotated by D. J. Maroni : Guida degli 
Smarriti, Firenze, 1870, fol. 

The Moreh has been translated into German by E. Fiir- 
stenthal (Part I., Krotoschin, 1839), M. Stern (Part II., 
Wien, 1864), and S. Scheyer (Part III., Frankfort a. M., 
1838). The translation is based on Ibn Tibbon's Hebrew 
veraion. The chapters on the Divine Attributes have been 
translated into German, and fully discussed, by Dr. Kauf- 
mann in his Geschichte der Attributenlehre (Gotha, 1877). 
A.n excellent French translation, based on the Arabic 
original, has been supplied by the regenerator of the Guide, 
S. Munk. It was published together with the Arabic text 
(Paris, 1850-1866). 

^e Moreh has also been translated into the Hungarian 
language by Dr. Klein. The translation is accompanied by 
notes (Budapest, 1878-80). 




Xviii PREFACE. 

The portion containing the reasons of the Commandments 
(Part III. ch. xxvi-xlix.) has been translated into English 
by James Townley (London, 1827). The translation is 
preceded by an introduction on the life and works of 
Maimonides, and dissertations on various subjects; among 
others, Talmudical and Babbinical writings, the Originality 
of the Institutions of Moses, Judicial astrology. 

III. Commentaries. — It is but natural that in a philo- 
sophical work like the Moreh, the reader will meet with 
passages that at first thought seem unintelligible, and require 
further explanation, and this want has been supplied by the 
numerous commentators that devoted their attention to the 
study of the Moreh. Joseph Solomon del Medigo (1591) saw 
eighteen Commentaries on the Moreh. The four principal 
ones he characterises thus (in imitation of the Hagadah for 
Passover) : Moses Narboni is rashdj has no piety, and reveals 
all the secrets of the Moreh. Shem-tob is chacham, " wise," 
expounds and criticises ; Crescas is tam, " simple," explains 
the book in the style of the Eabbis ; Ef odi is sheeino yodea 
lishdy " does not understand to ask," he simply explains in 
short notes without criticism (Michtabh-achuz ed. A Geiger, 
p. 18. Berlin. 1840). The earliest annotations were made by 
the author himself on those passages, which the first translator 
of the Moreh was unable to comprehend. They are contained 
in a letter addressed to Samuel Ibn Tibbon, beginning, Vfi 
sichlo yehvilal ish (Bodl. Library, No. 2218, s. ; comp. " The 
Guide," &c., I. 21, 343 ; II. 8, 99). Ibn Tibbon, the translator, 
likewise added a few notes, which are found in the margin 
of MSS. of the Hebrew version of the Moreh (on I. xlv. 
Ixxiv.; II. xxiv.; and III. xlvii.— MSS. Bodl. 1252, 1; 1253, 
1255, 1257; Brit. Mus. Add. 14,763 and 27,068). 

Both translators wrote explanations of the philosophical 
terms employed in the versions. Charizi wrote his first, 
and Ibn Tibbon, in the introductory remarks, to Perush mUloth 
zaroth ("Explanation of difiScult words"), describes his 
rival's vocabulary as full of blunders. Ibn Tibbon's Ferush 



PREFACE. XIX 

is found almost in every copy of his version, both MS. and 
print; so also Charizi's index of the contents of the chapters 
of the Moreh {Kawanath hi-perakirn). 

The following is an alphabetical list of Commentaries on 
the Moreh : 

Ahaarband (Don Isaak) wrote a Commentary on I. i.-lv. ; II. xxzL- 
xlv., and a separate book Shamayim-chMUuhimj '^New Heavens/' on 
II. xix., in which he fullj discusses the question concerning Creatio ex 
nMlo. The opinion of Maimonides in not always accepted. Thus 
twenty-seven objections are raised against his interpretation of the first 
chapter of EzekieL These objections he wrote at Molin, in the house 
of B. Abraham Treves Sarfati. The Commentary is followed by a 
short essay (maamar) on the plan of the Moreh. The method adopted 
by Abarbanel in all his Commentaries is also employed in this essay. 
A series of questions is put forth on the subject, and then the author 
sets about to answer them. M. J. Landau edited the Commentary with- 
out text, with a Preface, and with explanatory notes, called Moreh litse- 
dakah (Prag. 1831 ; MS. Bodl. 2385). In addition to these the same 
author wrote Teshvbhoth *< Answers " to several questions asked by Rabbi 
Shaul ha-Cohen on topics discussed in the Moreh (Venice, 1754). 

AbraJuxm Abulafia wrote '^Sodoth ha-moreh," or SUhre-ihorah^ a 
kabbalistic Commentary on the Moreh. He gives the expression, pj; ];| 
(Paradise), for the number (177) of the chapters of the Moreh. MS. 
Nat Bibl. 226, a Leipsic Libr. 232, 4. MS. BodL 2360, 5, contains 
a portion of Part III. 

Buchner A, Ha-morek li-tudakak (Warsaw, 1838). Commentary on 
*' The Reasons of the Laws,'* Moreh III. xxix.-xlix. The Commentary 
is preceded by an account of the life of Maimonides. 

Comtino, Mordecai b. Eiiezer, MTote a short commentary on the Moreh 
(Dr. Ginsburg's collection of MSS. No. 10). Narboni, who " spread light 
on dark passages in the Quide," is frequently quoted. Reference is also 
made to his own commentary on Ibn £zra's Yesod-mora, 

Crewciu {Asher 6. Abraham) expresses in the Preface to his Com- 
mentary the conviction that he could not always comprehend the right 
sense of the words of Maimonides, for ''there is no searching to his 
understanding." He nevertheless thinks tbat his explanations will 
help "the young" to study the Moreh with profit A long poem in 
praise of Maimonides and his work precedes the Preface. His notes 
are short and clear, and in spite of his great respect of Maimonides, he 
now and then criticises and corrects him. 

David Yaehya is named by Joseph Del Medigo {Michtabh-achu 
ed. A Geiger, Berlin, 1840 ; p. 18, and note 76), as having written 
a Commentary on the Moreh. 

David ben Yehudah Leon Bahbino wrote En horkore, MS. Bodl. 1263. 



PREFACE. 

He quotes in his Commentary among others Arama's Akedaih yMhak, 
The Preface is written by Immanuel ben Baphael Ibn Meir, after the 
death of the author. 

Efodi is the name of the Commentary written by Isaac ben Mosea, 
who during the persecution of 1391 had passed as Christian imder the 
name of Profiat Duran. He returned to Judaism, and wrote against 
Christianity the famous satire '^ Al t'hee ka-abhothecha" ('^ Be not like 
your Fathers "), which misled Christians to cite it as written in favour 
of Christianity. It is addressed to the apostate En Bonet Bon Giorno. 
The same author also wrote a grammatical work, Mctasek-efod. The 
name Efod.{1^lk)j is explained as composed of the initials Amar Profiat 
Duran, His Commentary consists of short notes, explanatory of the 
text. The beginning of this Commentary is contained in an Arabic 
translation in MS. Bodl. 2422, 16. 

Ephraim Al-Naqavah in Shaar IPhhod ha-shem (MS. Bodl. 939, 2 
and 1258, 2), answers some questions addressed to him concerning the 
Moreh. He quotes Chisdai*s Or adonai, 

FuTBtenthal^ i2., translator and commentator of the Machzor, added 
a Biur, short explanatory notes, to his Qerman translation of Part I. of 
the Moreh (Krotoschin, 1839^ 

Oershon Moreh-derech Commentary on Part I. of Moreh (MS. Bodl. 
1265). 

Hillel b. Samuel b. Elazar of Verona explained the Introduction to 
Part II. (the 25 Propos.) S. H. Halberstam edited this Commentary 
together with Tagmule hornefesk of the same author, for the Society 
Mekitse-nirdamim (Lyck, 1874). 

Joseph Ben Abormari b. Joseph^ of Caspi (Argenti^re), wrote three Com- 
mentaries on the Moreh. The first is contained in a Munic MS. (No. 
263) ; and seems to have been recast by the author, and divided into two 
separate Commentaries : Ammude-Khesef^ and Matkiyoth Keeef, The 
former was to contain plain and ordinary explanation, whilst profound 
and mysterious matter was reserved for the second (Steinschn. Cat). Iii 
II., chap. xlviiL, Caspi finds fault with Maimonides that he does not place 
the book of Job among the highest class of inspired writings, its author 
being undoubtedly Moses. These Commentaries have been edited by 
T. Werblumer (Frankfort-a-M., 1848). R. Kirchheim added a Hebrew 
introduction, discussing the character of these commentaries, and de- 
scribing the manuscripts from which these were copied ; a Biography of 
the author is added in German. 

Joseph GiqatUia wrote notes on the Moreh, printed with *' Questioua 
of Shaul ha-kohen" (Venice, 1574. MS. Bodl. 1911, 3). 

Joseph h, Isaac ha-Lev€s GihKaih ha-Moreh is a short Commentary on. 
portions of the Moreh, with notes by R Yom-tobh Heller, the author 
of Tosaphoth Yomrtohh (Prag, 1612). 

Isaac Satanov wrote a commentary on Parts 11. and III. of the Jioreh 
(see Maimon, Solomon p. xxi.). 



PUEFACE. XXI 

Jtooe hen Shem-Tobh ibn Shem-Tohh'wrote a lengthy Commentary on 

the Mopeh, Part I. (MS. Brit Mus. Or., 1388). The object of the Com- 

mentarj is to show that there is no contradiction between Maimonides 

and the Divine Law. He praises Maimonides as a true believer in 

CrecUio ex nihilo, whilst Ibn Ezra and Qersonides assumed a prima 

materia {Yotser kadosh), Nachmanides is called ha-ehaeid ha-gadol^ 

but is nevertheless blamed, together with Narboni and Zerachjah ha- 

Levi, for criticlBing Maimonides, instead of trying to explain startling 

utterances even in '* a forced way '' {Jbedereck raehck) ; and Narboni, ^ in 

spite of his wisdom, frequently misunderstood the Moreh." At the end 

of each chapter a resumi (deru$h)o[ the contents of the chapter is given, 

and the lesson to be derived from it. The MS. is incomplete, chaps. 

zlvi-zlviii. are missing. 

Kaujfinann^ Z>., in his Gesckichie der AtribuUnlehre, translated Part I. 
chap. l.-lxiii. into German, and added critical and explanatory notes. 

KaUmymM wrote a kind of introduction ta the Moreh (Meshareth 
M(uhek\ in which he especially discusses the theory of Maimonides on 
Providence. 

Leibnitz made extracts from Buxtorfs Latin version of the Moreh, and 
added his own remarks. Ohservationes ad K Mosen Maimoniden (Foucher 
de Careil, C.A., La PhUosophie Juive, 1861). 

Levifij M,, wrote AlUm-moreh as a kind of introduction to his retrans- 
lation of Tibbon's Hebrew version into Talmudical diction. 

Ifaimon, Solomon, is the author of QihWath ha-moreh, a lengthy com- 
mentary on Book I. (Berlin, 1791.) The author is fond of expatiating 
on topics of modern philosophy. In the introduction he gives a short 
history of philosophy. The commentary on Books II. and III. was 
supplemented by Isaac Satanov. 

Meir ben Jonah ha-mechunnah Ben-shneor wrote a commentary on the 
Moreh in Fez 1560 (MS. Bodl. 1262). 

Menachem Kara expounded the twenty-five propositions enumerated 
in the Introduction to Part II. of the Moreh (MS. BodL 1649, 13). 

Mordeeai Taffe, in his Or Yekaroth, or Pinnath Yikrath, one of his 
ten Lebhuihim, comments upon the theories contained in the Moreh, 

Motes, son of Abraham Provencal, explains the passage in Part I. chap. 
IxxiiL Prop. 3, in which Maimonides refera to the difference between 
commensurable and incommensurable lines (MS. Bodl. 2033, 8). 

Moses, son ofJehudah Nagari, made an index of the subjects treated 
in the Moreh, indicating in each case the chapters in which allusion is 
made to the subject He did so, " in obedience to the advice of Mai- 
monides, to consider the chapters in connected order" (Part I. p. 20). 
It has been printed together with the questions of Shaul ha-kohen 
(Venice, 1574). 

Moses, son of Solomon of Salerno, is one of the earliest expounders of 
the Moreh, He wrote his commentary on Parts I. and II., perhaps 
together with a Christian scholar.' He quotes the opinion of ''the 



^XU PREFACE. 

Christian Bcbolar with whom he worked together." Thus he names 
Petrus de Bemia and Nicolo di Qiovenazzo. R. Jacob Anatoli, author 
of the McUmed ha-talmidim, is quoted as offering an explanation 
for the passage from Pirke di-rcMn Eliezery which Maimonides (II. chap, 
xzvi.) considers as strange and inexplicable (Part I., written 1439; 
MS. of Beth ha-midroA, London ; Parts I.-II., MS. Bodl. 1261, written 
1547 ; MS. Petersburg, No. 82 ; Munic MS. 60 and 370). 

Moses horkaian^ son of Jekvdckh^ son of Moses^ wrote Toaliyotk pirke ha- 
maamar ('' Lessons taught in the chapters of this work "). It is an 
index to the Mareh (MS. BodL 1267). 

Moses Leiden explained the 25 Prop, of the Introduction to Part II. 
(MS. Qunzburg, Paris). 

Moses Narboni wrote a short commentarr at Soria 1362. He freely 
criticises Maimonides, and uses expressions like the following : — ** He 
went too far, may God pardon him" (II. viii.). Is. Euchel ed. Part I. 
(Berlin, 1791) ; J. Qoldenthal, L to III. (Wien, 1862). The Bodl. 
Libr. possesses several MS. copies of this commentary (Nos. 1260, 1264, 
2, and 1266). 

Munk, S.f added to his French translation of the Moreh numerous 
critical and explanatory notes. 

8, Scuhs (Ha-techiyab, Berlin, 1850, p. 8) explains various passages 
of the Moreh, with a view of discovering the names of those who are 
attacked by Maimonides without being named. 

Scheyer, S,, added critical and explanatory notes to his German 
translation of the Moreh, Part 3, and to the Hebrew version of Charizi, 
Part 1. He also wrote Das Psychologische System des Maimonides, an 
Introduction to the Moreh (Frank! -a-M., 1845). 

Shem tobh ihn Palquera^s Moreh ha-moreh consists of 3 parts : (1) a philo- 
sophical explanation of the Moreh, (2) a description of the contents 
of the chapters of the Moreh, Part 1, i.-lvii (Presburg, 1827) ; (3) Cor- 
rections of Ibn Tibbon's version. He wrote the book for himself, that 
in old age he might have a means of refreshing his memory. The study 
of science and philosophy is to be recommended, but only to those who 
have had a good training in " the fear of sin.'' Ibn Roshd (Averroes) 
is frequently quoted, and referred to by the words he-chcuham hanizkar 
(the philosopher mentioned above). 

Shem-tohh ben Joseph ben Shem-tobh had the commentary of Efodi hefore 
him, which he seems frequently to have quoted verbcUim without nam- 
ing him. In the preface he dwells on the merits of the Moreh as the 
just mediator between religion and philosophy. The commentary of 
Shem-tobh is profuse, and includes almost a paraphrase of the text. 
He apologises in conclusion for having written many superfluous notes 
and added explanations where no explanation is required ; his excuse is 
that he did not only intend to write a commentary (Biur) but also a 
work complete in itself (Chibbur), He often calls the reader's attention 
to things which are plain and clear. 



PREFACE. XXIU 

Shem^tM ihn Shem-icbh, in Sefer ha-emunoth (Ferrara, 1556), criticises 
some of the various theories discussed in the Moreh, and rejects them 
as heretic His objections were examined by Moses Al-aahkar, and 
ansivezed in Hcuagoth al mak th^kathab Babbi Shem-tobk neged ha- 
Ramham (Ferrara, 1556). 

JSiU4mon h Jehudak ha-nan wrote in Germany Sithre-ihorah, a kabbal- 
istic commentary on the Moreh, and dedicated it to his pupil Jacob b. 
Samuel (MS. Beth-hamidrash, London). 

Tahriti. The twenty-five Propositions forming the introduction to 
Part 2, have been fully explained by Mahomet Abu-becr ben Mahomet 
al-tabrizi. His Arabic explanations have been translated by Isaac b. 
Nathan of Majorca into Hebrew (Ferrara, 1656). At the end the fol- 
lowing eulo<;y is added :— The author of these Propositions is the chief 
whose sceptre is " wisdom " and whose throne is '' understanding,*' the 
Isiaelite prince, that has benefited his nation and all those who love 
God, &C. : Moses b. Maimon b. Ebhed-elohim, the Israelite. . . . May 
GU)d lead us to the truth. Amen 1 

TiMi. In MS. Bodl. 2279, 1, there are some marginal notes on Part 
III., which are signed Tishbi (Neub. Cat). 

Tachya ihn Suleiman wrote in Arabic a Commentary on the Quide of 
the Perplexed. A fragment is contained in the Berlin MS. Or. Qu., 
554y 2 (Steinschneider, Cat. No. 92). 

Zerachyah b. Isaac ha- Levi, Commentary on the Moreh I., i.-lxxi., 
and some other portions of the work. (See Mazkir, 1861, p. 125.) 

MS. Bodl. 2360, 8, contains a letter of Jehudah b. Shelomoh on 
some passages of the Moreh, and Zerachyah's reply. 

Anonyvums Commentaries. — The MS. Brit. Mus. 1423 
contains marginal and interlineary notes in Arabic. No 
author or date is given, nor is any other commentary referred 
to in the notes. The explanations given are mostly preceded 
by a question, and introduced by the phrase, "the answer is," 
in the same style as is employed in the Hebrew-Arabic Mid- 
rash, MS. Brit. Mus. Or. 2213. The Midrashic character is 
prominent in the notes. Thus the verse " Open, ye gates, that 
the righteous nation which keepeth the truth may enter in," is 
explained as meaning : Open, ye gates of wisdom, that human 
understanding that perceiveth truth may enter. The notes are 
numerous, especially in the first part, explaining almost every 
word ; e.g.j on " Rabbi :" Why does Maimonides employ this 
title before the name of his pupil ? The answer is : either 
the word is not to be taken literally (''master''), but as a 
mere compliment, or it has been added by later copyists. Of 



XXIV PREFACE. 

a similar style seem to be the Arabic notes in the Berlin 
MS. Or. Oct 258, 2, 8, 10. (Cat Steinschneider, No. 108.) 
— ^Anonymous marginal notes are met with almost in every 
MS. of the Moreh ; e.g., Brit Mas. HarL 5525 ; Adi 14,763, 
14,764; BodL 1264, 1,; 2282, 10; 2423, 3; Munic MS., 
239, 6. 

The explanation of passages from the Pentateuch contained 
in the Moreh have been collected by D. Ottensosser, and 
given as an appendix (Marehrdereeh) to Derech-sdtdah (Pent, 
with Comm. &c., Fiirth, 1824). 

IV. Controversies, — ^The seemingly new ideas put forth by 
Maimonides in the Moreh and in the first section of his 
Mishneh-torah (Sefer Jut-niadda) soon produced a lively con- 
troversy as regards the merits of Maimonides' theories. It 
was most perplexing to pious Talmudists to learn how Mai- 
monides explained the anthropomorphisms employed in the 
Bible, the Midrashim and the Talmud, what he thought 
about the future state of our soul, and that he considered 
the study of philosophy as the highest degree of Divine 
worship, surpassing even the study of the Law and the prac- 
tice of its precepts. The objections and attacks of Daniel 
of Damascus were easily silenced by a cherem (excom- 
munication) pronounced against him by the Hash ha-gohh 
Eabbi David. Stronger was the opposition that had its 
centre in Montpellier. Babbi Solomon ben Abraham noticed 
with regret in his own community the fruit of the theories 
of Maimonides in the neglect of the study of the Law and the 
practice of the Divine precepts. It happened to Moses 
Maimonides what in modem times happened to Moses 
Mendelssohn. Many so-called disciples and followers of 
the great master misunderstood or misinterpreted his teach- 
ing in support of their direliction of Jewish law and Jewish 
practice, and thus brought disrepute on him in the eyes of 
their opponents. Thus it came that Babbi Solomon and his 
disciples turned their wrath against the writings of Mai- 
monides instead of combating the arguments of the pseudo- 
Maimonists. The latter even accused Solomon of having 



PREFACE. XXV 

denounced the MoriBh and the Stfer ha^madda to the Domini- 
cans, who condemned these writings to the flames; when 
subsequently copies of the Talmud were burnt, and some of 
the followers of the Babbi of Montpellier were subjected to 
cruel tortures, the Maimonists saw in this a just punishment 
for offending Maimonides. (Letters of Hillel of Verona, 
Ckemdah Oenvaah ed. H. Edelmann, p. 18 sqq) 

Meir h. Todros ha-levi Ahdafia wrote already during the 
Ufetime of Maimonides to the wise men in Lunel about the 
heretic doctrines he discovered in the works of Maimonides. 
Ahron b. Meshullam and Shesheth Benvenisti defended 
Maimonides. About 1232 a correspondence opened between 
the Maimonists and the Anti-maimonists (Gratz, Gesch. d. J. 
viL note 1). The Grammarian David Kimchi wrote three 
letters in defence of Maimonides to Jehudah Alfachar, who 
answered each of them in the sense of Babbi Solomon of 
Montpellier. Abraham b. Chasdai and Samuel b. Abraham 
Saportas, on the side of the Maimonists, took part in the 
controversy. Meshullam b. Kalonymos b. Todros of Nar- 
bonne begged Alfachar to treat Kimchi with more consi- 
deration, whereupon Alfachar resolved to withdraw from 
the controversy. Nachmanides, though more on the side 
of Babbi Solomon, wrote two letters of a conciliatory 
character, advising moderation on both sides. Bepresenta- 
tives of the congregations of Saragossa, Huesca, Monzon, 
Kalatajud, and Lerida signed declarations against R Solomon ; 
8^ from Lunel and Narbonne a cherem was proclaimed 
against the Anti-Maimonists. The son of Maimonides, 
Abraham, wrote a pamphlet Milchamoth adanai in defence of 
the writings of his father. The controversy raised about 
fi^ty years later by Abba Mari Don Astruc and R Solomon 
hen-adereth of Barcelona, concerned the Moreh less directly. 
The question was of a more general character : Is the study 
of philosophy dangerous to the religious belief of young 
students ? The letters written in this controversy are con- 
l^ed in Minchath-kenaoth by Abba Mari Don Astruc (Pres- 
boig, 1838), and Kitab alrasail of Meir Abulafia ed. J. Brill 



XXVI PBEFACR. 

(Paris, 1871). Yedaya Bedrasi took part in thia controversy 
and wrote ICthab hUhncUduth in defence of the study of 
philosophy (T'shubhoth Bashba, Hanau, 1610, p. Ill b.). The 
whole controversy ended in the victory of the Moreh and the 
other writings of Maimonides. Stray remarks are found in 
various works, some in praise and some in condemnation of 
Maimonides. A few instances may suffice. Babbi Jacob 
Emden in his MUpa/ihath'Sefarim (Lemberg, 1870, p. 56) 
believes that parts of the Moreh are spurious ; he even doubts 
whether any portion of it is the work of " Maimonides, the 
author of the Mishneh-torah, who was not capable of writing 
such heretic doctrines." S. D. Luzzato regards Maimonides 
with great reverence, but this does not prevent him from 
severely criticising his philosophical theories (Letters to S. 
Eappoport, No. 79, 83, 266, IggWoth Shedal ed. R Graber, 
Przemys'l, 1882), and from expressing his conviction that the 
saying '' From Moses to Moses none rose like Moses," was as 
untrue as that suggested by Bappoport, "From Abraham 
to Abraham (Ibn-Ezra) none rose like Abraham." Babbi 
Hirsch Chayyuth in Darkhe-Mosheh (Zolkiew, 1840) examines 
the attacks made upon the writings of Maimonides, and tries 
to refute them, and to show that they can be reconciled 
with the teaching of the Talmud. 

The BodL MS. 2240, 3a, contains a document signed by 
Josselman and other Babbis, declaring that they accept the 
teaching of Maimonides as correct, with the exception of his 
theoiy about angels and sacrifices. 

Numerous poems were written both in admiration and in 
condemnation of the Moreh. Most of them precede or follow 
the Moreh in the editions and various MS. copies of the 
work. A few have been edited in Dibhre-chahamim, pp. 75 
and 86 ; in the Literaturblatt d. Or. I. 379, II. 26-27, IV. 
748, and Leket-shoAannim by Dr. Gratz. Dr. Steinschneider's 
collection of these poems (announced in Catal. libr. Hebr. in 
Bibl. BodL, p. 1897) is about to be issued. In imitation of 
the Moreh and with a view of displacing Maimonides' 
work, the Elaraite Ahron IL h. Eliah wrote a philoso^ 



PREFACS. XXVII 

plucal treatise, Ets-chayyim (Ed. F. Delitzsch. Leipzig, 
1841). 

Of the works that discuss the whole or part of the philoso- 
phical system of the Moreh the following are noteworthy : — 

Eialer, M. Yorlesungen iiber die jUdiwhen Philoeophen des Mittel- 
alten. AbtheiL XL, Moses Maimonides (Wieu, 1870). 

Geiger, A. Das Judenthnm u. seine Gteschichte (Bieslan, 1865), 
Zehnte Vorlesang : Aben Ezra u. Maimonides. 

QraU, H. Qeschichte d. Juden YL, p. 363 #99. 

Joel, M. Beligionsphiloeophie des Moses b. Maimon (Breslan, 1859). 

Joel, M. Albertos Magnus iu sein Yorhaltniss zu Maimonides 
(Breslao, 1863). 

Kaafmaim, J>. (Seschichte der Attribntenlehre, YII. Gotha, 1874. 

IHiOippeohii, L. Die Philoeophie des Maimonides. Predigt nnd 
Schnl-Magazin, I. xviii Magdeburg, 1834. 

Boein, D. Die Ethik d. Maimonides (Bieslau, 1876). 

Rubin, S. Spinoza u. Maimonides^ ein Psjchologisch-Pbiloeophisches 
Antitheton (Wien, 1868). 

Scheyer, S. Das psjcbologiscbe System des Maimonides. Frankfort- 
a-M., 1845. 

Weiss, T. H, Beth^Taimud, I. x. p. 289. 

In conclusion, I take this opportunity to express my best 
thanks to my friend, Mr. A. Neubauer, M.A., of Oxford, 
who with his wonted kindness allowed me the use of his 
catalogue, and most readily supplied such information as 
was required. 

M, FEIEDLANDER 

J.WS' COLL.GI, '^^ 



PART III. 




INTRODUCTIOK 

We have stated several times ^ that it is our primary object 
in this treatise to expound, as far as possible, the Biblical 
account of the Creation {Maaseh hereshith) and the descrip- 
tion of the Divine Chariot (Maaseh mercabhah) in a manner 
adapted to the training of those for whom this work is 
written. 

We have also stated that these subjects belong to the 
mysteries of the Law. You are well aware how our Sages 
blame those who reveal these mysteries, and praise the 
merits of those who keep them secret, although they are 
perfectly clear to the philosopher. In this sense they explain 
the passage, " Her merchandise shall be for them that dwell 
before the Lord, to eat sufficiently " (Isa. xxiil 18), which con- 
cludes in the original with the words ve-li-meckasseh athik? i.e., 
that these blessings are promised to him who hides things 
which the Eternal has revealed [to him],^ viz., the mysteries 
of the Law (Babyl. Talmud, Pesachim 119 a). If you have 
imderstanding you will comprehend that which our Sages 
pointed out. They have clearly stated that the Divine 
Chariot includes matters too deep and too profound for the 

* See Part I., Introduction, p. 4, and Part II., chap, iu 

' Lit., " and for durable clothing." Limechauth signifies also " for him who 
ooTereth," and cOihik '1 old." Hence the Midrashic interpretation, ** for him who 
hides [that which] the Lord [has revealed]." God is called athik yomaya, *< old 
in days " (Dan. vii. 9). 

* In the editions of the Talmud, "which the Eternal has concealed," i.e,, 
indicated in Scripture only by way of hints, which are not intelligible to 
the ordinary reader. ^ 

VOL. lU. A 



2 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

ordinary intellect. It has been shown that a person favoured 
by Providence with reason to understand these mysteries is 
forbidden by the Law to teach them except vivd voce, and on 
condition that the pupil possess certain qualifications, and 
even then only the heads of the sections may be communi- 
cated. This has been the cause why the knowledge of this 
mystery has entirely disappeared from our nation, and 
nothing ^ has remained of it. This was unavoidable, for the 
explanation of these mysteries was always communicated 
vivd voce ; it was never committed to writing. Such being 
the case, how can I venture to oall your attention to such 
portions of it as may be known, intelligible, and perfectly 
clear to me ? * But if, on the other hand, I were to abstain 
from writing on this subject, according to my knowledge of 
it, when I die, as I shall inevitably do, that knowledge 
would die with me, and I would thus inflict great injury on 
you and aU those who are perplexed [by these theological 
problems]. I would then be guilty of withholding the truth 
from those to whom it ought to be communicated, and of 
jealously depriving the heir of his inheritance. I should in 
either case be guilty of gross misconduct. 

To give a full explanation of the mystic passages of the 
Bible is contrary to the Law and to reason ; besides, my 
knowledge of them is based on reasoning, not on divine in- 
spiration [and is therefore not infallible]. I have not received 
my belief in this respect from any teacher, but it has been 
formed by what I learnt from Scripture and the utterances 
of our Sages, and by the philosophical principles which I 
have adopted. It is therefore possible that my view is 
wrong, and that I misunderstood the passages referred to. 
Correct thought and divine help have suggested to me the 

* Lit., " neither little nor much." 

^ Munk : " Sur ce qui m'a parn a peu pr^ clair et sur ce qui est pour xnoi 
d'une Evidence indubitable." According to Munk, Maimonidea speaks here 
of two kinds of mysteries, viz., of such as are almost (a peu prte) known to 
him, and of such as are perfectly clear to him. If this wer6 meant by the 
author he would have repeated the relative pronoun before the second part. 
There is no equivalent in the original to the second " sur oe qui." 



PART IIL^HAPTER I. 3 

proper method, viz., to explain the words of the prophet 
Ezekiel in such a manner that those who will read my inter- 
pretation will believe that I have not added anything to the 
contents of the text, but only, as it were, translated from one 
language into another, or given a short exposition of plain 
things. Those, however, for whom this treatise has been 
composed, will, on reflecting on it and thoroughly examining 
each chapter, obtain a perfect and clear insight into all that 
has been clear and intelligible to me. This is the utmost 
that can be done in treating this subject so as to be useful 
to all without fully explaining it. 

After this introductory remark I ask you to study atten- 
tively the chapters which follow on this sublime, important, 
and grand subject, which is the pin upon which everything 
hangs,^ and the pillar upon which everything rests.^ 



CHAPTER I. 

It ' is well knoi^n that there are men whose face is like that 
of other animals ; thus the face of some person is like that 
of a lion, that of another person like that of an ox, and so 
on ; and man's face is described according as the form of his 
face resembles the form of the face of other animals. By 
the expressions, " the face of an ox," " the face of a lion," 
**the face of an eagle" (Ezek. i. 10), the prophet describes a 
human face inclining towards the forms of these various 
species. This interpretation can be supported by two proofs. 
First, the prophet says of the Hayyoth in general that " their 

^ Comp. Isa. xxii 23-24. 

' Ck>inp. Judges xvL 26. 

' The object of this chapter is to reconcile the description of the Hayyoth in 
the vision of Ezekiel as having faces of a lion, an ox, and an eagle with the 
thepiy of Maimonides, that they represent the spheres, which are like human 
hdngt^ endowed with life and intellect. Comp. Part L, chap, i., and chap, 
zxii» 



4 GUIDE OF THE PEKPLEXED. 

appearance is this, they have the form of man " (ver. 5), and 
then in describing each of the Hayyoth he attributes to them 
the face of a man, that of an ox, that of a lion, and that of an 
eagle. Secondly, in the second description of the Chariot, 
which is intended as a supplement to the first, the prophet 
says. Each hath four faces ; the one is the face of a cherub, 
the second a man's face, the third a lion's face, and the 
fourth that of an eagle (ibid. x. 14). He thus clearly indi- 
cates that the terms " the face of an ox " and " the face of a 
cherub " are identical.^ But cherub designates " a youth." * 
By analogy we explain the two other terms — " the face of a 
lion " and " the face of an eagle " in the same manner. ** The 
face. of the ox" has been singled out on account of the ety- 
mology of the Hebrew term shot (ox), as has been indicated 
by me.3 It is impossible to assume that this second descrip- 
tion refers to the perception of another prophetic vision, be- 
cause it concludes thus : " This is the Hayyah which I saw 
at the river Chebar" (ibid. ver. 15). What we intended to 
explain is now clear. 

^ Ibn Ezra (on Exod. xxv. 18) arrives by the same reasoning at a different 
conclusion, namely, that cherub is the general term for " figure '* or *^ form," 
and applies to the form of man as weU as to that of other beings (comp. Talm. 
Babl Chagigah, 13 a). Abarbanel finds it strange that Maimonides does not 
base his proof on the circumstance that " cherubim " is apparently used in 
X. 15 of the four different forms of each Hayyah. But, according to our author, 
the term "cherubim" signifies in that passage "angels," and expresses the 
relation of the four Hayyoth to the four elements {ofannim), 

^ In the Talmud and the Targum rubh means ** young man " ( Joma 5 a, 
Targ. Lam. v. 13), and clicrub must accordingly mean '* like a youth." 
Comp. Ibn Ezra I c and Talm. Babl. I, c, 

' Part II., chap, xliii. Shur means " to see ;" the noun shor may therefore 
have been used in the sense of " intellectual sight," the peculiar property of 
man. 



PART in. — CHAPTER II. 



CHAPTER 11. 

The prophet says that he saw four ^ Hayyoth ; each of them 
had four faces,* four wii^s,^ and two hands,* but on the whole 
their form was human.* Comp, " They had the likeness of a 
man " (Ezek. i 5). The hands are also described as human 
hands, because these have undoubtedly, as is well known, 
such a form as enables them to perform all manner of cunning 
work. Their feet are straight \^ that is to say, they are with- 
out joints. This is the meaning of the phrase " a straight 
foot," taken literally. Similarly our Sages say, the words, 
" And their feet were straight feet '* (ibid. i. 7), show that the 
beings above do not sit.^ Note this likewise. The soles of 
the feet of the Hayyoth, the organs of walking, are described 
as different from the feet of man, but the hands are like 
human hands. The feet are round, for the prophet says, 
"like the sole of a round foot."* The four Hayyoth are 

^ /.«., the four spheres (see Part II., chap, ix.), which are living beings, 
" HayyotK" (Fart L, chap, hxii) 

' Each sphere includes four elements in its existence (see Part I., chap. 
xxxviL), substance, spherical shape, a soul, and intellect. According to Efodi, 
Shemtob, and other commentators, the influences upon the four elements are 
meant; but this signification of panim^ "face," is not mentioned among the 
various meanings of jxifitm {L c) 

* /.CL, the four causes of motion, viz., the sphericity of the spheres, their 
SQtol, their own intellect, and the intellect separate from them (Part II., 
chap. X.) 

* The spheres act in two ways ; on the one hand, they combine the elements ; 
on the other, they separate elements from each other. 

' They have intellect (Comp. Part L, chap, i.) 

' The elements, of whose existence the spheres are the causes (Part I., chap, 
xzviii) ; they move in a straight line (ibid. chap. Ixxvi.) 

^ Bereshith-rabba, chap. 65. The quotation serves to prove that yetharah 
means here " rectilinear ;" in other respects the interpretation of the phrase is 
different from that given by Maimonides ; for the latter refers the predicate 
yttkarah to the motion of the four elements, whilst in the passage quoted it is 
enunciated of the motion of the angels (or spheres). But as it is admitted by 
Maimonides that the spheres do not interrupt their motion, he adds, " Note 
this likewise ; " viz. that the angels do not sit or rest. 

* A. v., « of the foot of a calf." The word egd {** calf ") is here interpreted 
10 meaning "lound,** from the root agal, " to be round." 



6 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

closely joined together, there is no space or vacuum left 
between them. Comp. " They were joined one to another " 
(ibid, i 9). " But although they were thus joined together, 
their faces and their wings were separated above "^ (ibid.ver. 
11). Consider the expression "above" employed here, al- 
though the bodies were closely joined, their faces and their 
wings were separated, but only above. The prophet then 
states that they are transparent ; they are " like burnished 
brass "* (ibid. ver. 7). He also adds that they are luminous.* 
Comp. " Their appearance was like burning coals of fire " 
(ibid. ver. 13). This is all that has been said as regards 
the form, shape, face, figure, wings, hands, and feet of the 
Hayyoth, The prophet then begins to describe the motions 
of these Hayyoth^ namely, that they have a uniform motion, 
without any curvature, deviation, or deflexion : " They turned 
not when they went" (ver. 17). Each of the Hayyoth moves 
in the direction of its face. Comp. " They went every one in 
the direction of his face " (ver. 9). Now, it is here clearly 
stated that each Hayyah went in the direction of its face, but 
since each Hayyah has several faces, I ask, in the direction of 
which face ? In short, the four Hayyoth do not move in the 
same direction ; for, if this were the case, a special motion 
would not have been ascribed to each of them ; it would not 
have been said, " They went each one towards the side of his 
face." * The motion of these Hayyoth is further described as 

^ As the faces and the wings represent the four constituent elements of the 
spheres, and the four causes of their motion, the term " above " indicates the 
superior elements and the faces, viz., the inteUect that is possessed by each 
sphere, and the separate intellect towards which the sphere moves. These 
are of different degrees in the different spheres, whilst the material elements 
and causes are the same for all the four spheres. 

' The polished brass is not transparent, but it appears to be so, for the 
brass itself is not seen, but only the images which it reflects are perceived. 
The idea of transparency is suggested by the term haJUd^ ''polished,*' whilst 
nechoshah (lit., "brass") represents, according to Maimonides, a different 
notion. See Part II. , chap. xliiL, p. 203, note 1. 

^ I.e., through the stars which they contain. 

^ I.e.f each sphere has its peculiar motion (Part I., chap. Ixii., p. 291 aeq), 
which is determined by the nature of its constituent elements. These being 



PAOT HL — CHAPTER 11. 7 

a mailing, so also their returning is described as a running. 
Comp. " And the Hayyoth ran, and returned as the appear- 
ance of a flash of lightning" (ver. 14), raisoh being the infini- 
tive of ruts, " to run," and shob the infinitive instead of shub, 
" to return." The ordinary words, hcdoch and 6o, " to go " and 
" to come," are not used, but such words as indicate running to 
and fro ; and these are further explained by the phrase, " As 
the appearance of a flash of lightning " (bazak, used by the 
prophet, is identical with barak), for the lightning appears to 
move very quickly ; it seems to hasten and to run from a 
certain place, and then to turn back and to come again to the 
place from which it had started. This is repeated several 
times with the same velocity. Jonathan, the son of Uzziel, 
renders the phrase rcUso vashob thus : They move round the 
world and return at once, and are as swift as the appearance 
of lightning. This quick movement and return the Hayyah 
does not perform of its own accord, but through something 
outside of it, viz., the Divine Will ; for " to whichever side it is 
the Divine Will that the Hayyah should move, thither the 
Hayyah moves," in that quick manner which is expressed by 
"running and returning." This is implied in the words, 
" Whithersoever the spirit was to go they went " (ver. 20) ; 
'*They turned not when they went" (ver. 17). By "the 
spirit" {ruach), the prophet does not mean " the wind," but 
" the intention," as we have explained when discussing the 
homonym ruach (spirit). The meaning of the phrase is, that 
whithersoever it is the Divine Will that the Hayyah shall go, 
thither it runs. Jonathan, the son of Uzziel, gives a similar 
explanation : Towards the place whither it is the will to go, 
they go ; they do not turn when they go. The employment 
of the future tense of the verbs (yihyeh and yeVchu) in this 
passage seems to imply that sometimes it will be the will of 

four in number, the author asks which of them has the principal share in this 
detenninatioxL The meaning of the question is this : substance, spherical 
■bape, and soul being in all spheres the same, the difference is formed by the 
intellects and their relation to the respective Intelligences ; but it is difficult 
to comprehend how this purely spiritual difference could be the cause of the 
difference in the motion of the corporeal spheres. Comp. Efodi ad locum. 



S GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

God that the Hayyah should move in one direction, in which 
it will in fact move, and at other times it will be His will 
that the Hayyah should move in the opposite direction, in 
which it will then move. An explanation is, however, added, 
which is contrary to this conclusion, and shows that the 
future form (yihyeh) of the verb has here the meaning of the 
preterite,' as is frequently the case in Hebrew. The direction 
in which God desires the Hayyah to move has already been 
determined and fixed, and the Hayyah moves in that direction 
which His will has determined long ago, without having ever 
changed.^ The prophet, therefore, in explaining, and at the 
same time concluding [this description of the Hayyoth"], says, 
" Whithersoever the spirit is to go they go, thither was the 
spirit to go " (ver. 20), Note this wonderful interpretation. 
This passage forms likewise part of the account of the motion 
of the four Hayyoth which follows the description of their 
form. 

Next comes the description of another portion ; for the 
prophet relates that he saw a body beneath the Hayyoth^ but 
closely joining them. This body, which is connected with 
the earth, consists likewise of four bodies, and has also four 
faces.* But no distinct form is ascribed to it; neither 
that of man nor that of any other living being. The [four 
bodies] are described as great, tremendous, and terrible ; no 
form is given to them, except that they are covered with 
eyes. These are the bodies called 0/annim (lit., wheels). 
The prophet therefore says : " Now, as I beheld the Hay- 
yoth, behold one wheel upon the earth by the living 
creatures, with his four faces" (ver. 15). He thus distinctly 
states that the Ofannim form a body, of which the one part 
touches the Hayyoth^ and the other part the earth ; and that 
the Ofan has four faces. But he continues — " The appearance 
of the Ofannim (wheels) and their work was like unto the 

^ Comp. Part I., chap. Ixvii., and Part II., chap. xzviL The spheres move 
according to laws fixed by the Creator since the creation. 

^ This body represents the materia prima of the sublunary world. The 
four faces are the same as the four bodies, viz., the four elements. 



PART ra. — CHAPTER IL 9 

colour of a beryl : and they four had one likeness " (ver, 16). 
By speaking of four Ofannim^ after having mentioned only 
one Of any the prophet indicates that the " four faces " and 
the " four OfannvnC^ are identical These four Ofannim have 
the same form ; comp., " And they four had one likeness/* ^ 
The Ofannim are then described as partly inter-joined ; for 
'* their appearance and their work was as it were a wheel in 
the middle of a wheel " (ver. 16). In the description of the 
Hayoth such a phrase, with the term "in the middle of" 
{toch) is not employed. The Hayyoth are partly joined, 
according to the words, " they were joined one to another " 
(ver. 11); whilst in reference to the Ofannim it is stated that 
they are partly intermixed, "as it were a wheel in the 
middle of a wheeU* The body of the Ofannim is described 
as being covered with eyes ; it is possible that a body covered 
with real eyes is here meant, ^ or a body with different 
colours [ayin in Hebrew denoting " colour "], as in the phrase 
" the colour thereof [end] as the colour {k*en) of bdellium " 
(Num. xi. 7) ; or a body filled with likenesses of things. In 
this latter sense the term ayin is used by our Sages in 
phrases like the following : — Like that [A;'en] which he has 
stolen, like that \k'en\ which he has robbed; or different 
properties and qualities are meant, according to the meaning 
of the word ayin in the passage, " It may be that the Lord 
will look {Venai) on my condition"* (2 Sam. xvi. 12). So 
much for the form of the Ofannim. Their motion is described 
as being without curvature and deviation ; as being straight, 
without any change. This is expressed in the words, " When 
they went, they went upon their four sides : and they turned 
not when they went " * (ver, 17). The four Ofannim do not 

^ The property common to the four elements is that of forming constituent 
puts of corporeal and transient bodies. 

' /.c, the matena prima contained the substance for the formation of living 
beiogi. The three explanations of ayin which f oUow apply to the different 
colours, forms, and properties of the things formed out of the four elements. 

' So also Kxrochi. According to the Ghaldee version, " the tears of my eye." 

^ As to the rectilinear motion of the elements, comp. Part L, chap. IxxiL, 
p. 293. 



10 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

move of their own accord, as the Hayyoth, and have no motion 
whatever of their own; they are set in motion by other 
beings, as is emphatically stated twice. The Hayyoth are the 
moving agents of the Ofannirti, The relation between the 
Ofan, and the Hayyah may be compared to the relation 
between a lifeless body tied to the hand or the leg of a living 
animal ; whithersoever the latter moves, thither moves also 
the piece of wood, or the stone, which is tied to the named 
limb of the animal. This is expressed in the following 
words : — " And when the Hayyoth went, the 0/annim went 
by them ; and when the living creatures were lifted up from 
the earth, the 0/annim were lifted up" (ver. 19) ; " and the 
O/annim were lifted up over against them " (ver. 20). And 
the cause of this is explained thus : — ** The spirit of the Hay- 
yah was in the Ofannim " (ibid.) For the sake of emphasis 
and further explanation the prophet adds, " When they went, 
these went ; and when those stood, these stood ; ^ and when 
those were lifted up from the earth, the Ofannim were lifted 
up over against them ; for the spirit of the Hayyah was in 
the Ofannim " (ver. 21). The order of these movements is 
therefore as follows : — ^Whithersoever it is the will of God 
that the Hayyoth should move, thither they move of their 
own accord. When the Hayyoth move the Ofannim neces- 
sarily follow them, because they are tied to them, and not 
because they move of their own accord in the dii'ection in 
which the Hayyoth move. This order is expressed in the 
words, "Whithersoever the spirit was to go, they went, 
thither was their spirit to go ; and the Ofannim were lifted 
up over against them ; for the spirit of the Hayyah was in 
the Ofannim"^ (ver. 20). I have told you that Jonathan, 
the son of Uzziel, translates the verse thus, " to the place 
whither it was the will that the Hayyoth should go," &c. 

After having completed the account of the Hayyoth, with 
their form and motion, and of the Ofannim, which are beneath 

^ I.e,f apparently ; or amad means here *' to remain ** (Efodi). 
* The elements have no motive power; their motion is caused by the 
motion of the spheres. Comp. Part I., chap. IxxiL, p. 294. 



PART ni.— CHAPTER HI. ll 

the Hayyoth, connected with them and forced to move when 
the Hayyoth move, the prophet begins to describe a third 
object which he perceived prophetically, and gives the account 
of a new thing, viz., of that which is above the Hayyoth} He 
says that the firmament is above the four Hayyoth, above the 
frmament is the likeness of a throne, and over the throne 
the likeness of the appearance of man. This is the whole 
account of what the prophet perceived at first at the river 
Chebar. 



CHAPTER III. 

When Ezekiel recalled to memory the form of the Chariot, 
which he described in the beginning of the book, the same 
vision presented itself to him a second time ; in this vision 
he was borne to Jerusalem. He explains in describing it 
things which have not been made clear at first, ^ e.^., he 
substitutes the term " cherubim " for Hayyoth, whereby he 
expresses that the Hayyoth of the first vision are likewise 
angels like the cherubim. He says, therefore : " Where the 
cherubims went, the Ofannim went by them : and when the 
cherubims lifted up their wing to mount up from the earth, 
the same Ofannim, also turned not from beside them" (x. 16). 
By these words he shows how closely connected the two 
motions are [viz., that of the Hayyoth and that of the Ofan- 
nm\, The prophet adds, " This is the Hayyah that I saw 
imder the God of Israel by the river of Chebar ; and I knew 
that they were cherubims " (ver. 20). He thus describes the 

^ The third vision comprises the immaterial beings. The " firmament *' 
(roHa) identical with the arahoth described in Part I., chap. Ixix., seems to be 
considered as the partition between material and immaterial beings. The 
latter are, as it were, the throne of God, " the likeness of the appearance of 
man." (Comp. Part I., chap. L) 

* In the first vision the properties of the Hayyoth (spheres) are described ; in 
the second vision their relation to the Ofannim (four elements) is shown. 



12 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

same forms and the same motions, and states that the Hay^ 
yoth and the cherubim are identicaL A second point is then 
made clear in this second description, namely, that the Ofan- 
nim are spherical ; for the prophet says, " As for the Ofanninij 
it was cried unto them in my hearing, sphere " ^ (ver. 13). 
A third point concerning the Ofannim is illustrated here in the 
following words : " To the place whither the head looked they 
followed it : they turned not as they went " (ver. 11). The 
motion of the Ofannim is thus described as involuntary, and 
directed " to the place whither the head looketh ; " and of 
this it is stated that it moves " whither the spirit is to go " * 
(i. 20). A fourth point is added concerning the Ofannim, 
namely, " And the Ofannim were full of eyes round about, 
even to their four Ofannim " (x. 12). This has not been men- 
tioned before.* In this second description there are further 
mentioned " their flesh, and their backs, and their hands, and 
their wings " (ibid.), whilst in the first account none of these 
is mentioned;^ and it is only stated that they are bodies. 
Though they are endowed in the second account with flesh, 
hands, and wings, no form is given to them.^ In the second 



^ The four elements included within the lunar sphere fonn themselveii a 
sphere, or globe ; and so also each element has a spherical form (see next 
chapter). According to some commentators the spherical form of the atoms, 
or molecules, is meant 

' By " the head " the heavenly spheres are to be understood. In the Brst 
vision the prophet was shown the natural rectilinear motion of the elements ; 
in the second their forced motion, in consequence of the rotation of the spheres, 
is represented. But although the elements do not keep the rectilinear motion, 
they do not move in a circle. 

' In the first vision the prophet only perceived the variety of forms produced 
by the different relations each point of the sphere of the elements has to the 
heavenly spheres. This is expressed by attributing eyes only to j/oMoCAaai, 
" their outside," or the side exposed to the influences of the heavenly bodies. 
In the second vision, he perceives the great variety of forms produced by the 
combination of the elements and their products. This is expressed by the 
phrase, " they had eyes round about the four Ofannim " (ver. 12). 

^ Lit, " in the first he does not ascribe to the Ofannim flesh, or hands, or 
wings," 

'^ The elements supply the substance for corporeal objects ; their form is 
impressed on them by the heavenly beings, and especially by the Active Intel- 



PART III. — CHAPTER IV. 13 

account each of an is attributed to a cherub, '' one of an by one 
cherub, and another of an by another cherub."^ The four 
Hayyoih are then described as one Hayyah on account of their 
interjoining : ''This is the Hayyah that I saw under the 
God of Israel by the river of Chebar" (ver. 20). Also the 
Ofannim, though being four in number, as has been men- 
tioned, are called "one of an upon the earth" (ver. 15), 
because they interjoin, and " they four have one likeness " ' 
(ver. 16). This is the additional explanation which the 
second vision gives of the form of the Hayyoth and the 
Ofannim. 



CHAPTEE IV. 

It is necessary ' to call your attention to an idea expressed 
by Jonathan, the son of Uzziel. When he saw that the 
prophet says in reference to the Ofannim^ " It was cried unto 
them in my hearing, ffilgal" (" sphere ") (x. 13), he assumed 
that by Ofannim the heavens are meant,^ and gendered ofan 
by gilgai, " sphere," and ofannim by gilgelaya^ " spheres." I 

lectt which IB therefore called "the Giver of Form" (mAhen ha-Uurak), or 
•*Fonner"(yb«ier). 

^ Each element correiponds to one of the celestial Bpheres. 

* /.e., from a certain point of view we may count all the spheres as one ; and 
all the elements, with the things formed of them, as one. The former are 
material and permanent, the latter material and changeable ; and both^U^ 
distinguished from the third category, viz., immaterial and permanent beings. 
Besides^ the substance of the spheres, the quintessence, is the same in all of 
them ; and the four elements have likewise a common substance with different 
propeitieB in the different elements. 

' This chapter is an apology, that the author does not accept Jonathan's 
tendering and interpretation of ofannim. He followed the example of our 
Ssges and of previous commentators, who frequently differ from Jonathan, not- 
withstanding the high esteem in which he was held by them. Besides, his 
own interpretation is merely offered as a suggestion, and must not be con- 
sidered as final. 

^ It is difficult to see how Maimonides could derive this from the Chaldee 
9^^, which is the literal translation of the Hebrew ofan^ '* wheel" Comp. 



14 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

have no doubt that he found a confirmation of his opinion in 
the words of the prophet that the Ofannim were like unto the 
colour of tarshish (ver. 16), a colour ascribed to the heavens, 
as is well known.^ When he, therefore, noticed the passage, 
" Now as I beheld the Hayyot\ behold one Of an upon the 
earth" (i. 15), which clearly shows that the Ofannim were 
upon the earth, he had a difficulty in explaining it in accord- 
ance with his opinion. Following, however, his interpreta- 
tion, he explains the terms erets, employed here as denoting 
the inner surface of the heavenly sphere, which may be 
considered as erets (" earth " or " below,") in relation to all 
that is above that surface. He therefore translates the 
words ofan echad ha-arets as follows : " One ofan was 'below 
the height of the heavens." Consider what his explanation 
of the passage must be.. I think that he gave this explanation 
because he thought that gUgal denotes in its original mean- 
ing "heaven." My opinion is that gilgai means originally 
*' anything rolling ; " comp. " And I will roll thee (ve-gUgal- 
iicha) down from the rocks " (Jer. li. 25) ; " and rolled (va- 
yaget) the stone" (Gen. xxix. 10); the same meaning the 
word has in the phrase : " Like a rolling thing (galgal) before 
the whirlwind" (Isa. xvii. 13). The poll of the head, being 
round, is therefore called gulgoleth ; and because everything 
round rolls easily, every spherical thing is called gilgai; also 
the heavens are called gilgallim on account of their spheri- 
cal form. Thus our Sages use the phrase, " It ^ is a wheel 
(gilgai) that moves round the world;" and a wooden ball, 

Targ., Exod. xiv. 25 ; Isa. zxviiL 26, &c. The proof based on the rendering of 
haarfts is better. Instead of the literal "he-ara" the Chaldee version haa 
milra lerum skemayaf " below or at the bottom of, the height of the heavens.** 
Whether the author of this version was acquainted, or was not acquainted, 
with the Aristotelian system of spheres, he certainly seems to express his 
opinion that ba-areta, in this passage, does not mean " on the earth.*' 

^ This is probably derived from the Targum, which renders tarshish (Exod. 
xxviiL 20) by herum yamma, " colour of the sea," for, according to Midrash 
Tanchuma (on Num. xv. 38, &c.)» the colour of the sea is similar to that of the 
heavens. 

^ The change of fortune. Babyl. Talm. Shabbath, p. 151 b» 



PART m. — CHAPTER V. 15 

whether small or large, is called gilgaL If so, the prophet 
merely intended by the words, "As for the Ofannim, it 
is cried to them in my hearing, sphere" (ffUgoJ), to 
indicate the shape of the Ofannim, as nothing has been 
mentioned before respecting their form and shape ; but he 
did not mean to say that the Ofannim are the same as the 
heavens. The term "like tarshish" is explained in the 
second account, in which it is said of the Ofannim : " And 
the appearance of the ofannim was like the colour of tarshisky 
This latter passage is translated by Jonathan, the son of 
TJzziel, " like the colour of a precious stone," exactly in the 
same manner as Onkelos translates the phrase ke-ma'ase 
libhnath ha-sappir, " like the work of the whiteness of sap- 
phire " (Exod. xxix. 10). Note this.^ You will not find it 
strange that I mention the explanation of Jonathan, son of 
Uzziel, whilst I gave a different explanation myself ; for you 
will find many of the wise men and the commentators differ 
from him iu the interpretation of some words and in many 
things respecting the prophets. ' Why should it be otherwise 
in these profound matters? Besides, I do not decide in 
favour of my interpretation. It is for you to learn both — 
the whole of his explanation, from what I have pointed out 
to you, and also my own explanation. God knoweth which 
of the two explanations is in accordance with that which the 
prophet intended to say. 



CHAPTER V. 

It is necessary to notice that the plural maroth elohim, 
" visions of God," is here used, and not the singular mareh^ 
" vision," for there were several things, of different kinds, that 
were perceived by the prophet. The following three things 

* Biaimonides finds in this phrase the description of the materia prima. 
(See Put L, ch»p. xxviii) So here the one of an represents the materia prima 
conuDon to the four elements. 



16 GUIDE OF THE PEBPLEXED. 

were perceived by him : the Ofannim, the Hayyoth, and the 
inan above the Hayyoth, ^ The description of each of these 
visions is introduced by the word va-ereh, '* And I beheld." 
For the account of the Hayyoth begins, •* And I looked (va- 
ereJi), and behold a whirlwind," &c., (ver. 4). The account 
of the Ofannim begins: "Now as I beheld {vd-treh) the 
Hayyoth, behold one Of an upon the earth " (ver. 15). The 
vision of that which is above the Hayyoth in order and rank 
begins : " And I saw {va-ereh) as the colour of the amber, &c., 
from the appearance of his loins even upward" (ver. 27). 
The word va-ereh, " and I beheld," only occurs these three 
times in the description of the Mercabhah. The doctors of the 
Mishnah have already explained this fact, and my attention 
was called to it by their remarks. For they said that only the 
two first visions, namely, that of the Hayyoth and the Ofan- 
nim, might be interpreted to others ; but of the third vision, 
viz., that of the chaehmal and all that is connected with it, only 
the heads of the sections may be taught. Sabbi [Jehudah], the 
Holy, is of opinion that all the three visions are called maaseh 
mercabhah, and nothing but the heads of the sections could be 
communicated to others. The exact words of the discussion 
are as follows : — Where does maaseh mercabhah end ? Babbi 
says, with the last va-ereh;^ Babbi Yitschak says it ends at 

^ y.e., (1.) The four elements, or the sublunary world ; (2.) the spheres ; (3.) 
the intelligences. 

^ /.e., from the beginning to the third vision inclusive. Rabbi mentions 
onlj the first word va-ere; it is probably from this fact that Maimonides 
infers that Rabbi would only permit the heads of the sections to be taught 
The prohibition of teaching mctaae mercahhah applies equally to the whole of 
the first chapter. Rabbi Yitschak makes a distinction between the last 
vision and the first : from the beginning to chathmal (inclusive) contains less 
of mystery than the remainder of the chapter. (The words nUn tn-erv ad 
chashmal, from ''and I saw" to **ehashmaV* are merely an explanation of the 
preceding ad chashmal.) By this explanation the objections are refuted which 
Shem-tob raises against the interpretation of Maimonides. But the passage 
as quoted here is dififerent from the coiresponding passage in Talm. BabL 
Chagigah 13 a, which runs thus : " The elders of Pumbeditha said to Rab 
Yoseph, " We have studied the first chapter of Ezekiel to the very end.'* He 
replied, " This is exactly mcuuek mercahhah.** Against this remark the following 
boraitha is quoted : " How far does mcuueh mercabhah extend ? " Rabbi said. 



PABT m. — CHAPTER V. 17 

the word chaskmal (ver. 27). The portion from va^ereh to 
cTiaskmal may be fully taught ; of that which follows, only 
the heads of the sections ; according to some it is the passage 
from va-ereh to chashmai, of which the heads of the sections 
may be taught, but that which follows may only be studied 
by those who possess the capacity, whilst those that cannot 
study it by themselves must leave it. — It is clear from the 
words of our Sages that different visions are described, as may 
also be inferred from the repetition of the word va-ereh, and 
that these visions are dififerent from each other in degree ; 
the last and highest of them is the vision commencing, ''And 
I saw as the colour of chashmcU ; " that is to say, the divided 
figure of the man, described as " the appearance of fire, &c., 
from the appearance of his loins even upward, and from the 
appearance of his loins even downward," &c. There is a 
difference of opinion among our Sages whether it is per- 
mitted to give by way of hints an exposition of any part 
of this third vision, or whether it is prohibited even to teach 
of it the heads of the sections, so that only the wise can 
arrive at understanding it by their own studies. You will 
also notice a difference of opinion among our Sages in refer- 
ence to the two first visions, viz., that of the Hayyoth and 
that of the Ofannim whether these may be taught explicitly 
or only by way of hints, dark sayings, and heads of sections. 

«* To the last va-ere ** ('* and I saw "). Rabbi Yitschak said, *< To chashmat." 
The objection is then met in the following way : [The Boraitha merely treats 
of the first part of mcuueh meretibhahy which may be communicated]. From 
the beginning to va-ere may be taught, but of the remaining part only the heads 
of the sections may be communicated. According to others [from the be- 
ginning] to va-ere the heads of the chapters may be communicated, whilst 
the remainder is left to the study of the intelligent reader. Midrash Yalkut 
on Ezekiel viii has almost the same reading of this passage as Maimonides. 
According to Munk and Shem-tob, " Rabbi Meir '' must be substituted for 
*'Babbi,** and "to the last va-ere" must be understood as meaning "to the 
word va-ere" t.f., to the end of the second paragraph. But if the Boraitha 
qnoted does not contain the opinion of Rabbi there is no reason why 
Maimonides mentions his opinion, especially as it is opposed to his own 
Tiew. It is more probable that "Rabbi Meir" has been substituted for 
"Sabbi" in consequence of a misunderstanding of the phrase "to the last 
va-ere." 
VOL. JIL B 



18 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

You must also notice the order of these three visions. First 
comes the vision of the Hayyothy because they are first in 
rank and in the causal relation/ as it is said, " For the spirit 
of the Hayydh was in the Ofannim,'' and also for other reasons.* 
The vision of the Ofannim [comes next, and] is followed by 
one which is higher than the Hayyoth^ as has been shown. 
The cause of this arrangement is, that in study the first two 
must necessarily precede the third, and in fact they lead to it. 



CHAPTER VI. 



The sublime and great subject which Ezekiel by prophetic 
impulse began to teach us in the description of the Mer- 
cabhah, is exactly the same which Isaiah taught us in general 
outlines because he did not require all the detaiL Isaiah 
says, " I saw the Lord sitting upon a throne, high and lifted 
up, and His train filled the temple. Above it stood sera- 
phims," &c. (Isa. vL 1 seq.) Our Sages have already stated 
all this clearly, and called our attention to it. For they say 
that the vision of Ezekiel is the same as that of Isaiah, and 
illustrate their view by the following simile : — Two men saw 
the king riding, the one a townsman, the other a countryman. 
The former, seeing that his neighbours know well how the 
king rides, simply tells them that he saw the king; but the 
villager, wishing to tell his friends things which they do not 
know, relates in detail how the king was riding, describes 
his followers and the officers who execute his order and 
command. This remark is a most useful hint; it* is con- 

^ The knowledge of the spheres (astronomy) is based on mathematics ; that 
of the sublunary beings on physics, which in the regular course of studies 
comes after mathematics. Ck>mp. infra p. 19, note 2. 

^ The material beings — the spheres and the things below— must be known 
before a knowledge of the immaterial beings is sought. The spheres aro of 
greater importance than earthly beings, and are the source of the existence of 
the latter ; therefore they are mentioned first. 



PABT III— CHAPTER VII. 19 

tained in the following passage (Hagigah, 13 b.) " Isaiah saw 
all that has been seen by Ezekiel ; Isaiah is like a townsman 
that sees the king, Ezekiel like a countryman that sees the 
king." These words can be explained in the manner which I 
have just mentioned, viz., the generation of Isaiah did not 
require the detailed description; his account, "I saw the 
Lord," &c., sufl&ced. The generation of the Babylonian exile 
wanted to learn all the details. It is, however, possible that 
the author of this saying held Isaiah as more perfect than 
Ezekiel, so that the vision might have overawed Ezekiel and 
appeared fearful to him ; but Isaiah was so familiar with it 
that he did not consider it necessary to communicate it to 
others as a new thing, especially as it was well known to the 
intelligent. ..^"^'^ ^TI" 




CHAPTER VIL 

One of the points that require investigation is the connec- 
tion between the vision of the mercahhah and the year, month, 
and day, and also the place of the vision. A reason must be 
found for this connection, and we must not think tliat it is 
an indifferent element in the vision.^ We must consider the 
words, "the heavens were opened" (Ezek. i. 1);^ they give the 

^ According to Narboni, Maimonides desires the reader to bear in mind that 
the prophet described merely a mental process, certain notions and ideas con- 
ceived by him, and not a real event. The time and the place of the occurrence 
i^re therefore given, so that the reader may at once recognise the subjective 
character of the account, as no extraordinary phenomenon has been observed 
at that time and in that place by any other person. It seems, however, more 
probable that the author aUudes to the influence of the spheres upon things 
on earth, the development of man's physical, moral, and intellectual faculties 
not excepted. This influence depends on the position of the heavenly bodies 
—in their annual, monthly, and daily circuits — and their relation to the objects 
on earth subject to their influence. When a person is predisposed for the 
attainment of those qualities which are indispensable in a prophet, he owes 
this predisposition to that influence. 

' /.e., the nature and properties of the heavens were disclosed to the pro- 
phet. The knowledge thus obtained led him to the knowledge of the intelli« 
trenoei and of €U>d as weU as of the origin of the things below. See 8upr<t 
h 18, notes 2 and 3. 



20 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

key to the understanding of the whole. The figure of open- 
ing, also that of opening the gates, occurs frequently in the 
books of the prophets ; e.^., " Open ye the gates that the 
righteous nation may enter in" (Isa. xxvi. 2); *'He opened 
the doors of heaven " (Ps. Ixxviii. 23) ; " Lift them up, ye 
everlasting doors " (ibid. xxiv. 9) ; " Open to me the gates 
of righteousness, I will go into them, and I wiH praise the 
Lord " (ibid, cxviii 19). There are many other instances of 
this kind. You must further notice that the whole descrip- 
tion refers undoubtedly to a prophetic vision, as it is said, 
" And the hand of the Lord was there upon him " (ibid, i 3) ; 
and yet there is a very great difference between the various 
parts of the description, for in the account of the Hayyath 
the prophet does not say four Hayyoth, but " the likeness of 
the four Hayyoth " (ibid, ver. 5) ; similarly he says, " And 
the likeness of a firmament was over the heads of the Hay- 
yoth'* (ver. 22) ; "as the appearence of a sapphire stone, the 
likeness of a throne," and " the likeness of the appearance of 
man above it" (ver. 26). In all these instances the word 
" likeness " is used, whilst in the account of the OfanrUnt 
the phrases, " t^e likeness of Ofannim** th^ " likeness of an 
Of an" are not employed, but they are described in a positive 
manner as beings in actual existence, with their real proper- 
ties.^ The sentence " they four had one likeness " must not 
mislead you, for here the word " likeness " is not used in the 
same connection or in the same sense as indicated above. 
In the description of the last vision the prophet confirms 
and explains this view. When he commences to describe 
the firmament in detail, he says, " the firmament," without 
adding the words "the likeness of," for he says, "And I 
looked, and behold, in the firmament that was above the 
head of the cherubims there appeared over them as it were 
a sapphire stone, as the appearance of the likeness of a 
throne " (xi. 1). Here the prophet speaks of " the firmament" 

^ The spheres {Hayyoth) are not visible, they are merely assamed {dem%Uh^ 
" likeness," ^* imagination "), and their knowledge is not so perfect as that of 
the elements (fifannim) and the things composed of them. 



PART in.— CHAPTER VII. 21 

and not of " the likeness of the firmameut/' as he does when 
he connects the firmament with the heads of the likeness of 
the Hdyyoth^ (i 22). But, as regards the throne, he says, 
" the likeness of a throne appeared over them/' in order to 
indicate that the firmament was first perceived and then 

the likeness of the throne was seen over it. Consider this 
welL^ 

Ton must further notice that in the description of the first 
vision the Hayyoth have wings and at the same time human 
hands, whilst in the second vision, in which the term cheru- 
bim is substituted for Hayyoth^ at first only wings were 
perceived, and later on human hands were seen. Comp. 
<' And there appeared in the cherubims the form of a man's 
hand under their wings" (x. 8). Here "form" (tabhnith) 
is used instead of " likeness " (derrnUh) ; and the hands are 
placed under the wings. Note this.' 

Consider that in reference to the ofannim, the prophet 
says, le^mmatham, " over against them," although he does 
not ascribe to them any form.^ 

^ The knowledge of the ratio, ''firmament,** which appears here to be 
identical with shamayim, and to denote the uppennost "all-encompassing 
sphere,** ia imperfect when compared with the knowledge of the subltmary 
world, as is the case in the first chapter (ver. 22) ; bat the knowledge of the 
beaTens appears more perfect when compared with that of the higher beings 
(the ^rone or Glory of God, the Intelligences). The latter is the case in the 
tenth chapter (ver. 1). 

' See p. 18, note 2. 

' In the first vision the general and direct influence was shown which the 
spheres ezerdse upon things below. The prophet saw the Hayyoth or spheres 
with their wings (causes of their motion) and hands (influence upon the earth) 
at the same time. In the second vision the great variety of forms was shown 
that is produced by a long series of causes. The prophet saw therefore first 
the wings, ue., the motion of the spheres and then the forms directly and in- 
dirtedy produced by that motion, represented by the " hands of man," which 
were for some time hidden under the wings. Gomp. p. 12, note 3. 

^ Maimonidea means perhaps to say, that the term U-ummatkam cannot be 
taken literally, but must be understood in a figurative sense, " according to 
them,'* ie., the Qfawnim move according to the motions of the Hayyoth, It 
is, however, possible that, according to Maimonides, the prophet alludes by the 
phrase "over against them** to the fact that the action of the spheres upon 
earthly beings is regulated by the relative position of each being to the spheres 
and the bodies contained in them. 



22 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

He further says, "As the appearance of the bow that is ia 
the cloud in the day of rain, so was the appearance of the 
brightness round about. This was the appearance of the 
likeness of the glory," &c. (i. 28). The substance and true 
essence of the bow described here is well known.^ The simile 
and comparison is in this case very extraordinary,* and is 
undoubtedly part of the prophecy ; and note it well. * 

It is also noteworthy that the likeness of man above the 
throne is divided,* the upper part being like the colour of 
chashmal, the lower part like the appearance of fire. As 
regards the word chdshmal, it has been explained to be a com- 
pound of two words chash and mcU, including two different 
notions, viz., chash signifying "swiftness," and mal denoting 
" pause." The two different notions are here joined in one 
word in order to indicate figuratively the two different parts, 
— the upper part and the lower. We have already given a 
second explanation, namely, that chashmal includes the two 
notions of speech and silence ; in accordance with the saying 
of our Sages, " At times they are silent, at times they speak," 

^ The rainbow is produced through the action of the sun, although the sun 
is diametrically opposite to the cloud and does not touch it. In the same way 
do the InteUigences (the Glory or the Throne of God, purely immaterial beings) 
cause the motion of the spheres, although they do not themselves move nor do 
they ever come into contact with the spheres. 

' LiL, "And this is wonderful in a simile and a comparison." 

' This phrase by no means implies any mystery, as most commentators 
assumed ; it simply expresses that Maimonides was extremely pleased with 
the simile, and considered it very appropriate for representing the causal 
relation between the Intelligences and the spheres. 

^ A duality is pointed out in this figure, and therefore it cannot represent 
God. This view Maimonides supports by quoting the explanation given by 
our Sages of the word duuhmalt according to which the word, split into two 
parts, expresses two opposite notions. The figure represents the Intelligences, 
which are themselves without motion but are the cause of all motion {ckoMh- 
mal, ** haste-pause *') ; they are one when considered by themselves, but are 
many when considered as causes and effects, — they are the source of all 
thought and speech, but do not speak. One of the explanations of chatkmal 
referred to is found in Babyl. Tahn. Chagigah 13 a, viz., the second ; but 
Kimehi, in his Dictionary, cites this passage, beginning with the interpreta- 
tion of cJtashmal as two words, ch<uh and tnal. 



PART ni.— CHAPTER VIL , 23 

thus deriving chash of the same root as Jiecheshethi, " I have 
been silent " (Isa. xlii. 14) ; the word chcLshmal thus includes 
two notions, and indicates " speech without sound." There 
is no doubt that the words, " at times they are silent, at 
times they speak," refer to a created object.^ Now, consider 
how they clearly stated that the divided likeness of man 
over the throne does not represent God, who is above the 
whole chariot, but represents a part of the creation. The 
prophet likewise says " that is the likeness of the glory of 
the Lord ; " but " the glory of the Lord " is different from 
"the Lord" Himself, as has been shown by us several 
times. All the figures in this vision refer to the glory of the 
Lord, to the chariot, and not to] Him who rides upon the 
chariot ; for God cannot be compared to anything. Note 
this.^ I have thus given you also in this chapter as much 
of the heads of the sections as will be useful to you for 
the comprehension of this subject, if you fill out [the sections 
of] these heads. If you consider all that has been said in 
this part up to this chapter, the greater part of this subject 
or the whole of it will be clear to you, except a few points 
and some repetitions, the meaning of which is unknown. 
Perhaps deep study will help to reveal even these things so 
that nothing will remain unintelligible. 

Do not expect or hope to hear from me after this chapter 
a word on this subject, either explicitly or implicity, for all 
that could be said on it has been said, though with great 
difficulty and struggle. I will now begin to treat of some 
of the other subjects^ which I hope to elucidate in this 
treatise. 

^ /.&, the figure represents beings that are changeable, and therefore created 
belng& God cannot be represented by any figare ; therefore, a prophet can- 
not have a vision in which God is the being that speaks to him. Comp. Part 
IL, chi^ xlv. 

» Comp. Part I., p. 43. 



24 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Transient bodies are only subject to destruction through 
their substance and not through their form, nor can the 
essence of their form be destroyed ; in this respect they are 
permanent. The generic forms, as you know, are all perma- 
nent and stable.^ Form can only be destroyed accidentally, 
i,e., on account of its connection with substance, the true 
nature of which consists in the property of never being with- 
out a disposition to receive form.^ This is the reason why 
no form remains permanently in a substance; a constant 
change takes place, one form is taken off and another is 
put on.. How wonderfully wise is the simile of King Solomon, 
in which he compares matter to a faithless wife ; for matter 
is never found without form, and is therefore always like 
such a wife who is never without a husband, never single ; 
and yet, though being wedded, constantly seeks another 
man in the place of her husband ; she entices and attracts 
him in every possible manner till he obtains from her what 
her husband has obtained. The same is the case with 
matter. Whatever form it has, it will be disposed to receive 
another form ; it never leaves off moving and casting off the 
form which it has in order to receive another. The same 
takes place when this second form is received. It is there- 
fore clear that all corruption, destruction, or defect comes 
from matter. Take, e.g., man; all deformities, unnatural 
shape of limbs, weakness, interruption, or disorder of actions, 
whether innate or not, originate in the transient substance, 
not in the form. All other living beings hkewise die or 
become ill through the substance of the body and not 

^ I.e., "The Universe poBsesses a force which protects the species from 
destruction, maintains the individuals of each species as long as possiblei,*', 
Ac.; Part I., chap. IxziL, p. 299. Maimonides does not mean, by generic fonns 
the Platonic ideals ; he repeatedly says that the forms are not in existence 
without substance. Gomp. Part L, chap. Ixzii., p. 295. 

^ Lit, ** privation or negation.'* Comp. Part I., chap, xvil, p. 68, note 3. 



PART m. — CHAPTER VHI. 25 

through its form. Man's shortcomings and sms are all due 
to the substance of the body and not to its form ; while all 
his merits are exclusively due to his form. Thus the know- 
ledge of God, the formation of ideas, the mastery of desire 
and passion, the distinction between that which is to be 
chosen and that which is to be rejected, all these man owes 
to his form ; but eating, drinking, sexual intercourse, exces- 
sive lust, passion, and all vices, have their origin in the sub- 
stance of his body. Now it was clear that this was the case, 
— it was impossible, according to the wisdom of God, that 
snbstance should exist without form, or any of the forms of 
the. bodies without substance, and it was necessary that the 
very noble form of man, which is the image and likeness of 
God, as has been shown by us,^ should be joined to the 
substance of dust and darkness, the source of all defect and 
loss. For these reasons the Creator gave to the form of man 
power, rule, and dominion over the substance ; — the form can 
subdue the substance, refuse the fulfilment of its desires, and 
reduce them, as far as possible, to a just and proper measure. 
The station of man varies according to the exercise of this 
power. Some persons constantly strive to choose that which is 
noble, and seek the perpetuation in accordance with the direc- 
tion of their nobler part, — their form ; . their thoughts are 
engaged in the formation of ideas, the acquisition of true 
knowledge about everything and the union with the divine in- 
tellect which flows down upon them, and which is the source 
of man's form. Whenever they are led by the wants * of the 
body to that which is low and avowedly disgraceful, they are 
grieved at their position, they feel ashamed and confounded 
at their situation. They try with all their might to diminish 
this disgrace, and to guard against it in every possible way. 
They feel like a person whom the king in his anger ordered 
to remove refuse from one place to another in order to put 
him to shame ; that person tries as much as possible to hide 
himself during the time of his disgrace ; he perhaps removes 

^ Part L, chap. L 

' Ibn Tibbon : Wants and desires. 



26 GUIDE OF THE PEKPLEXED. 

a small quantity a short distance in such a manner that his 
hands and garments remain clean, and he himself be un- 
noticed by his fellow-men. Such would be the conduct of a 
free man, whilst a slave would find pleasure in such work ; 
— he would not consider it a great burden, but throw himself 
into the refuse, smear his face and his hands, carry the refuse 
openly, laughing and singing. This is exactly the diflference 
in the conduct of different men. Some consider, as we just 
said, all wants of the body as shame, disgrace, and defect 
to which they are compelled to attend ; this is chiefly the 
case with the sense of touch, which is a disgrace to us 
according to Aristotle, and which is the cause of our desire 
for eating, drinking, and sensuality.^ Intelligent persons 
must, as much as possible, reduce these wants, guard against 
them, feel grieved when satisfying them, abstain from speak- 
ing of them, discussing them, and attending to them in com- 
pany with others. Man must have control over all these 
desires, reduce them as much as possible, and only retain 
of them as much as is indispensable. His aim must be the 
aim of man as man, viz., the formation of ideas, and nothing 
else. The best and sublimest among them is the idea which 
man forms of God, angels, and the rest of the creation 
according to his capacity. Such men are always with God, 
and of them it is said, " Ye are princes, and all of you are 
children of the Most High " (Ps. Ixxxii. 6). This is man's 
task and purpose. Others, however, that are separated from 
God form the multitude of fools, and do just the opposite. 
They neglect all thought and all reflection on ideas, and 
consider as their task the cultivation of the sense of touch, — 
that sense which is the greatest disgrace ; they only think 
and reason about eating and love. Thus it is said of the 
wicked who are drowned in eating, drinking, and love, " They 
also have erred, through wine and through strong drink are 
out of the way," &c. (Isa. xxviii. 7), "for all tables are 
full of vomit and filthiness, so that there is no place clean " 

^ Comp. Part II., chap, xzxvi., p. 176; and Kaufmann, XHe Sirme, 1884, 
pp. 188-91. 



PART III. — CHAPTER VIII. 27 

(ver. 8) ; again, " And women rule over them " (ibid. iii. 2), 
1 — the opposite of that which man was told in the beginning 
of the creation, "And for thy husband shall thy desire be, 
and he shall rule over thee" (Gen. iii. 16). The intensity 
of their lust is then described thus, " Every one neighed after 
his neighbour's wife," &c. (Jer. v. 8) ; " they are all adul- 
terers, an assembly of treacherous men" (ibid. ix. 2), The 
whole book of the Proverbs of Solomon treats of this subject, 
and exhorts to abstain from lust and intemperance. These 
two vices ruin those that hate God and keep far from Him ; 
to them the following passages may be applied, " They are 
not the Lord's " (ibid. v. 10) ; " Cast them out of my sight, 
and let them go forth " (ibid. xv. 1). As regards the portion 
beginning, '* Who can find a virtuous woman ? " it is clear 
what is meant by the figurative expression "a virtuous 
woman." When man possesses a good sound body that does 
not overpower him nor disturb the equilibrium in him, he 
possesses a divine gift. In short, a good constitution facili- 
tates the rule of the soul over the body,^ but it is not 
impossible to conquer a bad constitution by training. For 
this reason King Solomon and others wrote the moral 
lessons ; also all the commandments and exhortations in the 
Pentateuch aim at conquering the desires of the body. Those 
who desire to be men in truth, and not brutes, having only 
the appearance and shape of men, must constantly endea- 
vour to reduce the wants of the body, such as eating, love, 
drinking, anger, and all manners originating in lust and 
passion ; they must feel ashamed of them and set limits to 
them for themselves. As for eating and drinking in so far as 
it is indispensable, they will eat and drink only as much as 
is usefulaud necessary as food, and not for the purpose of 
pleasure. They will also speak little of these things, and 
rarely congregate for such purposes. Thus our Sages, as is 
well known, kept aloof from a banquet that was not part of 

^ Lit, '*the suitable matter (or substance of man) can easily be gov- 
eraed." 



28 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

a religious act/ c^d pious men followed the example of £. 
Phinebas, son of Jair, who never dined with other persons, 
and even refused to accept an invitation of R Jehudah, the 
Holy.* Wine may be treated as food, if taken as such, but 
to form parties for the purpose of drinking wine together 
must be considered more disgraceful than the unrestrained 
conduct of persons who in daylight meet in the same house 
undressed and naked. For the natural action of the diges- 
tive organ is indispensable to man, he cannot do without it ; 
whilst drunkenness depends on the free will of an evil man. 
To appear naked in the presence of other people is miscon- 
duct only according to public opinion, not according to the 
dictates of reason, whilst drunkenness, which ruins the mind 
and the body of man, reason stamps as a vice. Thou, there- 
fore, who desire to act as human beings must keep away 
from it, and even from speaking of it. On sexual inter- 
course, I need not add anything after I have pointed out in 
the commentary on Abhoth (i. 17) how it is treated by our 
Law, which is the teaching of pure wisdom, — no excuse what- 
ever should induce us to mention it or to speak of it. Thus 
our Sages said,^ that Elisha the prophet is called holy, because 
he did not think of it, and consequently never found himself 
polluted with semen. In a similar manner they say that 
Jacob had the first issue of semen for the conception of 
Reuben.^ All these traditional stories have the object of 
teaching the nation humane conduct. There is a well- 
known saying of our Sages, "The thoughts about the sin 
are more dangerous than the sin itself." ^ I can ofifer a good 
explanation of this saying: When a person is disobedient, 
this is due to certain accidents connected with the corporeal 

^ CSomp. Mishnah Abhoth, iil i, and Babyl. Talm. Pesachim, 49 a; Mlshneb- 
torah, Hilchotb Deoth, v. 2. 

3 BabyL Tahn. ChulUn, 7 b. 

> BabyL Tahn. Berachoth, 10 b. 

* Bereshith-rabba, chaps. xcviiL and xcix. (on Gron. xlix. 8). 

^ BabyL Tahn. Yoma, 29 a. According to Monk, the saying is used in the 
TaUnud in a physical and not in a moral sense. This is certainly a mistake. 
The term abkerOf " sin,'* is sufficient evidence of the moral sense of the saying. 



PABT in. — CHAPTEE VIII. 29 

element in his constitution ; for man sins only by his animal 
nature, whereas thinking is a faculty of man connected with 
his form, — a person who thinks sinfully sins therefore by 
means of the nobler portion of his self; and he who 
wrongly causes a foolish slave to work does not sin as much 
as he who wrongly causes a noble and free man to do the 
work of a slave. For this specifically human element, with 
all its properties and powers, should only be employed in 
suitable wor*k, in attempts to join higher beings, and not in 
attempts to go down and reach the lower creatures.^ You 
know how we condemn lowness of speech, and justly so, 
for speech i^ likewise peculiar to man and a boon which God 
granted to him that he may be distinguished from the rest 
of living creatures. Thus God says, " Who gave a mouth to 
man ? " (Exod. iv. 11) ; and the prophet declares, " The Lord 
God hath given me a learned tongue " (Isa. 1. 4). This gift, 
therefore, which God gave us in order to enable us to perfect 
ourselves, to learn and to teach, must not be employed in 
doing that which is for us most degrading and perfectly 
disgraceful; we must not imitate the songs and tales of 
ignorant and lascivious people. It may be suitable to 
them, but is not fit for those who are told, " And ye shall 
be unto me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation" 
(Exod. xix. 6). Those who employ the faculty of thinking 
and speaking in the service of that sense which is no honour 
to us, who think more than necessary of drink and love, or 
even sing of these things ; they employ and use the divine 
gift in acts of rebellion against the Giver, and in the trans- 
gression of His commandments. To them the following 
words may be applied : " And I multiplied her silver and 
gold, which they prepared for Baal" (Hos. ii. 10). I have 

^ Ckmip. BabyL Talm. Shabbath, 33 b : — ** Whoever defiles his mouth and 
ntten low language, any decree in his favour, even if it be the reward for a 
good life of seventy years, is rescinded and he is condemned." In the Con- 
fession {viduj) on the Day of Atonement special prominence is given to this 
vice (sinfl caused by ''utterance of) the lips," "speech of the mouth,*' by 
"foolish words," " uncleanliness of lips," ** tongue of evil," &c.) 



30 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

also a reason and cause for calling our language the holy 
languages-do not think it is exaggeration ^ or error on my 
part, it is perfectly correct — ^the Hebrew language has no 
special name for the organ of generation in females or in 
males, nor for the act of generation itself, nor for semen, nor 
for secretion. The Hebrew has no original expressions for 
these things, and only describes them in figurative language 
and by way of hints, as if to indicate thereby that these 
things should not be mentioned, and should therefore have 
no names ; we ought to be silent about them, and when we 
are compelled to mention them, we must manage to employ 
for that purpose some suitable expressions, although these 
are generally used in a different sense. Thus the organ of 
generation in males is called in Hebrew gid^ which is a figura- 
tive term, reminding of the words. " And thy neck is an iron 
sinew" {gid) (Isa. xlviii. 4). It is also called shuphcha, 
"pouring out'* (Deut xxiii. 2), on account of its function. 
The female organ is called kohhah (Num. xxv. 8), from kebah 
(Deut. xviii. 3), which denotes " stomach;" rechem, " womb," 
is the inner organ in which the foetus develops ; tsoah (Isa. 
xxviii. 8), " refuse," is derived from the verb yat$a/* to go out ;" 
for " urine " the phrase rrteme raglayim, " the water of the feet, 
is used;"* semen is expressed by shichbhath zero, "seed of 
copulation." For the act of generation there is no expres- 
sion whatever in Hebrew ; it is described by the following 
words only : hacU, " he is master ;" sJiachdb, " he lies ;" lakach, 
" he takes;" gillah ervah, " he uncovers the nakedness." Be 
not misled by the word yisligalennak (Deut. xxviiL 30), to 
take it as denoting that act ; this is not the case, for shegal 
denotes a female ready for cohabitation. Comp. " Upon thy 
right hand did stand the maiden " (shegal) '* in gold of Ophir" 

^ There are three different readings in the several MSS. of the original : 
lagUf " a vain word," galUf *f splendour/* to which perhaps the Hebrew gaavak 
of Charizi corresponds, and ^a/u, " exaggeration,'* rendered haphloffoh by Ibn 
Tibbon (Munk). 

' In this instance and in the preceding one Maimonides quotes the Keri, but 
offers no explanation of the Kethib. MatfUin (Hithp. of shin, 1 Sam. 
yxv. 22). 



PART m. — CHAPTEE IX. 31 

(Ps. xlv. 10). Yishgalennah, according to the Kethib, denotes 
therefore ** take the female for the purpose of cohabitation." 
We have made in the greater part of this chapter a digres* 
sion from the theme of this treatise, and introduced some 
moral and religious matter, although they do not entirely 
belong to the subject of this treatise, but the course of the 
discussion has led to it. 



CHAPTEE IX. 

The corporeal element in man is a lai'ge screen and partition 
that prevents him from perfectly perceiving abstract ideals ; 
this would be the case even if the corporeal element were as 
pure and superior as the substance of the spheres ; how much 
more must this be the case with our dark and opaque body. 
However great the exertion of our mind may be to compre- 
hend the Divine Being or any of the ideals, we find a screen 
and partition between Him and ourselves. Thus the prophets 
frequently hint at the existence of a partition between God and 
us. They say He is concealed from us in a cloud, in dark- 
ness, in mist, or in a thick cloud; or use similar figures to 
express that on account of our bodies we are unable to com- 
prehend His essence. This is the meaning of the words, 
" Clouds and darkness are round about Him " (Ps. xcvii. 2). 
The prophets tell us that the difiiculty consists in the gross* 
ness of our substance; they do not imply, as might be 
gathered from the literal meaning of their words, that God 
is corporeal, and is invisible because He is surrounded by 
thick clouds, vapours, darkness, or mist. This figure is also 
expressed in the passage, "He made darkness His secret 
place" (Ps. xviii. 12). The object of God revealing Himself 
in thick clouds, darkness, vapours, and mist was to teach 
this lesson ; for every prophetic vision contains some lesson 
by means of allegory ; that mighty vision, therefore, though 



32 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

the greatest of all visions, and above all comparison, viz., 
His revelation in a thick cloud, did not take place without 
any purpose, it was intended to indicate that we cannot 
comprehend Him on account of the dark body that surrounds 
us. • It does not surround God, because He is incorporeal. 
A tradition is current among our people that the day of the 
revelation on Mount Sinai was misty, cloudy, and a littlB 
rainy. Comp. "Lord, when thou wentest forth from Seir, 
when thou marchedst out of the field of Edom, the earth 
trembled, and the heavens dropped water" (Judges v. 4).^ 
The same idea is expressed by the words " darkness, clouds, 
and thick darkness" (Deut. iv. 11). The phrase does not 
denote that darkness surrounds God, for with Him there is 
no darkness, but the great, strong, and permanent light, 
which, emanating from Him, illuminates all darkness, as is 
expressed by the prophetic siniile, "And the earth shined 
with His glory " (Ezek. xliii. 2). 



CHAPTEE X.2 

The Mutakallemim, as I have already told you, apply the 
term non-existence only to absolute non-existence, and not to 
the absence of properties. A property and the absence of 
that property are considered by them as two opposites,* they 
treat, e,g., blindness and sights death and life, in the same 
way as heat and cold. Therefore they say, without any 
qualification, non-existence does not require any agent, an 
agent is required when something is produced. From a cer- 

^ This verse has been explained as referring to the revelation on Mount 
Sinai because of the words " that Sinai *' in the verse which follows. 

' The object of this chapter is to show that non-existence, which includes 
all kinds of evil, cannot be described as the work of God. 

• /.e., as two positive properties. Comp. Part L, chap, Ixxiii., Prop. viL, p. 
327 ffj. 



PART m. — CHAPTER X. 33 

tain point of view this is correct.^ Although they hold that 
non-existence does not require an agent, they say in accord- 
ance with their principle that God causes blindness and deaf- 
ness, and gives rest to anything that moves, for they consider 
these negative conditions as positive properties. We must 
now state our opinion in accordance with the results of 
philosophical research. You know that he who removes the 
obstacle of motion is to some extent the cause of the motion,^ 
e.^., if one removes the pillar which supports the beam he 
causes the beam to move, as has been stated by Aristotle in 
Physics (VIII., chap, iv.) ; in this sense we say of him who 
removed a certain property that he produced the absence of 
that property, although absence of a property is nothing posi- 
tive. Just as we say of him who puts out the light at night 
that he has produced darkness, so we say of him who de- 
stroyed the sight of any being that he produced blindness, 
although darkness and blindness are negative properties, and 
require no agent. In accordance with this view we explain 
the following passage of Isaiah : " I form the light and create 
{bore) darkness : I make peace, and create (bore) evil " (Isa. 
xlv. 7), for darkness and evil are non-existing things. Con- 
sider that the prophet does not say, I make (pseh) darkness, I 
make (pseh) evil, because darkness and evil are not things in 
positive existence to which the verb "to make" would apply ; 
the verb bara " to create " is used, because in Hebrew this 
verb is applied to non-existing things, e.g., " In the beginning 
God created " (bara), &c, ; here the creation took place from 
nothing. Only in this sense can non-existence be said to be 
produced by a certain action of the agent. In the same 
way we must explain the following passage: "Who hath 
made man's mouth ? or who maketh the dumb, or deaf, or 
the seeing," &c. (Exod. iv. 11). The passage can also be ex- 

' Non-existence, even in the sense in which the Mutakallemim nse the term, 
requires no direct agent, but there must be an indirect agent ; because, when non- 
ezirtenoe, e.g.f rest as absence of motion, is produced, something must cease to 
exist, or to move, and an agent is required to remove that existence or motion. 

' Comp. Part II., Introd., Prop, xviii. 

VOL. III. 



34 GUIDE OF THE PEBPLEXED. 

plained as follows: Who has made man able to speak? or 
can create him without the capacity of speaking, i.e., create a 
substance that is incapable of acquiring this property? for 
he who produces a substance that cannot acquire a certain 
property may be called the producer of that privation. Thus 
we say, if any one abstains from delivering a fellow-man 
from death, although he is able to do so, that he killed him. 
It is now clear that according to all these difiTerent views ^ 
the action of an agent cannot be directly connected with a 
thing that does not exist; only indirectly is non-existence 
described as the result of the action of an agent, whilst in a 
direct manner an action can only influence a thing really in 
existence ; accordingly, whoever the agent may be, he can 
only act upon an existing thing. 
r" After this explanation you must recall to memory* that, 
I as has been proved, the [so-called] evils are evils only in 
I relation to a certain thing,* and that which is evil in refer- 
ence to a certain existing thing, either includes the non- 
existence of that thing or the non-existence of some of its 
good conditions. The proposition has therefore been laid 
down in the most general terms, " All evils are negations." 
Thus for man death is evil ; death is his non-existence. 
Illness, poverty, an d igno rance are evils for man ; all these 
"are privaCons'oTpToperties. If you examine all single cases 

^ /.c, according to the Mutakallemim, who apply the term nun-existenoe 
only to that whieh absolutely does not exist, or according to the theory of the 
author, that negative properties belong likewise to the class of non-existing 
things. 

* Comp. Part I., chap, xvii., and Introd. p. 18. According to Ibn £zra(Gomm. 
on Eccl. Introd) there is in the whole creation nothing absolutely bad. Every- 
thing is either entirely good or at least for the greater part good and bad 
only to some extent (see M. Friedlander, " Essays on the Writing of Ibn 
Ezra," p. 42). Maimonides denies the existence of evil altogether, and hcdds 
that all evils are negative properties, or without existence. 

• I.e., they are in themselves good and useful, and are evil only in so far as 
they imply the negation of a certain property or of existence altogether in 
respect to a certain thing. Comp. Ibn Ezra, Comm. on Isa. xxx. 25, "If ten 
perish [through a certain event], myriads find in it a source of life.*' Mflu> 
monides does not inform us by whom and where this has been established by 
proot Comp tupra, chap. viii. 



PART m. — CHAPTEB X. 35 

to which this general proposition applies, you will find that 
there is not one case in which the proposition is wrong, 
except in the opinion of those who do not make any distinc- 
tion between negative and positive properties, or between 
two opposites^ or do not know the nature of things, — who, 
e,g., do not know that health in general denotes a certain 
equilibrium, and is a relative term.^ The absence of that rela- 
tion is illness in general, and death is the absence of life ^ 
in the case of any animal. The destruction of other things 
is likewise nothing but the absence of their form. 

After these propositions, it must be admitted as a fact that 
it cannot be said of God that He directly creates evil, or He 
has the direct intention to produce evil ; this is impossible. 
His works are all perfectly good. He only produces exist- 
ence, and all existence is good ; whilst evils are of a negative 
character, and cannot be acted upon. Evil can only be attri- 
buted to Him in the way we have mentioned. He creates 
evil only in so far as He produces the corporeal element such 
as it actually is ; it is always connected with negatives, and 
on that account the source of aU destruction and evil. Those 
beings that do not possess this corporeal element are not 
subject to destruction or evil ; consequently the true work of 
God is all good, since it is existence. The book which 
enlightened the darkness of the world says therefore, " And 
God saw everything that He had made, and, behold, it was 
very good " (Gen. i. 31). Even the existence of this corporeal 
element, low as it in reality is, because it is the source of 
death and all evils, is likewise good for the permanence of 
the Universe and the continuation of the order of things, so 
that one thing departs and the other succeeds. Sabbi Meir 
therefore explains the words " and behold it was very good " 
(tobh m'od) ; that even death was good* in accordance with 
what we have observed in this chapter. Remember what I 
said in this chapter, consider it, and you will imderstand all 

' See **Millotb Higgayon,*' chap. zi. 

» Lit " form." 

' fiereshith Rabba, chap, ix., TMod being taken in the sense of mothy " death.'* 



36 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

that the prophets and our Sages remarked about the perfect 
goodness of all the direct works of God. In Bereshith Babba 
(chap, i.) the same idea is expressed thus : " No evil comes 
down from above." 



CHAPTEE XT, 



All the great^ evils which men cause to each other because of 
certain intentions, desires, opinions, or religious principles, 
are likewise due to non-existence, because they originate in 
ignorance, which is absence of wisdom. A blind man, for 
example, who has no guide, stumbles constantly, because he 
cannot see, and causes injury and harm to himself and others. 
In the same manner various classes of men, each man in pro- 
portion to his ignorance, bring great evils upon themselves 
and upon other individual members of the species. If men 
possessed wisdom, which stands in the same relation to the 
form of man as the sight to the eye, they would not cause 
any injury to themselves or to others ; for the knowledge of 
truth removes hatred and quarrels, and prevents mutual 
injuries. This state of society is promised to us by the 
prophet in the words : " And the wolf shall dwell with the 
lamb," &c. ; " and the cow and the bear shall feed together," 
&c. ; and " the sucking child shall play on the hole of the 
asp," &c. (Isa. XL 6 seq.) The prophet also points out what 
will be the cause of this change; for he says that hatred, 
quarrel, and fighting will come to an end, because men will 
then have a true knowledge of God. ** They shall not hurt 
nor destroy in all my holy mountain : for the earth shall be 
full of the knowledge of the Lord, as waters that cover the 
sea " (ibid. ver. 9). Note it.^ 

^ The Hebrew equivalent for great is not found in Ibn Tibbon*8 version. 

' The dififusion of correct notions concerning God is one of the principal 
objects of the Law. Comp chap, xxvii. aeq. Ibn Ezra on Isa. xi. 9 says : 
'* It is a well-known fact that tho8e who know the Lord do not injure or 
destroy; they only build up and improve.'* 



PART III. — CHAPTER XII. 



37 



CHAPTEE XII. 



Men frequently think that the evils in the world are more 
numerous than the good things ; many sayings and songs of 
the nations dwell on this idea. They say that a good thing 
is found only exceptionally, whilst evil things are numerous 
and lasting. Not only common people make this mistake, hut 
even many who believe that they are wise. Al-Razi^ wrote a 
well-known book " On Metaphysics " [or Theology]. Among 
other mad and foolish things, it contains also the idea, dis- 
covered by him, that there exists more evil than good. For 
if the happiness of man and his pleasure in the times of 
prosperity be compared with the mishaps that befall him, — 
such as grief, acute pain, defects, paralysis of the limbs, 
fears, anxieties, and troubles, — it would seem as if the exist- 
ence of man is a punishment and a great evil for him. This 
author commenced to verify his opinion by counting all the 
evils one by one ; by this means he opposed those who hold 
the correct view of the benefits bestowed by God* and His 
evident kindness, viz., that God is perfect goodness, and that 
all that comes from Him is absolutely good. The origin of the 
error is to be found in the circumstance that this ignorant 
man, and his party among the common people, judge the 
whole universe by examining one single person. For an 
ignorant man believes that the whole universe only exists for 

^ Abu-Beer Muhammed ben Zacariyya al-Razi was one of the principal f 
physicians of the Khalif Al-Moktadir in the beginning of the tenth century. 
He wrote numerous medical, mathematical, and philosophical treatises. His 
metaphysical writings did not enjoy a high reputation (Munk). Gomp. 
Letter to Samuel Ibn Tibbon (MisoeUany of Hebr. Lit, I. 225). ''The book 
on Metaphysics which al-Razi wrote is useless. He was only a physician." 

* According to Ibn Tibbon, "that the existence of man is the result of 
God's kindness and evident goodness." Munk believes that Ibn Tibbon at 
first mistook va-jodhi, ** and his goodness,'* for vujudahUf ** his existence." He 
corrected the mistake, but by subsequent copyists both the mistake and the 
correction were received into the text. It is, however, not quite certain, as the 
reading of Ibn Tibbon harmonises far better with the context than that of 
Charid or Munk. 



38 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

him ; as if nothing else required any consideration. If, there- 
fore, anything happens to him contrary to his expecta- 
tion, he at once concludes that the whole universe is evil. 
If, however, he would take into consideration the whole 
universe, form an idea of it, and comprehend what a small 
portion he is of the Universe, he will find the truth. For it is 
clear that persons who have fallen into this wide-spread error 
as regards the multitude of evils in the world, do not find the 
evils among the angels, the spheres and stars, the elements, 
and that which is formed of them, viz., minerals and plants, 
or in the various species of living beings, but only in some 
individual instances of mankind. They wonder that a person, 
who became leprous in consequence of bad food, should be 
afflicted with so great an illness and suffer such a misfortune ; 
or that he who indulges so much in sensuality as to weaken 
his sight, should be struck with blindness I and the like. 
What we have, in truth, to consider is this: — ^The whole 
mankind at present in existence, and a fortiori, eyeij other 
species. of animals, form an infinitesimal portion of the 
permanent universe. Comp. " Man is like to vanity " (Ps, 
cxliv. 4) ; " How much less man, that is a worm ; and the 
son of man, which is a worm " (Job xxv. 6) ; " How much 
less in them who dwell in houses of clay " (ibid. iv. 19) ; 
" Behold, the nations are as a drop of the bucket " (Isa. xl, 
15). There are many other passages in the books of the 
prophets expressing the same idea. It is of great advantage 
that man should know his station, and not erroneously 
imagine that the whole universe exists only for him. We 
hold that the universe exists because the Creator wills it so ; 
that mankind is low in rank as compared with the uppermost 
portion of the universe, viz., with the spheres and the stars ; 
but, as regards the angels, there cannot be any real compari- 
son between man and angels, although man is the highest of 
all beings on earth ; ^ %.€,, of all beings formed of the four 
elements. Man's existence is nevertheless a great boon to 

^ Lit, "of all beings that have come into existence on earth." Iba 
Tibbon omits the verb. 



PART in. — CHAPTER XH. 39 

Lim, and his distinction and perfection is a divine gift. 
The numerous evils to which individual persons are exposed 
are due to the defects existing in the persons themselves. 
We complain and seek relief from our own faults ; we suffer 
from the evils which we, by our own free will, inflict 
on ourselves and ascribe them to God, who is far from 
being connected with them ! Comp. " Is destruction His 
[work] ? No. Ye [who call yourselves] wrongly His sons, 
you are a perverse and crooked generation " (Deut. xxxii. 
5).^ This is explained by Solomon, who says, " The foolish- 
ness of man perverteth his way, and his heart fretteth against 
the Lord " (Prov. xix. 3). 

I explain this theory in the following manner. The evils 
that befall man are of three kinds : — 

(1.) The first kind of evil is that which is caused to man 
by the circumstance that he is subject to genesis and destruc- 
tion, or that he possesses a body. It is on account of the 
body that some persons happen to have great deformities or 
paralysis of some of the organs. This evil may be part of the 
natural constitution of these persons, or may have developed 
subsequently in consequence of changes in the elements, 
e,g., through bad air, or thunderstorms,* or landslips.* We 
have already shown that, in accordance with the divine 
wisdom, genesis can only take place through destruction, and 
without the destruction of the individual members of the 
species the species themselves would not exist permanently. 
Thus the true kindness, and beneficence, and goodness of 
Grod is clear. He who thinks that he can have flesh and 
bones without being subject to any external influence, or 

^ Ofhen traiulate, " No, it is their children's, it is their fault," kc. A< V. : 
"They have oorrupted themaeWes, their spot is not the spot of His children." 
From the context it appears that the chaise made against the Israelites is their 
ascribing to Gkxl the cause of their misfortunes ; this must be contained in the 
words shicheth lo, " Is destruction His [work] ? '* 

' Ibn TIbbon adds, ** called in the vernacular lamp<u" The same word 
which is here rendered by Ibn Tibbon berakim attwnim, ** mighty lightnings," 
is in other places translated by him, zaavah, ** trembling " or " earthquake ;" 
Part L, chape. !!▼., buuL, p. 303, note 3. 

' Comp. Part I., chap. IxxiL 



40 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

any of the accidents of matter, unconsciously wishes to 
reconcile two opposites, viz., to be at the same time subject 
and not subject to change. If man were never subject to 
change there could be no generation ; there would be one 
single being, but no individuals forming a species. Galen, 
in the third section of his book, " The Use of the Limbs," ^ 
says correctly that it would be in vain to expect to see living 
beings formed of the blood of menstruous women and the 
semen virile, who will not die, will never feel pain, or will 
move perpetually, or shine like the sun. This dictum of 
Galen is part of the following more general proposition : — 
Whatever is formed of any matter receives the most perfect 
form possible in that species of matter ; in each individual 
case the defects are in accordance with the defects of that 
individual matter. The best and most perfect being that 
can be formed of the blood and the semen is the species of 
man, for as far as man's nature is known, he is living, 
reasonable, and mortal. It is therefore impossible that man 
should be free from this species of eviL^ You will, never- 
theless, find that the evils of the above kind * which befall 
man are very few and rare ; for you find countries that have 
not been flooded or burned for thousands of years ; there are 
thousands of men in perfect health, deformed individuals are 
a strange and exceptional occurrence, or say few in number 
if you object to the term exceptional, — ^they are not one- 
hundredth, not even one-thousandth part of those that are 
perfectly normal. 

(2.) The second class of evils comprises such evils as 
people cause to each other, when, e.^., some of them use their 
strength against others. These evils are more numerous than 
those of the first kind ; their causes are numerous and known ; 
they likewise originate in ourselves, though the sufferer him- 

^ Comp. Galen, " De usu partium humani corporis/' iii. chap. x. 

^ /.&, death. Munk : ** Cette demifere esp^ce de mal doit n^oessairement 
exister." According to Ibn Tibbon : '' It is impossible that this species of 
man should be free from evil." 

' Lit, "of this kind." Sudden catastrophes caused by earthquakes, &c, 
are meant. 



PART in. — CHAPTER XII. 



41 



self cannot avert them. This kind of evil is nevertheless 
not widespread in any country of the whole world. It is of 
rare occurrence that a man plans to kill his neighbour or to 
rob him of his property by night Many persons are, however, 
a£9icted with this kind of evil in great wars ; but these are 
not frequent, if the whole inhabited part of the earth is taken 
into consideration. 

(3.) The third class of evils comprises those which every 
one causes to himself by his own action. This is the largest 
class, and is far more numerous than the second class. It 
is especially of these evils that all men complain, — only few 
men are found that do not sin against themselves by this 
kind of evil Those that are afflicted with it are therefore 
justly blamed in the words of the prophet, '' This hath been 
by your means " (Mai. i, 9) ; the same is expressed in the 
following passage, "He that doeth it destroyeth his own 
soul" (Prov. vi 32). In reference to this kind of evil, 
Solomon says, " The foolishness of man perverteth his way " 
(ibid. six. 3). In the following passage he explains also that 
this kind of evil is man's own work, " Lo, this only have I 
found, that God hath made man upright, but they have 
thought out many inventions" (Eccles._yii. 29), and these 
inventions bring the evils upon him. The same subject is 
referred to in Job (v. 6), " For affliction cometh not forth of 
the dust, neither doth trouble spring out of the ground." 
These words are immediately followed by the explanation 
that man himself is the author of this class of evils, " But 
man is born unto trouble." ^ This class of evils originates in 
man's vices, such as excessive desire for eating, drinking, 
and love ; indulgence in these things in undue measure, or 
in improper manner, or partaking of bad food. This course 
brings diseases and afflictions upon body and soul alike. 
The sufiTerings of the body in consequence of these evils are 
well known ; those of the soul are twofold : — First, such evils 
of the soul as are the necessary consequence of changes in the 
body, in so far as the soul is a force residing in the body; it has 

^ /.e.| man has the faculty of causing trouble. 





r 



2. 



42 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

therefore been said that the properties of the soul depend on 
the condition of the body.^ Secondly, the soul, when accus- 
tomed to superfluous things, acquires a strong habit of de- 
siring things which are neither necessary for the preservation 
of the individual nor for that of the species. This desire is 
without a limit, whilst things which are necessary are few in 
number and restricted within certain limits ; but what is 
superfluous is without end — e,g., you desire to have your 
vessels of silver, but golden vessels are still better: others have 
even vessels of sapphire, or perhaps they can be made of 
emerald or rubies, or any other substance that could be sug- 
gested.^ Those who are ignorant and perverse in their thought 
are constantly in trouble and pain, because they cannot get 
as much of superfluous things as a certain other person pos- 
sesses. They as a rule expose themselves to great dangers, 
e,g,j by sea-voyage, or service of kings, and all this for the 
purpose of obtaining that which is superfluous and not neces- 
sary. When they thus meet with the consequences of the 
course which they adopt, they complain of the decrees and 
judgments of God ; they begin to blame the time, and wonder 
at the want of justice in its changes ; that it has not enabled 
them to acquire great riches, with which they could buy 
large quantities of wine for the purpose of making them- 
selves drunk, and numerous concubines adorned with various 
kind of ornaments of gold, embroidery, and jewels, for the 
purpose of driving themselves to voluptuousness beyond 
their capacities, as if the whole Universe existed exclusively 
for the purpose of giving pleasure to these low people. The 
error of the ignorant goes so far as to say that God's power is 
insufficient, because He has given to this Universe the pro- 
perties which they imagine cause these great evils, and which 
do not help all evil-disposed persons to obtain the evil which 
they seek, and to bring their evil souls to the aim of their 
desires, though these, as we have shown, are really without 
limit. The virtuous and wise, however, see and comprehend 

1 Comp. Maimonides* Introd. to Aboth, Eight chapters, chap. viii. 
' Munk : *' Autant que oes mati^res sont aoceanibles.*' 



PABT in.— CHAPTER XII. 43 

the wisdom of God displayed in the Universe. Thus David 
says, " All the paths of the Lord are mercy and truth unto 
snch as keep His covenant and His testimonies " (Ps. xxv. 10). 
For those who observe the nature of the Universe and the 
commandments of the Law, and know their purpose, see 
clearly God's mercy and truth in everything ; they seek, there- 
fore, that which the Creator intended to be the aim of man, 
viz., comprehension. Forced by the claims of the body, they 
seek also that which is necessary for the preservation of tlie 
body, " bread to eat and garment to clothe," and this is very 
little ; but they seek nothing superfluous ; with very slight 
exertion man can obtain it, so long as he is contented with 
that which is indispensable. All the difficulties and troubles 
we meet in this respect are due to the desire for superfluous 
things ; when we seek unnecessary things, we have difficulty 
even in finding that which is indispensable. For the more we 
desire for that which is superfluous, the more we meet with 
difficulties; our strength and possessions are spent in unneces- 
sary things, and are wanting when required for that which 
is necessary. Observe how Nature proves the correctness of 
this assertion.^ The more necessary a thing is for living 
beings, the more easily it is found and the cheaper it is ; the 
less necessary it is, the rarer and dearer it isa E.g., air, water, 
and food are indispensable to man : air is most necessary, for 
if man is without air a short time he dies ; whilst he can be 
without water a day or two. Air is also undoubtedly found 
more easily and cheaper [than water]. Water is more neces- 
sary than food; for some people can be four or five days 
without food, provided they have water ; water also exists in 
every country in larger quantities than food, and is also 
cheaper. The same proportion can be noticed in the different 

^ Munk : H faut oonsid^rer dans quelles conditions nous soinmes k regard 
de ce qui est A trouver (Mot-2i-mot : il faut considdrer nos conditions \i Tdgard 
du trouTer.) Munk thinks that tn^ano, " its meaning," in Ibn Tibbon*8 version 
is a mistake for inyaneno, " our condition." It seems that inyano is more correct, 
and that Ibn Tibbon must also have had in the original the pronoun of the 
third person and not that of the first plural, the third person being employed 
before and after this sentence. 



44 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

kinds b£ food ; that which is more necessary in a certain 
place exists there in larger quantities and is cheaper than 
that which is less necessary. No intelligent person, I think, 
considers musk, amber, rubies, and emerald as very necessary 
for man except as medicines ; and they, as well as other like 
substances, can be replaced for this purpose by herbs and 
minerals. This shows the kindness of God to His creatures, 
even to us weak beings. His righteousness and justice as 
regards all animals are well known; for in the transient 
world there is among the various kinds of animals no indi- 
vidual being distinguished from the rest of the same species 
by a peculiar property or an additional limb. On the con- 
trary, all physical, psychical, and vital forces and organs that 
are possessed by one individual are found also in the other 
individuals. If any one is somehow different it is by acci- 
dent, in consequence of some exception, and not by a natural 
property ; it is also a rare occurrence. There is no diflFerence 
between individuals of a species in the due course of Nature ; 
the difference originates in the various dispositions of their 
substances. This is the necessary consequence of the nature 
of the substance of that species ; the nature of the species is 
not more favourable to one individual than to the other. It 
is no wrong or injustice that one has many bags of finest 
myrrh and garments embroidered with gold, while another 
lias not those things, which are not necessary for our mainte- 
nance ; he who has them has not thereby obtained control 
over anything that could be an essential addition to his 
nature, but has only obtained something illusory or deceptive. 
The other, who does not possess that which is not wanted for 
his maintenance, does not miss anything indispensable : " He 
that gathered much had nothing over, and he that gathered 
little had no lack : they gathered every man according to his 
eating " (Exod. xvi. 18). This is the rule at all times and in 
all places ; no notice should be taken of exceptional cases, as 
we have explained. 

In these two ways you will see the mercy of God toward 
His creatures, how He has provided that which is required, ia 



1»ART in. — CHAPTER XIII. 45 

proper proportions, and treated all individual beings of the 
same species with perfect equality. In accordance with this 
correct reflection the chief of the wise men ^ says, " All His 
ways are judgment" (Deut. xxxii. 4); David likewise says: 
*' All the paths of the Lord are mercy and truth " (Ps. xxv, 
10) ; he also says expressly, *'The Lord is good to all; and 
His tender mercies are over all His works " (ibid, cxlv, 9) ; 
for it is an act of great and perfect goodness that He gave 
us existence ; and the creation of the controlling faculty in 
animals is a proof of His mercy towards them, as has been 
shown by us. 



CHAPTER XIIL 



INTELLIGENT persons are much perplexed ^ when they inquire 
into the purpose of the Creation. I will now show how 
absurd this question is,* according to each one of the diflferent 
theories [above-mentioned]. An agent that acts with inten- 
tion must have a certain ulterior object in that which he 
performs. This is evident, and no philosophical proof is 
required. It is likewise evident that that which is produced 
with intention has passed over from non-existence to existence. 
It is further evident, and generally agreed upon, that the 
being which has absolute existence, which has never been 
and will never be without existence, is not in need of an 
agent. We have explained this before.* The question, 
*'What is the ^purpose thereof?" cannot be asked about 
anything which is not the product of an agent ; therefore we 
cannot ask what is the purpose of the existence of God, He 
has not been created. According to these propositions it is 
clear that the purpose is sought for everything produced 
intentionally by an intelligent cause ; that is to say, a final 

' Aooording to Ibn Tibbon, the '* chief of the propheta." 

* Aocording to Ibn Tibbon, '* Many intelligent persona are perplexed." 

' Lit, that this question falls [to the ground], {.e., there is no occasion for 
such a question. Munk explains it, " La question est insoluble." 

* Part XL, Prop. xx. 



46 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

> 

cause must exist for everything that owes its existence to an 
intelligent being : but for that which is without a beginning, 
a final cause need not be sought, as has been stated by us. 
After this explanation you will understand that there is no 
occasion to seek the final cause of the whole Universe, neither 
according to our theory of the Creation, nor according to the 
theory of Aristotle, who assumes the Eternity of the Universe. 
For according to Aristotle, who holds that the Universe has 
not had a beginning, an ultimate final cause cannot be 
sought even for the various parts of the Universe. Thus it 
cannot be asked, according to his opinion. What is the final 
cause of the existence of the heavens? "Why are they 
limited by this measure or by that number ? Why is Matter 
of this description ? What is the purpose of the existence of 
this species of animals or of plants ? Aristotle considers all 
this as the result of a permanent order of things. Natural 
Philosophy investigates into the object of everything in 
Nature, but it does not treat of the ultimate final cause, of 
which we speak in this chapter. It is a recognised fact in 
Natural Philosophy that everything in Nature has its object, or 
its final cause, which is the most important of the four causes, 
though it is not easily recognised in most species. Aristotle 
repeatedly says that Nature produces nothing in vain, for 
every natural action has a certain object. Thus, Aristotle 
says that plants exist for animals ; and similarly he shows of 
other parts of^the Universe for what purpose they exist.^ 
This is still more obvious in the case of the organs of animals. 
The existence of such a final cause in the various parts of 
Nature has compelled philosophers to assume the existence of 
a primal cause apart from Nature ; it is called by Aristotle 
the intellectual or divine cause, and this cause creates one 
thing for the purpose of another. Those who acknowledge 
the truth will accept as the best proof for the Creation the 
fact that everything in Nature serves a certain purpose, so 
that one tiling exists for the benefit of another; this fact is 
supported by numerous instances, and shows that there is 

^ De Part. Animalium, I., chap. v. ; De Plantis, I., chap, ii 



PABT in, — CHAPTER XIH. 47 

design in Nature ; but the existence of design in Nature can- 
not be imagined unless it be assumed that Nature lias been 
produced. 

I will now return to the subject of this chapter, viz., the 
final cause. Aristotle has already explained that in Nature 
the efficient cause of a thing, its form, and its final cause 
are identical ; that is to say, thej are one thing in relation 
to the whole species. E.g.^ the form of Zeid produces the 
form of his son Amr; its action consists in imparting 
the form of the whole species [of man] to the substance 
of Amr, and the final cause is Amr's possession of human 
form. The same argument is applied by Aristotle to every 
individual member of a class of natural objects which is 
brought to existence by another individual member. The 
three causes coincide in all such cases. All this refers only 
to the immediate purpose of a thing ; but the existence of 
an ultimate purpose in every species, which is considered as 
absolutely necessary by every one who investigates into the 
nature of things, is very difficult to discover : and still more 
difficult is it to find the purpose of the whole Universe. I 
infer from the words of Aristotle that according to his opinion 
the ultimate purpose of the genera is the preservation of the 
course of genesis and destruction ; and this course is abso- 
lutely necessary [in the first instance] for the successive for- 
mation of material objects, because individual beings formed 
of matter are not permanent ; [secondly], for the production 
of the best and the most perfect beings that can be formed of 
matter, because the ultimate purpose [in these productions] 
is to arrive at perfection. Now it is clear that man is the 
most perfect being formed of matter; he is the last and most 
perfect of earthly ^ beings, and in this respect it can truly 
be said that all earthly things exist for man, ie., that the 
changes which things undergo serve to produce the most 
perfect being that can be produced. Aristotle, who assumes 

^ Lit., " compound beiiigs," t.e., the earthly or sublnnazy beings as distin- 
guifihed from the spheres and the stars which they contain ; for these are 
considered to be simple, and therefore not subject to change. 



48 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

the Eternity of the Universe, need therefore not ask to what 
purpose does man exist, for the immediate purpose of each 
individual being is, according to his opinion, the perfection of 
its specific form. Every individual thing arrives at its per- 
fection fully and completely when the actions that produce 
its form are complete. The ultimate purpose of the species 
is the perpetuation of this form by the repeated succession 
of genesis a^d destruction, so that there might always be a 
being capable of the greatest possible perfection. It seems 
therefore clear that, according to Aristotle, who assumes the 
Eternity of the Universe, there is no occasion for the ques- 
tion what is the object of the existence of the Universe.^ 
But of those who accept our thjeory that the whole Universe 
has been created from nothing, some hold that the inquiry 
after the purpose of the Creation is necessary, and assume 
that the Universe was only created for the sake of man's 
existence, that he might serve God. Everything that is done 
they believe is done for man's sake ; even the spheres move 
only for his benefit, in order that his wants might be 
supplied. The literal meaning of some passages in the 
books of the prophets greatly support this idea. Comp. : 
" He formed it (viz., the earth) to be inhabited " (Isa, xlv. 
18); "If my covenant be not day and night," 2&c. (Jer. 

^ Those who assume the Eternity of the Univeree recognise only chimges in 
the individual members of each spedes, and can consistently only inquire into 
the object of these changes. They rest content when these are satisfactorily 
explained by the perpetuation of the species and the production of the most 
perfect form in each species. It would be inconsistent with their theory of 
the eternity and stability of the species and the whole Universe to ask for 
the purpose of these permanent beings. 

' The literal meaning of the passage does not support the view that every- 
thing in the Universe has been created in order that man should worship God. 
The sense of the words quoted is this : If my covenant with day and night 
can be set aside, and the laws that regulate heaven and earth can be con- 
sidered as if I had not given them, then I can reject Jacob ; but, so long as 
day and night, heaven and earth exist I will not reject Jacob. Maimonides 
has probably the Midrashio interpretation in mind ; " Were it not for my 
covenant, viz., the Law, which is to be kept day and night, I should not have 
created heaven and earth." See Midrash Yalkut ad locum. 



PART IIL— CHAPTER XIII. 49 

xxxiii. 25) ; " And spreadeth them out as a tent to dwell in " 
(Isa. xL 22). If the sphere existed for the sake of man, how 
much more must this be the case with all other living beings 
and the plants. On examining this opinion as intelligent 
persons ought to examine all different opinions, we shall dis- 
cover the errors it includes. Those who hold this view, namely, 
that the existence of man is the object of the whole creation, 
may be asked whether God could have created«man without 
those previous creations, or whether man could only have 
come into existence after the creation of all other things. If 
they answer in the affirmative, that man could have been 
created even if, «.^., the heavens did not exist, they will be 
asked what is the object of all these things,^ since they do 
not exist for their own sake but for the sake of something 
that could exist without them? Even if the Universe 
existed for man's sake and man existed for the purpose of 
serving God, as has been mentioned, the question remains, 
What is the end of serving God ? He does not become more 
perfect if all His creatures serve Him and comprehend Him 
as far as possible ; nor would He lose anything if nothing 
existed beside Him. It might perhaps be replied that the 
service of God is not intended for God's perfection; it is 
intended for our own perfection, — ^it is good for us, it makes 
us perfect But then the question might be repeated, What 
is the object of our being perfect ? We must in continuing 
the inquiry as to the purpose of the creation at last arrive at 
the answer. It was the Will of God, or His Wisdom decreed 
it;* and this is the correct answer. The wise men in Israel 
have, therefore, introduced in our prayers ^ the following pas- 
sage: — "Thou hast distinguished man from the beginning, and 
chosen him to stand before Thee ; who can say unto Thee, 
What dost Thou ? And if he be righteous, what does he 
give Thee ? " They have thus clearly stated that it was not 
a final cause that determined the existence of all things, 

^ lit, " what 18 His advantage derived from all these things ? '* 
' Comp. Part L, chapb Ixix., p. 264, note 8 ; Part II., chap, zviii 
' Nellab-prayer for the Day of Atonement 
VOL. in. D 



50 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

but only His will Thia being the case, we who believe 
in the Creation must admit that God could have created 
the Universe in a different manner as regards the causes 
and effects contained in it, and this would lead to the absurd 
conclusion that everything except man existed without any 
purpose, as the principal object, man, could have been 
brought into existence without the rest of the creation. I con- 
sider therefore the following opinion as most correct accord- 
ing to the teaching of the Bible, and best in accordance with 
the results of philosophy ; namely, that the Universe does not 
exist for man's sake, but that each being exists for its own 
sake, and not because of some other thing. Thus we believe 
in the Creation, and yet need not inquire what purpose is 
served by each species of the existing things, because we 
assume that God created all parts of the Universe by His 
will ; some for their own sake, and some for the sake of other 
beings, that include their own purpose in themselves. In 
the same manner as it was the will of God that man should 
exist, so it was His will that the heavens with their stars 
should exist, that there should be angels, and each of these 
beings is itself the purpose of its own existence. When 
anything can only exist provided some other thing has 
previously existed, God has caused the latter to precede 
it ; as, e.g.j sensation precedes comprehension. We meet also 
with this view in Scripture : " The Lord hath made every- 
thing {la-maanehu) for its (or His) purpose " (Prov. xvi. 
4). It is possible that the pronoun in la-maanehu refers 
to the object;^ but it can also be considered as agreeing 
with the subject; in which case the meaning of the word 
is, for the sake of Himself, or His will which is iden- 
tical with His self [or essence], as has been shown in this 
treatise.* We have also pointed out that His essence is also 
called His glory .^ The words, " The Lord hath done every- 

^ Viz., " everythixig." Everything has been created for its own purpose and 
not for the sake of another thing. 

* Part L, chap, liil teq, 

• Part L, chap. Ixiv. 



PAKT in.— CHAPTER XIII. 51 

thing for Himself/' express therefore the same idea as the 
following verse, " Everything ^ that is called by my name : I 
have created it^ for my glory, I have formed it;* yea, I have 
made it"* (Isa. xliii. 7); that is to say, everything that is 
described as My work has been made by Me for the sake of 
My will and for no other purpose. The words, ** I have formed 
it,** " I have made it," express exactly what I pointed out to 
you, that there are things whose existence is only possible 
after certain other things have come into existence. To these 
reference is made in the text, as if to say, I have formed the 
first thing which must have preceded the other things, e.g,, 
matter has been formed before the production of material 
beings ; I have then made out of that previous creation,* or 
after it,* what I intended to produce, and there was nothing 
but My will Study the book which leads all who want to 
be led to the truth, and is therefore called Torah (Law or In- 
struction), from the beginning of the account of the Creation 
to its end, and you will comprehend the opinion which we 
attempt to prove. For no part of the creation is described as 
being in existence for the sake of another part, but each part 
is declared to be the product of God's will, and to satisfy by 
its existence the intention [of the Creator]. This is expressed 
by the phrase, " And God saw that it was good " (Gen. i. 4, 
&c.) You know our interpretation of the saying of our Sages, 
" Scripture speaks the same language as is spoken by man." * 
But we call " good " that which is in accordance with the 
object we seek. When therefore Scripture relates in refer- 
ence to the whole creation (Gen. i. 31), " And God saw all 
that He had made, and behold it was exceedingly good," it 
declares thereby that everything created was well fitted for 
its object, and would never cease to act, and never be annihi- 
lated. This is especially pointed out by the word " exceed- 
ingly ;" for sometimes a thing is temporarily good; it serves its 

^ A. V. Every one . . . him . . . him . . . him. 

' Viz., in the instance quoted, out of matter he made the material beings. 
' Viz., in those cases in which there is no causal connection between the two 
creations, e.g.t sensation and comprehension. 
' Comp. Part L, chap. zxvi. 



52 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

purpose, and then it fails and ceases to act. But as regards 
the Creation it is said that everything was fit for its purpose, 
and able continually to act accordingly. You must not be 
misled by what is stated of the stars [that God put them in 
the firmament of the heavens] to give light upon the earth, 
and to rule by day and by night. You might perhaps think 
that here the purpose of their creation is described. This is 
not the case ; we are only informed of the nature of the stars, 
which God desired to create with such properties that they 
should be able to give light and to rule. In a similar manner 
we must understand the passage, " And have dominion over 
the fish of the sea" (ibid. i. 28). Here it is not meant to 
say that man was created for this purpose, but only that this 
was the nature which God gave man. But as to the state- 
ment in Scripture that God gave the plants to man and other 
living beings, it agrees with the opinion of Aristotle and other 
philosophers. It is also reasonable to assume that the plants 
exist only for the benefit of the animals, since the latter can- 
not live without food. It is different with the stars, they do 
not exist only for our sake, that we should enjoy their good 
influence ; for the expressions " to give light '* and " to rule " 
merely describe, as we have stated above, the benefit which 
the creatures on earth derive from them. I have already 
explained to you the character of that influence that causes 
continually the good to descend from one being to another.^ 
To those who receive the good flowing down upon them, 
it may appear as if the being existed' for them alone 
that sends forth its goodness and kindness unto them. 
Thus some citizen may imagine that it was for the pur- 
pose of protecting his house by night from thieves that 
the king was chosen. To some extent this is correct; for 
when his house is protected, and he has derived this benefit 
through the king whom the country had chosen, it appears 
as if it were the object of the king to protect the house of 

^ Part XL, chap. xx. 

' Lit, ** and the good that reaches the world is in respect to him whom it 
reaches, as if he were the purpose of the existence of that being," &c 



PART m. — CHAPTER XUL 53 

that man. la tliis manner we must explain every verse, the 
literal meaning of which would imply that something supe- 
rior was created for the sake of something inferior, viz., that 
it is part of the nature of the superior thing [to influence the 
inferior in a certain manner]. We remain firm in our belief 
that the whole Universe was created in accordance with the 
will of God, and we do not inquire for any other cause or 
object. Just as we do not ask what is the purpose of God's 
existence, so we do not ask what was the object of His will, 
which is the cause of the existence of all things with their 
present properties,^ both those that have been created and 
those that will be created. 

You must not be mistaken and think that the spheres and 
the angels were created for our sake. Our position has 
already been pointed out to us, " Behold, the nations are as a 
drop of a bucket" (Isa. xL 15). Now compare your own 
essence with that of the spheres, the stars, and the Intelli- 
gences, and you will comprehend the truth, and understand 
that man is superior to everything formed of earthly matter^ 
but not to other beings; he is found exceedingly inferior 
when his existence is compared with that of the spheres, and 
a fortiori when compared with that of the Intelligences. 
Comp. " Behold, He put no trust in His servants : and His 
messengers He charged with folly : how much less in them 
that dwell in houses of clay, whose foundation is in the dust, 
which are crushed before the moth ?" (Job iv. 18, 19). The 
expression " His servants," occurring in this passage, does not 
denote human beings ; this may be inferred from the words, 
" How much less in them that dwell in houses of clay?" The 
" servants " referred to in this place are the angels ; whilst 
by the term " His messengers " the spheres are undoubtedly 
meant. ^ Eliphas himself, who uttered the above words, 

^ Lit., "of everything such as it is." 

' It is rather strange that kadotih, "the holy," is explained to mean 
maJtackj and mdVach to be identical with thamayinif '* heavens." Accord- 
ing to Ibn Ezra both terms denote here "immaterial beings," or "Intelli- 
gences." The Targum translates ledothav and mal'achav by nebhiye, '* pro- 



54 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

explains this [in the second speech] when he refers to it in 
one of his replies in other words, saying, " Behold, He putteth 
no trust in His holy ones ; yea, the heavens are not clean ia 
His sight, how much more abominable and filthy is man, 
who drinketh iniquity like water " (ibid. xv. 15, 16). He 
thus shows that " His servants " and " His holy ones " are 
identical, and that they are not human beings ; also that 
" His messengers," mentioned in the first passage, are the same 
as "the heavens." The term "folly" is explained by the 
phrase ''they are not clean in His sight," «.«., they are material ; 
although their substance is the purest and the most luminous, 
compared with the Intelligences it appears dark, turbid, and 
impure. The phrase, " Behold, He putteth no trust in His 
servants," is employed in reference to the angels, indicating 
that these do not possess perpetual existence, since, as we 
believe, they have had a beginning ; and even according to 
those who assume the Eternity of the Universe, the existence 
of the angels is at all events dependent and therefore inferior 
to the absolute existence of God. The words, " How much 
more abominable and filthy is man," in the one passage, corre- 
spond to the phrase " How much less in those who dwell in 
houses of clay in the other passage." Their meaning is this : 
How much less in man who is abominable and filthy, in whose 
person crookedness or corporeality is mixed up and spread 
through all his parts.^ "Iniquity" (avlah) is identical with 
" crookedness," as may be inferred from the passage, " In the 
land of uprightness he will act with iniquity" (Isa. xxvi. 10), 
andtsA, "man," ishere used in the same sense as ddam, "human 
being ; " for " man " in a general sense is sometimes expressed 

phets,** and izgadde, " messengers ; " whilst in chap, xv., v. 25, the correspond- 
ing terms are rendei*ed haddUhe illai, *'the holy ones above," and angde 
meroma, " the angels above." 

' Lit., " in whom crookedness is mixed up and spread through all his parts, 
i.«., who is joined to formlessness " (or " privation "). The substance of corpo- 
real objects is said to be always in a state fit to receive Form, as if being without 
Form altogether ; this state is called privation or absence of Form. It is called 
here crookedness, probably because it enables the substance to receive many 
diiferent forms, and to change continually. 



PART ni. — CHAPTER XIV. 55 

in Scripture by ish. Comp. "He who smiteth a man (ishy 
and he die" (Exod. xxi, 12). 

This must be our belief when we have a correct knowledge 
of our own self, and comprehend the true nature of every- 
thing ; we must be content, and not trouble our mind with 
seeking a certain final cause for things that have none, or 
have no other final cause but their own existence, which 
depends on the Will of God, or, if you prefer, on the Divine 
Wisdom. 




CHAPTER XIV. « 

In order to obtain a correct estimate of ourselves, we must 
reflect on the results of the investigations which have been 
made into the dimensions and the distances of the spheres 
and the stars. The distances are clearly stated in radii of 
the earth, and are well known, since the circumference and 
the radius of the earth are known. It has been proved that 
the distance between the centre of the earth and the outer 
surface of the sphere of Saturn is a journey of nearly eight 
thousand seven hundred solar years.* Suppose a day's 
journey to be forty legal miles of two thousand ordinary * 
cubits,* and consider the great and enormous distance ! or iu 

^ Here ''a human being/' and not only " a male person," is meant. 

' In this chapter Maimonides intends to point out some anomalies which 
cannot easily be explained by the theory of the Eternity of the Universe, and 
at the same time to show that some apparent absardities in the Talmud are 
traths supported by science. 

* Lit, "years, and every year consisting of 866 days." The distance of 
Satom from the earth accordingly amounts to 127,020,000 Talmudic miles, or 
about 100,000,000 English miles. The figures agree with those given by the 
astronomers of the time of Maimonides, whilst at present the distance is com- 
puted to be ten times as much. 

* lit, "the cubit of work." This cubit is the same as amnuUh Ao-Mnyan, 
"the cubit of building," mentioned in the Talmud. 

' According to Babyl. Talm. Pesachim, p. 94 a. 



56 GUIDE OP THE PERPLEXED. 

the words of Scripture, " Is not God in the height of heaven ? 
and behold the height of the stars, how high they are !" (Job 
xxii. 12) ; that is to say, learn from the height of the heavens 
how far we are from comprehending God, for there is an 
enormous distance between ourselves and these corporeal 
objects, and the latter are greatly distinguished from us by 
their position, and hidden from us as regards their essence 
and most of their actions. How much more incomprehensible 
therefore is their Maker, who is incorporeal ! The great dis- 
tance which has been proved is, in fact, the least that can be 
assumed. The distance between the centre of the earth and 
the surface of the sphere of the fixed stars can by no means 
be less, but it may possibly be many times as great ; for the 
measure of the thickness of the body of the spheres has not 
been proved, and the least possible has been assumed, as 
appears from the treatises " On the Distances,"^ The same is 
the case with the substances which are between every two 
spheres. According to logical inference,* as has been men- 
tioned by Thabit,^ the thickness of these substances cannot be 
accurately stated, since they do not contain any star, which 
might serve as a means of obtaining it. As to the thickness 
of the sphere of the fixed stars, it is at least four years' 
journey, as may be inferred from the measure* of the stars con- 
tained in the sphere. The body of each of these stars is more 
than ninety times ^ as big as the globe of the earth, and it is 

^ According to Ibn Tibbon, "The Treatise on the Distances.** Perhaps the 
treatise of Al-kabici is meant, which is mentioned in Part II., chap, zxiv., 
p. IIS. 

^ The spheres being immutable, and moving round different centres, a sub- 
stance must be assumed between one sphere and another, which is capable of 
expansion and contraction according to circumstances. 

^ Thabit ben Korrah flourished in the ninth century. Comp. Port II., 
chap, xxiy., p. 114. 

* According to Ibn Tibbon, distance of the stars, i.f., the distance between 
the point nearest to the earth and the point farthest from it in each star. 

B If this number refers to the cubic contents of the two bodies, the diameter 
of the star would be only about 4} times as long as the diameter of the earth, 
and four years* journey for the former would be too much. If the superficies of 
the star is 90 times as largo as the superficies of the earth, the diameters are 



PABT ni.— CHAPTER XIV. 57 

possible that the thickness of the sphere is still greater. Of 
the ninth sphere, that causes the daily revolution of the 
whole system of spheres, we do not know the dimensions ; it 
contains no stars, and therefore we have no means of finding 
out its magnitude. Now consider the enormous dimensions 
and the large number of these material beings. If the whole 
earth is infinitely small in comparison with the sphere of the 
stars, what is man compared with all these created beings ! 
How, then, could any one of us imagine that these things 
exist for his sake and benefit, and that they are his tools ! 
This is the result of an examination of the corporeal beings : 
how much more so will this be the result of an examination 
into the nature of the Intelligences ! 

The following question may be asked against the opinion 
of philosophers^ on this subject: There is no doubt that 
from a philosophical point of view^ it would be a mistake to 
assume that the spheres exist for the purpose of regulating 
the fate of one individual person or community ; but it is not 
absurd to think that they serve to regulate the affairs of man- 
kind, since these mighty individual beings would serve to 
give existence to the individual members of the species, the 
number of which, according to the philosophers, will never 

in the proportion of 9} : 1, and the diameter of the star must, according to 
the data assumed here, be more than four years* journey. 

^ /.e., the philosophers, who hold that the Universe is eternal, and that 
the number of individual members of the human race is consequently infinite. 
Although Maimonides is of opinion that the heavens do not exist for the sake 
of earthly beings, the objection does not concern him, since he accepts the 
theory of Creatio ex nihUo, and explains all apparent anomalies and all devia- 
tions from the regular course of I^ature as the result of the will of God, whose 
wisdom man cannot fathom. But the philosophers who recognise no other 
law than that of Nature, and admit that Nature does nothing without pur- 
pose, ought to show the final cause of the motions of the spheres ; being 
driven to admit that the law of Nature, which rules the sublunary world, 
does not apply to the spheres, they abandon to some extent the piinciple that 
the whole Universe is subject to one and the same law. Maimonides there- 
fore concludes this argument by saying that the theory of Creatio ex nihUo is 
supported by this question. 

^ I.e., assuming that everything in Nature can be explained in accordance 
with the ordinary rules of logic. 



58 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 



o 



come to an end. We can best illustrate this by the followin 
simile : An artisan makes iron tools of a hundred- weight 
for the purpose of making a small needle of the weight 
of a grain. If only one needle had to be produced, we 
admit that it would certainly be bad management, though it 
would not be entirely a failure ; but if with those enormous 
tools needle after needle is produced, even many hundred- 
weights of needles, the preparation of those tools would be a 
wise act and excellent management. In a similar manner 
the object of the spheres may be the continuance of succes- 
sive genesis and destruction ; and the succession of genesis 
and destruction serves, as has already been said, to give 
existence to mankind. This idea is supported by Biblical 
texts and sayings [of our Sages]. The philosopher replies 
thus : If the diflference between the heavenly bodies and 
the transient individual members of the species consisted in 
their different sizes, this opinion could be maintained ; but as 
the difference consists in their essence, it remains improbable 
that the superior beings should be the means of giving exist- 
ence to the lower ones. In short, this question supports our 
belief in the Creation ; and this is the principal object of this 
chapter. [It serves] besides [a second purpose], I frequently 
hear from those who know something about astronomy, that 
our Sages exaggerated the distances [of the heavenly bodies] 
when they said that the thickness of each sphere is five 
hundred years' journey;^ the distance of the seven spheres 
from each other five hundred years* journey, so that the 
distance of the outer surface of the seventh sphere from the 
centre of the earth is seven thousand years' journey. Those 
who hear such statements consider them [at first thought] 
as exaggeration, and believe that the distance is not so great. 
But you may ascertain from the data proved in scientific 
treatises on the distances, that the centre of the earth is 
distant from the inner surface of the seventh sphere, that of 
Saturn, nearly seven thousand and twenty-four years' journey. 
The number eight thousand and seven hundred given by us, 

1 See Jeriia. Talm. Berachoth, chap, i., halacha 1. 



PART m.— CHAPTER XV. 59 

refers to the distance of the centre of the earth from the 
inner surface of the eighth sphere. The distance of the 
spheres from each other, mentioned by astronomers, is iden- 
tical with the thickness of the substance that intervenes 
between one sphere and the other, and does not imply that 
there is a vacuum. You must, however, not expect that 
everything our Sages say respecting astronomical matters 
should agree with observation, for mathematics^ were not 
fully developed in those days ; and their statements were not 
based on the authority of the Prophets, but on the knowledge 
which they either themselves possessed or derived from 
contemporary men of science. But I will not on that account 
denounce what they say correctly in accordance with real 
fact^ as untrue or accidentally true. On the contrary, when- 
ever the words of a person can be interpreted in such a 
manner that they agree with fully established facts, it is the 
duty of every educated and honest man to do so. 



CHAPTER XV. 

That' which is impossible has a permanent and constant 
property, which is not the result of some agent, and cannot in 
any way change, and consequently we do not ascribe to God 
the power of doing what is impossible. No thinking man 
denies the truth of this maxim ; none ignore it, but such as 
have no idea of Logic. There is, however, a difiference of 
opinion among philosophers with reference to the existence 

^ Comp. Part I., In trod. p. 3, note 1. 

s In thifl chapter Maimonides explains the term *' impossible/* and shows 
that all agree as to what is logically impossible, but there is a difiference of 
opinion as to what is physically possible or not Whatever a person considers 
absolutely impossible, cannot be done, according to his opinion, even by God ; 
and in this belief there is nothing derogatory to Divine Omnipotence. Comp. 
Part L, chap. Izxiii, tenth Proposition. 



60 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

of any particular thing. Some of them consider its existence 
to be impossible, and hold that God cannot produce the thing 
in question, whilst others think that it is possible, and that 
God can create it if He pleases to do so. E.g,, all philosophers 
consider that it is impossible for one substratum to have at 
the same moment two opposite properties, or for the elemen- 
tary components of a thing, substance and accident, to 
interchange, so that the substance becomes accident, and the 
accident becomes substance, or for a material substance to be 
without accident. Likewise it is impossible that God should 
produce a being like Himself, or annihilate, corporify, or 
change Himself. The power of God is not assumed to extend 
to any of these impossibilities. But the existence of acci- 
dents independent of substance is possible according to one 
class of philosophers, the Mutazilah, whilst according to others 
it is impossible ; it must, however, be added ^ that those who 
admit the existence of an accident independent of substance, 
have not arrived at this conclusion by philosophical researcli 
alone ; but it was mainly by the desire to defend certain 
religious principles, which speculation had greatly shaken, 
that they had recourse to this theory.* In a similar manner 
the creation of corporeal things, otherwise than from a sub- 
stance, is possible 'according to our view, whilst the philo- 
sophers say that it is impossible. Again, whilst philosophers 
say that it is impossible to produce a square with a diagonal 
equal to one of the sides,^ or a solid angle that includes four 
right angles,* or similar things, it is thought possible by 
some persons who are ignorant of mathematics, and who only 
know the words of these propositions, but have no idea of 
that which is expressed by them. I wonder whether this 
gate of research is open, so that all may freely enter, and 

1 lit, " and although.'* 

^ E.g.^ in order to prove the Unity of God they assumed the independent 
existence of Divine WiU without a substratum. Com p. Part I., chap. Ixxv., 
Third Argument. 

' Contrary to Euclid i., 47. 

* Contrary to Euclid xi., Prop. 21. 



PABT IIL— CHAPTER XV. 61 

whilst one imagines a thing and considers it possible, another 
is at liberty to assert that such a thing is impossible by its 
very nature ; or whether the gate is closed and guarded by 
certain rules, so that we are able to decide with certainty 
whether a thing is physically impossible, I should also like 
to know, in the latter case, whether imagination or reason has 
to examine and test objects as to their being possible or not ; 
likewise how things imagined, and things conceived intellec- 
tually, are to be distinguished from each other. For it occurs 
that we consider a thing as physically possible,^ and then 
some one objects, or we ourselves fear that our opinion is 
only the result of imagination, and not that of reason. In 
such a case it would be desirable to ascertain whether there 
exists some faculty to distinguish between imagination and 
intellect, [and if so,] whether this faculty is different from 
both, or whether it is part of the intellect itself to distinguish 
between intellectual and imaginary objects. All this requires 
investigation, but it does not belong to the theme of this 
chapter. 

We have thus shown that according to each one of the 
different theories there are things which are impossible, whose 
existence cannot be admitted, and whose creation is excluded 
from the power of God, and the assumption that God does 
not change their nature does not imply weakness in God, or 
a limit to His power. Consequently things impossible remain 
impossible,^ and do not depend on the action of an agent. It 
is now clear that a difference of opinion exists only as to the 
question to which of the two classes anything belongs; 
whether to the class of the impossible, or to that of the 
possible. Kote it. 

^ Lit., ''tbat something appears to us as possible and we say that it is 
physically possible." According to Ibn Tibbon, ** that appears to us as physi- 
cally possible." 

' Lit, ** they are necessary.** According to Ibn Tibbon, "they remain in 
their nature." 



62 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 



p 



CHAPTEE XVI. 

The philosophers have uttered very perverse ideas as regards 
God's Omniscience of everything beside Himself ; they have 
stumbled in such a manner that they cannot rise again, nor 
can those who adopt their views. I will further on tell you 
the doubts that led them to these perverse utterances on this 
question ; and T will also tell you the opinion which is taught 
by our religion, and which differs from the evil and wrong 
principles of the philosophers as regards God's Omniscience. 
The principal reason that first induced the philosophers 
to adopt their theory is this: at first thought we notice 
an absence of system in human affairs. Some pious men 
ji live a miserable and painful life, whilst some wicked people 
// enjoy a happy and pleasant life. On this account the philo- 
/ sophers assumed as possible the cases which you will now 
hear. They said that only one of two things is possible, 
either God is ignorant of the individual or particular things on 
earth, and does not perceive them, or He perceives and knows 
them. These are all the cases possible. They then continued 
thus : If He perceives and knows all individual things, one 
of the following three cases must take place : ( i.) God arranges 
and manages human affairs well, perfectly and faultlessly ; 
(2.) He is overcome by obstacles, and is too weak and powerless 
to manage human affairs ; (3.) He knows [all things] and can 
arrange and manage them, but leaves and abandons them, as 
too base, low, and vile, or from jealousy ; as we may also 
notice among ourselves some who are able to make another 
person happy, well knowing what he wants for his happiness, 
and slill in consequence of their evil disposition, their wicked- 
ness and jealousy against him, they do not help him to his 
happiness. — This is likewise a complete enumeration of all 
possible cases. For those who have a knowledge of a certain 
thing necessarily either (i.) take care of the thing which they 
know, and manage it, or (2.) neglect it (as we, e,g., neglect and 
forget the cats in our house, or things of less importance) ; or 



PAET m. — CHAPTEB XVI. 



63 



(3.) while taking care of it, have not sufficient power and I 
Btrengtb for its management^ although they have the will to J 
do so. Having enumerated these different cases, the philo-M 
sophers emphatically decided that of the three cases possible i I 
[as regards the management of a thing] by one who knows 
[that thing], two are inadmissible in reference to God — ^vizi 1 
want of power, or absence of will ; because they imply either! U 
evil disposition or weakness, neither of which can by auAul 
means be attributed to Him. Consequently there remains^ 
only the alternative that God is altogether ignorant of human jj 
affairs, or that He knows them and manages them well | 
Since we, however, notice that events do not follow a certain 
order, that they cannot be determined by analogy, and are 
not in accordance with what is wanted, we conclude that God 
has no knowledge of them in any way or for any reason. 
This is the argument which led the philosophers to speak 
such blasphemous words. In the treatise " On Providence," ^ 
by Alexander Aphrodisiensis, you will find the same as I have 
said about the different views of the philosophers, and as I 
have stated as to the source of their error.' 

You must notice with surprise that the evil into which 
these philosophers have fallen is greater than that from which 
they sought to escape, and that they ignore the very thing 
which they constantly pointed out and explained to us. They 
have fallen into a greater evil than that from which they 
sought to escape, because they refuse to say that God neglects 
or forgets a thing, and yet they maintain that His knowledge 
is imperfect, that He is ignoiunt of what is going on here on 
eanh, that He does not perceive it. They also ignore, what 
they constantly point out to us, in as much as they judge the 
whole universe by that which befalls individual men, although, 
according to their own view, frequently stated and explained, 

^ According to M. Scheyer, the treatise ** On Destiny " is meant ; according 
to Monk, "On Proyidence." The passage referred to cannot be verified 
(Monk). 

' According to Ibn Tibbon*s Version (as in the printed editions) : *' And 
their opinion, and you wiU see that this is the source of their error." 




9> 



64 



OmDE OF THE PEBPLEXED. 



/ 



the evils of man originate in himself, or form part of his 
material nature. We have already discussed this suflBciently.^ 
After having laid this foundation, which is the ruin of all good 
principles, and destroys the majesty of all true knowledge, 
they sought to remove the opprobrium by declaring that for 
many reasons it is impossible that God should have a know- 
ledge of earthly things, for the individual members of a 
species* can only be perceived by the senses, and not by 
reason ; but God does not perceive by means of any of the 
senses. Again, the individuals are infinite, but knowledge 
comprehends and circumscribes the object of its action, and 
the infinite cannot be comprehended or circumscribed ; 
furthermore, knowledge of individual beings, that are subject 
to change, necessitates some change in him who possesses it, 
because this knowledge itself changes constantly. They have 
also raised the following two objections against those who hold, 
in accordance with the teaching of Scripture, that God knows 
things before they come into existence. First, their theory 
implies that there can be knowledge of a thing that does not 
exist at all; secondly, it leads to the conclusion that the 
knowledge of an object in potentid is identical with the know- 
ledge of that same object in reality.* They have indeed come 
to very evil conclusions,^ and some of them assumed that 
God only knows the species, not the individual beings, whilst 
others went as far as to contend that God knows nothing 
beside Himself, because they believe that God cannot have 
more than one knowledge. 

Some of the great philosophers who lived before Aristotle 

^ Supra, chap. xiL 

« lit, "the parts." 

' That is to say, Qod cannot know things before they come into existence, 
because (1.) things that do not exist cannot be known ; (2.) the knowledge of 
things before they come into actual existence has only for its object their 
potential existence, and not their actual existence. These are two different 
kinds of knowledge, and if attributed to God, would imply a change in the 
knowledge of God. According to the printed editions of Ibn Tibbon's Version : 
''And [the fact that] knowledge of a thing in poUntia is one thing, and 
knowledge of the thing in actual existence is another thing." 

* Munk : " II y a eu entre eux un conflit d'opinions." 



PART m.-— CHAPTER XVH. 65 

agree with us,^ that God knows everything, and that nothing 
is hidden from Him. Alexander also refers to them in the 
above-mentioned treatise ; he differs from them, and says that 
the principal objection against this theory is based on the 
fact that we clearly see evils befalling good men, and wicked 
men enjoying happiness. 

In short, you see that if these philosophers would find 
haman affairs managed according to rules laid down by the 
common people, they would not venture or presume to speak 
on this subject They are only led to this speculation be- 
cause they examine the affairs of the good and the wicked, 
and consider them as being contrary to all rule, and say in 
the words of the foolish in our nation, "The way of the 
Lord is not right "^ (Ezek. xxxiii. 17). 

After having shown that knowledge and Providence are 
connected with each other, I will now proceed to expound 
the opinions of thinkers on Providence, and then I shall 
attempt to remove their doubts as to God's knowledge of 
individual beings. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

There are four different theories concerning Divine Provi- 
dence; they are all ancient, known since the time of the 
Prophets,* when the true Law was revealed to enlighten 
these dark regions. 

First Theory.* — There is no Providence at all for anything 
in the Universe ; all parts of the Universe, the heavens and 

^ Comp. Xenopb. Memor. i i. 

* A. v., "equal." 

* Probably tbe Book of Job is referred to, wbicb contains, according to 
Maimonides, tbe different opinions on Providence. 

^ lit, " Tbe first tbeorj is tbat wbicb maintains." In a similar manner 
we pat " Second Tbeory " instead of *' Tbe second tbeory is that," &c 
VOL. III. E 



JS- 



66 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

what they contain, owe their origin to accident and chance ; 
there exists no being that rules and governs them or provides 
for them. This is the theory of Epicurus, who assumes also 
that the Universe consists of atoms,^ that these have com- 
bined by chance, and have received their various forms by 
mere accident. There have been atheists among the Israelites 
who have expressed the same view ; it is reported of them : 
** They have denied the Lord, and said He is not " (Jer. v. 12). 
Aristotle has proved^ the absurdity of the theory, that the 
whole Universe could have originated by chance; he has 
shown that, on the contrary, there is a being that rules and 
governs the Universe. We have already touched upon this 
subject in the present treatise.^ 

Second Theory. — Whilst one part of the Universe owes its 
existence to Providence and is under the control of a ruler 
and governor^ another part is abandoned and left to chance. 
This is the view of Aristotle about Providence,* and I will 
now explain to you his theory. He holds that God controls 
the spheres and what they contain : therefore the individual 
beings in the spheres remain permanently in the same form. 
Alexander has also expressed it in his writings that Divine 
Providence extends down to, and ends with, the sphere of the 
moon.*^ This view results from his theory of the Eternity of 
the Universe ; he believes that Providence is in accordance 
with the nature of the Universe : consequently in the case of 
the spheres with their contents, where each individual being 

^ Com p. Part I., chap. Izxiii, First Proposition. 

* Comp. Arist. Phys. II. v.-vi. ; Metaphys. XI. viiL 

• Lit., ** in the preceding (Part)." Part II., chap. xx. 

^ The term Providence in the philosophical system of Aristotle has not 
the same meaning as it has in Theology. Whilst in the latter it is chiefly to the 
changes and vicissitudes in human life that the term is applied, in the system of 
Aristotle Providence is the cause of the continued existence of everything 
that is either permanent or changes in accordance with certain constant laws. 

' /.e., Providence extends to the Intelligences and the spheres that are per- 
manent, and not to earthly beings that are transient. Indirectly, however, 
through the spheres, the action of Providence influenoes the earthly beings in 
giving permanent existence to their species and transient existence to indivi- 
dual beings. 



PABT m. — CHAPTER XVII. 67 

has a permanent existence, Providence gives permanency 
and constancy^ From the existence of the spheres other 
beings derive existence, which are constant in their species 
but not in their individuals : in the same manner it is said 
that Providence sends forth [from the spheres to the earth] 
sufficient influence to secure the immortality and constancy 
of the species, without securing at the same time permanence 
for the individual beings of the species. But the individual 
beings in each species have not been entirely abandoned, 
that portion of the materia prima which has been purified 
and refined, and has received the faculty of growth, is endowed 
with properties that enable it to exist a certain time, to 
attract what is useful and to repel what is useless. That 
portion of the materia prima which has been subject to a 
further development, and has received the faculty of sensa- 
tion, is endowed with other properties for its protection and 
preservation ; it has a new faculty of moving freely toward 
that which is conducive to, and away from that which is 
contrary to its well-being. Each individual being received 
besides such properties as are required for the preservation 
of the species to which it belongs. The portion of the 
materia prima which is still more refined, and is endowed 
with the intellectual faculty, possesses a special property by 
which each individual, according to the degree of his perfec- 
tion, is enabled to manage, to calculate, and to discover 
what is conducive both to the temporary existence of the 
individual and to the preservation of the species. All other 
movements, however, which are made by the individual 
members of each species are due to accident ; they are not, 
according to Aristotle, the result of rule and management ; 
e.g., when a storm or gale blows, it causes undoubtedly some 
leaves of a tree to drop, breaks off some branches of another 
tree, tears away a stone from a heap of stones, raises dust 
over herbs and spoils them, and stirs up the sea so that a 
ship goes down with the whole or part of her contents. 
Aristotle sees no difference between the falling of a leaf or 
a stone and the death of the good and noble people in the 



68 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

ship; nor does he distinguish between the destruction of a 
miUtitude of ants caused by an ox depositing on them his 
excrement and the death of worshippers killed by the fall 
of the house when its foundations give way; nor does he 
discriminate between the case of a cat killing a mouse that 
happens to come in her way, that of a spider catching a fly, 
and that of a hungry lion meeting a prophet and tearing him.^ 
In short, the opinion of Aristotle is this : Everything is the 
result of management which is constant, which does not 
come to an end and does not change any of its properties, as 
6.y., the heavenly beings, and everything which continues 
according to a certain rule, and deviates from it only rarely 
and exceptionally, as is the case in objects of Nature. All 
these are the result of management, i.e., in a close relation 
to Divine Providence. But that which is not constant, and 
does not follow a certain rule, as e,g., incidents in the existence 
of the individual beings in each species of plants or animals, 
whether rational or irrational, is due to chance and not to 
management;^ it is in no relation to Divine Providence. 
Aristotle holds that it is even impossible to ascribe to Pro- 
vidence the management of these things. This view is 
closely connected with his theory of the Eternity of the 
Universe, and with his opinion that everything different 
from the existing order of things in Nature is impossible. 
It is the belief of those who turned away from our Law, 
and said : " God hath forsaken the eai*th " (Ezek. ix. 9). 

Third Theory. — ^This theory is the reverse of the second. 
According to this theory, there is nothing in the whole 
Universe, neither a class nor an individual being, that is due 
to chance; everything is the result of will, intention, and 
rule. It is a matter of course that he who rules must know 
[that which is under his control]. The Mahometan 
Ashariyah ^ adhere to this theory, notwithstanding evident 

1 Comp. 1 KiDgs xiii. 29. 

' Aristotle nevertheless appears to assume that the good and pious are pro- 
tected by God (Nic. Eth. x. 9). 
* Part L, p. 276, note 2. See Munk, Melanges, &c., pp. 824, 329. 



PARTHL — CHAPTER XVII. . 69 

absurdities implied in it; for they admit that Aristotle is 
correct in assuming one and the same cause [the wind] for 
the fall of leaves [from the tree] and for the death of a 
man [drowned in the sea]. But they hold at the same time 
that the wind did not blow by chance ; it is God that caused 
it to move; it is not therefore the wind that caused the 
leaves to fall; each leaf falls according to the Divine decree; 
it is God who caused it to fall at a certain time and in a 
certain place; it could not have fallen before or after that 
time or in another place, as this has previously been decreed. 
The Ashariyah were therefore compelled to assume that 
motion and rest of living beings are predestined, and that 
it is not in the power of man to do a certain thing or to 
leave it undone. The theory further implies a denial of 
possibility in these things ; they can only be either necessary 
or impossible. The followers of this theory accepted also the 
last-mentioned proposition, and say, that we call certain 
things possible, as e.g,^ the facts that Zeid stands, and that 
Amr is coming ; but they are only possible for us, whilst in 
their relation to God they cannot be called possible ; they are 
either necessary or impossible. It follows also from this 
theory, that precepts are perfectly useless, since the people 
to whom any law is given are unable to do anything : they 
can neither do what they are commanded nor abstain from 
what they are forbidden. The supporters of this theory hold 
that it was the will of God to send prophets, to command, 
to forbid, to promise, and to threaten, although we have 
no power [over our actions]. A duty would thus be 
imposed upon us which is impossible for us to carry out, 
and it is even possible that we may suffer punishment when 
obeying the command and receive reward when disobeying 
it According to this theory, it must also be assumed that 
the actions of God have no final cause. All these absurdities 
are admitted by the Ashariyah for the purpose of saving this 
theory. When we see a person born blind or leprous, who 
could not have merited a punishment for previous sins, they 
say, It is the will of God ; when a pious worshipper is tor- 



(70 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

tured and slain, it is likewise the will of God ; and no injustice 
can be asserted to Him for that, for according to their opinion 
it is proper that God should afflict the innocent and do good 
to the sinner. Their views on these matters are well known. 
Fawrth Theory, — Man has free will;^ it is therefore 
intelligible that the Law contains commands and prohibitions, 
with announcements of reward and punishment. All acts of 
God are due to wisdom ; no injustice is found in Him, and 
He does not afflict the good. The Mu'tazila* profess this 
theory, although they do not believe in man's absolute free 
will.8 They hold also that God takes notice of the falling 
of the leaf and the destruction* of the ant, and that His 
Providence extends over all beings. This theory likewise 
implies contradictions and absurdities. The absurdities are 
these : The fact that some persons are born with defects, 
although they have not sinned previously, is ascribed to the 
wisdom of God, it being better for those persons to be in 
such a condition than to be in a normal state, though we do 
not see why it is better ; and they do not suffer thereby any 
punishment at all, but, on the contrary, enjoy God's goodness. 
In a similar manner the slaughter of the pious is explained 
as being for them the source of. an increase of reward in 
future life. They go even further in their absurdities. We 
ask them why is God only just to man and not to other 
beings, and how has the irrational animal sinned, that it is 
condemned to be slaughtered ? and they reply it is good for 
the animal, for it will receive reward for it in the world 
to come ; also the flea and the louse will there receive com- 
pensation for their untimely death : the same reasoning they 
apply to the mouse torn by a cat or vulture ; the wisdom of 
God decreed this for the mouse, in order to reward it after 



* Lit., ** power," «ct/. to do what he desires to do. 
^ Part L, p. 275, note 5. 

' Comp. Part L, chap. Ixxiii., Sixth Prop., p. 326. The free will as assumed 
by the Mu'tazila is not absolute (or perfect), because they hold that man's will 
and power are accidents which must constantly be reproduced by the Creator. 

* Lit., "the trampling on,*' &c. 



PART m.^HAPTER XVn. 71 

death for the mishap. I do not consider it proper to 
blame the followers of any of the [last named] three 
theories on Providence, for they have been driven to accept 
them by weighty considerations. Aristotle was guided 
by that which appears to be the nature of things. The 
Ashariyah refused to ascribe to God ignorance about any- 
thing, and to say that God whilst knowing one individual 
being or one portion of the Universe is ignorant of another 
portion; they preferred to admit the above-mentioned 
absurdities. The Mu'tazilites refused to assume that God 
does what is wrong and unjust; on the other hand, they 
would not contradict common sense and say that it was not 
wrong to inflict pain on the guiltless, or that the mission of 
the Prophets and the giving of the Law had no intelligible 
reason. They likewise preferred to admit the above-named 
absurdities. But they even contradicted themselves, because 
they believe on the one hand that God knows everything, 
and on the other that man has free will. By a little con- 
sideration we discover the contradiction. 

Fifth Theory. — This is our theory, or that of our Law. I 
will show you [first] the view expressed on this subject in 
our prophetical books, and generally accepted by our Sages. 
I will then give the opinion of some later authors among us, 
and lastly,^ I will explain my own belief. The theory of 
man's perfectly free will is one of the fundamental principles 
of the Law of our Teacher Moses, and of those who follow 
the Law. According to this principle man does what is in 
his power to do, by his nature, his choice, and his will ; and 
his action is not due to any faculty created for the purpose.^ 
All species of irrational animals likewise move by their own 
free will. This is the Will of God ; that is to say, it is due 
to the eternal divine will that all living beings should move 
freely, and that man should have power to act according to 
his will or choice within the limits of his capacity. Against 
this principle we hear, thank God, no opposition on the part 

> Lit, "also." 

' Lit, " without having something created for him,'* kU, for that purpose. 



72 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

of our nation.^ Another fundamental principle taught by 
the Law of Moses is this : Wrong cannot be ascribed to Grod 
in any way whatever ; all evils and afSictions as well as all 
kinds of happiness of man, whether they concern one indi- 
vidual person or a community, are distributed according to 
justice; they are the result of strict judgment that admits 
no wrong whatever. Even when a person suffers pain in 
consequence of a thorn having entered into his hand, although 
ic is at once drawn out, it is a punishment that has been 
inflicted on him [for sin], and the least pleasure he enjoys is 
a reward [for some good action] ; all this is meted out by 
strict justice; as is said in Scripture, ''all His ways are 
judgment" (Deut. xxxiL 4); we are only ignorant of the 
working of that judgment. 

The diflferent theories are now fully explained to you; 
everything in the varying human afiPairs is due to chance, 
according to Aristotle, to the Divine Will alone according 
to the Ashariyah, to Divine Wisdom according to the 
Mu'tazilites, to the merits of man according to our opinionv 
It is therefore possible, according to the Ashariyah, that 6od| 
inflicts pain on a good and pious man in this world, and 
eeps him for ever in fire, which is assumed to rage in the 
world to come ; they simply say it is the Will of God. The 
Mu'tazilites would consider this as injustice, and therefore 
assume that every being, even an ant, that is stricken with 
pain [in this world],^ has compensation for it, as has been 
mentioned above ; and it is due to God's Wisdom, that a being 
is struck and afflicted in order to receive compensation. 
We, however, believe that all these human affairs are man* 
aged with justice ; far be it from God to do wrong, to punish 
any one unless the punishment is necessary and merited. 
It is distinctly stated in the Law, that all is done in accord* 

^ In the version of Ibn Tibbon, the corresponding phrase for "thank 
God" is absent, and the words u-be-atuhe thorathenii, "and among our co- 
religionists/' are added. 

^ Some MSS. of the original have the words fi al-dunyah, *<in this world," 
and Charizi has ba-zeh ha-olam. 



PART in.— CHAPTER XYII. 73 

ance with justice; and the words of our Sages generallj 
express the same idea. They clearly say : '' There is no death 
without sin, no sufferings without transgression." ^ Again, 
" The deserts of man are meted out to him in the same mea- 
sure which he himself employs," ^ These are the words of 
the Mishnah. Our Sages declare it wherever opportunity is 
given, that the idea of God necessarily implies justice; that 
He will reward the most pious for all their pure* and upright 
actions, although no direct commandment was given them 
through a prophet ; and that He will punish all the evil deeds 
of men, although they have not been prohibited by a prophet, 
if common sense ^ warns against them, as e.g.y injustice and 
violence. Thus our S^^es say : " God does not deprive any 
being of the full reward [of its good deed] ; " 6 again, " He 
who says that God remits part of a punishment, will be 
punished severely;^ He is long-suffering, but is sure to enact 
payment" ^ Another saying is this : " He who hi^ received 
a commandment and acts accordingly is not like him who 
acts in the same manner without being commanded to do 
so;"* and it is distinctly added that he who does a good 

^ Babjl. Talxn. Shabbath, p. 55 a, teq, Shem-tob is surprised to find 
this quoted as the opinion of our Sages, although the Talmud seems to 
reject it. Bat Maimonides only says that our Sages generaUy express 
the same idea. It may have appeared to Rabbi Ashi as untenable, on 
account of certain objections raised against this theory, but R. Ami, in 
whose name the saying is quoted, and his followers have not abandoned their 
theory. 

* Mishnah Sota, L 5. 

* According to Ibn Tibbon, "glorious " or "noble." 

* Ibn Tibbon, "intellect"; Charizi, "innate properties"; lit, "by his 
creation and his nature." 

* BabyL Talm. Pesachim, 118 a ; Baba Kama, 88 b. Instead of ledlar, the 
MSS. have in this quotation the word zethuth (Munk). 

* Lit, *' his entrails will be destroyed." 
' BabyL Talm. Baba Kama, 50 a. 

' * Babyl. Talm. Kiddushin, 31 a. Although the merit of him who acts 
in accordance with a commandment received is greater than that of another 
who does the same thing without being commanded, some reward is at all 
events granted to the latter. By this remark Maimonides no doubt intends 
to express his opinion, that non* Israelites are likewise rewarded for their 
good actions. 



74 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

thing without being commanded, receives nevertheless his 
reward. The same principle is expressed in all sayings of 
our Sages. But they contain an additional doctrine which 
is not found in the Law; viz., the doctrine of ''afflictions of 
love/' ^ as taught by some of our Sages. According to this 
doctrine it is possible that a person be afflicted without 
having previously committed any sin, in order that his 
future reward may be increased ; a view which is held by 
the Mu'tazilites, but is not supported by any Scriptural text. 
Be not misled by the accounts of trials, such as " God tried 
Abraham " (Gen. xxii. 1) ; '' He afflicted thee and made thee 
hungry " (Dent viii. 3) ; for you will hear more on this sub- 
ject later on (chap. xxiv.). Our Law is only concerned with 
the relations of men; but the idea that irrational living 
beings should receive a reward, has never before been heard 
of in our nation ; the wise men mentioned in the Talmud do 
not notice it ; only some of the later Geonim ^ were pleased 
with it when they heard it from the sect of the Mu'tazilites, 
and accepted it. 

My opinion* on this principle of Divine Providence I will 
now explain to you. In the principle which I now proceed 
to expound I do not rely on demonstrative proof, but on my 
conception of the spirit of the Divine Law, and the writings 
of the Prophets. The Principle which I accept is far less 
open to objections, and is more reasonable than the opinions 
mentioned before. It is this: In the lower or sublunary 
portion of the Universe Divine Providence does not extend to 
the individual members of species except in the case of man- 
kind. It is only in this species that the incidents in the ex- 
istence of the individual beings, their good and evil fortunes, 

^ Comp. Babyl. Talm. Berachoth, 6 a, aeq, 

' The writings of the Geonim, as far as known at present, do not contain 
this doctrine (Munk). The Karaites seem to have accepted it Comp. 
Ets-chayyim of Aaron ben Eliah, chap. Izxzix. 

' Shem-tob discusses at great length in what the view of Maimonides differs 
from the other sections of the fifth theory. Whilst according to our Sages all 
human beings are under the influence of Providence, Maimonides exempts 
those whose rational faculties are not fully developed. 



PART in. — CHAPTER XVII. 75 

are the result of justice, in accordance with the words, " For 
all His ways are judgment." But I agree with Aristotle as 
regards all other living beings, and A fortiori as regards plants 
and all the rest of earthly creatures. For I do not believe 
that it is through the interference of Divine Providence that 
a certain leaf drops [from a tree], nor do I hold that when a 
certain spider catches a certain fly, that this is the direct 
result of a special decree and will of God in that moment ; 
it is not by a particular Divine decree that the spittle of a 
certain person ^ moved, fell on a certain gnat in a certain place, 
and killed it ; nor is it by the direct will of God that a certain 
fish catches and swallows a certain worm on the surface 
of the water. In all these cases the action is, according to ' 
my opinion, entirely due to chance, as taught by Aristotle. 
Divine Providence is connected with Divine intellectual 
influence, and the same beings * which are benefited by the 
latter so as to become intellectual, and to comprehend things 
comprehensible to rational beings, are also under the control 
of Divine Providence, which examines all their deeds with a • 
view of rewarding or punishing them. It may be by mere ^ 
chance that a ship goes down with all her contents, as in the 
above-mentioned instance, or the roof of a house falls upon 
those within ; but it is not due to chance, according to our 
view, that in the one instance the men went into the ship, or 
remained in the house in the other instance ; it is due to the 
will of God, and is in accordance with the justice of His 
judgments, the method of which our mind is incapable of 
imderstanding. I have been induced to accept this theory by 
the circumstance that I have not met in any of the prophetical 
books with a description of God's Providence otherwise than 
in relation to human beings. The prophets even express 
their surprise that God should take notice of man, who is 
too little and too unimportant to be worthy of the attention 
of the Creator; how, then, should other living creatures be 
considered as proper objects for Divine Providence ! Comp. 
*' What is man, that Thou takest knowledge of him ? " (Pa. 

' Arabic : Zaid. Ibn Tibbon : Reuben. * Lit., "and the species.*' 




76 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

cxliv. 3) ; " What is man, that Thou art mindful of him ? " 
(ibid. viii. 8). It is clearly expressed in many Scriptural 
passages that God provides for all men, and controls all their 
deeds — e.g., " He f ashioneth their hearts alike. He considereth 
all their works " (ibid, xxxiii. 15) ; " For Thine eyes are open 
upon all the ways of the sons of men, to give every one 
according to his ways" (Jer. xxxiL 19). Again: "For His 
eyes are upon the ways of man, and He seeth all his goings " 
(Job xxxii. 21). In the Law there occur instances of the fact 
that men are governed by God, and that their actions are 
examined by Him. Comp. " In the day when I visit I will 
visit their sin upon them " (Exod. xxxii. 34) ; " I will even 
appoint over you terror" (I^v. xxvi. 16) ; "Whosoever hath 
sinned against me, him will I blot out of my book " (Exod. 
xxxii 33) ; ** The same soul will I destroy " (Lev, xxiii. 30) ; 
" I will even set my face against that soul " (ibid. xx. 6).^ 
There are many instances of this kind. All that is mentioned 
of the history of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob is a perfect proof 
that Divine Providence extends to every man individually^ 
But the condition of the individual beings of other living 
creatures is undoubtedly the same as has been stated by 
Aristotle. On that account it is allowed, even commanded, 
to kill animals ; we are permitted to use them according to 
our pleasure. The view that other living beings are only 
governed by Divine Providence in the way described by Aris- 
totle, is supported by the words of the Prophet Habakkuk. 
When he perceived the victories of Nebuchadnezzar, and saw 
the multitude of those slain by him, he said, " God, it is as 
if men were abandoned, neglected, and unprotected like fish 
and like worms of the earth." He thus shows that these 
classes are abandoned. This is expressed in the following 
passage : *' And makest men as the fishes of the sea, as the 
creeping things, that have no ruler over them. They take up 
all of them with the angle," &c. (Hab. L 14, 15). The pro- 
phet then declares that such is not the case ; for the events 

^ This passage ]& inaccurately quoted in the original (with the exception of 
one MS. followed by Munk), as well as in the Versions of Ibn Tibbon. 



PART HI.— CHAPTER XVII. 77 

referred to are not the result of abandonment, forsaking, and 
absence of Providence, but are intended as a punishment for 
the people, who well deserved all that befell them. He 
therefore says : " Lord, Thou hast ordained them for judg- 
ment, and mighty God, Thou hast established them for 
correction " (ibid. ver. 12). Our opinion is not contradicted 
by Scriptural passages like the following : " He giveth to the 
beast his food" (Ps. cxlvii. 9); "The young lions* roar after 
their prey, and seek their meat from God" (ibid. civ. 21) ; 
** Thou openest Thine hand, and satisfiest the desire of every 
living thing " (ibid. cxlv. 16) ; or by the saying of our Sages : 
" He sitteth and feedeth all, from the horns of the unicorns 
even unto the eggs of insects.'*^ There are many similar 
sayings extant in the writings of our Sages, but they imply 
nothing that is contrary to my view. All these passages refer 
to Providence in relation to species, and not to Providence 
in relation to individual animals. The acts^ of God are 
as it were enumerated; how He provides for every 
species the necessary food and the means of subsistence. 
This is clear and plain. Aristotle likewise holds that this 
kind of Providence is necessary^ and in actual existence. 
Alexander also notices this fact in the name of Aristotle, 
viz., that every species has its nourishment prepared for its 
individual members; otherwise the species would undoubtedly 
have perished. It does not require much consideration to 
understand this. There is a rule laid down by our Sages 
that it is directly prohibited in the Law to cause pain to an 
animal, and is based on the words : " Wherefore hast thou 
smitten thine ass ? " ' &c. (Num. xxii. 32). But the object of 

1 Babyl. Talm. Shabbath, 107 b. 

' lit, '*hi8 goodness." Ibn Tibbon read in the original afalahu. The 
MSS. hare afdoLahu, 

* BabyL Talm. Baba Metsiah, 82 b. Providence thus seems to take care of 
indiridual members of other species of animate beings. In the Talmnd the 
pTohibition of cruelty to animals is found implied in Ezod. xxiii. 5, and Deut, 
zxiL 4, but according to Yalkut on Num. xxii. 82, the angel asked Balaam 
" Why hast thou smitten thine ass ? " in order to make him reflect on his 
actions and consider that he is reproached for doing injustice to the beast ; 
and that it must be much more disgraceful to do injustice to a whole nation. 



78 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

this rule is to make us perfect ; that vtq should not assume 
cruel habits ; and that we should not uselessly cause pain to 
others; that, on the contrary, we should be prepared to show 
pity and mercy to all living creatures, except when necessity 
demands the contrary : " When thy soul longeth to eat flesh " 
(Deut xil 20). We should not kill animals for the purpose 
of practising cruelty, or for the purpose of play. It cannot 
be objected to this theory, Why should God select mankind 
as the object of His special Providence, and not other living 
beings ? For he who asks this question must also inquire. Why- 
has man alone, of all species of animals, been endowed with 
intellect ? The answer to this second question must be, accord- 
ing to the three afore- mentioned theories : It was the Will 
of God, it is the decree of His Wisdom, or it is in accordance 
with the laws of Nature. The same answers apply to the 
first question. Understand thoroughly my theory,^ that I 
do not ascribe to God ignorance of anything or any kind of 
weakness; I hold that Divine Providence is related and 
cjosely connected with the intellect, because Providence can 
only proceed from an intelligent being, from a being that is 
itself the most perfect Intellect Those creatures, therefore^ 
which receive part of that intellectual influence, will becom 
subject to the action of Providence in the same proportion 
they are acted upon by the Intellect This theory is in 
accordance with reason and with the teaching of Scripture, 
whilst the other theories previously mentioned either exag* 
gerate Divine Providence or detract from it.* In the former 
case they lead to confusion and entire nonsense, and cause us 
to deny reason and to contradict that which is perceived with 

^ Ibn Tibbon has a double translation of this sentence : You mast com- 
prehend my theory thoroughly (lit, "to its end"), and grasp it well (lit, 
" bring it up in your hand "). Maimonides desires not to be misunderstood by 
the reader as if he denied the Omniscience of God. He holds that those beings 
that are favoured with intellectual faculties are also favoured with the special 
benefits of Divine Providence. 

' The former is the opinion of the Mu^tazila (fourth theory) ; the latter that 
of Aristotle. 




PAOT m. — CHAPTER XVIH^ 79 

the senses.^ The latter case, viz., the theory that Divine 
Providence does not extend to man, and that there is no 
difference between man and other animals, implies very bad 
notions about God ; it disturbs all social order, removes and 
destroys all the moral and intellectual virtues of man.' 



CHAPTER XVIIL» 

Having shown in the preceding chapter that of all living 
beings mankind alone is directly under the control of Divine 
Providence, I will now add the following remarks: It is 
an established fact that species have no existence except 
in our own minds. Species and other classes are merely 
ideas formed in our minds, whilst everything in real exist- 
ence is an individual object, or an aggregate o f in ttfvidual 
objects. This being granted,* it must further be admitted 
that the result of the existing Divine influence, that reaches 
mankind through the human intellect, is identical with '^ 
individual intellects really in existence, with which, e-^r., 
Zeid, Amr, Kaled and Bekr,* are endowed. Hence it follows, 
in accordance with what I have mentioned in the preceding 
chapter, that the greater the proportion which a person has 
obtained of this Divine influence, on account of both his 
physical predisposition and his training, the greater must also . 
be the efiect of Divine Providence upon him, for the action^ 
of Divine Providence is proportional to the endowment/, 

' Comp. Part I., chap. Ixzi., p. 286. 
9 Comp. Part II., chap, xxiii. p. no. 

* In this chapter Maimonides proves that individual human beings are 
ruled by Divine Providence. It being admitted that Divine Providence acts 
upon the human intellect, the specific characteristic of mankind, it must also 
be admitted that it acts upon the intellect of individual persons, because the 
species as such has no real existence, and only the individual members of the 
species have actual existence. 

* Lit., "when this is known." 

' Ibn Tibbon : Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah. 



80 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

of intellect, as has been mentioned above. The relation of 
Divine Providence is therefore not the same to all men ; the 
greater the human perfection a person has attained, the greater 
the benefit he derives from Divine Providence. This benefit 
is very great in the case of prophets, and varies according to 
the degree of their prophetic faculty ; as it varies in the case 
of pious and good men according to their piety and upright- 
ness. For it is the intensity of the Divine intellectual influ- 
ence that has inspired the prophets, guided the good in their 
actions, and perfected the wisdom of the pious.^ In the same 
proportion as ignorant and disobedient persons are deficient 
in that Divine influence, their condition is inferior, and their 
rank equal to that of irrational beings ; and they are " like 
unto the beasts" (Ps. xlix. 21). For this reason it was not only 
considered a light thing to slay them, but it was even directly 
commanded for the benefit of mankind.^ This belief thatil 
God provides for every individual humto being in accordancaftf 
with his merits is one of the fundamental principles on whiclv 
the Law is founded.^ 

Consider how the action of Divine Providence is described 
in reference to every incident in the lives of the patriarchs, 
to their occupations, and even to their passions, and how Qod 
promised to direct His attention to them. Thus God said to 
Abraham, " I am thy shield" (Gen. xv. 1) ; to Isaac, " I will 
be with thee, and I will bless thee " (ibid. xxvL 3) ; to Jacob, 
" I am with thee, and will keep thee" (ibid, xxviii 15) ; to 
[Moses] the chief of the Prophets, " Certainly I will be with 
thee, and this shall be a token unto thee " (Exod. iii 12) ; to 
Joshua, " As I was with Moses, so I shall be with thee " 
(Josh. L 5). It is clear that in all these cases the action of 
Providence has been proportional to man's perfection. The 

^ Piety is here considered as being inseparable from wisdom, and disobe- 
dience as being inseparable from ignorance. 

' Lit., "for some ^ use.*' This argument applies to the institution of 
capital punishment for certain crimes, and to the commandment to extirpate 
the Canaanites. Comp. Deut. yii 2, zx. 16. 

' Lit, " And upon it the building [rests]." 



PAKT in.— CHAPTER XVIII. 81 

following verse describes how Providence protects good and 
pious men, and abandons fools ; " He will keep the feet of 
His saints, and the wicked shall be silent in darkness ; for 
by strength shall no man prevail " (1 Sam. ii. 9). When we 
see that some men escape plagues and mishaps, whilst others 
perish by them, we must not attribute this to a diflTerence in 
the properties of their bodies, or in their physical constitution, 
" for by strength shall no man prevail ; " but it must be 
attributed to their different degrees of perfection, some ap- 
proaching God, whilst others moving away from Him. Those 
who approach Him are best protected, and " He will keep the 
feet of His saints; " but those who keep far away from Him 
are left exposed to what may befall them ; there is nothing 
that could protect them from what might happen ; they are 
like those who walk in darkness, and are certain to stumble. 
The protection of the pious by Providence is also expressed 
in the following passages : — *' He keepeth all his bones," &c. 
(Ps. xxiv. 21) ; " The eyes of the Lord are upon the righteous," 
&c. (ibid. xci. 15). There are in Scripture many more 
passages expressing the principle that men enjoy Divine 
protection in proportion to their perfection and piety. The 
philosophers have likewise discussed this subject. Abu-nasr, 
in the Introduction to his " Commentary on Aristotle's Niko- 
machean Ethics," says as follows : ^ — Those who possess the 
faculty of raising their souls from virtue to virtue obtain, 
accordiiig to Plato, Divine protection to a higher degree. 

Now consider how by this method of reasoning we have 
arrived at the truth taught by the Prophets, that every person 
has his individual share of Divine Providence in proportion 
to his perfection. For philosophical research leads to this 

1 Shem-tob expresses his surprise that Abu-nasr is quoted instead of 
Aristotle, who holds the same idea in the '*Nik. £th." {x. 9), viz., that 
those who follow the guidance of the intellect in seeking to know God, are 
lored by God, and rewarded by Him. He also denies that according to 
Aristotle Proyidence does not extend to beings below the sphere of the moon, 
and thinks that Maimonides may have found this theory in some Commen- 
tary on Aristotle, and not in the works of Aristotle, whilst the above passage 
from the "Nik. Eth.*' was either unknown to him, or considered as not 
strictly philosophical 

VOL. IIL F 



82 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

coaclusion, when we assume, as has been mentioned abov^L 
that Divine Providence is in each case proportional to theV 
person's intellectual development. It is wrong to say that 
Divine Providence extends only to the species, and not to 
individual beings, as some of the philosophers teach. For . 
only individual beings have real existence, and individual || 
beings are endowed with Divine Intellect ; Divine Provi- If 
dence acts, therefore, upon these individual beings. 

Study this chapter as it ought to be studied ; you will find 
in it all the fundamental principles of the Law ; you will see 
that these are in conformity with philosophical speculation, 
and all difficulties will be removed ; you will have a clear 
idea of Divine Providence. 

After having described the various philosophical opinions 
on Providence, and on the manner how God governs the 
Universe, I will briefly state the opinion of our co-religionists 
on the Omniscience of God, and what I have to remark on 
this subject. 



CHAPTEE XIX. 

It is undoubtedly an innate idea that God must be perfect 
in every respect and cannot be deficient in anything. It 
is almost an innate idea that ignorance in anything is a 
deficiency, and that God can therefore not be ignorant of 
anything. But some thinkers assume, as I said before, 
haughtily and exultingly, that God knows certain things and 
is ignorant of certain other things. They did so because they 
imagined that they discovered a certain absence of order in 
man's affairs, most of which are not only the result of 
physical properties, but also of those faculties which he 
possesses as a being endowed with free will and reason. The 
Prophets have already stated the proof which ignorant per- 
sons offer for their belief that God does not know our actions ; 
viz., the fact that wicked people are seen in happiness, ease, 



PABT III. — CHAPTER XIX. 83 

and peace. This fact leads also righteous and pious persons 
to think that it is of no use for them to aim at that which is 
good and to suffer for it through the opposition of other people. 
But the Prophets at the same time relate how their own 
thoughts were engaged on this question, and how they were 
at last convinced that in the instances to which these argu- 
ments refer, only the end and not the beginning ought to be 
taken into account. The following is a description of these 
reflections (Ps, IxxiiL 1 1, seq.) : " And they say, How does God 
know ? and is there knowledge in the Most High ? Behold, 
these are the ungodly who prosper in the world; they 
increase in riches. Verily I have cleansed my heart in vain, 
and washed my hands in innocency." He then continues, 
" When I thought to know this, it was too painful for me, 
until I went into the sanctuary of God ; then understood I 
their end. Surely thou didst set them in slippery places; 
thou castedst them down into destruction. How are they 
brought into desolation, as in a moment ! They are utterly 
consumed with terrors." The very same ideas have also been 
expressed by the prophet Malachi, for he says thus (Mai. iii. 
13-18): "Your words have been stout against Me, saith the 
Lord. As you have said, It is vain to serve God ; and what 
profit is it that we have kept His ordinance, and that we have 
walked mournfully before the Lord of hosts ? And now we 
call the proud happy ; yea, they that work wickedness are set 
up ; yea, they that tempt God are even delivered. Then they 
that feared the Lord spake often one to another, &c. Then 
shall ye return and discern between the righteous and the 
wicked, between him that serveth God and him that serveth 
Him not." David likewise shows how general this view was 
in his time, and how it led and caused people to sin and to 
oppress one another. At first he argues against this theory 
and then he declares that God is omniscient. He says as 
follows : — " They slay the widow and the stranger, and murdei 
the fatherless. Yet they say, The Lord shall not see, neither 
shall the God of Jacob regard it. Understand, ye brutish 
among the people, and ye fools, when will you be wise ? He 



84 GUIDE OF THE PEBPLBXED. 

that planted the ear^ shall He not hear ? he that formed the 
eye, shall He not see ? He that chastiseth nations, shall not 
He correct ? or He that teacheth man knowledge ? " I will 
now show you the meaning of these arguments, but first I will 
point out how the opponents to the words of the Prophets 
misunderstood this passage. Many years ago some intelligent 
co-religionists — ^they were physicians — told me that they were 
surprised at the words of David ; for it would follow from his 
arguments that the Creator of the mouth must eat and the 
Creator of the lungs must cry ; the same applies to all other 
organs of our body. You who study this treatise of mine, 
consider how grossly they misunderstood David's arguments. 
Hear now what its true meaning is: He who produces a 
vessel must have had in his mind an idea of the use of that 
instrument, otherwise he could not have produced it. If, «.^., 
the smith had not formed an idea of sewing and possessed 
a knowledge of it, the needle would not have had the form 
so indispensable for sewing. The same is the case with all 
instruments. When some philosopher thought that God, 
whose perception is purely intellectual, has no knowledge of 
individual things, which are perceivible only by the senses, 
David takes his argument from the existence of the senses, 
and argues thus: — If the sense of sight had been utterly 
unknown l to God, how could He have produced that organ 
of the sense of light ? Do you think that it was by chance 
that a transparent humour was formed, and then another 
humour with certain similar properties, and besides^ a 
membrane which by accident had a hole covered with a 
hardened transparent substance? in short, considering the 
humour of the eye, its membranes and nerves, with their 
well-known functions, and their adaptation to the purpose of 

1 Lit " If it were hidden and He knew it not." 

' According to the Hebrew versions : ' ' beneath it ; " or the Hebrew taehatkeha 
is employed in the sense of ''in the same place," ».«., in the eye. The two 
humours are the vitreous and the aqueous ; the membrane is the iris, and 
the hole is the pupiL Shem-tob seems to find fault with Maimonides that 
he ignores the structure of the ear, mentioned first in the Psalm, and being aa 
instructive as the eye. 



PART in. — CHAPTER XIX. 85 

sight, can any intelligent person imagine that all thia is 
due to chance? Certainly not; we see here necessarily 
design in nature, as has been shown by all physicians and 
philosophers ; but as nature is not an intellectual being, and 
is not capable of governing [the universe], as has been 
accepted by all philosophers, the government [of the uni- 
verse], which shows signs of design,^ originates, according to 
the philosophers, in an intellectual cause, but is according to 
our view the result of the action of an intellectual being, 
that endows everything with its natural properties. If this 
intellect were incapable of perceiving or knowing any of the 
actions of earthly beings, how could He have created, or, 
according to the other * theory, caused to emanate from Him- 
self, properties that bring about those actions of which He 
is supposed to have no knowledge ? David correctly calls 
those who believe in this theory brutes and fools. He then 
proceeds to explain that the error is due to our defective 
understanding ; that God endowed us with the intellect 
which is the means of our comprehension, and which on 
account of its insufficiency to form a true idea of God hjEis 
become the source of great doubts ; that He therefore knows 
what our defects are, and how worthless the doubts are 
which originate in our faulty reasoning. The Psalmist 
therefore says: "He who teaches man knowledge, the 
Lord, knoweth the thoughts of man that they are vanity " 
(ibid. xciv. lo-i i). 

My object in this chapter was to show how the belief 
of the ignorant that God does not notice the affairs of 
man because they are uncertain and unsystematic, is very 
ancient. Comp. " And the Israelites uttered things that were 
not right against the Lord " (2 Kings xvii. 9). In reference 
to this passage the Midrash* says : " What have they uttered ? 

1 Monk : organisation artistiqne ; according to Ibn Tibbon, government 
similar to planned work. Ibn Falqucra (in Moreh ba-moreh) : professional 
goTsmment 

^ The theory that the Universe is eternal. 

' Comp. Comm. of Eimchi on 2 Kings xvii 9. 



86 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

This Pillar [i.e., God] does not see, nor hear, nor speak ; " i.e., 
they imagine that God takes no notice of earthly affairs, that 
the Prophets received of God neither affinnative nor negative 
precepts; they imagine so, simply hecause^ human affairs 
are not arranged as every person would think it desirable. 
Seeing that these are not in accordance with their wish, they 
say, " The Lord does not see us " (Ezek. viii. 12). Zephaniah 
(l 12) also describes those ignorant persons ''who say in 
their heart the Lord will not do good, neither will He do 
evil." I will tell you my own opinion as regards the theory 
that God knows all things on earth, but I will before state 
some propositions which are generally adopted, and the 
correctness of which no intelligent person can dispute. 



CHAPTEE XX. 



It is generally agreed upon* that God cannot at a cer- 
tain time acquire knowledge which He did not possess 
previously; it is further impossible that His knowledge 
should include any plurality, even according to those who 
admit the Divine attributes.' As these things have been 
fully proved, we, who assert the teaching of the Law, believe 
that God's knowledge of many things does not imply any 
plurality; His knowledge does not change like ours when 
the objects of His knowledge change. Similarly we say 
that the various events are known to Him before they take 
place; He constantly knows them, and therefore no fresh 

^ Lit, ** And the cause of aU this, and the proof for it, in their opinion, is 
(the fact that " etc.) 

^ In this chapter Maimonides shows that the belief in God's Omniscience 
may well be reconciled with the belief in His Unity and Immntability, and 
refutes the view that God cannot include in His knowledge a number of 
different things because He is One, and His knowledge cannot comprise 
transient things because of His Immutability. 

' See Part I., chap, liii., »eqq. 



PART III. — CHAPTER XX. 87 

knowledge is acquired hj Him. Kg. He knows that a 
certain person is non-existent at present, will come to 
existence at a certain time, will continue to exist for some 
time, and will then cease to exist. When this person, in 
accordance with God's foreknowledge concerning him, comes 
to existence, God's knowledge is not increased ; it contains 
nothing that it did not contain before, but something has 
taken place that was known previously exactly as it has 
taken place. This theory implies that God's knowledge 
extends to things not in existence, and includes also the 
infinite. We nevertheless accept it, and contend that we 
may attribute to God the knowledge of a thing which does 
not yet exist, but the existence of which God foresees and 
is able to effect But that which never exists cannot be an 
object of His knowledge ; ^ just as our knowledge does not 
comprise things which we consider as non-existing. A doubt 
has been raised, however, whether His knowledge includes the 
infinite. Some thinkers assume that knowledge^ has species 
for its object, and therefore extends at the same time to all 
individual members of the species. This view* is taken by 
every man who adheres to a revealed religion and follows 
the dictates of reason. Philosophers, however, have decided 
that the object of knowledge cannot be a non-existing thing, 
and that it cannot comprise that which is infinite. Since, 

^ lit, " Bat that which does not exist at all, is absolute non-existence for 
His knowledge, and you must not say that God knows it.*' 

' Hunk : " la science divine." But Maimonides denies altogether the truth 
of the proposition set. forth by the philosophers, that knowledge— whether 
human or divine — of an infinite number of things is impossible ; and contends 
that by obtaining knowledge of a species, we possess eo ipto the knowledge 
of an infinite number of things. Crescas is surprised that the knowledge of 
the species, which according to chap, xviii. have no real existence, is here 
assumed, although Maimonides seems to admit that knowledge cannot com- 
prehend things which are not in existence. Munk likewise seems to have 
felt here some difficulty, and says that Maimonides alludes to tlioso Muta- 
kaUemim which assumed the real existence of the Species or Universalis. 
This is not the case, for all agree that the abstract notions —the Universalia 
— are in existence in the intellect, and thus form the elements of knowledge. 

* Viz., concerning the two propositions set forth by the philosophers as 
fatal to the belief in the Omniscience of God. 



88 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEX^). 

therefore, God's knowledge does not admit of any increase, 
it is impossible that. He should know any transient thing. 
Hp only knows that which is constant and unchangeable.^ 
Other philosophers raised the following objection : God does 
not know even things that remain constant ; for His know- 
ledge would then include a plurality according to the number 
of objects known; the knowledge of every thing being 
distinguished by a certain peculiarity of the thing. God 
therefore only knows His own essence. 

My opinion is this: the cause of the error of all these 
schools is their belief that God's knowledge is like ours; 
each school points to something withheld from our know- 
ledge, and either assumes that the same must be the case 
in God's knowledge, or at least finds some difficulty how to 
explain it. We must blame the philosophers in this respect 
more than any other persons, because they demonstrated that 
there is no plurality in God, and that He has no attribute 
that is not identical with His essence ; His knowledge and 
His essence are one and the same thing; they likewise 
demonstrated, as we have shown,^ that our intellect and our 
knowledge are insufficient to comprehend the true idea of 
His essence. How then can they imagine that they compre- 
hend His knowledge, which is identical with His essence ; 
seeing that our incapacity to comprehend His essence pre- 
vents us from understanding the way how He knows objects ; 
for His knowledge is not of the same kind as ours, 
but totally different from it and admitting of no analogy. 
And as there is an Essence of independent existence, which 
is, as the philosophers call it, the Cause of the existence of 
all things, or, as we say, the Creator of everything that exists 
beside Him, so we also assume that this Essence knows 
everything,^ that nothing whatever of all that exists is 
hidden from it, and that the knowledge attributed to this 

^ /.e., The Intelligences, the spheres and the species in the subliinaiy 
world. 
^ See Part I., chaps, liii., IviL, and especially lix. p. 215. 
• Lit., " everything beside Him." 



PAKT IIL— CHAPTKR XX. 89 

essence has nothlDg in common with our knowledge, just as 
that essence is in no way like our essence. The homonymity 
of the term "knowledge" misled people; [they forgot that] 
only the words are the same, but the things designated by 
them are different ; and therefore they came to the absurd 
conclusion that that which is required for our knowledge 
is also required for God's knowledge. 

Besides, I find it expressed in various passages of Scrip- 
ture that the fact that God knows things while in a state of 
possibility, when their existence belongs to the future, does 
not change the nature of the possible in any way ; that natnre 
remains unchanged; and the knowledge of the realisation 
of one of several possibilities does not yet effect that realisa- 
tion. This is likewise one of the fundamental principles of 
the Law of Moses, concerning which there is no doubt nor 
any dispute.^ Otherwise it would not have been said, " And 
thou shalt make a battlement for thy roof," &c. (Deut. xxii. 
8), or "Lest he die in the battle, and another man take 
her " (ibid. xx. 7). The fact that laws were given to man, 
both affirmative and negative, supports the principle, that 
God's knowledge of future [and possible] events does not 
change their character. The great doubt that presents 
itself to our mind is the result of the insufficiency of our 
intellect. Consider in how many ways His knowledge is 
distinguished from ours according to all the teaching of 
every revealed religion. First, His knowledge is one, and 
yet embraces* many different kinds of objects. Secondly, 
it is applied to things not in existence. Thirdly, it com- 
prehends the infinite. Fourthly, it remains unchanged, 
though it comprises the knowledge of changeable things; 
whilst it seems [in reference to ourselves] that the know- 
ledge of a thing that is to come into existence is different 
from the knowledge of the thing when it has come into 
existence; because there is the additional knowledge of 

1 According to Ibn Tibbon: "there is no doubt whatever;*' according 
to Cbarizi : " there is nothing doubtful or wrong in it " 
' Lit, " is adopted ; " Ibn Tibbon : "agrees with and is equal to." 



90 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

its transition from a state of potentiality into that of reality. 
Fifthly, according to the teaching of our Law, God's know- 
ledge of one of two eventualities does not determine it, 
however certain that knowledge may be concerning the 
future occurrence of the one eventuality. — ^Now I wonder 
what our knowledge has in common with God's knowledge, 
according to those who treat God's knowledge as an attribute. 
Is there anything else common to both besides the mere 
name? According to our theory that God's knowledge is 
not different from His essence, there is an essential distinc- 
tion between His knowledge and ours, like the distinction 
between the substance of the heavens and that of the earth. 
The Prophets have clearly expressed this. Comp. " For my 
thoughts are not your thoughts, neither are your ways my 
ways, saith the Lord. For as the heavens are higher than the 
earth, so are my ways higher than your ways " (Is. Iv. 8-9). 
In short, as we cannot accurately comprehend His essence, 
and yet we know that His existence is most perfect, free 
from all admixture of deficiency, change, or passiveness, so 
we have no correct notion of His knowledge, because it is 
nothing but His essence, and yet we are convinced that He 
does not at one time obtain knowledge which He had not 
before; i.e. He obtains no new knowledge, He does not 
increase it, and it is not finite ; nothing of all existing things 
escapes His knowledge, but their nature is not changed 
thereby; that which is possible remains possible. Every 
argument that seems to contradict any of these statements, 
is founded on the nature of our knowledge, that has only 
the name common with God's knowledge. The same applies 
to the term intention; it is homonymously employed to 
designate our intention towards a certain thing, and the 
intention of God. The term "management" (Providence) 
is likewise homonymously used of our management of a 
certain thing and of God's management. In fact manage- 
ment, knowledge, and intention are not the same when 
ascribed to us and when ascribed to- God. When these three 
terms are taken in both cases in the same sense, great diffi* 



PART ni.—CHAPTER XXI. 91 

culties must arise; but when it is noticed that there is a 
great difiference whether a thing is predicated of God or of 
us, the truth will become clear. The difference between 
that which is ascribed to God and that which is ascribed 
to man is expressed in the words above mentioned, "And 
your ways are not my ways." 



CHAPTER XXL 




There ^ is a great difiference between the knowledge which the 
producer of a thing possesses concerning it, and the know- 
ledge which other persons possess concerning the same thing. 
Suppose a thing is produced in accordance with the know- 
ledge of the producer, the producer was then guided by his 
knowledge in the act of producing the thing. Other people, 
however, who examine this work and acquire a knowledge 
of the whole of it, depend for that knowledge on the work 
itself. E.g, An artisan makes a box^ in which weights 
move with the running of the water, and thus indicate how 
many hours have passed of the day and of the night. The 
whole quantity of the water that is to run out, the different 
ways in which it runs,* every thread that is drawn, and 
every little ball that descends * — all this is fully perceived 
by him who makes the clock; and his knowledge is not 
the result of observing the movements as they are actually 
going on ; but, on the contrary, the movements are produced 
iu accordance with his knowledge. But another person who 

^ In this chapter the author farther illustrates the difference between God's 
knowledge and that of man. 

> The Clepsydra is meant 

* The water runs quicker in the beginning, and more slowly in the end, 
unless the water is kept at a constant level. 

^ These balls — literally nuts — may be the same as the weights mentioned 
before, serred to indicate the hours by their number, or by striking against 
a metal plate. A clock of this kind seems to have been sent to Charles the 
Great by Harun al-Rashid (Munk). 



92 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

looks at that instrument, will receive fresh knowledge at 
every movement he perceives ; the longer he looks on, the 
more knowledge does he acquire ; he will gradually increase 
his knowledge, till he fully understands the machinery. If 
an infinite number of movements were assumed for this 
instrument, he would never be able to complete his knowledge. 
Besides, he cannot know any of the movements before they 
take place, since he only knows them from their actual 
occurrence. The same is the case with every object, and its 
relation to our knowledge and God's knowledge of it 
Whatever we know of the things is derived from observa- 
tion ; ^ on that account it is impossible for us to know that 
which will take place in future, or that which is infinite. 

Our knowledge is acquired and increased in proportion to 
the things known by us.* This is not the case with God, 
His knowledge of things is not derived from the things them- 
selves; if this were the case, there would be change and 
plurality in His knowledge ; on the contrary, the things are 
in accordance with His eternal knowledge, which has estab- 
lished their actual properties, and made part of them purely 
spiritual, another part material and constant as. regards its 
individual members, a third part material and changeable as 
regards the individual beings according to eternal and constant 
laws. Plurality, acquisition, and change in His knowledge 
is therefore impossible. He fully knows His unchangeable 
essence, and has thus a knowledge of all that results from 
any of His acts. If we were to try to understand in what 
manner this is done, it would be the same as if we tried to 
be the same as God, and to make our knowledge identical 
with His knowledge. Those who seek the truth, and admit 
what is true, must believe that nothing is hidden from God ; 
that everything is revealed to His knowledge, which is 
identical with His essence ; that this kind of knowledge can- 
not be comprehended by us ; for if we knew its method, we 
would possess that intellect by which such knowledge could 

^ Lit, "from considering the existing things. " 
' Lit, "the knowledge of which can be obtained." 



PAKT m. — CHAPTER XXH. 93 

be acquired. Such intellect does not exist except in God, 
and is at the same time His essence. Note this well, for I 
think that this is an excellent idea, and leads to correct views ; 
no error will be found in it ; no dialectical argument ; it does 
not lead to any absurd conclusion, nor to ascribing any defect 
to God. These sublime and profound themes admit of no 
proof whatever, neither according to our opinion who believe 
in the teaching of Scripture, nor according to the philosophers 
who disagree and are much* divided on this question. In all 
questions that cannot be demonstrated, we must adopt the 
method which we have adopted in this question about God's 
Omniscience. Note it. 



CHAPTER XXII. 



The strange and wonderful^ Book of Job treats of the same 
subject as we are discussing ; its contents are a fiction,' con- 
ceived for the purp6se of explaining the different opinions 
which people hold on Divine Providence. You know that 
some of our Sages clearly stated Job has never existed, and 
has never been created, and that he is a poetic fiction.^ Those 
who assume that he has existed, and that the book is 
historical, are unable to determine when and where Job 
lived. Some of our Sages say that he lived in the days of 
the Patriarchs ; others hold that he was a contemporary of 
Moses; others place him in the days of David, and again 
others believe that he was one of those who returned from 

^ Lit., "the strange and wonderful history or fate of Job belongs to the 
subject which," &c. It is called "strange and wonderfiil," because it is just 
the opposite of what we expect according to our notions of Divine justice. 
Ibn Tibbon and Charizi hare only one adjective, "wonderful." 

Narboni ad locum says : " Wonderful is the history of Job, and wonder- 
ful is Maimonides' interpretation of the book ; and no one who has eyes to 
see will contend that the author has not given the right interpretation. He 
is justified in saying that the exposition is almost the result of inspiration ; 
I would accept his interpretation even without this additional weight" 

» Lit, "a simile" or •'parable," 

■ Babyl. Talm. Baba Bathra, 15a. 



94 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

the Babylonian exile.^ This difference of opinion supports 
the assumption that he has never existed in reality. But 
whether he has existed or not, that which is related of him 
is an experience of frequent occurrence, is a source of per- 
plexity to all thinkers,^ and has suggested the above- 
mentioned opinions on God's Omniscience and Providence. 
This perplexity is caused by the account that a simple and 
I perfect person, who is upright in his actions, and very anxious 
to abstain from sin, is afflicted by successive misfortunes, 
namely, by loss of property, by the death of his children, and 
' by bodily disease, though he has not committed any sin. 
According to both theories, viz., that Job did exist, and that 
he did not exist, the introduction to the book is certainly a 
fiction ; I mean the portion which relates the words of the 
adversary, the words of God to the former, and the handing 
over of Job to him. This fiction, however, is in so far 
different from other fictions that it includes profound ideas 
and great mysteries,'^ removes great doubts, and reveals the 
most important truths.* I will discuss it as fully as possible ; * 
and I will also tell you the words of our Sages * that suggested 
to me the explanation of this great poem. 

First, consider the words : '' There was a man in the land 
XJz" The term Uz has different meanings ; it is used as a 
proper noun. Comp. " Uz, his first-bom " (Gen. xxii. 21) ; it 
is also imperative of the verb Uts, *' to take advice." Comp. 
utsu, "take counsel" (Isa. viii. 10). The name Uz therefore 
expresses the exhortation to consider well this lesson, study 

' Babyl. Talm. le, 

' Munk : Tonjonrs est-il que tons les lectears ont ^t^ }4t6a dans la perplexity 
par son histoire teUe quelle nous est racont^ The author does not speak 
here of the embarrassment of those who read the Book of Job, but of the per- 
plexity of thinkers who reflect on the fate of their feUow-men, and arrive at 
conclusions like those described here. 

» This phrase is taken from Babyl. Talm. Chagiga, 13a {cUlharim ihchem 
kibhshuno thel olam), where they are applied to the visions of EzekieL 

* According to the printed editions of Ibn Tibbon's Version, "hidden things" 
{niglu taalumoth is a familiar phrase). 

'/.«., as fully as these mysteries may be explained. 

* See mfrOf p. 98. 



PART m. — CHAPTER XXII. 95 

it, grasp its ideas, and comprehend them, in order to see 
which is the right view.^ " The * sons of God then came to 
present themselves before the Lord, and the adversary came 
also among them and in their number" (chap. i. 6, ii. 1). It 
is not said : " And the sons of God and the adversary came 
to present themselves before the Lord ; " this language would 
have implied that the existence of all that came was of the 
same kind and rank. The words used are these : " And the 
sons of God came to present themselves before the Lord, and 
the adversary came also among them." Such a phrase is 
only used in reference to one that comes without being 
expected or invited; he only comes among others whose 
coming has been sought.* The adversary is then described 
as going to and fro on the earth, and walking up and down 
thereon. He is in no relation to the beings above, and has 
no place * among them. For this reason it is said, " from 
going to and fro on the earth, and walking up and down on 
it," for his "going" and "walking" can only take place on the 
earth.* [Job], the simple and righteous man, is given and 
handed over to the adversary ; whatever evils and misfortunes 
befell Job as regards his property, children, and health, were 
all caused by this adversary. When this idea is suflSciently 
indicated,® the author begins to reflect on it ; one opinion Job 
is represented to hold, whilst other opinions are defended by 
his friends. I will further on expound these opinions which 
formed the substance of the discussion on the misfortunes of 
Job, caused by the adversary alone. Job, as well as his 
friends, were of opinion that God Himself was the direct 

^ According to Ibn Tibbon, " which are the right views." 
' In the original, '* then he mentions." In the English translation this 
phrase has been omitted here and in similar passages. 

* The evil is not an essential part of the creation ; all that was created " was 
exceedingly good ; " the evil— aoton — has its source in the material element of 
the Bublonary world. The inflaence of the intelligences and the spheres — bene 
JuMelohim, the sons of God — is always good. 

♦Lit, •* walks." 

' Le., the evil has its source in the earth, in the material element 

* According to Ibn Tibbon, " when this is sufficiently settled." 



96 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

agent of what happened, and that the adversary was not the 
intermediate cause. It is remarkable in this account that 
wisdom is not ascribed to Job. The text does not say he 
was an intelligent, wise, or clever man; but virtues and 
uprightness, especially in actions, are ascribed to him. If he 
were wise he would not have any doubt about the cause of 
his suffering, as will be shown later on.^ Besides, his mis- 
fortunes are enumerated in the same order as they rank in 
man's estimation. There are some who are not perplexed or 
discouraged by loss of property, thinking little of it ; but are 
terrified when they are threatened with the death of their 
children, and are killed by their anxiety. There are others 
who bear without shock or fainting even the loss of their 
children, but no one endowed with sensation is able to bear 
bodily pain. We generally extol God in words, and praise 
Him as righteous and benevolent, when we prosper and are 
happy, or when the grief we have to bear is moderate. But 
[it is otherwise] when such troubles as are described in Job 
come over us. Some of us deny God, and believe that there is 
no rule in the Universe, even if only their property is lost. 
Others retain their faith in the existence of justice and order, 
even when sufifering from loss of property, whereas loss of 
children is too much afSiction for them. Others remain firm 
in their faith, even with the loss of their children ; but there 
is no one who can patiently bear the pain that reaches his own 
person ; he then murmurs and complains of injustice, either 
in his heart or with his tongue. 

Now consider that the phrase, "to present themselves 
before the Lord," is used in reference to the sons of God, both 
the first and the second times, but in reference to the adversary, 
who appeared in either case among them and in their number, 
this phrase is not used the first time, whilst in his second 
appearance " the adversary also came among them to present 
himself before the Lord." Consider this, and see how very 

^ According to Maimonides, Job did not defend the right opinion ; he whs 
not wise. Shem-tob thinks that Job may have been wise, but his wisdom is 
not mentioned here, because it is righteousness and integrity that procure 
Divine favour, and not wisdom. 



PABT in. — CHAPTER XXII. 97 

extraordinary it is ! ^ — These ideas presented themselves like 
an inspiration to me. — The phrase, ''to present themselves 
before the Lord," implies that they are beings who are forced ^ 
by God's command to do what He desires. This may be 
inferred from the words of the prophet Zechariah concerniDg 
the fonr chariots that came forth. He says : " And the angel 
answered and said to me, These four winds of the heavens 
come forth from presenting themselves before the Lord of 
the whole earth " (Zech. vL 5).* It is clear that the relation 
of the sons of God to the Universe is not the same as that of 
the adversary. The relation of the sons of God is more con- 
stant and more permanent. The adversary has also some 
relation to the Universe, but it is inferior to that of the sons 
of God. It is also remarkable in this account that in the 
description of the adversary's wandering about on the eartb, 
and his performing certain actions, it is distinctly stated th^c 
he has no power over the soul ; whilst power has been given 
to him over all earthly affairs, there is a partition between 
him and the soul; he has not received power over the soul. 
This is expressed in the words, "But keep away from his soul"* 
(Job ii 6). I have already shown you the homonymous use 
of the term " soul " (ne/esh) in Hebrew (Part I., c. xU.) It 
designates that portion of man that survives him ; it is this 
portion over which the adversary has no power.^ — ^After these 

^ The work of the Intelligences and the spheres is done directly by the com- 
mand of God. Earthly substance is only indirectly subject to the command 
of God ; it is passive, and receives the influences of the spheres. It is only 
the foiinless|>rtJna materia that is permanent, but its forms constantly change, 
whilst of the spheres both substance and form are permanent This differ- 
ence Maimonides found indicated in the circumstance that the phrase, ** to pre- 
sent themselves before the Lord," occurs twice in reference to the "sons of 
God," and only once the adversary came " to present himself before the Lord." 

' That is to say, they follow immutable laws of nature, which the will of 
God has established from the beginning. 

* Comp^ Part II., chap, z., p. 52. 

* A. y. Save his life. 

" That is to say, the soul is not affected by the dissolution of the bodily 
forces, which takes place according to the nature and the laws of the bodily 
substance. 

VOL. m. ' G 



98 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

remarks of mine listen to the following useful instruction 
given "by our Sages, who in truth deserve the title of " wise 
men;" it makes clear that which appears doubtful, and 
reveals that which has been hidden, and discloses most of the 
mysteries of the Law. They said in the Talmud as follows : 
R Simeon, son of Lakish, says : " The adversary (satan), evil 
inclination (yetser ha-ra!), and the angel of death, are one 
and the same thing." Here we find all that " has been 
mentioned by us in such a clear manner that no intelligent 
person will be in doubt about it. It has thus been shown to 
you that one and the same thing is designated by these three 
different terms, and that actions ascribed to these three are 
in reality the actions of one and the same agent.^ Again, 
the ancient doctors of the Talmud said: "The adversary 
goes about and mislestds, then he goes up and accuses, obtains 
permission, and takes the soul."^ You have already been 
told that when David at the time of the plague was shown 
the angel " with the sword drawn in his hand stretched out 
over Jerusalem" (2 Sam. xxiv. 17), it was done for the purpose 
of conveying a certain idea to him.* The same idea was also 
expressed in the vision concerning the sins of the sons of 
Joshua, the high priest, by the words, " And the adversary 
stood on his right hand to accuse him " (Zech. iii. 1).* The 
vision then reveals that [the adversary] is far from God,* and 

^ /.«., the material element in man turns him away {satan, from tatah, "to 
turn away") from his true aim, namely, the perfection of his intellectual 
faculties (comp. Part I., chap, v., xxxiv. and passim)^ produces evil inclination, 
desires and appetites for bodily pleasures and enjoyment, and is the cause of 
death, being subject as regards its form to genesis and destruction. 

^ Babyl. Talmud, Baba-bathra, 15 a. The meaning of the passage is this : 
the material element in man first spoils his lower faculties, causing him to pay 
too much attention to his bodily wants, then it attacks his higher faculties 
by preventing him from acquiring intellectual perfection, and at last brings 
about his death. 

' Viz., that the cause of death is also the cause of sin. 

^ Comp. Ezra x. 18 and BabyL Talm. Sanhedrin, 91 a. The Targum on 
Zech. iii 8 likewise mentions the sin of the children of the high priest Joshua, 
who married heathen women. 

' I.e., too much attention to bodily wants turns away from God. 



PART nL— CHAPTER XXIL 99 

continaea thus: "The Lord will rebuke thee, adversary, 
the Lord who hath chosen Jerusalem will rebuke thee " (ibid, 
ver. 2). Balaam saw prophetically the same being in his jour- 
ney, addressing him with the words, "Behold I have come forth 
to be a hindrance to thee " (Num. xxil 32).^ The Hebrew, 
scUan^ is derived from the same root as s^teh, " turn away " 
(Prov, iv. 15) ; it implies the notion of seducing and moving 
away from a thing ; he undoubtedly turns us away from the 
way of truth, and leads us astray in the way of error.* The 
same idea is contained in the passage, " And the imagination 
of the heart of man is evil from his youth " (Gen. viiL 21).3 
The theory of the good and the evil inclinations (yetser ha-tob, 
Te-yetser ha-ra) is frequently referred to in our religion. Our 
Sages also say, ** Serve God with your good and your evil in- 
clinations."* They also say that the evil inclination we receive 
at our birth ; for* " at the door sin croucheth *' (Gen. iv. 7), as 
is distinctly said in the Law, " And the imagination of the 
heart of man is evil from his youth " (ibid. viii. 21). The good 
inclination, however, comes when the mind is develope^.^ In 
explaining the allegory representing the body of man and 
his different faculties, our Sages said : " The ^ evil inclination 
is called "a great king," whilst the good inclination is "a 

^ That is to say, it is for no higher object that Balaam went to Balak ; it 
was to gratify his greed and ambition. 

^ According to Ibn Tibbon, " who leads ns in the way of error and con- 
fusion.'' 

* I.e., from the time when only the bodUy faculties are developed. 

* Ck>mp. Babyl. Talm. Berachoth, 57 a. According to the explanation of 
Haimonides in his "Commentary on the Mishnah " (Berachoth, ix. 5), the 
meaning of this passage is, '* Reflect on your duty to love God, and to believe 
in Him even in moments of rage and anger {»cil, caused by misfortunes), 
although these are evil inclinations." 

* Babyl. Talm. Sanhedrin, 61 b. The verse quoted from Gen. viii. 21 is not 
dted in the Talmud, but Maimonides adds it, with the introductory phrase, 
*' And the Law says," because the words quoted in the Talmud do not express 
the idea plainly and directly. 

* /.&, at the age of thirteen years. Compw Midrash Babba on Ecclesiast* 
ix. 14. 

' Babyl. Talm. Kedarim, 32 b. Comp. Targum ad loeum. 



100 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

child,^ poor, though wise ** (Eccl. ix. 14). All these sayings 
of our Sages are contained in their writings, and are well known. 
According to our Sages the evil inclination, the adversary 
(satan), and the angel [of death], are undoubtedly identical ; 
and the adversary being called " angel," because he is among 
the sons of God, and the good inclination being in reality ^ 
an angel, it is to the good and the evil inclinations that 
they refer in their well-known words, "Every person is 
accompanied by two angels, one being on his right side, one 
on his left" * In the Gemara, Treatise Shabbath, they say 
distinctly of the two angels that one is. good and one bad. 
See what extraordinary ideas this passage discloses, and how 
many false ideas it removes. 

I believe* that I have fully explained the idea contedned 
in the account of Job ; but I will now show the character of 
the opinion attributed to Job, and of the opinions attributed 
to his friends, and support my statement by proofs gathered 
from the words of each of them. We need not take notice of 
the remaining passages which are only required for the context, 
as has been explained to you in the beginning of this treatise.^ 

* In this quotation yrfed, "child," is a mistake for ith, "man." From the 
context it is seen that Maimonides himself misqaoted the passage, confounding 
it with iy. 2. 

* The material substance only to some extent pexforms ** a divine command " 
{supra, p. 96 sq. ) ; therefore it it called " an angeL*' The intellectual faculties 
— the good inclinations — are truly accomplishing a divine mission ; the good 
inclination is in reality an angel. 

» Babyl. Talm. Chagigah, 16 a; Shabbath, 119 b. 

* Lit, " I do not think otherwise, but that,** &c. 

■ Comp. Part I., Introd. p. 16 sq. Maimonides shows there that in an 
allegory it is not necessary that every detail in the figure must find a place 
in the interpretation. It sufilces if the principal idea is clearly set forth. 



PABT in. — CHAPTER XXIII. 101 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

Assuming the first part of the history of Job as having 
actually taken place,^ the five, viz., Job and his friends, agreed 
that the misfortune of Job was known to God,^ and that it 
was God that caused Job's suffering. They further agree 
that God does no wrong, and that no injustice can be ascribed 
to Him. You will find these ideas frequently repeated in 
the words of Job.* When you consider the words of the 
five who take part in the discussion, you will easily notice 
that things said by one of them are also uttered by the rest. 
The arguments are repeated, mixed up, and interrupted by 
Job's description of his acute pain and troubles, which had 
come upon him in spite of his strict righteousness ; and by 
accounts of his charity, humane disposition, and good acts. 
The repUes of the friends to Job are likewise interrupted by 
exhortations to patience, by words of comfort, and other 
speeches tending to make him forget his grief. He is told 
by the m to be silen tj that he ought not to let loose the 
bridle of his tongue, a s if he were in dispute with another 
man; that he o ught silently to siibm ll to the Judgments of 

^ Hunk : Gette histoire de Job admise (comma vraie) la chose sar laquelle 
de prime abord le cinq peraonnages furent d'accord, &c. The first part of the 
history of Job contains the events mentioned in the first two chapters ; it was 
necessary to add *Hhe first part** ; because if the whole history — including that 
contained in the last chapter of the book — were assumed as known, there would 
be no room for any difference of opinion between Job and his friends, and it 
would not be necessary to add that they agreed from the beginning (de prime 
abord) on these points. The points of agreement are : (1.) God has a know- 
ledge of Job's misfortunes. (2. ) He is — directly or indirectly — the cause of it. 
(3.) He is just The manner how to reconcile Job's fate with these principles 
is the subject of discussion between Job and his friends. 

' /.€L, God knows not only the genera, but also the individual members 
of each species; and He is the cause of everything that happens to an 
individual being. 

' Although he cries and complains that he suffers innocently, yet he con- 
stantly appeals to God as a just and righteous ruler. According to Shem-tob : 
" although Job had a different opinion ! " 



/ 



102 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

God. Job replies that the intensity of his pains did not 
permit him to bear patiently, to collect his thoughts and to say 
what he ought to say. The friends, on the other hand, contend 
that those who act well receive reward, and those who act 
wickedly are punished. When a wicked and rebellious per- 
son is seen in prosperity, it may be assumed for certain that 
a change will take place ; he will die, and troubles will afflict 
him and his house. When we find a worshipper of God in 
misfortune, we may be certain that God will heal the stroke 
of his wound. This idea is frequently repeated in the words 
of the three friends, Eliphas, Bildad, and Zofar, who agree in 
this opinion. It is, however, not the object of this chapter 
to describe in what they agree, but to define the distinguish- 
ing characteristic of each of them, and to elucidate the 
opinion of each as regards the question why the most simple 
and upright man is afflicted with the greatest and acutest 
pain. Job found in this ^fl^^ ftpr^ft^ that ^^^ n'^iif^miq and 
the wicked are equal before God, who h olds mankind in c on- 
tempt.^ Job liierefore says (ix, 22, 23) : " This is one thing, 
therefore I said it, He destroyeth the perfect and the wicked. 
If the scourge slay suddenly, He will laugh at the trial of the 
innocent." He thus declares that when a scourge comes 
suddenly, killing and destroying all it meets, God laughs at 
the trial of the innocent. He further confirms this view in 
the following passage : " One dieth in his full strength, being 
wholly at ease and quiet. His vessels are full of milk, &c. 
And another dieth in the bitterness of his soul, and never 
eateth with pleasure. They shall lie down alike in the dust, 
and the worms shall cover them" (ibid. xxL 23-26). In 
a similar manner he shows the good condition and pro- 
sperity of wicked people ; and is even very explicit on this 



1 



According to Maimonides it is nol but of iDJustice that God holds mankind 
in contempt, and thus causes suffering to men like Job ; and the words uttered 
by Job, and quoted by Maimonides, "He will laugh at the trial of the innocent," 
do not imply a charge of injustice. The fate of Job is the result of certain 
laws of nature ; these act independently of man's merits, which are too 
insignificant to deserve the special notice and interference of the Most High. 



PART ni. — CHAPTER XXIH. 1 03 

point. He speaks thus: "Even when I remember I am 
afraid, and trembling taketh hold on my flesL Wherefore 
do the wicked live, become old, yea, are mighty in power ? 
Their seed is established in their sight with them," &c. (ibid. 
6-8). Having thus described their prosperity, he addresses 
his opponents, and says to them : " Granted that as you think, 
the children of this prosperous atheist will perish after his 
death, and their memory will be blotted out, what harm will 
the fate of his family cause him after his death ? For what 
pleasure hath he in his house after him, when the number of 
his months is cut off in the midst ? " (ibid. 21). Job then 
explains that there is no hope after death, so that the cause 
[of the misfortune of the righteous man] is nothing else 
but entire neglect on the part of God. He is therefore 
surprised that God has not abandoned the creation of man 
altogether ; and that after having created him, He does not 
take any notice of him. He says in his surprise : " Hast thou 
not poured me out as milk, and curdled me like cheese ? " &c. 
(ibid. X. 10, seq.) ^ This is one^ of the different views held 
by some thinkers on Providence. Our Sages condemned this 
view of Job as mischievous, and expressed their feeling in 
words like the following : " dust should have filled the mouth 
of Job ; " ** Job wished to upset the dish ; " ** Job denied the 
resurrection of the dead ; " " He commenced to blaspheme." * 
When, however, God said to Eliphas and his colleagues, 
" You have not spoken of me the thing that is right, as my 
servant Job hath " (xliL 7), our Sages assume as the cause 
of this rebuke, the maxim " Man is not punished for that 
which he utters in his pain ; " and that God ignored the sin 
of Job [in his utterances], because of the acuteness of his 

^ The passage quoted in support of this view proves rather the reverse of 
it Job complains that God does not lose sight of him, and wishes that he 
should be left to himself, without the^p'hstant watching of God (x. 20). 

' Viz., the second of the five theories discussed above in chap. xvii. It is 
ascribed to Aristotle and his followers. The first theory, ascribed to Epicurus, 
has no representative here ; because he denies the existence of God altogether, 
whilst here all parties agree that everything comes from God. 

* Babyl. Talm. Baba-bathra, 16 a. 



104 GUroE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

suffering. But this explanation does not agree with the 
object of the whole allegory.^ The words of God are justified, 
as I will show, by the fact that Job abandoned his first 
very erroneous opinion, and himself proved that it was an 
error. It is the opinion which suggests itself as plausible at 
first thought, especially in the minds of those who meet with 
mishaps, well knowing that they have not merited them 
through sins. This is admitted by all, and therefore this 
opinion was assigned to Job. But he is represented to hold 
this view only so long as he was without wisdom, and knew 
God only by tradition, in the same manner as religious people 
generally know Him. As soon as he had acquired a true 
knowledge of God, he confessed that there is undoubtedly true 
felicity in the knowledge of God ; it is attained by all who 
acquire that knowledge, and no earthly trouble can disturb it 
So long as Job's knowledge of God was based on tradition and 
communication, and not on research, he believed that such 
imaginary good as is possessed in health, riches, and children, 
was the utmost that men can attain ; this was the reason why 
he was in perplexity, and why he uttered the above-mentioned 
opinions, and this is also the meaning of his words : " I have 
heard of thee by the hearing of the ear ; but now mine eye 
seeth thee. Wherefore I abhor myself, and repent because 
of dust and ashes " (xlii. 5, 6) ; that is to say, he abhorred all 
that he had desired before, and that he was sorry that he had 
been in dust and ashes ; ' comp. '' and he sat down among 
the ashes " (ii 8). On account of this last utterance, which 
implies true perception, it is said afterwards in reference to 

^ It represents the different views held by men who have reflected on the 
question and studied it, and does not include empty and thoughtless utter- 
ances caused by intense pain. 

^ /.e., that he mourned and grieved for the loss of earthly possessions. 
There is no necessity to assume that Maimonides interpreted the words " dust 
and ashes," both in zlii. 6 and iL 8, allegorically, as denoting '* material 
possessions, which Job at first considered as essential to man's happiness, but 
now recognised as being nothing but dust and ashes." Comp. Efodi, Narboni 
and Hunk. He repented his previous sadness because pious men ought to 
rejoice with punishments sent by God. See end of this chapter, p. 111. 



PART III.— CHAI>TKR XXIIL N: ^4/08 ;i : i A y 

him, ** for you have not spoken of me the thing that is right, 
as my servant Job hath/' 

The opinion set forth by Eliphas in reference to Job's 
suffering; is likewise one^ of the current views on Pro- 
vidence. He holds that the fate of Job was in accordance 
with strict justica Job was guilty of sins for which he 
deserved his fate. Eliphas therefore says to Job : '^ Is not 
thy wickedness great, and thine iniquities infinite ? " (xxii. 
5.) He then points out to him that his upright actions and 
his good ways, on which he relies,' need not be so perfect . 
in the eyes of God that no punishment should be inflicted 
on him. " Behold, He putteth no trust in His servants ; and 
His angels He chargeth with f oUy : how much less in them 
that dwell in houses of clay," &c. (iv. 17-18). Eliphas 
never abandoned his belief that* the fate of man is the 
result of justice, that we do not know all our shortcomings 
for which we are punished, nor the way how we incur the 
punishment through them. 

Bildad the Shuhite defends in this question the theory of 
reward and compensation.^ He therefore tells Job that if he 
is innocent and without sin, his terrible misfortunes will be the 
source of great reward, will be followed by the best compensa- 
tion, and will prove a boon to him as the cause of great bliss I 
in the future world. This idea is expressed in the words : '' If 
thou be pure and upright, surely now He will awake for thee, 
and make the habitation of thy righteousness prosperous. 
Though thy beginning was small, yet thy latter end will 
greatly increase " (viii. 6-8). This opinion concerning Pro- 
vidence is widespread, and we have already explained it. 

Zofar the Naamathite holds that the Divine Will is the 

source of everything that happens;^ no further cause can > 

1 

^ The fifth theory, in chap. zviL 

' According to Ibn Tibbon: ''which thou takest into consideration so as 
to rely on it" 

' lit., "Eliphas never ceased aiming at this object, that is to say, to 
believe," &c. 

^ In chap, xrii, the fourth theory. 

' In chap, xvil, the third theory. 



106 GTHDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

be sought for His actions, and it cannot be asked why He 
has done this and why He has not done that. That which 
God does can therefore not be explained by the way of 
justice or the result of wisdom. His true Essence demands 
that He does what He wills ; we are unable to fathom the 
depth of His wisdom, and it is the law and rule of this 
wisdom that whatever He does is done because it is His will 
and for no other cause. Zofar therefore savs to Job : " But 
oh that God would speak^ and open His lips against thee ; 
and that He would show thee the secrets of wisdom^ for 
wisdom hath two portions ! ^ Know, therefore, that God 
exacteth of thee less than thine iniquity deservetL Canst 
thou by searching find out God ? canst thou find out the 
Almighty unto perfection ? " (xi. 6-7). 

In this manner consider well how the Book of Job dis- 
cusses the problem, which has perplexed many people, and 
led them to adopt in reference to Divine Providence some 
one of the theories which I have explained above ; all possible 
difierent theories are enumerated therein. The problem is 
described either by way of fiction or in accordance with real 
fact, as having manifested itself in a man famous for his 
excellency and wisdom.* The view ascribed to Job is the 

^ I.e., one portion accessible to man's understandingi and one portion 
hidden from him. — A. Y. " that they (the secrets of wisdom) are double to 
that which is." 

^ Job was famous among men for his great wisdom ; he distinguished him- 
self by general knowledge and learning. But in one respect he had no wis- 
dom ; viz. he had no correct notions of God and Divine Providence. He was 
God-fearing only because he was trained in the fear of God, and not because 
he had a true knowledge of God. In his trials he was, therefore, led to 
defend the most objectionable theory on Providence. On this account the 
epithet *'wise" was not given to him when his relation to this problem is 
described (chap. xxii. p. 96 and xxiii. p. 103). In a similar manner Palquera 
(Moreh ha-moreh ad locum) explains the apparent contradiction ; viz. in this 
place Maimonides speaks of practical wisdom, which Job possessed, whilst in 
the preceding chapter he refers to speculative wisdom, which was wanting in 
Job. The solution given by Munk is least acceptable : viz. that Maimonides 
is speaking of Job and his friends. For first, this is not the case ; secondly, his 
friends are likewise ignorant of the true solution of the problem. Ibn Tibbon 
omits in the Hebrew Version the equivalent for *' wisdom." Probably it was 
also absent from his copy of the original. 



PART m.— CHAPTER XXIIT. 107 

theory of Aristotle. Eliphas holds the opinion taught in 
Scripture, Bildad's opinion is identical with that of the 
Mu'tazilah, whilst Zofar defends the theory of the Asha'riyah. 
These were the ancient views on Providence ; later on a new 
theory was set forth, namely, that ascribed to Elihu. For this 
reason^ he is placed above the others,* and described as 
younger in years but greater in wisdom. He censures Job for 
his foolishly exalting himself, expressing surprise at such 
great troubles befalling a good man, and dwelling on the 
praises of his own deeds. He also tells the three friends that 
their minds have been weakened by great age.^ A profound 
and wonderful discourse then follows. Eeflecting on his words 
we may at first thought be surprised to find that he does not 
add anything to the words of Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zofar ; and 
that he only repeats their ideas in other terms and more ex- 
plicitly. For he likewise censures and rebukes Job, attributes 
justice to God, relates His wonders in nature, and holds that 
God is not affected by* the service of the worshipper, nor by the 
disobedience of the rebellious. All this has already been said 

^ I.e,, because he represents a new theory, therefore Elihu is praised as 
being younger, &c. Elihu's theory is called new and young as compared with 
the other theories, because it appears to have suggested itself only after the 
failure of the other four theories to reconcile God's goodness and justice with 
Job's sufferings. For the Aristotelian theory, that nothing in the sublunary 
world is influenced by Divine Providence, the belief of the Ashariyah that 
everything is predestined, that of the Mutazila that eHrything is the result of 
Divine Justice, and the biblical doctrine that all human affairs are regulated 
by Divine Justice, are views which suggest themselves at first thought; 
whilst it requires deep insight into the nature and origin of men's intellect, 
and correct knowledge of the way in which the Universe is governed by God, 
in order to arrive at the true principle according to which the individual 
cases are to be considered as the result of Divine interference or not It is 
possible that Maimonides here extols indirectly his own view, which is 
identical with that of Elihu, as new and superior to those of previous 
philosophers. 

* Lit. " He is praised over them.*' Charizi, he-eneJiem, **by them." 

* That is to say : New facts have come to light, which could not be ex- 
plained by any of the existing theories, and necessitated the assumption of a 
new theory. 

* According to Palquera, *' does not take notice of." 



108 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

by His colleagues. But after due consideration we see clearly 
the new idea introduced by Elihu, which is the principal object 
of his speech^ an idea which has not been uttered by those who 
spoke before him. In addition to this he mentions also other 
things set forth by the previous speakers, in the same manner 
as each of the rest^ viz., Job and his three friends, repeat what 
the others have said. The purpose of this repetition is to 
conceal the opinion peculiar to each speaker, and to make all 
appear in the eyes of the ordinary reader to utter one and 
the same view, although in reality this is not the case. The 
new idea, which is peculiar to Elihu and has not been men- 
tioned by the others, is contained in his metaphor of the 
angel's^ intercession. It is a frequent occurrence, he says, 
that a man becomes ill, approaches the gates of death, and is 
already given up by his neighbours. If then an angel, of any 
kind whatever, intercedes on his behalf and prays for him, the 
intercession and prayers are accepted ; the patient rises from 
his illness, is saved, and returns to good health. This result 
is not always obtained ; intercession and deliverance do not 
always follow each other; it happens only twice, or three 
times.* Elihu therefore says : " If there be an angel with him, 

^ The angel seems to be man's intellect According to Maimonides it is 
the possession of intellect and the development of rational faculties that 
entitle man to the benefit of Divine Providence. In the same degree as man 
distinguishes himself by the development of these faculties, in the same pro* 
portion he enjoys the blessings of Divine interference in his behalf. In this 
sense we must, according to Maimonides, interpret the words " If there be an 
angel with him," etc He adds therefore ** an angel of any kind whatever" to 
express the idea that not only the perfect man, but every one in proportion to 
his intellectual capacities, is influenced by Divine Providence. According to 
Efodi, Shem-tob, Munk, and others, some natural force is meant by " angel.'* 
But Maimonides, in describing his own view {eupra, p. 81), distinctly admits 
the interference of Divine Providence in human affairs in proportion to the 
degree of man's inteUectual faculties. If by ** angel " a " natural force " were 
meant, EUhu would in fact deny the interference of Divine Providence in 
behalf of the unfortunate suppliant According to Crescas, the angel is either 
a natural force, or fate, or Divine interference. 

^ Although God may interfere and bring relief to man contrary to the 
regular course of nature, the latter is not permanently reversed, and man must 
ultimately succumb to the action of the laws of Nature. 



PAET in.— CHAPTER XXIII. 109 

an interpreter, one among a thousand, to show unto man his 
uprightness/' &c. (xxxiiL 29). He then describes man's con- 
dition when convalescent and the rejoicing at his recovery, 
and continues thus : '' Lo, all these things worketh God twice, 
three times with man " (ib. 29). This idea occurs only in the 
words of Elihu. His description of the method of prophecy ^ 
in preceding verses is likewise new. He says : ** Surely God 
speaketh by one, yea by two,* yet man perceiveth it not. 
In a dream, in a vision of the night, when deep sleep falleth 
upon man, in slumbering upon the bed" (ib. 14, 15). He 
afterwards supports and illustrates his theory by a descrip- 
tion of many natural phenomena, such as thunder, lightning, 
rain, and winds ; with these are mixed up accounts of 
various incidents of life,^ e.g., an account of pestilence is 
contained in the following passage : '' In a moment they die, 
and at midnight; the people become tumultuous and pass 
away " (xxxiv. 20). Great wars are described in the follow- 
ing verse : " He breaketh in -pieces mighty men without 
number, and setteth others in their stead " (ib. 24). There 
are many more passages of this kind. In a similar manner 

^ Diyine Providence manifests itself also in the fact that men are gnided 
and inatmcted through Divine inspiration ; and sometimes they aroi fore- 
warned of coming evils, and thus enabled to guard against them. The words, 
"description of the method of prophecy," seem to indicate that the verses 
qnoted contain more than a mere mention of prophetic dreams. According 
to Maimonides, the Divine inspiration or prophecy consists of the influence 
exerdaed by the Active Intellect either upon man's intellect or upon his 
imagination, or upon both together. The active intellect sends forth its 
influence unceasingly, but only those men benefit by it who are physically, 
morally, and intellectually pre-disposed for it. Thus he-aehath, ** through one 
thing;" i.e., either through the intellect or the imagination God speaks ; also 
hiihtajfim, through two, if., through the intellect and the imagination ; but 
"he (man) does not notice it." In the same manner as God speaks to man, and 
yet some hear it, some not, so also Divine Providence reaches only some men 
according as they are predisposed towards it. According to others, bithtayim 
means "a second time" or " in a second manner," and refers to the lessons 
men receive through punishments, described Job TXTiii. 19, seqq. 

• A. v., once, yea twice. 

* He thus describes prominent natural phenomena and various cases of misery 
among men, to show that both must be explained from the same point of view. 



110 GXnDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

the Eevelation that reached Job (ch. xxxviii., ch. xli), 
and explained to him the error of his whole belief, constantly 
describes natural objects, and nothing else ; it describes the 
elements, meteorological phenomena, and peculiarities ' of 
various kinds of living beings. The sky, the heavens, Orion 
and Pleiades are only mentioned in reference to their 
influence upon our atmosphere, so that Job's attention is in 
this prophecy only called to things below the lunar sphere. 
Elihu likewise derives instruction from the nature of various 
kinds of animals. Thus he says : '* He teacheth us through 
the beasts of the earth, and maketh us wise through the fowls 
of heaven" (xxxv. ii). He dwells longest on the nature of 
the Leviathan, which possesses a combination of bodily 
peculiarities found separate in different animals, in those that 
walk, those that swim, and those that fly.^ The description 
of all these things serves to impress on our minds that we 
are unable to comprehend how these transient creatures come 
into existence, or to imagine how their natural properties 
commenced to exist, and that these are not like the things 
which we are able to produce. Much less can we compare 
the manner in which God rules and manages His creatures 
with the manner in which we rule and manage certain beings. 
We must content ourselves with this, and believe that 
nothing is hidden from God, as Elihu says : " For His eyes 
are upon the ways of man, and He seeth all his goings. 
There is no darkness nor shadow of death, where the workers 
of iniquity may hide themselves" (xxxiv. 21, 22). But the 
term management, when applied to God, has not the same 
meaning which it has when applied to us; and when we 
say that He rules His creatures we do not mean that He 
does the same as we do when we rule over other beings. The 
term " rule " has not the same definition in both cases ; it 

^ According to Munk, the term leviathan, from lavahy " to join/' indicates the 
combination of the properties of the different kinds of animals. Maimonides 
does not show how the description of leviathan includes these three different 
kinds of properties. He considers perhaps Betumoih (ch. xL 1 5, 24) as identical 
with Uviaiha,n^ and discovers properties like those of birds in xli, 17 and 21, 



PART III.— CHAPTER XXIV. Ill 

signifies two <li£ferent notions, which have nothing in common 
but the name. In the same manner, as there is a difference 
between works of nature and productions of human handi- 
craft, so there is a difference between God's rule, providence, 
and intention in reference to all natural forces, and our rule, 
providence, and intention in reference to things which are 
the objects of our rule, providence, and intention. This 
lesson is the principal object of the whole Book of Job ; it 
lays down this principle of faith, and recommends us to 
derive a proof from nature, that we should not fall into the 
error of imagining His knowledge to be similar to ours, or His 
intention, providence, and rule similar to ours. When we 
know this, we shall find everything that may befall us easy 
to bear; mishap will create no doubts in our hearts con- 
cerning God, whether He knows our affairs or not, whether He 
provides for us or abandons us. On the contrary, our fate 
will increase our love of God ; as is said in the end of this 
prophecy ; " Therefore I abhor myself and repent concerning 
the ^ dust and ashes " (xlii. 6) ; and as our Sages say : " The 
pious do everything out of love, and rejoice in their own 
afflictions." * If you pay to my words the attention which 
this treatise demands, and examine all that is said in the 
Book of Job, all will be clear to you, and you will find that 
I have grasped and taken hold of the whole subject ; nothing 
has been left unnoticed, except such portions as are only 
introduced because of the context and the whole plan of the 
allegory. I have explained this method several times in the 
course of this treatise. 



CHAPTER XXIV. 



The doctrine ' of trials is open to great objections ; it is in 
fact more exposed to objections than any other thing taught 

^ See tupra, p. 104, note 2. 
s BabyL Talm. Shabbath, 88 b. 

* The theory of Maimonidee, that the apparent evils to which man is exposed 
are either the result of Divine jostice, or the effect of the regular coarse of 



112 ovum OF THE PERPLEXED. 

in Scripture. It is mentioned in Scripture six times,^ as I 
will show in this chapter. People have generally the notion 
that trials consist in afflictions and mishaps sent by Grod to 
man^ not as punishments for past sins, but as giving oppor- 
tunity for great reward.' This principle is not mentioned in 
Scripture in plain language, and it is only in one of the six 
places referred to^ that the literal meaning conveys this 
notion. I will explain the meaning of this passage later on. 
The principle taught in Scripture is exactly the reverse ; for 
it is said: ''He is a God of faithfulness, and there is no 
iniquity in Him " (Dent, xxxii. 4). 

The teaching of our Sages, although some of them approve^ 
this general belief [concerning trials], is on the whole against 
it. For they say, " There is no death without sin, and no 
affliction without transgression." * Every intelligent religious 
person should have this faith, and should not ascribe any 
wrong to God, who is far from it; he must not assume that a 
person^ is innocent and perfect and does not deserve what 
has befallen him. The trials mentioned in Scripture in the 
[six] passages, seem to have been tests and experiments by 
which God desired to learn the intensity of the faith and the 
devotion of a man or a nation.^ [If this were the case] it 
would be very difficult to comprehaid the object of the trials, 
and yet the sacrifice of Isaac seems to be a case of this kind, 

Katore, seems to be contrary to the theory of trials mentioned in Scripture. 
He attempts therefore in this chapter to explain all biblical passages that 
contain any reference to trials. 

^ Gen. xxii.; Ex. xvi. 4, xx. 17 ; Deut. yiil 2 and 16, xiii. 4. 

' Comp. ch. xyii., fourth theory, p. 70, and fifth theory, p. 74. 

* Deut. viii 16. 

* This refers to the theory of "chastisement out of love'* (yitsurin ine- 
ahavah) defended by some of our Sages, but not ^nerally accepted. (Comp. 
chap. xvii. p. 74.) 

B Babyl. Talm. Shabbath, 65 a. 

* In the Original Zaid ; in the Hebrew Version Reuben. 

' lit, by which he knew the strength of the faith . . . and the measure 
of his service. According to Ibn Tibbon ; " by which God knew the faith,** 
etc It seems that houhi in the Hebrew, which seems to contain the initials 
for ha-Bhem yiManch, **God, blessed be He," is only a corruption of the 
original $hiur or ha-thiur, '* measure." 



PAKT m. — CHAPTER XXIV. 113 

as none witnessed it, but God and the two concerned [Abra- 
ham and Isaac].^ Thus God says to Abraham, " For now I 
know that thou fearest God," &c. fGen. xxii. 12). In another 
passage it is said : " For the Lord your God proveth you to 
know whether ye love " (Deut. xiii. 4). Again, " And to 
prove thee to know what was in thine heart," &c. (ibid, 
viii. 2). I will now remove all the difficulties. 

The sole object of all the trials mentioned in Scripture 
is to teach man what he ought to do or believe ; so that 
the event which forms the actual trial is not the end 
desired ; it is but an example for our instruction and guid- 
ance. Hence the words "to know (la-daath) whether ye 
love," &c., do not mean that God desires to know whether 
they loved God; for He already knows it; but la-daath, 
" to know," has here the same meaning as in the phrase " to 
know (la-daath) that I am the Lord that sanctifieth you " 
(Ex. xxxi. 13), i.e, that all nations shall know that I am the 
Lord who sanctifieth you. In a similar manner Scripture 
says : — If a man should rise, pretend to be a prophet, and 
show you his signs by which he desired to convince you that 
his words are true, know that God intends thereby to prove 
to the nations how firmly you believe in the truth of God's 
Word, and how well you have comprehended the true Essence 
of God ; that you cannot be misled by any tempter to corrupt 
your faith in God. Your religion will then afford a guidance 
to all who seek the truth, and of all religions man will 
choose that which is so firmly established that it is not 
shaken by the performance of a miracle. For a miracle 
cannot prove that which is impossible;^ it is useful only as 

' That is to say, eyen if in the other instances the trials could easily 
ho explained as sources of instruction for mankind, this explanation 
does not seem to apply to the case of Isaac's Sacrifice, since the conduct 
of Isaac and Abraham was not witnessed by any other persons ; and the 
trial appears to have been employed by God as the means of obtaining know* 
ledge. 

' Lit., because it [implies] an invitation [to believe] things which are im- 
possible. Maimonides refers here to impostors who found new religions, and 
support their false doctrines by signs and miracles. 

VOL. in. H 



114 GUIDE OF THS PERPLEXED. 

a confinnation of that which is possible, as we have explained 
in our Mishneh-torah.^ 

Having shown that the term " to know " means " for the 
world to know/' we apply this interpretation to the follow- 
ing words said in reference to the manna : " To humble thee, 
and to prove thee, to know what was in thine heart, whether 
thou wouldest keep His commandments, or not " (Deut viii. 
2). All nations shall know, it shall be published through- 
out the world, that those who devote themselves to the 
service of God are supported beyond their expectation. In 
the same sense it was said when the manna commenced 
to come down, " that I may prove them whether they will 
walk in my law or no" (Exod. xvL 4); i.e. let every one 
who desires try and see whether it is useful and sufficient 
to devote himself to the service of God. It is, however, said 
a third time in reference to the manna : " Who fed thee in the 
wilderness with manna, which thy fathers knew not, that He 
might humble thee, and that He might prove thee, to do thee 
good at thy latter end" (Deut. viii. 16). This might induce 
us to think that God sometimes afflicts man for the purpose 
of increasing his reward. But in truth this is not the case. 
We may rather assume one of the two following explana- 
tions; either this passage expresses the same idea as is 
expressed in the first and the second passages, viz. to show 
[to all people] whether faith in God is sufficient to secure 
man's maintenance and his relief from care and trouble, or 
not. Or the Hebrew term le-nassotheeha means '' to accustom 
thee ; " the word is used in this sense in the following pas- 
sage : " She has not accustomed {nissetha) the sole of her foot 
to set it upon the ground " ^ (ibid xxviii. 56). The meaning 
of the above passage would then be : " God has first trained 
you in the hardships of the wilderness, in order to increase 
your welfare when you enter the land of Canaan. It is 
indeed a fact that the transition from trouble to ease gives 

^ Yesode ha-torah viL 7. and viii 3. 

' A. v. " which would not adventure to set the sole of her foot upon the 
ground." 



PART in.— CHAPTER XXIV. 113 

more pleasure than continual ease. It is also known that 
the Israelites would not have been able to conquer the land 
and fight with its inhabitants, if they had not previously 
undergone the trouble and hardship of the wilderness. 
Scripture says in reference to this : " For God said, Lest per- 
adventure the people repent when they see war, and they 
return to Egypt, But God led the people about, through 
the way of the wilderness of the Bed Sea; and the children 
of Israel went up harnessed out of the land of Egypt" 
(Exod. xiii. 17, 18). Ease destroys bravery, whilst trouble 
and care for food create strength; and this was [also for 
the Israelites] the good that ultimately came out of their 
wanderings in the wilderness. The passage, "For God is 
come to prove you, and that His fear may be before your 
faces, that ye sin not " (ibid. xx. 20), expresses the same idea 
as is expressed in Deuteronomy (xiii. 4) in reference to a 
person who prophesies in the name of idols, namely in the 
words : " For the Lord your God proveth you to know whether 
ye love the Lord." We have already explained the meaning of 
the latter passage. In the same sense Moses said to the Israel- 
ites when they stood round Mount Sinai : " Do not fear ; the 
object of this great sight which you perceived is that you 
should see the truth with your own eyes. When the Lord 
your God, in order to show your faithfulness to Him, will 
prove you by a false prophet, who will tell you the reverse 
of what you have heard, you will remain firm and your steps 
will not slide. If I had come as a messenger as you desired,^ 
and had told you that which had been said unto me and 
which you had not heard, you would perhaps consider as 
true what another might tell you in opposition to that which 
you heard from me. But it ia different now, as you have 
beard it in the midst of the great sight." ^ 

The account of Abraham our father binding his son, 

^ The equiyalent for this phrase is absent from Ibn Tibbon*8 Version. 

' In accordance with his theory concerning the Revelation on Mount Sinai, 
Maimonidea does not say, " you have heard it from God," for they only saw 
the sight and heard some sounds which Moses interpreted to them. 



116 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

includes two great ideas or principles of our faith. First, it 
shows us the extent and limit of the fear of God. Abra- 
ham is commanded to perform a certain act, which is not 
equalled by any surrender of property or by any sacrifice 
of life, for it surpasses everything that can be done, and 
belongs to the class of actions which are believed to be 
contrary to human feelings. He had been without child, 
and had been longing for a child ; he had great riches, and 
was expecting that a nation should spring from his seed. 
After all hope of a son had already been given up, a son was 
born unto him. How great must have been his delight in the 
child! how intensely must he have loved him! And yet 
because he feared God, and loved to do what God com- 
manded, he thought little of that^ beloved child, and set 
aside all his hopes concerning him, and consented to kill 
him after a journey of three days. If the act by which he 
showed his readiness to kill his son had taken place imme- 
diately when he received the commandment, it might have 
been the result of confusion and not of consideration. But 
the fact that he performed it three days after he had received 
the commandment, proves the presence of thought, proper 
consideration, and careful examination of what is due to the 
Divine command and what is in accordance with the love 
and fear of God. There is no necessity to look for the pre- 
sence of any other idea or of anything that might have 
affected his emotions. For Abraham did not- hasten to kill 
Isaac out of fear that God might slay him or make him 
poor, but solely because it is man's duty to love and to fear 
God,* even without hope of reward or fear of punishment. 
We have repeatedly explained this. The angel, therefore, 
says to him, " For now I know," &c. (ibid. ver. 12), that is, 
from this action, for which you deserve to be truly called a 
God-fearing man, all people shall learn how far we must go 

^ The word ho in the Version of Ibn Tibbon is a corruption of haz or ftozoA, 
"he despised." 

' According to Ibn Tibbon, "in order that it may become known to men 
what it is their duty to do from love and fear of God." 



. PABT III. — CHAPTER XXIV. 117 

in the fear of God. This idea is confirmed in Scripture ; it 
is distinctly stated that one sole thing, fear of God, is the 
object of the whole Law with its affirmative and negative 
precepts, its promises and its historical examples, for it is 
said, " If thou wilt not observe to do all the words of this 
Law that are written in this book, that thou majest fear 
this glorious and fearful name, the Lord thy God" (Deut» 
xxviii 58). ^ This is one of the two purposes of the Akedah 
(sacrifice or binding of Isaac). 

The second purpose is to show how the prophets believed 
in the truth of that which came to them from God by way 
of inspiration. We shall not think that what the prophets 
heard or saw in allegorical figures may at times have in- 
cluded incorrect or doubtful elements, since the Divine com- 
munication was made to them, as we have shown, in a dream 
or a vision and through the imaginative faculty. Scripture 
thus tells us that whatever the Prophet perceives in a 
prophetic vision, he considers as true and correct and not 
open to any doubt; it is in his eyes like all other things 
perceived by the senses or by the intellect. This is proved 
by the consent of Abraham to slay "his only son whom he 
loved," as he was commanded, although the commandment 
was received in a dream and a vision. If the Prophets had 
any doubt or suspicion as regards the truth of what they 
saw in a prophetic dream or perceived in a prophetic vision, 
they would not have consented to do what is unnatural, and 
Abraham would not liave found in his soul strength enough 
to perform that act, if he had any doubt [as regards the truth 

1 It is difficult to discover the method by which Maimonides discovers this 
idea in the words of the text quoted. According to Saadia (see Comm. of 
Ibn Ezra on Gen. xxiL 1) the kal yadcUi has here the same meaning as the 
hiphil hodati, ** I make known.*' Maimonides does not even employ this form 
in his interpretation, and probably he does not accept it. Perhaps the angel 
of the Lord is the Active Intellect, the source of all human intellect and of 
all prophesy and vision, and he speaks therefore in the name of mankind. 
Maimonides may interpret the verse as follows : Now I know that through this 
conduct yon are known among men as a God-fearing man, and aU men will 
therefore know what constitutes fear of God. 



118 GUIDE OF THE PEKPLEXED. 

of the commandment]. It was just the right thing that this 
lesson derived from the aJcedah (" sacrifice ") should be taught 
through Abraham and a man like Isaac.^ For Abraham was 
the first to teach the Unity of God, to establish the faith* 
[in E[im], to cause it to remain among coming generations, 
and to win his fellow-men to his doctrine; as Scripture 
says of him: "I know him, that he will command," &c. 
(Gen. viii. 19). In the same manner as he was followed by 
others in his true and valuable opinions when they were heard 
from him, so also the principles should be accepted that may 
be learnt from his actions ; especially from the act by which 
he confirmed the principle of the truth of prophecy, and 
showed how far we must go in the fear and the love of God. 
This is the way how we have to understand the accounts 
of trials ; we must not think that God desires to examine us 
and to try us in order to know what He did not know 
before. Far is this from Him ; He is far above that which 
ignorant and foolish people imagine concerning Him, in the 
evil of their thoughts. Note this. 



CHAPTER XXV. 



[Man's] '^ actions are divided as regards their object into four 
classes ; they are either purposeless, unimportant, or vain, or 
good.^ An action is vain if the object which is sought by it 

^ According to Ibn Tibbon, and Isaac. 

' The original : Prophecy ; Ibn Tibbon : Faith. The latter is preferable, as 
the belief in prophecy is introduced later on as a new lesson to be derived 
from the acts of Abraham. 

' This chapter is an introduction to the next and last section of this treatise, 
viz., on the reasons of the Divine precepts. The author explains in this 
chapter that all works of God are good, i.e., they are both the result of His 
Willy and of His Wisdom ; they serve a certain purpose of great import- 
ance, and are the best means of obtaining it. By analogy the inference is 
drawn that the Divine precepts likewise serve a certain purpose, and are the 
best means of obtaining it. As far as possible Maimonides attempts to 
demonstrate it in describing the reasons of the precepts. 

^ I.e. (1.) Actions with no purpose ; (2.) with a trivial purpose ; (3.) with 
a good purpose, which is not attained ; (4. ) with a good purpose which is 



PART m.— CHAPTER XXV. 119 

is not obtained on account of some obstacles. Thus people 
frequently use the phrase "thou hast worked in vain" in 
reference to a person who looks out for some one and cannot 
find him ; or who undertakes the troubles of a journey for his 
business without profiting. Our endeavours and exertions are 
vain as regards a patient that is not cured. This applies to 
all actions which are intended for certain purposes that are 
not realised. Purposeless are such actions, which serve no 
purpose at all. Some persons, e.g., do something with their 
hands whilst thinking of something else. The actions of the 
insane and confused are of this kind. Unimportant are 
such actions by which a trivial object is sought, an object 
that is not necessary and is not of great use. This is the 
case when a person dances without seeking to benefit his 
digestion by that exercise, or performs certain actions for 
the purpose of causing laughter. Such actions are certainly 
mere pastimes.^ Whether an action belongs to this class or 
not depends on the intention of those who perform it, 
and on the degree of their perfection. For many things are 
necessary or very useful in the opinion of one person and 
superfluous in the opinion of another. E,g,, bodily exer- 
cise, in its different kinds, is necessary for the proper pre- 
servation of health in the opinion of him who understands 
the science of medicine ; writing is considered as very useful 
by scholars. When people take exercise by playing with 
the ball, wrestling, stretching out the hands or keeping back 
the breathing, or do certain things as preparation for writing, 
shape the pen and get the paper ready, such actions are 

attained. This systematic arrangement ascending from the lowest kind to 
the highest, is not retained by the author in the explanation given of them. 
Probably the relative frequency of the four classes determined the order of 
their discussion. It would thus appear that in the opinion of Maimonides 
most of our actions are failures, and very few of them aim at a good object 
and obtain it. Between the two extremes are actions with no purpose at all 
and with a trivial purpose. 

^ Under this head all manner of pastimes, even ordinary conversation, are 
denounced as useless, except if health and recreation are sought by them. 
Comp. Comm. on Mishnah Aboth i 17 ; Mithneh4arah, BUchotk Deoth, il 4, 
andiiL2. 



120 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

mere pastimes in the eyes of the ignorant, but the wise 
do not consider them as unimportant. Useful are such 
actions as serve a proper purpose ; being either necessary or 
useful for the purpose which is to be attained. This division 
[of man's actions] is, as I believe, not open to any objection. 
For every action is either intended for a certain purpose or 
is not intended; and if intended for a certain purpose, that pur- 
pose may be important or unimportant, is sometimes attained 
and sometimes missed. This division is therefore complete. 
After having explained this division, I contend that no 
intelligent person can assume that any of the actions of God 
can be vain, purposeless, or unimportant. According to our 
view and the view of all that follow the Law of Moses, all 
actions of God are " exceedingly good." Thus Scripture says, 
"And God saw everything that He had made, and behold, 
it was very good " (Gen. i. 31). And that which God made 
for a certain thing is necessary for the existence of that 
thing or is [at least] very useful. Thus food is necessary for 
the existence of living beings ; the possession of eyes helps to 
make life more agreeable, although food only serves to sustain 
living beings a certain time, and the senses are only intended 
to procure to animals the advantages of sensation. The philo- 
sophers likewise assume that in Nature there is nothing in 
vain, so that everything that is not the product of human 
industry serves a certain purpose, which may be known or 
unknown to us.^ There are thinkers* that assume that God 
does not create one thing for the sake of another, that ex- 
isting things are not to each other in the relation of cause 
and eflfect; that they are all the direct result of the Will of 
God, and do not serve any purpose. According to this 
opinion we cannot ask why has He made this and not that ; 
for He does what pleases Him, without following a fixed 
system. Those who defend this theory must consider the 
actions of God as purposeless, and even as inferior to pur- 
poseless actions ; for when we perform purposeless actions, 

^ Comp. chap. xiii. p. 46. 

8 Comp. chap, xvii., Third Theory, p. 68. 



PART III.— CHAPTER XXV. 121 

our attention is engaged by other things^ and we do not 
know what we are doing; but God, according to these theo- 
rists, knows what He is doing, and knowingly does it for no 
purpose or use whatever. The absurdity of assuming that 
some of God's actions are trivial, is apparent even at first 
sight, and no notice need be taken of the nonsensical idea 
that monkeys were created for our pastime. Such opinions 
originate only in man's ignorance of the nature of transient 
beings, and in his overlooking the principle that it was in- 
tended by the Creator to produce in its present form every- 
thing whose existence is possible; a different form was 
not decreed by the Divine Wisdom, and the existence [of 
objects of a different form] is therefore impossible, because 
the existence of all things depends on the decree of 
God's wisdom. Those who hold that God's works serve 
no purpose whatever, believe that an examination of 
the totality of existing things compels them to adopt this 
theory. They ask what is the purpose of the whole Uni- 
verse? they necessarily answer, like all those who believe 
in the Creation, that it was created because God willed it so, 
and for no other purpose. The same answer they apply to 
all parts of the Universe, and do not admit that the hole in 
the uvea and the transparency of the cornea are intended for 
the purpose of allowing the spiritus visus^ to pass and to 
perceive certain objects; they do not assume that these 
circumstances are causes for the sight ; the hole in the uvea 
and the transparent matter over it are not there because of 
the sight, but because of the Will of God, although the sense 
of sight coidd have been created in a different form. There 
are passages in the Bible which at first sight we might 
understand to imply this theory. Kg., " The Lord hath done 
whatever He pleased " (Ps. cxxxv. 6) ; *' His soul desired it 
and He made it" (Job xxiii. 13) ; • "who will say unto thee, 
what doest thou ? " (Eccl. viii. 4). The meaning of these and 

* Lit., "we are confused." 

' See Part I., chap, xxzii., p. 112. 

' A. v., " And what his soul desireth, even that he doeth." 



122 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

similar verses is this : whatever God desires to do is neces- 
sarily done ; there is nothing that could prevent the realisa- 
tion of His will. The object of His will is only that which 
is possible, and of the things possible only such as His wis- 
dom decrees upon. When God desires to produce the best 
work, no obstacle or hindrance intervenes between Him and 
that work. This is the opinion held by all religious people, 
also by the philosophers ; it is also our opinion. For although 
we believe that God created the Universe from nothing, most 
of oiir wise and learned men believe that the Creation was not 
the exclusive result of His will ; but His wisdom, which we 
are unable to comprehend, made the actual existence of the 
Universe necessary. T}ie same unchangeable wisdom found 
it as necessary that non-existence should precede the exist- 
ence of the Universe. Our Sages frequently express this 
idea in the explanation of the words, " He hath made every- 
thing beautiful in his time"^ (EccL iii. 11), only in order to 
avoid that which is objectionable, viz., the opinion that God 
does things without any purpose whatever. This is the 
belief of most of our Theologians ; and in a similar manner 
have the Prophets expressed the idea that all parts of natural 
products are well arranged, in good order, connected with 
each other, and stand to each other in the relation of cause 
and effect ; nothing of them is purposeless, trivial, or vain ; 
they are all the result of great wisdom. Comp. " Lord, 
how manifold are Thy works ! in wisdom hast Thou made 
them all: the earth is full of Thy riches" (Ps. civ. 24); 
"And all His works are done in truth" (ibid, xxxiii 4); 
" The Lord by wisdom hath founded the earth " (Prov. iii 19). 
This idea occurs frequently ; there is no necessity to believe 
otherwise ; philosophic speculation leads to the same result ; 
viz., that in the whole of Nature there is nothing purpose- 
less, trivial, or unnecessary, especially in the nature of the 
spheres, which are in the best condition and order, in accord- 
ance with their superior substance. 

^ See Midrash Rabba on Eoheleth iiL 11. Nnmeroua instances are giren 
there to illustrate the idea that God has made eyerything in its proper time, 
suitable to its purpose. 



\ 



PART m. — CHAPTER XXV. 123 

Know that the difficulties which lead to confusion in the 
question what is the purpose of the Universe or of any of 
its parts, arise from two causes : first, man has an erroneous 
idea of himself, and believes that the whole world exists only 
for his sake ; secondly, he is ignorant both about the nature of 
the sublunary world, and about the Creator's intention i to give 
existence to all beings whose existence is possible, because ex- 
istence is undoubtedly good.^ The consequences of that error 
and of the ignorance about the two things named, are doubts 
and confusion, which lead many to imagine that some of God's 
works are trivial, others purposeless, and others vain. Those 
who adopt this absurd idea that God's actions are utterly 
purposeless, and refuse to consider them as the result of His 
wisdom, are afraid they might otherwise be compelled to 
admit the theory of the Eternity of the Universe, and guard 
themselves against it by the above theory.^ I have already 
told you the view which is set forth in Scripture on this 
question, and which it is proper to accept. It is this : it is 
not unreasonable to assume that the works of God, their 
existence and preceding non-existence, are the result of His 
wisdom,* but we are unable to understand many of the ways 
of TT;ifl wisdom in His works. On this principle the whole 
Law of Moses is based ; it begins with this principle : " And 
God saw all that He had made, and, behold, it was very 
good" (Gen. i. 31); and it ends with this principle: "The 
Eock, perfect is His work" (Deut. xxxii. 4). Note it.^ 

^ lit "of this low substance, and ignorance of these two things." 

' Comp. #upra, chap, xiii., p. 61. 

• They aigue thus : — If the Uniyersa were the necessary result of Divine 
Wisdom, it would be eternal like that Wisdom itself ; but in fact the Uniyerse 
13 not eternal, and is the result of God's WUL No other reason need therefore 
be given why the Universe was created at one time and not at another, but 
that He willed it so. 

^ /.e., of certain fixed laws or forces of Nature, which emanate from His 
wisdom. 

B It is an important element in the theory of Maimonides that he agrees 
with the philosophers as regards the working of the laws of Nature since the 
Creation ; that these are perfect, and therefore not subject to change, at least 
not to a permanent change, even if some of the laws may temporarily be sus- 
pended, and yield to a miracle. 



124 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

When you examine this view and that of the philosophers, 
taking into consideration all preceding chapters which are 
connected with this subject, you will find that there is no 
other difference of opinion as regards any portions of the 
Universe, except that the philosophers believe in the 
Eternity of the Universe and we believe in the Creation. 
Note this. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 



As Theologians are divided on the question whether the 
actions of God are the result of His wisdom, or only of His 
will without being intended for any purpose whatever, so 
they are also divided as regards the object of the command- 
ments which God gave us. Some of them hold that the 
commandments have no object at all ; and are only dictated 
by the will of God. Others are of opinion that all command- 
ments and prohibitions are dictated by His wisdom and serve 
a certain aim ; consequently there is a reason for each one of 
the precepts; they are enjoined because they are useful. 
All of us,^ the common people as well as the scholars, believe 
that there is a reason for every precept, although there are 
commandments the reason of which is unknown to us, and 
in which the ways of God's wisdom are incomprehensible. 
This view is distinctly expressed in Scripture ; comp. " right- 
eous statutes and judgments " (Deut. iv. 8) ; " the judgments 
of the Lord are true, and righteous altogether'' (Ps. xix. lo). 
There are commandments which are called chukkim, " ordi- 

^ The Israelites, according to Maimonides, believe without exoeption that 
there is a reason for each of the Divine precepts ; the other theory, that the 
Divine precepts are merely an expression of the Divine Will, has its followers 
among the Mahometans. Comp. chap, xvii., Third Theory (p. 68 sq.), which 
is described as the theory of the AshariyalL But the opinion appears to have 
had its defenders also among the Jews. See Babyl. Talm. Berachoth, 33 b. 
" He who says in his prayer, * Thy mercy reaches the bird's nest,' must be 
silenced. Why ? Because he declares the Divine laws to be the result of His 
mercy, whilst in fact they are the decrees of His will." Comp. Rashi ad 
locum. 



PART HL — CHAPTER XXVI. 125 

nances," like the prohibition of wearing garments of wool 
and linen {shouUnez), boiling meat and milk together, and the 
sending of the goat [into the wilderness on the Day of Atone- 
ment]. Our Sages use in reference to them phrases like the 
following: i " These are things which I have fully ordained for 
thee; and you dare not criticise them ;" "Tour evil inclination 
is turned against them;" and "non-Jews find them strange." 
But our Sages generally do not think that such precepts have 
no cause whatever, and serve no purpose ; for this would lead 
us to assume that God's actions are purposeless. On the con- 
trary, they hold that even these precepts have a cause, and 
are certainly intended for some use, although it is not known 
to us; owing either to the deficiency of our knowledge or 
the weakness of our intellect Consequently there is a cause 
for every commandment ; every positive or negative precept 
serves a useful object; in some cases the usefulness is evident, 
e.g,, the prohibition of murder and theft ; in others the use- 
fulness is not so evident, e,g.^ the prohibition of enjoying the 
fruit of a tree in the first three years (Lev. xix, 23), or of a 
vineyard in which other seeds have been growing (Deut. xxii. 
9). Those commandments, whose object^ is generally evi- 
dent, are called "judgments" (miskpatim) ; those whose 
object is not generally clear are called "ordinances" (chukkim). 
Thus they say [in reference to the words of Moses] : J^i lo 
dabhar rek hu mi-kem (lit " for it is not a vain thing for you," 
Deut. xxxii 47) ; " It is not vain, and if it is vain, it is only 
so through you." That is to say, the giving of these com- 
mandments is not a vain thing and without any useful object ; 
and if it appears so to you in any commandment, it is owing 
to the deficiency in your comprehension. You certainly 

^ Comp. Toma, 67 b. ; Comm. Rashi on Pent. Gren. zxyi. 5; Midrash 
Rabboth, Num. xix. In the last-named passage four instances are given 
of ckukkim, viz., the law concerning the deceased brother*8 wife, the prohibi- 
tion of sowing diyers seeds together, the commandment to send a goat into the 
wilderness on the Day of Atonement, and the law concerning the red heifer. 
According to Ibn Ezra (on Gen. xzvi. 5, and Ley. xix. 19) the term chukkoth 
designates the divine laws revealed in Nature. 

' Comp. Siphri on Deut. xxxii. 47. 



126 GUIDE OF THB PERPLEXED. 

know the famous saying that^ Solomon knew the reason for 
all commandments except that of the "red heifer." Our 
Sages also said ^ that God concealed the causes of command- 
ments, lest people should despise them, as Solomon did in 
respect to three commandments, the reason for which is 
clearly stated. In this sense they always speak ; and Scrip* 
tural texts support the idea. 1 have, however, found one 
utterance made by them in Bereshith-rabba (sect, xliv.), 
which might at first sight appear to imply that some com- 
mandments have no other reason but the fact that they are 
commanded, that no other object is intended by them, and that 
they do not serve any useful object. I mean the following pas- 
sage : What difference does it make to God whether a beast 
is killed by cutting the neck in front or in the back ? • Surely 
the commandments are only intended as a means of trying 
man; in accordance with the verse, "The word of God is 
tried"* (Ps. xviii. 31). Although this passage is very strange, 
and has no parallel in the writings of our Sages, 1 explain it, 
as you shall soon hear, in such a manner, that 1 remain in 
accord with the meaning of their words and do not depart 
from the principle which we agreed upon, that the command- 
ments serve a useful object ; " for it is not a vain thing for 
you ; " " I have not said to the seed of Jacob, seek Me in 
vain. I the Lord speak righteousness, declare that which 
is right" (Is. xlv. 19). I will now tell you what intel- 
ligent persons ought to believe in this respect ; namely, that 
each commandment has necessarily a cause, as far as its 
general character is concerned, and serves a certain object ; 

^ Midrash Rabboth on Num. xix. 

^ Babyl. Talm. Sanhedriu, 21 b. Instead of three, the Talmud and the 
printed editions of Ibn Tibbpn*s Version have " two." The three command- 
ments are those contained in Deut. xviL 16-17 ; that the king should not have 
too many horses, wives, or riches. The difference may be that the Talmud 
mentions "two vertes," and these contain the three commandments referred to. 

" Babyl. Tahn. Chullin, 19 b. 

* The passive tterufah ("tried") is here perhaps interpreted in an active 
sense : " trying ; *' a means of testing. The commandments are merely a test 
for man's obedience, or a means of showing his obedience to God. Hunk : 



PART III. — CHAPTEB XXVI. 127 

but as regards its details we hold that it has no ulterior 
object. Thus killing animals for the purpose of obtaining 
good food is certainly useful, as we intend to show (below, 
eh. xlviiL) ; that, however, the killing should not be performed 
by neehirah (poleaxing the animal), but by shechUah (cutting 
the neck), and by dividing the oesophagus and the wind- 
pipe in a certain place ; these regulations and the like are 
nothing but tests for man's obedience. In this sense you 
will understand the example quoted by our Sages [that there 
is no difference] between killing the animal by cutting it9 
neck in front and cutting it in the back. I give this instance 
only because it has been mentioned by our Sages ; but in 
reality [there is some reason for these regulations]. For asithas 
become necessary to eat the flesh of animals, it was intended 
by the above regulations to ensure an easy death and to effect 
it by suitable means ; whilst decapitation requires a sword or 
a similar instrument, the shechitah can be performed with any 
instrument ; and in order to ensure an easy death our Sages 
insisted that the knife should be well sharpened. 

A more suitable instance can be cited from the detailed com- 
mandments concerningsacrifices. Thelaw that sacrifices should 
be brought is evidently of great use, as will be shown by us 
(infra, chap, xlvi.) ; but we cannot say why one offering should 
be a lamb, whilst another is a ram ; and why a fixed number 
of them should be brought Those who trouble themselves to 
find a cause for any of these detailed rules, are in my eyes 
void of sense ; ^ they do not remove any difficulties, but rather 
increase them. Those who believe that the^ detailed rules 
orisinate in a certain cause, are as far from the truth as those 
who assume that the whole law is useless. You must know 
that Divine Wisdom demanded it — or, if you prefer, say that 
circumstances made it necessary — that there should be parts 

" purifiante." Bat there can be no higher object in the precepts than the puri- 
fication of man. Why then should Maimonides find in this passage an indica- 
tion that the commandments are purposeless t Burtorf correctly : ut probetur. 
^ And yet Maimonides does exactly the same, and suggests reasons for 
detailed rules in each class of precepts, wherever he was able to do so 1 



128 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

[of the Universe] which have no certain object; and as 
regards the Law, it appears to be impossible that it should 
not include some matter of this kind. That it cannot be 
avoided may be seen from the following instance. You ask 
why must a lamb be sacrificed and not a ram ? but the. same 
question would be asked, why a ram had been commanded 
instead of a lamb, so long as one particular kind is required. 
The same is to be said as to the question why were seven 
lambs sacrificed and not eight ; the same question might have 
been asked if there were eight, ten, or twenty lambs, so long 
as some definite number of lambs were sacrificed. It is 
almost similar to the nature of a thing which can receive 
different forms, but actually receives one of them. We must 
not ask why it has this form and not another which is like- 
wise possible, because we should have to ask the same question 
if instead of its actual form the thing had any of the other 
possible forms. Note this, and understand it. The repeated 
assertion of our Sages that there are reasons for all command- 
ments, and the tradition that Solomon knew them, refer to 
the general purpose of the commandments, and not to the 
object of every detail. This being the case, I find it con- 
venient to divide the six hundred and thirteen precepts into 
classes ; each class will include many precepts of the same 
kind, or related to each other by their character. I will 
[first] explain the reason of each class, and show its undoubted 
and undisputed object, and then I shall discuss each com- 
mandment in the class, and expound its reason. Only very 
few will be left unexplained, the reason for which I have been 
unable to trace unto this day. I have also been able to 
comprehend in some cases even the object of many of the 
conditions and details as far as these can be discovered. You 
will hear all this later on. But in order to fully explain these 
reasons I must premise several chapters; in these I will 
discuss principles which form the basis of my theory. I will 
now begin these chapters. 



PART in. — CHAPTER XXVII. 129 



CHAPTER XXVII. 

The general object of the Law is twofold : the well-being of 
the soul, and the well-being of the body. The well-being of 
the soul is promoted by correct opinions communicated to 
the people according to their capacity. Some of these 
opinions are therefore imparted in a plain form, others alle- 
gorically ; because certain opinions are in their plain form too 
strong for the capacity of the common people. The well- 
being of the body is estabUshed by a proper management of 
the relations in which we live one to another. This we can 
attain in two ways : first by removing all violence from our 
midst ; that is to say, that we do not do every one as he 
pleases, desires, and is able to do ; but every one of us does that 
which contributes towards the common welfare. Secondly, by 
teaching every one of us such good morals as must produce 
a good social state.^ Of these two objects, the one, the well^ 
being of the soul, or the communication of correct opinions, 
comes undoubtedly first in rank, but the other, the well-being \ 
of the body, the government of the state, and the establish- j 
ment of the best possible relations among men, is anterior in \ 
nature and time. The latter object is required first; it is ^ 
also treated [in the Law] most carefully and most minutely^ 
because the well-being of the soul can only be obtained after 
that of the body has been secured. For it has already been 
found that man has a double perfection : the first perfection 
is that of the body, and the second perfection is that of the 
souL The first consists in the most healthy condition of his 
material relations, and this is only possible when man has all 
his wants supplied, as they arise ; if he has his food, and other 
things needful for his body, e.g.^ shelter, bath, and the like. 
But one man alone cannot procure all this ; it is impossible 

^ Lit ** By teaching eveiy individaal among men virtues nseful in society, 
le-tkevrah (some editions of Ibn Tibbon's yersion have he-heckrack "neces- 
sarily "), 80 that the social state is well regulated." 

VOL. ni. I 



130 6X7IDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

for a single man to obtain this comfort ; it is only possible in 
society, since man, as is well known, is by nature social.^ 

The second perfection of man consists in his becoming an 
actually intelligent being ; i.e., he knows about the things in 
existence all that a person perfectly developed is capable of 
knowing. This second perfection certainly does not include 
any action or good conduct, but only knowledge, which is 
arrived at by speculation, or established by research. 

It is clear that the second and superior kind of perfection 
can only be attained when the first perfection has been 
acquired ; for a person that is suffering from great hunger, 
thirst, heat, or cold, cannot grasp an idea even if communi- 
cated by others, much less can he arrive at it by his own 
reasoning. But when a person is in possession of the first 
perfection, then he may possibly acquire the second perfection, 
which is undoubtedly of a superior kind, and is alone the 
source of eternal life. The true Law, which as we said is 
one, and beside which there is no other Law, viz., the Law of 
our teacher Moses, has for its purpose to give us the two- 
fold perfection. It aims first at the establishment of good 
mutual relations among men by removing injustice and 
creating the noblest feelings. In this way the people in 
every land are enabled to stay and continue in one condition, 
and every one can acquire his first perfection. Secondly, it 
seeks to train us in faith, and to impart correct and true 
opinions when the intellect is sufficiently developed. Scrip- 
ture clearly mentions the twofold jmrfection, and tells us 
that its acquisition is the object of all the divine command- 
ments. Comp. ** And the Lord commanded us to do all these 
statutes, to fear the Lord our God, for our good always, 
that He might preserve us alive this day " (Deut. vi. 24). 
Here the second perfection is first mentioned because it is of 
greater importance, being, as we have shown, the ultimate 
aim of man's existence. This perfection is expressed in the 
phrase, " for our good always." You know the interpretation 

^ See Part II., beginning of chap. xL 



PART IIL— CHAPTER XXVm. 131 

of our Sages,^ " * that it may be well with thee ' (ibid. xxii. 7), 
namely, in the world that is all good, ' and tbat thou mayest 
prolong thy days ' (ibid), i.e., in the world that is all eternal." 
In the same sense I explain the words, " for our good always," 
to mean " that we may come into the world that is all good 
and eternal, where we may live permanently;" and the words, 
" that he might preserve us alive this day," I explain as refer- 
ring to our first and temporal existence, to that of our body 
which cannot be in a perfect and good condition except by 
the co-operation of society, as has been shown by us. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 



It is ^ necessary to bear in mind that Scripture only (reaches 
the chief points of those true principles which lead to the 
true perfection of man, and only demands in general terms 
faith in them. Thus Scripture teaches the Existence, the Unity, 
the Omniscience, the Omnipotence, the Will, and the Eternity 
of God. All this is given in the form of final results, but they 
cannot be understood fully and accurately except after the 
acquisition of many kinds of knowledge.^ Scripture further 
demands belief in certain truths, the belief in which is indis- 
pensable in regulating our social relations ; such is the belief 
that God is angry with those who disobey Him, for it leads 
us to the fear and dread of disobedience [to the will of God]. 
There are other truths in reference to the whole of the Uni- 
verse which form the substance of the various and many 
kinds of speculative sciences, and afford the means of verify^ 

1 Midnah Talkut on Dent xx. 7 ; Eiddushin, 89 b ; Challin, 142 a. 

* The object of this chapter seems to be to point out that some doctrines 
are taught in Scripture which are merely a means of securing man's well- 
being, and are not taught for their own sake ; if taken in their literal sense 
they are useful, but need not be true, e,g., the doctrine of God being angry 
with the wicked. 

3 Comp^ Part I., chap^ xxxir. 



132 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

ing the above-mentioned principles as their final result. But 
Scripture does not so distinctly prescribe the belief in them as 
it does in the first case ; it is implied in the commandment, 
" to love the Lord " (Deut. xi. 13). It may be inferred from 
the words, " And thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all 
thy heart, and vrith all thy soul, and with all thy might" (ibid. 
vi. 5), what stress is laid on this commandment to love God. 
We have already shown in the Mishneh-torah that this love 
is only possible when we comprehend the real nature of 
things, and understand the divine wisdom displayed therein* 
We have likewise mentioned there what our Sages remark on 
this subject.^ 

The result of all these preliminary remarks is this : The 
reason of a commandment, whether positive or negative, is 
clear, and its usefulness evident, if it directly tends to remove 
injustice, or to teach good conduct that furthers the well-being of 
society, or to impart a truth which ought to be believed either 
on its own merit or as being indispensable for facilitating the 
removal of injustice or the teaching of good morals. There 
is no occasion to ask for the object of such commandments ; 
for no one can, e,g,, be in doubt as to the reason why we 
have been commanded to believe that God is one ; why we 
are forbidden to murder, steal, and to take vengeance, or to 
retaliate,* or why we are commanded to love one another. 
But there are precepts concerning which people are in doubt, 
and of divided opinions, some believing they are mere com- 
mands, and serve no purpose whatever, whilst others believe 
that they serve a certain purpose, which, however, is unknown 
to man. Such are those precepts which in their literal mean- 
ing do not seem to further any of the three above-named 
results: to impart some truth, to teach some moral, or to 
remove injustice. They do not seem to have any influence 
upon the well-being of the soul by imparting any truth, or 
upon the well-being of the body by suggesting such ways and 
rules as are useful in the government of a state, or in the 

^ Mishneh-torah, Teiode ha-Uyrahy ii. 2 uq. 
' See Nam. xxxv. 11 teq. 



PART ni. — CHAPTER XXVIII. 133 

management of a household. Such are the prohibitions of 
wearing garments containing wool and linen ; of sowing divers 
seeds, or of boiling meat and milk together ; the commandment 
of covering the blood [of slaughtered beasts and birds], the 
ceremony of breaking the neck of a calf [in case of a person 
being found slain, and the murderer being unknown] ; the 
law concerning the first-bom of an ass,^ and the like. I am 
prepared to tell you my explanation of all these command- 
ments, and to assign for them a true reason supported by 
proof, with the exception of some minor rules, and of a few 
commandments, as I have mentioned above. I will show 
that all these and similar laws must have some bearing 
upon one of the following three things, viz., the regulation 
of our opinions, or the improvement of our social relations, 
which implies two things, the removal of injustice, and 
the teaching of good morals. Consider what we said of 
the opinions [implied in the laws] ; in some cases the law 
contains a truth which is itself the only object of that law, 
as e.g., the truth of the Unity, Eternity, and Incorporeality 
of God ; in other cases, that truth is only the means of secur- 
ing the removal of injustice, or the acquisition of good morals ; 
such is the belief that God is angry with those who oppress 
their fellow-men, as it is said, " Mine anger will be kindled, 
and I will slay," &o. (Exod. xxii. 23) ; or the belief that God 
hears the crying of the oppressed and vexed, to deliver them 
out of the hands of the oppressor and tyrant, as it is written, 
'' And it shall come to pass, when he will cry unto me, that 
I will hear, for I am gracious " (Exod. xxii. 25). 

^ Deut xxii 11 ; Lev. xix. 19 ; Exod. xxiii. 19 ; Lev. xrii 18 ; Dent. 
xxi 1 9eq, ; Exod. xiii. 18. 



134 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 



CHAPTEE XXIX. 

It is^ well known that the Patriarch Abraham was brought 
up in the religion and the opinion of the Sabeans^ that there 
is no divine being* except the stars. I will tell you in this 

^ The first object of the Diyine precepts being the inculcation of correct ideas 
concerning the Divine Being, Maimonides shows in this chapter that in the time 
of Abraham men had perrerse notions about God, and worshipped the stars as 
deities. He mentions in his letter to the wise men of the congregation of Mar- 
seille that he read everything available that might give him information about 
idolatrous rites. But his chief authority is the '* Nabatean Agriculture," which 
Ibn Wahshiya, descendant of a Chaldean family that had embraced Islamism, 
translated, according to his own account, into Arabic. Comp. K Benan, 
Essay on the Age and Antiquity of the Book of Nabatean Agriculture. Lon- 
don : 1862. Ibn Ezra, in his Commentary on Ezod. iL 10, quotes the book, and 
says that it is an Arabic translation from the original, which was written in the 
Egyptian language. See Steinschneider, Polemische u. apologetische Literatur, 
p. 256, S.V. Nabayoth. According to Josephus (Ant i. 13, H), the 
Nabateans are descendants from Nebayoth, son of Ismael (Gen. zzv. 13). 
Modem writers hold that they are a Chaldean tribe (Quatrem^re, M^oire 
sur les Nabat^ans) ; but there is no conclusive proof for this theory. 

' Sabean religion is that of idolatry or star- worship. The word Sabean is 
probably derived from the Hebrew tsabha " host ; " at all events Maimonides 
appears to have understood the term in this sense. It has been suggested 
that it is derived from the Syriac, tsaba (= tabha in Hebrew), and denoted 
originally *' Baptists." Sabeans are mentioned in the Koran (ii 59, v. 73, 
xxii. 17), together with Jews and Christians, as believers in God and the last 
day. According to the Commentaries the term refers to the MandaXtes, a 
Christian Sect. Later writers use the term Sabeans in the sense of star- 
worshippers (Comp. Shahraatani, &&, Germ. transL L 273), and in this sense 
it is used by Maimonides. In the days of Abraham there were only Sabeans 
and Believers in God (ibid. p. 272). But the fact is not so sure and well 
known as Maimonides believes. Scripture contains no account of the parti- 
cular idolatry to which all mankind, with the exception of Abraham and 
his followers, adhered. The legend that Abraham broke the images of his 
father does not show that the latter was a star-worshipper. 

' According to Shahrastani (Germ. tr. ii 66, «eg.), most of the Sabeans 
believed that the stars were the bodies or dwellings of the spiritual beings, 
the deities ; and that even these were only the intermediate agents between 
man and God. Comp. Pococke, Spec hist. Arabum, p. 139. Maimonides 
alwap represents them as believing that the stars themselves are the Divine 
beings which they worshipped ; only the philosophers among them assumed 
a spiritual principle indwelling the heavezdy bodiea Comp. below, p. 136. 



PAKT HL — CHAPTER XXIX. 135 

chapter their works which are at present extant in Arabic 
translations, and also their ancient chronicles ; ^ and I will 
show you their opinion and their practice according to these 
books. You will then see clearly that they consider the stars 
as deities, and the sun as the chief deity. They believe that 
all the seven ^ stars are gods, but the two luminaries are 
greater than all the rest. They say distinctly that the sun 
governs the world, both that which is above and that which 
is below; these are exactly their expressions. In these 
books, and in their chronicles, the history of Abraham our 
father is given in the following manner. Abraham was 
brought up in Kutha;^ when he differed from the people 
and declared that there is a Maker besides the snn, they 
raised certain objections, and mentioned in their arguments 
the evident and manifest action of the sun in the Universe. 
*' You are right," said Abraham ; " [the sun acts in the same 
manner] as ' the axe in the hand of him that hews with it.' " 
Then some of his arguments against his opponents are 
mentioned. In shorty the king put him in prison ; but he 
continued many days, while in prison, to argue against them. 
At last the king was afraid that Abraham might corrupt the 
kingdom, and turn the people away from their religion ; he 
therefore expelled Abraham into Syria,* after having deprived 
him of all his property. 

^ The tfilea embodied in the book on " Nabatean Agricaltnre " are probably 
meant, which Maimonides, in the belief that they are taken from the chronicles 
and traditions of the Sabeans, treats as historical facts, and shows that they 
are similar to the Biblical account of Abraham and Jewish traditions about 
him. As to the yarioos legends concerning Abraham's immigration into 
Syria, comp. Beer, Leben Abrahams, chap. u. ; D'Herbelot, BibL Orientale, 
s. V. Abraham. 

* In the Version of Ibn Tibbon *' the other five ; " he renders the Arabic 
aafr {UL, "the remaining") by "other;" it is, however, frequently used as 
in this place, in the sense of ** all.'* 

' BabyL Talm, Baba bathra, 91 a, mentions Eutha (or Eutti) and Eardu as 
the places where Abraham was kept prisoner by Nimrod. These seem to be 
places between the Euphrates and Tigris. Eutha is perhaps the same place 
as is mentions^ II> Eings xvii 24. 

^ Ibn Tibbon : to the extreme East. 



136 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

This is their account which you find clearly stated in the 
hook called " The Nabatean Agriculture." Nothing is said 
there of the account given in our trustworthy books, nor do 
they mention what he learnt by way of prophecy ; for they 
refused to believe him, because he attacked their evil doc- 
trine. I do not doubt that when he attacked the doctrine of 
all his fellow-men, he was cursed, despised, and scorned by 
these people who adhered to their erroneous opiniona When 
he submitted to this treatment for the sake of God, as ought 
to be done for the sake of His glory ,^ God said to him, " And 
I will bless them that bless thee, and curse them that curse 
thee " (Gen. xii. 3). The result of the course which Abraham 
took, is the fact that most people, as we see at present, agree 
in praising him, and being proud of him ; so that even those 
who are not his descendants call themselves by his name.^ 
No one opposes him, and no one ignores his merits, except 
some ignoble remnants of the nations left in the remote 
corners of the earth, like the savage Turks in the extreme 
North,^ and the Indians in the extreme SoutK^ These are 
remnants of the Sabeans, who once filled the earth. Those 
who were able to think, and were philosophers in those days, 
could only raise themselves to the idea that God is the spirit 
of the spheres ; the spheres with their stars being the body, 
and God the spirit. Abu-becr al-Zaig mentions this in his 
Commentary on the book of Physics.*^ 

All the Sabeans thus believed in the eternity of the Universe, 
the heavens being in their opinion God. Adam was in their 

^ So Ibn Tibbon ; according to the Arabic (ed. Mank) : ** and he preferred 
truth to honour." The reading which Ibn Tibbon had seems preferable ; for 
after the statement that Abraham submitted to HI treatment, it is superfluous to 
say that he prefers truth to honour. Charizi omits this sentence altogether. 

' Those Mahommedans are probably meant that do not belong to the 
Arabian tribes. 

' This reminds of Ez. zzzviii. 6, "the house of Togarmah of the north 
quarters." 

* Shahrastani (Part II., p. 855) divides the Indians into five classes, one of 
which is formed by the worshippers of idols. 

" This philosopher is also known by the name of Ibn Badja. See Part L, 
chap. Iziv. p. 853. The Commentary referred to is not extant 



PART III.— CHAPTER XXIX. 137 

belief a human being bom from male and female,^ like the 
Test of mankind ; he was only distinguished from his f ellow- 
men, by being a prophet sent by the moon ; he accordingly 
called men to the worship of the moon, and he wrote several 
works on agriculture.' The Sabeans further relate that Noah 
was an agriculturist, and that he was not pleased with the 
worship of idols; they blame him for that, and say that he 
did not worship any image.^ In their writings we meet even 
with the statement that Noah was rebuked and imprisoned 
because he worshipped God, and with many other accounts 
about him. The Sabeans contend that Seth^ differed from his 
father Adam, as regards the worship of the moon. They manu- 
factured ridiculous stories, which prove that their authors 
were very deficient in knowledge, that they were by no means 
philosophers, but on the contrary were extremely ignorant 
persons. Adam, they say, left the torrid zone^ near India 
and entered the region of Babylon, bringing with him 
wonderful things, such as a golden tree, that was growing, 
and had leaves and branches ; a stone tree of the same kind, 
and a fresh leaf of a tree proof against fire. He related that 
there was a tree which could shelter ten thousand men, 
although it had only the height of a man ; two leaves he 
brought with him, each of which was sufficient to cover two 
men. Of these stories the Sabeans have a wonderful abun- 
dance. I am surprised that persons who think that the 
Universe is eternal,^ can yet believe in these things which 

1 I.e., the human race is likewise without a beginning. 
' Comp. Quatremdre, M^moire but les Nabateans, p. 228. Chwolson, 
Ueber die Ueberreste, &c., p. 166. Comp. Cozri, I. 61. 

* This is related in the Nabatean Agricoltore of Anuha, who is identical 
with Noah. Comp. Qnatrem^ &c., p. 259. 

* Seth corresponds to Ishitha son of Adami, in the Nabatean Agricul- 
tore. 

' Ibn Tibbon : Ttuiham ; which ia, according to Munk, a mistake for ha- 
iham ; Charizi : the land of glory (Palestine). In the original there are in 
the different MSS. two different readings, oLtham (Syria), and al-nkauM, lit, 
" the sun ; " the zone of the son, or the torrid zone. 

* That is to say, they reject the Creation of the Uniyerse, probably because 
they cannot reconcile it with common sense, and accept the theory of the 



138 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

nature cannot produce, as is known to every student of 
Natural Science. They only mention Adam, and relate the 
above stories about him, in order to support their theory 
of the Eternity of the Universe ; from this theory they then 
derive the doctrine that the stars and the spheres are deities. 
When [Abraham] the " Pillar of the "World " appeared, he 
became convinced that there is a spiritual Divine Being, 
which is not a body, nor a force residing in a body, but is 
the author of the spheres and the stars ; and he saw the 
absurdity of the tales in which he had been brought up. He 
therefore began to attack the belief of the Sabeans, to expose 
the falsehood of their opinions, and to proclaim publicly in 
opposition to them, " the name of the Lord, the God of the 
Universe " ^ (Gren. xxi. 33), which proclamation included at 
the same time the Existence of God, and the Creation of the 
Universe by God. 

In accordance with the Sabean theories' images were 
erected to the stars, golden images to the sun, images of silver 
to the moon, and they attributed the metals and the climates 
to the influence of the planets, saying that a certain planet is 
the god of a certain zone.^ They built temples, placed in 
them images, and assumed that the stars sent forth their 
influence upon these images, which are thereby enabled (to 
speak) ^ to understand, to comprehend, to inspire human 
beings, and to tell them what is useful to them. They apply 
the same to trees which fall to the lot of these stars. When, 
namely, a certain tree, which is peculiar to a certain star, is 
dedicated to the name of this star, and certain things are done 
to the tree and in connection with it, the spiritual force of that 

pliilosophers ; and yet they admit things least in hannony with common 
sense. 

^ A. V. Everlasting God. Comp. Part II., chap, zzz., p. 157. 

' Comp. Chwolson, L c, II., 890, 896. 

' They assumed seven planets, seven climates, and seven metals, so that 
each climate and each metal corresponded to one of the planets. CJomp. 
Beshith Chochmah (ascrihed to Ibn £na), chap. iv. 

^ This verb seems to be superfluous, as the author mentions afterwards, 
'' and to tell them," Aic It is omitted in the Version of Ibn Tibbon. 




PABT m.— CHAPTER XXIX. 

star which influences that tree, inspires men, and speaks to them 
when they are asleep. All this is written in their works, to 
which I will call your attention. It applies to the " prophets 
of Baal," and the " prophets of Asherah," mentioned in Scrip- 
ture,^ in whose hearts the Sabean theories had taken root, 
who forsook God, and called, " Baal, hear us " (1 Kings zviii. 
26) ; because these theories were then general, ignorance had 
spread, and the madness with which people adhered to this 
kind of imaginations had increased in the world. When 
such opinions were adopted among the Israelites, they had 
observers' of clouds, enchanters, witches, charmers, consulters 
with familiar spirits, wizards, and necromancers. 

We have shown in our large work, Mishneh-torah (hil- 
choth Abhodah'Zarahy L 3), that Abraham was the first that 
opposed these theories by arguments, and by soft and per- 
suasive speech. He induced these people, by showing kind- 
ness to them, to serve God.* Afterwards came the chief of the 
prophets, and completed the work by the commandment to 
slay those unbelievers, to blot out their name, and to uproot 
them from the land of the living. Comp. *' Ye shall destroy 
their altars," &c.* (Exod, xxxiv. 13). He forbade us to follow 
their ways ; he said, '* Ye shall not walk in the manners of the 
nation " (Lev. xx. 23). You know from the repeated declara- 
tions in the Law that the principal purpose of the whole Law 
was the removal and utter destruction of idolatry, and all that 
is connected therewith, even its name, and everything that 
might lead to any such practices, e,g., acting as a consulter 
with familiar spirits, or as a wizard, passing children through 
the fire, divining, observing the clouds, enchanting, charming, 
or inquiring of the dead. The law prohibits us to imitate the 
heathen in any of these deeds, and a fortiori to adopt them 
entirely. It is distinctly said in the Law that everything 

^ Lit, " with ns." Comp. 1 Kings zviii. 19. 

* Comp. Dent xriiL 10, 11. 

> Comp. Babyl. Talmud Sota, 10. 

* The passage is no} accurately quoted both in the original and in the 
Hebrew Versions. . 



140 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

which idolaters consider as service to their gods, and a means 
of approaching them, is rejected and despised by God ; comp. 
** for every abomination to the Lord, which He hateth, have 
they done unto their gods" (Deut xii 31). In the books 
which I shall name to you later on, it is stated that on 
certain occasions they offered to the sun, their greatest god, 
seven beetles, and seven mice, and seven bats. This alone 
suffices to show how disgusting their practice must be to 
human natura Thus all precepts cautioning against idolatry, 
or against that which is connected therewith, leads to it, or is 
related to it, are evidently useful. They all tend to save 
us from the evil doctrines that deprive us of everything use- 
ful for the acquisition of the twofold perfection of man, by 
leading to those absurd practices in which our fathers and 
ancestors have been brought up. Comp. " And Joshua said 
unto all the people. Thus saith the Lord God of Israel, Your 
fathers dwelt on the other side of the river in old time, even 
Terah, the father of Abraham, and the father of Nahor, and 
they served other gods *' (Josh. xxiv. 2). It is in reference to 
these [idolatrous ideas] that the true prophets exclaim, "They 
walked after [vain] things, which do not profit" ^ How great 
is the usefulness of every precept that delivers us from this 
great error, and leads us back to the true faith : that God, the 
Creator of all things, rules the Universe ; that He must be 
served, loved, and feared, and not those imaginary deities. 
According to this faith we approach the true God, and obtain 
His favour without having recourse to burdensome means ; for 
nothing else is required but to love and fear Him ; this is the 
aim in serving God, as will be shown. Comp. " And now, 
Israel, what doth the Lord thy God require of thee but to 
fear the Lord ? " &c. (Deut x. 12). I shall complete this 
subject later on; now let us return to the theme [of this 
chapter]. 

I say that my knowledge of the belief, practice, and worship 

^ These words are not meant as an accurate quotation. Therefore it is 
introduced by, "the true prophets exchum," in the plural, i.e., Samuel and 
Jeremiah. 



PABT ni. — CHAPTER XXIX. 141 

of the Sabeans has given me an insight into many of the 
divine precepts, and has led me to know their reason. Tou 
will confirm it when I shall give the reason of commandments 
which are seemingly purposeless. I will mention to you the 
works from which you may learn all that I know of the 
religion and the opinions of the Sabeans ; you will thereby 
obtain a true knowledge of my theory as regards the purpose 
of the divine precepts. 

The great book on this subject is the book ** On the Naba- 
tean Agriculture," translated by Ibn "Wahshiya. In a suc- 
ceeding chapter I shall explain why the Sabeans had their 
religious doctrines written in a work on agriculture. The 
book is full of the absurdities of idolatrous people, and 
with those things to which the minds of the multitude easily 
turn and adhere [perseveringly] ; it speaks of talismans, the 
means of directing the influence [of the stars], witchcraft, 
spirits, and demons that dwell in the wilderness. There 
occur also in this book great absurdities, which are ridiculous 
in the eyes of intelligent people. They were intended as a 
criticism and an attack on the evident miracles by which all 
people learnt that there exists a God who is judge over all 
people. Comp. '' That thou mayest know how that the earth 
is the Lord's " (Exod. ix. 29), " That I am the Lord in the 
midst of the earth " (ibid. viii. 18). 

The book describes things as having been mentioned by 
Adam in his book ; a tree which is found in India, and has 
the peculiarity that any branch taken from it and thrown to 
the ground creeps along and moves like serpents; it also 
mentions a tree which in its root resembles a human being, 
utters a loud sound, and speaks a word or words ; a plant is 
mentioned which has this peculiarity, that a leaf of it put on 
the neck of a person conceals that person from the sight of 
men, and enables him to enter or leave a place without being 
seen, and if any part of it is burnt in open air a noise and 
terrible sounds are heard whilst the smoke ascends. Numerous 
fables of this kind are introduced in the description of the 
wonders of plants and the properties of agriculture. This 



142 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

leads the author to argue against the [true] miracles, and to 
say that they were the result of artifice. 

Among other fables we read there that the plant althea,^ 
one of the Asheroth,^ which they made, as I told you, stood 
in Niniveh twelve thousand years. This tree had once a 
quarrel with the mandragora,' which wanted to take the place 
of the former. The person who had been inspired by this 
tree ceased to receive inspiration ; when after some time the 
prophetical power had returned to him, he was told by the 
althea that the latter had been engaged in a dispute with the 
mandragora. He was then commanded to write to the 
magicians that they should decide whether the althea or the 
mandragora was better and more effective in witchcraft. It 
is a long story, and you may learn from it, when you read it, 
the opinions and the wisdom of the men of that time. Such 
were in those days of darkness the wise men of Babel, to 
whom reference is made in Scripture,^ and such were the 
beliefs in which they were trained. And were it not that 
the theory of the Existence of God is at present generally 
accepted, our days would now have been darker than those 
days, though in other respects.^ I return now to my subject. 

In that book the following story is also related : One of 
the idolatrous prophets, named Tammuz,^ called upon the 
king to worship the seven planets and the twelve constella- 
tions of the Zodiac; whereupon the king killed him in a 
dreadful manner. The night of his death the images from 
all parts of the land came together in the temple of Babylon 

^ Ibn Tibbon, anudriy «.€., malva ; chaMik in Miahnah Kelim, L 8 is 
explained by some to be identical with malwi, 

^ I.e. , a plant or grove devoted to idolatrous service. 

' In tbe original and the Hebrew Versions, yahhruah, the targum for the 
Hebrew dudaim, * ' mandrakes " (Gen. xxx 14). Ibn Tibbon adds the explana- 
tion, **i.e,, mandragora.'* 

* Dan. ii 12, 14 et passim, 

' Comp. Letter of Maimonides to the Jewish Congregation of Marseilles, Ic 

* Comp. Ezek. viii. 14. It is generally assumed that the worship of Tammtu 
corresponded to the Adonis worship of the Greekai See Chwolson, M^noire, 
l.c, p. 129 sqq. 



L. 



PABT nL— CHAPTEB XXIX. 143 

which was devoted to the image of the Sun, the great golden 
image. This image, which was suspended between heaven 
and earth, came down into the midst of the temple, and 
surrounded by all other images commenced to mourn for 
Tammuz, and to relate what had befallen him. All other 
images cried and mourned the whole night ; at dawn they 
flew away and returned to their temples in every comer of 
the earth. Hence the regular custom arose for the women 
to weep, lament, mourn, and cry for Tammuz on the jQrst day 
of the month of Tammuz. 

Consider what opinions people had in these days. The 
legend of Tammuz is very old among the Sabeans. This 
book will disclose to you most of the perverse ideas and 
practices of the Sabeans, including their feasts. But you 
must be careful and must not be misled to think that we 
have real incidents in the life of Adam, or of any other 
person, or cmy real fact in the stories which they relate about 
Adam, Ihe serpent, the tree of knowledge of good and evil, 
and the allusion to the garment of Adam which he had 
not been accustomed to wear.^ A little consideration will 
lay open the falsehood of all these accounts ; it will show 
that they have been invented in imitation of the Pentateuch 
when it became known among the nations. The account of 
the Creation was heard, and it was taken entirely in its 
literal sense. They have done this in order that the ignorant 
may hear it, and be persuaded to assume the Eternity of the 
Universe, and to believe that the Scriptural account con-, 
tained facts which happened in the manner as has been 
assumed by the Sabeans. 

It is by no means Accessary to point this out to men like 
you.* You have acquired suflScient knowledge to keep your 
mind free from the absurdities of the Kasdim, Chaldeans,^ 

^ The portion in the Nabatean Agriculture that contains these stories is 
missing. See Chwolson, Ueber die Ueberreste, kc, p. 34. 

' Comp. Part I., Introd., p. 13. 

* It is strange that Maimonides mentions here the Kasdim and the 
Chaldeans as two different nations. He means perhaps to express thereby 



144 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

and Sabeans, who are bare of every true scienca But I wish 
to exhort you that you should caution others, for ordinary 
people are very much inclined to believe these fables. 

To the same class of books we count the book Istimachis,^ 
attributed to Aristotle, who can by no means have been its 
author; also the books on Talismans, such as the book of 
Tomtom; 2 the book al-Sarb;* the book On the degrees of 
the sphere and the constellations rising with each degree;^ 
a book on Talismans attributed to Aristotle, a book ascribed 
to Hermes,^ a book of the Sabean Ischak in defence of 
the Sabean religion, and his large work on Sabean customs, 
details of their religion, ceremonies, festivals, oflferings, prayers 
and other things relating to their faith. 

All these books which I have mentioned are works on 
idolatry translated into Arabic ; there is no doubt that they 
form a very small portion in comparison to that which has 
XLot been translated, and that which is no longer extant, but 
has been lost in the course of time. But those works which 

that the Kasdim, the Chaldeans and the Sabeans, are only different names 
successively given td the same people. In the time of the Bible they were 
called Easdim ; in the age of the Talmud they were the Chaldeans, and later 
they received the name of the Sabeans. This explains the order of these 
names in Ibn Tibbon's Version. The original edit has : Sabeans, Casdim 
and Chaldeans. 

^ According to Steinschneider (Pseudepigr. Liter, p. 87) the name is a cor- 
ruption of the Greek stoecheiomatikos, "astrologer." The work is contained 
in the Bodleian Lib. (Uri ms. ar. Na 516), and, according to the title, it has 
been written by Aristotle for Alexander when he started for Persia. 

' An Indian author, of whom several works on Magic are quoted which 
have been translated into Arabic. See Chwolson, Die Ssabier I., p. 712. 

' See Chwolson, l.e, Charizi, who read al-mrug*, translates : Book of lamps 
{sefer Jia-neroth), Adopting this reading, Chwolson is of opinion that the 
book corresponds to Kitab al-Sirag', a book on Magic written by Yahya al- 
Barmeki. 

* According to Chwolson, an astrological work ascribed to the Babylonian 
Tenkelusha or Teukros. Comp. Gutschmidt, l.e,, p. 82 seq. and 104 »eq. 

B Numerous astrological and magical books are ascribed to Hermes in the 
Arabian Literature. Hermes, corresponding to Enoch in the Apocryphal 
books, is also called Idris. Maimonides, in his letter to Samuel ibn Tibbon, 
warns him not to waste his time by reading the books of Hermes. (Miscellany 
of Hebrew Literature, L p. 227.) 



PABT m. — CHAPTER XXIX. 145 

are at present extant, include most of the opinions of the 
Sabeans and their practices, which are to some degree still 
in vogue in the world. 

They describe how temples are built and images of metal 
and stone placed in them, altars erected and sacrifices and 
various kinds of food are offered thereon, festivals celebrated, 
meetings held in the temples for prayer and other kinds of 
service; how they select certain very distinguished places 
and call them temples of Intellectual Images (or Forms) ; ^ 
how they make images " on the high mountains *' (Deut xii, 
2), rear asherotk, erect pillars, and do many other things which 
you can learn from the books mentioned by us. The know- 
ledge of these theories and practices is of great importance 
in explaining the reasons of the precepts.^ For it is the 
principal object of the Law and the axis round which it 
turns, to blot out these opinions from man's heart and make 
the existence of idolatry impossible. As regards the former 
Scripture says : " Lest your heart be persuaded," &c. (Deut 
XL 16), " whose heart tumeth away to-day," &c. (ibid. xxix. 17). 
The actual abolition of idolatry is expressed in the following 
passage : " Ye shall destroy their altars, and burn their 
groves in fire" (Deut. vii. 5), "and ye shall destroy their 
name," &c. (xii 3).* These two things are frequently re- 
peated; they form the principal and first object of the whole 
Law, as our Sages distinctly told us in their traditional 
explanation of the words '' all that God commanded you by 
the hand of Moses " (Num. xv. 23) ; for they say, " Hence we 
learn that those who follow idolatry deny as it were their 
adhesion to the whole Law, and those who reject idolatry 
follow as it were the whole Law." Note it. 

^ The Sabeans of Harran were to some extent also followers of the Neo- 
Platonic Philoflophy ; the several inteUectnal forms which formed objects of 
worship among these Sabeans are described in Sharastani, l.c. II. p. 76. 

' /.€. Many of the divine commandments respecting the worship of God 
would not be found in the Law, were it not for the existence of idolaters, 
whose false principles must be counteracted. 

' Babyl. Talm. Horayoth, 8 a, Kiddushin, 4 a. 

VOL. m. K 



146 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 



CHAPTER XXX. 

On ^ examining these old and foolish doctrines we find that 
it was most generally believed by the people that by the 
worship of stars the earth will become inhabited, and the 
ground fertilised. The wise, pious, and sin-fearing men 
among them reproved the people and taught them that agri- 
culture, on which the preservation of mankind depended, 
would become perfect and satisfy man's wishes, when he 
worshipped the sun and the stars. 

If man provoked these beings by his rebelliousness, the 
towns would become empty and waste. In the above-named 
books it is stated that Mars' was angry with [lands, that 
form now] deserts and wastes, and in consequence of that 
anger they were deprived of water and trees, and have become 
the habitation of demons. Tillers of the ground and husband- 
men are praised in those books, because they are engaged 
with the cultivation of the land in accordance with the will 
and desire of the stars. The idolaters also held cattle in 
esteem on account of their use in agriculture, and went even 
so far as to say, that it is not allowed to slay them, because 
they combine in themselves strength and willingness to do 
the work of man in tilling the ground. The oxen, notwith- 
standing their great strength, do this, and submit to man, 
because it is the will of God that they should be employed 
in agriculture. When these views became generally known, 
idolatry was connected with agriculture, because the latter 

is indispensable for the maintenance of man, and of most 

• 

^ The object of this chapter seems to be the justification of the material 
rewards and punishments mentioned in the Law, being intended to oppose 
the belief in the material rewards and punishments as the consequence of 
adherence or abandonment of idolatry. 

' According to the Arabic : Jupiter. Destruction and devastation was 
generally ascribed to Mars ; peace and happiness to Jupiter. Comp. Gabirol, 
Kdher-malckuth : **Moadim (Mars) causes wars, slaughter, destruction . . . 
drought, ka. Ttedek (Jupiter) brings pleasure, love . . . increase of fruit," kc 



PABT m. — CHAPTER XXX. 147 

animals. The idolatrous priests then preached to the people 
who met in the temples, and taught them that by cer- 
tain religious acts, rain would come down, the trees of 
the field would yield their fruit, and the land would be 
fertile and inhabited. See what is said in " Nabatean Agri- 
culture " in the chapter on vineyards. The following words 
of the Sabeans are quoted there: "All ancient wise men 
advised, and prophets likewise commanded and enjoined to 
play before the images on certain instruments during the 
festivals. They also said — and what they said is true — ^that 
the deities are pleased with it, and reward those who do it. 
They promise, indeed, very great reward for these things; 
e.g., length of life, protection from illness, exemption from 
great bodily deformities, plenty of the produce of the earth, 
and of the fruit of the trees." These are the words of the 
Sabeans. When these ideas spread, and were considered as 
true, Grod, in His great mercy for us, intended to remove this 
error from our minds, and to protect our bodies from trouble; 
and therefore desired us to discontinue the practice of these 
useless actions. He gave us His Law through Moses, our 
teacher, who told us in the name of God, that the worship of 
stars and other corporeal beings would effect that rain would 
cease, the land be waste, and would not produce anything, 
and the fruit of the trees would wither; calamities would 
befall the people, their bodies would be deformed, and life 
would be shortened. These are the contents of " the words 
of the covenant which Grod made " (Deut. xxviii 6-9). It 
is frequently expressed in all parts of Scripture, that the 
worship of the stars would be followed by absence of rain, 
devastation of the land, bad times, diseases, and shortness of 
life. But abandonment of that worship, and the return to 
the service of 6rod, would be the cause of the presence of rain, 
fertility of the ground, good times, health and length of life. 
Thus Scripture teaches, in order that man should abandon 
idolatry, thereverse of that which idolatrous priests preached to 
the people, for, as has been shown by us, the principal object of 
the Law is to remove this doctrine, and to destroy its traces* 



148 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 



CHAPTER XXXL 

There ^ are persons who find it difficult to give a reason for 
any of the commandments, and consider it right to assume 
that the commandments and prohibitions have no rational 
basis whatever. They are led to adopt this theory by a 
certain disease in their soul, the existence of which they 
perceive, but which they are unable to discuss or to describe. 
For they imagine that these precepts, if they were useful in 
any respect, and were commanded because of their usefulness, 
would seem to originate in the thought and reason of some 
intelligent being. But as things which are not objects of 
reason and serve no purpose, they would undoubtedly be 
attributed to God, because no thought of man could have 
produced them. According to the theory of those weak- 
minded persons, man is more perfect than his Creator. For 
what man says or does has a certain object, whilst the 
actions of God are different ; He commands us to do what is 
of no use to us, and forbids us to do what is harmless. Far 
be this ! On the contrary, the sole object of the Law is to 
benefit us. Thus we explained the Scriptural passage, " for 
our good always, that He might preserve us alive, as it is this 
day " (Deut. vi. 24). Again, " which shall hear all those 
statutes {chukhim)^ and say, surely this great nation is a wise 
and understanding people " (ibid. iv. 6). He thus says that 
even every one of these dmkktm, " statutes," convinces all 
nations of the wisdom and understanding it includes. But 
if no reason could be found for these statutes, if they produced 
no advantage and removed no evil, why then should he who 
believes in them and follows them be wise, reasonable, and 
so excellent as to raise the admiration of all nations ? But 
the truth is undoubtedly as we have said, that every one of 

^ In this chapter Maimonides points oat that the fact of man being able to 
discover the reason and objects of the commandments does not imply that 
the latter are altogether the product of human intellect 

* Comp. ftipra, chap. xxvi. 



PAKT in. — CHAPTER XXXII. 149 

the six hundred and thirteen precepts serves to inculcate 
some truth, to remove some erroneous opinion, to establish 
proper relations in society, to diminish evil, to train in good 
manners, or to warn against bad habits. All this depends 
on three things : opinions, morals, and social conduct. We 
do not count words, because precepts, whether positive or 
negative, if they relate to speech,^ belong to those precepts 
which regulate our social conduct, or to those which spread 
truth, or to those which teach morals. Thus these three 
principles suffice for assigning a reason for every one of the 
Divine commandments. 



CHAPTEE XXXII. 



On * considering the Divine acts, or the processes of Nature, 
we get an insight into the prudence and wisdom of God 
as displayed in the creation of animals, with the gradual 
development of the movements of their limbs and the relative 
positions of the latter, and we perceive also His wisdom and 
plan in the successive and gradual development of the "Ovhole 
condition of each individual The gradual development of 
the animals' movements and the relative position of the limbs 
may be illustrated by the brain. The front part is very 
soft, the back part is a little hard, the spinal marrow is still 
harder, and the farther it extends the harder it becomes. 
The nerves are the organs of sensation and motion. Some 
nerves are only required for sensation, or for slight move- 
ments, as, e.^., the movement of the eyelids or of the jaws ; 

* Comp. Num. vi 28-27 ; Deut. xxvL 6-10, 18-16, xxvil 14-26 ; Exod. 
zx. 17, kc 

' The commandments are adapted to human nature, and therefore they 
contain many elements which must be considered as concessions to human 
weakness. Man's physical development ia a gradual process; in the same 
manner he cannot suddenly abandon a certain practice and adopt the very 
opposite ; a gradual transition is necessary ; Maimonides thus justifies the 
precepts concerning the Tabernacle and the Sacrifices. 



150 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

these nerves originate in the brain* The nerves which aro 
required for the movements of the limbs come from the 
spinal marrow. But nerves, even those that come directly 
from the spinal cord, are too soft to set the joints in motion ; 
therefore God made the following arrangement : the nerves 
branch out into fibres which are covered with flesh, and 
become muscles ; the nerves that come forth at the extremities 
of the muscles ^ and have already commenced to harden, and 
to combine with hard pieces of ligaments, are the sinews 
which are joined and attached to the limbs. By this gradual 
development the nerves are enabled to set the limbs in 
motion. I quote this one instance because it is the most 
evident of the wonders described in the book On the use of 
the limbs ;^ but the use of the limbs is clearly perceived 
by all who examine them with a sharp eye. In a similar 
manner did God provide for each individual animal of the 
class of mammalia. When such an animal is bom it is 
extremely tender, and cannot be fed with dry food. There- 
fore breasts were provided which yield milk, and the young 
can be fed with moist food which corresponds to the condition 
of the limbs of the animal, until the latter have gradually 
become dry and hard. 

Many precepts in our Law are the result of a similar course 
adopted by the same Supreme Being. It is, namely, impos- 
sible to go suddenly from one extreme to the other; it is 
therefore according to the nature of man impossible for him 
suddenly to discontinue everything to which he has been 
accustomed. Now God sent Moses to make [the Israelites] 
a kingdom of priests and a holy nation (Ex. xix. 6) by means 
of the knowledge of God. Comp. " Unto thee it was showed 
that thou mightest know that the Lord is Qod" (Deutiv. 
35); **Know therefore this day, and consider it in thine 
heart, that the Lord is God" (ib. v. 39). The Israelites 
were commanded to devote themselves to His service; comp. 

^ According to Ibn Tibbon, the miuclea that come forth from the 
extremities of the nenrea 
' Comp. Galen : De osa partiom, &c. 



PART m. — CHAPTER XXXIL 151 

" and to serve Him with all your heart "( ibid. xi. 13) ; " and 
you shall serve the Lord your God " (Ex. xxiii 25) ; ** and ye 
shall serve Him " (Deut. xiii 5). But the custom which was 
in those days general among all men, and the general mode 
of worship in which the Israelites were brought up, consisted 
in sacrificing animals in those temples which contained cer- 
tain images, to bow down to those images, and to burn 
incense before them ; religious and ascetic persons were in 
those days the persons that were devoted to the service in the 
temples erected to the stars,^ as has been explained by us. 
It was in accordance with the wisdom and plan of God, as 
displayed in the whole Creation, that He did not command 
us to give up and to discontinue all these manners of service 
for to obey such a commandment it would have been con- 
trary to the nature of man, who generally cleaves to that to 
which he is used ; it would in those days have made the 
same impression as a prophet would make at present if he 
called us to the service of God and told us in His name, that 
we should not pray to Him, not fast, not seek His help in 
time of trouble; that we should serve Him in thought, and 
not by any action. For this reason * God allowed these kinds 
of service to continue; He transferred to His service that 
which had formerly served as a worship of created beings, and 
of things imaginary and unreal, and commanded us to serve 
Him in the same manner ; viz., to build unto Him a temple, 
comp. ''And they shall make unto Me a sanctuary" (Ex. 
XXV. 8); to have the altar erected to His name; comp. 
''An altar of stone thou shalt make unto Me " (ibid. xx. 21) ; 
to ofifer the sacrifices to Him; comp. "If any man of you 
bring an offering imto the Lord " (Lev. i. 2), to bow down to 
Him and to burn incense before Him. He has forbidden to 
do any of these things to any other being ; comp. " He who 

^ According to Ibn Tibbon : "To the sun, the moon, and the stars.*' 
' Nachmonides criticised this view very severely, and pointed to the sacrifice 
of Abel which pleased the Almighty, although there were no idolaters in those 
days. Maimonides* argument is, however, sup^rted by a passage in Midrash 
Vajrikra Babba, chap, xxli., where a similar reason is given for the command- 
ments concerning sacrifices. 



152 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

sacrificeth unto any God, save the Lord only, he shall be 
utterly destroyed " (Ex. xxii 19) ; " For thou shalt bow down 
to no other God " (ib. xxxiv. 14). He selected priests for the 
service in the temple ; comp. "And they shall minister unto 
Me in the priest's office " (ibid, xxviii. 41). He made it obli- 
gatory that certain gifts, called the gifts of the Levites and 
the priests, should be assigned to them for their maintenance 
while they are engaged in the service of the temple and its 
sacrifices. By this Divine plan it was effected that the traces 
of idolatry were blotted out, and the truly great principle of 
our faith,^ the existence and Unity of God, was firmly estab- 
lished; this result was thus obtained without deterring or 
confusing the minds of the people by the abolition of the 
service to which they were accustomed and which alone was 
familiar to them. I know that you will at first thought reject 
this idea and find it strange ; you will put the following ques- 
tion to me in your heart : How can we suppose that Divine 
commandments, prohibitions,^ and important acts, which are 
fully explained, and for which certain seasons are fixed, 
should not have been commanded for their own sake, but 
only for the sake of some other thing ; as if they were only 
the means which He employed for His primary object? What 
prevented Him from making His primary object a direct 
commandment to us, and to give us the capacity of obejdng 
it ? Those precepts which in your opinion are only the 
means and not the object would then have been unnecessary. 
Hear my * answer, which will cure your heart of this disease 
and will show you the truth of that which I have pointed out 
to you. There occurs in the Law a passage which contains 
exactly the same idea ; it is the following : " God led them 
not through the way of the land of the Philistines, although 
that was near ; for God said. Lest perad venture the people 

^ In the editions of Ibn Tibbon*8 version he-emunaikenu must be read 
instead of beummathenu, 

' In the editions of Ibn Tibbon's version, the word askaroih has been 
omitted. 

' In the Arabic "the answer,** t.e., the answer which I wiU give to that. 



PART m. — CHAPTEK XXXH. 153 

repent when they see war, and they return to Egypt ; but 
God led the people about, through the way of the wilderness 
of the Eed Sea," &c. (Ex. xiil 17, 17). Here God led the 
people about, away from the direct road which He origin- 
ally intended, because He feared they might meet on that 
way with hardships too great for their ordinary strength; 
He took them by another road in order to obtain thereby 
His original object. In the same manner God refrained 
from prescribing what the people by their natural dis- 
position would be incapable of obeying, and gave the 
above-mentioned commandments as a means of securing His 
chief object, viz., to spread a knowledge of Him [among the 
people], and to cause them to reject idolatry. It is con- 
trary to man's nature that he should suddenly abandon all 
the different kinds of Divine service and the different customs 
in which he has been brought up, and whicli have been so 
general, that they were considered as a matter of course ; it 
would be just as if a person trained to work as a slave with 
mortar and bricks, or similar things, should interrupt his 
work, clean his hands, and at once fight with real giants. It 
was the result of God's wisdom that the Israelites were led 
about in the wilderness till they acquired courage. For it is a 
well-known fact that travelling in the wilderness, and priva- 
tion of bodily enjoyments, such as bathing, produce courage, 
whilst the reverse is the source of faint-heartedness ; besides, 
another generation rose during the wanderings that had not 
been accustomed to degradation and slavery. All the travel- 
ling in the wilderness was regulated by Divine commands 
through Moses ; comp. " At the commandment of the Lord 
they rested in the tents, and at the commandment of the 
Lord they journeyed ; they kept the charge of the Lord and 
the commandment of the Lord by the hand of Moses " (ix. 
23). In the same way the portion of the Law under discus- 
sion is the result of divine wisdom, according to which people 
are allowed to continue the kind of worship to which they 
have been accustomed, in order that they might acquire the 
true faith, which is the chief object [of God's commandments]. 



154 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

You asky What could have prevented God from commanding 
us directly, that which is the chief object, and from giving us 
the capacity of obeying it ? This would lead to a second 
question, What prevented God from leading the Israelites 
through the way of the land of the Philistines, and endowing 
them with strength for fighting ? The leading about by a 
pillar of cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night would then 
not have been necessary. A third question would then be 
asked in reference to the good promised as reward for the 
keeping of the commandments, and the evil foretold as a 
punishment for sins. It is the following question : As it is 
the chief object and purpose of God that we should believe 
in the Law, and act according to that which is written 
therein, why has He not given us the capacity of continually 
believing in it, and following its guidance, instead of holding 
out to us^ reward for obedience, and punishment for dis- 
obedience, or of actuaUy giving aU the predicted reward and 
punishment ? For [the promises and the threats] are but the 
means of leading to this chief object. What prevented Him 
from giving us, as part of our nature, the will to do that 
which He desires us to do, and to abandon the kind of wor- 
ship which He rejects ? There is one general answer to these 
three questions, and to all questions of the same character ; 
it is this: Although in every one of the signs [related in 
Scripture] the natural property of some individual being is 
changed, the nature of man is never changed * by God by way 
of miracle. It is in accordance with this important principle 
that God said, '' that there were such an heart in them, 
that they would fear me," &c. (Deut v. 26). It is also for 
this reason that He distinctly stated the commandments and 
the prohibitions, the reward and the punishment This 
principle as regards miracles has been frequently explained 

^ Lit, "instead of employing as means (for this aim the declaration) of re- 
ward," &c 

^ Even in an individual human being is the law of Nature never suspended. 
The Israelites are considered in this respect as an individual being in relation 
to mankind. The Almighty, therefore, expresses in the instance quoted a 
desire that the Israelites should be always willing to fear Him, but does not 
force them to do so. 



PART m. — CHAPTER XXXII. 155 

by US in our works ; ^ I do not say this because I believe that 
it is difficult for God to change the nature of every individual 
person ; on the contrary, it is possible, and it is in His power, 
according to the principles taught in Scripture ; but it has 
never been His will to do it, and it never will be. If it were 
part of His will to change [at His desire] the nature of any 
person, the mission of prophets and the giving of the Law 
would have been altogether superfluous. 

I now return to my theme. As the sacrificial service is 
not the primary object [of the commandments about sacrifice], 
whilst supplications, prayers, and similar kinds of worship 
are nearer to the primary object, and indispensable for 
obtaining it, a great difiference was made in the Law between 
these two kinds of service. The one kind, which consists 
in offering sacrifices, although the sacrifices are offered to 
the name of God, has not been made obligatory for us to 
the same extent as it had been before. We were not com- 
manded to sacrifice in every place, and in every time, or to 
build a temple in every place, or to permit any one who 
desires to become priest and to sacrifice. On the contrary, 
all this is prohibited unto us. Only one temple has been 
appointed, "in the place which the Lord shall choose" 
(Deut. xii. 26) ; in no other place it is allowed to sacrifice ; 
comp. "Take heed to thyself, that thou offer not thy 
burnt-offerings in every place that thou seest " (ibid. v. 13) ; 
and only the members of a particular family were allowed 
to officiate as priests. All these restrictions served to limit 
this kind of worship, and keep it within those bounds within 
which God did not think it necessary to abolish sacrificial 
service altogether. But prayer and supplication can be 
offered everywhere and by every person.* The same is the 
case with the commandment of Tsitsith (Num. xv. 38) ; 
mesusaJi (Deut. vi. 9; xi. 20); teJUlin (Exod. xiii. 9, 16)- 
and similar kinds of divine service. 

1 Comp. Maimonides* "^Com. on the Mishnah, Intarod. to A.both '' (Eight 
Chapters), viii. 
' Lit., "And by eveiy one who has prepared himself." 



156 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

Because of this principle which I explained to you, the 
Prophets in their books are frequently found to rebuke their 
fellow-men for being over-zealous and exerting themselves 
too much in bringing sacrifices ; the prophets thus distinctly 
declared that the object of the sacrifices is not very essential, 
and that God does not require them. Samuel therefore 
said, " Hath the Lord as great delight in burnt-o£ferings and 
sacrifices as in obeying the voice of the Lord " (1 SanL xv. 
22) ? Isaiah exclaimed, *' To what purpose is the multitude 
of your sacrifices unto me ? saith the Lord " (Isa. i. 11) ; 
Jeremiah declared : " For I spake not unto your fathers, nor 
commanded them in the day that I brought them out of the 
land of "Egy^t, concerning burnt-offerings or sacrifices. But 
this thing commanded I them, sajdng, Obey my voice, and 
I will be your God, and ye shall be my people " ( Jer. vii 
22, 23). This passage has been found difficult in the opinion 
of all those whose words I read or heard; they ask. How 
can Jeremiah say that Grod did not command us about 
burnt-offering and sacrifice, seeing so many precepts refer 
to sacrifice ? The sense of the passage agrees with what I 
explained to you. Jeremiah says [in the name of God] 
the primary object of the precepts is this. Know me, and 
serve no other being ; " I will be your God, and ye shall be 
my people " (Lev. xxvi. 12). But the commandment that sac- 
rifices shall be brought and that the temple shall be visited 
has for its object the success of that principle among you ; 
and for its sake I have transferred these modes of worship 
to my name; idolatry shall thereby be utterly destroyed, 
and Jewish faith firmly established. You, however, have 
ignored this object, and taken hold of that which is only 
the means of obtaining it ; you have doubted my existence, 
" ye have denied the Lord, and said He is not " ^ (Jer. v, 
12) ; ye served idols ; " burnt incense unto Baal, and walked 
after other gods whom ye know not. And come and stand 
before me in this house" (ibid. vii. 9-10); i.e,, you do not 
go beyond attending the temple of the Lord, and offering 

1 A. v., " They have belied the Lord, and said, It is not He." 



PART UL — CHAPTER XXXII. 157 

sacrifices ; but this is not the chief object. — I have another 
way of explaining this passage with exactly the same 
result.^ It is namely distinctly stated in Scripture, and 
handed down by tradition, that the first commandments 
communicated to us did not include any law at all about 
burnt-offering and sacrifice. You must not see any diffi- 
culty in the Passover which was commanded in Egypt ; 
there was a particular and evident reason for that, as will 
be explained by me (chap, xlvi.) Besides it was revealed 
in the land of Egypt; whilst the laws to which Jeremiah 
alludes in the above passage are those which were revealed 
after the departure from Egypt. For this reason it is dis- 
tinctly added, ''in the day that I brought them out from 
the land of Egypt." The first commandment after the 
departure from Egypt was given at Marah, in the following 
words, " If thou wilt diligently hearken to the voice of the 
Lord thy God, and will do that which is right in His sight, 
and will give ear to His commandments" (Exod. xv. 26). 
" There He made for them a statute and an ordinance, and 
there He proved them " (ibid. ver. 25). According to the 
tone and traditional explanation, Sabbath and civil laws 
were revealed at Marah ;2 "statute" alludes to Sabbath, 
and " ordinance " to civil laws, which are the means of 
removing injustice. The chief object of the Law, as has 
been shown by us, is the teaching of truths ; to which the 
truth of the crecUio ex nihilo belongs. It is known that 
the object of the law of Sabbath is to confirm and to es- 
tablish this principle, as we have shown in this treatise 
(Part IL chap, xxxi.) In addition to the teaching of truths 
the Law aims at the removal of injustice from mankind. 
We have thus proved that the first laws do not refer to 
burnt-offering and sacrifice, which are of secondary import- 
ance. The same idea which is contained in the above 
passage from Jeremiah is also expressed in the Psalms, 
where the people are rebuked that they ignore the chief 

^ Lit, "which equally leads to the idea which we have now explained." 
' Comp. Babyl. Talmud, Shabbath 87 b, Sanhodrin 56 b. 



158 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

object, and make no distinction between chief and sub- 
sidiary lessons. The Psalmist says : " Hear, O my people, 
and I wiU speak ; Israel, and I will testify against 
thee: I am God, even thy God. I will not reprove thee 
for thy sacrifices or thy burnt-offerings, they have been 
continually before me. I will take no bullock out of thy 
house, nor he-goats out of thy folds " (Ps. L 29), — Wherever 
this subject is mentioned, this is its meaning. Consider it 
well, and reflect on it 



CHAPTEE XXXIII. 



It is also the object of the perfect Law to make man 
reject, despise, and reduce his desires as much as is in his 
power. He should only give way to them when absolutely 
necessary. It is well known that it is intemperance in 
eating, drinking, and sexual intercourse that people mostly ^ 
rave and indulge in ; and these very things counteract the 
ulterior perfection of man, impede at the same time the 
development of his first perfection,' and generally disturb 
the social order of the country and the economy of the 
family. For by following entirely the g uidance of^ lnst, in 
the manner of fools, man loses his intellectual energy, in- 
jures his body, and perishes before his natural time ; sighs 
and cares multiply; there is an increase of envy, hatred, 
and warfare, for the purpose of taking what another pos- 
sesses. The cause of all this is the circumstance that the 
ignorant considers physical enjoyment as an object to be 
sought for its own sake. Grod in EUs wisdom has therefore 
given us such commandments as would counteract that 
object, and prevent us altogether from directing our atten- 

^ In the editions of Ibn Tibbon's version ve'tJudvatham^ "and their 
happiness," occnrs instead of ve-thdllucham, " and their indulging in.'*| 

' 7.6, the inteUectoal and the physical perfection. Comp. supra, chap. 
zxtIL 



PART ra. — CHAPTER XXXIII. 159 

tion to it, and has debarred us from everything that leads 
only to excessive desire and to lust. This is an important 
fehing in cluded in the objects of our Law. See how the 
Law commanded t^ slay a person from whose conduct it 
is evident that he will go too far in seeking the enjoyment 
of eating and drinking. I mean '' the rebellious and stub- 
J)om " child j he is described as " a glutton and a drunkard " 
(Deut. xxi 20). The Law commands to stone him and to 
remove him from society lest he grow up in this character, 
and killcoany^nd inj^ the condition of good men by his 
great lust.^ J 

Politeness is another virtue promoted by the Law. Man 
shall listen to the words of his neighbour; he shall not be 
obstinate, but shall yield to the wish of his fellowmen, 
respond to their appeal, act according to their desire, and do 
what they like. Thus the Law commands, ''Circumcise 
therefore the foreskin of your heart, and be no more stiff- 
necked" (Deut. X, 16); "Take heed and hearken" (ibid, 
xxvii. 9). "If you be willing and obedient" (Is. i. 19). 
Those who listen [to the words of others] and accept as much 
as is right are represented as sajdng, " We wiU hear and do " 
(Deut. V. 24), or in a figurative style, " Draw me, we will run 
after thee " (Song i. 4).« 

The Law is also intended to give its followers purity and 
holiness ; by teaching them to suppress sensuality, to guard 
against it and to reduce it to a minimum, as will be explained 
by us. For when God commanded [Moses] to sanctify the 
people for the receiving of the Law, and said, " Sanctify them 
to-day and to-morrow " (Exod. xix. 10), Moses [in obedience 
to this command] said to the people, "Come not at your 
wives " (ibid. ver. 15). Here it is clearly stated that sancti- 
fication consists in absence of sensuality. But abstinence 

' Coxnp. Comm. Rashi on Deuter. zxi. 18. BabjL Talm. Sanhedrin, 
71b. 

' These yenes appear to refer to obedience and disobedience to God. 
Maimonides finds in them an exhortation to listen to the words and wishes 
of onr fellowmen. 




160 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

from drinking wine is also called holiness ; in reference tr 
the Nazarite it is therefore said, " He shall be holy " (Num. 
vL 5). According to Siphra the words, " sanctify yourselves 
and be ye holy" (Lev. xx. 7), refer to the sanctification 
effected by performing the divine commands.^ As the 
obedience to such precepts as have been mentioned above is 
called by the Law sanctification and purification, so is defile- 
ment applied to the transgression of these precepts and the 
performance of disgraceful acts, as will be shown. Cleanli- 
ness in dress and body by washing and removing sweat and 
dirt is included among the various objects of the Law, but 
only if connected with purity of action, and with a heart free 
from low principles and bad habits. It would be extremely 
bad for man to content himself with a purity obtained by 
washing and cleanliness in dress, and to be at the same time 
voluptuous and unrestrained in food and lust. These are 
described by Isaiah as follows: "They that sanctify themselves 
and purify themselves in the gardens, but continue their sinful 
life, when they are in the innermost [of their houses], eating 
swine's flesh, and the abomination, and the mouse " (Is. Ixvi. 
17):^ that is to say, they purify and sanctify themselves 
outwardly as much as is exposed to the sight of the people, 
and when they are alone in their chambers and the inner 
parts of their houses, they continue their rebelliousness and 
disobedience, and indulge in partaking of forbidden food, 
such as [the flesh of] swine, worms, and mice. The prophet 
alludes perhaps in the phrase " behind one tree in the midst " 

^ In our editions of Siphra we read as follows : " ' Ye shall sanctify yonr- 
selves ; ' these words refer to sanctification by separating from idolatry. Or 
perhaps to sanctification by obedience to the divine precepts ? This is ex- 
pressed by the words, * Ye shall be holy * (Lev. xix. 2). Our passage, there- 
fore, refers to sanctification by separating from idolatry." ^ 

* A. v. " They that sanctify themselves, and purify themselves in the gar- 
dens behind one tree in the midst eating swine's flesh," &c According to 
Maimonides the words aehar aehath denote ** after one " tcU. way, ie. {dere^), 
whilst they change their ways publicly and purify themselves, they follow 
only one course, the same sinful course as before, when they are unobserved. 
In the second explanation suggested by Maimonides the word ithshaii 
** woman " is to be supplied after aehath "one." 



PART in. — CHAPTER XXXIV. 161 

to indulgence in forbidden lust The sense of the passage 
is therefore this : " They appear outwardly clean, but their 
heart is bent upon their desires and bodily enjoyments, and 
this is contrary to the spirit of the Law." For the chief 
object of the Law is to [teach man to] diminish his desires, 
and to cleanse his outer appearance after he has purified his 
heart. Those who wash their body and cleanse their gar- 
ments whilst they remain dirty by bad actions and principles, 
are described by Solomon as *' a generation that are pure in 
their own eyes, and yet are not washed from their filthiness ; 
a generation, oh how lofty are their eyes ! " &c. (Prov. xxx. 
12-13). Consider well the principles which we mentioned 
in this chapter as the final causes of the Law ; for there are 
many precepts, for which you will be unable to give a reason 
unless you possess a knowledge of these principles, as will be 
explained further on. 



CHAPTEE XXXIV, 



It is also important to note that the Law does not take into 
account exceptional circumstances ; it is not based on con- 
ditions which rarely occur. Whatever the Law teaches, 
whether it be of an intellectual, a moral, or a practical 
character, is founded on that which is the rule and not on 
that which is the exception; it ignores the injury that 
might be caused to a single person through a certain maxim 
or a certain divine precept For the Law is a divine 
institution, and [in order to understand its operation] we 
must consider how in Mature the various forces produce 
benefits which are general, but in some solitary cases they 
cause also injury. This is clear from what has been said by 
ourselves as well as by others.^ We must consequently not 

1 Coxnp. Ibn Ezra (on Isa. zzz. 25), "It is a kind of consolation to learn, 
that when ten die, myriads are kept alive ; for although a wall might, through 
the rain, fall upon a widow, the Lord will not keep back the rain from 
VOL. IIL L 



162 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

be surprised when we find that the object of the Law does 
not fully appear in every individual ; there must naturally 
be people who are not perfected by the instruction of the 
Law, just as there are beings which do not receive from the 
specific forms in Nature all that they require. For all this 
comes from one G-od, is the result of one act; "they are all^ 
given from one shepherd" (Eccles. xii. 11). It is impossible 
to he otherwise; and we have already explained (ch. zv.) 
that that which is impossible always remains impossible and 
never changes. From this consideration it also follows that 
the laws' cannot like medicine vary according to the different 
conditions of persons and times ; whilst the cure of a person 
depends on his particular constitution at the particular time, 
the divine guidance contained in the Law must be certain 
and general, although it may be effective in some cases and 
ineffective in others. If the Law depended on the varying 
conditions of man, it would be imperfect in its totality, each 
precept being left indefinite.^ For this reason it would not 
be right to make the fundamental principles of the Law 
dependent on a certain time or a certain place ; on the con- 

coming down and giving life to many." Similarly we notice in the Law : it 
is, e.g., presented that the evil-doer shall be punished on the evidence of two 
witnesses, although in exceptional cases it may happen that the two witnesses 
are false, and an innocent person is punished, the law remains in force, and 
is beneficial to mankind. (See Shem-tob ad loeum.) 

^ /.e., the law of Nature as well as the revealed Law. 

> It is impossible that the two sets of laws coming from the same Creator 
should not act in the same manner. According to Efodi, it is impossible 
that there should not be individuals insufficiently prepared for the influence 
of these laws. 

* According to Maimonides the perfection of the laws of Nature consists in 
their constancy and immutability ; that these do not act always and every- 
where with the same result, is due to the defective and inconstant nature of 
matter, and not to changes in the laws of Nature. Similarly he assumes 
that the laws in the Pentateuch are perfect, immutable, and invariable, 
although the good they effect may not be the same in all persons, in all 
places, and at aU times. The phrase used here im km ncUhatia debharecha 
letkiurim, "if so, you expose your words to different interpretations," is 
borrowed from the Talmud, where it is used as an argument against vague 
sules. Comp. Shabbath, p. 85, b. 



PART m. — CHAPTEB XXXV. 163 

traiy, the statutes and the judgments must be definite, uncon- 
ditional, and general, in accordance with the divine words : 
" As for the congregation, one ordinance shall be for you and 
for the stranger" (Num. xv. 15); they are intended, as has 
been stated before, for all persons and for all times. 

After having premised these introductory remarks I will 
now proceed to the exposition of that which I intended to 
explain. 



CHAPTER XXXV. 

In accordance with this intention I find it convenient to 
divide aU precepts into fourteen classes.^ 

1 In Mishneh-torah the religions code ia likewise dirided into fourteen 
sections. In the present work the fnineipium divisionis is the motive for 
the precept, whilst in Mishneh-torah it was necessary for practical purposes 
to bring homogeneous precepts together under one. section. According to 
Maimonides' theory there are three fundamental objects to be attained by the 
obseryanoe of the divine precepts, viz. — (1) They inculcate correct ideas ; (2) 
they improve man's morals ; (8) they promote the social well*being of mankind. 
From this point of view the fourteen sections may be divided as follows : — 
classes I. and II. establish corfect ideas ; III. to VII. promote the social 
weU-being of mankind ; VIII. to XIV. educate man and lead him to love 
God, and to fear Him.' This arrangement is similar to the general division 
of our duties into duties towards God, duties towards our fellow-man, and 
duties towards ourselves. Maimonides mentions this division at the end of 
this chapter, but he oirly admits the two first kinds of duties, because he con- 
siders man's duties towards himself as duties towards God. The above division 
is not strictly adhered to, since precepts that imply duties towards our fellow- 
man aim at the same time at training us in virtue and morals, and from this 
point of view are counted by Maimonides among precepts including duties to- 
wards ourselves or duties toward God ; eg., part of Class III. and Class IV. 

The following table shows the relation- of the fourteen classes contained 
in the present work to the fourteen sections of Mishneh-torah : — 

MUhneh-torah. 
I. Madda . . • i • • i 

Except : On idolatry .... 

II. Akalha 

Except : On circumcision . . . 





Guide. 


Class I. and III. 


9$ 


II. 


§$ 


IX. 


II 


XIV. 



164 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

The first class comprises those precepts which form funda* 
mental principles, such as we have enumerated in HUckoth 
yesode ha-torah. Sepentance and fasts belong also to this 
class, as will be shown. 

The second class comprises the precepts which are con* 
nected with the prohibition of idolatry, and which have been 
described by us in HiLchoth ahhodhcihrzarah. The laws con- 
cerning garments of linen and wool, concerning the fruit of 
trees in the first three years after they have been planted, and 
concerning divers seeds in a vineyard, are likewise contained in 
this class. The object of these precepts is to establish certain 
true principles and to perpetuate them among the people. 

The third class is formed by commandments which are 
connected with the improvement of the moral condition [of 
mankind] ; these are mentioned in SUchoth death. It is 
known that by a good moral state those social relations which 
are indispensable for the well-being of mankind, are brought 
to perfection. 

The fourth class includes precepts relating to charity, loans, 
gifts, and the like, e.g., the rules respecting "valuations," 
that is, of things the value of which has been devoted to 

Ifishneh-torah. Guide. 

III. Zemarmim • • Class YIIL 

Except : On fasts >i I* 

IV. Naahim „ XIV. 

V. Kedtuhah • yt XIII. 

Except : On forbidden sexnal intercourse . „ XIV. 

On blood fi XI. 

VI. ffajlaah „ XIIL 

Except : On oath ...... I. 

^ On valuations and things devoted „ IV. 

VII. Zeraln •••••••»» IV. 

Except : On kdayim and orlah . • . „ II. and XFV. 

YUl. AhhodJiah „ X.andXI. 

IX. Korbanoth . • • , XL 

X. Takarah „ XII. 

XI. Neahin „ V. 

XII. Kinyan , VII. 

Except: On slaves ,, IV. 

XIIL MUhpatim , VIL 

XIV. Shofaim „ VL 



PART IIL — CHAPTER XXXV. 165 

sacred purposes, " things devoted " (Lev. xxvii. 28), loans, 
servants, and all the laws enumerated in the section Zeraim, 
except the rules of "mixtures" and "the fruit of. trees in 
the first three years." The object of these precepts is clear ; 
their benefit concerns all people by turns ; for he who is rich 
to-day will once be poor,— either he himself or his descend- 
ants ; and he who is now poor, he himself or his son may be 
rich to-morrow. 

The fifth class contains those precepts which relate to the 
prevention of wrong and violence ; they are included in our 
book in the section Nezikin, Their beneficial character is 
evident. 

The sixth class is formed of precepts respecting fines, 
e.^., the laws on theft and robbery, on false witnesses,^ and 
most of the laws contained in the section Shofdim belong 
to this class. Their benefit is apparent ; for if sinners and 
robbers were not punished, injury would not be prevented 
at all : and persons scheming evil would not become rarer. 
They are wrong who suppose that it would be an act of 
mercy to abandon the laws of compensation lor injuries; 
on the contrary, it would be perfect cruelty and injury to 
the social state of the country. It is an act of mercy that 
God commanded "judges and officers thou shalt appoint to 
thee in all thy gates" (Deut. xvi. 18). 

The seventii class comprises those laws which regulate the 
business transactions of men with each other; e,g,, laws 
about loans,* hire, trust, buying, selling, and the like ; the 
rules about inheritance belong to this class. We have de* 
scribed these precepts in the sections Kinyan and Mishpatim. 
The object of these precepts is evident, for monetary trans- 
actions are necessary for the peoples of all countries, and it 
is impossible to have these transactions without a proper 
standard of equity and without useful regulations. 

^ According to the traditional interpretation of the Law only such false 
witnesses are referred to in this law (of edim zomenUm) against whom an alibi 
has been proved. 

' Here loans are mentioned in respect to civil law ; whilst in the fourth 
class it is mentioned as a means of charity. 



166 GUIDE QF THE PERPLEXED. 

The eighth class includes those precepts which relate to 
certain ^ days, as Sabbaths and holydays ; they are enume- 
rated in the section ZeTnanninu The Law states clearly 
the reason and object of each of these precepts ; they are to 
serve as a means for establishing a certain principle among 
us, or securing bodily recreation, or efifecting both things at 
the same time, as will be shown by me. 

The ninth class comprises the general laws concerning 
religious rites and ceremonies, e,g., laws concerning prayers, 
the reading of Shema', and the other rules given in the 
section AhabTuih, with the exception of the law concerning 
circumcision. The object of these laws is apparent; they 
all prescribe actions which firmly establish the love of God 
in our minds, as also the right belief concerning Him and 
His attributes. 

The tenth class is formed of precepts which relate to the 
Sanctuary, its vessels, and its ministers ; they are contained 
in the section Abhodhah. The object of these precepts has 
already been mentioned by us {supra, ch. xxzii.) 

The eleventh class includes those precepts which relate to 
Sacrifices. Most of these laws we have mentioned in the 
sections Abhodhah and Korbanoth. We have already shown 
the general use of the sacrificial laws, and their necessity 
in ancient time. 

The twelfth class comprises the laws concerning things 
unclean and clean. The general object of these laws is, as 
will be explained by me, to discourage people from 
[frequently] entering the Sanctuary; in order that their 
minds be impressed with the greatness of the Sanctuary and 
approach it with respect and reverence.* 

The thirteenth class includes the precepts concerning 
forbidden food and the like;^ we have given them in 

^ Munk : jours aacr^ {al-mahturatf in Arabic). Ibn Tibbon : Aa-yetiiifm, 
which coxresponds to a different reading in the original : oltnahchtdaL 

' It is remarkable that Maimonides does not mention here the portion of 
Miflhneh-torah that contains the laws of the twelfth section. In chap. xlriL 
the irfer tahara, the section on Parity, is named. 

* Lit, And that which depends on (or is connected with) these. 



PABT m. — CHAPTER XXXV, 167 

Hilchoth maaehaloth ttsuroth; the laws about vows and tem- 
perance belong also to this class. The object of all these 
laws is to restrain the growth of desire, the indulgence in 
seeking that which is pleasant, and the disposition to con- 
sider the appetite for eating and drinking as the end [of 
man's existence]. We have explained this in our Com- 
mentary on the Mishnah, in the Introduction (chap, iv.) to 
" The Sayings of the Fathers." 

The fourteenth class comprises the precepts concerning 
forbidden «exual intercourse ; they are given in the section 
Nashim and Hilchoth iasure-hhiaJi. The laws concerning 
the intermixture of cattle belong to this class. The object 
of these precepts is likewise to diminish sexual intercourse, 
to restrain as much as possible indulgence in lust, and [to 
teach] that this enjoyment does not, as foolish people think, 
include in itself its final cause. We have explained this in 
our Commentary on "The Sayings of the Fathers." (Introd., 
chap, viii) The laws about circumcision belong to this 
class. 

As is well known, the precepts are also divided into two 
classes, viz., precepts concerning the relation between man 
and God, and precepts concerning the relation between man 
and man. Of the classes into which we divide the precepts 
and which we have enumerated, the fifth, sixth, and seventh, 
and part of the third, include laws concerning the relation 
of man to man. The other classes contain the laws about 
the relation of man to God, i,e,, positive or negative pre- 
cepts, which tend to improve the moral or intellectual con- 
dition of mankind, or to regulate such of each man's actions 
which [directly] only concern him and lead him to perfec- 
tion. For these are called laws concerning man's relation 
to God, although in reality they lead to results which con- 
cern also his fellow-men; because these results become 
only apparent after a long series of intermediate links, and 
from a general point of view ; whilst directly these laws do 
not prevent man from injuring his fellow-man. Note this. 

Having described the laws of these classes, I will now 



168 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

again consider the precepts of each class, and explain the 
reason and use of those which are believed to be useless or 
unreasonable, with the exception of a few^ the object of 
which I have not yet comprehended. 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 



The reason of all precepts of the first class, viz., of the 
principles enumerated by us in HUchoth yesode hortorah,^ is 
obvious. Consider them one by one, and you will find that 
the lesson which every one of them contains is correct and 
demonstrable. It is also evident that the precepts which 
exhort and command us to learn and to teach are useful ; ' for 
without wisdom there cannot be any good act or any true 
knowledge. The law which prescribes to honour the teachers 
of the Law is likewise useful; for if they were not con- 
sidered by the people as great and honourable men, they 
would not be followed as guides in their principles and 
actions. The Law demands also that we be humble and 
modest [in their presence]. " Thou shalt rise up before the 
hoary head'' (Lev. xix. 32). This class includes also the 
commandment to swear by the name of God and the 
prohibition of swearing falsely or in vain.* The reason for 
all these precepts is evident ; they aim at the glorification 
of God ; they prescribe acts which lead to the belief in God's 
greatness. Likewise the commandment to cry to God in 
time of trouble, *'to blow an alarm with the trumpets" 
(Num. X. 9), belongs to this class.^ We are told to offer up 

^ Viz. (1.) to know that God exists ; (2.) not to imagine the existence of any 
other divine being besides God ; (8.) to declare His unity ; (4.) to love Him ; 
(5.) to fear Him ; (6.) to sanctify His name ; (7.) not to profane it ; (8.) not 
to destroy anything upon which the name of God is called ; (9.) to obey the 
prophet that speaks in the name of God ; (10) not to tempt God. 

> Mishneh-torah I. Hilchoth talmud-torah. 

s Ibid. YL, Hilchoth shebhaoth. 

« Ibid. III., Hilchoth taanith. 



PABT in.— CHAPTER XXXVL 169 

prayers to God, in order to establish firmly the true principle 
that God takes notice of our ways, that He can make them 
successful if we worship Him, or disastrous if we disobey 
Him, that [success and failure] are not the result of chance 
or accident. In this sense we must understand the passage, 
*'If ye walk with me by chance" (be eri, Lev. xxvi. 21);^ 
i.e. if I bring troubles upon you for punishment, and you 
consider them as mere accidents, I will again send you some 
of these accidents as you call them, but of a more serious 
and troublesome character. This is expressed in the words : 
" If ye walk with me by chance : then I will walk with you 
also in the fury of chance" (ibid. vers. 27, 28). For the 
belief of the people that their troubles are mere accidents 
causes them to continue in their evil principles and their 
wrong actions, and prevents them from abandoning their 
evil ways. Comp. " Thou hast stricken them, but they have 
not grieved" (Jer. v. 3). For this reason God commanded 
us to pray to Him, to entreat Him, and to cry before Him 
in time of trouble. It is clear that repentance is likewise 
included in this class ; that is to say, it is one of those prin- 
ciples which are an indispensable element in the creed of 
the followers of the Law. For it is impossible for man to be 
entirely free from error and sin; he either does not know 
the opinion which he has to choose, or he adopts a principle, 
not for its own merits, but in order to gratify his desire or 
passion. If we were convinced that we could never make 
our crooked ways straight, we should for ever continue in 
our errors, and perhaps add other sins to them since we did 
not see that any remedy was left to us. But the belief in the 
effect of repentance causes us to improve, to return to the 
best of the ways, and to become more perfect than we were 
before we sinned. For this reason many things are pre- 

* A.y. If you walk contrary unto me. Targom : he-huhyu^ " with obsti- 
nacy." Comp. Ibn. Ezra ad locum, who seems to be in fay our of the explana- 
tion given by Maimonides. Rashi likewise derives the word from harah, he 
happened to be, but gives a different interpretation to the phrasci viz., '' If 
yon walk with me only by chance, and not regularly and intentionally," &c. 



170 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

scribed for the promotion of this very useful principle ; e.g. 
confessions ^ and sacrifices for sins committed unknowingly, 
and in some cases even for sins committed intentionally, and 
fasts, and that which is common to all cases of repentance 
from siu, the resolve to discontinue sinning. For that is the 
aim of this principle. Of all these precepts the use is obvious. 



CHAPTER XXXVII. 



The precepts of the second class are those which we have 
enumerated in the section "On idolatry." It is doubtless 
that they all tend to save man from the error of 
idolatry and the evil practices connected with it; e.g., 
observing the times, enchantment, witchcraft, incantation, 
consulting with familiar spirits, and the like. When yoa 
read the books which I mentioned to you, you will find 
that witchcraft, which will be described to you, is part of 
the customs of the Sabeans, Kasdim, Chaldeans,' and to 
a higher degree of the Egyptians and Canaanites. They 
caused others to believe, or they themselves believed, that by 
means of these arts they would perform wonderful things in 
reference to an individual person, or to the inhabitants of a 
whole country, although no analogy and no reasoning can 
discover any relation between these performances of the 
witches and the promised result Thus they are careful to 
collect certain plants at a particular time, and to take a 
definite number of certain objects. There are many things 
comprised by witchcraft; they may be divided into three 
classes: first, witchcraft connected with objects in Nature, 
viz. plants, animals, or minerals. Secondly, witchcraft depen- 
dent for its performance on a certain time; and thirdly, 
witchcraft dependent on the performance of certain acts of 

^ Lev. Y. 6 and zvi. 21. 

s Gomp w/pra^ pagQ 143, note 3. 



PABT m.— CHAPTER XXXYII. 171 

man, such as dancing, clapping, laughing, jumping with one 
leg>^ lying on the ground with the face upward, burning a 
thing, fumigating with a certain material, or speaking intel- 
ligible or uninteUigible words. 

These are the various kinds of witchcraft. > In some cases 
all these various performances are required. Thus the 
witches sometimes order: take a leaf of a certain plant, 
when the moon is seen in a certain degree [of the Zodiak] 
in the east point or in one of the other cardinal points [of 
the horizon], also a certain quantity of the horn, the sweat, 
the hair and the blood of a certain animal when the sun is, 
6.^., in the middle of the sky, or in some other definite place ; 
and a portion of a certain mineral or minerals, melted at a 
certain conjunction of sun and moon, and at a definite posi- 
tion of the stars; speak then, and say certain words, and 
fumigate with those leaves or similar ones to that molten 
image, and such and such a thing will happen. In other 
instances of witchcraft it is assumed that one of the above 
performances suffices. In most cases the condition is added 
that women must perform these actions. Thus it is stated in 
reference to the means of obtaining rain, that ten virgins 
dressed with diadems and red garments should dance, push 
each other, moving backwards and forwards, and make signs 
to the sun : the result of this long process was believed [by 
the idolaters] to be a downpour of rain. ^ 

It is further stated that if four women lay on their back; 
with their feet spread^ and lifted up, said certain words and 
did certain things whilst in this disgraceful position, hail 
would discontinue coming down in that place. The number 
of these stupid and mad things is great; in all of them 
without exception women are required to be the agent. 
Witchcraft is intimately connected with astrology; those 
that practise it assign each plant, animal, or mineral to a 

1 In the printed editions of Ibn. Tibbon's version this phrase has been 
omitted. 

' In Ibn. Tibbon's yersion the printed editions have erroneonslj mewp- 
paJooik instead of MefuuakotK 



172 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

certain star, and believe that the above processes of witch- 
craft are different forms of worship offered to that star, which 
is pleased with that act, word, or offering of incense, and 
fulfils their wishes. 

After this remark, which you will understand when you 
have read such of their works as are at present extant, and 
have been mentioned by me, hear what I will tell you. It is the 
object and centre of the whole Law to abolish idolatry and 
utterly uproot it, and to overthrow the opinion that any of the 
stars could interfere for good or evil in human matters, because 
it leads to the worship of stars. It was therefore necessary to 
slay all witches as being undoubtedly idolaters, because every 
witch is an idolater ; they only have their own strange ways 
of worship, which are different from the common mode of 
worship offered to those deities. But in all performances of 
witchcraft it is laid down as a rule that women should be 
employed in the chief operation ; and therefore the Law says, 
"Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live" (Exod. xxii. 17). 
Another reason ^ is the natural reluctance of people to slay 
women. This is also the cause why in the law of idolatry 
it is said " man or woman " (Deuf xvii. 2), and again repeated 
a second time, ** the man or the woman '* (ibid. ver. 5) — a 
phrase which does not occur in the law about the breaking of 
Sabbath, or in any other law ; for great sympathy is naturally 
shown to women. Now the witches believed that they pro- 
duced a certain result by their witchcraft ; that they were 
able through the above-mentioned actions to drive such 
dangerous animals as lions, serpents, and the like out of the 
cities, and to remove various kinds of damage from the 
growth of the earth. Thus they imagine that they are able by 
certain acts to prevent hail from coming down, and by certain 
other acts to kill the worms in the vineyards, whereby the 
latter are protected from injury ; in fact, the killing of the 
worms in vineyards, and other superstitions 2 mentioned in the 

^ Viz., why the feminine " witch *' ii used in this precept. 

' Lit, ** the ways of the Amorite ; " the phrase darche hta-emori, is nsed in 
the Talmud in the sense of superstition. Comp. Mishnah Shahbath, tl 10, 
and below, p. 174. 



PABT m.— CHAPTER XXXVH, 173 

Nabatean Agrictdture, are fully described by the Sabeans. 
They likewise imagine that they know certain acts by which 
they can prevent the dropping of leaves from the trees and 
the untimely falling of their fruit. On account of these 
ideas which were general in those days, the Law declares in 
'* the words of the covenant " ^ as follows : The same idolatry 
and superstitious performances which, in your belief, keep 
certain misfortunes far from you, will cause those very mis« 
fortunes to befall you. " I will also send wild beasts among 
you " (Lev. xxvi. 22) ; " I will also send the teeth of wild 
beasts upon them, with the poison of those that creep in 
dust" (Deut. xxxii. 24). « The fruit of thy land, and all thy 
labours, shall a nation, which thou knowest not, eat up" 
(ibid. xxviiL 33). ''Thou shalt plant vineyards and dress 
them, but shalt neither drink of the wine nor gather the 
grapes, &c. Thou shalt have olive trees throughout all thy 
coasts, but thou shalt not anoint thyself with the oil " (Deut. 
xxviiL 39, 40). In short, in spite of the schemes of idolaters 
to support and firmly establish their doctrine, and to make 
people believe that by idolatry certain misfortunes could be 
averted and certain benefits gained, worship of idols will, on 
the contrary, as is stated in " the words of the covenant," 
prevent the advantages and bring the troubles. The reader 
will now understand why, of all kinds of curses and bless- 
ings, those mentioned in " the words of the covenant " have 
been selected by the Law, and particularly pointed out. I^ote 
also the greatness of the benefit [of these laws]. 

In order that we may keep far from all kinds of witch- 
crafty we are warned not to adopt any of the practices of the 
idolaters, even such as are connected with agriculture, the 



^ The exhortations in Deut xxyiiL, containing promises of great rewards 
for faithfulness to the divine covenant, and threats of great punishments for 
the transgression of God's commands, conclude with the words, *' These are 
the words of the covenant," &c (ibid. ver. 69). The whole chapter, known 
bj the name tochackti, "rebuke," is therefore called "The words of the 
covenant" 



174 QtTIDB OF THS PERPLEXED. 

keeping of cattle,^ and similar work. [The Law prohibits} 
everything that the idolaters, according to their doctrine, and 
contrary to reason, consider as being useful and acting in 
the manner of certain mysterious forces. Comp. " Neither 
shall ye walk in their ordinances " (Lev. xviii 3). " And ye 
shall not walk in the manners of the nation which I cast out 
before you ** (ibid xx. 23). Our Sages call such acts '' the 
ways of the Amorite ;'' they are kinds of witchcraft, because 
they are not arrived at by reason, but are similar to the per- 
formances of witchcraft, which is necessarily connected with 
the influences of the stars; thus ["the manners of the 
nations''] lead people to extol, worship, and praise the stars. 
Our Sages say distinctly, "whatever is used as medicine" 
does not come under the law of " the ways of the Amorite ; " 
for they hold that only such cures as are recommended by 
reason are permitted,' and other cures are prohibited. When, 
therefore, the dictum was quoted : ' a tree that casts off its 
fruit may be laden with stone or dyed with red colour, the 
following objection was raised : The loading of the tree with 
stones may be justified on the plea that it serves to weaken 
the strength of the tree, but why should it be permitted to 
dye the tree with red colour ? This question shows that the 
dyeing of the tree with red colour, and all similar things 
which are not explained by analogy from nature, are pro- 
hibited as " ways of the Amorite." For the same reason our 
Sages said,^ " The uterus of animals which have been selected 
for the Sanctuary must be buried ; it must not be suspended 
from a tree, and not buried in the cross-road, because this is 
one of ' the ways of the Amorite.' " Hence you may leain how 
to treat similar cases.^ 
It is not inconsistent that a nail of the gallows and the 

* The word ve-Aa-mtrv^ has been omitted in tbe printed editiona of Ha 
Tibbon'fl yersion. 

* Comp. BabyL Talm. Shabbstb, 67 a. 
» Ibid. 

* BabjL Talm. ChuUin, 77 a. 

' This sentence has been omitted in the editions of Ibn Tibbon's rernon. 



PABT in. — CHAPTBB XXXVIL 175 

tooth of a fox have been permitted to be used as cures ; ^ 
for these things have been considered in those days as facts 
established by experiment They served as cures, in the 
same manner as the hanging of the peony ' over a person 
subject to epileptic fits, or the application of a dog's refuse 
to the swellings of the throat, and of the vapours of vinegar 
and marcasite to the swelling of tumours.' For the Law 
permits as medicine everything that has been verified by 
experiment, although it cannot be explained by analogy. 
The above-named cures are permitted in the same way as 
the application of purgatives. Learn, reader, these note- 
worthy lessons from this my work, and keep them ; ''for they 
are a diadem of grace for thy head" (Pro v. iv.) 

We have explained in our large work* that it is pro- 
hibited to round the corners of the head, and to mar the 
comers of the beard, because it was the custom of idola- 
trous priests. For the same reason, the wearing of gar- 
ments made of linen and wool is prohibited; the heathen 
priests adorned themselves with garments containing vege- 
table and animal material, whilst they held in their hand 
a seal made of a mineral This you find written in their 
books. The same is also the reason of the precept, "The 
woman shall not wear that which pertaineth unto a man " 
(Deut. xxiL 5). You find it in the book Tomtom, that a 
male person should wear coloured woman's dress when he 
stands before Venus, and a female, when standing before 
Mars, should wear a buckler and other armour.^ I think 
that this precept has also another reason ; namely, that 
the interchange of dress creates lust and leads to im- 
morality. 

1 Misbnah Shabbath, U 

* In IbnTibbon'syenion: '* wbicb ia called in Arabic fabinat, in tbe yersa- 
cnlar pioniat " (piyoine). 

' Miink, lea bnmeHrs dures des tendons. Ibn Tibbon, ba-makkotb. Ac- 
cording to Cbarizi, " bard bones of the knees." 

« Mishneb-torah I. Hilcbotb abbodbab-zarab xii 

' Tbe Targom and Talmud understand tbe Hebrew hdi^hMer in tbe 
assage referred to as denoting armour. 



176 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

It is easily understood why it is prohibited to derive 
any benefit whatever from an idoL^ For sometimes a 
person buys it with the intention to break it, but keeps it, 
and it becomes a snare to him. Even if he broke it, recast 
it, and sold it to a heathen, he must not use the money 
which he received in exchange for the idol ; because people 
frequently mistake accidental circumstances for essential 
causes; thus most people say of a certain person that he 
has become rich and wealthy after having dwelt in a certain 
house, or bought a certain animal or vessel ; and that these 
things were a blessing to him. In the same way, a person 
may be successful and make a good profit on the business 
in which he employed the money received for the idol; 
he might then think that the idol was the cause of his 
success, and that the blessing of the money received for 
it brought him the profit; he would then believe in the 
idol ; a belief which is just the reverse of the chief object 
of the Law, as is clearly seen in every word of it For 
this same reason, we are forbidden to turn to our use the 
covering of the idol, its offerings and vessels. We are thus 
guarded against the idea [of ascribing our success to idols]. 
In those days the belief in the stars was very strong; it 
was generally assumed that life and death, good and evil, 
depended on the stars. The Law employed therefore strong 
means, as covenant,^ witnesses,^ great oaths,^ and the above- 
mentioned [blessings and] curses,'^ in order to overthrow 
that belief. We are thus commanded to abstain from 
taking any portion of the idol, and deriving any benefit 
from it; and God tells us that if money received for idols 
be mixed with any person's property, it will bring loss and 

1 Misbneli-torah, l.e., VII. 1 sqq. The Law ia derived firom Dent, rii 26 
and 27, and ziii 18. 

' Oomp. Ezod. zziy. 7-8. According to Monk, the covenant of circum- 
cision is meant. 

* Heaven and earth are named as vritnesses (Dent zzzL 20 ; comp. ibid. 
TTxii, 1). 

* This probably refers to Dent zxviL 14 tqq, 
' Dent zzviii. 16 iqq. 



PART ni. — CHAPTER XXXVIL 177 

ruin to that property. Thia warning is contained in the 
words : ** Neither shalt thou bring an abomination into thine 
house, lest thou be a cursed thing like it " (Deut. vii. 26). 
How much more wrong must it be to believe that there 
is a blessing in idols. When you examine all the precepts 
that relate to idolatry, you will find that their reason is 
obvious, and that they are to make us abandon this evil 
belief, and to keep at the greatest possible distance from 
them. 

We must also point out that originators of false, base- 
less, and useless principles scheme and plan for the firm 
establishment of their faith ; and tell their fellow-men that 
a certain plague will befall those who will not perform 
the act by which that faith is supported and confirmed 
for ever ; this plague may one day accidentally befall 
a person, who will then direct his attention to the perform- 
ance of that act, and adopt idolatry. It being well known 
that people are naturally most in fear and dread of the 
loss of their property and their children, the worshippers 
of fire spread the tale, that if any one did not pass his 
son and daughter through the fire, he will lose his children 
by death. There is no doubt that on account of this absurd 
menace every one at once obeyed, out of pity and sympathy 
for the child ; especially as it was a trifling and a light 
thing that was demanded,^ in passing the child over the fire. 
He must further take into account that the care of young 
children is intrusted to women, who are generally weak- 
minded, and ready to believe everything, as is well known. 
The Law makes, therefore, an earnest stand against this 
practice, and uses in reference to it stronger terms than in 
any other kind of idolatry; namely, "he defile th my sanc- 

^ According to this explanation, the children were not burnt, but only 
passed quickly through the fire in honour of Moloch. See Mishneh-torah I., 
Hilchoth abhodhah-zarah vi. 8. Rashi, Ibn Ezra, and other Comm. ad loeumf 
gire the same explanation. But there is no doubt that in some cases of 
idolatry, children were actually burnt (Deut xiL 31). Comp. Yalkut on 
Jor. TiL 31. 

VOL. m, M 



178 GUIDE OF THE PEBPLEXED. 

tuary, and profaneth my holy name" (Lev. xx. 3). The 
true prophet then declares in the name of God that the 
very act which is performed for the purpose of keeping the 
child alive, will hring death upon him who performs it, and 
destructipn upon his seed. Comp. '' And I will set my face 
against that man and against his family," &c. (ibid. xx. 5). 
Know that traces of this practice have survived even to the 
present day, because it was widespread in the world. You 
can see how midwives take a young child wrapped in its 
swaddling-clothes, and after having placed incense of a dis- 
agreeable smell on the fire, swing the child in the smoke 
over that fire. This is certainly a kind of passing children 
through the fire, and we must not do it. Beflect on the 
evil cunning of the author of this doctrine; how people 
continued to adhere to this doctrine, and how, in spite of the 
opposition of the Law during thousands of years, its name 
is not blotted out, and its traces are still in existence. 

Idolaters have acted similarly in reference to property. 
They made it a law that a certain tree, the asherah, should 
bs worshipped, and that of its fruit one part should be 
offered, and the rest consumed in the temple of the idol ; 
this is stated in the regulations concerning the asherah. In 
the same manner, they made it a rule, that the first-fruit 
of every fruit-tree should be partly offered as a sacrifice 
and partly consumed in the idol's temple. It was also a 
widespread belief that if the first-fruit of any tree was not 
treated in this manner, the tree would dry up, its fruit 
would be cast off, its increase would be diminished, or some 
disease would come over it; just as they spread the belief 
that every child, that was not passed through the fire, must 
die. People in their anxiety for their property obeyed also 
this precept unhesitatingly. The Law, in opposition to this 
doctrine, commanded ^ us to burn the produce of fruit-trees 

^ Comp. Lev. xlz. 23-25. The Law does not directly command to bam 
the fruit which a tree prodnces in the first three years. But as it was pro- 
hibited to use them, they were no doubt destroyed. Compw Miahnoh-torah 
v., Hilchoth maachaloth asuroth z. 9* 



PART m. — CHAPTER XXX VIL 179 

the first three years; for some trees bear fruit after one 
year, whilst some begin to yield fruit after two, and others 
after three years. This law is based upon the nature of 
trees grown in an ordinary way, namely, in one of the three 
well-known methods: planting, propagation, and inocula* 
tion (netiaJi, hdbhrachaJi, and harcahhah). The Law does not 
take notice of the case that a kernel or stone is sown ; for 
the ordinances of the Law are based on the usual condition 
of things,^ and as a rule a young tree in Palestine bears 
fruit for the first time not later than the third year after it 
has been planted. According to the divine promise, the 
waste and destruction of this first-fruit of the tree will be 
followed by years of plenty of fruit ; for it is said, " that it 
may increase unto you the fruit thereof"* (Lev. xix. 25). 
The fruit of the fourth year we are commanded to eat before 
God, instead of [the heathen custom of] eating orlah, " the 
fruit of the preceding years," in the temples of the idols, as 
has been described by us. 

It is further mentioned in the Nabatean Agriculture that 
the ancient idolaters caused certain things named in that 
work to rot, waited till the sun stood in a certain degree [of 
the ecliptic], and then they performed many acts of witchcraft. 
They believed that that substance should be kept ready by 
every one, and when a fruit-tree is planted, a portion of that 
rotten substance should be scattered round the tree or under 
it ; the tree would then grow quicker and produce more fruit 
than is generally the case. They say that this process is very 
extraordinary ; it acts like a talisman, and is more efficient 
than any kind of witchcraft in accelerating the productive- 
ness of fruit-trees. I have already shown and explained to 
you how the Law opposes all kinds of witchcraft. The Law, 
therefore, prohibits us to use the fruit yielded by a tree in the 
first three years after it has been planted, so that there should 
be no opportunity for accelerating, according to their imagi- 
nation, the productiveness of any tree. After three years 

* See tupra zxziy. 

' A. v., " That it may yield onto yon the increase thereof.** 



180 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

most fruit-trees in Palestine yield fruit bj the ordinary 
course of nature, without the application of those magical 
performances which were very general in those days. Note 
this remarkable fact. 

Another belief which was very common in those days, and 
survived the Sabeans, is this : When a tree is grafted into 
another in the time of a certain conjunction of sun and moon, 
and is fumigated with certain substances whilst a formula is 
uttered, that tree will produce a thing that will be found 
exceedingly useful. More general than anything mentioned 
by the heathen writers was the ceremony of grafting an 
olive branch upon a citron tree, as described in the beginning 
of the Nabatean Agriculture. I am of opinion that the book 
of medicines which Hezekiah put away was undoubtedly of 
this kind.^ They also said that when one species is grafted 
upon another, the branch which is to be grafted must be in the 
hand of a beautiful damsel, whilst a male person has disgrace* 
ful and unnatural sexual intercourse with her; during that in- 
tercourse the woman grafts the branch into the tree. There is 
no doubt that this ceremony was general, and that nobody 
refused to perform it, especially as the pleasure of love 
was added to the (supposed) future results of the grafting. 
The Law, therefore, prohibits us to mix different species 
together, i.e,, to graft one tree into another, because we must 
keep away from the opinions of idolaters and the abomina* 
tions of their unnatural sexual intercourse. In order to 
guard against the grafting of trees, we are forbidden to sow 
any two kinds of seed together or near each other.^ When 
you study the traditional explanation of this precept, you 
will find that the prohibition of grafting, the principal element 
in this commandment, holds good for all countries, and is 

^ See Mishnah Peaachim iv, 9, and comp. Maimonid. Gomm. on the 
Mishnah, od locum. Some scholars ascribe the book referred to in the Mishnah 
to King Solomon. See Kimchi on 2 Kings xx. 4. 

' The prohibition of ingrafting is thus considered implied in the words, 
''Thoa shalt not sow thy field with mingled seed" (Ler. xix. 19). Compw 
Mishneh-torah VII., Hilchoth kilayim. 



PABT ni. — CHAPTER XXXVII. l8l 

punisliable by forty stripes ; ^ but the sowing of seeds one 
near the other is only prohibited in Palestine.* In the 
!Nabatean Agriculture it is further distinctly stated that it 
was the custom of the people in those days to sow barley 
and stones of grapes together, in the belief that the vine- 
yard could only prosper in this way. Therefore the Law 
prohibits us to use seed that has grown in a vineyard, and 
commands us to burn both the barley and the produce of 
the vineyard * For the practices of the heathen, which 
they considered as of a magic and talismanic character, 
even if not containing any idolatrous element, are pro- 
hibited, as we have stated above in reference to the dictum 
of our Sages, " We must not hang upon a tree the foetus of 
an animal belonging to the Sanctuary." The Law prohibits 
all heathen customs, called by our Sages " the ways of the 
Amorite," because they are connected with idolatry. On 
considering the customs of the heathen in their worship, you 
will find that in certain kinds of worship they turn toward 
stars, in others to the two great luminaries ; frequently they 
choose the rise of signs in the Zodiac for sowing and fumi- 
gating ; and as to the circuits made by those who plant or 
sow, some complete five circles, corresponding to the five 
planets, with the exclusion of the two luminaries ; others go 
seven times round, according to the number of the planets, 
when including sun and moon.* They believe that all these 
practices are magic charms of great efficiency in agricul- 

^ Mishneh-torah VII., Hilchoth kilayim. 

' Ibid. L 1. Comp. BabyL Talm. Kiddushin 81 a. 

' Ibid. y. 4. It is, however, not stated that the produce must be bamt ; 
it most not be used. Comp. supra, p. 178, note 1. Things prohibited for use, 
aaure-hanaahf were destroyed by fire ; hence the word tikdath (Deut xzii 9), 
which implied such prohibition, was interpreted as meaning tukad eth, itshaU 
be burnt by fire (BabyL Talm. Chullin 115 a). 

According to the traditional explanation of the law, quoted at the end of 
this chapter, the prohibition refers only to the sowing of the stone of grapes 
with two kinds of seeds. Comp. Mishneh-torah VII., HUchoth kilayim 
V. 9, Bayl. Talm. Berachoth, p. 22, et passim, 

* According to another reading (Munk) : ** according to the five planets and 
tl«e two lominaries.*' 



182 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

ture. Thus those practices lead to the worship of stars; 
and therefore all practices of those nations have been pro* 
hibited, in the words, " Ye shall not walk in the manners of 
the nation which I cast out before you " (Lev. xx. 23). Those 
practices which were more general and common, or were 
distinctly connected with idolatry, are particularly pointed 
out as prohibited ; e,ff., eating the fruit of a tree during the first 
three years, intermixing of species and the mixed species 
sown in a vineyard. I am surprised at the dictum of fiabbi 
Joshiyah, which has been adopted as legally binding, in 
reference to the mixed seed in a vineyard, viz., that the law 
is only transgressed when wheat, barley, and the stone of a 
grape are sown simultaneously. He must undoubtedly have 
seen the source of that kind of the ways of the Amorite. 
It must now be clear to you, and no room can be left for 
any doubt, that the prohibition of wearing garments of wool 
and linen, of using the fruit of a tree in the first three years, 
and of mixing divers species, are directed against idolatry, 
and that the prohibition against adopting heathen manners, 
serves to remove anything which leads to idolatry, as has 
been shown by us. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. 

The precepts of the third class are identical with those 
which we have enumerated in HUchoth deoth} Their use is 
evident ; they are rules concerning moral conduct by which 
the social relations of men are regulated. This is sufficiently 
clear, and I need not dwell long on it. Know that some 
precepts prescribe certain acts which are considered as 
arbitrary decrees without any purpose, but are nevertheless 

1 Viz., (1.) to imitate God's ways; (2.) to join those that know God; (S.) to 
lore his fellow-men ; (4.) to love the strangers ; (5.) to hate none of our 
brothers ; (6.) to rebnke those that act wrongly ; (7.) to offend no one pubUdy ; 
(8.) not to oppress the poor ; (9.) not to be a tale-bearer ; (10.) to abstain from 
revenge ; (11.) and not to retain in memory any wrong which others do onto us. 



PART HL — CHAPTER XXXDL 183 

the means of acquiring some moral principle. We shall 
explain every one of them in its proper place. But of all 
those precepts which are mentioned^ in HUchoth death, 
it is distinctly stated that their object is to inculcate good 
moral principles. 



CHAPTER XXXIX. 



The precepts of the fourth class include the laws which in 
our work are contained in the section Zeraim, excepting the 
laws on the mixture of species ; the rules about things to be 
"valued" and things "devoted" (HUchoth erechin vacha- 
ramim), and those concerning lender and borrower (HUchoth 
malveh ve-loveh) and slaves (HUchoth abhadhim). When you 
examine these precepts you will clearly see the use of every 
one of them: they teach us to have sympathy with the 
poor and infirm, to assist the needy in various ways; not 
to hurt the feelings of those who are in want, and not to 
vex those who are in a helpless condition [viz., the widow, 
the orphan, and the like].* The purpose of the laws con- 
cerning the portions which are to be given to the poor is like- 
wise obvious ; the reason of the laws concerning the heave- 
o£ferings and the tithe is distinctly stated : " for he hath no 
portion and inheritance with thee" (Deut xiv. 29). You 
certainly know that the Levites had no portion, because their 
whole tribe was to be exclusively engaged in the service 
of God and the study of the Law. They shall not plow or 
cut the corn,' but shall only minister to God. " They shall 
teach Jacob thy judgments and Israel thy law : they shall 
put incense before thee " (Deut xxxiiL 10). In the Law we 
meet frequently with the phrase, " the Levite, the stranger, 

^ The printed editions of Ibn Tibbon's Version hare hi-feratam instead of 
tippamum. 

* These instances are given in the version of Ibn Tibbon, bat are absent 
from the original (ed. Munk). 

' According to Ibn Tibbon : or sow. 



184 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

and the orphan and the widow ; " for the Levite is reckoned 
among the poor because he had ilo property. The second 
tithe was commanded to be spent on food ^ in Jerusalem ; in 
this way the owner was compelled to give part of it away 
as charity; and not being able to use it otherwise than 
by way of eating and drinking, he must have easily been 
induced to give it gradually away. This rule brought multi- 
tudes together in one place, and strengthened the bond of love 
and brotherhood among the children of men. The law con- 
cerning the fruit of a tree in its fourth year has some relation 
to idolatrous customs, as has been stated by us (chap, xxxvii.), 
and is connected with the law concerning the fruit of a tree 
in its first three years. But it has in addition the same 
object as the law concerning the heave-offering (Deut. xviii. 
4), the dough -offering (Challah) (Num. xv. 20), the first 
fruit (Exod. xxiiL 19), and the first of the shearing (Deut. 
xviii. 4). For the first of everything is to be devoted to the 
Lord; and by doing so man accustoms Ijiimself to be liberal, 
and to limit appetite for eating and desire for property. The 
same is the reason why the priest took the shoulder, the two 
cheeks, and the maw (Deut. xviii 3) ; the cheek being the 
first part of the body of animals, the right shoulder the first 
of the extremities of the body, and the maw the first of all 
inwards. 

The reciting of a certain portion of the Law when the first- 
fruits are brought to the temple, tends also to create humility. 
For he who brings the first-fruits takes the basket upon 
his shoulders^ and proclaims the kindness and goodness 
of God. This ceremony teaches man that it is essential in 
the service of God to remember the times of trouble and the 
history of past distress, in days of comfort. The Law lays 
stress on this duty in several places; comp. "And thou 
shalt remember that thou hast been a slave," &c. (Deut. v. 15). 
For it is to be feared that those who become great in riches 
and comfort might, as is generally the case, fall into the 

^ See Deut xiv. 22-29. Mishnah I., Maaser sheni. 
' See Mislinah I., Bikkurim ill. 4. 



PART ni. — CHAPTER XXXIX. 185 

vices of insolence and haughtiness, and abandon all good 
principles. Comp* "Lest thou eat and be full, &c., and 
thine heart be lifted up and thou forget the Lord " (ibid, 
viii 12-14J; "And Jeshurun waxed fat and kicked" (ibid. 
XXX. IS). On account of this fear the Law commanded us 
to read each year a certain portion before the Lord and His 
glory, when we offer the first-fruit. You know how much 
the Law insists that we shall always remember the plagues 
that have befallen the Egyptians; comp. ''That thou mayest 
remember the day when thou earnest forth out of the land 
of Egypt all the days of thy life " (ibid. xvi. 3) ; " That thou 
mayest tell in the ears of thy son what things I have 
wrought in Egypt " (Exod. x. 2). 3uch a law was necessary 
in order to perpetuate the memory of the departure from 
Egypt; because such events verify prophecy and the doctrine 
of reward and punishment. The benefit of every command* 
ment that serves to keep certain miracI€|^ in remembrance, 
or to perpetuate true faith, is therefore obvious. 

In reference to the law concerning the first-bom of man 
and cattle it is distinctly said, " And it came to pass, when 
Pharaoh would hardly let us go, that the Lord slew all the 
first-born in the land of Egypt, &c., therefore I sacrifice to the 
Lord," &c. (Exod. xiii. 15). But it can easily be explained 
why only cattle, sheep, and asses are mentioned in this 
law ; ^ these are kept as domestic animals, and are found in 
most places, especially in Palestine, where the Israelites were 
shepherds, they, their fathers, and forefathers; comp. "Thy 
servants are shepherds, both we and also our fathers " (Gen. 
xlvii. 3). Horses and camels, however, are not wanted by 
shepherds, and are not found in all places ; thus in the booty 
of Midian (Num. xxxL) no other animals are mentioned but 
oxen, sheep, and asses. But asses alone are indispensable 
to all people, especially to those who are engaged in the field 

^ Num. xviii. 17 and Exod. xiii 18. In Numbers (xriii. 15) the general term 
"unclean cattle" is used, but according to the traditional explanation only 
the ass is meant, in accordance with Exod. xiii. 13. Comp. Babyl. Talm. 
BetkoTolh 6 b, Hishneh-torah VIII., Bilekurim zii. 8. 



186 GTHDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

or in the forest. Thus Jacob says, '' I have oxen and asses " 
(<jen. xxxii. 5). Camels and horses are not possessed by 
many people, but only by a few, and are only found in a few 
places. The law that the first-born of an ass was to have 
its neck broken [in case it is not redeemed], will only ensure 
the redemption of the ass. It has, therefore, been said that 
the act of redeeming the ass is to be preferred to that of 
breaking its neck.^ 

As to the precepts enumerated in the laws concerning the 
year of release and the jubilee {HUchoth shemiUah ve-yohhel) 
some of them imply sympathy with our fellow-men, and 
promote the well-being of mankind; for in reference to 
these precepts it is stated in the Law, " That the poor of thy 
people may eat" (Exod. xxiii. 11); and besides, the land 
will also increase its produce and improve when it remains 
fallow for some time. Other precepts of this class prescribe 
kindness to servants and to the poor, by renouncing all 
claims to debts [in the year of release],^ and relieving the 
slaves of their bondage [in the seventh year].' There are 
some precepts in this class that serve to secure for the 
people a permanent source of maintenance and support by 
providing that the land should remain the permanent pro- 
perty of its owners, and that it could not be sold. *' And 
the land shall not be sold for ever" (Lev. xxv. 23). In 
this way the property of a person remains intact for him 
and his heirs, but he can only enjoy the produce thereof.* 
I have thus explained the reason of all precepts contained 
in our work in the Section Zeraim, with the exception of 
the laws concerning the intermixture of different species of 
beasts, the reason of which will be given [in another place, 
chap. xlix]. 

In the same manner we find that all the precepts com- 
prised in " the laws on valuations," and on " things devoted " 

^ See Misbnah V., Bechoroth i 7. 

• Dent. XV. 1-11. 

* Ibid. zii. 18 and Exod. xxL 1 iqq. 

4 This sentence has no equivalent in Ibn. Tibbon's veision. 



PART m.— CHAPTEE XXXIX. 187 

are based on the principle of charity; some of them pre- 
scribe what should be given to the priests; others tell us 
what must be devoted to the repairs of the temple. The 
practice of all these things accustoms man to act liberally 
and to spend money unhesitatingly to the glory of God. 
For it is in the nature of man to strive to gain money and 
to increase it; and his great desire to add to his wealth 
and honour is the chief source of misery for man. Also 
the precepts contained in " the laws concerning the relation 
between lender and borrower " {Hilchoth malveh vdaveh) will 
be found, on being carefully examined, to be nothing but 
commands to be lenient, merciful and kind to the needy, 
not to deprive them of the use of anything indispensable in 
the preparation of food. " No man shall take the nether or 
the upper millstone to pledge : for he taketh a man's life to 
pledge" (Deut. xxiv. 6). 

The precepts contained in "the laws concerning slaves" 
{Hilchoth abhadhim), likewise prescribe only acts of pity, 
mercy and kindness to the poor. It is an act of mercy to give 
liberty to a Ganaanite servant for the loss of one of his limbs 
(Exod. xxi. 26, 27), in order that he should not suffer from 
slavery and illness at the same time. The law applies even 
to the case that a tooth of a slave has been knocked out, 
much more to the mutilation of other limbs. He could only 
be corrected with a rod or reed ^ or the like, as we have 
stated in Mishneh-torah^ Besides, if the master strikes the 
slave too hard and kills him, he is punished with death as 
for ordinary murder. Mercy is also the object of the law, 
" Thou shalt not deliver unto his master the servant that is 
escaped from his master" (Deut. xxiii. 15); but it teaches 
besides a very useful lesson, namely, that we must always 
practise this virtue, help and protect those who seek our help, 
and not deliver them unto those from whom they flee ; and it 

^ ShMitt " a rod," Exod. xzi. 26. If the master instead of a rod used an 
iron weapon, the law does not apply, and the master is charged with morder, 
eren if the slaye lives for some days. See Mishneh-torah, L e. 

' See Mishneh-torah XI., Bikhoih, roUeach zi. 14. 



188 GUIDB OF THE PERPLEXED. 

is not sufficient to give assistance to those who are in need of 
our help ; we must look after their interests, be kind to them, 
and not hurt their feeling by words. Thus the Law says : 
" He shall dwell with thee, even among you, in that place 
which he shall choose in one of thy gates, where it liketh 
him best : thou shalt not vex him " (ibid. ver. 16). This we 
owe to the lowest among men, to the slave ; how much more 
must we do our duty to the freeborn, when they seek our 
assistance ? But, on the other hand, when sinners and evil- 
doers seek our help, it must not be granted ; no mercy must 
be shown to them, and the course of justice must not be 
interfered with, even if they claim the protection of that 
which is noblest and highest; for "Thou shalt take him 
from mine altar that he may die" (Exod. xxL 14). Here 
a person comes to seek the help of God, and claims the 
protection of that which is devoted to His name ; God, how- 
ever, does not help him, and commands that he be delivered 
up to the prosecutor, from whom he fled. Much less need 
any one of us help or pity his fellow-men [under such cir- 
cumstances] ; because mercy on sinners is cruelty to all 
creatures. These are undoubtedly the right ways designated 
" righteous statutes and judgments " (Deut iv. 8), and dif- 
ferent from the ways of the fools,^ who consider a person 
praiseworthy when he helps and protects his fellow-men, 
without discriminating between the oppressor and the op- 
pressed. This is well known from their words and songs. 

The reason and usefulness of every precept of this class has 
thus been clearly demonstrated. 



CHAPTER XL. 



The precepts of the fifth class, enumerated in the Section 
" On Damages " {Sepher nezikin *), aim at the removal of 
wrong and the prevention of injury. As we are strongly 

^ According to others : heathen. 

* The precepts contained in Sefer nezikin do not all belong to this daaa. 



PABT m. — CHAPTBB XL. 



INI^g^KMTY 



recommended .to prevent damage, we are responsible^ 
every damage caused by our property or through our work 
in so far as it is in our power to take care and to guard ^ 
it from becoming injurious. We are, therefore, responsible 
for all damage caused by our cattle ; we must guard them. 
The same is the case with fire and pits ; they are made by 
man, and he can be careful that they do not cause damage. 
I will point out the equity of the various laws in this respect.* 
No compensation is enforced for damage caused by the mouth 
or the foot of an animal in a public thoroughfare ; ^ because 
this cannot be guarded against, and the damage caused there 
is not very large. Those who place their things in a public 
place are themselves guilty of neglect, and expose their 
property to injury. But compensation is given for damage 
caused to the property of a person in his own field by the 
tooth or the foot of an animal. It is dififerent in the case of 
damage caused by the horn of animals or the like. The 
animal can be guarded everywhere [and prevented from 
causing injury], whilst those who pass public thoroughfares 
cannot sufficiently take care against accidents of this kind. 
In this case the law is the same for all places ; ^ but there 
is a difiference whether the owner of the animal has been 
warned concerning it or not {mvad or tarn)? If the animal 
has not been in the habit of causing damage, the owner need 

The section of Mishneh-torah treats of both civil and criminal cases, whilst 
this class includes chiefly cases for civil law, ffUchoth nizlx mamon (laws con- 
cerning damage caused by the property of a person) ; the criminal cases form 
the next class, Hilehoth chobhd u-mazzik (laws concerning damage caused 
by the person himself). See Ezod. xxi. 18-35, xxii 4, 5. 

^ The two verbs in the original are expressed by one term in the Hebrew 
versions. 

' Lit, ** And these laws include [certain distinctions] based on equity, as I 
will point out to you." Ve-chaUU in Ibn Tibbon's version is a mistake, and 
should be ve-chaldu, 

* I.e., by eating anything that lies in a public place, or by treading upon 
it Comp. Mishneh-torah xL, hUchoth nizke-mamon, i 8-10. 

^ This is not exact, since a distinction is made between injuries caused in 
a public place and injuries caused in a place that belongs to the owner of 
the goring animal {bi-rahuth ha-mazzik), Comp. Mishneh-torah, L c, i. 7. 

'^ Comp. Exod. xxL 28 and 85. 



190 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

only pay half the damage ; but damage caused by an animal 
which has been in the habit of doing so, and has been known 
as savage, must be paid in full. The compensation for a slave 
is uniformly estimated at half the value fixed for a free 
man.^ For in the law concerning the valuation of man you 
find the highest valuation at sixty shekels, whilst the money 
to be paid for a slave is fixed at thirty shekels silver. The 
killing of an animal that has killed a human being (Exod. 
xxi. 28, 29) is not a punishment to the animal,, as the rebel- 
lious people ^ insinuate against us, but it is a fine imposed 
on the owner of that animal For the same reason the use 
of its flesh is prohibited. The owner of an animal will, 
therefore, take the greatest possible care in guarding it ; he 
will know that if any person is killed by the animal, whether 
that person be grown up or young, free or in bondage, he 
forfeits at least the animal; and in case he has already 
received a warning concerning it, he will have to pay a 
ransom in addition to the loss of the animal. This is also 
the reason why a beast is killed that has been used by a 
human being for an immoral purpose (Lev. xx. 15, 16) ; its 
owner will be more careful as regards his beast, will guard 
it, and never lose sight of it, just as he watches his house- 
hold : for people fear the loss of their property as much as 
that of their own life; some even more, but most people 
hold both in the same estimation. Gomp., '' and to take as 
for bondmen, and our asses " (Gren. xliii. 18). 

This class includes also the duty of killing him who 
pursues another person ; that is to say, if a person is about 
to commit a crime we may prevent it by killing him. Only 

^ A free man is yalued, accordiag to Lev. xzyiL 3, at fifty shekels, and not 
sixty, as stated here. Comp. Heidenheim in Maamar ha'techd and Reggio in 
Ha-torah veh/i-philoBaphia, page 99. It is unnecessary on that account to 
assume that this passage is not genuine ; mistakes of this kind would be 
equally surprising when made by a pupU of Maimonides. 

' Ibn Tibbon : Sadducees. Munk thinks that the Karaites are here 
alluded to. But neither the Sadducees nor the Karaites attacked the Penta* 
teuch. Probably the Mahometans are meant, who attacked the Pentatench 
in this manner. Comp. Ibn Ezra Comm. on Ezod. xiii. 18^ (Italian rsc). 



PAKT m. — CHAPTEB XL. 191 

in two cases is this permitted ; viz., when a person runs after 
another in order to murder him, or in order to commit forni- 
cation;^ because in these two cases the crime, once com- 
mitted, cannot be remedied. In the case of other sins, 
punished with death by the court of law, such as idolatry 
and profanation of the Sabbath, by which the sinner does no 
harm to another person, and which concern only his own 
principles, no person may be killed for the mere intention, 
if he has not carried it out. 

It is known that desire is denounced because it leads to 
coveting, and the latter is prohibited because it leads to 
robbery, as has been said by our Sages.^ 

The object of the law of restoring lost property to its 
owner (Deut. xxii. 1-3) is obvious. In the first instance, 
it is in itself a good feature in men's character. Secondly, its 
benefit is mutual ; for if a person does not return the lost 
property of his fellow-man, nobody will restore to him what 
he may lose, just as those who do not honour their parents 
cannot expect to be honoured by their children. 

A person who killed another person unknowingly must go 
into exile (Exod. xxi. 13 ; Num. xxxv. 11-28) ; because 
the anger of " the avenger of the blood " (Num. xxxv. 19) 
cools down while the cause of the mischief is out of sight. 
The chance of returning from the exile depends on the death 
of [the high-priest], the most honoured of men, and the friend 
of all Israel. By his death the relative of the slain person 
becomes reconciled (ibid. ver. 25) ; for it is a natural phe- 
nomenon that we find consolation in our misfortune when 

^ In this sense tradition interprets the words : "Thoa shalt not stand by 
(A. v., against) the blood of thy neighbour" (Ley. ziz. 16) ; that is, thou 
shalt not stand and see the danger of thy neighboiir without rescuing him 
from the hands of the pursuer even with the death of the latter. 

' The two different expressions used in the repetition of the Decalogue : to- 
ihaehmod and lo-thithaweh (Deut. y. 18), are explained to denote two different 
stages of desire. The latter refers to desire before it has passed the boun- 
daries of man's heart, whilst chamod is desire connected with action though 
legaL Comp. Maimonides' Sefer ha-mitswoth, Prohibitions, Nos. 265 and 
266. The passage in Mechilta on which Maimonides founds his explana- 
tion is not contained in the several editions of the Mechilta. 



192 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

the same misfortune or a greater one has befallen another 
person. Amongst us no death causes more grief than that of 
the high-priest. 

The beneficial character of the law concerning " the break- 
ing of the neck of a heifer " (Deut xxi. 1-8) is evident. 
For it is the city that is nearest to the slain person that 
brings the heifer, and in most cases the murderer comes from 
that place. The elders of the place call upon God as their 
witness, according to the interpretation of our Sages, that 
they have always kept the roads in good condition, have pro- 
tected them, and have directed every one that asked his way ; ^ 
that the person has not been killed because they were careless 
in these general provisions, and they do not know who has 
slain him. As a rule the investigation, the procession of the 
elders, the measuring,^ and the taking of the heifer, make 
people talk about it, and by making the event public, the 
murderer may be found out, and he who knows of him, or has 
heard of him, or has discovered him by any clue, will now 
name the person that is the murderer, and as soon as a man, 
or even a woman' or handmaid, rises up and declares that a 
certain person has committed the murder,^ the heifer is not 
killed. It is well known that it is considered great wicked- 
ness and guilt on the part of a person who knows the murderer, 
and is silent about him whilst the elders call upon God as 
witness that they know nothing about the murderer. Even 
a woman will, therefore, communicate whatever knowledge 
she has of him. When the murderer is discovered, the 
benefit of the law is apparent. If the court of justice can- 
not sentence him to death, the king may find him guilty, 
who has the power to sentence to death on circumstantial 
evidence;^ and if the king does not put him to death, 
the avenger of blood may scheme and plan his death, and 

^ MishnahllL, Sota,ix.6. 

' According to Ibn Tibbon : The presence of the people. 
' Whose evidence is not admitted in aU cases. Compu Mishneh-torah XIY. , 
Hilchoth edath ix. 2. 
^ The word tkifchah has been omitted bj Ibn Tibbon. 
* lit., '* by circumstances and by analogy." 



PART in. — CHAPTER XLI. 193 

at last kill him. We have thus shown the use of the law 
concerning the breaking of the neck of the heifer in discover- 
ing the murderer. Force is added to the law by the rule 
that the place in which the neck of the heifer is broken 
should never be cultivated or sown.^ The owner of the land 
will therefore use all means in his power to search and to 
find the murderer, in order that the heifer be not killed and 
his land be not made useless to him. 



CHAPTER XLI. 



The precepts of the sixth class comprise the different ways 
of punishing the sinner.^ Then* general usefulness is known 
and has also been mentioned by us. I will here describe 
them one by one and point out their nature in detail 

The punishment of him who sins against his neighbour 
consists in the general rule that there shall be done unto him 
exactly as he has done : if he injured any one personally, he 
must suffer personally; if he damaged the property of his 
neighbour, he shall be punished by loss of property. But 
the person whose property has been damaged must be ready 
to resign his claim totally or partly. Only to the murderer 
we must not be lenient because of the greatness of his crime ; 
and no ransom must be accepted of him. ''And the land 
cannot be cleansed of the blood that is shed therein but by 
the blood of him that shed it" (Num. xxxi. 33). Hence 
even if the murdered person continued to live after the 
attack for an hour or for days, was able to speak and 
possessed complete consciousness, and if he himself said, 
" Pardon my murderer, I have pardoned and forgiven him," 
he must not be obeyed. We must take life for life, and 
estimate equally the life of a child and that of a grown-up 

^ In accordance with the future tense of the words lo-yMJied bo ve-lo 
yizzarea (Deut. zxi. 4). 

' They are contained in Srftr Shofetim, 

VOL. IIL N 



194 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

person, of a slave and of a freeman, of a wise man and of a 
fool. For there is no greater sin than this. And he who 
mutilated a limb of his neighbour, must himself lose a limb. 
" As he hath caused a blemish in a man, so shall it be done 
to him again " (Lev. xxiv. 20). You must not raise an objec- 
tion from our practice of imposing a fine in such cases. For 
we have proposed to ourselves to give here the reason for the 
precepts mentioned in the Law, and not for that which is 
stated in the Talmud.^ I have, however, an explanation 
for the interpretation given in the Talmud, but it will be 
communicated vivd voce. Injuries that cannot be reproduced 
exactly in another person, are compensated for by payment ; 
" only he shall pay for the loss of his time, and shall cause 
him to be thoroughly healed " (Exod. xxi. 19). If any one 
damaged the property of another, he must lose exactly as 
much of his own property : " whom the judges shall condemn 
he shall pay double unto his neighbour" (Exod. xxii. 8); 
naniely, he restores that which he has taken, and adds just 

^ That is to say, There is a certain reason for the law as stated in the 
Pentateuch, and there is a separate reason for the apparent modifications of 
it, as accepted in the Talmud (Baba-Kama, 84 a). Here Maimonides only 
treats of the former, although he can defend also the Talmudio modification 
of the Law. He by no means rejects the traditional interpretation of " eye 
for eye," &a ; on the contrary, it is accepted by him in Mishneh-torah, 
HUckotk ehobkd u-mazzik, L 3. The principle laid down in the Law, *' as he 
has done, so it shall be done unto him," is not set aside by the Talmndic 
interpretation, which only shows how this law can best and safest be carried 
into effect. The mysterious words, ** it (the explanation of the Talmudic in- 
terpretation of this Law) will be communicated vivd voce," perplexed the Com- 
mentators, who attempted to find out what our author might have said vivd 
voce. At all events, they imagine that Maimonides rejected the Traditional 
interpretation ; and Shem-tob concludes his remarks : " May Grod pardon him 
and us." — Comp. Maimonides' Comm. on Mishnah, Introd., where he says 
that any deviation from the traditional interpretation of Deut. xxv. 12 would 
stamp a prophet as false. It seems, however, that the author would not com* 
mit his explanation to writing, because he was not quite certain about it, and 
feared the criticism of Mahometans or Karaites rather than of his orthodox 
brethren. His interpretation of the Talmudic law was perhaps this : Accord- 
ing to the experience the judges had in those days, loss of property caused 
just as much pain to the evil-doer as mutilation of the body. — Comp. iuprOf 
p. 190. 



PART m. — CHAPTER XLL 195 

as much [to it] of his own property. It is right that the 
more frequent transgressions and sins are, and the greater 
the probability of their being committed, the more severe 
must their punishment be, in order to deter people from 
committing them; but sins which are of rare occurrence 
deserve a less severe punishment. For this reason one who 
stole a sheep had to pay twice as much as for other goods, 
i,e,, four times the value of the stolen object; but this is 
only the case when he has disposed of it by sale or slaughter 
(Exod. xxi 37). As a rule, the sheep remained always in 
the fields, and could therefore not be watched so carefully as 
things kept in town. The thief of a sheep used therefore to 
sell it quickly before the theft became known, or to slaughter 
it and thereby change its appearance. As such theft^ hap* 
pened frequently, the punishment was severe. The com- 
pensation for a stolen ox is still greater by one-fourth, 
because the theft is easily carried out. The sheep keep 
together when they feed, and can be watched by the shep- 
herd, so that theft when it is committed can only take 
place by night. But oxen when feeding are very widely 
scattered, as is also mentioned in the book on Nabatean 
Agriculture, and a shepherd cannot watch them properly; 
theft of oxen is therefore a more frequent occurrence. 

The law concerning false^ witnesses (Deut. xix. 19) pre- 
scribes that they shall suffer exactly the same loss which 
they intended to inflict upon another. If they intended to 
bring a sentence of death against a person, they are killed ; 
if they aimed at the punishment of stripes, they receive 
stripes ; and if they desire to make a person pay money, they 
are sentenced to pay exactly the same sum. The object of 
all these laws is to make the punishment equal to the crime ; 
and it is also on this account that the judgments are 
"righteous" (Deut iv. 8), A robber with violence is not 

^ The printed editions of Ibn Tibbon*8 version have mtnAo^am, ''their 
custom," instead of genebhathamf " their stealing." 

' In Hebrew, edim zomemim, witnesses who intended [to injure some 
person]. 



196 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

ordered to pay anything as fine (Lev. v. 24) ; the additional 
fifth part [of the value of the stolen goods] is only an atone- 
ment-oflfering for his perjury.^ The reason of this rule is to 
be found in the rare occurrence of robbery; theft is com- 
mitted more frequently than robbery, for theft can be 
committed everywhere ; robbery is not possible in towns, 
except with difficulty; besides, the thief takes things 
exposed as well as things hidden away; robbery applies 
only to things exposed ; against robbery we can guard and 
defend ourselves ; we cannot do so against theft ; again, the 
robber is known, can be sought, and forced to return that 
which he has robbed, whilst the thief is not known. On 
account of all these circumstances the law fines the thief 
and not the robber. 

Preliminary Bemark. — Whether the punishment is great 
or small, the pain inflicted intense or less intense, depends 
on the following four conditions f 

1.' The greatness of the sin. Actions that cause great 
harm are punished severely, whilst actions that cause little 
harm are punished less severely. 

2. The frequency of the crime. A crime that is frequently 
committed, must be put down by severe punishment ; crimes 
of rare occurrence may be suppressed by a lenient punish- 
ment considering that they are rarely committed, 

3. The amount of temptation. Only fear of a severe 
punishment restrains us from actions for which there exists 
a great temptation, either because we have a great desire for 
these actions, or are accustomed to them, or feel unhappy 
without them. 

4 The facility of doing the thing secretly, and unseen and 
unnoticed. From such acts we are deterred only by the fear 
of a great and terrible punishment. 

After this preliminary remark, I say that the precepts of 
the Law may be divided into the following four classes with 
respect to the punishment for their transgression : — (1.) Pre- 

1 Aooording to Ibn Tibbon, the foUowing phrase is to be added : but for 
the robbery he adds nothing. 



PART III. — CHAPTER XLI. 197 

cepts whose transgression is followed by sentence of death 
pronounced by a court of law. (2.) Precepts whose trans- 
gression is punished with excision,^ in addition to the con- 
sciousness of having committed a great sin. (3.) In some 
cases the transgression is punished by stripes administered 
with a strap (but the sinner has not the additional pain of 
being conscious of having committed a grave sin), or by 
"death by Heaven."^ (4.) Precepts the transgression of 
which is not punished [even] by stripes. Prohibitions of 

this kind are all those that involve no act.^ But there 
are the following exceptions : * [First], Swearing falsely, 

because it is gross neglect of man's duty, who ought to 
bear constantly in mind the greatness of God. [Secondly], 
Changing an animal devoted to the sanctuary for another 
(Lev. xxvii. 10), because this change leads to contemning 
sacrifices devoted to the name of God. [Thirdly], Cursing 
a person by the name of God (ibid. xix. 14) ; because many 
dread the effect of a curse more than bodily harm. The 
transgression of other negative commandments that involve no 
act causes little harm, and cannot always be avoided, as it con- 
sists in mere words ; moreover, .man's back would be inflicted 
with stripes all the year round if he were to be punished with 

^ In Hebrew, Kareth, This punishmeDt is not inflicted by human courts 
of justice, but by the hand of Grod ; it is, according to some, premature death, 
according to others, deprivation of divine bliss in the world to come. In all 
cases of prohibitions punishable by karethf the sinner was besides punished 
with malhoth (stripes). See Mishnah, Maccoth iii. 15, Maimonides, Mishneh- 
torah XIV., UUekUh Sanhedrin, xviii. 1. According to some reading 
(Munk), Maimonides says here distinctly : " The punishment is excision, and 
(so far as human tribunals are concerned) by maHcoth " (forty stripes). It 
seems, however, that it has been added by copyists as an explanatory note ; 
for according to Maimonides (2.C.), the same is the rule with sins punished 
with " death by Heaven ; '* but he does not add this phrase to this term in the 
next catetifory. 

' In Hebrew, mithah hide shamayim. See Mishneh - torah, Lc. This 
punishment is considered as less severe than excision, which is inflicted even 
after death if the sinner has not repented during life ; whilst " death by 
Heaven " is considered the entire expiation of the sin committed. 

' The utterance of words ia not considered an act in this respect. 

^ See Mishneh-torah, l.c. xviii 2. 



198 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

stripes for each transgression of this kind. Besides, pre- 
vious warning is impossible in this case.^ There is also 
wisdom in the number of stripes ; for although the number 
of their maximum is given, there is no fixed number how 
many are to be applied to each person ; each man receives 
only as many stripes as he can bear, but not more than forty 
(Deut. XXV. 3), even if he be strong enough for a hundred. 

The " death by the court of law " is not inflicted for the 
transgression of any of the dietary laws ; because in such a 
case no great harm is done, and the temptation of man to 
transgress these laws is not so great as the temptation to the 
enjoyment of sexual intercourse. In some of the dietary 
laws the punishment is excision. This is the case with the 
prohibition of eating blood (Lev. xvii. 26). For in ancient 
days people were very eager and anxious to eat blood as a 
kind of idolatrous ceremony, as is explained in the book 
Tomtom,^ and therefore the prohibition of eating blood is 
made very stringent. Excision is also the punishment for 
eating fat ; ^ because people enjoy it, and because it was distin- 
guished and sanctified by its use in the offerings. The eating 
of leavened bread on Passover (Exod. xii. 15), and breaking 
the fast on the Day of Atonement (Lev. xxiii 29), are likewise 
punished with excision : [first] on account of the great dis- 
comfort which the obedience to the law causes in these cases ; 
[secondly] on account of the principles of faith which the 
laws of Passover and of the Day of Atonement inculcate : 
they confirm fundamental principles of the Law, viz., the 
belief in the wonderful departure [of Israel] from Egypt, and 
in the effect of repentance, according to the words, " For on 
this day will He forgive you " (Lev. xvi. 31). Just as in the 
case of eating fat, so is excision also announced as a punish- 
ment when a person eats that which is left [of a sacrifice 

^ Punishment waa only inflicted after due warning {hathraah) had been 
given, BO that the witnesses were quite certain that the act waa a deliberate 
one (zodon). In this case, where the sin requires no preparation, the sin 
is committed before warning can be given. See Mishneh-torah, l,c ziL 2. 

' See aupm, page 144. 

' In Hebrew, eheleb ; snch fat of animals as in cases of sacrifice was burnt 
upon the altar (Lev. vii. 25). 



PAKT III. — CHAPTER XLI. 199 

beyond its limited time], or partakes of a sacrifice which has 
been made abominable ; ^ or when an unclean person eats of 
holy things (ibid, vii 16-21). The object of this severity is 
to increase the estimation of the offering in the eyes of the 
people, as has been shown. 

Death by the court of law is decreed in important cases : 
when faith is undermined, or a great crime is committed, viz., 
idolatry, incest, murder, or actions that lead to these crimes. 
It is further decreed for breaking the Sabbath (Exod. xxxi. 
15) ; because the keeping of Sabbath is a confirmation of our 
belief in the Creation ; a false prophet and a rebellious elder ^ 
are put to death on account of the mischief which they cause ; 
he who strikes his father or his mother is killed on account of 
his great audacity, and because he undermines the constitution 
of the family, which is the foundation of the state. A rebel* 
lious and disobedient son is put to death (Deut. xxi. 18 sq,) 
on account of what he might become, because he will likely 
be a murderer; he who steals a human being is killed^ 
because he is also prepared to kill him whom he steals 
(Exod. xxi 16). Likewise he who is found breaking into a 
house is prepared for murder (ibid, xxii 1), as our Sages 
stated.' These three, the rebellious and disobedient son, he 
who steals and sells a person, and he who breaks into a 
house, become murderers in the course of time, as is well 
known. Capital punishment is only decreed in these serious 
crimes, and in no other case. Not all forbidden sexual inter- 
course is visited with the penalty of death, but only in those 
cases ^ in which the criminal act can easily be done, is of 
frequent occurrence, is base and disgraceful, and of a 

^ In Hebrew, pigguL By this term a sacrifice is denoted which has been 
defiled by the intention daring the shechitah of eating a part of the sacrifice 
after the time limited. The term occurs Lev. xiz. 7, and viL 18. 

' Deut xvii 12, although couched in general terms, is interpreted by 
tradition as referring only to the rebellious elder {zaken mamreh). See BabyL 
Talm. Sanhediin, 87 a. 

' Mishnah Sanhedrin, viii. 6. A thief, caught in the act of breaking into 
a house, is not put to death by the court of justice ; but as the law does not 
protect him, he may to some extent be considered as actually sentenced to 
death. 

< Lev. XX. 10-16, xxi. 9 ; Deut. xxiii. 13-27. 



200 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

tempting character ; otherwise ^ excision is the punishment 
Likewise not all kinds of idolatry are capital crimes, but 
only the principal acts of idolatry, such as praying* to 
an idol, prophespng in its name,^ passing a child through 
the fire,* consulting with familiar spirits,** and acting as a 
wizard or witch.® 

As punishments and judgments are evidently indispens- 
able, it was necessary to appoint judges throughout the 
country in every town ; witnesses must be heard ; and a king 
is required whom all fear and respect, who is able to restrain 
the people by various means, and who can strengthen and 
support the authority of the judges. Although I have shown 
the reason of all the laws contained in " the Section of Judges" 
(Sefer Shofetim), I find it necessary, in accordance with the 
object of this treatise, to explain a few of these laws, e.^., the 
laws concerning a rebellious elder.^ 

God knew that the judgments of the Law will always 
require an extension in some cases and curtailment in others, 
according to the variety of places, events, and circumstances,® 
He therefore cautioned against such increase and diminution, 
and commanded, " Thou shalt not add thereto nor diminish 
from it " (Deut. xiii 1) ; for constant changes would tend to 
disturb the whole system of the Law, and would lead people to 
believe that the Law is not of Divine origin. But permission 

^ Lev. XX. 17 iqq. This division> corresponds to the division made in chajK 
xlix. between cases in which parent and child (root and branch) are con- 
cerned and those cases which relate to brothers and sisters (treated liki root 
and branch). 

2 Comp. Babyl. Talm. Sanhedrin, 60 b. In Mishneh-torah L, Hilchoth 
Abhodhah-zarah iii. 3, Maimonidcs enumerates four kinds of service to idols 
which were always considered capital crimes, viz., sacrificing an animal, 
burning incense, pouring out drink-offering, and bowing down (AuAtacA- 
avaycih) ; the last-named is probably identical with prayer, which is cited 
as an instance, because it is connected with or included in every service. 
Idolatrous services not punishable with death are such as are peculiar to a 
certain idol, and are performed in honour of another idol (ibid. 10). 

' Ibid. V. 6. * Lev. xx. 2. " Lev. xx. 27. • Exod. xxil 17. 

' Deut. xviL 12; Babyl. Talm. 87 a; Mishneh-torah, Sepher shofetim, 
Hilchoth mamrim, iii. 4 aqq, 

^ According to Ibn Tibbon : according as it appears from the circum- 
stances. 



PART m. — CHAPTEE XU. 201 

is at the same time given to the wise men, i.e,, the great 
court (Synhedrin) of every nation to make fences round 
the judgments of the Law for their protection, and to intro- 
duce bye-laws (fences) in order to insure the keeping of the 
Law.^ Such fences once erected remain in force for ever. 
The Mishnah therefore teaches : '' And make a fence round 
the Law " (Aboth i. 1). In the same manner they have the 
power temporarily to dispense with some religious act pre- 
scribed in the Law, or to allow that which is forbidden, if 
exceptional circumstances and events require it; but none 
of the laws can be abrogated permanently, as has been 
explained by us in the Introduction to the Commentary on 
the Mishnah * in treating of temporary legislation. By this 
method the Law will remain perpetually the same, and will 
yet admit at all times and under all circumstances such 
temporary modifications as are indispensable. If every 
scholar had the power to make such modifications, the 
multitude of disputes and differences of opinion would have 
produced an injurious effect. Therefore it was commanded 
that of the Sages only the great Synhedrin, and none else, 
should have this power; and whoever would oppose their 
decision should be killed. For if any critic were allowed to 
dispute the decision of the Synhedrin, the object of this law 
would not be attained ; it would be useless. 

Transgressions may be divided into four classes, viz. — (1.) 
involuntary transgressions, (2.) sins committed in ignorance, 
(3.) sins done knowingly, and (4) sins done spitefully. He 
who sins involuntarily is, according to the distinct declaration 
of the Law, exempt from punishment, and free from all blame ; 
comp. " Unto the damsel thou shalt do nothing ; there is in 
the damsel no sin worthy of death" (Deut. xxii. 26). If a 
person sins in ignorance, he is blamable ; for if he had been 
more considerate and careful, he would not have erred. 
Although he is not punished, his sin must be atoned for, and 
for this reason he brings a sin-offering. The Law dis- 

^ According to Munk : in order to prevent the alteration of the Law. 
' It is stated there that the prophet could temporarily suspend a law, but 
on condition that his arrangement is not intended to be permanent. 



/" 



202 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

tinguishea in this respect between a private person ^ and a 
king,2 a high-priest* or Teacher of Halachah.* Hence we 
conclude that a person who acts wrongly, or who teaches 
wrongly, guided by his own reasoning — except in the case of 
the great Synhedrin or the high-priest — ^is treated as mezid 
(as one who sins knowingly), and does not belong to the 
category of shogegim (of those who sin by error). A rebel- 
lious elder is therefore put to death, although he acted and 
taught according to his view. But the great Synhedrin must 
teach according to its opinion, and if the opinion is wrong, 
the sin is considered as due to error. In reference to such a 
case the Law says, " And if the whole congregation of Israel 
err," &c. (Lev. iv. 13). It is on this principle that our Sages 
say, "The error in learning amounts to intentional sin" 
(Aboth iv. 13); he who has studied insufficiently, and teaches 
and acts according to his defective knowledge, is to be con- 
sidered as if he sinned knowingly. For if a person eats 
of the fat of the kidneys in the belief that it is the fat of 
the rump, his error is not so grave as the error of him who, 
eating of the fat of the kidneys, knows that it is that fat, 
but is ignorant of the fact that it is prohibited. The latter 
brings a sin-offering although he is almost an intentional 
transgressor. But this is only the case as far as he acts 
according to his knowledge; but if he decides a religious 
question [wrongly], he is undoubtedly an intentional sinner. 
The Law admits the plea of error in a religious decision only 
in the case of the great Synhedrin. 

He who has sinned knowingly must pay the penalty pre- 
scribed in the Law ; he is put to death or receives stripes, or 
— for transgression of prohibitions not punishable by stripes 

^ See Lev. iv. 27 tqq. ' Ibid. iy. 22 aqq. * Ibid. 8 tqq. 

^ The passage, Lev. iv. 13 »qq., " If the whole congregation of the children 
of Israel sin," &c, is interpreted by tradition as referring to the Great 
Synhedrin. A teacher, separate from the body of the Synhedrin, is not 
included in the four classes of persons that may bring a sin-offering when 
they have sinned inadvertently. He is always treated as meM, as one 
who sins knowingly. This rule, however, refers only to a person who is 
qualified for deciding religious questions. Mishneh-torah XIY., Hilchoth 
momrim iii 5. 



PART m. — CHAPTER XLI. 203 

— other corporal punishment,^ or pays a fine. There are 
fiome sins for which the punishment is the same, whether 
they have been committed knowingly or unknowingly ; 
because they are frequent, and are easily done, consisting only 
in the utterance of words, and involving no action besides;* 
e.g.y false swearing by witnesses,^ or by trustees.* Intercourse 
with a betrothed handmaid ^ is likewise easy and frequent ; 
she is exposed unprotected, being in reality neither hand- 
maid nor a free person, nor a married woman,^ according to 
the traditional interpretation of this precept 

If a person sins presumptuously, so that in sinning he 
shows impudence and seeks publicity, if he does not sin 
only to satisfy his appetite, if he does what is prohibited by 
the Law, not only because of his evil inclinations, but in 
order to oppose and resist the Law, he '' reproacheth the 
Lord" (Num. xv. 30), and must undoubtedly be put to 
death. None will act in such a manner but such as have 
conceived the idea to act contrary to the Law. According 
to the traditional interpretation, therefore, the above passage 
speaks of an idolater^ who opposes the fundamental prin- 

^ The prohibitions not punishable by malkoth (stripes) ore ennmerated by 
Maimonides in Mishneh-torah XIY., Hilchoth Sanhedrin xix. 1-4. Makhath- 
marduihf lit, '' striking for rebellion," is inflicted on the transgressor when 
punishment of death or stripes is not admissible, and he continues the same 
sin in spite of warnings received (ibid, xyiii. 5). 

' That is to say, in accordance with the principle laid down by Haimonides 
{auprat p. 196), the transgression, which is easily carried out, requires a 
severe punishment, the thogeg is in the cases mentioned here treated as 
mezid. Comp. BabyL Talm. Cherithuth, 9 a. 

' I.e., witnesses who are summoned by the court to give evidence in a certain 
matter, and swear that they know nothing about it (Lev. v. 1 tqq.) In this 
case and the next the phrase ve-nedam mimffiennu, *'and it be hid from him,*' 
is absent from the text ; hence the interpretation that the same rule applies 
whether the perjury is committed knowingly or unknowingly, t.e., with the 
knowledge that a certain offering is to be brought by the sinner, or without 
that knowledge. Comp. BabyL Talm. Shebhuoth, 30 a and 32 b. 

^ Lev. V. 20 tqq. Mishnah, Shebhuoth v. 1. 

^ Lev. xix« 20-22. BabyL Talm. Cherithuth, 9 a. Comp. Toseph. Jom- 
tobh on Mishnah Cherithuth ii 4. 

• BabyL Talm. Le, 11 a. 

' See Sifri on Num. xv. 22 tqq., and BabyL Talm. Cherithuth 7 a. 



206 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

against the usual inclination of soldiers to fornication, when 
they are away from their homes a long time. Grod therefore 
commanded us to do certain things which remind us that 
He is in our midst; we will thereby be saved from those 
evil practices ; as it is said, " and thy camp shall be holy, 
that He see no unclean thing in thee '* (ibid.). Even those 
who are unclean by pollution, were compelled to stop out- 
side the camp till the evening, and '* then he shall come into 
the camp again.'' ^ It will thus be confirmed in the heart of 
every one of the Israelites that their camp must be like 
a sanctuary of the Lord, and it must not be like the camps 
of the heathen, whose sole object is corruption and sin ; who 
only seek to cause injury to others and to take their pro* 
perty ; ^ whilst our object is to lead mankind to the service 
of God, and to a good social order. I have told you already 
that I only propose to give here such reasons as are apparent 
from the text of the Law.* 

To the same class belongs also the law concerning *' the 
marriage of a captive woman " (Deut. xxL 10 sq,). There is 
a well-known saying of our Sages: "This law is only a 
concession to human weakness/'^ This law contains, never- 
theless, even for the nobler class of people, some moral 
lessons to which I will call your attention. For although 
the soldier may be overcome by his desire which he is 
unable to suppress or to restrain, he must take the object of 
his lust to a private place, "into the inner of his house" 
(Deut. xxi. 12), and he is not permitted to force her in the 
camp. Similarly our Sages say, that he may not cohabit 
with her a second time before she leaves ofif her mourning, 

^ It is probably by error that Maimonides quotes these words from Lev. 
xiv. S, instead of '* And when the sun is down, he shall oome into the camp 
again " (Deut. xxiii. 11). 

* Comp. " Keep thee from every wicked thing *' (Deut. xzilL 9}. So also 
Sif ri ad locum, 

> That is to say, that Maimonides only gives the reasons of the laws 
directly commanded in the Pentateuch, and not of aU those detailed rules 
concerning them taught in the Oral Law. 

« Babyl. Tahn. Eiddushin, 21 b. 



PAKT m.— CHAPTER XLH. 207 

• 

and is at ease about her troubles. She must not be pre- 
vented from mourning and crying, and she must be per- 
mitted to abstain from bathing, in accordance with the 
words, "and she shall weep for her father and for her 
mothier" (ibid.); for mourners find comfort in crying and 
in excitement till the body has not sufficient strength to bear 
the inner emotions ; in the same manner as happy persons 
find rest in various kinds of play. Thus the Lord is merci- 
ful to her and gives her permission to continue her mourning 
and weeping till she is worn out. You know certainly that 
he married her as a heathen, and that during the thirty days 
she openly keeps her religion and even continues her 
idolatrous practices; no interference with her faith was 
allowed during that time ; and after all that she could not 
be sold, nor treated as a handmaid^ if she could not be 
induced to accept the statutes of the Law. Thus the Law 
does not ignore the cohabitation of the Israelite with the 
captive woman, although it involved disobedience to God 
to some extent, having taken place when she was still a 
heathen. The Law prescribes : " Thou shalt not make mer- 
chandise of her, because thou hast humbled her" (ibid. 14). 
We have thus shown the moral lessons contained in these 
laws,^ and we have explained the reason of every precept 
of this section 



CHAPTER XLIL 



The precepts of the seventh class are the civil laws enume- 
rated in the Section on Judgments, and part of the Section 
on Property. The object of these precepts is obvious. They 
define the ways of equity in the various transactions which 
must take place between man and man. Those that are 
engaged in such transactions must mutually promote each 
other's interests; neither of the parties must strive to in- 

^ According to the Arabic, and Cbarizi : in this law. 



208 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

crease only his own profit, and that he alone should enjoy the 
whole benefit of the transaction. In the first place, no over- 
charge is permitted ; only the ordinary and known rate of 
profit may be taken. The law fixes the limits of profits 
within which the transaction is valid.^ Even imposition in 
mere words [where no material harm is inflicted] is for- 
bidden,^ as is well known. Next comes the law of the four 
kinds of bailees;^ the fairness of the law is evident. If 
one keeps the property of his neighbour for nothing, 
without deriving therefrom any benefit for himself, and is 
only obliging his neighbour, he is free from all responsibility, 
and if any injury is done to the property, the owner alone 
must bear the loss. He who borrows a thing keeps it only 
for his own advantage, whilst the oMnaer lends it to him 
to oblige him; he is therefore responsible for everything; 
any loss in the property must be borne by the borrower. 
If one takes wages for keeping the property or pays for 
using it,^ he as well as the owner profit thereby ; the losses 
must therefore be divided between them. It is done in this 
manner ; the bailee pays for any loss caused through want 
of care, namely, when the property is stolen or lost ; for this 
happens only when the bailee does not take sufficient pre- 
caution. The owner, on the other hand, bears such losses as 
cannot be prevented; namely, if by accident the animal falls 
and breaks its limbs, or is carried away by armed men as 
booty, or if it dies. The Law further ordains merciful con- 

^ It is fixed to one-sixth of the value of the thing. If the overcharge is 
more than one-sixth, the transaction is cancelled. Comp. BabyL Talm. Baba 
Metsiah, 67 a. 

' Comp. Rashi on Ley. xxv. 17. 

' Viz., a, who keep the neighbour's property for nothing {tkomer chinnam) ; 
b, who keep it and are paid for doing so {shomer tackar) ; c, who borrow 
something without paying for the use of it {ihoel) ; d, who hire something 
{9ockeT)f Exod. xxil 6-14. Mishnah, Baba Metsia vii 8. 

* Babyl. Talm. Baba Metsia, 93 a. Maimonides adopts the opinion of 
Rabbi Jehudah, who treats the tocher like thomer tachar ; Rabbi Meir is of 
opinion that soeher has the same advantages as ihamer chinnam. In the 
Pentat (2. c.) this law is not defined. 



PART ni.— CHAPTER XLIL 209 

duct towards hired workmen because of their poverty. 
Their wages should be paid without delay/ and they must 
not be wronged in any of their rights ; ^ they must receive 
their pay according to their work. Another instance of 
kindness to workmen is this : according to the regulations of 
this law, workmen,' and even animab/ must be permitted to 
partake of the food in the preparation of which they have been 
engaged. The laws which relate to property include law 
concerning inheritance. They are based on the sound prin- 
ciple that man must not '' withhold good from those to whom 
it is due " (Prov. iii 27), and when he is about to die, he 
must not conceive ill-will against his heirs, by squandering 
his property, but leave it to the one who has the greatest 
claim on it, that is, to him who is his nearest relation, " unto 
his kinsman that is next to him of his family " (Num. xxvii. 
11). It is clearly stated that the son has the first claim, then 
comes the daughter,^ then the brother, and then the father's 
brothers, as is well known. The father must leave the right 
of the first-bom to his eldest son, because his love for 
this son came first ; he must not be guided by his inclina- 
tion. He may not make the son of the beloved first- 
born before the son of the hated (Deut. xxi. 16). Thus 
our highly equitable Law preserves and strengthens the 
virtue of respecting all kinsmen, and doing well unto 
them, as the prophet says : '' He that is cruel troubleth his 
own flesh " (Prov. xi. 17). The Law correctly says, " Thou 
shalt open thine hand wide unto thy brother, unto thy poor " 
(Deut. XV. 11). Our Sages bestow much praise upon him 
who is kind to- his relatives, and him who marries the 

* Lev. xix. 18. 

' Ibid. See Rashi ad locum, 

* Deut. zxiii. 25, 26. According to the traditional interpretation (Babyl. 
Talm. Baba Metsia 87 b), the passage refers to workmen. 

* Deut. XXV. 4. 

^ According to the Arabic (Munk) : " The child has the first claim, then 
comes the brother.'* The English translation followed here the Hebrew 
versions of Ibn Tibbon and Charizi, as being more in accordance with the 
law contained in Num. zxviL 8. 

VOL. IIL 



210 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

daughter of his sister.^ The Law has taught us how far we 
have to extend this principle of favouring those who are 
near to us, and of treating kindly every one with whom we 
have some relationship, even if he offended or wronged us ; 
even if he is very bad, we must have some consideration 
for him. Thus the Law says : " Thou shalt not abhor an 
Edomite, for he is thy brother" (ibid, xxiii. 7). Again, if 
we find a person in trouble, whose assistance we have once 
enjoyed, or of whom we have received some benefit, even if 
that person has subsequently done evil to us, we must bear 
in mind his previous [good] conduct. Thus the Law tells 
us : " Thou shalt not abhor an Egyptian, because thou wast 
a stranger in his land " (ibid.), although the Egyptians have 
subsequently oppressed us very much, as is well known. See 
how many moral lessons we have derived from these pre- 
cepts. The last two precepts do not belong to the seventh 
class ; but the discussion of the preference due to relatives 
as regards inheritance led us to speak of the Egyptians and 
the Edomites. 



CHAPTER XLIIL 



The precepts of the eighth class are enumerated in "the 
Section on Seasons " {Sefer zemannim). With a few excep- 
tions, the reasons for all of them are stated in the Law. The 
object of Sabbath is obvious, and requires no explanation. 
The rest it affords to man is known ; one-seventh of the life of 
every man, whether small or great, passes thus in comfort, 
and in rest from trouble and exertion. This the Sabbath 
effects in addition to the perpetuation and confirmation of 
the grand doctrine of the Creation.* The object of the Fast 
of Atonement is evident The Fast creates the sense of 

1 Babyl. Talm. Yebhamoth, 62 b. 

' The same two reasons are given by Biaimonidefl in Part II., chap' 
zxxi. 



PART HI. — CHAPTER XLIH. 211 

repentance; it is the same day on which the chief of all 
prophets came down [from Mount Sinai] with the second 
tables, and announced to the people the divine pardon of 
their great sin ; ^ the day was therefore appointed for ever as 
a day devoted to repentance and true worship of God. For 
this reason all material enjoyment, all trouble and care for 
the body, are interdicted, no work may be done ; the day 
must be spent in confession ; every one shall confess his sins 
and abandon them. 

Other holy days are appointed for rejoicing and for such 
pleasant gathering as people generally need. They also pro- 
mote the good feeling that men should have to each other in 
their social and political relations. The appointment of the 
special days for such purposes has its cause. The reason for 
the Passover is well known. It is kept seven days, because 
the period of seven days is the unit of time intermediate be- 
tween a day and a month. It is also known how great is the 
importance of this period in Nature,^ and in many religious 
duties.' For the Law always follows Nature, and in some 
respects brings it to perfection ; for Nature is not capable of 
designing and thinking, whilst the Law is the result of the 
wisdom and guidance of God, who is the author of the in- 
tellect of all rational beings. This, however, is not the 
theme of the present chapter ; let us return to our subject. 

The Feast of Weeks is the anniversary of the Eevelation 
on Mount Sinai. In order to raise the importance of this 

^ According to tradition, Moses spent on Mount Sinai three times forty 
days, from the seventh of Sivan to the tenth of Tishri. The first forty days 
ended on the seventeenth of Tammnz, on which day Moses broke the tables 
of the decalogue ; the second forty days, which he spent in prayers for Israel, 
ended on the first of Ellol ; the third forty days ended on the tenth of Tishri, 
on which day Qod forgave the Israelites their sin of making a golden calf. 
Comp. Rashi on Ezod. xzxiii. 11. 

' The principal changes in the moon take place every seven days ; certain 
diseases develop in seven days ; the leper was therefore in some cases left by 
the priest in suspense for seven days, or twice or thrice seven days, before he 
was declared clean or unclean (Lev. xiii. and ziv.) 

* The seventh day is Sabbath ; Passover and Tabernacles were kept seven 
days ; a menstruous woman was kept separate for seven days, kc 



212 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

day, we count the days that pass since the preceding fes- 
tival, just as one who expects his most intimate friend on a 
certain day counts the days and even the hours. This is 
the reason why we count the days that pass since the offer- 
ing of the Omer, between the anniversary of our departure 
from Egypt and the anniversary of the Lawgiving. The latter 
was the aim and object of the exodus from Egypt, and thus 
God said, "I brought you unto myself" (Exod. xix. 4). As 
that great revelation took place only on one day, so we 
keep its anniversary only one day ; but if the eating of 
unleavened bread on Passover were only commanded for 
one day, we should not have noticed it, and its object would 
not have been manifest. For it frequently happens that we 
take the same kind of food for two or three days. But by 
our continuing for a whole period [of seven days] to eat 
unleavened bread, its object becomes clear and evident 

New- Year ^ is likewise kept for one day ; for it is a day of 
repentance,* on which we are stirred up from our forgetfulness. 
For this reason the shofar is blown on this day, as we have 
shown in Mishneh-toraL* The day is, as it were, a prepara- 
tion for and an introduction to the day of the Fast, as is 
obvious from the national tradition about the days between 
New- Year and the Day of Atonement.* 

The Feast of Tabernacles, which is a feast of rejoicing and 
gladness,^ is kept seven days, in order that the idea of the festi- 
val may be more noticeable. The reason why it is kept in the 

1 In the Pentftteach the feast is called yom teruah, ** a day of blowing the 
shofar," and siehron teruahf " a memorial of blowing the shofar ; " in the 
Mishnah (Rosh ha^shanah i 1) it is one of four different new-year*8 days for 
different purposes, and is caUed New- Year's Day par excellence, 

* This is probably derived from the name of the feast, ziehron Uruak, a 
memorial of blowing the shofar, or ** remembering through the blowing of the 
shofar ; " for the notion of remembering through the shofar suggested the idea 
that something has been forgotten or neglected. 

* Hilchoth Theshubha iU. 4. 

^ The days from the first to the tenth of Tishri are kept as the " ten days 
of penitence '* (asereth yeme ha-theshul^ah), 

' Comp. Lev. xxiii 40. In the ritual the feast is called zeman timehaShenu, 
'* the season of our rejoicing." 



PART III. — CHAPTER XLIII. 213 

autumn is stated in the Law, " When thou hast gathered in the 
labours out of the field " (Exod. xxiii. 16) ; that is to say, when 
you rest and are free from pressing labours. Aristotle in the 
ninth book of his Ethics/ mentions this as a general custom 
among the nations. He says : " In ancient times the sacri- 
fices and assemblies of the people took place after the in- 
gathering of the com and the fruit, as if the sacrifices were 
offered on accoimt of the harvest." Another reason is this — 
in this season it is possible to dwell in tabernacles, as there 
is neither great heat nor troublesome rain. 

The two festivals, Passover and the Feast of Tabernacles, 
imply also the teaching of certain truths and certain moral 
lessons. Passover teaches us to remember the miracles 
which God wrought in Egypt, and to perpetuate their 
memory ; the Feast of Tabernacles reminds us of the mir- 
acles wrought in the wilderness. The moral lessons derived 
from these feasts is this : man ought to remember his evil 
days in his days of prosperity. He will thereby be induced 
to thank God repeatedly, to lead a modest and humble life 
We eat, therefore, unleavened bread and bitter herbs on Pass- 
over in memory of what has happened unto us, and leave [on 
Succoth] our houses in order to dwell in tabernacles, as inha- 
bitants of deserts do that are in want of comfort. We shall 
thereby remember that this has once been our condition; 
[comp.] "I made the children of Israel to dwell in booths" (Lev. 
xxiii. 43) ; although we dwell now in elegant houses, in the 
best and most fertile land, by the kindness of God, and be- 
cause of His promises to our forefathers, Abraham, Isaac, and 
Jacob, who were perfect in their opinions and in their con- 
duct. This idea is likewise an important element in our 
religion; that whatever good we have received and ever 
will receive of God, is owing to the merits of the Patriarchs, 
who " kept the way of the Lord to do justice and judgment " 
(Gen. xviii 19). We join to the Feast of Tabernacles the 

* Comp. Arist Nicom. Ethics viii. — Narboni : the law retained those ancient 
customs that were not connected with idolatry. 



214 GUIDE OF THE PEBPLEXEO. 

Feast of the Eighth Day, in order to complete our rejoicings/ 
which cannot be perfect in booths, but in comfortable and 
well-built houses. As regards the four species * [the branches 
of the palm tree, the citron, the myrtle, and the willows of the 
brook] our Sages gave a reason for their use by way of Agadic 
interpretation," the method of which is well known to those 
who are acquainted with the style of our Sages. They use 
the text of the Bible only as a kind of poetical language [for 
their own ideas], and do not intend thereby to give an inter- 
pretation of the text. As to the value of these Midrashic 
interpretations, we meet with two dififerent opinions. For 
some think that the Midrash contains the real explanation of 
the text, whilst others, finding that it cannot be reconciled 
with the words quoted, reject and ridicule it. The former 
struggle and fight to prove and to confirm such interpreta- 
tions according to their opinion, and to keep them as the real 
meaning of the text ; they consider them in the same light as 
traditional laws. Neither of the two classes understood it, 
that our Sages employ biblical texts merely as poetical ex- 
pressions, the meaning of which is clear to every reasonable 
reader. This style was general in ancient days ; all adopted 
it in the same way as poets [adopt a certain style]. Our 
Sages say,* in reference to the words, " and a paddle (yathed) 
thou shalt have upon thy weapon " [azetiecha, Deut. xxiii. 14] : 
Do not read azenecha, " thy weapon," but oznecha, " thy ear." 

1 Another reason has been suggested in Talmud and Midrash. " A king 
invited his children to a feast. After a few days, when the day of departure 
has arrived, the king says to his children, < I beg of you stay another day, the 
separation from you is too hard.* " See Rashi on Lev. zziiL 86. 

' Lev. xxiii. 40, boughs of the goodly tree, branches of the palm trees, 
boughs of thick-leaved trees, and willows of the brook {ethrog, lulabh, hadatim, 
arabJioth). These four together are generally called lulabh, because the lulabh 
(branch of palm-tree) is the longest and most prominent of the four species. 

> See Midrash rabboth, Lev. sect 80. 

* Comp. Babyl. Talm. Kethuboth 15 a. — Narboni remarks : " If Maimonides 
in earnest holds that the prophets were shown certain things, from the names 
of which, by transposition, they had to draw a lesson, he need not consider the 
midrashic interpretation introduced by the formula ' do not read ' {al tikre) as 
a mere rhetoric phrase.'' 



PART IIL — CHAFTEB XLIIL 215 

You are thus told, that if you hear a person uttering something 
disgraceful, put your fingers into your ears. Now, I wonder 
whether those ignorant persons [who take the Midrashic inter- 
pretations literally] believe that the author of this saying gave 
it as the true interpretation of the text quoted, and as the 
meaning of this precept ; that in truth yathed, " the paddle," 
is used for " the finger," and azanecha denotes " thy ear/' I 
cannot think that any person whose intellect is sound can 
admit this. The author employed the text as a beautiful 
poetical phtase, in teaching an excellent moral lesson, 
namely this : It is as bad to listen to bad language as it is 
to use it. This lesson is practically connected with the 
above text. In the same sense you must understand the 
phrase, " Do not read so, but so," wherever it occurs in the 
Midrash. I have departed from my subject, but it was for 
the purpose of making a remark useful to every intellectual 
member of the Kabbanites. I now return to our theme. I 
believe that the four species are a symbolical expression of 
our rejoicing that the Israelites changed the wilderness, " no 
place of seed, or of figs, or of vines, or of pomegranates, or of 
water to drink " (Num. xx. 5), with a country full of fruit- 
trees and rivers. In order to remember this we take the fruit 
which is the most pleasant of the fruit of the land, branches 
which smell best, most beautiful leaves, and also the best of 
herbs,^ i.e,, the willows of the brook. These four kinds have 
also those three purposes : First, they were plentiful in those 
days in Palestine, so that every one could easily get them. 
Secondly, they have a good appearance, they are green ; some 
of them, viz., the citron and the myrtle, are also excellent as 
regards their smell, the branches of the palm-tree and the 
willow having neither good nor bad smelL Thirdly, they keep 
fresh and green for seven days, which is not the case with 
peaches, pomegranates, asparagus, nuts, and the like. 

^ It Ib strange that Maixnonidea describes " the willows of the brook '* as 
the best among the herbi. He calls it perhaps an herb because it is devoid of 
the three qualities that distiuguish the Ivlabh^ ethrog^ and hadatim. The 
explanation that the willows of the brook are meant by " the best of herbs " 
is absent from the version of Charizi. 



216 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 



CHAPTER XLIV. 

The precepts of the ninth class are those enumerated in the 
Section on Love. Their reason is obvious. The actions pre- 
scribed by them serve to remind us continually of God, and 
of our duty to fear and to love Him, to keep all His com* 
mandments, and to believe concerning God that which every 
religious person must believe. This class includes the laws 
of Prayer,^ Reading of Shema,* Grace,' and duties connected 
with these,* Blessing of the priests,^ TefiUin,® Mezuzah,^ 
Tsitsith,^ acquiring a scroll of the Law, and reading in it ^ at 
certain times. The performance of all these precepts incul- 
cates into our heart useful lessons. All this is clear, and a 
further explanation is superfluous, as being a mere repeti- 
tion and nothing else. 

^ According to Maimonides the daty of praying to God and giving expression 
to our feelings of gratitude for His blessings, is implied in the words "you shall 
serve God " (Ez. xxiii 25), Mishneb-torah, Hilchoth teiillah L 1. Although in 
Mishnah Berachoth and Mishneh-torah, the laws concerning reading the <&«imb 
precede the laws of prayer, Maimonides names "prayer " first as the more im- 
portant duty, and one that is not limited to a certain time, whilst the time for 
reading the thema is limited. 

" The following three passages from the Pentateuch are read twice every 
day, viz.,Deut. vi. 4-9, xi 13-21, and Num. xv. 87-41. Mishneh-torah IL, 
Hilchoth Keriath shema ; Mishnah Berachoth L-iii. 

* Deut viii. 10, Bayl. Talm. Berachoth, 48 b. It is called in the Talmud 
" the three blessings," because at first it consisted of three portions concluding 
with a blessing ; a fourth portion was added at a later period 

* Such are the blessings which precede and follow the reading of the thema; 
the blessing before meals, Ac. 

* Num. vl 23-26. 

6 £x. xiii. 9-16 ; Deut. vL 8, xi. 18. The teJUltn consist of four Scriptoie 
passages (Ex. xiii 1-10, 11-16 ; Deut vi. 4-9, and xl 13-21) written on parch- 
ment put in a smaU capsula, and fastened to the head and the left arm by means 
of leather straps. They are called t^fiUin because they are worn during prayer 
{tefiUah). 

' Deut. vi 9, XL 17. » Num. xv. 87-41 f. 

* Mishneh-torah, Hilchoth tefiUin, &c., vii 1. It is the duty of every 
Israelite either to write a copy of the Law or to buy it and to read it. This 
duty is considered implied in Deut xxxi 19. 



PART IlL — CHAPTEK XLV. 217 



CHAPTEE XLV. 

The precepts of the tenth class are those enumerated in the 
laws on the Temple (Hilchoth beth ha-bechirah), the laws 
on the vessels of the temple and on the ministers in the 
temple [Hilchoth kele ha-mikdash veha-obhedhim bo]. The 
use of these precepts we have stated in general terms. It is 
known that idolaters selected the highest possible places on 
high mountains where to build their temples and to place 
their images. Therefore Abraham, our father, chose^ Mount 
Moriah, being the highest ^ mount in that country, and pro- 
claimed there the Unity of God. He selected the west of 
the mount as the place toward which he turned during his 
prayers,' because [he thought that] the most holy place was 
in the West ; * this is the meaning of the saying of our Sages, 
" The Shechinah " (the' Glory of God) is in the West ; " « and 
it is distinctly stated in the Talmud Yoma that our father 
Abraham chose the west side,® the place where the Most 

^ It b strange that Maunonides ascribes the selection of Mount Moriah for 
the sacrifice of Isaac to Abraham, whilst according to Scripture (Gen. xxiii. 1 ) 
God showed him the place. 

' The Mount Moriah is here described, in accordance with tradition, as the 
highest of the mountains of Judah ; at present it is almost the lowest hill. 
Tradition perhaps originated in phrases like *' the mountain of the height of 
Israel " (Ez. xx. 20), which were taken in their literal sense. The Targum 
seems to have understood the word '* height *' {merom) in a figurative sense, 
for he renders it kudtha, " holiness." 

* Kiblah in the original Ibn Tibbon has not translated this word. 
^ Munk : En effet, le Saint des Saints ^tidt k Toccident. 

B BabyL Talm. Baba Bathra, 25 a. 

* In Mishnah Yoma v 4 we read : When the ark had disappeared a stone was 
in that place that had been there since the time of the first prophets ; it was 
caUed " Ebhen Shethijah.** In the phrase " since the time of the first pro- 
phets,'* Maimonides seems to find an allusion to Abraham, as he was the first 
that built there an altar. This Ebhen-shethiyah was in the Most Holy, 
towards which, according to Babyl. Talm. Berach. 80 a., the Israelites turn 
during prayer. Thus Abraham by building the altar on Mount Moriah on 
the western side of it, determined the site of the Most Holy in the Temple, 
and the side towards which the Israelites turn during prayer. Munk, Fart 
III. p. 468, cites the opinion of Dr. Klein, who offers two suggestions in 



218 GUIDE OF THE PEBPLEXED. 

H0I7 was built I believe that he did so because it was 
then a general rite to worship the sun as a deity. Un- 
doubtedly all people turned then to the East [worshipping 
the Sun]. Abraham turned therefore on Mount Moriah to 
the West, that is, the site of the Sanctuary, and turned his 
back toward the sun ; and the Israelites, when they aban- 
doned their God and returned to the early bad principles, 
stood " with their backs toward the Temple of the Lord and 
their faces towards the East, and they worshipped the sun 
toward the East" (Ez. viii. 16). Note this strange fact^ I 
do not doubt that the spot which Abraham chose in his 
prophetical spirit, was known to Moses our Teacher, and to 
others ; for Abraham commanded his children that on this 
place a house of worship should be built. Thus the Targum 
says distinctly, "And Abraham worshipped and prayed 
there in that place, and said before God, ' Here shall coming 
generations worship the Lord ' " (Gen. xxii 14), For three 
practical reasons the name of the place is not distinctly stated 
in the Law, but indicated in the phrase " To the place which 
the Lord will choose" (Deut. xii. 11, &c.). First, if the 
nations had learnt that this place was to be the centre of the 
highest religious truths, they would occupy it, or fight about 
it most perseveringly.. Secondly, those who were then in pos- 
session of it might destroy and ruin the place with all their 
might. Thirdly, and chiefly, every one of the twelve tribes 

explanation of this passage : (1.) According to Pesachim, 88 a., Isaac and 
Jacob prayed on Mount Moriah on the same place where Abraham had 
worshipped God ; and according to the Firke di-Rabbi Eliezer (chap, zxxr.), 
the stone which Jacob set up as an altar was called Ebhen-thethiyah, In Yoma 
the Ebhen-shethiyah in the Temple is described in the same manner as the 
Ebhen-shethiyah in Pirke di-Rabbi Eliezer. Hence it follows that Jacob set 
up the stone where the Most Holy of the Temple was, and that Abraham had 
consecrated the place to divine worship. (2. ) Maimonides refers to the foUow- 
ing passage from Yoma 28a. : ** The prayer of Abraham takes place at the 
darkening of the waUs." Maimonides understood this passage to indicate 
that Abraham, when praying in the morning, turned towards the west side 
of the hill. It is generally taken as a description of time. 

^ Viz., that the turning towards the East was an essential part in the 
idolatry of those days. Efodi : that our holy Law aims chiefly at the abolition 
of idolatry. 



PART III. — CHAPTER XLV. 219 

would desire to have this place in its borders and under its 
control ; this would lead to divisions and discord, such as were 
caused bj the desire for the priesthood.^ Therefore it was 
commanded that the Temple should not be built before the 
election of a king who would order its erection, and thus 
remove the cause of discord. We have explained this in the 
Section on Judges.* 

It is known that the heathen in those days built temples 
to stars^ and set up in those temples the image which thej 
agreed upon to worship ; because it was in some relation to 
a certain star or to a portion of one of the spheres. We were, 
therefore, commanded to build a temple to the name of God, 
and to place therein the ark with two tables of stone, on 
which there were written the commandments *'I am the 
Lord," &c., and "Thou shalt have no other God before me," &c. 
Naturally the fundamental belief in prophecy precedes the 
belief in the Law, for without the belief in prophecy there 
can be no belief in the Law. But a prophet only receives 
divine inspiration through the agency of an angeL Comp. 
"The angel of the Lord called" (Gen. xxii. 15). "The 
angel of the Lord said unto her" (ibid, xvi 11), and other 
innumerable instances. Even Moses our Teacher received 
his first prophecy through an angel. "And an angel of the 
Lord appeared to him in the flame of fire " (Exod. iii.). It 
is therefore clear that the belief in the existence of angels 
precedes the belief in prophecy, and the latter precedes 
the belief in the Law. The Sabeans, in their ignorance of 
the existence of God, believed that the spheres with their 
stars were beings without beginning and without end, 
that the images and certain trees, the Asheroth, derived 
certain powers from the spheres, that they inspired the 
prophets, spoke to them in visions, and told them what was 
good and what bad. I have explained their theory when 
speaking of the prophets of the Ashera.^ But when the wise 

^ Maimonides probably aUudes to the rebellion of Korah (Norn, xvi.) 
^ Mishneh-torah XV., Hilchoth melachim i 1. 
* Supra, ch. xxlx., pi 139. 



220 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED* 

men discovered and proved that there was a Being, neither 
itself corporeal nor residing as a force in a corporeal body, 
viz., the true, one God, and that there existed besides other 
purely incorporeal beings which God endowed with His 
goodness and His light, namely, the angels,^ and that these 
beings are not included in the sphere and its stars, it became 
evident that it was these angels and not the images or Asheroth 
that charged the prophets. From the preceding remarks it is 
clear that the belief in the existence of angels is connected 
with the belief in the Existence of God ; and the belief in 
God and angels leads to the belief in Prophecy and in the 
truth of the Law. In order to firmly establish this creed, 
God commanded [the Israelites] to make over the ark the 
form of two angels.^ The belief in the existence of angels is 
thus inculcated into the minds of the people, and this creed 
is in importance next to the belief in God's Existence ; it leads 
us to believe in Prophecy and in the Law, and opposes idolatry. 
If there had only been one figure of a cherub, the people 
would have been misled and would have mistaken it for 
God's image which was to be worshipped, in the fashion of 
the heathen; or they might have assumed that the angel 
[represented by the figure] was also a deity, and would thus 
have adopted a Dualism. By making two cherubim and 
distinctly declaring " the Lord is our God, the Lord is One," 
Moses clearly proclaimed the theory of the existence of a 
number of angels ; he left no room for the error of consider- 
ing those figures as deities, since [he declared that] God is 
One, and that He is the Creator of the angels, who are more 
than one. 

A candlestick was then put in front of the curtain, as a sign 
of honour and distinction for the Temple* For a chamber in 

^ The term angel designates an immaterial being (Part L ch. zlix.), but 
homonymously it is applied to material beings (II. ch. vi.). 

' These are called in the Law ** chenibim " (Exod. xxv. 18 »qq.)t and Maimo> 
nides seems to interpret the word ehtrubim like malach, as originally signify- 
ing ** immaterial beings," and by way of homonymity, *' spheres," and other 
material beings (tupraf ch. iii. ). 



PAKT III. — CHAPTER XLV. 221 

which a continual light burns, hidden behind a curtain,^ 
makes a great impression on man, and the Law lays great 
stress on our holding the Sanctuary in great estimation and 
regard, and that at the sight of it we should be filled with 
humility, mercy, and soft-heartedness. This is expressed in 
the words, " And ye shall reverence my sanctuary " (Lev. 
xix. 30), and in order to give these words more weight, they 
are closely joined to the command to keep the Sabbath. 

The use of the altar for incense ^ and the altar for burnt- 
offering ^ and their vessels is obvious ; but I do not know 
the object of the table with the bread upon it continually,^ 
and up to this day I have not been able to assign any reason 
to this commandment. 

The commandment that the stones of the altar shall not 
be hewn and that no iron tool shall be lifted up upon them 
(DeuL xxvii. 5), has been explained by our Sages as follows : 
It is not right that the tool that shortens man's life should 
be lifted up upon that which gives length of life.^ As an 
Agadic explanation this is good ; but the real reason is this : 
the heathen used to build their altars with hewn stones ; we 
ought not to imitate them. For this reason we have to make 
an altar of earth : '' Thou shalt make unto me an altar of 
earth " (Exod. xx. 24) ; if it should be impossible to dispense 
altogether with stones, they must not be hewn, but employed 
in their natural state. Thus the Law also prohibits from 
worshipping over painted stones (Lev. xxvL 1),® or from 
planting any tree near the altar of the Lord (Deut. xvi. 21). 

^ Mank : " Gar oe Temple, ton jours ^air^ par dea lampea et s^par^ (du 
Saint des Saints) par un voile," &o. But the Temple was not separated. from 
the Most Holy by a curtain ; the latter was the principal part of the Temple ; 
besides, there is no copulative conjimction (et) in the original or in Ibn Tib- 
bon's version. The " curtain " does not refer to the partition between the 
Holy and the Holy of Holies, but to the curtain at the entrance to the Holy, 
which separated and hid the inner of the Temple with the lamps from the 
eyes of the multitude. 

' Exod. XXX. 1-10. " Ibid, xxvii 1-S. * Ibid. xxv. 23-30. 

* Mishnah Kodashim, Middoth iii. 4. 

* Ck>mpi Mishneh-torah I. Hilchoth abhodha-zarah vi 6. According to 
tradition, the prohibitioa of tbhen mcukUh (Lev. xxvL 1) does not refer to the 



222 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

The object of all these commandments is the same, namely, 
that we shall not employ in the worship of God anything 
which the heathen used in the worship of their idols. In 
general terms this is repeated in the following passage : " Take 
heed, that thou inquire not after their gods, saying, How did 
these nations serve their gods ? even so will I do likewise " 
(Deut. xii. 30) ; the Israelites shall not do this, because — 
as is expressly added — " every abomination unto the Lord, 
which He hateth, have they done unto their gods." 

The mode of worshipping Peor, then very general among 
the heathen, consisted in uncovering the nakedness.^ The 
priests were therefore commanded to make breeches for 
themselves to cover their nakedness during the service, and, 
besides, no steps were to lead up to the altar, " that thy 
nakedness be not discovered thereon " (Exod. xx. 23). 

The Sanctuary was constantly guarded and surrounded [by 
Levites] ^ as a mark of respect and honour ; and at the 
same time the layman,^ the unclean, and mourners," ^ were 
prevented from entering the Sanctuary, as will be explained. 
Among other things that tend to display the greatness and 
the glory of the Temple and to inspire us with awe, is the 
rule that none shall approach it in a state of drunkenness 
or uncleanness, or in a disorderly state,^ t.e., the hair undressed 

worship of an image of stone, but to the use of stones as a substratum to wor- 
ship upon (comp. U-hishtachavath aUha^ " to worship upon it '*) in the manner 
of the idolatrous people. 

^ Comp. Mishnah Nezikin, Sanhedrin, vii. 6. 

■ Num. xviii. 2-7. 

' Lit, the ignorant; Ibn Tibbon, '* Aa-weAoZim." Probably the hedpot, 
Le.f the non-priest or non-Levite is meant, called in the Bible tar, " stranger " 
(ibid. ver. 4). 

* Lit, " in a state of disorder ; '* oomp. Mishneh-torah XIV., Hilchoth 
abhel, v. 1. Mourners are not allowed to cut the hair, to wash their garments, 
or to take a bath. Ibn Tibbon gives a double translation of this phrase : In 
the time of mourning and those who have not washed their body. Charizi 
omits it altogether. The phrase, '* as will be explained,*' probably refers to 
the explanation of this term in the next sentence, ic, "the haar undressed 
and the garments rent'* 

' Ibn Tibbon: "Who has not washed himself." The explanation which 
follows in the text does not agree with this rendering. 



PABT m. — CHAPTER XLV. 223 

and the garments rent ; and that every one who officiated as 
priest should first wash his hands and his feet^ 

In order to raise the estimation of the Temple, those who 
ministered therein received great honour; and the priests 
and Levites were therefore distinguished from the rest. It 
was commanded that the priests should be clothed properly 
with beautiful and good garments, '' holy garments for glory 
and for beauty" (Exod. zxviiL 2). A priest that had a 
blemish was not allowed to officiate ; ^ and not only those 
that had a blemish were excluded from the service, but also 
— ^according to the Talmudic interpretation of this precept — 
those that had an abnormal appearance ; ' for the multitude 
does not estimate man by his true form but by the per- 
fection of his bodily limbs and the beauty of his garments, 
and the Temple was to be held in great reverence by all. 

The Levites did not sacrifice ; they were not considered as 
being agents in the atonement of sins, for it was only the 
priest who was commanded " to atone for him *' (Lev. iv. 26) 
and " to atone for her " (Lev. xii 8). The duty of the Levites 
was the performance of vocal music ; ^ and a Levite became 
therefore disabled for service when he lost his vbice.^ The 
object of the singing is to produce certain emotions; this 
object can only be attained by pleasing sounds and melo- 
dies accompanied by music, as was always the case in the 
Temple. 

Again, the priests, even when fit for service, and actually 
officiating in the Temple, were not allowed to sit down,® or 
enter it whenever they liked ; the Most Holy was only entered 
by the high-priest four times on the Day of Atonement, and 

1 Exod. xxz. 17-21.— Comp. Mishneh-tonh VIIL, EOehoth heth-ka- 
beehirah I 1, 8, 14, 17. 
« Lev. xxi. 16-28. 

* Babyl. Taltn. Bechorotb, p. 43 a. 

* Babyl. Talm. Erecbin, 11 a. — Tbis function of tbe Levites is implied in 
tbe term ve-sheretk he-them adonai, ** and be sball minister in tbe name of the 
Lord"(De«t. xviii. 7). 

' Misbneb-torab, HUchoth Icde ha-mikdaah^ iii. 8. 
< Babyl. Talm. Yoma, 69 b. 



224 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

on no other occasion.^ The object of all these rules was to 
raise the estimation of the Sanctuary in the eyes of the 
people. 

Since many beasts were daily slaughtered in the holy place, 
the flesh cut in pieces and the entrails and the legs burnt and 
washed, the smell of the place would undoubtedly have been 
like the smell of slaughter-houses, if nothing had been done 
to counteract it. They were therefore commanded to bum in- 
cense there twice every day, in the morning and in the evening 
(Exod. XXX. 7, 8), in order to give the place and the garments 
of those who officiated there a pleasant odour. There is a 
well-known saying of our Sages,' ''In Jericho they could 
smell the incense " [burnt in the Temple.] This provision 
likewise tended to support the dignity of the Temple. If 
there had not been a good smell, let alone if there had 
been a stench, it would have produced in the minds of 
the people the reverse of respect ; for our heart generally 
feels elevated in the presence of good odour, and is attracted 
by it, but it abhors and avoids bad odour. 

The anointing oil (Exod. xxx. 22-33) served a double 
purpose : to give the anointed object a good odour, and to 
produce the impression that it was something great, holy, and 
distinguished, and better than other objects of the same 
species; it made no difference whether that object was a 
human being, a garment, or a vessel. All this aimed at pro- 
ducing due respect towards the Sanctuary, and indirectly 
fear of God. When a person enters the temple, certain 
emotions are produced in him; and obstinate hearts are 
softened and humbled. These plans and indirect means' 
were devised by the Law, to soften and humble man's heart 
at entering the holy place, in order that he might intrust 
himself to the sure guidance of God's commandments. This 
is distinctly said in the Law : " And thou shalt cat before 
the Lord thy God, in the place which He shall choose to place 

^ Lev. xvL, 2 »qq, Miahnah Yoxna v.-viL 

^ Miahnah Kodaahim Tamid ill 8. 

* Lit., " by oounaels of old,'* or " by oounsela from far " (Is. xxv. 1). 



PART m.— CHAPTER XLV. 225 

His name there, the tithe of thy com, of thy wine, and of thine 
oil, and the firstlings of thy herds and of thy flocks ; that 
thou mayest learn to fear the Lord thy Ood always " (Dent. 
xiv. 23). The object of all these ceremonies is now clear. 
The reason why we are not allowed to prepare [for common 
use] the anointing oil and the incense (ibid, ver. 32, 38) is 
obvious; for when the odour [of the oil and incense] is 
perceived only in the Sanctuary, the desired effect is great ; 
besides [if it were allowed for every one to prepare the 
anointing oil], people might anoint themselves therewith and 
imagine themselves distinguished ; much disorder and dissen- 
sion would then follow. 

It is clear that when the ark was carried on the shoulder, 
and was not put on a waggon,^ it was done out of respect 
towards it, and also to prevent its being damaged in its 
form and shape ; even the staves were not moved out of the 
rings,' for this reason. In order that the form of the 
Ephod and the breastplate should not be spoiled, they 
were never separated.^ The garments were also entirely 
woven and not cut, in order not to spoil the work of the 
weaving.* 

Those that ministered in the Temple were strictly pro- 
hibited to interfere with each other^s work ; ^ for if in public 
duties and offices, each one would not have assigned to him 
his particular task, general carelessness and neglect would 
soon be noticed. 

It is evident that the object of giving different degrees of 
sanctity to the different places, to the Temple mount, the 
place between the two walls, to the Hall of women, to the 
Hall, and so on up to the Most Holy,^ was to raise the respect 

1 Kum. ni 81, ttnd rii. 9. 
' Ex. xxY, 15. 
» Ex. xxviil 28. 

• Ibid. ver. 82. Gomp. BabyL Talm. Toma» 72 b. ; Mishneh-torah, YIII. 
fiilchoth kele hft-mikdash, viiL 16. 

• Mishoeh-torah, ibid. iii. 9, 10 ; Num. iv. 19, 49. 

• Miflhnah Tahaioth, Kelim, L 8 9 ; Mishneh-torah, TIIL; Hilchoth beth 
ha-bechirab, yH 11-21. 

VOL. IIL P 



226 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

and reverence of the Temple in the heart of every one that 
approached it. 

We have thus described the reason of all precepts of this 
class. 



CHAPTER XLVL 

The precepts of the eleventh class are enumerated in the 
Section on Divine Service {Sefer abhodhah) and the Section 
on Sacrifices (Sefer ha-korbanoth). We have described their 
use in general terms (ch. xxxii.). I will now proceed to 
give the reason of each precept separately. 

Scripture tells us, according to the Version of Onkelos/ 
that the Egyptians worshipped Aries, and therefore abstained 
from killing sheep, and held shepherds in contempt. Comp. 
" Behold we shall sacrifice the abomination of the Egyptians," 
&c. (Ex. viii 26) ; " For every shepherd is an abomination to 
the Egyptians" (Gen. xlvi 34).* Some sects among the 
Sabeans worshipped demons, and imagined that these as* 
sumed the form of goats, and called them therefore '' goats" 
[seirim]. This worship was widespread. Comp. " And they 
shall no more offer their sacrifices unto demons, after whom 

^ According to Onkelos, the Egyptians feared or revered the sheep. This 
does not mean that they worshipped it as a deity, but that they honoured it 
as sacred to a deity, and would on this account not kiU it. Haimonides sup- 
poses that Aries was the deity to which the sheep was sacred. Maimonides 
quotes Onkelos, because the Hebrew text **toahJiath tnitarayim** leaves it in 
doubt whether the animal killed, or the act of killing the animal, was in abhor* 
rence to the Egyptians. According to Muuk, the expression "abomination '* 
{toahJuUh) is here, as in' other Scriptural passages, a substitution for "god" 
{doh£). The parallel passages, however, which Munk quotes, are of a different 
character ; they are the original composition of the Scriptural authors, whilst 
here words are quoted which were addressed to the Egyptian king. Comp. 
Ibn Ezra Comm. on Exod. viii. 22. As to the sacreduess of the sheep, at least 
with the Egyptian at Thebes, and the representation of Ammon with the 
head of a ram, see Herodotus II. ch. xliL This seems to indicate that the 
worship of Ammon was connected with the constellation of Aries. (See Jablon- 
ski, Panth., ^gypt, L p. 166.) 

' Ibn Tibbon and Charizi omit the second quotation. 



PART m. — CHAPTER XLVI. 227 

they have gone a whoring " (Lev. xvii. 7). For this reason 
those sects abstained from eating goats' flesh. Most idolaters 
objected to killing cattle, holding this species of animals in 
great estimation. Therefore the people of Hodu [Indians] 
up to this day do not slaughter cattle even in those countries 
where other animals are slaughtered. In order to eradicate 
these false principles, the Law commands us to offer sacrifices 
only of these three kinds: "Te shall bring your offering 
of the cattle [viz,], of the herd and of the flock " ^ (Lev. i. 2). 
Thus the very act which is considered by the heathen as the 
greatest crime, is the means of approaching God, and obtain- 
ing His pardon for our sins. In this manner, evil principles, 
the diseases of the human soul, are cured by other principles 
which are diametrically opposite.' 

This is also the reason why we were commanded to kill a 
lamb on Passover, and to sprinkle the blood thereof outside 
on the gates. We had to free ourselves of evil doctrines and 
to proclaim the opposite, viz., that the very act which was then 
considered as being the cause of death would be the cause of 
deliverance from death. Comp. "And the Lord will pass 
over the door, and will not suffer the destroyer to come unto 
your houses to smite you " (Ex. xii. 23). Thus they were 
rewarded for performing openly a service every part of which 
was objected to by the idolaters. 

To the above reason for the exclusive selection of the 
three kinds of animals for sacrifices, we may add the follow- 
ing, namely, that these species are animals which can be got 
very easily, contrary to the practice of idolaters that sacrifice 
lions, bears, and wild beasts, as is stated in the book Tomtom.^ 
As, however, many could not afford to offer a beast, the Law 
commanded that birds also should be sacrificed, but only of 
those species which are found abundantly in Palestine, are 

^ The ** flock *' comprises the two species, sheep and goats (Lev. i. 10). 

* By the term " diametrically opposite " Maimonides indicates that he con- 
siders the sacrificial rite merely as a means of keeping man away from the 
other extreme, viz., idolatry. 

! Supra, Comp. ch. xziz. p^ 144. 



228 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

suitable, and can easily be obtained, namely, turtle-doves and 
pigeons. Those who are too poor to offer a bird, may bring 
bread of any of the kinds then in use : baked in the oven,^ 
baked in a plate,^ or in a fiying^pan.^ If the baking of the 
bread is too much trouble for a person, he may bring flour> All 
this concerns only those who desire to sacrifice ; for we are dis- 
tinctly told that the omission of the sacrificial service on our 
part will not be reckoned to us a sin:^ '' If thou shalt forbear 
to vow, it shall be no sin in thee" (Deut. xxiii 22). The idola- 
ters did not offer any other bread, but leavened, and chose sweet 
things for their sacrifices, which they seasoned with honey, as 
is fully described in the books which I named before;^ but salt 
is not mentioned in any of their sacrificea^ Our Law there- 
fore forbade us to offer leaven or honey, and commanded us to 
have salt in every sacrifice : " With all thine offerings thou 
shalt offer salt" (Lev. ii 13). It is further ordained that 
the offerings must all be perfect and in the best condition, in 
order that no one should slight the offering or treat with 
contempt that which is offered to God's name : " Offer it now 
unto thy governor; will he be pleased with thee ? " (MaL i. 8). 
This is the reason why no animal could be brought that was 
not yet seven days old (Lev. zxii. 26) ; it is imperfect and 
contemptible, like an untimely birtk Because of their de- 

* Ley. ii. 4. 

* Ibid. Tor. 5.~A. V. ''pan." Comp. Mishneh-toreh, VIII. HUckoih Moseft. 
hoirha$ioihf xiiL 7. 

* Ibid. Ter. 7. 

* Ibid. ver. 1. 

' This applies to the sacrificial legislation of Ley. i. S. The sacrifices 
mentioned in these chapters are free-will ofliBringa, with the exception of the 
minehath bikkurim, ** first-fruit offering," which was not yolnntaiy bat com- 
pulsory. The remark of Maimonides applies in fact only to a small portion of 
the sacrificial code. Most of the sacrifices are directly commanded, and these 
commands are enumerated by our author (Introd. to Mishneh-torah) among 
the Mit8voih-aseh, ** affirmatiye precepta" Comp. No. 27-80, 89-51. 

* See ch. zxix. 144. 

^ This probably refers to the idolatry of the Sabeana as described in the 
books named aboye, ch. zxiz. As to the Greeks and Romans it is weU known 
that salt formed an important ingredient in their sacrifices. See Plin. XXL 
41; Ovid. FatL I. 837. 



PABT m. — CHAPTER XLVL 229 

graded character it was prohibited to bring " the hire of a 
harlot and the price of a dog " (Deut xxiiL 18) into the Sanc- 
tuary. In order to bring the oflfering in the best condition, 
we choose the old of the turtle-doves and the young of the 
pigeons,^ the old pigeons being less agreeable. The obla- 
tion must likewise be mingled with oil, and of fine flour (Lev. 
ii. 1), for in this condition it is good and pleasant Frank- 
incense is prescribed (ibid.) because its fumes are good in places 
filled with the odour of burnt flesh. The burnt-oflfering was 
flayed (Lev. i 16), and its inwards and legs, although they were 
entirely burnt, had to be previously washed (ibid. ver. 9), in 
order that due respect should be shown to the sacrifice, and it 
should not appear despicable and contemptible. This object is 
constantly kept in view, and is often taught, '* Ye say, The 
table of the Lord is polluted ; and the fruit thereof, even his 
meat, is contemptible " (Mai. i. 12). For the same reason no 
body uncircumcised,* or unclean (Lev. xxii. 4), was allowed to 
partake of any offering ; nor could any offering be eaten that 
had become unclean (Lev. vii. 19), or was left till after a 
certain time (ibid. vii. 15-17), or concerning which an illegal 
intention had been conceived ; ^ and it had also to be con- 
sumed in a particular place. ^ Of the burnt-offering, which 
is entirely devoted to God, nothing at all was eaten. Those 
sacrifices which are brought for a sin, viz., sin-offering and 
guilt-offering, must be eaten within the court of the Sanc- 
tuary {aaarah), and only on the day of their slaughtering and 
the night following, whilst peace-offerings, which are next in 

1 Babyl. Talm. Challin, p. 22 a. 

* The mle is distinctly mentioned in reference to the Passoyer offering 
(Ex. xiL 48), but according to the Traditional interpretation it applies to all 
sacrificea. Comp. Mishnah Yebhamoth, yiii. 1, and Shabbath, zix. 6. 

* According to the Traditional interpretation the term piggtdf " abomina- 
tion ** (Ler. Til IS and xix. 7), does not apply to sacrifices of which portions 
have been actually eaten after the prescribed time, but to those concerning 
which the intention to eat part of them after the legal time had been con- 
ceived when they were slaughtered. Comp. Mishnah Zebhachim, il 2, and 
Talm. Babli Zebhachim, p. 29 a. 

^ See Mishnah Zebhachim, v. 



230 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

sancity, being sacrifices of the second degree, may be eaten 
in the whole of Jerusalem, on the day they have been offered 
and on the following day, but not later. After that time the 
sacrifices would become spoiled, and be unfit for food. 

In order that we may respect the sacrifices and all that is 
devoted to the name of God, we are told that whosoever takes 
part of a holy thing for common use has committed a tres- 
pass, must bring a sin-offering, and restore what he has taken 
with an addition of the fifth part of its value, although he 
may have committed the trespass in ignorance.^ Por the 
same reason animals reserved for holy purposes must not be 
employed in work ; nor is the shearing of such animals per- 
mitted (Deut. XV. 19). The law concerning the change of a 
sacrifice must be considered as a preventive ; for if it were 
permitted to substitute a good animal for a bad one, people 
would substitute a bad animal for a good one, and say that 
it was better than the original ; it was therefore the rule 
that, if any such change had taken place, both the " original 
sacrifice and the exchange thereof should be holy" (Lev. 
3cxvii. 9). When a person redeems a thing devoted by him 
to the Sanctuary, he must likewise add one-fifth (Lev. xxviL 
13, 15) ; the reason for this is plain. Man is usually selfish, 
and is naturally inclined to keep and save his property. 
He would therefore not take the necessary trouble in the 
interest of the Sanctuary ; he would not expose his property 
sufficiently to the sight of the valuer, and its true value 
would not be fixed. Therefore the owner had to add one- 
fifth, whilst a stranger paid only the exact value. These 
rules were laid down in order that people should not despise 
that with which the name of God is connected, and which 
serves as a means of approaching God. The oblation of the 
priest was entirely burnt (Lev. vi 16), because the priest 
offered up his oblation by himself, and if he were to offer it 
and at the same time to eat it, it would appear as if he had 
not performed any service. For nothing was offered upon 
the altar of the ordinary oblations of any person except the 

^ Comp. fupra, ch. zli p. 208. 



PABT in. — CHAPTER XLVI. 231 

frankincense and a handful of the flour or cake ; and if, in 
addition to the fact that the offering was small, he who 
offered it were himself to eat it, nothing of a sacrificial 
service would be noticed. It is therefore entirely burnt 
(Lev. vi. 16). 

The reason of the particular laws concerning the Passover 
lamb is clear. It was eaten roasted by fire (Ex. xii. 8-9) in 
one house, and without breaking the bones thereof (ibid. ver. 
46). In the same way as the Israelites were commanded to 
eat unleavened bread, because they could prepare it hastily, 
so they were commanded, for the sake of haste, to roast the 
lamb,^ because there was not sufficient time to boil it, or to 
prepare other food ; even the delay caused by breaking the 
bones and to extract their marrow was prohibited ; the one 
principle is laid down for all these rules, '' Te shall eat it 
in haste " (Ex. xii. 11). But when haste is necessary the 
bones cannot be broken, nor parts of it sent from house to 
house ; besides, the messenger could not wait for his meal till 
he returned. Such things would lead to laxity and delay^ 
whilst the object of these rules was to make a show of the 
hurry and haste, in order that none should be too late to 
leave Egypt with the main body of the people, and be thus 
exposed to the attacks and the evil [designs of the enemy]. 
These temporary commandments were then made permanent, 
in order that we may remember what was done in those days. 
'' And thou shalt keep this ordinance in his season from year 
to year" (Ex. xiiL 10). Each Passover lamb was only eaten 
by those who had previously agreed to consume it together, ^ 
in order that people should be anxious to procure it, and 
should not rely on friends, relations, or on chance, without 
themselves taking any trouble about it before Passover. The 
reason of the prohibition that the uncircumcised should 
not eat of it (Ex. xii 48) is explained by our Sages as 
follows ; ^ — The Israelites neglected circumcision during their 

^ The words hen Jut-Udi tnippene ha-ehippaeon have been omitted in the 
editions of Ibn Tibbon's Version. 

* Ex. xii. 4. Comp. Mishnah Zebhachim, t. 8. 

* Shemoth Babba, xiz. on Ex. xii. 44. 



232 GUIDE OF THE BEBPLEXED. 

long stay in Egypt, in order to make themselves appear like 
the Egjrptians.^ When God gave them the commandment 
of the Passover, and ordered that no one could kill the 
Passover lamb unless he, his sons, and all the male persons 
in his household were circumcised, that only then he could 
come near and keep it (ibid. xii. 47), all performed this com- 
mandment, and the number of the circumcised being large 
the blood of the Passover and that of the circumcision 
flowed together. The Prophet Ezekiel (xvL 6), referring to 
this event, says, " When I saw thee sprinkled with thine own 
blood, I said unto thee, live because of thy blood/' t.d, 
because of the blood of the Passover and that of the circum- 
cision. * 

Although blood was very unclean in' the eyes of the 
Sabeans, they nevertheless partook of it, because they 
thought it was the food of the spirits ; by eating it man has 
something in common with the spirits, which join him and 
tell him future events, according to the notion which people 
generally have of spirits. There were, however, people who 
objected to eating blood, as a thing naturally disliked by 
man ; they killed a beast, received the blood in a vessel or in 
a pot, and ate of the flesh of that beast, whilst sitting round 
the blood They imagined that in this manner the spirits would 
come to partake of Jthe blood which was their food, whilst 
the idolaters were eating the flesh ; that love, brotherhood, 
and friendship with the spirits was established, because they 
dined with the latter at one place and at the same time; 
that the spirits would appear to them in dreams, inform 
them of coming events, and be favourable to them. Buch ideas 
people liked and accepted in those days ; they were general, 
and their correctness was not doubted by any one of the 
common people. The Law, which is perfect in the eyes of 

^ This reason for the neglect of the circumcision is Maimonides* own sngges- 
tion ; it is not part of the quotation. Comp. ir^fra, ch. zliz. p. 268, note 2. 

' The Hebrew damaykh oontains a plural ; the Midiash, therefore, finds in 
this expression an allusion to the two acts — ^the killing of the Paaaover lamb 
and the circumcision. 



PART m.— CHAPTER XLVI. 233 

those who know it, and seeks to cure mankind of these 
lasting diseases, forbade the eating of blood, and emphasised 
the prohibition exactly in the same terms as it emphasises 
idolatry : '' I will set My face against that soul that eateth 
blood " (Lev. xvii, 10). The same language is employed in 
reference to him " who giveth of his seed unto Molech;" "then 
I will set My face against that man " (ibid. xx. 5). There is, 
besides idolatry and eating blood, no other sin in reference 
to which these words are used. For the eating of blood 
leads, to a kind of idolatry, to the worship of spirits. Our 
liaw declared the blood as pure, and made it the means of 
purifying other objects by its touch. " And thou shalt take 
of the blood . . . and sprinkle it upon Aaron, and upon his 
garments, and upon his sons, and upon the garments of his 
sons with him. And he shall be hallowed, and his garments, 
and his son," &c. (Ex. xxix. 21). Furthermore, the blood was 
sprinkled upon the altar, and in the whole service it was 
insisted upon pouring it out, and' not upon collecting it. 
Comp. " And he shall pour out all the blood at the bottom 
of the altar" (Lev. iv. 18) ; "And the blood of thy sacrifices 
shall be poured out upon the altar of the Lord thy Grod " 
(Deut. xii. 27). Also the blood of those beasts that were 
killed for common use, and not for sacrifices, must be poured 
out, "Thou shalt potir it upon the earth as water" (ibid. 
ver. 24). We are not allowed to gather and have a meal 
round the blood, " Tou shall not eat round the blood " ^ 

1 A. V. " Toa shaU not eat anything with the blood." According to the 
Babylonian Talmud seyeral prohibitions are implied in this passage, yiz., not 
to eat of the flesh of any animal before its life is quite extinct ; not to eat 
any portion of a sacrifice before its blood is sprinkled upon the altar ; that 
the members of the synhedrin who sentenced a criminal to death should not 
eat anything on the day of the execution ; that the relatives of a criminal 
who has been put to death shall not, like mourners, receive the meal of com- 
fort after the execution ; that the youth shall not be accustomed to excessive 
eating and drinking (which leads to a criminal life and to capital punish- 
ment). It is not strange that Maimonides suggests an explanation of his own, 
different from all these, although he has adopted one of them in his Mishneh- 
torah (XIV. ffilckoth mamrim, vii. 1). The task he proposed to himself in 
the present section is to give reasons for the laws contained in the Pentateuch 
in their literal meaning. (See mpra, ch. xli p. 194, note 1.) 



234 GUIDE OF THE PEBPLEXED. 

(Lev. xix. 26). As the Israelites were inclined to con- 
tinue their rehellious conduct, to follow the doctrines 
in which they had been brought up, and which were 
then general, and to assemble round the blood in 
order to eat there and to meet the spirits, God forbade 
the Israelites to eat ordinary meat ^ during their stay 
in the wilderness ; they could only partake of the meat of 
peace-offerings. The reason of this precept is distinctly 
stated, viz., that ** the blood shall be poured out upon the 
altar, and the people do not assemble round about " (ibid.). 
Gomp. '* To the end that the children of Israel may bring 
their sacrifices, which they offer in the open field, even that 
they may bring them unto the Lord. And the priest shall 
sprinkle the blood upon the altar, • . . and they shall no 
more offer their sacrifices unto the spirits " (Lev. xvii. 5-7). 
Kow there remained to provide for the slaughtering of the 
beasts of the field and birds, because those beasts were 
never sacrificed, and birds did never serve as peace-offerings 
(Lev. iii). The commandment was therefore given that when- 
ever a beast or a bird that may be eaten is killed, the blood 
thereof must be covered with earth (Lev. xvii 13), in order 
that the people should not assemble round the blood for the 
purpose of eating thera The object was thus fully gained 
to break (he connection between these fools ^ and their 
spirits. This belief flourished about the time of our Teacher 
Moses. People were attracted and misled by it. We find it 
in the Song of Moses (Deut. xxxiL) : " They sacrificed unto 
spirits, not to God " (ibid. 17). According to the explanation 
of our Sages, the words lo doha imply the following idea : 
They have not only not left off worshipping things in 
existence; they even worship imaginary things. This is 

^ Lit. " meat of desire.*' Meat of animals that^ had not been offered as 
peace-offerings were so called on account of the Scriptural phrase, ''when thy 
soul desireth to eat meat/' used in reference to this law. 

* That is, those who really believed in the power of spirits. According to 
Shem-tobh, Maimonides means those who are guided by ignorance and wrong 
notions. 



PAKT m. — CHAPTEE XLVt 235 

expressed in Sifri as follows : It is not enough for tiiem to 
worship the sun, the moon, the stars ; they even worship 
their image ^ (habtuih). The word halmaJi signifies " shadow." 
Let us now return to our subject The prohibition of 
slaughtering cattle for common use applied only to the 
wilderness, because in respect to the " spirits " it was then 
the general belief that they dwelt in deserts, that there 
they spoke and were visible, whilst in towns and in culti- 
vated land they did not appear. In accordance with this 
belief those inhabitants of a town who wanted to perform 
any of those stupid practices, left the town and went to 
woods and waste places. The use of cattle for common food 
was therefore allowed when the Israelites entered Palestine. 
Besides, there were great hopes that the disease would be- 
come weakened, and the followers of the doctrines would 
decrease. Furthermore, it was almost impossible that every 
one who wanted to eat meat should come to Jerusalem. 
For these reasons the above restriction was limited to the 
stay of the Israelites in the wilderness. 

The greater the sin which a person had committed, 
the lower was the species from which the sin-offering was 
brought. The offering for worshipping idols in ignorance 
was only a she-goat,^ whilst for other sins an ordinary 
person brought either a ewe-lamb or a she-goat (Lev. iv. 
27-35), the females being, as a rule, in every species, inferior 
to the males. There is no greater sin than idolatry, and also 
no inferior species than a she-goat. The offering of a king 
for sins^ committed ignorantly was a he-goat (ibid. ver. 
22-26), as a mark of distinction. The high priest and the 

^ /.e., the image of the san, the moon, and the stan, fonned hy reflection 
or refraction in water. As to the meaning of bahnah, comp. Arach, ed. A. 
Kohnt, 8.y. 

* The sin-offering described in Nam. xv. teq. is, according to the traditional 
interpretation, an atonement for the sin of idolatry. See Sifri and Rashi, 
ad locum, 

' That is, for ordinary sin ; in cases of idolatry no difference was made be- 
tween an ordinary person, high-priest, or king. Comp. Mishnah fforayoth, ii. 6. 



236 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

Synhedriii,^ wlio only gave a wrong decision in ignorance, bat 
have not actually committed a sin,^ brought a bull for their 
sin-offering (ibid. ver. 3-21), or a he-goat, when the decision 
referred to idolatry (Num. xv. 22-26).* The sins for which 
guilt-offerings were brought were not as bad as transgressions 
that required a sin-offering. The guilt-offering^ was there- 
fore a ram, or a lamb, so that the species as well as the sex^ 
were superior in this latter case, for the guilt-offering was a 
male sheep. For the same reason we see the burnt-offer- 
ing, which was entirely burnt upon the altar, was selected 
from the superior sex ; for only male animals were admitted 
as bumt-offeriDgs. It is in accordance with the same prin- 
ciple that luxury and incense were absent from the oblations 
of a sinner (Lev. v. ii.), and of a sotah, i,e., a woman suspected 
of adultery (Num. v. 15). In these cases the oil and the 
frankincense were not added ; this luxury was absent, because 
the persons that brought the oblation were not good and 
proper in their deeds, and they are, as it were, to be re- 
minded by their offerings that tiiey ought to repent ; as if 
they were told, " Your offering is without any ornamental 
addition on account of the wickedness of your deeds." As 
the sotah acted more disgracefully than any person who sins 
in ignorance, her offering consisted of the lowest kind, viz., 
of barley flour (ibid.). Thus the reasons of all these particu- 

^ lit " Congregation.*' T$ibbur, used here, corresponds to adath (Lev. iy. 
13), which term Tradition explains as denoting the Synhedrin. 

* This is correct only in reference to the Synhedrin, but the high priest did 
not bring a sin-offering unless he decided wrongly for himself, and also acted 
accordingly in ignorance. Comp. Mishnah Horayoth, ii. 1. 

' This only applies to the Synhedrin, and not to the high priest Comp. 
Maim. Mishneh-torah, IX., Hilch. shegagoth, xv, 3, unless we assume that 
the plural ''goats" implies "he-goat" in the case of the Synhedrin, and 
*' she-goat " in the case of the high-priest The Synhedrin, however, brought 
in addition to the he-goat as sin-offering also a bull as a burnt-offering. 

^ The cases in which a guilt-offering was brought are enumerated in Mishnah 
Zebhachim, v. 5. Comp. Lev. v. 15, 18, 25, ziv. 12, 14, xiz. 21, 22 ; Num. 
vi. 12. 

' Lit " a portion of the species.*' 



PART m. — CHAPTKR XLVI. 237 

lar laws ^ are well conneqied, and show that the precepts are 
wonderful ^ in their significance. 

Our Sages say ^ that the ofifering for the eighth day of 
dedication was " a calf, a young bullock for a sin-offering " 
(Lev. xi. 2), in order to atone for the sin of the Israelites in 
making a golden calf. The sin-offering» which was brought 
on the Day of Atonement (ibid. xtL 3), was likewise explained 
as being an atonement for that sin.^ From this argument of 
our S^es I deduce that he-goats were always brought as sin- 
offerings, by individual persons and also by the whole con- 
gregation, viz^ on the Festivals, New-moon, Day of Atonement, 
and for idolatry, because most of the transgressions and sins 
of the Israelites were sacrifices to spirits (jmrim, lit, goats), 
as is dearly stated, " They shall no more offer their sacrifices 
unto spirits" (Lev. zvii. 7). Our Sages, however, explained the 
fact that goats were always the sin-offerings of the congre- 
gation, as an allusion to the sin of the whole congregation 
of Israel; for in the account of the selling of the pious 
Joseph we read, "And they killed a kid of the goats" 
(Gen. xxxvii. 31). ^ Do not consider this as a weak argu- 
ment ; for it is the object of all these ceremonies to impress 
on the mind of every sinner and transgressor the necessity 
of continually remembering and mentioning his sins. Thus 
the Psalmist says, "And my sin is ever before me" (Ps. 
li. 3). The above-mentioned sin-offerings further show us 
that when we commit a sin, we, our children, and the chil- 
dren of our children, require atonement for that sin by some 
kind of service analogous to the sin committed. If a person 
has sinned in respect to property he must liberally spend his 
property in the service of God; if he indulged in sinful 

1 Instead of fftt^ukkimj " the laws," in the yersion of Ibn Tibbon, the 
HSS. haye ha-ehalakim, ''the parts," <.«., detailed or particular laws. 

' Shem-tob : for aU these laws are, without exception, based on the prin- 
ciple that the more serious the sin was, the lower and coarser was the species 
from which the sin-offering was brought. 

* Sin-offerings are brought on certain occasions apparently without refer- 
ence to particular sins. These Maimonides now attempts to explain. 

* Comp. Rashi on Ley. iz. 2, and on xyi 8. 

* Sifra on Ley. ix. 8. 



238 GUIDE OF THE PEKPLEXED. 

bodily enjoyments he must weary his body and trouble it 
by a service of privation and fasting, and rising early before 
daybreak. If he went astray in respect to his moral con- 
duct he must oppose his failings by keeping to the opposite 
extreme, as we have pointed out in Mishneh-torah HUehoth 
Deoth (chap, ii.) et passim. ^ If his intellectual faculties have 
been concerned in the sin, if he has believed something false 
on account of the insufficiency of his intellect, and his 
neglect of research and proper study, he must remedy his 
fault by turning his thoughts entirely away * from worldly 
affairs, and directing them exclusively to intellectual exer- 
cise, and by carefully reflecting on that which ought to 
form the subject of his belief. Comp. " And my heart hath 
been secretly enticed, but my hand touched ' my mouth " 
(Job xxxi. 27). These words express figuratively the lesson 
that we should pause and stop at that which appears doubt- 
ful, as has been pointed out by us in the beginning of this 
treatise. ^ The same ^ we notice in the case of Aaron. He 
had his share in the sin of the golden calf, and therefore a 
bullock and a calf were brought by him and his successors ^ 

^ Eight chapters (Introd. to Comm. on Abhoth), ch. iv. 

' Lit. " by letting his thoughts cease and his ideas rest" 

s A.y. '' hath kissed; " Jewish Family Bible (ed. H. Friedknder) : " hath 
been ruled by." 

^ According to Munk, " in the first part of this treatise," Fart I. ch. xzxii, 
where the same idea is expressed, and the same phrase employed as in the 
present chapter. According to Efodi, Maimonides alludes to I. ch. t., in 
which he points out the folly of forming a judgment about difficult problems 
without sufficient thought and study. 

' Viz., that the descendonts of a sinner for all generations should be 
guarded against the sin of their parent by seeking atonement for that sin by 
a sacrifice. 

' Ley. yiii. 2 and ix. 2. In assuming that the sacrificial ceremony 
described in Lev. yiii., ix. as the dedicatory offering of Aaron, was not 
repeated at the installation of succeeding high-priests, Maimonides adopts 
the literal meaning of the words, "As he hath done this day, so the Lord hath 
commanded to do, to make an atonement for you" (Lev. yilL 84). In 
Mishneh-torah (YIII. Hilch. k*le ha-mikdash t. 16) he follows the traditional 
interpretation, and requires as dedicatory offering of a new high-prieat only 
an oblation of a tenth deal of flour (ibid. yer. 20), 



PART m. — CHAPTER XLVI. 239 

as an offering. Similarly, the sin connected with a kid of 
goats was atoned for by a kid of goats. When this theory 
has been well established in the minds of the people, they 
mnst certainly be led by it to consider disobedience to God 
as a disgraceful thing. Every one will then be careful that 
he should not sin, and require a protracted and burdensome 
atonement; he will be afraid he might not be able to com- 
plete it, and will therefore altogether abstain from sinning, 
and avoid it This object [of the laws under discussion] is 
very clear, and note it likewise. 

I will here call your attention to a very remarkable thing, 
although it does not seem at first thought to belong to our 
subject. It is only the goat brought on New-moon as a sin- 
offering that the law calls " a sin-offering imto the Lord " 
(Num. xxviiL 15). The sin-offerings brought on the three 
festivals (ibid. ver. 22, 30 ; xxix. 5, 11, &c.) are not called 
so, nor are any other sin-offerings. The reason thereof is, 
according to my opinion, undoubtedly this : The additional 
offerings brought by the congregation at certain periods were 
all burnt-offerings ; only *' one kid of goats to make an 
atonement" was offered on every one of these exceptional 
days. The latter was eaten [by the priests], whilst the 
burnt-offerings were entirely consumed by fire, and are called 
" an offering made by fire unto the Lord." The phrases " a 
sin-offering unto the Lord" and "a peace-offering unto the 
Lord " do not occur in the law, because these were eaten by 
man ; but even those sin-offerings that were entirely burnt 
(Lev. iv. 12, 21) cannot be called " an offering made by fire 
unto the Lord," as will be explained in the course of this 
chapter. It is therefore impossible that the goats which are 
eaten [by the priests], and are not entirely burnt, should be 
called '' sin-offerings unto the Lord." But as it was found 
that the kid offered on New-moon might be mistaken as an 
offering brought to the moon, in the manner of the Egyptians,^ 
who sacrificed to the moon on the days of New-moon, it was 
distinctly stated that this goat is offered in obedience to God's 

^ See Herodotus, II. xlvii 



240 GUIDE OF THB PERPLEXED. 

command, and not in honour of the moon. This fear did 
not apply to the sin-offeringa on the Festivals, nor to any 
other sin-offering, because they were not offered on the days 
of New-moon, or on any other day marked out by Nature, 
but on such days as were selected by the Divine Will. Not so 
the days of New-moon ; they are not fixed by the Law [but 
by Nature]. On the latter days the idolaters sacrificed to 
the moon, in the same manner as they sacrificed to the sun 
when it rose and set in certain particular degrees. This is 
described in the works [mentioned above]. On this accotmt 
the extraordinary phrase '' A sin-offeriag unto the Lord '' is 
exceptionally introduced in reference to the goat faronght on 
New-moon, in order to remove the idolatrous ideas that were 
still lingering in the sorely diseased hearts. Note this 
exception likewisa A sin*offering which is brought in the 
hope to atone for one or more great sins, as, e.g.^ the sin- 
offering [of the synhedrin or the high-priest] for a sin com- 
mitted in ignorance, and the like,^ are not burnt upon the 
altar, but without the camp ; upon the altar only the burnt- 
offering, and the like,^ are burnt, wherefore it was called 
the altar of the burnt-offering. The burning of the holo- 
caust, and of every " memorial," ia called " a sweet savour 
unto the Lord ; " and so it undoubtedly is, since it serves to 
remove idolatrous doctrines from our hearts, as we have 
shown.^ But the burning of these sin-offerings is a symbol 
that the sin [for which the offering is brought] is utterly 
removed and destroyed, like the body that is being burnt ; 
of the sinful seed no trace shall remain, as no trace is left of 
the sin-offering, which is entirely destroyed by fire; the 
smoke thereof is not '' a sweet savour unto the Lord," but» 
on the contrary, a smoke despised and abhorred. For this 
reason the burning took place without the camp. Similarly 
we notice that the oblations of a sotah is called '' an offering 

^ That is, the bullock and the goat brought on the Day of Atonement for 
Bin-offerings. 

' I.e., Uie memorial of eveiy offering, and the oblation of the priests 
(Lev. vi 16). 

' Supra, ch. zxzii. p. 152. 



PABT jn. — CHAPTER XLVL 841 

of memorial, bringing iniquity to remembrance "(Num. v. 15); 
it is not a pleasing thing [to the Lord]. The goat [of the Day 
of Atonement] that was sent [into the wilderness] (Lev. xvi, 
20, seq,) served as an atonement for all serious transgressions ^ 
more than any other sin-offering of the congregation. As it 
thus seemed to carry off all sins, it was not accepted as an 
ordinary sacrifice to be slaughtered, burnt, or even brought 
near the Sanctuary ; ^ it was removed as far as possible, and 
sent forth into a waste, uncultivated, uninhabited land. 
There is no doubt that sins cannot be carried like a burden* 
and taken off the shoulder of one being to be laid on that of 
another being. But these ceremonies are of a symbolic 
character, and serve to impress men with a certain idea,' 
and to induce them to repent ; as if to say, we have freed 
ourselves of our previous deeds, have cast them behind our 
backs, and removed them from us as far as possible. 

As regards the offering of wine (Kum. xv. 6, seq,), I am at 
a loss to find a reason why God commanded it, since idola- 
ter9 brought wine as an offering. But though I am unable 
to give a reason, another person suggested the following one : 
Meat is the best nourishment for the appetitive faculty, 
the source of which is the liver ; wine supports best the vital 
faculty, whose centre is the heart ; music is most agreeable to 
the psychic faculty, the source of which is in the brain.* 
Each one of our faculties approaches God with that which it 
likes best. Thus the sacrifice consists of meat^ wine, and 
music. 

The use of keeping festivals is plain. Man derives benefit 
from such assemblies: the emotions produced renew the 
attachment to religion ; they lead to friendly and social in- 
tercourse among the people. This is especially the object 

1 Comp. Miahnah Toma, yiii 6. 

' The word lekikkdbherf ' to be buried," in the editions of Ibn Tibbon'a 
Version, is a miBtake for le-hikkarebh, '' to be brought near ** (Munk). 

* According to Ibn Tibbon, to inspire man with awe. 

^ Maimonides does not give this tripartition of nuin's faculties as his own. 
He seems to divide them into five : nutrition, sensation, imagination, voli- 
tion, and intellectual faculty. Eight Chapters, i 

VOL. IIL Q 



242 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

of the commandment to gather the people together on the 
Feast of Tabernacles, as is plainly stated : " that they may 
hear, and that they may learn and fear the Lord " (Dent 
xxxi. 12). The same is the object of the rule that the 
money for the second tithe must be spent by all in one place ^ 
(ibid, xiv. 22-26), as we have explained (chap, xxxix. p. 184). 
The fruit of trees in their fourth year,' and the tithe of the 
cattle,^ had to be brought to Jerusalem. There would there- 
fore be in Jerusalem the meat of the tithes, the wine of the 
fruit of the fourth year, and the money of the second tithe. 
Plenty of food would always be found there. Nothing of the 
above things could be sold ; ^ nothing could be set aside for 
another year ; the Law orders that they should be brought 
"year by year" (Deut. xiv. 22); the owner was thus com- 
pelled to spend part of them in charity. As regards the 
Festivals it is especially enjoined : *^ And thou shalt rejoice 
in thy feast, thou, and thy son, and thy daughter, and thy 
man-servant, and thy maid-servant, and the Levite, the 
stranger, and the fatherless, and the widow " (ibid, xvi 14). 
We have thus explained the reason of every law belonging 
to this class, and even many details of the laws. 



CHAPTEE XLVIL 

The precepts of the twelfth class are those which we have 
enumerated in the section on "Purity" (Sefer tdharah). 
Although we have mentioned their use in general,^ we will 

^ " The place which the Lord shull choose/' Jenualem. According to tra- 
ditional exphmation, the passage refers to the second tithe (maojer tihaU^ 
The first tithe was given to the Levites, the second tithe was consumed by the 
owner and his friends in Jerusalem, or money was substituted for it and spent 
there (Mishnah I., Maasersheni, i-iv.)* 

* Lev. xix. 24 ; Mishnah I.; Maaser sheni, r. 

* Lev. zxvii 82 ; Deut xii 6 ; Mishnah L ; Maaseraheni, L 2. 
^ Mishnah Maaser sheni, i. 2. 

* jSfupm, ch. zzxY. p. 166. 



L 



PART m. — CHAPTER XLVII. 243 

here offer an additional explanation, and [first] fally discuss 
the object of the whole class, and then show the reason of 
each single commandment, as far as we have been able to 
discover it. I maintain that the Law which was revealed 
to Moses, our Teacher, and which is called by his name, aims 
at facilitating the service and lessening the burden, and if 
a person complains that certain precepts cause him pain and 
great trouble, he cannot have thought of the habits and doc* 
trines that were general in those days. Let him consider the 
difference between a man burning his own son in serving his 
god, and our burning a pigeon to the service of our God. Scrip- 
ture relates, '' for even their sons and their daughters they 
bum in the fire to their gods" (Deut.xii. 31). This was the way 
in which the heathen worshipped their gods, and instead of 
such a sacrifice we have the burning of a pigeon or a hand- 
ful of flour in our worship. In accordance with this fact, the 
Israelites, when disobedient, were rebuked by God as follows : 
" My people, what have I done unto thee ? and wherein have 
I wearied thee ? Testify against Me " (Mic. vL 3). Again, 
" Have I been a wilderness unto Israel ? a land of darkness ? 
Wherefore say My people, We are miserable ; ^ we will come 
no more unto Thee" (Jer. ii. 31); that is to say, Through which 
of the commandments has the Law become burdensome to the 
Israelites, that they renounce it ? In the same manner God 
asks the people, " What iniquity have your fathers found in 
Me, that they are gone far from Me ? " &c. (ibid. ii. 5). All 
these passages express one and the same idea. 

This is the great principle which you must never lose 
sight of. After having stated this principle, I repeat that 
the object of the Sanctuary was to create in the hearts of 
those who enter it, certain feelings of awe and reverence, in 

* A.V^ "VTe are lords ;" •.«., we will no longer be serrants to God. So 
also Kimchi — According to Rashi and Targum : We have gone away. — It 
appears from P& Iy. 5, that rvd is a synonym to the verb him or hum, and 
probably denotes : to be excited, to be in distress, or to be miserable. Thus 
Isaac says to Esau : And it will come to pass when thou wilt be in distress — 
on account of Jacob's tyranny and injostice — that thou wilt break his yoke 
from off thy neck (Gen. zzyii 40). Comp. Part IL ch. xxxix. p. 187. 



244 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

accordance with the command, "You shall reverence My 
sanctuary " (Lev. xix. 30). But when we continually see an 
object, however sublime it may be, our regard for that object 
will be lessened, and the impression we have received of it will 
be weakened. Our Sages, consideriilg this fact, said that we 
should not enter the Temple whenever we liked, and pointed 
to the words: "Make thy foot rare in the house of thy 
friend " ^ (Prov. xxv. 17). For this reason the undean were 
not allowed to enter the sanctuary, although there are so many 
kinds of uncleanliness, that [at the same time] only a lew 
people are clean. For even if a person does not touch a beast 
that died of its own accord (Lev. xi 27), he can scarcely avoid 
touching one of the eight kinds of creeping animals (ibid 29, 
Beq.), the dead bodies of which we find at all times in houses^ 
in food and drink, and upon which we frequently tread 
wherever we walk ; and, if he avoids touching these, he may 
touch a woman in her separation (ibid. xv. 18), or a male or 
female that have a running issue (ibid. ver. 1, 9eq. and 25, 9eq,), 
or a leper (ibid. xiii. 46), or their bed (ibid. xv. 6). Escap- 
ing these, he may become unclean by cohabitation with his 
wife, or by pollution (ibid. 15), and even when he has cleansed 
himself from any of these kinds of uncleanliness, he cannot 
enter the Sanctuary till after sunset ; ' but not being en- 
abled to enter the Sanctuary at night time, although he is 
clean after sunset, as may be inferred from Middoth and 
Tamid? he is again, during the night, subject to becoming 

* A.V. " Withdraw thy foot from thy neighbour's house.'* The Hebrew 
hoker is taken in the same sense as yahar of the same root in 1 8am. ill. 1 : 
** And the word of the Lord was rare (A.V., precious) in those days." The 
" house of thy friend " is interpreted in the Agadic passage quoted|from the 
Talm. (Chagigah, 7 a) as referring to the Temple. 

' The phrase, *' And he shaU bathe himself in water, and be unclean until 
the cYen," is repeated almost in every one of the cases mentioned. A perton 
who has taken the prescribed bath is to some extent unclean until sonaeti 
and is called in the Talmud tebhuL-yom — a person who haa taken the bath 
the same day. Comp. Mishnah Kelim, i. 5, and Mishneh-torah VIII, Hil- 
choth biath ha-mikdash iii 14. 

> Comp. Mishnah V., Middoth L 1, and Tamid I 1. It is stated there that 
the Temple was locked during the night ; and it appears from JeroaaL Talm 



PART m.— CHAPTER XLVIL 245 

unclean either by cohabiting with his wife or by some other 
source of uncleanliness, and may rise in the morning in the 
same condition as the day before. All this serves to keep 
people away from the Sanctuary, and to prevent them from 
entering it whenever they liked. Our Sages, as is well 
known, said, " Even a clean person may not enter the Sanc- 
tuary for the purpose of performing divine service, unless he 
takes previously a bath." ^ By such acts the reverence [for the 
Sanctdary] will continue, the right impression will be pro- 
duced which leads man, as is intended, to humiUty. 

The easier the diffusion of uncleanliness is, the more 
difficult and the more retarded is its purification. Most 
easily is uncleanliness communicated by the dead body to 
those who are under the same roof, especially to relatives. 
The purification can only be completed by means of the 
ashes of the red heifer, however scarce it may be, and only 
after seven days (Num. xix. 11). The uncleanness caused by 
a woman through running issae or during her separation is 
more frequent than that caused by contact with unclean 
objects ; * seven days are therefore required for their purifi- 
cation (Lev. XV. 19, 28), whilst those that touch them are 
only unclean one day (ibid. vii. 18). Males or females that 
are unclean through running issue, and a woman after child- 
birth, must in addition bring a sacrifice, because their 
uncleanness occurs less frequently than that of women in 
their separation.^ All these cases of uncleanliness, viz., 

Berachoth ir., HaUehah 1, that the gates of the Temple were locked even a 
little before actual night. 

^ Comp. Mishnah Yoma iiL S. 

' Other andean objects communicate uncleanliness only through dUreet 
contact ; menstruous women, and persons with running issue, also by indirect 
contact Comp. Ler. zt. 6, 6, 20, Mf . 

* According to the principle laid down by ICaimonides, that the less 
frequent the uncleanliness is, the shorter is the process of purification, we 
should expect that menstruosity would require a longer period for purifi* 
cation than running issue. According to Efodi, Ibn Tibbon noticed this 
contradiction, and corrected the proposition of Maimonides in the following 
manner : — The more frequent the uncleanliness is, the shorter is the process of 
purification. But the correction would hare to be made in several places, 



246 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

running iasne of males or females, menstruations, leprosy, 
dead bodies of human beings, carcases of beasts and creeping 
things, and issue of semen, are sources of dirt and filth. We 
have thus shown that the above precepts are very useful in 
many respects. First, they keep us at a distance from dirty 
and filthy objects; secondly, they guard the Sanctuary; 
thirdly, they pay regard to an established custom (for the 
Sabeans submitted to very troublesome restrictions when 
unclean, as you will soon hear) ; fourthly, they lightened 
that burden for us ; for we are not impeded through these 
laws in our ordinary occupations by the distinction the 
Law makes between that which is unclean and that which 
is clean. For this distinction applies only in reference 
to the Sanctuary and the holy objects connected with it ; it 
does not apply to other cases. '' She shall touch no hallowed 
thing, nor come into the Sanctuary " (Lev. xii. 4). Othet 
persons that do intend to enter the Sanctuary or touch 
any holy thing, are not guilty of any sin if they remain 
unclean as long as they like, and eat, according to their 
pleasure, ordinary food that has been in contact with 
unclean things. But the practice of the Sabeans, even at 
present general in the East, among the few still left of the 
Magi,^ was to keep a menstruous woman in a house by 

and the context bIiowb that Maimonides really meant the proposition as it 
stands in our text. It is true that cases of death are lesf freqaent than caaea 
of menstruous women. This, however, is not the question ; but whether the 
occasions for communicating uncleanliness are greater. Let us assume the 
two cases — the dead body of a person, and a menstruous woman. The 
number of persons becoming unclean through the former is greater than in 
the latter case ; because a dead body communicates uncleanliness to every- 
body and to everything under the same roof, whilst a menstruous woman 
transmits undeanUness only through closer contact Again, comparing the 
cases of a woman in her separation and a person with running issue, the 
former is more frequent, but the chances of a person becoming unclean 
through the latter are greater, because a woman in her separation, a regular 
and frequent occurrence, is more accustomed to guard herself from com- 
municating uncleanliness to others, than a person with running issue. 
The contradiction mentioned by Shem-tob, Efodi, Sheyer, Munk, etc., has its 
origin in a misunderstanding of the above proposition of Maimonides. 

^ Comp. Yendidad, Fargard XVI. (Avesta, by A. H. Bleek). Mtffumths 
in the editions of Ibn Tibbon, is a mistake for Magon, '* Magi" 



PABT m. — CHAPTER XLVH. 247 

herself, to bum that upon which she treads, and to consider 
as unclean every one that speaks with her ; even if a wind 
passed over her and a clean person, the latter was unclean 
in the eyes of the Sabeans. See the difference between this 
practice and our rule, that " whatever services a wife 
generally does to her husband, she may do to him in her 
separation ;" ^ only cohabitation is prohibited during the days 
of her uncleanness. Another custom among the Sabeans, 
which is stiU widespread, is this : whatever is separated 
from the body, as hair, nail, or blood, is unclean ; all barbers 
are therefore unclean in their estimation, because he touches 
blood and hair ; whenever a person passes a razor over his 
skin he must take a bath in running water. Such burden- 
some practices were numerous among the Sabeans, whilst we 
apply the laws that distinguish between the unclean and the 
clean only to hallowed things and to the Sanctuary. The 
divine words, " And ye shall sanctify yourself, and ye shall 
be holy " (Lev, xi. 44), do not refer to these laws at all. 
According to Sifra, they refer to sanctity by obedience to 
God's commandments. The same interpretation is given in 
Sifra of the words, " Ye shall be holy " (xix. 2). Hence the 
transgression of commandments is also called imcleanliness 
or defilement. This term is especially used of the chief 
and principal crimes, which are idolatry, adultery, and 
murder. In reference to idolatry it is said, " He hath given 
of his seed unto Molech to defile My sanctuary, and to pro- 
fane My Holy Name " (ibid. xx. 3). ' In reference to adultery 
we read, " Defile not ye yourselves in any of these things " 
(ibid, xviii 24), and " Defile not the land " (Num. xxxv. 34) 
in reference to murder. It is therefore clear that the term 
''defilement" [or uncleanliness] is used homonymously of 
three things : 1. Of man's violation and transgression of 
that which he is commanded as regards his actions and 
his opinions. 2. Of dirt and filth ; comp. " Her filthiness in 
her skirts " (Lam. i 9). 3. Of the above-named imaginary 
defilement, such as being in direct or indirect contact with 

^ BabyL Talmud Eethublioth, 4 b and 61 a. 



248 OUIBB OF THE FEBFLEXED. 

certain objects, or being with them under the same roof. ^ 
In reference to the third kind, our Sages said, The words of 
the Law are not subject to becoming unclean. ^ In the same 
manner the term " holiness " is used homonymously of three 
things corresponding to the three kinds of uncleanness. As 
uncleanness caused by a dead body could only be removed 
after seven days, by means of the ashes of the red heifer, and 
the priests had constantly occasion to enter the Sanctuaiy, 
the Law exceptionally forbids them to defile themselves by a 
dead body (Lev. xxL 1), except in cases where defilement is 
necessary, and the contrary would be unnatural. For it 
would be unnatural to abstain from approaching ^ the dead 
body of a parent, child, or brother. . As it was very necessary 
that the high-priest should always be in the Sanctuary, in 
accordance with the Divine command, "And it * shall always 
be on his forehead " (Ex. xxviii. 38), he was not permitted 
to defile himself by any dead body whatever, even of the 
above-named relatives (Lev. xxi. 10-12). Women were 
not engaged in sacrificial service; the above law conse- 
quently does not apply to women ; it is addressed to ** the 
sons of Aaron," and not to " the daughters of Aaron." * It 
was, however, impossible to assume that none of the 
Israelites made a mistake, by entering the Sanctuary, or 
eating hallowed things in a state of uncleanliness. It wad 
even possible that there were persons who did this know- 
ingly, since there are wicked people who commit knowingly 
even the greatest crimes; for this reason certain sacrifices 
were commanded as an atonement for the defilement of the 
Sanctuary and its hallowed things. They were of difTerent 

^ Ibn Tibbon, wrongly, "by canying on the shonlder." 

' Berachoth, 22 a. Those who are unclean may nevertheless read the 
Law. 

* Ibn Tibbon has three different rerbe instead of the one — ^from approach- 
ing it, staying with it, and teaching it 

^ I.e., the plate of gold, on which the words were written, " Holy to the 
Lord." Maimonides infers from this precept that the high-priest was alwaft 
to remain *' holy to the Lord," and ought never to defile himself by contact 
with a dead body. 

' Comp. Bashi, ad locum. 



tkSt m.— CHAPta XLVIL V o. 2249 ^ 

kinds; some of them atoned for defilement caused ignowmtiy, 
others for defilement cansed knowingly. For this purpose 
were brought the goats on the Festivals and the New-moon 
days (Num. xxviii. 15, 22, &c.), and the goat sent away on 
the Day of Atonement (Lev. xri. 16), as is explained in the 
proper place. ^ The object of these sacrifices was to pre- 
vent those who defiled the Sanctuary of the Lord knowingly 
from thinking that they had not done a great wrong ; they 
should know that they obtained atonement by the sacrifice 
of the goat, as the Law says, " That they die not in their 
uncleanness " (Lev. xv. 31) ; " That Aaron may bear the 
iniquity of the holy things " (Ex. xxviii. 38). This idea id 
frequently repeated. 

The uncleanness through leprosy we have already explained.* 
Our Sages have also clearly stated the meaning thereof. ^ All 
agree that leprosy is a punishment for slander. The disease 
begins in the walls of the houses (Lev. xiv. 33 8tq^. If the 
sinner repents, the object is attained ; if he remains in his 
disobedience, the disease affects his bed^ and house furni- 
ture ; if he still continues to sin, the leprosy attacks his own 
garments, and then his body.^ This is a miracle received in 
our nation by tradition, in the same manner as the effect of 
the trial of a faithless wife (Num. v. 11, s^.). The good 
effect of this belief is evident. Leprosy is besides a contagi* 
ous disease, and people almost naturally abhor it, and keep 
away from it. The purification was effected by cedar- wood, 
hyssop, scarlet thread, and two birds (Lev. xiv. 4); their 
meaning is described in Midrashic sayings,® but the ex- 
planation does not agree with our theory. I do not know 

^ Comp. Mishnah IV* Shebhuoth i. 4. 

* Oomm. on Mishnah VL Negalm zii 6. Mishneh-torah X. Hilchoth 
inmuOk UaraaJ^ y. 16. 

* BabyL Talm. ChuUin, 160 a. Comp. Raahi on Lev. xiv. 4. 
^ Ibn Tibbon : the yeasela of his seiranta. Charizi omits it altogether. 
' Ck>mp. Midrash Tanchoma on Lev. xiv. 

* Comp. Bashi on Lev. xiv. 4. " The two birds serve to remind the leper 
of the sin of slander, in which he imitated the chirping of birds ; the cedar- 
wood reminded him of haughtiness ; the scarlet (Hebr. toUuUh, which signifies 
alio ' worm ') and the hyssop express the exhortation : Humble thyself." 



250 GXTIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

at present the reason of any of these things ; nor why cedar- 
wood, hyssop, and scarlet were used in the sacrifice of the 
red heifer (Num. xix. 6) ; nor why a bundle of hyssop was 
commanded for the sprinkling of the blood of the Passover- 
lamb (Exod. xii. 22). I cannot find any principle upon 
which to found an explanation why these particular things 
have been chosen. 

The red heifer is called a sin-offering, because it effects 
the purification of persons that have become unclean through 
the dead body of a human being, and enables them to enter 
the Sanctuary [and to eat of hallowed things].^ The idea 
taught by this law is this : *' Those who have defiled them- 
selves would never be allowed to enter the Sanctuary, or to 
partake of holy things, were it not for the sacrifice of the red 
heifer, by which this sin is removed ; in the same manner as 
the plate [which the high-priest wears on his forehead] 
atones for uncleanness,^ and as a similar object is attained 
by the goats that are burnt."* For this reason those were 
unclean who were engaged in the sacrifice of the heifer or 
the goats which were burnt, and even their garments were 
unclean. The same was the law in the case of the goat 
that was sent away [on the Day of Atonement] ; for it was 
believed that it made unclean those who touched it, because 
it carried off so many sins.* 

We have now mentioned the reasons for the command- 
ments of this class, for which we were able to give a satis- 
factory reason according to our view. 

^ The words, "and to eat of hallowed things," are added aooording to the 
version of Ibn Tibbon. 

^ See Exod. xxviii S8, and BabyL Talm. Peaachim, 16 b. 

' I.e., all parts of which were btimt, whilst of other sin-offerings only cer- 
tain portions were bnmt, and the remainder consnmed by the priests. The 
goats referred to are those mentioned Lev. zvi. 27, and Num. xt. 24. 

* Comp. Mishnah Y., Zebhachim xiL 6 ; Ley. xiL 28 ; and Num. zix. 8, 
10, 21, 22. 



PAKT in.— CHAPTER XLVIIL 251 



CHAPTER XLVIIL 

The precepts of the thirteenth class are those which we have 
enumerated in " Laws concerning forbidden food " (Hilchoth 
Tnacxhaioth asuroth), "Laws concerning killing animals for 
food " {HUehoth shechitah), and " Laws concerning vows and 
Nazaritism " (HUehoth nedarim v^neziroth). We have fully 
and very explicitly discussed the object of this class in this 
treatise/ and in our Commentary on the Sayings of the 
Fathers.* We will here add a few remarks in reviewing 
the single commandments which are mentioned there. 

I maintain that the food which is forbidden by the Law is 
unwholesome. There is nothing among the forbidden kinds 
of food whose injurious character is doubted, except pork 
(Lev. xi. 7),^ and fat (ibid. vii. 23)> But also in these cases 
the doubt is not justified. For pork contains more moisture 
than necessary [for human food], and too much of super- 
fluous ^ matter. The principal reason why the Law forbids 
swine's flesh is to be found in the circumstance that its 
habits and its food are very dirty and loathsome. It has 
already been pointed out how emphatically the Law enjoins 
the removal of the sight of loathsome objects, even in the 
field and in the camp;® how much more objectionable is 
such sight in towns. But if it were allowed to eat swine's 
flesh, the streets and houses would be more dirty than any 

^ Supra, chap, zxziii. p. 158, and zzr. p 166. 

* Eight Chapters, chap. y. 

' Ck>inpw Sprengel, Gesch. der Medicin. p. 859 ; BabyL Talm. Chnllin, 17 a. 

^ Not all fat ia prohibited. In the first instance the Law only forbids the 
fat of cattle, sheep, and goats — that is, of those species of which a sacrifice 
could be offered ; secondly, even of these animals only that fat is prohibited 
which would have been burnt upon the altar if they had been sacrifices, viz., 
" the fat that corereth the inwards and the fat that is upon the inwards and 
the fat that is on the kidneys, which is by the flanks" (Lev. iii 4, 6). In 
Babbinical writings, the forbidden fat is caUed chdebh, and the other ihuman. 

* According to Ibn Tibl)on, refuse and superfluous elements. 

* Supra, ch. xli, p. 205. 



252 GUIDS OF THE PERPLEXED. 

cesspool, as may be seen at present in the countiy of the 
Franks.^ The saying of our Sages is well known: ''The 
mouth of a swine is as dirty as dung itself." ' 

The fat of the intestines makes us full, interrupts our 
digestion, and produces cold and thick blood ; it is more fit 
for fuel [than for human food].' 

Blood (Lev. xvii. 12), and nehhelah, i.e,, the flesh of an 
animal that died of itself (Deut xiv. 21), are indigestible, and 
injurious as food; Tre/ah,^ an animal in a diseased state 
(Exod. xxii 30), is on the way of becoming a nebhdah. 

The characteristics given in the Law (Lev. xi., and Dent, 
xiv.) of the permitted animals, viz., chewing the cud and 
divided hoofs for cattle, and fins and scales for fish, are in 
themselves neither the cause of the permission when they 
are present, nor of the prohibition when they are absent ; but 
merely signs by which the recommended species of animals 
can be discerned from those that are forbidden. 

The reason why the sinew that shrank is prohibited is 
stated in the Law (Gen. xxxii. 33). 

It is prohibited to take and cut off a limb of a living 
animal and eat it,^ because such act would produce cruelty, 
and develop it; besides, the heathen kings used to do it; it 
was also a kind of idolatrous worship to cut off a certain 
limb of a living animal and to eat it.^ 

^ By thia name the Arabs designate all European Christians (Monk). 

' Babyl. Talm. Berachoth 25 a. These words have been said in reference 
to the rule that prayers should not be read in a dirty place. 

* These words have been added in accordance with the Hebrew versions of 
Ibn Tibbon and CharizL 

^ Lit, ** an animal torn by wild beasts." According to traditional inter- 
pretation of thia law, the term Wtfah includes all diseased animals. The 
different cases of disease are enumerated in Mishnah Y., Chullin iii. There 
is a dispute in Babyl. Talm. Chullin 42 a, whether it is only those dis e aweii 
which are incurable that constitute tirrfah, 

' The law, though not distinctly stated in the Pientateuch, is according to 
Tradition implied in Gen. ix. 4, and Deut. xii. 23. See BabyL Talm. Chullin 
101 b, and Sanhedrin 57 a; Mishneh-torah V., Hilchoth Maachaloth araroth, 
chap. T. Comp. Bruce's Travels, vol. iv. 477-481. 

' Maimonides probably found this custom described in one of the books 
on idolatrous practices, mentioned tiiprti, p^ 144 (Munk), especially as he 



PABT III.— CEAJPTKB XLVIII, 253 

Meat boiled in xnilk^ i3 undoubtedly gross food, and 
makes overfull ; but I think that most probably it is also 
prohibited because it is somehow connected with idolatry, 
forming perhaps part of the service, or being used on the 
festivals of the heathen. I find a support for this view in 
the circumstance that the Law mentions the prohibition 
twice after the commandment given concerning the festivals 
" Three times in the year all thy males shall appear before 
the Lord God " (Exod. xxiii 17, and xxxiv. 23), as if to say, 
*' When you come before me on your festivals, do not seethe 
your food in the manner as the heathen used to do." This I 
consider as the best reason for the prohibition ; but as far as 
I have seen the books on Sabean rites, nothing is mentioned 
of this custom. 

The commandment ' concerning the killing of animals is 
necessary, because the natural food of man consists of vege- 
tables and of the flesh of animals ; the best meat is that of 
animals permitted to be used as food. Ko doctor has any 
doubts about this. Since, therefore, the desire of procuring 
good food necessitates the slaying of animals, the Law enjoins 
that the death of the animal should be the easiest. It is not 
allowed to torment the animal by cutting the throat in a 
clumsy manner, by poleaxing, or by cutting off a limb whilst 
the animal is alive. 

It is aLso prohibited to IdU an animal with its young on the 
same day (Lev. xxiL 28), in order that people should be re-- 
strained and prevented from killing the two together in such 

eoBscientiomly ooBfesaes It when he foand no empport for Ms Boggestion. 
Rff.f Urfra^ in reference to the next inBtanoe, 

^ Exod. xxiiL 9, xxxiy. 26; Dent xiy. 21. The word^, <'Thou shalt not 
feeUie,'* Ice., are interpreted to imply the prohibition of eating it, or using it 
in any other way. Maimonidee, in Hilchoth jnaachaloth Asuroth ix. 2, says, 
that if the boiling of nulk and meat is prohibited, it is a matter of course 
that the eating of milk and meat boiled together is prohibited^ Comp. 
Taigom, I e. 

* This law is based on the word^ " And thou ahalt kill, • « . as J have 
commanded thee" (Dent xii. 21). Comp. Bashi, ad locum. Talmud ChuUin, 
i.-ii llUshneh-tonUi Y., Hilchoth shechitah. See iu^fr^, ch. xxYi p. 126, uq. 



254 GUIDB OF THE PERPLEXED. 

a manner that the young is slain in the sight of the mother ; 
for the pain of the animals under such circumstances is very 
great. There is no difference in this case between the pain 
of man and the pain of other living beings^ since the love 
and tenderness of the mother for her young ones is not pro- 
duced by reasoning, but by imagination, and this faculty 
exists not only in man but in most living beings. This law 
applies only to ox and lamb, because of the domestic ani- 
mals used as food these alone are permitted to* us, and in 
these cases the mother can be distinguished from her young.^ 

The same reason applies to the law which enjoins that we 
should let the mother fly away when we take the young.* 
The eggs over which the bird sits, and the young that are in 
need of their mother, are generally unfit for food. When 
the mother is sent away she does not see the taking of her 
young ones, and does not feel any pain. In most cases, how- 
ever, this commandment will cause man to leave the whole 
nest untouched, because [the young or the eggs], which he is 
allowed to take, are, as a rule, unfit for food. If the Law 
provides that such grief should not be caused to cattle or 
birds, how much more careful must we be that we should 
not cause grief to our fellowmen. When in the Talmud * 
those are blamed who use in their prayer the phrase, " Thy 
mercy extendeth to young birds," it is the expression of the 
one of the two opinions mentioned by us,^ namely, that the 
precepts of the Law have no other reason but the Divine 
will. We follow the other opinion. 

The reason why we cover the blood when we kill animals, 
and why we do it only when we kill clean beasts^ and 

^ According to Ibn Tibbon, " the mother recognises her yotmg." 
' Talmud Chullin, ch. ziL 

* Berachoth, y. 8. In his Comm. on the Mishnah, Maimonides says that 
this precept is not the result of God*s pity for the bird ; it belongs to the 
chvJckim, or commandments, for which there is no other reason but the wiU of 
God. (Comp. Babyl. TaluL Berachqth, 38 b.) In Mishneh-torah II., Hilchoth 
tefillah, iz. 7, he follows the Mishnah, but in this work he assigns a reason 
eyen for the ehukkim, {Supra, and zzzi) 

^ Supra, ch. xxvi. 

* Chayyah, beast not domestioated, as distinguished from lAemdh^ "domastie 
animal." 



PART HL — CHAPTEB XLVIIL 255 

clean birds, has already been explained by us (supra, ch. 
xlvi. p. 234). 

In addition to the things prohibited by the Law, we are 
also commanded to observe the prohibitions enjoined by our 
own vows (Num. xxx.). If we say, This bread or this meat is 
forbidden for us, we are not allowed to partake of that food- 
The object of that precept is to train us in temperance, that 
we should be able to control our appetites for eating and 
drinking. Our Sages say accordingly, " Vows are a fence for 
abstinence."^ As women are easily provoked to anger, owing to 
their greater excitability and the weakness of their mind, 
their oaths, if entirely under their own control, would cause 
great grief, quarrel, and disorder in the family ; one kind of 
food would be allowed for the husband, and forbidden for the 
wife ; another kind forbidden for the daughter, and allowed for 
the mother. Therefore the Law gives the father of the family 
control over the vows of those dependent on him.* A woman 
that is independent, and not under the authority of a chief 
of the family, is, as regards vows, subject to the same laws as 
men; I mean a woman that has no husband,' or that has 
no father, or that is of age,^ ic, twelve years and six months. 

The object of Nazaritism (Num. vL) is obvious. It keeps 
away from wine that has ruined people in ancient and modern 
times. "Many strong men have been slain by it" (Prov. 
zxvii. 26). " But they also have erred through wine, . • • the 
priest and the prophet " (Is. xxviii. 7). In the law about the 
Nazarite we notice even the prohibition, ** he shall eat no- 
thing that is made of the vine tree" (Num. vi 4), as an 

^ Mishnali, Abhoth iii 18. 

' According to Ibn Tibbon (as in the printed editions), " over the vows in 
everything that might be injurious or useful to him ; " ie., vows called in the 
Talmud hidre innuU nrfeih (Mishnah III., Nedarim, xi. 1). 

* I.e^ a widow, or a woman divorced from her husband (Num. zxz. 10). 

^ The term hogerdk, used by Maimonides, is the same as the one used in the 
Talmud. A girl is under age, kdannah, when she is under twelve years; she 
is a maiden, naarah, when twelve years old ; and hogereth from the age of 
twelve years and six months. Comp. Mishnah III., Nedarim x. 5. BabyL 
Talm. Kethubhoth, 89 a. Mishnehtorah lY., Hilchoth ishuth, ii 2. 



256 0UID9 OF THE PERPLEXED. 

additional precaution, implying the lesson that man must take 
of wine only as much as is absolutely necessary. For he who 
abstains from drinking it is called '' holy ; " his sanctity is 
made equal to that of the high-priest, in not being allowed to 
defile himself ev^n to his father, to his mother, and the like. 
This honour is given him because ha abstained from wine.^ 



iiirtiiiii |p 



CHAPTEE XLIX. 

The precepts of the fourteenth class are those whicli wq 
enumerated in the Section on Women, the Laws concerning 
forbidden sexual intercourse, and cross-breeding of cattlQ 
{Sefer nashim, HUchoth ismre hhiah vt-katc hehemah). Thd 
law concerning circumcision belongs also to this class. The 
general purpose of these precepts has already been described 
by us.< We will now proceed to explain them singly. 

It is well known that man requires friends aU his lifetime, 
Aristotle explains this in the ninth ' book of his Nikomacbeau 
Ethics. When man is in good health and prosperous, he 
enjoys the company of his friends ; in time of trouble he is 
in need of them ; in old age, when his body is weak, he is 
assisted by them. This love is more frequent and more 
intense between parents and children, and among [other] 
relations. Perfect love, brotherhood, and mutual assist* 
anee is only found among those near to each other by 
relationship. The members of a family united by common 
descent from the same grandfather, or even from some more 
distant ancestor, have towards each other a certain feeling 
of love, help each other, and sympathise with each other. 
To effect this is one of the chief purposes of the Law. Pro- 

^ According to another Tiew (Talm. Babli. Nedarim, 10 a), the Kazarite has 
sinned in abstaining from that which the Law permits, and has to brin^ a 
sin-offering (Num. yl 11). 

* Supn^t ch. xxxv. p. 167» 

* The passage referred to OGGon in the eighth book, di. L Comp. 
ch. zliii p. 218. 



PART nL — CHAPTER XUX 257 

fessional harlots were therefore not tolerated in Israel 
(Deut. xxiii. 18), because their existence would disturb the 
above relationship between man and man. Their children 
are strangers to everybody ; no one knows to what family 
they belong ; nor does any person recognise them as rela- 
tives. And this is the greatest misfortune that can befall any 
child or father. Another important object in prohibiting 
prostitution is to restrain excessive and continual lust ; for 
lust increases with the variety of its objects. The sight of 
that to which a person has been accustomed for a long time 
does not produce such an ardent desire for its enjoyment as 
is produced by objects new in form and character. Another 
effect of this prohibition is the removal of a cause for 
strife; for if the prohibition did not exist, several persons 
might by chance come to one woman, and would naturally 
quarrel with each other ; they would in many cases kill one 
another, or they would kill the woman. This is known to 
have occurred in days of old, ''And they assembled them- 
selves by troops in a harlot's house " ( Jer. v. 7). In order 
to prevent these great evils, and to effect the great boon 
that all men should know their relationship to each other, 
prostitutes (Deut. xxiii. 17) were not tolerated, and sexual 
intercourse was only permitted when man has chosen a 
certain female, and married her openly ; for if it sufficed 
merely to choose her, many a person would bring a prosti- 
tute into his house at a certain time agreed upon between 
them, and say that she was his wife. Therefore ^ it is com- 
manded to perform the act of engagement by which he 
declares that he has chosen her to take her for his wife,' and 
then to go through the public ceremony of marriage.^ Comp. 

^ Comp. Maimonides, Mishneh-torah lY. HUchoth ishuih L 1, $eq. 

' The formula used is, hare aU mekuddetheth It hattabbaath zu haddatk 
Mosheh ve-yisrad, ** Thou art sanctified to me by this ring in accordance with 
the Law of Moses and the custom of IsraeL'* The engagement is called in 
Hebrew erunn (comp. meortaahj Deut zxiL 22, 25) and kidduihin, 

* The final act of marriage is expressed in the Pentateuch by the verbs 
lahaeh and naaah ; from the latter the noun nisminj ** marriage," is derived. 
The present wedding ceremony combines both licts, erunn and niuuin, whilst 
VOL. m. B 



258 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

''And Boaz took ten men/' &c. (Ruth iv. 2). It may happen 
that husband and wife do not agree, live without love and 
peace, and do not enjoy the benefit of a home ; in that case 
he is permitted to send her away. If he had been allowed 
to divorce her by a mere word, or by turning her out of his 
house, the wife would wait for some negligence^ [on the 
part of the husband], and then come out and say that she 
was divorced; or having committed adultery, she and the 
adulterer would contend that she had then been divorced. 
Therefore the law is that divorce can only take place by 
means of a document which can serve as evidence, " He shall 
write her a bill of divorcement " (Deut. xxiv. 1).* There are 
frequently occasions for suspicion of adultery and doubts 
concerning the conduct of the wife. Laws concerning a 
wife suspected of adultery (sotah) are therefore prescribed 
(Num. v) ; the effect of which is that the wife, out of fear of 
the bitter waters, is most careful to prevent any ill-feel- 
ing on the part of her husband against her. Even of those 
that felt quite innocent and safe most were rather willing 
to lose all their property ' than to submit to the prescribed 
treatment; even death was preferred to the public disgrace of 
uncovering the head, undoing the hair, rending the garments 
and exposing the heart, and being led round through the 
Sanctuary in the presence of all, of women and men, and 
also in the presence of the members of the Synhedrin.^ The 

formerly a period of tweWe months elapsed between the two acts (Mishnah 
III. Eethuboth v. 2). Comp. Haimonides, Mishneh-torah IV. Hilchoth 
ishuth iii 

^ According to Ibn Tibbon, provocation. 
' * The detailed rules about divorce are contained in Mishnah IIL OiUin 
(the name giUin is the plural of get^ which means "document," and document 
of divorce par excellence), A woman divorced is called germhah (Lev. zzi 7), 
and the act of divorce genuhin. (Mishneh-torah IV. Hilchoth gemshin.) 

* In case of a regular divorce the wife received a certain sum fixed in the 
marriage contract (kethubbah) in addition to her own property (Mishnah 
Kethuboth l 2), but she forfeits her claim when she is sent away on account 
of her misconduct. When accused of misconduct she had therefore the 
choice to forego her claim, and to confess herself guilty, or to undergo the 
trials of the *' bitter waters '' (Mishnah III., Sota I 5). 

* Num. V. 18, Mishnah Sota i. iS, Mishneh-torah IV. Hilchoth sota iii 



PART IIL^HAPTEB XUX. 259 

fear of tliifl trial keeps away great diseases that rain the 
home comfort. 

As every maiden expects to be married, her seducer there- 
fore is only ordered to marry her ; for he is undoubtedly the 
fittest husband for her. He will better heal her wound and 
redeem her character than any other husband. If, however, 
he is rejected by her or her father, he must give the dowry 
(Ex. xxii 15).^ If he uses violence he has to submit to the 
additional punishment, " he may not put her away all his 
days " (Deut. xxii. 29). 

The reason of the law concerning marrying the deceased 
brother's wife is stated in the Bible (Deut. xxv. 5). It was 
a custom in force before the Law was given, ^ and the Law 
perpetuated it. The ceremony of chcUitsah (ibid. 6, seq,), 
** taking off the shoe," has been introduced, because in those 
days it was coofiidered disgraceful to go through that cere- 
mony, and in order to avoid the disgrace, a person- might 
perhaps be induced to marry his deceased brother's wife. 
This is evident from the words of the Law : ** So shall it be 
done unto that man that will not build up his brother's 
house. And his name shall be called in Israel, The house 
of him that hath his shoe loosed " (Deut xxv. 9). In the 
action of Judah we may perhaps notice an example of a 
noble conduct, and uprightness in judgment. He said : " Let 
her take it to her, lest we be shamed ; behold, I sent this 
kid, and thou hast not found her " (Gen. xxxviii. 23). For 
before the Law(;ivincr, the intercourse with a harlot was as 
lawful as cohabitation of husband and wife since the Law- 
giving; it was perfectly permitted, nobody considered it 
wrong. The hire which was in those days paid to the harlot 

Of the treatment described, only the first two may be considered as presented 
in the Law in the phrase uphara eth ro$h ha-ishshahf ''and he shall disturb 
(uncover, A^V.) the hair of the woman." 

^ As there was no prohibition of divorce in this case, the man was not 
compelled to marry the girl he had seduced if he refused to do sa See 
Maimonides lY., HUchath naarah bethulah, L 8. Maimonides here only men- 
tions what is expressly mentioned in the Law. 

* See Gen. xxxviii. 8. 



260 GUIDE OF THE PEKPLSXED. 

in accordance with a previous agreement^ corresponds to the 
kethvhhah ^ which in our days the husband pays to his wife 
when he divorces her. It is a just claim on the part of the 
wife, and the husband is bound to pay it. The words of 
Judah, '' Let her take it to her, lest we be shamed/' &c., show 
that conversation about sexual intercourse, even of that which 
is permitted, brings shame upon us ; it is proper to be silent 
about it, to keep it secret, even if the silence would lead to 
loss of money. In this sense Judah said : It is better for 
us to lose property, and to let her keep what she has, 
than to make our affair public by inquiring after her, and 
bring still more shame upon us. This is the lesson, as 
regards conduct, to be derived from this incident. As to the 
uprightness to be learned therefrom, it is contained in the 
words of Judah when he wanted to show that he had not 
robbed her, that he has not in the least departed from his 
agreement with her. For he said, " Behold, I sent this kid, 
and thou hast not found her." The kid was probably very 
good, therefore he points to it, saying, " this kid." This is 
the uprightness which he had inherited from Abraham, Isaac, 
and Jacob : that man must not depart from his given word, 
nor deviate from what he agreed upon; but he must give 
to others all that is due to them. It makes no difference 
whether he holds a portion of his neighbour's property as a 
loan or a trust, or whether he is in any other way his neigh- 
bour's debtor, owing him wages or the like. 

The sum which the husband settles upon his wife 
(kethtibhah) is to be treated in the same way as the wages 
of a hired servant. There is no difference whether a master 
withholds the wages of a hired servant, or deprives his wife 
of that which is due to her ; whether a master wrongs a hired 
servant, and brings charges against him with the intention to 
send him away without payment, or a husband treats his 

^ Kethvhhah (lit. ** written '*) is a document in which the husband declares 
that a certain sum named (the minimum of which is, according to Hishnah 
Kethubhoth L 2, 200 or 100 zuz, according as he marries a maiden or a widow) 
shaU be paid to his wife, in addition to her dowry, in case he divorces her, or 
he dies. Comp. Mishnah Kethubhoth iy. 7, 9eq. 



PABT ni. — CHAPTER XLIX. 261 

wife in a manner that would enable him to send her away 
without the payment of the promised sum. 

The equity of the statutes and judgments of the Law in 
this regard may be noticed in the treatment of a person 
accused of spreading an evil report about his wife (Deut 
xxii 13, seq,). There is no doubt that the man that did this is 
bad, does not love his wife, and is not pleased with her. If 
he desired to divorce her in a regular manner,' there is 
nothing to prevent him, but he would be bound to give her 
what is due unto her ; but instead of this, " he gives occa- 
sion of speech against her " (ibid. xxii. 14), in order to get 
rid of his wife without paying anything; he slanders her, 
and utters falsehood in order to keep in his possession the 
fifty shekel of silver, the dowry fixed in the Law for 
maidens,^ which he is obliged to pay unto her. He is there- 
fore sentenced to pay one hundred shekels of silver, in accord- 
ance with the principle, " Whom the judges shall condemn, 
he shall pay double unto his neighbour" (Exod. xxii 9). 
The Law is also analogous to that about false witnesses, 
which we have explained above (chap. xli. p. 195). For he 
intended to cheat her of her fifty shekels of silver, he must 
therefore [lose fifty, and] pay her hundred shekel. This is 
his punishment for withholding from her her due, and en- 
deavouring to keep it. But in so far as he degraded her, and 
spread the rumour that she was guilty of misconduct, he was 

^ A znz Ib one-fourth of a skekeL Comp. Targom of rdtha thekd hesrf, "a 
fourth of a shekel 8il7er '* (1 Sam. iz. 8). The fine of fifty shekels for the yiola- 
tion of a maiden (Deut. zziL 29) is, according to Maimonides, the same as 
the " dowry " (mohar) paid by the seducer of a maiden if he does not marry 
her (Ezod. zzii. 15). Although in the former case he marries the maiden, 
and yet pays fifty shekel to the father of the maiden, the money to be paid 
in both cases may serve the same object, viz., to secure the sum named for the 
wife in case of separation. In the case of seduction divorce is possible, and 
the husband then pays the money, whilst forced pajrment in advance might 
accelerate divorce ; but in case of violation this reason does not apply, since 
divorce is not permitted, and the money in the hands of the husband is not 
considered safe. According to Munk, Maimonides confounds here the Biblical 
"dowry" given to the father-in-law with the Talmudic ktthubkah, given to 
the wife. But this is not the case. 



262 GUIDE OF THE PEBPLEXED. 

also degraded, and received stripes, as is implied in the 
words, "and they shall chastise him" (Deut. xxii. 18).^ 
But he sinned besides in clinging to lust, and seeking only 
that which gave pleasure to him ; he was therefore punished 
by being compelled to keep his wife always, " he may not 
put her away all his days" (ibid. 19);. for he has been 
brought to all this only because he may have found her 
ugly. Thus are these bad habits cured when they are treated 
according to the divine Law ; the ways of equity are never 
lost sight of ; they are obvious and discernible in every pre- 
cept of the Law by those who consider it well. See how, 
according to the Law, the slanderer of his wife, who only 
intended to withhold from her what he is bound to give her, 
is treated in the same manner as a thief who has stolen the 
property of his neighbour ; ^ and the false witnesses (Deut 
xix. 16, seq,) who scheme to injure, although the injury was 
in reality not inflicted, are punished like those who have 
actually caused injury and robbery,* viz., like thieves and 
those who slander their wives. The three kinds of sinners are 
tried and judged by one and the same law. See how won- 
derful are the divine laws, and admire His wonderful deeds. 
Scripture says : " The Rock, His work is perfect ; for aU His 
ways are judgment" (Deut xxxii. 4), i.e., as His works are 
most perfect, so are His laws most equitable ; but our mind 
is too limited to comprehend the perfection of all His works, 
or the equity of all His laws ; and as we are able to compre- 
hend some of His wonderful works in the organs of living 
beings and the motions of the spheres, so we understand also 
the equity of some of His laws ; that which is unknown to us 
of both of them is far more than that which is known to us. 
I will now return to the theme of the present chapter. 
The forbidden law about sexual intercourse seeks in all its 

1 Comp. Targum ad locum : ve-yalhun ycUheh, "and they shall strike hixn." 

* The thief has to pay doable the value of the object stolen (£xod. xxii 8). 

* The felon returns the value of the object actually robbed, and pays in 
addition, as fine for his wicked intention, the same amount In the case of 
false witnesses, they have not aeiuaUy caused injury ; they have nothing to 
return, and therefore only pay the fine for their wicked intention. 



PABT III. — CHAPTER XLIX. 263 

parts to inculcate the lesson that we ought to limit sexual 
intercourse altogether, hold it in contempt, and only desire it 
very rarely. The prohibition of pederasty (Lev. xviii. 22) 
and carnal intercourse with beasts (ibid. 23) is very clear. 
If in the natural way the act is too base to be performed 
except when needed, how much more base is it if performed 
in an unnatural manner, and only for the sake of pleasure. 

The female relatives ^ whom a man may not marry are 
alike in this respect — that as a rule they are constantly 
together with him in his house ; they would easily listen to 
him, and do what he desires ; they are near at hand, and he 
would have no diflBculty in procuring them. No judge could 
blame him if found in their company. If to these relatives 
the same law applied as to all other unmarried women, if we 
were allowed to marry any of them, and were only precluded 
from sexual intercourse with them without marriage, most 
people would constantly have become guilty of misconduct 
with them. But as they are entirely forbidden to us, and 
sexual intercourse with them is most emphatically denied 
unto us as a capital crime,^ or a sin punishable with extinc- 
tion ^ (kareth), and as there is no means of ever legalising 
such intercourse, there is reason to expect that people will 
not seek it, and will not think of it. That the persons 
included in that prohibition are, as we have stated, at 
hand and easily accessible, is evident. For as a rule, the 
mother of the wife, the grandmother, the daughter, the 
grandjdaughter, and the sister-in-law, are mostly with her ; 
the husband meets them always when he goes out, when 
he comes in, and when he is at his work. The wife 
stays also frequently in the house of her husband's brother, 
father, or son. It is also well known that we are often 
in the company of our sisters, our aunts, and the wife 

^ The Hebrew tenn arayoth is derived from ervah, "nakedness," used in 
the Bible in these laws (Lev. zviii). 

3 E.g,f mother (Lev. xx. 1), danghter-in-law (ibid. 12), mother-in-law 
(ibid. 14). Comp. Mishneh-torah lY. Hilekoth iuure-bhiah i. 4, seq, 

* S.g,f sister (ibid. 17), Mishneh-torah lY. l.e, i. 7. Comp. ituprct^ ch. xli. 
p. 200. 



264 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

of OUT uncle, and are frequently brought up together with 
them. These are all the relatives which we must not 
marry. This is one of the reasons why intermarriage 
with a near relative is forbidden. But according to my 
opinion the prohibition serves another object, namely, to 
inculcate chastity into our hearts. Licence between the 
root and the branch, between a man and his mother, or his 
daughter,^ is outrageous. The intercourse between root and 
branch ^ is forbidden, and it makes no difference whether 
the male element is the root or the branch, or both root and 
branch combine in the intercourse with a third person, so 
that the same individual cohabits with the root and with the 
branch. On this account it is prohibited to marry a woman 
and her mother, the wife of the father or of the son ; for in 
all these cases there is the intercourse between one and the 
same person on the one side And root and branch on the other. 
The law concerning brothers is like the law concerning 
root and branch.^ The sister is forbidden, and so is also the 
sister of the wife^ and the wife of the brother; because in 
the latter cases two persons who are considered like root and 
branch, cohabit with the same person. But in these prohibi- 
tions brothers and sisters are partly considered as root and 
branch and partly as one body ; the sister of the mother is 
therefore like the mother, and the sister of the father like 

' The prohibition of the daughter is implied in the more general prohibi- 
tion of a woman and her daughter (Ley. xviii. 17) and of a woman and her 
mother (ibid. ch. xz. 14), just as parricide is included in the general law con- 
cerning murder. See Mishnah lY., Sanhedrin ix. 1. 

' /.e., between parent and offspring. 

* That is to say, brothers and sisters may not inter-marry, and two brothers 
may not marry the same person, nor may one person marry two sisters. 

^ The prohibition of the wife's sister is, according to Maimonides, not 
based, as some assume, on the principle that husband and wife are one, and 
the wife's sister is the husband's sister. He explains it by the fact that 
brothers and sisters are treated like parent and offspring. There is therefore 
no reason whatever to assume that, according to Maimonides, the prohibition 
of marrying the wife's sister remains in force even after the death of the former, 
contrary to Lev, xviii. 18. This is analogous to the prohibition of marrying 
the wife's mother or daughter, likewise less stringent after the wife's death. 
It is only punishable with death during her lifetime (Mishneh-torah, LciL 8). 



PART m. — CHAPTER XUX. 265 

the father, and both are prohibited ; ^ and since the daughter 
of the parent's brother or sister is not included in the 
number of prohibited relatives, so may we also marry the 
daughter of the brother or the sister.' The apparent anomaly, 
that the brother of the father may marry a woman that has 
been the wife of his brother's son, whilst the nephew must 
not marry a woman that has been the wife of bis father's 
brother, can be explained according to the above-mentioned 
first reason. For the nephew is frequently in the house of 
his uncle, and his conduct towards the wife of his uncle is 
the same as that towards his brother's wife. The uncle, 
however, is not so frequent in the house of his nephew, 
and he is consequently less intimate with the wife of his 
nephew ; whilst in the case of father and son, the familiarity 
of the father with his daughter-in-law is the same as that of 
the son with the wife of his father, and therefore the law 
and punishment is the same for both [father and son].' The 
reason why it is prohibited to cohabit with a menstruous 
woman (Lev. xviii. 19) or with another man's wife (ibid 20), 
is obvious, and requires no further explanation. 

It is well known that we must not indulge in any sensual 
enjoyment whatever with the persons included in the above 
prohibitions ; we must not even look at them if we intend 
to derive pleasure therefrom, "We have explained this in 
" the laws about forbidden sexual intercourse " {HUchoth 
issure bhiah, xxi. 1-2), and shown that according to the Law we 
must not even engage our thoughts with the act of cohabita- 
tion (ibid. 19) or irritate the organ of generation ; and when 
we find ourselves unintentionally in a state of irritation, we 

^ Because they are in the relation of branch and root 

3 Maimonides only shows by these instances that in some cases brothers 
are treated as one person, and in others as two persons. Cousins may inter- 
marry, and are not considered as brother and sister ; here the brothers are 
not considered as one. The same is the case as regards the marriage between 
nnde and niece. But in the case of aunt and nephew the other view is taken, 
that brothers and sisters are one, and aunt and nephew are in the relation of 
branch and root. 

* Comp. Hishnah IV., Sanhedrin viL 4. 



266 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

must turn our mind to other thoughts^ and reflect on some 
other thing till we are relieved. Our Sages,^ in their moral 
lessons, which give perfection to the virtuous, say as follows: 
" My son, if that monster meets you, drag it to the house of 
study. It will melt if it is of iron ; it will break in pieces if 
it is of stone : as is said in Scripture, ' Is not my word like 
a fire ? saith the Lord, and like a hammer that breaketh the 
rock in pieces ? ' " (Jer. xxiii. 29). The author of this saying 
thus exhorts his son to go to the house of study when he 
finds his organ of generation in an irritated state. By read- 
ing, disputing, asking, and listening to questions, the irrita* 
tion will certainly cease. See how properly the term 
monster is employed, for that irritation is indeed like a 
monster. Not only religion teaches this lesson, the philoso- 
phers teach the same. I have already quoted^ verbatim the 
words of Aristotle. He says : " The sense of touch which is 
a disgrace to us, leads us to indulge in eating and sensu- 
ality," &c. He calls people degraded who seek carnal plea- 
sures and devote themselves to gastronomy ; he denounces in 
extenso their low and objectionable conduct, and ridicules 
them. This occurs in his Ethics and in his Bhetoric' 

In accordance with this excellent principle,^ which we 
ought strictly to follow, our Sages teach us that we ought not 
to look at beasts or birds in the moment of their copulation. 
According to my opinion, this is the reason why the cross- 
breeding of cattle is prohibited (Lev. xix. 19). It is a fact 
that animals of different species do not copulate together, 
unless by force. It is well known that the low class of 
breeders of mules are regularly engaged in this work. 
Our Law objected to it that any Israelite should degrade 
himself by doing these things, which require so much vulga- 
rity and indecency, and doing that which religion forbids us 
even to mention, how much more to witness or to practise, 

^ BabyL Talm. Eiddushin, 30 b. 

' Supra, ch. viiL p. 26, and II. cb. xzxtL p. 176. 

» ArUt. Nic Eth. iU. 18 ; Rbet L 2. 

^ BabyL Talm. Abbodbah-zarab, 206. 



PART HL — CHAPTER XLIX. 267 

except when necessary. Cross-breeding, however, is not neces- 
sary. I think that the prohibition to bring together two 
species in any kind of work, as included in the words, " Thou 
shalt not plow with an ox and an ass together " (Deut. xxii. 
10), is only a preventive against the intercourse of two 
species. For if it were allowed to join such together in any 
work, we might sometimes also cause their intercourse. That 
this is the reason of the commandment is proved by the fact 
that it applies to other animals besides ox and ass ; it is pro- 
hibited to plow not only with ox and ass together, but with 
any two kinds. But Scripture mentions as an instance that 
which is of regular occurrence.^ 

As regards circumcision, I think that one of its objects 
is to limit sexual intercourse, and to weaken the organ of 
generation as far as possible, and thus cause man to be 
moderate. Some people * believe that circumcision is to re- 
move a defect in man's formation ; but every one can easily 
reply : How can products of nature be deficient so as to re- 
quire external completion, especially as the use of the fore- 
skin to that organ is evident. This commandment has not 
been enjoined as a complement to a deficient physical creation, 
but as a means for perfecting man's moral shortcomings. The 
bodily injuiy caused to that organ is exactly that which is 
desired ; it does not interrupt any vital function, nor does 
it destroy the power of generation. Circumcision simply 
counteracts excessive lust ; for there is no doubt that circum- 
cision weakens the power of sexual excitement, and some- 
times lessens the natural enjoyment ; the organ necessarily 
becomes weak when it loses blood and is deprived of its 
covering from the beginning. Our Sages say distinctly : * 
It is hard for a woman, with whom an uncircumcised had 
sexual intercourse, to separate from him. This is, as I 
believe, the best reason for the commandment concerning 
circumcision. And who was the first to perform this com- 

^ MUhoah IV., Baba Kama 7. 7. 

' Philo, De circumcisione ; Saadiah Emunoth Yedeotl\, iii. 10. 

* Bereshlth-rabba, c. 80, on Gen. xzxiy. 26. 



268 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

mandment ? Abraham, oiir father! of whom it is well 
known how he feared sin ; it is described by our Sages in 
reference to the words, ''Behold, now I know that thou 
art a fair woman to look upon " (Gen. xii 11).* 

There is, however, another important object in this com- 
mandment. It gives to all members of the same faith, ie., 
to all believers in the Unity of God, a common bodily sign,* 
so that it is impossible for any one that is a stranger^ to say 
that he belongs to them. For sometimes people say so for 
the purpose of obtaining some advantage, or in order to make 
some attack upon the Jews. No one, however, should cir- 
cumcise himself or his son for any other reason but pure 
faith ; for circumcision is not a mere incision on the leg, or a 
burning in the arm, but a very difficult operation. It is also 
a fact that there is much mutual love and assistance among 
people that are united by the same sign when they consider 
it as [the symbol of] a covenant Circumcision is likewise 
the [symbol of the] covenant which Abraham made in con- 
nection with the belief in God's Unity. So also every one 
that is circumcised enters the covenant of Abraham to believe 
in the Unity of God, in accordance with the words of the 
Law, " To be a God imto thee, and to thy seed after thee " 
(Gen. xvii 7). This purpose of the circumcision is as im- 
portant as the first, and perhaps more important 

This law can only be kept and perpetuated in its perfection, 
if circumcision is performed when the child is very young, 
and this for three good reasons. First, if the operation were 
postponed till the boy had grown up, he would perhaps not 
submit to it. Secondly, the young child has not much pain, 

1 Comp. Rashi, ad Ueunif and Babyl. Talm. Baba-bathra, 16 a. 

' Although eircumciaion may also be found among other nations, e.g^ the 
ancient Egyptians (Philo, De circumcisione, and Joseph, c. Ap. ii 13), the 
circumcision of the Israelites is essentially different, and could therefore be 
called a distinctive characteristic of the Jews (Tac Hist v. 5). For in spite 
of the existence of the rite of circumcision among other nations, the term 
'* uncircumdsed" is used of other nations as distinguished from the Israelites. 
See Jer. iz. 25 ; Ezek. zliv. 7 ; Mishnah III.; Nedarim ill 11. Comp. G. 
Ebers, ^gypten u. die Biicher Mosis, p. 284. 



PART IlL— CHAPTEK XUX. 269 

because the skin is tender and the imaginiation weak; for 
grown-up persons are in dread and fear of things which thej 
imagine as coming, some time before these actually occur. 
Thirdly, when a child is very young, the parents do not think 
much of him ; because the image of the child, that leads the 
parents to love him, has not yet taken a firm root in t^eir 
minds. That image becomes stronger by the continual sight; 
it grows with the development of the child, and later on 
the image begins again to decrease and to vanish. The 
parents' love for a new-bom child is not so great as it is 
when the child is one year old ; and when one year old, it is 
less loved by them than when six years old. The feeling 
and love of the father for the child would have led him to 
neglect the law if he were allowed to wait two or three 
years, whilst shortly after birth the image is very weak in 
the mind of the parent, especially of the father who is 
responsible for the execution of this commandment.^ The 
circumcision must take place on the eighth day (Lev. xii 3), 
because all living beings are after birth, within the first seven 
days, very weak and exceedingly tender, as if they were still 
in the womb of their mother ; not until the eighth day can 
they be counted among those that enjoy the light of the 
world. That this is also the case with beasts may be inferred 
from the words of Scripture : " Seven days shall it be imder 
the dam" (Lev. xxii. 27), as if it had no vitality before the 
end of that period. In the same manner man is circumcised 
after the completion of seven days. The period has been 
fixed, and has not been left to everybody's judgment 

The precepts of this class include alsb the lesson that we 
must not injure in any way the organs of generation in living 
beings (ibid. xxii. 24). The lesson is based on the principle 
of " righteous statutes and judgments " (Deut. iv. 8) ; we must 
keep in everything the golden mean ; we must not be exces- 
sive in love, but must not suppress it entirely ; for the Law 
commands, " Be fruitful, and multiply " (Gen. i 22). The 
organ is weakened by circumcision, but not destroyed by the 

^ Babyl. Talm. Kiddushin, 29 a. 



2Y0 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

operation. The natural faculty is left in full force, but is 
guarded against excess. It is prohibited for an Israelite 
« that is wounded in the stones, or hath his privy member 
cut off" (Deut. xxiii, 2), to marry an Israelitish woman; 
because the sexual intercourse is of no use and of no pur- 
pose; and that marriage would be a source of ruin to Jier, 
and to those who might desire to seduce her. This is very 
clear. In order to create a horror of illicit marriages, a 
bastard^ was not allowed to marry an Israelitish woman 
(ibid, xxiii. 3) ; the adulterer and the adulteress were thus 
taught that by their act they bring upon their seed irrepar- 
able injury. In every language and in every nation the issue 
of licentious conduct has a bad name; the Law therefore 
raises the name of the Israelites by keeping them free from 
the admixture of bastards. The priests, who have a higher 
sanctity, are not allowed to marry a harlot, or a woman 
that is divorced from her husband, or that is profane (Lev. 
xxi. 7) ; * the high-priest, the noblest of the priests, must not 
marry even a widow, or a woman that has had sexual inter- 
course of any kind (ibid. xxi. 14). Of all these laws the 
reason is obvious. If bsistards were prohibited to marry any 
member of the congregation of the Lord, how much more 
rigidly were slaves and handmaids ' excluded. The reason 
of the prohibition of intermarriage with other nations is 
stated in the Law : ** And thou take of their daughters unto 
thy sons, and their daughters go a whoring after their gods, 
and make thy sons go a whoring after their gods'' (Exod. 
xxxiv. 16). 

Most of the ** statutes " (chukkim), the reason of which is 
unknown to us, serve as a fence against idolatry. That I 
cannot explain some details of the above laws or show their 

^ As to the definition of mameer, ''bastard,*' see Mishneh-torah V., JlUekoih 
Uture hhiah xv. 1. 

' /.e., the issue of a marriage which a priest is not allowed to contract 
Mishneh-torah, L e, xiz 1. 

* Comp. Onkelos on Deut. xxiii. 18. Heathen slayes could only be kept by 
Jews if they abandoned idolatry ; certain precepts were obligatory for them, 
and they were fully considered as proselytes on obtaining their freedom. 



PART III.— CHJIPTER XUX. 271 

use is owing to the fact that what we hear from others is not 
so clear as that which we see with onr own eyes. Thus my 
knowledge of the Sabean doctrines, which I derived from 
books, is not as complete as the knowledge of those who have 
witnessed the public practice of those idolatrous customs, 
especially as they have been out of practice and entirely 
extinct two thousand years. If we knew all the particulars 
of the Sabean worship, and were informed of all the details 
of those doctrines, we would clearly see the reason and wis- 
dom of every detail in the sacrificial service, in the laws con- 
cerning things that are unclean, and in other laws, the object 
of which I am unable to state. I have no doubt that all 
these laws served to blot out wrong principles from man's 
heart, and to exterminate the practices which are useless, and 
merely a waste of time in vain and purposeless things. Those 
principles have turned the mind of the people away from 
intellectual research and useful actions. Our prophets there- 
fore describe the ways of the idolaters as follows : '' (They go) 
after vain things which cannot profit nor deliver ; for they 
are vain " (1 Sam. xii. 21); ^ " Surely our fathers have inherited 
lies, vanity and things wherein there is no profit " (Jer. xvL 
19). Consider how great the evil consequences of idolatry 
are, and say whether we ought with all our power to oppose 
it or not ! Most of the precepts serve, as has been stated by 
us, as a mere fence against those doctrines [of idolatry], and 
relieve man from the great and heavy burdens, from the pains 
and inflictions which formed part of the worship of idols. 
Every positive or negative precept, t^e reason of which is un- 
known to thee, take as a remedy against some of those dis- 
eases with which we are unacquainted at present, thank God. 
This should be the belief of educated men who know the 
true meaning of the following divine dictum: ''I said not 
unto the seed of Jacob, Seek Me in vain " (Isa. xlv. 19). 

I have now mentioned all the commandments of these 
fourteen classes one by one,^ and pointed out the reason of 

^ See aupra, ch. xxix. 

' According to Ibn Tibbon : of this claas. It ib probable that Maimonides 
here referred to all the foarteen classee. 



272 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

each of them, with the exception of a few for which I was un- 
able to give the reason, and of some details of less import- 
ance ; but implicitly we have given the reason even of these 
and every intelligent reader will easily find it:^ 
The reasons of the Precepts are now complete. 



CHAPTER L. 



There are in the Law portions which include deep wisdom, 
but have been misunderstood by many* persons ; they require, 
therefore, an explanation. I mean the narratives contained 
in the Law which many consider as being of no use what- 
ever; eg.^ the list of the various families descended from 
Noah, with their names and their territories (Gen. x.) ; the 
sons of Seir the Horite (ibid. xxxvL 20-30) ; the kings that 
reigned in the land of Edom (ibid. 31, seq,) ; and the like. 
There is a saying of our Sages that the wicked king Manasse 
frequently held disgraceful meetings for the sole purpose of 
criticising such passages of the Law. "He held meetings 
and made blasphemous observations on Scripture,' saying, 
Had Moses nothing else to write than. And the sister of 
Lotan was Timna" (Gen. xxxvL 22) ? With reference to such 
passages, I will first give a general principle, and then dis- 

^ This remark can of course only apply to those details which he does not 
mention in these chapters, e.g., the role that the law concerning the marriage 
with the wife's sister holds only good during the lifetime of the latter. 

' E.g. Ihn Ezra, in his Commentaries on the Bihlical books, points out 
aeyeral historical and geographical portions of the Iaw, the object of which he 
is unable to comprehend. See Essays on Ibn Ezra, by M. Friedlander, p. 61, 
»eq. In Talmud and Midrash we meet frequently with the explanation of 
passages like those quoted by Maimonides. Comp. Bashi on Gten. L 1 ; BabyL 
Talm. Ghullin,60b. 

* BabyL Talm. Sanhedrin, 99 b. The instances quoted in the Talmud are 
different from those cited by Maimonides, and serve to iUustrate the chaige 
against King Manasseh, that he employed Scriptural texts in giving expression 
to his common and vulgar thoughts. This must be the meaning of o^odoCAaAcf 
dqfi — ** blasphemous observations." 



PAET m. — CHAPTER L. 273 

CUSS them seriatim, as I have done in the exposition of the 
reasons of the precepts. 

Every narrative in the Law serves a certain purpose in 
connection with religious teaching. It either helps to 
establish a principle of faith, or to r^ulate our actions, and 
to prevent wrong and injustice among men ; and I will show 
this in each case.^ 

It is one of the fundamental prmciples of the Law that the 
Universe has been created ex nihilo, and that of the human 
race, one individual being, Adam, was created. As the time 
which elapsed from Adam to Moses was not more than about 
two thousand five hundred years, people would have doubted 
the truth of that statement if no other information had 
been added, seeing that the human race was spread over all 
parts of the earth in different families and with different 
languages, very unlike the one to the other. In order to re- 
move this doubt the Law gives the genealogy of the nations 
(Gen. V. and x.), and the manner how they branched off from 
a common root. It names those of them who were well 
known, and tells who their fathers were, how long and where 
they lived. It describes also the cause that led to the dis* 
persion of men over all parts of the earth, and to the forma- 
tion of their different languages, after they had lived for a 
long time in one place, and spoken one language (ibid. xL), 
as would be natural for descendants of one person. The ac- 
counts of the flood (ibid. vi.-viii) and of the destruction of 
Sodom and Gomorrah (ibid, xix.), serve as an illustration of 
the doctrine that " Verily there is a reward for the righteous ; 
verily He is a God that judgeth in the earth '* (Ps. Iviii 12).* 

The narration of the war among the nine kings (ibid, xiv.) 
shows how, by means of a miracle, Abraham, with a few 
undisciplined men, defeated four mighty kings. It illustrates 
at the same time how Abraham sympathised with* his 

* According to the printed editions of Ibn Tibbon, " I will now remove all 
doubt [concerning this] from your mind." 

s Comp. Gen. zviiL 19. 

* Hunk : il d^fendit. According to Charizi : he assisted. 

VOL. III. S 



274 QUIDS OF THE PEBFLEXED. 

relative, who had been brought up in the same faith, and 
how he exposed himself to the dangers of warfare in order 
to save him« We further learn from this narrative how 
contented and satisfied Abraham was, thinking little of 
property, and very much of good deeds; he said, "I will 
not take from a thread even to a shoe-latchet" (Gen. ziv. 23). 
The list of the families of Seir and their genealogy is given 
in the Law (ibid, xxxvi. 20-30), because of one particular 
commandment. For God distinctly commanded the Israelites 
concerning Amalek to blot out his name (Deut. xxv. 17-19). 
Amalek was the son of Eliphas and Timna, the sister of 
Lotan (ibid xxxvi 12). The other sons of Esau were not 
included in this commandment. But Esau was by marriage 
connected with the Seirites,^ as is distinctly stated in Scrip- 
ture ; and Seirites were therefore his children ; he reigned 
over them ; his seed was mixed with the seed of Seir, and 
idtimately all the countries and families of Seir were called 
after the sons of Esau who were the predominant family, 
and they assumed more particularly the name Amalekites, 
because these were the strongest. in that family. If the 
genealogy of these families of Seir had not been described in 
full they would all have been killed, contrary to the plain 
words of the commandment. For this reason the Seirite 
families are fully described, as if to say, the people that live 
in Seir and in the kingdom of Amalek are not all Amale- 
kites ; they are the descendants of some other man, and are 
called Amalekites because the mother of Amalek was of 
their tribe.^ The justice of God thus prevented the destruc- 
tion of an [innocent] people that lived in the midst of 
another people [doomed to extirpation] ; for the decree was 

* Comp. Gen. zzzvi. 2, 25. According to Maimonides the Aholibama of 
▼er. 2 is identical with that of Ter. 25, although her father is called in the one 
yerse a Hivite, in the other a Seirite. 

' That is to say, the marriage of Amalek with a descendant of Seir 
caused an amalgamation of Amalekite and Seirite tribes, and Amalekites 
haying become the mightiest of them, they were all called Amalekites. 
According to Ibn Tibbon, " Because their mother belonged to the Amale- 
kites ; " but this is against the context. 



PART in. — CHAPTER L. 275 

only pronounced against the seed of Amalek. The reason of 
this decree has already been stated by us.^ 

The kings that have reigned in the land of Edom are 
enumerated (Gen. xxxvL 31, seq,) on account of the law, 
" Thou mayst not set a stranger over thee, which is not thy 
brother " (Deut. xviL 15). For of these kings none was an 
Edomite;^ wherefore each king is described by his native 
land; one king from this place, another king from that 
place. Now I think that it was then well known how these 
kings that reigned in Edom conducted themselves, what 
they did, and how they humiliated and oppressed the sons 
of Esau. Thus God reminded the Israelites of the fate 
of the Edomites, as if saying unto them. Look unto your 
brothers, the sons of Esau, whose kings were so and so, and 
whose deeds are well known. [Learn therefrom] that no 
nation ever chose a foreigner as king without inflicting 
thereby some great or small injury upon the country. In 
short, what I remarked in reference to our ignorance of the 
Sabean worship,^ applies also to the history of those days. 
If the religious rules of the Sabeans and the events of those 
days were known to us, we should be able to see plainly the 
reason for most of the things mentioned in the Law. 

It is also necessary to note the following observations. The 
view we take of things described by others is different from the 
view we take of things seen by us as eye-witnesse& For that 
which we see contains many details which are essential, and 
must be fully described.^ The reader of the description be- 
lieves that it contains superfluous matter, or useless repetition, 
but if he had witnessed the event of which he reads, he would 

^ Supra, ch. xlL p. 205. 

s Comp. Midrash-rabba, ad locum. According to Maimonides, Bosrah, the 
birthplace of King Jobab (Gen. xxzri. 84), did not belong to Edom. Comp. 
Jer. zlviii 24 ; also the land of Teman mnat, according to hia opinion, 
be different from Teman, mentioned in Scripture as part of Edom (Jer. 
xlix. 7, 20). 

* Supra, ch. xlix. p. 270 teq, 

^ Ibn Tibbon*a Version (printed editions) : *' it is impossible to mention them, 
it would make the narratiye too long." 



276 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

see the necessity of every part of the description. When w^ 
therefore notice narratives in the Law, which are in no con- 
nection with any of the commandments, we are inclined to 
think that they are entirely superfluous, or too lengthy, or 
contain repetitions ; ^ but this is only because we do not see 
the particular incidents which make those narratives note* 
worthy. Of this kind is the enumeration of the stations [of 
the Israelites in the wilderness] (Num. xxxiiL). At first 
sight it appears to be entirely useless;^ but in order to 
obviate such a notion Scripture says, " And Moses wrote 
their goings out according to their journeys by the com- 
mandment of the Lord " (ibid. ver. 2). It was indeed most 
necessary that these should be written.^ For miracles are 
only convincing to those who witnessed them ; whilst com- 
ing generations, who know them only from the account 
given by others, may consider tibem as untrue. But miracles 
cannot continue and last for all generations; it is even 
inconceivable [that they should be permanent]. Now the 
greatest of the miracles described in the Law is the stay of 
the Israelites in the wilderness for forty years, with a daily 
supply of manna.^ This wilderness, as described in Scrip- 
ture, consisted of places " wherein were fiery serpents and 
scorpions, and drought, where there was no water " 
(Deut. viii 15); places very remote from cultivated land, 
and naturally not adapted for the habitation of man, " It 
is no place of seed, or of figs, or of vines, or of pome- 
granates, neither is there any water to drink" (Num. xx. 
5); "A land that no man passed through, and where no 
man dwelt" (Jer. ii. 6). [In reference to the stay of the 
Israelites in the wilderness], Scripture relates, ** Ye have not 
eaten bread, neither have ye drunk wine or strong drink " 
(Deut. xix. 5). All these miracles were wonderful, public, 
and witnessed by the people. But God knew that in future 
people might doubt the correctness of the account of these 

^ This phrase lias no eqaivalent in the Hebrew Versions. 
' Comp. Essays on the writings of Ibn Ezra, ^e. 
* Comp. Ibn Ezra on Exod. zvi 18. 



PABT IIL — CHAPTER L. 277 

miracles, in the same manner as they doubt the accuracy of 
other narratives ; they might think that the Israelites stayed 
in the wilderness in a place not far from inhabited land, where it 
was possible for man to live [in the ordinary way] ; that it was 
like those deserts in which Arabs live at present ; or that they 
dwelt in such places in which they could plow, sow, and reap, 
or live on some vegetable that was growing there ; or that 
manna came always down in those places as an ordinary natural 
product ; or that there were wells of water in those places. 
In order to remove all these doubts, and to firmly establish 
the accuracy of the account of these miracles. Scripture 
enumerates all the stations, so that coming generations may 
see them, and learn the greatness of the miracle which en- 
abled human beings to live in those places forty years. 

For this very reason Joshua cursed him who would ever 
build up Jericho (Josh. vi. 26) ; the effect of the miracle was 
to remain for ever, so that any one who would see the wall 
sunk in the ground would understand that it was not in the 
condition of a building pulled down by human hands, but 
sunk through a miracle. In a similar manner the words, 
"At the commandment of the Lord the children of Israel 
journeyed, and at the commandment of the Lord they 
pitched " (Num. ix. 18), would suffice as a simple statement 
of facts; and the reader might at first sight consider as 
unnecessary additions all the details which follow, viz., " And 
when the cloud tarried long. • • . And so it was when the 
cloud was a few days. ... Or whether it were two days," 
&c. (ibid. ix. 19-22). But I will show you the reason why 
all these details are added. For they serve to confirm the 
account, and to contradict the opinion of the nations, both of 
ancient and modern times, that the Israelites lost their way, 
and did not know where to go ; that " they were entangled in 
the land " (Exod. xiv. 3) ; wherefore the Arabs unto this day 
call that desert Al-tih, " the desert of going astray," imagin- 
ing that the Israelites erred about, and did not know the 
way. Scripture, therefore, clearly states and emphatically 
declares that it was by God's command that the joumeyings 



278 GUIDE OF THE PEBPLEZSD. 

were irregular, that the Israelites returned to the same places 
several ^ times, and that the duration of the stay was differ- 
ent in each station ; whilst the stay in one place continued 
for eighteen years,^ in another place it lasted one day, and 
in another one night. There was no going astray, but the 
journey was regulated by "the rising of the pillar of cloud" 
(Num. iz. 17). Therefore all these details are given. Scrip- 
ture clearly states that the way was near, known, and in good 
condition ; I mean the way from Horeb, whither they came 
intentionally, according to the command of God, " Ye shall 
serve God upon this mountain " (Exod. iii 12), to Kadesh- 
bamea, the beginning of inhabited land, as Scripture says, 
*' Behold, we are now in Kadesh, a city in the uttermost of 
thy border" (Num. xx. 16). That way was a journey of 
eleven days ; comp. *' Eleven days' journey from Horeb, by 
the way of mount Seir, unto Kadesh-bamea " (Deut i 3). 
In such a journey it is impossible to err about for forty 
years ; but Scripture states the cause of the delay. 

In like manner there is a good reason for every passage 
the object of which we cannot see. We must always apply 
the words of our Sages : '' It is not a vain thing for you " 
(Deut. xxxiL 47), and if it is vain, it is your fault' 



CHAPTER LI. 



The present chapter^ does not contain any additional matter 
that has not been treated in the [previous] chapters of this 
treatise. It is a kind of conclusion, and at the same time it 

^ Comp. Raslii on Nam. zzi. 4. 

' According to Seder-olam the Israelites stayed at Kadesh nineteen yean. 
See Rashi on Dent, i 46^ 

* Supra, chap, zxvi p. 125. 

* In this chapter Maimonides explains the conduct of those who devote 
themselves ezdnsively to the true service of God. It contains many things 
which the author took from the works of Abu Beer ibn al-Zaig. (Efodi) 



PART in. — CHAPTER LL 279 

will explain in what manner those worship God who have 
obtained a true knowledge concerning God ; ^ it will direct 
them how to come to that worship, which is the highest aim 
man can attain, and show how God protects them in this 
world till they are removed to eternal Hf e.^ 

I will begin the subject of this chapter with a simile. A 
king is in his palace, and all his subjects are partly in the 
country, and partly abroad. Of the former, some have their 
backs turned towards the king's palace, and their faces in 
another direction ; and some are desirous and zealous to go 
to the palace, seeking ''to inquire in his temple,'' and to 
minister before him, but have not yet seen even the face of 
the wall of the hou«e. Of those that desire to go to the 
palace, some reach it, and go round about in search of the 
entrance gate; others have passed through the gate, and 
walk about in the ante-chamber ; and others have succeeded 
in entering into the inner part of the palace, and being in 
the same room with the king in the royal palace. But even 
the latter do not immediately on entering the palace see the 
king, or speak to him ; for, after having entered the inner 
part of the palace, another effort is required before they can 
stand before the king — ^at a distance, or dose by — ^hear his 
words, or speak to him. I will now explain the simile which 
I have made. The people who are abroad are all those that 
have no religion, neither one based on speculation nor one 
received by tradition. Such are' the extreme Turks that 

^ Lit, "the true [things] peculiar to them." Munk: "lea Trab deyoira 
qu'on doit pratiquer enyers Dieu." Maimonides desires to explain the nature 
of the Divine Sendee of those who have obtained a tme knowledge of God, 
and to direct them how to arrive at that service. This woold be saperfluoos 
if he addressed those who "know the true duties towards God." 

* lit, "in the bundle of life." Comp. 1 Sam. zxv. 29, and Targum, ad 
locum, Narboni : the union of man's intellect with the Active Intellect 

* See supra, chap. xxiz. p. 136. As to the relation between the develop- 
ment of man's intellect and Divine Providence, see tufBro, chap, xvii Accord- 
ing to Maimonides, Divine Providence acts in the same manner as Divine 
Intellectual Influence ; both affect only rational beings, and only in propor- 
tion to their intellectual development Maimonides simply points to this 
analogy, and treats the question more from a homiletie than from a philo- 



280 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

wander about in the north, the Kushites who live in the 
south, and those in our country who are like these. I con- 
aider these as irrational beings, and not as human beings 
they are below mankind, but above monkeys, since they 
have the form and shape of man, and a mental faculty above 
that of the monkey. 

Those who are in the country, but have their backs turned 
towards the king's palace, are those who possess religion, 
belief, and thought, but happen to hold false doctrines^ which 
they either adopted in consequence of great mistakes made 
in tiieir own speculations, or received from others who misled 
them. Because of these doctrines they recede more and more 
from the royal palace the more they seem to proceed. These 
are worse than the first class, and under certain circumstances 
it may become necessary to slay them, and to extirpate their 
doctrines, in order that others should not be misled. 

Those who desire to arrive at the palace, and to enter it, 
but have never yet seen it, are the mass of religious people ; 
the multitude that observe the divine commandments, but 
are ignorant. Those who arrive at the palace, but go round 
about it, are those who devote themselves exclusively to the 
study of the practical law ; they believe traditionally in true 
principles of faith, and learn the practical worship of Grod, 
but are not trained in philosophical treatment of the prin- 
ciples of the Law, and do not endeavour to establish the 
truth of their faith by proof. Those who undertake to 
investigate the principles of religion, have come into the 
ante-chamber ; and there is no doubt that these can also be 
divided into different grades. But those who have succeeded 
in finding a proof for everything that can be proved, who 

sopliical point of yiew. He does not Attempt to show the causal relation 
between man's intellectaal perfection and the Divine protection accorded to 
him. Samnel ibn Tibbon notices the absence of philosophical argument ; his 
son, Moses ibn Tibbon, assumes that man's intellectnal perfection renders 
him capable of avoiding everything that is injurious or dangerous to him. 
Karboni rejects this answer, and suggests the following : the perfect man is 
in relation to the Active Intellect as the heavenly spheres to their respective 
Intelligences ; he is, like the heavenly spheres, inviolable. 



PART m. — CHAPTER U. 281 

have a true knowledge of God, 80 far as a true knowledge can 
be attained, and are near the truth, wherever an approach to 
the truth is possible, they have reached the goal, and are in 
the palace in which the king lives. 

My son, so long as you are engaged in studying the Mathe- 
matical Sciences and Logic, you belong to those who go round 
about the palace in search of the gate. Thus our Sages 
figuratively use the phrase: "Ben-zoma is still outside."^ 
When you understand Physics, you have entered the hall ; ^ 
and when, after completing the study of Natural Philosophy, 
you master Metaphysics, you have entered the innermost court, 
and are with the king in the same palace. You have attained 
the degree of the wise men, who include men of different 
grades of perfection. There are some who direct all their mind 
toward the attainment of perfection in Metaphysics, devote 
themselves entirely to God, exclude from their thought every 
other thing, and employ all their intellectual faculties in the 
study of the Universe, in order to derive therefrom a proof 
for the existence of God, and to learn in every possible 
way how God rules all things ; they form the class of those - 
who have entered the palace, namely, the class of prophets. 
One of these has attained so much knowledge, and has con- 
centrated his thoughts to such an extent in the idea of God, 

^ BabyL Talm. Chagigah, 16 a. Ben-zoma wrongly interprets Gen. L 2 ; 
aa he 18 ignorant of the first chapter of Genesis, the maateh herethith, he has, 
according to Maimonides, not yet studied Physics, and is therefore described 
as being * ' outside. " 

' Shem-tob quotes the opinion of some scholars who condemned this chapter 
as spurious, saying that Maimonides could not haye uttered the doctrine that 
those who study Natural Philosophy are in rank above those who dcTote 
themselyes to the study of the Iaw. If Maimonides should in reality have 
written this chapter, they think it ought to be expunged or burnt. Jacob 
Emden, in Maipaehath tepKarim, even believes that the Moreh is not the 
work of the autho^ of Ycul ha-ehtuakah, Shem-tob defends Maimonides in 
this way : Maimonides divides the religious people into three classes — (1.) Those 
that simply learn the laws and religious principles without themselves investi- 
gating their truth ; (2.) those who study besides maoieh, hereikUh; (8.) who 
in addition study maakK mereabhaK, Parallel to these classes, he divides the 
chathamim (wise men) into (1.) those who have studied Logics (2.) those who 
have studied Physics, and (8.) those who have studied Metaphysics. 



282 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

that it could be said of him, " And he was with the Lord 
forty days," &c. (Exod. xxxiv. 28); during that holy com- 
munion he could ask Him, answer Him, speak to Him, and 
be addressed by Him, enjoying beatitude in that which he 
had obtained to such a degree that " he did neither eat bread 
nor diink water" (ibid.);^ his intellectual energy was so pre- 
dominant that all coarser functions of the body, especially 
those connected with the sense of touch, were in abeyance. 
Some prophets are only able to see, and of these some ap- 
proach near and see, whilst others see from a distance : comp. 
" The Lord hath appeared from far ^ unto me " ( Jer. zxxL 3). 
We have already spoken of the various degrees of prophets;' 
we will therefore return to the subject of this chapter, 
and exhort those who have attained a knowledge of (Jod, to 
concentrate all their thoughts in God. This is the worship 
peculiar to those who have acquired a knowledge of the 
highest truths; and the more they reflect on Him, and 
think of Him, the more are they engaged in His worship. 
Those, however, who think of God, and frequently mention 
His name, without any correct notion of Him, but merely 
following some imagination, or some creed received from 
another person, are, in my opinion, like those who remain 
outside the palace and distant from it They do not men- 
tion the name of God in truth, nor do they reflect on it. 
That which they imagine and mention does not correspond 
to any being in existence; it is a thing invented by their 
imagination, as has been shown by us in our discussion on the 
Divine Attributes (Part I. ch, L). The true worship of God 
is only possible when correct notions of Him have pre- 
viously been conceived. When you have arrived by way of 
intellectual research at a knowledge of God and His works, 
then commence to devote yourselves to Him, try to approach 
Him and strengthen the intellect, which is the link that 

^ /.&, He felt no appetite for food or drink, and the spiritual eigoyment 
aostained also his body for forty days. 
« A. V. Of old. 
* Introd. to Part I., p. 9 ; and Part II., chap. xlv. 



PABT m.— CHAPTER LI. 283 

joins you to Him. Thus Scripture says, " Unto thee it was 
showed, that thou mightest know that the Lord He is God^' 
(Deut iv. 35) ; " Know therefore this day, and consider it 
in thine heart, that the Lord He is God " (ibid. 36) ; " Know 
ye that the Lord is God " (Ps. c. 3). Thus the Law distinctly 
states that the highest kind of worship, to which we refer in 
this chapter, is only possible after the acquisition of the 
knowledge of God. For it is said, '' To love the Lord your 
God, and to serve Him with all your heart and with all your 
soulj" (Dent, xi 13), and, as we have shown several times,^ 
man's love of God is identical with his knowledge of Him. 
The Divine Service enjoined in these words must, accordingly, 
be preceded by the love of God. Our Sages have pointed out 
to us that it is a service in the heart,^ which explanation I 
understand to mean this: man concentrates all his thoughts on 
the First Intellect, and is absorbed in these thoughts as much 
as possible. David therefore commands his son Solomon these 
two things, and exhorts him earnestly to do them : to acquire 
a true knowledge of God, and to be earnest in His service after 
that knowledge has been acquired. For He says, " And thou, 
Solomon my son, know thou the God of thy father, and serve 
Him with a perfect heart ... if thou seek Him, He will 
be found of thee ; but if thou forsake Him, He will cast 
thee off for ever" (1 Chron. xxviiL 9). The exhortation refers 
to the intellectual conceptions, not to the imaginations ; for 
the latter are not called ''knowledge," but "that which 
cometh into your mind^ (£z. xx. 32). It has thus been 
shown that it must be man's aim, after having acquired the 
knowledge of God, to deliver himself up to Him, and to 
have his heart constantly filled with longing after Him. He 
accomplishes this generally by seclusion and retirement.! 

1 Supn, ch. xxriiL p. 132, and Part L, ch. xxzix. p. 41. 

> 8ifri, Deut zL 18. Babyl. Talm. Taanith, 2 a. Our Sagos, howeyer, do 
not speak in the passages referred to of metaphysical speculation, but of 
Prayer {UjUlah). 

t In Eight Chapters, eh. iv., Maimonides recommends seclusion only as * 
remedy for existing evils, but not as a part of Divine Service, or as a step 
leading directly towards perfection. The golden mean is described as the 
aim of all moral training of man. 



284 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

Every pious man should therefore seek retirement and 
seclusion, and should only in case of necessity associate with 
others. 

Note. — I have shown you that the intellect which ema- 
nates from God unto us is the link that joins us to God. 
You have it in your power to strengthen ^ that bond, if you 
choose to do so, or to weaken ^ it gradually till it breaks, if 
you prefer this. It will only become strong when you 
employ it in the love of God, and seek that love ; it will 
be weakened when you direct your thoughts to other things. 
You must know that even if you were the wisest man iu 
respect to the true knowledge of God, you break the bond 
between you and God whenever you turn entirely your 
thoughts to the necessary food or any necessary business ; 
you are then not with God, and He is not with you ; for 
that relation between you and Him is actually interrupted 
in those moments. The pious were therefore particular to 
restrict the time in which they could not meditate upon the 
name of God, and cautioned others about it» saying, *' Let not 
your minds be vacant from reflections upon God." ^ In the 
same sense did David say, ''I have set the Lord always 

^ lit, to make it strong and thick, to make it weak and thin. The Hebrew 
Torsions expressed the two rerhs of the original by one. 

* In BabyL Talm. Shabbath 149 a, the Scriptoral words al tifnu d ha-OUim 
(Ley. xiz. 8), "Tom ye not onto idols," are interpreted as implying the pro- 
hibition, Do not gaze at imsges of idols. This interpretation is accepted by 
Maimonides Mishneh-torah Hilchoth abhodhah-zarah ii. 2. But the remark, 
which in the Talmad Lc follows the above law, and apparently as a farther 
explanation of the same, is onderstood by Maimonides to contain the lesson 
that we shoald never allow our thoaghts to tarn away from God. He read — 
as has been suggested by Mank — al ^/annu 81 mi-daath*ckem, ** Do not remove 
God from your thoughts." It is possible that this is the correct reading of 
the Talmudic passage, for the question is asked, nuU genuura, ** What is the 
traditional interpretation of the text?" [which applies the prohibition 
to all pictures]. R. Chanina replies, "Do not remove God from your 
thoughts " [by spending the time in gazing at pictures]. According to Bashi, 
al Hfnu d mi-daaih*chem, " Do not turn to things that exist only in your 
imagination," i.e., to idols. The difficulty in this explanation is that the 
chief point, the prohibition of gazing at pictures of idols, is not set forth 
more clearly in the paraphrase than in the origiuaL 



PART m. — CHAPTER U. 285 

before me ; because He is at my right band, I shall not be 
moved " (Ps. xvi. 8) ; i«., I do not turn my thoughts away 
from God ; He is like my right hand, which I do not forget 
even for a moment on account of the ease of its motions, and 
therefore I shall not be moved, I shall not fall. 

We must bear in mind that all such religious acts as 
reading the Law, praying, and the performance of other pre- 
cepts, serve exclusively as the means of causing us to occupy 
and fill our mind vrith the precepts of God, and free it 
from worldly business ; for we are thus, as it were, in com- 
munication vrith God, and undisturbed by any other thing. 
If we, however, pray with the motion of our lips, and our 
face toward the wall, but at the same time think of our 
business ; if we read the Law with our tongue, whilst our 
heart is occupied with the building of our house, and we do 
not think of what we are reading ; if we perform the com- 
mandments only with our limbs, we are like those who are 
engaged in digging in the ground, or hewing wood in the 
forest, without reflecting on the nature of those acts, or by 
whom they are commanded, or what is their object. We 
must not imagine that [in this way] we attain the highest 
perfection ; on the contrary, we are then like those in refer- 
ence to whom Scripture says, " Thou art near in their mouth, 
and far from their reins " (Jer. xii 2). 

I will now commence to show you the way how to educate 
and train yourselves in order to attain that great perfection. 

The first thing you must do is this : Turn your thoughts 
away from everything while you read Shema or during the 
TefiilcJi,} and do not content yourself with being devout 
when you read the first verse of Shema,^ or the first para- 

1 Shema and TefUah are the two eaaentiAl parts of our Daily Semoe. 
Shema oonsiBts of Deat. tL 4-9, xL 13-21, and Knm. zy. 87-41. Comp. 
Mishnah, Berachoth i-iii. The t^/Ulah or ikemoneh-etref or amidah^ la a 
prayer that oontaina eighteen paragraphs, each concluding with a benediction, 
and which the supplicant recites ttanding in an erect position (comp. ibid. 

iT.-T.). 

' This is the minimum required by Law. Comp. BabyL Berachoth, IS b, 
and Mishneh»torah Hilckoih heriath^thema u, 1, teq. 



286 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

graph of the prayer.^ When you have successfully ]practised 
this for many years, tiy in reading the Law or listening to it, 
to have all your heart and all your thought occupied with 
understanding what you read or hear. After some time when 
you have mastered this, accustom yourself to have your mind 
free from all other thoughts when you read any portion of 
the other books of the prophets, or when you say any bless- 
ing; and to have your attention directed exclusively to the per* 
ception and the understanding of what you utter. When yon 
have succeeded in properly performing these acts of divine 
service, and you have your thought, during their performance, 
entirely abstracted from worldly affairs, take then care that 
your thought be not disturbed by cares for your wants * or 
for superfluous food. In short, think of worldly matters 
when you eat, drink, bathe, talk with your wife and little 
children, or when you converse with other people. These 
times, which are frequent and long, I think, must suffice to 
you for reflecting on everything that is necessary as regards 
business, household, and health. But when you are engi^ed 
in the performance of religious duties, have your mind 
exclusively directed to what you are doing. 

When you are alone by yourself, when you are awake on 
your couch, be careful to meditate in such precious moments 
on nothing but the intellectual worship of God, viz., to ap- 
proach Him and to minister before Him in the true manner 
which I have described to you — not in hollow emotions. 
This I consider as the highest perfection wise men can 
attain by the above training. 

^ Comp. BabyL Talm. l,c. In Mislineh-torali, Maimonides likewiae insists 
upon it that the whole prayer be read with hawanah (devotion), and does not 
permit a person to say prayer who is unable to collect his thonghts during the 
t^fiUah, although he might be able to do so during part of the t^fiUak, See 
Lechem Mishneh on Mishneh-torah, Hilchoth tefillah iv. 15. 

* Munk : Alors seulement tu pourras commencer &te prdoccuper des choses 
n^oeasaires, &c. This would simply be tautology. The author seems to adTise 
those who haye trained themselres in divine service to such a degree that 
during prayer they can remain free from worldly thoughts to learn how to 
restrain cares and anxieties about mundane affairs even when no actual 
divine service is performed. 



PART m. — CHAPTER LI. 28T 

When we have acquired a true knowledge of God, and re- 
joice in that knowledge in such a manner, that whilst speak- 
ing with others, or attending to our bodily wants, our mind 
is all that time with'^God ; when we are with our heart con- 
stantly near God, even whilst our body is in the society of 
men ; when we are in that state which the Song on the rela- 
tion between God and man poetically describes in the follow- 
ing words : ** I sleep, but my heart waketh ; it is the Yoice of 
my beloved that knocketh" (Song v. 2): — then we have 
attained not only the height of ordinary prophets, but of 
Moses, our Teacher, of whom Scripture relates : " And Moses 
alone shall come near before the Lord " (ibid, zxxiv. 28) ; 
'* But as for thee, stand thou here by Me " (Deut. v. 28). 
The meaning of these verses has been explained by us.^ 

The Patriarchs likewise attained this degree of perfection ; 
they approached God in such a manner that with them the 
name of God became known in the world.^ Thus we read 
in Scripture : " The God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and 
the God of Jacob. . . . This is My name for ever"' (Ex. iii, 
15). Their mind was so identified with the knowledge of 
God, that He made a lasting covenant with each of them : 
" Then will I remember my covenant with Jacob," &c. (Lev. 
xxvi 42). For it is known from statements made in Scrip- 
ture that these four, viz., the Patriarchs and Moses, had their 
minds exclusively filled with the name of God, that is, with 
His knowledge and love ; and that in the same measure was 
Divine Providence attached to them and their descendants. 
When we therefore find them also, engaged in ruling others, 
in increasing their property, and endeavouring to obtain pos- 
session of wealth and honour, we see in this fact a proof that 
when they were occupied in these things, only their bodily 
limbs were at work, whilst their heart and mind never moved 

^ Comp. Fart I. ch. xxxiv. p. 126, and tupra p. 282. 

' They were so deroted to God that they were only known to be worship* 
pers of God, and thos Grod was known wherever they became known. 

* Monk : Tel est mon nom dans le monde. There is no necessity to assume 
that Maimonides understood leolam to mean " to the world," especially as it is 
contrary.to the context (^videmment inadmiBsible,;Munk). 



288 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

away from the name of Qod. I think these four reached 
that high degree of perfection in their relation to God, and 
enjoyed the continual presence of Divine Providence, even 
in their endeavours to increase their property, feeding the 
flock, toiling in the field, or managing the house, only because 
in all these things their end and aim was to approach 
God as much as possible. It was the chief aim of their 
whole life to create a people that should know and worship 
God. Comp. " For I know him, that he will command his 
children and his household after him " (Gen. xviil 19). The 
object of all their labours was to publish the Unity of God 
in the world, and to induce people to love Him ; and it was 
on Chis account that they succeeded in reaching that high 
degree; for even those [worldly] affairs were for them a 
perfect worship of God. But a person like myself must not 
imagine that he is able to lead men up to this degree of per- 
fection. It is only the next degree to it that can be attained 
by means of the above-mentioned training. And let us pray 
to Gk)d and beseech Him that He clear and remove from our 
way everything that forms an obstruction and a partition be- 
tween us and Him, although most of these obstacles are our 
own creation, as has several times been shown in this 
treatise.^ Comp. " Your iniquities have separated between 
you and your God " (Is. lix. 2). 

An excellent idea presents itself here to me, which may 
serve to remove many doubts, and may help to solve many 
difficult problems in metaphysics. We have already stated 
in the chapters which treat of Divine Providence,* that Provi- 
dence watches over every rational being according to the 
amount of intellect which that being possesses. Those who 
are perfect in their perception of Grod, whose mind is never 
separated from Him, enjoy always the influence of Providence. 
But those who, perfect in their knowledge of God, turn their 
mind sometimes away from God, enjoy the presence of Divine 
Providence only when they meditate on God; when their 

^ See ffttpro, cb. zii. 8, p. 41. 
' See ch. xvii. teq. 



PABT m. — CHAPTER IX 28? 

thoaghts are engaged in other matters divine Providence de« 
parts from thenu The absence of Providence in this case is 
not like its absence in the case of those who do not reflect 
on God at all ; it is in this case less intense, because when 
a person perfect in his knowledge [of God] is busy vrith 
worldly matters, he has not knowledge in actuality, but only 
knowledge in potentiality [though ready to become actual].^ 
This person is then like a trained scribe when he is not writing. 
Those who have no knowledge of God are like those who are 
in constant darkness and have never seen light We have 
explained^ in this sense the words: ''The wicked shall be 
silent in darkness ** (1 Sam. ii 9), whilst those who possess the 
knowledge of God, and have their thoughts entirely directed 
to that knowledge, are, as it were, always in bright sunshine ; 
and those who have the knowledge, but are at times engaged 
in other themes, have then as it were a cloudy day : the sun 
does not shine for them on account of the cloud that inter- 
venes between them and God. 

Hence it appears to me that it is only in times of such neglect 
that some of the ordinary evils befall a prophet or a perfect 
and pious man ; and the intensity of the evil is proportional 
to the duration of those moments, or to the character of the 
things that thus occupy their mind. Such being the case»^ 
the great difficulty is removed that led philosophers to assert 
that Providence does not extend to every individual, and 
that man is like any other living being in this respect, viz., 
the argument based on the fact that good and pious men 
are afflicted with great evils. We have thus explained this 
difficult question even in accordance with the philosophers' 
own principles. Divine Providence is constantly watching 
over those who have obtained that blessing which is pre- 

^ Lit " in near potentiality," that is, potentiality that is soon to become 
reality. In a similar sense the same term is used in the end of ch. zlix. 

' Ch. xviiL p. 81* 

* Munk : S'il en ^tait rtellement ainsi ; in the same sense Falquera under- 
stands the phrase. But the context shows that Maimonides speaks here with 
certainty, and not conditionally. Comp. '* An excellent idea^" &a, which 
*' may serve to remove any doubt," &c. {tupra p. 288). 

VOL. m. T 



290 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

pared for those who endeavour to obtain it If man frees 
his thoughts from worldly matters, obtains a knowledge of 
Grod in the right way, and rejoices in that knowledge, it 
is impossible that any kind of evil should befall him while 
be is with God, and God with him. When he does not 
meditate on God, when he is separated from God, then God 
is also separated from him ; then he is exposed to any evil 
that might befall him ; for it is only that intellectual link 
with God that secures the presence of Providence and pro- 
tection from evil accidents. Hence it may occur that the 
perfect man is at times not happy, whilst no evil befalls those 
who are imperfect ; in these cases what happens to them is 
due to chance. This principle I find also expressed in the 
Law. Comp. " And I will hide my face from them, and they 
shall be devoured, and many evils and troubles shall befall 
them ; so that they will say in that day. Are not these evils 
come upon us, because our God is not among us ? " (Deut. 
xxxi 17). It is clear that we ourselves are the cause of this 
hiding of the face, and that the screen that separates us 
from God is of our own creation. This is the meaning of 
the words : " And I will surely hide My face in that day, for 
all the evils which they shall have wrought" (ibid. ver. 18). 
There is undoubtedly no difference in this regard between 
one single person and a whole community. It is now clearly 
established that the cause of our being exposed to chance, and 
abandoned to destruction like cattle, is to be found in our 
separation from God. Those who have their Gk>d dwelling 
in their hearts, are not touched by any evU whatever. For 
God says : " Fear thou not, for I am with thee ; ^ be not dis- 
mayed, for I am thy God " (Isa. xlL 10). " When thou passest 
through the waters, I will be with thee; and through the 
rivers, they shall not overflow thee " (ibid, xliii. 2).* For if 

^ The original and the Hebrew TersionB hare here iUeeha instead of 
mmeeha, 

^ Mank has here the foUowing addition, according to a MS. of the Hebrew 
Version of Ibn Tibbon (Bibl. Imp., fonds de I'Oratoire, No. 46) : " 0(1 le sens 
est : qoand tu trayerseras les eaoz, accompagn^ par moi, les fieuves ne t*en- 
trainerOnt pa^" 



PART m. — CHAPTER U, 291 

we prepare ourselves, and attain the influence of the Divine 
Intellect, Providence is joined to us, and we are guarded 
against all evils. Goxnp. ^'The Lord is on mj side; I will 
not fear ; what can man do unto me ? " (Ps. cxviii. 6). ** Ac- 
quaint now thyself with Him, and be at peace " (Job xxiL 21) ; 
ije., turn unto Him, and you will be safe from all evil 

Consider the Psalm on mishaps,^ and see how the author 
describes that great Providence, the protection and defence 
from all mishaps that concern the body,^ both from those 
that are common to all people, and those that concern only 
one certain individual ; from those that are due to the laws 
of Nature, and those that are caused by our fellow-men. The 
Psalmist says : " Surely He will deliver thee from the snare 
of the fowler, and from the noisome pestilence. He shall 
cover thee with His feathers, and under His wings shalt thou 
trust : His truth shall be thy shield and buckler. Thou shalt 
not be afraid for the terror by night ; nor for the arrow that 
flieth by day " (Ps. xci. 3-5). The author then relates how 
God protects us from the troubles caused by men, saying, 
If you happen to meet on your way with an army fighting 
with drawn swords, killing thousands at your left hand and 
myriads at your right hand, you will not suffer any harm ; 
you will behold and see how God judges and punishes the 
wicked that are being slain, whilst you remain unhurt '* A 
thousand shall fall at thy side, and ten thousand at thy right 
hand ; but it shall not come nigh thee. Only with thine eyes 
shalt thou behold and see the reward of the wicked " (ibid, 
vers. 7, 8). The author then continues his description of the 
divine defence and shelter, and shows the cause of this great 
protection, saying that such a man is well guarded, " Because 
he hath set his love upon Me, therefore will I deliver him : I 
will set him on high, because he hath known My name " 

^ Skir ahd peghalm^ ''Psalm on mishaps," is the name giren to Pa zd., in 
which the author ezprosses his faith in God that He wiU protect him from 
threatening danger. See Babyl. Talm. Shebhaoth, 19 b. 

> The editions of Ibn Tibbon*s Version hare ha-pogeoih instead of Ao- 
gufnijfoth. 



292 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

(ibid. yer. 14). We have shown in previous chapters ^ that 
by the " knowledge of God's name," the knowledge of GUxl is 
meant The above passage may therefore be paraphrased as 
follows : *' This man is well guarded, because he hath known 
Me, and then (bi ehashak) loved Me." Youknow the differ- 
ence between the two Hebrew terms that signify "* to love," 
afiob and ehashak. When a man's love is so intense that his 
thought is exclusively engaged with the object of his love, it 
is expressed in Hebrew by the term ehashak. 

The philosophers have already explained how the bodily 
forces of man in his youth prevent the development of 
moral principles. In a greater measure this is the case as 
regards the purity of thought which man attains through 
the perfection of those ideas that lead him to an intense love 
of God. Man can by no means attain this so long as his 
bodily humours are hot. The more the forces of his body 
are weakened, and the fire of passion quenched, in the same 
measure does man's intellect increase in strength and light ; 
his knowledge becomes purer, and he is happy with his 
knowledge. When this perfect man is stricken in age and 
is near death, his knowledge mightily increases, his joy in 
that knowledge grows greater, and his love for the object of 
his knowledge more intense, and it is in this great delight 
that the soul separates from the body. To this state our 
Sages referred, when in reference to the death of Moses, 
Aaron, and Miriam, they said that death was in these three 
cases nothing but a kiss. They say thus:^ We learn from the 
words, ''And Moses the servant of the Lord died there in the 
land of Moab by the mouth of the Lord " (Dent, xxxiv. 5), 
that his death was a kiss. The same expression is used of 
Aaron : ''And Aaron the priest went up into Mount Hor . . . 
by the mouth of the Lord, and died there" (Num. ttyiij 38). 
Our Sages said that the same was the case with Miriam ; but 
the phrase " by the mouth of the Lord " is not employed, 
because it was not considered appropriate to use these words 

^ Comp. Part I., chap. bdr. 

* See Bashi on Noxxl xz. 9, zxziii. 8S, and Dent iczziT. 5* 



PAKT ra.— CHAPTER U, 293 

in the description of her death as she was a female.^ The 
meaning of this saying is that these three died in the midst 
of the pleasure derived from the knowledge of God and their 
great love for Him. When our Sages figuratively call the 
knowledge of God united with intense love for Him a kiss 
they follow the well-known poetical diction, '' Let Him kiss 
me with the kisses of His mouth " (Song i. 2). This kind of 
death, which in truth is deliverance from death, has been 
ascribed by our Sages to none but to Moses, Aaron, and 
Miriam.^ The other prophets and pious men are beneath 
that degree; but their knowledge of God is strengthened 
when death approaches. Of them Scripture says, ''Thy 
righteousness shall go before thee ; the glory of the Lord 
shall be thy rereward " (Is. Iviii. 8). The intellect of these 
men remains then constantly in the same condition, since 
the obstacle is removed that at times has intervened between 
the intellect and the object of its action ; it continues for 
ever in that great delight, which is not like bodily pleasure. 
We have explained this in our work,^ and others have 
explained it before us.^ 

Try to understand this chapter, endeavour with all your 
might to spend more and more time in communion with 
God, or in the attempt to approach Him ; and to reduce the 
hours which you spend in other occupations, and during 
which you are not striving to come nearer unto Him. This 
instruction suffices for the object of this treatise. 

1 See BabyL Talm. Moed-katan, 28 b. 

' Maimonides seems to make a distinction between lo »hdUU hahem malaek 
ha^maveth, " The angel of death had no power over them," which is said in 
reference to Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses, Aaron, and Miriam (BabyL Talm. 
Baba-bathra, 17 a), and ''they died by a kiss." According to Rashi (Z.&) the 
two phrases are identical, bnt Maimonides holds that " angel of death " and 
" evil inclination " are identical, and. accordingly in the passage referred to 
the Patriarchs, and Moses, Aaron, and Miriam are said to haye been free from 
evil inclination. 

s Mishneh-torah I., Hilchoth teshnbhah viiL 1 lej., comp. Pt I., ch. zl., 
xlL, Ixz. p. 269 ; IL ch. xxyii. p. 124. 

* Comp. Plato's Phaedon. Job ii. 6 {jtupra zxii. p. 97). Babyl. Talm. 
Hoed-Katan, 9 b. 



294 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 



CHAPTER LII. 

We do not sit, move, and occupy ourselves when we are 
alone and at home, in the same manner as we do in the 
presence of a great king ; we speak and open our mouth as 
we please when we are with the people of our own house- 
hold and our relatives, but not so when we are in a royal 
assembly. If we therefore desire to attain human perfec- 
tion, and to be truly men of God, we must awake from oar 
sleep, and bear in mind that the great king that is over us, 
and is always joined to us, is greater than any earthly king, 
greater than David and Solomon. The king that cleaves to 
us and embraces us is the Intellect that influences us, and 
forms the link between us and God. We perceive God by 
means of that light that He sends down unto us, wherefore the 
Psalmist says, " In Thy light shall we see light " (Ps. xxxvi. 
9) : so God looks down upon us through that same light, and 
is always with us beholding and watching us on account of 
this light. ''Can any hide himself in secret places that I shall 
not see him ? " (Jer. xxiii. 24). Note this particularly.^ 

When the perfect bear this in mind, they will be filled with 
fear of God, humility, and piety, with true, not apparent,* 
reverence and respect of God, in such a manner that their 
conduct, even when alone with their wives or in the bath« 
will be as modest as they are in public intercourse with other 
people. Thus it is related of our renowned Sages that even 
in their sexual intercourse with their wives they behaved 

^ The constant intercoarse between our intellect and the Active Intellect 
is the highest degree of perfection man can attain ; and as the ActiTe In* 
tellect emanates from Grod, we are in communion with God. According to 
Maimonides it is not by sacrifices or prayers that we truly approach God, 
but in this union with the Active Intellect It is noteworthy that in spite of 
hostility displayed toward the Moreh by many orthodox Rabbis, part of this 
chapter has found its way into the Shulchan-aruch (Code of Laws), and 
occupies there the most prominent place (ch. i 1). 

' Le,f fear of punishment or of the anger of God, and similar senti- 
ments. 



PART HI. — CHAPTER UL 295 

'With great modesty.* They, also said, "Who is modest ? He 
vhose conduct in the dark night is the same as in the day." ' 
You know also bow much they warned us not to walk 
proudly, since ** the fulness of the whole earth is His glory " 
(Is. vi 3).' They thought that by these rules the above- 
mentioned idea will be firmly established in the hearts of 
men, viz., that we are always before God, and it is in the 
presence of His glory that we go to and fra The great 
men among our Sages would not uncover their heads because 
they believed that God's glory was round them and over 
them ; ^ for the same reason they spoke little. In our Com- 
mentary on the Sayings of the Fathers (ch. i 17) we have 
fully explained how we have to restrict our speech. Comp. 
'' For God is in heaven and thou upon earth, therefore let 
thy words be few " (Eccl. v. 1). 

What I have here pointed out to you is the object of all 
our religious acts. For by [carrying out] all the details of 
the prescribed practices, and repeating them continually, 
some few pious men may attain human perfection. They 
-will be filled with respect and reverence towards God ; and 
bearing in mind Who is with them, they will perform their 
duty. God declares in plain words that it is the object of 
all religious acts to produce in man fear of God and obedience 
to His word — the state of mind which we have demonstrated 
in this chapter for those who desire to know the truth, as 
being our duty to seek. Comp. " If thou wilt not observe to 
do all the words of this law that are written in this book, 
that thou mayest fear this glorious and fearful name, the 
Lord thy God" (Deut xxviii 58). Consider how clearly it 
is stated here that the only object and aim of '' all the words 
of this law '* is to [make man] fear " the glorious and fear- 
ful name." That this end is attained by certain acts we 
learn likewise from the phrase employed in this verse : " If 

^ Lit., uncoyering one handbreadth and corering one handbreadth. 
BabjL Talm. Nedarim, 20 b. Comp. Miabneh-torah I., Hilchoth deoth t. 4. 
3 Babyl. Talm. Beracfaoth, 62 a. 
3 BabyL Talm. Kiddushin, 81 a. 
* Ibid. 



296 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

thou wilt not observe to do . . , that thou mayest fear." 
For this phrase clearly shows that fear of God is inculcated 
[into our hearts] when we act in accordance with the positive 
and the negative precepts. But the truths which the Law 
teaches us — ^the knowledge of God's Existence and Unity — 
create in us love of God, as we have shown repeatedly. Ton 
know how frequently the Law exhorts us to love God. 
Comp. "And thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all 
thine heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might ** 
(Deut vi 5). The two objects, love and fear of God, are ac- 
quired by two different means. The love is the result of the 
truths taught in the Law, including the true knowledge of 
the Existence of God ; whilst fear of God is produced by the 
practices prescribed in the Law. Note this explanation.^ 



CHAPTER LIIL 



This chapter treats of the meaning of three terms which we 
find necessary to explain, viz., chesed ("loving-kindness"), 
mishpat ("judgment"), and tsedakah ("righteousness"). 

In our Commentary on the Sayings of the Fathers (ch. v. 7) 
we have explained the expression chesed as denoting an excess 
[in some moral quality]. It is especially used of extraordinaiy 
kindness. Loving-kindness is practised in two ways : first, 
we show kindness to those who have no claim whatever upon 
us ; secondly, we are kind to those to whom it is due, in a 
greater measure than is due to them. In the inspired writ- 
ings the term chesed occurs mostly in the sense of showing 
kindness to those who have no claim to it whatever.' Eor 
this reason the term chesed is employed to express the good 
bestowed upon us by God : " I will mention the loving-kind- 
ness of the Lord " (Isa. IxiiL 7). On this account, the very 

^ Efodi : " That by obedience to the diyine precepts fear of God is created, 
whilst love of God originates in true wisdom ; and that love of God stands in 
rank above fear of Him." 

' Comp. Targum ad locum, A,V., " Mercy shall be built up for eyer." 



PAUT IIL — CHAPTEB LHI. 297 

act of the creation is an act of God's laving-kindness. ** I 
have said, The Universe is built up in loving-kindness " (Ps. 
Ixzxix. 3) ; i.e., the building up of the Universe is an act of 
loving-kindness. Also, in the enumeration of God's attri- 
butes. Scripture says : " And abundant in loving-kindness '' 
(Ex. xxxiv. 6). 

The term tsedaJeah is derived from tsedek, "righteousness ; " 
it denotes the act of giving every one his due, and of showing 
kindness to every being according as it deserves. In Scrip- 
ture, however, the expression tsedakah is not used in the first 
sense,^ and does not apply to the payment of what we owe 
to others. When we therefore give the hired labourer his 
wages, or pay a debt, we do not perform an act of tsedakah. 
But we do perform an act of tsedakah when we fulfil those 
duties towards our fellow-men which our moral conscience 
imposes upon us ; e.g., when we heal the wound of the sufferer. 
Thus Scripture says, in reference to the returning of the pledge 
[to the poor debtor] : " And it shall be tsedakah (righteous- 
ness) unto thee " (Deut. xxiv. 11), When we walk in the 
way of virtue we act righteously towards our intellectual 
faculty, and pay what is due unto it; and because every 
virtue is thus tsedakah, Scripture applies the term to the 
virtue of faith in God. Comp. '' And he believed in the 
Lord, and He accounted it to him as righteousness " (Gen. xv. 
6) ; " And it shall be our righteousness " (Deut. vi. 25). 

The noun mishpat, "judgment," denotes the act of decid- 
ing upon a certain action in accordance with justice which 
may demand either mercy or punishment. 

We have thus shown that ches$d denotes pure charity; 
tsedakah kindness, prompted by a certain moral conscience 
in man, and being a means of attaining perfection for his 
soul, whilst mishpat may in some cases find expression in 
revenge, in other cases in mercy. 

^ /.&, " In the sense of giving every one bis dne.'' Crescas, who seems to 
Ignore the difference between the two definitions, explains the passage in this 
way, " In accordance with the original meaning of Uedahah, as expressed by 
Uedek, the term is not used in Scripture of the payment of what we owe 

others." 



298 GUmi OF THE PEBPLEZBD. 

In discussing the impropriety of admitting attributes of 
God (Part I., chap. liiL, seq.)^ we stated that the diyine attri- 
butes which occur in Scripture are attributes of His actions ; 
thus He is called ehcuid, ''kind/' because He created the 
Universe ; taaddOc^ ^ righteous/' on account of His mercj with 
the weak, in providing for every living being according to its 
powers ; and shofet^ ''judge/' on account of the relative ^ good 
and the great relative evils that are decreed by Grod's justice 
as directed by His wisdom. These three names occur in the 
Pentateuch : '' Shall not the Judge {fkofet) of all the earth/' 
&c. (Gen. xviii 25) ; *^ Bighteous {tsaddik) and upright is 
He " (Deut. xxxii. 4) ; '^ Abundant in loving kindness" {ehesed, 
Ezod. xxxiv. 6). 

We intended in explaining these three terms to prepare 
the reader for the next chapter. 



CHAPTER LIV. 

The term chochmah ("wisdom") in Hebrew is used of four 
different things: (1.) It denotes the knowledge of those 
truths which lead to the knowledge of God. Comp. "But 
where shall wisdom be found?*' (Job xxviii. 12) "If thou 
seekest her like silver " (Prov. ii. 4). The word occurs fre- 
quently in this sense. (2.) The expression chochmah denotes 
also knowledge of any workmanship. Comp. "And every wise- 
hearted among you shall come and make all that the Lord 
hath commanded " (Exod. xxxv. 10) ; " And all the women 
that were wise-hearted did spin " (ibid. ver. 25). (3.) It is 
also used of the acquisition of moral principles. Comp. " And 
teach his senators wisdom " (Ps. cv. 22) ; '* With the ancient 
is wisdom " (Job xii 12) : for it is chiefly the disposition 

^ The fate of man is good or evil only in relation to his hopes and fears ; 
there is no absolute evil in existence. See iupra, chap, zi, teq. 



PAKT HI.— CHAPTER LIV. 299 

for acquiring moral principles that is developed by old age 
alone. (4) It implies, lastly, the notion of cunning and 
subtlety ; comp. ** Come on, let us deal wisely with them " 
(Exod. i 10). In the same sense the term is used in the 
following passages: *'And fetched thence a wise woman" 
(2 Sam. xiv. 2); "They are wise to do evil" (Jer. iv. 22). 
It is possible that the Hebrew choehmah ("wisdom") ex- 
presses the idea of cunning and planning, which may serve 
in one case as a means of acquiring intellectual perfection, or 
good moral principles ; but may in another case produce skill 
in workmanship, or even be employed in establishing bad 
opinions and principles. The attribute cJiacham (" wise ") is 
therefore given to a person that possesses great intellectual 
faculties, or good moral principles, or skill in art ; but also to 
persons cunning in evil deeds and principles. 

According to this explanation, a person that has a true 
knowledge of the whole Law is called wise in a double sense ; 
he is wise because the Law instructs him in the highest truths, 
and secondly, because it teaches him good morals. But as the 
truths contained in the Law are taught by way of tradition* 
not by a philosophical method, the knowledge of the Law, 
and the acquisition of true wisdom, are treated in the books 
of the Prophets and in the words of our Sages as two different 
things; real wisdom demonstrates by proof those truths 
which Scripture teaches us by way of tradition. It is to this 
kind of wisdom, which proves the truth of the Law, that 
Scripture refers when it extols wisdom, and speaks of the 
high value of this perfection, and of the consequent paucity 
of men capable of acquiring it, in sayings like these : " Not 
many are wise " (Job xxxii. 9) ; " But where shall wisdom be 
found " (ibid, xxviii. 12) ? In the writings of our Sages we 
notice likewise many passages in which distinction is made 
between knowledge of the Law and wisdom. They say of 
Moses, our Teacher, that he was Father in the knowledge of 
the Law, in wisdom and in prophecy.^ When Scripture says 
of Solomon, " And he was wiser than all men" (1 Kings v. 11), 

1 BabyL Talm. Megillah, 18 a. 



300 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

our Sages add, "but not greater than Moses;" ^ and the 
phrase, "than all men," is explained to mean, " than all men 
of his generation ; " for this reason [only] " Heman, Chalcol, 
and Darda, the sons of Mahol," the renowned wise men of 
that time, are named. Our Sages further say, that man has 
first to render account concerning his knowledge of the Law, 
then concerning the acquisition of wisdom, and at last con- 
cerning the lessons derived by logical conclusions from the 
Law, i.e,, the lessons concerning his actions. This is also the 
right order : we must first learn the truths by tradition, after 
this we must be taught how to prove them, and then investi- 
gate the actions that help to improve man's ways. The idea 
that man will have to render account concerning these three 
things in the order described, is expressed by our Sages in 
the following passage : " When man comes to the trial, he is 
first asked, ' Hast thou fixed certain seasons for the study of 
the liaw ? Hast thou been engaged in the acquisition of wis- 
dom ? Hast thou derived from one thing another thing ? ' " * 
This proves that our Sages distinguished between the know- 
ledge of the Law on the one hand, and wisdom on the other, 
as the means of proving the lessons taught in the Law by 
correct reasoning. 

Hear now what I have to say after having given the above 
explanation. The ancient and the modem philosophers have 
shown that man can acquire four kinds of perfection. The 
first kind, the lowest, in the acquisition of which people spend 
their days, is perfection as regards property; the posses- 
sion of money, garments, furniture, servants, land, and the 
like ; the possession of the title of a great king belongs to 

^ Comp. BabyL Talm. Bosh ha-shanah, 21 b. The words qnoted by 
Maimonides are not found there ; the opinions of Bab and Samuel are men- 
tioned there ; according to the one, the phrase, "and there arose not a prophet 
since in Israel like unto Moses " (Deut. xxxiv. 10), implied that King Solomon 
was inferior to Moses ; according to the view of the other Babbi, it expresses 
only that none of the prophets was like Moses, but does not exclude that 
some one of the kings equalled or surpassed him. Comp. Tanchuma on Num. 
xix., and Midrash Yalkut on 1 Kings y. 11. 

* BabyL Talm. Shabbath, 31 a. 



PART III.— CHAPTER LIV. 301 

this class. There is no close connection between this posses- 
sion and its possessor ; it is a perfectly imaginary relation 
when on account of the great advantage a person derives 
from these possessions, he says^ This is my house, this is my 
servant, this is my money, and these are my hosts and armies. 
For when he examines himself he will find that all these 
things are external, and their qualities are entirely inde- 
pendent of the possessor. When, therefore, that relation 
ceases, he that has been a great king may one morning find 
that there is no difference between him and the lowest 
person, and yet no change has taken place in the things 
which were ascribed to him. The philosophers have shown 
that he whose sole aim in all his exertions and endea- 
vours is the possession of this kind of perfection, only seeks 
perfectly imaginary and transient things ; and even if these 
remain his property all his lifetime, they do not give him 
any perfection. 

The second kind is more closely related to man's body 
than the first. It includes the perfection of the shape, con- 
stitution, and form of man's body ; the utmost evenness of 
temperaments, and the proper order and strength of his limbs. 
This kind of perfection must likewise be excluded from form- 
ing our chief aim ; because it is a perfection of the body, and 
man does not possess it as man, but as a living being; he 
has this property besides in common with the lowest animal ; 
and even if a person possesses the greatest possible strength, 
be could not be as strong as a mule, much less can he be as 
strong as a lion or an elephant; he, therefore,^ can at the 
utmost have strength that might enable him to carry a heavy 
burden, or break a thick substance, or do similar things, in 
which there is no great profit for the body. The soul derives 
no profit whatever from this kind of perfection. 

The third kind of perfection is more closely connected 
with man himself than the second perfection. It includes 
moral perfection ; the highest degree of excellency in man's 
character. Most of the precepts aim at producing this 

^ lit, according to what we said. 



302 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

perfection; but even this kind is only a preparation for 
another perfection, and is not sought for its own sake. For 
all morel principles concern the relation of man to his neigh- 
bour ; the perfection of man's moral principles is, as it were, 
given to man for the benefit of mankind. Imagine a person 
being alone, and having no connection whatever with any 
other person, all his good moral principles are at rest, they 
are not required, and give man no perfection whatever. 
These principles are only necessary and useful when man 
comes in contact with others. 

The fourth kind of perfection is the true perfection of 
man; the possession of the highest intellectual faculties; the 
possession of such notions which lead to true metaphysical 
opinions as regards God. With this perfection man has 
obtained his final object ; it gives him true human perfec- 
tion ; it remains to him alone ; it gives him immortality, and 
on its account he is called man. Examine the first three 
kinds of perfection, you will find that, if you possess them, 
they are not your property, but the property of others, 
although, according to the ordinary view, they belong to you 
and to others.^ But the last kind of perfection is exclusively 
yours ; no one else owns any part of it, '' They shall be only 
thine own, and not strangers, with thee" (Prov. v, 17). 
Your aim must therefore be to attain this [fourth] perfection 
that is exclusively yours, and you ought not to continue to 
work and weary yourself for that which belongs to others, 
whilst neglecting ' your soul till it has lost entirely its ori- 
ginal purity through the dominion of the bodily powers over 
it The same idea is expressed in the beginning of those 
poems, which allegoricaUy represent tiie state of our souL 

^ According to Ibn Tibbon; and if, according to the ordinaiy yiew, 
tbey mnst also be yonr property, then they belong to yon and to others. 

' This verse, which contains the blessings of a faithful wife, is quoted in 
accordance with the view of Maimonides (supra, eh. viiL), that the terms "fiuth- 
fol woman " and " faithless woman " in the Book of Proverbs ane to be under* 
stood in an allegorical sense ; the one signifying the rule of the intellect over 
the body, the other the subjection of the intellect to the power of the body. 

' Lit, you who neglect, &c 



PART IDL— CHAPTER LTV. 303 

" My mother's childien were angry with me ; they made me 
the keeper of the vineyards ; but mine own vineyard have I 
not kept *' (Songs i 6). Also the following passage refers to 
the same subject, " Lest thou give thine honour unto others, 
and thy years unto the cruel" (Pro v. v. 9). 

The prophets have likewise explained unto us these things, 
and have expressed the same opinion on them as tiie philo- 
sophers. They say distinctly that perfection in property, in 
health, or in character, is not a perfection worthy to be 
sought as a cause of pride and glory for us ; that the know- 
ledge of God, ie^ true wisdom, is the only perfection which 
we should seek, and in which we should glorify ourselves. 
Jeremiah, referring to these four kinds of perfection, says : 
" Thus saith the Lord, Let not the wise man glory in his 
wisdom, neither let the mighty man glory in his might, 
let not the rich man glory in his riches ; but let him that 
glorieth glory in this, that he understandeth and knoweth 
Me " (Jer. ix. 22, 23). See how the prophet arranged them 
according to their estimation in the eyes of the multitude. 
The rich man occupies the first rank; next is the mighty 
man ; and then the wise man, that is, the man of good moral 
principles : for in the eyes of the multitude, who are ad- 
dressed in these words, he is likewise a great man. This is 
the reason why the three classes are enumerated in this 
order. 

Our Sages have likewise derived from this passage the 
above-mentioned lessons, and stated the same theory that 
has been explained in this chapter, viz., that the simple 
term ehochmah, as a rule, denotes the highest aim of man, the 
knowledge of Grod; that those properties which man acquires, 
makes his peculiar treasure, and considers as perfection, in 
reality do not include any perfection; and that the religious 
acts prescribed in the Law, viz., the various kinds of worship 
and the moral principles \«^ch benefit all people in their 
social intercourse with each other, do not constitute the ulti- 
mate aim of man, nor can they be compared to it, for they 
are but preparations leading to it. Hear the opinion of our 



304 GUIDE OF THE PEBPLEXED. 

Sages on this subject in their own words. The passage 
occurs in Bereshith Babba,^ and runs thus, ** In one place 
Scripture says, 'And all things that are desirable (chafatsim) 
are not to be compared to her' (Prov. viii 11) ; and in an- 
other place, ' And all things that thou desirest (chafoUseeha) 
are not to be compared unto her ' " (ibid. iii. 15). By " things 
that are desirable" the performance of Divine precepts and 
good deeds is to be understood, whilst ''things that thou 
desirest " refer to precious stones and pearls. Both — things 
that are desirable, and things that thou desirest— cannot be 
compared to wisdom, but '' in this let him that glorieth glory, 
that he understandeth and knoweth Me." Consider how 
concise this saying is, and how perfect its author ; how no- 
thing is here omitted of all that we have put forth after 
lengthy explanations and preliminary remarks. 

Having stated the sublime ideas contained in that Scrip- 
tural passage, and quoted the explanation of our Sages, we 
will now complete what the remainder of that passage 
teaches us. The prophet does not content himself with 
explaining that the knowledge of God is the highest kind of 
perfection ; for if this only had been his intention, he would 
have said, '' But in this let him who glorieth glory, that he 
understandeth and knoweth Me," and would have stopped 
there ; or he would have said, *' that he understandeth and 
knoweth Me that I am One," or, '' that I have not any like* 
ness," or, " that there is none like Me," or a similar phrase. 
He says, however, that man can only glory in the know- 
ledge of God and in the knowledge of His ways and attri- 
butes, which are His actions, as we have shown (Part L liv.) 
in expounding the passage, " Show me now Thy ways " (Exod. 
xxxviiL 13). We are thus told in this passage that the 
Divine acts which ought to be known, and ought to serve as 
a guide for our actions, are, chesed, " loving-kindness," mishpat, 
^^ judgment," and tsedaJcah, '* righteousness." Another very 
important lesson is taught by the additional phrase, *' in the 
earth." It implies a fundamental principle of the Law ; it 

1 £&dofc]i.zzxTi 



PART IIL— CHAPTER UV. 305 

rejects the theory of those who boldly assert that God's 
providence does not extend below the sphere of the moon, 
and that the earth with its contents is abandoned, that *' the 
Lord hath forsaken the earth" (Exod. viii. 12). It teaches, as 
has been taught by the greatest of all wise men^ in the 
words, "The earth is the Lord's"* (Exod. ix. 29), that His 
providence extends to the earth in accordance with its 
nature, in the same manner as it controls the heavens in 
accordance with their nature.' This is expressed in the 
words, " That I am the Lord which exercise loving-kindness, 
judgment, and righteousness in the earth.'' The prophet 
thus, in conclusion, says, " For in these things I delight, saith 
the Lord," i,e., My object [in saying this] is that you shall 
practise loving-kindness, judgment, and righteousness in the 
earth. In a similar manner we have shown (Part I. liv.) that 
the object of the enumeration of God's thirteen attributes is 
the lesson that we should acquire similar attributes and act 
accordingly. The object of the above passage is therefore 
to declare, that the perfection, in which man can truly glory, 
is attained by him when he has acquired — ^as far as this is 
possible for man — the knowledge of God, the knowledge of 
His providence, and of the manner in which it influeaces 
His creatures in their production and continued existence. 
Having acquired this knowledge he will then be determined 
always to seek loving-kindness, judgment, and righteousness, 
and thus to imitate the ways of God. We have explained 
this many times in this treatise.^ 

This is all that I thought proper to discuss in this treatise, 
and which I considered useful for men like you. I hope that, 
by the help of God, you will, after due reflection, compre- 
hend all the things which I have treated here. May He 

* Comp. supra, ch. xyii. p. 71. 

* Comp. Part I., ch. liv. p. 191, note 8. 

* /.e., Providenoe extends to each individual being in the spheres, but 
only to the genera in the sublunary world, with the exception of man, who 
enjoys the influence of Providence in proportion to his intellectual develop* 
ment Supra, ch. xviL p. 75 ; ch. IL p. 288. 

* Ck>mp. Part I., ch. liv. 

VOL. m. U 



306 GUIDE OF THE PERPLEXED. 

grant us and all Israel with us to attain what He promised 
us, " Then the eyes of the blind shall be opened, and the 
ears of the deaf shall be unstopped " (Isa. xxxv. 5) ; " The 
people that walked in darkness have seen a great light; 
they that dwell in the shadow of death upon them hath the 
light shined " (ibid. ix. 1)} 

God is near to all who call Him, if they call Him in 
truth, and turn to Him. He is found by every one who seeks 
Him, if he always goes towards Him, and never goes astray. 
Amen. 

^ Efodi And Shem-tob refer the blindness and darkness to the time before 
the composition of this GoideL These commentators wrongly insinuate that 
Malmonides considered his work as the fulfilment of Isaiah's prophecy. 



INDEX OF SCRIPTURAL PASSAGES. 



Gbnisib. 

i. 1, n. 143 «g. ; IIL 33. 

i 2, 1. 141 ; IL 36. 147. 

i. 4, 1. 42; m. 61. 

i. 5, IL 148. 

L 7, II. 149. 

i 10. II. 147. 

i. 11, n. 162. 

L17, II. 149; III. 62. 

LIS. II. 36; in. 62. 

L 20, II. 149. 

i. 26. I. 28; II. 38. 

L 27, 1. 28. 

i. 28. ni. 62, 269. 

i. 31, I. 193 ; m. 36, 61. 

ii. 1, n. 163. 

ii. 2, L 25a 

u. 4. II. 167. 

ii 5, n. 162. 

ii 6, II. 162. 

ii 7. n. 168. 

ii. 16, 1. 36. 

a 20. IL 167. 

u. 21 «9., n. 154. 

iii. 6 8q,j I. 33 iq. 

iii 8, 1. 86. 

iii. 16, L 102; IIL 27. 

iii. 18«9.. L38. " 

iii. 24. L 168. 

iv. 7, m. 99. 

iv. 26, IL 167. 

V. 3, 1. 60. 

yu 2, 1. 63. 

Ti 6, L 167. 

vi 6, 1. 103. 

Ti. 12. L 167. 

vi. 13. L 196. 

Tu. 2, L 47. 

vu. 14, L 147. 

Tii 15, 1. 142. 

¥iii 6, 1. 86. 



GSNESIS. 

▼iii21, L102, 163; in. 99. 

Tiii. 22, IL 126. 

ix. 3, L 145. 

ix. 6, 1. 57. 

ix. 6, m. 273. 

ix.7, L67; IL38. 

xu. 3, m. 136. 

xii. 6, L 238. 

xii. 11, DL 268. 

xiT. 13, L 88. 

xiv. 19, n. 63, 157. 

xiv. 23. ni. 274. 

XT. 1, L 43 ; II. 193, 210, 217 ; IIL 

80. 
XV. 4, IL 212. 
XV. 6, 1. 43 ; IL 216, 217. 
XV. 6, IIL 297. 
XV. 12. IL 193, 213. 
XV. 13» IL 193. 
XV. 17. 1. 77. 
xvL 1, 1. 227. 
xvi. 7, IL 200. 
xvi. 9, m. 219. 
xvii 7. m. 268. 
xvii. 22, L 67. 
xviii. 1 tg.. IL 197. 
xviii. 8, I. 62. 

xviii. 19, IL 186 ; IIL 118, 213. 
xviii. 21. L 67, 93. 
xviii. 23, 1. 70. 
xviu. 26, in. 298. 
xix. 17, L 42. 
xix. 21 <g., II. 43. 
xix. 23, L 84. 
xix. 26, L 42. 
XX. 3, n. 196. 

XX. 11, n. 63, 167 ; IIL 138. 
xxii 1, L 138 ; in. 74. 
xxu. 8, 1. 167. 
xxii 12, in. 113. 



308 



INDEX. 



QBmiB. 

zzii.l5, IL195; III. 219. 

xxiL 21, m. M. 

xziii. 8, 1. 143. 

xxiiL 17, L 61. 

xxir. 3, n. 91, 157. 

xxiv. 16, I. 73. 

zziv. 51, II. 221 

zxT. 18, 1. 135. 

zxT. 22, EL 196. 

r. 23, n. 196, 209. 

r. 24, L 73. 

xxvi 3, ni. 8a 

zzviL 28, 1. 155. 

zxvu. 35, 1. 83. 

xxTii 41, 1. 245. 

xxviii. 12, 1. 17, 65 ; H. 61. 

xxyiii. 13, L 17, 65, 60. 

xxTiiL 15, III. 80. 

xxTiii 16, II. 210. 

xxix. 2, 1. 41. 

xxix. 10, lU. 14. 

xxix. 31, L 167. 

xxix. 82, L 166. 

xxix. 35, 1. 62. 

XXX. 30, I. 97. 

xxxi 8, n. 195. 

xxxi.11,1. 95; n. 211. 

xxxL 12, 1. 166. 

xxxi. 13,L95. 

xxxi 24, IL 196. 

xxxi 49, 1. 80. 

xxxii2, 1. 86; U. 198. 

xxxii 4, n. 3a 

xxxii 6, in. 186. 

xxxii 22, L 80. 

xxxii 25, II. 198. 

xxxiu. 3, I. 76. 

xxxiii 5, L 195. 

xxxiii. 11, 1. 196. 

xxxiii. 14, L 97. 

xxxY. 1, IL 195. 

XXXV. 10, II. 195. 

xxxY. 13, I. 57. 

xxxY. 22, I. 88. 

xxxTi20«g., III. 274. 

xxxvii. 15, II. 200. 

xxxvii. 31, III. 237. 

xxxTiii. 23, III. 269. 

xxxix. 6, 1. 29. 

xi 7, L 135. 

xli. 43, 1. 271. 

xli 46» L 62. 



Gknxbib. 

xlii 26, 1. 75. 

xlii 30, L 227. 

xliii 18, III. 190. 

xliii 26, 1. 83. 

xUy. 4, 1. 84. 

xHy. 18, I. 70. 

xIt. 5 «g., n. 224. 

xlT. 16, 1. 150. 

xlvi 2, L 94 ; II. 194, 210. 

xlTi 8, L 93. 

xlvi 29. 1. 271. 

xlYii 3, III. 185. 

L 3, L 73. 
Exodus. 

i. 10, m. 299. 

ii 4, L 65. 

ii 14, 1. 245. 

ii 17, IL 207. 

ii 25, L 166. 

iii2,L139; n.41;IIL219. 

iii. 6^ L 43^ 45. 

ui 7, L 166. 

iii 12; IL 138 ; m. 80, 278. 

iii IS, L 240, 241. 

iU. 14, L 235, 239. 

iii. 15, nL 287. 

iii 16 «g., L 237. 

iY. 11, IIL 29, 3Sb 

iv. 25. L 70. 

iv. 31, L 166. 

T. 5, L 244. 

vi. 3, II. 171. 

Ti 9, L 150. 

▼iii. 18, in. 141. 

▼iii. 22, ni. 226. 

ix. 8. 1. 157. 

ix. 23, 1. 86. 

ix. 29, m. 14L 

X. 2, IILI185. 

X. 13, L 141. 

X. 19, L 141 ; IL 148. 

xi 8. 1. 96. 

xii. 8 8q., m. 231. 

xii. 12, 1. 77. 

xu. 19, L 145. 

xu. 23, IIL 227. 

xii 25, L 83. 

xii 46 «?., in. 231. 

xiii 10, III. 231. 

xiii 15. m. 185. 

xiii. 17«g.,in.ll5,152. 

xiy. 3. m. 277. 



INDEX. 



309 



Exodus. 

»▼. 10, 1. 70. 
sir. 27> n. 140. 
xv. 4, 1. 271. 
XT. 6, 1. 157. 
XT. 10, IL 14a 
XT. 18, II. 127. 
XT. 25aqf.,iai57. 
XTi 4, m. 114. 
XTL 7, L 151. 
xtL 18, IIL 44. 
xtL 82, L 78. 
XTiL 5, 1. 77. 
xTii. 6, L 66. 
xTii 16, 1. 68, 98. 
xriii. 23, 1. 62. 
xix. 8, L 57. 
zix. 4. IIL 212. 
six. 6, HL 29. 
zix. 9, 1. 88 ; IL 166. 
ziz. 10. m. 159. 
xix. 11, 1. 67. 
xix. 19, L 244; IL 166. 
xix. 20, L 57, 94. 
xix. 22, L 46. 
XX. 5, L 197. 
xz. 7, L 24L 

XX. 11 «9., L 250 ; II. 159 sq. 
:. 18, L166; n. 168. 

19, IL 168. 
:. 20, m. 115. 
XX. 24, m. 151, 221. 
XX. 26, m. 222. 
xzi. 12, m. 56. 
xxL 14, IIL 188. 
xxi. 19, IIL 194. 
xxi. 24, L 96, 149. 
xxi. 32. m. 190. 
xzii. 5, L 84. 

zzii. 8. n. 87; in. 194, 261. 
zzii. 6 «g., in. 207 $q. 
zzii. 16, in. 259. 
zzii. 17, IIL 172. 
zzii. 19, ni. 15L 
zzii. 22, L 151, 164. 
zzii. 28, IIL 138. 
zzu. 26, L 151 ; IIL 133. 
zzU. 29, m. 269. 
zziii. 11, IIL 186. 
zziiL 13, 1. 150. 
zziu. 16, in. 213. 
zzui. 17. m. 253. 
xxiii. 20, n. 169. 



Exodus. 

xxiii. 21. L 241 ; n. 43. 169 tg. 

xxiii. 25, 1. 133 ; IIL 15L 

xziT. 1, n. 166. 

zziT. 2, L 72; IL 166; IH. 287. 

zziy. 10, L 42, 45. 97 ; n.l22; IIL 

15. 
zziT. 11, 1. 43, 46. 
zziT. 16. L 89. 
zzT. 8, nL 15L 
zzT. 9, 1. 39. 
ZZT. 18, IIL 220. 
ZZT. 22. U. 214. 
ZZT. 40, 1. 40. 
zzri. 8,L 4& 
zzTi 12; L 138. 
zzTi. 20, n. 154. 
zzTiii. 2. nL 223.- 
zzTiiL 38, IIL 248 sq. 
zzTiii 41, in. 152. 
zzTiiL 42, m. 222. 
zziz. 21, in. 233. 
zziz. 46, L 89. 
zzzi. IS, in. 113. 
zzzi. 17, L 262. 
zzzi. 18, L 157. 247. 
zzxii. 9, L 166. 
zzzii. 16, L 247. 
zzziL 19, L 70. 
zzziL 32, n. 22L 
zzzii. 33 «7., IL 221 ; m. 76. 
zzziii. 8, 1. 42. 

zzziiL 11. 1. 136; n. 164, 214. 
zzziii. 13, L 192; IIL 304. 
zzziiL 14, 1. 135. 
zzzui. 18, L 42, 193, 242. 
zxTJii. 19 #9., L 192. 
zzziii. 21, L 52, 66, 67. 
zzziii. 22, L 78 bq., 136. 
zzziT. 6, 1. 78 tq., 191 «g. ; IIL 297.* 
zzziT. 14, IIL 152. 
zzziT. 16, ni. 270. 
zzziT. 28, in. 282. 
zzziT. 29, 1. 9. 

. 10, in. 298. 

. 35, L 73. 
zzztL 6, 1. 77, 80. 
zzztL 7, L 240. 
zL 34, L 73, 242. 

LlVITIGfUB. 

i. 2, IIL 151, 227. 
ii. 4, IIL 229. 
ii. 11, nL 228. 



310 



INDEX. 



LEvmons. 

ii. 13, nL 228. 

It. 13, m. 202, 236. 

iv. 26, ni. 223. 

▼i. 16, m. 230. 

viii. 32, 1. 145. 

iz. 2, IIL 237. 

X. S, L 135. 

xi. 7, m. 251 tq, 

xi. 44, in. 247. 

xii 4, ni. 246. 

xii 8, m. 223. 

xii. 14, 1. 145. 

XT. 31, ni. 249. 

xvi. 3, in. 237. 

x^. 22, m. 241. 

xvi. 30. in. 198. 

xvli. 5. in. 234. 

xvu. 7, in. 227. 237. 

XYii 10, in. 233. 

xviiL in. 256 tq, 

XYiii. 24, in. 247. 

xix. 2, m. 160, 247. 

xix. 6, IIL 229. 

xix. 15. 1. 137. 

xU. 20, 1. 140. 

xix. 25, in. 179. 

xix. 26. ra. 233. 

xix. 30. in. 221, 244. 

xix. 32, m. 168. 

XX. 3, IIL 178, 247. 

XX. 5, 1. 135 ; III. 76, 178, 233. 

XX. 7, m. 247. 

XX. 23, m. 139. 174. 

xzi 1, ni. 248. 

xxi. 7, in. 270. 

xxii. 27, in. 269. 

xxii. 28, III. 253. 

xxiu. 30. m. 76. 

xxiii 43. in. 213. 

xxiY. 16, L 24L 

xxiT. 20, IIL 194. 

xxy. 2, 1. 83. 

XXV. 23, in. 186. 

XXY. 80, 1. 61. 

XXY. 52, 1. 145. 

xxYi. 12, m. 156. 

xxYi 16, in. 76. 

xxYi 22, IIL 173. 

xxYi. 24. IIL 169. 

xxYi. 38, L 104. 

xxYi. 42, ni. 287. 

xxvii. 33, IIL 230. 



NUHBJERS. 

T. 15, III. 236, 240. 
Yi. 4, m. 255. 
▼1. 5, L 160. 
tL23, L230. 
Ti. 26, L 138. 
vi. 27. 1. 228. 
▼ii. 89, L 136. 
ix. 19 8q,, m. 277 tq- 
X. 9, IIL 168. 
xL 1, L 104. 151. 
xi. 7, nL 9. 
xL 17, L 57, 141. 
xi 25, L 9,141; n. 208. 
xi. 31, IL 148. 

xiL 6. n. 194,199,201.205,210,213. 
xii 7, 1. 193. 

xii. 8, 1. 40, 43, 45 ; IL 117. 214. 
xii 9, 1. 87. 
xiii. 32, 1. 104. 
xiY. 10, 1. 244. 
XY. 15, ni. 163. 
XY. 22. in. 145. 
XY. 24, L 105. 
XY. 30, IIL 203. 
XY. 39. 1. 139. 
xYi. 3, 1. 75. 
XYi 27, 1. 65. 
xix. 11, ni. 245. 
XX. 5, IIL 215, 276. 
XX. 16, L 66 ; IL 38, 199 ; IIL m. 
xxu. 12, II. 194. 
xxii 22, 1. 266. 
xxii. 32. IL 198 ; m. 77, 99. 
xxiii 5. IL 209. 
xxiii. 21, 1. 42. 
xxIy. 4, n. 209. 
xxiY. 7, 1. 75. 
XXY. 8, m. SO. 
xxyU. U, in. 209. 
xxYiii. 6, III. 239. 
xxYiii. 15, IIL 239. 
xxxii 21, L 13L 
xxxiii. 2. III. 276. 
xxxiii 38, III. 292. 
xxxY. 83. IIL 193. 
xxxY. 34. in. 247. 
Dkutkbokomt. 
i. 2, IIL 278. 
i 17, 1. 70. 
i 45, L 151. 
ii. 2, IL 195. 
iu. 11, n. 219. 



INDEX. 



311 



Deutebonomt. 

ir. 6. II. 66 ; III. 14& 
iv. 7, 1, n, 
IT. 8, II. 124, 188. 
iv. 11, 1. 189 ; III. 32. 
ir. 12, 1. 136 ; II. 166. 
It. 16 «9., L 40. 
iv. 19, IL 36. 
iv. 24, 1. 104. 

iv. 35, 1. 141 ; II. 167 ; HI. 160,283. 
iv. 36, n. 147. 
▼. 39, L 141; III. 150, 283. 
V. 4, 1. 136. 
▼.5,1.63; 11.166. 
▼. 15, II. 160, 184. 
▼. 19, IL 167. 
▼. 20, n. 147, 166. 
T. 21, n. 167, 187. 
▼. 22 «?., II. 167. 
T. 24, 1, n ; III. 159. 
T. 26, m. 154. 
T. 28, L 9,63; m. 287. 
vi. 4, IIL 220. 
vL 6^ L 141 ; m. 132, 296. 
vi. 15«9.,1. 130 «9. 
vi. 24, lU. 130, 148. 
vi. 25, in. 297. 
vii. 5, III. 145. 
vii. 10, 1. 131. 
viL 26, III. 177. 
viii. 1, 1. 147. 
vuL 2, IIL 114. 
viii. 3, HL 74. 
viiL 12, m. 185. 
viii. 15, III. 276. 
viii. 16, ni. 114. 
iz. 1, II. 219. 
z. 12. n. 188 ; HL 140. 
X. 14, n. 46. 
z. 16, m. 150. 
X. 17, n. 37. 
zi. 12, 1. 149. 
xi. 13, in. 151, 283. 
zi. 16,L130; IIL 145. 
zii. 2, III. 145, 217. 
zU. 3. in. 145. 
zu. 5, IIL 155, 218. 
zii. 12, IIL 183. 
zii. 13. in. 233. 
zii 20, IIL 78. 
zii. 23, 1. 143. 
zu. 27, IIL 233. 
zu. 30, ni. 222. 



DlUTKBONOHT. 

zii. 31, L 197, 131 ; m. 140. 222, 243. 

ziii. 1, m. 200. 

ziii. 2. II. 165. 

ziii 4, m. 113. 

ziii. 5, L 87, 138 ; HI. 151. 

ziii. 16, 1. 198. 

ziii. 18, IIL 176. 

ziv. 23, IIL 224. 

ziv. 29, IIL 183. 

zv. 11, IIL 209. 

zv. 15, ra. 184. 

zv. 20, ni. 242. 

zvi. 3, in. 185. 

zvi. 14, m. 242. 

zvi. 18, in. 165. 

zvi. 22, 1. 13L 

zvii. 5, IIL 172. 

zviL 15, in. 275. 

zviii 3, III. 30, 184. 

zviii. 15, IL 170. 

zviii. 18 «9., II. 169. 

ziz. 19, III. 262. 

zz. 7, in. 89. 

zz. 16 tq., L 133, 196. 

zzi. 3 tq., IIL 192. 

zzi. 12 eg.. IIL 206. 

zzL 16. IIL 209. 

zzi 18, III. 199. 

zzi. 20, III. 159. 

zzii. 6, III. 175. 

zzii. 6, in. 254. 

zzii 7, L 147 ; IH. 13L 

zzii 8, IIL 89. 

zza 10, UI. 267. 

zzii. 12, 1. 147 ; IIL 216. 

zzii. 14, III. 261. 

zzii 18 <9.. IIL 262. 

zzii 26, IIL 201. 

zzii 29, IIL 259. 

zziii 1, 1. 148. 

zziii. 2, in. 30, 270. 

zziii. 8, IIL 210. 

zziu. 14, IIL 206, 214. 

zziii 16 «9., IIL 189. 

zziii. 18, ni. 257. 

zziii 19, in. 229. 

zziii. 23, IIL 228. 

zziv. 1, IIL 268. 

zziv. 6, IIL 187. 

zziv. 7, III. 199. 

zziv. 13, in. 297. 

xiY. 2, ni. 205. 



312 



INDEX. 



DXDTBRONOMT. 

xxT. 9 «g.. III. 259. 
zzvi. 17 «g., n. 202. 
xxYii. 9. III. 159 
xxviii. 1, L 55. 
xxviii. 9, 1. 87. 
xxviii. 12, II. 221. 

xxTiii. 80, m. ao. 

xxTiii. 39 tq.f m. 173. 

xxYiii. 43, 1. 65. 

xxviii. 49, I. 150. 170. 

xxviii. 50. I. 136. 

xxviu. 56, m. 114. 

xxviii. 68, m. 117. 

xxix. 3, 1. 141. 

xxix. 5. ni. 276. 

xxix. 17, 1. 139 ; m. 146. 

xxix. 28, n. 187. 

XXX. 12, II. 187. 

XXX. 16^ 1. 146. 

xxxi 12, III. 242. 

xxxi 17, 1. 85 ; m. 290. 

xxxi. 18, 1. 87 ; IIL 290. 

xxxL 29, L 131. 

xxxii. 4, 1. 67 ; II. 128; nL 46^ 

112, 123. 262, 299. 
xxxii. 5. III. 38. 
xxxii 6, II. 39. 
xxxii. 13, I. 266. 
xxxiL 14, n. 220. 
xxxu. 15, III. 186u 
xxxii. 17, nL 234. 
xxxiL 18, 1. 67. 
xxxu. 19, 1. 131, 166. 
xxxii. 21 «9., I. 131. 
xxxiL 24. III. 178. 
xxxu. 30, 1. 67. 
xxxii. 36, 1. 166. 
xxxii. 47, IIL 125, 278. 
xxxiii. 10, III. 183. 
xxxiii. 16, 1. 89. 
xxxiii. 23. I. 78. 
xxxiii. 26, 1. 271. 
xxxiiL 27, I. 268. 
xxxiv. 6, III. 292. 
xxxiv. 10 9q., n. 171. 
Joshua. 

i. 5, III. 80. 
iiL 11, II. 158. 
iu. 18. 1. 150. 
T. 2, 1. 67. 
V. 8. 1. 145. 
V. 9, IL 196. 



72, 



Joshua. 

▼. lStq.,n. 198. 

X. 12 <g., II. 172. 

xxii. 12 «g.. III. 204. 

xxiv. 2. III. 140. 

xxiv. 27, 1. 246. 
Judges. 

ii. 1, L66; 11.38. 

iL 4, II. 198. 

ii. 18, II. 207. 

V. 4.n. 137; in. 32. 

▼ii. 4, II. 195. 

▼iii. 18, I. 29. 

X. 16, 1. 144. 

xi. 29, IL 207. 

xiii. 6, II. 83. 

xiv. 6, IL 140, 207. 

xxL 22, L 195. 

1 Samuel. 

L 9, L 58. 
i. 18, 1. 135. 
i. 23. L 61. 
ii. 2, 1. 67. 
ii. 9, IIL 81. 
ii 24, L 77. 
ii. 35, L 140, 144. 
iii 1, U. 204. 
iii. 7, IL 204. 
▼i. 5, L 8L 
ix. 9, L 137. 
X. 10, II. 207. 
xii 21, ra. 140, 27L 
XT. 22, m. 166. 
xvi. 13. II. 207. 
XX. 22, II. 224. 
XX. 34, 1. 102. 
XX. 36, L 78. 
xxii. 8, 1. 61. 
xxiv. 21, 1. 61. 
XXV. 9. 1. 250. 
XXV. 29, 1. 143. 
XXV. 37, L 145. 
xxviii 14, L 29. 

2 Samuel. 

ii. 23, L 138. 
ii. 26. 1. 104. 
xiv. 2. m. 299. 
xvi. 10. IL 224. 
xvi. 12, IIL 9. 
xviu. 14, L 139. 
xxi 10, 1. 252. 
xxi. 16, 1. 245. 
xxu. 11, L 170. 



INDEX. 



313 



2 Saxubl. 

zziii. 1, n. 206. 
xziii 2, 1. 142 : 11.206. 
xxir. 11, IL 195. 
zziT. 17, in. 96. 

1 Kings. 

i 6, 1. 102. 

ii. 24, 1. 253. 

iii. 5. n. 209. 

iii. 15, IL 210. 

T. 11, IIL 299. 

▼ii. 14, L 78. 

ix. 2, II. 210. 

iz. 3. 1. 149. 

z. 29, I. 271. 

zi. 11, U. 209. 

zir. 7, 1. 74. 

zvii. 9, II. 224. 

zvU. 17, 1. 145. 

ziz. 9. lU. 196. 

zzii. 19, 1. 41 ; n.212. 

2 Kings. 

▼. 26, 1. 139. 
Tiii. 4t9., IL 172L 
z. 15, I. 140. 
ziT. 6, L 136. 
ZTiL 9, 1. 219 ; III. 80u 
zziU. 25, L 138. 
Isaiah. 

i. 1, L 43. 

i. 2, L 157. 

i. 11, IIL 156w 

i. 15, L 151. 

i. 19, IIL 159. 

i. 20, L 104. 

a 3, L 84. 

ii. 5, L 87. 

ii. 6,L48; IL66y 

iii. 3, L 124. 

iu. 12, IIL 27. 

iii. 26, 1. 197. 

▼. 6. II. 223. 

▼. 30, 1. 42. 

vi. 1, n. 212. 

▼i. 2. L 148 ; IIL 18. 

▼L 3, L 73. 243; UL 295. 

▼i. 7, L 71. 

▼i. 8, IL 203. 

▼i 12, IL 130. 

iz. 1, m. 306. 

iz. 14, L 138. 

z. 6, n. 224. 

xi. 6 <g.. III. 36. 

zii. 3, L 105. 



Isaiah. 

ziii 3, IL 223. 

ziu. 10, IL 130. 

ziY. 8, n. 220. 

zvU. 13, IIL 14. 

ziz. 1, L 170. 

ziz. 3, L 142. 

zz. 3, II. 216. 

zziiL 18, in. L 

zzir. 16, L 147. 

zziY. 17 «9., IL 131 «g. 

zztL2,L28; IIL 20. 

zzvi 4, 1. 67. 

zzvi. 10, m. 54. 

zzTi. 21, 1. 85. 

zzviii. 7, ni. 26, 265. 

zzWu. 8, in. 2a 

zziz. 11, IL 129, 217. 

zziz. 13, 1. 71. 

zziz. 14, n. 56. 

zzz. 19, n. 132. 

zxz. 20, 1. 148. 

zzz. 26, IL 132. 

zzz. 27, 1. 157. 

zzzi. 2, I. 62. 

zzzu. 6, 1. 219. 

zxziy. 3 «g., II. 132. 

zzziY. 17, II. 224. 

zzzT. 5. 1. 37, 306. 

zzzviii. 9, 1. 145. 

zl. 6, 1. 8L 

zl. 13, 1. 142. 

zl. 15, ni. 38, 53. 

zl. 22,L59; IIL 49. 

zl. 25, 1. 199. 

zl. 26, 1. 97. 

zU. 10, nL 290. 

zlii. 14. in. 23. 

zlii. 20. L 37. 

zliii. 2, ni. 290. 

zUu. 7, IIL 6L 

zUt. 13, 1. 29. 

zUv. 19, L 14L 

zlr. 7, n. 157 ; ni. 33. 

zlv. 12, IL 140. 

zlT. 18, UL 48. 

zlT. 19, IL 221; m. 126, 271. 

zlvii. 13, 1. 83. 

zlvui. 4, IIL 29. 

zlTiiL 13. II. 146. 

L 4, in. 29. 

IL 1 9q., I. 67. 

IL 3 <g.. II. 133. 

U. 12 tq., n. 134. 



314 



INDEX. 



Isaiah. 

Uii. 1, 1. 157. 

liv. 10, n. 134. 

It. Itq.fl. 104 tq. 

It. 8 8q., m. 90. 

It. 10, J. 48. 

It. 12, U. 220. 

Ivii. 15, I. 75. 124. 

iTiii. 2, 1. 71. 

iTiii. 8, in. 293. 

iTiiL 14, 1. 266. 

Uz. 2, III. 288. 

Ix. 20. II. 134. 

bdii. 7, U. 134 ; HI. 296. 

Ixiii. 9, 1. 76 ; II. 134. 

Ixiii 10, 1. 102; II. 134. 

Ixiii. 15, L 167. 

Ixiii. 18 tq., 11. 134 tq. 

IxvL 1, I. 53, 157. 

IxTi 17, in. 160. 

Ixvi. 22, II. 136. 
Jerxmiah. 

i. 6, IL 164. 

i. 6. n. 164. 

i. 8, n. 183. 

i. 11, IL 142, 202. 

i. 12, II. 202. 

i. 13, n. 201. 

U. 5, III. 243. 

ii. 6, III. 276. 

iL 8, III. 271. 

ii. 13. U. 61. 

ii. 31, 1. 155 ; n. 180 ; m. 243. 

iii. 15, 1. 140. 

ir. 19, 1. 158. 

iT. 22. III. 299. 

iT. 23, n. 136. 

T. 3, ni. 169. 

T. 7, m. 257. 

T. 8. ni. 27. 

V. 10, ni. 27. 

T. 12, III. 66, 156. 

Tii. 9, m. 156. 

TiL 16, 1. 151. 

Tii. 22. in. 166. 

Tiii. 19, 1. 131. 

ix. 1. III. 27. 

ix. 22 $q.. III. 303. 

X. 6, 1. 199. 

X. 7, 1. 133. 

X. 12,L164. 

xU. 2, 1. 172 ; m. 286. 

xiii. 16, L 243. 



JXBEHIAH. 

XT. 1,1.62.143; HI. 27. 
xTi. 19, in. 271. 
xTii. 4. 1. 157. 
XTii. 12, 1. 63. 
XX. 8 iq., II. 181. 
xxuL 9, L 77. 
xxiii. 24, in. 294. 
xxiiL 29, III. 266. 
xxiiL 36. m. 288. 
xxix. 22 tq.f II. 192. 
XXX. 6, 1. 136. 
xxxi. 2, ni. 282. 
xxxi. 19. 1. 157. 
xxxL 34 tq., II. 127. 
xxxu. 14. 1. 62. 
xxxii. 17, n. 97. 
xxxii. 19, III. 76. 
xxxiu. 25, ni. 48. 
xxxTiii. 16, 1. 143. 
xxxix. 12, 1. 149. 
xIt. 3 tq., n. 163. 
xlTi. 22, 1. 86. 
xlTiii 11. 1. 63. 
Ii. 2, II. 224. 
U. 9, 1. 70. 
U. 26, m. 14. 

i. 1, n. 221; m. 16. 

i. 3. II. 195 ; in. 20. 

i. 4, in. 16. 

i. 5, nL 3, 5, 20. 

i. 7. II. 62, 142, 203; m. 5. 6. 

i. 8, IIL 6. 

L 9, ni. 6. 

L 10, in. 3. 

i. 11, in. 6. 

i. 12, in. 10, 12. 

i. 13, 1. 32 ; in. 7. 

i. 14, III. 7. 

L 15, ni. 7, 8, 14. 16. 

i. 16 tq., in. 9, 20. 

L 19. III. 10. 

i. 20, ni. 7. 10, 18, 21. 

i. 21, III. 10. 

i. 22, III. 20. 

1. 26, I. 32, 160; in. 20. 

i. 27, IV. 16. 

i. 28, IV. 22. 

ii. 2, II. 204. 

ii. 6, n. 183. 

iU. 12, 1. 61. 

iii. 23, II. 215. 



INDEX. 



315 



BZBKIEL. 

It. 1 iq,, n. 216. 
Ti 1. II. 195. 21L 
TiiLl,IL216. 
viii. 2, III. 22. 
▼iiL 3, 1. 40; IL 215 
▼iii.7#9., n. 216. 
Tiii. 12, m. 68^ 86. 
Tiii. 14, III. 143. 
▼iii. 16, III. 218. 
X. 1, in. 21. 
X. 8, m. 21. 
z. 9, m. 13^ 15. 
X. 11 sq,. III. 12. 
z. 13» III. 12, 13. 1 
X. 14, m. 4. 
z. 16^ m. 4. 11. 
z. 16 «9., m. 11. 
ziL % I. 87. 
zvi. 6^ m. 282. 
zTii 2, 1. 14. 
zviii. 25. m. 65. 

15, IL 163. 

32, ni. 283. 
zzi 6^ 1. 14. 
zzzi. 8, 1. 32. 

zzziL 7 «9-, II- 136^ 
zzzYii. 1, II. 195, 204, 216w 

zl. 3 iq,, II. 204. 
zHiL 2, in. 32. 
zliii 7, 1. 167. 
zliT. 2, L 83. 
HOSXA. 

L 2, IL 143, 195, 216. 
ii. 10, IIL 29. 
V. 11, L 188. 
T. 15, 1. 86» 87. 
z. 11. L 26a 
ZL 10, L 138. 
ziL 11, L 14. 
Joel. 

ii. 10, IL 186. 
ii. 11, n. 138, 224. 
iii. 1. n. 164. 
iU. 3 tq., IL 137. 

AJfOB. 

u. 9, L2iO; IL2ia 
iii. 8. IL 181. 
iT. 13, IL 168. 
Tu. 7, IL 201. 
vii. 9. 1. 62. 
Tiii. liq.t IL 202. 
Tiii. 9 #?., II. 136. 
TiU. 11, L 105. 



Ahos. 

Tiii. 12, IL 178. 
Jonah. 

iLll^ILSai 

MiOAH. 

i. 3, IL 136. 
i. 4, IL 138. 

iT. 11, L 43. 

tL 3, IIL 243. 
Nahum. 

i. 2. L 131, 196. 
Habakkuk. 

L 12. IIL 76. 

i. 13, L 43, 166. 

i. 14 #(r-. III* 76. 

iii. 3. L 243. 

iiL8.L268; n. 137 

ii. 16. L 252. 
Zephaniah. 

i. 3 tq., IL 130. 

i. 12. m. 86. 
Hagoai. 

i. 13, IL 199. 

ii 6, n. 136. 
Zechabiah. 

iii 1 $q.t ni. 98 aq, 

iT. 1<9., n. 200. 

iT. 5, n. 203. 

iT. 10. L 149, 167. 

T. 9. L 168. 

T. 11, L 262. 

Ti. 1. IL 62, 140. 

Ti. 6. IL 62 : ni. 97. 

zi. 7, U. 209. 218. 

ziT. 4. L 63. 97. 

ziT. 6, 1. 83. 

ziT. 9, I. 229. 

ziT. 10. 1. 68. 

IfALAOHI. 

i. 8, IIL 228. 
i. 9, IIL 41. 
L 11, L 133. 
i. 12, in. 229. 
iu. 6. I. 69. 
iu. 13 §q,, ni. 83. 
iiu 17, 1. 196. 
iii 18, IIL 83. 
Psalms. 

ii2,L66. 

ii. 4, L 58. 

iT. 5. L 172. 216 ; n. 36. 

Tii. 16. L 48. 

Tiii. 4, 1. 167, 247. 

Tiu. 5. 1. 67 ; IIL 76. 



316 



INDEX. 



Pbalms. 

viii. 6, 1. 36. 

xi. 4. 1. 149. 167. 

xiL 7 tq*, I. 61 tq, 

xyL 8, in. 286. 

xvii. 12. 1. S2. 

xvui. 9, III. 137. 

xviiL 11, L 170. 

XTiii. 12, m. 31. 

xriii 81, IIL 126. 

xix. 2, IL 84. 

xix. 4, II. 36. 

xix. 8, II. 189. 

xix. 10, IIL 124. 

xxiT. 9, III. 20. 

xxir. 10, III. 41. 

xxir. 14, 1. 8. 

xxWi. 8, 1. 246. 

xxix. 4, 1. 167. 

xxix. 9, 1. 243. 

xxix. 10, 1. 60. 

xxxiii 4, III. 122. 

xxxiii. 6, 1. 86, 246, 248. 

xxxiU. 16, IIL 76. 

xxxiT. 16, in. 81. 

xxxiv. 17, L 136. 

xxxiir. 19, L 124. 

xxxiT. 21, in. 8L 

xxxY. 10, 1. 243. 

xxxyi 10, n. 61 ; ni. 294. 

xl. 9, 1. 167. 

xli. 3» 1. 143. 

xlii. 3. L 106. 

xlv. 10, ni. 30. 

xlTi. 3, II. 136. 

xlix. 3, L 64. 

xlix. 13, L 38 ; IIL 80. 

L7f9., in. 158. 

H. 6, in. 237. 

M. 6, 1. 102. 

ItIL 12, L 74. 

iTlii. 3, L 32. 

IviiL 12, in. 273. 

Ix. 4, n. 136. 

Ixu. 12, IL 167. 

Ixv. 2, 1. 216. 

IxT. 6, L 266 «9. 

IxxuL 11 tq.. IIL 83. 

Ixxiu. 20, L 30. 

Ixxiii 28, L 7L 

Ixxvii. 17 #g., n. 137. 

Ixxvui. 23, n. 221 ; in. 20. 

IxxYiii. 24, n. 23L 



PSALKB. 

IxxviiL 39, L 142. 
IxxYiii 40, 1. 102. 
Ixxxii. 6, L 10. 
IxxxiL 6, IIL 26. 
IxTxii. 7, I. 64. 
Ixxxix. 3, L 297. 
Ixxxix. 9, 1. 240. 
Ixxxix. 16, 1. 270. 
Ixxxix. 20, L 74. 
xo. 2, L 48. 
xo. 12, n. 185. 
xoi. 3«9.,in. 296. 
xoL 16, in. 81. 
xoiv. 2, L 76. 
xdv. 6 $q,, ni. 83. 
xcviL 2, ni. 31. 
0. 3, IIL 283. 
ei. 7, IL 160. 
oiL 7, L 32. 
di 14, L 61 sq. 
cU. 26, L 137. 
ciii. 13, L 196. 
dii. 19, IL 122. 
civ. 2, n. 121. 
civ. 4, 1. 168 ; IL 38. 
civ. 6. n. 126. 
dv. 21, m. 76. 
dv. 24, L 247 ; nL 122. 
dv. 32, L 72. 
ov. 20, n. 224. 
cv. 22, L 143 ; IIL 298. 
ov. 36, n. 66. 
oviL 24, 1. 247. 
cvu. 26, n. 223. 
cxi. 3, L 63. 
cxiii. 9, L 68. 
oxiii. 16, IL 117. 
oxviii. 6. III. 29L 
cxviu. 19, UL 20. 
oxix. 89, L 66. 
oxix. 126, I. 22. 
oxU. 144, II. 221. 
cxxiii. 1, I. 68. 
oxxxi. 1, 1. 113. 
oxxxv. 6, ni. 12L 
oxxxix. 6, 1. 167. 
cxxxix. 24, L 102. 
cxliii. 8, L 4. 
cxUv. 3, IIL 76. 
cxUv. 4, III. 38. 
exlv. 9, in. 46. 
cxlv. 16, UL 76. 



IKDEX. 



317 



FsALirs. 

czlv. 18, 1. 71. 

oxlviL 9, in. 76. 

exlyii. 18, U. 228. 

ezlviii. 1 sq,, II. 127* 
Pboyibbs. 

i. 6, 1. 14. 

i. 9, m. 175. 

ii. 4, m. 289. 

iiL 15, m. 304. 

iii. 19, in. 122. 

iii. 22, 1. 146. 

iiL 27, in. 209. 

m. 82. 1. 124. 

iv. 15, in. 99. 

It. 22, 1. 146. 

T. 9, III. 303. 

V. 17, III. 303. 

▼i. 32, III. 41. 

▼ii. 6 tq., L 17. 

▼iii. 4, 1. 4. 

▼iiL 11, III. 304. 

▼iii 35, I. 146. 

X. 21, 1. 189. 

zi. 17, III. 209. 

xi^. 15^ I. 235. 

xyL 4, III. 60. 

x^ii 16, 1. 126. 

xix. 8» III. 39. 

xix. 20, L 121. 

xxi 25«9.,1. 122: 

xxiL 17, 1. 4. 

xxiiL 8.3, 1. 245. 

xxi^. 13 tq., L 104. 

xx^. 2, n. 142. 

xx^. 11, 1. 15. 

XXV. 16, 1. 112. 

XXV. 17, ni. 245. 

xzv. 27, 1. 104, 118L 

xxvii 1, L 48. 

xxix. 11, 1. 142. 

XXX. 12#gf.. III. 16L 

xxxL 8, 1. 128. 

xxxL 10, in. 27. 
Job. 

L 1 «9., ni. 94. 

i. 11, 1. 136. 

u. 5, I. 72. 

ii. 6^ nL 97. 

u. 8, m. 104. 

iii. 5, I. 88. 

iv. 13. I. 40. 

ir, 16. n. 204. 



Job. 



iv- 18. ni. 63, 105.^*^ ' 

ix. 22 tq., UL 102 iq, ^ 
xi. 5, L 167 ; in. 106. .^ 
xi 6 tq., m. 106. ^^ 



xi. 12, 1. 118, 140. 
xii. 12, ni. 298. ^ 
xiv. 20, 1. 37. ^ » 

XV. 16 »g., in. 54. ^ - 
xix. 21, 1. 196. • 
XX. 26, IL 147. '^ 
xxi 6 «9., m. 102 9q. ^ 
xxii. 5, in. 102. iy 
xxii. 12, ni. 56. i/* 
xxii. 21. nL 291. '*^ 
xxiii. 13, in. 121, y 
XXV. 3, II. 54. \^ 
XXV. 6, m. 38. ^/ 
xxvii. 6, 1. 140. ^ 
xxviiL 12, 1. 117 ; ni. 298. 
xzx. 26, 1. 83. J 

xxxi 27. in. 238. C^ 
xxxii. 1, 1. 250. 
xxxii. 9, 1. 118 ; m. 299. ^ 
xxxii. 15, 1. 62. ^ V^ 
xxxiii. 14«9..III. 109. 
xxxiii. 23, III. 108. v? 

xxxiii. 29, IIL 109. i^ 
xxxiv. 20, IIL 109. *W 
xxxiv. 21, nL 76, 110. A^ 
xxxiT. 23 «g., IIL 109j, ^ 
XXXV. 11. in. 110. ^/ 
xxxvi 11, L 150. V^ 
xxxvii. 6. n. 12L V^ 
xxxvii 21, L 10. *|\o 
xxxviii 7, IL 36. %'- 
xxxviii- 13, 1. 147. , ' 
xxxviii. 33, IL 48. ^ * 
xlii 6, II. 48 ; IIL 104. / 
xlu. 6, IIL IIL -/.^ 
xlu. 7, IIL 103. i/ 

Song. 

i. 2, IIL 293. 
i. 4, ni. 169. 
L 6. nL 303. 
1 16, IL 220. 
a 16, IL 202. 
▼. 2, m. 287. 

Bute. 

ii. 12, L 14a 
iii 9, L 148. 
iii 13» L 268. 



V" 



318 



INDEX. 



Ruth. 

iv. 2, in. 258. 

iv. 7, 1. 137. 
Lamentations. 

i. 9, III. 247. 

ii. 9, n. 178, 163. 

iv. 16. 1. 135. 

V. 19, 1. 56, 58 ; n. 122. 

EOCLESIASTES. 

i.4. IL126. ' 
i. 9, n. 138. V 
L 16, 1. 41. • 
ii. 12, II. 38.*^ 
ii. 16, 1. 245. y/ 
ii. 16, 1. 240. y 
iii. 11, m, 122.»/ 
.iiL14««.,II. 127./ 
iii. 19 «^., L 64. ^ 
ir. 13, III. 99. u^ 
It. 17, 1. 46, 113. >^ 
V. 1,1.220; in. 296. w^ 
▼ii. 16. 1. 113. ^ 
vii. 24, 1. 12, U7. t^" 
▼ii. 29, III. 41. ^ 
▼iU. 4, III. 121. ^ 
ix. 14 9q„ m. 99 «g.^' 
X. 2, 1. 140. «• 
X. 10. 1. 121. v/ 
X. 20, II. 219. ^ 
xiu 7, 1. 142. • 
xiL 11. IIL 162. 
ESTHSB. 

i 17. L 84. 
▼. 9, L 60. 



ESTHBB. 

▼u. 8, 1. 84. 
Danikl. 

ii 19, II. 210. 

▼i. 23, II. 38. 

▼ii. 1, II. 200, 2ia 

▼a. 2, II. 210. 

▼ii. 15. II. 2ia 

▼ii 16, n. 200. 

▼iii 1. n. 201. 

▼iii 13, n. 204. 

▼iii. 16, II. 204. 

▼iii 27, II. 210. 

ix. 21. II. 199. 

X. 6, n. 52. 

X. 9. U. 193. 

xii. 7. 1. 305. 
Ezra. 

i 1, U. 206. 
Nkhbmiah. 

ix. 6, IL 36. 

xui. 27, 1. 150. 

1 Chboniglbb. 

xii 8, II. 207. 
xii. 38, 1. 139. 
xx^iii 9, m. 283. 
xxviii 11, 1. 40. 
xxix. 25, 1. 55. 

2 Chbonicles. 

X7. 1«9., 11.209. 
XX. 14, U. 206. 
xxiT. 20, n. 209. 
xxxvi 16, IL 199. 



INDEX OF QUOTATIONS FROM THE TAEGUMIM. 



Onkrlos. 
Genesis, 
u. 21, IL 152. 
iii 5, L 33. 
▼i. 5, L 164. 
▼i. 12. L 164. 
XX. 3» IL 196. 
xxu. 14. III. 218. 
xxix. 31, L 164. 
xlTi 4, L 92. 
Exodus, 
▼iii. 22. IIL 226. 
x^ii. 16, L 98. 
XX. 19, n. 168. 
xxiT. 10. L 97. 
xxxii 16. 1. 248. 
xxxiii. 23, L 136. 



0NKKL08. 

Exodus. 

xxxiv. 6. L 79. 
Jonathan. 
Judges. 

X. 16, L 144. 
Isaiah. 

ii 6, 1. 48 ; IL 56. 

xii. 3, L 105. 

xiT. 8, II. 220. 

xxiT. 23. n. 13L 
EsekieL 

i. 14, IIL 7. 

X. 13, IIL 13. 
Zechariah. 

xiv. 4, L 97. 



INDEX. 



319 



INDEX OF QUOTATIONS FROM THE MIDRASHIM. 



Rabboth. 

i., U. 139, 146; HI. 36. 

ii.U,36. 

ui., II. 144 tq, 

iv., XL 150. 

v., IL 140. 

Tiii, IL 89, 154. 

ix.,IL142;m. 35. 

X., I. 250 ; IL 48. 

zii., n. 123. 

ZY., IL 156. 

xvi., IL 157. 

xvii., IL 174. 

xxi, 1. 168. 

xxiv., I. 50. 

xxvii., 1. 160. 

XXXV., UI. 304. 

xlviii., n. 197. 

1.. II. 40, 41. 

li., IL 39. 

Ivi., IL 165. 

iTiu.. IL 186, 193^ 196. 

Ixv., IIL 5. 

Lcvui., 1. 268 ; IL 53L 

IxxviiL, IT. 40. 

Ixxx., IIL 267. 

Ixxxiv., IL 200. 

Ixxxv., II. 40. 

xcviii, IIL 28. 

xcix., III. 28. 
Exodat. 

xix., m. 231. 

xxxii., 1. 46. 

xH., L 42. 
LevitioaB. 

i., IL 199. 
On EooleiiAtteB. 

L 8, IL 89, 126. 

iii. 13, L 105. 

ix. 14. in. 99. 

X. 7, XL 4L 



Rabboth. 
On Song, 
i. 1, 1. 14 aq. 
Mbohilta. 
On Exodns. 
xix. 24, IL 165. 
XX. 1, IL 166. 
SiFRA. 
On Leyiticus. 
ix. 3, IIL 237. 
xix. 2, IIL 247. 
XX. 7, m. 160. 
SiFBL 
On Nnmben. 

vi. 27, L 228. 
On Deuteronomy, 
xxxii. 17, IIL 235. 
xxxii. 47. IIL 125. 
Tanohuma. 
On Exodns. 

xxiT. 11, L 46. 
? Genesia. 
xxviii 12, II. 51. 
Chazith. 
On Song of Solomon, 
i., IL 167. 

MiDBABH. 

On Judges. 

v. 4, ni. 32. 
2EangB. 

xviL 9, m. 86. 
Nehemiah. 

ix. 6, U. 36. 
Job. 

xxxviii. 7, n. 86. 

PiBKE DI KaBBI ElIIZBB. 

iii., U. 121. 
xiii., U. 154. 
xviii., I. 270. 
xxxviii., II. 177. 



J 



I^ 



QUOTATION FROM THE KITUAL. 



NeOah, UI. 49. 



320 



INDEX. 



INDEX OF QUOTATIONS FROM THE TALMUD. 



IflSHNAH BeRACH. 

▼. 3, III. 254. 
Shabbath. 

tL 10, m. 175. 
Chaoioah. 

iL 1, 1. 118. 

TOMA. 

iii. S. m. 245. 
T. 4, in. 217. 

SOTAH. 

i 6, m. 78. 
Sakhedrin. 

Yiii. 6. III. 199. 

X. 1, II. 170. 
Abhoth. 

i. 1, in. 201. 

ii. 17, 1. 22. 

iU. 13, in. 255. 

iv. 13, III. 202. 

y. 6, I. 249. 

V. 13-14, 1. 194. 

MiDDOTH. 

i. 1. ni. 244. 
Tahid. 

i. 1. m. 244. 

Babtl. Talmud. 
Berachoth, 
5a, Afflictiona of love, IIL 74. 
7a, Moses beheld the similitade of God, 

&0., I. 45. 
106, Eliaha is called holy, ke.. III. 28. 
18a, The righteous, even after death, 

are said to be alive, L 147. 
22a, The words of the Law are not 

subject to tum*ah, HL 248. 
26a, The mouth of a swine is dirt 

itself, ni. 252. 
28a, In holy matters we most rise, &o., 

1.55. 
33a, Use of attributes in prayers, L 

216. 
656, A dream interpreted in a dream, 

n. 200. 
67a, Serve Ood with your good and 

your evil inolinations, in. 99. 

676, Dream is one-sixtieth of pro- 
phccy, II. 174. I 

63, It is time to act, &C., I. 22. | 



Shabbath. 
80a, Solomon contradicts himself, I. 

26. 
SOo, A prophet is not inspired when 

in a state of sadness, n. 177. 
31a, When man appears for his trial, 

how he is examined, m. 300. 
356, If so, you expose your words to 

different interpretations, ni. 162. 
55a, No death without sin, in. 73, 

112. 
67a, Ways of the Amorite, HI. 174 1?. 
876, Laws revealed at Marah, in. 157. 
886, The pious do everything out of 

love, in. Ul. 
92a, The spirit of prophecy only rests 

on the wise, brave, and rich, IL 163. 
1076, God feedeth all creatures, &e., 

m. 77. 
1196, Two angels aeeompany every 

person, in. 100. 
146a, The serpent infected Eve with 

poison, &o., n. 156. 
149a^ Let your thought never be 

vacant from God, ni. 284. 
Erubhin, 
18a, Adam and Eve were at first one 

being, n. 154. 
Peiachim. 

49a, The pious keep away from ban- 
quets, III. 27. 
118a, God does not deprive any being 

of its due, m. 73. 
119a, Mysteries of the Law, m. L 
Chagigah, 
7a, Visit thy friend sparingly, UL 244. 
116, Ma'aaeh bereshith, ma'aseh merca- 

bhah, I. 7 tq., 68, 116, 124. 
12a, The heavens and the earth were 

created simultaneously, JL 146. 
126, There are seven heavens, I. 266 ; 

n. 46, 146. 
13a, The elders of Pumbaditha and 

R. Joseph about ma'cueh-mercabhak, 

nL16. 
13a, Isaiah saw all that Ezekiel saw, 

&o., nL 19. 
13a, Explanation of ehoihmal, Ul. 23. 
146, Four entered the garden, Ac, L 

112; n. 150. 



^ 



INDEX. 



321 



Chagigah. 
15a, In the world above there ig no 

bodily eo joyment, I. 62. 
16a, Every person it aocompenied by 

two angeU, III. 100. 
RMh-KfUkihanah, 
lla» All thing! were ereated with foil 

■ize, 11. 15S. 
176, Explanation of Exod. xxziv. 6^ I. 

78. 193. 
216. Solomon not greater than Moses, 

IIL300. 
31a, The world will remain six thon- 

sand years, &c., IL 138. 
Yoma. 
29a, Thoughts about sin are worse 

than sin. III. 28. 
396, Pronunciation of the Tetra- 

grammaton, L 232. 
676, These things I have ordained, 

obey onoonditionally, III. 126. 
Swcah, 
456, 1 noticed how few were the good, 

I. 118, 
TcuinUh, 
2a, True worship is the service in the 

heart. III 283. 
306, Moses did not prophesy during 

God's anger with Israel, II. 177. 
MeffilUih. 
13a. Moses was father in the know- 
ledge of the Law, m. 299. 
Yehhatnoih, 
626, It is a laudable act to marry the 

sister's daughter, III. 210. 
1036, The serpent infected Eve, &o., 

IL156. 
104a, How great is his boldness in 

likening the Creator to His creatures, 

L160. 
Kethubhoih. 
46, 61a, What a woman in her sejMura- 

tion is allowed to do. III. 247. 
15a, Agadic interpretation of Deut. 

xxiu. 14, lU. 214. 
Kidduahin, 
21 6, Deut. xxi. 10 is only a concession 

to man's weakness, III. 206. 
306, When lust overcomes you turn 

to the Law, HI. 266. 
31a, Obligatory and voluntary per- 
formance of God's precepts, III. 73. 
31a, Haughtiness, III. 295. 

VOL. m. 



Kiddtuhin, 
356, Lev. xxu 1, 2, applies to the font of 

Aaron, not the daughUra, III. 248. 
39a, Sowing diverse seeds, IH. 18L 
396, Explanation of Deut. xxiL 7, III. 

131. 
71a, Name of God of twelve letters, 

I. 232. 
Gitiin. 
606, Things communicated vivd voce 

must not be written down, I. 273. 
Nedarim. 
206, The modesty of our Sages, III. 

295. 
Sotah, 
14a, Imitate the ways of God, I. 198. 
38a, Explanation of Num. vi. 27, L 

228. 
Baba-Kama, 
15a, Job never existed, III. 93. 
60a, He who says that God remits 

punishment, will suffer for it, III. 73. 
^a6a-inefsia. 
316, The Torah speaketh the language 

of man, I. 89. 
326, Cruelty to animals, III. 77. 
.Ba6a-6a<Ara. 
12a, Explanation of Ps. ex. 12, H. 185. 
15a, Satan and evil inclination are the 

same. III. 98. 
16a, Condemnation of Job's utterances, 

m. 103. 
16a, Modesty, III. 266. 
17a, Death of Moses, Aaron, &c.. III. 

292. 
22a, Figurative use of the verb *' to 

eat." L 104. 
2Sa, The Shechinah is in the west, HI. 

217. 
Abhodah-zarcth. 
266, Modesty, IH. 266. 
576, Everything follows its natural 

course, II. 139. 
Sanhedrin. 
386, God does nothing without con- 
templating the host above, H. 39. 
566, Laws revealed at Marah, III. 157. 
616, Evil inclination acts in man from 

his youth, III. 99. 
916, Explanation of Neh. ix. 6 and Job 

xxxviii. 7, II. 36. 
97a, The world remains 6000 years, II. 

138. 



322 



INDEX. 



Sanhedrin, 

99b, King Manaueh mocks at portions 
of the Law, in. 272. 
Maccoih, 

24a, Israel at Sinai heard only the first 
two oommandments. II. 167. 
fforayoth. 

8a, Idolatry equals apostasy, III. 145. 
Menaelioth. 

1096, The Tetragrammaton, I. 232. 
Chullin. 

76. Phinehas b. Yair, HI. 28. 

60a, All things were created with full 
size, &c.. III. 153. 

77a, Ways of the Amorite, lU. 174. 



Chullin. 
90a, Scripture employs hyperbolic ei- 

pressions, II. 219. 
160a, Leprosy, punishment for slander, 
m. 249. 
Kerithoth, 
la. Violation of a handmaid, IIL 203. 
9a, Blasphemy, in. 203. 
Jer. Talm. Bauehoih, 
i. 1, The thickness of each sphere. III. 
58. 
Peah, 
V. 7i We must not oritieiBe Agadic 
sayings, I. 27. 



REFERENCES TO WORKS OF MAIMONIDES. 



Comm. on Mishnah — 

Introduction, III. 201. 

Sanh. X. 1, I. 12. 
Abhoth— 

IntroductioD, I. 7, 274 ; IL 162 ; in. 
162, 251. 



Abhoth— 

1 17, m. 28. 

▼. 6, n. 139. 
Mishneh-torah — 

L 7, 18, 79, 269. 274; n. 63. 168; III. 
114, 132, 139. 163-272. 



EEFEEENCES TO WORKS ON SCIENCE AND 

PHILOSOPHY. 



Abu-beor, ibn-al-Zaig, L 353; IL 47, 

112, 116 ; HL 136. 
Abu-nasr al-Farabi, L 332, 354; IL 75, 

82,95; in. 8L 
Alexander Aphrodisiensis, I. 108; n. 

27, 66, in. 63, 66. 
Al-kabici, Astronomy, n. 115 ; IIL 56. 
Alraa, Metaphys., IIL 37. 
Alsarb, m. 144. 
Andalusian scholars, 1. 146. 
Apollonius, Oonic Sections, I. 337. 
Aristotle — 

Physics, L 174, 314 ; n. 9, 30, 62, 65, 
73,99,115; IIL 33. 

Metaphys., L 205; n. 9, 16, 93. 

De Coelo, L 44 ; n. 44, 70, 73, 93. 

Kik. Eth., n. 176; m. 26, 213, 266. 

De Part. Anim., lU. 46. 

Trop., n. 75. 



Aristotle (Pkeudo)— 

Istimachis, ni. 144. 

On Talismans, m. 144. 
Euclid, X., L 317. 
Galen, L 315, 342; n. 62 ; m. 40. 
Hermes (Pseudo), IIL 144. 
Ibn Adi, L 27a 
Ibn Aflah, n. 46. 
Ibn Oanah, 1. 147. 
John Philiponus^ 1. 279. 
Nabatean Agriculture. UL 136, 141, 173, 

181, 195. 
Peripatetics, n. 1. 
Platon, L 68 ; IL 39, 65, 119. 
Ptolemy. Almagest, n. 54. HI, 115. 
Sons of Shakir, Problems, I. 318. 
Thabit, n. 56. 
Themistius, 1. 281. 
Tomtom. IIL 144, 176, 198. 



GENERAL INDEX. 



[2%e Arable figures rrfer to pages and chapiers,] 



Ababbakel, Don Ibaao, m. xiz. 

Abba Sfari, m. zxt. 

Abraham Abnlafia, III. six. 

Abraham b. Ohaadai, III. zzv. 

Abraham, son of Moses Maimonides, 
III. xL XXV. 

Accidents, I. Ixxii. ; IL x. xix. ; III. xiiu 

Actions, division of, III. xxv. ; support 
of ideas, II. 159. 

Actuality— potentiality, I. 118, 199 ; II. 
6,31. 

Admissibility, I. 330. 

Ahron b. Eliah, III. xxvi. 

Ahron b. Meshnllam, IIL xxt. 

Albertus Magnus, IIL xvii. 

Allegories, I. 11 sq. ; II. xxix. xlvii. 

Althea, lU. 142. 

Amalek, III. 205, 274. 

Ammonites, III. 205. 

Angels, I. 95, 148, xlix. ; II. n. viL 61, 
xlL sq. ; III. 95, 219. Prophets called 
angels, I. Ixvi 

Animals, imagination of, I. 335; III. 
254 ; cruelty to, III. 253 sqq. Provi- 
dence to species of, III. 74 sqq. 

Anonymous Commentaries, III. xxiiL 

Apparent (ethical) truths, L iL ; II. 167. 

Arabhoth, I. 265. 

Ashariya, I. 277, 326 ; H. 72. 

Astrology, U. 60 ; III. 171. 

Astronomy, II. 46, 53, 111. 

Atoms, I. 176, 310 sq.^ 345. 

Attributes, the thirteen — of Grod, I. liv. 

Asariah de Rossi, III. xiv. 

BaaItFBOB, m. 222. 
Balaam, II. 194, 198, 209. 
Baruch, son of Neriyab, II. 163. 
Bastard, III. 270. 
Bath-kol, II. 199. 
Buchner, A. III. xix. 
Buxtorf, Joh. ni. xviL 



Capital punishiont, III. 197. 

Castration, in. 269. 

Cattle, how valued by idolaters. III. 

146, 227. 
Cause-agent, I. Ixix. 
Centaur, I. 225. 
Chalitsah, L 161 ; III. 259. 
Chance, II. 20. 
Change, II. 2 sqq. 
Charisi, I. xxxi. ; III. xL 
Cherubims, III. 4, 220. 
Circumcision, III. 267 sqq» 
Cities of refuge. UI. 191. 
Clepsydra, III. 91. 
Comparison, I. 181, 201. 
Compensation for damages, III. xl. 
Comtino, Mordecai, III. xix. 
Courage, 11. 182 sq. 
Covenant, III. 147, 176. 
Creation, L 279; IL xiii.,#^.; purpose 

of, 121 sq, 
Crescas, Asher b. Abraham, III. xix. 

DAimtL, IL 210. 

Daniel of Damascus, III. xxiv. 

David b. Jehudah Leon Babbino, III. xix. 

David Kimchi, III. xxv. 

David Bosh ha-golah, III. xxiv. 

David Yachya, III. xix. 

Death, H. 35. 

Design in Nature, IL xix., xx. 

Determination, I. 348 ; IL 95 sq. 

Divination (intuition), IIL xxxviii. 

Dreams, II. xliv. sq, 

Edomites, m. 210, 274. 
Efodi, in. XX. 
Eglah-aruphah, IIL 192. 
Egyptians, IIL 210, 226. 
Eisler, M. , IIL xxvii. 
Elements, I. 290 sq. ; IL 49, 147 ; III. 
%sq. 



324 



INDEX. 



Eliah del Medigo, III. xiv. 

EUah Mizraohi, III. xiy. 

Eliah b. Moiei, III. xviL 

Emanation (inflaenoe), II. xiL zxxrii. ; 

in. 78, 79, 291. 
Ephraim al-Naqavah, III. xx. 
EpicoreanB, I. 312; IL 66; III. 66. 
Epioyoles, III. 116. 
Eternity of nnirerae, I. 281 tq, ; II. 10, 

25 ; ziii. »q. 
Evils, III. X. »qq,f xix. 289. 
Existence, I. xlri. 204. 
Eccentricity, II. xxiT. 

Faith, tme, 1. 1. 

Family, III. 209, 256 tqq. 

Fear of God, ni. 140, 295 tq. 

FestiTals, IH. xliii. 

Forces, in a body, II. 4. 

Form, L 28, 262; II. 8; m. 91 

Frederic II., German Emperor, III. xvi. 

Free will, L 326 ; IL 222 ; lU. 70. 

Friends, III. 256. 

Fllrstenthal, R., m. xvii. xx. 

Gedaliah b. Yachta, III. xvi. 

Geiger, A., III. xviiL xxvii. 

Geonim, IIL 74. 

Gershon, III. xx. 

Gideon, II. 207. 

Oinsburg, Dr., III. xiv. xix. 

Glory of God {Shechinah), I. 88» 74, 
Ixiy. 

God, attributes of, I. 76, 358, 11. tqq, ; 
II. 85; III. 298; the cause of good 
and not of evil, III. x., xii. ; definition 
of, I. 127, 178 ; enemies of, I. xxxri. ; 
image of, L i. ; immntability of, I. Iv. ; 
throne of, I. ix. ; wUl of, I. 359; U. 
87 ; III. xxvi. ; wisdom of. III. xxri., 
xxxii. ; word of, I. 245 ; work of, L 
Ixvi. 

Golden calf, HI. 237. 

Gr&ts, H., III. XXV. xxviL 

Grifiin, I. 225. 

Giinxburg, III. xiv. xxii. 

Haoab, II. 199. 
Hagiographa, II. 208. 
Harmony of the spheres, II. vili. 
Hayyoth, 1. 170 ; IIL L 
Heavens, I. ix. 59, Ixxii; II. iv., xxii. 
146 ; IIL vii. 



Heller, Yom-tobh, III. 
Hermes, HL 144. 
Hezekiah, book of, UI. 180. 
Hillel of Verona, IH. : 
Hirsch Chayynth, IIL xxvi. 
Holiness, IH. 159 s?., 247. 
Holy language, IIL 30. 
Hosea, II. 207. 
Hyde, Th., HI. x. 

Idolatbt, I. xxxvL ; IH. xxix. 19., 

xxxvii 204, 27L 
Ignorance, the source of evil, IIL xi. 
Imagination, L 163 s^., 334 S99.; U. 41, 

174. 
Immannel de Fano, HI. xviL 
Immanuel b. Raphael, III. xx. 
ImpossibiUtjT, L 357, 361; m. xv., 162. 
Indians, IIL 227. 
Infinite. L 339, 346 ; U. L 
Influence, IL xii., xxxii. ; IIL 78, 79, 291. 
InteUect, I. Ixviii. ; bylie, 1. ^6 ; ictiTe, 

L 32, 40. 83, 179 ; IH. 284, 294. 
Intelligences, 1. 167 ; H. iv. 
Intemperance, IL viii 
Isaac b. Nathan, III. xxiii. 
Isaac Satanov, III. xx. 
Isaac b. Shem-Tob, III. xxL 
Isaiah, IL 130, 29 tf. ; HL 19. 
Israelites, science amongst iht andent, 

L274; IL56. 

Jacob, L 17, xxviL, H. 177, 198. 
Jacob Anatoli, III. xxii. 
Jacob Emden, IH. xxvL 
Jacob Monteno, IIL xxvi. 
Jacob b. Shelomoh, HI. xii. 
Jehaziel, son of Zeehariah, U. 208. 
Jehudah Alfachar, UI. xxv. 
Jehudah ben Shelomoh, III. xxiii. 
Jeremiah, U. 163, 181 ; HL 156. 
Job, U. 208; IIL xxiL xxiii. 
Joel, Dr., xvi. xxvii. 
Joseph, n. 224 ; UL 237. 
Joseph b. Aknin, I. 1 ; IIL xii. 
Joseph Gaspi, III. xx. 
Joseph Gikatilia, HI. xx. 
Joseph del Medigo, HI. xviii. 
Joseph b. Isaac ha- Levi, UL xx. 
Joshua, n. 164, 172 ; IIL 277. 
Josselman, lU. xxvL 
JubUee, UI. 186. 
Judah. H. 20; HI. 259. 



INDEX. 



325 



JndgM, II. 207. 

Jtutinianua AngUBiiniu, IIL xt., xtL 

Kalam. I., Izxi. IxxUi. tqq. 

Kalonymos, IIL xxi. 

Kareth, UL 197. 

KAoffmann, D.^ III. xrii. zxi. zzviL 

iretAu6AaA(Murrukge settlement), m.260. 

Klein, Dr., III. xrii. 

Knowledge, 1. 104; m. li. 

Laban. II. 196. 

Landan. M. J., III. xix. 

Ijuigaage, origin of, II. 157. 

Laws of Moses, II. xl. ; III. xxri. sqq. 

Laws relating to bailees, 1. 15 ; III. 208 ; 
the bitter waters, IIL 258 ; blood, IIL 
232, 252; cleannessanduDoleanness,IIL 
166, xItIL ; castration, III. 269 ; cities 
of refuge, IIL 191 ; damages, IIL xL ; 
diet, m. 166, xlviii. ; divorce, U. 258 ; 
festival^ III. xliii. ; firstborn, in. 
185 ; fruit of trees in the first four 
years, in. 178 ; inheritance, IIL 209 ; 
intermixture of divers species. III. 
180; leprosy. lU. 249; Levites, IIL 
223 : loans. III. 187 ; marriage, IIL 
xlix. ; marriage with the deceased 
wife* s sister. III. 264, note 4 ; ment 
and milk, lU. 253 ; murder. III, 192. 
193; oath. m. 168, 197 : poor, IIL 
ia3; priests, lU. 223, 270; prostttu- 
tion, IIL 257 ; red heifer, m. 250 ; 
sanctuary, 217 tgg. ; thaatna (gar- 
ments of wool and linen). III. 125. 
175; shaving the beard, 11. 216; IIL 
175; thechUah, IIL 126, 253; slaves, 
in. 187. 270 ; theft, m. 195 ; tithes, 
IIL 184 ; trade, III. xlii. ; vows, III. 
255; workmen, nL 209; worship 
(divine), lU. xliv. xlv. li. 8qq. 

Leibnits, IIL xxi. 

Leviathan, m. 110. 

Levin, M. , IIL xxi. 

Light, IIL 146. 152. 

Logic, L 3,120; nL 28L 

Love of God, 1. 141 ; in. 132, 140, 284 tqq. 

Lust, L 123; n. 176. 192 ; ni. viii., 257 
iqq, 

Luszatto, S.D., IIL xii. xxvi. 

Maatth herethUh (Oen. i. tqq,)^ I. 7, xvii. 
XXX. ; IL 141 ; ni. 1. 



Maa$eh mercahhah, L 7, 116, 124, 271 ; 
IL 141 ; m. 1, L tqq. 

Magic, in. 180. 

Maimon, Sol., m. xxL 

Man, definition of, I. i. ; as microeotfMi, 
I. Ixxii. ; position of, in the universe, 
in. 88, xiv. ; object of, ni. 26 ; per- 
fections of, ni. xxvii. liv. ; a social 
being, IL 189 ; m. 129. 

Manasseh, m. 272. 

Mandragore, in. 142. 

Manna, m. 114. 277. 

Manoah. II. 199. 

Marcassite. in. 175. 

Maroni. D.J., IIL xviL 

Materia prima. L 99 ; II. 66, 68, 79, 158. 

Mathematics, I. 3, 121, 317. 

Matter. L 18,68, 99, 290; IL 8. 88; m. 

• • • 

vui. 
Mattithyahn Eartin, IIL xi. 
Mazzal, IL 48. 
Meir Abulafia, in. xxv. 
Meir b. Jonah, ni. xxi. 
Menachem Azariah, IIL xvii. 
Menachem b. Jacob, III. xii. 
Menachem Kara, ni. xxi. 
Mercury, IL 46. 
Meshullam, in. xxv. 
Metals, in. 138. 

Metaphysics, I. 3, 7, xxxiii. tq. ; III.28L 
Methuselah, IL 186. 
Mieroeotmat, I. Ixxii. 
Midrashic interpretation. L 27, 270 ; IIL 

214. 
Miracles. IL 119, 139, xxxv. ; m. 154. 
Miriam, IIL 292. 
Moab, IIL 205. 
Modesty, UL 265 tq. 
Moloch, in. 177. 
Moon, n. 48. 
Mordecai Yaffe, IIL 
Moriah, III. 217 tq, 
Moses. I. 42, 45, 78 tq,, 136 lix. 236 ; 

IL xxxiii. XXXV., 183, 212 ; IIL 219, 

292. 
Moses ha-katan, ni. xxii. 
Moses b. Judah Nagari, IIL xxL 
Moses Leiden, IIL xxii. 
Moses de Leon, in. xiv. 
Moses Mendelssohn, ni. xv. 
Moses Nachmauides, ni. xxv, 
Moses Narboni, HI. xxii 
Moses Proven9al, xxt 



326 



INDEX. 



Moiesb. Solomon of Salerno, III. xvi. xzi. 
Motion, I. 91, 174, 182, 315 «qr., 326 ; 11. 

2 aq,, iT. z., es. 30, 91 9q. ; UL 33. 
Hnnk, S., m. iz. zvii. zxii. 
Matakallemim, I. 4, 259, Ixxi. Izziii. 

iqq, ; 11. 69, 76 ; III. 32. 
HataziUli, L 275, 326 ; II. 72 ; IH. 70. 
Mysteries of the law, I. 3, 115, 125, 128, 

274 ; n. 169, 222 ; IIL 1. 

Names of God, I. Ixi. tq. 
Nature, I. Izvi. 299 ; II. 99 ; III. 162. 
Nazaritism, III. 255. 
Necessity, II. 99 tq. 
Nenbaaer, A., III. z. ziv. zzvii. 
Number, I. 352 sq, ; II. 6 ; four, 51 ; 
seiren, 132 ; III. 211. 

Oo, n. 220. 

Omniscience, III. zvL ziz. $qq, 

Ottensoser, D., IIL zziv. 

Paboal lamb, III. 231. 

Passions, I. 123 ; III. viiL zxziii. 

Patriarchs, HI. 287. 

Perles, J., IIL zt. 

Phineas, 11. 199. 

Physios, I. 7 S9.. 121 : III. 281. 

Piyyutim, L 218. 

Politeness, III. 159. 

Potentiality, I. Iv. ; n. 6. 

Prayer, L 259 «9- ; UL 168, 216» 286 

9q. 
Prescience, III. zz. 
Priests, IIL 152. 184, 223 iq. 
Prophets, I. 9, 66, 154 ; IL zzzii. gqq. ; 

m. 117, 219, 282 aq. 
Proverbs of Solomon, I. 17 ; IIL 27. 
Providence, IIL zvii. #9., 288 iq» 
Psalm of mishaps, III. 291. 
Punishments, III. zliL 
Purity, ni. 169. 

QUALTTT AND QUANTITT, L 179 tq. 

Quintessence, L 290. 

Raphael, Joseph, of Tr&ves, in. zvii. 
Kappoport, S., III. zzvi. 
JEleason, L zzzi, 337 ; IIL 288. 
Rebellious elder. III. 202. 
Rebellious son, IIL 159, 199. 
Relation, I. 181, 201. 
Release year. III. 186. 



Repentance, III. 169, 237. 
Retaliation, m. 193. 
Righteousness, III. liiL 
Rosin, D., m. zzvii 
Rubin, S., zzvii. 

Saadia b. Mobdeoai b. Moseb, in. z. 
Sabbath, I. IzviL ; IL zzzi ; m. 157, 

199, 210. 
Sabeans, L 287 ; lU. zziz., 170, 219, 

232, 246, 27L 
Sachs, S., IIL zzii. 
Sacrifices, III. 127, zzzii., 202, zItL, 

249. 
Samael, 11. 154 
Samuel, IL 204. 
Samuel, son of Isaac, m. ziv. 
Samuel b. Moees, III. ziv. 
Samuel Ibn Tibbon, HI. zL 
Saportas, Samuel, III. zzv. 
Satan, n. 154 ; IIL 95 aqq. 
Scape>goat, III. 241. 
Scheyer, S., III. zvii. zzii. zzvii 
Senses, L 161, 210, 341 ; IL 174. 
Shabbathai b. Mattithyahu. UL zii. 
Shaul ha-kohen. III. ziz. zzi. 
Shem-tob b. Joseph, III. zzii. 
Shem-tob b. Palquera, III. zi. zzii. 
Shem-tob b. Shem-tob, IIL zzii. 
J^ietna, lU. 216, 285. 
Shemane-esre, IIL 216, 285. 
Shesheth Benvenisti, IIL zzv. 
Shimshon Kaliri, IIL zv. 
Shimshon Kohen Modon, III. ziii. 
Simeon Duran, III. zvi. 
Simon the Just, I. 233. 
Sins, m. 237 iq. 
Sinai, Revelation on, 11. zzziii. ; III. 33, 

115. 
Solomon, L 14 ; n. 125, 208 sg. ; IIL 

299. 
Solomon b. Abraham. III. zziv. 
Solomon b. Addereth, III. zzv. 
Solomon b. Jehudah ha-nasi, HI. zziii. 
Sons of the prophets, L 49. 
Soul, I. 143, 144, 269, 320, 352 ; IL 5, 

6, 124 ; UL 41, 97, 129, 301. 
Spheres, I. 211, Izz. 289; 11. iv. x. 

54, 91, zzii. zziv. ; IIL ii. ziv. 
Spirit, Holy (of the Lord), II. 208. 
Spirits (demons), HI. 234. 
Stars, n. iz., 48, 113 tg. ; IH. ziv. 
Stars, worship of, I. 237 ; UL zziz. 



CORRIGENDA. 



327 



Steinicbneider, M., III. xIt. xxvi. 

Stern, M., III. xvii. 

Studies, I. 3 aq., xxxIt. ; III. li. 

SubBtance, L 318. 329 ; II. & 

Son, II. 49. 

Synhedrin, HI. 201. 

Synagogue, Great, I. 216. 

Tables of stone, I. Ixvi. 

Tabrisi, III. zxiiL 

Taznmuz, HI. 143. 

Temple. III. 151, zW. 244 ; II. 5. 

Tbomas d* Aquino, III. xvi. 

Time, L 182, 314; II. 61 tq., 68, 144. 

Tuhbi, III. zziu. 

Townley, J., III. xviii 

Tree of knowledge, II. 156. 

Tree of life. II. 156. 

Triala (temptationi), III. xxiy. 

Trinity, I. 172. 

Turee. lU. 136. 279. 

Univebsalia (ideals). 1. 176 ; IIL 79. 



Universe. L Ixzii. ; 11. z. ; origin of, 

ziii. sqq, ; end of. IL zzviL 
Urim and Tummin, 11. 208. 

Vacuum, I. 313. 

Venus, II. iz. 

Vision. II. 175. 193, 214 tq. 

Weiss, I. H., III. zzvii. 

Wine, III, 256. 

Wisdom. III. Ut. 

Woman, ni. 171, 206, 236, 248. 

Tachta. III. zxiii. 
Yecbiel b. Joab. III. zii. 
Yedidyah b. Moses, III. zriL 
Yedaya Bedraai, III. zzvi. 

Zbchabiah son of Jehoiada, IL 208. 
Zecbariah tbe propbet, II. 200. 218. 
Zedekiah ion of Kenaanab. II. 190. 
Zedekiah son of Maasiab, II. 192. 
Zeraohyah b. Isaac ha-LeTi, III. zziiL 



CORRIGENDA. 

Fart L, page 220, tbe first sentence sbould read thus: "This likewise 
should not be divulged to the multitude ; but a reflection of this kind is fitted 
for the few only who do not consider that the glorification of God consists in 
uttering that which ought not to be uttered, but in reflecting on that on 
which man should reflect." 

Fart IL, page 133, note 2, instead of '' ve-inffanehem** read ** ve-injfanehem.** 

Fart IIL, page 81, line 18, instead of xziv. read zzziv. 

Fart IIL, page 81, line 19, instead ofkc, read (ib. ver. 16), " He shall call 
upon me, and I will answer him." 

Fart III., page 151, line 28, instead of " an altar of stone,*' read " an altar 
of earth." 



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