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[amin AND BATRACHTANS 


DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY 


dee ; OF THE 
| BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY), 


CROMWELL ROAD, LONDON, 8.W. 7. 


ILLUSTRATED BY 50 FIGURES. 


_. THIRD EDITION. 


Ss Sess 


. LONDON: 
PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES. 
1922. 


All rights reserved. 


PRICE ONE SHILLING. 


PRESENTED 


The Trustees 
OF 


THE BRITISH MUSEUM. 


—_ 


‘aaardsyuo.wz | 
‘nbausna snoopojdig, «0 NOLATAMNG TAL LO THAOPW FHL DNIMOHS 


“ISVG-HLAOG AHL WOVE AAMGTA ‘AUMATIVY ATMLaTyy AH, 


aX eG OM EEED 


G TO THE 


REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS 


EXHIBITED IN THE 


DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY 


OF THE 


BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY), Dey’ 


CROMWELL ROAD, LONDON, S.W. 7. vag 


ILLUSTRATED BY 50 FIGURES. 


THIRD EDITION. 


A ey yd 
~~ fa he 
LONDON: 
PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE TRUSTEES. 
1922. 


All rights reserved. 


; , 
“Ste id 
7 i 
ib Pee. F ae 
ee ie 
i re 
Ly 
e 
. 


PRINTED IN ENGLAND 
AT THE OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 
BY FREDERICK HALL 


PREFACE. 


THE Reptile Gallery is mainly devoted to the exhibition of 
recent Reptiles and Batrachians, but a few characteristic 
examples of each of the more important extinct groups are 
included. In addition the great Dinosaurs Diplodocus, Iguanodon, 
and Triceratops are placed here because room could not be found 
for them in the Gallery of Fossil Reptiles. 

The National Collection of Reptiles and Batrachians comprises 
about 70,000 specimens, representing most of the known species, 
which number nearly 9,000. The majority of these specimens 
are preserved in spirit, and examples of selected species only are 
shown in the Gallery. 

Thanks are due to Messrs. Macmillan & Co., Ltd., for permis- 
sion to reproduce a number of illustrations from the Cambridge 
Natural History: the process-blocks are from photographs of 
specimens in the Museum. 


C. TATE REGAN, 


Keeper of Zoology. 
British Musrum (Natura History), 
LONDON. 
March 1922. 


TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
BATRACHIANS . ‘ : : : ; é i tdi 
URopELA (SALAMANDERS AND NEwWTS) . ; é inh tes 
APODA (COECILIANS) . : ; : : : . Tek 
ANURA (FROGS AND TOADS) . ‘ : : : nae 
REPTILES : : : : . ; a <i 
RHYNCHOCEPHALIA (TUATERA) . , : : ois 
CROCODILIA (CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS) . . 9 
CHELONIA (TORTOISES AND TURTLES) . : ; es) 
SquamaTa (LIZARDS AND SNAKES) : ‘ : oc Ow 


INDEX : : : : : : : : . Od 


GUIDE 


TO THE 


REPTILES AND BATRACHIANS. 


BATRACHIANS. 


(Table-case near south end of Gallery.) 


Tue class Batrachia, or Amphibia, includes Frogs, Newts, &e. 
The earliest members of the group, found in the Carboniferous 
strata, closely approximate in structure to the bony fishes of the 
extinct order Rhipidistia, from which they were doubtless 
derived ; but they differed from them, and from all other fishes, 
in several characters, of which the most important is that instead 
of paired fins they were provided with legs ending in five-toed 
feet. These were the earliest terrestrial four-footed vertebrates, 
from which have arisen not only the modern Batrachians but 
also the Reptiles, and through the latter the Birds and Mammals. 
A few examples of these primitive Batrachians are exhibited ; 
they were mostly newt-like in form, but had the skull roofed by 
dermal bones: hence the ordinal name Stegocephala. 

Modern Batrachians agree with modern Reptiles in being cold- 
blooded, but differ from them in having the skin naked instead 
of scaly, and by the skull articulating with the first vertebra by 
two knobs, ‘ occipital condyles,’ instead of one. 

Batrachians generally commence their life as truly aquatic 
creatures, breathing the air dissolved in the water by means of 
gills, and later become terrestrial, breathing atmospheric air by 
means of lungs, whereas Reptiles breathe by lungs throughout 
their life. A few Batrachians, however, are permanently aquatic 
and retain their gills throughout life, and there are some which, 
when adult, manage to breathe without either gills or lungs ; 
moreover, there are forms in which the young make their first 
appearance in an advanced stage of development and pass through 
the gilled larval stage in the egg or within the body of the parent. 
Batrachians inflate their lungs by swallowing air, having no 
mechanism for expanding the chest. 

The number of living species of Batrachians does not greatly 
exceed 2,000. These are placed in three orders, Urodela or 
Tailed Batrachians (Newts, Salamanders, &c.), Apoda or Limbless 
Batrachians (Coecilians), and Anura .or Tailless Batrachians 
(Frogs, Toads, &c.). 


8 Guide to Reptiles and Batrachians. 


Order I. URODELA. 


The Urodela, or Tailed Batrachians, are characterized by 
having a tail and at least the front pair of limbs. The young 
are provided with uncovered gills, which generally disappear in 
the adult, but in some permanently aquatic forms may be retained 
throughout life. The group is a small one, numbering about 
200 species, mostly from Europe, Northern Asia, and North 
America; a few species occur in Central America and in the 


regen 


Hugi 


The Common Smooth Newt (JJolge vulgaris). Male and female. 


Andes, extending southwards to Peru. Not many species grow 
to a greater length than 6 inches. 

Nearly all the Urodela belong to the family Salamandridae. 
These have two pairs of limbs, teeth in the jaws, and movable 
eye-lids ; with one remarkable exception there are no gills in 
adults. A curious feature of several members of the family is 
the absence of lungs, respiration being effected by the skin and 
the pharynx. 

Newts (Molge or Triton) are found in Europe and Northern 
Asia ; they have the tail strongly compressed and often furnished 


— 


* Salamanders and Newts. 9 


with a fin. There are three British species, in all of which the 
breeding males develop a high crest on the back. Newts are 
terrestrial : they prefer cool and moist places, and feed on insects, 
worms, &c.; in winter they hibernate. At the breeding season 
they make their way to ponds and become aquatic for a time ; 
the eggs are laid and the young live in the water. 

The genus Salamandra includes three species, the Spotted 
Salamander (S. maculosa) from Europe and Asia Minor, the 
Alpine Salamander (S. atra) of the Alps, and the Caucasian 
Salamander (S. caucasica); they have a rounded tail. The 
Spotted Salamander is noteworthy for its black and yellow 


Fie. 2. 


The Axolotl ; the egg-laying larval form of Amblystoma tigrinum. Mexico. 


coloration and for the poisonous properties of a fluid which 
exudes from its skin. The Salamanders prefer hilly country, 
where they hide under moss or stones; they are viviparous. 
In the Spotted Salamander the mother partly enters the water in 
the spring to produce her young, which may number up to 50 
and are about an inch long when born ; they lose their gills and 
become terrestrial before the winter. Embryos of the Alpine 
Salamander are exhibited ; this species produces only two young 
at a birth, which are much larger than the young of the Spotted 
Salamander and are essentially similar to their parents. 
Amblystoma includes a number of species from North America ; 
they bear a general resemblance to the European Salamanders 
and live in much the same way. The famous Axolotl of the lakes 
near the city of Mexico is thoroughly aquatic, and is provided 
with three pairs of external gills and a well-developed median fin 


10 Guide to Reptiles and Batrachians. 


both above and below ; it may grow to a length of one foot. 
Specimens brought to Europe laid eggs which developed into 
Axolotls, some of which lost their gills and fins, left the water, 
and were found to have changed into the common terrestrial 


Fie. 3. 


The Three-toed Salamander The Olm (Proteus anguinus), 
(Amphiuma means). from the caves of Carniola. 

species Amblystoma tigrinum, of which the Axolotl was thus 
proved to be a permanent larval form. 
Other important American genera are Desmognathus, Plethodon, 
and Spelerpes, the last being represented in Europe by S. fuscus 


Salamanders and Newts. ia 


of Italy and Sardinia, which lives in shady places, lying in wait 
for insects, which it catches by the sudden protrusion of its long 
tongue. 

The Amphiumidae differ from the Salamandridae in having no 
eye-lids. The Giant Salamander (Megalobatrachus maximus) ot 
China and Japan grows to a length of 5 feet; it is strictly 
aquatic, inhabiting small mountain streams, where it often lies 
hidden under rocks ; it feeds on fishes, worms, &c., and as it will 
readily take a bait it is caught for food. An extinct Giant 
Salamander is known from the Miocene of Baden. The North 
American ‘ Hellbender’ (Cryptobranchus alleghaniensis) is very 
similar to the Asiatic species, but differs in having a gill-opening ; 
it grows to only 18 inches long. Amphiwma includes two species 
from North America, which differ from the preceding in their 
eel-shaped body and small limbs, with only two or three toes ; 
these animals inhabit swamps and often burrow in the mud. 

The Proteidae differ from the Amphiumidae in having no 
maxillary bone and in the persistence of the gills throughout 
life. Necturus maculatus is found in the Mississippi and the 
Great Lakes ; it has well-developed four-toed limbs and func- 
tional eyes ; its colour is brown, with irregular blackish spots. 
The other two members of the family are subterranean and 
differ from Necturus in being’white, and in having their eyes 
concealed beneath the skin. T'yphlomolge rathbuni of Texas has 
rather long and slender limbs, the front pair with four and the 
hind pair with five toes ; all the known specimens have come up 
with the water of an artesian well. Proteus anguineus, the ‘ Olm ’, 
from the subterranean waters of the Eastern Alps and Dalmatia, 
has shorter limbs, with three front and two hind toes. There 
can be little doubt that Typhlomolge and Proteus have evolved 
independently from Necturus-like ancestors, the concealed eyes 
and the absence of pigment from the skin being due to their life 
in total darkness. 

The Sirenidae retain their gills throughout hfe, but are distin- 
guished from the Proteidae by their eel-shaped body, the absence 
of hind-limbs, and the toothless jaws. Siren lacertina is the 
Mud-eel of the south-eastern. United States ; it lives in ponds 
and ditches, burrowing in the mud, 


Order 2. APODA. 


The Limbless Batrachians, or Coecilians, are worm-like in 
appearance and in their mode of life, burrowing in moist ground ; 
they feed on worms, &c. The skin is slimy and forms a number of 
transverse folds or rings; it may contain small embedded scales. 
The eyes are small and subcutaneous, but between the eye and 
the nostril is a soft protrusible tentacle, probably tactile in 


12 Guide to Reptiles and Batrachians. 


function. The scales in the skin, and certain features of the 
skeleton, indicate that if the Apoda are derived from the Urodela 
they have arisen from some group more generalized in structure 


Eig. 5. 


A Limbless Amphibian 
(Uraeotyphlus 
africanus). 


than the living members of that order. 
About 200 species are known, from tropical 
America, Africa, and Southern Asia; most 
of these are small, few attaining a length » 
of 1Sinches. Their life- history is imperfectly 
known, but the species studied include viv? 
parous forms and others in which the gillec 
stage is passed through in the egg. In 
Ichthyophis glutinosa of Southern Asia the 
female coils herself round the eggs, which 
are laid in a hole near running water, to 
which the young take when they are hatched, 
although they have lost their gills; they 
are, however, provided with a tail-fin which 
disappears before they become terrestrial. 
The species exhibited are Coecilia gracilis 
and Siphonops annulatus, both from South 
America. 


Order 3. ANURA. 


The Anura, or Frogs and Toads, are char- 
acterized by the absence of the tail; they 
have well-developed limbs, the hind ones 
being the longer; the front pair generally 
have four toes and the hind pair five. In 
the skeleton the vertebral column is very 
short and the posterior vertebrae are fused 
to form a long spine, which lies between the 
elongate and backwardly directed iliac bones. 
Nearly all Frogs and Toads have a long pro- 
tractile tongue, with which they catch the 
worms, insects, &c. on which they feed, and 
most of them produce croaking sounds 
in the larynx, intensified in the males 
by the distension of the vocal pouches, 
which are connected with the mouth and 
act as resonators. 

As a rule the eggs are laid in water, often 
in masses or strings, which either float or 
may be attached to weeds or stones; the 


larvae develop into tadpoles, in which the head is not marked off 
from the swollen body, which contains a long intestine coiled like 
a watch-spring, the tail is well developed, the gills are covered by 
an opercular fold, the small mouth is surrounded by funnel- 


Frogs and Toads. 13 


shaped lips studded with horny teeth and the jaws are provided 
with horny beaks. The transformation of the aquatic tadpole 
into the terrestrial adult form involves the development of the 
limbs and lungs, the reconstruction of the intestine, the loss of the 
tail, gills, lips, and horny beaks, the widening of the mouth, &e. 
A tadpole of Pelobates is exhibited and a series of specimens of 


nc. (6: 


A Female Surinam Toad (Pipa americana) with young emerging from 
the brooding pouches of the back. 


. 


Pseudis paradoxa illustrate the change from a tadpole into a frog. 
In some forms the eggs are relatively few and large and are 
protected by the parents, the young emerging at an advanced 
stage of development, sometimes even as miniature frogs. 

The number of known species of Frogs and Toads is nearly 
2,000 ; they are found in all tropical and temperate countries. 
The Anura may be divided into three main groups, Aglossa, 
Arcifera and Firmisternia. 


14 Guide to Reptiles and Batrachians. 


The Aglossa are characterized by the absence of a tongue, 
which is connected with their aquatic habits, a tongue not being 
needed by creatures which seize their prey under water. There 
are three genera, Xenopus and Hymenochirus from Africa and 
Pipa from South America. The species of Xenopus are known as 
‘Clawed Toads ’ from the sharply pointed nails of the first three 
hind-toes. The Surinam Toad (Pipa americana) is remarkable in 
that the female carries the eggs on her back, where they are 
placed in position by the male and sink into the soft spongy skin, 
so that each egg occupies a pouch, in which the development takes 
place, until the young emerge as fully formed Toads. 

The Arcifera are characterized by the presence of a tongue, and 
by the overlapping of the coracoid bones on the chest. The most 
primitive family is the Dziscoglossidae, which agree with the 
Aglossa in having ribs, and differ from all other Anura in having 
the tongue round and non-protrusible. The half-dozen species of 
this family are the remnants of an old and widely distributed 
group ; Liopelma is the only Batrachian found in New Zealand ; 
the rest occur in Kurasia and North America. European examples 
are the Fire-bellied Toad (Bombinator igneus), a poisonous species 
with bright ‘ warning’ colours, and the Mid-wife Toad (Alytes 
obstetricans), the male of which carries the strings of eggs round his 
hind-limbs ; when the eggs are ready to hatch, he takes to the water. 

The Arcifera without ribs, with a protractile tongue, and with 
the terminal bones of the digits not claw-shaped, have been 
grouped into several families, Bufonidae, Pelobatidae, Cystigna- 
thidae, &c., but these are badly defined and unnatural. There are 
two British Toads, the Common Toad (Bufo vulgaris), which 
ranges throughout Europe and Northern Asia, but is absent from 
Ireland, and the Natterjack (B. calamita), which is found in 
Western Europe, in some parts of England and Wales, and in 
Kerry in Ireland. The skin of the Common Toad is studded with 
wart-like prominences, from which a poisonous slime may exude ; 
this makes it distasteful to eat, but is not used for offensive 
purposes. Bufo marinus is a very large Toad, attaining a length 
of six inches ; it inhabits Central and South America. 

The Spade-footed Toad (Pelobates fuscus) of Europe is provided 
with a sharp spur on each hind-foot, which it uses for digging, 
concéaling itself in the sand very quickly. The Horned Toads 
(Ceratophrys) of South America have the eye-lids produced into 
a pair of appendages which resemble horns. Leptodactylus of 
Tropical America has long and slender legs. 

The Hylidae, or Tree-Frogs, differ from the Bufonidae in having 
adhesive disks at the ends of the digits ; these disks are supported 
by the claw-shaped terminal phalanges. Most of the Hylidae are 
American or Australian, but three species of Hyla are found in 
Kurope and Northern Asia. The characteristic colour of these 


The Pouched Frog (Nototrema marsupiatum), with eggs in pouch. Ecuador. 


16 Guide to Reptiles and Batrachians. 


arboreal Frogs is green. In Nototrema of South America the 
female carries the eggs in a pouch on the back. 

In the Firmisternia the coracoids do not overlap, but meet 
and are firmly united in the middle line of the chest. Ribs are 
absent and the tongue is protractile. Several families have been 
recognized, Ranidae, Dendrobatidae, Engystomatidae, &c., but 
they are not yet satisfactorily defined. 


Fie. 9, 


The Common Frog (Rana temporaria). 


The genus Rana includes the Common Frog (f. temporaria), 
the Edible Frog (R. esculenta), and the North American Bull- 
Frog (R. catesbiana), which takes its name from the loud ro ng 
noise produced by the assembled males in the breeding season. 
R. guppyt of the Solomon Islands is a large frog which feeds 
on crabs, but &. goliath of W. Africa is still larger, attaining 
a length cf nearly a foot (not including the limbs). The Horned 
Frog (Ceratobatrachus guentheri) of the Solomon Islands is 
remarkable for its enormous mouth, with teeth in both jaws. 
Rhacophorus includes a number of species from Madagascar and 
Southern Asia, arboreal frogs with adhesive disks at the ends of 
the digits, which are webbed ; some species with large and com- 
pletely webbed feet are said to use them as parachutes. The 
Engystomatidae have a small toothless mouth and a sharp snout ; 
they eat ants and are found in tropical countries. The Dendroba- 
tidae are arboreal. 


Reptiles iN7/ 


REPTILES. 


REPTILES may be defined as cold-blooded vertebrates which 
breathe by lungs throughout life, having no aquatic larval stage. 
Modern Reptiles are distinguished from modern Batrachians by 
having the skin covered with scales and by the single occipital 
condyle. The living Reptiles, although more numerous than the 
Batrachians, are but a remnant of a group which was once 
dominant, but has now been replaced by the Mammals and 
Birds. 

The earliest Reptiles, the Cotylosauria, made their appearance 
in Carboniferous times; they were extremely similar to the 
Batrachia Stegocephala, from which they were derived, and from 
which it is not easy to separate them. The Anomodontia of the 
Permian and Triassic epochs were a large and varied group of 


Restoration of a Long-tailed Pterodactyle (Rhamphorhynchus phyllurus), from 
the Upper Jurassic Lithographic Stone of Bavaria; + nat. size. 


terrestrial Reptiles, from which the Mammals originated ; some 
of them, e. g. Aelwrognathus, are remarkable for their specialized 
carnivorous dentition. The Dinosauria flourished during the 
Mesezoic or Secondary period of geological history (Triassic, 
Jurassic, and Cretaceous strata), and included both herbivorous 
and carnivorous forms. The skeleton of Diplodocus is the most 
conspicuous object in the gallery ; this gigantic Dinosaur from 
the Jurassic of Wyoming measures eighty-four feet nine inches in 
total length ; it was probably too heavy for much activity on 
land and may have spent most of its time in the water, feeding on 
water-plants, its long neck and the position of the nostrils at the 
top of the skull enabling it to breathe when wading at considerable 
depths. Other large Dinosaurs exhibited are Triceratops, with its 
bony neck-shield, and Igwanodon, which walked on its hind-legs. 


B 


(‘umosnyy oY} Ut UotaTOeds vB urTOI,T) 
puryvoz Mon “(snzpjound uopousydg) Gavzi[ VAALVAY, TH, 


TL “OW 


Tuatera. 19 


The Ichthyosaurs and Plesiosaurs were whale-like marine 
Reptiles, with the limbs modified into paddles. The Cretaceous 
Mosasaurs also had paddle-shaped limbs, but were snake-like 
in form ; Liodon is estimated to have reached a length of 100 feet, 
a veritable Sea-serpent. The Pterodactyles were flying Reptiles, 
with the membrane of each wing attached to the body and 
supported by the elongate outermost digit of the fore-limb ; 
they have no affinity to Birds. Some species of Pteranodon had a 
wing-spread of twenty feet ; a fine example is exhibited on the 
west wall of the gallery, above the door. 

All the orders mentioned above became extinct millions 
of years ago, long before man appeared. The,specimens exhibited 
in cases 4, 5, 16 and 17 give some idea of the structure and 
appearance of these inhabitants of the land, the sea, and the air 
during the Secondary Period, the ‘ Age of Reptiles ’ as it has been 
called ; they may be studied in more detail in the Gallery of 
Fossil Reptiles. 

About 6,500 species of Reptiles are living at the present day ; 
they belong to four orders, Rhynchocephalia, Crocodilia, Chelonia, 
and Squamata. 


Order 1. RHYNCHOCEPHALIA. 
(Case 5.) 


The Tuatera (Sphenodon punctatus) of New Zealand was 
formerly classed with the lizards, but it differs from them in 
having two horizontal bony arches on each side of the temporal 
region of the skull, in the fixed quadrate (the bone with which the 
lower jaw articulates), and in many other features; it is now 
recognized as the most primitive of all living Reptiles and the 
sole survivor of a group which dates back to Triassic times. 

The Tuatera is like a Lizard in appearance, and attains a 
length of more than two feet ; it has been exterminated on the 
mainland, but still lives on a few small islands near the coast. 
It excavates a burrow, which it often allows a petrel to share, 
without attempting to molest the bird or its eggs and young ; it 
sleeps most of the day, but at night ventures out in search of food, 
which consists of small living animals. The eggs have a hard, 
white shell ; about ten are laid in holes in the sand, in a sunny 
place ; they do not hatch until a year has passed. 


Order 2. CROCODILIA. 
(Cases | to 3.) 


The members of this order are large, four-footed, long-tailed 
Reptiles, with five toes to the fore-feet and four to the hind ones. 
The teeth are implanted in separate sockets, the quadrate bone 


B 2 


20 Guide to Reptiles and Batrachians. 


is fixed, and the bones of the skull are sculptured. The body is - 
covered with horny shields, beneath which, at least on the back, 
are series of bony plates. The inner aperture of the nostrils is 
placed far back on the palate, enabling these animals to breathe 
while holding their prey under water. 

There are about two dozen living species; these frequent 
rivers, but their mesozoic ancestors appear to have been marine, 
and approximate in structure to the Dinosaurs. 

In the genus Crocodilus the snout is short or moderately long, 
and is rounded or pointed; the teeth are large and stout, and 
the fourth lower tooth fits into a notch in the upper jaw, being 
exposed when the mouth is closed. Crocodiles occur in America 
from Florida to Guiana; in the old world they inhabit Africa, 
Madagascar, and Southern Asia, extending through the Archi- 
pelago to the Solomon Islands and northern Australia. Crocodiles 
are large and ferocious; they are exclusively carnivorous, and 
generally seize their victims (other than human beings) by the 
nose as they are drinking. A large number of people—especially 
women, as they go to the rivers for water—are annually killed 
in India by these Reptiles. Crocodiles bury their eggs, which 
have a hard white shell, in the sand. 

The Muggar or Marsh-Crocodile (C. palustris) of India has the 
snout very short and broad. Crocodilus niloticus is the common 
African species and the Indian C. porosus is notable for its size, 
attaining a length of 20 feet, and for its habits, as it frequents 
estuaries and may be met with out at sea. 

Alligators and Caimans differ from Crocodiles in that the 
fourth lower tooth is received into a pit in the upper jaw. Alli- 
gators inhabit swamps ; there are two species, Alligator mississip- 
piensis and A. sinensis, the former North American, the latter 
Chinese. The American Alligator constructs a large nest on the 
bank, scraping together twigs, leaves, and earth to form a mound 
about 3 feet high, in which about 30 eggs are laid in layers. 

The Caimans of Central and South America differ from the 
Alligators in having a shield of bony plates in the skin of the 
under-side of the body; a fine specimen of the Common Caiman 
(Caiman sclerops) is exhibited. 

The Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) of India, and the False 
Gharial (Tomistoma schlegelii) of Borneo, have the snout long 
and narrow, the two halves of the lower jaw united in a long 
symphysis, and the teeth slender and numerous; they feed 


chiefly on fish. 
Order 3. CHELONIA. 


(Cases 6 to 10.) 


The Tortoises, Turtles, and Terrapins constitute this order ; 
in them the jaws are toothless and covered with horny beaks, 
and the body is typically enclosed in a bony case, the upper halt 


ively als 


Stpg VIEW OF THE HEAD OF THE Timsa oR NILE CROCODILE 
(Crocodilus niloticus). 
x Fourth lower tooth. 


(Photographed from a specimen in the Museum. ) 


Fig. 13. 


or THE Hrap or THE N. AMERICAN ALLIGATOR 
(Alligator mississippiens?s). 
(Photographed from a specimen in the Museum. ) 


Sipe VIEW 


22 Guide to Reptiles and Batrachians. 


of which is called the carapace and the lower the plastron. The 
carapace is supported by the vertebrae and ribs, and in the few 
forms in which it has been lost its former presence is shown by 
the modification of these elements. 

The carapace consists of a number of bony plates arranged in 
five series: those of the median series are fused with the neural 
spines of the vertebrae below them ; on each side of them are 
the costal plates, either supported by the flattened ribs, or, if 
they ossify at a stage when the ribs are slender and cartilaginous, 


Fie. 14. 


Carapace of the Thurgi Batagur (Hardella thurgi). The wavy lines show 
the divisions (or sutures) between the bones; the firm lines indicate those 
between the overlying horny shields. c. 1-8, costal bones ; m. 1-11, marginal 
bones; n. 1-8, neural bones; nu. nuchal bone; py. pygal bone; spy. 1, 2. 
suprapygal bones. Note that the horny plates do not correspond with the 
bony ones. 


enclosing the latter ; outside the costals are the marginals. The 
bones of the plastron are paired. The horny shields which 
usually cover the carapace and plastron have a somewhat similar 
arrangement to the bony plates, but do not correspond with 
them in size or number. 

Chelonians date back to the Triassic and many have been 
found fossil in Secondary and early Tertiary strata; the living 


(-suowtroods Surat wWosz soundy Y}O¢ ) 


yoou oy} JO dINXoT] 
[eioze] Aq proy ot} SULpORIJOI JO Opow MOYS OF, 
*(wabiu snwanyjouiaj gs) TSIOLWOT, NVATACOWNAT V 


‘quY]d [VoTJIOA B UL YOou yy 
JO OAIND o¥f]-G Ue Aq UMBIPYPTA ST wo OY} MOTT MOIS OT, 
‘(snynjoow sndowo}]) ASIOLAOT, NVYTGOLAAY,) WV 


—— 


"G1 ‘OLA 


OL “OL 


24 Guide to Reptiles and Batrachians. 


species number about 300. They may be grouped into two 
main divisions: Pleurodira, in which the head is retracted by 
a lateral flexure of the neck ; and Cryptodira, in which the head 
is retracted by the curving of the neck in a vertical plane. 


Pleurodira. 


The Pleurodira withdraw the head by a lateral movement of 
the neck. They are fresh-water Tortoises, found in South 
America, Africa, and Australia. 

The Arrau Tortoise of the Amazons (Podocnemis expansa) is 
a source of profit to the natives. who collect the soft-shelled eggs, 
which are laid in the sand, and extract oil from them ; millions 


The Matamata ieee (Chel, ys cnr vata) ; reduced. 


of eggs are thus destroyed annually. The Matamata (Chelys 
fimbriata) of Brazil has the shields of the carapace raised into 
knobs ; it feeds on fishes and lies in the water waiting for its 
prey, which it is said to attract by the movements of the fringed 
appendages which are developed on the skin of the head and 
neck. 

The Pleurodira include the earliest known Tortoises, the 
Triassic Amphichelydidae, and also the large extinct Horned 
Tortoises of the family Miolaniidae, found in tertiary deposits of 
Australia and Patagonia. 


Cryptodira. 


This group includes the Chelonians, which bend their neck in 
a vertical plane. There are three main divisions: in the first, 
containing the typical Tortoises and Turtles, the carapace is 
well developed and is bordered by a complete series of marginal 
bones connected with the ribs. This division includes the 
families Chelydridae, Cinosternidae, Testudinidae, &c., in all of 
which the digits are short, as well as the Chelonidae or true 
Turtles, in which the anterior limbs are developed into long 
paddles. 

The Chelydridae include the Snapping Turtle or Snapper 


Tortoises and Turtles. 25 


(Chelydra serpentina) and the Alligator Turtle (Macroclemmys 
temminckit) of North America. These live mostly in the water, 
keeping to the bottom, but rising occasionally to breathe ; they 
feed on fish and waterfowl and are both fierce and greedy. 

The Cinosternidae, or Mud Terrapins, comprise about ten 
species of Cinosternum from American rivers. 

The Burmese Casked Terrapin (Platysternwm megacephalum) is 


“MEDurhaw ; SS aoe 


Temminck’s Snapper, or Alligator Turtle (Wacroclemmys temmincki) ; 
i nat. size. 


[By permission of Messrs. Macmillan & Co., Ltd. 


the only species of the family Platysternidae ; it is aquatic and 
has a flattened carapace, a very large head, powerful jaws, and 
a long tail. 

The large family T'estudinidae includes a variety of forms, from 
the terrestrial herbivorous Tortoises to the aquatic carnivorous 
Batagurs. The typical Land Tortoises (T'estudo) are found in 
all warm countries except Australasia and some of the Malay 
Islands. The carapace is usually dome-shaped and is firmly 
united to the plastron, the feet are not webbed, and the tail is 
short. The majority of the existing species of T’estudo are small 


26 Guide to Reptiles and Batrachians. 


or of moderate size, like 7’. graeca of southern Europe, which is 
often kept in gardens. Giant Tortoises formerly inhabited most 
of the continents, but in recent times they have been found only 
on the Galapagos Islands and on certain islands in the Indian 
Ocean, namely the Mascarene Islands, the Aldabra group, the 
Amirantes and the Seychelles. The Galapagos Tortoises still 
survive in diminished numbers, but elsewhere they have been 
exterminated by man, South Aldabra alone possessing a small 
remnant of its original stock. There are several species in the 
Galapagos ; they are vegetable feeders, living on cactuses, leaves 
and berries ; the eggs are round and about two inches in diameter. 


Fia. 19. 


The Abingdon Island Saddle-backed Tortoise (Testudo abingdoni), remarkable 
for the thinness of its shell, from the Galapagos group. 


(From a specimen in the Museum.) 


These Giant Tortoises live to a great age; a specimen of 
Testudo sumeirei, brought from the Seychelles to Mauritius in 
1766, was still living in 1902. In several of the species the 
carapace is thin and it may be incomplete, as in 7’. ephippium 
and 7’. abingdoni of the Galapagos. The largest specimen 
exhibited belongs to the North Aldabra species 7’. gigantea. 

The reduction of the shell in these large island tortoises was 
no doubt related to the absence of carnivorous animals, and it is 
of interest to note a still greater reduction in a continental form, 
the recently described 7’. loveridgii from East Africa. This is a 
small species, flat in form, with the carapace represented by a 
mere network of thin bone. It hides in crevices and under rocks, 
its flat flexible carapace enabling it to make its way into such 
places and to take advantage of the protection they afford. 

The Box-Tortoises (Cistudo) of North America take their 
name from the fact that the plastron, which is attached to the 
carapace by ligament, is divided by a transverse hinge, so that 


Tortoises and Turtles. 27 


it can be closed against the carapace after the head, tail, and 
limbs have been drawn in. 

The Terrapins (Chrysemys) are aquatic American Tortoises 
with a flat carapace and webbed feet ; the Painted Terrapin 
(C. picta) takes its name from the yellow and red markings on 
a dark ground colour. Malacoclemmys terrapin is the well-known 
salt-water Edible Terrapin of the United States, where it is 
extensively ‘farmed’, being fed on shrimps and crabs. The 


Fic. 20. 


BuryeWoprufc 


The Painted Terrapin (Chryseays picta) ; 4 nat. size. 
By permission of Messrs. M acmillan & Co., Ltd. 


Pond-Tortoises (Emys) include one European and one North 
American species ; they feed on fishes, worms, &c., and bury 
themselves in the mud during the winter. Kachuga, Batagur, &c., 
are aquatic tortoises from India and S.E. Asia. The carapace 
and plastron are connected by strong bony buttresses, which 
project inwards as vertical partitions; an example of Batagur 
picta exhibited has been prepared to show this structure. 

The Chelonidae are the true Turtles, with paddle-shaped limbs. 
They are marine, but the females come ashore on sandy coasts to 
lay their eggs. The edible Green Turtle (Chelone mydas) attains 
a length of 4 feet ; it is found in all warm seas and feeds on sea- 


SKELETON OF LutTH oR LEATHERY TURTLE (Dermochelys coriacea). | 
To show complete separation of ‘ shell’ from the vertebrae and ribs. 


SKELETON OF GREEN TuRTLE (Chelone mydas) 
To show union of carapace with vertebrae and ribs. 


(From specimens in the Museum.) 


Tortoises and Turtles. 29 


weeds. The Hawksbill Turtle (C. imbricata) is so called from its 
hooked beak ; it is carnivorous ; its horny shields are the chief 
source of commercial ‘ tortoise-shell ’. The Loggerhead (Thalas- 
sochelys caretta) is a large carnivorous species of no commercial 
importance. 

We now pass to the second division of the Cryptodira, which 
has only one living representative, the Luth or Leathery Turtle 


Fic. 23. 


} 


NN 
nd AN 


by; AACR }sJoe 


Young Hawksbill Turtles (Chelone imbricata) ; 4 nat. size. 
[By permission of Messrs. Macmilian & Co., Ltd. 


(Dermochelys coriacea), which has neither bony carapace nor 
horny shields, but a thick leathery skin containing a mosaic of 
small polygonal bony plates; the limbs are paddle-shaped. 
The Leathery Turtle is marine and carnivorous, inhabiting all 
tropical seas, and laying its eggs on sandy shores. It is the 
largest existing Chelonian, reaching a length of nearly seven feet. 
The following explanation has been given of the remarkable 
structure of Dermochelys. The original Chelonians were terres- 
trial and acquired a hard bony carapace as a protection against 
attacks ; in some that took to the sea and became pelagic, the 
carapace, which was no longer useful, became vestigial (Archelon 


30 Guide to Reptiles and Batrachians. 


Protostega, &c., of the Upper Cretaceous) ; these resorted to the 
coasts to lay their eggs and gave rise to a shore-living form, 
which developed a new protective armour of strong polygonal 
sculptured bony plates (Cosmochelys of the Lower or Middle 
Eocene); from such a shore-living form arose Dermochelys, again 
pelagic, with the bony armour reduced to small thin smooth 
plates embedded in the skin. It is of great interest to note that 
this evolutionary sketch was written before the discovery of 
Cosmochelys, the most important link in the chain. 


Fig. 24. 


sh 7 \ Not a 
Burtekworrs Je MED ythem 
Luth or Leathery Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) ; young specimens ; lower 
and upper view. 
[By permission of Messrs. Macmillan & Co., Lid. 


The third division of the Cryptodira includes the Soft-shelled 
Tortoises (T'’rionychidae), characterized by the flat, rounded or 
oval carapace which does not cover the back completely, the ribs 
extending outwards beyond the costal plates and the marginals 
being absent ; there are no horny shields and the bones of the 
carapace are sculptured externally ; the toes are webbed. The 
Trionychidae are carnivorous and aquatic, inhabiting North 
America, Africa, and Asia. It has been observed that in the same 
species of T'rionyx there may be individuals with the horny 
sheaths of the jaws narrow and sharp-edged, and others in which 
they are broad and flat, the difference being presumably related 


Tortoises and Turtles 31 


to feeding habits, those with sharp jaws catching fish and the 
others crushing shells. Many species of this family have curious 


eye-like spots on the back; the larger kinds may be highly 
dangerous to bathers. 


Fic. 25. 


Burrewoprn ifs Yale 
ae MD urham 
Young American Soft Tortoises (Z'rionyx ferox). 

[By permission of Messrs. Macmillan d&: Co., Ltd. 


Order 4. SQUAMATA. 


This order contains the Lizards and Snakes, which are charac- 
terized by having the quadrate bone movably attached to the 
skull and by the presence of not more than one horizontal bony 
arch on each side of the temporal region of the skull. The teeth 
are welded to the jaws. The majority of living Reptiles belong 
to this order, more than 6,000 species having been described, 
nearly equally divided between the Lizards and Snakes. There 
are two sub-orders, Lacertilia and Ophidia. 


32 Guide to Reptiles and Batrachians. 


Sub-order 1. Lacertilia. 


(Cases 18 to 20.) 


In the Lacertilia, or Lizards, the two halves of the lower jaw 
are firmly united by suture. There are two main divisions, the 
first, the Lacertilia Vera, including the true Lizards, which have 
a flat tongue, and the second, Rhiptoglossa, comprising the 
Chamaeleons, in which the very long and extremely protractile 
tongue is cylindrical, club-shaped at the end. 


Division 1. Lacertilia Vera. 


The true Lizards are grouped into about 20 families, one of the 
characters of most importance in classification being the structure 
of the tongue, which may be short or long, entire or bifid at one 
or both ends, and either smooth, villose (covered with conical 
papillae) or scaly (covered with flat overlapping papillae, which 
may unite to form oblique folds). The presence or absence of 
‘ osteoderms ’, little bony plates beneath the scales of the body, 
is also of use in classification. In the more typical Lizards each 
orbit is surrounded by bone, and from it a bony bar or ‘ temporal 
arch’ runs backwards ; but the orbit may be open behind and 
the temporal arch may be absent, these conditions being used 
in defining the families. 

Most Lizards are terrestrial or arboreal and have well-developed 
five-toed limbs, but some are snakelike in form and are limbless, 
and there are some degraded burrowing forms which are also 
nearly or quite scaleless and look like worms. Some Lizards are 
herbivorous, but the majority are carnivorous, the smaller kinds 
feeding on insects, worms, &c., and the larger on other animals. 
As a rule Lizards lay eggs, but a considerable number are 
viviparous. 

The Geckonidae, or Geckos, take their name from the fact that 
many species utter sounds such as yecko, chucko, &c. They are 
Lizards with a smooth or villose tongue, which is slightly notched 
in front, with the orbits open behind, without temporal arches, 
and with biconcave vertebrae. This is a large and widely 
distributed family, Geckos occurring in all tropical and sub- 
tropical countries, even on oceanic islands. Some species live 
in deserts, sometimes burrowing in the sand ; others are arboreal, 
and others live on rocks; some kinds have acquired the habit 
of living inside or outside houses, and it has been observed that 
in a house one species may inhabit the cellars, another the roof, 
and a third crevices in the walls. The arboreal and rock-climbing 
species have the toes expanded and provided on the under side 
with transverse lamellae, forming adhesive pads, which are so 
effective that Geckos in houses may be seen walking upside down 


lizards and Snakes. 33 


on the ceiling. In most Geckos the tail is very brittle, and when 
it is broken off a new one is quickly reproduced. The majority 
of the species are nocturnal, concealing themselves in the day- 
time under stones or under the bark of trees, and at night coming 
out of their hiding-places in quest of insects. 

Of the species exhibited T'arentola mauritanica is the Common 
Gecko of Southern Europe, Uroplates fimbriatus of Madagascar 


y y KH a“ 
| Mii, Heche 


spirit Specimen 


A, Turkish Gecko (Hemidactylus turcicus), and B, Common Gecko (T'arentola 
mauritanica). 


[By permission of Messrs. Macmillan & Co., Ltd. 


is remarkable for its resemblance to the bark of the trees on 
which it is found, and Ptychozoon homocephalum of the Malay 
countries has the body bordered by expansions of the skin, which 
act as parachutes. 

The Hublepharidae is a small family which is distinguished 
from the Geckonidae only by having the vertebrae procoelous 
(concave in front and convex behind), as in all other Lizards 
except the Geckos. 

The Pygopodidae of Australia appear to be related to the 
Geckos, but are snake-like in form, without fore-limbs and with 


C 


MataGasy BarKk-Geckos (Uroplates fimbriatus). 
(From specimens in the Museum.) 


Lizards and Snakes. 35 


the hind-limbs visible externally as a pair of scaly flaps. Ex- 
amples of Pygopus and Lialis are exhibited. 

The Zonuridae of Africa and Madagascar have the tongue 
short, villose, scarcely protractile, entire or feebly notched ; the 
orbit is surrounded by bone and the temporal arch is present, the 
space between it and the skull being roofed over by dermal bone ; 
osteoderms are present in Zonwrus, the principal genus, in which 
the tail is covered with rings of scales ending in sharp spikes. 


Teuana (Jguana tuberculata). 


Fie. 29. 


Spiny Iguana, or Californian Toad (Phrynosoma cornutum). 


The Iguanidae differ from the Zonuridae in that the space 
between the temporal arch and the skull has no bony roof ; 
osteoderms are absent. This is a large and varied family, mainly 
American, but with representatives in Madagascar and Fiji. 
Iguana tuberculata of tropical America is a large herbivorous 
arboreal lizard, with a crest of spines along the back ; it grows 
to a length of six feet ; it is edible-and is highly esteemed as food. 
Basiliscus is noteworthy for the high fin-like crest on the back 
of the male, and Polychrus for its chamaeleon-like power of 
changing its colour. Phrynosoma cornutum of California, which 
lives in dry and sandy places, has the body covered with spines. 
Amblyrhynchus cristatus of the Galapagos spends much of its 


C2 


36 Guide to Reptiles and Batrachians. 


time in the sea and feeds on sea-weed. More than a hundred 
species of Anolis have been described ; these are arboreal and 
insectivorous lizards, with adhesive pads on the digits. 

The Agamidae of Africa, Southern Asia, and Australia are the 
old-world representatives of the Iguanidae, from which they differ 
in the ‘ acrodont’ dentition, i.e. the teeth are attached to the 
summits of the jaws, whereas in the Jguanidae and most other 
Lizards the dentition is pleurodont, i. e. the teeth are attached 
on the inner side of the jaws. In the Agamidae the teeth may 
usually be divided into three kinds, incisors, canines, and molars. 


Right half of the Lower Jaw of a Stellion Lizard (a), to exhibit the acrodont 
dentition, and of an Iguana (b), to show the pleurodont type of dentition. 


Uromastix is found in the desert regions of Africa and Asia ; 
the short tail is covered with large spiny scales and the strong 
curved claws are used for digging burrows in the sand; it 
feeds on fruits and herbs. Moloch, of the Australian deserts, 
is an extraordinary type, with spines on the head, body and 
tail. Another interesting Australian form is the Frilled Lizard, 
Chlamydosaurus kingi, which, if chased, runs away on its hind- 
legs, with the frill round its throat folded up, but when it is likely 
to be overtaken will stand and try to frighten away its enemy by 
spreading the frill and opening the mouth, which is red inside. 
In the Flying Dragons (Draco) of India and Malaysia the long 
ribs extend outwards beyond the body to support the mem- 
branous ‘ wings’, by means of which they sail from tree to tree. 

In all the Lizards so far considered the smooth or villose 
tongue is entire or slightly notched in front; the next two 
families are characterized by a tongue which is mainly villose, 
but has a smooth anterior bifid protractile portion. The Helo- 
dermatidae include the genus Heloderma, the only poisonous 
Lizard known ; its fang-like teeth are grooved for the passage of 
the poison, which is secreted by glands inside the mouth. The 


Tsudei, GL: 


4 nat. size. 


. 
>’ 


Spiny-tailed Lizards (Uromastix acanthurus) 


[By permission of Messrs. Macmillan & Co., Ltd. 


32. 


Fic. 


with the frill expanded in 


~o 
as 

SB 
“Sp 
ed 

[os] 
3° 

& 
S's 

SH 

= 8 

Sis 
La 
ae) 
Oa 
Saray 
ine} 

~ 

os] 

N 
‘= 
eI 
os 

o 
= 
— 

i 
i 

ro] 

ta] 
idan 


Austral 


Fic. 33. 


Australian Moloch Lizard (Moloch horridus). 


Fie. 34. 


A Flying Lizard, or ‘ Flying Dragon’ (Draco taeniopterus). 


Lizards and Snakes. 39 


Gila Monster (H. suspectum) of Arizona and New Mexico is 
a stout, thick-tailed lizard, with the skin spotted or banded with 
orange or yellow on a dark ground, a common type of ‘ warning ’ 
coloration. The rare Lanthanotus of Borneo is allied to Helo- 
derma, but its teeth are not grooved. 

The Anniellidae of California contain but a single genus, 
Anniella, snake-shaped limbless lizards. 

The Anguidae are characterized by the structure of the tongue, 
which is divided into a thick villose posterior portion and a thin 


Fie. 35. 


MAuriaam 


The Gila Monster (Heloderma suspectum) ; 4 nat. size. 
[By permission of Messrs. Macmillan & Co., Ltd. 


scaly forked anterior portion which can be extended and retracted. 
Osteoderms are present on the body, and the space between the 
temporal arch and the skull is roofed over by dermal bone. These 
are terrestrial and carnivorous lizards, mostly American, but 
with representatives in Europe and Asia; their long tail is 
brittle and readily replaced. The genera show a transition from 
Diploglossus, with the limbs well-developed and pentedactyle to 
Anguis, which has no trace of limbs; the Slow-worm (Anguis 
fragilis) is a British species. 

The Xenosauridae, with a single species from Mexico, differ 
from the Anguidae in having no osteoderms on the body or head. 


40 Guide to Reptiles and Batrachians. 


The Varanidae or ‘Monitors’ are characterized by the long, 
smooth protractile tongue, which is forked at the end; all the 
species are included in the genus Varanus, which occurs 
in Africa, Southern Asia, and Australia; some of them reach 
a length of seven feet, but still larger kinds are found fossil. 
The Monitors are mainly terrestrial, but most of them are quite 
at home in the water, which perhaps accounts for their wide dis- 
tribution ; all are carnivorous and many are fond of birds’ eggs. 

We now pass from the Lizards with the tongue wholly or 
mainly smooth or villose to those in which it is covered with 
scale-like papillae. Of these the most generalized family is the 
Scincidae, in which the tongue is feebly notched in front, the 


Fic. 36. 


The Slow-Worm (Anguis fragilis) ; 4 nat. size. 
[By permission of Messrs. Macmillan & Co., Ltd. 


body is protected by bony plates underlying the scales, and the 
space between the temporal arch and the skull is roofed over by 
dermal bones. The Skinks are cosmopolitan, being especially 
abundant in Africa, Malaysia, and Australia; like the Geckos 
they are found in all the islands of the Pacific Ocean. They are 
carnivorous and terrestrial, showing a preference for dry and 
sandy regions; the species of several genera may be arranged 
in series showing the gradual reduction and ultimate loss of the 
limbs connected with their burrowing habits ; this is illustrated 
by a series of specimens of Chalcides. Trachysaurus rugosus of 
Australia is remarkable for its large rough scales and short 
tail. Scincus officinalis is the common Skink of the deserts from 
the Sahara to Sindh. Lygosoma is widely distributed and has 
nearly 200 species. The Anelytropidae of Africa and Mexico are 


Lizards and Snakes. 4] 


worm-like limbless burrowing forms closely related to the 


Scincidae, differing in having the 
orbits open behind and in having 
no temporal arches. 

The small American family Xan- 
tusiidae differs from the Scincidae 
in having no osteoderms. 

The Gerrhosauridae of Africa and 
Madagascar differ from the Scin- 
cidae in the structure of the tongue, 
which is bifid behind. The Diba- 
midae include Dibamus  novae- 
guineae, which has a tongue like 
that of the Gerrhosauridae, but is 
a limbless vermiform burrowing 
type. 

The Lacertidae are found in 
Europe, Asia, and Africa; the 
long scaly tongue is bifid both in 
front and behind, the temporal 
region of the skull has a bony roof, 
but there are no osteoderms on the 
body. These Lizards are terrestrial 
and insectivorous. Lacerta includes 
the Common Lizard (L. vivipara), 


Hind-legs of Skinks, to show 
the gradual abortion. 

a, Chalcides ocellatus. 

b, Chalcides mionecton. 

ce, Chalcides tridactylus. 

d, Lygosoma lineo-punctulatum. 

e. Chalcides guentheri. 


in which the young burst the eggs just before or just after they 
are laid, the Sand Lizard (L. agilis), the Green Lizard (L. viridis), 
the Wall Lizard (L. muralis), and the Eyed Lizard (L. ocellata) ; 
these are European species, the first two of which occur in 


England. 


Fic. 38. 


es 


- Ainkfee= 


Stump-tailed Skink (Trachysaurus rugosus) ; 4 nat. size. 
[By permission of Messrs. Macmillan & Co., Ltd. 


42 Guide to Reptiles and Batrachians. 


The Zetidae are American Lizards with a scaly tongue, which 
ends in front in two long smooth points. There are no bony 
plates in the skin; the orbit is complete, the temporal arch is 
present, and the space between it and the skull is not roofed by 
bone. This family includes arboreal, terrestrial, and burrowing 
forms, the last being worm-like and limbless. The Great Teju 
(Tupinambis teguixin) of South America reaches a length of 
three feet ; it is strong and active, living on all kinds of animals. 
Dracaena has the lateral teeth very broad and rounded. 

The Amphisbaenidae of America and Africa differ from the 
Tevidae in having the orbits open behind and the temporal arches 


Fig. 39. 


The Eyed Lizard (Lacerta ocellata) ; 4 nat. size. 
[By permission of Messrs. Macmillan d&: Co., Ltd. 


absent. They are worm-like and for the most part limbless ; the 
body is covered with soft skin, which forms numerous rings ; the 
scales are mere vestiges. These’ burrowing lizards bore narrow 
galleries in the earth and are distinguished from all other limbless 
Reptiles by their method of progression, moving either forwards 
or backwards in a straight line, by slight vertical undulations 


and not by lateral movements. They feed on worms and insects. 


Division 2. Rhiptoglossa. 

Chamaeleons are distinguished from the true Lizards by a 
number of peculiarities. The tongue is cylindrical, club-shaped 
at the end, and can be extended to a great length. The limbs 
are long and two of the toes are opposed to the other three, 
forming a grasping foot. The head is ornamented with crests 
or tubercles, the neck is short, the compressed body is covered 
with granules, and the tail is long and prehensile. The large eyes 
are covered with a thick granular lid pierced by a small central 
opening for the pupil. 


Lizards and Snakes. 43 


These arboreal Reptiles are unique in their slow and deliberate 
movements, the mobility and independent action of their eyes, 


Fia. 40. 


Head of the Common Chamaeleon (Chamacleon vulgaris), with the 
tongue partially protruded. 


BIG 


The Common Chamaeleon (Chamaeleon vulgaris) ; 5 nat. size. 
[By permission of Messrs. Macmillan & Co., Lid. 


and the rapid projection of the tongue to a length of several 
inches in order to catch the insects on which they feed. They are 


44 Guide to Reptiles and Batrachians. 


famed for their power of changing the hues of their skin, but this 
is shared with many other Lizards. 

Nearly all the species inhabit Africa or Madagascar; one is 
Indian, one Arabian, whilst the Common Chamaeleon (C. vulgaris) 
is found in Spain and in the countries south and east of the 
Mediterranean. 


Sub-order 2. Ophidia. 
(Cases 11-15.) 


Snakes differ from Lizards in having the two halves of the 
lower jaw united by ligament. The body is elongate and the 
limbs are vestigial or absent, but these are characters shared 
with many Lizards. 

The essential feature of a typical Snake is the apparatus for 
distending the mouth ; the lower jaw bones are long and are 
connected together in front by an elastic igament, whilst behind 
they are articulated with the long, movable quadrate bones, 
which are attached to the long and backwardly directed squa- 
mosals ; the long pterygoid bones are connected with the maxil- 
laries in front and are loosely attached to the quadrates behind ; 
the teeth are pointed and curved backwards. This apparatus 
enables a snake to swallow a prey several times its own diameter. 

The first family is that of the Boidae, in which the mouth has 
the structure just described, the praefrontal and nasal bones are 
in contact, and vestiges of the pelvis and hind-limbs are present, 
the latter appearing externally as a pair of claws. None of the 
members of this family is poisonous; the larger kinds inhabit 
forests and feed by choice on warm-blooded animals, which they 
crush in their coils before swallowing them. The Pythons are 
found in Africa, Southern Asia, and Australia. Python reticulatus 
is the common Malay species; it attains a length of 30 feet. 
The Australian Carpet-Snake (P. spilotes) has beautiful markings. 
Boa constrictor is a well-known South American Snake. The 
huge Anaconda (Hunectes murinus) of tropical America is both 
arboreal and aquatic; it is said to grow to a length of more 
than 30 feet. 

The next five families include snakes of burrowing habits, 
which agree with the Boidae in having the praefrontal and nasal 
bones in contact, but differ in the smaller size of the mouth, in 
relation to a diet of insects, worms, &c. 

In the Xenopeltidae (Xenopeltis unicolor of India and Malaysia) 
the squamosal is short and does not carry back the quadrate 
behind the skull. In the Ilysiidae the squamosal is very small, 
but in other characters of the skeleton they agree with the 
Boidae, even to having vestiges of the pelvis and hind-limbs, the 
latter appearing externally as a pair of claws. The head is small 


Lizards and Snakes. 45 


and the tail is very short and blunt. The Coral-Snake (Ilysia 
scytale) of South America is red with black rings ; the few other 
members of the family inhabit Ceylon and Malaysia ; Cylindrophis 
rufus is exhibited. 


Fic. 42. 
ip pe ig nee SO e@ 


Skull of the Grass Snake (T'ropidonotus natriz). 
From the left side (A), above (B), and below (C). 


an. Angular. f. Frontal. pro. Prootic. 

ar. Articular. m. Maxillary. pg. Pterygoid. 

bo. Basioccipital. n. Nasal. ptf. Postfrontal, 
bs. Basisphenoid. p. Parietal. q. Quadrate. 

ca. Columella auris. pl. Palatine. so. Supraoccipital. 
d, Dentary. pm, Praemaxillary. ste. Squamosal, 
eo. Exoccipital. prf. Praefrontal. v. Vomer, 


epg. Ectopterygoid. 


The Uropeltidae are small burrowing snakes of India and 
Ceylon; they differ from the Ilysiidae in having the small 
quadrates directly attached to the skull, the squamosals having 


Fie. 43. 


A —ParT OF THE FLATTENED SKIN OF AN Araican PytHon (Python sebae). 
Showing Claws representing Hind-Limbs, together with their supporting bones. 


“FEMUR 


‘ 


CLAW-BONE 


’ 


ISCHIO“PUBIC RUDIMENT 


B.—CompPLetr Bones oF THE HinpER Lime-GIRDLE OF ANOTHER 
SPECIMEN. 


VeESTIGIAL Limes oF PytTHoNs, 


Tortoises and Turtles. 47 


been lost ; the pterygoids do not reach the quadrates and there 
are no traces of pelvis or hind limbs: the tail ends in a shield. 
The Glauconiidae and Typhlopidae form a group apart, retain- 
ing vestiges of the pelvis, but in other respects showing the most 
complete adaptation to a burrowing life ; the quadrate bones are 
rather long and slender and are directed obliquely forwards ; 
behind they are attached to the skull directly, there being no 
squamosals. The body is covered with uniform cycloid scales, 
the snout projects beyond the small mouth and the minute eyes 
lie under the shields of the head. In the Typhlopidae the lower 


Fic. 44. 


Australian Carpet-Snake (Python spilotes), 
[By permission of Messrs. Macmillan & Co., Ltd. 


jaw is toothless, and the teeth in the upper jaw form a transverse 
series ; in the Glauconiidae teeth are present in the lower jaw 
only. Typhlops is a large genus, found in all warm countries ; 
Glauconia inhabits America, Africa, and 8.W. Asia. 

The large family Colubridae includes the great majority of 
living Snakes, in fact all the normal or typical Snakes which are 
neither Boidae nor Viperidae. The mouth has the structure 
described above as typical, i.e. the pterygoids reach the quadrates, 
which are attached to the long backwardly directed squamosals ; 
the features which distinguish this family from the Boidae are 
that the praefrontals are not in contact with the nasals and there 
are no traces of pelvis or hind-limbs. 

The Colubridae have been divided into eight sub-families, not 
all of which are natural; these have been grouped into three 
series, Aglypha, with the teeth solid or ungrooved, Opisthoglypha, 
with the hinder upper teeth grooved, and Proteroglypha, with the 
front upper teeth grooved or perforated. The Aglypha are 


48 Guide to Reptiles and Batrachians. 


mostly harmless, the Opisthoglypha venomous but not dangerous, 
the Proteroglypha deadly. 

The principal sub-family of the Aglypha is the Colubrinae, 
which includes the Grass Snake (T'ropidonotus natrix) and the 
Smooth Snake (Coronella austriaca), both found in Britain ; these 
harmless snakes are distinguished externally from the venomous 
Adder (Vipera berus) by the large shields on the head (fig. 45). 


Fig. 45. Fic. 46. 


jou 


WAN ) \ | 4 Wi) 
DAT ALTO Tid DP 
van nud 
ol tovuds 
Heads of the Smooth Snake (Coronella austriaca), A, Head of the Viper 
and the Grass Snake (T'ropidonotus natrix), B. (Vipera berus). 


Heads of the three British Snakes. 


The Black Snake (Zamenis constrictor) of North America is 
slender in form and is very active on land as well as in climbing 
trees ; it feeds on mice, frogs, birds, &c. Coluber quadrilineatus 
is a handsome European species. Dendrophis and Lnophis are 
Tree-snakes. 

Dasypeltis of Africa and Elachistodon of India are interesting ; 
they have no teeth in the front of the jaws, but their most 
remarkable peculiarity is that the lower spines of the neck 
vertebrae pierce the gullet, forming a series of tooth-like knobs, 
which are used for crushing the eggs on which they feed. 

The sub-family Hlapinae includes terrestrial snakes with a cylin- 
drical tail ; the front upper teeth are grooved or perforated for 
the passage of the poisonous secretion ; all the venomous snakes 
of Australia belong to this group. The Cobras (Naia) of Africa 
and Southern Asia are characterized by the power of expanding 
the neck to form a hood by an outward and forward movement 
of the ribs (fig. 48). These snakes are very deadly, as are the 
Kraits (Bungarus) of India, which have no hood. Flaps is an 


lizards and Snakes. 49 


American genus with several species, most of which are banded 
with red and black. 

The Hydrophinae are Sea-snakes; they differ from the 
Elapines in having the tail compressed for the purpose of swim- 
ming. They inhabit the Indian and Pacific Oceans, and as a rule 
are not found far from land ; they feed on fish and are viviparous. 
Indian fishermen are sometimes bitten by these snakes, and the 
bite may prove fatal. 


Fie. 47. 


MEDueher 2 ; S oe berth 
African Egg-eating Snake (Dasypeltis scabra) ; 4 nat. size. 
[By permission of Messrs. Macmiilan & Co., Lid. 


The Amblycephalidae of South America and Malaysia stand 
in much the same relation to the Colubrines that the Ilysiidae do 
to the Bordae. 

The Viperidae (Vipers, Rattlesnakes, &c.) differ from the 
Colubridae in having the maxillaries short, each bearing only 
a single poison-fang, which is perforated for the passage of the 
poisonous secretion. The true Vipers have solid maxillaries and 
no pit between the eye and the nose ; they are found in Europe, 
Asia, and Africa. Vipera berus is the Common Viper, or Adder, of 
Europe ; its bite is generally not fatal to man. Bitis arietans is 
the Puff Adder of Africa, which reaches a length of 4 or 5 feet ; 
when disturbed it raises the head, inflates the body, and hisses 
loudly. The Horned Puff Adder (B. nasicornis) has two or three 
horn-like projections on the snout, whilst the Horned Viper 


D 


The Puft-Adder (Bitis arietans) ; 4 nat. size. 
[By permission of Messrs. Macmillan & Co., Ltd. 


Lizards and Snakes. 51 


(Cerastes cornutus) has one above each eye. The last-named 
species inhabits the desert and has a dull uniform coloration, 
whereas most Vipers possess handsome markings. 

The Pit-Vipers of America and Asia have a sensory pit on each 
side between the eye and the nose, lodged in the hollowed out 
maxillary bones. This group includes the American Rattle- 
snakes (Crotalus), which have at the end of the tail a rattle made 
up of a number of bells which fit into one another ; these ‘ bells ’ 
are really the successive horny sheaths of the tip of the tail, 
a new one being added at each moult, when the rest of the skin is 
cast off. Other American species are the Water Viper (Ancis- 
trodon piscivorus), which feeds chiefly on fishes, and the deadly 
Fer-de-lance (Lachesis lanceolatus). Lachesis is also represented 
in Asia, a well-known species being the Indian Green Viper 
(L. gramineus), which lives in trees. 


53 


INDEX 


Adder, 48, 49 Carpet-Snake, 44 
Adder, Puff, 49, 50 Casked Terrapin, 25 
Aelurognathus, 17 Ceratobatrachus, 16 
Agamidae, 36 Ceratophrys, 14 
Aglossa, 14 Chalcides, 40, 41 
Aglypha, 47, 48 Chamaeleon, 42 
Alligator Turtle, 25 Chelone, 27 
Alligators, 20 Chelonia, 20 
Alytes, 14 Chelonidae, 27 
Amblycephalidae, 49 Chelydra, 25 
Amblyrhynchus, 35 Chelys, 24: 
Amblystoma, 9 Chlamydosaurus, 36, 37 
Amphibia, 7 Chrysemys, 27 
Amphichelydidae, 24 Cinosternum, 25 
Amphisbaenidae, 42 Cistudo, 26 
Amphiuma, 11 Clawed Toad, 14 
Amphiumidae, 11 Cobra, 48, 50 
Anaconda, 44 Coecilia, 12 
Ancistrodon, 51 Coecilians, 12 
Anelytropidae, 41 Coluber, 48 
Anguidae, 39 Colubridae, 47 
Anguis, 39, 40 Colubrinae, 48 
Anniella, 39 Common Frog, 16 
Anolis, 36 , Lizard, 41 
Anomodontia, 17 5  Avepyel, id! 
Anura, 12 Coral-Snake, 45 
Apoda, 12 Ooronella, 48 
Archelon, 30 Cosmochelys, 30 
Arcifera, 14 Cotylosauria, 17 
Arrau Tortoise, 24 Crocodile, 20 
Axolotl, 9 Be Marsh, 20 
Crocodilia, 19 

Basiliscus, 35 Crocodilus, 20 
Batagur, 27 Crotalus, 51 
Batrachians, 7 Cryptobranchus, 11 

* Limbless, 11 Cryptodira, 24 

As Tailed, 8 Cylindrophis, 45 

3 Tailless, 12 Cystignathidae, 14 
Bitis, 49 
Black Snake, 48 
Boa, 44 Dasypeltis, 48 
Boidae, 44 | Dendrobatidae, 16 
Bombinator, 14 Dendrophis, 48 
Box-Tortoise, 26 Dermochelys, 28, 29, 30 
Bufo, 14 Desmognathus, 10 
Bufonidae, 14 Dibamidae, 41 
Bull-Frog, 16 Dibamus, 41 
Bungarus, 48 Dinosauria, 17 

Diplodocus, 17 

Caiman, 20 Diploglossus, 39 


Californian Toad, 35 Discoglossidae, 14 


54 


Dracaena, 42 
Draco, 36, 38 
Dragon, Flying, 36, 38 


Edible Frog, 16 

» Lerrapin, 27 
Egg-eating Snake, 48, 49 
Elachistodon, 48 
Elapinae, 48 
Elaps, 48 
Emmys, 27 
Engystomatidae, 16 
EKublepharidae, 33 
Hunectes, 44 
Eyed Lizard, 41, 42 


False Gharial, 20 
Fer-de-lance, 51 
Fire-bellied Toad, 14 
Firmisternia, 16 
Flying Dragon, 36, 38 
» Lizard, 36, 38 

Frilled Lizard, 36, 37 
Frog, Bull, 16 

,, Common, 16 

,, Edible, 16 

»» Horned, 16 

», Pouched, 15, 16 
Frogs, 12 


Gavialis, 20 
Geckonidae, 32 
Geckos, 32 
Gerrhosauridae, 41 
Gharial, 20 
35 False, 20 

Giant Salamander, 11 

, Tortoises, 26 
Gila Monster, 39 
Glauconia, 47 
Glauconiidae, 47 
Grass Snake, 48 
Great Teju, 42 
Green Lizard, 41 

so urtless2 7028 

Pa Vilpers oll 


Hawksbill Turtle, 29 
Hellbender, 11 
Heloderma, 36, 39 
Hemidactylus, 33 
Horned Frog, 16 
» Puff Adder, 49 
» . Toad, 14, 15 
» Viper, 49 
Hyla, 14. 
Hylidae, 14 
Hymenochirus, 14. 


Index 


Ichthyophis, 12 
Ichthyosauria, 19 
Iguana, 35 

» Spiny, 35 
Iguanidae, 35 
Iguanodon, 17 
Llysia, 45 
Ilysiidae, 44 


Kachuga, 27 
Krait, 48 


Lacerta, 41 
Lacertidae, 41 
Lacertilia, 32 
Lacertilia Vera, 32 
Lachesis, 51 
Lanthanotus, 39 
Leathery Turtle, 28, 29, 30 
Leptodactylus, 14 
Tnalis, 35 
Limbless Batrachians, 11 
LIiodon, 19 
Liopelma, 14. 
Liophis, 48 
Lizard, Common, 41 

»  Hyed, 41, 42 

» Flying, 36, 38 

»  Frilled, 36, 37 

» Green, 41 
Sand, 41 
Spiny-tailed, 36, 37 
5, Wall, 41 
Lizards, 32 
Loggerhead Turtle, 29 
Luth, 28, 29, 30 
Lygosoma, 41 


Macroclemmys, 25 
Marsh-Crocodile, 20 
| Matamata, 24 
Megalobatrachus, 11 
_ Miolaniidae, 24 
Molge, 8 
| Moloch, 36, 38 
| Monitors, 40 
Monster, Gila, 39 
Mosasauria, 19 
Muggar, 20 


Nava, 48, 50 
Natterjack Toad, 14 
Necturus, 11 

Newts, 8 

Nototrema, 15. 16 


Olm, 11 
Ophidia, 44 
Opisthoglypha, 47 


Painted Terrapin, 27 
Pelobates, 13, 14 
Pelobatidae, 14 
Phrynosoma, 35 
Pipa, 13, 14 
Pit-Vipers, 51 
Platysternum, 25 
Plesiosauria, 19 
Plethodon, 10 
Pleurodira, 24 
Podocnemis, 24 
Polychrus, 35 
Pond-Tortoise, 27 
Pouched Frog, 15, 16 
Proteidae, 11 
Proteroglypha, 47 
Proteus, 11 
Protostega, 30 
Pseudis, 13 
Pteranodon, 19 
Pterodactyla, 19 
Ptychozoon, 33 
Puff Adder, 49, 50 

5a , Horned, 49 
Pygopodidae, 33 
Pygopus, 35 
Python, 44 


Rana, 16 

Ranidae, 16 
Rattlesnake, 51 
Reptiles, 17 
Rhacophorus, 16 
Rhamphorhynchus, 17 
Rhiptoglossa, 42 
Rhynchocephalia, 19 


Salamander. Giant, 11 
Salamanders, 9 
Salamandra, 9 
Salamandridae, 8 
Sand Lizard, 41 
Scincidae, 40 

Scincus, 40 
Sea-snakes, 49 
Siphonops, 12 
Sirenidae, 11 


Skink, Stump-tailed, 40, 41 


Skinks, 40 

Slow-worm, 39, 40 

Smooth Snake, 48 

Snake, Black, 48 
a5 Carpet, 44 
be Coral, 45 


»  Hgg-eating, 48, 49 


ne Grass, 48 
» smooth, 48 


Index 


{ 
| 
| 


Snakes, 44 

07 Sea, 49 
Snapper, 24 
Snapping Turtle, 24 


Soft-shelled Tortoises, 30 


Spade-footed Toad, 14 
Spelerpes, 10 
Sphenodon, 18, 19 
Spiny Iguana, 35 


Spiny-tailed Lizard, 36, 37 


Squamata, 37 
Stegocephala, 7 


Stump-tailed Skink, 40, 41 


Surinam Toad, 13, 14 


Tailed Batrachians, 8 
Tailless Batrachians, 12 
Tarentola, 33 
Teiidae, 42 
Teju, Great, 42 
Terrapin, Casked, 25 
or Edible, 27 
* Painted, 27 
Terrapins, 20, 27 
Testudinidae, 25 
Testudo, 25 
Thalassochelys, 29 
Toad, Californian, 35 
, Clawed, 14 
,, Common, 14 
Fire-bellied, 14 
,, Horned, 14, 15 
, Natterjack, 14 
» Spade-footed, 14 
» Surinam, 13, 14 
Toads, 12 
Tomistoma, 20 
Tortoise, Arrau, 24 
Box-, 26 
Pond-, 27 


99 

99 

99 
Tortoises. 20, 24 

33 Giant, 26 
Tortoise-shell, 29 
Trachysaurus, 40, 41 
Triceratops, 17 


_ Trionychidae, 30 


Trionyx, 30 

Triton, 8 
Tropidonotus, 48 
Tuatera, 18, 19 
Tupinambis, 42 
Turtle, Alligator, 25 
Green, 27, 28 
,, Hawksbill, 29 


»  Leathery, 28, 29, 30 


Loggerhead, 29 
>» Snapping, 24 


Soft-shelled, 30 


55 


56 


Turtles, 20, 27 
Typhlomolge, 11 
Typhlops, 47 
Typhlopidae, 47 


Uraeotyphlus, 12 
Urodela, 8 
Uromastia, 36, 37 
Uropeltidae, 45 
Uroplates, 33, 34 


Varanidae, 40 
Varanus, 40 
Viper, 48, 49 
» Green, 51 
,, Horned, 49 


Index 


Viper, Water, 51 
Viperidae, 49 
Vipers, Pit, 51 


Wall Lizard, 41 
Water Viper, 51 


Xantusiidae, 41 
Xenopeltidae, 44 
Xenopeltis, 44 
Xenopus, 14 
Xenosauridae, 39 


Zamenis, 48 
Zonuridae, 35 
Zonurus, 35 


« 


BRITISH MUSBUM (NATURAL HISTORY). 


DAYS AND HOURS OF ADMISSION. 


The Museum is open to the Public, free daily— | 


on Week-Days, throughout the year from 10 a.m., in 


January and February. : to 5 p.m. 
March to September (inclusive) VO iis 


October, November and December ,, 5 ,, 


on Sunpays, throughout the year from 2.30 to 6 p.m. 


On Sundays the back galleries in the east wing 


are closed, namely :—Fossil Fishes, Fossil Cepha-_ 
lopods, Fossil Shells, Starfishes &c., Fossil Corals, — 


Fossil Plants, and Special Fossil Collections. 


The Museum is closed on Giod ee and» 


Christmas Day. 
By ORDER OF THE 'I'RUSTEES, 


S. F. HARMER, 


Director. 


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