A guide to South America

A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

A GUIDE TO
SOUTH AMERICA

BY

W. A. HIRST

AUTHOR OF " ARGENTINA "

WITH TEN MAPS

NEW YORK

THE MAGMILLAN COMPANY
1915

PRESERVATION

COPY ADDED
ORIGINAL TO BE

RETAINED

2 1

PREFACE

WITH the exception of a small handbook pub-
lished in the United States, and a brief Guide
issued by the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company, this
work is the only book of the kind with which I am
acquainted. As far as possible, it is written from
personal knowledge, and I am much indebted to
information kindly furnished by various Consular
officials. Many of the books which I have consulted
are mentioned in the text. It is hoped that this
Guide may be useful at the present time, when the
question of food supplies is prominent and when
the successors of Cochrane have cleared the South
American coast from the marauder.

The book was ready for the press at the end of last
July, but its publication was delayed owing to the war
and again owing to my military duties.

W. A. HIRST

YORKSHIRE HUSSARS
H ARROGATE

February 23, 1915

3O8686

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTORY ....

PAGE

I

ARGENTINA ....

.27

BOLIVIA .....

. 79

BRAZIL .....

. 99

CHILE .....

- • • • 153

COLOMBIA ....

. 185

ECUADOR . * . . .

. . . 203

THE PANAMA CANAL

. . .221

PARAGUAY ....

. 239

PERU .....

. 257

URUGUAY .....

• 293

VENEZUELA ....

• 313

INDEX .....

• 333

LIST OF MAPS

ARGENTINE

BOLIVIA .

BRAZIL

CHILE

COLOMBIA.

ECUADOR .

PARAGUAY

PERU

URUGUAY .

VENEZUELA

PAGF-
26

78

152
I84

202
238
256
292
312

vii

A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

INTRODUCTORY

i. BRIEF SKETCH OF A TOUR

THE traveller can leave Liverpool by the Pacific
Steam Navigation Company or sail from South-
ampton by the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company,
and in either case Pernambuco and Bahia will probably
be the first South American ports at which the vessel
touches. These lines are now under one management.
Sometimes one or both of these ports is omitted.
Probably, in any case, a casual glance at either place
will satisfy most people, but some may wish to examine
the fine railway system of Pernambuco, or to explore
the interesting interior from Bahia, including the dia-
mond mines. Such excursions will add materially to
the length and cost of the tour. Rio de Janeiro, the
capital of Brazil, is the first important objective, and a
fortnight should be enough for that town and Sao
Paulo. The steamer could be rejoined at Santos, where
a long stay is not recommended. Most travellers will
desire to see one or two countries in particular and
spend as much time as possible in them at the expense of
the others, but for the impartial traveller the half-month
between the two steamers of his line will give sufficient

.2 , ;:A -GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

time for Brazil. From Rio or Santos it is a short
journey to Montevideo, and the ocean ship can then be
abandoned until Valparaiso is reached. Beyond the
fine ranches of Lemco (which can also be conveniently
visited from Buenos Aires), Uruguay does not demand
much attention. From Montevideo the Argentine
capital is reached either by boat or rail, and perhaps
there will be a temptation to devote the whole of the
remainder of the 180 days to the premier Republic of
South America, which, for the regular business man, as
distinguished from the pioneer, offers by far the greatest
attractions. Not that there is not in Argentina abundant
work for the pioneer, for both Patagonia and the Gran
Chaco are almost virgin fields, but the machinery for
development is there, while hardly a beginning has
been made in most of the equatorial regions. Most
people will decide to omit Paraguay altogether from
their itinerary. The journey thither used to be immensely
long and tedious, but railway communication is now
complete to Asuncion. The country is very backward
and seldom visited by Englishmen, but historically and
physically it is one of the most interesting places in
South America. Some sixty years ago an English
traveller x wrote : " That it has been shut up for some
mighty purpose is quite obvious. It has been the focus
to which the docile race of the Guarani Indians and
the organizing talent of the Jesuits were concentrated ;
it was besides a part of Southern America where the
civilization of the Spaniards was first planted, the spot
where the seed of the first crop, now effete, was sown.
... I am convinced that these people are to be a part
of the hands by which English heads are to do wonders
for civilizing the rich deserts of South America." A
murderous foreign war and revolutions have postponed
their destiny, and, such as it is, Germans have more
1 C. B. Mansfield. Paraguay, Brazil, and the Plate, pp. 352-3.

INTRODUCTORY 3

hand in its control than Englishmen. More probably
preference will be given to the Iguazu Falls, one of the
finest natural sights in South America, and the excur-
sion can now be made in a reasonable time.1 But
Argentina unquestionably demands more time than
any other country in South America. If the Republic
could acquire population, she would take a very high
rank among nations. Buenos Aires, of course, will be
the headquarters for a considerable time, and hence
Bahia Blanca, the Liverpool of South America, and
Mar del Plata, its Brighton, should be visited, while
northwards there are many claims on the attention.
As before said, Paraguay and the Iguazu Falls can
both be best reached from the capital, but it will be
difficult to spare the time. However, a trip to Rosario
can be done comfortably within three days, and it
would be advisable to prolong the journey at least to
Cordoba. Tucuman is also easily accessible by rail,
and there are many interesting places farther north,
including the Famatina mines. Further, if an intro-
duction can be obtained, it would be desirable to visit
an estancia or ranch, which gives the visitor an oppor-
tunity of enjoying the life of the carnpo, where con-
ditions approach more nearly to the Argentina of
fiction — the land of cattle-riders and endless grassy
plains. One month is very inadequate for Argentina,
but, of course, a round tour consists chiefly in omitting
indispensable places. Further, it is impossible to take
the voyage round Cape Horn without missing the rail-
way journey across the Andes. Some people perhaps
will prefer to take only the round trip, i.e. to go to
Valparaiso by rail from Buenos Aires and then return
the whole way by sea. The voyage along the Chilian
coast, a call at Punta Arenas, a possible call at the
Falkland Islands, are all things one would not willingly
1 See W. S. Barclay. To the Falls of Iguazu.

4 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

miss. However, according to our projected route, they
must be put off to a more convenient season, and the
train must be taken to Mendoza, where as long a halt
as possible should be made. Puente del Inca will
probably claim a couple of days, and then the traveller
will run straight to Valparaiso, which has no special
point of interest, and the temporary headquarters will
probably be at Santiago. For the voyage north the Eng-
lish boats, not the Chilian, should be chosen. After many
halts at the little Chilian ports Iquique is reached, and
is worth quite ten days, some five of which may be con-
sumed by the Nitrate Pampa. Then the boat is taken
again to the little port of Arica, not far to the north of
Iquique, and the traveller proceeds by the new railway
to La Paz, the capital of Bolivia. La Paz will claim
some time, and then the journey over the mountains
can be resumed to Arequipa, in Peru, and on to the
little port of Mollendo. Thence it is a short sea voyage
to Lima, via Callao, and the Peruvian capital will
probably be chosen as headquarters for some little
time. Lima is an agreeable place and Cerro de
Pasco, the highest town in the world, should be visited,
while many pleasant excursions can be made to places
on the coast or in the interior.

The voyage will be resumed from Callao. A few
people may wish to disembark at Paita and see Piura,
but the great majority will go direct to Panama. The
one objection to visiting the interesting Republic of
Ecuador is the yellow fever scourge, which rages at
Guayaquil, and a further inconvenience will be the
quarantine at Panama. In fact, many vessels do not
call at Ecuadorian ports. But even if the traveller
does not wish to land, it is worth while to take the
opportunity of seeing the magnificent panorama of
river and forest scenery, and the chance of a glimpse
of Chimborazo.

INTRODUCTORY 5

Panama and the Canal will take a few days. After
this, the voyager may decide to bid good-bye to South
America and sail homewards from Colon by the
West Indies or New York, but he will perhaps wish
to see something of Colombia and Venezuela. This
will not be altogether convenient, for the English lines
do not touch at La Guiara and the other ports on
their homeward voyage ; it will therefore be necessary
to go by a foreign boat. North Brazil has also been
neglected. In fact, to see South America thoroughly,
three separate voyages are required. The first, from
Pernambuco to Panama, has been already described.
The second should begin at Liverpool or Southampton,
proceed to Venezuela and Colombia, and the oppor-
tunity could easily be taken at the same time of seeing
something of Central America and the West Indies.
The third should be taken in the Booth Line, from
Liverpool to Manaos and back. It will be noted that
these have no connexion ; each begins from England,
but ocean liners are usually more comfortable than
coasting vessels, and, as the second and third journeys
are almost wholly in the tropics, considerations of
health might make the traveller hesitate to add them
on to a six months' strenuous tour. The best time
to start on the first tour is in December. The climate
of Rio is no worse in January than at any other time ;
February is about the best season for Argentina, and
a few months later the Andes line might be blocked
with snow. Up to Panama the climate will be found
delightful, and in May the rains relieve the heat of
the Isthmus.

2. COST OF A SOUTH AMERICAN TOUR

During the first three-quarters of the nineteenth
century travellers in South America invariably
lamented the unproductive character of a region

6 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

which possessed every kind of natural wealth and
nevertheless, owing to its turbulent politics and lack
of internal communications, afforded a comparatively
unremunerative field for capital and enterprise. In
those days travelling was often unsafe and always
costly. Now, except in remote and imperfectly ex-
plored tracts, there is perfect security for life and
property, and the expense, though greater than in
most parts of the world, is not prohibitive. As
several of the South American Republics have become
immensely important factors in the world's trade and
industry, there is a constant stream of business men
from Europe and North America to Rio de Janeiro
and Buenos Aires. Those who are making the voyage
for the first time will desire to know its probable
cost, and an attempt is made in this section to answer
this question.

The traveller can book for a tour round South
America by the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company
or the Pacific Steam Navigation Company. There
are two choices of route. The best is to go to Rio
de Janeiro, then on to Buenos Aires, and cross the
continent by rail to Valparaiso. Then a first-class
liner is taken to Panama. The Isthmus is crossed
by rail and a steamer takes the traveller to South-
ampton via the West Indies. The cost is £100.

The alternative route, though interesting, is con-
siderably longer. At Buenos Aires, instead of the land
route, the sea voyage is prolonged through the Straits
of Magellan to Valparaiso. The cost is also ^100.

American travellers can begin and end at New
York for practically the same fare. The above charge
includes no expenses upon shore, except the bare
railway expenses and sleeping-berth.

Four cwt. of baggage are allowed to each adult
first-class passenger, but by the Transandine Rail-

INTRODUCTORY 7

way only 50 kilos are allowed, and on the Panama
railway 150 Ib.

If a through booking be not desired, the traveller
can book from port to port, but this is more expen-
sive. The charges of foreign steamships are practically
the same as those of the two great English lines.

The Lamport and Holt Line, from Liverpool,
affords a cheaper service. A single first-class ticket
to Rio de Janeiro is ^18; by the Royal Mail or Pacific
the cost is ^33. To Buenos Aires the respective single
fares are £20 and ^39. A return passage by the
Lamport and Holt to Buenos Aires is £35. In the
case of each port the fare from England to London
will usually be given in this handbook. Doubtless by
a tramp or a sailing vessel the rates of passage would
be very low.

The tips expected are not larger than elsewhere,
and tobacco, wine and such-like things are supplied
at reasonable rates.

The coasting rates, whether foreign or local, are
high, and exorbitant rates are usually demanded by
boatmen and conveyers of luggage, but these can
usually be reduced by judicious treatment. But in
all cases the cost is heavy, and the traveller will make
his journey much more comfortably if he limits his
luggage to a few suit-cases and steel trunks. Cabs are
generally bad and always dear.

In some countries travelling by rail is by no means
cheap. The short journey, for example, from Rio to
Sao Paulo costs about £2 ios., and the charges in the
Argentine are high. On the other hand, they are very
low in Chile, and moderate in Peru.

It will probably be the hotel charges that a
European will be most disposed to resent, and this,
rather on account of the indifferent value given than
on account of the actual expense, although this is

8 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

considerable. The question, however, is dealt with
elsewhere, and here is only noted from the point of
view of expense.

The round trip may be calculated to take 180 days,
and we will assume that the traveller crosses the
Argentine Republic instead of going by Cape Horn.
This includes a short excursion into Bolivia, but it
omits Venezuela and Northern Brazil altogether, and
there would be a difficulty in seeing much of Colombia.
Some 60 extra days would be required to rectify
these omissions, and more than proportional expense,
and there is no doubt that it would be wiser to make
a separate trip, for any one who reaches Colon after
several months of South American accommodation will
probably prefer to sail homewards and leave the
Amazon unvisited.

Of the 180 days about 70 will be spent on the sea ;
the slower coasting service in the Pacific is recom-
mended as more interesting. The expenses on board
are tips, boats (and expenses in port), and the bar-bill.
Most people find this last a serious item, for few think
of providing themselves with books or work of any
kind, and have nothing but cocktails wherewith to
kill the time. But 2s. a day is ample allowance
— this includes table wines — and as a matter of fact
there is very little need of alcohol on the sea. For
tips, a shilling a day is enough, i.e. about £i for
a voyage of three weeks, and if the service is really
good, something extra might be given. On English
boats the attention is all that could be desired. Port
expenses are a considerable item. On the Pacific coast
the vessels sometimes make two halts a day, and it is
advisable to see every possible place. The return fare
of the boatman averages quite 2s., and purchases
will probably be made. Then at such ports as
Pernambuco or Bahia, even if the traveller does not

INTRODUCTORY 9

desire to make a halt, he will wish to lunch or dine
on shore, and if the ship delays a day or two, he may
prefer to live at an hotel. On the other hand, the ship,
in making the ocean voyage, often goes on for a week
without touching anywhere. Five shillings a day will
probably be adequate.

The steamship fare includes the railway from Buenos
Aires to Valparaiso and across the Isthmus of Panama.
The remaining cost will depend upon individual tastes.
One visitor to Peru may wish to spend all his time at
Lima, while another may wish to visit Arequipa and
other places. The same remark applies to travel away
from railways. At least ^25 should be allowed for
railways, and, say, .£15 for mule or horse travel, but
the latter item can be omitted altogether if desired.
When on land, £i a day should be allowed for
hotels, and los. for miscellaneous expenses. When
the cost of carting luggage, and casual meals,
entertainments, and the like are considered, this pro-
vision will not be considered excessive. Of course,
these expenses may be materially reduced, for hospit-
able friends are likely to give invitations, and also to
show the traveller ways of avoiding expense. But it is
prudent to allow as much as has been indicated above.

The expense, then, of a round trip may be stated as
follows : —

SEA VOYAGE, 70 DAYS

£ s.

The fare 100 o

Tips at is. a day 3 10

Bar account at 2s. a day ... ... ... 70

Port expenses at 55. a day 17 10

ON LAND, no DAYS

Hotels at £i a day no o

Miscellaneous expenses at los. a day ... 55 o

Railways ... ... ... ... ... 25 o

Horse or mule journeys 15 o

Total 333 o

10

A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

It may be added that Messrs. Thomas Cook & Son
lately advertised a personally conducted South Ameri-
can tour. The cost was 275 guineas, and the route
practically identical — but the reverse way — with the
above. It lasted, however, only 3} months.

The following is a rough time sketch of the tour :

Jan.

Dec. i. Leave Southampton

„ Cherbourg
„ 3. „ Vigo
„ 4. „ Lisbon
„ 6. „ Madeira
„ 14. „ Pernambuco
„ 15. „ Bahia
„ 18. Arrive Rio de Janeiro
Spend a fortnight in

Brazil

2. Leave Santos
6. Arrive Montevideo

One week in Uruguay
13. Arrive Buenos Aires
Spend a month with
Buenos Aires as
headquarters, visit-
ing Asuncion or
such places in
Argentina as may
be desired

12. Leave Buenos Aires
20. After halt at Men-
doza and other
places arrive by
rail at Valparaiso
Spend at Santiago
and other places in
Chile 14 days

Feb.

»

Mar. 4. Leave Valparaiso by

slow boat
„ 5. Coquimbo
„ 6. Huasco
„ 7. Chanaral
„ 8. Antofagasta
,, 9. Iquique, arrive
„ 17. Iquique, depart
„ 18. Arica

Ten days in Bolivia
,, 28. Leave Mollendo
„ 30. Arrive Callao

Spend three weeks in
Lima and other
parts of Peru
Apr. 19. Leave Callao
„ 20. Arrive Salaverry
„ 21. „ Pacarmayo

and Eten

„ 22. Arrive Paita
„ 23. Guayaquil, arrive
,, 24. Guayaquil, depart
„ 28. Panama, arrive

Spend a week on the
Isthmus, and re-
turn home by
Jamaica, arriving
at Southampton be-
fore the end of
May

December ist was chosen as being the first of the
month and allowing the ship's movements to be taken
in at a glance, but December 2oth would be a better

INTRODUCTORY 11

date for starting ; Christmas would be best spent on
the sea. Sometimes it is convenient to land at Monte-
video and sometimes at Buenos Aires ; each capital is
easily accessible from the other. The Pacific Steam
Navigation Company has a D service with cheaper
fares.

The second tour to Brazil may be briefly indicated.
The Booth Line steamers leave Liverpool twice a
month for Cherbourg, Vigo, Leixoes (Oporto), Lisbon,
Para, and Manaos. Three months would be enough
to allow for the tour, and the best time to start would
be in January. The minimum cost of the passage
would be £68.

The third tour would probably take a little longer.
The Royal Mail Steam Packet Company's boats sail
every fortnight from Southampton for a round voyage,
for which the cost (from Southampton to Southamp-
ton) is -£45 (minimum fare). It would be necessary
to disembark at Cartagena (Colombia), and when that
Republic had been seen, a coasting vessel would take
the traveller to the ports of Venezuela. The original
line could be resumed at Cartagena, and, if desired, a
landing might be made at Colon. Thence any part of
Central America or any West Indian island might be
visited. The return voyage would be from Colon to
Southampton by way of Jamaica. The Leyland Line
from Liverpool is rather cheaper. It might be found
most convenient to take a single ticket (£30) by the
Royal Mail to Cartagena or Colon, and after seeing the
desired places to ship from Port Limon or Colon to
Liverpool or Bristol ; the minimum fare is £25. .-

3. STEAMSHIP LINES

From Liverpool — The Pacific Steam Navigation
Company's steamers leave 'Liverpool once a fortnight
for Buenos Aires (tranship at Montevideo). They

12 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

touch at La Rochelle-Pallice, Coruna, Vigo, Leixoes
(Oporto), Las Paltnas, St. Vincent, Pernambuco
(sometimes), Bahia (sometimes), Rio and Santos.

The Lamport and Holt leave Liverpool twice a
month for Bahia, Rio, and Santos. Steamers of the
same line leave Liverpool about as frequently for
Montevideo and Buenos Aires. Several other lines
leave for the Plate District. The Houlder Line leaves
once a month, the others are less regular.

The Booth Line's steamers leave Liverpool once a
fortnight for Manaos. They touch at Havre, Vigo,
Leixoes, Lisbon, Para, Ceara and Maranham.

The Leyland Line's steamers leave Liverpool about
twice a month for Colon and the ports of Venezuela
and Colombia.

The Elders and Fyffes Line's steamers leave Liver-
pool occasionally for Santa Marta (Colombia) or for
Port Limon and Colon.

From Southampton — The Royal Mail Steam Packet
Company's steamers sail every fortnight from South-
ampton, calling at Cherbourg, Vigo, Lisbon, Madeira,
Pernambuco, Bahia, Rio, Santos, Montevideo and
Buenos Aires.

The same line sends steamers twice a month to
Colon and the ports of Colombia. Passengers can
return by the West Indies or New York.

From London — The Nelson Line steamers sail
weekly to Montevideo and Buenos Aires, touching at
Boulogne, Coruna, and Vigo.

Foreign lines are numerous, and the following are
some of the chief sailings : —

From Dover (Amsterdam the previous day), the
Royal Holland Lloyd sails every month for Rio de
Janeiro, Santos, Montevideo and Buenos Aires, touch-
ing at Boulogne, Coruna, Vigo and Lisbon.

From Southampton (starting at Hamburg and

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I4 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

touching at Boulogne), the Hamburg American and
Hamburg South American jointly dispatch steamers
weekly to Rio de Janeiro, Santos, Montevideo and
Buenos Aires, touching at Coruna, Vigo and Lisbon.
Excellent fast French and Italian boats make the
South American voyage, but they do not touch at
British ports.

The list on p. 13 of the various lines and their fares
to the principal ports may be of interest.

4. HOTELS

All towns in South America that are of any impor-
tance possess hotel accommodation, but its quality
generally leaves a good deal to be desired. Comfort
is not well understood, and the population is com-
posed of easygoing people who prefer leisure to luxury,
or else of persons bent on acquiring wealth rapidly,
and therefore not disposed to take trouble over small
things. In general it may be said of hotel-keepers
that French are better than Italians, Italians than
Spanish, and Spanish than natives. English and
North Americans are rare in the trade, but, when
found, should be made a note of. Mr. Percy Martin,
in his racy book, Through Five Republics, says : " Val-
paraiso, like almost every other city in Chile, with
the single exception of Santiago, is sadly deficient in
hotel accommodation. Hotels there are, or such as
call themselves by this name ; but nous autres would
scarcely designate them as worthy of the term, nor
give them equal rank with our suburban pothouses."
Again : "Attractive as Argentina is, from an architec-
tural point of view, it possesses scarcely one really
pleasant or thoroughly comfortable hotel. In a city
claiming something over 850,000 inhabitants,1 possess-

1 The remarkable growth of Buenos Aires is shown by the
fact that it now claims half as many inhabitants again, and

INTRODUCTORY 15

ing much individual and collective wealth, and a
situation almost unrivalled for sanitary perfection, it
is certainly remarkable that visitors and residents alike
should find so little facility in securing accommo-
dation."

Considerable improvement has been effected since
1905. At Panama, which is not, strictly speaking, in
South America, there is a very excellent hotel, and
Lima has good hotels and restaurants. In great towns,
like Rio and Buenos Aires, fair accommodation can
be procured at a high price, and at Santiago and
Valparaiso there are clean hotels with eatable food.
But in many places the food and accommodation are
far below modest European standards. However, at
almost every town there is a fonda of some sort, but
it is advisable not to arrange for a long stay, unless
there is reason to believe that the hotel is tolerable.
This important subject will, however, be dealt with in
relation to the various towns.

5. MONEY

The monetary systems of the various Republics will
be referred to under separate heads. There are a
good many English banks in South America, such as
the London and River Plate Bank and the Anglo-
South American Bank, through which the traveller
can make arrangements for a supply of money. But
cases may occur of changes in the route or of under-
estimating the expenses, and it is well to carry a
moderate sum in Bank^ of England notes, for which
the exchange is always favourable. In the case of
Chile and Colombia, where the currency is depreciated,

though the hotel accommodation has not advanced pan passu,
there is much less cause for complaint. Great efforts at im-
provement are also being made in other parts of South America.
Mr. Martin's book was published in 1905.

16 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

it is desirable, before crossing the frontier, to obtain
at a bank a supply of the country's money, because
the money-changers at the frontier or ports take
advantage of the traveller's ignorance of the rate of
exchange. In most countries gold is rare, and paper
money is commonly used. Nothing in the nature of
a cashbox or dispatch-box should be carried, for this
is naturally the first objective of a thief. The pocket
is the best place for money. The heaviest box should
be of steel, with a good lock. (See below under
Equipment.)

6. EQUIPMENT

This should be practically as for a journey on the
Continent. In addition, there should be riding
breeches and leggings and a heavy hunting crop.
No arms are necessary, and sport is so rare that,
in case an opportunity offers, it would probably
be better to buy or borrow a gun than to be at the
trouble of carrying a sporting equipment throughout
the whole journey. As little luggage as possible
should be taken, and it should be packed in flat suit-
cases and the like. It is well to have one strong steel
cabin trunk with a good lock. A supply of cheap,
soft shirts should be taken, and these can be thrown
away when they become ragged. If it is intended to
leave the line of railway, a few flannel shirts should be
added ; these the traveller can rough-dry himself at
any time. Although luggage should be light, it is as
well to make up one's mind from the outset not to
purchase anything of much value during the journey,
for clothes and all travelling necessaries are extremely
dear. In addition to clothes suitable for English
winters and summers, a few thin flannel or washing
suits of silk or holland should be taken. The
traveller should have two soft hats. Silk or felt hats

INTRODUCTORY 17

and sun helmets are hardly necessary. It is very
inadvisable to burden oneself with traveller's kit,
although a small spirit kettle is a convenience.
Quinine, chlorodyne, and a few simple drugs should
be taken. A small knapsack and a soiled-linen bag
are useful. The whole luggage ought, if possible, to
weigh under 200 Ib. ; the charges for wheeling
luggage about a town are exorbitant, and when the
traveller desires to go up-country he should leave
the bulk with a friend at a port, and journey with a
knapsack or bag. Otherwise he should never part with
his luggage except for a receipt from an authorized
person, or the parting may be for ever. The term
authorized requires careful definition. One great
advantage in small packages is that they are admitted
into the railway carriage ; some lines allow a reason-
able amount of baggage, others attempt to charge and
overcharge for every pound.

7. PASSPORTS, CUSTOMS, CONSULATES, HOSPITALITY
Passports are unnecessary ; the South Americans
are always glad of visitors. If the traveller wishes
to visit disturbed parts, a letter from a Consul or
local notability will be much more effective.

The Customs give very little trouble. The traveller
remarks, " Personal baggage," and his boxes are
seldom opened, and difficulties seldom arise about
cigars, etc., though of course, if an official discovered
that a traveller was carrying several hundreds, there
would be trouble. There is no object in any infringe-
ment of regulations, for cigars are almost equally dear
everywhere. Money should not be offered, though a
small tip may be given to a person who gives reason-
able assistance, but caution is necessary. If possible,
the traveller should ask the Foreign Office to give
him an open letter to the British Consulates. In

i8 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

any case, they are always willing to help a well-bred
traveller. But it should be remembered that Con-
sulates are not cloak-rooms, nor Consuls common
carriers, and they are to be treated with considera-
tion. It is most unfair and ill-bred to have letters
addressed to a Consulate, with peremptory orders to
forward them to all parts of the world. On special
occasions it may be necessary to have one's letters
addressed thither, but a letter should be sent to the
Consul, explaining that there is a real necessity, and
asking him to keep letters till called for. To persons
travelling in search of information relative to trade
and industries the Consuls are invaluable, but it is
desirable to purchase the Trade Reports in London
before starting, as that is the place of publication.
The information contained is most useful, and it is
a great pity that the Foreign Office will not con-
centrate and make it accessible. It ought to publish
a quarterly Consular Review of South America,
properly illustrated, which should contain the
essence of all Consular reports, and this should be
sent to every important business house and insti-
tution connected with South America. The Consuls
of the United States are sometimes helpful. In South
America the English and people of the country are
hospitable. It is a good thing to have letters of
introduction, but the friend who gives them should
also be asked to write to his friend in South America.
Otherwise there is apt to be misunderstanding, or the
person whose acquaintance is desired may be away
from home. The new friend usually knows persons
upon other points of the route, and is willing to give
introductions. The first step is to introduce the
traveller as an honorary member at the club, where
there is always pleasant society.

Spanish-Americans, like Spaniards, are reserved, and

INTRODUCTORY 19

do not readily become intimate with strangers, but
they are extremely courteous and many of their clubs
are open to English visitors.

8. POST OFFICES AND TELEGRAPHS

There are excellent postal and telegraphic arrange-
ments in all the Republics. As before recommended,
a traveller should not make a practice of ordering
his letters to be addressed to Consuls. By far the
best way is to have them addressed to his bank,
and thence they can be forwarded to any other bank
on the line of route.

9. CLIMATE

The climate of this enormous continent is, of
course, varied. The Southern Republics may, on the
whole, be called temperate, although there is intense
cold in the extreme south and considerable heat in
the north. It may be said x that in Brazil, Venezuela,
Colombia, and Ecuador the weather will be found hot
and oppressive at all times, and elsewhere the climate
is more or less agreeable. In these hot countries
November to March is the best time for a visit,
while March to October is suitable for the temperate
countries ; but arrangements should be made to pass
from Argentina to Chile before the end of April,
seeing that the line, in spite of the new tunnel, is
likely to be closed during the winter months, i.e.
May to October. The voyage, therefore, should begin
in December or January. If it be prolonged beyond
the plan sketched above, Venezuela and the Amazon
can be taken in the favourable weather at the end
of the year, but climatic difficulties are an argument
in favour of making this a separate trip.

1 Of course, heat is seldom encountered at elevations of 3,000
feet and upwards.

20 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

10. TOBACCO, WINE, RESTAURANTS

All kinds of tobacco are dear in South America.
An English vessel usually sells pipe tobacco and
cigarettes at low rates, and a small store may be
taken ashore for personal use, but obviously it is
important not to trespass upon the leniency of the
Custom House officials. They are not disposed to
harass the pleasure tourist, but the bringing in of
such articles is a matter of delicacy, and is left to the
good feeling of the traveller. There are many wine
districts in South America, but the beverage is always
heavily protected and not cheap, though often of very
fair quality. Spirits, on the whole, are not dear, and
bottled beer can usually be obtained, but most people
will be wise to observe strict moderation in both.

Most hotels have restaurants of varying merit. In
Buenos Aires, Lima and several other towns there is
good catering, but, speaking generally, it will be found
convenient to take meals at the hotel, especially as
pension terms are the almost invariable rule.

ii. SHOPS AND STORES

These, as might be expected, vary infinitely, from
the magnificent business houses of Buenos Aires to
squalid shanties, purveying German wares and English
tinned goods, such as are found in Eastern bazaars.
But a man of modest wants can usually purchase
anything he is likely to require in a town of
10,000 inhabitants or upwards, while in the great
towns practically everything under the sun can be
bought at a price. But most of the good things are
imported, and so expensive that a prudent person will
defer his purchases, as far as possible, until he visits
the Old World. Ludgate Hill provides for 2s. 6d.
countless articles that are sold readily for 123. 6d.

INTRODUCTORY 21

all over South America, and most things, such as
clothes, trunks, household articles, cutlery and all
fancy things are in proportion. As before indicated,
it is advisable to spend some care and thought in
getting together a light but adequate outfit, so as to
avoid the necessity of purchases.

12. NEWSPAPERS

People who travel in South America will probably
be surprised at the excellence of the journals. Those
of the great Republics compare not unfavourably with
the newspapers of first-class European countries, and
(to an English taste at any rate) are greatly superior
to those of the United States and their Fleet Street
imitations. To generalize about a whole continent
is difficult, but it may be said that on the whole sen-
sationalism is conspicuous by its absence, and that the
wisest and most moderate thought is to be found, not
in the speeches of statesmen, hardly even in the current
literature, but in the columns of the newspapers. Such
journals as the Jornal de Commercio of Rio, La Nation
and La Prensa of Buenos Aires, and, on a smaller
scale, El Comercio of Lima would do credit to
London or Paris. It should be noted that among
the Spanish and Portuguese the word Comercio in the
title indicates indeed that the paper is specially strong
on the commercial side, but not that it is a commercial
or financial organ. It is ordinarily almost as general
a newspaper as the Daily Telegraph.

13. LANGUAGE

As is well known, Spanish is the language of the
civilized population, except in Brazil, where Portu-
guese prevails. Well-educated South Americans fre-
quently speak French or English or both, but these
are by no means universal accomplishments, although

22 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

in the best shops and hotels of the large towns English
is readily understood. The enjoyment and value of
the tour will be indefinitely increased by some know-
ledge of Spanish and, if possible, of Portuguese also,
which are fortunately rather easy languages. A man
of average ability will find that a fortnight's preliminary
study, supplemented by three hours a day on board
ship, will give him enough Spanish to read the news-
papers, and a little practice on shore will soon enable
him to carry on a conversation in a rough-and-ready
fashion. Many people will be able to add Portuguese
to this modest outfit, and those who already know
Latin will find their task much lighter, for the
Romans set an indelible mark on the language of
the Peninsula. The grammars and dictionaries of
Hossfeld's series (published at 13, Furnival Street,
Holborn, E.G.) are reasonable in price and of good
quality, but handbooks and vocabularies are very
numerous, and can be bought at most of the book-
shops in Charing Cross Road or New Oxford Street.
The hasty traveller will do well to choose a handbook
which gives the pronunciation of common phrases as
well as the actual Spanish, for the most intelligent
foreigner can hardly be expected to recognize his
mother tongue in an English dress. A prosaic but
useful piece of advice is to pay special attention to
culinary terms ; otherwise a meal at a restaurant is a
lottery in which the traveller who has not enough
Spanish or Portuguese to read the bill of fare (usually
enormously long) is likely to draw far more blanks
than prizes. The above elementary hints are obviously
only for the tourist. Any person who wishes to suc-
ceed in business in South America must, of course,
make a careful study of Spanish, and learn to speak
and write it fluently. This would appear to be
axiomatic, but, if we may judge by the complaints

INTRODUCTORY 23

of the Consular Reports and other evidence, there are
many people who tr^to persuade South Americans to
buy goods in an unintelligible language. The day for
such easygoing methods, if indeed it ever existed, has
long since gone by, and the importance of Spanish
and Portuguese is now recognized by all business
men, while the traveller for pleasure who neglects
Spanish will lose at least one-half of the enjoyment
of his tour.

14. BOOKS ABOUT SOUTH AMERICA

At the end of the account of each Republic there
will be found a brief note which deals with one or two
works describing that particular place and likely to
prove useful to the traveller. But to take, on a journey,
ten or more (physically) heavy volumes might be
troublesome, and therefore a brief note on general
books about South America will not be out of place.
It may be added that a few days devoted to making
notes in a good library will certainly not be wasted,
for the very best guide-book a man can possess is that
written by himself. If he knows beforehand exactly
what he wants to see, he will see much more than
those who drift along in impartial ignorance. The
two small handbooks on South America have been
already noticed in the preface.1 There is an excel-
lent description of the whole of South America in
Stanford's Compendium of Geography and Travel ; the-
part to be consulted is Central and South America,
vol. i, 2nd edition, published 1909. This, of course, is
strong on the geographical side and contains very good
maps. For statistics, the Statesman's Year-book is too

1 South America, published by the Royal Mail Steam Packet
Company and the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, and Prac-
tical Guide to South America, by Albert Hale, published at Boston,
U.S.A.

24 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

well known to need description. The South American
series (published by Mr. T. Fisher Unwin) has already
issued volumes on Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru,
Venezuela, Colombia, and Uruguay, and more will be
published before long. Mrs. Robinson Wright has
written large and handsome books (published in
Philadelphia) on Brazil and several other Republics ;
they are well illustrated and contain much interesting
information, but the writer is an incorrigible optimist,
and may possibly fail to convince the reader that all is
for the best in the best of all possible South Americas.
A monthly magazine, entitled the Bulletin of the Pan-
American Union, is edited at Washington by Mr. John
Barrett, a gentleman who has a very wide knowledge
of Latin America. This periodical is well illustrated
and contains useful articles and notes which survey the
Western Hemisphere with extensive view from Mexico
to Cape Horn.

Those who wish for special information about
remote districts should consult the articles which
appear from time to time in the Journal of the Royal
Geographical Society, whose high standard of accuracy
is beyond praise. A word may now be said of books of
travel or history, dealing more or less completely with
South America as a whole. In the course of this work
reference is made more than once to Darwin's Voyage
of the Beagle ; here it need only be said that a pocket
edition is an indispensable travelling companion. A
very agreeable and comprehensive book is Mr. F.
Alcock's Trade and Travel in South America, published
1903, which describes a "round trip." The South
American Republics (1903-4), by Mr. T. C. Dawson,
who has had experience in the United States diplo-
matic service, gives a useful historical survey of all the
countries, and Mr. C. E. Akers's History of South
America 1854-1904 is also helpful. To indicate the

INTRODUCTORY 25

sources of South American history would be going
far beyond the scope of this brief note, but it is hardly
necessary to say that those who wish to make a
thorough study of the subject must learn to read
Spanish and Portuguese. It may be added that
Southey's History of Brazil is by no means out of
date, while such collections of voyages as those made
by Hakluyt and Purchas afford a delightful means of
learning the history of South America in the sixteenth
century. Another fairly comprehensive work, which
deals chiefly with the industrial resources of the
countries described, is Through Five Republics (1905),
by Mr. Percy F. Martin. This gives much information
about Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay, and Venezuela.
Mr. C. W. Domville Fife's Great States of South
America (1910) describes the most important Republics.
The London Times often issues a South American
supplement containing very valuable articles on
political and commercial subjects. The general ver-
dict must be, on the one hand, that a great many
books, good, bad, and indifferent, have been written
on South America, and some places and questions
have been exhaustively described and discussed, but,
on the other hand, there are enormous gaps in our
knowledge, and it is still almost impossible to obtain
information about many important districts. There is
ample matter for the pen of a ready, still more for that
of a thoughtful, writer.

. ..

^--WIBlilSPi*

1 lARGENTINE

L/FU^ifjr^i Railways shown thus

::$1 0 200 MILES

ARGENTINA

ARGENTINA is the second in size of the South
American Republics and the first in civilization
and prosperity. The combined boon of climate, soil,
and facilities of communication gives it a great advan-
tage over its neighbours, and the enormous yield of
grain and pastoral products makes it supremely im-
portant in the industrial world. The area is 1,153,119
square miles and the population is estimated at
7,171,910. It is thus more than five times as large
as France, and has somewhat less population than
Belgium. Such a huge territory, extending from the
tropic of Capricorn to Tierra del Fuego, has naturally
a great variety of- climate and physical conditions in
general, but it falls into four tolerably well defined
geographical divisions. These are : Firstly, the Andine
region proper, which runs from the Bolivian frontier
along the Chilian border to the head-waters of the Rio
Negro. The Andes are a long range of gigantic
peaks, of which Aconcagua attains a height of about
23,000 feet, and the climate is, in general, extremely
dry and the hills bare of vegetation. South of the Rio
Negro (in Patagonia) the hills are lower and the
climate becomes more humid. At Ushwiya in Tierra
del Fuego the annual rainfall is 120 inches, while at
San Juan, almost under the Andes, it is only 3.
Secondly, Patagonia, which stretches from the Rio
Colorado to Cape Horn. This is a thinly populated

region which used to be known as the Great Shingle

27

28 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

Desert. It contains many fine rivers, but eastwards
the rainfall is scanty, and it has hitherto been neglected
by all but sheep farmers. In the north, however,
irrigation is being applied and the wheat prospects
are good. Thirdly, the Gran Chaco, a rough denomi-
nation for the northern region, which has a hot and
moist climate, produces rice and sugar, and contains
much virgin forest. The north-eastern part is very
imperfectly explored, and many of the Indians inhabit-
ing the forests are hostile. Fourthly, the Pampas, the
heart of the Republic, which have given Argentina its
fame and wealth and comprise all the best pastoral
and grain-growing lands. This is the true Argentina,
or the historic Plate district, as the whole country on
each side of the estuary used to be called — a land that
yielded no gold or silver to the adventurers, a long
succession of flat, grassy stretches, where wild cattle
multiplied apace, and famous even in the old Spanish
days for the export of hides. Up to comparatively
recent years the cattle were slaughtered for their hides
only, and their carcasses left to rot on the ground, so
that travellers constantly expressed vexation at the
sight of waste, not only of meat, but of valuable vege-
table products, which could have been raised in
profusion had there but been a market for them.
With the improvement of industry and the making of
railways a great trade in meat and wool sprang up,
and in course of time alfalfa (lucerne) was introduced,
which made the task of fattening cattle easy. It was
also discovered that the Pampas were marvellously well
adapted for the cultivation of wheat and maize, and
now the railways pour vast cargoes of grain into ocean-
going steamers at Buenos Aires, Rosario and Bahia
Blanca. The tendency is for arable to encroach upon
pastoral land. Thus the picturesque gaucho plays a less
prominent part in the country than he used to do, but

ARGENTINA 29

he is still the most interesting feature of the Pampas.
Although the derivation of the word is disputed, it
seems probable that the name was brought from Spain,
but the gauchos have undoubtedly more Indian than
Spanish blood in their veins. They are expert stock-
riders, bringing down refractory cattle with their
unerring bolas, and their wonderful feats of horseman-
ship have been described more vividly and more
accurately (as is the case with many other things
South American) by Darwin in The Voyage of the
Beagle than by all the numerous writers who have
succeeded him. The gauchos are brave, cruel and
reckless ; they thoroughly know their craft, and they
have the frankness, hospitality and rude poetical
instincts that go with a life of boot and saddle. They
are changing, but not yet changed. The Pampas them-
selves are slowly changing and being gradually occu-
pied by the small cultivator from Northern Italy, but
at present Argentina is big enough for both. Droughts
and locusts are the curse of the agriculturist, and one
of the chief matters of State policy is discussion of the
means of destroying the winged pest. As yet no
effectual means have been discovered, yet even locusts
put but a slight check upon the exuberant fertility of
the country.1

Drought is a more serious danger, for the normal
rainfall of Argentina is barely sufficient for its needs,
but in many districts the defect can be mitigated by
irrigation. Apart from the Province of Buenos Aires,
where the average rainfall is something over 30 inches,
the following figures relating to several widely sepa-
rated towns will give some idea of the general climate
of the Republic. Rosario has 46 inches, Tucuman 39,
Cordoba 26, Salta 23, Bahia Blanca 19, La Rioja 12,
Mendoza 6. The river system of Argentina consists
1 See Koebel, Argentina Past and Present, pp. 206-16.

30 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

chiefly of the huge streams which discharge them-
selves into the Plate estuary. The Parana rises far
away in the mountains of Brazil, and first touches
Argentina in the Province of Misiones, near the
famous Iguazu Falls. Then it forms the southern
boundary of the Republic of Paraguay, and a little
north of Corrientes absorbs the Paraguay River, and
turning abruptly south, makes its way to the Plate.
The breadth at Rosario, some 200 miles from Buenos
Aires, is 20 miles, and it is estimated that during the
floods the volume of water rolled down to the sea is
1,650,000 cubic feet a second. Its noble tributary, the
Paraguay, receives two large affluents, the Pilcomayo
and the Bermejo, which both drain the northern parts
of the Gran Chaco. The River Uruguay divides
Argentina from the little Republic of that name and
Brazil, meeting the many mouths of the Parana some
distance to the north of Buenos Aires. In the arid
west several large rivers, such as the Mendoza and the
Dolce, fail to find their way to the Plate and lose
themselves in sands or morasses. In Patagonia the
chief streams are the Colorado, the Negro, the Chubut,
the Deseado, the Chico, the Santa Cruz and the
Gallegos. Every Argentine river necessarily flows
east or south, for the Andes form an impenetrable
barrier to the Pacific. The excellence of the Parana
as a waterway has caused Rosario, within some fifty
years, to grow from an insignificant village to a town of
200,000 inhabitants, and the opening up of the Pampas
by great lines of railways has enabled the produce
to be brought to the sea for export. The lakes of
Argentina are numerous and are found in all parts of
the country ; there are many hundreds in the Province
of Buenos Aires alone. The largest are in Patagonia.
In ancient times the major part of the country was
covered by the great Pampean Sea. The Pampas,

ARGENTINA 31

formerly submerged, are now overlaid with loess.
The Andes consist of gneiss, granite and schist.
The greater part of the country is quaternary, but
the north-east is sandstone of uncertain age.

The flora of Argentina varies greatly and falls into
three geographical divisions — the tropical and sub-
tropical north, the treeless Pampas, and the deserts
and forests of the south. In the north the palm is the
most characteristic tree, and the wax palm (Copernicia
ceriferd) is the most important variety. The pindo
(Cocos australis) is also common. The algarroba
(Prosopis) is a valuable tree, and much valuable timber
is to be obtained, including the quebracho, the urunday,
and the lapacho. The Pampas, as is well known, are
in many places covered by the pampa grass (Gynerium
argentetun), but the grass varies considerably, and the
thistle is an unwelcome European intruder. The
paraiso (Melia azedarach) has been introduced, and
is one of the few trees that flourish here. The Pampas
are said by Hudson to be the poorest in floral species of
any fertile district of the globe. In the desert parts of
Patagonia the vegetation is mostly scrub. In the humid
west there are dense forests, the beech being common.

The fauna of Argentina is less imposing than was
the case in prehistoric times, when huge mammoths,
as is proved by numerous remains, used to roam the
Pampas. The typical South American animals-
jaguars, pumas, tapirs, monkeys — are numerous in
the north. The birds are very various and very gay
in plumage. To the plains jaguars and pumas have
been attracted by the herds of cattle, but the guanaco
is there the chief animal. The ostrich (Rhea Ameri-
cana) is common. An interesting animal is the
viscacha (Lagostomus trichodactylus), which burrows
in the earth and lives on friendly terms with the
burrowing owl. Reptiles are not important, and the

A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

alligator is invariably small. In some places ticks and
other parasites are troublesome. The most remark-
able and the most satisfactory feature of the Argentine
fauna is the immense number^of cattle and sheep,
which were introduced early in the sixteenth century,
and, having flourished in a surprising manner, now
constitute a main source of the country's wealth.

The Republic is divided into 14 Provinces and 10
Territories. Of the Provinces the most populous are
Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Cordoba, Corrientes and
Tucuman. The Territories are undeveloped regions
which, roughly speaking, make a northern, western
and southern fringe round the heart of the Republic,
and their population is extremely scanty. For example,
the territory of Santa Cruz has an area of 109,142
square miles and an estimated population of 4,394.

The prosperity of Argentina has made it attractive
to immigrants from Southern Europe. Population
is the Republic's great need, and they flock rapidly in ;
but there is unfortunately a considerable outflow,
because in bad times some of them seek new fields,
and, further, many peasants come over from Europe
for the harvest only, and return to their homes when
it has been reaped. The following figures show the
tendency in recent years : —

Year.

Immigrants.

Emigrants.

Excess in favour of
Immigration.

1904

125,567

38,923

86,644

177,117

42,869

134,248

1906

252,536

00,124

192,412

1907

209,103

90,190

118,913

1908

255>7IO

85,412

170,298

1909

231,084

94,644

136,440

I9IO

289,640

97>854

191,786

I9II

225,772

107,632

118,140

1912

348,570

142,460

2O6,IIO

ARGENTINA

33

The nationality of the various immigrants between
1857 and 1911 is shown : —

Italians 2,052,925

Spaniards ... 1,132,460

French 201,732

Russians 115,827

Syrians ... ... ... ... ... 89,442

Austrians 74>i9i

Germans 50,731

British 48,526

Swiss 30,619

Portuguese 16,419

North Americans 5,oio

The following is the analysis for 1911 : —

Spaniards ,. 118,723

Italians 58,185

Austrians 24,785

Germans 23,450

Swiss 16,694

French 4,916

British I»73O

In the eighties there was a large influx which was
checked by the financial crisis of 1891, but now the
figures are as high as ever. In this movement the
Italians have played a great part, and Argentina has
been called " Italy's finest colony/' but there is no
doubt that the country would fill up more rapidly if
better inducements were offered to small rural pro-
prietors. The immigration law is liberal, although all
males born in Argentina are liable to military service.
The Consul-General of Argentina in London has given
the following advice : " The best chances of employ-
ment are, of course, for those who can speak some
Spanish and are farm labourers, dairymen, or stock-
men of practical experience ; but mechanics are in
fair demand, especially in the building and allied

34 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

trades. Clerks, shop assistants, and others in search
of office work, etc., are strongly advised not to
emigrate, unless they can count beforehand on a
good chance of immediate employment. Persons
with some capital, not burdened by families having
many members unable to work, may find good
openings even in towns ; but as a rule there is
more chance of success in agricultural or pastoral
enterprises." Although there is a flourishing Welsh
colony at Chubut, in Patagonia, Argentina in general
is not a place for the " small man " from the United
Kingdom. In the higher grades of manual and other
labour there are numerous openings, but the post
should be secured before leaving home.

In his latest Report the British Consul-General at
Buenos Aires says : " In the early part of 1913 the
distress among immigrants from the United Kingdom
became so acute that a warning had to be issued by
the Emigrants' Information Office in London. This
warning applies with special force to unskilled work-
men and clerks in search of speculative employment
in Argentina." The fact is that Argentina is not a
country for the English labourer, who cannot possibly
compete with the Spanish or Italian peasant, nor, as
has been already indicated, has the population problem
been yet settled to the extent of making Argentina
attractive as a permanent home even for the peasant
of Southern Europe. The Report says : " English-
men should bear in mind that Argentina is not a
manufacturing country, and those who do not bring
sufficient money with them to take up holdings and
work them incur great risk in venturing to this
country. At present the national Government does
not make any gratuitous land grants as an inducement
to the intending settler. With enormous tracts of
valuable land lying idle in the almost unpopulated

ARGENTINA % 35

districts, the problem of labour supply is naturally
one of vital consequence, and it is now being urged
that it is by withholding the offer of cheap land and
proper protection to the settler that the large exodus
continues unchecked either by the great natural re-
sources of the country or the remarkable fertility of
the soil."

PRODUCTS AND INDUSTRIES

In 1912 the imports amounted to ... ^76,970,700
„ „ exports „ ... 91,878,300

These figures are a record for the foreign trade.
The imports chiefly consist of textiles, coal, every
kind of railway and building material, locomotives,
machinery and agricultural implements, pitch-pine,
naphtha, petroleum and various oils, sackcloth, motor-
cars, yerba mate and wine. The following countries
had the chief share in the import trade : —

United Kingdom ^23,733,800

Germany 12,788,300

United States 11,825,900

France ... 7,523,700

Italy 6,497,400

Belgium ... 4,074,100

Spain 2,385,700

Brazil 1,909,400

Great Britain has long occupied a most command-
ing position in the trade of Argentina, and her activity
continues to expand, but relatively it cannot be said
that her position has improved. A few years ago
Great Britain sent to Argentina more goods than the
United States, Germany and Belgium combined ;
now it will be seen that this is far from being the
case. All honest competition is welcomed, but it
should be added that some of the methods of the

36 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

United States are neither beneficial to foreign traders
nor to Argentina herself. The trust methods, while
restricting competition, increase the cost of living, and
it is the duty of the Argentine Government to take
sharp measures against those who endeavour to enrich
themselves at the cost of all others. In coal, railway
material, textiles, especially cottons and many kinds
of metal goods, Great Britain has the largest share.
The bulk of the .sackcloth comes from India.
Motor-cars come principally from France, agricul-
tural machinery, naphtha and petroleum from the
United States, general machinery, paper, jewellery
and many small items from Germany. In Sheffield
and Birmingham goods the market is being lost to
Germany, and in several other branches our firms
have not maintained their ground. However, British
trade in Argentina is undoubtedly in a most flourish-
ing condition. This result is due largely to the
immense amount of capital which our investors have
entrusted to the Republic. In this respect France
comes next ; her capitalists have of late shown con-
siderable energy in the Republic, and the amount of
French capital invested stands at nearly 50 millions
sterling.

The exports fall into two great groups — agricultural
products (chiefly grain) and pastoral products (chiefly
meat and wool). The following countries are most
prominent in the export trade : —

United Kingdom ^24,274,700

Germany 10,799,000

Belgium ... ... 7,451,600

France 7,210,400

United States 6,478,200

Brazil ... ... 4»529>3°o

Italy ... 4,029,600

Holland 3,205,400

ARGENTINA 37

Our country is exceptionally situated for trade with
Argentina, as we require food and raw material and
Argentina needs manufactured goods and coal. On
the other hand, the United States produces much the
same staples as Argentina, and therefore buys com-
paratively little in her markets. Apart from Brazil,
the trade with other South American Republics is
surprisingly small ; that with her neighbours, Chile,
Bolivia and Uruguay, is hardly worth mentioning.
This is partly the result of jealous protection, but it
is very noticeable that the various Republics have few
dealings with one another and take little interest in
what is happening over the border, unless a boundary
dispute happens to be in progress. Chilian news-
papers are hardly ever seen in Argentina, and vice
versa.

The wheat production of Argentina increased at an
enormous pace during the early years of the present
century, reaching in 1908 the figure of 5,238,700 tons,
but of late years it has been adversely affected by the
drought. There are now 17,000,000 acres under
wheat, but, if labour were available, it would be easy
to increase the area to 80,000,000 acres. Owing to
this lack of population and the uncertainty of the
rainfall, the Republic cannot be implicitly relied upon
as an exporter, and, further, the methods of cultivation
are entirely extensive, and thus produce very indif-
ferent results, considering the acreage. Mr. A. Stuart
Pennington remarks : " The average yield per acre in
the United Kingdom is 31 bushels, in Manitoba
(Canada) 19 bushels, the United States 13 bushels ;
but in Argentina it rarely exceeds 12 bushels per acre,
and is, as a rule, nearer 10." The following figures
show the fluctuations in wheat exports : —

38 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

Tons

In 1908 the wheat exported was 3,500,000

„ 1909 „ „ ... 2,514,100

„ i910 » » 1,883,600

„ I911 » » 2,285,900

„ i912 » » 2,629,000

The chief corn-bearing region lies in the Provinces
of Buenos Aires, Santa F£, Cordoba, Entre Rios and
the Central Pampas. With irrigation Patagonia might
be a great wheat-growing district. Argentina now
exports more maize than any other country. In 1910
the crop was a failure, but in 1909 the production was
4,450,000 tons, and in 1911 it was 7,515,000 tons. In
linseed also the Republic heads the list of exporting
countries, producing yearly about 600,000 tons.
Alfalfa has of late become an astonishingly produc-
tive crop, and is of the utmost value to the estancieros,
who are thus able to fatten stock quickly, hi 1912
the yield was 4,031,300 tons. Oats are cultivated to
a considerable extent. Sugar is a large crop, and
Tucuman is the centre of the industry ; it is perhaps
more completely dependent upon protection than any
other industry of its size in the world. The vine is
a valuable crop, and to the production of wine the
Province of Mendoza contributes by far the largest
share. The total yield is over 40 million gallons. A
traveller says: "The most popular wines are red and
white clarets, the better qualities of which are excel-
lent, but many other kinds are made. The country
wine is by no means as cheap as it ought to be, owing
to high protection. Although this excellent industry
is rapidly increasing, it does not go near to supplying
home consumption ; indeed, the value of the imports
of wines and spirits is slightly in excess of the total
production. The export of wine is, of course, prac-
tically nil, for neighbouring countries follow the

ARGENTINA 39

example of Argentina in protecting their own vine-
yards by high tariffs and every kind of fomento."
Tobacco is not a very important crop, and the acreage
has lately fallen from 40,000 to 24,400 acres. Little
is at present done in the way of growing cotton, but
the possibilities of that crop in the Chaco are enor-
mous. The sub-tropical region in the north yields
much valuable timber, the best being the famous red
quebracho (Lozopterigium lorentzii). In 1911 there
were exported 473,644 tons of quebracho logs, and
the extract of ' quebracho is very valuable for tanning
purposes.

The pastoral industries are the oldest in the country,
having been founded in 1536, when Pedro de Men-
doza set down 72 horses and mares in the country.
The Spaniards also introduced cattle and sheep, and
the export of hides soon became a flourishing busi-
ness. The following is the census of animals in
Argentina : —

Sheep 67,211,754

Cattle 29,116,625

Horses ... 7,531,376

Goats 3,245,086

Hogs ... 1,403,591

Mules 4°5>O37

Donkeys 285,088

Their value is estimated at some .£129,000,000.
Immense pains were taken during the latter half of
the nineteenth century to improve the breed of horned
cattle, and the results are to be seen in the magnificent
herds in all parts of the Pampas. The Durhams are,
on the whole, the favourite breed, crossing well with
the native stock, and are specially valuable when
lucerne can be obtained. They are largely employed
by the well-known Bovril Company. Next in favour
comes the Hereford, the white-faced, red-bodied

40 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

animal that flourishes exceedingly on the Pampa
grass. They are employed by the Lemco and Oxo
estancias. The Aberdeen Angus is also highly
esteemed.^ Equal pains have been taken to improve
the breed of horses, and a glance at any show-list or
racing programme will show the high value placed
upon English blood-stock. The improvements in the
methods of slaughter, and especially in chilling and
freezing meat, have caused a rapid expansion in the
cattle trade.

The life on the estancia has been a favourite theme
for the pen of the descriptive writer, but conditions
are both more luxurious and more scientific than
they were in old days.

The merino sheep, which the Spaniards introduced,
ran wild for nearly two centuries, and became poor
and coarse. Early in the nineteenth century pure-bred
rams were re-introduced from Spain, and the export
of merino wool became large, but experience gradually
showed that the rich pastures of Argentina were far
more suitable to English breeds than to the merino,
and, as the English also afforded better mutton, they
were preferred, and a hardy cross-breed came into
favour. At present seven-eighths of the wool exported
is cross-bred. The Lincoln is the favourite breed,
but in Patagonia the hardy Romney Marsh is pre-
ferred. In 1911 the wool export was 330,836 bales.
The trade in frozen mutton is less than in beef, but is
very considerable ; in 1912 the export was valued at
;£i, 1 23,000. Considerable mineral wealth is known
to exist, but hitherto its development has been insig-
nificant and far from lucrative, although there is a
famous mine at Famatina, in the Province of Rioja,
where gold, silver, and copper are produced. Hardly
any coal is found. Great interest has been taken in
the numerous discoveries of petroleum which have

ARGENTINA 41

been made in many parts of the Republic — in Jujuy,
in Salta, at San Cristobal in Santa F£, in Mendoza,
and, in particular, in Commodoro Rivadavia in
Chtibut. It is expected that the annual output will
soon be nearly 30,000 tons. The lack of coal is
likely to prevent Argentina from becoming a con-
siderable manufacturing country. The only important
manufactures are the semi-rural ones of sugar, wine,
milling, and meat-preserving. The sugar mills employ
most hands. There are said to be over 30,000 factories
in Argentina, which, it will be seen, are small, as they
employ only 329,490 workers. They include brick-
works, boot factories, sawmills, carriage works, tobacco
factories, tanneries, breweries, wool factories, match
factories, and many others. Unlike Brazil, Argentina
has very few cotton-mills, possibly owing to the drier
climate. Although the Republic has failed to develop
manufactures on a large scale, a high protective tariff
is in force with this object, and thus living is very
expensive. The latest Consular Report issued at
Buenos Aires says : " In common with other progres-
sive countries, Argentina has experienced an almost
continuous rise in the prices of food-stuffs and manu-
factured goods ; 1912 shows an appreciable increase
in the cost of living. This increase is particularly
noticeable in the prices of articles of prime necessity.
The rise at the outset was accompanied by an increase
in the rate of wages, but the proportion has not been
maintained, and the working-man is consequently
the sufferer. ... The question has also come before
Congress with a view to lowering the customs duties
on articles of primary necessity." Bread and rent
have gone up in price to an alarming extent during
the last few years.

Nothing has done more to create industries in
Argentina than the railways. There are now about

42 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

20,000 miles of railway in operation. Much informa-
tion about them may be obtained from a little book
entitled the Manual of Argentine Railways, by S. H. M.
Killik, which is published annually in London. Only
12 per cent, of the total mileage is owned by the
State. There are four great lines which, like many of
the numerous smaller Argentine railways, are under
British management and have been built with British
capital.

1. The Buenos Aires Great Southern principally serves
the great Province of Buenos Aires, and is now
extending far beyond Bahia Blanca, originally the
southernmost point, and will eventually pass through
the territory of Neuquen and penetrate through the
Andes into Chile. Its mileage, which is 3,641, is larger
than that of any other Argentine line, and 691
additional miles will soon be open.

2. The Buenos Aires and Pacific is the only railway in
South America which has succeeded in linking
together the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, for, thanks
to its enterprise, a railway journey may now be made
from Buenos Aires to Valparaiso. The last link in the
chain was forged in April, 1910, when the tunnel
connecting Chile with Argentina was opened. The
company is, therefore, justified in its proud title of
Pacific. It has 3,416 miles in operation.

3. The Buenos Aires Western, having made a small
beginning in 1857,, is the oldest of Argentine railways.
It runs from the capital to Mercedes, and then takes a
southern course, serving a rich wheat country, and
eventually reaching Bahia Blanca. It has a mileage
of 1,781.

4. The Central Argentine, an extremely well-managed
line, connects Buenos Aires firstly with Rosario and
afterwards with Cordoba and Tucuman, far away to
the north-east. Although severe competition is en-

ARGENTINA 43

countered on certain parts of the route, it is probably
the most prosperous railway in the whole of Argentina.
It carries an immense quantity of grain. The mileage
is 3,067, and many extensions and improvements are
being made.

All these four lines are broad gauge, 5^ feet, while
the other lines, numerous but mostly English, employ
a variety of gauges. The British capital invested in
railways alone is estimated at £194,500,000, and banks,
tramways and other enterprises account for about
£40,000,000 more. The railway policy of the
Argentine Government has always been strongly in
favour of private enterprise as against any form of
Government management, but under the Mitr£ Law
there is an excellent provision under which those
railway companies that accept it pay a tax of 3 per
cent, of their net receipts, and the sum raised is spent
in constructing and maintaining roads and bridges
which give access to the lines. This is all the more
necessary because Argentine roads are not, generally
speaking, good. Almost every book upon the
Republic describes the railways. In the notes upon
the towns some particulars are given about the various
means of communication.

COINAGE

The real monetary unit is the gold dollar ; $5.04 are
equivalent to the pound sterling. There is not,
however, any gold or silver coin in general circulation,
and none has been for many years. Paper money
constitutes the circulating medium of the country,
and $100 paper (termed moneda nacional) have the
exchangeable value of $44 gold. This state of things
has been in force since 1899, when the Conversion
Law was passed. In 1912 the paper money in circula-

44 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

tion was 722,924,213 paper pesos. The Banco de la
Nacion Argentina has a capital of 120,999,950 paper
pesos.

FINANCE

In 1912 the revenue was ^29,377,100

„ „ expenditure was ^28,776,000

The internal debt is £46,345,000, and the external
£58,276,000. Although the revenue is large and
expanding, the expenditure usually exceeds it, for the
finances are in a state of considerable confusion, which
is regretted by business men. About five-sixths of the
gold revenue comes from customs duties. In spite of
haphazard methods of finance, the credit of Argentina
is good, owing to her immense wealth, and her 4 per
cent, gold loans, are usually quoted at 90 or there-
abouts.

HISTORY

When the Spaniards and Portuguese first came to
South America the country now called Argentina was
principally inhabited in the south by the warlike
Araucanians, and in the north by the more docile
Guaranies. We have but scanty information about
them, and the history of the country may be said to
begin in 1516, when the first European sailed up the
River Plate. This was Juan Diaz de Solis, a brave
navigator dispatched by the King of Castile, but his
fate was tragic, for on landing he and his boat
crew were killed and eaten by savages, so that
the remainder of the crew, horrified by their com-
mander's fate, made the best of their way home ; and
an exploring expedition by Cabot, made ten years later,
left no permanent results. It was in 1535 that the
Spaniards made their first attempt at a colony, when

ARGENTINA 45

Pedro de Mendoza appeared with a large expedition
and founded the city of Buenos Aires — " so named
in regard to the freshness of the air." The colonists
suffered great hardships from privations and the
hostility of the Indians, and Buenos Aires was twice
abandoned during the early stages of its struggling
existence ; but Asuncion, far to the north, was much
more successful under the governorship of the able
Irala, who kept the Spanish flag flying, and thus a
base of operations was established, which enabled
the Spaniards to spread their power in several
directions. From Asuncion the enterprising Juan de
Garay pushed southward, and in 1573 founded Santa
Fe at the junction of the Parana and Paraguay. In
1580 he founded Buenos Aires for the third time, and
the city very quickly began to prosper, and became an
important emporium for the trade in hides. Although
but forty-five years had elapsed since the Spaniards
had introduced horses and horned cattle, the Pampas
were already grazed by vast herds of wild cattle.
The well-being of the young settlement was largely
due to the wise Governor Hernan Darias, whose
dealings with the Indians were at once firm and
humane. Under him, in 1620, Buenos Aires was
separated from Asuncion and became a separate
governorship, but both colonies remained under the
viceroyalty of Peru. The history of Spanish
Argentina is, on the whole, prosperous and un-
eventful. In those days colonies were looked upon
as " plantations " existing for the benefit of the
mother country, and all writers have denounced
the illiberality of the Spanish economic policy,
which ordered Buenos Aires to trade with Cadiz by
way of Peru and the Isthmus of Panama. This
illiberality, however, was common to all nations ;
the laws were easily evaded, and a brisk contraband

46 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

trade grew up with the English and Dutch. Out of
this arose quarrels with England, and these (together
with Indian wars and constant hostility from the
Portuguese, both on the Brazilian border and at
Nova Colonia in Uruguay), make up the main
disturbing events in the first two centuries of
Argentine history. The disputes with England came
to a head in the notorious war of Jenkins's Ear, so
unwillingly begun by Walpole in 1739. The result
was inconclusive, but it illustrates the fierce struggle
for markets which then, as now, was one of the
chief motive powers of States. The Spanish colonial
system, though hard to alter, was beginning to
crumble, and in 1773 there was a further disintegrating
stroke in the expulsion of the Jesuits, who had long
been protectors and civilizers of the Indians in the
upper part of the Plate District. In 1776 the
Spaniards began enlightened reforms. Buenos Aires
was freed from servitude to Peru and placed under
a separate viceroy, who ruled over such parts of
Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay as were
then accessible to the Spaniards. At the same time
free trade was established between Buenos Aires and
Spain. But these changes did not avert the coming
storm.

The revolt of the North American colonies had
caused in the civilized world a great ferment, which
was intensified by the French Revolution, and the
doctrine of the Rights of Man began to make head-
way in South America. That it would bear any
immediate fruit in Argentina seemed improbable, but
a momentous event — the English expedition — showed
the people the weakness of Spain, and gave them con-
fidence in their own strength. As Spain was in
alliance with France, the British Government directed
expeditions against the Spanish colonies in the Plate

ARGENTINA 47

district, and Montevideo, having been taken and lost in
1806, was captured a second time in 1807, and from
this base the pusillanimous Whitelocke, who had
arrived at the head of a fine army, began operations
against Buenos Aires. The troops forced their way
into the town, but met with a severe check from the
Creoles, who fought with unexpected skill and
determination and Whitelocke made a most dis-
graceful capitulation, by which he agreed to evacuate
both Buenos Aires and Montevideo. The expedition
retired ignobly from the Plate River on September
9, 1807, and Whitelocke, it is some satisfaction to
know, was tried by court-martial and cashiered. The
only permanent result of this affair was that it opened
the eyes of British merchants to the enormous value of
the Argentine market. Within less than two years the
men of Buenos Aires learned that Spain was helpless,
and had been practically annexed by France ; they
therefore called upon the Spanish viceroy to form a Pro-
visional Government, which was done on May 25, 1810,
and this is held to be the beginning of the Revolution.
The resistance of Spain, comparatively feeble in these
parts, was shattered by Belgrano's victory at Tucuman
in 1811, and henceforth Argentina was chiefly engaged
in securing the independence of the rest of South
America through the exploits of her heroic general, San
Martin, and in suppressing anarchy at home. This last
was by far the longest task. In 1825 Argentina stood
forth as a Republic in the polity of nations, having
been recognized by Great Britain and the United
States. But several ferocious tyrants sprang up and
made the constitution a dead letter, until in 1835 the
crafty Rosas established absolute dominion and put all
rivals to death. Like the dictatorship of Francia, the
tyranny of Rosas is one of the best-known circum-
tances in South American history, but the Argentine

48 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

was a baser and more cruel man than the Paraguayan,
and his fall and exile in 1852 were greeted wi'.h
universal approval. The history of the Republic went
on unprosperously, for progress was retarded by the
formidable war with Paraguay (see pp. 250-1), and by
quarrels between the Portenos, who wished the Port
(i.e. Buenos Aires) to be the head of a strong
centralized Government, and their rivals, who wished
for a Confederation. Eventually the Portenos may be
said to have triumphed, for Argentina is undoubtedly a
Federation, and the President at Buenos Aires has
tolerably effective powers over the Provinces. It was
about the year 1870 that Argentina, having obtained
peace abroad and, to a lesser extent, at home, began
the career of prosperity which is the most remarkable
phenomenon in modern industrial history, and has
hitherto had no bounds put upon it, except lack of
population. This prosperity led to over-speculation,
and the well-known financial and political crisis of
1891, but there was a rapid recovery, which, however,
appeared likely to be checked by the prospect of a war
with Chile over a serious boundary dispute. Both
countries, to their honour, agreed to submit the matter
to the arbitration of King Edward VII, but the task of
delimiting Argentine Patagonia from Chile was very
difficult, and several times the disputants seemed to be
on the verge of war. In 1902 the dispute was happily
settled, and its settlement is greatly to the credit of
General Roca, the President, who helped to calm the
angry passions of two proud nations. In 1904 his
term of office came to an end and Dr. Manuel
Quintana took his place. He died in 1906, and his
place was taken by Vice- President Senor Alcorta. At
the beginning of 1908 there were disturbances, accom-
panied by an attempt upon the life of President
Alcorta, but they did not lead to any very serious.

ARGENTINA 49

result. Vague rumours of impending trouble with
Brazil, based on the increase of naval armaments by
both countries, were emphatically denied, and
subsequent events seemed to show that they had no
foundation. In 1910 Dr. Saenz Pena was elected
unopposed to the Presidency, and in the same year
the Centenary was celebrated by the holding of
industrial exhibitions in the capital and by the
reception of foreign delegates from all parts of the
world. These celebrations gave occasion to reaffirm
the long-standing friendship between Argentina and
Great Britain, but they were somewhat marred by
anarchist demonstrations and threats of a general
strike, which caused the capital to be placed in a state
of siege. As has been well pointed out by Mr, Stuart
Pennington, this measure is not a proclamation of
martial law, but corresponds to the suspension of
the Habeas Corpus Act in Great Britain or Ireland.
The vigorous measures of the Government had their
proper effect, and now Argentina is not only
prosperous, as has long been the case, but also
tranquil. For the last few years the Republic has
had no history.

THE CONSTITUTION.

It is Federal in type, being less centralized than that
of Chile, but more so than that of Brazil. The
President, who is elected for six years, is assisted by
eight Secretaries of State. The National Congress
consists of a Senate of 30 members and a House
of Deputies of 120 members.

BUENOS AIRES

STEAMSHIP LINES— Buenos Aires is a great shipping centre.
The various lines and their rates of passage have been
mentioned in the Introduction. These are the Royal Mail

£

50 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

Steam Packet Company and the Pacific Steam Navigation
Company, the Lamport and Holt, the Houlder, the Nelson,
the Hamburg-American, and the Royal Holland. Several
Italian and French companies run good fast steamers from
various continental ports, and there is through communica-
tion by the Lamport and Holt Line between Buenos Aires
and New York. Practically all these lines touch at the
Brazilian ports and most at Monte Video. Ships belonging
to the New Zealand Shipping Company call here on their
homeward voyage. The Lloyd Brazileiro have a coastal
service from Brazilian ports to Buenos Aires. Vessels of
the Royal Mail and the Pacific Companies and also of the
Lamport and Holt proceed round the Horn to Pacific ports.
There is a good service of steamers up the Parana River ;
the Lloyd Brazileiro and many other companies dispatch
steamers to Rosario, Parana, Corrientes, Asuncion (Para-
guay), Corumba (Brazil), and many other fluvial ports. The
ships come up to the quay.

It is easy to land, but the conveyance of luggage to the
hotels is difficult and expensive, and the cabs are indifferent.

RAILWAYS — Some description has already been given of the
railways. Unlike every other capital in South America,
Buenos Aires is the heart of the national railway system,
and is quite as important a railway centre as London. In
the Paseo de Julio is the Retiro, the terminus of the Buenos
Aires and Pacific Railway. This is the point of departure
for Mendoza and Valparaiso. The journey to Mendoza
takes 33! hours and the first-class fare is £$ 53. This
includes a sleeping-berth ; it is a very comfortable journey.
A ticket for lunch, dinner and early coffee on the train may
be obtained for los. 6d. This station (the Retiro) is shared
with the Central Argentine Railway, which is the line for
Rosario, Cordoba, and Tucuman. The first-class fare to
Tucuman is ^4 155., and there are restaurants and sleeping
cars. The Buenos Aires Great Southern has its terminal
station in the Plaza de la Constitucion, and is the point
of departure for Mar del Plata and Bahia Blanca. To Mar
del Plata the journey takes 9 hours and the first-class
fare is £2 125. 6d. To Bahia Blanca the journey takes
about 14 hours and the price of a first-class ticket is
£2 1 8s. 6d. The trains are provided with restaurants
and sleeping-berths.

HOTELS — Much has been written about the hotels of Buenos

ARGENTINA 51

Aires, and much might be said both for and against them.
The following are among the principal : The Plaza, Plaza
San Martin ; the Royal, Calle Corrientes, 780 ; the Palace,
Calle 25 de Mayo, 221 ; the Majestic, Avenida de Mayo ; the
Grand, Calle Florida, 25. These are extremely expensive
hotels, ranging from about £i a day up to a very large
amount, and they are very sumptuous. The Royal is much
frequented by diplomatists. The Grand, in the fashionable
Calle Florida, is perhaps the most expensive. The Phcenix,
Calle San Martin, 780, will probably suit English visitors
best. The charge is 175. 6d. a day, and the cuisine and
accommodation are good ; it is under English management.
The Hotel Provence, much frequented by English, is
moderate in its charges — about los. 6d. a day ; it is com-
fortable and old-fashioned. The Londres and the Mayo
are finely situated in the Plaza de Mayo. Rooms can be
taken with or without board, at moderate prices, and fine
restaurants are attached. The proprietors of each are
Italians.

Among the numerous restaurants may be mentioned the
Sportsman, the Charpentier, the Royal Kellar, the Bal-
domeros, the Harguindequey, and the Brunswick (charges
moderate).

BRITISH CONSUL— British Minister, Sir Reginald T. Tower.
Naval Attache, Captain H. C. Grant.
Military Attache, Lieut. -Colonel Sir E. Grogan.
First Secretary, H. W. Gaisford.
Consul-General, H. G. A. Mackie.
Vice-Consuls, W. G. C. Gardner, P. E. Davies, C. F. A.

Bristow.

BANKS — London and River Plate, Anglo-South American Bank,
British Bank of South America, London and Brazilian Bank,
Banco Espanol del Rio de la Plata, Banco de la Provincia de
Buenos Aires.

NEWSPAPERS — Buenos Aires is celebrated for its excellent
journalism. Some 400 journals of all descriptions and
languages are published in the city. The two great morning
newspapers, La Nation and La Prensa, are up to the best
European standard, while La Argentina (circulation about
200,000) is a most enterprising paper. Other morning
papers are El Pats, El Tiempo, El Diario de Comercio, and
El Correo Espanol. Evening journals are La Razon and El
Diario. There are two excellent English dailies, the

52 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

Standard and the Buenos Aires Herald, while French
journalism is represented by Le Courier de La Plata, German
by Deutsche la Plata Zeitung and Argentenisches Tageblatt,
and Italian by La Patria Degli Italiani. The English weekly,
the Review of London and River Plate, is well known, as also
is Caras y Caretas, a cleverly illustrated weekly publication.
The Revista de Economica y Finanzas comes out every fort-
night. M. Walle x says of La Nacion and La Prensa :
" These are the two giants of South American journalism,
and they have no reason to envy English or American
newspapers. In these journals we find fewer trivial scraps
of news and less to stir up popular passion than in many of
our own papers, and we are kept in perfect touch with the
life and general affairs of the country." Argentina has
fortunately taken France instead of the United States as its
model in journalism, and the articles, reviews and general
contributions have a real literary touch, and the service
of news is superior to that of Parisian journals. La Nacion
belongs to the family of the famous Bartholome Mitre ; it is
a high-class Liberal paper. The magnificent offices of La
Prensa in the Avenida de Mayo are said to be the finest in
the world. The Standard was founded by Mulhall, a
member of one of the best-known Anglo-Argentine families.
ENGLISH CHURCH — Buenos Aires has an old-established church,
dedicated to St. John.

Buenos Aires, the second Latin city in the world,
has a population which is estimated at 1,439,528. The
traveller may be disappointed with the approach up
the great Plate estuary, for the coast is almost dead
level with the water and no imposing view can be
obtained of the " City of Good Air," but on landing
he will be amazed by its size and general magnificence.
The best time to visit Buenos Aires is either in March
or October, but the climate is tolerably good all the
year round, the hottest weather occurring about
Christmas-time. The temperature hardly ever falls
below freezing-point, and probably at no time more
than two degrees. The mean temperature is about
1 L' Argentine telle qu'elle est, p. 126.

ARGENTINA 53

60° Fahr. ; the maximum 103°. Buenos Aires is
described by its residents as " undoubtedly one of
the healthiest cities in the world." The death-rate
per 1,000 is 15-2 and the birth-rate 34*31.

Like Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires has been trans-
formed in modern times. Not many years ago the
buildings were low and in the Spanish style, but,
beginning with the era of feverish prosperity before
1891, the citizens pulled down the old houses and set
up tall erections in various styles of architecture.
Unfortunately, they were not able to plan their town
on the spacious scale of the Brazilian capital, and, in
fact, they were obliged to keep almost exactly to
the old lines, owing to the enormous cost of land.
Undoubtedly the streets are too narrow for the traffic
and obscure the effect of the sumptuous buildings,
which rise up luxuriantly in the Calle Florida and
other fashionable parts ; the only broad street in this
district is the Avenida de Mayo, which in recent years
was driven through the centre at great cost. It runs
from the Plaza de Mayo in the east, near the dockyards,
until it meets, in the west, the street of Entre Rios at
right angles. This street is more than a mile in length
and about 36 feet broad ; it is fringed by magnificent
shops, hotels, clubs, and offices, and is one of the
handsomest modern thoroughfares in the world. It is
easy to find one's way about Buenos Aires, as far as the
central parts are concerned, for the town is laid out on
the Spanish plan with the streets at right angles ; if the
pedestrian is walking from east to west, he is certain
sooner or later to pass every street that runs north and
south. The principal east and west streets are Tucu-
man, Lavalle, Corrientes, Cuyo, Cangallo, Bartolome
Mitre, Rivadavia, Avenida de Mayo, Victoria. These
are crossed by 25 de Mayo, Reconquista, San Martin,
Florida, Maipu, Esmeralda, Suipachu, Pellegrini,

54 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

Cerrito. This parallelogram, which embraces about
a square mile, includes practically all the town part of
Buenos Aires which he need see. The more distant
points will form objects of separate excursions. This
congested spot is Buenos Aires ; the impression
invariably given is one of bustle, wealth, and luxury.
Those who have made money love to spend it royally,
and one of the best described South American scenes
is the Avenida Alvear, leading to the park at Palermo,
along which pour magnificent equipages carrying ladies
whose toilets show that expense is no consideration.
The chief shopping street is the Calle Florida, whose
fine buildings are obscured by the narrowness of the
thoroughfare. In Buenos Aires the objects of interest
are so numerous that it is difficult to know where to
begin with their description. A beginning may be
made with the parks and squares. A beautiful feature
of Buenos Aires is the number of squares or plazas,
but unfortunately most of them are situated at some
distance from the centre. Noteworthy are the Plaza
de Mayo, which contains the Government Palace, the
Municipal Palace, and the Cathedral ; the Plaza Lavalle,
a large square containing a statue of General Lavalle ;
the Plaza San Martin at the termination of the street of
that name and the Calle Florida, which has a statue of
the great Argentine general ; the Plaza de Libertad,
the Plaza de la Constitucion, and many others. A
most charming park is 3 de Febrero at Palermo, which
is the Bois de Boulogne of South America. Adjoining
it is the Zoological Garden, which contains a very large
and varied collection of animals. Still farther away is
the fine park, the 9 de Julio, which is modelled upon
the Champs-Elysees. The two principal race-courses
are at Palermo and Belgrano. Here valuable thorough-
breds contend for rich prizes ; the wealthy Argentines
have spared no trouble or expense in improving their

ARGENTINA 55

horse-flesh and have imported many of the best English
stallions. The racing season is from March to
December. The entrance to the grand stand is
i2s. 6d. At Palermo and at the numerous grounds
in the outskirts of the city polo, football, cricket, golf,
lawn-tennis, and many other games and sports are
pursued vigorously, the Argentine having taken kindly
to them, largely under English tuition, for the English
have, ever since Whitelocke's expedition, been busy in
Argentina both in business and sport. The English
visitor will find the social life of Buenos Aires extremely
pleasant ; there are two excellent clubs in the Calle
Bartolome Mitre— the English Club and the Club de
Residentes Estranjeros. The French Club is in Calle
Florida, 112, the German in Calle Cordoba, 731. In
the Calle Cangallo is the English Literary Society,
with a good library. The chief Argentine club is the
Jockey Club in the Calle Florida, probably the most
sumptuous club in the world ; the entrance fee is
enormously high. There are many fine public build-
ings in Buenos Aires. One of the most prominent is
the Palace of Government (Casa Rosada), in the Plaza
de Mayo, which stands on the site of the old fort
erected by Juan de Garay in 1590. The present edifice,
a huge parallelogram about 400 feet long and 250 deep,
was built in 1894. Although the two wings are not
in architectural harmony, the building has an imposing
effect. Besides the Presidential offices, here are lodged
those of the Foreign Minister, the Minister of War and
several others. At the west end of the Avenida de
Mayo is the Congress Hall, a building with a huge
dome, whose weight is said to be 30,000 tons. The
Hall is in the Greco-Roman style and cost nearly two
millions sterling, but in spite of its cost and size, the
architecture has been severely criticized. The National
Library, Calle Mejico, 560, possesses 180,000 volumes

56 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

and the Library of General Mitre is in the Calle San
Martin. The Bolsa (Exchange) is a fine building.
The Cathedral, in the Plaza de Mayo, with a handsome
fa£ade and large dome, was built in the eighteenth
century. It contains a fine monument to General San
Martin. In spite of the vast sums which have been
spent upon it, Buenos Aires cannot be called a satis-
factory town, for its streets are too narrow to carry its
traffic. The Argentine Baedeker asks : " When shall we
have sideways 7 yards broad, like the two rides of
Broadway, where the fashionable people expatiate, or
ten or twelve, like the boulevards of Paris, which allow
the stranger space to drink his coffee and watch the
human flood pass by, talking, gesticulating, moving to
and fro at ease ? " One great advantage is possessed
by Buenos Aires in its numerous, rapid and cheap
tramways, which enable the traveller to visit every part
of the city.

There are many theatres, among which may be
mentioned the Opera, Calle Corrientes, 860, which is
open from May to August and is devoted chiefly to
Italian opera ; the Colon, in the Plaza Lavalle, which
cost about ^350,000 and is the finest theatre in Latin
America — a distinction possessed by several other South
American towns ; it is undoubtedly one of the most
graceful buildings in the city, being partly Ionic and
partly Corinthian ; it will hold 3,500 people — the San
Martin, Calle Esmeralda, 257, which deals in comedy
and variety shows ; the Odeon in the same street is a
comedy theatre ; the Victoria in the street of the same
name plays vaudeville ; the National Theatre, Calle
Corrientes, 950, intended for native plays ; the New, a
finely appointed building in the Avenida de Mayo ; and
the Argentine, Calle Bartolome Mitre, 1444, which pro-
duces French and Italian plays. Ara$.ng music-halls
may be mentioned the Casino, Calle Maipu, 336, the

ARGENTINA 57

Royal, Calle Corrientes, 829, and La Scala ; but these
places of entertainment have little that deserves
recommendation.

There is a University at Buenos Aires with over
4,000 students. Argentina is less distinguished for
culture than many of her smaller neighbours who
cannot compare with her in wealth and importance.
The energy of the country is chiefly absorbed in
money-making, and there is little time for the
humanities. The attitude is exemplified by the fol-
lowing anecdote. An English gentleman said some-
thing to an Argentine man of business about poetry.

" You talk of poetry/' he replied. " Well, Mr. ,

I never knew any one who cared for poetry make any
money on the Bolsa." On the practical side there
have been some noteworthy achievements. Calvo
(d. 1906) is the author of Derecho International, a
work of the highest authority and of world-wide fame.
Dr. Luis Maria Drago also has enriched International
Law both in terminology and practice. The Drago
Doctrine is thus explained in the Annual Register for
1907 : " The Convention (II) embodying, in a modified
form, the ' Drago doctrine ' that force must not be
used for the recovery of ordinary public debts
originating in contracts, was adopted in the ninth
plenary sitting of the Conference (October i6th) by
thirty-nine votes with five abstentions (among them
Venezuela). The Convention, which was described as
one of the few successes of the Conference, was not to
apply if the debtor State refused or ignored an offer
of arbitration, obstructed the process, or repudiated
the decision ; and on these points certain South
American States made reservations." The Annual
Register continues : " This doctrine was put forward
in a diplomatic note (December 29, 1902) during the
Venezuela crisis by Dr. Luis Maria Drago, then

58 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

Argentine Foreign Minister, now a delegate to the
Conference. He there maintained that no European
State was entitled to intervene by force in the affairs
of an American nation, still less to occupy its territory,
in order to recover a debt due from its Government to
the subjects of the intervening State, such an inter-
vention being an infringement of the sovereignty of
the debtor State and of the principle of the equality of
sovereign States. Sefior Calvo, an eminent Argentine
jurist, had deprecated such intervention in principle,
without absolutely excluding it, and had approached,
but not precisely asserted, the Drago doctrine." The
Drago doctrine is possibly more satisfactory to the
smaller Latin American States than to their creditors.

The novel has been cultivated with some success by
Argentine writers. In 1851 a good romance named
Amalia was published by Jose Marmol, a writer who
took the elder Dumas as his model. In 1888 there
appeared Leon Saldivar, by Carlos Maria Ocantos,
which is much admired for its powerful studies of life
in Buenos Aires. The most popular Argentine novel,
which is generally considered one of the best ever
written by a South American author, is La Gloria de
Don Ramiro, which was published in Madrid in 1908
by Senor Enrique Larreta. It is an historical romance
dealing with the times of Philip II of Spain. The
best of all South American histories in the Spanish
language, Ensayo de la Historia Civil del Paraguay,
Buenos Aires y Tucuman, was by the Argentine Dean
Funes, who lived through the revolutionary wars ; it
was published in Buenos Aires in 1816-17. General
Bartolome Mitre wrote valuable Lives of Belgrano
and San Martin.

During Spanish times the poetry produced in the
Plate district was not of much importance, but the
revolution inspired many poets, and the Lira Argentina

ARGENTINA 59

is a mine of patriotic verse. However, in this
favourite Latin American field, it must be admitted
that the Argentine harvest is scanty. Esteban Eche-
verria, a notable poet, sang in the early years of the
Argentine Republic and wrote vigorous lyrics, but he
was as much a social reformer and politician as a
poet, and his verse took a gloomy cast from his
surroundings, which were a living example of the
failure of democratic aspirations. He said, " Thou
shalt suffer the martyrdom that, for him who is born
a poet, is reserved by impious fate." Juan Maria
Gutierrez (1809-78) is considered the most complete
man of letters produced by Argentina, for the pursuit
is usually ancillary to politics or diplomacy. Unlike,
again, the generality of Spanish-American poets, he is
an open-air writer; his ode, Amor del Desierto, is an
example. Jose Marmol, the novelist, was also a
powerful poet and wrote vehemently against the hated
tyrant Rosas.

There are now, besides the extremely able journalists
of Buenos Aires, a number of accomplished literary
critics, but Buenos Aires is not, like Rio de Janeiro or
Bogota, a centre of culture, and it is significant that
most of the literary men contrive to reside abroad,
and even, in many cases, publish their works in
Europe.

Buenos Aires, with its excellent railways, is the best
centre in South America for excursions, and the
traveller will probably make it his headquarters for a
considerable time. The nearest place of interest is
La Plata.

LA PLATA

RAILWAYS — The town is reached by the Buenos Aires Great
Southern Railway ; there is a choice of two routes : (i) from
the Casa Amarilla, (2) from the Plaza de la Constitucion.

60 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

By the former route Quilmes (Hotel del Progreso) is passed —

a small manufacturing town of 5,000 inhabitants, situated

12 miles from the capital. La Plata itself is only 39 miles

from Buenos Aires.
HOTELS — Hotel Mainini, Calle 7 and $o, about 15$. a day ;

Hotel Comercio, Calle 9 and 51, the same charge.

Restaurants are the Navarro and the Sportsman.
BRITISH CONSUL— Vice-Consul, S. H. Puleston.
BANKS — Banco Espanol del Rio de la Plata.
NEWSPAPERS— El Dia, Buenos Aires, El Argentina, El Pueblo,

La Provincia, Los Debates, El Mercurio, La Reforma, La

Verdad.

La Plata, with 106,382 inhabitants, is the capital of
the Province of Buenos Aires and something of a
white elephant among cities. It was founded in 1882
and laid out on a magnificent scale, on the familiar
rectangular plan, which is modified by diagonal
avenues. The disagreeable North American plan is
followed of giving numbers instead of names to
the streets. There is a splendid park, planted with
tall eucalyptus-trees. Noteworthy buildings are the
Government Palace, the University, and the Municipal
Buildings. There is a race-course and three theatres —
Olimpo, Argentine, and Del Lago. But with all its
splendours La Plata is a lifeless city, and all visitors
comment upon its want of animation ; it is over-
shadowed by its great neighbour, Buenos Aires.

The great excellence of La Plata is its Museum,
standing in the Park, which was founded by F. P.
Moreno, the explorer and scientist, in 1884. The
architecture is ingeniously symbolistic ; there are
fourteen salons and the anthropological and palaeonto-
logical collections are among the best extant. There
is a National University, to which is attached the
Astronomical Observatory. From the port of La
Plata, which is Ensenada, a great quantity of frozen
meat is shipped.

ARGENTINA 61

MAR DEL PLATA

RAILWAYS — The distance from the capital is 240 miles, and the
trains of the Buenos Aires Great Southern Railway perform
the journey in 9^ hours. The station is in the Plaza de la
Constitucion. The first-class fare is £2 I2S. 6d. A seat in
the Pullman car is extra. Meals are served on the train.

HOTELS — The Bristol, a sumptuous hotel, from 305. a day.
Victoria, Royal, Comfortable, Carmen, Progreso, La Perla ;
these are good hotels and more economical, charging about
i8s. a day. The Hotel Universal charges about 135. a day ;
it has a good name. There are a number of second-class
hotels, including the Sportsman, the Frascati, and the
Continental, which charge about 95. a day. A restaurant is
attached to the Hotel Bristol, and there is an excellent
restaurant, Del Capitan. The usual price of a dinner is 55.

NEWSPAPERS — El Progreso, La Razon, El Orden, La Tribuna,
La Capital (weekly).

Mar del Plata, a fashionable seaside and bathing
resort with a population of 15,000, which is trebled by
visitors during the season, was founded in 1879.
Besides its bathing attractions, which are on an
elaborate scale, and the other amusements common
to seaside resorts, Mar del Plata is well known for golf
and pigeon-shooting. It is, however, so like other
places of the same kind that a detailed description is
not necessary.

BAHIA BLANCA

RAILWAYS— Bahia Blanca is 408 miles from the capital and the
journey takes about 16 hours ; there is a choice of several
routes by the Buenos Aires Great Southern Railway (Plaza
de la Constitucion). Meals are served on the train. The
single first-class fare is about £2.

HOTELS — Sud Americano, Avenida Colon, 122, from 135. a day ;
Royal, Calle Brown, same price. Also Hotel de Londres,
Calle O'Higgins, with good cooking ; Las Nuevas Flores,
Calle Chiclana; La Vasconia, Avenida Colon. Among the
restaurants may be mentioned the Jockey Club, Calle

62 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

O'Higgins ; El Espanol, Calle Alsina, 166 ; Universal, Calle

O'Higgins.

BRITISH CONSUL — Vice-Consul, C. C. dimming.
BANKS — London and River Plate, Anglo-South American, Banco

Espanol de la Rio de la Plata.
NEWSPAPERS — La Nueva Provincia, El Comercio.

Bahia Blanca, with a population of 72,706, is a very
modern town, having been founded in 1828 as an out-
post against the Indians. A few years later Darwin
says : " Bahia Blanca scarcely deserves the name of a
village. A few houses and the barracks for the troops
are enclosed by a deep ditch and fortified wall." In
those days it was engaged in constant wars with the
Indians, who were ruthlessly exterminated. No his-
torian, by the way, ever thinks of comparing the
treatment of the Indians by Royalist Spain with that
meted out to them by Republican South America.
The Spanish Governor had to swear an oath to
protect the Indians, and this he did unless prevented
by the greed of private exploiters. Nor is it the custom
now, as it was in Spanish days, to send missionaries to
devote their lives to civilizing the Indians ; at least,
such missionaries as are at work do not come from the
South American Republics. Even when the warlike
Indians had been exterminated, the remote situation
prevented expansion, and in 1880 the population was
only 2,000. Bahia Blanca received a great access of
importance when the Government began to build
Puerto Militar, at a distance of 20 miles, which is by
far the greatest naval port of the Republic. Mean-
while the town was rapidly becoming noted for the
exportation of wheat ; its commercial prosperity was
created by the five railways which give it access to
every part of the Province of Buenos Aires. There is
a good service of electric tramcars, which belong to the
two railway companies. The lighting is chiefly by

ARGENTINA 63

electricity, but an English company supplies gas.
The Great Southern Railway has a harbour at
Ingeniero White, 4^ miles from Bahia Blanca, which
dates from 1885. Here is accommodation for the
largest ships and two huge grain elevators. Port
Galvan is a similar harbour belonging to the Buenos
Aires and Pacific Railway. At Puerto Militar great
harbour works are being carried out for the Govern-
ment by a German firm at a cost of .£1,340,000. The
Pacific Steam Navigation Company and the Mihanovich
and other coasting lines frequently call at Bahia
Blanca. The following figures show the importance
of the shipping : —

1912

Vessels Tonnage

British vessels 343 862,305

Others 64 167,280

Total 407 1,029,585

There were also 12 sailing vessels with a tonnage of
14,446. A year or two ago the prosperity of Bahia
Blanca suffered seriously from poor harvests, but in
1912 the exports beat all records, as the following
figures show : —

Cereals Wool

Tons Tons

1907 865,400 84,100

1908 1,215,900 85,170

1909 970,000 80,400

1910 820,900 67,300

1911 504,000 65,000

1912 1,759,200 93,800

Bahia Blanca is undoubtedly one of the most rising
ports in the world, and its population has trebled
within a very few years.

64 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

ROSARIO

RAILWAYS — Rosario is rather more than 180 miles from Buenos
Aires, and the journey takes about 6 hours. It can be
made most comfortably in the Central Argentine Railway ;
meals are served on the train and there are good sleeping
berths. The same remark applies to the Buenos Aires and
Rosario Railway, whose trains also start from the Retiro.
The train passes over flat country through great fields of
maize and rich pastures grazed by fat stock, and at times
glimpses are caught of the majestic Parana. Rosario can, of
course, be reached also by steamboat, and a large number of
cargo vessels sail from England direct to this port.

HOTELS — Hotel Savoy, a first-class and well-appointed house ;
the price of a room is from 45. to ios., and the pension
terms vary from 175. 6d. to 255, a day, according to
the position of the rooms. Britannia, a comfortable hotel
kept by a Canadian family ; the charges are ios. 6d. a day.
Others are the Grand Hotel Central, the Royal, the Universal,
the Frascati, the Italia. These are fairly comfortable places ;
it is the custom in Rosario to serve the wine of the country
free at meals. There are several restaurants.

BRITISH CONSUL — Consul, S. S. Dickson. Vice-Consul, A. S.
Nolan.

BANKS — London and River Plate, London and Brazil, British
Bank of South America, Rio Espanol del Rio de la Plata.

NEWSPAPERS — The chief morning newspaper is La Capital,
which was in existence in 1868, the chief evening El
Messajero.

ENGLISH CHURCH — The English Church of St. Bartholomew is
in the Calle Paraguay.

Rosario, which has 213,000 inhabitants, is the second
city in Argentina, and is even more modern than
Bahia Blanca, having been an insignificant village less
than seventy years ago. In 1868 Burton says : "The
main interest of the settlement is its prodigious growth.
In 1850 it was a miserable hamlet of mud huts,
sheltering 600 souls ; in 1852 it numbered 1,500 to
2,000 ; in 1855 it had 6,000; in 1857, 12,000. The
census of 1858 gave it 13,826, and now its population

ARGENTINA 65

cannot fall short of 25,000." He gives a most enter-
taining account of the diversions of Rosario, which
principally consisted in baiting bulls, donkeys,
monkeys, and other animals.1 Rosario owes its
sudden leap into prosperity to the downfall of the
tyrant Rosas, who had imitated the policy of Francia
in trying to isolate his subjects from the world. As
the industries and commerce of Argentina expanded,
Rosario became one of the chief ports, and immense
quantities of wheat, maize and linseed are shipped.

The temperature varies greatly and changes are
sudden, making the climate dangerous to those of deli-
cate constitution. The temperature in January runs
from 86° to 98° Fahr., in June from 48° to 68°. The
death-rate is about 30, the birth-rate 35 per thousand.
The best time for a visit is from March to May, or
from September to October. It is during these months
that the climate and health of Rosario are usually at
their best.

Rosario is a handsome town, with streets wider than
are to be found in Buenos Aires ; the Calle Cordoba
is perhaps the best. The chief open space is the Pare
Independencia, towards the south of the town, with a
large artificial lake ; this pleasure-ground has been
carefully planted with rare shrubs, and is one of the
best in South America ; here are a race-course and a
flying-ground. The town is laid out with the utmost
Spanish regularity, and the busiest part is where the
parallel streets of Cordoba, Santa Fe, San Lorenzo, and
Urquiza intersect the parallel Maipu, San Martin, and
Libertad. There are several splendid boulevards — the
Orono, the Pellegrini, and the Wheelwright. There is a
first-rate service of electric tramcars. Theatres are the
Olimpa and La Comedia in the Calle General Mitre and
the Comic in the Calle Cordoba. It is pleasant to notice
* Battlefields, p. 236.

66 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

that Dean Funes, the historian, is commemorated by
the name of a street. The well-stocked Zoological
Gardens should be visited. The Palace of Justice is
an immensely large building, with a tall tower, and the
Bolsa and many of the commercial buildings are hand-
some. Rosario is well supplied with educational
establishments.

The situation is on a high bank, which affords a
fine view of the Parana, which is here 20 miles
wide, while it screens the town from the river.1 Two
places are well worth a visit — the wharfs, where
immense sums have been, and are being, spent on
improving the berthing accommodation, including
.£200,000 on a grain elevator, and the workshop of the
Central Argentine Railway, where carriages are made
and locomotives repaired. It is curious to think that
Asuncion had a railway before Rosario. There are
many English inhabitants and a pleasant club.
Rosario's grain traffic, as already stated, is enormous,
but it is also a considerable manufacturing town.
Brewing, ice-making, the manufacture of liqueurs are
carried on, and here is the largest sugar-refinery in
South America. It employs 800 workers and pro-
duces 80,000 tons of sugar in a year.

Although half a century ago a determined effort was
made to depose Buenos Aires and promote Rosario to

1 " We may remark that the approach to the town is a shelf of
hardened silt, varying from 60 to nearly 100 feet high, which is,
in fact, the edge of the Pampasian formation. The outline,
viewed in perspective, is diversified by headlands and double
distances, escarpments and undercliffs — here grass-clad, forming
comparatively level downs like those of Dover ; there dotted
with tree clumps and single trees" (Burton, p. 237). The com-
parison with Dover is an exaggeration, but Burton's book is
worth far more attention than it has received, for vigorous
books upon South America, written by keen observers, are not
common.

ARGENTINA 67

the position of capital, this great commercial city is
not even the capital of the Province of Santa Fe. This
distinction is enjoyed by Santa Fe, a small town of
48,600 inhabitants, founded by Juan de Garay in 1573.
Santa F£ (hotels, the Grand and others ; charges about
IDS. a day) is 288 miles from Buenos Aires, and is
reached by the Buenos Aires and Rosario Railway, but
it has little to attract the traveller. There are, however,
several northern towns which are well worth a visit.

CORDOBA

RAILWAYS— The distance from the capital is about 420 miles, and
the best trains take 16 hours over the journey. The price
of a single first-class ticket with sleeping-berth is £2 i8s.
The journey is made by the Central Argentine Railway.

HOTELS — Gran Hotel San Martin, Calle San Geronimo, an up-
to-date hotel, charging about £i a day ; Gran Hotel de
Roma, Calle Dean Funes ; Gran Hotel Victoria, Calle San
Martin ; Gran Hotel de la Paz, Avenida Velez Sarsfield ;
all these are considerably cheaper,

BRITISH CONSUL— The Vice-Consulate is vacant.

BANKS — Banco Aleman Transatlantico.

NEWSPAPERS — Los Principles, La Verdad, La Voz del Interior.
There are also three evening papers— Justicia, La Petita, and
La Libertad.

Cordoba, with a population of 100,000, the capital
of the province of the same name, is an old and
famous city. It was founded by Cabrera in 1573, and
as long as the Jesuits were allowed to continue their
beneficent work it was famed for learning and its
University had a great reputation. It was called
La Ciudad Docta. There are three theatres — Revira
Indarte, Avenida Velez Sarsfield, which will hold
2,000 ; Argentine, Avenue General Paz ; and Calderon,
Calle Constitucion. There is much to interest the
visitor. The city is pleasantly situated in a valley
1,240 feet above the sea-level, and Nueva Cordoba
and Alta Cordoba are now more agreeable places

68 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

of residence than the old town. It is bisected by the
little river Primero. In New Cordoba a beautiful and
elevated park has been made. In Alta Cordoba is
another pleasant park by the river named Las Heras.
There are two race-courses. The city has been greatly
improved in recent years and has been opened out
by fine avenues, among which the Argentina and
General Paz may be noticed. Any part of the town
or suburbs can be reached by a good service of electric
tramcars. In the handsome Plaza San Martin stands
the cathedral, one of the best examples of church
architecture in Argentina, whose domes and pinnacles
give an Oriental effect. The old Jesuit Church, built in
the seventeenth century, has a beautiful interior. In
the Plaza San Martin also is the old Cabildo, and there
are several other good public buildings and fine statues
of Velez Sarsfield and General Paz. In Cordoba is
the National Observatory, founded in 1869, which is
extremely well equipped ; it sets the time for the
whole Republic. There are Museums of Mineralogy
and Geology, of Botany, of Zoology, and the Poly-
technic Museum. The University of Cordoba is one
of the most famous in South America. It was founded
in 1613 by Fernando de Trejo ^y Sanabria, who en-
dowed it with his whole fortune. It is a large and
well-built structure, and possesses a library of 30,000
volumes. As has been said, it had a great reputation
for learning, but with the expulsion of the Jesuits and
the subsequent establishment of a Republic the Uni-
versity and all other good institutions decayed ; in 1870
it was greatly improved by President Sarmiento. Here
Francia, the Paraguayan Dictator, was educated. Dean
Funes, who, as at Rosario, is commemorated by the
name of a street, spent all his life at Cordoba. This
city is a very important trade centre and has a number
of small manufactures.

ARGENTINA 69

Within 50 miles of Cordoba and easily accessible
by rail are the Sierras de Cordoba, called the Argentine
Switzerland. Here are several small health resorts
with hotels, among which may be mentioned La
Falda, which has an extremely good hotel ; the Eden,
with 92 bedrooms — terms from ITS. a day. La Falda,
which is 5,000 feet above the sea-level, has lovely
scenery.

TUCUMAN

RAILWAYS — Tucuman is 745 miles from Buenos Aires. The
journey can be made by the Central Argentine or the Buenos
Aires and Rosario Railway ; the first-class return fare is £8 8s.

HOTELS — National, Calle Las Heras ; Universal, Plaza de la
Independencia, Hotel Europa, Calle 25 de Mayo. All these
are fair hotels.

BRITISH CONSUL— Vice-Consul, F. E. Tirbutt.

BANKS — Banco de la Provincia de Tucuman.

NEWSPAPERS— El Heraldo, El Orden, El Diario del Norte, La
Verdad.

Tucuman, the capital of the Province of the same
name, has 78,695 inhabitants. It stands about 1,300
feet above the sea-level. The town was founded in
1565, and has always been an important place. In
1816 a Congress met here and declared the inde-
pendence of Argentina. Tucuman is an attractive
town, with a spacious Plaza de la Independencia,
flanked by the Cathedral, the Government Palace,
which has replaced the old Cabildo, and other hand-
some buildings. There are a good many French in
Tucuman, and they maintain a good school. The
climate is rather warm and enervating ; the maximum
temperature is 104° Fahr., the mean 68°, and the
annual rainfall is 39 inches.

The great industry of Tucuman is sugar, which is
represented by thirty-one factories in the Province
with a very large capital, which produce yearly about
1 20 million tons ; the acreage is 156,250. The

70 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

industry was founded by two Frenchmen, MM. Hileret
and Nougues. Some 2,000 workmen are employed,
under conditions which leave something to be desired.
M. Clemenceau says : " The workmen's quarters are
indescribable slums. On both sides of a wide avenue
there are rows of tiny low houses from which the most
rudimentary notions of hygiene or of comfort are,
apparently, carefully banished — dens rather than
dwellings, to speak accurately, so destitute are they
of furniture. . . . According to European ideas, these
folk are wretched indeed. Yet the climate renders
existence easy and they appear to find quiet pleasure
in it. We may be permitted to imagine for them a
happier future and higher stage of civilization, which
they will achieve when they draw a larger share of
remuneration from the monument of labour their
hands have helped to put up. Laws for the protec-
tion of labour are unknown in the Argentine, which is
explained by the backwardness of industry there."

Very few people will wish to proceed farther north
than Tucuman. There is, however, no difficulty in
visiting the little-known Provinces of Salta and Jujuy,
which are accessible by the Central Northern Railway.
Salta (Grand Hotel and Hotel del Aguila— 93. a day —
and the Hotel Nacional and the Hotel du Commerce
— 8s.) is an old-fashioned town of 30,000 inhabitants,
situated at a distance of 950 miles from Buenos Aires,
at an elevation of 3,300 feet. The population is largely
Indian. Jujuy (Hotel Central and others at 95. a day,
of an unpretending type) is at about the same distance
from the capital and at the same elevation as Salta, but
it is a much smaller town ; here are thermal springs.
Jujuy has more mining wealth than the other Pro-
vinces of the Republic. It is not advisable to go to
LaQuiaca, the frontier station about 170 miles north of
Jujuy, although it is accessible by the Central Northern

ARGENTINA 71

Railway ; the climate is cold and disagreeable— the
elevation being nearly 11,000 feet — and there are few
objects of interest. At some future time there will be
a railway hence into Bolivia.

As regards the north-east of Argentina, the chief
object of interest is the Iguazu Falls, which may claim
to be the world's greatest waterfall. The following
table enables a comparison to be made : —

Feet Feet Feet

Iguazu ......... 28,000 13,133 196-220

Victoria (Zambesi) ... 18,000 5,580 350-360
Niagara ......... 18,000 5,249 150-164

The journey has been described by Mr. W. S.
Barclay. The falls are 1,175 miles from Buenos
Aires, and it is well to allow a fortnight for the expedi-
tion. The traveller can go either by river or by rail,
and perhaps a mixed journey is the more interesting.
The first stage is to Corrientes (Hotel de France, Hotel
du Globe, Hotel de Mayo), which is 810 miles from
Buenos Aires and possesses some 30,000 inhabitants ;
this town, the capital of the Province of the same
name, has retained much of its old Spanish appear-
ance. It is a rising place, admirably situated for river
trade. The return fare by boat from the capital to
Corrientes is £9 93., and the voyage up lasts three
days. A further journey of 36 hours up the Alto
Parana brings the traveller to Posadas (with three
hotels, one of which, built by the Mihanovitch Com-
pany, is very comfortable). Hence the traveller may
take train to Asuncion. Posadas is a flourishing and
rapidly increasing town with a population of 14,000.
Some 800 or 900 vessels enter the port every year.
The return boat fare from Corrientes to Posadas is
£6 as. 6d., and the voyage takes 36 hours. There

A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

is yet another river journey to Puerto Aguirre,
which has an hotel charging about 143. a day. The
voyage occupies 70 hours. Here passengers for
the Falls disembark and ride or drive (at a cost of
about 305.) to the magnificent cataract. Posadas can
be reached more quickly from Buenos Aires by rail.
The best time for a visit is between September and
April. It is said that the sound of the falls can be
heard at a distance of 12 miles, and that there is a
perpetual rainbow caused by the spray. The spectacle
of the falling water may not be as grand as that of
Niagara, owing to the diffusion caused by the great
breadth of the river, but here there is the accompani-
ment of fine sylvan scenery, and undoubtedly the
Falls of Iguazu are one of the world's great sights.

THE TRANSCONTINENTAL JOURNEY

It now only remains to descrfbe that journey which
is one of the most important parts of our itinerary—
from Buenos Aires to Valparaiso. At Mendoza the
broad gauge ends and a change of carriages is made.
The following is the time-table. The dollars quoted
in the tariff are Argentine pesos, worth about is. qd.

Monday,
Wednesday,
Friday

Buenos Aires (Retiro)

dep.

7.00 a.m.

||d

Mercedes .

,

9.05 a.m.

ofg J3 5

Junin
Rufino

'

1 1.35 a.m.
2.25 p.m.

l~ft

Lunch, dinner,

Laboulaye
Mackenna
Villa Mercedes
Villa Mercedes

arr.
dep.

3.30 p.m.
5. 10 p.m.
8.2Op.m.
8.30 p.m.

"O 2 £ w

early coffee
on train,
85 to $6-

(Sleep in train)

lHH

San Luis .

„

11.05 P-m-

Mendoza .

arr.

4.30 a.m. J

:

ARGENTINA

Tuesday,
Thursday,
Saturday

Mendoza . . . arr.

4.30 a.m.

} 8-

(Change)

\ =3^5^

Mendoza . . . dep.

5.00 a.m.

a!|!

Puente del Inca . arr.

n.oo a.m.

SIP

Las Cuevas . . ,,

12.00 noon

} p"

Lunch,

(Change rail to coach, and lunch)

Chile Time

82 to $3

Las Cuevas . . dep.

I2.oonoon

Summit . . . arr.

1.20 p.m.

1

Juncal ... ,, 4.00 p.m.

o

(Change coach to rail)

(C i « >>

Los Andes . . arr.

(Customs and change)

6.15 p.m.

•111!

StSg

Dinner, $2
(at Los Andes

Los Andes . . dep.

6.50 p.m. >

or Llai-Llai)

Llai-Llai . . . arr.

8.30 p.m.

9

Llai-Llai . . . dep.

8.50 p.m.

• Ill

(Change)

5y> 'a

Valparaiso . . arr.

10.40 p.m.

9

Santiago ... „

10.15 p.m. *

APPROXIMATE COST OF JOURNEY — BUENOS AIRES TO
VALPARAISO OR SANTIAGO

THROUGH FARES — Including beds in train, 50 kilogrammes luggage,
collected from and delivered to hotels at points of departure and
destination.

First class £12 ; half-ticket (3 to 12 years)
Second class £7 ; ,, „ „ „

The train passes through monotonous country,
chiefly pastoral, and there is no object of special
interest until Mendoza is reached. At Mendoza the
most satisfactory hotel is the Hotel de Paris, kept by
an obliging old Frenchman, and good accommodation
and food are provided, while the charges are reason-
able. The wines of the country are good. The
London and River Plate Bank and the Anglo-South
American Bank have branches here. Mendoza, with
40,000 inhabitants, is a charming town, the centre of
a wine district and in full view of the Andes. A
traveller who visited it a few years ago thus describes

74 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

it: "At the west end a large park and zoological
gardens are being made, and at sunset there is a
beautiful prospect from their pleasant walks, which
seem to be under the very shadow of the Andes.
Their grim and jagged forms appear to be within an
easy walk.1 But Mendoza itself is like a large park ;
conduits of clear water run on each side of the streets,
and their banks are lined with trees. The principal
street, the Calle San Martin, is quite as rustic as the
others, and it contains nearly all the shops, which are
large and good for a provincial town. There is an
excellent English Club with a large membership, and
as the climate of Mendoza is genial, the town is by no
means a bad place of residence. The chief peculiarity
of the climate is the almost complete absence of rain.
Mendoza stands at an elevation of nearly 3,000 feet
above the level of the sea, and is thus, as might have
been expected, temperate. The thermometer rarely
touches freezing-point, and seldom or never ioo°Fahr.,
but the rainfall is only a few inches yearly, and this
rich district is entirely dependent for its fertility on
irrigation."

The streets are wide, and the houses are low as a
precaution against earthquakes. Mendoza has a grim
memory of the terrific earthquake of March 20, 1861,
which destroyed the great majority of the inhabitants.
Fortunately the town, apart from slight shocks, has
been immune since that date, and the only signs of
the havoc are the ruins of the old cathedral, which
has been replaced by a less massive building on a
different site. Mendoza is entirely devoted to the
wine industry, and the Bodega Tamba, said to be one
of the largest wine factories in the world, is well worth
a visit. The town is rapidly expanding, and the price
of land has risen to a remarkable extent.

They are, however, at least 30 miles distant.

ARGENTINA 75

Here the gauge of the line is changed, which,
however, remains under the control of the Buenos
Aires and Pacific Railway as long as it is in Argentina.
After a journey of about 6 hours through a barren
mass of mountains the well-known Puente del Inca is
reached. As the name implies, here is the Bridge of
the Inca, and many people take advantage of the hotel
and halt to view this natural curiosity, but possibly
those who merely give it a hasty glance while the
train is waiting have the best of the bargain. For
the trains run but three times a week, and thus two
days must be spent in this desolate spot, where the
scenery (except for the view of the glittering peak of
Aconcagua) is not attractive, at an elevation of nearly
9,000 feet, which is very likely to cause discomfort.
The experience, however, is not uninteresting ; the
climate in March is cold and bracing, and a pleasant
walk or ride of 10 miles may be taken to Las Cuevas.
For the attractions of this " rising watering-place,"
which are soon exhausted, a recent traveller may be
quoted: "The bridge itself has a commonplace
appearance, but it is an extraordinary natural phe-
nomenon. It appears to be a natural dam of earth
and rock lying athwart the Cuevas River, which has
managed to bore a passage through the barrier. The
stone, earth, and shingle which compose the arch have
been cemented together by deposits from the hot
springs, and the bridge is 66 feet high, 120 feet wide,
and 20 or 30 feet thick. Underneath the vaulted arch
there bubble up springs of very high temperature, and
the most striking feature here is the glittering and
jagged masses which adorn the grotto. The baths are
considered to have great medicinal value, and there is
a variety called the champagne bath, which all visitors
are urged to take."

From Puente del Inca the train soon reaches

76 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

Las Cuevas, which is very near the frontier line.
Until recently it was necessary at this point to cross
the pass on mule-back or in mule-cart, and thus an
opportunity was given of seeing the statue of Christ,
which Argentines and Chilians set up on the frontier
to celebrate the peaceful settlement of their boundary
dispute. But in 1910 the remarkable tunnel was
opened, and the two countries are now linked by the
iron rail. On emerging, the train stops at El Portillo,
and is, of course, on Chilian soil. The journey to
Valparaiso may be briefly described. At first the
country is completely barren and very forbidding in
appearance, but soon after leaving Juncal the line runs
into a broad valley watered by the River Aconcagua,
where lucerne grows abundantly and there is plenty of
tillage. At Llai-Llai — the junction for Santiago — a
good dinner may be obtained at 8.30 p.m., and at
10.40 p.m. the train reaches the terminus, the third of
the Valparaiso stations, and a cab is taken to the
Royal Hotel. The journey from ocean to ocean has
been achieved.

For early Argentine history the Ensayo of Dean Funes,
published in Buenos Aires in 1816-17, is best, but unfortunately
it has never been translated into English. Both in history and
description the Mulhalls have done very good work, and a new
edition of their Handbook of the River Plate would be welcome,
while useful historical accounts of the country may be found in
the books of Mr. C. E. Akers and Mr. T. C. Dawson, who deal
generally with the history of South America. Books on modern
Argentina are very numerous ; that by M. Walle is very full and
well written. A considerable amount of information will be
found in the following works : —

Koebel, W. H. Modern Argentina. London, 1907.

Argentina Past and Present. London, 1910.

Hirst, W. A. Argentina. London, 1910. South American Series.
Martinez, A. B., and Lewandowsky, M. Argentina in the XXtJi
Century. (Translated.) London, 1911.

ARGENTINA 77

Martinez, A. B. Baedeker de la Republique Argentine. 3rd

Edition. Barcelona, 1907. x

Pennington, A. S. The Argentine Republic. London, 1911.
Walle, P. L Argentine telle qu'elle est. Paris, 1912.

1 This is a most useful book, and it would be well if other
South American countries possessed something of the kind. It
gives all the information which is familiar to readers of Baedeker.

A RGENTINE

BOLIVIA

Railways shown thus 3^=^

0 200MILE.S

I "GEOGRAPHIA'Lr* 33 STRAND. LONDON. WC:

BOLIVIA

BOLIVIA is the fourth largest of the South American
Republics, having an area of 708,195 square
miles, but the population is estimated at no more than
2,267,935. It is, in fact, the most sparsely populated
of all, having a density of no more than 3*38 to the
square mile. The backwardness of this Republic is
accounted for by geographical conditions, a remote
situation, and a troubled history. Since the war of
1879-81, when the valuable Province of Antofagasta
was lost, there has been no access to the sea, and egress
to the neighbouring countries is difficult on the west
owing to the mountain barrier, and on the east owing
to dense forests. But communications are being
rapidly improved, and, with the extension of railways,
the great natural resources of Bolivia, now almost
untouched, will be more effectively utilized. The
country now suffers from lack of population. In round
numbers the population may be described as consisting
of 300,000 uncivilized aborigines, 1,000,000 mestizos
(men of mixed blood, chiefly Indian with a slight
Spanish strain, who speak native languages but are
tolerably civilized), and 700,000 Spanish-speaking people
with a considerable amount of Spanish blood in their
veins, who constitute the aristocracy of the country.
High spurs of the coast Andes penetrate eastwards
into Bolivia, e.g. Sajana, which attains a height of
21,000 feet, but far more imposing is the main chain

79

8o A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

(Cordillera Real, or Royal Cordillera), which runs
from Lake Titicaca south-east right through the country.
Of these the noblest mountains are Illimani (21,339
feet), close to La Paz, and Sorata (23,500 feet), about
100 miles north-west. Illimani was climbed in
1898 by Sir Martin Conway, who gives a vivid descrip-
tion of this great exploit. " Notwithstanding the fog
below, the view was impressive, for we stood out in
clear air and brilliant sunshine, with towering clouds
and snowy peaks near at hand. The peaks, draped
in broken ice, were magnificent. The southern con-
tinuation of the Cordillera likewise lifted itself into
sight, but of Mount Sorata and the northern range we
saw nothing, while only patches of the Bolivian plain
were seen through gaps in its nebulous covering." I

It may be added that the view from great heights
seldom realizes expectations. The elevation of the
Bolivian towns is so great that the traveller is liable
to suffer from soroche, or mountain sickness, unless he
approaches them by slow degrees. La Paz, the largest
town, stands at 12,470 feet above the sea-level, Oruro
12,200, while Potosi has the unwholesomely high
altitude of 13,325 ; except for Cerro de Pasco in Peru,
it is the highest town in the world. Sucre and Cocha-
bamba have more moderate elevations — about 8,000
feet each. The districts of which the two latter are
the centre grow cereals and are mainly agricultural.
These mountains hold immense wealth in gold, silver,
tin and copper, although the famous mines of Potosi
are not nearly as productive as they were in old times.
The eastern portion of Bolivia is imperfectly known,
but much knowledge has been gained by the explora-
tions of Major P. H. Fawcett, who has contributed
valuable papers to the Geographical Journal. " East
of the Cordilleras is a region of forest and vast campos
1 The Bolivian Andes, p. 138.

BOLIVIA 81

or grass plains. With the exception of a few unim-
portant streams which empty themselves into the great
lakes of Titicaca and Poopo, all the rivers flow from
or through the Cordilleras into the basins of the
Amazon or Paraguay." The frontiers (especially the
Brazilian) are the worst parts. "The climate, except
on the extreme frontier, is not unsuitable for a white
man. Everything grows luxuriantly. On the great
grass plains which lie inside the belts of rich forest
bordering the rivers'* there is ample scope for cattle-
raising. There is practically an unlimited field for the
prospector ; and the rifle can be relied upon for food
within the limits of the Amazonian forests." But the
forests on the affluents of the Amazon are unhealthy,
almost impenetrable, and infested by hostile Indians
and many animal and insect pests. " Insects are
legion. They are the pest of South American travel :
mosquitoes of course ; roca-roca, a microscopic fly,
which at times makes observation work by night
almost impossible ; marigwis, or the Portuguese pium,
which in the dry season attacks in thousands, every
one leaving its small blood-blister ; ' gehene/ a
microscopic nightfly which penetrates any mosquito
net ; tavenas, or a species of poisonous house-fly ;
wasps and bees of all sorts." After this description
of discomforts (of which the above is but a short
extract) by Major Fawcett, it is easy to sympathize
with Sir Martin Conway's comment : " I am thankful
to say I have not been in the parts of Bolivia described
to-night." Yet the Madera-Marmore Railway and the
Sao Paulo-Corumba line will tap the forest wealth of
Bolivia on the Brazilian side, while, on the south side,
Tupiza will soon be in railway communication with
Argentina. Bolivia has already 780 miles of railway,
and many more lines are under construction or
projected. The Antofagasta and Bolivia Railway runs

82 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

from the port of that name through Oruro to La Paz.
The Arica-La Paz Railway connects La Paz with the
port of Arica. The Bolivia Railway connects Potosi
and other towns on the highlands with the Antofagasta
and Bolivia Railway. The Peruvian Corporation owns
one or two short lines in the neighbourhood of La
Paz. A short account is given of the railways under
the headings of the towns.

Bolivia lies entirely in the torrid zone, and the
climate is, of course, determined more by elevation
than by latitude. The Yungas or lower eastern slopes,
up to an elevation of 5,000 feet, have a mean tempera-
ture of about 74° Fahr. On the highlands, where most
of the population is located,, the mean temperature
ranges between 50° and 60° Fahr. ; here the cold is
severe between April and August, while November,
December, and January have a mild and summerlike
climate. From 17,000 feet and upwards is a region
of perpetual snow and quite uninhabited. The rain-
fall is moderate in most places, usually not exceeding
30 inches annually.

The hills on the eastern side consist chiefly of
palaeozoic rocks and granite ; the western Cordillera
is mostly Jurassic and cretaceous beds. The palaeozoic
rocks are often overlaid with red sandstone, and here
most of the copper ore is found. The chief mineral
wealth occurs among the palaeozoic rocks.

The flora of Bolivia is tolerably various owing to
the eastern forests. The vegetable wealth is very great,
although, excepting in the case of rubber, not much
use has hitherto been made of it. The coca plant,
whose leaves are chewed as a stimulant by the Indians
with most pernicious results, grows freely in the
eastern forests and quinine is abundant. Almost
every kind of tropical produce can be raised. On the
uplands, of course, vegetation gradually becomes scanty.

BOLIVIA 83

The fauna of Bolivia is numerous, and corresponds
closely to that of Peru. The puma and jaguar are
found in the forests. As in most parts of tropical
and sub-tropical South America, the peccary and tapir
are abundant. The ant-bear and one or two other
varieties are not uncommon, and the chinchilla, the
skunk, and other animals valued for their fur are
often met with, while monkeys are common. The
alpaca, the vicuna, and the guanaco are the most
valuable of Bolivian animals. Rattlesnakes and other
poisonous serpents infest the forests, and the huge
anaconda is extremely common. The birds are a
varied tribe, and in the Andes the magnificent condor
is often seen.

PRODUCTS AND INDUSTRIES

The wealth of Bolivia is, as yet, mainly mineral. It
furnishes one quarter of the total tin supply of the
world. This metal is found in almost every part of
the great mountain range, but the chief mining centre
is Oruro, and among the principal mines are La
Salvador, San Jose, and the Huanuni group, which
includes the mines of Negro Pabellon, Morocala, and
Vilacollo. Silver is found, but it is less important
than in earlier days ; the chief mine now is that of
Huanchaca, which yielded 5,000 tons of silver during
the first twenty-five years of its existence in the latter
part of the nineteenth century. Gold is widely
diffused, but the mining is mostly carried on in
primitive fashion, and copper is not now very im-
portant. A considerable amount of wolfram and
bismuth is obtained. The mineral wealth of Bolivia
is enormous, but mining industries are hampered by
the inaccessible situation of the richest deposits, and
thus the cost of transportation is large. The soil of

84 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

Bolivia is fertile, but is imperfectly cultivated, and
the food-stuffs raised are insufficient for home con-
sumption. Wheat, maize, barley, and beans are
grown, and coca, quinine, and coffee are exported.
Some sugar and cotton is raised. The chief vege-
table product is rubber, which is gathered extensively
along the River Beni. For the most part the industry
has been carried on in a reckless manner, and trees
have been ruthlessly destroyed. The Indians of the
forest are more hostile than they were fifty years
ago. " Since that time the savage has been sacri-
ficed to rubber ; slaughtered often under circum-
stances of horrible barbarity ; his villages burnt and
his farms destroyed ; either to secure forced labour
for the rubber estates, or to exterminate him from
the field of its exploitation " (Major Fawcett). Cattle
and sheep are raised in considerable quantities.

Bolivianos x

In 1911 the imports were 58,371,409

„ exports „ 82,631,169

The imports are mainly cottons, woollens, railway
plant, mining machinery and textiles. The following
are the ctfief importing countries : —

Bolivianos

United Kingdom 12,470,046

Germany 10,310,934

United States 9,864,615

Chile 9*837,313

Belgium ... 4,063,954

It is worthy of remark that our country has made
great advances in the Bolivian trade within recent
years. In 1898 its exports fell far below those of

1 The boliviano is worth about is. 8d.

BOLIVIA 85

Germany, and since then they have multiplied nearly
twelvefold. The chief articles exported were : —

Bolivianos

Tin 52,639,603

Rubber 18,921,192

Silver 4>58y>745

Bismuth 2,106,162

The United Kingdom figures very prominently in
the export trade, taking articles valued at 59,582,279
bolivianos, while Germany, as second share, only
takes 10,992,723.

There is practically no immigration into Bolivia,
and this is a great misfortune for the country, which,
above all things, needs workers to develop her wealth.

COINAGE

In 1906 a law was passed providing for a coinage
on a gold basis, and the English and Peruvian pounds
(which are identical in value) are legal tender, while
the monetary unit and silver coin of general circulation,

i.e. the boliviano, has a value of nearly is. 8d.

•».

REVENUE AND FINANCE

In 1912 the revenue was ^1,378,968

„ „ expenditure was ... 1,388,523

The revenue is derived mainly from customs duties,
export duties, and spirit duties. There is an export
duty on tin amounting to is. 5jd. — 53. 7^-d. per cwt.,
according to its value. There is also an export duty
on rubber. The external debt, of recent creation,
amounts to .£1,500,000. There is an internal debt
of 10,533,688 bolivianos.

86 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA
CONSTITUTION

Bolivia has a Constitution, which was last re-
modelled in 1880, centralized in type, with a
President, two Vice -Presidents, and six Ministers.
There is a Senate with 16 members and a Chamber
of Deputies with 75 members. Bolivia is divided
into 9 Departments and 55 Provinces.

HISTORY

Bolivia was at first held in slight repute by the
Spanish conquerors ; but in 1545 the stupendous
silver-mine of Potosi was discovered, which caused
the Spaniards to turn their attention to that region,
and three years later La Paz was founded to become
a large emporium of the stream of traffic between
Potosi and Lima. According to some estimates, the
amount of silver yielded by the Potosi mine in 300
years was .£340,000,000. " To work these mines
the Spaniards ruthlessly impressed the helpless
Indians. Each village was required to furnish a
certain number of labourers annually. Lots were
drawn as if for a proscription, and the unhappy
creatures who drew the bad numbers went off to
meet a certain death in the dark wet pits and galleries,
bidding good-bye to their wives and children like men
stepping on the scaffold. The destruction of life was
frightful, the official returns made by the officials
charged with the impressment demonstrating that in
the neighbourhood of Potosi the Indian population
fell within a hundred years to a tenth of its original
numbers." r

It should, however, be remembered that these
cruelties . were perpetrated in direct defiance of the

1 Dawson. The South American Republics, ii. p. 242.

BOLIVIA 87

orders of the Spanish Government at home, and
the condition of the Indians was much improved
by the labours of the Jesuit missionaries. They
made a thorough study of the Indian languages, and
brought Christianity to the Chunchos of the Beni and
to the remotest forests of the interior. Towards the
end of the sixteenth century gold was discovered,
and the washings were at first enormously productive,
but were gradually exhausted within a hundred years.
Till 1776 Bolivia formed part of the Viceroyalty of
Peru, but at that date it was detached and added to
the Viceroyalty of Buenos Aires, and in 1780 the
general unrest was exemplified by the sanguinary
revolt of Tupac, a descendant of the Inca kings.
This Indian rebellion, which was suppressed with
great cruelty, was a revolt against Creole tyranny,
and the Indians did not show much enthusiasm for
the "patriots" during the Revolution. Bolivia was
the scene of fierce fighting, and for a long time the
Spanish loyalists had the advantage. But the vic-
tories of Bolivar and Sucre in Peru broke their
power and left the Spanish forces in Potosi so
completely isolated that the end soon came, and in
April, 1825, the last Spanish army was defeated.
Thereupon the Liberator Bolivar, whose standard
Lord Byron had dreamed of following, gave the new
Republic his name and its present inconvenient
boundaries, with the important exception that
Bolivia then had the maritime province of Antofa-
gasta, since lost. General Sucre was first President,
but within two years he was driven out, and Bolivia
fell into anarchy, which lasted for more than forty
years, and needs no description. In 1879 Bolivia,
being involved with Peru in the nitrate dispute
against Chile, took the losing side, and, sharing in
Peru's defeat, lost Antofagasta, and all access to the

88 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

sea, which has never been recovered. However,
this severe blow appears to have braced the Republic,
for its subsequent history has been more peaceful
and prosperous. The resources of the country de-
veloped, revolutions became less frequent, and a
troublesome boundary dispute with Brazil was settled
by the cession of part of the Acre territory on the
promise of Brazil to build the Madera-Marmore
Railway, which, it is hoped, will soon be completed.
The news that the arbitrators in the boundary
dispute with Peru had decided against Bolivia caused
some excitement at La Paz in 1909, but happily no
war resulted. Further boundary troubles occurred
with Ecuador, but the boundaries are being deter-
mined by English exploration parties, and the recent
history of Bolivia has been peaceful. Senor Eliodoro
Villazon was elected President in 1909, and he was
succeeded by General I. Montes, who was elected
in 1913. The recent history of Bolivia consists chiefly
in railway building and in negotiations to secure
ports upon the Pacific and affluents of the Amazon
and River Plate. If these matters be settled satis-
factorily, the prosperity of the Republic will proceed
apace.

LA PAZ

COMMUNICATIONS — To reach the chief city of Bolivia the traveller
has a choice of three routes — from Antofagasta, Arica, or
Mollendo. Perhaps the best tourist route is to enter by
Arica and leave by Mollendo.

i. BY ANTOFAGASTA— The distance to La Paz is 719 miles. With
a view to escaping mountain sickness (soroche) it is well
to halt at the Chilian town of Calama (Grand Central Hotel),
where the elevation is only 7,435 feet. Thence the journey
proceeds through vast extinct volcanoes, over Ascotan
(13,010 feet) the highest point, and so across the frontier
at Ollegue (about 1,000 feet lower). Farther inland is
Uyuni (good French hotel), at an elevation. of 12,000 feet,
whence there is a short branch line to a silver-mine. Then,

BOLIVIA 89

after a long, dreary stretch, the lake of Poopo is reached.
This sheet of water is 55 miles long and 25 broad ; it is very
shallow. From the lake it is but a short journey to Oruro
(12,200 feet), an important mining town with about 20,000
inhabitants. Here there is a fair hotel and a considerable
English colony, engaged in the management of mines. On
this subject Sir Martin Conway has a remark which is worth
considering : " Speaking generally, this was characteristic
of South America : where work was to be done involving
the management of men in any numbers, or of machinery,
there was generally an English-speaking person in control ;
whereas, where it was a question of selling cheap goods
to suit the local taste and requirements, such trade was
in the hand of Germans. Germany has learned what Eng-
land has not, the importance and profitableness of exporting
her shopkeepers. In the great tide of English emigration,
the shopkeeping element has taken but a small part." Oruro
is a dreary-looking place and has no attractions apart from
its mines ; it is quite devoid of vegetation.

The railway then proceeds north-east till it arrives at Alto
de La Paz, from which is obtained a view of La Paz itself,
lying in a hollow at a distance of 5 miles. Here the steam
line comes to an end, and it is necessary to descend to
the town in a small electric railway. The total journey takes
36 hours.

2. ARICA is 267 miles from La Paz. The first-class fare on this

line is 2^d. a mile ; the time occupied on the up journey
is 15 hours, on the down 12. The highest point on the
line is 13,986 feet above the sea-level.

3. MOLLENDO (in Peru) is 531 miles from La Paz, and this route

is even loftier than the other two. The journey is, at first,
highly picturesque, and the pretty town of Arequipa, which
is described in the Peruvian section, is passed. The highest
point of this line is 14,666 feet. At Puno (12,540 feet)
the rail is left for the steamer, and the marvellous Lake
Titicaca is crossed. At Guaqui the train is rejoined, and
it is a short journey of 55 miles to Alto La Paz. The
journey occupies 28 hours.

HOTELS — Hotel Guilbert. This is an old-established and good
house. The rates are from 8s. 6d. to £i a day.

BRITISH CONSUL— Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipo-
tentiary and Consul-General, W. G. Gosling. Vice-Consul,
G. T. Maclean.

90 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

BANKS — Commercial Bank of Spanish America.

NEWSPAPERS — La Paz, El Tiempo, La Verdad, El Progreso Bolivia,

La Epoca, El Diario, La Tarde, La Action. The Comercio

de Bolivia is a weekly.

Opinion seems to be greatly divided as to whether
La Paz or Sucre is the capital. Some authorities
compromise by saying that Sucre is the nominal
capital and La Paz is the seat of government. As La
Paz is undoubtedly the seat of government, the foreign
Ministers, the chief trade, and the principal railway,
it certainly might be called the capital without quali-
fication. It is beautifully situated with the noble
Illimani in full view. The population is 78,856.

When the city was in process of building there was
no railway, and the materials were laboriously brought
up by means of mules ; it is not to be expected,
therefore, that it should abound in fine buildings.
The streets are very steep. The fashionable parade
is the Plaza Murillo — a garden with delightful flowers
— and the Alameda is a fine promenade bordered by
trees. The Executive Palace and several other Govern-
ment offices look upon the Plaza Mayor. Here also
is the fine cathedral, which, however, has been inter-
rupted in its construction by various political troubles,
and is still unfinished. It was begun in 1835, and is
designed to hold 12,000 people. The old church of
San Francisco is also a handsome building. La Paz
possesses a university with Faculties of Law, Medicine,
and Theology. There is also a military school. The
city is lighted by electricity and has a service of electric
cars. There is an excellent market well provided with
fruit. Situated near the source of the Chiquiapu River,
and standing 12,120 feet above the sea-level, La Paz
has a cool climate. The mean temperature is 54° Fahr.,
and the records vary from 19° to 75° Fahr. The place
is tolerably healthy, but the high elevation is trying to

BOLIVIA 91

weak hearts, and, indeed, affects every one unfavour-
ably. The higher the elevation, the less the supply of
oxygen, and thus vigour declines. Sir Martin Conway
points out that this is very noticeable in the case of
racing, which is a favourite sport at La Paz, but the
atmosphere diminishes the power of the horses, and a
distance of but half a mile is too great a strain upon
the thoroughbred. He mentions that a very fine horse
was brought up from Chile and allowed to race before
he was acclimatized. The strain was too great, and he
died the next day.

As we have seen, many South American countries
have distinguished themselves in the field of poetry
and general culture, but it cannot be said that the
literature of Bolivia has attained more than a local
reputation. One of her best poets is Ricardo Busta-
mente, who published in 1883 an epic, Hispano-
America Libertada, in honour of the memory of
Bolivar. The poem, which is a glorification of the
various events and heroes of the revolution, shows the
influence of Camoens.

" Buenos Aires ! matrona americana,
La emula de Sevilla en jentileza ;
Al horde de su rio, asi galana
Monstrandose cual culta en su belleza :
Del Sultan de los rios gran Sultana ;
Nido de amor, verjel de la belleza,
De bravos patria, de poetas cuna, —
Epocas cuenta de cruel f ortuna ! " *

A distinguished lover of books was Jose Rosendo
Gutierrez, who compiled a very comprehensive bib*

1 " Buenos Aires ! mother of America, rival of Seville in comeli-
ness, on the banks of thy river how gaily dost thou display the
charm of thy beauty, mighty Sultana of the Sultan of rivers ; nest
of love, garden of beauty, land of brave men, cradle of poets — in
what cruel days was thy lot cast ! "

92 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

liography of Bolivian literature. But Bolivia has, as
yet, contributed little to the world's literature.

La Paz is the chief centre of commerce and has an
active trade. British traders have been recommended
by the Consul to extend their operations here, for the
foreign trade has multiplied in a marvellous manner
during the last few years. British trade has also made
considerable headway. Merchants are recommended
to pack their goods very strongly to protect them
against the rough usage which they will receive on the
mountain tracks.

When the traveller has spent a short time at La Paz,
it is probable that he will have had enough of Bolivia
and be anxious to get to a lower level. But he will be
omitting a far more beautiful and agreeable city than
La Paz if he fails to visit Sucre.

SUCRE

COMMUNICATIONS— Potosi is the nearest railway-station, and is
72 miles from Sucre. The journey is made by diligence.
It goes by way of Negro-Tambo, Bartolo, Lagurillas,
Quebrada Houda, Pampa-Tambo, and Calera.

HOTELS— Gran Hotel Colon, Plaza de 25 Mayo; Hotel de 25
Mayo, Plaza de 25 Mayo ; Hotel Espana.

BRITISH CONSUL— Consul, E. F. Moore.

BANKS — None.

NEWSPAPERS — La Manana, La Industria, La Capital, El Dia.
The Revisto de Derecho y Jurisprudencia is a monthly
publication.

The beautiful city of Sucre, with 23,416 inhabitants,
occupies, as has already been stated, a somewhat
uncertain position. It was first known as Ch areas,
later as Chuquisaca, or Golden Bridge, and the
Spaniards called it La Plata, from the quantity of
silver discovered in the neighbourhood. It was finally

BOLIVIA 93

named Sucre in honour of the general who was the
first President of Bolivia ; it was the only honour he
received in his lifetime, for the Bolivians drove him
out of Sucre, and he was shortly afterwards murdered
by his countrymen, the Venezuelans. During the
Spanish dominion it was the chief city in Bolivia.
In 1826 it was declared the provisional capital of the
Republic, but this is an honour which has also
befallen La Paz, Oruro, and Cochabamba. Since
1898 La Paz must be considered as the capital,
although the Supreme Court is still located at Sucre.

Standing 8,860 feet above the sea-level by the
Cachamayo, a feeder of the Pilcomayo, Sucre is a
very charming place with a perfect climate. The chief
square is the Plaza 25 de Mayo, in the centre of the
town, and the Plaza Libertad, the Plaza Sucre, the
Plaza Rocoleta, and the Plaza Monteagudo may also
be mentioned. In the principal square is the new
Government Palace, the finest building in the town.
The Palace of Justice, where the Supreme Court holds
its sessions, is also handsome. Sucre is the seat of the
Archbishop of La Plata, and the cathedral dates from
the seventeenth century. In it is a fine painting on
copper, The Vision of San Cayetano, which was brought
from Spain. The chief university in Bolivia, that of
San Francisco Xavier, was founded in 1623, and is
the second oldest in South America. It has about
200 students. At Sucre is the Archive Nacional, which
is one of the best historical collections in South
America.

Many years ago the town was thus described, and
it has not altered much since : * " The streets and
squares of the town are broad, and fairly well paved,
and the town has altogether a rather imposing appear-
ance, although it is to be regretted that the sanitary

1 Mathews. Up the Amazon and Madeira Rivers, pp. 265-6.

94 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

arrangements of the municipality should in Sucre, as
well as in the other principal towns of Bolivia, be
remarkable and conspicuous solely from the utter
absence of care or attention to the commonest require-
ments of our times." Some improvements have been
made in the sanitation, and visitations of typhoid are
less frequent. The industries are insignificant ; there
is a chocolate factory and a flourmill. Sucre is
remarkable for a curious sweetmeat made out of clay,
which is rolled into sticks and greatly enjoyed by
the Indians.

COCHABAMBA

COMMUNICATIONS — Cochabamba is somewhat more accessible
than Sucre. It is rather more than 100 miles from Oruro,
and a line, which will soon be completed, is open for part
of the way. The journey can also be made by diligence,
lasting 2 days and costing about £2 los.

HOTELS— Gran Hotel Continental, Plaza de 14 Setembro ; Hotel
du Commerce ; Hotel Central.

BRITISH CONSUL— Vice-Consul, A. Barber.

BANKS — None.

NEWSPAPERS— Eraldo, El FerrocarriL

Cochabamba, the capital of the Department of the
same name, has an elevation of nearly 9,000 feet and
a population of 24,512. It is beautifully situated in a
valley to the south of the great mountain Tunari.
Founded in 1570, it received in 1786 from Charles III
the title of " loyal and valorous," in recognition of its
services in putting down the Tupac-Catari rebellion.
It rose against the Spaniards on September 14, 1809,
and the principal Plaza's name commemorates the
date. Cochabamba has, like Sucre, several pleasant,
park-like squares and a beautiful Alameda. The public
buildings are of the usual type, and there is a hand-
some cathedral. It is a busy trade centre, being near

BOLIVIA 95

a good agricultural district, and it is hoped that a
railway will soon be built to Chimore, a district rich
in rubber. Mathews said : "The chief wealth of the
Department appears to be in agriculture, for Cocha-
bamba may certainly claim to be the agricultural
capital of Bolivia, La Paz, Potosi, and Oruro being the
chief mineral centres, whilst the true capital of the
Republic, Sucre, is the political and educational
centre. Cochabamba is the storehouse for the crops
of wheat, maize, barley, and potatoes that are grown
on the plains on which the city is built. There are
many large gardens in the outskirts of the town,
which produce fruits of all kinds, such as grapes,
oranges, apples, pears, peaches, apricots, and straw-
berries. Roses, carnations, camelias, and most
European flowers are also grown> so that a visitor
may easily fancy himself in the South of France, or
even in a well-stocked garden at home, only that the
latter idea must be one of the finest summer days of
England for the comparison to hold good at all, for
it is almost impossible otherwise to compare the blue
sky and fine, clear atmosphere of Cochabamba with
our own murky and cloudy skies."

If the traveller has seen Oruro, Potosi, Sucre,
Cochabamba, and La Paz, he may claim to have a
very fair knowledge of Bolivia, but probably most will
be satisfied with Oruro and La Paz. Before many
years have passed, it may be easy to enter Bolivia by
rail from Buenos Aires, and even from Brazil. The
development of the marvellous system of waterways
afforded by the Amazon and the River Plate is in its
infancy, and will make travelling much more easy for
the next generation in South America. Now much
of the best country has to be approached through the
inhospitable Andes, and the traveller in Bolivia will
be fortunate if he has escaped several sharp attacks of

96 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

mountain sickness. However, the chance of escape is
increased if the heights be ascended in stages of not
than 5,000 feet.

English books on Bolivia are not numerous, but a work of the
South American Series has just been published on it — i.e., Walle
Paul : Bolivia (translated by Mr. Miall). London, 1914. The
following deals with the mountainous parts of Bolivia : —

Conway, Sir W. Martin. The Bolivian Andes. London, 1901.
A very valuable work is —

Mathews, E. D. Up the Amazon and Madeira Rivers.
London, 1879.

Several towns in the east of Bolivia are admirably described.
The following is a comprehensive survey of the country : —

Wright, Marie Robinson. Bolivia. London and Phila-
delphia, 1905.

An old work gives valuable information about the forest
products : —

Weddell, H. A. Voyage dans Le Nord de la Bolivie. Paris,

1853-
Van Brabant, W. La Bolivie. Paris, 1909.

This last work gives much useful recent information.

BRAZIL

FEW people realize the enormous size of Brazil.
It is by far the largest of the South American
Republics; and covers more than half the continent.
If Alaska is excluded from the area of the United
States, Brazil ranks as the fourth largest country in
the world. The area is 3,218,991 square miles, and
the population is estimated at 21,580,000. It has con-
siderably more than twice as many inhabitants as any
of its neighbours, but about one million of them are
more or less savage Indians.

From a glance at the map of Brazil it will be seen
that the country is divided by Nature into three parts.
In the north is the Amazon with its tributaries. The
basin of the Amazon, it will be observed, possesses a
fair number of towns and settlements, though, owing
to its immense area, they appear but few and far
between. The next division consists of Brazil proper,
and includes the States of Sao Paulo, Minas Geraes,
Bahia, Pernambuco, Ceara, and others. In the south
we have the region of the Rio Grande do Sul, which is
made up of the States of Rio Grande, Santa Catherina,
and Parana. The centre of Brazil, which stretches
from the Amazon basin in the north to the basin of
the Parana in the south, and is bounded on the east by
the State of Goyaz, is absolutely uncivilized and much
of it unexplored. Naturally, with such an immense
territory, the geographical and climatic conditions

99

ioo A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

vary extremely. The Amazon is the largest river in
the world, and by far the greatest part — 3,380 miles—
of it is in Brazil. The banks are covered with immense
virgin forests, which flourish in the hot and humid
atmosphere engendered by the river. The valley of
the Amazon has been populated within comparatively
recent times, and is still in an undeveloped state.

Brazil proper, the ancient and historic Brazil, is
situated in a tableland near the Atlantic sea-border,
stretching from the confines of Uruguay to French
Guiana. The length of the tableland is* about 2,000
miles. It is highest in the south, where it reaches an
elevation of about 3,200 feet, and slopes gently down
as it goes north. The presence of this high ground is
very clearly indicated by the map, which shows that
practically no rivers of any size flow into the Atlantic
south of the San Francisco. Many have their sources
in the country, but they all flow inland and sweep
round the tableland to empty themselves into the sea
far away. Notable, among them is the Parana, which
rises in Minas Geraes and flows south through Paraguay
to join the River Plate ; the Uruguay also rises in Rio
Grande and is the boundary line between that State
and Santa Catherina, until it reaches the borders of
Paraguay, where it turns south and divides that
country from Rio Grande, and finally flows through
Uruguay to join the waters of the River Plate ; on the
other hand, the San Francisco, which has its source
also in Minas Geraes, flows almost due south up to
Pernambuco, when it turns sharply to the east and
empties itself into the Atlantic. In the south of Brazil
the Atlantic side of this plateau is an immense bank
about 2,500 or 3,000 feet high. This long ridge is
called the Serra do Mar in the south and the Serra
Gual in the north. Behind the Serras is the State of
Minas Geraes, a mountainous and rugged region. The

BRAZIL

landscape of Sao Paulo forms a sharp contrast to it ;
the bleak, inhospitable nature of the country is changed
and Sao Paulo, where developed, is a fertile and
pleasant region.

Brazil has the reputation of being a land of forests,
which it chiefly owes to the proximity of the forests of
the sea coast. There is a strip of land between the
Serra and the sea upon which the wet winds of the
Atlantic are condensed and trickle down to form
swamps along the coast strip, where tropical vegetation
flourishes, and from the sea the impression is given
that Brazil is covered with forests. But behind the
Serra the landscape is quite different, and even where
woods occur, they are less luxuriant.

The climate of Brazil, as far as the temperature is
concerned, is very much the same all the year round,
and the seasons, instead of being divided into summer
and winter, are distinguished as the wet and dry
periods. The rainy season begins in September and
lasts till March. The dry season, though hot, is more
healthy. This applies to the Brazil of the coast and
north ; the tableland has a temperate climate, and that
of Rio Grande approximates to the climate of Buenos
Aires.

The geology of Brazil is noteworthy because its
formations are of immense antiquity and have existed
without disturbance from a very remote period. The
mountains consist chiefly of high strata of gneiss and
metamorphic schists with granite and various eruptive
rocks. The tablelands are horizontal strata dating
from the Silurian age.

The flora of Brazil is tropical, and, despite the
immense number of naturalists who have investigated
it, they have by no means exhausted its immense
variety. The timber of Brazil has been held in high
esteem ever since the discovery of the country. One

IC2 A. GIJJDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

of its most valuable trees is the wax palm (Copernicia
ceriferd), whose roots have valuable medicinal proper-
ties, while its fruit and stem yield milk, as well as wine
and vinegar, and the straw is valuable and the leaves
produce wax. The coconut-palms grow in great
variety. Dye-woods, aromatic shrubs, and nut-bearing
trees are innumerable. Orchids and fruits are very
numerous, but under the section devoted to products
a brief account will be given of a few of the principal
vegetable crops.

The fauna is numerous, but the only large mam-
mals are the jaguar, puma, peccary, tapir, capybara,
aquatic manatee and fifty species of apes. The
peccary is a kind of hog, and the white-lipped variety
(Dicotyles labiatus) is very savage. The capybara is a
huge guinea-pig. The rattlesnake is common and the
insects are present in the forests in innumerable
variety.

COMMERCE AND PRODUCTS

Brazil exports raw materials and imports manu-
factured goods.

In 1911 the imports were 1,003,924,736 milreis.1
„ exports were 795,563,450

The following are the countries most largely repre-
sented in the import trade : —

Milreis

Great Britain 230,541,951

Germany 133,274,167

United States ... 106,798,624

France 70,200,121

Argentina .'. ... 60,476,809

Portugal 42,692,593

Italy 33,104,015

1 The milreis is worth about is. 4<1.

BRAZIL 103

\ The imports of Brazil are very general in character,
and the principal items are machinery, cotton goods,
wheat, flour, jerked beef, coal and wine. England
sends most of the cotton goods.

The exports of Brazil are chiefly coffee and rubber,
and coffee is by far the most important, as the
following list of the exports in 1911 will show.

Coffee ^40,401,206

Rubber 15,057,015

Yerba mate 1,983,209

Cocoa 1,641,381

Cotton 978,998

Tobacco 965,375

Skins 647,564

Sugar ... 408,659

To this list should be added diamonds, which are
exported in considerable quantities, but the exporters
contrive to evade the vigilance of the customs
officers.

Coffee is by far the largest product of Brazil, which
contributes four-fifths of the world's supply of that
article. The coffee-growing States are Sao Paulo, Rio
de Janeiro, Espirito Santo, and Minas Geraes, but Sao
Paulo is much the most important. The industry was
introduced early in the eighteenth century and made
little progress until about 1840, when the crop
amounted to 40,000 tons. It steadily increased, and
by 1870 the production of Brazil was 3,763,908 bags,1
or a little more than one-half of the total coffee of the
world.

Sao Paulo at one time had produced cane, cotton,
and cereals, but the coffee fever seized upon all the
inhabitants : every one believed that coffee-planting
was the one path to wealth, and the production
increased by leaps and bounds. The last years of the
1 A bag is 132 Ib.

104 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

nineteenth century saw the activity at its height, and in
1901 the production amounted to 16,270,678 bags. In
the eighties and early nineties the prices had been
highly remunerative, varying from £2 i6s. per cwt. to
^5 45., but the immense increase in supply had the
inevitable effect, and the price fell in 1901 to £i 4s.
In October, 1905, it was clear that the harvest would
be on an unprecedented scale, and the planters, and
with them the whole State of Sao Paulo, were face to
face with ruin. The State Government, which had
long regarded the position with anxiety, had, in 1902,
passed a law prohibiting any further planting of coffee,
but this was no immediate remedy, for the coffee shrub
takes some years to come to maturity. The State,
therefore, began borrowing money with a view to
buying up the surplus stock of coffee and holding it
for a rise, and thus the great valorization scheme came
into being. The first step was for the State of Sao
Paulo to buy up the surplus supply of coffee, which
was done at a price more than double that prevailing
in the open market. This had the effect of paralysing
speculation, for no merchant was now willing to buy
coffee with the risk of seeing the market suddenly
flooded by an unlimited supply emitted by the
State.

The crop of 1906 amounted to over 20 million bags.
By way of a counterpoise a tax of 3 francs was imposed
upon all bags of coffee exported from Brazil. But the
price continued to fall. By 1907 the State, having
purchased 10,000,000 bags and sold 3,000,000, found
itself possessed of a stock of 7,000,000 bags, and was in
a position of great embarrassment, for it could not
continue to sell without utterly demoralizing the
market. At last, with the aid of the Federal Govern-
ment, a loan of .£15,000,000 was raised with the help
of English, French, and Belgian bankers. The coffee

BRAZIL 105

was then handed over to the trustees of the loan as
security. At the same time the export tax was raised
to 5 francs a bag. The difficulties were not ended, but
it was finally arranged that the Government purchases
should be limited to 500,000-700,000 bags in any one
year, and an equally important measure was the im-
position of a prohibitive tax on the export of coffee
above a fixed amount, viz. : —

Bags.

1908-9 9,000,000

1909-10 9,50O,OOO

I9IO-II IO,OOO,OOO

The experiment has hitherto been successful, partly
owing to the falling off in the crop, and the price of
coffee is now satisfactory.1 In 1910 Consul O'Sullivan-
Beare, who made a valuable report on the subject,
concluded : "Thus it will be seen that in spite of
much adverse criticism and gloomy prognostication,
the State of Sao Paulo has emerged triumphantly from
the ordeal of its attempt to interfere with the laws of
demand and supply in the matter of coffee. It is true
that the amelioration in the condition of the State
within the past three years is to be attributed to good
fortune rather than to good management. Neverthe-
less, on the principle that ' nothing succeeds like
success/ the State is to be heartily felicitated upon the
condition of prosperity to which it has eventually
attained. At the present time the market price of
coffee stands higher than at any other period during
the past sixteen years. The State has already made
considerable progress towards amortization of the
coffee loan, and will have no difficulty in liquidating
it within the stipulated period of ten years. The
5 franc surtax on coffee exported is hardly felt by the
planters, in view of the rise in prices ; and lastly, the
1 The price is now about £2 8s.

1 06 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

State can count upon making a clear profit of some
.£4,000,000 in connection with the sale of the balance
of the stock of valorization coffee. In a word, the
position of the State of Sao Paulo, financial and eco-
nomic, is more satisfactory at the present time than at
any previous period during the history of the State."

Next in importance is the rubber industry. It is
only about thirty years ago that the development of
the Amazonian regions and the systematic production
of rubber began. Labourers were imported from the
State of Ceara, and the demand for rubber increased
faster than the supply. In 1890 the export was
16,000 tons, in 1900 28,000, in 1905 33,000, and in
1907 35,404. In 1910 the amount was 38,547, and
in 1911 36,547. The fall in price is naturally checking
the prosperity of the industry. The tree which yields
the best Para rubber, the Hevea brasiliensis, is found
all over the swampy districts about the Amazon.
Good rubber is also produced by the Castilloa elastica,
which grows on firm, dry soil, and is therefore more
common along the upper branches of the Amazon.
Ceara rubber comes from the Manihot Glaziovii, and
Mangabeira rubber from the Hancornia speciosa. The
process of rubber-gathering and its preparation for the
market have often been described, and so also have
the cruelties which have been perpetrated on the un-
fortunate paraoras, or rubber-gatherers. Mr. Martin *
says : "The man who makes most money in rubber-
growing is probably the proprietor of the ground or
the lessee. He is a terrible sweater, and grinds the
unfortunate seringueiros mercilessly. He builds their
huts and dwellings, and transports them at his own
cost to the Seringal, where they work the trees and
extract the sap, nominally keeping for themselves
' 50 per cent, of the rubber extracted.' I say nomin-
1 Through Five Republics, p. 224.

BRAZIL 107

ally advisedly, because the truck system is in force
here in its worst form. The employer of seringueiro
labour insists upon supplying his workmen with all
their requirements, such as clothes, boots, food, drink,
etc. — especially drink — and sells all these bien entendii
at his own price. By the time the unfortunate work-
men have paid for their luxuries, or, rather, for them
combined with the system of fines and other imposi-
tions, their ' 50 per cent.' has dwindled considerably."
It is convenient for the British public to assume that
Putumayo is an isolated instance, and that there was
no reason to suppose that a rubber forest was not an
earthly paradise up to the revelations in Truth. But
the above extract was published in 1905, and every one
who knows anything about South America knows that
Putumayo was fairly typical of the remoter rubber
forests, just as the conditions described by Mr. Martin
represent the true nature of the Brazilian rubber
industry. Further, it may be doubted whether the
whole storm of moral indignation has ameliorated the
lot of a single rubber-gatherer, and, like Macaulay's
virtue, our humane susceptibilities will go quietly to
sleep, and the oppression will continue as long as
there is a demand for wild rubber.

The industry of yerba mate is elsewhere described.
Cocoa is grown in very large quantities, especially in
the State of Bahia.

The cotton-growing industry is developing rapidly
in Brazil. It can be grown in nine States, from Bahia
to Manahao. The zone in Brazil where cotton can be
grown is far vaster than that of the United States, but
as yet the production is small in comparison. The
growers, as a rule, are small farmers, who raise it in
conjunction with other crops, such as maize and
beans, and the cultivation is of a very primitive
kind. The greater part of the Brazilian cotton crop

io8 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

is consumed at home. It is very desirable in the
interest of Brazil that cotton-growing should be
encouraged to the greatest possible extent, for the
Republic now depends for its wealth chiefly upon
coffee and rubber — commodities which are subject to
strong competition, whereas the demand for raw
cotton has for many years been greater than the
supply.

Tobacco is a most important crop in Brazil, and
the quality is very good, while its cultivation is easy
and lucrative. It is chiefly raised in Bahia, Para,
Minas Geraes, Rio Grande do Sul and Goyaz. A
French traveller says that notwithstanding the faulty
methods of cultivation, " the tobacco leaf of Bahia is
deservedly renowned and appreciated, so that French
tobacco manufacturers make very large purchases
every year." There is a large export of hides, which
come chiefly from the cattle-raising States in the
south.

The sugar-growing industry of Brazil, which was
founded in the seventeenth century, is considerable,
although not so large as it was some years ago. The
cane is grown in most States, but most of all in Per-
nambuco, and the port of Pernambuco is the centre of
the industry. With better methods, the production
would be much larger.

It is hardly necessary to say that Brazil pursues a
policy of high Protection. The duties are very high,
and thus the prices of all articles are enhanced, in
consequence of which Rio de Janeiro is one of the
dearest places imaginable. The object of the Govern-
ment is to protect home manufacturers, who could
otherwise hardly withstand the competition of the
foreigner, and, further, it is difficult to see how the
public revenue could be raised were it not for
the tariff. The burden upon the* poor is heavy, and

BRAZIL 109

probably there is in Brazil a stronger Free Trade
party than in any other South American country,
and the question is frequently argued in the excellent
Jornal do Commercio.

It is certain that the tariff wall has enabled industries
to grow up. The manufacture of cotton goods is
the most important. It is principally carried on in
the States of Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo, and great
pains have been taken to obtain the best instructors
and the most modern machinery. The yarn is usually
imported, and the varieties of cotton cloth turned out
are, for the most part, coarse. Brazil possesses 194
cotton-mills, with 761,816 spindles and 27,958 looms.
Woollens are manufactured to a considerable extent.
Flour-milling, glass and biscuit factories, and a number
of small and miscellaneous industries, may be noted.
Brewing is carefully protected, and there are most
flourishing breweries in Rio de Janeiro and elsewhere.
But it will be seen that manufacture is not a very
important element in the national life when it is said
that the 3,258 factories of Brazil employ only 151,841
persons.

The mineral production of Brazil is small, con-
sidering the immense wealth which the land conceals.
What was said by Sir Richard Burton forty-five years
ago remains true : " The riches are still in the ground,
and the nation is undoubtedly poor." It is certain that
in former times Brazil produced gold to the value of
over .£100,000,000, and it is still found in nearly every
State, but the mines of Minas Geraes are the only ones
that are really productive. The two chief companies
are the St. John del Rey and the Ouro Preto, both
English. The natives obtain a considerable amount
of gold by washing. In Minas Geraes and several
other States there are extensive iron deposits. Much
interest has of late* been taken in them, but as yet

I io A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

little has been done to exploit this wealth, and Brazil
continues to import a great quantity of iron. There
are productive manganese mines, and the export of
that article amounts to about .£380,000. On the coast
from Bahia to Rio de Janeiro are very valuable
deposits of monazitic sand, which are employed in
making gas mantles. These are the largest in the
world. Coal exists in considerable quantity, but is
not worked to any large extent.

The most interesting mining industry of Brazil is
the diamond. Diamonds were first discovered by the
Morrinhos River near Diamantina in 1721. This
industry was at once declared the property of the
King of Portugal, and it soon became very lucrative,
the export of stones between 1732 and 1771 being
valued at .£3,600,000. In 1832 the diamond-fields
were thrown open. The " Braganza," now one of the
crown jewels of Portugal, was found in the eighteenth
century, and other noteworthy finds were the " Regent,"
and the " Estrella do Sul." This last weighed 255
carats in its rough state and 125 when cut. In 1910 the
" Estrella de Minas," of 175 carats, was discovered. Of
this industry the most important centre is Diamantina
in Minas Geraes, but they are found also in the States
of Bahia and Matto Grosso. Diamond-mining in
Brazil is carried on chiefly by small, isolated workers,
who employ very primitive methods, washing the
diamondiferous gravel in the baiea, or basin of hard
wood, and the process is very similar to that of gold-
washing. Extremely valuable are the carbons which
are used for pointing the drills used in mining opera-
tions. A few years ago a fine stone of a reddish
colour, weighing 2| carats, was sold in London for
.£3,000. It is believed that many Brazilian diamonds
are sold as Kimberley products, and, indeed, the
South American variety is considerably more valuable

BRAZIL in

than that of South Africa. The produce of Brazil
is undoubtedly large, but, owing to smuggling, it is
impossible to know what is the real value of the
diamond export. The mining situation in Brazil is
summed up by the Consul of Bahia, who says :
"There is no doubt that minerals of various classes
exist in the State, but it appears to be, at present,
impossible to work them at a profit.11 The cost
of transporting machinery up-country devours the
earnings.

MONEY AND EXCHANGE

The standard coin of Brazil is the milreis, the par
value of which is about 2yd. There are no gold
coins circulating in Brazil and their place is taken
by a paper currency. This is considerably depre-
ciated and is practically inconvertible. At present
the rate of exchange stands at about i6d. In 1889,
at the time of the revolution, the paper issue amounted
to 174 millions of milreis, and the exchange was
slightly above par at 27 ^d. The new Republican
Government soon followed the bad example set by
many South American Republics, and proceeded to
issue paper money recklessly. The result was disas-
trous. By 1897 the exchange had fallen to 9^d., while
two years later it was as low as 6d. or 7d. Having
thus depreciated the currency, the Government then
set to work to attempt a remedy. As usual when
a large banking reform was contemplated, an appeal
was made to London bankers. In 1898 what is known
as the funding loan was negotiated in London, and
it was carried out by the Rothschilds. A loan of
^10,000,000 was issued at 5 per cent, interest, which
was guaranteed by a first mortgage on the customs
receipts of Rio de Janeiro and the other ports. Brazil
paid the Rothschilds for the bonds as they were issued

112 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

in paper money, reckoned at an exchange of i8d.,
which was immediately destroyed. This plan was
partly successful and exchange rose again. By 1908
about 145 millions of milreis paper had been destroyed,
and the exchange had risen to i6d. The aim of the
Brazilian financiers was as much to steady the rate
of exchange as to raise it, and to attain this object
the Caisse de Conversion was instituted in 1906. It
is similar to the Argentine Caisse de Conversion. Its
function is to issue notes against gold received by
it from the Government and other depositors. These
notes are convertible on presentation to the Caisse.
By this means the exchange has been steadied, as the
convertible paper currency of the Caisse has acted
as a counterbalance against the inconvertible currency
of the Government. The Caisse notes are convertible
at the rate of 15 milreis to the pound sterling. They
amount to about one-sixth of the total notes circulating
in Brazil.

FINANCE AND REVENUE

Since the abolition of the Empire the finances of
Brazil have been mismanaged by the Republican
Government, and deficits are very common. Between
1906 and 1909 the total deficit was about .£10,170,000.
In 1912 the revenue was ^34,506,954 and the expendi-
ture .£34,492,689. For 1913 the estimated revenue
was ^39,603,165 and the expenditure .£41,890,535.
The foreign debt amounts to .£82,903,120 and the
internal paper debt to 620,525,600 milreis.

RAILWAYS

Considering its size and population, Brazil is not
very well supplied with railways, having a mileage
of only about 13,611. There is no general system,
and a glance at the map will show that the various

BRAZIL 113

lines form little knots about the sea-coast, having
grown up around the chief centres of population. Of
late considerable improvements have been made,
especially in the country from Rio de Janeiro south-
ward, and the Brazilian and Uruguayan capitals are
now united by lines of railway.

Brazilian railways are partly State-owned and partly
owned by companies. In many cases the Government
has granted a company concessions and guaranteed
a fixed rate of interest for a certain period. This
system has not proved very satisfactory. At present
the policy of the Federal Government is to buy up
when possible the railways from the companies that
own them. It does not intend to work them, but
to lease them to tenant companies. Under this
scheme the Bahia system has been expropriated and
leased to the Auxiliary Railway Company. The State
of Sao Paulo has bought the Sorocabana Railway and
leased it to a Franco-German syndicate.

The Great Western Railway, one of the best lines
on the continent, has a large system radiating from
the port of Pernambuco. The Bahia system is, on
the whole, less efficient. There is now a much
improved combination of railways in the south of
the Republic, and considerable extensions are being
made. An interesting and valuable line is the Madera-
Marmore Railway, 210 miles in length, which has
lately been constructed round the series of cataracts
and rapids on the Madeira and Marmore Rivers, by
which navigation was interrupted. From Porto Velho
on the Madera, which was the farthest point to which
steamers could come, a railway has been built to
Guayara Mirim on the Marmore. Hence also a line
was built to Riberalta, in Bolivia, and a port on the
Beni. The result has been to open an Atlantic outlet
for the trade of Bolivia.

H4 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

IMMIGRATION

It is necessary before closing the account of the
industrial conditions of Brazil to say a few words
about immigration, for upon that its progress mainly
depends. Every country in South America suffers from
lack of population, and Brazil perhaps more so than
any other ; in fact, her two staple industries, coffee and
rubber, were insignificant until the one received the
assistance of Italian peasants and the other of the
men of Ceara. During the past century fully three
million immigrants have entered Brazil. In 1911 the
number was 153,203, and the following table shows
their nationality : —

Portuguese 46*754

Spaniards 27,007

Italians 22,821

Russians 13,898

Syrians ... ... 6,233

Germans 4»223

Austrians 3,327

French 1,340

Swedes 1,116

English 1,045

Others 5,852

These figures, however, are net, i.e. they take no
account of emigration, which is sometimes consider-
able, and so it may be imagined that the Government
and employers of labour look upon the prospect with
anxiety. The prosperity of the State of Sao Paulo
was entirely built up by Italians, who used to pour in
multitudindusly. They were extremely good workers,
and assimilated very well. It was believed that a
million Italians had settled in the State of Sao Paulo,
and most of them had forgotten their own language.
" A Venetian meeting a Sicilian will speak to him
in Portuguese rather than learn the Southern dialect."

BRAZIL 115

But, not unnaturally, the Italian Government became
anxious about the constant drain upon the population,
and began actively discouraging emigration in 1902,
while, at the same time, the coffee crisis caused many
of the Italians to leave Sao Paulo. To some extent
the falling-off has been counterbalanced by an increase
in the number of Spaniards ; but, although the Brazi-
lian Government makes every effort to attract immi-
grants, and has made admirable provision for their
welfare from the moment of their landing, the popu-
lation difficulty remains. About one-fifth of the
population is negro, and the negroes are extremely
inefficient workers ; no planter of Sao Paulo would
hire any kind of native labour if he could obtain
Italian. The German immigration into Southern
Brazil is now small, but up to 1859 the Germans
entered the country in great numbers, and these
people have proved very tenacious of their nationality.
In many parts of Rio Grande do Sul; German is the
current language. Estimates of the number vary very
much, but some computations put them at nearly
a million.

It is certain that Brazil is no place for the English
settler, who is constantly warned not to come. The
Consul at Bahia says : " The country is not suited for
colonization by Europeans, and can never be expected
to progress like the more temperate States in the south
of the Republic." Brazil, as a whole, is less attractive
to emigrants than Argentina, still less than Canada,
Australia, and the United States. Everything is very
dear, and wages are low.

HISTORY AND CONSTITUTION

Brazil was one of the earliest portions of the New
World to be discovered. In 1499 Vincente Yanez
Pingon sighted Cape Augustine and coasted along

ii6 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

as far as the Amazon. He carried home various pro-
ducts, including the Brazil wood, which gave the name
to the whole country. The wood is mentioned by
Ascham in his Toxophilus, and the name Terra de
Brazil was at once applied to the new land. The
next year Pedro Alvarez Cabral arrived off the southern
coast of the State of Bahia. He did nothing of impor-
tance on this coast, but he sent a vessel to Portugal
formally announcing the discovery, and the King, Don
Manuel, began to take an interest in his new territory.
Amerigo Vespucci was dispatched, but he failed to
establish a permanent settlement, and for a long time
the Brazilian coast was neglected. But the Portuguese
knew that Spain was making efforts in the Plate dis-
trict, and they wished to secure a position on a conti-
nent which seemed likely to fall entirely under Spanish
influence. So Alfonso de Souza, a brave and able
navigator, sailed with five ships and reached the coast
near Pernambuco early in 1531, and sailed southwards
with the intention of founding a settlement on the
Plate. But, having lost a ship, he thought it prudent
to retrace his steps northwards, and in 1532, on the
ist of January, entered the magnificent bay of Rio
de Janeiro, and gave to the place the name of the
month of the discovery. He also established a post
at Sao Vincente in the State of Sao Paulo, and the
Portuguese colonists soon began to flourish. De
Souza is undoubtedly the founder of Brazil.

Within a few years twelve fiefs were granted on the
coast between the Amazon and Santa Catherina, and
six of them became permanent centres of Portuguese
influence. Pernambuco was on the track of all ships
voyaging to South America, and it early became the
seat of the sugar trade.1 But the Spanish explorers

1 In 1586 it was the leading port of the east coast. See
Purchas His Pilgrimes, xvii. 263 : " Now to return unto Fer-

BRAZIL 117

were making great progress on all sides, and the
Portuguese Government found it necessary to con-
centrate its petty chiefs and appoint a responsible
governor. The first governor was Thomas de Souza,
who in 1549 established his capital at Bahia. Six
Jesuits, the first of that Order to land in the New
World, accompanied the expedition, and they at once
began their labours among the Indians, the principal
of which was to discourage cannibalism. At Rio de
Janeiro the French at this time held possession. The
story of their ejection is thus told in Purchas * : " But
the King of Portugall sent a power of men against the
Frenchmen, and first took the French ships by Sea,
and then landed and besieged the Fort, and in time
took them with the Captaine, and because the French
Captaine was a Gentleman and never hurt the Por-
tugals, they gave him thirtie thousand Ducketts for
his Ordnance, with all things that they had in the
Fort, and so sent him for France, and the Portugals
inhabited the River." The name of the Frenchman
was Villegagnon, and the settlement by the Portuguese
was effected in 1567.

By this time the civilized population of Portuguese
Brazil was about 60,000, of whom 20,000 were whites.
Rio de Janeiro was as yet insignificant compared with
Pernambuco and Bahia.

When Portugal became united with Spain, Brazil
attracted the hostile attention of English marauders,
and her coasts were plundered by Withington, Caven-

namboche, inhabited by a Portugall Capitaine called Eduarte
Coelio, this is the greatest Towne in all that Coast, and hath
above three thousand houses in it, with seventie Ingenios of
Sugar, and great store of Brasill wood, and good store of Cotton,
yet are they in great want of victuals, for that all they have
cometh out of Portugall, and from other places there on the
Coast."

1 Ibid., 26.

ii8 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

dish, and Lancaster. But these incursions had small
effect, and enterprising Portuguese leaders made
conquests over the Indians, and frustrated French
efforts to re-establish themselves in South America.
However, their ill-starred amalgamation with Spain
brought upon the Portuguese another very formid-
able enemy in Brazil. The Dutch, after long fighting,
subjugated practically the whole group of settlements,
and when Count John Maurice came out in 1630 and
began to rule the new conquests with vigour and
prudence, it seemed that they would be the dominat-
ing power along the Atlantic coast of South America.
But that nation has always lost its dominions by fail-
ing to support its brave commanders, and Maurice
offended the Calvinist ministers and the trading in-
terests, and when he retired in 1644 the fortunes of
the Dutch were beginning to wane. In 1640 Portugal
had recovered her independence and was in a position
to help her Brazilian subjects to expel the Dutch.
This great work was chiefly accomplished by John
Fernandes Vieira, and by 1655 Pernambuco and all
the other places were surrendered by Schoppke, the
Dutch commander. Thus South America was aban-
doned to the Latin race.

The rest of the seventeenth century was uneventful,
but during the Dutch wars the Brazilians had engaged
in less creditable transactions than resistance to the
invaders. The Paulistas, or men of Sao Paulo, from
time to time ravaged the Jesuit settlements to the
south and perpetrated horrible outrages. Their in-
cursions had an extremely important result in deter-
mining that a large slice of South America should be
not Spanish but Portuguese. A considerable portion
of the forest country along the Plate affluents, as well
as Uruguay (Banda Oriental), was marked out for
Spain, but it was lost owing to the aggressions of

BRAZIL 119

the Paulistas. During the eighteenth century also
there was a standing quarrel between Spain and
Portugal over the coast boundary.

In 1690 gold was discovered, which attracted a host
of adventurers. In fifty years the State of Minas
Geraes produced seven and a half million ounces
of gold, but after a time the mining industry lan-
guished under illiberal laws. The War of the Spanish
Succession involved Brazil in the troubles of Europe ;
and later, in 1718, a French fleet attacked Rio de
Janeiro, but was compelled to surrender after hard
fighting. The Portuguese treated their prisoners
barbarously. Next year the French Admiral Duguay-
Trouin, with a strong fleet, destroyed the Portuguese
ships and captured Rio, but, having no wish to establish
a settlement, returned to France almost immediately
with much booty.

About this time diamonds were discovered, and
Brazil was long the chief source of the world's
supply. The rest of the century was a time of
tolerable prosperity. There were endless disputes
with Spain over the port of Colonia, which the Por-
tuguese had placed in the heart of Spanish territory,
and some fighting occurred, chiefly during the Seven
Years War, but at last, in 1777, Colonia was given up
to Spain. On the other hand, Rio Grande do Sul was
recognized as the possession of Portugal ; this was
practically a legacy of the Paulistas. The high-handed
Pombal was as rigorous a reformer in Brazil as in
Portugal, and in 1760 he committed the great crime of
expelling the Jesuits. The colony, however, continued
to prosper. The capital had been transferred to Rio
de Janeiro in 1763, but Bahia remained the chief trade
centre, and the increasing practice of importing negro
slaves added to the prosperity of the sugar and mining
industries. However, the great event of 1789 was

120 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

beginning to cast its shadows, and Brazil, like its
neighbours, was infected with the revolutionary spirit.
A futile conspiracy of poets in Minas came to a head
in the very year 1789, and the leader, Tiradentes, was
hanged. But Brazil, large and heterogeneous in race,
was the least favourable part of South America for the
new doctrines, and the royal migration helped to stimu-
late the loyalty of the people. This is one of the chief
events in Brazilian history. The Regent Dom John,
with his wife, children, and mother, left the Tagus for
Brazil on November 29, 1807, and the colony at once
felt the benefit of the royal presence. The disabilities
of Brazil under the Portuguese colonial system have
been thus described : I " All intercourse and commerce
between Brazil and foreign nations were prohibited.
The vessels of allies were occasionally permitted to
visit certain ports ; but the crews were only allowed
to land under supervision. All manufactures, except
that of sugar, were forbidden ; and the Crown drew
vast revenues from the tithes, which under a Papal
Bull it had appropriated, and from the royalties of
the gold and silver mines. With the arrival of the
Prince Regent and the establishment of the seat of
government at Rio, all this was abruptly changed. A
royal decree of January 28, 1808, threw open all the
ports of Brazil to the commerce of all friendly nations.
Industries were freed from all restrictions ; and the
exploration of the interior was encouraged. Supreme
tribunals were created ; and a National Bank, a Royal
Printing Press, a Military Academy, and a Medical
School were established. These reforms were in no
small measure due to British influence, which was
dominant in the Portuguese Court ; and there can
be no doubt that the concession of freedom of trade
was highly advantageous to British commerce."
1 Cambridge Modern History, x. 311.

BRAZIL 121

At this time Brazil had three million inhabitants,
of whom one-third were negro slaves. Dom John
liked Rio and set up an extravagant Court in his new
home, nor did he return to Portugal at the end of the
war, but declared Brazil a kingdom, much to the dis-
satisfaction of the Portuguese. In i8i6the mad queen,
his mother, died, and he thus became John VI.

Signs of the revolutionary spirit began to show
themselves, but the King had good troops and easily
suppressed the outbreaks. In 1820 revolutionary
troubles broke out in Portugal, and on February 26,
1821, the Brazilians took up arms to secure a constitu-
tion. King John nominated his son Pedro as Regent
and departed to Portugal. Towards the end of the next
year Brazil declared itself independent and Pedro I
became the first Emperor. It may be added that he
had not a shadow of right to any such title, for he
himself was a minor king, and he succeeded to no
empire, but to a congeries of plantations.

Some fighting was required to expel the Portuguese
loyalists and troops, but the Brazilians, aided by Lord
Cochrane, easily accomplished it. The new Emperor
soon lost his popularity, and in 1831 abdicated and
went to Europe, leaving his young son to become
Pedro II. Though more fortunate than her neigh-
bours, Brazil had been suffering various foreign and
domestic troubles, and there was talk of a Republic,
but in 1840 the majority of the youthful Emperor was
proclaimed, and Dom Pedro II, as he is always called,
began a long and not unprosperous reign.

The country gradually began to flourish, and the
cultivation of coffee was greatly extended. But in
1850 the terrible yellow fever began its ravages, and
this scourge helped to reconcile the people to the
abolition of the slave trade, for it was believed to have
been introduced by the imported Africans.

122 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

At this time the Marquis of Parana ruled well and
developed the material resources of the country, but
in 1856 a commercial crisis occurred. Brazil had con-
ferred a great benefit upon Argentina in ridding her
of the tyrant Rosas, and later she was called upon to do
a similar service for Paraguay. This led to a serious
war, which checked her prosperity. It lasted from
1865 to 1870, and will be described in the history of
Paraguay. The chief honours were won by Brazil,
for Marshal Caxias showed great military skill, and
General Camara had the honour of destroying one of
those " despicable tyrants " against whom Bolivar had
warned posterity.

For many years Brazil's history was uneventful, and
although affairs went not unprosperously, discontent
was gathering, and unfortunately the Emperor's best
act contributed to his unpopularity far more than any
of the unwise proceedings of his Ministers. The slave
trade had been abolished, but, although diminished,
slavery remained. In 1856 the slaves of Brazil num-
bered two and a half millions ; in 1873 they had fallen
to a little over one and a half millions. The Emperor's
health declined, and from time to time his daughter
Isabel acted as Regent. Her position was very dim-
cult, for she earnestly desired the abolition of slavery,
but the rich slave-owning classes, who would lose by
abolition, were the main support of the throne. Never-
theless, she bravely encouraged the reform, and in
1888 signed the law of abolition. The next year the
Empire was at an end.

Republican doctrines had made headway in the
army, and the class that supported the Emperor had
been alienated. In November, 1889, the revolution
came about without a blow, and a Republic was pro-
claimed. On November i6th the Emperor and his
family were placed upon a ship and sent to Europe.

BRAZIL 123

The downfall of the Empire was a great blow to
Brazil. Up to 1889 she was far ahead of the other
South American nations in prosperity and efficiency
of administration. Since then she has relatively retro-
graded and has been outstripped by Argentina. The
subsequent history has not presented many features of
importance. There was a rebellion in 1894 and a con-
siderable amount of fighting. Dr. Prudente de Moraes
Barros became President and attempted to reform the
administration, which had fallen into confusion and
corruption since the deposition of Dom Pedro II.
His period of office was full of trouble. A dangerous
insurrection was raised by a fanatic named Consel-
heiro which required a large army to suppress, and
soon afterwards a determined attempt was made to
assassinate the President. However, Moraes suc-
ceeded in restoring peace to Brazil, and under his
successor, Dr. Campos Salles, strenuous efforts were
made to reorganize the finances and improve Brazilian
credit — a task which was carried on by Dr. Rodrigues
Alves, who succeeded in 1902. By this time tolerable
tranquillity had been restored to Brazil, although she
has never regained her old prosperity. Dr. Affonso
Penna, who became President in 1906, died in
1909. The next year Marshal Hermes da Fonseca
was elected without serious trouble. There have
since been several small rebellions and mutinies.

The state of Brazil cannot be considered satisfactory.
Her economic troubles are severe, and these are partly
due to political defects. The Brazilians form one of
many instances of a people who have obtained par-
liamentary government long before they were fitted
for it, and thus they experience all its evils and few
of its advantages. Out of the numbers qualified to
vote very few will take the trouble to exercise the
franchise, and those who do vote yield to pressure

124 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

rather than to their political convictions. The results
of the elections, therefore, are determined by small
political cliques, which misgovern the country without
let or hindrance.

THE CONSTITUTION

It would be tedious to give the details of the con-
stitution of each South American Republic in turn,
and therefore the following description of the Brazilian
constitution may serve as a type. The form of govern-
ment is Federal ; it is based upon the union of a number
of States, and the official designation, therefore, is the
United States of Brazil. The powers of the Union, as
it is called, are strictly discriminated from those of the
States. It may not interfere in State matters except :—

(1) To repel foreign invasion, or the invasion of

one State by another ;

(2) To maintain the Federal Republican form of

government ;

(3) To re-establish order and tranquillity in the

States at the request of the respective
Governments ;

(4) To assure the execution of the laws and

Federal decrees.

The Union, of course, reserves the usual Federal
powers, i.e. it imposes duties on foreign imports, and
controls the stamp duties and the posts and telegraphs.
It alone may create banks of emission and create and
maintain customs-houses. The States have consider-
able powers of imposing duties upon articles coming
from other States, and the trade and progress of Brazil
are hampered in consequence.

The legislative power is vested in the Congress, with
the sanction of the President of the Republic, Con-

BRAZIL 125

gress consists of two bodies, the Chamber of Deputies
and the Senate. The Chamber of Deputies is elected
by direct suffrage and must not exceed one member
for every 70,000 inhabitants. Members of the Senate
must be over 35 years of age, and are elected for
nine years. Three Senators sit for each State and
three for the Federal District. The Senate has the
power to try and sentence the President and other
Federal officers. The President presides over its
deliberations.

The President is head of the Executive and has very
large powers, among which is that of choosing and
dismissing all Cabinet Ministers. His term of office
is four years, and he is elected by direct suffrage.
Cabinet Ministers may not sit in Congress. There
are the following portfolios : (i) Public Works,
Agriculture, and Industry ; (2) War ; (3) Marine ;
(4) Foreign Affairs ; (5) Interior ; (6) Finance.

The judicial power of the Union rests in a Federal
Supreme Court and in as many lower Federal Courts
as Congress may create. The judges are appointed
by the President and hold office for life. The Federal
Supreme Court has the duty of trying the President
and Cabinet Ministers for crimes against the Republic
or common crimes.

Citizens over twenty-one years of age shall be electors.
Included in the constitution is a Declaration of Rights,
of which the following are the most important clauses : —

" Before law all persons are equal. The Republic
does not recognize privileges of birth, or titles of
nobility, and abolishes all existing honorary orders,
with all their prerogatives and decorations, as well
as all hereditary titles and that of councillor.

"All persons and religious corporations may exer-
cise publicly and freely the right of worship, and may

126 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

associate themselves for that purpose and acquire
property, with due observance of the provisions of
common law.

"The Republic recognizes civil marriage only, the
celebration of which shall be gratuitous.

"The instruction given at public institutions shall
be secular.

" The death penalty is abolished, except in case of
martial law in time of war.

" The institution of trial by jury is maintained."

It will be observed that the Brazilian constitution is
modelled upon that of the United States of America,
which is, to a large extent, the model for other South
American Republics, and their constitutions hence-
forth will only receive notice when they differ in
some important point from the Brazilian, or otherwise
present some feature of special interest.

PERNAMBUCO

STEAMSHIP LINES — This is the first South American port at
which the steamers from Europe touch. The Royal Mail
Steam Packet Company calls here, but the Pacific Steam
Navigation Company often omits Pernambuco. The distance
to Bahia is 390 miles and to Rio de Janeiro 1,125. The lines
and fares are given in the Introduction. There is a fairly
frequent coasting service north and south, provided by the
Lloyd- Brazileiro, the Companhia Pernambucana, and others ;
but these lines are not recommended. The vessels go as far
north as Manaos and as far. south as Buenos Aires, and also
proceed up the Plate rivers as far as Asuncion. There is
also a service to New York. More details about the shipping
lines of Brazil will be given under the head of Rio de Janeiro.

RAILWAYS — There is good connexion with the neighbouring
towns through the Great Western Railway. To the north
Parahyba and Natal may be reached, and to the south
Natal.

HOTELS — Hotel Moderno, Empreza de Banhos do Mar, on the

BRAZIL 127

Reef ; Grande Hotel Commercial, Sul Americano. The

charges range from 135. to £i a day.
BRITISH CONSUL — Consul, H. E. Dickie.
BANKS — London and River Plate Bank ; London and Brazilian

Bank.
NEWSPAPERS — 0 Jornal do Recife, Correio de Recife, A Provincia.

Pernambuco, or Recife, was from the first an im-
portant town : allusion has already been made to its
history. It derives its alternative name from the
reef, which at the same time affords a harbour and
impedes navigation, as, unfortunately, only ships draw-
ing 23 feet of water can enter the harbour. The
landing has to be made by small boats. Pernambuco,
which has a population estimated at 200,000, is
divided into three parts — Recife, San Antonio, and
Boa Vista, the first two of which are connected by
handsome bridges. Recife is the business part, San
Antonio is inhabited by the poorer class, and Boa
Vista is the fashionable quarter. Pernambuco is pic-
turesque, but the streets are dirty and malodorous
and the population is largely negro ; it is not likely
that a tourist will wish to make a stay here. Sugar
and cotton and hides are the principal export. It is
the sixth port of Brazil. In 1911 its imports were
53,952,804 milreis and the exports 19,445,822.

BAHIA

STEAMSHIP LINES — These are practically as at Rio de Janeiro,
which see. The ships stand out at some distance and
passengers are landed in boats. Bahia is 390 miles from
Pernambuco and 735 from Rio.

RAILWAYS — On the land side Bahia is isolated to this extent,
that she has no railway communication with the great
neighbouring towns of Pernambuco to the north or Rio
to the south. The Bahia and San Francisco and the San
Francisco Railways have a line running about 350 miles
north to Joazeiro. The Central of Bahia Railway gives
communication to several towns.

128 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

HOTELS— Hotel Sul Americano, Rua S. Pedro; Grande Hotel
Paris, Praca Castro Alves, with French and Portuguese
cooking. These, the two best houses in the town, charge
from los. to 135. a day. Similar is the charge of several
boarding-houses, with European cooking, which are well
situated in the district of Victoria. They, however, give
monthly terms at about £13 53. a month. The Consul
reports that "houses continue scarce and dear, and the
hotel accommodation is poor."

BRITISH CONSUL— Consul, E. M.de Garston. Vice-Consul, Frank
Stevenson.

BANKS — London and River Plate, British Bank of South
America, London and Brazilian Bank.

NEWSPAPERS — Diario da Bahia, A Bahia, Diario de Notidas.

Bahia, the capital of the State, is a large town and
port with about 300,000 inhabitants. It stands on
the great bay of All Saints, which is about 20
miles long and 25 miles broad. Though extremely
picturesque, it is eclipsed by Rio de Janeiro and has
been comparatively neglected by the pens of descrip-
tive writers. Yet the bay is of extreme beauty and
is much more open than that of Rio. Darwin wrote
with enthusiasm of the luxuriant vegetation which
grew upon its shores. It is well sheltered and is
being further improved. In 1911 the imports were
valued at ^3,989,819 and the exports (for 1912) at
.£5,844,758. The principal exports are cocoa, tobacco,
coffee, sugar and hides. In 1912, 533 vessels, with
a tonnage of 1,834,314, entered the port; considerably
more than half of this was British. Allusion has been
made to this ancient city in the historical section.
Early in 1912 there were serious disturbances and the
city was bombarded by the Federal army. The Palace
of the Governor and the State Library were burnt.
-On landing, the visitor will probably feel disappoint-
ment, for the business part of the town lies along
the water edge, and the streets are narrow, ill-paved,

BRAZIL 129

and evil-smelling. But behind lies a steep ridge of
moderate height, which is mounted by means of a
useful lift. Here are good houses, wide streets, and
pleasant gardens, which are refreshed by the sea
breezes. There is said to be one church in Bahia
for every day in the year. Some of them have hand-
some and costly interiors.

Negroes abound in Bahia. There are many handsome
public buildings and the town and its surroundings
are picturesque, but it is not a place to be recommended
for a long stay. The mean temperature is about 80°
Fahr. and the humidity of the air makes the heat very
oppressive. The rainfall is about 48 inches annually.
Yellow fever and bubonic plague frequently visit the
town, and smallpox, which is endemic, causes great
havoc among the poorer classes. September and
October are the best months for a visit ; in the tour
mapped out in this book, January is given, and it
would be unwise to alter the arrangement for a place
of comparatively small importance ; the January climate
is not much worse than the average. Bahia has a
number of cotton-mills and miscellaneous manufac-
tures. There is a very good service of electric cars.
An interesting excursion might be made to the diamond-
mines, but these are somewhat inaccessible and would
require several weeks which would be spent in rough
travel. Those who wish for information about the
interior of Bahia and other parts of Brazil should read
Sir Richard Burton's admirable book, which describes
conditions which have hardly been modified by the
puny railway enterprises of Bahia.

RIO DE JANEIRO

STEAMSHIP LINES— The steamers and passage rates of the Royal
Mail Steam Packet Company, the Pacific Steam Navigation
Company, and various other lines, English and foreign,
K

130 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

have been dealt with in the Introduction. The Italian Lloyd
are among the best and fastest of the steamers. The ships
of the New Zealand Shipping Company and the Shaw Savill
call here on their way home from New Zealand. The Lloyd-
Brasileiro and Lage Brothers, with several others, afford a
coasting service. Both the Lamport and Holt and the Lloyd-
Brasileiro give a service to the United States. The distance to
Bahia is 735 miles, to Pernambuco 1,125, t° Santos 199, to
Montevideo 1,180, to Buenos Aires 1,305, to Southampton
5,034, to Hamburg 5,519, to Genoa 5,040, and to New
York 4,748.

RAILWAYS — Rio has a good railway service. It has communica-
cation with Victoria, Espirito Santo, and Ouro Preta in the
north, and in the south with Sao Paulo and Southern Brazil
generally.

HOTELS— The two best hotels in Rio are the Hotel dos Estran-
geiros, Praca Jose de Alvear, and the Hotel Internacional,
which is situated at some distance in the suburbs. Their
terms are from ^i a day upwards. The Avenida and the
Hotel do Concordo em Paineiras may also be mentioned.
The Restaurante Barros, 98, Rua da Alfandeza, is a good
restaurant.

BRITISH CONSUL — The post of British Minister is vacant. Consul-
General, D. R. O'Sullivan-Beare. Vice-Consuls, E. Hambloch,
C. G. Pullen.

BANKS — London and River Plate, British Bank of South America,
London and Brazilian Bank, Banco Espanol del Rio de la
Plata.

NEWSPAPERS — Jornal do Commercio. Jornal do Brazil, 0 Imperial,
Geseta do Notacis, Le Bresil, A Noticia (evening). The
Jornal do Commercio is one of the best newspapers in the
world. It is conducted by the able and independent Senhor
Jose Carlos Rodrigues. LEtoile du Sud is a French weekly.
The Brazilian Review is an excellent weekly, published in
English.

ANGLICAN CHURCH— This is in the Rua Evaresta da Vega.

Rio de Janeiro, the capital and chief seaport of
Brazil, is the second largest city in South America,
with a population of about 870,000. Its history has
been referred to in the historical section. It is an
extremely beautiful city. The charms of Rio Bay have

BRAZIL 131

been celebrated, perhaps with some exaggeration, by
every traveller who has visited it ; and though it cannot
claim to be the loveliest of sea approaches, the com-
bination of blue water, rugged hills, and tropical
vegetation makes the harbour a very lovely place. It
has been thus described by Sir Richard Burton : " 'Rio
Bay,' like all the beautiful sisterhood, from Cornish
' Mullions ' westward to the Bay of Naples, must be
seen in ' war-paint.' Most charming is she when sitting
under her rich ethereal canopy, whilst a varnish of
diaphanous atmosphere tempers the distance to soft
and exquisite loveliness ; when the robing blue is
perfect brilliant blue, when the browns are dashed
with pink and purple, and when the national colours
suggest themselves : green, vivid as the emerald, and
yellow, bright as burnished gold. Then the streams
are silver, then the scaurs are marked orange and
vermilion as they stand straightly out from the snowy
sand or the embedding forest, then the passing clouds
form floating islets as their shadows walk over the
waters of the inner sea, so purely green. Then the
peasant's whitewashed hut of tile and ' wattle and dab/
rising from the strand of snowy sand, becomes opal
and garnet in the floods of light which suggest nothing
but a perpetual springtide. And every hour has
its own spell. There is sublimity in the morning
mists rolling far away over headland brow and
heaving ocean ; there is grandeur, loveliness, and
splendour in the sparkling of the waves under the
noonday sun, when the breeze is laden with the
perfume of a thousand flowers ; and there is inex-
pressible repose and grace in the shades of vinous
purple which evening sheds over the same." This
beautiful city was not long ago a very undesirable
place of residence, for yellow fever carried off a great
number of victims. The deaths from the scourge were —

132 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

1900 345 1902 984

1901 299 1903 584

Between 1850 and 1903 Rio had lost 58,635 lives to
yellow fever. About this time energetic sanitary mea-
sures were taken and vigorous war was waged upon
mosquitoes, with such excellent results that yellow fever
has been completely banished from Rio de Janeiro,
and the official statistics claim that it is an extraordi-
narily healthy town. However this may be, the sanitary
condition has undoubtedly been greatly improved.
This improvement is partly due to the rebuilding of
the city. Up to very recent years Rio was a meanly
built town with dark and narrow streets. The " open-
ing into wider parts " began at about the same time as
the sanitation, being carried out in 1903 and the years
following. The most splendid feature is the Avenida
Central, nearly a mile and a half long, which runs
along the northern extremity through the old town,
from sea to sea, and is, perhaps, the handsomest street
in South America. Here are most of the finest
public buildings and many shops and superb offices.
It is crossed at right angles by the ancient Rua Ouvidor,
still the best shopping centre. Another magnificent
promenade is the Avenida Beira Mar, which runs
southward along the bay for more than three miles,
wandering between blue water and gay flower-gardens.
The Jardim Botanico, which was established in 1808, is
one of the chief sights of Rio. It occupies an area of
2,000 acres and is traversed by a magnificent avenue of
palms. The arrangements for the study of botany are
very complete and the garden is one of the best in the
world. Very beautiful are the various public gardens,
among which may be mentioned the Praga da Repub-
lica, the Praga Duke de Caxias, and the Passeio Publico.
Like all other South Americans, the Brazilians are fond

BRAZIL 133

of statues. In the Praia da Gloria may be seen the
statue of the Viscount of Rio Branco, which was
erected to commemorate the fourth centenary of the
discovery of Brazil. In the Praca Tiridentes there
stands an equestrian figure of Dom Pedro. There is
also a statue of General Osorio, who gained distinction
in the war with Paraguay, and many more. The public
buildings of the capital are mostly modern. The City
Palace, which dates from 1743, is now the Telegraph
Office. The Palace, occupied by the Emperor, at Sao
Christovao, is now a National Museum, but the best
collection is at the National Museum in the Quinta da
Boa Vista, which has especially fine collections of
natural history specimens and fossils. Here is the
great meteoric stone, Bendigo, which was discovered
in 1781, in the State of Bahia. The Cattete Palace, now
occupied by the President, is one of the older buildings.
This list is almost exhausted with the Palacete Itamaratz,
the official residence of the Minister of Foreign Affairs,
a pleasant building whose plainness contrasts with the
florid appearance of the modern buildings. These are
numerous, and the Municipal Theatre is one of the
most handsome. It is situated in the Avenida Central
and bears some resemblance to the Opera House in
Paris. Here also are the National Library, with over
200,000 books, and the Palace of Fine Arts. The Mint
is an extremely imposing building. Among the hand-
somest of the edifices are the newspaper and insurance
offices, and Rio, with its combination of the old and
the new, has an interesting and picturesque appearance,
which is greatly enhanced by its beautiful environs.

Beautiful as Rio is, the traveller will not, in all prob-
ability, desire to make a long stay here. The climate is
hot, humid and enervating; the mean temperature is
74° Fahr. The least oppressive time is between April
and November, but the climate is rendered much more

134 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

trying by the practical absence of seasons ; the tempera-
ture remains at a high level, night and day, all the year
round. The humidity which greatly aggravates the
heat is caused by the Atlantic trade winds, which blow
for a great part of the year. Further, Rio is an
extremely expensive town. A recent Consular Report
says : " The cost of living in Rio de Janeiro may, at a
fair estimate, be considered about three times as expen-
sive as in Europe." In Buenos Aires and Santiago the
prices are probably but little lower ; there, however,
the climate is pleasant and luxuries, or what would
in Europe be called necessaries, can be forgone with
less discomfort. The traveller is recommended to make
his way to Sao Paulo, before he begins to feel the
effects of the climate of Rio.

The town has an extremely good service of- electric
tramcars, which is provided by the Light and Power
Company. The beautiful environs, as well as Rio
itself, can thus be seen easily and cheaply ; the hired
cabs are wretched. All tourists go to the Jardim
Botanico, at the foot of the hills of Gavea and Cor-
covado. The distance is about 6 miles and the
return fare about is. Another indispensable excur-
sion is to Corcovado itself, which is made by taking
the little rack railway from Cosme Velho. There are
seven trains a day and the return fare is 43. The
view from the summit, 2,000 feet above the sea, is
magnificent. Not less delightful is a visit to Tijuca,
which lies about 7 miles from the centre of the city.

It is reached by tram, supplemented by a funicular
railway up the mountain. The little town (Hotel
Tijuca), a favourite summer resort, is 1,200 feet above
the sea-level, while the summit of the mountain is
about 3,300 feet. There is a fine waterfall. The
return fare is about is. 9d.

The number of churches in Rio is large, but those

BRAZIL 135

which possess merit are few. The largest and best is
the Church of the Candelaria, with two very graceful
towers and a rich interior. The people of Brazil are,
for the most part, deeply religious.

There are, of course, many English, French and
Germans in Rio, and besides many handsome native
clubs, each body of aliens has several clubs of its own.
The outdoor amusements cannot compare with those
of Buenos Aires. Racing is popular, but is on a
smaller scale than in Argentina. There is a good
race-course.

Besides being the seat of the Federal Government,
Rio has immense commercial importance. In 1911
the imports were 280,384,706 milreis and the exports
121,819,726 milreis. Rio is one of the best harbours
in the world. Its industries are considerable. Cotton
is the principal, and Rio has twenty-four factories.
In all, there are said to be 670 large manufacturing
establishments in Rio, which include tobacco, matches,
boots and shoes, candles and beer.

Hardly any of these industries could exist but for
an extravagant system of Protection, .which imposes a
very heavy burden upon the poor and makes, as has
been pointed out, Rio de Janeiro a place to be avoided
by the tourist with moderate means. Even French
observers, who are accustomed to Protection and
approve it in moderation, point out that this excessive
system of duties is beneficial to no one but the
Brazilian manufacturers. There is a strong minority
in Brazil that favours a more liberal fiscal system.

Like all Latin Americans, the Brazilians love poetry.
The principal Brazilian poets are Antonio Gonzaga,
elsewhere noticed, and Antonio Gon9alves Dias, a
native of the State of Maranhao, who was born in
1824, and perished by shipwreck on the homeward
voyage from Portugal in 1864. His CanQdo do Exilio

136 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

(" Minha terra tern palmeiras ") is a noble poem.
There are several other poets of repute, but Gon£alves
Dias surpasses all of the nineteenth century. There
are two outstanding novelists, Jose de Alencar (1829-
77), famous for Guaranz, and Joaquim de Macedo,
for La Brunette. A useful historian of Brazil was
Varnhagen, Viscount of Porto-Seguro. Though the
mass of Brazilians are sunk in ignorance, there is a
leaven of highly cultivated persons in the larger towns,
and their newspaper press is, relatively at any rate,
much better than our own. There are no Universities
in Brazil, but there are twenty-five Faculties that
confer degrees.

All visitors to Rio make the journey to Petropolis.
This little town is situated at a distance of 28 miles
from the capital at an elevation of 3,000 feet, and
has a population of 40,000. The railway journey
occupies nearly 2 hours and the return fare is
us. There are fine views. The place has several
hotels, the Rio de Janeiro (German), Hotel Europa
(Portuguese), and the Modern (Italian). It was
founded in 1845 by a band of Germans who intended
it to be an agricultural settlement, but the conveni-
ence of its position made it a kind of American Simla,
and here reside for the greater part of the year the
foreign diplomatists. Petropolis has received much
praise from travellers, who were no doubt grateful
for the comparative coolness of the climate, but it is
rather an untidy place, and the scenery is disappoint-
ing. There are, however, pleasant gardens. Besides
being a fashionable resort, Petropolis is an industrial
town with several large cotton-mills and breweries.
One day is quite enough to devote to Petropolis.

The traveller will leave Rio de Janeiro without

BRAZIL 137

regret, and will take one of the crazy cabs and make
his way to the Central station, whence the train will
take him to Sao Paulo in about twelve hours.

SAO PAULO

RAILWAYS — Sao Paulo promises to be the most important railway
centre in all Brazil. The distance from the capital is 300
miles and the return fare, first class, is about £3 153. The
journey is made by the Central Brazilian Railway. Sao
Paulo is distant 45 miles from its port, Santos, and the return
fare, first class, is about 175. The journey is made by the
Sao Paulo Railway. There is now railway connexion
between Sao Paulo and Montevideo, but the journey is very
long and tedious, and to most people the sea voyage would
be preferable.

HOTELS— Sportsman, Rua Direita (good table) ; Majestic, Rua
Sao Bento ; Grand, Rua Sao Bento. The charges are from
153. a day.

BRITISH CONSUL— Consul, G. G. F. Atlee. Vice-Consul, C. W
Miller.

BANKS— London and River Plate, British Bank of South
America, London and Brazilian Bank, Banco Espafiol
del Rio de la Plata.

NFAVSPAPERS — O Estado de Sao Paulo, A Platea, A Tribuna, Sao
Paulo, Deutsche Zettung, Vox de Espana.

Sao Paulo is a large and very handsome city with
a population of 410,702. It stands 2,000 feet above
the sea-level and has a mild and pleasant climate.
The busy part is the Rua Direita, which is joined by
the Rua Sao Bento and the Rua Quinze de Novembro.
The outskirts of the city are traversed by fine avenues.
There is a very good service of electric tramcars.
Sao Paulo is the centre of the coffee industry, to which
it owes all its wealth. The population consists largely
of Italians, who during the last thirty years have come
to the State in enormous numbers, and, although the
crisis in the coffee industry checked the influx, immi-
gration is now once more becoming large. In 1912

138 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

there entered the State 103,005 persons as against
39,143 who left it. The State is devoted to agricul-
ture, and, possessing a fine climate, fertile soil, and
abundance of water, it is carried on with great success.
Besides coffee, sugar, rice, cotton, maize, beans,
tobacco and fruits of every kind are produced. Only
4,450,820 acres of the area (which is as large as Italy)
are under cultivation, and much of it has hardly been
explored, but, with the development of railways, it
will soon be one of the richest places on the face of
the globe.

Although the English colony is small, Sao Paulo
is a pleasant place for a visit. There is a small race-
course. The growth of the city has been enormous ;
in 1887 the population amounted to only 47,697. The
city has been well laid out and the public gardens are
very beautiful.

Sao Paulo is now almost as important a manu-
facturing centre as Rio de Janeiro. It possesses 31
cotton, 17 wool, and 4 jute factories, besides several
for the manufacture of boots and shoes. No fewer
than 50,000 persons are employed, and the output is
about £15,000,000 yearly.

The city possesses many fine public buildings, and,
though less interested than Rio in literature and art,
it takes a prominent place in education. The
Academia de Direita or Law School is famous, and
has trained many statesmen and jurists. There are
also a Medical School and a Polytechnic, and much
more attention is bestowed upon primary and second-
ary education than in other parts of Brazil. The
suburbs are very handsome, and their principal feature
is the splendid Avenida Paulista ; the Jardin de Luz
is a beautiful park. Among the chief buildings may
be named the Government Palace, the Palace of
Agriculture, the Hospedaria de Immigrantes (a most

BRAZIL 139

useful institution), the Santa Casa de Misericordia,
which is the chief hospital, and the Public Library.
The suburb of Liberdade is picturesque, and perhaps
the favourite objective for a walk or short drive is
Ypiranga, an extremely fine monument erected in
1885 to commemorate the proclamation of independ-
ence in 1822. Here is a good natural history museum.
The churches are not remarkable. A French traveller
calls Sao Paulo " une ville triste et sans distractions,"
and the evenings there are certainly very quiet. But
it has an extremely healthy and pleasant climate, and
for those who are interested in the industries there is
much to see.

Sao Paulo is by no means the geographical centre
of Brazil. Campinas approximates nearer to that
position. This town (Hotel Villela), which has about
90,000 inhabitants, lies 65 miles north-west of the town
of Sao Paulo, and at one time was of equal importance.
It is the centre of a rich coffee district and is a hand-
some town, but the situation is unhealthy. The
traveller, however, is more likely to turn his thoughts
to Argentina and take the short railway journey to
Santos.

SANTOS

RAILWAYS — The particulars of the journey between Santos and
the State capital are given under Sao Paulo. The Santos and
Sao Vicente Railway is a short electric line.

HOTELS — The Sportsman, Rua 15 de Novembro, 60 ; the Palace
Hotel, Praia de Jose. The traveller is recommended to go
to Santos the day before his boat sails, and thus avoid
spending more than one night in the town.

BRITISH CONSUL— R. A. Sandall.

BANKS — London and River Plate, London and Brazilian Bank,
Banco Espanol del Rio de la Plata.

NEWSPAPER— ,4 Tribuna.

140 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

Santos, which has a population of 71,980, is a purely
commercial town. It was founded by Braz Cubas in
1543, but long made very slow progress, owing to its
swampy and unhealthy situation. It used to have a
terrible reputation for yellow fever, but of late years
great improvements have been made, and the port is
now free from it. It is a tolerably healthy place now,
but it has no attractions whatever except its com-
merce. The suburbs are more pleasant. Santos is an
excellent harbour, and the largest ships lie alongside
its quays. Owing to its immense exports of coffee, it
has far more commerce than even Rio de Janeiro, i.e.
it is the chief port of Brazil. In 1911 the imports
were 280,384,706 milreis, the exports 480,899,954.

It is not very probable that many travellers will wish
to visit Southern Brazil. The climate is good, but the
objects of interest are by no means numerous.
However, there is a choice of two routes, the easy
one by sea or the more fatiguing one by land. The
latter, however, would have the advantage of enabling
the traveller to see Uruguay at a smaller cost of time
than would be demanded by the scheduled route. In
this case a day trip would suffice for Santos, and he
would begin the journey from Sao Paulo.

RIO GRANDE DO SUL

STEAMSHIP LINES — Vessels of the Hamburg-America line call
here regularly. A coasting service is maintained by the
Lloyd-Brasileiro.

RAILWAYS — A line of about 140 miles in length runs to Bage, and
thus Rio Grande is joined to the general railway system of
Southern Brazil. The return first-class fare to Bage is
£2 35.

HOTELS — The Hotels Paris and Brazil are in the Rue
Floriano. The charges are about ros. a day.

BRITISH CONSUL — Consul, E. J. Wigg.

BRAZIL 141

BANK — London and Brazilian Bank.
NEWSPAPERS— Unimportant.
There is an Anglican Church.

Rio Grande do Sul is an insignificant town with
about 40,000 inhabitants. It was founded in 1737 by
Jose da Silva Paes, but it has never been of much
importance until it became an industrial centre. It is
lighted by gas and has tramcars. The chief buildings
are the Municipal Palace, the Church of Sao Pedro,
and the Bibliotheca Riograndense, with 30,000
volumes. The mean temperature is 66°Fahr. The
seasons are : summer from January to March, autumn
from April to June, winter from July to September,
and spring from October to December. In the high
grounds of the interior the winters are rigorous. As a
port the town suffers from a very awkward bar,
situated 9 miles away, which prevents the approach of
large ships. The exports are hides, horns, bone, dried
beef, wool, and hair. They were valued at 10,288,345
milreis in 1911. The imports are small. There are
forty-eight factories in the town, including the oldest
woollen mill in Brazil, and there are cotton, biscuit
and other factories. If the traveller goes by rail from
Sao Paulo to Uruguay, there is no need to visit this
town. A journey may be made, return fare 55. 6d.,
to Pelotas (Hotels, Allianfa and Brazil).

PORTO ALEGRE

STEAMSHIPS— The journey from Rio Grande do Sul (180 miles) is
made by a small steamboat over the shallow waters of the
Lagoa dos Patos.

RAILWAYS— A line belonging to the Rio Grande Railway
system runs to Cacequy, whence it is possible to go north to
Sao Paulo or south to Montevideo. There is also a line to
Novo Hamburgo. Porto Alegre is 96 hours by rail from
Rio de Janeiro.

142 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

HOTELS — Grande, from los. to 145. a day; Grande Hotel

Schmitt, from 95. to 125.
BRITISH CONSUL— Consul, T. C. Dillon.
BANK — London and Brazilian Bank.
NEWSPAPERS — Jornal do Commercio, Correo do Povo, Gazetta do

Commercio, A Federacao, Deutsche Zeitung.

Porto Alegre, the capital of Rio Grande do Sul, is
an attractive town of over 100,000 inhabitants. Its
prosperity is largely due to the German element ; there
are a number of German colonies round about Novo
Hamburgo. It was founded in 1/43 by immigrants
from the Azores, and in 1807 the seat of the State
Government was transferred hither from Rio Grande
do Sul. The first Germans came in 1825, and great
numbers arrived after the Prussian revolution of 1848.
The climate is good ; the mean temperature ranges
from 59° to 82° Fahr. The annual rainfall is 30^
inches. The city is well laid out with broad streets,
the chief of which are the Voluntario da Patria and
the 7 de Setembro. There are many fine squares, as
the Praca Harmonia and the Pra$a da Independencia,
and there is a pleasant park. The city stands high on
a promontory near the mouths of the Jacuhy and
Guahyba Rivers. There is a good service of electric
tramcars, and the suburbs are pleasant. The
Municipal Palace, the Military Schools, the hospitals
and the theatre are handsome buildings. Porto
Alegre is reckoned as a port, although accessible only
to vessels drawing 9 feet. It exports the same com-
modities as Rio Grande do Sul. In 1911 the exports
were 5,916,789 milreis and the imports 32,203,940.
It has a number of miscellaneous factories.

The State of Rio Grande do Sul is important and
progressive. Agriculture, although the methods are
somewhat primitive, is vigorously pursued, and a
great quantity of wheat is raised. Wine is also

BRAZIL 143

cultivated, and about 5 million litres are sent yearly
to the north of Brazil. But by far the chief industry is
pastoral. The beasts are inferior to those of Uruguay
and Argentina, but a great quantity of beef is raised,
and improvements have been effected by the introduc-
tion of Durhams, Herefords, and Polled Angus.
Bage, Sao Gabriel, and Pelotas are great centres of the
meat trade.

THE AMAZONIAN REGION

As has already been pointed out, the only convenient
way to visit the Amazon is to make a separate tour.
It is easily reached, and the boats are good. The
vast territory watered by the Amazon has been fre-
quently described. The Amazon is fully 4,000 miles
in length, the greatest river in the world, and it
drains an area of 2,722,000 square miles. After
entering Brazil it has over two hundred affluents, of
which eighteen are rivers of the first rank. The
chief are the Javary, the Jutahy, the Jurua, the
Purus, the Madeira, the Tapajos, the Zingu, the lea,
the Yapura, the Negro, and the Trombetas. The
Madeira has a length of 3,000 miles. It is the only
highroad for Northern Brazil, leading far into Peru,
and, as has been seen, there is now access into
Bolivia with the help of the Madeira- Marmore
Railway. Its volume of water is immense — said to
be 500,000 cubic feet per second — and where it
enters the sea, whose waters it discolours for a
distance of 120 miles, its breadth is 158 miles. The
Brazilians call it the Rio-Mar or Sea-River, and it
well deserves that title. The two Amazonian States
are Para and Amazonas, both very thinly inhabited.
Amazonas, by far the largest of all Brazilian States,
has an area of 732,439 square miles and a popula-

144 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

tion of only 249,756. Yet, among all the rich
regions of Brazil, there is none more wealthy than
this uninhabited region, and Humboldt long ago
said that commerce would eventually be concen-
trated upon the Amazon, which would be the seat
of the world's civilization. A beginning has been
made with the rubber traffic, to which the inhabi-
tants devote themselves with short-sighted exclusive-
ness, and the competition of plantation rubber will
probably be a blessing in disguise by compelling
them to turn their attention to cocoa, tobacco and
cotton, which are but a few of the products of this
bountiful region. Nearly every book * on Brazil
gives an account of this industry, which may be
usefully illustrated by a visit to Kew Gardens.
Rubber was not known to the civilized world until
1736, and for more than a century was little used
except by artists. It is now one of the most
valuable of commercial products, and its importance
has been greatly enhanced by the rapid advance of
the motor-car. A trip into the centre of the
industry is easy and pleasant owing to that magnifi-
cent waterway the Amazon, and it is the only
montana (forest) part of South America which can
be penetrated without serious discomfort. The
hotels are comparatively good.

PARA

STEAMSHIP LINES — The steamers of the Booth Line leave Liver-
pool twice a month for Para, touching at Cherbourg, Vigo,
Leixoes (Oporto) and Lisbon. The minimum single fare is
^28. The steamers come up to the wharf. There is also a
coasting service by the Lloyd Brasileiro from Pernambuco.

RAILWAYS — There is a line to Braganca, about 150 miles distant.

1 See in particular an excellent illustrated account by M. Paul
Walle, Au Bresil du Rio Sao Francisco a LAmazone, pp. 343-74.

BRAZIL 145

HOTELS— Cafe du Paz, Plaga da Republica (good), about £i a
day ; Hotel do Commercio, Rua da Industria, French, good
cooking ; Hotel Universal, Hotel Americana ; these are
about i6s. a day. There are several restaurants.

BRITISH CONSUL — Consul, G. B. Michell ; Vice-Consul, J.
Bremner.

BANKS — London and River Plate, London and Brazilian Bank.

NEWSPAPERS — Folha do Norte, A Provincia do Para, O Jornal.

Para, as it is usually called, instead of receiving its
cumbrous full name of Santa Maria de Belem do GrSo
Para, is one of the most flourishing cities in Brazil,
and has a population of about 200,000. It stands on
a bend of the River Para or Tocantins, about 80 miles
from the sea, and 2,142 miles from Rio de Janeiro.
Para is an extremely handsome town, with great park-
like squares and avenues. The finest of the squares is
the Praca da Republica, which is adorned by many
magnificent public buildings, among them the Theatro
da Paz, the best in Brazil outside the capital. Among
the avenues, the most noteworthy are the Avenida da
Republica, Sao Jeronymo, Nazareth, and Indepen-
dencia. The tall trees and tropical luxuriance of
vegetation add greatly to the attractions of Para.
There is an old cathedral, and many of the public
and private buildings are very handsome. The
Museum in the Avenida da Nazareth has a good
natural history collection, and there is an attractive
Botanical Garden. The service of electric tramcars
is excellent. There is here a large English colony,
and the bulk of the trade and industries is in English
hands. The cost of living is extremely high in Para.
The climate is better than is usual in the coast regions
of Brazil ; the mean annual temperature is about
80° Fahr. There are only two seasons, the rainy,
from December to May, and the dry season, which
occupies the rest of the year. The heat is tempered

L

146 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

by cool breezes, and the mornings, up to ten o'clock,
are generally fresh and pleasant.

As is well known, Para is the centre of the rubber
industry, to the best variety of which it gives the
name. It is the third port of the Republic. In 1911
the imports were valued at 47,591,607 milreis and the
exports at 93,247,097. The harbour has undergone
recent improvement at great expense.

MANAOS

STEAMSHIP LINES — The voyage of the Booth Line steamers is
prolonged from Para to Manaos, occupying 4 days up-
stream, while the down-stream journey is made in 2. It
is possible to proceed up the river to Iquitos by the Iquitos
Steamship Company. There is a frequent service by Brazil-
ian vessels. The fare from Para to Manaos is £8 135. 4d., to
Iquitos about £21. Manaos is 925 miles from Para and
3,204 from Rio de Janeiro.

RAILWAYS — None.

HOTELS — Hotel Casina, Gran Hotel. The charges are £i a day.

BRITISH CONSUL — Vice-Consul, W. Robilliard.

BANKS — London and River Plate (Agency), London and Brazilian
Bank.

NEWSPAPERS — A Amazonas, Correio do Norte, A Noticia, A
Illustrafao.

Manaos, which a quarter of a century ago was a
village, is now a fine town of 50,000 inhabitants,
situated on the left bank of the Rio Negro, 8 miles
from the Amazon. It is the capital of the State of
Amazonas. Like all the new towns of Brazil, it pos-
sesses splendid avenues, of which the chief are the
Avenida da Eduardo Ribeiro, the fashionable pro-
menade, the Rua Municipale, Jose Clemente, Remedies,
and 15 de Novembro. The streets are planted with
fine trees, brilliantly lighted, and have a good service
of electric tramcars. Manaos is distinguished for the
splendour of its public buildings, one of the best of

BRAZIL 147

which is the Theatre Amazonas, which cost ^400,000
to build, the Palace of Justice, and many others.
Opposite the theatre is a fine piece of statuary which
commemorates the opening of the Amazon in 1866
to the vessels of all nations. Manaos is another
great centre of the rubber trade. In 1911 the im-
ports were valued at 25,108,151 milreis, the exports
at 111,351,659.

A brief account has now been given of the
Amazonian region, Pernambuco, Bahia, Rio de
Janeiro, Sao Paulo, and Rio Grande do Sul. This
field is probably large enough to satisfy the average
tourist, but it only touches the fringe of Brazil.
Many other States are of considerable importance,
and would repay a visit. There is Ceara in the
north, which has an extensive railway system and
produces a great quantity of cotton. There are the
States of Alagoas and Sergipe to the north and Espi-
rito Santo to the south of Bahia, typical coast regions,
producing sugar and cotton. Maceio, the capital
of Alagoas, is a flourishing town with nearly 50,000
inhabitants. Farther south are Parana and Santa
Catharina, which inland have a delightful climate
and extremely fine scenery. Herba mate is the chief
product, but wheat is also raised, and there is a con-
siderable variety of crops. Curityba, the capital of
Parana, is a large city with about 50,000 inhabitants.
It is better to travel to these States by sea, as the land
journey is uncomfortable and costs about ^9 — fully
double the price for a sea passage. More important
are the great States of the interior, which are store-
houses of vast, undeveloped wealth. Matto Grosso,
the second largest of the Brazilian States, has fewest
inhabitants ; with an area considerably larger than the
whole of South Africa, it has less population than

148 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

Johannesburg. The journey from Rio de Janeiro to
Cuyaba, the State capital, which is made by way of
Buenos Aires up the River Paraguay, occupies fully
30 days. At no distant date Corumba, the chief
river port, will have a railway-line to Sao Paulo.
Stock-raising is the principal industry of Matto Grosso,
but when the communications are improved this vast
district will be one of the best agricultural regions in
the world. Not dissimilar is Goyaz, though smaller
and somewhat more populous. This State has rail-
way communication with Sao Paulo, and its principal
industries are stock-raising and tobacco. In early
times these States produced enormous quantities of
gold, but there is now little mining carried on in
either of them. Most important of all the inland
States of Brazil is Minas Geraes, which is the most
populous of them and the only one where there is
any adequate exploitation of the mineral resources.
A French writer remarks that those who only visit the
coast towns of Brazil take away a very superficial
notion of the country : " It is in the interior where the
life, the work, and commerce keep longest the tradi-
tional forms, and here we can best judge of the
evolution and the moral and material progress of
the country." The hilly and well-watered State of
Minas Geraes has an excellent climate, owing to the
upland situation of its towns, which stand at least
2,000 feet above the sea-level, and St. Hilaire said of
it that " if there exists a country which in the future is
capable of surpassing the rest of the world, it is the
province of Minas, when its infinite resources shall
have been exploited by a less scanty population." Gold
and diamond mines are largely worked, and there are
immense deposits of iron ore, but even here only
small beginnings have been made. That of Morro
Velho, near Bello Horizonte, is the chief gold-mine.

BRAZIL 149

The soil is extremely fertile, but better agricultural
methods are urgently needed.

The capital, Bello Horizonte, is 16 hours by rail
from Rio, and the return fare is about ^4 i2s.
This beautiful town, 2,000 feet above the sea-level,
is planned on an ambitious scale with long and
spacious avenues. It is quite a new place, and has
only recently been made the capital. There are many
handsome public buildings and a few small manu-
facturing industries. One avenue — the Affonso Penna
— is 150 feet broad and 2 miles long.

Ouro Preto, the old capital of the State, is still the
mining capital ; all round are sixteenth and seventeenth-
century mines, that were worked in primitive fashion
and abandoned as soon as these methods failed. The
two towns have not more than 25,000 inhabitants
each. Here is a monument to the conspirator Tira-
dentes, who belonged to this town. Not less important
is Diamantina, a town about their equal in size, which
has lately been connected with the rest of Brazil by the
Central Railway ; it is a progressive town, the centre of
the diamond industry, and will undoubtedly play a
great part in the future industrial history of Brazil.
Sir Richard Burton, who believed that in Brazil " the
true exploitation of precious lithology has still to
begin," says of Diamantina, which is almost the
highest of Brazilian towns, standing 5,700 feet high :
" In the clear, bracing air European fruits and vege-
tables thrive ; the soil is sometimes rich and deep, and
the abnormal expense of provisions would make the
neighbourhood an excellent market for an agricultural
colony." Minas Geraes played a part of some impor-
tance in the history of Brazil, being almost the first
district in South America to begin a revolutionary
movement, but it is still more celebrated for its poetry,
which indeed was commingled with its politics.

ISO A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

Antonio Gonzaga was, apparently on insufficient
evidence, charged with participating in the conspiracy
and banished to Mozambique. Only Tiradentes was
executed. Gonzaga, who was born in Oporto, is the
chief patriotic poet of Brazil. Of him Burton says :
f< Remarkable for grace and naivete, his erotics contain
not a trace of coarseness : they are sentimental, dashed
with a tinge of melancholy, which of course deepens
in the gloom of his prison. As is the case with all the
better Portuguese poets, his style is remarkably correct
and his language studiously simple, withal sufficient."

It will be seen that, quite apart from the tourist
tracts, Brazil offers much that is of interest, and,
indeed, the climate of the interior is infinitely superior
to that of the coast, which has given Brazil its indif-
ferent reputation. But to visit even a few of these
places would require a large expenditure of time and
money, much monotonous voyaging on uncomfortable
steamers, and much mule-riding. At some of these
interior towns, we are told, hotels of the tenth order
are highly acceptable, and at many there are none
at all. The traveller must be prepared for many
discomforts.

BOOKS ON BRAZIL

Bates, H. W. The Naturalist on the River Amazon. London,

1873. Many editions.
Denis, Pierre. Brazil (translated by B. Miall). London,

1911. South American Series.

Domvile-Fife, C. W. The United States of Brazil. London.
Oakenfull, J. C. Brazil in 1911. London, 1912.
Southey, R. History of Brazil. London, 1810-19.
Probably the best modern work on Brazil, an extremely com-
prehensive industrial and topographical survey, is two volumes
by a Frenchman —

Paul Walle. Au Bresil — De L Uruguay au Rio Sao Fran-
cisco. Paris, 1910.

BRAZIL 151

Paul Walle. An Bresil—Du Rio Sao Francisco a L' Amazon.

Paris, 1911.

The account of Brazil with most literary merit, describing
older conditions, which, however, have not undergone much
change, is —

R. F. Burton. Explorations of the Highlands of the Brazil

London, 1869.
Useful works on special subjects are —

Cattelle, W. R. The Diamond. London, 1912.
Casabona, L. Sao Paulo du Bresil. Paris, 1908.

o

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CHILE

Railways shown thus

CHILE

AREA, SOIL AND CLIMATE

IN proportion to its area, Chile is the longest and
narrowest country in the world, stretching from the
Province of Tacna, lat. 17° S., to Tierra del Fuego,
lat. 55° S., and even farther, if the group of islands
which ends with Cape Horn be counted. The length
is nearly 3,000 miles and the mean breadth not more
than 70 miles. A glance at the map will show that
this peculiar configuration is due to the natural wall
of the Andes, which effectually cuts off Chile from all
the rest of South America, with the exception of its
northern neighbour, Peru. The area of the Republic
is about 308,000 square miles, and the population
is nearly 4,000,000. A country of such length from
north to south, running along the western slope of the
Andes, has, as might be expected, great varieties of
climate, which depend chiefly on the variety of the
rainfall. Chile comprises three regions — the desert of
the north, the central zone, which is fertile and tem-
perate, and the rainy and inclement southern territory.
As Darwin noticed, Chile owes all its rainfall to the
Pacific, save for Tierra del Fuego, which also draws
moisture from the Atlantic. In the south, furious
gales, which blow perpetually from the Pacific in a
westerly direction, bringing banks of clouds against
the mountains in Magellanes, Chiloe and Llanquihue,
cause an enormous rainfall. But towards the central

153

154 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

latitudes the winds have a south-westerly trend, bring-
ing the clouds more gently ashore, and giving good
rain, which becomes less and less copious the farther
north the traveller goes. Hence, between Valdivia
and Coquimbo lies a favoured country, which has
given Chile its good climatic reputation. The air is
exhilarating, the sun bright, and yet rain is usually
plentiful. This region includes the Provinces of San-
tiago and Valparaiso, which are the most populous
districts of Chile, and the whole country down to
Valdivia ; this is the Chile which travellers have in
mind when they write their glowing descriptions of
the climate and the country. But even here droughts
are not uncommon. The following rainfall figures
will show what varieties of humidity are to be found : —

Inches

Iquique 0*5

Coquimbo r6

Valparaiso 13^5

Santiago 14*5

Talca 197

Valdivia 115-0

Punta Arenas 22*5

But, taken as a whole, the climate of Central Chile is
delightful, and reminds one strongly of England at its
best. But this inestimable benefit is in danger of being
lost, unless the Chilian Government takes better care
of its forests, which are an invaluable means of pre-
cipitating rain and averting droughts. A traveller
noted that at the small town of Los Andes a thousand
well-grown shrubs were being daily destroyed for fire-
wood. North of Coquimbo the winds begin to blow
(if they blow at all) due south, thus causing the clouds
to run parallel to the land and to miss it altogether.
Accordingly the towering Andes precipitate no rain,
but stand, grim and treeless, looking upon the desert

CHILE 155

which forms the whole of the north of Chile, and yet,
by a strange paradox, is the chief source of its wealth,
for it contains the boundless deposits of nitrate — the
staple of Chilian commerce. A word will be said
about the nitrate fields under the head of Iquique ; it will
here suffice to say that these regions offer a prospect
of desolation surpassed by few places on the globe.

Thus there are two extremes of south and north —
moist and dry. The north is so dry that nothing will
grow there, and the inhabitants are mere colonists,
bringing their food by sea from more favoured regions.
Here, however, there are flourishing towns, whereas
the rain and general inclemency of the extreme south
has an even more desolating effect, and it is inhabited
by the naked Yaghans, who are in as low a state of
savagery as when they were visited by the Beagle.
11 In seasons of famine they strangle the old women
and keep the dogs alive — ' Doggie catch otter, old
woman, no ! ' Malformed children and incurably
diseased persons are always strangled." But these
Spartan methods do not secure the happiness or the
continuity of the race. " There is absolutely no room
for sentiment in that savage climate ! Nor is it
wonderful that they have diminished " from 2,500 to
a bare 200 in thirty years' time." They are " drunken,
lazy, and incorrigible liars." I

These people are now confined to the western sea-
board of Tierra del Fuego. A little farther north are
the Alakalufs, a fishing and hunting tribe, who are on
a somewhat higher level ; in the more temperate
regions the Indians become more civilized. Including
the Araucanians, there are about 100,000 Indians in
Chile. In Tierra del Fuego itself and elsewhere in

1 These quotations are taken from Mr. Scott Elliott's book and
from an article by Mr. Barclay in the Geographical Journal of
January, 1904.

156 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

the south of Chile there is splendid grazing land for
sheep hardy enough to stand the rigorous climate ;
a great quantity of excellent wool is raised, and Punta
Arenas has thus become an important place. The
temperate climate and long sea-border have made the
Chilians a hardy, seafaring race, and they are the
most vigorous people in South America.

The two remarkable features about the geology of
the country are the comparatively recent formation of
the Andes "and the fact that in the earliest times a large
part of Chile — the Nitrate Pampa — was covered by the
great Pampean Sea, which also extended over the
whole of Argentina. Chile was a mere strip of rock
following the line of the present seacoast. Then, after
the Silurian age, the seafloor eastwards was disturbed
by submarine volcanoes, and the land became overlaid
with Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits. The original
rocks themselves are probably Palaeozoic. The Andes
were formed by volcanic disturbance and consist
almost entirely of Cretaceous and Jurassic beds.

The mountain system of Chile consists of the
Andes, but they do not form a single chain. The
Cordillera of the Andes rises in the east and continues
the whole length of the country, while the outer
Cordillera runs nearly parallel, but disappears almost
entirely in the north and south. The best and most
populous part of the Republic, including Santiago, is
comprised within these two barriers. The Andes
reach their greatest height along the frontiers of the
Argentine Provinces of Mendoza and San Juan. It
should be remembered that Aconcagua, which is
possibly the highest peak in the New World, is in
Argentina, and also that no two authorities agree as to
the heights of the various mountains and show con-
siderable discrepancies even as regards their names.
The height of the Andes in the north, though great, is

CHILE 157

less than the central part of the range, and as they run
south they become steadily lower; the highest point in
Tierra del Fuego barely reaches 7,000 feet. The
following are among the highest peaks of the Andes : —

Feet

Socompa 19,600

Azupe de Copiapo ... ... ... 19,700

Cerro del Mercedario 22,320

Tupungato 22,000

San Jose de Maipu J7>644

Tronador 9,790

The last two are enumerated, not as being of remark-
able elevation but because they belong to the southern
chain. Hundreds of the Andes are quite unknown,
and many of them are fully 20,000 feet in height ;
most of them are extinct volcanoes, and a few still
show some activity.

It is only in the north that the outer Cordillera attain
great heights, such as Tacora (19,800) and Parinacota
(20,950). South of Valdivia this range disappears
altogether. The rivers of Chile, though short, are very
useful, for they enable the arid country to be irrigated.
The principal are the Copiapo, Huasco, Coquimbo,
Limari, Aconcagua, Maipo, Maule, Biobio, Bueno,
Valdivia, and Maullin. The Biobio, the most con-
siderable of these, is only 220 miles long.

Lakes are numerous, and the largest is Llanquihue,
with an area of 285 square miles.

The flora of Chile is distinguished by the great
number of indigenous forms. The north is an arid
desert, practically devoid of vegetation. Gradually
it becomes more plentiful, and when the Province of
Coquimbo is reached, the peculiar Chilian types of
flora begin to make their appearance. Grapes and figs
reach a high point of excellence, strawberries are
indigenous, and willows grow by the sides of the

158 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

streams. It seems certain that the potato was first met
with in Southern Chile. The cocoanut-palm (Palma
Chilensis) is common, and there is a great variety of
forest trees. There are at least ninety different
varieties of valuable woods, and it is unfortunate that
the Government of Chile does not take better care of
the forests.

The fauna of Chile is comparatively scanty and
uninteresting. Rodents are tolerably common, among
which are the chinchilla and the copyu, perhaps allied
to the beaver ; both are valued for their fur. The
guanaco is common. Jaguars and venomous snakes
are wholly wanting, and there are no apes. Imported
cattle and sheep do well in Chile. The only copious
form of fauna in the country is the tribe of birds,
many of which are indigenous, and among them the
condor and the parrot are conspicuous, while in the
southern regions sea-fowl are very numerous. In
the islands humming birds are not uncommon.

FOREIGN TRADE AND PRODUCTS

The foreign trade of Chile is large and increasing.
Values, it must be remembered, are throughout ex-
pressed in the gold peso, which is worth i8d.
The paper currency fluctuates, and the system badly
needs reform.

Gold dollars

In 1911 the imports were 348,990,354

exports „ 339>4°9»363

In imports England came first with (roughly) in
millions, followed by Germany with 89 and the
United States with 43. Argentina, Peru, France,
Belgium, Italy, India and Australia came next with
smaller amounts. Textiles, coal, oil and machinery
are the principal items, but the imports are of the
miscellaneous character common to South American

CHILE 159

countries, for Chile has not been able to develop
manufactures on a scale nearly equal to meeting the
home demand, in spite of rigorous Protection. The
openings for trade in English goods are numerous, and
our Consuls are constantly urging merchants to get
into personal touch with their customers and push
their trade, nor have those who have followed this
advice ever regretted the step. As English firms have
a very old connexion with Chile, English trade is
at a considerable advantage, but perpetual efforts are
needed to retain and improve it.

England takes a very large share of the exports — 145
millions, Germany taking 71, the United States 53 and
France 16. The enormous proportion of 294,431,542
pesos gold is classified under the head of mineral
products, and quite five-sixths of this is nitrate, for
the ancient glory has departed from other branches of
Chilian mining ; however, many copper-mines are still
worked, and a fair amount of copper and copper ore is
still produced. The value of this export is usually
about a million sterling. Tin ore is also exported.
Agriculture is an extremely important industry in
Central Chile, and Chilian wheat is highly esteemed.
The export of cereals is considerable, although
naturally the bulk is consumed at home, as Northern
Chile produces no food-stuffs whatever. The Chilian
timber, as has been pointed out, is valuable.

In 1910 the agricultural production was thus esti-
mated : —

Tons

Wheat 248,460

Potatoes 101,240

Barley 26,281

Beans I8,5i3

Maize 15*510

Oats 13,002

Peas 3,743

160 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

The amount of wine produced was 26,004,394 gal-
lons. The live stock comprised 3,537,738 sheep,
1,640,322 oxen, 415,000 horses and mules, and 159,000
pigs.

Chile is famous for its honey. In 1910, 5,550 tons
of honey and 1,000 tons of wax were produced, chiefly
in the districts of Coquimbo and Aconcagua.

Wine of an excellent quality is made in Chile, the
principal seats of viticulture being the Provinces of
Santiago and Aconcagua. The Chilian wine industry
is not much smaller than that of Argentina, and, on
the whole, Chilian wines are the best in South
America. The manufacture of wine was only com-
menced about forty years ago, so it will be seen that
great progress has been made, and it is estimated that
only one-tenth of the area suitable for viticulture is
used for that purpose. The Panquehue vineyard in
Aconcagua and the Macul vineyard, n miles from
the city of Santiago, are among the largest in Chjle.

Those who wish to trade with Chile must neces-
sarily study the tariff, which is very elaborate
and liable to constant changes. The first article of
the import tariff states : *( All foreign products shall,
on importation for consumption, be liable to a duty
of 25 per cent, on their valuation, with the exception
of those subject to a duty of 60, 35, 15, and 5 per
cent., those liable to specific duties and duty-free
articles." \No less than 59 articles are subject to a
duty of 60 per cent. On the other hand, a great
number of raw materials and implements of industry
are on the free list. Chile, having practically a
monopoly in natural nitrate, is in the happy position
of being able to make it a large source of revenue.
There is a duty of about 53. on every quintal of
nitrate exported, which is an important source of
revenue.

CHILE 161

PAPER MONEY

The Chilian currency has long been in an unsatis-
factory condition, and enlightened statesmen have
made many attempts to reform it, but their efforts
have been frustrated by various interests. A forced
paper currency is in circulation, which fluctuates
considerably ; the paper peso usually hovers in value
between lod. and i2d. The unit of value, which is
used for reckoning the customs and international
transactions generally, is the gold peso, but it is merely
a standard of value, not a circulating medium. Its
value is i8d. The urgently needed reform of calling
in the forced notes and establishing the gold peso as
the sole unit of value has been repeatedly postponed.
The last postponement was till the year 1915. There
does not seem to be any serious intention to improve
matters.

RAILWAYS

Chile is not an easy country for railway construc-
tion ; the mountains leave little level ground, and most
of the lines are short, running either west to east or
from one neighbouring port to another. However,
Chile has been extremely enterprising in railway con-
struction, and the Copiapo-Caldera Railway, begun in
1848 and finished in 1851, was the first line ever built
in South America. The only trans-continental line is
that from Buenos Aires to Valparaiso, and the Arica-
La Paz Railway, opened in 1912, is a remarkable
achievement. The most useful, however, is the Longi-
tudinal Railway, which is now nearly complete and
supplies a long-standing need. Until very recently
the Chilian high-road north of Valparaiso was the
sea ; southward there was communication as far as
Osorno, which has recently been extended to Puerto

162 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

Montt in Llanquihue, thus completing the southern
section. The northern part was not begun till 1908,
and immense progress has been made with it. There
is only one portion unfinished— that from Arica to
Jazpampa, and this missing link is only 150 miles in
length. The gauge is metre. The utility of a line
which connects all the transverse railways of the
country may easily be imagined. The total length
is a little over 1,800 miles, and the greatest altitude
reached is at Illapel — 4,585 feet. A detailed account
of the railways will be found under the headings of
the towns. The country has open 3,952 miles of
railway.

FINANCE AND GOVERNMENT

Chilian finance is complicated by the double mone-
tary standard. In 1912 the revenue was 101,050,000
gold pesos, and 189,200,000 paper pesos. The expen-
diture was 71,358,378 gold, 281,128,726 paper. The
external debt was 336,781,600 gold ; the internal was
180,593,372. The credit of Chile stands high in the
money market. The army and navy of Chile are
excellent, and as it is an accepted policy to keep
them in a high state of efficiency, the expenditure on
armaments is considerable.

Chile has, like other South American Republics, a
President, Senate, and Chamber of Deputies, but it
differs from most in being highly centralized. Con-
gress, which is swayed by powerful families, has more
power than the President. Chile is, like every other
South American Republic, an oligarchy, and the
Government habitually interferes with every election.
Chile has had a more tranquil history than any of her
neighbours, and has enjoyed better government ;
there is, however, a considerable amount of dis-
content.

CHILE 163

HISTORY

The history of Chile is one of the most interesting
in South America, but only a brief recital is possible
in the space at our disposal. The name is probably
derived from the ancient Indian word tchile, signifying
snow. The land was originally inhabited by the Arau-
canians, a fierce race, against whom, however, the
Incas of Peru made headway and extended their
empire southwards, probably as far as the River Maule,
which is some distance north of the present Concep-
cion. When Pizarro had conquered Peru, he sent
the valiant Pedro de Valdivia southwards on an adven-
turous expedition, and Santiago was founded in 1541.
The Araucanians proved themselves the most formid-
able opponents the Spaniards had ever met, but in
1550 he defeated them in the bloody and decisive
battle of Andalien and afterwards founded the city
of Concepcion, not far from the site of his victory.
Two years later he founded the pleasant city to the
south which still bears his name. But Valdivia,
though one of the greatest of the Spanish conquerors,
grew reckless with success, and, while pursuing the
skilled Araucanian leader, Lantaro, was by him over-
whelmed and killed near Tucapel. In spite of this
reverse the Spaniards held grimly on, and Mendoza,
the next Governor of mark, defeated and slew both
Lantaro and his successor Caupolican. But the Arau-
canians still resisted stubbornly, and the troubles of
the Spaniards were greatly increased by a navigator
whom they called " Francisco Drac," a native of
Plymouth, a man of low condition, but a skilful
seaman and a valiant pirate.

Drake's marvellous voyage (1577-80), during
which he landed at Valparaiso and Serena, gave the
Spaniards a sense of insecurity which lasted as long

1 64 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

as they retained their colonial Empire, because they
never knew when some daring sea-dog might choose
to intercept their treasure-ships or vessels carrying
reinforcements from one point of disturbance to
another. For more than a century and a half the
history of Chile is chiefly a history of the relations
between the Spaniards and Indians — attempts to tame
them through the Jesuits and other mild means alter-
nating with sanguinary measures of repression — until
in 1722 a treaty was made by which the land south
of the River Bio Bio was left to the Araucanians,
while Chile northwards was committed to a Spanish
Governor who was under the Viceroy of Peru. The
Araucanians, as a separate nation, are now nearly
extinct, but many of them fused with their conquerors,
with the result that the Chilian is the best fighting man
in South America. Like all other Spanish dominions,
Chile suffered much from the oppressive commercial
policy which hampered trade and industries in the
supposed interests of the mother country, but there
was considerable progress in the eighteenth century,
and Spanish policy rapidly became more liberal.
Much of this improvement is due to the Irish adven-
turer, Don Ambrosio O'Higgins, who began life as a
beggar-boy in Sligo. Having drifted to the Pacific
coast, he gradually worked his way upwards, and
gained surprising success as manager of the Arau-
canians, to whom he dealt out mercy and justice in
royal fashion. Among many good acts, he made a
road from Santiago to Valparaiso, and was rightly
rewarded with the governorship of Chile in 1788.
O'Higgins ended his adventurous and beneficial
career as Viceroy of Peru, in which office he died in
1800 at the age of eighty. But not even good adminis-
tration and liberal concessions could suppress the
excitement which spread over South America as the

CHILE 165

result of the revolt of the American Colonies and
the French Revolution. The breaking away from
Spain was bound to come, and in it the chief part was
taken by Bernardo O'Higgins, illegitimate son of the
old Viceroy. The history of the revolution in Chile is
not unlike that in other parts of South America. The
Chilians declared themselves independent in 1810 ;
there was fierce righting with the Spanish loyalists,
but the help of San Martin, the great Argentine
general, enabled the Revolutionists to gain a decisive
victory at Chacabuco in 1817, and shortly afterwards
the battle of Maipu effectively crushed the power of
Spain in Chile. The story of Lord Cochrane's exploits
in aid of Chilian independence is well known.
O'Higgins had been the liberator of Chile and was
made Dictator, but in 1823 he was deposed and driven
into exile by an ungrateful mob, thus sharing the fate
of Bolivar. For some years anarchy prevailed, but
in 1831 General Prieto came to the front, and in 1833
drew up a highly centralized Constitution. Then for
more than forty years Chile, in sharp contrast to most
of its neighbours, was fortunate enough to experience
a succession .of firm Governments, and enjoyed in
consequence tolerable prosperity and tranquillity.

In the seventies, the discovery that the nitrate deserts
were of untold value led to quarrels between Chile,
Peru and Bolivia. On the whole, Bolivia must bear
the blame for embroiling Peru in a disastrous war
with Chile (1879-83). Peru made a gallant resist-
ance, but was completely defeated, first by sea and
then by land. The immense importance of sea power
in South America was conclusively demonstrated, for
Chile could make no use of her army against Peru
until the latter's fleet was destroyed. This done, the
Chilians invaded Peru with a strong army, and on
January 13, 1881, defeated the Peruvians with [great

1 66 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

slaughter at Chorillos, a few miles from Lima, and
four days later, after further fighting, they entered the
capital. The soldiers fought with conspicuous bravery,
but sullied their victory by unnecessary cruelties. A
long guerilla war followed, but a peace was made in
December, 1883, by which Bolivia lost Antofagasta
and thus all access to the sea, while Tarapaca (capital
Iquique) was unconditionally ceded by Peru to Chile.
Peru also handed over Arica and Tacna to Chile for
ten years on somewhat vague terms, and these last
two Provinces, which Chile still holds, have been a
constant bone of contention between the two countries.
Before the war the Conservatives had been in power ;
after that event the Liberals had their turn, but
national affairs went less smoothly. In 1891 President
Balmaceda attempted to establish a tyranny and
caused a fierce revolution, which entailed much blood-
shed and ended in his defeat and suicide. Admiral
Jorje Montt became President and ruled well, but
unfortunately the creditable efforts which he made to
improve the currency were thwarted by Congress.
The boundary troubles with Argentina are noticed
under the heading of that Republic. Among the most
important events of' recent years were the wool boom
in the south, which collapsed early in 1905, and the
great earthquake which devastated Valparaiso in August,
1906. The people of Valparaiso and the Government
met this calamity with resolution and energy, and its
ravages were soon repaired. In 1906, Pedro Montt
was elected President, and, proving himself more
capable than several of his recent predecessors, devoted
himself to the task of developing the resources of the
country, so that the humdrum politics of railways,
nitrate and currency became of more importance
than wars or revolution.

In 1909 the nitrate combination, which restricted

CHILE 167

the output, came to an end. In 1910 the railway
from Arica to La Paz, in Bolivia, was begun, and thus
was redeemed a promise made to Bolivia in 1905, when
that Republic ceded all claims to a port or coast strip
on condition that the railway should be built. Earlier
in the same year the last link had been made in the
Transandine Railway, which thus gives uninterrupted
communication between Buenos Aires and Valparaiso.
Unfortunately, towards the end of the year Pedro
Montt's career of usefulness was cut short by death,
and he was succeeded by Senor Barros Luco.

Chile's main weakness is, firstly, that Congress is
dominated by an oligarchy whose want of disinterested-
ness is reflected by the state of the currency, which
enables a fortunate few to benefit by high prices, and
secondly, the state of education, which may be judged
by the fact that 75 per cent, of the population are
classed as illiterate. Nevertheless, whatever blemishes
it may possess, the Republic is stable and flourishing.

FROM PUNTA ARENAS NORTHWARDS BY

SEA

•

PUNTA ARENAS

STEAMSHIP LINES— The Royal Mail Steam Packet Company's
steamers and those of the Pacific Steam Navigation Com-
pany call twice a month on the outward and twice a month
on the homeward voyage. The Lamport and Holt and the
Kosmos (German) call about once a month.

RAILWAYS — None, except a line of 5 miles to the coalfields at
Loreta.

HOTELS— Royal Hotel (English), good ; Kosmos (German), gives
very fair accommodation ; Hotel de France (French cook-
ing), the catering is good. The terms of all three are from
73. to i os. a day.

BRITISH CONSUL — Captain C. A. Milward.

BANK — Anglo-South American Bank.

NEWSPAPERS — Chile Austral, El Cotnercio, El Magel lanes.

1 68 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

This flourishing place, with a population of 12,000,
stands on York Peninsula in the Straits of Magellan,
and is nearer to the South Pole than any other town
in the world. It is a most important place of call, and
its communications are described as being " with the
outside world entirely by water, within Patagonia by
horse or carriage." The roadstead affords good anchor-
age, and there is a mole 200 feet long with a steam
crane. It is distant 1,425 miles by sea from Valparaiso.
Punta Arenas, which was founded in 1851, is the
capital of the Territory of Magellanes, which has an
area of 64,000 square miles and a population of less
than 20,000. It has become noted in recent years for
sheep-raising, and has a large export trade in wools,
skins, hides, tallow, and frozen meat. Most of the
wool goes to the United Kingdom, which has by far
the largest share in the trade of Punta Arenas.

The appearance of the town is rapidly improving ;
the wooden buildings are being replaced by permanent
structures, and there is probably no healthier town in
Chile. The death-rate is 23*29, the birth-rate 45*23 per
thousand. As for the climate, 70° Fahr. is a hot day,
10° is a cold day, and the rainfall is more or less as
in England ; the climate is less rainy than that of
Scotland.

Pursuing the journey northwards, the traveller
reaches in four days Valdivia, with its port, Corral.

VALDIVIA

STEAMSHIP LINES — As at Punta Arenas.

RAILWAYS — A State Railway line runs to Antilhue, about 20 miles

eastwards, where the main line, which will take the passenger

to any part of Chile, is reached.
HOTELS — Gran Hotel Colon, Maipu 7 ; Hotel de France ;

Daguerre Hotel.
BRITISH CONSUL— Vice-Consul, p. M. Nicholson,

CHILE 169

BANK — Banco de Chile.

NEWSPAPERS — La Libertad, El Correo de Valdivia, and German
newspapers.

Valdivia, a pleasant town situated upon the river
of the same name, 12 miles from the sea, is the
capital of the Province. Its population is 22,598.
Corral is a tolerable harbour ; goods are towed thence
to Valdivia, where is the custom-house. This town
was gallantly captured by Cochrane in 1817. In 1851
it was colonized by Germans, who at first suffered great
hardships, but they are now very numerous in the
Province. It is an important agricultural centre, and
exports hides and wheat. The industries are con-
siderable and continue to make progress. There are
timber factories, tanneries, flourmills, breweries, dis-
tilleries, sugar refineries, and there is shipbuilding on
a small scale. The climate is humid, with usually
about 180 wet days in the year. Valdivia is 437 miles
by sea from Valparaiso. The next place of importance
is Concepcion, with its ports, Talcahuano and Penco.

CONCEPCION

STEAMSHIP LINES— As at Valdivia.

RAILWAYS — The ports of Talcahuano and Penco have short lines
to Concepcion, and the line is continued from Concepcion
to Rosendo, which is on the main line of the Chilian State
Railways. The railway journey to Santiago occupies about
12 hours.

HOTEL— Gran Hotel Colon.

BRITISH CONSUL — Consul, W. Borrowman. At Talcahuano —
Vice-Consul, H. J. Coke.

BANKS — Anglo-South American Bank, Banco de Chile.

NEWSPAPERS — El Sur, El Pais.

Talcahuano is situated on the Bay of Concepcion,
about 9 miles from Concepcion. It is one of the best
harbours in Chile, and possesses a Government dry-

170 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

dock 656 feet long and 70 feet wide. It is a military
port. Penco, with about 2,000 inhabitants, is 10 miles
from Concepcion ; it is a small port, but is chiefly
known as a watering-place. Talcahuano is 474 miles
from Valparaiso by sea.

Concepcion, the finest of the minor cities in Chile,
is situated on the River Bio Bio, 353 miles distant from
Santiago. It has a population of 60,000. The present
city is not upon its original site ; it was first founded by
the daring Pedro de Valdivia in 1550. After his defeat
and death it was destroyed by the Indians, but it was
soon rebuilt and took a leading part in the incessant
wars with the Araucanians. In 1751 it was completely
destroyed by an earthquake. Here Bernard O'Higgins
proclaimed the independence of Chile early in 1818,
and it was the scene of several of his successful
operations against the Spaniards. In 1835 ^ was a£am
laid in ruins by an earthquake which is described by
Darwin.

Concepcion is a well-built town, lighted by electricity
and served by a street railway, and it possesses a
cathedral and several fine churches. It is the capital
of the Province of the same name. Being the centre
of one of the best agricultural districts, it has a large
trade, and exports from Talcahuano grain, nuts, dried
fruit, timber, skins and honey. There are timber
factories, tanneries, flourmills, and several other
industries. The ship pursues its northern course,
passing the minor port of Constitucion (population
13,914 — 322 miles by sea from Valparaiso), and reaches
Valparaiso.

VALPARAISO

STEAMSHIP LINES — All the ships which call at Punta Arenas and
other southern ports come to Valparaiso. There are
frequent sailings of merchant ships to Australia and New
Zealand, The Cia, Sud Americana de Vapores (Chilian)

CHILE 171

maintains a fortnightly service between Valparaiso and

Panama.
RAILWAYS— There is railway communication with Santiago to the

south-east, Coquimbo to the north, and Argentina eastwards.1

Valparaiso has railway-stations — the Port, Bella Vista, and

Baron.
HOTELS— The Royal, Calle Esmeraldas, 49 (ios.-^2 a day),

best ; the Palace, Calle Blanco, 280 (8s.-£i a day) ; Hotel

Francia e Inglaterra, Calle Serrano, 47 ; Hotel Central, Calle

Victoria, 84, with restaurant.
BRITISH CONSUL — Consul-General, A. Maclean. Vice-Consul,

S. G. Irving.
BANKS— London and River Plate, Anglo-South American Bank,

Banco de Chile, Banco Aleman Transatlantico.
NEWSPAPERS— El Mercurio, La Union, El Dia.

Valparaiso, the chief port and commercial town of
Chile, with a population of 179,815, is situated on the
bay of the same name, at a distance of 62 miles from
Santiago. It was founded in 1536 by Juan de Saavedra,
but long remained a place of little importance. It was
sacked by Drake in 1578 and by the English and
Dutch at the end of the century. It became a munici-
pality in 1791, but during the war of independence had
a population of only 6,000. In 1866 Admiral Nunez
bombarded the town for three and a half hours and
destroyed property worth two millions sterling. But
the most terrible catastrophe is of recent date, being
the earthquake of August 16, 1906, when probably
1,000 persons were killed and as many more sustained
injuries, while the damage to property amounted to
-£20,000.

Valparaiso, or the Valley of Paradise, owes its name,
not to its own natural amenities, but owing to the fact
that Juan de Saavedra was born at a village of that
name in Spain. It has a good climate, but otherwise
is not an attractive place. Being the terminus of the

1 The journey from Buenos Aires to Valparaiso is described
in the Argentine section.

A GUIDE T<& SOUTH AMERICA

railway from Buenos Aires and the port of a rich
district, it has an enormous trade, and presents an
aspect more business-like than beautiful. The terrible
earthquake of 1906 did much to spoil its appearance,
which has many natural advantages, for Valparaiso is
situated on a fine bay, 3 miles across, and backed
by hills of moderate height, which would be imposing
if crowned by handsome buildings. However, earth-
quakes and good architecture do not go well together.

The streets of Valparaiso are narrow and poor, and
the shops below the level which would be expected
in such a flourishing town— below those of Lima, for
example. In spite of its immense shipping traffic, the
harbour is only moderately good, being exposed to
the north and only partially sheltered from the south
winds, but fortunately the Pacific here does not belie
its name. In rough weather it is a troublesome
landing-place, for travellers are always taken ashore
in boats, and the charges are then exorbitant. Under
normal conditions the fare does not exceed one paper
peso. Great improvements are being carried out,
including a large breakwater to protect the north-west
side and long rows of wharves. The cost is to be
.£2,800,000, and it is hoped that the works will be
finished in 1919. Nevertheless, Valparaiso retains all
its historical dignity and life as the port of the Chilian
capital Santiago, and is full of traders, among whom
the English take a prominent place and are at last
beginning to take steps to maintain their threatened
commercial ascendancy, in accordance with advice
that has for many years been showered upon them by
innumerable authors, journalists, and Consuls.

Most of the imports of Chile come through
Valparaiso, but the export trade is not large, because
the town is not a nitrate port. It has the usual
theatres, places of amusement, and public buildings

CHILE 173

which might be expected in a place of its importance,
but unless the traveller has business here he will not be
likely to make a long stay. There is, however, a large
English community whose headquarters are the Albion
Club. Valparaiso has an excellent service of electric
tramcars which connect it with Vina del Mar, some
4 miles distant. This popular suburb and watering-
place has a good hotel (the Grand) and sea-bathing,
but it is by no means beautiful. It is, however, a
favourite health resort, and many people who have
business in Valparaiso live here. In October,
November and February there is racing at the
Cancha.

SANTIAGO

RAILWAYS — Santiago is easily accessible by rail from Valparaiso,
the journey taking 3 hours and 40 minutes by the best trains.
It has also main line communication with the south ; the
journey to Tacahuano occupies about n hours. The
principal station is the Central, and there are also the Bodega
del Norte and the Bodega del Sur.

HOTELS — Hotel Oddc^ Calle Ahumado, 327 (143. a day). Rooms
can beo btained without board for 6s. a day. Grand Hotel,
Calle Huerfanos, 1164, with about the same charges. These
two are the best hotels, and the Oddo has the better cuisine
of the two. Hotels with lower charges are the Hotel Fornos,
the Royal Hotel, and the Hotel de Francia.

BRITISH MINISTER— Vacant.

CONSUL — Consul, Allen C. Kerr.

BANKS — Anglo-South American Bank, Banco de Chile.

NEWSPAPERS — El Mercurio, El Diario Illustrado, La Manana,
La Union, La Prensa, El Industrial (evening), The South
Pacific Mail. It is said that sixty newspapers and periodicals
are published here.
There is an English Church.

Santiago, the capital of Chile, has a population of
332,724. Founded in 1541 by Pedro de Valdivia and
named by him after St. James, the patron saint of
Spain, it has always been a handsome and prosperous

174 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

city. It suffered terribly from an earthquake in 1647.
During the Revolution it early declared itself on the
popular side, but the history of Chile belongs to the
seacoast, and there are not many striking events to
record in connection with Santiago.

The city stands in a pleasant tableland, 1,860 feet
above the sea-level. The best time to visit Santiago is
in the summer, between October and April. The mean
annual temperature is about 58° Fahr. A temperature
of 94° Fahr. is considered very high and 33° Fahr.
very low. The death-rate is about 50 per thousand ;
neither Santiago nor any other town in Chile is healthy,
owing to defective sanitation and the careless habits of
Chilian mothers. The city is lighted with electric
light and has a good system of electric tramcars, and
the streets are broad and well paved. Both in
Valparaiso and Santiago the tram-conductors are
women. The principal boulevard, the Alameda de las
Delicias, is 350 feet wide, flanked by handsome houses,
and extends for 2 miles through the city. The
Parque Cousino has an area of 201 acres. The
principal square is the Plaza da Armas.

The Cerro de Santa Lucia, a rugged rock over-
hanging Santiago, -and considered the glory of the
city, has been spoilt by garish buildings, but it gives
a fine view of the Andes. As at Buenos Aires, a very
fashionable crowd is to be seen in the afternoons
during the season. The capital has a glamour which
attracts Chilians to it, and many think that to have
a handsome house in a fashionable quarter and to
drive in handsome equipages through its boulevards,
is the sum of human felicity. Among the busiest of
the streets is the Calle de Estado, containing fine
shops, where European luxuries are to be obtained
at a high price. This street connects the Avenida
de las Delicias with the Plaza da Armas, where is

CHILE 175

the Cathedral. Nearly all the houses in Santiago are
of stucco, and the best effects are got out of this
unpromising material ; many of the buildings are rose-
pink. Most of them are built in the comfortable
old Spanish style round a patio or courtyard.

The Cathedral was originally built by Pedro de
Valdivia, but the present building, which has no very
remarkable features, belongs to the eighteenth century.
One or two of the ecclesiastical buildings of Santiago
date from the sixteenth century. The Houses of Con-
gress are a usual example of South American archi-
tecture, with graceful Corinthian porticoes, and the
Government Palace is a building without much
distinction. There is a Municipal Theatre. The
Biblioteca Nacional contains 120,000 volumes and
6,500 manuscripts, some of which are of great value,
having been obtained from various archives at Lima
and elsewhere. The National Museum in the Park
of the Quinta Normal has an excellent natural history
collection. The University of Chile was founded in
1843 and has five faculties — Theology, Law and
Political Science, Medicine and Pharmacy, Physical
Science and Mathematics, Philosophy, Philology and
Fine Arts. Education is at a low ebb in South
America, but the standard of culture among the upper
classes is above the Latin-American average. Chile
has been more distinguished in jurisprudence and
political science than in the humanities. Lastarria,
a pupil of the Venezuelan Bello, was a well-known
political philosopher in the early days of the Republic.
It is regrettable that so fine a city, with a delightful
climate and situation, should be unhealthy, but Chile,
which should be the healthiest of all the ten Republics,
is, in fact, the unhealthiest, and the death-rate of Val-
paraiso is still higher than that of Santiago. The
causes have been already indicated. The British work-

i;6 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

ing man, it should be added, is always warned not
to go to Chile, as the conditions are such as make
it impossible for him to work side by side with the
native labourer. In the higher grades of commerce
and industry there are many openings, but for the
manual labourer none. The cost of living is very
high, although prices are a little lower than in Argen-
tina or Brazil.

THE NITRATE REGION

The traveller who wishes to see the Nitrate Region
will retrace his steps to Valparaiso and take one of
the comfortable steamers of the P.S.N. Co. to
Iquique. One of the slower steamers which make
numerous halts may be recommended, for the voyage
is pleasant, the sea usually calm, the climate mild,
and the leisurely mode of proceeding, with the
occasional chance of landing at a small port, has
considerable charm. The day after leaving Valparaiso
Coquimbo is reached.

COQUIMBO

STEAMSHIP LINES — As at other Chilian ports.

RAILWAYS — There is a line 59 miles long from this place, by La
Serena, to Rivadavia, and another to Ovalle, 61 miles distant,
whence Santiago and Valparaiso can be reached.

HOTELS — Unpretending.

CONSUL — Consul, G. L. Ansted.

BANKS — Anglo-South American Bank, Banco de Chile.

NEWSPAPER — El Condor.

Coquimbo, the port of the Province of that name,
which is one of the richest in Chile, stands on the
bay of the same name; its population is 12,106.
Coquimbo is one of the richest districts in Chile,
and produces copper, iron, gold, silver and lead. It

CHILE 177

has a well-protected anchorage with a good passenger
mole and wharf ; ships anchor about a quarter of
a mile from the shore. It is not an attractive town.
La Serena, the capital of the Province of Coquimbo,
which is only 5 miles distant, can be easily reached
by rail. It is a pleasant place and has some small
industries. Coquimbo is 198 miles north of Valparaiso.
The steamer touches at Huasco, famous for raisins,
with an important industry of copper-smelting, and
Caldera, the port of Copiapo, which also has smelting
works. The same is to be said of Chanaral, where
a halt may be made. Both these places have railway
connexion with Copiapo. Taltal, the most southerly
of the nitrate ports, is a place of greater importance,
but it is one of the most desolate places imaginable.
Here is a British Vice-Consul. The next halting-place
is Antofagasta.

ANTOFAGASTA

STEAMSHIP LINES — As at other Chilian ports.

RAILWAYS — Here trains start for La Paz in Bolivia by Uyuni

and Oruro. There is also communication with the northern

port of Mejillones.

HOTEL — Grand Hotel (from ys. a day).
CONSUL— Consul, H. W. W. Bird.

BANKS — Anglo-South American Bank. Banco de Chile.
NEWSPAPERS — El Industrial, La Prensa, El Mercurio.

Antofagasta, a flourishing town and port, with a
population of 32,496, is the capital of the Province
of Antofagasta, which was wrested from Bolivia in
the war of 1879-83. The town is well built and
has electric tramcars. The distance by rail to Oruro
in Bolivia is 573 miles. Copper-smelting is carried
on and the town is an important centre of the nitrate
industry.

After a sail of about 20 hours Iquique is reached.

i/8 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

IQUIQUE

STEAMSHIP LINES— As at other Chilian ports.

RAILWAYS— The Nitrate Railway connects the town with the

Nitrate Pampa and the ports of Patillos, Caleta Buena and

Pisagua.
HOTELS— Phcenix (about los. a day), Europa and Terminus.

The Phcenix is the most frequented, but the accommodation

is on a modest scale.
CONSUL— Consul, E. F. Hudson.
BANK— Anglo-South American Bank.
NEWSPAPERS — La Patria, El Diario, El Tarapaca.
There is an English Church.

Iquique, the second port of Chile and the capital
of Tarapaca, is an attractive town and well laid out,
although it owes all its vegetation to irrigation, being
situated in the great nitrate desert, whose bare black
mountains rise up behind the town. There is a large
and hospitable English colony, whose members are
almost all engaged in nitrate. There is an excellent
English club, a race-course, and a sports club, where
all kinds of games are played. The population is
44^71.

THE NITRATE OFICINA

The Nitrate Railway climbs from Iquique up the
hills into the Pampa, as the nitrate plateaux are called.
A railway journey of 5 hours will bring the traveller
into the heart of the nitrate region, where, if he has an
introduction, he will have an opportunity of seeing an
oficina, or combined mine and factory. It may be
added that picture postcards give a false idea of the
nitrate desert. Being coloured in Germany by artists
who cannot imagine a place totally destitute of
herbage, they usually contain neat little patches of
green representing trees and grass. In fact, there is
not a blade of grass in the whole Pampa, still less a
tree. The compensations for those who live here are

CHILE 179

the invigorating air of the desert and polo, and, of
course, they are allowed periodical leave to Iquique,
but many prefer the Pampa to the town. The process
is as follows : The raw material (caliche) is found in
the ground, usually at a depth of a few feet, but if the
caliche is very rich in nitrate, diggings may be made
to about 50 feet. A paying percentage is 15, while 40
is considered extremely rich. A hole is drilled and
the ground is disturbed by blasting powder, then the
huge fragments into which the ground breaks are
further divided by dynamite. These large blocks are
then broken by hand into blocks several times the size
of ordinary bricks, and loaded into carts which are
brought on rails by mule to the oficina. The caliche
looks like white quartz, but is much softer. At the
oficina, after being broken into the size of road metal
by machinery, it is placed in trucks and then run into
tanks. Here it is treated with water which, having
been used before, and therefore containing nitrate
ingredients, affords a quicker process than ordinary
water. The caliche remains in this boiling water for
about three hours. The valuable liquid which is
obtained is run off into tanks, where it remains for
about twelve days. It is used over and over again for
the treatment of raw material. A certain amount of
solid waste is left, which has to be carted away, but
the valuable residue becomes crystallized and as white
as snow. The best contains less than 2 per cent of
salt, i.e. is nearly pure nitrate. It is spread on the
ground and dried in the sun for forty days ; then it is
put into sacks, loaded into railway trucks, and is ready
to be shipped. The oficina here described employs
400 men ; it has a neighbour under the same manage-
ment with 900, and there are great numbers similar in
size and organization all over the Pampa. The lowest
wage is four dollars (about three shillings and six-

i8o A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

pence) a day, and some labourers get ten. There are
various provisions for the amusement of the workers
— football, music-rooms, and the like, while schools
are provided for the children. About half the men
are married. Meat, which costs the company 80 cents
a pound, is sold to them for 40, and there are stores
at which they can buy various articles. Travelling
circuses, which often visit the qficinas, do excellent
business. The men have no trade unions : an attempt
was made to start them, but the officials decamped
with the money. However, labour troubles are not
unknown ; at the end of 1907 great discontent was
caused by the fall in value of the Chilian dollar,
although the men's wages were raised in compensa-
tion. In this connexion an extract from a Consular
Report may be of interest : "A very serious strike
occurred in December, 1907, all the oficinas in
Tarapaca closing down on account of the workmen
abandoning them and going to Iquique, where nearly
20,000 were collected. The strike degenerated into
open rebellion against the authorities, who were finally
obliged to use force to quell the riot, some 500 men
being killed and wounded. A great exodus of foreign
workmen took place after this event, it being estimated
that nearly 40,000 Peruvians, Bolivians and Argen-
tines left Tarapaca." During the last few years,
although the Chilian Government has not put its
coinage in order, the nitrate industry has become
steadily more prosperous, and little is now heard of
labour troubles. The most satisfactory workmen are
Chilians, Peruvians and Bolivians ; English labourers
cannot stand the climate. After a few years, a thrifty
workman can earn enough to go and live in the south
in independence, but, in fact, most workmen save up a
few hundred dollars and go to town and get rid of
them in a few days. The gunpowder for blasting is

CHILE 181

made in the oficina. The best machinery is English ;
many Chilian oficinas use native machinery, but it
is unsatisfactory. Often the refuse from Chilian
machinery contains 15 per cent of nitrate, while that
from English contains only 2 or 3 per cent. Further
facts about the industry and the combination to restrict
output (which broke down in 1909), can be obtained
in the Consular Reports.1

ARICA AND TACNA

After having seen Iquique and the Pampa, the
traveller will doubtless take the P.S.N. Company
steamer to Mollendo and Callao. It may probably
miss Pisagua and Arica, both smaller nitrate ports.
Arica has been well described by Mathews in his
book, which is noted in the Bolivian section. Arica
has 4,866 inhabitants. The hotel is the Americano
(about js. 6d. a day) ; the British Consular Officer is
Vice-Consul G. de M. Mackirdy. It is connected with
Tacna by a railway line (gauge 4 feet 8J- inches) of 30
miles. Much more important is the Arica-La Paz
railway which has been lately opened. Begun in
1906, it was finished in 1913 ; it is a metre-gauge line
and the length is 271 miles, comparing favourably
witji 531 from Mollendo to La Paz and 711 from
Antofagasta to La Paz. The contract price was
.£2,245,000. The highest point is 13,986 feet.

Arica was the scene of a great battle in 1879 between
the Chilian and Peruvian armies. Mining is the
principal industry.

1 Further attempts to restrict the supply were made in 1913,
but it is always extremely difficult to induce all the firms to join
in an agreement. The following is the world's estimated con-
sumption : —

1911 igi2 1913

Tons Tons Tons

2,313,450 2,485,860 2,464,540

182 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

Tacna, the capital of the Province of that name, is
an important trade centre with 10,412 inhabitants.
The hotels are the Americano and Reiteri at about
75. 6d. a day. The British Consular Officer is Vice-
Consul A. P. Roe.

Shortly after passing Arica the vessel glides into
Peruvian waters, and the journey must consequently
be resumed in the Peruvian section.

Chile is the subject of a fair number of books, including —

Scott-Elliot, G. F. Chile. London, 1907. South American Series.
Anonymous (compiled by the International Bureau of Pan-
American Republics). Chile. Washington, 1906.
Smith, W. Anderson. Temperate Chile. London, 1899.
Russell, W. H. A Visit to Chile. London, 1890.
Koebel, W. H. Modern Chile. London, 1913.

COLOMBIA

Railways shown thus

o 200 MILES

COLOMBIA

THE Republic of Colombia is a large tract of
country occupying the north-eastern corner of
South America, with a seaboard of nearly 600 miles
on the Pacific Ocean, and more than 700 miles on the
Caribbean Sea. As regards both area and population,
there was long considerable uncertainty, partly owing
to the boundary disputes, and partly owing to the un-r
developed state of the country, which makes accurate
census returns difficult, but the census of 1911 gives
the area as 463,155 square miles and the population as
5,031,850. The latter is an extremely liberal estimate.
This does not include an uncertain mass of uncivilized
Indians who must be rapidly disappearing, if the calcu-
lations of 220,000 in 1881 and 130,000 in 1908 are
correct. Some of these are in the lowest state of
savagery and employ poisoned arrows, while tribes
in the forests about the Putumayo are said to practise
cannibalism. Besides these there are at least 200,000
full-blooded Indians who are partially civilized, and
some of these, such as the Chibchas of the Bogota
plateau, are fine races and of great industrial value.
Of the Chibchas Mr. Petre says : "As porters there
are few finer men anywhere. As the steamer is loading
or discharging, men hurry up or down the steep banks,
each carrying his 140 lb. bag of coffee as if it were a
trifle. A single man will shoulder and walk off with
a packing case which it would take three English rail-

1 86 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

way porters to handle." There are numbers of negroes
on the hot and unhealthy plains of the coasts, while
the highlands of the interior are chiefly inhabited by
the pure-blooded Spaniards, who are not very numerous,
and the mestizos, who are a cross between Indians and
Spaniards. Mulattos and Zambos (negro-Indians) are
not uncommon, for the Colombian race is extraordi-
narily mixed. There are three regions : firstly, the
coast, zone, hot and damp and usually unhealthy for
Europeans ; secondly, the mountain district, consisting
of three huge chains running northwards and north-
east, one of which reaches as far north as the Sierra
Nevada de Santa Marta near the Caribbean coast, and
offering every variety of climate; and thirdly, the large
and more level lands about the affluents of the Amazon
and Orinoco, which are partly covered with dense
forests and partly with grass which affords excellent
grazing. The climate naturally depends more on the
altitudes than the latitude, and the only temperate
regions are among the mountains, upon whose plateaux
is to be found such civilization as exists in Colombia.

There is constant rain along the Pacific coast and
there is also a very heavy rainfall on the low-lying
Atlantic sea-board. The heat is great all over the
plains, but less intense on the Pacific side than on the
east and south. The plains are malarious.

The geology of Colombia, which is imperfectly
known, is igneous and volcanic ; the oldest rocks are
gneisses and schists, which are overlaid with sandstone,
slate and limestone. The Cordillera of Bogota consists
of cretaceous beds.

The mountains of Colombia are divided into three
groups — the Eastern, Central, and Western Cordillera.
Among the eastern range the highest peaks are the
Sierra Nevada de Chita and Cocui, which are each
about 16,800 feet. It is in the interior of the country that

COLOMBIA 187

the most extensive mountain system and the greatest
elevations are to be found, including Tolima (18,400),
Huila (18,000), Mesa de Herveo (18,300) and Ruiz
(17,400). All of these are covered with perpetual snow.
The western range is not so high, Cerro Torra, which
attains the height of 12,600 feet, being the principal.

The river system of Colombia deserves careful study.
The Magdalena is the fourth river in South America,
being surpassed only by the Amazon, the Parana, and
the Orinoco. It rises on the borders of the Depart-
ments of Popayan and Neiva, at an elevation of about
12,000 feet, and after pursuing a course of more than
1,000 miles falls into the Caribbean Sea. It is navig-
able for steamers from Neiva to its mouth, a distance
of some 480 miles, and barges can proceed to a much
greater distance. It has been called the Danube of
Colombia and until recently was the principal and
almost the only means of internal communication. At
a point about 200 miles from its mouth it is joined by
the Cauca, which has a length of some 700 miles, of
which about 300 are navigable. The Atrato (400 miles)
drains the north-west, being fed by innumerable
mountain streams and having therefore a huge dis-
charge of water. The only other important river
which reaches the Caribbean Sea is the Sinu, draining
the flat district around the Gulf of Morosquillo. Flow-
ing into the Pacific are the San Juan (200 miles), the
Patia (250), and several smaller streams. Many of the
affluents of the Amazon pursue their course through
Colombia, including the gigantic Putumayo and
Yapura, and a host of others. The Meta flows into
the Orinoco.

The lakes of Colombia are inconsiderable and there
are only two of any size — the Mocoa in the Department
of Pasto and the Tota in the Department of Santa
Rosa. Lake Fuquene is remarkable as being one of

188 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

the sacred lakes of the Chibchas, who used to throw
treasure into its waters.

Colombia has a rich flora ; a large proportion of its
area is covered with tropical forest, but the vegetation,
of course, gradually disappears as high altitudes are
reached. The flora has been described as rivalling that
of Brazil in the variety of its plants and the splendour
of its foliage and blossoms. The palm is the charac-
teristic tree and its varieties are numerous and valuable.
A common variety is the Mauritia flexuosa, and the
peach palm (Guilielma speciosa) grows abundantly.
The tagua (Phytolephas macrocarpa) is found along the
rivers in the western regions, and produces the ivory-
nut, which is of high commercial value. Yet another
palm is the Carludovica palmata, whose leaves supply
the material which makes the so-called Panama hats.
In the Central Cordillera palms are found up to a
height of 10,000 feet. The forest woods are numerous
and Colombia has a large variety of orchids.

Among the fauna of Colombia, the puma, the jaguar
and two species of bear represent the fierce animals,
while the tapir is very common. Monkeys abound in
the forests and there are several kinds of deer. The
bird tribe is extremely numerous. There are many
kinds of snakes, some of which, including the dreaded
rattlesnake, are very venomous, and boas are very
common in the neighbourhood of the Caqueta ; the
rivers swarm with caymans.

A peculiarity of the Republic as compared with its
neighbours is the large urban population. There are
probably fifty towns with a population of 5,000 and
upwards, and several of these, apart from Bogota,
where the Spanish literary tradition has always been
strong, are distinguished for the humanities and general
culture, in which the Colombians are far more advanced
than in politics and industry. Lack of means of com-

COLOMBIA 189

munication is, however, a serious impediment to every
kind of progress. The following are the principal
towns : —

Population

Bogota 120,000

Medellin 71,004

Barranquilla 48,907

Cartagena 36,632

Manizales 34>72°

Sonson 29,346

Pasto 27,760

Cali ... 27,747

Aguadas 26,423

COMMERCE AND PRODUCTS

In 1911 the imports were valued at 18,108,863 gold
pesos.1

In 1911 the exports were valued at. 22,375,899 gold
pesos. During the last few years Colombia has
enjoyed a fair amount of prosperity, but the last years
of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the
present were calamitous, and in 1905 the foreign com-
merce was smaller than in 1880. The chief imports
are cotton goods and manufactured articles generally,
flour and machinery. The United States took the lead
in trade until quite recently, but Great Britain is now
slightly ahead. The chief countries, as regards imports,
are : —

Gold Pesos

Great Britain ... 5,838,789

United States 5,404,975

Germany 3,242,634

Spain ... 1,870,835

France 1,718,747

The largest export was coffee, valued at 9,475,448 gold
pesos. Gold amounted to 3,751,632, and bananas to

1 The gold peso is worth 45. The paper peso, which alone
circulates, is worth about £d.

190 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

2,172,000. Other considerable items were : hides,
1,779,790 ; hats, 1,088,821 ; rubber, 900,886; and
ivory-nuts, 739,419. Great Britain takes more than
half of the exports.

The Republic is celebrated for the fine quality of its
coffee, which grows in almost every part at elevations
of a few hundred feet above the sea-level to about
7,000 feet. It flourishes best at a temperature between
59° and 77° Fahr. The best coffee districts are
Cundinamarca, Santander, Antioquia, Caldas, Cauca,
and Tolima. The coffee from Fusagasaga, about
40 miles, south-west of Bogota, and from Tolima
commands the highest price. The shrub begins to
bear after about three years, and reaches maturity
in six ; the average product is about one pound
yearly, and there are two crops, one in March
and one in October. Coffee-growing would be more
profitable if the means of communication were im-
proved.

The wealth of Colombia in the precious metals is
prodigious, and the Department of Antioquia (capital
Medellin) is the chief gold-producing district, but the
inaccessibility of the Colombian mines makes them
difficult to work at a profit. This is particularly the
case with the famous emerald-mines of Muzo, about
100 miles north of Bogota, to reach which "the
traveller is obliged to pass through some of the most
dangerous mountain passes, and over precipices where
a false step would dash him and his mule to destruc-
tion " (Millican). These mines have practically a
monopoly in supplying the world with emeralds, for
none compare in colour with those of Muzo. They
are worked by the Government, which is "reticent"
as to the profits, but these are undoubtedly large, and
estimates varying from -£100,000 to ^"200,000 a year
have been given.

COLOMBIA 191

To return to gold, the Frontino and Bolivia Mining
Company exploit several rich mines in Antioquia, but
it is believed that the valley of the San Juan is evep,
richer in auriferous deposits, and much gold is atso
found in the Cauca Valley. Since the conquest
Antioquia and Cauca have each produced over fifty
millions sterling of gold, while Tolima has yielded
some twelve millions. Platinum, iron and silver are
also found, and other metals are extracted in smaller
quantities. The mineral wealth of Colombia is un-
doubtedly great and very imperfectly developed.
There are valuable salt-mines at Zipaquira.

Although agriculture is in a backward condition,
almost any kind of crop can be raised at the various
elevations. Banana cultivation (near Santa Marta) is
increasing, and the grazing industry is of some
importance. Tobacco is largely grown in the Cauca
Valley and is principally exported to Germany, while
cotton is cultivated in Antioquia and along the Atlantic
coast. Tropical products, especially rubber and vege-
table nuts, are largely exported.

INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS

The roads of Colombia are very bad in spite of
efforts on the part of the Government to improve
them, and the River Magdalena is still the best high-
way. Railways have existed in Colombia since 1867,
but the country presents formidable engineering diffi-
culties, owing to the ranges of mountains which break
it up into sections ; and there is little system in the
lines, which run largely at cross purposes and have
varying gauges. That of the Barranquilla and Santa
Marta Railway is 3 feet 6 inches, the Girardot Railways
3 feet, and several are metre gauge. There are now
621 miles of railway. The bulk of the companies are

192 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

under British control, but a fair proportion belong to
the Government or to Colombian companies. There
are three groups : * the Barranquilla (the oldest), the
Cartagena, and the Santa Marta, which lead from the
three chief ports so named and have a united length
of over 130 miles ; the three lines connecting Bogota
with the Sabana or tableland of Bogota, known as the
Sabana, the Northern, and the Southern Railways, with
a united length of about 80 miles ; and lastly the lines
which serve the valley of the Magdalena, namely, the
Girardot, the Dorada, and the Antioquia Railways, with
a mileage of about 310. There are also two isolated
railways — the Cauca, which is planned to connect
Bogota and the Pacific port Buenaventura by the rich
Cauca Valley, but is unfinished as to five-sixths of its
designed course ; and the Cucuta Railway, which
connects the town of that name with Puerto Villamizar
on the River Zulia, near the Venezuelan frontier.
Some account will be given of the railways under the
headings of the towns.

FINANCES

The finances of Colombia are somewhat confused,
and those who wish to study them are referred to the
various reports of the Incorporated Society of Foreign
Bondholders. This confusion is largely due to the
reckless emission of paper money, which has made the
Colombian currency the worst, or nearly the worst, in
Latin America. The monetary unit is the gold peso of
45., but gold or silver coins are rarely seen, and the
peso has sunk almost to the vanishing-point. This
was not always the case. In 1897 ^ne Paper peso was

1 Much of this information is taken from a valuable Report for
1910, by Mr. V. Huckin, Acting British Consul-General at
Bogota.

COLOMBIA 193

worth is. 8£d., but the revolutionary troubles at the
beginning of the century, culminating in the loss of
Panama, brought about alarming depreciation. Coins
disappeared, and the paper money brought back the
memory of the assignats in the worst days of the
French Revolution. By an important law of 1905
this undesirable state of things was, to a certain
extent, stereotyped, for the rate of exchange was fixed
at 10,000, i.e. 100 gold (43.) dollars were to be rated at
10,000 paper pesos, and now the paper peso fluctuates
round the 10,000 point, or, in other words, is worth
sometimes more, sometimes less, than a halfpenny.
The same law made provision for the redemption of
the paper money and the re-establishment of a
metallic currency, and it is to be hoped, for the sake
of Colombia and all who are interested in the
country, that these provisions will be carried out. It is
hardly necessary to say that the traveller should invest
sparingly in the paper money, buying only the bare
amount required for his needs, for he will find a
difficulty in getting rid of his surplus stock when he
quits the country. For 1913 the budget was thus
estimated : Revenue, 15,641,303 gold pesos, and expen-
diture 15,620,568. Three-quarters of the revenue
came from the customs ; war and the service of the
debt were the principal items of expenditure. The
external debt amounts to nearly i\ millions sterling.

CONSTITUTION

The constitution of Colombia changes so frequently
that a detailed description of it would be superfluous.

HISTORY

Owing to the abundance of gold, the sure magnet
for fierce adventurers, the land now known as

194 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

Colombia has experienced a history more troubled
than is usual even in South America. It was visited
by Columbus in 1498, but Bastida, who had himself
cruised along the coast two years earlier, was the first
to make a permanent settlement, founding Santa
Marta in 1525 on the north coast. A few years later,
Pedro de Heredia explored the valley of the Cauca
and won an immense amount of gold. But the real
founder of Colombia, which he called New Granada,
was Quesada, who, leaving Santa Marta, made his
way up the River Magdalena, and reached Bogota in
1537. The next year there arrived simultaneously the
German adventurer Fredemann from Venezuela, and
Belalcazar, Pizarro's lieutenant, from Quito, but the
tact of Quesada averted a collision, and their joint
forces devoted themselves to the task of subduing the
Indians, who were conquered with more than the usual
brutality. Under the Spaniards New Granada was im-
portant as a main source of gold supply, and its large
trade (hampered, however, by short-sighted regulations),
passing through the excellent harbour of Cartagena.
Independence was won in the great revolutionary war
with the Spaniards (1810-19), and with the help of
Bolivar there was formed the Republic of Colombia
out of Panama, Ecuador, Venezuela, and the present
Colombia. Troubles quickly arose, and in 1831
Colombia (with Panama) seceded and called itself the
United States of New Granada, under a federal con-
stitution. It would serve no purpose to relate the
vicissitudes of the next half-century, but a landmark
may be named in 1886, when General Rafael Reyes
abolished the federal system, making the States simple
departments and proclaiming the Republic of
Colombia. Changes in names and constitutions, how-
ever, brought no tranquillity, for civil war remained
practically chronic ; and among many other dis-

COLOMBIA 195

turbances, the Department of Panama was, in 1901, in
a condition of such disorder that the United States,
England, and France were obliged to land troops at
Colon to preserve the peace.

This episode leads to the circumstance which has
made Colombia important in recent history. The
United States had decided to make the Panama Canal,
and therefore found it necessary to insist upon perfect
order in the Isthmus, and also to enter into delicate
negotiations with Colombia as the sovereign State
which had originally given the concession to M. de
Lesseps's company. In 1903 the Hay-Herran treaty
was negotiated at Washington, by which Colombia
agreed to transfer the concession to the United States
and cede to them a strip of land 10 miles wide for the
purpose of the Canal. In return she was to receive
.£2,000,000 in cash, and, after ten years, an annual
rental of ^50,000 as well as certain benefits in respect
of 50,000 snares which she held in the old company.
But in September, 1903, the Colombian Senate refused
to ratify the treaty on the ground that when it was
signed the Republic was in a state of civil war and the
plenipotentiary had no authority. The Department of
Panama, which was expecting great benefits from the
Canal, was very indignant, and, breaking out into
revolt, declared itself independent on November 3rd.
In spite of the protests of Colombia, the United States
hastily recognized the independence of the new
Republic of Panama, and negotiated with it the same
treaty that Colombia had rejected. Colombia was
thus left in the lurch, losing not only money of which
she was in sore need, but a valuable piece of territory
as well. It was not till January, 1910, that Colombia
consented to recognize the independence of Panama
in consideration of a sum of ^500,000 as payment of
Panama's share in the public debt of Colombia. This

196 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

aggression on the part of the United States has left an
indelible impression upon the Colombian people, and
in 1912 the Government refused a proposed visit from
Mr. Knox, the American Minister, who was touring in
the Caribbean Sea.1

In 1905 General Rafael Reyes was elected President
for a special term of ten years, and succeeded in main-
taining tolerable order and developing the resources of
the country. But in 1909 he retired to Europe on the
ground of ill-health, and the next year Senor Carlos
Restropo was elected for the ordinary constitutional
term of four years, without serious disorder. Although
the currency is in a state'of deplorable confusion and
the finances not altogether satisfactory, Colombia has
made considerable progress since the disasters of 1903,
and her prospects are brighter than ever before in her
history.

BARRANQUILLA, SAVANILLA, AND PUERTO
COLOMBIA

To speak of the port of Barranquilla or Savanilla is
now a misnomer, for a bar across the River Magdalena
prevents ships coming to Barranquilla, and Savanilla,
its former port, has been abandoned in favour of
Puerto Colombia, a few miles west. Barranquilla and
Puerto Colombia are 17 miles apart. Barranquilla,
however, is still called the port, although dependent
on Puerto Colombia for its ocean traffic.

STEAMSHIP LINES — The Royal Mail Steam Packet Company has
a fortnightly service for Puerto Colombia to and from Liver-
pool. The home journey is made by Colon and Jamaica.
The same line has a fortnightly service to New York. The
Leyland Line from Liverpool calls about twice a month.
There are frequent sailings of the Hamburg-American Line

1 Since the above was written the United States have made
offers of compensation.

COLOMBIA 197

to New York and also to the ports of Central America.
There are also the Cie. Gen. Transatlantique to France, La
Veloce to Genoa, and a line to Barcelona. The R.M.S.P.
Company's fare is £30— return £45. The fare to New York
by the best lines is £16 133. 4d. — return ^31 135. 4d. The
journey from Puerto Colombia to Cartagena by sea takes
5 or 6 hours.

RAILWAYS — From Puerto Colombia to Barranquilla there are
three trains a day by the Barranquilla Railway and Pier
Company. The journey occupies an hour. Steamers from
Barranquilla to Calamar give connexion with the railway
from Calamar to Cartagena.

HOTELS— There are two unpretending hotels at Puerto Colombia.
At Barranquiila there are several. " There are many worse
places to sleep in than a third-floor room on the north side of
the Pension Ingles " (Petre). The charge is 125. 6d. a day.
There is also the Central Hotel.

BRITISH CONSUL — Consul, John Gillies.

BANKS — Banco de Bogota, Banco Central, Banco de Colombia,
Banco de Credito.

NEWSPAPERS — Inconsiderable.

Puerto Colombia is a very small place, only noted
for the great iron pier, 4,000 feet long, which was
built in 1893 at a cost of -£60,000. Barranquilla
(with Puerto Colombia) is the chief port of the
country, having a total trade of considerably over
2j millions sterling. The population is nearly 50,000.
Barranquilla is an entirely modern town, and though
of great commercial importance owing to its ocean
and river trade, has no other features of interest
except a cathedral. It is the starting-point for
Bogota, the capital.

The ocean steamer, after leaving Puerto Colombia,
soon arrives at Cartagena.

CARTAGENA

STEAMSHIP LINES— As at Puerto Colombia.

RAILWAYS — The Cartagena Railway Company has a line of 62
miles to Calamar.

198 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

HOTELS— Walter's, Calle de San Agustin (IDS. a day) ; Mariani's,

Calle del Cuartel (zos. a day).
BRITISH CONSUL— Vice-Consul, William Dickin.
BANK— Martinez & Co.
N EWSPAPERS— Inconsiderable.

This ancient seaport, with memories of Drake, the
Inquisition, and Admiral Vernon, presents a beautiful
appearance from the sea, and is an extremely pic-
turesque town. The great Spanish fortifications, built
by order of Philip II, are still intact. The harbour
is the best in Colombia, and the port, which declined
after the fall of the Spanish power, is now reviving.
It has, on the average, about half the trade of Barran-
quilla, but may rival it in the near future. Like all
Colombian coast towns, Cartagena is hot.

Santa Marta, founded by Bastida in 1525, is the
oldest settlement in Colombia, but its importance is
of recent date and due to the operations of the United
Fruit Company, which exports bananas in great quanti-
ties ; Santa Marta, indeed, has a larger export trade
than any Colombian port except Barranquilla and
Cartagena. The banana district is served by a railway
58 miles long. The Fyffes' Line has a regular service
to England, ships of the United Fruit Company sail
frequently to New York, and Santa Marta is a port
of call for the Hamburg-American Line.

BOGOTA

COMMUNICATIONS— Calamar, which is the first stage, can be
reached either by Cartagena or Puerto Colombia. The
journey up the Magdalena to La Dorada, a distance of
600 miles, occupies about 10 days. The steamboats of the
Colombian Navigation Company are generally preferred,
but if the river is low it is better to go by a smaller line, as
a large boat is liable to go aground. Mosquito nets are
necessary, and it is well to take a small store of delicacies

COLOMBIA 199

to eke out the regulation food. In fact, in Colombia the
traveller needs more kit than in other South American
countries. From Dorada there is a short railway journey
to Honda. Here the Hotel America offers fair accommoda-
tion. From Dorada it is pleasanter to take the road, and a
mule-ride of 3 days will bring the traveller to Bogota.
The inns on this road are very fair.

Otherwise the steamer may be resumed from Honda to
Girardot — a distance of 93 miles — and from the latter place
there is a railway of 82 miles to the Sabana of Bogota. This
brings the traveller to Facativa, which is still 25 miles from
the capital, but the Sabana Railway accomplishes the
journey, and thus the distant goal is at last reached. The
total fare from Cartagena to Bogota by this last route is
£9, to which should be added about £i 53. extra for a
cabin on the steamers — a necessary item.

HOTELS — The best is the Hotel Freese in the Plaza Bolivar, the
next the Hotel Metropolitan©. Both are unpretending. Two
others are the Hotel de Europe and the Hotel Blume, the
last being suitable for ladies.

BRITISH CONSUL — Mr. P. C. H. Wyndham is Minister Resident
and Consul-General ; M. Badian is Vice-Consul.

BANKS — Banco de Bogota, Banco de Colombia, Banco Central.

NEWSPAPERS — El Nuevo Tiempo, El Liberal, La Cronica, El
Diario, La Gaceta Republicana. Excellent reviews are El
Semanario and El Revista National Colombiana.

Bogota, the capital of Colombia, with a population
of 120,000, was founded by Quesada in 1538, and
from the first was one of the chief seats of the Spanish
power. Here in 1810 the Junta declared New Granada
independent ; the capital was seized in 1815 by the
Royalist General, Pablo Morillo, who held it for four
years, till he was driven out after the battle of Boyaca
in 1819. The city stands at an elevation of 8,563 feet
above the sea-level, and, like many Spanish-American
capitals, is extremely remote in situation. As has been
seen, it depends for its intercourse with the outer world
chiefly upon the River Magdalena, from which, how-
ever, it is distant about 60 miles as the crow flies.

200 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

It is the terminus of three short lines of railway. The
Sabana Railway has already been mentioned. The
Northern Railway runs to Zipaquira, famous for salt-
mines, at a distance of 38 miles. The town (population
12,000) has a good hotel. The Southern Railway,
about 20 miles in length, goes to Sibate.

The town is laid out on the usual Spanish-American
plan, and the best square is the Plaza Bolivar, with a
statue of the Liberator. Here is the National Capitol, a
building which has unfortunately been left unfinished :
and on the east side is the Cathedral, begun in 1572,
but not completed till the early part of the nine-
teenth century. There are 29 churches in Bogota, of
which Ejipto, Las Nieves, and Santa Barbara belong
to the sixteenth century. Not far from the Plaza is
the Presidential Palace, an unpretending but well-
planned building. Bogota has a large and very good
market, which is well supplied with a great variety of
fruit. The town is ill-paved and the trams are indif-
ferent. The Theatre, a handsome building, was erected
as early as 1793. The National University was founded
in 1867, but the College of Nuestra Senora del Rosario
dates from 1654. Bogota is distinguished for its culti-
vation of the humanities. A French observer says :
" The best society of Bogota cultivates literature, art
and science. Its high standard of intellectual culture
enables it to engage in the pursuit with ease and
success. One might say that all branches of human
knowledge are studied and cultivated. Besides their
devotion to poetry, many gentlemen and ladies of
Bogota have excellent taste for painting and music, and
thus there is at Bogota a literary and artistic movement
which exercises a powerful influence upon the intel-
lectual development of the whole country." Colombia
ranks higher in poetry than any other Latin American
nation. Everywhere it is held in high estimation, but

COLOMBIA 201

nowhere more so than in this country, where soldiers
and statesmen are expected, as in the days of Elizabeth,
to be able to turn verses as well as to be skilled in
the politics of war and peace. Many of the earlier
poets found their inspiration in the war of indepen-
dence, but the favourite strain is erotic, and this usually
proves wearisome to European taste. But Diego
Fallen (1834-1905) is described as a philosophical
descriptive poet ; his output is very small, but the
two short pieces La Luna and La Palma are among
the gems of modern poetry. Rafael Pombo (1833-
1912) is a typical Colombian poet. Jorge Isaacs
(born 1837) wrote Maria, one of the most popular of
South American novels, and it would be difficult to
name a Spanish American town where the humanities
are more zealously and successfully cultivated than at
Bogota.

Most travellers will return from Bogota to the coast
by the way they came, but a more interesting experi-
ence would be to make a round trip, taking the railway
to Girardot, and then marching over the Quindio Pass
to Buenaventura, the chief Colombian seaport on the
Pacific. The journey, after leaving the railway, is not
much less than 200 miles, but the route is extremely
beautiful.

Three very excellent books have been published on Colombia,
namely : —

F. L. Petre. The Republic of Colombia. London, 1906.

Henry Jalhay. La Republique de Colombie. Brussels, 1909.

P. J. Eder. Colombia. London, 1913. South American Series.

There is some very useful information in a paper by
R. B. White in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society
for May, 1883, and Mr. Hiram Bingham's Journal of ah Expedi-
tion across Colombia and Venezuela,1 is interesting.

1 New Haven, Connecticut — also London — 1909.

ECUADOR

ECUADOR is a country which has always been
more interesting to geographers than to any
other class. From the French savants of the
eighteenth century, who were commissioned to
measure an arc of the meridian on ground then
supposed to be the highest in the world, to the
intrepid men of our own day who have climbed Chim-
borazo and Cotopaxi, it has always been the delight
of the explorer. On account of these very geogra-
phical difficulties it is backward both politically and
industrially, and its chief commercial significance is
as the main source of the supply of cocoa, which grows
in Los Rios and other provinces near the sea. Roads,
except mule-tracks, are almost unknown, and railways
are very scarce ; hence the trader and tourist do not
frequent Ecuador. The soil is so luxuriant that the
inhabitants can easily supply their wants, and thus
become indolent. "At a very trifling expense," says
Mr. Whymper, " they can breakfast on chocolate, dine
on bananas and coconut, and fall back at night on
pine-apples."

The chief geographical feature consists in the vast
and volcanic Andes — the western dominated by Chim-
borazo (20,498 feet), and the eastern by the fiery
Cotopaxi, with a pipe over 100 feet in diameter, at the
bottom of its crater, communicating with the lower

regions. "At intervals of about half an hour the

203

204 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

volcano regularly blew off steam. It rose in jets with
great violence from the bottom of the crater, and boiled
over the lip, continually enveloping us. The noise on
these occasions resembled that which we hear when a
large ocean steamer is blowing off steam" (Whymper).
These mountains make communications difficult, and
earthquakes give a constant sense of insecurity. The
coast zone is extremely hot, and in the south, dry ; then
comes a region of great fertility, where cocoa, cotton
and sugar are grown, and considerable tracts of forest
are interspersed. Higher up come plateaux, where
wheat is cultivated and most of the towns (which
are never large) are situated. On the other or eastern
side of the watershed are dense, impenetrable forests,
watered by the great rivers, the Napo and Putumayo,
and sparsely inhabited by savage Indians. This region
is the huge, ill-defined Province of Oriente, which has
hitherto been fruitful in little but boundary disputes
with Peru, Brazil and Colombia. A word will here-
after be said of these disputes, which disturb the peace
of South America and arrest its progress ; here it may
be noted that they disturb our statistics, for Ecuador
has "claims" which would possibly double her esti-
mated size if they were decided in her favour and
accepted by her neighbours. Again, a census is not
popular with the inhabitants, who associate it with
revenue exactions, and the latest trustworthy enumera-
tion was made in 1898. The area may be provisionally
stated at 156,305 square miles, of which the indefinite
Oriente claims 100,000. There are sixteen Provinces
and one Territory (the Galapagos Islands), and their
united population (including uncivilized Indians) is
probably 1,400,000. Pinchincha, in which Quito
stands, is the most populous Province.

The following are the chief heights in the western
mountain chain : —

ECUADOR 205

Feet

Chimborazo ... 20,498

Illiniza 17*405

Carihuairazo I6,5i5

Cotocachi 16,301

In the eastern chain the principal peaks are : —

Feet

Cotopaxi 19,613

Cayambe 19,186

Antisana ... 19,335

Altar ... ... ... 17,730

Only two rivers of any importance flow into the
Pacific ; they are the Guayas, a most useful river,
to which Ecuador owes practically all its foreign
commerce, and the Esmeralda in the north. The
great rivers are affluents of the Amazon or its tribu-
taries. The second largest is the Napo. " The noble
river, even when not swollen, is broader than the
Thames at London Bridge, although it takes three
weeks down-stream to reach its mouth in the
Maranon ; and the distance from Agauno to the
sea is about 3,000 miles." *

The Putumayo, a still greater stream, rises in
Colombia, and much of the Ecuadorian territory
through which it flows is disputed and the respon-
sibility for the atrocities thus conveniently shifted
upon Peru. The Indians in that neighbourhood,
according to Mr. Simson, who wrote before the
civilizing influence of Latin America reached the
Putumayo, were good-tempered and splendid workers
when kindly treated. The lakes of Ecuador are quite
unimportant.

The geological system of the eastern Cordillera is
ancient, consisting of gneiss, mica and schist. The

1 Simson. Travels in the Wilds of Ecuador, p. 126.

206 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

western Cordillera consists chiefly of volcanic por-
phyritic rock, belonging to the Mesozoic period. The
sea-belt consists mainly of Tertiary and Quaternary
beds. The lowlands of Ecuador are covered
with luxuriant tropical vegetation, and practically
all tropical products can be grown. These include
cocoa, coffee, tobacco and all kinds of fruit. At
moderately high elevations barley, maize, beans and
lucerne are cultivated, and higher still there is abun-
dance of grass. By far the most important vegetable
product of Ecuador is the cocoa plant (Theobroma
cacao), which is chiefly cultivated on the moist, hot
lowlands, while the vegetable ivory and the toquilla
straw for making hats, obtained from the Carludovica
palmata, are valuable commercial products. The
red-wood (Humiria balsamiferd) and the polo de cruz
(Jacquinea ruscifolia), and other forest trees yield
good timber. The fauna of Ecuador resembles that
of the neighbouring countries. It includes, as usual,
the puma, jaguar, bear (Ursus ornatus), fox and
weasel. Tapirs, peccaries and opossums are very
common, while the larger animals are represented
by alpacas, guanacos, and vicunas, with a few kinds
of deer. Snakes are numerous from anacondas down-
wards, and the bird life of Ecuador is extremely
varied. Insects are even more numerous, and, in
particular, the varieties of beetles are endless. The
uncleanly habits of the people are very favourable to
the multiplication of specimens of vermin, which may
be found in great variety at many of the hotels, and
apart from this travel in Ecuador is rendered dis-
agreeable by the denizens of the forest, among which
the vampire is formidable, and quite justifies the evil
reputation given him by the poets. Much valuable
information upon the flora and fauna of Ecuador is
given in Mr. Whymper's book.

ECUADOR 207

PRODUCTS AND INDUSTRY

In 1911 the imports amounted to £1,647,660
exports „ £2,806,236

The chief sharers in the import trade are the
United Kingdom, the United States, Germany and
France. Although Great Britain has long held first
place, her imports are dwindling, while those of the
United States are increasing. Germany, on the other
hand, does not make much progress. Great Britain's
share in the export trade is comparatively small,
and is exceeded by France, the United States and
Germany. Textiles are the principal imports, but
the list is varied, as Ecuador has practically no
manufactures.

The following are the principal exports : —

Sucres x

Cocoa 16,486,206

Panama hats 2,889,919

Coffee 2,303,618

Ivory nuts 1,787,992

Rubber 1,404,438

Cocoa is by far the chief industry of the Republic.
The plant grows chiefly in the valley of the Guayas,
and Ecuador contributes about one-third of the
world's supply. The hat industry is the most interest-
ing in the country. The hats are made from the pliant
leaves of the toquilla (Carludovica palmata), and the
hats ought to be called Ecuadorian, for here all the
best are made. Peru and Colombia also manufacture
them, but none are made in the town or Department
of Panama, which gave them its name because it was
the place of purchase. The coast Indians carefully
select the valuable toquilla straw, which they divide
into the right widths with their thumb-nails, and
1 The sucre is worth 2S.

2o8 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

plait in circular form from the apex until the hat
is finished. This plaiting is done in the small hours
of the morning when the air is moist. The ivory-
nut industry is noticed in the Colombian section.
A fair amount of coffee is grown. The wild rubber-
trees are becoming exhausted, and attention is now
being given to planting. Although the country has
great mineral wealth, mining has not hitherto been
very profitable, but there is a productive gold-mine,
worked by North Americans, at Laruma, in the
Province of Oro.

COINAGE

Although the money of Ecuador is minted abroad,
there is an excellent monetary system. The gold
condor is equal to the English sovereign, and it is
subdivided into ten sucres, or two-shilling pieces,
which form the unit of value. The general circula-
tion is in bank-notes of local issue, all of which
are changeable at par for gold. The quintal of
10 1 Ib. is the favourite weight, although the French
metric system has been assumed (by law) to be in
force since 1856.

Except for the Guayaquil-Quito Railway (to be
hereafter mentioned) there are no railways in being,
except the short one from Puerto Bolivar, which
serves an important cocoa district. Several, how-
ever, are projected. The finances of the Republic
are in some confusion, and it is not very easy to
get information about them. In 1912 the revenue
and expenditure were each returned at ^1,897,132.
The revenue is chiefly raised from customs duties.
The foreign debt is £3>333>399 and the internal
debt .£1,180,180.

The latest report of the Incorporated Society of

ECUADOR 209

Foreign Bondholders commends the Republic for the
efforts it is making to satisfy its obligations to creditors.

CONSTITUTION

Ecuador has a constitution which is centralized in
type. There is a President, who holds office for four
years, assisted by five Ministers. The Congress con-
sists of the Senate of 32 and the Chamber of Deputies
of 42 members, and, as is only natural in a backward
and almost unexplored country, liberty, toleration and
order are not prominent characteristics. Foreigners,
however, are not molested.

HISTORY

Long before the* advent of the Spaniards the table-
lands round about Quito had been conquered by the
Caras, a warlike race, whose kings, called Shiri,
reigned in Quito, where they attained a fair measure
of civilization. But not long before the Spanish con-
quest they were overthrown by the Incas, who incor-
porated their territory with the numerous provinces of
the Inca Empire. The Spaniards established them-
selves at Quito in 1533 under the leadership of
Benalcazar, and by 1550 systematic rule began. It
can never be too often affirmed, in contradiction of
the parrot-tale of Spanish oppression which is repeated
by so-called historians, that the Spanish Government
was essaying with remarkable success a task which has
no parallel excepting in the dominion of« ancient
Rome, and that their system was a marvel of wisdom.
Their Governors were builders of cities, lawgivers,
and protectors of the Indians, and even in the mines,
where the regulations were disregarded, the treatment
of the Indians compares very favourably with that of
the rubber-gatherers under Republican rule in the

210 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

twentieth century. The new conquerors introduced
wheat, barley, rice, indigo, sugar-cane and the culti-
vation of the banana, and while bringing prosperity to
their subjects, they gave them also the inestimable
value of peace. " Spain in America inherited and
preserved something of the majesty of the Roman
Peace." I Equally baseless are the wild statements
that intellectual life was crushed and torpor reigned
under the Spaniards ; on the contrary, culture was
introduced and universities founded by them, and a
great part of their good work perished with the revolu-
tion. The Church, which is specially singled out for
ignorant vituperation, was the pioneer of intellectual
life and progress. Writing on Ecuador, the editor of
the Antologia says : " To the monastic orders, and
especially to that of San Francisco, is due the first
culture of the country and the establishment of the
first schools." In 1736 Ecuador figured in the history
of science, being visited by a party of French savants,
who came to measure an arc of the earth's meridian.
The history of the Province of Quito was one of
uninterrupted peace and prosperity during the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries. Accordingly, in
1809, when the revolutionary spirit began to spread,
the efforts of the turbulent Creoles, eager to gain
political power for themselves, met with little response
from a contented people, and Montes, the Spanish
general, ruled the Province wisely and well for many
years, while the Spanish cause continued to prosper in
the north of the continent. But the victories of
Bolivar turned the tide, and, with the aid of the
famous Sucre, the Ecuadorians won their indepen-
dence by the battle of Pichincha, near Quito, on
May 24, 1822. The people joined the Colombian
Federation (i.e. Colombia, Panama and Venezuela),
1 Cambridge Modern History x. 277.

ECUADOR 211

but in 1830 they broke away under Flores, and
became the Republic of Ecuador. Flores, with the
help of his army, maintained his ground till 1845, when
he was driven into exile. The rest of the history of
the country is a tedious record of tyrants, revolution,
and bloodshed. The most masterly of the tyrants
was Moreno, who first became President in 1861, and
after a stormy career, in which he showed himself,
perhaps, the best ruler of this unfortunate Republic, he
was assassinated by the Liberals in 1875. After this
political conditions grew worse than ever, and to this
day have never shown the slightest indication of im-
provement. In the later years of the century Alfaro
was prominent, and in 1901 General Plaza was elected
President. He held office for a considerable period,
but Alfaro continued to possess much power. In
1911 General Estrada became President, but he died
before the end of the year and a revolution broke out.
It was headed by General Alfaro and a colleague. The
latter surrendered and was treacherously shot by the
mob of Guayaquil. General Alfaro was afterwards
captured and imprisoned in Guayaquil. The blood-
thirsty mob broke into his prison and murdered him
with barbarities the like of which have not been seen
for many centuries. This brutal ferocity shows that
the people of Ecuador, in spite of a few exceptions,
are still a nation of savages, and it is a great pity that
they ever disengaged themselves from the beneficent
control of Spain and have had the opportunity to sully
the pages of history with incessant and wanton
bloodshed. In 1912 General Plaza was elected
President.

Such has been the miserable history of a country
which possesses many natural advantages ; under firm
and good government it could hardly have failed to
become a highly prosperous community, but, in fact,

212 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

it has not made the slightest progress in a century ; it
has actually retrograded. The net result of the
troubled history of Ecuador — i.e. the result which
to-day has most interest for South America and the
civilized world — is the great boundary dispute. The
main fact to bear in mind is that in 1830 and long
afterwards both Ecuador and Peru were in a state of
distraction and anarchy, that treaties made at that
time were often the work of factions, and have not the
inviolable character which European nations associate
with these solemn compacts, but that Peru began to
shake off her anarchy at an earlier period, and even in
the fifties, sixties, and seventies made serious attempts
to establish communications upon the affluents of the
Amazon and to develop the adjacent country. Con-
sequently she has always been in a better position to
establish her claims, and is now on stronger ground
than Ecuador in equity if not in law. The Ecua-
dorians declare that a treaty was made between Peru
and the Colombian Federation in 1829, and ratified at
Lima in 1830, which confined Peru to the south of the
rivers Macara and Maranon, i.e. took from Peru the
whole territory now in dispute. But they admit that,
when Ecuador broke away from Colombia in the same
year, this important treaty was unaccountably over-
looked by the Ecuadorian Government, and that for
many years the bickerings went on without any refer-
ence to it. The fact is that boundary treaties are
useless unless accompanied by a scientific delimitation
of boundaries, and neither party was then competent
to carry it out. There is no doubt that in 1852 Peru
handed over to Brazil a huge slice of the disputed
territory lying near the confluence of the Yapura and
the Amazon. This calm assumption of proprietorship,
coupled with the establishment of Peruvian settlements
at Iquitos and Loreto, was a standing source of annoy-

ECUADOR 213

ance to Ecuador, and in 1887 the two Republics
agreed to refer the matter to the decision of the King
of Spain. Both sides complicated the matter by
reference to the shadowy claims of Colombia (late
New Granada), and as both feared an adverse decision
there were constant intrigues. The proceedings
dragged on till 1909. Then Ecuador, suspecting that
the arbitration would be unfavourable, proposed a
direct arrangement, which Peru declined. The
boundary line proposed by the King of Spain was
made known; the Ecuadorians were highly indignant
at its unfavourable character; feelings rose to a
dangerous height, and in April, 1910, the Republics
were on the verge of war. In November of the same
year the King of Spain, by the advice of his Govern-
ment, withdrew from the arbitration, whereupon Peru
offered to refer the matter to the Hague Tribunal, but
Ecuador declined the invitation.

Peru's offer (provided that a competent and im-
partial boundary commission were established) is the
best solution. On the one hand, Ecuador cannot
expect to take territory that has been peacefully
possessed by Peru for half a century; and, on the
other hand, she ought to be allowed to retain such a
slice of the Province of Oriente as will give her access
to the navigable waters of the Napo, if not of the
Putumayo. This is reasonably necessary for Ecuador,
while peace and good relations are a vital necessity
for both Republics.

GUAYAQUIL

STEAMSHIP LINES — The Pacific Steam Navigation Company
gives a good service north and south. The journey to
Panama takes 3^ days and the cost of a first-class ticket
is about £13. The Kosmos Line (German), which touches
at the chief ports between San Francisco and the Magellan
Straits, also puts in at Guayaquil, but all lines are apt to

2i4 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

leave it out of their schedules, as it is liable to the scourge
of yellow fever. The Pacific Steam Navigation Company
connects at Colon with the Panama Railroad Steamship
Line for New York, to which the first-class fare is ^28 75.
A passage from Guayaquil to Southampton by the combined
Royal Mail and Pacific Steam, including railway fare from
Panama to Colon, is ^41 los. The journey from Callao
to Guayaquil, in a good but leisurely steamer stopping
at Peruvian ports, takes about 5 days. The following
extract from the diary of a traveller who approached from
Callao explains itself : —

"May nth— The weather is warmer. Early in the morning
we saw the coast of Ecuador and passed a barren island
on the port side. We were soon in the River Guayas
(Yambeli Channel), and passed the island of Puna, which,
like the coast 'generally, is covered with trees, and the river
is very wide. We are near the island bank and can scarcely
see the mainland to the east. Yellow fever is very bad
here ; there is a German barque in the river which has lost
its captain and half its crew. When we came close up to
the island the view was picturesque ; Puna is overgrown
with woods and must be full of mosquitoes, but the sight
of green is pleasant after the arid coasts of Chile and Peru.
We finally anchored off the small town of Puna on the
north side of the island and not far from the ill-fated barque.
It is empty, waiting for a crew. When the tide served,
we resumed our voyage up the river at about 5 o'clock, but
soon after sunset we anchored again and restarted towards
midnight, reaching Guayaquil, I suppose, before dawn.

"May i2th — We are off Guayaquil, a large town on the
right bank. The doctor came on board early. Ever since
we entered the river a fumigator has been going, and every
precaution is taken against yellow fever. The scenery is
good. The river is more than a mile broad ; the water
is slow and slimy, and a good many branches and rubbish
float down. The land close to the banks is tilled, but other-
wise trees cover everything, and all the low hills round
about are densely covered. Nothing can be seen of the
great mountains. We are taking no cargo here, and it
seems that this is only a formal call, for the Ecuadorian
Government has threatened to withdraw the subsidy unless
more fast ships come to Guayaquil. About a dozen passen-
gers came on board— French, American, and the like. I was

ECUADOR 215

told that the new railway barely paid expenses. We left
for Panama at about 5 o'clock, and had a fine view of the
river as we went down. Here and there the woods have
been cleared and there are small estancias, but in general
there is nothing but forest. Sometimes we were within
100 yards or so of the bank, and saw right into the virgin
forest. We stuck in the mud once. The weather was very
hot till we got the evening breeze. A good shower fell."

RAILWAYS — The line for Quito, 325 miles in length, starts from
Duran, a town on the left bank of the river. The line
passes through Latacunga and goes up the mountains to
Quito. Financially the line has hitherto been a disappoint-
ment, partly owing to the primitive nature of the industries
and partly owing to the unsatisfactory arrangements made
for paying interest on the railway bonds. However, it
remains the chief public asset of the Republic. There are
paddle steamers on the river.

HOTELS — The Paris, the Victoria, the Guayaquil. The charges
are from 125. to £i a day.

BRITISH CONSUL— Consul, A. Cartwright ; Vice-Consul, G. A.
Powell.

BANK — Commercial Bank of South America.

NEWSPAPERS — El Grito del Pueblo, El Telegrapiro.

Guayaquil, with a population of 80,000, is the
largest town in the Republic and the only one of real
commercial importance. It was founded in 1535 by
one of the lieutenants of Pizarro, and soon became
a place of importance, but it suffered much from the
buccaneers. It was attacked in 1624 and sacked by
the French in 1686, and in the following year was
plundered by an English pirate. William Dampierre
sacked it in 1707, and it suffered the same fate in 1709.
It is also subject to devastating fires, which from time
to time have destroyed great parts of it. These
troubles, and the backward condition of the country,
kept its population almost stationary, and in 1736 its
inhabitants were estimated at 20,000, while about
1860 they were said to number not more than 24,000,

216 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

and the population was said to be decreasing. How-
ever, during the war between Chile and Peru Guaya-
quil benefited at the expense of her neighbours, and
has rapidly increased and is becoming tolerably
prosperous. Guayaquil has been thus enthusiastically
described by an Ecuadorian poet : —

" Guayaquil, cuidad hermosa,
De la America guirnalda,
De tierra bella esmeralda,
De la mar perla preciosa."

It certainly has a picturesque situation among green
woods on a fine river, but can hardly inspire enthu-
siasm in an impartial stranger, for the old town is
ill-built and very dirty, and the new town nothing
remarkable. A greater disadvantage is the yellow
fever, which visits the town with great regularity.
This and other fevers are at their worst during the
rainy season from January to April, while during the
rest of the year the climate is drier, cooler, and more
healthy. The death-rate is estimated at 40-45 per
thousand. The maximum temperature is 90-95° Fahr.,
the minimum 64-66°. The rainfall is from 75 to 90
inches. A good water supply has been introduced,
and steps are being taken to improve the sanitation ;
there is no reason why Guayaquil should not be as
healthy as Panama. The principal street is the
Malecon, but there are few fine buildings. The
Cathedral, planned on an ambitious scale, is con-
structed of bamboo, and most of the buildings are
timber. Apart from its commerce, Guayaquil has
very few features of interest. It is one of the chief
ports of the Southern Pacific. In 1910 there entered
Guayaquil 213 vessels of 396,262 tons, nearly half
of which were British. Trade here is said to be very
honourable, with few bankruptcies.

ECUADOR 217

QUITO

COMMUNICATIONS — The Guayaquil-Quito Railway has been
already mentioned ; the line is metre gauge and the journey
takes 48 hours ; the trains only run in daylight.

HOTELS — The old hotel was Giacometti's, near the Cathedral.

BRITISH CONSUL — Consul-General and Charge d'Affaires, J.
Jerome.

BANKS — None.

NEWSPAPERS— El Comercio, La Prensa.

It is possible that the railway will galvanize into
life this very backward city, which stands at an
elevation of 9,350 feet, and, although the capital,
has few of the characteristics which civilized nations
associate with the word. It derives its name from
the Quitu race, who possessed the land before the
advent of the Caras. Spanish rule was established
here by Benalcazar in 1534. Its history has not been
eventful, and the principal events in its annals are
earthquakes, which occur with terrific violence. The
most severe were in 1797 and 1859. For more than
a generation its population has been estimated at
60,000 to 80,000, but Whymper, who gives a plan
of Quito, dated 1875, declares that it did not then,
in his opinion, exceed 30,000, and probably there
has been no great increase since his visit. The
climate is pleasant ; the temperature seldom reaches
90° Fahr., or falls below 65°.

Unfortunately the habits of the people — half-
Christianized pagans — are very dirty, and the water
supply is bad. The city is traversed by two deep
ravines (quebradas), and is built on very uneven
ground, but the streets are laid out upon a very
regular plan. In the centre is the Plaza Mayor,
where the Government Offices, the Episcopal Palace,
and the Cathedral are grouped. A great part of the
area of Quito is covered with fine churches, which

218 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

contrast strongly with the mean, ill-built houses.
Quito has a University, which was founded in 1620 ;
it has thirty-two professors and five faculties.

Considerable efforts have been made by the Uni-
versity for the promotion of science, which, it may
be remarked, are invariably ignored by North American
writers, who declaim vaguely about ignorance and
priestcraft. For many years the late Professor
William Jameson held the Chair of Botany here, and
he did invaluable work in classification of the botany
of the country.

In poetry, Ecuador may claim a high place. Jose
Joaquin Olmedo is reckoned one of the three or four
great poets of South America, and he has been called
the American Quintana. He was one of the poets of
the Revolution and wrote in praise of Bolivar. His
strain is lofty and dignified, far above the usual
manner of Latin American poets, and to European
readers perhaps not the least of his merits will be
considered his pure diction and the pursuit of classic
models, so that he appears to be rather a Spanish
poet than one of the Latin Americans. Later in the
century the contemplative poet, D. Julio Zaldumbide,
wrote short Nature lyrics with success. Montalvo,
who gave his attention chiefly to politics, was an
able thinker, and one of the most prominent of the
Liberals who opposed Moreno. It will be obvious
from this brief notice of the intellectual life of Ecuador
that the country has, in this respect, made progress
out of all proportion to her material advance.

Beyond Guayaquil and Quito there are few places
of importance in the Republic. Manta has some
shipping trade, but it is insignificant compared with
Guayaquil. The same remark applies to Esmeraldas,
which is a well-situated port to the north. In

ECUADOR 219

December, 1913, it was seized by the revolutionaries,
and two months later was bombarded and burnt
by the Government forces. Riobamba is a quiet
town, subject to terrible earthquakes ; in 1880 it was
described by Whymper as having an empty and
deserted air, but its population has since that date
increased considerably. Cuenca, with 30,000 inhabi-
tants, is the third largest town in Ecuador, and is
situated in a rich agricultural district. There is no
reason why the ordinary traveller should do more
than make the journey to Quito ; few enter the
country at all.

THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS

In view of the opening of the Panama Canal, the
Galapagos Islands (Indian name for tortoises, which
used to swarm upon them, but have been much
diminished by promiscuous slaughter) may become
important as a coaling station. They lie on the
Equator, and consist of fifteen large islands, and about
forty small, with a total area of 3,170 square miles
and a population of 500. The largest are Albemarle
(1,710 square miles), Indefatigable, Narborough,
Chatham, James, and Charles. Chatham Island is
530 miles from the nearest point in Ecuador, 620
miles from Guayaquil, and 840 from Panama.
They are most remarkable geological formations,
volcanic in origin, and as late as 1907 there was a
discharge of lava from James Island. Both flora and
fauna present many peculiar and indigenous species.
Discovered by the Spaniards in 1535, they were a
great place of resort for the buccaneers, to whom
they owe their individual names. Always an object
of much interest to geographers, they were annexed
and occupied by the Republic of Ecuador in 1832,

220 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

which has used them chiefly as penal settlements,
and thus arrested their development. In 1892 she
changed their name to the Colon group, and also
renamed each island, but the old nomenclature has
prevailed against the new.

Darwin visited them in 1835 and described them
in his inimitable manner.

Literature upon Ecuador is scarce and not up to date,
with the exception of Mr. Knock's book ; much of the geo-
graphical information is contained in German and Spanish
works. Whymper's book is interesting. The following may be
useful to the traveller : —

Orton, James. The Andes and the Amazon, yd ed. New

York, 1876.
Hassaurek, F. Four Years Among Spanish Americans. 3rd ed.

Cincinnati, 1881.

Simson, A. Travels in the Wilds of Ecuador. London, 1887.
Whymper, E. Travels Amongst the Great Andes of the Equator.

London, 1892.
Rice, A. H. From Quito to the Amazon via the River Napo.

Geog. Journal, April, 1903.
Enock, C. R. Ecuador. London, 1914. South American Series.

THE PANAMA CANAL

AS the Republic of Panama belongs to Central,
not to South, America it will not find a place
in this handbook, but the Canal, which was the occa-
sion of transforming it from a Department of
Colombia to an independent State, requires notice.
The ports of Colon and Panama, indeed, have long
been the gates of South America, and, joined as they
now are by a railway, and destined in a short time
to be linked still more effectually by the Canal, they
force themselves ever more and more upon the
attention of the traveller. He will probably decide
to take in the Isthmus either on his outward or home-
ward voyage, and his decision will be wise both on
the score of convenience and the immense interest
of the works which may be destined to effect a
revolution in the world's trade. To give the history
cf projects and attempts to make an Isthmian Canal
would fill a large volume. Charles V is said to have
entertained the scheme, but the wars of Spain with
various nations of the world were unfavourable to
the arts of peace, and undoubtedly the disastrous
failure of the Darien Expedition in the reign of
William III gave little encouragement to our country-
men to engage in pacific enterprise on the Isthmus
of Panama. However, neither Great Britain nor the
United States ever lost sight of it, as is shown by
the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850, which provided

222 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

that neither Government should obtain or maintain
exclusive control over any canal which might be
cut through the Isthmus, nor build fortifications
thereon. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869
showed the mighty possibilities of this type of
engineering, and eventually Ferdinand de Lesseps,
who had been brilliantly successful in the Eastern
work, formed a company to undertake a twin enter-
prise in the West. Designing to make a sea-level
canal, the French began operations in 1881, and
worked till 1889. Their engineering and machinery
were superb, and they actually accomplished nearly
one-third of the necessary excavation (40 million
cubic yards out of 129 millions), but, as is well
known, reckless finance ruined them, and neglect of
sanitation helped in the same direction. The
Company fell with a great crash in 1889, after about
60 millions sterling had been spent or embezzled. A
new French Company was soon formed, which, by
keeping the works from deterioration, marked time,
so to speak, till 1904. Meanwhile a rival North
American Company became engaged upon the
Nicaragua Canal, but in 1893 it also fell into finan-
cial difficulties from want of funds. The United
States Government looked upon this route with
some favour, and in 1898 the war with Spain re-
minded it that, from a naval standpoint at least, the
Canal was an urgent question. Great Britain in 1901
surrendered all her rights under the Clayton-Bulwer
Treaty of 1850 ; the treaty by which the surrender
was confirmed was called the Hay-Pauncefote.

The French Company agreed to hand over all its
plant to the United States Government for about
eight millions sterling. Nothing now remained but
to deal with the Colombian Government, of which
Panama formed a part, and a treaty was arranged

THE PANAMA CANAL 223

by which the United States were to acquire the
Canal Zone (a strip of land extending 5 miles on
each side of the route) for $10,000,000 down and a
yearly payment of $100,000, to begin after nine years.
Colombia, at that time, was in a revolutionary and
distracted state, and various circumstances led her to
believe that she could obtain better terms, which,
indeed, were remarkably unfavourable to her. Ac-
cordingly, on August 12, 1903, the Colombian Senate
rejected the treaty. The people of the Panama
Department, fearing that they would lose their Canal,
broke out into revolution and proclaimed themselves
independent on November 4th. On November yth
the United States recognized the new Republic of
Panama, and prevented Colombia from making any
efforts to put down the revolution. This gross viola-
tion of international law has made the United States -
justly feared and hated in Latin America. Had the
European nations behaved in the same manner in
1861, the history of the United States would have
lasted less than a hundred years. The denial of the
United States that they fomented the revolution is
obviously absurd, and is answered by the fact that
M. Bunau-Varilla, who admittedly fomented it, was the
first Minister to the United States appointed by the
Republic of Panama. The United States refused to
submit the question to the Hague Tribunal.

Long before the new Republic had been constituted,
the United States made with the Revolutionists the
Hay- Bunau-Varilla Treaty, which was practically the
same as that which had been rejected by Colombia.
One clause in it was to this effect : " The Republic of
Panama further grants to the United States in per-
petuity the use, occupation and control of any other
lands and waters outside the Zone above described
which may be necessary and convenient for the con-

224 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

struction, maintenance, operation, sanitation and pro-
tection of said Canal." Thus the Revolutionists not
only alienated the most valuable strip of Panama, but
practically agreed to surrender the whole country on
demand. From that time the Republic of Panama has
been, to all intents and purposes, a protectorate of the
United States.

The way was thus cleared, and the financial future
of the Canal was secure, backed by the unlimited
resources of the United States. The making of the
Isthmian Canal (this is the official name) was entrusted
to the Isthmian Canal Commission, which was consti-
tuted early in 1904. General Davis, the chief member
of the Commission, was appointed Civil Governor of
the Canal Zone ; he was assisted by six other Commis-
sioners. The first Commission had to encounter very
great difficulties and was unsuccessful in meeting them;
resignations were numerous. President Roosevelt
found it necessary to take energetic measures and to
make many changes. At last, in 1907, a new Com-
mission was appointed, and Colonel George W.
Goethals was nominated its Chairman and Engineer-
in-Chief, and the immense progress hitherto made is
due more than anything else to his organizing ability
and strength of character. He is, like several other
members of the Commission, an officer in the Corps
of Engineers. The United States Government wisely
abandoned civilian control, and gave the task of con-
structing the Canal to the War Department. Journalists
love to tell of the despotic methods and benevolent
attention to detail which characterize Colonel Goethals.
In 1912 he was appointed Civil Governor of the Canal
Zone. He has unlimited powers and there is no appeal
against him. The excellence of the police of the Canal
Zone would be greatly appreciated in any other part of
the territory belonging to the United States. As has

THE PANAMA CANAL 225

been already said, the difficulties confronting Colonel
Goethals were enormous, and one of the principal lay
in the unhealthiness of the Isthmus, for the country
between Panama and Colon is very malarious in the
low-lying parts, and the whole district was subject to
epidemics of yellow fever. Unnumbered multitudes
died of it during the French period of construction.
M. Bunau-Varilla said : " Subtle and fugitive, the
mysterious disease seems to defy all observation, to
laugh at all remedies. The victim whom it has struck
is in the hands of hazard. The most erudite and
devoted physicians must content themselves with ad-
ministering, not remedies which will check the pro-
gress of the malady, but simple palliatives, the effects
of which were more moral than real."

Hygiene was, therefore, the first consideration, for,
as Colonel Gorgas, the head of the Sanitation Depart-
ment, at once reported : " The experience of our pre-
decessors was ample to convince us that unless we
could protect our force against yellow fever and
malaria we would be unable to accomplish the work."
Fortunately, it had been discovered by Colonel Ronald
Ross that malaria is caused by the bite of the female
species of the anopheline mosquito, and a campaign
was commenced against this noxious insect. Mosquito-
proof huts were built, drainage improved, and stagnant
pools drained or filled up, or, failing that, treated with
petroleum to kill the larvae, and brushwood was cleared
away. The same proceedings were taken against the
stegomyia mosquito, whose bite causes the yellow
fever. Here the success was wonderful, and yellow
fever has been banished from Panama. Typhoid
fever is largely caused by the common house-fly, and
this noxious creature is destroyed as far as possible,
and all rubbish which harbours it is daily burned.
The following table shows how marked the improve-
ment has been :

Q

226 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

1907 Average number Total deaths Rate per 1,000

White employees 10,709 179 1671

Black employees 28,634 953 33'28

39>343 1,132 2877

1909 Average number Total deaths Rate per 1,000

White employees 12,300 145 11*9

Black employees 32,000 380 11-9

44,300 525 11-9

The general health of the Canal Zone, which, of
course, includes a large number of persons besides the
labourers, has greatly improved ; the death-rate is now
25 per 1,000.

The superior class of employees are said to be on
the " gold roll," because they are paid in American
dollars, while the bulk are described as on the u silver
roll," being paid in the Panama dollar, which is worth
2S. id. Such white navvies as are engaged are nearly
all Spaniards and number about 5,000, and the other
white workers — either superintendents or superior
mechanics — are usually citizens of the United States.
Most of the negroes are British subjects, and make
excellent navvies, those from Barbados and Jamaica
being the best. The difficulties regarding hygiene
and the labour supply have been triumphantly sur-
mounted by skilled sanitation, organization, and an
efficient police.

It is believed that the engineering difficulties also,
which have been a subject of hot controversy, have
been satisfactorily settled. M. de Lesseps designed a
tide-level canal and intended to carry away the waters
of the Chagres River to the sea by channels. This
scheme is still attractive to many. Mr. Vaughan
Cornish x says : —

1 The Panama Canal and its Makers, pp. 52-3. For the account
of the Canal (which I have only inspected between the Culebra

THE PANAMA CANAL 227

"The Board of Consulting Engineers, summoned
by President Roosevelt in 1905 to advise the Isthmian
Canal Commission, recommended, in a majority report,
a tide-level canal as practicable and best fulfilling the
national requirements denned by the Spooner Act of
1902. But whereas they had detailed schemes for
high-level canals before them, they were, in the matter
of the sea-level project, at the disadvantage of having
to act in a constructive capacity and elaborate the
details of a scheme before they could criticize it.
Moreover, five of the eight who constituted the
majority were European engineers, who returned to
their duties as soon as the report was drafted."

For good or evil, Congress, in 1906, adopted the
minority report in favour of an 85-foot-level lock
canal,1 and although the decision has been adversely
criticized by the French engineer M. Bunau-Varilla
and others, it seems to be in a fair way to success.

The total length of the Canal, from deep water in
Limon Bay to deep water in the Pacific, is 50^ miles ;
the crux of the position is the Gatun Dam. The
channel begins in Limon Bay and runs for 7 miles
to the Gatun Dam, which has converted the old bed
of the Chagres into a lake with an area of 164 square
miles. The dimensions are (see Mr. Martin's article)
as follows : length, almost ij miles ; J mile wide at
its base, 400 feet wide at the water surface, 100 feet
at the top ; with its crest the elevation will be 115 feet
above mean sea-levels, or 30 feet above the normal

Cut and Panama) I am indebted largely to this book, and also to
the valuable article by Mr. Percy F. Martin, F.R.G.S., in the
Engineer of June 9, 1910.

1 The principal reasons in its favour were : (i) Greater
capacity for traffic than would be afforded by the narrow water-
way proposed by the majority ; (2) greater safety ; (3) quicker
passage ; (4) shorter time for construction ; (5) less cost.

228 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

level of the lake. Here are the first three pairs of
docks (the Gatun), with a lift of 85 feet. There will
then be a clear course of some 24 miles to the Culebra
Cut — where the traveller will no longer be able to see
the marvellous spectacle of thousands of men cutting
through a mountain — and here the bottom width will
be narrower, reduced from 500 feet to 300 feet. At the
fortieth milestone is Pedro Miguel, and here is another
pair of locks with a lift of a little more than 30 feet.
Two miles farther on comes Mira Flores, with two
pairs of locks having a combined lift of a little more
than 34 feet, and then the Canal at sea-level will make
its way by Balboa into the deep water of the Pacific.

The whole success of the Canal depends on the Gatun
Dam, and President Taft's Commission declared them-
selves satisfied as to its stability. Fortunately this part
of the Isthmus is outside the earthquake zone.

In October, 1913, the Gamboa dyke, the last serious
obstruction, was blown up, and it is hoped that in
a few months the landslide which partially blocks the
Culebra Cut will be cleared away.

It is expected that the Canal will be open to traffic on
January i, 1915 ; it will have cost at least .£80,000,000.
The United States will gain greatly in saving of
distance, as the following figures will show : —

Miles

From New York to San Francisco —

By Magellan I3>r35

By Panama ... • 5,262

Distance saved 7*873

From New York to Callao —

By Magellan 9,613

By Panama 3,363

Distance saved 6,250

THE PANAMA CANAL 229

From New York to Valparaiso —

By Magellan 8,380

By Panama 4*633

Distance saved 3»747

From New York to Yokohama —

By Suez I4>924

By Panama 9,219

Distance saved 5,7°5

The convenience to England is less.

Miles

From Liverpool to San Francisco —

By Magellan 13.502

By Panama 7,836

Distance saved 5,666

From Liverpool to Cailao —

By Magellan 9,980

By Panama 5»937

Distance saved 4>°43

From Liverpool to Wellington —

By Suez ». 12,989

By Panama 11,425

Distance saved 1,564

That the Panama Canal will be a commercial suc-
cess in the near future is an impossibility. The chief
export from the Pacific coast of South America is
nitrate, and this is now conveyed to Europe by sailing
vessels through the Straits of Magellan, and in all
probability will continue to be so conveyed. There is
little saving in distance from Iquique to Liverpool by
adopting the Panama route, nor is there much object
in saving time or distance with such a cargo. It is
supposed that the Canal will develop the Pacific coast,
but it will not make the conveyance of produce over
hundreds of miles of mountain road any easier or
cheaper. When the internal communications of

230 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

Colombia, Ecuador and Peru are improved, the Canal
will be helpful to those countries, but it is difficult to
see how Buenaventura or Esmeraldas will benefit by
being able to send their goods to their destination
more rapidly. There are already more than enough
ships to carry their goods. If the Canal tolls are high
ships will not use it, and if they are low they will
hardly pay the interest on capital. Of course the trade
of New York with China and Japan should be stimu-
lated, and many people in the United States look with
complacency on the prospect of the Canal competition
hitting fairly hard the great railway-lines from the
Atlantic to the Pacific, and some affect to think that
the Mexican railways will be formidable competitors, but
it is hardly likely that either they or the lines that cross
Costa Rica or Guatemala will have sufficient facilities
to make much impression on the Canal traffic. How-
ever, the general conditions are not such as to make
us anticipate that the Panama will enjoy anything like
the prosperity of the Suez Canal. Again, the American
flag is seldom seen in South American ports ; apart,
therefore, from the receipt of the Canal tolls, other
nations will derive more benefit from it than the
United States.

However, the question of commercial results is
secondary ; the real cause of the Canal was anxiety for
the safety of the navy, which was liable to be destroyed
by an inferior force so long as the Atlantic and Pacific
fleets were unable to render mutual support. In that
respect the new waterway will doubtless be very
valuable, but it may probably cost .£4,000,000 a year
in efficient upkeep. With the object of making it
effective in naval strategy the United States are forti-
fying the Canal in flagrant violation of the Hay-
Pauncefote Treaty. A more serious violation of
solemn pledges is the proposal to exempt coasting

THE PANAMA CANAL 231

vessels which fly the Stars and Stripes from the Canal
dues — a proposal which has aroused considerable in-
dignation among the better classes in the United
States. President Wilson is anxious to maintain the
national good faith in this respect, and it may be that
by the time this is published the matter will have been
honourably settled. The Panama Canal, which is
being made by the War Department, is more a military
than a commercial venture, but it will undoubtedly
bring considerable material benefit both to North and
South America.

PANAMA

STEAMSHIP LINES — The Royal Mail Steam Packet Company and
the Pacific Steam Navigation Company serve Panama.
There is a fast weekly service to Callao, a 10 days' service to
Guayaquil, and numerous services to all the Pacific ports by
slower boats. The first-class fare to Guayaquil is £10 ios.,
to Callao ;£i8, and to Valparaiso ^30. The Panama Railroad
Steamship Line has a frequent service to San Francisco and
all intermediate ports. The steamer disembarks passengers
at Balboa (Bocas del Toro), about 2 miles from Panama.

RAILWAYS — The Panama Railway was opened in 1855. It cost
8,000,000 dollars .and an enormous number of human lives.
The fare to Colon is 125. 6d.x It is an uncomfortable line
and the luggage charges are high. The station is near the
Tivoli Hotel.

HOTELS— The Tivoli at Ancon in the Canal Zone, but close to the
town (£i a day). This is probably the most comfortable
hotel between the Isthmus and Cape Horn ; the rooms are
cool and mosquito-proof, and the table is very good. The
Central, in Panama itself, somewhat less expensive.

BRITISH CONSUL — Sir Claude Mallet is Minister Resident and
Consul-General ; Vice-Consul, P. Helyar ; Pro-Consul, E. S.
H umber.

BANK — The International Banking Company.

NEWSPAPERS — Unimportant.

1 The traveller should remember that the Panama dollar — the
" tin dollar," as it is called — is worth only 2s. id., half of the
American dollar.

232 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

The Bay of Panama, which is studded with islands,
is very picturesque, with a view of green hills rising on
the mainland. On one of the islands may be seen the
graves of a number of officers and men of the United
States man-of-war the Chesapeake, the victims of
yellow fever. A drive of some 2 miles takes us to the
town. Panama, with 37,505 inhabitants, is a some-
what ramshackle place. It is not in the Canal Zone.
The Americans have greatly improved the town, which
was not only insanitary but also disreputable in the
French days. It contains little of interest, although
the houses are comfortable in appearance and some
are picturesque, being built in the Spanish style with
pleasant patios. But the streets, narrow and crooked,
have a shabby appearance, and the shops, mostly kept
by Chinese, are poor. Small remains of the great
wall, built in 1573, are still to be seen. The town,
which was founded in 1519 on a site 7 miles
away by Pedro Arias de Avila, is the oldest Spanish
town in South America, and has always been an
important place. The trade was very large. An
English traveller1 in 1572 says: "The ships which go
out of Spain with goods for Peru go to Nombre de
Dios, and there discharge the said goods ; and from
thence they be carried over the neck of a land, unto
a port town in the South sea, called Panama, which
is 17 leagues distant from Nombre de Dios. And there
they do ship their goods again, and so from there go
to Peru." Some years later a Spaniard gives an
interesting description of Panama, in which he points
out that, in spite of the strong fortifications, it lay
very open, especially on the side of Nombre de Dios,
and was liable to be " spoiled by the pirates." It was,
in fact, these pirates who were a lasting thorn in the
side of Panama, although that city was more fortunate
1 Hakluyt, xi. pp. 391, 392.

THE PANAMA CANAL 233

than Nombre de Dios in being on the Pacific side,
and therefore less exposed to their attacks. Still, it was
several times sacked. Sometimes, however, the spoilers
failed, and several of the crew of the noted Oxenham
were hanged at Panama. In 1670 Morgan sacked
Portobello. Having carried off his booty to Cuba,
he soon returned with a like design against Panama.
He landed in October and seized a Spanish castle on
the Chagres River. In the January of the next year he
appeared before Panama, and captured it after hard
fighting ; after the battle fearful cruelties were per-
petrated by the victorious pirates. When he returned
to England he was knighted by Charles II, but it was
felt that the methods of the buccaneers could not
continue, especially as the relations between England
and Spain were improving, and Sir Henry Morgan
himself was sent out to suppress piracy. Panama was
rebuilt in 1673 upon its present site with a massive
wall encircling it. The next affair of importance on
the Isthmus was the disastrous Darien enterprise,
which brought ruin or death upon many thousands
of Scotchmen.

The history of the town during the eighteenth
century is uneventful, nor did it take a prominent
part in the revolt against Spain. New Panama had
never been as prosperous as Old, and moreover
suffered much from fires and earthquakes ; it followed
the universal rule of decline which came upon every
part of South America when " liberated" from Spain.
However, towards the middle of the nineteenth
century the development of California and the west
of North America generally drew traffic to the Isthmus,
and in 1855 the Panama Railway was built. Since
that time Panama has been a comparatively busy
place, but suffered terribly from yellow fever. Since
the North American occupation it has become a

234 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

healthy town. Panama is a more agreeable place
of residence than Colon, and it is desirable to stay
here while inspecting the Canal. One stroll through
the town will exhaust its interests, and, as the Canal
is accessible at all points by rail, a very few days will
suffice for it and such other modest attractions as
there are in the way of excursions. Moreover the
Canal itself is rapidly becoming less interesting ; the
panorama of the Culebra Cut has vanished, and there
will soon be little more to see than there is at the
Suez Canal. The traveller will not be sorry to leave,
for the climate is very enervating, and his only regret will
be the Tivoli Hotel. It will be long before he comes
across anything of the kind again in Latin America.

The Cathedral, standing in the principal Plaza, was
completed in 1760; it has two handsome towers which
are decorated with mother-of-pearl. The church of
San Felipe Neri was built in 1688. There is a pleasant
drive to Old Panama through the sugar-fields. Here
are a few ruins overgrown by rank vegetation near
the sea. It is interesting as the first spot where the
Spaniards built a city in the New World. Miraflores,
Empire and Gatun will all have to be visited by rail
when the Canal is inspected. The coolest time in
Panama is from November to February, but the heat
is never remarkable ; it is, however, trying owing to
its extreme humidity. The climate resembles that of
Bombay City ; the temperature never reaches 100°
Fahr., and the climate is extremely equable. The
maximum temperature ranges from 81*6° to 86*1°, and
the lowest from 74° to 76-6°. Thus the visitor may be
assured of never feeling cool. He will also seldom
feel dry, especially if he visits the town after March,
when, apart from the perspiration, he will be con-
stantly caught in drenching showers. The annual
rainfall of Panama is 60 inches.

THE PANAMA CANAL 235

COLON

STEAMSHIP LINES— Colon has very numerous means of com-
munication with Europe and New York. The steamers of
the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company call fortnightly and
proceed back to Southampton by way of the West Indies.
The same line has a frequent service to New York — first-
class fare £15 125. 6d. The Leyland line from Liverpool
calls about three times a month. The Elders and Fyffes
line sails from time to time for Bristol or Liverpool. The
Cie. Gen. Transatlantique gives a monthly service to France,
La Veloce to Italy, and the Cia. Transatlantica de Barcelona
to Spain. Communications with New York and the West
Indies, in addition to those already given, are numerous
through the Hamburg- America, the Panama Railroad Steam-
ship Line, the United Fruit Company, and others. The ports
of Central America and Mexico are visited by many of the
lines that go to New York.

RAILWAYS — The Panama Railway connects Colon with Panama.
The journey takes about 2$ hours, and there are views of
dense jungle interspersed by banana patches.

HOTELS — A large and expensive hotel, called the Washington,
has just been built by the United States. A room costs
about I2S. a day. At the Imperial Hotel a room costs about
45. a day.

BRITISH CONSUL — Consul, H. O. Chalkley. Vice-Consul, J. R.
Murray.

BANK — International Banking Corporation.

N EWSPAPERS— Inconsiderable.

Colon, with 17,748 inhabitants, is a modern town,
its site having been selected in 1850 as the terminus
of the Panama Railway. It was called Aspinwall, after
William Aspinwall, the American who was responsible
for the railway, but the name was afterwards changed
to Colon in honour of Christopher Columbus. This
place, which has little to interest the traveller, is
outside the Canal Zone, but, as at Panama, the
American quarter adjoins, and the Government of
the United States have exercised the rights which it
possesses of improving the sanitation, so that Colon is

236 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

a fairly healthy town. The rainfall amounts to over
100 inches yearly. Here the traveller, according to
the plan mapped out, will end his experience of Latin
America, and sail homewards by way of the West
Indies or New York.

Literature upon the Panama Canal is now tolerably large and
is rapidly increasing. The following books contain useful
information: —

Cornish, Vaughan. The Panama Canal and its Makers. London,

1909.
Edwards, A. Panama : the Canal, the Country, and the People.

London, 1911.

Lindsay, Forbes. Panama and the Canal To-day. London, 1912.
Eraser, John Foster. Panama and What it Means. London,

v

9

IP

\-3
\
\

PARAGUAY

PARAGUAY is the smallest of the South American
Republics, except Uruguay, having an area of
145,400 square miles and an estimated population
of 800,000. The remote situation and the peculiar
circumstances of its history have combined to retard
the Republic's progress ; but the improvement of its
communications has made this remoteness a thing
of the past, and if political conditions improve, there
is hope of an era of prosperity. A considerable pro-
portion of the inhabitants are pure Indians, but the
majority, though white, are of mixed blood (Spanish
and Guarani) and speak Guarani or lengua general,
as well as Spanish. The country is divided into two
uneven parts by the River Paraguay, and of these
the smaller or western belongs geographically to the
Argentine Chaco and, being subject to constant floods
owing to its excessive flatness and having a salty soil,
is probably of little agricultural value. A traveller
says : " For nine months of the year the interior of
the Chaco is one vast swamp, so far as is known at
present. During a 2oo-mile ride, including the return
journey, over a tract chosen by the Indians as being
the highest and driest, I can safely say that 180 miles
lay through water, and this in the middle of November,
with the sun almost vertical." The climate, however,
is said to be tolerably healthy, if the mosquito-infested
ground near the river be avoided. The malaria is

239

24o A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

fortunately of a mild type. The eastern division of
Paraguay has much greater natural advantages, being
hilly and well wooded. The general climate is pleasant
and healthy, with nine months of " perpetual " spring,
and three hot months, namely December, January,
and February. The best time to visit the country
is during the months of May, June, July, or August,
when the climate is delightful. The geology of Para-
guay has been imperfectly investigated. A large part
of the surface is covered with Quaternary deposits,
and the rocks in the hilly parts are composed of
red sandstone, as is the case with Rio Grande do Sul.

Paraguay is divided into two botanical zones — the
eastern and the western. The eastern, which, as we
have seen, is the more fertile and valuable portion
of the country, is largely covered with tropical and
sub-tropical forests. The western division is a vast
swamp, dotted with forests. All over the Republic
the valuable quebracho Colorado (axe-breaker) is to be
found, the best timber in South America, which also
yields a highly prized extract. This has been else-
where noticed. Not less economically valuable is
the Ilex paraguayensis or yerba mate, which yields
the famous Paraguay tea, an article which from the
first attracted the curiosity of the Jesuits and Spanish
settlers, and has often been described. Oranges and
tobacco are other important products, and there are
numbers of dye-woods and medicinal plants.

The fauna of Paraguay is large and varied, bearing
a considerable resemblance to that of Brazil. The
rivers swarm with crocodiles, of which the largest
example is the yacare (Alligator sclerops). There are
several very venomous snakes, including the rattle-
snake and the little green fiacanina. There are also
boas, and many huge and dangerous watersnakes.
The puma, jaguar and tiger-cat (Felis Geoffroi) are

PARAGUAY 241

the principal savage animals. The wild dog (Canis
jubatus) is large and fierce, hunting in packs. The
peccary, tapir and ant-bear are common. The birds
are almost as varied as in Brazil.

PRODUCTS AND INDUSTRIES

In 1911 the imports were ^1,295,699
„ exports „ 983>3Sl

The imports consist principally of textiles, provi-
sions and hardware. The following are the principal
importing countries : —

United Kingdom ^370,040

Germany 363,533

Argentina 154,992

France 86,300

Spain 82,725

United States 77.905

Italy ... 70,371

Paraguay is a cattle-raising country, and before the
disastrous war half a century ago occupied a more
important position in the trade than Argentina, but
the almost complete destruction of her male popu-
lation ruined all her industries. Cattle-breeding has
since revived, and there are many ranches, including
those of Lemco. A census taken in 1902 gave the
number of horned cattle at 3,104,453, and this is
the industry which is said to offer the best prospects
to immigrants. A great quantity of dried meat and
hides is exported. The other leading products are
tobacco, yerba mate, oranges, timber and quebracho
extract. A recent Consular Report remarks : " It is
said that the climate and soil are peculiarly suitable
for the cultivation of cotton, but the cultivation has
not hitherto been worked on a commercial basis. The
quality of the cotton planted in the Chaco is said

242 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

to be the finest known. The average yield is stated
to be about 12 cwt. of cotton (with seed) per acre,
or 870 Ib. of pure cotton per acre. Coffee, sugar,
rice, manioca and other products are grown for local
consumption, while essence of the leaves and flowers
of the bitter orange, which grows wild in the forests,
and palm kernels are produced in some quantity for
export." Yerba mate, which, like rubber, is both
collected wild from the forest and cultivated in
plantations, forms one of the main industries, and
is the favourite beverage of the Plate countries. The
soil of Paraguay is peculiarly suited to the raising of
tobacco, which has long been one of the most valu-
able of its crops. Seed has been introduced from
Cuba, and it is believed that it will be possible to
rival Havannah tobacco. There is no doubt that
Paraguayan tobacco is the best in South America.
The Paraguayan timber is the strongest, hardest, and
heaviest in the world. The quebracho Colorado will
not float, and this is also the case with the palo santo
(Guayacum officinalis), the caranday (Copernicia ceri-
fera), the nandubay (Acavia cavenia) and several
other species. The ibyraro (Ruprechtia excelsia) is
used for making wheels, the tatane (Acacia maleolus)
is valuable for boat-building, and there is abundant
rosewood and various other kinds of cabinet-wood.
Oranges are grown abundantly ; the season is from
May to August.

The mineral wealth of Paraguay is unexploited, and
is probably small compared with that of most South
American Republics. Iron, manganese and marble
are widely diffused. Copper and salt are also found.
The richest deposits of iron are in the north,
especially between the rivers Apa and Aquidaban.
Under the tyrant Lopez attempts were made to
develop an iron industry, and a foundry was

PARAGUAY

243

established at Ibicuy, but the enterprise has never
been resuscitated.

The trade figures of Paraguay are not up to date.
The following list of the principal exports in 1910
will show the character of its production : —

PRINCIPAL EXPORTS FROM

Dried meat ...

Beef extract ...

Quebracho extract

Hides-
Dry

Salted

Horns

Oranges " ...

Tangerines ...

Timber-
Logs, etc. ...
Posts
Sleepers
Stakes

Quebracho ...

Tobacco-
Para

Pito

Negro

Yerba—
Ground
Unground ...

PARAGUAY DURING THE YEAR 1910

17,481 cwt.

8,960 Ib.

ii.ttfS metric tons

77,005 pieces
223,877 „
6,033 cwt.
10,895,379 dozen
442,340 ,,

94,43 1 metric tons

58,543 pieces

133,488 „

718,007 „

14,888 metric tons

22,942 cwt.

77,587 „
109 „

237,263 Ib.
6,106,159 „

The exports of Paraguay to the United Kingdom
are practically nil, but from Argentina, which is
Paraguay's largest customer, a considerable amount
of its produce probably finds its way to English
ports, though classified as Argentine merchandise.
It is hardly necessary to add that Paraguay, like
Bohemia, has no seacoast.

The prosperity of Paraguay is sadly hampered by
revolutions, which are chronic. A considerable
amount of valuable crops is already raised, and the

244 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

amount could be enormously increased if the con-
ditions were more satisfactory and therefore attractive
to immigrants. But the influx of settlers is very
small, as the following figures show : —

...... 578

1909 ...... 830 1911 ...... 389

It will be noticed that the revolutions of the last
few years have had the effect of attenuating even
this tiny stream. Twenty years ago the immigration
was somewhat larger than it is to-day. Attempts are
sometimes made to boom Paraguay, but at the
present time no one ought to be advised to go there
unless he has plenty of capital, and then he will
probably lose it. One or two German settlements have
been established, and in 1893 a number of Australians
were planted on the soil, but the colony, called New
Australia, has not been particularly successful.

Nearly all the trading firms in Asuncion and else-
where are German, and it speaks well for the quality
of British goods that, even with this handicap, we
have a slight lead in the import trade.

Paraguay has very few manufactures.

The only railway in the country is the Parguayan
Central Railway, which runs from Encarnacion on
the River Parana to the capital — a distance of 232
miles. The section from Encarnacion to Pirapo was
only finished in 1911, but this yy-mile line was a
most valuable piece of work, for (now that a train
ferry from Posadas to Encarnacion has been provided)
it linked up Asuncion with Buenos Aires. Oppor-
tunity was then taken to alter the gauge from 5 feet
6 inches to 4 feet 8£ inches, and so bring it into
conformity with the Argentine North-Eastern Railway.
Further, a short branch line is to connect Villeta,
which is on the Paraguay 18 miles below Asuncion,

PARAGUAY 245

with the main line, and this will be a great con-
venience when the lowness of the river prevents
steamers from reaching the capital. Another line is
projected from Villa Rica to Iguazu (near the famous
falls), and when that is completed Asuncion will
have railway communication with the Brazilian sea-
port of Sao Francisco.

CURRENCY AND FINANCE

The Paraguayan currency is by no means in a
satisfactory condition, for the paper dollar, which is
the only circulating medium, is usually worth about
3|d. During 1910 the rate fluctuated from 6iJ dollars
to 80 to the pound sterling. Consequently trade
becomes speculative and is seriously discouraged, and
it is earnestly to be hoped that the efforts which
are being made to effect a conversion will be success-
ful. Not long ago the Government began to accu-
mulate a conversion fund by imposing an export duty
of one dollar gold upon each hide, and it was hoped to
make the paper dollar stable at 5d. and to effect this in
1914. There is no hope, however, that this valuable
reform will be carried out in the present year.

The following was the estimate of revenue and
expenditure for 1911 : —

REVENUE

Import duties £37%>357

Export duties 99,228

Port charges, etc. ... ... ... ... 14,400

Stamps and stamped paper J 7,3*4

Excise 2,171

Post office 7,271

Telegraphs 7,286

Property tax ... ... ... ... ... 30,485

Succession duties 1,714

Sundries ... 120,665

Total .... ... £678,891

246 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

EXPENDITURE

Legislature £*S>937

Presidency 3,IO7

Interior 134,682

Foreign Affairs 28,015

Finance 51,800

Justice, Worship and Public Instruction 130,133

War and Marine 133,816

Public debt and pensions 169,348

Total ... ... 666,838

The external debt is .£820,017, an<^ the internal

CONSTITUTION

The constitution of Paraguay is of the familiar type,
consisting of a President, elected for four years, a
Senate, and a Chamber of Deputies. The President
is assisted by five Ministers. The Senate has 13
members and the Chamber of Deputies 26. Each
Senator and Deputy receives a yearly salary of ^320.
Small as the Republic is, the constitution is of the
decentralized type ; it has been in force since 1870.
Public men, however, still prefer coups d'etat to
constitutional proceedings, and the Paraguayan con-
stitution, excellent as it may appear on paper to the
admirers of democratic forms of government, is
frequently inoperative, and may possibly be too
elaborate for the simple people.

HISTORY

The history of Paraguay is of peculiar interest. In
the beginning it promised to be the headquarters of
Spanish dominion in the Plate District, then the
country became subject to two of the most remark-
able despotisms the world has ever seen — that of the
Jesuits and (after an interval) of the dictator Francia.

PARAGUAY 247

Finally, in the war of 1864-70, Paraguay suffered a
calamity which destroyed three-quarters of its popula-
tion, and can hardly be paralleled in history. Cabot
in 1526 penetrated as far as the site of Asuncion, but
it was not till 1537, after the Spanish failure at Buenos
Aires, that Ayolas actually founded Asuncion, the first
permanent settlement in the Plate District, which his
successor Irala made a place of considerable import-
ance. The Governor was dependent upon the Viceroy
of Peru, but his authority long extended over Paraguay,
Uruguay and fragments of what are now known as
the great Republics of Argentina and Brazil. When,
however, Buenos Aires was effectively refounded in
1580, Asuncion began to wane before her younger and
better-situated rival, which in 1620 obtained a Governor
of her own, and from this time the Jesuit mission is
the most interesting feature in the history of Paraguay.
Before the end of the sixteenth century the Jesuits were
hard at work, spreading Christianity among the Indians
and protecting them from their oppressors, but their
mission did not become thoroughly effective until
1608, when Philip III gave them permission to con-
vert the natives on the Upper Parana. In this in-
accessible region, amidst unexampled difficulties, they
set up a marvellous and benevolent despotism which
lasted a century and a half and is one of the most
renowned instances of the triumph of moral over
material forces. Although Asuncion was nominally
their headquarters, the territory over which their
influence extended lay far more in Brazil and Argen-
tina than in Paraguay, and they were frequently
exposed to the fierce hostility of the Spanish settlers
at Asuncion and the Portuguese at Sao Paulo, both of
whom preferred exploiting the Indians to converting
them. The Paulistas ( Portuguese of Sao Paulo) carried
fire and sword into the Brazilian settlements and

248 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

expelled the Jesuits with their converts. They, how-
ever, worked with all the more vigour in the territory
that remained to them and armed the Indians against
their cruel enemies. The chief blow which they
received was in 1631, when the Paulistas invaded
the Province of Guayra, where the settlement was in
charge of the heroic Padre Montoya. The Asuncion
Governor could give no aid, and many thousands of
hapless Indians were carried away to slavery in Sao
Paulo. Montoya succeeded in bringing away 12,000
of his flock, and they crossed the Parana near the
Guayra Falls, marched down the Parana, and finally
established a new settlement beyond the Iguazu.
Padre Montoya, who deserves to be called one of
the world's heroes, died at Lima many years later
and has long been forgotten.

The Jesuit dominion has been the subject of praise
from hostile as well as impartial authorities, and the
chief adverse criticism to be made is that its providence
for the wants of the Indians and its masterly organiza-
tion so deprived the people of initiative that, after
the Jesuit expulsion by the famous decree of 1769,
they were left helpless and their civilization melted
away.1

Meanwhile, in 1728, secular Paraguay had been
detached from the Jesuit mission and became a
secluded and insignificant governorship. It did not,
like its neighbours, accept the disturbing revolutionary
doctrine which led to a crusade against Spanish
authority ; the Paraguayan agriculturist hated the
gaucho, and had no mind to be ruled from Buenos

1 " Certain it is that but a few years after their final exit from
the missions between the Uruguay and the Paraguay all was con-
fusion. In twenty years most of the missions were deserted, and
before thirty years had passed no vestige of their old prosperity
remained," — A Vanished Arcadia, p.xi.

PARAGUAY 249

Aires. Belgrano marched into the country expecting
to be welcomed, but he was attacked, defeated and
made prisoner by the Paraguayans. Had they wel-
comed the revolution, Paraguay would undoubtedly
have become a part of the Argentine Republic. How-
ever, the country, although it became independent,
had not forgotten the traditions of Jesuit autocracy,
and Paraguay quickly fell under the despotism of
Francia, which lasted from 1816 to his death in 1840.
Of him Carlyle says : " The man Rodriguez Francia
passed, in a remote but highly remarkable, not un-
questionable or unquestioned manner, across the con-
fused theatre of this world. For some thirty years
he was all the government his native Paraguay could
be said to have. For some six-and-twenty years he was
express Sovereign of it ; for some three, or some two
years, a sovereign with bared sword, stern as Rhada-
manthus : through all his days, since the beginning of
him, a Man or Sovereign of iron energy and industry,
of great and severe labour." The account given by
Carlyle contains many inaccuracies and is coloured
by prepossessions. Francia was undoubtedly cruel,
but the verdict of Carlyle, which is favourable with
qualifications, contains a good deal of truth. At all
events he gave Paraguay greater prosperity than it has
ever enjoyed since his time. His policy was to isolate
the country and make it self-sufficing, nor was he un-
successful, but his successor, the elder Lopez, raised
to power by his intelligence and energy, resumed
dealings with the outside world and contrived to
involve himself in quarrels with Great Britain, the
United States and Brazil. To revert to Francia, it
is noteworthy that Sir Richard Burton, who is per-
haps the only other man of genius who has given
careful consideration to the Dictator, who also had
better materials for forming a judgment, is in agree-

250 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

ment with Carlyle. He remarks : " Evidently the
Republic of the Dictator was a reproduction in a
somewhat sterner mould of the Jesuit Reduction
system, and it throve because the popular mind was
prepared for it. ... He could say with Solon, ' I
have not given you the best possible laws, but those
laws that suit you best.' As has been proved by the
logic of facts, the people were enthusiastic both for
the system and its administration." The .foreign com-
plications in which the elder Lopez became involved
led him to encourage the military tastes of his son
Francisco, who had been to Europe and admired the
third Napoleon, and eventually this policy proved fatal
to Paraguay.

Francisco Lopez, a tyrant hardly less extraordinary
than Francia and far less estimable, succeeded to
power on the death of his father in 1862, and con-
tinued his plans, which, he hoped, would make him
the arbiter of South America. Slowly and thoroughly
he had raised, armed and trained a fine army
numbering about 60,000, and he watched his oppor-
tunity. Interference by Brazil and Argentina in
the affairs of Uruguay gave him his pretext, and
his claim to take part in the settlement led to
the tiny Paraguay declaring war upon all three
Republics. The war began in 1864, and was not as
hopeless a contest as might have been supposed,
owing to the military talents of Lopez and his excel-
lent army, which he kept efficient by relentlessly
cruel discipline. The campaigns have been described
by the vivid pen of Sir Richard Burton.1 It will suffice
to say that Lopez, who with the cruelty of a tiger had
the courage of a hero, fought skilfully and doggedly,
but resources and numbers told their tale. Paraguay
was overrun by the allies, and in 1870 he fell fighting

1 Letters from the Battlefields of Paraguay. Published 1870.

PARAGUAY 251

in the northern fastnesses of the country which he
had ruined. The bloodthirsty tyrant was dead, but
the evil which he had done lived after him ; out of
a population of 800,000, 600,000 are believed to have
perished in the war, and Paraguay has never recovered
from the disaster.

A new constitution was drawn up in 1870, but the
people, as a whole, are apathetic and have little control
over policy ; the monotonous tale of petty revolutions
is all that recent history has to tell. Salvador Jovel-
lanos was the first President under the new constitu-
tion and had a troubled time. The history of the
Republic is not noteworthy ; in the eighties it was well
ruled by General Caballero and prosperity slowly
returned. Of late years there has been an unusually
ample crop of revolutions. In 1909 Colonel Jara began
to give much trouble and deposed President Gondra,
but in July, 1910, Jara's troops deserted him, and
Congress met and appointed Senor Rojas as tem-
porary President. Fighting continued briskly and
Rojas had to resign. He was succeeded in his tem-
porary post by Senor Pena in 1911. At last the
Government began to make head against the
anarchy, and the arch-disturber Jara died of wounds
received in battle. In the autumn of 1911 Senor
Schaerer was elected President, and has succeeded in
maintaining his position. The traveller need not be
deterred from visiting Paraguay by the reports of
revolution, for the combatants never molest foreigners
who avoid active participation in the fray. Neverthe-
less, these tumults inflict incalculable harm upon a
promising country and stability is greatly to be desired.
A strong man, with financial ability, could probably
renovate Paraguay, but such a man has not yet arisen.
Recently the South American Missionary Society has
done invaluable work among the uncivilized Indians.

252 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

ASUNCION

STEAMERS — Until recently the only means of reaching Asuncion
was by water. The journey up-stream requires 4 or 5
days, and the return journey is made in 3. The best
steamers are the Mihanovich Line. The fare from Buenos
Aires to Asuncion is £8 IDS. ; that from Asuncion to
Buenos Aires is £6 6s. These fares include meals and a
state-room, and the accommodation is excellent. The
distance is about 1,000 miles.

RAILWAYS — It is now possible to travel by the Paraguay Central
Railway ; the journey occupies 2 days and 2 nights, and
the fare is about £$ 145. There are dining-cars on the
trains.

HOTELS — Gran Hotel del Paraguay, good, about 16 francs a
day ; Hotel Cosmos, fair and with moderate charges ;
Hotel Hispano- Americano, fair and moderate in charges,
centrally located. In San Bernardino, a pleasant resort
near Asuncion, are Hotel del Lago, very good and terms
moderate ; Hotel Rasmussen, fair and moderate in charges.

BRITISH CONSUL— The British Minister is Sir Reginald Tower,
who resides at Buenos Aires. The British Consul is Consul
F. A. Oliver.

BANKS — Banco Mercantil del Paraguay, Banco Agricola del
Paraguay.

NEWSPAPERS— El National, El Monitor, El Tiempo.

Asuncion is a pleasant town with 80,000 inhabitants.
As has been seen, it was founded by Ayolas in 1536,
and is the oldest Spanish settlement in the Plate
District It was long an important place, but the
remote situation placed it at a disadvantage as com-
pared with Buenos Aires. During the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries its consequence diminished.
Before the war it probably had a population of nearly
50,000 ; in 1868 Burton estimated it at 12,000. It is an
extremely sunny, healthy place. The mean tempera-
ture is 72*46° Fahr. and the average yearly rainfall is
5173 inches. The temperature hardly ever reaches
100° or falls as low as 40°. The town is finely situated
on a bay in the River Paraguay, at the point where it

PARAGUAY 253

ceases to be navigable for ocean steamers. It is laid
out in the familiar rectangular style, owing its present
form to the Dictator Francia. The Plaza del Mercado
and the Plaza San Francisco are the principal open
places. The most noteworthy building in Asuncion
is the vast unfinished palace of the younger Lopez,
which is now used as a police-station. The Biblioteca
Nacionai has a valuable collection of historical docu-
ments referring to Spanish times. The Museo de
Bellas Artes has several reputed old masters. Asun-
cion has been the seat of a Bishop since 1547. The
Cathedral was built by the elder Lopez in 1845. The
Government Palace is a handsome building with a
square tower. Although most of the houses are one-
storied, Asuncion is clean and well built, and it is
well paved and lighted with electric light. The trams
are drawn by mules. Of late the trade of Asuncion
has shown signs of expanding, and if Paraguay can
get rid of the plague of revolutions the improvement
will doubtless continue.

San Bernardino is within easy reach of the capital ;
the station for it is Aregua. It is a favourite holiday
resort for people from Buenos Aires. Here is the
beautiful Lake Ipacaray, and the temperate warmth
of the climate attracts people who suffer from lung
diseases. Here is a German colony.

The other towns in the Republic are not of much
importance. The second town is Villa Rica, with
28,755 inhabitants, which lies 70 miles south-east of
the capital, and is connected with it by rail. It is a
centre of the yerba mate trade. Villa Concepcion,
with 15,683 inhabitants, is becoming a place of some
importance. It also has a busy trade in the national
beverage.

The Iguazu Falls are noticed in the Argentine

254 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

section, but even more wonderful than these are the
Guayra Falls, which have seldom been visited by a
white man. Their position, at the point where the
River Paraguay leaves the Brazilian State of Matto
Grosso and enters the Republic of Paraguay, is most
inaccessible ; the way lies through long stretches of
prairies and then through almost impenetrable forests,
which are practically uninhabited.1 The insect pests
are very numerous. The Falls are wider and deeper
than those of Niagara, but as the fall is not so abrupt,
the appearance is less imposing. A few years ago
Mr. Claude Russell wrote an interesting account of a
visit to these Falls in Blackwood's Magazine.

Literature about Paraguay is scanty ; there is great need of
an up-to-date topographical work on the country. Mr. W.
Barbrooke Grubb has written valuable works on the Chaco,
but he deals more with the Indians than the physical features.
The history of Paraguay has been adequately treated. Mr.
Cunninghame-Graham has written a brilliant study upon the
Jesuit Missions. The following list of works may be found
useful : —

Burton, Sir R F. Letters from the Battlefields of Paraguay.

London, 1870.
Bourgade, La Dardye. Paraguay (tr. by E. G. Ravenstein).

London, 1892.

Van Bruyssel, E. La Republique de Paraguay. Brussels, 1893.
Cunninghame-Graham, R. B. A Vanished Arcadia. London,

1901.

Macdonald, A. K. Picturesque Paraguay. London, 1911.
Grubb, W. B. An Unknown People. London, 1911.

1 " If there is charm in the unknown, there is at least as great
a charm in the forgotten, and the Salto de Guayra is one of the
most forgotten corners of the earth." — A Vanished Arcadia, p. 78

COLOMBIA

E C U A D 0 R^J

PERU

Railways shown thus

200 MILES

•ij'j£i££i£:=;£-'::;^::i;::!i:::':;-i\

^"GLOGRAPHIA" ' LTD 33 STRAND. LONDON. WC

PERU

PERU is a large Republic, comprising territory of
great variety, which is uncertain in extent owing
to boundary disputes. The area is estimated at
680,026 square miles, and the population at 3,530,000.
It is divided into three natural regions — the coast
zone, the Andes, and the Montana or forest region.
The coast zone is about 1,400 miles long and seldom
as much as 100 miles broad ; it is the only part that
has much population. Here there is scarcely any
rainfall, although the climate is moist and warm. The
cool Humboldt current is lower in temperature than
the Pacific Ocean, and thus prevents evaporation.
Fortunately, however, there are plenty of small rivers,
and the land, when irrigated, is extremely fertile. It
has, in fact, an entirely separate system of hydro-
graphy, and its puny streams are in strong contrast
to the giant affluents of the Amazon which water the
Montana. The principal of these little rivers are the
Tumbez, Chira, Santa, Barranca, Rimac, Ocona,
Camana and Tambo. They are perennial, having
an everlasting reservoir in the snows of the Andes.
" The temperature * of the coast region is never
oppressively hot. . . . The mean temperatures are
as follows : Piura, in the north, 77° Fahr. ; Lima, in
the centre, 66° Fahr. ; Moquegua, in the south, 63°
Fahr. The maximum temperature in Lima in the

1 Enock. Peru, p. 223.

s '57

258 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

summer is 78° Fahr., and the minimum in the winter
59° Fahr." As will be seen, when the products of
Peru are described, this is a very rich agricultural
district. The region of the Andes presents aspects
already familiar to the traveller, who will at least
have passed over the range by the Buenos Aires and
Pacific Railway, and may also have traversed Bolivia.
Here will be found Cerro de Pasco, the highest town
in the world, at an elevation of 14,380 feet, and almost
the sole wealth is to be found in the mines, although
the Indians cultivate their little patches of land, upon
which they rely chiefly for subsistence. Though in-
hospitable, these grim mountains have more popula-
tion than might be supposed ; they are inhabited by
the same people who lived there during the Inca
Empire — the Quechuas and the Aymaras. They are
known as Cholos, and are the only real workers in
Peru, being excellent miners as well as agriculturists.
At moderate elevations a great number of sheep, yield-
ing excellent wool, are reared, but above 10,000 feet
the mines are practically the only industry. Were it
not for the useful llama there would be hardly any
means of transport.

The Montana is a region into which the Spanish
Peruvian seldom penetrates ; it has been fruitful in
boundary disputes, for, although none of the con-
tending nations have energy to develop this rich land
or power to keep order in it, they will not voluntarily
yield a square league of the forests which they have
never seen. The district has been well described by
Mr. Enock. Unless the traveller is accustomed to
roughing it, he is strongly advised not to attempt
an expedition in this territory, for the hardships are
extreme and much of the country is very unhealthy.
A few years ago a young Englishman, who marched
from one of the termini of navigation to Pacasmayo

PERU 259

on the coast, died as the effect of privations before
reaching Panama. A great variety of uncivilized
Indians inhabit the forests ; much interesting infor-
mation may be found in papers read before the Royal
Geographical Society. Something will be said about
the treatment meted out to these unfortunate people
when the rubber industry is discussed. The rivers
are the most remarkable physical feature. The
Yapura, the northernmost, may be called the boundary
between Peru and Ecuador, and it flows into the
Amazon far away in Brazil. The ill-famed Putumayo
flows through an imperfectly explored territory, and
it is navigable by steamboats for 285 miles. The vast
Maranon, which is really the Amazon, is confined to
Peru throughout its whole course, and it receives a
number of enormous affluents. On the north may
be mentioned the Morona, the Partaza, the Tigre, and
the Napo. The two principal rivers which it receives
from the south are the Huallaga and the Ucayali.
On the Maranon is the very considerable port of
Iquitos. The Javari flows along the Brazilian border
and with the Maranon joins the Amazon at the
extreme corner of Peru. The south-eastern border
of Peru is formed by the vast Madera, whose principal
affluent is the Madre de Dios. The Purus and other
great rivers flow through the eastern Montana. To
all intents and purposes, this country is only accessible
from the Atlantic. If a Peruvian of Lima has busi-
ness in Iquitos, he goes by Panama. Of the Montana
Mr. Enock says : " It consists of (a) the lower slopes,
foothills, and valleys of the base of the Andes, covered
with timber and intersected by streams whose waters,
in many cases, literally ' wander o'er sands of gold ' ;
(6) enormous open valleys and plains, free of timber
and covered with grass, such as Sacramento Pampa ;
and (c) regions of virgin forests, in places almost

260 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

impenetrable and unexplored. This latter region is
traversed by the numerous rivers which are elsewhere
described, and it is upon the margins of these that
the indiarubber grounds are encountered."

The lakes of Peru are important. Lake Titicaca is
by far the largest body of fresh water in South
America, having an area of 3,300 square miles. It
has an elevation of 12,000 feet and in places a depth
of 700 feet. As this huge sheet of water has appa-
rently a very small outlet, much of the excess is
probably carried away by evaporation. In the Junin
District is Lake Chinchaycocha at an equal height,
and the third in size is Parinacocha ; there are many
small lakes among the mountains.

It is said that before the coming of the Spaniards
the Inca Empire had a population of twelve millions,
and of these a large proportion inhabited Peru. The
Quichuas formed the most important race of Indians,
who had subdued the more ancient Aymara people.
They are still the backbone of the country, as has
already been noted, and are known as the Cholo
Indians. The Indians of the Montana are uncivilized
and consist of many tribes, with little cohesion ; they
number several hundred thousands. Among them
may be numbered the following : the Aguarunas, who
live around the Maranon. They are a warlike tribe
and use the blow-pipe. The Amahuachus, about the
Ucayali River, are similar. The Conibos, who live
higher up the same river, are more friendly to the
whites. The Campas inhabit a wide tract by the
Ucayali and Urubamba Rivers, and are good culti-
vators and skilled watermen. They are not unfriendly,
although some of their sub-tribes are said to practise
cannibalism. The Huachipairis, who live by the
Madre de Dios, are naked, painted savages, and
practise polygamy ; they are unfriendly. The Machi-

PERU 261

gangas, who inhabit the banks of the Urubamba
and Pachitea Rivers, are somewhat more civilized.
The Nahumedes, who are scanty in number, have this
point of interest that they are believed to have given
the name to the River Amazon, which probably arose
through a mistake. These savages wear a chemise
(cushma), and when they attacked Orellana while he
explored the great river, it is supposed that he mistook
them for women or Amazons. The Orejones live
about the Napo. The cruel treatment which they
have received will, unless checked, cause them to
become extinct.

The western mountains of the Andes are formed of
Mesozoic beds, and the smaller hills near the coast
are composed of granite and various crystalline rocks,
interspersed with limestone and sandstone. The
eastern Cordillera are of Palaeozoic rock.

The flora is extremely varied. Every kind of
tropical vegetation flourishes in the Montana, and
here the sugar-cane and similar crops are cultivated,
as on the irrigated coast zone. The forest trees are
numerous, among which one of the most valuable is
the Hevea rubber-tree, and palms of all kinds are
numerous. Various chinchona-trees grow abundantly.
The flora of the Montana is very similar to that of
Brazil. Peru is the home of the potato. The species
vary with the elevation, but the Peruvian Andes are
far more prolific of vegetation than the Chilian and
Argentine, and there is fine grazing land at immense
heights. If Peru had adequate communications, it
is probable that few countries in the world would
yield more sugar, coffee, cocoa, and rubber.

By far the most valuable of the Peruvian animals
is that which consists of four branches — the llama,
the vicuna, the alpaca and the guanaco. The llama
carries burdens of 75 Ib. over the mountain roads

262 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

and affords the only means of transport in many
districts, and both it and the vicuna and alpaca are
valuable for their wool. The characteristic South
American animals are found in Peru. The great
condor is not uncommon, and there are immense
varieties of sea-fowl.

COMMERCE, PRODUCTS AND INDUSTRIES

In 1911 the imports were £6,371,388

„ exports „ 7,422,027

The principal countries in the import trade were : —

The United Kingdom £1,719,831

The United States 1,165,602

Germany 946,206

Belgium ... 333>982

France 289,529

Italy i99>45°

In the export trade the following countries have the
chief share : —

The United Kingdom ... £2,396,640

The United States 2,037,599

Chile 1,274,032

Germany ... 562,297

France 380,478

Belgium 98,928

The exports are of a varied character, consisting
of:—

Minerals £1,987,762

Sugar ... 1,415,586

Cotton 999,463

Rubber 522,044

Wool 393,94°

Petroleum 388,077

Guano 270,593

PERU 263

Hats ... ... £172,093

Hides and skins 104,808

Rice 80,151

Cocaine T5>29*

Coca 53,002

Coffee 49,408

Peru has always been renowned for fabulous
mineral wealth. Enormous quantities of gold were
obtained by the Incas and also in Spanish times, but
the mining was conducted in unskilful fashion, and
the decline in production was not due to any exhaus-
tion of the mines, but to the political troubles at the
end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth
centuries. There is no doubt that under favourable
circumstances Peru might produce as much gold and
silver as ever, but the difficulties of transport are so
great that it is impossible to work many rich lodes
profitably. When the Republic attained to a some-
what more settled condition, more attention was paid
to its underground wealth, and in 1876 a School of
Mines was founded at Lima, and the mining laws
have been improved. Many of the rivers of the
Montana are auriferous, notably the Maranon, Sandia,
Urubamba and others, and the Indians have long had
a peculiar practice of paving the bed of a river with
flat stones, and when the river is in flood the nuggets
brought down the stream are caught in the places
between the stones. The Indians say, "We sow stones
and reap gold." A few gold-mines are being energetic-
ally worked in Peru, notably the American mine of
Santo Domingo near Cuzco, but the total production
is comparatively small — not more than .£200,000 per
annum. Since the discovery of the country the total
amount of silver mined has been estimated at
.£140,000,000, and to-day the annual production is
usually little short of a million sterling. The prin-

264 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

cipal silver-bearing regions are : Salpo, Hualgayoc,
Huari, Huallanca, Huayalas, Huaraz, Recuay, Caja-
tambo, Yauli, Cerro de Pasco, Morococha, Casapalca,
Huarochiri, Huancavelica, Quespisisa, Castrovirrena,
Lucanas, Lampa, Caylloma and Puno. In Spanish
times quicksilver was produced in great quantities,
to the amount of hundreds of tons a year, from the
Huancavelica mines, but now the production is very
small. Copper is a very important product. Cerro
de Pasco is the chief copper district^ but the metal
occurs abundantly in many lofty regions of the Andes
— in Yauli, Morococha, Huayllay, Chimbote, Caja-
marca, Huaycayo, Huaraz, Huallanca, Huancavelica,
lea, Arequipa, Andahuaylas and Cuzco. It will be
noticed that it is frequently found in conjunction with
silver. Coal is promising, and there are excellent
beds along the coast of northern Chile ; it is also
found in the Andes. Very valuable petroleum wells
have been discovered at Talara and Zorritos in the
Department of Piura. Mining labour is rather scarce
in Peru, for it is carried on by Cholo Indians who
are also small farmers, and they are in the habit of
leaving their work at harvest-time and repairing to
their homes to reap their crops, but the quality of
their work is satisfactory. An English mining super-
intendent states that they give very little trouble and
are excellent workmen, a small minority of them being
as good as English miners, though of course the
majority are far weaker. The average wage is about
35. a day, but the most important mining work is done
at special contract rates. This gentleman added that
there is great need of capital and brains ; with them
there would be splendid prospects for mining in Peru.
A considerable amount of gold, silver and copper is
exported in ore.

Rubber is one of Peru's chief industries. The better

PERU 265

kind is yielded by the hevea trees, the inferior by the
caucho ; the latter kind is obtained by the simple
process of cutting down the tree and letting the sap
run out ; thus resources have been recklessly wasted.
Iquitos, on an affluent of the Amazon, is the great
rubber port and the distributing centre into which the
wealth of the Department of Loreto is poured. This
industry is a source of great profit to Peru, and it could
be wished that the methods pursued were in harmony
with civilization and humanity, but the barbarities
with which Peru is associated in that connexion have
rarely been paralleled in the world's history of
atrocities. It has long been known by all who are
acquainted with South America that rubber-gathering
is almost everywhere attended with great cruelty. In
1909 Mr. Hardenburg set to work to bring the
abominations of the Putumayo to light, and with the
help of Truth, though constantly hindered by the guilty
parties, he succeeded, for a brief space, in arousing the
public conscience, which, it must be admitted, is now
Comfortably asleep once more. It should be added
that the company principally concerned was an
English one. Mr. Enock remarks : "The miserable
condition of native labour in Latin America ought to
be brought home to the directors ;md shareholders of
British and other foreign companies. There are
hundreds of rubber, mining, oil, plantation, railway
and other companies with scores of noblemen — lords,
dukes, baronets — as well as doctors of science, bankers
and business men, and even ministers of religion,
distributed among their boards of directors. What
knowledge have these gentlemen of the conditions of
the poor native labourers under their control ? There
is a grave responsibility, which has been very easily
carried, about this system of absentee capitalism."
So revolting were the atrocities that it was considered

266 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

that " something ought to be done." x Sir Roger
Casement was directed by the Foreign Office to make
an investigation. He completed his Report in 1911,
but our Foreign Office did riot issue it for a year,
hoping that the Peruvian Government might take
some remedial measures. This hope was disappointed.
As the Annual Register for 1912 said: " The facts
were persistently denied by the Peruvian Government
until denial became impossible." Sir Roger Casement
stated that " the condition of things fully warrants
the worst charges brought against the agents of
the Peruvian Amazon Company and its methods
on the Putumayo." These horrors are minutely de-
scribed in the two books, and consist chiefly of most
aggravated and multitudinous cases of murder and
torture, into which it would serve no purpose to go
here. But it would be interesting to compare the
treatment of Indians under Republican Peru with
that under Royalist Spain. North American writers
and their English imitators have exhausted their
vocabulary in describing the cruelty of the Spaniards,
and have asserted in grandiloquent terms that the
night of darkness and cruelty was rolled away when
the Republics threw off Spanish control. This was
obviously absurd, as the slightest knowledge of
history would show, but no one concerns themselves
about South American Indians, and so possibly
these misrepresentations may have hitherto gained
currency. The Royalist Government invariably pro-
tected the Indians against commercial oppressors
and established countless missions among them.
When the Republican Governments have not actively
engaged in the extermination of the Indians, they

1 Full accounts of this matter are given in The Putumayo : the
Devil's Paradise (1912), by W. E. Hardenburg, and The Lords of
the Devil's Paradise (1913), by G. S. Paternoster.

PERU 267

have allowed exploiters a free hand, and this last is
by far the crueller course of the two. It will, in
the future, require some effrontery to complain of
the Spanish treatment of the Indians without con-
trasting it with present-day treatment. There is
apparently no hope of remedying the evils, which
will doubtless continue until either the Indians or
the rubber-trees are totally destroyed — and the
former contingency is likely to take place first.

An important product of the Montana is the
coca shrub, which flourishes on the eastern slopes
of the Cordillera at elevations between 2,000 and
5,000 feet. From this the drug named cocaine is
manufactured. It is largely produced in the Depart-
ments of Cuzco, Huanuco and Junin. The Indians
are too fond of chewing the leaves ; used in
moderation it is helpful against fatigue, but it is
greatly abused 'and thus becomes a very deleterious
drug ; it would be well if the harmless yerba mate
could be introduced as a substitute. Good cocoa is
grown, and the industry is promising. Peruvian
coffee is of the highest quality, but at present the
heavy cost of transport paralyses the industry.

I Peru is making steady progress in the raising of
agricultural and pastoral products. Sugar, which is
cultivated on the coast, chiefly to the north of
Callao, is the largest crop and is of excellent quality.
The British Sugar Company has very large estates at
Cafiete, and the output of the whole country is about
200,000 tons yearly. Cotton, as is the case with most
Peruvian crops, is dependent on irrigation and is
grown near the coast, chiefly in the Departments of
Piura, lea and Lima. There are three varieties of
Peruvian cotton — the rough, which is the most
valuable, and comes from Piura ; the semi-rough,
somewhat cheaper, which comes from Pisco ; the

268 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

third, which is least valuable, comes from the coast
between Huacho and Pisco ; it supplies the demands
of the mills of Lima and Arequipa. The rough and
the semi-rough are in great request for mixing with
wool in making underclothing, and are exported to
Liverpool. In the fifth or sixth year the Peruvian
cotton plant yields about half a ton to the acre.
Besides the large export, some 2,500 tons of cotton
are consumed yearly by the Peruvian mills. Rice is a
considerable crop, and is grown extensively in the
Departments of Lambayeque and Libertad. It and
maize are the staple food of the people ; from the
latter grain the national beverage of chica is made.
Along the southern coasts grapes are largely grown,
especially in the Department of lea. Here wine is
manufactured, and the Peruvian red and white wines
are extremely good. The Pisco brandy is well known.
The wool trade has made much progress in Peru of
late years. In this the -firm of Duncan Fox has
shown great enterprise, having 'established a breeding
farm near Cerro de Pascq and imported rams from
Chile. The firm supplies the woollen factories of
Lima with a large quantity of greasy wool. Mollendo,
however, is the principal wool port of Peru, being the
depot for the produce of the uplands. The alpacas
and vicunas are in great esteem. The only other
Peruvian product which requires notice is one for
which, half a century ago, Peru was extremely well
known, namely guano. The trade began in 1840 and
the exports soon rose to 200,000 tons. Innumerable
web-footed sea-fowl haunt the coasts of Peru, and
particularly the Chincha Islands. The deposits of
phosphates made by these birds are extremely valuable
for manure, but the birds have not been treated with
proper care, and the yield of this valuable product has
been much reduced.

PERU 269

The manufactures of Peru are more developed than
those of any South American country except Brazil.
There are five flourishing cotton-mills in Lima, and
lea and Arequipa have one each. The chief factory
of Lima has 400 looms, and 350 hands are em-
ployed at about 35. a day. It is worked by
petroleum. There are several important woollen-
mills at Lima, Cuzco and Arequipa. The Santa
Rosa Company has a large flour-mill at Callao.
There are over twenty factories for the manufacture of
cocaine. Beer is brewed extensively at Lima and
other places, and there are several factories for manu-
facturing paper, matches, cigarettes, and biscuits.
Paita is renowned for the manufacture of beautiful
hats, and there is a large export trade.

The railways of Peru resemble those of Chile ;
they are short and run into the mountains at right
angles to the coast. The only railway which can be
called a through connexion is that from Mollendo to
Puno, which is about 312 miles long and gives access
to Bolivia. The only other one of much importance
is that from Callao, through Lima and Oroya, to Cerro
de Pasco. There are numerous short lines, but not
nearly enough for the development of the country.
A very useful product is the contemplated line from
Paita on the coast to Limon, a port on the Maranon.
This is not likely to be built in the near future, but it
would supply a great want, for eastern and western
Peru are now as inaccessible to each other by land as
Egypt and South Africa are. Some account is given
of Peruvian railways under the headings of the towns.

MONEY AND FINANCE

Peru was terribly exhausted by the war of 1879-83
and has not yet thoroughly recovered from it, although

270 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

yearly the outlook becomes more favourable. In
1897 a g°ld coinage was established, and in 1901
the silver Peruvian sol was made legal tender up to a
sum of ten sols only. The following statement
explains the Peruvian monetary system :—

Peru is unique in South America in having stable money with
clean gold and silver coinage. The Peruvian pound (written
" Lp" or " £") is maintained at par with the British sovereign,
which circulates with it as legal tender. The coins are —

EQUIVALENT

METAL

DENOMINATION

Peruvian British

1

U.S.A. and
Canada

Gold ...

Pound

10

SOls 2OS.

$4.87

Half pound

S

IOS.

2-43

Silver...

Sol

IOO

centavos 2S.

485

Half sol

So

IS.

.24

Fifth sol

20

5d.

.10

Tenth sol 10

2*d.

•05

Twentieth sol 5

Ijd.

.025

Copper

Centavo grande i 2

id.

.01

Centavo chico i

: i farthing

.005

There is no paper money in Peru.

The estimated revenue for 1913 was £3,209,237
„ expenditure „ £2,879,924

The customs form the largest item in the revenue,
usually amounting to over -£1,200,000. About a
million sterling is contributed by the National Tax
Collecting Company, which collects, on commission,
a large number of internal taxes. Among them the
imports on spirits and tobacco are the most lucrative.
The customs duties are high, with the object of
protecting home manufactures, and living is expensive,
although less so than in many South American
countries. The external debt of Peru amounts to

PERU 271

.£5,368,788, and the internal debt is about three
millions sterling. Peru has, ever since it became a
Republic, been in a state of great financial embarrass-
ment, and there is often a difficulty in paying its
numerous public functionaries. 'It is said that the
Government owes tradesmen and merchants in Lima
about £2,500,000.

THE CONSTITUTION

The constitution of Peru dates from 1830. The
executive power belongs to the President, who is
elected for four years. There are two Vice-Presidents.
The President is assisted by a Cabinet of six Ministers.
The legislative power is administered by the Senate
and the House of Representatives. The Senate repre-
sents the Departments and has 52 members ; the House
of Representatives has 116 members.

The Republic, it may be mentioned, is divided into
18 Departments and 2 Provkices (Callao and Moque-
gua). The Departments are subdivided into Provinces,
which number 98 in all, and these again are sub-
divided into Districts, numbering 80 1. Puno is the
most populous of the Departments, but, as has already
been stated, the population figures are not to be
trusted, and there has been no official census since
1876. The figures given for the total population of
Peru are impossibly high. Peru is the only country
in South America which does not tolerate religions
outside the Roman Catholic Church.

HISTORY

It is not necessary to go into the early history of
Peru, which forms the subject of Prescott's well-known
work. It will be sufficient to remind readers that
the famous Inca race at some unknown date (probably

272 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

not very remote) conquered a pre-Incan race of which
almost nothing is known and founded a paternal
and splendid monarchy or empire. This was rudely
disturbed by the Spaniards under the ruthless Pizarro.
Although the Incas were skilful builders and road-
makers, workers in metal, weavers, and possessed of
some skill in the sciences of astronomy and geography,
they had little aptitude for the art of war, seeing that
their conquests had been made over naked savages
who could not stand against their civilization, and
the Peruvians therefore were no match against the
Spaniards. In 1532 Atahualpa was treacherously
seized and soon afterwards put to death. The con-
querors engaged in constant quarrels over their spoils
and Pizarro was murdered in 1541. The King of
Spain determined to end the anarchy, and in 1546
the Viceroy Gasca restored order and established
settled government. After his retirement there followed
a period of disturbance, but in 1555 the wise Marquis
of Canete arrived and took measures to repress the
idle adventurers. The Viceroys varied in character,
and their treatment of the Indians was, on the whole,
oppressive, for the wonderful mines were now being
worked, and the Indians, forced to unaccustomed
toil, perished in great numbers. The chief events
of the time, however, were connected with the
English marauders, who constantly plundered Spanish
treasure-ships. But the history of the times is not
altogether written in blood. In 1567 the Jesuits
arrived and introduced printing and learning. A
University had already been founded at Lima, but
unfortunately the Spaniards introduced a home
institution that could well have been spared — the
Inquisition. In Peru the Spanish dominion was prob-
ably more severe than in any other part of South
America, but even here much good was done. Civiliza-

PERU 273

tion, literature, learning and religion were brought
from the Old World, and every description of fruit,
grain and cattle was transplanted from Europe and
began to flourish. On the other hand, Europe received
from Peru new vegetable products in potatoes, maize,
chocolate, tobacco and quinine. Henceforward Peru
occupies an extremely important place in Spanish
colonial history on purely commercial grounds. The
colonies were allowed to trade with the mother
country only, and not directly, but through Panama.
Thus Lima was the depot for the whole of South
America ; it was necessary to land goods destined
for Buenos Aires at Lima and send them through
Bolivia into Argentina. Lima became rich and
prosperous and was the most refined and learned of
the cities of South America. In 1746 its prosperity
was checked by a terrible earthquake. In 1767 Peru
sustained a great loss, moral and material, by the
expulsion of the Jesuits, and discontent became rife,
of which one symptom in 1780 was the revolt of
Tupac Amaru, a descendant of the Inca Emperors.
The authorities were alarmed and, as elsewhere in
South America, commenced a reforming policy.

The French Revolution had disturbed the whole
world, and many circumstances had combined to
weaken Spain and give to South America an oppor-
tunity to become independent. Many of the Spanish
Governors were incapable, but this was not the case
with Abascal, the Viceroy at Lima. When the Spanish
monarchy fell before Napoleon, the standard of revolt
arose in every quarter, but Abascal had collected
an efficient army and staunchly held his ground. In
1814 and 1815 the Indian risings, which gravely
threatened the Royalists, since the Indians formed
a great part of their army, were suppressed, and the
position of Peru seemed secure.

274 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

But it was impossible for Peru to maintain the
Spanish connexion in view of the rapid successes
of the revolutionaries in all other parts of South
America, and in 1817 San Martin, the brilliant and
patriotic Argentine general, shattered the power of
the Royalists in Chile and afterwards received the
important naval aid of Lord Cochrane, who in 1820
assisted him to land at the port of Pisco. The next
year San Martin, having entered Lima, proclaimed
Peru's independence, but shortly afterwards retired
from the country in favour of Bolivar, the Liberator,
The Royalists for a time appeared to be recovering
their ground and even reoccupied Lima, but in
August, 1824, the victory of Bolivar and Sucre at
Junin drove them back to Cuzco, their last stronghold,
and in December the famous field of Ayacucho
witnessed the final ruin of Spanish hopes in South
America.

The Spaniards had gone, but absolutism did not
depart with them ; in fact, the first act of Bolivar
(in 1823) was to depose Riva Agiiero, the first con-
stitutional President. After a few years as absolute
Dictator the Liberator retired to Colombia, and left
the new Republic of Peru in a most distressful state.
It would serve no purpose to follow the details of
its troubles. Darwin, who anchored off Callao in
1835, complains that he was able to see very little
of Peru owing to political disturbances, and the
following brief remark serves to sum up Peruvian
history during a considerable part of the nineteenth
century. " No State in South America," he says,
" since the declaration of independence, has suffered
more from anarchy than Peru. At the time of our
visit there were four chiefs in arms contending for
supremacy in the government ; if one succeeded in
becoming for a time very powerful, the others coalesced

PERU 275

against him ; but no sooner were they victorious than
they were again hostile to each other."

Civil troubles were intensified by a brief war with
Spain in 1864, which was ended by the good offices of
the United States, but gradually the development of
the guano and nitrate industries, reinforced by President
Manuel Pardo's financial reforms, improved the position
of Peru. It was, however, nitrate that caused the dis-
pute with Chile which led to the disastrous war of
1879-83. This has been well described by Mr. Enock,
and here it will suffice to say that, despite the heroic
resistance of Peru, Lima was occupied under circum-
stances of great cruelty, and the war left Peru com-
pletely defeated and stripped of the Province of
Tarapaca. For all practical purposes Arica and Tacna
may be added to Peru's loss, since Chile, although a
conditional promise was made that they should be
handed back in ten years, has never restored them.
The Republic, crushed under a load of foreign debt,
was practically bankrupt, and so, in the interests of
foreign bondholders and (incidentally) of Peru itself,
there was formed in London in 1890 the company
known as the Peruvian Corporation. " Among the
principal matters stipulated were : The ceding by
Peru of all her State railways, certain sections of which
the Corporation were to extend ; free use of certain
of the ports on the coast — Mollendo, Pisco, Ancon,
Chimbote, Pascamayo, Salaverry and Paita ; the guano
existing in Peru up to a certain amount ; land and
colonization grants, etc. ; and thirty-three annual sub-
sidies of ^80,000, secured on the Callao customs "
(Enock). The relations between the Government and
the Corporation have not always been harmonious,
but the arrangement, which rescued Peru from debt
and secured the development of the country, has, on
the whole, been most advantageous to the Republic.

276 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

Civil disturbances have by no means died out, but
recent Presidents have done their best to develop the
resources of the country, and national self-restraint
has been conspicuously shown in the recent boundary
dispute with Ecuador, \vhich, under rash manage-
ment, would certainly have led to war. Senor J.
Pardo was President from 1904 to 1908, Senor A.
Leguia from 1908 to 1912, and the last was suc-
ceeded by Senor G. E. Billinghurst. This gentleman
was of English origin, and was believed to be
popular with the people at large. However, he set
himself to curb the power of the great families,
who, as in all other Latin American countries, mono-
polize the government of the country. Their rule is
not usually enlightened, but it is doubtful whether the
mob would manage affairs any better. However this
may be, Senor Billinghurst became very unpopular in
Lima, and in February, 1914, his opponents carried
out a coup d'etat, in which one of his principal
adherents was killed.

The President was completely crushed and went
into exile. The recent history of Peru shows that the
country is still as liable to revolutions as ever — a most
expensive luxury, for the only way to obtain the capital
absolutely necessary for development is to preserve
public tranquillity.

LIMA AND THE PERUVIAN COAST

After a voyage of about 24 hours from Iquique the
steamer reaches Mollendo, the third or fourth port of
Peru. It is, however, by no means commodious,
although the Peruvian Corporation has built a break-
water and mole. The landing is made by boats, rowed
by somewhat grasping boatmen, and even in calm
weather there is usually such a swell that the leap to

PERU 277

the pier is a feat requiring considerable agility. Mollendo
has a considerable trade, but it is a shabby little place,
and will only interest the traveller as being the terminus
of a very important railway system. The exports are
valued at about ^600,000 yearly. A French traveller
who was here in 1899 says, " Les deux hotels y sont
detestables," but they may probably have improved
since then. The Southern Railway (owned, like nearly
all Peruvian lines, by the Peruvian Corporation) runs
to Arequipa, at a distance of about 100 miles.

AREQUIPA

RAILWAYS — The traveller arrives from Mollendo by the Southern
Railway ; according to our route he may arrive the reverse
way from La Paz. The country between the coast and
Arequipa is steep and arid. The line proceeds up the moun-
tains as far as Cuzco, which is about 315 miles from Mollendo.
At Juliaca there is a junction with a line running south that
gives access to Bolivia.

HOTELS — Central, Europa, France et Angleterre, Internacional.
The two best hotels ara very-comfortable.

BRITISH CONSUL — Vice-Consul G. Stafford.

BANK — Banco del Peru y Londres.

NEWSPAPERS — La Bolsa, El Pueblo.

Arequipa, founded by Pizarro in 1540, is the City
Beautiful (Villa hermosa), with nearly 40,000 inhabi-
tants, at an elevation of 7,850 feet. There is a service
of electric cars. This town is on the banks of the River
Chili ; the houses are built low as a precaution against
the earthquakes by which Arequipa has often been
devastated ; slight shocks are frequent. The Cathedral
was destroyed by fire in 1848 ; the present building is a
handsome modern structure. It possesses in Mirti a
valuable observatory, the property of Harvard Univer-
sity. A French writer says : "I do not hesitate to prefer
a residence at Arequipa to one at Lima ; the climate is

278 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

delicious." It is the capital of the Department of the
same name.

After leaving Arequipa the train makes its way over
the mountains to Puno, on Lake Titicaca, which is
itself more than 12,000 feet above the sea level. Here
the traveller may take steamer and make his way
into Bolivia. As already stated, he may, if he prefers,
branch off northward to Cuzco, the ancient capital of
the Incas. "To-day," says Mr. Percy Martin, in his
recent work on Peru, " the electric light illumines the
straight and regular streets of Cuzco ; trams — primitive
and uncomfortable, but still tramways — perambulate
the thoroughfares; a railway-station, located a mile or so
from the town, fills the quiet air with locomotive whist-
ling, and the shunting of heavy goods wagons can be
heard both day and night. The telegraph and the tele-
phone, fresh fish and meat of the best quality, a profu-
sion of fruit and the choice of many comfortable
modern dwellings make Cuzco a by no means un-
pleasant place in which to reside occasionally."

The Jesuit Church is most interesting, as are the
relics of the Incas.

Probably many travellers will prefer to neglect the
bleak uplands and hurry on to Lima, the pleasantest city
in the whole of South America. A fast boat will miss the
wine port of Pisco and make the voyage to Callao in
about 40 hours. The approach by the island of
San Lorenzo with a view of the distant Andes is
picturesque.

CALLAO.

STEAMSHIP LINES— The steamers of the Pacific Steam Navigation
Company sail direct from Liverpool to Callao ; the cost of the
journey by sea all the way is £62. By Buenos Aires and the
Andes the fare is £66 i6s. A cheaper and quicker route
than either is by the Royal Mail to Colon, across the Isthmus

PERU 279

by rail, and down the Pacific Coast by the P.S.N. Company ;
the fare is £48 i2s. 6d. The same route by an intermediate
F steamer costs ^35. The P.S.N. Company and the Chilian
Company have a frequent service by fast and slow boats to
all Pacific ports, north and south. The Lamport and Holt
and the Kosmos Lines sail between Europe and Callao. By
the Kosmos the fare (from Hamburg or Antwerp) is £60.
The Panama Railroad Steamship Line has a service to New
York by Panama and Colon ; the fare is £34 43. yd. The
fare by the same line is £25.

RAILWAYS — There is a railway line to Lima, for which see Lima.
The best way to get to Lima from Callao — a distance of 6
miles — is by electric car, which performs the journey in 20
minutes. On leaving the boat the traveller may give his
luggage to one of the fleteros, who are very trustworthy and
will convey it to a Lima hotel at a reasonable rate.

HOTELS— Blanco, Genova.

BRITISH CONSUL — Consul-General, George G. Wilson. Vice
Consul, G. F. Boulton.

NEWSPAPERS — El Callao, La Prensa.

Callao is the principal port of Peru. It has no objects
of interest. Darwin said : " Callao is a filthy, ill-built,
small seaport. . . . The atmosphere is loaded with foul
smells, and that peculiar one, which may be perceived
in almost every town within the tropics, was here very
strong." The port is cleaner than it was in those days,
but it has an untidy appearance, and every one who
has business here lives in Lima if he can afford it.

LIMA

RAILWAYS — Lima is not an important railway centre; in fact,
Peru has no real railway system. There is a line from Callao
through Lima to Oroya, whence there is another line to
Cerro de Pasco. There is a shorter line to Ancon. There
are also railways to Chorillos, Bella Vista and several neigh-
bouring places, which, however, can generally be reached
more conveniently by tram.

HOTELS — Hotel Maury, Plaza Mayor. Here a room can be
obtained for 45. a day and meals are taken at the restaurant

28o A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

attached. This hotel is one of the most comfortable in
South America and the food is good. There is an excellent
restaurant, the Jardin Estrasburgo, in the same square, and
here also are good tea-shops.

BRITISH CONSUL— The Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni-
potentiary is E. A. Rennie. Naval Attache, Captain Heath-
coat Salusbury Grant. Military Attache, Colonel Sir E. I. B.
Grogan, Bart. Vice-Consul, Robert A. Clay.

BANK — Banco de Peru y Londres.

NEWSPAPERS— El Comercio, La Prensa, El Diario ; these are
dailies. Peru To-day is a monthly magazine, published in
English, containing useful information about the resources
of the nation. The Prisma, Actualidades, Variedades are
illustrated weeklies. The Revista Historica is published by
the Historical Institute, and the Geographic Society brings
out quarterly publications. El Comercio, founded in 1839 by
Manuel Ascensio Segura, the eminent man of letters, is
probably the best newspaper on the Pacific coast and
possesses great influence.

There is an English Church.

Lima, the capital of Peru, with a population of
141,000, is the most famous city in South America. It
was founded by Pizarro in 1535, and here six years
later he was murdered. It was by far the most
important city in Spanish America and was the depot
for all the trade. In 1746 Lima was destroyed by a
terrible earthquake, but was soon rebuilt. Lima was
long loyal to Spain, but was finally detached by the
efforts of the Argentine San Martin. It has never
recovered from the troubles of the revolutionary wars,
for Peru suffered more than almost any of the
Republics from the anarchy which followed the
separation from Spain. Darwin said in 1835 : " The
city of Lima is now in a wretched state of decay ; the
streets are nearly unpaved ; and heaps of filth are piled
up in all directions, where the black gallinazos, tame as
poultry, pick up bits of carrion." He adds : " Lima,
the City of the Kings, must formerly have been a
splendid town. The extraordinary number of churches

PERU 281

gives it, even at the present day, a peculiar and striking
character, especially when viewed from a short
distance." Its misfortunes continued to a very late
date, for in January, 1881, it was captured by the
Chilian troops, when the National Library was sacked
and fearful outrages committed. In spite of all these
troubles, it is now a very fine city, though the old
prosperity has never been recovered.

Lima has a very pleasant climate. The Andes keep
off the northerly and easterly winds, and cool breezes
blow from the Pacific. Rain seldom falls, and great
heat and even moderate cold never occur. The mean
temperature is 66° Fahr. and the maximum 78°. In
spite of its charm Lima, it must be regretfully admitted,
is not healthy. "The death-rate for Lima in 1909 was
33*85 per 1,000, and the birth-rate 31*02 per 1,000.
The death-rate among the poorer classes is very large,
due principally to lung diseases." Tuberculosis is
indeed a terrible scourge in many parts of Spanish
America, and the following table given by Mr. Percy
Martin may be of interest : —

MORTALITY PER 10,000 INHABITANTS FROM
TUBERCULOSIS

Lima 62*1

Caracas 6o'o

Rio de Janeiro 38*0

Santiago 38*0

Havana 327

Montevideo 16*0

Buenos Aires 14-2

Mexico City ... ... ... ... ... 14/0

Salvador 13-7

Europeans, however, usually find Lima healthy, and
probably the traveller will feel more at home than at
any other time during his travels in South America.
Not only is the English colony hospitable and the

282 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

Peruvians distinguished among South American people
for their courtesy and charm, but the town has all the
attributes of real comfort and refinement which are
absent from many larger and more pretentious places ;
and when to these attractions are added a mild and
equable climate and much historical and archaeological
interest, few will be disposed to dispute its claim to the
first place in the order of merit. The English club is
the Phcenix, pleasantly situated in the Plaza Mayor,
and there are several good Peruvian clubs.

Lima stands on the left bank of the Rimac. The
Plaza Mayor is the centre of the town. Here are the
Government Palace, once the Palace of the Viceroys,
the City Hall, the Cathedral, the Archbishop's Palace,
and many clubs and shops. Another handsome square
is the Plaza de la Inquisicion with a statue of Bolivar.
The Plaza de la Exposicion is farther from the centre ;
here at the entrance to the beautiful Pasco Colon is a
statue of San Martin. The Pasco Colon is the chief
fashionable resort, and should be visited on Sunday
evening, when the beautiful ladies of Lima assemble
here. Here is a statue of Columbus. The finest statue
in Lima is also in the Pasco Colon — the monument to
the heroic Colonel Bolognesi, who was killed at Arica
in the Chilian war. It is the work of the Spanish
sculptor Querol. Lima is bounded on two sides by
the long Avenida Gran and the Avenida Alfonso
Ugarte ; at the end of the latter, on the road to Callao,
is the Dos de Mayo monument, which commemorates
the successful defence of the port of Callao against
the Spaniards on May 2, 1866. By the Pasco Colon
is the Exposition Park, and not far away are the
beautiful Botanical Gardens. In this neighbourhood
are some of the finest public buildings.

Lima has 67 churches, headed by the Cathedral,
which is one of the best in South America, containing

PERU 283

a glass case with the mummied remains of Pizarro, a
handsome pulpit and stalls in cedar and mahogany,
and a picture by Murillo. Among other churches may
be mentioned San Pedro, with good wood carvings,
and La Merced, with a silver front to its high altar.
There is an excellent service of electric trams, and
pleasant excursions may be made to Miraflores,
Barranco and Chorillos, all pleasant bathing-places, a
few miles southwards. On a sunny morning it is
pleasant to stand upon the high cliffs of Miraflores and
see the Pacific spreading in front like a lake of glass,
the pretty houses of Chorillos on the left, and the
smoke of Callao far away to the right. The shops
of Lima are good, though not cheap, and there are
several theatres and a race-course. Altogether it is
an extremely pleasant city.

According to North American writers, and those
English compilers who have slavishly followed them,
the dominant Spaniards were the enemies of every
kind of learning and enlightenment, and the Church
was particularly hostile to all good works. According
to fact, the Spanish Government was as anxious to
spread learning as to enlarge its territorial dominions,
and its instrument was generally one or other of the
religious Orders. The University of San Marcos, the
oldest in the two Americas, was founded in 1551 by
the Priors of the Dominican Order ; twenty years
later it was secularized by Philip II. "The Viceroyalty
of Peru," says the editor of the Spanish-American
Anthology, " was the most opulent and cultivated of
the Spanish colonies in South America," and all
through the centuries of Spanish dominion the Uni-
versity of San Marcos took the lead. The University
has five faculties — Jurisprudence, Medicine, Literature,
Political Science, and Theology. It would be rash to
affirm that the institution occupies the same place as

284 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

it did in Spanish days. A gentleman who holds high
office in the University, asked whether there was a
faculty of Ancient Languages, replied : " We in Peru
do not study them, for we think it a waste of time
to learn dead languages." About 1580 a printing
press was set up in Lima, and henceforward Peruvian
literature flourished. The National Library was
opened in 1822 with an extremely valuable collec-
tion of books, largely composed of the productions of
the Lima press. In 1881 the Library contained 50,000
volumes, when it was pillaged by the Chilians and the
books dispersed. At the same time the University
buildings were used as cavalry barracks. Through the
exertions of Ricardo Palma, the librarian, a consider-
able number of stolen volumes were recovered, and
now the collection is as large as ever. The Athen-
aeum, a literary club, was founded in 1877. One of
the most valuable scientific institutions in South
America, the Geographical Society, which was founded
in 1888, devotes itself to the advancement of geo-
graphical knowledge, especially in the unexplored
parts of Peru. The Historical Institute was founded
more recently. There are Schools of Engineering,
Mining and Agriculture.

To attempt a survey of Peruvian literature in a page
or two is an impossible task, but some mention ought
to be made of a few of the distinguished writers.
Pablo Antonio Jose Olivade (1725-1803) was a native
of Lima, which he had to leave for Europe owing to
the hostility of the Church. In Madrid and in Paris
he was a very influential figure and was in constant
communication with the Encyclopaedists, for which
reason he had much trouble with the Inquisition and
was obliged to fly from Spain. In spite of his anti-
clerical views his best poetry is religious, but he is
chiefly noteworthy as being a popularizer of eighteenth-

PERU 285

century philosophy in Peru, and thus preparing the
way for the secession from Spain. Another writer on
the same side was Hipolito Unanue, of Arica, who
edited the famous Mercurio Peruano. Among his-
torical writers Mariano Eduardo de Rivero, author of
Antiguedades Peruanas, was conspicuous in the early
part of the nineteenth century, and there were several
noted scientific writers. The greatest Peruvian poet
was Felipe Pardo y Aliaga (1806-68), who, born in
Lima, was brought up in Spain, where he won the
regard of the Spanish poet Lista. He took a consider-
able part in politics. He is a brilliant lyric and narra-
tive poet of the classical type, and also a dramatist ;
his El Espejo de mi tierra was very popular. Another
poet of repute was Carlos Augusto Salaverry, in whose
Diamonds and Pearls are a number of good sonnets.
Manuel Ascensio Segura (1805-71) was also an
accomplished poet, but he is better known for his
witty and brilliant comedies of Peruvian life. Pedro
Paz Soldan (1839-95) was a clever literary critic.
Peruvian literature is not only of the imagination.
Besides jurists and scientists, who have written many
valuable works, Peru is specially distinguished for
her historians. Manuel Mendiburu (1805-85) is the
author of Diccionario Biografico del Peru in sixteen
volumes, and Ricardo Palma, the librarian, published
in 1870 Tradiciones Peruanas in six volumes, which
is one of the most valuable historical works upon
Spanish Peru. Mariano Paz Soldan (1821-86) did
excellent geographical and historical work. Francisco
Garcia Calderon, who died in 1905, was a copious
historical writer, and his Latin America, which has
been translated into English, and deals chiefly with
the intellectual life of the Republics, is almost the only
work of its kind that has appeared in English dress.
This hurried summary will show how distinguished

286 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

is Lima in literature, and in painting and music Peru
has accomplished more than her neighbours.

THE MOUNTAIN RAILWAY

Every one who visits Lima ought to make the trip
up the mountain railway, but he should not fail, as
has been mentioned elsewhere, to take precautions
against mountain-sickness. It is an extremely dis-
agreeable ailment, accompanied by severe headache
and nausea, which is liable to attack those who sud-
denly ascend to great heights, and the best precaution
is to halt for a few days at a more moderate altitude.
Tamboraque (altitude nearly 10,000 feet) may be
recommended for this purpose. The wonders of this
broad-gauge line to Oroya — begun by the famous
Meiggs in 1869 and finished in 1893 at a total cost of
-£5,000,000 — have often been celebrated. The traveller
will leave Lima from the Desemperados station and
pass up the fertile and picturesque valley of the Rimac.
In ij hours the pleasant sanatorium of Chosica, at
an elevation of 3,000 feet, is reached. As the train
mounts to greater heights the aspect of the mountains
becomes bleaker, and (7 hours from Lima) the
traveller reaches Casapalca, which stands in a some-
what dreary valley at an elevation of over 13,000 feet.
Here there is a rich silver-mine under English manage-
ment, with smelting works for refining the ore ; in
busy times as many as 2,000 men are employed — all
Indians. The ore averages 60 ounces to the ton, and
every year the mine turns out i-ij million ounces of
pure silver and 4,000 tons of copper. The managers
of this flourishing mine are most hospitable and
exhibit great courtesy in pointing out the various
processes. Not long after leaving Casapalca the train
passes through the Galera tunnel, at an elevation of
15,665 feet, and, pursuing its route through greener

PERU 287

and more open country, descends to Oroya (12,180
feet). At this town, which does not possess any
special attractions, the Central Railway, operated by
the Peruvian Corporation, ends; the distance from
Lima is slightly more than 120 miles, and the journey
takes about 12 hours, which is a short time consider-
ing the steepness of the gradients. A change has to
be made here to the American line, which runs to
Cerro de Pasco, a further distance of 82 miles, and,
as the height to be climbed is only about 2,000 feet,
the journey can be performed on the same day in a
few hours. Cerro de Pasco (elevation 14,200 feet,
population 8,000) is undoubtedly the highest town
in the world. It is pleasantly situated on a small
plateau, and commands magnificent views of the
eternal snows. Its prosperity is due to a great
American mining syndicate, and its staff, which
includes a few Canadians and Englishmen, is the
most genial imaginable. Their club, where a fine
bowling alley is the chief feature, their base-ball, and,
it may be supposed, the profitable nature of their
occupation, combine with the general feeling that
prevails to make their somewhat isolated life pleasant,
in spite of the rarefied atmosphere. The community
is numerous, for besides the mines of the town there
areasmeltry and coal-mine some 8 or 10 miles distant.
The copper-mines of Cerro de Pasco take a very high
rank in the world's production of that metal. The
latest figures to hand are that the annual output was
50 million pounds of copper and 275,000 tons of
coal ; probably the figures have since been exceeded.
Silver also is obtained. The coal is mostly, if not
entirely, used for smelting, and when the price of
copper is low it is the practice to smelt all the ore
and export nothing but the pure metal, in order to
economize in cost of carriage.

288 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

There is a plan for building a railway from Cerro de
Pasco to Pucalpa, about 4 days' journey by steamer
from Iquitos. It would be unwise to attempt to
reach this Amazonian port by land ; if a visit to it is
desired, it should be included in the Amazonian trip,
when it can easily be reached from Manaos. Iquitos
has a British Consul. Its population is about
10,000. It exports rubber, hides, vegetable ivory,
tobacco and hats. It has a larger trade than any
other Peruvian port except Callao. It is connected
with Liverpool by the Booth Line, and several other
lines of steamers ply the Amazon.

The traveller will probably leave Peru with more
regret than he experiences in parting from any other
Latin American country. Leaving Callao, the com-
fortable steamer of the Pacific Steam Navigation
Company will make its way northwards along the
well-named Pacific coast, and probably a brief halt may
be made at Supe, a little port protected by a small
rocky promontory and backed by the Andes in the
misty distance, whose snowy peaks glitter when they
catch the sun's rays. It is a sugar port.

A far more important sugar port is Salaverry, 256
miles north of Callao ; it serves Truxillo, with which
flourishing old town and Ascope it is joined by a
railway. The means of landing are primitive ; if the
tub which usually serves to haul passengers from the
boat to the jetty happens for any reason to be out of
use, recourse must be had to a rope ladder, and a
considerable swell often adds to <;the excitement.
Pacasmayo and Eten, both sugar ports very similar to
Salaverry, are quickly passed, and the next day the
vessel reaches Paita (160 miles north of Eten) in a
fine bay.

PERU 289

PAITA

STEAMSHIP LINES — As at Callao.

RAILWAYS — There is a railway at Piura, which is 100 miles
inland, and it has been extended to Catacaos, a little farther
inland. There is a project for making a line from Paita to a
port on the Maranon River — a distance of about 430 miles ;
it would be a most useful railway.

HOTEL — Pacifico (about 125. a day).

BRITISH CONSUL — Vice-Consul, H. E. Dawson.

BANK — Banco del Peru.

N EWSPAPERS — Unimportant.

Paita has a population of only 2,000, but the harbour
is one of the best on the Pacific coast. It exports hats,
tobacco and charcoal ; the oil of the Department is
shipped from Talara and Zorritos. It is the fifth port
of the Republic, coming after Callao, Iquitos, Mol-
lendo and Salaverry. Piura (Gran Hotel and Hotel
Colon), with 10,000 inhabitants, is the capital of the
Department of that name. It was the birthplace of
the heroic Admiral Gran. Its chief importance is in
the fact that the finest Peruvian cotton comes from
this district ; the best of all comes from Lechura. Not
far away is Catacaos, celebrated for the so-called
Panama hats. In the Department also are the im-
portant petroleum wells to which allusion has already
been made.

After leaving Paita in the evening the vessel will
next day be steaming through Ecuadorian waters.

There is no lack of books upon Peru ; many of the historical
works are well known, and much has been written of late about
its archaeology. Sir Clement Markham's works are valuable.
Mr. Enock has travelled1 much in the country, and his books
perhaps give the best modern survey of its physical features,
resources and general condition. The following books are all
useful : —

29o A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

Plane, Auguste. Le Perou. Paris, 1903.

Enock, R. C. Peru. London, 1908. South A merican Series.

The Andes and the Amazon, London, 1908.

Walle, Paul. Le Perou economique. Paris, 1908.

Wright, Mrs. M. R. The Old and New Peru. Philadelphia and

London.
Martin, P. F. Peru of the Twentieth Century. London, 1911.

URUGUAY

Railways shown thus

"GEOGRAPHIA "UP 33 STRAND, LONDON. WC

URUGUAY

URUGUAY or Banda Oriental is the smallest of
all the South American Republics, but being well
situated for trade, with old-established and carefully
organized pastoral industries, and possessing in Monte-
video the fifth largest city of the continent, it has an
importance out of proportion to its area and popu-
lation. The area is 72,210 square miles and the
population 1,094,688. It is bounded on the north
and east by Brazil, on the south by the wide estuary
of the River Plate, and is separated from its western
neighbour Argentina by the vast River Uruguay, which
gives its name to the Republic. The pleasant climate,
the fine pastures, the splendid waterways, the natural
adaptability to lines of railway have all contributed to
make the Republic prosperous, and a further stimulus
is fifty millions sterling of British capital which has
been wisely invested in industries and railways. The
south of the country closely resembles the characteristic
Pampas of Argentina, though, unlike them, it is by
no means destitute of stone, which, by supplying cheap
railway material, gives it a great advantage over the
neighbouring Republic. In the centre and north low
ranges of hills\euchillas) begin to rise, but their insig-
nificance is shown by the fact that, although railways
are numerous, there is only one tunnel in the whole
country — at Banada de Rocha, a little to the north of

293

294 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

Tacuarembo, within a hundred miles of the Brazilian
frontier.

The Uruguayan Campo is more pleasant than the
Argentine, being undulating and purple with the
beautiful flos morala. The country is well watered.
The northern part of Uruguay is broken and hilly,
but no height attains an elevation of more than 2,000
feet. The principal ranges are the Cuchilla de Haedo
on the north and the Cuchilla Grande on the south
and east ; the scenery is often picturesque. The
geology of Uruguay resembles that of Rio Grande
do Sul. Sandstone rests upon a foundation of schists
and crystalline rocks, and the plains of the south are,
like those of Argentina, covered with alluvial deposits.

The great River Uruguay never actually enters the
country, being its continuous boundary. It is navig-
able up to Salto, where rapids occur. The chief
tributary of the Uruguay is the Rio Negro, which has
a course of about 280 miles, and with its affluents
drains a large portion of the country. It is navigable
as far as Mercedes. All other rivers in Uruguay are
small.

The grazing-grounds of Uruguay are covered with
Pampa grass as in Argentina, and the flora, for the
most part, closely resembles that of the Argentine
Pampas. Trees are much more numerous than in
the neighbouring Republic, and the most valuable for
timber are the algarrobo, the guayabo, the quebracho,
and the urunday. The willow, poplar, and mimosa
are common. Near the Brazilian frontier trees are
more numerous and vegetation more luxuriant ; palms
grow freely.

The fauna is not now particularly numerous, for most
of the wild animals have been destroyed. The jaguar,
puma, tapir and other common South American
quadrupeds still linger on the Brazilian border, and

URUGUAY 295

the howling monkey is common in this district. The
ostrich (Rhea americana) is seldom seen except upon
the ostrich farms. The burrowing owl is found all
over the Pampas, and the vulture is common. On the
southern coast the rattlesnake may be found.

PRODUCE AND INDUSTRIES

In 1912 the imports were £10,506,383
exports „ £10,947,872

In 1911 Great Britain sent to Uruguay goods valued
at .£2,886,000. In this trade she is far ahead of all
others, Germany being second and the United States
third. Textiles, coal and machinery are the principal
imports. Great Britain's share in the export trade
is less prominent, amounting to .£1,425,000. In 1911
the following were the chief exports : —

Gold dollars

Wool 19,491,000

Hides 9,976,000

Meat and extracts 7,017,000

Sand 1,312,000

Animal fat 1,119,000

Live stock 790,000

Cereals .'. 473,000

The foreign trade of Uruguay is considerably more
than twice as large as it was in 1882. Up-to-date
figures of the trade cannot be obtained. The figures
given above show the vast preponderance of the
pastoral industry. The land devoted to that purpose
is estimated at 37,000,000 acres, while 1,383,800 are
cultivated. The following is the official census of
live stock in 1909, and large as the numbers are, they
are probably understated :—

296 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

Sheep 16,608,617

Cattle 6,827,428

Horses 561,408

Pigs... 93,923

Mules 22,992

Goats 20,428

The industry is chiefly centred in Salto, Paysandu,
and Rio Negro, but it is carried on in all the Depart-
ments. Durazno and Soriano are largely devoted to
sheep. This predominant industry naturally gives
Uruguay a rural character. Paysandu and Salto,
the next largest towns to Montevideo, have only
about 20,000 inhabitants each. All the energies of
the people are devoted to the raising and slaughtering
of live stock, and the great city of Montevideo lives
by handling the products and serving as a centre of
distribution for imports. These features are repro-
duced on a larger and more varied scale in Argentina,
and therefore a detailed description of life upon the
estancia is not necessary. For many years the great
object of the owners of the estancias has been to
improve the live stock, and the indigenous cattle have
advanced rapidly in quality as the result of lavish
importation of Durhams and Herefords. To a smaller
extent Devons and Polled Angus have been intro-
duced. For improving the breed of sheep the Merino,
Lincoln, Shropshire, Hampshire, Romney Marsh, and
Southdown have been imported, and the Merino
makes a particularly fine cross with English breeds
for the purpose of wool. /The export of frozen beef
and mutton, although a young industry, is now on a
large scale. For example, La Frigorifica Uruguaya,
in the Department of Montevideo, has plant capable
of slaughtering daily 200 head of cattle and 2,000
sheep. Another industry is that of jerked beef or
charquif which is exported in large quantities to

URUGUAY 297

the neighbouring Republics. It is merely beef cut
into long thin strips and dried in the sun. Though
readily eaten by South Americans, it is tough and
unappetizing to the stranger. The export of wool is
very large, and mostly goes to France. Although
agriculture is, comparatively speaking, a small industry,
the production of wheat, oats and linseed is rapidly
increasing. In 1912 the production was : —

Cwt.

Wheat 4,766,460

Oats ... ... 529>872

Linseed 446,340

Barley 36»576

Rye 1,102

The Departments of Montevideo, Salto, Canelones,
and Colonia produce wine ; the output is nearly
four million gallons yearly. In the north tobacco
and olives are cultivated. Efforts are being made to
develop the mineral wealth. Gold is found in con-
siderable quantity in Rivera, a northern Department,
and silver, copper and various precious stones are
scattered over the Republic, but the produce of the
various mines has not hitherto been very large.

The roads of Uruguay are much better than
those of its neighbours. The national roads have a
mileage of 2,240, and other roads amount to
3,100 miles. The railways amount to 1,570 miles.
They are all broad gauge (4 feet 8J inches), and all
British built and owned. The Central Uruguay Rail-
way, including the Western, Northern and Eastern
Extensions, is by far the most important company
in Uruguay, having a total length of 970 miles. It
runs north to Durazno and a shorter line runs north-
east to Minas. The Western Extension runs to the
important town of Mercedes on the north-west

298 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

and due west to Colonia Suiza on the coast. The
Northern Extension runs from Durazno to Rivera
on the Brazilian frontier. This is a most important
extension, for it is now possible to journey by rail
from Montevideo to Rio de Janeiro; the Brazilian
town of Sant' Anna adjoins Rivera. The Eastern
Extension starts from Pando, near Montevideo, and
goes north-east to Melo ; at Nico Perez there is a
branch running almost due east to Treinta y Tres.
This brief summary will show what an extensive
and valuable line is the Central Uruguay. The North-
Western of Uruguay is 113 miles in length, running
from Salto, where the Uruguay becomes unnavigable,
to Santa Rosa on the Brazilian frontier. The River
Quarahim separates it from the terminus of the Brazil
Great Southern Railway, and passengers are now
ferried across, but a bridge is being built. The Mid-
land Uruguay Railway, which serves the chief pastoral
district, connects Salto with the capital. It runs by
Paysandu and Algorta to Tres Arboles ; here there
is a branch line of 36 miles to Piedra Sola, on the
Northern Extension. From Tres Arboles it is but
a short distance to Paso de las Toros, and thus the
north-west is linked up with the main system of the
Republic. From Algorta the Midland has a most
important branch of 87 miles, which runs to the
rising town and port of Fray Bentos.

The Uruguay Northern is a short line of 73 miles ;
it runs from Isla de Cabellos to San Eugenio on the
Brazilian frontier. The Uruguay East Coast Railway
is from Olmos, on the line to Minas, eastward to
Maldonado, on the coast. All the railways are pros-
perous, and they have been of incalculable benefit in
developing the resources of the country.

URUGUAY 299

MONEY

The theoretical monetary unit is the gold dollar,
which is worth 43. $d. ; Uruguay is fortunate in having
a fixed rate of exchange. There is, however, no
Uruguayan gold in circulation. The silver peso,
which circulates, weighs 25 grammes. The Bank of
the Republic has the sole right to issue notes. The
metric system of weights and measures is officially in
force, but the old are frequently used, of which the
quintal (slightly over 101 Ib.) is perhaps the most
common.

FINANCE

In 1912-13 the revenue was estimated at ^7,477,085
„ expenditure „ 7,474,930

The customs duties contribute £3,919,970 to the
revenue. The debt is £28,054,796, and the cost of its
service amounts to £1,638,731. The public indebted-
ness is undoubtedly large in proportion to the popula-
tion, but South Australia, with about one-third the
population of Uruguay, has a larger debt. The
financial position of the Republic is undoubtedly high.

CONSTITUTION

The constitution (dating from 1830) possesses few
features of special interest. Executive power is, of
course, in the hands of the President, elected for four
years, who is assisted by seven Ministers. The legisla-
tive power is in the hands of the Senate (19 members)
and the Chamber of Representatives (75). It may be
noted that each Department has one Senator, chosen
for six years by an Electoral College. The government
of Uruguay is tolerably efficient, and the judicial
system has lately been reformed.

300 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

HISTORY

Before the advent of the Spaniards the territory now
known as Uruguay was inhabited by the fierce Charrua
Indians, and it was here and by their hands that the
famous explorer Juan Diaz de Solis met with his
death in 1515. Such history as there is belongs to the
Plate District, of which the seats of government were
Buenos Aires and Asuncion, but there is little to
record, for the Spaniards could not make headway
against the Charruas. Early in the seventeenth cen-
tury Hernandarias, the wise Governor of Buenos Aires,
sent across the river a hundred head of cattle and the
same number of horses and mules. These were turned
loose in Uruguay and multiplied exceedingly. In 1618
missionary work began with the Franciscans, and six
years later Bernardo de Guzman founded a Jesuit
settlement. These circumstances made a beginning in
the direction of prosperity and civilization, but the
progress of the district was hampered by incessant
wars between the Spanish and Portuguese, who both
claimed it. In 1680 the Portuguese daringly established
a military settlement at Colonia, almost opposite to
Buenos Aires, and this place, being constantly lost
and won by either antagonist, played the part of
Berwick between England and Scotland. To counter-
act Portuguese influence the Spaniards on December 24,
1726, founded Montevideo, which, being excellently
placed for trade and having a good harbour, soon
became a flourishing city. In 1776 Ceballos, the
Spanish Viceroy, finally captured Colonia, and Spain
and Portugal came to an agreement as to their bound-
aries. The struggles of the rivals, the advent of the
English (which gave the people of the Plate District a
taste for British trade which they have never lost), and
the beginning of the revolution, which followed almost

URUGUAY 301

immediately, are briefly told under the heading of
Argentina. When the Spanish Royalists were finally
expelled from Montevideo in 1814, the Uruguayan
national hero Artigas, a half-savage but magnanimous
gaucho, found himself greatly embarrassed, on the one
hand, by Argentina, which desired to incorporate
Uruguay, and on the other by Brazil, which marched
troops into his territory on the specious pretext of
putting an end to anarchy. After a fierce struggle
of ten years the Brazilians prevailed and Artigas was
obliged to seek an asylum with Francia, the tyrant of
Paraguay, where he ended his days. But his spirit
was not dead. Uruguay chafed under a Portuguese
(Brazilian) yoke. A little band of thirty-three (the
Trienta y Tres), who have given their name to a
Department, succeeded in securing Argentine inter-
vention, and after several years of war the Brazilians
were driven out. Uruguay became independent in
1829, and in 1830 drew up a constitution which
still remains substantially in force. Unfortunately
Lavallega and Rivera, the two generals who had won
their country's independence, turned their arms against
each other, and a long period of anarchy and faction
fights ensued, of which the evil tradition is not yet
extinct. Darwin, who saw much of Uruguay at this
time, says : " Police and justice are quite inefficient.
If a man who is poor commits a murder, and is taken,
he will be imprisoned, and perhaps even shot ; but if
he is rich and has friends, he may rely on it no very
severe consequence will ensue. It is curious that the
most respectable inhabitants of the country invariably
assist a murderer to escape ; they seem to think that the
individual sins against the Government, and not against
the people. A traveller has no protection besides his
firearms ; and the constant habit of carrying them is
the main check to more frequent robberies." He also

302 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

draws a dark picture of the corruption of justice, but
was not unhopeful of the future of the country, remark-
ing : " The very general toleration of foreign religions,
the regard paid to the means of education, the freedom
of the press, the facilities offered to all foreigners, and
especially, as I am bound to add, to every one possess-
ing the humblest pretensions to science, should be
recollected with gratitude by those who have visited
Spanish South America."

It would be unprofitable to go into the monotonous
details of barren wars, but the establishment of the two
historic parties, the Colorados and the Blancos, under
circumstances reminiscent of the Wars of the Roses,
must be noted. In 1835 Rivera adopted red badges
for his troops, while his then rival, Oribe, gave his men
white favours, and, under the names of Reds and
Whites, the two parties have maintained a fierce
struggle ever since. Broadly viewed, the Blancos are
countrymen and the Colorados townsmen, but this is
not a clean-cut distinction, and there is no distinction
in principles ; it is really a contest of Ins against Outs.
The Colorados have been "in" since 1864, and the
periodical efforts of the Blancos to remove them give
rise to frequent " revolutions," which, however, are not
very terrible affairs. Foreigners are never molested,
although indirectly they suffer loss by the dislocation
of the labour market and the interruption of business.
The progress of the Republic was retarded by its share
in the great war with Paraguay in the sixties, but after
this the development of communications with the Old
World and the cessation of foreign wars brought about
an increase in trade and prosperity which no faction
fights could check. Turbulence, however, did not
disappear. In 1897 President Borda was assassinated
in the streets of Montevideo, and the murderer received
a sentence of two years' imprisonment, on the ground

URUGUAY 303

that his offence was political. In 1903 the Colorados
and Blancos engaged in civil war and much blood was
shed. President Williman (1907-11) had to sup-
press a small Blanco "revolution" in 1910, but he was
able to report a condition of peace and prosperity
when on March i, 1911, he handed over charge to his
successor, Don Jose Batlle y Ordonez. This gentleman
is not new to office, having already served as President
from 1903 to 1907. Within the last year or two there
has been considerable labour trouble, but the material
prosperity of Uruguay is rapidly advancing, and there
is good hope that political conditions will show a like
improvement.

MONTEVIDEO

STEAMSHIP LINES — These are practically the same as at Buenos
Aires ; some of the big steamers pass it, but arrangements
can generally be made to be conveyed from Buenos Aires
hither with little loss of time. Montevideo is 7,030 miles
from England.

RAILWAYS — Montevideo is, like Buenos Aires, the railway centre
of the country, but the Central Uruguay Railway is the
only line that has its terminus here. Colon, the inland
pleasure resort, is reached by the electric tramcar, and the
same remark applies to the bathing places of Pocitos and
Ramirez.

HOTELS— Oriental, Calle Piedras, 135 (los. to 255. a day) ; Pyra-
mides, Calle Sarandi, 289 (about 125. 6d. a day) ; Central,
Calle 25 de Mayo, 239 ; Grand Hotel, Calle Sarandi, 325-7 ;
Palacio Florida Hotel, Calle Florida and Mercedes ;
Splendid Hotel, Calle Buenos Aires, 253 ; Lanata,
Plaza Matriz. In the neighbourhood there are two hotels
which are open in the summer only — the Parque Hotel at
Parque Urbano, Ramirez, and the Pocitos Hotel at Pocitos.
The hotels of Montevideo are of fair quality ; the Palacio
Florida is perhaps the most satisfactory.

BRITISH CONSUL — The British Envoy Extraordinary, Minister
Plenipotentiary, and Consul-General is Mr. A. Mitchell
Innes. The Naval Attache is Captain Heathcoat Salusbury
Grant, R.N. ; and the Military Attache, Colonel Sir E.-J. B.

304 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

Grogan. Vice-Consuls : H. C. Ricardo, Major De S.

Dobree, C. E. R. Rowland.
BANKS— London and River Plate, London and Brazilian Bank,

Anglo-South American Bank, British Bank of South

America, Banco Espanol del Rio de la Plata.
NEWSPAPERS — El Telegrafo Maritime, Dia El Siglio Maritimo,

Diario del Plata, Montevideo Times.

There is an Anglican Church at Montevideo, dedicated to the
Holy Trinity, in the Calle Santa Teresa.

Montevideo, with a population of 325,000, is situated
on the eastern side of a fine bay and looks across the
water to the Cerro, on the western side, the high hill
which dominates the landscape and gave its name to the
city. Montevideo is less than two hundred years old ;
reference has already been made to its history. The
best part of the town is modern, and is laid out in
the usual Latin American fashion, with plazas or
squares and long straight streets intersecting one
another at right angles. The traveller will find the
public cabs indifferent and extortionate, and this
defect must be attributed to the excellent and cheap
service of the electric tramcars, which run to all parts
of the city, suburbs, and neighbouring places, and
makes the competition of horse-drawn vehicles hope-
less. Montevideo has 140 miles of tramlines. The
central square is the Plaza Matriz, which contains
the Club Uruguay, of which most of the members
are Uruguayans, and the English Club. There is a
large English colony in Montevideo, which possesses
a school arid a hospital of its own.

The Cathedral, in the Plaza de la Constitucion, is
a large building with two lofty towers on the side of
the fagade, and a huge dome covered with green,
blue and yellow tiles. There is a handsome fountain
in the middle of the square ; but the only other notable

URUGUAY 305

building, apart from the Cathedral, is the stone Town
Hall, which goes back to Spanish times.

The Plaza de la Independencia is a magnificent
square in the centre of the town, surrounded by
colonnaded buildings, in which most of the Govern-
ment offices are located.

The Prado, a fine park, is half an hour from the
centre of the town by tram, and a pleasant excursion
(8 miles) may also be made to Colon, where the
eucalyptus avenues are noticeable. But the favourite
resort of the people of Montevideo is Pocitos, a small
seaside place connected with the capital by an
electric tramline, whither numbers go in the season
both from the Uruguayan capital and from Buenos
Aires for the sea-bathing. Montevideo is very like a
smaller Buenos Aires, and its " lions " are exhausted
in a proportionately shorter time.

Montevideo is a great trading centre, and all the
other Uruguayan towns are dwarfs in comparison.
English enterprise in railways, tramways, and the
meat trade is conspicuous, but it is needless to say
that the methods of our merchants are unfavourably
compared with those of Germany, and, as competition
from that country and the United States is becom-
ing yearly keener, it may be well to run the risk of
telling a very old story by quoting from a Consular
Report issued a few years ago. The writer complains
that British firms pay insufficient attention to details,
and adds : " In tenders for public works German
firms study the specifications with minute care, and
tender for every item, leaving nothing in doubt,
besides drawing up their applications in so clear
and simple a manner as to give the minimum labour
in examination and the maximum of facility in com-
parison to the authorities who deal with them ; where-
as British tenderers sometimes merely quote a lump

306 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

sum, ignoring all details, and often, when details are
given, the price of many items is left vague, ' as may
be agreed upon.' When goods are imported into the
country from Germany, France, the United States of
America, etc., a detailed statement in Spanish of
the contents of each package is generally furnished,
with metric weights and measures, which facilitates
their rapid examination and dispatch ; whereas British
firms as a rule content themselves with the brief
statement, 'Case containing machinery,' or ' hard-
ware,' etc., leaving to the custom-house officials
the task of working out details and calculations.
Then, again, as regards languages, the British
commercial traveller, armed with British catalogues
and price-lists (although I note with pleasure that
some are now printed in Spanish), knows no language
but his own, but the German invariably speaks Spanish
and English, and he has carefully studied beforehand
the needs of the market which he is visiting and the
financial position of the merchants." It must be
remembered that American (and doubtless German)
critics make similar complaints of their countrymen
and hold up British enterprise to admiration, and also
that the latest figures show that the United Kingdom
is holding her own against Germany, but there is
no doubt that British merchants often lose ground
through slovenly methods, and this advice, which,
mutatis mutandis, consular offices all over the world
have been sending out for many years, ought to be
laid to heart by all who intend to do business in South
America.

Montevideo is an extremely clean city and enjoys
an excellent climate. The mean temperature is about
62° Fahr., and the annual rainfall is 44 inches. There
is a good supply of water from the Santa Lucia River.
Montevideo is by far the chief port of the Republic.

URUGUAY 307

The bay was too shallow to allow large ships to
approach within 2j miles, so new harbour works
were commenced in 1901 and are now completed.
They consist of two long breakwaters and a basin and
docks ; the channel was dredged, and will now admit
vessels drawing 24^ feet. There are three large dry
docks — Jackson and Cibil's, Gounouilhon, and Maua —
and their length is 450, 300, and 275 feet respectively.
They were built between 1869 and 1874. In 1912,
5,562 vessels of 10,593,958 tons entered the port of
Montevideo, and 5,543 vessels of 10,535,603 tons
cleared.

The University is situated in the Calle Uruguay ;
it has faculties of Law, Medicine, Letters, Mathematics,
and Engineering. Uruguay cannot claim any great
eminence in literature and learning ; the fact that it
is a comparatively modern country may account for
this deficiency. Though perhaps inferior to all South
American countries except Paraguay, its history is not,
like that Republic, by any means a complete blank.
The most considerable literary man was Francisco
Acuna de Figueroa (1790-1862), who was a facile
poet. Another esteemed poet, Adolf o Berro (1819-41),
who was cut off by an untimely death, wrote indignant
verse against slavery. Jose Enrique Rodo is an able
essayist. But the achievements of the Republic have
hitherto been small. There is in Montevideo a good
National Museum, which has a useful collection of
Indian weapons ; a gallery is devoted to Uruguayan
painters, and considerable progress has been made
in this art.

It is extremely easy to visit any place in Uruguay
owing to the excellent railway facilities, but there is
really little to be seen ; at least the estancias, which are
the one sight of the country, will probably be more
conveniently viewed in Argentina. There are two

3o8 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

towns which are not uncommonly visited — Salto and
Paysandu.

SALTO

STEAMER COMMUNICATIONS— Many steamers, including the
Mihanovich, connect Salto with Buenos Aires, Montevideo,
and other ports. Above Salto the River Uruguay is un-
navigable for nearly 100 miles. Salto is 306 miles by water
from Buenos Aires.

RAILWAYS — Salto is served by the Midland Railway, which joins
the Central system at Paso de los Toros. It is 394 miles
from Montevideo by land.

HOTELS — Americano, Concordia, Oriental.

BRITISH CONSUL— Vice-Consul, J. J. Armstrong.

NEWSPAPER — Ecos del Progreso.

Salto is a mean-looking town ; its chief feature is its
great saladeros. It is the capital of the Department
of the same name, and is the centre of a district
completely devoted to pastoral industries. The town
is lighted with electricity. There is a population of
about 20,000.

PAYSANDU.

STEAMER COMMUNICATIONS — Like Salto, various lines ply to

Buenos Aires, Montevideo and other ports.
RAILWAYS — Paysandu is served by the Midland Railway, which

joins the Central system at Paso de los Toros.
HOTELS — Small.

BRITISH CONSUL— The Vice-Consulship is vacant.
NEWSPAPERS — Unimportant.

Paysandu, with a population of 20,000, is the capital
of a Department of the same name. It was founded
in 1771 by Father (Pay) Sandu, who was engaged in
converting the Charrua Indians. At one time it was
a manufacturing place of some importance, but its
prosperity was destroyed in the wars of the mid-
nineteenth century. In these troubled times two

URUGUAY 309

Scotchmen, Mundell and McEachan, held the position
of Intendente, and did good service in pacifying the
country. There are many estancias in the neighbour-
hood, which is a rich pastoral district. Paysandu is
famous in the meat trade, especially for tongues.

While in this neighbourhood, it is probable that the
traveller will wish to visit Fray Bentos, one of the
principal seats of the great Lemco industry. It may
be noted that Salto, Paysandu, and Fray Bentos can
be visited quite as easily from Buenos Aires as from
Montevideo. Fray Bentos, which is a rising place,
was the first scene of the operations of Liebig, in 1865,
and although this factory is now surpassed by that of
Colon and Entre Rios, Fray Bentos is of immense
importance, and slaughters not much less than 200,000
animals yearly. By far the favourite animal here is
the Hereford, although some Aberdeen Angus are
imported.

As has been said, there are few places of striking
interest in Uruguay. There will be little temptation
to visit Revira or any of the frontier towns, but possibly
occasion may be taken to visit the pretty little towa of
Mercedes, on the Rio Negro. An interesting place in
this neighbourhood is Colonia Suiza, near Mai Abrigo,
devoted to dairy-farming, with a population of 4,000
Swiss. Mr. Koebel says : "In the three Spanish-
speaking Republics of Argentina, Uruguay and Para-
guay that, together with Southern Bolivia, formed the
old River Plate provinces, exist distinct and important
settlements of Swiss, Austrians, Poles, Australians,
Welsh, Boers and Jews, besides numerous lesser
groups of many nationalities beyond. Within the
frontiers of each perfect liberty obtains to continue
existence as it is led in the country from which the
immigrants came, and thus each is provided with
its own churches and institutions."

310 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

This colony was- first planted in 1862.

On the whole, there is much to be said for the plan
of making Buenos Aires the headquarters from the
first, and visiting Montevideo and other Uruguayan
towns thence. It would, however, be a mistake to
omit Uruguay altogether.

Till recently Uruguay was treated somewhat cavalierly by
travellers, who gave it but a hasty glance before passing on to
the description of Argentina. Now it has the honour of an
excellent work to itself in the South American Series by
Mr. Koebel. Mr. Martin's book contains some information about
the Republic.

Martin, Percy F. Through Five Republics. London, 1905.
Koebel, W. H. Uruguay. London, 1911. South American Series.

VENEZUELA

THE Republic of Venezuela, a large and imperfectly
explored country of about 365,000 square miles,
is bounded on the north by the Caribbean Sea, on the
east by British Guiana, on the south by Brazil, and on
the west by Colombia. The population a few years
ago was estimated at 2,661,569, the increase by im-
migration being insignificant. There are a Federal
District, thirteen States, and five Territories, and more
than 300,000 of the population are full-blooded Indians,
of whom about a quarter are absolutely independent.
In contrast with Colombia the urban population is
very small. Venezuela falls into three natural divisions
— the northern uplands along the coast, the central
plains or llanos, and the south-eastern uplands. The
coast region is the agricultural zone, where almost
every product can be raised according to the elevation ;
here such towns as Venezuela possesses are to be
found. The vast plains, or llanos, extend from the
Parima Mountains to the Orinoco and Apure Rivers ;
here cattle-breeding is the main industry. The forest
extends from the Upper Orinoco to the borders of
Brazil. " Here the native Indian has hitherto been
comparatively free from the intrusions of the white
settler, and still finds a congenial habitat in hunting-
grounds that are seldom trespassed upon. The com-
mercial products of this frontier region consist of
copaiba, serrapeas, or l Tonca beans/ vanilla, mahogany

313

314 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

and other cabinet woods." x As is natural in an
equatorial country, the lower levels are thinly peopled.
The hot zone, at elevations below 2,000 feet, has a
mean temperature of 77° Fahr., and is, for the most
part, unhealthy. The temperate zone, at elevations of
from 2,000 to 6,000 feet, has a charming climate, with
a temperature ranging from 59° in December and
January to 77° in April and May. Above these heights
the climate is cold, and in the Sierra de Merida the
region of perpetual snow is reached.

The inhabitants show great racial variety. Among
the aborigines, who, for the most part, are totally
uncivilized, the Barre, Carib, and Arawaz stocks are
chiefly represented. In the uplands are to be found
families of pure Spanish descent — Basque or Catalonian
— but the bulk of the civilized inhabitants are Mestizos
(mixed Indian and Spanish), and they are seldom
recruited by fresh European blood, for the experience
of the German colony, which in 1870 was roughly
dispossessed, has not been encouraging to immigrants.
The want of population has always been and will long
continue to be a serious handicap to the progress of
Venezuela.

The geology of Venezuela falls into three districts:

(1) the country south of the Orinoco, which consists
chiefly of granite, gneiss, and other crystalline rocks ;

(2) the llanos, which are covered by deposits of the
Quaternary age ; (3) the mountains of the north, of
which the oldest rocks are granite and crystalline.

The Orinoco may be said to monopolize the whole
river system of Venezuela. Though not of remarkable
length, only a limited number of rivers surpass it in
the volume of its waters, and it is said to have 436
tributaries. Some are fed from the Guiana highlands,
namely, the Caroni-Paragua, Aro, Caura, Cuchivero,
1 Scruggs, p. 224.

VENEZUELA 315

Stiapure, Sipapo and Ventuari ; while the Suata,
Manapere and Guaritico come from the mountains
in the north, and the Apure, Uricana, Arauca,
Capanaparo, Meta, Vichada and Guiviare have their
sources in the Andes. These are themselves great
rivers with considerable tributaries. The Orinoco
flows into the sea through a vast delta, which has
an area of 7,000 square miles. The following figures
will show the greatness of the Orinoco : —

Drainage area 364,000 square miles.

Length 1,450 miles.

Length of navigable water ... 4,300 „

Mean discharge per second ... 500,000 cubic feet.

At present this magnificent river runs almost entirely
to waste. There are steamers from Port of Spain,
Trinidad, to Ciudad Bolivar, the chief river port of
the Republic, but navigation is greatly neglected ; if
attention were paid to dredging and to clearing away
the shoals and bars, it would be possible to develop
the resources of Venezuela. The principal river flow-
ing due north is the Unane. The lakes are not of
great importance ; there are numerous sheets of salt
water about the Maracaibo Lagoon. The Lake of
Valencia is a considerable sheet of fresh water.

The flora of Venezuela is large ; many of the
vegetable products (as cocoa) are of great economic
value, and there are many salutary medicinal plants.
As the country is half covered with forest the timber,
as might be supposed, is valuable. The mora is a
fine tree of great size with good timber, and the caoba,
or mahogany, grows extensively. Ebony and lignum
vitse are common in the State of Zulia. Something
will be said about the vegetable products of Venezuela
when its resources are enumerated.

The fauna resembles that of Brazil and other

316 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

neighbouring countries. Such animals as the jaguar
and puma are common. There are several species
of deer but not in any great variety. The monkey
is represented in great variety and the spectacled bear
is found in the Andes. The otter is common. The
crocodile and the cayman I abound in the rivers.
The huge anaconda lurks in -the marshes and by the
rivers, while the less formidable boa keeps to the
woods. As is the case with all parts of tropical South
America, the rattlesnake is common in Venezuela.

COMMERCE, PRODUCTS AND INDUSTRIES

There are few countries, even in South America,
which are more imperfectly developed than Venezuela.
This is largely due to badness of communication.
As we have seen, the advantages of the Orinoco are
neglected, the roads are bad, and the railways are few.
The most important line is the Bolivar Railway Com-
pany which runs from Tucaras to Barquisimento, with
a short branch to Aroa ; the total length is only about
100 miles. The Gran Ferrocarril de Venezuela is
slightly longer and runs from Caracas to Valencia,
while the Venezuela Central Railway connects the
capital with Santa Lucia. Something will be said of
these railways under the headings of the towns. There
are about 560 miles of line in operation.

In 1911 the imports were ^3,774,665
„ „ exports „ £4,654,996

1 The cayman (Alligator palpebrosus) is the South American
alligator. Alligators are distinguished from crocodiles by the
shortness and roundness of their muzzle and the inferior develop-
ment of the web between their toes. The North American
alligator (Alligator Indus') has a broad snout, divided nostril, and
partially webbed toes. The cayman has an undivided nostril
and still more rudimentary webbing about the feet.

VENEZUELA 317

The chief imports were cotton textiles, flour, drugs,
rice, butter, wine, machinery and thread. The prin-
cipal countries in the import trade were : —

Bolivars

Great Britain 27,222,098

United States 27,044,344

Germany 16,559,302

France 9,624,684

Holland 6,853,731

Spain ... 3.452,593

Italy ... 3*094,971

Up till this year the United States was ahead of our
nation. In the export trade the following countries
chiefly figure : —

Bolivars

United States 36,725,090

France 31,928,351

Holland 22,120,264

Great Britain 10,714,031

The principal articles of export are :—

Bolivars

Coffee 59,016,625

Cocoa 18,659,956

Balata 12,689,473

Hides 6,049,127

Gold ... ... 3,337,886

Goat and kid skins 2,654,492

Rubber 2,667,910

Aigrettes 1,605,423

Asphalt 1,386,184

Copper ore 1,310,400

Coffee, it will be seen, is by far the largest product.
It grows best at heights between 2,000 and 7,000 feet ;
the Venezuela coffee is superior to that of Brazil.
Cocoa is indigenous to Venezuela, and the Republic

3i8 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

produces about 8,000 tons annually, some of which is
the best in the world. It is largely grown in the
neighbourhood of Caracas, and also about the Orinoco
Delta and in the region of Maracaibo. Rubber of
various kinds is raised in large quantities. Balata,
which is a species of gutta-percha, is more largely
produced than rubber proper. It is chiefly procured
from the State of Bolivar and the territory which has
the somewhat misleading name of Amazonas. The
capital of the latter, San Fernando de Atabapo, is a
village of about 400 inhabitants. Both these regions
are less known than they were in the eighteenth cen-
tury, most of the South American Republics having
"progressed backwards" since they became indepen-
dent. Mr. Dalton J says : " The Ventuari is the largest
Venezuelan tributary of the Upper Orinoco, yet the
300 miles or so of its course are practically un-
known to Europeans.* As far as its valley has been
explored, alternating forests and savannas have been
found. Across there in colonial times there was once
a track uniting Esmeralda directly with the Lower
Orinoco by way of the Caura ; the route lay up the
Padamo and then across the head-waters of the
Ventuari to the source of the Erewato, a tributary of
the Caura. Along this road there was a chain of forts,
but the cruelties of the soldiers at last led the Indians
to unite for their extermination, and Humboldt tells us
that every man in their 5o-league-long chain of forts
was slain one night in 1776. The Indians told him
that by this road it was 10 days from Esmeralda
to the head-waters of the Ventuari, and 2 days
thence to the mouth of the Erewato." Some day
the vast natural wealth of these regions may be
utilized.

Pastoral products form a considerable item in the
1 Venezuela, pp. 231-2.

VENEZUELA 319

export trade. The live stock has been thus esti-
mated : —

Oxen 2,004,257

Goats 1,667,272

Pigs 1,618,214

Horses 191,079

Asses 312,810

Sheep 176,668

Mules 89,186

The llanos form a vast expanse ; they vary in utility
as cattle-ranches according to the water they receive
from the affluents of the Orinoco. The following
description shows them at their best : " After wandering
for nearly three hours over this monotonous landscape
without compass, and guided only by certain landmarks
known to the vaqueanos, we came unexpectedly upon
the borders of the Mesa, which commands an exten-
sive view of the lower savannas. As if by magic the
dreary scene changed to one of the most glorious
panoramas in existence. At our feet lay a beautiful
expanse of meadow, fresh and smooth as the best
cultivated lawn, with troops of horses and countless
herds of cattle dispersed all over the plain. Several
glittering ponds, alive with all varieties of aquatic
birds, reflected upon their limpid surface the broad-
leaved crowns of the fan-palms, towering above
verdant groves of laurel, amyris, and elm-like robles.
Farther beyond, and as far as the eye could reach, the
undulating plain appeared like a petrified ocean, after
the sweeping tempest." I

Before the revolution the cattle of Venezuela were
far more numerous than they have ever been since,
but in the course of the long war with the Spaniards
most of the animal wealth of the country was destroyed.

1 R. Paez. Travels and Adventures, pp. 27-8.

320 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

The llaneros were among the bravest of the troops
composing Bolivar's victorious army. Subsequently
civil wars retarded the recovery of the industry, and,
though it employs 60,000 persons, it is carried on
unscientifically. With more capital and better com-
munications the industry should do well. A factory
for killing cattle and chilling meat has been established
at Puerto Cabello, and doubtless an export trade will
soon be built up.

Sugar can be grown anywhere in Venezuela ; the
chief districts are Maracaibo and Caracas. Here again
the methods are antiquated and most of the produce
is crude sugar (papelon), which is eaten by the peasants.
The industry has lately suffered a heavy blow by the
establishment of a Government monopoly in rum.
Tobacco and cotton are grown, but the small pro-
duction might be greatly increased.

The mineral wealth of the Republic is very large.
Gold is found chiefly in the Yuruari Territory. It is
the commodity which first gave fame to Venezuela,
and the most noted goldfield is El Callao, which
in 1886 produced 177,000 ounces of gold, but it is
now little worked. A good many gold-mines are
still at work and the produce remains large. Copper
ore exists in many places, and there is a large mine
in the State of Yaracuy. Silver and iron also occur,
and much salt is mined. Asphalt is a very important
product, and comes principally from the Bermudez
Lake, near the Guanoco River. In 1908 over 37,588
tons of asphalt were exported.

The manufactures of Venezuela are small. There
are several cotton factories at Valencia, chocolate is
made in Caracas, and at both these towns, as well
as at Puerto Cabello and Maracaibo, there are
breweries. Matches are made for the Government
monopoly. Small as these manufactures are, they

VENEZUELA 321

would not exist at all but for extravagant protection,
which enables them to make a profit. Duties in
Venezuela are above the South American average,
which is not low ; and it is officially reported that
there is no demand for any but the most costly brands
of champagne, the duty being so high that the cost
of the article is insignificant in comparison.

Venezuela is industrially backward, but probably
less so than Colombia, and there are certainly pro-
mising opening for capitalists.

CURRENCY

The bolivar is equal to the franc. The coinage
is fortunately on a gold basis, and some gold and
silver is in circulation. The British sovereign is
received at a small premium.

CONSTITUTION

The constitution dates from 1909. The President
is elected by Congress for four years and is assisted
by a Council of Government of ten members, one
from every two States. There is also a Cabinet of
seven members. Congress consists of a Senate of
40 members and a Chamber of Deputies to which
one member is returned for every 35,000 inhabitants.
Venezuela presents several points in which its con-
stitution differs from the average South American
Constitution, and further it is a federation ; the States
are autonomous.

FINANCE

In 1912-13 the estimated revenue was $2,500,000 bolivars
„ „ expenditure „ 52,500,000 „

The debt of Venezuela has given much trouble to

Y

322 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

foreign creditors, but a more or less satisfactory
arrangement was made in 1905. Considerable reduc-
tions have been made in the debt of late years. The
external debt amounts to 126,711,537 bolivars, the
internal debt to 62,587,001 bolivars.

HISTORY

In 1498 Columbus on his third voyage sighted the
coast of Venezuela, and the next year Alonso de Ojeda
made his way into the Lagoon of Maracaibo, where,
being struck by the likeness of the shallow coastal
waters to Venice, he called the place Venezuela, or
Little Venice — a name which gradually attached itself
to the whole region. For many years the coast was
a prey to adventurers, whose cruelties were so great as
to scandalize public opinion in Spain ; but gradually
more responsible settlers penetrated inland, founding
Valencia in 1555 and Caracas in 1567, near to which
the port of La Guiara was soon established, and
Venezuela became an important place for trade (chiefly
contraband) and for the legend that its hinterland
contained El Dorado, a land where gold was the
commonest of metals. The story was believed by
Sir Walter Raleigh, who, as is well known, made an
attack upon the Spaniards in hope of gaining gold.
Many buccaneers were also attracted to Venezuela,
and Caracas, Maracaibo and other towns were
periodically sacked. A more severe blow to the
prosperity of the district than these casual depreda-
tions was the war of the Spanish Succession at the
beginning of the eighteenth century, from which
the Venezuelan trade took a long time to recover.
Hampered both by the restrictive policy of Spain
and their dependency upon the Viceroyalty of New
Granada (Colombia), the Creoles became discontented,

VENEZUELA 323

and in 1777 the system of monopoly was abolished
and Venezuela elevated to the dignity of a Captaincy-
General. But these concessions came too late to
avert the revolutionary spirit which, in the end,
detached practically all the colonies from Spain.

In 1808, when news came of the expulsion of
Ferdinand of Spain by Napoleon's orders, the Vene-
zuelans refused to accept French rule and for a
long time wavered between loyalty to Spain and
independence. Eventually Venezuela was the first
of all the South American Republics to declare its
independence, which step was taken on July 5, 1811.
But there was a strong reaction, and Monteverde,
fighting vigorously for Spain, had practically, sup-
pressed the revolution, when Bolivar, the famous
general and patriot of Caracas, came upon the scene.
The story of his wonderful struggle and his triumph
over apparently insuperable obstacles belongs to the
history of the world. It will here suffice to say that
on June 23, 1821, with the help of the British legion,
he shattered the power of Spain in the decisive battle
of Carabobo, and in November, 1823, with the capture
of Puerto Cabello the last vestige of Spanish dominion
vanished from Venezuela. Bolivar had hoped for
a great Colombian Union, including Colombia, Vene-
zuela, and Ecuador, and this combination existed
for a time, but the Liberator's hopes of order and
freedom were disappointed. Venezuela withdrew from
the Union in 1829, and shortly afterwards Bolivar,
the greatest of all Venezuelans, died a disappointed
man, full of gloomy forebodings for his country and
the other Republics which he had helped to make
independent. For some time Venezuela enjoyed
moderate tranquillity, principally under the guidance
of the soldier patriot, General Paez, but in 1846
civil war broke out and trouble continued up to 1873,

324 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

when Guzman Blanco became Dictator and ruled
with a mixture of tyranny and wisdom till 1889.
Although he amassed a great fortune by oppressive
taxation, he kept the country at peace, maintained
order, built 500 miles of railways, and gave the
Republic the blessing of a stable currency, which it
still enjoys. His long dictatorship was undoubtedly
beneficial. The people, however, having grown tired
of his paternal rule, overthrew it, and after another
period of confusion the notorious Castro came to
the front in 1899, and in 1902 was elected President-
Dictator for six years. He did not succeed in per-
petuating his rule like Guzman, for, having embroiled
the Republic with various foreign Powers and raised
many domestic enemies, he was obliged to retire to
Europe in 1908, and his efforts to reinstate himself
were unsuccessful. Since his retirement affairs have
been tolerably tranquil. A new constitution was
formulated in 1909, and the next year General Juan
Vicente Gomez was elected President.

In recent history the most important of Venezuelan
events was the boundary dispute with England. In
the latter part of the nineteenth century there were
considerable gold discoveries between the Orinoco and
the Essequibo, which were in British Guiana. Vene-
zuela, however, objected to see the territory exploited
and policed by the Colonial Government, and declared
that it belonged to her, on the ground that Spain in
1845 had acknowledged the independence of Venezuela
and had renounced in her favour all rights formerly
enjoyed by Spain in the territory known as the
Captaincy-General of Venezuela. This claim would
have included the whole colony of British Guiana.
The Government of British Guiana, of course, main-
tained its rights, and considerable friction arose
between Venezuela and England, in the course

VENEZUELA 325

of which the latter made larger claims under the
Schomburgk line. In 1895 came the interference
of the United States, which led to dangerous tension.
It was not a proper subject for arbitration, seeing that,
except for a mere fraction, all the territory in dispute
clearly belonged to British Guiana. However, the
matter was referred to a tribunal of two English, two
United States, and one Russian jurists, and in 1899
the decision was given. The tribunal decided upon
a boundary line that was nearly identical with the
Schomburgk, although Venezuela received a small
piece of territory west of that line. The event was
no doubt satisfactory, but to arbitrate on territory
that was indubitably part of the Colony was a bad
precedent.

LA GUIARA

STEAMSHIP LINES — The Harrison and Leyland Line maintains
a 10 days' service from Liverpool to La Guiara. They then
proceed to New York. The French Compagnie Trans-
atlantique calls both on out and home voyages to Colon.
Other foreign lines are the German Hamburg-America, the
Italian La Veloce, the Spanish Compania Transatlantica
and a Dutch line. The coasting trade is carried on by
Venezuelan lines, the chief being the Nacional. Passengers
from England can go by the Royal Mail to Trinidad and
then proceed to La Guiara by a foreign line. The United
States Red " D " Line has a fortnightly service to New York.
The coasting trade is in the hands of native vessels. The
distance to England is about 4,760 miles, and the voyage by
way of Trinidad takes about 21 days.

RAILWAYS — There is a line — La Guiara and Caracas Railway
Company — to Caracas, 28 miles in length. The fare is zos.
There is also a short line of about 3 miles to Macuto.

HOTEL— There is one fairly good hotel at 8s. a day.

BRITISH CONSUL — Vice-Consul, M. Brewer.

BANKS — Banco de Venezuela, Banco de Caracas.

NEWSPAPER— El Heraldo.

This little town, with a population of 8,500, is the

326 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

port of Caracas, the capital of Venezuela. The best
time for a visit is between December and April. The
temperature (Fahr.) is given as 91° (maximum), 71-60°
(minimum), and 79° (mean), but these figures are
probably flattering, as La Guiara has the reputation
of being one of the hottest places on the Atlantic
coast. It is, however, healthy, and malaria seldom
occurs. Before 1887 there was practically no harbour;
it was an open roadstead, exposed to the Atlantic swell.
An English company built a breakwater more than
2,000 feet long, under whose shelter passengers are
now landed without much difficulty. It is second
among Venezuelan ports, Puerto Cabello being the
first. At Macuto, a small seaside resort about 3
miles distant, which is connected with the port by
a short railway, there is a fair hotel. The heat is
least oppressive between December and April.

CARACAS

RAILWAYS — The La Guiara and Caracas Railway connects the
port with the capital. A correspondent of the Times recently
wrote : " It is now possible, if the arrival at La Guiara takes
place in the early morning, to hurry through the Customs,
and to go forward to Caracas by the first train at 8 a.m.
Though the distance thither is only about 8 miles as the
crow flies, the narrow-gauge railway, the property of an
English company, traverses no less than 28 miles in accom-
plishing the journey. The track, which winds in and out
with steep gradients and sharp curves against the mountain-
side, and glides through numerous tunnels and over terraces,
piled one above the other, cut through the rocks, presents
many features of interest, and when half the distance has been
covered, La Guiara is seen lying apparently just below the
line. Silla, which is the highest peak in the mountain range,
is stated to be 9,000 feet in height, but the site of the city
lies at a height of 3,000 feet, on a moderate slope facing the
south, far below the summit." The Gran Ferrocarril de
Venezuela also connects Caracas with Valencia, a distance

VENEZUELA 327

of about 1 10 miles. The Central Railway of Venezuela has

a line of 48 miles to Santa Teresa.
HOTELS— The Klindt is the best hotel in Caracas ; the charges

are about 125. 6d. a day.
BRITISH CONSUL — British Minister, F. D. Harford ; Vice-Consul,

G. G. Smith.
BANKS — Commercial Bank of Spanish America, Banco de

Venezuela, Banco de Caracas.
NEWSPAPERS — El Tunipo, El Universal, Gaceta Official, El Cojo,

Ilustrado (bi-weekly).

Caracas, the capital of Venezuela, has a population
of 85,000. It was founded in 1567 by Diego de
Losada, and soon became the most important town
in the district. In 1595 it was sacked by the English
buccaneer Amyas Preston, and finally burned, because
the Spaniards would not pay the ransom demanded.
In 1679 it was pillaged by the French. The history
of the eighteenth century was uneventful. In 1812
it was almost destroyed by a terrible earthquake. It
took a prominent part in the revolutionary wars and
the tumults which have been common since that
time.

The city is well laid out, but the straightness of
the streets is somewhat monotonous. There are three
spacious Plazas — the Bolivar, the Washington, and
the Miranda. The Independencia Park is very beautiful.
Several of the public buildings possess considerable
interest. The Capitol is a huge block of buildings
grouped round a patio. It serves the purpose of a
Congress House and Government offices. Here are
a number of portraits of the revolutionary leaders
and pictures representing scenes from the revolutionary
wars. There is a fine painting of Bolivar addressing
the Congress of Angostura, and there are three por-
traits of the Liberator which are known to be faithful
likenesses. The National Museum, which is extremely

328 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

ill kept, is housed in one of the buildings of the
University. There is a good National Library in the
Plaza Bolivar. The Pantheon is closely modelled
upon its Parisian namesake, even to the extent of
having once been a place of worship. Bolivar and
others of the revolutionary warriors are buried here,
and many of them are represented by good marble
statues. The Cathedral looks handsome from a dis-
tance, but it is in poor condition ; it contains a
painting of the Last Supper by the Venezuelan artist
Michelena.

Caracas has an ancient University, but education
in Venezuela is not in a very flourishing condition.
The Republic, however, takes a high place in litera-
ture ; some consider that the two natives of Caracas
Bolivar and Bello were the two greatest men whom
South America has produced. The philosopher-poet
Andres Bello (1781-1865) is certainly one of the most
considerable figures in South America, not only for
his poetry, which ranks him with Olmeda, but also
for the immense influence which he exercised upon
contemporary thought. He joined in the revolutionary
movement, and in 1810 was sent in an official capacity
to England with the object of attracting English
sympathy to the revolted colonies, and here he had
much intercourse with James Mill and other philo-
sophic Radicals.

He remained in England for nineteen years.
The rest of his life was spent in Chile, where he
became Rector of the University. He was un-
doubtedly the most accomplished man whom Spanish
America has produced. He is the author of one of
the best of Spanish grammars, and greatly dis-
tinguished himself in the study of philology. His
Principles of International Law is a work of high
authority, and he takes a high rank in philosophy for

VENEZUELA 329

his Theory of the Understanding. Although he follows
James Mill to a large extent and generally was a
preacher of liberalism, he did not follow his master
in his materialism, and was, like many Utilitarians,
a firm believer in religion. His numerous intellectual
interests did not serve to dissipate his genius, nor
did his poetry suffer from his philosophy, for his
poems, of which the best were written during his
youth in England, are likely to last as long as the
Spanish language. He is one of the purest of
Spanish writers and followed classical models, as all
readers of Horace will notice from the first lines of
his imitation : —

Que nuevas esperanzas
Al mar te llevan ? Torna,
Torna, atrevida nave,
A la nativa costa.

His chief work is Silva Americana, in which, like
Virgil, he sings the rural charm of his native land —
the innumerable herds grazing the llano, which stretches
to the mountains white with everlasting snow : —

Greges van sin cuento

Paciendo tu verdura, desde el llano

Que tiene por el lindero el horizonte,

Hasta el erguido monte,

De inaccessible nive siempre cano.

Critics almost unanimously give him the first place
among Spanish-American poets, and his place is all
the more secure because, like Olmedo, he differs
from the bards of those nations in his restraint and
calm. "Majestic" is one of the epithets most fre-
quently applied to him.

Another poet of some note was Rafael Maria Baralt
(i 810-60). He became a Spaniard and died in

330 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

Madrid. He modelled himself upon Bello, and his
Cristobal Colon was received with great applause, but
his lyrics have a tendency to be frigid. Jose Heriberto
Garcia de Quevedo was an ambitious writer with a
strong belief in his own immortality. He was a
philosophical poet of considerable merit, and, like
Baralt, acquired Spanish nationality, being an enthusi-
astic royalist. He was killed during the communist
outbreak in Paris. The Venezuelans, even more than
other Spanish-American men of letters, studiously
avoided living in their own country.

Rufino Blanco Fombona, besides being a poet, is
a novelist and has written brilliant sketches of Vene-
zuelan life. The poets and literary men of Venezuela
are very numerous,1 and if Caracas is not as cele-
brated a seat of culture as Bogota, the Venezuelans,
even though not, perhaps, owing much to Venezuela,
may claim greater genius.

Apart from Caracas, the towns of Venezuela do not
offer very much interest, although for the traveller and
explorer there is a fine field in the Republic. The
second city is Valencia (Hotel Comercio, Hotel Uni-
versal), with a population of 54,000, which was founded

in 1555-

It is in miles from the capital and is situated in
the most fertile part of the Republic. Its elevation is
1,577 fee* arjove the sea-level, and the mean annual
temperature is 80° Fahr. In the early days of the
Republic it was a seat of Government and remains a
flourishing agricultural centre, while several cotton-
mills have been established, and it is, indeed, indus-
trially ahead of Caracas. There is a large Cathedral,
which, however, has no remarkable features.

The situation of Valencia, on the lake, is delightful.
1 See a chapter in Souvenirs de Venezuela, by Jenny de Tallenay.

VENEZUELA 331

Some 33 miles from Valencia is its port, Puerto
Cabello (Hotel des Bains, Hotel de France), which
possesses the best harbour in Venezuela ; the towns
are connected by a railway. The population is 13,000-
Apparently it is one of the least healthy of Venezuelan
towns, having a death-rate of 42 per thousand. The
ships visiting Puerto Cabello are much the same as
those at La Guiara.

A glance at the map will show the numerous other
small ports on the coast and round the so-called Lake
Maracaibo, whence much coffee is shipped, and it will
be seen that most of them are connected with the
interior by short railways.

Ciudad Bolivar (Hotel Chiarelli, Hotel Union)
handles the trade of the Orinoco and runs a passen-
ger service to Trinidad ; the boats are comfortable
and the food is good. The city is built on granite,
which aggravates the heat, and the mean temperature
is 86° Fahr. A more pleasant place to visit, except for
its inaccessibility, is Merida (Hotel Briceno), a Uni-
versity and Cathedral town, which lies among the
mountains at a height of 5,450 feet. In fact, Venezuela
does not urgently demand very much time, and a visit
to Caracas will probably satisfy most people. Some
day, however, it should be a great country.

Venezuela is one of the volumes in the South American Series ;
the book, by Mr. R. V. Dalton, has an excellent bibliography. The
other works are, for the most part, somewhat old, but as the
country does not change much, the records of travellers, some of
them very well written, are often of value.

Dalton, L. V. Venezuela. London, 1912. South American Series.
Andre, E. A Naturalist in the Guianas. London, 1904.
Scruggs, W. L. The Colombian and Venezuelan Republics.

Boston, Mass., 1904.
Paez, R. Travels and Adventures in South and Central America.

New York, 1868.

INDEX

Aconcagua (Mountain), 27, 156

(River), 76
Aguadas, 189
Akers, 24, 76
Albemarle, 219
Alcock, 24
Alcorta, 48
Alencar, 136
Alfaro, 211
Aliaga, 285
Alves, 123

Amazon, 19, 81, 143, 212
America, Central, n
Andes, 27, 31, 79, 194, 156, 157
Andres, 331
Antioquia, 190-2
Antofagasta, 88, 166, 177
Araucanians, 163
Arequipa, 4, 9, 89, 268-9, 277-8
Argentina —

Bahia Blanca, 61-2

Buenos Aires, 49-59

Climate, 29

Coinage, 43-4

Constitution, 49

Cordoba, 67-9

Fauna, 31-2

Finance, 44

Flora, 31

Geology, 31-2

History, 44-9

Iguazu Falls, 71-2

Argentina —

Immigration, 32-5
La Plata, 59, 60
Literature, 57-9
Mar del Plata, 61
Physical Features, 27-8
Products and Industries, 35-

4i

Railways, 41-3

Rivers, 29, 30

Rosario, 64-7

Tucuman, 69-70
Artigas, 301

Asuncion, 2, 45, 71, 252-3
Atahualpa, 272
Atrato, 187

Baedeker, 56

Bahia, i, 8, 12, no, in, 127-9

Bahia Blanca, 3, 28, 29, 42, 50,

61-3

Banks, 24
Baralt, 329
Barclay, 3, 155
Barranquilla, 189, 197
Barrett, 24
Barros, 123
Bates, 150

Bello, 148-9, 175, 328
Beni, 84, 87
Bermejo, 30
Berro, 307

333

334 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

Billinghurst, 276

Bingham, 201

Biobio, 157, 164, 170

Blancos, 302, 303

Boa Vista, 127

Bogota, 186, 188, 189, 198-201

Bolivar, 323

Bolivia —

Climate, 81-2

Cochabamba, 94-5

Coinage, 85

Constitution, 86

Fauna, 83

Finance, 85-6

Flora, 82

Geology, 82

History, 86-8

La Paz, 88-92

Literature, 91-2

Products and Industries,

83-5

Railways, 81-2

Sucre, 92-4

Booth Line, n, 12, 144
Borda, 302
Boulogne, 12, 14
Bourgade, 254
Brazil-
Amazonian Region, 143-7

Bahia, 127-9

Climate, 101

Commerce and Products,
102-11

Constitution and History,
115-26

Fauna, 102

Finance and Revenue, 112

Flora, 101-2

Geology, 101

Immigration, 114-15

Literature, 135-6

Money and Exchange, 111-12

Pernambuco, 126-7

Brazil —

Physical Features, 99-101

Porto Alegre, 141-3

Railways, 112-14

Rio de Janeiro, 129-37

Rio Grande do Sul, 140-1

Santos, 139-40

Sao Paulo, 139-40
Bristol, n, 235
British Guiana, 324
Buenaventura, 192, 201
Buenos Aires (City), 2, 3, 6, 7, 9,
n, 12, 14, 28, 30, 49-59,
161, 252, 273

(Province), 32, 42
Bunau-Varilla, 223, 225
Burton, 64, 66, 109, 121, 149-

51, 249, 250, 252, 254
Bustamente, 91

Cabot, 44, 247

Caldera, 177

Calderon, 285

Cali, 189, 264, 271

Callao, 4, 278

Calvo, 57-8

Carabobo, 323

Caracas, 320, 322-3, 326-30

Carlyle, 249

Cartagena, n, 189, 194-8

Casabona, 151

Casement, 266

Castro, 324

Cattelle, 151

Cauca, 187, 190-1

Caxias, 122

Ceara, 12, 99, 147

Cerro de Pasco, 4, 258, 264, 268,

269, 298
Chagres, 226-7
Charles V, 221
Charruas, 300, 308
Cherbourg, n

INDEX

335

Chile—

Antofagasta, 177

Arica, 181

Climate, 154

Concepcion, 169-70

Constitution, 162

Coquimbo, 176-7

Fauna, 158

Finance, 162

Flora, 157-8

Geology, 156

History, 163-7

Money, 161

Mountains, 156-7

Nitrate, 176-81

Physical Features, 153-5

Punta Arenas, 167-8

Railways, 161-2

Santiago, 173-6

Trade and Products, 158-
60

Valdivia, 168-9

Valparaiso, 170-3
Chimborazo, 4, 203
Chubut, 34

(River), 30
Ciudad Bolivar, 331
Climate, 19
Cochabamba, 81, 94-5
Cocoa, 107, 207, 317
Coffee, 103-6, 138, 190, 263, 267,

317-18
Colombia —

Barranquilla, 196-7

Bogota, 198-201

Cartagena, 197-8

Climate, 186

Commerce and Products,
189-91

Constitution, 193

Fauna, 188

Finance, 192-3

Flora, 1 88

Colombia —

Geology, 186

History, 193-6

Literature, 200-1

Mountains, 186-7

Railways, 191-2

Rivers, 187

Santa Marta, 198
Colon, 5, 8, n, 12, 214, 221,

235-6
Colonia, 300

Colorados, 302-3
Concepcion, 169-70
Consuls, 17, 18
Conway, 80, 89, 91, 96
Copiapo, 177
Copper, 159, 264
Coquimbo, 154, 160, 176-7
Cordoba, 3, 29, 42, 67-9
1 Cornish, 226, 236
Corral, 168
Corrientes, 30, 71
Coruna, n, 14
Cotopaxi, 203
Cuenca, 219

Cunninghame-Graham, 254
Customs, 17
Cuzco, 267, 278

Dal ton, 318, 331

Darwin, 29, 153, 274, 279-80,

301

Davis, 224
Denis, 150
Deseado, 30
Diamantina, no, 149
Diamonds, no-n
Dias, 135
Dolce, 30

Dom Pedro II, 121-3
Dover, 12
Drago, 57-8
Drake, 163, 171, 198

336 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

Echeverria, 59
Ecuador —

Coinage, 208

Constitution, 209

Fauna, 206

Finance, 208

Flora, 206

Galapagos Islands, 219-20

Geology, 205-6

Guayaquil, 213-16

History, 209-13

Literature, 218

Physical Features, 203-6

Products and Industries,
207-8

Quito, 217-18

Rivers, 205
Eder, 201
Edward VII, 48
Edwards, 236
Elders and Fyffes Line, 12,

i98> 235
Elliot, 182
Emeralds, 190
Enock, 220, 257-9, 265> 275>

289-90

Entre Rios, 309
Equipment, 16, 17
Estrada, 211
Eten, 288
Expenses, 9

Falkland Islands, 3
Fallon, 201
Famatina, 3, 40
Fawcett, 80, 84
Fife, 25, 150
Figuaroa, 307
Flores, 211
Fombona, 330
Fonseca, 123

France, 102, 158-9, 189, 207,
262

Francia, 68, 249-50

Fraser, 236

Fray Bentos, 298, 309

Galapagos Islands, 204, 219
Gallegos, 30
Gamboa, 228
Garay, 45, 67
Gatun, 227-8
Gauchos, 28, 29
Germany, 36, 102, 158-9, 189,
207, 262, 305-6, 314,

317

Girardot, 201
Goethals, 224-5
Gold, 109, 208, 263
Gomez, 324
Gonzaga, 135, 148, 150
Gorgas, 225
Goyaz, 99
Gran, 289
Grubb, 254

Guayaquil, 4, 211, 213-16
Guayas, 214
Guayra Falls, 248, 254
Gutierrez, J. M., 59
Gutierrez, J. R., 91
Guzman, 324

Hale, 23
Hamburg, 12
Hamburg-American Line, 14,

I96« 235

Hardenburg, 265-6
Hassaurek, 220
Havre, 12

Hernan Darias, 45, 300
Hirst, 76
Hotels, 7, 14, 15
Houlder Line, 12
Huasco, 177
Hudson, 31
Humboldt, 144, 257, 318

INDEX

337

Iguazu Falls, 3, 30, 71-2, 245,

253

Illimani, 80
Incas, 209, 272
Iquique, 4, 155, 177-81, 229
Iquitos, 212, 259
Isaacs, 20 1
Isabel, 122

Jalhay, 201

Jara, 251

Jenkins, 46

Jesuits, 2, 46, 117, 164, 246-8,

254, 272-3, 300
Jovellanos, 251
Jujuy, 70

Killik, 42

Koebel, 76, 182, 309-10

Kosmos Line, 167, 213, 279

La Guiara, 325-6

Lamport and Holt Line, 7, 12,

50, 167, 279
Language, 21-3
La Paz, 4, 82-92
La Plata, 59-60
La Quiaca, 70
La Rioja, 29
La Rochelle, n
Larreta, 58
La Serena, 176-7
Lastarria, 175
Leguia, 276
Lemco, 2, 40, 241, 309
Lesseps, 195, 222, 226
Leyland Line, 12, 196, 235
Lima, 4, 15, 263, 268-9, 273>

279-86

Lisbon, n, 12, 14
Liverpool, i, 5, n, 12, 196,

229
Llai Llai, 76

z

Lloyd Brasileiro Line, 50, 126,

144

Locusts, 29
Lopez, 249, 251, 253
Loreto, 212

MacDonald, 254

Macedo, 136

Maceio, 147

Madeira, 143

Magdalena, 187, 198-9

Magellan, 6

Manaos, 5, n, 12, 146-7

Manizales, 189

Manta, 218

Marafion, 259, 263

Mar del Plata, 3, 50, 61

Markham, 289

Marmol, 58-9

Martin, 14, 25, 106-7, 227, 278,

281, 290, 310
Martinez, 76-7
Mathews, 93, 95, 96
Matto Grosso, 147-8
Maule, 163

Mendoza, 4, 29, 38, 50, 72-5
Mercedes (Argentina), 42

(Uruguay), 294
Meta, 187, 315
Millican, 190
Mitre, 58
Mitre Law, 43
Mollendo, 4, 268, 275-7
Money, 15, 16
Montt, 166, 167
Morena, 211
Muzo, 190

Napo, 204-5, 2I3> 259
Negro, 27, 30
Nelson Line, 12
New Granada, 194, 199
Newspapers, 21

338 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

New York, 5, 6, 12, 228-9

Oakenfull, 150
Ocantos, 58
O'Higgins, A., 164
O'Higgins, B., 165, 170
Olivade, 284
Olmedo, 218
Ordonez, 303
Oriente, 204, 213
Orinoco, 314-15, 318-19
Oroya, 279, 286
Orton, 220
Oruro, 80, 82, 89, 95, 177

Pacasmayo, 258, 288
Pacific Steam Navigation Com-
pany, i, 6, 7, 10, 50, 126,
167, 213, 278-9, 288
Paez, 331
Paita, 289
Palma, 285
Pampas, 28, 30, 31
Panama, 231-4
Panama Canal —

Colon, 235-6

History, 221-7

Hygiene, 225-6
Panama hats, 188, 207-8, 289
Para, n, 12, 144-6
Paraguay Republic —

Asuncion, 252-3

Constitution, 246

Currency and Finance, 245

Fauna, 240-1

Flora, 240

History, 246-51

Iguazu Falls, 253-4

Physical Features, 239-40

Products and Industries,
241-4

Railways, 244-5
Paraguay River, 30, 239, 254

Parana (River), 30, 100, 247-8

(State), 147
Pardo, 275-6
Pasto, 189

Paysandu, 296, 308-9
Pedro I, 121
Pena, 49
Penna, 123

Pennington, 37, 49, 77
Peru—

Arequipa, 277-8

Callao, 278-9

Cerro de Pasco, 287

Commerce, Products and
Industries, 262-9

Constitution, 271

Fauna, 261-2

Flora, 261

Geology, 261

History, 271-6

Lima, 279-86

Literature, 284-6

Money and Finance, 269-71

Paita, 289

Physical Features, 257-61

Railways, 269

Rivers, 257-9

Rubber, 264-7
Petre, 185, 201
Petropolis, 136
Pilcomayo, 30
Pisco, 267-8, 274-5, 278
Piura, 4, 257, 264
Pizarro, 163, 272, 280
Plate, 30
Plaza, 211
Pombo, 201
Port Limon, n, 12
Porto Alegre, 141-2
Posadas, 71
Post offices, 19
Potosi, 80, 82, 86-7, 95
Prescott, 271

INDEX

339

Puente del Incas, 4, 75
Puerto Bolivar, 208
Puerto Cabello, 330-1
Puerto Colombia, 196-7
Puerto Montt, 161
Puna, 214
Puno, 271-8

Putumayo, 107, 185, 187, 204-5,
215, 259, 265-6

Quesado, 194, 199
Quevedo, 330
Quintana, 48
Quito, 209-10, 217-18

Raleigh, 322

Recife, 127

Restaurants, 20

Restroppo, 196

Reyes, 194-6

Rice, 220

Rimac, 257, 286

Rio de Janeiro, 2, 6, 12, 14, 109,
113, 116, 119, 129-36, 148

Rio Grande do Sul, 140-1

Riobamba, 219

Rivera, 285

Roca, 47

Rodo, 307

Roosevelt, 224

Rosas, 47

Ross, 225

Royal Holland Line, 12

Royal Mail Steam Packet Com-
pany, 6, 7, n, 12, 23, 50,
126, 167, 196, 235

Rubber, 82, 84, 85, 106-7, 191,
207, 264-7, 317

Russell, C., 254

Russell, W. H., 182

St. Hilaire, 148
St. Vincent, 12

Salaverry, 285, 288
Salles, 123
Salta, 29, 70
Salto, 296-7, 308-9
San Antonio, 127
San Bernardino, 252-3
San Juan, 27
San Martin, 274, 280
Santa Catharina, 147
Santa Cruz (River), 30

(Territory), 32
Santa Fe, 67

Santa Marta, 12, 192, 194, 198
Santiago, 4, 14, 15, 76, 154, 163,

173-6

Santos, i, 2, 12, 14, 139-40
Sao Paulo, i, 7, 101, 103-6, 109,

114-15, 137-9,247-8
Sa vanilla, 196
Schaerer, 251
Scruggs, 331
Segura, 280, 285
Shops, 21
Silver, 83, 263-4
Simson, 205, 220
Smith, 182
Soldan, 285
Sonson, 189
South American Missionary

Society, 251

Southampton, i, 5, 6, n
Southey, 25, 150
Souza, 116

Sucre (General), 87, 93
(Town), 80, 90, 91-4
Sugar, 38, 69, 70, 108, 261-2

Tacna, 182
Tacora, 157
Talca, 154
Talcahuano, 169
Taltal, 177
Tarapaca, 179

340 A GUIDE TO SOUTH AMERICA

Times, 25

Tin, 83, 159

Tips, 8

Tiradentes, 120, 149-50

Titicaca, 80, 89, 260, 278

Tobacco, 20, 103, 108, 242-3

Tolima, 186

Truth, 107, 265

Truxillo, 288

Tucuman, 29, 42, 47, 69, 70

Tupac Amaru, 273

Unanue, 285

United States, 189, 207, 262,

295, 317
Uruguay Republic —

Constitution, 299

Fauna, 294-5

Finance, 299

Flora, 294

Geology, 294

History, 300-3

Money, 299

Montevideo, 304-7

Physical Features, 293-4

Produce and Industries,295~7

Railways, 297-8
Uruguay River, 30, 293-4
Uyuni, 88

Valdivia, 154, 168-9
Valencia, 320, 330-1
Valparaiso, 2-4, 6, 9, 14, 1.5, 42,

72-6, 154
Van Brabant, 96
Van Bruyssel, 254
Varnhagen, 136

Venezuela —

Caracas, 326-30

Commerce, Products and
Industries, 316-21

Constitution, 321

Currency, 321

Fauna, 315-16

Finance, 321-2

Flora, 315

Geology, 314

History, 322-5

La Guiara, 325-6

Literature, 328-30

Railways, 316
Vigo, n, 12, 14
Villa Concepcion, 253
Villa Rica, 253
Villazon, 88
Vina del Mar, 173

Walle, 52, 97, 144, 150-1, 290
Weddell, 96
West Indies, 6, n, 12
Wheat, 37-8, 159
I White, 201
Whitelocke, 47
Whymper, 203-4, 2°6> 217, 219-

20

Williman, 303
Wilson, 231
Wine, 20, 38-9, 74, 160, 268

Yaghans, 155
Yapura, 187, 212

Zaldumbide, 218
Zipaquira, 200

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