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Plates'
TKANaFURMATJONS OF MOTHS.
(un^-
GUIDE
THE STUDY OF INSECTS
AND A TREATISE ON THOSE
INJURIOUS AND BENEFICIAL TO OEOPS
FOR THE USE OF
COLLEGES, FARM-SCHOOLS, AND AGRICULTURISTS ^
BY I '
A. S. PACKARD, Jr., M.D.
WITH FIFTEEN PLATES AND SIX HUNDKED AND SEVENTY WOOD-CUTS
SEVENTH EDITION.
NEW YORK
HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
BOSTON : ESTES & LAURIAT
iSSo
Copyright by
A. S. PACKARD, Jr.,
1869 and 18T6.
JoHM F. Trow & Son, Printers,
205-213 East i2TH St., New Yokk.
PREFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION.
Moke important additions and alterations have been made
in the sixth and present editions tlian in any previous one.
The author has decided to consider the Hexapoda, Arachnida,
and Myriopoda as sub-cUisses of Tracheata, and consequently
what liave been in former editions regarded as sub-orders are
called orders. The Thysanura, moreover, are separated from
the Neuroptera, and regarded as a distinct order, comprising
synthetic types with features allying them to the Orthoptera,
Neuroptera, and jNIyriopoda. Tlicy are divided into two sub-
orders, tlie lower the CoUembola of Lubbock; and for the
higher sub-order, comprising the Lepismatidie and Campodea?,
the term Cinura [jiivtoo, to move; ovpa, tail) is proposed.
The terms tenaculwn and elater are adopted from the author's
previous writings for the "holder" and "spring" of the Col-
lembola ; and for the sucker or orojan secreting the adhesive
material characteristic of the CoUembola, the term collophore
is proposed.
Brief mention has been made of the Pycnogonida^ which
are placed among the mites ; also of the Peripatidea, which
are given a place next to the sucking Myriopoda, since they
have been proved by the researches of Mr. Moseley to be
Tracheata.
On i)age 240 the discovery by Mr. Swinton of an auditory
apparatus at the base of the abdomen of Lepidoptera has
been noticed, as well as Mr, Mason-Wood's discovery that
Mygale and Scorpio stridulate (page 628). A number of minor
changes and corrections have been made in the iilates.
Some important changes have been made in the classifica-
tion of the Coleoptera Avhich do not appear in the text. The
weevils, Ciirci(Uonid(t^, shoukl, in accordance with the views
expressed by Dr. Le Conte, be placed at the end of the group.
The CoccinelUdoi and Erotylidce should also, in accordance
with the views of Mr. G. R. Crotch (Check-List of the
PREFACE.
Coleopterfi of America north of Mexico, 1874), be placed in
the Ciavicorn series, those and allied families being placed in
the following succession: Dcrmestidop^ Eiidomychidce, Cioida',
Erotylidce, Atomariida^ CucKJidce, Colydiidm, B,hizophagida\
Trogositidw, N'ltididldce, CoccinelUdm^ Cistelida', etc. At the
end of the series the succession of families is as follows .
Cerambycidce, Uruchidcp, Chrysomelidcc, Tenebrionidae, ^gia-
litidce, Allecididfe, Pyrochroidm, Anthicida-,
Melandryidw, 3Iordellida?, Stylopidce, Meloido'^ Cephaloida.,
Q^demeridm, 3fycterid(v, PytJddcv., CurcuUonidce, Scolytid(X,
and AntJirihidcii, JBrentliidoi being the last.
Since the publication of the last edition of this work, our
knowledge of American fossil insects has been much extended.
Mr. Scudder has described ten more species from the carboni-
ferous strata of Nova Scotia and Pennsylvania, some of them
of peculiar interest, thus increasing the number of known
palaeozoic forms to thirty-two. The carboniferous insect-
fauna of America is now so well known that we may note a
close affinity between it and that of Europe at the same
epoch. Tertiaiy localities exceedingly rich in fossil insects
have been discovered in new parts of the West ; more than
one hundred species have already been described by Mr.
Scudder from Eastern and Western Colorado, Wyoming, and
British Columbia, but these are a mere fragment of what have
been found. Among those described are many of an interest-
ing character, esjiecially a wonderfully preserved butterfly
(Prodryas Persephone) and e^g masses of a huge Neuropteron
allied to Corydalus, together with others which indicate a
partially tropical fauna at that time. Of post-tertiary insects,
]^r. Horn has described ten beetles from a bone cave in
Pennsylvania, and Mr. Scudder two from the interglacial
clays of Ontario.
A. S. PACKARD, Jr.
Providence, R. I., February, 1880.
PREFACE. ix
Carus' " Handbiicli der Zoologic." In the succession of tiie
families of the Acarina, the suggestions of Chiparede, in his
"Studien der Acariden," have been followed, and in the
preparation of the general account of the Arachnids the
writer is greatly indebted to Claparede's elaborate work on
the "Evolution of Spiders."
In the preparation of this "Guide" the author has con-
sulted and freely used Westwood's invaluable "Introduction
to the Modern Classification of Insects;" Gerstaecker's
" Arthropoden" in Peters and Cams' "Ilandbuch der Zoo-
logie;" Siebold's "Anatomy of the Invertebrates" (Burnett's
translation, 1854) ; Newport's Article "Insecta" in Todd's
C^'clopaidia of Anatomy and Physiolog}^ ; and Dr. T. W.
Harris' "Treatise on Insects injurious to Vegetation." He
would also acknowledge his indebtedness to Professor L.
Agassiz for many of the general ideas, acquired while the
author was a student in the Museum of Comparative Zoo-
logy at Cambridge, regarding the arrangement of the orders
and classes, and the morphology of the Articulates.
For kind assistance rendered in preparing this book, the
author is specially indebted to Baron R. von Osten Sacken,
who kindly read the proof sheets of the chapter on Diptera ;
to Mr. F. G. Sanborn for the communication of many speci-
mens and facts ; and also to Messrs. Edwnrd Norton, S. H.
Scudder, J. H. Emerton, C. T. Robinson, A. R. Grote, G. D.
Smith, E. T. Cresson, P. R. Uhler, C. V. Riley, Dr. J. L. Le-
conte. Dr. Hageu, W. C. Fish, and E. S. Morse. For much
kind assistance and very man}^ favors and suggestions, and
constant sjanpathy and encouragement during the printing
of the work, he is under special obligation to his valued
friend, Mr. F. W. Putnam. The tj^pes of the new species
noticed here are deposited in the Museum of the Peabody
Academy of Science. He would also express his thanks to
X PREFACE.
the American Entomological Society, the Society of Natural
Historjr at Boston, the Secretary of the Massachusetts Board
of Agriculture, the Essex Institute, the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, the Secretary of the Maine Board of Agriculture, and
to Mr. E. Hardwicke, the publisher of "Science-Gossip,"
Prof, Sanborn Tenney, the author of "A Manual of Zo-
oloo^Y," and to his coeditors of the "•American Naturalist,"
for the use of many of the cuts, a list of which may be
found on the succeeding pages.
Pbabody Academy of Science,
Sale:u,Nov. 10, 1869.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
Figs. 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 33, 34, 35, 38, 39, 40, 84, 86, 87, 91, 93-106, 124,
126, 130, 131, 132, 142, 144, 146, 151, 180, 191-196, 201, 202, 204, 205,
206, 207, 208h, 209, 212, 213, 215, 219, 220, 221, 224, 225, 226, 246, 23()
-260, 267, 320, 321, 332, 333, 379, 404, 408, 409, 421, 422, 442, 455, 480,
481, 484, 485, 487, 493, 500, 501, 502, 509, 513, 518, 519, 521, 531, 534,
535, 552, 561, 562, 576, 579, 593, 601 and 651, were borrowed from the
American Entomological Societ}', at Pliiladelpliia.
Figs. 2, 14, 15-24, 27, 48, 63-67, 69, 181, 216, 217, 222, 230, 231, 233
-235, 247, 369, 389, 420, 424, 427, 435, 436, 438, 497, 508, 578, 630 and
631 were loaned by tlio Boston Society of Natural History.
Figs. 25, 36, 37, 55, 83, 128, 136, 237, 242, 269, 350, 352-357, 362, 368,
372, 373, 380, 511, 512, 514, 542, 543, 544, 545, 546, 556, 585-587, 589,
690, 591, 594, 602, 603, 604 and 605, were borrowed from tlie report of
the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture for 1862.
Figs. 155-165, 169-179, 270, 271, 285-296, 300, 303-306, 345-348, 358,
359, 632, 633 and 634, were loaned by the Smithsonian Institution.
Figs. 1, 5, 8, 10, 30, 31, 32, 51, 52, 57, 58, 62, 64, 68, 72, 79, 80, 81, 82,
85, 89, 92, 110-121, 127, 185, 186, 227, 228, 239, 248, 250, 252, 262, 263,
273, 278, 298, 307-314, 317-319, 322, 324-327, 329-331, 334-343, 361,
363a, 375, 387, 412, 413, 425, 426, 428, 430, 432, 433, 437, 439, 447-451,
456-458, 463, 464, 474, 475, 504, 516, 576, 577, 580-584, 588, 592, 608,
613, 615, 627, 636, 637, 638, 639, 641, 642, 646-649, were talven from the
" American Naturalist."
Figs. 41, 70, 71, 88, 129, 138, 143, 152, 200, 232, 249, 253, 255, 349,
492, 554, 618, and 645 were borrowed from the "Eeport of the Maine
Board of Agriculture for 1862."
Figs. 73-78, were kindly loaned by Prof. Jeffries AVyman.
Figs. 570, 571, 574, 575, 617 and 635, were loaned by the Illinois
Geological Survey.
I am also indebted to Prof. Sanborn Tenney for the use of Figs.
189, 190, 198, 315, 323, 563-567, from his "Manual of Zoology."
The publishers of Hardwick's " Science-Gossip," London, afforded
me stereotypes of Figs, 517, 557, 569, 573, 606, 607, 609-011, 616, 620
-622, 628, 629 and 640.
Electrotypes of Figs. 119, 261, 281, 281c-284, 328, 344, 351, 360, 363,
367, 374, 376, 414, 429, 434, 452-454. 466, 468-471, 477, 479, 494, 506',
606^, 510, 522-526, 530, 532, 533, 536-541, 547-551, 564, 568, 595-598,
were purchased of the publishers of the "American Entomologist."
The following figures were engraved expressly for the work, viz:
Figs. 11, 12, 13, 26, 28, 29,42, 43-47, 49, 50, 53, 54, 56, 59-61, 80, 107-
XU EXPLANATION OF PLATE.
109, 122, 123, 125, 133-135, 137, 13'J-U1, 145, 148-151, 16G-1C8, 182-
184, 187, 188, 197, 203, 208, 210, 211, 214, 218, 223, 23G, 243, 244. 254,
264-20G, 272, 280, 297, 29:), 301, 302, 308, 310, 364-3()G, 370, 371, 377,
378, 381-38G, 388, 390-397, 399-403, 405-407, 410, 411, 415-419, 423, 431,
440, 441, 443-44G, 459-4G2, 4G5, 4G7, 472, 473, 47G. 478, 482, 483, 485rt, b,
488,489,490, 491,495,490, 498, 499, 503, 505, 507, 515,520,527-529,
555, 558-5(!0, 505, 572, 599, GOO, G12, G14, G19, G23-G2G, ()43. (i44 and G50.
Of those, 119 wure tlnnvu from nature, mostly by Mr. J. H. Emcrton,
aucl a few by Messrs. C. A. Walker and L. Trouvelot. These are num-
bered : 11, 12, 13-20, 2G, 28, 29, 42, 51, 52, 57-G3, G4-67, 79-82,90, 107-
109, 122, 123, 125, 133, 137, 139, 141, 145, 148, 149-151, ICG, 107. 1G8,
182-184, 167, 188, 197, 203, 208 «, h, 210 a, 211, 214, 218, 23G, 254, 265,
2G6, 299, 301, 308, 31G, 3G4-3GG, 378, 883, 384, 38G, 392, 393, 39G, 397,
400,'402, 403, 405, 413, 415, 419, 423, 431, 443, 441, 443-44G, 4G5, 473,
47G, 482 «, 483, 485 «, b, 489, 490, 491, 496, 498, 499, 503, 505,507,515
520, 555, 560, 565, 599, GOO, 612, 614, 619.
Of the remainder. Figs. 134, 459-4G2, 495, 506, were copied from
Harris; 43, 45, from Lcidy; 46, 47, 49, 50, from Straus-Durcklieim;
44, 53, 54 and 650, from Newport; 135, 140, from Fitch; 223, 243. 244,
528, 529, from Glover; 2G4, 467, from Curtis; 623-626, from Clapa-
rede; G43, G44, from Doyere ; 56 from Gerstaecker; 297, from Mecz-
uikow; 302, from Brauer; 417, 418, from Leprieur; 527, 558 559,
from Guerin-Meneville; 572 from Dohrn; 394, from Blisson; 388,
from Candeze; 377, 381, 382, 385, 390, 391, 395, 399, 401, 40G, 407, 410,
472 and 488, from Chapuis and Candeze.
Plates 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10 and 11, were taken from the "American
Naturalist." Plates 5 and 8, are original, and drawn from nature by
Mr. J. H. Emertou.
Explanation or Plate 8.
Fig. 1. Empretia stimulea; 1(7, lai"va.
Fig. 2. Lencania uiiipimcta; 2 a, larva.
Fig. 3. Xanthoptera seniicrocea; 3 «, larva.
Fig. 4. Catocala ultronia; 4 «, larva.
Fig. .5. Aii^jerona crocataria, male; 5 r/, larva.
Fig. 6. Eiinomos subsignaria ; larva.
Fig. 7. Nematocampa filamentaria ; 7a, larva (enlarged twice).
Fig. 8. Ab'-axas ribearia, male.
Fig. 0. Aii!«optevyx vernata, male; On, female (enlarged), 9b, larva.
Fig. 10. Oirtaria diversilineata; 10 «, larva.
Fig. 11. Galleria cereana.
Fig. 1'2. Eozotoenia rosaceana; 12(7, larva.
Fig. 13. Penthina prnniana. ..
Fig. 14. nepressaria robiniella. ^. l">^™'"^-
Fig. 15. Eit'iocolletis gemin^tella; a, larva; h, pupa (enlarged three tunes), loc,
Fig. l(i. P.ncoulatrix pomifoliella.
Fig. 17. Colcophora; larva.
Fig. 18. Evonetia saccatell:) ; 18(7, larva; 18 fi, case (enlarged).
Fig. 10. Eithocolletis nidificansella (enlarged); 19 «, cocoon.
Fig. 20. Aglo«sa cnprealis.
Fig. 21. Anclivlopev.n v.Tooininna.
Fig. 22. Penthina vitivovam renlarared).
Fig. 23. Pteropliorus periscelidactylus; o, larva; b, pupa (enlarged three times).
GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF INSECTS.
THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
That brancli of the Animal Kingdom known as the Ar-
THROPODA, includes all animals having the body composed of
rings or segments, like short cylinders, which are placed suc-
cessively one behind the other, and which bear jointed appen-
dages, or feet. The plan of their entire organization, the es-
sential features which separate them from all other animals,
lies in the idea of articulation, the apparent joinitig together
of distinct body-segments, bearing hard, jointed appendages.
If we observe carefully the body of a Worm, Ave shall see that
it consists of a long cylindrical sac, which at regular intervals
is folded in upon itself, thus giving a ringed (nnnulated, or
articulated) appearance to the body. In Crustaceans (crabs,
lobsters, etc.) and in Insects, from the deposition in the
skin of the latter of a peculiar chemical substance
called chitine, the walls of the body become so hard-
ened, that when the animal is dead and dry, it readily
breaks into numerous very perfect rino-s.
Though this branch contains a far gieater number of
species than any other of the animal kingdom, its myr-
iad forms can all be reduced to a simple, ideal, ty^tical
figure ; that of a long slender cylinder, divided into
numerous segments, arranged in two or, as in Insects,
into three regions, and bearing jointed appendages. It Fig. i.
is by the unequal development and the various modes of group-
ing the rings, as well as the differences in their number, and also
in the changes of form of their appendages, i.e., the feet, jaws,
and antennas, that the various forms of Arthrojyoda are pro-
duced. The Cuvierian branch ArtUmlata comprise the modern
branches of Worms and Arthropods.
Fig. 1, Worm-like larva of a Fly, Scenopiuus.—Orujinal.
1
2
THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
Fig. 2.*
Artliropoclous animals are also very distinctly hdateral^ i.e
the botiy is symmetrically divided into two lateral halves, and
not only the trnnk bnt the limbs also
show this bilateral symmetry. In a less
marked degree there is also an antero-
j)osterior symmetry^ i.e. each end of
the body is opposed, just as each
side of the body is, to the other.*
The line separating the two ends is,
however, imaginary and vague. The
autennse, on the anterior pole, or head,
are represented by the caudal, or anal,
stylets (Fig. 2), and the single parts
on the median line of the body corre-
spond. Tlius the labrum and clypeus
are represented by the tergite of the
eleventh segment of the abdomen.
In nearly allWorms (Fig. 3) the long,
tubular, alimentary canal occupies the centre of the body ; above
it lies the "heart," or dorsal vessel, and below, upon the under
side, rests the nervous system. be d
The breathing apparatus, or
"lungs," in Worms consists of f\
simple filaments, placed on the
front of the head ; or of gill-like
processes, as in the Crustaceans,
which are formed by membran-
ous expansions of the legs ; or, " pjg. 3. ^
as in the Insects (Fig. 4), of delicate tubes (tracheae), which
* Professor Wyman (On Symmetry and Homology in Limbs, Proceedings of the
Boston Society of Natural History, liSGT) has shown that antero-posterior symmetry
is very marked in Articulates. In the adjoining figure of ./cera (Fig. 2) the longi-
tudinal lines illustrate what is meant by bilateral symmetry, and the transverse
lines "fore and aft" symmetry. The two antero-posterior halves of the body are
very symmetrical in the Crustacean genera Jiera. Onisciis, Porcellio, and other
Crustacea, and also among the M.vriopods, Scutigera, Polydesmus, " in which the
limbs are repeated oppositely, though with different degrees of inequality, from the
centre of the body backwards and forwards." "Leuckait and Van Beneden have
shown that JMysis has an ear in the last segment, and Schmidt has described an eye
in the same part in a worm, Amplncora." — From Wyman.
Fiu. Z represents an ideal section of a Worm. / indicates the skin, or nius-
cuhir body-wall, which on each side is i)roduced into one or more fleshy tubercles,
usually tipped with bristles or hairs, which serve as organs of locomotion, and
THE CLASS or INSECTS.
ramify throughout the whole interior of the animal, and con-
n?ct with breathing pores (stigmata) in the sides of the body.
They do not breathe tln-ougli the mouth as do the higher ani-
mals. The trachcEe and blood-vessels follow closely the same
Fig. 4.
course, so that the aeration of the blood goes on, apparently,
over the whole interior of the body, not being confined to a
single region, as in the lungs of the vertebrate animals.
Thus it is by observing the general form of the body-walls,
and the situation of tlie different anatomical systems, both in
relation to themselves and the walls of the body, or crust,
which surrounds and protects the more delicate organs Avit'.iin,
that we are able to find satisfactory characters for isolating, in
our definitious, the Artliropoda from all other animals.
We shall peiceive more clearly the differences between tlie
two branches of articulated or jointed animals, namely, the
Worms and tlie Arthropoda, by examining their yonng
often as lungs. The nervous cord (,n) rests on the floor of the cj'hnder, sending a
filament into the oar-like feet (/), and also around the intestine or stomach (t), to a
supi)lcmentary cord {d), which is situated just over the intestine, and under th3
heart or dorsal vessel (c). The circle c and e is a diagram of the circulatory sys-
tem; c is the dorsal vessel, or heart, from the side of which, in each ring, a small
vessel is sent downwards and around to e, the ventral vessel. — Orir/innl.
Fig. 4. An ideal section of a Bee. Here the crust is dense and thick, to which
strong muscles arc attached. On the upper side of the ring tlic wings grow out,
while the legs are inserted near the under side. The tracheaa (d) enter through the
stir/ma, or breathing i)ore, situated just under the wing, and their branches sul)-
divideand are distributed to the wings, with their live piiucipal veins as indicated
THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
Fiic. 5.
stages, from the time of tlioir exclusion from the egg, until
they p:iss into mature life. A more careful study of this
l^eriod than we ai-e now able to enter upon would show us how
much alike the young of all Arthropods are at first, and how
soon tliey begin to difter, and assume the shape characteristic
of their branch.
Most Worms, after leaving the egg, are at first like some
infusoria, being little sac-like animalcules, often ciliated over
nearly the entire surface of the infinitesimal body.
Soon this sac-like body grows longer, and con-
tracts at intervals ; the intervening parts become
unequally enlarged, some segments, or rings,
formed b}^ the contraction of the body-walls,
greatly exceeding in size those next to them ; and it thus
assumes the appearance of being more or less equally ringed,
^, as in the young Terebella (Fig. 5), wdiere the
ciliix^ are restricted to a single circle surrounding
the body. Gradually (Fig. G) the cilia? disap-
pear and regular locomotive organs, consisting
of minute paddles, grow out from each side ;
feelers (antenuie), jaws, and eyes (simple rudi-
mentary eyes) appear on the few front rings
of the body, which are grouped by themselves
I into a sort of head, though it is difficult, in a
large proportion of the lower worms, for un-
skilled observers to distinguish the head from
the tail.
Thus we see throughout the growth of the
worm, no attempt at subdividing the body
into regions, each endowed Avith its peculiar
I ^functions ; but only a more perfect system of
. ' rings, each relatively very equally developed,
in the figure, also to the dorsal vessel (c), the intestine (6), and the nervous cord (a).
The tracheie and a nervous lilameut are also sent into the legs and to the wings.
The tracheie are also distrihuted to the dorsal vessel and intestine by numerous
bi'anches which serve to hold them in place. — Original.
Fig. .'). Young Tercheila, .soon alter leavmg the eg^. — From A. Af/assiz.
Fi(i. (i repre.-^ents the oinl>ryo of a worm (Autolijlus corniitu.-!) at :i later stage
ol' growth, n is the middle tentacle of tlie head ; c, one of tlie posterior tentacles;
/), the two eye-spots at the base of the huider pair of feelers; c is one of a row of
car-like organs {cirri) at the base of which are inserted the locomotive bristles,
THE CLASS OF INSECTS. 5
but all becoming respectively more complicated. For example,
in the P2arth-worm {Lumbricus) , each ring is distinguishable into
iin upper and under side, and in addition to these a well-
marked side-area, to which, as for example in marine worms (e. g.
Nereis), oar-like organs are attached. In most worms eye-spots
appear on the front rings, and slender tentacles grow out, and
a pair of nerve-knots (ganglia) are apportioned to eacli ring.
In the Crustaceans, such as the fresh-water Crawfish {^iy.td-
cus), as shown by the German naturalist Kathke; and also in
the earliest stages of the Insect, the body at once assinncs a
worm-like form, thus beginning its embr3'0nic life from the goal
reached by the adult worm.
The young of all Crustaceans (Fig. 7) first begin life in the
egg as oblong flattened worm-like bodies, each end of the body
being alike. The young of the lower Crustaceans, such as the
Barnacles, and some marine forms (Copepoda), and some
lowly organized parasitic species inhabiting the gills of
fishes, are hatched as microscopic cmbr^'os which would readily
be mistaken for young mites (Acarina). In the higher Crus-
taceans, such as the fresh-water Crawfish, the
young, when hatched, does not greatly differ
from the i)arent, as it has passed through the
worm-like stage within the egg.
Fig. 7 represents the young of the fresh-
water Lobster (Crawfish) before leaving the
egg. The body is divided into rings, ending
in lobes on the sides, which are the rudiments
of the limbs, b is the rudiment of the ej'e-
stalk, at the end of which is the eye ; a is the fore antennae ;
c is the hind antenna? ; d is one of the maxilla-feet ; e is the
first pair of true feet destined in the adult to form the large
''claw." Thus the eye-stalks, antenna, claws, and legs are
moulded upon a common form, and at first are scarcely distin-
with the cirri serving as swimming' and locomotive organs; rf, the candal styles, or
tail-foelers. In this figure we see how slight are the difl'erences between the
feelers of the head, the oar-like swimming organs, and the candal filaments; we
can easily see that they are but modifications o£a common form, and all arise
from the common limb-bearing region of the body. The alimentary canal, with
tlio proventricnhis, or anterior division of the stomach, occupies the middle of the
body; while the mouth opens on the under side of the head. — From A. Agassis.
Fig. 7. Embryo of the Crawfish. — From Rathke.
1*
6
THE CLASS OF INSECTfJ.
guishable from each other. Here we see the embryo divided
into a head-thorax and a tail.
It is the same with Insects. Within the egg at the dawn of
life they are flattened oblong bodies curved upon the yelk-
mass. Before hatching they become more cylindrical, th<>
limbs bud out on the sides of the rings, the head is clearly
demarked, and the young caterpillar soon steps forth from the
egg-shell ready armed and equipped for its riotous life.
As will be seen in Fig. 8, the legs, jaws, and antennae are
first started as buds from the side of the rings, being simply
elongations of the bod3'-waIl.
which bud out, become larger,
and finally jointed, until the
\x buds arising from the thorax or
abdomen become legs, those
from the base of the head be-
come jaws, while the antenme
and palpi sprout out from the
front rings of the head. Thus
while the bodies of all articulates
are built up from a common em-
bryonic form, their appendages, which are so diverse, when we
compare a Lobster's claw with an Insect's antenna, or a Spider's
spinneret with the hinder limbs of a Centipede, are yet but
modifications of a common form, adapted for the different uses
to which they are put by these animals.
Fig. 8. A Caddis, or C:ise-11y [Mijatncides] in the ej?g, with part of the yolk
{x) not yet in;',losed within tlio body-walls. «, antennre ; between a and h the mandi-
bles; I), maxilla; o, lal)ium; r/, the sei)arate eye-spots (ocelli), which aderwards in-
crease greatly in nvimbei' and unite to form the compound eye. The "neck" or
junction of the head with the thorax is seen at the front part of the yolk-mass; e,
the three pairs of legs, which arc folded once on themselves;/, the pair of anal legs
attached to the tenth ring of the abdomen, as seen in caterpillars, which form long
antenna-like lilanu'nt> in the Cockroach and May-tly, etc. The rings of the body are
but partially formed: they are cylindrical, giving the body a worm-like form.
Here, as in Ihe other two llgures, though not so distinctly seen, the antennas, jaws,
and last pail- of abdominal legs are modifications of but a single form, and grow
out from the side of the body. The head-appendages are directed forwards, as
they are to be adapted for sensory an<l feeding i)iirposes; the legs are directed
downwards, since they are to support the insect while walking. Itappears that the
two ends of the body are perfected before the middle, and the under side before the
upper, as we see the yolk-mass is not yet indoseil and the rings not yet formed
above. Thus all arti •ulates differ from all vertebrates in having the yolk-mass
situated on the b-ick, instead of on the belly, as in the chick, dog, or human cm-
brvo. — From Zudddch.
THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
The Worm is long and slender, composed of an irregular
number of rings, all of very even size. Thus, while the size of
the rings is tixed, their number is indeterminate, varying from
twenty to two hundred or more. The outline of the body is a
single cylindrical flgure. Tiie organs of locomotion are fleshy
filaments and hairs (Fig. 3,./') appended to the sides.
In one of the low intestinal worms, the Tape-worm (Tcenia),
each ring, behind the head and "neck," is provided with organs
of reproduction, so that when the body becomes broken up
into its constituent elements, or rings (as often occurs naturally
in these low forms for the more ready propagation of the
species, since the young are exposed to many dangers while
living in the intestines of animals), they become living inde-
pendent beings which "move freely and somewhat quickly
like Leaches," and until their real nature was known they
were thought to be worms. This and other facts prove, that,
in the Worm, the vitality of the animal is very equally dis-
tributed to each ring. If we cut off the head or tail of some
of the low worms, such as the Flat Worms {Planaria, etc.),
each piece will become a distinct animal, but an Insect or Crab
sooner or later dies when deprived of its head or tail (abdomen).
Thus, in the Worm the vital force is very equally distributed
to each zoological element, or ring of the body ; no single
part of the body is much honored above the rest, so as to sub-
ordinate and hold the other " ^
parts in subservience to its
peculiar and higher ends in
the animal economy.
The Crustacean, of which
the Shrimp (Fig. 9) is a
typical example, is com-
posed of a determinate
number (21) of rings which ^'S-^-
are gathered into two regions; the head-thorax (cephalo-
thorax) and hind -body, or abdomen. In this class there
is a broad distinction between the anterior and posterior ends
of the body. The rings are now grouped into two regions,
and the hinder division is subordinate in its structure and
Fig. 9. A Shrimp. Pandalus annulicornis. a, cephalothorax ; 6, abdomen.
8 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
uses to the forward portion of the body. Hence the nervous
power is transferred in some degree towards the head ; the
cephalotliorax containing the nervous centres from whicli nerves
are distributed to the abdomen. Nearly all the organs perform-
ing tlie functions of locomotion and sensation reside in the front
region ; while the vegetative functions, or those concerned
in the reproduction and nourishment of the animal, are mostly
carried on in the hinder region of the body (the abdomen).
The typical Crustacean cannot be said to have a true head,
in distinction from a thorax bearing the organs of locomotion,
but rather a group of I'ings, to which are appended the organs
of sensation and locomotion. Hence we find the appendages
of this region gi'adually changing from antennte and jaws to
foot-jaws, or limbs capable of eating and also of locomotion ;
they shade into each other as seen in Fig. 9. Sometimes the
jaws become remarkably like claws ; or the legs resemble jaws
at the base, but towards their tips become claw-like ; gill-like
bodies are sometimes attached to the foot-jaws, and thus, as
stated by Professor J. D. Dana in the introduction to his great
work on the Crustacea of the United States Exploring Expedi-
tion, the typical Crustaceans do not have a distinct head, but
rather a "head-thorax" (cephalothorax).
Wlien we rise a third and last step into the world of Insects,
we see a completion and final development of the articu-
late plan which has been but obscurely hinted at in the tVv^o
lowest classes, the AVorms and Crustaceans. Here we first meet
with a true head, separate in its structure and functions from
the thorax, which, in its turn, is clearly distinguishable from
the third region of the body, the abdomen, or hind-body.
These three regions, as seen in the Wasp (Fig. 10), are each
provided with three distinct sets of organs,
each having distinct functions, though all are
governed by and minister to the brain force,
now in a great measure gathered up from the
posterior rings of the body, and in a more
concentrated form (the brain being larger than in the lower
articulates) lodged in the head.
Here, then, is a centralization of parts headwards ; they arc
Fig. 10. Philanthus ventilabris Fahv. A Wood-wasp. — From Smj.
COMPOSITION OF THE INSECT-CRUST. 9
brought as if towards a focus, aud that focus the head, Avhich
is the meauing of the term " cephaiization," proposed by Pro-
fessor Dana.* Eing distinctious have given way to regional
distinctions. Tlie former characterize the Worm, the Latter
the Insect. In other words, the division of the body into three
parts, or regions, is in the insect, on the wliole, better marked
tlian tlie division of any one of those parts, except the abdo-
men, into rings.
Composition of the Insect-crust. Before describing the
composition of the l)ody-wall, or crust, of the Insect, let us
briefly review tlie mode in which the same parts are formed in
the lower classes, the Worms and Crustaceans, We have seen
that the typical ring, or segment (called by authors zoonnlc,
zoonite, or somite, meaning parts of a body, though we prefer
the term cwthromere, denoting the elemental part of a jointed
or articulate animal), consists of an upper (tergite), a side
(pleurite), and an under piece (sternite). This is seen in its
greatest simplicity in the Worm (Fig. 2), where the upper and
ventral arcs are separated by the pleural region. In the Crus-
tacean the parts, hardened by the dei)osition of chitine and
therefore thick and unyielding, have to be farther subdivided to
secure the necessary amount of freedom of motion to the body
and legs. The upper arc not only covers the back of the ani-
mal, but extends down the sides ; the legs are jointed to the
epimera, or flanks, on the lower arc ; the episternnm is situated
between the epimerum and sternum ; and the sternum, form-
ing the breast, is situated between the legs. In the adult, there-
fore, each elemental ring is composed of six pieces. It
should, hoAvever, be borne in mind that the tergum and ster-
* In two papers on the Classification of Animals, published in the American
Journal of Science and Arts, Second Series, vol. xxxv, p. 05, vol. xxxvi, Jnly, 1S';;5,
and also in his earlier paper on Crustaceans, "the principle of cephaiization is
shown to be exhibited among animals in the following- ways :
1. By a transfer of members from the locomotire to the cephalic series.
2. By the anterior of the locomotive organs participating to some extent in ce-
phalic functions.
3. By increased abbreviation, concentration, compactness, and perfection of
structure, in the parts and organs of the anterior portion of the body.
4. By increased abbreviation, condensation, and perfection of structure in the
posterior, or gastric and caudal portion of the body.
Ti. By an upward rise in the cephalic end of the nervous system. This rise
reaches its extreme limit in Man."
10 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
num each consist, in the embryo, of two lateral parts, or halves,
which, dnring development, nnite on the median line of the
body. Typically, therefore, the crustacean ring consists pri-
marily of eight pieces. The same number is found in all insects
which are Avingless, or in the larva and pupa state ; this applies
also to the Myrioi)ods and Spiders.
In the Myriopoda, or Centipedes, the broad tergum overlaps
the small epimera, while the sternum is much larger than in
the Spiders and Insects. In this respect it is like the broad
flat under-surface of most worms. Hence the legs of the
Centipede are inserted very far apart, and the "breast," or
sternum, is not much smaller than the dorsal part of the crust.
In the Julus the dorsal piece (tergum) is greatly developed
over the sternum, but this is a departure from Avhat is ap-
parently the more typical form of the order, i. e. the Centipede.
In the Spiders there is a still greater disproportion in size
between the tergum and the sternum, though the latter is very
large compared with that of Insects. The epimera and episterna,
or side-pieces of the vSi)iders, are partially concealed by the
over-arching tergum, and they are small, since the joints of the
legs are very large, Audouin's law of development in Arthro-
pods showing that ono part of the insect crust is always
developed at the expense of the adjoining part. In the Spider
we notice that the back of the thorax is a single solid plate
consisting originally of four rings consolidated into a single
hard piece. In like manner the broad solid sternal plate
results from the reunion of the same number of sternites cor-
responding, originally, to the number of thoracic legs. Thus
the whole upper side of the head and thorax of the Spider is
consolidated into a single hard horny immovable plate, like
the upper solid part of the cephalothorax of the Crab or
Slu'imp. Hence the motions of the Spiders are very stitf com-
pared with those of many Insects, and correspond to those of
the Crab.
The crust of the winged insect is modified for the per-
formance of more complex motions. It is subdivided in so
different a manner from the two lower orders of the class, that
it would almost seem to have nothing in common, structurally
speaking, with the groups below them. It is only by examin-
COMPOSITION OF THE INSECT-CIIUST.
11
ing the lowest wingless forms such as the Louse, Fk'u,
Podura, and Bark-lice, where Ave see a transition to the Or-
ders of Spiders and Myriopods, that we can perceive the plan
pervading all these forms, uniting them into a connnou
class.
A segment of a winged six-footed insect (Ilexapod) consists
typically of eight pieces which we Avill now examine more
leisurely. Figure 12 represents a side-view of prm
the thorax of the Telea Polyphemus^ or Silk- pt-
worm moth, with the legs and wings removed.
ICach ring consists primarily of the tergiim, the
two side-pieces (epimerum and episternum) and
the sternum.^ or breast-plate. But one of these
pieces (sternum) remains simple, as in the lower orders. Tlie
tergum is divided into four pieces. They Avere named by Au-
douin going from before backwards, Fig. n.
the 'proiscntnm, scutmn, scutellum,
and j)ostscutelhim.
The scutum is iuA'ariably present
and forms the larger part of the «"
upper portion (tergum) of the tho- <^p^^"
rax ; the scutellum is, as its name em
indicates, the little shield so promi-
nent in the beetle, which is also
uniformly present. The other tAvo
pieces are usually minute and
crowded down out of sight, and placed between the two oppos-
ing rings. As seen in Fig. 11, the pra^scutum of the moth is
a small rounded piece, bent vertically doAvn, so as not to be
seen from above. In the loAvly organized Hepialus, and some
Fig. 11. Tergal viewof the middle segment of the thorax of Tdea Polyphemus,
prm, prrcscutum ; ms-, scutum: scm, scutellum; ptm, postscutellum; pt, patagium,
or shoulder tii)i)et, covering the insertion of the wings. — Orif/iixil.
Fi<;. 12. Side view of the thorax of T. Poh/phemux, the hairs removed. 1, Pro-
thorax ; 2, Mesothorax ; ;J, JMetathorax, separated by the wider black lines. Tergum
of the prothora.x not represented, ms, mesoscutum ; scm, mesosciitellum; ms" ,
metascutuin; scm", metascutellum; i)f, a supplementary piece near the inser-
tion of patagia; w, pieces situated at the insertion of the wings and surrounded Viy
membrane; em, epimerum of jirothora.x, the long u)iright jiiece above being the
episternum; epm', episternum of the mesothorax: em", epimerum of the same;
epm", episternum of the mctathorax; em", epimerum of the same, divided into two
pieces; c', o", c", co.xae; te', ce', le", trochantiues ; tr, tr, tr, trochanters.
— Original.
tr te c" tr c " tr
12 3
12 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
Neuroptera, such as the Polystoechotes (Fig. 13 a), the prae-
scutum is hirg©, well developed, triangular, and wedged in
between the two halves of the scutum. The little
piece succeeding the scutcUum, /. e. the postscu-
tellum, is still smaller, and rarely used in descrip-
tive entomology. Thus far we have spoken of the H
middle, or mesothoracic, ring, where these four
pieces are most equally developed. In the first, "^'
or prothoracic, ring, one part, most probably the
scutum, is well developed, while the others are
aborted, and it is next to impossible to trace them
in most insects. The prothorax in the higher in-
sects, such as the Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera is
very small, and often intimately soldered to the succeeding or
mesothoracic ring. In the lower insects, however, such as the
Coleoptera, the bugs (Hemiptera), grasshoppers and their
allies (Orthoptera), and the Neuroptera, the large broad pro-
tiiorax consists almost entirely of this single piece, and most
writers speak of this part under the name of "-thorax," since
the two posterior segments are concealed by the wings when
the animal is at rest. The metathorax is usually very broad
and short. Here we see the scutum split asunder, Avith the
praescutum and scutellum wedged in between, while the post-
scutellum is aborted.
On the side are two pieces, the upper (epimerum) placed
just beneath the tergum, which is the collective name for the
four tergal, or dorsal, pieces enumerated above. In front of
the epimerum and resting upon the sternum, as its name im-
plies, is the episternum. These two parts (pleurites) compose
the flanks of the elemental ring. To them the legs are articu-
lated. Between the two episterna is situated the breast-piece
(sternum), which shows a tendency to grow smaller as we
ascend from the Neuroptera to the Bees.
In those insects provided with wings, the epimera are also
subdivided. The smaller pieces, hinging upon each other, as
it were, give play to the very numerous muscles of flight
Fig. 13. A tergal view of thorax of TIepinlus (Sthenopis) ; 1, prothorax ; 2, nieso-
thorax ; 3, metathorax. The iirothorax is very small compared with that of Poly-
Kticchotes (13 a, 1), where it is uearl)' as long as broad. — Oriyinal.
COMrOSITION OF THE INSECT-CRUST. 13
needed l)y the insect to perform its complicated motions
while on the wing.
The insertion of the fore wing is concealed by the "shonlder
tippets," or patagia (Fig. 11), which are only present in the
mesothorax. The external opening of the spiracles just under
the wing perforates a little piece called by Audouin the ^jerj-
trenie.
A glance at Figures 11 and 12 shows how compactly the
various parts of the thorax are agglutinated into a globular
mass, and that this is due to the diminished size of the first
and third rings, while the middle ring is greatly enlarged to
support the muscles of flight. There are four tergal, four
pleural, two on each side (and these in the Hymenoptera, Lepi-
doptera, and Diptera subdivide into several pieces), and a
single sternal piece, making nine for each ring and twenty-
seven for the whole thorax, with eight accessory pieces (the
three pairs o^ peritremes and the two jMtagia)^ making a total
of thirty-five for the entire thorax ; or, multiplying the four
tergal pieces by two, since they are formed by the union of two
primitive pieces on the median line of the body, we have
thirty-nine pieces composing the thorax.
Table of tue Parts of the Thorax applied to the Pro-,
Meso-, and Metatiiorax, respectively.
, Praescutura,
r Dorsal S Scutum,
j Surface J Scutelluni,
j ^ Post-scutc'llum.
Thorax { Plenral S Episternuni,
P ' ( Episternal apophysis, Stigma, Peritreine.
I Sternal J sternum.
L Surface t
We must remember that these pieces are rarely of precisely
the same form in any two species, and that they differ, often in
a very marked way, in different genera of insects. How sim-
ple, then, is the typical ring, and how complex are the va-
rious subdi^'isions of that ring as seen in the actual, living
insect, where each part has its appropriate muscles, nerves, and
trachcie !
We have seen how the thorax is formed in Insects generally,
let us now advert to the two types of thorax in the six-footed
14 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
insects. In the higher series of suborders, comprising the Dip-
tera, Lepidoptera and Ilymenoptera, placing the higliest last,
the thorax shows a tendency to assume a globular shape ; the
upper side, or tergum, is much arched, the pleural region bulges
out full and round, while the legs conceal at their insertion
the sternum wliich is minute in size.
In the lower series, embracing the Coleoptera, Hemiptera,
Orthoptera, and Neuroptera, the entire body tends to be more
flattened ; in the thorax the tergum is broad, especially that of
the prothorax, while the plcnrites (ei)isterna and epimera) are
short and bulge out less than in the higher series, and the ster-
num is almost invariably well developed, often presenting a
large thick breast-plate bearing a stout spine or thick tubercle,
as in (Edipoda. We can use these characters, in classifying
insects into suborders, as they are common to the whole order.
Hence the use of characters drawn from tlie wings and mouth-
parts (which are sometimes wanting), leads to artificial dis-
tinctions, as they are peripheral organs, though often convenient
in our first attempts at classifying and limiting natural groups.
The abdomen. In the hind body, or third region of the
trunk, the three divisions of the typical ring (arthromere), are
entire, the tergum is broad and often not much greater in ex-
tent than the sternum ; and the pleurites also form either a
single i>iece, or, divided into an epimerum and episteriuun,
form a distinct lateral region, on which the stigmata are sit-
uated. The segments of the abdomen have received from
Lacaze-Duthiers a still more special name, that of iirite, and
the different tergal pieces belonging to the several rings,
but especially those that have been modified to form the genital
armor have been designated by him as tergites. We have
applied this last term to the tergal pieces generally. The typi-
cal number of abdominal segments is eleven. In the lowest
insects, the Neuroptera, there are usually eleven ; as we have
counted them in the abdomen of the embryo of Diplax. In
others, such as the Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera, there may
never be more than ten, so far as present observation teaches
us.
The formation of the sting, and of the male intromittent
organ, may be observed in the full-grown larva and in the in-
COMPOSITION OF THE OVIPOSITOR.
15
complete pupa of the Humble-bee, and other thin-skianed
Hymenopterous larvoi, and in a less satisfactory Avay in the
young Dragon-flies.
If the larva of the Humble-bee be taken just after it has
become full-fed, and as it is about to enter upon the pupa state,
the elements
a a
o o <:iD,c::>
(sterno- rhab-
dites Lacaze-
Duthiers), or
tubercles,
destined to
Fi-. IG.
form the ovipositor, lie in
separate pairs, in two groups,
Fig. 11. Fig. 15. exposed distinctly to view,
as in Figures 14-18. The ovipointor thus consists of three
pairs of slender non-articulated tubercles, situated in juxta-
position on each side of
the mesial line of the
body. The first pair arises
from the eighth abdominal
ring, and the second and
third pair grow out from
the ninth ring. The ends
of the first pair scarcely
reach beyond the base of
the third pair. AVith the
growth of the semi-pupa,
the end of the abdomen
decreases in size, and is
Fig. 14. Rudiments of the sting, or ovipositor, of the Humble-bee. 8, 9, 10,
stcruites of cightli, ninth, anil tenth abdominal rings in the larva, a, first pair, .situ-
ated on the eighth sternite ; b, second and inner pair ; and f, the outer pair. The let-
tering is the same in figures 14-2-2. The inner pair (b), forms the true ovipositor,
thiough which the eggs are supposed to pass when laid by the insect, the two
outer pairs, a and o, sheathing the inner pair. Ganin sh!)ws tliat in the embryo oi
PoIynemuiFig. G.j.5), the throe pairs of tubercles arise from tho 7tli, 8th and 9th s'g-
meuts respectively. Fig. 1.5,10. The same a little f.irther advanced.
Fig. 17. The three pairs now iippear as if together growing from tho base of the
ninth segment; 17n, side view of the same, showing the end of the abdomen grow-
mg smaller through the diminution in size of the under side of the body.
Fig. 18. The three pairs of rhabdites now nearly equal in size, and nearly
ready to unite and form a tube; ISa, side view of the same; the end of the abdo-
men still more pointed; the ovipositor is situated between the seventh and tenth
rings, and ia partially retracted within the body.
18 a.
16
THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
gradually incurved toward the base (Fig. 18), and the three
pairs of rhabdites approach each other so closely that the two
outer ones completely ensheath the inner, until a complete
extensible tube is formed, which is gradually withdrawn entirely
within the body.
The male genital organ is originally composed of three pairs
(two pairs, apparently, in yEs-
.^ clma., Fig. 19) of tubercles all
arising from the ninth abdominal
ring, being sternal outgrowths
and placed on each side of the
f-~Trsr-\ mesial line of the body, two be- i" 's '-'^■
v_kLLy iiig anterior, and very unequal in size, and the
Fig. 19. third pair nearer the base of the abdomen. The ex-
ternal genital organs are to be considered
as probably homologous with the limbs, as
Ganin has shown that they bud out in the
r.amc manner from (sec p. 704
..a
fig. G55) the artliromere*
■^ Tins view will apply to the
¥W. 21. genital armor of all Insects, so
far as we have been able to observe. It is
so in the pupa of u-Eschna (Fig. 21), and
the pupa of Agrion (Fig. 22), which com-
pletely repeats, in its essential features, the
structure of the ovipositor of Bombus. Thus in ^schna and
Agrion the ovipositor consists of a pair of closely appressed ensi-
form processes which grow out from under the posterior edge of
the eighth abdominal ring, and are embraced between two pairs
*This term is proposed as better defining the ideal ring, or primary zoological
element of an articulated animal than the terms snmite or ^ouiiite, which seem too
vague; we also propose the term arthroderm for the outer crust, or body walls, of
Articulates, and arthropleura for the pleural, or limb-bearing region, of the bod}-,
benig that portion of tlie artliromere situated between the tevgite and sternite.
Fiu. 19. The rudiments of the male introniittent organ of the pujia of ^Eschna,
consisting of two llattened tubercles situated on the nmth ring; the outer pair
large and rounded inclosing tlie smaller linear oval pair.
Fig. 20. The same in the Humble-bee, but consisting of three pairs of tubercles,
X, y, z ; 8, 9, 10, the last three segments of the abdomen.
Fig. 21. The rudimentary ovipositor of the pupa of yEsclma, a Dragon-fly.
Fig. 22. The same in pupa of Agrion., a small Dragon-fly. Here the rudiments
of the eleventh abdominal ring are seen, d, the base of one of the abilominal false
gills. The ovipositor of Cicada is formed in the same way. — Figs. H-23 original.
Fig. 22.
COIPOSITION OF THE OVIPOSITOK.
17
of thin lamolliform pieces of similir form and structure, arising
from the sternite of the ninth ring. These outgrovvtlis appar-
ently also homologizG with the filiform, antennae-like, jointed
appendages of the eleventh ring, as seen in the Perlidse and
most JSeuroptcra and Orthoptera (especially in Mantis tes-
sellata where they (Fig. 23) closely
resemble antennae), which, arising as
they do from the arthropleural, or limb- [ --, L
bearing region of the bod}^, i. e. between Fig. 23.
the sternum and episternum, are strictly homologous Avith the
abdominal legs of the Myriapoda, the "false legs" of cater-
pillars, and the abdominal legs of some Xeuropterous larvse
{ConjdaUs^ Phryganeidce, etc.).
It will thus be seen that the attenuated form of the tip is
produced by the decrease in size of certain parts, the actual
disappearance of others, and the perfection of tliose parts to
be of future use. Thus towards the extremity of the body
the pleurites are absorbed and disappear, the tergites overlap
on the sternites, and the latter diminish in size and are
withdrawn within the body, while the last, or eleventh sternite,
entirely disappears.* Meanwhile the sting grows larger and
larger, until finally we
have the neatly fashioned
abdominal tip of the bee
concealing the complex
sting with its intricate
s^'stem of A'isceral ves-
sels and glands.
The ovipositor, or sting, of all insects, therefore, is formed
on a common plan (Fig. 24). The solid elements of the arthro-
*In lianafro, however, Lacaze-Dutliiers hns noticed the curious fact that in
order to form the long respiratory tube of this insect, the tergite and sternite of the
prcgeuital (eighth) segment are aborted, Avhile the ideurites are enonnously en-
larged and elongated, so as to carry the stigmata far out to the end of the long tube
thus formed.
Fig. 23. End of the abdomen of Mantis tenKellata ; p, many-jointed anal style
resembling an antenna. 5-11, the last seven abdominal segments; the S-llth ster-
nite.s being obsolete. — From Lacaze-Duthiers.
Fig. 21. Ideal plan of the structui-e of the ovipositor in the adult insect. i-7t,
the tergites, connected by dotted lines ■with their coi-responding sternites. b, the
eighth tergite, or anal scale ; c, epinierum ; a, a, two pieces forming the outer pair
of rliabdites; i, the second pair, or stylets; and /, the inner pair, or sting; d, the
18 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
mere are modified to form the parts supporting the sting alone.
The external opening of the oviduct is always situated between
the eighth and nintli segments, while the anal opening lies at
the end of the eleventh ring. 80 that there are really, as
Laca/ce-Duthiers observes, tlu'ee segments interposed between
the genital and anal openings.
The various modifications of the ovipositor and male organ
will be noticed under the different suborders.
The Structure of the Head. After studying the com-
position of the thorax and abdomen, where the constituent
parts of the elemental ring occur in their greatest simjjlicity,
we may attempt to unravel the intricate structure of the head.
We are to determine whether it is composed of one, or more,
segments, and if several, to ascertain how many, and then to
learn what parts of the typical arthromere are most largely
developed as compared with the development of similar parts
in the thorax or abdomen. In this, perhaps the most difficult
problem the entomologist has to deal with, the study of the
head of the adult insect alone is only guesswork. "We must
trace its growth in the embryo. Though many writers consider
the head as consisting of but a single segment, the most emi-
nent entomologists have agreed that the head of insects is com-
posed of two or more segments. Savigny led the way to these
discoveries in transcendental entomology by stating that the
appendages of the head are but modified limbs, and homol-
ogous with the legs. This view at once gave a clue to the
complicated structure of the head. If the antennae and biting
organs are modified limbs, then there must be an elemental
segment present in some form, however slightly developed in
the mature insect, to which such limbs are attached. But the
best observers have differed as to the supposed number of such
theoretical segments. Burmeister believed that there were two
only ; Carus and Audouin thought there were three ; ^IcLeay
and Newman four, and Straus-Durckheim recognized seven.
From the study of the semipupa of the Humble-bee (Bombics)
Biipport of the sting; e, the support of the stylet (i). 7?, the anus ; O, the outlet of
the oviduct. The seventh, eighth, and ninth sternites are aborted. — From Lacazt-
Duthiers,
THE STRUCTURE OF THE HEAD. 19
and several low Neuropterous forms, as the larva of Ephemera^
but chiefly the embryos of Diplax^ Chri/sopa, Attelabuft, Nema-
tus, and Palex, we have concluded that there are four such ele-
mental segments in the head of hexapodous insects.
On reference to fig. 57 it will be seen that tliere is a sternal
portion on the under side of the two posterior segments of the
head, and in the embr^'o of Attelahns we have seen sterna also
developed in the antennal and mandibular segments, so that we
may conclude that there are four segments in the head of all
SIX footed insects, correspou ling to the jointed appendages,
I, e. the labium, or second maxilhie, the first maxilhe, the man
dibles, and the antennae. Though having, in accordance with
the generally received opinions of Milne-Edwards, Dana, and
others, believed that the eyes of Crustacea, and therefore of
Insects, were the homologues of the limbs, and developed on
separate segments placed in front of the antennal segment, as
stated in the previous editions of this work ; I have, however,
on farther study of the subject, been led to reconsider the mat-
tar, and decide that the eyes are but modified dermal sense
cells, and in certain articulates developed on limb-bearing seg-
ments. Thus in the King Crab (Limidus) a pair of ocelli are
situated on the fii'st segment of the body, and the large com-
pound eyes grow out on the back of the third segment, both
bearing limbs. In the embryos of all the insects yet exam-
ined, the eyes are groups of specialized cells of the skin which
grow out on the upper, or tergal, side of the same segment
which bears the antennaa. In certain mites, as Hydrachna, and
its allies, the simple eyes are situated over the second pair of
legs, and at a considerable distance behind the head. Among
the worms, also, organs of sight, as in Pohjoplithalmus^ are
developed on each segment of the body ; or, as in certain Pla-
narians, scattered irregularly over the body.
The three ocelli, when present, are developed after the eyes
Appear. Each of these three ocelli is situated upon a distinct
piece ; but we must consider the anterior single ocellus as in
reality formed of two, since in the immature pupa of Bombus
the anterior ocellus is transversely ovate, resulting from the
fusion of two originally distinct ocelli. There are, therefore,
apparently two pairs of ocelli. The clypeus and labrum are
20
THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
simply a fcld of the skin of the front part of the antennary
segment, and are not to be compared with the tergite or rudi-
ment of the eleventh segment of the abdomen.
Now, since the arthropleural is the limb-bearing region in
the thorax, it must follow that this region is quite well devel-
oped in tlie head, while the tergal region, bearing the organs of
sight, sometimes of enormous size, is perhaps still more largely
developed ; and as all the parts of the head are subordinated
in their development to that of the appendages of which they
form the support, it must follow logically that the larger por-
tion of the body of the head is jyleiiral and tergal, and that the
s'ternal parts are very slightly developed. Thus each region of
the body is characterized by the relative development of the
three parts of the arthromere. In the abdomen the upper
(tergal) and under (sternal) surfaces are most equally devel-
oped, while the pleural line is reduced to a minimum. In the
thorax the pleural region is much more developed, either quite
as much, or often more than the ujjper, or tergal portion, Avhile
the sternal is reduced to a minimum. In the head the tergites
form the main bulk of the region, and the sternites are reduced
to a minimum.
Tablk ok thk Segments of the Head and their Appendages,
lieginning with the jiost anterior.
First Sesrment
[Anteiinarij),
Second Segment
( Mandibular),
Third Segment
{First Maxillary),
Fourth Segment
( Second Maxillary, or)
Labial),
Preorul.
V Tergal,
Pastoral .
i Pleural,
^ Pleural,
^Tergal (occiput),
> Pleural (genu),
5 Sterual (gula),
AntennfB, together with
the labrum, epipharynx,
clypeus, eyes, aud ocelli.
Mandibles.
First maxillae.
Second maxillaa
(Lalnuni).
The Appendages. We naturally begin with the thoracic
appendages, or legs, of which there is a pair to each ring. The
leg (Fig. 25) consists of six joints, the basal one, the coxa, in
the Hymenoptera, Lcpidoptera, and Diptera, consisting of t^YO
THE APPENDAGES. 21
pieces, i.e. the coxa and trochcmtine (see Fig. 12); the tro-
chanter; the femiir; the tibia, and, lasth', the tarsus, which is
subdivided into from one to five joints, tlie latter being qa
the normal number. The terminal joint ends in a pair ^
of claws between which is a cushion-like sucker called
the pulviUus. This sucking disk enables the Fly to
walk upside down and on glass.
In the larva, the feet are short and horny, and the Fig. 25.
joints can be still distinguished. In IMyriopods, each segment
of the abdomen has a pair of feet like the thoracic ones. "We
must consider the three pairs of spinnerets of Spiders, which
are one to three-jointed, as homologous with the jointed limbs of
the higher insects. In the six-footed insects (Hexapoda), the
abdominal legs are deciduous, being present in the Coleopterous
grub, the Dipterous maggot, the caterpillar, and larva of the
Saw-fly, but disappearing in the pupa state. They are often,
as in most maggots, eitlier absent, or reduced in number to the
two anal, or terminal pair of legs ; while in the Saw-flies, there
are as many as eight pairs. These "false" or "prop-legs"
are soft and flesh}^, and without articulations. At the retrac-
tile extremity is a crown of hooks, as seen in caterpillars or the
hind-legs of the larva of Chirononms (Fig. 26), in which the
prothoracic pair of legs is reduced to inarticu-
late fleshy legs like tlie abdominal ones.
The jwsition of the different pairs of legs
deserves notice in connection with the principle
of " antero-posterior symmetry." The fore-
legs are directed forw^ards like the human arms, ^^s- 26.
but the two hinder pairs are directed backwards. In the Spiders,
three pairs of abdominal legs (spinnerets) are retained through-
out life ; in the lower Ilexapods, a single pair, which is ap-
pended to the eleventh segment, is often retained, but under
a form which is rather like an antenna, than limb-like. In
some Neuropterous larvae {Phryganea, Corydahis, etc.) the
anal pair of limbs are very well marked ; they constitute the
"anal forceps" of the adult insect. They sometimes become
true, manj^-jointed appendages, and are then remarkably like
Fig. 25. A, coxa; B, trochanter; C, femur; D, tibia; F, tibial spurs ; E, tarsus,
divided into five tarsal joints, the fllth ending m a claw. — /'Voj/i Sanborn.
22 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
antennoe, as in the instance of Mantis tessellata described by
Lacaze-Duthiers (Fig. 23). In the Cockroach these append-
ages, sometimes called "anal cerci," resemble the antennie of
the same insect. In the Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera they
do not api)ear to be jointed, and are greatl}^ aborted.
The Wings. The wings of insects Ih'st appear as little soft
vascular sacs permeated by tracheae. They grow out in the
preparatory stages (Fig. 27) of the pupa from the side of the
J. thorax and above the insertion of the
legs, i.e. between the epimerum and
.»« tergum. During the pupa state they
are pad-like, but when the pupa skin is
thrown off they expand with air, and
in a few minutes, as in the Butterfly,
enlarge to many times their original
size. The wings of insects, then, are
simple expansions of the crust, spread
over a framework of horny tubes.
These tubes are really double, consist-
ing of a central trachea, or air tube,
'"' "'■ inclosed within a larger tube filled with
blood, and which performs the functions of the Acins. Hence
the aeration of the blood is carried on in the wings, and thus
they serve the double purpose of lungs and organs of flight.
The number and situation of these veins and their branches
(veinlets) are of great use in separating genera and species.
The typical number of primary veins is five. They diverge
outward at a slight angle from the insertion of the wing, and
are soon divided into veinlets, from which cross veins are
thrown out connecting with others to form a net-work of veins
and veinlets, called the venation of the wing (Figs. 28, 29).
The interspaces between the veins and veinlets are called cells.
At a casual glance the venation seems very irregular, but in
many insects is simple enough to enable us to trace and name
the veinlets. The five main veins, most usually present, are
Fig. 27. The semipnpa of Bomhus, the larva skin havinjr been removed, show
ing the two pairs of rudimontary wings growing ont from the mesothorax (/,•), uni ,
metathovax (m). n and the seven sncceeding dots represent the eight abdominal
stigmata, the first one (m) being in the pnpa situated on the thorax, since the flrsj
ring of the abdomen is in this stage joined to the thorax. — Original.
THE WINGS.
23
Fig. 28.
called, beginning at the costa, or front edge, the costal^ subcostal,
median, submedian, and internal, and sometimes the median
divides into two, making six
veins. The costal vein is un-
divided ; the subcostal and me-
dian are divided into several
branches, while the submedian
and internal are usually simple.
The venation of the fore-
wings affords excellent marks
in se2:)arating genera, but that
of the hind wings varies less,
and is consequently of less use.
The wings of many insects
are divided by the veins into
three well-marked areas ; the
costal, median, and iriternal.
The costal area (Fig. 31 &) forms
the front edge of the wing and
is the strongest,
since the veins are
nearer together than
elsewhere, and thus
afford the greatest
resistance to the air
Fig. 28. Fore and hind wings of a Butterfly, showing the venation. I. fore wing:
«, costal vein; b, subcostal vein; ^i, b2, b:'., b*, bo, live subcostal veinlets; c, inde-
pendent vein (it is sometimes a branch of tlie subcostal, and sometimes of the me-
dian vein) ; fl, median vein ; di, d2, ,is, di, four median veinlets ; e, submedian vein ;
/, internal vein; h, interno-meduin veinlet (rarely found, according to Doubleday,
except in Papilloand Morpho); b and r/ are situated m the "discal cell; " ^1, </?, r/3,
the upper, middle, and lower discal veinlets. In the Bombycidre and many other
moths gl and ff'^ are thrown ofl'from the subcostal and median veins respectively,
meeting in the middle of the cell at r/2. They are sometimes wholly absent.
11. The hind wing; the lettering and names of the veins and veinlets the same
as in the fore wing. — SlU/htli/ changed from Donbleday.
Fig. 20. Fore wing of a Ilynienopterous insect, c, costal vein; se, subcostal
vein; m, median vein; sm, submedian vein; i, internal vein; c, 1,2,3, the first,
second, and third costal cells ; the second frequently opaque and then called the
pterosiigma. sc, 1, 2, 3, 4, the four subcostal cells; m, 1, 2, 3, 4, the median cells;
sm, 1, 2, 3, the three submedian cells ; il, the internal cell ; this is sometimes divided
into two cells, and the number of all but the costal cells is inconstant, the outer
row of cells (4, 4, 3) being the first to disappear.
The costal edge extends from e to c; the outer c, the. apex; the outer edge extends
f;;orri the apex (c) to a, and the inner edge extends from /?, the inner angle, to the
insertion of the wing at /. — Original. Figs. 30-32 //-ow Scudder.
24
THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
Fig. 30.
during flight. The median area (Fig. 31 a) is the largest. It i«i
in the grasslioppers and crickets sometimes modified to form a
musical organ, being
drum-like, as in the
(Ecanthus (Fig. 30), or
rasp-like, as in Arcliyp-
tera (Fig. 31a). The
internal area (c) is the
smallest, and less dis-
tinctly marked than the
two other regions ; the musical file-like or-
gan of Phaneroptera curvicauda^ a grass-
hopper (Fig. 32 d) is situated on this area.
The limits of the edges of the wing vary
in almost every genus, and their comparative length affords
excellent generic characters. The front edge (Fig. 29) is called
the costal, its termina-
tion in the outer angle
of the wing is called
the apex; the onter edge
i- 1 \ is situated between the
7^ \ apex and the inner an-
gle, between whieli and
the base of the wing is
the inner, or internal,
edge. These distinc-
tions are of most use
in describing the butter-
flies and moths.
The Appendages of
'^'^s-^^<^- the Head. These organs
are divided into two groups,
the first of which comprise the
sensory organs, i. e. the ocelli,
eyes, and antennae, which are attached to the region in front
of the mouth, or preoral region of the head. The second
group consists of the sensorio-digestive appendages, combining
the power of finding and seizing the food and preparing it for
digestion. They are inserted behind the mouth and belong
to the pastoral region of the head.
THE APrENDAGES OF THE HEAD. 25
We will first describe the ocelli, which are theoretically the
most anterior organs of the head, ending with the basal appen-
dages, the labium (second maxiUa;) being the hindermost.
The simple eye, Ocellus, or Stemma, is the simplest form of
the eye. Its most elementary form (seen in the larva of the
Bot-fl}^ and the Cecidomyian larva of Miastor) is that of a brown
spot, or group of pigment-cells lodged under the skin and
against which a nerve-filament impinges. Over this spot New-
port states that the tegument is transparent and convex,
resembling a true cornea, or eye-lens. A well-developed
ocellus consists, according to Newport, of a "very convex,
smooth, single cornea, beneath which is a spherical crystalline
lens, resting upon the plano-convex surface of the expanded
vitreous humor, the analogue of the transparent cones of the
compound eyes." Miiller believes that the function of the ocelli
is the perception of nearer objects, while that of the compound
eyes is to see more distant objects. The ocelli constitute the
only visual organs in the Myriapocls (except Cermatia) , the
Arachnida, and the larviE of many Six-footed Insects ; they
are usually from one to six on a side. In adult insects
they are generally three in number, and
are generally present except in the large
majority of Coleoptera. Their normal site
is in front of the eyes, but they are usually Fig. 33.
thrown back, during the growth of the insect, behind the eyes,
on the vertex, or topmost part of the head (Fig. 33).
The Comjwund Eijes are a congeries of simple eyes. During
the growth of the insect the simple eyes of the larva increase
^!|&l in number, and finall}' coalesce to form the compound
^ipi^ eye, or compound cornea, the surface of which is
Fig. 34. very convex and protuberant in the predaceous insects,
or those requiring an extended field of vision.
The number of facets, or cornets, vary from fifty (in the Ant)
to 3,650, the- latter mimber being counted b}'' Geoffroy in the
eye of a Butterfly. These facets are usuallj' hexagonal, as in
the Dragon-fly (Fig. 34), or, rarely, quadrangular.
Fig. 33. Ocelli of three species of Sand-wasps, Pompilus. — From Cresson.
Fig. 34. Three hexagonal facets of the compound eye of a fossil Dragon-fly.
greatly maguifled. — From Dawson.
26 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
The Antennce (Figs. 35, 3G) are inserted usually in the adult
insect between, or in front of the eyes, though in the embryo
they are inserted below and in front of the eyes.
It is normally a long, filiform, slender, many-
jointed ap[)endage, undergoing great changes
in form. When it is highly specialized, as in
Coleoptera and Ilymenoptera, it is divided
into three parts, the basal or scape^ the middle
or pedici'J^ and the terminal part or Jiagelluvi,
Fig. 35. or davola, which usually comprises the greater part of
the antenna.
It is believed b}^ some that the sense of hearing is lodged
in the antenuic, though Siebold has discovered an auditors-
apparatus situated at the base of the abdomen of some, and
in the fore-legs of other species of Grasshoppers.
Mr. J. B. Hicks has made the latest studies on the auditory
apparatus. According to him "it consists first of a cell, sac,
or cavity filled with fluid, closed in from the air by a mem-
brane analogous to that which closes the foramen ovale in the
higher animals ; second, that this membrane is, for the most
l)art, thin and delicate, but often projects above the surface, in
either a hemispherical, conical, or canoe-shaped, or even hair-
like form, or Aariousl}' marked ; thirdly, that the antennal nerve
gives oft" branches Avhicli come in contact with the inner wall of
the sacs ; but whether the nerve enters, or, as is most probable,
ends in the small internally projecting papilla which I have
shown to exist in many of these sacs, it is very difficult to say.
The principal part of the nerve proceeds to these organs, the
remaining portion passing to the muscles, and to the roots of
the hairs, at least to those of the larger sort." On the other
hand, Lefebvre, Leydig, and Gerstaecker regard this so-called
"auditory apparatus" as an organ of smell.
The antennae have also the sense of touch, as ma}^ readily be
observed in Ants, Bees, and the Grasshopper and Cockroach,
"The Honej^-bee, when constructing its cells, ascertains their
proper direction and size by means of the extremities of these
Fig. 35. Filiform antenna of Amphizoa. — From Horn.
Fig. 36. A, lamellate antenna of a Lamellicorn Beetle; B, antenna of a Fly,
with tlie bristle thrown ofif from the terminal joint; C, bristle-like antenna of a
Dragon-fly, Lihcllulu. — From Sanborn.
THE APPENDAGES OF THE HEAD.
27
organs; while the same insect, when evidently affected by
sounds, keeps them motionless in one direction, as if in the act
of listening." (Newport.)
After cutting off one or both antennae of 'the June beetle,
Lachnosterna, the insect loses its power of directing its flioht
or steps, wheeling about in a senseless manner. Dr. Clemens
observed that the Cecropia moth was similarly affected after
losing its antenujB.
The Mandibles (Fig. 37) are inserted on each side of the
mouth-opening. They usually consist of but a single joint,
Fig. 37.
representing probably the basal part of the ideal limb. This
part, however, is often subdivided by two longitudinal funows
into three parts, each ending in a "tooth" of unequal size for
tearing and cutting the food. This tripartite form of the man-
dibles, to whicli attention has been called by Mr. Scudder, is
more fully carried out in the maxilla, where each portion is
highly specialized. The mandibles vary greatly in form and
size. The two cutting edges are usually opposed to each other,
or frequently overlap in the carnivorous forms. Their base is
often concealed by the clypeus
and labrum. Their motion is
transverse, being the reverse of
the motion of the jaws of Ver-
tebrates.
The Maxillce (Figs. 386, 39) are
a Fl;
much more complicated organs than the mandibles.
Tig. 39.
They are
Fig. 37. Different forms of mandibles. A, mandible of Cicindela purimrea ; B.
PhyUoptern, A grean grasshopper; C, Libellula trimacnhita ; D, Vespa maculata, or
paper-making Wasp ; E, " rostrum " or jointed sucker of the Bed-bug, Cimex lectu.
larius, consisting of mandibles, maxillae, and labium; F, proboscis, or sucker, of a
Mosquito, Culex, in which the mandibles are long and bristle-like.— From Sanborn.
G, mandible oi Amphizoa; H, mandible of Acratus,a genus of Cockchafers. — i-Vojn
Horn.
Fig. 38. a, mentum and labial palpi; b, one maxilla, with its palpus, of Acra-
tus. — From Horn.
Fig. 39. Maxilla of Amphizoa, with the two lobes (stipes and lacinia), and the
palplfer bearing the four-jointed palpus. — i^rom Horn,
28 THE CLASS OF IXSECTS.
inserted on the under side of the head and just behind the
mouth. The maxilla consists of a basal joint, or cardo,
beyond which it is subdivided into three lobes, the stipes, or
footstalk ; the jxtlj^ifer, or palpus-bearer ; and the lacinia, or
blade. The stipes forms the outer and main division of the
organ. The lacinia is more membranaceous than the other
parts, and its upper surface is covered with fine hairs, and
forms a great part of the side of the mouth. It is divided
into two lobes, the superior of which is called the galea, or
helmet, which is often a thick double-jointed organ edged with
stitf hairs, and is used as a i)alpus in the Orthoptera and many
Coleoptera. The inferior lobe is attached to the internal angle
of the lacinia. It terminates in a stiff minute claw, and is
densely covered with stout hairs. The maxillary paJjn are
long, slender, one to four-jointed organs. In Perla I have found
that both pairs of palpi bear organs probably of smell.
The maxillffi vary greatly in the different groups. Their office
is to seize the food and retain it within the mouth, and also to
aid the mandibles in comminuting it before it is swallowed.
This function reminds us of that of the tongue of vertebrate
animals.
The labium, or second maxillai (Fig. 40), is placed in front of
the gula, which forms the under part of the head, and is bounded
a on each side by the genai, or cheeks, and
posteriorly by the occiput. The genaj are
bounded laterally by the epicranium and
the under side of the eyes. In front are
Fig. 40. situated the basal parts of the labium, or
second maxilLne, which embraces the submentv.m and menhnit
(or labium proper). The labial palpi are inserted into the
mentum, but often the latter piece is differentiated into two,
the anterior of which takes the name of paljyiger, called by
Dr. Leconte (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections) the ligula,
and from which the palpi originate. The ligula is the front
edge of the labium, being the piece forming the under lij).
It is often a fleshy organ, its inner surface being continuous
Fig. 40. Ligula and labial palpi of ylmpft/coa, an aquatic Ijeetle. It is quadrate
and without v)ar,iglo.s?a2; a, mentum of the same, being deeply incised, and with a
tooth at the bottom of the excavation. — From Horn.
THE APPENDAGES OF THE HEAD.
29
with the soft membrane of the mouth. In the Bees, it is enor-
mously developed and covered with soft hairs. It is often
confounded with the palpiger. In Hydrous it is divided into
two lobes. In most of the Carabidoi and Bees it is divided
into three lobes, the two outer ones forming the paraglossce
(Fig. Aim), and acting as feelers, while the middle, usually
nuich longer, forms the lingua, or tongue, being the continuation
of the ligula. In the bees, where
the ligula is greatly developed,
it performs the part of the tongue
in Vertebrates, and aids the max-
illiB in collecting nectar and
pollen.
The roof of the mouth is
formed by the lahrum and the
ejnpharynx (Fig. 42c), a small
fleshy tubercle concealed beneath
the labrum. It is seen in the
bees on turning up the labrum.
It probably corresponds to the
"labellum" of Schiodte. The
labrum (Fig. 41 e) is usually
transverse and situated in front
of the dypeus (Fig. 416). The
shield-like dypeus is the broad,
visor-like, square piece forming usually the front of the head.
Behind it is the dypeus posterior, or supra-dyiieus, a subdivision
of the clypeus, and especially observable in the Hymenoptera.
The epicranium forms a large part of the head ; it is bounded
posteriorly by the occiput, on the sides by the eyes, and in
front by the clypeus, and though usually described as a
single piece, is really composed of several. The ocelli often
appear to be situated upon it, though in reality they are placed
upon a distinct piece or pieces. The " epicranial suture" is the
line of junction of the two "procephalic lobes" (Huxley).
Fig. 41. Front A'ieAV of the head of a bee, Anthcphora. a, compound eyes: c,
three simple eyes, situated upon the epicranium; b, clypeus; e, hibrum; (/, an-
tennre;/, mandible.s: i, maxilla; h, maxillary palpi; I, palpifer; j, labial palpi; »«,
paraglossae; k, ligula.— Fro»n Netvport.
80
THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
(These lobes will be explained farther on when speaking
of their development in the embryo.) Behind the epicra-
nium is the occiput,
or base of the head.
It belongs to the la-
bial, or second max-
illary segment, and
helps to form a com-
plete ring, articulat-
ing with the thorax.
It is perforated by a
foramen to afford a
connection between
the interior of the
head and thorax. It
is sometimes, as in
many Coleoptera, Or-
thoptera, and Ilemip-
tera, elongated be-
hind and constricted,
thus forming a "neck." It will be seen beyond, that the
labrum and clypeus are in the embryo developed from a
"tongue-like process Avhose inferior part eventually becomes
the labrum, while superiorly it sends a triangular process (the
rudiment of the clypeus) into the interval between the proce-
phalic lobes."* This part {i.e. the clypeus and labrum) is the
most anterior part of the head, and in the embrj'o, as in the
adult, is normally situated in front of the ocelli, but is not to
be compared with the " anal plate," or eleventh tergite, of the
larva, or with the telson of the scorpion, as Huxley f supposes.
Fig. 42. Side view of the front part of the head, together with the mouth-
parts of the Humble-bee (Bombiis). a, clyiieus covered witli hairs; b, labnini;
c, the fleshy ei)ipharynx partially con(^ealed by the base of the mandibles (rf)'-
e, laciuia, or blade of the maxillaj, with their two-jointed i)alpi (/) at the base ; j, the
labium to which is ajipended the ligula {(/); below are the labial palpi; h, the two
basal jonits, being greatly enlarged; A-, the compound eyes.— Orif/iniiL
* These lobes are folded back upon the top of the base of the heail, and they
seem to form the terr/nl portion of t'lC antennary ring, to which they respectively
belong and do not seem to us to be the sternal ])ortion, as suggested by Huxley,
for they are apparently developed in front of the mouth-opening, and form the roof
of tlie month.
t " Lastly, there are certain parts developed singly in the median line in tlie ArUc-
ulata. Of this nature are the frontal spines of Crustacea, their telson, and the sting
THE MUSCULAK SYSTEM. 31
In describing Insects the vertex^ or crown, of the head is the
highest part ; and the front is the part usually in front of the
insertion of the antennae.
The Muscular System lies just beneath, and is continuous
with the integument. It consists of numerous "distinct isola-
ted straight fibres, which are not gathered into bundles united
by common tendons, or covered by aponeuroses [or tendinous
sheaths] to form distinct muscles, as in the Vertebrata, but
remain separate from each other, and only in some instances
are united at one extremity by tendons." (Newport.) These
minute fibres form layers, which Newport regards as separate
muscles. "Each fibre is composed of a great number of very
minute fibrillte, or fasciculi of fibrillar," and has been observed
by Wagner and Newport to be often striated as in Vertebrates.
The muscular system is simplest in the lower insects and the
larvae of the higher forms, and is more complex in the head
than elsewhere, and more complex in the thorax than in the
abdomen. These minute muscles are exceedingly numerous.
"Lj^onnet, in his immortal Avork on the anatomy of the larva
of Cossns Ugm'perda, found two hundred and twenty-eight dis-
tinct muscles in the head alone, and, by enumerating the fibres
in the layers of the diflferent segments, reckoned 1,647 for the
body, and 2,118 for the internal organs, thus making together
3,993 muscles in a single larva. In the larva of Sphinx ligus-
tri we have found the muscles equally numerous with those
discovered by Lyonnet in the Cossus." (Newport.)
The muscular system corresponds to the jointed structure of
insects, as do the other internal systems of organs. Of the
muscles belonging to a single ring, some stretch from the front
edge of one segment to the front edge of the next, and others
of the Scorpion, whose mode of development appears to be precisely similar to
that c)f a tclson. In the same categorj' we must rank the labrnni in front of the
mouth, which in the Crustacea (at least) appears to be developed from the sternum
of the antennary, or third somite, the metastoma (or so called labium, or lingua)
of Cruntacea, and the lingua of Tnxecta, behind the oral aperture.
" However much these appendages may occasionally simulate, or play the part
of apiiendages, it is important to remember, that, morphologically, they are of a
very diflerent nature, and that the confusing them with true appendages must
tend completely to obscure the beautiful relations which obtain among the dif-
ferent classes of the Articulata." — Huxley, Linnsean Transactions, vol. xxii.
London-
32 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
to the hinder edge ; there are also sets of dorsal and ventral
muscles going in an oblique or vertical course. The muscles
are either colorless and transparent, or yellowish white ; and
of a soft, almost gelatinous consistence. In form the^- are
simpl}' flat and thin, straight, band-like, or pyramidal, barrel
or feather-shaped. They act variously as rotators^ elevators,
depressors, retractors, protrusors, flexors, and extensors.
ThQ muscular Isomer of insQCts is enormous. The Flea will
leap two hundi-ed times its own height. Certain beetles can
support enormous weights. Newport cites the case of Geo-
tru2Jes stercorarius which is "able to sustain and escape from
beneath a pressure of from twenty to thirty ounces, a prodi-
gious weight when it is remembered that the insect itself does
not weigh even so many grains. " Some beetles have been
known to gnaw through lead-pipes, and the Stag-beetle of
Europe, Lucanus cervus, has, as stated by Mr, Stephens,
gnawed ''a hole an inch in diameter thiough the side of an
iron canister in which it was confined."
"The motions of the insect in walking as in flying arc
dependent, in the perfect individual, entirely uj^on the thoracic
segments, but in the larva chiefly upon the abdominal. Al-
though the number of legs in the former is always six, and in
the latter sometimes so many as twenty-two, progression is
simple and easy. Mijller states (Elements of Physiolog}', p.
970, Translation) that on watching insects that move slowly
he has distinctly perceived that three legs are always moved at
one time, being advanced and put to the ground while the
other three propel the body forwards. In perfect insects, those
moved simultaneously are the fore and hind feet on one side,
and the intermediate foot on the opposite ; and afterwards the
fore and hind feet on that side, and the middle one on the
other, so that, he remarks, in two steps the Avhole of the legs
are in motion. A similar uniformity of motion takes place
in the larva, although the whole anterior part of the body is
elevated and carried forwards at regular distances, the steps of
the insect being almost entirely performed by tlie 'false,' or
abdominal legs."
"Inflight the motions depend upon the meso- and mcta-
thoracic segments conjointly, or entirely upon the former. The
THE XEBVOU5 STSTE3I,
33
sternal, epistemal, and epimeral pieces, freely articulated
together, correspond in function with the sternum, the ribs,
and the clavicles of birds.* The thorax is expanded and C':>n-
tracted at each motion of the
wings, as in birds and other ani-
mals, and becomes fixe<l at each
increased eflbrt as a fulcrum or
point of resistance upon which
the great muscles of the wings
are to act, thus identifying this
part of the body in function as
in structure with that of other ani-
mals." (Newport.)
The Xeevous Systeji. In its
simplest fonn the nervous system
consists of two longitudinal cords,
each with a swelling (nerve-knot,
or ganglion.) correspnjnding to
each segment (Fig. 43). This
cord lies on the ventral side of the
b«xly. but in the head it passes
upwards, sending a filament from
each side to siuround the oesoph-
agus.! -A^s in the Vertebrates,
the nervous cord of insects is
composed of two distinct columns
of fibres placed one upon the other,
column, which is nearest to the exterior of the body, is that in
which the ganglia, or enlargements, are situated. The upper
one, or that which is internal and nearest to the viscera, is
entirely without ganglia, and passes directly over the ganglia
of the under coliman without forming part of them, but in ver\-
* Bennet on the Anatomy of the Thorax in Insects, and its Fnnction during
Flight. Zoological Joamal. vol. i. i>. 3»4.
t The brain of inse^'ts is fomieil of several pairs of ganglia, corresponding,
probably, to the number of primitive segments composing the head. The nc rroas
conl is thus, in the head, massed together and eompacteil to form a brain.
Fig. 43, Servous System of Co-rydalHS eontutus. a, ■'cerebrum;'' b, "cere-
brelhim ;^ c. thoracic ganglia, which distribute a nerve to each leg: d. eight pairs
of abdominal ganglia. The dotted lines represent the wrings. — Frcn Lfi. 'y.
3
Fig.ti.
The under or eternal
34 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
close approximation to them." Newport also believes that the
ganglionless upper, or internal, column of fibres is analogous
to the motor column of Vertebrata, while the external, or under
one, corresponds to the sensitive column, thus representing the
cerebro-spinal system of the Vertebrata.
From each pair of ganglia are distributed special nerves to
the various organs. In the larva of Sphinx the normal num-
ber of double ganglia is thirteen, and the nervous cord of the
Neuroptera and other lowly organized and attenuated forms of
insects corresponds in the main to this number. In the adult
insect, especially in the Coleoptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera, and
Hymenoptera, the three thoracic ganglia are fused together,
following the fusion and general headwise development of the
segments of the tegument. Besides the central nervous cord,
corresponding to the spinal cord of the Vertebrates, there is a
vagus, or visceral nerve, representing the sympathetic nerve of
higher animals. This nerve "arises, in the larva, from the
anterior part of the cerebrum, and, forming a ganglion on the
upper sm'face of the pharynx, always passes backward beneath
the brain, along the middle line of the oesophagus." In its
microscopic structure the nervous cord, like that of Vertebrata,
consists of a central "gray" substance, and an outer or periph-
eral part, the "white" substance.
In the embryo the ganglia are very large and close together,
the commissures, or connecting filaments being very short, and
small in proportion.
Organs of Nutrition. These consist of the alimentary canal
and its appendages, or accessory glands (Fig. 44). We have
already treated of the external appendages (mouth-parts)
which prepare the food for digestion. The simplest form of
the alimentary canal is that of a straight tube. In the larva
of Stylops and the sedentary young of Bees, it ends in a blind
sac, as they live on liquid food and expel no solid excretions.
When well developed, as in the adult insect, it becomes a long
convoluted thick muscular tube, subdivided into different parts
which perform different functions and have distinct names,
taken from analogous organs in the vertebrate animals. This
digestive tube is composed of three coats, the outer, or j;er/-
ORGANS OF NUTRITION.
35
toneal; the middle, or muscular; and the inner, or mucous. The
mucous coat is variously modified, being plaited or folded ; or,
c d e h f h
m n o p J 1 1 9 I
Fig. 44.
as in the Orthoptera and carnivorous Coleoptera, it is solidified
and covered with rows of strong horny teeth, forming a sort of
gizzard. The alimentary canal is held in place by retractor
muscles, but principally by exceedingly numerous branches of
the main tracheae.
This canal (Fig. 45) is subdivided into the mouth and pha-
rynx, the oisojyhagns, supplementary to which is the crop, or
" sucking stomach" of Diptera, Lepidoptera, and Hymenoptera ;
the proventriaihis , or gizzard ; the veiUriculus, or true stomach,
and tlie intestine, which consists of the ileum, or short intes-
FiG. 44. Anatomy of Sphinx ligustri. m, i, q, the nervous cord resting on
the floor of the body ; at c, the ganglia fonn a brain-like organ, much larger than
the ganglia of the thorax (m) and abdomen {q). From the brain is sent ofl' the
euboisophageal nerve which surrounds the gullet into which the food is conveyed
by the maxillae, or spiral tongue («), which, when at rest, is rolled up between the
-"abial palpi (6).
From the nervous cord is also thrown off a pair of nerves to each pair of legs
(as at n, o,p) and a branch, d, is sent ofl" from above, distributing nerves to the
muscles of flight.
The heart, or dorsal vessel (e,/), lies just beneath the median line of the body,
and is retained in place by muscular bands (as at /) as well as by small tracheal
branches.
The alimentary canal (h,j, //), forms a straight tube in the head and thorax; h,
the crop, or sucking stomach, which opens into the nesophagus; J, the true, chyle-
formmg stomach, which contracts posteriorly, and then dilates near its anal outlet
into a cloaca (indicated at ff, but not distinctly, as it is concealed by the numerous
urinary vessels). The urinary vessels also indicated at g, form long tubes (which
correspond to the kidneys of Vertebrates), opening into the pyloric end of the
stomach. The position of the testes {l;)is the same as that of the ovary, and the
dotted line I shows the course of the efl'erent duct (vas deferens) and also of the
oviduct of the female.
The figure represents a longitudinal section of the insect, the legs and ends of
the antennae having beea removed. — From Newport.
36
THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
tine, and the colon and rectnvi. The latter part, as well as the
crop and proventriculus, are sometimes absent.
Of the appendages of the canal^ the first
are the salivary gkoids, which are usually
long simple tubes, which in the larva, ac-
cording to Newport, form the silk vessels.
They " empty themselves by a single duct
tlu'ough the spinneret on the floor (labium)
of the mouth." In the Ant-lion {Myrmeleon)
the silk is spun from "a slender telescopic-
like spinneret, placed at the extremity of
its body," and Westwood also states that the
larva of Chrysopa spins a cocoon "from the
spinneret, at the extremity of the body."
These silk glands when taken out of the
larva, just as it is about ready to transform,
are readily prepared as "gut" for fish-lines,
etc., by drying on a board.
In the Bees these glands are largely de-
veloped to produce a sufiicient amount of
salivary fluid to moisten the dry pollen of
Fig. 45. flowers, before it enters the oesophagus.
"Bee-bread" consists of pollen thus moistened and kneaded
by the insect. The Honey-bee also dissolves, by the aid of the
salivary fluid, the wax used in making its cells. Newport
believes this fluid is alkaline, and forms a solvent for the other-
wise brittle wax, as he has seen this insect " reduce the per-
fectly transparent thin white scales of newly secreted wax to
a pasty or soapy consistence, by kneading it between its man-
dibles, and mixing it Avith a fluid from its mouth, before apply-
ing it to assist in the formation of part of a new cell."
Insects have no true liver; its functions being performed
"by the walls of the stomach, the internal tunic of which is
composed of closely-aggregated hepatic cells." (Siebold.) In
the Spiders and Scorpions, however, there is a liver distinct
from the digestive canal. In the Spiders it is very large,
enveloping most of the other viscera.
Fig. 45. Alimentary tube of Cori/dfilns cornntus. a, oesophagus; h, proven-
triculus; c, ventricnlus; </, large intestine; e, urinary tubes ;/, coecuin ; </, testis or
ovary. — From Lcidij.
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 37
Siebold states that in some insects the ileum has glandular
appendages whose product is perhaps analogous to the pancre-
atic fluid. In the larva of insects is found the corpus adiposuvi,
or fat-body, in the form of large lobes of fat-cells which spread
through the intervals of the viscera in the general cavit}'^ of
the body. It is interpenetrated and retained in place by
numerous tracheae.
The Circulatory System. The vascular, or circulatory,
system is not a closed sac as in the Worms and Vertebrates.
The organs of circulation consist of a contractile, articulated
dorsal vessel, or so-called "heart," which terminates in a
cephalic aorta. The dorsal vessel receives the venous current
through the lateral valvular openings and pumps the blood into
its prolongation or cephalic aorta, whence it escapes, traversing
the body in all directions, in regular currents, which do not
have, however, vascular walls. "In this way, it penetrates the
antennae, the extremities, the wings, and the other appendages
of the body, by arterial currents, and is returned by those of a
venous nature. All the venous currents empty into two
lateral ones, running towards the posterior extremity of the
body, and which enter, through lateral orifices, the dorsal
vessel." (Siebold.)
"The blood of the Insecta is usually a colorless liquid,
though sometimes yellowish, but rarely red. In this liquid are
suspended a few very small, oval, or spheroidal corpuscles,
which are always colorless, have a granular aspect, and are
sometimes nucleated.
"The dorsal vessel, which is constricted at regular intervals,
is always situated on the median line of the abdomen, being
attached to the dorsal wall of its segments by several trian-
gular muscles whose apices point outwards. Its walls contain
both longitudinal and transverse fibres, and, externally, are
covered by a thin peritoneal tunic. Internally, it is lined by
another very fine membrane, which, at the points of these con-
strictions, forms valvular folds, so that the organ is divided
into as many chambers as there are constrictions. Each of
these chambers has, at the anterior extremity on each side, a
valvular orifice which can be inwardly closed. The returning
38
THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
blood is accumulated about the heart and enters into it during
the diastole of each of its chambers, through the lateral
orifices (Fig. 46 i). It then passes, by the regularly successive
Fig. 47.
contractions of the heart, from behind forwards into the aorta,
which is only a prolongation of the anterior chamber. This
aorta consists of a simple, small vessel, situated on the dorsal
surfiice of the thorax (Fig. 44 e), and extending even to the
cephalic ganglion, where it either ends in an open extremity, or
divides into several short branches which terminate in a like
manner. The length of the dorsal vessel depends, in all the
three states of insects, upon that of the abdomen. The number
of its chambers is very variable, but is, most usuall}^, eight.
"The blood, after leaving the aorta, traverses the body in
currents which are also extravascular, and in this way bathes
all the organs. The newly-pi'epared nutritive fluid passes
through the walls of the digestive canal in which it is found,
into the visceral cavity, and thence directly into the blood.
Latterly, this extravascular circulation has been called in
question, but its presence may be easily and directly observed
Fig. 4G. Part of the dorsal vessel or heart of Lucanus cervus ; a, the posterior
chambers (the anterior chambers are covered by a part of the ligaments which hold
the heart in place), i, the auriculo-ventricular openings; g, g, the lateral miis-
nles fixed by the prolongations h,h, to the upper side of the abdomen. — From
Straus Durckheim.
Fig. 47. Interior of the dorsal vessel; a, the inner walls with their circular
fleshy fibres; c, the auriculo-ventricular opening; with its semilunar valve (c), in
front of which is d, the interventricular valvule. — From Straus Durckheim.
THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM. 39
with very many perfect Insecta and their larvae. The vascular
walls, supposed to have been seen at certain points, are, un-
doubtedly, the result of some error of observation or interpre-
tation. This is also true of the pulsatile organs supposed to
have been observed in the legs of many water-bugs, and which
were thought to affect the circulation."
Blanchard and Agassiz believe in a "peritracheal circula-
tion," and other observers agree that the course of the circula-
tion is along the tracheae, i. e. that the blood circulates in the
space between the loose peritoneal envelope and the trachea
itself. Professor H. J. Clark objects to this view that the blood
disks are too large to pass thi'ough such an exceedingly minute
space as the distance between the trachea and its peritoneal
wall. McLeod has proved that such a circulation does not exist.
Newport thinks that there are actual blood vessels distrib-
uted from the heart and "passing transversely across the
dorsal surface of each segment in the pupa of Sphinx. If
they be not vessels distributed fro7n the heart, it is a some-
what curious circumstance that the whole of the blood should
be first sent to the head of the insect, and the viscera of the
abdominal region be nourished only by the returning blood,
which has in part passed the round of the circulation."
Newport also describes in Sphinx the supir a- spinal, or gi-eat
ventral vessel which lies in the abdomen just over the nervous
cord, and which is also found in the Scorpion and Centipede.
He believes "this vessel to be the chief means of returning
the blood from the middle and inferior portion of the body to
the posterior extremity of the dorsal vessel or heart." He
strongly suspects that anteriorly this great ventral vessel is
connected with the aorta. The circulation of Insects, there-
fore, is probably as much a closed one as in the Myriapods, for
he states that the "blood certainly flows in distinct vessels, at
least in some parts of the body in perfect insects, and that
vessels exist even in the larva." Observations on the vascular
system are exceedingly difficult from the delicate structure of
the vessels, and the subject needs renewed observations to
settle these disputed points.
The blood is forced through the vessel into the body by regu-
lar pulsations. Herold counted thirty to forty in a minute in a
40 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
full-grown caterpillar ; we have counted about sixty a minute
in the recently hatched lar^a of Dipkix. During excitement,
the number of pulsations increases in rapidity. Newport found
the pulsations in a bee, Antliopliora, when quiet, to be eighty a
minute ; but when "the insects were quite lively, and had been
exposed to the sun for an hour or two, the number of pulsa-
tions amounted to one hundred and forty."
He found that the number of pulsations decreased after each
moult of the larva of Splunx h'gustri, but increased in force;
when it was full grown and had ceased feeding it was thirty.
"After it had passed into the puj^a state the number fell to
twenty-two, and afterwards to ten or twelve, and, during the
period of hibernation, it almost entirel}' ceases ; but in the per-
fect insect it rose from forty-one to fifty, and when excited by
flight around the room it was from one hundred and ten to one
hundred and thirl ^--nine."
Organs of REsriuATiON. All insects breathe air, or, when
they live in the water, respire, by means of branchiae, the
air mixed mechanically with water. Respiration is carried on
by an intricate S3'stem of tubes (pul-
monary tracheae) which open by pores
(spiracles or stigmata) in the sides of
the body ; or, as in aquatic insects, by
branchia?, or gill-like flattened expan-
sions of the body-wall penetrated by
tracheae (branchial tracheae).
There are normally eleven spiracles,
or breathing-holes (Fig. 48), on each side
of the body ; each consisting of an oval
horny ring situated in the peritreme
F'o- 48. and closed by a valve, which guards
the orifice (Fig. 49). Within this valve is a chamber closed
within by another valve which covers the entrance into the
tracheae. The air-tube itself (Fig. 50) consists of "an external
Fig. 48. Lan-a of the Humble-bee jnst beginninn; to change to a pupa, showing ten
pairs of stigmata In the adult bee, only the third pair is apparent, the remaining pairs
being concealed from view, or in part aborted. In mo.st insects there arc usually only
nine pairs of nt\gma.tii.~0r7ginal.
ORGANS OF EESPIRATION.
41
Fi?. 50.
serous, and an internal mucous membrane, inclosing between
them a spirally convoluted fibre, thus giving great strength
and flexibility to the tube."
Nearly all the air enters through the thoracic and first
abdominal spiracles, so that on pinching most insects on
the tliorax they can be
easily d e p r i v e d o f
breath and killed.
" In some aquatic
larvffi such as those
of Dyticidoi, Eristalis t
Fis*9- (t'ig- 51, pupa), and
Epliydra, and also in some perfect insects, j
as in Nepa and lianatra, the parts sup-
porting the stigmata are prolonged into slen-
der tubes, through which the insect, on rising to the surface,
breathes the atmospheric air.
Agrion (Fig. 52) affords a good instance of branchiaa
or gill-like expansions of the crust, or skin. It is
supposed that these false gills, or branehise, "absorb
the air from the water, and convey it by the minute
ramifications of the tracheal ves-
sels, with which they are abun-
dantly supplied, and which ter-
minate in single trunks, into the
main tracheae, to be distributed over the whole body,
as in insects which live in the open atmosphere."
(Newport.)
Of branchiffi there are three kinds. The first, as in
the larvae and pupse of Gnats, consist of slender fila-
ments arranged in tufts arising from a single stem. Fig. 52.
In the larva of Gyrinus and the aquatic caterpillar of a moth.
Fig. 49. Chambei- leading into the trachea; a, a, external valve protecting the
outer opening of the stigma, or breathing hole; 6, c, c, inner and more coniplicatcil
valve closing the entrance into the trachea (l, k); vi, conical occlusor muscle
closing the inner orifice. — From Straus Durckheim.
Fig. 50. Portion of a trachea diverted of its peritoneal envelope, a, spirally
convoluted fibre, closely wound around the trachea, as at e ; c, origin of a secondary
tracheal branch. — From Straus Durckheim.
Fig. 52. Cue of the three gill-like appendages to the abdomen of the larva and
pupa of Agrion enlarged, consisting of a broad leaf-like expansion, permeated by
tiachejE which take up by endosmosis the air contained in water.— Original.
42 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
Hydrocampa stratiolata, thej" form short stiff bristles placed
along the side of the body. Agrion and Ephemera, in their
larval stages, afford the second kind of branchiae, and Libelhda
the third kind, or internal gill, situated in the colon. The
Mosquito breathes botli by branehiie which form large club-
shaped organs, and by lateral filaments.
In those insects that fly, most of the trachere are often dilated
into air-vesicles, so that by filling and emptying them of air the
insect can change its specific gravity. That their use is also
to lighten the body is shown by their presence in the heavy
mandibles and head of the male of Lucanus cervus. In the
adult Humble-bee there are two very large vesicles at the base
of the abdomen. These vesicles are not found in the larva?,
or in the adult forms of creeping insects.
The act of resjiiration consists in the alternate dilation and
contraction of the abdominal segments, the air entering the
body chiefly at the thoracic spiracles. As in the Vertebrates the
frequency of the acts of breathing increases after exertion.
"When an insect is preparing itself for flight, the act of res-
piration resembles that of birds under similar circumstances.
At tlie moment of elevating its elytra and expanding its wings,
which are, indeed, acts of respiration, the anterior pairs of
spiracles are opened, and the air rushing into them is extended
over the whole body, which, by the expansion of the air-bags, is
enlarged in bulk, and rendered of less specific gravity ; so that
when the spiracles are closed at the instant the insect endeavors
to make the first stroke with and raise itself upon its wings, it
is enabled to rise in the air, and sustain a long and powerful
fliglit with but little muscular exertion. In the pupa and larva
state respiration is performed more equally by all the spiracles,
and less especially by the thoracic ones."
During hibernation the act of breathing, like the circulation
of the blood, almost entirely ceases, and the heat of the body
is greatly lowered. Indeed Newport has shown that the devel-
opment of heed in Insects, just as in Vertebrates, depends on the
"quantity and activity of respiration, and the volume and
velocity of the circulation." The Humble-bee, according to
Newport, possesses the voluntary power of generating heat by
breathing faster. He says, confirming Huber's observations,
ORGANS OF SECRETION . 43
"the manner in which the bee performs her incubatory office is
by placing herself upon the cell of a nymph (pupa) that is
soon to be developed, and then beginning to respire at first
very gradually. In a short time the respirations become more
and more frequent, until at length they are increased to one
hundred and twenty, or one hundred and thirty per minute.
The body of the insect soon becomes of a high temperature,
and, on close inspection, is often found to be bathed with per-
spiration. When this is the case the temperature of the insect
soon becomes reduced, and the insect leaves the cell, and an-
other bee almost immediately takes her place. When respira-
tion is performed less violently, and consequently less heat is
evolved, the same bee will often continue on a cell for many
hours in succession. This extreme amount of heat was evolved
entirely by an act of the will in accelerating the respiratory ef-
forts, a strong indication of the relation which subsists between
the function of respiration and the development of animal heat."
Organs of Secretion. The urinary vessels, or what is
equivalent to the kidneys of the higher animals, consist in In-
sects of several loug tubes which empty by one or two common
secretory ducts into the posterior or "pyloric" extremity of
the stomach. There are also odoriferous glands, analogous to
the cutaneous glands of vertebrates. The liquid poured out is
usually offensive, and it is used as a means of defence. The
Bees, Wasps, Gall-flies, etc., and Scorpions, have a poison-sac
(Fig. 54^7) developed in the tip of the abdomen. The bite of
the Mosquito, the Horse-fly, and Bed-bug is thought by New-
port to be due to the simple act of thrusting their lancet-like
jaws through the skin, and it is not known that these and
other insects which bite severely eject any poison into the
wound. But in the spiders a minute drop of poison exudes from
an orifice at the end of the mandibles, " which spreads over the
whole wound at the instant it is inflicted." This poison is
secreted by a gland lodged in the cephalo-thorax, and which
is thought by Audouin to correspond in position to the salivary
apparatus and the silk glands of the Winged Insects.
Organs op Generation. We have already described the
external parts. Tlie internal parts of the male insect consist,
44
THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
of a duct, the ductus ejaculatorius^ Avhich opens into the external
intromittent organ. This duct extends backwards, connecting
\ j,'^^ with the vesicuhe seniinales^ which lead bj'^
-6^^ 'hU the vasa deferentia to the testes (Fig. 53).
The latter are usually rounded glandular
bodies, sometimes, as in Melolontha and
Lucaniis, numbering six on a side. These
organs lie in the abdominal cavity, usually
above and on each side of the alimentary
canal.
The sperm, or fertilizing fluid, contains
very active
spermatic par-
ticles which
are developed
in large cells
in the testes,
where they are
various
Fig. 53.
united into bundles of
forms.
In the female, the internal re-
productive organs (Fig. 54) are
more simple than those of the
other sex. Tlie external open-
ing of the female is situated at
the end of the oviduct, that
leads by two tubes to the ovary,
which consists of two or more Fig. 54.
tubes (in the Queen Bee one hundred and sixty to one hundred
and eighty) in which the ova are developed. On the upper side
Fig. .53. Male organs of Athnlia centifnlias. h, the peni.s, or external portion,
in M-hich the ductus ejaculatorms (/) terminates, which extends backwards, and is
connected with the rcsicuke. scmiuales (e), and i-cisa deferentia (d) avhich are con-
nected with the epididijmis (b), and the testes (a), i and J, two jiair;, of horny plates,
surrounded by a horny ring (/.•). i, horny pi-ehensile hooks attached to /j. m, two
elongated muscular parts inclosing the penis {h). — From Netcport.
Fig. 54. Female organs of generation of vJ//tr(7OT. f<")?y</b/i(^. n, 6, c, the eighteen
ovarial tubes originating from each of the two oviducts (e), and containing the im-
mature eggs;/, the spermatheca; </, poison-sac, the jjoison being secreted iu the
secretory vessels h. The poison flows through the oviduct into the sting and thence
into tlie wound made by the sting. 10, the terminal ganglia of the nervous cord.
— From Newport.
OKGANS OF GENERATION. 45
of the oviduct are from one to Ave appendages, the most impor-
tant of which is the spermatheca (the others being sebaceous
ghxnds), which receives the fertilizing fluid of the male during
sexual union, and in which, according to Darwin, the male cle-
ment "is enabled to keep alive four or five years."
Insects bisexual With the exception of the Tardigradcs,
which are doubtfully referred to the Mites {Acarina), there are
no hermaphrodites among Insects, that is, there are no individ-
uals having both male and female organs, and capable of self-
impregnation. On the contrary, the sexes are distinct ; Insects
are bisexual.
Herviaphrodites, so-called. Cases not unfrequently occur in
which from arrest of development of the embryo, the sexual
organs are imperfectly developed, so as to present the appear-
ance of being both male and female. "Siebohl has investigated
some hermaphrodite Honey-bees belonging to the Italian race,
obtained from a Dzierzou hive at Constance. lie found in
many of them a combination of sexual characters, not only in the
external parts, but also in the generative organs. The mixture
of the external characters is manifested sometimes only in the
anterior or posterior part of the body, sometimes in all parts
of the body, or only in a few organs. Some specimens pre-
sent male and worker characters on the two sides of the body.
The development of the internal organs is singularly correla-
ted with these peculiarities of external organization. The sting,
with its vesicle and gland, is well developed in hermaphrodites
with the abdomen of the worker ; soft in those with the drone-
abdomen. Tlie seminal receptacle,' when present, is empty.
The ovaries contain no ova. In the hermaphrodites with the
drone-abdomen, the male sexual organs are well developed, and
the testes contain spermatozoids. Frequently with testicular
and ovarian organs present on each side, the epididymis and
copulatory apparatus are well developed, and an imperfect
poison-apparatus exists. In these cases the tube contains
spermatozoids, but there are no ova in the ovaries. The her-
maphrodites are thrown out of the cell by the workers as soon
as they emerge, and speedily perish. Siebold ascribes the pro-
duction of these hermaphrodites to an imperfect fecundation
of the ovum." (Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaftliche Zoologie,
18G4, p. 73. See Giiuther's Zoological Review for 1864.)
46 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
Mr, Dunning describes a specimen of Fidonia pinkma,
"wliichwas sexually a female, and the abdomen was appar-
ently distended with eggs ; the general color was midway be-
tween the colors of the ordinary male and female, but tlie size
and markings were those of the male. (Transactions Ento-
mological Society, London, Aug. 7, 1865.) Professor West-
wood states that "he had an Orange-tip Butterfly (Anthocharis
cardcmiines), which was female in every respect, except that
on the tip of one fore- wing were about a dozen of the bright
orange scales which characterize the male."
The Egg. Professor H. J. Clark (Mind in Nature) defines
an egg to be a globule surrounded by the vitelline membrane,
or yelk-envelope, which is protected by the chorion, or egg-
shell, consisting of "■two kinds of fluid, albumen and o(7, which
are always situated at opposite sides or poles." "In the earli-
est stages of all eggs, these two poles shade off" into each
other," but in the perfectly developed egg the small, or albu-
minous pole, is surrounded by a membrane, and forms the
Purkinjean (germinal) vesicle ; and thirdly and last, the inner-
most of the three globules is developed. This last is the
Wagnerian vesicle, or germinal dot. The oily matter forms the
yolk. Thus formed, the egg is the initial animal. It becomes
an animal after contact with the male germs (unless the product
of organic reproduction), and the egg-shell or chorion is to be
considered as a protection to the animal, and is thrown ofl['
when the embryo is hatched, just as the larva throws off its
skin to transform into the pupa. So that the egg-state is
equivalent to the larva state, and hence there are four stages
in the life of an insect, i. e. the egg, the larva, the pupa, and
the imago, or adult state.
The egg is not always laid as a perfect egg (Clark). It
sometimes, as in the Ants, continues to grow after it is laid by
the parent, like those of frogs, which, according to Clark, "Are
laid before they can hardly be said to have become fully formed
as eggs." Again, others are laid some time after the embryo
has begun to form ; and in some, such as Melophagus and
Brarda, the larva is fully formed before it is expelled from the
oviduct.
THE EGG. 47
Eggs are usually small in proportion to the size of the
parent; but in many minute forms {i.e. Pulex, Pediculns., etc.)
they are proportionately much larger. In vshape eggs are
either spherical or oblong. In some there are radiating ai)pend-
ages at one end, as in those of Nejya and Rariatra ; or they are
provided with a single stalk, as in Chrysopa, Cymps, and
Ojyhion.
The eggs of most Hymenoptera, Diptera, and many Coleop-
tera are usually cylindrical ; those of Lepidoptera are more
generally spherical. The eggs of the Mosquito are laid in a
boat-shaped mass, which floats on the surface of quiet pools,
while those of the Chrysopa, or Lace-winged Fly (Fig. 55), are
supported on long pedicels. -.^ \ittff? 9
They are almost invariably ^"'^Ntu:^^^^^'^ \llll//l'7
laid near or upon objects des- -.s^^^fzz^^/lS^^L
tined to be the food of the Fig. 55.
future larva. Thus the Copvis^ or "Tumble-bug," places its
egg in a ball of dung which it rolls away to a secure place ;
the Flesh-fly oviposits on meat ; and all vegetable-feeders lay
their eggs on the food-plant where the larva, upon its exit
from the egg, shall readily find an ample supply of food.
The posterior end of the egg is more often the fixed one, and
it may thus be distinguished from the anterior pole. In tlie
eggs of some Diptera and Orthoptera, the ventral side of the
embryo, according to Gerstaecker, corresponds to the convex
side of the egg, and the concave side of the latter corresponds
to the dorsal region of the embryo.
The surface of the chorion, or egg-shell, which is dense and
brittle, is often covered by a mosaic-work of more or less regu-
lar facets. In many small eggs the surface is only minutely
granulated, or ornamented with ribs and furrows, as in those
of many Butterflies.
The Mkropyle. On the anterior end (though sometimes
at both ends) of the egg is one or more pores of exceeding
minuteness, through which the spermatozoa (more than one
of which, according to Darwin, is requisite to fertilize an
ovule) enter to fertilize the egg-contents. In some cases
these micropyles are scattered over the whole surface of the egg.
Fig. 56 a represents the micropyles of Nepa cinerea, consisting
48 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
of a whorl of long bristles. Those of Locusta viridissima (Fig.
.")(■) ^) slight]}' resemble toadstools. Fig. 56 c represents the an-
terior pole of the egg witli
the micropyles of Fyrraocoris
apterus. — {From Gerstaecker.)
This contact of a male
sperm-cell with the yolk is
the fertibzation of the egg.
From this moment begins the
life of the eml)rvo. Fertibza-
tion of the female germ l)y
means of the male s p e r m ,
through tlie congress of the sexes, is the rule with bisexual
animals, but there are exceptions among insects. An embryo
may start into being without tlie interposition of the male ; to
this mode of generation lias been applied by Lenckart the term
Parthenogenesis. Among certain s[)ecies of insects there are
some individuals which, by a sort of budding process, and with-
out the aid of the male element, throw off sunnner broods, con-
sisting of "asexual" individuals, which, as winter ai)proaches,
are succeeded by a brood of true males and females, the latter
of which lay eggs. This phenonrenon, called by Steenstrup
"alternation of generations," has been observed among a com-
paratively few species, and the apparent design of such an
anomalous mode of reproduction is to afford an immense num-
ber of individuals, thus providing for the continuance of the
species. The individuals in whom this budding process takes
place are called "asexual" because, though they may resemble
the female sex outwardly, their sexual organs are only partially
developed. This budding process is the same in kind with that
observable in the Jellj^-fish, which throw off by parthenogen-
esis, or alternations of generations, summer broods of immense
extent, but in winter propagate by true eggs. Huxley has
studied the development of Aphis by parthenogenesis, the
anomalous nature of which had previously been discovered by
Bonnet, Tremljly, Lyonet, Degeer, K3'ber, and others, and
arrives at the following conclusions :
"1. Ova deposited by impregnated female Aphides in autumn
are hatched in the spring.
ALTERNATIOX OF GENERATIONS. 49
2. From these ova viA'iparous, and, in the great majority of
cases, apterons forms i)roceecl.
3. The broods to whieii these give rise are eitlier winged or
apterons, or both.
4. The number of successive broods has no certain limit, but
is, so far as we knoAv at present, controlled only by tempera-
ture and the sui)ply of food.
5. On the setting in of cold Aveather, or in some cases on the
failure of nourishment, the weather being still warm, males
and oviparous females are produced.
6. The males may be either winged or apterons.
7. So far as I am aware, there is no proof of the existence
of any exception to the law that the oviparous female is apte-
rous.
8. Viviparous Aphides may hybernate, and may co-exist with
oviparous females of the same species." (Linnaian Transac-
tions, xxii, p. 198.)
The origin of the viviparous, asexual, or agamic (from the
Greek «, without ; (jame, marriage) individual, as it may be
more properly called, is, up to a certain stage, the same as
that of the true egg, i.e. until the gei-m {psendovvm) of
the former is detached from the false ovary (pseudovarium).
"From this point onwards, however, the fate of the pseudovum
is different from that of the ovum, Tlie former begins at once
to be converted into the germ ; the latter accumulates yelk-sub-
stance, and changes but little. Both bodies acquire their mem-
branous investment rather late; Avithin it the pseudoAum
becomes a living larva, Avhile the ovum is impregnated, laid,
and remains in a state of rest for a longer or shorter period.
"Although, then, the pseudoA^um and the ovum of AjMs
are exceedingly similar in structure for some time after they
have passed out of the condition of indifferent tissue, it cannot
be said that the sole difference betAveen them is, that the one
requires fecundation and the other not. AVhen the ovum is of
the size of a i)seudovum Avhich is about to dcAclop into an em-
bryo, and, therefore, long before fecundation, it manifests its
inherent physiological distinctness by becoming, not an em-
bryo, but an ovum. Up to this period the influence of fecunda-
tion has not been felt ; and the production of ova, instead of
4
50 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
pseudova, must depend upon a something impressed upon the
constitution of the parent before it was brought forth by its
viviparous progenetrix." (Huxle}'.)
Siebokl lias also shown that the "ova of the Queen-bee pro-
duces females or males, according as they are fecundated or
not. The fecundated ovum produces a queen or a neuter
according to the food of the larva and the other conditions to
which it is subjected ; the unfecundated ovum produces a
drone." This is analogous to the agamic reproduction of
Aphis, and " demonstrates still more clearly the impossi-
bility of drawing any absolute line of demarcation histologi-
cally between ova and buds."
This process of reproduction is not known in the Myriapods.
It occurs among the mites (Acarina), and occurs in isolated
genera of Ilemiptera (Aphis, Chermes, Lecaniam, and Aspidi-
otus according to C4erstaecker).
Among Lei)idoptera the Silk-moth sometimes lays fertile
eggs without previous sexual union. This very rarely hap-
pens, for M. Jourdain found that, out of about 58,000 eggs
laid by unimpregnated silk-moths, many passed through their
early embryonic stages, showing that they w^ere capable of
self-development, but only twenty-nine out of the whole
number produced caterpillars. (Darwin.) Several other moths*
have been found to lay fertile eggs without previous sexual
union, and among Hymenoptera, Nematus ventiicosiis, Cynips^
Neuroteriis, perhaps Apop)hyUus (according to Gerstaecker).
and Cynips spoiigifica (according to AValsh, Proceedings of
* We give a list from Gerstaecker (Bronn's Classen und Ordnungcn des Thicr-
reichs) of all the known cases of agamic reproduction in this suborder, with the
number of times the plienomenon has been observed, and the names of the ob-
servers.
Sphinx Ur/ustri, once (Treviranus).
Smeriiitlius iwpuli, four times (Nord-
mann).
Smerinthtis ocellatus, once (Johnston).
Euprepia caja, live times (Brown, etc.).
" villica, once (Stowell).
Telet Polyphemus, twice (Curtis).
Gastropacha pint, three times (Scopoli,
etc).
Gastropacha querrifolia, once (Basler).
" ijotatoria, once (Burmeis-
ter).
Gastropacha quercus, once (Plieninger),
Liparis flisprir, once (Carlier).
" kf/f/ermoth" {1 Liparis dispar), (Tardy,
Westwood).
Lip(Tris ochropnrfa, once (Popoff).
Oiyiifinpudihnndi, once (VVerneburg).
Psyche apit'oriiiia, oui'e (Rossi).
" helix (Sieb(jld).
Solenobia iichenelln (SieboM).
" triquetrcUd (Siebold).
Bombyx mori, several times.
The subject has been also discussed by Siebold in his work entitled, A true Par-
thenogenesis in Lepidoptera and Bees; by Owen, in his "Parthenogenesis," aiul
by Sir J. Lubbock in the Philosophical Transactions, London, vol. 117, pt. 1.
ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS. 51
the Entomological Society of Philadelphia). Parthenogenesis,
or agamic reproduction, is, then, the result of a budding pro-
cess, or cell-growth. This process is a common mode amoncr
the Radiates, the low Worms, and the Crustaceans. Metamor-
phosis is simply a series of marked stages, or periods, of
growth; and hence growth, metamorphosis, and agamic re-
production are morphologically identical. All animals, there-
fore, as well as plants, grow by the imdtipUcation of cells.
After hearing the surprising revelations of Bonnet, Reaumur,
Owen, Burnett, and Huxley on the asexual mode of generation
in the Aphis, we are called to notice still a new phase of repro-
duction. None of the observers just mentioned Avere accus-
tomed to consider the virgin aphis as immature, but rather as
a wingless adult Plant-louse. But Nicolas Wagner, Professor
of Zoology at Kasan,* supported by able vouchers for tlie
truth of his assertions, both in Russia and in Germany, who
have repeated and thoroughly tested his observations, has
observed an asexual reproduction in the lai^va of a Cecidomy-
ian fly, Miastor metraloas (Fig. 297), and Meinert has observed
it in this species and the OUgarces jmradoxus Meinert.
Says Dr. R. Leuckart, whose article f we have drawn largely
upon in the present account, "This reproduction was said to
commence in autumn, to continue through the winter and
spring, giving origin, during the whole of this period, to a
series of successive generations of larvae, until, finally, in June,
the last of them were developed into perfect and sexually
mature animals. The flies, then, as usual, after copulation,
lay eggs, and thus recommence the developmental cycle just
described."
Professor Leuckart has observed these facts anew in the
larv.-e of a species of dipterous gall-fly, and Avhich he believes
distinct from the Russian species, found under the bark of a
half dead apple-tree that was attacked by fungi. The 3'oung
are developed within the body of the larva-like parent from a
*K. E. Von Baer, "Report on a New Asexual Mode of Reproduction observed
by Professor W.ngner in Kasan." Bull. Acad. St. Petersburg, 18G3, pt. vi, p. 239.
Also, Wagner in the .Journal of the University of Kasan, 18()1.
ton the Asexual Reproduction of Cecidomyia Larva;. Annals and Magazine
of Natural History, March, 18G6. Translated from Zeitschrilt fur Wissenschaftliche
Zoologie, Bd. xiv.
52 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
"germ-ball" essentially agreeing with the ovnry, find the asex-
ual laryje begin life as egg-like bodies developed from this
germ-ball, just as eggs are developed in the little tubes of
which the ovary is an aggregation. Hence these worms bad
out from the germ-stock, just as we have seen in the case of
the Aphides. Leuckart and Wagner farther agree, that " the
so-called chorion never being formed in either of them, the
vitellus [yelk] remains without that envelope which has so re-
markable and peculiar a development in the true egg of in-
sects." .... ''The processes of embryo-formation agree in
all essential points with the ordinary phenomena of devel-
opment in a fecundated egg, exacti3' as has been proved (by
Huxley) to be the case in the Aphides." .... "The only
difference consists in the germ-chambers of the Cecidomyide
larviB separating from the germ-stock, and moving about freely
in the cavity of the body, whilst in the Aphides they remain
permanently attached, and constitute an apparatus which, in
its form and arrangement, reproduces the conditions of the
female organs."
Another case of psedogenesis, which unites that of Miastor
with the parthenogenesis of the Coccidoi^ has been discovered
by Grimm who found, in the spring of ISGD, the pupa of a
species of GJiironomiis laying eggs. But in the autumn other
pupre become flies without laying eggs, while the fly itself de-
posits a larger number of eggs than the spring pupa. Grimm
also found that on removing from the perfectly developed in-
sect, before it has left the pupa-case, the eggs which Avonld
otherwise have been fertilized, and preserving them in water,
the development of the larva took place in them also, but
lasted a little longer (about six days). Previous to tlie forma-
tion of the primitive band, the germ develops as in tlie Coc-
cidm ; afterwards it resembles that of other Diptera {Simu-
lium and Chironomi dee ) ,
Dimorpiiism is intimately connected with agamic reproduc-
tion. Thus the asexual Aphis, and the perfect female, may be
called dimorphic forms. Or the perfect female may assume
two forms, so much so as to be mistaken for two distinct spe-
cies. Tims Cynips qxercvs-sjKivr/i^ficn occurs in male and female
broods in the spring, Avhile the fall brood of females were
DIMORrHISM. 53
described as a separate species, C adculata. Mr, B. D. Walsh
considers the two sets of females as dimorphic foims, and he
tiiinlvs that C. adculata lays eggs which produce C. quercus-
sj)ongiJica.
Iluber supposes there are two sizes of the throe forms (i.e.
male, female, and worker) of Bombus, one set being a little
larger than the other.
Alfred Wallace has discovered that there are two forms of
lemales of Papilio Memnon of the East Indies ; one is normal,
having its wings tailed and resembles a closely allied species,
Papilio Coon., which is not dimorphous, while the other is tail-
less, resembling its tailless male. Papiilio Pammon has three
sorts of females, and is hence '•''trimor[)hic." One of its forms
predominates in .Sumatra, and a second in Java, while a third,
(descri])ed as P. Romulus) abounds in India and Ceylon. P.
Onnenns is trimorphic, as Mr. AVallace obtained in the island
of AVaignion, "a third female quite distinct from either of the
others, and in some degree intermediate between the ordinary
male and female." Much the same thing occurs in the North
American P. Tnrnns. Papilio Glancus is now known to be a
dimorphic form of the former bntterfl}-, both having, according
to Mr. Uhler, been bred from the same batch of eggs. Mr
W. II. Edwards has found that Papilio Ajax'is polymorphous,
the same batch of eggs giving rise to P. Ajax, and varieties
WalsJui, Tdamonides, and Marcellus. The male sex also pre-
sents dimorphic forms. Mr. Pascoe states that there are di-
morphic forms of Anthrihidai ; that they occm* in the males
of Stenocerus and Micoceros. Six species of Dytiscus have two
female forms, the most common having the elytra deeply sul-
cate, while in the rarer forms the elytra are smooth as in the
male.
There is a tendency, we would observe, in the more abnor-
mal of the two sexual forms, to revert to a lower tyi)e. Thus
the agamic Aphis is more generally wingless, and the tailless
female butterfly mimics the members of a lower genus, Pieris.
The final cause of Dimorphism, like that of agamic reproduc-
tion, is the continuance of the species, and is, so far as yet
known, an exceptional occurrence.
Mimetic forms. Many insects often resemble, in a remark-
54 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
able manner, those of other groups. They are called mimetic
forms. Insects are related to each other by analogy and affin-
ity. Thus the truly tailless species of Papilio^ i. e. those where
the tail is absent in both sexes, are related by affinity to Pie-
ns, which has rounded hind wings. They also stand next to
Pieris in the system of Nature. But there are, on the other
hand, mimetic forms, which borrow the features of groups far
above them in the natural system. Thus the Sesia resembles a
Bee, Bombf/Uns and Lapliria resemble Bomhus; the Syrphns
flies are easily mistaken for Wasps. So in the second series
of suborders of Insects, Forjicula resembles the Stajihylhms ;
Termes resembles the true Ant ; Psocus, the Ajihis; Ascakq^hns
resembles Papilio ; MantiHpa recalls the Orthopterous Mantis, and
Panorpa reminds us of the Tipuloe {Bittacus being strikingly
analogous to the Dipterous Bittacomo7'pha) . Thus these lower,
more variable groups of insects strive, as it were, to connect
themselves by certain analogous, mimetic forms, with the more
stable and higher groups.
Comp)rehensive types are mimetic forms which combine tha
characters of other and generally higher groups. Tims each
Neuropterous family contains mimetic forms which ally them
strongly with some one of the six other snborders of insects.
The early fossil insects are remarkable for combining the char-
acters of groups which appear ages after. The most remark-
able comprehensive type is a Carboniferous insect, the Engereon
Boeckingi mentioned farther on.
Hybriditv. Hybrids are sometimes produced between differ-
ent species, but though it is known that different genera unite
sexually, we know of very few authentic instances of the pro-
duction of hybrids therefrom. One is related by Mr. Midford,
who exhibited at the March 4th (1861) meeting of the London
Entomological Society, hybrids produced from a male Phiga-
Ua pilosan'a, and a female Nyssia hispidaria. "The males
resemble N. hispjklaria, but in color have the lighter and
greener tint and transparency of wing of P. pilosaria."
The Development of Insects. Immediately after the fer-
tilization of the egg, the first act in the organization of the
THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS.
55
future embryo is the formation of the germinal la^'er, or blas-
toderm (from the Greek, meaning primitive skin). This layer
is formed at the surface out of a surface-la3er of larger, often
nucleolated, cells which nearly encompass the yolk-mass. At
one point there is a break in this cellular layer, and the yolk
granules reach to the surface, so that it appears darker than
the other parts of the egg. This cellular layer is soon resolved
into the blastoderm, or germinal layer, Avhich thickens and
narrows, forming a longitudinal band. This is the lirst stage
of the embryo, which lies as a thin layer of cells upon the outer
surface of the j^olk. Both ends of the body are alike, and we
shall afterwards see that its back lies next to the centre of the
egg, its future ventral side looking outwards. The embryo is
thus bent on itself backwards.
In the next stage the blastoderm divides into a certain num-
ber of segments, or joints, which appear as indentations in the
body of the embryo. The head can now be distinguished from
the posterior end chiefly by its larger size, and both it and the
tail are folded back upon the body of the embryo, the head
especially being sunk backwards down into the yolk-mass.
In a succeeding stage, as Ave have observed in the embryo of
Diplax, a Dragon-fl}^ (Fig. 57), the head is partially sketched
Fig. 58.
out, with the rudiments of the limbs and mouth-parts ; and the
sternites, or ventral walls, of the thoi'ax and of the two basal
rings of the head appear. The anterior part of the head, in-
cluding the so-called "procephalic lobes" overhangs and con-
FiG. 57. Side view of embryo. The proeephalic lobes arenot shown. 1, antennae;
2, mandibles; 3, maxilla-; 4, second maxillw (labium); 5-7, legs. These numbers
and letters are the same in all the figures from 57-';0. The under-side (sternum)
oi'six segments are indicated. FiG. 58. Ventral view of the same.
56 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
ceals the base of the antennae. It is probable that more
careful observation would have shown the end of the abdomen
folded back upon the dorsal region, as usual at this period in
the embryos of those insects Avhose embryology has been
studied.
The antcnnte, mandibles, and maxillae form a group by them-
selves, while the second maxillae (or labium) are very nuich
larger and turned backwards, being temporarily grouped with
the legs.
There are traces only of the two basal sterna of the abdo-
men. This indicates that the basal abdominal segments grow
in succession from the base of the abdomen, the middle ones
appearing last. The post-abdomen (Fig. 59 a) has probably
been developed synchronous with the procephalic lobes, as it is
in all insect and crustacean embryos yet observed. As stated
by Zaddach, these two lobes in their development are exact
equivalents; antero- posterior symmetry is very clearly de-
marked, the two ends of the body at first looking alike. But
in this stage, after the two ends of the body have been evolved
from the primitive cell-layer, development in the post-abdomi-
nal region is retarded, that of the head progressing with much
greater ra^ndity.
In thy next stage (not figured) the yolk is completely walled
in, though no traces of segments appear on the back or side of
the embryo. The revolution of llie embryo has taken place ;
the post-abdomen being curved beneath the bod}-, and the back
presenting outwards.
The rudiments of the eyes appear as a darker, rounded mass
of cells indistinctly seen through the yolk-granules, and situ-
ated at the base of the antennae. They consist of a few epithe-
lial cells of irregular form, the central one being the largest.
The second maxillae are a little over twice the length of the
first maxillae and are grouped Avith the legs, being curved back-
wards. They are, however, now one-tliird shorter than the an-
terior legs. The second maxillary sternum is still visible.
The tip of the al)domen (or post-al)domen) consists of four
segments, the terminal one being much the larger, and ob-
scurely divided into two obtuse lobes.
The abdominal sternites are now well marked, and the ner-
THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS.
57
vous cord is represented by eight or nine large oblong-square
seen sideways) ganglia, which lie contiguous to each other.
The Ibrmation of tiie e^'es, the post-abdomen, the sternites,
and median portion of the nerA'ous cord seems nearly s3'nchro-
nous with the closing up of the dorsal walls of the body, though
the division of the tegument into segments has not ai)parently
taken place over the yolk-mass.
The succeeding stage (Fig. 59) is signalized by the appear-
ance of the rudiments of the intestine, i _, 2 ^
while the second maxillffi are directed
more anteriorly.
In form the body is ovate-cylin-
drical, and there is a deep constric-
tion separating the post -abdomen
from the anterior part of the abdo-
men.
The terminal (eleventh) ring is
immensely disproportioned to its size in the embr^^o just pre-
vious to hatching (see Fig. Gl, where it forms a triangular piece
situated between its appendages,
the anal stylets). At a later
period of this stage two more ab-
dominal segments have been added,
one to the end of the main body
of the abdomen, and another to
the post-abdomen. They have
been apparently interpolated at the
junction of the post-abdomen to
the abdomen proper. Should this
observation be proved to be correct, it may then be considered
as a rule that, after reaching a certain number of segments, all
additional ones are interpolated between the main body of the
abdomen and its terminal segment or segments. This is the
law of increase in the number of segments in Worms, and in
Myriopods (I'llns, according to Newport's observations), in
Arachnids (Claparede), and Crustacea (Rathke).
The next stage (Fig. 60), is characterized b}' the differentia-
FiG. 50. An embryo much farther advanced. C, clypons; E, eye; a, bi-lobed
extremity of the abdomen; i, the rudiments of the intestines.
C123 4
Fi?. (iO.
THE CLASS or INSECTS.
tion of the hccA into the rudiments of the antennary ring, and
the supracljpeal piece, and elypeus, together willi the approx.
imation of the second pair of maxilhe, which, when united, form
tlie labuim, the extremities of whicli are now situated in the
middle of tlie body.
The antenme now extend to the middle of the labium, just
passing beyond the extremities of the mandibles and maxilhe.
The oisophagus can also be seen going from the mouth-opening
situated just beneath the labium. It curves around just behind
the eyes. There are at this period no appearances of movable
blood-disks or of a dorsal vessel.
The abdomen is now pointed at the extremity and divided
into the rudiments of the two anal st} lets, which form large,
acute tubercles. The yolk-mass is also almost
^._E entirely inclosed within the body walls, foi'm-
ing an oval mass.
Another embryo, observed July 27th, had
reached about the same stage of growth. The
front of the head, including the antennary
segment, is farther advanced than before. The
entire head is divided intovtwo very distinct
regions ; i. e. one before the mouth-opening
(the preoral region, including the antennary^
or first segment of the head, carrying the
organs of vision ; namely, the ocelli and com-
pound eyes, and the organs of sense, or an-
tennce) ; and the other behind the mouth
(postoral) consisting of the mandibular^ or
second segment, Iha first maxillary^ or third segment, and the
second maxillary, or labial, being the fourth and last segment.
At a later period the embryo is quite fully formed, and is
about ready to leave the egg. The three regions of the body
are now distinct. The articulations of the tergum are present,
the yolk-mass being completely inclosed by the tergal walls.
Fig. 01. The embryo taken from the egg:, but nearly ready to hatch, t, the
dotted line crosses the main trachea, going through the j'olk-mass, now restricted
to the thoracic region. At x, the trachea; send off numerous branches around an
enlargement of the intestine (colon), where the blood is aerated; better seen in fig.
()2. The abdomen consists of eleven segments, the last being a minute triangular
piece.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF INSECTS. 59
The body is so bent upon itself that the extremities of the
second maxilliJe just overlap tlie tip of the abdomen.
Tlie two limbs of tlie labium are now placed side by side,
with the prominent spinous appendage on the outer edges of
the tip. These spines are the rudiments of the labial palpi.
The general form of the embryo at a still later period (Fig.
61), on being taken from the egg and straightened out, re-
minds us strikingly of
the Thysanura, and, in
these and other re-
spects, tend to prove
that the Podurse and
Lepismae, and allied
genera, are embryonic,
degraded forms of Neu-
roptera, and should
therefore be considered
as a family of that sub-
order. Seen laterally,
the body gradually ta-
pers from the large
head to the pointed ex-
tremity. The body is
flattened from above
downwards. At this
stage the appendages
are still closely ap-
pressed to the body.
Just before the ex-
clusion of the embryo,
the legs and mouth-
parts stand out freer Fig
from the body. Tlie labium, especially, assumes a position at
nearly right angles to the body. The antenme, mandibles,
and maxillae have taken on a more definite form, being like
Fig. 62. The larra just hatched and swimming in the water, n, ventral cord or
nervous ganglia; d, dorsal vessel, or "heart," divided into its chambers. The
anal valves at tlie end of the abdomen, which oi)en and shut during respiration, are
represented as being open. Both of the dotted lines cross the tracheae, x, net-
work of the tracheae, surrounding the cloaca.
60
TKE CLASS OF INSECTS.
Fis. C3.
that of the young larva, and stand ont free from the body.
The head is much smaller in proportion to the rest of the
body, and bent more upon the breast.
The Larva (Fig. 62)
when hatched is about
five hundredths of an
inch in length. The
head is now free and
the antenuiXJ stand out
free from the front.
The thorax has greatly
diminished in size,
while the abdomen has
become wider, and the
limbs very long; and
the numerous minute tubercles, seen in the preceding stage,
have given origin to hairs. The dorsal vessel can now, for the
first time, be seen. When in motion, the resemblance
to a spider is most striking. The flow of blood to
the head, and the return currents through the lacunar
or venous circulation along the side of the body Avere
easily observed. The vessels Avere not crowded Avith
blood disks, the latter being few in number, only one
or two passing along at a time. Two currents, pass-
ing in opposite directions, were observed in the legs.
Fig. 03. Side view of the head of Uie larva of Diplax before the first moult, c,
deciduous tubercles terminating in a slender style; tlicir use Is unknown: tliey
have not been observed in tlic full-grown larva, e, the compound eyes. 1, the
three jointed antenna>, the terminal joint nearly three times as long as the two
basal ones. 2, tlie mandibles, and also enlarged, showing the cutting edge divided
into four teeth. 3, maxill:i! divided into two lobes: (/, tlie outer and anterior lobe,
2-jiiinted, tlie basal joint terminating in two seta?; and «, the inner lobe concealed
from view, in its natural (losition, by the outer lobe, r^ 4, the base or pedicel of
the second maxillas, or labium, the expanded terminal portion being drawn sepa-
rately; rf and rt, two movable stout styles representing, perhaps, the labial palpi:
the lobe to which they are attached is nuiltidentate, and adapted for seizing
prey; on the right siile the two styles are appressed to the lobe, x rei)resents,
perhaps, the ligula; but we have not yet studied its homologies carefully: this
))art is attached to a transversely linear piece soldered to the main part of the
labium, y, the 11th abdominal ring, with its pair of conical anal styles, c, the
Just tarsal joint and pair of long slender claws.
Fir;. (14. The pui)a of Diplax, having riidiinentarywings, in which the eyes are
much larger, and the legs much sliortcr than in the lecently hatched larva; in-
troduced to be compared with ihe young larva. Figs. 57-04, oriyiiud.
TRANSFORM ATIOXS OF THE INSECT. Gl
On review it will be seen how remarkable are the changes in
form of the insect before it is hatched, and that all are the
resnlt of simple growth. We have seen that the two ends of
the body are first formed, and that the under side of the body
is formed before the back ; that the bell}'^ is at first turned out-
wards, and afterwards the embryo re^'erses its position, the
back presenting outwards. All the appendages are at first
simple protrusions from the body-walls, and new segments are
interpolated near the tip of the abdomen. These changes take
place very rapidly, within a very few days, and some of the
most important and earlier ones in a few hours. We can now
better understand that the larva and pupa stages are the result
of a similar mode of growth, though very marked from being
in a different medium, the insect having to seek food and act
as an independent being.
Transformations of the Insect. We have seen that
during the growth of the embryo, the insect undergoes remark-
able changes of form, the result of simple growth. The meta-
morphoses of the animal within the egg are no less marked
than those which occur after it has hatched. It will also be
seen that the larva and pupa stages are not always fixed, defi-
nite states, but only pauses in the development of the insect,
concealing beneath the larva and pupa skins the most impor-
tant changes of form.
The process of hutdiiucj. No other author has so carefully
described the process of hatching as Newport, who observed
it in the larva of Melos. "When the embryo larva is ready
for its change, the egg-shell becomes thinned and concave on
that side which covers the ventral surface of the body, but is
nuich enlarged, and is more convex on the dorsal, especially
towards the head. The shell is then Inu-st longitudinally along
the middle of the thoracic segments, and the fissure is ex-
tended forwards to the head, which then, together with the
thoracic segments, is partially forced through the opening, but
is not at once entirely withdi'awn. The antennas parts of the
mouth, and legs are still inclosed within separate envelopes,
and retain the larva in this covering in the shell. Efforts are
then made to detach the posterior segments of the body, which
62 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
are gradually released, and with them the antennae, palpi, and
legs, and tlie lar^a removes itself entirely from the shell and
membranes. In this process of evolution the young MeJo'e
throws off two distinct co\erings : first, the sliell with its lining-
membrane, tlie analogue of the membrane in which, as I have
elsewhere sliown,* the 3-ouug M^riopod is inclosed, and re-
tained several days after tlie bursting of the ovum, and which
represents in the Articulata, not the allantois, but npparently
the amnion, of Vertebrata ; next, the first, or fa'tal deciduation
of the tegument, analogous probably to the first change of skin
in the Myrlopod, after it has escaped from the amnion, and
also to the first change which the young Arachnidan invariably
undergoes a few days after it has left the egg, and before it
can take food. This tegument, which, perhai)s, may be analo-
gous to the vernix caseosa of Vertebrata, thrown off at the
instant of birth, is left by the 3'oung jNIeloe with the amnion
in the shell ; and its separation from the body, at this early
period, seems necessarj' to fit the insect for the active life it
has commenced." (Linn. Trans, xx. p. 30G, etc.)
The larva state. The larva (Latin larva^ a mask) was so
called because it was thought to mask the form of the perfect
insect. The larvae of Butterflies and Moths are called cater-
pillars; those of Beetles, <7r;<&s; and those of the two-winged
Flies (Diptera) maggots; the larvae of other groups have no
distinctive common names.
As soon as it is hatched the larva feeds voraciously, as if in
anticipation of the coming period of rest, the pupa state, for
which stores of fat (the fatty bodies) are dcAeloped for the
supply of fat globules out of which the tissues of the new
body of the pupa and imago are to be formed.
Most larviii moult, or change their skin, four or five times.
In the inactive thin-skinned larvae, such as those of Bees,
AYasps, and Gall-flies, the moults are not apparent ; as the
larva increases in size it out-grows the old skin, which comes
off in thin shreds. But in the active larvse, such as cater-
pillars, grasshoppers, and grubs, from the rapid absorption of
vessels in the outer la3'er of the skin, just before the change,
* Philosophical Transactions, Pt. 2, 1841, p. 111.
TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INSECT. 63
7t becomes hard and dry, and too small for the growing in-
sect, and is then cast off entire.
A series of bee-larvjE can be selected showing a graduation
in size and form from the egg and recently hatched larva up to
the full-grown larva. In the caterpillar and other active lar^je,
there are usually four or five stages, each showing a sudden and
marked increase in size. Newport states that the caterpillar
of /Sjihinx ligustri moults six times, and at the last moult be-
comes a third larger than at any earlier period ; the larva of
Arctia caja moults from five to ten times.
A few days before the assumption of the pupa state, the
larva becomes restless, stops eating, and deserts its food, and
usually spins a silken cocoon, or makes one of earth, or chipr.,
if a borer, and there prepares for the change to the pupa state.
During this semipupa period (lasting, in many insects, only
for a day or several daj's, but in some Saw-flies through the
winter) the skin of the pupa grows beneath that of the quies-
cent larva. AVhile the worm-like larva exhibits no trire-
gional distinctions, the muscles of the growing pupa contract
and enlarge in certain parts so as to modify the larva form,
until it gradually assumes the triregional form of the adult
insect, with the differentiation of the body into a head, thorax,
and abdomen.
In a series of careful studies, abundantly illustrated with
excellent plates, AVeismann has recently shown that Swammer-
dam's idea that the pupa and imago skins were in reality
already concealed under that of the larva is partially founded
in truth. Swammerdam states, "I can point out in the larva
all the limbs of the future nymph, or Culex, concealed beneath
the skin," and he also observed beneath the skin of the larvai
of bees just before pupating, the antennae, mouth-parts, wings,,
and limbs of the adult. (Weismann.)
During its transformations the pupa skin is developed from
the hypodermis^ or inner layer of skin. This peals off, as it
were, from the inner layer of the old larva skin, Avhicli soon
dries and hardens, and is thrown off. Meanwhile the muscles
of the body contract and change in form, thus causing the origi-
nal segments of the larva to infold and contract at certain parts,
gradually' producing the pupa form. If, during this period, the
64 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
insect be examined at intervals, a series of slight changes of
form may be seen, from tlie larva to the imago state. In soine
cases each change is accompanied by a moult, as in the "ac-
tive" Ephemera, where Lubbock counted twenty one moults.
As a general rule, then, it may l)e stated that the body of
the larva is transformed into that of the imago ; ring answer-
ing to ring, and limb to limlj in both, the head of the one
is homologous with that of the other, and the appendages of
the larva are homologous with the ap])endages of the imago.
Weismann has shown that in the larva of the Meat-fly, Musca
vomitnria, the thorax and head of the imago are developed
from what he calls "imaginal disks." These disks are minute
isolated portions of the hypodermis, which are formed in the
embryo, before it leaves the egg, and are held in place within
'the body-cavity of the larva by being attached either to nerves
or tracheae, or both. After the outer layer of the larva skiii
dries and hardens, and forms the cask-shaped ptiparhon, the
use of which corresponds to the cocoon of moths, etc., these
imaginal disks increase in size so as to form the tegumeiit oi'
the thorax and head. The abdomen of the Meat-fly, however,
is formed by the direct conversion of the eight hinder segments
of the body of the larva, into the corresponding f^egments oi
the imago.
Accompanying this change in the integurricnt there is u
destruction of all the larval system of organs ; this is either
total or elfected by the gradual destmctlon of tissues. Now
we see the use of the "•fatty bortv;" tliis breaks uj), setting
free granular globules of fat, winch, p.s Ave have seen in the
embryo, produces by the multiplication of cells the new tissues
of the pupa. Thus the larva-skin is cast aside, and also the
softer organs within, but the formation of new tissues keeps
even pace Avith the destruction of the old, and the insect prt ■
serves its identity throughout. The genital glands, however
arc indicated even in the embryo, and are gradually develope<i
throughout the growth of the insect, so that this histolysis, or
destruction of tissues, is not Avholly complete. The quiescent
pupa-state of Musca is long-continued, and its vitality is latent,
the acts of respiration and circulation being almost suspended.
(Weismann.)
TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INSECT. 65
In the metamorphosis of Corethra, a Mosquito-like Fly, ^vhich
is active both in tlie larva and pupa states, "the segments of
the larva are converted directly into the corresponding sco--
nients of the body of the imago, the appendages of the head
into the corresponding ones of the head of the imago ; those
of the thorax are produced after the last moult of the larva
as diverticula of the hypodermis round a nerve or trachea
from the cellular envelope of which the formation of tissue in
the interior of the appendages issues. The larval muscles of
the abdominal segments are transferred unchanged into the
imago ; the thoracic muscles peculiar to the imago, as also
some additional abdominal nmscles, are developed in the last
larval periods from indifferent cellular cords which are indi-
cated even in the egg. The genital glands date back to the
embryo, and are gradually developed ; all the other systems of
organs pass Avith little or no alteration into the imago. Fatty
body none or inconsiderable. Pupa-state short and active."
(Weismann.)
As the two types are most clearly discriminated by the
presence or absence of true imaginal disks, Weismann suggests
that those insects which undergo a marked metamorphosis
might be divided into Itisecta discota (or Insects with imaginal
disks), and those without, into Insecta adiscota.
The metamorphosis of Corethra may prove to be a type of
that of all insects which are active in their preparatory stao-es ;
and that of Musca typical of all those that are quiescent in tlie
pupa-state, at least the Lepidoptera and those Diptera which
have a coarctate * pupa, together with the Coleoptera and those
Neuroptera in which the metamorphosis is complete, as Phry-
ganea, Hemerobius, etc.
The transformations of the Humble-bee are easily observed
by taking a nest after the first brood have matured, when we
shall find individuals in all stages of development from the
larva to the imago state. The figures below show four stages,
but in reality there is every gradation between these stages.
* The larvaB of some of the higher Diptera spin a slight cocoon, while the true
flies, such as the Muscida; and Syrphidre, etc., change to pupa; within the larva
skin which contracts into a cylindrical "ptiparium" corresponding in use to the
cocoon; such pupai are called "coarctate."
5
66
THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
Fig. 64 shows what we may call the seraipupa, concealed by
the old larval skin. There are ten pairs of stigmata, two
thoracic and eight abdominal. The head of the semi-pupa
lies under the head (o) and prothoracic ring {b). The basal
ring of the abdomen (c), or fourth ring from the head, is un-
changed in form. This figure also will suffice to represent
g a
Fisr. C5.
6 7c I
f
Fig. G6. Fig. 07.
the larva, though a little more produced anteriorly than in
its natural form.
In another stage (Fig. 65) of the semi-pupa, the larval skin
is entirely sloughed off", the two pairs of wing-pads lying paral-
lel, and very equal in size, like the wings of Neuroptera. Tlie
thoraco- abdominal ring, ox propodemn (c), is distinguished by
its oblong spiracle (n), essentially differing from those on
the abdomen. At this point the body contracts, but the head
TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INSECT. 67
and thorax together are yet, as still more in the previous
stage, much smaller than in the pupa, and there is still a con-
tinuous curve from the tip of the abdomen to the head, (y,
antenna; /*, lingua, maxillse, and palpi; i, fore-legs; J, mid-
dle legs; A', meso-scutum ; I, meso-scutellum ; ?i, spiracle of
the propodeum.)
In a succeeding stage (Fig. G6) of the semi-pupa, the head
and thorax together nearly equal in size the abdomen, and the
propodeum (c) has becoihe entirely transferred to the thorax.
The head has become greatl}' enlarged ; the rings are very un-
equal, the hinder pair are much smaller, and overlaid by the
anterior pair ; the three terminal pair of abdominal rings, so
large in Fig. 65, have been absorbed, and partially inclosed in
the cavity of the abdomen ; and there has been a farther dif-
ferentiation of the ring into the sternite ((/), pleurite (e), and
tergite (/). (a, eye; /», lingua; o, ovipositor, two outer
rhabdites exposed to view.) The abdominal spiracles in Figs.
65 and C)(j, are represented by a row of dots. In the pupa
they are concealed by the tergites, which overlap the stei'nites.
Fig. 07 represents the pupa state, where the body has become
much shorter, and the appendages of the head and thorax greatly
differentiated ; the external genital organs are AvhoUy retracted
within the cavity of the abdomen ; the head is freer from the
body, and the whole bulk of the head and thorax together, in-
cluding the appendages, greater than that of the abdomen.
These changes of form, assumed by the insect in its passage
from the larva to the pupa state, are nearly as striking as
the so-called " hypermetamoi'phosis " of 3Ieloe and Sitaris
described by Newport and Fabre. (Z, mesoscutellum ; p, cly-
peus ; g, maxilloe with the palpi ; r, lingua.)
We have also observed similar changes in the semi-pupa of a
Tineid larva, which we found in the mud-cells of Odynerus
alhophaleratus. There were over a dozen specimens in different
stages of growth from the larva to the pupa, which were but
partially paralyzed by the well-directed sting of the intelligent
wasp, so tliat some continued to transform into perfect pupa*.
The following changes were noticed : the larva straightened
out, and became a little shorter, the prothoracic ring remaining
the same ; the head of the pupa being beneath it ; the meso-
68 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
thoracic ring enlarged, swelling and ronnding above and on the
sides, and with this increase in size drawing the meta-thorax
forwards. The lirst visible portion of the pupa beneath is the
niesothorax. The thoracic legs of the larva are now con-
stricted at their base, and have become useless.
In the next stage, the most important change noticed is in
the metatliorax, which now becomes broadly heart-shaped. In
a succeeding stage, the whole thorax bulges out, and is much
larger and clearly distinguished from the head and abdomen.
The prothorax of the larva disappears, and that of the jnipa
takes its place. The occiput of the pupa, just l)efore the larAa-
skin is thrown oft^ can be distinctly seen under the larval occi-
})ut, pushing aside each half of the latter.
In the last stage of Bomhas just before the imago leaves its
cell, the body and limbs are surrounded by a thin pellicle.
This pellicle also envelops the moth, just before it leaves the
pupal state, and is cast ofl' when it moults the pupa-skin. This
is probably identical with the skin cast by the active subimago
of E}')heinera., soon after it has taken its flight. Westwood also
considers this sul)imago skin identical with that covering the
bodies of coarctate Diptera, as in Eristalis.
Newport states, that when the imago of Sphinx is about to
cast off' the pupa- skin the abdominal segments are elongated
beyond their original extent, this being the first part of the
insect that is entirely freed from its attachment within the
pupa-case. After this the thorax slits down, and the body is
drawn out of the rent. In the Butterfly the wings mature in a
few moments, but those of Sphinx being thicker, require two
or three hours.
Newport (Philosophical Transactions, London, 1832 and
1834) has detailed with great minuteness the internal changes
of Sphinx ligustri while transforming. The most marked
changes are in the nervous and digestive systems.
Several anomalous modes of metamorphosis have been ob-
served, one in Diptera and the other in Sitaris and MeJoe. The
development of the latter insect will be noticed beyond.
Sir John Lubbock has described the singular metamorphosis
of LonchojJtera, which he considers to be allied to San/us,
though the adult stages differ greatly. The larvae are oblong
TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE INSECT. 69
ovate, flattened, with four long set<« in front and two behind,
with the sides of the body eniarginate and spinuhited. They
were found under logs. "When the larva is full grown, it de-
taches itself from the skin, which retains its form, and within
which the insect changes into a white opaque fleshy grub con-
sisting apparently of thirteen segments which gradually dimin-
ish in size from one end to the other. There are no liinb-cases.
According to analogy the pupa should be ' incomplete ; ' it is
probable, therefore, that the legs and wings make their appear-
ance at a later stage. If this be so the perfect form is oilly
attained after passing through three well-marked stages. I re-
gret, however, that the specimens at my disposal did not enable
me to decide this point." (Trans. Ent. 8oc. London, Third
Ser. i, 18G2.)
Ilaliday states that Tlirips goes through ix, j^ropupa and pupa
stage. There are Ave well-deflned stages in the Ilomopterous
Tuphlocyha^ and more than three in Aphis. Yersin has noticed
several stages in the development of Gryllus campestris, and
the genus Fsocus has four such stages.
The duration of the different stages varies with the changes
of the seasons. Cold and damp weather retards the process of
transformation. Re'aumur kept the pupa of a Butterfly two
years in an ice-house before, on being removed to a warm place,
it changed to a butterfly. Chrysalids survive great alter-
nations of heat and cold ; they may be frozen stiff" on ice, and
then, on being gradually exposed to the heat, thaw out and
finish their transformations.
Retrograde Development. There are certain degradational
forms among the lowest members of each group of Insects
which imitate the group beneath them. The Tardigrades (which
are considered by some authors to be allied to the Mites) are
mimicked by the low parasitic worm-like Demodex folUcuJormn ;
the low Neuroptera, such as Lepnsma. imitate the Myriopoda ;
and the wingless Lice remind us of the larvae of the Neuropter-
lous Hemerohius.
Among the Coleoptera, the history of Stylops affords a strik-
ing exanii)le. The active six-footed larva is transformed into
the strange bag-like female which takes on the form of a cylin-
drical sac, the head and thorax being consolidated into a
70 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
minute flattened portion. Tlie process of degradation here
seems carried out to its farthest limit.
Thus the degraded forms of the lower series of Hexapods
take on a Myriopod aspect. In the more highly cephalized
Diptera, Lepidoptera, and Il3'menoptera the degraded forms
are modelled on a higher articulate type. The idea of a divis-
ion into three regions is involved. Thus the wingless forms
of Flies, such as the Bird-louse, Nirvms; the Bat-tick, Nycte-
ribiu; the Bee-louse, Braula; and Cliionea resemble strikingly
the biregional Arachnids.
In the wingless female of Orgyia and the Canker-worm moth,
the head is free, but the thorax is merged into the abdomen.
The resemblance to the lower insects is less striking. The
worker ants and wingless Ichneumons, Pezomachus, still more
strictly adhere to the type of their suborder, and in them the
triregional form^^ the body persists. Among the first of the
examples here cited we have seen the workings of a law, by
which most degraded forms of insects (and this law is exerted
with greater force in Crustacea) tend to revert to the worm-like,
or, as we may' call it, the archetypcd^ form of all Articulata.
We have seen that many winged forms mimic the groups
above them, whereas the wingless degraded species revert to a
worm-like form. In either case, the progress is towards a
higher or a lower form. The latter is the more exceptional, as
the evolution and growth of all animals is upwards towards a
more si)ecialized, differentiated form.
The Imago. After completing its transformations the adult
insect immediately seeks to i)rovide for the propagation and
continuance of the species. The sexes meet, and, soon after,
the male, now no longer of use in the insect economy, perishes.
The female hastens to lay her eggs either in, upon, or near
what is to be the food of the young, and then dies. This
l)eriod generally occurs in the summer and autumn, and during
the winter the species is mostly represented b}^ the egg alone.
Rarely does the adult insect hibernate, but in many species
the pupa hibernates to disclose the adult in early summer.
The larva seldom, as such, lives through the winter.
Re'auraur kept a virgin butterfly for two years in his hot-
house. From this it would seem that the duration of the life
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTKIBUTION. 71
of an insect may be in this way greatly prolonged. Most in-
sects live one year. Hatching from the egg in early summer,
they pass through the larva state, and in the autumn become
pupse, to appear as imagos for a few days or weeks in the
succeeding summer. Many Lepidoptera are double-brooded, and
some have even three broods, while the parasitic insects such as
Lice and Fleas, and many Flies, keep up a constant succession
of broods. "Warmth, Mr. R. C. R. Jordan remarks in the Ento-
mologists' Monthly Magazine, has much to do with rapidity
of development, as insects may be forced artificially into hav-
ing a second brood during the same season. Some Coleoptera,
such as the Lamellicorns, are supposed to live three years in
the larva state, the whole time of life being four years. The
Cockchafer {Melolontha) of Europe is three years in aniving
at the perfect state, and the habits of the Goldsmith Beetle
{Cotalpa lanujera)^ according to Rev. Samuel Lockwood
(American Naturalist, vol. 2, p. 186), and of the June Beetle,
and allied genera, are pi'obably the same.
Geographical Distribution. The insect-fauna of a coun-
tiy comprises all the insects found within its limits. The
Polar, Temperate, and Tropical zones each have their distinct
insect-fauna, and each continent is inhabited by a distinct
assemblage of insects. It is also a curious fact that the insect-
fauna of the east coast of America resembles, or has many an-
alogues in, that of the Eastern hemisphere, and the west coast
of one repeats the characteristics of the west coast of the
other. Thus some California insects are either the same spe-
cies or analogues {i.e. representative species) of European
ones, and the Atlantic coast aflJbrds forms of which the ana-
logues are found in Eastern Asia and in India. This is corre-
lated with the climatic features which are repeated on alternate
sides of the tAvo hemispheres.
The limits of these faunae are determined by temperature and
natural boundaries, i. e. the ocean and mountain ranges. Thus
the insect-fauna of tlie polar regions is much the same in
Europe, Asia, and North America ; certain widely spread polar
species being common to all three of these continents.
When we ascend high mountains situated in the temperate
72 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
zone, whose summits nearly reach the snow-line, we find a
few insects which are tlie same or very similar to those of the
polar regions ; such an assemblage is called an Alpine fauna.
The insect-fauna of each great continent may be divided into
an Arctic, or polar, a Temperate, and a Tropical fauna, and an
Alpine fauna if there are mountains in the warm latitudes which
reach near the snow-line. Mountain barriers, inland seas, des-
erts, and peculiarities in the flora (or collection of plants
peculiar to a certain district), are boundaries of secondar3'
imi)ortance in limiting the distribution of species.
On the other hand insects are diffused by winds, rivers,
oceanic currents, and the agency of man. By the latter im-
portant means certain insects become cosmopolitan. Certain
injurious insects become suddenly abundant in newly cultivated
tracts. The balance of nature seems to be disturbed, and
insects multiplying rapidly in newly settled portions of the
country, become terrible pests. In the course of time, how-
ever, they seem to decrease in numbers and moderate their
attacks.
Insect-faunje are not limited by arbitrary boundaries, but
fade into each other by insensible gradations corresponding in
a general wa}^ to the changes of the temperature of different
portions of the district they inhabit.
The subject of the geographical distribution of insects, of
which we have as yet but given the rudiments, may be studied
to great advantage in North America. The Arctic insect-fauna
comprises Greenland, the arctic American Archipelago, and the
northern shores of the continent beyond the limit of trees. A
large proportion of the insects found in this region occur in
arctic Europe and arctic Asia, and are hence called circum-
polar, while other species are indigenous to each country.
Again, the arctic fauna of Labrador and Hudson's Bay differs
from that of the arctic portions of the region about Behring's
Straits, certain species characterizing one side of the continent
being replaced by representative species which inhabit the
opposite side.
The Alpine fauna of the White Mountains consists, besides
a very few peculiar to them, of circumpolar species, which are
now only found in Labrador and Greenland, and which are
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 73
supposed to be relics of a glacial fauna -vvhich formerly inhab-
ited the northern part of the temperate zone, and in former
times followed the retreat of a glacial, or arctic climate from
the low-lands to the Alpine summits. These patches, or out-
liers, of an Arctic fauna, containing however a preponderance
of subarctic forms, also occur in the colder parts of New
Enghmd.
Tiie subarctic fauna is spread over British North America,
stretching north-westerly from the interior of Labrador and the
northern shores of the St. Lawrence, following the course of
the isotlicrmal lines which run in that direction, and nortli of
which no cereals grow. There are subarctic forms Miiich inliabit
the shores of the Bay of Fundy, especially about Eastport,
Maine, Avhere the fogs and cold arctic marine currents lower
the climate.
Dr. J. L. Leconte, in a paper on the Coleoptera of Kansas
and Eastern New Mexico (Smithsonian Contributions to Knowl-
edge), thus subdivides the Coleopterous fauna of the United
States, and gives a useful maj) to which the reader is referred.
"The whole region of the United States is divided by merid-
ional, or nearly meridional lines into three, or i)erhaps four,
great zoological districts, distinguished each by numerous
peculiar genera and species, which, with but few exceptions, do
not extend into the contiguous districts. The eastern one
of these extends from the Atlantic Ocean to the arid prairies on
the west of Iowa, Missouri, and Arkansas, thus embracing
(for convenience merely) a narrow strip near the sea-coast of
Texas. This narrow strip, however, belongs more properly
to the eastern province of the tropical zoological district of
Mexico.
"The central district extends from the western limit of the
eastern district, perhaps to the mass of the Sierra Nevada of
California, including Kansas, Nebraska, Utah, New Mexico,
Arizona, and Texas. Except Arizona, the entomological launa
of the portion of this district west of the Kocky Mountains,
and in fact that of the mountain region proper, is entirehi un-
known ; and it is very proliable that the region does in reality
<'ons^.itute two districts bounded by the llocky Mountains-^ and
the soutiiern continuation thereof.
74 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
"The western district is the maritime slope of the continent
to the. Pacific, and thus inchides California, Oregon, and Wash-
ington Territories.
"These great districts are divided into a numl)er of prov-
inces, of unequal size, and which are limited l)y changes in
climate, and therefore sometimes distinctly, sometimes vaguely
defined."
"The method of distribution of species in the Atlantic and
Pacific districts, as already observed b}' me in various memoirs,
is entirely different. In the Atlantic district, a large number
of species are distributed over a large extent of country ; many
species are of rare occurrence, and in passing over a distance
of several hundred miles, but small variation will be found in
the species obtained. In the Pacific district, a small number
of species are confined to a small region of country ; most
species occur in considerable numbers, and in traAelliug even
one hundred miles, it is found that the most abundant species
are replaced by others, in many instances very similar to them ;
these small centres of distribution can be limited only after
careful collections have been made at a great number of locali-
ties, and it is to be hoped that this very interesting and im-
portant subject of investigation may soon receive proper atten-
tion from the lovers of science of our Pacific shores.
' ' In the Central district, consisting, as it does to a A^ery
large extent, of deserts, the distribution seems to be of a mod-
erate number of species over a large extent of country, with a
considerable admixture of local species ; such at least seems to
be the result of observations in Kansas, Upper Texas, and
Arizona."
There are a very few species which range from New England
to Brazil, and fewer still {Xyleutes robiiike, according to IJois-
duval, is found in California) range from New England to
California. Junonia coenia, according to authors, is found both
in the Southern States and California, and Ff/rrhairtia isabella
of the Eastern States would be easily confounded with P, Cali-
forn ica.
Variation. Islands afford more variable forms than conti-
nents ; the Madeiran insects and those of Great Britain vary
more than the same species found on the continent of Europe.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 75
A species spread thnnigh two zones of temperature also varies ;
many European species, according to McLachlan, becoming
"melanized" in going northward, while others become paler.
ISuch varieties have been described as difterent species.
Mr. Alfred Wallace finds that the most constant forms of
species are those the most limited in their geographical range
as to a particular island, while those species, which range over
a large part of the Malayan Archipelago, vary very consider-
ably. It is a general rule throughout the animal and vegetable
world, that the most widely spread species are those capable of
withstanding the greatest climatic changes, and adapting them-
selves to the greatest diversities of topography.
While the most widely distributed species are thought to be
the most variable, Mr. Scudder finds in the genus Chionchas
that C. semidea, restricted to the summit of Mt. Wasliington
varies almost as much as C. Oeno, which is circumpolar, being
found both in Labrador and Northern Europe.
Mr. Wallace (Transactions of the Linnjean Society, xxv,
1865, p. 14) mentions the following facts "as showing the
special influence of locality in giving a peculiar fades to the
several disconnected species that inhabit it."
"On examining the closely allied species, local forms, and
varieties distributed over the Indian and Malayan regions, I
find that larger or smaller districts, or even single islands, give
a special character to the majority of tlieir Papilionidii?. For
instance: 1. The species of the Indian region (vSumatra, Java,
and Borneo) are almost invariably smaller than the allied spe-
cies inhabiting the Celebes and Moluccas ; 2. The species of
New Guinea and Australia are also, though in a less degree,
smaller than the nearest species or A'arieties of the Moluccas ;
o. In the Moluccas themselves the species of Amboyna are larg-
est ; 4. The species of Celebes equal or even surpass in size those
of Amboyna; 5. The species and varieties of Celebes possess
a striking character in the form of the anterior Avings, differing
from that of the allied species and varieties of all the surrounding
islands ; 6. Tailed species in India or the Indian region become
tailless as they spread eastward through the archipelago."
Variety breeding. Varieties may be produced artificially ;
thus negro varieties of insects ma}- be raised "from parents
76 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
more or less tainted with melnnisiii, aiirt according to Knaggs,
there is a "freauent recurrence of individuals wanting a hind
wing, wliich may be noticed even at large in Macaria notata."
"Few species are liable to the same extent of variation, and
many apparently to none at all." Certain species vary " ac-
cording as they may have reproduced, generation after gen-
eration, on a chalky, peaty, gravelly, or other soil." Food also
exerts an influence in inducing variation, according as cater-
joiilars of the same species feed on different plants ; this occurs
most commonly in the Micro-lepidoptera. (Knaggs, in the
Entomologist's Monthly Magazine, London.)
Introduced species of insects, like those of plants, often thrive
more vigorouslv than the native forms. This is instanced by
nati^'e insects which aboinid in unusual numbers in newly
cleared districts where the former presence of forests and
their natural foes kept them under. The Potato-beetle, Can-
ker-worm, and CUsiocampa must have lived formerly in mod-
erate numbers on our native plants, where now countless hosts
affect our introduced plants. Among species introduced from
a foreign country we have only to instance the Hessian Fly,
the Wheat-midge, the Coddling-moth, the Clothes-moth, the
Apple Bark-louse, and the Grain- weevil. Mr. AV. T. Brig-
ham informs us that some of the most abundant insects in the
Hawaiian Islands are introduced species carried by vessels
from Europe. Vanessa Antiopa, Pyrameis cardui, and P.
Atcdctnta, so abundant in this country, are supposed to be intro-
duced butterflies. Aphodius Jtmetarins, found by us living in
dung on Mt. Washington, is one of our most common beetles,
and the Asparagus-beetle, introduced from Europe a few years
since, is common in gardens in Eastern New York, while Mr.
Walsh has recorded the appearance of the Euroi)ean Gooseberry
8aw-Fly, which ravages the Gooseberry and Currant. Pieris
rupee, the Cabbage-butterfly, introduced from P^urope into
Quebec about 1859, soon became abundant within a circle of
forty miles radius about that city, and has even spread into
Maine and Vermont along the railroads leading from Quebec.
Insect Years. There are insect years as well as "apple
years," seasons wlien insects most abound. P2very collector
knows that there are certain years when a particular species of
GEOLOGICAL DLSTRIBUTION. 77
insect is unusually common. The Army-worm, Lencania iini-
2-)nncta, swarms in countless numbers in a summer followino-
a dry and warm spring. After a cold and rainy spring, insects
are less abundant. Mr. F. Smith remarks that in England the
summer and autumn of 1860 were unusually wet, which dis-
al)led the bees, wasps, and fossorial hymenoptera generally, iu
l)uilding their nests. We know how ants are hindered from
bnilding their nests by rain, and in a very rainy season num-
bers probably die. A succession of rainy seasons caused the
Andrena?, or Spring bees, to disappear from the vicinity of
London. While a severe winter, if the cold be continuous, is
not injurious to insects, mild periods in winter, when it is warm
enough to rouse them fnnn torpidity, are as fatal to insects as
to vegetation, should se\ere cold immediately follow.
Geological DLSTniiuTTiON. The geological distribution of
insects corresponds generally with that of other animals,
though insect-remains are few in munber, owing naturally to
the difficulty with whicli their fragile forms are preserved
in the rocks. Professor C. F. Ilartt has discovered near St.
John, New Brunswick, the oldest insect-remains in the world.
They occur in some plant-beds of the Upper Devonian forma-
tion, and consist of six species of Neurojitera. Mr, Scudder,
who has referred to them in vol. 1 of the American Naturalist,
states that with the exception of one or two Ephemerida?, or
May-flies, they mostly represent families which are now extinct.
He describes a gigantic May-fly, Platepliemera antiqua (PI. 1,
fig. 3) ; Lithentomimi Harttii (PL 1, fig. 5) ; Homotlietus fossi-
lis (PI. l,fig. 7) ; and Xenoneura cmtiqiiorum which is supposed
to bear a stridnlating organ like that of the Grasshoppers,
so that he ''is inclined to believe there were cliirping Neu-
roptera in those days."
Ascending to the Carboniferous rocks, insect-remains appear
more abundant. At Morris, Illinois, have been collected some
remarkable forms. Among them are Miamia Bronsonii Dana
(PI. 1, fig. 1), allied to the White Ants and Hemeristia ocd-
dentalis Dana, allied to Hemerobius and Chrijsojxi. From the
same locality Mr. Ilar-^c-r has described Arthrohjcosa antiqua
(Fig. 68), a singula, form with a jointed abdomen.
78 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
In the Coal-beds of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, sev-
eral interesting Myriopodous, Ncuropterous
and Orthopterons insects have been found ;
<~^ \ among them a Cockroach, Arcliimulacris
^c ^ ^ "? Acadica (PI. 1,* fig. 2). In Europe, Car-
^ ' " / __Q bonifcrous insects have been discovered at
^ ^ f ' Wettin, SaarbriJck, etc.
'^ ' - J '' -> The insects from these two formations
^ \ '' show a tendency to assume gigantic and
'\^ strange shapes. They are also compre-
Fig. 08. hensive types, combining the characters of
different families and even different suborders. The most re-
markable instance is the Eugereon Boecliirtgii Dohrn, from the
Coal Formation of Germany. It has been referred by Dr.
Hagen, with some doubt, to the Hemiptera, from its long im-
mense rostrum into which all the mouth-parts are produced, the
labium ensheathing them as usual in the Hemiptera. Its fore-
legs are large and raptorial ; but the filiform many-jointed an-
tenntie, and the net-veined wings are Ncuropterous characters.
Hence Dohrn considers it as a comprehensive type uniting
* KXPLANATION OF PLATE 1.
Fig. 1. Miamia Brovxonii. A Neiiropterons insect found in iron-stone concre-
tions in the Carboniferous beds at Morris, Illinois. The figure is magniiied one-
third, and has all its parts restored; the dotted lines indicate the parts not existing
on the stone. Reduced from a ligure in tlie Memoirs of tlie Boston Society of Nat-
ural History, Vol. I.
Fig. 2. Archimulftcris Acadica. AViug of a Cockroach observed by Mr. Barnes
in the coal-formation of Nova Scotia.
Fig. 3. Platephemera antiqua. A gigantic May-fly obtained by Mr. Hartt in the
Devonian rocks of New Brunswick.
Fig. 4. Xylobius siyillaria:. The Myriopod (or Gally-worm) found in tlie eoal-
formatiou of Nova Scotia, by J. W. Dawson. Copied from a flgurc in Dr. Dawson's
Air-breathers of the Coal-period. Magnified.
Fig. 5. Lithentomuvi Jlin-fii. A Ncuropterous insect, the specimen first dis-
covered by Mr. Hartt in the Devonian rocks of New Brunswick. This fossil, and
those accompanying it, are the oldest insect-remains in the world.
Fig. G. Three facets from the eye of an msect, considered by Dr. Dawson a
Dragon-fly. It was found in coprolites of reptiles in the rocks containing the My-
riopod, represented in Fig. 4. Copied from Dr. Dawson's figure, greatly magnified.
Fig. 7. Homothetus fossilis. A Ncuropterous insect from the Devonian rocks of
New Brunswick ; it was discovered by Mr. Hartt.
Fig. 8. JTaplophlebium Darnesii. A curious Ncuropterous insect, of large size,
probably allied to our May-flies; taken by Mr. Barnes from the coal of Cape Bre-
ton.
These figures, with the exception of 1, 4, and (!, are of life size, and borrowed
from the new edition of Dr. Dawson's Acadian Geology.
Plate 1,
Fig. I
I
Pig.2.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 7.
Fig. 6.
Fig. 8.
FOSSIL insec;ts
GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION. 79
the characters of the Neuroptera and Hemiptera. It is a
large insect, spreading about two inches ; its body must have
measured over an inch in length.
In the Mesozoic rocks, the celebrated Solenhofen locality in
Bavaria is rich in Liassic insect-remains. Dr. Ilagen (Ento-
mologist's Annual, London, 1862) states that among the Solen-
hofen fossils the Neuroptera and Orthoptera are most largely
represented ; as out of four hundred and tifty species of insects,
one hundred and fifty are Neuroptera, of which one hundred
and thirt^'-six are Dragon-flies, and besides "there is a Cory-
dahis, one CImjsojxi, a large Apochrysa, and a beautiful
Nymj)hes. The last two genera, which do not seem very remote
from Chrysopa, are now found only in the Southern Hemi-
sphere, Nynrphes is peculiarly an Australian genus."
The Lias of England is \evy rich in fossil insects, especially
the Purbeck and Ehoetic Beds (see Brodie's AVork on Fos-
sil Insects and also Westwood in the Geological Journal, etc.
Vol. X.).
In the Trias, or New-Red Sandstone of the Connecticut
Valley, Professor Hitchcock has found numerous remains of
the larva of an aquatic Coleopterous insect.
The insects of the Tertiary formation more closely resemble
those of the present day. The most celebrated European
locality is O^ningen in Switzerland.
According to Professor O. Heer, over five thousand specimens
of fossil insects have been found at O^ningen, comprising 844
species, of which 518 are Coleopterous. From all Tertiary
Europe there are 1,322 species, as follows: 166 Hymenoptera,
18 Lepidoptera, 166 Diptera, 660 Coleoptera, 217 Hemiptera,
39 Orthoptera, and 56 Neuroptera.
"If we inquire to what insect-fauna of the present i)eriod
the Tertiary fauna is most analogous, we shall be surprised Xo
find that most of the species belong to genera actually found in
the old and the new world. The insect-ftmna of CEningen con-
tains 180 genera of this category, of which 114 belong to the
Coleoptera. Of these last, two {Dineutes and Caryhorus) re-
main in Europe, while all the others are now found living both
in Elurope and in America. The whole number of Coleopterous
genera furnished by CEningen, and known to me, amount to
80 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
158 ; those that fire oonimon to l)oth liemispheres forming then
more than two-thirds of tlie whole number, while of the actual
Coleopterous launa of Europe, according to the calculation of
M. Lacordaire, there is only one-third. The genera found to-day
in both parts of the Avorld have then during the Tertiary- epoch
played a more important part than is the case now ; hence
the knowledge of the character of the fauna is rendered more
difficult. AVe find at QMiingen but a very small number (five)
of genera exclusively European ; seventeen are found to-day
in Europe, in Asia, and in Africa, but not in America. For the
most part they belong to the Mediterranean fauna (comprising
eight genera) and give to the insect-fauna of Q^ningen a strong-
proportion of Mediterranean forms. In this fauna I only know
of one exclusively Asiatic genus ; tw^o are peculiar to Africa,
and two others {Anojylites and Nrnvpactiis) are American.
"There are now living, hoAvever, in Europe certain genera
which, W'ithout being exclusively American, since they are found
in Asia and in Africa, belong more peculiarly to America ; such
are BeJostomum, Ilyiiselonotas, Diplonychus, Evagorns, Sten-
ojwda, Plecia, Caryborus, and Dineutes. . . . The genera i^eculiar
to our fauna of Tertiary insects amoinit to forty-four, of which
twenty-one belong to the Coleoptera ; among the Orthoptera
there is one, and six H^-menoptera, six Diptera, and eleven
Hemiptera. They comprise 140 species." (Heer.)
An ai)parently still richer locality for Tertiary insects has
l)een discovered by Professor Denton west of the Rocky j\Ioun-
tains, near the junction of the White and Green Rivers, C'olo-
rado. According to Mr. Scudder "between sixty and seventy
species of insects were brought home, representing nearly all
the different suborders ; about two-thirds of the species were
Flies, — some of them the perfect insect, others the maggot-like
larvje, — but, in no instance, did both imago and larva of the
same insect occur. The greater part of the beetles were quite
small ; there were three or four kinds of Homoptera (allied to
the tree-hoppers), Ants of two different genera, and a poorl}'
preserved Moth. Perhaps a minute Thrips, belonging to a
group Which has never been found fossil in any part of the
world, is of the greatest interest."
He thus sums up what is knoA>-n of American fossil insects.
THE DISEASES OF INSECTS. gj
"The species of fossil insects now known from North America,
number eighty-one : six of tliese belong to the Devonian, nine
to the Carboniferous, one to the Triassic, and sixty-five to the
Tertiary epochs. The Ilymenoptera, Ilomoptera, and Diptera
occur only in the Tertiaries ; the same is true of the Lepidop-
tera, if we exclude the Morris specimen, and of the Coleoptera,
with one Triassic excei)tion. The Orlhuptera and Myriopods
are restricted to the Carboniferous, while the Xeuroptera occur
both in the Devonian and Carboniferous formations." Mr.
Scudder describes from the Carboniferous formation of Nova
Scotia, besides Xylobius sigillarke Daws., four additional spe-
cies {X. similis, fractus and Dawsoni, and Arcliiulus xyloMo-
ides, n. g. and sp.), forming the family Archiulidce.
The Diseases of Insects have attracted but little atten-
tion. They are so far as known mostly the result of the attacks
of parasitic plants and animals, though epidemics are known
to break out and carry olf myriads of insects. Dr. Shimer
gives an account of an epidemic among the Chinch bugs, which
"was at its maximum during the moist warm weather that fol-
lowed the ccVl rains of June and the first part of July, 18G5."
Species of microscopic plants luxuriate in infinitesimal for-
ests within the alimentary canal of some wood-devouring insects,
and certain fungi attack those species which are exposed to
dampness, and already enfeebled by other causes. Among the
true ento2:>hyta, or parasitic plants, which do not howcAer ordi-
narily occasion the death of their host, Professor Leidy describes
Enterohryns elegans, E. S2m-alis, E. uUernatxis, Artliromitus
cristatus, Cladophytum coviatvm, and CorT/nocIadvs radiatus,
which live mostly attached to the mucous walls of the interior
of the intestine of Jnltis marginatus and two other species of
Jnhis, and Passahis cormitus. Eccrhia louga Leidy, lives in
J'ohjdcsmns Virginiensis ; and E. moniliformis Leidy in P.
grdhvJatvs.
But there are parasitic fungi tliat are largely destructive to
their hosts. Such are Sphaeria and Isaria. "These fun"-i
groAv with great rapidity within the body of the animal they
attack, not only at the expense of the nutritive fluids of the
latter, but, after its death, all the interior soft tissues aijpear
6
82 THE CLASS or INSECTS.
to be converted into one or more aerial receptacles of spores."
(Leidy.) These fungi, so often infesting caterpillars, are hence
called "caterpillar fungi." They fill the whole body, distend-
ing even the legs, and throw out long filaments, sometimes
longer than the larva itself, giving a grotesque ai)pearance to
the insect. Leidy has found a species which is ver^' common
in the Seventeen-3'ear Locust, Cicada septendechn. He found
"among myriads of the imago between twelve and twenty
specimens, which, though living, had the posterior third of the
abdominal contents converted into a dry, powdery, oclu-eous-
yellow, compact mass of sporuloid bodies." He thinks tliis
Cicada is very subject to the attacks of these fungi, and that
the spores enter the anal and genital passages more readily
than the mouth ; thus accounting for their development in the
abdomen.
The most formidable disease is the '•'• Muscardine" caused by
a fungus, the Botrytus Bassiana of Balsamo. It is well known
that this disease has greatly reduced the silk crop in Europe.
Balbiani has detected the spores of this fungus in the eggs of
Bombyx mori as well as in the diftcrent parts of the body of
the insect in all stages of growth. Extreme cleanliness and
care against contagion must be observed in its prevention.
Among plants a disease like Muscardine, due to the presence
of a mimite fungus {3Iucor ludUtophorns)^ fills the stomach
of some insects, including the Honey-bee, with its colorless
spores, and greatly weakens those aliected. Another fungus.
iSporendonema muscce, infests the common House-fly.
Another Silk- worm disease called '■'■ Pehmie" carries off many
silk-worms. Whether it is of pathological or vegetable origin
is not yet settled.
There are also a few intestinal worms known to be para-
sitic in insects. The well-known "Hair-worm" {Gordius)
in its young state lives within the body of various insects in-
cluding the Spiders. The tadpole-like j'oung differs greatly
from the parent, being short, sac-like, ending in a tail. Upon
leaving the egg they work their way into the body of insects,
and there live on the fatty substance of their liosts, where they
undergo their metamorphosis into the adult hair-like worin.
and make their waj^ to the pools of water in which they live
THE DEFORMITIES OF ESTSECTS. 83
and beget their species, and lay "millions of eggs connected
together in long cords." Leidy thus writes regarding tlu-
habits of a species which infests grasshoppers.
"The number of Gordii in each insect varies from one to five,
their length from three inches to a foot ; they occupy a position
in the visceral cavity, where they lie coiled among the viscera,
and often extend from the end of the abdomen forward through
the thorax even into the head ; their bulk and weight are fre-
quently greater than all the soft i)arts, including the muscles,
of their living habitation. Nevertheless, with this relatively
immense mass of parasites, the insects jump about almost as
freely as those not infested.
"The worms are millv-white in color, and undivided at the
extremities. The females are distended with ova, but I have
never observed them extruded. When the bodies of Grass-
hoppers, containing these entozoa, are broken and lain upon
moist earth, the worms gradually creep out and pass below its
surface."
Goureau states that Filaria, a somewhat similar worm, in-
habits Ilibeniia brumata and Vanessa jyi'orsa. (Ann. Ent. 8oc.
France.)
Siebold describes Gordlus svbbifnrcxs which infests the
Honey-bee, especially the drones, though it is rather the work-
ers, which frequent the pools Avhere the Gordii live, that wi'
would expect to find thus infested. Another entozoan is 3Ier-
mis albicans of Siebold, which is a very slender Avhitish worm
much like Gordlus. and about five inches long. It is found in
the drone of the honey-bee and in some other insects.
Deformities of Insects. Numerous instances of supernume-
rary legs and antennae are recorded. The antennae are some-
times double, but more commonly the legs. "Of these As-
muss has collected eight examples, and it is remarkable that in
six of them the parts on one side are treble." Newport, from
whom we have quoted, states that "the most remarkable ex-
ample is that given by Lefebvre of Scarites Pi/rctchmon in which
from a single coxa on the left side of the prosternum two tro-
chanters originated. The anterior one, the i)roper trochanter,
supported the true prothoracic leg ; Avhile the posterior one, in
the form of an oblong lanceolate bod^', attached to the base of
84 THE CLASS Of insects.
the first, supported two additional legs equally well formed as
the true one."
The wings are often partiall}' aborted and deformed ; this is
especially noticeable in the wings of butterflies and moths.
Mr. F. G. Sanborn has described and
figured a wing of a female of JJhelhda
ludnoHa Bnrm. (Fig. 69), in which
among other deformities "tlie ptero-
^''o- ^^- stigma is shorter and broader than that
of the opposite Aving, and is situated about one-eighth of an inch
only from the nodus, only oie cubital vein occurring between
them, instead of fourteen as in the opposite wing." (Proceed-
ings of the Boston Society of Natural History, vol. xi, p. i52G.)
Directions for Collkcting and Preserving Insects.
Insects ditfer sexually in that the female generally {ii)pears to
have one abdominal ring less (one ring disappearing during the
i-emi-pupa state, when the ovipositor is formed), and in l)eing
larger, fuller, and duller colored than the males, while the lat-
ter often differ in sculpture and ornamentation. In collect-
ing, Avhenever the two sexes are found united they should be
l)inned ui)on the same pin, the male being placed highest.
When Ave take one sex alone, Ave ma}^ feel sure that the other
is somcAvhere in the vicinity ; perhaps Avhile one is flying about
so as to be easily captured, the other is hidden under some
leaf, or resting on the trunk of some tree near by, Avhich must
be examined and every bush in the vicinity A'igorously beaten
by the net. Many species rare in most places have a metropolis
where they occur in great abundance. During seasons Avhen
his fiivorites are especially abundant the collector should lay
up a store against years of scarcity.
At no time of the year need the entomologist rest from his
labors. In the Avinter, under the bark of trees and in moss he
can find many species, or on trees, etc., detect their eggs, Avhich
he can mark for observation in the spring when the^^ hatch out.
He need not relax his endeavors day or night. Mothing is
night employment. Skunks and toads entomologize at night.
Early in the morning, at suurise, when the dcAv is still on
the leaves, insects are sluggish and easily taken Avith the hand ;
COLLECTIN& AND PRESERVING INSECTS. 85
SO at dusk, when many species are found flying, and in the
night, the collector will be rewarded with many rarities, man\
species flying then that hide themselves by day, wliile many
caterpillars leave their retreats to come out and feed, when the
lantern can be used with success in searching for them.
Wollaston (Entomologist's Annual, I860) states that sandy
districts, especially towards the coast, are at all times prefer-
able to clayey ones, but the intermediate soils, such as the
loamy soil of swamps and marshes are more productive. Near
the sea, insects occur most abundantly beneath pebbles and
other objects in grassy spots, or else at the roots of plants.
In many places, especially in Alpine tracts, as we have found
on the summit of Mt. Washington and in Labrador, one has to
lie down and look carefully among the short herbage and in
the moss for Coleoptera.
The most advantageous places for collecting are gardens and
farms, the borders of woods and the banks of streams and
ponds. The deep, dense forests, and open, treeless tracts are
less prolific in insect life. In winter and early spring the moss
on the trunks of trees, when carefully shaken over a newspaper
or white cloth, reveal many beetles and Hymenoptera. In the
late summer and autumn, toadstools and various fungi and rot-
ten fruits attract many insects, and in early spring when the
sap is running we have taken rare insects from the stumps of
freshly cut hard-wood trees. Wollaston says, "Dead animals,
partially-dried bones, as well as the skins of moles and other
vermin which are ordinarily hung up in fields are magnificent
traps for Coleoptera ; and if any of these be placed around or-
chards and inclosures near at home, and be examined every
morning, various species of Nitidulce, Slip hi dee, and other
insects of similar habits, are certain to be enticed and cap-
tured.
"Planks and chippings of wood may be likewise employed
as successful agents in alluring a vast number of species which
might otherwise escape our notice, and if these be laid down
in grassy places, and carefully inverted every now and then
with as little violence as possible, many insects will be found
adhering beneath them, especially after dewy nights and in
showery weather. Nor must we omit to urge the importance
86 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
of examining the under sides of stones in tlic vicinity of ants'
nests, in which position, during the spring and summer months,
many of tlie rarest of our native Coleoptera may be occasion-
ally procured." Excrementitious matter always contains many
interesting forms in various stages of growth.
The trunks of fallen and decaying trees offer a rich harvest
for many wood-boring larvne, especially the Longicorn beetles,
and weevils can be founil in the spring, in all their stages. Nu-
merous carnivorous Coleopterous and Dipterous larvje dwell
within them, and other larva? which eat the dust made by the
borers. The inside of pithy plants like the elder, raspberry,
blackberry, and syringa, are inhabited by many of the wild
f;ees, Osmia, Csratina^ and the wood-wasps, Crahro^ Stigmus,
etc., the habits of which, with those of their Chalcid and Ich'
neumon parasites, offer endless amusement and study.
Ponds and streams shelter a vast throng of insects, and
should be diligently dredged with the water-net, and stones
and pebbles should be overturned for aquatic beetles, He-
miptera, and Dipterous larva?.
The various sorts of galls should be collected in spring and
autumn and placed in vials or Ijoxes, wdiere they may be rear-
ed, and the rafters of out-houses, stone-walls, etc., should be
carefully searched for the nests of Mud-wasps.
Collecting Apparatus. First in importance is the net. This
is made by attaching a ring of brass wire to a handle made
to slide on a pole six feet long. The net may be a foot in
diameter, and the bag itself made of thni gauze or mosquito-
netting (the liner, lighter, and more durable the better), and
should be about twenty inches deep. It should be sewed to a
narrow border of clotli placed around the wire. A light net
like this can be rapidly turned upon the insect with one hand.
The insect is captured by a dexterous twist which also throws
tlie bottom over the mouth of the net. The insect should be
temporarily held between the thumb and fore-finger of the hand
at liberty, and then pinned through tlie thorax while in the net.
The pin can be drawn through the meshes upon opening the
net. The beating-net should be made much stouter, with a shal-
lower cloth bag and attached to a shorter stick. It is used for
beating trees, bushes, and herbage for beetles and Hemiptera
COLLECTING AND rilESERVING INSECTS. 87
and various larviie. Its thorough use we would recominend in
tlie low vegetation on mountains and in meadows. The water-
net may be either round or of the shape indicated in Fig. 70.
The ring should be made of brass, and
the shallow net of grass-cloth or coarse
millinet. It is used for collecting aqua-
tic insects.
Various sorts of forceps are indispen- Fig. 70.
sable for handling insects. Small delicate narrow-bladed for-
ceps with fine sharp points in use by jewellers, and made
either of steel or brass, are excellent for handling minute
specimens. For larger ones long curved forceps are very con-
venient. For pinning insects into boxes the forceps should be
stout, the blades blunt and curved at the end so that the insect
can be pinned without slanting the forceps much. The ends
need to be broad and finely indented by lines so as to firmly
hold the pin. With a little practice the forceps soon take the
place of the fingers. They will have to be made to order by
a neat workman or surgical-instrument maker. Some persons
use the ordinary form of pliers with curved handles, but they
should be long and slender. A spring set in to separate the
handles when not grasped b}' the hand is a great convenience.
Various pill-boxes, vials, and bottles must always be taken,
some containing alcohol or whiske}-. Many collectors use a
wide-mouth bottle, containing a sponge saturated with ether,
chloroform, or benzine, or bruised laurel leaves, the latter be-
ing pounded with a hammer and then cut with scissors into
small pieces, which give out exhalations of prussic acid strong
enough to kill most small insects.
Besides these the collector needs a small box lined with
corn-pith, or cork, and small enough to slip into the coat-
l)Ocket ; or a larger box carried by a strap. Most moths and
small flies can be pinned alive without being pinched (which
injures their shape and rubs off the scales and hairs), and then
killed by pouring a little benzine into the bottom of the box.
Killing Insects for the Cabinet. Care in killing affects very
sensibly the looks of the cabinet. If hastily killed and dis-
torted by being pinched, with the scales rubbed off and other-
wise mangled, the value of such a specimen is diminished
88 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
either for purposes of study or the neat appearance of the col-
lection.
Besides the vapor of ether, chh)rofonn, and benzine, the
fumes of sulpluu" readil}' kill insects. Large specimens ma}'
be killed by inserting a pin dipped in a strong solution of ox-
alic acid. An excellent collecting bottle is made by putting
into a wide-mouth bottle two or three small pieces of cyanide
of potassium, which may be covered Avith cotton, about half-
filling the bottle. The cotton may be covered witli paper
lightly attached to the glass and pierced with pin-holes ; this
keeps the insect from being lost in the bottle. For Diptera,
Loew recommends moistening the bottom of the collecting box
with creosote. This is excellent for small tlies and moths, as the
mouth of the bottle can be placed over the insect while at rest ;
the insect flies up into the bottle and is immediatel}' suffocated.
A bottle well prepared will, according to Laboulbine, last
several months, even a year, and is vastly superior to the old
moans of using ether or chloroform. He states, "the incon-
venience of taking small insects from a net is well known, as
the most valuable ones usually escape ; but by placing the end
of the net, filled with insects, in a Avide-mouthed l)ottle, and
putting in the cork for a few minutes, they Avill be suffocated."
Pinning Insects. The pin should be inserted through the
thorax of most insects. The Coleoptera, however, should be
pinned through the right wing-cover ; many Ilemiptera are
best pinned through the scutellum. The specimens should all
lie pinned at an equal height, so that about one-fourth of the
pin should project above the insect.
Tlie best pins are those made in Berlin l)y Klager. They are
of five sizes. No. 1 being the smallest; Nos. 1, 2, and 5 are
the most convenient. For very minute insects still smaller pins
are made. A ver\' good but too short pin is made by Edles-
ton and Williams, Crown Court, Cheapside, London. Their
Nos. 19 and 20 may be used to impale minute insects upon,
and then stuck through a bit of cork, or pith, through which a
No. 5 Klager pin may be thrust. Then the insect is kept out
of the reach of devouring insects. Still smaller pins are made
by cutting off bits of very fine silvered wire at the right length,
which may be thrust by the forceps into a piece of pith, after
the insects have been impaled upon them.
COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS. 80
Small insects, especially beetles, may be mounted on c-irds
or pieces ol" mica tln-ough which the pin may be thrust. Tiie
French use small oblong bits of mica, with the posterior lialf
covered with green paper on which the number may be placed,
Tiie insect ma}- be gummed on the clear part, the two sexes to-
gether. The under side can be seen througli the thin mica.
Otliers prefer triangular pieces of card, across tlie end of
which the insect may be gummed, so that nearly the whole un-
der side is visible.
Mr. Wollaston advocates gumming small Coleoptera upon
cards. Instead of cutting the pieces of cards first, lie gums them
promiscuously upon a sheet of card-board. "Having gummed
thickly a space on your card-board equal to, at least, the entire
specimen when expanded, itlace the beetle upon it, drag out
the limbs with a pin, and, leaving it to dry, go on with the
next one that presents itself. As the card has to be cut after-
wards around 3'our insect (so as to suit it), there is no advan-
tage in gumming it precisely straight upon, your frame, — though
it is true that a certain amount of care in this respect lessens
your after labor of cutting-off very materially. When ^-our
frame has been filled, and you are desirous of separating the
species, cut out the insect with finely pointed scissors."
For mending broken insects, i.e. gumming on legs and an-
tennae which have fallen off, inspissated ox-gall, softened Avith a
little water, is the best gum.
For gumming insects upon cards Mr. Wollaston recommends
a gum "composed of three parts of tragacanth to one of
Arabic, l)oth in powder ; to be mixed in water containing a grain
of corrosive sublimate, without which it will not keep, until
of a consistency just thick enough to run. As this gum is of
an extremely ab-^orbent nature, nearly a fortnight is required
before it can l)e properly made. The best plan is to keep add-
ing a little water (and stirring it) every few days until it is
of the proper consistency. It is advisable to dissolve the grain
of corrosive sublimate in the water which is poured first upon
the gum."
Preservative Fluids. The best for com.mon use is alco-
hol, diluted with a little \vater ; or whiskey, as alcohol of full
strength is too strong for caterpillars, etc., since it shrivels them
90 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
Tip. Gl3'ccrinc is excellent for preserving the colors of cater-
pillars, though the internal parts decay somewhat, and the
specimen is apt to fiiU to i)ieces on being roughly handled.
Laboulbene recommends for the preservation of insects in a
fresh state plunging them in a preservative fluid consisting of
alcohol with an excess of arsenious acid in fragments, or the
common white arsenic of commerce. A i)int and a half of al-
cohol will take about fourteen grains (troy) of arsenic. The
living insect, put into this preparation, absorbs about jr?oo of its
own Aveight. When soaked in this liquor and dried, it will be
safe from the ravages of Moths, Anthrenus, or Dermedes. Tliis
liquid will not change the colors of blue, green, or red beetles
if dried after soaking from twelve to twenty-four hours. He-
miptera and Orthoptera can be treated in the same way.
A stay of a month in this arseniated alcohol mineralizes the
insect, so that it appears very hard, and, after drying, becomes
glazed Avith a white deposit Avhich can, however, be Avashed off"
with alcohol. In this state the specimens become too hard for
dissection and study, but Avill do for caljinet specimens designed
for permanent exliibiti(Mi.
Another preparation recommended hy LaboulbL-ne is alcohol
containing a A'ariable quantity of corrosiA'c sublimate, but the
latter has to be Aveighed, as the alcohol evaporates easity, the
liquor becoming stronger as it gets older. The strongest solu-
tion is one part of corrosive sublimate to one hundred of alco-
hol ; the Aveakest and best is one-tenth of a part of corrosive
sublimate to one hundred parts of alcohol. Insects need not re-
main in this solution more tlian two hours before drying. Both
of these preparations are very poisonous and should be handled
with care. The last-named solution preserves specimens from
mould, Avhicli Avill attack pinned insects during damp summers.
A A'cry strong l)rine Avill preserve insects until abetter liquor
can be procured. Professor A. E. Verrill recommends two sim-
ple and cheap solutions for preserving, among other specimens,
the larvie of insects "Avith their natural color and form remark-
ably perfect." The first consists of two and a half pounds of
common salt and four ounces of nitre dissolved in a gallon of
water, and filtered, Spi'cimens should be prepared Cor perma-
nent preservation in this solution by being l)re^■iously immersed
COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS. 91
in a solution consisting of a quart of the lirst solution and
two ounces of arseniate of potash and a gallon of water. (Pro-
ceedings Boston Society Nat. Hist., vol. x, [). 257.)
The nests, cocoons, and chrysalids of insects may be pre-
served from injury from other insects by being soaked in the
arseniated alcohol, or dipi)ed into benzine, or a solution of car-
bolic acid or creosote.
Preparinrj Insects for the Cabinet. Dried insects may be
moistened by laying them for twelve or twenty-four hours in
a box containing a layer of wet sand, covered with one thick-
ness of soft paper. Their wings can then be easily spread.
iSetting-boards for spreading the wings of insects may be made
by sawing deep grooves in a thick board, and placing a strip
of pith or cork at the bottom. The groo\e may be deep enough
to allow a quarter of the length of the pin to project above
the insect. The setting-board usually consists of thin j)araUel
strips of board, leaving a groove between them wide enough to
receive the body of the insect, at the bottom of whicli a strip
of cork or pith should be glued. The ends of the strips should
be nailed on to a stouter strip of wood, raising the surface of
the setting-board an inch and a half so that the })ins can stick
tlu'ough without touching. Several setting-boards can be made
to form shelves in a frame covered with wire gauze, so that
the specimens may be preserved from dust and destructive in-
sects, while the air may at the same time have constant access
to them. The surface of the board sliould incline a little to-
wards the groove for the reception of the insect, as the wings
often gather a little moisture, relax and fall down after the
insect is dried. Moths of medium size should remain two or
tiu'ee days on the setting-board, while the larger thick-bodied
Sphinges and Bomhycidce require a week to dry. The wings
can be arranged b}^ means of a needle stuck into a handle
of wood. They should be set horizontally, and the front mar-
gin of the fore-wings drawn a little forward of a line perpen-
dicular to the body, so as to free the inner margin of the hind
wings from the body, that tlieir form may be distinctly seen.
When thus arranged, they can be confined by pieces of card
l)inned to the board as indicated in figure 71, or, as we prefer,
t>y square pieces of glass laid upon them.
92 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
After the insects have been thoroughly dried tliey should not
be placed in the cr.binet until after having been in quarantine
to see that no eggs of Uerniestes or
\o »'. AN Anthrenus, etc., have been deposited
on them.
For preserving dried insects in the
cabinet Laboulbene recommends plac-
ing a rare insect (if a beetle or any
Fig,-. 71. other hard insect) in water for an hour
until the tissues be softened. If soiled, an insect can be
cleansed under water with a fine hair-pencil, tlien submit it to
a bath of arseniated alcohol, or, better, alcohol with corrosive
sul)limate. If the insect becomes prune-colored, it should be
washed in pure alcohol several times. This method will do
for the rarest insects ; the more common ones can be softened
on wet sand, and then the immersion in the arseniated alcohol
suffices. After an immersion of an hour or a quarter of an
hour, according to the size of the insect, the pin is not affected
by the corrosive sublimate, but it is better to unpin the insect
previous to immersion, and then pin it when almost dry.
For cleaning insects ether or benzine is excellent, api)lied
with a hair-pencil ; though care should be taken in using these
substances which are very inflammaljle.
After the specimens are placed in the cabinet, the^' should be
farther protected from destructive insects by placing in the
drawers or boxes pieces of camphor wrapped in paper perfo-
rated by pin-holes, or bottles containing sponges saturated with
benzine. The collection should be carefully examined ever}'
month ; the presence of insects can be detected by the dust
beneath them. AVhere a collection is much infested witli
destructive insects, benzine should be poured into the bottom
of the box or drawer, when the fumes and contact of the ben-
zine with their bodies will kill them. The specimens them-
selves should not be soaked in the benzine if possible, as it
renders them brittle.
Insect-cabinet. For permanent exhibition, a cabinet of shal-
low drawers, protected by doors, is most useful. A drawer
may be eighteen by twenty inches square, and two inches deei)
in the clear, and provided with a tight glass cover. For constant
COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS.
93
use, boxes made of thin, well-sefisoned wood, with tight-fitting
covers, are indispensable. For Coleoptera, Dr. Leconte recom-
mends that tliey be twelve by nine inches (inside measnrement).
For the larger Lepidoptera a little larger box is preferable.
Others prefer boxes made in the form of books, whicli may be
put away like books on the shelves of the cabinet, though the
cover of the box is apt to be in the way.
The boxes and drawers should be lined with cork cut into
thin slips for soles ; such slips come from the cork-cutter about
twelve by four inches square, and an eighth of an inch thick. A
less expensive substitute is paper stretched upon a frame. Mr.
E. S. Morse has given in the American Naturalist (vol. I, ]).
150) a plan which is very neat and useful for lining boxes in a
large museum, and which
are placed in horizontal
show-cases (Fig. 72). "A
box is made of the re-
quired depth, and a light
frame is fitted to its in-
terior. Upon the upper
and under surfaces of this
frame, a sheet of white
paper (drawing or log-
paper answers the pur-
pose) is securely glued. Fig. 72.
The paper, having been previously dampened, in drying con-
tracts and tightens like a drum-head. The frame is then
secured about one-fourth of an inch from the bottom of the
box, and the pin is forced down through the thicknesses of
l)apcr, and if the bottom of the box be of soft pine, the point
of the pin may bs slightly forced into it. It is thus firmly held
at two or three different points, and all lateral movements are
prevented. Other advantages are secured by this arrangement
besides firmness; when the box needs cleaning or fumigation,
the entire collection may be removed by taking out the frame,
or camphor, tobacco, or other material can be placed on the
bottom of the box, and concealed from sight. The annexed
figure represents a transverse section of a portion of the side
and bottom of the box with the frame. A, A, box ; B, frame ;
94 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
P, P, upper and under sheets of paper ; C, space between
lower sheet of paper and bottom of box."
Other substitutes are the pith of various phxuts, especially
<;i corn ; and palm wood, and "inodorous felt" is used, being
cut to fit the bottom of the box.
Leconte recommends that "for the purpose of distinguish-
ing specimens from dilferent regions, little disks of variously
colored paper be used ; they are easily made by a small punch,
and should bs kept in wooden pill-boxes ready for use ; at
the same time a key to the colors, showing the regions em-
braced by each, should be made on the fly-leaf of the catalogut'
of the collection." He also strongly recommends that the
"specimens should all be pinned at the same height, since the
ease of recognizing species allied in characters is greatly in-
creased by having them on the same level."
He also states that "it is better, even when numbers with
reference to a catalogue are employed, that the name of each
species should be written on a label attached to the first speci-
men. Thus the eye is familiarized with the association of the
species and its name, memory is aided, and greater power given
of identifying species when the cabinet is not at hand." For
indicating the sexes the astronomical sign $ (Mars) is used for
the male, and 9 (Venus) for the female, aiid 9 for the worker.
Transportation of Insects. While travelling, all hard-bodied
insects, comprising many Hymenoi)tera, the Coleoptera, He-
miptera, and many Neuroptera should be thrown, with their
larva?, etc., into Ijottles and vials filled with strong alcohol.
When the bottle is filled new liquor should be poui-ed in, an<l
the old may be saved for collecting purposes ; in this way the
specimens will not soften and can be preserved indefinitely, and
the colors do not, in most cases, change. Leconte states that
'•if the bottles are in danger of being broken, the specimens,
after remaining for a day or two in alcohol, may be taken out,
partially dried by exposure to the air, but not so as to be brit-
tle, and these packed in layers in small boxes between soft
paper ; the boxes should then be carefully closed with gum-
paper or paste, so as to exclude all enemies."
Lepidoptera and Dragon-flies and other soft-bodied insects
may be well preserved by placing them in square pieces of pa-
REARING LARV^. 95
per folded into a triangular form with the edges overlapping.
Put up tlius, multitudes can be packed away in tin boxes, and
will bear transportation to any distance. In tropical climates,
chests lined with tin should be made to contain the insect-
boxes, which can thus be preserved against the ravages of
wliite ants, etc.
In sending live larvte by mail, they should be inclosed in lit-
tle tin boxes, and in sending dry specimens, the box should be
light and strong, and directions given at the post-office to
stamp the box liglitly. In sending boxes by express they
shoidd be carefully i)acked in a larger box, having an inter-
s[)ace of two inches, which can be filled in tiglitly witli hay or
crumpled bits of paper. Beetles can be wrapi)ed in [)ieces of
soft paper. Labels for alcoholic specimens should consiot
of parchment with the locality, date of capture, and name of
collector w^ritten in ink. A temporary label of firm paper with
the locality, etc., written with a pencil, will last for several
years.
Preservation of Larvoe. Alcoholic specimens of insects, in all
stages of growth, are very useful. Few collections contain al-
coholic specimens of the adult insect. This is a mistake. Many
of the most important characters are effaced during the drying
process, and for pui'poses of general study alcoholic speci-
mens, even of Bees, Lepidoptera, Diptera, and Di-agon-flies are
very necessary.
Larvce^ generally, may be well preserved in vials or bottles
of alcoliol. They should first be put into whiskey, and then
into alcohol. If placed in the latter first, they shrivel and
become distorted. Mr. E. Burgess preserves caterpillars with
the colors unchanged, l^y immersing them in boiling water
thirty or forty seconds, and then placing them in equal parts
of alcohol and water. It is well to collect larva? and pupa»
indiscriminately, even if we do not know their adult forms ; we
can approximate to them, and in some cases tell very exactly
what they must be.
Rearing L.vrv^. More attention has been paid to rearing
Caterpillars than the 3^oung of any other suborder of insects,
and the following remarks apply more particularly to them, but
OG THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
very much the same methods may be pursued in rearing the
\aY\x of Beetles, Flies, and Hymenoptera. Subterranean
larviie have to be kept in moist earth, aquatic larvje must be
reared in aquaria, and carnivorous larvae must be supplied
with flesh. The larviie of Butterflies are rare ; those of
moths occur more frequentl}^, Avhile their imagos may be
scarce. In some years many larvae, which are usually rare,
occur in abundance, and should then be reared in numbers.
In hunting for caterpillars bushes should be shaken and
beaten over newspa^^ers or sheets, or an umbrella ; herbage
should be swept, and trees examined carefully for leaf-rOllcrs
and miners. The l)est specimens of moths and butterflies are
obtained by rearing them from the egg, or from the larva or
pupa. In conflnement the food should be kept fresh, and the
box well ventilated. Tumblers covered with gauze, pasteboard
boxes pierced with holes and fitted with glass in the covers, or
large glass-jars, are ver}' convenient to use as cages. The bot-
tom of such vessels may be covered with moist sand, in which
the food-plant of the larva may be stuck and kept fresh for
several days. Larger and more airy boxes, a foot square, with
the sides of gauze, and fitted with a door, through which a bot-
tle of water maj^ be introduced, serve well. The object is to
keep the food-plant fresh, the air cool, the larva out of the sun,
and in fact everything in such a state of equilibrium that the
larva will not feel the change of circumstances when kept in
confinement. Most caterpillars change to pupte in the autumn ;
and those which transform in the earth should be covered with
earth, kept damp by wet moss, and placed in the cellar until the
following summer. The collector in seeking for larvaj should
carry a good number of pill-boxes, and especially a close tin
box, in which the leaves niay be kept fresh for a long time.
The different forms and markings of caterpillars should be
noted, and they should be draAvn carefully together with a leaf
of the food-plant, and the drawings and pupa skins, and per-
fect insect, be numbered to correspond. Descriptions of cat-
erpillars cannot be too carefully made, or too long. The
relative size of the head, its ornamentation, the strii)es and
spots of the body, and the position and number of tubercles,
and the hairs, or fascicles of hairs, or spines and spinules,
ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS. 97
which arise frotu Vhem, should be noted, besides the general
form of tlie body- The lines along the body are called dorsal,
if in the middle of the back, subdorsal; if upon one side, lat-
eral, and ventral when on the sides and under surface, or stiy-
matal if including the stigmata or breathing pores, which are
generally parti-colored. Indeed, the whole biography of an
insect should be ascertained by the observer; the points to
be noted are :
1. Date, when and how the eggs are laid ; and number, size,
and marking of the eggs.
2. Date of hatching, the appearance, food-plant of larva,
and number of days between each moulting ; the changes the
larva undergoes, which are often remarkable, especially before
tiie last moulting, witli drawings illustrative of these ; the hab-
its of the larva, whether solitary or gregarious, whether a day
or night feeder ; tne Ichneumon parasites, and their mode of
attack. Specimens of larv;e in the different moultings should
be preserved in alcohol. The appearance of the larvge when
full-fed, the date, number of days before pupating, the forma-
tion and description of the cocoon, the duration of lavYse in the
cocoon before pupation, their appearance just before changing,
Iheir appearance while changing, and alcoholic specimens of
larvae in the act, should all be studied and noted.
3. Date of pupation ; description of the pupa or chrysalis ;
duration of the pupa state, habits, etc. ; together with alcoholic
specimens, or pinned dry ones. Lepidopterous pupte should be
looked for late in the summer or in the fall and spring, about
the roots of trees, and kept moist in mould until the imago
appears. Many Coleopterous pupiB may also occur in mould,
and if aquatic, under submerged sticks and stones, and those
of borers under the bark of decaying trees.
4. Date when the insect escapes from the pupa, and method
of escape ; duration of life of the imago ; and the number of
broods in a season.
Entomological Works. The titles of a few of the most im-
portant works on Insects are given below. The more advanced
student should, however, possess Dr. Hagen's Bibliotheca En-
tomologica, 8vo, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1862-3, which contains a
7
98 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
complete list of all entomological publications up to the year
1862. Besides these he should consult the annual reports on
the progress of Entomology published in Wiegmann's Archiv
fur Naturgeschichte, begun in 1834, and continued up to the
present time ; and also Glinther's Zoological Record (8vo, Van
Voorst, London), beginning with the year 1864. Occasional
articles are also scattered through the various government re-
ports, and those of agricultural societies and agricultural
papers. >
GENERAL WORKS.
The Avorks of Sioammerdam, Malphighi, Leeuwenhoek, Lyonnet, Serves, Meckel,
linmdohr, Suckoto, Merian, and Herhst.
Reaumur, Rene Ant. cle. Memoires pour servir a P Histoire cles Insectes. Paris, 1734
-1742, 7 vols. 4to.
Roesel, Aucj. Joh. Dermonatlich heransgegeben Insekten-Belustigung. Niirnberg,
174G-17(n, 4 vols. 4to, illustraterl.
Geer, Carl de. Memoires pour servir a 1' Histoire des Insectes, 1752-1778, 7 vols.
4to.
Linnceus, Carolus. Systenia ?<atura?, 173.5. 12th edition, 176()-1768.
Fabricius, Joh. Christ. Systema Entomologiae, 1775, 8vo.
. Genera Insectorum, 1777, 8vo.
■ . Species Insectorum, 1781. 2 vols. 8vo.
. Mantissa Insectorum, 1787, 2 vols. 8vo.
. Eutomologia Systematica, 4 vols. 8vo, 1792-04.
Cramer, P. Papillons exotiques des trois parties dxi monde. 4 vols. 4to, 1775-82.
Stoll, Casper. Supplement to Cramer's Papillons exotiques. 4to, Amsterdam,
1787-ni.
Smith, J. E., and Abbot, John. The Natural History of the Rarer Lepidopterous
Insects of Georgia. Fol. Plates. London, 1797.
Latreille, Pierre Andre. Precis des caracteres generique des Insectes, 179G, 8vo.
. Genera Crustaceorum et Insectorum, 4 vols. 8vo, 1806-1809.
■ . Consideration generales sur 1' Oi'dre nature! des Animaux composant
les Classes des Crustaces, des Araclinides et des Insectes.
. In Cnvier's Regne animal, 8vo, 1810.
. Families naturelles du Regne animal, 8vo, 1825.
. Cours d' Entomologie, 8vo, 1831.
Fabricius, Otho. Fauna Groenlandica. Hafnia;, 1780, 8vo. Contains LibeUula
virgo (erroneously), Phryganea rhombica, Ternies divinatorium, etc.
Drury, Drew. Illustrations of Natural History, etc. London, 1770-1782, 4to, 3 vols.
(ed. Westwood, 1837). Numerous species are figured and described.
Trei-iranus, G. R. Vermischte Schriften auatomischen und physiologischen Inhalts
Bd. 1 u. 2. Giittingen, 1816-17, 4to.
Mac Leay, W. S. Horre Entomologies, 2 vols. London, 1819.
Meigen, F. IF. Systematische Beschreibung der bekannten europiiischen zweiflii-
geligen Insecten. 7 vols. Aachen and Hamm, 1818-1835. (Although this work
contains only European species, many of them are common to both continents.)
Say, T. American Entomology. 3 vols. With plates. Philadeli)hia, 1824, 25, 28.
. Complete Writings on the Entomology of North America, edited by J. L
Leconte, M. D. 2 vols. 8vo, colored idates. New York, 1859.
Baer, K. E. i\ Beitrage zur Kentniss dcr nisderen Thiere. (E.xtracted from Nova
Acta Acad. Leopold. Carolin. xiii. 2, 1827.)
ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS. 99
PaliKot de neauvnin, A. J. Insectes recueillis en Afrique et en Amerique, dans les
royauuies d' Oware et de Benin, a SaintDoiuingue et dans les Etats-Unis, pen-
dant les annees, 17S(i-97. Fol. with 00 plates, Paris, lsa5-'21.
Savignrj, J. C. de. Description de 1' Egypte. Histoire naturelle. Crustaces,
Arachnides, Myriapodes et Insectes, 53 pi. in gr. fol. Paris, 1809-1838. Ex-
plication sonunaire des planches par J. V. Andonin, Pai'is, 182(5, lol.
Curtis, John. Description of the Insects brought home by Commander James
Clark. Ross's Second Voyage. App. Kat. Hist., 1831, 4to, plates. (Several Arctic
species are described.)
Kirbij, W. <f- W. SiJence. An Introduction to Entomology; or, Elements of the Nat-
ural History of Insects. 4 vols. 8vo, 1828. Seventh edition (comprismgvols. 8
& 4 of the early editions). London, 185U, post Svo.
Wiedemann, C. II. W. Aussereuropaische Zweiftiigeligelnsect^n. 2 vols. Hamni,
1828-30. With plates.
Curtis, John. Farm Insects ; being the Natural History and Economy of the Insects
injurious to the Field Crops of Great Britain and Ireland. 8vo. With plates and
Avood-cuts. 1800.
Chevrolat, Aug. Coleopteres du Mexique. Strasbourg, 1834-.5.
Stephens, J. F. Illustrations of British Entomology. London, Svo, 1835. Sev-
eral species of European Insects mentioned in this work have been found in
North America.
Kirhy, W. Fauna boreali- Americana, etc. Norwich, 1837, 4to.
KoUnr, V. Naturgeschichte der schaedlichen Insekten. Wicn, 1837, 4to. Contains
Termesflavipes, injurious in the hot-houses of Schcenbrunn and Vienna. This
description has been omitted in the translation of this work by Mr. Loudon,
London, 1840.
Macquart, J. Dipteres Exotique nouveaux on pen connus. 2 vols, en 5 parties, et
5 supplements, Paris, 1838-.55. With numerous plates. (Published originally in
the Memoires de la Societe des Sciences et des Arts de Lille, 18;38-55.)
Burrneister, H. Manual of Entomology, translated by W. E. Shuckard. London,
Svo, 1836.
Burrneister, Hermann. Zoologischer Hand Atlas. Berlin, 18.36-43 fol., 41 plates.
Westwood, J. O. An Introduction to the Modern Classiflcation of Insects. 2 vols.
Svo. London, 1839-40.
Cuvier, G. Le Rcgne animal distribue d'apres son Organisation. Nouvelle edi-
tion, accompagnee de planches gravees, rcpresentant les types de tous les Gen-
res,etc., publico par un reunion de Disciples de G. Cuvier. Paris, 1849, Svo.
Insectes, Aradmidcs, Crustaces par Audouin, Blanchard, Doyere, Milne-Ed-
loards et Duges. 4 vols. Texte et 4 vols, atlas.
Guerin- Miner iUe, F. E. Iconographie du Regne Animal de G. Cuvier, on repre-
sentation d'apres nature de I'une des especes les plus remaiquables et souvent
non encore flgurees de chaque genre d' aninianx, vols. G et 7: Annelidcs, Crus-
taces, Ai'achnides et Insectes, Paris, J. B. Bailliere, 1829-I4, 104 pi. Svo.
Griffith, E. The Animal Kingdom, described and arranged in conformity with its
organization. London, 1824-33, Svo. Class Insecta, 2 vols, with 140 pi. 1S32.
Classes Annelida, Crustacea et Arachnida. 1 vol. with 00 pi.
Suites a Buffon et Kouvelles suites a Buffon. Formant avec les OSuvres de cct
auteur un Cours complet d' Histoire naturelle. Paris, Dufart, 1798-1807. Paris,
Roret, 1834-1804, Svo. (Insectes, Crustaces, Arachnides etc., par Latreille, Lacor-
daire, Ami/of, Audinet- Seri^ille, Boisdural, Guenie, Bamhur, Lepeletier de St.
Fargeau, Macqnart, Milne-Edwards, Walkenaer, et Gervais).
Gosse, P. H. Canadian Naturalist. Loudon, 1840.
Zetterstedt, J. W- Insecta Lapponica. Lipsiae, 1840, 4to. Several species from
Lapland have been found in the Arctic regions of North America.
Pictet, F. Histoire naturelle, etc., des insectes Neuropteres, Part I, Perlides; Part
II, Eph^merines. Geneve, 1841-45, Svo, with colored plates.
100 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
nouhledny, E., and WesUvood, J. O. The Genera of Diurnal Lepidoptera. 8C col-
ored plates, 2 vols. fol. London, 184U-.V2.
WalJcer, F. List of the sjieciniens of Lei)idoi)terous, Diiiterous.Neuropterons, an(Z
Honiopterous Insects in the Collection of the I>riii!-h Museum. London, 184S-(i7.
Amyot, C, and ServUle, A. llemipteres. 8vo, Paris, Horet, 184;{.
Ratzeburg.J.T.C. Die Forstinsekten. 4to, 3vols. Berlin, 1837-44.
Van der Hceven, J. Handbook of Zoology, English tran.-lalion. 2 vols. 8vo, 1850.
Gerstaecker, A. Handbuch der Zocilogie (in connection with V. Cams), 2 vols.
8vo. (vol. 2, Arthropoda). Leipzig, 1863.
Be .S'e/?/.s' Loiif/champs, E. Revue des Odonatc-s on Libellules d'Enrope avee la col-
laboration de H. Hagen. Paris, 1850, 8vo. (Memoir. Soc. R. Science de Liege,
vol. vi.) (Two species. Lib. Hudso7iica, p. 53, and Agrion Doubledayi, p. 209, are
described in this work.)
Hagen, H. Revue des Odonates; Monographie des Calopterygines; Monogi'aphie
des Gomphines (cf. Sclys Longchanijjs).
Agassiz, L. Lake .Superior, its Physical Character, its Vegetation, and its Animals,
Boston, 18.50. With Catalogue of Coleoptera, by Dr. J. L. Leconte, and of the
Lei)idoiitera, by Dr. T. W. Harris.
Lacazc-Duthiers, H. Recherches sur V aiTnure genitale femelle des Insectes.
Plates. 8vo. Paris, 1853.
Melsheimer, F. E. Catalogue of the described Coleoptera of the United States.
Smithsonian In.«titution. 8vo, 18.53.
Dallas, ir. S. Catalogue of Hemipterous Insects in the British Museum. 1, 3.
Illustrated. Loudon, 1852.
Fitch. Asa. The noxious, beneficial, and other Insects of the State of New York,
Reports 1-8, 185(j-:j(i.
Sjniili, Frederic. Catalogue of Hymenoptera in the British Museum. Parts i-vl.
Plates. London, 1857-.58.
Fallen, C. F., Stal, C, and Fieber. Various papers on Hemiptera in Scandinavian
and German periodicals.
Hiibner, J. Saminlung Exotischer Schmetterlinge. 5 vols. 4to. Plates. 1800.
Guenee, A. Species general des Lepidopteres. (Noctuidre, Phalsenidas and Pyra-
lida') Suite a Buflbn. Paris, 8vo, 1852-57.
Stainton, H. T. The Natural History of the Tineina. 8vo, with many plates. Lon
don, vols. 1-8, 185.")-nt, 8vo.
Lacordaire, J. T. Genera des Coleopteres. 8vo, tomes 1-7. Paris, Roret, 18.54.
Jloisduval, J. A. Histoire generale et Iconographie des Lepidopteres et des Che-
nilles de 1' Amerique septentiionale. 8vo. Paris, Rorct, 1829-42.
Species generale des Lepidopteres. 8vo. Roret, Pans, 185G.
. Kssai sur 1' Eutoniologie horticole. 8vo. Paris, 1SU7.
Practical Entomologist. Entomological Society of Philadelphia. Vols. 1, 2, 4to,
18(i.5-()7.
Harris, T. W. A Treatise on some of the Insects of New England, which are
injurious to Vegetation. Third edition, illustrated. Boston, 1862.
Leconte, J. L. Classification of the Coleoptera of North America. Part I, 1861
Smithsonian Institution.
. List of Coleoptera of North America. 8vo, 186.3-6. Smithsonian Institu-
tion.
. New Species of North American Coleoptera. 8vo. Part 1, 1863-6. Smith
sonian Institution.
Coleoptera of Kansas and Eastern New Mexico. 4to. 3 plates. 18.5!),
Smithsonian Institution
Hagen, H. Synopsis of the Neuroptera of North America. 8vo. 1861. Smitlv
sonian Institution
Morris, J. G. Catalogue of the described Lepidoptera of North America. 8vo,
1860. Smithsonian Institution
ENTOMOLOGICAL WORKS. 101
Osten Snclcen, 11. Cntalogue of the (lescribed Diiitora of North America. ISflS.
Smithsonian institution.
Loeiu, II., and Osten Sacken, It. Monograph of the Diptera of North America.
Parts 1,2, Svo, 18(i2-(>4. Smithsonian Institution.
Trimble, I. P. A Treatise on the Insect Enemies of Fruit and Fruit Trees. The
Curculio and Apple moth. 4to. Plates. New York, 18(J5.
MORPHOLOGY.
Savigny, J. C. Memoires sur les Animaux sans Vortebrcs. 1 Partic. Description
et Classification des Animaux invertebres et articules, I. Fascicule. Tlieorie des
Organes de la Bouche des Crustaces et des Insectes. Paris, 1810.
Audouin, J. V. liecherches anatomi(iues sur le Thorax des animaux articulos et
celui des Insectes hexapodes en particulier. (Aunales d. Scienc. natur. 1, 1824,
p. 97 and 41C.)
Eschscholts, J. F. Beschreibung des inneren Skeletes einiger Insekten aus ver-
schiedeneu Ordnungen. Dorpat, 1820, Svo, p. 24-49, 2 Taf.
Baer, K. E. V. Ueber das iiussere uud innere Skelet (Meckel's Archiv. f. Anatom.
u. Physiol. 1S2G, p. 327-374).
f:richsoii, IF. F. Ueber zocilogische Charaktere der Insekten, Arachniden mid
Crustaceen. (Entomographien, S. 1-28.) Berlin, 1840, Svo.
Bridle, A. Kecherches sur les Transformations des Appendices dans les Arti-
culcis (Annales des Sciences natiirelles,3. ser. II, 1844, p. 271-374).
Lexickart, R. Ueber die Morphologic und die Verwaudtschaftsverhaltnisse der
Wirbelloseu Thiere. Braunschweig, 184S, Svo.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.
Straus- Diirclcheim, IT. Considerations gene-rales sur I'Anatomie comparee des
Animaux articiiles, anxquelles on a joint 1' Anatomic descriptive du Melolontha
vulgaris. Paris, 1828, 4to. 10 pi.
Diifour, L. fsumerous anatomical papers in the Annales des Sciences naturelles,
Paris.
SieboM, C. Th.i\ Lehi-biich der Vergleichenden Anatomic der wirbellosen Thiere.
Berlin, 184S, Svo. Translated by W. I. Burnett. Boston, IS.'il, Svo.
Gegeiibcnir, C. Grundzlige der vergleichenden Anatomic. Leipzig, IS.W, Svo.
Geoffroij St. ITilaire, Etienne. Considerations philosophiques sur la determination
du Systeme solide et du Systeme nerveux des Animaux articules. (Annal. d.
scienc. natur. II, 1824, p. 29.5 ff., Ill, p. 199 u. p. 453 ff.)
Neioport, G. On the Structure, Relations, and Development of the nervous and
circulatory Systems, and on the existence of a complete Circulation of the Blood
in Vessels, in Myriapoda and Macrourous Arachnida. (Philosoph. Transact-
1S43, p. 243-302.)
. On the Structure and Development of the Blood, I. ser. The Development
of the Blood Corpuscle in Insects and other Invertebrata, and its Comparison
with that of Man and the Vertebrata. (Annals of Nat. Hist. XV, 184.'), p. 2S1-2S4.)
. On the Nervous System of the Sphinx ligustri Lin. and on the Changes
which it undergoes during a Part of the Metamorphoses of the Insect. (Philo-
soph. Transact. 1S32, p. .383-398, and 18.34, ,3S'.)-423.)
. On the Temperature of Insects and its Connexion with Functions of Res-
piration and Circulation in this class of Invertel)rated Animals. (Philosoph.
Transact. 1837, p. 2.59-3.38.)
Blanchard, E. Recherchcs anatomiques et zoologiques sur le Systeme nerveux des
Animaux sans vertebres. Du systeme nerveux des Insectes. (Annal. d. scienc.
natur. 3. ser. V, 1846, p. 273-379.)
102 THE CLASS or INSECTS.
lilanchard, E. V>\\ Syst^me nerveux chcz les Invert(''bres dans ses rapports avec la
Classification de ces Aninianx. Paris, 1849, 8vo.
Milne- FAlicariU, H. Legons sur la Physiologic ct 1' Anatomic comparee de I'Homme
et des Auiinaiix. Paris, Masson 1857-04, 8vo.
EMBRYOLOGY.
JiathJce, IT. Untersnchnngen iibcr die Bildung nnd E;ntwickelung des Flusskreb-
ses, Leipzig, Voss. 1820, Fol. initS Tal".
. Znr Morphologic, Reisebemerknngcn aiis Tanrien. Riga, 1837, 4to, niit 5
Taf.
Ilerold, J. ^r. Excrcitationcs de animalium vertcljris carentiiim in ovo formatione
I. De generatione Arancanun in ovo. — Unter?nchnngen liber die Bildnngsge-
schichtc der Wirbellosen Tliiere im Ei. 1. Th. V'on dcr Erzeuguug der Spinnen
im Ei. Marburg, Kriegcr, 1821, fol. niit 4 Taf.
. Disquisitiones de animalium vertcbris carentium in ovo formatione. Do
generatione Inseutorum in ovo. Fasc. I, II, Frankfurt a Main, 183.')-.']8, fol.
KuUiker, A. Observationes de prima Insectornm genesi, adjecta aiticulatornm
evolutionis cum vertebratorum comparatione. Dissert, inaiig. Turici, Meyer et
Zeller, 1842, 4to, c. tab. 3.
Zaddach, G. Uutsrsuchung iibcr die Entwickelung iind den Ban der Gliederthici'c.
Heft 1. Die Entwickelung des Phryganiden-Eies. Berlin, Rcimcr. 1854, 4to, c.
tab. 5.
Leuckart, R. Die Fortpflanzung iind Entwickelung der Pupiparen nach Bcobach-
tnngen an Mclopliagus ovinus. (Abhandl. d. naturf. Gesellsch. zu Halle IV, 1858i
S. 145-22(J.)
Huxley, T. On the agamic Reproduction and Morphology of Aphis (Transact.
Linnean Soc. of London, XXII, p. lf)3-2.3(:.)
Lubbock, J. On tlic Ova and Pseudova of Insects (Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Soc. 18.5!), p. 341-369.
Claparede, E. Recherches sur revolution des Avaignees. 4to. Utrecht, 1862.
Weismnnn, A. Ueber die Entstelniug des voUendeten Insekts in Larveund Puppe.
Ein Beitrag zur Metamorphose der Insektsn, Frankl'urt a Main, 1863, 4to.
. Die Entwickelung der Dipteren im Ei, nach IJeobachtungcn an Chirono-
mus, Musca vomitoria und Pulex canis (Zeitschrift fiir Wissenschaltliche Zo-
ologie XIII, p. 107-204.)
. . Die nachembryonale Entwickelung der Musciden nach Beobachtungen an
Musca vomitoria und Sarcophaga carnaria. (The same, XIV, p. 187-336.)
FOSSIL INSECTS.
Giebel, C. Fauna der Vorwelt mit steter Beriicksichtigung der lebenden Thiere.
2. Bd. Gliederthiero. 1. Abtheilung. Die Insekten und .Spinnen dcr Vorwelt mit
steter Beriicksichtiginig der lebenden Insekten und Spinnen. Leipzig, 1856, 8vo.
Berendt, C. G. Die im Bernstein beflndlichen organischen Restc der Vorwelt, ge-
sammelt und in Verl)inrlung mit Mehreren herausgegeben. 1. Band. 2, Abth.
Die im Bernstein befindliclien Crustaceen,Myriai)odon, Arachniden undapteren
der Vorwelt, bearbeitet von C. L. Koch und C. G. Berevdt. — 2. Band. Die im
Bernstein beflndlichen Ilcmipteren, Orthopteron, und Neuropteren der Vorwelt,
bearbeitet von E. F. Gerinnr, F. J. Pictet, und H. Hmjen. Berlin, 1854-56, fol.
Jleer, O. Die Insecten-faunader Tertiaergebildc von CEningen und Radoboj. Leip-
zig, 1840, 4to, 3 vols.
Scudder, S. H. An inquiry into the Zoological Relations of the first discovered
Traces of fossil Nenropterous Insects in North America. From the Memoirs of
the Boston Society of Natural History, Vol. I, 1867, with a plate.
ENTOMOLOGICAL JOURNAL. 103
PERIODICAL WORKS (now in course of publication).
Edimrds, W. H. Butterflies of North America. Colored plates. CoinmenccdlSCS.
Anntiles de la SocietL' entoiiiologique de France, Paris. Commenced 18.52.
Transactions ol' the Eulomological Society ol" London. Commenced 1834.
L' Insectologie Af/ricole, Monthly Journal, Paris. Conmienced 18U7.
Zeitung. Entoniologische Verein, Stettin. Commenced 1810.
lAnncea entomnlogica. Entomologische Verein, Berlin. Commenced 1846.
Zeitschrift. Entoniologische Verein, Berlin. Commenced 18.")7.
Annales de la Societe entomologiqne Beige, Brussels. Commenced 18.57.
/VoceerfiHjrs of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadcli)hia. Commenced 1819.
Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. Commenced 1817.
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. New Series. Commenced
1818.
Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History. Commenced 1834.
Journal of the Boston Society of Natural History. Commenced 18.34.
Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New Yorl^. Commenced 18'24.
Proceedings and Transactions of the American Entomological Society, Philadel-
phia. Commenced 1861.
Proceedings and Communications of the Essex Institute, Salem. Commenced 1818.
American Naturalist, Philadelphia. Commenced March, 1867.
Entomological Journal. Every collector should keep a
daily journal of his captures and observations, noting down
eveiy fact and hint that falls under his notice. In this book,
commenced as soon as the season opens in early spring, can
be placed on record the earliest appearance, the time of great-
est abundance, and the disappearance of every insect in any of
its stages. Also the descriptions of larv?e, with sketches, and
observations upon their habits ; though drawings had better
be kept upon separate pieces of paper for easier reference.
The insects, when captured and unnamed should be numbered
to agree with corresponding numbers in the note-book. At
the close of the season one will be surprised to see how much
material of this kind has accumulated. He can then make a
calendar of appearances of perfect insects and larvae, so as
to have the work of the next season portioned out to him ;
he will thus know Avhen and where to look for any particular
insect or caterpillar.
The Number of Species of Insects. Oswald Heer estimates
that the Insects comprise four-fifths of the whole animal king-
dom. While there are about 55,000 species of animals known,
excluding the Insects, the number of this last single class
amounts to upwards of 190,000 known species, according to
104 THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
Gei'staecker's estimate. He reckons that there are at least
25,000 species of Hymenoptera, from 22,000 to 24,000 Lepidop-
tera, about 24,000 Diptera, and 90,000 Coleoptera ; the number
of the other suborders cannot be easily estimated. Besides
these there are about 4,600 Arachnida, and 800 Myriopods.
GuoupiNCr OF Insects into Orders and Suborders. Be-
fore beginning an account of the Six-footed Insects, we
present the following tabular view of the Classhlcation of In-
sects. The idea that the Myriopods, Spiders, and Six-footed
Insects formed orders and not classes was llrst proposed by R.
Leuckart in 1848, and afterwards supported by Agassiz and
Dana. The arrangements proposed by these and other authors
are put in tabular form on page 106.
The Class of Insects.
Sub-dass I. Segments grouped into thi'ee distinct re- "1
gions; eyes compound and simple; two piiirs of j IIexapoda
wings:* tliree pairs of tlioracic legs; one pair of ^(Six-footed In-
jointed abdominal appendages. A more or less | sects).
complete metamorphosis, . . . . .J
Sub- class ILSc'^mcnta gfouped into two regions, a^
false cephalothorax fund an abdomen; noantennne; I A^\c^^^nA
eyes simple; wingless; four pairs of thoracic legs ; y (^ryiA^ra)
three pairs of jointed abdominal appendages (spin- I ^ ^ ^'
ne'rets) often present. No metamorphosis, . . J
S;ib-rlnss TTLBody cylindrical, worm-like. Segments ^
not grouped into regions. Head free; eyes sim-
ple ; antennae present ; wingless ; uuraerous ab-
dominal legs present; yelk-sac present for a
short period after hatching. No metamorphosis.
Myriopoda
(Centipedes).
The Orders of Six-footed Insects J (Hexapoda).
Mctahola. The body usually cylindrical; prothorax ^
small; mouth-parts more generally haustellate | Hymenoptera
(formed for sucking) ; metamorphosis complete ; )■ Lepidoptera.
pupa inactive; larva usually cyliudrical, very | Diptera.
unlike the adult, J
^etrrometabola. The body usually flattened; pro- ^ Coleoptera.
thorax large and squarish; mouth-parts usually j Hemiptera.
adapted for biting; metamorphosis in a large }« Orthoptera.
number incomplete; pupa often inactive; larva j Neuroptera.
flutteued, often resembling the adult, . . J Thysanura.
* The number of wingless forms is comparatively few. The Diptera have but
one pair.
fTlie so-called " cephalothorax" of Spiders is not like that region in the Crabs,
the head being much freer from the thorax.
X Leuckart's classification is an advance on others in his considering the Hexa-
poda, Arachnida, and Myriapoda as orders instead of classes, but he says nothing
GROUPING OF INSECTS.
lOfj
The following diagrani shows, in a nulc way, the relative
rank and affinities of the eight orders, and of the two series
of Six-footed Insects.
Neuroptera.
Thysanura.
Through Lejnsma, and Podura which are wingless Thysa-
nurous insects, the lower series is connected with the Myriopods,
the minute degraded Fauropus and Scolopendrella perha})s
forming the connecting links ; and through the wingless
flies, Brcmla^ Chionea, and Nycteribia, the Diptera, belonging
to the higher series, assume the form of the Spiders, the head
being small, and sunken into the thorax, while the legs are
long and slender. The first and highest series culminates in
A2ns, the Honey-bee ; and the second, or lower, in Cicindela,
the Tiger-beetle.
regarding the rank and valne of the minor groups. Professor Agassiz extended
Leuckart's views in considering the seven grand divisions of the order of Ilexapods
as suborders. In 1803 (How to Observe and Collect Insects, jNIaine Scientific Sur-
vey, and Synthetic Types of Insects, Boston Journal of Natural History), we
proposed a new classification of these divisions, by which they are thrown into
two main groups headed by the Hymeuoptera and Coleoptera respectively. These
two groups, as represented in tlie diagram, are nearly equivalent in value, ami
stand in a somewhat parallel relation. Tliere is nothing like a linear series in the
aiiimal kingdom, but it is like a tree. Tlie hiiilier series of orders form more
of <a linear scries than the lower series, so that in the diagram the Xeuroptera,
Orthojitera, Hemiptera, and Coleoptera form a more broken series than the Hy-
menoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera. A Bee, Butterfly, and House-fly are much
more closely allied to each other than a Beetle, a Squash-bug, a Grasshopper,
«nd a Dragon-fly are among themselves. The Xeuroptera are the most indepen-
dent, and stand at the bottom of and between the two series, thougli by the Orthop-
tera they are very intimately linked with the Hemiptera and Coleoptera.
106
THE CLASS OF INSECTS.
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Suborders 1-2.
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HYMENOPTERA. 107
HYMENOPTERA.
The Bees, Wasps, Saw-flies, Ants, and other members of this
suborder differ from all other insects in liaving, in the liigher and
more typical forms, the basal joint of the abdomen thrown for-
ward upon and intimatelj^ united with the thorax. The head
is large, with large compound eyes, and three ocelli. The
mouth-parts are well developed both for biting, and feeding on
the sweets of plants, the ligula especially, used in lapping
nectar, being greatly developed. The other regions of the
body are more distinct than in other insects ; the wings are
small but powerful, Avith comparatively few and somewhat
irregular veins, adapted for powerful and long-sustained flights ;
and the genital appendages retracted, except in the Ichneu-
mon parasites and Saw-flies, within the body, are in the female
modified into a sting.
The transformations of this suborder are the most complete
of all insects ; the larvjxj in their general form are more unlike
the adult insects than in any other suborder, while the pupae,
on the other hand, most clearly approximate to the imago.
The larva? are short, cylindrical, footless (excepting the young
of the Saw-flies, the lowest family, which are provided with
abdominal legs like Lepidopterous larva?), worm-like grubs,
which are helpless, and have to be fed by the i)revision of the
parent. The pupa has the limbs free, and is generally contained
in a thin silken cocoon ; that of the Saw-flies, however, being
thick.
The Hymenoptera exhibit, according to Professor Dana, the
normal size of the insect-type. "This arclietypic size is be-
NOTE to page lOG.— Ray divided the Ilexapods into Coleoptera and Aneloptera,
tlie latter division enibvacing all the other suborders except the Coleoptera. His
Ametnmorphota //exo;;orfrt contained the wingless hexapoda; while the Ametamnr-
phota polypoda comprise the iMyrlO))ods, and the A. octopoda the Arachnids. Lin-
nfcus* Aptera (with numerous feet) are equivalent to the Myriopods,and his Aptvra
(with 8-14 feet) to the Arachnids. In Fabricius' system the Eteutheratd are equiva-
lent to the Coleoptera ; the f'^;o»«<« to the Orthoptera; the Si/nistata to the 'Scuvoii-
tera; the Piezata to the Hymenoptera; the Odonata to theLibeliuIidw; the Gtos.iaia
to the Lepidoptera; the Ilhyngota to the Hemiptera; the Antliata to the Dijitera.
The ^fitosata are the Myriopods, and the Unogatn, the Arachnids. In Latreille's
system the Suctoria, or Fleas, are now referred to the Diptera; the Parasita or
Lice, to the Hemiptera, and the Thysanura to the Neuroptera.
108 HYMENOPTERA.
tween eight and twelve lines (or twelfths of an inch) in length,
and two and a half and three lines in breadtli." This size is
probably a smaller average than in any other suborder ; thus the
Hymenoptera while being the most cephalized, consequentl}'^
comprise the most compactly moulded insectean forms.
Besides these structural characters, as animals, endowed
with instincts and a kind of reason differing, perhaps, only in
degree from that of man, these insects outrank all other Articu-
lates. In the unusual diffierentiation of the individual into males
and females, and, generally sterile workers, with a farther dimor-
phism of these three sexual forms, such as Iluber has noticed
in the Humble-bee, and a consequent subdivision of labor
among them ; in dwelling in large colonies, thus involving new
and intricate relations with other insects (such as Aphides,
ant-hill-inhabiting beetles, and the peculiar bee-parasites) ;
their wonderful instincts, their living principally on the sweets
and pollen of flowers, and not being essentially carnivorous
(/. e. seizing their prey like the Tigei'-beetle) in their hr.bits, as
are a large proportion of the other suborders, with the exception
of Lepidoptera ; and in their relation to man as a domestic an-
imal, subservient to his wants, — the Bees, and Hymenoptera
in general, possess a combination of characters which are not
found existing in any other suborder of insects, and which
rank them first and highest in the insect series.
The body-wall of the Hymenoptera is unusually dense and
hard, smooth and highly polished, and either naked, or covered
Avith hair as in a large proportion of the bees. The head is
large, not much smaller than the thorax, and its front is verti-
cal. The antenUcTe are short, filiform, often geniculate, very
rarely pectinated. The mandibles are large, stout, toothed, and
the niaxilhie are well developed into their tlu'ee subdivisions,
the palpi being usually six-jointed ; the labial palpi are usually
four-jointed, and the prolongation of the under lip, or ligula,
is highly developed, being furnished with a secondary pair
of palpi, the paraglossia, while in tlie pollen-gathering species
the ligula is of great length, and thus answers mucli the same
purpose as the spiral tongue (maxilte) of the Lepidoptera.
Reaumur states that the Bee does not suck up the liquid
sweets, but laps them up with its long slender hairy tongue.
HYMENOPTERA. 109
"Even in the drop of honey the bee bends the end of its
tongue about, and lengthens and sliortens it successively, and,
indeed, withdraws it from moment to moment." The liquid
passes along the upper surface of the pilose tongue, which is
withdrawn between its sheaths, the palpi and maxilljB, and thus
"conveys and deposits the liquid with which it is charged
within a sort of channel, formed by the upper surface of the
tongue and the sheaths which fold over it, by which the liquid
is conveyed to the mouth." (.Shuckard.)
The thorax forms a rounded compact oval mass, with the
prothorax and metathorax very small, the mesothorax being
large, and also the i)ropodeum, to which the pedicel of the ab-
domen is attached. The pleurites are large and bulging,
while the sternum is minute. Tlie coxse and trochantines are
large, and quite free from the thorax ; and the trochanters
are small, while the rather slender legs are subject to great
■ modifications, as they are devoted to so many different uses
by these insects ; thus, in the Sand-wasps they are strongly
)n-istled for the purpose of digging, and in the Bees, the
basal joint of the tarsi is much enlarged for carrying pollen.
"The manner in which the bee conveys either the pollen, or
other material it purposes carrying home, to the posterior
legs, or venter, which is to bear it, is very curious. Tlie
rapidity of the motion of its legs is then veiy great ; so great,
indeed, as to make it very difficult to follow them ; but it
seems first to collect its material gradually with its mandibles,
from which the anterior tarsi gather it, and that on each side
passes successively the grains of which it consists to the inter-
mediate legs, by multiplicated scrapings and twistings of the
limbs ; tliis, then, passes it on by similar manoeuvres, and de-
posits it, according to the nature of the bee, upon the pos-
terior tibiae and tarsi, or upon the under side of the abdomen.
The evidence of this process is speedily manifested by the pos-
terior legs gradually exhibiting an increasing pellet of pollen.
Thus, for this purpose, all the legs of the bees are more or less
covered with hair. It is the mandibles which are chiefly used
in their boring or excavating operations, applying their hands,
or anterior tarsi, only to clear their way ; but by the construc-
tive, or artisan bees, they are used both in their building and
110 HYMENOPTER A .
mining operations, and are worked like trowels to collect moist
clay, and to apply it to the masonry of their habitations."
(Shuckard.)
The four wings are present, except in rare instances. They
are small ; the hinder pair long, narrow, ovate, lanceolate.
The costal edge of the fore-wing (Fig. 29), is generally
straight, becoming a little curved towards the apex, which
is obtusely subrectangular ; the outer edge is bent at right
angles, while the inner edge of the wing is long and straight.
The veins are often difficult to trace, as in the outer half of the
wing they break up into a system of net-veins, which are few
in number, yet the continuations of the subcostal, median, and
submedian A^eins can be distinguished after careful study.
In some low Ichneumonidce, the Proctotrupidce^ and
Chalciclidce, the veins show a tendency to become obsolete,
only the simple subcostal vein remaining ; and in Pteratomiis^
the veins are entirely obliterated, and the linear feather-like
wings are in one pair fissured, reminding us of the Plume-
moths, PteropJiorus.
The abdomen is composed in the larva state of ten segments,
but in the adult stinging Hymenoptera, of six complete seg-
ments in the females, and seven in the males ; while in the
lower families the number varies, having in the Tenthredi-
nidce, eight tergites on the upper side and six sternites on the
lower side. The remaining segments are, during the transfor-
mations of the insect, aborted and withdrawn within the body.
The ovipositor and corresponding parts in the male have
been described on pp. 14-18.
The nervous system consists in the larv?e of eleven ganglia,
in the adult five or six of these remain as abdominal ganglia,
while the remainder, excluding the cephalic ganglia, are placed
in two groups in the thorax. The cerebral ganglia are well
developed, evincing the high intellectual qualities necessary in
l)residing over organs with such different uses as the simple
and compound eyes, the antennje, and lingua and palpi, and
mandibles, especially in those sociable species which build
complete nests.
The digestive system, in those bees which sip up their food,
consists, besides the external mouth-parts, of a "long oesoph-
I.
HYMENOPTERA. HI
agns which dilates into a, thin-walled sucking stomach," which
in the Apiariw and Vesjiiclce may be simply a lateral fold,
or, as in many Crabronidce, "attached solely by a short and
narroAV peduncle." In Formica, Cyrdps, Leucospis, and Xyj)hkl-
ria there is a globular uncurved callous gizzard, which is en-
veloped by the base of the stomach, according to Siebold, who
also states that "those Hymenoptera which are engaged during
a long and active life in labors for the raising and support of
their young, have a pretty long and flexuous stomach and in-
testine, and the first has, usuall}^, many constrictions;" while
the Gy nip idee, Ichneumonidoe, and Teuthredinidce ,
which take no care of their young, have only a short small
stomach and intestine. The salivary glands consist of two
rather short ramified tufts, often contained entirely in the head.
The tracheae consist, as in other insects, of two main branches,
from which numerous transverse anastomosing branches are
given off, with numerous vesicular dilatations. Two such vesi-
cles of immense volume are situated at the base of the abdo-
men, which according to Hunter and Newport "serve chiefly
to enable the insect to alter its specific gravity at pleasure dur-
ing flight, and thus diminish the muscular exertion required
during these movements."
The urinary vessels are very numerous in the Hymenoptera ;
they are usually short and surround the p3'lorus in numbers of
from twenty to one hundred and fifty.
The two poison glands (Fig. 54, h,g) are composed of long
ramose tubes, resembling the salivary glands in their minute
structure. The poison is poured from these into a pyriform
sac lodged near the base of the sting, which is provided with a
peculiar muscular apparatus for its sudden extension and with-
drawal. The poison, in the Ants, Bees, and Wasps, consists,
according to Will, of "formic acid, and a whitish, fatty, sharp
residuum, the former being the poisonous substance." (Bur-
nett.)
The wax-secreting apparatus consists of special dermal
glands, as Milne-Edwards supposed. Claus has shown (see
Gegenbaur's Verg. Anatomic) that these minute glands are
mostly unicellular, the external opening being through a fine
chitinous tube on the outer surface of the integument. In the
1 1 2 HYMENOPTERA.
wax-producing insects these glands are developed in great
numbers over certain portions of tbe body. In the Aphides,
whose bodies are covered with a powder consisting of fine waxy
threads, these glands are collected in groups. Modifications of
them appear in the Coccidae. In the wax-producing Hymen-
optera the apparatus is somewhat complicated. The bees
secrete wax in thin, transparent, membranous plates on the
under side of the abdominal segments. Polygonal areas arc
formed by the openings of an extraordinarily large number of
fine pore-canals, in which, surrounded by very numerous tra-
cheal branches, the cylindrical gland-cells are densely piled
upon each other. These form the wax organs, over which a
fatty layer spreads. In those bees which do not produce wax,
the glands of tlie wax organs are slightly developed. Wax
organs also occur in the Humble bees.
The honey is elaborated by an unknown chemical process,
from the food contained in the proventriculus, or crop, and
which is regurgitated into the honey-cells.
The ovaries consist of many-chambered, four, six, or a hun-
dred, short tubes. "The reccqytac^da seininis is nearly always
simple, round or ovoid, and necked, and is prolonged into a
usually short seminal duct." The glanduJa apj^eiidicuktris con-
sists of a bifurcate tube which opens into the ductus semincdis,
and only rarely into the capsula semincdis itself.
In the Tenthredinidce , "this apparatus is formed on a
different type ; the seminal vesicle is a simple diverticulum of
the vagina, and more or less distinct from it, besides it is defi-
cient in the accessory gland. The copulatory pouch is absent in
all the Hymenoptera, as are also the sebaceous glands with those
females which have a sting and a poison gland," while in other
insects the sebaceous glands are present, and it would be nat-
urally inferred, therefore, that the two are homologous, but
modified for diverse functions.
The two testes of the male are "composed of long follicles,
fasciculate and surrounded, together with a portion of the
torose deferent canal, by a common envelope ; but more com-
monly the two testes are contained in a capsule situated on the
median line of the bod3^" (Siebold.)
The eggs are usually long, cylindrical, and slightly curved in
HYMENOPTERA. II3
the Bees ; in the Wasps they are more globular, and affixed by
their smaller somewhat pedicelled end to the side, near the bot-
tom of the cell in which they are laid. The eggs of the lower
families tend to assume a spherical form. The eggs of dif-
erent species of Bombus present no appreciable diffei-cnces.
The larvsie of the Bees and Wasps, especially the social
species, which live surrounded by their food, are of a very
persistent form, the various genera differing but slightly, while
the species can scarcely be separated. Such we have found to
be the case in the Bees and Wasps ( Ves2-)!dw) and Fossorial
Wasps. The sexes of the species with a very thin tegument,
such as Apis, Bombus, and Vespa, can be quite easily distin-
guished, as the rudiments of the genital armor can be seen
through.
The Hymenoptera are mostly confined to the warmer and
temperate regions of the earth ; as we approach the poles, the
Bees disappear, with the exception of Bombus, and perhaps
its parasite Aixitlms ; a species of Vesixi is found on the Lab-
rador coast, Avhich has a climate like that of Greenland. No
fossorial species of Wasps are known to us to occur in the arc-
tic regions, while a few species of Ants, and several Chalcidi-
dce and Ichneumonidoi are not uncommon in Northern
Labrador and Greenland. Our alpine summits, particularly
that of Mt. Washington, reproduces the features of Northern
Labrador and Greenland as regards its Hymenopterous fjiuna.
The tropics are, however, the home of the Hymenoi)tera, and
especially of the Bees.
There are estimated to be about twenty-five thousand living
species of this suborder, and this is probably a much smaller
number than are yet to be discovered.
In geological history, the Hymenoptera do not date far back
compared with the Neuroptera and Orthoptera, and even the
Coleoptera. Indeed they were among the last to appear upon
the earth's surface. The lower forms, so far as the scanty
records show, appeared first [n the Jura formation ; the Ants
appear in the Tertiary period, especially in amber.
As we have noticed before, the Hymenoptera are more purely
terrestrial than any other insects. None are known to be
aquatic in the early stages, and only two genera have been found
8
114 HYMENOPTERA.
swimming in the adnlt state on the surface of pools, and thej'
are the low, minute, degraded Proctotrupids, Prestivichia
natans and Polynema nutans described by Mr. Lubbock. The
Hymenoptera do not imitate or mimic the forms of other in-
sects, but, on the contrary, tlieir forms are extensively copied in
the Lepidoptera, and especially the Diptera. A partial excep-
tion to this law is seen in tlie antennjTe of the Australian genus
TJtaumatosoma, where they are long and slender, and knobbed
as in the butterfly, and also in Tetralonia mirabilis of Smith,
from lirazil.
The Hymenoptera, also, show their superiority to all other in-
sects in the form of their degraded wingless species, such as
PezomacJuts, the workers of Formica and the female of Matilla.
In these forms we have no striking resemblances to lower orders
and suborders, but a strong adherence to their own Hymenop-
terous characters. Again ; in the degradational winged forms,
we rarely find the antennae pectinated ; a common occurrence
in the lower suborders. In a low species of the Apiarim ^
Lamprocolletes dadocerus^ from Australia, — that land of anom-
alies,— the antennjc are pectinated. This, Mr. F. Smith, the
best living authority on this suborder, says, "is certainly the
most remarkable bee that I have seen, and the only in-
stance, to my knowledge, of a bee having pectinated antenna? ;
such an occurrence, indeed, in the Aculeate Hymenoptera is
onl}' known in two or three instances, as in Psammothenna Jlab-
ellata amongst the 3Iatillidce , and again in Ctenocerus Klugii
in the Pompilidce ; there is also a modification of it in one or
two other species of Pompiilidce ." Among the Tenthre-
dinidoi, the male Lopihyrus has well-pectinated antenuiie, as
also has Cladomacra macropus of Smith, from New Guinea
and Celebes.
The wings of perhaps the most degraded Hymenoptera, the
Proctotrujyidce, are rarely fissured; when this occurs, as in
Pteratomus Patnamii, the}^ somewhat resemble those of Ptero-
phoi'us, the lowest moth. It is extremely rare that the com-
pound eyes are replaced by stemmata, or simple eyes ; in but
one instance, the genus Anthophorahia^ are the eyes in the
male sex reduced to a simple ocellus. This species lives in the
darkness of the cells of Anthophora.
APIARIiE. 115
By reason of the permanence of the type, due to the high
rank of these insects, the generic and specific characters are
founded on very sliglit ditterences, so that these insects, and
particularly the two higher families, the Wasps ( Vesjndce) and
Bees (^A2}(arice) are the most difficult insects to study. The
easiest characters for the recognition of the genera, lie in the
venation of the wings ; though in the fossorial families the legs
vary greatl3^ The best specilic characters lie in the sculptur-
ing and style of coloration, but the spots and markings are apt
to vary greatly. The great differences between the sexes are
liable to mislead the student, and hence large collections are
indispensable for their proper study. Bees act as "marriage
priests" in the fertilization of plants, convejing pollen from
flower to flower, and thus insuring the formation of the fruit.
It is said that many plants could not be fertilized without
the interposition of Bees.
Their interesting habits deserve long and patient stud}' ; it
is for their observations on the insects of this suborder that the
names of Reaumur, the two Hubers, aiid Latreille will be ever
held in special remembrance.
Most Hymenoptera love the sun, and they may be caught
while flying about flowers. The nests of bees, wasps, and ants
should be sought for and the entire colony captured, together
with the parasites. The hairy species should be pinned while in
the net, and the naked ones can be put in the collecting-bot-
tle. The larger species may be pinned, like other insects,
through the thorax; but the minute Chalcids, etc., should be
gummed, like small Coleoptera, upon cards.
The nests of bees and of wasps and ants and the 3'oiing in
various stages of growth should be collected, and in such num-
bers as to show their different stages of construction, to serve
as illustrations of insect architecture.
Apiari^ Latreille {Apidoe Leach). This and those families
succeeding which are provided with a true sting, were called
by Latreille Humenoptera Acideata. The male antennae are
mostly thirteen-joiuted, while in the female the}^ are twelve-
jointed. The females (and the workers, when they exist)
feed the larvae, which mostly live in nests or cells.
116 HYMENOPTERA.
In the social Bees, besides the normal male and female forms,
there are asexual females, whose inner genital organs are partly
aborted, though externally only differing in their smaller size
from the true females. Tiie male antennae are longer, tapering
more towards tlie tips, and the eyes of tlie male approach each
other closer over the vertex than in the opposite sex, though
these are characters wliich ai)ply to other Hymenoptera. The
mouth-parts are in the higlier genera greatly elongated, the
labium being long, with tlie lingua of great length, and the
lobes of the maxilhe long and knife-shaped ; but these parts, as
well as the form of the jaws, are subject to great modifications
in the different genera : the labial palpi are four-jointed, and
the maxillary palpi are from one to six-jointed. The hind
tibia and basal joint of the tarsi are, in the pollen-gathering
species, very broad ; the tibia is in Apis and Bombus hollowed
on the outside, and stiff bristles project over the caA'ity from
each side of the joint, forming the hone^'-basket (corbicuhnn),
on which the "clodden masses of honey and pollen" are con-
veyed to their nests. In the parasitic genera, such as Aixithiis,
the tibia is, on the contrary, convex, rather than concave,
though of the usual width ; while in Nomada, also parasitic,
the legs are narrow, the tibia not being dilated.
In Andrena and its allies, Ilalictiis and CoUetes, the mouth-
parts, especially the tongue, are much shortened, thus afford-
ing a passage into the Vesjiidce . In these genera the tongue
is folded back but once between the horny encasement of the
maxillae, but in the higher Ajiiarice the part formed by the
union of the lingua and maxilla is twice bent back, and thus
protected by the horny lobes of the maxillae. The fore- wings
have two or three subcostal (cubital) cells.
There are two thousand species of this family. The differ-
ences between the larvai of the various genera of this family
are very slight, those of the parasitic species are, however,
readily distinguished from their hosts.
The higher Aplarioi, comprising the subfamily ^Ij^miob, have
the ligula long, c^dindrical, while the labial palpi have two
very long, slender, compressed basal joints, and two short
terminal joints.
The genus A^ns has no terminal spurs on the hind tibiae,
APIARIJE. 117
while the fore-wings have three subcostal (cubital) cells, the
middle of which is elongated and acutely wedge-shaped. The
eyes in the male are united above ; the mouth-parts are nearly
aborted, and the hind legs are smooth. In the female there
are two paraglossia on the ligula, and the maxillary palpi
are one-jointed. The worker only difters externally from the
female in the shorter abdomen.
The larva of the Honey-bee closel}^ resembles that of Bom-
bus, but the body is shorter, broader, and more flattened, while
the head is less prominent, and the lateral tubercles along the
body are, perhaps, less prominent than in the young Humble-
bee, otherwise the two genera are, in the larval state, much
alike. In its natural position, the larva lies at the bottom of
the cell doubled upon itself.
Though the larvne are said usually to feed upon pollen,
Mr. Desborough states that honey alone is the food of the
grub, as he reared 729 larvae with no other food than honey.
But as with the wild bees they may extract honey from the
pollen provided for them. He says the matured bees may be
observed feeding at night on the bee-bread (pollen). Lang-
stroth (The Hive and Honey-bee), hoAvever, states that "pol-
len is indispensable to the nourishment of the young. It is
very rich in the nitrogenous substances which are not contained
in the honey."
The Honey-bee, Apis meUiJlca, is now distributed over the
civilized world. It was introduced into this country during
the seventeenth century, and into South America in 1845 (Ger-
stsecker). The Italian, or Ligurian, bee is considered by F
Smith as being a climatic variety.
The cultivation of the Honey-bee is rapidly increasing in this
country, but the German Bee-masters have made the most pro-
gress in theoretical and practical Bee-culture. Convenient
hives are now constructed by which all the operations of the
bees can be observed at leisure. Gerstfecker thus sums up
the habits of the Honey-bee: A fertilized queen which, with a
few workers, has wintered over, lays its eggs in the spring first
in the worker, and afterwards, at a later period, in the drone-
cells (both arranged in two perpendicular rows of cells). Early
m summer, the workers construct the larger flask-shaped queen-.
118 HYMENOPTERA.
cells, ■which arc plncecl on the edge of the comb, and in these
the queen-larvae are fed with rich and choice nourishment.
As soon as the first of the new brood of queens is exchuh'd
from its cell, which it indicates by a peculiar buzzing noise, the
old queen deserts the nest, canying away with her a part of the
swarm, and thus forms a new colony. The recently excluded
queen then takes its marriage flight high in the air with a
drone, and on its return undertakes the management of the
hive, and the duty of laying eggs. When another queen is
disclosed, the same process of forming a new colony goes on.
"When the supply of young queens is exhausted, the Avorkers
fall upon the drones and destroy them without mercy. The
first brood of Avorkers live about six wrecks in summer, and
then give way to a new brood. Mr. J. G. Desborough states
that the maximum period of the life of a worker is eight mouths.
The queens are known to live five years, and during their whole
life la}^ more than a million eggs (V. Berlepsch). Langstroth
states that "during the height of the breeding season, she
will often, under favorable circumstances, la}' from 2,000 to
3,000 eggs a day." According to Von Siebold's discovery
only the queens' and workers' eggs are fertilized by sperm-
cells stored in the receptacalum semoiis, and these she can
fertilize at will, retaining the power for four or five jears,
as the muscles guarding the duct leading from this sperm-bag
are subject to her will. Drone eggs are laid by unfertilized
queen-bees, and in some cases even by worker-bees. This last
fact has been confirmed by the more recent observations of
Mr. Tegetmeier, of London.
Principal Leitch, according to Tegetmeier, has suggested the
theory that a worker egg may develop a queen, if transferred
into a queen-cell. "It is well known that bees, depri\'cd of
their queen, select several worker-eggs, or very young larvtB,
for the puqiose of rearing queens. The cells in which these
eggs are situated are lengthened out and the end turned down-
ward." He suggests that the development into a queen was
caused by the increased temperature of the queen-cell, above
that of the worker-cells.
But Messrs. F. Smith and Woodbury (Proceedings of the
Entomological Society of Loudon, January 2, 1862) support F.
APIARI^. Ug
Huber's theory, thnt the change is due to "the quality as well
as quantity of food with which the royal larva is supplied,"
though Dr. Leitch objects, that it has been by no means con-
chisively proved "that the so-called royal jelly differs in any
respect from the ordinary food supplied to the worker larva;"
and Mr. Woodbury cites the experiments of Dzierzon, as
quoted by Kleine, "that as Huber, by introducing some royal
jelly in cells containing worker-brood, obtained queens, it may
be possible to induce bees to construct royal cells, when the
Apiarian prefers to have them, by inserting a small portion of
royal jelly in cells containing worker-larvsB." Kleine takes " an
unsealed royal cell — which usually contains an excess of
royal jelly — and removes from it a portion of the jelly, on
the point of a knife or pen, and by placing it on the inner
margin of any worker cell, feels confident that the larviB in
them will be reared as queens."
Before these points are settled we must study the habits of
the Wild Bees, and of the other social Hymenoptera and White
Ants, together with the social Aphides more carefully, Mr. F.
W. Putnam pertinently states, "at present I cannot believe
that the peculiarity of food, or the structure of the cells, pro-
duces a difference of development in Humble-bees, for the lar-
vae, as has been previously stated, were seen to make their own
cells from the pollen paste. Is it not more natural to believe,
as has been suggested to me by Professor J. Wyman, that the
difference in the development of the eggs is owing to their be-
ing laid at various times after impregnation ? Thus, if I am
right in supposing that the queens are impregnated by the
males late in the summer, the eggs, laid soon after, produce
the large queen larvse ; * the next set of eggs, laid in the spring,
produce the workers, or undeveloped females, while from those
deposited still later, male bees are principally developed."
(Proceedings of the Essex Institute, Salem, vol. iv, 18G4, p
103.)
Referring to Mr. Putnam's statement that there are both small
and large queens (besides the workers) , Dr. Gerstoecker infers,
*Dr. Gerstsecker, on the other hand, states that "from the brood-cells of a nest
of Bombutt muscorum, found by him on tlie 18th of September, there were devel-
oped at the end of the same mouth only workers."
120 HYMENOPTERA.
"from the examination of numerous individuals found flying in
tlie spring after hibernation, tliat tliese could not be considered
as true queens, since tlieir ovaries were only moderately devel-
oped, though larger than tliose of the workers, while in the
true queen, captured in the sinnmer, the ovaries were perfectly
developed. Tliis corresponds almost entirely to what we find
in the wasps, Avhose spring females have only moderately de-
veloped ovaries."
How the Ilonej'-bee builds its cells, and whether they are ex-
actly hexagonal, are questions that have interested the best
observers from Maraldi who wrote in 1712, and Reaumur,
whose Memoires appeared in 1740, down to the present date.
Their solution involves not only the closest observation of the
insect while at work, but also the shrewdest judgment to ex-
plain the facts observed and deduce a legitimate theory. Does
the bee intelligently plan her work out beforehand, or does she
follow the guidance of what is called instinct? Does she
construct hexagonal cells which are mathematicall}'' exact,
or does she vary the proportions of each cell, so that it is per-
fect only in its general ideal form? Again, in making the cell,
is the bee actually capable of making such a cell alone, or is it
due to the resultant action of several bees? Professor J. Wy-
man is of the latter opinion, as he thinks "that if left alone to
build a single cell, this would most probably be round. In the
cells of Mdipona^ as Huber's plate shows, they are only hex-
agonal when in contact Avitli the adjoining cells." (Proceed-
ings of the Boston Society of Natural Histor^^, x, p. 27(S,
186G.)
A similar view is tliat proposed in 1862 b}" the Rev. Samuel
Haughton, in a paper read before the Natural History Society
of Dublin, where he says, according to Mr. F. Smith, that the
hexagonal form of the cell " may be accounted for simply by the
mechanical pressure of the insects against each other during
the formation of the cell. In consequence of the instinct that
compels them to work with reference to a plane, and of the
cylindrical form of the insect's body, the cells must be hex-
agonal."
Mr. G. R. Waterhouse (Transactions of the Entomological
Society of London. Third series, vol. ii, p. 129, 1864) lias
APIARI^. 121
proposed what has been called the "circular theory," or \vh:it
the author himself terms "the principle of working in seg-
ments of circles." He contends " that tlie hexagonal form of the
cells of certain bees and wasps may, and does, arise out of this
mode of action when under certain conditions ; that those condi-
tions are, that the cells are so commenced that their natural cir-
cumferences, as the work proceeds, are either simply brought
into contact with each other, or that the cells are so placed tliat
the (we Avill say theoretical) circumferences must intersect.
Contact with adjoining cells, then, is an essential condition to
bring about the hexagonal form as I have before pointed out
(See Proceedings of the Entomological Society, 1858, p. 17) :
but for this result it is not necessary that a hexagonal cell
should be completely surrounded by other cells."
Is not this theory, after all, too mechanical ? Is not our liee
more of a free agent ? Does it not have a mind to design its
work? Mr. F. Smith, Avho has devoted years to the study of
Hymenoptera, especially the higher forms of this suborder, the
Bees and Wasps, replies to both theories of Waterhouse and
Haughton, by bringing in the case of the Wasps which also
build hexagonal cells, showing that a solitary wasp will build
its cells in very regular hexagons. Thus the nest of the soli-
tary Wasp, Icaria guttatipennis^ "consists of a double row, the
number of cells being ten ; I now direct your attention to the
fact that all the cells are perfectly hexagonal, the exterior
planes being as beautifully finished as those in contact with
the inner planes of the opposing cells. I have placed a draw-
ing of this nest (Plate 5, Fig. 7) in the box on the table, and I
particularly wish you to observe, that the first cell is carried
up in a perfectly hexagonal form aboA'e the adjoining cells ; n
proof that, if Wasps never build perfect isolated hexagonal cells,
they certainly possess the capability of doing so. The exterior
of all the cells, as I before observed, is hexagonal, not cylindri-
cal, until fresh cells are added on the outer side, as was ob-
served to be the case in combs of the Hive-bee, by Mr.
Tegetmeier." (Proceedings of the Entomological Society of
London. Third series, ii, 1864, p. 135.)
An examination of the cells of three species of PoUstes (the
female of which begins alone in the spring to build her nest
122 HYMENOPTERA.
the cells of which are afterwards greatly increased in numljer
after the first brood of females appear), convinced us that
the Wasp begins with the circular cup-shaped form of cell, and
when about depositing an egg in it, changes her mode of ope-
ratiu"', builds up the edges into a liexagonal form, and carries
up the rim of each cell independently to its required height.
She thus apparently changes her plan at a certain stage of the
work, and is so far a free agent.
Mr. Smith also exhibited a portion of the nest of another
wasp, Tatua Morio (Plate 5, Fig. 9), that proved to his mind
the primary intention of the wasp instinctively to build cells
with exactly six sides. The figure represents part of one of
the flat floors, on which the foundations of the cells are laitl in
regular hexagons, instead of beginning in hemispherical cups.
Mr. Smith (p. 141) concludes, "that all hexagonal cells are
not constructed upon a circular principle, and that the primary
idea of all social bees and wasps is not to produce cylindrical
cells with hemispherical bases."
In this connection the following extract from Mr. Smith's
remarks is of interest : "It may not be known that in order to
expedite the building of honey -combs, it is a common practice
with bee-keepers in Germany to furnish hives with artificial
foundations for the cells ; these consist of sheets of wax, upon
which is impressed a series of pyramidal hollows ; in fact, the
counterpart of a comb built by the bees themselves, entirely
deprived of the cell-walls ; and it is from such a piece of comb
that the casts for the artificial foundations are obtained. A
piece of casting of this description I lay before you, and I par-
ticularly call your attention (addressing the members of the
Entomological Society of London) to the commencement of the
outer cells ; you will see, in some instances, a single plane of
the hexagonal cell commenced, in others two or three are in
progress ; here you have a ground-plan supplied, or, I may say,
the foundations of the habrtations ready prepared, upon which
the laborers are to raise the walls, and j'ou nuxy see how admi-
rably they have done it. Instinct enables the bee to construct
hexagonal cells without teaching, and, we are told, in one un-
ileviating manner. Surely the example before us exhibits an
amount of intelligence on the part of the bees in availing them-
APIAUI^. 123
selves of such adventitious aid. Must we not henceforth,
when speaking of the marvels of the liive or the vespiary, erase
from our vocabulary such terms as blind instinct ; and must we
not cease to stigmatize the bee as a mere machine ? "
At the meeting of the same society held Feb. 1, 1864, Mr.
F. Smith exhibited a collection of Wasps' nests, — one of Vesjm
rufa, the rest of V. vulgaris; they were in various stages of
formation, the earliest consisting of only a single cup contain-
ing the first egg, others consisting of three or four cups, whilst
others again were more complete. The whole had been arti-
ficially obtained by Mr. Stone, who tempted the wasps to build
by excavating holes in banks and furnishing them with foot-
stalks ; in fact, Mr. Stone appeared to possess the power of
inducing wasps to build nests of almost any shape he
pleased.
But to return to the cell of the Bee. It should first be
proved that the cells are not exactly and mathematically per-
fect hexagons, though sufficiently so for the purpose for which
they are used. In the Proceedings of the American Academy
of Arts and Sciences, vol. vii, 1866, Professor Wyman has, by
a most careful as well as novel and ingenious mode of investiga-
tion, proved that the cells are all more or less imperfect, and
that a hexagonal cell mathematically exact, does not exist in
nature, but only in theory.
The form of the cell is liable to marked variations, chief
among which the following may be mentioned, in the author's
own words :
"1. The diameters of workers' cells may so vary, that ten
of them may have an aggregate deviation from the normal
quantity equal to the diameter of a cell. The average varia-
tion is a little less than one half that amount, namely, nearly
0.10 inch, in the same number of cells.
'•2. The width of the sides varies, and this generally in-
volves a variation of the angles which adjoining sides make
with each other, since the sides vary not only in length but in
direction.
"3. The variation in the diameters does not depend upon
accidental distortion, but upon the manner in which the cell
was built.
124
HYMENOPTERA.
"4. The relative size of the rhombic faces of the pyramidnl
base is liable to frequent variation, and this where the cells are
not transitional from one kind to another.
''o. When a fourth side exists in the basal pyramid, it may
be in consequence of irregularity in the size of the cells, or of
incorrect alignment of them on the two sides of the comb."
Sometimes one of the faces is lost, and a new one formed,
so that all the basal portion of the cell becomes reversed, as
ABC will be seen by refer-
ence to F'igs. 73 and
74 ; the first repre-
Fis- 73. senting the cells when
the base is viewed, and the second when looked at perpendic-
ularly to one of the sides. In both figures A indicates the
ordinary form of the cell. The whole a b c
series of Fig. 74 shows the gradual
introduction of the new face, which
is seen on the lower border, and the
elimination of one of the original faces,
which is seen on the upper border. At
B, Avhich is intermediate between the Fig. 74.
two extremes, the four faces consist of two equal rhombs, —
one of which is the outgoing and the other the incoming one,
and two equal hexagons. B, Fig.
74, represents the sides of the same
cell, which, instead of forming three
trapeziums, as at A, a, 6, c, now
form two pentagons, a' and c', and a
parallelogram, h'. At C, Figs. 73
and 74, the forms are in all respects
the reverse of those of A. A and C
are symmetrical with each other, and
B is symmetrical in itself. No pre-
cise number of cells is necessary
for the purpose of making this transition, for it may take
place in two or three, or extend through a long series, as in
Fig. 73.
" G. Ordinarily, the error of alignment does not amount to
more than one or two diameters of a cell. But occasionally
V C"
Fis. 75.
APIARI^.
125
--/
the rows of cells on one side of the comb may deviate from
tlieir true direction with regard to those on the other, to the
extent of 30°."
"Thus, if a piece of normal comb be held in the position in
which it was built, two of the opposite angles of the hexagon.
Fig. 75, A, a, will be in the
same vertical line, and two
of the sides will be parallel
to this. The same is true
of the opposite side of the
comb ; and thus all the cor-
responding parts of the cells
on the two sides will be par-
allel. In the deviation we
are now noticing, the change
is like that represented in A,
where the cell a is in its
true position, while the cell
h, which is from the oppo-
site side, and is in contact
with o, varies from it by
about 30°. If we look at
these two cells in the direc-
tion of their sides as at B,
the prism a will have one
of its angles towards the eye, and b one of its sides.
In consequence of this deviation and the continual crossing
of the rows on opposite sides, the pyramidal base is not made,
and the cell is shortened.
" 7. In curved or bent combs the
cells on the concave side tend to be-
come narrower, while those on the
other tend to become broader to-
wards their mouths. In Fig. 76
(this and Figs. 77 and 78 are made
^'^- '^'^' from impressions obtained directly
from the comb and transferred to wood ; they represent the
form of the cells exactly), as in the central line of cells, there
are a variety of hexagons, each resulting from the union
ff
Fisr. 76.
126 HYMENOrXERA.
of two cells, the base being double while the mouth is
single. That on the line a, b, has three sides at one end,
united by two long sides with one at the other, and thus two
of the opposite sides are not parallel ; at c, d, two sides at
a b
c d e f
Fig. 78.
either end are united by two long sides, these last being par-
allel ; and at e, /, the mouth of the compound cell has seven
sides. Each has a partition at its base, separating the two
originally distinct cells, and each was lined with a cocoon,
showing that it had been used for rearing young. At j/, not
only has the partition between the combining cells disappeared,
but also three of the sides of each cell."
The bees do not appear to have any systematic w^ay of mak-
ing a transition from worker to drone cells, which are one-liftli
larger than the former. ]\Iore connnonly, they effect it by a
gradual alteration of the diameters, thus enlarging a worker
into a drone, or narrowing a drone into a worker cell. This
alteration is usually made in from four to six rows. In one case
APIARI^. 127
Professor Wyman noticed the transition made with only one
cell, as in Fig. 78, but not without destro3'ing the regularity- of
the two adjoining rows.
" In consequence of the gradual narrowing or widening of
the transition cells, the comb tends to become more or less tri-
angular and the cells to become disturbed. The bees counter-
act this tendency by the occasional intercalation of an additional
row, of which two instances are given in Fig. 78, at a and b^
where three rows of worker cells are continuous with two of
drone cells, c, d and e, /; or, reversing the statement, and
supposing the transition, as in the building of the comb, is
from worker to drone-cells, a row of the latter is from time to
time omitted as the rows a and h ; in this wa}-, the regularity of
the comb is preserved."
Ilone^'-cells are formed either by enlarging the ordinary
brood-cells, or adding them to others often larger, or b}^ con-
structing a new comb, devoted entirely to the storing of honey.
"While the cells of this last are built unequivocally in accord-
ance Avitli the hexagonal type, the}' exhibit a range of variation
from it which almost defles description."
No Ichneumon-flies are known to attack the larva of the
Honey-bee, nor in fact, with few exceptions, any of the wild
bees, owing, probably, to the difficulty of their gaining access
to them, since Anomalon vesparum has been reared from the
cells of wasps which are more exposed than those of bees.
But the Honey, as well as the Avild bees, are afflicted by a
peculiar assemblage of insect-parasites, some of which have
tlie most remarkable habits. The most formidable pest of the
Hive-bee is the Bee Fly, Phora incrassata, Avhich in Europe
sometimes produces the well-known disease called "foul-
brood." The Bee-louse, Braula cwca, is, in Europe, sometimes
troublesome to the adult bee, while Trichodes apiarius, a beetle,
devours the larvae. The larvtie of Meloe and Stylops are known
in Europe to infest the Honey-bee, and among the low intesti-
nal worms Assmus enumerates Gordius suhhifarcus which in-
fests the drones of the Honey-bee as well as other insects.
Professor Siebold has also described Mermis albicans^ which
is a similar kind of hair-worm, from two to five inches long,
and whitish in color. This worm is also found, strangely
128 IIYMEXOPTEKA.
eiiougli, only in the drones, tliongh it is the workers which
frequent watery pLaces (where the worm deposits its eggs) to
appease their thirst. The "Wax-motlis, Galleria cereana and
Acliroia alvearia, do much harm by consuming the wax and
thus breaking down the cells, and by filling the hive with
their Avebs.*
The genus A2)is is indigenous in South America, though the
Honey-bee has been extensively introduced into the West In-
dies. Our Honey-bee is replaced in tlie tropics by the stingless,
minute bees, Avliich store up honey and live in far more numer-
ous colonies. The cells of MeUjiona are hexagonal, nearly
approaching in regularity those of the Hive-bee, while the
honej'-cells are irregular, much larger cavities, which hold about
one-half as much honey as a cell of the Humble-bee. From a
])aper on the Brazilian Honey-bees, read by Mr. F. Smith be-
fore the Entomological Society of London, March, 18G3, he
states that the Meliponas are small insects, having wings shorter
than the abdomen, the latter being ver}' convex and oblong ;
their mandibles never being dentate ; while the Trkjonas have
the wings more ample, and longer than the abdomen, which is
short, somewhat triangular, while the mandibles are serrated,
denticulate, or sometimes edentate. The 3IeIiponas are re-
stricted to the new world, while Trigona extends into Africa,
India, and Australasia.
"All these bees are honey gatherers, but the honey collected
by the different species varies greatly in quality : from the
nests of some it is excellent ; from others, worthless. The
honey of the species ^ Momhuca' is said to be black and sour,
the quality being dependent on species of flowers from which
the honey is collected. This great difference in the honey of
the various species is apparent^ confirmatory of the fact that
each species confines itself to particular flowers, never visiting
any other kind. The different relative length of the tongue in
♦Explanation of Plate 2. Parasites of the Honey-ljee. Fig. 1, Phora incras-
sata; Fig. 2, pupa; Fig. 3, larva. Fig. 4, Braula cceca; Fig. 5, larva. Fig. 6, Tri-
chodes nplarius .- a, larva ; b, pupa. Fig. 7, Meloe. angustlcollis ; Fig. 8, freshly hatched
larva; Fig. 9, second stage of larva; Fig. 10, first stage of semi-pupa; Fig. 11,
pupa. Fig. 12, Stijlops Chihlreni in the body of a wild bee, Andrena; Fig. 13, top
view of the same removed from its host; Fig. 14, male of the same; a, side view.
Fig. 15, Mncor meUitophorus, a parasitic fungus. Fig. 16, unknown larva found in
uest of Humble-bee. Descriptions of the insect parasites will be given beyond.
Plat ft 2
Fi?. 1.
Fig. n. Fig. ;
Fis. r..
Fig. 4.
Fig. 13.
PARASITES OF THE HONEY BEE.
APIARI.E. 129
the species is also confirmatory of the same supposition ; in-
deed, tlie great diversity in tliis respect observable in tliese
l)ees, appears to me to be analogons to a similar diversity in the
length of the bills of hunnning-birds, whicli, it is uell known,
are always adapted for reaching the nectaries of the particular
flowers which they usually frequent."
In regard to tlie imnrense numbers of individuals in a col-
ony, Mr. Stretch, who collected them at Panama, "found a
nest several feet in lengtli in the hollow of a tree, containing
thousands of individuals, their numbers being, as he informs
me, apparently countless.
"Gardner, in his travels, gives a list of such species (of
Melipona) as he met in the provinces of Piauliy and Goyaz,
where he found them numerous; in every house, he says, 'you
find the honey of these l)ees ;' many species, he tells us, build in
tlie hollow trunks of trees, others in banks ; some suspend
their nests from branches of trees, whilst one species constructs
its nest of clay, it being of large size ; the honey of this spe-
cies, he says, is very good." (Smith.)
In a nest of TrUjoiui carbonaria from Eastern Australia,
Smith, of the British Museum, found from 400 to 500 dead
workers crammed in the spaces between the combs, but he
did not find a female among them. The combs are arranged
precisely similar to those of the common wasp. The numl)er of
lioney-pots, which are placed at the foot of the nest, amounted
to 250.
Smith inclines to the opinion that the hive of Trigona con-
tains several prolific females ; "the accounts given of the nuil-
titudes inhabiting some nests is too great, I think, to render it
possible that one female could produce them all. Sir. Stretch
described a hive that he saw, occupying the interior of a decay-
ing tree, that measured six feet in length, and the multitude of
l)ees he compared to a black cloud. M. Guerin found six fe-
males in a nest of Melipona fnlvipes.'"
Hill states, in Gosse's Naturalist's Sojourn in Jamaica,
"that the wax of these bees [Trigona] is very unctuous and
dark colored, but susceptible of being whitened by bleaching.
The honey is stored in clusters of cups, about the size of
pigeon's eggs, at the bottom of the hive, and always from the
9
100 HYMEXOPTEPtA.
brood-cells. The hrood-cells are hexagonal ; thej^ are not
deep, and the young ones, ■when ready to burst their casement,
just liU tlie whole cavity. The mother bee is lighter in color
than the other bees, and elongated at the abdomen to double
their length." .Smith also states that the female of this genus
has the abdomen greatly distended, reminding one of the
gravid female of the White Ant. (Smith, Proc. Ent. Soc,
London, Dec. 7, 18G3.)
In North America, our nearest ally, as regards its habits, of
the true Honey-bee, is the Humble-bee {Bo7nbi(s), of which
over forty species are known to inhabit North America.
The economy of the Humble-bee is thus : the queen awakens
in early spring from her winter's sleep beneath the leaves or
moss, or in deserted nests, and selects a nesting-place generally
in an abandoned nest of a field-mouse, or beneath a stump or
sod, and "immediately," according to Mr. F. W. Putnam,
"collects a small amount of pollen mixed with hone3^ and in
this deposits from seven to fourteen eggs, gradually adding to
the pollen mass until the first brood is hatched. She does not
wait, however, for one brood to be hatched before laying the
eggs of another ; but, as soon as food enough has been collected,
she lays the eggs for a second. The eggs [Plate 4, Fig. 2]
are laid, in contact with each other, in one cavity of the mass
of pollen, with a part of which they are slightly covered. They
are very soon developed ; in fact, the lines are nowhere dis-
tinctly drawn between the egg and the larva, the larva and
pupa, rnd again between the latter and the imago ; a perfect
series, showing this gradual transformation of the young to the
imago, can be found in almost every nest.
"As soon as the larvie are capable of motion and commence
feeding, they eat the pollen by which they are surrounded, and,
gradually separating, push their way in various directions.
Eating as they move, and increasing in size quite rapidly, they
soon make large cavities in the pollen mass. When they Lave
attained their full size, they spin a silken wall about them,
which is strengthened by the old bees covering it with a thin
layer of Avax, which soon becomes bard and tough, thus form-
ing a cell. [Plate 4, Figs. 1, 2.] The larviia now gradually
attain the pupa stage, and remain inactive until their full devel-
Plate a.
PARASITES OF WILD BEES.
APIARIvE. 1;j1
o'pmcnt. They then cut their way out, and are ready to assume
their duties as workers, small females, males or queens,
"It is apparent that the irregular disposition of the cells is
due to their being constructed so peculiarly by tlie larva?.
After the first brood, composed of workers, has come forth,
tlie queen bee devotes her time principally to her duties at
home, the workers supplying the colony with honey and pollen.
As the queen continues prolific, more workers are added, and
the nest is rapidly enlarged.
"About the middle of summer eggs are deposited which
produce both small females and males." . . . "All eggs laid
after the last of July produce the large females, or queens ;
and, the males being still in the nest, it is presumed that the
queens are impregnated at this time, as, on the api)roacli of
cold weather, all except the queens, of which there are several in
each nest, die." (Putnam, Com. Essex Inst., vol. iv, p. 98, 1864.)
Besides Apathus, the larvae of various moths consume the
honey and waxen cells ; the two-winged flies, Volucella and
Conops, and the larv;e of what is either an Anthomyia or
Tachina-like fly ; several species of Anthrax, the Coleopterous
Anobium paniceum of Europe, Meloe, Stylops, and Anthero-
phagus ochraceus are parasitic on Humble-bees.*
The habits of the genus Apathus are not clearly known, but
they are supposed to prey, in the larva state, upon the larviie of
Bombus, being found in their nests ; their habits, so far as
known, ally them with Nomada. The species are distinguished
by the tibite being convex, instead of concave, as in Bombus,
while the mandibles of the females are acute, triangular, biden-
tate, being spatulate and three-toothed in Bombus, and they
have no pollenigerous organs. There are males and females
only, as in all the remaining genera of the family. Ajmlhus
Ashtonii (Plate 3, Fig. 1) is found in the Northern States.
* Explanation of Plate 3. — Parasites of the Humble and Lcaf-cutfer Bees.
Fig. 1, Apathus Ashtonii. F'v^.'i, Nephopterijx Eilmavdsiii «, larva; 6, pupa. Fig.
3, 3rt, Micror/aster nephoptericis, an Ichneumon parasite of Nephopteryx. Fig. 4,
Jiitherophiif/us ochraceus. Fig. 5, Anthomijia'i larva; a, side view. Fig. 6, Re-
cently hatched larva of Stylops Childrenii; a, side view. Fig. 7, larva; «, pupa of
Anthophorabia viegnchilis, a Chalcid i)arasite on Megachile. Fig. 8, Pteratomus
Putnamii, an exceedingly minute Proctotrnpid fly, supposed to be parasitic on An-
thorphorabia mcgacliilis; a, a hind wing. P'ig. 9, a Mite found iu the nests of
liiimble-bees.
132 HYMENOrTEKA.
Xylocopa, the Carpentcr-liee, is "the hiri^jest and most l:)nlky
of a.11 known bees," but less hirsute tluin Bombus, wliile tlie
basal joint of tlie labial palpi is almost four times as long as
the second ; and the maxillary palpi are six-jointed, the mouth-
parts being veiy highly organized. The larva of X. Virginica
(Plate 4, Fig. 3, adult ; Fig. 4, larva ; Fig. 5, nest) is slenderer
than that of Bombus, the body tapering more rapidly towards
each end.
The power of boring the most symmetrical tnnnels in solid
wood reaches its perfection in the large Virginian Carpenter-
bee {^Xylocopa Vlnjinica). We have received from Mr. James
Angus, of West Farms, N. Y., a piece of trellis for a grape-
vine, made of pine wood, containing the cells and yonng in
various stages of growth, together with the larvce and chrysa-
lids of Anthrax sinuosa (Plate 4, Fig. 6, larva; Fig. 7, pupa),
a species of fly parasitic on the larva of the bee, and which
buries its head in its soft bod}' and feeds on its juices.
Mv. Angus thus writes us regarding its habits, under date of
J d}- 19 : "I asked an intelligent and observing carpenter jcs-
terday, if he knew how long it took the X^docopa to bore hor
tunnel. He said he thought she bored about one-quarter of an
inch a day. I don't think myself she bores more than one-
half inch, if she does that. If I mistake not, it takes her
about two days to make her OAvn length at the first start ; but
this being across the grain of the wood may not be so easily
done as the remainder, which runs parallel with it. She always
follows the grain of the wood, with the exception of the en-
trance, which is about her own length. The tunnels run from
one to one and a half feet in length. They generally run in
opposite directions from the opening, and sometimes other gal-
leries are run above the first, using the same opening. I
think they onl^' make new tunnels when old ones are not to be
found, and that the same tunnels are used for many years.
Some of the old tunnels are very wide. I have found parts of
them about an inch in diameter. I think this is caused by
rasping off the sides to procure the necessary material for con-
structing their cells. The partitions are composed of wood-
raspings, and some sticky fluid, probably saliva, to make it
tidliere.
apiari.t:. 133
"The tunnels are sometimes taken possession of by other
bees and wasps. I tiiink when this is the case, the Xylocopa
prefers making a new cell to cleaning ont the mud and rubbish
of the other species. I frequently find these bees remaining
for a long time on the wing close to the opening, and bobbing
their heads against the side, as if fanning air into the opening.
I liaA-e seen them thus employed for twenty minutes. Whether
one bee, or more, makes the tunnel, that is, whether they take
turns in boring, I cannot say at present. In opening the cells,
more than one are generall}' found, even at this season. About
two weeks ago, I found as many as seven, I think, in one." *
The hole is divided by partitions into cells about seven-tenths
of an inch long. These partitions are constructed of the
dust or chippings made by the bee in eating out her cells, for
our active little carpenter is pro^"ided Avith strong cutting jaws,
moved by powerful muscles, and on her legs are stiff brushes
of hair for cleaning out the tunnel as she descends into the
heart of the solid wood. She must throAV out the chips she
bites off from the sides of the burrow Avith her hind legs, pass-
ing the load of chips backwards out of the cell with her fore-
limbs, which she uses as hands.
The partitions are built most elaborately of a single flattened
band of chips, which is rolled up into a coil four layers deep.
One side, forming the bottom of the cell, is concave, being
* " Since writing the above I have opened one of the new holes of Xylocopa
which was conimenced between three and four weeks ago, in a pine slat used in
the staging: of the greenhouse. Tlie dimensions were as follows: Oitening fully
3-S wide ; dei)tli 7-10 ; whole length of tunnel G and 5-10 inches. The tunnel branched
both ways from the hole. One end, from opening, was 2 and fl-S, containing three
cells, two with larva and pollen, the third empty. The other side of the opening, or
the rest of the tunnel, was empty, with the exception of the old bee (only one) at
work. I think this was the work of one bee, and, as near as I can judge, about
twenty-five days' work. Width of tunnel inside at widest 9-10 mch.
For some days this bee has been discharging a great quantity of saw-dust and
l)ollen, which I had collected by iilacing a vessel under it. It would seem that she
liad cells constructed also in tlie oiiposite side of the hole, and that she removed
them to enlarge the tunnel. Among the stuff thrown out, I find a partition of a cell
nearly entire.
I have just found a Xylocopa bobbing at one of the holes, and in order to ascer-
tain the deiith of the tunnel, and to see whctlier there were any others in them, I
sounded with a itliable rod, and found others in one side, at a depth of five and one
half inches ; the other side was four inches deep, without bees. The morning was
cool, so that the object in bobbing could not be to introduce fresh currents of air,
but must have had some relation to those inside. The legs on such occasions are,
as 1 have noticed, loaded with pollen.-'— American Naturalist, vol. 1, p. 370.
134 HYMENOPTERA.
beaten down Jind smoothed olT by the bee. The other side of
the partition, forming the to}) of the cell, is Hat and rongh.
At the time of opening the burrow, July 8th, the cells con-
tained nearly full-grown larvae, with some half developed.
They were feeding on the masses of pollen, which were as large
as a thick kidney-bean, and occupied nearly half the cell. Sa-
pyga repanda is parasitic in the cells of Xylocopa violacea of
Southern Europe.
The habits and structure of the little Ceratina ally it closely
with Xylocopa, as it hollows out the stems of plants, and builds
in them its cylindrical cells. This bee is oblong in form, with
tridentate mandibles, and a short labrum. The maxillary palpi
are six-jointed, and the labial palpi are two-jointed. Ceratina
diipla Say is a common small bright-green smooth-bodied species,
which, in the middle of May, according to Dr. Harris' MS. notes,
tunnels out the stems of the elder or blackberry, syringa, or any
other pithy shrub, excavating them often to a depth of six or
seven inches, and also, according to Mr. Haldeman (Harris
MS.), bores in Cocorus. She makes the walls just wide enough
to admit her bod}', and of a depth capable of holding three or
four, often five or six cells (Plate 4, Fig. 11). The finel}' built
cells, with their delicate silken walls, are cylindrical and nearly
square at each end, though the free end of the last cell is
rounded off. They are four and a half tenths of an inch long,
and a little over one-third as broad. The bee places them at
nearly equal distances apart, the slight interval between them
being filled in with dirt.
Dr. T. AY. Harris* states that, "May 15, 1832, one female
laid its eggs in the hollow of an aster-stalk. Three perfect in-
sects were disclosed from it July 28th." The observations of Mr.
Angus, who saw some bees making their cells, May 18th, also
confirms this account. The history of our little upholsterer is
thus cleared np. Late in the spring she builds her cells, fills
them Avith pollen, and lays one or more eggs upon each one.
Thus in about two months the insect completes its transforma-
tions ; within this period passing through the egg, the larval
and chrysalid states, and then, as a bee, living through the win-
ter. Its life thus spans one year.
* Aocoi-iling to a note iu ISISS. deposited in the Libi-ary of the Boston Societj' of
Natural History.
APIARLT^]. 135
The larva (Plate 4, Fig. 10) is longer tlian that of Mega-
chile, and comjiared with that of X^loeopa, the ditferent seg-
ments are much more oomex, giving a serrate outline to the
back of the worm. The i)U[)a, or chrysalis, we have found in
the cells the last of July. It is white, and three-tenths of an
inch long. It differs from that of the Leaf-cutter bee in having
ibur spines on the end of the body, and in having a much
longer tongue and maxillae, both being almost twice as long.
In none of the wild bees are the cells constructed with more
nicety than those of our little Ceratina. She bores out with
her jaws a long dee]) well just the size of her body, and then
stretches a thin delicate cloth of silk, drawn tight as a drum-
head, across each end of lier chambers, which she then fills with
a mixture of pollen and honey.
Her young are not, in this supposed retreat, entirely fi-ee
from danger. The most invidious foes enter and attack
them. Three species of Ichneumou-tiies, two of which belong
to the Chalcid family, lay their eggs within the body of the
larva, and emerge from the dried larva and pupa skins of the
bee, often in great luunbers. The smallest parasite, belonging
to the genus Anthophorabia (so called from being first known
as a parasite on another bee, Authophora), is a minute species
found also abundantly in the tight cells of the Leaf-cutter bee.
The species of Anthkh'nm, according to Smith, are gaily
marked with yellow bands and spots ; the ligula is almost twice
as long as the labial pali)i, and acutely pointed ; the paraglossa?
are short, the maxillary palpi are two-jointed, and there are two
subcostal cells. Tlie males are longer than the females, with an
elongated and stoutly toothed abdominal tip. Tlie female lines
her nest, situated in any hole convenient for its purpose, with
down from woolly-stemmed plants. They pass the winter in
the larva state, and the bees do not appear until mid-summer^
The species mostly occur in the old world.
In Ajithojihoni, which approaches nearer to Bombus in its
plump and hairy body than the two preceding genera, the lig-
ula is twice as long as the labial maxilhi?, ending in a bristle-
like point ; the basal joint of the hind tarsus is thickly hirsute,
while the middle tarsus of tlie males is generally elongated.
The species are gregarious, their numerous cells, while indepen-
136 HYMENOPTERA.
(lent, are croAvded togctlier in grassy banks. Species of
Melecta are parasitic on them, ovipositing in their cells. The
larviie are infected by tlie Chalcid flies, Anthophorabia and
Monodontomerns, and ])y a peculiar species of Mite, Hete-
ropus ventricosus, described by Newport. Say has described
Anthophora ahrupta and ^1. taurea from Indiana.
In Eacera the antenna? are very long, while the body is still
plump and hairy : our more common form in the Middle States
is Eacera macalata St. Fargeau. The species are likewise
gregarious, and, according to Smith, their habits are precisely
the same as those of Anthophora.
In 3Ie(jachile, the Leaf-cutter Bee, the head is broad, the
body stout, oblong, the ligula is about one-half longer than
the labial palpi, being quite stout, while the paraglossre are
short and pointed ; the maxillte are long and sabre-shaped,
while their palpi are short and two-jointed. There are two
subcostal cells in the fore wing. It is a thick-bodied bee, with
a large square head, stout scissor-like jaws, and with a thick
mass of dense hairs on the under side of the tail for the pur-
pose of carrying pollen, since it is not provided with a pollen
basket as in the Honey and Humble-bees. The larva is broader
aiid flatter than that of Bombus, the raised pleural region is a
little mor-j prominent, and the raised, thickened tergal portion
of each ring is more prominent than in Bombus.
The Megachile lays its eggs in burrows in the stems of the
elder (Plate 4, Fig. 9), which we have received from Mr.
James Angus ; Ave have also found them in the hollows of the
locust tree.' Mr. F. W. Putnam thus speaks of the economy
of M. centuncidaris^ our most common species. "My attention
was first called, on the 2Gth of June, to a female busily en-
gaged in bringing pieces of leaf to her cells, Avhich she Avas build-
ing under a board, on the roof of the piazza, directly under
my Avindow. Nearly the Avhole morning Avas occupied by the
bee in bringing pieces of leaf from a rose-bush groAving about
ten yards from her cells, returning at intervals of a half minute
to a minute Avith the pieces Avhich she carried in such a manner
as not to impede her Avalking Avhen she alighted near her hole.
[We give a figure of the Leaf-cutter bee in the act of cutting
out a circular piece of a rose-leaf (Plate 4, Fig. 8). She
alights upon the leaf, and in a few seconds swiftly rnns lier
scissors-like jaws around through the leaf, bearing off the
piece in her hind legs.] About noon she had probably com-
pleted the cell, upon which she had been engaged, as, during
the afternoon, she was occupied in bringing pollen, preparatory
to laying her single egg in tlie cell. For about twenty days
the bee continued at work, building new cells and supplying
them with pollen. ... On the 28th of July, upon removing
the board, it was found tliat llie bee had made thirty cells,
arranged in nine rows of unequal length, some being slightly
curved to adapt tlicm to the space under the board. The
longest row contained six cells, and was two and three-quarters
inches in length ; the whole leaf-structure being equal to a
length of fifteen inclics. Upon making an estimate of the
pieces of leaf in this structure, it was ascertained that there
must have been at least a thousand pieces used. In addition
to the labor of making tlie cells, this bee, unassisted in all her
duties, had to collect the requisite amount of pollen (and
honey?) for each cell, and lay her eggs therein, when com-
pleted. Upon carefully cutting out a portion of one of the
cells, a full-grown larva was seen engaged in si>iuniug a slight
silken cocoon al)out the walls of its prison, which were quite
hard and smooth on the inside, probably owing to the move-
ments of the larva, and the consequent pressing of the sticky
particles to the walls. In a short time the opening made was
closed over by a very thin silken web. The cells, measured on
the inside of the hard walls, were .35 of an inch in length, and
.15 in diameter. The natural attitude of the larva is some-
what curved in its cell, but if straightened, it just equals the
inside length of the cell. On the 31st of July, two female
bees came out, having cut their way through the sides of their
cells." In three other cells "several hundred minute Ichneu-
mons [Anthophorabia megachilis] were seen, which came forth
as soon as the cells were opened." (Com. Essex Inst., vol. iv,
p. 105, 1864.)
Megacldle integer Say IMS., according to Dr. Harris (MS.
notes), forms its nest of leaves the first of August. This spe-
cies is twice as large, but closely resembles 3k'gaeliiJe hrevis of
Say. The front of the head is covered with dense ochreous
138 HYMENOrTERA.
hairs, becoriing shorter and black on the vertex. The nest,
preserved in the Harris collection, now in the Mnsenm of the
Boston Society of Natural Histor}^, is made of rose-leaves, and
is scarcely distinguishable from that of M. centunc^daris.
Osmia, the Mason Bee, is another genus of Carpenter or
Upholsterer bees. The species are generally bluish, with
greenish reflections, with smooth shiny bodies, and the species
are of smaller size than in Megachile. The tongue in this
genus is three times as long as the labium, tapering from the
))ase to the acute apex, and clothed with short hair.
Mr. F. Smith states that the larva of the English species
hatch in eight days after the eggs are laid, feeds ten to twelve
days, when it becomes full-grown, then spins a thin silken
covering, and remains in an inactive state until the following
spring, when it completes its transformations.
The habits of the little Mason-bees are quite varied. They
construct their cells in the stems of plants and in rotten posts
and trees, or, like Andrena, they burrow in sunny banks. An
European species selects snail-shells for its nest, wherein it
builds its earthen cells, while other species nidificate under
stones. Curtis found two hundred and thirty cocoons of a
British species {Osmia paretiva)^ placed on the under side of
a flat stone, of which one-third were em})ty. Of the remainder,
the most appeared between March and June, males appearing
first ; thirty-flve more bees were develoi)ed the following spring.
Thus there were three successive broods for three succeeding
years, so that these bees lived three years before arriving at
maturity.
Mr. G. R. "\Taterhouse, in the Transactions of the Entomo-
logical Society of London, for 1864 (3d series, vol. 2, p. 121),
states that the cells of Osmia leiicomdana "are formed of mud,
and each cell is built separately. The female bee, having de-
posited a small pellet of mud in a sheltered spot between some
tufts of grass, immediately commences to excavate a small
cavity in its upper surface, semiring the mud away from the
<-entre towards the margin by means of her jaws. A small
shallow mud-cup is thus produced. It is rough and uneven on
the outer surface, but beautifully smooth on the inner. Cu
witnessing thus much of the work performed, 1 was struck with
APIARI^. 139
three points. First, the rapidity with which the insect worked ;
secondly, the tenacity with which slie kept her original position
whilst excavating ; and thirdly, her constantly going over
work which had apparently been completed, . . . The lid is
excavated and rendered concave on its onter or upper surface,
and is convex and rough on its inner surface ; and, in fact, is a
simple rei)etition of the first-formed portion of the cell, a part
of a hollow sphere."
The largest species of Osmia known to us is a very dark-blue
species Avhich seems to be undescribed. We will call it the
wood-boring Osmia {Osmia Ikjnivora). It is larger than
the Osmia lignaria of Say, being just half an inch long. The
head is much shorter, and less square than in Say's spe-
cies. The front of the head below the antenna? is clothed with
dark hairs, but above and on the thorax with yellowish ochrcous
hairs. The body is deep blackish blue, Avith greenish refiec-
tions. We are indebted to a lady for specimens of the bees
with their cells, which had been excavated in the interior of a
maple tree several inches from the bark. The bee had industri-
ously tunnelled out this elaborate burrow (Plate 4, Fig. 12),
and, in this respect, resembles the habits of the Carpenter-bee
{Xylocojxi) more closely than any other species of its genus.
The tunnel was over three inches long, and about three-
tenths of an inch wide. It contracted a little in width between
the cell, showing that the bee worked intelligently, and wasted
no more of her energies than was absolutely necessary. The
burrow contained five cells, each half an inch long, being
rather short and broad, with the hinder end rounded, while the
opposite end, next to the one adjoining, is cut off" squarel}'.
The cell is somewhat jug-shaped, owing to a slight constriction
just behind the mouth. The material of which the cell is com-
posed is stout, silken, parchment-like, and vQvy smooth within.
The interstices between the cells are filled with rather coarse
chippings made by the bee.
The bee cut its way out of the cells in March, and lived for
a month afterwards on a diet of honey and water. It eagerly
lai)ped up the drops of water supi)lied by its keeper, to whom
if soon grew accustomed, and whom it seemed to recognize.
The female of Osmia liyuaria Say MS., according to Dr.
HX) HYMENOrTERA.
Harris' MS. notes, was found in tlie i)crfoct state in cocoons
within earthen cells under stoues, April lith. The cell she con-
structs is half an inch long, oval, cylindrical, and contracted
slightly into a sort of neck just before the opening for the exit
of the bee. From Mr. James Angus I have received the pellets
of pollen, about the size of a pea, in Avhich it deposits its eggs ;
the larvte were about one-third grown in August.
This species is larger than Osmia shniUima of Smith, Avliile
the male antenna? are much paler, being fuscous. The front
of the head is covered with long dense yellow ochreous hairs.
The vertex is not of so dark a green as in 0. simillima, and
is covered with coarse punctures. The thorax is heavily clothed
with yellow ochreous, thick hairs. The abdomen is yellowish,
and much more hairy. The legs are stout, fuscous, Avitli yel-
lowish hairs. Length, .35 inch.
Our smallest and most abundant species is the little green
Osmia simillima of Smith. It builds its little oval, somewhat
(irn-shaped cells, against the roof of the large deserted galls of
the oak-gall fly (Diplolepis confluentus), placing them, in this
instance, eleven in number, in two irregular rows, from which
the mature bees issue through a hole in the gall (Plate 4,* Fig.
■]4. From specimens communicated b}^ Mr. F. G. Sanborn).
The earthen cells, containing the tough dense cocoons, Avere
arranged irregularly so as to fit the concave vault of the larger
gall, which was about two inches in diameter. On emerging
fiom the cell the Osmia cuts out Avith its powerful jaws an
ovate lid, nearly as large as one side of the cell. Both sexes
may be found in April and Ma}^ in the floAvers of the Avillow
*ExPLAXATiON OF PLATE 4.— Fig. 1, a cell of the Humble-bee; natural size,
with the i)olleii mass upou the top. Fig. 2, end view of the same mass, .showing
the three eggs laid in three divisions of the cavity. Fig. 3, Xylocopa Virf/imcn, the
Car|)enter Bee. Fig. 4, the larva of Xylocnpa Virfjinicn; natural size. Fig. ii,
the nest containing the cells of the same, with the partitions and pollen masses,
on which the young larva is seen in the act of feeding; natural size. Fig. t!,
young larva oi Anthrax sinuosa; side view. Fig. 7, pupa ol' Anthrax siruiosa,
side view; natural size. Fig. 8, the Leaf-cutter Bee (M'ef/achile), on a rose leaf,
in the act of cutting out a circular piece. Fig. !), cells of Megachile, in the elder;
natural size. Fig. 10, larva of Cerntinn dupUi, the little green Upliolsterer Bee;
enlarged. Fig. 11, cells of the same in the stem of the elder; natural size. Fig.
12, cells of Osmia Ugnivora, new species, the wood-devouring iSIason-bee, exca-
vated in the maple; natural size. Fig. l.'j, cells of Onmia simi/limn, the common
green Mason-ljee, built in the deserted gall of the Oak-gall Fly. Fig. 14, a single
earthen cell of the same: natural size. Fig. 1.5, pollen mass, or bee-bread of
Osmia lif/naria ; natural size. It is made up of distinct pellets of pollen, which
are probably stuck together with saliva.
Plate 4.
ARCHITECTURE OF BEES.
APIAP.I^. 141
and fruit trees which blossom later. The antennae are black,
and the green body is covered Avith fine white hairs, becoming
yellowish above.
In the Harris collection are the cells and specimens of Osmia
jxic{fica Say, the peaceful Osmia, which, according to the man-
uscript notes of Dr. Harris, is found in the perfect state in
earthen cells (Plate 5, Fig. 2) beneath stones. The cell is oval
cylindrical, a little contracted as usual with those of all the spe-
cies of the genus, thus forming an urn-shaped cell. It is half
an inch long, and nearly three-tenths of an inch wide, while the
cocoon, which is rather thin, is three-tenths of an inch long.
The following genera, called Cuckoo Bees, are parasitic on
other bees, laying their eggs in the cells, or nests, of their host.
In Coelioxys the body is stout, and the bee closely mimics its
host, Megaehile. The ligula is very long, being almost three
times the length of the labium, and the paraglossae are wholly
wanting ; the maxillar}' palpi are short, three-jointed, and the
abdominal tip of the male is variously toothed. Coelioxys octo-
dentata Say, is abundant late in the summer about flowers. An
allied genus, 3felecta, is parasitic on Anthophora, and Epeolus is
parasitic on Colletes.
The species of Nomada are very numerous ; in all, the tongue
is long and acute, with paraglossae about one-fourth as long
as the tongue ; the maxillary pair of palpi are six-jointed ;
and there are three subcostal cells. The species in their slen-
der, smooth, gaily colored bod}^ resemble the wasps. These
Cuckoo-bees lay their eggs in the nests of Andrena and Ha-
lictus, and, according to English authors, Panurgus and Eucera,
where they may be found in all stages of development corre-
sponding to those of their hosts. The females do not sting
severely. The species emit sweet, balmy, or balsamical odors.
Shuckard states that these bees should be killed with burning
suli)hur to preserve their bright colors.
The larvie differ greatly from those of their hosts, Andrena,
the head being much smaller, the body being smoother and
rounder, and belonging to a more degraded, lower t3'pe. The
whole body is more attenuated towards both extremities.
The pupa differs from those of any other genus of this family
known to us, except Andrena, by having three conspicuous
142 HYMENOPTERA.
spines on tlie upper and posterior edge of the orbit, wliich are
also fpiind in tlie pupa of Stignius, a Crabronid genus, and which
evidently aid in locomotion. Thus the same law of degrada-
tion obtains in these highly organized bee-parasites as in the
lower parasitic species, though in a much less marked degree.
From specimens found in the nests of Andrena and Halictus,
collected at Salem by Mr. J. H. Emerton, and now in the Mu-
seum of the Essex Institute, we have been enabled in great
part to clear up the history of this bee. AVe have found in the
nests of Andrena vicina both sexes of Nomada imhrkata Smith,
and several females of Nomada indcheUa of Smith ; and in the
cells of Halictus parallelus Say, specimens of Nomada imbri-
cata. Both full-grown larv^ and pupte of different ages, up
to the adult Nomada, ready to take leave of its host, were
found in the cells of the Andrena vicina. It seems, there-
fore, that the newl}- hatched young of Nomada must feed
on the pollen mass destined for the Andrena. But there
seems to be enough for both genera to feed upon, as the young
of both host and parasite were found living harmoniously to-
gether, and the hosts and their parasites are disclosed both at
the same time. Does not this mild sort of parasitism in No-
mada throw much light on the probable habits of Apathus, the
Humble-bee parasite? It is more than probable that the Apa-
thus larvre simply eat the food of the Bombus larvse, and do
not attack the larvae of their hosts. Both Nomada and Apathus
in their adult stages live harmoniously with their hosts, and
are seen gathering food from the same flowers, and fl^^ing about
the same nest.
In the second subfamily, Andrenetce, the ligula, or tongue, is
for the most part short and broad, and the maxillary palpi
have four joints of equal size.
In Sphecodes the body is smooth and wasp-like, and in its
habit of running and flying in dry sandy places, it resembles
Sphex, whence its generic name. The abdomen is generally
light red, farther aiding in the resemblance to the Sphegidoc .
The ligula is short, lancet-shaped, fringed with setae ; the para-
glossie are not so long as the tongue, Avhile the labial palpi are
shorter than the paraglossje, and the maxillae are broad, lan-
ceolate, with six-jointed palpi. The antennae of the males are
APIARI^. j^3
short and sometimes monillforra. Sphecodes clichroa Harris is
our most common species. Mr. F. Smitli, from direct observa-
tion, stcates tliat this genus builds cells, though earlier authors
have stated that it is parasitic on Ilalictus and Andrena.
Prosopis is generally yellow on the face, and is "less pulies-
cent than any of the bees." The tongue is broad, subemar-
ginate, the paragloss.-e reach a little beyond the tongue ; the
labial palpi are as long as the tongue, while there are two sub-
costal cells in the fore wings. Smith states that the genus is
not parasitical as formerly supposed, as he has "repeatedly
bred them" from cells laid in a regular order in the hollow of
bramble stems. Mr. S. Saunders has also raised them in Alba-
nia where "they construct their cells in bramble sticks (whicli
they bore in the same manner as Colletes) with a thin transpa-
rent membrane, calculated for holding semi-liquid honey, which
they store up for their young. The species are much attacked
by Stylops." Like Sphecodes and Ceratina, this genus, accord-
ing to Smith, is unprovided with pollenigerous organs. We
have several species in this country of which P. affinis Smith,
and P. elliptica Kirby, are found northward. The habits of
our species are not known.
AiigocJdom comprises beautiful shining metallic green spe-
cies, very commonly mot with. The thorax is globose, and
the anterior wings have one marginal and three subniarginal
cells ; the first submarginal cell as long as the second and third
united. Augochlora paras Smith is a small, green, rather
common species. Mr. J. II. Emerton has found its nests in Sa-
lem, near those of Andrena. The "mouth of the hole opener!
under a stone, and was built up so as to form a tube of saud
(Plate 5, Fig. 1). The burrow on the 28th of June was four
inches deep.
Andrena is a genus of great extent, and the species are often
difficult to distinguish. The lanceolate tongue is moderately
long, and the paraglossia are half as long as the tongue itself,
while the six-jointed maxillar}^ palpi are longer than the maxilhe
themselves. The wings have three subcostal cells, with the
rudiments of a fourth one ; the second is squarish, and the
third receives a recurrent nervure near the middle. The pos-
terior legs "have a long curled lock upon the trochanter be-
144 HYMENOPTERA.
neath, and the anterior upper surface of the femora is clothed
-with h>ng loose hair, which equally surrounds the whole of the
tibijie." (Shuckard.) The abdomen is banded more or less
conspicuously Avith reddish.
The larva (Fig. 80) is stout and thick, with a head of moder-
ate size, and the mouth -parts are a little shorter than usual, the
maxillae and labium especially. The segments of
the body are much more convex (angularly so)
than usual, giving a tuberculate outline to the
body. It is stouter than that of Halictus, the
wings are less convex than in that genus ; while the
maxillse are much stouter and blunter. The pupa
is distinguished from the other genera by much the
same characters as the imago, except that there
Fig. 70. j^j.g ^^vo tubercles on the vertex near the ocelli.
From a comparison of all its stages, this genus stands inter-
jnediate between those placed above, and Halictus, which, in
all its characters, is a more degraded form. The males often
differ widely from the other sex, in their broad heads and widely
spreading bidentate mandibles.
Mr. Eraerton has observed the habits of our most common
species, Andrena vlcina Smith, which builds its nest in grassy
fields. The burrow is sunken perpendicularly, with short pas-
sages leading to the cells, which are slightly inclined downwards
and outwards from the main gallery. The Avails of the gallery
are rough, but the cells are lined with a mucus-like secretion,
which, on hardening, looks lilvc the glazing of earthen-ware. In
Fig. 80 ]Mr. Emerton gives us a profile view of natural size of
the nest showing the main burrow and the cells leading from it ;
the oldest cell, containing the pui)a (a) is situated nearest the
surface, while those containing larviis (b) lie between the pupa
and the cell (e) containing the pollen mass and egg resting
upon it. The most recent cell (/) is the deepest down, and
contains a freshly deposited pollen mass. At c is the begin-
ning of a cell ; g is the level of the ground. The bees were
seen at work on the 4th of May, at Salem, Mass., digging their
holes, one of which was already' six inches deep ; and by the
loth, hundreds of holes were observed. On the 28th of May,
in unearthing six holes, eight cells were found to contain pol-
APIAEI^.
145
h JN
len, and two of them a small larva. On the 29th of June six
full-grown larvse were exhumed, and one about half-grown.
About the first of August the
larva transforms to a pupa, and
during the last week of this month
the mature bees appear.
In Halictus, which is a genus
of great extent, the head is trans-
verse, and flatfish ; the mouth-
parts are of moderate length, the
tongue being very acute, with
acute paraglossae half the length
of the tongue, while the labial
palpi are not quite so long as
the paraglossiB. There are three
subcostal cells in the wings, with
the rudiments of a fourth often
present, and the second cell is
squarish. The abdomen is ob-
long ovate, with a longitudinal
linear furrow on the tip in the
female. In the males the body
is longer and the antennae more
filiform and slender than usual in
this family.
The larvae are longer, and with
more acutety convex segments
than in Andrena. The pupae
differ much as the adult bees from /''
Andrena, especially in the shorter
mouth-parts.
Halictus parallelus Say excavates cells almost exactly like
those of Andrena ; but since the bee is smaller, the holes are
smaller, though as deep. Mr. Emerton found one nest, in a
path, a foot in depth. Another nest, discovered September 9th,
was about six inches deep. The cells are in form like those of
Andrena, and like tliem are glazed within. Tlie egg is rather
slender and much curved ; in form it is long, cylindrical, ob-
tuse at one end, and much smaller at the other. The larva
10
C
FiK 80
146
HYMENOPTERA.
Fiar. 81.
(Figs. 79, 81) is longer and slenderer, and quite different from
the rather broad and flattened larva of Andrena. The body is
rather thick behind, but in front tapers slowly
towards the head, which is of moderate size. Its
body is somewhat tuberculated, the tubercles aid-
ing the grub in moving about its cell. Its length
is .40 of an inch. On the pupa are four quite dis-
tinct conical tubercles forming a transverse line
just in front of the ocelli ; and there are also
two larger, longer tubercles, on the outer side of each of
which an ocellus is situated. Figure 82 represents the pupa
seen from beneath.
Search was made for the nests on Jul}' 16tli, when
the ground was very hard for six inclies in depth,
below which the soil was soft and fine, and over
twenty cells were dug out. "The upper cells
contained nearly mature pupsie, and the lower ones
larvne of various sizes, the smallest being hardly
distinguishable by the naked eye. Each of these
small larviB was in a cell by itself, and situated
upon a lump of i)olleu, which Avas of the size and shape of a
pea, and was found to lessen in size as the larva grew larger.
These young were probably the offspring of several females,
as four mature bees Avere found in the hole." (Emerton.)
The larva of an English species hatches in ten daj's after the
eggs are laid.
Another brood of bees appeared the middle of September,
as on the ninth of that month (18G4) Mr. Emerton found sev-
eral holes of the same species of bee made in a hard gravel
road near the turnpike. When opened, they Avere found to
contain several bees with their 3'oung. September 2, 1867, the
same kind of bee was found in holes, and just ready to leave
the cell.
Like Bombus, the females are supposed to hybernate, the
males not appearing until late in the season. Like Andrena,
these bees suffer from the attacks of Stylops, and according to
Shuckard, an Ichneumon preys upon them, while certain spe-
cies of Cerceris, Philanthus, and Crabro carry them off to store
their nests Avith.
VESPARI.E. 147
In CoIIetes the females, as Shuckard observes, resemble the
workers of the Honey-bee, while there is considerable disparity
between the sexes, the males being much smaller, the tongue
and maxillae very short ; and the four-jointed labial palpi
much shorter than the paraglossai. Tliere are three subcostal
cells, with the rudiments of a fourth. These bees form large colo-
nies, burrowing in the earth eight or ten inches deep, lining their
cells "at the farther end with a very thin transparent mem-
branaceous coating, resembling goldbeaters' skin." They thus
furnish six or eight cartridge-like cells, covering each with a
cap, "like the parchment on a drum-head." Smith, from Avhom
we have been quoting, states that MiJtogramma jyunctata, which
is a Tachina-like fly, and the Cuckoo-bee, Epeolus variegatus,
have, in Europe, been reared from their cocoons.
Vespari.e Latreille, Wasj^s. In this family, which comprises
about 900 species, the body is more attenuated, more C3dindri-
cal, with a harder and smoother tegument than in the ApiariK .
In the species with densely populated colonies, such as Vespa
and Polistes, there are workers which are often ver}^ numerous,
while in Einnenes and Odynerus, etc., there are only males and
females. The antenna? are elbowed, the mandibles are large,
stout ; the maxilhe and labium of var3ing length ; the maxil-
lary palpi are six-jointed ; while on the labial palpi, which are
four-jointed, there are well-developed paraglossae. The pro-
thorax is prolonged on each side to the insertion of the wings
which are long and narrow, and once folded longitudinally
when at rest ; the fore pair have two or three subcostal cells ;
the hind shanks and til)iie are smooth. The eggs, when first
laid, are globular, soon becoming oAal.
The larvjie of this family are soft, fleshy, with larger heads in
proportion to the rest of the body, than in the Apiarice;
the antennal tubercle, or rudimentary antennae, are more dis-
tinct, and the mandibles are larger. The surface of the body
is smoother in Vespa and Polistes, l)ut more tuberculated in the
solitary genera, Odynerus and allies, wliile the end of the body
is more acute.
As in the Apiarim the higher genera are social, building
papery nests, while the lower are solitary and build cells of mud
or sand in protected places.
148 HYMENOPTERA.
In Vespa, the Paper Wasp, the ligula is squarish, with the
paraglossai nearly as long as the tongue, the outer maxillary
lobes rounded oval, half as long as the palpi, and the labial
maxilhe are scarcely longer than the tongue. The abdomen
is broad at base, acutely conical. The nests are either with or
without a papery covering, supported by a short pedicel.
Such females as have hybernated, begin to makfe their
cells in the early part of summer. Smith states that the soli-
tary female wasp " begins by making three saucer-shaped re-
ceptacles, in each of which she deposits an egg ; she then
proceeds to form other similar -shaped receptacles, until the
eggs first deposited are hatched and the young grubs require a
share of her attention. From the circular bases she now be-
gins to raise her hexagonal cells, not building them up at once,
but from time to time raising them as the young grubs grow.
(Proc. Ent. Soc, London, 1858, p. 35.)
Waterliouse states that the cells formed by the solitary fe-
male early in the season appear " to be built entirely of glisten-
ing, whitish, silk-like threads which I have little doubt are a
secretion from the insect, all the threads being firmly attached
together as if they had originally been of a glutinous nature."
The cells formed later in the season by the workers, differ
in consisting of masticated rotten wood. "Almost simultane-
ously Avith the eomuiencement of the cells, it ai)pears that the
nest-covering is cominonced. At first it has the appearance of
a miniature umbrella, serving to shelter the rudimentary cells."
I'late 5, Fig. 3, shows a group of cells surrounded by one
layer of paper, and the beginning of another. As the nest
grows larger the cells are ar-
ranged in galleries, supported by
pedicels, and the number of
layers in the outside covering
greatly increases in numl)er.
While our common and largest
species, Vesjxt, maculata Linn.
(Fig. 83), and the j^ellow wasp,
Fig- 83. Y, are»ar/« Fabr., build papery
nests consisting of several galleries, with the mouth of the cells
directed downwards, the East Indian species, V. oriantalis^
VESPARIJE. 149
builds its ceils of clay, and, according to Waterhouse, "tlie
work is exceedingly beautiful and true." Another species,
according to Smith, makes its nest of sandy loam, the exterior
being so hard that a saw used in opening one of its sides was
blunted.
The larva of Vespa arenaria is long and cylindrical, not
so much curved as in Polistes. Its position in its cell corre-
sponds to its form, as the cell is longer and narrower than that
of Polistes. Each segment of the body is posteriorly some-
what thickened, as is the lateral (pleural) ridge of the body.
The tip of the abdomen is rather blunt, the last sternite be-
ing large and transverse. The pupa is provided with a single
tubercle on the vertex, where there are two in the Crahron-
idce and Sphegidm.
By the time the nest of V. arenaria is large enough to
contain ten full-grown larvge, and has about fourteen cells in
all, being about an inch in diameter, the occupants of the two
or three central cells will have changed to pupte, and one wasp
will have been excluded.
In a nest of the same species two inches in diameter, there
were a second brood of larvae. The outer row of cells were
occupied by pupae, while the central ones, emptied of the first
brood, were filled with a second brood of larvre. Evidently as
soon as an imago leaves its cell, the female deposits an egg
therein, as very minute larvae were found occupj'ing cells next
to those containing large full-grown larvae.
In comparing a number of pupae from a large nest, they
will be found to be in all stages of perfection, from the
larva which has ceased feeding, and is preparing to transform,
to the imago, still veiled by its thin subimago pellicle. It is dif-
ficult to draw lines between these stages. Also when com-
pared closely side by side, it is difficult, if not impossible to find
any two pupae just alike, the development proceeding very un-
equally. Thus the limbs may be more perfect than the antennae,
or certain parts may be less perfect in some than in others, while
the limbs may be more highly colored like the imago.
Like the bees, Vespa suffers from numei'ous parasites, includ-
ing Rhipiphorous paradoxus, which is a beetle allied to Stylops,
and Lebia ^.Dromius) linearis. The larva of Volucella is said
150 HYMENOPTERA.
to feed on the Vespa-larvie, and Mr. Stone says that Anthomyia
incana is also parasitic in Wasps' nests, wliile two species
of Ichnenmons, one of which is Anomalon vesparum, also in-
fest the larvaj. No parasites have been as yet detected in this
country.
The Hornet, V. crabro Linn., has, according to Mr. Angus,
become domesticated about New York. This and the smaller
wasps are sometimes injurious b}' eating into ripe fruit, but the
injury is more than counterblanced by the number of flies an((
other insects they feed their young with.
Indeed, as Saussure states, the species of Vespa are more
omnivorous in their tastes than any other wasps. They live by
rapine and pillage, and have obtained a worse repute than other
insects more injurious. In spring and early summer thej' feed on
the sweets of flowers ; but later in the season attack straAvber-
ries, plums, grapes; and other fruits, and often enter houses and
there help themselves to the dishes on the table. They will eat
raw meat, and then aid the butcher by devouring the flies that
lay their eggs on his meats. The}' will sometimes destroy Honey-
bees, attacking them on their return from the fields laden with
pollen ; they throw themselves upon their luckless victims, and
tear the abdomen from the rest of the body, and suck theii-
blood, devouring only the abdomen. They fall upon flies and
butterflies, and, biting otf their wings, feet, and head, devour
the trunk. In attacking insects they use only their powerful
jaws, and not the sting, diflfering in this respect from the
fossorial wasps.
Saussure states that though wasps do not generally la}- up
food, yet at certain periods they do fill the cells with honey.
The females feed their ^oung with food chewed up and re-
duced to a pulp. Saussure questions whether the larviie of one
sex are not fed on animal and the other on vegetable food,
since Huber had shown "what a great influence the kind of
food exerts on the sex of Bees." But it is now known that the
sexes of some, and probably all insects are determined before
the larvae is hatched. I have seen the rudiments of the ovi-
positor in the half-grown larvse of the Humble-bee, and it is
most probable that those rudiments began to develop duriiig
embryonic life. It is far more probable that the sexual differ-
ences are determined at the time of conception.
VESPART.I!:. 151
Westwoocl states that the hxrv;ie, which live head-dowiiAvard
from the reversed position of the coinb, retain their position in
tile cell, while yonng, by a glutinous secretion, and afterwards
"by the swollen front of the body which fills the open part of
the cell." "Tlie female cells are mostly placed apart from
those of the males and neuters, tliose of the males being often
mixed, but in a small number, in the neuter combs. The egg
state lasts eight days, the larva state thirteen or fourteen, and
that of the pupa about ten. After the imago has been produced,
one of the old workers cleans out the cell, and fits it for the
reception of a fresh inhabitant. The upper tier of cells, being
first built, serves for the habitation of the workers ; the females,
being produced at the end of the summer, occupy the lowest
tiers." When about to transform the larvae spin a thin cover-
ing, thus closing over the cell.
In PoUstes the paraglossia are slender, and a little longer
than the long, or as in one instance noticed by us in P. Cana-
densis, barrel-shaped ligula, which is split at the end ; the palpi
are stouter, while the whole body is much longer than in Vespa ;
the abdomen is subpedunculate, and the thorax is rather ob-
long tlian spherical, as in Vespa.
The larva ditfers from that of Vespa in its much larger head,
and shorter, more ovoid form of the body, which is dilated in
front so as to retain the insect in its cell, while the tip is
more acute ; the antennal tubercles are closer together ; the
clypeus is more regularly triangular and more distinct, while
the labrum is much larger and excessivel}^ swollen, as are the
mouth-parts generally. The mandibles are bidentate, where in
Vespa they are tridentate. The pupa differs from that of Vespa,
besides the usual generic characters, in having the tuberclg on
the head smaller.
The nests of Polistes (Plate 5, Fig. 4, nest of P. annularis
Fabr., from Saussure) are not covered in by a j^apery wall as in
\'espa, but ma}- be found attached to bushes, with the mouth
of the cells pointed downwards. "While at Burksville Junction,
Va., in the last week of April, I had an opportunity of watch-
ing three species beginning their cells on the same clump of
bushes. They all worked in the same method, and the cells
only differed slightly in size. The cells Were formed mostly of
152 HYMENOrXERA.
crude silk, and the threads could be seen crossing each other, the
same stjucture being observed at the top and bottom of each
cell.
In the three-celled nest of Polistes (Plate 5, Fig. 5, 5 a)
first noticed April 29th, there were but two eggs deposited, the
third cell being without an egg, and a little smaller, and
th3 rim not so high as in the other two. The outer edge did
not seam to be perfectly circular, though stated by Water-
house to be so in the incipient cells, for in some cases we de-
tected two slight angles, thus making three sides, which,
however, would be easily overlooked on casual observation ;
as there are only two sides withhi, the cell, from being at its
earliest inception hemispherical, or "■saucer-shaped," becomes
five, and subsequently six-sided, and thus from being cir-
cular, it is converted by the wasps into a hexagonal cell. In
some cells, perhaps a majority, both in this and the other spe-
cies, the newly made rim of the small cells is thinner than the
parts below, and slightly bent inwards ; thus being quite the re-
verse of the thickened rim of the cells of the Hive Bee. It
would seem that the wasp plasters on more silk, especially' on
the angles, building them out, and making them more promi-
nent, in order to complete, when other cells are added, their
hexagonal form. The three cells are of much the same size
and height when the third egg is laid, as we observed in another
nest, that of Polistes Canadensis (Linn.), built at the Defences
of Washington, near Munson's Hill, June 9th.
Again, when one or two more cells have been added to the
nest, and there are four or five in all (Plate 5, Fig. 6 ; 6a, top
A'iew, in which there are four cells), two of them are nearly
twi^te as large as the others, while the fifth has been just begun,
and is eggless. The form of the two which run up much higher
than the others is the same as that of the smaller and shorter
ones, i. e. they are on one side nearly semicircular, and on the
other, partly hexagonal, and the angular sides shoAV a tendenc_y
to be even more circular than when the others are built around
them, for the little architect seems to bring out the angles
more prominently when can-ying up the walls of the other cells.
Thus she builds, as if by design, one and the same cell both
by the "ciicular" and "hexagonal" methods, afterwards adopt-
VESPARi^:. 153
ing only the latter, and if she dcAotes her attentions specially
to plastering the corners alone, with the design of making the
cell six-sided, then we must allow, contrary to Mr. Water-
house's views, that the wasp builds the hexagon by choice, and
not as the mere result of her blindly "working in segments of
circles ;" for if our point be proved, and the most careful obser-
vation of the wasp while at work is needed to prove it, then it
may be shown that the wasp is a free agent, and can abandcju
one method of working at a certain stage of her work, and
adopt a different mode of operating.
The eggs are oval, pointed at the end, and glued to the in-
side of the cell. They are situated midwa}'^ from the top and
bottom of the incipient cell, and placed on the innermost sides,
so that in a group of several cells the eggs are close together,
only separated by the thin cellular walls. In a completed cell
the egg is placed very near the bottom.
For several days a Polistes Canadensis was engaged in build-
ing its nest in my tent in camp near Washington. When first
noticed on June 9th, there were three cells, two of which con-
tained eggs; and it was not for two da^s, the 11th, that the
third cell was completed, and a third egg deposited in it. The
wasp paid especial attention to strengthening the pedicel, going
over it repeatedly for an hour or two with its tongue, as if lay-
ing on more silken matter, and then proved the work l:>y its
swiftly vibrating antennne. It would often fly out of the tent,
and on its return anxiously examine each cell, thrusting its head
deep down into each one. It gradually became accustomed to
my presence, but eventually abandoned the nest, without adding
more cells. The others, while at work on the bushes, abscond-
ed at my approach, and seemed very wary and distrustful, as
if disirous of concealing their abodes. Mr. Smith has found
Trig niaJys hipusUdatus to be a parasite on Polistes lanio Fabr.
{P. Canadensis Linn.), from St. Salvador, S. A.
Saussnre arranges the higher Vespidre into two parallel series.
Vespa is offset by Chartergus and Nectarina ; lower down we
find Tatua and Synoeca, while Polistes is offset by Polybia.
These five genera are tropical, and in their habits, the general
appearance of their nests, and in the number of individuals
represent Vespa and Polistes of the temperate zone. The
154 HYMEXOPTERA.
genus Nectarina is a short plump wasp, somewhat like Odjne-
rus ia shape ; its distinguishing mark is the concealment of
the postscutellum by the scutelhnn. Nectarina melUjica Say,
of Mexico, builds a large nest externally like that of a wasp,
but it is more irregular, and the papery covering consists of
but one layer. The interior of the nest is very difterent, the
galleries of cells, instead of being parallel, being arranged in
concentric spheres.
Chartergus has the tip of the clypeus slighted excavated, and
an oval sessile abdomen. C. chartarias Olivier makes an ex-
ceedingly thick tough nest, attached by a broad base to the
bough of a tree, about twice as long as thick, and ending in a
cone, pierced in the centre by the entrance which passes
through the middle to the basal gallery ; the other galleries are
formed by a continuation of the sides of the nest, and arranged
in a conical plane.
In Tatua, the abdomen is pedicelled, but the petiole is not
enlarged, and the abdomen itself is very regularly conical. T.
morio Cuvier, from Cayenne, forms a nest like that of Charter-
gus ; but the galleries form a flat floor, and each gallery has an
entrance fro;n the outside of the nest, where in the latter there is
one comuDu entrance. Plate 5, Fig. 9, shows how the bases
of the cells are laid out on the edge of a galler}-. In SyiKieca
the peculiarly shaped alxlomen is cordate and compressed. The
curious nest of *S'. cyanea Fabr. is formed of a single layer of
cells fixed against the trunk of a tree, and covered in with a
dense covering made from the bark of dead trees. Some nests
of Synoeca are three feet long. In the very extensive genus
Poli/bia^ which resembles Polistes in its general shape, the abdo-
men is pedicelled, and the mandibles are four-toothed. The nests
are somewhat like those of Chartergus, but much smaller. Sev-
eral species occur in Mexico, and in Brazil the number of
si)ecies is very great. In Apoica the abdomen is very long,
and the third segment is as long as the second. Plate 5, Fig.
1 1, represents the nest of Ajioica pallida Olivier, from Cayenne.
It is unprotected, with a conical base, and with a single row
of cells.
In Icaria we have an approach to Polistes in the slender
series of cells composing the nest, forming two or three rows
' VESPARI.E. 155
only. Plate 5, Fig. 7, represents the nest of I. gxittatipennis
Saussure, from Senegal ; 8, ground plan of a similar nest. These
wasps are mostly distinguished from Polybia hy the petiole
ending in a globular mass. Plate 5, Fig. 10, represents
the elegant nest of Mischocyttaras labiatus Fabr., from Caj--
enne and Brazil, which consists of a few cells supported by a
long pedicel. The wasp itself much resembles Polistes, but
the petiole is very much longer.
The remaining genera noticed here are solitary, building
separate cells, and with onl}' males and females. There are
three subcostal cells in the fore wings, and the maxillai and
labium are much elongated.
In Eumenes the abdomen has a long pedicel, being sessile in
Odynerus. While authors place P^umenes higher than Od}'-
nerus, we would consider the latter as a higher, more ccpha-
lized form, since the abdomen is less elongated, and the head
is larger.
In Odynerus the ligula is long, deeply forked at the
slender extremity, while the slender paraglossai are shorter,
ending in a two-toothed claw-like tip ; the maxilhe are slender,
and the palpi have an elongated basal joint ; the clypeus is
nearly circular, toothed on the front edge. The larva differs
from those of the higher Vespa run , in its more elongated hend,
the square clypeus, the unusually deep fissure of the bilobate la-
brum, and in the larger tubercles of the body, as the larva is
more active, turning and twisting in its cell, while feeding on
its living food ; and in this respect it is more closely allied to
the 3'oung Crahronido' . In the pupa of 0. aJbopIiaJeratvs^
tiie tip is more incurved than in the |)upa of Vespa, so that the
hind legs (tarsi) reach to the tip, and the abdomen is rounded
ovate, while in Vespa it is oblong.
The cells (Plate 4, Figs. 13, 14) of Odynerus cdhnphcderatns
Sauss. have been detected like those of Osmia in a deserted gall
of Diplolepis confluens, where several were found in a row,
arranged around one side of the gall, side by side, with the holes
pointing towards the centre of the gall. The cells are half an
inch long, and one-half as wide, being formed of small pellets
of mud, giving a corrugated, granulated appearance to the
outside, while the inside is lined with silk.
156 HYMEXOPTERA.
We have received from Mr. Angus deserted cells of Cera-
tiua in a syringa stem, in which we detected a pupa of an
Odynerus, perhaps 0. leucomelas ; the cell was a little shorter
than that of the Ceratina it had occupied. The cocoon of
the Odynerus Avas of silk, and almost undistinguishable from
the old cocoon of Ceratina. The wasp had dispensed with the
necessity of making a mud cell. If future research shows that
cither this or any other species makes a mud cell or not at
will, it shows the intelligence of these little "free-agents;"
and that a blind adherence to fixed mechanical laws does not
obtain in these insects.
Tiie larvjB of Odynerus and Eumenes are carnivorous. 1
found several cells of 0. albophaleratus, June 22d, in tlie
deserted nest of a Clisiocampa^ which were stored with micro-
lepidopterous larvai and pupa?, still alive, having been ])ara-
lyzed by the sting of the wasp. The larvne of the wasp was
short and thick, being, when contracted, not more than twice
as long as broad ; the rings of the body are moderately convex,
and the pleural region is faintly marked. Prof. A. E. Verrill
has discovered the cells of an Odynerus at New Haven, forming
a sandy mass (Plate 5, Fig. 12) attached to the stem of a
plant.
In Eumenes the lingua is very long, being narrower and
more deeply divided than in Odynerus ; the second subcostal
space of the wings is long and narrow, while in Odynerus it is
triangular. The genus is easil}' recognized by the very long
pedicel of the abdomen. Eumenes fraterna Say constructs a
thin cell (Plate 5,* Fig. 15) of pellets of mud, and as large
* EXPLANATIOX OF PLATE 5. Fig- 1- Mouth of the tunnel of Aiigorlilorn pnrus ;
from Emerton. Fig. 2. Cells of O^mla pncificn ; coninnmic;ited by Mr, Sanborn.
Fig. 3. Vertical section of nest of Vespa with a grou)) of primitive cells surrounded
by one layer of paper, and part of another; from Saussure. Fig. 4. Nest of Po-
Ustes aunidnrin • from Saussure. Fig. 5. Three primitive cells of Polistes; na, top
view of the same, one being eggless. The sides adjoining are angular. Figs. (J and
6(7, a coll farther advanced, consisting of iour cells, each containing an c^g, and
with the edges of the colls built up higher and more decidedly six-sided; original.
Fig. 7. Cells of /cflj-ja gnttatipennis, showing that each cell is l)uiltup independently
in regular hexagons. Fig. S. Ground plan of a similar nest. Fig. 9. Ground plan
of cells of Tdtua morio ; from Smith. Fig. 10. Nest of Mischocyttnnt>< hihiatus :
from Saussure. Fig. 11. Nest of Apu'icn pallida; from Saussure. Fig. 12 Nest of
Odynerus birenimnculatus. Fig. 1.3. Nest of Odi/nerua alhophaleratns ; origiu&I,
Fig. 14. Mud cell of Pelopmus Jtuvipea ; original. Fig. Li. A row of spherical cell»
of E 11171671 es fraterna, with the female; from Harris.
Plate
ARCHITECTURE OF WASPS.
CRABRONID^. I57
as a cheny. It is attached by a short stout pedicel to bushes,
and the cavity is tilled with the larvtB of small moths.
Rophiglossa oclyneroides, from Epirus, described by S. S.
Saunders, makes elongated cells in galleries in briars, storino-
them with the larvtie of what he supposed to be weevils. The
dark brown dense tough cocoon of a Chrysis was also found in
the cells.
In J/«s«/vs, which connects the Vesjyar ice with the succeed-
ing family, the wings are not completely folded when at rest ;
there are but two subcostal cells ; the maxilhie are rudimen-
tary ; and the antennae are clavate and eight-jointed. 3Iasaris
vespokles Cresson, inhabits Colorado Territory.
Crabkonid^ Latreille. Sand-imsps^ Wood-ioasps. In the
more typical genera the head is remarkably large, cuboidal,
while the clyi)eus is veiy short, and covere<l for the most part
with a dense silveiy or golden pile. The antennae are genicu-
late, the long second joint being received, when at rest, in a
deep frontal vertical groove ; the mandibles are large, and of
even width throughout, and the mouth-parts are rather short,
csi)ecially the lingua, Avhich is often, however, well developed.
There is onl}^ one subcostal cell, except in the Philanthina\
The thorax is sub-spherical, and the abdomen is either short
and stout, or more or less pedicellate. The forefeet are
adapted for digging and tunnelling, the forelegs in the females
being broad and flat, and in the males, which are supposed to
do no work, they are sometimes, as in Thyreopus, armed with
vexhillate expansions.
The larva is rather short and thick, a little flattened on the
under side, but much rounded above ; the segments are convex
above, the thoracic segments differing from the abdominal seg-
ments in not being thickened posteriorly on each ring. They
spin either a very slight cocoon, or a thin dense brown oval
cylindrical case, generally reddish brown in color. The pupjB
have much the same character as the imago, with prominent
acute tubercles above the ocelli.
The memlters of this family afford, so far as we are ac-
quainted with their habits, most interesting examples of the
interdependence of structure and the habits of insects. ^ Most
158 HYMENOrTERA.
of the species are wood-wasps, making their cells in cy-
lindrical holes in rotten wood, or enlarging nail-holes in
posts, as is the case with Grabro singularis, according to the
observations of Mr. C. A. Shurtleff, thus adapting them to the
requirements of their young. Other genera (Rhopalum pedicel-
latum, Stigmus fraternus, and Crabro stirpicola) avail tliem-
seivcs of those plants whose stem has a pith which they can
readily excavate and retit for their habitations. The females
provision their nests with caterpillars, aphidoe, spiders, and
other insects.
This family is most difficult to classify ; it consists rather of
groups of genera, some higher and some lower, though as a
general rule those genera with pedunculate abdomens are the
lowest in the series. In illustration, we regard Stigmus, with
its elongated decephalized body, as inferior to Blepharipus,
which again is subordinate to the more cephalized Crabro,
where the body is shorter, the abdomen sessile, the anterior
part of the body more developed headwards, while its nests
are constructed more elaborately. The genus Psen, for the
same reason, is lower than Cerceris, of which it seems a de-
graded form.
Some of the most useful characters in separating the genei'a
of this family are to be found in the form of the cl3q3eus, its
sculi)turing and relative amount of pubescence or hirsuties ; in
the form and sculpturing of the propodeum (Newman), or tho-
racico-abdominal ring of Newport ; while the ti[) of the abdo-
men presents excellent generic and also specific characters,
dei)ending on its grooved or flattened shape.
The species of this family are mostly found in the north
temperate zone, being very abundant in North America and in
Europe. The Pemphredoniuje occur far north in abundance,
while Cerceris occnrs farthest towards the tropics.
The subfamily Philanthiure includes the three genera, Phi-
kmtliHS, Eacerceris, and Cerceris. In Philantlius (Fig. 84, wing),
the head is short, transversely suboval, the clypeus longer
than broad, with the first joint of the abdomen nearly as broad
when seen from above as the succeeding one. Our more com-
mon form southward is PlnJanthus rerfilahn's Say (Fig. 85).
In Europe P. upivorus provisions its nest with hone3'-bees.
CRABROXID^.
159
Cresson remarks that Eucerceris (Fig. 86, fore wing of male ;
0, female) ditiers from Cerceris in the venation, which differs
greatly in the two sexes. E. zonatus Say
occurs in tlie west.
The species of Cerceris (Fig. 87, wing)
have transversely oblong heads, the front of
the head is flattened and destitute of hairs,
and the rings of the abdomen are contracted,
the middle part being un-
usually convex and coarsely
punctured, while the basal
ring is nearly one-half nar-
rower than the succeeding
ones. Cerceris deserta Say is our most com-
mon form. In lilurope some species are Fig. 87.
known to store their nests with bees, and the larvie of Cur-
oilionidce and Buprestidce . Dufour unearthed in a sin-
gle field thirty nests of C. bupresticida which were filled with
ten species of Buprestis, comprising four hundred individuals,
and none of any other genus. Cerceris tuberculafa provisions
its nest with Leucosomus ophthalmicus ; and C. tricincta with
Clythra.
In the subfamily Crahronina\ there is a great disparity in
the sexes, the form of the females being the most persistent.
In the male the head is smaller, narrow behind, with shorter
mandibles, and a narrower clypeus ; the body is also much
slenderer, especially the abdomen, and the legs are simple in
Crabro, but in Thyreopus variousl}^ modified b}- expansions of
the joints, especially the tibia. The
species of Crctbro (Fig. 88) are readily
distinguished by the large cubical
head, and the sharp mucronate abdo-
minal tip of the female. The more
typical form of this \ery extensive
genus is Crabro sex-macHlatus Say,
so-called from the six yellow spots
on the subpedunculate abdomen. According to Dr. T. "W.
Harris (MS. notes), this wasp was seen by Rev. ]\Ir. Leonaid.
of Dublin, N. H., burrowing in decayed wood, June 10th.
160 HYMENOPTERA.
Crabro singnlaris Smith, was discovered by Mr. C. A. Sliurtleff
boring in a post.
In Thyreopus, the body is slender, and the forelegs are
cnriously dilated in the males, often forming a broad expansion,
and so dotted as to present a sieve-like appearance, while the
head is much shorter, being more transverse. T. latipes Smith
is known by the broad, long, acute, mucronate, shield-like ex-
pansion of the fore tibia, which is striped witli black at the
base.
The species of Rhopalum are usually blackish, without the
gay colors prevalent in the genera before mentioned ; the legs
are simple, and the abdomen is long and slender, with a long
peduncle. The body of the larva is short and thick, tapering
lapidly towards each extremity ; the segments are convex,
those of the thorax especiall}' being smooth, broad, and regu-
larly convex, while the abdominal rings are provided witli
prominent tubercles. The tip of the body is quite extensible,
and when protruded is subacute, terminating in a small knob-
like body, formed by the last ring. The larvsB of this genus
differ from those of the Vesparion SiudApiaricB known to us
by having a few hairs scattered over the bod}'.
In the pupa the antennae, iu their natural position, do not
quite reach to the second pair of trochanters, and reach only
to the tip of the maxillary palpi. Tlie tip of the abdomen is
very acute and elongated unusually far beyond the ovipositor.
On the head, between the ocelli and antennre, are two very
prominent, acute tubercles, and the abdominal segments are
dentate on the hind edge. Tims both the larva and pupa
would seem, by their anatomy, to be unusually active in their
loose, illy-constructed cells, which do not confine their food so
closely as in the other wasps, as the insects on which they prob-
ably feed have a greater range in their rather roomy cells. April
l-Sth we opened several stems grown in the open air, and
found both larva? and pupue ; the latter in ditierent stages of
development. The cells were placed in the closely packed
dust made by the larva of an ^geria, or directly bored in the
pith of the plants. There were six such cells, each with its
inhabitant, within a space an inch in length, some laying cross-
wise, others along the middle. The larvai spin but a very
, CRABRONID.E. 161
slight cocoon, not at all comparable with that of Crabro; the
walls of the cell being simply lined with silken threads. Under
other circumstances, i. e. where the cells are more exposed, it
is not unlikely that a more elaborate cocoon may be spun,
Mr. James Angus has bred numerous specimens of lihojxi-
liun pecUcellatum Pack., from stems of the Rose, Corcorus, Ja-
ponica, and Spinea, grovvn in hot-houses at West Farms, N. Y.
The larva is a quarter of an inch long.
The following genera belong to the subfamily Pemphre-
doiiince :
The genus Stigmas, as its name indicates, may at once be
known by the very large pterostigma, as well as the unusually
small size of the species. The body of the larva is moderately
long and slender, cylindrical, tapering slowl}' towards both ex-
tremities. The rings are short, very convex, subacutely so,
and the larva is of a beautiful roseate color. Stigmas frater-
)ias Say burrows in the stems of the Syringa, of which speci-
mens have been I'cceived from Mr. Angus with the lar\tie and
pupiB.
In Cemonas the front narrows rapidly towards the insertion
of the mandibles, and there is a short triangular enclosure on
the propodeum, while the abdomen is shorter and thicker than
in Pemphredon, a closely allied genus; the pedicel is also
longer. The larvte of Cemouns inornatas Harris live in irregu-
lar burrows in the elder, like those of Rhopalum from which
tlie}^ have been reared by Mr. Angus. They are known by the
broad flattened head and body, serrate side and tergum of the
body, and large, conspicuously bidentate mandibles, as well as
by the peculiarly flattened abdominal tip.
In Passalrjecus the labrum is very prominent, while the man-
dibles are very large, widening towards the tip, and in the com-
mon P. mandibularis Cresson they are white, and thus very
conspicuous. This species burrows in company with the other
wood-wasps mentioned above in the stems of the elder and
syringa. The cells are lined with silk. The wasps appear
early in June. Their nests are tenanted by Chalcids. The
female stores her cells with Aphides, as we have found them
abundantly in stems of plants received from Mr. Angus.
The genus Psen seems to be a degraded Cerceris, but the
11
1G2 HYMENOPTERA.
abflomen is pedicelled, and differs from Mimesa, a still more
slender-bodied genns, in having the tip of the abdomen more or
less grooved, v»'hile in ]\Iimesa it is flat and not grooved at all.
Psen leucopiis Say has A dense silvery pile on the front of
the head, with black antennas, and the pedicel is rather short.
NYSsoNiDiE Leach. In this famil}' the head is transversely
longer and less cnbical than in the preceding gronp ; the ver-
tex is higher and more convex, while the front is narrow, the
clypens long and narrow, the eyes long and narrow, and the
antennpe are more clavate than in the Crahroiiid«'^. ^nd
the pro[)odeum is sometimes armed with acute spines, while
the enclosed space is smoothly polished or striated. The wings
are long and narrow, and the abdomen is sessile in the typical
genera, where it is obeonic, but clavate when pedicellate.
In Trupoxylon the body is long, with a .pedicellate clavate
abdomen. In Europe "Mr. Johnson has detected it frequent-
ing the holes of a post pre-occupied by a species of Odyuerus,
and into which it conve^-ed a small round ball, or pellet, con-
taining about lifty individuals of a species of Aphis ; this the
Odynerus, upon her return, invariably turned out, flying out
with it, held by her legs, to the distance of about a foot from
the aperture of her cell, where she hovered a moment, and then
let it fall ; and this was constantly the case till the Trypoxylon
had sulTlcient time to mortar up the orifice of the hole, and the
Odynerus was then entirely excluded ; for although she would
return to the spot repeatedly, she never endeavored to force
the entrance, but flew off to seek another hole elsewhere."
T. politmn Say has purplish wings, and no enclosure on the
propodeum.
T. frirjidum Smith lives in the stems of Syringa, from which
it has been reared by Mr. Angus. The thin, delicate cocoon is
long and slender, enlarging slightly towards the anterior end.
Tiie genus MeUinus (belonging to the third subfamily, Mel-
liniua^^) is known by its broad front, and slender antenn:xi,
and its pedunculate abdomen, while in Ali/son, a slender-
bodied genus, it is sessile. MelUrnis hhuacidatus Say has a
black head, with pale tipped antennse, and two ovate yellow
spots on the abdomen. Alyson oppositus is black, with two
NYSSONII),^. 163
jellow spots on the abdomen, which has the basal ring yel-
lowish reel in the female.
The fourth subfamily is the Nyssoniyice^ so named from Nys-
son, a typical genus.
The genus Gorytes is truly a mimetic form, closely simulat-
ing the genus Odynerus, one of the Vesparioe. The front of
the head is narrow, while the clypeus is larger than usual. The
species are numerous, occurring late in the summer on the
flowers of Spinta. Gorytes Jluvieornls Harris is polished russet
brown, with narrow yellow rings on the abdomen, the propo-
deum is smooth and polished, and the basal ring of the abdomen
is black. A species has been observed in Elurope protruding
her sting into the frothy secretion of Tettigonite living on
grass, and carrying off the insect to provision its nest with.
Oxybelus is a short, stout, black genus, with Avhitish abdomi-
nal spots, and stout spines on the thorax, while the sessile
abdomen is distinctly conical. "Its prey consists of Diptera,
which it has a peculiar mode of carrying by the hind legs the
while it either opens the aperture of its burrow or else forms a
new one witli its anterior pair. Its flight is low, and in skips ;
it is very active." (Westwood.)
Oxybelus emarginatus Say has two oval membranous appen-
dages to the metathorax, and is a common black species found
abundantly on the flowers of the Virginia Creeper.
In Nysson the body is a little longer, narrow compared with
^.hat of Oxybelus, while the terminal joint of the antennae is
thickened, flattened, and excavated beneath. Nysson lateralis
Say is dull black, with six light spots on the abdomen.
The species of Stizus are of large size and easily recognized
by their hirsute bod}', stout legs, triangular silvery clypeus,
and the high transverse vertex of the head. The propodeum
has a faintly marked triangular enclosure. The species are
very rapacious, paral3'zing grasshoppers and other large insects
with their formidal)le sting, and carrying them off to provision
their nests. Professor S. Tenney has sent us a specimen of
the Dog-day Cicada (C. canicularis) which Stizus sjieciosus had
thus stung. Mr. Atkinson has observed the same fact, and has
found the deep burrows of this species, the hole l)eing three-
fourths of an inch in diameter. He has observed it feeding on
sap running from a tree.
1G4 HYMENOPTEEA.
Tlie species of Larva are smaller, and differ from those of
Stizus in the long, narrow, very prominent labrum, the shoi'ter
clypeus, broader front and longer abdomen, the tip of which is
without the broad snbtriangular area which is present in Stizus
and the other genera of this family. Larni uuicincta Say is black-
ish, with a single reddish band on the second abdominal ring.
Bembecid^ Latreille. We have but two genera, Bemhcx
and Monednla, which have large heads and flattened bodies,
l)earing a strong resemblance to S^rplms flics from their similar
coloration. The labrum is very large and long, triangular, like
a beak. The species are very active, flying rapidly al)out
flowers with a loud hum. "The female Bembex buri'ows in
sand to a considerable depth, l)urying various species of Di[)-
tera (Syrphidie, Muscid:e, etc.), and depositing her eggs at the
same time in company with them, upon which the larvjie, Avhen
hatched, subsist. When a suflicient store has been collected,
the parent closes the mouth of the cell with earth." " An
anonymous correspondent in the Phitomological Magazine, states
that B. rostrata constructs its nests in the soft light sea-sands
in the Ionian Islands, and appears to catch its prey (consisting
of such flies as frequent the sand ; amongst others, a bottle-
green fly) "whilst on the wing. He describes the mode in
which the female, with astonishing swiftness, scratches its hole
with its forelegs like a dog. Bembex tarsata, according to
Latreille, provisions its nests with Bombylii." (Westwood.)
Dufour states that two Diptera, Panopea carnea and Toxophora
fasciata, the latter allied to Systrophus, are parasites on Bem-
bex. Mr. F. G. Sanborn has noticed the exceedingly swift
flight of our common Bembex fasciata Fabr. on sandy beaches
where it is found most abundantly.
Monedula differs from Bembex in its slenderer body, more
elavate antennje, and its shorter, very obtuse labrum. The
body is smoother, and most generally more highly colored and
more gaily spotted tlian in Bembex.
Monedula Carolina Fabr. and 31. -i-fasciata Say are common
southwards of New England.
Larrid>e Leach. Mr. F. Smith defines this fomily as having
'•mandibles notched exteriorly near the base ; the labrum con-
LARRID.E.
16.J
C3aled, with a single spine at the apex of the intermediate
tibiae ; the abdomen is ovoid-conieal."
The genus Astata is a large hair}' form, with long antennjt
and palpi and an elongated prothorax. Its spiny legs show its
neiir rehitionship to the Sphegidce. Astata unicolor Say repre-
sents the genus in this country.
Tachytes is also of larger size than the following genus.
It is covered with long dense golden short hairs, with a trap-
ezoidal front. Tachytes aunilentus Fabr. is rare ; it frequents
the flowers of the Asclepias, as we have found pollen masses at-
tac'.ied to the spines of its legs. We figure
(89) a tarsus of a wasp belonging probably to
this genus, received from Mr. V. T. Chambers,
showing the pollen masses of Asclepias at-
tached to the spines.
The genus Xarrar^a "contains those species
which have the marginal cell truncated at the
apex and appendiculated, and three submarginal
cells, the first as long as the two following ;
.• . . . the metathorax [])ropodeum] truncated
posteriorly, elongate, the sides being generally
parallel ; the mandibles are large and arcuate,
with a tooth on their exterior towards the base ; abdomen
ovate-conical, acuminate at the apex." Larrada, argentata
Beauv. is covered with silvery pile. It is a slender form, with
short, nearly unarmed legs.
A Brazilian species of Larrada^ according to Mr. H. W.
Bates, builds a nest composed apparently of the scrapings of
the woolly texture of plants ; it is attached to a leaf, having a
close resemblance to a piece of German tinder, or a piece of
sponge. The cocoons were dark brown, and of a brittle consist-
ency. The reporter, Mr. F, Smith, adds : "I am not aware of
any similar habit of building an external nest having been pre-
viously recorded ; our British species of the closely allied
genus Tachytes, are burrowers in the ground, particularly in
sandy situations; their anterior tarsi are strongly ciliated, the
claws bifid and admirably adapted for burrowing. On examin-
ing the insect which constructed the nest now exhibited, I find
the legs differently armed ; the anterior pair are not ciliated,
166 HYMENOPTERA.
and the claws are simple and slender, clearly indicative of a
peculiar habit differing from its congeners, and how admirably
is this illustrated in the nest before us?"
Sphegid^ Latreille. Smith defines this family as having
"the posterior margin of the prothorax not prolonged back-
wards to the insertion of the wings, and anteriorly produced
into a neck, with the abdomen petiolated." The very fossorial
legs are long and spiny, the posterior pair being of unusual
length. The mandibles are large, curved, narrow, and acute,
the base not being toothed externally, and the antenna are
long and filiform. The species are often gaily colored, being
ornamented with black and red, brown and red, or are entirely
black, or blue. They love the sunshine, are very active, rest-
less in their movements, and have a powerful sting.
The sting of these and other wasps which store up insects for
their young, penetrates the nervous centres and paralj'zes the
victim without depriving it of life, so that it lives many days.
A store of living food is thus laid up for the young wasp.
After being stung the caterpillars will transform into chrys-
alids, though too Aveak to change to moths. Mr. Gueinzius,
who resides in South Africa, observes that "large spiders
and caterpillars became immediately motionless on being stung,
and I cannot helj) thinking that the poisonous acid of Ilymen-
optera has an antiseptic and preserving property ; for cater-
pillars and locusts retain their colors weeks after being stung,
ar,d this, too, in a moist situation under a burning sun."
These insects either make their nests in the sand, or, like the
succeeding family, are "mud-daubers," building their cells of
mud and plastering them on walls, etc.
The tropical genus Ampidex is more closely allied to the
preceding family than the other genera. The species are
brassy green. Dr. G. A. Perkins has described in the Ameri-
can Naturalist, vol. 1, p. 293, the habits of a wasp, probably
the Ampidex Sihirica Fabr., which inhabits Sierra Leone, and
oviposits in the body of the cockroach. The dead bodies of
the cockroaches are often found with the empty cocoon of tlie
wasp occupying the cavit}^ of the abdomen.
A species of this genus, abundant at Zanzibar at certain sea-
SPHEGID.E.
167
sons, was frequently observed by Mr. C. Cooke to attack the
cockroach. The cockroach, as if cowed at its presence, im-
mediately yields without a struggle. The Ampulex stings
and paralyses its victim, and then flies away with it.
Chlorion is closely allied, containing blue and metallic green
species, often with golden yellow wings. Chlorion cyaneum
Dahlb., a blue species, is found in the Southern States.
The genus Priononyx "differs from the genus Sphex in hav-
ing the claAvs quadridentate beneath at their base ; the neura-
tion of the wings and the form of the abdomen are the same as
in Haiyactopus" which is found only in the tropics and Aus-
tralia. Priononyx Thom(je is found from South Carolina to
Brazil, including the West Indies.
The genus Sj^hex is quite an extensive one. The head is as
wide as the thorax ; the antennse are filiform, mandibles large
and acute, bidentate within, the teeth notched at their base,
forming a rudimentary tooth, the apical tooth being acute.
The thorax is elongate-ovate, truncated behind, with a trans-
verse collar (prothorax). The fore wings have one marginal
and three submarginal cells ; the marginal cell elongate, rounded
at its apex ; the
first submarginal
cell as long as the
two following. The
abdomen is pedun-
culated, conically
ovate, and the an-
terior tarsi are cili-
ated in the females.
Sphex ichneumo-
nea Linn. (Figure
90) is a large rust-
red species, with a
dense golden pu- rig. 90.
bescence. It is common from Massachusetts southwards. In
the last week of July, and during August and early in Sep-
tember, we noticed nearly a dozen of these wasps busily en-
gaged in digging their holes in a gravelly walk. In previous
seasons the}' were more numerous, burrowing into grassy
1G8 IIYMEXOPTERA.
banks near the walk. The holes Avere fonr to six inches deep.
In beginning its hole the wasp dragged away with its teeth a
stone one half as large as itself to a distance of eight inches
from the hole, wiiile it pushed away others with its head. In
beginning its burrow it used its large and powerful jaws almost
entirely, digging to the depth of an inch in five minutes, com-
pleting its hole in about half an hour. After having inserted
its head into the hole, where it loosened the earth with its
jaws and threw it out of the hole with its jaws and fore
legs, it would retreat backwards and push the dirt still
farther back from the mouth of the cell with its hind legs. In
cases where the farther progress of the work was stopped by a
stone too large for the wasp to remove or dig around, it would
abandon it and begin a new hole. Just as soon as it reached
the required depth the wasp flew a few feet to the adjoining
bank and falling upon an Orchelimum vulgare or O. gi'acile,
stung and paralyzed it instantly, bore it to its nest, and was out
of sight for a moment, and while in the bottom of its hole
must have deposited its egg in its victim. Eeappearing it be-
gan to draw the sand back into the hole, scratching it in quite
briskly by means of its spin}^ fore tarsi, while standing on its
two hind pairs of legs. It thus threw in half an inch of dirt
upon the grasshopper and then flew off". In this way one Sphex
Avill make two or three such holes in an afternoon. The walk
was hard and composed of a coarse sea-gravel, and the rapidity
with which the Avasp worked her wa}' in with tooth and nail was
marvellous.
Sphex tibialis St. Fargeau is a black, stout, thick insect.
Mr. J. Angus has reared this species, sending me the larva? in
a cavity previously tunnelled by Xylocopa Virginica in a
pine board. The hole was six inches long, and the oval cylin-
drical cocoons were packed loosely, either side by side, where
there was room, or one a little in advance of the other. The
interstices between them were filled with bits of rope, which
had perhaps been bitten iip into pieces by the wasp itself; while
the end of the cell was filled for a distance of two inches with a
coarse sedge arranged in layers, as if rammed in like gun-wad-
ding. The cocoons are eighty to ninety hundredths of an inch
long, oval lanceolate, somewhat like those of Pompilus. They
SPIIEGID.E. 1G9
consist of two layers, the outer very thin, the inner tough,
parchment-like. The larvic hybernate and turn to pupjie in
the spring, appearing in the summer and also in the autumn.
The larva is cylindrical, with tlie pleural ridge prominent,
and with no traces of feet ; the head, which is small and not
prominent, and rather narrow compared with that of Pelopsieus,
is bent inwards on the breast so that the mouth reaches to the
sternum of the fourth abdominal ring. The posterior half of
each ring is much thickened, giving a crenulated outline to the
tergum. The abdominal tip is obtuse.
Sphex Lanierii Guerin, according to Smith (Proceedings
of the Entomological Society of London, Feb. 7, 1859), con-
structs its nest of a cottony substance, filling a tunnel formed
by a large curved leaf. The species of the genus are sup-
posed to burrow in the ground, and the two cases above
cited show an interesting divergence from this habit. Mi'.
Smith adds, that in "the Sphex which constructs the nest in
the rolled leaf, the anterior tarsi are found to be veiy slightly
ciliated, and the tibiie almost destitute of spines, thus afl'ording
another instance proving that difference of structure is indica-
tive of difference of habit."
The genus Pelopanis is of a slighter form than in Sphex, the
body being longer and slenderer ; the cl^peus is as broad as
long, triangular above, in front convex, or produced and end-
ing in two teeth. The outer costal cell is lanceolate oval, the
second subcostal cell subtrapezoidal, being widest above ; it is
also somewhat longer than broad. The first median cell is very
long and narrow, much more so than usual. The pedicel of
the abdomen is long, the first joint in the male being often as
long as the remainder of the abdomen.
The larva of P. ccendeus Linn, is much like that of Sphex,
having a cylindrical body with the rings thickened posteriorly.
It differs from that of Pomiiilus in its longer and narrower head,
the short broadly trnpezoidal clypeus, and the distinctly marked
exserted labrum. The mandibles are long and tridentate.
The pupa (of P. flavipes) differs from that of the Vesparice
in having the head more raised from the breast ; the palpi are
not partially' concealed, as the}'^ may be easily seen for their
whole length. The long curved mandibles cover the base of the
170 HYMEXOPTEIIA.
maxilliE and lingua, and the antennje reach to the posterior coxae.
The maxilhTe are slender, not reaching to the tip of the labium.
The female usually provisions her cells (Plate 5, Fig. 14) with
spiders. The cells are constructed of layers of mud of unequal
length, and formed of little pellets placed in two rows, and di-
verging from the middle. They are a little over an inch long,
and from a half to three-quarters of an inch wide, and are some-
what three-sided, the inner side next the object, either stone-
walls or rafters, to which it is attached, being flat. As the
earthen cells sufficiently protect the delicate larvae within, the
cocoons are very thin, and brown in color.
The cells of Pelopanis flavipes from BroAvnville, Texas, col-
lected by an United States officer and presented to the Boston
Society of Natural History, contained both spiders and numer-
ous pup;e of a fly, Sarcophaga midipiennis Loew (MS) which is
somewhat allied to Tachina. These last hatched out in mid-
summer a few days before the specimens of Pelopaeus. It is
most probable that they were parasitic on the latter. These
specimens of P. flavipes were more highly ornamented with yel-
low than in those found northwards in the Atlantic States,
the metathorax being crossed b}' a broad yellow band.
The genus Ammophila is a long slender form, with a petio-
late abdomen, the tip of Mhich is often red. The petiole of the
abdomen is two-jointed, and very long and slender, being
longer than the fusiform part. In the males the petiole is in
some species much shorter. The wings are small, with the apex
more obtuse than usual ; the second subcostal cell is pentag-
onal, and the third is broadly triangular,
Westwood states that "the species inhabit sandy districts,
in which A. sahulosa forms its burrow, using its jaws in bur-
rowing ; and when they are loaded, it ascends backwards to
the mouth, turns quickly around, flies to about a foot's distance,
gives a sudden turn, throwing the sand in a complete shower
to about six inches' distance, and again alights at the mouth
of its burrow."
"Latreille states that this species provisions its cells with
caterpillars, but Mr. Shuckard states that he has observed the
female dragging a YQvy large inflated spider up the nearly per-
pendicular side of a sand-bank, at least twenty feet high, and
POMriLlD^.
171
that whilst burrowing it makes a lond whirring buzz ; and, in
the Transactions of the Entomological Society of London, lie
states that he has detected both A. sabulosa and A. hirsnta
dragging along large spiders. Mr. Curtis observed it bury
the caterpillars of a Noctua and Geometra. St. P^argeau, how-
ever, states that A. sabulosa collects caterpillars of large size,
especially those of Noctnse, with h, surprising perseverance,
whereas A. arenaria, forming a distinct section in the genus,
collects spiders." (Westwood.)
Ammophila cementaria Smith, and A. urnaria King, are the
more common species in this country ; they are red and white,
while A. luctuosa Smith is a black, shorter, stouter, more hirsute
species. They may all be seen flying about hot sandy places,
and aligliting near wells and standing water to drink.
PoMPiLiD.E Leach. In this famil}' the body is oblong, the
sides often compressed, and the head shorter, when seen from
above, being more trans-
versely ovate than in
the preceding family.
The antennoe are long,
not geniculate, and in
the males are stouter
and with shorter joints
than in the females.
The eyes are narrow
oval, and the maxillary
palpi are six, and the
hibial palpi four-jointed.
The prothorax is ex-
tended on the sides back
to the base of the wings, ^'s- ^^•
wiiich latter are large and broad, the fore pair having three
subcostal cells. The legs are very long and slender, with thick
slender spines. The Pompilidoi, of which about seven hun-
dred species are known, have a wide geographical range, from
the temperate zone to the tropics. Like the Sphegidcje, they
oviposit in the body of other insects, storing their nests, usually
built in the sand, with spiders and caterpillars.
The head of Pompllus (Fig. 91) is a little longer, seen from
172
HYMENOPTERA.
above, than in the other genera ; the front of the head is about
a third longer than broad. The antennjie are long and fili-
form and sometimes crenulate, as in Figure 91a, in the
males ; the mandibles are stout, broad, sabre-shaped,
being much curved, with low llattened teeth, and the
maxillary palpi are longer than the labial palpi. The
wings are rather broad, with the three subcostal cells
Ij'ing in a straight row. The abdomen is slightly com-
pressed, and equals in length the remainder of the
body. The sting is very large and formidable, and ex-
cessively painful, benumbing the parts it enters. They
are exceedingly active, running and flying over sandy
places like winged spiders.
There are about five hundred species of this genus described.-
They are usually shining black or deep bluish black, with
Fig. ill rt.
Fig. 92.
smoky or reddish wings, and sometimes a reddish abdominal
band. This genus is interesting, as affording in its form a
mean between the globular thorax and short body of the
ApiarifB and the elongated body of the Ichneumonidce.
The Pompilus formosus Say (Fig. 92), called in Texas the
Tarantula-killer, attacks that innnense spider the Myr/ale Hciitzii,
and, according to Dr. G. Lincecum (American Naturalist, May,
rO-MPILID.E.
173
18G7), paralyzes it with its formidable sting, and inserting an
egg in its body, places it in its nest, dug to the depth ol" five
inches. There is but a single brood,
produced in June, which is killed off by
the frosts of November. This species
feeds in summer ''upon the honey and
pollen of the flowers of the Polder, and
of Vitis ampelopsis^ the Virginia Creeper ;
but its favorite nourishment is taken from
the blossoms of Asdepias quadrifolmm."
(Lincecum.) P. cylindricus Cresson (Fig. 93, wing) is one of
our smallest species, being
IVom three to five lines
long. It occurs in the
South and West. P. arctus
Cresson (Fig. 94, wang) in-
habits Colorado Territory.
J\ Clarice Cresson (Fig. 95,
? enlarged) is a beautiful
and rare species found in
Pennsylvania. The genus
Priocneviis is characterized
J)y the two hind pair of
tibiiE being serrated ( 5 ,
Fig. 96, o, wing; b, pos-
terior leg ; c, anterior leg), and by the want of spines on the an-
terior legs. P. unifasciatus Say is a wide-spread species and
readily recognized by the deep black
color of the body, the 3'ellow an-
tennae and the large yellow spot at
the tip of each anterior wing.
The genus Agenia (Fig. 97, o,
wing ; b, posterior leg) differs in
having smooth legs. A. brevis Cres-
Fig. 96. son (Fig. 98, wing) is a little spe-
cies found in Georgia. A. comjruus Cresson (Fig. 99, wing)
was captured in West Virginia ; and A. acceptus Cresson (Fig.
100, wing) in Georgia. The genus Notocyplms (Fig. 101,
?, wing) is found in Brazil and Msxico. Planiceps (Fig. 102,
Tig. 95.
174
HYMEXOPTERA.
Wing) contains a few species, of which P. niger Cresson, an
entirely black species, is found in Connecticut. Aporus (Fig.
103, wing) contains a single American
species, A. fasciatus Smith, taken in
North Carolina.
From Mr. F. G. Sanborn we have re-
ceived the larva and cocoon of Pompilus
Fig. 97. fanereus St. Farg., a small black spe-
cies, which builds its nest in fields. The larva is short and
broad, with the lateral region rather prominent, and the tip of
the abdomen rather acute. It differs
from Pelopoeus in its stouter, rather flat-
tened body, and thickened segments,
though as our specimen is preserved in
alcohol these characters may have be-
come exaggerated. It more nearly re-
sembles PelopjBus in its transverse
clypeus, thin bilobate labrum, and the
stout mandibles, which are, however,
much stouter than in Pelopffius, while
the whole head is shorter, broader, and
rounder. It is probable that this pecu-
liar form of the head (which as in Sphex
is bent beneath the breast), together n-. i03.
with the broad transverse clypeus, and broad, short, bilobate,
thin, transparent labrum, and especially the unidentate short
broad mandibles are family characters, sep-
arating the larvae of this group from those of
the Sphegidoz . The cocoon is ovate, long,
and slender, much smaller at one end than
the other, not being so regularly fusiform
as in Sphex.
Ceropales differs from the foregoing gen-
rig. 100. Qj.^ ji^ itg broad head, its much shorter ab-
domen ; and also in the eyes being a little excavated, in the
depressed labium, the narrow front, Avhich dilates above and
below the middle, and in the greatly elongated hind legs, gen-
erally banded with red or whitish. Ceropales bi'pnnctata Say
is generally distributed throughout the United States. It
SCOLIAD.F..
175
is easily recognized b}' tlie black body and legs, and red pos-
terior femora, and is six lines long. C. Rohinsonii Cresson
(Fig. 104, J ) is an elegant
epecies found in West
Virginia. An allied genus
is Mycjniynia (Fig. 105,
wing) containing M. 3[ex-
icana Cresson and M. ns-
tidataDahlh., two Mexican
species.
In the genus Pepsis
(Fig. lOG, wing) the max-
illary and labial palpi are
of equal length. The spe-
cies are large, some of
them being among the lar-
gest of riymenoptera, and
are generully indigo-blue in color. Pepsis Jieros Dahlbom is
found in Cuba; it is two inches long. P. cyanea Linn.,
wliicli is blackish-blue, witli
blue abdomen and wings,
the latter reddish at the
apex, has been described by
Beauvois from the United
States, while P. elegcms St.
Fai'g. also occurs in the
Southern States.
P. formosa Say affords
another example of a species
Fig. lOG. common to both sides of the
Rocky Mountains, as it has been found both in Texas and Cal-
ifornia. It is black, with bluish or greenish reflections, with
bright fiery red wings, and is thirteen to eighteen lines long.
ScoLiAD^ Leach. This family forms a group very easily
distinguished from the Bemhecidce or Chrysidiclce , as well
as the Pomp iUd(je, by the broad front, the small indented eyes,
and the great sexual differences in the antennae, those of the
male being long and slowly thickened towards the tip, while in
176 H Y M E XOPTE R A .
the female they are short, thick, and elbowed on the second
joint. The clypeus is large, irregularl}^ quadrilateral, becom-
ing shorter in the lower genera, and the labrum is small,
scarcely exserted, while the mandibles are, in the female es-
pecially, large and broad. The prothorax is ver}^ square in
front. In the fore-wings are three subcostal spaces. The
abdomen in the typical genus (Seolia) is broad and flat, longer
than the rest of the body. The abdomen of Mutilla approaches
that of the Chrysididce in having the second ring much en-
larged over the others. The males usually have the anal
stylets very prominent, while the sting of the female is very
powerful. The body and legs are generally very hirsute, and
the first tarsal joint is as long as the tibiiie.
The genus Sapyga is easily recognized by its smooth slender
body, being ornamented with yellow, with transverse bands on
the abdomen. The head is long, very convex in front, and
the antenniB are clavate ; the prothorax is very broad, giving
an oblong appearance to the thorax. The legs are slender and
smooth. It is said to be parasitic, laying its eggs in the cells
of Osmia. Sapyga Martinii of Smith is found northward.
The species of Seolia are often of great size, being black
and very hirsute, with the labium composed of three linear di-
visions ; the abdomen alone being banded or spotted with
yellow on the sides. They are found in the hottest places
al)out strongly scented flowers. In Europe, Seolia hieineta
''makes its burrows in sand-banks, to the depth of sixteen
inches, with a very wide mouth ; " and it is probable that the
nest is stored with grasshoppers.
Seolia quaclrirnaeulata Fabr. is found in the Middle and
Southern States, The larva of Seolia flavifrons was found by
I'asserini to live in the body of the lamellicorn beetle, Oryctes
nasicornis. In Madagascar, Seolia oryetopliaga lives on
Oryctes simia, according to Coquerel.
Professor Sumichrast states that at Tehuacan (Department
of Puebla) the Seolia Azteca Sauss. is ver^^ common ; and is
particularly abundant in the leather tanneries, which leads him
t) think that the females of this species also deposit their eggs
under the epidermis of the larva which abounds in the tan.
Tlpliia is black throughout and rather hirsute. The antenn.ie
MUTILLAIIIJi:. 177
are shorter than in Scolia or Myzine ; the olypeus is also shorter,
while the prothorax is longer. In the fore-wings the ouier cos-
tal cell is short, broad, angnlated, OA'al ; and of the two sub-
costal cells, the outer one is broad and triangular, twice as long
as broad, while the first median cell is regularly short rhom-
boidal, much more so than in the other genera.
The females, according to Westwood, "make perpendicular
burrows in sandy situations, for the reception of their eggs ;
but the precise food stored up for the larvae has not been ob-
served." Tiphia inornata Say is a common species with us,
and flies low over sandy places early in the season.
The short oval head, the large ej'es, short meso-scutum,
large meso-scutellum, and the flattened, rather smooth body,
characterize the geiuis Myzine. The females are very different
from the males, the two sexes being for a long time considered
as separate genera. The female, especiall}^, ditfers in the great
length of the square prothorax, which is very broad and convex
in front. In the male the eyes are lunate, while in the female
they are small, entire, and remote. In its general form the fe-
males much resemble Scolia, while the males are long and nar-
row, with broad yellow bands, especially on the abdomen, and a
large exserted fjting-like organ. Myzine sexcincta Fabr. is seen
from New England southwards, flying low over hot sandy places.
The genus EHs is closely allied. Sumichrast (American Nat-
uralist, vol. 2), surmises that EJis costalis St. Farg. lives on
certain Scaral)a.'ides, which undergo their metamorphosis in the
formicary of Qicodoma in Mexico.
MuTiLLARi^ Latreille. This interesting family is character-
ized by the females alone being wingless, though Morawitz says
that wingless males occur in two species ; and by the absence,
generally, of the three ocelli. In Mutilla and Myrmosa the
thorax is still high, compressed, and oblong cuboidal, and ex-
cept in the closely united tergal pieces the females do not greatly
recede from the t^'pe of the Avinged males. The species are
very equal in size, are black, or black and red, and either
smooth or hirsute.
The antenujie are inserted low down on the front, the clypeus
being very short and broadl}^ ovate (especially in M^-rmosa),
12
178 HYMENOPTERA.
or it is indented, as in Mutilla, Tlie tongue is shorter than usual.
The sides of tiie thorax contract in width, both before and be-
hind. The ineso-scutura is sqnarer tlian usual, while the nieso-
scutellum is much narrower and longer, and the propodeum is
squarely truncated behind, thus presenting a full convex surface.
The abdomen is not much longer than the rest of the body, be-
ing shorter than usual. In all these characters this family shows
its afTuiities to the Ants. The wings are very dissimilar in the
difi'erent genera. In Myrmosa the neuration closely approaches
that of Sapyga, while in the larger, more acute primaries of
Mutilla, and especially in the short outer costal cell, and short
open pterostigma, the latter genus differs from the others.
The male of Scleroderma closely mimics the Procto-
trypidai, the vehis of the wings being absent, Avhile the
form of the head and abdomen also reminds us of some genera
in that family. The wingless female is very diiierent, having
more of the form of Mutilla, with a large oblong head and long
acutely conical abdomen. The species are minute and rarely
met with. S. contn'acta Westwood is found in "•Carolina."
In the female Mcthoca the e^-es are ver}' long, and the seg-
ments of the abdomen are Avidely separated, nuich as in the
ants. 3Iethoca Canademns Smith is shin-
ing black, and slightly villose.
The species of Mi/nnosa may be known
by the very short clypeus, the broad ver-
tex, and the rings of the abdomen of the
male being uiuisually contracted. The
ri?. 107. abdomen of the female is cylindrical,
about twice as long as broad, and thickest on the second ring.
The rings are densely hirsute on the hinder
edge. Myrmosa unicolor Say (Figs. 107,
male ; 108, female) is widely distributed. We i
have taken this species in Maine, while sex- |
ually united, early in June. The wingless
female is like an ant, and is pale reddish on
the thorax and basal ring of the abdomen,
and the antennae and feet are concolorous, while the head and
remaining abdominal rings are much darker. It is .20 inch
long. The male is .28 inch long and entirely black.
FOiaiiCAiii^. 179
The genus 3IutiUa is a very extensive one, and enjoys a wide
geographical range. It is throughout stouter than Myrmosa,
the head is more cubical, and the thorax and abdomen is
shorter, the tip of the latter being somewhat truncated.
Th« wingless female closelj^ resembles, both in its form and
motions, a worker ant. The body is coarsely granulated and
either naked or densely hirsute, and of a scarlet, black, or pale
red, or brown-black color. The females are found running in
hot sandy places, and hide themselves quickly when disturbed,
while the males frequent flowers. MutiUa
occidentalis is a large species. It is of a
beautiful scarlet color and is armed with a
very powerful sting. According to Profes-
sor A. E. Verrill this species was found by
him, at ]Vew Haven, to construct deep
holes in a hard beaten path, storing its nest
with insects. This species is also said by Fi-. 109.
Kirby to be very active, "taking flies by surprise." (West-
wood.) Mr. Verrill noticed that this insect makes a slight
creaking noise. The larvae of M. Europiaa are said to live
parasitically in Humble-bees' nests. 3IutUla ferrugata Fabr.
(Fig. 109) is found frequently in New England.
FoRMiCARi^ Latreille. The family of ants would seem
naturally to belong with the trul}' fossorial Ilymenoptera, both
from their habits and structure.
Both males and females are winged, but the males are much
smaller than the females, Avhile the wingless Avorkers are smaller
than the males. In these wingless forms the segments of the
thorax become more or less separated, making the body much
longer and slenderer, and less compact than in the winged nor-
mal sexual forms, the prothorax being more developed than in
the males and females. The workers often consist of two
forms : one with a large cubical head, or worker major, some-
times called a soldier, and the usual small-headed form, or
worker minor.
The head is generally triangular. The e^-es are large in the
males, smaller in the workers, and in those of some genera
(Ponera, Typhlopone, etc.) they are absent ; while in the
180 HYMENOPTERA.
workers the ocelli are often wanting, though present in the
winged individuals of both sexes. The antennaj are long,
slender and elbowed. The mandibles are stout, and toothed,
though in those species that do not themselves labor, but en-
slave the workers of other species, they are uuarmed and
slender. The maxillary palpi are from one to six-jointed, and
the labial palpi two to four-jointed. The fore-wings usually
have but a single complete subcostal (cubital) cell. The sling
is often present, showing that in this respect as well as their
fossorial habits the ants are triilj^ aculeate Ilymenoptera. The
larva is short, cylindrical, Avith the end of the body obtuse.
Tlie rings of the body are moderately convex. The head is
rather small and bent upon the breast. The larvoe are fed by
the workers with food elaborated in their stomachs.
The larvffi of the stingless genera usually spin a delicate
silken cocoon, while those of the aculeate genera do not. Both
Latreille and "Westwood, however, state that sometimes, as in
Formica fusca, of Europe, the pupce arc naked, and at other
times enclosed in a cocoon.
The colonies of the different species vary greatly in size. In
the nests of Formica sanguinea the number of individuals is very
great. The history of a formicarium, or ant's nest is as follows :
The workers only (but sometimes the Avinged ants) hibernate,
and are found early in spring, taking care of the eggs and
larvae produced by the autumnal brood of females. In the
course of the summer the adult forms are developed, swarming
on a hot sultry daj'. The little jellow ants, abundant in paths
and about houses in New England, generally swarm on the af-
ternoon of some hot day in the first week of September, when
the air is filled towards sunset Avith myriads of them. The
females, after their marriage flight in the air, may then be seen
cuternig the ground to lay their eggs for ncAV colonies, or, as
A\''estwood states, they are often seized by the workers and
retained in the old colonies. Having no more use for their
Avings they pluck them off, and may be seen rumiing about
Avingless. According to Gould, an early English obserA^er,
the eggs destined to hatch the future females, males and
workers, are deposited at three different periods.
The nests of some species of Formica are six feet in diameter
FOUMICAUI^. 181
and contain many thousand individuals. Ants also build
nests of clay or mud, and inhabit hollow trees. They enjoy
feeding upon the sweets of flowers and the honey of the Plant-
lice, which they domesticate in their nests. Several species of
beetles, including some of the Staphylinidce ^ take up their
abode in ants' nests. Ants are useful as scavengers, feeding
on decaying animal matter. A good method of obtaining the
skeletons of the smaller animals, is to place them on a densely
populated ant-hill. The habits of the ants, their economy and
slave-making habits, are described in the works of Huber, La-
treille, and Kirbj^ and Spence.
Upwards of a thousand species of ants have alread}^ been
described ; those of this country have still to be monographed.
The first group of this extensive family consists of Dorylus
and its allies, and Formica and the neighboring genera, all of
which are distinguished by having only the first abdominal seg-
ment contracted, while in the second group {Ifynnicarice), the
two basal rings are contracted into knot-like segments.
The genus Dorylus was, by Latreille, King, and others, in-
cluded in the Mntillarim . The head is very short, the
ocelli are large and glolndar. The thorax and abdomen are
elongated, the last is cylindrical, with a small, round, basal
joint. The legs are short, with broad compressed femora and
feather-like tarsi. In the wings the outer subcostal cells are
wanting. The females are not yet known. Mr, F. Smith says
that Dorylus was found by Hon. W. Elliot to live in the man-
ner of ants, under the stone foundation of a house in India.
The society was very numerous. The difference in size of the
male and worker is yevy remarkable. The males are of large
size and are found in tropical Asia and Africa.
TypMopone is an allied genus. T. p>aUipes Ilaldeman is
found in Pennsylvania.
To the genus Anomma belong the Driver-ants of "Western
Africa. They march in vast armies, driving everj'thing before
them, so formidable are they from their numbers and bite,
though they are of small size. They cross streams, bridging
them by their interlocked bodies. Only the workers are known.
Two species only, A. Burmeisteri Shuckard, and A. arcens
Westwood, are described from near Cape Palmas, West Africa.
182 HY3IENOPTERA.
The genus Ponera is found disti'ibuted throughout the
tropics. Tlie females and workers are armed vvitli spines ; the
abdomen is elongated, the segments more or less diminished
in size, the first comparatively large and often cubical. The
legs are slender. P. ferrnginea Smith is a Mexican species.
The allied genus Odontomachus springs like some leaping
spiders. It uses for this purpose its unusually long mandibles,
which are bent at right angles. 0. clarus Koger lives in Texas.
Formica includes the tj'pical species of ants. Over two hun-
dred species of this genus have been already described. The
body is unarmed. The abdomen is short, oval or spherical,
the scale-like first segment being lenticular in form, with a
sharp upper edge. The subcostal cell of the fore-wings ends in
a point. Formica scmguinea Latr. is one of our most abundant
species, making hillocks of sand or clay, according to the nature
of the ground. From the formicary walks, and underground
galleries, radiate in all directions. This species has been 'ob-
served making forays upon each others colonies. We have
found a variety of this species in Labrador, where it is com-
mon. It does not throw up hillocks, but tunnels the earth.
This species has been observed in Europe by P. Iluber, to
go on slave expeditions. They attack a " negro-colonj^ " be-
longing to a smaller black species, pillaging the nest, and carry-
ing olf merely the larvas and pupoe. The victors educate them
in their own nests, and on arriving at maturity the negroes take
the; entire care of the colony. Polyergus rufescens is also a slave-
making ant, and " Latreillc very justly observes that it is physi-
cally impossible for the rufescent ants {Polyergus rufescens),
on account of the form of their jaws, and the accessory parts of
their mouth, either to prepare habitations for their family,
to procure food, or to feed them." Formica savgimiea sallies
forth in immensely long columns to attack the negTo ant. Hu-
ber states that only fixe or six of these fora3s are made within
a period of a month, at other seasons they remain at peace.
Iluber found that the slave-making Polyergus rufescens when
left to themselves perish from pure laziness. They are waited
upon and fed by their slaves, and when the}- are taken away, their
masters perish miserably. Sometimes they are known to labor,
and were once observed to carry their slaves to a spot chosen
rORMICARI^.
183
for a nest. The 7^. sanguinea is not so helpless, "they assist
their negroes in the construction of their nests, they collect their
sweet Uuid from the Aphides ; and
one of their most nsnal occupations
is to lie in wait for a small species
of ant on which they feed ; and when
their nest is menaced by an enemy
they show their value for these faith-
ful servants, by carrying them down
into the lowest apartments, as to a
place of the greatest security."
(Kirby.) Pupae of both of the slave-
making species were placed in the
same formicary by Huber, Avhere they ¥ig. no.
were reared l>y the "negroes," and on arriving at maturity
" lived together under the same roof in the most perfect amity,"
as we quote from Kirby. Darwin states that in England, F.
sanguinea does not enslave other species.
In this country Mr. J. A. Allen has
described in the Proceedings of the
Essex Institute, vol. 5, 18GG, a foray
of a colony of F. sanguinea upon a
colony of a black species of Formica,
for the purpose of making slaves of
them.
Formica Pensylvanica^ our largest
species, is found in oaks and decay-
Fig. 111. ing trees, while F. lierculanea Latr.
burrows in the earth, its hole opening beneath stones and sticks.
Gould, who wrote in 1747, states that there are two sizes of
workers of the common European Formica rvfa, and flava;
one set of individuals exceeding the other by about one-third.
Kirby states that in his specimens "the large workers of For-
mica rufa are nearly three times, and of F. flava^ twice the
size of the small ones." Mr. E. Norton describes F. fulvacca
(Fig. 110, worker minor), and also Tapinoma tomentosa (Fig.
Ill, worker major; antenniie broken off), from Mexico.
The tropical genus Pobp-hachis includes, according to Smith,
all those species that closely resemble Formica, but which
184
HYMENOPTERA.
have the thorax and node of the peduncle armed with spines
or hooks. They construct small semicircular nests, of a kind
of net-work, on the leaves of trees and
shrubs. Their communities are small, sel-
dom exceeding twenty individuals. Mr.
Norton describes P. arhoricola (Fig. 112,
worker major) from Mexico. An allied
genus is Ectatomma (Fig. 113, worker major
of E. ferrnginea Norton, from Mexico),
Mr. F. Smith has described a new genus,
(EcojyhyUa, which is allied to Formica.
They are green ants, found building in trees
in the tropics of the old world. The nest of (E. smaragdina
Smith is "formed by drawing together a number of green
leaves, Avhich they unite with a fine web. Some nests are a
foot in diameter. They swarm, says Mr. Wallace, in hilly for-
ests in New Guinea. Their sting is not very severe. This
genus forms a link between Formica and Myrmica ; it
agrees with the former in hav-
ing a single node to the pe-
duncle, and with the latter in
having the ocelli obsolete in
the workers, and in being fur-
nished with a sting."
The curious Iloney-ant of
Texas and Mexico, 3Ti/rmeco-
cystus Mexicanus Westwood,
has two kinds of "workers of
very distinct forms, one of llie
usual shape," according to
Smith, " and performing the
F'S- ii''^- active duties of the formica-
rium ; the other and larger worker is inactive and does not quit
the nest, its sole purpose, apparently, being to elaborate a kind
of honc}^, which they are said to discharge into prepared recep-
tacles, which constitutes the food of the entire population of
the community. In the honey-secreting workers the abdomen
is distended into a large globose bladder-like form. From
this honey an agi'eeable drink is made by the Mexicans."
FORMICAEI^. 1^5
The second subfamily, Myrmicarice, includes those species
in which the two first abdominal segments are contracted and
lenticular. In Myrmica the females and workers are armed
with spines, and tlie ocelli are absent in the worl^ers. The
species are very small, and mostly bright colored. Myrmica
molesta Say is found in houses all over the Avorld.
G. Lincecum describes the habits of the Agricultural Ant of
Texas, Myrmica molefaciens. It lives in populous communi-
ties. "They build paved cities, construct roads, and sustain
a large military force." In a year and a half from the time
the colony begins, the ants previously living concealed beneath
the surface, appear above and "clear away the grass, herbage,
and other litter, to the distance of three or four feet around the
entrance to their city, and construct a pavement, .... con-
sisting of a pretty hard crust about half an inch thick," formed
of coarse sand and grit. These pavements Avould be inun-
dated in the rainy season, hence, " at least six months pre-
vious to tlie coming of the j-ain," they begin to build mounds
rising a foot or more from the centre of the pavement. Within
these mounds are neatly conotructed cells into which tlie
"eggs, young ones, and their stores of grain, are carried in
time of rainy seasons." Xo green herb is allowed to grow on
the pavement except a grain-bearing grass, Aristida stricta.
This grain, when ripe, is harvested, and the chaff removed,
while the clean grain is carefully stored aAvay in dry cells.
Lincecum avers that the ants even sow this grain. They also
store up the "grain from several other species of grass, as
well as seeds from many kinds of herbaceous plants."
Pheidole is distinguished by having workers with enormous
heads. P. notabilis Smith, from the Island of Bachian, Indian
Archipelago, is noted for the enormously enlarged, cubical
head of the worker major, which is at least six times the size
of the abdomen, while in the worker minor, the head is of
the ordinary size. An Indian species, P. providens Westwood,
accordhig to Col. Sykes, "collects so large a store of grass
seeds as to last from January and February, the time of
their ripening, till Octobar."
The genus Atta is also well-armed, while the workers have
a very large, deeply incised and heart-shaped head, without
186
HYMENOPTERA.
ocelli, and the second abdominal knot-like ring is very trans-
verse. A. dypeata Smith is a Mexican species.
^ In Eciton the man-
dibles nearly equal
the length of the in-
sect itself. This ge-
nus is the most
ferocious of all the
ants, entering the nest
of species of Formica
and tearing them,
limb from limb, and
then carrying off the
remains to their own
houses.
Eciton Mexicana
Roger (Fig. 114,
worker major, a, front
view of head, show-
Fig, lu. ing the immense
sickle-like mandibles, and only the two basal joints of the
antenn:i3 ; Fig. 115, worker minor, with a front view of the
head, showing the mandi-
bles of the usual size).
This species, with Eciton
Snmiclirasti Norton, (Fig.
IIG, worker minor) has
been found by Professor
Sumichrast at Cordova and
Orizaba, Mexico.
The males of Eciton are
not 3'et known. .Smith
supposes that JMbidns (a
genus allied to Dorylus) is
tlie male form, and Sumi-
chrast thinks this conjec-
ture is "sustained by the
fact that it is in the season when the sorties of the Eciton
are the more frequent that the Labidus also show themselves."
FOKMTCARIiE.
187
An allied genus is Pseudomyrma. P. hicolor GiK-rin (Fio-,
117) is found in Central America. P.flacidala Sniitli, found in
Central and South America, in Mexico lives, according to
Sumichrast, within the spines which arm the
stems of certain species of Mimosa. These
spines, fixed in pairs upon the branches, are
pierced near the end by a hole (Fig. II80),
which serves for the entrance and exit of the
ants.
The genus (Ecodoma differs from Atta in
having the thorax armed with spines. (27. Fig. iig.
Mexicana Smith (Figs. 119, female; 120, worker major) is
abundant on the Gulf Coast of Mexico. In manj^ places, ac-
cording to Sumichrast, the natives eat the females after hav-
ing detached the thorax. The intelligence of these
ants is wonderful. They are seen in immense num-
bers transporting leaves. Sumichrast states that
"the ground at the foot of the tree, where a troop of
these ' arrieras,' or workers, is assembled for despoil-
ing it of its leaves, is ordinarily strewn with frag-
ments cut off with the greatest precision. And if the
tree is not too lofty, one can satisfy himself that a
party of foragers, which have climbed the tree, occupies itself
wholly in the labor of cutting them off, while at the foot of
the tree are the carriers which make the journeys between the
tree and the nest. This manage-
ment, which indicates among these a
insects a rare degree of intelligence,
is, perhaps, not a constant and in-
variable practice, but it is an incon-
testable fact, and one which can be
constantly proved."
"It is specially in the argillaceous
countries that the CEcodomas build
their enormous formicaries, so that
one perceives them from afar by the
projection which they form above the level of the soil, as
well as by the absence of vegetation in their immediate
neighborhood. These nests occupy a surface of many square
Fi-. 117
118.
188
HYMENOPTERA.
metres,* and their depth varies from one to two metres.
Very many openings, of a diameter of about one to three in-
ches, are contrived from the exterior, and conduct to the innei-
cavities vvliicli serve as storehouses for the eggs and Larva".
The central part of the nest forms a sort of funnel, designed
for the drainage of water, from which, in a country where
the periodical rains are often abundant, they could hardly es-
cape Avithout be-
ing entirely sub-
merged, if they
did not provide
for it some out-
let.
"The s^^stein
which reigns in
Fig. 119. tlie interior of
these formicaries is extreme. The collection of vegetable
debris brought in by the Avorkers is at times considerable ;
but it i.i deposited there in such a manner as not to cause an_v
inconvenience to the inhabitants, nor impede their circulation.
It is mostly leaves whicli are brought in from without, and it
is the almoot excluLiivo choice of this kind of vegetation which
makes the Gilcodoma a veritable scourge to agTiculture. At
each step, and in almost every place in the
elevated woods, as on the plains ; in desert
places as well as in the nciglil)orhood of
habitations, one meets numerous columns
of these insects, occupied with an admirable
zeal in the transportation of leaves. It
seems even that the great law of the divi-
Fig. 120. sion of labor is not ignored by these little
creatures, judging from the observations which I have often
had occasion to make." (Sumichrast.)
"The CE'. ccpkalotes" says II. W. Bates, "from its immense
numbers, eternal industiy, and its plundering propensities, be-
comes one of the most important animals of Brazil. Its immense
hosts are unceasingly occupied in deibliating trees, and those
most relished by them are precisely the useful kinds. They
* A metre is about thirty -nine (39.37) inches.
FORMICAEI^. 189
have regular divisions of laborers, numbers mounting the trees
and cutting otf the leaves in irregularl}- rounded pieces the size
of a shilling, another relay carrying them off as they fall."
''The heavily laden fellows, as they came trooping in, all de-
posited their load in a heap close to the mound. About the
mound itself were a vast number of workers of a smaller size.
The very large-headed ones were not engaged in leaf-cutting,
nor seen in the processions, but were only to be seen on dis-
turbing the nest." Bates also says, "I found, after removing
a little of the surface, three burrows, each about an inch in
diameter ; half a foot downward, all three united in one tubular
burrow about four inches in diameter. To the bottom of this I
could not reach wlieu I probed Avith a stick to the depth of four
or five feet. This tube was perfectly smooth and covered with
a vast number of workers of much smaller size than those oc-
cupied in conveying the leaves ; the}' Avere unmixed Avith an}'
of a larger size. AfterAvards, on probing loAver into the bur-
row, up came, one by one, seA'eral gigantic fellows, out of all
l)roportion, larger than the largest of those outside, and Avhich
I could not have supposed to belong to the same species. Be-
sides the greatly enlarged size of the head, etc., they have an
ocellus in the middle of the forehead ; this latter feature, added
to their startling appearance from the cavernous depths of the
formicariuni, gaA'e them quite a Cyclopean character."
Of another species, the (Ec. sexdeutata, Mr. Smith quotes
from Rev. Ilamlet Clark, that at Constancia, Brazil, the pro-
prietor of a plantation used e\erj means to exterminate it and
failed. " Sometimes in a single night it will strip an orange or
lemon tree of its leaves ; a ditch of water around his garden,
Avhich quite keeps out all other ants, is of no use. This spe-
cies carries a mine under its bed without any difficulty. In-
deed, I haA'e been assured again and again, by sensible men,
that it has undermined, in its progress through the country, the
great river Paraiba. At any rate, without anything like a nat-
ural or artificial bridge, it appears on the other side and con-
tinues its course." This testimou}^ is confirmed by Mr.
Lincecum (Proceedings of Academ.y of Katural Sciences,
rhiladelphia, 1867, p. 24) in an interesting account of the (Ec.
Texana, Avhich he has obserAcd for eighteen years. lie states
190 HYMENOPTEIIA.
that they often carry then- subterranean roads for several hun-
dred yards in grassy districts, where the grass would prove an
impediment to tlieir progress. On one occasion, to secure ac-
cess to a gentleman's garden, where they were cutting the
vegetables to pieces, they tunnelled beneath a creek, which was
at that place fifteen or twenty feet deep, and from bank to bank
about thirty feet. He also observes that the smaller workers
which remain around the nest do not seem to join in cutting or
carrying the leaves, but are occupied with bringing out the
sand, and generally work in a lazy waj', very differently from
the quick, active leaf-cutters. Also, that the pieces of leaves
are usually dried outside before being carried in, and that if
wet b}^ a sudden shower are left to decay Avithout. He also
thinks that their lives are dependent upon access to
Avater, and that the}' always choose places where it
is accessible by digging wells. In one case, a well
was dug by Mr. Pearson for his own use, and water
found at the depth of thirty feet. The ant-well
which he followed was twelve inches in diameter."
Fig. 121. (Norton, American Naturalist, vol. 2.)
The genus Cryptocerns is remarkable for its flattened head,
with the sides expanded into flattened marginal plates, con-
cealing, or partly hiding the e3'es. C mult 182)1)108118 Norton
(Fig. 121) is the most common species about Cordova, Mexico,
where they live, according to Sumichrast, within the trunks of
trees.
CiiRYSiDiD^ Latreille. In this small group the thirteen-
jointed antenme are elbowed, the eyes are oval and the ocelli
distinct. The maxillary palpi are five, and the labial palpi
three-jointed. There are about four hundred species known.
Tliese insects are very diff'erent from the ants in their oblong
compact form, their nearly sessile, oblong abdomen, having only
three to five rings visible, the remaining ones being drawn with-
in, forming a long, large, jointed sting-like ovipositor, which
can be thrust out like a telescope. The abdomen beneath is
concave, and the insect can roll itself into a ball on being dis-
turbed. They are green or black. The sting has no poison-
bag, and in this respect, besides more fundamental characters,
CHRYSIDID^. 191
the Chrysis family approaches the Ichneumons. They best
merit the name of "Cuckoo-flies," as they fly and run briskly
in hot suuGliiue, on posts and trees, darting their ovipositor into
holes in search of the nests of other Hymenoptera, in which to
lay their eggs. Their larvne are the first to hatch and devour
the food stored up by other fossorial bees and wasps. "St.
Fargeau, however, who has more carefull3' examined the econ-
omy of these insects, states that the eggs of the Chrysis do
not hatch until the legitimate inhabitant has attained the greater
part of it 3 grovvth as a larva, when the larva of the Chrysis
fastenj on it3 back, sucks it, and in a very short time attains
its full size, destroying its victim. It does not form a cocoon,
but remains a long time in the pupa state." (Westwood.)
"In the Entomological Magazine has been noticed the dis-
covery of Iledychrum bidentulum, which appears to be parasitic
upon Pseu caliginosus ; the latter insect had formed its cells in
the straws of a thatched arbor, as many as ten or twelve cells
being placed in some of the straws. Some of the straws, per-
haps about one in ten, contained one or rarel}^ two, of the
Hedychrum, placed indiscriminately amongst the others.
Walkcnaer, in his Memoirs upon Ilalictus, informs us that
Hedychrum lucidulum waits at the mouth of the burrows of
these bees, in order to deposit its eggs therein ; and that when
its design is perceived by the bees, they congregate together
and drive it away. St. Fargeau states that the females of
Hedychrum sometimes deposit their eggs in galls, while II.
regiura oviposits in the nest of Megachile muraria ; and he
mentions an instance in which the bee, returning to its nearly
finished cell, laden with pollen paste, found the Hed^X'hrum
in its nest, which it attacked with its jaws ; the parasite im-
mediately, hovrcver, rolled itself into a ball, so that the Mega-
chile was unable to hurt it ; it, however, bit off its fom- wings
which were exposed, rolled it to the ground and then deposited
its load in the cell and fiew away, whereupon the IIed3'chrum,
now being wingless, had the persevering instinct to crawl up
the Avail to the nest, and there quietly deposit its egg, which it
placed between the pollen paste and the wall of the cell, which
prevented the Megachile from seeing it." (Westwood.)
In Cleptes the underside of the abdomen is not hollowed out ;
192 HYMENOPTERA.
it is acutely oval, and with five rings in the male. Cleptes
semiaurata Latr. is found in Central Europe. We have no na-
tive species. In Chrysis and the other genera, Stilbum, Parno-
pes, and Iledychrum, the abdomen is hollowed beneath, and
the tip is broad and square. Chrysis hilaris Dahlb. (Fig. 122)
is a short, thick, bluish green species, .32 inch in length. It
is not uncommon in New England.
In Iledychrum the maxillary palpi and ligula are rather short,
the last cordate ; the mandibles are three-toothed v.ithin. The
abdomen is broad and short, almost spherical, the second seg-
ment being the largest. //. dimidiatmn Say is found in the
Middle States.
The European Stilbum spJendidum, Fabr. according to Du-
four, lives in the cells of Pelopieus spirifex. It makes oblong
,,;,.»><^,=^ cocoons of a deep brov.n, with rounded
J^^^^^^^g^^^ end.s ; they are of great tenacity, being
mixed with a gummy matter.
Mr. Guenzius states that in Port
Natal ''a species of Stilbum lays its
eggs on the collected caterpillars stored
up b}'^ Eumenes tinctor, which con-
structs a nest of mud and attaches it to reeds, etc., not in a
single, but a large mass, in which cells are excavated, similar
to the nest of Chalicodoma micraria?* First, it uses its ovi-
positor as a gimlet, and when its point has a little penetrated,
then as a saw or rasp ; it likewise feels with its ovipositor, and,
finding an unfinished or an empt}' cell it withdraws it immedi-
atel3% without la^'ing an egg."
IcHNEUMONiD^. Lati-cille. The Ichneumon-flies are readily
recognized by the usually long and slender body, the long ex-
serted ovipositor, which is often very long, and protected by a
sheath formed of four stylets of the same length as the true
ovipositor. The head is usually rather square, with long,
.slender, rnany-jointed antennrj which are not usually elbowed.
The maxillary palpi are five to six-jointed, while the labial
*A query (?) after the name of a species indicates a doubt wiiether the insect
realiy belongs to that species; so with a ? after the name of a jrcnus. A ? before
both the genus and species expresses a doubt whether tliat be the insect at all.
ICHNEUMONIDiE. 193
pa\pi are three to four-jointed. The abdomen is inserted im-
mediately over tlie liind pair of trochanters, and usually consicts
of seven visible segments. The fore-wings have one to three
subcostal (cubital) cells.
The larva is a soft, fleshy, cylindrical, footless grub, the
rings of the body being moderatel}^ convex, and the head rather
smaller than in the foregoing families. The eggs are laid by
the parent either upon the outside or within the caterpillar, oi
other larva, on which its young is to feed. When hatched it
devours the fiitty portions of its victim which dies gradually of
exhaustion. The ovipositor of some species is very long, and
is fitted for boring through very dense substances ; thus Mr.
Bond, of England, observes that BJn/ssa persuasoria actually'
l)ores through solid wood to deposit its eggs in the larvae of
Sirex ; the ovipositor is Avorked into the wood like an awl.
When about to enter the pupa state the larva spins a cocoon,
consisting in the larger species of an inner dense case, and a
looser, thinner, outer covering, and escapes as a fly through
the skin of the caterpillar. The cocoons of tlio smaller genera,
such as Cr3'ptus and Microgaster, may be found packed closely
in considerable numbers, side by side, or sometimes placed up-
right within the l)ody of caterpillars.
The Ichneumon-flies are thus very serviceable to the agricul-
turist, as they must annually destroy immense numbers of cat-
erpillars. In Europe over" 2,000 species of this family have
l)een described, and it is probable that we have an equal num-
ber of species in America ; Gerstaecker estimates that there
are 4,000 to 5,000 known species.
The Ichneumons also prey on certain Coleoptera and Ilymen-
optera, and even on larvre of Pliryrjanidce, which live in the
water. In Europe, Pimpla Fairmairii is parasitic on a spider,
('lubione holosericea, according to Laboulbcne. Boheman
states that P. ovivora lives on a spider, and species of Pimpla
and Hemiteles were also found in a nest of spiders, according to
Gravenhorst. Bouche says that Pimpla rufata devours, during
winter and spring, the eggs of Aranea diadema, and Ratzburg
gives a list of fourteen species of Ichneumons parasitic on
spiders, belonging to the genera Pimpla, Pezomachus, Ptero-
malus, Cryptu3, Hemiteles, Microgaster, and Mesochorus. Mr.
13
194
HYMENOPTERA.
Emerton informs me that he has reared a Pezomachus from
the egg-sac of Attus, whose eggs it undoubtedly devours. They
are not even free from attacks of members of their own family,
as some smaller species are well known to prey on the larger.
Being cut off from communication with the external world,
the Ichneumon larva breathes by means of the two principal
trachese, which
terminate in the
end of the body,
and are placed,
according to Ger-
staecker, in com-
munication with a
stigma of its host.
From the com-
plete assimilation
^^ of the liquid food.
Fig. 123. the intestine ends
in a cul de sac, as we have seen it in the larva; of Humble-bees
and of vStj'lops, and as probably occurs in most other larva;
of fjimilar habits, such as young gall-flies, weevils, etc., which
live in cells and do not eat solid food.
The first subfamily, the Evaniidai, are insects of singular and
very diverse form, in which the antenrse are either straight or
elbov/ed, and thirteen to fourteen-
joiuted ; the fore-wings have one to
throe subcostal (cubital) cells, and the
hind wings are almost without veins.
In Evania and Foznus the abdomen
has a very slender pedicel, originating
next the base of the metanotnm. The
former genus has a remarkably short
triangular compressed abdomen in the
female, but ovate in the male. The
species are parasitic on Blatta and allies.
Olivier (Fig. 123, J and pupa) is a black species, and is para-
sitic on the cockroach, Periplaneta, from the eggs of which we
have taken the pupa and adult. The eggs of the cockroach are
just large enough to accommodate a single Evania. This species
Fig. 124.
Evania loivigata
ICHNEUMOXIDJE.
195
is widely distributed, and in Cuba, according to Cresson, it
devours tlie eggs of Periplaneta Americana.
The genus Aulacodes of Cresson, "forms a very close con-
necting-link between the minute Ichneumons and the Elvaniae,"
A. nigriventris Cresson (Fig. 124, a; 6, metathorax ; c, inser-
tion of the abdomen) lives in Cuba.
Fortius is quite a different genus, as the abdomen is very long
and slender. Foenus jaculator Linn, is known in Europe to
frequent the nests
of Crahronid(i2 ,
ovipositing in the
larvae.
Pelecinus is a fa-
miliar insect, the im-
mensely elongated,
linear abdomen of -^ j i %
the female easily Fig. 125.
distinguishing it. The male is extremely rare ; its abdomen
is short and clavate. It strikingly resembles Trypoxylon,
though the abdomen is considerably larger, Pelecinus poly-
cerator Drury (Fig. 125, $ and ?) is widely distributed
throughout this country.
The genuine Ichneumonidce have long, straight, multiarticu-
late antennae. The first subcostal (cubital) cell of the fore-
wings is united with the median
cell lying next to it, while the
second is very small or wholly
wanting. There arc two recurrent
veins. Mr. Cresson has described
the genus EipJiosoma (Fig. 126),
Tig. 126. which he states may be known by
the long, slender, compressed abdomen, and the long posterior
legs, with their femora toothed beneath the tips. E. annu-
latum Cresson, a Cuban species, is, according to Poe}^, "para-
sitic upon a larva of Pyralis." (Cresson.)
In Ophion the antennae are as long as the body, the abdo-
men is compressed, and the species are honey-yellow in color.
0. macrurum Linn. (Fig. 127) attacks the American Silk-
worm, Telea Polyphemus. Anomalon is a larger insect and
usuall}^ black. A. vesparum is, in Europe, parasitic on Vespa.
196
HYMENOPTERA.
The genus E7ii/ssa contains our largest species, and frequents
the holes of boring insects in the trunks of trees, inserting its
remarkably long ovipositor
in the bod^^ of the larvae
deeply embedded in the
trunk of the tree. Harris
states that Rhyssa (Pimpla)
atrata and lanator (Fig. 128,
male) of Fabricius, " may
frequently be seen thrusting
their slender borers, measur-
ing from three to four in-
ches in length, into the
trunks of trees inhabited
1)3' the grubs of the Tre-
mex, and by other wood-
^'"'S- ^27. eating insects ; and, like
the female Tremex, they sometimes become fastened to the
trees, and die without lieing able to draw their borers out
again." The abdomen of the male is A'ery slender.
Pimiila has the ovipositor half as long as the abdomen. P.
pedalis Cresson is a pararjite on Clisiocampa.
The genus Trogns leads to Ichneumon. The antennoe are
shorter than the body ; the abdomen is slightly petiolate, fusi-
form, and the second subcostal cell
is quadrangular. Trogus exssoriiis
Brulle is tawny red, and is a para-
site of Papilio Asterias.
The genus Ichneumon (Fig. 120)
is one of great extent, probably
containing over three hundred spe-
cies. The abdomen is long and
slender, lanceolate ovate, slightly
petiolate. The second subcostal cell
is five-sided, and the ovipositor is
either concealed or slightly exscrted. Fig. 128.
[clineumon suturalis Sa}' is a very common form, and has been
reared in abundance from the larva of the Army- worm, Leu-
cania unipuncta. The body is pale rust-red, with black sutures
on the thorax. Another common species, also parasitic on the
ICHNEUMONID^ .
197
Fiff. 129.
Army-worm, is the Ichneumon paratus, which is blackish,
banded and spotted with yellow.
The singular genus Grotea, established by Mr. Cresson, has
along and narrow thorax (Fig. 130a), and a very long and
petiolated abdomen (c). We have
taken G. angiuna Cresson, the only
species known, from the cells of
Crabro in raspbeny stems received
from Mr. Ingus.
Cryptus is a genus of slender
form, with a long, cylindrical abdo-
men, which is petiolate. In the fe-
male it is oval with an exserted
ovipositor. Cresson ligures a Aving
(Fig. lol) of C? ornatipennis, a Cuban species, which has the
wings dilterently veined from the other species. Westwood
I'cmarks that in Europe a species of this genus preys on the
larva; of the Ptinidoi.
Pezomachus is usually "wingless, and might at first sight read-
il}^ be mistaken for an ant. The body is small, the oval abdo-
men petiolate, and the wings, when j)re8-
y^ ~~~\^^ — z:>-^ ent, are very pniall. The species are very
numerous. Gersta^cker suggests that
some may be wingless females, belong-
ing to winged males of allied genera.
The third subfamily is the Braconidce , containing those
genera having long multiarticulate antennte, and Avith the first
subcostal cell separate from the first median, lying just behind
it. The second subcostal cell is usually
largo, and there is onty one recurrent vein.
The genus Bracon is distinguished by the
deeply excavated clypeus. The first sub-
costal cell is completely formed behind,
wanting the recurrent nerve ; the second cell
is long, and four-sided. More tluui five
hundred species, mostly of bright, gay
colors, are already known. The genus RhopaJosoma of Cres-
son connects Bracon and other minute genera (Braconidae)
with the true Ichneumons. R. Poeyi Cresson (Fig. 132) is a
198 HYMENOPTERA.
pale honey-yellow species, with a long club-shaped abdomen.
It lives in Cuba.
Rogas is a genus differing from Bracon in having the three
first abdominal j-ings long, forming a slender petiole.
In Microgaster, a genus containing numerous species, the
antenuae are eighteen-jointed, and the abdomen is shorter than
usual, and clavate. There are two or three
subcostal cells, the second very small. 3Ii-
crogaster neplio})tericls (Plate 3, figs. 3, 3 a) is
parasitic on Nephopter^'x Edmandsii, found in
the cells of the Humble-bee.
Aphidias^ the parasite of the Plant-lice, is
a most A'aluable ally of man. It is known by
its small size, and by having the second and
third segments of the abdomen moving free on
Fig. 132. each other. There are three cubital cells, though
the wings are sometimes wanting. Aphidius (Praon) avena-
pMs of Fitch, the Oat-louse Aphidius, is black with honey-
yellow legs, and is one-tenth of an inch long. Ajjhidiv.s
(Toxares) triticapMs Fitch, the Wheat-louse Aphidius, is black,
shining, with thread-like antennae composed of twenty-five
joints. Its length is .08 inch. Frequently the large size of
the parasite causes the body of the dead Aphis to SAvell out
into a globular form.
Pkoctotkypid^ (Proctotri(pn) Latreille. Egg-parasites.
In this family are placed very minute species of parasitic Ich-
neumon-like Hymenopters which have rather long and slender
bodies, with straight or elbowed antenna of various lengths,
often haired on the joints, usually teu to fifteen, sometimes only
eight in number, while the wings are covered with minute hairs
and most of the nervures arc abseut. The maxillary palpi are
three to six, the labial palpi usually three-jointed. The abdo-
men has from five to seven joints, and the tarsi are mostly five-
jointed, rarely four-jointed. These insects are often so minute
that they can scarcely be distinguished by the naked eye unless
it is specially trained; they are black or brown, and very
active in their habits. They may be swept off" grass and
herbage, from aquatic plants, or from hot sand-banks. They
PROCTOTRYPID^. 199
prey on the wheat-flies by inserting their eggs in their larvse,
on gall-midges, and gall-flies, and on fungus-eating flies. In
Europe, species of Teleas lay their eggs in those of other
insects, especially butterflies and moths and hemipters, where
they feed on the juices of the larvae growing within the egg,
coming out as perfect Ichneumons. We probably have many
species of these insects in this country. They usually occur in
great numbers where they are found at all. They are almost
too small to pin, and if transfixed Avould be unfit for study,
and should, therefore, be gummed on mica, or put into small
vials with alcohol.
In Proctotnqjes the antennae are long, feathered, twelve-
jointed. The fore-wings have the beginning of a cubital cell,
and two longitudinal veins on the posterior half. Tlie abdo-
men is spindle-shaped and very acutely pointed, the terminal
joints being tubular in their arrangement,
and thus, as Westwood states, approaching
the Chrys i didce. An unknown species
(Fig. 133) we have taken at the Glen, in
the White Mountains. ,'V\
The head of Diapria is horizontal and Fig. 133.
longer than broad ; the ocelli are moved forward on to the
front edge ; the long, filiform antenuiie have a projection on
the under side, with the basal joint much elongated ; in the
male they are thirteen or fourteen-jointed, Avith one joint less
in the female. The wings are without stigma or veins. The
abdomen is long, oval, pedicelled. In Europe, D. cecidomyi-
arum Bouche is parasitic on the larvae of Cecidomyia arte-
misiae. Esenbeck considers that this genus is also parasitic on
the earth-inhabiting Tipxilidfe.
Gonatopus is a wingless genus, with the head very broad,
transverse, and the front deeply hollowed out, while the ten-
jointed antennae are long, slightly clavate, and the thorax is
much elongated, deeply incised, forming two knot-like portions.
Goyiatopus lunatus Esenbeck, found in Europe, is one and a
half lines long.
Ceraphron has the antennae inserted near the month ; they
are elbowed, and eleven-jointed in the male, and ten-jointed in
the female. The abdomen has a very short pedicel. The fore-
fOO HYMENOPTERA.
wings have a very short, bent costal (radial) vein. C. armoh
turn Say was described from Indiana.
The egg-parasite, Teleas, has the elbowed twelve-jointed an-
tennae inserted very near the front of the head, and slightly
hairy and simple in the male, but in the female terminated in a
six-jointed club. The thorax is short, the legs thickened and
adapted for leaping, and the abdomen is pedicelled. Many
species have been found in P^urope. According to Westwood,
"the type of this genus is the Ichneumon ovulorum of Linnaeus
{Teleas Linncei Esenbeck), which Linnaeus and
D3 Geer obtained from the eggs of moths." It
has been raised from the eggs of several Bom-
hiicicla',. "Bouchs observed the female deposit
Fig. 134. ail egg in each of the eggs of a brood of Bom-
byx neustria. lie describes tlie larva as elliptical, white,
shilling, rugose, subincurved, and one-third of an inch long."
(Westwood.)
Of the extensive genus Platygaster over a hundred European
species are already known. The body, especially the abdomen,
is generally flattened, the antennae are ten-jointed, and in the
female clavate. The wing veins are absent ; the rather slender
legs are not adapted for leaping, and the tarsi are five-jointed.
A species of Platygaster (Fig. lo-t) not 3'et named, oviposits
in the eggs of the Canker-worm moth, Anisopteryx A'ernata.
and by its numbers does much to check the increase of this
caterpillar. AVe have seen several of these minute insects
engaged in inserting their eggs into those of the Canker-
worm.
Dr. Harris, in speaking of the enemies of the Ilessian-fly,
states, that "two more parasites, Avhicli Mr. Herrick has not
yet described, also destroy the Hessian-fly, while the latter is
in the flax-seed or pupa state. Mr. Herrick says, that the egg-
parasite of the Hessian-fly is a species of Platygaster, that it is
very abundant in the autumn, when it lays its own eggs, four
or five together, in a single cg^ of the Hessian-fly. This, it
appears, does not prevent the latter from hatching, but the
maggot of the Hessian-fly is unable to go through its trans-
formations, and dies after taking on the flax-seed form. Mean-
while its intestine foes are hatched, come to their growth, spin
PROCTOTRYPID^. 201
themselves little brown cocoons within the skin of their victim,
and in due time, are changed to winged insects, and eat their
way out." P. error Fitcii (Fig. 135) is closely allied to P.
tipukti Kirby, which, in Europe, destroys great numbers of the
Wheat-midge. Whether this is a parasite of the midge, or
not, Dr. Fitch has not 3-et determined.
The habits of the genus Betlujias remind ns of the fossorial
wasps. Bethylus fuscicornis, according to Haliday, "buries
the larviB of some species of Tinea, wliich feed upon the low
tufts of Rosa spinosissima, dragging them to a considerable
distance with great labor and solicitude, and employing, in the
instance recorded by Mr. llaliday, the bore of a reed stuck in
the ground instead of an arti-
ficial funnel, for the cells which
should contain the progeny of
the Bethylus, Avith its store of
provision." (Westwood.)
The genus Inostemma is re-
markable for having the basal
segment of the abdomen of the
females furnished with a thick
curved horn, which extends over the back of the thorax and
head. Dr. Fitch states that 7. viserens is supposed by Kirliy to
insert its eggs into those of tlie Wheat-midge. In tlie gemis
Galesus of Curtis, the mandibles are so enlarged and length-
ened as to form a long beak, and Westwood farther states that
in some specimens the anterio-r wings have a notch at the ex-
tremity. Sa^-'s genus Coptera has similar Avings. C. polita
Say was disco^'ered in Indiana.
In the very minute species of Mijmar and its allies, the head
is transverse, with the antennte inserted above the middle of
the fiice ; they are long and slender and elbowed in the male,
but clavate in the female. There are no palpi, while the very
narrow wings have a very short subcostal vein and on the
edges are provided with long dense cilia?. The antennse of
Mymar are thirteen-jointed in tlie male, and nine-jointed in the
female ; the club is not jointed. The tarsi are four-jointed.
and the abdomen is pedunculated. 3Tymar piiJdieUvs Curtis
is a quarter of a line long. It is found in Europe. An allied
202 HYMENOPTERA.
form Polynema ovulorum Linu. lays numerous eggs in a single
butterfly's egg.
In Anaphes the male antennae are twelve-jointed, those of
the female nine-jointed, and the abdomen is subsessile and
ovoid. In Anagrus the male antennae are thirteen-jointed,
those of the female nine-jointed, while the tarsi are four-jointed,
and the acutely conical abdomen is sessile. No native species
are known.
The smallest Ilj-menopterous insect known, if not the most
minute of all insects, is tlie Pteratumus Putnamii Pack. (Plate
3, figs. 8, 8a, hind wing), Avhich we first discovered on the
body of an Anthophorabia in the minute eggs of which it is
undoubtedly parasitic. It differs from Anagrus in the obtusely
conical abdomen, and the narrower, very linear wings, which
are edged with a fringe of long, curved hairs, giving them a
graceful, feathery appearance. The fore-wings are fissured,
a very interesting fact, since it shows the tendency of the
wings of a low Hymenopterous insect to be fissured like
those of Pterophorus and Alucita, the two lowest Lepidop-
terous genera. It is one-ninetieth of an inch in length.
CiiALCiDiD/E Westwood. This is a group of great extent ;
the species are of small size ; they are often of shiny colors, as
the name of the principal genus implies, being eitlier bronzen
or metallic. Tliey have also elbowed antennjie with from six
to fourteen joints, and the wings are often deficient in veins.
In some genera, including Chalcis, the hind thighs are thickened
for leaping. The diff'erences between the sexes, generally very
marked in Ilymenoptera, are here especially so. The abdo-
men is usually seven-jointed in the male and six-jointed in the
female, the other rings being aborted. The male of several
species has the joints of the antenuje swelled and furnished with
long hairs above. Some of the species of Pteromalus are wing-
less, and closely resemble ants. They infest eggs and larvae.
Some si)ecies prey upon the Aphides, others lay their eggs in
the nests of wasps and bees. One species is known in Europe
to be a parasite of the common house-fly. Others consume
the larvcB of the Hessian-fly, and those Cecidomyiae that pro-
duce galls, and also the true gall-flies (Cynips). Some are
CHALCIDID^.
203
parasites on other Ichneumon parasites, as there are species
preying on tlie genus Aphiclius, which is a parasite on the
Aphis. Mr. Walsli lias bred a species of Hockeria and of
Glyplie, which are parasitic on a Microgaster, whicli in turn
preys upon the Army -worm, Leucania unipuncta ; and Chalcis
albifrons Walsli, was bred from the cocoons of Pezomachus, an
Ichneumon parasite of the same caterpillar.
The pupse of some species are said to have the limbs and
wings soldered together as in Lepidoptera, and the larvae sel-
dom spin a silken compact cocoon. We have
probably in this country at least a thousand
species of these small parasites, nearly twelve
hundred having been named and described in
•Europe alone. They are generally large enough
to be pinned or stuck upon cards or mica ; some
individuals should be preserved in this way,
others, as wet specimens. Fig. 136.
Chalcis is known by the abdomen having a long pedicel, its
much thickened, oval thighs, and curved tibiae. Chalcis bra-
cata (Fig. 136), so named by Mr. Sanborn "in allusion to the
ornamental and trousered appearance of the posterior feet"
is about .32 inch in length. "Reaumur has described and
figured a species of Chalcis, which is parasitic in the nest of
the American wasp Epipone nitidulans and which he regarded
as the female of that wasp." (Westwood.)
The genus Leucospis is of large size. It is known by having
the large ovipositor laid upon the upper surface of the abdo-
men, and being spotted and banded with
yellow, resembling wasps. One of our more
common species is the L. affinis (Fig. 137) of
Say. The Cuban L. Poeyi Gueriu is para-
sitic on the Megachile Poeyi of Guerin.
The well-known Joint-worm, Eurytoma,
Fig. 137. ^or Isosoma Walsh) produces galls on wheat-
stems. The antennae are, in the male, slender and provided
with verticils of hairs. The acutely oval abdomen has a
short pedicel. The hind legs are scarcely thicker than the
fore limbs. E. hordei Harris (Fig. 138) is found in gall-like
swellings of wheat-stalks. It is still a matter of discussion,
204 HYMENOPTERA.
whether it du-ectlj' produces the galls, or is parasitic, like
many of the famil}-, on other gall-insects. Dr. Harris, who has
studied the habits of the Joint-worm, states that the body of
the adult fl}^ is jet black, and that the thighs, shanks (tibiae),
and claw-joints, are blackish, while the knees and other joints
of the feet, are pale-yellow. The females are .13 inch long,
while the males arc smaller, have a club-shaped abdomen, and
the joints of the antennae surrounded with a A'crticil of hairs.
The larva is described by Harris from specimens received from
Virginia, as varying from one-tenth to nearly three-twentieths
of an inch in length. It is of a pale 3'ellowish white color,
Avilh an internal dusky streak, and is destitute of hairs. The
head is round and partially retractile, with a distinct pair of
jaws, and can be distinguished from the larvjB of the dipterous
gall-flies by not having the v-shaped organs on the segment
succeeding the head. During the sum-
mer, according to Mr. Gourgas's observa-
tions reported by Dr. Harris, and when
the barley or wheat is about eight or ten
inches high, the presence of the young
Joint-worms is detected "b^^ a sudden
Fi£?. 138. check in the growth of the plants, and
the yellow color of their leaves," and several irregular gall-
like swellings between the second and third joints, or, accord-
ing to Dr. Fitch, "immediately above the lower joint in the
sheathing base of the leaf;" or, as Harris states, in the joint
itself. The ravages of this insect have been noticed in Avheat
and barley. During November, in New England, the worms
transform into the pupa state, according to the observations of
Dr. A. Nichols, and "live through the winter unchanged in
the straw, many of them in the stubble in the field, while others
are carried awaj'^ when the grain is harvested." In Virginia,
however, the larva does not transform initil late in February,
or early in March, according to Mr. Glover. From early in
May, until the first week in July, the four-winged flies issue
from the galls in the dry stubble, and are supposed to im-
mediately la}^ their eggs in the stalks of the young Avhcat or
barley plants. The losses by this insect has amounted, in
Virginia, to over a third of the whole crop. The best remedy
CHALCIDIDvE. 205
against the attacks of this insidious foe, is to burn the stubble
in the autumn or spring for several successive j-ears. Plough-
ing in the stubble does not injure the insects, as they can
work their way out of the earth.
It has been objected by Westwood, Ratzburg, and more
recently by Mr. Walsh, (who afterwards changed his views),
that as all the species of this family, so far as known, are para-
sitic, the Eurytoma cannot be a gall-producer, and that the
galls are made by a dipterous insect (Cecidomyia) on which
the Eurytoma is a parasite ; but, as they offer no new facts to
support this opinion, we are inclined to believe from the
statements of Harris, Fitch, Cabell, T. Glover (Patent Office
Report for 1854), and others, that the larva of the Eurytoma
produces the gall. We must remember that the habits of
comparatively few species of this immense family have been
studied ; that the genus Eurytoma is not remotely allied to
the C3aiipidse, or true gall-flies (which also comprise animal
parasites), in which group it has actually been placed by Esen-
beck, for the reason that in Europe "several species of
Eurytoma have been observed to be attached to differenlj
kinds of galls." (Westwood.) Dr. Fitch also describes the
Yellovz-legged Barley-fly, Eim/toma fl(W/pes, Avhich produces
similar galls in barlc}', and differs from the Wheat Joint-worm
in having yellow legs, while the antcnn;ii3 of the male arc not
surrounded with whorls of hair. The Eurytoma secalis Fitch
infests rj^e. It differs from E. hordei in "having the hind pair
of shanks dull pale-yellow, as well as the forvrard ones." We
shall also see beyond that several species of Saw-flies produce
true galls, while other species of the same genus are external
feeders, which reconciles us more easily to the theory that the
Eurytoma hordei, and the other species described by Dr. Fitch,
differ in their habits from others of the family, and are not ani-
mal parasites. Indeed the Joint-worm is preyed upon by two
Chalcid parasites, for HaiTis records flnding the larvae, proba-
bly of Torymus, feeding on the Eurytoma larvae, and that a
species of Torymus (named T. Harrisii, by Dr. Fitch, and per-
haps the adult of the first-named Torymus) and a species of
Pteromalus arc parasites on Eurytoma.
In Monodontomerus (Toryinus) the third joint of the an-
206 HTMENOPTERA.
tennse is minute, and the hind femora are thick, but not ser-
rated, and beneath armed with a tooth near the tip.
The wings are rudimentary so that it does not quit the cell.
Newport states that the larva is flat, very hairy, and spins a
silken cocoon when about to pupate. It is an "external feed-
ing parasite" consuming the pupa as well as the larva of An-
thophorabia. The imago appears about the last of June,
perforating the cell of the bee. It also lives in the nests of
Osmia, Anthophora, and Odynerus.
The genus AnthojjJior'abia is so-called from being a parasite on
Anthophora. The males differ remarkably from the females,
especially in having simple instead of compound eyes, besides
the usual three ocelli. A. megachilis Pack. (Plate 3 ; fig. 7,
larva ; 7 a, pupa) is a parasite on a species of Megachile.
The larva is white, short and thick, cylindrical, with both
extremities much alike ; the segments are slightly convex, and
the terminal ring is orbicular and rather large. Length, .04
inch, being one-third as broad as long. On opening the cells
of Megachile, Ave found nearly a dozen containing these para-
sites, of Avhich 150 larvae Avere counted clustering on the out-
side of a dead and dr}'^ Megachile larva. In England they
occur, according to Newport's observations, in much less num-
bers, as he found from thirty to fifty in a cell of Anthophora.
A few females hatched out in the middle of October, and there
were a few pupae loft, but the majority Avintcred OA'er in the
larva state, and a ncAV and larger brood appeared in the spring.
Perilamp^is is a beautiful genus, with its shining, metallic
tints. The eleven-jointed antennae are short, lying when at
rest in a deep frontal furrow. The head is large, Avhile the
abdomen is slightly pedicelled, being short, contracted, Avith
the ovipositor concealed. P. pJatygaoter Say and P. triavgu-
laris Say Avere described from Indiana.
The numerous species of Pteromalus often oviposit in the
larviie of butterflies. In this genus the antennae are inserted
in the middle of the front. The abdomen is nearly sessile, ob-
tusely triangular, or acutely ovate in form, Avith the ovipositor
concealed. The femora are slender. There are about three
hundred species known to inhabit Europe. Pleromalus va-
nessce Harris is a parasite on Vanessa Antiopa. P. disio-
CHALCIDID^.
207
Fis:. l.)9.
camp^ Harris infests Clisiocampa. ^^ Pteromalus apum is
parasitic m the nests of the Mason-bee." (Westwood.) A spe-
cies of this or an allied genus (Fig. 139)
infests the eggs of the Clisiocampa Ameri-
cana. Its eggs are probably laid within
those of the Tent-caterpillar moth early
in the summer, hatching out in the autumn,
and late in the spring or early in June.
An allied genus, Siphonura, is a para-
site on galls. It resembles a beetle, Mor-
della, from its very peculiar scutum.
The antennae of Semiotellus are twelve-jointed. S (Ceraph
ron) destructor Say (Fig. 140), according to that autoor,
destroys the Hessian-fly, while lying
in the "flax-seed" state. Fitch de-
scribes it as being a tenth of an
inch long, black, with a brassy
green reflection on the head and
thorax, while the legs and base of
the abdomen are yellowish.
In Encyrtus, which comprises
over a hundred species already
known, usually rather small in
size, the body is short and rounded,
ihe eleven-jointed antennae are inserted near the mouth The
thorax is square behind, and the sessile abdomen is short and
broad at the base. Encyrtus Bolus
and E. Recite are described from
North America by Mr. F. Walker.
Encyrtus varicorm's is in Euroi)e
found as a parasite in the cells of
Eumenes coarctata.
The antennae of Eidoj)Jius are nine-
jointed, with a long branch attached to the thi'S,'fonrth, and
Wfch joints. The abdomen is flattened, sessile. E. hasalis
Say was described from Indiana. We figure a Chalcid (Fig
141, ^;^), allied to Eulopus, which preys upon the American
Tent Caterpillar.
_ A species of Blastophoga (B. grossorum Grav.) is interest-
ing as It IS the means of assisting in the fertilization of the Fig
Fiff. 110.
Fi- 141.
208
HYMENOPTERA.
blossoms, which act, as applied to this instance of the fertiliza-
tion of flowering plants b}^ insects, has been called by Mr.
Westwood " caprilication."
Cynipid^ Westwood. (Diploleparice Latreillo.) Gall-flies.
In this most interesting family we have a singnlar combination
of zoological and biological characters. The gall-flies are closely
allied to the parasitic Chalcids, bnt in their habits are plant-
parasites, as thc}^ live in a gall or tnmor formed by the ab-
normal grovrth of the A'egetable colls, duo to the irritation first
excited v/hou the egg is laid in the bark, or substance of the loaf,
as the case may be. The generation of the summer broods is
:ilso anomalous, but the parthenogenesis that occurs in those
forms, by which immense innnbers of females are produced, is
necessary for the work they perform in the economy of nature.
When v>-c seo a single oak hung with countless galls, the work
of a single species, and learn how numerous are its natural
V.
Jir.
enemies, it becomes evident that the demand for a great nu-
merical increase must be met by extraordinary means, like the
generation of the summer broods of the Plant-lice.
The gall-flies are readily recognized by their resemblance to
certain Chalcids, but the abdomen is much compressed, and
tinually very short, while the second, or the second and third seg-
ments, arc greatly developed, the remaining ones being imbri-
cated or covered one by the other, leaving the hind edges
exposed. Concealed within these, is the long, partially coiled,
very slender ovipositor, which arises near the base of the abdo-
men.* Among other distinguishing characters, are the straight
*rig. 142. I, nbtlomcn of Cijnip.t quercus-aciculnta Osten Saoken, with the ovipos-
itor cxsertpd ; II, the same with the ovipositor i-etraeted; III, the abdomen of the
female of Figites (Diplolepis) Mineatus Say; IV, the same showing the ventral
portion, in nature covered f).v tlic tcr^jal portion of the abdomen ; V, end view of the
CYNIPID^. 209
(not being elbowed) thirteen to sixteen-jointed antennae, the
labial palpi being from two to four-jointed, and the maxil-
lary palpi from four to six-jointed. The maxillary lobes are
broad and membranous, while the ligula is fleshy, and either
rounded or square at the end. There is a complete costal cell,
while the subcostal cells are incomplete. The egg is of large
size, and increases in size as the embryo becomes more devel-
oped. The larva is a short, thick, fleshy, footless grub, with
the segments of the body rather convex. When hatched they
immediately attack the interior of the gall, which has already
formed around them. Many species transform within the gall,
while others enter the earth and there become pupae.
It is well known that of many gall-flies the males have never
been discovered. "Ilartig says that he examined at least
15,000 specimens of the genus Cynips, as limited l>y him, with-
out ever discovering a male. To the same purpose he collected
about 28,000 galls of C>/mps divisa, and reared 9,000 to 10,000
Cynips from them ; all were females. Of C. folii, likewise, he
had thousands of specimens of the female sex without a single
male." (Osten Sackcu.) Siebold supposes in such cases that
there is a true parthenogenesis, which accounts for the immense
number of females.
Mr. B. D. Walsh has discovered (American Entomologist,
ii, p. 330) that C;/iiips querciis-acicukUa O. Sack., which pro-
duces a large gall in the autumn upon the black oak, in the
spring of the year succeeding lays eggs which produce galls
disclosing C'jnips quercus-spongijica O. Sack. He proved this
by colonizing certain trees with a number of individuals of
C. qwercus-acicidata, and finding the next spring that the eggs
laid by them produced C quercus-spongifica. The autumn
brood of Cynips consists entirely of agamous females, while
the vernal brood consists of both males and females, a:id Mi-.
Walsh declares after several experiments that " the agamous
autumnal female form of this Cynips (C, q. aclcalata) sooner
or later reproduces the bisexual vernal forin, and is thus "a
mere dimorphous female form" of O. q. sponglfica,
abdomen of Cynips, sho\vin,!r the relations of segments 7-8, the sternal portion of
the ciihth segment hein? obsolete; .fp, the single pair of abdominal spiracles ; VI,
terminal ventral piece, from which the sheaths (s .s) and the ovipositor {<,) take
their origin : it is strongly attached at m to the tergites of the sixth and seventh
rings; o, ovipositor; s, s its sheaths; a, an appendage to r, the terminal stcrnite.
— From Walsh.
14.
210 IITMENOPTERA.
In this connection he refers to the discovery of Clans, in
1867, of several males of Psyche helix, -which had been snp-
posed to be parthenogenons, thousands of specimens having
been bred by Siebold, all of which were females.
Baron Osten Sacken (in the Proceedings of the Entomol-
ogical Society of Philadelphia, vol. 1, p. 50) sa3S that "a
strong proof in confirmation of my assertion is, that in
those genera, the males of Avhich are known, both sexes
are obtained from galls in almost equal numbers ; even
the males, not unfrequently, predominate in number (see
Hartig, 1. c. iv, 399). Now the gall-flies, reared by me
from the oak-apple, were all females. Dr. Fitch, also, had
only females ; and Mr. B. D. Walsh, at Rock Island,
Illinois, reared (from oak-apples of a different kind) from
thirty-live to forty females, without a single male. This
leads to the conclusion that the Cynipes of the oak-apples
belong to the genera hitherto supposed to be agamons."
For an account of the habits and many other interesting
points in the biolog}"^ of these interesting insects, Ave further
quote Baron Osten Sacken. ' ' Most of the gall-flies alwaj's attack
the came kind of oak; thus, the gall of C. seminator Han-is.
is ahvays found on the white oalc ; C. tubicola Osten Sacken on
the poGt oak, etc. Still, some galls of the same form occur on
different oaks ; a gall closely resembling that of C. quercus-
glohulus Fitch, of the white oak, occurs also ou the post oak,
and the swamp chestnut oak ; a gall Aery similar to the com-
mon oak-apple of the red oak occurs on the bhick-jLack oak, etc.
Are such galls identical, that is, are they produced by a gall-fly
of the same kind? I have not been able to investigate this
question sufficiently. Again, if the same gall-fly attacks dif-
ferent oaks, may it not, in some cases, produce a slightly differ-
ent gall ? It Avill be seen below, that C. quercus-futilis, from a.
leaf-gall on the Avhite oak, is A'cry like C. qxtercns-papiUata from
a leaf-gall on the swamp-chestnut oak. I could not perceive
any diuerence, except a very slight one in the coloring of the
feet. Both gall-flies may belong to the same species, and
although the galls are somcAvhat different, they are in some
respects analogous, and might be the produce of the same gall-
fly on two difierent trees.
CYNIPID^. 211
"Some gall-flies appear very early in the season; Cynips
quercus-palustris for instance, emerges from its gall before the
end of May ; these galls arc the earliest of the season ; they
grow out of the buds and appear full grown before the leaves
are developed. May not this gall-fly have a second generation,
and if it has, may not the gall of this second generation be
different from the first produced, as it would be under different
circuuistances, in a more advanced season, perhaps on leaves
instead of buds, etc?
" A remarkable fact is the extreme resemblance of some of
the parasitical gall-flies with the true gall-fly of the same gall.
Thus, Cynips quercits-futilis, O. Sacken, is strikingly like Aulax?
futilis, the parasite of its gall. The common gall on the black-
berry stems produces two gall-flies which can hardly be told
apart at first glance, although they belong to different genera."
(Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia.)
Hartig has divided this family into tlu'ee sections : First,
Cjaiips and its allies, the true gall-flies (Psenides) in which the
second (counting the slender pedicel as the first) segment of
the abdomen is longer than half its length, and the subcostal
area is narrow, the basal areolet (cell) being opposite the base
of the former.
Cynips cojiflnens Harris forms the oak-apple commonly met
with on the scrub-oak. There is a spring and summer brood.
These galls, sometimes two inches in diameter, are green and
pulpy at first, but when ripe have a hard shell with a spongy
interior, in the centre of v/hich, lodged in a woody kernel,
which serves as a cocoon, the larva transforms, escaping
through a hole, which it gnaws through both the kernel and
shell. We have found the fly ready to escape in June, and Dr.
Harris has found it in October. Two galls are represented on
Plate 4, fig. 13 ; the larger of which has been tenanted, after
the gall-flies had escaped, by an Odynerus. Cynij^s gaUce-tinc-
torioi Olivier produces the galls of commerce, brought from
Asia Minor.
Biorhiza (Apophyllus Hartig) is a wingless genus, and lives
beneath the earth in galls formed at the roots of oak trees.
Biorldza nigra Fitch is black throughout, including the antennae
and feet, and is but .08 inch long.
212 HYMENOPTERA.
Galls are often found on the blackberry, tenanted by another
genus, Diasti-ophus, which has usually fifteen-jointed antennae
in the male, and one joint less in the female. On opening a
gall containing this fl}', we often find an inquiline gall-fly,
Aulax, "showing the most striking resemblance in size, color-
ing and sculpture, to the Diastrophus, their companion. The
one is the very counterpart of the other, hardly showing any
differences, except the strictly generic characters." (Osten
Sacken.) These galls are also infested by Chalcid parasites,
Callimome (two species), Ormyrus, and Eurytoma.
Osten Sacken enumerates "eight C3'nipidous galls on the dif-
ferent kinds of roses of this country." The flies all belong to
the genus Rhodites^ which is distinguished by the under side
of the last abdominal segment being drawn out into a long
point, while the antenniB are fourteen-jointed
in both sexes. R. toscb produces the bede-
guar gall ("from the Hebrew hedcguacJi^ said
to mean rose-apple"). It was formerlj' used
as a medicine. The galls form a moss-like
mass, encircling the rose branch. Rliodites
dichlocerus of Harris (Fig. 143), produces
hard, woody, irregular swellings of the branches.
We now come to the second section, the Guest gall-flies (In-
quiliuETe), which are unable to produce galls themselves, as they
do not secrete the gall-producing poison, though possessing
a well developed ovipositor. Hence, like the Nomada, etc.,
among bees, they are Cuckoo-flies, laying their eggs in galls
already formed.
This group may generally, according to Mr. Walsh, be dis-
tinguished from the preceding by the sheaths of the ovipositor
always projecting, more or less, beyond the "dorsal "\alvc,"
v/hicli is a small, hairy tubercle at the top of the seventh ab-
dominal segment. This dorsal valve also projects greatly.
In almost all the species, the ovipositor projects from between
the tips of the sheaths.
Among the Inquiline genera are Sifnophnis, A7nbIynotus,
jSynerges, and Aulax, which are guests of various species of
Cynipides.
In Ftgites and allies (Figitidae) , the third section of the
TENTHREDINID JE .
213
family, the second segment is shorter tlian half the length of
the abdomen, being much longer and less high and compressed
than in the Cynipides, and the ovipositor is retracted within
the abdomen. These insects are true internal parasites, re-
sembling the Chalcids. Ihalia is a parasite on a Avood-beetle.
This genus has, by AValsh, been placed in the Cj-nipides.
Figites has feather-like antenuiB in the male ; it is a parasite
on the larvae of Sarcophaga. The genus AUotria is a para-
site on Aphis.
Walsh states that two genera, which he has identified as
Kleidotoma and Eucoila are true Figitida', and "have the
wings fringed like a Ilymar, and the former has them emargi-
nate at tip with the radial area in my species distinctly open,
and the latter simple at tip with the radial area in my species
marginally closed by a coarse brown vein." Eucoila is sup-
posed to be parasitic on some insect attacking the turnip.
Tenthredinid^ Leach. The Saw-flies connect the Hymen-
optera with the Lepidoptera. In the perfect state they eon-
form to the Hymenop- , „
terous type, but as
larvae they would often
be mistaken for Lepi-
dopterous larvae, and
in their habits closely
resemble many cater-
pillars. The three
divisions of the body,
usually so trenchantly
marked in the higher
Hymenoptera, are here
less distinct, since the abdomen is sessile, its basal ring being
broad and applied closely to the thorax, while the succeeding
rings are very equal in size. The head is broad and the thorax
wide, closely resembling that of the Lepidoptera. The wings
(Fig. 144, fore-wing) are larger in proportion to thd rest
of the body than usual ; the^^ are more net- veined, the colls
being more numerous and extending to the outer margin.*
*In treating of this family we avail ourselves largely of the important work on
the American species, publishing at the time of writing, by Mr. E. Norton, in the
Transactions of the American Entomological Society, vols. 1, 2. We therefore
214 HYMENOPTERA.
All these characters show that the saw-fly i^ a degradecl
Hymenopter.
The autennai are not elbowed ; are rather short and simple,
clavate, but in rare instances fissured or feathered. The ab-
domen consists, usually, of eight external segments, the two
last being aborted on the under side, owing to the great develop-
ment of the ovipositor. The ovipositor or "saw" (compare
Fig. 24) consists of two lamelhc, the lower edge of wliich is
toothed and fits in a groove in the under side of the upper one,
which is toothed above, both protected l)y the usual sheath-like
st^'lets. On pressing, saj's Lacaze-Duthiers, the end of the
abdomen, we see the saw depressed, leave the direction of
the axis of tlie body, and become perpendicular. By this
movement the saw, which both cuts and pierces, makes a gash
in the soft part of the leaf where it deposits its eggs.
The eggs are laid more commonly near the ribs of the leaf,
in a series of slits, each slit containing but a single egg.
''Some species, on the other hand, introduce their eggs by
means of their saws into the edges of leaves (Nemaius covju-
gatus Dahlb.), and others beneath the longitudinal ribs of the
leaves. A few, indeed, merely fasten their eggs upon the outer
surface of the leaves (Nc.iatuf; grossukmm, etc.), attaching them
together like a string of beads (Reaumur, vol. v, plate 10, fig.
8), whilst a fev/ place them in a mass on the surface of the leaf
(ibid, plate 11, figs. 8, 9)." (Westwood.) The irritation set up
by the saws in the wounded leaf, causes a flow of sap vvhicli is
stated by Westwood to be imbibed by the egg, so that it swells
gradually to tv, ice its original size. It is known that the eggs
of ants increase in size as the embryo develops, and we would
copy his diagram (Fig. 114), showing the venation of the wing (comp.ire Fig. 29
and our nomenclature), with the explanation of parts given by liim.
a, stigma; b, costa or costal margin; c, apical margin; rf, costal and post-
costal veins; r, cxtcrnomedial ; /, ff, anal; 7(, posterior margin; i, marginal vein;
j, submarginal vein; /.-, first, second, and third (transverse) submargiual nervurcs;
I, recurrent nervures (discoidal); m, discoidal vein; n, first and second inner ai)i-
cal or sul>marginal nervures. Bulte or clear spots, on the veins or nervures, with
bullar or clear lines crossing them. 1,2, marginal or radial cells ; ;>, 4, 5, C, submar-
ginal or cubital cells; 7, S, 9, discoidal cells; 10, costal cell; 11, 12, brachial or me-
dial cells; 13, 14, inner and outer apical cells. (Hinder cells, Hartig. Cellule du
limbe, St. Farg.) Ko. 11 is sometimes the medial, and Xos. 12 and 13 the submedial
cells ; Nos. 0 and 14 the apical cells ; Nos. 7 and 13 discoidal ; Nos. 10, 11, 12, 15, the
first, second, third and fourth brachial cells; l.'i, lanceolate cell. 1, open; 2, con-
tracted; 3, petiolate; 4, subcontracted; 5, with oblique cross nervure; G, with
straight cross uei"vuro.
TENTHREDINID^. 215
question whether the increase in size of the eggs of the Saw-
fly is not rather due to the same cause.
-The punctures in the plant often lead, in some genera, to tlie
production of galls, in whicli the larvae live, thus showing
tlie near relationsliip of this family to the gall-flies (Cynipidsc),
The larvae strongly resemble caterpillars, but there are six
to eight pairs of abdominal legs, whereas the caterpillar has
but Ave pairs. Many species curl the hind body up spirally
when f^edhig or at rest. They are usuallj^ green, with lines
and markings of various colors. They usually moult four
times, the last change being the most marked. Most of the
larvae secrete silk and spin a tough cocoon, in which they hiber-
nate in the larva, and often in the pupa state. The pupa has
free limbs, as in the other families. The eggs are usuall}' de-
posited in the leaves of plants, but in a few cases, according
to Norton, iu slender or hollow stems. While some are slug-
shaped, like the Pear-slug, others like Lyda inanUa, mentioned
by Westwood, live on rose bushes, and construct a "portable
case, formed of bits of rose-leaves arranged in a spiral coil ; "
and other species are leaf-rollers, like the Tortricids. The
larva of CejjJius does injury to gi'ain, in Euiope, by boring
within the stems of wheat. A remarkable instance of the care
of the saw-fl}^ for her young, is recorded by Mr. R. II. Lewis,
who observed in Australia, the female of Perga Lewisii deposit
its eggs in a slit next the midribs of an Eucalyptus leaf. They
were placed transversely in a double series. "On this leaf
the mother sits till the exclusion of the larA^ae ; and as soon as
these are hatched, the parent follows them, sitting with out-
stretched legs over her brood, protecting them from the attacks
of parasites and other enemies Avith admirable perseverance."
(Westwood.)
The species are mostly limited to the temperate zone, but
few being found in the tropics. The perfect insects mostly
occur in the early summer, and are found on the leaves of the
trees they infest, or feeding on flowers, especially those of
the umbelliferous plants.
The genus Cimbex contains oin* largest species, the antennae
ending in a knob. C. Americana Leach is widely distributed,
and variLvj greatly in color. The large whitish larva, with a
216
IIYMENOPTERA.
blackish dorsal stripe, may be found rolled up in a spiral on
the loaves of the ehn, birch, linden and willow trees. When
disturbed it ejects a fluid from pores situated above the spira-
cles. It constructs a large tough parchment-like cocoon, and
the fly appears in the early summer.
The genus Tricliiosoma is recognized by its hairy body, and
the autennte have five joints preceding the three-jointed club.
T. iriavf/uh(m Kirby is found in British America and Colorado,
and a variety, T. bicolor Harris, on Mount Washington ; it is
black, except the tip of the abdomen, with the fourth and fifth
joints of the antennas piceous, and the thorax is covered with
ash-colored hair.
In Abin the antennae are seven-jointed, with the club obtuse ;
the body is villose, the abdomen having a metallic silken hue.
The Abia caprifolii Norton (Fig. 145, larva) is very destruc-
tive to the Tartarian Honeysuckle, sometimes stripping the;
bush of its leaves during successive sea-
sons in Maine and Massachusetts. It
hatches out and begins its ravages very
soon after the leaves are out, eating cir-
cular holes in them. It lies curled up
on the leaf and when disturbed emits
drops of a watery fluid from the pores in
the sides of the body, and then falls to
the ground. During the earlj' part of
August it spins a pale yellowish silken
cocoon, but does not change to a pupa.
Mr. Riley states, until the following
spring. He describes the larva as being
common about Chicago ; that it is "bluish green on the back,
and yellow on the sides, which are pale near the spiracles, and
covered with small black dots. Between every segment is a
small, transverse, yellow band, with a black spot in the middle
and at each end. Head free, of a brownish black above and
color of the body beneath." The fly is described by Norton
as being black, with faint greenish reflections on the abdomen ;
there are two white bands at the base of the metathorax, and
the wings are banded. It is .30 inch long and the wings ex-
pand .70 inch. The larvae can easily be destroyed from their
Fig. 115.
TENTHREDINID^. 217
habit of falling to the ground when the bush is shaken, where
they can be crushed by the foot. Dr. Fitch has reared AMa
cerasi from one or two cocoons found on the wild cherry, the
fly appearing in New York diunng March.
Hylotoma is a much smaller genus ; the basal joint of the
antenna is oval, while the second is small and round, and
the terminal joint is very long. The larva is twenty-footed, and
when eating curves the end of the body into the form of an S.
The pupa is protected by a gauzy, doubly enveloping cocoon.
H. 3IcLeayi Leach is wholly black, sometimes with a tisige of
blue. It is found throughout the Northern States.
The genus PristipJiora, closely allied to Nematus, is known
by its nine-jointed antenntB, and the single costal cell ; the first
submarginal (subcostal) cell ha^'ing two recurrent veinlets.
P. identidem Norton has been discovered by Mr. W. C. Fish to
be destructive to the cranbeny on Cape Cod. He has reared
the insect, and sent me the following notes on its habits, while
the adult lly has been identified by Mr. Norton, to whom I
submitted specimens. The larvjie were detected in the first
week of June, eating the leaves ; "they were light or pale yel-
lowish green when first hatched," and grew darker with age.
The head of the young was dark, but in the full-grown worm
lighter. When full-grown they were about .30 of an inch in
length, and had two lighter whitish green stripes running along
the back from head to tail. They had spun their cocoons by the
20th of June in the rubbish at the bottom of the rearing bot-
tles. On the 29th of June the}^ came out in the perfect state.
We would add to this description that the body, in two alco-
holic specimens of the larvae, was long, cylindrical, and smooth,
with seven pairs of abdominal feet. The head is full, rounded
and blackish, but after the last moult pale honey-yellow. The
male is shining black, and Mr. Norton informs me that it is
his P. idiota. P. grossidarioi Walsh is a widely diffused species
in the Northern and Western States, and injures the currant
and gooseberry. The female fly is shining black, while the
head is dull j-ellow, and the legs are honey-yellow, with the tips
of the six tarsi, and sometimes the extreme tips of the hinder
tibia; and of the tarsal joints pale dusky for a quarter of their
length. The wings are partiall}^ h3^aline, with black veins, a
218 HYMENOPTERA.
honey-yellow costa, and a dnsky stigma, edged with honey-
yellow. The male differs a little in having black eoxve. • Mr.
Walsli states that the larva is a pale grass-green woi'm, half
an inch long, with a ])lack head, which becomes green after
the last monlt, bnt with a lateral brown stripe meeting with
the opposite one on the top of the head, where it is more or
less confluent ; and a central brown-black spot on its face.
It appears the last of June and early in July, and a second
brood in August. They spin their cocoons on the bushes on
which they feed, and the fly appears in two or three weeks, the
specimens reared by him flying on the 26th of August. P.
»ycophanta Walsh is an "inquiline," or guest gall-saw-fly,
inhabiting a Cecidomyian gall on a willow.
The genus Euura comprises several gall-making species. It
diflfers from the preceding genus in the second, instead of the
first, subniarginal cell having two recurrent venules. Mr.
Walsh has raised E. orbitaUs Norton (E. genuina Walsh) from
galls found on Salix humilis. This gall is a bud which is
found enlarged two or three times its natural size, before it
unfolds in spring. The larva is twenty-footed, is from .13 to
.19 of an inch long, of a greenish white color, and the
head is dusky. It bores out of its gall in autumn, descending
an inch into the ground, where it spins a thin, silken, whitish
cocoon. The gall of E. salicis-ovum Walsh is found on Salix
cordata. The female is shining yellow, while the ground color
of the male is greenish white. The gall of this species is an
oval roundish, sessile, one-chambered, green or brownish swell-
ing, .30 to .50 of an inch long, placed lengthwise on the side of
small twigs. The larva is pale yellowish, and the fly appears
in April. The fly is, according to Walsh, " absolutely undistin-
ffuishable by any reliable character from the guest gall-saw-fly,
Euura ijerturhans Walsh," which inhabits dipterous galls made
by Cecidomyian flies on the willow and grape (Walsh). If these
two "species" do not differ from each other, either in the larva
or adult state, "by any reliable characters," then one must
question whether the variation in habits is sufficient to sej^arate
them as species, and whether E. Galici.>o'\'um does not, some-
times, instead of forming a new f!;nll, lay ito eggs in a gall readj^-
nuule by a dipteroiia galMly. V.'e have cecn that Odyncrus
TENTHKEDINID^. 21&
albophaleratus, which usually makes a mud cell situated in the
most diverse places, iu one case at least, makes no cell at all,
but uses the tunnel bored out by a Ceratina ! and yet we should
not split this species into twQ, on account of this difference
in its habits. We had writteil ^is before meeting with Mr.
Norton's remark that "it is difficult to give a hearty assent
to Mr. Walsh's inquilines or guest-flies, without further inves-
tigation." (Transactions of the American Entomological
Society, vol. i, p. 194.)
In Nematus the nine-jointed antennre have the third joint
longest. There is one costal and four subcostal cells, the
second cell receiving two recurrent vcinlets ; the basal half
of the lanceolate cell is closed ; the hind wings have two mid-
dle cells, and the tibiiie are simple.
The larvae are hairy with warts behind the abdominal feet.
The}' have twenty feet, the fourth and eleventh segments (count-
ing the head as one) being footless. They are either solitary,
feeding upon the leaves of plants, or social and generally found
on pine trees, while some species live in the galls of plants. The
pupa, according to Ilartig, is enclosed in an egg-shaped cocoon,
like that of Lophyrus, but less firm, though with more outside
silk. It is generally made in the earth, or iu leaves which fall
to the ground. N. vertebratus Say is green, with the antennaa
and dorsal spots blackish, the thorax being trilineatc. There
are fifty species in this countr}^, of which the most injurious
one, the Gooseberry saw-fly, has been brought from Europe.
This is the N. ventricosus King which was undoubtedly imported
into this country about the year 18G0, spreading mostly from
Rochester, N. Y., where there are extensive nurseries. It does
more injury to the currant and gooseberry than any other native
insect, except the currant moth (Abraxas ribearia). Professor
Winchell, who has studied this insect in Ann Arbor, Michigan,
where it has been very <le;;.tructive, observed the female on
the IGtli of June, while depositing her cjdindrical, whitish and
transparent eggs, in regular rovrs along the under side of
the veins of the leaves, at the rate of about one in forty -five
seconds. The embryo escapes froin the egg in four days.
It feeds, moults and burrows into the ground within a period of
eight days. It remains thirteen days in the ground, being
220
HYMENOPTERA.
most of the time in the pupa state, while the fly Yives nine days.
The first brood of worms appeared May 21, the second brood
June 25. Winchell describes the larva as being pale-green,
with the head, tail and feet, black, with luimerous black spots
regularly arranged around the body, from which arise two or
more hairs. Figure 14G, 1, shows the eggs deposited along the
under side of the midribs of the leaf; 2, the holes bored by the
very young larvoe, and 3, those eaten b}?^ the larger worms.
In transporting gooseberry and currant bushes, Walsh recom-
mends that the roots be carefull}^ cleansed of dirt, so that the
cocoons may not be car-
ried about from one gar-
den to another. The leaves
of the bushes should be
,( / ) examined during the last
i^ / /) week of May, and as only
7' a few leaves are affected
at first, these can be de-
tected by the presence of
the eggs and the little
round holes in them, and
should be plucked off and
burnt. The female saw-
fly is bright honey-yellow,
^'ff- 1*^- Avith the head black, biit
yellow below the insertion of the antenna?. The male differs
in its black thorax, and the antenna? are paler reddish than in
the female.*
The genus Empliytus has nine-jointed antenna? ; the third
*Mr. Norton lias comniunicnted tho followinjr description of the larva of another
Baw-fly of this genus which infests the weeping-willow.
" Nemctius trilineatiis Norton. Tlic larvaa of this were first seen upon the weep-
jng'-willows about August 1st, in immense numbers, almost wholly stripping large
trees of their leaves. They begin upon the edge of the leaf and eat all of it except
the inner midrib. They arc very sensitive to disturbances, very lively, and are
generally found with the hinder part of their bodies bent up over the back. They
are twenty-footed, of a bright green color, palest at head and tail, with five rows of
black dots down the back, the outer row upon each side irregular and with inter-
vals. On each side above the feet is another roM' of larger black dots, and the three
anterior pair of feet are black at the base, middle and tip.
" A great number of the saM'-flies wore found fiying about the trees, August ICth,
in the proportion of about ten males to one female. The mules being almost
wholly black upon the thorax."
TENTHEEDIN ID^ .
221
and fourth joints of equal length ; the wings have two subcos-
tal and three median cells, the first as long as the second, gen-
erally longer; the first receiving one recurrent vein, the second
two. We have found the larva of E. maculatus Norton on the
cultivated strawberry, to which, in the Western States, it some-
times does considerable damage, but it can be quite readily
exterminated bj' hand-picking. Mr. Rdey has carefully ob-
served the habits of this insect, and we condense the follow-
ing remarks from his account in the Prairie Farmer : — 'Pearly in
May, in Northern Illinois, the female saw-fly deposits her eggs
in the stem of the plant. They are white and .03 of an inch
long, and may be readily perceived upon splitting the stalk ;
though the outside
orifice, at which
they were intro-
duced, is scarcely
perceptible, their
presence causes a
swelling in the
stalk. By the mid-
dle of May the
worms will have
eaten innumerable
small holes in the
leaves. They are
dirty 3'ellow and
gray green, and at rest curl the abdomen up spirally. They
moult four times, and are, Avhen full-fed, aliout three-fourths of
an inch in length. They make a loose, earthen cocoon in the
ground, and change to perfect flies by the end of June and
the beginning of July. A second brood of worms appears,
and in the early part of August descend into the ground and
remain in the larva state until the middle of the succeeding
April, when they finish their transformations. The fly is pitchy
black, with two rows of dull, dirty white, transverse spots upon
the abdomen. The nine-jointed antennas are black, and the
legs are brown, and almost white at the joints. Fig. 147 rep-
resents the Strawberry Emphytus in all its stages of gi-owth.
1, 2, venti-al and side-view of the pupa ; 3, the fly enlarged ;
222
HYMENOPTEKA.
5, tho same, natural cize ; 8, an antenna enlarged ; 4, the
larva while feeding ; G, the same, at rest ; 7, the cocoon ; 9, an
egg enlarged.
Of the genus Dolerus, known by the second submarginal cell
receiving two recurrents, I), arvensis Say, is a common blue-
black species found in April and May on willows.
The genus Sdandria is the most injurious genus of the
family. It embraces the Tear and Eose-slugs, the Vine-slug
^ and the Raspberr}^ slug. The flies are small,
black, with short and stout nine-jointed an-
tenme, and broad thin wings. "The larva?
are twenty and twenty-two-footed, present-
ing great differences in appearance and habit,
being slim^^, hairy or woolly, feeding in
companies or alone, eating the whole leaf as
thej^ go, or, removing only the cuticle of the
leaf, and forming sometimes one and some-
times two broods in a j-ear. Selandria vitis,
the Vine-slug, is twenty-footed ; it has a
smooth skin, and the body is somewhat thick-
ened in the middle but slender towards the
tail. "While growing, the color is green
above, Avith black dots across each ring, and
yellow beneath, with head and tail black.
They live upon the vine and are very destruc-
tive, feeding early in August in companies, on
the lower side of the leaf, and eating it all as
they go from the edge inwards. There are two broods in a
season. The fly is shining black, with red shoulders, and
the front wings are clouded." (Norton.)
S. rahl Harris feeds on the raspberry, appearing in May.
The larva is green, not slimy, and feeds in the night, or early
in the morning. S. tilice feeds on the linden. The Pear-slug, S.
cerasi Peck (Fig. 148, larvae feeding on a leaf of the pear, and
showing the surface eaten oft* in patches ; a, enlarged ; &, fly),
is twenty-footed ; it narrows rapidlj^ behind the swollen thorax,
and is covered with a sticky olive-colored slime. It feeds on
the upper side of the leaves of both the wild and cultivated
cherry and pear trees, and has been found on the plum and
Fig. 118.
TENTHREDINID^. 223
mountain-asli. It appears in June and September. The ^y is
sliiny blaclc, with tlie tips of the four anterior femora, and the
tibitie and tarsi, dull white. An egg-parasite, belonging to the
genus Eneyrtus, renders, according to Peck, a great number
of its eggs abortive.
The Rose-slug, Selandria rosoe Harris, is longer than the Pear-
slug, the body being scarcely thickened anteriorly, and not
covered with slime. It is pale-green and yellowish beneath.
It appears in July and August, and does great injury in dis-
figuriuo; and killing the leaves of the
rose, which reuiain dried and with-
ered on the bush. When full-fed,
the larva, like the Pear-slug, makes
a cocoon beneath the surface of the
ground. The flies are seen in abund-
ance about the rose-bushes as soon ^i?- u^-
as the leaves are expanded, when they may be caught with
nets, or the hand on cloudy days. Hand-picking, and the
application of a very Aveak solution of carbolic acid, coal oil,
whale oil soap, or quassia, are useful in killing the larviB.
On the 25th of July a young friend brought me a large num-
ber of some remarkable larvae (Fig. 149, natural size) of a
saw-fly, which I surmised might belong to this genus. It pre-
sented the appearance of an animated, white, cottony mass,
about an inch long and two-thirds as high. The head of the
larva is rounded, pale whitish, and covered with a snow-white
powdery secretion, with prominent
black eyes. The body (Fig. 150,
naked larva) is cylindrical, with eight
Fig. 150. pairs of abdominal legs, the segments
transversely wrinkled, pale pea-green, with a powdery secre-
tion low down on the sides, but above and on the back, arise
long, flattened masses of flocculent matter (exactly resembling
that produced by the woollj^ plant-lice and other Homopterous
Hemiptera) forming an irregular dense cottony mass, reaching
to a height equal to two-thirds the length of the worm, and con-
cealing the head and tail. On the 27th and 28th of July the
larvcTe moulted, leaving the cast skins on the leaf. They w-ere
then naked, a little thicker than before, of a pale-green color,
224
HYMENOPTERA.
Fiff. 151.
and were curled on the leaf. They eat out the edge of the
leaf, of the butternut tree. Sometime during August, two
cocoons were spun between the
leaA'es, but I did not succeed in
raising the saw-H}'. On describing
the larva, in a letter to Mr. E. Nor-
ton, he kindly sent me alcoholic
specimens of larvaB (without the
woolly substance, which dissolves
and disappears in alcohol) found
feeding on the hickory, which are
apparentl}'^, from the comparison of
alcoholic specimens, identical with tlie Butternut Selandria.
The adult % (Fig- 151, <?, a, cocoon), he has named /S. caryoe^
of which he has kindl}^ furnished
me with the subjoined description.*
Alhm^as is closely related to Se-
landria, both in its structure and its
habits, but differs in having the an-
tennsc short and somewhat clavate.
A.basilaristiayis a common species.
The Pine saw-fl}', Loj^hyrus^ may be known by the feathered
antennaj of the male. L. ahietis Harris (Fig. 152, female)
infests the llr and pitch-pine. The male is black above and
brown beneath, while the female is yellowish brown above.
Fiar. ir)2.
* Selandria carym Norton, nov. sp. (Belonging to tribe 2. Under wings with one
middle cell. Div. A. Antenna3 flliform, short).
Female. Color shining bhick. The pro- and mesothorax and scutellnni rnfous.
the ai)ex ofthc latter black; the nasus and legs white, with their tarsi blackish; the
base of coxa; and a line down the upper side of tlie legs black. Antenna; short,
the second joint as long as the first; the four final joints together, not longer than
the two preceding. Nasus slightly incurved. Claws of tarsi apparently bifid,
Wings subviolaceons. Lanceolate cell iietiolate, the first submedial cell above it,
with a distinct cross vein. Under wings with one submarginal middle cell (all
other spefies have this cell discoidal), the marginal cell with a cross nerviire, and
all the outer cells closed by an outer nerviirc, which does not touch the margin.
The submedial cell extended nearly to margin. Length, .23 of an inch. Expanse
of wings .-to of an inch.
"The male resembles the female, but the under wings are without middle cells.
The larva; Iced upon the leaves of the hickory (.Jiiglans squamosa.) They are
found upon the lower side of the leaf, sometimes fifteen or twenty upon one leaf,
which they cat from the outer extremity inward, often leaving nothing but the
strong midribs. They cover themselves wholly with white flocculent tufts which
arc rubbed off on being touched, leaving a green twenty-two legged worm, about .75
TENTHREDINID^S.
225
with a sliort l)lack stripe on each side of the thorax. Tlie
lavxie are about half an inch long, of a pale dirty green, yel-
lowish beneath, striped with green, and when full-fed yellowish
all over. Thsy are social, and may often be found in consider-
able numbers on a single needle of the pitch-pine. The larviE
spin tough cocoons
among the leaves,*
and the flies appear
during August, but
probably in greater
numbers in the
spring.
These slugs can
be best destroyed
by showering them
with a solution of
carbolic acid, pe-
troleum, whale oil Fig. 153.
soap, or tobacco water. Mr. Fish has sont me the larvne of a
saw-fly, allied to L. abietis, which, in Eastham, Mass., ravaged
the young pitch-pines planted in the sand}^ soil of that region.*
The eggs are laid singly in the side of a needle of the pine ;
though sometimes an egg is inserted on each side of the
leaf.
Mr. Riley has described the habits of the White-pine saw-fly.
of an inch in length when fully grown; darkest .above, and with indistinct black-
ish spots upon the sides. The head is white with a small black dot upon each side.
" Sjieciinens were taken upon the leaves July 4th. Went into the ground about
the 20th of July. The cocoon is formed near the surface of the ground of a little
earth or sand drawn together. Four specimens came forth about August 2-2d, all
seeming very small for so large larva;."
*On sending specimens of the male and female to Mr. Norton he writes that
this is an undescribed species, of which he has prepared the following description :
'■'■ Lophyrus pini-rigidce Norton. New Species. Female. Length, 0.30; exjianse
of wings, 0.C.5 of an inch; antenna; seventeen-jointed, short, brown; color, luteous
brown, with a black line joining the ocelli, a black stripe down each of the three lobes
of the thorax above, and the sutures behind ; body paler beneath ; the trochanters
and base of the tibia; waxen ; claws with an inner tooth near the middle ; wings
very slightly clouded; cross nervure of the lanceolate cell straight. Male. Length,
0.2."); expanse of wings, 0..55 of an inch; antenufe fifteen-jointed, black, quite .short,
with twelve branches on each side, those at the base nearly as long as the sixth
and seventh; apical joint simple, enlarged at base; color of insect black, with the
abdomen at apex and beneath yellow-brown; legs the same color at base; below
the knees whitish,
15
22G HYMEXOPTERA.
L. Ahhotii Leach. The flies appear early in June, and there is
but a single brood of Inrvte, which remain on the trees, in Illi-
nois, vnitil November, and hibernate before changing to pupae.
The female is honey-yellow, with pale rufous legs, and the
male is jet black. Fig. 153 represents, after Riley, the trans-
formations of this species, whose habits closely resemble those
of L. abietis. 1, is the fly somewhat magnified; 6, magnified
antenna of the male ; 7, female antenna ; 2 and 3, pnpiB ;
4, larv;e in diftcrent positions, natural size ; 5, cocoon. The L.
Lccontei Fitch has been found feeding on the Scotch and Aus-
trian pines in New Jersey', and has been described hy Mr.
Eiley. The larva is an inch long, dirty or jxllowish white,
with dorsal black marks wider before than behind, and usually
broken transversely in the full-grown individuals ; they are
farther apart than in L. Abbotii. "The lateral spots are some-
what square, with an additional row of smaller black marks
below them, and the last segment is entirely black above. The
antennie of the male fly are twenty-one-jointed, and have on
one side seventeen large, and on the other seventeen small
branches, there being eighteen on one side and fifteen on the
other in L. Abbotii. The female may at once be distinguished
from L. Abbotii by her abdomen being jet-black above, Avith a
small brown patch at the end, and a transverse line of the
same color just below the thorax."
There are several allied genera, such as Cladius ((7. isomera
Harris), Lyda (L. scripta Say), and Xyela (X. infuscata Har-
ris), which belong here. The last genus, Cejohus, which by some
"The females of Lophyrns arc all mneh alike and I have found tlie number and
forms of the joints of the antenna', so far, the only reliable guide. The niiile looks
precisely like that of Z. abief is, hnt the form of the antenna; diflfers in being much
shorter. The female looks much like L. ubdominalis Say, taken on the pine near
New York. The following list will show how the species may be distiuguibhed by
counting the number of joints."
L. Fal)ricii Loach, male, not described, female, IG joints.
L. conipar Leach, " " " " 10 "
L. pini-rigidffi Norton, " 15 joints " 17 " Pine.
L. Abbotii Leach, " not described " 17 " "
L. al)ietis Harris, " 21 joints, " 18 "
L. abdominalis Say, " not described, " 18 " Pine.
Li. pinetum Norton, " 19 joints, " 18 " "
L. Americanus Leach, •' not described, " 19 "
L. insularis Cresson, " 17 joints, " 20 " Pine.
L. Lecontei Fitch, " 17 _" " 21 "
UROCEEID^. 227
authors is placed in the next family, is retained by Norton in the
present group. The larva is, in Europe, injurious to rye and
wheat, boring in the stems of the plant. Cephus abbreviatus Say
is our more t^-pical form, though rarely met with. C. trimacnlatns
Say is found in New York early in June, according to Dr. Fitch.
Uroceridje Leach. The family of "Horntails" are so-called
from the long prominent horn on the abdomen of the males,
while the ovipositor or "saw," resembling that of the true saw-
flies, is attached to tlie middle of the abdomen, and extends far
beyond its tip. They are of large size, with a long cylindrical
body and a large head, square next the thorax, but much
rounded in front. The antenna are long and filiform. The
larvaj are "cylindrical fleshy grubs, of a whitish color, with u
small rounded horny head, and a pointed horny tail. They have
six very small legs under the fore-part of the body, and are pro-
vided with strong and powerful jaws, wherewitli they bore long
holes in the trunks of the trees they inhabit. Like other borers
these grubs are wood-eaters, and often do great damage to pines
and firs, wherein they are most commonly found." Harris
farther states that, when about to transform, the larvffi make;
thin cocoons of silk in their burrows, interwoven with little
chips made by the larva. "After the chrysalis skin is cast off,
the winged insect breaks through its cocoon, creeps to the
mouth of its burrow, and gnaws through the covering of bai'k
over it, so as to come out of the tree into the open air."
Xiphklria is so-called from the sword-like ovipositor, whicli
is much shorter than in the succeeding genera. The body is a
little flattened, somewhat turned up behind, and the tip of the
abdomen ends in an obtui?e point, while the antennae are short,
curved and tapering at the end. Xijyhidria cdbkornis Harris is
black with yellowish legs and white antennse, with the two
lowest joints black. It is nearly three-fourths of an inch long.
The tj^pical genus of the family is Uroceru.s, which has a large
body, with a large ovipositor and long, sixteen to twenty-four-
jointed antenna?, while the body of the male ends in a stoiit
acute horn. U. albicornis Fabricius has white antennae, and the
female is of a deep blue-black color, while the male is black.
It is found on pine trees in July. It is an inch in length.
228 HYMENOPTERA.
The genus Tremex is known l)y the v/ings having two mar-
ginal and three submarginal cell;i. Tremex Colu.mba Linn, in-
fests the ehn, pear and button-wood. Tlie female is an inch
and a half long, rust-red, varied with black, while the abdomen
is black with seven ochre-yellow bands on the upper side, all
but the two basal ones being interrupted in the middle. They
fly during the last of summer.
"Dr. Harris thus describes the habits of this interesting in-
sect. The female, when about to la^^ her eggs, draws her borer
out of its sheath, till it stands perpendicularly under the middle
of her body, when she plunges it, by repeated wiggling motions,
through the bark into the wood. When the hole is made deep
enough, she then drops an egg therein, conducting it to the
place by means of the tAvo furrowed pieces of the sheath. The
borer often pierces the bark and wood to the depth of half an
=3?ac==____ inch or more, and is sometimes driven
^^■-'<r^iy~'~Z^Z^ in so tightlj^ that the insect cannot
' 1 -=^^^^^-^%^ draw it out again, but remains fast-
^^^^^^^v ened to the tree till she dies. The
J. \^^_^^ ^^~~^~~^*:>v ^sS*^ ^^"^ oblong oval, pointed at
\^^ ^V\ each end, and rather less than onc-
\ ■ twentieth of an inch in length.
^'=- ^•^*- "The larva, or grub, is yellowish
white, of a cylindrical shape, rounded behind, with a conical,
horny point on the upper })art of the hinder extremity, and it
groAvs to the length of about an inch and a half. It is often
destroyed liy the maggots of two kinds of Ichneinnon -flies
(Rhj^ssa atrata and lunator of Fabricius). These flies may
frequently be seen thrusting tlieir slender borers, measuring
from three to four inches in length, into the trunks of trees
inhabited by the grubs of the Tremex, and by other Avood-eat-
ing insects ; and like the female of the Tremex they some-
times become fastened to tlie trees, and die Avithout being able
to draw their borers out again."
We have noticed the trunk of an elm, at Saratoga Springs,
perforated by great numbers of holes, apparently made by these
insects. T. latitarsus Cresson (Fig. 154 ; a, antenna ; ^, Aving ;
0, hind leg) is remarkable for the expansions on the hind legs.
It lives iu Cuba.
LEPIDOPTERA.
229
LEPIDOPTERA.
Butterflies and Moths are readily recognized by their
cylindrical, compact bodies ; their small head, with its lar^e
clypeus; by the maxillae being prolonged into a tubular
^'S- ^•'•'•* Fig. 156.
"tongue;" the obsolete mandibles; and the broad, reo-ularly
veined wings, which are covered with minute scales.
^ Their transformations are complete ; the active larvae assum-
ing a cyhndrical, worm-like form, being rarely footless, and
al
^->r F
Fiff. 158.
having from one to five pairs of fleshy abdominal legs, besides
the three pairs of corneous jointed thoracic limbs. A large
proportion (butterflies excepted) spin silken cocoons before
*ror explauation of cuts, 155 to 171, see pages 233 and 234.
230
LEPIDOPTERA.
changing to pnpoe (chrysalids, nj'mphs). In the pupa state
the limbs and appendages of the head are soldered together,
and tlie head and thorax tend to form one region, upon which
the third region, or abdomen, is more or less movable. Three
Fig. IGl.
lb 2' 3
Fig. 100.
or four genera of the lower families are partially aquatic, while,
as a whole, the suborder is purely terrestrial.
Tlie three regions of the body are ver^^ distinct, but the head,
though free, is smaller and with its parts less equally developed
Fig. 1C2.
than in the Hymenoptera, and the "propodeum" has now be-
come plainly the first abdominal ring. The al)domen is also
longer, with the genital armor partially exserted, thus showing
a tendency to decephalization. In fine, the whole body is
Fig. 103. Fig. 104.
loosened and less compact than in the Hymenoptera. Their
broad wings ; obsolete mouth-parts, with the abnormally devel-
oped maxillae ; and active larva, with their worm-like shape,
LEPIDOPTERA.
231
are also characters which show that they are more degraded than
the Hymenopteia. There is also a gi-eater disproportion in the
relative size of the three thoracic rings. In the abdominal rings
the plem'ites are much larger than in Hymenoptera, where they
are partially obsolete. They
scarcely use the legs, the fore
pair (so remarkably differen-
tiated in the higher Hymenop-
tera) being partiall}^ obsolete
in some butterflies (Vanessa,
etc.). They are essentially
fliers, not having the great
variety in the mode of loco- Fig. les.
motion observable in the Hymenoptera. No parasites are
known to occur in this suborder. They are only social while in
the larval state, and then merely because their eggs, in such in-
stances, are laid in bunches, and on distinct food-plants to
which the larvfe are confined. The adults rarely
take an active part in the economy of nature,
and have but little opportunity for the mani-
festation of instinct and reason, though the
larvae in seeking for suitable places in which
to undergo their transformations often exhibit
Fig. ifi(5. wonderful instinct.
The readiest method of determining the natural position of
groups is ])y a comparison of their degradational forms. Thus
we find that in the degraded H^-menoptera the tripartite form
of the body is preserved ; while, on the contrary, in the wing-
less Lepidoptera (such as the female
of Orgyia and Anisopteryx) the body
is either oval, the head being less
free and smaller than in the winged
form, and the thorax and abdomen
continuous, their respective rings
being of much the same size and
shape, while the legs are feeble :
or, as in the female of CEketicus,
the body is elongated, and worm-like. The wingless moths,
then, are much lower than the worker ants, the female Scolia,
1G7.
232
LEPIDOPTERA.
etc., giving us an unfailing test of the difference in rank of the
two suborders. In their habits and transformations, and
in their external
^ -^ anatomy, the Lep-
idoptera vary less
than other insects.
The Lepidop-
tera, while in the
perfect state, can
be scarcely said to
walk much, com-
pared with beetles
rig- 1G8. and other walking
Insects, the legs being only used to support them while at rest,
and not for locomotion. They move almost entirely by their
broad wings, which
with them are more
highly specialized
than in other in-
sects. Their fore
wings are usually
triangular in form,
while their hind
wings are some-
what square or rounded
-f
Fifr. 170.
Fig. 1G9.
The anterior wings are the most
typical in form and venation.
The surface, from the costa to the inner edge, may be
ABC
t
Fig. 171.
divided into three areas, — the costal, median, and internal.
There are five principal veins : tlie costal and subcostal are
LEPIDOPTERA. 233
grouped together, mid form the costa or front edge of the wing ;
the median occupies tlie middle of the wing ; and the sub-
medimi and internal, the hinder, or internal, area of the wing.
The costal vein is usually simple, and joins the costa near its
outer third. The subcostal, near the middle of the wing, is
usuallj^ subdivided into five branches, which are called ven-
ules^ while the median is usually subdivided into one venule
less, and the submedian and internal are simple. The last, or
fifth, subcostal venule, and the first median venule, generally
each throw out a small venule, which meet to form the discal
venule, thus enclosing a large central area called the discal area,
or cell. There are rarely any cross venules present. Some-
times, as in Ilepialus, there is a transverse costal venule, and
an interno-submedian venule. They ra'c usually found only in
degraded Lepidoptera, and recall the net-veined style of vena-
tion of the Neuroptera.
The legs are slender, cylindrical, and weak. The coxpe are
closely united with the thorax, the trochanters are spherical,
Figs. ir)5, lol, give a general view of the body of a butterfly deniuled of scales.
Fig. 15"). a, antenna ; 1, prothorax ; m, patagia, or shoulder-tippets ; k, niesoscutuni ;
jj, abdomen; A, costal edge of forc-wiiig; I), apex; C, outer edge excavated; E,
outer angle; B, inn6r edge; ah, diical cell; am, discal venules, throwing off the
independent vein, ul. The dotted lines indicate the inner, middle and outer third
of the wing. Fig. 157 illustrates the mode of ornamentation of the wings
of moths; ah, am and al, the inner, the middle, and outer third of the wings. The
capitals are the same as in Fig. 155; S(^/, the basal line; sa, the inner line; sp,
the outer, and ms, the marginal line variously waved, scalloped and angulated.
la most of the No:;tuida3 are the dentiform spot, 1 6; mo, the orbicidar, and mr, the
reniform spots ; between the two latter often runs the transverse shade, ?/)«. In
Fig. 158, hind wing, ./'/• indicates the "bristle" which fits into the "hook" on
the fore-wing, uniting the two wings during llight; cm, situated in the discal cell,
indicates the " lunule," and beyond are the outer and marginal dusky bands.
Fig. 15;», in, internal vein; 1?;, submedian vein; 2, 3, 4, 5, the four branches
(venules) of the median vein (in Fig. 100,5 becomes the independent venule);
G to 12, branches of the subcostal (in Fig. IGl, ,\ii, is the costo-subcostal recurrent
venide). In Fig. 1()2, wings of the Hcpialus, the venation is more irregular, and in
the fore-wing the discal cell is divided into an anterior and posterior discal
cellule, by the disco-longitudinal vein ; sd, x, and s, accessor}- cells. In the Tincids
the venation is very simple. In Fig. 1G3, the submedian and internal veins have
disappeared; 9 is the costal vein; 2, 3, the two branches of the median vein; 4 to
8, branches of the subcostal vein. In Fig. Ifii, the internal vein is shortened, and the
submedian forked, while the median and subcostal are merged together. — From
Heinemann, in Morris's Si/no2)sls, Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Compare
also Fig. 29 on page 23.
Figs. 150 and 1G5. a, antenna, on one side wholly, and on the other partially,
pectinate; &, eye:/, ocellus; /;, labial palpus; r/, maxilla; or "tongue;" o, coxa;
p, trochanter; q, femur; r, tibin : V, single anterior spur; r*, two middle tibial
spurs; 2, 3, two pairs of posterior tibial spurs; s, tarsus.
234 LEPIDOPTERA.
nud the femoru, tibioe and tarsi, slender and very equal in
length. There are usually two tibial spurs. The tarsus is
tive-jointed, the terminal joint ending in two slender claws.
The scales covering the body of Lepidoptera are simply
modified hairs. In studying the wing of the Cecropia moth,
we find the hairs of the body and base of the wing gradually
passing into the forms represented in Fig. 1G(J. They are
attached to the wings and laid partially over one another like
the tiles on a roof (Fig. 1G7). They are inserted in somewhat
regular lines, though, as seen in the figure, these lines are often
irregular, as shown by the line of scars where the scales have
been removed. The scales are beautifully ornamented Avith mi-
croscopic lines. We find, on removing the scales, that the
head consists of three well-marked pieces,* ?'. e. the occiput
oi- basal piece which lies behind the ocelli ; the epicranium,
lying behind the insertion of the antennae, and carrying the eyes
and ocelli, and the clypens, which constitutes the front of the
head. The latter piece is larger than in all other insects, its
size being distinctive of the Lepidoptera. There is a general
form of this piece for each family, and it affords excellent
characters in the different genera, especially among the butter-
flies (as Mr. L. Trouvelot has shown us in a series of drawings
made by him), and the Zycjcenidoi and Bomhycidoi. It is
largest, and most perfectly shield-shaped, in the Attaci. In the
Phalcenidce, it is smaller, and square ; and in the Tirieidcv
it is smaller still, Avhilc the occiput and epicranium are
larger.
The lal>rum is remarkabl}^ small and often concealed by the
overhanging clypeus. The labium is small, short, triangular,
and the mentum is aiearl}^ obsolete. The lingua is obsolete, its
place being supplied l>y the tongue-like maxilla\ The labial
palpi are feebly developed, sometimes rudimentar}^, and consist
* Fig. 1G8. A, head of Ctemicha Virginica tlemuled; oc, occiput; ec, epicianiiim,
with the two ocelli, o, and the base of the antennw, at; e, eye; c, clypeus; /,1a-
hruni; m, mandible: ?;ii', tongue, or maxilla?, with the end split apart; B, rudimen-
tary maxilla of Actias Luna, with its single-jointed rudimentary palpus, showing
the mode of attachment to the base of the niaxdla; C, two-jointed, rudimentary
labial palpus of A. Luna; D, the same, single jointed, of riatysamia Cecropia.
Figs. ICO, 170. Head of a moth in relation to the prothorax (1). Fig. 171, A, P., side
view and (C) front view of the head of a moth ; a, antenna; h, eye; (I, the '■ front;"
<', orbit of the eye; /', ocellus; r/, maxilla situated between /(, the three-jointed la-
bial palpi ; I, the maxillary palpus, sometimes very large and three-jointed.
LEPIDOPTERA.
235
of from one to three joints, the terminal one being small and
pointed. They are recurved in front of the head, on each side
of the spiral tongue, and are
covered with hairs ; their func-
tion, as touchers or feelers,
seeming to be lost. The man-
dibles ai-e rudimentary, consist-
ing of a pair of horny tubercles,
partly concealed by the front
edge of the clypeus. The
maxilhie, on the other hand,
are remarkably developed. In
their rudimentar}- state, as in Attacus, they form a pair of
grooved blades, the hollowed sides being opposed and lield
Fig. 173.
Fig. 175.
Fig. 174.
together by a row of minute teeth, thus forming a canal. Tlie
insect sucks through this lono- tube the sweets of flowers.
Fig. 177.
Fig. 178.
Fig. 179.
Fig. 176.
The "tongue" is often nearly as long as the body of the insect
itself, and when at rest, is rolled up and held between the
palpi. At its base are the minute rudimental maxillary palpi,
23G LEPIDOPTERA.
which are generally concealed, but arc apparent in the smaller
and lower moths, Crambus and the Tineids. They are usually
from two to three-jointed, and even five to six-jointed, as in
Tinea granella, and longer than the maxillae, thus resembling
the Fltrycjaneidcti , or Caddis flies.
In seeking for honey with their long maxilla^, the Lepidop-
tera play an important part in the fertilization of plants,
especially the Orchids.
The ocelli are often present, though thoy do not form a tri-
angle on the vertex, as there are only two, the third and most
anterior one being absent. The eyes are large and globose,
and ^-ar}^ in their distance apart in different families.
The antennaj var^^ greatly ; the}' are cither filiform (Fig. 172,
a), or setiform (Fig. 172, i), or fusiform, as in the Sphinges
(Fig. 172, c), or club-shaped, as in Papilio (Fig. 172, d). They
are rarely entirely naked, but are finely ciliated (Fig. 173), or
have a pair of bristles on each joint (Fig. 174), which are
sometimes tufted (Fig. 175). The joints are sometimes toothed
(Fig. 17G), lamellate (Fig. 177), serrate (Fig. 178), or pec-
tinate (Fig. 170).
The thorax in Lepidoptcra is remarkable for the small size
of the first, or prothoracic ring, the mesothorax being highly
developed. In Telea (Figs. 11 and 12, on page 11) the char-
acteristic form is well shown. The tergal arch of the pro-
thorax is almost obsolete, the scutum alone being represented
by a corneous piece, while the pleural parts are more developed
as supports for the forelegs. In the mesothorax the prai-
scutum is present, but is usually vertical, being bent down
and concealed between the two rings, becoming visible, how-
ever, from above in Hepialus (Sthenopis), in which respect it
strikingly resembles the position and development of the same
piece in the neuropterous Polystoechotes. The scutum is large,
with convex sides, broadest behind the middle, and deeply
notched for the reception of the triangular scutcllum, which
is about one-fourth the size of the scutum. The postscutellum
is transverse, and situated out of sight, unless the two hinder
thoracic rings are separated, under the scutellum. The epi-
sterna and trochantines are large, and the whole mesothoracic
flanks nearly twice as wide as those of the metathorax. The
LEPIDOPTERA. 237
metathorax is much compressed antero-posteriorl}-. The scu-
tum is thrown aside as it were by the scuteUuui into two h^t-
eral, nearly square lialves, the remaining tergal pieces being
usually obsolete and membranous, but in Sthenopis the prye-
scutum and scutellum (Fig. 13, page 12) are large, and meet
in tho middle of the segment, much as in the neuropterous
Sialidm and Hemerobiidce.
The abdomen is oval in Papilio, becoming long and linear in
the Tineids. In the Zygamidw ^ especially, the basal ring is
membranous and is partly adherent to the thorax, and somewhat
inflated on each side. The number of abdominal segments
varies, being either eight or nine ; the variation occurring, as
stated by Lacaze-Duthiers, in closely allied genera ; thus the
genital and anal openings are placed more usually behind the
eighth, but sometimes behind tb.c ninth segment.
The genital armor is very simple, consisting of two A-alve-
like pieces. Tho parts beyond (anal stylets, etc.) are aborted,
so that the anus and external opening of the oviduct are
brought closel}^ together. In the male the parts are more com-
plex, the anal forceps often, as in the Callosamia Pi-omethca,
forming long curved hooks for clasping the abdomen of the
female.
The nervous system of Lepidoptera, and its changes during
the transformations of the larva, have been studied most
thoroughly hy Herold (in Pieris) and Newport (in Sphinx
ligiistri and Vanessa urtic.ie). In the imago the ventral cord
consists of seven ganglia, while in the larva there are eleven.
This decrease in their number is due to the fusion, during the
l)upa state, of the first, second, third and fourth ganglia of
the larva, exclusive of those situated in the front part of the
head ; these form the two thoracic ganglia which distribute
nerves to the legs and the muscles of the wings. Meanwhile
the fifth and sixth ganglia of the larva have either disappeared
entirely, or been united with the others.
The digestive system (see Fig. 44, on page 35) of butterflies
and moths is modified to suit their peculiar habits. Thc}^ draw
in the sweets of plants through the "tongue" by a sucking
stomach which opens into the hinder end of the n?sophagus.
"The ileum is long, small, and nearly always forms several
238 LEriDOrTEKA.
convolutions. The colon is constantly of a large size, and is
often dilated into a ctTecum at its anterior portion." (Siebold.)
The salivary glands are composed of two simple tubes, whicli
are very large in the larval state, extending into the abdomen.
The respiratory sj'stem is normal and well developed. In
the larva the stigmata are wanting on the second and third
thoracic and last abdominal segment. In those species of
yiSp h i n g idee, Bo m. bye i d ce and No c t u i d m , which have a
long-sustained flight there are numerous vesicular dilatations
of tlie tracheae.
The urinary tubes are six in number ; they are long, free,
and open into the stomacli by two excretory ducts.
The silk-glands consist of two long, flexuous, thick-walled
sacs, situated on the sides of the body, and opening by a
common orifice on the under lip (labium) usually at the
extremity of a short tubular protuberance (Siebold). They
are most developed when the larva approaches the pupa state.
We once found a larva of Clisiocampa Americana that had
just spun its cocoon, and to ascertain whether the silk had been
exhausted, we removed the worm from its cocoon, when it spun
another, but thinner one ; and upon removing it a second time
it spun a third very thin cocoon, before the supply of silk Avas
entirely exhausted.
The ovary consists of four very long, spiral, multiloculai-
tubes. The recejJtacidnm seminis is pyriform, and often has a
long, spiral ductus seinmalis. At its baee is situated a large,
double sebaceous gland ; and there are two small ramose
glands, perliaps odoriferous, situated at the orifice of tlie vagina.
The copulatory pouch is a remarkably large, pyriform reservoir,
having for the reception of the male intromittent organ a
canal, Avhieh opens by a special orifice, situated below and
behind the external opening of the oviduct. (Siebold.)
The testes form two round or oval follicles, and the two
short deferent canals unite with two simple and very flexuous
accessory glands, to form the long ductus ejaculatorius.
Several interesting cases of hermaphroditism in butterflies
and moths have been published by European entomologists.
Mr. Edwards has noticed two remarkable instances in the Pro-
ceedings of the Philadelphia Entomological Society (vol. Ia'.
LEPIDOPTERA. 239
p. 380), the latter of which we have also seen, "A specimen of
Papilio Asterias is in my collection, and was captured b}^ Mv.
J. Meyer of Brooklyn, L. I., two or three years since. It is a
fine instance of a perfect hermaphrodite. The right wings are
both male, the left wings both female, distinctly marked upon
both surfaces with no siitfusion of color. The size is that of
the largest specimens of Asterias. The Saturnia Promethea
is in the collection of Mrs. Bridgham of New York, and is a
curious instance of an imperfect hermaphrodite. The left an-
tenna and left primary are male ; the right antenna and left
secondary are female ; the right primary is also female, but the
right secondary is something between the two, neither male
nor female. The color of the upper surface is nearly the same
as the under surface of the male. On the under side tlie
color and markings of the left primary are male, but the other
three wings are female. The color and markings of the male
Promethea are quite different from those of the female, and on
this hermaphrodite the confusion of the sexes is conspicuous.
It is a bred specimen. The body had been viscerated, so that it
is impossible to determine its sex."
The larva of Ctenucha, which resembles that of Arctia, con-
structs its cocoon out of the hairs of its body, without spinning
any silken threads, so far as we could ascertain by microscopi-
cal examination. The hairs of this, as of probably most hairy
caterpillars, but more especially the Bombycid larvffi, are
thickly armed Avith minute spiuules, so that by being simply
placed next to each other, they readily adhere together. The
cocoon is finished in about twelve hours. We once noticed
a Ctenucha larva just beginning its cocoon. Early in the
morning it described an ellipse upon the side of the glass jar in
which it was confined, out of hairs plucked from just behind its
head. From this elliptical line as a liase, it had b^- eight o'clock
built up, rather unequallj-, the w^alls of its cocoon, in some
places a third of the distance up, b}^ simply piling upon each
other the spinulated hairs, which adhered firmly together. At
four o'clock in the afternoon, the arch was completed, and the
larva walled in by a light partition, and soon afterwards the thin
floor was made. No silk is spun throughout the whole opera-
tion, while in the cocoon of Pyrrharctia isabella there is a
slight frame-work of silk ujdou Avhich the hairs are placed.
240 LEriDorTERA.
Ti'onvclot states that the 1-olyphcnins larva constructs its
cocoon by drawing the leaves together as a support for the
threads, forming tlie foundation of the cocoon. "This seems
to be tlie most diflicult feat for tlie Avorm to accomplish, as after
this the work is simply meelianical, the cocoon being made of
regular layers of silk iniited by a gummy substance. The silk
is distributed in zig-zag lines of about one-eight of an inch
long. When the cocoon is made, the Avorni will have mo\cd
his head to and fro, in order to distribute the silk, al)Out tvo
hundred and fifty-four thousand times. After about half a
day's work, the cocoon is so far completed that the worm can
hardly be distinguished through the fine texture of the wall ;
tlien a gummy, resinous substance, sometimes of a light brown
color, is spread over all the inside of the cocoon. The larva
continues to work for four or live days, hardly- taking a few
minutes of rest, and finall}^ another coating is spun in the
interior, when the cocoon is all finished and completely' air-
tight. The fibre diminishes in thickness as the completion of
the cocoon advances, so that the last internal coating is not
half so thick and so strong as the outside ones."
In those moths which spin a thick cocoon, the pupa, a few
daj'S previous to its exit, secretes an acid fluid from two glands
opening into the mouth. This fluid, according to Tilr. L. Trou-
vclot (American Naturalist, vol. i, p. 30), in his account of the
Polyphennis silk-worm, dissolves the hard gummy substance
uniting the silken threads, until after the expiration of half an
hour, the moth is able to push the fibres aside, and work its
way out, Avithout breaking a thread.
Trouvelot says that the larvae of the Polyphemus moth
seen entirely unable to discern objects with their shnple eyes,
but can distinguish light from darkness. A supposed auditory
apparatus is situated at the base of the abdomen in moths.
In their adult state butterflies and moths take but little food,
consisting of hone^', th.ough Papilio Turnus, according to a
Canadian observer, is attracted to heaps of decaying fish.
Caterpillars grow very rapidly, and consume a great quantity
of food. Mr. Trouvelot gives us the following account of the
gastronomical powers of the Polyphemus caterpillar. "It is
astonishing how rapidly the larva grows, and one who has no
experience in the matter could hardh* believe what an amount
LEPIDOPTERA. 241
of food is devoured by these little creatures. One experiment
which I made can give some idea of it : when the young silk
worm hatches out, it weighs one-twentieth of a grain ; when
]0 days old it weighs 1-2 a grain, or 10 times its original weight.
20 " " " " 3 grains " 60 " " " "
30 " " " " 31 " " 620 " " " "
40 " " " " 90 " " 1800 " " " "
5(5 " " " " 207 " " 4140 " " " "
When a worm is thirty days old it will have consumed about
ninety grains of food ; but when fifty-six days old it is fully
grown and has consumed not less than one hundred and twenty
oak leaves weighing three-fourths of a pound ; besides this it
has drank not less than one-half an ounce of Avater. So the
food taken by a single silk-worm in fifty- six daj^s equals in
weight eighty-six thousand times the primitive weight of the
worm. Of this, about one-fourth of a pound becomes excre-
mentitious matter ; two hundred and seven grains are assimi-
lated and over five ounces have evaporated. What a destruction
of leaves this single species of insect could make if only a one
hundredth part of the eggs laid came to maturity ! A few
years would be sufficient for the propagation of a number large
enough to devour all the leaves of our forests." The Lepidop-
tera are almost without exception injurious to vegetation and
are among the chief enemies of the agriculturist.
They are rarely found fossil owing to the delicacy of their
bodies. Remains, doubtfully referred to the Lepidoptera, have
been found in the Jura formation. A Sphinx-like moth has
been discovered in the Tertiary formation of Europe, and a few
minute forms have occurred in Amber.
Butterflies are easily distinguished from the other groups by
their knobbed antenmie. In the Sphinges and their allies the
feelers are thickened in the middle : in the Moths they are fili-
form and often pectinated like feathers. Lepidoptera have
also been divided into three large groups, called Diurnal, Cre-
puscular and Nocturnal, since butterflies fly in the sunshine
alone, most Sphinges in the twilight (some of them, however,
fly in the hottest sunshine), wiiile the moths are generall}'
night-fliers, though many of them fly in the day time, thus
showing that the distinctions are somewhat artificial.
The larger Lepidoptera (butterflies and the larger moths)
16
242 LEPIDOPTERA.
have been called Macrolepidoptera, while the smaller ones,
including the smaller Pt/raZi doe, the Tortricidce, and the
Tineidm ^ are called Microlepidoptera.
In studying these insects the best generic characters will be
found in the antennae, the shape of the head-parts, the vena-
tion and proportions of the wings : very slight changes in these
parts separating genera and species. Size and coloration,
which are usually very constant, afford good specific characters.
A good method of preserving larvae dry, adopted at Dresden,
is to squeeze out the intestines through a hole made near the
anal extremity of the larva, then to insert a fine straw, after
which it may be placed in a glass vase, itself placed in a tin
vessel and held over a lamp ; the larval skin is blown while
suspended over the lamp, by which the skin dries faster. It
may be done with a small tube or blow-pipe fixed at the end
of a bladder, held under the arm or between the knees, so as
to leave the hands at liberty ; and the straw which is inserted
into the body of the larva may be fastened by a cross-pin stuck
through the skin, and thus retained in its proper position
throughout the process of blowing. The small larva?, such as
those of the Tincae, may be put alive into a hot bottle, baked
until they swell to the proper extent and dry, when they can be
pinned with all their contents inside. (Westwood, Proceed-
ings of the Entomological Society of London, Sept. 7th, 1863.)
Dr. Ivnaggs has, in the Entomologist's Monthl}^ Magazine,
given some directions for managing caterpillars. Very ^-^oung
caterpillars, which will not eat the food provided, and become
restless, should be reared in air-tight jam-pots, the tops of which
are covered with gi'een glass to darken the interior of the ves-
sel. When small larvae hide themselves by mining, entering
buds and spinning together leaves, they should have as small a
quantity of food as possible. In changing larvae from one plant
to a fresh one, a slight jar or puff of breath will dislodge them,
and they can be transferred to the jam-pot, or the glass cylin-
der, covered at one end with muslin, can be turned muslin end
downwards for them to crawl upon. The duplicate breeding
cage, pot or tube, should be "sweetened" by free currents of
fresh dry air and then stocked with fresh food.
Dr. Knaggs advises that "hiding places," or bits of chips,
LEPIDOPTERA. 243
etc., be provided for such Noctuid larvae as naturally lie con-
cealed, such as Orthosia, Xanthia, Noctua, etc., "while for
Agrotis and a few others a considerable depth of fine earth or
sand is necessary."
"LarviB, which in nature hibernate, must either be stimulated
l)y warmth and fresh food to feed up unnaturally fast, or else
through the winter must be exposed to out-door temperature."
For such larvtB as begin to eat before the trees are leaved
out, the leaves of evergreens must be provided, pine leaves,
chickweed, grasses and mosses. Hibernating, living larviXi,
must during the winter be kept dry, otherwise the damp seems
to hang about their fur, and causes them to be attacked by a
white fungus ; while smooth larvae require the natural damp-
ness of the soil. Mr. Gibson strongly recommends that during
the winter all cages containing larvae be placed in front of a
window facing the east or north-east, so that the inmates may
be kept as cool as possible.
When the moth is fairly out of the pupa, as remarked by Mr.
Sanborn, their wings often fail to properly expand, on account
of the want of moisture, "the insect being unable to expand its
wings in a heated, dry room. He has avoided this difficulty
by placing the insect just emerged, or about to come forth,
beneath a bell-glass, within which he had placed moistened
pieces of bibulous paper."
Mr. Trouvelot has noticed that the difference in size of the
wings of moths or butterflies is due to the fact that some of
the fluid thrown into the wings during their development
escapes from a break in the surface of the wing, so that this
wing is smaller than the other. He has, by pinching a wing-
while thus developiug, caused the fluid to "flow from the punc-
ture, and immediately the wing so wounded ceased to grow,
while the three others continued their development to its full
extent." "I have sometimes advanced the development of the
wings of Telea Polyphemus. I selected for this purpose,
pupae very far advanced in their transformation, as is shown by
the looseness of the pupal skin, and by the color of the wings
of the moth, which can be seen through it. I took carefully
the pupal skin from around the moth and suspended the insect
in the position that Lepidoptera take when emerging from the .
244 LEPIDOPTERA.
chrysalis. It is very rare tliat the wings of such an insect
are developed, though I have obtained some perfect specimens
in this way ; and in one instance the development of the wings
took place only three days after the pupal skin had been
removed. Success is more certain if the insect is put under a
glass jar with a moistened sponge, and something for the insect
to hang from ; the dampness of the air in the jar will prevent
the soft wings from drying too fast, and when the time arrives
for the insect to accomplish its transformation, the fluid will be
active. Such an insect has much analogy with a vertebrate
born prematurel}^ ; the insect, like the quadruped, remains
almost motionless till the natural time for its birth arrives."
Papilionid^ Latreille. The Butterflies, or Diurnal Lepi-
doptera, are at once distinguished from the moths b}' their
knobbed antenna?, though they are sometimes nearly flliform.
The body is small, but there is a greater equality in the size of
the three regions than in the moths, the abdomen being much
shorter and smaller, as a general rule, than in the lower fami-
lies. The ocelli are usually wanting ; the spiral tongue or
maxillae, are long and well developed ; and the wings are car-
ried erect when in repose, and are not held together during
flight by a bristle and socket as in the moths.
The larva? vary greatly in shape and in their style of orna-
mentation, but they uniforml}^ have, besides the thoracic legs,
five pairs of abdominal legs. The pupa is called a " chrysalis"
or ''aurelian" from the bright golden hues which adorn those
of many species. They disappear as the wet tissues beneath the
l)upa-skin harden just before the fl}^ appears. The pupa is usu-
ally angulated on the sides of the thorax and along the upper
side of the abdomen. A few species, such as those of Vanessa,
hibernate, while several species, such as Vanessa Antiopa, are
social as young larva. The most " perfect state of society' is ex-
hibited by a Mexican butterfly (Eucheira socialis Westwood),
the caterpillars of which construct a very strong parchment-like
bag, in which they not only reside, but undergo their change to
the pupa state." Butterflies also occasionall}^ SAvarm while
in the perfect state, such as species of Colias, Cynthia and
Danais, multitudes of which are sometimes seen passing over-
PAPILIONID^. 245
head in long columns. They are truly tropical insects, since
Gerstaecker mentions that three times as many species (600)
occur at a single point (Para, Brazil) as in all Germany, where
scarcely 200 species live. There are about 5,000 species known ;
900 inhabit North America and probably the number will be
increased to a thousand, while about 125 species have been
found in New England and its immediate border.
The noble genus OrnitJioptera has very long, slightly knobbed
antenuiB, and a well developed prothorax ; while the fore-
wings are very large, elongated, triangular, and the hind wings
are relatively smaller and rounded. O. Priamus Linn, is found
in the Moluccas. There are twenty species known. The larviB
as in some species of Papilio have an external forked sheath
for the "tentacles." The pupa is sustained by a silken thread
as in Papilio (Wallace).
Of the extensive genus Papilio^ or "Swallow-tail," over 300
species are known. The larva is rather short and stout, with a
V-shaped scent-organ, or "tentacles." The pupa is supported
by a filament passed entirely around it. The common P. As-
terias Drury appears in New England in June, when it: lays its
eggs on the leaves of parsley and other umbelliferous plants.
From this brood a new set of butterflies appear in August.
The larva is yellow, striped and spotted with black, and when
irritated, pushes out, from a slit in the prothoracic ring, a
V-shaped, yellow, flesh3', scent-organ, used as a means of do-
fence. The chrysalis is free, attached by the tip of the al)do-
men and supported by a loose silken thread, Avhicli is passed
over the back. It lives in this state from nine to fifteen days.
It has two ear-like projections on each side of the head and a
prominence oh the back of the thorax.
Mr. W. Saunders has received from St. John's, Newfound-
land, several specimens of a butterfly, one of which I have before
me, and instead of being a very remarkable variety of P. As-
terias, seems to be a distinct and undescribed species, as
supposed by my friend to whose collection it belongs. He
writes me, after giving a detailed description, presented below,*
* " Papilio brevicauda Saunders. Female. Expands three and one-flfth inches ;
head, palpi and antenna black; thorax Mack, liinged with j'ellow hairs on each
side, for about half its length; body above black, with a row of seven or eight
yellow spots along each side which are largest about the middle of the row; under
246 LEPIDOPTERA.
that "this species resembles P. Asterias, but differs from it
in many points. In P, Asterias the palpi are edged within with
yellow ; in P. brevicauda they are black. P. Asterias has two
yellow spots above at the base of the antennjB, which are either
wanting, or exceedingly faint in the other species. P. Asterias
has a spot of bright j^ellow on the anterior edge of each side of
the thorax ; P. brevicauda has a fringe of duller yellow, extend-
ing fully half the length of the thorax. On the primaries the
discal bar in P. Asterias is much narrower, and the inner row
of spots smaller and bright yellov^, the upper one in the row
being divided ; in P. brevicauda the spots are fulvous, the upper
side of the body black, the abdomen being furnished ■«'ith two rows of yellow spots
corresponding with those above, with several additional spots within near the tip;
feet blacli. Primaries above brownish black, with a bar of yellow across the end
of the discal cell; just beyond tliis is a row of eight spots, extending across the
wing nearly parallel with the outer margin ; the ujiper one, which rests on the sub-
costal vein, is yellow, elongated and irregular, M'ith a blackish dot beyond the mid-
dle ; the lower ones are fulvous ; the second and third smaller than the first and of
an elongated, triangidar form, with the apex pointing inwards; the fourth, filth
and sixth are similar in shape, but larger, the latter with its apex partially wanting;
the seventh spot is wider and slightly concave on both the inner and outer edges,
the inner edge is broken; the eighth is long, narrow and irregular, with its lower
edge close to the hind margin of Ihe wmg. Behind the upper si)ot in this row is a
second yellow spot nearly round. Between these and the outer margin is a second
row of spots, eight in number, but much smaller in size. Tliesc are all yellow, the
three ni)per ones nearly round, the lower ones more or less elongated, the lowest
contracted in the middle as if composed of two spots joined together; the Iringe
of tlie wing is also spotted with yellow, Uie spots corresponding in number and
position with those forming the second row.
"Secondaries above brownish black, with a row of seven large spots nearly con-
fluent beyond the miildle, in continuation of those on primaries, all more or less
triangular in form, the middle ones somewhat elongated; these spots are yellow
above and at the side:?, fulvous from near the middle to the outer edge; the fulvous
marking is less distinct on the second and tlurd spots; within the margin is a sec-
ond row, all yellow excepting the upper one wliich is tinged with fidvous; the up-
per spot is oblong, the second nearly round ; third, fourth and tilth lunidar, nearly
equal in size; the sixth similar in form, but much smaller; while the inner one is
irregularly concave above, holding in the cavity the eye-like spot at the anal angle.
On the outer edge are six yellow spots, larger and more striking than those form-
ing part of the fringe on the primaries. The space between the two inner rows of
spots is sprinkled with metallic blue atoms. At the anal angle is a round, red spot,
with a black dot in it below the middle, and a crescent of bluish atoms above;
tails very short, scarcely one-eighth of an inch long, — not more than half the
length of those of P. Asterias.
"Under surface of wings somewhat paler in color, Avith spots corresponding to
those above. The upper spot of the inner row on the primaries is tinted witli
fulvous; the spots composing the inner row on the secondaries are more decidedly
and uniformly fulvous ; the four upper spots in the second row are also streaked
with the same color; the bluish atoms between the rows are partially replaced by
green ones." Taken at St. John's, Newfoundland.
PAPILIONID^. 247
one is undivided. The inner row of spots on the secondaries
are also entirely yellow in P. Asterias, smaller and very differ-
ent in form from those on P. brevicauda. The second row of
spots is also smaller in P. Asterias, and the red spot at the
anal angle paler, with a smaller black dot in it, and a wider
crescent of bluish atoms above. The length of the tail, which
is one of the most striking points of ditference, has already
been noticed."
We have compared some interesting varieties of P. Asterias
in the Museum of the Boston Society of Natural History, col-
lected about Boston by Mr. Shurtleff, which approach (in the
reddish hue of the spots, usuall}^ yellow, especially on the under
side, and the shortness of the tail) the Newfoundland speci-
men kindly sent us b^^ Mr. Saunders, and strongly suggest the
inference, witli which Messrs. Scudder and Sanborn agree, that
P. brevicauda is a xevy remarkable
species allied to P. Asterias.
The 3'ellow Pajyilio Turnus Linn, flies
in June and July through woods and
about lilacs. Its larva feeds on the
apple and wild thorn ; it is green with
two ej^e-like spots on the thorax, and
pupates in the middle of August. The
black dimorphic ? form, P. Glaucus,
is found in the Southern States. P.
Daunus Boisd. (Fig. 180) originally Fig- iso.
found in Mexico, has been found in Kansas, near the Rocky
Mountains, by Mr. James Ridings. He states that it strikingly'
resembles P. Turnus, but has longer antennae, with longer, more
curved fore-wings, besides differing in other characters. It ex-
pands nearly five inches. P. Troilas Linn, appears more com-
monl}' southward. The larva feeds on the sassafras and lilac
trees, and was found by Mr. Saunders feeding, rolled uj) on
a leaf, on the spice bush, August 3d. "Its length was about
one and three-fourths inches, the body being thickest from the
tliird to the fifth segments. The head is rather small, flat in
front, slightly bilobed, dull flesh color, with a faint tinge of
brown. The body is bright pea-green, with a yellow stripe
across the anterior part of the second segment ; edged behind
with dull black. On the fourth segment are two prominent
248
LEPIDOPTERA.
ej-e-like spots, of dull j^ellowish or yellowish buff, encircled
by a fuie ring of black, and a large black pupil filling most
of tlie lower portion. The posterior portion of this black
pupil is encircled by a shining bluish black ring, the anterior
portion of which strikes a little beyond the middle of the
pupil ; tliere is also a line of black in front of the pupil ex-
tending nearl}^ across the yellow portion, and a pale pinkish
spot in the upper part of the yellow which is edged with a
slightly darker shade. On the fifth segment are tAvo large,
irregular spots of the same color, pale butf, encircled by a faint
ring of black, and having a faint pinkish spot on the anterior
portion of each ; these spots are nearer to each otlior than
tliose on the fourth segment, a portion of the space between the
fifth and sixth segments being deep black ; each segment, from
the sixth to the eleventh in-
clusive, has four blue dots,
encircled with black, those on
the seventh, eighth and ninth
segments being largest. On
each side, close to the under
surface, is a wide yellow
stripe, gradually softening
into the green above, and
edged below with blackish
brown. Immediatel}- below the spiracles is a row of blue dots
edged with black, one on each segment from the sixth to the
twelfth inclusive. The under surface is dull, pale greenish, or
yellowish white, having a decided reddish tinge as it approaches
the yellow stripe on tho sides. The feet partake of the same
general color." P. Plulenor Fabr. is black, with a greenish
reflection towards the outer border, with whitish spots on the
margin, and on the hind win_gs six whitish lunules. The larva
is brown, with two lateral rows of small, reddish tubercles,
and two long tubercles on the prothoracic segment. The
chrysalis (Fig. 181, side and dorsal view) is grayisli violet, \q\-
lowish on the back, witli the head ending in a truncated cone.
The genus Parnasslas has short, thick antennae, with a
rounded club, and the fore-wings are much rounded at the
apex ; it inhabits mountains. P. Sminthens Doubleday, with
three other species, is found in the Rockj' Mountains.
Fis. 181.
PAPILIONID^.
249
The "White Turnip, or Cabbage butterfly, Pieris oleracea Harris
(Fig. 182 ; a, larvn), is well known as being often destructive to
cruciferous plants. In this genus, and its allies, the wings are
rounded and entire on the edges, and are grooved on the inner
edge to receive the abdomen. The greenish caterpillars are
slender, "tapering a very little toward each end, and are spar-
ingly clothed with a short down which is quite apparent, how-
ever, in Pieris oleracea." We have found the larvte of this
species on turnip leaves in the middle of August, at Chaml)er-
lain Farm in Northern Maine. They are of a dull green, and
covered with dense hairs. They suspend themselves by the
tail and a transverse loop ; and their chr3-salids are angular
at the sides, and pointed at both ends. (Harris.) Pieris
oleracea is white, with the
wings dusky next the body,
the tips of the fore- wings are
yellowish beneath, and the
hind wings are straw-colored
beneath. The yelloAvish, pear-
shaped, longitudinally ribbed
eggs, are laid three or four
on a single leaf. In a week
or ten days the larvae are
hatched. They live three rig. 182.
weeks before becoming full-fed. The chrysalis state lasts ten
to twelve days. There is an early summer (May) and a late
summer (July) brood. Pieris rajxe Schrank has been intro-
duced from Europe and is now found in the vicinity of Quebec
and the northern parts of New England.
P. Protodice Boisd. and Lee. is found southward. The
head of the chrysalis, kindly sent me by Mr. Saunders, is pro-
longed into a tubercle, which is equilateral^ triangular, seen
in outline, Avith two small tubercles near the base. On the
thorax is a high, thin dorsal ridge, edged with red. On each side
of the abdomen is a ridge, largest anteriorl}-, and rising into
a thin tubercle on the second ring. There is a thin dorsal
ridge on the posterior half of the abdomen. The tip is deeply
excavated by a furrow extending the whole length of the ter-
minal ring. There are seven rows of black dots on each ring.
'250 LEPIDOPTERA.
It is pale whitish straw yellow throughout, with thick, black
dots on the anterior half of the bocljo It is JO of an inch in
length. It also occurs in California.
The Sulphur-yelloAv butterflies, CoJias^ of which C. Pliilodice
Goclart, our most common butterfly, is a type, occur ever^'wLere.
There are three broods, one appearing in April and Ma}'', and
the other in July ; while a third brood appears late in August
(Scudder). "The female deposited her eggs ou the 24th of
July ; they were very long, tapering at each end, with twelve
or fourteen raised, longitudinal ribs, and smaller cross lines in
the concave spaces between them. They hatched on the 31st.
The freshly hatched larva is about a thirteenth of an inch long ;
the head is black, and the body dull yellowish brown. "When
live-eighths of an inch long, it is nearly the same as when ma-
ture ; the head being dark green and slightly' downy, with
minute hairs, which also give a downy appearance to the whole
bod}', which is also dotted minutely with paler points. There
is a yellowish white stripe, on each side close to the under sur-
face. Beneath, the body is slightly paler than aboA^e. The full
grown larva is an inch long, and differs from the 3'oung in hav-
ing an irregular streak of bright red running through the
Avhitish lateral line. It feeds on the clover and lupine, and on
the cultivated pea. It is not unlike a saw-fly larva in its ap-
pearance and moA'ements, feeding on the upper surface of the
leaves and twisting its body into a coil when disturbed. The
chrj'salis is about seven lines long, girt with a silken thread
across the greatest diameter of the body, which is full and bulg-
ing on the sides. The head is pointed conically, with a purplish
red line on each side, running to the tip and margined 1)eliind
with 3'ellow. The body is pale green, with a j-elloAvish tinge,
and a ventral line of a darker shade formed by a succession of
minute, yellowish dots ; a yelloAV stripe runs along the side on
the five hinder segments. Beneath, on the seventh, eighth and
ninth rings, is a blackish brown line on each side, deepening
in color al)out the middle of each segment, and a dorsal line
of dark green about the same length. It remains in the chrys-
alis state about ten days." (Saunders.)
Mr. Scudder has described three species of this genus from
the north. Colio^s Pelidne we have taken abundantly in
PAPILIONID^. 251
Labrador. It represents our C. Philodiee. C. interior lives
north of the Great Lukes, and C. occidentaUs ranges from
Fort Simpson to the Gulf of Georgia.
The species of a closely allied genus, Terias {T. Lisa and
T. Delia), are much smaller and are more tropical.
The genus Danais has antenuiB with a long and curved knolj,
tlie head and thorax are spotted with white, and the wings are
round and entire. The caterpillars have projecting, thread-like
horns, arranged in pairs on the top of the second and eleventh
segments, and the body (D. Archippus) is banded with yellow,
l)lack and white. The oval chrysalids are short and tliick and
decked with golden spots. The larva of D. Archippus ILutIs
feeds on the silk-weed, Asclepias, and matures in about two
weeks, changing its skin three times, while the chrysalis state
lasts for ten or twelve days. The butterfl}' appears from July
to September.
A very beautiful and quite aberrant tropical genus is Heli-
conia, in which the wings are small, very narrow and often very
transparent, while the antennas are nearl}^ as long as the body.
The larviE are either long, cylindrical and spinose (Acraea
violiie), or furnished with several pairs of long fleshy append-
ages, and the clnysalids are often In-illiantly spotted with
golden and suspended by the tail.
According to H. W. Bates (Transactions of the Entomolog-
ical Society, 1857), the venation of the wing in many species
of MccJuDiitis and ItJwmia, which are allied to Heliconia, varies
in difierent individuals of the same species. The sexes haA^e
the closest resemblance in color and markings. They are
very gregarious in their habits. The Brazilian •' //. Melpomone
varies in a curious manner. I have no doubt they are hybrids
(/. e. the varieties), and I can almost point out the species with
which it hvbridates. Strange to say, the hybrids occur in one
district and not in another, and one style of hybrids only occur
in one district and not in the others, the species being equally
abundant in all the districts."
Argijnnis is readil}- recognized by the numerous round and
triangular silver spots on the under side of the hind wings.
The very spiny caterpillars have a round head, and the spines
are branched, two of the prothoracic ones being the largest and
252 LEPIDOPTEEA.
reaching over the head. The angular arched chrj'salids have
the head either square, or sliglitly notched, with a smooth
thorax, wliile on the back of the abdomen are two rows of
usually gold colored tubercles. They^ usually feed on violets,
and ma}^ l)e found from May to July. Argynnis Idalia Drury
is found the last of summer. A. Cyhele Fabr. is found' in the
Middle States, and A. Atlantis Edwards in the White Moun-
tain valleys and the colder portions of New England.
Mr. C. A. Shurtleff discovered the larva and pupa of the lat-
ter, July 17th, at Eastport, Maine, and being with him at the
time, we made the following description of them : The larva
is uniformly cylindrical, tapering alike towards each end of the
body. On each side of the vertex of the head is a small low
spine, giving the head an oblong shape when seen sidewise.
The front is broad, somewhat square, flattened, with scattered
hairs. On the first and second thoracic rings are two lai-gc
subdorsal spines and minute lateral warts bearing small bris-
tles, and on the hind edge of these rings are two large spines.
On the third thoracic ring are three large spines. On each
abdominal ring are six stout spines of the same size and placed
equidistant on the upper surface. The bristles on the spines
are nearly one-half as long as the spines themselves. Small pa-
pilhe, giving rise to bristles, are scattered over the body, with
a row of them above the abdominal feet. The triangular anal
plate is small, papilliform and prominent. The larva is dark
velvety purple, the base of the head being of a pale horn color ;
the body beneath is scarcely paler than above ; the spines are
pale livid on the basal half. They were full-fed and ready to
pupate July 17th. The head of the pupa is square in front.
On the prothorax are two subdorsal spines, and an elevated
mesial ridge on the mesothoracic ring, rising highest behind.
At the base of each wing is a sharp, conical, prominent papilla,
immediately succeeded by a broad, thin-edged dilatation, con-
stricted and appressed to the base of the abdomen ; this is the
internal angle of the wings. On the abdomen are two lines of
subdorsal sharp papilhie, one on each side. The wings extend
to the fifth abdominal ring, and from this point the abdomen
rapidly tapers to the tip. The surface of the body is wrinkled
with conspicuous black spiracles. Its general color is chest-
PAPILIONID^.
253
nut broAvn, mottled with black ; the wiugs being black at the
hase. The sexes of the rare and superb A. Diana Cramer differ
remarkably, the male being dark velvety brown, with a deep
orange border, while the female is blue-black, with lighter blue
spots and patches on the border of the wings. It has been
taken in West Virginia, Georgia and Arkansas.
A. Aphrodile (Fig. 183*) abounds in the Northern States.
According to Scudder, it is double-brooded, appearing about
the middle of June, and fresh specimens late in August. A.
Montinus, a more diminutive species, was discovered by Mr.
Scudder on the lower half of the barren summits of the White
Mountains. Allied to this last species by their size, are A.
Myrina Cramer and A. Bellona Fabr. found in damp meadows
late in summer.
A. Myrina has
tawny wings bor-
dered with black
above, and ex-
pands from one
and three-fourths
to one and eight-
tenths of an inch.
A. Bellona diff'ers
from the other
species by not ^'s- ^^•
having any silvery spots on the under side of the wings. Mr.
Saunders has reared A. Myrina from eggs deposited June 24th,
1)3^ a specimen confined in a box. "The egg is pale green,
elongated, shaped something like an acorn, with the base
smooth, convex and the circumference striated longitudinally,
with about fourteen raised striae which are linear and smooth ;
the spaces between are about three times wider than the stria?,
depressed, concave in the middle, and ribbed by a number of
cross lines, fifteen to twenty between each stria, and distinctly
indented. The egg is contracted at the apex, the stria? protrud-
ing at the tip all around a little beyond the body of the egg.
The larva hatched in six or seven days, and when fresh from the
*The upper side of the wingB is figured on the left side, and the under sido
on the right, in this and in Figs. 181 and 188.
254 LEPIDOPTERA.
egg was about one-tenth of an inch long. The head is medium
sized, black, and shining ; the body above is dark brown, with
transA'erse lines of a paler color, especially on the anterior seg-
ments ; it is thickly covered with stout hairs of a pale brownish
color ; between the first and second moult it is one-fourth of an
inch long. The head is bilobed, shining, black and hairy, and
the body above is greenish black, the greenish tinge most
apparent on the second and third segments, with a few small
yellowish dots along each side, and transverse rows of strongly
elevated, black tubercles, emitting numerous short, black hair-
like spines.
" Tlie under surface is similar to the upper ; the feet are black
and shining, and the prolegs are black, tipped with a paler hue.
After the second moult there are two fleshy tubercles on the
second segment much longer than the others, being three or
four times their length, which are covered throughout with
small hair-like spines. The yellowish spots along the sides of
the body assume more of an orange tint, and there are one or
two faint, longitudinal streaks of the same color along the sides
close to the under surface, and between the rows of large, raised
tubercles, are many smaller ones which are also black and
appear but slightly raised. August 7th the larva was full-
grown. The head is, at this period, slightly bilobed, black,
shining, and covered with short, fine, black hairs.
"The body above is dark greyish brown, beautifully spotted
and dotted with deep velvet}^ black ; the second segment, has
two long, fleshy horns, yellowish white at base, black above,
covered with minute, blackish, hair-like spines. The third and
fourth segment, have each four whitish spines tipped with
black, those on the sides placed on the anterior portion of
the segment, those above about the middle. All the other seg-
ments haA'e six whitish spines, excepting the terminal one,
which has four. All the spines have fine branches of a black
or brownish black color and are about one-third the length of
the fieshy horns on the second segment. A pale line extends
along each side from the fifth to the terminal segments close to
the under surface. The under surface is brownish black, darker
on the anterior segments ; feet black and shining ; prolegs
brown, with a shining band of brownish black on the outside.
PAPILIONID^.
255
The duration of the pupa stage was ten or eleven days." The
pupa, received from Mr. Saunders, has two large, conical tuber-
cles in front of the insertion of the antenna?, and two acute
tubercles on the pro-
thorax. The thorax is
acutel}^ bituberculated
on the sides, with an
acute thin dorsal ridge,
on each side of which
are two small, sharp
tubercles. Along the
back of the abdomen Fig. 184.
are two rows of tubercles, those on the third abdominal ring
being much larger. It is half an inch long, and pale ash,
with black dots and irregular lines.
Melitcea differs in not having silver spots beneath, while the
caterpillars are covered with
blunt tubercles which give rise
to short stiff bristles. They
feed on different species of
plantain. The chrj'salids are
like those of Argynnis, but spotted Avith black or brown, and
not with golden.
MelitKa Phaeton Drury (Fig. 184) is found in damp bogs.
We have taken the 3'oung larA^a less than one-half of an inch
long, early in spring under leaves, where it had
doubtless hibernated. The mature larva (Fig.
185, enlarged, the specimen from which the
drawing was made, is too contracted, the head
being drawn in unnaturally ; fig. 186, pupa) is
cylindrical, and the head is slightly angulated.
There are nine rows of black spines Avhich are
fleshy and surrounded at the tips with rather
long, thickset spinules. The head and thoracic \
and last three abdominal rings are black ; the rest ^'^- ^^-
of the body being deep orange, with black lines between the
spines, and dots along the side. Towards the last of Ma}^ and
early in June it changes to a chrysalis, Avhich is white Avith a
slight bluish tinge, with yellow papillae, and scattered black
Fig. 185.
256 LEPIDOPTERA.
spots, giving it a gay and variegated appearance. The butter-
fly rises from cold, swampy places the last of June and early
in July. Its wings are velvety black, with orange red cres-
cents and spots. It expands from two to two and a quarter
inches, being our largest species.
M. Thaws Boisd. and Leconte is a very abundant species in
New England. There are two broods, one appearing in June
and early in Jul}^, and the second one late in August and Sep-
tember. It has short, broad wings which are tawny orange
above, with black, irregular lines and spots ; it expands from
one and three-tenths to one and a half inches.
Mr. Saunders has sent us a remarkable and undescribed but-
terfly, under the name of Melitcea Packardii Saunders, with the
following description: "It resembles M. Tharos in size, and
expands 1.42 of an inch. The palpi are pale brown above, yel-
lowish below ; antennae black above, dotted with Avhite and
tipped with red ; below white tipped with red. Head, thorax
and abdomen, black above, clothed with brownish hairs ; white
underneath ; feet brownish yellow ; wings above brown, with a
cupreous tinge, sprinkled with fulvous atoms, with a wide band
of dark brown on the outer margin, faintly edged on each side
with black. The primaries have a fidvous macular band a short
distance from the base, extending nearly across the wings, and
a patch of the same hue a little beyond and towards the front
margin. Beyond the middle is a wide band of the same,
divided by the veins into a series of seven spots ; the upper one
is very small, a mere dot with a whitish hue ; the second is much
larger ; the third and fourth are nearly uniform in size, larger
and more elongated than the second ; the fifth and sixth are the
largest and wider and longer than any of the upper ones ; the
seventh is nearly of the same width as the sixth, but not more
than half the length ; the fringe is dotted with white, especially
about the tip.
"On the secondaries a wide fulvous patch covers the inner
part of the wing, extending from near the base to near the
middle of the wing, and bounded towards the inner margin by
a brown edging ; within this patch are three rounded blackish
spots, one most distinct about the middle, the others near the
inner margin and partly lost in the brown edging of the wing
PAPILIONID^. 257
Bej'ond this is an imperfect band of fulvous spots, in continua-
tion of those on the primaries ; the upper ones faint and indis-
tinct, and two of the lower ones prominent and nearly round ;
the last small and linear. The inner margin is edged with
fulvous, having a j-ellowish tinge which encroaches on the outer
brown marginal band at the anal angle. The fringe of the
secondaries is clotted with dull white. The primaries below
are fulvous, with a single wavy, brown line across the wing a
short distance within the outer margin ; base yellowish, costal
margin sprinkled with dark brown atoms, and a streak of the
same along the middle of the wing near the hind margin. At
the tip is a j-ellowish patch, occupying the space between
the brown line and the margin, and within this, one of silvery
white nearly equal in size. Below the white are three indis-
tinct, yellowish patches, the lower one extending to the outer
margin ; a large patch of j-ellow at the lower corner where the
outer and hinder margins meet. The secondaries below are
yellowish from the base to near the middle, with streaks and
spots of brown ; the j'ellowish color extending down the inner
to the hinder margin. Beyond the middle the wings are
silvery white, sprinkled with yellow and brown scales, divided
by the brown veins and partially crossed by an irregular streak
of brown. There are also two brown patches on the hind mar-
gin, the smaller one nearly round and occupying the space
between the first and second median venules ; tlie larger being
irregular and resting on the median vein, and extending across
the third to tlic second subcostal venule." (Canada.) This is
now known to be a suffused variety of M. Tharos.
Melitoia Nf/cteis Scudder is rarely found in Maine and Mas-
sachusetts ; it is pale fulvous above, with blackish brown
markings, and expands from one and three-fifths to one and
four-fifths inches. M. Harrisii Scudder may be readily distin-
guished from M. Nycteis by the under surface of the hind wings
being cinnamon-red, wdth bands and spots of white margined
with black. It expands one and three-foiu'ths inches and is
found in New England, though rather a rare species. The larva
has been reared in Norway, IMaine, by Mr. S. I. Smith. It feeds
on Diplopappus umbellatus, pupating from the middle to the
last of June, and remaining in the chrysalis state from ten to
17
258 LEPIDOPTERA.
sixteen days ; the butterfly appears from June 20tli to Aug.
1st. The larva (Fig. 187, with tlie chrysalis, after Mr. W. II,
Edwards) closely resembles that of Melitcea Phaeton, but,
says Mr. Scudder in a letter, it is
smaller, and the orange color pre-
dominates over the black. Like that
of ]M. Phaeton the caterpillar lives in
swarms on its food plant, covering
the whole summit of tlie plant with a
web, which at all times is foul with
'"■ ^^'' excrement, and presents a most un-
sightly appearance. The chrysalis, he also states, may l)e best
described by saying that it is a miniature copy of that of
Phaeton.
31. Chalcedon Doubleday is found in California and the
Rocky Mountains, while M. Anicia Doubleday, the mider side
of which is much like that of Chalcedon, occurs not only in
California and the Rocky Mountains but also in Kansas. M.
Texana Edwards is a Texan species expanding one and one-
half inches.
In Vanessa the wings are notched and angulated or tailed on
the hind edges, while the pali)i are long and beak-like. The
larva is cylindrical and stoutly spined, the spines being long
and branched. The caterpillars are gregarious during the early
stages. "The head of the chrysalis is deeply notched, or fur-
nished with two ear-like prominences ; the sides are Aery angu-
lar ; in the middle of the thorax there is a thin projection, in
profile, somewhat like a Roman nose, and on the back are two
rows of very sharp tubercles of a golden color." (Harris.)
Vanessa Antiopa Linn, is one of our most abundant butterflies,
being much more common in this country than in ICurope,
whither it has probably been carried. Its wings are purplish
brown above, with a broad buff yellow border in which is a row
of pale blue spots. The butterfly hibernates, appearing before
the snow is off the ground. It is seen until June, and then
not until the middle of August. The larva is black, spotted
minutely with white, with a row of eight dark, brick-red spots
on the back. The chrj'salis is dark brown, Avith large tawny
spots around the tubercles on the back. The caterpillar defoli'
PAPILIONID^. 259
ates the willow, poplar and Balm of Gilead. Vanessa Mil-
hertii Godart is much smaller and is rather rare. It occurs
about roadsides in May, July and August. The larva feeds
on nettles. Mr. Saunders informs me that "it was found feed-
ing on the nettle, nearly full grown, July 26th. It was from
one to one and one-eighth inches long. The head is black,
thickly covered with fine, brownish white hairs, and sprinkled
with many minute whitish dots. The body is black, thickly
sprinkled with whitish dots and with small, fine, white hairs,
each segment, excepting the second, with a transverse row of
branching spines. A greenish yellow lateral line runs close to
the under surface, with a second broken line of a brighter yel-
low color. All the spines and their branches are black, except-
ing the lower row on each side from the fifth to the twelfth
segment, springing from the greenish yellow lines ; these are of
a greenish yellow color. Under surface dull greenish, minutely
dotted with whitish dots. There is a wide, central, blackish
stripe covering anteriorly, nearly the whole of the under sur-
face." V. CaUfornica Boisd. is bright fulvous, with three black
bands on the anterior edge of the fore-wings, and there are no
black crescents in the black border of the wings.
The genus Grapta differs from the preceding in its deeply
incised wings, its smaller size, and red and brown colors.
The under side of the hind wings has usually a silvery or
golden dot and curved line, or both, imitating difl^erent punc-
tuation marks. Grapta interrogationis Doubleday is one of the
largest species, and has a golden semicolon beneath. It is found
in May, August, and in autumn. The caterpillars injure the
foliage of the elm and lime trees, and also the hop vine, some>
times defoliating the whole vine. The larva has been found,
by Mr, Saunders, feeding on the hop, August 7th. "When
full grown its length is one and one-fourth inches. The head
is reddish black, flat in front and somewhat bilobed, each lobe
tipped with a tubercle emitting five single, black, pointed
spines ; it is covered with many small, white, and several black-
ish tubercles. The body is cylindrical, black, thickly covered
with streaks and dots of yellowish white ; the second segment
is without spines, but with a row of yellowish tubercles in their
place ; the third segment has four branching spines, all black.
260
LEPIDOPTERA.
with a spot of dark yellow at their base ; and on the fourth
segment are four spines, as there are on all the others, except-
ing the terminal, which has two pairs, one posterior to the
other. The spines are j'cllow, with blackisli branches, except-
ing the terminal pair which is black ; and there is a row of
reddish ones on each side. The under surface is 3'ellowish grey,
darker on the anterior segments, with a central line of blackish
and many small, black dots." The chrysalis state lasts from
twelve to fourteen days. It is ash brown, with the head deeply
notched, and eight silvery spots on the back. Grapta c-orgen-
teum Ivirby (Fig. 188, Gr. Progne Harris) is a small species
with a silvery L in the middle of the under side of the hind
wings. It is our most common species northward. It appears
the last of summer. The larva lives on the hop and elm.
Grajyta comma Double-
day is more common
southward. It is known
by having a silvery
comma in the middle
of the hinder wings.
Tlie caterpillar lives on
the hop and elm. Mr.
W. H. Edwards has
found the larvae on the
broad-leaved nettle. He says "m}^ attention was first attracted
by observing certain leaves drooping, and more or less eaten.
On the under side of these I usually found the caterpillar
inactive, aiid never more than one upon the same plant. The
half-grown larvtie were black, with a yellowish stripe along the
side from the third segment to the tail, and with yellow stripes
across the back, and spots of the same color at the base of
the dorsal spines, which were yellow, tipped with black. The
mature larvffi were white, mottled or striped with grey or
ashen, and with red spiracles."
The chrysalis is brownish gray or white, variegated with
pale brown, and ornamented Avith gold on the tubercles. The
fly appears in May, July, August and September. In the colder
and mountainous portions of New England and New York,
these species are replaced by the Grapta Faunus of Edwards,
PAPILIONID^. 261
who states that "comparing Fauiius with c-album, the former
is deeper colored by many degrees ; it is one-fifth larger, the
black spots and margins much heavier, and, owing to this and
tlie depth of the ground-color, the general hue of the surface is
much darker than either c-album or any of the American spe-
cies." The under side of G. Faunus is beautifully marbled in
several colors.
The genus Pyrameis differs from Vanessa in having the
wings simply scalloped, not notched ; beneath, they are not
marked with metallic colors, and the long, tapering palpi curve
upward. The larvae are covered with brimched spines, corre-
sponding in size, and often wanting on the first and last seg-
ments ; the head is heart-shaped. They are solitary, hiding
under a rolled leaf or spinning a slight w^eb, and hang by the
hind feet alone when about to transform. The chrysalids are
angular on the sides, with two or three lateral rows of sharp,
golden tubercles, and a short, thick tubercle on the top of the
thorax. P. cardui Linn, feeds on thistles and the sunflower,
the hollyhock, burdock and other rough-leaved plants, in June
and July. It remains in the pupa state twelve days, the but-
terfly appearing in Maine, about the 20th of July. Pyrameis
Huntera Fabr. has much the same habits, while P. Atalanta
Linn, feeds on the nettle. These species are all double-
brooded, first appearing in May and then in July, August
and September.
Junonia is closely allied to Vanessa. J. coenia Boisd. and
Lee. is found in the Southern States, the West Indies, Mexico
and California.
In Limenitis the antennae are very slender, and the hind
wings are scalloped, while on both wings the discal area is
open. The caterpillar and chrysalis are like those of Danais.
L. Misvppiis Fabr. (Fig. 189) is tawny yellow above, and of a
paler yellow beneath, with a broad, black border, spotted with
white, and black veins. It expands from three to three and a
half inches and flies from June to September. The larva is
pale brown, variegated with white on the sides, and some~
times with green on the back ; the prothoracic ring has two
slender, blackish, spinulated horns, and on the tenth and
eleventh rings are short tubercles. It feeds on the poplar and
262
LEPIDOPTEEA.
willow. The pupa is known by a thin, almost circular, projec-
tion standing out from its back. The young larvae winter in
cases "composed of the leaf of the willow, on which the larva
feeds, neatly joined by its longest opposite margins, so as to
form a cylindrical tube closed at one end and lined with silk."
(Trouvelot.) L. Epliestion Stoll is blue black, with three black
lines on the hind edges, and just within the outer border is a
row of orange colored spots. It lives on the scrub-oak (Quercus
ilicifolia) in June, and also on the whortleberry and the cherry.
Limenitis Arthemis Drury is smaller and has an oblique, broad,
white band, crossing both wings. It is common in the White
and Adirondack Mountains, where it is double brooded, ap-
pearing late
in June, and
again late in
August.
The superb
and regal ge-
nus 3Ior2'>ho
is the Atlas
among but-
terflies. The
broad wings
Fig. 189.* 1 1
^ spread nearly
six inches, and are usually of a brilliant blue above, and brown
beneath, with eye-like spots. Morpho Menelaus Linn., from
Brazil, expands five and a half inches. M. Pohjx)hemus Chenu
is a Mexican species. 31. Epistrophis Hl'ibner is of a delicate
pale green, with two rows of lunate brown spots on the hind
wings. The apex of the fore-wings is brown, and the discal
spot is connected with the brown costa. It inhabits Brazil.
The genus Satyrus, and its allies, Chionobas, Hipparchui and
Neonympha, are wood brown and ornamented, especially be-
neath, with eye-like spots, and have the wings entire, with the
veins of tlie fore-wings swelled at their base, and the discal
area open on the hind wings. They have a short, quick, jerky
flight. The caterpillars are green and smooth, spindle-shaped,
or cylindrical, tapering at both ends ; the hind end is notched,
*FiGS. 189, 190 and 198, are from Temiey's Zoology.
PAPILIONID^.
263
Fig. 190.
we took
and the head entire or notched. They live mostly on grasses.
"The chrysalis is either oblong and somewhat angular on the
sides, with the head notched, and two rows of pointed tuber-
cles on the back, or short and rounded,
with the head obtuse." (Harris). Chio-
nobas is found on Alpine summits and
in the Arctic regions and on subarctic
mountains. C. semidea Say (Fig. 190 ;
Fig. 191, hind wing) lives on the summit
of Mount Washington, It feeds on
sedges, according to Scudder.
Mr. Scudder, has in the accompanying
figures, closely exhibited the differences
between the Alpine and Arctic species
of Chionobas. C. Jutta Moschler (Fig. 192) we tooK in
Northern Labrador ; it extends as far south as Quebec, accord-
ing to Edwards. C. Chrixus Doubleday, (Fig. 193) is found
on Pike's Peak, Colorado Territory ; C. Calais Scudder (Fig.
194) is found on Albany River, Hudson's
Bay ; C. Bore Schiodte (Fig. 195) we
have collected in Hopedale, Labrador,
as also C. CEno Boisd. (Fig. 196).
Satyrus Alope Fabr. is our largest spe-
cies. It is dark brown, with a broad,
ochre-yeliow band beyond the middle.
It is abundant in open fields in July and August.
green larva is striped with dark, the head is round, and the tail
is forked. The chrysalis is rather long, rounded on the sides
and with the head notched. S. Nephele Kirby is the more
n
Fig. 191.
Fig. 192.
The pale
Fig. 193. Fig. 194. Fig. 195. Fig. 196.
northern form, and in the upper Middle States, as about the
Catskill mountains, occupies higher ground, according to Mr.
Edwards, while S. Alope, which prevails southward, is found
in the lowlands and valleys. S. Nephele is smaller, darker, and
264 LEPIDOPTERA.
there is no yellow band on the fore-wings, though, sometimes,
each eye-like spot is surrounded by a yellowish diffuse ring.
Neonym.plia Eurytris Fabr. flies low, with a jerky sort of
motion, in thick woods, in June and July. The larva is like
that of S. Alope, while the chr^'salis is shorter with the head
obtusely rounded. The adult is dark brown, with two black
eye-spots, pupilled with a lead-colored dot, and surrounded
with an ochre-yellow ring. On the hind wing is a smaller, simi-
lar spot. It expands one and seven-tenths of an inch.
The aberrant genus Lihythea, with its long, snout-like palpi,
reminds us of the Pyralids. It is small and the wings are
irregular^ notched. L. Bachmanii of Kirtland is not a common
butterfly. It occurs southward, and in Central America is re-
placed by L. carinenta.
The small, delicate Theclas and Lycrenas are often of great
beauty and interest. The palpi are elongated, the Avings
entire, and the hind pair are often once or double tailed.
The larvae are slug-like, as when moving on their short feet,
sixteen in number, they seem rather to glide than walk. They
are oval, flat below and rounded above, both extremities being
much alike, with the small head retracted Avithin the body.
The short and thick chr3'salids are flat beneath, but very con-
vex above and rounded at each end. Chrysophanus Ameri-
canus Harris, our most abundant form, is coppery red above.
Its green larva feeds on the sorrel, and there are three broods
of butterflies in the year. The chrysalis is usually suspended
under a stone. One sent by Mr. Saunders, is smooth, with
no fine hairs. The head and thorax, including the wings, is
dull reddish brown, dotted with black ; the abdomen is much
lighter cinereous, with very distinct, and irregular black dots,
and a lateral row of twin black dots, one dot being a little
behind its mate. On the middle of the back are three rows of
smaller black dots. It is .45 of an inch in length. Chryso-
phanus Thoe Westwood is quite a rare species. Mr. Saunders
describes the eggs as being "nearly round, a little flattened at
the apex and flattened also at the base, where it is fastened to
the box. They are greenish white, and thickly indented ; at the
apex is a considerable depression ; immediately around this,
the indentations are small, growing larger towards the base."
PAPILIONID^. 265
The gsnus Lyccena is azure blue throughout, with dark mark-
ings. Lycmna neglecta Edwards (Polyommatus pseudargiohis
Harris) is very common about the Kalmia and Ehodora in
May, and a new brood appears in June and July. It has been
reared by Mr. Saunders, from whom I Iiave received tlie pupa,
wliich is a little hairy, being much smaller than in Thecla
Acadica and paler ashy. It is spotted quite thickly with black
blotches, and on each side of the abdomen is a sul)dorsal row
of rather large, black, contiguous blotches, more distinct than
in T. Acadica. It is .30 of an inch long.
L. comyntas Harris is quite common southward. It differs
from the other species in having a little tail on the hind wings,
at the base of which are two deep, orange-colored crescents.
It flies in July and August. The caterpillar lives on the Lespe-
deza. It is green with three darker stripes. The brown chrys-
alis has three rows of black spots on the back.
Thecla difiers from the two preceding genera, in its conspic-
uous tails and the longer clubs of the antennae and its dusky
brown hues. The larvae are longer and flatter, and they usually
live on trees. Thecla hmnuli Harris feeds on the hop-vine.
It flies in July and August. Thecla niphon Godart, a dusky
rust-red butterfly, feeds on the pine. The larva is green, Avith
a dorsal yellow stripe, and a white one on each side. It
changes to a short, thick, greyish pupa, with two rows of
blackish dots, and beyond these a row of rust-red ones. Mi-.
Saunders has sent us the following description of the catei-
pillar and chrysalis of Thecla Acadica Edwards, found by him
at London, Canada West, feeding on the willow, June 11th
and 18th. "It was .63 of an inch in length, with a very small,
pale brown head, withdrawn within the prothoracic segment,
when at rest. The body is rather dark green, and is thickest
from the mesothoracic to the sixth abdominal segment. There
is a darker green, dorsal line, the dorsal region being flat,
rather wide, and edged on each side with a raised, whitish yel-
low line, and the sides of the body are inclined at almost an
acute angle, and striped with faint, oblique lines, of a greenish
yellow. A whitish yellow line borders the under surface, be-
ginning at the anterior edge of the second segment (the head
is, for convenience, counted as a single ring, or segment) and
266 LEPIDOPTERA.
extending entirely around the body. The chrysalis is ,32 of
an inch long, and .15 wide. It is fastened with a silken
thread. The abdomen is thickened and somewhat raised. It
is minutely hairy, pale brown, with many dots and patches of
a darker color ; the upper edge of the wings being quite dark,
with a dark ventral stripe, and four or five short, dark lines on
the side. It remains in the chrysalis state eight or nine days,
the caterpillar turning dark July 3d, just before pupating."
The body, especially the abdomen, is thicker and fuller than in
Chrysophanus Americanus.
Theda Mopsus Hiibner is found in New England and Canada.
Mr. Saunders sends me the following description of the larva
taken June 9th, b}^ beating bushes, at London, Canada. "It
was .40 of an inch in length. The head is small, of a shin-
ing black color, with a pale stripe across the front just above
the mandibles, and is drawn within the second ring when at
rest. The body above is green along the middle rings, deep rose
color at each extremity, and is thickly covered with short, brown
hairs. The second segment is rosy above, greenish jellow at
the sides, with an edging of the same color in front ; the third
segment is entirely rose colored ; from the third to the tenth
segments is a dorsal stripe of rose which is wide on the fourth,
fifth, eight and ninth segments, but narrow and linear on the
intermediate ones ; on the tenth segment the green encroaches
on the rose color on the sides of the body, extending more than
half-way upon the segment behind the tenth. The body is
rose colored with a dorsal streak of a darker shade. The rose
color at each extremity is united by a rosy line along each side
close to the under surface which grows fainter on the middle
segments. The under surface is dull green, with a yellowish
tint ; the feet and prolegs (abdominal legs) are yellowish
green. June 24th, the larva has now become quite large and
will probably soon go into the chrysalis state. I found it
would readily eat the plum and cheny.
'' Its length is now .70 ; its width about .20 of an inch. The
head is very small, bilobed, black and shining, with a streak of
dull white across the front above the mandibles, which are
reddish brown. The body above is dull green, with a yel-
lowish tint, especially on the anterior segments, which are
PAPILIONID^. 267
thickly covered Avith very short, brown hairs, scarcely visible
without a magnifier ; these hairs arise from small, pale, yel-
lowish dots which appear slightly raised ; there is a dorsal streak
of dark green arising from the internal organs showing through
the semitransparent skin. There is a patch of dull pink, or
rosy color, on the anterior segments from the second to the
fourth inclusive ; it is faint on the second ring, and covering
but a single portion of its upper surface, and nearly covering
the dorsal crest on the third segment, and reduced again to a
small, faint patch on the fourth. On the posterior segments is
a much larger rosy patch, extending from the hinder part of the
ninth segment to the end of the body. The hinder part of
the ninth segment is merely tinged. On the tenth segment it
becomes a rather large patch, widening posteriorl3^ Behind
this the body is entirely covered with rosy red. The sides of
the tenth segment, close to the under surface, have a streak of
the same color, and there is a faint continuation of this on the
ninth segment. The head is drawn within the second segment
when at rest. The second segment is smaller than the third ;
there is a wide dorsal crest, or ridge, from the third to the tenth
segments inclusive ; behind this the body is suddenly flattened,
the sides suddenly sloping. The under surface is yellowish
green, with a few very fine brownish haii'S ; the feet and
prolegs are greenish, semitransparent.
"On June 29th it fastened itself to the lid of the box, chang-
ing to a chrysalis July 1st, which was .45 of an inch in
length, and its greatest width .20 of an inch. The body is
pale brown and glossj^ , with many small, dark brown or black-
ish dots distributed over the whole surface ; they are thicker
along the middle above, with a faint, imperfect, ventral stripe
from the seventh to the eleventh segments ; the surface is
thickl}' covered with a ery short, brown hairs, invisible without
a magnifier. The imago appeared July 13th."
Mr. Saunders has found the larva of Tlieda strigosa Harris,
a rare species in Canada and New England, feeding on the
thorn, Crataegus, July 13th. "The head is small, greenish, with
a faint tint of brown, and a black stripe across the front below
the middle, and a patch of white between this stripe and the
mandibles, which are brownish black above. The body is of a
208 LEPIDOPTERA.
rich velvety green, with a j^ellowish tinge, slightly paler be-
tween the segments, and a dorsal stripe of a darker shade,
centred along the middle segments with a faint, yellowish
line. The anterior edge of the second segment is yellowish
brown, with a few dots of a darker color. The body is thickly
covered with minute hairs which are brown above and white
below, being scarcely visible to the naked e3^e. The body is
flattened above (dorsal crest not bordered with yellow as in T.
Acadica), steeply sloped at the sides, where it is striped with
faint oblique lines of yellowish, two or three on each segment.
The two last segments have a patch of yellowish on each side,
making the dark dorsal line appear much more prominent. A
faint j-ellowish line close to the under surface from the fifth to
the terminal segments. The under surfoce is bluish green,
with a darker patch on the last two segments.
"The chrysalis changed June 19tli, and is nearly oval in form.
The head-case is rounded, and the body is dark reddish brown,
with black markings thickly covered with fine, short, whitish
hairs, rather more numerous on the anterior and posterior
segments. Anterior segments with man^' thickly set patches
of blackish, and a dark ventral line from the sixth to the
twelfth segments. It is bound by a few silken threads on
the anterior portion of the seventh segment."
The accompanying cut (Fig. 197) represents the pupa of a
Thecla, found in July bj' Mr. Sanborn, on the Glen road to
Mount Washington. The body is smooth and tapers gradually
from the mesothorax, and the venation of the wings is
§very apparent. Another pupa, probably T. niphon, found
by Mr. Sanborn, is very different, being much stouter,
and thicker through the abdomen, by a third of its
Fig. 197. (jj.^jj^y^gj.^ i^Ijj^j^ ii^Q chrysalis figured. It is rough and
covered with short, fine, stiff hairs ; the tegument is so thick,
that there are no traces of the veins of the wing, while the
sutures between the segments and the appendages are not
nearly as distinct. The larva, according to Mr. Sanborn's
notes, was found feeding upon the White Pine, July loth.
"It was .45 of an inch long; the head was retracted, yellow-
ish, and the body pale, transparent green, Avith four longi-
dinal, white stripes, and one transverse, lozenge-shaped
PAPILIONID^. 2G9
patch, of the same color, on the eleventh segment. The rings
were all somewhat elevated in the middle of their diameter and
thinly covered with yellowish brown, short hairs." He did not
succeed in rearing the butterfly, but this description will be
useful to any entomologist who may be fortunate enough to
rear it hereafter.
The Hesperians, or Skippers, are a large group of small,
dark, dun-colored butterflies, whose anteinme have the knob
curved like a hook, or ending in a little point bent to one side,
reminding us of the antennae of the Sphinges. They are moth-
like in their motions, form, and larval characters. They are
stout bodied, with large heads and prominent e3'es, and thick
palpi, almost square at the end. The larvae are spindle-shaped,
naked, and with a remarkably large head. They are solitary,
and often hide in folded leaves like the Tortricidoi^ trans-
forming in a rude cocoon of dead leaves or stub-
ble, held together by silken threads. The pupae
are somewhat conical, like those of moths,
smooth and generally covered with a bluish
white powder. They are fastened by the tail
and a slight band of threads within their rude ^'S- ^'^^•
cocoons. We have many species in this country ; the largest
forms occurring southwards.
Endamus Tityrus Cramer feeds on the locust and is our largest
species northward, E. Bathyllus flies in June and July. It feeds
on Glycine and Iledysarum in May and June. In Hesperia
the knobs are shorter, and end in a point turned sidewise.
The upper wings are raised, and the lower spread out flat when
at rest. The chrysalis has a long tongue-case free at the end,
in this respect showing a transition to the hawk-moths. They
are snufl:-brown, with dark spots.
Mr. W. Saunders has been very successful in raising the
larvae of H. Hobomoc Harris and other butterflies and moths,
by watching for the fertile eggs in captured specimens, which
are often deposited on the sides of the collecting box. The
food-plant of the larvae can usuall}^ be discovered after experi-
menting with those plants on which other species of this or
allied genera are known to feed. "The egg, deposited June
17th, is nearly round, flattened on the lower side, and of a
270 LEPIDOPTERA.
pale green color. Under the microscope it appears plainly
reticulated, with fine, six-sided markings, strongly resembling
the cornea of a fly's eye. The larva on finding its way out,
June 27th, began to eat the egg-shell at the centre above.
It feeds on grass, on the inside of the leaves near the joints,
drawing portions of the leaves together with silken threads.
When placed on a strongly ribbed blade of grass, it spins a
few threads from rib to rib, and stations itself behind the
threads. By the 14th of July the caterj^illars were three-
eighths of an inch long and resembled those of H. Mystic
of the same age." Mr. Saunders did not succeed in raising
the caterpillars to maturity as they were unfortunately lost.
The most abundant species in New England is H. Wamsutta
Harris (Fig. 198) which frequents roadsides throughout the
summer. According to Mr, Saunders' notes, from "eggs de-
posited July 10th, the young larva was hatched July 24th, the
eggs growing darker about two or three days previous. The
egg is pale greenish yellow, or j^ellowish green, strongly con-
vex above, and flattened at the place of attachment. The flat-
tened portion is slightly concave and very faintly reticulated
under a power of forty-five diameters.
The young larva, when first hatched, is about the same as
that of Mystic and Hobomoc, probably .10 of an inch, and is
scarcely distinguishable from them, excepting that it is slightly
darker in color. The head is large and prominent and of a
shining black color. The second segment has a ring of brown-
ish black, encircling it above. The body is dull brownish yel-
low, very faintl}^ dotted with black, each dot emitting a single,
rather long, brownish hair. The under surface is rather paler
than the upper.
Mr. Saunders has also reared the larva of H. Mystic Edwards
from the egg, which is " strongly convex above, flattened below
and depressed in the centre of the flattened portion. Under
a magnifying power of eighty diameters, the surface is seen
to be faintly reticulated ; it is pale yellowish green. The eggs
were deposited about the 20th of June and hatched on the
28th and 29th of June. When hatched it was .10 of an inch
long, with a large, black head, and was white, becoming yel-
lowish brown, especially towards the end of the body. It feeds
SPHIXGID^. 27i
on grass, and at this stage can scarcely be distinguished from
the young larva of H. Hobomoc. When an inch long the head
is not large in proportion to the body, though it is prominent
and wider than the second segment ; it is dull reddish brown
and black posteriorly. The body above is semitransparent,
dull brownish green, with minute, whitish hairs, similar to
those on the head, with a dorsal line and many darker dots
over the surface. The second segment is pale whitish, with a
line of brownish black across the upper surface, with a faint,
pale, lateral line close to the under surface : the terminal seg-
ments are paler than the rest of the body. The feet are
whitish, semitransparent. This species is found from Canada
to Maryland.
Sphingid.e Latreille. The Hawk-moths or Humming-bird
moths are among the largest and stoutest of Lepidoptera. The
body is very stout, spindle-shaped, with narrow, powerful wings.
Their flight is, consequent!}', exceedingly sAvift and strong.
The antennae are prismatic in form and thickened in the mid-
dle. The tongue, or maxilUie, is remarkabl}^ long, so that the
insect is able, while on the wing, to exjilore the interior of
deep flowers. This habit of remaining for a considerable time
poised in the air on their rapidl}^ vibrating wings, causes them
to be mistaken for humming-birds. At rest the wings are
folded, roof-like, over the bod}^ The larvae have sixteen legs,
and on the last segment is an acute horn, sometimes represented
by a simple tubercle. At rest they stand with the forepart
of the body elevated in a supposed Sphinx-like attitude. The
larvae descend into the earth and transform, often in rude,
earthen cocoons, moulded into form by the pressure of the
bod}'. The tongue-case is usually free.
There are between 300 and 400 species known, a large part
of which are tropical American. Most of the species fly in
June and July. The larvae transform in the latter part of
August and in September.
In Ellema the bod}^ is small. The head is small, narrow and
somewhat tufted, and with small eyes. It might be passed over
on a hasty view for a Noctuid. The larva of Ellema Harrisii
Clemens is green, has no caudal horn, and lives on the pine.
272 LEPIDOPTERA.
Mr. Saunders writes me that he has found it feeding on the
pine, about the middle of September. "It is two inches long,
the body being smootli and nearly C3dindrical and thickest in
the middle of the body. The head is large, pointed aboA'e, flat
in front and green, with a j-ellow stripe on each side. The
body is bright green, with a dorsal row of dark red spots on
the fifth to the twelfth segments inclusive, with a bright yel-
low stripe on each side of the reddish spots and a lateral
white stripe mixed with yellow." Tlie moth is a very small,
ash grey species, only expanding two inches. It frequents
flowers at dusk in June.
The genus S2Mnx, as now limited by systematists, is much
larger bodied, Avith a long and narrow head, small eyes and
long and narrow Avings. The head of the larva is rather
large, semi-oval and flattened in front. The body is cylin-
drical, smooth and obliquel}'^ banded on the side, Avith an
arching, caudal horn. It transforms in a subterranean earthen
cell. The tongue-case of the pupa is short and free, instead
of being soldered to the body. Sphinx gordius Cramer is dark
broAvn, Avith a roseate tinge, and the thorax is blackish broAvn
above. The larva feeds on tlie apple.
Sphinx Jcalmice Smith is hoary and rust-red, and on the hind
wings are a median and marginal black band. The caterpillar
feeds on the lilac and laurel. It is pale green, with scA^en
oblique, lateral, pale j'cIIoav bands, edged above with black,
which is again bordered Avith pale blue. Sphinx drupiferarum
Smith has the fore-wings blackish brown, with the discal dot
and outer edge of the Aving Avhitish faAvn-color. The larva
feeds on the different species of plum. The body is pale green,
with lateral purple bands, edged beneath with white. Sphinx
chersis Hiibner (S. cinerea Harris) is the largest species Ave
have, and is pale ashen, and reddish gray beneath. The larva
feeds on the lilac.
The large " potato Avorm " belongs to the genn9. Macrosila,
containing our largest species of the family ; the head is pro-
portionally large, and the Avings are rather broad, with the
interior angles dilated. 31. cingulata Fabr. has pink hind
Avings and pink spots on the abdomen. It feeds on the sAveet
potato. M. qxiinque-maculata Haworth (Fig. 199, moth ; a,
SPHINGIDiE.
273
18
274
LEPIDOPTEEA.
larva ; &, pupa) is gray ; the fore-wings are immaculate at the
base, and on the hind wings are two distinct angulated bands.
The larva feeds on the tomato and potato vines. It is dark
green, with a series of greenish yellow angular bands on the
side. The tongue-case is long and much arched. M. Carolina
Linn, is cinereous, with a white spot at the base of the fore-
wing, while the central band of the hind wings are indistinct.
The larva (Fig. 200)
feeds on the tobacco
and tomato. It is dark
green with lateral,
oblique, white bands,
edged above witli blu-
ish and short trans-
verse black stripes.
The tongue-case is shorter and less curved than in M. 5-macu-
lata. The tongue of a Madagascar hawk-moth, M. cluentms,
Wallace states, is nine and a quarter inches long, probably
adapted for exploring the long nectaries of some Orchids.
In Ceratomia the body is thick, with the head and e3'es small ;
the thorax is short and round, while the abdomen is rather
long. The larva is easily known by the
four thoracic horns, besides the usual
caudal horn. The tongue-case is not
free. C. Amyntor Hiibner (quadricornis
Harris) feeds on the elm.
We now come to the more aberrant
forms of the family. Under the name
of Cressonia Mr. Grote has separated
Fig. 201. from the genus Smerinthus, a species in
which -the wings are more notched than in the latter genus, and
the antennoe are slightly pectinated. Cressonia jt/glandis Smith
(Fig. 201, venation) is of a pale fawn-color, and has no eye-like
spots on the hind wings, as in Smerinthus. The larva is bluish
green, with a row of subdorsal and stigmatal reddish brown
spots, and six oblique, lateral, bright yellow bands. It lives on
the wild cherry.
In Smerinthus the body is stout, the head sunken and the
XQaxillae are only as long as the palpi, being almost obsolete.
SPHINGID^. 275
The species are said to fly heavily and only in the night. The
head of the larva is semi-oval or p^'ramidal, acute above, and
the thoracic rings are obliquely banded on each side. The
pupa is smooth, cylindrical and somewhat conical in form. S.
modestus Harris is a very large species, expanding nearly six
inches. It feeds on the Lombardy poplar. S. exccecatus Smith
has the hind wings rosy on the inner angle. The "ocellus" or
eye-like spot is black, with a large, pale blue ijupil. The
larva is apple green, with seven oblique, 3'ellowish white lines
on the sides, and a bluish caudal horn. It feeds on the apple
and the Rosa Carolina. S. geminatus Say (Fig. 202, venation
of the hind wing) is so called from the two sky-blue pupils in
the black ocellus on the roseate hind wings.
The pupa has been found at the roots of
willows.
In the genus Philampelus, or lover of the vine,
as its name indicates, the tongue is again as long ^'=- '^'^^
as the body. The antennae have a long hook tapering to
the end, bearing cili^B in the male. The abdomen is large and
thick, and the wings ai-e deeply concave on the inner border.
The larva has a tubercle in place of a caudal horn. The
tongue-case of the pupa is not free. P. vitis Harris is oliA^e
green, with pale green hind wings, which are rose-red towards
the inner margin. The larva is flesh-colored mixed with yel-
low, and with short, transverse, black lines, and lateral, semi-
oval, yellowish white bands, edged with black.
In TJeilejyhila the abdomen tapers suddenly at the tip and
the fusiform antennae end in a minute hook. The gaily colored
larva has a straight and rather short caudal horn. There are no
oblique bands on the sides of the body, but a row of subdorsal
spots on each side. Clemens states that the anterior segments
are much attenuated, and are capable of being withdrawn or
shortened, or much extended. "When disturbed they fall from
their food-plants, shorten the anterior segments and bend the
head inwards." They transform in a cell excavated from the
surface. The tongue-case of the pupa is not free. D. lineata
Fabr. is olive green, with six white lines on the thorax. The hind
wings are black with a rose colored central band. The larva is
yellowish green ; the subdorsal spots consisting of two curved,
276
LEPIDOPTERA.
short, black lines, with yellow aboA'e and beneath. It is double
brooded in Texas. The larva feeds on the purslane and turnip,
and will, in confinement, eat the apple. D. clmmoinerii Harris
has a white line on each side of the head and thorax. The
larva feeds on the willow-herb (Epilobium angustifolium). It
is bronze green, dull red beneath, with nine round cream-
colored spots, pupilled with black, and a dull red caudal horn.
The genus Thyreus has a lateral tuft on each side of the tip of
the flattened, oval abdomen, and the head is broad and obtuse,
while the fore-wings are excavated just below the tips. The
body of the
larva tapers
gently from
the first ab-
dominal ring,
and the last
segment has a
lenticular tu-
bercle instead
of a true horn.
When at rest
it throws its
head from side
to side thus
producing a
crepitating
noise. It transforms in a cell on the surface. T. Abbotii
Swainson (Fig. 203 and larva) is dull chocolate brown, with
dull sulphureous hind wings, with a dark brown terminal band
broken up into short lines on a roseate spot at the inner angle.
The larva is reddish brown, with numerous patches of light
green. The tubercle is black, encircled at base by a yellowish
line and a blackish cordate patch. It feeds on the wild and
cultivated grape-vines and on the Ampelopsis quinquefolia, or
woodbine.
The Bee-moth or Clear-wing, Sesia., is smaller than the fore-
going genera, and the body is flattened, oval and gaily colored
with yellow, black and red, Avhile the wings are transparent in
the middle. The larva tapers in front, has a dorsal stripe just
Fijr. 203.
^GERIAD^. 277
above the row of stigmata, and a short recurved horn. It
transforms in an imperfect cocoon at the surface of the earth.
Sesia cUffinis Boisd. is pale greenish yellow, with the abdomen
black beneath, and the legs black. The larva is
pale green, reddish beneath. Sesia Tliyshe Fabr.
is a more common species northward. The thorax
is deep olive green, with the abdomen reddish be-
neath, and with whitish legs. It is abundant, flying in June
in the hot sun about the lilac and Rhodora Canadensis.
Under the name of Lejyisesia Mr. Grote has separated L.
flavofasciafa Barnston (Fig. 204, venation of fore-wing) found
in Canada, from the genus Macroglossa, repre-
sented in Europe by M. stellatarum Linn.
Mr. Grote also separates from the latter'
genus, under the name of Enjyyrrhoglossum, Fig 205.
a Cuban moth, which has larger, fuller eyes, and larger hind
wings than in Macroglossa. E. Sagra (Fig. 205, venation of
fore-wing) is a handsome form described by Professor Poey,
^GERiAD^ Harris. These elegant and gaily colored moths,
which l)y the arrangement of their colors and their clear wings,
look like bees and wasps, are readily recognized by their small
size, narrow wings, thickened antennae, and by the tufts at the
end of the body, which they can spread out fan-like. They fly
very swiftly in the hottest sunshine. The larvae are borers,
living mostly in the hollowed stems of plants. They are whit-
ish, cylindrical, with sparse, short, inconspicuous hairs, and
they have no anal horns. They transform in a rude, oblong,
oval cocoon, constructed of the chips they make in boring out
their tunnels, cemented by a gummy secretion. The pupae are
chestnut-brown, with transverse rows of short teeth on the
abdominal rings, b}^ which they make their way out, partly
through the hole previously made by the larva for the exit of
the moth. The shell of the chrysalis is often left protruding
from the hole. This family is, therefore, quite injurious to
gardeners.
^geria exitiosa Say (Fig. 206, ^) the Peach-tree borer, has
caused the death of many peach trees and also, according to
Fitch, occasionally attacks the plum. It is a slender, dark
278 LEPIDOPTERA.
blue moth, expanding an inch and a half, or more. The male
is much smaller than the female (Fig. 207), expanding one inch.
She deposits her eggs near the root of the tree. The larvae are
hatched and bore in to feed upon the inner bark and sap wood.
When one year old they make their cocoon under the bark or
at the root of the tree. Borers of all sizes, Harris states, will
be found in the trees throughout the year.
The trees should be protected by wrapping sheathing paper
around the bottom of the trunk, and putting fresh mortar around
the roots. The wounded part may be cov-
ered with clay. ^Egena lyyri Harris infests
the pear tree. It is purple black above and
golden 3'ellow beneath, with three j^ellow
bands across the abdomen, the middle band
Fig. 206. being the larger.
The habits of the Grape-root borer, ^E. polistiformis Harris,
resemble those of the Peach-tree borer. It sometimes de-
stro^^s grape-vines in the Middle and Western States, but does
not attack the Scuppernong variety. The larva lives under
ground, the female, according to Walsh, "depositing her egg
on the collar of the grape-vine, close to the earth ; the young
larvffi, as soon as they hatch out, immediately descend into
the roots." Thej^ attack the sap-wood and bark of the roots,
eating irregular furrows. The cocoons are oval, and covered
with bits of wood and dirt. Tliey are
found, through the summer, in the earth
near the roots of the grape, and the moths
fly from the middle of June until the mid-
dle of September, according to Dr. Kron.
Harris describes the moth as being dark
Fig. 207. brown, tinged with tawny orange on the
sides, and banded with bright j-ellow upon the edge of the
second abdominal ring. The thorax and fourth abdominal
ring are faintly tinged with yellow, or tawny orange, as are
the palpi, under side of the antenniie, and the legs. The female
has a little orange colored tuft on each side of the tail, and
the males have two tufts on each side. The wings expand
from one to one and a half inches. Another species, u^.
caudata Harris, inhabits the wild currant.
ZYG^NID^.
279
The currant borer, u^geria tipuUforme Linn. (Fig. 208 ; 6,
larva ; a, pupa, enlarged) has been introduced from Europe, and
is a great pest in our gar-
dens, injuring the currant
bushes. It is a slender,
agile, dark blue moth, found
flying in July in the hot sun,
about the currant leaves.
The larva bores in the stems,
and by splitting them open,
in the fall and spring, we
shall find the larva, which
pupates towards the last of May.
Mr. James Ridings describes from Virginia ^. quinque
caudata (Fig. 209) Avhich has
five filaments at the tip of
the abdomen. Its body is
blue black, with a transparent
spot at the base of the hind
wings, while the third abdom-
inal segment is red above.
The Squash-vine borer, Fig. 210.
Memtia cucurbitce Harris (Fig. 210 ; a, larva), often kills, very
suddenly, the squash plant. The moth is orange colored,
spotted with black, and its hind legs are
fringed with long, orange and black hairs.
She oviposits on the vine close to the roots,
from the tenth of July to the middle of Au-
gust. The larva eats out the interior of the
Fig. 209. ^^^"®' ^^^^^ "S"''illy transforms in a rude earthen
cocoon near the roots, but as we have no-
ticed, within the stem, beginning to spin its cocoon the first
of October.
Zyg^nid^ Latreille. This interesting group connects the
diurnal with the nocturnal Lepidoptera. Some of the forms
(Castnia) remind us strikingly of the butterflies. The group
may be recognized by the rather large free head, and the
simple antennae which are slightly swollen in the middle, or
280 LEPIDOPTERA.
partially clavate, as in Zj-gsena. The wings are long and nar-
row in the t^'pieal genera, becoming shorter and broader in the
lower genera, such as Euremia, from India. The scales are
fine, powdery and scattered thinly over the surface, often leav-
ing naked spots on the wings. The species are usually green
or deep blue, with scales of purplish black, or entirely black,
alternating with gay colors, such as golden, bronze, or white
and red. They fly in the hot sunshine.
The sixteen-footed, greenish larvffi are short, cylindrical, the
body being obtuse at each end. The head is ver^- small and
when at rest is partially drawn into the prothoracic ring. The
segments are short and convex, with transverse rows of un-
equal tubercles which give rise to thin fascicles of very short
and evenly cut hairs, which are often nearly absent. The
larvae are either naked, as in Alypia, Eudryas and Castnia, or,
as in the lower moth-like species, they are hairy, like those of
the Lithosians and Arctians in the next famil}'. Before trans-
forming, the larvae usually spin a dense, silken cocoon, though
Eudr3-as and Castnia make none at all, and Ctenucha a slight
one of hairs. The pupa of Zygiiena, especially, is intermediate
in form between that of ^geria and Arctia, being much
stouter than the first, and somewhat less so than the last.
The head is prominent, and the tips of the abdomen sub-acute.
Ctenucha is more like Arctia, while Castnia and Alypia are
elongate, slender, with the head made especially prominent by
a tubercle on the front of the clypeus.
In common with the Sphingidoa and u^geriadm, the
Zygtenidte are confined to the temperate and tropical regions.
The family type, ^yr/cejict, has its metropolis about the Mediter-
ranean Sea, and thence spreads to the north of Europe, and
southward to the Cape of Good Hope. Zygcena exxdans is
found as far north as Lapland, and in vertical distribution rises
6,000 to 7,000 feet in the Alps of Styria.
Castnia is, however, a tropical American genus. Alypia is
the most northern genus, extending into the Hudson Bay ter-
ritories. Glaucopis and allies, which comprise a large number
of species, are almost exclusively tropical American. In Aus-
tralia, as Klug observes, Castnia is represented by Synemon.
The American genus Eudryas is represented by very closely
allied South African genera.
ZYG^NID^. 281
Castnia closely resembles the Hesperians, though Ruich
larger. The species are of large size and of brilliant hues, and
fly in the day time, like the butterflies. The head is, however,
much narrower in front, and the antennae inserted higher up.
The larva is a borer, living in the stems of Orchids ; it is not
known, but probably has the usual form of boring caterpillars,
and the pupa is said by Klug to resemble that of Cossus.
Alypia comprises black moths, ornamented with Avhite and
yellow patches on the wings. The antennae are long, and a
little thickened in the middle. The wings are short and broad.
The body of the pupa is not contracted at the base of the
abdomen as in Eudryas. The larva feeds on the grape and
constructs an earthen cocoon, like that of ^geria, according
to Harris. A. octo-maculata Fabr. is black, with eight spots,
two on each wing, those on the fore wing being yellowish, those
on the hind wing Avhite.
The genus Psychomorpha is allied to Alypia, but differs in
the broadly pectinated antenna, and the shorter palpi, which
do not pass beyond the front of the
head. P. epimenis Drury (Fig. 211) is
found from Connecticut southwards.
It is black, with a broad, 3'ellow, white,
irregularly lunate patch crossing the
outer third of the wing, and on the un-
der side is larger, being triangular,
with two square black spots connected wdth the costa ; on the
hind wings is a little larger, mostly regular crescent-shaped
brick-red spot; it expands 1.10 inches. Doubleday (Harris
Correspondence) states on the authority of Abbot, that the
larva feeds on Bignonia radicans, in Georgia. "It is pale,
with black lines, and though having the full complement of
legs, seems to be a semi-looper in its walk, like Brephos."
Eudryas is a peculiar form, gaily colored, and easily known
by the densely tufted forelegs, and the short tufts of metallic
scales on the thorax and abdomen. The antennae are filiform,
and the abdomen is tipped with hairs. The larva of E. grata
Fabr. is gaily colored with orange and blue, dotted with black.
The body is long and widens towards the eighth ring, which is
humped, from which the body rapidly narrows to the tip.
282 LEPIDOPTEEA.
Across each segment is a row of tubercles which give rise to
three fascicles of hairs. The pupa is rather long, with a promi-
nent tubercle on the front of the head, and the abdominal tip
ends in four tubercles. The larva feeds on the grape dur-
ing midsummer and at the end of August creeps down, bury-
ing itself tln-ee or four inches, without making any cocoon.
Ml'. L. Mitchell of Norwich, Connecticut, has had the kind-
ness to send me "a piece of wood burrowed by the E. grata
with one of the pupse in position." As E. unio is now known
to burrow in the stems of plants, our opinion that Eudrjas is
allied to Castnia would seem to be confirmed by the habits of
the larvne which seem, at least occasionally, to bore into wood.
Eudryas unio Hiibner according to Mr. Kirkpatrick, burrows
in the stems of Hibiscus, thus resembling Castnia in its habits.
Mr. Grote establishes the genus Euscirrliopterus for a moth
closely allied to Eudryas. E. Poeyi Grote (Fig. 212, fore
wing ; the venation of the hind wing
being "almost identical with that of
Eudryas") is a brown and yellow
Cuban species.
Zygcena is a European genus, and
^^°- ^^^- its characters have been indicated
in describing those of the famil3\ The antennaj are much
thickened towards the end, the wings are long and narrow,
and the species are usually entirely blue black, or green with
red, or Avhite and red bands and spots.
Acoloithus represents the Procris (P. vitis) of Europe, but
the wings are longer and narrower, and the hind wings are
A'ery ovate. The gregarious larva of ^. Americana i^ ix\\ii\e
over half an inch long, being short and thick. It is yellow with
a transverse roAv of black spots on each ring. Before pupating
it spins a dense cocoon in crevices. The moth is deep blue
black, with a saffron collar. Riley states that the "eggs are
deposited in clusters, and in twenty-five to thirty days from the
time of hatching, the worms, which then measure rather more
than half an inch, spin dirty white, flattened cocoons, mostly
in clusters on the leaf. Three days afterwards they become
chrysalids, also somewhat flattened, and of a shiny yellowish
brown ; while in ten days more the moths issup"
BOMBYCID^. 283
The genus Pyromorpha has thin, oblong wings, very broad
at base, the liinder pair being as broad as the fore-pair ; with
a small, slender body. P. dimkUata Herrich-Schfert'er (after-
wards described by Clemens under the name of Malthaca per-
Incidula) is blackish brown, with the basal half of the costal
region of both wings yellowish. It expands one inch, and is
found sparingly in the Middle States, but has been detected
near Boston by Mr. Sanborn.
The species of Glaucoi^is and its allies, abounding in tropical
America, are represented in the Northern States by Ctenucha,
which has pectinated antenna, long, slender, acutely pointed
palpi, and rather broad wings ; the apex of the fore-pair being
much rounded. The thick-bodied larva feeds on sedges and
grass, and is very hairy, like an Arctian. The pupa is short
and thick, and much like that of Arctia. Ctenucha Virginica
Charpentier is of a deep indigo blue, with a smoky tinge on the
fore wings, a lighter blue abdomen and a saffron collar. It
flies in the hottest sunsliine. The female la3's
her smooth, green, spherical eggs in a broad mass.
Lycomorpha has dentated antenna?, the body
is unusually slender, and the wings long and nar-
row. L. Pholus Drury is deep blue, the wings '^'
being saffron at base. The larva feeds on lichens. From Mr.
E. Bicknell I have received the eggs of this moth. The
larvae hatched August 10th, and closely resembled the larvjB
of the Arctians when of the same age.
The genus Callalucia, according to Gi-ote, differs from its
better known ally, Ctenucha, by its antennae not being so
broadly pectinated, its shorter palpi, and by important differ-
ences in the venation of the wings. C. vermiculata Grote (Fig.
213, hind wing) occurs in Colorado Territory.
BoMBYCiDuE Latreille. This large and handsome family com-
prises some of the largest and most regal of moths. Their
thick heavy bodies, and small sunken heads, and often obsolete
mouth-parts (the maxillae or tongue being especially short com-
pared with other moths), and the broadly pectinated antenna',
together with their broad, often fiilcate wings and sluggish
habits, notwithstanding numerous exceptions, afford good
284 LEPIDOPTERA.
ciiaracters for distinguishing them. The clypeus is large, the
antennae are inserted higher up than in other moths, so that
when in doubt as to the position of some aberrant forms, a ref-
erence to these characters enables us to determine quite readily
as to their afHnities. The larvjie are thick, usually more hairy
than other moths, or, as in the typical forms, Attacus, etc., are
thick, fleshy and with seven longitudinal rows of long tubercles,
crowned with spines. The hairs, especially of the Arctians,
are thickly spinulated, so that the cocoons of the hairy species
are very dense and made with but little silk, while the naked
larvae, of which the silk-worm is a type, spin very dense co-
coons of the finest silk. It is probable that the caterpillars are
usually developed in the egg soon after it is laid in autumn.
Dr. Burnett has noticed that the embryos of the American Tent
caterpillar are developed before winter sets in, and "Guerin-
Meneville has found that the larvae of the Japanese silk- worm
(Samia Yama-mai) are developed in the egg within a few days
of their deposition in autumn, although they are not hatched
until the following spring." (Zoological Record, 1864.)
Several moths of this famil}^ (Arctia pudica, Setina aurita,
Hypoprepia fucosa, etc.) have been known to produce a stridu-
lating noise by rubbing their hind legs over a vesicular expan-
sion situated on the sides of the thorax, and the Death's-head
Sphinx has long been known to produce a creaking sound.
The pupae are very short and thick and easily recognized by
their plump form. "Bar mentions the occurrence in Cayenne
of an aquatic caterpillar, which produces a moth, resembling
Bomhyx pluedima of Cramer. This larva lives at the bottom
of the water, and feeds on the roots of an abundant weed."
(Bulletin Societe Entomologique de France, 1864.)
Lithosia and its allies (Lithosiinae) have very narrow wings,
the antenna filiform, and the body slender. The larva are
cylindrical and covered with short, spinulated hairs. Some of
them do not spin cocoons, so far as we know, the pupa of Cro-
cota being found under stones with the dried larva skin still
adhering to the tip of the abdomen. Lithosia argillacea Pack,
is slate-colored, with yellow palpi and prothorax. The base of
the wings and the tip of the abdomen are yellowish.
Lithosia casta Sanborn (Fig. 214) is an undescribed species
BOMBYCID^.
285
Fig. 214.
The larvn is hirsute and
of great beauty, discovered by Mr. Sanborn at Berlin Falls,
N. H., August 10th, and also at Ausable Chasm, N. Y. It is
pure milk white, with a slight slate-colored tinge on the hind
wings, and is slate-colored beneath, especially on the fore
wings, and white on the inner edge of the hind wings. Just
behind the middle of the white abdomen are tufts of tawny
hairs, and the tip is white. It ex-
pands one and a quarter inches.
Crambidia has still narrower
wings. C. pallida Pack, is of an
uniform drab color and would be
easily mistaken for a Crambus.
Nudaria has broad wings like a
geometrid moth, with hyaline spots.
makes a thin cocoon of interwoven hairs. N. mmidana is a
European moth. It is represented in this country by Evpha^
nessa mendica Walk., which has broader wings and longer
palpi. The wings have two rows of smoky transparent spots
Hypoprepki has rather broader wings than Lithosia. H. fu-
c>sa Hiibner is deep scarlet, with three leaden strioes on the
fore wings, the middle stripe situated at the apex of the wing.
Tlie larva, Mr. Saunders informs me, is "spiny and black
sprinkled lightly with yellow dots and short lines ; there is a
dorsal row of yellow dots from the fifth to the twelfth segments
The head is black." Early in May, according to Harris, it
makes its cocoon, which is thin
and silky, and the moth appears
twenty days afterwards.
Crocota is red, or yellowish red,
throughout, Avith black margins
and dots on the Avings. The an-
tennae are filiform and the Avino-s
are broad, being triangular in form. Our most common
species IS Crocota ferruginosa Walk., which is pale rust-red
with two dusky broad bands on the outer half of the wing A
much larger form is Utetheisa bella Linn. (Fig. 215), a beautiful
moth, whose yellow fore wings are crossed by bands of white
encircling black dots, while its scarlet hind wings are edo-ed
irregularly with black. °
286 LEPIDOPTERA.
The genus Callimorpha is still larger,' with broad wings.
C. Lecontei Boisduval is white, the fore wings being almost
entirely bordered with brown. The caterpillars of this genus
are usuallj^ dark colored, with longitudinal yellow stripes. By
day they hide under leaves or stones and feed b}^ night on
various shrubby and herbaceous plants. C. interrupto-marginata
Beauv. (Fig. 216, fore wing) has an anchor-shaped black spot
when the wings are folded, one side of the anchor being seen
in the figure.
Arctia and its allies are stout-bodied, with short, moderately
broad wings, and simple or feathered antennte. The hairy
larvae are covered with dense whorls of long, spinulose hairs.
They make a loose cocoon of interwoven hairs under the
shelter of some board or stone. The pupa is short and thick.
Arctia virgo Linn, is an exceedingly beautiful insect. Its fore
wings sometimes expand two inches and a half, and are flesh-
red, streaked thickly with broad, black slashes, and on the
vermilion-red hind wings are seven or eight large black spots.
The cateri)illar is brown. A. Anna Grote
is allied, but differs in the wholly black ab-
domen and black hind wings. It was de-
scribed first from Pennsylvania, and has
been detected by Mr. B. P. Mann on the
Alpine summit of Mount Washington, N. H.
The common black and reddish, very hairy caterpillar, found
feeding on various garden weeds, is the young of Pyrrharctia
Isabella Smith, a stout-bodied, snuff" colored moth. The cater-
pillar hibernates, as do most of the others of the group of
Arctians, and we have kept it fasting for six weeks in the
spring, previous to pupating in the middle of June ; it re-
mained twenty-seven days in the pupa state, the moth appear-
ing early in June.
Leucarctia differs from Spilosoma in having narrower wings,
and the outer edge much more oblique. Leucarctia acrcea Smith
is white and buff' colored. Its caterpillar is the salt-marsh cat-
erpillar, which at times has been very injurious by its gi-eat
numbers. It is yellow, with long hairs growing from yellow
warts, and it makes a coarse, hairy cocoon.
Hyphantria textor Harris is entirely white. The caterpillar, or
BOMBYCID^. 287
" fall web worm," is slender, greenish yellow, dotted with black,
with thin, silken hairs. It spins a thin and almost transparent
cocoon, or almost none at all. H. cunea Drnry is white, spot-
ted with black dots. Mr. Saunders informs me that the larva
"will feed on Chenopodium album. The head is small, black,
shining, bilobate. The body is black, with a slight shade of
brown, and sprinkled with very small, whitish dots. Each seg-
ment has a transverse row of shining black tubercles, each
giving rise to a tuft of hairs of the same color ; on each side
of the body is a double row of orange-colored spots from the
sixth to the twelfth segment inclusive."
The "3^ellow bear" is the caterpillar of Spilosoma Virginica
Fabr. The moth is white, with a black cliscal dot on the
fore wings and tAvo black dots on the hind wings, one on the
middle and another near the inner angle.
Halesidota has a more slender body, with longer antennfe and
palpi, and longer wings than Arctia, being thin and yellowish,
crossed by light brownish streaks. The larva is very short
and thick, usually white, with dark pencils and tufts of hairs,
arising from twelve black tubercles on each ring,
placed as seen in the cut (Fig. 217). iJ. tessel-
laris Smith, the "checkered tussock moth," is
ochre-yellow, with its partially transparent fore
wings crossed by five rows of dusky spots. IF.
carifCB Harris is light ochreous, with three rows ^'^- ^^'
of white semitransparent spots parallel to the very oblique
outer margin. "The chrysalis, according to Harris, is short,
thick, and rather blunt, but not rounded at the end and
not down}'." Mr. Saunders writes me, that the larva of H,
maculata Harris "feeds on the oak. It is 1.30 inches in
length ; the body is black, thickly covered with tufts of bright
yellow and black hairs. From the fourth to the eleventh seg-
ments inclusive is a dorsal row of black tufts, the largest of
which is on the fourth segment." The moth appears early in
June ; it is light ochre-yellow, with large, irregular, light,
transverse, brown spots on the fore wings.
These tufted larvae lead to the tussock caterpillars, which, as
in Orgyia, have long pencils of hair projecting over the head
and tail. The pretty larvae of this genus are variously tufted
288 LEPIDOPTERA.
and colored, and feed on the apple tree and various garden
vegetables. The males have very broad wings, with very
broadly pectinated antennae, and fly in the hot sunshine in
September. The females are wingless and often lay their eggs
on the outside of the cocoon, and then die, scarcely moving
from their eggs. 0. antiqna Och. is tawny brown, while 0. len-
costigma Smith is dark brown, with a lunate white spot near
the outer angle.
The thick and W00II3' -bodied, pale yellowish, crinkled-haired
Lagoa is an interesting genus. The tip of the abdomen is very
broad, and the antenna? are curved and broadly pectinated,
while the wings are short and broad. Tlie larva is very densely
pilose with short, thick, evenly cut hairs, those at the end being
longer and more irregular. It is broadly oval, and might easily
be mistaken for a hairy Limacodes larva, for, like it, the head is
retracted and the legs are so rudimentary as to impart a glid-
ing motion to the caterpillar when it walks. Lagoa crispata
Pack, is so named from the crinkled woolly hairs on the fore
wings. It is dusky orange and slate-colored on the thorax and
low down on the sides. Previous to the last moult it is whitish
throughout and the hairs are much thinner. The larva (Fig.
218) feeds on the blackberry, and, according to a cor-
respondent in Marjdand, it feeds on the apple. The
cocoon is long, cylindrical and dense, being formed of
the hairs of the larva, closely woven with silk. The
pupa is very thin, and after the moth escapes, the
thin skin is found sticking partially out of the co-
coon, as in Limacodes and its allies (Cochlidiffi).
This last group of genera is as interesting as it is
anomalous, when we consider the slug-like, footless larvae,
which are either nearly hemispherical, boat-shaped, or oblong,
with large fleshy spines, and are painted often with the gayest
colors. The pupse are very thin skinned, and the cocoons are
nearly spherical. The moths are often diminutive, the larger
forms being stout, wooll3'-bodied and with short, thick antennae,
pectinated two-thirds their length, while the smaller genera
with slender bodies have simple filiform antennae, and closely
resemlile some of the Tortrices.
Euclea is a very stout and coolly genus ; the antennae are
BOMBYCID^. 289
three-foui'ths as long us the fore wings and pectinated on their
basal half. The fore wings are a little shorter than the body and
the hind wings reach to the tip of the broadly tufted abdomen.
Eudea Monitor Pack, is cinnainon brown, with a large irregular
green patch in the middle of the fore wings. We named
this species from the striking resemblance of the larva to the
iron-clad " Monitor." It is very regularly elliptical, flattened
above, and a broad conspicuons brown spot in the middle of
the back reminds one of the "cheese-box" or turret. Long,
fleshy, bristling spines arise from each end of the larva.
EinpreUa stimidea Clemens (Plate 8 ; Fig. 1 ; 1 a, larva) is
our largest species of this group. The moth is rarely found by
collectors, and is of a rich, deep velvety brown, with a reddish
tinge. There is a dark streak along the basal half of the me-
dian vein, on which is situated a golden spot, while there are
two twin golden spots near the apex of the wing. It expands
an inch and a half. The larva is thick and elliptical, the body
being rounded aljove, but flattened beneath, and a little fuller
towards the head. There is a pair of densely spinulated tuber-
cles on each side of the segments, the subdorsal pair on the
metathoracic ring, and a pair on the seventh abdominal ring,
])eing two-thirds as long as the bod^^ is wide. There are three
l)airs of small, but well developed thoracic legs, while there are
none on the abdominal segments. The body is reddish, with
the upper side green between the two largest pair of spines,
centred with a broad elliptical reddish spot, edged with white,
as is the green portion along the side of the body. According
to Mr. S. I. Smith, of New Haven, from whom the specimen
iigured was received, the larva feeds on the raspberry. He
states that the hairs sting, as its specific name indicates. The
cocoon is rounded, almost spherical, and is surrounded with a
loose web, the whole structure being over three-fourths of an
iuch in length. The moth appeared June 18th.
Phohetrum has narrow wings, and the male is very nnlike the
female, Avhich has beeii raised by Mr. Trouvelot, and was con-
founded by us with the Tlnjridopteryx epliemermformis of Ha-
worth. Its antennae are very broadly pectinated, and the
remarkably long, narrow fore wings are partly transparent.
Tliyridopteryx nigricans Pack, mnst be considered as belonging
19
290
LEPIDOPTERA.
to this gcmis. The cocoon of the latter species is tough, Icath-
eiy, brown, and nearly spherical. The larva of P. pithecintn
Smith is broad, ovate, flattened, with six long, tongue-like,
fleshy lateral appendages. It feeds on the
^^f"^ plum, cherry and apple.
'-' In Limacodes the fore wings are oblong.
/ the costa being straight, while the hind
wings scarcely reach to the tip of the ab-
domen. Tiie fore wings are often crossed
by straight lines forming a V. L. scaplia Harris (Fig. 219) is
light cinnamon brown, with a dark tan-colored triangular spot,
lined externally with silver, which is continued along the costa
to the base of the wing and terminates sharply on the apex.
The larva, as its specific name indicates, is boat-shaped, being
of the form of a castana nut, and is green, spotted above with
brown, and pale beneath, while the sides
of the body are raised, the dorsal surface
being flattened. It constructs a dense, oval,
spherical cocoon, surrounded by an outer
thin envelope.
CallocJilora chloris H-Sch. (Fig. 220) is a pale brown moth,
allied to Euclca, and with a broad, pea-green band crossing
the fore wings.
Litliacodes {L. fasciola Boisd. Fig. 221) and Tortricodes,
strikingly resemble the genus Tortrix, from their narrow
wings, slender bodies, and filiform antennae.
Tiie subfamily Psychiniie, embraces some remarkably diver-
gent forms. The two genera, Phryganidia and Thyridop-
teryXi differing so much in the breadth of their
wings and thickness of their bodies, are, how-
ever, connected by many intermediate forms
occurring in Europe. Psyche is a hairy-bodied
moth, with broad and thin wings, the female of
which is wingless and closely resembles the larva, and inhabits
a case, which is constructed of bits of its food-plant. The
female of Psyche helix has been known to produce young from
eggs not fertilized by the male. It lives in a case of grains of
sand arranged in the form of a snail shell, thus resembling
some Plnyganeids in its habits, as it does structurally.
rig. 221.
BOMBYCID^.
291
The male of Tliyridopteryx {T. ejjhemeneformi's Haworth).
the " basket- worm," is stout- bodied, with broadly pectinated
antennae and a long abdomen ; the anal forceps and the adjoin-
ing parts being capable of unusual extension in order to reach
the oviduct of the female, which is wingless, cylindrical, and in
its general form closely resembles its larva, and
does not leave its case. On being hatched from
the eggs, which are, so far as known by us, not
extruded from its case by the parent, the young
larvae immediately build little, elongated, bas-
ket-like cones, of bits of twigs of the cedar, on
which they feed, and may then be seen walking
about, tail in the air, this tail or abdomen cov-
ered by the incipient case, and presenting a
comical sight. The case (Fig. 222) of the full
grown larva is elongated, oval, cylindrical, and
the fleshy larva transforms within it, while it
shelters the female through life. The genus
(Eceticus comprises large species, with much
the same habits, growing in tropical America
and in Australiao
A basket- worm, allied to (Eceticus, has been
discovered in Florida, by Mr. Glover, feeding upon the orange,
and we give the following account of it from the study of
his admirable drawings. With much the same habits, it be-
longs to quite a different and undescribed genus. The body
of the male resembles that of the broad winged Psyche, and
indeed, this moth may be regarded as a
connecting linli: between the latter genus
and fficeticus. It may be called the
Phitoeceticus Gloverii (Fig. 223). Its
body is slender, with pectinated an-
tennae ; the wings ver}^ broad, irregular,
Fig. 223. and the hind wings are broad and
much rounded, reaching a third of their length beyond the tip
of the abdomen. It is dark brown throughout, and expands
three-fourths of an inch. The wingless, cylindrical, worm-like
female (Fig. 223 h) is acutely oval in form, and whitish. The
larva (Fig. 223 c) is rather flattened and resembles that of
Fig. 2-22.
292
LEPIDOPTERA.
Tln'ridopteryx. It constructs an oval cocoon (Fig. 223 d)
which hangs to the edge of the leaf.
The genus Peropliora^ another sack-bearer (P. Melsheimerii
Harris), is a gigantic Psychid, being about the size of the silk-
Avorm moth, Avliich it closely resembles in the imago state. It
also lives in a ease during the larva state, formed of two oblong
pieces of leaf, fastened together in the neatest manner by their
edges, and lined with a thick and tough layer of brownish
silk. The larva is cylindrical, as thick as a common pipe-stem
and light reddish brown in color.
The head has extensible, jointed
feelers which, when extended, are
kept in constant motion, while be-
hind is a pair of antenna-like organs,
broad and flattened at the end. The
tail is widened and flattened, form-
ing a circular horny plate, which like the operculnm of a whelk,
closes up the aperture of the case. Before transforming within
its case, the larva closes each end with a circular silken lid.
The pupa is blunt at the hinder end and Avith a row of teeth on
each abdominal ring. Both sexes are Avinged. Our species,
7^ Mdsheimerii Harris, is reddish ash grey, sprinkled Avith
blackish points, and Avith a common oblique blackish line.
Notodoyita and its allies (Ptilodontes Hiibner) are mostly
nuked in the larva state, Avith large humps on the back, and the
hind legs often greatly prolonged, as «^
in Cerura, the "fork-tail." The pui>a [';
and moths arc best described l\y stat- \ ■
lug that thev bear a close resemblance
to the Noctuids, for which they are
often mistaken.
Coelodasys (Notodonta) irnicomis
Smith derives its specific name from the horn on the back of
the caterpillar, and its generic name from the large conical tuft
of hairs on the under side of the prothorax. The moth is light
brown, with irregular green patches on the fore Avings. The
cocoon is thin and })archment-like, and the caterpillars remain
a long time in their cocoons l)efore changing to pup;Te. Nerice
hidentata Walker (Fig. 224) is a closely allied moth. Edema
Fig. 225.
BOMBYCID.E.
2[)3
albifrons Smith (Fig. 225) is known by the costa being white
on the outer two-thirds. It feeds on the oalv, to which il is oc-
casionally destructive. Mr. Riley (American Entomologist,
vol. i, p. 39) describes the larva as being of a "bluish white
ground-color, marked longitudinally with yellow bands and
fine black lines, with the head and a hump on the eleventh seg-
ment either of a light coral or dark flesh color." It generairy
elevates the end of the body. It pupates during the last of
September, the moth appearing about the middle of April, in
the vicinity of Chicago.
Platypteryx, a small geometra-like moth, with its broad fal-
cate wings, seems a miniature Attacus. Its larva is slender,
with fourteen legs, and naked, with several little prominences
on the back, and the tail is forked like
Cerura. The pupa is enclosed in a co-
coon among leaves. P. geniculata
Walker, and Dryopterls rosea Grote,
represent this interesting group. We
also give a rude sketch, traced from
Abbot's drawings, from the advanced
sheets of the Harris Correspondence, of
an undescribed species of Dryopteris
(Fig. 226, and its larva). Doubleday Fig. 220.
states that the moth is rose-colored, Avith a few red dots in the
yellow portion of the hind wings.
The Chinese silk-Avorm, Bombf/x mori Linn., has white falcate
fore wings, while the hind wings do not reach to the tip
of the abdomen, and the antennas are well pectinated. The
larva is naked, rather slender compared with those of the next
group, and cylindrical ; the second thoracic ring is humped, and
there is a long horn on the tail. It is three to three and a'half
inches long. It is of an ashy or cream color, but "in almost
every batch of worms there will be seen after the first moult
has occurred, some dark colored, which, at the first glance,
appear to be a distinct species," but Captain Hutton, of India^
shows that "so far, however, are they from being a mere pass-
ing Variety that they are actually types of the original species,
and merely require to be treated according to the established
rules of breeding in order to render them permanent and
healthy."
294 LEPIDOPTERA.
"He attributed the enormous loss of silk-worms by mus-
cardine and other diseases, and the consequent diminution
of the crop of silk, to the combined effects of bad and scanty
food, want of sufficient light and ventilation, too high a tem-
perature, and constant interbreeding for centuries of a debili-
tated stock. He asserted that there was no such thing now in
existence as a perfectly healthy domesticated stock of silk-
worms ; and moreover, that it was useless to seek for healthy
seed, for whether in Europe, Persia, India or China, the worms
were all equally degenerated, or, if there were a difference at
all, it was in favor of the European race. He had for several
years been experimenting on Bombyx mori, with a view, if
possible, to reclaim the worms, to restore to them a healthy
constitution and to induce them to revert from then- present
artificial and moribund condition to one of vigor and perma-
nent health. The occasional occurrence in a brood of one or
more dark grey or blackish-brindled worms — the 'vers tigres'
or 'vers zebr6s' of the French — contrasting strongly with
the pale sickly hue of the majority, must have been noticed by
all who have had experience in reariug silk-worms ; such occur-
rences have been always spoken of as indicatiug varieties aris-
ing from domestication. The author had endeavored, by a series
of experiments, to ascertain the cause of this phenomenon, his
conviction being, either that the species had at some time or
other been crossed by another of different colors, and that Na-
ture, as sooner or later she always would do, Avas making an
effort to separate them, or that the original color of the Avorm
iiad been dark, and an effort was being made to revert from a
sickly condition to the original healthy starting point. He ac-
tiordingly picked out all the dark colored worms and reared
them separately, alloAving the moths to couple only inter se, and
the same with the white Avorms. In the following spring the one
batch of eggs produced nearly all dark brindled Avorms, Avhilst
the other batch produced white Avorms, sparingly interspersed
with an occasional dark one ; these latter Avere removed into a
dark batch, Avhich Avas also Aveeded of its pale worms. In the
third year the worms were still dai'ker than before, and were
always larger and more vigorous than the pale ones, giving
larger and better stuffed cocoons. He finally succeeded in
BOMBYCID^. 295
getting an entire brood of dark worms, which he regarded as
a sign of increased health and strength in the larvae, thus
proving that the dark worms were of the original race, which
also agrees with the colors of the numerous species of the genus
of which he has, with others, made known nearly twenty. The
author also considers the white cocoons as a strong sign of de-
generacy, arguing that the good quality of the silk produced,
was no proof of the general health of the insect, as tlie mala-
dies affected rather the quantity produced, and the present great
fineness was due likewise to the dii^sase." (rroceedings of the
Entomological Society of London.) The silk-worm is an an-
nual, though some species of this group yield two and three
broods in the warmer parts of India. It moults four times, but
occasionally only three times.
The cocoon of the silk-worm is white or whitish j'ellow and
is over an inch long and nearly half as broad ; 3G0 cocoons
weigh a pound and a half. In France and Italy about thirty-
six days elapse between the hatching of the larva and the for-
mation of the cocoon, it taking four da^-s for the spinning of
the cocoon. In England and certain parts of India it requires
forty-six days for its formation.
The above remarks apply to Bombyx mori Linn., the Chinese
silk-worm, which feeds on the mulberry, originally derived from
the mountainous provinces of China. It is the largest and
strongest of the domesticated species. There are, however, as
shown by Captain Hutton, twelve species of silk-worms, most
of which have been confounded nnder the name of B. mori.,
and which belong to the genera Bomhyx of Schrank, Ocinara
of Walker, and Trilodia Moore. There are six domesticated
species of Bombyx. There is not silk enough in the cocoon
of Ocinara to make it worth cultivating (Hutton).
Captain Hutton, speaking of the larvae of B. Hiittoni, re-
marks that it "is curious to observe the instinctive knowledge
which these worms appear to possess of the approach of a hail-
storm. No sooner are the peals of thunder heard, than the
whole brood seems to regard them as a warning trumpet-call,
and all are instantly in motion, seeking shelter beneath the
tliicker branches, and even descending the trunk of the tree to
some little distance, but never proceeding so low down as to
286
LEPIDOPTERA.
lose the protecting shelter of the boughs. For rain they care
nothing, but appear to be al)le to distinguish between the com-
ing of a heavy shower, and tlie more pitiless pelting of the hail."
Attacus and its allies (Attaci) form the central and most
typical group of the family. They are among the largest of
insects. The genus Attacus is found in China, the East Indies
and the South Sea Islands, and in Brazil. Its immense size,
falcate wings, with the large triangular transparent spot in the
centre, readily distinguish it. A. Atlas Linn., from China,
expands from seven to nine inches. Samia is a smaller genus
and with a partially transparent lunate spot in the middle of
the wings. Samia Cynthia Linn, has been introduced from
China and is a hardy worm, quite easily raised, and the silk is
'J^\
Fig. 227.
of a good quality. Mr. "W. V. Andrews urges, in the American
Naturalist (vol. ii, p. 311), the cultivation of the Cyntliia silk-
worm in this country, as it is double-brooded, our native spe-
cies bearing but a single crop of worms. It feeds on the ail-
anthus, and can be reared in the open air. Among many allied
forms, generally referred to the genus Attacus but which still
need revision, are the A. 3Ii/litta (Tussah worm), from China
and India ; A. Pernyi, from Manchouria, which feeds on the oak,
and which has been raised in France, and tlie Japanese Anthercea
Tama-mai, all of which produce silk, though less reared in
Europe than the Cynthia worm. The silk of the Yama-mai
aioth approaches nearest that of B. mori, and as it feeds on
BOMBYCID.E.
297
the oak, and can be raised in tlie open air, its cnltivation lias
gained mncli attention in Europe. A. Aarota Beauv. is com-
mon in Central and South America. In Brazil it could be
raised with success for home use, but is too delicate for a
northern climate.
Telea Polyphemus (PI. 6, male ; PI. 7, female) is brown, with
large transparent eye-like spots in the centre of the wings.
The thread of which the cocoon is
spun is continuous, and is readily
unwound. It is coarser than that
of tae Bombyx mori, but has a rich
gloss and can be used very exten- m^^-
sively in commerce. Its larva
(Fig. 227), which feeds on the Fig 2ib
oak, is thick, flesh}^, striped obliquely with white on the sides,
with angulated segments, on which are tubercles giving rise
to a f.'w short hairs. The pupa (Fig. 228) is very thick, and
the cocoon (Fig. 229) is regularly oval cjdindrical.
Mr. L. Trouvelot gives an account in the American Natural-
ist (vol. i) of this silk-worm, which is our most hardy native
worm. So successful was he in rearing them that in a single
season "not less than a million could be seen feeding in the
open air upon bushes
covered with a net."
The moths leave the co-
coons late in May, ap-
pearing until the middle
of June. They then lay
their eggs, generally
singly, on the under side vig- '22r>.
of the leaves. In ten or twelve days the caterpillars hatch ; the
operation usually takes place early in the day. The worm
moults five times, the first four moultings occurring at intervals
of ten days, while about twenty days elapse between the fourth
and fifth moults, this process usually occurring late in the after-
noon. It makes its cocoon late in September, and in six or
eight days after beginning its cocoon assumes the pupa state,
and in this condition passes the winter.
The genus Actias is at once known by the hind wings be-
298 LEPIDOPTERA.
ing prolonged into a long tail which reaches far bchiricl the tip
of the abdomen. Actias Luna Linn, is green and the larva
closely resembles that of Telea ; it is, however, banded ob-
liquely with 3^ellow instead of white, and spins a cocoon that is
of much the same shape. It is not so hardy a worm as the
Polypliemus caterpillar. It lives on the walnut, hickory and
maple. In the Museum of the Peabody Academy is a closely
allied and undescribed species from the west coast of Guate-
mala, which we would call Actias Azteca. It differs from A.
Luna in its much smaller size, expanding only three and a half
inches, and in the shorter fore wings, the apex being much
rounded and with shorter veins, while tlie "tails" on the hind
wings are only half as long as those of A. Luna. It also dif-
fers in having the origin of the first subcostal venule much
nearer the discal spot tlian in A. Luna, being very near that
of the second subcostal venule. It is whitish green, with
markings not essentially differing from those of A. Luna.
Ccdiosamia is a genus with broader wings and no transpa-
rent eye-like spots. The larva has large tubercles and is very
plump. Its characters are intermediate between those of
tSa7nia and Plafi/samia. C. Promethea Drur^^ is a smaller spe-
cies than the others. Its larva is pale bluish green, with the
head, tail and feet yellow, with eight Avarts on eacli ring, those
on the two first thoracic rings being tlie largest, much longer
than the rest and coral red. The cocoon is hung by a stout
silken cord to the stem of the leaf which is then Avrapped
around it. It may be found attached to the twigs of tlie
wild cherry, Azalea and Cephalanthus, or button bush, in
winter after the leaves have fallen.
Our most common species of this group is the Cecropia moth,
belonging to the genus Platysamia, which has a broader
head and wings than the foregoing genera. The caterpillar of
P. Cecropia Linn, is longer, with long spinulated tubercles,
especially marked on the thoracic rings ; the large, very dense
cocoon is open at one end and thus the silk cannot be un-
wound so well as that of the Polyphemus worm, but it is still
useful, and Platysamia Euryale Boisduval is cultivated in Cali-
fornia for its silk, though the cultivation of the Chinese silk-
worm (B. mori) is carried on there very largely.
BOMBYCIDiE. 299
The next group, the Ceratocampachie of Harris, is composed
of large moths, in which the hind wings scarcely extend beyond
the tip of the abdomen, and the wings are often ocellated.
The larvae are longer than in the xittaci and more hairy.
Eucronia Maia D^'ury has a narrow, lunate, curved white
line in the centre of each wing ; it expands from two and a
half to three inches, and is black with a connnon, broad, yel-
lowish white band. The caterpillar is elongated, with six
long branched prickles on each ring. It feeds on the oak.
Hypercluna lo of Walker (Saturnia lo of Harris) is a little
larger than the preceding. The male is yellow and the female
reddish brown, with a faint eye-like spot on the fore
wing, and on the hind wings a large round blue i
spot, margined with black and pupilled with Avhite. s\J/^
The caterpillar is green, with spreading tufts of "^y^
spines, very sharp, stinging severely when the insect ^^'®' '^•^*'-
is handled, and arising from a tubercle, of which there are six
on each ring ; the fascicles on the side are as represented in
Fig. 230. The pupa is thick, pointed at the tip of the abdo-
men, and the cocoon is thin, being made under leaves on the
ground. It feeds on the corn and cotton, to which it is very
harmful southwards, and also on the maple, elm, etc.
Citheronia regalls HiJbner expands from five to six inches,
and its fore wings are olive colored, spotted Avith yellow and
veined with broad red lines, Avhile the hind wings are orange
red, spotted with olive, green and yellow. The caterpillar is
spiny, having four large acute spinulated
spines on the anterior thoracic segments. It
feeds on the walnut, hickory and the persim-
mon tree, and spins no cocoon. A second spe-
cies, C. 3fexicana Grote and Robinson, has
been described, as its name indicates, from Mexico : it is
more orange and less red, with duller yellow patches. Fig.
231 is a rude sketch (from the Harris Correspondence) of the
young larva, with two of the peculiar long hairs next the head
magnified, A much smaller species, which expands only 3.10
inches, is the C. sepulcralis G. and R., which was discovered
at Andover, Mass., by Mr. J. O. Treat. It is purplish brown,
without any yellow spots, and with a diflTuse discal spot, centred
300 LEPIDOPTEKA.
with reddish scales. Mr. Treat has raised this fine moth from
the hxrva found on the common pitch pine ; it resembles that
of C. regalis. It also occurs in Georgia, as it has been figured
in the unpublished drawings of Abbot, now in the possession
of the Boston Society of Natural Histor}-.
Eades iw.iierialis Hiibner has broader wings, expanding from
four and a half to over five inches. The wings are yellow^ Avilh
purple brown spots. Tlie larva is but slightly tuberculated,
with long, fine hairs. Its chrysalis is like that of Anisota.
The genus Anisota is much smaller than the foregoing, Avith
variously striped larvae, which are naked, with two long,
slender spines on the prothoracic ring, and six much shorter
spines on each of the succeeding segments. The}^ make no co-
coons, but bury themselves several inches deep in the soil just
before transforming, and the chrysalids end in a long spine,
with the abdominal rings very convex and armed with a row of
small spines. The species have much smaller, narrower wings,
with less broadly pectinated antennj^e than in the foregoing
moths. A. Tuhicunda Fabr. is rose colored, with a broad,
pale yellow band on the fore wings. Anisota senatoria Smith
is pale tawny brown, with a large, white, round dot in the cen-
tre of each fore wing.
Tlie next group of this extensive family embraces the Lach-
neides of Hiibner, in which the moths have Aery woolly stout
bodies, small wings, with stoutly pectinated antenmi?, while the
larvje are long, cylindrical and hairy, scarcely tuberculated, and
spin a very dense cocoon. The pup;e are longer than in the
two preceding subfamilies. Gastropaclia (Fig. 159, hind wing)
has scalloi)ed wings, and a singular grajish larva whose body
is expanded laterally, being ratlier flattened. G. Americana
Harris is rust}^ brown, sligiitly frosted, and with ashen bands
on the wings.
In T'oliipe the wings are entire. T. Velleda StoU is a curi-
ous moth, being white, clouded with blue gray, with two broad,
dark gray bands on the fore wings. Tlie larva is hairy and is
liable to be mistaken for an excrescence on the bark of the
apple tree, on which it feeds.
The American Tent Caterpillar is the larva of Clisiocampa,
well known by its handsome caterpillars, and its large, con-
i
BOMBYCID.E.
301
spicuous webs placed in neglected apple trees and on the wild
cherry. The eggs are laid on tlie twigs, in bunches of from
300 to 400, placed side by side and covered with a tongli
gunnny matter ; they are sometimes infested b}^ chalcid para ■
sites.
The larvte of C. Americana Harris hatch out just as the
leaves are unfolding and soon form a web, under which the col-
ony lives. They may be destroyed by previously searching
for the bunches of eggs on the twigs before the tree is leaver^
out, and the caterpilhirs may be killed with a brush or mop
dipped into strong soap-suds, or a weak solution of petroleum.
The larvje become full grown about the middle of June, then
spin their dense wliite cocoons, under the l)ark of trees, etc.,
and the moths appear about the
first of Jul}'. The larva of C.
Americana is aliout two inches
long, hairy, with a dorsal white
stripe, witli numerous fine crin-
kled black lines on a yellow
ground, united below into a
common black band, with a blue
spot on the side of eacli ring.
The moth (Fig. 232, and larva)
is reddish brown, with two obli(]ue, dirty white lines on the
fore wings. It expands from an inch and a quarter to an iucli
and a half. Tlie Forest Tent caterpillar, C. disstria Ili'ibner
(C. sylvatica Harris) differs in the apex of the fore wings
being much longer, with two transverse rust brown, nearly
straight, parallel lines. It is somethnes destructive to the
apple and oak trees.
The Hejiiali are a group of boring moths, the larvre boring
in the stems of plants or in trees. The wings are narrow, botii
pairs being \evy equal in size, and show a tendency to recur to
the net-veined style of venation of the Neuroptera. Xylevtes in
a large moth, with a stout vein passing through the middle of
tlie discal space, and the short antennje have two rows of short
teeth on the under side. X. rohinia.' Peck is gray, with irregu-
lar l)lack lines and dots on the wings, and a black line on the
inside of the shoulder tippets. The hind wings of the male
302 LEPIDOPTERA.
(X. CTepera Harris) are distinctly triangular and yellow on the
outer half. The larva is nearly three inches long, is reddish
above and covered with sparse long hairs. It bores in various
directions through the red oak and locust, and spins a dense
cocoon. The pupa is much elongated, with the suture between
the segments well marked, and the head and thorax rather small.
Stlienopis is a gigantic moth, with more falcate wings than
in Ilepialus. S. argenteomaciUata Harris expands nearly
three inches, and is ashy gray, variegated with dusky clouds
and bands, with a small, triangular, silver}^ spot and round
dot near the base of the fore wings. Hepialus is smaller, with
a larger head and straighter Avings. //. huvinli Linn, is
injurious to the hop vine in Europe. Our most common spe-
cies, H. mnsteb'nus Pack., is sable brown, with slight silvery
lines on the fore wings. It expands a little over an inch and
a quarter.
NocTu^LiT^ Latreille (JVoctuidce) . Owlet moths. There
is a great uniformity in the genera of this family, which are
characterized by their thick bodies, the thorax being often
crested, by the stout and well developed palpi, and the simple
and sometimes slightly pectinated antenna?. The fore wings
are small and narrow, and the rather large hind wings are
when at rest folded under them, so that the moth looks much
smaller than when flying. They fly swiftly at night, and are
attracted by light. The fore wings have almost invariably a
dot and reniform spot in the middle of the wing, and the moths
are generally dark and dull colored. The larviB taper towards
each end, and are striped and barred in different ways. They
have sixteen feet, except those of the lower genera, such as
Catocala and other broad-winged genera, which have fourteen,
and look when they walk like the Geometers. They make
thin earthen cocoons, and the pupne generally live under
ground. In these and other more essential characters, this
family is intermediate between the Bombycidse and the Phala-
nidoe. There ai'e about 2,500 species known.
These moths can be taken at dusk flying about floAvers, while
they enter open AvindoAvs in the CA^ening, and during the night
are attracted by the light Avithin. When alighted on the table
NOCTUJiLIT^. 303
under a lamp a slight tap with a ruler will kill them without
injuring the specimens. In warm, foggy evenings, they enter
in great numbers. The moths fly in July and August, but
many species occur only in autumn, while others hibernate and
are taken early in the spring. An English writer says, " moths
are extremely susceptible of any keenness in the air ; a nortl/
or east wind is very likely to keep them from venturing abroad.
Diflerent species have different hours of flight."
An English entomologist states, that "after dusk the flowers
of the willow are the resort of several species of moths (Noc-
tuidae), some of which have hibernated, and others have just
left their pupa state. It is now some fifteen years since the
collectors first took moths in tliis way, that were likel}' long to
have remained deficient in the collections but for the disco\'ery,
by Mr. H. Doubleday, of the attractive powers of tiie sallow
blossoms. I believe it was the same gentleman who found out
about the same time that a mixture of sugar and beer [or rum
and sugar or molasses, etc.], mixed to a consistence somewhat
thinner than treacle, is a most attractive bait to all the N(jr-
tuidcB. The revolution wrought in our collections, and our
knowledge of species since its use, is wonderful."
"The mixture is taken to the woods, and put iipon the
trunks of trees in patches or stripes, just at dusk. Before it is
dark some moths arrive, and a succession of comers continue
all througli the niglit, until the first dawn of day warns the
revellers to depart. The collector goes, soon after dark, with
a bull's-eye lantern, a ring net, and a lot of large i)ill boxes.
He turns his light full on the wetted place, at the same time
placing his net underneath it, in order to catch any moth that
may fall. The sugar bait may be used from March to October
with success, not only in woods, but in lanes, gardens, and
wherever a tree or post can be found to put it upon. The best
nights will be those that are warm, dark and wet ; cold, moon-
light, or bright, clear and dry nights are always found to be
unproductive. It is also of no avail to use sugar in the vicinity
of attractive flowers, such as those of the willow, lime or ivy.
Sometimes one of the Geometridce or Tineidm comes, and
occasionlly a good beetle." The virgins' bower, when in blos-
som, is a favorite resort of Noctuie. Many can be taken by
304
LEPIDOPTERA.
carrying a kerosene lamp into the woods and watching for
wliateyer is attracted by its light.
Thyatira and Cymatopliora are allied by their small, hairy
heads, to the Notodonta? in the preceding famity. In Tliyra-
tira the palpi are long and depressed, and the
*^ } fore wings are dark, with five or six large light
3^ spots, and the larva is like that of the Noto-
Fig. 233. dontae, the segments being hnmped, and the
anal legs raised while at rest, while Cymatopliora is pale ashen,
the fore wings being crossed b}^ four or five waved lines. The
larva is smooth, rather flattened beneath, with a large head.
It feeds on trees, between two leaves united by silk. C. cani-
2)Iaga Walker describes from Canada. Gramatoplwra trisirj-
tiuta Doubleday (Fig. 233, fore wing) is a gaily colored spe-
cies, greenish, marbled with
black, with three large, round,
brown spots on the fore wings.
Tlie larva (Fig. 234) is
linmped, giving it a zig-zag
outline, and is brown with the
third to tlie sixth abdominal
rings much paler. It has the unusual power of boring very
smooth, cylindrical holes in solid pine wood. We liave re-
ceived specimens of its tunnels from Mrs. J. Brigham. We
have found the larvie just moulting on the leaves of the lilac,
September 12th.
In Acro)}ycta the head becomes large and broad, the fore
wings are broad and short, with dark streaks and a daik mark,
,, \,;, |,.\;/ like the Greek letter Psi on the
iiT^'T^V^^ iiiiicr margin. The larva? vary
^=^-af in being humped or cjdindrical,
Fig. 235. downy, slightly hairy, or very
hairy, and feed exposed on shrubs. The pupa lies in a co-
coon made in moss or in crevices of bark. A. oblinita Smith
(Fig. 235, larva) is whitish gray, with darker streaks on the
fore wings.
xipatela Americana Harris is a large, pale gray moth, without
black streaks, whose woolly, yellowish caterpillar, with long,
slender pencils of biacii hairs, feeds on the miiple.
Fig. 234.
NOCTUiELITyE. 3C5
We have received from Mr. Sanborn a singular caterpiller
allied to this genus (Fig. 236), which is figured in the Harris
Correspondence as Acronycta acris? var. Americana. "It is
greenish brown," according to Harris, "each segment above
with a transverse oval greenish yellow spot ; the body is beset
with a few long black bristles, dilated at the end, which do not
grow, as usual, from small warts ;
there are no long bristles on
the second and third thoracic,
or on the tenth abdominal rings.
It moves very quickly, and rests
with the fore part of the body Fig. 236.
bent sideways. The chrysalis was found under a log fastened
to another with a few threads. The moth appeared June 28th."
In Leucania the fore-wings are short, the outer margin nearly
straight, while the hind wings are usually white. Leucania
unipuncta Haworth (Plate 8, fig. 2; a, larva) is the "Army-
worm" of the Northern States. Its larva is smooth, cylindri-
cal, tapering rapidly towards each end, and striped with fine,
dark, longitudinal lines. It feeds on grasses, and in certain
years has greatly ravaged wheat fields. It hides by day among
tufts of grass. The moth is rusty, grayish brown, peppered
with black scales, and with an oblique row of about ten black
dots running towards the apex, and a white discal spot. It
expands a little over one and a half inches. It constructs, in
the middle of August, a rude earthen
cocoon, or cell of dry grass. The moth
appears the last of August northwards.
Six species of Ichneumon, and one of
Tachina, prey upon this species. To pre-
vent the too great accumulation of this
Fig. 237. ^^^^ destructive caterpillar, the grass land
should be burnt over in autumn. When on the march their
armies may be kept out by ditching, and hogs and fowl should
be turned into fields during the middle of August, while they
are transforming, to prevent their attacks the succeeding year.
Agrotis, the Dart-moth, is known by its crested thorax ;
the palpi are broad and truncated, level with the front, and
the antennae are either somewhat pectinated or distinctly cili-
g06
LEPIDOPTERA.
ated. The dot and reniform spot are very distinct, being sit-
uated on a black ground, and tliere is a basal, median, black
streak on the fore wing. The apex of the hind wings is much
produced. The larva?,
called " cut worms," are
thick, with a distinct,
horny, p r o t h o r a c i c
plate, like that in the
Tortrices, or leaf-rol-
lers ; they are marked
with shining and warty,
or smooth and concolor-
^'^- ^^^- ous spots, and often lon-
gitudinal dark lines, and live by day hidden under sticks and
the roots of low plants ; feeding by night. The pupa is found
living under ground. Agrotis tessellata of Harris (Fig. 237)
is dark ash colored ; the two ordinary spots on the fore wings
are large and pale, and alternate with a triangular and a square,
deep, black spot. It expands an inch and a quarter. Agrotis
devastator Harris is the moth of
the cabbage cut-worm. Another
very abundant species, often seen
flying over the blossoms of the
I Golden-rod in autumn is the ^^ro-
tis suhgothica (Fig. 238). Mr.
Riley states that this moth is the
"parent of a cut-worm which very
closely resembles that of A. Coch-
rani, but which has the dark side
divided into two stripes. The
^'«- 2S9- cnrysalis remains somewhat longer
in the ground, and the moth makes its appearance from four
to six weeks later than A. Cochrani."
A. suffusa Den. and Schief. (A. telifera of Harris, fig. 239)
is so named from the lance-like streaks on the fore wings. It
appears late in July, and probably attacks corn, as Mr. Uhler
has found the chrysalids at the roots of corn in Maryland.
Riley describes the larva under the name of the Large Black
Cut-worm. It is an inch and a half in length when crawling.
1
NOCTU^LITJ^. 307
"Its general color above Ls dull, dark, leaden brown, with a
faint trace of a dirty yellow white line along the back. The
subdorsal line is more distinct, and between it and the stigmata
are two other indistinct pale lines. There are eight bhick,
shin}', piliferoiis spots on each segment ; two near the subdorsal
line, the smaller a little above anteriorly ; the larger just below
it, and a little back of the middle of the segment, with the line
appearing especially light above it. The other two are placed
each side of the stigmata, the one anteriorlj^ a little above,
the other just behind, in the same line with them, and having a
white shade above it."
While cut-worms have usually been supposed to feed upon
the roots of grasses and to cut off the leaves of succulent
vegetables, Mr. Cochran, of Calumet, 111., has discovered that
one species ascends the apple, pear and grape, eating off the
fruit buds, thus doing immense damage to the orchard. Mr.
Cochran, in a letter published in the "Prairie Farmer," states
that ''they destroy low branched fruit trees of all kinds except
the peach, feeding on the fruit buds first, the wood buds as a
second choice, and preferring them to all things, tender grape
buds and shoots (to which they are also partial) not excepted ;
the miller always preferring to lay her eggs near the hill or
mound over the roots of the trees in the orchard, and if, as is
many times the case, the trees have a spring dressing of lime
or ashes with the view of preventing the operations of the May
beetles, this will be selected with unerring instinct by the mil-
ler, thus giving her larvte a fine Avarm bed to cover themselves
with during the day from the observation of their enemies.
They will leave potatoes, peas and all other 3'oung, green
things, for the buds of the apple and the pear. The long,
naked, young trees of the orchard are almost exempt from
their voracious attacks, but I found them about midnight, of a
dark and damp night, well up in the limbs of these. The
habit of the dwarf apple and pear tree, however, just suits
their nature, and much of the complaint of those people who
cannot make these trees thrive on a sandy soil, has its source
and foundation here, though apparently, utterly unknown to
the orchardist. There is no known remedy ; salt has no prop-
erties repulsive to them ; they burrow in it equally as quick as
308 LEPIDOPTEEA.
in lime or ashes. Tobacco, soap and other diluted washes do
not even provoke them ; but a tin tube, six inches in length,
opened on one side and closed around the base of the tree, fit-
ting close and entering at the lower end an inch into the
earth, is what the lawj^ers would term an effectual estoppel to
further proceedings.
" If the dwarf tree branches so low from the ground as not to
leave six inches clear of trunk between the limbs and ground,
the limbs must be sacrificed to save the tree, as in two nights
four or five of these pests will fully and effectually strip a four
or five year old dwarf of every fruit and wood bud, and often
when the tree is green utterly denude it of its foliage. I look
upon them as an enemy to the orchard more fatal than the can-
ker worm when left to themselves, but fortunately for man-
kind, more surely headed off."
Mr. Riley has named this cut-worm Agrotis Coclirani (Fig.
240, and larva) and de-
scribes the larva which,
according to the obser-
vations of J. Townley
of Marquette, Wis.,
also ascends standard
trees, not confining
^'s- 210. jtg injuries to dwarf
trees. The cut-worm is 1.07 inches in length. "It is slightly
shagreened and the general color is of a dingy ash gray, with
lighter or darker shadings. The back is light, inclining to flesh
color with a darker dingy line along the dorsum. The sides,
particularly along the subdorsal line, are of a darker shade.
On each segment there are eight small, black, shiny, slightly
elevated points, having the appearance of black sealing-wax,
from each of which originates a small black bristle. The stig-
mata are of the same black color and one of the black spots is
placed quite close to them anteriorly. The head is shiny and
of the same dingy color, with two darker marks ; thick and
almost joining at the upper surface, becoming thinner below
and diverging towards the palpi. The upper surface of the
first segment is also shiny like the head. The ventral region is
of the same dingy color, but lighter, having a greenish tinge
NOCTUiELIT^. 309
anteriorly and inclining to yellow under the anal segment,
Prolegs and feet of the same color. It has a few short bristles
on the anterior and lateral segments.
"The head is light brown, with a dark brown spot on each
side and dark brown above, leaving the inverted Y mark in the
middle light brown, and having much the appearance of a
goblet, as one looks from tail to head. The cervical shield is
dark brown, except a stripe above and on each side. There
are sparse, short, white bristles laterally and posteriorly.
The ventei; and legs are of a glaucous glassy color, and the
feet are light brown."
"The moth in its general appearance bears a great resem-
blance to Hadena chenopodii, but the two are found to differ
essentiall}'^ when compared. From specimens of H. chenopodii,
kindly furnished me by Mr. Walsh, and named by Grote, I am
enabled to give the essential differences, which are: 1. In
A. Coclirani, as already stated, the middle area exceeds some-
what in width either of the other two, while in H. chenopodii
it is but half as wide as either ; 2. In the Agrotis the spact
between the spots and between the reniform and transverse
posterior is dark, relieving the spots and giving them a
light appearance, whilst in the Hadena this space is of the
same color as the wing, and the reniform spot is dark. The
claviform spot in the Hadena is also quite prominent, and one
of its distinctive features ; while in the Agrotis it is just about
obsolete.
Another larva is called by Mr. Riley the W-marked cut-
worm. "It measures one and an eighth inches, and its gen-
eral color is ash gray, inclining on the back and upper sides
to dirty yellow : it is finely speckled all over with black
and brown spots. Along the back there is a fine line of a
lighter color shaded on each side at the ring joints with
a darker color. Subdorsal line light sulphur yellow, with a
band of dirty brownish yellow underneath. Along the stig-
matal region is a wavy line of a dark shade with flesh colored
markings underneath it ; but the distinguishing feature is t
row of black velvety marks along each side of the back, on al
but the thoracic segments, and bearing a general resemblancf;
(looking from tail to head), to the letter W. The ventral regio):
310 LEPIDOPTERA.
is greenish gray ; prolegs of the same color ; thoracic feet brown
blacki Head bUick witli white lines in front, resembling an in-
verted Y, and white at the sides. The thoracic segments fre-
quently have a greenish hue." It is the Noctua clandestina.
iStill another, of which the moth is unknown, is described
by Mr. Riley under the name of the Pale Cut-worm. "It
is of the same length as Cochran's cut-worm, and the general
color is pale gray, Avith a lilac colored hue, caused by innumer-
able light purplish markings on an almost white ground.
There is no particular shading on the back, and it is very slight
along the subdorsal line. The stigmatal line, however, being-
destitute of the above mentioned markings, is almost white.
Al)ove this line there is a band of a darker shade than the rest
of the body. At first sight this worm appears quite smooth and
uniform in color, the most striking feature being the second
segment, which is shiny black, with three white lines. One of
these lines is on the
top, and continues
to some extent on
the head ; the others
are placed on each
side of this and do
not run down as far.
^'S- 241. a The anal segment
has also two black shiny marks on its surface. The stigmata
are black and the head is gra}^, below light shiny, and brown
above. Legs and feet of the same color as the under side of
the body which is nearly white with a glaucous tinge. There
are a few scattering hairs near the tail. This worm is
smoother than the others."
In Gortyna the antennas are crenulated in the male, and the
fore wings are yellow with darker markings. The larva is dull
colored with warty spots. That of G. Jlavago, an European
species, feeds in the stems of thistles and the burdock, chang-
ing to a pupa inside the stem. G. leucostigma attacks the colum-
bine (Harris). The habits of the Dahlia and Aster stalk borer
(Gortyna nitela Guenee) have been described by Mr. Riley,
who states that the fore wings of the moth (Fig. 241 ; a, larva)
are lilac gray, speckled with minute yellow dots, with a dis-
NOCTU^.LIT^. 3j^
tinct white band running across them. The caterpillar is gen-
erally of a livid or purplish brown, though varying nuich a'^s to
depth of shading and is darker before than behind. "The
young worm hatches about the first of July and inunediately
commences its work of destruction. It works in such a sur-
reptitious manner as to be too often unnoticed till the vine is
destroyed. The plant does not generally show any signs of
decay until the worm is about fully grown, when it Avilts^and is
past recovery. This occurs about a month after the worm is
hatched, and it then crawls just under the surface of the ground,
fastens a little earth together around itself by a slight web and
changes to a chrysalis of a very light mahogany brown color,
and three-fourths of an inch long. The moth comes forth the
fore part of September. The carefid culturist need fear nothing
from this troublesome insect, as an occasional close inspection
of the plants about the first of July will reveal the hole where
the borer has entered, which is generally quite a distance from
the ground, and by splitting downwards one side of the stalk
with a penknife it may be found and killed. If this inspection
be made at the proper time the worm will be found but a short
distance from the hole and the sj^lit in the stalk will heal by
being kept closed with a piece of thread." (Prairie Farmer.)
Achatodes differs from Gortyna in not having the fore wings
falcate. A. zew, described by Harris, is rust-red with gray
clouds and bands on the fore wings and yellowish gray hind
wmgs ; it expands an inch and a half. The larva feeds "inside
the stalks of corn, within which it transforms ; it is a little
over an inch long, smooth and naked, with the head and the
top of the first and last rings of the body black, and with a
double row of small, smooth, black dots across each of the
other rings. It also infests the dahlia and elder.
The genus Mamestra comprises rather large moths in which
the antenna are rather long and simple in the male ; the front
of the head is smooth and convex, and the reniform dot is
very distinct, while the outer margin of the fore wings is rather
oblique. Tlie larAa is longer than usual and feeds on the
leaves of low plants, remaining concealed by day. The pupa
IS subterranean, the cocoon being made of earth.
Mamestra arctica Boisd. (Hadena arnica) is common north.
312 LEPIDOPTERA.
■ward, and is found in tlie colder subarctic regions of America
and Europe. It cuts oflf the leaves of roses and other shrubs.
Fitch states that the larva, late in May in New York, cuts ofl'
the young shoots of the currant. It is an inch and a half long,
of a shining livid color, with faint dots, from which arise a very
short, fine hair. It remains in the pupa state about a month be-
neath the ground, the moth appearing in July. It is found also
in Labrador and in Europe. The moth expands an inch and
three quarters aud is of a deep Spanish brown, variegated with
gray, with a very conspicuous reniform dot ; the outer edge is
bordered with blue gray. Harris also describes M. picta^ a red-
dish brown species, with a conspicuous white Z on the outer
edge of the fore wing. The larva is yellow, gaily variegated
with three longitudinal stripes. It feeds on garden vegeta-
bles, and Mr. Fish informs me that it feeds on the cranberry.
The genus Plusia is quite unlike the foregoing genera, as
the palpi are long and slender, and the fore wiugs are acute,
with silver marks and lines, usually a dot aud dash, like a
semicolon ; the inner angle is tufted, and the hind wings are
triangular.
Our most common species is Plusia precatiom's Guenee,
the larva of which, according to Mr. Saunders, feeds on the
hollyhock in August. "It is one and a half inches long,
the body tapering anteriorly and thickening in the middle
and towards the end. The head is small, smooth, shining
green, with a black stripe on each side. The body is gTcen
with dull whitish, longitudinal lines above and a whitish stripe
somewhat more distinct on each side near the spiracles. It
changed to a chrysalis August 9th." A species of Plnsui, like
P. prsecationis, is figured by Mr. Glover in his unpublished
plates of insects injurious to the cotton plant. It has a much
curved, semicircular discal spot, with a distinct dot just beyond,
the two spots arranged thus «"• . The caterpillar is pale
green, the body increasing in size from the head to the tail and
with a lateral row of brown dots. "It was found eating the
cotton flower in Georgia the last of October." It forms a loose,
thin cocoon among the leaves, and the pupa is pale green,
spotted above with irregular brown spots. Mr. Glover also
figures quite a different species of Plusia, which has the same
NOCTU^LIT^. 313
habits as the species just mentioned. It belongs, however, to
a (litTerent section of the genus, and on the discal area is an
oblique, golden, irregular oval patch, containing two unequal
dots. The larva is pale green and has a broad, lateral, white
stripe. The chrysalis is brown and protected by a thin, loose
cocoon. P. clivergens Fabr. lives on the Alps, in Plnmark, and
in Labrador. Mr. F. G. Sanborn found, July 6th, a closely allied
species on the summit of Mount Washington, N. II., which dif-
fers from P. divergens in the forked, golden, discal spot being
a third smaller, while the two branches of the spot go off at
right angles to each other. On the fore wings the second line
from the base is acutely dentate on the submedian vein, where
in P. divergens it is straight, and the outer line is also den-
tate, not being so in P. divergens. The hind wings are yel-
lowish at base, with a wide black margin. It may be called
Plusia montana. Mr. Grote has described P. ignea (P. alticola
of Walker) from Pike's Peak, which is closely allied
to P. divergens. Plusia cerea Hiibner (Fig. 242, side
view) is a reddish brown moth, with obscure markings,
and without the usual metallic spots. It expands a
little over an inch, and is not uncommon in the North-
ern States.
Aletia is a slender- bodied genus, with triano-ular
fore wings. A. argillacea feeds upon the cotton,
brown moth with a dark discal oval spot centred by two
pale dots. She deposits, according to Mr. Glover, a low, much
flattened, vertically ribbed egg upon the surface of the leaf.
The larva is a looper, whence it can be readily distinguished
from the army and boll worms, and its body is tliickest in the
middle, very hairy, green, dotted with black along a subdorsal
yellowish line, and with black dots beneath. It matures early
in the season, and a second brood becomes fully grown in Sep-
tember and October. When about to transform it gathers a
leaf together by a web, thus forming a rude cocoon. (Glover.)
Like our northern army worm (Leucania unipuncta) the
Army worm of the South (Fig. 243, egg and larva, Riley),
makes its appearance in great numbers in a single day,
committing the greatest havoc in a few hours. Professor J.
Darby, of Auburn, Ala., writes me that "Saturday, Septem-
314
LEPIDOPTERA.
ber 19th, I was in the field examining the forms (buds beforo
flowering) and the young bolls (fruit after the florai organs
have fallen off). I examined all carefully, with no signs of eggs
or worms. On Sunday I did not see it. On Monday' I passed
it as usual and observed nothing unusual. On Tuesday morn-
ing I passed it and noticed nothing unusual. On Tuesday noon
every plant in the field was stripped of all its upper leaves ;
not one remaining as far as could be seen, and the i)lants were
covered with millions of worms. I counted on one plant forty-
six worms. They commence at the top of the plant, eating
every leaf. When the leaves were gone they attacked the
young bolls, eating through the perianth and consuming the
young cotton. In the course of four days the work was done.
They did not touch the grape, nor any other plant in the field.
Many left the field and thousands
were in the road and on the fences,
but not one in a thousand thu3
escaped. To-daj', September 20d,
there is scarcely one to be seen.
Their disappearance is as myste-
rious as their coming. They have
left no signs that I can see, either
on the stalks or in the ground.
They have extended over hundreds of miles, and nothing
has proved a barrier to them, having been as destructive
on islands in the river, as elsewhere. One-tliird of the
cotton crop has been destroyed. Nothing of the kind has
occurred in thirty 3-ears past to my knowledge." The larva
is reddish brown, with distinct black spots, the dorsal line
being streaked with j^ellow and black. It hibernates as a
moth. The presence of this caterpillar in the West Indies
caused the cultivation of cotton to be abandoned. The same,
or another species, also appears often in Guiana and other parts
of South America. A good remedy against the worm is a mix-
ture of two parts of carbolic acid with 100 of water, to be
eprinkled on the leaves of the plant. Heliothis has pubescent
antennae, the thorax and abdomen are smooth, and the fore
wings slightly acute at tip. The larva is elongated, but not
attenuate, with a large head and distinct lines along the body.
Fig. 243.
NOCTUiELIT^.
815
Fi'^ 344.
It feeds exposed on low plants, preferring the flowers. The
pupa is conical and subterranean. H. armigera Linn. (Fig.
244; a, larva) is the "boll
worm" of the Southern States,
so destructive to cotton crops.
Riley states that it also feeds
on the fruit of the tomato, and
in Southern Illinois on the silk
and green kernels of corn and
also the phlox, tomato and
corn-stalks, and, according to
Mr. T. Glover, it bores into the
pumpkin. Mr. Riley, in the
" Prairie Farmer," describes H. phloxiphaga Grote under the
name of the "Phlox worm" (Fig. 245, and larva). He states
that there are two broods in a year, the first appearing in July,
s=^ and becoming moths by the middle of Angnst,
-7 the second passing the winter in the chrysalis
■^ state. The eggs arc deposited singl}^ on all
_ 213. portions of the plant, and the caterpillar,
when about to become a chrysalis, enters the ground, and in-
terweaves grains of sand with a fcAv silken theads, forming a
very slight elastic cocoon." The genus Heliocheihis differs
from Heliothis in its broader and shorter wings and its vena-
tion. //. paradoxus
Grote (Fig. 246, vena-
tion of fore wing) is a
pale testaceous moth,
with the fore wings
darker. It inhabits ^
Colorado Territory.
Anarta is rather a
small moth, with a
hairy body and small
head ; the fore wings Fig. 245.
are thick and velvety, with confused markings, and the hind
wings are yellow or white, often bordered with black. The
larva is short and smooth in repose, with the anterior portion
of the body bent under the breast. The pupa is enclosed in a
316 LEPIDOPTERA.
cocoon of silk mixed with earth. The genus is arctic or sub-
arctic, and inhabits Alpine summits. A. algida Lefebvre in-
habits Labrador and Lapland. A closely allied and undescribed
species, seems to be peculiar to the summit of Mount Wash-
ington, N. H., where it has been detected by Mr. Sanborn.
XantJioptera semicrocea Guenee (Plate 8, fig. 3 ; a, larva) is
brown, with the base of the wings saffi-on yellow ; it expands
a little less than one inch. Dr. A. W. Chapman, of Appalachi-
cola, Fla., states in a letter to Mr, Sanborn, that the larva
feeds on the leaves of tlie Pitcher plant, Sarracenia. It is red
and cylindrical, with short black tubercles on the top of each
segment, and a black cylindrical spine on each side of the
four basal rings of the abdomen, surmounted by fine hairs.
It does not spin a cocoon but hangs loosely by a few silken
threads within the pitcher-like leaf, and the moth is the only
insect that can get out of the bristly and narrow opening of
the "pitcher."
The little slender-bodied genus Erastria has filiform antennae
and a slender crested abdomen, with the usual lines and dots
quite distinct. The larva is smooth and slender, with only
three pairs of abdominal legs. The pupa is enclosed in a co-
coon among leaves or moss. E. carneola Guenee is a common
species, with the outer edge of the fore wings flesh colored.
In Breplios the hind wings are bright orange, the body is
hairy and the antennae are ciliated ; the abdomen is slender,
and the wings are broader than usual. The larva is smooth,
elongate, with sixteen legs, though the first two abdominal
pairs are useless for walking, hence the larva has a semi-
looping gait. It feeds on trees and makes a slight cocoon
in moss or under bark. B. infans Moschler inhabits Labrador
and New England. It flies early in April before the snow has
left the ground.
Catocala is a beautiful genus, the species being numerous
in this country and of very large size, often expanding three
inches or more ; the wings are broad, and in repose form a
very flat roof. The larva is elongate, slender, flattened beneath
and spotted with black, attenuated at each end, with fleshy
filaments on the sides above the legs, while the head is flat-
tened and rather forked above. It feeds on trees and rests
NOCTU^LIT^. 817
attached to the trunks. The pupa is covered with a bluish
efflorescence, enclosed in a slight cocoon of silk, spun amongst
leaves or bark. C. piatrix Grote is brown on the anterior
wings and varied with black, while the hind wings are yellow
with a broad median and marginal band. It is common in the
Middle and Eastern States.
C. ultronia Hiibner (Plate 8, fig. 4 ; a, larva) expands two
and a half inches and is of a rich umber color, with a broad
ash stripe along the middle of the wings, not extending to-
wards the apex, which is brown. The hind wings are deep red,
dusky at base, with a median black band, and beyond is a red
band a little broader than the dark one, while a little less than
the outer third of the wing is blackish. The larva feeds on
the Canada plum. It is gray with black punctures, and the
head is edged with black. The segments are transversely
wrinkled, and on each one are two whitish and two brownish
papillae ; the two brown ones on
the eleventh ring are much en-
larged, and on the ninth ring is a
small brownish horn. On the
sides of the body, before the spir-
acles is a line of light pink fila- ^'^- ^*^-
ments fringing the scalloped sides. On July 15th the larva
changed to a chrysalis in an earthen cocoon, and the moth ap-
peared on the 2d of August.
Drasteria is a small, grayish moth, with two geminate black
dots near the apex, and a broad diffuse line on the fore wing.
The larva is a looper, and the body is attenuated at each end.
D. erechtea Cramer flies very abundantly in grass lands in May
and early summer. Mr. Saunders informs me that the larva
(Fig. 247) is "one and a quarter inches long and walks
like a geometer ; the body is thickest in the middle, being
somewhat smaller towards the head, but tapering much
more posteriorly, while the head is not large and is rather
flattened in front and is pale brown, with darker longi-
tudinal lines. The body above is reddish brown, with many
longitudinal darker lines and stripes ; there is a double whitish
dorsal line, with a stripe on each side of the darker shade,
another stripe of the same hue on each side close to the stig-
318 LEPIUOPTEHA.
mata, and between these stripes are faint longitudinal lines.
It fed on. clover and went into tlie chrysalis state Sept. 21st."
The two remaining genera have broad Avings, and are black-
ish, with numerous transverse waved lines. The edges of the
wings are scalloped, the palpi are very long, and the head nar-
row between the eyes, thus showing their affinities to the
Phaloinidce. The species of Homoj)tera are of a dark ash
color. H. lunata Drury has a lunate discal spot.
Erebus is a gigantic moth, with the outer margin very
oblique and a large, incised, discal spot and sublunate margi-
nal spots. Our large, blackish si)ecies, dark as night, is Ere-
bus odora Drury ; it expands about five inches. The magnifi-
cent, pale gray Erebus Agrippina Cramer (E. strix of
Fabricius) inhabits Brazil ; it expands nearly ten inches.
Phal^nid^. Latreille (Geometridce). The Geometrids are
easily known by their slender, finely scaled bodies and broad
thin wings, which in repose are not folded roof-like over the
body, but are spread horizontally and scarcely overlap each
other. The antenniB are usually' pectinated. They are deli-
cate, pale, often greenish or yellowish moths, and fly more by
day than the Noctuids. The palpi are short and slender, and
the tongue, or maxilhe, is Aveak and short.
The larvtB rarely have more than ten legs, some having four-
teen, and a few (Metrocampa and EUopia) twelve. Thus from
the absence of legs on the basal rings of the abdomen, the larvse
are loopers, or geometers, as grasping the object on which they
are walking with their fore legs, they bring the hind legs close
up to the fore legs, thus making a loop like the Greek letter
Omega. They usually let themselves down by spinning a
silken thread, hence they are sometimes called "Drop-worms."
When about to pupate, the larva either spins a slight, loose,
silken cocoon, or conceals itself under a covering of leaves
fastened together with silk, or buries itself in the ground
without any cocoon, while Harris states that a very few fasten
themselves to the stems of plants and are changed to chrysa-
lids, which hang naked and suspended by the tail. The pupa
is long, slender, conical, generally smooth, sometimes wilh
lateral protuberances on the head, and usually dark brown, but
PFJJL^NIDiS. 319
often variegated. The species, of which there are about 1,800
described, are widely distributed, and more are found in tlie
arctic regions tlian of the preceding family.
We phice at the head of this family the genus Urania and
its allies. From their large size, splendid colors, swallow-
tailed wings, the fore pair of which are elongated towards the
tips, while the outer edge is very oblique, as in Papilio ; their
habit of flying by day and other resemblances to the butter-
flies Latreille placed them among the butterflies immediately
after the Ilesperians. They have also been supposed to belong
to the same group as Castnia, but the shape of the head, the
long geometriform antennae, the palpi and the conical pupa and
other characters ally them with the Urapteryx and the higher
Phatenidte. Urania Leilas is velvet black, the fore wings
crossed by emerald green striae, and the hind edge of the hind
wings are banded with light blue and golden, while tlie fringe
and long tail are white. It is found in Surinam and Brazil.
Urajiteryx is a true Geometrid, with very square hind wings
extending beyond the abdomen, with their outer margin pro-
longed into a short tail. U. politia Cramer is a 3'ellow species
found in Mexico and the West Indies. The larva of the
Eluropean U. sambucaria feeds on the oak, elder, bramble,
etc., and is elongate, with projections from the eighth and
twelfth segments. The pupa is elongate and enclosed in a net-
like cocoon suspended by threads.
In Chnzrodes the hind wings are still angulated, the angle
reaching beyond the tips of the abdomen ; the falcate apex of
the fore wings is acute, and the outer margin is entire and
angulated just above the middle. The species are usually pale
ochreous, with short transverse strigoe and two darker lines,
the outer one of which is obtusel}^ angulated just before the
apex. C. tra7isversata Drury is a pale ochreous species, which
we have found resting on red maple leaves.
The germs Angerona comprises the single species A. croca-
taria Fabr., the larva of which (Plate 8, fig. 5 a) we have found
feeding on the cultivated strawberry during the last of June.
It is an inch and a half long and when at rest extends itself
straight out. The body gradually increases in size to the first
pair of abdominal legs. The head is flattened so as to be
320 LEPIDOPTEEA.
square above, and whitish green, with three longitudinal brown
lines. The prothoracic ring is concolorous with the head, from
which two brown lines extend, forming an inverted V on the
hinder edge. The body is pale grass green above, with the
sides bulging. There are four minute black dots on each ring,
a whitish, indistinct subdorsal line, and a lateral white line ex-
tending to the sides of the anal legs. The body is greenish
white. The moth (Plate 8, fig. 5, male) is of a rich yellow,
with brown patches on the wings, and appears in July.
In Endropia, which is closely allied to Chcerodes, the outer
edge of the wings is deeply notched. E. tigrinaria Guenee
is dirty ochreous, the wings being sprinkled with black ; the
outer line is nearly straight, ferruginous, paler within, with
some submarginal spots, and the basal line on the fore wings
is angulated, while the apex is pale and margined externally
with blackish.
Metrocampa is pearly white, with the wings a little bent in
the middle. M. perlata Guen. is pure white, with two darker
oblique lines not angulated ; it is found not uncommonly north-
ward. The larva of the English M. margaritata has twelve
legs, and like Catocala has flesh}' filaments on the sides just
above the legs. The pupa lives on the surface of the earth.
Ellopia has pectinated antenn£e and exceedingly thin trans-
parent wings, which are angulated in the middle of the outer
edge, and with an inner and outer line, the latter bent nearly
at right angles. The larva has twelve legs, but is smooth.
The English E. fasciaria feeds on firs. Ellopia Jlagitiaria
Guenee is pale ashen ochreous, with the speckles and two bands
pale brown. It expands from six to eighteen lines.
In Caberodes the antennie are broadly pectinated, and the
apex of the fore wings is nearly rectangular. The species
are pale ochreous with thick wings, and the outer line termi-
nates near the apex. C. metrocamparia Guenee is common
northwards; with a blackish discal dot and outer dusky line
arcuated and margined with white.
The genus Nematocampa is characterized by the four fila-
ments on the back of the larva. N. Jilamentaria Guen. (Plate
8, fig, 7 ; 7 a, larva) is a small moth of a pale ochreous color,
with reddish brown lines and dots, a ring in the discal space,
PHAL^NID^. 321
ami just beyond a dark lead-colored band which becomes a
broad squarish patch on the inner angle, and which is continu-
ous with a broad band of the same color on the hind wings.
It expands three quarters of an inch. Its singular larva we
have found feeding, late in June, on the strawberry. It is .70
of an inch long, cylindrical and with two pairs of long curled
filaments, situated on the third and fifth abdominal rings re-
spectively ; its genei'al color is wood gray< and the pupa is
pale reddish gray. The moth appeared on the 27th of July.
The genus £Ji//ite/ii a, to which our currant worm belongs, may
be known by the whitish or ochreous wings being covered with
dark, often partially transparent blotches, and the larva being
gaily speckled with black and golden spots. JS. ribearia Fitch
is ochre-yellow, with two rows of dark spots, the inner row be-
ing incomplete and the outer row with a large blotch in the
middle of the wings. As soon as the leaves of the currant
and gooseberry are fairly expanded, late in May or early
in June, the young caterpillar may be found busily eating
them. In about three weeks after hatching it becomes
fully grown, being about an inch long, and bright yellow
with black dots. The chrysalis may be found under the
bushes, either upon the ground or just under the surface.
In two Aveeks after pupating the yellowish moth may be seen
fiying about the garden. Riley states that by sprinkling
powdered hellebore upon the leaves, or applying a solution of
eight or twelve ounces to a bucket of water, the larva; will
be killed, while hand-picking and shaking the bushes will also
reduce their numbers.
The genus Ennomos is stouter and much more hairy than
any of the preceding genera ; the antennae are well pectinated
in the male, the wings are not so broad as usual and are den-
tate. The larva is rather long and twig-like, either smooth or
humped, and spins a cocoon consisting of leaves drawn to-
gether by silk. E. macpiaria Guen. is yellow, punctured with
black, with two dusky lines, and the fringe is partly blackish.
E. subsigndria Hiibner (Fig. 248, moth ; Plate 8, fig. 6, larva)
is a delicate, white, widely distributed species, and in the city
of New York, where it is free from the attacks of its natural
enemies, it is very destructive to the elm trees.
21
322 LEPIDOPTEKA.
A writer in the " Practical Entomologist" (vol. i, p. 57) states
that the caterpillars are hatched as soon as the leaves unfold,
and live unobserved for a week or so in the young shoots in
the tree-tops, and when half grown are seen crawling about the
tree. Towards the end of June the}^ pupate, and in about a
Aveek after the moth appears. The importation of the English
sparrow is said to have very effectually checked the ravages of
this caterpillar, which may be recognized by its resemblance to
the twigs of the tree on which it feeds, while its rather large
head and the terminal ring of the body are bright red.
In Yl»?p/N'f?a>;?/s the body is very stout and the triangular
wings are inclined to be small (in Nyssia, an European genus,
the female has minute rudimentary wings) and narrow, while
the antennte are broadly pectinated. The larva is stout, twig-
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H like, being dark brown and
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^M wartcd
^HII^^H^^H^^HIP^H end, the
^^i^^^^i^W^I^^—rr^^B The pupa is subterranean. Such
^^B^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H are the habits of A. cognataria
^^^Kt^^y^-'i'^'k\^^^!^^^^^ Guen. which is white and very
^^^■^^^fl^^^^^^^^l thickly sprinkled with ashy
^^^^^B^^^^^^^^^^^^m black.
I^^HH^H^IHHH larva the
^•°- 248. currant," the gooseberry, and
the red Spiraea. It went into the pupa state on the 22d of
September.
Boarmia has pectinated antenn;x\ the tip being generally
simple, while the abdomen is rather slender and the wings are
dusky gray and crossed by dentate lines. The larva is twig-
like, elongate, with small humps and lateral projections, and
lives on trees. The pupa is subterranean. B. cjnopharia Guen.
is ashen, the wings clouded with fuscous, and dusted Avith black
scales, with four black dentate lines. A species of Boarmia,
figured by Mr. Glover, "eats the flowers of the cotton, being
found early in October." The larva is of the same thickness
throughout, with a rather large head augulated above, and two
tubercles near the tip. It is brown, with a double lateral
pale stripe. The chrysalis is brown and enclosed in an under-
ground cocoon. The moth expands nearly an inch and a half,
PHAL^NID^. 323
and is ash colored, sprinkled densely with brown speckles, with
three angulated, transverse, black stripes.
Geometra and its allies (Nemoria, lodis, and Racheospila),
have smooth, ronnd or angular, entire wings, which are green^
often with whitish lines. Geometra is the largest genus; "it
has pectinated antenna, and the larva is rather short, downy,
with several dorsal humps. The pupa is enclosed in a trans-
parent cocoon amongst moss." (Stainton.) G. iridaria Guen.
is pea green, with two broad bands, and the costa of the fore
wings is white sprinkled with rust red.
A great many species, often difficult to identify from the
sameness in their markings, are comprised in the genus Acida-
lia, which is known by its rather thin wings, with the edges
usually entire, and with stripes and bands and other markings
common to both. The hind wings are often slightly angulated.
The larva is smooth, slender, and feeds concealed under low
plants. The pupa is subterranean, or lives in a cocoon among
leaves. A. nivosaria Guen. is pure white. A. enudeata Guen.
is whitish 3'ellow ; its wings are speckled with brown, and
with pale lines and submarginal spots.
Macaria is easily recognized by its falcate wings, which
have a rounded excavation below the hooked tip, and there is
a rather prominent angle on the hind wings.
There are usually two large blotches, one in
the middle of the wing, and the other on the
outer third of the costa. The lar^a is rather
short and smooth, and feeds on trees and Fig. 240.
shrubs. The pupa is protected by a cocoon. M. granitata
Guen. is gray, Avith indistinct darker bands and minute black
speckles, with a rust red costal spot in front of a black discal
spot.
Zerene is a beautiful genus, with feathery antennae and broad,
thin, white wings. Z. catenaria Drury is white with black
discal dots, and two black scalloped lines. The larva is a gen-
eral feeder, eating sedges, the goldenrod, blueberry, waxwork,
and according to Mr. Fish, is injurious to the cranberry. It is
a pretty caterpillar (Fig. 249) and is straw colored, the seg-
ments being wrinkled and thickened, with two subdorsal darker
threads ; the head is yellow with six black dots ; the spiracles
324 LEPIDOPTERA.
are black, situated in a white field, and with a black dot on
each side. In Maine it pupates about the middle of August,
making a thin gauzy cocoon, consisting of yellowish green
silken threads. The pupa is white, with scattered black dots
and black stripes ; it remains thirty-two days in the pupa
state, the moth appearing during the middle of September.
In Aniso2)teryx the male antennae are simply pubescent, the
wings are ample, and rounded at the tip, while the hind wings
are rounded. The female is wingless, the head small and the
body is oval. The male of A. vernata Peck (Plate 8, fig. 9 ;
9a, female; 9 6, larva), the moth of the Canker worm, is ash
colored, with a whitish costal spot near the tip of the fore
wings which are crossed by two jagged whitish bands dotted
with black on the outside ; they expand about one inch and a
quarter. In the early spring and late in autumn the male flies
about and coiiples with the wingless female, which lays a patch
of short, cylindrical eggs, from sixty to one hundred or more,
arranged in rows, and glued to the surface of the bark. The
larviB hatch from the first to the middle of May, or as Harris
states, about the time of the flowering of the red currant, and
the leaving out of the apple tree. Almost before the presence
of the larvai is known they often nearly strip an orchard of its
leaves. They also attack the cherry, plum, elm, and other
trees and shrubs. The canker Avorm (Plate 8, fig. 9 6) Avlien
mature is about an inch long, ash colored on the back, black
on the sides, and beneath yellowish. It varies greatly in the
intensity of its markings. It ceases eating when four weeks
old, and late in June creeps down, or lets itself down by a
thread, and burrowing from two to six inches in the loose earth,
there forms a rude earthen cocoon, fastening the grains of earth
together Avith silk. Twenty-four hours after the cocoon is fin-
ished the worm becomes a chrysalid, Avhieh, in the male, is
slender, rather pointed in front and light brown in color. Com-
ing forth in the autumn and following spring, its progress up
the tree can be arrested by the application of coal oil or prin-
ter's ink, by the Avell knoAvn methods, around the trunk, while
the bunches of eggs should be picked off" and burnt. The A.
pomefaria Harris is as abundant as A. vernata ; it has thinner
wings, wanting the whitish bands and spot, and having an
PHAL^NIDuE. 325
oblique, dusky, apical line. "VVe are inclined to think that it is
simply a variety of A. vernata. Harris has detected an ich-
neumon parasite which pre3'S upon the canker worm, and a
species of Tachiim also attacks the caterpillars, and we have
noticed a minute species of Platygaster (Fig. 134), first dis-
covered by Herrick, ovipositing in its eggs. The Calosomas
also devour them, and probably other ground beetles ; and cer-
tain wasps (Eumenes) store their nests with them. (Harris.)
Allied to the canker worm is the Mybernia tiliaria Harris, the
male of which is much larger and has feathered antennae. The
female is larger and slenderer than that of the canker worm,
and along the back are two rows of black dots on a pale gray-
ish ground. The moth flies late in the autumn. The larva is
bright yellow, with ten crinkled black lines along the top of the
back, and is an inch and a quarter in length. It feeds on the
lime, apple and elm, and is sometimes very destructive.
Eupithecia is a diminutive form, with very small rounded
hind wings, while the fore wings are much elongated towards
the apex, and at rest both pairs are spread out and pressed
closel}^ to the surface on which the moth rests. The larva is
rather short, stiflT, often marked with dorsal lozenges, and the
head is small and rounded. It feeds on trees or low plants ;
sometimes on seeds of plants. The pupa is slender, conical and
pointed. E. miserulata Grote is clear silky grayish, with a
black interrupted outer line and a grayish fringe, interrupted
with black.
Cidaria numbers many species in which the antennae of the
male is simple or slightly pubescent, and the fore wings are
rather pointed at the tip, while the hind wings ai-e rounded.
The larva is elongate and slender, with the head often notched.
It feeds on trees or shrubs, and the pupa is of variegated
colors. Cidaria diver silineata Hiibn. (Plate 8, fig. 10, lOo,
larva) is yellowish ochreous, with brownish angular lines, and
at rest the abdomen is curved over the back. Mr. Saunders
has found the larva feeding on the woodbine. According to
his notes "the body above is dark brown, with a slightly
reddish tint, and patches of a darker shade along the dorsal
region, being the color of the twigs of its food plant. It
remains in the pupa state about a week." We have also
326 LEPIDOPTEEA.
found both brown and green specimens feeding on the grape
vine in midsummer. The worms can be removed by hand-pick-
ing as they are rather conspicuous objects. A larva, probably
of Cidaria, has been found by Mr. W. C. Fish, stripping the cran-
berry plants in Harwich, Mass., late in August. Mr. Fish
writes, "I have never met them that I am aware of liefore, but
on one bog in this place they destro3'ed nearly two acres of
cranberry Adnes, eating off all the green leaves, the bog being
as black in spots as though a fire had been over it." They
were not numerous elsewhere in that town, but may prove at
times to be a great pest to cranberry growers. "We failed to
rear the larva? sent by ]Mr. Fish. They are about the size of
the canker worm. The head, which is no wider than the rest
of the body, is deepl}^ indented, on each side rising into a tu-
l)ei'cle ; the anal plate is long, acute, and beneath it are two
minute acute tubercles, tinged with reddish. It is dull reddish
brown, simulating the color of the twigs of the cranbeny, and is
finely lineated with still darker lines. The head is speckled with
J)rown, with a conspicuous transverse baud across the vertex,
and two rows of pale spots across the front. Just above the
spiracles is a broad dusky band. Beneath, the body is paler,
with a mesial clear line edged with brown. It is .80 of an inch
in length. Mr. Fish states that the owner of the bog flowed it
with Avater so that it was completely covered and the worms
were killed. This is a rapid and the most elfectual way to ex-
terminate insects ravaging cranberry lots.
PrRALiD.K Latreille. The Snout-moths, so called from theii'
very long and slender compressed palpi, are very easily recog-
nized by this character alone. The more typical forms have
triangular fore wings, and a slender abdomen and long
slender legs, the front pair of Avhich are often tufted. They
are usually dull ash gray, with a marked silken lustre. The
larger genera, Hypena and Herminia, etc., are called Deltoids^
as when at rest the wings form a triangle of the form of the
Greek letter Delta. Their antennie are sometimes pectinated
in the male. They are usually gregarious in their habits, and
often extremely local. They haunt moist grassy places, are
readily disturbed b^^ da}-, and fly before dusk, while some are
PYRALID^.
327
true day-fliers. The larvae are generally known by their remark-
ably glassy appearance, and the few hairs on them have an un-
usually bristly look. Many spin a cocoon. The pupa is long,
slender, and conical.
The largest form is Hypena, in which the male antennae are
hairy, and the palpi are long, ascending, and the fore legs are
not tufted, and there are often slight tufts of raised scales on
the fore wings. The larva is elongate, cylindrical, with four-
teen legs, and feeds on low or climbing plants, making a slight
cocoon among leaves.
The Hop vine moth, //. humuli Harris (Fig. 250 ; cf, larva
and pupa) is very destructive to the hop. It is marbled with
gray beyond the middle of the fore wings, with a distinct
oblique gray spot on the tip ; they are crossed by two wavy
blackish lines formed of elevated black tufts, and there are two
similar tufts in the middle of the wings ; it expands one inch
and a quarter. The x ^ n-^^.,^^^.-^'^..,^^
larva is glassy pea-
green. The body is
long and slender,
with rather convex
rings, and with long rig. 250.
sparse hairs. The head is rather large and deeply divided into
two lobes by the median suture ; it is a little more yellowish
green than the body, which tapers gradually towards the tail,
while the anal legs are long and slender, there being but two
pairs of abdominal legs, so that the caterpillar walks with a
looping gait. The body is striped with a narrow whitish line,
edged broadly below with dusky, and with two white lines on
the sides of the body, though specimens vary in the number of
lines, some having no lateral whitish stripes. It is .45 of an
inch in length. When half grown the larva is pale livid flesh
color, not greenish, with a broad dark dorsal line, bounded on
each side by a whitish line. It is double-brooded, the first lot
of caterpillars appearing in INIay and June, the moths coming
out late in June and early in July ; while the second brood of
larvae appear in July and August, the moth flying in Septem-
ber. It is very active, leaping off" the leaf to the ground when
disturbed. When fully grown it forms a loose silken cocoon
328
LEriDOPTERA.
within a folded leaf or any crevice, the moth appearing in throe
weeks. We have raised a species of Tachina from the pupa.
The vine should be showered with a solution of whale oil, and
soapsuds, and the plants shaken to rid them of these pests.
Uerminia differs from Ilypena in its tufted fore legs ; the
larva is short, slender towards each end, covered with small
spots ; it has sixteen legs, and feeds concealed among dry
leaves, making a narrow cocoon among them. H. jucchusi-
alis Guenee is one of our most common species.
Pyndis has narrow wings, the fore wings being oblong, witli
distinct lines, and the palpi are short, ascending. The Meal
moth, P. farinaUs Harris, is reddish gray at the base and hind
edge of the fore wings, becoming more reddish towards the tip,
with two whitish cross
lines, the space between
being ochreous. The
larva is dull whitish, witli
reddish brown head,
and having reddish pro-
s thoracic and anal plates.
It feeds on straw and
corn, and Mr. Riley has
found it feeding on clovei-.
The Clover w o r m .
or Asopia costalis Fabr.
(Fig. 251 ; 1, 2, larva in
different positions; 3, 7, cocoon; 4, pupa; 5, 6, moth), ac-
cording to Eiley, " attacks and spoils clover for feeding pur-
poses, both in the stack and mow, by interweaving and
covering it with abundant white silken webs and black excre-
ment that much resembles coarse gunpowder. The parent oi"
these clover worms is a pretty little lilac-colored moth, with
wide golden fringes," and has been introduced from Europe.
The moths fly late in June and in July, and they creep into all
parts of the stack, as the larvjB have been found eight feet from
the ground, though they are mostly found at the bottom. The
larva is three-fourths of an inch long and is dull dark brown,
with an olivaceous hue. Mr. Eiley thinks there are sevei-al
broods through the year, and suggests as a preventative to
PYRALID^.
329
stack the clover on a good log or rail foundation so as to allow
the air to pass up through from beneath.
In Aglossa ping uinal is Harris, the Grease moth, the palpi are
rather long, the fore wings are grayish brown clouded with a
darlver hue, and are crossed by two indented lines. The larva
is of an uniform dark brown, with a darker head and protho-
racic plate, and feeds on greasy horse clothes, etc.
Another species of Aglossa (perhaps A. cuprealis) has been
sent me by Prof. A. E. Verrill, who writes me that the larva does
great damage to the old leather bound volumes in the library
of Yale College, by eating out great patches and galleries in
the leather covers, and also, in some cases, some of the glue
and pasteboard. It spins a silken cocoon. The moth (Plate <s,
fig. 20) differs from A. pinguinalis by the hind wings benig
pale whitish gray, instead of grayish brown. The palpi have
the third joint one-third as long as the second. It is pale
brown, with a slight reddish
tinge, and the wings are
crossed by two pale bands,
with several pale costal
spots. The outer band is
heaviest on the costa and
inner angle, and faint in
the middle of the wing. The hind wings are pale, shining
whitish, with no bands. It expands .90 of an inch.
In Europe, Mr. Curtis states, the Aphomia colonella Linn.
(Fig. 252) which also occurs with us, is a formidable foe of the
humble bee, feeding upon its honey. AVhen fully fed it spins a
tough Aveb of a close wooU}' texture, in which the caterpillar
turns to a chrysalis («). "The female moth creeps into the
nest in June to deposit her eggs, and the caterpillars live in
families sometimes of five hundred, to the total destruction of
the progeny of the poor humble bees. The moths are of a dirty
white, the upper wings have a greenish and rosy tinge, with a
line of black dots round the margin, a whitish space near the
base, and two black lines near the costa in the male. The fe-
male has two distinct, indented, transverse bars, and two black
spots on the disc."
Hydrocampa and its allies are exceedingly interesting fi-oin
Fif
330 LEPIDOPTERA.
the aquatic habits of the larvae, which remind us of the Caddis
worms. Catadysta is at once known by its slender body and
narrow wings, the hinder pair of Avliicli have a row of eye-like
spots along the hind margin. The larva is elongate, with a pale
head, and is aquatic, feeding beneath the leaves of the Duck
weed, living in a C3'lindrical silken case covered with leaves.
The pupa has a long ventral projection, and is enclosed in the
case of the larva. G. fidicalis Clemens has, on the outer mar-
gin of the hind wings, a row of five black luuules connected
by intermediate metallic violet blue spots, and behind them a
row of orange yellow dots.
The larva of Paraponyx is provided with branchi.ie and spira-
cles ; the pupa residing in a cocoon among leaves under water.
Hydrocampa has large white spots on the outer edge of the
fore wings. The larva is rather tliiclv, attenuated at each end,
with a black head. It is aquatic, living in a flat case under
the leaves of water lilies. The pupa resem-
bles that of Cataclysta.
The genus Botys (Fig. 253) includes
many species, in which the conical abdomen
is longer than the wings, and the tip of
Fig. 2r)3. the front pair is often prolonged. The larva
is said by Stainton to be lively, attenuated at each end and
semitransparent, with warty spots. It feeds in rolled up
leaves. The pupa is elongate, smooth, enclosed in a slight co-
coon among leaves. B. verticalis Albin is whitish, with the
outer edge of the fore wings dark grajish. The larva feeds on
the nettle. B. citrlna G. and R. is a bright yellow species.
The genus Desmia is at once known by its resemblance to
Botj's, and by its black body and wings, spotted with broad
white patches, wliile the male antennre are swollen in the middle.
D. macidcdis Westwood, the Grape leaf folder, is shiny black,
with a white fringe on its wings, which are spotted in the mid-
dle with white patches, and Avith two v/hite bands on the abdo-
men of the female. It is found chiefly in the Southern States,
where it attacks the grape. The larva, according to Riley, who
observed the moth in Southern Illinois, is '' glass-green, and
folds a leaf, or attaches two, that may be close together, by aid
of a few silken threads. It is very active, jnm[)ing and jerk-
PYEALID^. 331
iiig at the least touch. It acquires a flesh-colored hue
prior to changing to a chrysalis, which it usually does just
within the leaf. Many which thus changed with me on the
•21st of Jul)^, became moths on the 29th of the same month."
To the genus Fhycita belongs the Apple leaf crumpler, or
P. nebulo of Walsh, which in the West is known to strip the
trees of their early leaves. It draws the leaves together by a
web, and about the middle of June becomes fully grown,
when it closes up its horn-like case, and at the end of the
same month and early in July appears as a long, narrow-winged
moth, somewhat like Nophopteryx, but with broader fore wings.
Neplioptenjx is a genus with very narrow wings, with the
male antennjB sinuous at the base. It feeds on various trees,
while the larva of N. Edmandsii Pack. (Plate 3, fig. 2; 2a,
larva ; 2 6, pupa), feeds on the cells of the humble bee.
The genus M'jelois closely resembles Nephopteryx. Our
most injurious species is the Gooseberry worm, which is very
common. It may be called tlie M. \^ ^ , /
ronvolutella (Fig. 254; a, cocoon) £^ ^^^^^^^^^^^
and is an importation from Europe \m ''^^Ct^m)-^^>^'^
(Zoller). Though familiar with the in- W f '\
sect, and having raised the moth, our « rig. 254.
specimens were too much rubbed for identification, and we are
indebted to Mr. Saunders of London, Canada, for very perfect
specimens of tlie moth, and notes regarding its habits, confirma-
tory of our own observations. The moth is pale gray, with a
dark, transverse, ditt'use band on the inner third of the Aving,
(Miclosing a zig-zag white line not reaching the costa. There is
a discal discoloration, and beyond, a white zig-zag line Avith a
long, very acute angle on the internal margin, and a row of
marginal black dots, while the apex is white, and the veins and
their branches v. hite ; it expands nearly an inch. As soon
as gooseberries and currants are well formed, many turn pre-
maturely red and dull whitish, which is due to the presenc-e
of a pale green, smooth worm, which, after eating out the inside
of one berry, leaving a hole for the passage of the excrement,
enters another berry making a passage-Avay of silk until it
draws together a bunch of currants, or two or three gooseber-
ries. During the last of June it pupates, while the moth does
832 LEPIDOPTERA.
not appear until the spring of the following year, Mr. Saun«
ders' specimens having left the chrysalis May 8th.
Crambus, so abundant throughout the summer in grass, is at
once known by the long narrow wings being rolled around the
bod}^ in a tubular form. The larva has sixteen legs, is whit-
ish or dull colored, Avith large shining spots, and feeds on moss
in silken galleries. Mr. Saunders has hatched the larva? from
the eggs. "■They feed readily on grass, the blades of whicli
they fasten together with silken threads, under which they live
concealed ; they will also feed on clover." Crambus miitcibilia
Clemens is grayish fuscous, the palpi a little darker, while the
fore wings have a grayish median stripe, not extending beyond
the disk, and the discal dot is dark brown. It is a variable and
a common species. Other kinds are variously streaked with
silvery wliite.
The Bee moth, GaUeria, has rather broad wings, which are
indented on the outer edge. G. cereana Fabr. (Plate 8, fig.
11) is dusky gray, streaked with purple brown on the outer
edge, with a few dark brown spots on the inner margin. The
larva is yellowish white, with brownish dots. It constructs
silken galleries running through the comb, in which it feeds.
It spins a thick white cocoon. Two broods of moths appear,
one in April and May, the other in August. They lay their
eggs at evening while the bees are resting. The caterpillars
mature in about three weeks.
ToRTRiciD.E Leach. The "Leaf-rollers" are best character-
ized by the shortness of the palpi, which project beak-like, and
are rarely long enough to be curved in front of the
head ; and by the oblong fore Avings. They are of small
size, rarely expanding over an inch, and are folded
roof-like (Fig. 255) over the body. The fore wings are
Tig. '2r)5. iji-oti,]^ compared with those of the Tineidce , and
are much rounded on the costa. They are Aariegated Avith
bands and spots, often of brilliant metallic hues, Avhile the hind
wings are dull colored like the l)ody, the inner edge being folded
fan-like against the body. The antenme are filiform and the
legs are much shorter than in the Pyralids. They fly mostly by
night, resting during the day upon the plant on which the larva
TORTRICID^. 333
feeds. They most abound in summer, though a few species
are found in the spring and autumn.
The larviE are cylindrical, usually transversely wrinkled, and
nearly naked. The pupa is slender, and the rings of the
abdomen armed with transverse rows of teeth. Many of
the larger species roll up the leaves of trees, or gather them
into a rude tent, with silken threads ; others devour the inte-
rior of fruit buds and seeds, or live in the tender shoots, or
under the bark, or in the roots, while some live exposed on the
leaves of plants.
In Antithesia the palpi are longer than the head, and the
thorax is tufted behind ; the fore wings are more than twice as
!';::g ns broad, the costa being regularly arched, while the apex
is obtuse, and the apl»:al third of the costa is white or ochreous.
A. bipartitana Clem, has white fore wings, with a dark bi'own
basal patch, and a central concolorous band, with two or three
dark brown spots on the outer third of the costa. The tip of
the wing is spotted with brown, and there
is a pale brownish spot in the middle of
the white apical third of the wing. It is
not uncommon northwards.
Another species has been detected on -^^"j
the rose by Mr. F. W. Putnam. The larva
is yellowish green with a jet black head and prothoracic shield,
and pupates late in June, the moth appearing during July. It
is identical with the Antithesia jjruniana of Plubner (Plate 8,
tig. 13, natural size) a destructive moth in Europe, where it
devours the plum, as its specific name indicates. The inner
two thirds of the fore wings are marbled with black and lilac
colored scales ; the apical third being white, with three costo-
apical dark spots, and the extreme apex black.
The genus Siderea has rather long fore wings, the costa be-
ing regularly arched, and the tip rather pointed, the outer edge
being concave below the tip. Clemens, doubtfully, refers his
SJ imhilana (Fig. 256, 7a, head) to this genus. The fore
wings are brown, with dark brown markings, and there is a
dark brown basal line and a central irregular dark brown band,
which becomes ochreous brown in the middle of the wing, and
seems to be separated from a conspicuous dark brown triangu-
334
LEPIDOPTEKA.
Fig. 257.
lar patch, which is edged narrowly with ochreous. Near the
inner angle are two dark brown oblique stripes.
Tlie typical genus Tortrix has the palpi much longer than
the liead, with the fore wings about twice as long as broad, and
the costa arched abruptly at the base, while the outer edge is
truncate and sometimes hollowed out below the tip. T. geli-
dana Moschler is a common arctic form, and occurs commonly
in northern Labrador, and has been detected
on the Alpine summit of Mount Washington
by Mr. F. G. Sanborn. He has also detected
a new species which feeds on the cranberry,
for which we suggest the name Tortrix oxycoc-
cana. Its bod}^ is dark brown, with lighter
hairs on each side of the abdominal segments,
and fuscous at the tip. Tlie fore wings are
of a peculiar glistening gray, mottled with red-
dish brown scales, especially towards the outer edge. There
are no well defined spots or bands. The hind wings and body,
and under surface of the wings are slate colored. The wings
expand .64 inch.
The Leptoris breviori^atana of Clemens (Fig. 257 ; a, side
view of the head and labial palpi ; &, fore wing ; c, hind Aving).
which is referred to the genus Tortrix by Mr. C. T. Eobinson.
has tawny yellow fore wings, with the veins brown. An oblique
brown band arises on the basal
third of the costa, and runs to
the middle of the inner margin,
but does not reach it. On the
costa is a brown patch. It lives
in Virginia. Mr. Robinson also
informs me that in a forthcom-
ing paper on this family he re-
fers the PtycJioIoma? seniifm-
tfiiia of Clemens (Fig. 258 ; «, head ; &, fore wing ; c, hind
wing) to the present genus. "The fore Avings are Avhite along
the costa and hinder margin, marked Avith pale broAvn, ochreous
and tarnished silvery stripes and spots." It ranges from
Maine to Virginia.
The genus Lozotoenia has palpi rather longer than the head.
Fiff. 258.
TORTRICID^. 335
It differs from Tortrix in tlie male having a fold or flap of scales
extending nearly- to tiie tip of tlie fore wing, while the outer
edge is indented below tlie tip, which is rather produced up-
wards. Tlie larvaj of this genus feed in leaves, the edges of
which are drawn together by silken threads, or in the stems and
seeds of plants. L. rosaceana Harris (Plate 8, fig. 12; 12 a,
larva) is pale brown, with two oblique, darker reddish brown
bands, and a triangular spot of the same color on the costa near
the tip. The hind wings are ochreous yellow, and blackish
within. Tlie larva, early in June, binds together the leaves of
the rose, apple and strawberry. It is plump and rather large,
and of a pale yellowish green. We found, on the 23d of June,
the fully grown larva on the leaves of the strawberry, doubling
them up and binding them together by a few silken threads.
The worm is pale livid, greenish above and paler beneath, with
a coiisi)icuous black dot on each side of the hinder edge of the
prothorax. The head is very pale honey yellow, with two black
spots : one near the insertion of the mandibles, and the other
on the side near the base of the head. The posterior half of
each segment is transversely^ wrinkled a few times. The body
is scattered over with a few minute tubercles, each giving rise
to a fine hair. It is .80 of an inch long. One specimen spun
its slight cocoon on June 26th, the pupa appearing June 30th.
It is sometimes attacked by Ichneumons. The pupa is pointed
on the vertex of the head, and on the back of each abdominal
ring are two rows of spines. The moth usually appears the
last of June. There is a second brood in August.
We have reared another species from the wild strawberry.
It may be called the Lozotoinia fragariana. It is a very pretty
moth expanding .80 of an inch, with red fore wings, darker on
the outer half and with a large triangular white spot near the
middle of the costa ; the outer edge of the spot is hollowed out.
'I'he outer edge of the wing is pale, especially in the middle,
and concolorous with the head and palpi, and thorax. The
liind wings and abdomen are whitish buff. The hind wings
are whitish beneath. The larva may be found in Maine, early
in June, folding the leaves, and the moth appears in the mid-
dle of the same month.
The Lozot(£nia gossypiana^ or Cotton Leaf-roller, we describe
33G LEPIDOPTERA.
from the A'ery characteristic drawings of Mr. Glover. The
larva closely resembles that of L. rosaceana and is abont the
same size. It rolls up the leaf of the cotton into a loose cir-
cular fold, and when fully grown spins a thin, loose, transpar-
ent cocoon between the leaves. On the abdominal tip of the
brown cocoon are three pairs of minute hooks, the two outer
pairs supported on a pedicel, by which the chrysalis is re-
tained in place in the cocoon. The moth is the size of the
L. rosaceana, being pale reddish brown, and with three darker
1)ars, the inner one crossing the costal two-thirds of the wing,
the middle and Ijroadest crossing the wing obliquely-, and ter-
minating near the outer angle, while the third bar cuts off the
a[)ex of the wing. The hind Avings are paler, but dusky along
the inner side.
The species of Pentliina may be recognized b}" the oblong
fore wings, the apex being obtuse, sometimes a little falcate.
An interesting species, according to information received from
Mr. M. C. Reed of Hudson, Ohio, rolls up the leaves of the
grape, and when the fruit becomes formed, eats the pulp and
seeds, thus doing a two-fold injury to the vine. It may be
e.illed the Penthina vitioorana* (Plate 8, fig. 22, enlarged).
The head, thorax, and palpi, and basal half of the antennae are
fulvous. The fore wings are dark slate brown. From the mid-
dle of the costa proceeds a blackish band which curves to the
middle of the outer third of the wing ; beyond is a linear curved
costal band succeeded by another broader but quite short costal
line ; the costa is tawny beyond, sending a taAvny patch obliquely
inwards. Near the margin is an irregular blackish patch and
two dark spots on the costa, and a larger one at the apex. The
hind wings and body are dark slate color. It expands .40 of an
inch. The first brood of caterpillars feeds on the leaves, ap-
pearing in May (in Ohio), or as soon as the leaves are grown.
The second brood appears when the grapes are nearly filled
out, and then thej' feed on the pulp and seeds. Mr. Reed writes
me that "in every instance where a grape was opened contain-
ing a fully grown larva, the seeds were mere shells. They con-
tinue their work until the grapes are fullj^ ripe, and at that
time on removing to a new berry, seem to make their home in
the old one, which is attached by a web." The larva tui'ns
* It i s the Lobesli botrana of Southern Europe according to Prof. Zeller.
TORTRICIDJE. 337
over the edge of a leaf to form a rude cocoon for the chrysalis.
Mr. Read suggests destroying the leaves thus attected before
the}' fall in autumn, as the larvae do not descend to the earth
to undergo tlieir transformations.
Halonota differs from Tortrix in having the apex of the fore
wings rather obtuse, and there is a pale blotch usually present
on the middle of the inner margin. //. simulana Clemens is
brownish ochreous, Avith dull ochreous palpi, reddish at the
tip ; the fore Avings are brown, Avith a slight brass}' hue, and
with an ochreous dorsal blotch ; the costa is streaked with
ochreous, and there are two violet streaks, one running be-
neath the tip and the other to a faint eye-like patch, behind
which, on the hinder margin, are three black spots.
The genus Grcqiliolitha is characterized by Stainton as hav-
ing the palpi longer than the head, with the fore wings more
than twice as long as Avide, the costa being
slightly arched, and the apex rather pointed,
while the outer edge is a little hollowed out
beloAV the apex, and rounded at the inner an-
gle. The larvae live in the folded leaACs of
shrubs, or in the tops of herbaceous plants,
or in their roots. Mr. Robinson refers the
Stegaiwptiicha? ocJireana of Clemens, to Gra-
pholitha (Fig, 259 ; a, head ; b, fore wing ; c,
hind Aving.*) The fore wings are pale yel-
lowish, and the outer half of the costa is
streaked Avith ochreous brown, and there is an eye-like patch
which is white, and contains tAvo ochreous broAvn streaks and
two black dots. It was discoA'ered in Virginia. Robinson also
refers Clemens' EHnjptycliia saligneana (Fig. 256 ; 8 a) to this
genus. It was bred by Mr. B. D. Walsh, in Illinois, from a
willow gall. The fore AA'ings are Avhite, tinted Avith yelloAvish,
Avith a dark broAvn basal patch, the wing beyond being nearly
Avhite varied with lead colored speckles, and striped over the
A'enules Avith dull, leaden gray, transverse stripes, tA\'o of which
near the anal angle, form a white e3'e-like patch. (Clemens.)
Under the name of CaUimosema scintillana (Fig. 256; 9 a),
* The artist has represented the last branch of tlic median vein forked at the
tip. It should have been the middle branch. {Clemens.)
90
838
LEPIDOPTERA.
Clemens describes a moth with narrow fore wings, and a large
ej^e-like spot across the inner angle, the venation being the
same as in lojilocama. In this latter genus (Fig. 256 ; 10 a,
I. formosana Clemens) the wings are broader and have the
costa of the fore wings dilated at the base, while the labial
palpi are broad, and reach far beyond the front of the head.
In Anchylopera the palpi are
shorter than the head, with the
fore wings broader than usual,
and the costa somewhat obtusely
arched towards the base, while
the tip is often hook-like and
the outer edge concave. The
larva feeds between the united
leaves of plants. A. spireKfoU-
ana Clemens is white on the fore
wings, with a large, reddish
brown dorsal patch extending
from the base to the middle of
the wing, and an oblique band
from the middle of the costa to
about the centre of the wing ;
the costa beyond is streaked
alternately Avith white and red-
dish brown to the apex. The
larva feeds on the leaves of
Spiraea opulifolia, or Nine-bark.
It is pale green Avith a yellowith
tinge. (Clemens.)*
Mr. Fish has discovered an un-
described species which feeds on the cranberry, and which we
may call the Cranberry Anchylopera, A. vacciniana (Plate 8,
fig. 21, enlarged). The moth is dark ash, the fore wings being
whitish, dusted with brown and reddish scales, Avith white nar-
row bands on the costa, alternating with broader yelloAvish
*FiG. 2')0; In, represents the head of A. uubeculnna, described by Clemens in
the Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Philadelphia; lb, the vena-
tion of the fore wing; and 1 c, the hind wing; 2f , the head of A. ocdlmia Clemens;
26, the fore wing; 2 c, the hind wing; 3rt, the head of A. mediofasciana Clemens;
3 h the fore wing ; and 3 c, the hind Aviug.
TORTRICID^. 339
brown bands, five of which are several times larger than the
others, and from four of them irregular indistinct lines cross
the wing. The first line is situated just beyond the inner third
of the wing, and is often obsolete. The second line is the
largest and is slightl}^ bent once in the middle of the
wing. There is a large brown spot parallel to the costa,
being situated on the angle. The third line is oblique and
stops before reaching the inner angle and is forked on the
costa, while the fourth line is a short apical diffuse irregular
line. The apex of the wing is dark brown, and is a little more
acute than usual in the genus. The length of a fore wing is .20
of an inch. It lays its eggs on the leaves during the month
of August and a new brood of larvae appear in September,
tliough they hatch . mostly in the following spring, or early in
June, and become fully grown in July.
- The larva seen from above is much like that of Lozotaenia
rosaceana, but the head is a little larger in proportion to the
rest of the body, being as wide as the body in its thickest part.
The body is more hairy, while the prothorax is not dark. The
chrysalis is rather slender, the body being contracted at the
base of the abdomen, on the rings of Avhich there are dorsal
rows of fine spines.
Mr. Fish writes me that "these larvae, called the Cranberry-
vine worms, hatch about the first of June from eggs that have
remained upon the leaves of the plant all winter. Tliey com-
mence to feed upon the tender growing shoots of the plant,
drawing the leaves together with their web for shelter, conceal-
ing themselves and feeding within. Before reaching their
full size they, if very numerous, almost wholly destroy the
leaves and tender shoots, giving the whole bog a dark dry ap-
pearance as though a fire had been over it. This is why they
are in some places known as 'fire-worms.' Having reached
their full size they spin up among the leaves or among the
dead leaves upon the ground. After remaining in the pupa
state about ten or thirteen days the moths come out and de-
posit their eggs upon the leaves.
" This year the moths were out the last of June and fii'st of
July. In five or six days the eggs hatched and this second
brood, which is usually the most destructive, mostly changed
340
LEPIDOPTERA.
to pupjB on the 20th of July. On the 26th of July the
first moth came out and most were out before the 4th of
August. I saw the moth at Sandwich as late as the 20th of
August. Most of the eggs laid in August do not hatch until
the following spring. 1 did succeed in finding two or three
larviB in September, but they were rare at that time. The
only sure means known of destro3'ing them, is to let water upon
the bog for twenty -four hours."
Another Tortricid larva, Avliich seems to differ generically
from the vine worm, in being thicker and having a larger,
squarer prothoracic ring, and a less hairy bod3^ is called the
" Fruit- worm." According to Mr. Fish, these worms appear the
first of August and work all through the month. The first signs
of their presence are seen in the berries that are attacked turn-
ing prematurely red. Most of them reach their full size before
the first of September. In some places where the vfnes have
been retarded by be-
ing kept under water
until the first of June
previous (it is com-
mon to cover the bogs
with water when con-
venient), they do not
reach their full size until a few weeks later. When fully
grown they enter the ground and spin their cocoons within a
few inches of the surface. The cocoons are covered with grains
of sand and are hardly distinguishable from small lumps of
earth. They remain in the ground all winter. I do not know
positively the perfect insect, as I have never been able to rear
it in-doors. In the spring of 1867 I bred two species of Ich-
neumons from these cocoons that had remained in the house
over winter."
The Strawberry leaf- roller (A. fragariae Riley, Fig. 261 ; c,
lines showing the dimensions of the moth ; a, larva, natural
size ; b, the head and four succeeding rings of the body ; d,
the terminal ring of the abdomen, showing the anal legs) has,
according to Riley, recently been doing much injury to straw-
berry plants in Illinois and Canada. "It crumples and folds
the leaves, feeding on their pulpy substance, and causing them
TORTRICID.E. qai
to appear dry and seared, and most usually Hues the inside of
the fold with silk. There are two broods during the year and
the worms of the first brood, which appear during the month
of June, change to the pupa state within the rolled up leaf,
and become minute reddish brown moths during the fore pirt
of July. After pairing in the usual manner, the females deposit
then- eggs on the plants, from which eggs in due time hatches
a second brood of worms. These last come to their growth to-
wards the end of September, and changing to pupte, pass the
winter in that state. The moth expands from .40 to .45 of an
inch. The head and thorax are reddish brown, with pale palpi
and legs, and dusky antennae, while the tarsal joints are dusky
at the tips. The fore wings are reddish brown and streaked
and spotted with black and white, as in the figure, while the
hmd wings and abdomen are dusky." (American Entomoloo-ist
vol. i, p. 89.) "= '
The Coddling moth, Carj^ocapsa, has palpi longer than the
head; the apex of the fore wings is rather obtuse, and the
outer edge is suddenly hollowed out below the tip. The larvB
feed in the interior of fruits. C. pomonella Linn. (Fio- 2bQ
11 a) is gray, with numerous darker, transverse lines, and with
a curved black line before the ocellated patch on the inner an-
gle, which line is e.lged with a coppery tint. The moth lays its
eggs on apple and pear trees early in summer in the blossom-
end of the fruit, and the larva hatches in a few days, burrowing
into the core. It matures in three weeks, when the apple drops
to the ground and the larva transforms in a thin cocoon in
crevices in bark, etc., and in a few days another brood of moths
appear, though most of them remain in their cocoons throuo-h
the winter as larv*, where we have found them under the loos-
ened bark early in May.
This formidable pest may be partially destroyed by oather-
ing "wind-falls," though the larva often deserts the worin-eaten
apple before it falls. The best remedy is that suggested by
Br. Trimble, who binds bands of hay about the ^trees from
July until the middle of September. The larvaj crawl under
these bands and there spin their silken cocoons, when every
few days the bands can be removed and the worms de-
stroyed.
342 LEPIDOPTERA.
TiNEiD.E Leach. The Tineids are a family of great extent,
and the species are very destructive to vegetation, having in-
numerable modes of attack. They may be distinguished
from the Tortricidm by their smaller size, while the narrow
wings which lie on the top of, or are rolled around the body
when at rest, are often falcate, or pointed acutely, and edged
with a long fringe of exceeding delicacy. The maxillary palpi
are greatly developed, while the labial palpi are of the usual
size, and usually recurved in front of the head. The antennte are
long and filiform. The larvae are cylindrical, variously
wrinkled transversely, and with from fourteen to sixteen feet.
They often construct cases in which they live, and usually spin
a slight; silken cocoon. About 1,'zOO species are already known
in Europe alone. Those of this country have been mostly de-
scribed by Dr. Clemens.
In studying this interesting famil3% Stainton remarks that
"the elongated wings, the slender body and the long or very
long fringes to the wings, are characters by Avhich the Tineidae
may generally be recognized at once ; and the development of
the palpi and their variety in form and structure, ofter most
tangible grounds for separating the greater number of the gen-
era. Indeed, if the student Avill look at the head of a species
to see whether it is hairy or smooth, if he will then notice the
palpi, whether the maxillary palpi are developed and to what
extent, and whetlier the labial palpi are slender, ascending or
drooping, whether the second joint is densely clothed with
scales, or bears a long protruding tuft, and if he will farther
notice the form of the hind wings, which are either well rounded
or very pointed, or indented towards the tip, he will be per-
fectly surprised to see how easily he will arrange these insects
into genera by their structure."
The larvge vary excessively in the number of legs, sixteen
being the usual number, but in several genera (Gracilaria, Lith-
ocolletis, etc.), we only find fourteen; in Nepticula, though
the legs are but poorly developed, they number eighteen ; on the
other hand the larvae of a few of the smaller genera (Antispila,
Tinagma, etc.) are absolutely footless.
For collecting and preserving these minute and delicate
moths, which are called by collectors, micro-lejyidoptera, especial
TINEID^.
343
instructions are necessary. When the moth is taken in the
net, it can be blown by the breath into the bottom. "Then
by elevating the hand through the ring, or on a level with it, a
common cupping glass of about two inches in diameter, or a
• wine glass carried in the pocket, is placed on top of the left
hand over the constricted portion, the grasp relaxed, and the
insect permitted to escape through the opening into its interior.
The glass is then closed below by the left hand on the outside
of the net, and may be transferred to the top of the collecting
box, when it can be quieted by chloroform" (Clemens) ; or the
moths may be collected in pill boxes, and then carried home
and opened into a larger box filled with fumes of ether or ben-
zine or cyanide of potassium. In pinching any moths on the
thorax, as is sometimes done, the form of that region is inva-
riably distorted, and many of the scales removed. In search-
ing for "Micros" we must look carefully on the lee side of
trees, fences, hedges, and undulations in the ground, for
they avoid the wind. Indeed, we can take advantage of
this habit of mauy Micros, and by blowing vigorously on the
trunks of trees start the moth off into the net so placed as to
intercept it. This method is most productive, C. G. Barrett
states, in the "Entomologist's Monthly Magazine," while a
steady wind is blowing.
In seeking for the larvae we must remember that most of
them are leaf miners, and their burrows are detected by the
waved brown withered lines on the surface of leaves, and "their
''fmss," or excrement, thrown out at one end. Some are found
between united leaves, of which the upper is crumpled. Others
construct portable cases which they draw about the trunks of
trees, fences, etc. Others burrow in the stems of grass, or in
fungi, toadstools, and in the pith of currant or raspberry bushes.
Most are solitary, a few gregarious. A bush stripped of its
leaves and covered with webs, if not done by Clisiocampa (the
American Tent Caterpillar), will witness the work of a TJneid.
Buds of unfolded herbs suffer from their attacks, such as the
heads of composite flowers which are drawn together and con-
sumed 1)y the larva?.
After some practice in rearing larvjie it will be found easier
and more profitable to search for the leaf miners, and rear the
344 LEPIDOPTEKA.
perfect, fresh, and uninjured moths from them. In this way
many species never found in the perfect state can be secured.'*
In raising '•'■ micro" larvae it is essential that the leaf in
which they mine be preserved fresh for a long time. Thus
a glass jar, tumbler or jam-pot, the top of which has been
ground to receive an air-tight glass cover, and the bottom
covered with moist white sand, will keep a leaf fresh for a
week, and thus a larva in the summer will have to be fed but
two or three times before it changes ; and the moth can be
seen through the glass without taking off the cover ; or a glass
cylinder can be placed over a plant inserted in wet sand, hav-
ing the top covered with gauze. Dr. H. G. Knaggs in treat-
ing of the management of caterpillars in breeding boxes,
enumerates the diseases, beside muscardine and cholerine, to
which they are subject. Among direct injuries are wounds and
bruises, which may be productive of deformities in the future
imago ; the stings of ichneumon flies, whose eggs laid either
upon or in tlie l)ody may be crushed with finely pointed scis-
sors or pliers ; frost bites, and suflTocation chiefly from drown-
ing. If the caterpillar has not been more than ten or twelve
hours in the water it may be recovered by being dried on a
piece of blotting paper and exposed to the sun. Larvse may
also starve to death even when food is abundant, from loss of
appetite, or improper ventilation, light, etc. ; or the}^ may eat
too much, become dropsical, and die. Caterpillars undoubt-
edly suffer from a contagious disease analogous to low fever.
Many die while moulting, especially the larva? of Butterflies,
Sphinges, and Bombycids ; others are carried off by diarrhoea,
which is generally caused by improper feeding on too juicy or
relaxing food, when oak leaves or dry stunted foliage should
be given them. To relieve constipation they should be fed
with lettuce and other natural purgatives, and lastly, they may
be attacked by fungi, especially, besides those previously men-
*"In general, it may be said, the mines of tlie leaf miners are pharafteiiptic of
the genus to which the larva may belong. A single mine once iclentiflecl, enables
the collector to pronounce on the genus of all the species he may find tliereafter.
This added to the ease with which tlie larv£e are collected, and the little subsequent
care required to bring them to maturity, except to keep the leaves in a fresh and
healthy state, makes the study of this group, in every respect, pleasant and satis-
factory to the entomologist." (Clemens.)
TINEIDiE. 345
tioned, a species of Oidium. Such patients should be put iu
direct sunlight or dry currents of air. (Entomologist's Monthly
Magazine, June, 18G8.) The pupse easily dry up ; they should
be kept moist, in tubes of glass closed at either end, through
which the moth can be seen when disclosed.
In setting micro-leindoiJtera : "If the insect is very small I
hold it b}' its legs between the thumb and finger of the left
hand, whilst I pierce it with the pin held between the thumb
and finger of the right hand ; if the insect is not very small I
use a rough surface, as a piece of blotting-paper, or piece of
cloth, for it to lie upon and prevent its slipping about, and
then cautiously insert the point of the pin in the middle of tlie
thorax, as nearly as possible in a vertical direction. As soon
as tlie pin is fairly througli the insect, remove it to a piece of
soft cork, and by pressing it in, push the insect as far up the
pin as is required,
"For setting the insects I find nothing answers as well as a
piece of soft cork, papered witli smooth paper, and with
grooves cut to admit the bodies. The wings are placed in the
required position by the setting needle, and are then retained
in tlieir places by a wedge-shaped thin paper brace, placed over
them till a square brace of smooth card-board is placed over the
ends of the wings." (Stainton.) A small square of glass can
also be laid on the wings to keep them expanded, and thus
serve the same purpose as the paper braces. Linnaeus first set
the example of having the specific names of the Tortricids
end in ana and of the Tineids in ella^ and at the present day
the rule is generally followed by entomologists, who have also
given the same terminations to the names of the smaller spe-
cies of Pyralids, such as Pempelia, Crambus and allied genera.
In the group of Tineids proper, the head is roughly scaled,
with short and thick labial palpi, while the maxillary palpi are
generally extremely well developed, and the antennae some-
times (Adela) extremely long. The larvjB live in a portable
case and feed on wool, hair, etc., and fungi, or decayed wood.
Solenohia has very short labial palpi, which are almost con-
cealed in the hairs of the mouth, and the ease of the larva is
shorter than usual. The unimpregnated females of this genus
lay fertile eggs, so that one may breed a species for years with-
346
LEPIDOPTERA.
out ever seeing a male. (Stainton.) Solenohia? Walsfiella
Clemens is gray, varied with fuscous. The silken case is gran-
ulated with tine sand ; the larva is probably lichenivorous.
In Tinea the head is rough, the maxillary palpi are usually
folded and live jointed, while the labial palpi are cylindrical,
liair}^ and sometimes bristly. The fore wings are
oblong ovate, and the hind wings ovate and clothed
with scales.
The common Clothes moth. Tinea flavifrontella
;. 2G2 ; fig. 2G3, a, larva, with its case, b ; c, chrysa-
lis, enlarged) is of a light buif color, with a silky iridescent lus-
tre, the hind wings and abdomen bei: :g a little paler. The head
is thickly tufted with hairs and is a little tawny. The wings are
long and narrow, pointed acutely,^ Avith the most beautiful and
delicate long silken fringe, which increases in length towards
the base of the wing. The moth begins to fly about our apart-
c b ments in May, individuals
remaining through the sum-
mer. They lay their eggs
in woollens, though we have
« reared numerous specimens
which had attacked a mass
of cotton. Early in June
we found numbers of the
Fig. 2G3. ^ caterpillars in their flattened
cylindrical cases which in this instance were white, the color
of the substance they fed upon. The larva is whitish with a
tolerably plump body, which tapers slightly towards the end
of the body, while the head is honey yellow. The segments
of the body are thickened above by two transverse folds. The
body of the chrysalis is considerably curved, with the head
smooth and rounded. The antennae, together with the hind legs,
which are laid on the breast, reach to the tip of the abdo-
men. On the upper surface of each ring is a short trans-
verse row of minute spines, which aid the chrysalis in moving
towards the mouth of its case,"|pst before changing to a moth.
When about to transform, the skin splits open on the back,
and the perfect insect glides out. The skin is moulted with
great rapidity. To avoid the ravages of this destructive moth,
TINEID^.
347
.'oollens and furs should be carefully shaken and examined
early m June. Dr Harris states that ''powdered black e^^
pei stre a under the edge of carpets is said to repel n.oths
Sheets of paper sprinkled with spirits of turpentine, campho;
in coarse powder, leaves of tobacco, or shavings of Ru si"
leather, should be placed among the clothes when they a" 1
asH le for the summer; and furs and other small articles can\.o
kept by bemg sewed in bags with bits of camphor wood r d
cedar, or of Spanish cedar, while the cloth lining of carHa e
can be secured forever from the attacks of moths by b h"
washed or sponged on both sides with a solution of the cor ro!
sn. sublnnate of mercury in alcohol, made just strong enoug;
^ot to leave a white stain on a black feather." The moths cnn
be most readily killed by pouring ben.ine among thenT 1^
Its use must bo much restricted from the disagreeable odor
which remains, and c
its inflammable na-
ture. The use of a
weak solution of car-
bolic acid is also rec-
ommended. Tinea
topetzella Linn., the
Carpet moth, is black-
ish at the base of the
fore wings, tho re-
mainder being yellow-
ish white, while the
nnd wings are dark gray, and the head white
feeds on carpets, etc.
Tinea granella Linn (V\o- <^ci . *. i .
witl, tl,e vin.,-, s,>re," „ , t T ? ""'' """ '^'"•'"««''
pupa, ..at,„J sben ci lT"l ^^^"''' '"' '"" *"'"8«' '^ *•
Sethe.. with a ;i"^„r ,'Gra-"' ^T^°'"'^"' '""'" '"•
■iig the entrance with its castino-s, and after it hJt J ^
ti.e interior of one grain, unites oth r t e sio^o u "m
.t b.nds together ,y a flne web a n„n=b« of th". men
Fig. 264
The larva
348 LEPIDOPTERA.
nearlj^ full grown tliey cover the grains "vrith a very thick web.
According to Curtis the larviB retire to cracks and crevices in
the floor and walls of the granary, and construct their cocoons
by gnawing the wood and Avorking it up with their web until it
has the form and size of a grain of wheat, wherein it remains
through the winter, changing to a chrysalis earlj' in the spring ;
while two or three weeks after the moth appears. It is creamy
white, with six brown spots on the costa, and with a long
brown fringe. To prevent its attacks empty granaries should
be thoroughly cleansed and whitewashed, or washed with coal
oil, and when the moths are flying numbers may be attracted
to the flames of a bright light ; also when the larvtB are at work,
the grain should be shovelled over frequently to disturb them.
Tlie beautiful genus Adela is at once known by its exces-
sively long antennae. The larva makes a flat case, and feeds
on the leaves of various low plants, such as the wood Anemone
and Veronica. The A. Rklmg^eUa of Clemens has coppery
brown fore wings, with a pale grayish brown mesial patch
dusted with black, and four or five black spots at the inner
angle, while the hind wings are fuscous.
Hijporiomeuta has a smooth head, with rather short, slender,
reflexed, subacute labial palpi ; the fore wings are white, dotted
in rows with black, and on the base of the hind wiugs is a
transparent patch. The larvffi are gregarious, and the pupa is
enclosed in a cocoon. H. miUepunctatella Clemens is white,
with the base of the costa blackish, and with lougitudiiml rows
of distinct black dots, two of which, one along the inner mar-
gin, and one along the fold, are plain. The hind wings are
blackish gray.
In D(qvessaria the fore wings are unusually oblong, being
rounded at the apex ; and the hind wings are broader than
usual, with the inner edge emarginate opposite the subme-
dian vein, and rounded opposite the internal vein. The abdo-
men is flattened above, with projecting scales at the sides.
The larvjTe of this genus are extremely active, and feed on a
variety of substances ; some in rolled up leaves of composite
plants, some in the leaves and others in the nmbels of the
umbelliferous plants. Many of the worms descend from the
plant on the slightest agitation, so that considerable caution is
TINEID^.
349
necessary in attempts to collect them. The full-fed larvje de-
scend to the ground and change to pupie among the lallen
leaves. The perfect insects have the pecuiiarity of sliding
about when laid on their backs. D. atrodorsella Clem, is yel^
low ochreous, with six or eight black costal dots, with a red-
dish patch extending from the disc towards the tip of the wing.
The head is rufous above, with the face blackish brown above
and yellowish beneath.
During the last summer we observed a locust tree which had
some of the branches well nigh defoliated by an undescribed
species of this gemis which we may call the Depressaria robin-
iella (Plate 8, fig. U, natural size). The head, palpi and fore
wings are light brick red, spotted irregularly with yellow, and
the antenuiXi are slate brown. The fore wiugs arc a little
darker in the middle, especially towards the inner edge. There
is a submarginal darker brown band near the outer edge, which
does not reach the costa, and on the outer edge is a row of
minute black dots. The hind wings and abdomen are of a pale
slate gray, and of the same color beneath, while the legs are
of a very pale straw yellow. It differs from most of the spe-
cies of the genus in having the apex of the fore wing less
rounded than usual, and in this and other respects it is allied
to the European D. laterdla. The larva is thick-bodied, with
a black head, and is green, the cervical shield being green. It
devours the leaves, drawing them together by threads, and
also eats the flower buds. It was most abundant in the last
week of June. It turned to a chrysalis July 8th, and in about
two weeks the moth appeared.
In Gdechia the fore wings are rather long and pointed, and
the hind wings are trapezoidal and more or less excavated below
the tip. The terminal joint of the labial palpi is slender, al-
most needle-like, smooth and pointed. This genus is of great
extent and comprises a considerable diversity of species. The
moth is extremely active. Clemens states that "the habits of
the larvae are extremely varied, feeding upon leaves, flower-
buds, young shoots, and in the interior of grain and seeds. The
species that feed in buds and shoots are mostly in the larva
state in spring and the beginning of summer; those that feed
m and upon leaves are met with in summer and autumn, and
350
LEPIDOPTERA.
those that feed on seeds do so in the autumn and winter."
The Angoumois Grain moth, G. cerecdella Linn. (Fig. 2G5), is
ochreous, with a fuscous streak towards the base, and a few
fuscous dots towards the tip of the wing, while the hind wings
arc grayish ochreous. The wings are sometimes unspotted.
It feeds in wheat granaries, where it secretes itself within
the grain, devouring the mealy substance. Reaumur, according
to Mr. Stainton, thus speaks of the economy of material in the
food of tlie larva of Gelechia cerealella. "A grain of wheat
or of barley contains the precise quan-
tity of food necessary to nourish the
larva from its birth till it is full fed.
For if we open a grain inhabited by
a younger and smaller larva, we find
that there is more or less of the sub-
stance of the grain still to be consumed.
Fig. 265. according to the size of the larva.
But what is remarkable is, that in the latter case, we find
at least as much and probably more excrement, and in larger
pellets, than we find in a grain tenanted by an older lar^'a."
It is thus driven to eat its excrement over once and perhaps
more than once ! We have received from Mr. F. G. Sanborn
the larva (Fig. 26G, much enlarged) of this moth, which had
eaten out the kernel of grains of parching corn, leaving but a
thin shell. The bod}^ is unusually short, thick and white, the
tegument being very thin and transparent. Gelechia favgivo-
rella Clem, has roseate white
fore wings, dusted and banded
Avitli brown. Walsh states that
"the larva mines a cabbage-
like gall (C. salicis-brassicoides),
peculiar to Salix longifolia, and
a pine-cone-like gall on Salix cordata, named C, salicis-stro-
biloides by Osten Sacken." The larva of a similar species,
G. roseosuftisella, inhabits the fruit panicles of the sumach.
Coleophora is a beautiful form, with long fringes to the
wings, which are long and lanceolate, especially the hinder pair.
The head is smooth above and in front, and the slender, simple
antennae are sometimes thickened with scales as far as their
Fiff 2G6.
TINEIDJi:. 351
middle. The labial palpi are slender, rather porrected, with a
slender prolonged tuft from the second joint, and the third
joint is pointed. The larva is a case-bearer, changing to a
pupa within the case. While these moths abound in the larva
state, the adult insects are rarely met with. The leaf-feeding
larvai are very easily found, as their presence may be detected
by the pale blotches they form on the leaf they feed upon,
while the seed-feeding larvse are much better concealed.
"Coleophora larvjB do not well bear confinement in the hu-
mid air of the breeding jar. To be successful in rearing the
larva?, one must use a pot of moistened sand, in which the food
plant is placed, covered with a glass cylinder, with fine ganze
tied over the top ; or the plant may be kept in water and cov-
ered with a cylinder of glass. For this purpose old chimney
tops to lamps answer very well. The larvae of this genus, taken
in the fall of the year, hibernate in their cases until the fol-
lowing spring, and feed upon the first leaves that put forth.
They must not, therefore, be kept in a warm room during
the winter. The pupae of the fall brood of larvae thrive much
better, likewise, if not kept in a warm room during the cold
months. The spring, or eai'ly summer brood of larvae, produce
imagos in a few weeks after entering the pupa state, and hence
it is much more satisfactory to collect early in the 3'ear than
during the latter part." (Clemens.)
In C. roscefoliella Clem, the head and thorax are white, while
the fore wings are pale grayish towards the base, clouded with
dark brown from the middle to the tip, and the hind wings are
dark brown. The case is silken, covered with granulations,
cjdindrical, slightly compressed, the mouth slightly deflexed
and the opposite hook-like end turned down slightly. Its color
is brown, varied with gray and reddish-brown granulations.,
The larva feeds in the spring on the common garden rose, and
the case was found in winter attached to a thorn on one of the
stems. C. rosacella Clem, also feeds in the spring on the rose
and sweet briar. The case is made of the cuticle of the rose-
leaf on which the larva feeds. It is a compressed cylinder, and
dilated slightly in the middle of the under edge. Color dark
ochreous. (Clemens.) Coleophora coruscipe.nneJla Clemens is
a beautiful bronzed green species, with the terminal half of the
352 LEPIDOPTERA.
anteniiiB white, ringed with brown. The fore wings are reddish
violet on the apex, and the hind wings arc dark brown. An
unknown species is represented on Plate 8, fig. 17. It was
found feeding on the pear the 5th of September, carr3dng about
a flattened case of the form indicated in the figure, which is
enlarged about five times. We have also found another Col-
eophora larva, with a long, flattened, cylindrical case, alike at
each end, constructed of tho outer skin of the leaf. It was
found late in September feeding on tho apple.
In the genus Batrachedra the wings aro narroAV, especially
the hind ones which are sharply pointed, with a tuft near the
base of the costa. B. salicipomonella Clemens (Fig. 2G7, vena-
tion and side view of the head, enlarged), in its larval state,
according to Mr. Walsh, inhabits the gall
made by a saw-fi3^ on the willow.
Elachista is a verj- extensive genus charac-
terized by the long and slender, slightly re-
curved palpi. The fore wings are smooth,
elongate and rarely oblong, and the hind
wings are narrow and pointed. The larva
mines the leaves of grasses and allied plants.
Fig. 2G/. Over fifty species have been described in
Europe. Clemens refers doubtfully to this genus, a Virginian
species, Elachista? orichalceUa, which is of a beautiful metallic
coppery color, while the hind wings and fringe are rather pale
ochreous.
The genus Lithocolletis comprises yexy minute but most richly
colored moths. The head is rough, the labial palpi filiform
and drooping, while the fore wings are elongate, and the hind
wings are linear lanceolate, with long fringes. They are often
excessively abundant, are rather sluggish, but fl}' readily in the
early morning. In Europe they are double-brooded, and hiber-
nate in the pupa state (Clemens states that some hibernate as
moths), appearing in the perfect state in spring, while a second
brood of moths appear in August. The larvjB have fourteen
feet, and mine the leaves of, trees, shrubs or low plants, sepa-
rating either the upper or lower cuticle and feeding on the
inner substance of the leaf. When the mine is on the upper
surface, or at least most frequently when it is in this position,
TINEID^. 353
the leaf becomes folded and curved at the place mined, and the
separated cuticle is gathered into folds, or covers the curved
portion so as to make a capacious habitation. Some of the
miners of the upper surface of leaves make large blotches, or
tracts, and when the mines are fresh the separated cuticle is
whitish and very noticeable. The miners of the under surface,
cause the upper cuticle to become discolored in patches, and
this with the fold of the side of the leaf is often sufficient to
indicate the presence of a mine. Usually the species are con-
fined to a single plant ; some, however, feed on several allied
plants. The larva seldom quits the mine and changes in it
to a pupa. Some species either make no cocoon or only a very
slight one, and others make one of grains of excrement woven
together with silk. L. Fitcliella Clemens (Argyromiges querci-
foliella Fitch) is silvery white, with pale reddish saffron fore
wings, slightly tinged with a brassy hue. It feeds on the oak,
according to Dr. Fitch.
L. salicifoUeUa Clemens during the latter part of June or
early in July mines the under surface of the leaves of the yel-
low willow (Salix vitellina var. alba). L. jvglandieUa makes
an elongated, rather wide tract on the upper surface of the
leaves of the black walnut.
During the last summer the larva of an iindescribed species,
which we may call LithocoUetis geminatella (Plate 8, fig. 15 ; a,
larva ; b, pupa ; c, its mine, the first three figures enlarged six
diameters) was abundant on the apple and pear trees. The
moth is of a dark slate gray, without any prominent markings,
with ochreous hairs on the top of the head. There is a black
round spot on the middle of the inner edge of the wing (omit-
ted in the figure, which is drawn from a slightly rubbed speci-
men). On the outer edge is an eye-like spot, pupilled with
black, like the "ej^e" in a peacock's tail. The antennae are
dark, ringed with a pale slate color. It expands .30 of an inch.
The larva is pale livid reddish with a black head and cervical
shield, and .14 of an inch in length. It was first discovered
about the middle of August, hanging from a branch suspended
by a thread. From this time it became abundant, until the
leaves began to fall in the first week of October ; nearly every
leaf on some of the pear and apple trees having a mine like
23
354 LEPIDOPTERA.
that represented in Plate 8, fig. 15 c. Usually the larva draws
two leaves together, or folds one up, and as it eats its waj'-
along the surface of the leaf, leaves its excrement tilling up the
space behind, thus making blotches and otherwise disfiguring
the leaves. In this mine it transforms into a lono- slender
pupa, which may be found surrounded with the castings of the
larva. The moths first appeared August 19th, and flew in-doors
at night attracted by the light.
Bucculatrix pomoneUa Clem. (Plate 8, fig. 16, enlarged) is a
pale whitish species with yellowish scales, with a black line,
which beginning on the middle of the costa, curves around to-
wards the apex, ending in the usual eye-like spot on the outer
edge, beyond which is a dark marginal line ; in the middle of
the wing near the inner side is a longitudinal black oval spot,
paler within. The hind wings are pale gray, and the body and
legs pale whitish yellow. The wings expand .30 of an inch.
We never met with the larva, but the cocoon is long and slen-
der, a little blunt at each end and white, with slight longitudinal
ridges. It may be found attached to the bark on the branches
of the apple tree in May and also in the autumn and winter.
Besides differing from L. geminatella in making a regular co-
coon, the pupa is a little stouter and the top of the head is
blunter.
Another species, which appeal's to be undescribed, we would
call the IJthocoUeUs nidificansella (Plate 8, fig. 19, moth; 19 o,
cocoon) from the singular way the cocoon is suspended in a
leaf like a hanging nest, by silken cords. The single speci-
men figured was found early in September, the moth appearing
on the 11th. The larva feeds on the pear, and when about to
transform had evidently drawn the edges of the leaf together
by a few threads, and then suspended its thin cocoon in the
manner indicated in the figure, the position of the chrysalis
being represented by the black line in the centre of the cocoon.
The moth is silvery white, with gray hind Avings. The fore
wings are white, with golden bronze streaks and spots. The
costa is white, with three oblique golden lines running out-
wards from the edge of the wing towards the outer margin, the
inner one being minute, and the outer one broad and less
oblique than the others. Beyond, are three apical straight
TINEIDiE. 355
thread-like lines next the eye-like black dot, near which arises
a slender pencil of long hairs. Below the costa the wing is
spotted with gold, and there is a broad oblique golden dark
band directed outwards and reaching to the middle of the
wing. The costa is golden on the outer third of its length.
The wings expand .36 of an inch.
Lyonetia is closely allied to the preceding genus, and may
be distinguished from it by the head being smooth, the scales
being broad and flattened down. Mr. F. G. Sanborn first
drew our attention to this moth, having reared it from cocoons
found on the apple. From the singular habit of the larva in
making a case instead of living in a mine in leaves, we would
call it the Lyonetia saccatella (Plate 8, fig. 18 ; 18a, the larva ;
18 &, the larva with its case, all a little enlarged). The moth
is a perfect gem ; its head and short antennae are pale gray
and its fore wings are light slate gray on the basal half, and
beyond bright orange, enclosing two white bands, one costal
and the other arising from the inner edge, both nearly meeting
in the middle of the wing, and edged externally with black.
There is a square, black, very conspicuous spot near the- fringe,
in which is a long pencil of black hairs, not shown in the
figure. The outer angle of the wing is dusky. It expands
.20 of an inch. The larva is a little flattened green worm,
and constructs a flattened oval case of the skin of the leaf
which it draws about. The case is open at each end, and
is roomy enough for the larva to turn around in. It be-
comes fully grown by the last of August, and in Octo-
ber we have found the cocoons attached to the bark of the
tree, where they may also be seen through the winter and in
the spring.
The last important genus, JSFeptkula, contains the smallest
known lepidopterous insects. "Many of them are excessively
beautiful, resplendent with burnished copper, gold and silver
scales. They may be observed in May and June, sitting on
the trunks of trees or palings ; but to see these atoms requires
an experienced eye. Most of the species appear to be double-
brooded, and are easily collected in plenty in the larva state.
A nut-leaf, containing from twenty to thirty larvoe of Neptknla
microtheriella, is no unusual sight. In Nepticula the antennaa
35G LEPIUOPTEEA.
are not half as long as the fore wings, which are rather broad
while the hind pair are lanceolate.
"■Tiie larv{\3 mine very narrow serpentine paths in the inte-
rior of leaves, the mine being always on the npper surface.
They vary much in form, l)eing sometimes a slender galler^'^ or
line, either sim[)le, or enlarged towards the end into a blotch.
When the larva is full-fed it quits the mine, cutting for this
purpose the separated cuticle, in order to Aveave a minute co-
coon." (Clemens.) N, conjiifoliella Clemens mines the hazel.
N. ])kitanella Clemens mines the button-wood tree, or syca-
more, and N. amelanchierella Clemens mines the leaves of the
June berry in June and July.
Pterophorid.e Latreille. The small group of PIvme-moths
may be at once known b}^ their fissured and plumed wings.
The body is long and slender, with long antennai and legs.
They are the lowest moths, the long slender abdomen and fis-
sured Aviugs being marks of degradation. The larvae have six-
teen legs and are rather hairy. They form no cocoon, but,
fastening themselves b}' the tail to a leaf or stem, shed their
larva-skins and appear in the pupa state. Some of the pupse
are nearly as hair}' as the larvae, others are quite naked. Most
of the larvie feed in the earl}' summer months, and the perfect
insects appear rather later, though some may be seen in spring.
(Stainton, Manual of British Butterflies and Moths.)
In PterojyJiorus the hind margin of the fore wing is more or
less deeply cleft, while the hind wings are almost divided into
three separate slender lobes or plumes. The larvie live in the
flowers and stems as well as on the leaves of plants. P. peri-
scelidactylns Fitch (Plate 8, fig. 23 ; a, larva ; &, pupa, enlarged)
is tawny yellow, the fore wings having three large white spots
and two bands beyond ; the outer line is thread-like, the inner
line being much broader on the costal division of the wing, re-
appearing at the base of the split in the wing, and below
extending out to the lower half of the outer line. The hind
wings are darker brown than the rest of the moth, while the
third and shortest division of the wing is white, but brown at
the end, with the fringe on the outer fourth of the wing still
darker brown. The legs are white with tufts of brown scales
PTEROPHORID^. 357
surrounding the hind legs. It expands .65 of an inch. The
larvffi, received from Mr. M. C. Reed, of Hudson, Ohio, were
pale green, with a greenish yellow head. Along the body is a
double d jrsal paler line, and whitish tubercles, from which pro-
ceed very long uneven hairs, and the bod}' is also covered with
very short white hairs, giving a frosted appearance to the
worm. They are about half an iiich long. About the middle
of June it changes to the singular chrysalis represented on the
plate, and in about a fortnight appears as one of the most deli-
cate and graceful of moths. It may be seen flying about our
graperies in midsummer, and is attracted to our apartments
after nightfiiU by the lights within. It feeds upon the young
leaves of the grape, hiding itself in a hollow ball made of
leaves drawn together by threads. The pupa is slender, coni-
cal, obliquely truncated at the head, with two long compressed
horns placed side by side, and jutting upwards from the mid-
dle of its back, and numerous smaller projecting points and
ridges. It reminds one of the chrysalids of the butterflies,
in its habit of remaining attached by its tail to the plant on
which it feeds.
In Alucita the wings are still farther subdivided, each wing
being divided from the base into six distinct feathers. The
larva of the European A. j)ohjdactyla feeds in the unopened
buds of the honey-suckle. It is not hairy, and spins a co-
coon.
Fig. 2U9.
Chrysophaiius Thoe Westwood,
358 DIPTERA.
DIPTERA,
Flies may be easily recognized by their having but a single
pair of wings, the hinder pair being aborted, and existing in a
rudimentary state under the name of ^'"halter." The more es-
sential character of the Diptera, however, consists in the greatly
centralized, more or less globular thorax. Both the protliorax
and metathorax are greatly aborted, and the legs are somewhat
weak. As the second pair of wings are obsolete, the muscles
adapted for flying are not developed.
When the wings are entirely wanting, as in Chionea, the
Spider fly, and the Spider-like Bat-tick (Nycteribia), the tho-
rax becomes still more globular, and the head of Nycteribia
shows a tendency to become immersed in the thorax, as in the
spiders.
The abdomen is either short, conical and broad at the base,
being rarely pedicellate ; or long and cylindrical, or flattened
either horizontally or laterally. The conical form of the abdo-
men accords with the quick jerky flight of the House fl}^, as
compared with the steady slow flight of Tipula, whose abdomen
is very long. The abdomen is composed of from five to nine
distinct segments. As Lacaze-Duthiers states, the Diptera as
a rule have no true ovipositor like that of bees, etc., though the
three terminal rings are retracted within the abdominal cavity,
and are capable of being thrust out like the joints of a telescope.
When about to lay their eggs they simply place them in cracks
or upon the substances that are to form the future food of the
larva, having no organs for boring, though the female Tipulids
are able to work the hard tip of the abdomen into the ground
where they deposit their eggs. The terminal ring of the abdo-
men in the males is provided with clasping organs.
The head is very free from the thorax in the true flies, and
is spherical, hemispherical or conical. The eyes are large, with
very numerous facets, and often approach each other closely on
the front of the head, especially in the males. The ocelli, when
present, are placed on the vertex, and the antennae are in-
serted below, in the middle (antero-posteriorly) of the front.
DIPTERA. 359
They are either long and evenly jointed, as in the Tij^iclidcey
often with long cilia, and sometimes verticillate, as in Ce-
cidomyia ; or, as in the House fly, the typical form is a
short and stout, two to three-jointed antenna, ending in a
bristle.
In the Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera only a portion of the
mouth parts are used for sucking in food, but in the present
group, the labruni, with the two pairs of appendages, i.e., the
maxillte and mandibles, are (when all are well developed, as
in the Mosquito) ensheathed partiall^^ within the labium, and
with the last form a channel for the passage of the fluid food
into the mouth.
The labium forms the under side of the sheath, while the
mandibles and maxillne are represented by simple setfe, though
the one, two, or three-jointed maxillary palpi are present, and
in this last character the rostrum of the flies differs from the
beak of the Hemiptera. As in the Hymenoptera, the lingua
is well, thougii diff'erently developed, terminating in a large
fleshy knob which is divided into two fleshy flaps called the
labellm.
The wings are naked, as in the Hymenoptera, though fine
hairs may be detected by the microscope on the A'eins, becom-
ing most apparent in the Psychodae, where the wings are very
hairy. In form they are long and narrow, the costal edge
being straight, the apex of the wing obtusely rounded, while
the oblique outer edge is very long and nearly parallel with
the costa, where in the Lepidoptera it is nearly at right an-
gles to it. The veins are six in number, and in tlieir direction
and branches (Fig. 270-271) correspond more closely with the
venation of the Lepidoptera than any other suborder. The
veins are straight, and with fewer branches than in the Lepi-
doptera, but with more cross venules, which in the wing of
the Tijyulidm, remind us of the net-veined Neuroptera.
When, as in the Cecidom^dte, the veins become in part ob-
solete, only three veins remain, the costal, subcostal and
median. The form and size of the cells, especially the submar-
ginal ones, are of much use in distinguishing the species, while
the changes in the costal and basal portion of the wing are
the most important in classifying the genera and families.
360 DIPTERA.
The function of the halteres, or "poisers," is still problema-
tical. Hicks and Leydig consider them as organs of hearing,
while Goureau and Loew think they are concerned in the act
of respiration.
Besides the well known wingless genus Chionea, and the
Flea, Sheep-tick, and Braula, Loew, the eminent German ento-
mologist, enumerates several European species of Tipula, the
females of Avliich liaA-e the wings rudimentary ; and also a spe-
cies of Limnobia (Idioptera). Epidapus is wingless in both
sexes. "Psyllomyia, Apterina and Elaehiptera, and species
of Tachista, Chersodromia and Geomyza have rudimentary
wings in both sexes ; in other forms the wings are only abbre-
viated in both sexes CSciomyza), or in those of the male or fe-
male are smaller than in the other sex (species of Empis,
Rhamphomyia, Idioptera and Tipula)."
Fig. 270. Diagramof a wing icith two suhmarginal and fire posterior cells {Clachira
indivisa). Cells: — 1, costal; 2, subcostal; 3, marginal; 3*, inner marginal; 4, sub-
marginal; 5, second submarginal; C-10, Ih-st to fifth posterior; 11, discal; 12, first
basal ; 13, second basal ; 14, anal ; 15, axillary ; V>, spurious. J^eins i—b I, auxiliary ;
cm, first longitudinal; h, n, o, second longitudinal; h i, praefiirca; I: n, anterior
branch of tlie second longitudinal vein; h o, posterior branch of the second longi-
tudinal vein; i/j, petiole of the first submarginal cell; «iJ, third longitudinal; dq
rst, fourth longitudinal; q r, fork of its anterior branch; the posterior branch of
this fork, ending in r, is Mr. Loew's anterior intercalary rein; s t, fork of the pos-
terior branch of the fourth vein; the branch of tliis fork, ending In t, is Mr. Loew's
posterior intercalary vein; e m, fifth longitudinal; / r, sixth longitudinal; g to,
seventh longitudinal. Cross-veins: — x,\mmC:Yi\\; x x, subcostal; a;j;a;, marginal;
X*, small, or anterior cross- vein; x**, great cross-vein. — i-Vo^ji Osten Sacken.
Fig. 271 (1). Wing of Ortalis.—a, transverse shoulder- vein ; b, auxiliary vein; c,
d, e, f, g and h, first, second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth longitudinal veins; i,
small or middle transverse vein; k, hinder transverse vein; I, m, n, o, costal vein;
p, anterior basal transverse vein; <7, posterior basal transverse vein; »•, rudiment
of the fourth trunk; .s, axillary incision; A, B, and C, first, second and third costal
cells ; D, marginal cell ; E, submarginal cell ; F, G and H, first, second and third
posterior cells; /, discal cell; A', first or large basal cell; L, second basal cell, or
DIPTERA.
361
M. Marey has determined that a common fly when held cap-
tive moves its wings 330 times a second; a honey bee 190
times, and a cabbage butterfly (Pieris) nine times. The winos
describe a figure 8 in the air. (Cosmos.) Landois, calcu-
lating the rapidity of the vibrations by the sound produced
anterior of the small basal cells; M, third basal cell, or posterior of the smaU
basal cells; iV, anal or axillary corner of tlie wing; O, alar appendage, (alnla).
Fig. 271 (-2). Wing of Empis. — t, anterior branch of the third longitudinal vein:
u, anterior intercalary.
Fig. 271.
Fig. 271 (3). Wing of Dasypogon. — t, anterior branch of the third longitudinal
vein; u, anterior intercalary vein; v, posterior intercalary vein. — i^rom Xoew.
Comparing the wing of Ortalis with that of the bee and butterHy figured on
page 23, we should prefer to use the same terminology and call I, m, n, the margi-
nal vein; ^,6, the costal; c, d and e the three branches of the snbcostal vein;/, the
median vein; h, the submedian; and r, the internal vein. In Macqnart's system,
modified slightly by Sacken (fig. 270), b, I, is the costal; cm, the subcostal; d and e,
the median ; /, the submedian, and g the internal vein.
362 DIPTERA.
thereby, states that the fly, which produces the sound of F, vi-
brates its wings 352 times a second, and the bee, which maizes
the sound of A', 440 times a second. "On the contrary a tired
bee hums on E', and therefore vibrates its wings only 330 times
in a second. This difference is probably involuntary, but the
change of 'tone' is evidently under the command of the will,
and thus offers another point of similarity to a true 'voice.'
A bee in the pursuit of honey hums continually and content-
edly on A', but if it is excited or angry it produces a very dif-
ferent note. Thus, then, the sounds of insects do not merely
serve to bring the sexes together ; they are not merely ' love
songs,' but also serve, like any true language, to express the
feelings. (Sir John Lubbock's Address before the London
Entomological Society, 18G8.)
Landois describes the sound-producing organs in several
genera of flies. "He distinguishes three different tones as
emitted by these insects : during flight, a relatively low tone,
a higher one when the wings are held so as to prevent their
vibrating, and a higher still when the fly is held so that all mo-
tion of the external jjarts is prevented. The last mentioned
is the true voice of the insect ; it is produced by the stigmata
of the thorax, and may be heard when every other part of the
body is cut away. The first sound is caused by the rapid vi-
bration of the Avings in the air ; the second is caused, or at all
events accompanied, by the vibration and friction of the abdo-
minal segments, and by a violent movement of the head
against the anterior Avail of the thorax." The halteres also
assist in producing the sound. The vibration of the head in
the Diptera during the emission of sound is regarded by this
author as due to the transmission of movement from the tho-
rax. (Zoological Record, 1867.) Landois also states that
there are small species Avhich give a deeper note than larger
ones, on account of the wing-vibrations not being of the same
number in a given time. (Lubbock.)
The legs are slender, unarmed, except Avith stout bristles, as
in Asilus ; the joints are simple, cylindrical ; the tarsi are five-
jointed, the terminal joint ending in two claws (ungues), be-
tween which is the cushion, or jwMUus, consisting of two or
three fleshy vesicles, often armed Avith hairs, Avhich are tubular.
DIPTERA. 363
and secrete an adhesive fluid, which is said to aid the fly in
walking up-side-down on polished surfaces.
The nervous system in the Diptera is characterized by a
grouping of tlie tlioracic ganglia into a single mass, from which
proceed nerves to the abdomen ; the abdominal ganglia beino-
for the most part aborted. Thus in some 3Iuscida> , Oestrus,
and Hippobosca, the nervous cord behind the cephalic portion,
consists of a single thoracic ganglion, which gives out nerves
in different directions. The higher Muscids, such as Syrphus
and Conops have in addition one or two ganglia situated at
the base of the abdomen. The higher groups, such as the
Tab an idee, As Hi dm and Bombylidoi have six ganglia,
and the Emjiidoi, Tipulidm and Culicidce have more.
The larvae usually have one more pair than the adult, having
ten and sometimes eleven ganglia, with long commissures,
which ai'e often double.
The digestive system is less complex than usual. As in the
two preceding suborders, on one side of the oesophagus is a
pedicellate sucking stomach which extends into the abdomen
near the true chyle-making stomach. The latter is of the
usual intestinoid form, enlarging a little anteriorly, with two
coecal appendages beneath on each side, near the cardiac ex-
tremity.
The four, rarely five, Malpighian vessels which correspond
to the kidneys of vertebrates, are united before they open into
the single or double common outlet.
There are two main trachese, and two large air-sacs, one on
each side, at the base of the abdomen. The system of trachea?
is simplest in the aquatic Tipulid larvae, resembling in this
respect the Phryganeae, where the tracheae are subcutaneous
and designed to extract the air from the water.
The testes are generally colored, being provided with a j)ig-
ment layer. They are oval, curved or tortuous glands, with
a short efferent vessel (vas differens). The ovaries consist of
three to four chambered tubes, and a short oviduct. The re-
ceptaculum seminis is generally triple. A true bursa copnlatrix
is wanting in the Diptera, but in "many Iluscidai the vagina
has, as a seminal receptacle or uterus, a spacious and sometimes
two-lobed reservoir in which the fecundated eggs are accumu-
364 DIPTERA.
lated in great numbers, and remain until the larvje are suffi-
ciently developed to be hatched, so that these animals are
viviparous. In the pupiparous Hippoboscse, the female organs
are formed on an entirely special type, corresponding with the
remarkable mode of reproduction in these animals." (Siebold.)
Near the external opening of the oviduct is a pair of glands
designed to secrete the gummy matter coating the eggs.
The eggs of the Diptera are usually cylindrical, elon-
gated and slightly curved, and the surface is smooth, not being
ornamented as in the Lepidoptera. In the Tipulidm the
eggs become mature as soon as the pupa skin is thrown off",
when the}^ are immediately laid.
The larvai are footless, white, fleshy, thin skinned, cylindrical
and worm-like, spindled or linear in shape. The}^ have, in the
higher families, as in the Tipulidce, a distinct head ; but they
are often headless, as in the 3Iuscidce, and are then called
maggots. They live in mould, decaj'ing organic substances, or
in the water. Many maggots are provided with two corneous
hooks, probably the mandibles, with which they seize their food.
The pupa is either naked (Pupa obtecta. Fig. 276), like the
chrysalids of moths, with the limbs exposed, as in the Tipu-
lidce ; or they are coarctate (pupa coarctata, Fig.
272) as in the flies generally, the skin of the larva
serving to protect the soft pupa within, as during
the growth of the pupa the old larval skin separates
from the newly formed pupa skin, wliich contracts
slightly. It is then called the puparium, and is
usually cylindrical and regularly rounded at each end
like the cocoon of moths. Those which have the
Fig. 273. pupje obtected, when aquatic and active, are provided
with gill-like filaments permeated with tracheae.
The semipupa stage of Diptera, corresponds generally with
that of the Hymenoptera and Lepidoptera. By an ingenious
device Dr. Fitcli succeeded in observing in the living insect
the processes by which the larva of the willow Cecidomj-ia
(C. salicis) turns to a pupa, and which is usiuill}^ accomplished
during the night. He states that "as the first step of this
change, at tlie anterior end of the larva the cutis or opake
inner skin becomes wholly broken up and dissolved into a
DIPTERA. 3g5
watery fluid, whereby the thin transparent outer skin or cuticle
is elevated like a vesicle or blister, which occupies about
a fourth of the length of the worm on its under side, but
is much shorter on its back. The insect is now in its em-
bryo-pupa state, having lost its larva form and having not
yet assumed its pupa form. In the fluid contained in this vesi-
cle, the wings, legs and antennae of the future fly now begin
to be developed, whereby the sheaths of the wings at length
come to be discerned immediately under tlie skin. Tliis skin
is exceedingly thin, delicate and transparent, like the tunica
arachnoides of the human brain, a mere fllm, as thin as a spi-
der's web. Eventually the insect, by gently writhing, ruptures
this fllm at its anterior end, and gradually crowds it off" down-
Avards to the lower end of tlie vesicle, carrying the minute
black jaws of the larva witli it. It there remains, becoming
dry and torn into sin-eds which flake and fall oft' by the con-
tinued motions of the insect. At the same time from the
remainder of the surface not occupied by this vesicle, a still
more slight and delicate film, appearing as though the worm
had been wet in milk which had dried upon it, forming an ex-
ceedingly thin pellicle or scurf, becomes separated by the same
motions of the insect and drops oft' in minute scales scarcely
to be perceived with a magnifying glass. And now the insect
has acquired its perfect pupa form."
Frederic Brauer has proposed in his "Monographic der
CEstriden," a division of the Diptera into two large groups.
This division is much more natural than the old one into those
with coarctate and obtected pupa?. The first group is the Z>?}>
tera orthorapha, comprising the Nemocera, or flies Avith long an-
tenuiB, together with the Stratiomyidoi, Xyloj^hagidce^
Tabanidce, Acroceridce (.?), Bombylidce , Asilidce ,
Leptidce, Therevidce, Empidce and Dolichopidca (pass-
ing over some small families whose metamorphoses are not
known). In these families the larva skin at the last moult
splits down along the middle of the back of the three thoracic
rings, while a transverse split on the first thoracic ring makes a
T-shaped fissure. Through this the mummy-like pupa with free
limbs escapes ; or it remains within the loose envelope formed
by the old larval skin, when this author calls it a "false pu-
pariura."
366 DIPTERA.
In the second group, the Dipiera cydorapJia, the true coarc-
tate, cylindrical, smooth puparium is lormed by the contraction
of the larva skin, but is very ditlereut in shape from the ma-
ture larva ; while this puparium I'emains in vital connection by
means of tracheal, with the enclosed pupa, which escapes from
the puparium through a curved seam or lid in the anterior
end, and not by a slit in the back. This group includes the
Pipunculidoi ., Syrpliidce, Conopiidce, QSstridce, Mus-
cidoe and Pupipara.
Certain Diptera are injurious to crops, as gall producers, but
indirectly the T'acliinidce, are beneficial since the^^ pi'ey on cat-
erpillars ; while the greater number act as scavengers in the
water and on land, and thus as sanitary agents. Diptera eujoy
a wider geographical range than other insects. None of the
larger families are exclusively tropical; the Muscidoe and
mosquitoes are fouud in the circumpolar regions in abundance,
as well as in the tropics. They are the earliest to appear in
spring and the latest to disai)pear in autumn. They are
active at all times, in rain or sunshine, day or night, though
the greater number prefer the sunshine.
From their habit of living in vegetables, flowers, and other
substances sometimes eaten by persons, physicians occasion-
ally are called to treat cases where dipterous larvae have been
swallowed and produced sickness. Among those most fre-
quently vomited are larvae of various Muscids, especially An-
thomyia. " C. Gerhardt records a case in which a patient, after
four days illness, vomited about fifty larvae of some dipterous
insect, probably a large species of Muscidae. A. Laboul-
bene describes and figures in the Annals of the Entomologi-
cal Society of France, a larva of Teichomyza fusca Macquart,
which is exceedingly abundant in the public urinals in France,
and which lives in human urine. He identifies it with the
larvae described and figured by Davaine in 1857, as having been
evacuated from the intestines of a woman after she had sufl^tered
much pain. (Zoological Record for 18G7.) Four other cases
are on record of larvae having been voided by the urinary pas-
sages, or found living in urine, though, as suggested to us by
Dr. Hagen, it is possible that in such cases, the worms were
not voided, but lived in the urine previous to the time they
were detected by the reporters of such cases.
DIPTERA. 367
Dr. J. Leidy reports in the Proceedings of the Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, for 1851), a case where a num-
ber of specimens which "appeared to be the larvae of the Blue-
bottle fly," were given him by a physician, having been vomi-
ited from the stomach by a child. Also, a second case where
numerous larv;e of a species of Anthomyia, " were given to him
for examination by a physician who had obtained them from
his own person. He had been seized with all the symptoms
of cholera morbus, and in the discharges he had detected nu-
merous specimens of this, to him, unknown parasite. It was
in the latter part of summer, and the larvae, it is suspected,
had been swallowed Avith some cold boiled vegetables. Dr.
Leid^^ had observed the same kind of larva in another case,
accompanied with the ordinary phenomena of cholera mor-
bus."
Isidore GeoftVoy Saint Hilaire records a case of a larva of
the common fly found living in the skin of an infant ; while
Dr. Livingston, according to Cobbold, detected a "solitary
larva of a species which had taken up its residence in his leg.
Dr. Kirk removed this parasite by incision ; and on a second
occasion he obtained a similar specimen from the shoulder of
a negro."
There are about 2,500 species of North American flies de-
scribed, and it is probable that the number of living North
American species amounts to 10,000. In Europe there are also
about 10,000 known species, belonging to about G80 genera.
The flies of this country, compared with the other groups,
have been but little studied, though the habits of man}^ are so
interesting and the species very numerous. The different parts
of the body vary much more than in the Hymenoptera and
Lepidoptera, and in such a degree as to often afford compara-
tively easy characters for discriminating the genera.
Their habits are very variable. Fresh water aquaria are
necessary for the maintenance of aquatic larvte. If quantities
of swamp mud and moss with decaying matter are kept in boxes
and jars, multitudes of small flies Avill be hatched out. Leaf-
mining and seed-inhabiting species can be treated as micro-
lepidoptera, and earth-inhabiting larvse like ordinary cater-
pillars. Dung, mould in hollow trees, stems of plants and
368 DIPTERA.
toadstools contain numerous larvfe or maggots, as the young
of flies are called, which must be kept in damp boxes.
Flies can be pinned alive, without killing them by pressure,
which destroys their form ; and numbers may be killed at once
by moistening the bottom of the collecting box with creosote,
benzine or etiier, or putting them into a bottle with a wide
mouth, containing cyanide of potassium. Minute species can
be pinned with very slender pins, or pieces of fine silver wire,
and stuck into pieces of pith, which can be placed high up
on a large pin. In pinning long-legged, slender species, it is
advisable to run a piece of card or paper up under their bodies
upon which their legs may rest, and thus prevent their loss
b}^ breakage. Of these insects, as with all others, duplicates
in all stages of growth should be preserved in alcohol, while
the minute species dry up unless put in spirits.
In the genuine flies the thorax is highly centralized ; the
maxillai are covered by the labrum, and the labium is not pro-
vided with palpi. The females lay eggs from Avhieli the larvae
are hatched. They are als© divided into the Nemocera, com-
prising those flies having long, thread-like, many-jointed an-
tennae, and embracing the higher families, i.e. the Culicida',
Tipulidai.1 Bihionidm and BJnjpJi ida' ; while the remain-
ing families of this division are included in the Brachycera, or
flies with short antennae, such as the M^tscidm, etc. But the
fossil genera, Electra and Chryothemis, discovered by Profes-
sor Loew in the amber of the Tertiary formation, and a North
American genus of Xy/o^/iagr/f/fp, and the genus Eachieerus,
have intermediate characters combining these distinctions,
which are thus shoAvn to be somewhat arbitrary.
CuLiciP^. Latreille. The family of Mosquitoes or Gnats
have the mouth-parts very long and slender ; the maxilla? and
mandibles are free and lancet-like. Figure 274 (A, larva; c,
its respiratory tube ; B, pupa ; f/, the respiratory tubes ; «, the
end of the abdomen, with the two oar-like swimming leaves,
seen in profile at B. from drawings made by Mr. E. Burgess,)
illustrates the transformations of a species inhabiting brackish
water in the vicinity of Boston. The larvjie remain most of
the time at the bottom feeding upon decaying matter, thus act-
CULICID^.
369
ing as scavengers and doing great benefit in clearing swamps
of niiaanis. Occasionally tliey rise to the surface for air by a
jerkii]g movement, inhaling it through the star-like respiratory
tube vvliich connects with the tracheie.
The pup;e have club-shaped bodies owing to the greatly en-
larged tliorax, with two respiratory tubes like those of Corelhra,
situated on the thorax. They
remain near the surface of
the water wriggling towards
the bottom when disturbed,
aided by the two broad
swimming caudal leaves.
Though active in their hab-
its they do not eat. The eggs
are laid in a boat-shaped
mass, which floats on the surface of the water. About four
weeks after hatching the imago appears, so that there are
several broods during the summer. The females alone bite,
the males not coming into our apartments but spending their
lives in the retirement of the swamps and woods.
This genus abounds in the high Arctic regions as well as in
the tropics. Cidex jiipiens
Linn, inhabits P^urope, and
there are over thirty North
American species described in
various works.
Figure 274 represents a ver-
tical and side view of the head
(greatly magnified) of a com-
mon species of Culex found in
Labrador. The antennje (a)
do not reach as far as the tip
of tiie beak, and are supplied
at each joint with a thin ver-
ticil of hairs (by an oversight
partly omitted in the upper fig-
ure). The beak consists of a stout bristle-like labrum (not
shown in the figure), the bristle-like maxillte (mx, with their
rather large three-jointed palpi mp) with the mandibles {m)
24
370 DIPTERA.
which are thicker than the maxilloe and barbed at the tip, and
the single hair-like lingua, or tongue (Ig). These five bristle-
like organs are folded together within the hollowed labium (/),
which is a little enlarged at the tip, and forms a gutter-like case
for the rest of the mouth-parts. The mosquito, Avithout any
apparent ettbrt, thrusts them, thus massed into a single awl-like
beak, into the llesh, and draws in the blood through the chan-
nel formed by the fine bristles, Westwood stating that the la-
bium does not penetrate the flesh, but becomes bent upon
the breast of the fly. He adds "it is supposed that, at
the same time it instils into the wound a venomous liquid,
which, while it enables the blood to flow faster, is the chief
cause of the subsequent irritation." So far as we are aware
no poison glands have been demonstrated to exist in the head of
flies, or other six-footed insects, and we are disposed to doubt
whether au}^ poison is poured into the wound, and to question
whether the barbed mandil»les are not sufficient to produce
the irritation ordinarily accompanying the punctured wound
made l)y the mosquito as well as other flies.
A large mosquito, with two light spots on each wing (Ano-
pheles quadvimaculatus Say), bites fiercely. It is abundant
very early in the spring before other mosquitoes appear. It
seems to hibernate in houses. The genus CoretJira has the
male antennje very long and densely hair3\ The wings are
finely ciliated as in Culex, and the inner edge has a short
fringe. The beautifully transparent and delicate whitish larvae
may be seen in early spring in quiet pools. Early in April
the pupa state is assumed, disclosing the flies late in the
month.
Chiroxomid.e Westwood. Of this small family the genus
Chimnomas includes some small species which are mosquito-
like, with feathered antennre, and abound in swarms in early
spring before the snow disappears. The larvai are long, slen-
der, worm-like ; sometimes of a blood-red color, and aquatic in
their habits. While most of the larvae of this genus live in
fresh water, we haA'e observed multitudes of the youug of C.
oceanicva Pack, living on floating eel-grass and in green sea-
weeds at low water mark in Salem harbor. There are two
CECIDOMYID^.
371
broods of the larvae, the first becoming fully grown the last of
April, the other the last of Heptember, j,
the flies appearing about the middle of
October. The larva (Fig. 275, a, en-
larged about three times, with the head
greatly magnified ; &, the labrum ; c,
the mandibles ; rf, the labium) is cy-
lindrical, whitish and about a quarter
of an inch long. The single pair of
fore legs (Fig. 276a) are provided with
about twenty-five longitudinal rows of hooks, while the anal
legs (Fig. 277 ; a, a portion of the dorsal vessel) terminate in
a a single crown of hooks which can be drawn
|\ in out of sight. The worms were found either
creeping over the surface of the weeds, or if
'« about to pupate, concealed in a rude thin case
or tube, formed of the debris collected on the
weeds. It feeds on sea-weeds and small
worms. It remains in the pupa state (Fig.
276) about two weeks, transforming into a fly
(Fig. 27<S male, and head of the female) which
(litters from the true Chironomi in having
shorter antennte and smaller palpi, and also in
the venation, and the longer thorax. Tanypiis
resembles Culex in its larva and pupa state,
being of similar form. Lyonnet figures a
larva which spins a movable case of silk and
moss. The eggs of T. varius are laid on the "' ^
leaves of aquatic plants, and fastened together ^'S- 277.
with gluten. Some species of Ceratojxjgon, like the mosquito,
are blood suckers. The larvae are, however, terrestrial, living
in mushrooms, or under the bark of decaying trees.
Cecidomyid^ Westwood. The group of Gall-flies comprises
minute, delicate, slender-bodied species, whose bodies are
clothed with long hairs. The wings have usually three or
four longitudinal veins, and are folded over the back.
They are gall-flies, the female laj-ing her eggs in the stalk of
cereals, and in the stems, leaves and buds of various plants
372
DIPTERA.
which pro(hiC'' f!:all-like excrescences inhabited by the larvae.
The Wheat-midge or Hessian-fly does not, however, produce
such an enlargement, while other larvae only produce a folding
of the leaf, swelling of a leaf-rib, or arrest the growth of a
bud or stalk.
Before giving a special account of the Wheat-midge, so de-
structive to wheat crops, let us, with the aid of Baron Osten
Sacken's resume in the Smithsonian Monogra[)hs of North
American Diptera, Part 1, take a glance at the habits of the
family. As a rule the species prefer living plants, though sev-
eral species of Epidosis and Diplosis live in decaying wood, and
C. fuscicollis Meigen
(?) has been reared
by Bouehe from de-
caying hxiibs of tulips
and hyacinths.
Others live under the
bark of ti'ees, in the
cones of pines, or in
fungi. Each species
is, as a rule, confined
to a peculiar species
of plant. Some of
the lurvaj live as
guests or parasites
in galls formed by other Cecidomyiae. Thus C. aerophila and
C. pavida live socially in the deformed buds of Fraxinus ; and
Diplosis socialis inhabits the gall of Lasioptera rubi. The
larvae of some species of Diplosis are parasitic among the plant-
lice (Aphis). Some of the larvje live on the surfiice of leaves,
C. glutinosa having been found by Osten Sacken living on the
surface of hickory leaves.
The rather long, cylindrical eggs laid on the surface c ^
leaves, etc., are generally hatched in a few days, though tJris
period may be hastened or retarded by heat or cold. The
young larvae are colorless and transparent, witli age becoming
reddish or yellow, or white. They are fourteen-jointed, a
supposed supernumerary joint being placed between the head
and the first thoracic segment. The last abdominal ring la
1
CECIDOMYID^. 373
sometimes provided with bristles or lioruy spluules, frequently
curved, Avhich aid the larvoe in leaping, as they have been
observed by Dufour to do. The head and mouth-parts are
exceedingly rudimentary, consisting of a ring with two pro-
cesses extending backwards ; the soft fleshy labium protrudes
through this ring ; and from the upper part of the ring
arise a pair of two-jointed oi'gans, supposed to be rudimental
antenuiie. On the under side of the body at the juncture of
the first or prothoracic segment with the supernumerar}' seg-
ment, is a horny piece called, provisionally, the breast-hone
(Fig. 284, a), and which is present in most of the larvic of this
group. The larvai having no jaws, must suck in the sap and
moisture through the mouth, or absorb it through the skin.
They make no excrement, like the larviB of the Hive bee and
Humble bee. Though their motions are ordinarily slow, just
before pupation they are verj' active. The larvie are not
known to moult, though probably the larva skin is shed by
gradually peeling ort' in shreds, in this respect resembling the
thin-skinned larva; of bees.
Some larviB of Cecidomyia before becoming pupje, leave
their galls and descend to the ground, while others remain in
them, where they spin a slight silken cocoon. Dr. Harris has
described the mode of pupation of the larva of C. salicis Fitch,
stating that "•the approaching change is marked by an altera-
tion of the color of the anterior segments of the larva, which
from orange become red and shining, as if distended by
blood. Soon afterwards, rudimentary legs, wings and antennai
begin, as it were, to bud and put forth, and rapidly grow to
their full pupal dimensions, and thus the transformation to the
pupa is completed." This process is undergone beneath the
larva skin, out of which the pupa does not draw its body, as in
the obtected diptera generallj'. The larva skin, dried and cy-
lindrical in shape, thus serves as a cocoon to preserve the soft
pupa from harm. The semipupa of C. destructor thus "takes
the form and color of a flax-seed. While this change is going
on externally, the body of the insect gradually cleaves from its
outer dry and brownish skin. When this is carefully opened,
the included insect will be seen to be still in the larva state.*
*This "larva" is probably the semipupa, or "beginning of the pupa state"
(Harris), and may be compared witli tlie semipupa of tlie Bee. (Fig. 27.)
374
DIPTERA.
It does not change its condition and become a true pupa until
a few days before it discloses the winged insect."
The pupa resembles that of the fungus-eating Tipulids,
such as Sciara. The bases of the antennee are often prochiced
into horn-like points, which aid the pupa in working its way
out from the gall before assuming the fly state, and for the
same purpose the back of the abdomen is spinose, and often
there are a few bristles at the tip.
According to Dr. Harris, the Cecidomyia destructor Say, or
Hessian-fly (Fig. 279), has two broods, as the flies appear in
the spring and autumn. At each of these periods the fly lays
twenty or thirty eggs in a
crease in the leaf of the young
plant. In about four days,
in warm weather, they hatch
and the pale red larv£e (a)
"crawl down the leaf, work-
ing their way in between it and
the main stalk, passing down-,
wards till they come to a joint,
just above which the}- remain,
a little below the surface
of the ground, with the head towards the root of the plant" (c).
Here the}' imbibe the sap by suction alone, and bj- the simple
pressure of their bodies they become embedded in the side of
the stem. Two or three larvje thus embedded serve to weaken
the plant, and cause it to wither and die. The larva? become
full grown in five or six weeks, then measuring about three-
twentieths of an inch in length. About the first of December
their skin hardens, becomes brown and then turns to a
l)right chestnut color. This is the so-called flax-seed state, or
l)uparium. In two or three weeks the "■larva" (or more truly
speaking, the semipupa) becomes detached from the old case.
In this puparium the larva remains through the winter. To-
wards the end of April or the beginning of May the pupa (Fig.
279, b) becomes fully formed, and in the middle of May, in New
England, the pupa comes forth from the brown puparium,
"wrapped in a thin white skin," according to Ilerrick, "which
it soon breaks and is then at liberty." The flies appear just as
Fig. 279.
CEcmoMYiD^, 375
the wheat is coming up ; they lay theii* eggs for a period of
three weeks, and then entirely disappear. The maggots hatched
from these eggs take the flax-seed form in June and July, and
are thus found in the harvest time, most of them remaining on
the stubble. Most of the flies appear in the autunni, but others
remain in the puparium until the following spring. By burn-
ing the stubble in the fall, their attacks may best be prevented.
Among the parasites on this species, are the egg-parasites,
Platygaster, and Scmiotellus (Ceraphron) destructor Say (Fig.
140), the latter of which pierces
the larva through the sheath of the
leaf. Two other Ichneumon para-
sites, according to Ilerrick, destroy
the fly while in the flax-seed or
semipapa state. The ravages of the
Hessian-fly have been greatly
checked by these minute insects, so
that it is in many localities not so
destructive as it was formerly. Dr.
Fitch has suggested that the Euro-
pean parasites of this insect and the C. tritici, could be im-
ported and bred in large quantities, so as to stop their ravages.
With proper pecuniary aid from the State this seems feasible,
while our native parasites might perhaps also be bred and
multiplied so as to effectually exterminate these pests.
The Wheat-midge, Blplosls tritici, attacks the wheat in the
ear. When the wheat is in blossom the females lay their eggs
in the evening by means of the long retractile tube-like extrem-
ity of the body, within the chaffy scales of the flowers, in
clusters of from two to fifteen or more. In eight or ten days
the eggs disclose the transparent maggots, which with age be-
come orange colored, and when fully grown are one-eighth of an
inch long. They crowd around the germ of the wheat, which
by pressure becomes shrivelled and aborted. At the end of
July and in the beginning of August the maggots become
full fed, and in a few daj^s moult their skins, leaving the old
larva skin entire, except a little rent in one end of it. "Great
numbers of these skins are found in the wheat ears immediately
after the moulting process is completed." Sometimes the
376
DIPTERA.
Fiff. i;55.
larva descends to the ground and moults there. Harris states
that "it is shorter, somewhat flattened, and more obtuse
than before, and is of a deeper yellow color, with an oblong
greenish spot in the middle of the body. In this state, which is
intermediate between the larva and pupa states, which has by
Dr. Fitch been termed the "embryo-pupa," and by us "semi-
pupa," the insect spins a minute silken cocoon, which, ac-
cording to Dr. Fitch, is smaller than a mustard seed and
remains in the ground through the winter, situated at the
depth of an inch beneath the surface. In the next June
they are transformed to pupa?,
with the limbs free. When about
to assume the adult state the
pupa works its way to the surface
in June and July. Its chief para-
site, P. tipulce, which in Europe
destroys great numbers of the
midge, is allied to the Flatygaster
error Fitch (Fig. 135).
It is evident that deep plough-
ing in the fall or spring will destroy many of the insects, and
grain sown after the 15th or 20th of Ma}-, in New England,
"will generally escape their attaclvs.
The wings of the Hessian-fly are blackish ; those of the D.
tritici are transparent. This last species is orange colored, with
long, slender, pale yellow legs, and the joints of the antennae
are twenty-four in number in the male, and twelve in the fe-
male.
The Cecidomyia rigidce Osten Sacken (C. salicis Fitch) forms
a gall surrounded by the dry and brittle terminal bud at the
end of tlie twigs of the willow. The single larva discloses the
fly early in the spring. The bright yellow larva of C. gross^i-
larice Fitch, causes the gooseberry to turn red i^rematurely and
become putrid. The pupa of C. pini-inoj)is is supposed by
Osten Sacken to be coarctate, the larva fastening itself to a
pine leaf and remaining motionless until the resinous exuda-
tion resulting from its attacks hardens, forming a cocoon-like
pupa case or puparium.
Mr. Walsh describes in the " American Entomologist," vol. i.
CECIDOMYID^.
377
p. 105, the gcall formed by C. strobiloides O. Sacken (Fig. 280 ;
a, natural size ; b, antenna ; 281, gall) which is simply an en-
larged and deformed bud of Salix cordata.
The fly appears in April, or early in May,
oviposits in a terminal bud, and the gall attains
its full size by the middle of Jul3\ The larva
hibernates in a thin cocoon, changing to a pupa
in the spring. (Walsh.) Another willow gall
made by C. sal icis-brassico ides Walsh occurs
on the Salix longi-
folia, the galls
forming a mass
(Fig. 282) like
the sprouts on a
cabbage stalk. Mr. Walsh also
describes the Grape-vine Apple
Gall (Fig. 283, gall of C. ? vitis
pomum ; cf, natural size ; 5, a
section), the fly of which is
unknown. The gall is divided into numerous cells, each con-
taining a larva. It occurs on the wild Frost grape. The
Grape-vine filbert gall (C? vitis-cory-
loides Walsh, fig. 284 ; a, head of larva,
showing the clove-shaped breast bone ;
b, a buuch of galls, natural size ; c, sec-
tion of a gall, showing the cell the
larva inhabits) is found on the wild
Frost grape in Illinois.
Walsh has descrilied fourteen addi-
tional species of Cecidomyite inhabiting
eight ditt'erent species of willow. The
specific character of the insects them-
selves, are in all their stages of the
slightest possible character, but the dif-
ferent galls can be readily distinguished.
These galls, according to Walsh and
other authors, also afford a shelter to so-
called "inquiline," or guest species, such as the larvfe of other
species of Cecidomyia and species of Scatopse and Drosophila,
373
DIPTERA.
283.
Curculionidce and minute Lepidoptera, together with
Aphides and species of Thiips, which last are tliought by
Mr. Walsh to prey
upon the cecidoniyious
larvoe.
The subdivisions of
the large genus Ceci-
doniyia are noticed by
Osten Sacken in Part
1 of the Smithsonian
Monographs of Dip-
tera. As the student can refer to that work, we simply intro-
duce the cuts showing the venation of the wing of each genus,
witliout farther characterizing them. (Fig. 285, Cecidomyia ;
286, Diplosis ; 287, Colpodia ; 288, Epidosis ; 289, Asynapta ;
290, Spaniocera ;
291, Lasioptera).
Another group of
this family arc
Anarete and its
allies (Fig. 292,
Zygoneura; 293,
Anarete ; 294, Ca-
tocha ; 295, C'ani-
P3'lomyza ; 29 G,
Lestremia) which
are also related to
the M3'cetoi)hi-
lids.
AVe have al-
ready referred, on
page 51, to cer-
tain c e c i d o «
myians, whicli in
the larval condi-
tion p r o d u c e
Fig. 284. young. We figure
(297) a species whose metamorphosis has been traced by
Nicholas Wagner. The larva is cylindrical in form, like most
CECIDOMYID^.
379
cecidomyian larvae, with tlie division between the segments in-
dicated by rows of minute spines. From the germ-balls (a,
nearest the posterior end of the body) the embryo is gradually
formed (as at a in the eighth and ninth rings of the body),
Avhen they assume a cylindrical form like the eggs of the adult
fly of this family. These eggs may be compared with the
F,s- 291.
Fis. 292.
Fig. 293.
Fig. 294. Fig. 295. Fig. 290.
"pseudova" of the Aphis, and are developed from the two
large fatty bodies (corpora adiposa) which are situated one on
each side of the body. These "false eggs" increase in num-
ber and develop until the entire cavity of the mother larva be-
comes distended with young worms like itself, and which are
finally born and may be compared with the wingless broods of
Plant-lice.*
*Gi-imm thinks that the term "pseudova" is objectionable, as la the predo-
genetic Chimnomns tlie winter ova. as well as the summer, or false ova, develop
without previous IVrtilization by tlie male.
880
DIPTERA.
Several species have been found in Europe under tlie bark
of apple trees, etc. Loew states "that the species on which
Wagner made his observations is nearly allied
to the genus Heteropeza, but still more closely
to the genus Monodicrana, from the amber of
the Tertiary foi'mation on the shores of the
Baltic. (Zoological Record, 18G5.) Meinert de-
scribes a similar species of worm and its inijigo,
under the name of JMiastor metroloas, and charac-
terizes the fly as having very short two-jointed
"" palpi, and moniliform eleven-jointed antcnnte.
o The wings have three veins, the middle one of
Avliich does not reach the apex of the wing.
PsYciioDiD.E Zetterstedt. The principal genus
in this small family is Psychoda, comprising
small flies with broad, veiy short, oval whitish
Fig. 297. wings, which, like the body, are very hairy.
They may be seen flying and leaping on the banks of, or on the
surface of pools, and on windows. The larva? live in dung.
The larva of the European P. pliakvnoides (so named from its
resemblance to a moth) is "long, subfusiform and dei)rcssed,
with a slender, straight cylindrical tail, longer than the pre-
ceding segment. The pupa has two short fippendages, thick-
ened at the tips behind the head. The abdomen is tapering."
(Westwood.)
TiPULiD.E Latreille. The Daddy-long-legs or Crane-flies
are well known by their large size and long legs, and from their
close resemblance in form have probably given rise to the
humorous stories of giant mosquitoes, which sometimes appear
in newspapers. The}- are characterized by their slender an-
tennre and palpi, and their remarkably long legs, while the
abdomen is very slender and cylindrical in shai)e ; the group
chiefly differs, however, from other flies, according to Eaion
Osten Sacken (Monograph of the Diptcra of North America,
Part iv), in the presence of a transverse V-phaped suture
across the rnesonotum ; by the completeness of the venation,
and the presence of a well developed ovipositor, "with its two
TIPULID.E. 381
pairs of long, horny, pointed valves." The larvjE (Fig. 298,
natural size, a larva of this family found living under stones
in a running brook at Burkesville Junction, Va. In the
American Naturalist, vol. ii, it was ,^-^.OT-f-rT-r-r-7-T-v-T-r>-,.,^
referred to Tabanus) differ from "^mUjjjJJJlJjJ^^
those of tlie neighboring families in
having but a single pair of spiracles Fig. 2<;8.
at the anal end of the body. The head is rather large, and
" embedded nearly up to the mouth in the first thoracic seg-
ment ; the mandibles are horny and strong, and forked at tho
end." The body is grub-like, of a uniform grayish, brownish,
or whitish color, and consists of twelve segments.
"The larvae of Ctenophora, living in wood, have a soft,
white, smooth skin, similar to that of the larvjt of longicoriv
beetles, or of the Asilidce, living in similar conditions.
Tlie larva of Tipula living in the soil, or the larvii? of those
species of Ctenophora which are found in wood so far de-
composed as to be like soil or vegetable mould, have a much
tougher skin, and are covered with a microscopic, appressed
pubescence. This toughness, as well as some stiff bristles,
scattered over the surface of the skin, is probably useful in
burrowing. Thus the larva of Trichocora, digging in vegeta-
ble mould or in fungi, is covered, according to Perris, Avith mi-
croscopic erect bristles. The larva of Ula, living in fungi, has,
according to the same author, still longer bristles. Those larvae
living in water (as some Limnobina) are soft and slimy, of a
dirty greenish color, and with a peculiar clothing of appressed
microscopic hairs, not unlike those of the larvae of Stratiomys.
The most anomalous of all the Tipulideons larvae are those of
the Cylindrotomina. That of Cylindrotoma distinctissima
lives npon the leaves of plants, as Anemone, Viola, Stellaria,
almost like a caterpillar. It is green, with a crest along the
back, consisting of a row of fleshy processes. The larva of
Cylindrotoma (Phalacrocera) replicata, according to Degeer,
lives in the water, on water plants, and is distinguished by nu-
merous filaments, which, although resembling spines, are flexi-
ble and hollow on the inside. Degeer took them for organs of
respiration." (Osten Sacken.)
The larvae move by means of minute stiff bristles arising
382
DIPTERA.
from transverse swellings on the under side of the body.
"Tlie end of the body is truncated, and the two spiracles are
placed upon the truncature," from the edge of Avhieh part arise
usually four retractile processes.
In the aquatic larva of Ptychoptera there is a long respira-
tory tube at the end of the body. The pupoe (Fig. 299, under
side, enlarged twice, represents a pupa of this family)
have usually on the thorax two horn-like processes,
representing the thoracic spiracles, and in Ptychoptera
one of these processes acquires a great length, in order
to allow the pupa to breath under water.
The Tipulids, like other flies with soft bodies which
contract in drying, should, as Osten Sacken suggests,
be studied from fresh specimens, especially when the
thorax and abdomen, with the ovipositor, are to be ex-
Fig. 2i:9. amined. Tlie Tipulids of the United States, east of the
Mississippi river, closely represent those of Europe, while Os-
ten Sacken states tliat a few species are found to be common to
both countries ; and he further states, with regard to the Tip-
ulicloi, that "whenever the North American fauna differs from
the European in the occurrence of a peculiar generic form, or in
a marked prevalence of another, this difference is due, either to
an admixture of South American forms, or of forms peculiar
to the amber fauna."
The genus Tiptda com-
prises the largest individuals
of the family, and the species
may be seen early in Maj^ fly-
ing over grassy fields. The
larvffi live in garden mould and under moss in fields and woods.
T. trivittata Say is one of our most common species.
In the genus Limnohia the body is very slender and delicate,
though stouter than in Dicranomyia, a closely allied genus, the
larviB of which are probably aquatic. "The larvt\? live in de-
caying vegetable matter, especially in wood and fungi." "Van
Eoser discovered the larvae of the European L. annulns (closely
allied to L. cinctipes Say) in decayed wood. They are like an
earth-worm in size, as well as in color, and line their burrows
with a kind of silken web." (Osten Sacken.)
Fig. 300.
TIPULID^.
383
The genus Styrmgomyia (Fig. 300, wing) is an anomalous ge-
nus found in gum copal brought from Zanzibar. Of three other
anomalous genera belonging here Osten Sacken
describes Hhamjihidia, of which the rostrum is
long, but shorter than the thorax, with species
common to Europe and America, and also found
in amber; Toxorrhina which is found both in
North and South America, and Elephantomyia I
which occurs only in North America, and has a/
ver^^ slender filiform rostrum, almost as long as /
the body. E. Westicoodii O. Sacken is found in -/ \
the Northern States and Canada. ^'^- •''*^^-
Erioptera and its allies have two submarginal cells and the
tibijE are without spurs at the tip. In Erio2^tem the wings are
pubescent along the veins only, giving the whole wing a hairy
appearance. E. venvsta O. Sacken has yellowish wings, with
two brown bands, and is a common species in the Atlantic
States. According to Osten Sacken Chionea is
closely allied to Erioptera. It is wingless, with six-
jointed antennae of anomalous structure, and stout,
hairy feet, and a short abdomen, which, according to
Harris is provided with a "sword-shaped borer,
resembling that of a grasshopper." "These insects
occur on snow in winter, the larva live underground,
apparently upon vegetable matter, and have been de-
scribed in detail by Brauer in the Transactions of
the Zoological and Botanical Society of Vienna for
1854." C. vakja Harris (Fig. 301, enlarged; fig.
302, larva of the European C. araneoides Dalman)
is reddish brown, with paler legs.
Another section of this large family is represented
by the genus Limnophila, in which there are two
submarginal cells, usually five posterior cells, and ^'S- 302.
the wings and eyes are smooth, and the antenna sixteen-
jointed. The larvae live in decayed wood. The larva of the
European L. dispar digs longitudinal burrows in the dry stems
of Anglica sylvestris. "It is cylindrical, glabrous, of a livid
gray, with a horny black head." (Osten Sacken.)
The anomalous genus Trichocera has pubescent eyes and
384 DIPTERA.
distinct ocelli on the sides of the frontal tubercle. The species
appear in swarms, flying up and down in their mazy dances,
especially at twilight early in spring, though they may be seen
late in autanin and on warm days in winter. They live in de-
caying vegetable matter. Pedicia
I ^^ g is a gigantic crane- fl}-, embracing
^-~~ — -^=* — ^**N the largest flies of the family,
— .d and with Trichocera is the only
Fig. 303. genus of this family having ocelli.
P. aJhivitfa has hyaline wings, with the costa, the fifth longi-
tudinal vein and the central cross veins margined with brown.
The body is 1.4 of an inch in length. The lar\a of an Euro-
pean species lives in well water.
The genus Ci/Undrotoma and its allies, resemble Tipula in
the course of the veins lying in the vicinity of the stigma, and
Osten Sacken illustrates the re- ^
semblances by the accompanying ; t^i^^
drawings, of which Fig. 303 rep- ^^ ^^^^^\d
resents the venation near the A
stigma of Cylindrotoma ; Fig. ^'S- ^o*-
304 that of the European Phalacrocera replicata^ closely allied
to the preceding genus, and Fig. 305 that of a genuine Tipula.
PH/choptera is rather stout-bodied and has a singular mem-
branous spatulate organ, ciliated on the margin, which is
inserted at the base of the halteres. (Osten Sacken.) P. ru-
focwcfa O. S. is black with reddish bands on the feet.
The larva of the European P. ■pahalosa has a long respira-
tory tube at the end of the body, which it raises to the surface
of the water, and in the pupa
"one of the horny processes
which distinguishes the thorax of
all the pup?e of the TipuUdce,
is enormously prolonged, like-
Fig. 303. wise, for the purpose of breath-
ing under water. (Osten Sacken.) The very singular genus
Bittacoviorplia is an aberrant form, resembling the neu-
ropterous Bittacus. The antennas consist of twenty joints,
and the first joint of the tarsi is very much thickened, while
the abdomen is very long and slender. B. davipes Fabr. is
MYCETOPHILIDJE. 385
black Avitli a white stripe on tlie mesoiiotnm, the metanotnm
and llanis:s being white, and the legs banded with white. It is
a widel}' dittused species, ^^-— _^__,^ _^^__ ^ ^^
and presents a most sin- /^^z::^^^^^^--^^^^^^^^=='C----x^
gular appearance when fly- '\:^^^^^^^^^^^^-^^P^^^^^^^ J
ing, .as it moves slowly, ^^~"'^-^~^:^::Ci:llL^i:;2:^-^^
with its feet variegated Fig. sog.
with snow-white, and extending like the radii of a circle. (Os-
ten Sacken.) In the genns Protoplasma (Fig. 306, wing) there
are six posterior cells in the wing. P. Fitchii O. Sacken is
brownish gray, with brown bands on the wings.
Mycetopiiilid^ Macqnart. This family comprises small
flies, capable of leaping to a considerable height, and provided
with two or three ocelli, but not having a proboscis. While
the antenniB are usually simple, as in all other Diptera, those
of Platyroptilon Miersii Westwood are forked, having a
branch one-half as long as the antenna itself. The thorax does
not have a transverse suture, and the wings are without a discal
cell, while the coxte are greatly elongated, and the tibine are all
armed with spurs. The larvje are subcylindrical and smooth,
with locomotive bristles beneath, and eight pairs of stig-
mata ; they are in color white or 3'ellowish. They are gregari-
ous, living in decaying vegetable matter, fungi, or in dung, one
species forming a gall. They shed their skin several times be-
fore becoming fully grown. Osten Sacken states that the larva
of Sciopli'da which covers the surface of the fungus it feeds in
with a web, is long and almost serpentiform, while those of
BoUlopMla and ArycetopliUa are shorter and stouter, and that
of Sciara is intermediate. The pupae of tins family are
smooth, with rounded angles and edges, whereas those of
Tipula are sharp and pointed. They are enclosed in a silken
cocoon. Some species of Sciara do not, however, spin cocoonp.
The larva of MycetopihUa scatojjhora Ferris "carries on its
back a sheath formed of its own excrements and moulded l)y
means of a peculiar undulator3^ motion of the skin. The
pupaj remain within the sheath, but before assuming this state
the larva extends the sheath anteriorly in a short neck, and
tapestries it on the inside with a pellicle, which renders it
25
386 DIPTERA.
more tough and resisting." The larvae of one genus sometimes
live gregariously with those of other genera. Thus Osten
Sacken found that the " larvae of Sciophila appeared in a de-
caying fungus only after the transformations of Mj-cetophila
were entirely completed. For two or three weeks the eggs of
the former remained apparently dormant among the bustle of
so many larvae of the other species." (Osten Sacken.) Leja
resembles Sciophila in its habits. The larvae of Sciara have
no bristles on tlie tubercles of the under side of the body, usu-
ally present in the family. They are niore gregarious than
the other genera, and have the singular propensity of sticking
together in dense patches, generally under the bark of trees.
When fully grown they sometimes march in processions in a
dense mass, sometimes several feet long, and two to three
inches broad, and half an inch in thickness, Avhence the Ger-
mans call them "Army-Avorms." To the same genus belongs
the S. (Molobrus) mali of Fitch, the apple midge, whose larva
is glassy white and devours the interior of apples.
Professor E. D. Cope describes in the Proceedings o^ the
Philadelphia Academy, 18G7, page 222, a procession of a spe-
cies of Sciara observed in September by "William Kite, in Ches-
ter County, Penn., where he had observed this armj^-worm for
three consecutive years. "This company (consisting by rough
estimation of about 2,400) extended over a length of about
twenty-two inches, with a breadth of from three-fourths of an
inch in the tliickest part, to about one-eighth of an inch at the
head, and one-tenth at tail ; five or six worms deep in thicker
parts. They advanced at tlie rate of four inches in five
minutes, the hinder ones working their way over the top of
the rest." These larvae were about one-half an inch long,
semitransparent, with black heads. Mr. Kite observed another
procession July 8th, which was six feet six inches long. These
trains were attacked by larvae of Staphylinids, ants, dipterous
larvae and other predaceous insects. Seven other pei-sons in
this country have witnessed similar trains, one of which was
observed in Lee, Mass.
The larva of Mycetohia, which agrees closely with that of
Rhyphus, is found living in putrescent sap under the bark of
the elm tree. We have found, through the summer, great num-
MYCETOPHILID^.
38r
bers of an undescribecl species (Fig. 307 ; a, larva ; 5, pupa,
magnitied three times. Fig. 308, head of the larva greatly en-
larged ; a, antenna ; Z, labrum ; m, mandible ; mx, maxillae ?
mp, maxillary palpi? g, gena?) which seems to differ from
Dufour's figure of the European 31. pcdUpes in the form of the
wings and their venation, as well as in the
form of the pupa. The larvae were first seen
in abundance on the 2Gth of June in the
crevices of the bark of the elm from which
flowed a sour sap mingled with dust, and in
this putrescent mass the slender white worms
glided swiftly about. The body is long and
slender, scarcely tapering towards either end,
and consists of twelve segments besides the
head. Like the larva of Scenopinus and
Thereva, each abdominal ring is subdivided
by a Avell defined false suture ; but the hinder
division in this larva is about one-fourth
shorter than the rest of the ring. It is .36
of an inch long. The head is pale honey yelloAv, and the body
pure white. The three thoracis rings are marked posteriorly
with honey yellow, with a pair of large round pale spots low
down on the side of each ring. It moves with great activity,
keeping its mouth-parts constantly moving, pushing them into
the dirt. The j^upae were found sticking
straight out from the bark, being attached
by the spines on the tail. They were
straight, long, cylindrical, the thorax
being but little larger than the base of
the abdomen. The head is square in
front, ending in two lateral horns, and
the abdomen is covered with stout
spines, especially at the tip. It is .20
of an inch long, and is pale honey yel-
low and covered Avith dirt. The flies appeared June 27th, and
for six weeks after flew about the trees. The head is black,
the thorax and abdomen brown, with a leaden hue ; the abdo-
men is a little paler, being whitish beneath, but darker towards
the tip. The legs are pale, a little darker externally, especially
388
DIPTERA.
towards the tips of the joint, and the hind tarsi are a little
dusky. Its length is .10 of an inch, not including the an-
teunye. It may be called the Mycetohia sordlda.
PuLiciD/E Westwood. While this group has been considered
by many writers as forming a distinct "order," or suborder of
insects, equivalent to the Diptera, under the name of Aphanip-
tera, we prefer, with Straus Durckheim, to consider them
as Avingless flies, and jjerhaps scarcely more abnormal than
NN'cteribia or Braula. Instead of placing
them at the foot of the suborder, we prefer,
in accordance with a suggestion made by
Ilaliday (Westwood, Class. Insects, vol.
ii, p. 495, note), who places them near the
Mycetophilids, or "fungivorous Tipulids,"
to consider them as allied to that group.
Tlie body is much compressed ; there are
two simple eyes which take the place of the
compound eyes, the epicranial portion of
^'^ '^"^ the head being greatly prolonged, Avhile the
labrum is wanting, and the lalnum is small and membranous;
the four-jointed labial palpi, always absent in other diptera,
are long and slender. The form of the larva, including the
shape of the head and its habit of living in dirt, and its way
of moving about, as also its transformations, certainly ally the
flea with the Mycetophilids.
We have received from Dr. G. A. Perkins of Salem, the eggs
and larvae of the species infesting the cat, from which we have
also hatched the young larvne. The eggs (of which, according
to Westwood, eight or ten are laid by one female) were shaken
from the cat's fur, whence ihey are said to fall upon the floor
and there hatch, the larvje living in the dust and dirt on the
floor, and feeding on decaying vegetable substances. The
egg is oval cylindrical, and one fortj^-fifth of an inch long.
The larva when hatched is .06 of an inch long (Fig- 301), the
larva four days old ; a, antenna ; ft, end of the bod}- ) white,
cylindrical, the sides of the body being a little expanded,
giving it a slightly flattened appearance when seen from above.
The segments are rather convex, the sutures being deepl}^ im-
PULICID^.
389
pressed. There arc four long hairs on the side of each ring,
becoming longer towards the end of the abdomen, where tliey
are longer than the body is thick. The terminal segment of
the body is considerably smaller than the one preceding it, and
has two long spines arising from the tergal part of the ring ;
these spines seem to assist the larva in moving through the
hairs and dust in which it lives. The well developed head is
rounded, conical, narroAver than the prothoracic ring, pale
honey yellow, and with long three-jointed antennae.
Mr. Emerton, who made the drawings here given, informs
me that the larvtB, when fifteen days old, did not differ from
those freshly hatched. I have been unable to discover that it
moults. Westwood states that "when fully grown, Avhich
occurs in summer in about twelve days, the larvae enclose
themselves in a
small cocoon of
silk. Kosel, how-
ever, observed
that some of the
larviie underwent
their transforma-
tions w i t h o u t
forming any co-
coon." "The pu-
pa is quite inac-
tive, with the legs
enclosed in separate cases. The period of the duration of
the pupa state varies from eleven to sixteen days." Our
specimens were hatched early in October, and they probably
pass the winter before changing, as Westwood states thai
they pass the winter in the larva state. The species here rep-
resented (Fig. 310, 6, maxillse, and their palpi, a ; d, the man-
dibles, which are minutely serrated; c, labial palpi, the labium
not being shown in the figure) was found on the person of a
man, though it seems to differ specificall}' from WestM^ood's
figure of P. irritans Linn., the human flea; other species live
oil the dog, cat, squirrel, and other quadrupeds and various
birds. The antenniie are concealed in a small cavity situated
behind the simple eyes and are four-jointed; in P. musctdi
390 DIPTEEA.
Duges, they are external. Kirby describes a gigantic species two
lines long, from British America. As a preventive measure in
ridding dogs of fleas we Avould suggest the frequent sweeping
and cleansing of the floors of their kennels, and renewing of
the straw or chips composing their beds — chips being the best
material for them to sleep upon. Flea-afflicted dogs should be
washed every few days in strong soapsuds, or weak tobacco, or
petroleum water. A -writer in the "Science-Gossip" recom-
mends the use of Persian Insect Powder, one package of
which suffices for a good sized dog. Tlie powder should be
well rubbed in all over the skin ; or the dog, if small, can be
put into a bag previously dusted Avith the powder ; in either
case the dog should be washed soon after."
One of the most serious insect torments of the tropics of
America is the Sarcoj^syUa (Rynchoprion of Oken) penetrans
Linn., called by the natives, the Jigger, Chigoe, Bicho, Chique,
or Pique. (Fig- 311 much en-
es larged ; a, the gravid female,
natural size). The female during
the dry season, bores into the
feet of the natives (though it also
^'»- -'^i- lives in dogs and mice, which
accounts for its presence in houses), the operation requir-
ing but a quarter of an hour, usually penetrating under the
nails, and lives there until her body becomes distended with
eggs ; the abdomen swelling out to the size of a pea. The
presence of the insect often causes distressing sores. The
Chigoe lays about sixty eggs, according to Karsten, deposit-
ing them in a sort of sac on each side of the external opening
of the oviduct. The larvsB do not li^'e in the body of the
parent, or of its host, but, like those of Pulex, live free on
the ground. The best preventives against its attacks are
cleanliness and the constant wearing of shoes or slippers when
in the house, and of boots when out of doors.
SiMULiDiE Loew. Simulium molestum (Fig. 312 ; o., larva
of this or an allied species, magnified), the Black -fly, represents
this family. Its antennte are eleven-jointed ; the palpi are
four-jointed, with long, fine terminal joints, and the ocelli are
BIBIONID^.
391
wanting, while the posterior tibiae, and first joint of the hind
tarsi are dilated. The body is short and thick. The labrum
is free, sharp as a dagger, and the proboscis is well
developed and draws blood profusely. Tlie species
are numerous. The Biack-fl^', so well known as
the torment of travellers in the North, is black,
with a broad silvery ring on
the legs. We have received a
large species from Mr. E. T.
Cox, called in the West the
Buffalo fl}^ On the prairies
of Illinois it has been known
to plague horses to death by
its bite. The S. (Rhagio)
CoTumbaschense Fabr. in Hungary abounds in im-
mense numbers, often killing cattle. Other species
abound in the American tropics where they are a
great scourge. The cylindrical larva of the Euro- ^'S- 312, a.
pean species is furnished with short antennae and two flabelli-
form appendages. On the under side of the prothorax is a
thick conical and retractile tubercle, and there are several
curved filaments at the end of the body. The pupa has eio-ht
very long lateral filaments on the front of the thorax, and the
posterior end of the body is enclosed in a semioval membra-
nous cocoon, open in front, and posteriorly attached to some
plant. The fly leaves the pupa beneath the water.
BiBiONiD^ Macquart. This group is characterized by hav-
ing three ocelli and the prothorax much developed ; the wings
have no discal cell. The coxje are not prolonged and the em-
podium (supplementary cushion) is proportionally long, while
the pulvilli are sometimes wanting. The typical genus, Bihio
of Geoflro}^, has short, nine-jointed antenna?, five-jointed palpi,
and the eyes of the male are large and contiguous, while tliose
of the females are small. The larvae are cylindrical, footless,
with ten spiracles, and furnished with transverse rows of short
hairs, being found in dung, but they mostly feed on the roots
of grass, whole patches of which appearing as if winter-killed.
Robins destroy immense numbers of them. Westwood has
392 DIPTERA.
found the pupse enclosed in smooth oval cells ; they are naked,
the thorax gibbous, with the rudimental wings and legs very
short. Bihio albijjennis Say, a white-winged species, is double-
brooded, and flies in swarms in June and October, alighting
slowly on the passer-by.
Rhyphid^ Loew. This family is known by the wings hav-
ing a perfect discal cell, while the empodium resembles a
pulvillus ; the pulvilli being wanting. The single genus
Rhyphus has short fourteen-jointed antennae, the second joint
of the palpi swollen, and the legs are not spiny. Rhyphus
altematus Say, is common on windows.
The succeeding families belong to the Bracliycera, or short-
horned flies.
Xylophagid^ (Macquart). This family is known by the
three basal cells of the wings being very prolonged, the an-
nulated third joint of the antennae always without a style or
terminal bristle, and by the spurred tibiae. Xylophagus has
ten-jointed antennae, with the ovipositor very long. The larva
is cylindrical, with an oblique scaly plate on the tail, while the
head ends in an acute horny point. Loew doubtfully refers
the genus Bolbomyia, found fossil in the Prussian Amber, to
this group.
Stratiomyid.e Latreille. The wings in this group have the
three basal cells much prolonged, and the costal vein reaching
only to the middle of the wing. The third joint of the an-
tennae is sometimes subdivided into several portions. The
tibijB are spurless and the pulvilliform empodium is much
developed. Tlie coarctate pupa retains the larva skin nearly
in its original form. The genus Beris is easily distinguished
by having seven, instead of five (the usual number) abdominal
segments visible. In Sargus tlie eyes of the males approxi-
mate much closer than in the females. They are showy insects,
with bright metallic colors, and are Avidely distributed over the
earth. The larva lives in the earth, is oval oblong, narrowing
before ; the head is scaly, with two ocelli, and armed Avith two
hooks, while the body is hairy. Fig. 313 represents a pupa
TABANID^. 393
belonging probably to this famil}'. Stratiomys has sx broad flat-
tened abdomen, and the scutellnm spined. The larvae are
aquatic, being apodal and flattened, and slen-
der especially at the end of the body, which is
elongated and has a simple terminal spiracle
" surrounded by a great number of bearded
hairs, which form a coronet, and which are
capable of being closed up so as to retain a
bubble of air, and by the assistance of which
the insect suspends itself at the surface of the
water for respiration. On assuming the pupa
state, the insect floats at liberty in the Avater,
the enclosed pupa occupying only the anterior
portion of its larva skin."
Tabanid^ Latreille. In this important family the three
basal cells of the wings are much prolonged ; the third longitu-
dinal vein is furcate, and the teguhe are rather large. The pro-
boscis of the male has four, that of the female six bristles. The
third joint of the aiitenme is annulate and always without
style or bristle. The e3'es are large, and the thorax oblong and
flattened above. The female Horse-flies are troublesome from
their formidable bite. The pupa? are obtected, resembling the
adult flies. Pangonia has a proboscis often longer than the
body itself. Chrysops, the Golden-ej^ed fly, is very trouble-
some, unceasingly flying about one's head, striving to alight
and draw blood. The two basal joints of the antennae are
prolonged, hairy, the third spindle-shaped. Chrysops irifjer
Macquart and C. vittatus AViedemanu are the two most abun-
dant species.
Tahanus^ the Horse-fly, is known by its large size and
powerful biting and sucking apparatus. Like the mosquito,
the male horse-fly does not bite, but lives on the sweets of
flowers. The accompanying sketch shows the structure of the
proboscis of the female of the Green-head fly, Tabanvs lineola
Fabr. (Fig. 314 ; a, five terminal joints of the antennae ; Ih,
labrum ; ?», mandibles ; mx, maxilloe ; mp^ the two-jointed,
large, stout, maxillary palpi ; /, the tongue). Its bite is most
painful and poisonous to many. Mr. Walsh has shown,
394
DIPTERA.
however, that in its larval state the horse-fly is useful to man,
as it feeds on snails and probably the larvsB of other root-
eating insects. The larvoe of other species are aquatic, living
under submerged objects. Walsh describes
a greenish transparent larva which is cylin-
drical, twelve-jointed, the body being most
slender towards the head, which is small,
truncate, conical, the anterior part capable
of extension, with short, flesh}', exarticulate
antennae and without ocelli. There are six
pairs of dorsal fleshy tubercles. On the un-
der side of the abdominal segments are six
retractile false legs, and a single anal retractile proleg. It
is, when disturbed, A'igorous and restless, swinnning quickly,
often elevating the anal slit, in which the stigmata are probably
placed, out of the water to take in the air. Tlie pupa is cylin-
drical, obtuse at the head, tapering a little posteriorly, and is
of a pale yellowish brown. There are six
tubercles at the mouth, above which are
the trigonate three or four-jointed antennae.
Tlie abdominal segments are furnished with
a ring of appressed bristles directed back-
wards, and the anal spine is large, trun-
cated, and terminates in six small, stout spines. T. atratus
Fabr. is a common species ; it is black, covered with a whitish
bloom, and expands nearly two inclies, while the Tahamis cinctus
Fabr., or Orange-belted horse-fly, is smaller and less abundant.
Of the smaller species the Tahanus lineoJa Fabr. (Fig. 315)
is so named from the whitish line along the abdomen. This
fly is our most common species, tliousands of them ap-
pearing during the hotter parts of the summer, when the sun
is shining on our marshes and Western prairies ; horses and
cattle are sometimes worried to death by their harassing bites.
In cloudy weather tliey do not fly and they perish on the cool
frosty nights of September.
Fia:. ;!ir).
Leptid^e Meigen. This family is easily distinguished from
the preceding by the simple third joint of the antennsie, which
are provided with a simple or thickened styliform bristle.
ASILID^. 395
The tibioe are spurred ; the larvae slender, cylindrical ; the
body widening posteriorly, terminates in two points, while
the pupa is naked, incomplete, with transverse rows of
spines on the abdomen, becoming largest at the tip. The
larva of Leptis vermileo Fabr. lives at the bottom of holes
whicli it makes in sand, and thus, like the ant-lion, entraps
other insects.
Cyrtid.k Loew. Known by the greatly inflated thorax and
abdomen this family is of but small extent, comprising species
whicli have the proboscis rather obsolete, or long and bent be-
neath the body. Such are the genera Cijrtus, Acrocera and
Oncodes. The genus Hirmoneura represents the family Hik-
MONEUiiiD^ of Loew.
MydasiDjE Leach. This family, represented in this country
by the single genus Midas, is easily known by the large size of
the species, and by the long clavate antennae, the fleshy labium,
and the minute empodium. The larva and pupa are
said by Harris to almost exactly resemble those of
the rapacious Asilidse. The larva of Midas davatus
Drury is cylindiical, whitish, tapering before and
almost rounded behind, with two spiracles in the last
segment but one of the abdomen, and is two inches
long. It lives and unrlergoes its transformations in
decaying logs. (Harris.) The pupa (Fig. 316, drawn
from a specimen in the Harris collection) is about
an inch and a quarter long, brown, nearly cylindrical,
with a forked tail ; there are eight spines on the forepart of
the body. Midas fulvipes Walsh has similar habits and its
transformations are similar ; the larva is insectivorous.
AsiLiD,^. (Asilici) Latreille. These large, stout, Robber-flies,
as the Germans style them, are covered with stiff hairs, and
have long abdomens. The third joint of the antenna? is sim-
ple ; the labium forms a horny sheath, and the empodium is
like a horny bristle. They are rapacious, seizing other insects
and flying off with them, like the fossorial hymenoptera. Da~
sypogon (Fig. 271, 3, wing) has the second longitudinal vein
39G DIPTERA.
running into the border of the wing, while the anterior tibia
end in a hooked spine.
The genus Laphria is large, stout-bodied, very hirsute, the
second longitudinal vein runs into the first, and the style of
the antennie is either thick and stout, and generally wanting, or
entirely obsolete. In their loud buzz, swift, peculiar flight and
general appearance, the species strikingly resemble humble
bees. Laphria tltoracica Fabr. is nearly an inch long, and is
black with yellow hairs on the thorax. Asilus is much longer,
with an acutely pointed prolonged abdomen, and the species are
often nearly naked, while the more essential characters lie in
the union of the second longitudinal vein with the first, and the
termination of the antennje in a distinct bristle. The larvoe
of Asilus sericeus vSay, which feed on roots of the rhubarb
plant, according to Dr. Harris, are yellowish white, about
three-quarters of an inch long, a little flattened and tapering
at each end, with a small brown, retractile head, which is pro-
vided with two little horny brown hooks. The brown pupa is
naked, Avith a pair of tubercles on the front of the head, three
spines on the side, a forked tail, and a transverse row of fine
teeth across each abdominal segment, by which they are en-
abled to work their way to the surface. The Trupanea apivora
Fitch, or Bee-killer, captures the honey bee on the wing, one
having been known to kill 141 bees in a day. (Rilej-.)
Therevid.e AYestwood. This small group is characterized
by the wings having the three basal cells much prolonged ; the
third longitudinal vein is furcate, and the antenuiB have a ter-
minal style of variable form, sometimes wanting. There is no
empodium, and the labium is fleshy. The larva is very long
and slender, the abdominal rings having a double segmented
appearance, with two respiratory tubes at the end of the body.
They are found in garden mould and rotten wood. The pupa is
oblong, with two spines on the front of the head, and three on
the side of the thorax. "Westwood states that the larva of a
species of Thei-eva, Avhich is like a wire-worm in shape, feeds
on the pupai of some moths.
BoMBYLiiD.E Latreille. These pretty flies are very hirsute,
SYRniiDiE. 397
with an oviil body and long proboscis; the \vin2;s liavo the
three basal cells much prolonged, with the anterior intercal-
ary vein present almost without exception, the posterior always
wanting. The third joint of the antenna? is simple, and the
empodium quite rudimentary. They are exceedingly swift on
the wing and are found in sunny paths and glades early in the
si)ring and throughout the sunnner. They can only be cap-
tured when alighted on the ground. The eggs are laid in the
nests of bees, and the half cylindrical, long, fleshy, smooth,
unarmed larva? devour the bee larvae, while the pupa is spiny,
armed on the head with horny lamella. In the genus Bomly-
liua the body is ovate, with long dense hairs and a small head.
The eyes of the male are grown together, and the legs arc very
slender. A species is known in England to lay its eggs at the
opening of the holes of Andrena, whose larvje and pupa? are
devoured by the larva; of the fly. Systropvs is very long and
slender, and wasp-like, as in Conops, with the proboscis equal-
ling the thorax in length. The genus Anthrax is more flattened
and oblong in shape than IJombylius, with a short proboscis ;
the eyes are not connected in tlie males. The species are
gaily colored, the wings often partially black ; they fly in paths
in the hottest days of sunnnei-. The larva? are parasitic on
bees, and in their transforinntions closely resemble those of
l>omI)ylius. Audouin has found Anthrax morio in the nest of
Anthophora, and Westwood has found the pupa-skin in the
nest of Megachile, while the larva has, in England, more re-
cently been found to be parasitic in the nests of certain An-
dr(Miidie. We have received from ]\Ir. J„ Angus the larva and
pupa (Plate 4, Ago. 6, 7) of Anthrax sinuosa Wiedemann,
which is parasitic in the nest of Xylocopa Virginica.
Syrpiiid;i<: Leach. These gaily colored flies, so useful to ag-
riculturists from their habit of feeding upon Plant-lice, closely
resemble the wasps in form and coloration, having hemis-
pherical heads, large broad eyes, and rather flattened bodies
ornamented with yellow bands and spots. The wings have the
three basal cells much pi-olonged, the third longitudinal vein
simple, a spurious longitudinal vein between tlie third and fourtli
lon"-itudinal veins ; while the fourth longitudinal vein is united
398
DIPTERA.
at its end with the third, and there is no intercalary vein. The
genital armor of the male is unsymmetrical, and there is no
empodinm. They hover in the hot snn
over and about flowers, resting npon
them to feed on their sweets. The
larvae either live in the water, when the
body ends in a long extensile breathing
tube ; or are terrestrial, living in decay
ing wood, or parasitically in nests of
bees, or, as in Syrphus, live among plant-
lice. The singular spherical larva of Mi-
crodon globosus (Fig. 317 ; a, puparium :
s, spiracular tubercles ; -y, vent ; b.
anterior view of the same ; c, lar^a just
before pupation) is found, according to
Mr. Sanborn, under sticks in company
with shells.
Milesia strikingly resembles, in its style of coloration and
form, the common large j-ellow wasp. The antennae are short,
drooping, with a stout oval terminal joint, and a subterrainal
bristle. M. excentrica Harris, with its 3ellow spots and bands
resembles a wasp.
EristaUs is well known by its aquatic "rat-tailed" larvae, the
abdomen terminating in a long respiratory tube equalling the
bod}^ in length, with two stigmata at the end, which they pro-
trude out of tlio water. There are seven pairs of prolegs, more
distinct than in any other genus in the entire suborder. The
pupa is found buried in the earth. The body of the larva shor-
tens and hardens, forming the puparium, which is provided
with four horns, serving as organs of respiration.
The species of EristaUs^ are seen fl^'ing abundantly about
*.Tules Kunrkcl has recently detecterl a true peritraeliial circulation in Eristalis,
thus conflrming the discoveries of Blanchard and Agassiz. He saw the blood
imprisoned between the inner air tube and the envelope of the trachea, and pene-
trating into tlie capillary termination of tliose trachefe, and saw the flow of the
blood globules in the peritracheal space. This peritracheal circulation thus seems
to coi-respond with the arterial cii-culation of the vertebrate animals, and the mi-
nute branches of the trachete are capillaries, and the blood is arterial. "En
resume, the tracheaj of insects, air tubes in tiieir central portion, blood vessels in
their peripheral portion [i. e., the space surrounding the air tube] become at their
extremities true arterial capillaries." "The blood in the peritracheal space re-
mains through all its course in contact with the oxj^geu; it arrives at the capilla-
SYEPHID^.
809
Fig. 318.
flowers in the spring, and are common throughout the spnu<r.
They scoop up the pollen of the flowers with their maxilhel
We have received from Mr. E. T. Cox the
puparium (Fig. 318) of a species which in-
habits the salt vats of the Equality Salt
Works of Gallatin County, 111. The pupa-
rium of a species of Hdophilus closely re-
sembling that figured by AVestvvood (Class. Insects, Fig. 131,
8), has been found living in the salt water canal of tlie
Naumkeag Factory leading
into Salem Harbor, and is in
the Museum of the Peabody
Academy.
Closely allied to Eristalis is
the genus Merodon, of which
M. hardus Say (Fig. 319 ; o,
puparium, natural size) is fre-
quently met with. Its thorax. -
the first abdominal ring and the side of the second are cov-
ered with short yellow hairs ; it is .70 of an inch in length.
The puparium is of the same leugth, and
is cylindrical, ending suddenly in a re-
spiratory filament a little longer than the
body ; it is quite stout, contracting be-
yond its middle into a slender filament.
On each abdominal ring is a pair of small,
low, flattened tubercles crowned by a
number of radiating spinules. Its larva
is undoubtedly aquatic, like that of Eris-
talis. Mr. Sanborn has also reared from the pupa state M.
Narcissi, which probably lives in the soil about
decaying bulbs, as the puparium has no respira-
<^ tory tube, but instead a very short sessile trun-
^ cated projection, scarcely as long as It is thick,
with a pair of stigmata in the end ; the body is
cylindrical and rounded alike at each end, with a slight con-
ries perfectly viviflerl; it is ji true arterial blood. These capillaries are not in
commnnication with the venous capillaries; the blood is taken up bv the tissues,
it nourishes them and flows into the venous lacunje, and the lacunar currents
carry it to the dorsal vessel." Annales des Sciences Katurelles, 18(58.
Fiar. 321.
400 niPTERA.
traction behind the middle of the head ; its surface is rough-
ened witii transverse wrinlvles, but no regularly marked sutures,
indicating the divisions between the segments, are apparent.
It has been introduced from Europe, according to Mr. Sanborn,
by the importers of Dutch bulbs.
The well known genus Si/rphus (Fig 320, S. politus Say) so
useful in reducing the immense nunibers of plant-lice, lays a
single egg in a group of plant-lice, which hatches out a footless,
eyeless, flattened, transversely wrinkled, gaily colored green and
purple maggot (Fig. 321) having a very extensile body, which
enables it to reach up and grasp the Aphis by the peculiar
sucking mouth-parts. "When fully grown the larva adheres by
means of a glutinous secretion to a leaf, its body contracts and
hardens, forming a half cylindrical pui)arixmi.
The species of VohiceUa are parasitic in their habits, the
larvte feeding on those of Bombus. The}' are long, "narrowed
in front, transversely wrinkled, Avith fine lateral points, and the
• tail is armed with six radiating points; the mouth is armed
with two bifid mandibles, and three pairs of tentacula."
(Westwood.) The pupai are not known. The fly would be
easily mistaken for a bee, nearly attaining the size of the
worker Humble-bee, being remarkably plump and hirsute. J.
Kiinckel states that in Europe two species are known to live
in the nests of ^"espa.
CoNOPiD.E Leach. The species of this famity bear some
'resemblance to the wasp, Eumenes, from their long, slen-
der, pedicelled abdomen. The three basal cells of the wings
are large, the third closed, more or less remote from the pos-
terior border, and all the longitudinal veins are simple. The
eyes in both sexes are smaller than in the preceding faniih^,
being separated. The proboscis is, Avith a few exceptions,
much prolonged, and the third joint of the antennae has either
an apical style or a thick dorsal bristle. The male genital
armor is s^-mraetrical and turned beneath the abdomen. The
flask-shaped larva of Conops is "soft, whitish, eleven-jointed,
with a long neck and a mouth armed with lips and hooks (man-
dibles), and two lateral elevated plates supporting the two
spiracles." It was found by Lachat and Audouin living in the
CONOPIDiE.
401
abdomen of Bombus. It is also said by St. Fargeau to live in
the nest of Vespa, and Conops flavi2'>es was bred, according to
Curtis, from tlie body of Osmia.
Mr. S. S. Saunders has observed in Epirus the habits of a
species wliicli lives in the abdomen of Pompilus audax Smith,
The fly lays its eggs in June in the adult Pompilus, probably
ovipositing between the abdominal segments. During August
the larvffi become fully grown, probably in ten or fifteen days.
Tiie pupariura is oval, of an uniform, deep, piceous hue, and the
fly works its Avay through the first and second abdominal rings
of the wasp, whose abdomen then breaks in two. Saunders
also found a similar Conops larva in Sphex flavipennis, cai>
tured at the same time and place as the Pompilus ; also a
smaller species of
Conops was bred
from the abdomen
of O d y n e r u s .
We have also
bred a species
from one of two
species of Bom-
bus, either B.
vagans or B. fer-
Vidus. Fig. 322.
lu Myopa the antennal bristle is subterminal, and the probos-
cis is twice elbowed. Westwood has observed Myopa atra fly-
ing about sand-banks in which were the burrows of various bees,
and by other authors the genus is said to be parasitic on bees.
The genus Pipunculas represents, a small group in which
the head is almost entirely occupied by the eyes, the front and
face being exceedingly narrow, while the antenna have a basal
bristle.
Loew considers the genus Scenopinvs as the type of a dis-
tinct family, hinting at its relationship with the Bombyliida?.
The genus is known by the short antennae, without style or bris-
tle ; and by the short proboscis with its broad fleshy end. The
larvoe are long, very slender, much like those of fhereva, and
the pupa is much like that of Leptis. Mr. Sanborn has reared
S. pallipes Say (Fig. 322 ; a, larva). The larva is found under
2Q
402 DIPTERA.
carpets, and is remarkable for the double segmented appearance
of all the abdominal segments, except the last one, so that the
body, exclusive of the head, seems as if twenty-jointed instead
of having but twelve joints. The head is conical, one-third
longer than broad, and of a reddish brown color, while the
body is white. It is .65 of an inch in length. The larva is
also said to live in rotten wood, and is too scarce to be destruc-
tive to carpets. The fly is black, with a metallic hue, and
with pale feet.
The genus Platypeza also represents the PlatyiyezidcB of
Meigen, the antennae of Avhich have an apical bristle, with the
male genital armor (hypopygium) turned symmetrically under
the abdomen. The middle tibisB are provided with spurs, and
the empodium is wanting. The larva is flat, with rigid curved
bristles along the side. It lives in rotten mushrooms.
Empid.e Leach. The species of tliis family closel}" resemble
the Asilidai in their long body, incumbent wings, and rapaci-
ous, carnivorous habits. The first joint of the antennae is not
much shortened, and the third joint has an apical or dorsal
bristle, while the empodium is usually membranaceous and of a
linear form. The head is small, spherical, the e3'es united in
the male ; the proboscis is hornj', without a distinct tongue,
and bent upon the breast. The slender larvae, whose segments
aro much constricted, arc found in garden mould. The species
hover in swarms over standing water, flying backwards and for-
wards as if by a common impulse. The}^ appear very early in
the spring, or in autumn. The genera Hyhos and Tachydromia
represent small groups Avhich are closely allied to Empis.
DoLiciiopoDiDiE Latreille. Loew has characterized this
well marked family as generally comprising metallic green,
brisk and restless Diptera of small or medium size, predatory
on other insects, and living principally in damp situations ; the
larvffi living under ground or in decaying wood. The head is
hemispherical, the eyes large and hairy, the antennae are
stretched straight out, with a two-jointed bristle. The probos-
cis is short and stout, concealed above by the single jointed,
usually scale-shaped palpi, with a wide opening which can be
(ESTRIDJE. 403
shut by the protruding suctorial flaps. The v/iiigs do not have
the auxiliary vein running towards the anterior margin ; the an-
terior basal cell is very short ; and the discoidal cell coalescent
with the second basal cell, while the posterior basal cell is very
small. They are mostly "found on the leaves of aquatic plants,
on stones partly overflown with water, on dams and near water-
falls ; some of them are able to run rapidly over the water, even
when it is rippled by the wind (HydopJiorns) ; others are fond
of salt or brackish waters (^ApUrosyhis, Thinophilus and some
Hydropliorus) ; the species of Medeterus prefer dry situations,
and are found on stumps of trees, fences, etc., even in very
dry and hot weather."
QilsTRiD^E Leach. Bot-flies, Breeze-flies. In these flies, so
interesting in their habits, the body is stout, hair^', like the
Ilumlile bees, and they are easily recognized by having the
opening of the mouth very small, with rudimentary oral or-
gans. The middle part of the face is exceedingly nai-row, and
the minute antennie arc inserted in rounded pits. The eggs
hatch very soon after laying, and Riley (First Annual Repoil
on the Noxious Insects of Missouri, p. 164) thinks, from the
testimony of three independent witnesses, that the sheep bot-
fly is viviparous, the larvae hatching Avithin the body of the
parent, who deposits in the nostrils of the sheep the "perfectly
formed and living grub."
The larviie are, in general, thick, fleshy, footless grubs, con-
sisting of eleven segments exclusive of the head, which are
sjiined and tuberculated, the former in rows, which enable them
to move about readily when living under the skin or in the
frontal sinus and thus greatly irritate the animals on which they
live. The stigmata are placed in a scaly plate on the thick-
ened posterior end of the body. The mouth of the cutaneous
larvae consists simply of fleshy tubercles, while in those speciesi
that live in the stomach and frontal sinuses of their hosts, it i:^
provided with horny hooks. While in this state they moult
twice, and then attain their full size. They feed on the puru-
lent matter originating from the irritation produced by the
movements of their bodies. Just before assuming the pupa
state, the larva leaves its peculiar habitat, descends into the
404
DIPTERA.
Fig. 323.
ground, and there becomes a coarctate pupa, enclosed within
the old larva skin, and remaining in connection with it by
means of four trachese.
The genus Gastrophihis has very small-
mouth-parts, the deep lying palpi being
somewhat spherical, and the
prol)OScis nearl}^ obsolete,
while the abdomen is sessile.
The species are of medium
size, short and thick, and very hairy. The female
deposits her eggs on the horse's hips and legs,
whence the larvie are introduced into the stomach.
The body of the larva widens posteriorly ; tlie
mandibles are not visible, and the maxilliij con-
stitute the so-called mouth-hooks, by which the
larva grapples and adheres to the walls of the
horse's stomach. The rudimentary antennte are
indicated b}' an ocellus-like point. The Horse Bot-fly, Gas-
trojMlus equi Fabr. (Fig. 323; fig, 324, larva), in its perfect
state is pale yellowish, spotted with red, with a grayish yellow
hirsuties ; the thorax is banded with black, or sometimes,
Fig. 325. a
though rarel}', reddish hairs. The hinder trochanters are
hooked in the males, and tuberculated in the females, and the
wings are banded with reddish, with two spots at the apex.
The larva? live from May till October, and when fully grown,
Uang b}^ their mouth-hooks on the edge of the rectum, whence
OSSTRID^, 405
they are carried out in the excrement. Tlie pupa state lasts
from thirty to forty days, and the perfect fly appears the next
season from June to October.
In Hijpoderma the palpi are entirely wanting. The species are
either ver^' large, or of medium size, and often quite small, cov-
ered with fine dense hairs. The legs are long and slender. The
Hypodenna bovis Degeer (Fig. 325, «, larva) or Bot-fly of the ox,
is black, densely pilose ; the front of the head is dirty ashen,
with whitish yellow hairs. The naked black thorax is twice
broadly banded Avith yellow and white ; the scutellum has
slight tubercles ; the abdomen is black, with a "oasal white or
j^ellowish band, a mesial black band, and at the end is a reddish
orange band of hairs. The larvee are found during the month
of May and in the summer in the tumors on the backs of cattle,
and when full}'^ grown, which is generall}' in July, work their
way out and fall to the ground.
They exist in the puparium twen-
ty-six to thirty daj's, and the fl}^
appears from June to September.
This species is found over all the
civilized portions of the world.
Hypoderma tarandi Linn, infests,
in like manner, the Reindeer.
The genus (Estromyia is thought
to inhabit the Hare. CEstriis ovis
Linn., the Sheep Bot-fly, is of a ^ig. 320.
dirty ash color, with a fuscous ashen, banded, and obscurely
spotted thorax. The abdomen is marbled with j-ellowish and
white flecks, and is hairy at the end. The larva lives, during
April, May and June, in the frontal sinus of the sheep, and also
in the nasal cavity, whence it falls to the ground. It changes
to a pupa in twenty-four hours, and the fly appears during the
summer. Cuterebm has the third joint of the antennie oval or
elliptical and the bristle is dorsal and feathered ; the species
are short, very plump and hairy flies, with a proboscis elbowed
at the base, and with a metallic shining rounded abdomen.
The larvae live in subcutaneous bots beneath the skin of vari-
ous animals. One species (the C. emasculator of Fitch) lives
in the scrotum of the squirrel, which it is known to emasculate.
406
DIPTERA.
Mr. S. S. Rathvon has reared C. hvccata Fabr. (Fig. 326, and
side view) from the bod}- of a striped squirrel, the hirvse having
emerged from tlie legion of the kidneys." (American P^nto-
mologist, p. IIG.) Other species live in tlie Opossum and
different species of field-mice. Cuterehra liorripilum Clark is
found throughout the United States, and C. cunicxdi Clark lives
in the hare and rabbit, in the Southern States, and is found,
according to Coquerel, in the bots of horses.
The genus Dermatohia includes the Ver macaque, of Caj-enne
and Mexico, found l)eneath the skin of man in tropical America,
and it is disputed whether it be a true indigenous "CEstrus
hominis," or originally attacks the monkey, dog, or other mam-
mal. In Cayenne the species attacking man is called the Ver
Macaque ; in Brazil (Para) Ura ; in Costa
Rica, Torcel ; in New Grenada, Gusano
j)ehido, or Muche. The D. noxiaUs Goudot?
(Fig. 327) Ver moyocuil, lives on the dog,
and is found in Mexico and New Grenada.
The larvte are long, cylindrical, S-shaped,
differing greatly in form from others of this
famil}'. The flies are closely allied to those
of the preceding genus.
Dr. Leidy states in the Proceedings of the
Philadelphia Academy (1859), that several
specimens of the larva of a bot-fl}' were ob-
tained by Dr. J. L. Leconte in Honduras,
from his travelling companions. They were " usual!}' found be-
neath the skin of tlie shoulders, breasts, arms, buttocks and
thighs, and were suspected to have been introduced when the
persons were bathing." "Dr. Leconte informs us that his com-
panions were not awai'e of the time when tlie eggs of the larvae,
obtained by him, were deposited in their bodies. He also states
that the presence of the larva gave rise to comparatively little
uneasiness."
According to Krefft a species of Batrachomyia is parasitic
upon four species of Australian frogs. The larvae are found
between the skin and tlie flesh behind the tympanum ; they are
of a yellow color and may be squeezed through a small open-
ing that exists over them. When they quit the frog the latter
MUSCIDiK. 407
dies. The change to the pupa state is usually effected on the
lower surface of a piece of rock iu some damp locality. The
perfect insect emerges in thirt3'-t\vo days. (Gunther's Zoologi-
cal llecord, 1^04.)
Muscid.t: Latreille. The common Ilonse-fly, the Blue-bottle
fly, and the Flesh-fl}^, at once recall the appearance of this
family, which is one of great extent, and much subdivided by
entomologists. The antenntt; are three-jointed, the terminal
joint being flattened and with a plumose bristle in the typical
species. The proboscis ends in a fleshy lobe, with porrect
single-jointed maxillary palpi. The four longitudinal veins of
the wing are simple ; the first of the two veins on the hinder
edge often approaching that on the apex of the wing ; the tarsi
have two pulvilli, and the abdomen is flve-jointed. The larvoe
are footless, cylindrico-conic, narrowing in front, with a head
variable in form, and with hook-like mandibles. There are often
two pairs of spiracles, one on the terminal ring of the body,
and the other pair on the prothoracic segment. The pupa is
enclosed in the puparinm, generally cylindrical, but sometimes
preserving the original shape of the larva. The celebrated
"Tsetze" fly (Glossina morsitans Westwood) is a member of
this family. It kills cattle by its painful bite, though its in-
jurious nature is said to have been overrated. It is allied to
Stomoxys, the species of which bite very sharply. S. caUrkans
has a well developed i^roboscis, enabling it to bite severely.
It is often found in houses.
The species of the genus Tachina, like the Ichneumonidae, are
parasitic in caterpillars, and others are found in the nests of
bees. They are stout flies, covered with bristles, with the e^-es
much larger in the males than in the other sex. The bristle
of the antennae is bare or with a very short pubescence. The
thorax is short, and the first posterior cell is closed, or but
slightly opened, and the legs are short. The abdomen is oval
or cylindrical, and the first segment is much shortened. The
larv£B are oval, with the segments much constricted ; they have
no head ; the last segment bears two spiracles. T. (Senomet-
opia) militaris Walsh lays its eggs, from one to six in num-
ber, on the Army worm (Leucauia unipuneta), "fastening
408
DIPTERA.
tlieui by an insoluble cement on the upper surface of the two
or throe first rings of the body. The eggs liatch often after
the caterpillar has gone under ground to transform, and in
fifteen to nineteen da3's, or the last of September, the flies ap-
pear. T. (Lydella) doryphorce Riley (Fig. 328) pre3^s on the
larviB of the Colorado potato
beetle. Other species of gen-
era allied to Tachina, accord-
ing to Dufour, are parasitic on
beetles, etc ; thus, Cassidoviyia
preys on Cassida, Hycdomyia
on Brachyderes, and Ocyj)tera
attacks Pentatoma ; and he
thinks that Chartophda floralis
feeds either on the food or the
young itself of Andrena.
Sarcophaga., the Flesh-fly, has a small head, with the antennal
bristle plumose or hairy, nalced at the tip ; the first posterior
cell only slightly opened, or closed, with largo teguhc and
stout legs. Tlie flesh-fly, Sarcophaga carnaria Linn., is black,
the thorax streaked with gray, and the abdomen checkered
with whitish. The female is viviparous, that is, the
larvffi hatch and live within the oviduct. The ova-
ries are large, arranged in a spiral manner and con-
tain sometimes 20,000 eggs. We have reared Sarco-
phaga niidipennis Loew from the cells of Pelopaeus
flavipes, the Mud-dauber, which had been stored with
spiders, the flies making their appearance on the first
of July, a few days before the wasps issued from the
cells. The parent flies had probably laid their eggs
in the spiders before the cells were closed by the
wasps. The nests were bi'ought from Texas.
Fig. 3-29. Musca has plumose antenna?, while in Stomoxys
they are pectinated. Dufour states that the allied genera,
Echinomyia, Gonia^ Dexia and Siphonia are also viviparous.
Musca (Lucilia) Ccesar Linn, the Blue-bottle fly, and Musca
(Calliphora) vomitoria Linn, the Meat-fly, deposit their eggs
(fly-blows) upon meat and decaying animal substances, and
during the late war were grievousl}^ tormenting to our soldiers,
MUSCID^.
409
laying their eggs in the wounds, especially of those left on the
field over night. The larva of M. Caesar (Fig. 320) is of very
rapid growth. It is of an "elongated conical form, pointed
towards the head, which is furnished with two flesliy horns,"
and horny mouth-parts, and a pair of rudiments of branchiae
on the prothoracic ring. The body is suddenly truncated, the
end being furnished with a pair of stigmata. The pupa trans-
forms in tlie ground, within a puparium of the usual long, cy-
lindrical form.
Dr. Chapman of Appalachicola, writes to Mr. Sanliorn that
this fly, " attracted by the stench of a mass of decaying insects
which have perished in the leaf of Sarracenia, ventures In and
deposits its eggs, and the larvse devour the festering heap.
These in turn, on becoming flies, are
unal)le to get out of their prison, perish,
and are added to the putrefying mass
that liad nourished them."
F. Smitli notices in the Transactions
of the Entomological Society of Lon-
don, 1868, the "Warega" fly of Brazil,
which is said to be the "pest of both
man and animals ; it is a species of
Musca, and is said to lay its eggs in the
skin ; large and terrible swellings are
formed. Tlie mode of extracting the
maggot is to cut an opening, and to press it out — a most
painful operation. These wounds are very difl^cult to cure."
Tlie House-fly, Masca domestica Linn., is common in the
warmer parts of the year, and hibernates through the winter. A
study of the proboscis of the fly reveals a wonderful adaptability
of the moutli-parts of this insect to their uses. We have already
noticed tlie most perfect condition of these parts as seen in the
horse-fly. In the proboscis of the house-fly the hard parts are
obsolete, and instead we have a fleshy tongue-like organ (Fig.
330), bent up underneath the head when at rest. The maxilljc
are minute, and the palpi (mp) are single-jointed, and the man-
dibles (m) are comparatively useless, being very short and
small compared with the lancet-like jaws of the mosquito or
horse-fly. But the structure of the tongue itself (labium, I) is
Fiff. 330.
410
UIPTERA.
most curious. When the fly settles upon a hiinp of sugar or
otlier sweet object, it unbends its tongue, extends it, and the
broad knob-like end divides into two flat, muscular leaves (/),
which thus present a sucker-like surface, with which tlie fly-
laps up liquid sweets. These two leaves are supported u])on a
framework of chitinous rods, Avhieh act as a set of sprin'^s to
open and shut the muscular leaves. The inside of this broad
fleshy expansion is rough like a rasp, and as Newport states,
"is easily employed by the insect in scraping or tearino-
delicate surfaces. It is by means of this curious structure
that the busy house-fly occasions much mischief to the covers
^ A of our books, by
scraping oft* the
albuminous polish,
and leaving trac-
ings of its depre-
dations in the soil-
ed and spotted ap-
pearance which it
occasions on them."
The house-fly
breeds in August
about stables. The
eggs are deposited
in horse-dung. The larva (Fig. 331*) hatches twenty-four
hours after the eggs are laid ; it moults twice, and in about
a week pupates, and in six or seven days more the fly
appears. In Europe it is infested by minute Chalcids.
Idia Bigoti, according to Coquerel and Mondiere, produces
a disease in the natives of Senegal, probably by ovipositing
on the skin, thus giving rise to hard red fluctuating tumors,
in which the larva of this fly resides.
The species of the genus Anthomyui^ seen about flowers, in
* Fig. 331, A, larva of Muxca domfMicn, just hatched, showing the distribu-
tion of the two main trachese, and tlie anterior and posterior commissures
(a, a), dorsal view. B, the larva in the second stage; sp, spiracle. C, s])iracle
enlarged. F, head of the same larva, enlarged ; U, labrum (?); md, mandibles;
mr, maxilla' ; at, antennse. E, a terminal spiracle nuich enlarged. D, pupa-
rium ; sp, prothoracic spiracle. All the figures much enlarged.
MUSCID^.
4H
the larva state live in cleca3ing vegetable matter and in privies.
They are smaller flies than the foregoing genera, with smaller
alulae, and the fourth longitudinal vein of the wing is straight,
thus leaving the first posterior cell fully open. The larvje are
generally much like those of the meatTtly, but are thicker,
while others, belonging to the genus Hoiualouiyla, are flat-
tened and hairy.
The Radish-fly, Antliomyia raphani Harris, abounds in the
roots of the radish, the fly appearing towards the end of June.
Another species, the Onion-fly, Antliomyia ceparum (Fig. 332),
causes the leaves of the onion to turn yellow and die from
the attacks of the larvffi in the roots. The larviB mature in
two weeks, transform in the root, and two weeks later disclose
the flies. Mr. Walsh
suggests that the
larvjie may be de-
stroyed by pouring
boiling hot water
over the young
plants, which, with-
out injuring the on-
ions, destroys tho
maggots. The
Seed-corn Maggot, the larva of Antliomyia zeoi Eiley (Fig. 344,
p. 419, a, larva; 6, puparium ; c, kernels eaten), destroys,
in New Jersey, tlie kernels of sprouted corn before it comes up.
The Cabbage maggot, the larva of A. brassicai Bouche, a com-
mon fly in Europe, has been found in Michigan to be injurious
to the cabbage. (Riley.) The hairy maggots of Ilomalomyia
eunicularis live in rotten turnips. (Harris.) The puparium
(Phrte 3, fig. 5, 5 «) of another species has been found by Mr.
F. W. Putnam in the nests of the humble bee.
In Ortalis the front is quite prominent, the cl3q5eus is greatly
developed, the opening of the mouth wide, and the proboscis
much thickened. This genus comprises variousl}' banded and
spotted flies, which may be seen walking along leaves vibrating
their wings. They feed on the leaves, and afterwards the
pulpy fruit of the cherry, olive and orange. Another Onion-
fly, discovered hy Dr. Shinier in Illinois, is the Ortalis flexa
412
DIPTERA.
of Wiedemann (Fig. 333 ; a, larva). Tlie fly differs from the
Anthom^'ia ceparum, besides more important respects, in liaA--
ing blaclv wings witli three broad curved bands. The maggot
feeds in the root thus killing the top of the plant.
A species of Trypeta, according to F. Smith, which in Brazil
is called the "Berna" fly, deposits its eggs in wounds, both
on man and beast. " It is remarkable from having the apical
segment of the ab-
domen elongated
into a long oviposi-
tor. Mr. Peckolt
says the negroes
suffer much from
the attacks of this
fly, which frequent-
a Fig. 333. \y dcpOsitS itS CggS
in their nostrils whilst they are sleeping, and such are the
effects of its attacks, that, in some cases, death ensues."
(Transactions of the Entomological Society^ London, 1868.
p. 135.)
To the genus LoncJio;a, Osten Sacken refers, Avith consider-
able doubt, a fly, which I have found in abundance, raising
blister-like swellings on the twigs of the willow. They were
fully grown in April.
The larva (Fig. 334,
fly ; «, the larva ; b,
the pupa) is curved,
cylindrical, tapering
nearly alike towards
each extremity,
though the thoracic
region is the thickest. The rings are thickened upon their pos-
terior edges, so that they appear contracted in the middle. It
is glassy green, with two little elongated tubercles placed near
each other at a little distance from the end, where in the pupa
they are terminal. It is .15 of an incli long when fnll}' ex-
tended. The pupa-case, found late in May, is oval, long, cy-
lindrical and obtuse at both ends ; the anterior end is more
blunt ; the first segment of the body is minute and forms the
MUSCID^.
413
lid, which opens Avhen the fly makes its exit, and bears two
small slender tubercles which project upwards. The posterior
end bears two terminal spine-like tubercles similar to those on
the head, but projecting horizontally. The puparium is glassy
green, and the limbs of the enclosed pupa can be partially seen
through the skin. The rings are (especially on the thorax)
spinose, being the remnants of the rows of spines around the
hind edge of the larval segments. It is .15 of an inch long.
The pupa lies a short distance from the opening of its burrow,
which is about half an inch long, and is situated between the
wood and the bark.
The larva before pupa-
ting eats away the bark,
leaving a tliin outer
scale, or roundish black
space which can be
folded back like a lid,
which the fly pushes
open when it emerges.
Several swellings occur
on the twig in the space
of six inches. The fly appeared the 25th of June. Dufour
states that in Europe Lonchcea nigra lives in the outer bark of
the oak, and another under the bark of the poplar, while still
another species makes a sort of gall in the dogsgrass.
The genus Spliymcephala is remarkable for its stalked eyes,
which are placed on long stems going out from the sides of
the head. Some species are found fossil in the Prussian
amber. S. hrevicornis Say is rather rare.
The Cheese maggot is the larva of Piopliila casei (Fig. 335)
a shining black fly, three-twentieths of an inch long, with the
four posterior legs yellowish, and with transparent wings.
The whitish larva is cylindrical, and .22 of an inch in length,
and is acutely pointed towards the head and truncated behind,
with two long horny stigmata in the middle of the truncature,
and two longer fleshy filaments on the lower edge. When
moving it extends its mouth-hooks, and pulls itself along by
them. Mr. F. W. Putnam has called my attention to the
power of leaping possessed by the maggot. When about to
414
DIPTERA.
leap the larva brings the under side of the abdomen towards
the head, while la3'ing on its side, and reaching forward with
its head, and at the same time extending its mouth-
hoolvs, grapples by means of them with the hinder edge
of the truncature and pulling hard, suddenly with-
draws them, jerlving itself to a distance of four or
five inches. The Wine-fly (Fig. 336, puparium) also
belongs to the same genus, and with its puparium
may be found floating in old wine and cider.
Several species of the genus Ephydra have been
Fig. 336. found living in salt water. Mr, E. T. Cox has sent
us specimens of Ej^hydra lialojMla Paclc. (Fig. 337 ; a, wing ;
6, puparium), -which in the pupa state lives in great numbers
in the first graduation house of the Equality Salt Worlvs of
Gallatin County, Illinois. The larva itself we have not seen,
but the puparium is cylindrical, half an inch long, the body
ending in a long respiratory tube forked at the end. The fly
'^ itself is coppery green,
with pale honey yellow
legs, and is .15 of an inch
in length. Another spe-
cies has been found by
Professor B. Silliman liv-
ing in great abundance in
Mono Lake, Cal., and in
the Museum of the Pea-
body Academy are pu-
paria of this genus from
Labrador, and from under
sea-Aveed on Narragansett
Ba}^, and a pool of brack-
ish water at Marblehead ;
Fig. 337. they are noticed by the
author in the "Proceedings of the Essex Institute," vol. vi.
Tlie Apple Fly, or Drosoj^hila, has habits like the apple
midge. Mr. W. C. Fish has described in the "American
Naturalist," the habits of an unknown species (Fig. 338 ; a,
larva), which he writes me has been very common this year in
Barnstable County, Mass. He says that "it attacks mostly
MUSCID^.
415
the earlier varieties, seeming to have a particular fondness for
the old fashioned Summer, or High-top Sweet. The larvse en-
ter the ap[)le usually where it has been bored by the Apple-
worm (Carpocapsa), not uncommonly through the crescent-like
puncture of the curculio, and sometimes through the calyx,
when it has not been troubled by other insects. Many of
them arrive at maturity in August, and the fly soon appears,
and successive generations of the maggots follow until cold
weather. I have frequently found the pupae in the bottom of
barrels in a cellar in the winter, and the flies appear in the
spring. In the early apples, the larvae work about in every
direction. If there are ^^rrs ^ >
several in an apple, they
make it unflt for use.
Apples that appear per-
fectly sound when taken
from tlie tree, will some-
times, if kept, be all alive
with them in a few Fig. 338.
weeks." Other species are known to inhabit putrescent
vegetable matter, especially fruits. Mr. B. D. Walsh also des-
cribes in his "First Annual Report on the Noxious Insects of
Illinois," another apple fly, Tnnwta pomonella Walsh, which
destroys stored apples, and has been found troublesome in va-
rious parts of tlie countr3%
In England Oscinis granarms Curtis lives in the stems of
wheat. The Oscinis vastator Curtis does serious damage to
wheat and barley crops in England, by eating the base of the
stalk. The larvae are fully grown late in June, and a month
later, the fly appears. Their attacks are restrained by numer-
ous Pteromali, and a minute Proctotrupid (Sigalphus caudatus)
oviposits in the Qgg of the Oscinis. Other allied species in the
larva state cause the stems of wheat and barlc}'^ to swell twice
their usual size, which disease is termed in England the go^it.
The larvae of Chlorops lineata Fabr. in Europe, destroy the
central leaves and plant itself, the female laying her eggs on
the stems when the wheat begins to show the ear. In a fort-
night the eggs hatch, and the fly appears in September. Curtis
also states that Chlorojos Herpinii Guerin, attacks the ears oi
416
DIPTERA.
barley, from six to ten larvae being found in each, and by de-
stroying the flowers render the ear sterile. Oscinis frit Linn,
in Europe inhabits the husks of the barley, and destroys one-
tenth of the grain. Linnteus calculated the annual loss from
the attacks of this single species at half a million dollars.
Ploughing and harroAving are of no use in guarding against
these insects, as they do not transform in the earth ; the best
remedy lies in the rotation of crops. Many of these small
flies, like the micro-lepidoptera, are leaf-miners, and are not
readily distinguished from
them when in the larva state.
Of the genus Phora^ a
European species (P. incras-
sata Fig. 339 ; a, larva ; 6,
puparium) frequents bee
hives, and is thought by some
Fig- 339. iq produce the disease
which is known among apiarians as "foulbrood."
In the pupiparous Diptera, namely, those flies which are born
as pupae from the body of the parent, the lar^a state having
been passed within the oviduct, the thorax is more closely
agglutinated than before ; the head is small and sunken in
the thorax, and in the wingless species this consolidation of
the head and thorax is so marked as to cause them to bear a
remarkable resemblance to the spiders. Spider-like in their
looks, they are spider-like in their habits, as the names Spider-
flies, Bat-ticks and Bird-ticks, imply a likeness to the lower
spiders or ticks. The antenuiB are very deeply inserted and
partially obsolete ; the labrum is ensheathed by the maxillae,
and the thoracic nervous ganglia are, as in the Arachnida,
concentrated into a siuQ-le mass.
HippOBOSCiD^ Westwood. The Forest-flies and Sheep
Ticks are characterized by the horny and flattened bod}^, the
horizontal flattened head received into the front edge of the
thorax, the large eyes, the rudimentary papilla-like antennae
placed very near together, and the proboscis is formed by the
labrum and maxillae, whose palpi are wanting ; the labium is
very short ; wangs with the veins present only on the costal
HIPPOBOSCIDJE.
417
edge, the others either aborted or only partially developed.
They resemble the lice in their parasitic habits, living beneath
the hairs of vertebrates, especially of bats, and are abundant
beneath the feathers
of birds.
These flies differ
from all other insects
in their peculiar mode
of development, which
reminds us of the
intra-uterine life of
the vertebrate foetus.
According to Dufour
and Leuckart they
have an irregular uterus-like enlargement of the oviduct, which
furnishes a milk-like secretion for the nourishment of the
larviie. The body of the larvtx?, for each female produces but
one or two young, when first hatched is not divided into rings,
but is smooth, ovate, egg-like, forming a puparium-like case in
which the larvte transform to pup* immediately after birth.
The Forest-fly or Horse-tick, Hippohosca Latrcille, has no
ocelli, with five stout veins on the costal edge of the wing ;
thorax broad, and the proboscis short and
tliick. We figure a species* of this genus
(Fig. 340) which was found on the Great
Horned Owl. Its body is much flattened,
adapted for its life under the feathers, where
it gorges itself with the blood of its host.
The genus Lijjoptena^ which has ocelli, with
onl}^ three costal veins, a long slender probos-
cis, and a small thorax, is remarkable for living in its wing-
less state on the Deer, but when the wings are developed it is
found on the Grouse (Tetrao). The Bird-tick, Ornithomyia,
has ocelli, a short proboscis and six costal veins, and there
are numerous species, all bird parasites.
* Hippohosca bubonis n. sp. female. Uniform horn color, with a rerirli?h tinpre,
and blat^kish hairs; legs paler, Avith dai-k tarsi, body beneath paler; tip of abdo-
men bla(^k, with long bi'istles. Length of body .30 inch; of a wing .34 inch. Dif-
fers from H. er/iiin-e in being larger, and in its uniform reddish color. Taken Oct.
5; Museum of the Peabody Academy of Science.
27
Fig. 341.
418
DIPTERA.
In the wingless Slieep-tick, MelopJiagus ovimis Linn, which
is often very troublesome (Fig. 341, and iDuparium), the head
is wider than the thorax, the proboscis is as long as the head
itself, the limbs are short and thick, and the bristly abdomen
is broad and not divided into joints.
TliG genus Camus ^ which was placed in the Cono2')'idm by
Nitzsch, seems rather to belong here. C. hemapterus Nitzsch,
is "of the size of a flea, with minute rudi-
ments of Avings, and is parasitic on birds
of the genus Sturnus."
Nycterii5id,t: Leach. The Bat-ticks are
remarkably spider-like, with a beaker-like
head, without eyes, having four ocelli,
or else entirely blind. The finger-like,
two-jointed antennae are situated on the
under side of the head. The proboscis is
feather-like, the palpi very large and por-
^^•'' ■'"■^' rect ; the legs are of great size, witli the
basal joint of the tarsi of remarkable length, and the hairy
abdomen is composed of six segments. They are very small
parasites, one or two lines in length. Westwood has extracted
the puparium from the body, showing the close relationship
of these strange forms to Hippobosca. Nycteribia Westwoodn
Guerin (Fig. 342) is an East Indian species.
Bkaulina Gerstaecker. The Bee-lice are wingless, minute,
blind insects, with large heads ; the thorax is transverse, ring-
shaped, half as long as
the head ; the abdomen
is round, five-jointed,
and the legs are tliick,
witli long claws ena-
bling them to cling to
the hairs of bees.
The genus BranJa
may be compared with
the flea, its body being
flattened vertically, while that of the flea is flattened lat-
BRAULINA.
419
erally. While the transformations of Branla show it to be
undoubtedly a degraded Muscid, with a true puparium ; those
of the flea, with its worm-like, more highly organized larva,
and the free obtected pupa show that, though wingless, it
occupies a much higher grade in the dipterous series. Braula
coRca Nitzsch (Fig. 343, and larva) is found living parasitically
on the honey bee in Europe, and has not been detected in this
country.
The antennaj are short, two-jointed and sunken in deep
pits. It is from one-half to two-thirds of a line long. The
larva is headless, oval, eleven-jointed and white in color. On
the day it hatches from the egg it sheds its skin and changes
to an oval puparium of a dark brown color. It is a body para-
site, one or two of them occurring on the body of the bee,
though sometimes they greatly multiply and are very trouble-
some to the bee.
Fiff. 344.
Anthomyia zeoe Riley.
We now take up the second series of suborders of the hexa-
podous insects, in Avhicli the different segments of the body
show a strong tendency to remain equal in size, as in tlie larva
state ; in other words there is less concentration of the parts
towards the head. In all these groups the prothorax is greatly
developed, generally free, while the wings tend to conceal the
two posterior thoracic segments, and the body generally is
elongated, flattened or angulated, not cylindrical as is usually
the case in the preceding and higher series. The degraded
wingless forms resemble the worm-like Myriapods, while, as we
have seen above, the wingless flies resemble the Arachnida.
The imago (especially in the Hemiptera, Orthoptera and cer-
tain Neuroptera) resembles the larva ; that is, the metamor-
phosis is less complete than in the preceding groups.
420
COLEOPTERA.
COLEOPTERA.
In the highest suborder of this series, the Coleoptera, we
find the most complete metamorphosis and the greatest speci-
alization of parts, with
a more complete con-
centration of them to-
wards the head than in
the lower suborders.
They are at once rec-
ognized by the elytra,
or thickened horny fore
wings, which are not
actively used in flight
(the hind wings being
especially adapted for
that purpose), while
they cover and encase
■^ the two posterior seg-
ments of the thorax
and the abdomen. The
prothoracic ring is
greatly enlarged, often
excavated in front to re-
ceive the head. These
characters are very per-
sistent ; there are few
aberrant forms and the
suborder is remarkably
homogeneous and easily
limited.
The head is free from
Tig. 345. the thorax, but less so
than in the preceding suborders ; it is scarcely narrowed behind,
and its position is usually horizontal. The eyes are usually
Fig. 345, tinder surface of Harpalus caliginosns. (After Leeonte.) a, ligiila;
b, paraslossa; ; c, supports of labial palpi ; d, labial palpus : e, mentuni ; /, inner
lobe of maxilla; ff, outer lobe of maxilla; h, maxillary palpus; i, mandible; k,
COLEOPTERA.
421
quite large, and there is but a pair of ocelli, when present, or
there may be but a single ocellus. The antennae are generally
inserted just in front of the eyes, and rarely between them as
Fig. 346.
in the previous suborders. They are either filiform where the
joints are cylindrical, as in the Car ab idee, not enlarging
towards the end, or serrate, as in the E later idee, where the
buccal opening; I, gula or throat; m, m, buccal sutures; n, gular suture; o, pro-
sternum ;iJ', episternum of prothorax; p, epimeron of prothorax; q, q', q", coxae;
r, r', r", trochanters; s, s', s", femora or thighs; f, i',<", tibiae; v, «?*,»', etc., ventral
abdominal segments; w, episterua of mesothorax (the epimei'ou is just behind it);
X, mesoternum ; y, episternum of metathorax ; y', epimeron of nietathorax ; z, meta-
sternum.
Fig. .346. upper surface of Necrophorus Americanus. (After Leconte.) a, man-
dible ; b, maxillary palpus ; c, labrum ; d, clypeus ; e, antenna; ; /, front ; g, vertex ;
h, occiput; i, neck; /.-, eye: I, pronotum (usually called prothorax); to, elytron; n,
hind wing; o, scutellnm (of mesothorax); /»,metanotum (or dorsal surface of meta-
thorax) ; q, femur or thigh ; r, r, r, tergites of the abdomen; s, s*, s', spii-acles or
Btigmata; t, t', t", tibiae; v, tibial spurs; w, tarsi.
422
COLEOPTERA.
joints are triangular and compressed, giving thereby a serrate
outline to the inner edge; or clavate, as in the SilphidcBy
Fig. 347.
where the enlarged terminal joints give a rounded club-shaped
termination ; lamellate, when the terminal joints are prolonged
Fig. 348.
internally, forming broad leaf-like expansions, as in the Sea-
rate idee, while the geniculate antenna is produced when
Fig. 347. Different forms of antennae : 1, sen-ate; 3, pectinate; 3, capitate (and
also geniculate); 4, 5, 6, 7, clavate; 8, i). lamellate; 10, serrate (Dorcatoma); 11, ir-
regular (Gyrinns); 12, two-jointed antenna of Adranes csccus.
Fig. 348. 1, bipectinate; 2, flabellnte antennje; 3, maxilloe of Bembidinm; 4, of
Hydropliiliis; 5, of Pselaphns; 0, maxillary palpus of Cteuistes; 7, of Tmesipho-
rus; 8, of Tychus. — From Leconte.
COLEOPTEKA. 423
the second and succeeding joints make an angle with the first.
The mandibles are always well developed as chewing organs,
becoming abnormally enlarged in Lucanus, while in certain
Scarabeidae they are small and membranous.
The maxilloe (Fig. 34S) are supposed to prepare the food to
be crushed by the mandibles. Tlie body of the maxilla con-
sists of the cardo ; a second joint, stipes, to which last are
attached two lobes and a palpus. In certain Cicindelidce
and Carabidm, the outer lobe is slender and two-jointed like
a palpus. The maxillary palpi are usually four-jointed, some-
times with one joint less, and in but a single instance is there
any additional joint, as in Aleochara.
The mentum is geuerall}^ square or trapcEoidal, varying in
size. The labium bears the ligula, and supports the labial
palpi, and varying much in form, is thus important in classifi-
cation. The labial palpi are usually three-jointed, sometimes
two-jointed, or with no joints apparent, as in certain Stai^hy-
linidca, according to Lecoute.
The greatly enlarged prothorax is free and very movable,
the pronotum or dorsal piece, considered to be formed origi-
nally of four pieces, is usually very distinct from the pieces
composing the flanks, though sometime they are continuous.
The two hinder rings of the thorax are covered up by the
wings and do not vary in form so as to be of much use in
classification. They are respectively composed of a pra?scutum,
scutum and scutellum, and postscutellum, the first and fourth
pieces being more or less aborted. The pieces composing the
flanks are partly concealed by the great enlargement of the
dorsal parts of the segment, much more so than in the prece-
ding suborders, the side pieces being much smaller and more
diflScult to trace ; and these flank-pieces (pleurites) help form
the under surface of the body, where in the Ilymenoptera,
Lepidoptera and Diptera, they are greatly enlarged, forming
the bulging sides of the body.
The epimera and episterna of both the meso- and metatho-
rax, Lecoute states, are of much value in classification, especi-
ally those of the mesothorax, "according as they reach the
middle coxfe, or are cut off from them by the junction of the
Episterna with the metasternum." The thickened horny an-
424 COLEOPTEEA.
terior pair of wings (elytra), often retain traces of the original
veins, consisting of three or fonr longitudinal lines. Their
office in flight seems to be to assist the hind wings in sustain-
ing the body, as but rarely when the insect is on the wing do
the elytra remain quiet on the back. The membranous hind
wings are provided with the usual number of principal veins,
but these are not subdivided into veinlets. The wing is long,
narrow and pointed, with the costal edge strong, being evi-
dently adapted for a swift and powerful flight.
In the running species, such as many Carabidce , the
hind wings being useless, are aborted, and very rarely in some
tropical Lanipyridcti and Scarabmidce are both pairs of
wings wanting in both sexes, though, as in the Glow-worm
and some of its allies the females are apterous. The legs
are well developed, as the beetles are among the most power-
ful running insects. The coxae are large and of much use in
distinguishing the families. The trochantine is usually present
in the forelegs, but often absent in the middle pair ; the tro-
chanters, or second joint of the leg, is small, circular, ob-
liquely cut otf, and the femur and tibia lying next beyond
are of varying form, correlated with the habits of the insect,
the hinder pair becoming oar-like in the swimming Dytiscido'
and some Hydropliilidai ^ while in the Gyrinidm both
pairs of hind legs become broad and flat. The number of
tarsal joints varies from the normal number, five, to four and
three joints, the terminal joint as usual being two-clawed.
These claws are only known to be wanting in Phanaeus, a
Scarabaeid, and the aberrant fa^nily Styloj)idce. According
to the number of the tarsal joints the families of Coleoptera
have been grouped into the Pentamera (five-jointed), the Tet-
ramera (four-jointed), the Trhnera (three-jointed), and Hetc-
romera, which are four-jointed in the hind pair, while the first
and second pairs are five-jointed.
The abdomen, usually partly concealed by the wings, is ses-
sile, its base broad ; in form it is usually somewhat flattened.
The tergal and stei-nal portion of each ring is connected
usually by the membranous pleural piece, which represents
the epimcra and episterna of the thorax, and on which the stig-
mata are situated. While in the other suborders the typical
COLEOrXERA. 425
number of abdominal segments is ten, no more than nine have
been traced in the Coleoptera.
A few genera are capable of producing sounds by rubbing
the limbs or elytra over finely wrinkled surfaces, which in
Trox are situated on the side of the basal segments of the ab-
domen, and in Strategus on the tergum of the penultimate seg-
ment of the abdomen, while such a surface is found in Ligyrus
on the surface of the elj'tra.
The nervous system is subject to great variation in the Cole-
optera. The ganglia may be fused into three principal mas-
ses, as in the Lamellicorns, Curculionidm and Scolytidm,
where the first mass corresponds to the prothoracic ganglia,
the second and larger to the second and third thoracic ganglia,
usually separated in the other suborders, while the third oblong
mass represents the whole number of abdominal ganglia, from
which radiate the nerves which are distributed to the muscles
of the abdomen and the reproductive s^'stem. In the Cist el-
id ce, (Edemeridw and Ceramhycidm, the abdominal por-
tion of the nervous cord occupies the whole body, and there
are five ganglia in the abdomen. These two types of the ner-
vous cord sometimes run into each, but are always distinct in
the larva state.
The alimentary canal is very simple in the flesh-eating spe-
cies, going direct]}^, without many convolutions to the anus,
but in the vegetable feeders it is very long and greatly con-
voluted. The gizzard is oval in shape, its internal folds being
armed with hooks. There are two salivary glands. The urin-
ar3^ tubes are either four or six in number.
''The phosphorescent organs of the Lampyridce and cer-
tain Elateridcn consist of a mass of spherical cells, filled
with a finely granular substance and surrounded by numer-
ous trachean branches. This substance which, by daylight,
appears of a yellow, sulphur-like aspect, fills in the Lam-
2Jyrid(B, a portion of the abdominal cavity, and shines on the
ventral surface through the last abdominal segments, which are
covered with a very thin skin ; while with the Elaterid(je, the
illumination occurs through two transparent spots, situated on
the dorsal surface of the prothorax. The light produced by
these organs, so remarkablj^ rich in tracheae, is undoubtedly the
426 COLEOPTERA.
result of a combustion kept up by the air of these vessels.
This combustion expkiins the remission of this phosphores-
cence observed with tlie brilliant fire-flies, and which coin-
cides, not witli the movements of tlie heart, but with those of
inspiration and expiration." (Siebold.)
The trachcffi of the Coleoptera are always highly developed.
In the larva state they arise from two principal trunks. In the
adult, however, they branch out directly near each stigma and
distribute branches which communicate with other main trunks.
In those species which fly most, both the fine and larger
tracheae end in vesicles, which are distributed in great abun-
dance all over the body. In the Luc an i dm they are especi-
ally numerous, thus lightening the bulk of the enormously
developed head.
Tiie ovaries are arranged in the form of branches of few or
numerous tri- or multilocular tubes ; the receptaadum seminis
is wedge-shaped and often arcuate, communicating Avith the
copulatory pouch by a long flexuous spiral seminal duct, and
there is a bursa copidatrix usually present. The testes vary in
consisting of two long coeca, or two round or oblong folli-
cles, or pyriform and placed like a bunch of grapes on the
extremity of the vasa deferentia, or as in the Lamellicorns,
Cerambycidce , Ciirculionidce and Criocerid(e , they are
round, flattened, disc-like, and are situated, two to twelve in
number, on each side of the body. The organ of intromission
is very extensible, composed of the terminal segments of the
body, wliicli form a broad flattened, hairy canaliculated piece.
The larvae when active and not permanently enclosed (like
the Curculio) in the substances that form their food, are elon-
gated, flattened, wormlike, myriapodous-looking, with a large
head, well developed mouth-parts, and with three pairs of tho-
racic feet, either hornj^, or fleshy and retractile, while there is
often a single terminal prop-leg on the terminal segment of the
body and a lateral horny spine. The larvae of the Ceram-
bycidce are white, soft and more or less cylindrical, while
those of the Onrculionidre are footless or nearly so, and
resemble those of the Gall-flies, both hymenopterous and dip-
terous.
The pupae have free limbs, and are either enclosed in cocoons
COLEOPTERA. 427
of earth, or if wood-borers in rude cocoons of fine chips and
dust, united by threads, or a viscid matter supplied by tlie in-
sect. None are known to be coarctate, though some Coccin-
elliB transform within the old larva skin, not rejecting it, as
usual in the group, while other pupaj are enclosed in the cases
in which the larvtie lived. In some Sta2)hylinidce the pupa
shows a tendency to become obtected, the limbs being soldered
to the body as if it were enclosed in a common sheath. Gen-
erally, however, the antennae are folded on each side of the
clypeus, and the mandibles, maxillai and labial palpi appear as
elongated papilhie. The wing-pads being small, are shaped
like those of the adult Meloe, and are laid upon the posterior
femora, thus exposing the meso- and metathorax to view.
The tarsal joints lie parallel on each side of the middle line
of the body, the hinder pair not reaching to the tips of the
abdomen, which ends in a pair of acute prolonged forked in-
curved horny hooks, which must aid the pupa in working its
way to the surface when about to transform into the beetle.
The number of living species is between GO, 000 and 80,000,
and over 8,000 species are known to inhabit the United States.
There are about 1,000 fossil species known. They are found
as low down as the Coal Formation, though more abundant in
the Tertiary deposits and especially the Amber of Prussia.
Coleoptera have always been the favorites of entomologists.
They have been studied, when in their perfect state, more than
any other insects, but owing to the difficulty of finding their
larvie, and carr^-ing them through their successive stages of
grow'th, the early stages of comparatively few species are
known.
The most productive places for the occurrence of beetles are
alluvial loams covered with woods, or with rank vegetation,
where at the roots of plants or upon their flowers, under leaves,
logs and stones, under the bark of decaying trees, and in
ditches and by the banks of streams, the species occur in the
greatest numbers. Grass lands, mosses and fungi, the surfaces
of trees and dead animals, bones, chips, pieces of board and
excrement, should be searched diligentl}'. INIany are thrown
ashore in sea-wrack, or occur vuider the debris of freshets on
river banks. Many Carabidce. run on sandy shores. Very
428 COLEOrXEKA.
early in spring stones can be upturned, ants' nests searclied,
and tlie muddy waters sifted for species not met witli at otlier
times of tlie year.
For beating buslies a large strong ring-net should be made,
witli a stout bag of cotton cloth fifteen inches deep. This is a
/very serviceable net for many purposes. Vials of
alcohol, a few quills stopped with cork, and close
» tin boxes for larvae and the fungi, etc., in which
.1 they live, should be provided ; indeed, the collector
should never be without a vial and box. Beetles
should be collected largel}^ in alcohol, and the
Fig. 349. colors do uot chaugc if pinned soon after being
taken. Coleoptera should be placed likjh up on the pin, as in-
deed all insects should. The pin should be stuck through the
right elytron (Fig. 349) so that it shall come out beneath or
between the middle and hind pair of legs. Small species
should be pinned with minute pins, which can be afterwards
mounted on higher ones.
CiciNDELiD.E Leach. The Tiger Beetles have very large
heads, much broader than the prothorax, very long curved jaws
and long, slender legs. The outer lobe of the maxillae is biar-
ticulate, the inner usuall}^ terminated by an articulated hook.
The eleven-jointed antennae are inserted on the front above
the base of the man(lil)les. They are brownish or
greenish with metallic and purplish reflections, marked
with liglit dots and stripes. They abound in sunny
paths and sandy shores of rivers, ponds and the
ocean, flying and running swiftly, and are thus very
Fig. 350. (lifflcult to capture. The larva; (Fig. 350) are hideous
in aspect ; the head is very large with long jaws ; the thoracic
rlno-s large and broad, and the ninth ring has two large tuber-
cles each ending in two hooks, by which the hunch-backed
grub can climb up its hole, near the entrance of which it lies
in wait for weaker insects. These holes may always be found
in sandy banks frequented by the beetles.
While all the species living in the United States are ground
beetles, in the tropics there are some which live on trees. H.
W. Bates states that Ctenostoma and its allies have a greater
CICINDELID.E.
429
resemblance to ants than to the Cicindelre proper, so much so
that Avhen the insects are seen prowling in search of prey along
Fig. 351. Fig. 352. Fig. 353.
the slender branches of trees, they can scarcely be distingnished
from large ants of the Ponera group.
The genus Amhlijchila has the third joint of the maxillary
Fig. 357
Fig. 354.
palpi longer than the fourth, and the flrst joint of the labial
palpi very short, while the epiplenroe are wide. Omus differs
in the wider epipleurjB ; botli genera inhabit the Pacific States,
Fig. 308.
and the former is found as far east as Kansas. Tctracha (Fig.
351, T. Virginica Hope) has the first joint of the labial palpi
elongated. In Cicindela and allies, the third joint of the max-
430
COLEOPTERA.
illaiy palpi is shorter than the fourth. This couiitry is very
rich ill species, among the most common of which are C. gen-
erosa Dejean (Fig. 352) ; C. vulgaris Say (P'ig, 353) ; C. pur-
purea Olivier (Fig. 354) ; C. hirticollis Say (Fig, 355) ; C.
sexguttata Fabr. (Fig. 356), a bright green active species with
six golden dots ; and C. p)unctulata Olivier* (Fig. 357).
Carabid^e Leach. This is a family of very great extent,
and one very difficult to limit. In form the species vary
greatly ; the antennae are inserted behind the base of the man-
dibles under a frontal ridge ; maxilhie with the outer lobe pal-
piform, usually biarticulate, while the inner lobe is usually
Fig. 359.
curved, acute and ciliate, with spines. The epimera and cpi-
sterna of the prothorax are usually distinct ; the three anterior
segments of the abdomen, usually six, rarely seven or eight in
number, are connate. The legs are slender, formed for run-
ning ; anterior and middle coxsTi globular, posterior ones dilated
internall}', and the tarsi are five-jointed, f
*riG. 358 illustrates the external anatomy of this family: — !, heart of Cicindela;
2, maxilla; of Cicindela; 3, mentum of Onms; 4, nientum of Tetracha; 5, nicntum
of Cicindela; 6, antennas of the same; 7, abdomen of the male of the same; S, pos-
terior coxa of the same; 9, anterior tarsus of Omus (male); 10, anterior tarsus of
Cicindela. — From Leconte.
fFiG. 3.51) illustrates the external anatomy of the Carfihi<Ur: — \. extremity of
the anterior tibia of Carabus, inner fiice ; 2, maxillaj of Cychrus ; 3, head of Cychvus ;
4, head of Carabus ; 5, antenna and part of head of Lorireva ; (!, mentum of Carabus ;
7, maxilla of Carabus; 8, under surface of Pasimachus; 9, under surftice of mcso-
and metathorax of Metrius: 10, anterior tibia of Metrius; 11. under .'^^urfnce of
meso- and metathorax of Physea; 12, antennre of Pasimaclni=: 13, nientum of
Pasimachus; 14, maxilla of Pasimachus; 15, anterior tibia of Pasimachus; l(i,
head of Promecognathus; 17, mentum of Pseudomorplms, showing the indistinct
gular suture. — JPVom Leconte.
CARABID^.
431
They are, with few exceptions, predaceous beetles ; they are
runners, the hind wings being often absent. Their colors are
dull metallic or black. They run in grass,
or lurk under stones and sticks, or
under the bark of trees, whence
tliey go out to hunt in the night-
time. They may be found also
in great numbers under the debris
of freshets and under stones in
the s^jring.
The larvge are found in much
the same situations as the beetles, and are
generall}^ oblong, broad, with the terminal
ring armed with two horny hooks
or longer filaments, and with a
single false leg beneath.
The genus Omoxihron, remark-
able for its rounded convex
form, and wanting the scutellum,
is found on the wet sands by
rivers and pools, where also Ela-
■jyhrus occurs, which somewhat
resembles Cicindela. It has
slightly emarginate anterior
tibia?, Avith large prominent eyes,
Fi?- Sfi^. and rows of large shallow ocel-
late holes on the el^-tra. The
genus Calosoma is well known,
being common in fields, where it lies
in little holes in the sod, in wait for its
prey. I liavc seen C calidum Fabr.
(Fig. 360) attacking the June bug
(Lachnosterna fusca) tearing open
its sides. Its larva (Fig. 361) is
black. C. scrvtator Fabr. (Fig. 362)
is a still larger species with bright
green elytra. It is known, accord- " ^'S- 3^3.
ing to Harris, to ascend trees in search of canker-worms.
Carabus has similar habits, but differs in having the third
432
COLEOPTERA.
joint of the antennre cylindrical, while that of Calosoma is
greatly compressed. C. serratus Say (Fig. 3G3 ; a, pupa of the
European C. aui'onitens) is black bordered with
purple. The closely allied species of Cychrus^ of
rich purple and blue tints, differ in the longer head,
the deeply Inlobate labruni, and in having four of
the antennal joints smooth, with thickly striated
elyti'a. (We figure some unknown larva? of this
family which are allied to
Carabus ; Fig. 364, natural
size ; Fig. 3G5, a little en-
larged ; a, mouth parts ; 6,
end of the bod}^, and Fig.
3CG, a larva apparently of tiie
Fig. 304. same genus.) Pasimaclius
elongatus Lee. (Fig. 367) has been
found, according to Walsh, to prey on
the Dor^'phora, or Potato beetle.
The genus Scarites and its allies have
the anterior toothed palmate tibiae more
or less produced at the apex, with a
pedunculate abdomen. In Scar- ^
Ues and Pasimaclius the basal
joint of the antenna is very long ;
the former having the maxilhie
rounded at the tip, and the tho-
rax rounded behind, while in
, Pasimachus, the thorax is dis-
^'» *'^- tinctly angulated, and the max- W
illjB are hooked. In Clivinn the basal joint of the an- ^'S- 3''^-
tenuie is short, the mandibles flat and acute, and the clypeus
is not emarginate.
In Ilarpalns and allies the epimera of the mesotho-
rax do not extend to the coxfe, and the mesosternum
is large, widely separating the middle coxae. Of this
group Brachinns (B. fumans Fabr. Pig. 368), the
Bombardier beetle, with its narrow head and cordate
Fig. 368. prothorax, is remarkable for discharging with quite
an explosion from its anal glands a pungent fluid, probably
CARABID^.
433
Fig. 369.
of use as a, protection against its enemies^ They are 3'ellow-
ish red, with bluish and greenish elytra. Helluomorpha
(H. prseusta Lap. Fig. 369 ; a, mentum) has a
large mentum and much compressed antennje.
Galerita is similar but
much larger, with a red
thorax, and blue or black
elytra. Fig. 370 represents
the larva ; Fig. 371 the pupa
of G. Lecontei Dcjean, a (Southern species.
Casnonia has a rhomboidal head, with
a long narrow neck and a cylindrical tho-
rax. C. Pensylvanica De-
jcan (Fig. 372) is not un-
com mon , being f o n n d
under stones. The species
of Lehia are found upon
flowers, especially the
golden rod, in August and
September. They are gaily
colored, with the head con-
stricted behind and the
thorax pedunculate. The
Phdynus (P. cupripenne Sa}^, Fig. 373)
are often of brilliant metallic green and red colors. In Cymin-
dis, which is hairj-, the head is not constricted behind, and the
last joint of the labial palpi is dilated. In Pterosti-
cJms, which is a genus of great extent, the three basal
joints of the antennae are smooth, the
anterior tibiie are thickened at the ex-
tremity, and the dilated tarsal joints are
triangular or cordate. The species are Fig. 372.
black and of common occurrence. Amara differs
in the head not being narrowed behind, the slightly
Fig. 373. emarginate labrum and the elytra being without
the usual punctures. Zimmerman states that the species are
annual, or double brooded annually; the eggs, which are laid
beneath the surface of the soil, do not mature for several
days after coupling ; the larvae moult once, live six to eight
28
Fig. 370.
Fig. 371.
species of
434
COLEOPTERA.
Fig. 374.
weeks, a,nd the pupa lives half that time ; the beetles often
hibernate. The larva has the general form of that of Poecilus.
The species of Harpalus are large,
with a very square prothorax. H.
caliginosus Say (Fig. 374) is bene-
ficial in eating cut-worms and other
injurious larvae. Fig. 375 represents
a larva supposed to belong to this or j^
an allied genus. The blind AnojyJi-
thalmus Tellkamjlfti Erichs. from the
Mammoth Cave, has no eyes, while
the legs are ver^^ long, especially
the narrow fore tibise ; but in Tre-
cJms, which is closely allied to the blind Cave Beetle,
the eyes are as large as usual, and the legs stouter, rig. 375.
Bembidium com-
prises species of
very small size
a n d variable in
form, in Avhich the
anterior tibiiie are
not dilated at the
base. They are found abundantly' under the refuse of /<rQ]
freshets and tides, preying upon dead animal matter
and other insects, and a species of CiUemmi,
closely allied to Bembidium, is known to seize
the beach-flea, Gammarus, and devour it.
Fig. 376 (A, a little enlarged ; B, head ; c,
mandible ; e, antenna ; /, labium and its two-
jointed palpi ; g, maxillie ; h, i, j, under side
of ditferent abdominal rings) represents the
larva of a Ground beetle, which, according to
Fig. 377. "VYalsh, preys upon the larva of the Plum cur-
culio while under ground. Fig. 377 represents the Fig. 378.
supposed larva of a European species of CJdcenius, and Fig.
378 what we suppose is the larva of a beetle allied to Cillenuni.
Ampiiizoidje Leconte. The genus Amphizoa (Fig. 379, A.
insolens ; a, antenna ; 6, labrum ; c, mandibles ; d, maxillae ; e,
DYTISCIDiE.
435
ligula ; /, meutr.m ; g, prostenuim, Iront, and h, side view ; ^,
under side of the rest of the body, showing the six ventral seg-
ments of the abdomen ; J, anterior tarsus : from Horn) found
in Northern California, is the sole representative of this family
and differs from the preceding family in the metasternum be-
l> d j i
Fig. 379.
ing truncate behind, and not reacliing the abdomen, A. inso-
lens Lee. is an anomalous form, being subaquatic, and in its
structure and habits connecting the Carabidce with the suc-
ceeding family.
Dytiscid/E McLeay. The Diving Beetles, or Water Tigers,
are oval flattened elliptical beetles, which differ from the Car-
ahidm in the form of the hinder coxas, which are ver}^ large,
touching each other on the inner edge, and externall}^ reaching
the side of the body, entirely cutting off' the abdominal seg-
ments from the metathorax, Avhile the oar-like swimming legs
are covered with long hairs, and the hinder pair are much flat-
tened. The larva? are called "water tigers," being long, cy-
lindrical, with large flattened heads, armed with scissor-like
jaws with which they seize other insects, or snip off" the tails
of tadpoles, while they are even known to attack young fishes,
sucking their blood. They are known to moult several times,
four or five days intervening between the first two periods of
moulting, and ten days between the latter. The body ends in
a pair of long respiratory tubes, which they protrude into the
air, though eight pairs of rudimentary spiracles exist. When
about to transform the larva creeps on to the land, constructs
a round cell, and in about five days assumes the pupa state,
and in two or three weeks the beetle appears, if in summer, or
436 COLEOPTERA.
if in autumn hibernates as a pupa, to transform to a beetle in
the spring.
In Haliplus the antennae are ten-jointed, bristle-shaped, and
the legs are scarcely adapted for swimming, being narrow.
The body is very convex, spotted with black or gray, while
the elytra are covered with rows of punctures. In the remain-
ing genera, the types of the family, the antennae are eleven-
jointed and the hind legs oar-like. "The larvae differ not only
by their dorsal segments being armed with spines, which gives
them a very grotesque appearance, but by their possessing only
one claw, and by their anal segment (which is rudimentary
in all other Dytiscidaj) being enormously elongated and forked,
so that the anus is placed on the under side of this pe-
culiar tail, and the spiracles of the eighth pair, which are ter-
minal and tube-like in other Dytiscidce here become lateral
and quite plain." (Schiodte.) In Colymbetes and Agahus the
anterior tarsi of the males are broad, oblong, and covered be-
neath with cups of equal, or nearly equal, size. Agabus differs
in having the thorax as wide at the base as at the middle, or
still wider. In IJytiscus the ovate, not very convex body is
usually broader behind the middle, and the last joint of the
palpi is not elongated, while in AciIihs which is usually
banded, the intermediate tarsi of the male are not dilated.
Tlie females of these two genera often have the elytra deeply
furrowed, while those of the males are smootli. D[/tlsctis
fasciventris Say and Acilius mediatus ^ay are common in all
our ponds northward.
Gyrinid/E Latreille. Whirligigs. These oval bluish black
beetles are easily distinguished by their peculiar form and
habits. They are always seen in groups, gyrating and circling
about on the surface of pools, and when caught, give out a
disagreeable milky fluid. Like the previous family, upon being
disturbed, they suddenly dive to the bottom, holding on by
their claws to submerged objects. They carry down a bubble
of air on the tip of the abdomen, and when the supply is ex-
hausted rise for more.
The cylindrical eggs are placed by the female, end to end,
in parallel rows on the leaves of aquatic plants, and the larvae
KYDROPIJILID^.
437
are liatched in about eight days. They are myriapodous in
form, with a pair of large, long, lateral respiratory filaments
on each segment, much as in the larva of
Corydalus. Tliey become fully grown in Au-
gust, crawl out of the water and spin an oval
cocoon, within which the pupa remains a
month, and then appears as a beetle. In Gy-
rinus (Fig. 380, G. borealis Aube ; Fig. 381,
larva of a P:uropean species) the scntellum is
distinct; the species of Diiieutus, of which D.Ameri-
canus is a type, are larger, and lack the scntellum.
Fig. 381. Schiodte states that the larvie of Carabichf^,
Dytiscidoi and Gyrinidce difier from those of other Coleop-
tera in having double claws, while in the others the tarsus is
undivided and claw-like.
FiK. ;j80.
IIydrophilid^ Leach, Carnivorous as larv.T, but when
beetles, vegetable eaters, and living on refuse and decaying
matter, this family unites the habits of the foregoing families
with those of the scavenger Silphids, They are aquatic, small,
convex, oval, or hemispherical beetles, in which the middle and
posterior feet are sometimes adapted for
swimming ; the antenna are short, and the
palpi very long and slender. The females
spin a silken, turnip-shaped nidus for their
eggs, fifty to sixty in number, which ends
in a horny projection, serving as a respira-
tory tube to supply the young larva? with
air as they are hatched. Others carry the
cocoon about with them on the under side
of the body. To spin this large amount of
silk, they ai-e provided with two large silk
glands, with external spinnerets. The larvi^
hatch in from two to six weeks, and moult
three times ; when mature the}' are long, c}--
lindrical, tapering rapidly towards the pos-
terior end, with short legs, while the head is
flattened above and very convex beneath, with the mandibles
elevated much as in the larva of Cicindela, enabling them to
382.
438
COLEOPTERA.
seize their food hy throwing their heads buck a,nd extending
the jfiws: The larva of the European //. piceus Linn. (Fig.
382) matures in two months, then ascends to the bank, forms
an oval cocoon, and transforms to a beetle in about forty days.
In the genus Sj^erchopsis (S. tessellatus Mels.) the middle and
hind tarsal joints are equal in length. Ilydropliilus is large,
oval, olive-black and with smooth elytra. In the larva the
lateral appendages of the abdomen are soft, flexible, ciliated,
and assist in buoj'ing up the heavy, fleshy bod}' (for wdiich
purpose the antennae are ciliated) but they do not serve for
respiration as iu Berosus, another extensive genus of this
family. (SeluiJdte,) H. triangularis Say is a large, pitchy
black species. In Hydrohius the last joint of the maxillary
palpi is longer than the preceding. Spha^'idium and its allies
are characterized by an ovate, convex or hemispherical form,
Avith ten rows of punctures or strii«, though in Gydonotum
there are no striae. In Cercyon the mesosternum is not pro-
duced, and the prosternum is keeled over. "In the larvte of
Cercyon and Sphceridium, which represent the Il3'drophilino
type modified for life on dry land (thougli in humid places),
we find neither lateral abdominal appen-
dages, nor even true feet, the animal wrig-
gling its way through tlie debris amongst
which it lives, whilst the last abdominal
segment is the largest of all and is often
armed with hooks." (Schiodte.)
Platypsyllid^ Leconte. The only spe-
cies of this family known is a small brown
insect, -16 inch long {^PlatypsyUa castoris
Ritsema, Fig. 382\ enlarged), found on
the American beaver. The body is broad, ^'S- 2^■^'•
flattened, eyeless, with short elj'tra, and spiny on the legs and
salient parts of the body, as in the flea. Leconte remarks that
its affinities are "very composite, but all in the direction of the
Adephagous and Clavicorn series, though chiefly with the latter.'
SiLPMiO/E Leach. The Carrion or Sexton beetles are useful
in burying decaying bodies, in which they lay their eggs.
SCYDMTENID^.
439
The larviB are criistaceous, flattened, with the sides of the
body often serrated, bhTck, and of a fetid odor. They undero-o
their transformations in an oval cocoon. In Necropliorus {¥\o-.
346, N. Americanus Oliv.) the antenna have ten apparent
^^^---^^^^ joints, and the rounded clnb is
'=^'^mJL_^^ four-jointed. The genus Silpha^ of
which >S'. Lajyponica Ilerbst (Fig.
383, larva fully grown ; 384, young, <
from Lal)rador) is a common spo- ZL
cies, diflTers in the third joint of \L--
the antenna being no longer than kr
the second, but shorter than the a~
first. In Necrojjhihis the third joint C~
is as long as the first. N. Surina- ^
mensis Fabr. has a yelloAv thorax
with a central irregular black spot.
Catops and its allies live in fungi,
carrion and ants' nests, and are
small, black, oval insects. The
Fig. 384. eyeless Adelops liirtus Tellk. is blind, wanting the
eyes, and is found in Mammoth Cave. Am'sotoma and allies,
with eleven-jointed antenna?, are oval and sometimes hemis-
pherical, and capable of being rolled up into a hc.W.
They are of small size and found in fungi, or under
the bark of dead trees. Afjatlddium (Fig. 385, larva
of tlie European A. seminnlum) has the club of the
antennjB three-jointed. Clainhns and allies comprise
exceedingly minute species, found in decaying vege-
table matter.
An aberrant form is BmtJiimcs, two species of which,
B. nitidus Lee. and B. varicornis Lee, have been
found from Lake Superior to Nova Scotia, about the
roots of grass in damp places. According to Leconte, they arr
small shiny insects of graceful form, and distinguished by the
prominent middle coxae.
ScYDM/ENiD^ Leach. The species of this small group differ
from the Pselaphidm to which they are closely allied by their
long elytra and distant conical posterior coxse. They are mi-
440 COLEOPTERA.
Bute, oval, brown, shiny insects found under stones near water,
under bark and in ants' nests. Scydmamus is tiie typical genus.
PsELAPiiiD.E MacLeay. In this group the laliial palpi are
very small, while the four-jointed maxillary palpi are of re-
markable length ; the eyes are composed of large lenses, and
are sometimes wanting ; the elytra are short, truncated, beneath
which the wings, when present, are folded and the legs are
long and the femora are stout, while l)eyond tlie leg is usually
slender. "The species are very small, not exceeding one-
eighth of an inch in length, and are of a chestnut-ljrown color,
usually slightly pubescent ; the head and thorax are most fre-
quently narrower than the elytra and abdomen, which is con-
vex and usually obtuse at tip. Many are found flying in
twilight; their habits at other times are various, some being
found in ants' nests, while otliers occur under stones and bark.
North America seems to be rich in this family ; more than lifty
species are knoAvn to me, and several of the genera ha\'e not
occurred in other countries. This family closely approaches
the Staphyliyiidce , but the ventral segments are fewer in
number, and not freely moving, and the eyes are composed of
large lenses." (Leconte.) The genus Claviger and its allies
Adranes emeus Leconte, which is found in ants' nests in Nortli-
ern Georgia, have antennae with less than six joints ; it is
blind, and the antennse have only two joints. Psdaplnis and
its allies have eleven-jointed, rarely ten-jointed antennae.
Staph YLixiDyE Leach. The Eove-beetles are easily recog-
nized by their long linear black bodies, with remarkably short
el3-tra, and seven to eight visible horny abdominal segments.
The maxillae are bilobate, usually ciliated, with four-jointed
palpi, except in Aleochara, when there is an additional joint :
the antennae, variable in form and insertion, are usually eleven-
jointed, and while the legs are variable in length and form,
the anterior coxae are usually large, conical, prominent and
contiguous. Though sometimes an inch in length, they are
more commonly minute, inhabiting wet places under stones,
manure heaps, fungi, moss, under the bark or leaA'cs of trees.
Many species inhabit ants' nests, and should be carefully
STAPH YLINIDiE . 441
sought for on dewy mornings under stones and pieces of vv ood,
which should be taken up and shaken over a white clotii or
paper ; or tlie Vv'liole nest should be sifted through a rather
coarse sieve, when the small beetles will fall through tlie
meshes. The eggs are very large. The larv;e (Fig. 386, un-
der side of a larva probabl}^ belonging to this family, fr&m
Maine, enlarged twice) closely resemble the beetles, being
narrow, the segments of very equal size, the terminal ring
forming a long prop-leg, on each side of which there
is a long ciliate seta. In the pupsB the hind wings
are not folded beneath the el3'tra, but extend below, ^
meeting upon the breast.
In the true Staphylini the anterior cox.ne are prou^.i-
nent and their coxal cavities are open behind. Aleo-
chara and its allies are difficult to distinguish, as tlie
characters separating them are but slightl}^ marked ;
they have the maxillary palpi moderate in length, with
the second and third joints also of moderate length,
the fourth small, subulate, distinct, and in Aleochara •^'^- ^^^'■
itself there is an additional very small fifth joint. In Tloma-
lota, numerous in species, the ligula is short and bilid, and the
first to the fourth joints of the hind tarsi decrease in length.
In TacJiyporns and allies the prothoracic spiracles are visible ;
the anterior coxte are large, conical and prominent, with the
trochanters very distinct, while the antennae are inserted under
the lateral margin of the front. The species are
usually convex above, with the thorax always ample,
arched and highl3r polished, and the abdomen conical,
sometimes very short. They are found partly in
fungi, partly under bark. Dr. Leconte, whom we
have been quoting, states that the species of Bolito-
hias usually have the head much elongated ; when,
however, the head is oval, they approach closely to
the genus Quedius of the next tribe, but are recog-
nized by the antennae being inserted at the lateral ^'»- "^~-
margin of the front, near the eyes, and not at the anterior
angle of the frontal margin, as in Quedius.
In StaphyUnns the antennae are inserted on the anterior mar-
gin of the front, inside of the base of tne mandibles, but dis-
442
COLEOPTEEA.
Fig. 388.
tant from each other ; the thorax is punctured and pubescent^
tlie middle coxfe slightly separate, "svhile the abdomen is nar-
rowed at the tips. Fig. 387 represents the larva of this or a
closely allied genus found in a humble bee's nest. Philontlius
differs in having the femora unarmed. The species
li\'e in decaying matters and excrement. The spe-
cies of Pmderus (Fig. 388, the larva of the European
P. tempestivus Erichs.) are found under stones, etc.,
near water.
In Stenus, of which S. stygicus Say and ^S". Jinw
Fabr. are types, the eyes are large and prominent, so
that the head resembles that of Cicindela and the
antennae are inserted upon the front between the
eyes ; the labrum is entire and rounded anteriorly, the para-
glossae are dilated, rounded, and the body is coarsely punctured,
while that of its nearest ally Dianous is finel}^ punctured and
r the paraglossiB are connate and indistinct.
/^ J Another small group of genera is repre-
sented by Oxt/porns, which is found in fungi,
and which has a large head, with
large long mandibles crossing each
I/t:'''\ X'-.K iP^/y other, and five-jointed tarsi ; and
/[■/ /■•••:•■ |\ !'' I Oxytdiis which is found in wet
places and in dung, and has three-
"• jointed tarsi, with a row of spines
on the front tibiiie, and the middle coxae
separated.
Antho'phagus cmsns?, Harris Correspond-
ence (Fig. 389 ; a, maxilla), is found in wet ground where
speai*mint grows, of which it diffuses a strong odor.
In Omalium the antennae are inserted under the lateral mar-
gin of the front, the elytra are long, and the tibiae finely- spi-
nous. 3Iicralymma is closely allied, but differs in the elytra
being very short. The genus Microx)ej)lus is squarish in form
and connects the present family with the one following.
389.
Hif^TERiD.E Leach. As stated by Leconte, "this is a very
well defined family of insects, moderately numerous, nearly all
of a shining black color, with the elytra variously sculptured
TRICHOPTEIlYGIDiE. 443
with striae ; some few species of Hister and Saprinus have the
elytra marked Avitli red, and a few of the Litter genus are
metallic in color. The form of the body is variable ; those of
the lirst group are oblong and flat, with prominent mandiljlea ;
the others are round, oblong oval, globose, some depressed
and some convex. The species live under the bark of trees, in
excrement and in carcasses. When disturbed the insects
retract the antennae and feet, appearing as if dead. The an-
tennas are geniculate, tho eighth and following joints forming
a compact annulated, rounded or (rarely) triangular clubo
The elytra are truncate behind, leaving two segments of the
alidomen uncovered. The linear flattened larvae have the ter-
minal ring ending in two l>iarticulated appendages, and a
single anal prop-leg. The larva of the European Ulster ^^
merdarius (Fig. 390) lives in cow dung, forming a cell in
which it transforms, and like Anthrenus, the pale brown
pupa retains the larva skin about it. In Hister the head
is retracted ami bent downwards, and the club of the
antenna is round and annulated. Hister interruptus
Beauv. and A. marginicoUis Lee. arc common northward. Fig. 390
The genus Iletcerins difters in the antennal club being
obconical, truncate and solid. Tiic species are found only in
ants' nests early in the spring. In Scqjrinus the antennae are
inserted under the margin of the front ; the antennal cavities
being at the sides of the prosternum proper. The species are
mostly found in carrion and in dung.
ScAPHiDiiD^. MacLeay. "This family," according to Dr.
Leconte, "contains small oval or rounded oval, convex, very
shining insects, living in fungi. The sides of the thorax are
oblique, and the head small, so as to make the body somewhat
pointed in front ; the thorax is very closely applied to the
front, and the elytra are broadly truncate, permitting the tip
of the conical abdomen to appear." In Scaphidium the an-
tennae are clavate, the eyes emarginate, the posterior tibiae are
not spinous, and the first joint of the posterior tarsi longest.
TiiicnoPTERYGiD.E (Trichoptcrygia Erichson). This incon-
siderable family comprises the smallest beetles known. The
444 COLEOPTERA.
oleven-jointetl antenutt, which are verticillate, with long hairs,
are inserted at the margin of the front, and the club is long
and loosely articulated. The beetles live under the bark
of trees and in ants' nests. The larvae are carnivorous,
being very active, without ocelli, and with cjiindrical
bodies, with four-jointed antennse and long four-jointed
legs. TricJiopteryx is known by its pubescent bodj',
and laminate posterior coxse. One species is one-third
of a line long ; others are still smaller. The larva
iMg. 391^^. ^j^g European T. intermedia Gillmeister (Fig. 391,
enlarged) feeds on Podura?.
Phalacrid.e Erichson. "A small number of oval or
rounded oval, convex, shining insects, constitute this faniilj-.
They are found on flowers, and sometimes nnder bark. The
elytra have sometimes approximate rows of small punctures,
but more usually only a sntural stria. The scutellum is larger
than usual, trianguhir. One of the four genera (Tol3'phus)
of this fomily is wanting in our fauna. The other three are
separated by the form of the posterior tarsi." (Leconte.) In
Phalacrus tlie anterior and posterior tarsi are of the same
length. The larvae are vegetable feeders, living iu the flowers
of composite plants.
NiTiDULARi^ Latreille. This family includes small oval or
elliptical, flattened beetles, which are sometimes almost globu-
lar. The head is suddenly narrowed before the insertion of
the antennae, thus forming a short beak, and the antennae may
^ be partially retracted into a groove under
the eyes. The larvae are both carnivorous
and vegetable-feeders ; they are elongated,
with two to four-jointed antennae, three ocelli
on each side, with a flattened hairy body,
ending in four small, horny, recurved tuber-
cles. The pupae may be found under the
surface of the ground in earth and sawdust.
CarpopMlus has the second and third abdominal segments
short, while the first, fourth and fifth are longer, and the claws
are simple. CarpopMlus antiquus Mels. is a well known spe-
COLYDIID^. 445
cies, Mtidula and its allies are elliptical depressed, often
with a broad margin ; the elytra covers the whole abdomen, or
leaves merely' the tips exposed. In Nitidula the last joint of
the labial palpi is not thicker than the preceding, and the
species often have two red spots on the elytra, as in Nitidula
hipustidata Fabr. In Epuroia^ which is found under stones and
bark, the last joint of the palpi is large and thick. Omosita
colon Fabr. is also spotted twice with red ; the genus may be
recognized by the antennal grooves diverging behirid, following
the outline of the eyes, while in the males the sixth abdominal
segment is wanting. Ijys is much longer and larger, with trun-
.cate elytra, and the head is immersed in the thorax to the
eyes. Ips sanguinolentus Say has a broad red band on the
elytra, with two large round dots. I2)S fasciatus Say (Fig.
391, and larva ; found in the roots of the squash by Mr. M. C.
Read) has two broad interrupted yellow bands on the elytra ;
both species occur about flowing sap in spring. Ips femiginea
of Europe lives on the young of Hylesinus lignipercla. Rldzo-
phagus depressus is known in Europe to attack the larvae of
Hylurgus piniperda, according to Dufour.
MoNOTOMiD.E Chaudoir. The species of this inconsiderable
group are much like the preceding family in form, but as Le-
conte states, ditfer from them in the anterior coxai being small,
rounded and separated. They occur under the bark of trees.
Tkoc.ositid^ Kirby. This group, usually united with the
preceding family, is distinguished by the bilobate maxillae, with
the short, four-jointed maxilhij and the short undilated tarsi.
They generally live under bark, but some have been trans-
ported over the whole world in grain. In Trogosita, which
comprises long insects, with the thorax narrowed behind, the
ligula is entire, the tibire are not spinous, and the thorax is*
prominently angulated in front.
CoLYDiiD.^. Erichson. The small globular anterior and
middle coxa?, and the four-jointed simple tarsi will enable them,
Leconte states, to be readily distinguished from any of the
neighboring families. The species are of small size, usually
446 COLEOPTEIIA.
rather long and cylindrical, and occur in fungi, in the earth, or
under the bark of trees. ColycUum is slender, with finely
striate elytra, and the anterior tibite have one spur enlarged
and hooked ; while the first joint of the tarsi is elongated.
G. elongatum is stated by European authors to attack the larvae
of Platypus, a genus allied to Scolj'tus.
Rhyssodid.e Erichson. This group, by some authors united
with the preceding family, simulates the form of the Carabids.
The antennie are, however, composed of equal globular joints,
and the head is strongly constricted behind into a neck. They
are found under bark. In Bhj/ssodes the eyes are placed upon
the side, and in the other genus, Clinidium, upon the upper
surface of the head.
CucujiD^ Latreille. The species of this family are very
much flattened long insecuS, with flat, strongly emarginated
elytra, and the abdomen has five full segments, equal in length.
They are found under bark. The larvae are quite transparent,
with the terminal joint ending in two horny curved hooks.
The antennae are four-jointed, the limbs provided with a single
claw, and there are five ocelli on each side of the head. In Syl-
vanus^ which is of small size, the nine to eleven-jointed an-
tennae do not have the first joint elongated as usual, while the
terminal ones are enlarged. /Si/Ivanus Surinamensis Linn, is
one-ninth of an inch long, of a rusty brown color, and covered
with short yellowish hairs. The larva is a flattened j^ellowisli
white grub, with the terminal joint somewhat conical. It breeds
in bran, rice and wheat. Oucujus is a bright scarlet flattened
insect, with punctured el3^tra, and three faintly marked smooth
lines. The larvae differ from those of S3lvanus b}' having two
horny tubercles at the end of the abdomen ; they are often
found in granaries.
Cryptophagid.e Kirby. This family differs from the pre-
ceding group in the greater length of the first abdominal ring,
the thickened body, and in the thorax being as wide as the
el^'tra. Antherojyliagus is readily known by its resemblance to
Epuraea among the Nitidulid(B , as its head and body is flat,
MYCETOniAGID^.
447
the front not prolonged, and in the male is deeply excised at
the tip. Tlie autenniie of the female are clubbed as usual, and
the mandibles are prominent and suddenly ijicurved at
the tips. It is often found on flowers in the perfect
state. We have found tlie larvae (Fig. 393 ; «, end
of abdomen) of Antheropliagas ochraceus Say (Plate
3, fig. 4) in the nests of humble bees during July and
August. They are whitish, and .32 of an inch in
length. The beetles are of a pale honey yellow, with y
little darker antennae, legs and elytra, while the ends
of the antennal joints, the base of the coxje and tibise, Fig. 393.
and tip of the terminal joint of the tarsi arc black.
The larAa of the European Cnjptophagus hirtus Gyll.
(Fig. 394) is found in cellars.
Derodontid/E Leconte. In these insects the
transverse form of the anterior and posterior coxae
Fig. 394. (^wliich latter are slightly separated), dilated inter=
nally, forming a small plate to protect the insertion of the
thigh, distinguishes this group from all the preceding
families, and approximates it somewhat to the families
following the Elateridm.
Latiiridiid^ Redtenl)acher. Leconte states that
the insects of this small family are of very small size,
f(jund flying in twilight, and also under bark and
stones ; they are of graceful form, the elytra heino-
us ually wider than the thorax ; the species of Bonvou-
loiria and most of the species of Lathridius (Fig,
395, larva of L. minutus Linn., enlarged) are very
remarkably sculptured, with elevated lines on the thorax.
Otiixiid.e Leconte. Othuius umbrosiis Lee. is the type of
tins family. It occurred in Nebraska, near the Rocky Moun-
tains.
Mycetophagid^ Leach. The genus MycetopJiagus is finely
punctured with closely appressed hairs ; the anterior coxal
cavities are open ; the tarsi are four-jointed and filiform, the
448 COLEOPTERA.
anterior pair in tlie males having but three joints ; the frontal
suture is always distinct and usually deep ; the eyes are trans-
verse and the antennye gradually enlarged externally.
Dermestid.e Leach. These well known insects have the
head small and deflexed, with short mandibles, rounded eyes,
with a single ocellus ; the prothorax is short, sometimes exca-
1^ vated for the reception of the antenmie, which are in-
serted in front of the e3'es and are usually eleven-jointed,
^S and the legs are short, somewhat contractile, the tarsi
g being five-jointed. In Byturus the mandibles have seA'-
eral teeth, and the claws are armed Avith a large basal
Fg. 396- tooth. They are small oval brown beetles found eating
flowers. Mr. J. L. Russell of Salem, has called my attention
to the ravages committed by B. unicolor Say on the raspberry ;
it eats the flowers, being most abundant during June, and for
two or three summers has been very abundant. Hand picking-
was found to be the best remedy. Every entomologist dreads
the presence of Dermestes and Anthrenus in his cabinet.
The ugl}^ bristly, insidious larva, which so skilfully hides
in the body whose interior it consumes, leaving only
the shell ready to fall to pieces at the slightest jar, can
be kept out only with the greatest precautions. Der-
mestes lardarius Linn., the larger of the two, is oblong
oval, with short legs, black, with the base of the elytra
gray buff, covered by two broad lines. It is timid and
F,g. 307. slow in its movements, and when disturbed seeks a
shelter, or mimics death. We have found the larva (Fig.
396) of probably another species of Dermestes, craAvling up
the side of an out-house. It was nearly twice the size of
D. lardarius. Attagenus j)oUio Stephens is another insect
which infests museums. It is shorter than Dermestes, black,
with two dots on the wing covers. The larva (Fig. 397, en-
larged three times) is long and slender, cylindrical, with red-
dish brown hairs closely appressed to the body, givii^g it a
silky, shining appearance. The abdomen ends in a long pen-
cil of hairs. It has been known to eat holes in carpets.
Anthrenus varixs Fabr. (Fig. 398 ; a, larva ; b, pupa) is
rounded oval, with transverse waved lines. Its larva is thick,
GEORYSSID^.
449
Fig. 398.
with long bristles, which are largest on the end of the body.
They are generally destrnctivo in museums, and prey on stufied
specimens of all sorts. The beetles fly about early in spring
and then lay their eggs. The insect is found in all its stages
through the year. They may be killed like the Clothes-moth,
also found in museums, by saturating the specimen infested
by them with benzine. To pre-
vent their attacks, they should
be kept out of collections b}-
keeping benzine in constant
evaporation in open vessels.
Camphor and turpentine and
creosote are also very useful.
Insects recently prepared should
be placed in quarantine, so we may be sure none of the mu-
seum pests will be introduced into the drawers or cases of the
cabinet while either in the egg or larva state. Their presence
in cabinets may be detected by the dust they make falling on
the white surface beneath. Specimens thoroughly impregnated
with carbolic acid, or arsenic, or. corrosive sublimate, will not
be attacked by them.
BYRuinD.'E Leach. Pill Beetles. This group has the head
retracted under the thorax, with the parts of the mouth more
or less protected by the prosternum ; the legs are short, stout
and retractile, and the antennae are clavate. The typi-
cal species are "oval or rounded, verj^ convex, dull
black or bronzed insects, covered with a fine, easily
removed pubescence, forming varied patterns." In
Byrrhus all the tarsi are retractile. We have taken
Byrrhus Americanus Lee. in Labrador, on the stems
of the "Labrador tea." They are found in cold
mountainous districts. The larvae (Fig. 399, larva
of B. pillula Illiger, a European species found in moss) are
fleshy, cylindrical, with the last two rings of the body larger
than the others.
Georyssid.e Heer, This family consists of but a single
genus, characterized by Leconte as comprising small, rounded,
29
450 COLEOPTERA.
convex, roughly sculptured, black insects, found at the mar-
gins, of streams, on Avet sand ; they cover themselves with a
mass of mud, so that no part of the insect is visible. Georys-
sus ijasillus Lee. is our only species.
Parnid^ MacLeay. These are aquatic beetles, having a
retractile head, and are often found clinging to submerged
stones, both in the larval and pupal states. Tlie body of
the beetle is "• clothed with a fine pu-
bescence, enabling a film of air to be
preserved beneath the water." The
larvse are hemispherical like a basin.
"■The larva of Psej)lienus Lecontei
Ilald. (Fig. 400, under side, enlarged
three times) is an elliptical object,
Fig. 400. with the margins widely extended be-
yond the bod^s and is seen on stones under the water of rapid
sti'eams ; it is especially abundant in the rapids of Niagara,
and differs in no important particular from the larwa of Heli-
chus of the next subfamily. It respires by branchial fila-
ments." (Leconte.) EJmis (Fig. 401, larva of a European
species) is known by the narrow, elongate scutellum.
IIeterocerid^ MacLeay. "This family consists of but a
single genus, Heterocerus ; it is represented in every portion
of our territory. The species are numerous, but Aery similar
in form and color, so that care is necessary in distinguishing
them. They are oblong or subelongate, oval, densel}^ clothed
with short, silky pul)escence, very finely'- punctuate, and of a
brown color, Avith the elytra usually variegated with undulating
l)ands or spots of a yellow color. They live in galleries
which they excavate in sand or mud at the margin of bodies
of water, and, when disturbed, run from their galleries and take
flight, after the manner of certain species of Bembidium,"
(Leconte.)
LucAKiDyE Latrcille. This family is closely allied to the
next, and is often united with it, as it differs chiefly from
the outer lamellate joints of the autennse not being so closely
SCARAB^ID^.
451
Fig. 402.
united into a compact club, as in the Scarabeidae, and the
mentum is usually large. The genus Lucanus, called the Stag-
horn beetle, is of large size, with enormously developed jaws
in the male, as in Lucanus
dama Fabr. (Fig. 402,
$). The larva of Lu-
canus dama (Fig. 403, and
cocoon, natural size) is
long, thick, nearly cylin-
drical, and the corneous
rust-colored head is armed
with two large jaws. Liv-
ing in rotten wood, like
the Cerambycidoi, it
constructs a cocoon of the
chips it makes. The larva
of the European L. cervus
is stated by Eoesel to live
six years. Harris states that they lay their eggs in crevices of
the bark of trees, especially near the roots. The larvae resem-
ble the grubs of the Scarabaeaus in color and form, but are
smoother, being less
wrinkled. Dorcas hre-
vis Say (Fig. 404) is
an exceedingly rare in-
sect whose habits are
unknown. In Passalus
cornutus Fabr., belong-
ing to a more aberrant
genus, the body is long
Fig. 403. and flattened with a
short bent hook on the head, and the elytra deeply striate.
Madam Merian describes the larva of Passalus as being a
thick fleshy worm, with a small scaly head, six legs, and
slender posteriorly ; it lives in decaying wood.
ScARAB^iD^ Erichson. This family, the Lamellicornia of
Latreille, is one of immense extent, being divided into more
than 700 genera, comprising some 6,000 species, or three-
452
COLEOPTERA.
Fig. 404.
fourths as man}' Coleoptera as are known to live in this
country. They comprise the mammoths among insects, and it
is in the tropics that Ave meet with tlie most numerous and
bizarre, as well as gigantic forms. Alwaj-s
readily recognized by their clubbed lamel-
late antennae, the terminal joints being
expanded into broad flat leaves, which, at
the will of the insect, can be closely shut
into a compact club, or loosely expanded
fan-like, and laid under the projecting cly-
peus, so overhanging the mouth-parts as
to give rise to the terms beetle-horned,
and "beetling;" these insects, by their
robust, thick, often square body, short fos-
sorial legs, with large hooked claws for seizing leaves and
stems, have been well known to all observing persons, however
slight their entomological knowledge. The larvtie are thick
and fleshy cylindrical grubs, with a corneous head, and rather
long four-jointed antennae; the ocelli are generally wanting ;
the legs are stout and long, without claws, and the last ab-
dominal segment is soft and baggy. The body
is often Aery transparent, the tracheaj api)ear-
ing through. Fig. 405 represents a singular
larva (magnified twice) of this family from
Mr. Sanborn's collection.
The genus Copris and allies arc known by
their rounded form, and the broadl}^ expanded
cljpeus, which covers in the mouth-parts. In
some species (those of Deltochilum) the anterior
tarsi aro wanting either in the females or both
sexes ; and in some species a stridulating ap-
paratus is found on the upper surface of the
Fig. 405. abdomen. In Copris the labial palpi are dilated,
the first joint of the antennal club does not receive the others,
and the claws are distinct. The larva of G. Carolina Fabr.,
while, according to Osten Sacken, having the general appear-
ance of the larvae of the Lamellicorns, is much thicker and
curved up, the back being much swollen and "distended into
a liump-like expansion. It is about two inches long and of a
SCARAB^IDiE. 453
dirty yellowish white. Each larva was found enclosed in
a globular case of dung or earthy matter, about an inch and a
quarter in diameter." (Proceedings of the Entomological
Society of Philadelphia, vol. i, pi. 1, fig. 1.)
The closety allied Fhaneus carnifex MacLeay is common
southward, and easily known by its brilliant copper colored
thorax and bright green elytra, and by the large horn on the
head of the male. These insects are called '^ Tumble-bugs," as
they enclose their eggs in pellets of manure, holding them be-
tween their hind legs, and rolling them away to a place of safety.
The species of Aphodins live also in manure ; they are quite
small, nearly cylindrical, with the mouth-parts concealed by
the clypeus ; the antennae are nine-jointed, the club consisting
of three joints, and the lobes of the maxillae are membrana-
ceous, unarmed, while the upper parts of the eyes are visible in
repose. Aphodias Jimetarms Linn,, which is black with bright
red elytra, has been introduced from Europe, and is abundant
in woods, flying over dung ; it is now common in the carriage
road of Mount Washington. Fig, 406 represents the larva of
the European A. fossor Linn. Chapuis and Candeze
found it in manure in spring. Oeotrupes has eleven-
jointed antenniie, with the club three-jointed, the mid-
dle cox.ie are contiguous, and while the club of its
nearest ally, Bolbocerus, a shorter insect, is largo
and lenticular in form, that of the present genus
is lamellate, as usual. Geotrupes splendidus Fabr. is ^'^' ^"''•
a common beetle, with a bright shining green bod}^ flying in
paths and wood roads late in the summer. The species of
Trox ditt'er in having slightly fossorial legs ; they are oblong
convex, the surface being very rough and co\ered with dirt
which is scraped off with difliculty. They live in dried deca}--
ing animal matter, and, according to Leconte, "possess a dis-
tinct stridulating organ ; it is an elliptical plate, with pearly
reflections, occupying the upper part of the external face of
the ascending portion of the first ventral segment, and is cov-
ered by the elytra ; on the inner surface of the elytra, near the
margin, about opposite the thorax, is an oval, smooth, polished
space, which has, probably, some connection with the stridu-
lating organ." The larva of " Trox Carolina Dej." (T. scabrc
454
COLEOPTERA.
sus Beauv. Fig. 407), is described by Chapuis and Candeze as
coming from New Orleans.
Melolontha and its allies come next in the series. They feed
exclnsively on liA-ing plants. The genus Acratus was estab-
lished by Dr. Horn for A. jiavipeyinis Horn (Fig,
408 ; a, antenna ; 6, maxilla ; c, mentum ; c?, mandi-
ble ; e, anterior leg and tarsal claw) found in Ari
zona. The genus Diclielonycha is distinguished by
the front margin of the thorax being narrow and
membranous, with equal claws, cleft at the tip. Di-
chelonycha elongatnla Sclionh. is a long green beetle, with long
legs, and of a metallic green color ; it is found in June on the
leaves of the birch.
Macrodactylus sub-
spinosns Fabricius, the
well known Rose-bug
or Rose-chafer, is
brown, covered with
ochreous scales ; the
Fig. 408. legs, tarsi and claws
are very long and slender. It overruns garden plants, especi-
ally injuring the rose leaves. Dr. Harris has observed the
transformations of this insect. The nearly globular whitish
eggs, about thirty in number, are deposited by the female
from one to four inches beneath the surface of the soil, and are
hatched in about twenty days. The whitish
larva becomes fully grown in the autumn, and
is then three-quarters of an inch long and an
eighth of an inch wide. In October it descends
below the reach of frost, and in the next
May is transformed to a pupa in an oval
earthen cell. The pupa is yellowish white,
somewhat of the form of the beetle, with short wings ; its
antennae and legs folded on its breast, with its white body
surrounded b}'' a thin film. The beetles may be often seen in
clusters on low bushes in partiall}^ cleared fields having just
appeared from their cocoons. Dr. Horn has described the
genus Plectrodes for a Californian species, P. pnhescens Horn
(Fig. 409; a, maxilla and palpus; &, tarsal claw). The well
SCAEABiEID^.
455
Fig. 410.
known June-bug or Dor-bug, Lachnosterna fusca Fro hi. (Fig.
410, 411, larva; 412, side view of pupa), lives as a larva on
the roots of g)-ass and is often turned up by the spade or
plough. It is then a large fleshy grub, very com-
monly met with, and is injurious to growing corn
and wheat. The pupa is found in its rude earth-
en cocoon in IVIay. The beetles are very injuri-
ous to the leaves of fruit trees. They are chest-
nut brown, with j^ellowish hairs beneath, and
nearly an incli in length. There are several
smaller, closely allied species. Melolontlia (Poly-
phylla) variolosa Harris differs in its enormously developed
six-jointed lamellate antennal club, that of the female being
much smaller.
In Anomala the body is small, the an-
tennoe nine-jointed, and the mandibles when
at rest do not project beyond the clypeus.
Such is Anomala varians Fabr., which is
very injurious to the vine in June and
July. Pelidnota jmnctata Linn, has similar
habits. It is oblong oval, very convex
above, with dull brownish yellow elytra,
with tin-ee large black dots on each side. It is often abun-
dant on grape-vines in July and August, and proves very
injurious.
The Cotalpa lanigera Linn. (Fig. 413 ; a, larva) or the Gold-
smith beetle, is nearl}^ an inch long, briglit yellow, with long
wliite, woolly hairs beneath, where it is metallic
green. It often injures fruit and shade trees, and
Mr. S. Lockwood states that in the larva state it
destroys the roots of the strawberry plant. He
remarks that on the IGth of June a pair of Cotal-
pas coupled, and m the evening the female bur-
rowed beneath the dirt, reappearing the next
morning, having meanwhile laid at different
depths, and singly, fourteen Avhite, long, oval e«o-s ;
on the 13th of July the larvaj hatched, being five-sixteenths
of an inch long. (American Naturnlist, vol. ii, p. 441.)
In Dynastes the labial palpi are inserted on the sides of the
Fiff. 411.
Fig. 412.
456
COLEOPTERA.
mentum, which is acuminate in front ; the head and thorax are
armed, with large horns in the males ; the first joint of the pos-
terior tarsi is not elevated, and there are no stridulating or-
gans. Our only species is Dynastes Tityus Linn., found in
the Soutliern States. It is over two inches long, of a greenish
gray color, with black spots scattered irregularly over the ely-
tra. Dynastes Herctdes Linn., one of the giants of the family,
is about six inches long.
The genus Cetonia and its allies are flower beetles ; their
mandibles are feebly developed and in part membranous and
concealed with tlie other oral organs beneath the clypeus ; and
in flying they "do not raise or expand the elytra, as most Cole-
optera do, but pass the wings from the side, under the elytra,
which do not at all
embrace the sides of
thebod3\" (Leconte.)
The immense Go-
liath beetles of the
western coast of
Africa belong to the
genus GoHathvs, in
which the clj^peus of
the males is generally
forked or armed Avith
horns. Dr. Harris has jDroposed the name of Hegemon "for
the subgenus, including the princely Scarabcejis Goliathns of
LinUtieus, together with the still more magnificent GoUathus
Druru of West wood, and the G. Cacicus of Gory and Per-
eheron." Of Hope's subgenus MecynorJdna, the Scarabaeus
Polyphemus of Fabricius is the type ; it is velvet green above,
with a pale buft' head and markings, and is two and a half
inches long, exclusive of the horns. Dr. Harris has also
described as new to science M. Savagii which has a velvet
green thorax, and velvet black elytra, with tawny bands and
spots ; it is about two inches long. The G. GoUathus is per-
haps the largest of all the Coleoptera ; specimens measuring
nearly four inches. Dr. G. A. Perkins of Salem, Mass., Avho
collected a large part of the fine series of specimens of these
Goliath beetles in the Museum of the Peabody Academy of
Fiff. 413.
scArwVB^iD^. 457
Science, informs me tliat they are found in the tops of trees
where they feed on flowers and on sap exuding from wounds
in the bark, lilie tlie Cetonias, and that the natives obtain
them by jarring the trees. Harris states that "it appears,
from the observations of Dr. Savage, that tho food of the
Goliatli beetles is fluid, like tliat of tlie Tricliii and Cetoniae,
insects belonging to the same natural family, but the latter live
chiefly on the nectar of flowers, and the former on the sap of
plants. The long brushes on tneir jaws, and the diverging
rows of hairs that line their lower lips, are admirably fltted for
absorbing liquid food ; while their horny teeth afford these
beetles additional means for obtaining it from the leaves and
juicy stems of plants, when the blossoms have disappeared."
Fron.i Cetonia, Lacordaire has separated the genus Enryomia,
distinguished by the untoothed niaxillne, by the clypeus being
usually paral)olic, sometimes parallel and rarely emarginate iu
front. Euryomia Inda Linn, attacks
ripe peaches, spoiling them for the
market. They are found about run-
ning sap in April and flying in fields in
May, and a new brood appears in Sep-
tember. In Osmoderma the elytra are
not sinuate on the sides, the prothorax ^'°' '*'*' "
is narrower than the elytra and usually rounded on the sides.
Osmoderma scabm Dej. is a large long-legged beetle of a cop-
pery purplish black color. The larva lives in decaying cherry
and apple trees. According to Harris it is a Avhitish flesh;
grub, with a reddish corneous head, and closely resembles tJie
grub of the common dor-beetle. In autumn it forms an oval
cocoon by gluing together the chips it makes, and the beetle
appears in July.
BupRESTiD/E Leach. This very extensive family is known
by the serrated antenna), the outer joints of which are usually
furnished with pores, which are either difl^'used on the sides,
or concentrated in a cavity (fovea) on the under side or at the
tip. The head is deeply sunken up to the elliptical eyes, and
the labrum is small and prominent, while the mandibles are
short and stout. The legs are short, the tibiiE are usually
458
COLEOPTERA.
\
)
I r
slender, and the species are generally long, flattened beetles
of veiy tough thick consistence, and are found on flowers, or
sunning themselves on the bark of trees in midsummer. The
larvae are flattened footless grubs, with the
prothoracic ring greatly enlarged.
In ChaIco2)hora the antennal pores are dif-
y_V fused on the sides of the joints, or only on
the lower margin ; the mesosternal
suture is indistinct ; the antenna? are
inserted in small foveae, and the pos-
terior tarsi have the first joint elon-
gated. C. Virginiensis Drur}^ is one
of our most common species, and
may be seen flying about pine trees
in hot days in May and June. Its
larva bores into pines, often proving
very injurious. Fig. 415.
Dicerca is noted for having the tips of
the elytra lengthened out and diverging
from each other. Dicerca divaricata Say is
frequently met with ; it is smoother than
usual and highly polished with a
bronzed hue. Tiie elytra are
marked with numerous fine irregu-
lar impressed lines and small ob-
long square elevated black spots.
The larvce attack the wild cherry
and the garden cherry and peach. \^
Dicerca lurida Fabr. is found on
the trunks and limbs of the
Fig. 41G. hickory.
The genus Chrysobothris differs in having the
antennae inserted at the inner extremity of two short
oblique grooves, by which the front is narrowed ;
the anterior femora are strongly tootlied, the third '^
joint of the tarsi is truncate, while in the hind tarsi the first
joint is elongated. The species are rather broad and flattened,
with impressed bands and spots on the elytra. Chrysobothris
femorata Fabr. (Fig. 414 ; a, larva ; Fig. 415, larva of the
BUPEESTID^. 459
same genus, found under bark of oaks) is greenish black above,
with a brassy polish ; it infests the apple and oak, in which it
lives one j^ear. C. Harrisii Ilentz inhabits tlie small limbs of
the white pine. It is also very injurious to apple -trees and red
maples. To prevent its attacks Fitch reconnnends placing a
piece of soap in a fork in the tree so that it will be washed
down by the rains over the bark, while young trees may be
rubbed with soap ; this is an excellent remedy against the
attacks of all kiuds of borers.
The genuine species of Buprestis occur in Europe. The
largest species of this family known to us is the Eucliroma
Columbica Mann, which occurs in Central and
South America. It is two and a half inches
long and metallic green. Mr. McNiel has sent
to the Museum of the Feubody Academy sev- J
eral imuiense white larvae (Fig. 416, natural
size), from Nicaragua, which are, without much
doubt, the young of this gigantic beetle.
The small, flattened, ovate, angular Bracliys rig. -tis.
is probably a leaf miner, as such are the habits of the closely
allied genus Trachijs (T. p^'gmsea. Fig. 417, larva; 418, pupa),
as observed in Europe where it mines the leaves of the Maha
and Alcaia, according to M. Leprieur.
TiiROSCiD^: Laporte. This small group has been separated
from the succeeding family ; the species difter in not liaving
the power of leaping, owing to the immovable thorax. In
Throscus the antenme are terminated by a three-jointed club.
Elaterid^e Leach. A very large and easily limited family,
in which the serrate, eleven-jointed antennae, are inserted upon
or under the margin of the front, in grooves, while the head is
retracted, though sometimes free as usual from the prothorax,
between which and the mesothorax is a loose articulation,
enabling the species to leap in the air by a sudden jerking
movement, which Dr. Leconte thus describes: "a few of the
species of the first subfamily (Eucnemidae) and a majority of
those of the third (Elateridt^), possess the siugular power
of springing in the air when placed on the back. This is
4G0
COLEOPTERA.
effected by extending the protliorax so as to bring the proster-
nal spine to the anterior part of the mesosternal cavity, then
suddenly relaxing the nuiscles so that the spine descends
violently into the cavity, the force given by this sudden move-
ment causes the base of the elytra to strike the supporting
surface, and b}^ their elasticity the whole body is propelled
upward."
The larviB, known by the name of AVire-worms, are vegetable
feeders, living on the roots of grass, wheat, corn, potatoes,
turnips and other garden vegetables. Fig. 419 (enlarged
Y foin- times) represents a larva of this family found by
Mr. Sanborn in the roots of the squash vine. The eggs
are laid ])robably in pastures and fallen ground where
the surface is undisturbed, or in the vicinity of rotten
wood. The larvoe moult three times, and some species
are known to live in this state five years. When fully
grown they transform in an earthen cocoon, and may
be seen rising out of the ground dining the summer,
^''^^ *^^' especially in June. The larvae are very long cylin-
drical (whence their name wire-worm), hard -bodied and diflB-
cult to kill, and are generally pale testaceous, or yellowish red
in color. The}' have only six thoracic legs, and a slight anal
prop-leg ; the body is flattened towards the head and tail.
Euciiemis differs from the true Elaters in the serrate an-
tennae being inserted in approximate grooves at the margin of .
the thorax beneath, which makes the clypeus narrow. The
species do not leap so vigorously as those of
other leaping genera. Fornax differs from
Encncmis in the antennae being filiform.
Adelocera (Fig. 420, A. obtecta Say) the
itI joint of the antennae is equal to, or
larger than the fourth. In Elater and its
allies, the antenniB are widely separated,
being inserted in small cavities (foveae)
under the margin of the front, and before
the eyes. Alans ocvlatus P2sch. is the largest
Elater we have, the scutellum is oval, and the elytra have a
broad margin. The genus Elater has the front of the head
convex and margined quite broadly, and the thorax is always
t^ll^^h. In ^
Mas thir,
Fig. 420.
ELATERID^.
4G1
narrowed in front, with the tarsi ciliate beneath, and entirely
simple. Elater obliquus Say is a small species about a quarter
of an inch long, of a leathery brown color, and yellowish red
on the prothorax and base of the elytra. In
Agriotes and allies the front is very convex,
the edge of which is higher than the labrum ; the
antennai are slender, scarcely serrate, the first
joint being a little longer than usual.
In Ludius the front is convex, but not mar-
gined behind the labrum, the angle of the hind
coxae are acute and prominent, while the meso-
sternum is not prominent. Mr. Walsh has found the larva of
L. attenuatus Say (Fig. 421 ; fig. 422, larva) Avhich lived in
decaying wood for two years in his breeding jar. The
genus Agriotes has the margin of the prothorax bent
down in front, while in Dolopius it is straight. Agriotes
mancus Say is a pale reddish brown species, while A.
stabilise much more abundant northward, is slenderer,
of a darker hue, with a dark shade along the inner
edge of each elytron. D. prmper Lee. is a
small species found northward.
Melanotus includes some of our most com-
mon species, such as M. communiH G.yll., which
is of the usual dull brown color. The genus
may be known by the front being moderately
convex, margined anteriorly, and the antennte
are serrate, with the first joint of the usual size, while
the prothorax is lobed in front, and the claws are
strongly pectinate. Fig. 423 represents a larva prob-
ably of this genus.
In Limonius and Athous the front is margined, the
mouth placed farther forward from the prosternum,
the coxal plates are narrow, gradually dilated inwards, "^ ■
and the first joint is only moderate in length. In '^'^s- 423.
Limonius the first tarsal joint is scarcely longer than the
second, while in Athous the first tarsal joint is elongated, and
the prosternal lobe is long. Limonius pleheius Lee. and Ij.
ectypus Say are obscure reddish brown insects, with a slight
fine pubescence.
Fiff. 422.
462
COLEOPTERA.
Fig. in.
I'
l<^
m.
In Corymbites the front is more or less flattened, and the
coxal phxtes are narrow externall}'. C. oerixiennis Lee. is a
shiny dark greenisli species and is found nortliward. C. viri-
dis Say is dull maliogany brown, mottled witli a fine
grayish bloom. C cyUndriformis Germ, is more com-
mon, and of the usual dull reddish broAvn. C trivn-
dalatus Lee. is frequently found in New England, and
has three transverse waved bands on the pale elytra ;
it is found on the blossoms of the rhubarb plant. C. hierofjly-
phicus Harris (Fig. 424, elytra) is a similar form.
To the genus Pyroj)liorus belong the diflferent species of Fire-
flies of Central and South America. P. noctilucus (Fig. 425,
natural size) is dark rusty brown, and has two large eye-like
luminous spots on the sides of the
thorax, and another at the base of
the abdomen. Dr. G. A. Perkins in
the "American Naturalist," vol. ii,
p. 428, states that "by placing tlie
luminous parts of one insect quite
near the paper, ver}' fine print can be
easily read by its aid, though I can-
not imagine the light, even of a large
number, to be suflficient for an^^ practi-
cal illuminating purposes as has been
affirmed by some writers. The Cuban
ladies make a singular use of these
living gems, sewing them in lace
bags, which are disposed as ornaments upon their dresses,
or arranged as a fillet for their hair."
The species of Mdanactes are large shining black insects
found under stones, and are known by having the coxal plates
gradually dilated inwards. The larva (Fig. 426, a luminous
larva of this genus discovered by Mr. Sanborn in Roxbury,
Mass.) are luminous and differ from others of this family, ac-
cording to Osten Sacken, by their small sunken head, and the
presence of a pair of ocelli. The abdomen ends in a prop-leg.
-T
J.>
,u
U'j
uy
LU
%
Fig. 426.
Cebrionid^ Westwood. This family differs from the pre
ceding group in the greater number (six) of abdominal seg-
SCHIZOPODID^.
4fi^
raents, the well developed tibial spurs, the expansion of tlie
anterior tibiye at the apex, and in the close connection between
the front and the labrum. The females are found at the en-
trance of holes which they excavate in the ground. (Leconte.)
In Gehrio the labrum is separated by suture from the front, and
the anterior tibiae are entire. Cehrio bicolor Fabr. is found in
the Southern States.
Rhipicerid.e Latreille. In this small group the head is
prominent and the maxillae have usually but a single lobe ; the
eleven-jointed antennoe are inserted before and in front of
the eyes, under ridges, and are serrate in the females and
frequently flabellate in the males. Tlie larvjie, in their general
appearance, resemble those of the
Elate ridoi or Tenebrionidie, be-
ing c^'lindrical, the head almost of tlie
same breadth as the body, which is
hard and hornj^, more or less dark
brown, and in Zenoa picea Beauv. is a
little more tlian an incli in length.
"The eighth segment is punctate all
around, and more densely than the
others. The posterior part of tliis
truncate, and is closed posteriorly by a round, flat, horny
piece, punctate on the outside and which can, to a certain ex-
tent, be opened and closed like a lid, being connected by a
hinge superiorly, and an expanding membrane inferiorl^-. This
lid is to be considered as the ninth segment of the abdomen."
(Osten Sacken.) The larva, with the adult Zenoa picea, was
found under bark in Southern Illinois by Mr. Walsh. San-
dalus (S. petrophya Knoch, and tarsus, Fig. 427), with short
antenme, flabellate in the males, is found in various species
of cedars.
Fig. 427.
segment is o1)liquely
ScnizopoDiD^ Leconte. This small group is represented
by only a single species, Schizopodus loitus Leconte. It resem-
bles in form a Galleruca ; it is of a metallic green color,
coarsely punctured, with red elytra, and is nearly six-tenths
of an inch long. The head is bent down, closely affixed to
464 COLEOPTERA.
the prothorax, and the eleven-jointed antennae are insertea
immediately in front of the eyes, under a slight promi-
nence.
Dasctllid^ Guerin. This group embraces genera differ-
ing much from each other ; the head is usually bent down,
sometimes prominent ; the antennae are eleven-jointed, distant
at their insertion immediately in front of the eyes, being
placed under a slight ridge, and the mandibles are not promi-
nent. They all live on aquatic plants, and the larvic are
either like those of the Scarabwidce ^ being provided with
short fonr-jointed antennae, and without ocelli, as in Atop(i ; or
they are long, ovate, with distinct ocelli, long bristle-like an-
tennne and very well developed limbs, as in Cuphon. The genus
Prionocuplwn has the first joint of the antennte much dilated,
and the joint of the labial palpi is inserted on the side of the
second ; in Cyphon the palpi are normal. Baron Osten Sacken
describes the larva of PrionocyphoR discoideus Sa}^ as being-
long, flattened ovate, like a sow-bug (Oniscus) with sharp
Ir.teral edges, the body slightly attenuated before and behind,
of a leathery consistence, dull pale 3'ellowish, and four-tenths
of an inch in length. It was found by Mr. Walsh in the hol-
low of an oak stump filled with water, in which it "vibrated
vigorously up and dow^n a pencil of hairs proceeding from a
horizontal slit in the tail ; this pencil is composed of three
pairs of filaments, each beautifully bipectinate. When at the
surface this larva generally, but not always, swims on its back,
keeping its body slightly below the surface, and striking with
its feet, so as to jerk from point to point, in a curved line. The
pencil of hairs touches the surface all the time. "Occasion-
ally, says Mr. Walsh, "a bubble of air is discharged from the
tail. Generall}', when it is beneath the surface, the anal pencil
is retracted entirely. It has the power of jerking its body sud-
denly round, and darting up and down with great vigor. Its
remarkably long antennae are constantly vibrating, like those
of terrestrial insects. The pupa is Avhite, with large black
eyes which are very conspicuous beneath, and two short black
setae on the occiput. The body is covered with a short, white,
erect down or pubescence. The antennae arc about two-thirds
LAMPYRID^.
465
the length of the body, placed lengthwise beneath, side by
side. The body is scarcely two-tenths of an inch long.
Lampyrid^ Leach. The species of the family of Fire-flies
resemble the Elaters, but they are shorter and broader, and
of softer consistence. The head is nsnally immersed in the
thorax ; the usually eleven-jointed, serrate, rarel}' pectinate or
flabellate antennaa are inserted on the front rather closely
together in the typical genera. The eljira never strongly
embrace the sides of the abdomen, are sometimes short, and
in some foreign genera entirely wanting in the females. The
anterior coxae are contiguous, conical, with a large trochantine ;
the middle coxae are oblique, and the hinder ones transverse ;
while the legs are
s 1 e n d e r or com-
pressed and of mod-
erate length. The
larvae are rather
long, flattened,
blackish, with pale
spots on the angles
of each segment.
In Lycus the an-
tennae are inserted
in front of the eyes,
at the base of the
long beak into Fig. 432. rig. 430. Fig. 428. "
which the head is prolonged, and the sides of the thorax are
somewhat foliaceous. The female of the Glow-worm, Lam-
pyris, of Europe is wingless. She lays her eggs, which are of
large size, in the earth or upon moss and plants ; the larva
(Fig. 428, female of a species of this genus from Zanzibar),
which feeds on snails, is said to become fully grown in April,
and in fifteen days assumes the imago state. An anonymous
French author states, according to AVestwood, that when the
larva is ready to assume the pupa state, instead of slitting
the skin in a line down the back, a slit on each side of the
three thoracic segments is made, separating the upper from
the lower surfaces." While the female is large and larva-
30
4G6
COLEOPTERA.
Fig. 429.
like, the much smaller male has broad eh'tra and a rather nar-
row slender body.
In the genus Photinus, of which there are numerous species
in this country, the antennae are compressed, or nearl}' filiform,
and the species differ
from tliose of Lanipy-
ris, by tlie females
having wings. Nearly
all have phosphor-
escent glands in the
last abdominal seg-
ments.
Tlio editors of the "American Entomologist," p. 19, give
the history of P. pyrcdis Linn. (Fig. 429 ; o, larva; e, under-
side of a segment ; /, head ; d, a leg ; &, pupa in its cocoon of
earth; c, the adult). Tiie larva lives in the
ground, feeding on earthworms and soft bodied
insects. When full^^ grown, or during tlie latter
part of June, it forms an oval ca\ity in the earth
and pupates, and in ten days becomes a beetle.
In Photuris the wings and elytra are complete
in both sexes, while the head is narrowed behind,
and the labrum is distinct. P. Pensylvanica De-
Geer (Fig. 430, and 431, larva) is our most com-
mon species, and the larva figured I regard as
belonging to this species. It is not uncommonly met with in
the evening shining brightly as it crawls along, and is blackish
and crustaceous like a pill bug. Another Photuris
larva (Fig. 432) I have Ibund under a stone in
May. It is represented as in the act of walking,
the feet on one side of the body moving alter-
nately with those on the other. This is the mode
in which insects usually walk.
Fig. 433 (enlarged three times) represents a
very singular larva, evidently belonging to this
Fig. 433. family, and related to the genus Drihis. It was
found by Rev. E. C. Bolles, at AVestbrooke, Maine, under
leaves, and it probably, like otlier larv.ne of this family, is
carnivorous. Its body is very flat, with the sides of the head
Fig. 431.
MALACHIDiE. 467
and each ring of the body produced into a remarkably long,
soft, fleshy tubercle, while there are two rows of black spots
along the back.
In the genus Phevgodes, the females of which are not j-et
known in this country', the third and following joints of the
antenniB emit two very long, slender and flexible pubescent
branches from near the base ; the second and third joints are
very short. The elytra are one-third the length of the abdo-
men, and are strongly divergent and subulate. Dr. Leconte
describes Phengodes pUimosa Oliv. as being testaceous, with the
antennte, excepting the base, and the narrow tips of the elytra
fuscous, and the sides of the thorax broadly depressed ; it oc-
curs from New York to Texas. In ClianUognatlms the antennae
are filiform ; the elytra are as long or nearly as long as the
abdomen and rounded at tip, while
the anterior margin of the thorax is
rounded. C. Pensylvaniciis DeGeer A
(Fig. 434 ; a, larva ; 5, head en-
larged ; c, labium ; d, labrum ; ^, a
leg ; /, maxilla ; g, antenna ; /i, man-
dible), in the larva state devours
the grubs of the plum curculio. (American Entomologist, i,
p. 35.) In TeleplioriLS the head is never concealed by the tho-
rax, and the latter is rounded from the sides along the front
margin, the front of the head is emarginate at tip ; the claws
are toothed, being rarely cleft. The species are found on the
leaves of trees in June. Walsh states that the larva of T.
Carolina Fabr. preys on Avood-feeding larvae. Mr. P. S.
Sprague has reared the larva of T. bilineatus Say. He found
it near Boston under stones in spring, Avhen it pupates, and
early in May becomes a beetle. It is found on the leaves of
the birch as soon as the}' are expanded.
Malachid.e Redtenbacher. This small group, often united
with the preceding family, is chiefly distinguished b}' the an-
tennae being inserted on the sides of the front, and by the body
in some genera being furnished with soft extensible vesicles,
while the abdominal segments are in part memliranous. 3Tcda-
chius and its allies are of small size. Some of them resemble
468
COLEOPTERA.
at first sight some Staphjdinidoe ; they frequent flowers and
the banks of ponds and streams. The females of Microlipus
are apterous.
Fiff. 436.
Clerid.e Kirby. These beautiful flower beetles are known
by the prominent head, the usually emarginate ejes, and
tlie usually eleven-jointed antennte inserted at the sides of
the front, and either serrate or pectinate, with the outer joints
enlarged, forming a serrate, or rarely a compact club. Their
bodies are slender, with slender legs.
They are rapid in their movements,
and run like ants (which the}^ much
resemble when in motion) over flowers
and trees to feed on the sweets and
sap. The larvae are carnivorous and infest the nests of bees.
They are flattened, hairy grubs, the tip of the abdomen end-
ing in two horny points. Those of the genera
Corynetes and Necrohia live on dead animal
matter.
In Priocera (Fig. 435, P. undulata Say) the eyes
are coarsely' granulated ; the antennjie are serrate,
and the maxillary palpi are cylindrical. In
Elasmocenis (E. terminatus Say, S , Fig. 43G) the antenufle are
ten-jointed, the last joint being very long and flat.
The genus Trichodes is known by the maxillary palpi being
somewhat dilated, otherwise it agrees with the succeeding
genus. T. NuttcdUi Kirby is
abundant in August on the
flowers of Spirtva alba ; its larva
is to be looked for in the nests
of bees. In Europe T. apiarius
Linn. (Fig. 437 ; a, larva ; b,
pupa) has long been known to
devour the young bees. In its
perfect state it is found on
flowers.
In Clems the head is large, the eyes not very prominent,
finely granulated, the antennal club is somewhat triangular;
the maxillary palpi are not dilated, and the posterior tarsi are
CUPESID^. 469
moderate in length and broadly dilated. TJianasimus differs
in the body being hairy, while the posterior tarsi are longei-
and scarcely dilated. The long narrow slender pink larvae can
be found under the bark of dead pine trees where they probably
prey upon the larvtie of Hylurgus and Hylobius. The larvae
of Clerus are of a beautiful red color. The European Clerus
alvearius infests the nests of the Mason-bees, Osmia and Meg-
achile. "The larva when hatched, first devours the grub of
the bee in the cell in which it is born and then proceeds from
cell to cell, preying upon the inhabitant of each until arrived
at maturity. It is in this situation, also, that it undergoes its
changes in a small cocoon, which it has previous!}^ constructed,
making its escape from the nest in the beetle state, Avhere the
hardness of its covering sufficiently defends it from the stings
of the bees." (Westwood.)
Lymexylidte Leach. This small group, chiefly interesting
as containing a genus which has proved of great mischief to
the ship timber of Europe, from its boring habits, is distin-
guished by the head being bent down and
narrowed behind ; by the usually very large
eyes, the two ciliate lobes of the maxillae,
the palpi of which are stout, four-jointed,
and in the male very large and flabellate,
while the mandibles are short and obtusely
bidentate. The body is long and narrow, ^'S- 438-
with slender legs. The genus Lymexylon has five abdominal
segments. The larva is verj^ long and slender, with the first
thoracic segment dilated into a large hood, while the terminal
ring is produced into a large obtuse lobe. In Europe it
greatl}- injures oak trees and ship timber, but our species
(Lymexylon sericeum Harris, Fig. 438, and antennae, legs and
palpi) is too rare to be of any harm at present.
CuPESiD*: Lacordaire. Leconte states that "the affinities
of this family are very obscure ; in the form and insertion of
the antennae it is similar to the first genera of the next family,
but other characters, such as the form of the coxae and the re-
tractility of the legs, are at variance. The body is covered
470
COLEOPTERA.
with small scales as in the genera alluded to." Cvpes cajiifafa
Fabr. is black witii the head red ; while Cirpes cinerea Sa}' is
pale gray, with darker lines. They are found under the bark
of decaying trees, and also occasionally in houses. (Leconte.)
PtinidvE Leach. These are small beetles, often of an ob-
scure brown color, somewhat oval in shape, and truncated
behind ; the nine-jointed filiform antenna? are inserted on the
front, or sides of the front ; the head is retractile, frequently
protected b}' the prothorax ; the
labrum is distinct ; the maxillae
have two ciliate lobes, and the
maxillary palpi are short and
four-jointed. The legs are slen-
der, contractile, and the insect
when disturbed draws them up
and feigns death. In Ptinus
the antenuie are inserted on the
front very close together, the
legs are long, not contractile, with large trochanters ; the teeth
of the mentuni are acute, and the labrum is rounded. The
males difl'er from the short and thickened females in being long
and narrow. The beetles are found about out-houses, the wood
of which they perforate in various directions. Pti7ius fur Linn.
(Fig. 439 ; a, larva), the most commonl}^ diffused
species, is known to attack museums and collec-
tions of insects. It is .15 of an inch in length,
and uniformly chestnut brown in color. The larva
here figured was found eating the dried contents
of a shell in the Museum of the Peabody
Academy of Science.
SHodrepa pankea Fain-. (Fig. 440, pupa) is a
Fig. 440. gniall insect like Anobium, of a pale reddish
brown color, with much paler dense hairs. It is .13 of an inch
long. The larva resembles in its form that of Ptinus, but the
body is much thicker, not growing smaller toAvards the head
as in that genus ; the end of the body is smooth, obtusely
rounded, with fine hairs ; it is .08 of an inch long and un-
doubtedly grows larger. It occurred in all its stages and in
PTINID^. 471
great abundance in several nests of Vespa in tlie Mnseum
of the Peabocly Academy, where it undoubtedly eat the dried
remains of the wasps ; it was extensively preyed upon by a
Pteromalus-like Chalcid.
Th3 genus Anobium is cylindrical, the eleven-jointed an-
tenme are distant from each other at base and inserted immedi-
ately in front of the eyes, the mesosternum is flat, and
the anterior coxiB are nearly contiguous. The larva
is thick and fleshy, resembling some Scarab-ieid larvjB
in tlie fleshy baggy tip of the abdomen, except that
they do not lay on their side when Avalking. They
construct a silken cocoon interweaving the particles
of dust they make. A. notatum Say is blackish
above, varied with ashen, and the posterior angles of the pro-
thorax are rather acute. In Europe they are called Deatli-
ticks, as the ticking made by them in the walls of houses, a
familiar sound in this country, was supposed by the supersti-
tious to announce the death of persons, though it is but a
sexual call. Doubt having been thrown on the statement that
Anobium causes the ticking noise, Mr. II. Doubleday states
in the "Entomologist," vol. iii, p. QQ, "I can speak positively
with regard to the Anobium, and I assure you that this little
beetle produces the loud ticking sound by raising itself upon
its legs as high as it can, and then striking the head and under
part of the thorax against the substance upon which
it is standing, generally five or six times in succes-
sion, and it alwa^'s chooses a substance which pro-
duces the most sound. It is evidently a call note
from one individual to another, as you very rarely
hear one rap without its being immediately answered ^'^' **^"
by another." Mr. Sanborn has reared the larva (Fig. 441, en-
larged) of Ernobias mollis Fabr., which is a near ally of Ano-
bium,
Bostrichus and its allies are distinguished by their long
bodies, the head being usually bent down and covered by the
hood-like thorax ; the antennae are distant and the anterior
coxix^ are contiguous. They are found in fungi or under bark.
In Bostrichus the front is margined on the sides. In Ariqiln-
cerus the front is not so margined. The apple twig borer, A,
472
COLEOPTERA.
bicaudatus Say (Fig. 442) in the valley of the Mississippi, is
veiy injurious to apple trees, boring under the bark of small
twigs "just above one of the buds, and on cutting into them
it will be noticed that a cylindrical hole, about the size of a
connnou knitting needle, extends downwards from the perfora-
tion above the bud, through the very heart of the twig, for the
length of an inch and a half." (Walsh.) The larva which I
have received from Dr. Sliimer, has nmch the same form as
that of Lyctus, but the head is more prominent and also the
sides of the body. The anterior half of the body is consider-
ably thicker than behind and the legs are provided with long
hairs ; the end of the body is smooth and much rounded. It
is .30 of an inch long.
Specimens of Rhizopertlia iiiisiUa have been introduced, Le-
conte states, into wheat distributed from the Patent Office.
In this last genus the eighth and ninth joints of the antenna?
are triangular.
In the genus Lyctus the head is prominent, the body long
and narrow, and the club of the antenna is two-jointed, while
the outer apical angle of the anterior
tibiiie is prolonged. We have received
from Dr. H. Shinier, L. o-pciculus Lee,
in all its stages (Fig. 443 ; a, larva ;
&, pupa). The beetle is chestnut
brown, with short j-ellowish hairs and
pmicto-striate elytra ; it is .20 of an
inch in length. Tlie larva is white, its body is cylindrical,
thick and fleshy, with a small head and strong black mandibles ;
the tlioracic rings are thickest. It is .17 of inch long. Ac-
cording to Dr. Shinier it eats the wood of dead grape vines.
Fiff. 443.
CioiD^. Leach. This small group is known by the maxilla'
being exposed at the base, the two ciliate lobes of which arc
flattened, and the eight to ten-jointed clavate antenna? are in-
serted at the anterior margin of the eyes ; the head is pi'otected
by the prothorax, which is c^dindrical, rounded in front, with
the lateral margin distinct. The species of the genus CT.s,
which have ten-jointed antennae, are very small, cylindrical,
dark colored, gregarious beetles, which live under the bark of
TENEBRIONID^. 473
trees, and in dry, woody species of fungi. Some males liave
tlie liead and anterior margin of the thorax horned.
Tenebrionid^ Latreille. This is not a A-ery easily limited
family ; the most trenchant characters, however, are stated by
Leconte to be tliese : the two-lobed maxillye have the smaller
lobe sometimes armed with a terminal corneous hook ; the
palpi four-jointed ; the mandibles are usually short, robust and
furnished with a basal tooth ; the eyes are usually transverse,
and the antenntie are generally inserted under the sides of the
head, or at least under a small frontal ridge, and are usually
eleven-jointed, clavate, subserrate or very rarely pectinate, as
in Rhipidandrus. The elytra are rounded at tip, covering the
abdomen, and frequently embracing its sides very far down,
while the hind wings are frequently wanting. The legs vaiy
in length ; the anterior coxie are globose, without any ^
trochantine ; the hind tarsi are four-jointed, and the ab-
domen has five free segments, the first three appearing
more closely united than the others. The larvjie are
slender, flattened, horny, resembling the wire-worms ;
from two to five ocelli on each side, or wanting entirely,
and the last. ring of the body often has two spines. The
larviB (Fig. 444, larva of an unknown species) moult
several times, and when about to transform make no co- ^'^- ^
coon, the beetles appearing in about six Avecks. Dr. Leconte
says that the distribution of the genera of this family is very
remarkable. Of those without Avings scarcely any are common
to the two continents. AVith the exception of three, they are
not represented in North America, east of the longitude of
the mouth of the Platte or Nel)raska River ; from that point
the}' increase in number of genera, species and individuals,
until in California iXxaj form the characteristic feature of the
insect fauna."
We can only notice a few genera, interesting to the general
reader, and refer the special student, as heretofore, to Dr. Le-
conte's able treatment of the Coleoptera previously cited.
The genus 5/ap.s, in which the hind wings are obsolete, does
not occur in this country, being represented by numerous spe-
cies of Elodes and Promus. The European Blaps mortisaga is
474
COLEOPTEKA.
Fis. 445.
the Chni'ch-yai'd beetle. Dr. Piekells states, according to West-
wood, that ''one of these beetles was immersed repeateiily
in spirits of wine, but revived after remaining therein all
night, and afterwards lived three years." The larva? are eaten
by the women in Egypt, after being roasted.
In Upis the legs are long, with small tibial spurs, while the
tarsi are clothed beneath with a silky, golden pubescence, the
hind tarsi being long, and
the epipleunie are gradually
narrowed towards the base
of the elytra. Upis ceram-
hoides Linn, is a line laige,
deep purple black beetle,
with roughl}^ shagreened
elytra, and is found nnder
the bark of trees. In Tene-
brio the body is long ovate
and winged, the legs are
slender, the femora swollen less than nsual, Avith larger tibial
spurs ; the tarsi are clothed with a rigid pubescence, and the
epipleuraj extend to the tip of the elytra. Tenehrio molitor
Linn., the Meal worm, is found in all its stages about corn
and rye meal; it is frequently swallowed with food. "It is
also A-ery destructive to ship-biscuits packed in casks, Avhich
when opened are found eaten through in holes by these insects
and their larva?." (Westwood.) The larva is about an inch
long, cylindrical, smooth and glossy, with the terminal seg-
ment semicircular, slightly serrated on the edges, and termi-
nated in a single point. An allied beetle in Brazil is known
to eject a caustic fluid, and in Europe some are known to cover
themselves with this fluid. In BoJetophagus the antennix? are
eleven-jointed and the e^'es are entirely divided. B. cornutus
Panzer (Pig. 445, ?, a, larva ; b, pupa, (?), as its name im-
plies, lives in those fungi, which, according to Dr. Leconte,
either grow upon trees or under bark, and may be known by the
front of the head being prolonged and margined anteriorly and
on the sides, covering the mouth above, often thus dividing
the eyes, while the dull black body is covered with stout tuber-
cles. It is found in all its stages in fungi, in August. The
MELANDRYID^. 475
larva is long and narrow, cylindrical, the head free from the
bod}', rounded, with stout, broad, triangular mandibles ; the
tip of the abdomen is square, with a sharp spine on each
side. It is .80 of an inch in length, and of a dark chestnut
brown color.
^GiALiTiDiE Leconte. This family is represented by a siiv
gle species, u3^gialites debilis Lee, from llussian America.
CiSTELiD^ Latreille. This group, as Leconte states, "ap-
proaches A'ery nearly to the more degraded forms of the Tene-
hrionidcc., and the degradation of structure is carried still
farther by the anterior coxa? becoming conical, prominent, and
contiguous in certain genera. The only characters to be relied
on for isolation in this family are, first, the pectinate claws ;
and second, the anterior coxal cavities being closed behind.
They are found on leaves and flowers, or under bark." Alle-
cida at first sight somewhat resembles an Elater. Cistela dif-
fers from its allies in having the last joint of the maxillary
palpi longer than wide.
Lagriid.e Westwood. This inconsiderable family differs
from the Tenebrionidce, in the greater prominence of the
anterior coxae, and the dilated penultimate joint of the tarsi,
though the larvae differ in being rather long, almost as wide as
long, convex above, and with the exception of the large head
are thickly covered with hairs. There are two genera, Artliro-
viacra and Statyra, which are found on leaves and under bark.
MoNOMMiD.E Lacordaire. This little group is a very distinct
one, composed of small, black, oval, flattened beetles. 3Ion-
omma is confined to the Eastern Continent, and a species of
Hyporhagus is found, one on the eastern, the other on the
Pacific side of this country.
Melandryid.k Leach. This group comprises a few species
of elongate form, with two basal impressions on the prothorax,
and the first joint of the hind tarsi is always much elongated.
They are found under bark and in fungi. In Melandrya the
476 COLEOrTERA.
head is bent forward, the base of the prothorax is sinuous,
but not distinctly lobed, and the elj'tra are striate. M. striata
Say is found in tlie Atlantic States.
Pythid^ Lacordaire. This is a small group of mostly
northern species found living under bark and stones. PytJio
and its allies resemble some Tenebrionidm.
CEdemerid/E Latreille. This group comprises insects of
moderate size, and, according to Leconte, generally found on
plants, though some species of Asclera live on the ground near
water, and Micrototnis sericans is a very small brown sericeous
insect, found on leaves in the Atlantic States.
Cephaloid/E. Leconte places in a distinct family, tlie single
species, Cephaloon lepturides Newman, which is found on
plants northward.
Mordellid^ Leach. These are curious small, wedge-
shaped, glistening, pubescent, black beetles, which occur in
abundance on the flowers of Golden-rods and asters, and when
disturbed leap off like fleas, or slip suddenly to the ground.
Anaspis has the fourth joint of the anterior and middle tarsi
very small, and the body is fusiform, with oval eyes. In Mor-
della the body is wedge-shaped, the eyes are finely granulated,
the scutellum is triangular, and the last joint of the maxil-
lary palpi triangular or securiform. The larvse are said to live
in the pith of plants during autumn, and are long, subcylin-
drical, and the sides of the rings are furnished with fleshy
tubercles. Morddlistena differs in the hind tibiie having sub-
apical and oblique ridges.
Anthicid.e Latreille. Of this small group, Notoxus ancliora
Hentz is noted for having the head prolonged over the
mouth into a horn ; it is found in marshy places. Leconte
states that Tanartlirus salinus Lee. flies and runs on salt mud
like a Cicindela ; it occurs in the Colorado desert. The nu-
merous species of Anthicus live in sandy places near water.
Formicomus is ant-like, being wingless.
MELOID^. » 477
Pyrochroid^ Latreille. A small group of beetles which
are found under the bark of trees ; the^^ generally have a red-
dish thorax contrasting with the black head and elj^tra. "The
branches of the pectinate male antenn;^ are rigid in P>/rochroa,
and very slender and flexible in Dendroides ; in Schizotus they
are of an intermediate form, and somewhat flexible." (Le-
conte.) The larAa of Dendroides is a very flat whitish grub,
with two large curved spines on the tail ; it lives
under the bark of pines and other trees. Two species
of this genus, D. concolor Newman and D. Canadensis
Latr., are equally common in New England. Fig.
446, enlarged, represents the larva of a species of
Pyrochroa, of which P. flahellata Fabr. is a type.
Meloid^ Gyllenhal. This is a family of great in-
terest from the parasitic habits of the larvje, which dif-
fer remarkabl}^ from the adult forms. The head is t(
much bent forwards, and is suddenly constricted far ^'S- 4^-
l>ehind the ej^es into a small neck ; the eleven-jointed antennae
are inserted at the sides of the front, before the eyes ; the
el^'tra are variable in form, but when abnormally shortened,
are ovate, rather than square at the tip, and the hind wings are
often absent. The legs are long, the hind tarsi are four-
jointed, the penultimate joint usually cylindrical. They are
soft-bodied, cylindrical, slender beetles, and are always found
on flowers. The larvae are ovate, flattened, often very minute
and then somewhat resembling the Pediculi in habits. Melo'e
is a large dark blue beetle found about buttercups and crawl-
ing on grass in Ma}- and again late in August. The elytra are
small and short, overlapping each other on the large ovate
full abdomen ; the claws are cleft, the male antennae are
twisted and knotted. The eggs are laid in the ground, prob-
ably near the nests of bees, for in the early spriug, the 3' oung
larvae recently hatched are found on the bodies of various
bees, such as Bombus, Halictus and Andrena, and also various
Sj'rphi and Muscae frequenting the flowers of the willow in
April, whence they are conve3^ed by the agency of the bees.
On these flowers we have found them in abundance. They are
very active in their habits, and difficult to rear in confinement,
478
COLEOPTERA.
which can only be done by confining the bees on which they
are found, and supplying them with flowers. When the bee
becomes exhausted by the loss of fluids drawn out by its para-
site, it is quickly deserted by these minute torments for a
newly introduced and more lively bee. The
length of the larva at this period (Fig. 447)
is .06 of an inch. It differs very remarkably
from those of the neighboring families, which
are generally oval, being long and linear-
oblong, flattened. The three thoracic rings
are of equal size, transversely oblong, the
head being of nearly the same size with one
of the thoracic segments, and provided with
short antennae. The legs have long claws
with an intermediate long pad. From the tip
of the abdomen proceed two pair of sets, the
inner one much longer than the other pair.
It is shorter than that of M. violaceus^ figured by Newport, who
has, with great sagacity, cleared up the remarkable history of
this genus. It is undoubtedly the young of our common Mdo'e
angusticoUis Say (Fig. 448). The larvae are conveyed by the
bees themselves into their nests Avhere they prey on the larva?
and bee bread. AVhen full-fed and read}' to pass through their
transformations, instead of at once as-
suming the pupa state, the}' pass
through what has been called b}' Fabre
a " hypermetamorphosis." In other
words the changes in form preparatory
to assuming the pupa state are here
more marked than usual, and are al-
most coequal with the larva and pupa
states, so that the Meloe instead of
Fis- 418. passing through only three states (the
egg, larva and pupa) in reality passes through these and two
others in addition which are intermediate. Fabre states that
the larva, soon after entering the nest of its host, changes its
skin and assumes a second larval form (Fig. 449) resembling
a lamellicorn larva. Newport, however, who with Siebold has
carefully described the metamorphosis of Meloe, does not men-
MELOID^.
479
tion this stage in its development. In this stage the larva is
said to be motionless ; the head is mask-like, without movable
appendages, and the feet are represented by six tubei'cles.
This is, properly speaking, the "semipupa." This
form, howe\'er, according to Fubre, changes its skin
and turns into a third larval form (Fig. 450). After
some time it assumes its true pupa form (Fig. 451)
and finally moults this skin to appear as a beetle.
In Horia and allies the head is large, square behind,
and the front is not prolonged beyond the base of the antennte.
Horia sanyuinipennis Say is now placed by Leconte in the
genus Tricrania^ which differs in the last joint of
the maxillary palpi being longer than the third, and
by the triangular head. It is found in the nest of
the humble bee, and in the West Indies a species
of Horia is found in the nests of Xylocopa teredo, a
species of carpenter bee.
Sitaris, an European genus, has much the same
habits as 3Ieloe. Its eggs are laid near the entrance
of bees' nests, and at the very moment, according
to Fabre, that the bee lays her egg in the honey-
cell, the flattened, oval, Sitaris larva drops from
the body of the bee u[)on the egg and feasts upon
its contents. It then feeds on the honc}^ in the
cell of the bee and changes into a white, c^dindri-
cal, nearly footless grub, and after it becomes full-
fed, and has assumed the supposed "pupa''
state, the skin, without bursting, encloses a kind
of hard "pupa" skin which is very
similar in outline to the former larva, Fig. 45i. ~
and within this skin is found a whitish larva, which
directly changes into the true pupa. These
changes M. Fabre calls a "hj-permetamorphosis,"
but it will probably be found that the two so-
called "pupa" states, immediately preceding the
final genuine pupa state he describes, are but
changes of the semipupa, and can be paralleled in some de-
gree by the remarkable changes of the bee and moth noted
by us previously.
Fig. 452.
480
COLEOPTEKA.
The Blister beetles, of which Lytta (Cantharis) affords many
species, secrete the substauee known as " Cantharadine." The
Spanish- fly is
used in commerce,
and is a bright
shining green spe-
cies. Our native
forms, which as
'J_ well as M e 1 o e ,
when dried, can
Fig. 403. "be used for pro-
ducing blisters, are dark colored. Their larvae have the same
form as that of Meloe ; it remains yet to ascertain their
true habits, though Latreille states that they live beneath the
ground feeding on the roots of vegetables. Among
the species of Blister beetles which are especially
injurious to the potato are Lyita vittata Fabr. (Fig.
452), L. cinerea Fabr. (Fig. 453, a), L. miirina Lee.
(Fig. 453, 6), and L. marginata Fabr. (Fig. 454).
Pliodaga alticeps Lee. (Fig. 455 ; 1, front of male ;
2, profile of male ; 3, anterior tibia and tarsus ; 4,
Fig. 454. middle tibia ; 5, claw ; from Horn) is a Californian
species, remarkable for the great differences between the
sexes, in the form of the legs and tarsi.
Rhipiphorid^. Gerstaecker. This family is characterized
by Leconte as having a vertical head, with perfect mouth-
parts, affixed to the prothorax b}^ a very slender neck, which
is entirely contained within the prothorax, while the vertex is
usually elevated. The eleven-jointed
antennae (ten-jointed in the female of
certain species) are pectinate or flabel-
late in the males, and frequently serrate
in the females. The prothorax is as
large as the elytra at base, much narrowed in front, and the
elytra, rarely covering the abdomen, are usually narrowed be-
hind, diverging on the back. The legs are long and slendet,
with filiform tarsi, and the claws are pectinate or toothed, be-
ing rarely simple. They are found on flowers. The larval
STYLOPID7E. 481
forms are not j-et known, lihipiphoms is a wedge-shaped
geiuis, not found in America, li. Finnkus Paykull is saul to
be a parasite on Chrysis, tlie cuckoo wasp. It is liere repre-
sented by two genera, 3Iacrosktgim and Emmenadia wliich are
wedge-shaped, with coarsely punctured and spai'sely pubescent
bodies, with the vertex of the head mucli elevated. In ili?/o-
dites the elytra are very small. The species are found on Soli-
dago or Golden-rod in August. The genus Metoccus is allied
to Myodites. 3Ietoecns iKiVddoxus Linn, is in Europe a para-
site in the nests of wasps (Vespa) eating the larvie.
In the genus RJupidins the males have short pointed de-
hiscent elytra, while the females are entirely wingless and
worm-like. It is a parasite on Blatta Germanica. They are
to be looked for in this country, where they have not yet
occurred.
Stylopid.k Kirby. This most anomalous family, both as
I'egards the structure and the habits of the few species compos-
ing it, were for a long time excluded from the Coleoptera by
systematists generally, and by Gerstaecker they are even now
placed in the old. "order" Strepsiptcra. The}' are minute
forms, and have been characterized thus by Dr. Leconte.
•'Oral organs atrophied except the mandibles and one pair of
palpi. Head large, transverse, vertical, prolonged at the sides,
forming a stout peduncle, at the end of which are situated the
eyes, Avhich are convex and ver}' coarsely granulated. Antennoe
inserted on the front, at the base of the lateral processes of
the head ; forked in one genus. Prothorax exceeding^ short.
Mosothorax short, bearing at each side a slender, coriaceous
club-shaped appendage, with the inner margin membranous :
this appendage represents the elytra. Metathorax very large,
greater in bulk than the rest of the body, with the sutures of
the dorsal pieces all distinct. The postscutellum is conical and
prolonged far over the base of the abdomen ; wings very lai'ge,
fan-shaped, with a few diverging nervures ; the epimera are
very large, and project behind almost as far as the postscutel-
lum. Abdomen small, with from seven to nine segments.
Legs short ; anterior and middle coxiie cylindrical, pi-ominent ;
hind coxae very small, contiguous, quadrate ; tibiae without
31
482
COLEOPTERA.
spurs ; tarsi -vvithont claws, joints each with a membranous
lobe beneath." The females are sac-like. They live enclosed
in the body of the bee.
In Stylops the antenn.ne are six-jointed, and in Xcnos they
are four-jointed. From the middle of May until late in June
both sexes of Stylops may be found in "stylopized" individu-
als of Andrena and Polistes. Tiie flattened triangular head
of the female may be seen projecting from between the abdomi-
nal segments of the 1)ee, and sometimes there are two or three
of them. On carefull}^ drawing out tlie whole body of a female
Stylops ChildrGni (Fig. 400 ; o, ab-
domen of bee enclosing the female
Stylops ; &, top view), Avhich is very
jf'' extensible, baggy and full of a thin
fluid, and examining it under a high
power we found multitudes, at
least three hundred, of very minute
Stylops larvje, like particles of dust
issuing in every direction from the
body of the parent. ]Most of them
escaped from near the head, over
whicli they ran, as they must do,
when the parent is in its natural
position, in order to get out upon
the surface of the bee. It thus ap-
pears that the young (Plate 3, fig. 6, 6rt) are hatched within
the bod}^ of the parent, and are therefore viviparous. The
head of the female is flattened, triangular, nearly equilaterally
so, with the apex or region of the mouth obtuse, and the two
hinder angles each containing a minute simple eye ; the larger
part of the head above consists of the epicraninm, which is
narrow in front, with the edge convex ; the mandil)les are
obsolete, being two flattened portions lying in front of the
gena and separated from that region by a very distinct
suture ; no clypeus or lal)rum can be distinguished. The
mouth is transverse and opens on the upper side of tlie head,
while in front, owing to the position of the mouth, lies the
l-ather large labium and the rounded papilliform maxilhe.
The larva is elliptical in form, the head semioval, while the
Fiff. 453.
STYLOPID.E.
483
tip of the abdomen is truncate ; the sides of the body are
straigiit, there being no well defined sutures between the seg-
ments ; seen laterally the larva is thickest at the metathoracic
ring. Two simple eyes are situated near the base of the head.
The bod}' is so transparent that the intestine can be traced
easily to just before the tip, where it ends in a cul de sac. The
two anterior pairs of legs
are much alike ; coxoe
short ; femora and tibiae
small, C34indrical ; a slen-
der tibial spur ; the tarsi
consisting of a single
clavate joint equalling
the tibia in length, being
much swollen at the tip,
and without claws. The
hind tarsi are longer, ^'s- ^^•
very slender, two-jointed, the terminal one being bulbous. The
terminal styles, inserted in the tenth abdominal ring, are a little
more than one-half the length of the body, which is covered
with long setose scales. In their movements these infinitesi-
mal larvte were very active, as they scrambled over the body
of the parent, holding their caudal setoe nearly erect.
On the last of April we caught a male Styloids Childreni AVest-
wood (Fig. 457, and 458) in the same net with a stylopized
Andrena placida, and as the abdo-
men of the male was long and very
extensile, its tip being provided with
a capacious forceps for seizing the
bod}^ of the female, it is most proba-
ble that the female described belonged to the same species, and
that at this time the short-lived male, for this one lived but for
a day in confinement after capture, unites sexually with the
female. It appears then that the larvns are hatched during
the middle or last of June, from the eggs fertilized in April,
and which are retained within the body of the parent. ■ The
larvae then crawl on to the body of bees and penetrate within
the abdomen of those that are to hibernate, and live there
through the winter. The entire body of the male is, with the
Fiff. 458.
484 COLEOPTERA.
head and antennfe, of a Aelvety black, the abdomen slightly
brownish, while the legs and anal forceps are i)ale resinous
brown, and the tips of the tibi;e and the tarsal joints pale
testaceous. It is about one-fourth of an inch in length.
The succeeding families comprise the divisions Tetramera
and Trimera of early authors, in which the penultimate joint
of the tarsi is but slightly developed, forming an enlargement
at the base of the last joint, with w'hich it is closely
united.
Bruchid^ Leach. This small family comprises Curculio-like
beetles of short rounded form which arc noted for their activity
and readiness to take flight when disturbed. They differ from
the Curc\ilio7iid(je in the proboscis being folded on the chest,
the antennae being short and straight and inserted in a cavity
next to the eyes. There are 300 species of Bruchus known.
Bruchus pisi Linn., the Pea weevil (Fig. 515), is found in seed
peas in the spring. It appears soon after the pea is in flower,
ovipositing on the young pods (GloA-er). The young larva
feeds in the growing pod, on the pulp of the pea. Peas infested
with them should be soaked m boiling hot water before sowing.
Bruchus varicomis Lee, in like manner infests the bean.
CuRCULiONiD.E Latreillc. The weevil fiimily ma}^ be at once
recognized b}' the head being lengthened into a long snout or
proboscis (used for boring into objects Avhen about to oviposit),
near the middle of which are situated the long, slender, elbowed
antennae. At the extremity of the snout are situated the
mouth-parts, Avhich are nnich reduced in size, the palpi having
small rounded joints. Their bodies are hard and generally
round and often very minute. They are very timid and
quickly feign death. The larvie are white, thick, fleshy, foot-
less grubs, with fleshy tubercles instead of legs, and arc armed
with thick curved jaws. They feed on nuts, seeds, the roots,
pith and bark of plants, leaves or floAvers, and especially
the fruits, while some are leaf-miners and others are said to
make galls. Preparatory to transforming they spin silken
cocoons. The number of species already known is immense,
being not less than from 8,000 to 10,000, and upwards of 630
CURCULIONIDiE.
485
genera have been already described by Sclionherr and others,
of which we can notice but a few of the most important.
Brenthus and its allies difter from the following genera in
their remarkably long and slender bodies, the snout being
stretched straight out, not bent down as usual ; while the
slightly clavate antennixi are not elbowed. Dr. Har-
ris gives the history of B. scqjtemtrionalis Ilerbst
(Fig. 459). The female in midsummer punctures
with her long snout the bark of the white oak.
The grub, when hatched, bores into the solid Avood ;
it is nearly C3dindrical, whitish, except the last seg-
ment, which is dark brown and horny, and is i^'S- 459.
obliquely hollowed at the end, which is dentate, forming a
scoop by which the larva clears its gallerj' of chips. There
are three pairs of legs and an anal prop-leg. The pupa is
described as being white, with the
head bent on the chest between the
wings and legs. On the back are
rows of sharp teeth, with two larger
thorns at the anal tip.
Harris states that "the different
kinds of Attelabus are said to roll
up the edges of leaves, thereby
forming little nests of the shape and size of thimbles to con-
tain their eggs and to shelter their young, which
afterwards devour the leaves." A. analis Illiger
(Fig. 4G0) is dull red, with dark blue antennie
and legs. In RInjnchites the head is not con-
tracted behind into a neck. R. bicolor Fabr.
injures various roses, Avild and cultivated. It
is red above, with the antennae, legs and sides
of the body black.
The little seed weevils, Apion, are pear-shaped
and generally black. Apion Sayi Schonh.
(Fig. 461) lives in the pods of the wild Indigo,
and one-tenth of an inch in length. Balaninus, the nut-
weevil, is oval in shape, with a very slender snout, nearly as
long as the body. B. vasicus Say (Fig. 462) is found on
hazel bushes, and probably infests the nuts. Harris describes
Fiff. iCO.
Fiff. 4G1.
It is black
486
COLEOPTERA.
it as being dark brown, and clothed with very short, rust-
yellow, flattened hairs, which are disposed in spots on its
wing covers. It is iieai-ly
three-tenths of an inch long,
exclusive of the snout.
The genus Hylohius has
the antennoe inserted before
the middle of the snout, not
far from the sides of the
month. The Pine weevil,
Ilijlobins jKiIes Herbst, is
very destructive to pines, the pitch-pine especially. This
deep chestnut colored weevil is very abundant in May and
June. It has a line on the thorax, and yellowish white dots
scattered over the body, while the thighs are toothed beneath,
and the slender cylindrical snout is nearl}' as long as the tho-
rax. The larviie are found under the bark. In old trees it
burrows under the bark, its galleries extending irregularly over
the inner surface of the bark and in the sap wood.
The AVhite-pine weevil, Plssodes strobi
Peck (Fig. 463; a, larva; b, pupa),
equally destructive with the former, is a
smaller beetle, more slender, and oblong
o\al in form. It is rust-colored brown,
with two white dots on the thorax, a
white scutellum, and behind the middle
of the elytra, which are punctured in
Fig. 404. rows, is a transverse white line. Harris
states that its eggs are deposited on the leading shoots of
the pine, probably on the outer bark, and the larva when
hatched bores into the shoot, and thus distorts the tree for life.
The pupa is found just under the bark, the beetles appearing
in the autumn, though in much greater numbers in May.
We have found this insect, in all its stages of growth,
under the bark of the Avhite pine the last of April, the
larvae being the most numerous. The larva is white, foot-
less, cylindrical, with a pale reddish head. It is .32 of an
inch long, and transforms in a cell. The pupa is white, the
tip of the abdomen being square, with a sharp spine on each
CUECULIONID^. 487
side. It is .30 of an inch long. An insect that woukl be
readily mistaken for the Hylohius ^mIgs is the Otiorhynchiis sul-
catus of Fabricius (Fig. 46-4), which is of mnch the same color,
but with a thicker body.
Tlie Plum Gouger, Antlionomus 2)runicicla AValsh, resembles
the Plum curculio in its habits, and, according to Walsh, is
equally as common in Northern and Central Illinois. It makes
a round puncture in the plum, sometimes live or six, from
which the gum copiously exudes. Instead of living, however,
in the pulp, it devours the kernel and usually' transforms inside
the stone of the fruit. "The thorax of the plum gouger is
ochre-yellow ; the head aiul hinder parts slate-color, the latter
with irregiUar white and black spots. In common with the
other species of the genus to which it belongs its snout usually
projects forward, whereas that of the Curculio usually hnngs
perpendicularly downwards." (Walsh.) yl. sycoplianta Walsh
is brown-black and was bred by Mr. Walsh from the galls of
various saw-flies found on the willow, and he supposes that this
species, "while in the larva state, must destroy the egg or the
very 3'oung larva of the gall-making Nematus, just as A. cra-
tcegi Walsh evidently does ; Avhicli was found in an inidescribed
Cecidomyian gall on the thorn bush, and just as the larva of
yi. scutellatus Schonh. gradually destro3's the 3'oung plant-lice
among which it lives ; otherwise the two larvjB would exist in
the same gall." Walsh has also bred A. tessellatus AYalsh from
the Cecidomyian gall, C. s. brassicoides. It is "a very con-
stant species and easily recognizable by the tessellate appear-
ance of the elytra." A. quaclrigibbns Say punctures the apple,
making from one to twent}^ holes in the fruit.
The Cranberry wee\il, as we may call it, or the Antlionomus
sutiircdis Lee, is a minute reddish brown beetle, witii the beak
one-half as long as the body, just beyond the middle of which
the antenna? are inserted. The head is darker than the rest
of the body, being In-own black. The thorax is a little darker
than the elytra and covered ver}' sparsely with short whitish
hairs ; the scutellum is whitish, and the elytra arc shining red-
dish brown, with the strite deeply punctured, the interstices
being smooth. It is .13 of an inch long including the l)eak.
Mr. W. C. Fish writes me that in the middle of Jul}' he
488
COLEOPTERA.
detected this little weevil laying its eggs in the buds of the
cranbeny. "It selects a bud not quite ready to open, and
clinging to it, works its snout deep into the centre of the bud.
An egg is tlien deposited in the hole made, when the beetle
climbs to the stem and cuts it off* near where it joins the bud,
which drops to the ground and there decaj^s ; the egg hatching
and the grub going through its transformations within." The
larva is long and rather
slender, cylindrical, the
body being of uniform
thickness and curved ; the
head is pale honey yel-
low ; the jaws tipped with
black ; the rings are very
convex, especially the pro-
thoracic one ; it is white,
with a few fine pale hairs, and is .08 of an inch in length.
Tlie Magdalinus olj/m Hcrbst (Fig. 4G5 ; a, larva; b, pupa;
the thorax of the larva is enlarged by the pupa growing be-
neath ; the pupa from wliich the drawing was made is not fully
developed, since the tip of the fully grown pupa ends in two
spines) may be found in all its stages early in May under tht
bark of the oak. The larva is
white, with the head freer from
the body than in Pissodes strobi
(though it is not so represented
in the figure). The body of the
beetle is black, punctured, and
the thorax has a lateral tubercle
on the front edge, while the tarsi
are brown with whitish hairs. It
is a quarter of an inch long.
Conotrachehis nemrphar Ilerbst.
o, larva; 6, pupa; c, beetle; d,
plum stung by the weevil) is a short, stout, thick weevil,
and the snout is curved, rather longer than the thorax,
and bent on the chest when at rest. It is dark brown,
spotted with white, ochre-yellow and black, and the surface is
rough, from which the beetle, as Harris says, looks like a
c &
Fig. 4GC.
the Plum -weevil (Fig. 466
CURCULIONID.E.
489
dried bud when shaken from the trees. When the fruit is set,
the beetles sting the phnns, and sometimes apples and peaches,
with their snouts, niaking a curved incision, in which a single
egg is deposited. Mr. F. C. Hill shows that the curculio
makes the crescent-shaped cut after the egg is pushed in •'• so
as to undermine the egg, and leave it in a kind of flap formed
by the little piece of the flesh of the fruit which she has undei'-
niiued. Can her object be to wilt the piece around the egg
and prevent tlie growing fruit from crushing it?" (Practical
Entomologist, ii, p. 115.) The grub hatched therefrom is a
little footless, fleshy white grub, with a distinct round light
brown head. The irritation set up by these larvjB causes
the fruit to drop before it is of full size, with the larva still
within. Now full-fed, it
burrows directly into the
ground and there trans-
forms during the last of
the summer. In three
weeks it becomes a beetle
It also attacks many other
garden fruits, such as the
cherry, pcacli and quince,
Drs. Harris, Burnett and
others, tliiuk tlie larva is
but a temporary occupant
of the wart on plumb aud cherry trees, and not a cause of
the disease. Tlic best remedy is jarring the trees, and catch-
ing the larvjie in sheets and burning them. Dr. Hull's "cur-
culio catcher" is an excellent invention for destroying these
insects ; it consists of a large inverted white umbrella, fixed
upon a large wheelbarrow split in front to receive the tiunk
of the tree, against which it is driven with force suflScient
to jar the curculios from the tree into the umbrella.
The genus Ceutorliynclius is a small, short, thick curculio^
which attacks the seeds of the radish and allied plants. We
have noticed a pale gray species on the radish, which probably
inhabits the seeds.
The genus CaJandra has a slender snout slightly bent down-
wards, a coarsel}^ punctui'ecl thorax nearly half as long as the
490
COLEOPTEIIA.
whole bod}', ■while the elytra are furrowed and do not quite
cover the tip of the abdomen. C. palmarum Linn, is a large
black weevil, which lives in the trunks of palms. The Gram
Weevil, Sitophilus granarius Linn. (Fig. 467 ; e, and natural
size), is pitchy red in color, the surface rough ;
it is about an eighth of an inch long, and is im-
mensely prolific. This great pest, both as a
larva and beetle, consumes wheat after it is stored
up, being very abundant in granaries. The larva
devours the inside of the hull, leaving the shell
Fig. 4U8. whole, so that its presence is not readily de-
tected. To prevent its attacks Harris recommends that the
wheat be kept cool, well ventilated, and frequently stirred.
A similar weevil, Sitophilus oryzre Linn. (Fig. 4G7 ; c, a,
larva ; b, pupa), attacks the grains of rice and also of wheat ; it
differs in having two large red spots on each elytron, and it is
abundant in the South, where it is called the "black Aveevil."
The European turnip weevil, Ceutorhi/nchus assimilis Payk.,
a broad, pale gray insect, has occurred in Maine on the radish.
The Grape Curculio, Coeliodes incvqualis ^ay (Fig. 4C8 ; 4G9 ;
a, grape disfigured by the larva ; 6, larva), has lately-, according
to Walsh, been very destructive to
grapes, stinging the fruit and thus
destroying whole bunches of them.
The presence of the larva in the
grape may be known by a discolora-
tion on one side of the berry as if
prematurel}' ripening, though it be
the last of June or early in July. Late
in July or early in August the grub may be found fully grown,
when it drops to the ground and descending a little beneath
the surface transforms, and the beetle appears early in Sep-
tember. It is grayish black, the elytra black freckled with
gray spots, and striated, with large punctures. The legs are
dull brick red ; the femora are unarmed, while the four anterior
tibije have a large rectangular tooth near the base. It is from
.09 to .11 of an inch in length. As a preventative against
their attacks, the vines should be thoroughly shaken each day
in June.
Fig. 469.
SCOLYTID^.
491
The genus Phytobms is closely allied to the preceding ; the
European P. velatus Beck has the habit, as we learn from
Gerstaeckcr (Handbuch der Zoologie) of living under water.
The Potato-stalk Weevil, Barklius trinotatus Say (Fig. 470 ;
larva and pupa ; 471, adult), is a common species in the Mid-
dle and Western States, where it causes the stalk to wilt and
(lie, hence all stalks so atfected should be burnt. " The beetle
is of a bluish or ash gray color, distinguished as its name im-
plies, by having three shiny black impressed spots at the lower
edge of the thorax. The female deposits a single egg in an
oblong slit about one-eighth of an inch long, which she has pre-
viously formed with her beak iu the stalk of the potato. The
larva subsequently hatches out and bores into the heart of the
stalk, always proceeding downward towards the root. When
fully grown it is a little over one-fourth of an inch long, and is
a soft, whitish, legless grub, with a scaly head." (Riley.) The
larva ot'B. vestitus Sch. (Fig.
472), infests the stems of
the tobacco plant in Mexico.
Mr. Huntington has ob-
served the Grape Cane gall
curculio, Baridius Sesostris
Lee. (Fig. 473) in the larval
state in large bunches near the joints of the Clinton grape on
Kelly's Island, near Sandusky, Ohio, and has. also found the
beetle in considerable numbers. The larva closely resembles
that of the Potato Baridius. Riley states that the gall
is formed during the previous autumn while the tender
cane is growing. "It has almost invariably a longitu-
dinal slit or depression on one side, dividing that side
into two cheeks, which generally have a rosy tint."
It pupates late in June, and early in Jul}^ the adult Fig. 472.
appears. It may be known by its polished elytra and punc-
tured thorax. It is pale reddish, with a stout beak, equalling
the body in length, and each elytron has a swelling on the
outer edge near the base, and another near the tip. It is a
tenth of an inch long. It is the Madams vitis of Riley.,
ScoLYTiDiE Westwood, These cylindrical bark borers are
492
COLEOPTERA.
rounded beetles of an elongate cylindrical form, truncated be-
fore and behind. The^^ mine under the bark of trees, running
their winding galleries in e\ery direction. They rarely attack
living healthy trees. Tlie}- are usually- brown
or Hack in color. The rounded head does not
end in a snout and is deepl}^ sunken in the
thorax ; the clavate antennixi are somewhat el-
bowed, while the palpi are very short ; the
elytra are often hollowed at the end, and
the short stout legs are toothed on the under
473. gitje of the femora, and the tarsi are slender and
narrows The eggs are laid in the bark, whence tlie larva3 on
being hatched bore straight into the sap wood, or mine between
the bark and sap wood. They are like those of the preceding
family, fleshy, cylindrical, footless larviE, wrinkled on the back.
When fully grown in the autumn they gnaw
an exit for the beetle, taking care to leave a
little space closed in front of their burrow to
conceal the pupa. The bark of trees infested
by them should be scraped and whitewashed.
Ill/lurgus terebrans Oliv. (Fig. 474) is a rather
large red species, ver^^ abundant in spring.
It is found under the bark of pines associated with Pissodes,
though the larva is smaller and more cylindrical. It mines the
inner surface of the bark, slightly grooA'ing the sap wood, and
pupates in April, appearing as a beetle in great numbers on
warm clays early in Ma3^ TlyJurgus dentatus Say
infests the cedar.
The Scoh/tus destructor of Olivier often does much
injury to old and decaying elm trees in Europe.
Capt. Cox exhibited to the Entomological Society of
London a piece of elm three feet long, which was
scored by the lateral tubes of this insect, which he
- *'^' estimated must have given birth to 280,000 larvie.
The various species of iScob/tus, Tomkiis and Xi/loteras give
rise to a disease similar to fireblight, by their ravages beneath
the twigs of fruit trees, causing the l)ark to shrivel and peal
off as if a fire had run through the orchard. The best method
of restraining their attacks is to peal oflT the aflected bark, ex-
CERAMBYCIDiE. 4£3
posing the eggs and larvee to the air, when the birds will soon
destroy them. T. movograj^hus does gi-eat damage by drilling
holes in malt-liquor casks in India. It was calculated that
sometimes 134,0U0 holes were drilled in the staA'es forming a
single cask. Immersion in boiling water has been found an
effectual remedy. (Morse.)
Also associated with Pissodes, we have found in April the
galleries of Tomicus pini Say branching out from a common
centre. They are filled up Avith fine chips, and, according to
Fitch, are notched in the sides "in which the eggs have been
placed, where they would remain undisturbed by the
beetle as it crawled backwards and forth through the
gallery." These little beetles have not the long snout
of the weevils, hence they cannot bore through the
outer bark, but enter into the burrows made the pre-
ceding year, and distribute their eggs along the sides.
(Fitch.) T. xi/lograpJias Say (Fig. 475) is often a Fig
most formidable enemy to the white pine in the North, and the
yellow pine in the Soutli. The genus Cryphalus is a slenderer
form. A species, probably the C. materarius of Fitch (Fig.
47G), has been found l)y Mr. Huntington of Kelly's Island, to
bore into empty wine casks and spoil them for use.
Cerambycidte Leach. (Longicornia Latreille). This im-
mense family, numbering already nearly 4,000 known species,
comprises some of the largest, most showy, as well as the most
destructive insects of the suborder. They are readily recog-
nized by their oblong, often cylindrical bodies, the remarkably
long, filiform, recurved antennae, and the powerful incurved
mandibles. Their eggs are introduced into the cracks in the
bark of plants by the long fleshy extensile tip of the abdo-
men. The larviie are long, flattened, cylindrical, fleshy, often
footless whitish grubs, Avith very convex rings, the prothoracic
segment being much larger and broader than the succeeding,
while tlie head is small and armed with strong sharp mandi-
bles adapted for boring like an auger in the hardest woods.
These borers live from one to three years before transform-
ing, at the end of which time they construct a cocoon of chips
at the end of their burrows, the head of the pupa lying next
494
COLEOPTERA.
tc the thin portion of bark left to conceal the hole. As quoted
by Baron Osten Sacken in an interesting article on the larval
forms of some of our native beetles, Erichson states that "not-
withstanding the great similitude between the larvae of Longi-
corns, some important differences in the structure of those
belonging to the four subdivisions of this famil}' may be no-
ticed. The larvae of the Lamiidae differ more than the others,
on account of the total absence of feet, and the position of the
first pair of stigmata Avhich is placed in the fold between
the pro- and niesothoracic segments, less abruptly separated
than the others. The other larvae have this first pair on the
sides of the mesothorax, and have feet,
which, however, are sometimes so small
as to be perceptible onl}' when magni-
fied, even in large sized larviis. The
Ceram.bycidcie (Cerambyx, Callidium and
allies) have, on the posterior side of the
prothorax, above and below, a fleshy,
transverse fold, separated by a furrow
from tiie hoi'ny disc of this segment.
In the Prionidae and Lepturidae, the
same fold is visible onl}' on the under
side. The Leptnrcti have a large flattened
head, as broad as the prothorax, whereas
Fig. 477. in the other Longicorn larviie the head is
small and much narrower than the thorax. The larvae of the
Prionidae show the least differences from those of the Lep-
turidie ; and that of Spondylis is remarkably allied to the lat-
ter." "The pupa is at first soft and whitish, and it exhibits
all the parts of the future beetle under a filmy veil which in-
wraps ever}^ limb. The wings and legs are folded upon the
breast ; the long antennae are turned back against the sides of
the body, and then bent forwards between the legs." (Har-
ris.) The beetles mostly hide by day and fly by night.
Parandra brunnea Fabr. is much unlike the remaining genera,
being Tenebrio-like in form, with a broad head and short an-
tennae, and shining red in color. The larva is described by
Osten Sacken as having a yellowish cordate head, with a large
prothorax and fleshy tubercles on the upper and under side of
CERAMBYCID^.
49o
the segments, with the first pair of stigmata placed on tlie
eides of the mesothorax. It is found in dead beacli trees.
Tlie Orthosoma unicolor Drur}' (Fig. 477) is a light bay col-
ored beetle found fl3'ing from the middle of July until Septem- •
ber. We have found the larva (Fig. 478) in the rot-
ten stumps of the pine, and in the Western States
Riley states that a larva (Fig. 479, head and tho-
rax seen from beneath), probably of this species,
eats the roots of the grape-vine, hollowing out and
sometimes severing the root aud killing the vine.
Prionns hrevicornis Fabr. is a very large, not un-
common beetle, of an ovate shape and pitchy black
color, with short, thick jaws, and
antenniB about half as long as
the body. The larvae, Harris
states, are as thick as a man's
thumb, and are found in the
trunks and roots of the Balm of
Gilead and Lombardy po{)lar. ^'^- *"^-
Fig. 479. Crossmlius pnlchrior Bland (Fig. 480),
from Nebraska, is a pule reddish beetle, with the antennse,
head, base and the large mark on the disk of the elytra and
legs black. An allied form is Ehuria? Ulkel Bland
(Fig. 481, showing the sculpturing of the head) which is
described as coming from Cape St. Lucas, Lower Cali-
fornia.
The larva of Stenoconis pvtator Peck (Fig. 482 ; a,
larva, just about transforming; &, pupa) nearl}^ ampu- ■^'^■*^"
tates the branches of the black and white oaks. After becoming
mature in the trunk, and just before inidergo-
ing its transformations, it gnaws off a branch
Avhich falls to the ground, containing the larva,
which changes to a beetle in midsummer, and
Fig. 481. jj^yg i^s ggg xiear the axilla of a leaf stalk or
small stem. The beetle is a very slender one, with antennse
longer than the body in the males, the third and fourth joints
of which are tipped with a small spine or thorn. It is dull
brown, with gray spots. The Banded hickory borer, Chion
(Cerasphorus) ductus Drury, makes long galleries in the
496
COLEOPTERA.
trunks of hickory trees, the worm often working its way out of
the wood after it has been made into articles of furniture or
carriages. The Ase-
mnm moestum Ilalde-
man (Fig. 483 ; a, a,
hu-va ; b, pupa), we
have found in all its
stages under the bark
of oaks, early in May.
The larva is footless,
white ; the head is
rather large, white,
^''s- ■^^■^- with strong black jaws
convex on the outer side ; the body is luiiform, gradually
diminishing in width posteriorly- ; it is .GO of an inch long.
The pupa is .44 of an inch long. The beetle is about half an
inch long and is dark brown, with A-ery thick femora. '^
It flies the last of May. I have received a larva of this h
species from Dr. Shimer, which was found by him boring ^
in the grape-vine. The genus Ca///rii «»i has antenna? ng. 494
of moderate length, a broad rounded prothorax, and a flattened
body behind. The larvse are unusually flattened, with a broad
horny head, small stout man-
dibles, and six small legs, and
they are said to live in this
state two 3'ears. Callidium
antennatum Newman is en-
tirely blue ; it bores in pine
wood and in red cedar, min-
ing under the bark. C. semi-
ciradarls Bland (Fig. 484) is
reddish brown, with a Avhite
band ou each elytron, enclosing a rather lai-ge, semicircular,
])lack spot. It was discovered in Pennsylvania.
Clytus has a more cylindrical bocly, and spherical prothorax,
besides being beautifully banded with golden, on a dark
ground. Clytus speciosus Say injures the maple. We have
taken the beetle on the summit of Mount Katahdin in Maine.
The beetle lays its eggs in July and August, and the larvae
CEEAMBYCID^.
497
bore in all directions through the tree. Osten Sacken de-
sLU'ibes tlie larva of C. pictus Drury, the Hickory-tree borer
(Fig. 485; a, larva; &, pupa), as being "six to seven-tenths
of an inch in length, being rather long, somewhat flattened
club-shaped, the thoracic segments being considerably broader
than the abdominal ones, but at
the same time distinctly flattened
above and below." The pupa has a
numerous pointed granulations
on the prothorax, and similar
sharp spines on the abdominal
segments. "On the penultimate Fig. 4S5.
segments, these projections are larger and recurved anteriorly
at the tip ; tliere are six in a row near the posterior margin,
and two others more anteriorly. The last segment has four
simihir projections in a row." The male of the
Locust tree borer, C. robiiiice Forster (Fig. 486,
(?), according to AValsh, differs from that of C.
pictus "in having much longer and stouter an-
tennae and in having its bod}^ tapered behind to
a blunt point," while the females "are not dis-
tinguishable at all." It does great injury to the
Lo'^ust tree, and appears in the beetle state in September,
while C. pictus, the Hickory tree borer, appears in June. C.
araiieifonnis Oliv. (Fig. 487) has been detected on a Avharf in
Philadelphia ; it was first described as coming from
St. Domingo.
The Long-handed Acrocinus, A. lonrjimanus Fabr.
(Fig. 488, larva, natural size), is a gigantic insect,
allied to Prionus, but with enormously developed fore
legs, the whole body, including the fore legs, when out-
stretched measuring ten inches ; it is brown, beautifully
banded with red and butf. M. Salle has found the larva
at Cordova, Mexico, under the bark of a Ficus. It grows
larger in Brazil. Leiopms is a diminutive ally of Lamia. Dr.
Shinier has detected the larva of L. xanthoxyli Shinier, under-
mining the bark of the prickly-ash, when the Avood has recently
died. It is a footless borer, "of whitish and pink orange
colors, about one-fourth of an inch long." In the burrows
32
498
COLEOPTERA.
formed by the larvfc he found May 2oth, several pink-orange
pupjie, "invariably lying with their heads outwards ; their long
antennae folded over tlie wing-eases obliquely down on the
sides, passing beneath the posterior pair
of legs, a little beyond them and then
curving up over the breast, reach the
head." The beetle is related to L. aljyha
Say, and is gray, with bands and spots of
blackish pubescence ; it is .25 of an inch
long. Two species of ichneumons were
found by Shinier to prey upon tlic beetle.
In Monuhammus the antennte are of
great length. M. titillator Fabr. is brown
mottled with gray ; while a slenderer spe-
cies, M. scutelkUus Say, of a peculiar dark
olive green, witli a whitish scutellum, bores
in the white pine.
The singular habits of the Girdler, Onci-
deres cingidatus Say (Fig. 489), have thus
been described by Professor Ilaldeman
in the Pennsylvania Farm Journal, vol. i,
p. 34. "Tliis insect was first described
by Sa}'^ in the Journal of the Acadeni}- of
Natural Sciences, vol. v, p. 272, 1825, and its
habits were discovered by us and published in
our 'Materials towards a History of the Col-
eoptera longicornia of the United States ;' Am.
Phil. Trans., vol. x. p. 52, 1837.
"In our walks through the forest our atten-
tion was frequently drawn to the branches and
main shoots of joinig hickory trees (Carya
alba), which were girdled with a deep notcli in
such a manner as to induce an observer to be-
lieve that the object in view was to kill the
branch beyond the notch, and extraordinary as
it may appear, this is actuallj^ the fact, and the
operator is an insect whose instinct was implanted by the
Almighty power who created it, and under such circumstances
that it could never have been acquired as a habit. The effect
488.
Fiff. 489.
CEilAMBYCID.E. 49^
of girdling is unknown to the insect, whose life is too short
to foresee the necessities of its progeny during the succeeding
season,
"This insect ma}^ be seen in Pennsylvania during the two
last weeks in August and the first week in fSepteniber feeding
upon the bark of the tender branches of the young hickories.
Both sexes are rather rare, particularly the male, which is rather
smaller than the female, but with longer antenna^. The female
makes perforations in the branches of the tree upon which she
lives (which are from half an inch to less than a quarter of an
inch thick), in which she deposits her eggs ; she then proceeds
to gnaw a groove of about a tenth of an inch wide and deep
around the branch, and below the place where the eggs are
deposited, so that the exterior portion dies and the larva feeds
upon the dead wood and food which is essential to many
insects, although but few have the means of providing it for
themselves or their progeny by an instinct so remarkable.
"Where this insect is abundant, it must cause much damage
to young forests of hop-poles by the destruction of the prin-
cipal shoot. We have known insects which, from
their rarity, could hardly be regarded as 'noxious,'
increase to such an extent as to be very destructive,
and the locust trees (Kobinia pseudacacia) have had
their foliage withered during the few last sununers
from such a cause (Cecidomyia robiniiie Ilald.) wliich
has caused these trees to wither since that period,
particularly in August, 1868." The Tridentate
Conipsidea, C trklentata Oliv. (Fig. 490, larva, en-
larged three times), is a dark brown beetle, with a
rusty red curved line behind the eyes, two stripes on ^'^^- *^-
the thorax, and a three-toothed stripe on the outer edge of
each wing-cover, and is about half an inch long. It lives under
the bark of elms, occasionally doing much damage. (Harris.)
Tlie larva of Psenocerus stipernotatus (described by Say) which
burrows in the stem of a climbing plant, sujiposed to be
the grape, Osten Sacken describes as being three-tenths of an
inch long, subcylindrical or prismatical, the pro- and meso-
thorax being a little broader than the other segments, and the
whole body sparsely beset with fine golden hairs.
500
COLEOPTERA.
This insect, according to Fitch, also does mnch injniy to tiie
currant, eating tlie pith '•'tlu'ough the whole length of the
stalk and leaving it filled with a fine powder. It is about
the first of June that the parent insect deposits her eggs upon
the currant stalks, and the worms get their groAvtli b}' the
close of the season. They repose in their cells through the
winter, changing to pupte with the warmth of the following
spring, and begin to api)ear abroad in their perfect
state as early as the middle of May, the sexes paii'ing
immediately after the}- come out." (Fitch.) In August,
18G8, I received from Dr. P. A. Chadbourne, President
of Madison University, several branches of the apple
containing larvjB, which in the next spring changed to
^/ this beetle. The}' were ver}' injurious to orchards in
Fit;. ii)i. ijjg vicinity, and this seems to be the first instance
of its occurrence in the apple. The larva (Fig. 491, en-
larged thrice) is nearl}' half an inch long ; it is footless,
w'hite, v\^ith the head scarcely half as wide as the bod}'^ and con-
siderably flattened ; the segments are rather convex, each hav-
ing two rows of minute warts, and the tip is rather blunt, with
a few fine golden hairs. It devoured the sap wood and under
side of the bark and also the pith, thus locally killing the
terminal twigs, and causing the bark to
shrivel and peel off, leaving a distinct line
of demarcation between the dead and living
portions of the twig. Each larva seemed to
live in a space one and one-half inches long,
there being five holes through the bark within
the space of as man}' inches. On the IGth
of August the grubs seemed to have accom-
plished their work of destruction, as they
Avere fully grown. The beetle is from ,13 to
.20 of an inch long, and may be known by its dark, reddish
brown, cyiindi-ical body, with a high tubercle at the base
of the elytron, an oblique yellowish Avhite line on the basal
third, and a broad curved white line on the outer third of the
elytron, or Aving-cover.
Saperda cavdida Fabr. (bivittata Say, Fig. 492) the well
knoAvn Apple tree borer, flies about orchards in July in Ncav
CHRYSOMELID.E. 501
England, in May and June in the Western States, usually at
night, but we once observed it flying in the hottest part of the
day. At this time the female laj's her eggs in the bark near
the roots. The nearly cylindrical larvae are whitish fleshy
grubs, with a small horn^^ head, while the protlioracic ring,
as usual, is much larger than the others, the two preceding
ones being very short, and from thence the body narrows to
the tip. It bores upward into the wood, where it lives two or
three years, finally making a cocoon eight or ten inches from
its starting point, in a burrow next to the bark, whence it
leaves the pupa state (which begins early in June) in midsum-
mer. It also infests the wild apple, quince, pear, June-berry,
mountain-ash and hawthorn. Riley advises soaping the trunk
of the tree to prevent the beetle from laying its eggs, and
when the tree is infested with them to cut through the bark at
the upper end of their borings and pour in hot water, while in
the autumn the bark should be examined and the young worms
that had been hatched through the summer may be dug out
and destro^^ed.
We have found what we supposed to be the young larvae of
Desmocerns cyaneus Fabr. in the stems of the elder ; the beetle
is a handsome purple and white Longicorn, We ha\e found
Rhofjiiim Uneatam Olivier living in old trunks of pine trees.
The antennffi are no longer than the breadth of the body. It
makes a cocoon of chips, and the beetle appears in the autumn,
not, however, leaving the tree until the spring.
Chrysomelid^ Latreillc. The Leaf-beetles are oval or
oblong, often very thick and convex above, with short an-
tennae, round prominent eyes, with a narrow cylindrical
thorax, and the hinder thighs often much thickened in the
middle, while the abdomen has five free segments. The larvae
are short, rounded, cylindrical or flattened, generally of soft
consistence, usually gail^^ colored, and beset with thick flat-
tened tubercles or branching spines, and well developed tho-
racic feet. There are estimated to be from 8,000 to 10,000
species. They are found feeding, both in the larva and adult
stages, on leaves, either on the surface, or, as in Ilispa and
several species of Haltica, their larvae ai*e leaf-miners.
502
COLEOPTERA.
The genus Donacia connects this family with the preceding.
It has a rather long body and unusually long antennae, D.
proxima Kirby is dark blue, and Donacia Kirhyi Lacordaire
is of a shining copper}^ hue. The larvai live in the stems of
water plants, and make a leathery cocoon in the earth before
ti'ansforming.
The Grape-vine Fklia (F. viticida Walsh, Fig. 493) is very
injurious to the grape in the "Western States, from its habit of
"•cutting straight elongated holes of about an eighth of an
inch in diameter in the leaves, and when numer-
ous so riddling the leaves as to reduce them to
mere shreds." It is chestnut brown, and cov^
ered with short whitish hairs, giving it a hoary
appearance. Riley states that it is very abun>
dant in the vineyards in Missouri, where it pre-
fers Concord and Norton's Virginia grapes,
Avhile it occurs on the wild grape-vine and on the leaves of
the C'ercis Canadensis. "It makes its appearance during tht
month of June, and by the end of July has generally disap-
]ieared, from which fact Ave may infer that there is but one
brood each year," The vines should be often shaken and
chickens turned in to feed upon them when it is possible,
Crioceris is
known by its
]• a t h e ]' long
body, and the
prothorax be-
ing narrower
than the ely-
tra. The an-
t e n n ve are
rather long,
the fore coxaa are swollen, pressed together, and the claws
are either free or united at the base. We liave no native
species, but Crioceris acparagi Linn, has been introduced
into gai'dens about New York, doing much injury to the
asparagus. Fitch describes it as being about a quarter of an
inch long, with a tawn}' red prothorax and three bright lemon
yellow spots on each elj'trou. The larva is soft-bodied, twice
Fiff. 404.
CHEYSOMELIDiE. 503
as long as thick, the bodj' thickening posteriorly, and of a
dull ash graj^ or obscure olive, with a black head and legs.
Lema trilineata Olivier (Fig. 494 ; a, larva ; h, terminal joints
of abdomen ; c, pupa ; c7, eggs) occurs in great abundance
on the leaves of the potato. The dirty yellowish lar^aj are
found on it abundantly, and hide themselves by covering their
bodies with their own excrement. They mature in about two
weeks, transform in earthen cells cemented with a gummy
exudation discharged from the mouth, and in a fortnight,
being about the first of August, the beautiful yellow and black
striped beetle, with a reddish head and prothorax, appears.
Hispa is also a miner in the larva state. Ilispa (Uroplata)
rosea Harris (Fig. 495) is supposed by Harris to mine the
leaves of the apple tree. Harris describes it as being "of a
deep or a tawny reddish yellow color aboAC,
marked with little deep red lines and spots.
There are three smooth, longitudinal ribs on each
elytron, spotted with blood-red, and the space
between these lines are deeply punctured in
double rows ; the under side of the body is black,
and the legs are short and reddish. They meas- rig. i'-xi.
ure about one-fifth of an inch in length." "The larva3 burrow
under the skin of the leaves of plants, and eat the pulpy
substance within, so that the skin over and under the place
of their operations, turns brown and dies, having somewhat
of a blistered appearance, and within these blistered spots
the larvoe or grubs, the pupiB or the beetles, may often be
found. The eggs of these insects are little rough, blackish
grains, and are glued to the surface of the leaves, sometimes
singly, and sometimes in clusters of four or five together. The
grubs of our common species are about one-fifth of an inch in
length, when fully grown. The body is oblong, flattened, rather
broader before than behind, soft, and of a whitish color, ex-
cept the head and the top of the first ring, which are brown,
or blackish, and of a horny consistence. It has a pair of legs
to each of the first three rings ; the other rings are proAided
with small fleshy Avarts at the sides, and transverse rows of
little rasp-like points above and beneath. The pupa state lasts
only about one week, soon after which the beetles come out of
504
COLEOPTEIIA.
their burrows." Hispa (Uroplata) sntiircdis Fabr. mines the
Locust tree, and often proves very destructive in the Middle
and Western States. Tiie}^ are flat, the body beliind being-
broad and square, and tlie el3'tra are generall^^ ridged and
furrowed.
Casskla auriclialcea Fabr., tlie 3'ellow Ilehnet beetle, is hem-
ispherical, flattened, so that the edges of the wings are very
thin ; and the larva is broad, oval,
flattened, and b}- means of two spines
terminating its upturned abdomen,
holds its old cast larva skin over its
Ixxl}^ as a means of protection. Dur-
ing the last week in July we have
found the larvie in all stages of
growth A'ery abundant on the IMorn-
ing-glory in our garden, eating holes in the leaves. In the
j^oung the head and legs are more prominent than in the old.
It i)upates the last of Jul^^ and early in August.
The Chebjmorpha cribmria Fabr. (Fig. 49G ; a, pupa) we
have found in all its stages on the leaves of the silk-weed late
in July and early in August, and in one instance in Salem it
occurred in abundance on the leaves of the raspberry-. The
larva differs from that of Cassida auriclialcea, not only in its
greater size, but the bod}^ is thicker and narrower ; the head is
freer from the thorax, and the spines are simple, not spinula-
ted. The body is 3'ellow and less protected by the cast skin.
When about to transform, the larva attaches itself to the leaf
b^' a silken thread, a few segments from the end where the
end of the body of the future pupa is situated.
^) i^^c^ It is .45 of an inch long. The pupa is broad
and rather flattened, dark and spotted with
rir-. 407. yellow and covered with a Avhitish powder,
causing the vellow portions to appear more prominently- ; along-
each side of the abdomen is a row of live spines, and there are
four spines on the anterior edge of the prothorax ; it is .40 of
an inch in length.
Fig. 497 rei)resents, according to Harris, "the larva, nearl}-
full size, of Galcnica gelatinarioi Fabr. or an allied species,
found abundantly on Ambrosia elatior, Jul^' oOth. They
CHRYSOMELID^.
505
live on the upper surface of the leaves and devour tlie cuticle
and parenchyma above, leaving the lower cuticle untouched.
It is of a dirty ^-ellowish white color, with black tubercles
bearing white bristles. Length one-fourth of an inch." (Har-
ris Correspondence, p. 2G7.)
We have found Galeruca margineUa Kirbj^ (Fig. 498 ; rf,,
larva ; &, pupa) in all its stages of growth on Myrica gale,
during the middle of August,
in Northern IMaine. Tlie
larva is shining black, coria-
ceous above, and the body c:?^
is elongated, flattened, witli
a small orbicular black head.
The upper side of the body
is hard, from the close prox-
imity of the black flattened
tubercles. Beneath, Avhitish ; on the side is a row of small
black brown tubercles, and along the middle of the body is a
row of transversely linear brown tu-
ijjJSU^ bercles, on each side of which is a
minute dot-like tubercle. It is not
hairy, and measures .25 of an inch in
length. When about to transform it
fastens itself by its tail to the surface
of a leaf. The pupa is brown-black.
The beetle is umber brown, testaceous
on the edges of the elytra, the legs being also testaceous,
while tlie pi'othorax is pale, Avith three dark brown spots,
of which the central one is T-shaped. — ^.
The Striped Squash beetle, Diabrotica Xn/ ^^if
vittata Fabr. (Fig. 41)9, o, larva ; 5, pupa MJ)tA ^ff jK
seen from underneath; Fig. 500, adult) ap- / '-i-^'l^ ^-^ X-l
pears on squash vines as soon as they are Fig. coi. rig. 500.
up, and at once de\ours them unless their attacks are pre-
vented. Covering the vines with cotton or a box covered with
muslin or millinet is the only sure remedy, Avhile on a large
scale powdered charcoal, or lime is used, to be sprinkled on the
leaves. IMr. Gregory, says the "American Agriculturist," re-
lies upon plaster, or oyster-shell lime, which may be shaiven
506 COLEOPTERA.
from a small sieve while the leaves are wet with dew or rain ;
to be applied as soon as the plants are up. He objects to the
use of air-slacked stove lime, as it is apt to be too caustic and
injure the plant. Dr. II. Shimer has given an account of tlie
habits of tliis insect in the "Prairie Farmer," and has sent me
specimens of the insect in its different stages. He states tliat
the grub in June and July "eats the bark and often perlorales
and hollows out the lower part of the stem which is beneath the
ground, and the upper portion of the root, and occasionally
when tlie supply below fails, we find them in the vine just
above the ground." It hibernates in the pupa state. "The
larva arrives at maturity in about a month after the egg is laid ;
it remains in the pupa state about two weeks, and the beetle
probabl}' lives several days before depositing her eggs,
so that one generation is in existence about two months,
and we can only have two, never more than three
broods in one season." He has found them boring in
the squash and muskmelon vines as late as October 1st.
The larva is a long, slender, Avhite, cylindrical grub, Avith a small
brownish head. The prothorax is a little corneous. The tho-
racic legs are very slender, pale brown ; the end of the body is
suddenly truncated, Avith a small prop-leg beneath. Above is
an orl)icular brown space, growing black posterioi'ly and ending
in a pair of upcurved, vertical, slender black spines. It is .40
of an inch long. It will be seen that both in its boring habits
and its corresponding, remarkable, elongated, cylindrical, soft
white body, that this larva varies widely from that of Galleruca,
to Avhich the beetle is closely allied. The pupa is .17 of an
incli long, white, with the tip of the abdomen ending in two
long acute spines arising from a common base. The Twelve-
spotted Diabrothica (Fig. 501, D. duodecim-punctata Fabr.)
is injurious to the loaves of the Dahlia.
The genus Hcdtlca, to which the little blackish Flea-beetles
belong, is well knoAvn. The larvte mine the leaves of the
])lants on Avhich they afterAvards feed. Haltica (Crepidodera)
cucumeris Harris (Fig. 502) infests the cucumber. Harris de-
scribes it as being "only one-sixteenth of an inch long, of a
black color, Avith clay-yelloAv antennoe and legs, except the
hindmost thighs, which are brown. The upper side of the body
CHRYSOMELT D^ .
507
is covered with punctures, which are arranged in rows on the
wing-cases, and there is a deep transverse furrow across the
hinder part of the thorax." It not only kills young cucumber-
vines, eating the seed leaves, but is found
all tlu'ough the summer eating holes in the
leaves of various garden vegetables.
The Grape-leaf Flea Beetle, H. (Grapto-
dera) chahjbea Illiger, eats the buds and
leaves of the grape. It is a steel blue in-
sect, often varying in its shades of color-
ing, sometimes becoming greenish. It is rig. 503.
a little over three-twentieths of an inch in length. In Ohio,
]\Ir. M. C. Reed noticed the sexes of this species, which Dr.
Leconte considers as probably the Graptodera exapta of Say
(Fig. 503), pairing May Gth. The larvae appeared the last of
the month, and by the first week in June, and on the 30th of the
same month, the beetles appeared. I have received specimens
of the larva from Mr. Read. It is a yellowish white, cylindrical
worm, with a jet black head and black tubercles, from each of
which proceed several fine hairs. The prothorax is brown black
above ; on each succeeding ring of the
body are ten tergal black tubercles, the
two inner ones being long and narrow,
and transverse, the others forming
round dots. On each ring is a single
black dot just between the two lower
larger tubercles. On the sides are two rows of black tubercles,
and along the middle of the under side a row of transverse
tubercles, on each side of which is a row of dot-like tubercles.
It is .35 of an inch in length.
The Striped Turnip Flea beetle, //. (Phyllotreta) striolata
Fabr. (Fig. 504 ; a, larva ; 6, pupa), is black, with a waved yel
lowish stripe on each wing-cover, and is less than a tenth of an
inch long. Dr. Sliimer describes the larva as being white ; the
head is of a pale lirown color, and near the end of the body is a
brown spot equal to the head in size ; besides the thoracic legs
there is a single anal prop-leg. It is .35 of an inch long. It
i'eeds upon roots beneath the ground. The pupa is naked,
white, and transforms in an earthen cocoon. In seventeen
508
COLEOPTERA.
days from the time the larva ceases eating the beetle appeared.
It then feeds on the seed leaves of cabbages and turnips and
other garden vegetables, when it proves very injurious,
while afterwards in June, when the plants have at-
tained their growth, they sicken and die from the
attacks of the larva in their roots. (American
Naturalist, a'oI. ii, p. 514.)
The Silk-weed Labidomera, L. trimacidata Fabr. (Fig. 505,
larva) is found in its larAal stage on the Silk-weed about the
first of August. It is a thick hemispherical beetle, with a dark
blue head and prothorax, and orange elytra, with three large
blue spots on each wing-cover. It is one-half of an inch long.
Fig. 505.
Fig. 50G.
The Colorado potato beetle, Dorypliora decem-Jineafa Say
(Fig. 506 ; o, eggs ; b, the larvas in different stages of growth ;
c, the pupa ; d, beetle ; e, elytron, magnified ; /, leg, magnified)
has gradually spread eastward as f:ir as Maine, fi-om its
original habitat in Colorado, having become Aery destructive
to tiie potato-vine. It becomes a beetle within a month after
hatching from the yellowish eggs ; the larva is pale yellow
with a reddish tinge and a lateral row of black dots. j\Iessrs.
Walsh and Riley state that "there are three broods of larva?
every j-ear in North Illinois and Central Missouri, each of
which goes under ground to pass into the pupa state, the first
two broods coming out of the ground in the beetle state about
CHRYSOMELIDiE.
509
ten or twelve days afterwards, while the third brood of beetles
stays under ground all winter, and only emerges late in the
following spring, just
in time to lay its eggs
upon the young po-
tato leaves," which it
devours to such an ex-
tent as to sometimes
almost cut off the en.
tire crop in certain lo-
calities. The Editors
of the ' ' American En-
tomologist," from whom we have quoted, enumerate and
figure various beetles, hemiptera, and a species of Tachina fly
(Lydella doiyphorte Rile}') Avhich mostly prey upon the larvae.
Dr. II. Shimer shows, in the "American Naturalist," vol. iii,
p. 91, that a dry and hot summer is very unfavorable to the
development of this insect, the pupa? d^ing for Avant of siifH-
cient moisture in the soil. The best remedy against its attacks
is hand picking.
A A'cry closely allied species or variety, the D. jimcta Ger-
mar (Fig. 506'), may be easily confounded with the other spe-
cies, but differs, according to "Walsh, in the head
of the lar^'a being paler, while in the beetle the third
and fourth stripe from the outside are united, where
they are distinct in the D. 10-lineata, and the legs
are entirely pale yellow, with a dark spot on the
femora. It feeds on the wild potato, not eating ^'^'S- ■^^^'^-
the cultivated species, and has always been an inhabitant of the
Western and Southern States.
Chrysomela is an oval oblong genus, and its ally, Calligraplm.,
is \Q\'y convex, hemispherical ; the species are gaily spotted and
banded ; Calligraplia scalaris Lee. is abundant on the alder.
The larvre (Fig. 506^, larva of C. Philadelphica Linn.) are
thick and fleshy, with a row of black spiracles along the side
of the bod 3^, and a dark prothoracic shield.
EamoJpus anratus Fabr. is a shining, rich golden green bee-
tle, found on the dog's-bane.
Chlamys is a little oblong, cubical, roughly shagreencd,
510 COLEOPTERA.
metallic greenish hectic, found in ahnndance on leaves south-
ward. The larva of Chlamys 'pUcata Olivier, according to
Mr. S. H. Scudder, who has reared it from the sweet-fern, is a
sac bearer, drawing after it a rounded, flask-shaped, blackish
sac, witliin wliich it withdraws when disturbed. Larvae appar-
ently belonging to this species were found by Mr. Emerton on
grass in pastures in July. They are interesting as being true
sac-bearers, recalling Psyche helix and other sac-bearing moths,
and the rhryganeids. Fig. 507 represents the larva in the act
of walking, the head and thoracic segments protruding from
the case. The case is a quarter of an inch long and one-half
as thick, being oval C3'lindrical. It is
"^ black and appears to be formed of
1)^ little pellets of vegetable matter
k^n^k chewed by the larva and applied to the
Fig. 507. edge, with a seam along the middle of
the under side, which readily spreads open when the sac is
pressed. The case is a little contracted before the mouth,
where the pellets are a little larger than elsewhere. The larva
is of the form of those of others of the family, but the body is
slenderer in front of the abdomen, and the legs are longer
than usual. The abdomen is suddenly thickened and curved
at right angles, the tip being rather i)ointed. The body is
white, with a brown-black head and dark brown legs, and a
prothoracic corneous piece, with a corneous piece at the inser-
tion of each leg. It is, in its natural curved posture, .25 of
an inch long. In the Museum of the Peabody Academy are
several minute chalcid parasites reared from C. plicata.
Cnjptocej^halus is a short, cylindrical genus, numbering nearly
800 species.
Erotylid.i-: Westwood. This family is very largely devel-
oped in tropical America, and is known by the large, flattened
antennal club, which consists of three joints. Most of them
are supposed to be leaf insects, while the more northern spe-
cies live in fungi.
Endomyciiid^ Leach. In this small group are genera whose
bodies are oval, with antennae longer than the head, which with
COCCINELLID^.
511
the trapeziform prothorax, distinguish them from the allied
families. An interesting form from New Hampshire, the Phy~
maphom jiuIcJiella of Newman (Fig. 508), is described by
Harris (Correspondence, p. 25G) as being rust-red, with paler
feet and antennjB, the head being black ; there is a broad
black band across the middle of the elytra, and
the tips are black.
CocciNELLiD.i!: Latreille. The characteristic form
Fig. 50S. of the "Lady-birds" is well known. They are
hemispherical, generally red or yellow, with round or
lunate black spots. The species are difficult to dis-
criminate, and number upwards of 1,000. Some in-
dividuals belonging to ditferent species have been
known to unite sexually, but producing sterile eggs.
The yellow long oval eggs are laid in patches, often in a group
of plant-lice, which the larvoe greedily devour. They are rather
long, oval, suft-bodied, pointed behind, with the prothorax
larger than tlio other rings, often gaily colored and beset with
tubercles or spines, and when about to turn to a pupa, the larva
attaches itself by the end of the body to a
leaf, and either throws off the larva skin,
which remains around its tail, or the old
dried skin is retained, loosely folded about
the pupa as a protection, thus simulating the
coarctate pupa of the flies. The Spotted
Hippodamia, //. maculata DeGeer (Fig. 509) is pale red, with
thirteen black spots on the bod_v, and is quite connnon, while
the H. convergens Guerin (Fig. 510, with larva and pupa) is
connnon southwards. In Cocci)i.eUa the body is smooth, hemi-
spherical, with the hind angle of the prothorax acute.
The eggs of the common Two-spotted Coccinella, C. bfpunc-
tata Linn., are laid in May on the bark of trees, and those
of another brood are laid in June and hatched July 1st. They
are oval, cylindrical, orange yellow, and are attached in a bunch
of about twenty-five, by one end to the bark. They hatch
out when the leaves and their natural article of diet, the Aphis,
appear, and may be found running about over the leaves of
various garden shrubs and trees. The body is black with flat-
512 COLEOPTEEA.
tened tubercles spinulated above ; on each side of the first
abdominal segment is a j^ellovvish spot, and tliere is a broad
yellowish spot in the middle of the fourth segment, and one
on each side. On June 28th Ave found several fidly grown
larvffi a quarter of an inch long, transforming into pupae,
with a freshly transformed beetle. The larva begins the opera-
tion b}^ attaching very firmly, with a sort of silk}- gum, its tail
to the leaf, the point of attachment not being the extreme tip,
but just before it, where the tip of the abdomen of the pupa is
situated. Meanwhile the body contracts in length and widens,
the head is bent upon the breast, and in about twenty-four
hours the skin splits open and discloses the pupa. The body
of the pupa is black ; the head is also black, and
the prothorax is black and yellowish pink, with
a black dot on each side, and a smaller black
dot on each edge ; the mesothorax, Aving-covers,
scutellnm and legs, are shining black. The ab-
dominal rings are pale flesh-colored, with two
Fig. 511. rows of large black spots on each side, the spots
being transverse ; the terga of the fourth to the seventh seg-
ments are separated, the body being arched and leaving y^
a deep furrow between. The beetle is orange yellow, y^S
with a black head and prothorax ; the side of the pro- P^>
thorax is Avhitish, with a central diamond-shaped white ^'"- ^^^•
spot, and behind it a much longer whitish spot. The beetle
derives its specific name from the two black dots on the elytra.
It hibernates, and might be used to clear house-plants of plant-
lice. The Nine-spotted Coccinella, C. novemnoUda Ilerbst
(Fig. 511, and pupa), and the Three-banded Coccinella, C. tri-
fasciata Linn. (Fig. 512), are also not uncommon species.
The Fifteen-spotted Lady-bird, Uiisia lo-pundata Olivier,
Is black on the head and prothorax, with seven black spots on
the brownish red elytra, and a black spot on the scutellum ; it
is seven-twentieths of an inch in length. The larva closely re-
sembles that of Coccinella, but along the body are six rows of
stout spinulated spines ; the upper surface of the body is black,
with a pale spot on the hinder edge of the prothoracic ring ;
the body is pale beneath. It is half an inch long. The pupa
is pale, not black like that of the Coccinellae known to us, and
COCCINELLID^. 513
is sixteen-spotted, with tliree additional rows of dark spots
on the abdomen. The bod}^ is broad and flat, with a row of
three spines on each side of the abdomen, and is .40 of an
inch long.
In Chilocorus the margin of the elytra is dilated, and the
lunate prothorax is rounded behind. C. hivulnerulus Mulsant
(Fig. 513) is black, with two yellow spots.
The genus Scymnus is hemispherical, pubescent, with short,
abruptly clavate antenna. I have received from
Dr. II. Shimer the larva and adult of Scymnus cer- /^^jlH^ T
vicalis Muls. which he found in the holes of insects 1
boring in the Prickly-ash. The body is subcylin- /^
drical, pale whitish, much longer and slenderer and
narrower than in Coccinella, witli a small black round head ; the
legs are long and slender, more so than in Coccinella. The
rings are rather convex, not tuberculated above,
though provided with a few hairs. It is .12 of an inch
long. The beetle is reddish brown, with very dark
Fig. 5U. Prussian blue elytra, and is .10 of an inch long.
Einlachna borealis Thunberg (Fig. 514) is yellowish, with
seven large black patches on each elytron. "The larvaa,
according to Osten Sacken, are common on the leaves of the
pumpkin. It is yellow, witli long, brown, branched spines,
arranged in rows of six on each segment, except the first tho-
racic segment, which has onl}^ four. The pupa instead of
spines has short bristles, especially on the thorax."
Fig. 515.
The Pea AVeevil (enlarged).
33
;&14 HEMIPTERA.
In the remaining suborders, the metamorphosis is, with tlie
exception of most of the Neuroptera, generally "incomplete,"
the active larva and pupa closely resembling the adult, and
often scarcely distinguishable from it except in being wingless.
This similarity of the adult condition to the larval and pupal
forms, as well as the equality in size of the different segments
of the body, the aquatic habits of many of the species, and
the numerous genuine parasites found among them, are indica-
tive of their low rank.
HEMIPTERA.
This order, including the true "bugs," the plant-lice, bed-
bug and body-lice, may be briefly characterized by the beak-
like sucking mouth-parts, composed of the mandibles and
maxilliB, which are ensheathed by the large expanded labium,
while the labrum is small and short ; b}^ the free, large protho-
rax, -the usually angular short body, and the irregularly veined
wings, the veins being but few in number, while the fore Avings
are often half coriaceous and opake. The metamorphosis is
incomplete. There are many wingless parasitic forms, and
man}^ aquatic species.
The triangular head is nearly always sunken into the pro-
thorax, and is small in proportion to the rest of the bod}' ; the
eyes are small, nearly globular and ver}^ prominent, and
the three ocelli are set far back, while the short, bristle-like, or
tiliforra antennoe, with from five to thirteen or more joints, are
inserted below and far in advance of the eyes, so that the front
is broad and flat. The parts of the mouth form a four-jointed
solid hard beak. The mandibles and maxill?e are long and
style-like, the latter without palpi ; they are ensheathed at
their base by the canaliculate labium, which has obsolete
palpi, while the lingua is short, but slightly developed, its
function of tasting the food, owing to the peculiar habits of
the suborder, being thrown into disuse. The labrum is well
developed, being generally acutely triangular. The thorax is
constructed on the coleopterous type, the prothorax being
broad above, and the wings, when folded, concealing the rest
HEMIPTERA. 515
of the body, while the side pieces (the epimera and episterna)
are large and of much the same form as in the Coleoptera, and
the legs are situated close together, Avith coxae and trochanters
very similar to those of the Coleoptera. The body is usually
very flat above, or, in the more or less cylindrical species,
somewhat broad and flat. The body is less concentrated
headwards than in the Coleoptera, though much more so than
in the Orthoptera, and in this respect, as well as in other
essential characters, the group is intermediate between these
two suborders. Both pairs of wings are very equal in size
and alike in shape, except in the higher families where they
are very unequal, the hinder pair being very small. They are
generally very regularly ovate in shape, the costal edge being
much curved and rounded towards the obtusely rounded apex ;
the outer edge is long and very oblique, and the inner edge
short, though often longer than the outer edge in the lower
families. The type of venation is rather peculiar in this sub-
order, as the costal veins are large and stout, while, as seen in
the wings of Apliis, the median veins are sent out from the
costa ; indeed there is no central powerful vein in the middle
of the wing ; in other words the wing is scarcely differentiated
into its three special regions, so well seen in the Hymenoptera
and Lepidoptera, and especially the Orthoptera. The surface
is net-veined rather than parallel-veined, but there are few
veinlets, and the interspaces are large and few in number,
and in this respect most Hemiptera show their superiority
to the Orthoptera and Neuroptera. In the lower section of
the suborder, the Ileteropterous Hemiptera, the thickening of
the basal half of the wing tends to obliterate all traces of the
veins, and especially the veinlets.
The legs are slender, and often very long, owing to the great
length of the femora and tibiae, while the tarsi, like those of
the lowest Coleoptera, are two or three-jointed.
The abdomen has six to nine segments apparent, thougli
the typical number is eleven, according to Lacaze-Duthiers.
The stigmata are very distinct, being often raised on a tubercle.
On the basal ring of the abdomen are two cavities in which
are sometimes seated vocal organs, as in the male Cicada, and
in the metathorax of some species are glands for secreting a
516 HEMIPTERA.
foul odoroii^^ fliiifl. Lacaze-Duthiers has given a sectional view
of Ranatra (Fig. .31G ; v, dorsal vessel; i, intestine; n, ner-
vous cord) Avhich shows the relation of the elements of an
abdominal segment, t, is the tergum ; em, the epimerum ;
ES, the episternuni, and s, the sternum.
The ovipositor and the genital armature are generallj'^ con-,
cealed within the tip of the abdomen, being rarely exserted so
as to form a prominent part of the body. It differs greatly in
its development, and is difficult to reduce to a common tj'pe.
Lacaze-Dutliiers states that we may consider the abdomen of
the Hemiptera as consisting often or eleven segments, accord-
ing as we consider the horny ring, lying between the abdomen
and thorax as the basal ring of the abdomen, or not. He re-
gards the former view as the true one. This author contends
that in Ploa the tergum of the fust and second abdominal
segments (proto and deutotergites) are coal-
< esced, and that the original sutures are marked
by simple stritB, while at the opposite end of
the abdomen the genital and anal outlets are
separated by three rings, i.e., the eighth,
ninth and tenth.
In the Ci cadi dm and Phytocoris the ovipositor is per-
fect and much as described in the Hymenoptera. In the
Fiilgoridw, Nancoris, Ploa and Notonecta, the eighth
segment is complete, "while the ovipositor is more or less in-
complete, and it often happens that a reunion of secondary
pieces represents a principal piece, and that the elements of
the two postgenital rings are articulated together by overlap-
ping each other.
In Ranatra as well as Nepa is a third modification of the
ovipositor, where the postgenital segment is incomplete, and
the sternal appendages and sternum of the segment bearing
the ovipositor only remain, the other parts being aborted. In
the Pentatomids and Cimex there is no ovipositor, but the
aborted elements are more or less developed, so as to be
identifiable.
The nervons system consists, besides those of the head, of
two thoracic ganglia, of which the anterior is the smaller, which
send off two main trunks to the abdomen.
HEMIPTERA. 517
The oesophagus is usually small and short, while the much
convoluted stomach is very long and subdivided, first into a
large, straight, glandular portion ; second, into the convoluted
smaller part, and third, in some Pentatomids and Coreidoi
there is a third stomach "consisting of a very narrow, slightly
flexuous canal, on which are inserted two or four rows of
closely aggregated glandular tubes." (Siebold.) The Cicad-
idoi, and most Heteropterous Hemiptera, have very large lobu-
lated salivar}^ glands, divided into two unequal portions, and
often with long digitiform processes.
Tn the aquatic species, i.e., the N'au r, oridm and Nepidcp ..
there nrt^ two stigm.ita at the end of the abdomen. In Ncpa
and Rrinatra the stigmata are situated at the base of a
long tube. There are four long urinary tubes. Tlie ovaries
are formed of from four to eight tubes arranged in a verti-
cillate manner about the end of the short oviduct. In the
Psyllldce and Cicadidce, however, they are composed, in
the first family, of from ten to thirty unilocular tubes, and in
the second, of from twenty to seventy bilocular tubes. The
recejitacuhim semmis consists of one or two small caeca, and the
Cicadidcxi are the only Ilemiptora which have a copnlatory
pouch, this consisting of a pyriform vesicle. "The viviparous
Ajiliidai differ from those which are oviparous, in that their
eight o^■arian tubes are multilocular and their oviducts entirely
without appendages, while with the second, or oviparous, these
eight tubes are unilocular, and there is a seminal receptacle
and two sebaceous glands." (Siebold.) The testes vary
greatly in number and form, consisting of from one to five
tubuliform or rounded glands.
The active larvae of the Hemiptera, like those of the Orthop-
tera, resemble closely the imago, differing mainly in possessing
the rudiments of wings, which are acquired after the second
niouhing. After two changes of skin (four in all) they assume
the pupa state, which differs mainly from that of the larva in
having larger wing-pads. While the development of the imago
ordinarily occupies the summer months, in the Aphides it
takes but a comparatively few days, but in the Seventeen-year
Locust as many years as its name indicates. An exception
to this mode of development is seen in the larva of the male
518 HEMIPTERA.
Coccus, which, as in the higher suborders, spins a silken co*
coon, and changes into an inactive pupa.
Apterous individuals, especially females, sometimes occur,
especially in the aquatic Hydrometra, Velia and Limnobates,
and in many other genera the hind pair of wings are often
absent.
The embryological development of such Hemiptera as have
been observed {Hydrometra^ Corixa, Aphidca^ Coccidce,
i'c d ictil % n a and Ma 1 1 oj) li a g a) corresponds very closely with
that of certain Neuroptcra {Libellulidm and Hemerohidoi .
There are about 30,000 species living and fossil. Some
species are of great size, especially the Hydrocores, a division
containing the aquatic genera, Velia, Nepa, Belostoma and
Notonecta, and which first appeared in the Jurassic formation.
Latreille divided the Hemiptera into the Heteroptera and
Homoptera. The latter are the higher in rank, as the body is
more cephalized, the parts of the body more specialized, and
in the Aphidce, which top the series, Ave have a greater sex-
ual differentiation, the females being both sexual and asexual,
the latter by a budding process, and without the interposition
of the male producing immense numbers of young, which feed
in colonies. The species are smaller than in the Heteroptera,
and are all terrestrial. The Pleteropterous Hemiptera, on the
other hand, are larger, the body is less compactly put together,
the abdomen and thorax are elongated, the head is small com-
pared with the rest of the body, and the species are large,
some of great size (a sign of degradation among insects), and
several families are aquatic, indicating a lower grade of devel-
opment, while representatives of these were the first of the
suborder to appear in geological times. Their affinities are
with the Orthoptera and Neuroptera, while the Aphidm and
Homoptera generally, on the other hand, whose bodies are
more cylindrical, all}^ themselves with the first and higher se-
ries of suborders.
In the Homopterous Hemiptera the fore pair of wings are
generally transparent and usually net-veined, lying with the
hind pair, which are considerablj^ smaller, roof-like upon the
body, and the head is held vertically, where in most Heterop-
tera it is horizontal and flattened.
APHIDyE. 519
Aphid^. Latreille. The Plant-lice have antennffi with from
five to seven joints, and generally longer than the body. The
ocelli are wanting, and the beak is three-jointed and developed
in both sexes. The legs are long and slender, with two-jointed
tarsi. The males and females are winged, and also the last
brood of asexual individuals, but the early summer broods
are wingless. Their bodies are flask-shaped, being cylind-
rical, the abdomen thick and rounded, and in Aphis and
Lachnus is provided with two tubeo on the sixth segment for
the passage of a sweet fluid secreted from the stomach. The
wings are not net-veined, having few veins, which pass out-
wards from the costa. They are usually green in color, with
a soft powdery bloom which exudes from their bodies.
Bonnet first discovered that the summer brood of wingless
individuals were born of virgin parents, hatched from eggs
laid in the autumn, and that the true winged sexes composed
the last generation, which united sexually, and that the female
laid eggs in the autumn which produced the spring brood of
asexual wingless individuals.
Dr. W. I. Burnett gives the following brief summary of the
mode of development in this group. In the early autumn
the colonies of plant-lice are composed of botli male and
female individuals ; these pair, the males then die, and the
females begin to deposit their eggs, after which they die also.
Early in tlie spring, as soon as the sap begins to flow, these
eggs are hatched, and the young lice immediately begin to
pump up sap from the tender leaves and shoots, increase raj)-
idly in size, and in a short time come to maturity. In this
state it is found that the whole brood, without a single excep-
tion, consists solely of females, or rather, and more properly',
of individuals which are capable of reproducing their kind.
This reproduction takes place by a viviparous generation, there
being found in the individuals in question, young lice, which,
when capable of entering upon individual life, escape from
their progenitors, and form a new and greatty increased col-
on3^ This second generation pursues the same course as the
first, the individuals of which it is composed being, like those
of the first, sexless, or at least without any trace of the male
sex throughout. These same conditions are then repeated, and
520
HEMIPTEEA.
SO on almost indefinitely, experiments having shown that the
power of reproduction under such circumstances may be exer-
cised, according to Bonnet, tit least through nine generations,
■while Duval obtained thus eleven generations in seven months,
his generations being curtailed at this stage not by a failure
of the reproductive power but by the approach of winter,
which killed his specimens ; and Kyber even observed that a
colony of Aphis dianthi, which had been brought into a con-
stantly heated room, continued to propagate for four 3-ears in
this manner, without the intervention of males, and even in this
instance it remains to be proved how much longer these phe-
nomena might have
been continued." Dr.
Burnett, from whom
Ave quote, considers
this anomalous mode
of increase of indi-
viduals as a process
of budding, and that
the whole series, like
the leaves of a tree,
constitutes but a sin-
gle generation, which
results from the union
of the sexes in the
previous fall. It has
Fig. 517. a 1 w a y s been sup-
posed that the final autumnal set of individuals were males
and females alone. But Dr. Burnett states: ''The terminal
brood has hitherto been considered, as far as I am aware, to be
composed exclusively of males and females, or, in other words,
of perfect insects of both sexes. I was surprised, therefore, on
examining the internal organs of the non-winged individuals,
to find that many of these last were not females proper, but
simply the ordinary gemmiparous form. Moreover so great
was the similarity of appearance between these two forms ^ —
true females and gemmiparous individuals — that the}^ could
be distinguished only by an examination of their internal
genitalia."
APHID Ji:.
521
MM. Balbiani and Signoret ha^-e discovered that the com-
mon P^^uropeau Aphis aceris produces, besides young of the
normal form, a singular dimorplious form (Fig. 517), first de-
scribed in 1852 by Mr. J. Thornton, under the name of Phyl-
lophorus testudinatus, and afterwards called Ferijyhyllus testudo
by M. Van der Hoeven. The chief characteristic of this re-
markable form, which is flattened, scale-like, is the series of
leaf-like scales surrounding the body and bordering the appen-
dages, while the upper side of the abdomen is covered with
hexagonal figures. The generative apparatus is also very ru-
dimentary. It does not produce young, and the insects them-
selves do not increase in size after birth, being scarcely one
millimetre in length. "They undergo no change of skin,
never acquire wings like the reproductive individuals, and their
antennae always retain the
five j(Knts which they pre-
sent in all 3'oung Aphides
before the first moult."
(Science Gossip, 18G7, p.
204.)
Aphides are found upon
every part of p 1 a n t s .
Some species which are Fig. sis.
Avingless, are found on the roots of plants, others on the stems
of twigs, others roll up leaves, or form gall-like swellings on
leaves ; the grain Aphis sucks the sap of the kernel. Ants are
fond of the sweet excretions from the abdominal tubes, and
often keep them captive in their nests like herds of cattle.
Syrphus flies, CoccinelLne, etc., keep them within proper limits
in nature. Various species of Aphidius kill larger numbers
than we imagine. "When an Aphis has received "an egg from
one of these parasites it quits its companions and fastens itself
by its ungues to the under side of a leaf, when it swells into a
globular form, its skin stretched out and dried up, and in a
short time the perfect parasite escapes by a circular hole, the
mouth of which sometimes remains like a trap door." In
the Museum of the Peabody Academy is an apple twig almost
covered with dead Aphides, each perforated by a hole from
which an Aphidius had escaped.
522 HEMIPTERA.
In Aphis the seven-jointed antennae are longer than the body,
the two basal joints short and thick, the seventh the longest,
and near the end of tlie abdomen there are two long lionej^
tubes. Aphis avence Fabr. is abundant and very injurious to
the ears of wlieat, sucking out the sap and greatly reducing the
bulk of the corn. In certain jears it has spread over the
country in immense numbers. Apjhis mali Fabr. (Fig. 518,
winged female; Fig. 519, asexual female), and A. malifolice
Fitch are found on the apple ; A. cerasi Fabr. on the cherry ;
A. persicoi Sulzer on the peach, and A. hrassicm Linn, on the
cabbage. There are about thirty species known in this
country.
In Lachnus the sixth joint of the antennae is shorter than
the seventh, and the honey tubes are very short. Lachnus
strobi is found on the white pine bushes often in great numbers.
Lachnus canjce Harris is a very large species
which lives on the Hickory. Mr. Walsh states
that he has "noticed in the autumn, numerous
apterous females on the same tree, Avhich lived
Fig. 519. many daj'S and laid their eggs in confinement,
but died without assuming wings." The genus Eriosoma differs
in having no honey tubes, and in having onl}^ two median (dis-
coidal) cells. The species are covered with a woolly flocculent
.substance, secreted from the abdomen, though no special
glands for tliis purpose have 3'et been discovered, while but lit-
tle "honey" is exuded from the orifices of the aborted honej^-
tubes. Eriosoma kmigera Hausmann, the Apple-blight, is
black, with the abdomen honey yellow. The eggs are laid in
the axils of the branches, especially near the roots of the tree,
if there are any suckers present, and are enveloped in the pow-
dery substance of the abdomen of the female. By their stings
in the bark numerous warts and excresences are produced,
the leaves turn yellow and drop off, and the tree often dies.
Professor Verrill has found, about the middle of October,
among the wingless individuals, " a large number of both males
and females having well formed and rather large wings, but in
other respects closely resembling the rest."
The genus Adelges was proposed by Vallot for certain broad,
flattened plant-lice, which attack coniferous trees, often raising
APHID^.
523
swellings on twigs like pine and spruce cones. The antennae
are short, five-jointed and slender ; there are three straight
veinlets arising from the main subcostal vein and directed out-
wards, and there are no honey tubes ; otherwise these insects
closely resemble the Aphides. A species (Fig. 520 ; a, pupa
seen from beneath) closely related to the European Adelges
(Chermes) coccineus of Ratzburg, and the A. strobilobius of
Kaltenbach, which have similar habits, we have found in abun-
dance on the spruce in Maine, where it produces swellings at
the end of the twigs,
resembling in size
and form the cones
of the same tree.
The most destruc-
tive insect of this
family is the Grape
Phylloxera, JR. viti- a Fig. 520.
folke Fitch [P. vastatrix Planclion). It exists in two forms,
one raising irregular galls on the leaves, and the other form-
ing small swellings on the rootlets. The root-form is both
wingless and winged, the latter very rare. The leaf-form is
said to be always wingless. Fig. 521 (after Riley) represents
the wingless leaf- j
form ; «, b, newly ^ _^^^!jfttaL
hatched larva,
ventral and dor-
sal view; c, egg;
d, section of leaf-
gall ; e, swelling
of tendril ; f, g, h,
mother gall-louse,
lateral, dorsal,
and ventral
views ; i, anten-
na; J, two-jointed
tarsus. Fig. 521 a,
«, healthy root ; h, one on which tlie lice are working, repre-
senting the swellings caused by their punctures ; c, a root
which has been deserted by them, and where the rootlets have
524
HEMIPTERA.
Legim to decay ; c?, c?, fZ, lice of natural size on the larger
roots ; e, female pupa, dorsal view ; /', the same, ventral vievv^;
f/, winged female, dorsal view ; /<, same, ventral view ; /, mag-
nified antenna of winged insect ; j, side view of wingless
female laying eggs; k shows how the punctures of the lice
cause the larger roots to decay. Fig. 521 b, sexual Phyllox-
erte ; a, female mtifollm^ ventral view, showing the large egg
through the transparent skin of the body ; ?>, dorsal view of
the same ; c, tarsus, gi-eatly enlarged ; f?, shrunken anal joints
as they appear after ovi-
position ; c, male of another
species, P. cary<PcauUs TMIey,
dorsal view ; the dot in the
I — ^^-^ circle indicates the natural
Fig. 522. size of the insect. (After
Riley.)
Pemphigus formicarius is tended by ants. The Vagabond
Pemphigus, P. vagabmidus Walsh (Fig. 522), so-called from its
habit of wandering to very great distances in its native forests,
raises lai-ge galls (Fig. 524) on the tops of the cotton-wood and
balsam poj)lars; and the "old l)lackened galls hang on to the
twigs for several ^ea'^'^Mi'^, giving the tree a singular appearance
when the leaves
are off in the
wintertime." A
single female
begins the gall,
whose young
soon multiply,
leaving the gall
in September.
Mr. Walsh has
also described
Fig. 523. the Sumac gall
(Fig. 523) caused by a smaller species, the Pem2^higus rhois ol'
Fitch, and also the Cockscomb-elm gall (Fig. 525) made by
the P. tdmicola of Fitch, which infests young white elm trees,
often densely covering the leaves. "By the end of June or
the beginning of July, the gall becomes full of winged plant-
Fig. 521*.
Fig. 521b. The Grape Pliylloxera.
COCCIDiE.
525
lice, when the slit on the upper side of the leaf, through which
the mother plant-louse built up the gall early in the sprin<'-,
gapes open and allows
the insects to escape
into the open air."
(American Entomolo-
gist, p. 108.)
The Editors of the
"American Entomolo-
gist" describe and fig-
ure the Apple root
plant-louse, Eriosoma
(Pemphigus) pyrt of
Fitch (Fig. 52G; a, the
gall ; b, larva ; c, fe-
male ; d, leg ; e, beak ;
/, antenna of female ; ' vig. 52t.
(/, of larva), which occurs sometimes in great abundance, form-
ing, in October, galls like potatoes, and two to tln-ee inches in
diameter, on the roots of apple trees, just beneath the surface
of the ground.
The European
Chermes (Pemphi-
gus) abietis has two
sorts of females,
and is parthenogen-
ous, according to
Leuckart.
C0CCID.E Fallen.
The Bark-lice have
six or more joints
to the antennae ; the
tarsi are two-jointed, the beak wanting in the males, in whicn
tiie hind wings are usually wanting, while the scales made by
the females are usually flattened, scale-like, or rounded hemi^
spherical. The wingless, scale-like, adult females, by a retro-
grade development, in which the legs and rings of the body
become aborted, remind us of the Barnacles and allies among
FipT. 525.
526
HEMIPTEEA.
Crustacea, and like them, they can scarcely be referred to the
type of Articulates at all, while other forms, such as C. cacti
in its larval state, resemble Glomeris, or the Isopods, among
Crustacea. On the other hand the males have been mistaken
for some Neuroptera, and the male Coccus, with its long anal
stylets and the single pair of fore wings, mtiy be likened to
an Ephemera. The genera Aspidiotus and Lecanium are par-
thenogenous, as in the Apliidm .
In Aleurodes both sexes are winged and of similar form, the
antennaj are six-jointed, with the second joint lengthened, and
in the fore wings,
which are spread out
as in Lepidoptera,
there is but a single
vein, the median. "We
/ have received from
Mr. J. L. Eussell
specimens of A. va-
porariavi which oc-
curred in great num-
bers on his house-
plants and especially
Fig. 526. on the tomato leaves.
The winged forms appeared early in September. The larvje
are green and scale-like, rounded OA'al, and the pupt^ retain the
same form and are smooth beneath, but Avith minute hairs
above and on the edges. The adult is j-ellowish white, with
snow-white wings, and is about .04 of an inch in length.
The body of the imago nearly formed,
with black eyes, can be seen through the
thin pupa skin. In Dortliesia the males
only are provided with wings ; the an-
tennae are long, nine-jointed, and the
abdomen is oval, ending in a bushy mass
of threads. The genus Coccus differs in
that the two-winged males have ten-
jointed antennae and two anal bristles.
The females have nine-jointed antennae, and are covered with a
flattened, hemispherical scale. The Cochineal insect, Coccus
COCCID^.
527
Fig;. 528.
(Pseudococcns) cacti (Fig. 527, male, with wingless female,
natural size and enlarged) secretes masses of Cochineal from
its body. The males are carmine red, with light brown wings,
and the anal sette, or bristles, are two and one-half times
longer than the bod^^, which is three-fourths of a line long,
while the female is one line in length, rounded in form,
and covered with a heavy bloom. It lives in Mexico on the
Cactus coccinellifer, and has been introduced into Spain and
Algiers and the Madeira islands. Coccus manniparus of
Ehrenberg is found at Sanai
growing on the Tamarix, and pro-
duces by its attacks the gum-like
secretion called "manna." Coc-
cus lacca Kerr lives in the East
Indies on the Ficus religiosa, and
produces the lac of commerce.
When found on the twigs it is
called stick lac, but after it has been pounded, and the
greater part of the coloring matter extracted by water, it is
called seed lac ; when melted down into cakes after it has
been strained and formed into thin scales, lump lac and shell
lac.
Mr. Glover has figured three species of Aspidiotus found by
him living on the orange in Florida, and all seem to be new to
science. The first we may call Aspidiotus Gloverii (Fig. 528, a,
male ; 6, female ; cZ, linear scale, enlarged) which differs from
the others by not having, according to Glover's drawing, the
usual pair of caudal filaments. It occurs on the bark and
leaves, especially on the outer edge, and
along the midrib. Another species is
represented at Fig. 528, c. The third
species may be called the Aspidiotus
citricola, which has been very injurious
to the orange in the Maritime Alps in
Northern Italy. It has, besides a linear Fig. 529.
scale like that represented in Fig, 528, d, an oval scale (Fig.
529, a, male; 6, female, enlarged; c, oval scale), and the
female has two long caudal filaments. The hymenopterous
parasite, Coccophagus, preys on this genus.
528
HEMIPTEHA.
Other bark-lice belonging to another genus, Lecanium, are
found in hot-houses ; they differ from the preceding in being
flat, scale-like, without any traces of rings, and have eight-
jointed antennae, while the males have nine joints to the an-
tennaj, and are two-winged. L. liesperidum Linn, is found on
the orange.
The lilditors of the American Entomologist (p. 14) describe
the Lecanium 3Iadurm (Fig. 530, h) which lives on the twigs
and leaves of the Osage orange. "The dark part is the scale
covering the insect, and this scale, as usual in the genus to
which the insect belongs, is of a blood brown color. The [)ale
part is snowy white, and is composed of a fine cottony down
enveloping the eggs and young larvae." A similar species, L.
acericola (Fig.
530, a) "infests
the bark as well
as leaves of the
common maple."
The common
bark-louse of the
Apple tree be-
longs to the genus
Aspidiotus (A.
conchiformis) and
does more injury
to that tree than
any other insect
known. It is also
found on the cur-
rant, plum and
pear. (Riley. )
The female is
^'S- ^^- shaped like an
There are from ten to one hundred eggs laid
Westwood states that the males of this genus
are very broad, with broad wings, and a central anal appen-
dage, but without the usual caudal filaments. The puparium
has a double shield.
Mr. Riley has studied the habits of the A. conchiformis
oj'ster shell,
by the female.
COCCIDiE.
529
Gmelin (Figs. 531, 532) in Illinois, and states that June 6th
most of the eggs were hatched, though the young had not left
the scales ; on the 9th the weather being "exceedingly warm,"
the young (Fig. 532, 2) were found running all over the twigs ;
on the 11th they all became fixed, and the day after a white
waxy secretion began to issue from the body in the shape of
very fine, delicate tlu-eads (3). On the 22d they had increased
materially in size, the waxy secretion vanished soon
after the last date, leaving wliat appeared to be the
body of a yellowish l)rown color, though in reality
the body is underneath and separate, and has lost all
trace of members. On the Gth of July the secretion
rapidly increased and assumed an oval form, and
tlie insect was of the form indicated at 5. On the
10th the scale presented the appearance indicated at
4. Two days after a third plate began to be secreted
fi'om the posterior end of the insect, and enlarged
rapidly, becoming of the same color as the back. B}-
the nrst of August their growth was to all appearance
completed, the scale measuring .12, while the insect
is only .05 of an inch long, thus occupying about
half the space Avithin (7). On the 12th of August rig. r>:n.
they began to lay eggs, and by the 28th all had ceased egg-lay-
ing, vidiile the body shrivelled up. There is but a single brood,
the eggs laid late in summer, hatching in the following spring.
Thus it appears, according to Riley's observations, and as Har-
ris supposed, that the shell-like scale is secreted from the sur-
34
530
HEMIPTERA.
face of the body, and is identical with the flocculent matter, or
down, that exudes from certain Aphides and tlie shell lac insect
and related forms. On the other hand, Dr. Shimer, who has
given the fullest history of this insect, and was the first to
make observations for the most part similar to those recorded
above, considers that the scale consists of the several (three)
cast skins of the larva, ' ' cemented by some kind of an exuda-
tion to the bark." This insect can be best exterminated by
scraping the bark, and then washing the trees with soapsuds a
few days after the trees blossom, just as the young are about
hatching. Dr. Shimer has discovered a mite
(Aeariis? mains Shimer) which sucks the
eggs in autunm.
Another species, which is native, the As-
pidiotus Ham'sii of Walsh (Figs. 533, 584,
A, B, showing the two kinds of scales) dif-
fers in the scale being oval, " almost entirely
flat, and of a pure milk white color," with
red eggs, while those of the Oyster shell
bark-louse are milk white, and the larvne
are at first blood red. It occurs on the apple
and pear, and is far less injurious than the
r,jim other species.
Fig. 533. PsYLLiD^ Latrcillc. Thcsc small Leaf-
hoppers are found hopping over the surface of leaves and often
raising galls. They are flattened and provided with short legs
and a broad head, and covered with a white cotton}^ mass in
the larva state. In the mature insect the forked antenucTe are
eight to ten-jointed, Avith two slender terminal bristles forming
the fork. There are three remote ocelli ; the beak is three-
jointed, reaching to the
middle of the chest, and
the epimera of the meta-
tliorax terminate behind in
an acute spine on eacli
side. The limbs are short,
Tvith thickened shanks, and two-jointed tarsi. The wings are
thickened and folded roof-like over the body, and the three
CICADELLINA. 531
veins, costal, median and submedian, are usually each di-
vided but once.
The genus Psylla has the bristle-shaped antennae as long as
the body, and a distinct pterostigina. The species are very
numerous, many kinds of trees having their peculiar leaf-hop-
])er, but scarcely any have been yet described. Psylla pyri is
brownish orange, with a greenish abdomen. It is very injmn-
ous to the pear tree.
In Livia the antennae are shorter than the body, with a very
large and thick basal joint, and flattened eyes. Livia vernalis
Fitch is bright ferruginous ; the breast and tips of the antenna3
are black, while the legs are pale rust-red. It is .15 of an inch
in length, and is found in vessels of sap of the sugar maple,
according to Dr. Fitch.
Cercopid^ Leach. The true Leaf- hoppers possess a
broad, triangular head obtusely pointed in front, with a large
triangular scutelluni not concealed by the wings when at rest,
and the ocelli are either two in number or entirel}^ wanting.
The short, two-jointed antennae end in a bristle, being inserted
on the upper edge of the front, just before the eyes. The large
prothorax is broad and flattened and transversely oblong. The
fore wings are thickened, and the hind legs are long, being
fitted for leaping.
Many species inhabiting grasses, such as Helochara and
Aphrophora, while in the larva state suck the sap of grasses
and emit a great quantity of froth, or in some cases a clear
liquid, which in the former case envelops the body, and thus
conceals it from sight. It is then vulgarly called "toad's
spittle." In Typhlocyba, which comprises many small species,
there are two ocelli ; the scutelluni is rounded, and the front is
slightly concave. The species of this and the following genera
by their attacks on various vines and fruit trees often kill
them. They are among the greatest pests of gardeners. The
injury is produced by their beaks in feeding, and by the ovi-
positor in puncturing the leaves, in which they lay their eggs.
In Erythroneura the head is crescentiform, about as broad
as the thorax, with the vertex rounded down to the front, with-
out an angular edge ; the ocelli are situated between the vertex
532
HEMIPTERA.
and the front, and almost as near each other as the eyes, while
the fore wings are without closed cells in the disk. The spe-
cies most injurious to the grape-vine is the Erythroneura vitis
Harris (Fig. 535). It is pale j-ellow, with two red lines on
the head, while the hinder edge of the thorax, including the
scutellum, the base of the fore wings, with a broad band across
their middle, are scarlet, and the wings are tipped with black.
In Jassus the species are larger than the foregoing, with
stouter bodies. The head is very broad and short, concave at
base, and the ocelli are placed between the eyes on the front,
which is broader than long, and the ovipositor is recurved.
Jassus irroratus Say is not uncommonly seen on herbage.
The common Helochara comtnunis Fitch, a grass green spe-
cies, is found in great abundance in damp, grassy places, in
ccmipany with the yellow-legged, closely allied, Diedrocephala
.noUipes and Diedrocejyhala quadrivittata Say, which has the
vertex flattened and four scarlet stripes on the wings. In Tet-
tigonia the antennae are half as long as the body. T. bijida
Say is common in
grass. In Cercojyis the
prothorax is large and
hexagonal.
The Clastopfera pro-
\^ tens of Fitch is a
common insect in blue-
berry fields and cran-
berry pastures. It is
short and thick, with a bright yellow head, with a black band
on the fi-ont margin of the vertex, and a broader one on the
front, and a black dot near the apex of the elytra, while the
legs are yellowish white, and the tarsi are black. It varies
greatly in its colors. In Aphrophora the head is of moderate
size, with two ocelli approximate on the crown of the head ;
the prothorax is trapezoidal and the posterior tibiae have two
teeth. A. quadrinotata Say is found on grape-vines.
FuLGORiD.E Leach. This famil}^, as stated by Westwood, is
at once known by having only three distinct joints in the an-
tennae, and the two ocelli are placed beneath the eyes. The
CICADAKI^. 533
head is very large ; the body is high and convex, often com-
pressed lateral l3\ The hind legs are thickened and enlarged,
adapted for leaping purposes. Some of the strangest shapes
among insects are found in this group. This is due to the great
development of the forehead, or vertex of the head, which is pro-
longed either angularly, or into a long snout-like process, as in
Fulgora, while in other species it is as long as the entire body.
"The species of some genera, such as Flata Hmbata, Phenax
variegata, Lystra auricoma and L. Icmata, emit a Avaxy white
secretion, made into a fine white wax, which is much esteemed
in China and the East Indies." (Westwood.)
The Lantern-fly, FnJgora, attains an immense size when
compared with other Hemiptcra, being between two and three
inches long. The head is large with a prolongation much
longer than the head, which is said bj' novices and some nat-
uralists, though doubted by others, to be luminous at night,
whence its name. The Fulgora lanternaria Linn, occurs in
Surinam, and F. (Hotinus) candelaria Linn, is found in China.
Mr. Caleb Cooke of Salem, who resided several j-ears in Zan-
zibar, Africa, informs me that the Lantern-fly is said by the
natives to be luminous. They state that the long snout lights
up in the night, and in describing it, say "its head is like a
lamp." (Keetchua kana-tah.)
In Flata the base of the head is concealed by the front edge
of the prothorax, the front of the head is long and slender,
without any middle keel ; the wings are very broad and rounded.
Anotia Bonnetii Kirby is found, according to Fitch, on wil-
lows about the middle of September. Otiocerus Coquebertii
Kirby is found on beech and oak trees, and sometimes on the
grape-vine, according to Fitch.
The genus Delphax has a very broad front, with sharp edges
and a forked keel along the middle ; the antenna are two-
jointed, the articulations long and thickened at the end. Del
phax arvensis Fitch is pale yellow, unspotted, with the elj-tra
and wings nearly pellucid. It is common in fields of wheat
early in June.
CiCADARi.E Latreille. These interesting insects, commonly
called "locusts," are large and wedge-shaped, Avith a large
534
HEMIPTERA.
broad liead and prominent ej^es. The males have a musical
apparatus beneath the wings on the basal ring of the abdomen,
which acts like a ket-
tle drum, producing
a loud, penetrating,
shrill sound. Cicada
rimosa of Say, our
smallest species, be-
gins to be heard a
little before the mid-
dle of June. The
C. pruinosa Say is
larger and appears
later, being an au-
tumnal species. Pro-
Fig. 530. fessor A. E. Verrill
has observed this species in Norway, Me., laying its eggs in
the stems of Solidago or Golden-rod. It made a longitudinal
incision with ragged edges into the pith of the plant, then with
its oviposi-
tor forced its
eggs a little
distance
down in the
pith below
the external
opening ;
there w ere
two rows of
^ e g g s suc-
ceeding the
first single
one, each
pair diverg-
ing o u t -
wards, the
lower e n d s
of each pair nearly touching each other, and all placed very
near together. The habits of the Seventeen year locust. Cicada
CICADARI^.
535
1
septendecim Linn. (Fig. 53G, A ; g, drum ; c, d, male genital
hooks ; B, C. Cassinii Fislier ; g, drum ; e, /, genital hooks.
Fig. 537, c, with expanded wings) which does not in-
habit Northern New England, are well described b^'
Harris and Fitch. The young larvae feed on the roots
of the oak and apple, clustering upon the roots and suck-
ing the sap with their beak-like mouths. They live
seventeen years. Different broods appear in difterent
localities, so that each year they are seen in some pait
of the country.
The Editors of the American Entomologist, p. G3, gi\ e
additional information regarding its habits. It appeal s
during the last half of May, and disappears about the
fourth of July, and the eggs hatch between the twentieth
of July and the first of August. The eggs (Fig.
,537 ; d, e, enlarged) are deposited in pairs in
the terminal twigs of different species of decidu-
ous trees, especially the oak (Fig. 538, punc-
tured twig; Fig. 539, a twig which has been ^'^'•■''^^•
punctured and then healed over). The larvae hatch
out in about six weeks after they are laid, and (Fig.
540, newly hatched larva) drop to the ground in
which they live feeding on roots of trees for nearly
seventeen j-ears, the pupa state (Fig. 537 ; a, &, cast
l)upa and skin ; e, adult) lasting but a few days.
When about to transform into the winged state they
ascend to the surface, making cylindrical burrows,
"firmly cemented and varnished so as to be water-
Fig. 539. proof." Mr. S. S. Eathvon has observed that in low
and wet localities the pupjB extend these "galleries from four
to six inches above ground (Fig. 541 ; a, full view ; b, section)
leaving an orifice of egress even
with the surface (e). In the
upper end of these chambers
(c) the pupae would be found
awaiting their approaching
time of change. They would ^ig- sio.
then back down to below the level of the earth, as at d, and
issuing forth from the orifice w^ould attach themselves to
536
IIExMIPTEP.A.
the first object at hand, and undergo their transformations
in the usual manner." (American Entomologist, p. 64.)
The ovipositor of Cicada, as we have observed it in a rudi-
mentary state in the pupa, closely resembles that of ^schna
(Fig. 21), and essentially agrees with that of Bombus, the
basal pair of blades arising from the eighth segment of the ab-
domen, as in the humble bee, and the two succeeding pairs
forming the ovipositor itself (the outer pair forming a sheath)
arisino; from the ninth segment.
NoTONECTiD^ Latreille. The Water Boatmen somewhat
resemble the Tettigonite, but their habits are aquatic ; their
hind legs are very long,
ciliated, and formed for
swimming. The body
is convex above, but flat
beneath ; the head is
large and nearly as wide
as the rest of the bod^',
with a Inroad and round-
ed front ; the antenucie
are four-jointed, con-
cealed beneath the eyes,
and the ocelli are want-
ing. The different spe-
cies of Corixa are com-
mon in every pool. Their
motions are rapid, diving when disturbed rapidly to the bot-
tom and seizing hold of submerged objects. They fl^^ well, but
Avalk with difficulty. The genus is characterized by the
single-jointed fore tarsi, which are flattened and strongly
ciliated ; the prothorax is large, covering the mesotho-
rax. C. interrupta Say is not uncommon in pools.
In Notonecta the body is somewhat prismatic in form.
I and hairy beneath, where in Corixa it is smooth. The
fore tarsi are three-jointed, and the hind legs are very
Fig.542. j^j-,g_ Roesel states that "the eggs (which are attached
to the stems and leaves of aquatic plants, and are of an oval
form) are hatched in fifteen days ; the young make their a])-
NEPID^. 537
pearance at the beginning of the spring, and the parent sur-
vives until they have arrived at maturit3\" (Westvvood.) The
recently hatched 3^oung are broad, oval and flattened. Noto-
necta undidata Say (Fig, 542) and N. irrorata Say are our more
common forms. The genus Ploa differs from the preceding,
in the fore wings being coriaceous, and "united together by
a straight suture."
Nepid.e Leach. These insects have very flat bodies which
are either oval or very long and linear. The head is sunken
into the thorax, with large eyes, but no ocelli. Tlie antennae
are short, three or four-jointed, and concealed in a cavity under
the eyes ; the beak is three-jointed. The fore wings are mem-
branous, and the fore feet are raptorial, while the hind limbs
are formed for swimming. In Nepa and Ranatra the body
terminates in a long breathing tube, and the tracheary S3^stem
in these two genera is ver^^ peculiar, being very largely devel-
oped on the under side of the body. There is a large air-
bladder within the metathorax, leading from the spiracle, which
evidently lightens the insect during its flight. In the abdomen
the spiracles are onl^^ present on the third to the fifth rings ;
they are not, however, simple clefts in the walls of the body
but are closed by a sieve-like membrane, so that they perform
the function of tracheal gills. (Gerstaecker.)
The genus Belostoma comprises the most gigantic forms of
the suborder, some species being from three to four and a half
inches long. The body is oval, elliptical, flattened ; the eyes
are large and the second to the fourth antennal joints provided
with hook-like expansions. The fore tarsi are two-jointed, with
a single claw, and the hinder limbs are broad, flat, and well
fringed. The larvae are provided with two claws on the fore
tarsi. "The females of some species of Belostomse carry their
eggs upon their backs, arranging them in a single layer with
great symmetry." (Westwood.) Belostoma Haldemamim
Leidy is not uncommon in our waters. It is three inches and a
half in length, and has black patches on the under side of the
body, while in B. grisea Say, which is of the same size, the
under side is unspotted. Professor A. E. Vcrrill has sent me the
eggs and freshly hatclied young of one of our New England
538
HEMIPTERA.
species of Belostoma, the former of wliich lie found in the
opring "under an old log just at, but above, the edge of the
water. On the 18th of June they hatched out a most amusing
flock of young bugs, nearly as large as squash bugs, and light
3'ellowish green in color, which soon changed to dark gray."
The young, two days old and previous to moulting, were .35
of an inch long. The eggs are smooth, cylindrical, .16 of an
inch long, and are deposited in a mass of about ninety eggs,
attached by the posterior end to a mass of silk-gum. They
partially overlap each other, and the young escape by a round
lid, indicated by a semicircular Avhite line.
The genus lianatra is remarkable for its long linear body,
terminating in the long respiratory tube. The prothorax is
greatly elongated, while the
mesoscutellum is short. " The
eggs of the genus Ranatra are
more elongated than in Nepa,
and are furnished above Avith
two slender setae. According to
Eosel, they are deposited at
random in the water, but Gcoffroy
states that they are introduced
into the stems of aquatic plants,
the elongated filaments being
alone exposed. Our most com-
mon form is lianatra fusca Beau-
vois (Fig. 543).
The genus N^epa has very short
u three-jointed antennse, the two
^ \ last joints being expanded later-
ally. The body is flat, oval,
with two long respiratory tubes,
while the thorax is trapezoidal,
and the mesoscutellum is very
large ; the thighs are dilated,
with a notch to receive the tibia,
which is curved and soldered to the tarsus. The genus is very
predaceous, feeding like Ranatra and others on the larvae of
Ephemerae. "The eggs are deposited in the water; they are
PLOTERES. 539
oval, and surmounted by seven elongated filaments, which
serve, while the egg is in the oviduct, to form a kind of cup
for the reception of the succeeding egg, but which are recurved
when the egg is discharged." (Westwood.)
Galgttltd^ (Galgulini) Burmeister. This small group con-
sists of a few species which have the hind legs formed for
running. The body is short, broad, flattened, and the head is
broad with pedunculated eyes, and the four-jointed antennae
are concealed beneath the eyes, while the ocelli are present.
These insects are said to live on the edge of the water, "bury-
ing themselves in the sand, especially in the larva state."
The group is interesting as forming a connecting link between
the aquatic and terrestrial plant-eating species.
In Galgulus the third antennal joint is small, the fourth
minute and rounded. G. ocidatus Fabr. is uniformly brown,
the upper surface granulated, and beneath blackish.
Ploteres Latreille. These insects are long, narrowing
alike towards both ends, being shaped like a wherry, and with
their long legs they course over the surface of ponds and
streams, moving backwards and forwards with great facility.
They are among the earliest spring insects. The body beneath
is furnished Avith a coating of plush, to repel the water. The
four-jointed antennae are long and slen-
der, and the fore legs are partiall}^ rap-
torial for seizing their prey. Wingless
insects (evidently mature as they are
found coupling) occur in this family, as
among the Cimicidce. Tlius, there
are apterous forms in llydrotrechus,
Ilydrometra and Velia, while in Pyrrlto-
coris apteras and Prostpmma guttula
there are individuals partially Avinged, ^'s- sn-
"■which no one regards otherwise than as specifically identical
with the full-winged specimens of the same species, . . . but
must be compelled to regard them as imagines with peculiar
characters of their own, somewhat analogous to the neuters,
or undeveloped females of the bee ; but yet more perfect thau
540 HEMIPTERA.
that kind of imago, being capable of reproduction." (West-
wood.)
In Velia the triangular head is sunken in the thorax up to
the eyes ; the ocelli are wanting ; the thorax is large, and the
wings are present.
The genus Hydrotrechus (Gerris) has the ocelli present, the
abdomen long and slender, while the prothorax is very large,
covering the mesothorax. The eggs of a European species
are preyed upon by a species of Teleas, according to Meczui-
kow. IL/drotrechus reniigis (Fig. 544) and H. rvfoscutellatus
Fabr. a reddish species, are abundant on our streams. The
larvfe are mucli shorter and with broader bodies than the adults.
The genus Halobates has the first antennal joint as long as
the two following ones together ; both ocelli and wings are
wanting ; the mesothorax is very large, and elongated posteri-
orly, and the fore legs are short, outstretched, with thickened
femora, while the middle pair of limbs is the longest. The
species are found swimming on the surface of the ocean in the
tropics far from land.
EEDUviiDyE (Reduvini) Latreille. The characters of this
family are these : head free from the thorax, elongated, nearly
cylindrical, with prominent eyes and two ocelli ; the antennae
are of moderate length, slender towards the end, and the beak
is stout and incurved ; the tarsi are three-jointed and the legs
are long and fitted for running. These insects are among the
most predaceous of the Hemiptera.
The group begins Avith an aquatic genus Limnobates, which
connects this family with the preceding one ; it runs over the
surface of pools like Gerris. The body is linear ; the protho-
rax is as long as the rest of the thorax, and the hind wings
ai'e Avanting.
Ploiaria is a remarkably slender, thread-like insect, with long
hair-like posterior legs, reminding us of Tipula. The species
are raptorial and are frequent in gardens. P. brevipennis
Say is reddish, with wings, and the feet are ringed near the
knees. Its ally, Emesa., resembles "the thinnest bits of sticks
fastened together," according to Westwood. The body is long
and thin, hair-like, and the antennae are long and delicate ; the
EEDUVIID^.
541
fore legs are raptorial, with long and thin coxjb. The wings
lire either wanting, or they reach only to the middle of the ab-
domen. Emesa longipes DeGeer has a white head,
with a brown band under the eyes ; the femora are
annulated with brown, and tipped with white.
In Saldci. the body is small, elliptical and flat ; the
antennae are long and thread-like, half as long as
the body. The beak reaches to the end of the breast,
the second joint being at least six times as long as rig. 515.
the first, and the legs are short and slender. The species are
found mostly in Europe along the shores of the ocean and
inland waters.
The genus NaUs \s known by the anterior tibiae haying an
apical cushion ; the beak is slender, extending to the hind legs.
Nahis ferns Linn, is abundant in gardens, feeding on insects.
An allied and common form is the Pirates 2)icipes of Ilerrich
Hchaeffer (Fig. 545). The P. biguttatus Say has been found
between the mattrasses of a bug-infested bed in south Illinois,
and probably feeds on the bed-bug. (American Entomolgist,
p. 37.)
Tlie allied genera Prostemma (P.
guttata), and Coranas (C. subap-
terus) "are interesting on account
of their being generally found in an
undeveloped imago state ; the latter
being either entirely apterous or with
the fore wings rudimental, although
occasionally met with having the four
wings completely developed." Mr.
Westwood thinks that, especially in hot seasons, these apterous
insects acquire full sized wings, in accordance with the same
opinion of Spinola, whom he quotes.
The type of the family is the genus Eeduvius of Fabricius,
which may be recognized by its second and third antennal
joints being much longer than the first, while the fourth is
hair-like. The limbs are densely hirsute, and the beak is short
and stout. Beduvias p>ersonatus Linn., a black species, is said
to feed upon the bed-bug. "The larva and pupa have the in-
stinct to envelope themselves in a thick coating of particles of
542 HEMIPTERA.
dust (DeGeer) and so completely do they exercise this habit
that a specimen shut up by M. BruUe, and which had under-
gone one of its moultings during its imprisonment, divested
its old skin of its coat of dust, in order to recover itself there-
with." (Westwood.) The Evagoras viridis Uhler MS. is said,
by the Editors of the "American Entomologist," to devour the
plum curculio.
In Harpactor the head is convex behind the ej^es ; the ocelli
are distant, knobbed, and the first antennal joint is as long
as, and stouter than, the two succeeding ones together. Har-
pactor cinctus Fabr. (Fig, 546 ; 6, beak) attacks the larva of
the Colorado Potato-beetle. Another member of this family,
the Conorhinus sanguisuga of Leconte, is said to occur in
beds, its bite being very painful. (American Entomologist,
p. 87.)
CoRisi/E Latreille. In this very extensive family, which is
especially rich in species in the tropics, where they are gaily
colored, the head is flat, extended horizontally, and sunken up
to the eyes within the prothorax. The antennae are long, fili-
form, often clavate at the tip, and from three to five-jointed.
The two ocelli are almost always present, while the beak-sheath
(labium) is four-jointed. The tarsi are generall}^ three-jointed,
and the claws are provided with two suctorial pads. The
membranous wing-covers have distinct, often forked, longitu-
dinal veins.
We follow Gerstaecker in retaining Latreille's family Cor-
isise, which includes the "Lygaeidai," "Coreidai" and "Penta-
tomidfe" of recent authors, as they all agree in the general
form of the bodj", and, as stated by Gerstaecker, in the struc-
ture of the antennae, the uniform presence of two ocelli, the
longitudinal veins of the fore Avings, and the hardness of
the crust of the body ; these characters separate them from
the preceding groups.
In Lj'gaeus and allies (Lygaeidfe) the scutellum is of the
normal size ; the antennae are four-jointed, and are attached to
the under side of the head, and the beak is tolerably long. In
Lygceus the head is elongated acutely, the eyes globular, the
ocelli distinct, and the antennae are slender, scarcely half as
CORISriE.
543
long fis the body, and slightly clavate. Lygceus turcicus Fabr.
is a typical form. Pyryhocoris aptems Linn, is usually apter-
ous ; occasionally specimens are found with wings. It inhabits
Europe.
The Chinch bug, Blissus leucopteriis of Uhler (Fig. 547) is
a great enemy of our wheat crops, and, as its specific name
indicates, it may be known by the white fore wings, contrasting
well with a black spot on the middle of the edge of the wing.
It is about three-twentieths of an inch in length. Harris also
states that "the young and wingless individuals are at first
bright red, changing Avith age to brown and black, and are
always marked with a white band across the back." Shinier
says the female is "occupied about twenty days in laj'ing her
eggs, about 500 in number. The larva hatches in fifteen days
and there are two broods in a season, the first brood maturing,
in Illinois, from the middle of July to the middle of August,
and the second late in autumn." According to Harris, the
"eggs of the chinch bug are laid in the ground, in which
the young have been found, in great abundance, at the depth
of an inch or more.
They make their
appearance on
wheat about the
middle of June,
and may be seen
in their various
stages of growth
on all kinds of
grain, on corn,
and on herds- 1
grass, during the ^'s- 5i7. Fig. 548.
whole summer. Some of them continue alive through the win-
ter in their places of concealment." The best remedies are
tlie early sowing of small grain in the spring, fall ploughing
and the use of the roller upon land that is loose and friable.
Stubble, old straw, and corn stalks among weeds in fence
corners should be burned in the early spring. This species
is widely diffused, ranging from Kansas and Nebraska to the
Atlantic Coast. I have taken it frequently in Maine, and
544 HEMIPTERA.
even on the extreme summit of Mount Washington, in.
Augu ;t.
Dr. Shinier in his "Notes" on the chinch bug, sa3's that it
"attained the maximum of its development in the summer of
1864, in the extensive wheat and corn fields of the valley of the
Mississippi ; and in that single year three-fourths of the wheat
and one-half of the corn crop were destroyed throughout many
extensive districts, comprising almost the entire North-west,
with an estimated loss of more than one hundred millions of
dollars in the currency that then prevailed," while Mr. Walsh
estimates the loss, from the ravages of this insect in Illinois
alone, in 1850, to have been four millions of dollars.
In the summer of 1865, the progeu}^ of the broods of the
preceding j'ear were almost entirely swept off by an epidemic
disease, so few being left that on the 22d of August, Dr.
Shimer found it "almost impossible to find even a few cabinet
specimens of chinch bugs alive" where they were so abundant
the year before. " During the summer of 1866 the chinch bugs
were very scarce in all the early spring, and up to near the
harvest I Avas not al)le, with the most diligent search, to find
one. At harvest I did succeed in finding a few in some locali-
ties." "This disease among the chinch bugs was associated
with the long-continued wet, cloudy, cool weather that pre-
vailed during a greater portion of the period of their develop-
ment, and doubtless was in a measure produced by deficient
light, heat and electricity, combined with an excessive humidity
of the atmosphere." In 1868 it again, according to the Edi-
tors of the "American Entomologist," "did considerable dam-
age in certain counties in Southern Illinois and especially
in South-west Missouri." Fig. 548 represents the Anthocoris
insidiosus Say, called the False Chinch bug ; it is often mis-
taken for the chinch bug, with which it is sometimes found
associated.
In the "Coreidre" the scutellum is still of the usual size;
the antennse are four-jointed ; wdiile the basal joint of the beak
is generally the longest.
Westwood states that the Coreus marginatus of Europe "in
flight makes a humming noise as loud as the hive bee," and
the eggs of this species have been observed by Audouin to be
coPvisi^. 545
"of a splendid golden appearance." The larvae and pupa3 of
several species of Coreus have been observed by Westvvood
to "differ from the imago in wanting ocelli, possessing only-
two joints in the tarsi (although there is a slight indication
of an articulation in the middle of the terminal joint) ; their
antennae also are much thicker, especially the intermediate
joint. The pupa of G. scajyha differs also from the imago in
having the margins of the abdomen notched." Several adult
forms of this group are known to be partiallv wingless.
The Squash-bug, Coreus (Gonocerus) trisfis DeGeer (Fig.
549) is very destructive to squash-vines, collecting in great
numbers around the stem near the ground, and sucking the
sap with its stout beak. It is a large, blackisli brown insect,
six-tenths of an inch long, and dirty yellowish beneath. It
hibernates, leaving the plant in October. About
the last of June the sexes meet, and the females
"lay their eggs in little patches, fastening them
with a gummj'' substance to the under side of the
leaves. The eggs are round, and flattened on
two sides, and are soon hatched. The young
bugs are proportionally shorter and more rounded
than the perfect insects, are of a pale ash color,
and have quite large antenna, the joints of whicli are some-
what flattened. As they grow older and increase in size, after
moulting their skins a few times, they become more oval in
form, and the under side of their bodies gradually acquires a
dull ochre-yellow color." (Harris.) The 3'oung attack the
leaves, causing them to wither up. Successive broods are
said to appear through the summer. Professor Verrill has
found, with the assistance of Professor S. W. Johnson, of Yale
College, that the odor of this and other hemipterous insects
bears the most resemblance to that of the formate of oxide of
amyl, or the formate of amyiic ether. It is probable that this
substance is its most essential and active ingredient. (Pro-
ceedings of the Boston h!ociety of Natural History, xi, p.
160.)
In Neides the body is remarkably thin and slender, repeat-
ing the form of Ploiaria, or of Spectrum among the Orthoptera.
In Ahjclus the body is small, slender, the head prolonged,
54G HEMIPTERA.
while the ocelli are very near together, and the last antennal
joint is often twice as long as the two preceding ones together.
Ahjdus earinas i^ay is a widely diffused species. An allied
genus is Rhopalas. Another species of this group is the
Metapodlus nasulus of Say, which, in the Western States,
injures cherries by sucking them.
In the last group (Pentatoniidtie, which we place next to the
Membranacei, because they are less allied to the Ilomoptera,
and are more' nearly related to Cimex) the scutellum is very
large, often covering more than one-half the abdomen, and in
this respect they at least remind us of those Orthopterous
genera in which the same character prevails.
This is a group of great extent, with bright colors and often
of large size. The head is received into the large broad, short
prothorax, and the body is generally ovate. The second joint
of the beak is the longest.
The various species are found on shrubs, sucking the leaves
or often transfixing caterpillars on their beaks and carry-
ing them off' to suck their blood at leisure. DeGecr describes
the eggs as being generally of an oval form, attached to leaves
at one end by a glutinous secretion, the other being furnished
with a cap, which the larva bursts off when it hatches out.
The larvne are more convex and less flattened than the adults.
"DeGeer has made an interesting observation relative to the
care with which the females of a species of this famil}- (Acan-
thosoma grisea), found on the birch, defend their Aoung. In
the month of July he observed many females accompanied by
their respective broods, each consisting of from twenty to forty
young, which they attended with as much care as a hen does
her brood of chickens." (Westwood.)
In Pentatoma the antennie arc five-jointed ; the beak is slen-
der, reaching to the end of the breast, with its first joint lying
in the furrow on the throat. The scutellum is two-thirds the
length of the abdomen. Pentatoma tristigma Harris has a
series of three or four l)lack dots on the nnder side of the
abdomen, of which the posterior one is largest. It is seven-
twentieths of an inch long. Pentatoma ligata Harris is a large
green species, widely edged all around, except the head, with
pale red.
THRIPID^. 547
In Phlo'ea the body is much flattened, and expanded laterally
into leaf-like flaps. The antennae are three-jointed, the first
joint of which is longest. P. cortkata Drury is a peculiar
form, which occurs in Brazil.
Anna spinosa Dallas (Fig. 550, b ; a, beak, seen from be-
neath ; c, beak of Euschistus punctipes Say) is useful since it
prej-s on the larva of the Doryphora.
Another bug of this group, the Stiretrus
fimhriatus Say (Fig. 551) has similar
habits.
Iti Corimelmna the wing-covers are
nearly covered by the scutellura, which iz
is wider behind than before. The body
is short and transverse, being broader than long, and scale-like
or semicircular in shape. Corimelmna nitiduloides Wolff re-
sembles a Ulster beetle, and is greenish black, wiih dull honey
yellow antenme. Tlie species of this genus have much the
same form, and are usually shining bhick. C. pxilicaria Ger-
mar, according to Riley, injures strawberry-vines and grape-
vines in Illinois. In the genus Tetyra the scutellnm covers
nearly the whole abdomen, but leaves the side of the wing-
covers exposed. The antenute are slender; the first joint is
longer than the second, the third being the shortest, and the
fifth is twice as long as the fourth. Tetyra viarmorata Say is
a variegated species, the costal margin of the
wing being provided with transverse fucous lines.
The genus Scutellera is remarkable for the
great size of the scutellnm, whence its name is
derived. This piece, which is elongated trian-
gular, covers not only the entire abdomen, but
also the wings ; the antennae are five-jointed,
the two first joints small, the three last ones '°'
long, quite large. The species are adorned with gay metallic
colors, and are especially abundant in the Island of Sunda,
(Gerstaecker.) No species oiScictellera occur in America. In
the group or family Arthropteridoe of Fieber the scutellnm is
still larger than in Scutellera.
Thripid^ (Thripsides) Fallen. This interesting group
r)48
IIEMIPTERA.
bears much the same relation to the C or i sice as the lice do to
the Memhranacci (Cimex), or Podnra and Lepisma to the
Nenropteroiis families above them. A comparison with the
llallojihaga is still better, for in Thrips (Fig. 552) we find,
as in the last named group, free, biting mouth-parts, accom-
panied by a general degradation of the body. Though the spe-
cies are winged, yet the wings are partiall}^ aborted ; they are
long, narroAv, linear, both pairs of equal size, as in the typical
Neuroptera, and by the frequent absence of any veins, either
longitudinal or transverse, and the long delicate silky fringe,
remind us strikingly of some minute degraded hymenopterous
■Proctrotrypiclce, Pteratomus (Plate 3, fig. 8), for example.
The mandibles are bristle-like ; the maxilla? are flat, triangular,
l)earing two to three-jointed palpi, and the labial palpi are
•^ /° present, but very short,
^^^- and composed of but two
or three joints.
Chiefly on account of
these characters these in-
sects were placed in a dis-
tinct order, termed Thy-
sanoptera by Haliday, and
by many recent authors
they have been widely
separated from what seem to us their nearest allies. Latrcille,
however, recognized their affinities to the Homoptera, while
stating that in their free bitiug mouth-parts they resembled
the 0^'thoptera, to which Geoftroy referred them. To us they
appear to be, as it were, degraded Lygseids, and to preserve
the general form of that group, in the long head, the stout,
thickened fore limbs, and the large, square prothorax-. They
have both compound and simple eyes, the latter three in
number.
The antenna^ are long and slender, Avith from five to nine
joints. In some species the fore wings are comparatively
well developed, or, as Haliday states, they are "transformed
into broadish el3tra, ciliated only behind, and with longitudinal
and transverse nerves. In some species the wings are want-
ing, at least in the males." ("Westwood.) "The abdomen is
THRIPID^, 549
terminated in the male by a long attenuated joint, by a four-
valved borer in the female."
The eggs of PhhTeothrips have been compared to those of
Culex, b}^ Haliday, "being cylindric, rounded at one end, and
crowned with a knob at the other." Both the larva
(Fig. 554) and pupa are active, being found in the
same situations as the adult. The larvae are of softer
consistence, pale, or reddish, and the thoracic rings are
similar to each other, while in the pupa "the articula-
tions of the limbs are obscuied b}^ a film, and the wings
enclosed in short fixed sheaths. The antenn"^ are '^' ^^^^'
turned back on the head, and the insect, though it moves
about, is much more sluggish than in the otLer states." (Hali-
day in Westwood's "Introduction," etc.)
The ditferent species occur under the bark of trees, and are
ver}'^ injurious to grain and llowers, eating holes in the leaves
or corollas, and sucking the sap from the flowers of wheat, in
the bottom of which they hide.
In Phktiothrips and allies (Fig. 552, P. coriacea Haliday?)
both sexes have the abdomen terminating in an acute point,
being either the ovipositor of the female, or the slender termi-
nal tube-like joint of the male. The wings are almost with-
out veins, with long ciliae, and at rest folded one upon the other.
The antennae are eight-jointed. Three ocelli are present in the
winged species, but in the wingless forms they are absent.
The Phlmothrrps ma^« of Fitch appears "in a roundish cavity
near the tip end of the young fruit." Dr. Fitch describes
another species (P. caryae) which is found in singularly shaped
galls on the hickory, "which resemble a long, slender pod
thrust half-way through the leaf." This author doubts, how-
ever, whether these galls are made by these insects. He also
states that "the insect within, Avhen disturbed, turns its tail
upward over its back in a menacing manner, the same as the
rove beetles (Staphylinidjie) do, and when the point of a needle,
which had been pressed upon one of these insects, is touched
to the tip of the tongue, unless my imagination greatly de-
ceives me, it will fi-equently be found to impart a peculiar acid
biting sensation."
A second group (Terebrantia Haliday) includes the genus
550 HEMIPTERA.
Thrips, ill which the females are provided with a four-valved
compressed ovipositor which lies in a furrow in the two last
abdominal segments. The fore wings are thickened, ely tri-
form, with two longitudinal continuous veins. The antennae
are, for the most part, nine-jointed. Tlirips cerealium Haliday
is dark reddish brown, and very injurious to wheat.
Capsini Burmeister. The species of this family are very
numerous and very acti\e in their habits, running swiftly
and easily rising on the wing. They are fond of fruits, and it
is the little Lapsi which give such a nauseous taste to the rasp-
beriy, Avhich they feed upon. The females are distinguished
from the males "by having the ovipositor nearly half the
length of the bod}^, somewhat sabre-shaped, and received into
a slit on the under side of the abdomen." The bod}' in this
group is convex, oval, and of a soft consistence, and "distin-
guished by the elongated autenn;xi having the second joint
often thickened at the tip, and the terminal joints very slen-
der, the rostrum long and four-jointed, while the ocelli are
wanting. The pupa of Capsus Danicus is clothed with short
and somewhat clavate hairs." (Westwood.)
In Capsus the bodj is elliptical or oval ; the head is triangu-
lar, convex. Capsus quadrivittatus Plarris is yellow, with four
black bands. Phytocoris differs from Capsus, according to Har-
ris, in having a smaller head, while the thorax is wider behind
and narrower in front. P. linearis Beauv. is a fifth of an inch
long ; the head is yellowish Avitli three narrow, longitudinal,
reddish stripes ; the thorax has a yellow margin, with five longi-
tudinal yellow lines upon it. The male is much darker colored.
It is excessively common on all kinds of plants. It appears
early in April, but is most abundant in summer. In the genus
Miris the head is elongated triangular ; the basal joint of the
antennae is thickest, whereas in the preceding genus the second
joint is the stoutest. Miris dorsalis Say is pale yellowish
rufous, immaculate, and the antennae are rather stout, tapering,
and rufous.
Membranacei Latreille. This family includes the Bed-bug,
and it is from this insect that the name "bug" has been ex-
MEMBRANACEI. 551
tended to the entire suborder. The anteniiaB are four-jointed,
with the tip clavate or knobbed. The ocelli are, for the most
part, wanting ; the beak is gutter-like, with a three-jointed
sheath (labium). The tarsi are three-jointed, without any
foot-pads. In Cimex the beak reaches, when laid upon the
breast, as far as the fore coxtie ; the legs and antennae are cov-
ered with fine hairs ; the second antennal joint is longest.
The prothorax is elliptical, and the metathorax is nearly aa
broad as the circular abdomen ; the wings are wanting.
The habits of Cimex lectidarins Linn., the bea-bug (Fig.
555), are too well known to require any farther mention here.
It is exceedingly tenacious of life, and ordi-
nary bug-powders and other applications are \
useless unless the most scrupulous cleanliness is
exercised besides. The eggs are oval, white, 1
and the young bugs escape by pushing off a lid
at one end of the shell. They are white trans-
parent, differing from the perfect insect in hav- rig. 555.
ing a broad triangular head, and short and thick antennse.
Indeed, this is the general form of the louse, to which the larva
of Cimex has a very close affinity. Some Cimices are para-
sites, infesting pigeons, swallows, etc., in this way also show-
ing their near relation to the lice.
The bed-bug is rust-red, with brown hairs, and is two
and a half lines in length. It lives as a parasite on the do-
mestic birds, such as the dove. Mr. James McDonald writes
me that he has found a nest of swallows on a court house in
Iowa, swarming with bed-bugs. In p:urope the Cimex hirun-
dhiis Herr. Schaeff. lives on the swallow ; Cimex pipistrelli
Jenyns lives on the bat ; and Cimex columbarius is found in
pigeon houses.
Westwood states that the bod-bug is eleven weeks in attain-
ing its full size. DeGeer has kept full sized individuals in a
sealed bottle for more than a year without food. The Cock-
roach is the natural enemy of the bed-bug, and destroys large
numbers. Houses have been cleaned of them after being
thoroughly fumigated with brimstone.
Bed-bugs, as well as other bugs, plant-lice, etc., may be de-
stroyed by a preparation consisting of thirty parts of unpuri-
552
HEMIPTERA.
tied cheap petroleum, mixed with 1,000 parts of water. It
cau be introduced into holes and cracks in houses, and sprin-
kled on plants. The cracks of bedsteads may be
__ tilled with niercur}' ; and benzine will also effectually
f\y^ dislodge them, as well as boiling water. The benzine
may be applied by means of a surgical instrument
Fig. 55i>. called the Atomizer.
In Syrtls the head is small, compressed laterally', and the
fore legs are raptorial, thus allying the genus with Reduvius.
iSyrtIs (Phymata) erosa Fabr. (Fig. 556) has swollen fore legs,
and a deep groove on the head ; it is useful in devouring
Aphides.
^^-^^^^
Fig. 557.
In Tingis the beak reaches to the end of the breast, and the
fore legs are simple, the thorax and wing-covers are spread
out leaf-like, and the species arc of small size. T. JrycdiiiK
Herrich-Schaeffer is abundant on the willow. T. hystriceUvs
Richter (Fig. 557, upper and under side, magnified twenty
diameters) is a Ceylonese species. It "sticks close to the
under side of tlie Bringall leaf, and there undergoes all its
changes, from the larval to the perfect state. The larvae are
black." (Science-Gossip, p. 84, 18G9.)
PEDICULINA. 553
In Aradus the beak is longer than the head, the prothorax
is widely expanded, while the wing-covers are rounded at the
base. A. crenatus of Say has the C3'lindrical edge of the abdo-
men obtusely creuated. The species are found under the bark
of trees.
Pediculina Burmeister. Lice. In these low degraded Hem-
iptera, which stand in the same relation to the rest of the
Ilemiptera as the Flea does to the more perfectly organized
Diptera, the body is wingless, with a small indistinctly jointed
thorax, while the abdomen is large, oval, with nine segments.
The antenna? are filiform, five-jointed, and the ejes are minute,
not faceted. The tarsi are two-jointed, with a large hook-like
terminal joint, which is bent back towards the basal joint.
Tiie mouth-parts still preserve the form of a beak-like sucker,
but it is fleshy and retractile, and the body is white, and of
minute size. The species of Pediculus are blood-suckers, and
parasitic on man and various species of Mammalia ; different
species being found on different regions of the
body. Different varieties, according to Dr. W. I.
Burnett, are found living on the bodies of different (T^^^-
races of men.
Two species live on man ; Pediculus humanus
capitis DeGeer (Fig. 558) inhabits the head, while
the Body Louse, P. corporis of DeGeer (P. vesti-
menti Nitzsch) is found elsewhere. These two
species are difficult to distinguish, they are so Fig.' 558.
closely allied. Professor J. C. Schiodte, a Scandinavian
naturalist, has recently published an elaborate treatise on this
genus, and describes the mode of attack used by these disgust-
ing creatures. It thrusts its minute beak into the skin, and
sucks in the blood by means of its large sucking stomach or
"pumping ventricle." Schiodte placed one of these insects
ou his hand, and observed its movements through a glass.
After the creature had fixed its beak or haustellum into his
hand this naturalist noticed that "at the top of the head, under
the transparent skin, between and a little in advance of the
eyes, a triangular blood-red point appears, which is in contin-
ual movement, expansion and contraction alternating with
554 HEMIPTERA.
increased rapidity. Soon this pulsation becomes so rapid that
several contractions may be counted in a second. However,
we must turn our attention elsewhere, for the whole digestive
tube is now in the most lively peristaltic movement, filling it-
self rapidly with blood, as is easily observed ; the long oesopha-
gus is particularly agitating, throwing itself from one side to
another inside the neck, bending itself so violently as to re-
mind one of the coiling of a rope when being shipped on deck."
Schiodte states that the sucking organ or beak is a ''dark
brown protruding haustellum, provided Avith hooks at each ex-
tremity, out of which an excessively delicate mem])ranaceous
tube, of varying length, is hanging. This pumping "ventri-
cle" (which is undoubtedly homologous with the pumping
stomach of most sucking insects, such as the Diptera, Lepidop-
tera and Hymenoptera) Schiodte has discovered in "those
Coleopterous larvae which haAC poAverful organs for biting,
placed at a distance round a very minute
mouth-opening, such as the larvae of Carabi,
Ilydrophili, and Hister, as well as in the
larvjie of Dytisci, which suck through the
mandibles."
The same author also shows that the mouth
Fig. 5.59. of Pediculus differs from that of Ilcmiptera
generally in the circumstance that the labium is capable of
being retracted into the upper part of the head, which there-
fore presents a little fold, which is extended Avhen the labium
is protruded. He also shows that those parts which were, by
mistake, thought to be palpi and mandibles by Erichson,
Jurine and Landois, are simply lobes on the under side of a
chitinous band.
In Pediculus the thorax is a little smaller than the elongated
abdomen, and all the tarsi are two-jointed. The genus Pldld-
rius has a very small thorax, with the abdomen much wider
than the head, and the fore tarsi have but a single joint,
Phthirius pubis Linn. (Fig. 559), the Crab louse, is found on
the pubic region of man and also on the head.
Mallophaga Nitzsch. The Bird-lice live on the hair of
Mammalia and feathers of birds. In this group there are dis-
MALLOPHAGA. 555
tinct jaws. The fljittened body is corneous, hard above, and
the head is horizontal, with three to five-jointed antennae ; the
eyes are small and simple ; the mandibles are small, like a
hook, and the maxillary palpi, when present, for they are some-
times wanting, are four-jointed, while the labial palpi are two-
jointed. The thorax is small and but two-jointed apparently,
as the meso- and metathorax are united together. The abdo-
men is from nine to ten-jointed, while the short thick limbs
have two-jointed tarsi and one or two claws.
These insects are considered by Burraeister as forming a
passage from the Hemiptera into the Orthoptera, as they pos-
sess free biting mouth-parts, especially free mandibles, which
are not as in the rest of the suborder fused together with the
other parts to form a sucking tube. DocopJioriis buteonis Pack,
(pi. 9,* fig. 3) lives on the Red Shouldered Hawk; and D.
hamatus Pack. (PI. 9, fig. 7) is found on the Snow Bunting.
Goniocotes Burnettii Pack. (Fig. 5G0) infests the domestic
fowl. Lipeurus corvi Pack. (PI. 9, fig. 2) is a parasite of the
crow; L. elongahis Pack. (PL 9, fig.
4), and L. gracilis Pack. (PI. 9, fig.
0) are long and slender forms. In
the genus Philopterus of Nitzsch the
antenme are filiform, five-jointed, and
the labial palpi are wanting. Nir-
mus is an allied genus ; both live on
birds. N. thoracicus Pack. (PI. 9,
fig. 5) lives on the Snow Bunting.
Trichodectes canis DeGeer lives on
the dog, and has three-jointed an-
tennae. The females have two mov-
able hooks on the penultimate ring of
the abdomen. T. subrostratus is a '°'
parasite of the cat. T. caprm Pack., lives on the goat. The
Saddle-back Gull is inhabited by Colpocephalmn lari Pack. (PL
9, fig. 1). Gyropus has no labial palpi. G.porcelli Schrank is
a third of an inch long and lives on the Porpoise. Mr. C.
Cooke has found G. ovalis on the Guinea pig in this countr3-.
*ExPLANATiON OF PLATE 9. — Fig. 1, Colpoceplialum lari Pack.; la, .-mtonna;
Fig. 2, Lijieiirus corviVM-'k. ; 2rt, antenna; Fig. 3, Docophorus buteonis P.;ck ; 3a,
antenna ; Fig. 4, Lipeurus elongaUis Pack. , 4a, antenna ; Fig. 5, Nirimis thoracicus
Pack. ; Fig. G, Lipeurus gracilis Pack. ; Fig. 7, Docophorus humatus Pack.
[>06 ORTHOPTEKA.
ORTHOPTERA.
This suborder may be briefly characterized as having free
biting mouth-parts, with highly developed organs of nutrition
and digestion. Tiie first pair of wings are somewhat thicl^ened
to protect the broad net-veined hinder pair, which fold up like
a fan upon the abdomen, and the hind legs are large and
adapted for leaping. The transformations are less complete
tlian in the previous groups, the larvae and pupae being both
active and closely resembling the imago. All the species are
terrestrial, the more typical forms having remarkable powers
of flight, besides leaping powerfully.
The grasshopper is the tj'pe of the group, the other families
bearing more or less resemblance to the allied suborders,
especially the Neuroptera. The head is very large, and much
more bulky than in the Coleoptera or Hemiptera, the mouth-
parts being so large, requiring large and broad pieces to sup-
port the muscles of the head ; its position is vertical, rarely
becoming horizontal. The ocelli are two or three in number,
while often obsolete. The eyes are small, very convex, and
placed far apart. The antennte are filiform, often of great
length, and exceeding the length of the bod}' several times, the
joints being very numerous and much alike in size and shape.
The clypeus is large, the suture Acrj^ distinctly separating the
base, and the labrum is large, with the edge rounded, slightly
bilobate, and partially concealing the mandibles, which are
strong and large, and toothed within. They are more perfect
than in other insects, presenting both cutting and grinding
surfaces. The maxillae are very distinctly lobed, the outer lobe
(galea) somewhat dilated and (in the Blattariai) ensheathing
the long, sharp-toothed inner lobe, and the palpi are five-
jointed. The mentum is large and transverse, while the labium
is divided into four lobes like the maxilliTe, the outer pair (para-
glossse) resembling those of the maxilhv, and in the true grass-
hoppers (Acr^'dium), being expanded into a broad, flattened,
smooth, concave plate. The labial palpi are from three to four-
jointed. The lingua is large, fleshy and channelled above.
['I 9
ORTHOPTEKA. 557
As in the Coleoptcra, the prothorax is greatly developed
over the other segments, and the mesothorax is rather snuiUcr
than the nietathoracic ring. The pronotum is very large,
l)i-oad and flattened above, while the other two segments are
coneealed by the wings when at rest, and the parts are soft
and membranous. The sternum of each ring is ver}^ large,
broad and flat, resembling that of Libellula, while the two
fore pairs of legs are normal in size, though the fore legs are
often raptorial, as in Mantis ; or fossorial, as in Gr^dlotalpa.
The hnider pair are enormously developed for leaping purposes.
The fore wings are generally long and narrow, somewhat
thickened, like parchment, or thin, transparent, and more or
less rounded, while the hind pair are broad and large,
folding in longitudinal plaits on the back. Both wings are
net-veined, but not so much so as in the Neuroptera, as the
longitudinal veins are larger and more regular, while innumer-
able cross veins, still more regular than in the Neuroptera,
though more numerous, give a characteristic facics peculiar to
the Orthopterous wing. There are also numerous wingless,
degraded genera, which resemble the young of other genera.
The body is usually nuich compressed, or greatly flattened
(Blattarije), or long and cylindrical, as in the Walking Stick.
The abdomen consists of eight or nine distinct scguicnts, while
the tenth fijrms part of the ovipositor, being somewhat abor-
ted, tlie tergite only in some cases remaining, and there is in
addition in the Locus tar ice, according to the views of La-
caze-Duthiers, the tergite of an eleventh abdominal ring. We
will notice more fully than usual the structure of the ovipositor,
as it is of great systematic value. The genital armature is
more complex than in the Hymenoptera, and is generally very
large and exserted, so as to form a conspicuous part of the
body. In its simplest form, in Forficula, it is represented
only by a single tergite, all the other appendages being absent.
In the Locustarice, howcA'^er, the typical form is seen, consist-
ing of a tergite and the epimera supporting the tergo-rhabdite,
while the episternuni supports the sterno-rhabdites, and the
oviduct opens out under the sternite. There are thus four
I'ieces attached to the single ninth ring ; the oviduct opening
between the eighth and ninth segments, while the anal opening
558 ORTHOPTERA.
is under the eleventh ring in all the Orthoptera, according to
Lacaze-Duthiers' researches. The female genital armature is
farther complicated, in the Locnstarim especially. The
eleventh segment is composed of five parts, which surround
the anus.
Two of these are lateral filaments which are, in one case, as
in Mantis tessellata (Fig, 23), multi-articulate, and are proper
sensory organs, like the antenntie, and must be regarded, in our
view, as homologous with tlie anal prop-legs of Lepidoptera and
other insects, and as true-jointed appendages like the thoracic
legs, and jointed appendages of the head, such as the pali)i
and antennae. They also form the anal stylets of the Gryl-
liclce, etc. These anal stylets are articulated to the posterior
edge of the tenth tergite, as Lacaze-Duthiers states, and thus
seem to us to be properly appendages of that ring, which, as
this author affirms, "pi'esents two articulating teeth for this
purpose." The two other elements are "triangular, surround-
ing the anus with three valves, which, by their union, form a
sort of pyramidal body," which he calls the " subgenital or pre-
genital plate." There are then, two systems of appendages,
as we have before stated ; ?. e., the genital armature, consist-
ing of two pairs of non-articulated stylets, and the single pair
of anal articulated stylets, Avhich are the homologues of the
thoracic legs, together with the pre-anal plate.
The same parts are present in the male, being converted into
large, clasping, hook-shaped stylets, for retaining a firm hold
of the female during sexual union.
The eggs as they pass from the oviduct between the valves
are deposited in a hole in the ground, made by the powerful
ovipositor. Certain Locustarim imitate the Cicada in laying
them methodically in the stems of plants, Avhich are drilled out
by the valves of the ovipositor, Avhich are slightly toothed on
the outer sifles and easily move on one another, somewhat as
in the Saw-fly and Cicada. "The eggs of the Gryllidce are
laid either singly in the ground, in irregular clusters in subter-
ranean passages, or uniformly in a single row, in the pith
of twigs; those of the Lociistarioi are never laid singly,
but either in the pith of plants, in regular clusters in the
ground, or in regular rows on stems of plants ; those of the
OETHOPTERA. 559
Acryclii are always laid in rudely regular clusters, in the
ground." (Seudder.)
The nervous system closely resembles that of the Neurop-
tera ; it is in all three stages composed of three thoracic, and
six or seven abdominal ganglia, extending the whole length of
the body, and united by double commissures. The splanchnic
system, or analogue of the great sympathetic nerve in verte-
brates, is highly developed in the Acrid ii and in Gryllotalpa,
having in front two pairs of ganglia, and posteriorly one or
two, while in the Bl attar ice and Pliasmida the single
nerve is most developed.
Organs of hearing are stated by Siebold to occur in the
Acridity consisting of two fossjB or conchs, surrounded by a
projecting horny ring, and at the base of which is stretched
a membrane resembling a tympanum. On the internal surface
of this membrane are two horny processes, to which is attached
an extremely delicate vesicle filled with a transparent fluid,
and representing a membranous lab3'rinth. This vesicle is in
connection with an auditory nerve, which arises from the third
thoracic ganglion, forms a ganglion upon the tympanum, and
terminates in the immediate neighborliood of tlie labyrinth l)y
a collection of cuneiform, staff-like bodies, with very finely
pointed extremities (primitive nerve-fil)res?), which are sur-
rounded by loosely aggregated, ganglionic globules. The
Locustarim and Gryllidm have a similar organ, situated
in the fore legs directly below the coxo-femoral articulation.
M. Ilensen confirms the accuracy of this description in
the " Zeitschrift fiir Wissenschaftliche Zoologie," vol. xvi,
1867.
Tiie highly developed alimentary canal has the crop (pro-
ventricuUis) separated by a deep constriction from the oesoph-
agus, and the gizzard is provided internally with from six to
eight rows of horny denticulated plates situated on ridges,
with numerous smaller teeth betAveen, so that the whole num
ber of teeth amount to 270. The stomach is of even width,
not usually making more than one-half of a turn, or one turn ;
its cardiac extremity is provided Avith from two to eight coeca.
The salivary glands are highl}' developed, "consisting of two,
four, or six botryoidal masses, situated in the thorax, and hav-
560 ORTIIOPTERA.
ing long excretory ducts, besides, also, often having long
pedunculated reservoirs.
The number of chambers in the dorsal vessel is usually
eight. The respiratory system does not differ essentially from
that of other insects, though in the Acridii most of the trans-
verse anastomosing tracheae have large air-reservoirs, greatly
assisting in lightening the body for their long-sustained
flight.
The urinary tubules are short and very numerous, from
twenty to one hundred and fifty and ovei-, surrounding the
pylorus. The ovaries, two in number, consist of numerous
multilocular tubes, while the seminal receptacle consists of a
pedunculated vesicle, whose closed extremity is dilated into
a pea-shaped vesicle, forming the capsnJa seminis. In most
Orthoptera the testes consist of long fasciculated follicles sur-
rounded by a common envelope, and man}- have in addition
highly developed accessory glands, surrounding a short ductus
ejacnkUorius.
The larvn3 of the Orthoptera materially differ only in size
from the adult, and the pupa^ are distinguished from them by
having the rudiments of wiugs. They attain the adult state
by simple moultings. Several cases are on record of })upae
of grasshoppers being found sexually united. In 18G7 Mr.
Trimen exhibited to the Entomological Society of London "a
grasshopper of the genus Pacilocerus, of which he had found
the pup;e in cojvda ; it was not an isolated case, for he had
seen hundreds of pairs of the nymphs at Natal."
Some of the largest insects are included in this suborder, in
fact the majority are larger than those of other suborders, and
it will probably be found that mau}^ large grasshoppers and
Mantidm will weigh nearl}* as much as any Goliath or Her-
cules beetle, the largest of insects.
The Orthoptera range, in time, from the Carboniferous for-
mation ; and among the earliest forms are certain species of
Blattarice, which are next to the group of the Neuroptera^
the earliest known forms of insect life. In the Carboniferous
rocks they have rarely occurred, but the forms are most nu-
merous and best preserved in tho Tertiary formation, espe-
cially in the Amber of Prussia.
ORTHOPTERA. 561
There are about 5,000 species known, which attain their
greatest development in size and numbers in tropical countries.
In studying these insects, the proportions of the head, of
the prothorax, of the wings, of the hind legs, and the external
genital parts, should especially be taken into account. The
ornamentation varies greatly even in the same species, and
therefore large numbers of individuals are necessary to ensure
a proper knowledge of any species.
The different sounds produced by Orthoptera should be care-
fully studied ; every species can be distinguished by its pecu-
liar note, and as in ditlerent families the musical apparatus
varies, so each family has a characteristic chirrup, or shrilling,
consisting of a harsh, grating, rasping noise.
Mr. Scudder has contributed to the "American Naturalist,"
ii, p. 113, an interesting article on the sounds produced by
some of our native species of Grasshoppers, and has even
reduced their notes to a written music. He states that grass-
hoppers stridulate in four difl'erent ways: "first, by nibbing
the base of one wing-cover upon the other, using, for that pur-
pose, the veins running through the middle portion of the
wing ; second, by a similar method, but using the veins of the
inner part of the wing ; third, by rubbing the inner surface of
the hind legs against the outer surface of the wing-covers ; and
fourth, by rubbing together the upper surface of the front edge
of the wings and the under surface of the wing-covers. The
insects which employ the fourth method stridulate during flight,
— the others while at rest. To the first group belong the
Crickets (Gryllidte) ; to the second the Green or Long-horned
Grasshoppers (Locustarije) ; to the third and fourth, certain
kinds of Short-horned or Jumping Grasshoppers (Acrydii)."
The transformations of grasshoppers need careful study.
For this purpose their eggs should be sought for, and the de-
velopment of the embryo in the egg be noted ; also the follow-
ing facts should be ascertained : the date of deposition of the
eggs ; the manner of laying them ; how long before the embryo
is hatched ; the date of hatching ; how many days the pupa
lives ; so also of the pupa and of the imago, while the inter-
vening changes should be carefully observed. Crows and
blackbirds feed on their eggs and larvae, and hens and turkeys
36
5G2 OKTHOPTERA.
feed greedily upon young and old. Ichneumon parasites prey
upon thein, and also the lower worms, such as Filaria, Grega-
rina and Gordius, and the red mites attack them. Mud wasps
provision their nests with the young.
Orthoptera can be easilj' preserved in strong alcohol, and
ma}^ afterwards be taken out and pinned and set at leisure.
They can be killed with cyanide of potassium, or ether, with-
out losing their colors, as they Avould do after remaining long
in alcohol. They should be pinned through a little triangu-
lar spot between the bases of the elj'tra, or fore wings, when
the wings can be spread to advantage. They are also often
pinned through the prothorax, or through the right elytron, as
in Coleoptera. In pinning these insects for transportation care
should be taken to put in additional pins crossing each other
on each side of the abdomen, and in like manner to stead}' the
hind legs, which are very apt to fall off if too much jarred.
Gryllid.e Latreille. The Crickets have a somewhat cjdin-
drical body, a large vertical head, with elliptical eyes ; the
ocelli are often wanting, and the long filiform antennae arise
froni in front of and between the e3'es. The wings are of mod-
erate size, net-veined, lying flat on the back ; the fore pair are
ovate, the costal edge of the fore wings being bent abruptly
down on the sides of the body, while the hinder pair are trian-
gular. Tkey, like the succeeding families, leap actively, the
hind femora being enlarged. The genital armature is largely
developed, forming long and slender stylets, often nearl^^ as
long as the body. "The subgenital plate is formed by the
seventh sternite. The eighth abdominal segment is rudimen-
tar}' and concealed beneath the seventh segment. The ninth
segment, situated beyond the outlet of the ovipositor is incom-
plete. Its elements, appearing to be four in number, are devel-
oped into a large solid borer. The ninth sternite is bifid, its
episternite not being developed." (L. Duthiers.) A second
type is observed in Gryllotalpa, where the subgenital plate is
formed by the eighth sternite, instead of the seventh, and the
incomplete sternite and tergite of the ninth segment are pres-
ent, much like those of the other abdominal rings. The oviposi-
tor is very short, while the hairy stylets arise from the eleventh
GRYLLID^. 5G3
abdominal ring and are very long. In the mule the long anal
hairy stylets are retained, while the parts representing the ovi-
positor are aborted. The shrilUuy of the male is a sexnal eall,
made by raising the fore wings and rubbing them on the hind
wings. The noise is due to the peculiar structiue of the fore
wings, the middle portion of which forms, by its transparent
elastic surface, on which there are but few veinlets, a resonant
drum, increasing the volume of sound emitted by the rubbing
of the Jile on the upper surface of tJie hind i^air of wings.
Tins file is the modified internal vein, the surface of which is
greatl}' thickened, rounded and covered closely Avith fine teeth.
In the females the wings are not thus modified, and they are
silent. They have been known to lay 300 eggs, glued together
in a common mass. In July the larvJE appear, and by the last
of August the grass is alive with fully grown crickets, their
loud chirruping resounding through the warm days and nights
of autumn. The species are generally dull black or brownish,
and in the tropics attain to a large size.
In the genus Tridactf/las the males have the anterior tibisie
three-fingered, /. e., the tibia has a lateral hooked appendage
to which the tarsus is attached, while a long hooked projec-
tion takes the place of the feet. The species are minute,
the largest known, T. a2:)icalis Say, being one-fifth of an inch
long. It is found in the Southern States, while Tddactylus
terminalis Uhler is found northward. The Mole-cricket, Gryl-
lotalpa, so-called from the enlarged fossorial fore feet, lives in
wet, swampy soil, by ponds and streams, where it raises ridges
while constructing its subterranean galleries in search of
insects. Its fore legs are adapted like those of the mole
for digging, and are remarkably short and stout, much flat-
tened and armed with solid tooth-like projections. Their eggs,
from 300 to 400 in number, are laid in the spring in tough
sacks, in galleries. Very rare northward, they are more com-
mon in the Middle and Southern States.
Gryllotalpa borealis Burmeister is found in New England,
burrowing in moist earth near ponds. The Southern species is
Gryllotalpa lovgipennis Scudder, and in the West Indies an-
other species ravages the Sugar-cane. The genus Grylhis in-
cludes the common crickets. The European House- cricket.
564
ORTHOPTERA.
G. domestlcus Linn., has been introduced into the vicinity of
New York, as stated by Mr. James Angus. Our two largest
species are the Gryllus luduosus Serville, known by the great
length of tlie fore wings, whicli project beyond the abdomen ;
and Gryllus abbreviatus Serville, which is found in the Middle
States. The most common New England species is the Gryllus
■negledus of Scudder, from which Gryllus niger Harris ditfers
in its much shorter ovipositor. The small
cricket so abundant in our fields is Nemobius
vittutus Harris, a brownish striped species ;
the genus differs from Gryllus in the last joint
of the maxillary palpi being double the length
of the penultimate, while in Gryllus, it is of
the same length. In CEcanthus niveus Serville
(Fig. 561, male; fig. 562, female; fig. 30, hind
Fig. 5G1. wings of male and female, showing the broad
thin portion betAveen b and c, used in producing the shrilling
noise) the wings are broad and very" transparent, narrower in
the female, the hind legs very long and slender, and the male
is ivoiy Avhite. The males make a loud shrilling noise, and
both sexes are foiuid on plants, especially' the grape-vine.
Mr, W. Saunders states that the
female does considerable injury
to the raspberr}' and plum twigs
^'S- 562- i^y boring into the branches for
the purpose of laying its eggs, and the Editors of the "Ameri-
can Entomologist " state that it severs grapes from the
branches. This genus leads to the next family.
Mr. Scudder has described in the "•Proceedings of the Bos-
ton Society of Natural History," Archegogryllus priscus, a fossil
cricket from the coal formation of Ohio. "One broken hind
leg and a fragment of a wing were foui^d ; the leg was notice-
able in having the tibia furnished with several large promi-
nences, while the femur was smooth."
LocusTARi.E Latreille. The large green Locusts are easily
distinguished by their large heads, and their compressed
bodies. The front from being vertical often inclines inwards,
owing to the greatly enlarged vertex, which is often produced
LOCUSTARI^E. 565
into a horn. The ocelli fire either present or obsolete, and the
eyes are globular in shape. The antennae are of great length,
as are the legs, which are long and slender. The prothorax is
sadcile-shaped, and the wings are thin, the anterior pair slightly
thickened, while the hinder pair are broad, these insects taking
long flights. The base of the upper wings is transparent, form-
ing a drum by which the males produce a loud shrill noise :
they do not rub the hind legs against the wings as do the
Acrydii. Scudder states that "the day song of some Locus-
tariaus differs from that of the night." The abdomen is not
of great length, while the ovipositor and male claspers are
greatly developed, and are of much importance in classifica-
tion. Lacaze-Duthiers describes the typical form as having
the subgenital plate formed b}- the eighth sternite, while the
ninth ring is complete. Its elements form the ovipositor,
composed of six pieces, which are large and long, for boring
into the earth and twigs in laying the eggs. The ninth ster-
nite is bifid. Similar parts in the males arc formed for clasp-
ing the body of the female, and are large and long. The eggs
are laid in the autumn, and the 3'oung hatch in the spring.
The wingless genera have curved, cylindrical bodies, Avith
long antennae, and are very active, leaping very vigorously ;
they are brown in color, and inhabit caves or live under stones.
CeutJiophilus is a wingless genus, in which the pronotum does
not extend over the mesonotum. C. maculatus Say has the pos-
terior tibiae of the male waved. It is common under stones.
C stygius Scudder is found in the caves of Kentucky, and Ha-
denoectis subterraneus vScudder is found in Mammoth Cave. It
is a slender form, the antennae exceeding the length of the
body several times. Udeoj^syUa differs from the following
genus, Daihiiua, according to Scudder, "in the longer, more
slender, less robust, and less spiny legs, in the somewhat more
slender body and smaller head, in the shorter maxillary palpi,
and in the structure of the tarsal joints," the first and fourth
being equal in length, Avhile the two middle ones are small,
the second joint overlapping the third above. U. robusta
Haldeman is found in Nebraska. In the interesting genus
Daihinia, the "tarsal joints of the anterior and posterior pair
ai'e only three in number, the first and last being of nearly
566
ORTHOPTERA.
equal length, v.ith a single small joint between them, a veiy
interesting exception to the almost universal rule among the
Locustarice." The Kat3'-dicl, C yrtoj^hylhis concavus Say
(Fig. 563), has the fore wings concave, much produced in the
middle. The eggs, according to Harris, are "slate colored, and
are ratlier more than one-eighth of an inch in length. They
resemble tiny, oval, bivalve shells in shape. The insect lays
them in two contiguous rows along the surface of a twig, the
bark of Avhicli is previously shaved otf, or made rough with her
piercer. Eacli row consists of eight or nine eggs, placed some-
what obliquely, and overlapping each other a little, and they
are fastened to the twig with a
gummj^ substance. In hatching
the egg splits open at one end,
and the young insect creeps
tlu'ough the cleft." In Phyllop-
tera the wings are narrower, but
still concave, and the ovipositor
is of moderate size, while in
3Iicrocentrum it is very small.
P. ohlonrjifolia Burmeister is
abundant in September, in New
England, being found fartlier
northward than the Katydid, and
when it flies it makes a whizzing
noise, compared by Harris to
Fig. 503. that of a weaver's shuttle. He
also states that "the females lay their eggs in the autumn
on the twigs of trees and shrubs, in double rows, of seven or
eight eggs in each row." These eggs in form, size and color,
and in tlieir arrangement on the twig, are very different from
those of the Katydid. PhanerojJtera has still narrower wings
than the genera hitherto noticed, and the ovipositor is more
sharply turned upwards. The P. airvicauda of DeGeer (P.
angustifolia Harris) is very abundant, being the most common
species in Northern New England.
In Conocephahis the front of the head is produced into a
cone. The species, generally pea green, often present brown
individuals. C. ensiger Harris is a commonly distributed spe-
ACRYDII. 567
cies. Mr. S, I, Smith has observed a female of this specdes
"with the ovipositor forced down between the root-leaves and
the stalk of a species of Audropogon, where the eggs are
probabi}^ deposited."
Xiphidinm is a genus of smaller size, with the ovi[)ositor
nearly straight. X. fasciatnm Serville is green, with a brown
stripe on the head and thorax. It is common in gardens.
According to Hagen and fScudder an undescribed species of
Xiphidinm makes longitudinal punctures in the pith of the
Cotton plant.
In Orchdimmn the ovipositor is large, ensiform, and up-
curved. 0. vuJgare Harris is very common northward ; it is
pale green, with two brown stripes on the head and tliorax. It
has a large transparent shrilling organ, and is a more roljust
form than the pi'eceding species. Locusta viridi.Hsima Linn, is
a common form in Europe. Westwood states that '■'Ili/perho-
mala vlrescens Boisd. from New Guinea, is distinguished by the
prothorax extending completely over the abdomen like a pair
of elytra," and that ComJi/Iodera tricondyloides from Java, in
the elongated, constricted prothorax and fine blue colors, ex-
actly imitates the Cicindelous genus Tricondyla.
AcRYDii Latreille. Grasshoppers have the bod^^ much com-
pressed, the head large, the front vertical, the ocelli generally
present, while the antennae are short, the greatest number of
joints being twenty-four. The prothorax is very large, some-
times reaching beyond the abdomen, and the wings are
deflexed ; the hind legs are enlarged for leaping, and the tarsi
are three-jointed. The stridnlating noise is produced by rub-
bing the thighs against the fore wings, which are long and
narrow, while the hind wings are broadly triangular. The ovi-
positor, with its accessory pieces, consists of a subgenital
plate formed by the seventh sternite ; the ninth segment is
complete, and the blades (tergo-rhabdites) composing the ovi-
positor consist of three secondary pieces united together be-
tween them. These rhabdites are short, thick, somewhat
conical, and corneous. The eggs are laid in a cocoon-shaped
mass covered with a tough glutinous secretion, and containing
from fifty to one hundred eggs. The pupai are distinguished
5G8 ORTHOPTERA.
from the larvoe in having large wing-pads. On the basal joints
of the abdomen are two cavities covered eacli with a mem-
brane, and containing a vesicle filled with liquid, which is sup-
plied by a nerve sent from the third thoracic ganglion. They
were considered by Latreille and Burmeister to be vocal or-
gans, but more correctly it would seem, by J. Miiller and von
Siebold as organs of hearing.
This family embraces insects of gigantic proportions. The
migratory locust (Acrydium migratorium) is a most destructive
insect from its Aoracity and immense numbers. Swarms of
grassho[)pers are common in the far West where they commit
great havoc in crops. Our Caloptenus femui'-rubrum has at
times, tliough not of late j'cars, gone in immense swarms.
The larviii of man^' species live through the winter, and appear
often in March on unusually warm days.
In the genus Opomala the acute antenn:ie are broad and
flattened at base. In 0. hraclnjptera Scudder the fore Avings
are but little more than one-half the length of the bod}'. In
ChJoedltis the hinder edge of the pronotum is square or
rounded ; there are no foveoht' on the vertex, and the lateral
cariucC of the pronotum is parallel, or quite nearly so.
Chloedltis conftpersa Harris is light bay, sprinlcled with black
spots, with a black line on tlie head bchiud each eye, and ex-
teuding upon the thorax. The front wings are pale yellowish
bi'owu, and the hind shanks are pale red, with the spiues tipped
v/itli black. ]Mr. S. I. Smith states that the structure of the
ovipositor of this species is "beautifully adapted to a remark-
able habit in the manner of depositiug the eggs, which seems
not to have been noticed before among Orthoi)tera. The eggs
are deposited ii; old logs, in the under sides of boards, or in
any sol"t wood lying among the grass which these insects
inhabit. By means of the anal appendages the female exca-
vates in the wood a smooth round hole about an eighth of an
inch in diameter. This hole is at first almost pei'pendicular
but is turued rapidly off in the direction of the grain of the
wood, and runs nearly parallel with, and al)Out three-eighths
of an inch froua the surface ; the Avhole length of the hole
being an inch or an inch and a fourth. A single hole noticed
in the end of a log was straight. The eggs, which are about
ACRYDII. 569
a fourth of an inch in length, quite slender and light brownish
yellow, are placed in two rows, one on each side, and inclined
so that, beginning at tiie end of the hole, each egg overlies the
next in the same row b3^ about half its length. The aperture
is closed by a little disk of a hard gummy substance. I have
seen many of the females engaged in excavating the holes,
and they always stood with tlie body in the direction of the
grain of the wood, and apparently did not change their posi-
tion during the operation. When one was just beginning a
hole it was very easy to see the upper appendages rise and
open, and each time scrape away a little of the wood. During
this operation a frothy fluid is emitted from some part of the
abdomen, but Avhether it serves to soften the wood or to
lubricate the appendages and the sides of the hole I did not
determine." The genus Stenobothrus differs in having foveolai
on the vertex. S. curU'pennis Harris is a very common species
and at once recognized by its very short wings.
In the genus Tragocephala the vertex of the head is promi-
nent, the front rather oblique, sloping inwards, and the pro-
thorax is acutely angulated posteriorly. T. mfascata Harris
and T. viridifasdata Harris are common species ; the formei-
is dusky brown, the hind wings transparent, pale greenish
yellow next to the body, with a large dusky cloud near the
middle of the hind margin, and a black line on the front
margin ; while the latter is green, with dusky fore wings
broadly banded with green.
Pezzotettix closely resembles Caloptenus, except that in
some of the species it is wingless. P. borecdis Scudder is
found in British America, and also on tl>e tops of the moun-
tains of New Hampshire and Maine. In the P. alpiuus Kollar
of Europe there are short wings. The genus Caloptenus has
but a slight mesial ridge on the prothorax ; the lateral ridges
vary in size, and the sternal tubercle is very large, while the
tip of the male abdomen is much swollen. Ccdopfenus femvr-
rubrum Harris (Fig. ,564, b) is the common Red-legged grass-
hopper. It varies greatly and has been so abundant in New
England and Canada, though not of late years, as to become a
public calamity. It has been seen very rarely on the Labrador
coast, and it is a very widely distributed species, ranging from
570
OUTHOPTERA.
Labrador to the Mississippi. Tlie Caloptenus spretus Uliler
(Fig. oGl, «), appears in immense numbers in the country' be-
tween the Mississippi and the lloclvy Mountains, and extending
from the Ijaskatchewan river on the north to Texas. Tlie
native breediug-places of tliis species cover an area in Wyom-
ing, Montana, and Britisli America, north of Montana, of
about ;JOO,000 S(]uare miles. Fi-om this ai'ea in seasons of
excessive drouglit it migrates south-eastward, sometimes flying
nearly a thousand miles.
Dr. Liucecum thus describes the ravages of C. spretus in
Texas: "Last spring the young were hatched from the egg
in the early days of March ; by the middle of the month they
had destroyed half the vegetation, although the insects were
wingless and not larger than a house-fly. The first winged
specimens were seen high in
the air at about three in the
afternoon ; as a light northerly
breeze sprang up, millions
dropped to the earth, cover-
ing the ground in an hour,
and destrojdng every green
thing with avidity. During
the night the}^ were quiet, but
at daybreak commenced to
eat, and continued until ten in the morning, when they all flew
southward. At about three o'clock in the afternoon of the
same day another swarm arrived, ten times as numerous as
the first ; these again took flight the following day ; and thus
they continued, coming and going, day after day, devouring
the foliage and depositing their eggs. At first they selected
bare spots for this i)urpose, but finally the whole surface of
the earth was so broken up by their borings that every inch
of ground contained several patches of eggs. This visitation
was spread over many hundreds of miles." 0. bicittatas bay
is a hirge dull green, or olive colored species, with red legs,
and is very abundant in gardens.
Romalea inicroptera^ called the "Lubber grasshopper" in
Florida, feeds on the leaves of the orange. (Glover.) It is
nearly three inches long ; the prothorax is keeled, and the
wings only cover half of the abdomen. The larva is reddish,
\
ACKYDII.
571
while the adult is yellowish brown with dark patches and
si)ots.
In Acrydium the spine on the chest is very prominent, and
the mesial crest above is well marked, while the tip of the
male abdomen is not swollen. Acrydium ahdaceum Harris is
nearly two inches long, and expands over three inches. It is
brownish yellow, with a paler yellow stripe on the top of the
head and thorax.
To the genus Tropidacris^ separated from Acrydium by Mr.
Scudder, belongs certain gigantic grasshoppers nearly fjxir
inches in length and expanding some eight inches, with gaily
colored hind wings. T. cristata Linn, has pale, greenish blue
hind wings ; it is
reported from Asia
and Africa, and is
widely distributed
through t r b p i c a 1
South America. T.
dux Drury has brick
red hind wings and
expands nearly sev-
en inches ; its range
is from Texas to
Panama.
(Edipoda is a large
and well known ge-
nus, in which there is no spine between the fore legs, and the
front of the head is vertical and swollen. (Edipodti Carolina
Linn, is pale yellowish brown, the wings black with a broad yel-
low hind margin, and it expands over three and a half inches.
It is abundant everywhere. (E. snlplmrea Fabr. has deep yel-
low wings, with a broad dusky band beyond the middle, while
(E. coraUina Harris has hind wings of a rich coral red. (E.
xanthopfera Germar (Fig. 565) ranges from New England to
the Mississippi. It is reddish brown ; the prothorax has a high
rounded unbroken ridge ; the fore wings are flecked with small
dusky spots ; the hind wings are 3'ellow at the base, fuscous
beyond and clouded at the tip; the hind shanks are dusky,
with a pale band below the knee. The wings of the male ex-
Fisr. 5U5.
572 ORTHOPTERA.
pand two and a quarter inches ; those of the female three
inches. , Mr. Scudder has discovered a chalcid parasite in the
eggs of CEdipoda Carolina.
In Tettix the pronotuni is prolonged beyond the abdomen,
and the antennte are thirteen to fourteen-jointed, wliile Tetti-
gidca differs from it by liaving twenty-two-jointed antennae, and
a thiclver, shorter bod3^ Tettix gramdata Kivhy has a verj-
prominent vertex, with the front border angnlated.
Tettigidea lateralis Say is a conunon species, and may be
found, like all the other allied species, in the spring and au-
tumn. It is pale brown, with the sides of the bodj' blackish ;
the prothorax is yellowish clay colored, and the fore wings
have a small white spot at the tips.
Batrachidsa has but twelve joints to the antennae, and other-
wise differs from Tettix in its more compact shorter body, and
more distant eyes, while the mesial crest on the prothorax is
very high. In B. cristata Harris the crest is high, regularly
arched, and on each side of the prothorax are two shallow
grooves ; the surface is rough, with a dark squarish spot on
each side above the terminal half of the fore wings. Saussure
describes an aquatic Tettix from Ceylon.
Tiie genus Proscopia is wingless, with the front produced
into a long slender cone, while the whole body is long and
cylindrical, somewhat as in Diapheromera. The antenuie are
very minute, six to eight-jointed, and the legs are long and
slender. P. gigantea Klug is six inches long, and occurs in
Brazil at Para.
Phasmida Leach. The Walking-sticks, or Spectres, are slug-
gish insects found on twigs and leaves, to which they bear a
strong resemblance, and are neither raptorial as regards their
fore legs, nor leapers, like the grasshoppers. Their bodies are
remarkably long and linear, and the wings either aborted and
very small, or strikingly leaf-like. The head is hoiizontal,
long, while the antennae are rather short, and the abdomen is
nearly twice as long as the rest of the bod}-.
The subgenital plate is formed by the largely developed
eighth sternite, while the ninth segment is incomplete, the
sternum consisting of a membranous fold. According to L.
PHASMIDA.
573
Duthiers there are eleven abdominal segments, and the anal
stylets are not articulated as in the 3Iantidce , but are long
corneous claspers, and in some cases, very much like those of
Libellula, as in Acrophylla, while the eleventh ring is a little
triangular tergite, situated between the anal claspers. The
egg-sac in Diapheromera femorata Say (Fig. 5GG, J), our com-
monly diffused species, is flattened elliptical, with a lid in
front which can be pushed open by the embryo when about to
iiatch, and is deposited in the autumn.
The young when hatclied are linear, and i
much lil<e the adults except that they
are wingless. The male is considerably
smaller than the female, and mucli more
slender. In Phasma, a tropical genus,
the two sexes are winged, the autennce
are about as long as the body, and the
limbs are slender. P. A-gnttatnm Bur-
meister is between two and three inches
in length, and green on the costal border
of the hind wing, and rose colored be-
hind. It lives in Borneo. The genus
Prisopus dilfers from the other two
genera in the shortened mesothorax ;
the legs are much flattened and leaf-
like ; the abdomen is longer than the
thorax, flattened beneath, and widened
on the sides posteriorly. P. spiniceps
Burmeister is a Brazilian species, and is
two and a half inches long. P. flahelUcornis Stoll, according to
A. Murray, spends the whole of the day nnder water adhering
to stones in the mountain streams of Brazil, and towards dusk
flies about ; it is the only truly aquatic Orthopteran known.
The genus PJujllium, found only in the East Indies, most re-
markably imitates various leaves, one species having its fore
wings so veined and colored as to resemble most strikingly a
dried and withered leaf. The Avings are often very large and
broad, and as if to aid in canying out the analogy the legs
have broad leaf-like expansions. The antenna? of the males are
twenty-four-jointed, while in the females they are much shorter,
574
ORTIIOPTERA.
consisting of but nine joints. The P. siccifoUum Linn, is green
and about three inches long. It lives in tlie East Indies.
MANTiDiE Latreille. These raptorial Orthoptera are easily
recognized by their large size, the enormous spinous fore legs,
Fig. 5G7.
adapted for seizing other insects like the raptorial Ilemiptera,
and which has given them the name of Soothsayers and
Prophets, from their devotional attitude when
watching for their prey. They are worshipped
by the Hottentots as tutelary divinities. The
head is horizontal, triangular in front, with
long filiform antennae ; the prothorax is very
long, and the broad wings are thin, net-veined,
with long parallel veins, more strongly resem-
bling the Nenroptera in this respect than any
other family. The abdomen is long, linear
oval. "The subgenital plate is formed by the
eighth sternite, the oviduct opening lietween
the seventh and eighth segments. The ninth
segment is complete. The elements of this
ring are but little developed, scarcely surpass-
ing the subgenital plate ; the two episternites
are distinct, and between them is the small
ninth sternite." The stjdets are concealed by
the broad expanded sternum of the seventh
segment, while the antenna-like appendnge (or
anal style, Fig. 23) is sometimes many jointed,
and is said by Lacaze-Dnthiers to be appended
Fig. 5f;8. to the eleventh segment of the abdomen. The
mass of eggs laid by the female is attached to twigs, and
enclosed in a flattened subovate case (ootheca) of hardened
silk. The eggs are infested to some extent by chalcid para-
BLATTAEI^. 575
sites. The young are long and linear. The Race-horse, Man-
tis Camlina Linu. (Fig. oG7 ; tig. oG8, eggs, natural size),
occurs in the Southern and Western States, and in tlie tropics
occur the allied genera Vates, Empasa^ Harpax and tSchizoce-
phala. According to Mr. T. Glover the eggs of Mantis
Carolina are laid in a packet about an inch long attached to
leal-stalks and twigs. The body of the recently hatched young
is linear and turned up at each end, and it devours caterpillars
and insects, holding them in tlie fore legs with a firm grasp
by applying the spined tibiae and tarsi against the more stoutly
spined femora, and then sucking their blood at its leisure. Pro-
fessor Sanborn Tenney tells me he has observed tlie female
after sexual union devour the male. Burnieister says that
Mantis argentina Burm., of Buenos Ayres, seizes and eats
small birds. Tlie genus Eremophila {Yj. Ehrenbergi of Burm-
eister) inhabits the deserts of Northern Africa, where it re-
sembles the sand in color.
BLATTARiyE Latrcillc. The Cockroaches are flattened ovate,
with tlie head rounded and partially concealed b}^ tlie expanded
prothorax. The fore wings are lai'ge, ovate, not much smaller
than the hind wings ; the anteniia3 are long and liliforin, many
jointed. The bilobate subgenital plate is formed by the eighth
steriiite ; the ninth abdominal ring is comi)lete, the sternite
being small and lodged between the two episternites which are
soldered into a single annular piece. The anal stylets are
short. The species, which are almost invariably reddish
brown, or paler, are nocturnal, hiding by da}', and are found
under stones. They are fond of heat, the house cockroaches
frequenting heated rooms. While the common species are
troublesome from eating garments, etc., they do great service
in clearing houses and ships of bed-bugs, which they greedily
devour. The eggs are laid in a bean-shaped capsule (ootheca)
which is divided into two apartments, each containing a row
of separate chambers, about thirty in number, each of vvliich
encloses an egg. Many days are required for oviposition, and
the female may be seen running about with the capsule par-
tially protruding from her body. During this period embryos
are forming Avithin the capsule, and very soon after it is
576 ORTHOPTERA.
dropped the larvae are hatched. The common cockroach,
Blatta (Stylopyga) orientalis Linn, has rudimentary wings in
the female, while in the male they are shorter than the body.
In Periplaneta the wings are longer than the bod}', and the
supraanal plate is deeply- fissured and the abdomen much
swollen. Perijjlaneta Americana Linn, is a commonly dis-
tributed species. The genus Platymodes differs from the pre-
ceding one in its narrower and longer bod}', and the supraanal
plate is not fissured ; the anal stylets are much shorter and
turned down, while the wings extend beyond the abdomen, the
anterior pair being well rounded at the tips. Platamodes Pen-
sylvanica DeGeer is pale, shining, reddish brown, and the an-
tennae reach back to the tips of the fore wings. It is found in
woods under stones, entering
houses b}^ night.
In Ectohia the wings are well
developed, and the basal joints of
the tarsi are shorter than the
others. The Ectohia Germanica
Stephens (Fig. 569, male and fe-
male) is a pale species, and is
3 ? very abundant in houses in and
Fig- 569. about Boston, where it is called
the "Croton bug." Ectohia ZiY/^op/^ (7a Harris is very common
in woods under stones in New England. The third joint of
its antennae is as long as the next five, collectivel}-.
In Cnjptocercus both sexes are wingless ; the antennaa are
half as long as the whole body, and the al>dominal appendages
are not exserted, being very short. C. punctidatus Scudder is
known by its thickly punctured body and dark mahogany
brown color, with reddish beneath. It is found southwards.
In Pi/cnoscehis the males are wingless ; no females have yet
been found. It differs from Cn/ptocercus in having a larger
head ; the eyes are placed closer together, and the stylets are
slender, cylindrical, of about the same length as the cerci and
inserted just within them. Plate 1, fig. 2 represents the wing
of an extinct species of cockroach (Blattina?) discovered by
Mr. Barnes in the coal formation of Nova Scotia. While most
of the remains of cockroaches found in the Carboniferous rocks
rORFICULARI^. 577
of this country and Europe have been referred to the genus
Blattina, Mr. Scudder describes, in the "Palaeontology of Illi-
nois," a form under the name of Mylacris avfliracophila (Fig.
570, upper wing; Fig. 571,
prothorax) which was found in
the lower part of the true coal
measures at Morris, Illinois.
FoRFicuLARi.E Latrcillc.
The Earwigs are very unlike
other Orthoptera, and are I'lfe'- '^'''■
readily distinguished by their narrow flattened bodies, with
short wing-covers, like the Staphylinidce among beetles, on
Avhich account Linnaeus placed them among the Coleoptera.
The head is free, flat, horizontal ; the ocelli are wanting, and
the eyes round ; the antennae arise from under the eyes, and are
filiform and twelve to forty-jointed. The elytra are short and
thick, while the rounded, broad, hind wings are folded under-
neath so as to be almost entirely concealed by the anterior pair.
The female genital armature is described by Lacaze-Duthiers
as composed of a subgenital plate formed by the eighth ster-
nite, while the eighth and ninth abdominal rings
are partly aborted, and only represented by two
horny arcs closel}^ soldered to the tergite of the
tenth ring. The rhabdites of the eleventh ring are
greatly developed, forming the immense forceps,
which are often as long as the whole body. This family was
ranked as a separate order by Leach and Kirby, under the name
of Dermaptera, and were called Euplexoptera by Westwood.
They are nocturnal insects, hiding in the day time between
leaves and in flowers, flying about at dark. They feed on the
corollas of flowers and on fruit, and will eat bread and meat.
They are rare insects in this country, though troublesome in
Europe from their great nmnbers. An Alpine species lives
under stones in Europe. In Forficula the antennae are fifteen-
jointed. Spongophora hip^tnctata Scudder has two pale spots
on the elytra. In Labia the antenntie are less than twelve-
jointed. Labia minuta Scudder is yellowish brown, with the
sides of the abdomen and the head reddish brown.
37
578 NEUROPTERA.
NEUROPTERA,
These insects have the body, as a whole, more elongated
than in other insects, with large broad, net-veined, thin, mem-
branous wings, both pairs being very eqnal in size, the anterior
pair being sometimes smaller than the hind wings, while in
some genera the hind ones are either diminished in size or
obsolete. The month-parts are free, the mandibles being well
developed, and the abdomen is long and slender, with the
genital armor always present, but made on the simplest plan,
not forming a sting. The metamorphosis is either incomplete
or complete ; accordingly the pupa is either active or inactive
and when inactiA-e resides in a cocoon. The greater number
of species are aquatic ; and several degraded forms (Lepisma,
etc.) bear a strong resemblance to the Myria})ods.
The description of the head and mouth-parts of the Orthop-
tera applies well to the Neuroptera, but the head is horizontal,
flatter, and the mouth-parts are less symmetrical, certain parts
being greatly developed over others. As a general rule that
part of the head situated behind the mouth is larger, in propor-
tion to the rest of the head, than usual in the larvie of the
higher insects, and also the mouth-parts are much larger and
less compact. Thus the head of a Neuropterous larva maj^ be
actually larger than the entire thorax of the same insect ; in
the Ilymenopterous and Lepidopterous larvjB it is the reverse,
the head is often smaller than even the prothoracic ring.
The mouth-parts are inclined to become very large, and in
the larva of Libellula the labium is enormously developed,
masking the jaws and other parts when at rest, and capable
of great extension, while it is armed with powerful hooks,
being modified palpi, for seizing other insects.
The thorax is large, the segments being well developed, and
the prothorax is nsually large and square, but in what in many
respects are the most typical insects of the group, the Eiihc-
meridce and LibeIIuHdm, the prothorax is very small, as in
the highest insects, and in the latter group the greatly enlarged
flanks of the mesothorax seem to take its i?lace.
NEUROPTERA. 579
The wings are large, and in the Libellulidai they are in
constant use. The legs are generally of simple structure,
these insects neither walking nor leaping much. Rarely, as iif
Mantispa, are they adapted for seizing theh* prey, as they are
in many Hemiptera and Orthoptera.
The abdomen of the Neuroptera is composed, according to
Lacaze-Duthiers, of eleven segments (arthromeres), and the
ovipositor is constructed on the same plan as in the Il^men-
optera, Hemiptera and Orthoptera, though in the different
families the characters vary much more than in the higher sub-
orders, in this respect perfectly according with the anatomy
of the other parts of the bod}^ in the different groups. He
states, however, as observation has taught us, that in its
structure the ovipositer is simpler than in other insects, and
the farthest removed from that of the Hymenoptera.
Lacaze-Duthiers, whose work is necessarily incomplete from
treating of the female ovipositor alone, not regarding the
, analogous parts in the other sex, considers the Neuropterous
ovipositor (tariere) as having three types of structure. The
simplest is found in Lib:;llula, in the abdomen of which there
are ten segments much idike ; " the eleventh is more complex
than the others ; it has the same structure as in ^sclma. It
is especially in the division of [the family containing] Libellnla
and its allies that the two appendages take the form and the
function of pincers, and that the special word 'forcipate,' has
been used. These forceps serve, as is well known, for clasping
organs, and to enable them to perform the Aery long prelimi-
naries to fecundation." The outlet of the oviduct lies between
the eighth and ninth segments.
The nervous system of the Neuroptera consists of the cere-
brellnm, with its lateral productions, the optic nerves, forming
a cylinder extending between the eyes and presenting four
swellings. (Leidy.) There are three thoracic and eight ab-
dominal ganglia which are of very uniform size, and connected
by double commissures. (See Fig. 43.) The nervous cord is
very equably developed and the brain portion is relatively
smaller than in the higher suborders.
Professor Leidy has described the digestive organs of Cory-
dalus cornutus, which may serve as a type for the rest of the
580 NEUROPTERA.
suborder. It agrees with most other genera of the group in
having a long oesophagus, which is dilated posteriorly into a
'spacious proventriculus, which extends as far back as the fifth
abdominal segment. The large intestine presents a large con-
volution, and abruptly dilates into an oval or fusiform coecura
in its lower third, which latter opens into the rectum. In
some genera there is a long sucking stomach inserted on one
of the sides. In Corydalus this is only present in the pupa,
and is aborted in the imago ; so also in the larva the "proven
triculns, with its apparatus of stomachal teeth," is adapted to
the carnivorous habits of the insect, but in the pupa the teeth
disappear, "while in the imago we find the oesophagus again
lengthened, still contracted at its commencement, but gradu-
ally dilating until it forms a capacious Florence flask-shaped
proventriculus, or gizzard." (See Fig. -15.)
"With the Perl idee the gizzard is wanting, but the upper
extremity of the stomach has from four to eight cax-a point-
ing forwards. With the Lib ellul idee the oesophagus is long
and large, and protrudes somewhat into the straight, oblong,
constricted stomach, which is without coeca, and is succeeded
by a very short ileum and colon. The digestive tube of tlie
Ej)liemeridm, which in their perfect state take no food, is
feebly developed. Its walls are very thin throughout, and the
(esophagus is directly continuous with the stomach, which is a
bladder-like dilation, and succeeded by a short, straight intes-
tine. The predatory PanorjJidce, which are rapacious, differ
notabl}^ from the other Neuroptera, and resemble rather the
preceding order (Orthoptera). The oesophagus is short and
straight, and in the thorax is succeeded bj' a spherical muscu-
lar gizzard which is lined internally with a brown chitinous
membrane covered with stiff hairs. The stomach is tubular
and straight ; the ileum makes two convolutions before pass-
ing into the long colon." (Siebold.) In Lepisma the oesoph-
agus terminates in a "kind of crop, which is succeeded by a
globular gizzard provided with six teeth."
Tliere are two simple, short, salivary glands in the Sialidcc,
while in the Phryganeidce and Hemerobidce "they are
ramified and highly developed. It is quite remarkable that
there is, in this respect, a sexual difl'erence with the Pa nor-
NEUROPTERA. 581
pi dm ; the males have three pairs of very long, tortuous tubes,
while witli tlie females the onl}^ vestiges of this apparatus are
two indistinct vesicles." (Siebold.)
In their larval state the aquatic Neuroptera breathe by
false gills, or branchial tracheifi ; these generally consist of
slender filaments situated on the sides of the abdominal seg-
ments. These filaments are fiesliy, and penetrated by tracheae,
which take u}) the oxygen from the water. In the larvae of the
P/tr?/(7ane^c?oe these false gills are simple, "rarely ramified,
and united in groups of from two to five, which stand out to-
wards the back." Siebold also states that "with those of the
Ephemeridoe each of the anterior abdominal segments has
a pair of these branchiae which are sometimes ramified in the
most varied manner, and sometimes consist of two kinds,
some being lamelliform and alternating with the others which
are fasciculate. With all the Ephemeridce. these organs have
movements which are sometimes slow and rhythmical, and
sometimes rapid and oscillatory. . . . Tlie trachean branchiae
of ^schna, Libellula and the other Libelhilidcv are formed
upon a wholly different plan. They are situated in the very
large rectum, and consist of numerous epithelial folds which
are traversed by a great number of very fine branches of many
large trachean trunks. (Fig. G2, x.) The rectum is, moreover,
invested by a very highly developed muscular tunic, and its
orifice has three pj-ramidal valves which regulate the entrance
and the escape of the water required for respiration."
In the larval and adult insect there are four main trunks to
the tracheary system, two on each side, and much less com-
plicated than in other insects.
There are generally six or eight long, flexuous urinary or
Malpighian vessels. In the Neuroptera the ovaries "consist
alvva^'s of multilocular tubes," and the two testes are, in the
Perlidce, Epliemeridm and Libellulidoi, composed of "a
multitude of round follicles, disposed botryoidally around
a long dilated portion of each of the deferent canals.
With Panorpa the two testicles are ver}^ simple and ovoid ;
but with the other species they consist of two tufts of long or
round follicles. With Myrmeleon and Hemerobius they are
oval and surrounded by a distinct envelope. The two deferent
582 NEUROPTERA.
canals are short, and always have on their lower extremity two
long or ovoid accessory follicles." (Siebold.)
The classification of the Neuroptera is difficult from the
lowness of the type, wdiich presents an unusual number of deg-
radational forms, such as are indicated beyond, and because
the different families A'ary so much among themselves, and
contain forms which mimic the higher groups of insects.
Though the type is the lowest among hexapodous insects, j^et
there constantly recur characters which are found only in the
highest insects. For example the Phryganeidce are Neu-
ropterous throughout, yet there are many of the less impor-
tant characters which' ally them most intimately with the
Lepidoptera, especially the Tineida' .
However all Neuroptera agree in the lax composition of
the body, inducing a worm-like, elongated form. The meta-
morphoses are, in the more t3'pical families, less complete than
in other insects, except the Hemiptera and Orthoptera, and
upon the whole the organs of vegetative life are largely devel-
oped over those of animal life, making them generallj"^ very
sluggish in their motions (though the adult Libellulidse are an
exception), and inducing an abnormal size of the body, as this
suborder contains many of the largest and most monstrous of
insects. The researches of Professor Dana and Messrs. Hartt
and Scudder show that the Neuroptera shared with the Orthop-
tera the possession of the low marshy lands of Devonian and
Carboniferous times, and the forms discovered in the rocks of
those periods indicate that they were often of gigantic propor-
tions, and among the most degraded of their type.
Dr. Anton Dohrn has described, under the name of Euge-
reon Bockingi (Fig. 572), perhaps the most remarkable fossil
insect yet discovered. It occurred in the Permian formation
in Germany. lie considered it as combining Hemipterous and
Neuropterous characters, though more closely allied to the
Neuroptera. Dr. Ilagen writes me that "Eugereon belongs to
Dictyonenra Goldenberg, and is perhaps identical with one of
the species described and figured by Goldenberg." Dictyo-
neura is said by Goldcnbei'g to resemble the Neuropterous
genus Semltlis. Dr. Ilagen also informs me that Gerstaecker,
after an examination of Booking's specimen, ''thinks Eugereon
NEUROPTEEA.
583
Ca
Ch
is next related to the Ephemerina. The parts of the mouth
have nothing of tlie Heniiptera about them and they are evei;
more rehited to
the Diptera."
While we would
defer to the
judgment of
these d i s t i n -
guished ento-
mologists who
have actually
studied the fos-
sil itself, yet
judging from
Dohrn's draw-
ing we would
refer the insect
to the Neurop-
tera, and would
suggest that in
certain charac-
ters we are strongly reminded of certain more abnormal genera
of Ilemerobidai and the Pa^iorpidm. The wings while
closely resembling the Ephemerids, as Dr. Hagen has sug-
gested to us, also, in our opinion, recall those of an African
species of Palpares, and of the fore wings of Nemoptera, and
the antennae and beak-like mouth-parts seem analogous to
those of Pauorpa and Boreus.*
Fig. 573. Eugereon Bockingi Dolirn, enlarged three diameters; A, a, lab-
rum; 6, first pair of jaws (mandibles); c, second pair (maxillie) ; e, labial palpi;
/, fragments of antennae; m, portion of legs; n, middle tibiEe. C, a,b, antenna;; D,
a, head ; b, fore femora ; c, prothorax ; d, prosteruum ( ?) ; E, tarsus and end of the
tibia of the left fore leg. — After Dolirn.
*Erichson and Siebold have grouped the Termifidcp, Psocidce, Emhidcc,
Ephemeridee and Lib ellulidcc under the name of "false" Neuroptera, and con-
sidered tliem ay Orthoptera, restricting the Neuroptera to the Sialidce, Hcmcro-
bidce, Panorpidfc and Phryganeidre,an(\ this classification has been adopted
by most continental entomologists. Now while believing iu the unity of the Xeu-
ropteroHS type, and that the so called "false" Neuroptera (especially the May-Hies
and the dragon-flies) are really the most typical of the suborder, being the most
unlike other insects, do not we have many characters in tliese ^lalfeozoic net-
veined insects, which unite more intimately the so cillc^il false and true Neurop-
ters ? We would not forget the analogies shown iu these fossil net-veined insects
584 NEUKOPTERA.
It is a rather large insect, the head and mouth-parts measur-
ing thirty-nine millimetres, the three thoracic rings twenty-
eight millimetres, and the part preserved of the right upper
wing forty-four millimetres, and of the right under wing fifty-
one millimetres. The antennae are long and thread-like, as in
Panorpa, and the A-enation of the wings are of the Neuropter-
ous type, while the elongated mouth-parts are Hemipterous in
appearance, though the labial palpi (A(?) are well developed,
being usually absent in the Hemiptera. It is the most puz-
zling form yet brought to light, and has been compared by
Dr. Dohrn to the fossil Archoeopteryx of the Solenhofen slates,
referred b}^ some naturalists to the birds, and by others to the
reptiles.
We have shown elsewhere* that the Nenropterous families,
except the most typical, i.e., the EpUemeridoi and Lihellu-
lidce, mimic every other suborder of insects. They are in
fact comprehensive or synthetic types, combining, as do all
decephalized, embr^'onic forms, the structures of the other sub-
orders of insects, and thus presenting, in advance, features
Avhicli remind us of characters more fully wrought out in higher
and more compactly finished groups of insects.
As regards the preservation of the dragon-flies, Mr. Uhler
states that '-the large, brilliant green dragon-flies (Cordu-
lina), as well as the yellow, brown-striped Gomphina, having
the eyes wide apart, will furnish new species in almost all parts
of the country. In order to preserve specimens in the neatest
manner it is well to slip them immediately, Avlien caught, into
paper bags of suitable size ; first taking care to lay back the
wings so that they will be applied together, to prevent mutila-
tion. Tliese paper bags ma}^ be placed loosely in a box carried
for the purpose. They can thus be taken out at leisure, killed
by applying a camel's hair pencil, dipped in sulphuric ether,
chloroform, or benzine, to the under side of the body, and then
have the wings spread by placing them upon the setting
to the Orthoptera, and which serve to unite the two suborders more intimately
tlian ever. Indeed entomologists in the future may unite the Ortlioptera and
Neuroptera (in the Linnrean sense) into a single suborder equivalent to the Coleop
tera or Hymenoptera, and these two groups may stand as two subordinate divi-
sions just as the "Homoptera" and "Hemiptera" are subdivisions of the Lin-
nEean group of Hemiptera.
* Journal of the Boston Society of Natural History, viii, p. 590.
TERMITID.E. 585
boards. In most species the colors change after death, hence
it is important to make short descriptions of the colors before
killing the specimens." The smaller, more slender and deli-
cate Neuroptera should be pinned directly in the collecting-
box. Many species are caught by a light in the night time,
such as Polystoechotes nebulosus and the Phryganeidm;
and a bright light placed in damp situations by streams, etc.,
will attract large numbers, the smaller species, like moths, be-
ing attracted a great distance by light. For the proper study
of the genera of these insects, and often of the species, they
should be collected in alcohol, so as to be studied in a flexible
state. Dr. J. L. Leconte has published in the "American
Naturalist," iii, p. 307, some new directions for the preserva-
tion of insects whicli will apply to these as well as other
insects. " Surgical art has given to us an instrument by which
a poisonous liquid can be rapidly and most effectively applied
to the entire surface of large numbers of specimens as they
stand in the cabinet boxes, without the trouble of moving
them. I refer to the ' Atomizer.'
"Opinions may vary as to the nature of the liquid poison to
be used, but after several trials I ha-\'e found the following-
formula to be quite satisfactory ; it produces no efflorescence,
even on the most liighly polished species, while the odor is
quite strong, and persistent enough to destroy any larvae or
eggs that ma}^ be already in the box : — Saturated alcoholic
solution of arsenious acid, eight fluid ounces ; Strychnine,
twelve grains ; Crystallized carbolic acid, one drachm ; Mineral
naphtha (or heavy benzine) and strong alcohol, enough to
make one quart. I have not stated the quantity of naphtha,
since there are some varieties of light petroleum in commerce
which dissolve in alcohol only to a slight extent. These should
not be used. The heavier oils which mix indefinitely with alco-
hol are the proper ones, and for the two pints of mixture ten
to twelve fluid ounces of the naphtha will be sufficient. Care
should be taken to test the naphtha on a piece of paper. If it
leaves a greasy stain which does not disappear after a few
hours it is not suitable for this purpose.
"The best form of atomizer is the long, ])lated, reversible
tube ; it should be worked with a gum elastic pipe, having two
oSG NEUROPTEEA.
bulbs to secure uniformity in the current. The atomizing glass
tubes and the bottle which usually accompany the apparatus
are unnecessary : a common narrow-necked two ounce bottle
will serve perfectl}^ to hold the fluid."
The aquatic larvae and pupae can easily be reared in aquaria
in jars and tumblers, taking care that the weaker species are
separated from those more powerful and bloodthirsty. The
little Entomostraca, or water-fleas, serve as food for many of
the smaller species. With very little care man3^ species can be
raised in this way, and so little is known of their transforma-
tions that flgures and descriptions would be of great value.
The interesting and varied habits of the different families can
be also easilj^ noted. They can be called summer insects, since
few are found late in the fall or early in the spring, though
several Pe?'/ idee, Hemerobius, Boreus and several species of
Phryganeids are found ere the snow has gone in the spring,
and a few species of the latter familj^ are found in November.
Tehmitid.e Leach. The White Ants in the different grades
of individuals, and their complex econoni}', foreshadow the for-
micaries of the ant and the hive of tlie bee. The bodies of the
winged individuals are shaped somewhat like that of the ant,
but they diner in the long, narrow, straigiit, finely net-veined
wings, the costa of which is remarkablj^ straight, while both
wings are equal in shape and size, with the veins arranged in
the same manner in both. Tlie head is of moderate size, hori-
zontal ; the eyes are rather small, globose, and between them
are two ocelli, tlie third and more anterior one being nearly
obsolete. The antennae are short, with about twenty joints,
and the mandibles are small triangular, with fine teeth on the
cutting, or inner edge. The abdomen is ovate and shorter
than in the Neuroptera generally. In all these points, as well
as in their habits, the white ants are the most perfectly organ-
ized of the Neuroptera. They are more cephalized, their
bodies are developed more headwards, and their intelligence
and remarkable instincts ally them also, intellectually, with the
most perfect of insects, the Bees, Wasps and Ants. Thus in
the lowest suborder of insects we find features which strikingly
remind us of the highest insects. Nature constantly repeat-
TERMITID^. 587
iug the same idea in different groups, here leaps over as it
were whole groups of insects, as if by prophecy pointing out
the advent of still more perfect forms and higher intelligences.
Geology teaches ns that the white ant and other Nenroptera
preceded in time, as they do in structure, their higher ana-
logues.
The genus Ccdotermes differs from Termes in its small head,
the large, transverse, oblong prothorax, the veined costal area,
and in the tarsi being furnished with an apical plantula (or
foot-pad situated between the claws). (7. castaneus Burmeis-
ter is almost cosmopolitan, occurring in AVestern and tropical
America. In Termopsis the head is large, the ocelli are ab-
sent, and the prothorax is small, otherwise it agrees with Calo-
termes. T. anguf^tlcoUis Linn, is found in the Pacific States.
The type of the family, Termes, has a large rounded head,
with two ocelli, and a small heart-sha])ed prothorax ; the costal
area is free, while the foot-pad (plantula) is absent. Our com-
mon Avhite ant, Termes flavipes Kollar is found from INIassachu-
setts southward, under stones, sticks and in stumps. It is of
a chestnut color, head and prothorax black brown, with brown-
ish antennie ringed with a jjaler hue, with white, very delicate
wings, and the mouth, tibice and tarsi are j'ellow. The work-
ers are white, with honey yellow heads. The white ants of
Africa live together like ants in colonies of vast extent.
The males and females are winged and closely resemble
each other as usual. There are two wingless forms ; the
soldiers, which have large square heads, and long powerful
mandibles, with a large prothorax, and the icoHiers wliich
have small rounded heads and minute, nearly obsolete mandi-
bles. There also occur among the workers certain individuals
(Nasuti) which have the front of the head prolonged into a
horn. All these Avingless individuals are asexual, the organs
of reproduction being undeveloped. Tiiey have been consid-
ered to be larvfE by eminent authorities, but they are found in
the nest in abundance when the males and females have arrived
at maturit3^ Thej^ must, therefore, be considered like the
workers among bees and ants, as individuals specialized, or set
apart for the performance of certain duties involving the in-
crease and preservation of the entire colony. Thus the sol-
588 NEUROPTERA.
(liers, as they are termed by Suieatliman, with their warlike
aspect, act as "sentinels and soldiers, making their appearance
when the nest is invaded, attacking the intruders and inciting
the laborers to work. The more peaceful and laborious
workers are estimated to be one hundred times more numerous
than the soldiers." "They collect food, form covered ways,
guard the males and females and take care of the eggs and
young." (Westwood.) While most of the species burrow in
wood, or under ground, others, as in the Termes fafale Linn.
(T. bellicosus Smeathman), raise conical hillocks of remarkable
strength and firmness, often ten or twelve feet high. After
impregnation the females, as in the case of the ants, lose their
wings. They are then conducted into the interior of the nest
by the workers. Here the body of the female gradually be-
comes enormously distended Avith eggs, being ovei- two inches
in length, and it is known to lay 80,000 in the course of a day.
The pupa of Termes lucifugus, a French species, was found
by Latreille in the spring, with four white tubercles, or wing
l^ads. Other pupae are described and figured by Westwood,
Avhich by their long wing-pads, prolonged beyond the abdomen,
closely resemble the Homopterous adult Cerco2)iclce . Fossil
Termites occur in the coal formation of Germany.
Embid^ Burmeister. These are small insects, forming a
connecting link between the white ants and Psocus ; they are
characterized by the linear depressed body, with the head free
from the thorax, the wings equal in size, with few veins, and
triarticulate tarsi. The larvae are found under stones and are
protected by a cocoon which they renew at each moulting of
the skin. (Gerstaecker.) Emhia Savigni Westwood is found
in Egypt.
A species of Ohjntha? the only genus of this family found
in North America, is stated by Hagen to occur in Cuba.
PsociDjE Leach. These minute insects would be easily mis-
taken for Aphides, both the wingless as well as the winged
individuals. Their bodies are oval, the head free from the
prothorax, which is small and partially- concealed by the wings.
The Avings are unequal in size, and with few A'eins, thus depart-
PSOCIDiE.
589
ing widely from the usual Neuropterous t3-pe of venation, and
closely resembling that of the plant-lice. Mr. R. McLaclilan
states (Entomologist's Monthly Magazine) that " the eggs are
laid in patches on leaves, bark, or other objects, and the fe-
males cover them with a
web. The larvae and pnpje
greatly resemble the per-
fect insects." The larvic
closely resemble the pnpa? ;
the ocelli in these states
are absent, and the tarsi are
two or three-jointed, accord-
ing to the species. He has
observed individuals with
but partially developed
wings. " In all their states
they probably feed on dry
vegetable substances and
lichens. They are univer-
sally common, living more Fig. 573.
or less in societies on tree trunks and palings, and amongst
the herbage of trees, especially firs, larches and yews, and
some species in houses and warehouses. I believe that both
sexes possess the power of spinning a web, not distinguishable
from that of spiders. They are exceedingly active and diffi-
cult of captui-e." (McLachlan.)
In the nearly wingless genus ClotJulIa, from California, there
are no ocelli, the wings are incomplete, and the tarsi three-
jointed. Clotliilla picea Motschulsky is but .04 of an inch long
and pitchy black in color, with a brassy reflection. In the
nearly Avingless Atropos the ocelli are Avanting and the tarsi
are three-jointed, while the rudimentary wings form minute
square pads. The A. divinatoriits of Otho Fabricius is a little
pale, louse-like insect, seen running over books and in insect
cases, where it does consideralile injury to specimens. The
Atropos is in England called the " death-Avatch," and is sup-
posed to make the ticking sound heard in spring. Mr. E.
Newman (Entomologist, iii, p. QQ) has bred " Psocus puUcarius^
or some allied species, from Clothilla palsatoria'" (Fig. 573.)
590 NEUROPTERA.
The genus Psocus, which closely resembles in its appear-
ance and habits the Aphides, though the species are not suck-
ing insects, has three ocelli, two or three-jointed tarsi, and well
developed wings. The species are very numerous, and abound
during the close of summer. Psocus venosus Burm, is said by
Fitch to live on the maple, while P. salicis he describes as
being found on the willow.
PerlidvE Leach. This group comprises those Neuroptera
with long flattened bodies, the sides of which arc parallel, while
the prothorax is large ; the antennae are long and thread-like,
and the wings are unequal in size, the posterior ones being
broad, triangular. The labial palpi are present, while the
mandibles exist ordinaril}' in a rudimentary state. The wings
are usually chargetl with many irregular transverse veins, and
when folded flat on the back, extend bej^ond the abdomen.
The tarsi are three-jointed, and there are, in the tj'pical genera,
two tCiUiinal setae on the abdomen. The pupae are active, with
prominent wing-pads. They are found in rivers under stones,
while the adults are found resting on leaves and in low damp
places. The larvae resemble the adult, except in being wing-
less, and bear a general resemblance to the larvae of certain
Ephemerids, showing the near relationship of the two families.
The genus Pteronarcys is remarkable for retaining in the
adult state external gill-like filaments attached to the under
side of the prothorax. It consequently lives in exceedingly
moist places, much nearer the water than Perla. P. regalis
Newman is fuscous, the head is no broader than the thorax,
while in P. jwotens Newman the head is broader than the pro>
thorax and the abdomen is yellowish beneath.
In Perla the wings are veiny, the transverse veins few and
very regular, while the hind wings have a large, plicated anal
space. The palpi are thread-like, and there are two abdominal
setae. Westwood remarks that "there is a very great diversity
in the sexes of the typical genus Perla, the males being much
smaller than the females, with very short wings." Perla ab-
normis Newman is yellowish fuscous, and the wings are sub-
hyaline with the veins clay-yellow.
The genus Isopteryx is characterized by the wings having
PEELID^. 591
the transverse veins few in number, almost absent, and there
is no basal space in the posterior wings. Tlio palpi are seta-
ceous, the last joint being shortest. Isopteryx Cydi'ppe New-
man is pale yellow and immaculate.
Capnia is known by the wings being vein}^, with the trans-
verse veins \Gvy few and regular ; the anal area of the posterior
wings is large, plicate, and the palpi are filiform, with the last
joint ovate, longer than the preceding one, and there are two
sette. Capnia pygmma Burm. is shining black, with gray hairs.
It is common in New York in February, according to Dr. Fitcli.
The species of Tceniopteryx have the wings inrolled and -veined,
with the transverse veins very scarce, rather regular ; the anal
area of the posterior wings is large and plicated ; the palpi are
filiform, with the last joint ovate. There are no abdominal
setiXi, and the tarsi are divided into throe long equal joints.
They fly early in spring and late in tlie autuuni, and soutli-
wards, during the winter. T. frigida Ilagen is black, with
grayish hairs, with a gray band on the middle and another at
the apex of the nearly transparent wings. In Nemoura the
wings are veiny, flat, and the transverse veins are few, very
regular, the veins of the pterostigma forming an X. The anal
area of the posterior wings is large and plicate, and there are
no caudal setae. The males are smaller than the females, with
shorter wings. N. albidipennis Walker is piceous, shining,
with whitisih wings. The genus Leuctra differs from Nemoura
in the wings being rolled in when at rest. L. temus Pictet is
fuscous, with three elevated lines on the disk of the thorax.
Under the name Palaioj)terina, Scudder has described a
group considered by him as a distinct family which comprises
but three fossil species discovered in the Carboniferous forma-
tion at Morris, Illinois. The fragments of the first species
found ware described by Professor J. D. Dana in 18G4, under
the name of Miamia Bronsoni (Plate 1, fig. 1, the dotted lines
represent the parts restored by Mr. Scudder). He states
that this insect "while Neuropterous in wings, closely ap-
proaching the Semblids, has broad costate femurs, and even a
large spinous joint to the anterior legs, peculiarities which
seem to be almost inconsistent with the Neuropterous type.
592
NEUROPTERA.
although in part characterizing the Mantispicls, and which arc
in complete harmony with tlie Orthopterous type." (American
Journal of Science and Arts, 1864, p. 33.)
Professor Dana farther states "that in the
broad costate femurs of the second pair of
legs and the form of the prothorax, it ap-
proaches the Orthopters of the Phyllinm
famil^^, and is very unlike any knoAvn Neu-
ropters. The anterior legs are peculiar in
having a large and broad femur armed above
with very slender spines as long as the joint,
three of which, though mutilated, are seen in
the specimen. But something of this kind
is observed under Neuropters in the Mantis-
pids. It is quite probable that these anterior
Fig. 574. legs were prehensile, as in Mantispa, and the
fact that the tibia and tarsus are not in sight in the specimen,
favors this conclusion. . . . There appears to have been a pair
of short obtuse appendages at the extremity of the abdomen,
much as in Phjdlium. The
head is mostly obliterated."
Mr. S. H. Scudder in the
"Memoirs of the Boston So-
ciety of Natural History" for
1867, shows that the vena-
tion of this genus recalls fea-
tures of several other Neu-
ropterous families, such as the
Termitidce, the Hemero-
bidce and Sialidm.
Mr. Scudder, who has given
a restoration of this remark-
able insect, states that the
viii. 575. head is somewhat like that of
Perla, being oval, depressed, with long oval lateral eyes.
These two authors disagree as to the "fore legs" (Dana), Mr.
Scudder calling the parts so designated by Professor Dana,
the head. Gerstaecker states his opinion that Miamia is
"without doubt a Perlarian."
EPHEMERIDiE. 593
Mr. Sciulder has more recently described in the "Palaeon-
tology of the Illinois Geological Survey," iii, p. 566, two other
forms of this group. He remarks, "the two specimens before
me, with wings better preserved than in the individual of Mia-
mia Bronsoni, prove that my delineation of the conjectural
parts of the wing structure of the Paloiopterina was in part
erroneous, and give evidence of a closer relationship of the
FaUeopterina to the ancient Termitina than I had supposed
possible." A second species of Miamia from Morris, Illinois,
he calls M. Dance (Fig. 574 ; all the specimens occurred in
balls of iron stone). It is four- fifths smaller than M. Bron-
soni. He also remarks, "the other fossil which I would refer
to the Palmopterina is Chrestotes lapidea (Fig. 575). The
genus differs from Miamia in the shortness and rotundity of
the wings," and in the venation, some points of which remind
him of the Blattarice.
Epiiemerid.e Leach. The May-flies, or Ephemerids, as
their name implies, are, when fully grown. Aery short-lived
insects, the adult living but a few hours. The body is slender
and weak, being very long ; the prothorax is of moderate size ;
the antennae are subulate, or awl-like, being very small, as in
the Libellulidce, while the parts of the mouth are rudimen-
tary, the insect taking no food in the adult or imago state.
The wings are very unequal in size, the hinder pair being much
smaller, or in some instances (Cloe and Caenis) entirely
aborted ; the transverse veins are either few or numerous ; the
tarsi are four or five-jointed, and appended to the long, slender
abdomen are two or three long caudal filaments.
The sexes unite while on the upper surface of the water, and
after a short union the female drops in the water her eggs "in
two long, cylindrical yellow masses, each consisting of numer-
ous minute eggs." Walsh states that he possesses a "sub-
imago of Palingenia bilineata, which oviposited in that
state." The larvjc live in running water and prey on small
aquatic insects, the body being long and flat, with long hair-
like antennae, and small eyes situated on the side of the head,
the ocelli not usually being present, and long sickle-shaped
jaws, while along each side of the abdomen are leaf-like or
38
694 NEUROPTERA.
bushy false gills, and the body ends in long feathered anal
hairs. They live, it is stated, two or tliree j^ears, and reside
in burrows in the mud, under stones, or among grass and
weeds, where they may be taken with the water-net in great
abundance, and are beautiful objects for the aquarium. Lub-
bock states that Chloeon passes through twenty-one moultings
of the skin before it assumes the imago state ; the pupa? are
active and have, as a general rule, the rudiments of wings.
After leaving the pupa skin the insect (subimago), when its
wings are expanded, takes a short flight, and then casts an-
other skin before reaching the final imago state. They often
fly in immense numbers, and become stranded in winrows
along the borders of lakes. The perfect insects should be
preserved in alcohol for study, as they shrivel up when pinned.
They should be described when alive if possible.
The genus Ephemera of Linnjieus has three long and equal
caudal setae ; the fore wings are present, with very numerous
transverse veins, while the eyes are remote, and in the males
simple. Ephemera decora Walker is luteous, with the end of
the antennte black and a reddish band on the side of the body.
The remains of a gigantic form described by Mr. Scudder
under the name of Platephemera antiqua (Plate 1, fig. 3) has
been discovered by Mr. C. Y. Hartt in the Devonian formation
of New Brunswick. Another fossil wing, Haplophlebium
Barnesii (Plate 1, fig. 8), accompanj-ing the preceding, has
been doubtfully referred to the May-flies by Mr. Scudder. It
indicates a very large species. Mr. Scudder also figures, in
the Palaeontology of the Illinois Geological Surve}^ certain fos-
sils from lower Carboniferous strata, which "appear to be the
wings of insects, and, being probably more nearly allied (p.
571) to the Epihemeridai than to other Neuroptera, should
be grouped under the generic name Ejyhemeritc'i."
In Palingenia there are three caudal setae, the middle one
being short, and sometimes almost absent in the males. There
are four wings with very numerous transverse veins, and the
eyes are remote and simple. P. hilineata Say is a common
species and one of the largest of the family ; it is found floating
on the surface of lakes. It is greenish yellow, with a reddish
stripe on the side of the prothorax. The genus Baetis has but
EPHEMERID^:.
oy.')
two abdomiiuil set;u, while the four wings arc provided with
numerous cross-veins. The eyes are simple, and in the males
of large size and placed very near each other. Baetis inter-
punctata 8ay is a yellowish white species tinged with green,
with an arcuate black line on the front, and a lateral black
point, while the protliorax has one black stripe on the side.
The singular genus Baitisca is very thick-bodied, and differs
from the other Ephemcrids in the fifth abdominal joints being
twice as long as any of the others.
The pupa (Fig. iJ76, i ; a, lateral
tooth; II, antenna; iii, section of
the abdomen, the numerals indicat-
ing the segments ; a, branchijie,
above which is a flap, b) "differs,"
according to Walsh, "from all de-
scribed Ephemerinous pupaB in the
antennae being eight-jointed or there-
abouts, not multiarticulate, and also
in the branchiae being internal and
not used for locomotive purposes,
and from all larvae and pupae, and indeed from all known
hexapod insects in any of their states, in the pro-, meso- and
metanotum being connate and confluent, and extending over
one-half of the abdomen in the form of a large, dilated, convex
carapace, or shield, thus giving the in-
sect a very Crustacean appearance."
The larva, early in its life, has rudi-
mentary wings, as in many grasshoppers,
but in the pupa state they are not
present.
Near Baetis comes PotamantJms, Avhich
has three caudal settle and four wings
provided with numerous cross- veins ; the
eyes in the males are double, large and Fig. 577.
approximate. The Potamantlms aqyidus of S.ay is black, with
a broad dorsal stripe and a lateral impressed line on each side
of the thorax. P. marginatus Zetterstedt (Fig. 577), a boreal
European species, Ave have found in abundance in Labrador fly-
ing over pools in July.
-^
596
NEUROPTERA.
In CloU there are but two caudal setse, and though there are
usually four wings, yet the hinder pair are sometimes wanting,
and there are few transverse veins. The eyes in the males
are double, large and approximate. Cloe pygmoea Ilagen is
brownish gray, with the feet and
setae white, and the wings hj-a-
line. It is a Canadian species.
Ccenis differs in having three
caudal setse, with no hind wings
developed, and few cross-veins,
and the eyes in the males are
very simple and remote. Cmnis
hilaris Say is small and whitish,
with black eyes, and the thorax is
pale fulvous, with short obscure
Fig. 578. lines beneath and on the sides.
Hagen states that the most abnormal Ephemerid is Oligoneu-
ria^ distinguished by the abortive condition of the legs, the
large size of the longitudinal veins of the wings, the rarity of
the transverse veinlets, and by a long bristle-like appendage
at the base of the fore wing. A closely allied genus has . been
described by Dr. Ilagen under the name Lachlania. It has
two caudal lilaments, where Oligoneuria has three, and there
are three strong transverse veins in the fore wings. L. ahnor-
mis Hagen (Fig. 578, enlarged) is a Cuban species.
Mr. Scudder regards as the type of a distinct family, which
he calls the Hemeristina^ a single form, the Hemeristia
occidentaUs of Dana, which occurred with Miamia Bronsoni in
the Lower Carboniferous rocks of Illinois. Mr. Scudder de-
fines this family as consisting of "Neuroptera of large size.
The prothorax is quadrangular, narrower than the meso- and
metathorax, though not proportionally so much so as in the
Palceopterina; the femora (probably the front pair) areas
ill the Palceopterina, but proportionally broader. Wings
large, long, about twice as broad beyond the middle as near
tlie base, the costal border convex in its outer half, with nu-
merous and prominent cross-veins but no reticulations ; when
at rest, overlapping quite completely, even close to the base,
LIBELLULID^.
597
much as in the Perlarice, and probably with the sides pro-
tected near the base by the deflected marginal and scapular
(subcostal) areas." Scudder shows that while the venation is
much the same as in Hemerobius, as stated by Professor Dana,
it also resembles that of the Si all dee and Epliemeridm and
Lihellulidce. Gerstaecker thinks that Hemeristia "at least
stands nearer to the E'pliemeridm than to any other family."
(Bronn's Klasseu und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs, vol. v.)
LiBELLULiD.E Latreillc. Dragon-flies, Devil' s-darning-nee-
dles, or Mosquito Hawks, are readily known by the enormous
head and thorax, with the remarkably long, slender, cylindrical
abdomen. The head is large and globular, with immense eyes
often encircling the head. The large square thorax is remark-
s _ r
B
./:
*Fig. 579.
able for the small size of the tergal parts, while the pieces
composing the flanks are greatly enlarged, rising up especially
in front, taking the place of the prothorax, which is usually
very large in the Neuroptera generally, but is in this family
greatly aborted, as these insects scarcely ever w^alk. As in
the Epliemeridm the antennae are short and setiform, and
the mouth is not furnished with palpi. The wings * are large,
* Fig. 579. Venation of a fore wing of Gomphns. Veins. — a, a, costal vein ; b,
subcostal vein ; c, c, median vein ; d, submedian vein ; e, postcostal vein. Sectors —
(branches springing from areas, veins, cross-veins, or other sectors), fff, princi-
pal sector ; g, nodal sector ; h, snbnodal sector ; Ic, median sector ; mm, short sec-
tor; n, upper sector of the triangle (normally a prolongation of d); o, lower
sector of the triangle (normally a prolongation of e) ; o', o" , its branches. (The
figure gives an angle where o' bifurcates from o, which should have been a flow-
ing curve. Both n and o should have been engraved as springing from the lower
angle of the triangle, t.) Cross-veins. — p, nodus; g, arc or arculus ; rrr, - - - autp-
cubitals. (The basal antecubital is wrongly engraved as dislocated with that of
598 NEUROPTEHA.
densely rcticulatecl, very equal in size, and in some cases the
hind wings are a little larger than the fore wings. The tarsi
are three-jointed, and the second abdominal segment of the
males is furnished with accessory genital organs.
' ' Landois notices a peculiar sound-producing organ in this
family, and figures that of ^Eschna juncea. It is situated in
the prothoracic stigmata, which are placed quite at the front
of the thorax, and concealed by the head. These stigmata are
large elongated slits, one margin of which is simple, whilst
the other bears a sort of chitinous comb of about tvA'enty teeth,
between which an exceedinglj' delicate membrane is extended.
The metathoracic stigmata, which in general are the chief or-
gans of sound in this part of the body, are smaller, and bear
on one side a semilunar valve with stiff hairs." (Giinther's
Zoological Record for 18G7.)
"During the pairing of the sexes, which takes place during
flight, the male seizes the neck of the female with his anal
claspers ; the female then curves the end of its abdomen to
the second abdominal ring of the male, which has a swollen
expansion of the nnder surface, containing in a longitudinal
cleft the intromittent organ, which conveys the seminal fluid
from the bladder-like cavit}' into the body of the female. But
since the outlet of the testicle opens on the ninth segment
of the abdomen, the males previous to iniion with the other
sex, must fill the copulating sac with the seminal fluid, by
curving its abdomen upon itself. After the union has been
effected the females generally let go of the males. In man}''
the second or siihcostal series); ssa, - - - - postcubitals. Areas anrl Angles. — t, the
ti-iani,^le (discoidal) ; u, internal triangle ; V, anal triangle ; W, basal area (,or space) ;
xx, median area (or space); y, niembramile; z, anal angle in tlie male, the dotted
line z' showing the form of the anal corner of the wing in the female Oomphur.
(The angle z ought to have been engraved as much more acute and salient.) A A,
discoidal areolets (in the figure two ranges of them commencing with three).
n, pterostigma; C, its basal (or internal) side prolonged in the normal manner; D,
"quadrangle," "quadrilateral," or "area above the triangle," bounded above by
m, below by d, basally by q, and terminally by an unnamed cross- vein; EEE,
postcostal area (or space).
Of the above pterological parts, q and its sectors, r, s, f, IF, y, B, and in the
Calopterygina and Agi-ionina "the quadrilateral" (D), and "the postcostal area"
(E), are the most important in classificaticm.— Froj?i Hagen with modifications by
Walsh. Following the nomenclature adopted in this work, aa would indicate
the marginal vein; b, the costal; c, the subcostal; d, probably the median, and e,
the submediau vein.
LIBELLULID^. 599
species of Libellula, however, during oviposition, tlie male
retains his Iiokl on the neck of tlie female, and both flv over
the surface of standing water, the female touching the surface
of the pool with the tip of her abdomen, and letting the eggs
fall into the water.
"In some genera (Libellula, Agrion) the two sexes of a spe-
cies differ greatly in color, the males having bright variegated
colors, while the females are dusky, being more of one color.
The males of many species have, on the abdomen, scAcral days
after exclusion from the pupa case, a bluish powdery exuda-
tion. The genus Calopteryx and allies dilfer sexually in the
color of the wings." (Gerstaecker.)
"Brauer indicates the occurrence of dimorphism in the fe-
males of some species of the genus Neurothemis, some of
them having the wings very richly veined, as in the males,
whilst others have widely netted veins like those of the ordi-
nary Libelluhe." (Giinther's Zoological Record for 1867.)
During July and August the various species of Libellula and
its allies most abound. The eggs are attached loosely in
bunches to the stems of rushes and other water-plants. In
laying them, the dragon-fly, according to Mr. P. R. Uhler's
observations, "alights upon water-plants, and, pushing the
end of her body below the surface of the water, glues a bunch
of eggs to the submerged stem or leaf. Libelhda anrqiennis
I have often seen laying eggs, and I think I was not deceived
in my observation that she dropped a bunch of eggs into the
open ditch while balancing herself just a little way above the
surface of the water. I have also seen her settled upon
the reeds in brackish water with her abdomen submerged in
part, and there attaching a cluster of eggs. I feel pretty sure
that L. auripennis does not always deposit the whole of her
eggs at one time, as I have seen her attach a cluster of not
more than a dozen small yellow eggs. There must be more
than one hundred eggs in one of the large bunches. The eggs
of some of the Agrions are bright apple-green, but I cannot
be sure that I have ever seen them in the very act of oviposi-
tion. They have curious habits of settling upon leaves and
grass growing in the Avater, and often allow their abdomens to
fall below the surface of the water. Sometimes they fly against
600 NEUEOPTERA.
the surface, but I never saw what I could assert to be the pro-
jecting of the eggs from the body upon phmts or into the
water. The English entomologists assert that the female
Agrion goes below the surface to a depth of several inches to
deposit eggs upon the submerged stems of plants," The
Agrions, however, according to Lacaze-Duthiers, a
French anatomist, make with the ovipositor a little
notch in the plant upon which they lay their eggs.
These eggs hatch during the middle of the sum-
mer, and the young larva (Fig. G2) when first hatched
diifers from the more mature larva (Fig. 580), in not
Fig. 580. ]i<^yii^g tije rudiments of wings, and in the long,
spider-like legs. The larva is very acti\'e in its ha1)its, being
provided with six legs attached to the thorax, on the back of
which, after the first one or two moults, are the little wing-
pads, or rudimentary wings. The large head is provided
with enormous eyes, while a pair of
simple, minute e^-elets (ocelli) are
/^j^^^^. placed near the origin of the small
f(/^^^J\ brisi^le-like feelers, or antenna?.
lTa... /TA Seen from beneath, instead of the
\ \ \ / / J formidable array of jaws and ac-
\ \ // cessory organs commonly observed
\ ' ill most carnivorous larvae, we see
nothing but a broad, smooth mask
X covering the lower part of the face,
/,--— ^ but when some unwar}^ insect comes
^.. — -/..... \ within striking distance the battery
y^ r\ / of jaws is unmasked, and opens
y \v\/ TiV ^' upon tlie victim. This mask (Fig.
/^ y^r]L~\ u\ \ ^^^^5 "ii^^*^i" ^^^^ of head of a dragon-
1 f ( \7\/ I 1 ) fly l^i'va, with the labium fully ex-
^" Y \ "V^iL^Ai--/ / y tended ; x*, x', x", the three subdivi-
^" ''^k^(^^^:^^,\r sions ; _?/? maxilla>. For other details
^ ^ of the head of the larva of Diplax,
rig- 581. gge p^ 60) is peculiar to the 3'oung,
or larva and pupa, of the dragon-fly. It is the labium, or under
lip greatly enlarged, and armed at the broad spoon-shaped
extremity {x) with two sharp hooks, adapted for seizing and
LIBELLULID^ .
COl
retaining its prey. At rest, the terminal half is so bent up
as to conceal the face, and thus the creature crawls about, to
all appearance, the most innocent and harmless of insects.
Not onl}' does the immature dragon-fly walk over the bottom
of the pool or stream it inhabits but it can also leap for a con-
siderable distance, and by a most curious con- \
trivance. By a syringe-like apparatus lodged ^
in the end of the body, it discharges a stream 'v
of water for a distance of two or three inches
behind it, thus propelling the insect forwards.
This apparatus combines the functions of loco-
motion and respiration. There are, as usual,
two breathing pores {stigmata) on each side of Fig. 582.
the thorax. But the process of breathing seems to be mostly
carried on in the tail. The tracheae are here
collected in a large mass, sending their
branches into folds of membrane lining the
end of the alimentary canal, and which act like
a piston to force out the water. The entrance
to the canal is protected by three to five tri-
angular horny valves (Fig. 582, 9, 10 ; Fig.
583, side view), which open and shut at will. When open
the water flows in, bathing the internal gill-like organs which
extract the air from the water. This is then
suddenly expelled by a strong muscular effort.
In the smaller genera, Agrion (Fig. 584, side
view of false-gill, showing but one leaf), Lestes
and Calopteryx, the respiratory lea^'es, called the
trachear^^ or false-gills, are not enclosed within
the body, but form three broad leaves, permeated
by trachese, or air-vessels. They are not true
gills, however, as the blood is not aerated in
them. They only absorb air to supply the tra-
cheae, which aerate the blood only within the
general cavity of the body. These false gills also
act as rudders to aid the insect in swimming.
It is easy to watch the dragon-flies through their
transformations, as they can easily be kept in ^'s- ^^i-
aquaria. Little, almost nothing, is known regarding their
G02
NEUROPTERA.
liabits, and any one who can spend the necessary time and
patience in rearing them, so as to trace up the different stages
from the larva to the adult fly, and describe and ligure them
accurately, will do good service to science. Mr. Uliler states
that we know but little of the young stages of our species,
but "the larva and pupa of the Libelluloi may be always known
from those of the yEsclmcfi by their shorter, deeper, and more
robust form, and generally by their thick clothing of hair."
The pupa (Fig. 585, pupa probabl}^ either of ^schna con-
stricta or J£,. clepsydra) scarcely differs from the larva, except
in having larger wing-pads. It is still active, and pre3\s on
other insects. When the insect is about to assume the jxipa
state the body, having outgrown the larva
skin, by a strong muscular effort opens a
rent along the back of the thorax, and
the insect having fastened its claws into
some object at the bottom of the pool,
the pui)a gradually works its way out of
tlie larva skin. It is now considerably
larger than before. Immediately after
this tedious operation its body is soft,
but the crust soon hardens. This change,
with most species, probably occurs early
in summer.
When about to change into the adult
fly the pupa climbs up some plant near
the surface of the Avater. Again its back
yawns wide open, and from the rent our dragon-fly slowly
emerges. For an hour or more it remains torpid and listless,
with its flabby, soft wings remaining motionless. Tlie fluids
leave the surface, the crust hardens and dries, rich and varied
tints appear, and the dragon-fly rises into its new world of
light and sunshine.
In Agrion and its allies (Agrionina) the antennae are fonr-
jointed, the eyes are small compared with those of Libellula,
and distinct ; the wings are equal, while the abdomen is cylin-
drical and long and slender. In Calopteryx the wings are
very broad and densely reticulated ; the pterostigma is absent
in the males, that of the females irregular and areolate ; the
LIBELLULIDiE.
603
586.
()asal space lias no transverse veins, and the male appendages
are forcipate. (Ilagen.) Calo'pteryx apicalis Burm. is shining
brassy green, witli long black feet.
In Lestes there are two antecubital transverse vennles ; the
fourth apical sector is broken ; the postcostal space is simple ;
and the quadrangular space is trapezoidal,
with the exterior inferior angle acute ;
the pterostigma is large, oblong, and the
appendages in the male are forcipated.
Lestes eurina Say is blue, varied with
green and violet. The beautiful genus
Aqrion has the apical sector straight, the
postcostal space simple, the quadrangular
space trapezoidal, with the exterior inferior angle acute ; the
pterostigma small, rhomboidal, while the male abdominal ap-
pendages are short. Agrion civile Hagen is brassy-black,
varied with blue or green, with a hairy head and thorax. A.
saucium Burra. (Fig. o8G) is red, variegated with black, and is
a common species.
In the group ^schnina the wings are unequal, and all the
triangles of the wing are of the same form. In Gomphns and
its allies the
wings are un-
equal, the
hinder ones be-
ing broader,
and the trian- (^
gles of both
pairs of wings
have no trans-
verse veins.
(romplius fra-
termis Say is
yellow spotted rig. 587.
with black, with black feet. The genus Anax differs in the
anal angle of the posterior wiugs beiug rounded in the male,
and the abdomen has a lateral interrupted ridge. Anax Junius
Drury is a large and widely spread species ; it is green, spot-
ted with blue and fuscous, with a yellow head, ^schna differs
604
NEUROPTERA.
in having tlifi anal angle of the posterior wings of the male
acute. u.'Eschna heros Fabr. is one of our largest and most
abundant dragon-flies. It is fuscous, marked with jellowish
green, and with two oblique green stripes on the side of the
thorax.
In the third group of this immense farail}^ the Libellulina.
the wings are unequal, and the triangle of the anterior wings
Fig. 588.
is dissimilar, while the anterior genital hamule of the male is
free. In CorduUa the anal angle of the posterior wings of the
male is acute, and the body is brassy green. C. tenebrosa Say
is found in the Western
States.
'*'■ Tlie genus LiheUuJa is
s, characterized by the short,
' rather flattened abdomen,
narrowing rapidly towards
the tip, and the male clasp-
ino" organs are scarcely visi-
ble. Libelhda trimacnlata
DeGeer (Fig. 587, male) is
so called from the three
Fig. 589.
dark clouds on the wings of the female. The male difl'ers in
having a dark patch at the front edge of the wings, and a sin-
gle broad cloud just beyond the middle of the wing. Libel-
SIALID^.
G05
Tula quadrimaculata Linn, (Fig. 588) is reddish yellow, with
four dark clouds on the wings which are yellow anteriorly on
the base. In Diplax the abdomen is a little shorter than the
wings, and is slender,
flattened, compressed at
the base, while the feet
are long and slender.
Diplax ruhicundula Fabr.
is a very abundant spe-
cies, being yellowish red.
Diplax Berenice Drury
(Fig. 589, male; fig. 590,
female) is black, with the ^'s- ^^h
head blue in front, spotted v.ith j-ellow, while the thorax and
abdomen are striped with yellow. There are fewer stripes on
the body of the male. D. Elisa Hagen (Fig. 591) is black,
w ith the head yellowish aad
^,^;^:f^^ with greenish j^ellow spots
on the sides of the thorax
and base of the abdomen.
The Nannophya bella of
Uhler (Fig. 592) is a smaller
form, with an unusually
short abdomen, and the
reticulations of the wings
are large and simple. It is
Fig. 590.
black, while the male is frosted over with a whitish powder.
SialidjE Leach. This famity is not a numerous one, but the
species are interesting as comprising some of the largest of in-
sects. Hagen defines the group briefly
as having the body short and thick,
while the prothorax is large and square.
The antenme are long and setaceous ;
the wings are large, reticulated, the pos-
terior ones with the anal space plicated,
and the tarsi are fiA^e-jointed.
"The female of Sialis," according to Westwood, "deposits
an immense quantity of eggs, which she attaches one by one
^ y'ri
rig. 592.
606 NEUROPTERA.
to rushes or other aquatic plants. They are of a cylindrical
form, terminating at the top in a sudden point ; the}^ are at-
tached side by side with the greatest regularit3^" The larvae,
as in those of Corydalus, are broad and flattened, with a pair
of long, thick, respiratory filaments attached to the side of
each ring of the abdomen. The body of the pnpa is curved,
with the wings laid along the breast, much as in the Phry-
ganeid pupoe. The larva is active and predaceous, being
armed witii strong jaws. When full-fed it leaves the pools or
streams in which it has lieen living and makes an earthein cell
in the bank, in which the inactive pupa undergoes its remain-
ing transformations.
In Sialis the prothorax is large and square, almost equal in
size to the head ; there are no ocelli ; the antennte are filiform,
and the wings irregularly net-veined, the veins being stout.
The fourth joint of the tarsi is
dilated and twice lobed. The
larva is much like that of Cory-
dalus, but differs in having the
abdomen terminating in a
"^'^' '^^■^' "long and slender setose tail."
Sialis infumata Newman (Fig. 593, caudal appendages of the
male, from Walsh) is black, with the head not narrower be-
hind, while >S'. Americana Rambur is rust-red, and the head is
narrower Ijchind. The wings expand about an inch.
Chaidiodes is a much larger insect, witli a quadrangular pro-
thorax nearly as large as the head. There are three ocelli
placed close together, and the antennj^i are either pectinated or
serrated. The wings are veiny, the trans\'erse veins slender.
The joints of the tarsi are cylindrical, and the caudal appen-
dages of the male are conical and simple. Walsh describes the
larva of C. rastricornis Ramlnu* as resembling that of Cory-
dalus, but being much smaller, measuring l.GO of an inch, and
the abdcmien has one segment less, with no caudal seta?, "so
that Chauliodes forms a connecting link in this respect between
Corydalus and Sialis, the larva of which is said to have 'one
long, slender, setose tail,'" and the under side of the abdomen
is "entirely destitute of the remarkable paddle-like branchi;v
found in Corydalus." The pupa resembles that of Corydalus.
SIALID.E.
607
ChauUodes pectinicornis Linn., our most common species, is
yellowish ashen, with reddish pectinated antenniv. In C. ser-
ricornis Say the antenna are serrate. In Corydalus, the largest
form known, the pro-
ihorax is square but
narrower than the head
and the antennae are
stout but filiform. The
male of C. coruntus
Linn. (Fig. 594, fe-
male ; fig. oDo, male ;
fig.o96,pnpa; fig. 597,
larva), has very long
mandibles, about twice
as long as the head,
whence its specific
name. According to
the Editors of the
" American Entomol-
ogist," the eggs of
this insect (Fig. 598)
are "oval, about the
size of a radish seed,
and of a pale color,
Avith some dark mark-
ings. They are usu-
ally deposited in a
squarish mass upon
reeds or other aquatic
plants overhanging the
water." Hagen does
not " think that the
lateral filamentous ap-
pendages are connect-
ed with respiration ;
the little sponges at ^'^- ^^*'
the base of the filaments and a little behind them are the true
branchiae" "The reason that the larva of Corydalus has both
branchi{\3 and spiracles is, that it lives, like Sialis, some weeks
out of the water before its transformation." (Hagen.)
608
NEUROPTEIIA.
The genus Raphiclia is not aquatic in its habits as it is found
under the bark of trees pursuing small insects. The adult has
a long neck (prothorax), which is much narrower than the head,
and the antennae are short and filiform, while the ovipositor of
the female is long and ensiform, probably enabling it to deposit
its eggs in the chinks in the bark. Tlie larva is long and
slender; before
transforming it
makes no cocoon.
At first the pupa
is inactiA^e, but
according to Mr.
Waterhouse
(Westwood's In-
troduction), it be-
comes active
while the imago
skin is develop-
ing, and walks
about, as the pu-
pa skin is exceed-
ingly thin. The
genus is onl}'
found on the Pa-
cific coast of this
continent, anoth-
er proof of the
analogy of the in-
sect fauna of the
Western shores
of this country
to that of Europe,
where this genus
also abounds.
In their form and habits, including both those of the larva,
and of the partially active pupa, which wiggles violently and
even leaps, as the larva does, as stated by Percheron, whom
Mr. Westwood quotes (jonit cle la meme faculte cle contorsion et
de sauts, que la larve execute a un si ha^tt degre), have we not
brought forcibly before us the Thysanura?
riff. 595.
HEMEPwOBIDiE.
G09
PIemerobid>e Leach. The Aphis Lions and Lace-winged
flies, wiiich are included in this family, have long, slender, cy-
lindrical bodies. The wings are large, with numerous veins,
the posterior ones with no anal space ; the ocelli are usually
absent, and the tarsi are five-jointed.
The larvtB vary considerably in form, but are usually flat-
tened or short, thick, ovate and flesh}', with large sickle-like
mandibles ; "the under side of these organs is deeply grooved,
and the maxillae, which are nearly' equal to
them in size, and of a similar form, play in
this groove." (Westwood.) AVith these they
pierce the bodies of their victims and suck
out their juices. The sides of the abdominal
segments are fringed and have lateral tul)er-
cles bearing a thin tuft of radiating hairs.
The body of the pupa is more C3'lindrical,
being curved, and with the limbs and wings
folded to the breast. The larva spins a silken
cocoon, and the pupa is inactive.
In Aleuronia the body is covered with a
whitish powder; the e3'es are reniform, and
the antenncB are moniliform. The wings are
ciliated ; the longitudinal veins are few in
number, while the transverse ones are almost
absent. Aleuronia Westwoodii of Fitch is a
very small insect, being black, covered with a whitish pow-
der, with a pale abdomen and feet. The singular genus
Coniopterjfx, whose larva somewhat resembles a Smynthurus,
one of the Thysanura, showing the close relationship of
these aberrant forms, is characterized by Hagen as being
powdered with whitish scales, having globose eyes and monili-
form antennte. The wings are not ciliated, the longitudinal
veins are few, and there are some trans\erse veins. The pos-
terior wings of the males are small. Coniopteryx vicina Hagen
is black, covered with grayish powder, and the wings have
eight longitudinal veins, all joined together by a single trans-
verse vein. It is about one-seventh of an inch in length.
Haliday (in AVestwood's Introduction) thinks that the larva of
the European C. tineiformis preys on plant-lice. When about
Fis. 596.
610
NEUUOPTERA.
to transform it spins an "orbicular pouch of fine white silk
of close texture, generally on the trunk of a tree, in chinks of
the bark, or among moss. The pupa is quiescent."
The singular genus Kemoptera is at once recognized by the
remarkably long, narrow, linear hind wings which reach far
ibeyond the abdomen. The larva has a remarkably long,
almost filiform thorax, and was de-
scribed under the name of Necro-
philus. The species are fouud in
Western Asia and in Northern
Africa.
The genus Hemerohhis has mo-
niliform antennae, the wings having
the subcostal and median veins
joined together at the apex, and the
costal space of the anterior wings
is broader at the base, with a re-
current forked vein ; the transverse
series of venules are gradate (like
a pair of steps). We have found in
Maine a larva (Fig. 599, tergal and
side view) of this genus on the bark
of a birch tree in October, where it
was seen preying on Aphides, and
had covered its abdomen with the
empty skins of its victims, forming
a thick mantle as seen in the figure.
Hemerohius alternatus Fitch is white
or yellowish, varied with fuscous,
with tawny hairs. According to
i^'P^- •'>^'^- Fitch it is found upon pine and
hemlock bushes. //. occidentalis Fitch has hyaline wings, not
mottled as nsual with smok}' dots or clouds, but adorned with
two faint parallel lines ; it expands .38 of an inch. I have
raised specimens, referred to this species by Dr. Ilagen,
which occurred in the pupa state (Fig. 600), in considerable
numbers under a cloth wrapped around a pear tree in a
garden in Salem. The cocoon is oval, cylindrical, dense, and
surrounded by a much thinner mass of silk more globular
HEMEROBID^.
611
in form. The partially active pupne crawled out of the co-
coons, and were found scattered about in the paper containing
them.
The genus PolystmcJiotes is of much larger size than Heme-
robius or Chrysopa, and Hagen suggests that the larva is
aquatic. P. punctatus Fabr. is widely distributed,
flying lazily at night-fall. The aberrant genus Man-
tispa is a most interesting form, from the great length
of the prothorax, Avhich with other characters remind
us strikingly of the Orthopterous genus Mantis. The
fore legs are, like those of Mantis, adapted for seizing-
other insects. Mantisj)a brnnnea Say is our most
common species, occurring in the Middle and Western
States and southwards to Central America.
Chrysopa (Fig. 601, eggs, larva, and adult of C.
perla of Europe), the Lace-winged
Fly, is abundant and of great use, as
in the larva state it preys on plant-
lice. Its body is slender, with deli- ^'e- ^^'^•
cate gauze like wings, and is generally green,
with golden eyes. When disturbed it often
emits a foitid odor. Their eggs, supported by
long pedicels, are often laid in a group of
Aphides or in plants infested by them. When
hatched the voracious larva finds its food
ready at hand, and destroj^s immense numbers
of plant-lice, whence its name. Aphis-lion. It
turns to a pupa late in summer, and thus passes the winter
within a very dense, round, whitish cocoon situated
in the crevices of bark, etc.
In Europe gardeners search for these Aphis-lions
and place them on fruit trees overrun with lice,
which they soon depopulate. The Chrysopa ocu-
lata of Say (Fig. 602, and eggs) is our most abun-
dant form. It gives out a foul smell when handled.
By this genus we are led to the Ant-lion, or Myrme-
leon. It is a larger insect than any of the fore-
going genera, and reminds us in many respects of the dragon-
flies. The antennae are short and stout, clavate, while the body
Fis. 599.
612
NEUROPTERA.
is very long ami sl?nder, and the wings are long, narrow and
densely veined. The larva (Fig. 603) bears a close resemblance
to that of Chrysopa. It makes a pitfall in Une sand at the bot-
tom of which it hides, leaving only the tips of its mandibles in
sight, which are extended
and readj' to seize any
insect which may fall
into them. The pupa re-
tains the large mandibles
and uses them in cutting
its wa}" out of its cocoon.
Myrmeleon obsoletns Say (Fig. 604) is not rare in the warmer
parts of the country, and has been found at Salem, Mass., by
Dr. E. P. Colby. 31. abdominaUs Say has also been found as
far north as Milton, Mass., by
p^ ^||||^/]y Mr. J. Schotield. Mr. R. Tri-
men, speaking of the Entomo-
Fig. 602. logy of Natal, South Africa
(Entomological Monthly Magazine), notes the habits
of a "huge Myrmeleon, of the genus Falpares, the
spotted and variegated aspect of whose Avings will
cause you to mistake them for moths. . . . These
great insects are very unlike LibeUulidce in their
flight, flapping wildly and irregularly about, as if their ^''s- *'*'-^-
muscular apparatus were too weak to wield their stretch of
wings. In repose the wings are folded above each other so as
to form an acute-angled roof above the abdomen. They differ
in this respect from the long-horned Asccdaj^hi, which deflect
the wings on either side,
and hold the abdomen
erect or nearly so."
Ascakqihus Avith its
long filiform knobbed
antennae, and broad
wings and gay colors is
the butterfly among Neu-
roptera. It flies in the heat of the day, seeking the hottest
places and is abundant in the deserts of the East. The body
aud feet are short and the large wings are less densely veined
PANORriD^E. 613
than in Myrmeleon. Tlie eggs when laid are hedged around
by little pales like a fence "and are so placed that nothing can
approach the brood ; nor can the young ramble abroad till they
have acquired strength to resist the ants and other insect ene-
mies. The abdomen of the larva is depressed and oval, with
ten pectinations on each side." (Westwood.) It closely re-
sembles that of Myrmeleon. McLachlan states that the eggs
of Ascalcqdhus macaronius were observed by Kollar deposited
on a grass stem. Ascalaphus hyalinus Latr. is found in the
Southern States and Mexico.
Panorpid.e Leach. This family is interesting as affording
a passage from the winged Neuroptera to the degraded wing-
less forms which are often excluded from the suborder by
writers, and placed apart by themselves under the title of
Thj'sanura. Hagen thus defines the group : '' body cylindri-
cal or conical ; head exserted ; antennne shorter than the wings ;
mouth rostrated ; lateral palpi biarticulated ; prothorax small ;
wings either almost absent or narrow, equal, longer than the
body, narrowed at base ; the posterior wings with no anal
space ; tarsi of five joints."
In Panorpa^ the Scorpion Fly, so called from the long for-
ceps-like tip of the male abdomen, there are three ocelli and
the Avings are narrow. The genital organs of the male are
greatly lengthened out, and are forcipated, with the last seg-
ment inflated ; the two tarsal hooks are serrated, and the an-
tennae are bristle-like.
Lacaze-Diithiers selects the ovipositor of Panorpa as being
an intermediate type, as regards complexity, between Libellula
and ^schna. "When disturbed, the female of Panorpa Ger-
inanica or communis^ darts out a long slender tube towards
the disturbing object. Soon a little drop of a Avhitish liquid
appears at its extremity ; it is a means of defence. While at
rest the conical abdomen, terminating in a point, appears to
be composed of a less number of segments." At first sight
there seems to be but two, though in reality there are three
segments between the oviduct and the anal outlet, since the
ninth ring is very small and partly aborted, being concealed
beneath the others. The eleventh segment consists of five
614 NEUROPTEEA.
pieces, a tergite, two sternal scales, and two appendages articu-
lated to the tergal piece.
M. Lacaze-Duthiers does not extend the comparison of the
ovipositor of Panorpa to those of Podura and Snn'nthiirus, but
we can see how easy the transition is. Onl}^ let the long flexi-
ble ovipositor of Panorpa be permanent!}^ extended, which in
insects usually involves its being bent and oppressed to the
under side of the abdomen, and with a few other slight modifi-
cations we have the leaping ovipositor of the Podura and its
allies !
The larva is terrestrial, as Stein has found the pupa buried an
inch deep in moist earth, at the foot of an alder stump. (West-
wood.) Brauer states that the larva is long, cylindrical, with
long filaments arising from tubercles
on the body. In its general appear-
ance it resembles certain caterpillars,
and also Phryganeid larviie. P. ru-
fescens Rambur (Fig. 605, enlarged)
is the most common form in New
Fig. 605. England. It is of a j^ellowish red
color, with the antennas black, except the three or four basal
joints which are reddish. It is about half an inch long and
the wings expand an inch.
The Tipula-like genus Bittacits, though it has four Avings, is,
in its remarkal)ly slender body and long legs, nuich like the
Crane-flies. There are seven species in this countr}', one of
which, B. pilicornis Westwood, has been found in Canada and
New York. The winter insect, Boreus, is wingless in the fe-
male sex, and in its habits and form as well as its minute size,
reminds us strikingly of Podura and Lepisma, though the re-
semblance has not to our knowledge been specially noticed b}^
entomologists. In this genus the ocelli are absent, and the
males have very imperfect style-like wings, while the females
are entirely wingless. "The abdomen of the female is termi-
nated by a three-jointed ovipositor, the under side of which is
defended by a produced vahe-like bilobed plate arising from
the nnder side of the seventh segment. The male has the
abdomen terminated by two short, recurved, attenuated, pilose
styles." (Westwood.) In this description we are reminded of
PHRYGANEID^. 615
the Spring-tails (Podura), which leap by means of the long ovi-
positor, and corresponding male organs, bent beneath the body.
Dr. Fitch has described two forms of these winter insects
which, like Podura, occur in moss and are found leaping on the
snow. Boreus nivorlundus is about one-seventh of an inch
long, and is reddish, witli a bronze tinge, while B. hrumalis is
entirely brassy-black, and is a still smaller species.
We must not pass over the singular genus J/ero^^e, which is
interesting in this connection. It has no ocelli, while the
compound eyes are large, reniform and united on the top of
the head. The antennaj are short and thick, narrowed at the
apex, while the wings are broad, with numerous transverse
veins, and the male abdomen has large forceps. The Merope
tuber of Newman is very rare. It is clay yellow (lutcous), and
expands nearly an inch. Ilagen remarks that "the genus and
species are very singular and abnormal ; perhaps the most re-
markable of all hitherto known Neuroptera. It certainly be-
longs to the Panorplna."
PhryganeidyE Latreille. Some of the members of this
family bear a striking resemblance to the smaller moths, such
as the Tineidoi. As characterized briefly by Dr. Hagen,
their bodies are compressed, cylindrical ; the head is free, an-
tenniB long, thread-like, the mouth is imperfectly developed,
and the labial palpi are triarticulate. The prothorax is small ;
tlie wings longer than the bod}', with few transverse veins,
while the posterior wings have the anal space large, plicated
(rarely absent), and the tarsi are five-jointed. In all these
characteristics, together with the cylindrical form of the larva,
the quiescent pupa Avhich is very much -like that of a moth with
its wings and limbs free, instead of being soldered together,
and in the habits of the larva, which in some genera resemble
those of the Si all dm, this family stands above the Neurop-
tera to be hereafter mentioned, and in a serial arrangement,
such as we are forced to make in our books, this seems to us
to be their proper place, while in nature they appear to us to
stand off by themselves parallel with the Sialidoi and
Hemerobidce, certain genera of which, in the imago state
(such as Coniopteryx), they closely resemble, while the}^ seem
616 NEUKOPTERA.
to rank higher than the Panorpidce, which next to the
Th^'sanura are in our view the lowest family among the Neu-
roptera.
The larvifi are more or less cylindrical, with well developed
thoracic feet, and a pair of feet on the end of the abdomen,
varying in length. The head is small, and like that of a Tor-
tricid larva, which the Caddis or Case-worm, as the larva is
called, greatly resembles, not only in form, but in its habit of
rolling up submerged leaves. The}^ also construct cases of bits
of sticks, sawdust, or grains of sand, which they drag over the
bottom of quiet pools, retreating within when disturbed. They
live on vegetable matter, and on water-fleas (Entomostraca)
and small aquatic larvjB. When about to pupate they close
up the mouth of the case w-ith a grating, or as in the case of
Helicopsyche by a dense silken lid with a single slit, and in
some instances spin a slight, thin, silken cocoon, within which
the pupa state is passed. The pupa is much like that of the
smaller moths, except that the wings and limbs are free from
the body. Dr. Hagen informs me that after leaving its case
it makes its way over the surface of the water to the shore,
sometimes going a long distance. "Westwood states that
"the females deposit their eggs in a double gelatinous mass,
which is of a green color, and is retained for a considerable
time at the extremity of the body ; the mass is subsequently
attached to the surface of some aquatic plant, and Mr. Hyde-
man has observed the female of Phryganea grandis creep down
the stems of aquatic plants under the water, very nearly' a foot
deep, for the purpose of oviposition." A. Mej^er mentions
several instances of the union of the sexes of ditferent species
of this family, with the production of fertile eggs. (GiJnther's
Zoological Record for 1867.)
Only one exception to the aquatic habits of this famil}- is
the Enoicyla pusilla Burmeister Avhich, according to Mc-
Laelilan, in Europe "lives out of the water amongst moss at
the roots of trees. The larva is destitute of the external
respiratory filaments common to almost all caddis-worms, but
the spiracles are not very evident. E. pusilla is also remark-
able, inasmuch as the female is wingless, and little resembling
the male." Von Siebold discovered that an Ichneumon (Agrio-
PHRYGANEID^.
617
wm
m
Fis'. 607.
typus armatus) attacks the fiillj'^ grown larva of a Pliryganea
(Aspatheriiun), which inhabits a smooth cylindrical case,
which the Ichneumon converts into a pupa case by spinning
a long broad band of silk around the anterior opening. (Ger-
staecker.)
In Nearonia and Phryganea the maxillary palpi dilTer in the
two sexes, and there are two spurs on each of the fore legs,
and four on the middle and hind legs. The maxil-
lary palpi in the males are four-jointed, in the females
five-jointed, and there are three ocelli. Neuronia
differs I'rom Phryganea in having its
antenniB a little shorter than the wings,
whereas in the latter they are longer,
and the fore wings are hairy. Ncni-
ronia semifasciata Say is fulvous, with
the fore wings transversely flecked with
brownish-blacK, a small basal spot, and an abrupt,
median streak at the hinder margin of the wing, wliile
the disk has two yellowish spots, and there is a short
fuscous subapical band on the hind wings. Fig. GOG Fig. coo.
represents the case of the European Phryganea grandis Linn.
In the group LimnopJdlides the maxillary palpi of the males
ai'e three, those of the fe-
males five-jointed ; ocelli
three ; anterior wings rather
narrow, the apex obliquely
truncated or ronnded. In
Llmnojihilus the tibial spurs of the three pairs
of legs are arranged thus, 1, 3, 4 (t. e., one
spur on the front pair of tibiae ;
three on the middle, and four
on the hinder pair), and the
apex of the anterior wings is
truncated. L. ^9e?7?7<s?7/«s
"Walker is a boreal species, oc-
curring at Hudson's Baj\ Limnophilus rhom-
Ucus Linn. (Fig. G07, case made of bits of moss) ^'^' ^^"'
is an ochreous species, with luteons hairs. Fig. 608, o, case,
represents a case-worm which we have found in great abund-
Fig. (;09.
Fis. 608.
618
NEUROPTERA.
ance in Labrador. Though we have not reared the imago we
suppose it to be the Limnophilus subpunctulatus of Zetterstedt,
the most abuncUuit species we met in Labrador. The case
is straight, cylindrical, and built of coarse gravel, and the
larva is a thick, cylindrical, whitish worm. Fig. 609 repre-
sents the case of L. Jlavicornis Fabr., a European species,
which is often constructed of small shells. Fig.
GIO illustrates the case of the European L.2^dlu-
ci.dus Olivier, which is formed of large pieces of
Fig. ()ii. leaves laid flat over each other.
In Sericostoma the ocelli are wanting, and the palpi are
pilose, the maxillary palpi of the males are four-jointed, cover-
ing the face like a mask. S. Americanum Walker is black
with black hairs ; the antennne are twice the length of the
l»ody, while the anterior wings are much longer than the hind
ones. Fig. Gil represents the tube of a European species of
this genus.
In IMicopsyche the spurs are arranged thus : 2, 2, 4, and
the maxillary palpi of the males mask the face, being recurved.
We have found the larvae of IlelicopsycJie glabra Hagen (Fig.
Fiff. 612.
612, X, lunate patch on the basal abdominal ring; a, front
view of the head, enlarged ; m, mandible ; e, eye ; b, vertical
view of the end of the abdomen, enlarged), about changing
to pupa^, the middle of July, in Wenham Lake, Mass. One
had spun its operculum and lay with its head just behind
PHRYGANEID^.
619
it. The body of the larva is curved, though not spirally, and
when out of the case it is cylindrical, thickest on tlie basal
ring of the abdomen, and is pale greenish, while tlie head,
tliorax and legs are brownish ; it is .25 of an inch in length.
The head is hairy and is smaller than usual, a little narrower
than the thorax, with black, acute unidentate mandibles.
The thoracic rings are horny above, somewhat hairy, and
the legs are slender and hairy. The abdomen
ends rather abruptly, with two short tubercles
ending in a hook, both sides being alike, the
body throughout as symmetrical as other larvie Fig- W3.
of this family, though living in a helicoid case. On each side
of the basal segment of the abdomen is a lunate, corneous,
hairy spot, by which the larva i)robably retains its hold in the
case when the head and thorax are protruded. The case is
usually very regularly helix-like in form, though the umbilicus
varies iu size. It is composed of fine grains of sand so
arranged that the outer a
surface is smooth. It is
closed during the pupa
state by a dense, silken
concave, suborbicular m
operculum, with concen-
tric lines, rounded on the
side, and but slightl^y con-
vex on the other, with a
slightly curved slit for the
passage of water situated
on the less convex side,
each side of the slit be-
ing provided with slender
straight teeth which near-
ly touch each other, thus
forming an imperfect
grate. The larva does
not spin a cocoon. Fig.
613 represents the case of H. arenifera Lea, from Indiana.
Mr. J. A. McNiel has brought from Pulvon, west coast of
Nicaragua, similar larvte, belonging to a species very closely
Fiff. G14.
G20 NEUROPTEUA.
allied to that described above. They differ in being a little
larger and more hairy. The case is similar, though with a
rough exterior. Tlie pupa (Fig. G14, a, antenna?, curved back
behind the eyes ; I, labrum ; m, mandibles ; mj), maxillary palpi ;
IV, wings) of this Nicaraguan larva is curved in a slightly'
spiral manner, the antenniE are curved over and behind the
eyes, reaching to the seventh abdominal ring ; the nidxillary
palpi are laid baclvwards on the side of the thorax, and the
labial palpi lie between tliem, though diAcrging from each
other. The wings are pressed to the bod}^ under the legs,
the latter being fringed with long hairs. On the end of the
abdomen are two slender tubercles ending in line hairs, and
alilvc on both sides, the pupa, like the larva, being symmetri-
cal throughout. The larvjB seem to live in clear water on a
sandy bottom, often attached to submerged sticks,
unio shells, etc.
In Leptocerus the antennae of the males are ex-
tremely long ; tibial spurs thus : 2, 2, 2. L. niger
Linn, is black, shining, with black hair ; the antennae
are black, the basal half annulated with snow-white,
while the basal joint is reddish ; the feet are luteous,
the intermediate ones being snow-white, while the
Fig. (!i5. anterior wings are steel-blue black, and the hind
wings blackish. It is found in Europe and the United States.
Fig. 615 represents, Dr. Hagen informs me, a case of either
this species or L. sepulcJiralis Walker, or else a similar species.
The larva builds a thin, long, conical, sand}^ tube supported
between two needles of the pine. The specimens figured were
found by Rev. E. C. Bolles at Westbrook, Maine.
In Setodes the species are snow-white ; the spurs are ar-
ranged thus : 0, 2, 2. S. Candida Ilagen is pale _yellow, with
the anterior wings snowy white. It occurs in the Southern
States. McLachlan states that "some species
of Setodes make delicate little tubes, entirelj^
- ' formed of a silky secretion, Avithout anj^ mix-
Fig. GIG. tare of extraneous matters." Fig. 616 repre-
sents a tube of a European species of Setodes formed of sand.
In Hydropsyche and allies the ocelli are three in number, or
entirely wanting, while the last division of the maxillary palpi
rURYGANEIDvE.
621
is very long, filiform find multiarticulate. In Hydropsyclie the
spurs are arranged thus : 2, 4, 4. The antennie are rather
long and slender, the ocelli are absent, and the intermediate
feet of the female are dilated. H. scalaris Ilagen is black
gray, witli white hairs, and tlie antennae are yellowish, and
obliquely striated with black at the base ; the first joint is
covered with snow-white hairs. Philopotamus has three ocelli,
and the tibial spurs are arranged thus : 2, 4, 4.
In RhyacopJiila the maxillary palpi have the last joint entire,
straight, shorter than the rest ; while there are three ocelli, and
the tibial spurs are arranged thus : 3, 4, 4. E. fnscula Walker
is rust-red, with some black hairs and a subfuscous spot on
each side of the thorax. It comes from Hudson's Ba3\
Another curious Neuroptcrous insect found in the iron-stone
concretions of Morris, III., is the Megathentomum jJustulatum
of Scudder (Fig. 617, natural size), described and figured by
him in the "Pala;on-
tology of the Illinois
State Geological Sur-
vey." "The fragment
represents a wing (ap-
parently an upper one)
of a Neuropterous in"
sect. It is gigantic in
size, very broad, with
distant nervures, sim-
ple infrequent divarica-
tions, and in the outer
half of the wing, which
alone is presented, a
cross neuration, composed solely of most delicate and irregu-
lar veinlets. The wing is also furnished with a great number
of larger and smaller discolored spots, the surfaces of the
larger ones irregularly elevated." Mr. Scudder thinks the
wing is allied to that of Coniopteryx, adding "it appears to
belong to a family hitherto undescribed. I do not know of a
single insect, living or fossil, which approaches it in the struc-
ture of the wings."
/in
622 THYSANURA.
TIIYSANURA.
Tlie Thysanura are Aviiigless, and undergo no metamor-
phosis. There is a great range in the degree of complexity
of structnre from Lepisma, the hitter resembling a larviil
Perla or Blatta, to Anura. The higher group, or l)ristle-tails,
Avhich we may eall Cbaira, comprises the families Lepismatifhp
and Campodem. Lubbock has ap[)lie(l the term Collembola to
the Podurida^ and Smynthurida^ in allusion to
the sucker-like organ situated at the base of tlie
abdomen. The Cimira are characterized by 'f/
their well-developed mouth-parts, abdominal
feet and bristles or cerci, and the (Collembola
by their spi'ing {elater^ its holder {tenaculum^
Fig. 61 7«), as well as tlie sucker or collophore^
as it may be termed ; by the rudimentary mouth-
parts and by their diminutive size. '^^Wi^ <o\"a
These interesting small, Avingless forms also afford a pas-
sage from the true winged insects to the Myriopods, Scolo-
pendrella being a connecting link, having the head and antenna"
of Campodea, and the abdominal legs of the Myriopods. Even
the i)lace of abdominal legs in Lepisma is supplied by the
rows of small stylets which prop up the long slender
abdomen.
Lepismatid.?^. Burmeister. Bristle-tails. These agile crea-
tures, which are revealed by turning over stones and sticks in
damp situations, and are often seen about houses, have a long
flattened body, Avith metallic scales, in form somewhat like
those of butterflies. The antennre are very long, setiform,
many-Jointed ; the mouth-parts are free, with long palpi ; the
maxillary palpi being seven-jointed and the labial palpi four-
jointed. The mandibles are stout, sunken in the head, and
armed with teeth for gnawing. The prothorax is very large,
and all the rings of the body are of much the same size, so
that the insect bears a general resemblance to the Myriapods.
The anal stylets are long and large, which with the smallei
CAMPODEiE.
G2.1
ones inserted on the subterminal rings of the ahdomen ;ii<l
o-reatly in locomotion, tliough these insects run witli great ra-
piditv a^ul do not leap like the Foduridm, and thus remind
us, as well as in their general appearance,
of certain wingless cocki'oaches.
In Lepisma (Fig. 618, L. 4-sereV/toPack.)
there are long hristles on the tip of the ab-
domen, of which three are longest, while
3IachiUs diifers in having compound eyes,
and longer abdominal bristles. Lepisma
sacchavina Linn, is often very common in
houses, where it cats holes in silks and
silken tapestry, devours the paste and
mutilates the leaves of books. L. domes-
tica Pack, is a beautiful white hairy
species, spotted with black, and is common
about fireplaces in Salem. 3fachiUs variabilis Say (PI. 10,
figs. 8, 0), is dark brown, with long caudal stylets. It is com-
mon in the United States. J/, orhitalis Pack, inhabits Idalio.
CAMPODE.f: Meinert. Under this name Dr. Meinert has
established a family consisting of two but little known genera,
which have flat and elongated bodies and no springing appara-
tus, nor eyes, and though the author excludes the Lepismoe from
the Thj'sanura, we would suggest that the Canipodeae seem
intermediate between the running Lepismoe and the springing
Poduroe. The antennae are setaceous or filiform, and the feet
are adapted for running, with distinct, elongated, two-clawed
tarsi. There are two anal cerci arising from the tenth and last
abdominal segment. There are six thoracic spiracles, the
PoduriB having none (Meinert). The genus Japyx of Ilaliday
has short, inarticulate, horny anal cerci. J. soh'/ngus Ilaliday
lays few eggs, but those very large. It lives under stones and
when disturbed resembles " a Lithobins in the character of it;-'
movements," and bears a remarkable resemblance to a young
Forficula. J. stibterranens Pack, lives in J\.enti\c]i.j. The other
genus, Campodea, has many-jointed anal cerci, C staphylinus
Westw. of Europe lives under stones. C. Americana Pack,
has similar habits. C. Coolei Pack, lives in Mammoth Cave.
624: NEUROPTERA.
PoDURiD^ Biirmeister. Tlie Spring-tails are the typical
Thysanura, as they differ more than Lepisnia and allies from
all other insects. The anal bristles, which are free in Lepisnia,
are here united and bent beneath the body, forniiiig the
"spring" by Avhich they leap to a prodigious height for such
minute insects. The body is cylindrical, not flattened, and is
covered either with hairs or scales. The four or six-jointed
antennae are short and thick, and the eyes are simple, usually
four to eight on each side. The moutli-parts are not well de-
veloped, though mostly present, the mandibles being small,
with minute teeth, and the maxillary palpi entirely wanting
(Gerstaecker), though Lubbock states that the "second pair
of maxillifi [labium] are membranous and delicate." The pro-
thorax is small, convex, while the two hinder thoracic rings
are large and similar to each other. The legs are stout, with
tarsi consisting of but a single joint. The abdomen consists
of six, sometimes only three segments, with a long anal stylet
forming the forked tail, or "-spring," beneath, (Gerstaecker.)
They are found in gardens, or hot-beds, on manure heaps in
winter, and on the snow ; they may also be seen leaping on the
surface of the Avater in quiet pools. According to Kicolet
these insects are very prolific, as he found 13G0 eggs in a sin-
gle individual. The embryo is developed in twelve days.
They moult often, and at periods of fourteen days each.
Tlie intestinal canal consists in great part of a long and
voluminous chyle-making stomach, into the lower end of which
six free Malpighian tubes pour their contents. (Nicolet.) In
Papirius Saundersii^ as in many other apterous Articulata, the
testis is formed on the same type as the ovary. On each side
of the body is a simple tube opening into a triangular reser-
voir with its base in front. The nervous system of Smynthurus
consists, according to Nicolet, of four ganglia, with a double
connecting cord. Two of these ganglia occupy the head and
form the oesophageal collar. The two others consist of a tho-
racic and one abdominal ganglion. There are in Podura four
pairs of stigmata in the four basal rings of the abdomen. Next
to the two main tracheae are six pairs of rather long vesicles
united with them by loops. (Gerstaecker.)
Lubbock states that in Smynthurus there are but two spira-
PODJRID^.
625
Fig. 619.
cles, adding that "it is veiy unusual for an articulate animal
to have only two spiracles, and their position is still more ex-
traordinary, for they open on the under side of the head,
immediately below the antenna?, ... on the
inner side of the basis of the mandibles."
"In the manner of subdivisions the tracheiie
of Smynthurus differ from those of the true in-
sects, and agree more closely with the M3a"io-
poda and tracheal Arachnida, in the fact that
they do not often give off l)ranches nor form
tufts, but generally divide dichotomously, and
run considerable distances without a separa-
tion," (jMr. Lubbock, whom we have just
quoted, states that Papirius has no tracheae.)
In Smynthurus the ovaries consist, according
to Lubbock, of a single egg-tube. On the un-
derside of the abdomen is a sucking tube, slen-
der and forked in Smynthurus, but
short in Podura, etc., by which the
animal adheres to smootli surfaces.
In the genus Podura the body is
long, with four-jointed antennae, and
the flexible spring-tail is short, while
in Desoria, which is found in the
Alps, the tail is long. The genus
Degeeria is known by the ovate bod^^,
and basal half of the spring equal-
ling the fork in
length. A species #(J
(Fig. 619) closely
resembling the European D. nivalis Nicolet, i
we have found in summer resting on the W'!!
leaves of the Clematis. The Lepidocyrtus al- fe(!Jjj|;|li!|||!i|]'[i'|;
blnos Nic. (Fig. 620) is a minute pearly white WnMI((f«illlI/;/lv'!'J
species found in Europe; its scales (Fig. -=.i!Mxi, v 7
621) are thin and with distinct markings.
Smynthurus is short, differing greatly in Fig. 621.
form from Podura, and bears a striking resemblance to the
larva of Coniopteryx. The body is short, nearly spherical, and
40
626 AEACHNIDA.
in its form approaches the spiders, as noticed by Latreille.
The four-jointed anteiiiuie are long and elbowed, while there
are eight simple e3'es on each side of the head. The sijecies
are found on the leaves of garden plants. In Pajiirius of
Lubbock, the antenna? are said to be "four-jointed, but with-
out a well marked elbow, and with a short terminal segment,
offering the appearance of being many -jointed. *
SUB-CLASS II. ARACHNIDA.
The typical forms of this order have the body divided into
two regions, the head-thorax (cephalothorax) and abdomen.
The head is sometimes quite distinct, but is generally sunken
into the thorax, which bears four pairs of legs, while the abdo-
men has no organs of locomotion, though the abdomen is pro-
vided with three pairs of jointed appendages (the sjyinnerets),
which are, however, homologous with the legs. The metamor->
phosis is very incomplete in the lower forms, Avhile in the
spiders there is none at all after the animnl leaves the egg.
The head is without anteniiie, or compound eyes. The order
shows some analogy with certain Uipterous insects, especi-
ally when compared Avith the wingless Chionea and Nyctcribia,
and its lowest forms (certain mites) bear a close resemblance
to some of the lower Crustacea, as the 3'oung stages and em-
bryonic development are remarkably similar. The typical
forms of fhe order homologize too closely with the apterous
insects to allow them to be separated as a distinct class. We
shall see below that the rank here assigned to the group ac-
cords well with their anatomical characters and habits.
In some genera there is a decided line of demarcation
between the head and the thorax, which is, however, Aery
distinct during embryonic life, and we do not perceive that
gradual transition from mouth-parts to swimming legs which
obtains in the Crnstacea. The order, however, has much
lower, more degraded forms than the Myriopods even, as
the genus Demodex testifies, which may recall readily certain
intestinal worms. This we would consider as but an example
* Explanation of Plate 10. — Fig. 1, Lepi^ma saccharina Linn?; Fig. 2, '.i
DeyeRria flavocincta Pack.; Fig. 4, 5, D. purjrurascens Pack.; Fig. G, 7, Isotortvi
plum'jca Pack.; Fig. 8, 9, Machilis variabilis Say.
PI 10
THYSANUR/
ARACHNIDA. 627
of what often occurs among all degraded forms, of a recur-
rence to the archetypal form of the articulate type, and not for
this reason, as some authors have done, would we place the
Arachnids of Latreille in a class by themselves, below the
M^a'iapods ; nor on recurring to the spiders alone, with their
high organization and wonderful instincts, would we follow
Professor Owen and others in placing them even above the
true insects.
We must look upon the Spider as a hexapodous insect, de-
graded, wingless, and partially decephcdized. A part of the
elements, constituting the head in insects, have been, as it
were, withheld from the head and detained in the thorax, which
has thus an increase in one pair of limbs. On the other hand,
the sensorial, or pre-oral, region of the head, is wanting in two
most important members, i. e., the compound eyes and the an-
tennae. Both Zaddach and Claparede state that there are no
organs in the spiders homologous with the antenuie of insects.
The simple fact that the homology of the organs generally is
so close between the two groups shows that they must fall into
the same class. The same can be said of the Mjriapods.
The circulatory system is very perfect in the spiders and
scorpions, but in most of the lower mites there is no dorsal
vessel, or vascular system at all, the fluids being supposed to
circulate in the general cavity of the bodj", "and b}' the aid
of tlie muscular movements and the contractions of the intesti-
nal canal, transferred in an irregular manner hither and thither
in the visceral cavity and in the extremities." (Sicbold.) In
the Phalaug idee there is a distinct, three-chambered dorsal
vessel, or heart. In the spiders and scorpions, however, the
vascular system is higlily organized, as shown by Newport (in
the Scorpions), and Claparede (in Lycosa). Here then, is, as
in Sphinx, a dorsal and ventral vessel with lateral veins, or ve-
nous sinuses, performing the functions of true veins. The main
dorsal vessel is mostly situate in the abdomen, as the lungs
have their geat in that region, where the most important respi-
ratory function, that of supplying the blood with fresh oxygen,
is performed. Claparede has shown that in Lycosa the blood
flows through the dorsal vessel from the head, instead of towards
the head, as in the six-footed insects.
628
ARACHNID A.
The nervous system consists of a small brain, a group of
thoracic ganglia and a few abdominal ganglia, which, however,
are aborted in the spiders. The cerebral ganglia, or brain, lie
just above the oesophagus, and send down two cords embrac-
ing tlie throat, and also distribute nerves to the ocelli and
mouth-parts.
In the mites (Acarina), where the body is oval, and not
divided into the two distinct regions, there is no brain, and
but a single ganglion lodged in the abdomen, from which are
distributed the nerves supplying the head and the peripheral
parts. In the spiders the brain is of considerable size, and the
thoracic ganglia or "• suboesophageal ganglia," are large, send-
ing off on each side four large
processes from which proceed
the nerves supplying the feet.
In the scorpion (Pedipalpi)
the nervous system is still more
highly organized. Tlie bi'ain is
not large ; it is composed of
the two spherical supercesopha-
geal ganglia fused together,
sending off the usual nerves to
the mouth-parts. This brain-
like organ is connected by two
filaments with the ventral gan-
glionic mass, formed by the
probable union of several gan-
glia, and situated in the middle
of the false cephalothorax. The
continuation of the nervous cord consists of seven abdominal
ganglia, with the commissures united into a single cord.
The maxillary palpi, functionally, take the place of antennae,
showing how one organ may perform the office of another in a
different group of animals. It is also evident that the spider
combines in the same organ the senses of taste, smell and feel-
ing, which are supposed in insects to reside in the two pairs of
palpi and the antenn?e. Mygale and Scorpio stridulate.
The alimentary canal is formed, according to Siebold, on two
types. In the mites and spiders, the stomach is produced lat*
Fisr. 622.
ARACHNID A. 629
erally into large coecal appendages (Fig. G22, alimentary canal
of Tegenaria civilis ; a, stomach, with coeca ; c, liver ; d, renal
organ; e, fat body), and then passes into a short, small intes-
tine, going straight to the end of the body. In the Pedipalpes
(Phrynidte and Scorpions) the intestinal canal is more simple,
not having any coBcal dilatations to the very small stomach.
The salivary glands are often of large size, especially in
Ixodes, and are thns adapted to their blood-sucking habits,
much saliva being needed to mix with their food. In the
spiders and scorpions the liver is well developed and distinct
from the intestinal tube, being in the spiders a brown or dirty
yellow mass filling a large part of the abdominal cavity and
enveloping most of the other viscera.
As during the growth of the young spider the head is thrown
back on top of the thorax to which it is thus most closely uni-
ted, it follows that the simple eyes, from two to twelve in
number, are situated on the upper surface of the cephalo-
thorax, while no other sensory organs, i. ('.jthe compound eyes
and antenna?, are ever developed. Thus in the adult spider
the mandibles seem to be pushed far in front of the ocelli, and
to occupy what is originally the proper or normal site of the
ocelli, and in insects of the antennaa, which no doubt has led
most authors to homologize them with the antennae of hexa-
podons insects. Claparede says "all the appendages are post-
oral, hence there are no organs homologous with the antenna?."
Thus the mouth-opening is brought far forward ; it is flanked on
each side by a mandible (Plate 10, fig. 3, c, a, movable claw, or
fang), a large, powerful limb, which does not move horizontally
but vertically; behind are the large, well developed maxillai
(Plate 10, fig. 2, 6 ; 7, maxillary palpus ; 8, male palpus), with
their long, leg-like palpus. Thus the function of the insectean
antenna? must, in the spiders, reside in the maxillary palpi.
Claparede's researches on the embryology of the spiders and
mites have demonstrated that the front pair of legs of Arach-
nids are homologous with the labial palpi of insects, which,
as we have previously stated (p. 59), in the latter, are late in
embryonic life thrown forwards, and associated with the max-
illae and other mouth-parts, while in the Arachnids they retain
their embryonic position and are grouped with the legs (see
630 ARACHNIDA.
tig. 59, 4) and are nsiially of the same form. Thus one cepha^
lie segment of inseets is permanently retained in the thorax
among the Arachnids, whereas we have seen in the embryo of
the dragon-fly (Figs. 59, 61, 4) it assumes an intermediate
position between the head and thorax, the remaining anterior
part of the head being clearly separated by a deep suture. In
Fig. 59, we see the labial palpi (4) grouped with the three pairs
of legs ; a position permanent in the Arachnida. The dragon-
fly, at the period represented b}^ Fig. 59, p. 57, may be legiti-
mately compared with the scorpion, especially Cyclopthalmns,
from the coal measures.
While, as Blackwall states, nothing is known with certainty
concerning the organs of smell and hearing in spiders, Mr.
li. Beck "suggests that spiders are capable of distinguishing
sounds to some extent b}' means of very delicate waving hairs
which are found on the upper surfaces of their legs. During
life they move at their peculiarly cup-shaped bases, with the
least motion of the atmosphere, but are imn^iovable after
death. It is well known that sound is due to vibrations which
are generally conveyed by undulations of the air ; now I am
perfectly satisfied that if these undulations are of a certain
character the hairs I am alluding to, upon the spider's leg, will
move, and I wish j'ou particularly to notice that they are of
different lengths, so that some might move whilst others would
not, and also that the longest is at the extremity of the leg,
and therefore can receive an undulation Avhich might die away
higher up. I may just mention that tliere is a group of these
peculiar hairs on the flea. The legs of a spider are most sen-
sitive organs of feeling, if they do not also embrace those of
hearing." (Entomologist, London, 1866, iii, p. 246.)
The four thoracic feet have seven joints, and it is probable
that the two basal joints homologize with the coxa and tro-
chantine of insects, in which the two joints are retracted, side
by side, and closely fused together. The tergal part of the
thoracic segments is large, overlapping the pleural, while the
sternum is a rather large, broad breast-plate. The abdomen
is generally somewhat spherical, and in but few instances is it
drawn out and the rings well developed, as in the scorpion.
In the mites it is fused closely with the cephalothorax.
AEACIINIDA. G31
In tlie sjenns Hersilla we see clearly that the three pairs of
spinueiV'ts aie but moilitied legs. The second and iuner pair
are generally the smallest, while the third and largest pair are
the most posterior. Tiieir office is to reel out the silk from the
silk-ghin(.ls. The tip of the articulated spinnerets ends in a
cone, perforated by m3-riads of little tubes (over 1,000 in
Epei'ra, abiuit oOO in Lycosa, and a less number in the smaller
species) through which the silk escapes in excessively delicate
threads, which unite to form the common thread visible to the
naked eye. (Plate 10, fig, 4, spinnerets of Epeira vulgaris en-
larged twenty-five diameters ; lig. 5, a spinning tube.)
The Acarina are supposed to have glands analogous to the
silk glands, whose product, like silk, h:u-dens on exposure to
the air, and by which certain parasitic genera, such as Uro-
poda, fix themselves solidly to their host. Siebold states alco,
that "many species of Ilydrachna fix, by a kind of glue, the
anterior portion of their body on aquatic plants, and in this
position await the completion of their moulting. The organs
secreting this substance have not yet been discovered. It is
well known that the European Tetranyclius telarius spins
large webs on the leaves of trees and on house-plants.
The reproductive system is nuich as described in insects, ex-
cept that the external appendages are rarely developed in
either sex. The genital armor is situated at the base of the
abdomen ; it is concealed when present under the skin.
In the Acarina the two ovaries open on the middle of the
abdomen, or on the under side of the thorax, either l:)etween
or behind the last pair of legs. In Ilydrachna the oviduct
opens into an ovipositor by which the insect is enabled to lay
its eggs under the skin of the fresh-water mussel on which it is
parasitic, and other mites oviposit in a similar waj- under the
epidermis of plants.
In most spiders the two ovaries have their outlet in an ori-
fice situated between the two lung-sacs. They have a distinct
receptacidum seminis, especially marked in Epeira. "The
Scorpionidce have three ovaries, consisting of as many lon-
gitudinal ones, united b^' fom* pairs of transverse ones." The
outar two of the former are oviducts, leading out at the base
of the abdomen.
632 AKACHNTDA.
The testes of Ixodes consist of four or five pairs of unequal
follicles, opening out near the base of the abdomen." The
males ai-e distinguished from the females by their larger "cheli-
ceres" (maxillary palpi) and larger pair of clasping legs. In
the spiders the testes are "two long, simple, interlaced caeca,
concealed beneath the hepatic lobes," which lead by two def-
erent canals to the base of the abdomen, through a simple
fissure, which, however, is not applied to the vulva. The com-
plicated hollow spoon-shaped palpi are supposed to be the in-
tromittent organs. "They are filled with sperm and a[)plied to
the entrance of the vulva. For this purpose the last joint of
the palpi, which is alwaj'S hollow and much enlarged, contains
a soft spiral body, terminated by a curved, gutter-like, horny
process. Beside this there is an arched, horny filament, and
several hooks and other appendages of the most varied forms.
These appendages are protractile and serve, some to seize the
female, and others as conductors of the sperm." (Siebold.)
While the majoritj^ of the Arachnida are developed as usual
after the laying of the eggs, a few, such as the scorpions and
Orihatidm and other mites, are known to be viviparous,
and it is probable that an alternation of generations occurs in
some of the lower mites. The Tardigrades are hermaphro-
dites.
The Arachnida breathe both by tracheae and lung-like organs.
The mites, the false scorpions, the harvest-men and iSoljyn-
giclce are provided with trachea?, communicating externally
by means of spiracles, generally two in number, and concealed
between the anterior feet. In Ilydrachna, which lives con-
stantly beneath the water, the tracheae "possess probably, the
power to extract from the Avater, the air necessary for respira-
tion." (Siebold.) In the false scorpions a pair of lateral stig-
mata are situated on each of the two basal rings of the
abdomen. From these spring "four short, but large trachean
trunks from which arise numerous unbranched trachea^ spread-
ing through the entire body." In the S o I jrK g i d ce there are
three pairs of stigmata and the tracheae ramify and are distrib-
buted much as in insects, and in the Phalangidce the tra-
cheary system is Avell developed, arising from two stigmata
opening between the insertion of the posterior legs.
ARACHNIDA. G33
In most of the spiders (such as Segestria, Dysdera and Ai-
gyroueta) tliere are both a tracheary system ami kings. Tlie
two stigmata, from which these tracheae lead, open near tiie
pulmonary opening. In two other genera, Salticus and Micro-
pliantes, there are two stigmata situated at the posterior end of
the abdomen. Siebold calls attention to a tracheary system
in many Araneae opening by a transverse fissure placed near
the spinnerets. From this opening a main trunk leads in,
soon dividing into four simple tracheae, which are not round as
usual, "but are flattened, riband-like, and without the trace
of a spiral filament ; these extend, with a gradual attenuation,
to the base of the abdomen. . . . The air received into these
organs is separated into as fine portions as that of the lungs.*
The so called lungs of the spiders are little round sacs open-
ing by transverse fissures on the under side of the base of the
abdomen. Tlie inner surface is divided into thin lamellaj,
connected together like the leaves of a book. Each of these
is formed by a membranous fold, between the two leaves of
which the air enters from the general ca^•ity of the lung, and
is divided into very minute portions. No traces of blood ves-
sels have been found in these pulmonary lamellae." (Siebold.)
Among the organs of special secretion the poison and silk
glands require description. There are two poison glands
emptying into the throat, and thence opening out through hol-
lows in the jaws. (Plate 10, fig. 3, a, b.) In the scorpion the
poison gland is lodged in the last abdominal segment at the
base of the sting.
The silk, as contained in the glands, is a viscid transparent
fluid, which on exposure to the air hardens into silk ; it is drawn
out by the legs through three, rarelj^ two pairs of spinnerets.
There are usually five of these glands lodged in the abdomen,
and the "threads probably have different qualities, according
to the glands from which they are secreted." (Siebold.)
" To form the thread this liquid is drawn through the tubes,
♦According to Dr. Burnett, Blanchard regards these anomalous trachejB as
only elongated pnlmonarj- sacs. Leuckart, however, considers that these organs
are only a sort of trachere deprived of the usual spiral fllament to keep their walls
from collapsing, and he considers that the pulmonary sacs of the spider are sim-
ply modi fieri tracheae, — Dr. W. I. BurnetVs Translation of Siebolds's Anatomy oj
the Invertebrata,
634 ARACHNIDA.
which divide it into such small fibres that it dries almost im-
mediately on coming in contact Avith the air. The spider has
the power of uniting these hbres into one or several threads,
according to the purpose for which they ave to be used. The
thread connnonly used for the web is composed of hundreds
of simple libres, each spun through a separate tul)e. As the
thread I'uns from the body it is guided by the hind feet, which
hold it off from contact with surrounding objects, until the
desired point is reached, when a touch of the spinners fastens
it securely." (Emerton, American Naturalist, ii, p. 478.)
The eggs are laid but once a year in June. The evolution
of the embryo begins immediately', and goes on with a rai)ulity
according with the temperature. The egg consists, as Ilerold
observed, simpl}- of a vitelline membrane, but no chorion ; it
is perfectly homogeneous, and has no micropyle. The contents
are an emulsion of fatty globules suspended in a scanty
amount of liquid, which should not be confounded with the al-
bumen (or white) of the eggs of vertebrates. No trace of the
"germinative vesicle" has as yet been traced in the eggs of
insects, though perhaps it has been overlooked from its trans«
parency.
The first stages in the egg after the}^ are laid, are the follow-
ing : at the surface of the vitellus appear, here and there,
small, very clear and perfectly circular spots ; they are the
nucleus of the future blastoderm (primitive skin, from which
the organs of the embryo successively originate or "bud"
out). These nuclei act as centres of attraction on the mole-
cules of the vitellus for the formation of the cellules. The
unmodified vitellus diminishes in the same proportion as the
periplieric layer of granules increases. The granules multiply
rapidly, and soon the surface of the egg appears to be divided
into a certain number of areas, each of which is occupied in
the centre by a circular and transparent space surrounded with
small opake granules, which become less and less dense as we
go to the outer surface. These hexagonal cellules form an uni-
form layer over the entire surface of the egg ; it is the blasto-
derm. Up to this time the changes precisely accord with those
observed in the hexapodous insects.
The next stage is the formation of ventral tubercles, the ru-
ARACHNIDA.
635
diments of the limbs of the embryo. The first change is the
formation of the "primitive streak," or tlie splitting of the
blastoderm, which is due to a local multiplication of the eel-
lules along the median line of the egg.
These tubercles result from a simple thickening of the blas-
toderm, and what is ultimately destined to be the back (terguin)
of the animal, arises from a similar thickening of the blasto-
derm, which he calls the "primitive cumulus." This mass,
easily distinguished by its Avhiteness, always floats on the top
of the yolk of the egg, keeping its position next the eye of
the observer. The " cumulus," at first almost hemispherical,
elongates over the surfjice of the blastodenfi, becoming pyri-
form. This region is the posterior, or anal, pole of the egg.
Fis:. 624.
Fiff. 023.
Fijr. 625.
We see the "cumulus" spreading from the anal pole over the
surface like a veil, but it is less white than the polar region.
This veil continues to spread over the entire surface to a pole
opposing the anal, which Claparode terms the cephalic pole,
Eiacli pole forms a very prominent pi'ojection. At this stage
the body of the embryo becomes well marked and subdivided,
worm-like, into rings. (Fig. 623.) The extent of the dorsal
region is greatly limited, while that of the ventral side is
greatly increased.
The entire ventral region, occupying most of the whole egg,
is homologous with the primitive ventral streak. It is at this
time that the formation of the protozoonitoo (elemental rings,
636 ARACHNIDA.
or primordial segments) takes place» Six of these zones or
segments arise between the cephalic and anal poles ; these
zones represent the ventral arcs. The two anterior rings bear
the mouth-parts, the mandibles and maxillae ; while the others
form rings corresponding to the four pair of feet. These pro-
tozoonites are very transitory, only existing for a short period ;
they gradually retreat towards the ventral side, enlarge and
nearly touch each other.
The embryo (Fig. 624) now grows much longer, and new em-
bryonal segments are formed in the abdomen just as they grow
out in the worms, and IMyriapods, and also in the Crustacea, ac-
cording to Rathke's researches. Thus while the cephalothora-
cic rings appear simultaneously the abdominal segments appear
one after the other. The first one appears between the last tho-
racic ring and the anal " hood," or pole. Meanwhile the lateral
extremities of the protozoonites have become enlarged ; these
enlargements form the appendages. These tubercles, or rudi-
mentary limbs, appear on the abdominal as well as on the tho-
racic rings (Fig. G25). This fact is one of great interest, as
showing a resemblance to the Crustacean with its abdominal
legs, and more especially to the abdominal footed Myriapods,
and the larvae of many true six-footed insects. Thus the
3'oung spider is at first like a caterpillar, having "false," de-
ciduous, abdominal legs. Five abdominal rings are present in
Pholcus.
Next follows the development of the "post-abdomen," or
tail, which being differentiated from the anal pole or "hood,"
becomes detached from the yolk mass, and is folded back upon
the embryo, just as the abdomen of a crab is folded in an op-
posite way to the ^•entral side of the body.*
This "post-abdomen," after dividing into three segments,
disappears completely during the growth of the embryo. This
is the more interesting, as the "post-abdomen" of the scor-
pion is retained permanentl3\ Meanwhile the two cephalic
*And in like manner the cephalic lobes, containincr the ocelli, are seen in the
author's flarnres foUled back ujjon the base of the hear!, so that the antennaj are
never developed, and the mandibles of the spider take their place, in advance of
the eyes. The structure and succession of the rings of the insectean head are
most readily explained, and some clue is given to their number and succession
by comparison with the embryo of spiders.
ARACHNIDA.
637
lobes have developed, and the blastoderm has divided into a
dermal, or outer layer, and a muscular, or inner layer of
cells. The outer layer forms the chitinous body-wall, or crust,
while from the inner layer are developed the digestive, vascu-
lar and other organs besides the muscles.
After the rudiments of the appendages are formed the epi-
mera appear. At this period we are struck with the perfect
identity between all the appendages of the body at their first
origin. In the Arachnida the formation of the primitive seg-
ments takes place much sooner than in most other articulates,
where they often do not appear until after the rudiments of the
limbs are developed.
Another characteristic of the evolution of the spiders is
the tardy appearance of the rudiments of the legs. The ven-
tral arcs, or protozoonites, subdivide into ventral and pleural
parts, which signalize the formation of the permanent rings
of the bod3\ The author's figures
and statement show, though he
does not state tlie fact clearly,
that development progresses from
each end of the body towards the
centre, as we have shown* to be
the case in insects. Thus the
posterior half of the body repeats
the mode of development and
general form of the anterior, or
cephalic pole.
The third period in the life of
the embryo dates from the forma-
tion of the ventral rudiments to the exclusion of the spider.
The first change consists in the lengthening and meeting
of the rudimentary legs. The mouth-parts develop first.
At this period the limb-bearing (pleural) region of the
body separates and the sternal piece or breast-plate appears
as a "slower, later formation." Now the thoracic legs grow
much more rapidly than the mouth-parts and lie interlocked
upon the breast. (Fig. 626. f) When the first pair of legs are
Fiff. (Sfi.
* Proceediiifis Boston Society of Natural History, Feb. 7, ISGG.
jFiG. 626, m, mandibles; mx, maxilla;; I, fouith pail of legs; 2>, postabdomea.
638 AKACHNIDA.
long enough to cross each other the jouited structure of the
limbs disappears, and they soon become divided into their
usual number of joints, tliough the tarsal joints are the last to
be perfected. At this time the maxillai become differentiated,
or split up, into the basal lobe and its appendage, or palpus.
Claparede compares the basal lobe to the coxa of the h'<>s,
though it is formed long before the coxje of the feet them-
selves. The anterior pair of appendages form the mandibles.
The formation of the head is next in order. The "ceplialic
lobe" is divided into what the author calls two "procephalic
lobes," separated by a deep incision, and at tliis period the
head appears very distinct from the thorax. Afterwards the
anterior or ante-oral part of the head is, as in the case of the
"post- abdomen," folded back on the top, and then closely sol-
dered to the thorax, thus forming the so called "ceplialo-
thorax," Tliese procephalic lobes are sej^arated b}' a third
lobe or "triangular plate" which grows up between them,
forming the epichile. The mouth first appears as a longitu-
dinal farrow in this triangle, the posterior border of which
becomes the so called labium ("glossoide" of Latreille). The
labium thus originates in the spiders in an entirely different
way from the appendages, and is not formed, as Brulle sup-
posed, by the soldering of the maxilhe, hence we shall adopt
Latreille's term "glossoide" for this piece.
Tlie two procephalic lobes afterwards unite, and are soldered
together on the median line, to form the anterior face of the
head. This approach takes place from above, over the buccal
frame (epichile). The numdibles are thus in advance of the
mouth, though primitively behind it. "The head is then in
the embryo of the spider very distinct from the thorax. Only
towards the end of embryonic life does the soldering of the
'cranium' and of the prothorax become so intimate that their
limits become indistinct. It is only from tliis moment that
there exists a true cephalothorax." (Claparede.)
Towards the end of embryonic life the simple ej^es appear,
arising from four little furrows, called the "ophthalmic fur-
rows." Tliey are colored by the deposition of a small quantity
of pigment. They appear at an earlier i)oriod in the Acarina.
Formation of the heart and viscera. After the walls of the
ARACHNIDA. 639
body and its appendages have been formed the dorsal vessel
appears. It is formed thus : when the division of tlie blasto-
derm into its muscular and outer layers takes place the cells
multiply and are heaped up along the median line of the body,
so as to form a sort of cordon (cord), not only in the abdomi-
nal, but in the thoracic region of the body. The vessel prob-
ably originates in the spaces between the cells, but tlie author
has been unable to trace either its origin or that of the blood-
corpuscles. But the rudimentary heart soon presents rhyth-
mic pulsations, and in the limbs Ave see the arteries tilled
with a homogeneous fluid, in which can be detected the pres-
ence of small corpuscles, moving by impulses s^-nchronous with
the s^'stole of tlie dorsal vessel, showing that this fluid is the
blood. The heart already presents several dilatations (cham-
bers) corresponding to the abdominal segments.
The nervous sj'stem does not appear to be formed when the
embryo assumes the ventral instead of tlie dorsal position.
The digestive system is very rudimentary when the embryo
quits the egg. The alimentary canal is probably hollowed out
of the middle of the vitelline mass, being a membranous tube
formed around the remaining yolk mass. The lungs and spin-
nerets are well formed when the embryo is hatched, while the
e^-es appear later.
The same processes of development go on in the scorpions,
the " post-abdomen " of the Araneina (which we have seen
folded back on the base of the abdomen and finally to disap-
pear) in them being retained, forming the long, articulated
"tail;" thus tlie distinction into abdomen and post- abdomen
is very artificial as the two parts merge into each other, especi-
ally in Solpuga, Chelifer and Phrynus.
In the mites the arrest of development is still more marked,
as the three regions of the body are in the adult not differen-
tiated, and the entire body assumes an oval form, the abdomi-
nal parts being short, thus strikingly resembling the embryo
of Pholcus, and. the spiders generally, as seen in Claparede's
figures.
In the Acarina there is a true metamorphosis, the larvaa
of some forms when first hatched being worm-like ; then there
is an oval stage when the young mite has but three pairs of
640 ARACHNIDA.
feet (though in others at this stage there are four pairs), and
after another moulting the fourth pair of limbs appear. The
young mite is analogous to the "Nauplius" stage of many
low Crustacea.
Claparccle* has observed in Atax Bonzi, which is a parasite
on the gills of fresh-water mussels, that out of the originally
laid egg (Plate U fig. 3, embryo of Atax Bonzi ; Ic, head-plate ;
ag, infolding of the belly ; dm, intermediate skin ; mo, outer
shell of the egg; md, mandibles; mx, maxillae; i^^-p^, legs;
vt, yolk. Fig. 4, front view of the same) ; not a larva, but
an egg-shaped form hatches, which he calls a "deutovum."
(PI. 11 fig. 1, bursting of the egg-shell into two halves, mo, on
the day that the deutovum, dm, hatches out ; md, mandibles ;
mx, maxilhe ; p^, third pair of legs ; Ih, body cavity ; sj), com-
mon beginning of the alimentary canal and nervous system ;
amb, hsemaboeba, amceba-like bodies, which represent the blood
corpuscles ; there being no cn-culation of the blood, the move-
ments of the hiemaboeba constitute a vicarious circulation.
Fig. 2, the deutovum free from the first egg-shell ; lettering
same as in Fig. 1, oc, rudiments of the simple eyes ; r, beak ;
li, h', rudimentary stomach and liver). From this deutovum
(which is not the "amnion" of insects) is developed a six-
footed larva. This larva passes into an eight-footed form, the
"second larva," (the "nymph" or pupa, of Dujardin and
Robin) which transforms into the adult mite. The pupa dif-
fers from the adult in having longer feet, and four instead of
ten genital cups, the latter being the usual number in the adult.
The larv.TB are elongated oval, with six long legs and four
ocelli. They swarm for a short time over the gills of the mus-
sel they are living on and then bore into the substance of
the gill to undergo their next transformation. Here the young
mite increases in size and becomes round. The tissues soften,
those of the different organs not being so well marked as in
the first larval stage. The limbs are short and much larger
*Tlie flevelopmcnt of spiders and of the Arachnids generally, has been traced
by Ratlike, Herold, and more especially by Claparede, in a work of great ability,
from which we have drawn the preceding account, often using the author's own
words. His observations Avere made on various genera of spiders (Pholcus, etc.)
His "Studies on Mites," from which Plate 11 is copied, appeared in Siebold's and
KoUiker's Journal of Scientific Zoology, 18U8, part iv.
?^j-s±Kn
^ »,^-«. ^
'\ 'iM^^^Ti^
METAMORPHOSIS OF MITES'.
ARACHNIDA. 641
than before, the whole animal assuming an embryo-like appear-
ance, and moving about like a rounded mass in its enclosure.
Indeed is this process not (though Claparede does not say so)
a histolysis of the former larval tissues, and the formation of a
new body, as in the change of the six-footed insect beneath the
larva skin, where the pupa is formed ? A new set of limbs
grow out, this time there being four instead of three pairs of
legs, while the old larval skin is still embraced within the
membrane containing the second larval rounded mass. Soon
the body is perfected, and the pupa, as we may properly call it,
slips out of the larval membrane.
The "second larva" after some time undergoes another
change ; the limbs grow much shorter and are folded beneath
the body, the animal being immovable, while the whole body
assumes a broadly ovate form, and looks like an embryo just
before hatching, but still lying within the egg. This may also
be comparable with the formation of the adult fly within the
puparium. (Compare Weismann's account of this process in
Musca, pp. 63, 64.) This period seems to be an exact repeti-
tion of the histol3^sis, and the formation of new tissues for the
building up of a new body which preceded the pupal stage,
while the adult mite slips out of its pupal membrane just as
the pupa threw off its larval membrane. This process, again,
may be compared to an adult butterfly, or fly, emerging from
its pupal membrane.
Thus the mites, at least several species, pass through a series
of metamorphoses similar to those of such insects as have a
complete metamorphosis (except that the Acarian pupa is
active), while the absence of such a metamorphosis in the
spiders is paralleled by the incomplete metamorphosis of the
Orthoptera and many Neuroptera, which reach adult life by
simple moultings of the skin.
In the genus Myobia there is not only a deutovum, besides
the original egg, but also a tritovum-stage. The eggs of this
mite are long, oval and conical at the posterior end. The em-
bryo, with the rudiments of limbs, is represented by Fig. 5 of
Plate 11. The little tubercles 7nd and mx, represent the man-
dibles and maxillae, while the three pair of legs, p^~p^, bud
out from the middle of the body ; Ic represents the head-plate.
41
G42 AEACHXIDA.
The maxillfE and mandibles finally unite to form a beak (r
Fig.. 6) and the three pairs of feet {T>^-p^) are folded along
the median line of the body. The farther development of the
embryo is now for a time arrested, and a peculiar tooth-like
process (Fig. 7, d) is developed. Claparede thinks that by
means of this the anterior end of the egg-shell is cut off, and
the erabr3^o protrudes through, when, as in Fig. 7, it is seen
to be surrounded by a new membrane, the deutovum {dt),
equivalent to that of Atax. The front pair of legs {p') have
grown larger and stand out in front and on each side of the
beak (r). The growing embryo again forces off the anterior
end of its deutovum, and the oval end of the egg protrudes
through, and is surrounded by another membrane. This is the
Iritovam. Tlie embryo is now surrounded by the membrane
of tlie tritovum, and also b}' the deutovular membrane and the
original egg-shell, the last two having lost a small portion of
their anterior ends. During the tritovnm-stage the fore pair
of feet become curved in like claws, and the beak sinks down
into the body.
Now the six-footed larva (Fig. 8) breaks through the shell
and closely resembles the adult (Plate 11. fig. 9). The first
pair of feet, modified for grasping the hairs of the field-mouse,
on which it is a parasite, take the place of the maxillje, Avhicli
have been arrested in their development, and tlie mandibles
(pr) assume a style-like form. After one or more moultings of
the skin a fourth pair of feet (p'') are acquired, and the adult
form results, which the author considers as the type of a new
family of Acarina. Claparede also suggests the afl!inity of
Myobia to the Tardigrades (Echiniscus and Lydella), especially
from the study of the structure of the style-like mandibles and
their supports. "We feel convinced, after examining Clapa-
rede's figures and descriptions that this comparison is very
significant, and this has led us to consider the Tardigrades
as a family of true mites, related to jMyobia and Demodex.
A Fren3h naturalist, C. Robin, has recently observed in cer-
tain bird sarcoptids, to Avhich the parasite of the Downy
Woodpecker noticed above is allied, "that the males pass
through four, and the females through five stages, indicated as
follows : (1) the egg, on issuing from which the animal has the
AKACHNIDA. 643
form of (2) a hexapod larva, followed by the stage of (3) octo-
pod nymphae [four-footed pupae], without sexual orgaus, (4)
From some of these nymphai issue : a, sexual males, after a
moult which is final for them ; b, from others issue females
without external sexual organs, resembling the nymphffi, but
larger, and in some species furnished with special copulatory
organs. Finally, after a last moult following copulation, these
females produce (5) the sexual and fecundated females, which
do not copulate, and in the ovary of which eggs are to be seen.
Ko moult follows that which produces males or females fur-
nished with sexual organs ; but previously to this the moults
are more numerous than the changes of condition." " The larvae
undergo from two to three moults before passing to the state
of nymphae." These latter also undergo two or three moults.
(Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 1868, p. 78.)
In some other species of mites no males have been found,
and the females have been isolated after being hatched, and
yet have been known to la}'- eggs, which produced j'oung with-
out the interposition of the males. This parthenogenesis has
been noticed in several species. But few fossil Arachnids
have been yet discovered, Roeraer has described a spider
from the coal formation of Germany under the name of Proto-
lycosa, while two species of scorpions, and a Phalangium-like
spider have been detected in the same formation in this
country.
In studying spiders, of which we have several hundred spe-
cies, the immber and relative situation of the ej'es, and the
relative length of the different pairs of legs, should be noticed ;
their webs and the manner of constructing them ; their habi-
tats, whether spreading their webs upon or in the ground, or
in trees, or on herbage, or whether the species are aquatic, or
erratic, and pursue their prey without building webs to entrap
them, should be observed. So, also, how they deposit their
eggs, and the form and appearance of the silken nidus, and
whether the female bears her eggs about her, and how this is
done, Avhether holding on to the egg-sac by her fore or hind
legs, should all be carefully noticed. Care must be taken not
to mistake the young for full-grown, mature species, and de-
scribe them as such. Spiders can be reared in boxes as
644 ARACHNIDA.
insects. The only way to preserve them is to throw them into
alcohol ; when pinned they shrivel up and lose their colors,
which keep well in spirits.
The colors of senders vary much at different seasons of the
year, especially during the frosts of autumn, when the changes
produced are greatest. All spiders are directly beneficial
to agriculture by their carnivorous habits, as they all pre}'
upon insects, and do no harm to vegetation. Their instincts
are wonderful, and their habits and organization worthy of
more study than has yet been paid them in this country. AVe
have no species poisonous to man, except when the state of
health renders the constitution open to receive injury from
their bite, just as mosquitoes and black flies often cause
serious harm to some persons.
The Arachnids are divided into three groups, or suborders,
the Araneina, the Pedipalpi, and the Acarina.
AEANEINA.
The Spiders are distinguished from other Arachnids by hav-
ing mandibles used exclusively for biting, a spherical, sac-like
abdomen, not divided into segments, and attached to the head-
thorax by a slender pedicel. The maxillae resemble the tho-
racic feet. They breathe both by lungs and tracheae, and do
not undergo a metamorphosis, the 3"ouug on being hatched hav-
ing four pairs of legs.
The mandibles (Plate 12, fig. 3, front view, with the eight
ocelli above) are vertical and end in a powerful hook, in the
end of which opens a duct (Plate 12, 3 a, b) connected with the
poison gland situated in the head. The maxillae, represented
b}' the so called palpi, though in reality the maxillee themselves,
with a flattened coxal lobe at the base (Plate 12, fig. 2,b, palpi
of female ; fig. 8, do. of male) are simple in the female, but in
the male the terminal joint is enlarged and modified greatly as
an accessory genital organ. The cephalothorax is not jointed,
and there are usually eight, rarely six, simple eyes (ocelli).
In the genus Nops from Cuba there are, however, only two,
while in certain cave-inhabiting species, according to Menge,
ARANEINA. 645
such as the Anthrobia Manimothia of Tellkampf from Mam-
moth Cave, and other spiders inhabitiug European caves, there
are none.
We quote an interesting account of the habits of spiders,
especially the mode of spinning their webs, published by Mr,
J. H. Emerton in the "American Naturalist" (ii, p. 478), who
has studied our native species with much care.
" The feet of spiders are wonderfully adapted for walking on
the web. Each foot is furnished with three claws (Plate 12,
Fig. 6, a, 6, 6), the middle one of which (a) is bent over at the
end, forming a long finger for clinging to the web, or for guid-
ing the thread in spinning. The outer claws (e, e) are curved
and toothed like a comb. Ojoposite the claws are several stiff
hairs (c) which are toothed like the claws, and serve as a
thumb for the latter to shut against."
"When a spider wishes to build a web she usually selects a
corner, so that the structure may be attached on several sides.
She then runs a few threads along the objects to which the web
is fastened, to facilitate her passage from point to point. The
web is commenced by a line or two across the point where the
centre is to be, which is not usually the geometric centre, but
nearer the top than the bottom. Radiating lines (Plate 12, fig.
1, 6, &, b) are then spun from the centre in all directions. In
doing this the spider often crosses from one side of the web
to the opposite, so that the finished portion is always tightly
drawn, and the tension of the completed web is the same in
every part."
" Having finished the framework, the spider begins near the
centre and spins a thread (Fig. 1, c, c, c) spirally, around
the web to the circumference, fastening it to each radius as it
crosses. The distance between the spirals varies with the size
of the spiders, being about as far as they can reach. This
spiral thread serves to keep the parts of the web in place dur-
ing the rest of the process, and is removed as fast as the web
is finished. It also furnishes a ready means of crossing from
one radius to another where they are farthest apart. All the
thread spun up to this stage of the process is smooth when
dry, and will not adhere if touched with a smooth object."
" The spider, having thus formed the web, begins to put in
646 ARANEINA.
the final circles at the outside, walking around on the scaffold-
ing previously prepared, which she gradually destroys as she
proceeds, until in the finished web only a few turns in the cen-
tre are left. The thread of the circles last spun is covered with
viscid globules, strung upon it like beads at short distances.
If an insect comes in contact with the thread, it immediately
adlieres, and its struggles only bring a larger part of its body
into contact with the web. Dust and seeds also stick to the
web, so that in a single da}' it is often so clogged as to be of
no farther use. The web also becomes torn by the struggles
of the prey, and by wind and rain, so that it requires repair
or renewal every night. In mending a web the spider usually
removes all except the outside threads, biting them off and
rolling them into a hard ball between her jaws, so that when
released it will drop quickly to the ground. This probabl}'
gave rise to the opinion, sometimes advanced, that the old web
is eaten by the spider.
"When the web is finished she stations herself in the centre,
where a small circle is left free of the adhesive threads. Her
usual position is head downward, with each foot on one of the
radii of the web, and the spinners ready to fasten themselves
by a thread at the least alarm. She often remains in her hole
with one foot out, and resting on a tight thread connected with
the centre of the Aveb, so that any vibration is quickly detected.
If the web be gently touched the spider will rush into the cen-
tre, and face towards the disturbed part. She will then jerk
smartly several of the radii leading in that direction, to see if
the intruder is a living animal. If this test is followed by the
expected struggle she runs out towards the victim, stepping as
little as possible on the adhesive threads, seizes it in her jaws,
and as soon as it begins to feel the effects of the bite, envelops
it in a silken covering, and hangs it up to suck at her leisure.
In spinning this envelope the insect is held and turned around
mainly by the short third pair of feet, while a flat band of
threads is drawn from the spinners by the hind pair working
alternately like the hands in pulling a rope, and wound over it
in every direction, so that in a few seconds it is so covered as
to be unable to move a limb. When a web is shaken b}^ the
wind the spider will sometimes draw in all her feet towards her
Plate 12.
THE COMMON GARDEN SPIDER.
TETRAPNEUMONES. 647
body, thereby tightening the web in every direction so that the
vibration is prevented.
" The constrnction of nets for catcliing food is not the only
use of the thread made by these spiders. They seldom move
from place to place without spinning a line after them as they
go. They are able by its use to drop safely from any height,
and when suspended b}- it are carried b}^ the wind across wide
spaces without any exertion on their part, except to let out the
thread. The crevices in which they pass the winter and the
leisure hours of summer, are partly lined and enclosed by a
coating of silk resembling that used for contining captured in-
sects. The eggs are enclosed in a cocoon of the same mate-
rial, and there the young remain until they are strong enough
to shift for themselves, growing to nearly double their size
without apparent nourishment.
"Several hundred young are produced b}^ a single female,
but probabl}^ it is seldom that one-tenth of this number ever
reach adult size. Nearl}' all the spiders which we see in webs
are females or 3-oung. They spend most of their time in the
vicinity of their webs, and many doubtless pass their lives
within a few yards of the place of their birth. The adult males
are seldom seen building or occupying webs : they remain con-
cealed during the day, and at night wander about from web to
web. AVhen young there is no obvious difference between the
sexes, but as the time for the last moult approaches, the ends
of the palpi of the male swell to several times their former
size. When the time for the final moult arrives, both sexes
retire to their holes and cast off the skins of their entire bodies,
even to the claws. This process obliges them to remain con-
cealed until the new skin has acquired sufficient strength and
firmness, when tlie^^ again return to their webs. The females
still resemble the young, except in size, but the males are
distinguished from them b}^ the greater length of their limbs,
the diminished size of the posterior half of the body, and the
large and complicated joints of the palpi (Plate 12, fig. 8)."
Tetrapneumones Latreille. The large hairy species of
Mt/gale differ from other spiders in having four lung-sacs and
as man}' stigmata, and only two pairs of spinnerets, of which
648 ARANEINA.
one pair is very small, while there are eight ocelli. The differ,
ent species make cylindrical holes in the earth ; that of M.
nidulans of the West Indies is closed by a lid of earth covered
beneath with silk. Mygale avicularia Linn., the Bird spider,
seizes small birds and sncks their blood. M. Hentzii (Fig.
627, natural size) ranges from Missouri southward.
DiPNEUMONES Latreille. In the remaining genera of spiders
there are two lung-sacs, two or four stigmata, and three pairs
Fig. 627.
of spinnerets. They are divided into two groups, the "Sed-
entary" and "Wandering" spiders. The sedentary species
have the ocelli usually arranged in two transverse rows ; they
spin webs in which they remain and seize their prey. In the
DIPNEUMONES.
649
genus Dysdera tliere are six ocelli, of wliicli four lie i-n the front
row ; the cepluilothorax is small, long, oval, and the first pair
of legs are the longest. The species dwell in silken tubes,
under stones or in crevices. D. interrita Hentz is a New-
England species. In Drassus there are eight ocelli, and the
hindermost pair of feet are the longest.
Clubione includes those species which have eight ocelli, the
four hinder ones, with the two outer ones on the front row,
forming almost a semicircle ; the fore legs are the longest.
They construct under the bark of trees, under leaves or be-
neath stones, tubes of very white silk, from which they make
nocturnal expeditions for food. C. tranquilla Hentz is com-
mon in the United States. C. meclicinalis Walkenaer has been
used as a vesicant. The
Water spider of Europe,
Argyroneta aquatica Linn.,
lives beneath the water,
where it makes its nest and
cocoon, which is filled with
air.
The genus Tegenaria has
the ocelli arranged in two
slightly curved rows, the
third pair of feet are shorter
than the others, and the ab-
domen is oval. The species
are " sedentary, making in Fig. 628.
obscure corners a horizontal web, at the upper part of which
is a tubular habitation, where the spider remains motionless
till some insect be entangled in the threads." (Hentz.)
T. medicinalis Hentz is "pale brown, turning to bluish black;
cephalothorax with a blackish band on each side ; abdomen
varied with black, or plumbeous and brown ; feet varied with
blackish." It "is found in every cellar or dark place in the
country. For some time the use of its web as a narcotic, in
cases of fever, was recommended by many physicians."
(Hentz.) Fig. 628 (enlarged) represents T. atrica, a European
species.
Filistata is a closely allied genus. F. hibernalis Hentz
G50 ARANEINA.
"makes a tubular habitation of silk in crevices on old walls oi
rocks,, throwing out an irregular web which is spread on the
wall or stone around the aperture. ... In walking it uses
the palpi like feet, and these organs are very long, particularly
in the male." According to Hentz it is found in South Caro-
lina and Alabama.
The two genera Pholcus and Theridion belong to Latreille's
group, "• Iniequitelai," comprising those forms in which the
lirst pair of limbs are usually the longest. In Pholais the legs
are Aery long and slender. According to Ilentz the species
are " sedentar}^ making in dark corners a very loose web of
slender threads, crossed in all directions. The eggs are col-
lected together without a silk covering, which the mother car-
ries with her cheliceres" (maxillar}' palpi). This genus "by
the extreme length of its legs resembles Phalangium. The
species belonging to it may be found in apartments seldom
visited, particularly churches and caves. They shake their
body wlien threatened by an enemy, but seem to have A'ery
weak means of offence, and to feed on the very smallest pre}-."
P. Atlanticus Ilentz inhabits the Southern States.
In Theridion the four inner ocelli are larger than the four
outer ones, and the first and last pair of limbs are the longest.
Ilentz states that the species are sedentary, forming a Avcb
made of threads crossed in all directions, while the cocoons
are of various shapes. A majority of the species are very
small, and their webs made on the tops of weeds, in bushes,
or in retired corners, are familiar to every one. T. vulgare
Ilentz varies "from a cream white to a livid brown, or plum-
beous color. The cephalothorax is dull rufous, the abdomen
with various undulating lines, and the feet have more or less
distinct, dark or plumbeous rings." Hentz says that "there
is probably no spider so abundant in the United States. It
makes an irregular web in somewhat retired corners, and usu-
ally in dark situations, but occasionally also in the open air."
It catches large insects and hangs them up to its nest. Hentz
says of the T. studiosum which he has described, that "when
its web is destroyed it does not abandon its cocoon, which is
orbicular and whitish, and is placed in the central part of the
web. The mother then grasps it with her cheliceres, and de-
DIPNEUMONES.
651
fends her progeny while life endures. She also tfikes care of
her young, making a tent like that of social caterpillars for
their shelter, and remaining near them till they can protect
themselves." It occurs in South Carolina and Alabama.
Hentz says of T. verecundum Hentz, a jet black species found
in the Southern States, that "it is very common under stones,
logs, or clods of earth, where it makes a web, the threads of
which are so powerful as to arrest the largest Hymenoptcrous
insects, such as humble bees. Its bite, if I can rely on the
vague description of
p h 3^ s i c i a n s unac-
quainted with ento-
mology, is somewhat
dangerous, producing
alarming nervous dis-
orders. "Fig. G29 rep-
resents Theridion ri-
IMrium (lower figure,
male ; upper, female,
enlarged), of Europe.
Epeira is readily
known by the large
globular abdomen.
The species are "sed-
entary, forming a web
composed of spiral
threads crossed by
other threads depart-
ing from the centre ; they often dwell in a tent constructed
above the web ; the cocoons are of various forms. E. vnlgaris
Hentz (Plate 12, fig. 12) is pale gray, with a pitchy black ab-
domen, with various winding white marks, and a middle one in
the form of a cross. It spins a regular geometrical web, and
is almost domesticated, being found about the outside of
houses and in gardens. E. domiciliorvm Hentz is a gray or
brownish species, and is found in dark rooms.
The genus Nejyhila comprises large spiders, with long cylin-
drical abdomens. N.x>lumipes (Fig. G80, natural size) is found
in the Southern States. Dr. B. G. Wilder has given an ac-
Co2 AKANEINA.
count of its habits, and considers its silk, if the spider could be
reared in sufficient quantities, as of commercial value. The
males (upper figure) are minute in size, compared with the
females.
The genus Thomisus is characterized by the small size of the
cheliceres, and the first and second pair of feet are either the
longest, or the second alone are longest. The species " wander
Fig. 630.
after their prey, making no web, but casting irregular threads,
with a flattened cocoon, usually placed under leaves, and
watched by the mother till the young are hatched." (Hentz.)
T. vulgaris Hentz is "pale gray, with four impressed dots on
the abdomen ; the body is flat, and the legs are covered with
indistinct darker rings. This spidgr, commonly seen on fenc-
DIPNEUMONES. 653
ing or prostrate timber, like those of the same genus, moves
sidewise and backwards, but it is much more active than T.
celer. When pursued by an enemy, like Attus and Epeira, it
leaps and hangs by a thread, which supports it in the air."
It is a widely diffused species. T. celer Hentz is also a widely
distributed species, and is "found usually on blossoms, where
it remains patiently waiting for Diptera, other small insects,
and even butterflies, which it secures with amazing muscular
power."
The three remaining genera belong to Latreille's group of
"Wanderers," as they spin no web. The species of Dolomedes
Fig. 631.
(Fig. 631, from Harris' Correspondence) wander after their
prey, making no w^eb, except while rearing their j'oung, and
hiding under stones, sometimes diving under water ; the cocoon
is usually orbicular, and is carried b}^ the mother. D. lanceo-
latus Hentz "is always found near or on water, running on it
with surprising agility, preying often on large aquatic insects.
A female of Dolomedes was twice found on high bushes b}^ my
friend, T. W. Harris, in Milton, Mass., 'on a large, irregular
654 ARANEINA.
loose, horizontal web, at one extremity of which was situated
her follicle, or egg-bag, covered with 3'oung. The parent ap»
peared watching them at some distance.' This spider can
dive and stay a considerable time under water, to avoid its
enemies. It was found in March, in Alabama, under stones
near a stream of water." It ranges northwards to Massachu-
setts.
The Tarantula belongs to the genus Lycosa, which comprises
large stout hairy spiders, with large cheliceres and moderately
sized fangs, with the fourth pair of feet the longest and the
third pair shortest. The species make no web, wandering for
their prey, and hiding under stones. They frequently make
holes in the ground in which they dwell, spinning at the orifice
a ring of silk which forms a consolidated entrance like a trap
door. The cocoon is usually orbicular, and is often carried
about by the mother, while the young are borne about on the
back of her abdomen. (Hentz.) L. taranhda Linn, is the cele-
brated Tarantula of Italy and Spain. Its bite is commonly
supposed to produce the effects termed "tarantism," but Dr.
Bergsoe has proved that tarantism is rarely due to the bite of
the tarantula, which is comparatively harmless.
The Lycosa fatifera of Hentz is said by him to be bluish
black, with the cephalothorax deeper in color at the sides ; the
cheliceres are covered with rufous hairs, and have a red eleva-
tion on their outer side near their base. It is one of the largest
species of the genus. "This formidable species dwells in
holes, ten or twelve inches in depth, in light soil, which it digs
itself; for the cavity is always proportionate to the size of the
spider. The orifice of the hole has a ring made chiefly of silk,
which prevents the soil from falling in when it rains. This
Lycosa, probably as large as the Tarantula of the south of
Europe, is common in Massachusetts, but we have not heard
of serious accidents produced by its bite. Its poison, how-
ever, must be of the same nature and as virulent." (Hentz.)
In the leaping spiders, Saltlcus, the cephalothorax is usually
large, square, and the abdomen is oval cylindrical. Hentz
says that they wander after their prey, making no web, but
concealing themselves in a silken valve, for the purpose of
casting their skin, or for hibernation. The Salticus (Attus)
PEDIPALPI. 65o
familiaris of Hentz is a common species througliont tlie United
States. It is pale gray, hairy, and the abdomen is bhvckish,
with a grayish angular baud edged with whitish. Ileutz says
that it is almost domesticated in our houses, and dwells in
cracks around sashes, between clapboards, etc., and may be
seen on the sunny side of the house, and in the hottest places,
wandering in search of prey. It moves with agility and ease,
but usually with a certain leaping gait. , . . Before leaping
this Attus always fixes a thread on the point from which it
departs ; by this it is suspended in the air, if it miss its aim,
and it is secure against falling far from its hunting grounds.
These spiders, and probably all other species, a diiy or two
before they change their skin, make a tube of white silk, open
at both ends ; there they remain motionless til the moulting
time arrives, and even some da3^s after are seen there still,
proljably remaining in a secure place, for the purpose of re-
gaining strength and activity."
PEDIPALPI.
Under the term Pedipalpi we would embrace besides the
Pedipal[)s of Latreille, the Solpugids and Phalangids. They
all agree in having the maxillary palpi greatl}^ enlarged and
usually ending in a forceps, and the abdomen distinctly
jointed, with the end, sometimes, as in the scorpions, pro-
longed into a tail. In the retention of the tail in some of the
forms, the abnormally enlarged maxillte, the jointed cephalo-
thorax and abdomen, which in the scorpions reminds us of the
Myriopods, we have characters Avhich place the Pedipalps be-
low the true spiders.
SoLPUGiDiE Gervais. In this group, the species of which
are large, hairy, spider-like animals, the cephalothorax is
clearly jointed, and the abdomen is elongated ; respiration
is carried on by tracheae. Solpuga may at once be known by
the enormous, though not very long, maxillary palpi. S.
araneoides Pallas inhabits Southern Russia. S. (Galeodes)
subulata Say inhabits the Southwestern States.
656
PEDIPALPI.
Phalangid^ Gervais. In the group of Harvest-men the
cephalothorax is not jointed ; the abdomen is short and thick,
and tlie maxillary palpi end in a simple claw ; the mandibles
are well developed and end in a forceps. The legs are
extremely long. They breathe through tracheae. They occur
about houses, especially in shady places and in woods and
Fig. 632.
fields. "They are carnivorous, feeding on small insects, and
are said to be especially addicted to Aphis-eating." (Wood.)
The genus Phalangium has no spines on the ^oalpi, and has
two simple eyes. The species have been well described by
Dr. H. C. Wood, jr. (Proceedings of the Essex Institute, vol.
vi), some of whose illustrations appear here, so that the spe-
cies here mentioned can be easily identified. P. dorsatum Say
PHRYNID^.
657
(Fig. 632, a, female, natural size ; 6, male, natural size ; c,
penis, anterior and lateral view, enlarged) has been found from
northern New York to Washington.
When handled it emits a drop of
an odorous clear fluid. We have
found it frequently in Salem.
P. ventricosumi Wood (Fig. 633,
a, trochanter ; &, femora ; c, mandi-
bles ; d, maxillary palpus, male?
natural size) is widely distributed
in the United States. Acanthocheir
is an eyeless genus with spinj'^ palpi.
A. armata Tellkampf is found in
Mammoth Cave. In Gonyleptes the
cephalothorax is much enlarged,
and overhangs the abdomen. 6r.
ornattim Say (Fig. 634, male, a,
under surface ; b, upper surface,
natural size ; c, penis) is found in
the Southern States ; the species are quite numerous in South
America.
F\a. 633.
Under the name of Archetarbus rotundatus (Fig. 635) Mr.
Scudder describes a fossil Pedipalp, which seems to be "allied
a to the PlialangidcB and to the
Pkrynidce. In its fragmentary
state one can scarcely judge with
certainty of its exact relationship.
The arrangement of the legs ac-
cords well with both families. The
broad attachment of the thorax to
the abdomen is a Phalangidan char-
acteristic, while the size and shape
of the abdomen, the number of the
abdominal segments and the crowd-
ed state of the central portions of
the basal ones, indicate closer affinities to the P7ir2/?^.^ dee."
Fig. 034.
Phrynid^ Sundeval. Whip-scorpions. In this group the
42
658
PEDIPALPI.
anterior pair of legs are very long and slender, being much
smaller than the others, while the maxillary palpi are very
large ; there are eight simple eyea, and the abdomen is eleven
to twelve-jointed, while there are two pairs of
stigmata, and they also breathe by lungs. Pliry-
nus is at once known by the excessively long,
wdiip-like, multiarticulate fore legs, which ap-
parently perform the office of antennae ; the 'body
is short and broad, and has no appendage to the
abdomen. P. reniformis Fabr. is fourteen lines
long, and is found in Brazil. P. asj^eratijyes AVood
occurs in Lower California. No species occur
in the United States. The genus Thelyphonus is known by
the ol)long body, ending usually in a slender many-jointed
filament. T. caudatus Fabr. is fifteen lines long, and inhabits
Java. T. giganteus Lucas occurs in the South-western States
and in Mexico. Its bite is poisonous.
Chernetid.e Menge. (Pseudo-scorpiones Latreille.) The
False-scorpions are at once known by their large maxillary
palpi like the scorpion's claw. The abdomen is eleven-jointed,
flattened, without any appendage, and
the living forms are minute ; they
breathe by tracheae. The}^ are found
running about dusty books and in dark
places and feed on mites and Psoci.
They are often found attached to the
leg of some fly or other insect by which
they are transported about. "The fe-
male chelifer bears the eggs, seventeen
in number, in a little bunch under her
Fig. 636. abdomen near the opening of her sex-
ual organs. Menge has observed the Pseudo-scorpions cast
their skin in a light web made for that purpose. The little
animal remained five days in the web after its metamorphosis,
and did not assume its dark colors for four weeks. Three
months after it returned to the same web for hibernation.
Menge describes eight species from the Prussian Amber, be-
longing to genera still living, and Corda one (Microlabris
SCORPIONID^.
659
Sternbergi) from the coal formation in Boliemia, one inch long,
Schiodte has found a curious blind species in the caves of
Adelsburg, and it is very probable that a closer examination
of the Kentucky caves will give a similar American species."
(Hagen.) In Chernes there are no eyes. C. Sanhorni Hagen
is found in Massachusetts.
In CheUfer there are two ej'cs. C. cancroides Linn. (Fig.
636, enlarged) is dark brown, with many short spines on the
thorax. It occurs in Massachusetts and Illinois.
ScoRPiONiD^ Latreille. The Scorpions are well known by
the immense forceps-like maxillae, and the long tail continu-
ous with the thorax, and end-
ing in a powerful sting, in which
is lodged a poison sac. The body
is more distinctl}^ divided into seg-
ments than any other Arachnids,
and hence the scorpions bear, as
Gerstaecker suggests, a strong
analogy to the M3'riapods. The
genus Scorpio is restricted to those
species which have six ocelli. >S'.
Allenii Wood is our only North
American species and is found in
Lower California. Our other spe-
cies are mostly comprised in the
genus Buthus, which has eight
ocelli. B. Caroliniamis Beauvois
(Fig. 637) ranges from the South-
ern Atlantic States through Texas
northward into Southern Kansas. " Scorpions are dangerous
in proportion to their size, their age, the state of irritation they
may be in, and the temperature of the climate in which they
reside. The wounds, however, even of the largest species are
rarely fatal." (Moquin Tandon.)
Messrs. Meek and Worthen have described (Palfeontology
of the Illinois Geological Survey, iii, p. 560) two fossil scor-
pions from the lower part of the coal measures of Illinois,
which are as highly developed, and bear a very close resem-
660 ACARINA.
blance to the living species. The Eoscorpion carhonarius of
Meek and Worthen is said by them to resemble closely Buthus
hirsutns from California. The other fossil scorpion is the 3Ia-
zonia Woodia7ia M. and "W., which differs from any known
living forms in not having any lateral e3'es. Very different
and belonging to a much more degraded and embryonic tj^pe
is the Cydophthalmiis Bucklandi from the Coal Measures of
Bohemia, in which the tail is continuous with the body, being
unusually thick.
ACARINA.
The Mites differ from other Arachnids by their oval or
rounded bodies, which are not articulated, the cephalothorax
being merged with the abdomen ; the mouth-parts are adapted
either for biting or sucking, and they breathe by tracheae.
They are usually minute in size ; the ticks, which are some-
times half an inch in length, comprising the largest forms.
They appear first in geological histor}^ in the Prussian Amber,
where species of Trombidium and Ilydrachna occur.
Bdellid^ Duges. This inconsiderable family is represented
by small mites with long, five-jointed maxillary palpi, and from
two to six ocelli, which are sometimes wanting. The limbs
nrc long and thick. The 3'oung closely resemble the adults.
The genus Bdella has legs of neai'ly equal length. B. lorigi-
cornis Linn., an European species, is scarlet red, and half a
line in length. B. marina Pack, lives between tide marks.
Trombidid^. Leach. The species of this family are red
mites, with either claw-like or style-like maxillary palpi, and
short mandibles, with the terminal joints scissor-like and op-
posed to each other. The genus Tetranychus has slender style-
like maxillae, and two ocelli. The two fore pair of legs arise
at a long distance from the hind ones, the first pair being the
longest. T. telarius Linn, the little red mites of our hot-
houses spin webs on rose leaves. It is yellowish, with two red-
dish yellow spots on the sides, and is one-half a line long.
IXODID^. 661
It may be killed by showering sulphur over the leaves. In
Europe it is found on the linden tree. The 3'oung of this spe-
cies, according to Claparede, passes through an Ixodes-like
stage, as regards the mouth-parts, for this reason we place the
Ixodidce below them.
Hydrachkid.t. Sundeval. The "Water-mites are known by
having the maxillary palpi five-jointed, with terminal hooks, or
bristles, at the end. The legs gradually increase in length, the
hindermost pair being longest ; they are ciliated, with two
claws. There are two ocelli. These mites swim in fresh and
sometimes salt water, and are seen running over water-plants.
The young differ so much from the adults that they were de-
scribed by Audouin under the name of Achlysia. In Tly-
dracJma the mandibles are needle-shaped, and the third joint
of the maxillffi is the longest. The body is oval, with the
limbs adapted for swimming, and there are two eyes. Hy-
draclina concharum is parasitic throughout life on the gills of
fresh water mussels. Others are parasitic during early life on
fresh water Hemiptera and Coleoptera.
In Atax the body is oval, solid and corneous. The mandi-
bles end in a stout curved claw, and the five-jointed maxillary
palpi end in an acute point. The species are red in color and
live in flowing streams ; when in their early, and in some cases
their adult stages, they are parasitic in the gills of mussels.
IxoDiD/E Leach. The Ticks are mites of gigantic size, with
bodies of a leathery consistence. The three to four-jointed
maxillae are small, not reaching beyond the beak. The man-
dibles are saw-like, being covered towards the end with teeth,
with from two to four terminal hooks, and, with the large
spatulate, dentate "glossoide" of the maxillse, form a beak
wliich the tick pushes into the skin of its host. The ocelli are
often wanting, and the legs are slender, with two claws,
and in the young a distinct membranous foot-pad. The
recently hatched young (Fig. 638, a, glossoide ; b, mandibles ;
c, maxillary palpi ; e, adult gorged with blood) is six-footed,
the legs being very long, and the head and mouth-parts are
much larger in proportion to the rest of the body than in the
662
ACARINA.
adult, while the tripartite division of the body is very distinct,
the thorax being distinct from tlie head and abdomen.
The genus Argas closely resembles Ixodes. Gerstaecker
states that the Argas Persi'cus Fisher is very anno3'ing to trav-
ellers in Persia. Travellers in the tropics speak of the in-
tolerable torment occasioned by wood ticks, Ixodes, which,
occurring ordinarily on shrubs and trees, attach themselves to
all sorts of reptiles, beasts and cattle, and even man himself
as he passes by within their reach. Sometimes cases fall
within the practice of the physician who is called to remove
the tick, which is found sometimes literally buried under the
skin. Mr. J. Stauff'er writes me, that "on June 23d the daugh-
ter of Abraham Jackson (colored), playing among the leaves
in a wood, near Springville,
Lancaster County, Penn., on
her return home complained
^^S^a:;^:^^^^^ '^^^^=^^h::^^^^ tention was paid to it till the
next day, when a raised tu-
mor was noticed, a small
portion protruding through
the skin, apparently like a
splinter of Avood. The child
was taken to a physician
who applied the forceps, and
after considerable pain to the
child, and labor to himself, extracted a species of Ixodes,
nearly one-quarter of an inch long, of an oval form, and brown
mahogany color, with a metallic spot, like silver bronze, cen-
trally situated on the dorsal region." Tliis tick proved, from
Mr. Stauffer's figures, to be without doubt, Ixodes imipunctata
Pack. (Plate 13, fig. 11, enlarged). It has also been found in
Massachusetts by Mr. F. G. Sanborn. The Ixodes albipictus
Pack. (Fig. 638, adult gorged with blood, and the six-footed
young, Avith the mouth-parts of the young enlarged, and d, a
foot showing the claws and sucking disc), was discovered by
Mr. W. J. Hays in great numbers on a moose which had been
partially domesticated. The females lay their eggs from the
first of May until the 25th of June, the "eggs being forced out
638
ORIBATIDJE. GG3
in large masses." "On the 3d of Jul}' the entire mass of eggs
seemed to hutch out at once, the shell opening like a clam and
releasing a six-legged insect." (Hays.) Tlie opening of the
oviduct is just behind the head, between the anterior pair of
feet, so that the eggs appear as if ejected from the moiitli.
Another species is the Ixodes hovis (Plate 13, fig. lU), the
common cattle tick of the Western States and Central America,
which is allied to the European /. riclnus. It is ver^' annoying
to horned cattle, gorging itself with their blood, though by no
means confined to them alone, as it lives indifferently upon the
rattlesnake, the iguana, small mammals, and undoubtedly' any
sort of animal that brushes by its lurlcing-place in the forest.
It is a reddish, coriaceous, flattened, seed-like creature, with
the body oblong oval, and contracted just behind the middle.
When fully giown it measures from a quarter to half an inch
in length. We have received it from Missouri, at the hands
of Mr. Riley ; and Mr. J. A. McNiel has found it yQvy abun-
dantly on horned cattle, on the western coast of Nicaragua.
GamasidtE Leach. These mites have scissor-like mandibles,
free maxilhe, with joints of equal length, and hairy legs of
similar size and form, while the ocelli are obsolete. The}' live
parasitically on the bodies of other animals. The genus Gam-
asus has long mandibles, with curved, five-jointed, acutely
pointed maxillary palpi ; the body is oval, flattened, the skin
dense, and the first and last pair of legs are somewhat longer
than the middle ones. G, coleoj)tratorum Linn, is clear, red-
dish yellow, and about a third of a line long. It occurs in
Europe on beetles, especially species of Geotrupes and Necro-
phorus. The same, or a closely allied species, is found in this
country. Ui'opoda vegetans DeGeer, a similar form, also lives
on beetles. The genus Dermanyssus has shorter jointed max-
illary palpi than in Gamasus. D. avium Duges lives on birds,
and D. pipistrellm Gervais on bats. In Pteroptus the terminal
joint of the maxillfle is very long. Pt. vespei'tilionis Dufour is
a parasite of the bat.
Oribatid^ Nicolet. In these mites the body is very hard
and horny. The four-jointed maxillary palpi are short, with
664
ACAKINA.
the &-st joint very large, forming a toothed eating surface.
The ocelli are nearly obsolete, and the legs have from one to
three claws. The cephalothorax has generally two wing-like
projections, and two or three cup-shaped
pedicellated stigmata on the edge. They
generally live on vegetable matter. In
Oribates the side of the cephalothorax is
produced often into wing-like processes,
with the abdomen orbicular, flattened,
sometimes emarginate. The European
O. alatus Hermann is smooth, blackish
Fig. 639. brown, and lives under moss. In Notlirus
the body is elongated, somewhat quadrangular, and has no
lateral expansions, while the legs are stout, with tripartite
claws. We have observed an undescribed species of this genus
sucking the eggs of the canker-worm in Salem. It may be
called Nothrus ovivorus (Fig. 639). It is reddish brown, with
a dense hard body, with the edge of the abdomen expanded
evenl}', and with three
slender capitate processes
on the cephalothorax.
AcARiD^. This family
comprises the true mites,
which have soft, thin-
skinned bodies, with
either scissor or style-like
mandibles, the latter form-
ing a retractile horny
tube. The maxillae are
obsolete, as well as the
ocelli. The claws are
^'^- ^'*^- sometimes provided witli
a sucker. The members of this, and the following groups,
are among the most lowly organized of articulates, and are
found living parasitically on the skin of other animals, or
buried within their integuments, while certain acari have
been detected within the lungs and air passages, the bloodves-
sels and the intestinal canals of vertebrate animals. The
ACARID^. 665
genus Cheyletus is remarkable for having the maxillae very large,
and like a pair of legs, with the ends tripartite, the outer
division being curved and clawlike, while tlie two innermost
are slender lobes pectinated on the inner side ; the mandibles
are style-like. A European species (Fig. 640) feeds on Cheese-
mites. It is thought by Mr. R. Beck that another species of
Cheyletus is parthenogenous, as "he obtained several genera-
tions from the first individual, Avithout the intervention of a
male." (Science-Gossip, 1869, p. 7.) Mr. J. II. Gregory, of
Marblehead, Mass., has found a species of this genus, wliich we
may call Cheyletus seminivorus (Plate 13, fig. 6). It injured the
seeds of the cabbage stored up during the winter by sucking
them dry. The genus Tyroglyphus is known by the body being
elongated oval, with scissor-like mandibles, and outstretclied
four-jointed feet, with a long stalked sucking disc at the end.
T. domesticus DeGeer is in Europe common in houses.
Many people have been startled by statements in newspapers
and more autlioritative sources, as to the immense numbers of
sugar mites, T. sacchari (Fig. 641), found
in unrefined or raw sugar. According to
Professor Cameron, of Dublin, as quoted
in the "Journal of the Franklin Insti-
tute," for November, 1868, "Dr. Hassel
(who was the first to notice their general
occurreuce in the raw sugar sold in Lon-
don) found them in a living state in no
fewer than sixty-nine out of seventy-two
samples. He did not detect them in a
. , . ^ ^ 1 T Fig- C41.
smgle specimen of refined sugar. In an
inferior sample of raw sugar, examined in Dublin by Mr.
Cameron, he reports finding five hundred mites in ten grains
of sugar, so that in a pound's weight occurred one hundred
thousand. They appear as white specks in the sugar. The
disease known as grocer's itch is, undoubtedly, due to the
presence of this mite, which, like its ally the Sarcoptes, works
its way under the skin of the hand, in this case, however, of
cleanly persons.
Closely allied to the preceding is the Cheese-mite, T. siro
Linn., which often abounds in newly made cheese. Lyonnet
666 ACAIIINA.
states that during summer this mite is viviparous. T. farhice
DeGeer, as its name indicates, is found in flour. Other species
have been known to occur in ulcers.
We figure the hirva of the European TypModromus pyri
(Plate 13, fig. 4) the adult of which, according to A. Scheuten,
is allied to Tyrogljphus, and lives under the epidermis of the
leaves of the pear. There are but two pairs of legs present,
and the body is long, cylindrical and worm-like. Fig. 5, plate
13 , represents the four-legged larva of another species of
Typlilodromus.
The Itch mite belongs to the genus Sarcoptes^ in which the
body is rounded ovate, with needle-like mandibles, and with
short three-jointed legs. The female differs from the male in
having the two hinder pairs of legs only partially developed,
and ending in a long bristle. S. scabiei Linn. (Plate 13, fig.
7, female) was first recognized by an Arabian author of the
twelfth century as the cause of the disease which results from
its attacks. It buries itself in the skin on the more protected
parts of the body, forming minute galleries, by which its pres-
ence is detected, and by its punctures maintains a constant
irritation.
Other species are known to infest the cat, dog and swine.
They are best dcstro3'ed by the faithful use of sulphur oint-
ment. Various species of an allied genus, Dermatodectes, live
in galleries on different species of domestic animals ; thus D.
equi lives in the skin of the horse, D. bovis in cattle, and D.
oris in sheep. Various 8arcoptids occur on birds ; among
them are species of DermaleicJms. On March 6th, Mv. C.
Cooke called my attention to certain female mites (Plate 13
fig. 1) which were situated on the narrow groove between the
main stem of the barb and the outer edge of the barbules of
the feathers of the Downy Woodpecker, and subsequently Ave
found the other forms indicated in Plate 13, figs. 2 and 3, in
the down under the feathers. These long worm-like mites are
probably the females of the singular male Sarcoptes-like mite,
represented by Figs. 2 and 3 of the plate, as they were found
on the same specimen of woodpecker at about the same date.
The female (though there is probably a still earlier hexai)o-
dous stage) of this Sarcoptid, which we may call Dermcdeichus
PI 13.
MITES A1.C TICKS.
ACARID^. 667
pici-pubesceyitis. has an elongated, oblong, flattened body, with
four short legs, provided with a few bristle-like hairs, and end-
ing in a stalked sucker, by aid of which the mite is enabled to
walk over smooth, hard surfaces. The body is square at the
end, with a slight median indentation, and four long bristles of
equal length. They remained motionless in the groove on the
barb of the feather, and when removed seemed very inert and
sluggish. The male (Plate 13, fig. 3) is a most singular form,
its body being rudely ovate, with the head sunken between the
fore legs, which are considerably smaller than the second pair,
while the third pair are twice as large as the second pair, and
directed backwards, and the fourth pair are very small, not
reaching the extremity of the body, which is deeply cleft, and
supports four long bristles on each side of the cleft, while other
bristles are attached to the legs and body, giving the creature
a haggard, unkempt appearance. The genital armature is
situated between the largest or third pair of legs. A preced-
ing stage of this mite, which may be called the pupa, is repre-
sented on Plate 13, fig. 2. It (all the figures of this sarcoptid
being drawn to one scale by Prof. A. M. Edwards,
and magnified one hundred and fifteen diameters)
looks somewhat like the adnlt, the body being shorter
and broader, but Avithont any genital armature.
We figure on Plate 13, figs. 8 and 9, greatly en-
larged, a most remarkable mite, discovered by New-
port on the bod^^ of a larva of a wild bee, and
described by him under the name of Heterojyus ven-
tricosus. Fig. 8, in the plate, represents the body
of the fully formed female. In this stage it reminds us Fig. C42.
of Demodex and the Tardigrades. After attaining this form
its small abdomen begins to enlarge until it assumes a globu-
lar form (Plate 13, fig. 9) and the mass of mites look like little
beads. Mr. Newport was unable to discover the male, and
thought that this mite was parthenogenous. Another singular
mite is the Demodex folli a dorum (Fig. 642), which was dis-
covered by Dr. Simon, of Berlin, buried in the diseased folli-
cles of the wings of the nose in man. It is a long, slender,
worm-like form, with eight short legs, and in the larval state
has six legs. This singular form is among the lowest and
668
ACARINA.
most degraded of the order of Arachnids, It will be seen that
the adult Demodex retains the elongated, worm-like appear-
ance of the larvae of the higher mites, such as Typhlodromus.
This is an indication of its low rank, and hints of a close rela-
tionship to the Tardigrades.
Tardigrada Doyere. (Arctisca). The Tardigrades, or
Bear animalcules, referred by some to the worms, were consid-
ered as mites by O. F. MiJller in 1785, and a species was de-
scribed by him under the name of
Acarus ursellus. They have also been
referred to the Rotatoria by Dujardin,
and were, by Schultze, considered as
parasitic Entomostraca allied to Ler-
naea. With Miiller we would consider
them as insects belonging to the Aca-
rina, and venture, after studying Clapa-
rede's admirable work, "Studien an
Acariden," containing an account of
the genus Myobia, to consider the Tar-
digrades as a family of mites. In
form, as indicated by the accompanying
figures, copied from Doyere's valuable
memoir, they are essentially mites, and
allied in form to Demodex and He-
teropus, though in their internal organi-
zation differing from all other insects
in being true hermaphrodites. Muller observed that they
moulted their skins. The mouth is adapted for sucking,
with style-like mandibles like those of Myobia. There are two
ocelli, and the worm-like body is C3dindrical, consisting of four
thoracic segments behind the head, bearing four pairs of short,
thick legs, ending in three or four claws (in these characters
reminding us of the Peripatus, a worm with a large, fleshy
Explanation of Plate 13. — Fig. 1, Dermaleichus pici-pubescentis Pack., fe-
male. Fig. 2, young male. Fig. 3, adult male. Fig. 4, lai-va of TijpModromus
pyri Sclieuten (after Scheuten). Fig. 5, larva of another species of Typhlodromus
(after Scheuten). Fig. 6, Cheyletus seminivortis Pack. Fig. 7, Snrcoptes scabiei
DeGeer (after Gervais). Fig. 8, ffeteropus ventricoms Ne^^^^ort, fully formed fe-
male. Fig. 9, gi-avid female of the same (after Newport). Fig. 10, Ixodes bovis
Eiley. Fig. 11, Ixodes unipunctata Pack. All the figures are enlarged.
LINGUATULINA.
669
leg-like process attached to the sides of each ring of the body
and ending in a pair of claws). In size they are microscopic
and live in standing water among
[)lants and like the Rotatoria revive
after being apparently dead and dried
up. They were called Tardigrades
from their excessively slow motions.
The young is born with its full comple-
ment of legs, and moults several times
l)efore arriving at maturity.
Milneslian tardigradum Schrank
(Fig. 643, /, mouth -parts ; J, alimen-
tary canal ; ov, ovary) is a fifth of a
line long ; while Emydinm testudo
Doyere (Fig. 644, magnified one hun-
dred and twenty times) is another
European species.
Macrobiotns Atnerlca-
mis Pack, has been discovered in Maine by Rov.
W. R. Cross.
LiNGUATULiXA. V. Ben. These i-emarkably worm-
like mites in the adult state inhabit the nostrils and
frontal sinuses of dogs and wolves, and more rarely
of horses and sheep. The larvae, which are like
low mites in form, are provided with boring horny
jaws and two pairs of small feet armed with sharp,
retractile claws. They live in the liver of various
animals, where they become encysted, passing
through a sort of pupa state. The most common
species is here represented (Fig. 644a, Pentastoma
tcenioides Rudolphi, from Verrill). The male is
.08 inch, and the female, which is oviparous , three
or four inches long. It sometimes infests man,
living in the early jitages encysted in the liver and lungs. In
Egypt P. constricturn Siebold is occasionally fatal.
Pycnogonid^ Latr. Marine, atracheate mites, with palpi,
chelfe and four pairs of long legs, into which the stomach
sends long ceeca. Pycnogonu7n 2)dagioum and JVymphon
(jrossipes are types of the group.
Fig. 644 a
670 MYRIOrODA.
SUB-CLASS III. MYRIOPODA.
The Mja'iopocls are readil}^ known by their long, cylindrical
or somewhat flattened bodies, which are composed of from ten
(counting tlie head as one) to over two hundred rings. The
head is free from the rest of the bod}', and is nuich like that
of insects, while the thoracic rings are scarce!}^ distinguishable,
either in form or the character of their appendages, from the
numerous abdominal rings, so tliat tlie head, instead of being
soldered to the thorax as in tlie spiders, is here free, while
the thorax is merged in the abdomen.
The head of Cermatia shows how closel}' the highest Myrio-
pod agrees with the insects. The few (sixteen) segments
composing the body (counting the head as one) ; the large
compound ej-es, the long filiform antennae, and well developed
palpi, farther show the close relationship of this form to the
insects. The habits of this genus also remind us of the spi-
ders, as they are predaceous and are said to leap after their
prey.
In the Chilopod Myriopods the mouth-parts are of the same
number, and follow each other in the same order as iu the
insects. Thus in advance of the month there are first the
ocelli, and immediately behind them the antenna? ; behind
the mouth are the mandibles, the maxillae with their palj)i, and
the labial palpi. As each of these jointed organs is repre-
sented by an elemental ring we have four segments in tlie head.
In the embryo of Julus the rudiments of the first pair of
legs are soon aborted, and thus the first thoracic ring bears
no legs in adult life. The legs are composed of a coxa, a
femur, a tibia and a tarsus, as in the higher insects.
As shown by Newport the nervous, digestive, respiratory
and reproductive sj'stems very closely resemble those of the
larvae of insects, as does the external form of these animals.
Newport states that the nervous system of Myriopods ap-
proaches nearer, in the simplicity of its formation, to that of
the Annelids than that of the larvae of insects. "In the
Chilopoda it has the form of a double cord connected by large
MYEIAPODA. 671
ganglia in each segment, as in most of the Annelida, Crusta-
cea and Insecta ; but in the vermiform Cliilognatha, which
former researclies have proved to me are most nearly con-
nected to the Annelida, the two parts of this double cord, are
so closely united laterally as to appear like a single cord that
gives off a multitude of small nervous trunks at its sides
throughout its whole length, but without distinct ganglionic
enlargements at their origin," The brain is "composed of at
least four pairs of ganglia."
The digestive system comprises the long, tubular salivary
glands, of which two are found on each side of the oesophagus
and stomach, opening by a long excretory duct into the mouth ;
and Professor Leidy has described two others which are
placed on each side of the (Esophagus, and are pyriform, con-
glomerate, and cellular in structure. Also the long intestinal
canal which is much as described in the higher insects ; while,
as in Julus, according to Leid^', "at the termination of the
proventriculus, there open two biliary tubes, and from it, sui'-
rounding the commencement of the ventriculus, is suspended
a broad, white, opaque, reticulated band, apparently composed
like the reta adiposa of insects."
The circulatory system is of a much lower type than in
insects, and in Julus it approaches, according to Newport, by
its rudimentary development that of the worms. The vascular
system consists of a dorsal vessel, or heart, with very numerous
separate chambers, almost equal to the segments of the body,
which connects with another system of vessels lying on the
under side of the body between the alimentary canal and the
nervous cord. This plexus of vessels thus forms "a vascular
collar around the anterior part of the alimentary canal." "At
each constriction of the heart in the Julldce, between two
chambers, there are two transverse lateral orifices, as in In-
sects," which Newport supposes to be either the terminations
of delicate veins, or simple apertures admitting the blood from
the venous sinuses in the body.
The trachear^r system is much as in the six-footed insects,
and the stigmata have the same relative position, but are
placed on the alternate segments of the body.
In the Chilopoda the sexual system is much as in the six-
672 CHILOPODA.
footed insects, and the orifices are placed at the end of the
bod}'. The ovary is a long single tube, which opens in the last
ring Of the body ; while in the lower suborder, Chilognatha,
there is only a single long ovarian tube, provided with two
short oviducts which open on the third segment of the body
from the head. The male organs in the Chilopods are much
more complicated than in the other Myriopods, and the two or
three, or even the single testicular tube, open on the end of
the body, while in the Chilognaths, such as Julus, there are
two testes which lead out by Si vas deferens to the orifice situ-
ated on the third thoracic ring. The order is divided into two
suborders, i. e. , the Chilopoda and Chilognatha of Latreille.
CHILOPODA.
This group is characterized by each ring being simple and
not divided into subsegment^S, and bearing but a single pair of
feet, while the head is divided into two regions, one placed
before the mouth, the other behind the mouth. The sexual
outlet is situated at the end of the body.
This suborder is the highest, as it contains those Myriopods
which have the fewest segments to the body*, thus approaching
the six-footed insects and spiders. Thej^ are active, rapacious
in their habits, and by the division of the head into the two
regions, movable on each other, they can almost emulate the
insects in their powers of seizing their pre}'. As stated by
Professor Wood , their highly organized muscular and nervous
system, the compactness of their intestinal apparatus, and the
length and power of their legs, all betoken habits of great
activity ; whilst the formidable nature of their mandibles, and
the sharp spines, both lateral and terminal, with which their
feet are armed, fit them for predatory warfare. Thus it will
be seen that the Chilopods are the more animal, while the
Chilognaths are the more vegetative ; this is due to the greater
concentration of the body headwards, and the more compact
build of the body behind the head.
* The larvae of this group may have as many as six or eight pairs of legs when
they leave the egg, while the young Chilognaths have only three. (Rolleston.)
LITHOBIID^. 673
It is probiible that the Centipedes and their allies appeared
at a much later period in the earth's history than the Chilog-
uaths, as the earliest form of the present snborder known to us
is the Geophilus proavus* of Germar, from the Jurassic rocks,
whilst the oldest Myriopod, one of the Jiilidce, is, according
to Dawson, found in the lower Carboniferous rocks of Nova
Scotia, and Dr. Anton Dohrn has recently described a Julus
from the coal formation of German}^
Cekmatid.e Leach. This group is characterized by having
only sixteen rings to the body, while the legs and antennae have
more numerous joints than usual. The head is large, very free
from the body, with compound eyes, as in the six-footed in-
sects, and long spiny palpi, while the tergites, or scuta, are
but eight in number, and there are nine pairs of spiracles.
The female ovipositor is forceps-like, while the corresponding
male appendages are style-like. The species are tlie
most gaily colored of the order, being striped along
the body and banded on the legs. Cermatia for-
ceps Raflnesque is greenish-brown, with three longi-
tudinal stripes of deep green.
LiTHOBiiD^E Newport. In this and the remain-
ing families of this suborder the antennae are short,
and the eyes simple and sometimes wanting. In
the present family there are fifteen tergites, and the
antennae are longer than in the succeeding group.
In Lithobius the antennae are forty-jointed, and rig. C45.
the head is broad and flat. The species of this genus attack
earth-worms, grappling with them for several hours, and after
killing them, suck their blood. They will, in confinement, de-
stroy each other. Their bite is poisonous to small articulates.
The European L. forjicatus, according to Newman ("Ento-
mologist" 1866, iii, p. 342) is preyed upon by Proctotrupes
calcar of Halida3\ Lithobius Americanus Newport (Fig. 645)
is a widely diffused species, and erroneously passes by the
name of Ear-wig. It is found everywhere, under sticks and
about manure-heaps, where it feeds upon insects and worms.
* Since shown by Prof. Marsh to be an Annelid (Iscbyracanthus).
43
674 CHiLoroDA.
The genus Bjthrrpoh/s of Wood, differs in having small,
almost round puuclitbrm excoriations arranged in three or
four series on the coxa. The B. midtidentatus of Newport is
found in the P^astern United States, and is recognized by
having from thirt^'-two to thirty-seven ocelli on each side of
the head.
ScoLOPENDRiDji: Leach. The Centipede is the type of this
family. There are from twenty-one to twenty-three feet-bear-
ing segments, with few or no ocelli, while the last pair of feet
are thickened and generally spinous. This genus comprises
the most gigantic of all Myriapods, ScoJopendra
gfgantea Linn, from the East Indies, being nine
inches long. S. heros Girard is our largest
species, and is found in the Southern States.
The bite of the Centipede is dangerous ; the
poison is conveyed fi-om two glands, one iu each
of the large fangs or first pair of legs.
The genus Scolop)ocryp)toj)s differs in having
no ocelli, and twenty-three feet-bearing seg-
ments, while the antennie are seventeen-jointed.
S. sexspinosa Say (Fig. 646) is common about
Philadelphia, and is found in Iowa ; it is deep
orange, with yellow, somewhat compressed feet,
with three spines on each of the last pair of
feet. Wood describes the manner of moulting
Fig. Gm. jjj ^Y\\s species. The skin had been crowded back
so as to cover only the last two or three rings. The cast skin
contains the skin of the head and all its appendages, even to
the maxilUe and maxillary palpi. The anterior portion of the
skin was so torn as to show that the process of shedding proba-
bly began by the creature's withdrawing its head from its case,
and then thrusting it out between some of the anterior sterna,
completing the process by pushing the skin liack Avitli its legs,
and aiding them by a peculiar wriggling motion. The exuvia
had most of the posterior segments entire, showing that the
occupant had been withdrawn from it like a hand from a glove."
Wood also states that the female guards her young by Inying
on her side, and then coiling her body passes them along by a
PAUROPODID^.
675
'• rapid cilia-like action of her feet ; " thus arranging them sat-
isfactorily to herself.
Geophilid.e Leach. These Myriapods are very long and
slender, with from thirtj^ to two hundred segments, each
formed of two comjilete, but unequal subsegments, and bearing
but a single pair of feet. There are no ocelli ; the antennae
are fourteen-jointed, and the anal feet are short and style-like.
In Medstoceplialus the " cephalic segment," or anterior part
of the head is more than twice as long as broad, while in
GeopJiilus the same region of the head is square.
M. fulvus "Wood is fulvous, polished, with a light
orange head ; according to Wood it is most often
found under the inner bark of decaying logs of
the locust tree. Geophiius cephalicus is an unu-
sually broad species found near Philadelphia. G.
hix)uncticeps Wood (Fig. G47) is found in the
Western States and Sonora.
In Strigamia the cephalic segment is small,
short, and generally somewhat triangular. S.
hothriopus Wood is a bright red robust species, and
inliabits Philadelphia. S. ddonopliila Wood is a
diminutive species, l)eing onl}^ three-fourths of an
inch long ; it is found far north, at Fort Simpson,
on the Red River of the North. The largest spe-
cies known is S. epilejitica Wood from Oregon,
whicli is five and a half inches long. The last pair of male
feet are represented by Wood to be antenniform, those of the
female being small, short, and preserving the usual shape of
the leg. This is an interesting instance of the antero-
posterior symmetry of these animals, here more strongly
marked than usual.
Fis. G17
Pauropodid^ Lubbock. The sole member of this family is
the Paaropus^ which Sir John Lubbock discovered in England
living among decaying leaves. "The bod}' is composed often
segments, including the head, and is convex, with scattered
hairs ; there are nine pairs of legs, and the antennae are five-
jointed, bifid at the extremity and bearing three long jointed
C7G
CIIILOGNATHA.
appendages.'' The two species, P. Huxleyi and P. x>Bduvcvla-
tus of Lubbock are white, and about one-twentieth of an inch
in length. Lnbbock regards this remarkable form as a "con-
necting link between the Chilopods and Chilog-
naths, and also as bridging over to a certain
extent the great chasm Avhich separates them
from other articulata." No tracheae could be
detected. The six-footed young (Fig. 048) had
the first pair of legs attached to the first seg-
ment behind the head, the two other pairs to
the following one. Tlie resemblance of Pauro-
pns to those Podnrag, such as Achorutes, in
which tlie "spring" is ver}^ short, is certainly
remarkal)le. We may, therefore, consider the
Pauropns as a connecting link between the Myrlopods and
the Neuroptera. P. Luhhockli Pack., was found at Salem, Mass.
C48.
CHILOGNATHA.
In this division of the Myriopods the body is divided into
nnmerous segments, each furnished with two pairs of short
legs, and the antennae are short, with but few joints.
They are the lowest insects, and in Julus, with its large
number of rings of the same form, we have a good illustration
of the vegetative repetititm of the zoological elements, or
segments, composing the body, which is the reverse of what
obtains in the cephalized honej^ bee, for instance, and reminds
us strikingly of the Worms. In the genus Bracliycuhe^ a remote
ally of Polydesmus, we are sti'ongly reminded of some crus-
taceans, such as the Isopods, and the posterior end of the
body of this Myriopod, in the broad lateral expansions of
the segments, even recalls the tail of a trilobite.
Wood states that the eyes are frequently absent, and when
present they are generally luimerous and collected in patches
near the base of the antenmie. The long, cylindrical-bodied
,Tuln,s is the typical form of the snl)order, while the flattened
dilated Polydesmus is a more aberrant form.
The mouth-parts are either, as in Julus, formed for feeding
POLYDESMTD.E. 677
on decaying vegetable matter, ox- tube-like, as in Bracbycybe and
allies ; one pair of maxiltae are wanting.
Glomerid^ Leach. In this group the ej^es are arranged in
a linear series, and the autennte are placed on the front of the
head. The bod}' is half-cylindrical, short and plump, with from
twelve to thirteen segments. The head is large and free, with
the first thoracic ring small, while the last abdominal ring is
large and shield-shaped. The genital openings in both sexes
are situated just behind the insertion of the second pair of
limbs. In Glomeris the body consists of twelve rings and
seventeen pairs of limbs, while in /Sphcerotherium the body is
made np of thirteen rings and twenty-one pairs of feet. The
si)ecies are exotic, Glomeris marginata Latreille being found
ill Europe, and the Sphsierotheria in the tropics.
PoLYDESMiD.E Lcacli. In this group the body is much flat-
tened, the sterna overarching the scuta, to which they arc
closely cemented, and the scuta are furnished with lateral
laminae. "The head is large and massive, the absence of eyes
and the small antenuiB point to a state of low development of
the special senses. The female genitalia are placed in the
tliird segment, just posterior to the second pair of legs. They
are generally more or less hidden within the body ;
the male organs are situated in the seventh segment,
replacing the eighth pair of legs. They generally
project very prominently from the body." The young
Iiave three pairs of legs, on the 2d, 4th and 5th rings.
In Polydesmus the body is much flattened, with broad '^|
lateral expansions to the rings. Polydesmus Cana- ^Q^
de>isis Newport is deep brown, with pubescent scarcely
clavate antennae ; each of the scuta has eight scales, ^^
arranged in a double series. The male appendages Fig. 649.
are hairy, with a curved terminal spine of moderate length.
The female appendages "consist of a pair of bodies shaped
somewhat like the crest of a helmet. Along their free margin
is an opening surmounted by a double series of teeth-like pro-
cesses. It is found in the Northern and Middle States. P.
erythropygiis Brandt (Fig. 649) inhabits the Middle and
678 CHILOGNATHA.
"Western States. In Pohjxenus the body is short, clothed with
short penicillate scales, and there are thh'teen pairs of feet.
(These scales, or hairs, as has been remarked to us by Mr.
Sanborn, are remarlvably like the hairs of Dermestes, and this
homology is another proof that the Myriapods are an order of
the class Insecta.) P. fasciculatus Say is about a tentli of an
inch in length. It has been detected by Mr. Sanborn under
the bark of trees near Boston, and I have found it in Salem in
the same situations, and also at Nantucket.
JuLiD^ Leach. Thousand Legs. 3IiUe2)edes. This group
embraces the typical species of this suborder. The body is
almost perfectly cylindrical, with the sternum greatly reduced
in size, those of the posterior subsegments being almost
absent, while the tergum is greatly in excess. The head is
large, with often rather long and filiform antennae, and simple
eyes arranged in variously shaped patches near the base of
the antennae.
In Jidus the bod^^ is slender and seldom more than three
inches long ; the sides of the first scutum are produced in
the female, while the antennae are long and filiform. Wood
says the males are "farther distinguished by a peculiar altera-
tion of the first pair of feet, wliich are transformed into a pair
of very large, thick organs," which probably ser\e as clasping
appendages. Jidiis is found commonl}^ under sticks, etc. It
is long, C3dindrical, hard, with numerous feet, short and Aveak,
attached to tlie under surface of the body nearly in the middle
of tlie abdomen. The antennae are short and filiform. They
crawl rather slowly, and at rest curve the body into a ring.
They live on vegetable substances, or eat dead earth-worms or
snails. "In the spring the female deposits her eggs in masses
of sixty or seventy, in a hole excavated for the purpose under
the ground ; after three weeks or more the young make their
appearance." (Van der Hoeven.) Newport states that when
hatched the young Julus consists of eight rings, including the
head. The body of the embryo, seen from above, is com-
pressed and wedge-shaped, being broadest at the second and
third segments. For many days (seventeen) after hatching,
the embr^'o is surrounded by a membrane which Newport re-
julidtE. 679
gards as the analogue of the amnion, or vitelline membrane,
of the vertebrates. This membrane is at the end of the body
connected with another, which in the unburst shell is external
to the "amnion," and lines the interior of the shell. New-
port compares this with the chorion of vertebrates. Before the
amnion is thrown off the embryo moults,
and six new segments appear (Fig. 650, 6),
and minute tubercles bud out on the under
surface of the six and seventh rings, as at a.
The new segments are always developed be-
tween the last and peiuiltimate ones,* as has
been observed in the worms, the Crustacea,
the spiders, and as I have observed in the em-
bryo of the Dragon-fly. In the 3'oung Julus
no legs grow out on the third segment from
the head, but the outlet of the oviduct of
the female is placed on this segment. The ^'°- *'^-
male organs find their outlet on the sixth ring from the head.
Jidiis Canadensis Newp. is brownish chestnut, ornamented
with a black dorsal line, and a lateral row of black dots. The
body consists of (ifty-three segments. It is found
in the Northern States and Canada.
J. mvMstriatus Walsh (Fig. 651) inhabits the
Western States. The genus Spirobolus has a much
larger, thicker body, and a rather small head, with
short antennae, often l^dng partially hidden in a
groove in the side of the head. Spirobolus margi-
nattis Say is deep brown, aunulated with red, and
consists of from fifty-three to fifty-seven segments.
The male appendages are described by Wood as
formed of two outer parts, and a connecting yoke-like
piece.
To this fiimily without much doubt, as Dr. Dawson
states, belongs the Xylohius sigiJlai'ice of Dawson
(Plate 1, fig. 4) from the Lower Carboniferous rocks ^'- ^i.
of Nova Scotia. This, in its short, thick antenna, and small
head, rather approaches Spirobolus than Julus, though the
antenuffi are shorter, while the tweh-e ocelli represented in Dr.
Dawson's figure ( Air-Breaihers of the Coal Period. Montreal,
^'In the Chilopoda the new segments are intercalated between the old ones.
680 CHILOGNATIIA.
I860. Plate vi, fig. 58-01) are arranged much as in S. margi-
natus. It differs remarkably, however, in the raised posterior
margin of the segments, giving a serrate outline to the body.
In this respect it seems to combine the characters of the pres-
ent family and that of /Sjm'ostrephon, a genus in many
respects intermediate between the jPoli/des)nidce and the
/Siphonantia. Four spiracles are represented on the tenth to
the thirteenth segments from tlie head.
The genus Spirostrejihoji is in many respects intermediate
between this and the succeeding family, the sterna being soft,
as in the Siphoucaitia. /S. Copei Pack, was found by Mr. C.
Cooke in Mammoth Cave.
Siphonantia Brandt. In the sucking Myriopods {Sugantia
of Brandt) we meet with the lowest, most worm-like forms of
tlie sub-class. The head is Aory small and concealed beneath
the prothoracic ring. The parts of the mouth are fused and
united into a sucking tube for the imbibition of fluids. The
eyes are either jjresent or absent, and the scuta, or tergites,
may be prolonged laterally into laniinre which afford protec-
tion only to the back and flanks, the central part of the abdo-
men being soft. The feet are small and hidden beneath the
broad body, while the male appendages are placed on tlie
seventh segment. In Octoglena the eight eyes are arranged
in two converging rows. 0. hivirgata Wood is brown, Avith a
reddish stripe on each side, with about forty-five segments to
the body. In Brachycyhe the rostrum is acute, much shorter
than the antenna?, while the body is broad and flattened.
Brachycyhe Lecontei Wood inhabits Georgia, and has long
lateral expansions to the tergites.
PERIPATIDEA.
This group is perhaps equivalent and allied to the Myrio-
l)oda, with some aflfinities to the Tardigrades. -Feripatus has
numerous pores or stigmata, from which fine tracheae arise.
The body and appendages are not jointed, the thirty pairs of
legs endinsc each in two claws. F. Edwardsii inhabits
Venezuela.
ENTOMOLOGICAL CALENDAR.
Tins calendar applies mostly to the New England states, where the appearances
of the insects here enumerated have heen recorded. It should he borne in mind that
the season of New York city is about two weeks in advance of that of Boston,
and that of Virginia and Illinois about a month or six weeks earlier. It is designed
to be of special use to farmers and gardeners as indicating the times of appear-
ance of injurious insects. When only the generic name is given several species
appear simultaneously. The reader in noticing an insect mentioned here can turn
to the index and find in the body of tlie work an account of its habits.
MARCH.
Bombus, queens; a few Ichneumons and Chalcids; Vanessa; Grapta; a few
specimens of Noctuida;, Tortricida; and Tineida.; Ephippophora caryana; Canker
worm, females and males; Anthomyia; Tachina; Chirouomus; Anophiles; Bibio;
Chionea- Valga, on the snow; Trichocera hiemalis; Cicindelre and Carabidre;
Dytiscid'jB, and other water beetles; Aquatic Hemiptcra; Capnia and Tseniopterj'x ;
Boreus.
APRIL.
lst-15th.-Formica; Brephos; Adela, on willows; Aphodius; Ptmus fur; Der-
mestes; Anthrenus; Attagenus; Epura^a; Ips; Ellychnia; Larva and female of
>Ieloe on bodies of wild bees and wasps ; Ceuthophdus.
' lGth-30th— Polyommatus; Lycana; Tliecla; Coddling moth (Carpocapsa); mos-
quitoes and larvae; Bombylius; Burying beetles; Euvyomia Inda; Buprestids;
Chalcophora Vivginica; Castings of Saperda Candida; Cyhndru.al l^a'-k Ijoiers
fTomicus, Xylographa); Hylurgus; Pissodes strobi; Hylobms pales; Phytocous.
MAT.
Ist-l.'ith.-Xylocopa, Ceratina, Osmia, Andrena and Halictus nestmg; Colias;
Argynnis Bellone; Melita^a Myrina; Chrysophanus Phh-eas; Clisiocami^a arva
hatching out; Scoliopteryx; Drasteria; Coremia; Gooseberry Pempeha; TipnlKhe;
Hessian-fly and Wheat-midge; Ceridomyia; Syrphus; Eristalis; ^^a^ he^i
Plum weevil; Hister: Clerus; Elater; Limonius; Cratonychus; Meloc-; Ca h-
grapha; CEdipoda corallina; Tragocephala infuscata, viridifasciata; Libellula;
llenierobius. ^^ , ^ ,,.
18th-31st.-Cvnips ; Selandria rosie and cerasi, laying eggs ; Strawberry Emphj -
tus larva; Papilio Tunnis; Pontia oleracea; Melita^a Phaeton, larva; Ai-gynnis;
Thanaos; Hesperia; Alypia octomaculata; Sphinx ; Ceratomia 4-comis; Ses.a;
Hyphantriatextor; Arctia; Leucarctia; Agrotis and cut- worms; Hypena humul.
hop-vine worm; Grapholitha and other leaf-rolling larva, on .apple and pear; Vino
Penthina larva; Carpet moth: Chrysops; Geotrupes; Halt, n^ on t"™.p. oni^to.
cucumbers, etc; Apion; Asemummoestum; Gastrophysacoerule.penn.s Gaiieiuc^
682 ENTOMOLOGICAL CALEXDAK.
lst-15th. — Pristophora identidem, cranberry fly larva; Nematus ventricosus,
larva; Cyuips; Eurytoiiia lioidei iu straw; Pteroinalus; Abia, larva; Papilio As-
terias; Eudaiuus Tityriis; Smerinthui; Abraxas ribearia; Scoiosia uiululata;
Antithesia pruniaua, larva; larvie of Lithocolletis salicifoliella, juglandiella; Nep-
ticiila villosella; Cranberry Anchylopera larva; Strawberry Auchyloiiera larva;
Grape Pteropliorus larva; Anisota pelluciUa; Icthyura; Tabanus; Tephritis;
Oscinis; Laphria; Atsilus; Bot-llies; June beetle, Lachuostenia; Areodes lani
gera; Peliinota punctata; Serica serlcea; Apion Sayi; JMatrodactylus subspin-
osus, Rose chafer; Dicerca divaricata; Cluysobothris fulvoguttata and Harrisii;
Alaus oculatus; Attelabus analis and bipuuclulatus; Rhynchites bicolor; Arrlien-
odes septentrionis; Telephorns; Corynibites; various fireflies, Photiniis and
Photuris; Colorado potato beetle; Coccinella ; Pemphigus vitilolia^; Apide bark
louse, Aspidiotus conchiformis ; Cicada riniosa; CEdipoda Carolina ; Panorjia.
18th-30th.— Megachile nesting; Pristiphora grossularia;, larva; Neonymi)lia Eury-
tris; Grapta Progne, larva; Cynthia cardui, larva, Atalanta larva; Linienitis
Missippus; Nymphalis Ephestion; Melitaia Phaeton, Pharos, Harrisii; Satyrus
Nephele; Actias Luna; Eudryas grata, larva; Trochilium tipuliforme; ^Egeriaexit-
iosa ; Platy samia Cecropia ; Telea Polyphemus ; Hypena humuli ; Desmia maculalis ;
Crambus; Asopia costalis; Gooseberry Pempelia larva; Philam|)elus; Chajro-
campa; Halesidota; Datana miuistra; Eacles imperialis; Citheronia regalis;
Hyperehiria Jo; Loxottenia rosaceana; Carpocapsa pomonella, larva; Liniacodes;
Locust Depressaria larva; Strobisia levipedella; Coleophora; Tinea, clothes-moth;
Cerura borealis; Bryophila; Pterophorus larvae; Sarcophaga; Anthomyia raphani,
radish fly; Scolytus pyri; Cerasphorus cinctus; Monohammus titillator; Anomala
variaus; Fidia viticida; Desmocerus palliatus; Hispa suturalis; Lytta cincrea;
Grape Coeliodes larva; Squash bug, Coreus tristis; Lecauium quercifex; Chinch
bug; Thrips; Cicada 17-decini; Tetligouia rosa;; Chrysopa, Phryganea; Neuronia.
JULY.
lst-15th. — Wasps nesting; Pine Lophyi'us larvse; Melitsea Harrisii; Hesperia
Hobomoc; Satyrus Alope; Deilephila; Darapsa; Harrisina Americana; Alypia
octomaculata ; Phragmatobia rubricosa; Pyrrharctia Isabella; Euphanessa; Ila-
dena arctica; Catocala; Dahlia Gortyna larva, boring the stems; Phlox -worm;
Ennomos sidisignaria, Angerona crotataria and many other Phala?nidre: Phycita
nebulo, and many other Pyralidaj and Tortricida;; Simulium; Oestrus; Ortalis
flexa; Acinia; Limnobia; Monohammus scutellatus; Trichodes humeralis; Lcp-
tui-a Canadensis; Buprestis fasciatus; Grape Baridius; Reduvius; many Libel-
lulae.
16th-31st. — Pristiphora grossnlaviae; Tremex Columba; Heteroiiterns margin-
atus; Polyommatus Comyntas; Thecia falacer; Danais, larva; Argynnis Idalia
and Aphrodite; ^Egeria cucurbitEe; Sphinx larva?; Utetheisa bella; Lithosia casta;
Ichthyura albosigma; Clisiocampa; Lagoa crispata; Xylcutes robinia;; Apalcla
Americana; Agrotis telifera, devastator ; Hypena humuli, 2d brood of larva-; Bra-
chyt-cnia m.ilana; Antithesia pnmiana; Pterophorus; Coleophora; Nci)ticula;
Gracilaria; Elachista; Lema trilineata; Anthonomus prunicida ; Eunioljius aura-
tus; Prionus laticollis; Orthosoma unicolor; Leptostylus; Monohammus marmo-
ratus; Luranus capreolus, dama; Clytus; Sapei-da; Osmoderma scabra; Cran-
berry Anthonomus; Tettigonia fabae ; Clastoptera.
AUGUST.
lsM5th. — Many bees and wasps; Crabronidw; Nyssonidae; Bemhecidas; Lar-
rida>; Sphex, Pompilns and other fossorial wasps; Cimbex larva; Pelecinus and
various Chalclds and Proctotrypidae ; OSceticns mnkes its cocoon; Gortyna zeae;
Agrotis subgothica; Plusia; Heliothis; Northern Army worm (Leiicania) ; Nepti-
ENTOMOLOGICAL CALENDAR. 683
cula; Gelechia; Lyonetia; Phaltenida; and Noctuida;; Cranberry Antithesia;
Saperda calcarata; Clytiis; Tettigouire and many other Hemiptera, Gram Aphis
and other Aphides; Coccidai; Phyuiata erosa; OScauthiis uiveus; Chloealtis;
Acheta; Nemobius, and other grasshoppers.
lUth-;51st. — Orgyia; larvte of many moths and butterflies ; Lycomorplia pholus;
Apide LithO!;olletis larva; Sac-bearnig Lyouetia larva; Toniicus and other bark
boring beetles; Girdler Oncideres; Psocidre; second brood of Chrysopa.
SEPTESIBER.
Ants swarm ; Males and females of Bombus ; Nymphalis Disippe ; Gastropacha
Americana, lai'va; Limacodes, larva; Boll worm (larva); Zerene catenaria; Larva?
of various Lithocolletis, Buccidatrix and other Tineids; Sciara larva; Carabidie;
Olytus pictus oviposits on locust; Meloii; Mcnibracis bimaculata; Pemphigus rais-
ing galls; Lachnus strobi.
OCTOBER.
CEceticus, and larva; of various Tineids; ^geria pyri; Canker worm moth;
Anisopteryx ; Hibernia tiliaria ; Bdellia somnuleutella; Rhagium lineatuni matures.,
but hibernates in its cell; Hemerobius, and larva.
The Driver Ant, see p. 183.
GLOSSARY.
Acuminnte. Ending in a prolonged point.
Anastomosinu InosL-ul:iting or running
into each other like veins.
Annulate. Wlien a leg, antenna, et2., is
surrouuflerl by narrow rings of a dii-
fer<»nt color.
Apodnus. Footless.
Areoldte. Ftirnislied with small areas,
like a net work. .
Arisinte. Furnished with a hair.
Aurelia. Amiient term for pupa.
Blastoderm. The primitive skin of the
ni^toda-mic. cells. The ceUs forming
the blastoderm.
Bidlatc. Blistered.
CnJcarnted. Armed with spurs.
Cancellate. Crossed by lines going at
right angle-! to e:ich other.
Capitate. Ending in a knob.
Carina. An elevated keel-like ridge.
Carpus. The ptenstigma.
Cellule. A little space surrounded by
veins on the wing. , ^ » .^
Chela. Teriniu il itortion of a foot, Witti
a movable lateral toe, like the c-law ot
a crab or mandibles of arachnids.
Chrysalis. The pupa of Lepidoptera.
Concolorons. Of the same color with
another iiart.
Cilinte. Fringed. [ashes.
Cinereous. Ash color; color of wood
Ciiir/ula. A colored bind.
Cldvate. Club-shaped.
Coarctate. Contracted; compact.
Confluent. Running into each other.
Connate. United.
Cordate. Heart shaped.
Coriaceous. Leatlier-like, thick, tough,
and somewhat riirid.
Corneous. Of a horny substance; re-
sembling horn.
Crennte. Scalloped, with rounded teeth.
Cupreous. Coppery in color.
Dentated. Furnished with teeth.
Depressed. Flattened down.
Dilated. Widened, expanded.
Dimidiate. Half round.
Discal. Relating to the disk; discoidal.
Edentulous. Destitute of teeth.
Eniarr/inate. Notched; terminating in an
acute not''h at tip.
Entire. (Wings) with a simple, not in-
dented, edge.
Epistom 7. That part of the face between
the front and labrum.
i^ruca. The larva.
Excurved. CuiTcd outwards. .
Exserted. Protruded; opposed to in.
closed.
Exiivia. Cast-off skin.
Fades. Appearance, aspect.
Falcate. Sickle-shaped.
Fascia. A strii)e Viroader than a line.
Fauna. An assemblage of amnials peo-
pling a region or count: v.
Fenestrated. Marked with transparent
spots i-urroiinded by a darker color,
like window i>anes.
Ferruginous. Ru>t-colored.
Filiform. Thread-like.
Flavescent. Somewhat yellow.
FlexKous. Almost zigzag.
Foliaceous. Leaf-like.
Forcipatcd. Forceps-like.
Fovea. A more or less rounded depres-
sion.
Free Unrestrained m articulated move-
ment; not soldered at the points of
contact. T , , .1 „
Front. The fore-face, bounded by the
eyes, the vertex, and often beneath liy
the cpistoma, or clypeus.
Fuliainous. Of the color of dark smoke.
Fulro-reneous. Brazen, with a tinge ot
brownish yellow. Ideer.
Fulvous. Tawny ; color of the common
Furcated. Forked.
Fu.sco-tcstaceous. Dull reddish brown.
Fuscotis. Dark brown; approaching
Fusiform. Spindle-shaped; gradually
tapering at each end.
Ganglion. A centre of the nervous sys-
tem, containing nerve cells, and re-
ceiving and giving out impressions.
Cleminate. Arranged in pairs; twin.
Gemmiparous. Asexual generation by
new individuals arising as buds from
the bodv of the parent.
Glabrous! Smooth; opposed to hairy,
downv, villous.
Glaucous. Gray ; bluish green.
Hamule. A little hook.
Hastate. Halberd shaped.
Hanstellnte. Furnished with a proboscis
or ton sue-like mouth.
Hexapodous. Provided with six feet.
Hirsute. Clothed with shaggy hairs.
Hyaline. Transparent; of the color of
"water.
Hypostoma. The clypeus m diptera.
Incrassated. Thickened; swelled out on
some particular part.
(685)
686
GLOSSARY.
Ivfamated. Clouded.
Jiifuscated. Darkened with a blackish
tiJge.
Intcrrtipted. Suddenly stopped.
Involuted. Rolled inwards spirally.
Irroraicd. Freckled; sprinkled with
atoms.
LamelUform. Sheet or leaf-like.
Limbaie. When a disk is surrounded by
a margin of a different color.
Lamina. A pi ite or sheet-like piece.
Linear. Like a line.
Lineatcd. Provided with line-like marks.
Mandibulate. Furnished with mandi-
bles; opposed to haustcllate.
Marr/innted. Surrounded by an elevated
or attenuated margin.
Memhranaceous. Thin; skinny, and
semi-transi>arent like parclnneiit.
Mucronatc. Ending in a sharp point.
Mutic. Unarmed.
NytTvph. Old name for pupa.
Obcordate. Inversely heart-shaped.
Obovate. luverselj' ovate; the smaller
end turned towards the base.
Obsolete. Not distinct; or almost lost to
view.
Obtected. Covered.
Ochreous. Of a more or less deep ochre
color.
Olivaceous. Olive colored.
Operculum. A lid ; a small valvular ap-
pendage.
Oval. Egg-shaped.
Ovate. More or less oval.
Oviposition. The act of depositing eggs.
Petiolated. Suppoi'ted on a stem.
Piceous. Pitchy, color of pitch; shining
reddish black.
Pilose. Clothed Avith pile, or dense
down.
Process. A projection.
J'roduced. Di'awn out; prolonged.
Pr7iino.se. Frosty.
Pseudova. Uninipregnated eggs, which
jiroduce young, as in those laid by
virgin Aphides.
Pubescent. Coated with very fine hairs,
or down.
Pidverulent. Dusty.
Punctured. Marked with numerous
small impressed dots.
Poptorial. Adapted for seizing prey.
Recurved. Curved backwai'ds.
Reniform. Kidney shaped.
Reticulated. Marked like net work,
Revohite. Rolled backwards.
Ro.siriim. Tiie beak or sucking month-
parts in Hemiptera.
Riifc.-icent. Somewhat reddish.
Rufous. RediUbh.
Rilyose. Wrinkled.
Sanr/ui7ieous. Blood-red.
Scabrous. Rough like a lilc; with small
raised dots.
Scalloped. Edge marked by rounded
hollows, witliout intervening angles.
Sericeous. Having the Mirlace with a
silk like gloss, ueually t'rum the pres-
ence of minute, dense" hairs.
Serrated. Like saw-teetli.
Setaceous. Bristle-like.
Sessile. Not stalked.
Sinuatcd. Scooj.cd out.
Spinous. Armed with spines.
Spurs. Stiff bristles, or spines, on the
tibiiB.
Stria. Aline usually depressed; some-
times composed of pimi tui'es.
Subaduncate. Somewhat hooked or
curved.
Subulate. Shaped like an awl.
Sulcate. With groove-like e.Ncavations.
Sut7ire. A seam, or impressed line;
usually between segments.
Taivvy. Fulvous; a pale dirty yellow.
Teneral. A state of the imago "(Xeurop-
tera) after exclusion from tlie pupa, in
Avhicli it has not Inlly completed its
coloring, clothing, etc.
Tcssellate. Spotted like a checker-board.
Testaceous. Dull red; biick color.
Tomentose. Covered with line matted
hairs.
Truncnted. Cut squarely off.
Tuberculose. Covered with tubercle-like
prominences.
Uncinate. Hooked at the end.
Uner/ual. Differing in size, or length.
Uvf/uiculate. Armed with a hook or nail.
Valvule. A small valve-like process.
Ventral. Relating to the under surface
of the abdomen.
Verticillate. Placed in whirls.
J'crriculate. With thickset tufts of par-
allel hairs.
Vc)-7-ucose. Covered with wart-like
prominences.
Villose. Clothed with soft, rather long
hairs.
Vulva. Orifice of the oviduct,
ABBREVIATIONS.
Beauv., Beauvois. Boisd., Boisduval. Burm.. Burmeister. Clem., Clemens.
Dahlb., Dahlbom. Den., Dennis. Dej., Dejean. Erich., Erichson. Esch., Esch-
oltz. Fabr., Fabricins. Frohl., Frohling. Grav., Gravenhorst. G. and R., Grote
and Robinson. Gucn., Guenee. Gyll., Gyllenhal. Hald., Haldeman. H. Sch.,
Herrieh-Schaeffer. Hiibn, Hiihner. Latr., l>ntreille. Lee. Leconte. Linn., Lin-
naeus. Mann., ;Mannerheim. Mels., Melsheimcr. Oliv., Olivier. Pack., Packard.
Sauss., Saussure. Schief., Schieformiiller. SchOnh., Schonherr. St. Farg., St,
Fargeau. Tellk, Tcllkampf. Walk , Walker. (?,male; ?, female; ?, worker.
INDEX
Abdomen, 14.
Abdomiiiiil le^s, 21.
Abia ciipi ilbliuin, 21(5. A. cerasi, 217.
Abraxas ribuaria, Ml.
Auantboolieir arniata, (J57.
Acanthusunia grisea, 54G.
Acaridse, ()i)4.
Acariua, CHS, G31, 038, 639, 642, 644, 660, 668.
Acarus iirselliis, 3158.
Achlysia, 651.
Achormes, 676.
AchatDiles zona, 311.
Acid ilia emudeata, .323. A.nivosaria,323.
Acilius medititlis, 459.
Acoloilhus Aniericaua, 282.
Acraea violie, 2.)l.
Acratus R.ivipeiinis, 454.
Aero 'era, 3!).).
Acrociniis longinianus, 497.
Acrnnycta aceris, 305. A. obliaita, 304.
Acro|)liyll:l, .573.
Aei\vdii, •'■)')!>, .587.
Acryliiim aleutaeeum, .571.
Acti IS Aztsoa, 298. A. Luna, 234, 298.
Adela Uidingsella, 348.
Adelges coecineus, .523.
Adelo.'.era obtecta, 4 JO.
Aclelops liirtus, 439.
Adranes caaous, 422, 440.
iEgeriada3,277. -lEgeria caudata, 278. JE.
exitiosa, 277. /E. polistiformis, 278.
JE. pyri, 278. JE. quiuque-caudata, 279.
A*!!. lipulif()rme,27:).
^gi:irtes dehilis, 475.
.(Egialitidse, 47.5.
yEschna, ovipositor of, 16. ^sehna, 570,
581. JE. clepsydra, (i02. JE. constricta,
602. JE. lieros, 604. JE. juncea, 598.
Agabus, 435.
Agamic reproduction, 49.
Agathidium seniinuluni, 439.
Agenia auceptus, 173. A. brevis, 173.
A. congnius, 173.
Aglossa cuprealis, 329. A. pinguinalis,
329.
Agrion, 599, 601, 602. Ovipositor of, 16.
A. civile, (503. A. saucium, 603.
Aarrionina, .598, ()03.
Agriotes, 461 A. mancus, 461.
Agriotvpus armatus, (!1G.
Agrotis, 243. A. Cocbrani, 306, 308. A.
devastator, .303. A. subgotbica, 306.
A. suflfusa, .306. A. telifera, 306. A.
tessellata, 306.
Air vesicles, 43.
Alaus oculatus, 460.
Aleochara, 433, 440. 441.
.\letia argillacca, 313.
Alonrodes, .536.
-■Vleiironia Westwoodii, C09.
Alimentary canal, 34.
Allaiitiis basilaris, 224.
Allecula, 475.
Allotiia, 213.
Alucita, 202. A. polydactyla, 357.
Alydus eurinus, 546.
Alypia octo-niaculata, 281.
Alyson oppositus, 162.
Amara, 433.
Amblychila, 429.
Amblynotus, 212.
American Silk-worm, 195.
American Tent C:iterpillar, 343.
Ammophila arenaria, 171. A. cementa-
ria, 171. A. hirsuta, 171. A. lu'j(;uosa,
171. A. sabulo.sa, 170, 171. A. urnaria,
171.
Amnion, 678, (>79.
Ampbiceriis bicandatus, 471.
Ampbidasys cognataria, 322.
Ampbiz :)a insolens, 435.
Ampbizoida3, 434.
Ampulex Siblrica, 166,
Anagrus, 202.
Anal cerci, 22.
Anal forceps, 21.
Anal plate, .30.
Anaphes, '202.
Anarete, 378.
Auarta algida, 316.
Anaspis, iH>.
Anax Junius, 603.
Ancbylopera fragarise, .340. A. medlo-
fasciana, 338. A. nube;-alana, 338. A.
ocellana, 338. A. spirea;foliani',, 338.
A. vacciniaua, 338.
Andrena, 141, 142, 143, 145, 140, 408. A.
vicina, 144.
Audreneta;, 143.
Andrenus marginicollis, 443.
Angerona crocaturia, 319.
Angoumois Grain-moth, 3,50.
Anisoptervx, 231. A. pometaria, 324.
A. verniita, 200, 32t, 335.
Anisota rubiciinda, 300. A. senatoria,
300.
Anisotoma, 439.
Anobium notatum, 47. A. panicenm, 131.
Anomala varians, 455.
Anomalon vesparum, 127, 1.50, 195.
Anoniis xylina, 313.
Anomma arcens, 181. A. Burmeisteri,
181, 683.
Anopheles qnadrimaculatus, 370.
Anopbtb.almus Tellkampfli, 434.
Anotia Bonnetii, 533.
Antenn», 26.
Antennary segments, 20, .58.
Anther-Ta Yama-mai', 296. [447.
Antherophagus, 446. A. ochraceus, 131
(687)
688
INDEX.
Anthicida;, 47G.
Anthiciis, 47().
Antliidiiiin, 1,J5.
AntliotlKuis cardamines, hermaphro-
dite, 4(j. ■
Antliocoi'is insidiosus, 544.
Anthomyia, 131. A. brassica, 411. A.
ceparum, 411. A. cuniculuris, 411. A.
raphaui, 411. A. iircana, 150. A. zex,
411, 41!».
Authonomus cvatjegl, 487. A. prunlcida,
487. A. quadrigibbiis, 487. A. smitel-
latus, 487. A. suturalis, 487. A. syco-
phant:!, 487. A. tessellatus, 487.
Anthopliagus cresiis? 442.
Anthophora, 29, 141 '20G, 397. A . abvupta,
13(i. A. megachilis, 20G. A. taurea,
130.
Anthophorabia, 114, 135, 136, 202, 206. A.
megachilis, 131, 137.
Aiitliyax, 131. A. morio, 397. A. sinu-
osa, l;;2, 140, 397.
AiUhrtMius varius, 448.
AiithriliiiKT, 53.
Antliiol)ia Manimothia, 645.
Auti-^piia, 3t2. [333.
Antithesia bipartitana, 333. A. pruniana.
Ant linn, (ill.
Apatela Americana, 304.
Apathiis, 131, 112. A. Ashtonii, 1.31.
Aphida>, 112, 517, 519.
Aphides, 48, 50, i54, 101, 202, 378.
Aphidins, 198, 203, 521. A. avenaphis, 198.
A. trlM-aphis, 198.
Aphis, OK, 11)8, 203, 213, 372, .379. A. aceris,
521. A. avenae, 522. A. brassicje, .522.
A. cerasi, .522. A. dianthi, 520. A. mali,
522. A. malifolias, 522. A. persicw, 522.
Aphis lion, (i09. Oil.
Apliodiiis linietarius, 453. A. fossor, 453.
Apliiiniia colunella, 329.
Aphrophora qnadrinotata, 532.
Aphrosylus, 403.
ApiariiB, 115, 147.
Apion Sjiyi, 485.
Apis mcllifica, 117.
Apoc'lirysa, 79.
Apoica'pidlida, 154, 156.
Apophylliis, 50, 211.
Aporns I'asciatus, 174.
Apple fly, 38J, 414.
Apple le\af cnimpler, 3.31.
Apple tree borei-, .500.
Araclmida, 104, 025, 632.
Araclniids, (;-29, 630, 640, 643, 660.
Aradiis crcnatus, .553.
Aranea diadema, 193.
Ai-anese, 633.
Ai-aneina, 030, 644.
Archegogryllns prisons, 564.
Ai-chetarbiis rotnndatus, 6.57.
Archimnlacris Acadica, 78.
Archyptera, 24.
Arctia,239. A. Anna, 286. A. caja, 63.
A. pudica, 284. A. vlrgo, 286.
Arctians, 280.
Arctisca, 607.
Argas Persicns, 612.
Argynnis Aphrodite, 2.53. A. Atlantis,
252. A. Bellona, 2.53. A. Diana, 253.
A. Idalia, 2.i2. A. Montinus, 253. A.
Myrina, 2.53.
Argyromisres qnereifoliella, .353.
Argyroneta, 633. A. aquatica, 649.
Amia spinosa, 547.
Army worm, 77. 196, 197, 203, 305, 386, 407.
Arthroniacra. 475.
Arthroinere, 9, 16.
Artliropoda, 1, 8, 6.
Ascalaphiis, 54, 612. A. hyalinus, 613. A.
macaronius, 613.
Asclera, 476.
Asemnm mcestum, 496.
Asexual forms, 49.
Ash, mountain, slug, 222.
Asilida;. 395.
AsUus 302. A. sericeus, 396.
Asopia ciistalis, 328.
AsiKiiagus beetle, 76,502.
Aspathcrium, 017.
Aspidicitus, 50. A. conchiformi8,528. A.
IlaiTisii, 5:i0.
Astata unicolor, 165.
As\-napta, .'178.
Atax,612, 001. A. Bonzi, 640.
Athalia centitbliae, 44.
Athens, 401.
Atopa, 464.
Atropos divinatorins, 589. A. pulsato-
rins, 589.
Attaci, 234.
Attaclyiieata, 186.
Attageiuis ])ellio, 448.
Attacus, 2,15. A. Atlas, 296. A. Aiirota,
297. A. Mylitta, 296. A. Pernyi, 296.
A. Yama-mai,296.
Attelabns analis, 485.
Attns, 194, 655.
Augochlora purus, 143, 156.
Anlacizes mollipes, 532.
Anlacodes nigriventris, 195.
Aulax, 212.
Ba'tisca, .595.
Baetis interpunctata, 595.
Balaninus nasicns, 485.
Barifhus trinotatus, 491. B. sesostri
491. B. vestitus, 491.
Bark lice, 11.
Batrachedra salicipomonella, 352.
Batrachidea cri.^tata, 572.
Batrachomyia, 406.
Bat-ticks, 4'i(i, 418.
Bdella longicornis, 660.
Bdellidw, (iOO.
Bear animalcules, 668.
Bed bug, 551.
Bee killer, .396.
Bee louse, 418.
Bee moth, .332.
Bee, venation of, 23.
Belostoma, 80, 518. B. grlsea, 537. B.
Ilaldnnauum, 537.
Beml)ceida?, 104.
Bembe.x fasciata, 164. B. rostrata, 164.
B. tarsata, 164.
Bembidinm, 422, 434.
Beris, ,392.
"Berna" fly, 412.
Berosus, 438.
Belliylu< Cuscicornis, 201.
Bibi('> albijicnnis, 392.
Bibioiiid.T, 391.
Bicho, 390.
Biorliiza nigra, 211.
Bird lice, .5.54.
Bird sarcojitids, 642.
Bird ticks, 410, 417.
Bite of msects, 43.
Bittacomorpha, 54. B, clavipes, 884.
INDEX.
689
Bittacus, 54. B. pilicornis, GU.
BLack tly, 390.
Blaptj mortisaga, 473.
Blastoderm, 55.
Blastopliaga grossorum, 207.
Blatta, 104. B. Germauica, 481. B. ori-
entaiis, 576.
Blattaviie, 575.
Blattiua, 570, 577.
Blood, 37.
Blue-botlle fly, 407, 408.
Boarmia gnophavia, 3'22.
Bolbocerus, 453.
Bolboiuyia, 3!)2.
B^iletopiian'iis cornutus, 474.
Bolitobius 4 41.
Bolitophila, .'i8J.
Bombardier beetle, 433.
Bombus, 5J, 54, 05, 130, 132, 135, 146,400.
B. fervidus, 401.
Bom))us, bead of, 30.
Bonibycida', 20;J, 234, 238, 283.
Bomlivliida;, 305.
Bombvlius, 54, 1(J4, 397.
Bomb'yx Hiittoiii, 2i)5. B. mori, 293, 294,
295." B. ueustria, 300. B. pl:oedima,384.
Binvouloiria, 447.
Boreiis, 493, .58!, .583, G14. B. bruraalis,
G15. B. uivoriuiidiis, G15.
Bo.strichu.s, 471.
Bot fly, 25, 403.
Botliropolys multidentatiis, G74.
Botys citrina, 3J0. B. verticalis, 330.
Brachiuiis fumaas, 433.
Brachyara, 392.
Bi-achycybe, G7G. B. Lecoutei, G80.
Braoliyderes, 408.
Brachys, 459.
Bracoii, 197, 198.
Braconida3, 197.
Branchise, 41.
Br.itbiiiiis uitidus, 439. B. varicoruis,
4)9.
Braiila, 46, 360, 388.
Braula caeca, 137, 419.
Braulina, 418.
Breeze-flies, 403.
Brenthus septentrionalis, 485.
Brephos iiifaus, 316.
Bristle tails, 623.
BruchidsB, 484.
Bruclius fabi, 484. B. pisi, 484, 513.
Buprestidas, 159, 457.
Biithiis Caroliniauus, 059. B. hirsutits,
660.
Butterflies, hermaphroditism iu, 238.
Butterfly, venation of, 33.
Butternut saw-fly, 334.
Button-wood Tremex, 238.
Byrrhidne, 449.
Byrrlius Americanus, 449. B. pillula, 449.
Byrsocrypta, 533.
Byturus unicolor, 448.
Cabbage buttei-fly, 249.
Cabbage maggot, 411.
Cal)erodes metrocamparia, 320.
Caddis or case-worm, 6, 615.
Caddis-flies, 236.
Caenis, .593. C. hilaris, 596.
Calandra, 489.
Callilucia vcrmiculata, 283.
Callidium antennatnm, 496.
Calligrapha Philadelphica, 509. C. scal-
aris, 509.
U
Callimome, 212.
Callimorpha Lecoutei, 286. C. interrup-
to-mai-ginata, 286.
Callimosema scintillana, 337.
Callochlora chloris, 390.
Callosamia Promethea, 237, 298.
Calosoma calidum, 431. C. scrutator,
431.
Caloptemis bivittatus, 570. C. lemur-
ruljer, 569. C. spretus,570.
Calopterygina, 598.
Calopteryx, 599, GOl, 602. C. apicalis, 603.
Caloternies ca.staneus, 587.
Campodea fragilis, 623.
Campodeffi, 633.
Canipylomyza, 378.
Canker worm, 70, 334.
Canker-worm moth, 200.
Capuia pygniasa, 591.
Capsini, 550. [550.
Capsus Danicus, 550. C. quadrivittatns,
Carabidffi, 431, 423, 424, 427, 430, 435. 437,
446.
Carabus aurouitens, 4.32. C. seiTatus, 432.
Cardo, 28.
Carnus hemapterus, 418.
Carjpenter-l)eo, 133.
Carpet motli, 347.
Carpocapsa pomonella, 341.
Carpophdus antiquus, 444.
Carrion or Sexton Beetle, 438.
Caryborus, 79, 80.
Case-fly, 6.
Casnoiila Pensylvanica, 433.
Cassida, 408. C. auricbalcea, 504.
Cassidomyla, 408.
Castnia, 380.
Cataclysta fulicalis, 330.
Catocala, 303. C. piatrix, 317. C. ultro-
nui, 317.
Catocha, 378.
Catops, 439.
Cebrio bicolor, 463.
CebrionidEe, 462.
Cecidomyiffi, 203, 305.
Cecidomyia acrophila, 373. C. artemisia3,
199. C. destructor, 373, 374. C. I'usci-
collis, 373. C. glutinosa, 373. C. gros.
sularias, 376. C. pavida, 373. C. pini-
iuopis, 376. C. rigid;e, 376. C.robinia;,
499. C. salicis, 364, 373, 376. C. salici-
brassicoides, 377. C. strobiloides, 377.
C. tritici, 375, 376. C ? vitis-coryloides,
377.
Cecidomyidse, 371.
Cecropia moth, 37, 234, 298.
Cells of the Honey bee, 120.
Cemonus inornatiis, 161.
Centipedes, 10, 673, 674.
Cephalization, 9.
Cephaloidje, 476.
Cephaloon lepturides, 476.
Cephalothoi-ax, 8.
Cephus, 215. C. abbreviatus, 227. C. trt
maculatus, 227.
Cerambycidas, 435, 436, 493.
Ceraphron, 199. C. armatum, 200.
Cerasphorus cinctue, 495.
Ceratina, 14:5, 319. C. dupla, 134, 140.
Ceratocampadse, 399.
Ceratomia Amyntor, 274.
Ceratopogon, 371.
Cereeris, 146. C. bujn-esticida, 159. C.
deserta, 1.59. C. trlcincta, 159. C. tuber-
culata, 159.
690
Cercopida;, 588.
Cercupis, o.ii.
Cercjyon, 438.
Cenuicia, 070. C. forceps, G73.
Cenualidic, 07.'5.
Cerop.iliis bipmictata, 174. C. Robin-
soiiii, 17.").
Cetoui;i, 4">:), 4r)7.
CeuUiopliilus iliaculatiis, 565. C. stygius-
5^5.
CeiUorliyiiclms, 489.
Chal^ididaj, -202.
Chaljids, IJl, -207, 410.
Chal;;is albifrons, 20,J. C. bvacata, 203.
Chaljophora Virginiensis, 4.38.
Chaliuodoin I miurana, 192.
Chartergiis chartaniis, 154.
Chaitophda lloralis, 408.
Chaiiliodes pectinioornis, (i07. C. rastri
coriiis, (iO i. C. sen-ieornis, 007.
Chauliognathus Peiisylvaniciis, 407.
CheeiC maggot, 413.
(Jhelifer, 030. C. oancroides, 659.
Chelyinorpha cribaria, 5U4.
Cheriiies, 50, .52 5. C. abietis, 525.
Chcriics. C Sauborni, 059.
Chevnetidaj, 0.58.
Chsrry slug, '222.
Ohevletus, 005. C. semenivorus, 668.
Chigoe, 390.
ChiJoeonis bivulnerulus, 513.
Chilognatha, 071, 070.
Cliilojioda, 070, 072.
Chilopods, 072, 070.
Chinch bug, 513.
Chion clntitus, 495.
Chionea, 3.58, 559. C. araneoides, 383. C.
valga, 383.
Chionobas, 75, 232. C. Bore, 203. C.
Cakiis, 203. C. Clirixus, '2:3. C. .Tutta,
2G3. C. CEno, 203. C. semidea, '203.
Chigue, 390.
Chironomida;, 370.
Chironomus oceanicus, 370.
Chirononuis larva, 21.
Chitinc, 1, 9.
Chlaenius, 434.
Chlamys plicata, 510.
ChloUaltis conspersa, 5G8.
Chloiion, .504.
Chlorion cyaneum, 107.
Chlorops liorpinii, 415. C. lineata, 415.
Choirode-i traiisversata, 319.
Chresfotes lapidoa, 593.
Chrvsidi.la', l!l(), 199.
Chrysis, 157, 191, 192. C. hilaris, 192.
Chrysobothris I'eniorata, 458. C. Harrisii,
459.
ChrysomelidiE, .501.
ChrVsopa, 47, 79. C. perla, 611. C. ocu-
lata. Oil.
Chrj'sophanus Americanus,264. C.Thoe,
*'04 357
Chry'sops niger, .393. C. vitlatus, 393.
Cicada canicularis, 103. C. Cassinii, 535.
C. pruinosa, 534. C. rimosa, 534 O.
se)itondeciin, 535.
Cicadellina, 531.
Cicadidaj SKi.
Cicindela gonerosa, 430. C. hirticollis,
4:50. C. "punctata, 430. C. purpurea,
43e. C. sexguttata, 430. C. vulgaris,
430.
CicindelifiiV, 423, 428.
Cidaria diversiliueata, 325.
Cillenum, 434.
Cinibex Americana, 215.
Cime.K, 510. C. coiumbarius, 651. C
hirundinis, 551. C. Icctularius, 551. C
pipitftrelli, 551.
Cioidai, 472.
Circuhitory system, 37, 398.
Cis, 472.
Cistela, 475.
Cistehda', 425, 475.
Citheronia Mexicana, 299. C. regalis,
2J9. C. sepulcralis, 299.
Cladius i.soniera, 220.
(Jladomacra macropus, 114.
Cladura indivisa, 3'jO.
CUunbu.s. 439.
Chis.'<ilication of insects, 104.
Ch^^t(>ptora proteus, 532.
Claviger, 440.
Ciavol;i, 2'j.
Cleptes semiaurata, 192.
Cleridaj, 458.
C'lerus, 408. C. alvearius, 469.
Clmiduim, 440.
Clisiocampa, 1.50, 190, 343. C. Aiueiv
cana, 207, 238, 301. C. disstna, 30i.
Clivina, 432.
Cloaca, 35.
Cloij, 593. C. pygmrea, 596.
Clothes moth, 340.
Clothilla picea, 589.
Clover worm, 328.
Clubione holosericea, 193. C. medicin-
alis, 049. C. tranquilla, 049.
Clypeus, 29.
Clytus, 159. C. araneiformis, 497. C. pic-
tus, 497. C. robinire, 497. C. si)eciosu8,
490.
Coccus cacti, .527. C. citri, 527. C. lacca,
,527. C.manuiparu8,527. C. Gloverii,527
Coccidre, 112, .525.
Coccinella bipmictata, 511. C. jjovem*
notata, 512. C. trifasciata, 512.
Coccinellid.'c, 511.
Coccophagus, .527.
Coccus cacti, 520.
Cochlidias 288.
Cockchafer, 71.
Cockroach, 194, .575.
Cocoons of Silk Worms, 240.
Coddling moth, 341.
Cadiodes injequalis, 490.
Cadioxys octodentata, 141.
Cadodasys (Notodonta) unicornis, 292.
Coleophora coruscipennella, 351. C.
rosacella, 351. C. rosa'foliclla, 351.
Coleoptera, 420, 421. Antennie of, 422.
Number of species of, 427.
Colias, 244. C. interior, 251. C. Labra-
dorensis, 250. C. occidentalis, 251. C.
Philodice, 250.
Collecting insects, 84.
Colletcs, 141. ^■i.% 147.
Collophoire, 622.
Colorado potato beetle, 408, 503.
Colpodia, 378.
ColvdidJe, 445.
Colydium elongatum, 446.
Colymbetes, 4.30.
Common fly, 301.
Comprelieii?ive types, 54.
Compsidea tridental a, 490.
Condvlodera tricondyloides, 507.
Conioi)teryx,025. C. tineiformis,009. C
vidua, 009.
INDEX.
G91
Conocephalus ensiger, 56G.
Coiiopiilx, 4o0, US.
Coaops, Lit, a;:i. C. llavipes, 401.
Couorliiiuis saiiguisuga, ofi.
Coiiotraclieliis neiuipliar, 488.
Copris, 47. C. Carolina, 451.
Coptura, '201. C. polita, 201.
Coramis subaptenis, ."Jll.
Cordiilia teuubi'osa, 004.
CorcluliiKi, .')S1.
Coreitl;i3, oU.
CoretlUM, (i."i, 370.
Coreii^ mai-giiiatus, 544. C. scapha, 51.j.
C. tri-jtis, .'>io.
Corimehena pulicaria, 547.
Corisue, 'ill
Corixa iiiterrupta, o'iG.
Corn, iuse its injurious to, 303, 311, 350.
Corne I, 25.
Coiyd ilus, 70. C. cornutus, 33, 579, 007.
Coryuiljites asripennis, 4G'2. C. viridis,
462. C. cyliiuii'itbrmis, 452. C. triuu-
dulatus, 4()2. (J. liLeroglypliicus, 402.
Corynetes, 408.
Costa, 2 !
Cotalpa lanigera, 4.55.
Cotton Anoniis, ol3.
Cotton Boannia, Z'-i'i.
Cotton lluliothis, 315.
Cotton Loaf roller, 335.
Cotton riusia, 312.
Coxa, 20.
Crabro, 110,197. C. sex-macnlatus, 159.
C. singularis, 158, 100. C. stirpicola,
158.
Crabi-onidre, 149, 155, 1.57, 195.
Cranibidia pallida, 28>.
Cranil)us, 23 i. C. niutabilis, 332.
Cranbuny Anc,liylo|)era, 338.
Cranberry Cidaria, 325.
Cranberry I'ristipliora, 217.
Cran!)err"y Tortri.v, 334.
Cranberry weevil, 487.
Crane-flies, 380.
Crepidodera cnciimeris, 506.
Cressonia juglaudis, 274.
Crickets, .502.
CrioceridJB, 423.
Crioceris asparagi, 502.
Crocota ferriigiuosa, 285.
Crossidius pulchrior, 495.
Croton bug, 570.
Crustacea, 030.
Crustaceans, typical, 5, 7, 8.
Cryphalus niaterarius, 493.
Cryptoceplialus, 510.
Cryptocercus puuclulatus, 576. C. mul-
tispinosus, 190.
Cryptopliagidic, 440.
Cryptophagus liirtus, 417.
Cryptus, 193, 197, 395. C ? ornatipennis,
197.
Ctenistes, 432.
Cteuoeerus, 114.
Cteuophora, 381.
Ctenostonia, 428.
Ctenucha, 239, 280. C. Virginica, 234,
283.
Cuckoo bee, 141, 147. Cuckoo flies, 191.
Cucujida;, 440.
Cucujus, 440.
Cucumber Ilea beetle, 506.
Culex pipiens, 309.
Culicidae, 308.
Cupes capitata, 470. C. cinerea, 470.
Cupesidre, 409.
Curculionidw, 159, 378, 425, 420, 484.
Currant Abraxas, .321.
Currant Borers, 279, 500.
Currant l'ri>tipliora, 217.
Cuterebra buccata, 400. C. cuniculi, 406.
C. emasculator, 405. C. liorripilum,
400.
Cut-worms, Remedies for, 308.
Cyclirus, 432.
Cyclonotum, 438.
Cyciuptlialmus, 030. C. Bucklandi, GOO.
Cylinclrotoma, 384. C. distinctissima,
381. C. (I'lialacrocera) replicata, 381.
Cymtitophora caniplaga, 301.
Cvninidis, 433.
CVniiiida\ 2u5, 208.
Cynips, 50, 202. C. confluens, 209, 211.
C. divisa, 209. C. folii, 209. C. gallre-
tinctoriaj, 211. C. <iuercus-aciciilata,
208. C. qnercus-futllis, 210, 211. C.
qucrcus globulus, 210. C. quercus-pa-
lustris, 211. C. quercus-papillata, 210.
C. seminator, 210. C. tubicola, 210.
Cynthia, 214.
Cyphon, 404.
Cyrtidfe, 395.
Gyrtophyllum concavum, 506.
Daddy-long-legs, 380.
Dailunia, 505.
Danais, 245. D. arciiippus, 251.
Dascyllidre. 404.
Dasypogon, 361,395.
Death's head Sphinx, 281.
Deciduous legs, 21.
Deformities of Insects, 83.
Dogeeria nivalis, 02.").
Deilephila lineata, 275. D. chamosnerii,
270.
Delphax arvensis, 533.
Demodex, 020, 012. D. foUiculorum, 69,
067.
Dendroides Canadensis, 477. D. con-
color, 477.
Depressaria atrodorsella, 349. D. later-
ella, 319. D. robiniella, 349.
Dermaleichus pici-pubescentis, 606.
Dermanyssus avium, 003. D. ijipistrel-
L-B, 003.
Dermaptera, 577.
Derniatobia moyocuil, 400. D. noxialis,
40(i.
Dermatodectes bovis, 666. D. equi, 666.
D. ovis, 000.
Dermestes lardarius, 448.
Dermestidfe, 448.
Derodontidaj, 447.
Desmia maculalis, 330.
Desmocerus cyaneus, 506.
Desoria, 025.
Development of Insects, .54.
Devil's darning needles, 597.
Dexia, 408.
Diabrotica, 12-punctata, 506. D. vittata, 50.5.
Dianous, 442.
Diajjheroniera femorata, 573.
Diapria cecidomyiarum, 199.
Diastrophus, 212.
Dicerca divaricata, 4.58. D. lurida, 458.
Dichelonycha elongatula, 454.
Dictyoneura. 582.
Dicdrocephala, 5.32.
Dimorphism, 52.
Dineutes, 79, 80. D. Americanus, 437.
692
INDEX.
Diplax, 55, 60, COO. D. Berenice, 605. D.
Elisa, G05. D. rubicuudula, 605.
Diplolepaiifc, '208.
Diplolepis coufluens, 155. D. confluen-
tus, no.
Diplonvchns, 80.
DiplosiV, 37.0. 378. D. socialis, 373.
Dipneumones, 6-18.
Diptera, 35s. Number of species of, 267.
Venation of, 360.
Diseases of insects, 81, 344.
Diving Beetles, 435.
Dolerus arvensis, 2-22.
Dolichopodiila?, 402.
Dolomedcs lanccolatus, 653.
Dolopiiis st:il)ili.<, 4(!1. D. paupei", 401.
Donacia Kirbyi,5it2. D. proxima, 502.
Dor bug, 4.")5.
Dorcas brevis, 451.
Dorcatomma, 422.
Dorsal vessel, 37.
Dorthesia, 520.
Dorylus, 181.
Doryphora decem-lineata, 508. D. juncta,
509.
Dragon-flies, 584, 597, 630, 679.
Drassus, 649.
Drasteria erechtea, 317.
Drilus, 466.
Drop-worms, 318.
Drosophila, 377, 414.
Dryopteris rosea, 293.
Ductus ejaculatorius, 44.
Dynastes, 455. D. Hercules, 450. D.
Tityus, 4.56.
Dysdera, 6:5:5. D. interrita, 649.
Dytiscida;, 424, 4:55, 436, 4:57.
Dytiscus, 53. D. fasciventris, 4j6.
Eacles imperialis, 300.
E-arwigs, 577.
Eburia? Ulljei, 495.
Echiniscus, 642.
Echiiiomyia, 40S.
Eciton Mexicana, 183. E. Suraiclii-asti,
186.
Ectatomma feiTuginea, 184.
Ei'tobia Germanica, 576. E. lithophilii,
576.
Edema albifrons, 292.
Eggs, 46.
Egg-parasites, 198.
Eipliosoma annulatum, 195.
Elachista V oriclialcella, 352.
Elapluus, 431.
Elasmocerus terminatus, 468.
Elater, 460. E. obliquus, 461.
ElateridiB, 421, 425, 459.
Eleplumtoniyia Westwoodii, 383.
Elis costalis, 177.
Ellema llarrisii, 271.
Ellopia, :il8. E. fasciarui, 320. E. flagit-
iaria, :520.
Elm butterfly, 260.
Elm Eunomos, :521.
Elm Tremex, 228.
Elmis, 45J.
Pvlodes, 473.
Embia S.ivigni, .588.
Eiiibidw, .583, .588.
Emesa longipes, 541.
Emmonadia, 481.
Emphytus maculatus, 220.
Empid:e, 402.
Empis, 361.
Empretia stimulea, 289.
Enipusa, 575.
Einydium testudo, 669.
Eucyrtus, 223. E. Botus, 207. E. Reate,
207. E. varicornis, 207.
Endomycliidaj, 510.
Endropia tigrinaria, 320.
Ennomos magnaria, 321. E. subsiguaria,
321.
Enoicyla pusilla, 616.
Entomological journal, 103.
Entomological systems, 106.
Entomological works, 97.
Entomostraca, 616.
Eoscorpion carbonarius, 660.
EpeYra domiciliorum, 651. E. vulgaris,
631, 651.
Epeolus, 141. E. variegatus, 147.
Ephemera decora, .594.
Ephemerida;, .578, 580, .581, 583, 593.
Epliemerids, 583, 593.
Epbemerina, 583.
Ephomorites, 594.
Epliydr.i lialojjhila, 414.
Epici'anium, 29.
Epidosis, 372, 378.
Epilachna borealis, 518.
Epimera, 9.
Epipharyx, 20, 29.
Epipono nitidulaus, 203.
Epirus, 401.
Eiiisternum, 9.
Epuraea, 445, 446.
Erastria carneola, 316.
Erclius Agrippina, 318. E. odora, 318.
Krcmiiphila Klnenbergi, 575.
Kriiiptei'a venusta, 383.
Kriosoma Innigera, 522. E. pyri, 525.
Eristalis, 398.
Erno1>ius mollis, 471.
Erotylidre, 510.
Erytlironeura vitis, 5.32.
Eucera, 141. E. maculata, 136.
Eucerceris zonatns, 159.
Eucheu'a socialis, 244.
Euchroma Columbica, 459.
Euclea Monitor, 289.
Kuchronia Maia, 299.
Eucnemis, 460.
Eudamus Bathvllus, 269. E. Tit^-rus,269.
Eudryas, 280. E. grata, 281. E. unio,282.
Eugereon Boeckingi, 54, 78, 582.
Enlopluis basalis, 207.
Eumenes, 147, 155, 156. E. coarctata, 207.
E. IVaterna, 1.56. E. tinctor, 192.
Eumoli)us auratns, .509.
Euplianessa mendica, 285.
Eupithocia miserulata, 325.
Euple\'oi)tpra, 577.
Eupyrrli<)gli>ssum Sagra, 277.
Euremia, 2sO.
Eurvomia Iiida, 4.57.
EurVptvclna saliffneana, 3:57.
Eurvtolna, 205, 205, 212. E. flavipes, 205.
E.'hordji, 203, 205. E. .-ecalis, 205.
Eusoirrhoptevus Pocvi, 282.
Eunra orbitalis, 218. E. pertiirbans, 218.
E. salicis-ovnm, 218.
Evagoras viridis, 542.
Evasrorus, 80.
Evaniri, 194, 195. E. laevigata, 194.
Evaniida^ 194.
Eyes, 25.
Facets of eye, 25.
INDEX.
693
False legs, 17.
False Scorpions, 632.
Fatty bod)-, 37.
Fauiia, 71.
Femur, 21.
Fidia viticida, 502.
Fidonia piniaria, hermaphrodite, 4G.
Figites, 212. F. (Diplolepis) 5-liueatu.s
208.
Figitida3, 212.
Filaria, 83.
Filistata hibernalis, 649.
Fire lly, 402, 405.
Fire-worms, 339.
Fir saw fly, 224.
Flau-ellum, 26.
Flata, 112. F. limbata, 533.
Flea, 11, .360, 388.
Flesli flv, 407, 408.
Flight of Insects, 32.
Fosuiis, 194, 195. F. jaculator, 195.
Forest-flies, 416.
Forrtcula, 51, 577.
Forfieiilariaj, 577.
Formica flava, 183. F. fulvacea, 183. F.
fusca, 180. F. heroulanea, 183. F. Peu-
sylvanica, 183. F. rubra, 183. F. san-
guiiiea, 180, 182, 183.
Formicanse, 179.
Formiconms, 476.
Fornax, 400.
Fossil Diptera, 368.
Front of the head, .31.
Fruit- worm, (Cranberry) 340.
Fulgora eaudelaria, 533. F. lanternaria,
.533.
Fulgoridae, 532.
Fungus eating-flies, 199.
Galea, 28.
Galerita Lecoutei, 4.33.
Galeruca gelatinarias, 504. G. margin-
ella, rm.
Galesus, 201.
Galgudini, 539.
Galgulus oculatus, 539.
Galleria cereana, 332.
Gall-flies, P.tK, 208, 371.
Gall-midi'-es, 11)9.
Gamasiihe. 063.
Gam.'isus coleoptratorum, 663.
Gaslrtiparha Americana, 300.
Gaslrophilus equi, 404.
Gelechia cerealella, .350. G. fungivorella,
350. G. roseosuflusella, 350.
Gena, 28.
Generation, orjraus of, 43.
Genital or.^-ans, lo.
Geographical Distribution, 71.
Geological Distribution, 77.
Geometra iridaria, 323.
Geometridaj, 303.
Geophilidas, 675.
Geophilus bipuncticeps, 675. G. cephal-
icu.s, 075. G. proavns, 673.
Georyssidas, 449.
Georyssus pusillus, 450.
Geotrupes, 663. G. splendidus, 4.53. G.
stercorarius, 32.
Gerris, 516, 539. G. paludiim, 540.
G. rnfoscutellatus, 540.
Gills, 41.
Girdler, 498.
Gizzard, .35.
Glaucopis, 280, 283.
Glomerldje, 677.
Glomeris marginata, 677.
Glossina morsitaus, 407.
Glow-worm, 424.
Glvphe, 203.
Goklen-cyed fly, 393.
Goldsmith beetle, 455.
Goliathus cacicus, 456. G.Drurii,456. G.
Goliathus, 450.
Gomphina, 584.
Gomphus, 597. G. fraternus, 603.
Gonatopus lunatus, 199.
Gonia, 408.
Gonocerus, 545.
Gouyleptes ornatum, 057.
Gooseberry Midge, 376.
Gooseberry Pempelia, 331.
Gooseberry Pristiphora, 217.
Gooseberry saw-fly, 217, 219.
Gooseberry worm, 331.
Gordius, 82.
Gortyiia flavago, 310. G. nitela,310. G
leucostigma, 310.
Gorytes flavicornis, 163.
Gracilaria, 342.
Grain moth, 347, 350.
Grain weevil, 490.
Graniatophora trisignata, 304.
Grape Acoloithus, 282.
Grape Alypia, 281.
Grape Aiiomala, 4.55.
Grape liaridius, 491.
Grape Borer, 278.
Grape Cidaria, 325.
Grape Desmia, 330.
< jrape Eudryas, 281.
(irape Fidia". 502.
< iraiie-leaf Flea beetle, 507.
(irape-leaf folder, 330.
(iraiie Penthina, 336.
<;rape Phdampelus, 275.
Grape Pterophorus, 356.
Graiie Tliyreus, 276.
Grape weevd, 490.
Grapholitha, 337.
Grapta c-argenteum, 260. G. comma, 260.
G. Faunus, 260. G. uiteiTogationis, 25:).
Graptodera chalybea, 507. G. exapta, 507.
(;rassh(ii)pers, .556.
<;roase moth, 329.
Green-head fly, 393.
(irotea anguiua, 197.
Gryllidas, 558, 562.
Gryllotalpa borealis, 563. G. longipcnnis,
503.
Gryllus abbreviatus, 564. G. campestris,
00. G. domestieus, 563. G. luctuosus
504. G. neglectus, .564. G. uiger, 564.
Guest a:all-flies, 212.
Gyriniil.T, 424,436, 437.
(iyrinus, 422. G. borealis, 4.37.
Gyropus porcelli, 555.
Hadena chenopodii, 309.
HadenoM'us siUiten-anens, ,565.
Halosidota carya?, 287. H. maculata, 287.
II. tossellaris, 287.
Halictus, 141. 142, 144, 145. H. paraleUus,
145.
Haliplns, 4.36.
Hnlonota siniulana, 337.
Haltica chalvbea, 507. H. cucumeris,
.500. H. striolata, 507.
H.amamelistes cornn, 523.
Haploplilebium, 594.
694
INDEX.
Harpactopiis, 107.
Hai'puctof ciuctus, 543.
Harpaliis, Oi^. II. caliginosus, 420, 434.
Harpax,r)75.
Huive^t-nien, G32, GoG.
Hatching' of the larva, CI,
Head, appeiidaget; of, 24. Segments of,
20. Structure of, IS.
Hearing, organs of, 5."),). Sense of, 25.
Heart, 37. Development of, 42.
Hedychrum bi;leiitulum, 101. H. diniidi-
atum, l'J2. 11. lucitlulum, IDl. 11. re-
gium, l.)l.
Hegemuii, 453.
Helichus, iM.
Hclicouia Melpomene, 2^1.
Hclicopsyche, UIO. H. arenifera, G19. H.
glabra, ()l;).
Heliocheihis paradoxus, 315.
Hcliothis armigera, 31."j.
Helluomorpha prreusta, 433.
Helochara communis, 532.
Helophihis, 3;)'J.
Hem.M'istla occidentalis, 77, 596.
Hemeristina, .OUJ.
Hcmerobiiilie, 2>7, 580, 583, OOD, 022.
Hemerobius, 581, 583. H. alternatus, GIO.
H. occidentalis, GIO.
Hemiptera, 514.
Hemiteles, 193.
Hepiali, 301.
Hepialus, 11, 233, 23G. H. Immuli, 302.
H. musteliuus, 302.
Hermaphrodites, 45.
Hermuiia juixlnisialis, 328.
Ilcrsilla, 1)31.
Hesperia Ilobomoc, 2G9. H. Mystic, 270.
II. Wanisutta, 270.
Ilesperians, 2Gi).
Hessian-lly, 200, 202, 207, 372.
Hetasrius, 443.
Heterooeridre, 450.
Ileteromera, 42 1.
Heterometabolia, iii.
Heteropus ventricosus, 136, 067, 608.
Hexapoda, 21.
Hibernation, 42.
Hickory girdler, 498.
Hickory saw-fly, 224.
Hickory tree borer, 495, 497.
Hipparcliia, 232.
Hippobosca, 3')3, 304. H. bubonis, 417.
H. equinro, 417.
nippol)nseida;, 41G.
Hipiiodamia convergens, 511. H. macu-
lata, 511.
Hirmoneiira, 305.
Hispa rosea, .503. H. sutui'alis, 504.
Histeridffi, 442.
Hister interniptus, 443. H. merdarius, 443.
Hockena, 203.
Homaloinyia, 411.
Ilomolota, 4U.
Homoptera Innatn, .318.
Homothetus fossilis, 77.
Honev-ant, 18t.
Honey bees, 45, .50, .52, 116, 147, 361.
Honeysuckle saw flv. 216.
Hop butterflies, 259,"260, 265.
Hop Hepialus, 30-3.
Hop Hviiena. .327.
Hop-vine motli, .327.
Horia saniruiuipennis, 479.
Hornet, 1.50.
Horntails, 227.
Horse bot fly, 404.
Horse fly, „i)S.
Horse tick, 417.
House fly, 40/, 409.
Humble bee, 130, 131, 194, 198, 329. Sting
of, 15.
llyalomyia, 404.
Ilybernia tdiaria, 325.
llybos, 402.
llybridity, 54. [OGl.
llydrachna, 031, 032, 660. H. concharum,
llydrachuida;, GUI.
IlVdrobius, 438.
llydrocampa, 329, 330.
llydrocoris, 518.
Hydronietra, 530.
Hydrophdida;, 424, 437. H. piceus, 438.
llyilrophilus, 4i2. 11. triangularis, 438.
llytlropliorus, 403.
Hydrops vcf.e .scalaris,C21.
Hvdrotreclms. 539, 540.
Hvlobatcs, 540.
Hylobius pales. 480.
Hylotoma McLeayi, 217.
Hjiurgns dentatiis. 493. H. terebrans, 492.
llymonoptcia, 107.
Ilypena luimuli, 327,
llyperchiria varia, 299.
Ilyperhomala viicscens, .507.
Hypermetamorpliosis, G7.
llyphautria cunea, 287. H. textor, 286.
Ilypoderma bovis, 405. H. tarandi, 405.
Hypotlernus, 03.
Hy|)onomeutii niillepunctatella, 348.
Ilypoprepia fucosa, 284, 285.
Hyporliagus, 475.
Hypselonotus, 80.
Ibalia, 213.
Icaria guttatipennis 121, 155, 156.
Iclmeumonidaj, l!i2.
Ichneumon, 135, 146. I. ovulorum, 200.
1. pariitus, 197, I, suturalis, 19G.
Idia Bigoti, 410.
Idioptera,300.
Imago, 70.
Ina;qxtjtela;, 6.50,
Inostemma inserens, 201,
Inquilina^ 212.
Insects bisexual, 45.
Insect Crust, composition of, 9.
Insect years, 7G.
Intestine, 35.
Introduced species, 70.
loplocama formosana, 338.
Ips fasciatus, 445. 1. ferrugineiis,445. 1.
sanguinolentus, 4-15.
Isoiitervx Cydippe, 591.
Itc^li mite, GOO.
Itliomia, 251.
Ixodida;, 001.
Ixodes, 029, 032. I. albipictns, 602. I.
bovis, 003, 008. I, riciuus, 003. I. uni-
imnctata, 002, 068.
•Tapyx solifugus, 023,
•Tassus irroratus, 532,
Jigger, .390,
.Joint-worm, 203, 204, 205.
.Tuglnns squamosa, 224.
.Inlidre, 071,073, 078.
Julus, 02, 071, 073, 070, 678. J. Canadan*
sis, (>79. J. mnUistriatus, 679.
,Tune beetle, 27, 4.55.
Junouia coenia, 261.
INDEX.
695
Katydid, 566.
Killing insects for the Cabinet, 87.
Labelliim, 29.
Labia niinuta, 577.
Labidomera triniaculata, 508.
Labidus, 180.
Labium, 28.
Labrum, 2i).
Lace winged flies, 009, Gil.
Lachlania abnorniis, 593.
Lachneides, 300.
Lachnostcrna, 27. L. fusca, 455.
Lachnus cai-yffl, 522. L. strobi, 522.
Lacinla, 28.
Lady bud, 511.
Lfemophloeus adnstus, ligure of, 555.
Lagoa c.rispata, 288.
Lagi-iidai, 475.
Lamellicornia, 451.
Laniellicoriis, 425, 42S.
Lamprocolletes, 114.
LanipyridiB, 421, 425, 465.
Lampyris, 405.
Laphiia, 51. L. thoracica, 390,
Large Blark Cut- worm, 30G.
Larrada argentata, 105.
Larra iinicincta, 104.
Larridre, 1G4. [95.
Larvas, preservation of, 95. Rearing of.
Larva state, 02.
Lasioptera, 378. L. rubi, 372.
LathridiidiU, 417.
Lathiidius minutus, 447.
Leaf beetles, 5J1.
Leaf cutter bee, 135, 130.
Leaf rollers, 332.
Lebia, 43J. L. (Dromius) linearis, 149.
Lecanium, 50, ."iiO. L. acericola, 528. L.
hesperidum, 528. L. McClur;c, 528.
Legs, false, 17, 21. Joints of, 20.
Leiopus alpha, 497. L. xauthoxyli, 497.
Lema triliueata, 503.
Lepidocyrtiis albinos, 425.
Lepidoptera, 229. Digestive system of,
237. Nervous sj-stem of, 237.
Lepisesia Uivofasciata, 277.
Lepisma, 578, 58), 022. L. saccharina,G23.
LepismatidiE, 022.
Leptidaa, 394.
Leptis vermilio, 395.
Leptocerus niger, 020. L. sepulchralis,
020.
Leptoris breviornatana, 334.
Lepturje, 491.
Lestes, 001. L. eurina, 603.
Lestremia, .378.
Leiieauia unipuncta, 190, 203, .305, 313.
Leucarctia acraja, 280.
Leucosomus ophthalmicus, 159.
Leucospis allinis, 203. L. Poeyi, 203.
Leuotra tenuis, 591.
Libellula, 578, 579, 581, .599, 002. L. auri-
pennis,.');i9. L. luctuosa, 84. L. qiiad-
rimaculata, 004. L. triniaculata, (i04.
LibellulidiB, 578, 579, 580, 581, 583, 597.
LibeUuliiia, 001.
Libythea Bachmanii, 264.
Lice, 553.
Ligula, 28.
Ligyrus, 425.
Limacodes, 228. L. scapha, 290.
Limenitis Arthemis, 202. L. Ephestion,
232. L. IMisippus, 261.
Limnobates, 540.
Limnobia annulus, 382.
Limnobina, 3S1.
Limnophiladispar, 383.
Limnophilides, 017.
Limnopliilus llavicornis, 618. L. pellu-
cidus, 018. L. perpusillus, 017. L.
rhombicus, 017. L. subpunctulatus.
618.
Limonius ectypus, 461. L. plebeius, 461,
Linden slug, 222.
Lingua, 29.
Liotheum anseris, 555.
Lipoptena, 417.
Lithacodes fasciola, 290.
l.ithentomum Harttii, 77.
Litliobiidie, 073.
JJthobius Americanus, 073. L. forflca-
tus, 07.j.
Lithocolletis, 342. L. curvilineatella, 354.
L. Fitchella, 353. L. gemiuatcUa, 353,
354. L. juglandiella, 353. L. nidilican-
sella, 354. L. salicifoliella, 353.
Lithosia argillacea, 284. L. casta, 284.
Lithosians, 280.
Livia vernalis, 531.
Locustariaj, 557, 504.
Locusta viridissima, 48, 567.
Locusts, 504.
Louust Depressaria, 349.
Locust Eudamus, 209.
Locust gall midge, 499.
Locust tree borer, 497.
Lonch.-Ea nigra, 413.
Lonchoptera, 08.
Lou'jficornia, 493.
Lophyrus, 114, 219. L. Abbotii, 220. L.
abdominalis, 220. L. abietis, 221, 226.
L. Americana, 220. L. compar, 220. L.
Fabricii,220. L. insularis,220. L. Le-
contei, 220. L. piuetum, 220. L. pini-
rigidffi, 225, 226.
Louse, 11.
Lozottenia fragariana, 335. L. gossypi-
aua, 335. L. I'osaceaua, 335, 330.
Lubber grasshopper, 570.
Lucanidre, 420, 450.
Lu^'anus dama, 451. L. cervus, 32, 451.
Ludius attenuatus, 4G1.
Lycrena comyiitas, 2(i5. L. neglecta, 265.
l^ycomorjilia" Pliolus, 283.
Lycosa, 027, 031. L. fatigera, 054. L. ta-
rantula, 054.
Lyctus opaculus, 472.
Lycus, 405.
Lyda inanita, 215. L. scripta, 226.
Lydella, 042.
Lygajida;, 512.
Lygajus, 542. L. turcicus, 543.
Lyniexylidaj, 409.
Lymexylon sericeum, 409.
Lyonetia saccatella, 355.
Lystra auricoma, .533. L. lanata, 533.
Lvtta vittata, 480. L. cinerea, 480. L,
murina, 480. L. marginata, 480.
Macaria granitata, 323.
Machilis,'(;23.
Macrobiotus, 009.
Macrodactylus subspinosus, 454.
Macroglossa stellatarum, 277.
Macroiepidoptera, 242.
Macrosiagon, 481.
Macrosila Carolina, 274. M. cingulata,
272. M. clnentius, 274. M. quinque-
maculuta, 272.
696
INDEX.
Madarus vitis, 491.
Magdalinus olyra, 488.
MalacliKUT, 467.
Malacliiiu-i. 457.
Male genital organs, 16.
Malloi)haga, 554.
Maiiiestva arctica, 311. M. picta, 312.
Mandibles, 27.
Mandilnilar segments, 20, 58.
Mantida3, 574.
Mantis, 5t. M. argentina, 575. M.Caro-
lina, 575.
Mantispa, 54, 579. M. bnmnea, GH.
Mantispids, 592.
Mantis tessellata, ovipositor of, 17.
JIasarls vespoides, 157.
Mason bee, 138, 207.
MaxilL-e, 27.
Maxillary segments, 20, 58.
May Hies, 593.
Mazonia Woodiana, 660.
Meat fly, 408.
Mechanitis, 2.51.
Meci>tocei)halu8 fulviis, 675.
Mei'vnorluua Savagei, 456.
MedVtcrus, 403.
Me.nachile, 206, 397. M. brevis, 137. M.
crntuncularis, 136, 138. M. integer, 137.
M. niuvaria, 191. M. Toeyi, 203.
Megathentomum piistiilatiim, 621.
Melanactes, 462.
JNIelandrya striata, 476.
Melandryidse, 475.
Melanisin, 76.
JleLuiotus communis, 461.
Melecta, 136, 141.
Melii)()ua, 128. M. fulvipes, 129.
Mclitroa Anicia, 2.58. M. Chalcedon, 258.
M. Harrisii, 257. M. CEuone, 257. M.
Packardii, 256. M. Phaeton, 255. M.
Texana, 2.58. M. Thavos, 256.
Melittia ciicurbita;, 279.
Mollinus bimaculatiis, 162.
Meloi;, 6, 131, 427. 31. augusticoUis, 478.
M. violaceus, 478.
Meloidre, 477.
Melolontha, 4.54. M. rariolosa, 455.
Meloidiagus, 46. M. ovinus, 418.
Membranjicei, 550.
Mentinn, 27, 28.
Mermis albicans, 127.
Jlevodon bardus, 399. M. narcissi, 399.
Merope tuber, 615.
Meso.-horus, 193.
Metabolia, iii.
Jletapodius nasalus, 546.
Metlioca Canadensis, 178.
Metoecns paradoxus, 481.
Metrocampa, 318. i\I. margaritata, .320.
IMixniia Bronsoui, 77, 591. M. Dante, 593.
Miastor, 25. M. metroloas, 51, 380.
IMicofcras, .53.
Mici'alynima, 442.
Mii-roi'entrum, 556.
Microdon globosus, 398.
Microgaster, 193, 198, 203. M. nephopte-
ricis, 1.31, 198.
iMicrolnbrls Sternbergi, 659.
Microl(>|iido))tera, 242.
Microlipns, 468.
]Micvo|u'i)lus, 442.
]\ricr(iiiliaiites,633.
Mi'Toiiya, 47.
Miorotonus sericans, 476.
Midas clavatus, 395. M. fulvipes, 395.
Milesia excentrica, 396.
Millepedes, 678.
Miliiesium tardigradum, 669,
MiUogrannna punctata, 147.
Mimesa, 162.
Minielic forms. 53.
:\liris il(ir>alis,'550.
Mischocyttarus labiatus, 155, 156.
Mites, 628, 632, 639. Transformations of,
643.
Mole cricket, 563.
Monedula Carolina, 164. M. 4-fasciata,
164.
Monodontomerus, 136, 205.
Monohammus scutellatus, 498. M. titil-
lator, 498.
3I(>nonnna, 475.
MiinoiHHiidre, 475.
^lonotiiuiidfe, 445.
Mcirdella, 207,476.
Jlovdellida-, 476.
IMo^d(■lll^tena, 476.
^Mcirplio Kpit^trophis, 262. M. Menelaus,
2(i2. M. Polyphemus, 262.
Mo!<(iuito haM'ks, .597.
Motions of Insects, 32.
Musca, 641. M. (Calliphora) vomitoria,
408. M. domestica, 409, 410. M. (I.u-
cilia) C.-esar, 408, 409. M. vomitoria, 64.
Muscardine, 82.
Muscidre, 164,407.
IMusc'k's, .-51.
.Muscular power, .32.
.Alusic of insects, 362, .561, 563.
Mulilla, 176, 177. M. Europaia, 179. M.
lerriigata, 179. M. occidentalis, 179.
Mutillariw, 177, 181.
Mvcetolua pallipes, 387. M. sordida, 388.
.Mycetophagidw, 447.
3Iycet()|)hagus, 447.
M-^cetophila scatophora, 385.
Mvcclophilida;, 385.
31ydasida-, 395.
Mvgale avicularia, 648. M. Hentzii, 172,
648. M. nidulans, 648.
Mygnimia Mexicana, 175. M. iistulata,
175.
INIylacris anthracophila, 577.
Mvmar pulchellus, 201.
Mvoliia, 641, 642.
^iVodites, 481.
Mvopa afra. 401.
-Alvriaixxla, 10, 104, 625, 670.
:My!'ia|i(Hls, 626, (127, 6:!(;, 670.
Myrniccocystus Mexicanus, 184.
Myrmelcou, 581, 611. M. abdominalis,
612. M. obsoletus, 612.
Myrmica molefaciens, 185. M. molesta,
J85.
MyrmicariiE, 181.
Myrmosa, 177. M. unicolor, 178.
Mysia 15-ininctata, 512.
Mystacides, 6.
Myzine sexcincta, 177.
Nabis ferns, 541.
Xannophya bella, 605.
Na\itocor'is, 516.
Necroliia, 468.
Xecriiphilus Surinamensis, 439.
Necrophorus, 663. N. Americanus, 421,
439.
Nectarina, 153. N. melliflca, 154.
Nei'des, .545.
Nematocampa fllamentaria, 390.
IKDEX.
697
Nematus, 217. N. coiijugatus, 214. N.
gi-oasularia>, 214. M. tiilineatus,'i20. N.
vcrtebratus, 219. N. ventiicosus, 50,
219.
Nemobius vittatus, 564.
Nemoptera, 010.
Nemouva albidipennis, 591.
Neonvmpha, 2i)2. N. Eurytris, 2fi4.
Nepa' 510, 518, 537, 588. N. ciuerea, 47.
Nephila pUimipes, 051.
Xepbopteryx Edmauclsii, 131, 198, 331.
Nepida;, 537.
Nepticula, 342. N. amelanchierella, 3.50.
N. corylifoliella, .350. N. microthei'iella,
3.55. N. platauella, 356.
Xerice bidentata, 292.
Nervous system, 33.
Neiivonia semilasciata, 617.
Neuroptera, 578.
Neurotenis, 50.
Neurotherius, 599.
Nirinus, 555.
Nitirlula bipustulata, 445.
Nitidularise, 444.
Nitidulida;, 446.
Noctua, 243.
NoetuajlitiB, 302.
NoctuidiB, 238, 303.
Noctuids, 292.
Nomada, 131, 141, 212. N. imbricata, 142.
N. pulchella, 142.
Nops, 044.
Notliriis ovivovus, 664.
Notocyiihus, 173.
Notodonta. 292.
Notonecta, 510, 518. N. irrorata, 5,37. N.
uiidulata, 537.
NotonectidiB, 530.
NotoxHS aiichora, 476.
Nudarfa miindana, 285.
Nycteribia, 358, 388, 020. N. Westwoodii,
418.
Nycteribidie, 418.
Nymphes, 79.
Nyssia, 322. N. hispidaria, 54.
Nysson lateralis, 103.
Nyssonida3, 162.
Oak Biorhiza, 211.
O ik Cynips, 210.
Oak gall flies, 210.
Oit-louse Apliidius, 198.
Ojciput, 29, 30.
Oiellarv segments, 20, .58.
0>-,elIi, 19, 25.
Ojinavi, 295.
Oetoglena bivirgata, 080.
O-yptera, 408.
Odontomachus clai'its, 182.
Odor of bugs, 545.
Odyneius, 147, 154, 162, 203,211,401. O.
albophaleratus, 155, 1.56. O. leucome-
las, 1.50, 218.
CEoantlius, 24. CE. niveus, 504.
CEceticus, 231, 291.
CE 'odoma, 177. CE. cephalotes, 188, 189.
(E. Mexicana, 187, 188. CE. sexdentata,
189. CE. Texana, 189.
CEcophylla smaragdina, 184.
CE lemeridas, 425, 476.
CEdipoda Carolina, .571. CE. corallina,
571. CE. xanthoptera, 571.
CEsophagus, .35.
CEstridre, 403.
CEstromyia, 405.
CEstvus, 363. CE. hominis, 406. CE. ovis,
405.
Oil beetle, 478.
Oligarces paradoxus, 51.
Oligoneiiria, 590.
01yntlia?588.
Onialiuin, 442.
Omoi)lnon,431.
Omosita colon, 445.
Onius, 429.
Oncideres cingulatus, 498.
Oncodes, 395.
Onion fly, 411.
Oniscus, 2.
Opliion, 195. O. macrurum, 195.
Opomalea bracliyptera, 508.
Opluhalmic ring, 19, 58.
Orange belted horse-fly, 394.
Orchehmum gracile, 168. O. vulgare, 24,
108, 567.
Orgyia, 70, 231. O. antiqua, 288. O. leu-
co.stigma, 288.
Oribates alatus, 664.
Oribatid.-e, 632, 063.
Ormyrus, 212.
Ornitlioniyia, 417.
Ornithopt'era Pnamus, 245.
Ortalis, ,300. O. flexa, 411.
Ortlioptera, 550.
Ortliosia, 243.
Ortliosoma unicolor, 495.
Oryctes nasicoruis, 170. O. simia, 176.
Ouscinis frit, 416. O. granarius, 415. O.
va.stator, 415.
Osmia, 155, 206, 401. O. leucomelana, 138.
O. lignaria, 1.39. O. lignivora, 1.39. O.
liacilica, 141, 150. O. paretina, 138. O.
siiiiillima, 140.
Osniodernia scabra, 457.
Othniidre, 447.
Othiiiiis umbrosus, 447.
Otiocerus Coquebertii, .53.3.
Otiorlivnehus sulcatus, 487.
Ovarv,"35, 44.
Ovidiict, 35, 44.
C)vi])o^itor, 15.
Ox Bot fly, 405.
Oxybelu.s emarginatus, 163.
Oxvjjorus, 442.
Oxytelus, 442.
Pasderus, 442.
Palajopterina, 591, .593, 596.
Pale cut-worm, 310.
Palingenia bilineata, 593, 594.
Palpares, .583, 012.
Palpifer, 28.
Pangonia, ,393.
Pauorpa, .54, 581, 583.
Panorjia Germanica, 613. P. communis,
613. P. rufescen.*, 014.
Panopea carnea, 164.
Panorpid, 022.
Panorpiila^ ,580, 583, 013.
Panorpina, 615.
Panurgu.s, 141.
Paper wasp, 148.
Pa)>ilio, 54, 2,30, 237, 245. P. Asterias, 196,
239, 245, 247. P. brevicauda, 245, 246,
247. P. Baunus, 247. P. Glaucus, ,53,
247. P. Memnon, 53. P. Ormenus, .53.
P. Pammon, 53. P. Philenor, 248. P.
Romulus, .53. P. Troilus, 247. P. Tur-
nus, .53, 240, 247.
Papiliouidae, 75, 244.
698
INDEX.
Papirius, 625, 62G. P. Saundersii, 624.
Paraglossa, 29.
Paraiidra biuunea, 494.
Parapouyx, :i:H).
Pavnassius Smiutheus, 248.
Pariiidai, iM.
Paruopes, 192.
Parthenogenesis, 48.
Pasiniacluis elongatus, 432.
PassalKcus nKiudibnlaris, 161.
Passalus cornutus, 451.
Patagia, Li.
Pauropodulffi, 675.
Paiiropiis Huxleyi, 675. P. peduncula-
tus, t)7.T.
Pea weevil, 484; figure of, 513.
Peach tree borer, 277.
Pear slug, 222.
Pear Treniex, 22S.
Pebrine, 82.
Pedicia albivitta, 384.
Pedicil, 2t).
Pediculina, 5.53.
Pediculus corporis, .WS. P. humamis
capitis, .553. P. vestimeuti, 553.
Pedipalpi, 628, 644, 655.
Pedii.alps, G."m, 657.
Pc'lecauis polyccrator, 195.
Peliiinota punclata, 4.55.
PelopaMi^, 174. P. Cferuleus, 169. P.
fiavipes, 1.56, 169, 170,408.
Penipelia grossulavia;, 331. P. semiru-
bella, 331.
Pempliigus formicarius, 524. P. formi-
cetoruni, 524. P. rhois, 524. P. ulnii-
cola, .524. P. vagabundus, 524.
Pentamera, 424.
Pentatoma, 408. P. tristigma, 546. P.
ligata, 546.
Pentatomida;, 516, 542.
Penthina vitivorana, 336.
Pepsis cyanea, 175. P. elegans, 175. P.
formosa, 175. P. lieros, 175.
Pcrga Lewisii, 215.
Perdumpus platygaster, 206.
Peripatus, 098.
Peripltineta, 194. P. Americana, 195, 576.
Periphyllus testudo, .521.
Peritraclieal circulation, 39.
Peritreme, 13.
Perla abnormis, 590,
Perlidje, 580, 581, 586, 590.
Postabdoinen, 56.
Perophora Melsheimcrii, 292.
Pezomachns, 70, 193, 194, 197, 203.
Pezzotettix alpinus, 509. P. borealis,
569.
Phalacrocera replicata, 384.
Pha!acrida\ 444.
Phala<'rus, 444.
Phr.laMiida\ 231. 318.
Phalangida;, (127, 632, 656, 657.
Phalangids, 6.55.
Phalangium dorsatum, 656. P. ventri-
cosnni, 6.57.
Phan.-cus, 42t. P. carnifex, 4.53.
Phaneroptera curvicauda, 566.
Pharynx, 35.
Phasma 4-gnttatuni, 573.
Phasmida, 572.
Pheidole notabilis, 185. P. providens,
185.
Phenax variegata, 533.
Phongndes pUimosn, 467.
Phigalia pilosaria, 54.
Philampelus vitis, 275.
Philanthinie, 157, 158.
Philaiitlius. 146, 442. P. apivorus, 15N
P. ventdal)ris, 8, 158.
Philoi>(.tanuis, 621.
I'hdiipterus, .555.
Pliliica corticata, 547.
I'lilujotlirijjs caryaj, 549. P. mali, 549.
Pldox worm, 315.
Pliobetrum, 289. P. pithecium, 290.
Pliodaga aiticeps, 480.
Pholcus, 636, 639. P. Atlanticus, 650.
Phora incrassata, 127, 416.
Pliotinus pyralis, 4()6.
Photuris Pensylvanica, 466.
riirvganea griindis, 616, (!17.
Phvyganeida', 236, ,580, 581, 582, 583, 615.
Pliryganeids, 21)0, 586.
Phrvuanida', 193.
I'hrvganidia, 290.
Plirynichi', 629, 6,57.
Phryuus, 639. P. asperatipes, 658.
Plitiurius ]nibis, .5.54.
I'hycita ncbulo, 331.
Pli\ lliiini ticciliiliuni, 574.
Pliylloiiliorus tc>tudin:itus, .521.
Pliylloptera oblongifolium, 506.
Piiyllotreta striolata, 507.
Phylloxera. 523.
Phymaphora iiulcliella, 511.
Phymata. 552.
PliVtocoris, 516. P. linearis, .5.50.
Picnis, 54, 237, 361. P. oleracea, 249. P.
Protodice, 249. P. rapa3, 76, 249.
Pill beetles, 449.
PInipla, 193, 190. P. Fairmairii, 193. P.
ovivora, 193. P. pedalis, 196. P. ru-
lata, 193.
Pine LopliyruR, 226.
Pine saw-fly, 224.
Pinning insects, 88.
Pio))hiia easei, 413.
Pil)unculus, 401.
Pique, 390.
Pirates biguttatus, 541. P. iJicipes, 541.
Pissodes strobi, 486.
Planiceps niger, 174.
Plant-lice, 198, 397, 400, 519.
Platepheniera antiqna, 77, 594.
I'latoecelirus Gloverii, 291.
Platygaster, 200, 325, 375. P. error, 201,
376. P. tipida-, 201, 376.
Platymodes Pensylvanica, 576.
Plat'vnus cuiiripehne, 433.
Platypeza, 402.
PlatVptervx geniculata, 293.
Platypus," 440.
Platvroptilon Miersii, 385.
Platvsaniia, 293. P. Cecropia, 234, 298.
P.Euryale, 298.
Plecia, 80.
Plectrodes pubescens, 454.
Pleurite, 9.
Ploa, 516, .537.
Ploiaria brevipennis, 540.
Ploteres, 539.
Plume moths, 356.
Plum gouger, 487.
Plum slug, 222.
Plum weevil, 488.
Plusia alticola. 313. P. divergens, 313.
P. ignea. 313. P. montaua, 313. P.
precationis, 312.
Podura, 11. 615, 624.
Podurae, 623, 625.
INDEX.
69S
Poduridas, 623, 624.
Pcecilocevus, 560.
Poison glaiuis, 43.
Poison of insects, 43. .
Polistes, 121, 147, 149. P. annularis, 151,
15G. P. Canadensis, 151, 152, 153. P.
lanio, 153.
Polybia, 153. 154, 155.
Polydesmida;, 677. ,.„__„
Polydesmus,676. P. Canadensis, 677. P.
erythi-opygus, 077.
Polyergus lufescens, 182.
Polynema ovulorum, 202.
Polyphemus, 240.
Polyphylla, 455.
Polyrhacliis arboricola, 184.
Polystoechotes, 12, 230. P. nebulosus,
585. P. piuictatiis. (ill.
Polyxenus I'ascicuUitus, 078.
Pompilidffi, 114, 171. ^
Pompilus, 25. P. arctus, 173. P. audax,
401. P. cylindricus, 173. P. formosus,
172. P. funeieus, 174. P. Maria.', 173.
Ponera. 179. P. feiruginea, 182.
Postsculellum, 11.
Potainantlius cupidus, 595. P. margina'
Potato beetle. 503, ."iOS.
Potato-stalk weevil, 49.
Praiscutuiu, 11.
Preservative fluids, 89.
Preserving insects, 84.
Prestwicliia, 114.
Priocera undulata, 408.
Priociiemis unilasciatus, 173.
Prionidiu, 494.
J'rionocyplion discoideus, 464.
Priononyx Tlioma;, 107.
Prionus brevicornis, 495. _ .
Pi-isopiis flabellicoruis, 573. P. spini-
ceps, 573. . T, • T ,.■
Prisliphora gi-ossulari£e, 2U. 1 . ulenti-
dem, 217. P. idiota, 217. P. syco-
phanta, 218.
Proceplialic lobes, 55.
Proconia qnadrivittata, 532.
Proctotrupes, 199.
Proctotrui)id fly, 131.
Proctotrupii, 198.
Proctotryi)ida2, 198.
I'ronuis, 473.
Prophets, 574.
Propodeum, 66.
I'rop-legs, 21.
I'roscopiagigantea, 572. _
I'rosopis aflinis, 143. P. elliptica, 143,
Piostemnia guttata, 541. P. guttula, 539.
I'rotolycosa, 043.
I'rotoplasma Fitchii, 385.
Proventriculus, 35.
Psanimothenua, 114.
Pselaphida;, 439, 440.
Pselaphus, 422, 440.
Psen caliginosus, 191. P. leucopus, 162.
Psenides. 211.
Psenocerus piui, 399. P. supernotatus,
499.
Psephenus Lecontei, 450.
Pseudomyrma bicolor, 187. P. flavidula,
187.
Pseudoscorpiones 658i
Pseudovarium, 49.
I'seiidovum, 49.
Psoci, 658.
Psocidae, 583, 586.
Psocus, 54. 69. P. r"licariu3, 589. P.
salicis, 590. P. vcuosus, 590.
Psyche helix, 290.
PsychinK, 290.
Psychoda phala;noides, 380.
Psychomorpha epimeuis, 281.
Psylla pyri, .531.
Psvllida;, 530. .. „,
Pteratomus, 110 114. P. Putnamu, 131
Pteromali, 415.
Pteromalus, 193, 202, 205, 200. P. apium,
207. P. clisiocanipte, 200. P. vanessse,
Pteronarcys proteus, 590. P. regalis, 590.
Pteropliorida!, 3.50. . ,., . ,
Pterophorus, 202. P. penscelidactylus
356.
Pteroptus vespertilionis, 663.
Pterostichus, 433.
Ptilodontes, 292.
Ptinidte, 197, 470.
Ptinus fur, 470.
Ptycholoma? scmifuscana, 334.
Ptychopiera, 382. P. paludosa, 384. 1
rufocincta,3S4.
Pulex irritans, 389. P. musculi, 389.
Pulicidaj, 588.
Pulvillus, 21.
Pycnoffonidte, 669.
Pycnoscelns, .570.
Pyralidas, 326. . „^„
PvTalis, 195. P. farinalis, 328.
Pyrameis Atalanta, 261. P. cardui, 261
P. lliintera, 201.
Pyrochroa flabellata, 477.
Pyrochroiila;, 477. _
Pyromorpha dimidinta, 283.
Pyropliorus noctilncus, 402.
Pyrrharctia Isabella, 239, 286.
Pyrrliocoris apterus, 48, 539, 543.
PythidDC, 476.
Pytho, 476.
Quedius, 441.
Race horse, 573.
Uadisb fly, 411.
Kapiiidia, 608. ^
Kaphiglossa odyneroides, 157.
Kaiiatra, 510, 537. K. fusca, 538.
Kanatra, abdomen of, 17.
Raspberry slug, 222.
Rectum, 35.
Red-legged Grasshopper, 569.
lieduvini, 540.
Reduvius pei-sonatus, 541.
Respiration, 42.
Respiration, organs of, 40.
Rhabditcs, 15.
Rhagium lineatum, 501,
Rhampliidia, 383.
Rbipidandrus, 473.
Rliipidins, 48.
Rliipiccridaj, 403.
Rhipiphoridie, 480.
Rliipiphorus Finnicus, 481.
Rliipiphorus paradoxus, 149.
Rliizopeitha pusilla, 472.
Rhizophagus deprcssus, 445.
Rhodites dichloceius, 212. R. rosffl, ZH
Rliopalosoma Poeyi, VJl.
Riiopalum jiedicellatum, 158, 161
Rhoi)alus, .546.
Rhyacophila fuscula, 621.
Khynchites bicolor, 486.
roo
INDEX.
Rhyparochromns leucopteius, 543.
Khyplu(la3, Xe.
lihyplms alternatiis, 392.
Khyssa atrata, 19(j, 228.
Rliyssa luiiator, VM, 228.
Khyssa pei'suasoria, 1U3.
Uliyssodes, 440.
Uhyssodida;, 446.
Uice weevil, 4i)0.
Uobber-llies, 395.
Itomalea microptera, 570.
Rose bug, 454.
Rose charer, 454.
Rose gaU fly, 212.
Rose slug, 222.
Rotatoria, (iG8.
Rove-beetles, 440.
SaMa, 541.
Salivary glands, 36.
Salix covdata, 218.
Siilticus, 633. S. (Attus) familiaris, 654.
Samia, 298. O.^Cyntliia, 296.
Sandalus petrophya, 463.
Sand veasps, 157.
Sapeida bivittata, 500. S. Candida, .500.
S.-priuus, 443.
Sapyga, 17s. S. Martinii, 176. S. repanda,
134.
Sarcophaga, 213. S. carnaria, 408. S.
nudipeunis, 170, 408.
Sarcopsylla penetrans, 300.
Sarcoptes scabiei, 666, 668.
Sargus, 392.
Saturuia Proraethea, 239.
Satyrus, 262. S. ^Uope, 263. S. Nephele,
263.
Saw-flies, 213.
Scape, 26.
Scaphidiidae, 443.
Scaphidium, 443.
Sc.arabajida;, 422, 424, 451.
Scarites, 432. S. Pyrachmon, 83.
Scatopse, 377.
Scenopinus, 1. S. pallipes, 401.
Schizocephala, 575.
Scliizopodidae, 463.
S<'luzopodus Iretus, 463.
Scliizotus, 477.
Sciara, 374. S. (Molobrus) niali, 386.
Sciophila, 385.
Scleroderma conh-acta, 178.
Scolia, 231. S. Azteca, 176. S. bioincta,
176. S. flavifrons, 176. S. oryctophaga,
176. S. quadrimaculata, 176.
ScoliadJe, 175.
Scolopendra gigantea, 674. S. heros, 674.
Scolopocryptops sexspinosji, 674.
Scolytidae, 49, 425.
Scolytus, 446. S. destructor, 492.
Scorpio Allenii, 659.
Scorpion fly, 613.
Scorpionidse, 631, 659.
Scorpions, 627, 629, 643, 659.
Scutellera viridipunctata, 547.
Scydnijenus, 440.
Scydmsenidae, 439.
Scymnus cervicalis, 513.
Secretion, organs of, 43.
Sedentary spiders, 648.
Soed-com maggot, 411.
Scgesti-ia, 633.
Selandria caryce, 224. S. cerasi, 222. S.
rosas, 223. S. rubi, 222. g. tUiae, 222.
S. vilis, 222.
Semblis, 082.
Seniiotellus (Ceiiipbron) destructor, 207
375.
Semi-pupa, 67.
Sericostoma Americanum, 618.
Series of insects, 104.
Sesia, 54. S. diflinis, 277. S.Thysbe, 27T
Setina aurita, 284.
Setodes Candida, 620.
Sheep bot-fly, 405.
Sheeptick, 360, 416, 418.
Sialidas, 237, 580, 583, 605.
Sialis Americana, 606. S. mfumata, 0(H>.
Siderca ? nubilana, 333.
Sigalphus caudatus, 415.
Silk moth, 50.
Silk weed Labidompra, 508.
Silpha Lapponica, iS9.
Silphidiu, 422, 438.
Sinuilid.'e, 390.
Simulium molestum, 390. S. (Rhagio;
Columbaschense, 391.
Siplionaiitia, 680.
Siphonia, 408.
Siphonura, 207.
Sirex, 193.
Sitaris, 479.
Sitodrepa panicea, 470.
Sitophilus granarius, 490. S. oryzae, 490.
Size of insects, normal, 107.
Skippers, 269.
Smell, organs of, 26.
Smerinthus excaecatus, 275. S. gemina-
tus, 275. S. modestus, 275.
Smyntluirus, 624, 625.
Snout-moths, 326.
Solenobia ? Walshella, 346.
Solpuga, 639. S. aiaueoidcs, 655. S
(Galeodes) Americana, 655.
Solpugid», 632, 655.
Solpugids, 655.
Soothsayers, 574.
Sounds produced by insects, 362, 561, 563
Spaniocera, 378.
Spanish fly, 480.
Species of insects, number of, 103.
Speciflc names, 345.
Spectres, 572.
Spercheus tessellatus, 438.
Sperm, 44.
Sphairotherium, 677.
Sphecodes, 142, 143. S. dichroa, 143.
Sphegidre, 142, 149, 165, 166.
Sphex, 142. S. flavipennis, 401. S. ich^
neuniouea, 167. S. Lanierii, 169. S.
tibialis, 168.
Sphinges, 236.
Sphingidje, 238, 27.
Sphinx, 627. S. chersis, 272. S. drupi-
ferarum, 272. S. gordius, 272. S. kal«
mia3, 272. S. ligustri, 63, 237.
Sphinx ligustri, anatomy of, 35.
Sphoeridium, 438.
Sphyracephala brevicoi'nis, 413.
Si)ider fly, 358, 416.
Spiders, 643, 644.
Spiders, evolution of, 637, 638.
Spidei-'s M-eb, method of spinniag 64ft,
Spilosoma Virginica, 287.
Si)innerets, 21.
Spiracle, 40.
Spirobolus marginatus, 679.
Spirostrephon, 680.
Spondylis, 494.
Spongophora bipunctata, 577.
INDEX.
701
Spring beetles, 459.
Spring-tails, 015, 624.
Squash lieetle, 505.
Squash vine borer, 279.
Stag beetle, 32.
Staphylinidic, 181, 423, 427, 440, 577.
Staphvlinus, 54, 441,
Statyra, 475.
Steganoptycha ? ochreana, 337.
Stemina, '25.
SiPnobothrus curtipenuis, 5G9.
Sleiiocerus, 53. S. putator, 495.
Stenopotia, 80.
Steuiis .Juno, 442. S. stygicus, 442.
Sternite, 0.
Sterno-rliabilitcs, 15. [lata, 302.
Sthenopis, -236, 237. S. argenteomacu-
Stigmus, 142. S. fraternus, 158, lUl.
Stilbuui splendiduni, 192.
Sting, 14.
Stipes, 28.
Stiretrus finibriatiis, 547.
Stizus speciosus, 103.
Stomach, sucking, 35.
Stomoxys caltricans, 407.
Strategus, 425.
Stratiomyidaj, 392.
Stratiomys, 393.
Strawberry Corimelrena, 547.
Strawberry Emphvtus, 221.
Strawberry saw li.v, 221.
Strawberry leaf roller, 340.
Strawberry Lo/.ota^nia, 335.
Sti'epsiptera, 481.
Strigamia bothrloir>us,075. S. chionophi-
la, 075. S. epileptica, 075.
Stylopidaj, 424, 481.
Styloi)S, 34, 131, 143, 140, 149, 194, 691. S.
Childienii, 131, 482.
Stylopyga, 570.
Styringoniyia, 383.
Subnieutum, 28.
Sucking myriapods, 680.
Sugantia, 080.
Sugar mite, 005.
Sylvauus Surinanicnsis, 440.
Symmetry, antero-posterior, 2, 21.
Symmetry, bilateral, 2.
Synergc.s, 212.
Synoeca, 153. S. cyanea, 154.
Svnoi)hrus, 212.
Syrphidie, 164, 397.
Syrplms, 54, 363, atS, 400.
Syrtis erosa, 552.
Systropus, 397.
Tabanida, 393.
Tabanus atratus, 394. T. cinctus, 394.
T. lineola, 393, .394.
Tachina, 325. T. (Lydella) dorypborse,
408. T. (Senometopia) mllitaris, 407.
Tachina-like fly, 131, 147.
Tachydromia, 402.
TacbyiJorus, 441.
Tacbytes aurulentus, 165.
Tjeniopteryx IVigida, 591.
Tanarthrus salinus, 470.
Tanypus varius, 371.
Tapinoma tomentosa, 183.
Tardigrada, OOH.
Tardigrades, 45, 09, 032,642.
Tarsus, 21.
Tatua, 1.53. T. niorio, 122, 154, 156.
Tegenaria atric.-i, 049. T. civilis, 029. T.
medicinalis, 649.
Telea Polyphemus, 11, 195, 243, 297.
Teleas, 199, 200. T. Linuaji, 2oo.
Telephorus Carolina, 407. T. bilineatus
407.
Tenebrio molitor, 474.
Teuebrionida;, 473.
Tent-caterpillar, 207.
Tenthredinidre, 213.
Tergite, 9, 14.
Terias Delia, 251. T. Lisa, 2.'il.
Termes, 54. T. bellicosus, ."iSS. T. fatalo
588. T. flavipes, 587. T. lucil'ugub, Osa
Termites, 588.
Termitidie, 583, .580, 593.
Termopsis angusticollis, 587.
Te:^tis, 35, 44.
Tetracha Virginica, 429.
Tetralonia, 114.
Tetramera, 424, 484.
Tetranychus telarius, 631, 660.
Tetrapnoumones, 647.
Tettigidea lateralis, 572.
Tettigonia bilida, 532.
Tettigouia3, 103.
Tettix granulata, 572.
Tetyra marmorata, 517.
Thaumatosonia, 114.
Thccl.i Acadica, 205. T. humuli, 205. T
Mopsus, 200. T. Niphon, 205. T. stri-
gosa, 207.
Tlielaxes ulmicola, 523.
Tlielyphonus caudatus, 658. T. gigan
tens, 058.
Thereva, 396.
Therevidic, 395.
Thericlion studiosum, 650. T. veiecun
dum, 051. T. vulsare, 050.
Thinophilus, 40.S.
Thomisus cclcr, 652, 6.53. T. vulgaris
052.
Thorax, structure of, 11.
Thousand Legs, 078.
Thripidai, .517.
Thrips, 09, 80, 378. T. cerealium, ,550.
Throscidas, 459.
Thyativa, 304.
Thyreocoris histeroides, 547.
Tliyreopus, 159. T. latipes, 100.
Thyreus Alibotii, 270.
Thyridopteryx, 290. T. epliemcrieformis
289,291. T. nigricans, 289.
Thvsanoptera, 548.
Thvsanura, 008, 009, 613, 622, 023.
Ticks, 601.
Tiger Beetles, 428.
Tinagma, 342.
Tinea, 201. T. flavifrons, 340. T. gran
ella, 347. T. tapetzella, 317.
Tineidaj, 303, 234, 342, ,582.
Tiueidaj, transformation of, 07.
Tineids, 230, 237.
Tingis hyalina, 552. T. hystriccllus.
Tiphia inornata, 177.
Tipula, 300, 381. T. trivittata, 382.
Tipulidse, 199, 381.
Tmesiphorus, 422.
Tobacco worm, 274.
Tolype Velleda, 300.
Tolyphus, 444.
Toiniciis monograplnis, 493. T. pini, 498i
T. xvlograplius, 493.
Tortricidie, 332.
Tortricodes, 290.
Tcjitrix gclidana, 334. T. oxycoccana,
334.
702
INDEX.
Tovymus Har 6.
Pouch, sense of, 26.
Toxoiilioia faseiata, 164.
To.\orliiua,383.
Traclica, 40.
Tvacliys pygmrea, 459.
Tragocei>hala mliiscata, 569. T. viridi-
lasciata, .5(;i).
Transfoi'inaLions of insects, 561.
Transportation of insects, 94.
Treclius, 434.
Treme.\, l!)ii. T. Columba, 228. T. lati-
tarsus, 223.
Trichii, 4.57.
Trioliiosouia bicolor, 216. T. ti-iangulum,
216.
Trichocera, 381, 383.
Triclioilectcs canis, .5.55.
Trichodes apiarius, 127, 4G8. T. Nuttallii,
468.
Trichoiiterygidrc, 443.
TriclioiaerVx intermedia, 444.
Tricondyla", .567.
Tricrania, 479.
Tridactylus apicalis, T. temiinaiis, 563.
Trigona, 128, 129. T. carbonaria, 229.
Trigonalvs hipustulatus, 153.
Trilocha; 295.
Trimera, 424, 484.
Trochanter, 21.
Troc^lianlinc, 21.
Trogosita, 44.5.
Trogositiila^, 445,
Trogii.s exesorius, 196.
Tronibiilida;, 660.
Tronibidiinn, 660.
Tropidacris cristata, 571. T. dux, 571.
Trox, 425. T. Carolina, 453. T. scabro-
sus, 4o:i.
Trupaiica apivora, 396.
Trypeta, 412. T. pomcnella, 415.
Tryjioxylon, 195. T. frigidum, 162. T.
politnni, 162.
Tsetze (Iv, 407.
Tumble idig, 47.
Turnip Ilea beetle, 507.
Tychiis, 422.
Typldocvba, 69, .531.
Typlilodronms jiyri, 666, 668.
Typhloi.one, 179. T. pallipes, 181.
Tyroglyphns domcsticus, 665. T. fannrc,
666. T. sacchari, 665. T. siro, 640,
665.
Udeopsylla robusta, 565.
Ula, ;W1.
Upis (;eraml)oides, 474.
Urania I.eilus, 319.
Urapteryx politia, 319. U. sambucaria,
319.
Urinary tubes, 43.
Urinarv vessels, 35.
Urite, il.
Uroceridw, 227.
Uiocei'us alhicornis, 227.
Uroi)lala rosea, 303. U. suturalis, 504.
Urojjod.i, 631. U. vegetans, 663.
Utetheisa bella, 285.
Vsinessa Antiopa, 206, 244, 258. V. Cali-
fornica, 259. V. ililbertii, 259. V. ur-
, tice, 237
Variety breeding, 75.
Vas deferens, 35.
Vasa deferentia, 44.
Vates, 575.
Velia,518, .538, 540.
Venation, 22.
Venation of Lepidoptera, 229.
Ventriculus, 35.
Ver macatjue, 406.
Ver moyocuil, 406.
Vertex of the head, 31.
VesiculJE seminales, 45.
Vespa, 147, 195, 400. V. arenaria, 148, 149.
V. crabro, 1.50. V. niaculata, 148. V.
orien talis, 148. V. rufa, 123. V. vulga-
ris, 123.
Vesparire, 147,
Vine slug, 222.
Volucella, 131, 149, 400.
Wandering spiders, 648.
\Val]<ing sticks, 572.
Warega lly, 409.
Wasp, 8.
Water boatmen, 536
Water lleas, 616.
Water mites, 661.
Water tigers, 435,
Wax, 111.
Weeping willow saw-fly 220.
Weevils, 481.
Wheat beetles, 446.
Wheat-fly, 199.
M'lieat joint worm, 203.
Wlieat-louse Apliidius, 198.
Wheat-midge, 201, 372.
Wlieat mollis, 347, .'550.
Wlii|) scorpions, 657.
Whnligigs, .536.
Wliite ant, l.iO, .586.
M'hite-pine saw-fly, 225.
Willow Cecidomyia, 364,
Wine-cask borer, 493.
Wine-flv, 414.
Wings, 22.
Wire worms, 460.
W-marked cut-worm, 309.
Wood ticks, 662.
Wood wasp, 8, 157.
Xanthia, 243.
Xanfhoptera semicrocea, 316.
Xenoneura antiquorum, 77.
Xenos, 482.
Xiphidium fasciatum, .567.
Xiphidria albicornis, 227.
Xyela infuscata, 226.
Xyleutes robinia;, 301. X. crepera, 302.
Xylobius sigillariie, 679.
Xylocopa, 139. X. violacea, 134. X. Vir-
ginica, 168, 397.
Xylophagida;, 392.
Xylophagus, 392.
Yellow-legged Barley-fly, 205.
Zenoa picea-, 463.
Zerene catenaria, 323.
Zoonule, zoonite, 9.
Zygiena exulans, 280.
Zygicnidie, 234, 237, 279.
Zygoneura, 378.
APPENDIX.
The Early Stages of Ichneumon Parasites. Ganin has
shown that certain Proctotrypidce (^Platygaster^ Polynema^
Teleas and Ophioneitrus) , the larvae of which live in the eggs
as well as the larvte of other insects, pass through a series of
remarkable changes, heretofore unsuspected, before assuming
the final and more normal larval state. He compares these
Fig. 652.
Development of Platygaster.
changes to the hyper-metamorphosis of Meloe and Sitaris (see
p. 478). The ovary of Platygaster differs from that of other
insects in that it is a closed tube or sac. Hence it follows
(703)
704
APPENDIX.
that at every time an egg is laid, the egg tube is ruptured.
This was also observed in the sheep tick {Melopliagus) by
Leuckart, and in certain flies {Limnohia, Psychocla, and 3Iy-
cetobia) by Ganin himself.
The earliest stage observed after the egg is laid, is that in
which tiie egg contains a single cell with a nucleus and nucle-
olus. Ont of this cell (Fig. 652 yl, a) arise two other cells.
The central cell (a) gives origin to the embryo. The two
outer ones multiply by subdivision
and form an embryonal meml)rane,
or "amnion," which is a provisional
envelope and does not assist in
building up the body of the germ,
wdiich how^ever is accomplished by
the cells resulting from the subdivi-
sion of the central single cell. Fig.
652 B, g, shows the germ just form-
ing out of the nucleus (a) ; and b,
the peripheral cells of the blasto-
derm skin, or "amnion." Fig. C
shows the yolk transformed into the
embryo (g) with the outer layer of
blastodermic cells (6). The body
of the germ is bent upon itself.
Fig. 652 D shows the embr^^o much
further advanced with the two pairs
of lobes (md, rudimentary mandi-
bles, cl, rudimentary pad-like or-
gans, seen in a more advanced stage
in E) and the bilobate tail (st).
Fig. 653 shows the first larval stage
after leaving the egg (m, mouth ; ci,
rudimentary antennae ; md^ mandibles ; rf, tongue-like appen-
dages ; .s^, anal stylets ; the subject of this figure belongs to a
distinct species from Fig. 652 E). This strange form would
scarcely be thought an insect, were not its origin and further
development known, but rather a parasitic Copepodous Crus-
acean, whence he calls this the Cydops-UKe stage. In this
condition it clings to the inside of its host by means of its
First larva of Pkitygaster.
APPENDIX.
70o
temporary hook-like jaws (mcl), moving about like a Cestodes
embryo with its well known six hooks. The tail moves up and
down, but is scarcely used in p. g.^
locomotion. The nervous and
vascular systems and trachea
are wanting, while the alimen-
tary canal is simply a blind
sac, remaining in an unorgan-
ized state.
The second larval state
(Fig. 654, CR, oesophagus ; ',>[■,
supraoesophageal ganglion;
n, nervous cord ; ga and g,
genital organs ; ms, bands of
muscles) is attained by means
of a moult, as usual in the
metamorphoses of insects.
The cells of the inner layer of
the skin
( h V POder- second lar \ a of Platygaster.
r-iio) now multiply greatly, and give rise to
at what corresponds to the primitive band of
the cmliryos of other insects. The third
larvrd form is of the usual shape of ich-
neumon larvffi.
In Pohjnema the larva in its first stage
is very small and motionless, and with
scarcely a trace of organization, being a
mere flask-shaped sac of cells. After five
or six days it passes into a worm-like stage
and subsequently into a third stage (Fig.
655, trj, three pairs of abdominal tubercles
destined to form the ovipositor ; Z, rudiments
of the legs ; fk, portion of the fatty body ;
at, rudiments of the antennae, ji, imaginal
discs, or rudiments of the wings).
The larva of Ophioneurus is at first of
the form indicated by Fig. 656 E. It diflers from the genera
already mentioned, in remaining wiLhiu its egg membrane and
tc,
Third larva of Polynema.
706
APPENDIX.
not assuming their strange forms. From the non-segmented,
sac-like larva it passes directly into the pupa state.
The development of Teleas is like that of Platygaster.
Fig. 656 A, represents the egg ; B, (7, and D, the first stage
Fig. 656. of the larva, the ab-
domen (or posterior
division of the bod}^)
being furnished with
a series of bristles
on each side. B
represents the ven-
tral, C the dorsal,
and D the profile
view ; ctf, antennae ;
md, hook-like man-
dibles ; mo, mouth ;
&, bristles ; m, intes-
tine ; sw, the tail,
and ul, under lip, or
labium. In the sec
end larval stage,
which is oval in form, and non-segmented, the primitive band
is formed.
Development of Egg-parasites.
The Embryonal, Membranes of Insects. — After the forma-
tion of the germinal layer or blastoderm, the outer layer of
blastodermic cells peels off or moults, forming the so-called "am-
nion" ("parietal membrane" of Brandt, Fig. 657, am). This
skin is a moult from the blastoderm. At a later period, after
the formation of the primitive band, a second membrane (Fig.
657, db "faltenblatt" of Weismann ; visceral la3"er of Brandt)
separates from the primitive band. It surrounds the embr^'o
in the Hymenoptera, Diptera and Coleoptera, enveloping the
limbs, and is shed as a thin pellicle when the embryo leaves
the &gg. Melnikow (Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte, 1869, p. 136)
from whose article the accompanying figure is taken, shows
that in the lice, however, both the amnion and visceral mem-
brane share in building up the body of the embryo, and pass
upon the dorsal side of the embryo. Brandt (Memoirs of the
APPENDIX.
707
Fig. 657.
St. Petersburg Academy, 1869) also shows that the visceral
layer in the Libelhilidaj enters, together with tlie "amnion,"
into the formation of the yolk sac.
Melnikow remarks that " it appears
from these facts that the differences
which we see in the embryonal mem-
' brancs of insects, are in direct rela-
tion to the mode in which the prim-
itive band is formed. It seems,
therefore, that the mode of origin of
the primitive band, or its position in
relation to the yolk, is concerned in
the above mentioned differences of
the embryonal membranes.
Development of the Louse. —
After the budding out of the limbs
from the primitive band, the germ
appears as seen in Fig. 057. We
now see the amnion (am) surround-
ing the yolk mass, and the visceral
membrane (db) within partially envel-
oping the embryo. The head (wA:, procephalic hjbes, or anten-
nal segment,) besides the antennie (as), bears three pairs of short
tubercles, which are the rudiments of the mandibles, maxillie,
and labium or second maxilhe. Behind the mouth-parts arise
six long slender tubercles forming the rudimentary legs, while
the primitive streak rudely marks out the ventral walls of the
thorax and abdomen. Fig. f.58 represents the head and mouth-
parts of the embryo of the same louse ; vk is tiie forehead, or
clypeus ; an^ the antennre ; mad, the mandibles ; viax\ the first
pair of maxilla?, and inax", the second pair of maxilUie, or
labium. Fig. 059 represents the mouth-parts of the same
insect a little farther advanced, with the jaws and labium
elougated and closely folded together. Fig. GOO represents the
same still farther advanced ; the mandibles are sharp, and
resemble the jaws of the Mallophaga or biting lice ; and the
maxillae (max^) and labium (viux-) are still large, while after-
wards the labium becomes nearly obsolete. Fig. 661 repre-
Embryo of louse.
708
APPENDIX.
Fig. 631.
Fig. 659.
Fig. 660.
Fig. C6S.
DEVELOPMENT OF MOUTH-PARTS OF THE LOUSE.
APPENDIX. 709
sents the month-parts of one of the Mallophaga, Goniodes, to
compare with the rndimentary mouth-part of Pediculus ', ibis
the upper lip, or labrnm, situated under the clypeus ; mad, the
mandibles ; max^ the maxillse ; Z, the lyre-formed piece ; pi, the
"plate", and o, the beak or tongue. (This and figs. 658-661
are from Melnikow's memoir.) Fig. 662 represents the mouth
of Pediculus vestimenti (copied from Schiodte) with the parts
entirely protruding, and seen from above, magnified one hun-
dred and sixty times ; aa, the summit of the head, with four
bristles on each side ; bb, the chitinous band, and c, the hind
part of the lower lip ; dd, the foremost protruding part of the
lip (the haustellum) ; ee the hooks turned outwards ; /, the
inner tube of suction slightly bent and twisted ; the two pairs
of jaws are perceived on the outside of these lines ; a few blood
globules are seen in the interior of the tube.
Formation of the Wings. — As has already been remarked
on p. 64, the genital glands and the muscles of the adult insect
were found by Weismann to exist in a rudimentary state in the
embryo, while the imaginal discs (which are minute scales, or
isolated portions of the inner layer of skin, attached either to
a nerve or trachea, and which are readily seen on dissection
in the young Jarva), which are destined to grow and spread so
as to form the skin of the adult, even exist, though in an ex-
tremely rudimentary condition, in the embrj'o. Weismann has
also satisfactorily shown that in the Diptera the wings arise
from similar discs in connection with what he doubtfully re-
garded as a nerve.
More recently, however, Landois has published in Siebold
and KoUiker's " Zeitschrift " a fuller account of the formation
of the wings in the butterflies. They are found to exist in the
caterpillar, soon after leaving the egg, in the form of minute
expansions of the peritoneal membrane surrounding a trachea.
This forms a microscopic sac filled with fat cells, some of which
transform into elongated nucleated cells, in which tracheae are
developed. As the bag grows larger, the tracheae enlarge, and
project towards what is destined to be the outer edge of the
wing, until when the larva is ready to transform into the pupa,
710
APPENDIX.
the wings appear as little bags hanging down the sides, just
under the skin. The number of main tracheae in the wing
appears from one of Landois' figures to be six. Hence, as we
have before suspected, this is probabl}' the typical number of
veins in the wings of all insects, though usually but five are
readily made out.
A New Fossil Cakboniferous Insect. — Mr. S. I. Smith
contributes to the "American Journal of Science" a descrip-
tion of the fore wing of Paolia vetusta from near Paoli, Indi-
ana. The wing (Fig. 663) is 2.54 inches in length and aljout
.85 inch wide. The venation is remarkable for the number of
slender branchlets Avhich the veins throw off towards the poste-
rior border and the tip of the wing. The great care with
which the specimen has been drawn and engraved obviates the
necessity of farther description. Mr. Smith remarks that
Fig. 663.
Wing of Paolia vetusta.
"this wing differs so much in neuration from any family of
recent insects, that it is difficult to point out any near affinity
with living forms, altliough it shows some points of resem-
blance to several families of Neuroptera, and especially to the
i'Lphemorids." To Heiaeristia and Mknuia, he adds, "it shows
more resemblance, but still differs more from eitlier of these
genera, which are considered distinct families by Mr. Scudder,
than they do from each other. It seems still m:)i'e allied to
Bictyoneura libeUuloides of Goldenberg, Prof. Ilagen consider-
ing it, with Eugereon Bockingii Dohrn, as a species of this
genus. " In both Dictyoneura and Eugereon, as figured, the
wings have considerable resemblance to the specimen from
Indiana, but in neither of them are the nervures so numerously
INJURIOUS INSECTS.
APPENDIX
711
branched towards the posterior border of the wing, and in
Eugereon tlie spaces between the first three nervures next
the anterior border are connected by straight cross-nervures.
There are also important diflferences in the branching of the
main nervnres."
Abdominal Sense Organs. — On p. 17 the remarkable
antenniform abdominal appendages of Mantis tesseUata are fig-
nrod as an illustration of what we have called " sensor io-geni-
ital" organs. Dr. Dohrn has shown that the jointed abdominal
appendages of Gryllotaljpa are true sensory organs. INIore
recently we have observed sense organs (probably of smell)
in the anal stylets of the cockroach (Periplaneta Americana),
consisting of about ninety minute sacs, situated in single rows
on the upper side of each joint of the stylets. They are like
similar organs in the antennae of the same insect. Similar
organs are situated on the female anal stylets of Chrysopila, a
Leptis-like fly. These also are like the single sacs situated on
the ends of the labial and maxillary palpi of Perla. — American
Naturalist, IV. p. G90.
Injurious and Bknkficiat. \s?,¥.c-vs.— Explanation of Plate U. Of
much interest to giirdeners is the bean weevil (BrncJuis varicornis of
Leconte, lig. 8, bean containing several grubs; 8a, pupa). This
is the well known and very destructive bean weevil of Europe, con-
cerning which Mr. Angus writes from West Farms, N. Y., to the
author : " I send you a sample of beans which I think will startle you
ir you have not seen such before. I discovered this beetle in the kid-
ney or bush bean a few years ago, and they have been greatly on the
increase every year since. I might say much ou the gloomy prospect
before us in tlie cultivation of this important garden and farm pro-
duct if the work of this insect is not cut short by some means or
other. The pea Bruchus is bad enough, but this is worse."
Another insect recently brought to the notice of farmers, is the
corn Sphenophorus {S. zece Walsh, fig. 11), of which Mr. R. Howell,
of Tiago County, New York, writes, June 14, ISGO: "This is the
fourth year they have infested the newly planted corn in this vicinity.
The enclosed specimens were taken on the 11th instant. I presume
that they have been in every hill of corn in my field. They pierce the
young corn in numerous places, so that each blade has from one to
'six or eiglit holes of the size of a pin, or larger, and I found a num-
ber last Friday about an inch under ground hanging to young stalks
712
APPENDIX.
with much tenacity. When very numerous every stalk is killed.
Some rieUls two or tliree years ai^o were wholly destroyed by this in-
sect. Among plant house insects may be noticed the white scale bark
(As}ndiotrts
Fig. G64.
Larva of Leiopus xanthoxyll.
louse {AsindioUis hromeliK
Bouche, fig. 6, magnified; 4,
young magnified ; 4a, end
of body still more enlarged).
It is often destroyed by a
minute chalchid fly, Cocco-
phagus(?). Boisduval's fern
ba'i'k louse {Lecanmm filicum
Boisd., fig. 7rt, scale enlarged
seen from above ; 75, the
same, seen from beneath,
and showing the form of the
body surrounded by the
broad, flat edge of the scale ;
7c, an antenna, enlarged;
7J, a leg, enlarged ; le, end of the body, showing the flattened hairs
fringing the edge), is common on hot-house plants, as also the Plat}'-
ccrium bark louse (Lecanium platycerii Pack.,, fig. 5, magnified; 5a,
an antenna, enlarged), and the plant house Coccus (C. adnnidum
Linn., fig. 3, magnified). The plant house Aleurodes {A. vaporarium of
Westwood, fig. 9, enlarged; 9a, pupa enlarged), is more common per-
haps than one would suppose. It lives out of doors on tomato leaves
and we found it not uncommon, in September, on strawberry plants on
the grounds of the State Agricultural College, at Amherst. The list of
liot-house insects is completed by one of the most injurious of all, the
mi mte Thrips (Heliothrips lujemorrhoidalis Haliday), from Europe, fig.
2, greatly magnified, which by
its punctures, causes the sur-
face of the leaf affected to turn
red or white, while at times
the entire leaf withers.
rig. 10 represents the Cran-
berry weevil, Anthonomus S7i-
turalis Leconte ; 10a, its larva,
mentioned on p. 487. Fig. 12
represents the Byturus wii-
color Say (enlarged) which
feeds on the flowers of the
raspberry.
Explanation of Plate 15. —
Fig. 1, Leiopus facetus Say, the
larva of which bores in the branches of the apple tree. Fig. 2, Leiopus
xanthoxyli Shimer., -which bores under the bark of the prickly ash.
Larva of CallkiUmi amcenum.
Plate 15.
No. 10.
No.
No. 1.
No. 6. ^O. U.
i.NJUKlOUS AND BENEFICIAL INSECTS,
APPENDIX.
713
Fig. 664, a, represents the larva; h, upper side, r, under side of
the head, greatly enlarged. Fig. 3, GaUidium amociuim Sa}-, Fig.
665, a, larva; b, upper, c, under side of head enlarged. Fig. 5, iJrep-
Fiff. 6GG.
Head of larva of TeUpliorus bilineatus.
anodes varus Gr. and Rob. Fig. 4, the larva and pupa, the former
closely resembling the twigs of the juniper, on which it feeds. Fig.
Fig. 667.
C, Biicczilatrix th niell a
Pack., enlarged; (a, cocoon,
natural size,) which feeds
on the cedar. Fig. 7, Tel-
ephorus bilineatus Say ; Fig.
8, larva enlarged. Fig. 666,
a, upper; b, under side of
the head, much enlarged.
The larva of this species
was identified by Mr. P. S.
Sprague, who found it near
Boston, under stones in
spring, where it changes to
a pupa and early in May
becomes a beetle, when it
eats the newly expanded
leaves of the birch. Fig. 9,
Galerita janus Fabr. Fig.
667 unknown larva ; a, up-
per, h, under side of head,
enlarged. The specimen
here figured was discovered
by Mr. J. H. Emerton, under stones July 1st. Fig. 10, Larva of Cor-
dulia lateralis Burm. Fig. 11, larva of Macromia transversa Say.
714 APPENDIX.
New Classification op the Hemiptera. — Prof. Schiodte
has proposed the following classification of the Hemiptera,
which is probably the best yet suggested, and is based on a
more profound study of their external anatomy than has been
previously made. It will be noticed, however, that the lice
(Pediculina) are not included, though he regards them as
forming a separate division {Siphunculata Latr.) of equal value
with the Heteroptera and Homoptera. He does not seem to
include the Mallophaga among the Hemiptera. The families
of the Homoptera are not characterized.
I. Genx (cheeks) liollowed out, to receive the first pair of coxse.
[Posterior pair of coxa; liinged, provided Avith femoral grooves.]
Suborder Homoptera.
II. Genae entire, remote from the coxa3.
Suborder Heteropteka.
A Posterior coxa; acetabulate, rotating, with no femoral grooves. Troclialopoda.
a. Wetathoracic epimera laminate, nearly concealing the first ventral segment
[of the abdomen.
1. Antennae covered at the base. Fam. 1. Cimices.
2. Antennse entirely imcovered.
*. Antenna) inserted before the eyes. Fam. 2. Corel.
**. Antenna; inserted below the eyes. Fam. 3 Lyrjmi.
b. Metathoracic epimera without the ventral lamina. [metra.
1. Claws superposed (inserted before the end of the joint). Fam. 4. Hydro-
2. Claws terminal.
*. Metathoracic epimera almost covered by the mesothoracic epimera.
Last pair of abdominal spiracles forming a short tube. Fam. 5. Nepm.
**. Metathoracic epimera wholly uncovered. Abdominal spiracles equal.
[Fam. 6. Jieduvii.
B. Posterior coxec hinged, pi'ovided with femoral grooves. Pagiopoda.
a. Antenna; uncovered. Fam. 7. Acanthice,
b Antennx partially covered.
1. Body depressed, prone.
a. Beak free.
f. Metathoracic epimei'a uncovered.
*. Feet cursorial. Fam. 8. Pelegoni.
**. Feet natatory. Fam. 9. Naucorides.
tt. Mesothoracic epimera almost covered by the metathoracic epimera.
[Fam. 10. Bclostomata.
p. Beak free. [Metathoracic epimera uncovered, appendiculated.] Fam.
[11. CorixcB.
2. Body boat-shaped, supinate. [Metathoracic epimera uncovered. Beak
free.] Fam. 12. Kotonecicc.
New Classification of the Spiders. — The arrangement
of the groups of spiders given by me is very imperfect. I
therefore present the following classification of Dr. T. Thorell
(On European Spiders. Part I, 1869-70) as the most satisfac-
tory. While I have considered the Araneina as forming a sub-
APPENDIX.
715
order of the order Arachnida, it will be noticed that ThorcU
regards the Araneiiia as an order, dividing it into the seven
suborders and twenty-two families indicated below. The ar-
rangement of tliese groups is like the brandies of a tree, and
this represents well the relations of the groups of articulates,
as well as other sub-kingdoms. As Thorell remarks : " As
regards the larger groups of spiders, the suborders and the
families, the reasons for the order of arrangement we have
chosen will, we hope, easily be seen if one casts one's eye on
the accompanying diagram, which gives a view of the con-
nection founded on real affinity, which the families of the
spiders adopted by us, according to our opinion, have to each
other."
Fig. G68.
I. Orbitelariae.
1. Epeiroidae.
II. Retitelurise.
'I. Tlieridioidae.
3. Scytodoidaj.
4. Enyoida.
ni. Tiibit-larife.
5. Uroeteoidae.
(). Oniaiioidie.
7. Ilersilionidae.
PhrynoidM.
Opiliones.
8. AgalenoidsB.
9. Drassoidae.
10. Dysderoidae.
11. Filostatoidffi.
Territelariaj.
13. TheraphosoidaB.
13. liiphistioida;.
14. Catadys.oidaB.
. Lat?rip;radre.
13. Tiiomisoidae.
VI. Citigradae.
K). LycosoidaB.
17. Oxyopoidac.
VII. Saltigrada:.
18. iMyrmccionidaB.
19. Otiothopoidai.
20. Diii()|)nidao.
21. Eresoidse. *
22. Attoidae.
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