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GUIDE  TO  THE  STUDY  OF  INSECTS. 


THE   CLASS   OF  INSECTS. 

That  branch  of  the  Animal  Kingdom  known  as  the  Artic- 
ULATA,  is  so  called  from  having  the  body  composed  of  rings 
or  segments,  like  short  cylinders,  which  are  placed  successively 
one  behind  the  other.  Cuvier  selected  this  term  because  he 
saw  that  the  plan  of  their  entire  organization,  the  essential 
features  which  separate  them  from  all  other  animals,  lay  in  the 
idea  of  articulation,  the  apparent  joining  together  of  distinct 
segments  along  the  line  of  the  body.  If  we  observe  carefully 
the  body  of  a  "Worm,  we  shall  see  that  it  consists  of  a  long 
cylindrical  sac,  which  at  regular  intervals  is  folded  in  upon 
itself,  thus  giving  a  ringed  (annulated,  or  articulated)  appear- 
ance to  the  body.  In  Crustaceans  (crabs,  lobsters,  etc.) 
and  in  Insects,  from  the  deposition  of  a  peculiar  chemical 
substance  called  cMtine,  the  walls  of  the  body  become  so 
hardened,  that  when  the  animal  is  dead  and  dry,  it 
readily  breaks  into  numerous  very  perfect  rings. 

Though  this  branch  contains  a  far  gi-eater  number  of 
species  than  any  other  of  the  animal  kingdom,  its  myr- 
iad fonns  can  all  be  reduced  to  a  simple,  ideal,  typical 
figure ;    that   of  a   long  slender   cylinder  divided  into 
numerous  segments,  as  in  Fig.  1,  representing  the  larva 
of  a  Fly.     It  is  by  the  unequal  development  and  the 
various  modes  of  grouping  them,  as  well  as  the   differ- 
ences, in  the  number  of  the  rings  themselves,  and  also  in  ^'s-  !• 
the  changes  of  form  of  their  appendages,  i.  e.  the  feet,  jaws, 
antennae,  and  wings,  that  the  various  forms  of  Articulates  are 
produced. 

Fig.  1.    Worm-like  larva  of  a  Fly,  Scenopinus.  —  Original. 
1 


THE    CLASS    or    INSECTS. 


Fig.  2  * 


Articulated  animals  are  also  very  distinctly  bilateral,  i.  e.  the 
body  is  symmetrically  divided  into  two  lateral  halves,  and 
not  only  the  trunk  but  the  limbs  also 
show  this  bilateral  symmetry.  In  a  less 
marked  degree  there  is  also  an  antero- 
posterior symmetry,  i.e.  each  end  of 
the  body  is  opposed,  just  as  each 
side  of  the  body  is,  to  the  other.* 
The  line  separating  the  two  ends  is, 
however,  imaginary  and  vague.  The 
antennas,  on  the  anterior  pole,  or  head, 
are  represented  by  the  caudal,  or  anal, 
stylets  (Fig.  2),  and  the  single  parts 
on  the  median  line  of  the  body  corre- 
spond. Thus  the  labrum  aud  clypeus 
are  represented  by  the  tergite  of  the 
eleventh  segment  of  the  abdomen. 
In  all  Articulates  (Fig.  3)  the  long, 
tubular,  alimentary  canal  occupies  the  centre  of  the  body  ;  above 
it  lies  the  "heart,"  or  dorsal  vessel,  and  below,  upon  the  under 
side,  rests  the  nervous  system. 
The  breathing  apparatus,  or 
"lungs,"  in  Worms  consists  of  /| 
simple  filaments,  placed  on  the 
front  of  the  head  ;  or  of  gill-like 
processes,  as  in  the  Crustaceans, 
Avhich  are  formed  by  membran- 
ous expansions  of  the  legs  ;  or,  "  j-ig.  3. 
as  in  the  Inp-cts  (Fi'g.  4),  of  delicate  tubes  (ti'acheae),  which 

*  Professor  Wyman  (On  Symmetry  and  Homology  in  Limbs,  Proceedings  of  tlie 
Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  1S67)  has  sliown  that  antero-posterior  s}-mmetry 
is  very  marked  in  Articulates.  In  the  adjoining  figure  of  Jceni  (Fig.  3)  tlie  longi- 
tudinal lines  illustrate  what  is  meant  by  bilateral  symmetry,  and  the  transverse 
lines  "fore  and  aft"  symmetry.  Tlie  two  antero-posterior  halves  of  the  body  are 
very  symmetrical  in  the  Crustacean  genera  Jcera.  Oniscus,  Porcellio,  and  other 
Crustacea,  and  also  among  the  Myriapods,  Scutic/era,  Polydesmus,  "  in  -which  the 
limbs  are  repeated  oppositely,  though  with  different  degrees  of  inequality,  from  the 
centre  of  the  body  backwards  and  forwards."  "Leuckart  and  Van  Beneden  have 
shown  that  Mysis  has  an  ear  in  the  last  segment,  and  Schmidt  has  described  an  eye 
in  the  same  part  in  a  worm,  AmjJhicora."  —  From  Wyman. 

Fig.  3  represents  an  ideal  section  of  a  Worm.  /  indicates  the  skin,  or  mus- 
cular body-wall,  which  on  each  side  is  produced  into  one  or  more  fleshy  tubercles, 
usually  tipped  with  bristles  or  hairs,  which  serve  as  organs  of  locomotion,  and 


THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 


ramify  throughout  the  whole  interior  of  the  animal,  and  con- 
nect with  breathing  pores  (stigmata)  in  the  sides  of  the  body. 
They  do  not  breathe  through  the  mouth  as  do  the  higher  ani- 
mals.    The  tracheae  and  blood-vessels  follow  closely  the  same 


Fig.  4. 


com'se,  so  that  the  aeration  of  the  blood  goes  on,  apparently, 
over  the  whole  interior  of  the  body,  not  being  confined  to  a 
single  region,  as  in  the  lungs  of  the  vertebrate  animals. 

Thus  it  is  by  observing  the  general  form  of  the  body-walls, 
and  the  situation  of  the  different  anatomical  systems,  both  in 
relation  to  themselves  and  the  walls  of  the  body,  or  crust, 
which  surrounds  and  protects  the  more  delicate  organs  within, 
that  we  are  able  to  find  satisfactory  characters  for  isolating,  in 
our  definitions,  the  articulates  from  all  other  animals. 

We  shall  perceive  more  clearly  the  differences  between  the 
three  classes  of  Articulates,  or  jointed  animals,  namely, 
the  Worms,  Crustaceans,  and  Insects,  by  examining 

often  as  lungs.  The  nervous  cord  (a)  rests  on  the  floor  of  the  cylinder,  sending  a 
filament  into  the  oar-like  feet  (/),  and  also  around  the  intestine  or  stomach  (6),  to  a 
supplementary  cord  (d),  which  is  situated  just  over  the  intestine,  and  under  the 
heart  or  dorsal  vessel  (c).  The  circle  c  and  e  is  a  diagram  of  the  circulatory  sys- 
tem ;  c  is  the  dorsal  vessel,  or  heart,  from  the  side  of  which,  in  each  ring,  a  small 
vessel  is  sent  do\\Tiwards  and  around  to  e,  the  ventral  vessel. —  Original. 

Fig.  4.  An  ideal  section  of  a  Bee.  Here  the  crust  is  dense  and  thick,  to  which 
strong  muscles  are  attached.  On  the  upper  side  of  the  ring  the  wings  grow  out, 
while  the  legs  are  inserted  near  the  imder  side.  The  tracheas  (d)  enter  through  the 
stigma,  or  breathing  pore,  situated  just  under  the  wing,  and  their  branches  sub- 
divide and  are  distributed  to  the  wings,  witb  their  five  principal  veins  as  indicated 


THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 


their  young  stages,  from  the  time  of  their  exclusion  from  the  egg, 
until  they  pass  into  mature  life.  A  more  careful  study  of  this 
period  than  we  are  now  able  to  enter  upon  would  show  us  how 
much  alike  the  young  of  all  articulates  are  at  first,  and  how 
soon  they  begin  to  differ,  and  assume  the  shape  characteristic 
of  their  class. 

Most  Worms,  after  leaving  the  egg,  are  at  first  like  some 
infusoria,  being  little  sac-like  animalcules,  often  ciliated  over 
nearly  the  entire  surface  of  the  infinitesimal  body. 
Soon   this   sac-like  body  grows  longer,  and  con- 
tracts at  intervals  ;  the  intervening  parts  become 
unequally    enlarged,    some    segments,   or    rings, 
formed    b}^   the    contraction   of    the   body- walls, 
greatly  exceeding  in  size  those  next  to  them ;   and  it  thus 
assumes  the  appearance  of  being  more  or  less  equally  ringed, 
^  as  in  the  young  Terebella  (Fig.  5),  where  the 

cilise  are  restricted  to  a  single  circle  surrounding 
the  body.  Gradually  (Fig.  6)  the  cilise  disap- 
pear and  regular  locomotive  organs,  consisting 
of  minute  paddles,  grow  out  from  each  side ; 
feelers  (antennae),  jaws,  and  eyes  (simple  rudi- 
mentary eyes)  appear  on  the  few  front  rings 
of  the  body,  which  are  grouped  b}^  themselves 
:  into  a  sort  of  head,  though  it  is  difficult,  in  a 
large  proportion  of  the  lower  worms,  for  un- 
skilled observers  to  distinguish  the  head  from 
the  tail. 

Thus  Ave  see  tln-oughout  the  growth  of  the 

worm,  no  attempt   at   subdividing   the   body 

into  regions,  each  endowed  with  its  peculiar 

(^functions  ;  but  only  a  more  perfect  system  of 

j,j^  y  '    rings,  each  relatively  very  equally  developed. 


in  the  figure,  also  to  the  dorsal  vessel  (c),  the  intestine  (6),  and  the  nervous  cord  («). 
The  ti'acheffi  and  a  nervous  filament  are  also  sent  into  the  legs  and  to  the  wings. 
The  tracheae  are  also  distributed  to  the  dorsal  vessel  and  intestine  by  numei'ous 
branches  which  serve  to  hold  them  in  place.  —  Original. 

Fig.  5.    Young  Terebella,  soon  after  leaving  the  &gg.  —  From  A.  Agassiz. 

Fig.  6  represents  the  embryo  of  a  worm  (Autolytus  cornutus)  at  a  later  stage 
of  growth,  a  is  the  middle  tentacle  of  the  head ;  e,  one  of  the  posterior  tentacles; 
b,  the  two  ey-e-spots  at  the  base  of  the  hinder  pair  of  feelers ;  c  is  one  of  a  row  of 
oar-like  organs  (cirri)  at  the  base  of  which  are  inserted  the  locomotive  bristles, 


THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS.  '  5 

but  all  becoming  respectively  more  complicated.  For  example, 
in  the  Earth- worm  {Lumhricus) ,  each  ring  is  distinguishable  into 
an  upper  and  under  side,  and  in  addition  to  these  a  well- 
marked  side-area,  to  which,  as  for  example  in  marine  worms  (e.  g. 
Nereis) ,  oar-like  organs  are  attached.  In  most  worms  eye-spots 
appear  on  the  front  rings,  and  slender  tentacles  grow  out,  and 
a  pair  of  nerve-knots  (ganglia)  are  apportioned  to  each  ring. 

In  the  Crustaceans,  such  as  the  fresh-water  Crawfish  {Asta- 
cus),  as  shown  by  the  German  naturalist  Rathke ;  and  also  in 
the  earliest  stages  of  the  Insect,  the  body  at  once  assumes  a 
worm-like  form,  thus  beginning  its  embryonic  life  from  the  goal 
reached  by  the  adult  worm. 

The  young  of  all  Crustaceans  (Fig.  7)  first  begin  life  in  the 
egg  as  oblong  flattened  worm-like  bodies,  each  end  of  the  body 
being  alike.  The  young  of  the  lower  Crustaceans,  such  as  the 
Barnacles,  and  some  marine  forms  like  the  Jce?-a  and  some 
lowly  organized  parasitic  species  inhabiting  the  gills  of 
fishes,  are  hatched  as  microscopic  embryos  which  would  readily 
be  mistaken  for  j^oung  mites  (Acarina).  In  the  higher  Crus- 
taceans, such  as  the  fresh-water  Crawfish,  the 
young,  when  hatched,  does  not  greatly  differ 
from  the  parent,  as  it  has  passed  through  the 
worm-like  sta2:e  within  the  e^s. 

Fig.  7  represents  the  young  of  the  fresh- 
water Lobster  (Crawfish)  before  leaving  the 
egg.  The  body  is  divided  into  rings,  ending 
in  lobes  on  the  sides,  which  are  the  rudiments 
of  the  limbs,     b  is  the  rudiment  of  the  eye-  Fig.  7. 

stalk,  at  the  end  of  which  is  the  eye ;  a  is  the  fore  antennae ; 
c  is  the  hind  antennae ;  d  is  one  of  the  maxilla-feet ;  e  is  the 
first  pair  of  true  feet  destined  in  the  adult  to  form  the  large 
"claw."  Thus  the  eye-stalks,  antenna,  claws,  and  legs  are 
moulded  upon  a  common  form,  and  at  first  are  scarcely  distin- 

with  the  cirri  serving  as  swimming  and  locomotive  organs ;  d,  the  caudal  styles,  or 
tail-feelers.  In  this  figure  we  see  how  slight  are  the  differences  between  the 
feelers  of  the  head,  the  oar-like  swimming  organs,  and  the  caudal  filaments;  we 
can  easily  see  that  they  are  hut  modifications  of  a  common  form,  and  all  arise 
from  the  common  limb-bearing  region  of  the  body.  The  alimentary  canal,  with 
the  proventriculus,  or  anterior  division  of  the  stomach,  occupies  the  middle  of  the 
body;  while  the  mouth  opens  on  the  under  side  of  the  head.  — i^row^.  Agassiz. 
.   Fig.  7.    Embryo  of  the  Crawfish.  — ii^romiJft^/t/je. 

I* 


6 


THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 


guishable  from  each  other.     Here  we  see  the  embryo  divided, 
into  a  head-tliorax  and  a  tail. 

It  is  the  same  with  Insects.  Within  the  egg  at  the  dawn  of 
life  they  are  flattened  oblong  bodies  curved  upon  the  yolk- 
mass.  Before  hatching  they  become  more  cylindrical,  the 
limbs  bud  out  on  the  sides  of  the  rings,  the  head  is  clearly 
demarked,  and  the  young  caterpillar  soon  steps  forth  from  the 
egg-shell  ready  armed  and  equipped  for  its  riotous  life. 

As  will  be  seen  in  Fig.  8,  the  legs,  jaws,  and  antennae  are 
first  started  as  buds  from  the-  side  of  the  rings,  being  simply 

elongations  of  the  body-wall, 
which  bud  out,  become  larger, 
and  finally  jointed,  until  the 
\x  buds  arising  from  the  thorax  or 
abdomen  become  legs,  those 
from  the  base  of  the  head  be- 
come jaws,  while  the  antennae 
and  palpi  sprout  Out  from  the 
front  rings  of  the  head.  Thus 
while  the  bodies  of  all  articulates 
are  built  up  from  a  common  em- 
bryonic form,  their  appendages,  which  are  so  diverse,  when  we 
compare  a  Lobster's  claw  with  an  Insect's  antenna,  or  a  Spider's 
spinneret  with  the  hinder  limbs  of  a  Centipede,  are  yet  but 
modifications  of  a  common  form,  adapted  for  the  different  uses 
to  which  they  are  put  by  these  animals. 

Fig.  ■.".  A  Caddis,  or  Case-fly  (Mystacides)  in  tlie  egg,  with  part  of  tlie  yolk 
(x)  not  yet  inclosed  within  the  body-walls,  a,  antennre ;  between  a  and  b  the  mandi- 
bles; h,  ma.xilla;  c,  labium;  d,  the  separate  eye-spots  (ocelli),  which  afterwards  in- 
crease greatly  in  number  and  unite  to  form  the  compound  eye.  The  "neck"  or 
junction  of  the'  ;ad  with  the  thorax  is  seen  at  the  front  part  of  the  j'olk-mass;  c, 
the  three  pairs  of  legs,  which  are  folded  once  on  themselves;/,  the  pair  of  anal  leg-; 
attached  to  the  tenth  ring  of  the  abdomen,  as  seen  in  caterpillars,  Mhich  form  long 
antenna-like  filaments  in  the  Cockroach  and  May-fly,  etc.  The  rings  of  the  body  are 
but  partially  formed:  they  are  cylindrical,  giving  the  body  a  worm-like  form. 
Here,  as  in  the  other  two  figures,  though  not  so  distinctly  seen,  the  antennaj,  jaws, 
and  last  pair  of  abdominal  legs  are  modifications  of  but  a  single  form,  and  grow 
out  from  the  side  of  the  body.  The  head-appendages  are  directed  forv/ards,  as 
they  are  to  be  adapted  for  sensory  and  feeding  purposes ;  the  legs  are  directed 
doAvnwards,  since  they  are  to  support  the  insect  while  walking.  It  appears  that  the 
two  ends  of  the  body  are  perfected  before  the  middle,  and  the  under  side  before  the 
upper,  as  we  see  the  yolk-mass  is  not  yet  inclosed  and  the  rings  not  yet  formed 
above.  Thus  all  articulates  difl'er  from  all  vertebrates  in  having  the  yolk-mass 
situated  on  the  back,  instead  of  on  the  belly,  as  in  the  chick,  dog,  or  human  em- 
bryo.—  From  Zaddach. 


THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS.  7 

The  "Worm  is  long  and  slender,  composed  of  an  irregular 
number  of  rings,  all  of  very  even  size.  Thus,  while  the  size  of 
the  rings  is  lixed,  their  number  is  indeterminate,  varying  from 
twenty  to  two  hundred  or  more.  The  outline  of  the  body  is  a 
single  cylindrical  figm*e.  The  organs  of  locomotion  are  fleshy 
filaments  and  hairs  (Fig.  2,  /)  appended  to  the  sides. 

In  one  of  the  low  intestinal  worms,  the  Tape-worm  {Taenia), 
each  ring,  behind  the  head  and  "neck,"  is  provided  with  organs 
of  reproduction,  so  that  when  the  bod3^  becomes  broken  up 
into  its  constituent  elements,  or  rings  (as  often  occurs  naturally 
in  these  low  forms  for  the  more  read}^  propagation  of  the 
species,  since  the  young  are  exposed  to  many  dangers  while 
living  in  the  intestines  of  animals),  they  become  living  inde- 
pendent beings  which  "move  freely  and  somewhat  quickly 
like  Leaches,"  and  until  their  real  nature  was  known  they 
were  thought  to  be  worms.  This  and  other  facts  prove,  that, 
in  the  Worm,  the  vitality  of  the  animal  is  very  equally  dis- 
tributed to  each  ring.  If  we  cut  off  the  head  or  tail  of  some 
of  the  low  worms,  such  as  the  Flat  Worms  {Planaria,  etc.),  the 
pieces  will  become  a  distinct  animal,  but  an  Insect  or  Crab 
sooner  or  later  dies  when  deprived  of  its  head  or  tail  (abdomen). 
Thus,  in  the  Worm  the  vital  force  is  very  equally  distributed 
to  each  zoological  element,  or  ring  of  the  body ;  no  single 
part  of  the  body  is  much  honored  above  the  rest,  so  as  to  sub- 
ordinate and  hold  the  other  «  h 

parts  in  subservience  to  its      ^--^ — -___^'  ; 

peculiar  and  higher  ends  in    f/"^'''^-    i  — ~-^-~IIIIIlZ:ir=='^=^^ 

the  animal  economy.  /X.^_^    ^^^j^,.,-— ^--...Ot--..^^  ■ 

The  Crustacean,  of  which    V  C^^^5^;,,,,_,JL{JX^>^^^3 

the    Shrimp    (Fig.  9)    is    a  ..j^^^^P  ^^^"^^ 

typical     example,    is     com-  VfTv 

posed    of    a    determinate  c^^    /    \  V 

number  (21)  of  rings  which  Fig.  o. 

are  gathered  into  two  regions ;  the  head-thorax  (cephalo- 
thorax)  and  hind -body,  or  abdomen.  In  this  class  there 
is  a  broad  distinction  between  the  anterior  and  posterior  ends 
of  the  body.  The  rings  are  now  grouped  into  two  regions, 
and  the  hinder  division  is    subordinate  in   its    structure   and 

Fig.  9.    A  Shrimp.    Pandalus  annulicornis.    a,  cephalotliorax  :&,  abdomen. 


8  THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 

uses  to  the  forward  portion  of  the  body.  Hence  the  nervous 
power  is  transferred  in  some  degree  towards  the  head ;  the 
cephalothorax  containing  the  nervous  centres  from  which  nerves 
are  distributed  to  the  abdomen.  Nearly  all  the  organs  perform- 
ing the  functions  of  locomotion  and  sensation  reside  in  the  front 
region ;  while  the  vegetative  functions,  or  those  concerned 
in  the  reproduction  and  nourishment  of  the  animal,  are  mostly 
carried  on  in  the  hinder  region  of  the  body  (the  abdomen). 

The  typical  Crustacean  cannot  be  said  to  have  a  true  head, 
in  distinction  from  a  thorax  bearing  the  organs  of  locomotion, 
but  rather  a  group  of  rings,  to  which  are  appended  the  organs 
of  sensation  and  locomotion.  Hence  we  find  the  appendages 
of  this  region  gradually  changing  from  antennae  and  jaws  to 
foot-jaws,  or  limbs  capable  of  eating  and  also  of  locomotion ; 
they  shade  into  each  other  as  seen  in  Fig.  9.  Sometimes  the 
jaws  become  remarkably  like  claws  ;  or  the  legs  resemble  jaws 
at  the  base,  but  towards  their  tips  become  claw-like  ;  gill-like 
bodies  are  sometimes  attached  to  the  foot-jaws,  and  thus,  as 
stated  by  Professor  J.'D.  Dana  in  the  introduction  to  his  great 
work  on  the  Crustacea  of  the  United  States  Exploring  Expedi- 
tion, the  typical  Crustaceans  do  not  have  a  distinct  head,  but 
rather  a  "head-thorax"  (cephalothorax). 

Wlien  we  rise  a  third  and  last  step  into  the  world  of  Insects, 
we  see  a  completion  and  final  development  of  the  articu- 
late plan  which  has  been  but  obscurely  hinted  at  in  the  two 
lowest  classes,  the  Worms  and  Crustaceans.  Hei^e  we  fii-st  meet 
with  a  true  head,  separate  in  its  structure  and  functions  .from 
the  thorax,  which,  in  its  turn,  is  clearly  distinguishable  from 
the  third  region  of  the  body,  the  abdomen,  or  hind-body. 
These  three  .egions,  as  seen  in  the  Wasp  (Fig.  10),  are  each 
provided  with  three  distinct  sets  of  organs, 
each  having  distinct  functions,  though  all  are 
governed  by  and  minister  to  the  brain  force, 
now  in  a  great  measure  gathered  up  from  the 
posterior  rings  of  the  body,  and,  in  a  more 
concentrated  form  (the  brain  being  larger  than  in  the  lower 
articulates)  lodged  in  the  head. 

Here,  then,  is  a  centralization  of  parts  headwards  ;  they  are 

Fig.  10.    Philanthus  ventilabrisFahr.     AWood-wasp.  — From  Say. 


COMPOSITION    OF    THE    INSECT-CRUST.  9 

brought  as  if  towards  a  focus,  and  that  focus  the  head,  which 
is  the  meaning  of  the  term  "  ceplialization,"  proposed  by  Pro- 
fessor Dana.*  Ring  distinctions  liave  given  way  to  regional 
distinctions.  The  former  characterize  the  Worm,  the  latter 
the  Insect.  In  other  words,  tlie  division  of  the  bod}^  into  tlu'ee 
parts,  or  regions,  is  in  the  insect,  on  tlie  wliole,  better  marked 
than  the  division  of  any  one  of  those  parts,  except  tlie  abdo- 
men, into  rings. 

Composition  of  the  Insect-crust.  Before  describing  the 
composition  of  the  body-wall,  or  crust,  of  the  Insect,  let  us 
briefly  review  the  mode  in  which  the  same  parts  are  foi'med  in 
the  lower  classes,  the  Worms  and  Crustaceans.  We  have  seen 
that  the  typical  ring,  or  segment  (called  by  authors  zoonule, 
zoonite,  or  somite,,  meaning  parts  of  a  body,  though  we  prefer 
the  term  Cirthromere,  denoting  the  elemental  part  of  a  jointed 
or  articulate  animal),  consists'  of  an  upper  (tergite),  a  side 
(pleurite),  and  an  under  piece  (sternite).  This  is  seen  in  its 
greatest  simplicity  in  the  Worm  (Fig.  2),  where  the  upper  and 
ventral  arcs  are  separated  by  the  pleural  region.  In  the  Crus- 
tacean the  parts,  hardened  by  the  deposition  of  chitine  and 
therefore  thick  and  unjaelding,  have  to  be  farther  subdivided  to 
secure  the  necessary  amount  of  freedom  of  motion  to  the  body 
and  legs.  The  tipper  arc  not  only  covers  the  back  of  the  ani- 
mal, but  "extends  down  the  sides;  the  legs  are  jointed  to  the 
epimera,  or  flanks,  on  the  lower  arc  ;  the  episternum  is  situated 
between  the  epimerum  and  sternum ;  and  the  sternum,  form- 
ing the  breast,  is  situated  between  the  legs.  In  the  adult,  there- 
fore, each  elemental  ring  ^  is  composed  of  six  pieces.  It 
should,  however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  tergum  and  ster- 

*  In  two  papers  on  the  Classification  of  Animals,  published  in  the  American 
Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,  Second  Series,  vol.  xxxv,  p.  65,  vol.  xxxvi,  July,  1863, 
and  also  in  his  earlier  paper  on  Crustaceans,  "  the  principle  of  cephalization  is 
shown  to  be  exhibited  among  animals  in  the  following  ways : 

1.  By  a  transfer  of  members  from  the  locomotive  to  the  cephalic  series. 

2.  By  the  anterior  of  the  locomotive  organs  participating  to  some  extent  in  ce- 
phalic functions. 

3.  By  increased  abbreviation,  concentration,  compactness,  and  perfection  of 
structure,  in  the  parts  and  organs  of  the  anterior  portion  of  the  body. 

4.  By  increased  abbreviation,  condensation,  and  perfection  of  structure  in  the 
posterior,  or  gastric  and  caudal  portion  of  the  body. 

5.  By  an  upward  rise  in  the  cephalic  end  of  the  nervous  system.  This  rise 
reaches  its  extreme  limit  in  Man." 


10  THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 

num  each  consist,  in  the  embryo,  of  two  lateral  parts,  or  halves, 
which,  during  development,  unite  on  the  median  line  of  the 
body.  Typically,  therefore,  the  crustacean  ring  consists  pri- 
marily of  eight  pieces.  The  same  number  is  found  in  all  insects 
which  are  wingless,  or  in  the  larva  and  pupa  state  ;  this  applies 
also  to  the  Myriapods  and  Spiders. 

In  the  Myriapoda,  or  Centipedes,  the  broad  tergum  overlaps 
the  small  epimera,  while  the  sternum  is  much  larger  than  in 
the  Spiders  and  Insects.  In  this  respect  it  is  like  the, broad 
flat  under-surface  of  most  worms.  Hence  the  legs  of  the 
Centipede  are  inserted  very  far  apart,  and  the  "breast,"  or 
sternum,  is  not  much  smaller  than  the  dorsal  part  of  the  crust. 
In  the  Julus  the  dorsal  piece  (tergum)  is  greatly  developed 
over  the  sternum,  but  this  is  a  departure  from  what  is  ap- 
parently the  more  typical  form  of  the  order,  i.  e.  the  Centipede. 
In  the  Spiders  there  is  a  still  greater  disproportion  in  size 
between  the  tergum  and  the  sternum,  though  the  latter  is  very 
large  compared  with  that  of  Insects.  The  epimera  and  episterna, 
or  side-pieces  of  the  Spiders,  are  partially  concealed  by  the 
over-arching  tergum,  and  they  are  small,  since  the  joints  of  the 
legs  are  very  large,  Audouin's  law  of  development  in  Articu- 
lates showing  that  one  part  of  the  insect  crust  is  always 
developed  at  the  expense  of  the  adjoining  part.  In  the  Spider 
we  notice  that  the  back  of  the  thorax  is  a  single  solid  plate 
consisting  originally  of  four  rings  consolidated  into  a  single 
hard  piece.  In  like  manner  the  broad  solid  sternal  plate 
results  from  the  reunion  of  the  same  number  of  sternites  cor- 
responding, originall}',  to  the  number  of  thoracic  legs.  Thus 
the  whole  upper  side  of  the  head  and  thorax  of  the  Spider  is 
consolidated  into  a  single  hard  horny  immovable  plate,  like 
the  upper  solid  part  of  the  cephalothorax  of  the  Crab  or 
Shrimp.  Hence  the  motions  of  the  Spiders  are  very  stiff  com- 
pared with  those  of  many  Insects,  and  correspond  to  those  of 
the  Crab. 

The  crust  of  the  winged  insect  is  modified  for  the  per- 
formance of  more  complex  motions.  It  is  subdivided  in  so 
different  a  manner  from  the  two  lower  orders  of  the  class,  that 
it  would  almost  seem  to  have  nothing  in  common,  structurally 
speaking,  with  the  groups  below  them.     It  is  only  by  examin- 


COMPOSITION    OF    THE    INSECT-CRUST. 


11 


Fig.  ]2. 
ms  sc.m  ms" 


ing  the  lowest  wingless  forms  sucli  as  the  Louse,  Flea, 
Podura,  and  Bark-lice,  where  we  see  a  transition  to  the  Or- 
ders of  Spiders  and  Myriapods,  that  we  can  perceive  the  plan 
pervading  all  these  forms,  uniting  them  into  a  common 
class. 

A  segment  of  a  winged  six-footed  insect  (Hexapod)  consists 
typically  of  eight  pieces  which  we  will  now  examine  more 
leisurely.  Figure  12  represents  a  side-view  of 
the  thorax  of  the  Telea  Polypliemxis^  or  Silk- 
worm moth,  with  the  legs  and  wings  removed. 
Each  ring  consists  primarily  of  the  tergu7n,  the 
two  side-pieces  (epimerum  and  episternum)  and 
the  sternum,  or  breast-plate.  But  one  of  these 
pieces  (sternum)  remains  simple,  as  in  the  lower  orders.  The 
tergum  is  divided  into  four  pieces.  They  were  named  by  Au- 
douin  going  from  before  backwards, 
the  prcescutum,  scutum,  scutellum, 
and  postscutellum. 

The  scutum  is  invariably  present 
and  forms  the  larger  part  of  the 
upper  portion  (tergum)  of  the  tho-  ^p^:" 
rax  ;  the  scutellum  is,  as  its  name 
indicates,  the  little  shield  so  promi- 
nent in  the  beetle,  which  is  also 
uniformly  present.  The  other  two 
pieces  are  usually  minute  and 
crowded  down  out  of  sight,  and  placed  between  the  two  oppos- 
ing rings.  As  seen  in  Fig.  11,  the  prsescutum  of  the  moth  is 
a  small  rounded  piece,  bent  vertically  down,  so  as  not  to  be 
seen  from  above.     In  the  lowly  organized  Hepialus,  and  some 

Fig.  11.  Tergal  view  of  the  middle  segment  of  the  thorax  of  Telea  Polyphemus, 
prm,  prsescutum;  ms,  scutum;  scm,  scutellum;  ptm,  postscutellum;  pt,  patagium, 
or  shoulder  tippet,  covering  the  insertion  of  the  wings. —  Original. 

Fig.  12.  Side  view  of  the  thorax  of  T.  Polyphemus,  the  hairs  removed.  1,  Pro- 
thorax  ;  2,  iNIesothorax ;  3,  Metathorax,  separated  by  the  wider  black  lines.  Tei-gum 
of  the  prothorax  not  represented,  ms,  mesoscutum;  scm,  mesoscutellum;  ms" , 
metascutum;  scm'",  metascutellum ;  j)t,  a  supplementary  piece  near  the  inser- 
tion of  patagia;  to,  pieces  situated  at  the  insertion  of  the  wings  and  surrounded  by 
membrane ;  em,  epimerum  of  prothorax,  the  long  upright  piece  above  being  the 
episternum;  epm",  episternum  of  the  mesothorax;  em",  epimerum  of  the  same; 
epm",  episternum  of  the  metathorax;  em"',  epimerum  of  the  same,  divided  into  two 
pieces;    c',    c",  c",    coxje;    te,    le",    le"',    trochantines ;    tr,    tr,  tr,    trochanters. 


pt 


em 
em 


tr  te  c"  tr  c"'  tr 
12       3 


al 


12  THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 

Neuroptera,  such  as  the  Polystoechotes  (Fig.  13  a),  the  prse- 
scutum  is  large,  well  developed,  triangular,  and  wedged  in 
between  the  two  halves  of  the  scutum.  The  little 
piece  succeeding  the  scutellum,  i.  e,  the  postscu- 
tellum,  is  still  smaller,  and  rarely  used  in  descrip- 
tive entomology.  Thus  far  we  have  spoken  of  the 
middle,  or  mesothoracic,  ring,  where  these  four 
pieces  are  most  equally  developed.  In  the  first, 
or  prothoracic,  ring,  one  part,  most  probably  the 
scutum,  is  well  developed,  while  the  others  are 
aborted,  and  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  trace  them 
in  most  insects.  The  prothorax  in  the  higher  in- 
sects, such  as  the  Hymenoptera,  Lepidoptera,  and  Diptera  is 
very  small,  and  often  intimately  soldered  to  the  succeeding  or 
meso-thoracic  ring.  In  the  lower  insects,  however,  such  as  the 
Coleoptera,  the  bugs  (Hemiptera),  grasshoppers  and  their 
allies  (Orthoptera),  and  the  Neuroptera,  the  large  broad  pro- 
thorax  consists  almost  entirely  of  this  single  piece,  and  most 
writers  speak  of  this  part  under  the  name  of  "thorax,"  since 
the  two  posterior  segments  are  concealed  by  the  wings  when 
the  animal  is  at  rest.  The  metathorax  is  usually  very  broad 
and  short.  Here  we  see  the  scutum  split  asunder,  with  the 
prsescutum  and  scutellum  wedged  in  between,'  while  the  post- 
scutellum  is  aborted. 

On  the  side  are  two  pieces,  the  upper  (epimerum)  placed 
just  beneath  the  tergum,  which  is  the  collective  name  for  the 
four  ter^^al,  or  dorsal,  pieces  enumerated  above.  In  front  of 
the  epimerum  and  resting  upon  the  sternum,  as  its  name  im- 
plies, is  the  ejnstermim.  These  two  parts  (pleurites)  compose 
the  flanks  of  tiic  elemental  ring.  To  them  the  legs  are  articu- 
lated. Between  the  two  episterna  is  situated  the  breast-piece 
(sternum),  which  sliows  a  tendency  to  grow  smaller  as  we 
ascend  from  the  Neuroptera  to  the  Bees. 

In  those  insects  provided  with  wings,  the  epimera  are  also 
subdivided.  The  smaller  pieces,  hinging  upon  each  other,  as 
it   were,  give   play   to   the   very  numerous  muscles   of  flight 

Fig.  13.  a,  tergal  vieNv  of  thorax  of  Hepialus  {Sthenopis) ;  1,  prothorax;  3,  meso- 
thorax;  3,  metathorax.  The  prothorax  is  very  small  compared  with  that  of  Poly- 
stoschotes  (13  a,  1),  where  it  is  nearly  as  long  as  bi'oad. —  Original. 


COMPOSITION    OF    THE    INSECT-CRUST.  13 

needed  by  the  insect  to  perform  its  complicated  motions 
while  on  the  wing. 

The  insertion  of  the  fore  wing  is  concealed  by  the  "shoulder 

tippets,"  or  patagia  (Fig.  11),  which  are  only  present  in  the 

mesothorax.     The  external  opening  of  the  spiracles  just  under 

the  wing  perforates  a  little  piece  called  by  Audouin  the  j)eri- 

•  treme. 

A  glance  at  Figures  11  and  12  shows  how  compactly  the 
various  parts  of  the  thorax  are  agglutinated  into  a  globular 
mass,  and  that  this  is  due  to  the  diminished  size  of  the  first 
and  third  rings,  while  the  middle  ring  is  greatly  enlarged  to 
support  the  muscles  of  flight.  There  are  four  tergal,  four 
pleural,  two  on  each  side  (and  these  in  the  Hymenoptera,  Lepi- 
doptera,  and  Diptera  subdivide  into  several  pieces),  and  a 
single  sternal  piece,  making  nine  for  each  ring  and  twenty- 
seven  for  the  whole  thorax,  with  eight  accessory  pieces  (the 
three  pairs  of  peritremes  and  the  two  patagia) ,  making  a  total 
of  thirty-five  for  the  entu-e  thorax ;  or,  multiplying  the  four 
tergal  pieces  by  two,  since  they  are  formed  by  the  union  of  two 
primitive  pieces  on  the  median  line  of  the  body,  we  have 
thirty-nine  pieces  composing  the  thorax. 

Table  of  the  Parts  of  the  Thorax  applied  to  the  Pro-, 
Meso-,  axd  Metathorax,  respectively. 

-.  Prsescutum, 

r  Dorsal     S  Scutum, 

I  Surface    J  Scutellura, 

I  '  Postscutellum. 

Thorax  \  Pleural    ^  Epimcrum, 
inorax  i  pleural    i  Episternura, 

I  buriace   ^  Episternal  apophysis,  Stigma,  Peritreme. 

1  Sternal    <  sternum. 
L  Surface    ( 

We  must  remember  that  these  pieces  are  rarely  of  precisely 
the  same  form  in  any  two  species,  and  that  the}'  differ,  often  in 
a  very  marked  way,  in  different  genera  of  insects.  How  sim- 
ple, then,  is  the  tjqoical  ring,  and  how  complex  are  the  va- 
rious subdivisions  of  that  ring  as  seen  in  the  actual,  living 
insect,  where  each  part  has  its  appropriate  muscles,  nerves,  and 
tracheae ! 

We  have  seen  how  the  thorax  is  formed  in  Insects  generally, 
let  us  now  advert  to  the  two  types  of  thorax  in  the  six-footed 
2 


14  THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 

insects.  In  the  higher  series  of  suborders,  comprising  the  Dip- 
tera,  Lepidoptera  and  Hymenoptera,  placing  the  highest  last, 
the  thorax  shows  a  tendency  to  assume  a  giobula*'  shape  ;  the 
upper  side,  or  tergum,  is  much  arched,  the  pleural  region  bulges 
out  full  and  round,  while  the  legs  conceal  at  their  insertion 
the  sternum  which  is  minute  in  size. 

In  the  lower  series,  embracing  the  Coleoptera,  Hemiptera, 
Orthoptera,  and  Nem'optera,  the  entire  body  tends  to  be  more 
flattened  ;  in  the  thorax  the  tergum  is  broad,  especially  that  of 
the  prothorax,  while  the  pleurites  (episterna  and  epimera)  are 
short  and  bulge  out  less  than  in  the  higher  series,  and  the  ster- 
num is  almost  invariably  well  developed,  often  presenting  a 
large  thick  breast-plate  bearing  a  stout  spine  or  thick  tubercle, 
as  in  (Edipoda.  We  can  use  these  characters,  in  classifying 
insects  into  suborders,  as  they  are  common  to  the  whole  order. 
Hence  the  use  of  characters  drawn  from  the  wings  and  mouth- 
parts  (which  are  sometimes  wanting),  leads  to  artificial  dis- 
tinctions, as  they  are  peripheral  organs,  though  often  Convenient 
in  our  first  attempts  at  classif^^ing  and  limiting  natural  groups. 

The  abdomen.  In  the  hind  body,  or  third  region  of  the 
trunk,  the  thi-ee  divisions  of  the  typical  ring  (arthromere),  are 
entire,  the  tergum  is  broad  and  often  not  much  greater  in  ex- 
tent than  the  sternum ;  and  the  pleurites  also  form  either  a 
single  piece,  or,  divided  into  an  epimerum  and  episternum, 
form  a  distinct  lateral  region,  on  which  the  stigmata  are  sit- 
uated. The  segments  of  the  abdomen  have  received  from 
Lacaze-Duthiers  a  still  more  special  name,  that  of  urite,  and 
the  different  tergal  pieces  belonging  to  the  several  rings, 
but  especially  those  that  have  been  modified  to  form  the  genital 
armor  have  been  designated  by  him  as  tergites.  We  have 
applied  this  last  term  to  the  tergal  pieces  generally.  The  tyi^i- 
cal  number  of  abdominal  segments  is  eleven.  In  the  lowest 
insects,  the  Neuroptera,  there  are  usually  eleven ;  as  we  have 
counted  them  in  the  abdomen  of  the  embryo  of  Diplax.  In 
others,  such  as  the  Il3rmenoptera  and  Lepidoptera,  there  may 
never  be  more  than  ten,  so  far  as  present  observation  teaches 
us. 

The  formation  of  the  sting,  and  of  the  male  intromittent 
organ,  may  be  observed  in  the  full-grown  larva  and  in  the  in- 


COMPOSITION   OF   THE    OVIPOSITOR. 


15 


17  a. 


complete   pupa    of  the    Humble-bee,    and   other   thin-skinned 

Hymenopterous  larvae,  and  in  a  less  satisfactory  way  in  the 

young  Dragon-flies. 

If  the  larva  of  the  Humble-bee  be  taken  just  after  it  has 

become  full-fed,  and  as  it  is  about  to  enter  upon  the  pupa  state, 

the    elements 
O     O  <iD,o         {sterno  -  rliab- 

dites  Lacaze- 
Duthiers),  or 
tubercles, 
destined  to         rig.  i6. 
form   the   ovipositor,  lie   in 
separate  pairs,  in  two  groups, 
Fig.  14.  Fig.  15.  exposed  distinctly  to  view, 

as  in  Figures  14-18.      The  ovipositor  thus  consists  of  tlii'ee 

pairs  of  slender  non-articulated  tubercles,  situated  in  juxta- 
position on  each  side   of 

the    mesial    line    of    the 

body.   The  first  pair  arises  j 

from  the  eighth  abdominal 

ring,  and  the  second  and 

third  pair  grow  out  from 

the  ninth  ring.     The  ends 

of  the   first  pair  scarcely 

reach  beyond  the  base  of 

the  third  pair.     With  the 

growth  of  the   semi-pupa, 

the  end  of  the   abdomen 

decreases   in   size,  and  is 

Fig.  14.  Rudiments  of  the  sting,  or  ovipositor,  of  the  Humble-bee.  8,  9,  10, 
sternites  of  eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth  abdominal  rings  in  the  larva.  «,  first  pair,  situ- 
ated on  the  eighth  sternite ;  b,  second  and  inner  pair ;  and  c,  the  outer  pair.  The  let- 
tering is  the  same  in  figures  14-22.  The  inner  pair  (6),  forms  the  true  ovipositor, 
through  which  the  eggs  are  supposed  to  pass  when  laid  by  the  insect,  the  two 
outer  pairs,  a  and  c,  sheathing  the  inner  pair. 

Fig.  15.    The  same  a  little  farther  advanced. 

Fig.  16.    The  same  at  a  later  stage,  the  three  pairs  approximating. 

Fig.  17.  The  three  pairs  now  appear  as  if  together  growing  from  the  base  of  the 
ninth  segment;  17«,  side  view  of  the  same,  showing  the  end  of  the  abdomen  grow- 
ing smaller  thi-ough  the  diminution  in  size  of  the  under  side  of  the  body. 

Fig.  18.  The  three  pairs  of  rhabdites  now  nearly  equal  in  size,  and  nearly 
ready  to  unite  and  form  a  tube;  18a,  side  view  of  the  same;  the  end  of  the  abdo- 
men still  more  pointed;  the  ovipositor  is  situated  between  the  seventh  and  tenth 
rings,  and  is  partially  retracted  within  the  body. 


Fig.  18. 


18  a. 


16 


THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 


Fig.  19. 


gradually  incurved  toward  the  base  (Fig.  18),  and  the  thi-ee 
pairs  of  rhabdites  approach  each  other  so  closely  that  the  two 
outer  ones  completely  ensheath  the  inner,  until  a  complete 
extensible  tube  is  formed,  which  is  gradually  withdrawn  entirely 
within  the  body. 

The  male  genital  organ  is  originally  composed  of  three  pairs 
(two  pairs,  apparently,  in  ^s- 
cJma,  Fig.  19)  of  tubercles  all 
arising  from  the  ninth  abdominal 
ring,  being  sternal  outgrowths 
and  placed  on  each  side  of  the 
mesial  line  of  the  body,  two  be-  Fi& 

ing  anterior,  and  ver}^  unequal  in  size,  and  the 
third  pair  nearer  the  base  of  the  abdomen.  The  ex- 
ternal genital  organs  cannot  be  considered  as 
in  any  way  homologous  with  the  limbs,  which 
are  articulated  outgrowths  budding  out  be- 
tween the  sternal  and  pleural 
pieces  of  the  arthromere.^ 
"^  Tliis  view  will  apply  to  the 
Fio-.  21.  genital  armor  of  all  Insects,  so 
far  as  we  have  been  able  to  observe.  It  is 
so  in  the  pupa  of  yEschna  (Fig.  21),  and 
the  pupa  of  Agrion  (Fig.  22),  which  com- 
pletely repeats,  in  its  essential  features,  the 
structure. of  the  ovipositor  of  Bomhus.  Thus  in  ^schna  and 
Agrion  the  ovipositor  consists  of  a  pair  of  closely  appressed  ensi- 
form  processes  which  grow  out  from  under  the  posterior  edge  of 
the  eighth  abdominal  ring,  and  are  embraced  between  two  pairs 

*  This  term  is  proposed  as  better  defining  the  ideal  ring,  or  primary  zoological 
element  of  an  articulated  animal  than  the  terms  somite  or  zoonite,  which  seem  too 
vague;  we  also  propose  the  term  arthroderm  for  the  outer  crust,  or  body  Avails,  of 
Articulates,  and  arthropleura  for  the  pleural,  or  limb-bearing  region,  of  the  body, 
being  that  portion  of  the  arthromere  situated  between  the  tergite  and  sternite. 

Fig.  19.  The  rudiments  of  the  male  intromittent  organ  of  the  pupa  of  ^schna, 
consisting  of  two  flattened  tubercles  situated  on  the  ninth  ring;  the  outer  pair 
large  and  rounded  inclosing  the  smaller  linear  oval  pair. 

Fig.  20.  The  same  in  the  Humble-bee,  but  consisting  of  three  pairs  of  tubercles, 
X,  y,  z ;  8, 9, 10,  the  last  three  segments  of  the  abdomen. 

Fig.  21.    The  rudimentary  ovipositor  of  the  pupa  of  jEschna,  a  Dragon-fly. 

Fig.  22.  The  same  in  pupa  of  Agrion,  a  small  Dragon-fly.  Here  the  rudiments 
of  the  eleventh  abdominal  ring  is  seen,  d,  the  base  of  one  of  the  abdominal  false 
gills,  —  Figs,  14-22  original. 


COMPOSITION    OF    THE    OVIPOSITOR. 


17 


of  thin  lamelliform  pieces  of  similai-  form  and  structure,  arising 
from  the  sternite  of  the  ninth  ring.  These  sternal  outgrowths 
do  not  homologize  with  tlie  filiform,  antennae-like,  jointed 
appendages  of  the  eleventh  ring,  as  seen  in  the  Perlidse  and 
most  Neuroptera  and  Orthoptera  (especially  in  Mantis  tes- 
sellata  where  they  -(Fig.  23)  closely 
resemble  antennae),  which,  arising  as 
they  do  from  the  arthropleural,  or  limb- 
bearing  region  of  the  body,  i.  e.  between  Fig.  23. 
the  sternum  and  episternum,  are  strictly  homologous  with  the 
abdominal  legs  of  the  Myriapoda,  the  "false  legs"  of  cater- 
pillars, and  the  abdominal  legs  of  some  Neuropterous  larvae 
{Corydalis,  Phyganeidce^  etc.). 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  attenuated  form  of  the  tip  is 
produced  by  the  decrease  in  size  of  certain  parts,  the  actual 
disappearance  of  others,  and  the  perfection  of  those  parts  to 
be  of  future  use.  Thus  towards  the  extremity  of  the  body 
the  pleurites  are  absorbed  and  disappear,  the  tergites  overlap 
on  the  sternites,  and  the  latter  diminish  in  size  and  are 
withdrawn  within  the  body,  while  the  last,  or  eleventh  sternite, 
entirely  disappears.*     Meanwhile  the  sting  grows  larger  and 

larger,  until  finally  we 
have  the  neatly  fashioned 
abdominal  tip  of  the  bee 
concealing  the  complex 
sting  with  its  intricate 
system  of  visceral  ves- 
,  24.  sels  and  glands. 

The  ovipositor,  or  sting,  of  all  insects,  therefore,  is  formed 
on  a  common  plan  (Fig.  24).    The  solid  elements  of  the  arthro- 

*In  lianatra,  however,  Lacaze-Duthiers  has  noticed  the  curious  fact  that  in 
order  to  fomri  the  long  respiratory  tube  of  this  insect,  the  tergite  and  sternite  of  the 
pregenital  (eighth)  segment  are  aborted,  while  the  pleurites  are  enormously  en- 
larged and  elongated,  so  as  to  carry  the  stigmata  far  out  to  the  end  of  the  long  tube 
thus  formed. 

Fig.  23.  End  of  the  abdomen  of  Mantis  tessellata;  p,  many-jointed  anal  style 
resembling  an  antenna.  5-11,  the  seven  last  abdominal  segments;  the  8-llth  ster- 
nites being  obsolete. —  From  Lacaze-Duthiers. 

Fig.  24.    Ideal  plan  of  the  structure  of  the  ovipositor  in  the  adult  insect.    l-7t, 

the  tergites,  connected  by  dotted  lines  with  their  corresponding  sternites.    6,  the 

eighth  tergite,  or  anal  scale;  c,  epimerum;  a,  a,  two  pieces  forming  the  outer  pair 

of  rhabdites;  i,  the  second  pair,  or  stylets;  and/,  the  inner  pair,  or  sting;  d,  the 

9* 


18  THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 

mere  are  modijBed  to  form  the  parts  supporting  the  sting  alone. 
The  external  opening  of  the  oviduct  is  always  situated  between 
the  eighth  and  ninth  segments,  while  the  anal  opening  lies  at 
the  end  of  the  eleventh  ring.  So  that  there  are  really,  as 
Lacaze-Duthiers  observes,  thi-ee  segments  interposed  between 
the  genital  and  anal  openings. 

The  various  modifications  of  the  ovipositor  and  male  organ 
will  be  noticed  under  the  different  suborders. 

The  Structure  of  the  Head.  After  studying  the  com- 
position of  the  thorax  and  abdomen,  where  the  constituent 
parts  of  the  elemental  ring  occur  in  their  greatest  simplicity, 
we  may  attempt  to  unravel  the  intricate  structure  of  the  head. 
We  are  to  determine  whether  it  is  composed  of  one,  or  more, 
segments,  and  if  several,  to  ascertain  how  many,  and  then  to 
learn  what  parts  of  the  typical  arthromere  are  most  largely 
developed  as  compared  with  the  development  of  similar  parts 
in  the  thorax  or  abdomen.  In  this,  perhaps  the  most  difficult 
problem  the  entomologist  has  to  deal  with,  the  study  of  the 
head  of  the  adult  insect  alone  is  only  guesswork.  We  must 
trace  its  growth  in  the  embryo.  Though  many  writers  consider 
the  head  as  consisting  of  but  a  single  segment,  the  most  emi- 
nent entomologists  have  agreed  that  the  head  of  insects  is  com- 
posed of  two  or  more  segments.  Savigny  led  the  way  to  these 
discoveries  in  transcendental  entomology  by  stating  that  the 
appendages  of  the  head  are  but  modified  limbs,  and  homol- 
ogous with  the  legs.  This  view  at  once  gave  a  clue  to  the 
complicated  structure  of  the  head.  If  the  antennae  and  biting 
organs  are  modified  limbs,  then  there  must  be  an  elemental 
segment  preseni  in  some  form,  however  slight^  developed  in 
the  mature  insect,  to  which  such  limbs  are  attached.  But  the 
best  observers  have  differed  as  to  the  supposed  number  of  such 
theoretical  segments.  Burmeister  believed  that  there  were  two 
only ;  Carus  and  Audouin  thought  there  were  three  ;  McLeay 
and  Newman  four,  and  Straus-Durckheim  recognized  seven. 
From  the  study  of  the  semipupa  of  the  Humble-bee  (Boinbus) 

support  of  the  sting;  e,  the  support  of  the  stylet  (j).  R,  the  anus ;  O,  the  outlet  of 
the  oviduct.  The  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  sternites  are  aborted. — From  Lacaze- 
Duthiers. 


THE    STRUCTURE    OF    THE    HEAD.  19 

and  several  low  Neuropterous  forms,  as  the  larva  of  Ephemera, 
but  chiefly  the  embryo  of  Diplax,  a  dragon-fly,  we  have  con- 
cluded that  there  are  seven  such  elemental  segments  in  the 
head  of  insects. 

That  there  are  four  corresponding  to  the  jointed  appendages, 
i.  e.  the  labium,  or  second  maxillae,  the  first  maxillae,  the  man- 
dibles, and  the  antennae,  seems  indisputable.  But  where  else 
are  we  to  look  for  jointed  appendages  in  an  insect's  head  ?  We 
must  go  out  of  the  class  of  Insects  and  study  the  stalk-eyed 
Crustacea,  such  as  the  Lobster,  where  the  eye  is  supported  on  a 
two-jointed  stalk,  which  has  been  homologized  with  the  limbs. 
While,  therefore,  the  eyes  of  insects  are  never  "stalked,"  as  in 
the  Lobster  and  Sln-imp,  they  are  evidently  developed,  as  in 
the  Crustacean,  upon  a  separate  segment  (or  its  rudiments), 
which  may  be  called  the  "  ophthalmic  ring,"  and  which  is,  there- 
fore, the  fifth  cephalic  ring.  In  advance  of  the  eyes  are  nor- 
mally placed  the  three  ocelli,  though  in  the  highest  Insects  (the 
Diptera,  Lepidoptera,  and  H3anenoptera)  they  appear  to  be 
situated  in  the  rear  of  the  eyes. 

Each  of  these  three  ocelli  is  situated  upon  a  distinct  piece  ; 
but  we  must  consider  the  anterior  single  ocellus  as  in  reality 
formed  of  two,  since  in  the  immature  pupa  of  Bombus  the 
anterior  ocellus  is  differently  shaped  from  the  two  posterior 
ones,  being  transversely  ovate,  resulting,  as  I  think,  from  the 
fusion  of  two  originally  distinct  ocelli,  and  not  round  like  the 
other  two.  There  are,  therefore,  two  pairs  of  ocelli,  and  hence 
they  grow  from  the  rudiments  of  a  sixth  and  seventh  ring 
respectively. 

Now,*  since  the  artJiropleural  is  the  limb-bearing  region  in 
the  thorax,  it  must  follow  that  this  region  is  largely  developed 
in  the  head,  to  the  bulk  of  which  the  sensory  and  digestive 
organs  bear  so  large  a  proportion  ;  and  as  all  the  parts  of  the 
head  are  subordinated  in  their  development  to  that  of  the  ap- 
pendages of  which  they  form  the  support,  it  must  follow  logi- 
cally that  the  larger  portion  of  the  body  of  the  head  is  pileiiral^ 
and  that  the  tergal,  and  especially  the  sternal,  parts  are  ■  either 
very  slightly  developed,  or  wholly  obsolete.  Thus  each  region 
of  the  body  is  characterized  by  the  relative  development  of 
the  three  parts  of  the  arthromere.     In  the  abdomen   the  upper 


20 


THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 


(tergal)  and  under  (sternal)  surfaces  are  most  equally  devel- 
oped, while  the  pleural  line  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  In  the 
thorax  the  pleural  region  is  much  more  developed,  either  quite 
as  much,  or  often  more  than  the  upper,  or  tergal  portion,  while 
the  sternal  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  In  the  head  the  pleurites 
form  the  main  bulk  of  the  region,  the  sternites  are  reduced  to 
a  minimum,  and  the  tergites  may  be  identified  in  the  occiput, 
the  cl3"peus,  and  labrum. 


Table  of  the  Segments  or  the  Head  and  their  Appendages, 

BEGINNING   WITH   THE  MOST   AnTERIOII.* 


Preoral. 


{Hypothetical), 

First  Segment 

{First  Ocellary), 

Second  Segment 
{Second  Ocellary), 

Third  Seginent 

{Ophthalmic), 

Fourth  Segment 
{Antennary), 


Fifth  Segment 
{Mandibular), 

Sixth  Segment 
{First  Maxillary), 

Seventh  Segment 
{Second  Maxillary,  or 
Labial), 


Tergal, 
>  Pleural, 
[  Pleural, 
Pleural, 


I  Pleural, 


Pastoral. 


Pleural, 


Pleural, 


Labrum,  epipharynx,    cly- 
peus. 

'  Anterior  ocellus  (originally 
;      doulile). 

Two  posterior  ocelli. 

Eyes. 

Antennae. 

Mandibles. 
First  maxillae. 


'  pSS/(S)?^'  \  Secx)nd  maxillae 
I  Sternal  (gula),       (      (Labmm). 


The  Ajypejidages.  We  naturally  begin  with  the  thoracic 
appendages,  or  iegs,  of  which  there  is  a  pair  to  each  ring.  The 
leg  (Fig.  25)  consists  of  seven  joints,  the  basal  one,  the  coxa,  in 
the  Hymenoptera,  Lepidoptera,  and  Diptera,  consisting  of  two 

*  In  the  first  column  are  enumerated  the  seven  ring-s,  or  segments,  composing 
the  head.  The  tergal  parts  (i.e.  the  labrum,  epipharynx,  and  clypeus),  situated  in 
front  of  the  ocelli,  are  left  out  in  enumerating  the  seven  segments,  as  they  are  not 
siipposed  by  the  author  to  belong  to  either  of  those  segments. 

In  the  first  column  the  seven  rings  are  named  (in  brackets)  according  to  the  sort  of 
appendages  they  bear.  In  the  second  column  is  given  the  part,  or  parts,  of  the  ideal 
segment  supposed  actually  to  exist  in  an  insect's  head;  and  in  the  third  column  are  to 
be  found  the  names  of  the  organs  attached  to  their  corresponding  segments,  beginning 
with  the  front  and  going  back  to  the  base  of  the  head. 


THE    APPENDAGES.  21 

pieces,  i.  e.  the  coxa  and  trochantine  (see  Fig.  12)  ;  the  tro- 
cJianter;  the  femur;  the  tibia,  and,  lastly,  the  tarsus,  which  is 
subdivided  into  from  one  to  five  joints,  the  latter  being  qa    ^ 
the  normal  number.     The  terminal  joint  ends  in  a  pair  ^ 
of  claws  between  which  is  a  cushion-like  sucker  called 
the  pulvillus.     This  sucking  disk   enables  the  Fly  to 
walk  upside  down  and  on  glass. 

In  the  larva,  the  feet  are  short  and  horny,  and  the  Fig.  25. 
joints  can  be  still  distinguished.  In  Myriapods,  each  segment 
of  the  abdomen  has  a  pair  of  feet  like  the  thoracic  ones.  We 
must  consider  the  three  pairs  of  spinnerets  of  Spiders,  which 
are  one  to  three-jointed,  as  homologous  with  the  jointed  limbs  of 
the  higher  insects.  In  the  six-footed  insects  (Hexapoda),  the 
abdominal  legs  are  deciduous,  being  present  in  the  Coleopterous 
grub,  the  Dipterous  maggot,  the  caterpillar,  and  larva  of  the 
Saw-fly,  but  disappearing  in  the  pupa  state.  They  are  often, 
as  in  most  maggots,  either  absent,  or  reduced  in  number  to  the 
two  anal,  or  terminal,  pair  of  legs  ;  while  in  the  Saw-flies,  there 
are  as  many  as  eight  pairs.  These  "false"  or  "prop-legs" 
are  soft  and  fleshy,  and  without  articulations.  At  the  retrac- 
tile extremity  is  a  crown  of  hooks,  as  seen  in  caterpillars  or  the 
hind-legs  of  the  larva  of  Chironomus  (Fig.  26),  in  which  the 
prothoracic  pair  of  legs  is  reduced  to  inarticu- 
late fleshy  legs  like  the  abdominal  ones. 

The  jyosition  of  the  different  pairs  of  legs 
deserves  notice  in  connection  Avith  the  principle 
of  "  antero-posterior  sjanmetry."  The  fore-  ■  ^  - 
legs  are  directed  forwards  like  the  human  arms.  Fig.  26. 
but  the  two  hinder  pairs  are  directed  backwards.  In  the  Spiders, 
three  pairs  of  abdominal  legs  (spinnerets)  are  retained  through- 
out life;  in  the  lower  Hexapods,  a  single  pair,  which  is  ap- 
pended to  the  eleventh  segment,  is  often  retained,  but  under 
a  form  which  is  rather  like  an  antenna,  than  limb-like.  In 
some  Neuropterous  larvse  {Phryganea,  CorydaJus,  etc.)  the 
anal  pair  of  limbs  are  very  well  marked  ;  they  constitute  the 
"anal  forceps"  of  the  adult  insect.  They  sometimes  become 
true,  many-jointed  appendages,  and  are  then  remarkably  like 

Fig.  25.    A,  coxa;  B,  trochanter;  C,  femur;  D, tibia;  F,  tibial  spurs;  E,  tarsus, 
divided  into  five  tarsal  joints,  tlie  fifth  ending  in  a  clsiw.—From  Sanborn. 


22 


THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 


anteniife,  as  in  the  instance  of  Mantis  tessellata  described  by 
Lacaze-Diithiers  (Fig.  23).  In  the  Cockroach  these  append- 
ages, sometimes  called  "anal  cerci,"  resemble  the  antennis  of 
the  same  insect.  In  the  Lepidoptera  and  Hymenoptera  they 
do  not  appear  to  be  jointed,  and  are  greatly  aborted. 

The  Wings.     The  wings  of  insects  first  appear  as  little  soft 
vascular  sacs  permeated  by  tracheae.     They  grow  out  in  the 
preparatory  stages  (Fig.  27)  of  the  pupa  from  the  side  of  the 
];  thorax  and  above  the  insertion  of  the 

legs,  i.e.  between  the  epimerum  and 
...'n  tergum.  During  the  pupa  state  they 
are  pad-like,  but  Avlien  the  pupa  skin  is 
thrown  off  they  expand  with  air,  and 
in  a  few  minutes,  as  in  the  Butterfly, 
enlai'ge  to  many  times  their  original 
size.  The  wings  of  insects,  then,  are 
simple  expansions  of  the  crust,  spread 
over  a  framework  of  horny  tubes. 
These  tubes  are  really  double,  consist- 
ing of  a  central  trachea,  or  air  tube, 
inclosed  within  a  larger  tube  filled  with 
blood,  and  which  performs  the  functions  of  the  veins.  Hence 
the  aeration  of  the  blood  is  carried  on  in  the  wings,  and  thus 
they  serve  the  double  purpose  of  lungs  and  organs  of  fiiglit. 

The  number  and  situation  of  these  veins  and  their  branches 
(veinlets)  are  of  great  use  in  separating  genera  and  species. 
The  typical  number  of  primary  veins  is  five.  They  diverge 
outward  at  a  slight  angle  from  the  insertion  of  the  wing,  and 
are  soon  divided  into  veinlets,  from  Avhich  cross  veins  are 
thrown  out  coiiviecting  with  others  to  form  a  net-work  of  veins 
and  veinlets,  called  the  venation  of  the  wing  (Figs.  28,  29). 
The  interspaces  between  the  veins  and  veinlets  are  called  cells. 
At  a  casual  glance  the  venation  seems  very  irregular,  but  in 
many  insects  is  simple  enough  to  enable  us  to  trace  and  name 
the  veinlets.     The  five  main  veins,  most  usuall}^  present,  are 

Fig.  27.  The  semipnpa  of  Bomhtis,  the  larva  skin  having  been  removed,  show- 
ing the  two  pairs  of  rudimentary  vrings  growing  out  from  the  mesothorax  (Z:),  and 
metathorax  (m).  n  and  the  seven  succeeding  dots  represent  the  eight  abdominal 
stigmata,  the  iirst  one  (n)  being  in  the  pupa  situated  on  the  thorax,  since  the  first 
ring  of  the  abdo'men  is  in  this  stage  joined  to  the  thorax.  —  Original. 


Fig.  27. 


THE    WINGS. 


23 


Fig.  28. 


called, going  from  the  costa.,  or  front  edge,  the  costal^  subcostal, 
median,  snbmedian,  and  internal,  and  sometmies  the  median 
divides  into  two,  making  six 
veins.  The  costal  vein  is  un- 
divided ;  the  subcostal  and  me- 
dian are  divided  into  several 
branches,  while  the  snbmedian 
and  internal  are  usually  simple. 

The  venation  of  the  fore- 
wings  affords  excellent  marks 
.in  separating  genera,  but  that 
of  the  hind  wings  varies  less, 
and  is  consequently  of  less  use. 

The  wings  of   many  insects 
are  divided   by  the  veins  into 
three    well-marked   areas ;    the 
costal,     median,    and    interned. 
The  costal  area  (Fig.  316)  forms 
the  front  edge  of  the  wing  and 
is  the    strongest, 
since  the  veins   are 
nearer  together  than 
elsewhere,  and  tluis 
afford    the    greatest 
resistance  to  the  air 

Fig.  28.  Fore  and  hind  wings  of  a  Butterfly,  showing  tlie  venation.  I.  fore  wing : 
a,  costal  veiii;  b,  subcostal  vein;  61,  62,  63,  64,  65,  five  subcostal  vemlets;  c,  inde- 
pendent vein  (it  is  sometimes  a  branch  of  the  subcostal,  and  sometimes  of  the  me- 
dian vein);  rf,  median  vein;  rfi,  rf2,  rfs,  rf4,  four  median  veinlets;  e,  snbmedian  vein; 
/,  internal  vein;  h,  iuterno-median  veinlet  (rarely  found,  according  to  Doubleday, 
except  in  Pai)ilio and  Morpho) ;  6  and  d  are  situated  m  the  " discal cell ;'''  'j\fj%  gZ, 
the  upper,  middle,  and  lower  discal  veinlets.  In  the  Bombycidaj  and  many  other 
moths  f/i  and  g^  arc  thrown  off  from  the  subcostal  and  median  veins  respectively, 
meeting  in  the  middle  of  the  cell  at  g2.    They  are  sometimes  wholly  absent. 

II.  The  hind  wing;  the  lettering  and  names  of  the  veins  and  veinlets  the  same 
as  in  the  fore  ^vmg.  —  Sltgkthj  changed  from  Doubleday. 

Fig.  29.  Fore  wing  of  a  Ilymenopterous  insect,  c,  costal  vein ;  sc,  subcostal 
vein;  m,  median  vein;  sm,  snbmedian  vein;  i,  internal  vein;  c,  1,2,3,  the  first, 
second,  and  tliird  costal  cells  ;  the  second  frequently  opaque  and  then  called  the 
pterostigma.  sc,  1,  2,  3,  4,  the  four  subcostal  cells;  m,  1,  2,  3,  4,  the  median  cells; 
sm,  1,  2,  3,  the  three  submedian  cells ;  ii,  the  internal  cell ;  this  is  sometimes  divided 
into  two  cells,  and  the  numbers  of  all  but  the  costal  cells  is  inconstant,  the  outer 
row  of  cells  (4,  4,  3)  being  the  first  to  disappear. 

The  costal  edge  extends  from  c  to  c;  the  outer  c,  the  apex;  the  outer  edge  extends 
from  the  apex  (c)  to  a,  and  the  inner  edge  extends  from  a,  the  inner  angle,  to  the 
insertion  of  the  wing  at  i.—  Original.    Figs.  30-32  from  Scudder. 


24 


THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 


during  flight.  The  median  area  (Fig.  31  a)  is  the  largest.  It  is 
in  the  grasshoppers  and  crickets  sometimes  modified  to  form  a 
musical  organ,  being 
drum-like,  as  in  the 
(EcantJms  (Fig.  30),  or 
rasp-like,  as  in  Archyp- 
tera  (Fig.  31a).  The 
internal  area  (c)  is  the 
smallest,  and  less  dis- 
tinctly marked  than  the 

two  other  regions ;  the  musical  tile-like  or- 
gan of  Orchelimum  vulgare.,  a  common  gi'ass- 
hopper  (Fig.  32  d)  is  situated  on  this  area. 
The  limits  of  the  edges  of  the  wing  vary- 
in  almost  every  genus,  and  their  comparative  length  afford 
excellent  generic  characters.  The  front  edge  (Fig.  29)  is  called 
the  costal,  its  termina- 
tion in  the  outer  angle 
of  the  wing  is  called 
the  apex;  the  outer  edge 
is  situated  between  the 
apex  and  the  inner  an- 
gle, between  which  and 
tlie  base  of  the  wing  is 
the  inner,  or  internal, 
edge.  These  distinc- 
tions are  of  most  use 
in  describing  the  butter- 
flies and  moths. 

The  Apjyendages  of 
Fig.  31 «.  ^/jg  Head.  These  organs 
are  divided  into  two  gi'oups, 
the  first  of  which  comprise  the 
sensory  organs,  i.  e.  the  ocelli, 
eyes,  and  antennae,  which  are  attached  to  the  region  in  front 
of  the  mouth,  or  preoral  region  of  the  head.  The  second 
group  consists  of  the  sensorio-digestive  appendages,  combining 
the  power  of  finding  and  seizing  the  food  and  preparing  it  for 
digestion.  They  are  inserted  behind  the  mouth  and  belong 
to  the  pastoral  region  of  the  head. 


THE  APPENDAGES  OF  THE  HEAD.  25 

We  will  first  describe  the  ocelli,  going  backwards  to  the 
basal  appendages,  the  labium  (second  maxillae)  being  the 
hindermost. 

The  simple  eye.  Ocellus,  or  Stemma,  is  the  simplest  form  of 
the  eye.  Its  most  elementary  form  (seen  in  the  larva  of  the 
Bot-fly  and  the  Cecidom3aan  larva  of  Miastor)  is  that  of  a  brown 
spot,  or  group  of  pigment-cells  lodged  under  the  skin  and 
against  which  a  nerve-filament  impinges.  Over  this  spot  New- 
port states  that  the  tegument  is  transparent  and  convex, 
resembling  a  true  cornea,  or  eye-lens.  A  well-developed 
ocellus  consists,  according  to  Newport,  of  a  "very  convex, 
smooth,  single  cornea,  beneath  which  is  a  spherical  crystalline 
lens,  resting  upon  the  plano-convex  surface  of  the  expanded 
vitreous  humor,  the  analogue  of  the  transparent  cones  of  the 
compound  e3^es."  Miiller  believes  that  the  function  of  the  ocelli 
is  the  perception  of  nearer  objects,  while  that  of  the  compound 
eyes  is  to  see  more  distant  objects.  The  ocelli  constitute  the 
only  visual  organs  in  the  Myriapods  (except  Cermatici) ,  the 
Arachnida,  and  the  larvae  of  many  Six-footed  Insects  ;  they 
are  usually  from  one  to  six  on  a  side.  In  adult  insects 
they  are  generally  three  in  number,  and 
are  generally  present  except  in  the  large 
majority  of  Coleoptera.  Tlieir  normal  site 
is  in  front  of  the  eyes,  but  they  are  usually 
thrown  back,  during  the  growth  of  the  insect,  behind  the  eyes, 
on  the  vertex,  or  topmost  part  of  the  head  (Fig.  33). 

The  Compound  Eyes  are  a  congeries  of  simple  eyes.  During 
the  growth  of  the  insect  the  simple  eyes  of  the  larva  increase 

-^^    in  number,  and  flnall}'^  coalesce  to  form  the  compound 

M^/    eye,    or   compound   cornea,  the   surface   of  which   is 
Fig.  31.   very  convex  and  protuberant  in  the  predaceous  insects, 
or  those  requiring  an  extended  field  of  vision. 

The  number  of  facets,  or  corneae,  var^'  from  fifty  (in  the  Ant) 
to  3,650,  the  latter  number  being  counted  b}^  Geoflroy  in  the 
eye  of  a  Butterfly.  These  facets  are  usuallj'  hexagonal,  as  in 
the  Dragon-flj^  (Fig.  34),  or,  rarely,  quadrangular. 

Fig.  33.    OcellL  of  three  species  of  Sand-wasps,  Pompilus.  —  From  Cresson. 
Fig.  34.    Three  hexagonal  facets  of  the  compound  eye  of  a  fossil  Dragon-fly, 
greatly  magnified.  —  From  Daioson. 


26  THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 

The  Antennm  (Figs.  35,  36)  are  inserted  usually  in  the  adult 
insect  between,  or  in  front  of  the  ej^es,  though  normally  the 
antennar}'-  is  posterior  to  the  ophthalmic  ring. 
It  is  normally  a  long,  filiform,  slender,  many-  _a 
jointed  appendage,  undergoing  great  changes 
in  form.  When  it  is  highly  specialized,  as  in  ^::A/''^^i 
Coleoptera  and  Hymenoptera,  it  is  divided  \}  J 
into  three  parts,  the  basal  or  scape^  the  middle  :r>==i==^ 
or  -pedicel,  and  the  terminal  part  or  flagellum,  ^^s-  36. 
Fig.  35.  or  clavola,  which  usually  comprises  the  greater  part  of 
the  antenna. 

It  is  believed  b}^  some  that  the  sense  of  hearing  is  lodged 
in  the  antennae,  though  Siebold  has  discovered  an  auditory 
apparatus  situated  at  the  base  of  the  abdomen  of  some,  and 
in  the  fore-legs  of  other  species  of  Grasshoppers. 

Mr.  J.  B.  Hicks  has  made  the  latest  studies  on  the  auditory 
apparatus.  According  to  him  "it  consists  first  of  a  cell,  sac, 
or  cavity  filled  with  fluid,  closed  in  from  the  air  by  a  mem- 
brane analogous  to  that  which  closes  the  foramen  ovale  in  the 
higher  animals  ;  second,  that  this  membrane  is,  for  the  most 
part,  thin  and  delicate,  but  often  projects  above  the  surface,  in 
either  a  hemispherical,  conical,  or  canoe-shaped,  or  even  hair- 
like form,  or  variousl}^  marked  ;  thirdly,  that  the  antennal  nerve 
gives  off"  branches  which  come  in  contact  with  the  inner  wall  of 
the  sacs  ;  but  whether  the  nerve  enters,  or,  as  is  most  probable, 
ends  in  the  small  internally  projecting  papilla  which  I  have 
shown  to  exist  in  many  of  these  sacs,  it  is  very  diflScult  to  say. 
The  principal  part  of  the  nerve  proceeds  to  these  organs,  the 
remaining  portion  passing  to  the  muscles,  and  to  the  roots  of 
the  hairs,  at  least  to  those  of  the  larger  sort."  On  the  other 
hand,  Lefebvre,  Leydig,  and  Gerstaecker  regard  this  so-called 
"auditory  apparatus"  as  an  organ  of  smell. 

The  antennjE  have  also  the  sense  of  touch,  as  may  readily  be 
observed  in  Ants,  Bees,  and  the  Grasshopper  and  Cockroach. 
"The  Honey-bee,  when  constructing  its  cells,  ascertains  their 
proper  direction  and  size  by  means  of  the  extremities  of  these 

Fig.  35.    Filiform  antenna  of  ^TTipftJsoa.  —  From  Horn. 

Fig.  36.  A,  lamellate  antenna  of  a  Lamelliciorn  Beetle;  B,  antenna  of  a  Fly, 
with  the  bristle  thrown  off  from  the  terminal  joint;  C,  bristle-Uke  antenna  of  a 
Dragon-fly,  Libellula.  —  From  Sanborn. 


THE    APPENDAGES    OF    THE    HEAD. 


27 


organs ;  while  the  same  insect,  when  evidently  affected  by 
sounds,  keeps  them  motionless  in  one  direction,  as  if  in  the  act 
of  listening."   (Ne-^vi^ort.) 

After  cutting  off  one  or  both  antennae  of  the  June  beetle, 
Lachnosterna,  the  insect  loses  its  power  of  directing  its  flight 
or  steps,  wheeling  about  in  a  senseless  manner.  Dr.  Clemens 
observed  that  the  Cecropia  moth  was  similarly  affected  after 
losing  its  antennae. 

TJie  Mandibles  (Fig.  37)  are  inserted  on  each  side  of  the 
mouth-opening.     They  usually  consist  of  but  a  single  joint, 

H 


Fig.  37. 

representing  probably  the  basal  part  of  the  ideal  limb.  This 
part,  however,  is  often  subdivided  by  two  longitudinal  fun-ows 
into  three  parts,  each  ending  in  a  "tooth"  of  unequal  size  for 
tearing  and  cutting  the  food.  This  tripartite  form  of  the  man- 
dibles, to  which  attention  has  been  called  by  Mr.  Scudder,  is 
more  fully  carried  out  in  the  maxilla,  where  each  portion  is 
highly  specialized.  The  mandibles  vary  greatly  in  form  and 
size.  The  two  cutting  edges  are  usually  opposed  to  each  other, 
or  frequently  overlap  in  the  carnivorous  forms.  Then-  base  is 
often  concealed  by  the  clypeus 
I  and  labrum.  Their  motion  is 
transverse,  being  the  reverse  of 
the  motion  of  the  jaws  of  Ver- 
tebrates. 

The  Maxillm  (Figs.  38  &,  39)  are 
much  more  complicated  organs  than  the  mandibles. 

Fig.  37.  Different  forms  of  mandibles.  A,  mandible  of  Cicindela purimrea;  B, 
PhyUoptera,  ii  green  grasshopper;  C,  Libellula  trimactilata ;  D,  Fespa  maculata,  or 
paper-making  Wasp  :  E,  "  rostrum"  or  jointed  sucker  of  the  Bed-bug,  Cimex  lectu- 
Jarius,  consisting  of  mandibles,  maxilla?,  and  labium;  F,  proboscis,  or  sucker,  of  a 
Mosquito,  Culex,  in  which  the  mandibles  are  long  and  bristle-like.  — From  Sanborn. 
G,  mandible  of  AmpMzoa;  H,  mandible  of  ^craiws,  a  genus  of  Cockchafers.  — -Front 
Horn. 

Fig.  38.  rt,  mentnm  and  labial  palpi;  6,  one  maxilla,  Avith  its  palpus,  of  Acra- 
tus.  —  From  Horn. 

Fig.  39.  Maxilla  of  AmpMzoa,  with  the  two  lobes  (stipes  and  lacinia),  and  the 
palpifer  bearing  the  four-jointed  palpus.  —  From  Horn. 


a    Fi 


Fig.  39. 

They  are 


28  THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 

inserted  en  the  under  side  of  the  head  and  just  behind  the 
mouth.  The  maxilla  consists  of  a  basal  joint,  or  cardo, 
beyond  which  it  is  subdivided  into  three  lobes,  the  stijpes,  or 
footstalk ;  the  xialpifer,  or  palpus-bearer ;  and  the  lacinia,  or 
blade.  The  stipes  forms  the  outer  and  main  division  of  the 
organ.  The  lacinia  is  more  membranaceous  than  the  other 
parts,  and  its  upper  surface  is  covered  with  fine  hairs,  and 
forms  a  great  part  of  the  side  of  the  mouth.  It  is  divided 
into  two  lobes,  the  superior  of  which  is  called  the  galea,  or 
helmet,  which  is  often  a  thick  double-jointed  organ  edged  with 
stiff  hairs,  and  is  used  as  a  palpus  in  the  Orthoptera  and  many 
Coleoptera.  The  inferior  lobe  is  attached  to  the  internal  angle 
of  the  lacinia.  It  terminates  in  a  stiff  minute  claw,  and  is 
densely  covered  with  stout  hairs.  The  maxillary  pal^n  are 
long,  slender,  one  to  four-jointed  organs,  very  flexible  and  sen- 
sitive. 

The  maxillse  vary  greatly  in  the  different  groups.  Their  office 
is  to  seize  the  food  and  retain  it  within  the  mouth,  and  also  to 
aid  the  mandibles  in  comminuting  it  before  it  is  swallowed. 
This  function  reminds  us  of  that  of  the  tongue  of  vertebrate 
animals. 

.  The  kibium.,  or  second  maxUlm  (Fig.  40),  is  placed  in  front  of 
the  gula,  which  forms  the  under  part  of  the  head,  and  is  bounded 
a  on  each  side  by  the  gence,-or  cheeks,  and 
posteriorly  by  the  occiput.  The  genae  are 
bounded  laterally  b}^  the  epicranium  and 
the  under  side  of  the  eyes.  In  front  are 
situated  the  basal  parts  of  the  labium,  or 
second  maxillse,  which  embraces  the  suhmentum  and  mentum 
(or  labium  proper).  The  labial  palpi  are  inserted  into  the 
mentum,  but  often  the  latter  piece  is  differentiated  into  two, 
the  anterior  of  which  takes  the  name  of  jxdjn'ger,  called  by 
Dr.  Leconte  (Smithsonian  Miscellaneous  Collections)  the  ligula, 
and  the  palpi  originate  from  them.  The  ligula  is  the  front 
edge  of  the  labium,  being  the  piece  forming  the  under  lip. 
It  is  often  a  fleshy  organ,  its  inner  surface  being  continuous 

Fig.  40.  Ligwla  and  labial  palpi  of  ^wp/Msort,  an  aquatic  beetle.  It  is  quadrate 
and  Avithout  paraglossas ;  a,  mentum  of  the  same,  being  deeply  incised,  and  with  a 
tooth  at  tlie  bottom  of  the  excavation.  — J'ro??!  Horn. 


THE    APPENDAGES    OF    THE    HEAD. 


29 


with  the  soft  membrane  of  the  mouth.  In  the  Bees,  it  is  enor- 
mously developed  and  covered  with  soft  hairs.  It  is  often 
confounded  with  the  palpiger.  In  Hydrous  it  is  divided  into 
two  lobes.  In  most  of  the  Carabidce  and  Bees  it  is  divided 
into  three  lobes,  the  two  outer  ones  forming  the  paraglossce 
(Fig.  4zlm),  and  acting  as  feelers,  while  the  middle,  usually 
much  longer,  forms  the  lingua,  or  tongue,  being  the  continuation 
of  the  ligula.  In  the  bees,  where 
the  ligula  is  greatly  developed, 
it  performs  the  part  of  the  tongue 
in  Vertebrates,  and  aids  the  max- 
illae in  collecting  nectar  and 
pollen. 

The  roof  of  the  mouth  is 
formed  by  the  labrum  and  the 
epipharynx  (Fig.  42  c),  a  small 
fleshy  tubercle  concealed  beneath 
the  labrum.  It  is  seen  in  the 
bees  on  turning  up  the  labrum. 
It  probably  corresponds  to  the 
"labellum"  of  Schi5dte.  The 
labrum  (Fig.  41  e)  is  usually 
transverse  and  situated  in  front 
of  the  dypeus  (Fig.  Alb).  The 
shield-like  dypeus  is  the  broad, 
visor-like,  square  piece  forming  usually  the  front  of  the  head. 
Behind  it  is  the  dyp)eus  posterior,  or  supra-dypeus,  a  subdivision 
of  the  clypeus,  and  especially  observable  in  the  Hymenoptera. 
The  epicranium  forms  a  large  part  of  the  head  ;  it  is  bounded 
posteriorly  by  the  occiput,  on  the  sides  by  the  eyes,  and  in 
front  by  the  clypeus,  and  though  usually  described  as  a 
single  piece,  is  really  composed  of  several.  The  ocelli  often 
appear  to  be  situated  upon  it,  though  in  reality  they  are  placed 
upon  a  distinct  piece  or  pieces.  The  "  epicranial  suture"  is  the 
line  of  junction  of  the  tAvo    "procephalic   lobes"    (Huxley). 


Fig.  41. 


Fig.  41.    Front  view  of  the  head  of  a  bee,  Anthcplwra.    a,  compound  eyes ;  c, 
three  simple  eyes,  situated  upon  the  epicranium;  6,  clypeus;  e,  labrum;  d,  an- 
tennas;/, mandibles;  i,  maxillaj;  h,  maxillary  palpi;  I,  palpifer;  j,  labial  palpi;  m, 
paraglossae ;  Ic,  ligula. — From  Newport. 
3* 


30 


THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 


(These  lobes  will  be  explained  farther  on  when  speaking 
of   their   development   in   the   embryo.)     Behind   the   epicra- 

nium  is  the  occiput, 
or  base  of  the  head. 
It  belongs  to  the  la- 
bial, or  second  max- 
illary segment,  and 
helps  to  form  a  com- 
plete ring,  articulat- 
ing with  the  thorax. 
It  is  perforated  by  a 
foramen  to  afford  a 
connection  between 
the  interior  of  the 
head  and  thorax.  It 
is  sometimes,  as  in 
many  Coleoptera,  Or- 
thoptera,  and  Hemip- 
tera,  elongated  be- 
^'S-  42.  hind  and  constricted, 

thus  forming  a  "neck."  It  will  be  seen  beyond,  that  the 
labrum  and  clypeus  are  in  the  embrj-o  developed  from  a 
"tongue-like  process  whose  inferior  part  eventually  becomes 
the  labrum,  while  superiorly  it  sends  a  triangular  process  (the 
rudmient  of  the  clypeus)  into  the  interval  between  the  proce- 
phalic  lobes."*  This  part  {i.e.  the  clypeus  and  labrum)  is  the 
most  anterior  part  of  the  head,  and  in  the  embryo,  as  in  the 
adult,  is  normally  situated  in  front  of  the  ocelli,  and  may  be 
compared  with  the  "anal  plate,"  or  eleventh  tergite,  of  the 
larva.-j- 

Fig.  42.  Side  view  of  tlie  front  part  of  the  head,  together  with  the  mouth- 
parts  of  the  Humble-bee  (Bombus).  «,  clypeus  covered  with  hairs ;  h,  labrum ; 
c,  the  fleshy  epipharynx  partially  concealed  by  the  base  of  the  mandibles  (d); 
e,  laciuia,  or  blade  of  the  maxillse,  with  their  two-jointed  palpi  (/)  at  the  base;  jj,  the 
labium  to  which  is  appended  the  ligula  {g);  below  are  the  labial  palpi;  h,  the  two 
basal  joints,  being  greatly  enlarged;  Tc,  the  compound  eyes. —  Original. 

*  These  lobes  are  folded  back  upon  the  top  of  the  base  of  the  head,  and  they 
seem  to  form  the  i!e?-</rt7  portion  of  the  hypothetical,  elemental  ring,  orrings,  to  which 
they  respectively  belong,  and  do  not  seem  to  us  to  be  the  sternal  portion,  as  sug- 
gested by  Huxley,  for  they  arc  apparently  developed  in  frontof  the  mouth-opening, 
and  form  the  roof  of  the  mouth. 

t  "  Lastly,  there  are  certain  parts  developed  singlji-  in  the  median  line  in  the  Artie- 
ulata.    Of  this  nature  are  the  frontal  spines  of  Crustacea,  their  telsou,and  the  sting 


THE   MUSCULAR   SYSTEM.  31 

111  describing  Insects  the  vertex^  or  crown,  of  the  head  is  the 
highest  part ;  and  tlie  front  is  the  part  usually  in  front  of  the 
insertion  of  the  antennae. 

The  Muscular  System  lies  just  beneath,  and  is  continuous 
with  the  integument.  It  consists  of  numerous  "distinct  isola- 
ted straight  fibres,  which  are  not  gathered  into  bundles  united 
by  common  tendons,  or  covered  by  aponeuroses  [or  tendinous 
sheaths]  to  form  distinct  muscles,  as  in  the  Vertebrata,  but 
remain  separate  from  each  other,  and  only  in  some  instances 
are  united  at  one  extremity  by  tendons."  (Newport.)  These 
minute  fibres  form  laj-ers,  which  Newport  regards  as  separate 
muscles.  "Each  fibre  is  composed  of  a  great  number  of  very 
minute  fibrillae,  or  fasciculi  of  fibrillar,"  and  has  been  observed 
by  Wagner  and  Newport  to  be  often  striated  as  in  Vertebrates. 
The  muscular  sj^stem  is  simplest  in  the  lower  insects  and  the 
larvae  of  the  higher  forms,  and  is  more  complex  in  the  head 
than  elsewhere,  and  more  complex  in  the  thorax  than  in  the 
abdomen.  These  minute  muscles  are  excessively  numerous. 
"Lyonnet,  in  his  immortal  work  on  the  anatomy  of  the  larva 
of  Cossus  ligniperda,  found  two  hundred  and  twenty-eight  dis- 
tinct muscles  in  the  head  alone,  and,  by  enumerating  the  fibres 
in  the  layers  of  the  different  segments,  reckoned  1,647  for  the 
body,  and  2,118  for  the  internal  organs,  thus  making  together 
3,993  muscles  in  a  single  larva.  In  the  larva  of  /SjJhinx  ligus- 
tri  we  have  found  the  muscles  equally  numerous  with  those 
discovered  by  Lyonnet  in  the  Cossus."  (Newport.) 

The  muscular  system  corresponds  to  the  jointed  structure  of 
insects,  as  do  the  other  internal  systems  of  organs.  Of  the 
muscles  belonging  to  a  single  ring,  some  stretch  from  the  front 
edge  of  one  segment  to  the  front  edge  of  the  next,  and  others 

of  the  Scorpion,  whose  mode  of  development  appears  to  be  precisely  similar  to 
that  of  a  telson.  In  the  same  category  we  must  rank  the  labrum  in  front  of  the 
mouth,  which  in  the  Crustacea  (at  least)  appears  to  bo  developed  from  the  sternum 
of  the  antennary,  or  third  somite,  the  metastoma  (or  so  called  labium,  or  lingua) 
of  Crustacea,  and  the  lingua  of  Insecta,  behind  the  oral  aperture. 

"  However  much  these  appendages  may  occasionally  simulate,  or  play  the  part 
of  appendages,  it  is  important  to  remember,  that,  morphologically,  they  are  of  a 
very  different  nature,  and  that  the  confusing  them  with  true  appendages  must 
tend  completely  to  obscure  the  beautiful  relations  which  obtain  among  the  dif- 
ferent classes  of  the  Articulata."  — Huxley,  Linnsean  Transactions,  vol.  xxii. 
London, 


32  THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 

to  the  hinder  edge ;  there  are  also  sets  of  dorsal  and  ventral 
muscles  going  in  an  oblique  or  vertical  course.  The  muscles 
are  either  colorless  and  transparent,  or  yellowish  white  and 
of  a  soft,  almost  gelatinous  consistence.  In  form  they  are 
simply  flat  and  thin,  straight,  band-like,  or  pyramidal,  barrel 
or  feather-shaped.  They  act  variously  as  rotators,  elevators, 
depressors,  retractors,  protrusors,  flexors,  and  extensors. 

The  muscular  potoer  of  insects  is  enormous.  The  Flea  will 
leap  two  hundred  times  its  own  height.  Certain  beetles  can 
support  enormous  weights.  Newport  cites  the  case  of  Geo- 
trupes  stercorarius  i^liich.  is  "able  to  sustain  and  escape  from 
beneath  a  pressure  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  ounces,  a  prodi- 
gious weight  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  insect  itself  does 
not  weigh  even  so  many  grains."  Some  beetles  have  been 
known  to  gnaw  through  lead-pipes,  and  the  Stag-beetle  of 
Europe,  Lucanus  cervus,  has,  as  stated  by  Mr.  Stephens, 
gnawed  "a  hole  an  inch  in  diameter  tlu'ough  the  side  of  an 
iron  canister  in  which  it  was  confined." 

"The  motions  of  the  insect  in  walking  as  in  flying  are 
dependent,  in  the  perfect  individual,  entirely  upon  the  thoracic 
segments,  but  in  the  larva  chiefly  upon  the  abdominal.  Al- 
though the  number  of  legs  in  the  former  is  always  six,  and  in 
the  latter  sometimes  so  many  as  twenty-two,  progression  is 
simple  and  easy.  Miiller  states  (Elements  of  Physiology,  p. 
970,  Translation)  that  on  watching  insects  that  move  slowly 
he  has  distinctly  perceived  that  three  legs  are  always  moved  at 
one  time,  being  advanced  and  put  to  the  ground  while  the 
other  three  propel  the  body  forwards.  In  perfect  insects,  those 
moved  simultaneously  are  the  fore  and  hind  feet  on  one  side, 
and  the  intermediate  foot  on  the  opposite  ;  and  afterwards  the 
fore  and  hind  feet  on  that  side,  and  the  middle  one  on  the 
other,  so  that,  he  remarks,  in  two  steps  the  whole  of  the  legs 
are  in  motion.  A  similar  uniformity  of  motion  takes  place 
in  the  larva,  although  the  whole  anterior  part  of  the  body  is 
elevated  and  carried  forwards  at  regular  distances,  the  steps  of 
the  insect  being  almost  entirely  performed  by  the  'false,'  or 
abdominal  legs." 

'■'- In  flight  the  motions  depend  upon  the  meso-  and  meta- 
thoracic  segments  conjointly,  or  entirely  upon  the  former.   The 


THE    NERVOUS    SYSTEM. 


33 


sternal,  epistenial,  and  epimeral  pieces,  freely  articulated 
together,  correspond  in  function  with  the  sternum,  the  ribs, 
and  the  clavicles  of  birds.*  The  thorax  is  expanded  and  con- 
tracted at  each  motion  of  the 
wings,  as  in  birds  and  other  ani- 
mals, and  becomes  fixed  at  each 
increased  effoi't  as  a  fulcrum  or 
point  of  resistance  upon  which 
the  great  muscles  of  the  wings 
are  to  act,  tlms  identifying  this 
part  of  the  body  in  function  as 
in  structure  with  that  of  other  ani- 
mals." (Newport.) 

The  Nervous  System.  In  its 
simplest  form  the  nervous  system 
consists  of  two  longitudinal  cords, 
each  with  a  swelling  (nerve-knot, 
or  ganglion,)  coi'responding  to 
each  segment  (Fig.  43).  This 
cord  lies  on  the  ventral  side  of  tlie 
body,  but  in  the  head  it  passes 
upwards,  sending  a  filament  from 
each  side  to  surround  the  oesoph- 
agus.-f  As  in  the  Vertebrates, 
the  nervous  cord  of  insects  is 
composed  of  two  distinct  columns 
of  fibres  placed  one  upon  the  other 
column,  which  is  nearest  to  the  exterior  of  the  body,  is  that  in 
which  the  ganglia,  or  enlargements,  are  situated.  The  upper 
one,  or  that  which  is  internal  and  nearest  to  the  viscera,  is 
entirely  without  ganglia,  and  passes  directly  over  the  ganglia 
of  the  under  column  without  forming  part  of  them,  but  in  very 

*  Bennet  on  the  Anatomy  of  the  Thorax  in  Insects,  and  its  Function  during 
Flight.    Zoological  Journal,  vol.  i,  p.  394. 

fThe  brain  of  insects  is  formed  of  several  pairs  of  ganglia,  corresponding, 
probably,  to  the  number  of  primitive  segments  composing  the  head.  The  nervous 
cord  is  thus,  in  the  head,  massed  together  and  compacted  to  form  a  brain. 

Fig.  43.  Nervous  System  of  Corydalus  cornutus.  a,  "  cerebrum ; "  h,  "  cere- 
brellum;"  c,  thoracic  ganglia,  which  distribute  a  nerve  to  each  leg;  d,  eight  pairs 
of  abdominal  ganglia.    The  dotted  lines  represent  the  wings.  —  From  Leuhj. 


Fig.  43. 

"The  under  or  external 


34  THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 

close  approximation  to  them."  Newport  also  believes  that  the 
ganglionless  upper,  or  internal,  column  of  fibres  is  analogous 
to  the  motor  column  of  Vertebrata,  while  the  external,  or  under 
one,  corresponds  to  the  sensitive  column,  thus  representing  the 
cerebro-spinal  system  of  the  Vertebrata. 

From  each  pair  of  ganglia  are  distributed  special  nerves  to 
the  various  organs.  In  the  larva  of  Sphinx  the  normal  num- 
ber of  double  ganglia  is  thirteen,  and  the  nervous  cord  of  the 
Neuroptera  and  other  lowly  organized  and  attenuated  forms  of 
insects  corresponds  in  the  main  to  this  number.  In  the  adult 
insect,  especially  in  the  Coleoptera,  Diptera,  Lepidoptera,  and 
Hymenoptera,  the  three  thoracic  ganglia  are  fused  together, 
following  the  fusion  and  general  headwise  development  of  the 
segments  of  the  tegument.  Besides  the  central  nervous  cord, 
corresponding  to  the  spinal  cord  of  the  Vertebrates,  there  is  a 
vagus,  or  visceral  nerve,  representing  the  sympathetic  nerve  of 
higher  animals.  This  nerve  "arises,  in  the  larva,  from  the 
anterior  part  of  the  cerebrum,  and,  forming  a  ganglion  on  the 
upper  surface  of  the  pharynx,  always  passes  backward  beneath 
the  brain,  along  the  middle  line  of  the  oesophagus."  In  its 
microscopic  structure  the  nervous  cord,  like  that  of  Vertebrata, 
consists  of  a  central  "white"  substance,  and  an  outer  or  peri- 
pheral part,  the  "gi'ay"  substance. 

In  the  embryo  the  ganglia  are  very  large  and  close  together, 
the  commissures,  or  connecting  filaments  being  very  short,  and 
small  in  proportion. 

Orgaks  of  Nutrition.  These  consist  of  the  alimentary  canal 
and  its  appendages,  or  accessory  glands  (Fig.  44).  We  have 
already  treated  of  the  external  appendages  (mouth-parts) 
which  prepare  the  food  for  digestion.  The  simplest  form  of 
the  alimentary  canal  is  that  of  a  straight  tube.  In  the  larva 
of  Stylops,  and  the  sedentary  young  of  Bees  it  ends  in  a  blind 
sac,  as  they  live  on  liquid  food  and  expel  no  solid  excretions. 
When  well  developed,  as  in  the  adult  insect,  it  becomes  a  long 
convoluted  thick  muscular  tube,  subdivided  into  diflferent  parts 
which  perform  different  functions  and  have  distinct  names, 
taken  from  analogous  organs  in  the  vertebrate  animals.  This 
digestive  tube  is  composed  of  three  coats,  the  outer,  or  j^eri- 


ORGANS    OF   NUTRITION. 


35 


tonecd;  the  middle,  or  muscular;  and  the  inner,  or  mucous.   The 
mucous  coat  is  variously  modified,  being  plaited  or  folded ;  or, 

c  d  e  h  f  h 


Fiff.  a. 


as  in  the  Orthoptera  and  carnivorous  Coleoptera,  it  is  solidified 
and  covered  with  rows  of  strong  horny  teeth,  forming  a  sort  of 
gizzard.  The  alimentary  canal  is  held  in  place  by  retractor 
muscles,  but  principally  by  exceedingly  numerous  branches  of 
the  main  tracheae. 

This  canal  (Fig.  45)  is  subdivided  into  the  mouth  and  pha- 
rynx^ the  oesophagus,  supplementary  to  which  is  the  crop,  or 
"  sucking  stomach"  of  Diptera,  Lepidoptera,  and  Hymenoptera. 
The  proventriculus,  or  gizzard  ;  the  ventriculus,  or  true  stomach 
succeed,  and  the  intestine  consists  of  the  ileum,  or  short  intes- 


FiG.  44.  Anatomy  of  Sphinx  ligustri.  m,  i,  q,  the  nervous  cord  resting  on 
the  floor  of  the  body ;  at  c,  the  ganglia  form  a  brain-like  organ,  much  larger  than 
the  ganglia  of  the  thorax  (m)  and  abdomen  (q).  From  the  brain  is  sent  ofi"  the 
suboesophageal  nerve  which  surrounds  the  gullet  into  which  the  food  is  conveyed 
by  the  maxillae,  or  spiral  tongue  (a),  which,  when  at  rest,  is  rolled  up  between  the 
labial  palpi  (6). 

From  the  nervous  cord  is  also  thrown  oflf  a  pair  of  nerves  to  each  pair  of  legs 
(as  at'n,  o,p)  and  a  branch,  d,  is  sent  off 'from  above,  distributing  nerves  to  the 
muscles  of  flight. 

The  heart,  or  dorsal  vessel  (e,/),  lies  just  beneath  the  median  line  of  the  body, 
and  is  retained  in  place  by  muscular  bands  (as  at  /)  as  well  as  by  small  tracheal 
branches. 

The  alimentary  canal  (h,J,  g),  forms  a  straight  tube  in  the  head  and  thorax;  h, 
the  crop,  or  sucking  stomach,  which  opens  into  the  oesophagus;  j,  the  true,  chyle- 
forming  stomach,  which  contracts  posteriorly,  and  then  dilates  near  its  anal  outlet 
into  a  cloaca  (indicated  at  g,  but  not  distinctly,  as  it  is  concealed  by  the  numerous 
urinary  vessels).  The  urinary  vessels  also  indicated  at  g,  form  long  tubes  (which 
correspond  to  the  kidneys  of  Vertebrates),  opening  into  the  pyloric  end  of  the 
stomach.  The  position  of  the  testes  {k)is,  the  same  as  that  of  the  ovary,  and  the 
dotted  line  I  shows  the  course  of  the  efferent  duct  {vas  deferens)  and  also  of  the 
oviduct  of  the  female. 

The  numerals  indicate  the  number  of  segments  of  the  body,  which  in  the  Lepi- 
doptera, consists  of  twenty,  the  21st,  or  11th  abdominal,  being  absent.  — i?Vowi 
Newport. 


36 


THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 


tine,  and  the  colon  and  rectum.  The  latter  part,  as  well  as  the 
crop  and  proventriculus,  is  sometimes  absent. 

Of  the  appendages  of  the  canal,  the  first 
are  the  salivary  glands,  which  are  usually 
long  simple  tubes,  which  in  the  larva,  ac- 
cording to  Newport,  form  the  silk  vessels. 
They  "  empty  themselves  by  a  single  duct 
tlu'ough  the  spinneret  on  the  floor  (labium) 
of  the  mouth."  In  the  Ant-lion  (Myrmeleon) 
the  silk  is  spun  from  "a  slender  telescopic- 
like  spinneret,  placed  at  the  extremity  of 
its  body,"  and  Westwood  also  states  that  the 
larva  of  Chrysopa  spins  a  cocoon  "from  the 
spinneret,  at  the  extremity  of  the  body." 

These  silk  glands  when  taken  out  of  the 
larva,  just  as  it  is  about  ready  to  transform, 
are  readily  prepared  as  "gut"  for  fish-lines, 
etc.,  by  chying  on  a  board. 

In  the  Bees  these  glands  are  largely  de- 
veloped to  produce  a  sufficient  amount  of 
salivary  fluid  to  moisten  the  dry  pollen  of 
Fig.  45.  flowers,   before   it   enters    the   oesophagus. 

"Bee-bread"  consists  of  pollen  thus  moistened  and  kneaded 
by  the  insect.  The  Honey-bee  also  dissolves,  by  the  aid  of  the 
salivary  fluid,  the  wax  used  in  making  its  cells.  Newport 
believes  this  fluid  is  alkaline,  and  forms  a  solvent  for  the  other- 
wise brittle  wax,  as  he  has  seen  this  insect  "reduce  the  per- 
fectly transparent  thin  white  scales  of  newly  secreted  wax  to 
a  pasty  or  soapy  consistence,  by  kneading  it  between  its  man- 
dibles, and  mixing  it  with  a  fluid  from  its  mouth,  before  apply- 
ing it  to  assist  in  the  formation  of  part  of  a  new  cell." 

Insects  have  no  true  liver;  its  functions  being  performed 
"by  the  walls  of  the  stomach,  the  internal  timic  of  which  is 
composed  of  closely-aggregated  hepatic  cells."  (Siebold.)  In 
the  Spiders  and  Scorpions,  however,  there  is  a  liver  distinct 
from  the  digestive  canal.  In  the  Spiders  it  is  very  large, 
enveloping  most  of  the  other  viscera. 

Fig.  45.  Alimentary  tube  of  Corydalus  cornutus.  a,  oesophagus;  h,  proven- 
triculus; c,  ventriculus;  d,  large  intestine;  e,  urinai'y  tubes;  /,  cojcuni;  g.,  testis  or 
ovary. — From  Leidy. 


THE    CIRCULATORY   SYSTEM.  37 

Siebold  states  that  in  some  insects  the  ileum  has  glandular 
appendages  whose  product  is  perhaps  analogous  to  the  pancre- 
atic fluid.  In  the  larva  of  insects  is  found  the  corpus  adiposum, 
or  fat-body,  in  the  form  of  large  lobes  of  fat-cells  which  spread 
through  the  intervals  of  the  viscera  in  the  general  cavity  of 
the  body.  It  is  interpenetrated  and  retained  in  place  by 
numerous  tracheae. 

The  Circulatory  System.  The  vascular,  or  circulatory, 
system  is  not  a  closed  sac  as  in  the  Worms  and  Vertebrates. 
The  organs  of  circulation  consist  of  a  contractile,  articulated 
dorsal  vessel,  or  so-called  "heart,"  which  terminates  in  a 
cephalic  aorta.  The  dorsal  vessel  receives  the  veinous  current 
through  the  lateral  valvular  openings  and  pumps  the  blood  into 
its  prolongation  or  cephalic  aorta,  whence  it  escapes,  traversing 
the  body  in  all  directions,  in  regular  currents,  which  do  not 
have,  however,  vascular  walls.  "In  this  way,  it  penetrates  the 
antennae,  the  extremities,  the  wings,  and  the  other  appendages 
of  the  body,  by  arterial  currents,  and  is  returned  by  those  of  a 
veinous  nature.  All  the  veinous  currents  empty  into  two 
lateral  ones,  running  towards  the  posterior  extremity  of  the 
body,  and  which  enter,  through  lateral  orifices,  the  dorsal 
vessel."    (Siebold.) 

"The  blood  of  the  Insecta  is  usually  a  colorless  liquid, 
though  sometimes  yellowish,  but  rarely  red.  In  this  liquid  are 
suspended  a  few  very  small,  oval,  or  spheroidal  corpuscles, 
which  are  always  colorless,  have  a  granular  aspect,  and  are 
sometimes  nucleated. 

"The  dorsal  vessel,  which  is  constricted  at  regular  intervals, 
is  always  situated  on  the  median  line  of  the  abdomen,  being 
attached  to  the  dorsal  wall  of  its  segments  by  several  trian- 
gular muscles  whose  apices  point  outwards.  Its  walls  contain 
both  longitudinal  and  transverse  fibres,  and,  externally,  are 
covered  by  a  thin  peritoneal  tunic.  Internally,  it  is  lined  by 
another  Very  fine  membrane,  which,  at  the  points  of  these  con- 
strictions, forms  valvular  folds,  so  that  the  organ  is  divided 
into  as  many  chambers  as  there  are  constrictions.  Each  of 
these  chambers  has,  at  the  anterior  extremity  on  each  side,  a 
valvular  orifice  which  can  be  inwardly  closed.  The  returning 
4 


38 


THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 


blood  is  accumulated  about  the  heart  and  enters  into  it  during 
the  diastole  of  each  of  its  chambers,  thi'ough  the  lateral 
orifices  (Fig.  46 f).     It  then  passes,  by  the  regularly  successive 


Fig.  47. 
Fig.  46. 

contractions  of  the  heart,  from  behind  forwards  into  the  aorta, 
which  is  only  a  prolongation  of  the  anterior  chamber.  This 
aorta  consists  of  a  simple,  small  vessel,  situated  on  the  dorsal 
surface  of  the  thorax  (Fig.  44  e,/),  and  extending  even  to  the 
cephalic  ganglion,  where  it  either  ends  in  an  open  extremity,  or 
divides  into  several  short  branches  which  terminate  in  a  like 
manner.  The  length  of  the  dorsal  vessel  depends,  in  all  the 
three  states  of  insects,  upon  that  of  the  abdomen.  The  number 
of  its  chambers  is  very  variable,  but  is,  most  usually,  eight. 

"The  blood,  after  leaving  the  aorta,  traverses  the  body  in 
currents  which  are  also  extravascular,  and  in  this  way  bathes 
all  the  organs.  The  newly-prepared  nutritive  fluid  passes 
through  the  walls  of  the  digestive  canal  in  which  it  is  found, 
into  the  visceral  cavity,  and  thence  directly  into  the  blood. 
Latterly,  this  extravascular  circulation  has  been  called  in 
question,  but  its  presence  may  be  easily  and  directly  observed 


Fig.  46.  Part  of  the  dorsal  vessel  or  heart  of  Lzicanus  cervus  ;  a,  the  posterior 
chambers  (the  anterior  chambers  are  covered  by  a  part  of  the  ligaments  which  hold 
the  heart  in  place),  i,  the  auriculo-ventricular  openings;  g,  g,  the  lateral  mus- 
cles fixed  by  the  prolongations  h,h,  to  the  upper  side  of  the  abdomen.  —  From 
Straus  Durckheim. 

Fig.  47.  Interior  of  the  dorsal  vessel ;  a,  the  inner  walls  with  their  circular 
fleshy  fibres;  c,  the  auriculo-ventricular  opening;  with  its  semilunar  valve  (c),  in 
front  of  which  is  d;  the  interventricular  valvule.  —  From  Straus  Durckheim, 


THE    CIRCULATORY    SYSTEM.  39 

with  very  many  perfect  Insecta  and  their  larvae.  The  vascular 
walls,  supposed  to  have  been  seen  at  certain  points,  'are,  un- 
doubtedly, the  result  of  some  error  of  observation  or  interpre- 
tation. This  is  also  true  of  the  pulsatile  organs  supposed  to 
have  been  observed  in  the  legs  of  many  Avater-bugs,  and  which 
were  thought  to  affect  the  circulation." 

Blanchard  and  Agassiz  believe  in  a  "peritracheal  circula- 
tion," and  other  observers  agree  that  the  course  of  the  circula- 
tion is  along  the  tracheae,  i.  e.  that  the  blood  circulates  in  the 
space  between  the  loose  peritoneal  envelope  and  the  trachea 
itself.  Professor  H.  J.  Clark  objects  to  this  view  that  the  blood 
disks  are  too  large  to  pass  through  such  an  exceedingly  minute 
space  as  the  distance  between  the  trachea  and  its  enveloping, 
or  peritoneal,  wall. 

Newport  thinks  that  there  are  actual  blood  vessels  distrib- 
uted from  the  heart  and  "passing  transversely  across  the 
dorsal  surface  of  each  segment  in  the  pupa  of  Sphinx.  If 
they  be  not  vessels  distributed  from  the  heart,  it  is  a  some- 
what curious  circumstance  that  the  whole  of  the  blood  should 
be  first  sent  to  the  head  of  the  insect,  and  the  viscera  of  the 
abdominal  region  be  nourished  only  by  the  returning  blood, 
which  has  in  part  passed  the  round  of  the  circulation." 

Newport  also  describes  in  Spliinx  the  siqjra-sjnnal,  or  great 
ventral  vessel  which  lies  in  the  abdomen  just  over  the  nervous 
cord,  and  which  is  also  found  in  the  Scorpion  and  Centipede. 
He  believes  "this  vessel  to  be  the  chief  means  of  returning 
the  blood  from  the  middle  and  inferior  portion  of  the  body  to 
the  posterior  extremity  of  the  dorsal  vessel  or  heart."  He 
strongly  suspects  that  anteriorly  this  great  ventral  vessel  is 
connected  with  the  aorta.  The  circulation  of  Insects,  there- 
fore, is  probably  as  much  a  closed  one  as  in  the  Myriapods,  for 
he  states  that  the  "blood  certainly  flows  in  distinct  vessels,  at 
least  in  some  parts  of  the  body  in  perfect  insects,  and  that 
vessels  exist  even  in  the  larva."  Observations  on  the  vascular 
system  are  exceedingly  difficult  from  the  delicate  structure  of 
the  vessels,  and  the  subject  needs  renewed  observations  to 
settle  these  disputed  points. 

The  blood  is  forced  through  the  vessel  into  the  body  by  regu- 
lar pulsations.    Herold  counted  thirty  to  forty  in  a  minute  in  a 


40 


THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 


full-grown  caterpillar ;  we  have  counted  about  sixty  a  minute 
in  the  recently  hatched  larva  of  Diplax.  During  excitement, 
the  number  of  pulsations  increases  in  rapidity.  Newport  found 
the  pulsations  in  a  bee,  Antlwplwra,  when  quiet,  to  be  eighty  a 
minute  ;  but  when  "the  insects  were  quite  lively,  and  had  been 
exposed  to  the  sun  for  an  hour  or  two,  the  number  of  pulsa- 
tions amounted  to  one  hundred  and  forty." 

He  found  that  the  nmnber  of  pulsations  decreased  after  each 
moult  of  the  larva  of  Sj^^ii^ix  ligustri,  but  increased  in  force; 
when  it  was  full  grown  and  had  ceased  feeding  it  was  thirty. 
"After  it  had  passed  into  the  pupa  state  the  number  fell  to 
twenty-two,  and  afterwards  to  ten  or  twelve,  and,  during  the 
period  of  hibernation,  it  almost  entirely  ceases  ;  but  in  the  per- 
fect insect  it  rose  from  forty-one  to  fifty,  and  when  excited  by 
flight  around  the  room  it  was  from  one  hundred  and  ten  to  one 
hundred  and  thirty-nine." 


Organs  of  Respiration.  All  insects  breathe  air,  or,  when 
they  live  in  the  water,  respire,  by  means  of  branchiae,  the 
air  mixed  mechanically  with  water.  Respiration  is  carried  on 
by  an  intricate  sj'stem  of  tubes  (pul- 
monary trachcie)  which  open  by  pores 
(spiracles  or  stigniiita)  in  the  sides  of 
the  body ;  or,  as  in  aquatic  insects,  by 
branchioe,  or  gill-like  flattened  expan- 
sions of  the  body-wall  penetrated  by 
trachete  (branchial  tracheae). 

There  are  sometimes  eleven  spiracles, 

or  breathing-holes  (Fig.  48),  on  each  side 

of  the  body ;  each  consisting  of  an  oval 

horny   ring    situated    in    the   peritreme 

Fig.  48.  and  closed   by   a   A'ah^e,    which   guards 

the  orifice  (Fig.  49).     Within  this  valve  is  a  chamber  closed 

within  by  another   A'alve  which  covers  the  entrance   into   the 

tracheae.    The  air-tube  itself  (Fig.  50)  consists  of  "an  external 


Fig.  48.  Larva  of  the  Humble-bee  just  beginning:  to  change  to  a  pupa,  showing 
eleven  pairs  of  stigmata.  In  the  adult  bee,  onh-  the  fourth  pair  is  apparent,  the 
remaining  pairs  being  concealed  from  view,  or  in  part  aborted.  In  most  insects 
there  are  usually,  only  nine  pairs  of  stigmata. —  Orif/inal. 


OEGANS   OF   RESPIRATION. 


41 


Fi?.  49. 


Ficr.  50. 


serous,  and  an  internal  mucous  membrane,  inclosing  between 
them  a  spirally  convoluted  fibre,  thus  giving  great  strength 
and  flexibility  to  the  tube." 

Nearly   all    the  air  enters    through   the   thoracic   and   first 
abdominal    spiracles,   so   that   on   pinching   most    insects    on 
the  thorax  they  can  be 
easily    deprived   of 
breath  and  killed. 

"  In  some  aquatic 
larvjB  such  as  those 
of  Dyticidw,  Eristalis 
(Fig.  51,  pupa),  and 
Epliydra^  and  also  in  some  perfect  insects, 
as  in  Nepa  and  Hanatra,  the  parts  sup- 
porting the  stigmata  are  prolonged  into  slen- 
der tubes,  through  which  the  insect,  on  rising  to  the  surface, 
breathes  the  atmospheric  air.  ,  , 

Agrion  (Fig,  52)  aflfords  a  good  instance  of  branchiae 
or  gill-like  expansions  of  the  crust,  or  skin.  It  is 
supposed  that  these  false  gills,  or  branchiae,  "absorb 
the  air  from  the  water,  and  convey  it  by  the  minute 
ramifications  of  the  tracheal  ves- 
sels, with  which  they  are  abun- 
dantly supplied,  and  which  ter- 
minate in  single  trunks,  into  the 
main  tracheae,  to  be  distributed  over  the  whole  body, 
as  in  insects  which  live  in  the  open  atmosphere." 
(Newport.) 

Of  branchiae  there  are  three  kinds.     The  fii'st,  as  in 
the  larvae  and  pupae  of  Gnats,  consist  of  slender  fila- 
ments arranged  in  tufts  arising  from  a   single   stem.    ^*o-  ^-■ 
In  the  larva  of  Gyrinus  and  the  aquatic  caterpillar  of  a  moth, 

Fig.  49.  Chamber  leading  into  the  trachea;  a,  «,  external  valve  protecting  the 
outer  opening  of  the  stigma,  or  breathing  hole;  6,  c,  c,  inner  and  more  complicated 
vah'c  closing  the  entrance  into  the  trachea  {I,  h);  m,  conical  occlusor  muscle 
closing  the  inner  orifice.  —  From  Strnus  Dtirckheim. 

Fig.  50.  Portion  of  a  trachea  divested  of  its  peritoneal  envelope,  a,  spirally 
convoluted  fibre,  closely  wound  around  the  trachea,  as  at  e ;  c,  origin  of  a  secondary 
tracheal  branch. —  From  Straus  Durckheim. 

Fig.  52.    One  of  the  three  gill-like  appendages  to  the  abdomen  of  the  larva  and 
pupa  of  Agrion  enlarged,  consisting  of  a  broad  leaf-like  expansion,  permeated  by 
trachea;  which  take  up  by  endosmosis  the  air  contained  in  water. —  Oriffinal. 
4.* 


42  THE   CLASS   OF  INSECTS. 

Hydrocampa  stratiolata,  they  form  short  stiff  bristles  placed 
along  the  side  of  the  body.  Agrion  and  Ephemera,  in  their 
larval  stages,  afford  the  second  kind  of  branchiae,  and  Lihellula 
the  third  kind,  or  internal  gill,  situated  in  the  colon.  The 
Mosquito  breathes  both  by  branchiae  which  form  large  club- 
shaped  organs,  and  by  lateral  filaments. 

In  those  insects  that  fliy,  most  of  the  tracheae  are  often  dilated 
into  air-vesicles,  so  that  by  filling  and  emptying  them  of  air  the 
insect  can  change  its  specific  gravity.  That  their  use  is  also 
to  lighten  the  body  is  shown  by  their  presence  in  the  heavy 
mandibles  and  head  of  the  male  of  Lucanus  cervus.  In  the 
adult  Humble-bee  there  are  two  very  large  vesicles  at  the  base 
of  the  abdomen.  These  vesicles  are  not  found  in  the  larvae, 
or  in  the  adult  forms  of  creeping  insects. 

The  act  of  respiration  consists  in  the  alternate  dilation  and 
contraction  of  the  abdominal  segments,  the  air  entering  the 
body  chiefly  at  the  thoracic  spiracles.  As  in  the  Vertebrates  the 
frequency  of  the  acts  of  breathing  increases  after  exertion. 
"When  an  insect  is  preparing  itself  for  flight,  the  act  of  res- 
piration resembles  that  of  birds  under  similar  circumstances. 
At  the  moment  of  elevating  its  elytra  and  expanding  its  wings, 
which  are,  indeed,  acts  of  respiration,  the  anterior  pairs  of 
spiracles  are  opened,  and  the  air  rushing  into  them  is  extended 
over  the  whole  body,  which,  by  the  expansion  of  the  aii'-bags,  is 
enlarged  in  bulk,  and  rendered  of  less  specific  gravity  ;  so  that 
when  the  spiracles  are  closed  at  the  instant  the  insect  endeavors 
to  make  the  first  stroke  with  and  raise  itself  upon  its  wings,  it 
is  enabled  to  rise  in  the  air,  and  sustain  a  long  and  powerful 
flight  with  but  little  muscular  exertion.  In  the  pupa  and  larva 
state  respiration  is  performed  more  equally  by  all  the  spiracles, 
and  less  especially  by  the  thoracic  ones." 

During  hibernation  the  act  of  breathing,  like  the  circulation 
of  the  blood,  almost  entirely  ceases,  and  the  heat  of  the  body 
is  greatly  lowered.  Indeed  Newport  has  shown  that  the  devel- 
opment of  heat  in  Insects,  just  as  in  Vertebrates,  depends  on  the 
"quantity  and  activity  of  respiration,  and  the  volume  and 
velocity  of  the  circulation."  The  Humble-bee,  according  to 
Newport,  possesses  the  voluntary  power  of  generating  heat  by 
breathing  faster.     He  says,  confirming  Huber's  observations, 


ORGANS    OF    SECRETION.  43 

"the  manner  in  which  the  bee  performs  her  incubatory  office  is 
by  placing  herself  upon  the  cell  of  a  nymph  (pupa)  that  is 
soon  to  be  developed,  and  then  beginning  to  respire  at  first 
very  gradually.  In  a  short  time  the  respirations  become  more 
and  more  frequent,  until  at  length  they  are  increased  to  one 
hundred  and  twenty,  or  one  hundred  and  thirty  per  minute. 
The  body  of  the  insect  soon  becomes  of  a  high  temperature, 
and,  on  close  inspection,  is  often  found  to  be  bathed  with  per- 
spiration. When  this  is  the  case  the  temperature  of  the  insect 
soon  becomes  reduced,  and  the  insect  leaves  the  cell,  and  an- 
other bee  almost  immediately  takes  her  place.  When  respira- 
tion is  performed  less  violently,  and  consequently  less  heat  is 
evolved,  the  same  bee  will  often  continue  on  a  cell  for  many 
hours  in  succession.  This  extreme  amount  of  heat  was  evolved 
entirely  by  an  act  of  the  will  in  accelerating  the  respiratory  ef- 
forts, a  strong  indication  of  the  relation  which  subsists  between 
the  function  of  respiration  and  the  development  of  animal  heat." 

Organs  of  Secretion.  The  urinary  vessels,  or  what  is 
equivalent  to  the  kidneys  of  the  higher  animals,  consist  in  In- 
sects of  several  long  tubes  which  empty  by  one  or  two  common 
secretory  ducts  into  the  posterior  or  "pyloric"  extremity  of 
the  stomach.  There  are  also  odoriferous  glands,  analogous  to 
the  cutaneous  glands  of  vertebrates.  The  liquid  poured  out  is 
usually  offensive,  and  it  is  used  as  a  means  of  defence.  The 
Bees,  Wasps,  Gall-flies,  etc.,  and  Scorpions,  have  a  poison-sac 
(Fig.  dig)  developed  in  the  tip  of  the  abdomen.  The  bite  of 
the  Musquito,  the  Horse-fly,  and  Bed-bug  is  thought  by  New- 
port to  be  due  to  the  simple  act  of  thrusting  their  lancet-like 
jaws  tlu'ough  the  skin,  and  it  is  not  known  that  these  and 
other  insects  which  bite  severely  eject  any  poison  into  the 
Wound.  But  in  the  spiders  a  minute  drop  of  poison  exudes  from 
an  orifice  at  the  end  of  the  mandibles,  "which  spreads  over  the 
whole  wound  at  the  instant  it  is  inflicted."  This  poison  is 
secreted  by  a  gland  lodged  in  the  celphalo-thorax,  and  which 
is  thought  by  Audouin  to  correspond  in  position  to  the  salivary 
apparatus  and  the  silk  glands  of  the  Winged  Insects. 

Organs  of  Generation.  We  have  already  described  the 
external  parts.     The  internal  parts  of  the  male  insect  consist. 


44 


THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 


or   fertilizing  fluid,  contains 


first,  of  the  ductus  ejaculatorius,  wliich  opens  into  the  external 
intromittent  organ.  This  duct  extends  backwards,  connecting 
witli  the  vesicidce  seminales,  which  lead  by 
the  vasa  differentia  to  the  testes  (Fig.  53). 
The  latter  are  usually  rounded  glandular 
bodies,  sometimes,  as  in  Melolontlia  and 
Luccmus,  numbering  six  on  a  side.  These 
organs  lie  in  the  abdominal  cavity,  usually 
above  and  on  each  side  of  the  alimentary 
canal. 

The  sperm, 
very  active 
spermatic  par- 
ticles which 
are  developed 
in  large  cells 
in  the  testes, 
where  they  are 
bundles   of  various 


Fig.  53. 

united   into 
forms. 

In  the  female,  the  internal  re- 
productive organs  (Fig.  54)  are 
more  simple  than  those  of  the 
other  sex.  The  external  open- 
ing of  the  female  is  situated  at 
the  end  of  the  ovfduct,  that 
leads  by  two  tubes  to  the  ovary, 
which  consists  of  two  or  more 
tubes  (in  the  Queen  Bee  one  hundred  and  sixty  to  one  hundred 
and  eight}")  in  which  the  ova  are  developed.    On  the  upper  side 


Fig.  54. 


Fig.  53.  Male  organs  of  Athnlia  centifolice.  h,  the  penis,  or  external  portion, 
in  which  the  ductus  ejaculatorius  (/)  terminates,  which  extends  backwards,  and  is 
connected  with  the  vcsindce  seminales  (e),  and  vasa  differentia  (d)  which  are  con- 
nected with  the  epididymis  (b),  and  the  testes  (a),  i  and  I,  two  pairs  of  horny  plates, 
surrounded  by  a  horny  ring  (A-),  i,  horn}'-  prehensile  hooks  attached  to  k.  m,  two 
elongated  muscular  parts  inclosing  the  penis  (h).  —  From  Newport. 

Fig.  54.  Female  organs  of  generation  of  Athalia  centifoliee.  a,  b,  c,  the  eighteen 
ovarial  tubes  originating  from  each  of  the  two  oviducts  (e),  and  containing  the  im- 
mature eggs ;  /,  the  spermatheca ;  (/,  poison-sac,  the  poison  being  secreted  in  the 
secretory  vessels  h.  The  poison  flows  through  the  oviduct  into  the  sting  and  thence 
into  the  wound  made  by  the  Sting.  10,  the  terminal  ganglia  of  the  uervous  cord. 
—  From  Xewport. 


OKGANS    OF   GENERATION.  45 

of  the  oviduct  are  from  one  to  five  appendages,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  which  is  the  spermatheca  (the  others  being  sebaceous 
glands),  which  receives  the  fertilizing  fluid  of  the  male  during 
sexual  union,  and  in  which,  according  to  Darwin,  the  male  ele- 
ment "is  enabled  to  keep  alive  four  or  five  years." 

Insects  bisexual.  With  the  exception  of  the  Tardigrades, 
which  are  doubtfully  referred  to  the  Mites  (Acarina) ,  there  are 
no  hermaphrodites  among  Insects,  that  is,  there  are  no  individ- 
uals having  both  male  and  female  organs,  and  capable  of  self- 
impregnation.  On  the  contrary,  the  sexes  are  distinct ;  Insects 
are  bisexual. 

Hermaphrodites,  so-called.  Cases  not  unfrequently  occur  in 
which  from  arrest  of  development  of  the  embryo,  the  sexual 
organs  are  imperfectly  developed,  so  as  to  present  the  appear- 
ance of  being  both  male  and  female.  "vSiebold  has  investigated 
some  hermaphrodite  Honey-bees  belonging  to  the  Italian  race, 
obtained  from  a  Dzierzon  hive  at  Constance.  He  found  in 
many  of  them  a  combination  of  sexual  characters,  not  only  in  the 
external  parts,  but  also  in  the  generative  organs.  The  mixture 
of  the  external  characters  is  manifested  sometimes  only  in  the 
anterior  or  posterior  part  of  the  body,  sometimes  in  all  parts 
of  the  body,  or  only  in  a  few  organs.  Some  specimens  pre- 
sent male  and  worker  characters  on  the  two  sides  of  the  body. 
The  development  of  the  internal  organs  is  singularly  correla- 
ted with  these  peculiarities  of  external  organization.  The  sting, 
with  its  vesicle  and  gland,  is  well  developed  in  hermaphrodites 
with  the  abdomen  of  the  worker  ;  soft  in  those  with  the  drone- 
abdbitoen.  The  seminal  receptacle,  when  present,  is  empty. 
The  ovaries  contain  no  ova.  In  the  hermaphrodites  with  the 
drone-abdomen,  the  male  sexual  organs  are  well  developed,  and 
the  testes  contain  spermatozoids.  Frequently  with  testicular 
and  ovarian  organs  present  on  each  side,  the  epididymis  and 
copulatory  apparatus  are  well  developed,  and  an  imperfect 
poison-apparatus  exists.  In  these  cases  the  tube  contains 
spermatozoids,  but  there  are  no  ova  in  the  ovaries.  The  her- 
maphrodites are  thrown  out  of  the  cell  by  the  workers  as  soon 
as  they  emerge,  and  speedily  perish.  Siebold  ascribes  the  pro- 
duction of  these  hermaphrodites  to  an  imperfect  fecundation 
of  the  ovum."  (Zeitschrift  fiir  Wissenschaftliche  Zoologie, 
1864,  p.  73.     See  Giinther's  Zoological  Eeview  for  1864.) 


46  THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 

Mr.  Dunning  describes  a  specimen  of  Fidonia  piniaria, 
"which  was  sexually  a  female,  and  the  abdomen  was  appar- 
ently distended  with  eggs  ;  the  general  color  was  midway  be- 
tween the  colors  of  the  ordinary  male  and  female,  but  the  size 
and  markings  were  those  of  the  male.  (Transactions  Ento- 
mological Society,  London,  Aug.  7,  1865.)  Professor  West- 
wood  states  that  "he  had  an  Orange-tip  Butterfly  (AntJiocharis 
cardamines),  which  was  female  in  every  respect,  except  that 
on  the  tip  of  one  fore- wing  were  about  a  dozen  of  the  bright 
orange  scales  which  characterize  the  male." 

The  Egg.  Professor  H.  J.  Clark  (Mind  in  Nature)  defines 
an  egg  to  be  a  globule  surrounded  by  the  vitelline  membrane, 
or  yolk-envelope,  which  is  protected  by  the  chorion^  or  egg- 
shell, consisting  of  "two  Icinds  of  fluid,  albumen  and  oi7,  which 
are  always  situated  at  opposite  sides  or  poles."  "In  the  earli- 
est stages  of  all  eggs,  these  two  poles  shade  off  into  each 
other,"  but  in  the  perfectly  developed  egg  the  small,  or  albu- 
minous pole,  is  surrounded  by  a  membrane,  and  forms  the 
Purkinjean  (germinal)  vesicle  ;  and  thirdly  and  last,  the  inner- 
most of  the  three  globules  is  developed  This  last  is  the 
Wagnerian  vesicle,  or  germinal  dot.  The  oily  matter  forms  the 
yolk.  Thus  formed,  the  egg  is  the  initial  animal.  It  becomes 
an  animal  after  contact  with  the  male  germs  (unless  the  product 
of  organic  reproduction),  and  the  egg-shell  or  chorion  is  to  be 
considered  as  a  protection  to  the  animal,  and  is  throAvn  off 
when  the  embryo  is  hatched,  just  as  the  larva  throws  off  its 
skin  to  transform  into  the  pupa.  So  that  the  egg-state  is 
equivalent  to  the  larva  state,  and  hence  there  are  four  stages 
in  the  life  of  an  insect,  i.  e.  the  egg,  the  larva,  the  pupa,  and 
the  imago,  or  adult  state. 

The  egg  is  not  always  laid  as  a  perfect  egg  (Clark).  It 
sometimes,  as  in  the  Aaits,  continues  to  grow  after  it  is  laid  by 
the  parent,  like  those  of  frogs,  which,  according  to  Clark,  "Are 
laid  before  they  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  become  fullj-  formed 
as  eggs."  Again,  others  are  laid  some  time  after  the  embryo 
has  begun  to  form ;  and  in  some,  such  as  Melojyhagus  and 
Braula,  the  larva  is  fully  formed  before  it  is  expelled  from  the 
oviduct. 


THE    EGG.  47 

Eggs  are  usually  small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
parent;  but  in  many  minute  forms  {i.e.  Pidex,  Pedicidus,  etc.) 
they  are  proportionately  much  larger.  In  shape  eggs  are 
either  spherical  or  oblong.  In  some  there  are  radiating  append- 
ages at  one  end,  as  in  those  of  Ne2Ki  and  Ranatra ;  or  they  are 
provided  with  a  single  stalk,  as  in  Chrysopa,  Cynips,  and 
Ojjhion. 

The  eggs  of  ihost  Hymenoptera,  Diptera,  and  many  Coleop- 
tera  are  usually  cylindrical ;  those  of  Lepidoptera  are  more 
generally  spherical.  The  eggs  of  the  Mosquito  are  laid  in  a 
boat-shaped  mass,  which  floats  on  the  surface  of  quiet  pools, 
while  those  of  the  Chrysopa,  or  Lace-winged  Fly  (Fig.  55),  are 
supported   on    long    pedicels.    - — -.^^  WWi  <? 

They    are    almost   invariably         ^'~~~^Ss„^^^^P^^     \  i/M 
laid  near  or  upon  objects  des-  __=i^^^^^^^^^^,^^^^.. 

tined  to  be   the   food  of  the  Fig.  55. 

future  larva.  Thus  the  Copris,  or  "Tumble-bug,"  places  its 
egg  in  a  ball  of  dung  which  it  rolls  away  to  a  secure  place ; 
the  Flesh-fly  oviposits  on  meat ;  and  all  vegetable-feeders  lay 
their  eggs  on  the  food-plant  where  the  larva,  upon  its  exit 
from  the  egg,  shall  readily  find  an  ample  supply  of  food. 

The  posterior  end  of  the  egg  is  more  often  the  fixed  one,  and 
it  may  thus  be  distinguished  from  the  anterior  pole.  In  the 
eggs  of  some  Diptera  and  Orthoptera,  the  ventral  side  of  the 
embryo,  according  to  Gerstaecker,  corresponds  to  the  convex 
side  of  the  egg,  and  the  concave  side  of  the  latter  corresponds 
to  the  dorsal  region  of  the  embryo. 

The  surface  of  the  chorion,  or  egg-shell,  which  is  dense  and 
brittle,  is  often  covered  by  a  mosaic-work  of  more  or  less  regu- 
lar facets.  In  many  small  eggs  the  surface  is  only  minutely 
granulated,  or  ornamented  with  ribs  and  furrows,  as  in  those 
of  many  Butterflies. 

Tlie  Micropyle.  On  the  anterior  end  (though  sometimes 
at  both  ends)  of  the  egg  is  one  or  more  pores  of  exceeding 
minuteness,  through  which  the  spermatozoa  (more  than  one 
of  which,  according  to  Darwin,  is  requisite  to  fertilize  an 
ovule)  enter  to  fertilize  the  egg-contents.  In  some  cases 
these  micropyles  are  scattered  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  egg. 
Fig.  56  a  represents  the  micropyles  of  M^ejxi  cinerea,  consisting 


48  THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 

of  a  whorl  of  long  bristles.     Those  of  Locusta  viridissima  (Fig. 
56  5)  slightly  resemble  toodstools.     Fig.  56  c  represents  the  an- 
grier pole  of   the    egg    with 
le  micropyles   of   Pyrliocoris 
pterus.  —  {From  Gerstaecker. ) 
This    contact    of  a    male 
perm-cell   with    the    yolk    is 
lie    fertilization   of   tlie    egg. 
From  this  moment  begins  the 
life  of  tlie  embryo.     Fertiliza- 
tion  of  tlie   female   germ   by 
^^°- '5''-  means   of  the    male   sperm, 

through  the  congress  of  the  sexes,  is  the  rule  with  bisexual 
animals,  but  tbere  are  exceptions  among  insects.  An  embryo 
may  start  into  being  without  the  interposition  of  the  male  ;  to 
this  mode  of  generation  has  been  applied  by  Leuckart  the  term 
Parthenogenesis.  Among  certain  species  of  insects  there  are 
some  individuals  which,  by  a  sort  of  budding  process,  and  with- 
out the  aid  of  the  male  element,  throw  off  summer  broods,  con- 
sisting of  "asexual"  individuals,  which,  as  winter  approaches, 
are  succeeded  by  a  brood  of  true  males  and  females,  the  latter 
of  which  lay  eggs.  This  phenomenon,  called  by  Steenstrup 
"alternation  of  generations,"  has  been  observed  among  a  com- 
paratively few  species,  and  the  apparent  design  of  such  an 
anomalous  mode  of  reproduction  is  to  afford  an  immense  num- 
ber of  individuals,  thus  providing  for  the  continuance  of  the 
species.  The  individuals  in  whom  this  budding  process  takes 
place  are  called  "asexual"  because,  though  they  may  resemble 
the  female  sex  outwardl}^,  their  sexual  organs  are  only  partially 
developed.  This  budding  process  is  the  same  in  kind  with  that 
observable  in  the  Jelly-fish,  which  throw  off  by  parthenogen- 
esis, or  alternations  of  generations,  summer  broods  of  immense 
extent,  but  in  winter  propagate  by  true  eggs.  Huxley  has 
studied  the  development  of  Aphis  by  parthenogenesis,  the 
anomalous  nature  of  Avhicli  has  previously  been  discovered  by 
Bonnet,  Trembly,  Lyonet,  Degeer,  Kyber,  and  others,  and 
arrives  at  the  following  conclusions  : 

"1.  Ova  deposited  b}^  impregnated  female  Aphides  in  autumn 
are  hatched  in  the  spring. 


ALTERNATION  OF  GENERATIONS.  49 

2.  From  these  ova  viviparous,  and,  in  the  great  majority  of 
cases,  apterous  forms  proceed. 

8.  The  broods  to  which  these  give  rise  are  either  winged  or 
apterous,  or  botli. 

4.  Tlie  number  of  successive  broods  has  no  certain  limit,  but 
is,  so  far  as  we  know  at  present,  controlled  only  by  tempera- 
ture and  the  supply  of  food, 

5.  On  the  setting  in  of  cold  weather,  or  in  some  cases  on  the 
failure  of  nourishment,  the  weather  being  still  warm,  males 
and  oviparous  females  are  produced. 

6.  The  males  may  be  either  winged  or  apterous. 

7.  So  far  as  I  am  aware,  there  is  no  proof  of  the  existence 
of  any  exception  to  the  law  that  the  oviparous  female  is  apte- 
rous. 

8.  Viviparous  Aphides  may  hybernate,  and  may  co-exist  with 
oviparous  females  of  the  same  species."  (Linnsean  Transac- 
tions, xxii,  p.  198.) 

The  origin  of  the  viviparous,  asexual,  or  agamic  (from  the 
Greek  a,  without ;  game,  marriage)  individual,  as  it  may  be 
more  properly  called,  is,  up  to  a  certain  stage,  the  same  as 
that  of  the  true  egg,  i.e.  until  the  germ  (p)seudovum)  of 
the  former  is  detached  from  the  false  ovary  (pseudovarium) . 
"From  this  point  onwards,  however,  the  fate  of  the  pseudovum 
is  different  from  that  of  the  OA^um.  The  former  begins  at  once 
to  be  converted  into  the  germ  ;  the  latter  accumulates  yelk-sub- 
stance, and  changes  but  little.  Both  bodies  acquire  their  mem- 
branous investment  rather  late ;  within  it  the  pseudovum 
becomes  a  living  larva,  while  the  ovum  is  impregnated,  laid, 
and  remaia\s  in  a  state  of  rest  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period. 

"Although,  then,  the  pseudovum  and  the  ovum  of  Aj^his 
are  exceedingly  similar  in  structure  for  some  time  after  they 
have  passed  out  of  the  condition  of  indifferent  tissue,  it  cannot 
be  said  that  the  sole  difference  between  them  is,  that  the  one 
requires  fecundation  and  the  other  not.  When  the  ovum  is  of 
the  size  of  a  pseudovum  which  is  about  to  develop  into  an  em- 
bryo, and,  therefore,  long  before  fecundation,  it  manifests  its 
inherent  physiological  distinctness  by  becoming,  not  an  em- 
bryo, but  an  ovum.  Up  to  this  period  the  influence  of  fecunda- 
tion has  not  been  felt ;  and  the  production  of  ova,  instead  of 
5 


50 


THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 


pseudova,  must  depend  upon  a  something  impressed  upon  the 
constitution  of  the  parent  before  it  was  brought  forth  by  its 
viviparous  progenetrix."   (Huxley.) 

Siebold  has  also  shown  that  the  "ova  of  the  Queen-bee  pro- 
duces females  or  males,  according  as  they  are  fecundated  or 
not.  The  fecundated  ovum  produces  a  queen  or  a  neuter 
according  to  the  food  of  the  larva  and  the  other  conditions  to 
which  it  is  subjected ;  the  unfecundated  ovum  produces  a 
drone."  This  is  analogous  to  the  agamic  reproduction  of 
Aphis,  and  "  demonstrates  still  more  clearly  the  impossi- 
bility of  drawing  any  absolute  line  of  demarcation  histologi- 
cally between  ova  and  buds." 

This  process  of  reproduction  is  not  known  in  the  M}i*iapods. 
It  occurs  among  the  mites  (Acarina),  and  occurs  in  isolated 
genera  of  Hemiptera  (Aphis^  Chermes,  Leccmium,  and  Aspidi- 
otus  according  to  Gerstaecker). 

Among  Lepidoptera  the  Silk-moth  sometimes  lays  fertile 
eggs  without  previous,  sexual  union.  This  very  rarely  hap- 
pens, for  M.  Jourdain  found  that,  out  of  about  58,000  eggs 
laid  by  unimpregnated  silk-moths,  many  passed  through  their 
early  embryonic  stages,  showing  that  they  were  capable  of 
self-development,  but  only  twenty-nine  out  of  the  whole 
number  produced  caterpillars.  (Darwin.)  Several  other  moths  * 
have  been  found  to  lay  fertile  eggs  without  previous  sexual 
union,  and  among  Hymenoptera,  Nematus  veyitricosus,  Cynips, 
NeuToterus^  perhaps  A]}opliyUus  (according  to  Gerstaecker), 
and  Cyvips   spongifica   (according  to  Walsh,    Proceedings  of 

*  We  give  a  list  from  Gerstaecker  (Bronn's  Classen  iTiid  Ordntingen  des  Thier- 
reichs)  of  all  the  kno\vii  cases  of  agamic  reproduction  in  this  siiborder,  with  the 
number  of  times  the  phenomenon  has  been  observed,  and  the  names  of  the  ob- 
servers. 


Sphinx  ligustri,  once  (Treviranus). 
Smerintlius   i)opuli,  four    times    (Nord- 

mann). 
Smerintlius  ocellatus,  once  (Johnston). 
Euprepia  cqja,  Ave  times  (Brown,  etc.). 

"  villioa,  once  (Stowell). 
Telea  Polyphemus,  twice  (Curtis). 
Gastropacha  inni,  tliree  times  (Scopoli, 

etc). 
Gastropacha  quercifolia,  once  (Basler). 
"  potatoria,  once    (Burmeis- 

ter). 


Gastropacha  quercus,  once  (Plieninger). 

LipaiHs  dispar,  once  (Carlier). 

"  Efigermoth"  (1  Liparis  dispar),  (Tardy, 

Westwood). 
Liparis  ochropoda,  once  (Popoff). 
Orgyiapudihunda,  once  (Werneburg). 
Psyche  apiformis,  once  (Rossi). 

"      heiix  (Siebold), 
Solenobia  Uchenella  (Siebold). 

"         triquetrella.  (Siebold). 
Bomhyx  mori,  several  times. 


The  subject  has  been  also  discussed  by  Siebold  in  his  work  entitled,  A  true  Par- 
thenogenesis in  Lepidoptera  and  Bees;  by  Owen,  in  his  "Parthenogenesis,"  and 
by  Sir  J.  Lubbock  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  London,  vol.  147,  pt.  1. 


ALTERNATION    OF    GENERATIONS.  51 

the  Entomological  Society  of  Philadelphia).  Parthenogenesis, 
or  agamic  reproduction,  is,  then,  the  result  of  a  budding  pro- 
cess, or  cell-growth.  This  process  is  a  common  mode  among 
the  Radiates,  the  low  Worms,  and  the  Crustaceans.  Metamor- 
phosis is  simply  a  series  of  marked  stages,  or  periods,  of 
growth ;  and  hence  growth,  metamorphosis,  and  agamic  re- 
production are  morphologically  identical.  All  animals,  there- 
fore, as  well  as  plants,  grow  by  the  multiplication  of  cells. 

After  hearing  the  surprising  revelations  of  Bonnet,  Reaumur, 
Owen,  Burnett,  and  Huxlej^  on  the  asexual  mode  of  generation 
in  the  Aphis,  we  are  called  to  notice  still  a  new  phase  of  repro- 
duction. None  of  the  observers  just  mentioned  were  accus- 
tomed to  consider  the  virgin  aphis  as  immature,  but  rather  as 
a  wingless  adult  Plant-louse.  But  Nicolas  Wagner,  Professor 
of  Zoology  at  Kasan,*  supported  by  able  vouchers  for  the 
truth  of  his  assertions,  both  in  Rvissia  and  in  Germany,  who 
have  repeated  and  thoroughly  tested  his  observations,  has 
observed  an  asexual  reproduction  in  the  larva  of  a  Cecidomy- 
ian  fly,  Miastor  metraloas  Meinert,  and  Meinert  has  observed 
it  in  this  species  and  the  Oligarces  paradoxus  Meinert. 

Says  Dr.  R.  Leuckart,  whose  article  I  we  have  drawn  largely 
upon  in  the  present  account,  "This  reproduction  was  said  to 
commence  in  autumn,  to  continue  through  the  winter  and 
spring,  giving  origin,  during  the  whole  of  this  period,  to  a 
series  of  successive  generations  of  larvae,  until,  finally,  in  June, 
the  last  of  them  were  developed  into  perfect  and  sexually 
mature  animals.  The  flies,  then,  as  usual,  after  copulation, 
lay  eggs,  and  thus  recommence  the  developmental  cycle  just 
described." 

Professor  Leuckart  has  observed  these  facts  anew  in  the 
larvae  of  a  species  of  dipterous  gall-fly,  and  which  he  believes 
distinct  from  the  Russian  species,  found  under  the  bark  of  a 
half  dead  apple-tree  that  was  attacked  by  fungi.  The  young 
are  developed  within  the  body  of  the  larva-like  parent  from  a 

*K.  E.  Von  Baer,  "Report  on  a  New  Asexual  Mode  of  Reproduction  observed 
by  Professor  Wagner  in  Kasan."  Bull.  Acad.  St.  Petersburg,  1863,  pt.  vi,  p.  239. 
Also,  Wagner  in  the  Journal  of  the  University  of  Kasan,  1861. 

fOn  the  Asexual  Reproduction  of  Cecidomyia  Larvaj.  Annals  and  Magazine 
of  Natural  History,  March,  1806.  Translated  from  Zeitschrift  f  Ur  Wissenschaftliche 
Zoologie,  Bd.  xiv. 


62  THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 

"germ-ball"  essentially  agreeing  with  the  ovary,  and  the  asex- 
ual larvee  begin  life  as  egg-like  bodies  developed  from  this 
germ-ball,  just  as  eggs  are  developed  in  the  little  tubes  of 
which  the  ovary  is  an  aggregation.  Hence  these  worms  hud 
out  from  the  germ-stock,  just  as  we  have  seen  in  the  case  of 
the  Aphides.  Leuckart  and  Wagner  farther  agree,  that  "  the 
so-called  chorion  never  being  formed  in  either  of  them,  the 
vitellus  [yolk]  remains  without  that  envelope  which  has  so  re- 
markable and  peculiar  a  development  in  the.  true  egg  of  in- 
sects." ....  "The  processes  of  embrj^o-formation  agree  in 
all  essential  points  with  the  ordinary  phenomena  of  devel- 
opment in  a  fecundated  egg,  exactly  as  has  been  proved  (by 
Huxley)  to  be  the  case  in  the  Aphides."  ....  "The  only 
difference  consists  in  the  germ-chambers  of  the  Cecidomyide 
larvae  separating  from  the  germ-stock,  and  moving  about  freely 
in  the  cavity  of  the  body,  whilst  in  the  Aphides  they  remain 
permanently  attached,  and  constitute  an  apparatus  which,  in 
its  form  and  arrangement,  reproduces  the  conditions  of  the 
female  organs." 

Thus  we  can  neither  pronounce  these  so-called  larvce  to  be 
larvae  so  long  as  they  produce  young,  neither  are  they  actual 
males  or  females  ;  they  are  what  Leuckart  calls  asexual  forms, 
which  produce  false-eggs  (pseudova  of  Huxlej^,  as  restricted 
by  Leuckart).  This  is  paralleled  by  the  asexual  Aphides,  and 
among  HAanenoptera  by  the  worker  Ants^  and  worker,  or,  as 
they  were  formerly  called,  neuter  Bees,  the  latter  of  which  have 
been  known  to  produce  young  without  the  interposition  of  the 
rnale  ;  thus  the  two  sexes,  at  least  the  females,  are  dimorphic, 
i.  e.  for  certain  exigencies  of  life  they  are  specialized  into  two 
distinct  forms,  one  (as  in  the  asexual  Aphis)  to  produce  an  un- 
limited number  of  young  during  the  summer ;  the  other  and 
sexual,  normal  form  to  produce  in  the  autumn  a  comparatively 
limited  number  of  eggs. 

Dimorphism  is  intimately  connected  with  agamic  reproduc- 
tion. Thus  the  asexual  Aphis,  and  the  perfect  female,  may  be 
called  dimorphic  forms.  Or  the  perfect  female  may  assume 
two  forms,  so  much  so  as  to  be  mistaken  for  two  distinct  spe- 
cies. Thus  Cynips  quercics-spongifica  occurs  in  male  and  female 
broods  in  the  spring,  while  the  fall  brood  of  females  were 


DIMORPHISM.  53 

described  as  a  separate  species,  C.  adculata.  Mr.  B.  D.  "Walsh 
considers  the  two  sets  of  females  as  dimorjihic  forms,  and  he 
thinks  that  0.  adculata  lays  eggs  which  produce  G.  quercus- 
S])ongiJica. 

Huber  supposes  there  are  two  sizes  of  the  three  forms  (i.  e. 
male,  female,  and  worker)  of  Bo7nbi(s,  one  set  being  a  little 
larger  than  the  other. 

Alfred  Wallace  has  discovered  that  there  are  two  forms  of 
females  of  Pajyilio  Memnon  of  the  East  Indies  ;  one  is  normal, 
having  its  wings  tailed  and  resembles  a  closelj^  allied  species, 
Papilio  Coon,  which  is  not  dimorphous,  while  thp  other  is  tail- 
less, resembling  its  tailless  male.  Papilio  Panimon  has  three 
sorts  of  females,  and  is  hence  "  trimorphic."  One  of  its  forms 
predominates  in  Sumatra,  and  a  second  in  Java,  while  a  thuxl, 
(described  as  P.  Romulus)  abounds  in  India  and  Ceylon.  P. 
Ormenus  is  trimorphic,  as  Mr.  Wallace  obtained  in  the  island 
of  Waignion,  "a  third  female  quite  distinct  from  either  of  the 
others,  and  in  some  degree  intermediate  between  the  ordinary 
male  and  female."  Much  the  same  thing  occurs  in  the  North 
American  P.  Tiirnus.  Papilio  Glaucus  is  now  known  to  be  a 
dimorphic  form  of  the  former  butterfl}^,  both  having,  according 
to  Mr.  Uhler,  been  bred  from  the  same  batch  of  eggs.  The 
ordinary  form  of  the  female  of  P.  Turnus  occurs  north  of  lat. 
37°,  while  the  dimorphic  form,  P.  Gkmcus,  occurs  south  of  42°. 

The  male  sex  also  presents  dimorphic  forms.  Mr.  Pascoe 
(Proceedings  of  the  Entomological  Society  of  London,  1862, 
p.  71)  states  that  there  are  dimorphic  forms  of  Anthribidm  ; 
that  they  occur  in  the  male  of  Stenocerus  and  Micoceros.  Six 
species  of  Dytiscus  have  two  female  forms,  the  most  common 
having  the  elytra  deeply  sulcate,  while  in  the  rarer  forms  the 
eh^tra  are  smooth  as  in  the  male. 

There  is  a  tendency,  we  would  observe,  in  the  more  abnor- 
mal of  the  two  sexual  forms,  to  revert  to  a  lower  tj^pe.  Thus 
the  agamic  Aphis  is  more  generally  wingless,  and  the  tailless 
female  butterfly  mimics  the  members  of  a  lower  genus,  Pieris. 
The  final  cause  of  Dimorphism,  like  that  of  agamic  reproduc- 
tion, is  the  continuance  of  the  species,  and  is,  so  far  as  yet 
known,  an  exceptional  occurrence. 

Mimetic  forms.     Many  insects  often  resemble,  in  a  remark- 


54  THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 

able  manner,  those  of  other  groups.  They  are  called  mimetic 
forms.  Insects  are  related  to  each  other  by  analogy  and  affin- 
ity. Thus  the  truly  tailless  species  of  Papilio,  i.  e.  those  where 
the  tail  is  absent  in  both  sexes,  are  related  by  affinity  to  Pie- 
ris,  which  has  rounded  hind  wings.  They  also  stand  next  to 
Pieris  in  the  system  of  Nature.  But  there  are,  on  the  other 
hand,  mimetic  forms,  which  borrow  the  features  of  groups  far 
above  them  in  the  natural  system.  Thus  the  Sesia  resembles  a 
Bee,  Bomhylius  and  Laphria  resemble  Bomhus;  the  Sja-phus 
flies  are  easily  mistaken  for  Wasps.  So  in  the  second  series 
of  suborders  of  Insects,  Forjicida  resembles  the  Stapliylinus ; 
Termes  resembles  the  true  Ant ;  Psocus,  the  Aphis;  AscalapJius 
resembles  Pcqnlio ;  ilfcm^isj^a  recalls  the  OrthopterousJfaw^is,  and 
Panorpa  reminds  us  of  the  Tipulm  {Bittacus  being  strikingly 
analogous  to  the  Dipterous  BittacomorpJia) .  Thus  these  lower, 
more  variable  groups  of  insects  strive,  as  it  were,  to  connect 
themselves  by  certain  analogous,  mimetic  forms,  with  the  more 
stable  and  higher  groups. 

Comprehensive  types  are  mimetic  forms  which  combine  the 
characters  of  other  and  general^  higher  groups.  Thus  each 
Neuropterous  family  contains  mimetic  forms  which  ally  them 
strongly  with  some  one  of  the  six  other  suborders  of  insects. 
The  earl}^  fossil  insects  are  remarkable  for  combining  the  char- 
acters of  groups  which  appear  ages  after.  The  most  remark- 
able comprehensive  ty^e  is  a  Carboniferous  insect,  the  Eugereon 
BoecMngi  mentioned  farther  on. 

HyBRiDiTY.  Hybrids  are  sometimes  produced  between  differ- 
ent species,  but  though  it  is  known  that  different  genera  unite 
sexually,  we  knew  of  very  few  authentic  instances  of  the  pro- 
duction of  hybrids  therefrom.  One  is  related  by  Mr.  Midford, 
who  exhibited  at  the  March  4th  (1861)  meeting  of  the  London 
Entomological  Society,  hybrids  produced  from  a  male  Phiga- 
lia  pilosaria,  and  a  female  Nyssia  hispidaria.  "The  males 
resemble  N.  hispidaria^  but  in  color  have  the  lighter  and 
greener  tint  and  trans^Darency  of  wing  of  P.  pilosaria." 

The  Development  of  Insects.  Immediately  after  the  fer- 
tilization of  the  egg,  the  fii'st  act  in  the  organization  of  the  . 


THE    DEVELOPMENT    OF   INSECTS. 


00 


future  embryo  is  tlie  formation  of  the  germinal  layer,  or  blas- 
toderm (from  the  Greek,  meaning  primitive  skin) .  This  layer 
is  formed  at  the  surface  out  of  a  surface-layer  of  larger,  often 
nucleolated,  cells  which  nearly  encompass  the  yolk-mass.  At 
one  point  there  is  a  break  in  this  cellular  laj' er,  and  the  yolk 
granules  reach  to  the  surface,  so  that  it  appears  darker  than 
the  other  parts  of  the  egg.  This  cellular  layer  is  soon  resolved 
into  the  blastoderm,  or  germinal  layer,  which  thickens  and 
narrows,  forming  a  longitudinal  band.  This  is  the  first  stage 
of  the  embryo,  which  lies  as  a  thin  layer  of  cells  upon  the  outer 
surface  of  the  yolk.  Both  ends  of  the  body  are  alike,  and  we 
shall  afterwards  see  that  its  back  lies  next  to  the  centre  of  the 
egg,  its  future  ventral  side  looking  outwards.  The  embryo  is 
thus  bent  on  itself  backwards. 

In  the  next  stage  the  blastoderm  divides  into  a  certain  num- 
ber of  segments,  or  joints,  which  appear  as  indentations  in  the 
body  of  the  embryo.  The  head  can  now  be  distinguished  from 
the  posterior  end  chiefly  by  its  larger  size,  and  both  it  and  the 
tail  are  folded  back  upon  the  body  of  the  embryo,  the  head 
especially  being  sunk  backwards  down  into  the  yolk-mass. 

In  a  succeeding  stage,  as  we  have  observed  in  the  embryo  of 
Diplax,  a  Dragon-fly  (Fig.  57),  the  head  is  partially  sketched 


Fis.  o;. 


out,  with  the  rudiments  of  the  limbs  and  mouth-parts  ;  and  the 
sternites,  or  ventral  walls,  of  the  thorax  and  of  the  two  basal 
rings  of  the  head  appear.  The  anterior  part  of  the  head,  in- 
cluding the  so-called  "procephalic  lobes"  overhangs  and  con- 

FiG.  57.  Side  view  of  embryo.  The  procephalic  lobes  are uot  shown.  1,  anteniwe; 
2,  mandibles;  3,  maxilla?;  4,  second  maxillaj  (labium);  5-7,  legs.  These  numbers 
and  letters  are  the  same  in  all  the  figures  from  57-60.  The  under-side  (sternum) 
of  six  segments  are  indicated.    Fig.  58.  Ventral  view  of  the  same. 


56  THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 

ceals  the  base  of  the  antennse.  It  is  probable  that  more 
careful  observation  would  have  shown  the  end  of  the  abdomen 
folded  back  upon  the  dorsal  region,  as  usual  at  this  period  in 
the  embryos  of  those  insects  whose  embryology  has  been 
studied. 

The  antennse,  mandibles,  and  maxillse  form  a  group  by  them- 
selves, while  the  second  maxillse  (or  labium)  are  very  much 
larger  and  turned  backwards,  being  temporarity  grouped  with 
the  legs. 

There  are  traces  only  of  the  two  basal  sterna  of  the  abdo- 
men. This  indicates  that  the  basal  abdominal  segments  gTow 
in  succession  from  the  base  of  the  abdomen,  the  middle  ones 
appearing  last.  The  post-abdomen  (Fig.  59  a)  has  probably 
been  developed  synchronous  with  the  procephalic  lobes,  as  it  is 
in  all  insect  and  crustacean  embryos  yet  observed.  As  stated 
by  Zaddach,  these  two  lobes  in  their  development  are  exact 
equivalents;  antero- posterior  sjanmetry  is  xevy  clearly  de- 
marked,  the  two  ends  of  the  body  at  first  looking  alike.  But 
in  this  stage,  after  the  two  ends  of  the  body  have  been  evolved 
from  the  primitive  cell-layer,  development  in  the  post-abdomi- 
nal region  is  retarded,  that  of  the  head  progressing  with  much 
greater  rapidity. 

In  the  next  stage  (not  figured)  the  yolk  is  completely  walled 
in,  though  no  traces  of  segments  appear  on  the  back  or  side  of 
the  embryo.  The  revolution  of  the  embryo  has  taken  place ; 
the  post-abdomen  being  curved  beneath  the  body,  and  the  back 
presenting  outwards. 

The  rudiments  of  the  eyes  appear  as  a  darker,  rounded  mass 
of  cells  indistinctly  seen  through  the  yolk-granules,  and  situ- 
ated at  the  bn/^e  of  the  antennse.  They  consist  of  a  few  epithe- 
lial cells  of  irregular  form,  the  central  one  being  the  largest. 

The  second  maxillse  are  a  little  over  twice  the  length  of  the 
first  maxillse  and  are  grouped  with  the  legs,  being  curved  back- 
wards. They  are,  hoAvcs^er,  now  one-third  shorter  than  the  an- 
terior legs.     The  second  maxillary  sternum  is  still  visible. 

The  tip  of  the  abdomen  (or  post-abdomen)  consists  of  four 
segments,  the  terminal  one  being  much  the  larger,  and  ob- 
scurely divided  into  two  obtuse  lobes. 

The  abdominal  sternites  are  now  well  marked,  and  the  ner- 


DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    INSECT. 


57 


vous  cord  is  represented  by  eight  or  nine  large  oblong-square 
(seen  sideways)  ganglia,  which  lie  contiguous  to  each  other. 

The  formation  of  the  eyes,  the  post-abdomen,  the  sternites, 
and  median  portion  of  the  nervous  cord  seems  nearly  synchro- 
nous with  the  closing  up  of  the  dorsal  walls  of  the  bod}^,  though 
the  division  of  the  tegument  into  segments  has  not  apparently 
taken,  place  over  the  yolk-mass. 

The  succeeding  stage  (Fig.  59)  is  signalized  by  the  appear- 
ance of  the  rudiments  of  the  intestine,       i  3  2  e 
while  the  second  maxillae  are  directed 
more  aiiteriorly. 

In  form  the  body  is  ovate-cylin- 
drical, and  there  is  a  deep  constric- 
tion separating  the  post- abdomen 
from  the  anterior  part  of  the  abdo- 
men. 

The   terminal    (eleventh)    ring  is 
immensely  disproportioned  to  its  size  in  the  embrj^o  just  pre- 
vious to  hatching  (see  Fig.  61,  where  it  forms  a  triangular  piece 
E  5    G      7  situated  between  its   appendages, 

the  anal  stylets).  At  a  later 
period  of  this  stage  two  more  ab- 
dominal segments  have  been  added, 
one  to  the  end  of  the  main  body 
of  the  abdomen,  and  another  to 
the  post- abdomen.  They  have 
been  apparently  interpolated  at  the 
junction  of  the  post-abdomen  to 
the  abdomen  proper.  Should  this 
observation  be  proved  to  be  correct,  it  may  then  be  considered 
as  a  rule  that,  after  reaching  a  certain  number  of  segijients,  all 
additional  ones  are  interpolated  between  the  main  body  of  the 
abdomen  and  its  terminal  segment  or  segments.  This  is  the 
law  of  increase  in  the  number  of  segments  in  Worms,  and  in 
Myriapods  (lulus,  according  to  New^Dort's  observations),  in 
Arachnids  (Claparede),  and  Crustacea  (Rathke). 

The  next  stage  (Fig.  60) ,  is  characterized  by  the  differentia- 


f  Fig.  59.    An  embryo  much  farther  advanced,    c,  clypeus ;  E,  eye ;  A,  bi-lobed 
extremity  of  the  abdomen;  i,  the  nidiments  of  the  intestines. 


58 


THE    CLASS    OF    INSECTS. 


tion  of  the  head  into  the  rudiments  of  the  ophthalmic  ring,  and 
the  supraclypeal  piece,  and  clypeus,  together  with  the  approx- 
imation of  the  second  pair  of  maxillae,  which,  when  vmited,  form 
the  labium,  the  extremities  of  which  are  now  situated  in  the 
middle  of  the  body. 

The  antennae  now  extend  to  the  middle  of  the  labium,  just 
passing  beyond  the  extremities  of  the  mandibles  and  maxillae. 
The  oesophagus  can  now  be  seen  going  from  the  mouth-opening 
situated  just  beneath  the  labium.  It  curves  around  just  behind 
the  eyes.  There  are  at  this  period  no  appearances  of  movable 
blood-disks  or  of  a  dorsal  vessel. 

The  abdomen  is  now  pointed  at  the  extremity  and  divided 
into  the  rudiments  of  the  two  anal  stjdets,  which  form  large, 
iacute  tubercles.     The  yolk-mass  is  now  almost 
-c  entirely  inclosed  within  the  body  walls,  form- 
ing an  oval  mass. 

Another  embrj-o,  observed  July  27th,  had 
reached  about  the  same  stage  of  growth.  The 
front  of  the  head,  including  the  antennary 
segment,  is  farther  advanced  than  before.  The 
entire  head  is  divided  into  two  very  distinct 
regions ;  i.  e.  one  before  the  mouth-opening 
(the  preoral  region,  including  the  ocellary,  or 
first  and  second  segments  ;  the  ophthalmic,  or 
third  segment,  and  antennary,  or  fourth  seg- 
ment of  the  head)  ;  and  the  other  behind  the 
mouth  {postoral,  consisting  of  the  mandibular, 
or  fifth  segment,  the  first  maxillary,  or  sixth 
segment,  and  the  second  maxillary,  or  labial,  being  the  seventh 
and  last  cephal?^  ring. 

At  a  later  period  the  embryo  is  quite  fully  formed,  and  is 
about  ready  to  leave  the  egg.  The  three  regions  of  the  body 
are  now  distinct.  The  articulations  of  the  tergum  are  present, 
the  yolk-mass  being  completely  inclosed  by  the  tergal  walls. 


i'lff.  61. 


Fig.  61.  The  embryo  taken  from  the  egg,  but  nearly  ready  to  hatch.  T,  the 
dotted  line  crosses  the  main  trachea,  going  through  the  yolk-mass,  now  restricted 
to  the  thoracic  region.  At  x,  the  tracheaj  send  off  numerous  bi-anches  around  an 
enlargement  of  the  intestine  (colon),  where  the  blood  is  aerated;  better  seen  in  fig. 
62.  The  abdomen  consists  of  eleven  segments,  the  last  being  a  minute  triangular 
piece. 


THE    DEVELOPMENT    OF    THE    INSECT. 


59 


The  body  is  so  bent  upon  itself  that  the  extremities  of  tlie 
second  maxillae  just  overlap  the  tip  of  the  abdomen. 

The  two  limbs  of  the  labium  are  now  placed  side  by  side, 
with  the  prominent  spinous  appendage  on  the  outer  edges  of 
the  tip.     These  spines  are  the  rudiments  of  the  labial  palpi. 

The  general  form  of  the  embryo  at  a  still  later  period  (Fig. 
61),  on  being  taken  from  the  egg  and  straightened  out,  re- 
minds us  striking!}^  of 
the  Thj'sanura,  and,  in 
these  and  other  re- 
spects, tend  to  prove 
that  the  Podurte  and 
Lepismae,  and  allied 
genera,  are  embryonic, 
degraded  forms  of  Neu- 
roptera,  and  should 
therefore  be  considered 
as  a  family  of  that  sub- 
order. Seen  laterally, 
the  body  gradually  ta- 
pers from  the  large 
head  to  the  pointed  ex- 
tremity. The  body  is 
flattened  from  above 
downwards.  At  this 
stage  the  appendages 
are  still  closely  ap- 
pressed  to  the  body. 

Just  before  the  ex- 
clusion of  the  embryo, 
the  legs  and  mouth- 
parts  stand  out  freer 
from  the  body.  The  labium,  especially,  assumes  a  position  at 
nearly  right  angles  to  the  body.  The  antennae,  mandibles, 
and  maxillae  have  taken  on  a  more  definite  form,  being  like 

Fig.  62.  The  \avva,  just  hatched  and  swimming  in  the  water.  N,  ventral  cord  or 
nervous  ganglia;  d,  dorsal  vessel,  or  "heart,"  divided  into  its  chambers.  The 
anal  valves  at  the  end  of  the  abdomen,  which  open  and  shut  during  respiration,  are 
represented  as  being  open.  Both  of  the  dotted  lines  cross  the  tracheae,  x,  net- 
work of  the  tracheae,  surrounding  the  cloaca. 


60 


THE    CLASS    OF   INSECTS. 


that  of  the  young  larva,  and  stand  out  free  from  the  body. 
The  head  is  much  smaller  in  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the 
body,  and  bent  more  upon  the  breast. 

The  Larva  (Fig.  62) 
when  hatched  is  about 
five  hundredths  of  an 
inch  in  length.  The 
head  is  now  free  and 
the  antennae  stand  out 
free  from  the  front. 
The  thorax  has  greatly 
diminished  in  size, 
while  the  abdomen  has 
become  wider,  and  the 
limbs  very  long ;  and 
the  numerous  minute  tubercles,  seen  in  the  preceding  stage, 
have  given  origin  to  hairs.  The  dorsal  vessel  can  now,  for  the 
first  time,  be  seen.  When  in  motion,  the  resemblance 
to  a  spider  is  most  striking.  The  flow  of  blood  to 
the  head,  and  the  return  currents  through  the  lacunar 
or  venous  circulation  along  the  side  of  the  body  were 
easily  observed.  The  vessels  were  not  crowded  with 
blood  disks,  the -latter  being  few  in  number,  only  one 
or  two  passing  along  at  a  time.  Two  currents,  pass- 
ing in  opposite  directions,  were  observed  in  the  legs. 

Fig.  C3.  Side  view  of  the  Iiead  of  the  larva  of  Dipl&x  before  the  first  moult,  c, 
deciduous  tubercles  terminating  in  a  slender  style;  their  use  is  unknown;  they 
have  not  been  observed  in  the  full-grown  larva,  e,  the  compound  eyes.  1,  the 
three  jointed  antennre,  the  terminal  joint  nearly  three  tunes  as  long  as  the  two 
basal  ones.  2,  the  mandibles,  and  also  enlarged,  showing  the  cutting  edge  divided 
into  four  teeth.  3,  n. axilla;  divided  into  two  lobes:  (/,  the  outer  and  anterior  lobe, 
2-jointed,  the  basal  joint  terminating  in  two  setre;  and  a,  the  inner  lobe  concealed 
from  view,  in  its  natural  position,  by  the  outer  lobe,  d.  4,  the  base  or  pedicel  of 
the  second  maxillre,  or  labium,  the  expanded  terminal  portion  being  drawn  sepa- 
rately; (?  and  a,  two  movable  stout  styles  representing,  perhaps,  the  labial  palpi; 
the  lobe  to  which  they  are  attached  is  multidentate,  and  adapted  for  seizing 
prey;  on  the  right  side  the  two  stj-les  are  appressed  to  the  lobe,  a;  represents, 
perhaps,  the  ligula;  but  wc  have  not  yet  studied  its  homologies  carefully:  this 
part  is  attached  to  a  transversely  linear  piece  soldered  to  the  main  part  of  the 
labium,  y,  the  11th  abdominal  ring,  with  its  pair  of  conical  anal  styles,  z,  the 
last  tarsal  joint  and  pair  of  long  slender  claws. 

Fig.  64.  The  pupa  of  Diplax,  having  rudimentary  rings,  in  which  the  eyes  are 
much  lai'ger,  and  the  legs  much  shorter  than  in  the  recently  hatched  larva;  in- 
troduced to  be  compared  with  the  young  larva.    Figs.  57-04,  original. 


Accession  No 

Added 187. 

Catalogued  by 

Revised  by 

Memoranda. 


/C:^/:rya,yfu-o    //l  y  'i^l^ve-^ 


From  the  American  Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,  No.  2,  Vol.  36. 


DESCRIPTIVE  CATALOGUE 


NORTH    AMERICAN    INSECTS 


BELONGING    TO   THE 


LINN^AN    GENUS     SPHINX 


IN   THE    CABINET    OF 


THADDEUS  WILLIAM  HARRIS,  M.  D., 


LIBRARIAN    OF    HARVARD    UNIVERSITY. 


DESCRIPTIVE  CATALOGUE,  &c. 


The  insects  belonging  to  the  order  Lepidoptera  have  pecuHar 
claims  to  our  attention.  In  the  adult  or  winged  state  they  are 
among  the  most  beautiful,  and  in  their  previous  or  caterpillar  state 
are  the  most  injurious  of  insects.  Living  while  young  principally 
on  the  leaves  of  plants,  they  are  at  all  times  more  or  less  exposed 
to  our  observation,  and  too  often  obtrude  themselves  on  our  no- 
tice by  their  extensive  ravages.  While  it  is  comparatively  easy 
to  discover  these  insects  and  observe  their  transformations,  the  de- 
termination of  their  names  and  their  places  in  a  scientific  arrange- 
ment is  rendered  in  many  cases  impossible,  and  in  all  exceedingly 
difficult,  to  the  American  student,  from  the  want  of  suitable  de- 
scriptive worltS  on  this  branch  of  entomology.  Having  overcome 
these  difficulties  myself  only  at  a  great  expense  and  much  loss  of 
time,  it  has  occurred  to  me  that  a  descriptive  catalogue  of  our 
Lepidoptera  might  be  useful  to  others,  while  it  would  serve  to 
confirm  the  names  given  to  these  insects  in  my  cabinet,  and 
transmitted  in  return  for  specimens  to  my  friends.  My  own  col- 
lection has  now  become  quite  extensive,  and  contains  a  large 
number  of  undescribed  species  from  various  parts  of  the  United 
States.     Passing  by  our  Butterflies,  nearly  all  of  which  have  been 


Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges.  3 

figured  and  for  the  most  part  described  in  Dr.  Boisduval's  "His- 
toire  et  Tconographie  des  Lepidopteres  de  I'Amerique  Septentrio- 
nale,"  I  propose,  at  the  present  time,  to  offer  for  pubhcation 
descriptions  of  the  native  insects  in  my  collection  belonging  to 
the  second  grand  division  of  the  order  Lepidoptera,  comprising 
the  Sphinges  of  Linnasus.  Should  these  be  favorably  received, 
they  may  hereafter  be  followed  by  descriptions  of  our  Phalaense 
or  moths.  The  larvae  or  caterpillars  of  many  of  the  species  are 
described  partly  from  my  own  observations,  and  partly  from  the 
figures  given  by  Mr.  Abbot  in  his  great  work,  on  the  Lepidoptera 
of  Georgia,  edited  by  Sir  James  E.  Smith.  My  obligations  to 
the  gentlemen  who  have  favored  me  with  specimens  will  be 
found  recorded  on  almost  every  page  of  this  catalogue,  and  I  beg 
leave  to  tender  to  them  my  most  grateful  acknowledgments,  and 
to  solicit  from  them,  and  from  others,  a  continuation  of  similar 
favors. 

Linnasus  v/as  led  to  give  the  name  of  Sphinx  to  the  insects  in 
his  second  group  of  the  Lepidoptera,  from  a  fancied  resemblance 
which  some  of  their  larvas,  when  at  rest,  have  to  the  Sphinx  of 
the  Egyptians.  The  attitude  of  these  larvae  is  indeed  very  re- 
markable. Supporting  themselves  by  their  four  or  six  hind-legs, 
they  elevate  the  fore-part  of  the  body,  and  remain  immovably 
fixed  in  this  posture  for  hours  together.  In  the  winged  state  the 
true  Sphinges  are  known  by  the  name  of  humming-bird  moths, 
from  the  sound  which  they  make  in  flying,  and  hawk-moths, 
from  their  habit  of  hovering  in  the  air  while  taking  their  food. 
These  humming-bird  or  hawk-moths  may  be  seen  during  the 
morning  and  evening  twilight  flying  with  great  swiftness  from 
flower  to  flower.  Their  wings  are  long,  narrow,  and  pointed, 
and  are  moved  by  powerful  muscles,  to  accommodate  which 
their  bodies  are  very  thick  and  robust.  They  delight  most  in 
the  honeysuckle  and  scarlet  Bignonia,  from  the  tubular  blossoms 
of  which  they  extract  the  honey,  while  on  the  wing,  by  means  of 
their  excessively  long  maxillas  or  tongue.  Other  Sphinges  fly 
during  the  day-time  only,  and  in  the  bright  sunshine.  Then  it 
is  that  our  large  clear- winged  Sesise  make  their  appearance  among 
the  flowers,  and  regale  themselves  with  their  sweets.  The  fra- 
grant Phlox  is  their  especial  favorite.  From  their  size  and  form 
and  fan-like  tails,  from  their  brilliant  colors,  the  swiftness  of  their 
flight,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  take  their  food,  poised  upon 


4  Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges. 

rapidly  vibrating  wings  above  the  blossoms,  they  might  readily 
be  mistaken  for  humming-birds.  The  JEgerias  are  also  diurnal 
in  their  habits.  Their  flight  is  swift,  but  not  prolonged,  and  they 
usually  alight  while  feeding.  In  form  and  color  they  so  much 
resemble  bees  and  wasps  as  hardly  to  be  distinguished  from  them. 
The  Smerinthi  are  heavy  and  sluggish  in  their  motions.  They 
fly  only  during  the  night,  and  apparently  take  no  food  in  the 
winged  state,  their  maxillae  or  tongues  being  so  short  as  to  be 
useless  for  this  purpose.  The  Glaucopididse,  or  Sphinges  with 
feathered  antennae,  fly  mostly  by  day,  and  alight  to  take  their 
food  like  the  ^geriee,  to  which  some  of  them  bear  a  resemblance, 
while  others  have  nearly  the  form  of  Phalasnae  or  moths,  with 
which  also  they  agree  in  their  previous  transformations. 

SYNOPSIS    OF    THE    FAMILIES    AND    GENERA. 

It  was  not  my  intention  originally  to  give  here  the  characters 
of  the  genera,  but  to  refer  the  student  for  them  to  the  works  of 
Latreille  and  other  entomologists.  Upon  further  consideration, 
however,  I  have  thought  that  the  labor  of  determining  our  Sphin- 
ges by  means  of  the  catalogue  would  be  much  abridged,  if  a  sy- 
nopsis of  the  families  and  genera  were  to  be  prefixed  to  it. 

Class  Insecta. 

Animals  with  jointed  bodies,  breathing  through  lateral  holes  or  spiracles,  pro- 
duced from  eggs;  while  growing  subject  to  a  transformation  of  three  stages  ;  in 
the  first  stage  called  larvae,  caterpillars,  grubs,  or  maggots  ;  in  the  second  pupae, 
nymphs,  or  chrysalids ;  in  the  third  stage  provided  with  wings,  a  body  composed 
of  three  distinct  parts,  the  head,  thorax  or  trunk,  and  the  abdomen,  and  having 
two  compound  eyes,  two  antennae,  from  two  to  six  palpi  or  feelers,  and  six  legs. 

Order  Lepidoptera. 

The  young,  called  larvae  or  caterpillars,  are  provided  with  jaws,  and  from  ten  to 
sixteen  legs.  1  hey  feed  principally  upon  vegetable  substances.  The  pupee  take 
no  food,  are  incapable  of  moving  about,  are  apparently  without  legs,  these  parts 
with  their  other  members  being  folded  up  and  firmly  soldered  to  the  body.  In  the 
third  stage  they  are,  with  few  exceptions,  provided  with  four  wings,  which,  with 
the  body,  are  more  or  less  covered  with  little  colored  branny  scales,  lapping  over 
each  other  like  the  scales  of  fishes ;  their  jaws  are  transformed  to  a  tongue,  more  or 
less  long,  and,  when  not  in  use,  spirally  rolled  and  concealed  between  the  palpi. 

Section  I. — Papiliones. 

Antennae  threadlike  and  knobbed  or  thickened  at  the  end.  Wings  not  confined 
by  a  bristle  and  hook;  all  of  them,  or  the  first  pair  at  least,  elevated  perpendicu- 


Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges.  5 

larly,  and  turned  back  to  back  when  at  rest.  Only  one  pair  of  spurs  to  the  hind- 
legs  in  the  greater  number.  Thorax  moderate  ;  abdomen  rather  slender.  Flight 
diurnal.  Larvee  with  sixteen  feetj  transformation  in  the  open  air.  Pupoe  angu- 
lated,  and  fastened  by  silken  threads,  or  ovoid,  and  enclosed  in  an  imperfect  co- 
coon. 

Section  II. — Sphinges. 

Antennae  thickened  in  or  just  beyond  the  middle,  tapering  at  each  end,  and 
most  often  hooked  at  the  tip ;  more  rarely  slender  and  nearly  setaceous,  with  a 
double  row  of  slender  teeth  or  hairs  on  the  under  side  in  the  males.  Wings  con- 
fined by  a  bristle  or  bunch  of  stiff  hairs  on  the  front  edge  near  the  shoulder  of  each 
hind-wing,  which  is  retained  by  a  hook  on  the  under  side  of  each  fore-wing  ;  when 
at  rest  horizontal,  or  inclined  on  the  sides  of  the  body,  the  fore-wings  covering  and 
concealing  the  hind  pair.  Two  pairs  of  spurs  to  the  hind-legs.  Thorax  thick  and 
robust ;  abdomen  mostly  conical.  Flight  of  some  in  the  morning  and  evening 
twilight,  of  a  few  nocturnal,  and  of  others  during  the  day.  Larvas  with  sixteen 
legs  ;  transformation  in  or  upon  the  ground,  or  in  a  silken  cocoon.  Pupoe  elonga- 
ted ovoid. 

Section  III. — Phalaenas. 

Antennas  (never  knobbed  at  the  end  or  thickened  in  the  middle)  slender  and  ta- 
pering to  a  point,  in  some  pectinated  or  feathered,  in  others  simple  or  bristle-formed. 
Wings  confined  together  by  bristles  and  hooks,  the  first  pair  covering  the  hind- 
wings  and  horizontal  or  sloping  when  at  rest.  Two  pairs  of  spurs  to  the  hind-legs. 
Flight  for  the  most  part  nocturnal.  Larvas  with  from  ten  to  sixteen  legs,  transfor- 
ming in  a  silken  cocoon  or  in  the  ground.     Pupoe  ovoid. 

The  Sphinges  may  be  divided  into  two  tribes. 

Tribe  I. — Sphinges  legitimas. 

Larvae  colored,  naked,  for  the  most  part  horned  on  the  tail,  and  feeding  on  the 
leaves  of  plants;  or  whitish,  slightly  hairy,  not  horned,  and  living  on  woody  mat- 
ter within  the  stems  of  plants.  Antennee  of  the  winged  insects  tipped  with  a  mi- 
nute bristly  tuft.*  Palpi  (except  in  the  ^geriadse)  with  the  third  joint  minute 
and  indistinct. 

Tribe  II. — Sphinges  adscitse. 

Larvae  always  colored,  more  or  less  hairy,  never  horned,  feeding  on  leaves,  and 
transforming  in  a  silken  cocoon,  which  is  fastened  to  the  plants  on  which  they  live. 
AntenucE  of  the  winged  insects  not  tufted  at  the  end.     Palpi  distinctly  three-jointed. 

The  first  tribe,  or  Sphinges  legitimae,  may  be  divided  into  three  families. 

Family  I. — Sphingiadae. 

Antennas  fusiform  and  prismatic ;  ending  in  a  hook,  and,  in  the  males,  trans- 
versely biciliated  beneath;  or,  more  rarely,  curved,  and,  in  the  males,  bipectina- 

*  This  little  luft  is  obsolete  or  wanting  in  the  Smerinthi. 


6  Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges. 

ted  beneath.  Palpi  pressed  close  to  the  face,  short,  thick,  and  obtuse,  with  the 
third  joint  minute  and  concealed.  Body  thick  ;  abdomen  conical  and  not  tufted  at 
the  end.  Flight  crepuscular.  Larvae  colored,  naked,  with  a  caudal  horn,  which 
is  sometimes  obsolete  and  replaced  by  a  callous  spot;  they  devour  the  leaves  of 
plants,  and  go  deep  into  the  earth  to  transform,  or  conceal  themselves  upon  the 
surface,  under  leaves,  in  an  imperfect  cocoon. 

The  North  American  genera  in  this  family  are  six. 

Genus  I. — Smerinthus. 

Wings  more  or  less  angular  and  indented,  the  front  margin  of  the  hind-wings 
projecting  beyond  the  upper  or  fore-wings  when  at  rest.  Antennas  short,  prismat- 
ical  and  fusiform,  arcuated  or  curved  near  the  tip,  transversely  biciliated  or  bipec- 
tinated  beneath  in  the  males.  Tongue  obsolete.  Larvse  granulated,  with  the  head 
triangular,  horned  on  the  tail,  obliquely  banded  on  each  side,  and  transforming  in 
the  earth. 

Genus  II. — Ceratomia. 

Wings  entire.  Antennas  elongated,  abruptly  ending  in  a  short  and  slender  hook, 
transversely  biciliated  beneath  in  the  males.  Palpi  horizontal  and  nearly  cylin- 
drical. Tongue  moderate.  Abdomen  longitudinally  striped.  Larvae  with  horns 
on  the  fore-part  of  the  body,  a  row  of  little  teeth  on  the  back,  a  long  caudal  horn, 
and  oblique  bands  on  each  side ;  it  transforms  in  the  earth. 

Genus  III. — Sphinx. 

Wings  entire.  Antennas  long,  abruptly  ending  in  a  short  and  slender  hook,  and 
transversely  biciliated  beneath  in  the  males.  Palpi  rising  and  enlarged  at  the 
end.  Tongue  long.  Abdomen  spotted  or  transversely  banded  at  the  sides.  Larvae 
with  oblique  bands  on  the  sides  and  a  caudal  horn,  and  transforming  in  the  earth. 

Genus  lY. — Philampelus. 

Wings  sirjous.  Antennce  long,  attenuated  at  the  end,  with  a  long  terminal  hook, 
and  transversely  biciliated  beneath  in  the  males.  Tongue  moderate.  Abdomen 
not  transversely  banded  or  spotted  at  the  sides.  Larva  short,  thick,  with  the  head 
and  first  three  segments  rather  small  and  capable  of  being  drawn  more  or  less 
within  the  fourth  segment;  when  young  with  a  long,  slender,  recurved  caudal 
horn,  which  subsequently  disappears  and  is  replaced  by  a  callous  spot ;  sides  with 
oblique  spots  sloping  backwards  and  downwards  ;  transforms  in  the  earth. 

Genus  V. — Chcerocampa. 

Wings  slrious  or  angulated.  Antennas  rather  short  and  slender,  generally  arcua- 
ted, tapering,  and  ending  in  a  long  hook  ;  more  rarely  straight,  with  a  short  termi- 
nal hook  ;  transversely  biciliated  beneath  in  the  males.  Tongue  moderate.  Ab- 
domen immaculate,  or  longitudinally  striped,  but  never  transversely  banded  at  the 
sides.  Larvas  elongated,  the  fore-part  of  the  body  tapering  and  retractile  ;  with 
from  one  to  three  eye-like  spots,  or  a  series  of  oblique  bands  on  each  side  ;  caudal 
horn  short,  sometimes  obsolete  and  replaced  by  a  callous  spot ;  transforms  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  under  leaves,  in  an  imperfect  cocoon. 


Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges.  7 

Genus  VI. — Deilephila. 

Wings  entire,  upper  ories  acute.  Antennae  rather  short,  straight,  gradually  thick- 
ening nearly  to  the  end,  which  suddenly  terminates  in  a  small  and  short  hook ; 
in  the  males  transversely  biciliated  beneath.  Tongue  moderate.  Abdomen  con- 
ical, pointed,  and  transversely  banded  at  the  sides.  Larva  elongated,  not  tapering 
before,  and  the  head  and  first  three  segments  not  retractile,  with  a  series  of  nine  or 
ten  round  spots  on  each  side,  and  a  long  caudal  horn ;  transforms  in  the  earth. 

Family  II. — ^Macroglossiadas. 

Antennae  fusiform,  prismatic,  ending  with  a  hook,  and  transversely  biciliated 
beneath  in  the  males.  Palpi  pressed  close  to  the  face,  with  the  third  joint  minute 
and  concealed ;  short,  thick,  and  obtuse  at  the  end  in  some ;  slightly  elongated 
and  subacute  in  others.  Body  short  and  thick,  or  flattened  a  little ;  abdomen  tufted 
at  the  end.  Flight  diurnal.  Larvae  colored,  naked,  with  a  caudal  horn,  which  is 
sometimes  obsolete  and  replaced  by  a  callous  spot ;  they  devour  the  leaves  of 
plants,  and  enter  the  earth  to  transform,  or  conceal  themselves  upon  the  surface  in 
an  imperfect  cocoon  under  leaves. 

In  this  family  we  have  three  genera,  Pterogon,  Thyreus,  and  Sesia. 

Genus  VII. — Pterogon. 

Wings  angulated  and  indented.     Antennas  long,  arcuated,  tapering  at  the  end, 

with  a  long,  terminal  hook.  Tongue  as  long  as  the  body.    Abdomen  short 

and  conical.  Larvae  attenuated  before,  with  a  series  of  spots,  on  each  side,  sloping 
obliquely  backwards  and  downwards,  and  a  caudal  horn,  which  is  frequently  ob- 
solete and  replaced  by  a  callous  spot :  they  transform  in  an  imperfect  cocoon  un- 
der leaves. 

Genus  VIII. — Thyreus. 

Wings  angulated  and  indented.  Antennse  long,  and  ending  with  a  long  hook. 
Palpi  short,  thick,  and  obtuse  at  the  end.  Tongue  moderate.  Abdomen  ovoid. 
Larvae  elongated,  not  attenuated  before,  longitudinally  striped  on  the  back, 
obliquely  banded  at  the  sides,  with  a  long  and  straight  caudal  horn :  they  trans- 
form in  the  earth. 

Genus  IX. — Sesia. 

Wings  entire,  upper  ones  acute,  all  of  them  transpai-ent  in  the  middle.  An- 
tennae short,  straight,  gradually  thickened  towards  the  end,  with  the  terminal 
hook  obsolete,  and  obliquely  biciliated  beneath  in  the  males.  Palpi  somewhat 
elongated,  subacute,  and  forming  a  conical  beak.  Tongue  long.  Abdomen  short 
ovoid,  slightly  flattened.  Larvae  not  attenuated  before,  longitudinally  striped  on 
the  back,  with  a  short,  slightly  recurved  caudal  horn :  they  transform  in  an  imper- 
fect cocoon  under  leaves  on  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

Family  III. — ^geriadas. 

Antennae  arcuated ;  either  thickening  to  beyond  the  middle,  attenuated  and 
curved  but  not  hooked  at  the  end,  and  biciliated  beneath  in  the  males;  or  very 
slightly  fusiform  and  almost  threadlike,  and  simple  in  both  sexes.  Palpi  elonga- 
ted, slender,  distinctly  three-jointed,  prominent,  separated  and  not  pressed  close  to 
the  head,  nearly  cylindrical,  covered  with  very  small  scales  and  almost  naked  ex- 


8  Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges. 

ceptat  the  base,  which  is  hairy,  and  pointed  at  the  tip.  Wings  more  or  less  trans- 
parent. Abdomen  with  a  caudal  tuft.  Flight  diurnal.  Larvee  whitish,  soft, 
slightly  downy,  living  within  the  stems  of  plants,  and  generally  transforming  in  a 
cocoon  made  of  fragments  of  wood  and  bark  cemented  by  a  gummy  matter.  Pupas 
with  the  edges  of  the  abdominal  segments  armed  with  transverse  rows  of  small 
teeth. 

The  American  species  in  this  family  may  be  disposed  in  the  genera  Trochilium, 
iEgeria,  and  Thyris. 

Genus  X. — Trochilium. 

Wings  narrow,  entire,  all  of  them,  or  the  hind-pair  at  least,  transparent.  An- 
tennae short,  stout,  arcuated,  gradually  thickened  nearly  to  the  end,  which  is  curved 
but  not  hooked  ;  underside  generally  fringed  with  a  double  row  of  very  short  bris- 
tles in  the  males.  Tongue  very  short.  Body  thick ;  abdomen  slightly  tufted  at 
the  end. 

Genus  XI. — iEgeria. 

Wings  narrow,  entire,  all  of  them,  or  the  hind-pair  at  least,  transparent.  An- 
tennae mostly  elongated,  sometimes  short,  arcuated,  gradually  thickened  nearly  to 
the  end,  which  is  curved  but  not  hooked  ;  underside  genei-ally  fringed  with  a  dou- 
ble row  of  short  bristles  in  tlie  males.  Tongue  long.  Body  slender ;  abdomen 
nearly  or  quite  cylindrical,  ending  with  a  flat  or  trilobed  tuft. 

Genus  XII. — Thyris. 

Wings  broad,  subtriangular,  more  or  less  angulated  and  indented,  opaque,  with 
small  semitransparent  spots.  Antennae  fusiform,  but  slender  and  only  slightly 
thickened  in  the  middle,  arcuated,  and  simple  in  both  sexes.  Tongue  moderate. 
Body  short  and  thick  ;  abdomen  conical,  and  tufted  at  the  end. 

Tribe  II. — Sphinges  adscitas. 

The  species  described  in  this  catalogue  may  be  disposed  in  three  families,  Aga- 
ristiada3,  Zygseniadae,  and  Glaucopididae. 

Family  IV. — Agaristiadas. 

Antennae  straight,  slightly  thickened  in  or  beyond  the  middle,  and  curved  at  the 
tip.  Palpi  elongated,  slender,  not  pressed  to  the  face,  hairy  at  base,  with  the  ter- 
minal joint  cylindrical,  scaly  or  almost  naked.  Wings  broad,  subtriangular.  Tail 
hairy  or  tufted.  Flight  diurnal.  Larvae  elongated,  cylindrical,  or  enlarged  a  little 
behind,  slightly  uairy,  transversely  banded  or  spotted,  and  without  a  caudal  horn. 

Genus  XIII. — Alypia. 

Wings  broad,  subtria-ngular,  entire,  and  opaque,  with  large  whitish  spots.  An- 
tennae somewhat  elongated  and  slender,  thickened  very  gradually  from  beyond  the 
middle  nearly  to  the  tip,  which  is  slightly  curved,  obtuse,  and  not  tufted.  Palpi 
long,  porrect,  separate,  with  the  first  two  joints  very  hairy,  and  the  third  joint  cy- 
lindrical, scaly,  and  obtuse.  Tongue  moderate,  and  spirally  rolled.  Abdomen 
somewhat  elongated,  nearly  cylindrical,  fringed  at  the  sides  and  tip  with  short 
hairs.  Anterior  and  intermediate  tibiae  thickly  clothed  with  hairs.  Posterior  tibiae 
with  two  pairs  of  pretty  long  unequal  spurs. 


Catalogue  of  Noj^th  American  Sphinges.  9 

Family  V. — Zygseniadas. 

Antennas  arcuated,  abruptly  thickened  and  curved  beyond  the  middle.  Palpi 
generally  elongated,  sometimes  short,  not  pressed  to  the  face,  hairy  at  base,  with 
the  terminal  joint  scaly  or  almost  naked.  Wings  narrow,  opaque,  often  spotted, 
the  hind-pair  rather  small.  Abdomen  more  or  less  cylindrical,  obtuse,  and  not 
tufted  at  the  end.  Flight  diurnal.  Larvas  short,  contracted,  variegated  with  spots, 
slightly  hairy,  and  not  horned  on  the  tail. 

Genus  XIV. — Mastigocera. 

Wings  long,  narrow,  entire,  opaque,  the  hind-pair  quite  small.  Antenna;  simple 
in  both  sexes,  filiform  at  base,  suddenly  thickened  and  fusiform  beyond  the  middle, 
very  much  attenuated  towards  the  tip,  and  ending  in  a  long  curved  point.  Labial 
palpi  somewhat  curved,  extending  considerably  beyond  the  clypeus,  separated, 
well  covered  with  hairs  beneath  the  base ;  the  penultimate  joint  longest,  cylindri- 
cal, and  scaly  ;  the  last  joint  also  cylindrical,  obtusely  rounded  at  the  end,  and  cov- 
ered with  small,  close  scales.  Maxilla;  (tongue)  nearly  as  long  as  the  body.  Ab- 
domen nearly  cylindrical,  obtusely  rounded  at  the  end,  longitudinally  grooved  at 
the  sides  before,  with  the  basal  segment  strongly  marked,  and  swelling  on  each 
side  into  a  little  tubercle.  Legs  long  and  slender  ;  posterior  tarsi  laterally  com- 
pressed, and  hairy  on  the  outside,  in  the  males. 

Family  YI. — Glaucopididge. 

Antennae  slender,  almost  setaceous,  or  very  slightly  thickened  in  the  middle,  and 
distinctly  bipectinated  beneath  in  the  males.  Palpi  slender,  more  or  less  elongated, 
not  pressed  to  the  face.  Wings  sometimes  narrow,  and  sometimes  widened,  en- 
tire, and  for  the  most  part  opaque.  Abdomen  nearly  cylindrical,  and  frequently 
tufted  at  the  end.  Flight  diurnal.  Larvae  cylindrical,  hairy,  without  a  caudal  horn. 

Genus  XY. — Procris. 

Wings  narrow,  elongated,  opaque,  and  immaculate.  AntenntB  slender,  tapering 
at  each  end,  and  bipectinated  beneath  in  the  males.  Palpi  small,  short,  pendent, 
and  nearly  naked.  Tongue  short,  but  distinct,  and  spirally  rolled.  Abdomen 
slender  and  nearly  cylindrical  in  the  males,  thicker  in  the  females,  and  tufted  at 
the  end.     Spurs  of  the  hind  tibiae  two  in  number,  and  very  minute. 

Genus  XYI. — Glaucopis. 

Wings  narrow  in  some,  broad  in  others,  entire,  for  the  most  part  opaque,  and 
with  the  body  more  or  less  glossed  with  blue,  sometimes  spotted  or  partially  trans- 
parent. Antennae  feathered  or  bipectinated  in  both  sexes,  the  pectinations  elonga- 
ted in  the  males,  and  short  in  the  females.  Palpi  more  or  less  elongated  and  re- 
curved. Tongue  moderate,  spirally  rolled.  Caudal  tuft  minute  or  wanting  in  the 
greater  number.     Posterior  tibiae  with  three  or  four  spurs  of  moderate  size. 

From  this  Synopsis  it  will  bo  seen  that  the  divisions  and  arrangement  which  I 
have  adopted,  differ  somewhat  from  those  of  the  entomologists  of  the  present  time. 
The  affinities  or  resemblances  of  the  Lepidoptera,  in  their  different  states,  are  so 
various,  that  it  is  impossible  to  preserve  a  natural  connection  between  them  in  a 
linear  series.  After  repeated  trials,  I  have  concluded  still  to  adhere  to  the  views 
of  our  great  masters  in  Entomology,  Linnaeus  and  Fabricius,  especially  as  modern 
entomologists  are  by  no  means  agreed  upon  the  limits  of  the  larger  divisions  of  the 
Lepidoptera,  and  the  order  of  the  genera. 

2 


10  Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges. 

ORDER  LEPIDOPTERA.     L. 

SPHINGES.     L. 

Crepuscularia.  Latr.  Closteroceres.  Dumeril.  Heteroceres. 
Boisduval.  (Part.) 

Tribe  I.     SPHINGES  LEGITIME.  L. 
Family  I.     SPHINGIAD^,.  H.     The  Sphi7igians. 

^  Alis  angulatis.     L. 
Genus  I.     Smerinthus.  Latr. 

*  AntenncB  transversely  hiciliated  beneath  in  the  males. 

1.  /S.  exca?.cata.  Smith-Abbot. 

Fawn-colored  ;  fore- wings  deeply  scalloped  and  toothed  on  the 
outer  edge,  clouded  and  banded  with  brown ;  hind-wings  rose- 
colored  in  the  middle,  with  a  large  round  eye-like  black  spot, 
having  a  pale  blue  centre,  near  the  anal  angle ;  fringes  narrow, 
white  ;  thorax  with  a  central  lance-shaped  chestnut-colored  spot, 
the  point  of  which  extends  upon  the  head.  Expands  two  and  a 
half  to  three  inches  and  a  half.  Larva  granulated,  apple-green, 
with  two  short  pale  lines  before,  seven  oblique  yellowish  white 
lines  on  each  side,  and  a  bluish  caudal  horn.  It  feeds  upon  the 
leaves  of  the  apple-tree,  and  upon  those  of  Rosa  Carolina  also, 
according  to  Abbots  who  (in  his  Insects  of  Georgia,  p.  49,  pi.  25,) 
has  represented  a  variety  of  the  larva  of  a  yellow  color,  and  green- 
ish at  the  sides,  which  are  obliquely  banded  with  yellow,  and 
have  t%vo  longitudinal  rows  of  rust-red  spots  upon  them.  It  en- 
ters the  earth  to  undergo  its  transformations.  Pupa  chestnut- 
brown,  with  a  short  obtuse  anal  spine. 

2.  jS.  jhiylus.  Drury.   =  integerrima.  H.     Catalogue  Ins. 
Mass.* 

Cinnamon-colored;  fore-wings  angulated  but  entire,  tinged 
with  rosy  white  at  base,  with  whitish  wavy  bands  near  the  tip,  a 
bluish  mark  along  the  inner  margin,  and  a  tawn}''  yellow  spot  on 
each  outer  angle  ;  hind-wings  tawny  yellow  at  base,  with  a 
round  black  eye-like  spot,  having  a  pale  blue  centre,  near  the  anal 
angle ;  middle  of  the  thorax  cinnamon-red,  shoulder-covers  paler 

*  Catalogue   of  the   Insects  of  Massachusetts,  by  T.  W.  Harris  ;    appended   to 
Prof.  Hitchcock's  Report  on  the  Geology,  &c.  of  Massachusetts. 


Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphmges.  11 

with  a  rosy  white  tinge,  and  a  brown  edge  above  ;  abdomen  with 
a  longitudinal  dorsal  brown  line.  Expands  from  two  and  a  half 
to  two  inches  and  three  quarters. 

My  specimens,  a  male  and  a  female,  were  captured  at  Cam- 
bridge on  the  Azalea  viscosa. 

3.  S.  Myops.  Smith-Abbot.  =  Rosacearum.  Boisd. 
Chocolate-brown ;  fore-wings  sinuated  and  angulated  on  the 

outer  edge,  varied  with  wavy  whitish  and  brown  bands,  with  a 
white  Z  at  tip,  and  a  tawny  yellow  spot  oneach  of  the  outer  an- 
gles ;  hind-wings  with  abbreviated  whitish  and  brown  bands 
upon  the  front  edge,  ochre-yellow  next  to  the  body,  with  a  round 
black  eye-spot  having  a  pale  blue  centre  near  the  anal  angle  ; 
head  and  shoulder-covers  glossed  with  bluish  white  ;  a  rusty 
brown  stripe  in  the  middle  of  the  thorax ;  abdomen  with  a  few 
tawny  yellow  spots  on  each  side.  Expands  from  two  inches  and 
three  lines  to  two  inches  and  six  lines.  Larva,  as  figured  by  Ab- 
bot, (Ins.  Georg.  p.  51,  pi.  26,)  apple-green,  the  head  margined 
with  yellow,  and  two  rows  of  rust-red  spots  with  six  oblique  yel- 
lowish bands  on  each  side  of  the  body.  Abbot  says  that  it  eats 
the  leaves  of  the  wild  cherry-tree,  and  buries  itself  in  the  ground 
to  undergo  its  transformations.  Pupa  deep  brown. 
"  M.  Boisduval  has  named  and  figured  but  has  not  described  this 
species,  in  the  first  volume  of  his  Species  General  des  Lepidop- 
teres,  pi.  15,  fig.  4;  moreover  the  name  given  by  him  is  subse- 
quent to  that  of  Sir  J.  E.  Smith,  which  is  an  additional  reason 
why  it  cannot  be  adopted. 

*  *  Antenna,  pectinated  on  both  sides  m  the  males. 

4.  /S*.  geminata.  Say. 

Rosy  ash-gray  ;  fore- wings  angulated  and  with  a  sinuous  outer 
margin,  varied  with  transverse  wavy  rosy  gray  and  brown  lines, 
a  brown  spot  and  angulated  band  near  the  middle,  and  a  deep 
brown  semioval  spot  at  tip  ;  hind-wings  rose-colored  in  the  mid- 
dle, with  a  large  semioval  black  spot  including  two  pale  blue 
spots  near  the  anal  angle ;  thorax  with  a  large  central  semioval 
brown  spot.  Expands  from  two  and  a  quarter  to  more  than  two 
inches  and  a  half 

I  am  indebted  to  the  Rev.  L.  W.  Leonard,  of  Dublin,  N.  H., 
for  my  specimens,  both  of  which  are  males.  The  figure  of  S. 
ocellatus  Jamaicensis.  in  Drury's  Illustrations,  Vol.  II,  pi.  25,  fig. 
2,  3,  very  nearly  resembles  the  geminata.  but  it  has  only  one  blue 
pupil  in  the  eye-spot  of  the  hind-wings.     Mr.  Kirby's  aS*.  Cerisii, 


13  Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges. 

(Faun.  Bor.  Amer.  IV,  p.  301,  pi.  4,  fig.  4,)  is  probably  identical 
with  Drury's  species. 

*  *  *  AntenncB,  in  the  males,  with  the  joints  distinct  and  douhly 
hipectinated. 

5.  S.  Juglandis.  Smith-Abbot. 

Rosy  gray,  drab,  or  dusky  brown  ;  wings  indented  on  the  outer 
edges ;  fore-wings  with  a  dusky  outer  margin,  a  short  brownish 
dash  near  the  middle,  and  four  transverse  brown  lines  converging 
behind  and  enclosing  a  square  dark  brown  spot  adjacent  to  the 
middle  of  the  inner  margin ;  hind  wings  with  two  narrow  trans- 
verse brown  lines  between  two  brownish  bands ;  thorax  with  a 
central  brown  line ;  abdominal  segments  plaited  and  prominent 
at  the  sides.  Expands  from  two  and  a  quarter  to  three  inches. 
The  females  are  much  larger  and  of  a  lighter  brownish  gray  color 
than  the  males,  with  the  square  spot  on  the  fore-wings  less  dis- 
tinct. Larva  with  the  head  small,  and  the  body  attenuated  be- 
fore and  behind,  pale  blue-green,  with  a  long  caudal  horn,  and 
seven  oblique  white  bands  on  each  side.  When  disturbed  it 
makes  a  creaking  noise  by  rubbing  together  the  joints  of  the  fore- 
part of  its  body.  It  eats  the  leaves  of  the  black  walnut,  and  en- 
ters the  earth  to  undergo  its  transformations.  Mr.  Abbot  (Ins. 
Georg.  p.  57,  pi.  29)  has  figured  a  remarkable  variety  of  the  larva, 
which  is  of  a  crimson  color,  with  the  fore-part  of  the  body  and 
the  oblique  bands  yellow.  Pupa  deep  chestnut-brown,  granula- 
ted, with  six  little  tubercles  on  the  head-case,  a  transverse  row  of 
acuminated  granules  on  the  hinder  edges  of  the  abdominal  seg- 
ments, the  last  three  of  which  segments  are  flattened  beneath  and 
angularly  dilated  at  the  sides,  with  the  tip  broad,  truncated,  and 
externally  bidentate. 

The  antennas  of  the  males  of  this  species  differ  from  those  of 
the  preceding  in  having  the  joints  distinct  to  the  naked  eye,  and 
each  joint  furnished  with  two  teeth  or  short  pectinations  on  each 
side.  Mr.  Doubleday  presented  me  with  specimens,  from  Flor- 
ida, which  differ  from  our  northern  specimens  only  in  being  of  a 
darker  color. 

*  *  *  *  Ante7incB,  in  the  males, . 

6.  S.  modesta.   H. 

Drab-colored ;  fore-wings  scalloped,  with  a  transverse  dusky 
band  before  the  middle  ;  hind-wings  purplish-red  in  the  middle, 
deeper  red  next  to  the  base,  and  with  a  blackish  spot  near  the 
anal  angle.     Expands  four  inches  and  one  quarter. 


Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges.  13 

I  have  never  seen  but  one  specimen,  which  was  much  rubbed 
before  it  came  into  my  possession.  It  is  a  female,  with  a  very 
thick  and  robust  body,  and  simple  antennse,  and  probably  is  the 
North  American  representative  of  /S.  Tilice.  and  Quercus. 

<§)  Alis  integris,  ano  simplici.   L. 
Genus  II.     Ceratomia.  H. 

I  have  been  induced  to  propose  a  new  genus  for  the  reception 
of  a  single  species,  presenting  characters,  in  the  larva  and  winged 
state,  which  do  not  allow  it  to  be  included  in  the  genus  Sphinx 
as  now  received.  The  larva  of  this  species,  in  the  possession  of 
horns  on  the  fore-part  of  the  body,  exhibits  a  peculiarity  which 
hitherto  appears  to  have  been  unnoticed  or  undescribed  among 
the  Sphinges.  The  name'  of  the  genus,  derived  from  y.sQara, 
hortis,  and  a^uia,  the  shoulder,  alludes  to  this  peculiarity.  An 
analogous  and  still  more  imposing  form  is  found  in  the  larv£e  of 
the  PhalcencB,  belonging  to  the  germs  Ceratocampa. 
C.  quadricornis.   H. 

Light  brown ;  fore-wings  with  zigzag  and  wavy  brown  and 
whitish  bands,  duslcy  in  the  middle  to  the  inner  margin,  the  an- 
terior edge  whitish,  and  a  large  white  dot  near  the  middle  ;  hind- 
wings  with  three  dusky  transverse  bands,  and  a  broad  blackish 
hind-border ;  fringes  dotted  with  white  ;  head  and  a  broad  line 
on  each  side  of  the  thorax  to  the  shoulders  white ;  shoulder- 
covers  with  three  and  abdomen  with  five  longitudinal  brown 
lines.  Expands  four  and  a  half  to  nearly  five  inches.  Larva 
pale  blue-green,  longitudinally  wrinkled,  with  a  pair  of  short 
denticulated  horns  on  the  second  segment,  a  similar  pair  on  the 
third,  two  parallel  series  of  little  teeth  on  the  first  four  segments, 
a  dorsal  row  of  larger  teeth  extending  to  the  tail,  a  long  bluish 
caudal  horn,  and  seven  narrow  oblique  white  lines  on  each  side 
of  the  body.  It  feeds  upon  the  leaves  of  Ulmus  Amej^icana, 
and  transforms  in  the  earth. 

Genus  III.     Sphinx.  L. 

*  Tongue-case  of  the  pupa  detached  from  the  breast. 
1.  ^S*.  cingulata.  F.  =  Convolvuli.  Smith-Abbot. 

Dark  ash-gray,  variegated  with  brown,  body  beneath  white  ; 
middle  of  the  hind-wings  pink,  with  three  or  four  black  bands  ; 
fringes  of  the  wings  spotted  with  white  ;  and  five  pink-colored 
spots  separated  by  short  transverse  black  lines  on  each  side  of 


14  Catalogue  of  North  Americati  Sphinges. 

the  abdomen.  Expands  about  four  inches.  Larva,  as  represent- 
ed by  Abbot,  (Ins.  Geog.  p.  63,  pi.  32)  dark  brown,  with  a  dou- 
ble chain-like  rust-red  dorsal  line,  a  paler  lateral  line,  a  series 
of  eight  hook-shaped  yellowish  spots  on  each  side  enclosing  the 
spiracles,  and  a  short  curved  horn  on  the  tail.  Eats  the  leaves  of 
the  sweet  potato  {Convolvulus  batatas,)  and  enters  the  earth  to 
undergo  its  transformation.  Pupa  with  a  long  hooked  tongue- 
case  spirally  recurved  at  its  extremity.  Inhabits  the  Middle  and 
Southern  States. 

I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  J.  E.  Holbrook,  of  Charleston,  S.  C,  for 
a  specimen. 

2.  ^S*.   Cai'olina.  L. 

Ash-gray  ;  fore-wings  with  blackish  wavy  lines  ;  hind-wings 
whitish  in  the  middle,  with  four  black  bands,  the  two  central 
ones  narrow  and  jagged  ;  fringes  spotted  with  white  ;  five  orange- 
colored  spots  encircled  Avith  black  on  each  side  of  the  abdomen ; 
and  the  tongue  excessively  long.  Expands  about  five  inches. 
Larva  a.pple-green,  transversely  wrinkled,  with  seven  oblique 
white  lines  on  each  side,  and  a  rust-colored  caudal  horn.  Com- 
monly known  by  the  names  of  potato-ivorm  and  tobacco-worm, 
from  the  plants  on  which  it  is  found ;  transforms  deep  in  the 
earth.  Pupa  with  a  long  tongue-case,  curved  near  the  head, 
straight  and  touching  the  breast  only  at  the  end,  representing  the 
handle  of  a  vase. 

3.  S.  Drupiferarum.  Smith-Abbot. 

Pale  reddish-gray  ;  fore-wings  with  a  dark  brown  band  ex- 
tending from  the  inner  margin  to  the  tip,  and  crossed  by  slender 
black  lines  between  the  nervures  ;*  hind-wings  with  two  trans- 
verse blackish  bands ;  thorax  dark  chestnut,  with  the  sides  and 
the  head  white ;  abdomen  dark  brown  above,  with  a  slender 
dorsal  black  line  and  about  five  whitish  lateral  spots  margined 
with  black.  Expands  three  and  a  half  to  four  inches.  Larva, 
according  to  Abbot,  (Ins.  Geog.  p.  71,  pi.  36)  apple-green,  with 
seven  oblique  lateral  bands,  which  are  violet  above  and  white 
below,  a  line  on  each  side  of  the  head  and  the  caudal  horn  vio- 
let. Feeds  on  the  leaves  of  the  Celtis  and  plum,  and  is  trans- 
formed in  the  earth.  Pupa,  like  that  of  S.  Ligusti^i,  with  a  short 
tongue-case  detached  from  the  breast. 

*  The  veins,  or  elevated  and  branching  lines  on  the  wings  of  insects,  are  called 
nervures  by  Mr.  Kirby. 


Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges,  15 

4.  S.  Kalmim.  Smith-Abbot. 

Rusty-bnfF;  fore-wings  streaked  with  light  brown,  and  with  a 
narrow  whitish  band  near  the  outer  margin  ;  hind-wings  with  a 
narrow  central  and  a  broad  marginal  blackish  band  ;  fringes 
brown  spotted  with  white;  shoulder-covers  white  edged  with 
brown ;  abdomen  with  a  slender  dorsal  black  line  and  short 
transverse  bands  alternately  black  and  white  at  the  sides ;  be- 
neath dull  reddish  white.  Expands  three  and  a  half  to  four  and 
a  quarter  inches.  Larva,  according  to  Abbot,  (Ins.  Georg.  p.  73, 
pi.  37)  pale  green,  with  seven  oblique  yellow  bands,  edged  above 
with  violet,  on  each  side,  the  caudal  horn  and  a  line  on  each  side 
of  the  head  blue,  and  the  hinder  pair  of  legs  yellow.  Feeds  on 
the  leaves  of  Kalmia  latifolia,  and  transforms  in  the  earth.  Pu- 
pa with  a  short  detached  tongue-case. 

5.  >$*.    Gordius.  Cramer. 

Brownish  ash-gray ;  fore-wings  streaked  with  black  between 
the  nervures,  with  the  anterior  and  inner  margin  dusky-brown,  a 
white  dot  near  the  middle,  and  a  large  gray  spot  at  base  ;  fringe 
spotted  with  white  ;  hind-wings  with  a  narrow  central  and  a 
broad  marginal  dusky  brown  band,  and  a  white  fringe  ;  thorax 
deep  chestnut,  with  the  sides  and  the  head  above  whitish  ;  ab- 
domen with  a  central  black  line,  and  the  sides  ash-white  trans- 
versely banded  with  black.  Expands  three  to  three  inches  and 
a  half.  Larva  apple-green,  with  seven  oblique  white  lateral 
bands,  slightly  edged  above  with  violet,  a  rust-red  caudal  horn, 
and  a  brownish  line  on  each  side  of  the  head.  It  lives  on  the 
apple-tree,  and  enters  the  earth  to  be  transformed.  Pupa  with  a 
very  short  detached  tongue-case. 

6.  S.  cinerea.  H. 

Ash-gray  ;  fore-wings  long,  narrow,  and  entire,  with  five  short 
oblique  lines  between  the  nervures  ;  hind-wings  with  two  black- 
ish bands  ;  shoulder-covers  slightly  edged  with  black  above  ;  ab- 
domen with  a  narrow  dorsal  black  line,  and  short  alternate  bands 
of  black  and  dirty  white  on  the  sides.  Expands  four  and  a  half 
to  five  inches  and  a  quarter. 

The  specimens  from  which  this  description  is  taken  were 
raised  many  years  ago  from  larvas,  which,  at  the  time,  I  neglect- 
ed to  figure  and  describe.  To  the  best  of  my  recollection,  these 
larvse  were  found  on  the  lilac,  and,  with  the  pupse,  corresponded 
very  nearly  in  form,  color,  and  size,  to  those  of  the  European  S. 


16  Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges. 

Ligustri.  The  present  species  is  remarkable  for  the  length  and 
sharpness  of  the  wings,  which  are  of  a  fine  neutral  gray  tint,  and 
for  the  prominence  of  the  head  and  palpi. 

*  *  Tongue-case  of  the  pupa  not  detached,  but  buried,  and  sol- 
dered to  the  breast. 

7.  iS.  sordida.  H. 

Dark  gray ;  fore-wings  variegated  with  dark  brown,  dashed 
with  a  few  blackish  lines,  and  with  a  whitish  dot  near  the  mid- 
dle ;  hind-wings  with  a  blackish  basal  spot,  and  two  broad  black 
bands  ;  a  dark  brown  line  on  each  shoulder-cover  ;  abdomen  with 
a  dorsal  black  line,  and  alternate  black  and  light  gray  bands  on 
the  sides.     Expands  two  inches  and  three  quarters. 

Although  the  larva  and  pupa  of  this  species  are  unknown  to 
me,  I  judge  from  analogy  that  it  belongs  to  this  division  of  the 
genus  Sphinx. 

8.  S.  Hylmus.  Dmry.  =Prini.  Smith-Abbot. 

Rusty  brown ;  fore-wings  mottled  with  white,  banded  with 
jagged  dark  brown  lines,  with  a  white  dot  near  the  middle,  and 
a  spot  of  the  same  color  at  tip ;  hind-wings  whitish  with  a  nar- 
row indented  brown  band  across  the  middle,  and  a  broad  one  on 
the  outer  margin  ;  fringes  spotted  with  white  ;  a  whitish  line 
above  the  eyes  extending  on  each  side  of  the  thorax;  two  lon- 
gitudinal rows  of  white  dots  on  the  top  of  the  abdomen,  and  a 
series  of  short  narrow  white  bands  on  each  side.  Expands  two 
and  a  quarter  to  two  inches  and  three  quarters.  Larva  pea- 
green,  with  six  or  seven  oblique  lateral  whitish  bands  edged 
above  with  pink,  a  purple  caudal  horn,  and  a  pale  blue  line  on 
each  side  of  the  head.  It  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  Prinos  glo.ber 
and  various  species  of  Vaccinium,  and  enters  the  earth  to  be 
transformed. 

This  insect  is  much  like  the  Brontes  of  Drury,  which,  how- 
ever, is  a  liiuch  larger  species,  more  distinctly  banded  with 
white,  (fcc. 

9.  S.  Plebeja.  F. 

Gray ;  fore-wings  with  a  white  dot  near  the  middle,  and  five 
or  six  short  oblique  blackish  lines  between  the  nervures ;  hind- 
wings  sooty  black,  dirty  white  at  base  ;  fringes  white,  spotted 
with  dark  brown  ;  abdomen  with  three  black  lines,  one  dorsal, 
and  two  on  each  side,  the  latter  enclosing  a  longitudinal  series  of 
dirty  white  spots.  Expands  three  inches.  Inhabits  the  Southern 
States. 


Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges.  17 

The  only  specimen  which  I  have  seen  was  taken  by  Prof. 
Hentz  in  North  CaroHna,  and  now  belongs  to  the  Boston  Soci- 
ety of  Natural  History. 

10.  S.   Coriiferorum.  Smith-Abbot. 

Gray ;  fore-wings  with  about  three  narrow  and  indented 
brownish  bands,  a  spot  near  the  middle,  one  or  two  streaks  be- 
yond the  middle,  and  the  nervures  near  the  outer  margin  brown ; 
hind-wings  dusky  or  blackish  gradually  fading  into  gray  towards 
the  base;  fringes  spotted  with  brown  and  white;  abdomen  gray 
with  brownish  incisures.  Expands  one  inch  and  three  quarters 
to  two  inches  and  three  quarters.  Larva^  as  figured  by  Abbot, 
(Ins.  Georg.  p.  83,  pi.  42,)  chequered  with  brown  and  white  spots, 
with  a  dorsal  whitish  line,  and  a  short  caudal  horn.  It  eats  the 
leaves  of  various  kinds  of  pine,  and  enters  the  earth  to  transform. 
Mr.  Leonard  informs  me  that  the  tongue-case  of  the  Pupa  is 
short,  and  buried  so  as  not  to  rise  above  the  leg-cases. 

For  my  specimen  I  am  indebted  to  the  Rev.  L.  W.  Leonard, 
who  raised  it  from  a  larva  found  on  the  pine  in  Burlington,  Vt. 
In  the  cabinet  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History  there  is 
a  larger  specimen,  which  was  taken  in  North  Carolina  by  Prof. 
Hentz  ;  the  bands  on  the  wings  in  the  latter  are  less  distinct  than 
in  my  specimen. 

11.  iS.  Ella.  L. 

Gray ;  fore-wings  slightly  indented  on  the  outer  margin,  with 
a  ieysr  irregularly  scattered  black  dots,  and  a  blackish  stripe  ex- 
tending from  the  base  to  the  tip;  hind-wings  rust-red,  with  a 
broad  black  hind-border;  thorax  with  five  longitudinal  black 
lines,  and  abdomen  on  each  side  banded  with  black.  In  the  fe- 
male the  blackish  stripe  on  the  fore-wings  and  the  lines  on  the 
thorax  are  usually  wanting  or  indistinct.  Expands  three  and  a 
quarter  to  four  inches.  Inhabits  the  Southern  States,  the  West 
Indies,  and  South  America. 

In  the  cabinet  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History  there 
is  a  spechmen  of  this  tropical  insect,  which  was  captured  by  Prof. 
Hentz  in  the  interior  of  North  Carolina,  where  eventually  the  spe- 
cies may  become  common.  According  to  Madam  Merian  (In- 
sectes  de  Surinam,  page  and  plate  61)  the  larva,  in  Surinam, 
lives  on  the  leaves  of  a  species  of  Psidium  or  Guava,  is  of  an  ob- 
scure brown  color,  with  a  black  dorsal  line,  some  small  irregular 
white  spots  on  the  sides,  and  the  head  and  caudal  horn  purple. 

3 


]  8  Catalogue  of  Noj^tli  American  Sphinges. 

The  tongue-case  of  the  pvpa,  from  the  figure,  seems  to  be  short 
and  soldered  to  the  breast.  From  the  shape  of  its  body  and 
wings,  this  insect  must  belong  to  a  very  distinct  group  in  the 
Linnean  genus  Sphinx;  but,  without  knowing  more  of  the  larva 
and  its  transformations,  I  do  not  feel  authorized  to  separate  it 
from  the  present  genus. 

Genus  IV.     Philampelus.  H, 

The  insects  belonging  to  this  genus  cannot  with  propriety  be 
included  in  the  genus  Chosrocampa  of  Duponchel,  or  Metopsilus 
of  Duncan,  to  which  they  approach  the  nearest ;  and,  therefore, 
I  have  considered  it  proper  to  institute  a  new  genus  for  their 
reception.  They,  indeed,  seem  to  form  a  characteristic  and  typi- 
cal group,  peculiar  to  the  New  World,  being  found  only  in  the 
United  States,  Mexico,  the  West  Indies,  and  the  tropical  parts  of 
South  America.  The  larvse  feed  chiefly  on  the  vine  and  the 
plants  allied  to  it,  which  suggested  the  name  of  the  genus,  de- 
rived from  cpdio),  I  love,  and  aunelog,  a  grape-vine.  In  those  spe- 
cies whose  transformations  have  passed  under  my  own  obser- 
vation, the  larvae  when  young  were  furnished  with  a  long  slen- 
der caudal  horn,  recurved  over  the  back  like  the  tail  of  a  dog ; 
when  about  half  grown,  the  caudal  horn  is  shed  with  the  skin, 
and  is  replaced  by  a  prominent,  eye-like,  polished  spot.  The 
oblique  spots  on  the  sides  of  these  larvas  slope  downwards  and 
backwards  ;  this  is  also  the  direction  of  the  bands  in  the  larvcE 
of  Pterogon  ;  but  in  those  of  all  the  other  Sphinges  the  oblique 
lateral  bands  slope  upwards  and  backwards.  The  joi/pa  is  elon- 
gated, attenuated  at  the  fore-part,  with  a  pretty  long,  robust, 
rough,  anal  horn,  notched  at  the  tip  ;  the  tongue-case  is  buried 
and  soldered  to  the  breast,  and  slightly  longer  than  the  wing- 
cases ;  and  the  fore-part  of  the  abdominal  rings  is  roughened 
with  deep  punctures.  In  the  perfect  state,  the  fore-wings  are  en- 
tire, acute,  slightly  emarginated  below  the  tip  in  the  males,  and 
almost  falcated,  with  a  sinous  inner  margin,  and  well-marked 
hind-angle ;  the  outer  margin  of  the  hind-wings  is  undulated  or 
slightly  crenated ;  the  shoulder-covers  are  large ;  and  the  abdo- 
men IS  short,  thick,  conical,  and  usually  immaculate.  Madame 
Merian  in  her  Insectes  de  Surinam,  plates  34  and  47,  has  repre- 
sented the  transformations  of  three  species  of  this  genus;  and 
two  are  also  figured  by  Mr.  Abbot  in  the  Insects  of  Georgia,  plates 
40  and  41. 


Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges.  19 

1.  P.  Vitis.  L. 

Grayish  flesh-colored ;  fore-wings,  except  the  anterior  and 
outer  margins,  dark  olive,  with  a  broad  stripe  from  base  to  tip, 
crossed  by  another  from  the  middle  of  the  inner  margin,  a  small 
hook-shaped  spot  near  the  middle,  and  the  nervures  behind,  of  a 
pale  flesh-color ;  hind-wings  pale  green  at  base,  with  the  inner 
and  hinder  margins  rose-red,  a  black  spot  near  the  middle  and  a 
black  transverse  band  behind ;  a  longitudinal  line  on  the  head 
and  thorax,  the  shoulder-covers,  two  broad  stripes  on  the  abdo- 
men, and  a  round  spot  on  each  side  of  its  base  of  a  dark  olive 
color.  Expands  about  four  inches.  Larva,  as  represented  by 
Abbot,  (Ins.  Georg.  p.  79,  pi.  40,)  pale  pea-green,  longitudinally 
striped  on  the  top  of  the  back  and  transversely  at  the  sides  with 
brown,  and  with  seven  oval,  oblique,  cream-colored  spots  on  each 
side.  According  to  Linnseus  and  Mad.  Merian,  it  lives  on  the 
grape-vine  ;  but  Mr.  Abbot  has  represented  it  upon  Jussicea  erecta. 
Inhabits  the  Southern  States,  South  America,  &c. 

This  insect  fades  very  much  by  age,  which  changes  the  flesh- 
colored  portions  to  a  pale  reddish  bufl"  or  nankin  color.  My  spe- 
cimens were  received  from  Dr.  J.  E.  Holbrook,  of  Charleston, 
S.  Carolina.* 

2.  P.  Satellitia.  L.  =  Licaon  ?  Cramer. 

Light  olive,  variegated  with  dark  olive ;  fore-wings  with  an 
abbreviated  band  beyond  the  middle,  an  oblong  patch  on  the  ba- 
sal half  of  the  hind  margin  including  a  square  darker  spot,  a  semi- 
oval  spot  near  the  tip,  and  a  triangular  one  near  the  hind  angle, 
of  a  dark  oUve  color,  and  two  approximated  brownish  dots  near 
the  middle  ;  hind- wings  with  a  black  spot  near  the  middle  of  the 
inner  margin,  and  a  transverse  blackish  band  behind,  obsolete 
near  the  anal  angle  and  ending  there  in  a  few  small  black  spots ; 

*  I  have  received  from  Dr.  H.  B.  Hornbeck,  King's  physician,  in  the  island  of 
St.  Thomas,  W.  I.,  a  species  which  is  closely  allied  to  P.  Vitis  ;  and,  as  it  is  not 
described  in  any  of  my  books,  I  am  happy  to  describe  it  here  under  the  name  of 

P.  Hornbeckiana. 

Above  olive  gray  ;  fore-wings  dark  olive,  with  two  silvery  white  stripes  crossing 
each  other  in  the  middle  of  the  wing,  the  longest  stripe  toothed  near  the  base  of 
the  wing  and  obsolete  thence  to  the  middle,  three  of  the  nervures  and  a  band  on 
the  outer  margin  whitish,  and  two  approximated  black  dots  near  the  middle  ;  hind- 
wings  on  the  inner  margin  pink,  witli  a  large  square  olive-colored  spot,  dusky  be- 
hind with  a  black  transverse  band  ;  an  olive-colored  line  on  the  head  and  thorax ; 
the  shoulder-covers  and  first  segment  of  the  abdomen  olive,  bordered  witii  white  ; 
upper  part  of  the  abdomen  olive,  with  a  central  gray  line;  outer  sides  of  the  legs 
and  anlenncE  white.     Expands  about  four  inches.     Inhabits  St.  Thomas,  W.  I. 


20  Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges. 

a  slender  line  on  the  head  and  thorax,  the  shoulder-covers,  and  a 
transverse  patch  on  the  top  of  the  first  abdominal  segment,  dark 
olive.  Expands  from  four  to  four  inches  and  three  quarters. 
Larva,  when  young,  pea-green,  with  a  slender  recurved  caudal 
horn,  and  of  the  same  color  or  of  a  clear  light  brown  and  without 
a  tail  afterwards,  with  six  oblique  broad  oval  cream-colored  spots 
on  each  side  of  the  body ;  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  indigenous  and 
exotic  grape-vines,  and  on  those  of  Ampelopsis  hederacea,  and 
enters  the  earth  to  transform. 

3.  P.  Achemon.  Drury.   =  Crantor  ?  F. 

Red-ash  colored  ;  fore-wings  with  a  few  short  transverse  brown 
lines,  and  shaded  with  brown  from  the  middle  to  the  hind  mar- 
gin, with  a  square  spot  near  the  middle  of  the  inner  margin,  an- 
other near  the  tip,  and  a  triangular  spot  near  the  hind  angle,  of  a 
deep  brov/n  color  ;  hind-wings  pink,  with  a  deeper  red  spot  near 
the  inner  margin,  a  dusky  hind  border,  and  a  transverse  row  of 
small  black  spots  ;  palpi  and  a  large  triangular  spot  on  each  shoul- 
der-cover deep  brown.  Expands  from  three  to  four  inches.  Larva 
pea-green  with  a  slender  recurved  tail  when  young,  of  the  same 
color  or  light  brown  and  without  a  tail  subsequently,  with  six 
oblique  oblong  oval  scalloped  cream-colored  spots  on  each  side. 
It  eats  the  leaves  of  grape-vines  and  of  the  common  creeper  or 
Amp  e  lop  sis. 

This  and  the  preceding  species,  in  the  larva  state,  are  very  in- 
jurious to  our  cultivated  grape-vines. 

Genus  V.     Chcerocampa.  Duponchel. 

Metopsilus.  Duncan.  Deilephila.  (section.)  Boisduval. 
This  genus  was  established,  in  1835,  by  M.  Duponchel,*  to 
receive  certain  European  Sphinges  the  larvae  of  which  have  the 
head  and  fore-part  of  the  body  retractile,  the  head  being  very 
small,  and  th<  first  three  segments  abruptly  diminishing  in  size 
from  the  fourth,  which  gives  to  the  fore-part  of  the  body  a  re- 
semblance to  the  head  and  snout  of  a  hog.  Hence  the  French 
name  of  these  larvae,  cochonnes,  and  the  generical  name  proposed 
by  Duponchel,  which  is  derived  from  ;k'or^oc,  a  hog,  and  x6i.um],  a 
caterpillar.  This  peculiarity  in  the  form  of  the  larvae  seems  to 
have  suggested  to  LinuEeus  the  names  that  he  has  given  to  two 


*  Godart  and  Duponchel.    Lepidopteres  de  France.    Supplement.    Tome  II,  p. 
159.  (1835.)   - 


Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges.  21 

of  the  species,  to  wit,  porcellus,  the  pig,  and  Elpenor,  the  name 
of  one  of  the  companions  of  Ulysses,  who  was  changed  to  a  hog 
by  Circe.  In  the  year  1836,  Mr.  Duncan,*  probably  not  aware  of 
the  previous  establishment  of  this  genus,  pointed  out  its  charac- 
ters under  the  name  of  Metopsilus,  derived  from  fiimmof,  the 
front,  and  ii/ddc,  slender,  in  allusion  to  the  form  of  this  part  of  the 
larva.  These  naturalists,  in  separating  this  new  group  from  the 
genus  Sphinx,  or  rather  from  Deilephila,  seem  to  have  had  only 
European  insects  under  consideration  ;  but  in  America  there  are 
several  species,  which,  so  far  as  similarity  of  form  and  habits,  in 
all  their  states,  indicates  a  natural  affinity,  ought  certainly  to  be 
included  in  the  same  generical  group,  from  which,  however,  they 
will  be  excluded  unless  the  characters  of  the  genus  are  somewhat 
modified  to  receive  them.  Believing  the  genus  to  be  a  good  one, 
and  susceptible  of  modification,  I  have  changed  the  characters  of 
it  in  the  synopsis  prefixed  to  this  catalogue,  so  as  to  admit  our 
American  species.  In  C.  Pampinatrix,  Choerilus,  and  versicolor, 
the  antennas  are  rather  short  and  slender,  arcuated,  and  end  in  a 
very  long  slender  hook ;  the  fore-wings  have  the  outer  and  inner 
margins  sinuous,  so  as  to  exhibit  prominent  outer  and  hinder  an- 
gles ;  the  hind-wings  have  a  sinuous  hind-margin,  and  a  promi- 
nent angle  near  the  tail ;  and  the  abdomen  is  rather  short,  and 
conical  at  tip.  The  larvcc  of  the  first  two  of  these  species  have 
the  eleventh  segment  conically  prolonged  above,  forming  a  base 
for  a  very  short  slightly  curved  caudal  horn,  and  the  sides  of  the 
body  are  marked  with  oblique  bands  sloping  upwards  and  back- 
wards. They  transform  above  ground,  under  fallen  leaves,  or 
slightly  covered  with  grains  of  earth,  connected  by  a  few  threads, 
so  as  to  form  a  loose  imperfect  cocoon.  The  pupa  is  short,  thick, 
obtusely  rounded  before,  with  the  tongue-case  imbedded,  indis- 
tinct, and  nearly  as  long  as  the  wing-cases  ;  the  tail  is  rather 
blunt,  and  ends  in  a  long,  slender  point,  which,  under  a  mag- 
nifier, is  found  to  be  rough,  and  notched  at  the  tip. 
1.  C.  Pampinatrix.  Smith-Abbot. 
Light  olive-gray  above,  shaded  with  olive  ;  fore-wings  with  a 
dot  near  the  middle,  a  transverse  band  near  the  base,  a  broader 
band  beyond  the  middle  and  a  large  triangular  spot  adjacent  to 
each  acute  angle  and  almost  forming  a  third  band,  of  an  olive 
color ;  hind-wings  rust-colored,  dusky  behind,  and  gray  next  the 

*  Jardine's  Naturalist's  Library.  Entomology.  Vol.  iv,  p.  154.    (1836.) 


22  Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges. 

anal  angle ;  head  and  shoulder-covers  dark  olive  ;  and  a  white 
line  on  each  side  of  the  thorax  at  the  origin  of  the  wings.  Ex- 
pands two  and  a  half  to  two  inches  and  three  quarters.  Larva  pale 
green,  with  a  longitudinal  series  of  six  triangular  orange-colored 
spots  on  the  top  of  the  back  and  a  darker  green  lateral  line  ;  sides 
below  this  paler,  almost  white,  sprinkled  with  rusty  dots,  and 
with  six  oblique  green  bands  ;  caudal  horn  short,  bluish  green. 
It  varies  in  being  of  a  clear  light  brown  color,  with  the  back 
bounded  on  each  side  by  a  darker  longitudinal  line,  meeting  at 
the  origin  of  the  caudal  horn,  the  sides  tinged  with  pink,  and 
obliquely  banded  with  brown.  Feeds  on  the  leaves  of  the  grape- 
vine. Pupa  clay-colored,  sprinkled  and  punctured  with  black, 
and  with  the  incisures  of  the  abdomen  black. 

Mr.  Abbot,  on  plate  28  of  his  Insects  of  Georgia,  has  represen- 
ted this  larva  with  the  caudal  horn  too  long  and  too  much  curved, 
and  the  eleventh  segment  not  so  much  produced  behind  as  it 
ought  to  be.  This  species,  in  the  winged  state,  comes  very  near 
to  Cramer's  Sphinx  Myron,  which,  from  the  figure,  seems  to 
want  the  spot  in  the  middle  of  the  fore-wings,  and,  according  to 
Cramer,  has  a  very  short  tongue,  a  character  that  does  not  apply 
to  the  Pampinat7^ix.  The  larva,  above  described,  is  one  of  the 
most  injurious  to  our  cultivated  grape-vines ;  for,  not  satisfied 
with  devouring  the  leaves,  it  nips  off  the  fruit-stalks  when  the 
grapes  are  not  more  than  half  grown.  I  have  gathered  under  a 
single  grape-vine  above  a  quart  of  unripe  grapes  which  had  been 
detached  thus  during  one  night  by  these  larvse. 

2.   C.  Chcerilus.  Cramer.   =  Azalece.  Smith- Abbot. 

Rust-colored :  fore-wings  rusty  gray  tinged  with  blue,  with  a 
dot  near  the  middle,  a  few  spots  between  it  and  the  base,  and  a 
very  broad  band  beyond  the  middle,  rust-colored ;  hind-wings 
rust-colored,  dusky  near  the  anal  angle,  with  a  whitish  fringe ;  a 
spot  at  the  sides  and  a  slender  line  on  the  top  of  the  thorax,  the 
edges  of  the  shoulder-covers  and  of  the  abdominal  segments 
white.  In  the  male  the  broad  band  of  the  fore-wings  is  marked 
by  a  pale  and  a  dark  zigzag  line  so  as  nearly  to  divide  it  into  two 
bands.  Expands  two  and  a  half  to  three  inches.  Larva,  as  rep- 
resented by  Abbot,  (Ins.  Georg.  p.  53,  pi.  27,)  varying  in  color, 
being  either  pale  green,  with  a  narrow  dusky  dorsal  line,  a  green- 
ish line  on  each  side,  a  blue-green  caudal  horn,  and  the  sides 
obliquely  banded  with  green ;  or  clear  pale  red,  with  the  lines 
and  bands  brownish,  and  the  horn  chestnut-colored.     Mr.  Abbot 


Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges.  23 

says  that  it  lives  on  Azalea  nudiflora,  and  that  it  spins  itself  up 
in  a  thin  web  on  the  leaves.    Pupa  like  that  of  C.  Pampinatrix. 

3.  C.  versicolor.  H. 

Light  olive,  variegated  with  olive-green  and  white  ;  fore-wings 
with  narrow  curved  bands  of  white  and  olive-green,  and  a  zigzag 
white  line  at  tip ;  hind-wings  rust-colored,  with  the  inner  and 
hind  margin  olive-green ;  tips  of  the  palpi,  a  hue  on  each  side  of 
the  head  above  the  eyes,  a  longitudinal  dorsal  line  from  the  front 
to  the  tail,  and  the  edges  of  the  collar  and  of  the  shoulder-covers, 
white  ;  two  spots  on  the  metathorax  and  the  abdominal  segments 
on  each  side  of  the  dorsal  line  tinged  with  dark  buff.  Expands 
about  three  inches. 

Although  the  larva  and  pupa  of  this  species  are  unknown  to 
me,  I  have  ventured  to  place  it  in  the  genus  Chosrocampa.  The 
palpi  are  rather  thicker  towards  the  tip  than  those  of  the  two  pre- 
ceding species  ;  the  fore-wings  are  not  quite  so  much  emarginated, 
and  consequently,  their  angles  are  not  quite  so  prominent.  The 
under-side  is  quite  as  prettily  variegated  as  the  upper-side ;  that 
of  the  fore-wings  being  pale  olive,  tinged  with  deep  buff  near  the 
hind-angle,  with  rust-red  in  the  middle,  and  mottled  and  streaked 
with  olive-green  and  white ;  that  of  the  hind-wings  olive-green, 
banded  with  white,  dark  olive,  and  buff.  My  specimen  was  taken 
sitting  upon  the  leaves  of  Azalea  viscosa  ;  it  was  quite  fresh,  and 
seemed  to  have  been  recently  transformed. 

Dr.  Hornbeck  has  presented  to  me  a  species,  from  St.  Thomas, 
resembling  the  versicolor  very  nearly  in  color  and  form ;  but  the 
palpi  are  more  prominent,  the  antennas  are  not  so  much  arcuated, 
and  the  terminal  hook  is  much  shorter.  It  evidently  leads  to  the 
genus  Deilephila. 

4.  C.  tersa.  L. 

Grayish  olive  above  ;  fore-wings  streaked  from  base  to  tip  with 
numerous  narrow  dusky  and  pale  lines,  and  with  a  minute  black 
dot  near  the  middle  ;  hind-wings  black,  paler  round  the  edges, 
with  the  anal  angle  and  the  fringe  cream-colored,  and  a  trans- 
verse row  of  small  wedge-shaped  cream-colored  spots  near  the 
hind-margin ;  a  reddish  white  line  on  the  sides  of  the  head  and 
thorax  ;  shoulder-covers  slightly  edged  above  with  rust-red  ;  sides 
of  the  abdomen,  and  the  body  and  wings  beneath,  rusty  buff, 
streaked  and  sprinkled  with  dusky  olive-gray.  Expands  two  and 
three  quarters  to  three  inches.  Larva^  according  to  Abbot,  (Ins. 
Georg.  p.  75,  pi.  38,)  pea-green  or  brown,  with  seven  white  eye- 


24  Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges. 

like  spots  having  a  red  centre  and  a  black  margin  and  connected 
by  a  longitudinal  white  line,  on  each  side  of  the  body,  and  a  red 
caudal  horn.  It  lives  on  Sperinacocce  Hyssopifolia,  and,  like  the 
other  species,  is  transformed  in  an  imperfect  cocoon  which  it  spins 
above  ground.  Pupa  clay-colored,  freckled  with  dusky  spots.  It 
inhabits  the  Southern  States,  the  West  Indies,  and  South  America. 
I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  J.  E.  Holbrook  of  Charleston,  S.  C,  and 
to  Dr.  H.  B.  Hornbeck,  of  St.  Thomas,  W.  I.,  for  specimens. 
The  antennae  are  straight,  with  a  shorter  terminal  hook  than  in 
the  three  preceding  species ;  the  outer  margin  of  the  fore-wings 
is  not  so  sinuous,  and  the  abdomen  is  much  more  elongated,  slen- 
der and  pointed.  It  may  be  necessary,  hereafter,  to  institute  a 
new  genus  for  the  reception  of  this  and  several  other  closely  al- 
lied West-Indian  and  South-American  species. 

Genus  VI.     Deilephila.  Ochsenheimer. 

1.  D.  lineata.  F.  —  Daucus.  Cramer. 

Olive-brown  ;  fore-wings  with  a  pale  buff-colored  stripe  from 
the  base  of  the  inner  margin  to  the  tip,  crossed  by  six  white  lines 
on  the  nervures,  the  outer  margin  ash-gray,  the  fringe  and  edge 
of  the  inner  margin  white ;  hind-wings  rose-pink,  with  a  white 
spot  near  the  inner  margin,  a  black  band  at  base,  another  near  the 
hind-margin,  and  the  fringe,  white  ;  a  white  line  on  each  side  of 
the  head  above  the  eyes,  and  six  lines,  of  the  same  color,  placed  in 
pairs,  on  the  thorax  ;  two  rows  of  small  black  spots  and  a  slender 
dorsal  white  line  on  the  top  of  the  abdomen,  the  sides  reddish, 
with  a  short  transverse  black  band  on  each  side  of  the  first  ab- 
dominal segment,  and  a  white  band  behind  it,  followed  by  a  lat- 
eral series  of  alternately  black  and  white  spots.  Expands  from 
three  to  four  inches.  Larva  pea-green,  with  a  longitudinal  series 
of  nine  or  ten  orange-colored  oval  spots  encircled  with  black,  on 
each  side,  and  an  orange-colored  caudal  horn.  Feeds  upon  the 
leaves  of  the  purslane  and  turnip,  and  of  various  other  humble 
plants,  and  buries  itself  in  the  ground  to  undergo  its  transforma- 
tions.    Pupa  light  brown. 

Contrary  to  what  is  usual  among  our  Sphinges,  there  are  two 
broods  of  thi^  species  in  the  course  of  one  summer.  This  is  the 
true  Sphinx  lineata  of  Fabricius,  described  by  him  as  an  Ameri- 
can insect  in  his  "  Systema  Entomologiae."  His  description  of 
the  thorax,  ^' striis  tribus  albis  duplicatis,^'  applies  exactly  to  our 
insect,  and  not  to  the  Livornica  of  Europe,  with  which  it  is  often 


Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges.  25 

confounded,  and  which  has  only  four  white  lines  instead  of  six, 
on  the  thorax.  The  larva  of  the  latter,  moreover,  differs  from 
that  of  our  lineata.  Dr.  Hornbeck  has  sent  to  me  from  St. 
Thomas,  W.  I.,  specimens  which  vary  a  little,  but  are  not  speci- 
fically distinct  from  the  lineata  of  the  United  States. 

2.  D.   Chammnerii.     H.  =  Epilobii.  H.  (Catalogue.) 

Olive-brown  ;  fore-wings  with  a  sinuous  buff-colored  stripe, 
indented  before,  beginning  near  the  base  of  the  inner  margin  and 
extending  to  the  tip,  and  a  dark  olive-brown  tapering  stripe  behind 
it,  a  black  spot  at  base,  a  white  dash  and  a  diamond-shaped  black- 
ish spot  before  the  middle  ;  hind- wings  dark  brown,  with  a  trans- 
verse rose -colored  band,  including  a  white  spot  near  the  body  and 
a  deep  red  one  before  the  anal  angle  ;  inner  edge  of  the  fore-wings 
and  fringe  of  the  hind-wings  whitish ;  palpi  white  below  ;  a 
white  line  above  each  eye  extending  on  the  sides  of  the  thorax, 
where  it  is  bounded  above  by  a  black  line  ;  abdomen  with  a  dor- 
sal series  of  white  dots,  two  black  and  two  alternating  white 
bands  on  each  side  of  the  base,  and  two  narrow  transverse  white 
lateral  lines  near  the  tip ;  segments  beneath  edged  with  white. 
Expands  from  two  and  three  quarters  to  three  inches.  Larva 
green,  somewhat  bronzed,  dull  red  beneath ;  with  nine  round 
cream-colored  spots,  encircled  with  black,  on  each  side,  and  a  dull 
red  caudal  horn.  It  lives  on  the  Epilobium  angustifoliimi,  and 
(as  Mr.  Leonard  informs  me)  transforms  in  the  ground,  without 
making  a  cocoon.     Inhabits  New  Hampshire. 

The  larva  very  closely  resembles  that  of  Z>.  Galii,  as  figured 
by  Roesel,  III,  Tab.  YI,  Fig.  1,  2.  For  a  specimen  of  it,  and 
for  the  insects  in  the  winged  state,  I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Leonard, 
by  whom  they  were  raised.  This  species  is  the  American  rep- 
resentative of  D.  Gain,  and  is  also  allied  to  several  other  Euro- 
pean species,  such  as  D.  Epilobii,  EsuIcb,  Amelia,  Tithymali, 
Dahlii,  Euphorbice,  &c. ;  but  I  am  satisfied  that  it  is  perfectly  dis- 
tinct from  all  of  them ;  and  the  long  description  which  I  have 
given  of  it  will  render  it  easy  to  discover  in  what  respects  it  differs 
from  them.  Moreover  it  is  a  legitimate  species,  which  is  more  than 
can  be  said  of  all  of  the  above-named  European  insects,  some  of 
which  are  now  admitted  to  be  hybrids.  Mr.  Kirby  (Fauna  Bo- 
reali- Americana,  IV.  p.  302,)  describes  a  North  American  species, 
under  the  name  of  D.  interinedia,  which,  according  to  him,  has 
the  stripe  on  the  fore-wings  of  a  pale  rose  color,  and  wants  the 

4 


26  Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges. 

dorsal  series  of  white  dots  on  the  abdomen  ;  in  other  respects  it 
seems  nearly  aUied  to  the  Chamcenerii.  When  my  Catalogues  of 
the  Insects  of  Massachusetts  were  published  I  was  not  aware  that 
the  specific  name  Epilobii  had  been  previously  appropriated  ;  for 
the  species  to  which  I  then  applied  it  I  have  now  substituted 
that  of  Chamcenerii  derived  from  Tournefort's  name  for  the  genus 
Epilobium. 

<§)  LegitimcB ano  barbato.  L. 

Family  II.     MACROGLOSSIADJi:.  H.     The  Macroglossians. 

Sesiidce.     Stephens.     Sesiadce.  Kirby. 

*  Wings  angulated  and  indented ;  antenncB  tapering  at  the  end, 
with  a.  long  tertninal  hook. 

Genus  YII.     Pterogon.  Boisduval. 

P  7  inscriptum.  H. 

Ash-gray  ;  wings  angularly  indented  ;  first  pair  with  two  dusky 
bands  near  the  base,  connected  on  the  inner  margin  by  a  blackish 
hue,  a  few  undulated  and  zigzag  transverse  lines  beyond  the  mid- 
dle, a  dusky  outer  margin,  a  half-oval  brown  spot  at  tip,  and  a 
small  deep  brown  patch  including  a  white  I  near  the  tip;  hind- 
wings  reddish  gray,  with  a  dusky  hind-margin ;  collar  edged 
with  brown  ;  abdomen  with  two  dorsal  series  of  black  dots.  Ex- 
pands two  inches.     Inhabits  Indiana. 

Of  this  species  I  have  seen  only  two  individuals,  both  females, 
having  rather  long  slender  and  simple  antenna,  attenuated  and 
curved  so  as  to  form  a  hook  at  the  end.  In  the  shape  of  the 
wings  and  distribution  of  the  colors  this  insect  nearly  resembles 
some  species  of  Smerint/ws,  from  which  genus  it  is  excluded  by 
the  length  of  the  tongue,  which  nearly  equals  that  of  the  body. 
Pterogon  Gaurm^  which  I  suppose  to  be  the  only  legitimate  spe- 
cies of  the  genus  that  has  yet  been  discovered  in  the  United 
States,  is  known  to  me  only  by  Mr.  Abbot's  figure. 

Genus  YIII.     Thyreus.  Swainson. 

].    T.  lugubris.  L. 
Brown  ;  wings  sinuated  and  slightly  angulated  on  the  outer 
edge  ;  first  pair  with  an  oblique  streak  and  an  eye-like  dot  before 


Catalogue  of  Noi^th  American  Sphmges.  27 

the  middle,  and  a  large  triangular  brown  patch  near  the  tip  ;  hind- 
wings  with  two  or  three  obscure  transverse  brown  lines ;  male 
with  a  triple-tufted  tail.  Expands  two  and  a  half  to  three 
inches.  Inhabits  the  Southern  States.  Larva  pale  green,  with 
three  darker  longitudinal  dorsal  lines,  nine  oblique  yellowish 
bands  on  each  side,  and  a  long,  slender,  nearly  straight  caudal 
horn.  Mr.  Abbot,  from  whose  figure  (Ins.  Geog.  p.  59,  pi.  30) 
this  description  of  the  larva  is  taken,  says  that  it  feeds  on  Virgin- 
ian creeper,  Ampelopsis  Hederacea,  and  that  it  enters  the  earth  to 
transform.  The  pupa  is  elongated,  chestnut-brown,  with  a  short 
anal  point. 

My  specimen  of  this  insect  was  presented  to  me  by  Dr.  J.  E. 
Holbrook.  It  is  closely  allied  to  several  South  American  species, 
figured  by  Cramer,  such  as  his  Fegeiis,  Gorgon^  &c.  ;  and,  in- 
deed, the  Fegeus  may  prove  to  be  identical  with  it. 

M.  Boisduval  (Icones  Hist,  des  Lepidopteres  d'Europe  nou- 
veaux,  Yol.  II,  p.  15)  refers  the  Gorgon  of  Cramer  [?]  to  his  genus 
Pterogon;  but,  in  my  opinion,  the  genus  Thyreus  of  Swainson, 
besides  having  the  priority  in  point  of  time,  is  entitled  to  rank  as 
a  distinct  genus.  Is  the  European  Gorgon  of  Esper,  Hiibner, 
and  Ochsenheimer,  quoted  in  Mr.  Children's  Abstract  of  the 
Characters  of  Ochsenheimer's  Genera  (Philos.  Mag.  N.  S.  Vol.  V, 
p.  37),  the  same  as  the  Surinam  species  named  Gorgon  by  Cra- 
mer ?  And  if  not,  is  M.  Boisduval's  citation  of  Cramer's  name 
correct  ? 

2.    T.  Ahhotii.   =  Ahhottii.  Swainson. 

Chocolate-brown  ;  wings  very  much  indented  on  the  outer 
edge  ;  first  pair  with  wavy  and  oblique  blackish  brown  streaks, 
and  a  black  dot  near  the  middle ;  hind-wings  yellow,  with  a 
broad  blackish  brown  hind-border  ;  edge  of  the  collar  and  a  trans- 
verse stripe  across  the  thorax  black  ;  abdomen  banded  with  black 
at  base,  tufted  at  the  sides  of  the  hinder  segments,  and  terminated 
by  a  triple-tufted  rust-colored  tail.  Expands  from  two  and  one 
third  to  nearly  three  inches.  Larva,  as  figured  by  Abbot, 
(Swainson's  Zoological  Illustrations,  Part  I,  pi.  60)  pea-green, 
with  narrow  dorsal  brown  lines,  nine  lateral  oblique  yellowish 
bands  broadly  bordered  above  with  brown,  and  a  long  slender 
slightly  curved  caudal  horn.  It  feeds  on  the  grape-vine.  Pupa 
chestnut-brown,  with  two  yellowish  abdominal  incisures. 


28  Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges. 

This  species  is  not  uncommon  in  the  Southern  States,  and  I 
have  one  specimen  which  was  taken  in  Cambridge,  Mass. 
3.    T?  Nessus.  Cramer. 

Dark  brown ;  fore-wings  with  a  sinuous  and  angular  outer 
edge,  a  blackish  brown  band  across  the  middle,  another  near  the 
outer  margin,  and  a  small  rust-red  spot  near  the  tip ;  hind-wings 
rust-red,  with  a  dark  brown  hind-border ;  abdomen  with  two 
pale  yellow  bands  behind  the  middle,  four  rust-red  spots  on  each 
side,  and  a  triple-tufted  tail.  Expands  from  two  to  two  inches 
and  a  quarter. 

Of  this  species  I  have  seen  only  females,  in  which  the  antennae 
are  similar  to  those  of  the  same  sex  in  T.  Ahhotii.  The  palpi, 
however,  are  more  acuminated,  and  approach  in  form  to  those  of 
Sesia  Pelasgus,  &c.  It  ought,  perhaps,  to  be  included  in  a  new 
genus,  which,  without  a  knowledge  of  the  larva  and  pupa,  I  shall 
not  venture  to  propose. 

*  *  Wings  entire;  ajitennoi  thickened  toioards  the  end,  ivith 
a  minnte  termitial  hook. 

Genus  IX.     Sesia.  F.    (Syst.  Gloss.) 

1.  >S'.  Pelasgus.  Cramer. 

Wings  transparent  and  iridescent,  with  a  broad  purple-brown 
border  and  nervures ;  antennas  and  palpi,  above,  blue-black ; 
head  and  thorax  olive ;  breast  and  legs  cream-white  ;  abdomen 
purple-brown  below,  ochre-yellow  above,  with  the  two  middle 
segments  and  a  spot  behind  them  purple-brown,  and  three  lateral 
white  spots ;  tip  with  a  central  fan-shaped  brown  tail,  and  two 
black  tufts  on  each  side  of  it.  Expands  from  two  to  two  inches 
and  one  quarter. 

2.  P.  diffinis.  Boisduval.  ^=  fuciformis.  Smith-Abbot. 
Wings  transparent  and  iridescent,  with  a  narrow  blackish  bor- 
der and  nervures,  and  a  rust-red  spot  at  tip ;  antennas  and  palpi 
black  above  ;  thorax  and  breast  covered  with  pale  yellow  hairs; 
abdomen  black  above,  with  two  longitudinal  patches  of  yellow 
hairs,  the  two  middle  segments  black,  the  next  two  covered  with 
yellow  hairs,  and  the  tip  with  a  fan-shaped  tail,  which  is  yellow 
in  the  middle  and  tufted  with  black  on  each  side.  Expands  from 
one  inch  and  three  quarters  to  two  inches.  Larva,  according  to 
Abbot,  (Ins.  Georg.  p.  85,  pi.  43.)  pale  pea-green,  reddish  beneath, 
with  a  longitudinal  dorsal  line,  a  lateral  pale  yellow  stripe,  and  a 


Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges.  29 

short  recurved  candal  horn.  In  Georgia,  it  feeds  upon  the  Ta- 
herncBmontana  Amsonia,  and  forms  an  imperfect  cocoon  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  Pupa  brown  with  the  abdominal  incisures 
ochre-yellow. 

My  specimens  were  presented  to  me  by  Mr.  Leonard,  who  cap- 
tured them  in  New  Hampshire,  where  the  TaberncBmontana  does 
not  grow.  The  larva  must,  therefore,  be  sought  upon  some  other 
plant ;  perhaps  it  may  be  found  upon  the  Apocyivum.  M.  Bois- 
duval  has  named  and  given  a  figure  of  this  species  in  his  Hist. 
Nat.  des  Insectes  Lepidopteres,  Vol.  I,  pi.  15,  fig.  2 ;  and,  as  it  is 
evidently  distinct  from  the  European /Ma/onms,  I  have  retained 
the  name  proposed  by  M.  Boisduval,  although  he  has  not  estab- 
lished a  claim  to  it  by  any  description  of  the  insect.  Mr.  Kirby's 
S.  rujicaudis  (Faun.  Bor.  Amer.  IV,  p.  303,)  is  evidently  different 
from  this  species,  and  comes  nearer  to  the  Pelasgus,  to  which, 
however,  the  description  does  not  very  well  apply,  in  many 
respects. 

Family  III.     iEGERIADiE.  H.     The  JSgerians. 

Genus  X.     Trochilium.  (Scop.)  Stephens. 

Sesia.  F.  (Entom.  Syst.)  Latr.  Boisd.  JSgei^ia.  F.  (Syst.  Glossat.) 

1.  T.  marginatum.  H. 

Black ;  wings  transparent ;  first  pair  with  a  broad  border,  the 
tip,  and  a  transverse  band  beyond  the  middle  pale  brown  :  hind- 
wings  with  a  broad  black  fringe  ;  antennas  black  ;  two  longitu- 
dinal lines  on  the  thorax,  hind  margins  of  the  abdominal  seg- 
ments, orbits,  palpi,  and  legs,  except  at  base,  yellow.  Expands 
rather  more  than  one  inch  and  a  quarter. 

This  insect  was  taken  in  New-Hampshire,  and  presented  to  me 
by  the  Rev.  L.  W.  Leonard. 

2.  T.  tibiale.  H. 

Brownish  ;  wings  transparent ;  first  pair  with  a  narrow  border 
and  an  abbreviated  band  beyond  the  middle  pale  brown  ;  hind- 
wings  with  a  narrow  brownish  fringe  ;  antennas  black ;  orbits, 
two  lines  on  the  thorax,  edges  of  the  abdominal  segments,  and 
tibiag  yellow ;  hindmost  tibiae  thickly  covered  with  yellow  hairs. 
Expands  one  inch  and  a  half  The  yellow  bands  on  the  abdo- 
men are  much  narrower  and  less  bright  than  in  the  marginatum. 

Found  in  New-Hampshire  on  the  Populus  candicans,  and  pre- 
sented to  me  by  Mr.  Leonard. 


30  Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges. 

3.   T.  denudaium. 

Chestnut-brown ;  fore-wings  opaque,  with  a  large  triangular 
transparent  spot  adjacent  to  the  outer  hind-angle,  a  rust-red  spot 
at  base  and  another  near  the  middle ;  hind-wings  transparent, 
with  the  margin  and  fringe  brown,  and  a  rust-red  costal  spot ; 
orbits,  edges  of  the  collar,  incisures  of  the  abdomen,  tibise,  and 
tarsi  dull  yellow ;  antennge  brownish  above,  rust-yellow  at  tip 
and  beneath.  Expands  from  one  inch  and  a  quarter  to  more  than 
one  inch  and  a  half.  The  transparent  spots  at  the  tips  of  the 
fore- wings  have  the  appearance  of  being  caused  by  the  removal 
of  the  colored  scales. 

The  specimens,  from  which  the  descriptions  of  these  three  spe- 
cies are  drawn  up,  had  become  somewhat  oily,  and  it  is  possible 
that  some  of  their  characteristic  markings  may  have  become  ob- 
literated. 

Genus  XT.     ^geria.  F.    (Syst.  Glossat.) 

Sesia.  F.    (Entom.  Syst.)    Latr.  Boisd.      Trochilium.  Scopoli. 

1.  j¥^.  tricincta.  H.  (Catalogue.) 

Blue-black  ;  fore-wings  opaque  ;  hind-wings  transparent,  with 
the  border,  fringe,  and  a  short  transverse  line  near  the  middle 
black ;  palpi  at  tip,  collar,  a  spot  on  each  shoulder,  and  three 
bands  on  the  abdomen  yellow ;  antennas  short,  black ;  four  pos- 
terior tibiae  banded  with  orange  ;  tarsi  yellow,  tipped  with  black  ; 
tail  flat,  with  two  longitudinal  yellow  lines.  Expands  from  one 
inch  to  one  inch  and  two  lines. 

This  species  seems  to  come  near  to  the  European  Asiliformis  ; 
but  the  male  has  only  three  yellow  abdominal  bands ;  while  in 
the  Asiliformts  there  are  five  bands  in  the  male  sex.  The  an- 
tennae are  shorter  and  thicker  than  in  the  following  species,  and 
are  furnished  beneath  with  a  double  row  of  short  pectinations  or 
teeth,  which  are  thickly  fringed  with  hairs.  The  sexes  were 
captured  together  upon  the  common  tansy. 

2.  JE.  Cucurbitm.  H.  (New-England  Farmer.) 
Fore-wings  opaque,  lustrous  olive-brown  ;  hind-wings  transpa- 
rent, with  the  margin  and  fringe  brown  ;  antennae  greenish  black  ; 
palpi  pale  yellow,  with  a  little  black  tuft  near  the  tip ;  thorax 
olive  ;  abdomen  deep  orange,  v/ith  a  transverse  basal  black  band, 
and  a  longitudinal  row  of  five  or  six  black  spots  ;  tibiae  and  tarsi 
of  the  hind-legs  thickly  fringed  on  the  inside  with  black,  and  on 


Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges.  31 

the  outside  with  long  orange-colored  hairs  ;  spurs  covered  with 
white  hairs.  Expands  from  thirteen  to  fifteen  lines.  Larva, 
similar  in  form  and  color  to  those  of  other  species  of  the  genus, 
lives  in  the  pith  of  squash  and  pumpkin  vines,  which  it  leaves  at 
the  root,  and  forms  in  the  ground  a  cocoon  composed  of  grains  of 
earth  cemented  by  a  gummy  matter.  Pupa^  by  the  aid  of  the 
abdominal  denticulations,  almost  entirely  excluded  from  the  co- 
coon during  the  last  transformation. 

The  sudden  death  of  the  squash-vines,  during  midsummer,  is 
occasioned  by  the  ravages  of  the  larva  of  this  insect.  For  further 
particulars  relating  to  it,  a  communication,  by  the  author,  in  the 
New-England  Farmer,  Vol.  YIII,  p.  33,  for  1828,  may  be  con- 
sulted. This  species  seems  to  be  closely  allied  to,  but  sufficiently 
distinct  from  the  tibialis  of  Drury,  and  the  Bombiliformis  of 
Cramer. 

3.  ^.  caudata.  H.   =  fulvicornis.  H.*    (Catalogue.) 
Brown  ;  male  with  the  fore-wings  transparent  from  the  base  to 

the  middle ;  hind-wings  transparent,  with  a  brownish  border, 
fringe,  and  subcostal  spot ;  antennae,  palpi,  collar,  and  tarsi  tawny 
yellow  ;  hind-legs  yellow,  end  of  the  tibiae  and  first  tarsal  jomt 
fringed  with  tawny  yellow  and  black  hairs ;  tail  slender,  cylindri- 
cal, nearly  as  long  as  the  body,  tawny  yellow,  with  a  little  black 
tuft  on  each  side  at  base.  The  female  differs  from  the  male  in  hav- 
ing the  fore-wings  entirely  opaque ;  the  hind-legs  black,  with  a 
rusty  spot  in  the  middle  of  the  tibiae,  and  fringed  with  black  ;  cau- 
dal tuft  of  the  ordinary  form  and  size.  Expands  from  one  inch 
to  one  inch  and  three  lines.  Larva  inhabits  the  stems  of  our 
indigenous  currant,  Ribes  Floridu7n. 

The  Zygmna  caudata,  of  Fabricius,  has  a  somewhat  similar 
tail,  but  does  not  belong  to  the  genus  j^geria. 

4.  JE.  Syringm.  H. 

Brown  ;  fore-wings  with  a  transparent  line  at  base  ;  hind-wings 
transparent,  with  a  brown  border,  fringe,  and  subcostal  spot ;  an- 
tennas, palpi,  collar,  first  and  second  pairs  of  tarsi,  and  middle  of 
the  mtermediate  tibiae  rust-red;  middle  of  the  tibis  and  the  tarsi 
of  ihe  hind-legs  yellow.  Expands  one  inch  and  two  lines.  Larva, 
lives  in  the  trunks  of  Syringa  vulgaris,  the  common  lilac. 

*  Credited  to  Mr.  Say,  in  the  Catalogue  of  the  Insects  of  Massachusetts,  by 
mistake. 


32  Catalogue  of  North  A'merica7i  Sphinges. 

5.  j33.  exitiosa.  Say. 

Steel-blue  ;  male  with  the  wings  transparent,  the  margins  and 
fringes,  and  a  band  beyond  the  middle  of  the  first  pair  steel-blue  ; 
palpi,  collar,  edges  of  the  shoulder-covers  and  of  the  abdominal 
segments,  two  bands  on  the  tibice  including  the  spurs,  anterior 
tarsi,  and  lateral  edges  of  the  wedge-shaped  tail  pale  yellow ; 
female  with  the  fore-wings  opaque  ;  the  hind-wings  transparent, 
with  a  broad  opaque  front-margin  and  the  fringe  purple-black ; 
antennae,  palpi,  legs,  and  abdomen  steel-blue,  the  latter  encircled 
in  the  middle  by  a  broad  saffron-colored  band.  Male  expands 
from  nine  to  thirteen  lines  ;  female  from  fifteen  to  seventeen  lines. 
Larva  inhabits  the  trunks  and  roots  of  the  peach  and  cherry 
trees,  beneath  the  bark. 

The  larva  is  the  well-known  peach-tree  borer,  which  annually 
injures  to  a  great  extent  or  destroys  numbers  of  these  trees.  For 
the  means  of  preventing  its  ravages,  see  Say's  Entomology,  Yol. 
II,  and  my  communication  in  the  New  England  Farmer,  Vol.  V, 
p.  33.  The  insects  above  described,  though  very  dissimilar,  are 
really  the  sexes  of  one  species.  I  have  raised  many  of  them  from 
the  larvae,  and  have  also  repeatedly  captured  them,  in  connection, 
on  the  trunks  of  peach  and  cherry  trees. 

6.  yE.  fidvipes.  H.  (Catalogue.) 

Blue-black  ;  wings  transparent,  margin  and  fringes,  and  a  trans- 
verse band  beyond  the  middle  of  the  first  pair  blue-black  ;  anten- 
nae black,  yellowish  at  the  end  ;  palpi  beneath,  a  spot  on  the  tho- 
rax under  the  origin  of  the  wings,  intermediate  and  hindmost 
tibiae,  all  the  tarsi,  and  the  basal  half  of  the  underside  of  the  ab- 
domen orange-colored  ;  hindmost  tibiae  somewhat  thickened  by  a 
covering  of  tawny  hairs.     Expands  thirteen  lines. 

7.  JE.   Tipuliformis.  L. 

Blue-black ;  wings  transparent,  with  the  margin  and  fringes 
blackish  ;  thu  first  pair  with  a  transverse  blue-black  band  beyond 
the  middle,  and  a  broad  one  at  tip  streaked  with  copper-color  ; 
antennae  black  ;  palpi  beneath,  collar,  upper  edges  of  the  shoulder- 
covers,  a  spot  on  each  side  of  the  breast,  three  narrow  rings  on 
the  abdomen,  ends  of  the  tibiae  and  the  spurs  pale  golden  yellow ; 
tail  fan-shaped,  blue-black.  The  male  has  an  additional  trans- 
verse yellow  line  between  the  second  and  third  abdominal  bands. 
Expands  from  seven  and  a  half  to  nine-MajAsesr  Larva  lives  in 
the  pith  of  the  currant-bush. 


Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges.  33 

This  destructive  insect  is  not  a  native,  but  has  been  introdu- 
ced from  Europe  witli  the  cuhivated  currant-bush. 

8.  JE.  scitula.  H. 

Purple-black  ;  wings  transparent,  with  the  margins  golden  yel- 
low ;  the  first  pair  with  a  narrow  purple-brown  band  beyond  the 
middle  and  a  broad  one  at  the  tip  ornamented  with  golden  yel- 
low lines  ;  fringes  blackish  ;  front  and  orbits  covered  with  silvery 
white  hairs ;  antenna  black  ;  palpi,  collar,  upper  edges  of  the 
shoulder-covers,  a  narrow  band  at  the  base  of  the  abdomen,  a  dor- 
sal spot  behind  it,  a  broad  band  around  the  middle,  the  lateral 
edges  of  the  fan-shaped  tail,  anterior  coxee,  sides  of  the  breast, 
tibiae  and  tarsi  except  at  the  joints,  with  the  spurs  golden  yellow. 
Expands  about  eight  lines. 

This  beautiful  little  species  is  easily  distinguished  by  the  prev- 
alence of  yellow  on  the  under-side  of  the  body  and  legs. 

9.  ^.  Pyri.  H.  (New-England  Farmer.) 
Purple-black  ;  wings  transparent,  with  the  margins,  a  narrow 

band  beyond  the  middle  of  the  first  pair,  and  a  broad  one  at  tip 
purple-black,  the  latter  streaked  with  brassy  yellow ;  antennae 
blackish;  palpi  beneath,  collar,  edges  of  the  shoulder-covers,  a 
broad  band  across  the  middle  of  the  abdomen,  a  narrow  one  be- 
fore it,  an  indistinct  transverse  line  at  base,  the  posterior  half  of 
the  abdomen  beneath,  the  sides  of  the  breast,  anterior  coxae,  legs 
except  the  joints  of  the  tibiae,  and  the  lateral  edges  of  the  wedge- 
shaped  tail  golden  yellow.  Expands  six  lines  and  a  half.  Larva 
lives  under  the  bark  of  the  pear-tree. 

For  some  further  particulars  respecting  this  species,  see  my 
communication  in  the  New-England  Farmer,  Vol.  IX.  p.  2,  1830. 

Mr.  Edward  Doubleday  presented  me  with  a  new  species  of 
Algeria  which  he  captured  in  Florida,  and  Dr.  J.  W.  Randall  has 
still  another  which  was  taken  in  Massachusetts.  To  these  gen- 
tlemen belongs  the  right  of  first  naming  and  describing  these  spe- 
cies which  they  have  discovered,  and  I  do  not  feel  myself  author- 
ized to  anticipate  them. 

Genus  XII.  Thyris.  lUiger. 

T.  maculata.  H.  (Catalogue.) 
Brownish  black,  sprinkled  with  rust-yellow  dots;  hind-mar- 
gins of  the  wings  deeply  scalloped,  with  the  edges  of  the  inden- 
tations white  ;  each  of  the  wings  with  a  transparent  white  spot, 

5 


34  Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges. 

which  in  the  fore-wings  is  nearly  oval  and  slightly  narrowed  in 
the  middle,  in  the  hind- wings  larger,  kidney-shaped  and  almost 
divided  in  two ;  palpi  beneath,  a  spot  before  the  anterior  coxas, 
the  tips  of  the  tarsal  joints  above,  and  the  hind-edges  of  the  last 
three  or  four  abdominal  segments  white.  Expands  from  six  to 
eight  lines. 

This  species  comes  very  near  to  the  fenestrata  of  Europe,  but 
is  sufficiently  distinct  from  it. 

Mr.  Doubleday  has  presented  to  me  a  much  larger  species  of 
Thyris,  which  was  captured  by  him  in  Florida,  and  was  new  to 
my  collection.  There  is  a  figure  of  it  in  M.  Boisduval's  Hist. 
Nat.  Ins.  Lepidopt.  Vol.  I,  pi.  14,  where  it  is  named  T.  luguhris. 
This  name  has  not  yet  received  the  proper  sanction  of  a  descrip- 
tion ;  but,  taking  into  consideration  the  circumstances  under 
which  this  nondescript  came  into  my  possession,  I  do  not  think 
proper  to  describe  it  myself  at  this  time. 

Tribe  11.     SPHINGES  ADSCIT^.  L. 

Family  IV.     AGARISTIAD^.  H.     The  Agaristians. 

Hesperi- Sphinges.  Latr.  Agaristides.  Boisd.  Zygmnidce.  Kirby. 

Genus  XIII.     Alypia.  (Hiibner.)  Kirby. 

Zygcena  and  Sesia.  F.     Agarista.  Latr. 

A.  octomaculata.  F. 

Black ;  with  two  sulphur-yellow  spots  on  the  fore-wings,  and 
two  white  ones  on  the  hind-wings;  shoulder-covers  and  front 
sulphur-yellow  ;  first  and  second  pairs  of  tibias  thickly  covered 
with  orange-colored  hairs.  Expands  from  eleven  to  fifteen  lines. 
Larva,  as  represented  by  Abbot,  (Ins.  Georg.  p.  8,  pi.  44,)  cylin- 
drical, elongated ;  yellow,  with  transverse  rows  of  black  points, 
slightly  hairy,  and  without  a  caudal  horn.  It  lives  on  the  grape- 
vine, and  encloses  itself  in  a  cocoon  in  the  earth. 

In  some  individuals  there  is  a  white  spot  near  the  end  of  the 
abdomen,  and  the  inner  white  spots  of  the  hind-wings  are  en- 
larged and  cover  the  whole  base  of  the  wings.  Mr.  Kirby  (Fauna 
Bor.  Amer.  IV,  p.  301,  pi.  4,  fig.  5,)  has  described  another  species 
of  Alypia,  a  native  of  Nova  Scotia  and  Canada,  and  names  it  A. 
MacCullochii. 


Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges.  35 

Family  V.     ZYG^NIADiE.  H.     The  Zygcenians. 

Zygcenidce.  Stephens.  Zygenides.  Boisd, 
Hitherto  I  have  not  met  with  any  insects  in  the  United  States 
belonging  to  this  family ;  but  Dr.  Hornbeck  has  sent  to  me,  from 
St.  Thomas,  a  species  which  not  only  seems  to  be  undescribed, 
but  must  constitute  a  new  genus,  the  characters  of  which  are 
given  in  the  Synopsis,  and  those  of  the  species  in  the  note  below.* 

"Family  YI.     GLAUCOPIDID^.  H.      The  Glaucopidians. 

Procrides  and  Zygenides.  Boisd.     Zygceniadce.  H.    Cat.     Cte~ 
nuchidce.   Kirby.     Callimorphce.  Westwood. 

Genus  XV.     Procris.  F. 

Ino.  Leach, 

P.  Americana.  =  Aglaope  Americana  ?  Boisd.   =  dispar. 
H.  (Cat.) 

Blue-black  ;  with  a  saffron-colored  collar,  and  a  fan-shaped, 
somewhat  bilobed,  black  caudal  tuft.  Expands  from  ten  lines  to 
one  inch.  Larva,  according  to  Prof  Hentz,  hairy,  green,  with 
black  bands.  It  is  gregarious,  and  devours  the  leaves  of  the 
grape-vine,  and  undergoes  its  transformations  in  an  oblong-oval, 
tough,  whitish  cocoon,  which  is  fastened  to  a  leaf. 

*  Genus  XIV.     Mastigocera.  H. 

From  /n&aTi^,  a  lohip  or  thong,  and  ni^a,  horns ;  the  antennae  being  thickened 
in  the  middle  and  tapering  at  each  end  like  a  whip  lash.  In  the  West  Indian 
insect  to  which  I  Jiave  applied  this  name,  the  antennae  agree,  in  the  main,  with 
Xhoie  o? JEgocer a,  as  described  by  Lalreille  and  other  authors;  but  most  of  its 
other  characters  disagree,  and  it  has  an  entirely  different  form  from  that  of  the 
type  of  the  genus.  These  characters  are  so  very  striking,  that  I  have  ventured  to 
propose  this  new  genus,  although  the  transformations  of  the  species  are  unknown 
to  me. 

M.  vespina.  H. 

Light  rust-brown  ;  wings  immaculate  ;  collar,  first  abdominal  segments  above, 
third  below,  and  a  triangular  spot  on  each  side,  white  ;  head,  thickened  part  of 
the  antennae,  edge  of  the  thorax  behind  the  collar,  and  a  large  triangular  spot  on 
each  side  of  the  second  abdominal  segment,  black;  breast  black,  spotted  with 
white;  first  and  second  pairs  of  thighs,  except  at  base,  middle  of  the  hind-pair, 
and  extremity  of  the  tibiae,  black.  Expands  from  one  and  a  half  to  one  inch  and 
three  quarters.     Inhabits  the  island  of  St.  Thomas,  W.  I. 

The  Zygmna  Eunolplms  of  Fabricius,  and  the  Pretus  of  Cramer  are  probably 
congenerical  and  closely  allied  to  this  species. 


36  Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges. 

This  insect  appears  to  be  the  same  as  the  one  figured  in  Gne- 
rin's  Iconographie  and  in  Griffith's  Cavier,  under  the  name  of 
Aglaope  Americana^  Boisduval ;  but  it  is  not  an  Aglaope,  for  it 
has  a  distinct,  spirally-rolled  tongue. 

Genus  XVI.     Glaucopis.  F. 

The  insects  which,  at  present,  I  refer  to  this  genus,  belong  to 
ZygcBna  of  the  Entomologia  Systematica  of  Fabricius  ;  whose 
Z.  Glaucopis^  if  it  was  not  actually  the  type,  furnished  the  ge- 
nerical  name  which  this  author  gave,  in  his  last  work,  the  Sys- 
tema  Glossatorum,  to  this  group  of  his  former  ZygcBuce.  Sev- 
eral of  the  insects,  which  Mr.  West  wood,  in  his  edition  of  Drury's 
Illustrations,  refers  to  the  genus  Callimorpha,  without  doubt  be- 
long to  the  family  Glaucopididm.  Mr.  Kirby  has  placed  one  spe- 
cies, after  Lithosia,  in  a  family  which  he  names  Ctenuchidce. 
These  insects  seem  to  me  much  more  nearly  allied  to  the  Sphin- 
ges adscitce  than  to  the  Phalcena,  of  Linnasus,  with  which  also 
they  agree  in  their  diurnal  flight,  and  in  their  transformations,  so 
far  as  the  latter  are  known.  Although  they  do  not  appear  to  be 
strictly  congenerical,  I  prefer  to  arrange  them,  for  the  present,  un- 
der the  genus  Glaucopis^  in  groups  or  subgenera,  which,  when 
the  larvae  and  their  transformations  are  better  known,  it  may  be 
proper  to  raise  to  the  rardi  of  independent  genera. 

Subgenus  Syntomeida.  H. 

Antennas  bipectinated,  tapering  at  each  end.  Tongue  moderate,  spirally  rolled. 
Palpi  short,  not  extending  beyond  the  clypeus,  slightly  curved  and  hairy  at  base, 
covered  with  short  close  scales  ;  terminal  joint  somewhat  acuminated.  Wings 
elongated,  hind-pair  small,  with  the  discoidal  cell  closed  behind  by  an  acute-an- 
gled nervure,  the  anterior  branch  of  which  crosses  the  subcostal  nervure  and  ends 
near  the  lip  of  the  wing.  Body  cylindrical,  rounded  and  not  tufted  behind,  and 
with  a  rounded  tubercle  on  each  side  of  the  first  abdominal  segment.  Spurs  of  the 
posterior  tibiae  four,  small,  and  approximated. 

1.  G.  (S.)  IpomxiE.  =  Sesia  Ipomcea.  CEmler,  in  letters. 
Fore-wings  greenish  black,  with  three  yellowish  white  dots 
near  the  front  margin  and  two  others  close  together  beyond  the 
middle  ;  hind-wings  violet-black,  with  a  transparent  colorless  spot 
at  base  ;  body  tawny  orange  ;  antennas  and  head  black,  the  latter 
spotted  with  orange ;  a  broad  stripe  on  the  shoulder-covers,  a 
transverse  spot  on  the  thorax  behind,  and  the  incisures  of  the  ab- 
domen, black ;  legs  violet-black ;  coxae  beneath,  and  a  spot  on 
the  thighs,  orange-colored.    Expands  one  inch  and  three  quarters. 


Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges.  37 

I  received  this  species  from  Dr.  A.  G.  (Emler,  of  Savannah, 
Georgia,  and  have  adopted  the  specific  name  that  he  gave  to  it, 
and  from  which  it  is  to  be  presumed  that  the  larva  lives  upon  the 
Jpomcea.  The  Melanthus  and  Nydeus  of  Cramer  resemble  it 
somewhat,  and  are  probably  congenerical  with  it. 

Subgenus  Cosmosoma.  Hubner. 

Antennae  long,  very  much  attenuated  at  the  end,  and  with  a  double  row  of  very 
short  pectinations  beneath.  Tongue  moderate,  spirally  rolled.  Palpi  long,  curved 
upwards,  and  extending  beyond  the  clypeus;  the  joints  cylindrical,  covered  with 
small  scales,  a  little  hairy  at  base,  and  obtuse  at  tip.  Wings  elongated,  hind  pair 
rather  small,  and  with  the  discoidal  cell  and  nervures  as  in  Sijntomeida.  Body 
cylindrical,  rounded  and  not  tufted  behind,  and  with  a  small  tubercle  on  each  side 
of  the  first  abdominal  segment.  Spurs  of  the  hindmost  tibiae  four  and  of  moderate 
size. 

2.  G.  (C.)  Omphale.  Hiibner  (according  to  Say).  =  ^ge- 
ria  Omphale.  Say. 

Scarlet ;  wings  transparent,  veined  and  bordered  with  black, 
the  first  pair  with  a  small  black  subcostal  spot,  and  the  black  bor- 
der very  much  widened  at  tip;  head  azure-blue  ;  antennas  black, 
with  the  tips  white  ;  two  terminal  joints  of  the  palpi,  and  a  line 
on  each  shoulder-cover  black ;  four  azure-blue  dots  in  a  transverse 
row  on  the  fore-part  of  the  thorax  ;  last  four  segments  of  the  ab- 
domen black,  with  four  azure-blue  spots  on  each  side,  and  a  dor- 
sal black  line  extending  from  the  middle  of  the  second  segment 
including  in  it  seven  azure-blue  spots  ;  belly  and  outside  of  the 
second  pair  of  tibiae  black.  Expands  one  inch  and  a  half  or  more. 
Inhabits  Florida. 

For  a  specimen  of  this  beautiful  insect  T  am  indebted  to  Mr. 
Doubleday.  It  cannot  belong  to  the  genus  JEgeria,  to  which  it 
was  referred  by  Mr.  Say,  in  his  American  Entomology,  where  it 
is  figured.  As  Hiibner's  works  are  not  accessible  to  me,  I  have 
drawn  up  the  characters  of  the  subgenus  Cosmosoma  from  the 
specimen  of  the  Omphale  in  my  possession.  Zygcena  Androm- 
acha  of  Fabricius  and  the  Camius  of  Cramer  probably  belong  to 
the  same  subgenus. 

Subgenus  Lycomorpha.  H. 

AntenuEe  rather  short,  curved,  toothed  or  with  very  short  pectinations  on  each 
side,  which  give  to  the  joints,  when  seen  from  beneath,  a  cordate  or  bilobed  appear- 
ance. Tongue  about  half  as  long  as  the  body,  spirally  rolled.  Palpi  short,  hardly 
extending  beyond  the  clypeus,  nearly  horizontal  and  but  slightly  curved  at  base, 
and  covered  with  large  and  rather  loose  scales.  Wings  not  elongated,  rounded  at 
tip ;  discoidal  cell  of  the  hind  pair  long,  extending  nearly  to  the  hind-margin,  and 


38  Catalogue  of  North  Amei'ican  Sphinges. 

closed  by  an  oblique  nervure.  Body  rather  short,  nearly  cylindrical,  not  tufted 
behind.  Spurs  of  the  hind-legs  three,  two  at  the  end  and  one  beyond  the  middle 
of  the  tibige. 

3.    G.  (L.)  Pholus.  Drury. 

Blue-black,  or  deep  indigo-blue,  wings  at  base  and  shoulder- 
covers  orange-colored.  Expands  fourteen  or  fifteen  lines.  Larva, 
according  to  Mr.  Leonard,  pale  green,  with  yellowish  spots  run- 
ning into  the  green  (in  a  specimen  preserved  in  spirit,  pale  green 
mottled  with  red  ;)  head  black,  covered  with  a  few  short  whitish 
hairs ;  body  sparingly  clothed  with  rather  long  hairs,  which  are 
white  at  the  sides  and  black  on  the  back,  the  hairs  arising  singly 
from  minute  tubercles,  those  on  the  third  segment  the  longest 
and  with  the  others  before  them  directed  forwards.  It  eats  the 
lichens  on  stone  heaps  and  walls  in  shady  places,  and  undergoes 
its  transformations  in  a  thin  silky  cocoon. 

This  pretty  species  is  often  seen  flying  in  considerable  numbers 
in  the  fields,  throughout  the  day,  and  at  first  sight  would  be  mis- 
taken for  a  species  of  Lycus. 

Subgenus.     Ctenucha.  Kirby. 

Antenna;  pectinated  on  both  sides  in  the  males,  thickened  in  the  middle  with 
extremely  short  pectinations  in  the  females.  Tongue  moderate,  spirally  rolled. 
Palpi  slender,  rising  beyond  the  clypeus,  nearly  cylindrical  and  obtuse,  covered 
with  small  close  scales,  and  somewhat  hairy  at  base.  Wings  in  some  rather  nar- 
row, in  others  widened  and  rounded  at  the  tip  ;  discoidal  cell  of  the  hind  pair 
closed  by  an  angulated  nervure.  Body  nearly  cylindrical,  enlarged  a  little  behind 
in  the  females,  with  a  few  minute  tufts  at  the  sides  of  the  segments,  obtuse  and 
slightly  tufted  at  tip ;  first  abdominal  segment  with  a  conspicuous  tubercle  on  each 
side.  Spurs  of  the  hind-legs  small,  four  in  number,  two  terminal,  and  two  beyond 
the  middle  of  the  tibiae. 

4.    G.  (C.)  semidiaphana.  H. 

Slate-colored ;  wings  rather  narrow  and  subacute ;  first  pair 
brownish  slate,  with  the  anterior  edge  clay-colored ;  hind-wings 
semitransparent  in  the  middle  ;  head  and  antennge  black  ;  collar, 
front  edge  of  ihe  breast,  and  base  of  the  palpi,  orange-colored. 
Expands  fifteen  to  sixteen  lines.  Inhabits  the  Middle  and  South- 
ern States. 

Dr.  Charles  Pickering,  several  years  ago,  gave  me  specimens  of 
this  insect,  which  he  captured  near  Philadelphia;  there  are  also 
specimens  of  it,  in  the  cabinet  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural 
History,  taken  in  North  Carolina  by  Prof  Hentz ;  and  I  have  re- 
cently received  several  individuals,  in  fine  preservation,  which 
were  found  by  Mr.  Doubleday  in  Florida.     This  species  some- 


Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges.  39 

what  resembles,  in  form  and  color,  the  Thetis  of  Linnaeus  and 
Drury. 

5.  G.  (C)  Latreillana.   =  Ctenucha  Latreillana.    Kirby. 
Fore-wings  dusky  drab,  with  a  silky  lustre,  and  the  anterior 

edge  clay-colored;  hind-wings  rusty  black;  fringes  of  all  the 
wings  white,  interrupted  with  black  in  the  middle ;  top  of  the 
head,  orbits  behind,  base  of  the  palpi,  front  of  the  breast,  and  a 
spot  on  the  fore-part  of  each  shoulder-cover  orange-colored  ;  tho- 
rax, abdomen,  and  coxss,  glaucous  or  greenish  blue  with  a  silky 
lustre ;  belly  and  legs  light  brown.  Expands  almost  two  inches. 
Inhabits  New-Hampshire  and  Maine,  and,  according  to  Mr.  Kirby, 
Canada  and  Nova-Scotia. 

I  am  indebted  to  the  Rev.  L.  W.  Leonard  for  one  specimen, 
taken  by  him  in  New-Hampshire,  and  to  Dr.  J.  W.  Randall  for 
another  from  Maine.  Although  they  are  rather  smaller  than  Mr. 
Kirby's  Latreillana,  and  do  not  exactly  agree  with  the  descrip- 
tion in  the  Fauna  Bor.  Amer.  Vol.  IV,  p.  305,  I  think  that  they 
must  be  referred  to  his  species.  This  insect  has  precisely  the 
same  antennae  and  nearly  the  same  form  as  the  Glaucopis  of 
Drury  and  Fabricius,  stated  by  the  latter  author  to  be  a  native  of 
Carolina,  and  is,  without  doubt,  generically  allied  to  it,  and  prob- 
ably also  to  several  other  American  species,  such  as  the  Pylotis 
and  collaris  of  Drury.  The  following  species,  from  the  figures 
given  of  them,  seem  also  to  belong  to  the  same  generical  group ; 
viz.  Glauca,  Celadon,  Circe,  Coslestina,  Asterea,  Cephise,  Alec- 
toji,  Cassandra,  and  Porphyria  of  Cramer. 

Subgenus  Psychomorpha.  H.  (Catalogue)  =^  Callimorpka.  Westwood. 

Antennae  in  the  males  pectinated  on  both  sides,  the  pectinations  rather  short, 
setaceous  in  the  female,  according  to  Drury.  Tongue  moderate,  spirally  rolled. 
Palpi  slender,  nearly  horizontal,  extending  a  little  beyond  the  clypeus,  covered 
with  loose  hairs  so  as  to  conceal  the  joints.  Wings  short,  somewhat  triangular, 
with  the  outer  margins  rounded ;  discoidal  cell  of  the  hind  pair  short,  closed  by  a 
sinuous  nervure.  Body  slender,  hairy  at  tip.  I-egs  short,  hairy  ;  spurs  of  the  hind 
tibiae  three,  slender,  nearly  concealed  by  the  hairs. 

6.  G.  (P.)  Epimenis.  Drury.   =  Psychomorpha  maculata. 
H.  (Catalogue.) 

Brownish  black  ;  fore-wings  sprinkled  in  spots  with  light  blue 
scales,  which  form  a  narrow  band  near  the  hinder  margin,  and 
marked  with  a  large  yellowish  white  patch  beyond  the  middle ; 
hind-wings  with  a  broad  dark  orange-red  band  behind  the  mid- 
dle.    The  white  spot  of  the  fore-wings  is  indented  towards  the 


40  Catalogue  of  North  American  Sphinges. 

middle  of  the  wing,  and  on  the  under  side  there  is  a  small  trian- 
gular spot  near  the  base  of  the  wing,  and  a  short  transverse  one 
beyond  it  which  unites  behind  with  the  angular  projection  of  the 
large  white  patch.     Expands  rather  more  than  one  inch, 

I  captured  this  beautiful  insect  on  the  wing  at  midday,  in  Mil- 
ton, Mass.,  and  have  since  seen  it  flying  among  the  shrubbery  at 
Mount  Auburn,  Cambridge,  There  is  also  a  broken  specimen, 
among  Mr.  Say's  insects,  which  was  taken  in  Indiana,  My  spe- 
cimen is  a  male,  as  is  also  the  one  in  Mr,  Say's  cabinet,  and  they 
have  the  anal  organs  very  large  and  hairy,  Drury's  specimen 
seems  to  have  been  a  female,  for  he  says  the  antennae  are  seta- 
ceous. It  is  possible  that  this  insect  is  not  one  of  the  Sphinges 
adscita. ;  but  I  place  it  here  on  account  of  its  diurnal  habits,  and 
a  certain  resemblance,  more  easily  seen  than  described,  which  it 
bears  to  some  of  the  Glaucopidida.  It  does  not  agree  generically 
with  the  types  of  Latreille's  genus  Callimorpha.  When  my 
Catalogue  of  the  Insects  of  Massachusetts  was  published,  I  had 
not  seen  a  colored  copy  of  Drury's  Illustrations^  and  failed  to  re- 
cognize this  insect  in  the  uncolored  one  which  I  used. 

Cambridge,  Mass.,  Feb.  1,  1839. 


S  CI'&N  TIFIC    TRACTS 

NUMBER  VII.    ' 


ENTOMOLOGY 


Among  the  different  sciences  which  of  late  years  have 
been  zealously  studied  in  this  portion  of  our  country, 
none,  perhaps,  have  received  more  attention  than  several 
branches  of  Natural  History. 

A  taste  for  these  pursuits  is  rapidly  increasing,  as  the 
pleasure  and  instruction  received  from  them  are  pointed 
out  by  those  who  have  diligently  and  faithfully  investiga- 
ted them.  But  while  peculiar  circumstances  have  ren- 
dered some  of  these  branches  more  popular  than  others, 
a  few  have  been  neglected  almost  altogether.  Thus  while 
the  objects  of  some  may  have  been  eagerly  sought  after  at 
much  labor  and  pecuniary  expense,  and  those  of  others 
have  been  carefully  examined  and  accurately  arranged, 
several  have  been  permitted  to  remain  unheeded  and 
unsought  for. 

Mineralogy,  indebted  for  much  of  its  popularity  as  a 
science  among  us  within  a  few  years,  to  the  brilliancy  of 
a  star  in  the  East,  has  become  not  only  a  delightful 
pursuit  for  the  student  at  our  Universities,  but  an  amuse- 
ment for  the  man  of  leisure,  and  a  fashionable  recreation 
among  the  most  wealthy. 

The  variety  and  beauty  of  our  plants  —  the  pleasing 
associations  at  all  times  recalled  by  reverting  to  the  days 
of  our  childhood,  when  we  so  joyously  plucked  them  — 
and  the  unusual  facilities  offered  for  their  study,  have 
rendered  them  the  objects  of  general  admiration.  Few 
are  there  among  us  who  have  not  some  slight  acquaint- 
ance with  this  fascinating  branch  ;  who  cannot  describe 
the  parts  which  compose  a  flower,  and  distinguish  many 
of  our  frequently  observed  species.  Here  we  have  great 
inducements  to  proceed,  being  furnished  with  many  in- 
valuable aids.     Dictionaries  and  manuals,  written  in  the 

VOJ.-    I. NO.    VJI,  15 


162  ENTOMOLOGY. 


most  simple  and  attractive  manner,  —  freed  from  all  the 
useless  terms  with  which  the  older  writers  had  em- 
barrassed the  subject,  and  pointing  out  its  pleasures  and 
advantages,  have  been  afforded  us  by  those  who  were 
well  qualified  for  the  arduous  duty.  An  impetus  was 
long  since  given  ;  and  the  establishment  of  Professor- 
ships at  our  colleges,  and  the  introduction  of  elemejgjM-y 
works  on  this  subject,  not  only  into  seminaries  de^^d 
to  the  education  of  our  young  ladies,  but  also  into  the 
schools  of  children,  prove  how  desirable  the  possession  of 
this  branch  of  knowledge  is  considered.  This  taste, 
enthusiastic,  as  it  may  almost  be  called,  is  yearly  in- 
creasing by  means  of  the  spirited  efforts  of  our  horti- 
culturists, who,  not  content  to  cultivate  the  natives  of 
our  own  soil  alone,  are  continually  introducing  many 
varieties  of  rare  and  choice  exotics. 

Zoology  has  not  been  extensively  studied  with  us. 
Comparatively  few,  very  i'ew,  have  devoted  themselves  to 
an  examination  of  the  animal  world,  although  in  each  of 
its  departments,  individuals  have  distinguished  themselves 
by  their  industry  and  talents ;  and  invaluable  papers 
relating  to  objects  in  most  of  these  departments  are  trea- 
sured up  in  our  scientific  periodicals. 

Our  birds  have  been  minutely  and  correctly  described, 
and  splendidly  figured  by  Wilson,  and  Bonaparte,  and 
Audubon  ;  and  we  are  soon  to  be  gratified  with  a  work 
on  these  animals  from  the  pen  of  Nuttall,  whose  name  is 
a  sure  pledge  of  the  accuracy  and  perfection  of  the  great 
undertaking. 

Conchology,  the  study  of  shells,  has  been  more  at- 
tended to,  than  either  of  the  other  branches  of  this  great 
division.  The  objects  of  this  class  are  generally  trea- 
sured up  for  their  beauty  ;  and  on  this  account  it  is  a  fa- 
vorite branch  with  our  young  ladies.  Cabinets  formed 
by  them  are  often  met  with,  showing  a  taste,  and  per- 
severance, and  knowledge,  of  which  they  may  well  be 
proud 

But  while  these  branches  are  pursued  with  such  una- 
bating  zeal,  the  same  individual  oftentimes  takes  but  a 
cursory  view  of  the  most  delightful  branch  of  the  works 
of  nature  —  the  Insect  creation.    To  procure  the  humblest 


ENTOMOLOOY.  163 


mbss,  he  will  toil  up  the  rugged  mountain  with  eagerness, 
regardless  alike  of  fatigue  and  exposure,  and  feel  richly 
repaid  by  the  possession  of  his  undescribed  treasure. 
For  a  beautiful  shell,  with  cheerfulness  will  he  part 
with  his  last  dollar,  and  proudly  add  it  to  his  finely 
polished  and  carefully  arranged  cabinet.  But  why,  it 
may  be  asked,  is  the  study  of  insects  less  cultivated  than 
either  of  the  other  branches  ?  Why  have  they  each  en- 
thusiastic disciples  wherever  we  may  look,  while  those 
who  devote  themselves  to  this  branch,  are  comparatively  so 
few  ?  Would  the  Ijver  of  nature,  he  who  delights  to  re- 
lire  from  the  scenes  of  a  busy  world,  and  amid  the  har- 
mony about  him,  forget  the  bitterness  of  his  daily  cup, 
cherish  a  fond  delight  for  the  vegetable  kingdom,  or 
listen  enraptured  to  the  free  and  delicious  notes  of  the 
joyous  songsters,  and  not  even  capture  the  splendid 
object  before  him,  or  bestow  upon  it  a  passing  moment, 
if  from  it  he  could  reap  either  pleasure  or  advantage  ?  I 
would  endeavor  to  answer  such  questions,  —  to  remove 
the  objections  which  may  exist  to  the  study  of  entomo- 
logy, and  offer  such  motives  as  may  appear  why  it  should 
be  cultivated  with  equal  devotion  as  the  other  depart- 
ments of  Natural  History. 

OBJECTIONS.  ,  --     . 

Many  an  individual  has  in  childhood  imbibed  an 
aversion  for  insects,  from  the  ciixumstance  of  having  met 
with  them  in  his  articles  of  food ;  or  having  observed 
them  in  situations,  little  to  be  desired  either  for  their 
cleanliness  or  comfort ;  an  aversion,  which,  like  other 
early  impressions,  is  extremely  difficult  to  be  removed ; 
increasing,  unless  an  effort  be  made  to  destroy  it,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  frequency  of  the  exposure.  Who  does  not, 
if  in  his  boyish  days  he  has  often  noticed  an  insect  hover- 
ing over  a  stagnant  pool,  or  glutting  itself  with  putre- 
fying matter,  particularly  if  he  has  seized  that  insect  and 
found  it  not  only  overrun  with  parasites,  but  emitting  a 
most  offensive  odour,  even  more  unpleasant  than  that 
arising  from  its  repast  —  who  does  not  remember,  that 
the  mere  presence  of  that  insect,  preserved  perhaps  by 
some  zealous  companion,  did  for  a  time  recall  the  preju- 
dices which   were   so  early   formed,  and   all  the  trifling 


164  ENTOMOLOGY. 


circumstances  which  existed  to  fix  them  1  This  disgust, 
occasioned  by  an  individual,  involuntarily  leads  many  to 
avoid  the  whole  class. 

The  inconveniences  suflfered  from  insects,  and  the 
injuries  produced  by  them,  cause  many  superficial  ob- 
servers to  turn  from  these  to  other  objects,  more  v/orthy 
their  interest.  The  musquitto,  and  flea,  and  bug,  leave  im- 
pressions not  easily  to  be  effaced.  The  acute  sufferings 
of  a  night  are  not  forgotten  for  years.  But  when,  in  addi- 
tion to  these  annoyances,  our  clothes,  and  furniture,  and 
books,  —  the  dearly  collected  specimens  of  the  naturalist, 
and  the  cheaply  purchased  works  of  art  are  all  ruined  by 
various  species  of  this  class,  no  slight  degree  of  philoso- 
phy is  required,  to  revert  to  these  animals  without 
awakening  unpleasant  associations.  And  if  beside  these, 
we  perceive  the  merciless  destroyers  blasting  our  forest 
and  fruit  trees,  our  most  valuable  vegetables  and  choicest 
plants,  —  depriving  us  of  our  grain  when  it  is  carefully 
gathered  into  store-houses,  and  thus  adding  to  the  distresses 
of  the  poor,  when  they  are  least  able  to  bear  them,  it  is  not 
surprising  that  a  feeling  of  uneasiness  should  often  be 
awakened ;  nor  that  the  mind  which  dwells  upon  the 
clouds  only  in  the  horizon,  should  forget  that  they  are 
sometimes  dispelled.  The  entomologist,  even,  cannot 
read  the  histories  of  some  particular  species,  without  agi- 
tation. The  locust,  for  example,  must  ever  excite  a 
degree  of  terror  in  the  minds  of  the  most  enthusiastic. 
Although  Arabia  appears  to  be  the  favorite  resort  of  these 
dreaded  intruders  they  have  visited  the  other  countries 
of  Asia ;  and  not  only  these,  but  Africa  and  Europe  also 
have  felt  their  unrelenting  havoc.  From  the  earliest  times 
we  have  been  taught  to  shudder  at  their  devastations. 
And  removed  as  far  as  we  may  be  from  the  countries  of 
this  genus,  we  cannot  carefully  read  of  the  ruin  produced 
by  them,  without  a  sensation  of  horror.  Not  only  do 
they  destroy  every  part  of  plants,  and  trees,  and  grasses, 
the  root,  trunk,  leaf,  bud,  fruit,  with  merciless  voracity, 
but  every  green  thing  is  swept  off  without  distinction ; 
thus  depopulating  nations,  and  carrying  more  dread  with 
them  than  the  most  powerful  armies.  Nothing  but  deso- 
lation can  be  connected  with  a  host  of  these,  extending 
five  hundred  miles,  and  so  dense  that  when  on  wing,  like 


ENTOMOLOGY.  165 


an  eclipse,  they  completely  hide  the  sun.  But  this  is  not  all. 
These  immense  multitudes,  when  they  have  destroyed 
everything  about  them,  die  ;  and  their  decomposing  car- 
cases often  produce  the  plague.  One  hundred  thousand 
men  have  been  swept  off  in  Africa  in  one  season,  and 
nearly  a  million  of  men  and  beasts  in  Italy,  by  this  cause. 

The  insignificance  of  the  animals  belonging  to  this 
class,  prevents  many  from  engaging  in  the  study.  A 
senseless  worm,  say  some,  is  unworthy  the  attention  of 
man.  Other  objects  should  occupy  his  thoughts.  Nobler 
pursuits  should  claim  his  precious  time. 

Others,  alive  to  sensibility ,  at  once  shrink  from  a  pur- 
suit which  to  them  appears  cruel  in  the  extreme,  and  thus 
suppress  an  inclination  which  might  prompt  them  to  be- 
come benefactors  to  their  fellow-men. 

MOTIVES    TO    THE    STUDY    OF    THE    SCIENCE. 

Ought  we  not  to  remember  with  gratitude,  such 
animals  as  are  hourly  removing  from  around  us,  the  causes  . 
of  uneasiness  or  the  elements  of  disease  ?  Should  we 
avoid  the  medicinal  plant,  satisfied  as  we  may  be  of  its 
value,  on  account  of  its  fetid,  nauseating  smell,  one  of  its 
principal  characteristics,  which  renders  it  discoverable  by 
all  1  Should  we  not  rather  regard  it  the  more  for  disclo- 
sing its  nature  to  us,  at  our  first  meeting,  while  as  yet  we 
are  strangers'? 

I  have  said  that  the  inconveniences  suffered  from  these 
animals  deter  many  from  examining  them.  What  stronger 
argument,  I  would  ask,  can  possibly  be  offered,  why  our 
attention  should  be  directed  to  any  subject  than  this  — 
that  by  our  ignorance  of  it,  we  are  made  to  suffer  ;  and 
that  in  proportion  to  our  knowledge,  are  not  only  our  in- 
conveniences lessened,  but  our  pleasures  increased] 
This  very  circumstance,  which  is  urged  as  an  objection, 
prompts  many  a  cultivator  of  the  soil  to  become  an  ento- 
mologist ;  and  thus  he  is  enabled,  not  only  to  prevent  the 
injuries  which  would  have  occurred  to  his  own  harvest, 
but  also  to  render  an  essential  service  to  thousands,  who 
had  previously  suffered  with  him.  If  our  persons  are  the 
objects  of  attack,  additional  motives  exist.  Not  only  will 
our  ill-founded  fears,  as  to  the  increase  and  ravages  of  any 

VOL.    I, NO.    VII.  15* 


166  ENTOMOLOGY. 


particular  species  be  removed,  but  we  shall  be  able 
to  lessen  the  degree  of  temporary  inconvenience  suffered 
from  them,  and  also  to  ward  off  several  loathsome 
diseases. 

The  iuimiteness,  and  apparently  imperfect  formation  of 
these  animals,  undoubtedly  deter  many  from  becoming 
interested  in  their  history.  With  no  elevated  mind  could 
these  circumstances  be  regarded  as  objections  to  their 
examination.  They  would  rather  present  themselves, 
as  strong  reasons  why  this  science  should  be  pursued  — 
as  the  defects  here  would  be  the  mere  absence  of  organs 
or  powers  possessed  by  others,  destined  for  different  pur- 
poses, and  would  most  forcibly  prove  the  existence  of  a 
plan  in  which  can  be  traced  consummate  skill,  creating 
at  one  moment  the  most  complicated  of  living  beings,  — 
then  leaving  us  to  admire  and  wonder  at  the  construction 
of  objects,  the  simplicity  of  whose  formation  renders  them 
more  accessible  to  the  comprehension  of  man.  But  if  the 
absence  of  something  which  is  essential  for  the  perform- 
ance of  necessary  operations  be  alone  a  defect,  then  no 
imperfection  can  be  pointed  at,  as  a  characteristic  of  the 
animals  v^hose  history  it  is  delightful  to  study.  Furnished 
with  faculties  for  the  execution  of  all  the  purposes  of  their 
existence,  no  one  can  direct  his  attention  to  them  unpre- 
judiced, without  finding  himself  involuntarily  interested 
in  their  study :  and  when  he  discovers  them  possessed  of 
all  the  senses-  he  is  blessed  with,  and  observes,  besides 
their  perfect  beauty  and  curious  external  formation,  a 
something  which  he  at  times  almost  believes  cannot  be 
mere  instinct  —  when  he  reflects  upon  operations,  the 
magnitude  of  whose  design  can  scarcely  be  realized,  and 
whose  completion  can  hardly  be  credited,  he  is  compelled 
to  exclaim  like  a  distinguished  Roman  philosopher,  when 
examining  these  same  objects,  '  the  nature  of  things  is 
never  more  complete  than  in  the  least  things.' 

From  an  erroneous  idea  that  much  crueltij  must  neces- 
sarily be  exercised  in  the  pursuit  of  this  science,  many 
are  deterred  from  attending  to  it.  If  the  individuals  be- 
longing to  this  class  were  as  susceptible  of  suffering  as 
those  of  some  other  classes,  —  and  were  it  absolutely  ne- 


ENTOMOLOGY.  167 


cessary  that  many  individuals  of  the  same  family  should 
be  destroyed  in  order  to  become  acquainted  with  their 
histories,  then  might  this  be  offered  as  an  objection.  But 
although  all  the  senses  are  possessed,  they  do  not  exist 
with  the  same  power  as  in  other  classes.  It  is  not  an  un- 
common circumstance  for  an  insect  to  leave  a  leg  in  the 
hands  of  the  entomologist,  and  not  only  fly  off  apparently 
as  joyous  as  ever,  but  in  a  moment  to  alight  and  partake 
of  its  accustomed  food.  Kirby  remarks,  '  I  have  seen 
the  common  cockchaffer  walk  about  with  apparent  in- 
difference after  some  bird  had  nearly  emptied  its  body  of 
its  viscera.  An  humble-bee  will  eat  honey  with  greediness, 
though  deprived  of  its  abdomen.  And  I  myself  lately 
saw  an  ant,  which  had  been  brought  out  of  the  nest 
by  its  comrades,  walk  when  deprived  of  its  head.  The 
head  of  a  wasp  will  attempt  to  bite  after  it  is  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  body ;  and  the  abdomen  under  simi- 
lar circumstances,  if  the  finger  be  moved  to  it,  will 
attempt  to  sting.'  M.  Riboud  speaks  of  a  beetle  which 
survived  fourteen  days  with  a  pin  passed  through  it,- 
as  thick  as  its  thigh.  Dalyell  relates  that  a  butterfly 
lived  a  month  after  being  stuck  through  with  a  pin^  and 
after  he  thought  it  had  been  destroyed  by  sulphur.  And 
our  own  Say  tells  us,  that  he  observed  a  butterfly  feeding 
with  eagerness  after  it  had  escaped  from  him,  impaled  with 
a  pin.  Leuwenhoek  had  a  mite  which  lived  eleven  weeks, 
stuck  on  the  point  of  a  needle,  under  his  microscope. 
Vaillant,  the  African  traveller,  endeavoring  to  preserve  a 
locust,  took  out  the  intestines,  and  filled  the  abdomen 
with  cotton,  and  then  fixed  it  down  by  a  pin  through  the 
thorax  :  yet  after  five  months  the  animal  still  moved  its 
feet  and  antennae.  But  if  these  remarks  do  not  prove  this 
objection  to  be  ill-founded,  I  will  change  the  argument. 
If  suffering  should  be  borne,  —  if  a  confined  insect  should 
be  made  to  endure  agoniziiig  struggles,  —  if  by  its  capti- 
vity any  useful  purpose  can  be  gained,  the  entomologist 
cannot  be  called  cruel.  Cruelty  implies  the  '  unnecessary 
infliction  of  suffering,'  to  gratify  depraved  feelings;  the 
disposition  to  inflict  pain,  when  no  possible  benefit  can  be 
derived  from  such  an  act.  But  it  is  not  shown  by  pur- 
suing any  department  of  natural   history,  when  the  feel- 


168  ENTOMOLOGY. 


ings  which  prompt  us  to  study  them  are  the  most  gene- 
rous and  elevated  of  our  natures. 

Having  dwelt  upon  such  objections  as  would  most 
probably  be  offered  to  the  cultivation  of  this  science,  by 
those  who  oppose  it,  and  having  endeavored  to  show  their 
futility,  a  few  inducements  shall  be  offered  to  its  study. 

We  are  so  prone  to  avoid  whatever  at  first  sight  is  dis- 
pleasing, so  willing  to  lend  a  ready  ear  to  whatever  les- 
sens the  value  of  any  object,  so  liable  to  be  more  impressed 
by  the  remembrance  of  an  injury  than  the  possession  of  a 
blessing,  that  most  of  mankind  pass  by  this  noble,  eleva- 
ting study,  as  if  it  were  useless ;  and  forgetting  the  utility 
of  many  of  this  class  of  creation,  see  in  it  nothing  which 
should  employ  the  rational  mind.  These  incorrect  views 
are  removed  solely  by  observation  and  reflection.  No 
one  department  of  the  works  of  nature  exhibits  more 
powerful  motives  for  its  successful  cultivation  than  this, 
if  the  number,  variety,  beauty,  or  perfection  of  its  subjects 
be  considered.  At  all  seasons,  and  in  almost  every 
situation,  individuals  may  be  observed  belonging  to  this 
class.  The  lovers  of  other  branches  may  make  but  com- 
paratively few  additions  to  the  objects  they  ah-eady  possess. 
But  the  entomologist,  even  if  he  should  be  confined  to 
the  close  and  less  pure  air  of  a  city,  and  allowed  to  travel 
over  paved  streets  only,  and  this  too,  while  in  the  per- 
formance of  his  necessary  duties,  has  frequent  opportuni- 
ties of  noticing  species  with  which  previously  he  had 
been  unacquainted.  And  to  the  naturalist,  what  can  be 
more  grateful,  than  to  find,  wherever  he  may  go,  some 
new  object  to  admire,  some  fresh  incentive  to  the  pursuit 
of  his  favorite  study.  To  the  lover  of  nature,  the  argu- 
ment just  offered  will  appear  weighty.  But  I  am  well 
aware  many  will  require  stronger  reasons,  than  that  faci- 
lities exist  for  the  cultivation  of  a  science,  and  that  much 
gratification  of  feeling  is  to  be  derived  from  attending  to 
it,  ere  they  think  it  worthy  their  consideration. 

For  such,  other  reasons  can  be  offered,  strong  enough 
to  convince  any  one  of  its  advantages.  As  the  agricul- 
turist, by  a  minute  acquaintance  with  the  habits  of  this 
order  of  beings,  is  enabled  to  prevent  in  a  great  degree 
the  injuries  he  would  otherwise  inevitably  be  compelled 


ENTOMOLOGV.  169 


to  suffer,  so  is  he  restrained  from  much  useless  labor,  and 
no  little  voluntary  suffering.  lie  neither  amuses  us  by 
burying  in  the  earth,  with  the  intention  of  destroying 
them,  immense  quantities  of  caterpillars  which  spend  a 
part  of  their  lives  there  ;  nor  by  cutting  down  valuable 
trees,  to  spare  others,  because  the  insects  which  inhabit 
both,  appear  to  him  as  belonging  to  the  same  species.  He 
is  enabled  also  to  discover  that  some  of  our  most  common 
insects  are  of  much  value  to  him,  in  checking  the  increase 
of  others,  which  would  be  injurious  to  his  crops.  An 
acquaintance  with  this  subject  will  also  remove  many  er- 
roneous ideas  which  had  been  formed  respecting  the 
characters  of  these  individuals,  and  the  purposes  for 
which  they  were  created.  Tlie  ticking  of  the  death- 
watch  will  no  longer  be  listened  to  with  silent  shuddering  ; 
nor  will  the  protuberance  on  the  oak  leaf  be  examined 
with  fearful  forebodings,  but  the  fretal  larva  will  be 
allowed  quietly  to  go  on  to  perfection,  whether  it  foretels 
war,  pestilence,  or  famine  ;  and  the  minutest  and  most 
neglected  insect,  when  the  purposes  of  its  existence  are 
well  known,  will  prove  how  injurious  oftentimes  are  pre- 
conceived opinions. 

IMMEDIATE    ADVANTAGES    DEKIVED  FROM  INSECTS. 

Another  reason  should  be  dwelt  upon.  The  direct  benefits 
derived  from  the  individuals  belonging  to  this  class,  should 
claim  forthem  a  greater  share  of  attention.  Well  do  1  know, 
that  all  other  arguments  whicli  can  be  offered,  are  slight  in 
comparison  with  this.  We  are  ever  ready  to  engage  m  a 
pursuit,  when  it  affords  a  prospect  of  remuneration,  which 
before  hardly  claimed  a  thought ;  and  often  become  from 
this  cause  zealous  enthusiasts,  where  previously  we  had 
studiously  avoided  engaging  our  feelings.  And  here, 
I  would  refer  particularly  to  the  immense  profits  which 
may  be  received  from  insects,  as  articles  of  commerce. 
None,  save  those  who  have  particularly  attended  to  this 
subject,  can  for  a  moment  conceive  the  extent  of  this 
traffic.  Not  only  are  various  species  used  in  the  arts, 
but  in  some  countries  as  articles  of  food,  many  have  an 
extensive  circulation.  A  few  examples  only  shall  be  of- 
fered at  the  present  time.  To  entomology  must  we  look 
for  Several  of  our  most  beautiful  and  valuable  dyes.     A 


170  ENTOMOLOGY. 


perfect  scarlet  is  obtained  from  the  same  insect  whose  se- 
cretion, under  the  name  of  Lac,  is  applied  to  so  many 
useful  purposes  ;  and  with  the  crimson  dye  of  the  Cochi- 
neal insect,  all  are  familiar.  This  insect,  the  Coccus 
Cacti,  is' a  native  of  South  America,  and  is  particularly 
cultivated  in  Mexico.  When  the  female,  which  is  alone 
valuable,  has  arrived  at  its  perfect  state,  it  fixes  itself  to 
the  surface  of  the  leaf,  and  encloses  itself  in  a  white  cottony 
matter  which  it  secretes.  When  it  has  deposited  all  its  eggs, 
it  shrivels  and  dies  ;  but  as  its  colouring  qualities  are  thus 
destroyed,  those  who  raise  them  are  careful  to  kill  them 
before  this  time,  which  they  do  by  brushing  them  off  the 
plants,  and  applying  the  fumes  of  hot  vinegar,  or  throw- 
ing them  into  boiling  water  ;  they  are  then  dried  and  im- 
ported into  Europe.  The  cultivation  of  the  cochineal 
insect  requires  much  attention,  and  the  gathering  of 
the'in  also.  But  the  time  of  those  thus  occupied  is  well 
employed,  this  insect  furnishing  the  most  valuable  dye  ob- 
tained from  this  class  of  animals.  Humboldt  tells  us,  that, 
the  quantity  annually  exported  from  South  America,  is 
there  worth  upwards  of  five  hundred  thousand  pounds  ster- 
ling ;  and  it  has  been  said  that  the  Spanish  government 
is  yearly  more  enriched  by  this  article,  than  by  the 
produce  of  all  its  gold  mines.  The  directors  of  the  East 
India  Company  offered  a  reward  of  six  thousand  pounds 
to  any  one  who  should  introduce  it  into  India.  In  com- 
merce, this  article  is  almost  always  adulterated,  different 
substances  being  mixed  with  it,  and  colored  by  it ;  and  Dr 
Paris,  in  his  Pharmacologia,  remarks,  that  a  very  consi- 
derable number  of  women  and  children  get  a  support  in 
London,  by  forming  in  moulds  made  for  that  purpose, 
particles  of  dough,  and  coloring  them  with  cochineal. 

The  Lac  insect  referred  to  above,  another  species  of 
Coccus,  lives  upon  a  species  of  Rhamnus.  It  is  nourish- 
ed by  the  tree,  and  there  deposits  its  eggs,  which  it 
defends  by  this  secretion,  which  also  serves  as  a  habita- 
tion for  the  perfect  insect,  and  ansv/ers  for  food  to  the 
larva.  This  lac  is  formed  into  cells,  finished  with  much 
regularity  and  art.  The  flies  are  invited  to  deposit  their 
eggs  on  the  branches  of  the  tree,  by  besmearing  them 
with  some  of  the  fresh  lac   steeped  in  water,  which  attf  acts 


ENTOMOLOGV.  171 


them,  and  thus  gives  a  larger  crop.  When  purified —  which 
is  done  by  first  removing  the  twrigs,  leaves,  and  all  the 
foreign  substances,  then  breaking  it  into  small  pieces, 
placing  them  in  a  canvas  bag,  which  is  applied  to  the 
fire  until  the  liquid  lac  passes  through  its  pores,  when  it 
is  taken  off  the  fire  and  pressed  —  it  is  used  for  making 
sealing-wax,  beads,  rings,  and  various  ornaments. 

The  Bee  also  furnishes  an  article  of  much  importance  ; 
honey,  the  juice  of  plants,  changed  in  its  properties 
while  in  the  stomach  of  the  bee,  is  no  small  source  of  re- 
venue to  many  individuals.  Although  most  of  the  honey 
consumed  is  obtained  from  the  hive-bee,  great  quantities 
are  in  various  countries  collected  from  different  species 
of  wild  bees.  Thus,  in  South  America,  much  is  obtained 
from  nests  in  the  trunks  of  trees.  The  beautiful  rock- 
honey  is  also  the  produce  of  wild  bees,  which  form  their 
nests  to  rocks.  Large  quantities  of  hives  of  a  bee  differ- 
ing from  our  common  bee,  are  carried  to  different  situa- 
tions on  the  Nile,  as  the  food  of  the  bees  at  different 
places,  fails  them.  The  French  have  learned  a  lesson  from 
this,  and  been  profited.  As  the  flowers  decrease  at  any 
particular  spot,  compelling  the  bees  to  go  far  from  their 
hives,  the  proprietors  of  the  hives  place  them  on  a  barge 
well  covered,  and  they  pass  down  the  rivers,  collecting  the 
honey  on  the  banks.  In  Spain  the  number  of  bee-hives 
is  very  great  :  Mills  relates  that  a  single  priest  was 
known  to  possess  five  thousand  hives. 

Wax,  a  substance  vv'hich  is  secreted  from  honey,  and 
transpires  through  the  pores  of  the  skin  of  the  bee,  and 
the  article  of  which  the  bee  forms  its  comb,  is  to  some 
countries  a  source  of  great  revenue.  Thus  we  are  told, 
that  upwards  of  eightythree  thousand  pounds*  value  are 
annually  sent  from  Cuba  to  New  Spain  ;  and  that  the  whole 
quantity  exported  from  the  same  island,  has  been  worth 
upwards  of  one  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  pounds  in  a 
year.  By  those  who  are  never  satisfied  of  the  expediency 
of  anyobject,  who  would  prefer  to  receive  everything  of 
others,  rather  than  make  the  slightest  effort  themselves, 
objections  have  been  advanced  as  to  the  probability  of  our 
succeeding  in  rearing  bees  in  New  England.  Our  mild 
weather  continues  so  short  a  time,  say    they,  that   the 


172 


ENTOMOLOCiV. 


bees  have  time  enough  only  to  provide  a  sufficiency  for 
their  own  vi^ants  during  the  remainder  of  the  year.  We 
ought  not  to  be  surprised  at  the  misrepresentations  of 
foreigners  respecting  our  climate,  while  we  have  so  many 
traducers  at  home ;  nor  feel  irritated  at  the  insinuations 
which  would  imply  the  degeneracy  of  all  created  things 
in  a  traveller,  while  those  who  should  repel  are  so  ready 
to  give  such  errors  circulation.  That  much  may  be  done 
has  already  been  proved  in  many  of  our  States.  And  if 
at  any  particular  spots  it  is  desirable  to  establish  hives, 
previous  to  the  growth  of  such  seed  as  may  be  sown,  they 
might  be  moved  as  in  Egypt  and  France,  to  points  where 
food  may  be  found  in  great  abundance,  and  afterwards 
restored  to  the  appointed  place.  But  even  if  this  should 
be  impracticable,  and  if  the  quantity  of  honey  produced 
by  the  bees  were  but  little  besides  what  would  be  neces- 
sary for  them,  if  they  should  be  allowed  to  feed  continu- 
ally and  to  the  extent  of  their  appetites,  much  might  be 
gained  by  placing  the  hives,  after  all  the  honey  was  col- 
lected, in  situations  where  the  temperature  should  be  so 
low  as  to  render  the  bees  inactive,  and  consequently  re- 
quiring but  little  to  nourish  them,  until  the  returning 
spring. 

*  The  product  of  another  insect,  the  caterpillar  of  a 
moth,  whether  it  be  looked  upon  as  an  article  of 
commerce,  or  an  object  of  domestic  employment,  is  well 
worthy  the  attention  of  our  country.  The  raising  of 
silk-worms  engaged  the  attention  of  an  emperor  of  China, 
so  long  ago  as  tvi'entyseven  hundred  years  before  the 
Christian  era  ;  and  an  empress  first  attended  to  the  man- 
ufacture of  silk.  This  occupation  for  a  long  time  was 
confined  to  ladies  of  the  most  elevated  standing;  but  gra- 
dually became  an  employment  for  females  generally. 
After  the  quantity  of  silk  manufactured  was  sufficient  to 
clothe  all  classes  in  China,  it  was  used  as  an  article  of 
exportation,  and  was  carried  from  the  northern  parts  of 
the  Chinese  dominions  to  every  part  of  Asia.  In  555, 
two   monks  brought  from  China  in   their  hollow  staves, 

*  The  following  remarks  upon  t!ie  silk  worm  have  been  previously 
inserted  in  a  number  of  the  Ladies'  Magazine. 


ENTOMOLOGY.  173 


silk-worms'  eggs  to  Constantinople  ;  and  thus  Europe 
first  became  possessed  of  the  power  of  raising  silk.  In 
Greece,  as  in  China,  females  of  the  first  families  com- 
menced the  care  of  silk-worms.  Next  to  Greece,  Italy 
attended  to  the  rearing  of  these  insects.  About  the  year 
1600,  Henry  IV.  introduced  the  raising  of  silk-worms 
into  France,  which  now  derives  from  their  labors 
23,560,000  francs  annually.  Although  in  1180,  silk  was 
imported  into  England  from  China,  which  was  earlier 
than  it  had  been  received  in  France,  still  nothing  of  im- 
portance was  done  towards  the  introduction  of  the  cater- 
pillar into  England,  until  within  the  last  eleven  years,  -  - 
two  hundred  years  after  France  had  set  the  example. 
Although  two  preceding  attempts  had  failed  to  render  the 
cultivation  of  silk  important  in  Germany,  during  the 
past  twelve  years  great  efforts  have  been  made  there,  ori- 
ginating with  the  Agricultural  Society  of  Bavaria.  Prus- 
sia and  Sweden  also,  have  not  been  idle  ;  and  in  the  for- 
mer of  these,  it  has  been  proved,  that  '  silk  equal  to  that 
of  Italy  may  be  produced,  affording  greater  profit  than 
any  other  branch  of  rural  industry  ; '  while  that  raised  in 
the  latter  country  would  show  '  that  the  silk  raised  near 
the  polar  circle,  is  equal  in  strength  and  firmness  to  any 
species  cultivated  in  more  temperate  climates.' 

The  cultivation  of  the  silk-worm  in  this  country,  is 
becoming  an  object  of  so  much  importance,  that  during 
the  year  1828,  the  Senate  of  the  United  States,  ordered 
2000  copies  of  a  letter  from  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
transmitting  all  the  information  which  could  be  collected 
respecting  the  cultivation  of  silk  in  the  Union,  to  be 
printed  for  the  use  of  its  members.  In  Virginia,  Georgia 
and  South  Carolina,  the  silk-worm  has  been  reared  for 
many  years.  In  1760,  silk  was  first  raised  in  Connecti- 
cut. Since  then  in  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massa- 
chusetts and  very  lately  in  Maine,  this  subject  has  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  economists.  Connecticut  has 
been  eminently  successful  in  her  efforts: — in  1825,  in 
the  town  of  Mansfield  alone,  in  that  State,  the  silk  man- 
ufactured was  three  hundred  pounds — valued  ^t fifteen 
thousand  dollars  : — in  1826,  the  County  of  Windham 
manufactured  silk  to  the  amount  of  fiftyfour  thousand 

VOL.    I. NO.    VII,  16 


174  ENTOMOLOGY. 


dollars.  It  is  estimated  that  five  thousand  dollars'  worth 
of  silk  is  annually  sold  in  one  County,  (Orange  County) 
in  New  York ;  and  the  whole  sale  of  this  article  in 
that  State,  is  calculated  at  fifteen  thousand  dollars. 
When  it  is  considered  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
labor  may  be  accomplished  by  females  and  children, 
and  that  it  is  not  only  a  healtiiful  exercise,  but  an  agree- 
able amusement,  it  will  be  thought  not  a  little  surprising, 
that  we  are  so  willing  and  ready  to  import  silk  from 
abroad. 

A  GENERAL    VIEW  OF    THE    INJURIES    AND    BENEFITS    PRO- 
DUCED BY  EACH  ORDER  OF  INSECTS. 

But  perhaps  many  might  be  persuaded  to  engage  in 
the  study  of  entomology,  if  the  benefits  derived  from, 
and  the  injuries  produced  by  eaph  order  of  insects,  were 
exhibited  in  a  general  manner,  that  they  might  be  readily 
compared. 

The  first  order  is  called  Coleoptera,  from  the  Greek 
words  koleos,  a  sheath  —  and  j^teron,  a  wing  —  referring  to 
the  strong  elytra  or  external  wings,  which  protect  the 
true  wings.  Among  the  genera  of  this  order  which  are 
most  common,  are  the  beetle,  stag-beetle,  carrion-bug, 
weevil,  lady-bird,  blistering-fly,  water-beetle,  &.c,  &c. 
From  the  ravages  of  the  first  order  of  insects,  man 
suffers  extremely  :  —  although  our  jjcrsons  are  incom- 
moded as  little  perhaps  by  the  animals  belonging  to 
this  order,  as  either  of  the  other  orders,  still  the  ob- 
jects by  which  we  are  surrounded,  those  necessary  to 
our  subsistence,  as  well  as  articles  of  luxury  and  ease,  are 
all  subject  to  their  depredations. 

But  if  the  many  are  not  useful,  the  few  are  of  infinite 
value.  Decomposing  substances,  while  they  are  removed 
from  our  view,  are  carried  by  these  animals  into  the 
earth,  and  thereby  tend  to  enrich  vegetation.  Noxious 
genera  are  held  in  detestation  by  others,  which  offer  us 
no  molestation,  while  some  species  afford  subsistence  to 
others.  Thus  the  Aphides,  the  small  flies,  or  (as  they 
are  generally  called)  lice,  so  common  upon  many  of  our 
plants,  are  in  some  seasons  devoured  in  immense  quanti- 
ties by  our  beautiful  lady-birds  ;  and  the  females  of  the 
cockchaffer,  one  of  the  most  iniurious  of  the  tribe  to  the 


ENTOMOLOGY,  J  75 


agriculturist,  are  destroyed  at  the  moment  they  are 
most  to  be  dreaded,  by  the  genus  of  Ground-beetles.  JNor 
do  these  afford  sustenance  to  animals  of  the  same  scien- 
tific class  alone.  Our  native  birds,  those  which  follow  on 
wherever  cultivation  is,  —  whose  delightful  notes  meet 
the  ear  at  the  rising  of  the  sun, —  whose  melody  cheers 
the  husbandman  fatigued  at  noonday,  —  and  by  whose 
evening  concerts  the  pure  heart  is  elevated  and  enrap^ 
tured,  —  which  teach  us  a  glorious  lesson  of  confidence, 
by  rearing  and  educating  their  young  at  our  very  doors — 
these  also  are  provided  for  by  the  existence  of  noxious 
insects  :  —  and  little  does  he  study  his  own  interest, 
whose  selfishness  causes  their  destruction.  Other  ani- 
mals also  feed  upon  insects.  I  am  not  compelled  to  go 
back  to  the  Romans,  to  speak  of  their  larvae  fattened  to 
glut  the  appetites  of  epicures ;  nor  to  point  to  the  Afri- 
can greedily  devouring  his  roasted  caterpillar,  while  the- 
larvae  of  one  of  the  largest  species  of  beetle,  is  at  the 
present  day  an  article  of  luxury  with  many  in  South 
America,  and  is  served  up  at  the  tables  of  some  of  the 
most  wealthy  inhabitants  of  the  West  India  islands.  But 
from  no  insect  belonging  to  this  order,  I  might  almost 
have  said  this  class,  do  we  derive  so  much  benefit  as 
from  the  genus  Meloe,  in  which  is  found  the  blistering- 
fly.  The  blistering,  or  as  it  is  called  in  commerce,  the 
Spanish-fly,  is  found  in  large  quantities  in  the  South  of 
Europe  ;  and  is  particularly  abundant  in  Spain.  They 
are  collected  from  the  leaves  of  different  trees  in  summer, 
and  are  afterwards  destroyed  by  the  fumes  of  vinegar, 
and  dried  in  the  sun ;  when  applied  externally  to  the 
human  body,  they  act  as  a  powerful  vesicatory  ;  when 
given  internally,  as  a  stimulant  of  great  efficacy.  In 
many  derangements  of  the  system,  they  are,  in  the  hands 
of  the  judicious  practitioner,  the  means  of  preserving  many 
of  our  race.  When  exhibited  by  the  ignorant  empiric, 
they  are  not  unfrequently  productive  of  the  most  severe 
sufferings  and  lamentable  deaths.  Our  common  jJotafo-fli/ 
is  one  of  this  genus  of  insects,  and  while  it  possesses  all 
the  virtues  of  the  Spanish-fly,  it  does  not  produce  the  bad 
symptoms,  which  often  attend  the  employment  of  that 
remedy :    and    Professor  Barton   of  Philadelphia,    after 


176  '  ENTOMOLOGY, 


employing  both  for  a  long  time  in  his  practice,  gave  the 
preference  to  our  native  fly.  It  however  cannot  be  col- 
lected here  in  sufficient  quantities  to  supply  the  demand, 
and  consequently  is  not  so  much  used  as  the  foreign  in- 
sect. The  active  virtues  of  the  Blistering-fly,  depend 
upon  the  existence  of  a  principle,  which  has  obtained  the 
name  of  Caniharidin. 

The  second  order,  is  named  IJemipiera,  from  emisu, 
the  half,  and  pferoii,  a  wing.  Tlie  outer  wings  of  this 
order,  are  semicoriaceous  :  they  are  not  so  strong  as  those 
of  the  first  order,  but  more  so  than  the  remaining  orders. 
This  includes  the  cockroach,  locust,  lantern-fly,  wa- 
ter-scorpion, bug-plant,  louse,  &c,  &c.  The  1st  genus, 
as  arrangeil  by  Linnccus,  is  the  cockroach :  this  is  an 
extremely  troublesome  animal,  not  only  destroying  our 
articles  of  food,  but  in  many  cases,  our  garments  and 
books.  By  the  ravages  of  the  Aphis,  or  plant-louse, 
whole  crops  are  often  destroyed;  our  esculents  and  valu- 
able plants  ;  our  fruit  trees,  as  well  as  those  of  our  woods, 
are  all  injured  by  this  insect :  by  suction,  it  abstracts 
from  the  tender  shoot  its  nutriment,  and  blasts  the  leaf 
by  its  peculiar  secretion.  This  secretion  is  sometimes 
enormous  ;  and  not  only  by  its  quantity  completely  encases 
the  plant,  but  by  its  saccharine  nature,  affords  a  resting 
place  for  noxious  insects.  The  cocci  also,  which  look 
like  protuberances  upon  the  stalks  of  plants,  do  consid- 
erable injury  by  drawing  off  the  sap,  and  thus  destroying 
life.  To  refer  to  any  more  genera  of  this  order,  would 
be  needless.  It  is  time  to  turn  to  those  of  this  order 
which  are  of  value  to  us.  In  speaking  of  the  advan- 
tages derived  from  many  insects  of  the  preceding 
order,  I  referred  to  some  which  kept  other  species  in 
check,  by  subsisting  upon  them.  In  tiiis  order  we  find 
the  Mantis  tribe  ;  those  whose  peculiar  appearance  has 
given  the  idea  of  sanctity,  one  of  the  most  ferocious  tribes 
of  insects,  even  carrying  there  animosities  so  far  as  to 
destroy  each  other.  But  to  the  coccus  are  we  to  look, 
as  the  most  valuable  genus  of  this  order.  By  a  species 
of  this  genus,  is  produced  the  Pe-la,  or  white  wax  of 
China.  The  Chinese  cherish  these  insects  by  stocking 
some  species  of  trees  with  them.     This  secretion  begins 


ENTOMOLOGY.  177 


to  appear  about  the  commencement  of  summer,  and  is  col- 
lected in  the  autumn.  This  wax  is  used  by  the  nobility, 
and  also  by  public  speakers,  to  excite  them.  To  the  Lac, 
and  also  to  the  Cochineal  Coccus,  1  have  referred  above. 
Besides  the  dying  property  of  the  Cochineal  Coccus, 
while  many  unhesitatingly  deny  it  any  medicinal  virtues, 
it  is  still  employed  by  numerous  physicians  of  experience 
and  eminence,  as  a  stimulant  medicine. 

Like  the  larvee  of  the  preceding  order,  some  of  the 
individuals  belonging  to  this,  are  used  as  articles  of  food. 
That  genus  which  has  often  produced  such  extensive 
suffering,  the  locust,  has  in  many  countries  had  its 
devourers.  At  Mecca,  in  times  of  famine,  they  have 
been  ground  up  and  mixed  with  flour  for  cakes :  in 
Greece,  and  the  Barbary  powers,  they  have  been  an  ar- 
ticle of  merchandize  ;  and  the  Hottentots,  although  their 
vegetation  may  be  ruined,  joyously  fatten  themselves  upon 
cooked  locusts. 

The  third  order  is  composed  of  such  insects  as  have 
their  wings  covered  with  scales.  This  is  called  Lepi- 
doptera,  from  lepis^  a  scale.  Three  genera  only  are  in- 
cluded in  this  order.  The  butterfly,  hawk  moth  and 
moth.  The  individuals  of  this  order  are  the  most  beau- 
tiful of  the  class,  and  often  claim  the  admiration  of  those 
who  would  absurdly  cherish  for  others  an  inexplicable 
disgust.  Few  as  are  the  genera  belonging  to  this  order, 
their  ravages  are  far  from  being  slight ; — their  advantages 
are  far  from  unimportant — although  the  caterpillars  of  the 
1st  genus,  Papilio,  the  butterfly,  are  sometimes  slightly 
pernicious,  to  the  other  genera,  the  moth  and  hawk- 
moth,  we  are  to  look  principally  for  the  causes  of  our 
injuries.  A  species  ofmoth  does  incredible  mischief  in 
some  seasons  to  grass.  We  are  told  that  about  half  a 
century  since,  the  fields  of  Sweden  were  rendered  quite 
dry  by  these,  as  if  a  fire  had  passed  over  them.  A 
small  species  of  moth  destroys  our  grain  ;  our  vege- 
tables also  suffer  from  their  inroads ;  while  others 
destroy  the  bark,  and  leaves,  and  blossoms  of  our 
fruit  trees.  Many  forests  also,  in  our  country,  have  thus 
been  seriously  injured.  The  foliage  being  removed  when 
the   heat  was  very    great,  the    unsheltered   trunks  have 

vol..    I. NO.    vii.  16* 


178  -  ENTOMOLOGY. 


yielded  up  their  lives.  The  vine,  too,  is  often  entirely 
destroyed  by  a  caterpillar  of  this  genus,  on  the  borders  of 
the  Black  Sea :  as  soon  as  the  buds  open,  they  eat  them 
off,  especially  the  fruit  buds,  and  devour  the  germ  of 
the  grape  :  two  or  three  of  these  caterpillars  will  so  injure 
a  vine,  by  passing  from  one  germ  to  another,  that  it  will 
bear  no  fruit  the  next  year.  But  their  depredations  are 
not  confined  to  the  vegetable  kingdom.  The  larvae  of 
several  species  of  moths  do  much  injury  to  the  hive  bee  ; 
inclosing  themselves  in  tubes  of  wax,  they  dwell  there, 
unmindful  of  the  bees.  Our  farmers  have  been  almost 
discouraged  some  seasons,  by  the  depredations  of  a  moth, 
which  utterly  ruins  their  hives,  and  which  has  obtained 
the  name  generally,  of  the  bee-moth.  As  however,  it  is 
ascertained  that  the  perfect  insect  deposits  its  eggs  only 
in  clear  dry  spots,  it  is  thought  the  evil  may,  in  a  great 
measure,  be  removed,  by  placing  the  hives  upon  the 
ground,  or  strewing  earth  to  the  depth  of  several  inches 
upon  their  floors.  Experiments  lead  us  to  hope  much 
will  be  gained  by  this  method  of  hiving.  Nor  are  in- 
sects the  only  animals  affected — man  himself  is  not 
wholly  exempt  from  their  attacks.  We  are  told  by  Azara, 
that  in  South  America,  tliere  is  a  large  brown  moth, 
which  deposits  its  eggs  in  a  kind  of  saliva,  upon  the  flesh 
of  persons  sleeping  naked  ;  introducing  themselves  under 
the  skin  without  being  perceived,  they  occasion  swelling, 
accompanied  by  much  pain  and  inflammation.  AHhough 
the  caterpillars  of  this  order  are,  among  the  Chinese,  and 
the  inhabitants  of  New  Holland,  an  article  of  food,  and 
are  considered  by  the  Moors  one  of  their  greatest  deli- 
cacies, our  chief  advantage  is  derived  from  individuals 
of  the  third  genus,  Phalena — the  moth — and  from  that 
species  particularly,  which  subsists  upon  the  white  mul- 
berry tree,  and  supplies  us  with  silk. 

Insects  having  four  membranaceous,  naked  wings, 
reticulated  with  veins,  or  in  which  the  membranes  look 
like  net  work,  make  up  the  fourth  order,  which  is  called 
Ncuroptcra,  from  luuron — a  nerve.  The  dragon-fly,  may- 
fly, and  spring-fly,  are  among  the  genera  of  this  order. 
Although  the  benefits  received  from  this  order  are  of  less 
magnitude  than  those  derived  from   several  others,  the 


ENTOMOLOGY.  179 


injuries  suffered  from  its  subjects  are  unimportant,  and 
I  might  say,  unknown.  The  voracious  and  tyrannical 
dragun-fiy,  may  perhaps  destroy  in  its  fury  many  species 
of  insects,  which  are  of  value  to  the  husbandman  ;  but  as 
its  instinct  prompts  it  to  feed  upon  many  noxious  species, 
it  ought  perhaps  to  be  regarded  as  a  blessing,  rather  than 
a  curse.  The  next  genus,  Ephemera,  the  spring-fly,  al- 
though its  existence  is  continued  but  a  day,  affords  a 
valuable  substitute  to  many  farmers  in  Europe  for  manure. 
Scopoli,  the  historian  of  the  insects  of  Carniola,  remarks 
that  the  peasants  in  his  neighborhood  are  dissatisfied,  un- 
less they  can  individually,  collect  at  the  times  of  their 
appearance,  at  least  twenty  cart  loads,  to  strew  over 
their  grounds.  The  Hemerobius,  or  golden-eye,  in  its 
larvae  state,  is  of  great  value  also,  in  the  destruction  of  the 
Aphides,  or  plant-lice. 

The  fifth  order  has  four  membranaceous,  naked  wings, 
and  is  called  Hymenoptera,  from  umen,  a  membrane.  This 
order  has  been  ranked  at  the  head  of  the  class  by  some 
naturalists,  on  account  of  their  admirable  economy.  The 
gall-fly,  saw-fly,  ichneumon-fly,  wasp,  bee  and  ant, 
are  arranged  by  Linnseus,  in  this  order  of  insects.  Some 
genera  are  extremely  injurious,  while  others  are-  of  im- 
mense value. 

The  Cynips,  or  gall-fly,  when  its  larvae  are  deposited 
in  unusual  numbers  upon  a  leaf,  must  detract  largely  from 
its  nourishment :  consequently,  whole  trees  may,  in  some 
seasons,  suffer  from  their  presence.  The  second  genus, 
Tenthredo,  commonly  called  saw-fly,  is  the  most  dreaded 
insect  of  this  order — its  vulgar  name  is  derived  from  the 
instrument  by  which  it  makes  an  incision  in  a  leaf;  this 
instrument,  is  a  double  saw,  which  in  using,  the  insect 
first  throws  out  one,  then  the  other  alternately,  until  a 
sufficient  incision  is  made;  when  they  are  both  retracted, 
and  the  egg  is  deposited  from  between  them.  Although 
the  larvae  of  this  genus  generally  feed  on  the  rose,  and 
the  willow  tree,  our  grain,  vegetables  and  fruit  trees,  have 
been  at  times,  seriously  injured.  One  species  of  these 
larvae,  which  has  received  the  name  of  slug-worm,  and 
which  has  been  admirably  described,  its  changes  and  its 
injuries,  by   the  late  Professor  Peck,  in   a  volume  of  the 


ISO  ENTOMOLOGV. 


papers  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Society,  caused 
serious  alarm  in  this  country,  about  thirty  years  since.  At 
that  time,  some  of  our  most  valuable  trees  were  com- 
pletely stripped  of  their  leaves,  and  the  crops  of  the  suc- 
ceeding years  blasted  by  their  ravages.  I  will  not  speak 
of  the  stings  of  the  bee,  nor  the  wasp,  nor  the  Ichneumon- 
fly,  for  although  I,  with  others,  may  have  suffered  from 
their  venom,  the  suffering  was  deserved,  and  I  am  in- 
clined to  believe,  tliat  in  almost  every  case,  in  which 
injuries  are  produced  by  these  insects,  they  act  on  the 
defensive. 

This  order  of  insects  is  extremely  important.  If  the 
injuries  produced  by  them  have  been  minutely  detailed, 
obligations  for  benefits  received  shall  be  as  readily  ac- 
knowledged. And  here,  as  strongly,  perhaps,  as  in  any 
order  of  nature,  do  we  observe  the  necessity  of  under- 
standing perfectly  the  character  of  an  individual  before 
we  decide  upon  merits  —  of  reflecting  upon  the  ends  of 
actions,  before  we  think  of  them  as  worse  than  useless. 
Thus  the  protuberances  upon  our  leaves,  produced  by 
the  gall-fly,  while  they  disfigure  them,  and  in  some  in- 
stances greatly  injure  the  tree,  thus  causing  vexation  to 
the  possessors,  not  only  are  eaten  as  delicacies  by  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Levant,  and  form  a  considerable  article 
of  commerce  at  Constantinople,  where,  preserved,  they 
are  e?<posed  for  sale,  but  they  also  furnish  us  with  a 
valuable  dyeing  material ;  and  what  is  of  still  greater  im-^ 
portance,  we  are  indebted  to  them  for  the  means  of  form- 
ing ink. 

The  ant,  too — little  do  we  think,  when  incommoded  by 
this  genus,  that  any  of  its  species  are  important  to  man  : 
but  we  find,  upon  reflection,  that  the  anatomist  entrusts 
his  nicest  dissections  to  the  inmates  of  an  ant-hill,  with 
perfect  confidence  in  their  skill.  The  cockroach  in 
Ceylon,  is  destroyed  by  a  species  of  ant  —  and  in  the 
eighth  volume  of  the  (Quarterly  Journal  of  Science,  Liter- 
ature and  the  Arts,  is  a  very  interesting  paper  by  a  Capt. 
Bagnald,  who  says,  while  in  the  West-Indies,  he  had 
repeated  opportunities  of  watching  the  movements  of 
these  insects ;  he  saw  them  often  destroy  spiders  and 
cockroaches,    and  upon  one  occasion,  he  observed  them 


ENTOMOLOGY.  181 


encounter  a  centipede,  which,  however,  the)'  did  not  put 
to  death,  until  they  had  completely  encrusted  him  ;  and 
thougli  in  the  conflict,  thousands  of  them  were.destvoyed, 
they  finally  killed  him.  Nor  are  these  all  the  advan- 
tages derived  from  them  :  a  low  priced  brandy  is  made  in 
Sweden,  of  rye  and  ants  —  these  insects  supplying  a 
resin,  an  oil,  and  an  acid.  And  in  that  country,  they 
are  not  unfrequently  eaten  uncooked,  for  their  acid  taste  ; 
the  devourers  first  plucking  off  their  heads  and  wings. 
The  ichneumon-fly  is  of  essential  service,  in  depositing 
its  eggs,  in  the  eggs  or  as  yet  imbecile  larvse  —  or  by 
checking  the  progress  of  the  powerful  and  voracious 
caterpillar.  The  sphex,  or  ichneumon-wasp,  is  a  de- 
stroyer of  the  cockroach;  wasps  destroy  for  us  immense 
quantities  of  flies  —  and  in  the  interior  of  New  England, 
their  paper  nests  are  used  in  affections  of  the  lungs. — 
What  their  virtues  are,  the  writer  knows  not :  the  sub- 
stance by  which  they  unite  the  particles  of  their  nests 
together  may  perhaps  be  of  a  stimulating  quality,  and 
thus  be  enabled  to  relieve  the  existing  stricture.  But  the 
Bee,  which  has  been  already  dwelt  upon,  is  the  most 
valuable  insect  of  this  order. 

If  in  speaking  of  the  order  Neuroptera,  it  was  remark- 
ed that  the  injuries  they  produced  were  of  but  small  con- 
sideration, I  must  here  notice  an  order,  in  which  but 
little  obvious  advantage  is  perceived,  to  compensate  for 
its  powers  of  annoyance. 

The  sixth  order  of  Insects  is  called  Diptera — from  dis, 
twice,  or  double ;  they  having  but  two  wings.  In  this 
order,  we  find  the  various  kinds  of  flies  and  the  musquitto ; 
here  we  observe  not  only  genera  which  attack  our  provi- 
sions and  ruin  them,  which  harass,  and  render  furious 
our  cattle,  and  horses,  and  flocks,  but  also  those  which 
avoid  less  palatable  food,  to  regale  themselves  with  the 
blood  of  man.  The  first  genus,  CEstrus,  the  gad-fly, 
is  the  most  troublesome,  which  affects  our  domestic  ani- 
mals. The  gad-fly  of  the  ox,  deposits  its  eggs  in  the 
body  of  that  animal,  and  thus  the  larvae  are  provided  for, 
during  the  whole  winter.  You  may  imagine  how  trouble- 
some such  an  insect  must  be  to  the  animal,  particularly 
if  it  should  suffer  from  indisposition  after  the  deposition 


183  ENTOMOLOGY. 


of  the  egg.  Another  species,  by  irritating  the  lips  of  the 
horse  in  its  endeavors  to  deposit  its  eggs  there,  renders 
the  animal  almost  ungovernable  :  while  the  larvae  of,a 
third  species,  hatching  in  the  stomaeh  of  this  animal  from 
eggs  introduced  by  its  tongue,  produce  a  disease,  often- 
times severe,  and  which  receives  its  name  from  the  larvae 
which  produce  it.  Our  inoffensive  flocks  too,  are  com- 
pelled to  suffer  from  a  species  of  gad-fly,  which,  deposit- 
ing its  eggs  in  the  nostrils  of  the  animal,  feeds  in  the 
larvae  state  upon  the  delicate  membrane  there,  causing 
extreme  distress,  and  not  unfrequently,  by  insinuating 
itself  into  the  brain,  produces  death.  But  these  are 
not.  the  only  sufferers:  not  only  does  a  species  of  gad- 
fly deposit  its  eggs  in  the  abdomen  of  man,  causing  great 
irritation  and  suffering,  in  the  torrid  zone,  but  in  some 
cases,  even  destroys  life.  The  larv^  of  the  second  genus, 
Tipula,  the  crane-fly,  in  some  seasons,  do  much  injury 
to  grass,  wheat  and  corn,  by  burrowing  in  their  roots. 
With  the  inconveniences  of  the  third  genus,  Musca,  the 
fly,  all  must  be  conversant :  by  this  genus,  our  articles 
of  luxury  are  tarnished,  our  provisions  destroyed,  our 
persons  molested,  —  v/hile  some  species,  not  satisfied  with 
one  substance,  attack  all  provisions  which  may  be  gather- 
ed for  use  by  the  husbandman  :  others  are  abroad,  de- 
positing the  seeds  of  ruin  in  our  grain,  disappointing  the 
hard  working  agriculturist.  One  species,  a  few  years 
since  in  this  country,  from  its  ravages  in  our  wheat  fields, 
caused  no  common  alarm.  Nor  is  it  to  be  wondered  at, 
that  the  Hessian-fly  should  now  be  thought  of  with  terror, 
when  it  is  remembered,  that  it  not  only  attacked  this 
grain  as  soon  as  it  began  to  grow,  and  destroyed  every 
part  of  it,  but  also  by  depositing  its  eggs  in  the  stem,  so 
weakened  it,  as  to  prevent  the  ear  from  ripening.  An- 
other genus,  Tabanus,  the  whame-fiy,  is  at  times  very 
troublesome.  The  horse  is  a  principal  sufferer  from  their 
attacks — although  in  Africa,  the  inhabitants  of  whole 
counties  are  compelled  to  emigrate  yearly  to  the  locations 
of  sand,  to  prevent  their  cattle  from  being  destroyed  by 
the  attacks  of  this  insect.  The  Culex,  or  gnat,  remains 
to  be  noticed — the  greatest  plague  of  this  order.  Annoy- 
ing as  the  musquitto  is  to  us,  wiien  travelling  in  the  viciri' 


ENTOMOLOGY,  183 


ity  of  marshes,  or  when  our  rooms  are  lighted  during  the 
evenings  of  summer  —  we  have  but  little  reason  for  com- 
plaint, when  we  observe  their  ravages  in  other  countries. 
It  is  said  that  in  South  America,  soldiers  are  sometimes 
forced  to  sleep  with  their  heads  thrust  into  holes  in  the 
earth,  made  with  their  bayonets,  and  to  wrap  round  their 
necks  their  hammocks  ;  that  a  king  of  Persia,  his  army 
having  been  completely  exhausted  by  these  insects,  has 
been  compelled  to  raise  the  siege  of  cities :  that  the  Lap- 
lander is  barely  able  to  exist,  with  every  means  of  defence 
he  can  employ  ;  and  that  the  Russian  soldier,  although 
sleeping  in  a  sack,  is  not  always  able  to  live  under  such 
excessive  irritation.  And  for  all  the  sufferings  expe- 
rienced from  this  order,  decomposing  matter  is  removed 
by  the  infinite  tribe  of  flies,  which  on  every  side  surrounds 
us.  The  larvse  of  one  species,  the  inmate  of  putrid 
cheese,  is  a  delicious  repast  for  the  refined  epicure  ;  and 
it  is  conjectured  that  the  larvse  of  the  gad  fly,  which  ex- 
haust the  poor  horse,  are  in  some  cases,  a  gentle  and 
beneficial  stimulant. 

The  seventh  and  last  order,  is  called  Apicra — from  a, 
primitive,  :xndpteron,  wing,  and  includes  all  such  insects 
as  want  wings,  in  either  sex.  This  order  includes  the 
Lepismse,  commonly  called  moths  ;  Termites,  or  white- 
ants;  Pedicalus,  the  louse;  Palex,  the  flea;  &c,  &c. 
The  termites  or  white-ants,  are  extremely  numerous  in 
warm  countries,  and  very  destructive,  although  wood  is 
their  common  food ;  clothes,  furniture,  books,  and  almost 
a  manufactured  articles,  are  ruined  by  them.  They 
curiously  avoid  injurin.:,^  the  exterior  of  substances,  while 
they  are  destroying  all  within  ;  houses  are  ruined  by  them  ; 
and  when  vessels  are  so  unfortunate  as  to  receive  any  on 
board  of  them,  much  injury  is  suffered.  The  genus 
Pediculus,  louse,  is  very  extensive.  There  is  scarcely 
an  animal  or  vegetable,  that  does  not  suffer  from  its  own 
peculiar  louse.  Our  domestic  animals,  as  well  as  birds, 
fishes,  plants,  all  have  their  lice — to  man,  it  is  extremely 
troublesome :  but  as  it  has  been  ascertained  that  the  in- 
convenience is  merely  external  irritation^  we  ought  per- 
haps to  consider  it  in  the  light  of  a  proper  reward  for 
those  who  cherish  them  ;   as  rarely,  any  ond  is  annoyed, 


184  ENTOMOLOGY. 


unless  really  deserving  of  their  attacks.  The  Pulex,  or 
flea,  and  Acanis,  or  mite,  are  also  included  in  this  order, 
and  are  extremely  troublesome. 

Although  other  slight  benefits  have  been  derived  from 
several  genera,  the  insects  of  this  order  appear  to  be 
most  extensively  employed  as  articles  of  food. 

It  would  be  almost  useless  to  mention  any  of  the  dis- 
tinct and  individual  cases  of  this  singular  propensity ; 
although  they  might  be  pointed  at,  among  the  most  polish- 
ed nations  of  Europe  ;  because  they  would  be  considered 
perversions  of  taste,  when  the  inhabitants  of  extensive 
tracts  of  country  offer  themselves  as  examples.  The 
people  of  New  Caledonia  eat  immense  quantities  of 
spiders  ;  and  all  who  have  ever  read  of  the  Hottentots  and 
Esquimaux  Indians,  must  have  been  disgusted  with  their 
meals   of  lice. 

In  the  compilation  of  the  above  Tract,  the  system  of 
Linnaeus  the  Swede,  has  been  followed,  on  account  of  its 
conciseness,  principally.  The  entomologist  will  at  once 
perceive,  that  it  was  prepared  for  the  general  reader,  and 
not  for  him  who  would  be  satisfied  only  with  the  more 
elaborate  classifications  of  the  great  French  naturalists. 


"ON  THE  COLOURING  MATTER  OF 
SOME  APHIDES," 


VOL.  XI.— NMW   SEE.]  352 


On  the  Colouring  Matter  of  some  Aphides. 
By  H.  C.  SoRBY,  F.R.S.,  &c. 

Those  who  have  orchards  are  no  doubt  often  only  too 
familiar  with  the  red  Aphides  found  in  downy  patches  on  the 
bark  of  the  apple  tree.  These  are  coloured  by  a  substance 
possessing  somewhat  remarkable  properties,  connecting  it  on 
the  one  hand  with  cochineal,  and  on  the  other  with  the 
hsemoglobin  of  the  blood  of  vertebrate  animals.  It  rapidly 
changes  into  a  series  of  new  products,  which  have  remarkable 
optical  characters,  and  are  in  some  respects  analogous  to  the 
colouring  matters  of  oils  and  fats. 

In  order  to  obtain  this  red  colouring  matter  in  a  state 
suitable  for  examination,  the  insects,  fresh  taken  from  the  tree, 
should  be  crushed  up  in  a  small  quantity  of  boiling  water, 
and  the  solution  filtered.  It  is  then  of  a  fine  crimson  colour, 
giving  a  spectrum  with  a  broad  general  absorption,  extending 
from  the  yellow  over  the  whole  of  the  green  to  the  centre  of 
the  blue,  without  any  well-marked  narrow  band,  as  shown  in 
No.  1  of  the  accompanying  iig.  1. 

Fig.  1. — Spectra  of  the  light  transmitted  by  aqueous  solutions. 
Red  end.  Blue  end. 


1.  Aphideine. 


2.  First  change. 


■pnyryi  'rryM 


I  1^     ||l  l||    'l||''l|ll   3.  Second  change. 


I>  w  Eraunhofer's  lines. 

The  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  citric  acid  immediately 
alters  the  colour  to  yellow,  and  then  the  spectrum  merely 
shows  an  absorption  of  the  blue  end,  extending  to  about  the 
centre  of  the  green,  without  any  definite  absorption-bands. 
A  little  ammonia  restores  the  colour  to  its  original  state,  and 
therefore  the  crimson  colour  is  characteristic  of  a  neutral  or 

1 


353 

slightly  alkaline  solution.  When  a  small  quantity  of  the 
double  sulphate  of  protoxide  of  iron  and  ammonia  is  added 
to  the  solution  in  its  natural  state  (as  in  all  similar  cases, 
using  along  with  it  some  of  the  double  tartrate  of  potash  and 
soda,  to  prevent  the  precipitation  of  oxide  of  iron),  it  is 
changed  at  once  to  a  pale  flesh-colour ;  and,  if  a  little  am- 
monia had  been  previously  added,  the  solution  becomes  quite 
colourless.  On  exposure  to  the  air,  it  changes  back  again  to 
the  original  tint,  from  the  surface  downwards.  No  such 
alteration  is  produced  by  adding  the  ferrous  salt  to  an  acid 
solution.  This  red  substance,  therefore,  like  hsemoglobin  and 
hsematin,  exists  in  an  oxidised  and  in  a  deoxidised  condition, 
and,  like  them,  can  be  deoxidised  by  the  above-named  pro- 
cess only  when  the  solution  is  somewhat  alkaline.  It  thus . 
seems  reasonable  to  suppose  that  it  may  perform  the  same 
functions  in  the  economy  of  those  insects  which  contain  it 
that  haemoglobin  does  in  the  case  of  the  vertebrata.  For  con- 
venience, it  may  be  well  to  call  this  red  colouring  matter  of 
Aphides  Aphideine.  It  is  entirely  different  from  any 
substance  on  which  they  feed,  and  is  the  same  in  several 
species  living  on  entirely  different  plants. 

One  of  the  remarkable  peculiarities  of  hsemoglobin  is  that 
it  can  be  changed  into  a  number  of  substances,  each  giving  a 
well-marked  spectrum,  and  in  this  respect  Aphideine  is  little, 
if  at  all,  less  remarkable.  On  very  gradually  adding  a  small 
quantity  of  hypochlorite  of  soda  to  a  recently  prepared  solu- 
tion, the  original  spectrum  No.  I  is  changed  to  that  shown 
in  No.  3  ;  but  the  compound  then  formed  changes  quickly 
into  another,  the  spectrum  of  which  shows  two  similar  narrow 
absorption-bands,  somewhat  nearer  the  red  end,  not  removed 
by  the  addition  of  ammonia  or  citric  acid,  disappearing  at 
once  when  the  ferrous  salt  is  added  to  an  alkaline  solution, 
and  partially  restored  by  reoxidisation,  if  not  kept  long  in  a 
deoxidised  state.  The  same  results  may  be  obtained  by  using 
the  Aphideine  extracted  cold  by  crushing  the  insects  in  a 
small  quantity  of  water,  but  this  solution,  which  is  often 
turbid,  changes  so  raj^idly  on  exposure  to  the  air,  that  it  is 
difficult  to  examine  it  before  it  has  been  considerably  altered. 
On  crushing  the  living  insects  in  a  watch-glass  with  a  little 
w^ater,  the  solution  is  at  first  pink,  but  rapidly  becomes 
orange.  On  pouring  this  off  into  another  watch-glass,  leaving 
it  for  a  short  time,  and  then  pouring  the  comparatively  clear 
solution  into  an  experiment  cell,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
original  Aphideine  has  been  completely  altered.  On  adding 
a  little  ammonia,  instead  of  the  spectrum  showing  a  broad, 
continuous  band  like  No.  1,  three  well-marked  narrow  bands 


354 

are  seen,  as  shown  by  No.  2.  For  the  actual  position  of  these 
and  those  in  other  spectra,  I  refer  to  the  table  given  at  the 
end  of  this  paper. 

The  relative  intensity  of  these  three  bands  varies  con- 
siderably, and  this  led  me  to  conclude  that  two  diiferent 
substances  were  present,  as  was  subsequently  proved  in  the 
manner  described  in  the  sequel.  A  weak  acid  entirely  re- 
moves the  narrower  band  nearest  the  red  end,  raises  the 
others  somewhat,  and  develops  a  new  band  still  nearer  the 
extreme  blue,  which  can  only  be  seen  with  excellent  sun- 
light. On  adding  the  ferrous  salt  to  the  alkaline  solution, 
the  absorption-bands  gradually  vanish,  and,  if  kept  deoxidised 
for  some  time,  a  new  compound  is  formed  with  an  absorption- 
band  between  the  orange  and  yellow,  and  another  in  the 
green,  disappearing  when  reoxidised.  On  the  contrary,  if  the 
solution  which  gives  the  spectrum  No.  2  be  kept  for  a  while 
exposed  to  the  air,  it  is  gradually  changed  into  another  com- 
pound, giving  the  two  absorption-bands  shown  in  No.  S.  On 
keeping  still  longer  these  disappear,  and  the  spectrum  shows 
only  a  general  absorption  extending  over  the  blue  and  green 
without  any  narrow  bands.  I  am  therefore  inclined  to  believe 
that  the  compounds  which  give  spectrum  No.  2  are  gradually 
altered  into  two  other  substances,  which  when  mixed  give 
spectrum  No.  3,  the  narrow  bands  being  due  to  one  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  broad  absorption  of  the  blue  end  to  the 
other.  These  two  narrow  bands  are  at  once  removed  by 
citric  acid.  The  addition  of  the  ferrous  salt  to  an  alkaline 
solution  also  removes  the  bands,  and  they  are  restored  if  re- 
oxidised  in  a  short  time.  When  the  solution  is  kept  for  a 
day  or  two  deoxidised,  and  then  rapidly  reoxidised,  no  bands 
make  their  appearance ;  but  if,  after  having  been  thus  kej)t 
deoxidised,  the  cell  be  exposed  uncovered  to  the  air,  so  as  to 
reoxidise  slowly,  another  compound  is  formed,  which  gives  a 
spectrum  with  an  absorption-band  nearer  the  red  end  than 
that  shown  in  No.  3,  made  much  more  faint  by  citric  acid, 
removed  at  once  by  deoxidising  the  alkaline  solution,  and 
reappearing  when  reoxidised.  Since  some  of  these  solutions 
are  often  turbid,  it  is  requisite  to  use  strong  concentrated  sun- 
light to  penetrate  through  them. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  by  exposing  the  solution  to  the 
air  Aphideine  passes  successively  into  four  different  coloured 
products,  and  by  deoxidisation  and  by  subsequent  exposure 
two  others  are  formed.  These  complicated  changes  do  not 
thus  rapidly  occur  in  the  comparatively  pure  solution 
obtained  by  boiling  the  insects  in  water.  It  seems  requisite 
that  it  should  contain  some  of  the  (perhaps  albuminous)  sub- 


355 

stances  present  when  the  insects  are  crushed  up  in  cold 
water,  which  by  their  rapid  decomposition  seem  to  induce  the 
above-named  changes  in  the  Aphideine  itself. 

In  my  paper  on  some  compounds  derived  from  the  colour- 
ing matter  of  blood/  I  briefly  described  some  of  the  products 
of  the  oxidisation  of  heemoglobin.  Of  these  there  are  af  least 
four,  three  of  which  are  characterised  by  the  presence  of 
absorption-bands  at  the  red  end  of  their  spectra  when  the 
solutions  are  deoxidised.  The  products  of  the  change  of 
Aphideine  are  in  some  respects  analogous  to  these,  only  that 
except  in  one  the  bands  are  characteristic  of  the  oxidised 
state.  The  physical  and  optical  properties  of  Aphideine  and 
its  products  differ  completely  from  those  of  the  colouring 
matter  of  the  cochineal  insects  of  commerce.  Whether  this 
is  a  normal  constituent  of  the  living  insects  or  a  product  can 
only  be  decided  by  examining  them  when  alive,  which 
hitherto  I  have  not  been  able  to  do.  I  have  met  with 
Aphideine  only  in  several  dark-coloured  species  of  Aphides, 
but  at  the  same  time  I  must  confess  that  my  acquaintance 
with  the  colouring  matters  of  insects  is  very  limited. 

When  carefully  selected  living  Aphides  of  the  apple  tree 
are  quickly  crushed  up  in  ether,  and  the  clear  solution  agi- 
tated with  about  an  equal  quantity  of  water,  it  sinks  to  the 
bottom  coloured  pink-red  by  the  Aphideine,  whilst  the  su- 
pernatant ether  is  of  pale  yellow  colour.  On  evaporating 
this  to  dryness,  and  dissolving  in  bisulphide  of  carbon,  the ' 
yellow  solution  gives  a  spectrum  without  any  decided  ab- 
sorption-bands, and  seems  to  be  coloured  by  a  substance  like 
that  occurring  in  the  fat  or  wax  of  other  insects.  If,  how- 
ever, similar  living  Aphides  are  crushed  up  in  a  test  tube, 
kept  in  that  state  for  a  few  minutes,  and  then  treated  with 
ether,  on  agitating  with  water  it  subsides  almost  colourless, 
whilst  the  ether  is  coloured  deep  yellow,  and  its  spectrum 
shows  two  well-marked  absorption-bands  in  the  blue.  When 
this  solution  is  agitated  with  water,  no  colour  is  dissolved 
from  it,  but  on  adding  a  little  ammonia  the  greater  part  of 
the  colouring  matter  passes  to  the  water  in  the  alkaline 
modification,  of  orange  colour,  giving  two  well-marked  ab- 
sorption-bands between  the  blue  and  the  green  part  of  the 
spectrum,  corresponding  exactly  to  the  two  bands  in  No.  3, 
fig.  1,  which  are  nearest  to  the  blue  end.  On  adding  a  little 
citric  acid  that  on  the  green  side  is  removed,  and  another 
developed  still  nearer  to  the  blue  end  than  the  one  which 
remains  nearly  in  the  original  position.  If  the  crushed 
Aphides  are  kept  longer  and  treated  in  the  same  manner,  we 
1  'Quart.  Journ.  of  Micros.  Science/  x,  1870,  pp.  400—402. 


35G 

obtain  a  spectrum  witli  three  bands^  analogous  to  No.  %, 
fig.  1 ;  and  after  they  have  been  kept  crushed  and  damp  for 
half  a  day,  the  spectrum  shows  only  tAvo  bands,  which  lie 
so  much  farther  from  the  blue  end  than  in  the  former  that 
the  band  nearest  to  it  in  this  case  almost  coincides  with  that 
farthest  from  it  in  the  other.  On  agitating  this  solution  with 
water  and  a  little  ammonia,  the  colouring  matter  is  deposited 
as  a  pink  layer  between  the  ether  and  the  water,  the 
alkaline  modification  of  this  substance  thus  difiering  from 
that  of  the  former  in  being  insoluble  in  water  as  well 
as  in  ether.  Separating  it  and  mixing  in  alcohol  it  gives 
a  spectrum  with  two  well-marked  absorption-bands  in  the 
green  and  green-blue,  corresponding  exactly  with  the  two 
bands  in  No.  2,  fig.  1,  which  lie  towards  the  red  end;  and 
on  adding  a  little  citric  acid  the  band  in  the  green  disappears, 
and  another  is  developed  in  the  blue.  There  is  thus  good 
evidence  to  show  that  the  variation  in  the  relative  intensity 
of  the  bands  in  spectrum  No.  2  of  fig.  1  is  really  due  to  a 
variable  mixture  of  these  two  substances.  Both  are  of  yellow 
colour  when  the  solution  is  neutral,  and  when  dry  are  of 
waxy  consistence.  They  are  manifestly  formed  by  an  altera- 
tion of  the  original  Aphideine,  and  therefore  it  may  perhaps 
be  well  to  call  the  former  Aphidiluteine,  and  the  latter  ApM- 
diluteoleine.  On  still  further  exposure  to  the  air  a  red 
colouring  matter  is  formed,  which  may  be  distinguished  by 
the  name  of  Aphidirhodeine ;  but  this  may  be  more  conve- 
niently obtained  pure  in  the  manner  described  in  the  sequel. 
As  in  the  case  of  all  such  substances,  their  spectra  are  best 
seen  when  they  are  dissolved  in  bisulphide  of  carbon,  for 
then  the  absorption-bands  lie  farther  from  the  blue  end,  and 
there  is  no  chance  of  there  being  any  variation  in  their 
position,  owing  to  any  difference  in  the  amount  of  water  that 
may  be  present  in  alcohol  or  ether.  When  carefully  picked 
out  living  Aphides  are  crushed  up  in  a  test  tube  with  the 
bisulphide,  the  colour  is  at  first  red,  but  almost  immediately 
changes  to  yellow ;  and  on  stirring  them  up  so  as  to  expose 
to  the  air  and  to  the  bisulphide,  the  original  Aphideine  is 
rapidly  altered  into  Aphidiluteine,  which  dissolves  in  the 
liquid,  giving  a  bright  yellow  solution.  This  should  be 
filtered  and  examined  at  once.  The  spectrum  of  transmitted 
light  shows  two  well-marked  absorption-bands  in  the  blue, 
situated  much  nearer  to  the  extreme  blue  than  those  of  any 
other  analogous  substance  which  has  come  under  my  notice. 
It  is  also  very  fluorescent,  of  a  fine  green  colour,  and  this 
light  of  fluorescence  giv-es  the  spectrum  shown  in  No.  4  of 
the  following  woodcut,  fig.  2 : 


357 


Fig.  2. — Spectra  of  the  Light  of  Fluorescence. 
Red  end.  Blue  end. 


4.  Apbidilut.eiue, 

5.  Aphidiluteoleine. 

6.  Aphidirliodeine. 

Praunhofer's  lines. 


The  whole  of  the  green  part  of  the  spectrum  is  seen,  with 
the  exception  of  two  somewhat  faint  bands,  which  I  believe 
are  due  to  the  Aphidiluteine  itself,  but  am  not  quite  certain, 
since  it  rapidly  changes  into  other  compounds  which  have 
absorption-bands  nearly  in  the  same  situation.  On  keeping 
the  above-named  solution  for  some  hours  it  is  completely 
changed.  The  spectrum  of  transmitted  light  shows  two  ab- 
sorption-bands situated  very  considerably  further  from  the 
blue  end  than  before,  and  the  light  of  fluorescence  is  yellow- 
green,  giving  the  spectrum  No.  5  with  a  bright  band  nearly 
in  the  centre  of  the  green  and  a  fainter  between  the  green 
and  yellow.  This  change  takes  place  much  more  slowly  in 
the  case  of  the  solution  in  ether,  but  much  more  rapidly 
when  crushed  insects  are  exposed  to  the  air,  and  a  third 
compound  is  formed,  which  may  be  obtained  in  a  very  satis- 
factory manner  by  digesting  dead  insects,  kept  dry  for  some 
weeks,  in  a  solution  of  bisulphide  of  carbon  in  alcohol,  and 
after  it  has  remained  for  a  few  days  agitating  the  clear  solu- 
tion with  excess  of  the  bisulphide.  This  sinks  to  the  bottom 
with  the  greater  part  of  the  required  substance,  and  leaves 
various  impurities  dissolved  in  the  alcohol.  After  washing 
with  more  alcohol,  the  solution  in  bisulphide  when  evapo- 
rated leaves  an  oily  or  waxy  substance  coloured  brown  orange. 
When  dissolved  in  bisulphide  of  carbon  this  gives  most 
remarkable  spectra.  The  transmitted  light  is  of  an  orange-red 
colour,  giving  five  well-marked  absorption -bands,  one  in  the 
orange,  dark,  narrow,  and  well  defined  ;  one  at  the  yellow 
end  of  the  green,  very  dark  and  well  defined,  with  some 
general  shading  on  the  green  side ;   a  third  and  a  fourth,  less 


358 

dark  than  the  above  two,  one  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the 
green  and  the  other  at  the  green  end  of  the  blue,  whilst  the 
fifth  is  nearly  in  its  centre.  This  spectrum  is  not  only  re- 
markable for  the  number  of  bands  thus  spread  over  so  large 
a  space,  but  also  for  the  manner  in  which  they  are  related  to 
one  another.  This  is  much  like  what  might  be  due  to  a 
mixture  of  two  substances,  and  yet  there  is  no  further  evi- 
dence of  its  being  so.^  The  solution  is  strongly  fluorescent, 
the  light  of  fluorescence  is  orange-coloured,  and  its  spectrum 
is  as  shown  by  No.  6.  The  yellow,  green,  and  blue  are 
entirely  absent ;  there  is  a  red  band,  but  it  is  comparatively 
so  faint  that  the  light  may  be  said  to  be  nearly  monochro- 
matic, being  almost  entirely  due  to  the  well-defined  orange 
band  shown  by  the  figure,  which  is  so  narrow  that  it  is  only 
about  -jV^h  part  of  the  whole  visible  spectrum  of  daylight. 
As  will  be  seen,  it  is  quite  on  the  red  side  of  the  sodium 
line  D,  but  when  the  substance  is  dissolved  in  ether  instead 
of  bisulphide  of  carbon,  the  centre  of  the  bright  band  almost 
exactly  coincides  with  D,  and  all  the  various  bands  in  the 
other  spectra  already  described  are  raised  to  about  the  same 
extent  towards  the  blue  end,  when  ether  is  employed  as  the 
solvent. 

On  agitating  the  solution  of  this  Aphidirhodeine  in  ether 
with  water  containing  a  little  ammonia,  the  greater  part  of 
the  colour  is  deposited  as  a  green  layer  between  the  water 
and  the  ether,  as  though  the  alkaline  modification  were  in- 
soluble in  both  water  and  ether.  Separating  this  and  mixing 
it  up  in  dilute  alcohol  it  gives  the  spectrum  No.  S  of  fig.  1, 
and  this  fact  led  me  to  think  it  probable  that  the  substance 
which  gives  these  bands,  formed  on  exposing  a  solution  of 
aphidieine  to  the  air,  is  really  Aphidirhodeine  remaining  in 
a  state  of  very  unstable  solution.  I  therefore  added  to  such  a 
preparation  two  or  three  times  its  bulk  of  alcohol,  and  on 
agitating  with  excess  of  bisulphide  of  carbon  obtained  a  red 
solution  of  Aphidirhodeine  with  some  Aphidiluteoleine.  It 
therefore  appears  that  though  the  products  derived  from 
Aphideine  are  not  dissolved  by  water,  they  may  in  some 
cases  remain  in  solution  for  a  time,  so  as  to  give  a  more  or 
less  clear  liquid.  I  specially  mention  this  because  as  an 
almost  universal  rule  colouring  matters  soluble  in  water  are 
insoluble  in  bisulphide  of  carbon,  or  in  fats  and  oils ;  and 
misled  by  the  apparent  solubility  in  water,  it  was  some  time 
before  I  discovered  that  this  brown,  dirty-looking  solution  was 
in  great  measure  coloured  by  the  clear  red  and  highly  fluo- 

^  See  my  late  paper,  "  On  the  Examination  of  Mixed  Colouring  Matters," 
'  Monthly  Micros.  Journal,'  vol.  vi,  pp.  124 — 134. 


359 

rescent  substance  obtained  as  already  described  by  the  use  of 
bisulphide  of  carbon,  for  on  superficial  examination  they 
seem  to  have  so  very  little  in  common. 

As  already  named,  when  the  living  insects  are  crushed  up 
in  ether,  a  small  quantity  of  a  yellow  colour  is  obtained  ana- 
logous to  that  in  the  fat  or  wax  of  other  insects,  but  no 
Aphidiluteine,  which,  therefore,  appears  not  to  be  a  normal 
constituent.  If  the  insects  be  killed  by  exposure  for  a  short 
time  to  the  vapour  of  bisulphide  of  carbon,  and  the  colouring 
matter  dissolved  out  by  ether  in  the  course  of  a  few  minutes, 
the  amount  of  Aphidiluteine  obtained  is  very  small ;  but,  if 
the  insects  have  been  kept  dead  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour, 
there  is  no  difficulty  whatever  in  proving  that  a  considerable 
part  of  the  Aphideine  has  changed  into  Aphidiluteine  even 
in  so  short  a  period  of  time.  After  having  been  kept  dead 
for  about  a  day  very  little  unaltered  Aphideine  remains.  On 
keeping  them  much  longer  they  turn  darker  and  transmit 
red  light,  showing  the  absorption  bands  of  Aphidirhodeine. 
These  facts  clearly  prove  that  in  such  inquiries  it  is  most 
important  to  decide  whether  the  colouring  matters  are  or  are 
not  present  in  the  living  insects.  The  change  from  Aphi- 
deine to  Aphidiluteine  is  so  rapid  that  I  was  for  a  consider- 
able time  led  to  conclude  inaccurately  that  Aphides  con- 
tained a  waxy  substance  coloured  yellow  by  that  compound. 
Such  an  instance  of  rapid  and  remarkable  changes  may  be 
rare,  but  at  the  same  time  it  serves  to  show  the  importance 
of  our  taking  into  consideration  the  possibility  of  its  occur- 
rence, even  when  circumstances  are  not  so  favorable  for  de- 
ciding the  question.  When  exposed  to  the  vapour  of  ether, 
though  apparently  killed,  the  insects  sometimes  revive,  and, 
even  if  they  do  not,  the  Aphideine  changes  far  more  slowly, 
which  may  explain  why  bisulphide  of  car!  n  has  a  so  much 
more  poisonous  action. 

Since  it  may,  perhaps,  be  convenient  for  reference,  I  here 
subjoin  a  table  of  the  character  and  position  of  the  more 
important  absorption-bands  seen  in  some  of  the  spectra 
roughly  described  in  this  paper,  making  use  of  the  notation 
explained  m  a  previous  communication. ^ 


Table  of  Spectra. 

Fraunko/er's  lines,  D  is  at  Z\  and  F.  at  1\. 
1.  As  dissolved  iu  water  : 

Aphideine,  alkaline    ....... 

„         acid 

3i... 
6..7- 

.8i 
-8— 

^  "On   Some    Technical   Applications    of    the    Spectrum-microscope," 
'  Quarterly  Journ.  of  Micros.  Science  '  (N.S.),  Vol.  IX,  pp.  358  and  359. 


360 


The  first  mixed  product : 

When  alkaline  varying  as  thus  shown  . 

When  acid 

The  second  product  ..... 

2.  As  dissolved  in  ether,  &c.  : 

Aphidiluteine  in  ether        ...... 

„  in  aniiiiouiacal  solution  of  ether  in  water 

„  in  acid  solution  of  ether  in  water 

Aphidiluteoleine  in  edier    ...... 

„-         suspended  in  dilute  alcohol  with  ammonia 
,,  „  ,,  „      citric  acid 

Aphidirhodeine  in  ether      .         .         .       _2       ^s  ■  •  • 

,,  suspended  in  dilute  alcohol  with  ammonia 

3.  As  dissolved  in  bisulphide  of  carbon  : 

Aphidiluteine     .         .         .         .         .         .         ... 

Aphidiiuteoleine  ....... 


H 

7 

H 

H 

H 

H 

7f 

H 

m 

H 

H 

9       101 


H 

lOi 

n 

n 

5 

6* 

73 

'  8 

9 

'  S 

H 

21- 

4* 

H    101 


Aphidirhodeii/^. 


;^i       4.i       4.3 


4 


ON    THE 


NEPHILA    PLUMIPES 


SILK     SPIDER     OF     SOUTH     CAROLINA. 


BY   BURT    G.    WILDER,    S.B.,   il.D., 

Late  Suro-eoii  5oth  Mass.  Vols. 


P'rom  the  Proceedings  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History. 
October  4,  1865. 


ON  TIIE 


NEPHILA   PLUMIPES: 


SILK     SPIDER     OT^      sniTTTT     r<  A  TDrvx  THVT  . 

Note.  For  more  or  less  extended  accounts  of  the  different  parts  of  this  sub- 
iect  lee  Proceedings  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  foi  Nov. 

th  1865  Proc.  lost.  Soc.  Nat.  History,  Oct.  11th  and  De-  ^th  1865  and 
Mar^h  7th,  1866;  and  Proc.  Ma^.  Inst,  of  Technology,  Jan.  18th  and  Feb.  1st, 


1866. 


From  the  Proceedings  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History, 
October  4,  1865. 


Dr.  B.  G.  Wilder  exhibited  specimens,  living  and  pre- 
served, of  both  sexes  of  a  large  and  but  little  known  species 
of  geometrical  spider,  Nephila  plumipes  ?  from  the  coast  of 
South  Carolina,  together  with  silk  of  a  brilliant  yellow  color, 
which  he  had  reeled  directly  from  the  living  insect ;  and  gave 
the  following  account  of  the  species  and  of  the  hitherto  un- 
known method  of  obtaining  its  silk.* 

*Wliile  this  was  passing  through  the  press  I  found  in  the  Aster  Library,  New 
Tork,  a  copy  of  a  rare  Italian  work  by  R.  M.  de  Termeyer,  entitled  "  Eicherche 
e  sperimenti  suUa  setade  Kagni,"  in  which  is  described  bis  process  of  obtaining  silk 
directly  from  spiders.  But  no  allusion  is  made  by  others,  to  either  the  idea  or  the 
book  itself,  which  was  published  about  1800.  I  find  also  that  in  Jones'  "Naturalist 
in  Bermuda,"  1859,  page  126,  is  described  an  experiment  of  the  author  for  ascertain- 
ing the  strength  of  the  silk  of  Epeira  {Nephila)  clavipes,  by  drawing  the  silk  out 
of  its  body. 


ON  THE 


NEPHILA   PLTJMIPES 


SILK    SPIDER    OF     SOUTH    CAROLINA. 


BY  BURT   G.  WILDER,   S.B.,  M.D., 
Late  Surgeon  55th  Mass.  Vols. 


From  the  Proceedmgs  of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History, 
October  4,  1865. 


Dr.  B,  G.  Wilder  exhibited  specimens,  living  and  pre- 
served, of  both  sexes  of  a  large  and  but  little  known  species 
of  geometrical  spider,  Nephila  plumipes  ?  from  the  coast  of 
South  Carolina,  together  with  silk  of  a  brilliant  yellow  color, 
which  he  had  reeled  directly  from  the  living  insect ;  and  gave 
the  following  account  of  the  species  and  of  the  hitherto  un- 
known method  of  obtaining  its  silk.* 

*  While  this  was  passing  through  the  press  I  found  in  the  Astor  Library,  New 
York,  a  copy  of  a  rare  Itahan  work  by  R.  M.  de  Termeyer,  entitled  "  Kicherche 
e  sperimenti  sulla  seta  de  Kagni,"  in  which  is  described  his  process  of  obtaining  silk 
directly  from  spiders.  But  no  allusion  is  made  by  others,  to  either  tlie  idea  or  the 
book  itself,  whicli  was  published  about  1800.  I  find  also  that  in  Jones'  "  Naturalist 
in  Bermuda,"  1859,  page  126,  is  described  an  experiment  of  the  author  for  ascertain- 
ing the  strength  of  the  silk  of  Epeira  (Nephila)  clavipes,  by  drawing  the  silk  out 
of  its  body. 


2  [Wilder, 

By  a  letter  -written  on  tte  20th  of  August,  1863,  from  the  camp 
of  the  55th  Mass.  Vol.  Inf ,  at  the  north  end  of  Folly  Island,  South 
Carolina,  I  find  that  "  on  that  day  I  caught  a  large  and  very  hand- 
some spider,  from  which,  as  it  stood  quiet  near  the  top  of  my  tent, 
I  wound  ofi"  silk  upon  a  quill  for  an  hour  and  a  quarter,  at  the  rate  of 
six  feet  per  minute,  making  four  hundred  and  fifty  feet  or  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  yards." 

This  silk  is  stUl  in  my  possession,  but  has  been  removed  from  the 
quill  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  its  weight,- which  is  one-thbd  of  a 
grain.  I  had  never  heard  of  this  method  of  obtaining  silk ;  neither 
had  I  ever  seen  or  read  of  such  a  spider ;  but,  though  this  specimen 
was  not  preserved,  I  was  so  impressed  with  its  size  and  the  peculiar 
aspect  given  by  the  brushes  of  stiff  hairs  upon  the  legs,  that  when, 
during  the  following  summer,  another  officer*  of  our  regiment  described 
to  me  a  large  spider  very  common  upon  Long  Island,  which  lies  just 
west  from  Folly  Island,  I  knew  it  was  the  same  species  and  told  him 
what  I  had  done,  adding  that  I  was  "sure  something  would  come  of  it 
sometime."  By  substituting  a  cylinder  worked  with  a  crank,  for  mine 
turned  in  the  fingers,  this  officer  obtained  more  of  the  silk,  which  he 
wound  in  grooves  cut  upon  rings  of  hard  rubber,  and  in  other  directions 
upon  the  sides  of  such  I'ings;  while  another  officer  ;f  by  employing  a 
"gear  drill  stock"  with  cog-wheels,  accomplished  similar  results  still 
more  rapidly ;  on  the  first  simple  machine  I  wound  off  silk  into  two 
grooves  cut  in  the  periphery  of  a  hard  rubber  ring,  parallel  except  at 
one  point  where  they  crossed  to  form  a  kind  of  signet,  the  silk  being 
guided  at  this  crossing  by  a  pin  upon  a  pivot  moved  by  the  hand  at 
each  revolution  of  the  ring;  and  on  the  " gear  drill  stock "  upon  a 
larger  ring  one  inch  in  diameter  and  three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  width, 
in  a  groove  upon  its  periphery  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  width,  and  across 
the  sides  of  the  ring  in  two  directions,  I  wound  three  thousand  four 
hundred  and  eighth/  yards,  or  nearly  two  miles  of  silk.  This  length 
was  estimated  by  accurately  determining  the  different  dimensions  of 
the  ring  where  wound  upon,  and  multiplying  by  this  the  number  of 
revolutions  of  the  cylinder  per  minute  (170),  and  this  product  again 
by  the  number  of  minutes  of  actual  winding  (285),  having  deducted 
from  the  gross  time  of  winding  (about  nine  hours),  each  moment  of 
stoppage  for  any  cause. 

This  was  in  the  autumn  of  1864,  and  so  the  matter  rested  till  Feb. 
1865,  when,  preparing  to  present  the  subject  to  the  Society,  I  showed 
specimens  of  the  spider  and  silk  to  Professors  Wyman,  Agassiz, 
and  Cooke  of  Harvard  University,  to  all  of  whom  both  the  species  of 

*  Major  Sigourney  Wales,  55tli  Mass.  Vols. 
t  Lieut.  Col.  Chas.  B.  Fox. 


Wilder.]  3 

spider  and  tlie  kiud  of  silk  were  entirely  new*  as  was  also  the  idea  of 
reeling  silk  directly  from  it  or  any  other  insect. 

At  this  time  too,  a  friend  f  to  whom  the  whole  history  of  the  matter 
was  known,  expressed  his  confident  belief  that  this  new  silken  product 
could  be  made  of  some  practical  utility,  especially  in  view  of  the  an- 
ticipated scarcity  of  the  ordinary  silk ;  and  it  is  with  his  advice  and 
assistance  that  the  experiments  and  investigations  recounted  below 
have  been  made  as  far  as  our  limited  time  and  means  have  allowed. 

On  the  30th  of  August,  1865, 1  obtained  from  Long  Island  some  liv- 
ing specimens,  chiefly  females,  and  have  succeeded  in  bringing  a  few  of 
them  to  the  North. 

I  find  no  mention  of  this  spider  in  the  works  of  Hentz  or  any  other 
American  entomologist,  which  may  be  the  result  of  its  being  very  cir- 
cumscribed in  its  locality  to  a  small  and  unimportant  island ;  but  in  "Die 
Arachniden,"  by  C.  L.  Koch,  Vol.  6.,  is  a  figure  of  a  mutilated  female 
specimen,  the  only  one  ever  collected,  and  said  to  have  been  found  in 
Louisiana,  which  was  preserved  in  the  Museum  of  J.  Sturm  at  Nu- 
remberg. 

The  description  and  figure  of  this  specimen  are  so  unsatisfactory 
that  I  am  really  in  doubt  as  to  its  Identity  with  the  spider  under  con- 
sideration, but  will  provisionally  regard  the  latter  as  the  Nephila 
plumipes,  hoping  at  some  time  to  settle  the  point  by  an  actual  com- 
parison with  the  unique  specimen  described  by  Koch. 

I  append  here  a  description  and  figure  of  the  spider  drawn  from 
living  Individuals. 

USTephila  plumipes  Koch. 

A  large  and  very  elegant  species,  resembling  most  of  its  conajeners 
in  the  general  form  of  the  body,  and  like  N.  clavipes  and  N.fasci- 
culata  possessing  peculiar  collections  of  stiff  hairs  upon  the  legs,  but 
differing  from  them  in  that  these  hairs  are  more  closely  set  together, 
so  as  to  justify  the  German  term  "Haarbiirste"  (Hair  brushes). 

The  cephalothorax  Is  black  above,  but  covered,  except  In  spots, 
with  silver-colored  hairs.  The  abdomen  Is  olive-brown  variously 
marked  with  yellow  and  white  spots  and  stripes.  On  the  1st,  2d,  and 
3d  pairs  of  legs  are  one  or  two  brushes  of  stiff  black  hairs,  pointing 
forward  away  fi-om  the  body.  The  length  of  the  body  is  fi-om  1  to 
1.10  and  the  spread  of  the  legs  2.75  in  a  lateral,  and  3.75  Inches  in  a 
longitudinal  direction. 

The  above  applies  only  to  the  female,  which  will  now  be  more 
minutely  described;  the  male  Is  very  small  and  differently  mai-ked. 

*  Prof.  "Wyman  has  since  found  among  his  alcoholic  specimens  of  insects  col- 
lected in  the  South,  one  female  individual  of  this  species,  but  is  not  certain  of  the 
precise  locality  in  which  it  was  obtained. 

t  Dr.  William  Nichols  of  Boston. 


4  [Wilder. 

The  entire  upper  and  anterior  surface  of  the  cephalothorax  is  jet 
black,  but  behind  the  eye-spots  it  is  thickly  covered  with  little  white 
hairs,  except  in  six  spots,  three  upon  each  side  over  the  origins  of  the 
three  anterior  pairs  of  legs;  the  first  pair  of  spots  being  the  largest 
and  pointing  obliquely  forward  and  outward.  The  edges  of  the  cepha- 
lothorax are  reddish-brown.  The  eye-spots  are  black  and  eight  in 
number,  four  in  the  centre  in  form  of  a  square,  and  two  upon  each 
side,  one  above  and  one  below  a  rounded  elevation.  The  falces  are 
black.  The  abdomen  above  is  light  yellow.  On  each  side  of  the  mid- 
dle line  are  six  silvery  spots,  of  which  the  1st  and  3d  pairs  are  the 
largest,  then  the  2d,  4th,  5th,  and  6th;  the  three  anterior  pairs  are 
rounded,  the  others  flattened  laterally.  On  the  middle  line  between 
the  1st  and  2d  pairs,  and  again  between  the  3d  and  4th  pairs,  the 
pulsations  of  the  dorsal  vessel  are  visible;  besides  the  larger  spots 
there  are  many  smaller  ones  iri-egular  in  size,  shape  and  position,  but 
more  numerous  anteriorly.  The  anterior  edge  of  the  abdomen  is 
olive-brown;  in  front  of  and  below  it  is  a  silvery  cross  stripe  semilunar 
in  shape,  the  horns  pointing  backward ;  and  just  behind  it  is  a  similar 
stripe. 

The  sides  of  the  abdomen  are  lighter  than  the  top  and  the  spots  are 
generally  silver-colored  and  oblong,  especially  in  the  line  of  the  hoims 
of  the  above  mentioned  white  stripe.  The  lower  surface  is  still  darker 
than  the  sides,  but  the  anterior  third  is  a  hard  and  horny  plate  with  a 
free  posterior  edge  covering  the  generative  orifice.  The  surface  of  this 
is  by  its  coloring  divisible  into  three  sections,  one  median  and  two  lateral, 
each  of  which  is  again  composed  of  a  broad  anterior  and  a  narrow  poste- 
rior portion.  The  anterior  median  portion  is  brown  and  depressed  be- 
tween the  lateral  portions,  which  are  black  and  slightly  punctate  and 
bordered  internally  by  a  yellow,  and  externally  by  a  dull  reddish 
stripe;  the  posterior  median  section  is  dark  brown,  raised  and  quite 
convex,  while  the  lateral  portions  are  dull  red  and  flat,  with  sharp  pos- 
terior edges. 

The  middle  third  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  9,bdomen  is  dull  red 
without  spots  and  separated  from  the  sides  by  yellow  stripes  or  series 
of  spots,  and  from  the  posterior  third  by  several  yellow  spots ;  this  third 
is  also  dull  'red  and  without  spots,  but  not  so  distinctly  separated  from 
the  sides;  behind  the  posterior  third,  and  forming  its  boundary,  is  the 
group  of  spinnerets,  or  mammulae,  of  which  there  are  two  principal 
pairs,  anterior  and  posterior.  Between  these  and  concealed  by  them  is  a 
very  small  pair,  the  nature  and  use  of  which  I  have  not  yet  ascertained. 
In  color  the  mammulae  are  dull  red,  but  the  apices  are  surrounded  by 
short  black  hairs;  behind  the  spinners  and  enclosed  in  the  same  fold 
of  integument  is  a  median  papilla  through  which  the  excrement  is 
voided.     The  posterior  surface  of  the  abdomen  is  flattened,  and  re- 


Wilder.]  5 

sembles  the  sides  in  color  and  marking.  The  lower  surface  of  the  cepha- 
lothorax  is  shield  or  heart  shaped,  black  in  the  centre  but  dull  rec>. 
at  the  sides. 

The  1st  and  2d  segments  (shanks)  of  the  limbs  are  dull  red;  the  3d 
segment  (thigh)  is  dirty  yellow,  but  in  the  first,  second  and  fourth 
pairs  the  distal  third  is  dull  red,  and  covered  with  a  brush  of  stiff 
black  hairs ;  the  depth  of  the  color  and  the  size  of  the  brush  decreases 
from  the  first  to  the  fourth  pair ;  the  thigh  of  the  third  pair  Is  perhaps 
a  shade  darker  where  the  brushes  are  upon  the  others.  The  4th  seg- 
ment is  dull  red  in  all  the  legs;  the  5th  is,  in  all,  dirty  yellow  as  to  its 
proximal  portion  (a  little  less  than  half)  while  the  distal  portion  is 
dull  red.  In  the  third  pair  it  presents  a  few  scattering  black  hairs,  but 
on  the  other  three  pairs  there  is  a  hair  brush  like  that  upon  the  thigh, 
completely  encircling  the  limb,  but  the  hairs  are  set  a  little  more  nearly 
at  right  angles  with  the  surface.  There  are  also  a  few  black  hairs  on 
the  under  side  just  at  the  junction  of  the  5th  with  the  4th  segments, 
and  in  the  tlaird  pair  a  few  in  the  place  of  the  hair  brushes  on  the  others. 
The  proximal  portions,  (again  less  than  one-half)  of  the  6th  segment 
(1st  of  the  foot)  Is  dark  dirty  yellow  and  the  distal  portion,  with  the 
7th  segment,  is  dark  dull  red,  or  nearly  black,  and  both  segments  are 
covered  with  short  black  hairs.  Upon  the  proximal  yellow  portion  of 
the  3d  and  5th  segments  are  very  fine  short  hairs,  with  a  few  longer 
ones  intermixed. 

The  outer  half  of  the  maxillae  is  dirty  yellow,  the  inner  half, 
with  the  1st  segment  of  the  palpi,  dull  red  ;  2d  segment  dirty  yellow 
and  covered  by  very  small  black  hairs,  the  3d  segment  is  dull  red, 
likewise  the  4th  and  5th,  the  latter  being  nearly  black  and  thickly 
covered  by  black  hairs. 

Of  the  eight  eyes,  the  four  intermediate  ones  form  a  square,  and  are 
set  at  the  four  corners  of  a  prominence ;  the  lateral  eyes  are  set  upon 
the  extremities  of  two  more  oblique  tubercles,  those  of  each  pair  being 
separated  Irom  each  other  by  more  than  their  own  diameter,  and  look- 
ing, the  one  downward  and  forward  and  the  other  upward  and  back- 
ward. 

The  body  of  the  male  Is  one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  his 
legs  spread  less  than  one  Inch  in  a  longitudinal  and  three-fourths  of 
an  Inch  In  a  lateral  direction.  The  general  color  of  both  body  and 
legs  is  dark-brown,  the  former  presenting  a  median  dorsal  stripe  of 
a  darker  color,  and  the  latter  a  few  scattering  black  hairs,  but  no 
such  brushes  as  those  of  the  female.  Plis  palpi  are  strongly  clavate  at 
the  middle  of  their  length  and  end  in  a  sharp  point  turning  outward. 

I  have  never,  during  a  two  years'  stay  on  the  coast  and  in  the  in- 
terior of  South  Carolina  and  Florida,  met  with  any  traces  of  this 
spider  elsewhere  than  near  Long  Island ;  nor,  with  the  exception  of 


6  [WUder. 

the  first  specimen  found  upon  Folly  Island,  and  a  cocoon  found  in  a 
tree  on  James  Island,  have  I  seen  it  upon  the  adjoining  islands,  though 
there  seems  no  reason  why  it  should  not  also  occur  all  along  the  sea- 
coast. 

Long  Island  is  a  low,  narrow,  uninhabited  strip  of  land  about  five 
miles  southwest  from  Charleston,  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  creeks  and 
in  the  midst  of  a  great  salt  marsh.  The  spiders  are  found  in  the  for- 
est, building  their  webs  between  trees  and  shrubs,  sometimes  within 
reach,  but  more  often  ten  or  fifteen  or  even  more  feet  from  the  ground 
60  as  to  be  reached  by  the  sun.  The  web  is  very  large,  from  three  to 
four  feet  in  diameter,  quite  strong  and  very  viscid;  its  yellow  color  is 
seen  in  the  sunlight,  or  when  the  web  is  gathered  into  a  mass.  It  is 
composed  of  two  kinds  of  silk,  of  which  one  is  white  or  silver-gray,  in- 
elastic and  perfectly  dry ;  the  other  is  of  a  bright  yellow  or  golden  hue, 
very  elastic  and  studded  with  little  globules  of  gum  which  render  it 
exceedingly  adhesive ;  the  frame-work  of  the  web,  namely,  the  guy- 
lines  or  stays  and  the  diverging  lines  or  spokes  of  the  wheel-shaped 
structure,  is  all  composed  of  the  former  or  silver  colored,  dry  and  in- 
elastic silk,  while  the  concentric  circles  which  serve  for  entangling 
the  prey  are  composed  of  the  latter,  or  golden,  elastic  and  sticky  silk; 
these  circles  are  very  numerous,  being  generally  less  than  one-third 
of  an  inch  apart,  but  for  the  further  strengthening  of  So  large  a  web, 
between  every  eight  or  ten*  such  circles  occurs  one  of  the  silver  colored 
silk ;  these  latter  are  made  before  the  viscid  lines,  but  neither  of  them 
are  in  the  web  of  this  species  spiral,  as  in  the  web  described  by  Black- 
wall  and  others,  f  on  the  contrary  they  seldom  if  ever,  form  complete 
circles,  but  are  looped  and  return  in  the  opposite  direction  into  a  cor- 
responding point  at  the  other  side  of  the  web,  leaving  above  the  cen- 
tre a  space  occupied  only  by  radii  through  which  the  spider  can  pass 
to  either  surface  of  her  web,  the  greater  part  of  which,  therefore,  is 
below  the  point  where  the  radii  converge,  the  dry  lines  are  not  de- 
stroyed on  the  completion  of  the  web,  but  remain  and  seem  necessary 
for  its  stability. 

As  might  be  inferred  from  these  facts  this  spider  not  only  has  the  pow- 
er of  regulating  the  size  of  its  thread,  according  as  one  or  two,  or  three, 
or  four  of  its  mammulas  are  pressed  upon  the  surface  from  which  the 
line  Is  to  extend,  or  as  a  greater  or  less  number  of  the  sj^Innerules  in 
any  mammula  are  employed  ;  but  can  also  use  in  the  construction  of 
its  web,  either  the  white  or  the  yellow  silk  at  will ;  for  of  its  two  prin- 
cipal pairs  of  mammul^e,  one,  the  anterior,  yields  the  yellotv,  while  the 
other  or  posterior  pair  yields  the  white  silk.     Of  this  I  satisfied  myself 

*The  number  varies  according  to  the  individual  and  even  in  different  parts  of  the 
same  web. 
t  Zoological  Journal,  Vol.  Y.,  p.  181. 


Wilder.]  7 

by  carrying  the  thread  from  the  anterior  pair  of  mammulse  upon  one 
part  of  a  spindle  and  that  from  the  posterior  pair  upon  another,  guiding 
them  with  pins  while  the  spindle  was  in  motion ;  the  result  being  the 
formation  of  two  circles  of  silk,  one  of  a  golden,  the  other  of  a  sil- 
ver color,  as  in  one  of  the  specimens  exhibited ;  morever,  if  while  both 
threads  are  being  drawn  out,  they  are  slackened,  the  lower  silver 
thread  will  wrinkle  and  fly  up,  being  inelastic,  while  the  other  will 
contract  and,  within  certain  limits,  preserve  its  direction.  At  that 
time  the  existence  of  a  smaller  pair  of  mammulaa  intermediate  be- 
tween the  other  two,  was  unknown  to  me,  and  it  is  possible  that  the 
yellow  line  proceeded  from  them,  and  that  both  the  larger  pair  yield 
the  white  silk.  Most  of  these  experiments  were  made  in  the  field  under 
unfavorable  circumstances  and  will  be  more  accurately  repeated. 

The  careful  dissection  of  an  alcoholic  specimen  will  readily  discover 
the  organs  from  which  this  silk  proceeds,  and  which  have  been  described 
in  other  species  by  several  authors ;  the  preparation  exhibited  to  the 
Society  shows  one  set  of  silk-glands  consisting  of  six  elongated  yellow 
bodies,  more  or  less  convoluted  and  measuring  about  one-third  of  an 
inch  in  length,  lying  under  the  integument  of  the  lower  surface  of 
the  abdomen,  three  upon  each  side  of  the  middle  line ;  the  excreting 
ducts,  one  for  each  gland,  are  also  plainly  visible.  But  beside  these, 
there  are  to  be  found  at  least  four  more  glands,  of  which  one  pair 
shorter  but  thicker  and  larger,  and  also  of  a  yellow  color,  are  located  in 
the  upper  and  anterior  angles  of  the  abdomen ;  while  the  other  two 
glands  are  white,  or  transparent,  and  lie  nearly  In  the  center  of  the 
abdomen  ;  the  ducts  of  all  these  glands  are  easily  traced  to  the  region 
of  the  spinnerets,  but  I  have  not  yet  observed  the  precise  mode  of  their 
termination.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  yellow  silk  is  secreted  in 
greater  abundance,  as  also  that  it  is  more  extensively  employed  in  the 
construction  of  the  web. 

All  these  glands  contain  a  semi-fluid  and  very  viscid  gum  which  may 
be  drawn  out  into  threads  of  variable  diameter ;  these  however,  being 
single  and  not,  Uke  those  spun  by  the  spider,  minutely  compound, 
break  up  on  being  sharply  bent. 

A  familiar,  but  thus  far  unexplained,  fact  is,  that  while  the  yellow 
thread  as  spun  by  the  spider  in  Its  web  is  so  exceedingly  viscid  on  ac- 
count of  the  numerous  globules  of  gum  with  which  it  is  studded,  as  to 
follow  the  point  of  a  pin,  this  same  yellow  silk  when  reeled  from 
the  insect,  whether  slowly  or  rapidly,  and  also  when  employed  by  the 
spider  to  form  the  cocoon  about  her  eggs,  is  perfectly  dry  and  much 
less  elastic  and  yielding,  though  still  more  so  than  the  white  variety. 
I  have  put  several  specimens  under  the  influence  of  chloroform  which 
apparently  has  no  eflfect  upon  the  evolution  of  silk. 

I  have  never  been  able  to  reel  above  three  hundred  yards  of  sUk  from 


'  8  fWUder. 

a  sj^Ider  at  one  time;  but  this  evidently  does  not  exhaust  the  supply, 
for  on  opening  the  abdomen  the  glands  are  still  partially  filled  and  the 
following  day  a  quantity  equal  to  the  first  may  be  obtained ;  this  I  did 
upon  three  successive  days,  so  that,  if,  as  now  seems  probable,  the 
emission  of  the  silk  is  mainly  mechanical,  then  a  certain  degree  of 
preparation  is  necessary  after  it  is  secreted  before  it  is  ready  for  use. 

The  diameter  of  the  silk  as  spun  by  the  insect  or  as  reeled  from  it, 
varies  from  g-gVo  ^'^  T"oW  °^  ^"^  ^^^'^^^ ;  *  it  is  exceedingly  strong,  but  I 
have  not  yet  been  able  to  accurately  determine  its  strength  as  com- 
pared with  fine  ordinary  silk.  The  largest  threads  are  those  comjDos- 
ing  the  outer  layer  of  the  cocoons,  but  these  are  evidently  comjaound, 
and  the  two,  three  or  four  strands  are  apparently  such  as  proceed  from 
the  single  spinners,  the  minute  fibrils  of  which  have  united  at  once  on 
leaving  the  spinnerules  so  as  to  form  the  ordinary  silken  fibre  which 
generally  appears  simple  under  the  microscope. 

Having  completed  her  web,  the  female  stations  herself  at  its  centre 
head  downward,  waiting  for  prey ;  the  diminutive  male  (they  are  not  con- 
stantly present)  preserves  a  resjDectful  distance  from  her,  and,  as  far 
as  I  have  seen,  never  attempts  to  do  anything  for  himself,  except  of 
com'se  the  impregnation  of  the  eggs ;  he  builds  no  web  and  catches  no 
prey ;  and  while  she  is  moving  from  place  to  place,  or  even  while  mak- 
ing her  web,  he  gets  upon  the  upper  or  lower  side  of  her  abdomen 
holding  on  with  his  legs  and  darting  about  to  keep  out  of  the  way  of 
hers ;  for  she  seems  to  pay  no  attention  to  him  and  might  easily  do 
him  an  injury  even  by  accident. 

On  one  occasion  I  saw  a  male  stray  away  from  his  proper  home  to 
an  adjoining  web,  from  which,  however,  he  was  speedily  driven  by  the 
indignant  female  possessor,  with  the  loss  of  two  of  his  legs  ;  of  which 
injury  he  shortly  afterwards  died. 

In  the  webs  of  these  spiders  are  found  insects  of  all  kinds,  even  the 
largest  and  most  vigorous,  such  as  the  great  cicada  of  the  South. 
When  anything  strikes  the  web,  the  spider  instantly  starts,  and,  if  the 
vibrations  indicate  that  it  is  suitable  for  food  she  rushes  to  it  and  seiz- 
ing it  in  her  powerful  jaws  holds  on  till  it  is  dead ;  after  which  she 
throws  a  net  around  it  and  carries  it  to  a  place  where  she  can  devour 
it  at  her  leisure ;  in  this  respect  unlike  some  other  geometrical  spiders, 
of  which  one  species,  common  on  James  Island,  S.  C,  never  attempts 
to  seize  the  prey  with  the  jaws  till  it  has  first  dexterously  spread  a  net 
over  it  by  turning  it  over  and  over  with  the  first  and  third  pairs  of 
legs  and,  with  the  fourth  pair,  used  alternately,  drawing  out  the  silk 
as  a  broad  white  band. 

But  if  the  violent  struggles  of  the  prey  show  it  to  be  of  large  size, 
then  our  spider  advances  with  caution,  feeling  with  her  anterior  legs, 

♦The  micrometer  measurements  were  made  by  Mr.  E.  C.  Greenleaf. 


Wilder.]  9 

and  if  satisfied  that  she  can  do  so  with  safety,  will  suddenly  close  with 
the  victim ;  but  if  not,  or  if  some  foreign  body  is  placed  in  the  web, 
then  she  will  snip  off  with  her  jaws  every  line  which  supports  it  till  it 
drops  to  the  earth ;  this  I  saw  done  by  several  spiders,  which  had  made 
their  webs  in  my  room  in  South  Carolina,  with  a  dead  snake  six  inches 
in  length. 

It  is  remarkable,  that  although  these  spiders  possess  eight  eyes  and 
can  evidently  distinguish  light  from  darkness,  yet,  so  far  as  my 
observation  goes,  they  cannot  see  anything  at  all  whether  near  or  re- 
mote ;  they  pay  no  attention  to  an  object  put  close  to  them  nor  to  the 
quiet  movements  of  any  one  about  them,  and  will  often  rush  by  an 
insect  entangled  in  their  web  if  it  chance  to  cease  its  struggles  before 
the  spider  has  accurately  determined  upon  its  position ;  it  will  then 
slowly  return  to  the  center  of  the  web  and  wait  till  another  vibration 
indicates  the  whereabouts  of  the  insect ;  a  fly  offered  to  it  upon  the 
point  of  a  needle  will  not  be  noticed  till  it  begins  to  buzz,  when  it  will 
be  seized  at  once ;  the  hearing  and  touch  are  evidently  very  acute ; 
the  organ  of  the  former  sense  is  not  known ;  the  latter  is  exercised  by 
the  palpi  and  by  the  extremities  of  all  the  legs,  especially  those  of  the 
first  pair,  which  are  continually  used  as  feelers.  How  acute  the  sense 
of  smell  is  I  do  not  know. 

This  spider  is  remarkably  quiet  in  its  habits,  never  leaving  its  web 
unless  disturbed  in  some  way,  and  it  bears  handling  better  than  any 
species  with  which  1  am  acquainted.  That  it  can  bite  is  evident  from 
the  size  of  the  jaws  and  the  firmness  of  their  hold,  and  that  the  venom 
is  active  is  shown  by  the  speedy  death  of  its  victims ;  *  but  they  never 
attempt  to  bite  unless  provoked,  and  may  be  allowed  to  run  over 
one's  flesh  with  impunity,  care  being  taken  not  to  remove  them  from 
it  suddenly  or  roughly  for  they  are  apt  to  hold  on  with  the  jaws  when 
the  grasp  of  the  legs  is  not  sufiicient.  The  length  and  comparative 
weakness  of  the  legs  renders  it  easy  to  put  this  spider  in  the  only  po- 
sition in  which  any  sjiider  can  be  safely  handled,  namely  with  all  the 
legs  held  behind  the  back.  In  their  webs  they  are  active  and  sure- 
footed, but  slow  and  awkward  on  the  ground  or  any  plane  surface. 
They  always  prefer  the  light,  and  construct  their  webs  where  the  sun 
can  reach  them ;  the  young  manifest  the  same  instinct  and  always  seek 
the  sunny  side  of  a  glass  vessel  containing  them ;  they  also  keep  the 

*BlackwaU,  (Linn.  Transactions,  Vol.  xxi.  page  31-37)  recounts  experiments  to 
support  his  opinion  that  the  bite  of  the  larger  British  species  causes  no  more  injury 
to  man,  to  other  spiders,  or  to  insects  than  an  ordinary  puncture  or  laceration  of 
equal  extent  and  severity ;  and  the  same  author  in  his  Spiders  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  Part  1,  p.  2,  does  not  even  mention  the  word  poison  in  speaking  of  the 
colorless  fluid  emitted  through  the  falces,  but  although  we  seldom  hear  of  well  au- 
thenticated cases  of  injury  from  the  bite  of  a  spider,  it  would  hardly  be  safe  to  sup- 
pose all  of  them  harmless. 


10  tWMer. 

head  downward  and  will  instantly  turn  over  if  the  vessel  containing 
them  be  inverted. 

The  eggs  are  laid  In  a  rounded,  or  flattened  mass  about  one  half  an 
inch  in  diameter  ;  they  are  .04  to  .05  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  white  and 
at  first  slightly  agglutinated  together,  but  become  yellowish  and  easUy 
separable  as  the  time  for  hatching  arrives,  which,  in  the  case  of  some 
eggs  laid  this  fall  was  in  about  thirty  days ;  the  young  spiders  are  yel- 
low with  whitish  legs,  which  however  soon  become  darker  in  color 
while  the  abdomen  presents  some  faint  markings  on  its  surface  ;  some 
have  cast  one  skin  within  a  few  days  and  can  spin  a  thread  within  a 
week  after  leaving  the  egg ;  but  of  their  own  accord  they  do  not  leave 
the  cavity  of  the  cocoon  for  some  time,  during  which,  as  far  as  I  know, 
they  take  no  food,  excepting  perhaps  that  they  devour  one  another, 
but  seem  to  undergo  an  increase  of  the  legs  and  cephalpthorax  at  the 
expense  of  the  abdomen ;  but  for  some  reason,  whether  on  account 
of  the  elements,  or  birds,  or  other  insects,  or  the  attacks  upon  one  an- 
other, I  cannot  say,  only  five  or  six  out  of  the  five  or  six  hundred 
hatched  in  any  one  cocoon  ever  come  to  maturity  in  the  natural 
state. 

The  mass  of  eggs  is  enclosed  in  a  loose  silken  cocoon,  the  threads 
of  which  are  very  large  and  strong,  especially  the  outer  ones,  which 
are  ^^Vo  ^^  ^^  ''^'^^  ^^  diameter  while  the  interior  ones  are  -^q-q  of 
an  inch  in  diameter;  this  cocoon  weighs  from  .320  to  .655  of  a  grain. 

The  grown  females,  which  I  have  kept  alive  for  one  month  or  more, 
in  boxes  or  in  webs  constructed  in  my  room  in  South  Carolina,  have 
all  readily  taken,  from  the  point  of  a  needle,  live  flies  or  bits  of  fresh 
chicken's  liver,  from  which  they  suck  the  juices  ;  they  likewise  take 
water  from  the  point  of  a  stick  or  hair  pencil,  holding  the  drop  be- 
tween the  palpi  and  the  jaws  while  it  is  slowly  swallowed ;  one  spider 
has  thus  taken  six  drops  of  water  in  succession. 

Much  more  might  be  related  concerning  the  habits  of  the  insect,  of 
the  manner  of  keeping  and  feeding  the  young,  of  the  means  of  secur- 
ing the  spider  while  its  silk  is  obtained,  and  of  the  various  apparatus 
employed  ;  but  I  am  so  impressed  with  the  peculiarities  thus  far  ob- 
served in  themselves,  and  with  the  beauty  and  strength  of  the  silk  that 
if  time  and  means  permit,  I  shall  continue  the  inquiry  as  far  as  possi- 
ble, and  will  defer  to  a  future  occasion  a  more  complete  account  of  the 
spider,  its  habits,  anatomy  and  embryology,  and  of  the  various  qual- 
ities of  its  silk,  with  whatever  conclusion  can  be  reached  concerning 
the  practicability  of  rearing  the  young,  and  also  how  far  it  is  possible 
to  apply  the  same  method  of  extraction  to  the  silk  worm,  and  other 
silk' producing  larvse. 

Note.  April  2d,  1866.  Some  of  these  spiders,  hatched  in  October,  1865,  are 
now  more  than  an  inch  in  length. 

rUOCEEDINGB  B.  3.  If.  H.— VOL.  X.  14  APRIL,    186B. 


Wilder.] 


11 


It  is  but  recently  that  I  have  had  the  benefit  of  an  acquaintance  with  the  in- 
vestigations of  others  upon  the  economy  of  the  geometrical  spiders ;  and  in  the 
entire  absence  of  any  American  works  on  this  subject,  I  will  refer  to  the  me- 
moirs of  Blackwall  and  other  British  naturalists  published  in  the  Linncean 
Transactions,  Vols,  xvi.,  xviii.,  and  xxi.,  in  the  Zoological  Journal,  Vols.  iv.  and 
v.,  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Entomological  Society,  Vols,  i.,  ii.,  and  iii.;  En- 
tomological Magazine,  Vols.  ii.  and  iii.,  and  Reports  of  the  British  Association 
for  1844  and  1858.  The  earlier  papers  are  quoted  in  Kirby  and  Spence's  En- 
tomology, while  a  brief  synopsis  of  nearly  all  is  contained  in  the  introduction 
to  Part  1.  of  BlackwaU's  Spiders  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  published  by  the 
Kay  Society  in  1861  and  1864. 

Many  of  these  opinions  have  been  confirmed  by  my  observations  upon  the 
NepMla  plumipes,  and  where  it  is  otherwise  stated,  the  difi'erences  may  sometimes 
(as  with  the  construction  of  the  webs,  mentioned  above)  be  in  consequence 
of  specific  peculiarities. 


NepMla  plumipes  Koch. 
The  smaller  figure,  the  male ;  the  larger,  the  female. 


1864.]  679 

[From  the  Proceedings  of  the  Entomological  Society  of  Philadelphia;.] 

Descriptions  of  several  new  species   of  CYNIPS,  and   a   new   species  of 
DIASTROPHUS. 

BY    H  .    F.    B  A  S  S  E  T  T  . 

QuERCUS  RUBRA.  A  cluster  of  forty  or  fifty  elongate-ovate  galls  on 
a  branch  of  a  young  red  oak  tree.  They  are  from  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  to  an  inch  in  leiigth,  and  a  half  an  inch  in  diameter  in  the  middle, 
tapering  to  a  point  at  the  ends ;  covered  loith  a  short,  velvety  pubes- 
cence, and  when  dry,  ridged  like  a  melon  ;  the  inside,  a  cork-like  sub- 
stance adhering  closely  to  the  larval  cell,  and  divided  lengthwise  into 
many  parts  like  the  dissepiments  of  the  seed-vessels  of  various  kinds  of 
plants  ;  monothalamous — the  cell  one-tenth  of  an  inch  long. 

C.  q.  formosa  n.  sp. 

9.  Head  black.  Head  and  face  finely  and  evenly  rugose.  Antennce  lb- 
jointed,  yellowish-red,  the  terminal  joints  darker.  The  suture  between  the  14th 
and  15th  as  distinct  as  the  preceding  ones;  face  with  a  short  pubescence,  the 
hairs  converging  towards  the  mouth ;  mandibles  black,  palpi  yellowish-red. 
Thorax  black  :  a  few  short  hairs  on  the  collare;  me-sothorax :  parapsidal  grooves 
distinctly  marked,  median  line  broad  where  it  begins  on  the  seutellum,  but 
gradually  decreases  and  disappears  just  before  reaching  the  collare;  between 
this  and  the  parapsidal  grooves  two  short  lines  beginning  on  the  collar  and  ex- 
tending half  way  to  the  seutellum.  The  thorax  and  pleuras  are  beautifully 
ripple-marked  with  fine  short  transverse  lines.  This  style  of  marking  is  distinct 
from  that  of  any  of  the  species  in  my  collection — thirty  or  more.  The  same 
style,  only  coarser,  is  seen  in  some  Chalcidians.  Seutellum  small,  finely  rugose, 
the  small  fovese  are  smooth  and  shining.  Legs  bright  brownish-red,  except  the 
upper  part  of  the  femur,  which  is  nearly  black,  and  the  black  coxse.  Abdomen 
bright  reddish-brown,  with  an  extremely  minute  microscopic  punctation : 
sheath  of  the  ovipositor  a  dark  brownish-red.  Wings  hyaline,  also  the  veins, 
except  the  first  and  second  transverse  and  the  subcostal,  which  are  a  very  pale 
yellow;  areolet  large,  equiangular,  bounded  on  the  inner  side  by  entirely  color- 
less veins,  radial  area  open.     Length  .12.     %  unknown. 

The  flies  have  not  yet  left  the  gall  (Nov.  25)  though  they  have  been 
in  the  imago  state  for  several  weeks,  and  crawled  about  actively  when 
the  galls  were  opened.  They  may  be  imprisoned  by  the  hard  dry  gall, 
but  I  am  inclined  to  think,  that,  like  some  other  species,  they  remain 
in  the  galls  in  the  perfect  state  through  the  winter  and  come  out  early 
in  the  spring. 


680  [December 

The  galls  of  this  species  are  very  rare.  I  have  found  only  two  clus- 
ters, and  one  of  these  was  much  eaten  by  some  Lepidopterous  larva, 
and  the  larvae  of  the  true  gall  fly  were  destroyed.  Only  a  part  of  the 
galls  in  the  other  cluster  were  developed  as  described  above;  the  small- 
est were  not  larger  than  grains  of  barley,  but  contained  larvae,  and  have 
produced  true  gall  flies.  Their  diminutive  size  was  owing,  apparently, 
to  their  being  closely  crowded. 

This  and  the  species  nest  described,  G.  q.  ventricosa  n.  sp.,  are  rea- 
dily distinguished  from  any  other  American  species  yet  described,  by 
the  female,  (male  as  yet  unknown,)  having  fifteen  distincf  antenna/. 
Joints.  Dr.  Fitch  (N.  Y.  Rep.  Vol.  2.  No.  309)  speaks  of  having,  in 
his  collection,  a  female  gall  fly  with  fifteen  jointed  antennae,  but  he 
does  not  describe  it,  nor  the  gall  from  which  it  came. 

Westwood  (Syn.  Gen.  Br.  Insects)  does  not  characterize  any  genus 
of  the  family  Cynipidae  as  having  more  than  the  9  14,  and  the  %  15 
antennal  joints — but  the  %  of  my  C.  q.  singularis*  (Proc.  Ent.  Soe. 
Phila.  Vol.  2nd.  p.  326)  has  16-jointed  antennae,  and  0.  q.  scitula — a 
new  species  described  in  this  paper — also  has  the  same  number.  The 
females  of  both  these  species  have  only  13  joints,  the  terminal  one  long 
and  connately  divided  in  the  middle. 

C.  q.  formosa  and  the  species  next  described  are  evidently  closely 
related,  for  besides  the  15-jointed  antennae  of  the  9  there  are  other 
points  of  resemblance;  and  the  remarkable  difiierence  in  the  colors  of 
the  two  species,  the  ripple-marked  thorax  of  0.  q.  formosa,  and  the 
widely  diff'erent  galls  from  different  species  of  oak,  are  the  most  marked 
specific  characters.  The  shape  of  the  abdomen  of  both  species  is  pe- 
culiar; different  in  form,  and,  I  think,  in  structure,  from  any  other  spe- 
cies I  am  acquainted  with,  but  I  have  not  yet  sufficiently  studied  the 
structure  to  describe  it  well,  and  have  simply,  in  my  description,  no- 
ticed the  vertical  diameter  as  equalling  or  exceeding  the  length. 

*Mr.  Walsh  assures  me  that  my  C.  q.  singularis  is  the  same  as  C.  q.  nubili- 
pennis  Harris.  He  is  undoubtedly  correct,  and  my  name  stands,  of  course,  as 
a  Synonym.  Dr.  Harris' very  brief  descriptions  were  definite  enough,  perhaps, 
when  the  number  of  species  was,  as  when  he  wrote,  very  small,  but  hardly  com- 
plete enough  for  the  genus  to-day.  The  number  of  species  described  and 
properly  belonging  to,  or  provisionally  placed  in.  the  genus  Cynips,  exceeds  fifty, 
and  many  more  will  probably  be  found. 


1864.]  681 

QuERCUS  ILICIFOLIA.  Galls  growing  in  clusters  from  three  or  four 
to  a  dozen  together^  on  the  limhs  and  occasionalhj  on  the  trunhs  of  young 
shrub  oaks.  They  are  cone-shaped,  truncate  at  the  base,  the  apex  often 
prolonged,  in  a  slender,  recurved  -point.  They  are  from  four  to  five- 
eighths  of  an  inch  long,  and  from  one-fourth  to  three-eightlis  in  diame- 
ter at  the  base.  When  green,  often  of  a  deep  red  color ;  when  dry, 
broion  or  black ;  very  hard,  enclosing  a  nearly  free  larval  cell  like  that 
of  C.  q.  globulus,  Fitch. 

C.  q.  ventricosa  n.  sp. 

9  .  Head  and  thorax  a  bright  cinnamon  color,  head  finely  punctate,  face  pu- 
bescent, dark  brown  around  the  mouth,  tips  of  the  mandibles  black,  palpi  pale 
brown.  Antennae  long,  15-jointed,  third  joint  longest,  others  gradually  decreas- 
ing in  length  to  the  15th,  which  is  as  long  as  the  two  preceding  ones,  and  shows 
plainly  a  connate  suture.  Thorax  finely  and  evenly  punctate;  parapsidal 
grooves  not  deep;  the  line  dividing  the  mesothorax  lengthwise  reaches  from  the 
coUare  to  the  scutellum ;  each  side  of  this  is  a  line  reaching  half  way  from  the 
collare  to  the  scutellum,  and  marked  with  an  indentation  at  the  posterior  end; 
also  a  deep  linear  depression  on  each  side  over  the  base  of  the  wings ;  pleura 
microscopically  punctate;  mesothorax  bounded  on  the  sides  and  where  it  joins 
the  scutellum  by  a  dark  reddish-brown  line.  Scutellum  very  finely  sculptured, 
a  dark  and  narrow  ridge  dividing  it  half  the  length.  Feet  yellow,  tips  of  the 
tarsi  black.  Wings  hyaline;  the  subcostal,  anal,  first  and  second  transverse 
veins  large,  dark  reddish-brown ;  the  first  two  rather  paler  towards  the  base ; 
areolet  distinct;  radial  area  open,  the  vein  forming  its  base  Considerably  en^ 
larged.  Abdomen  darker  brown  than  the  thorax;  segments  short,  second  long- 
est; vertical  diameter,  i.  e.  tne  distance  from  the  back  of  the  abdomen  to  the 
ventral  edge,  equals  or  slightly  exceeds  the  length ;  terminal  segments  show  a 
fine  punctation.     Length  .14.     Male  unknown. 

My  galls  were  collected  in  June.  The  flies  were  found  to  be  fully 
developed  in  October.  They  were  cut  out,  else  they  would  probably 
have  remained  in  the  galls  until  spring. 

QuERCUS  ILICIFOLIA.  Elongated,  fusiform  galls  growing  on  the 
upper  side  of  the  leaves  of  Q.  ilicifolia,  and  standing  erect,  or  nearly 
so — sometimes  entirely  preventing  the  development  of  the  leaf,  and  ap- 
parently growing  out' of  the  petiole.  The  central  nucleus  containing  the 
larvse.  is  kept  in  place  by  radiating  woody  fibres  as  in  C.  q.  inanis  0.  S. 
The  largest  gcdls  are  two  inches  in  length  and  seven-eighths  of  an  inch 
in  diameter )  average  size  about  one  and  three-fourths  inches  long,  and 
three-fourths  in  diameter.  Apex  rather  longer  and  more  slender  than 
the  basal  portion,  and  often  considerably  curved. 


682  [December 

These  galls  are  of  the  same  dark  green  as  the  leaves.  Many  are 
found  very  much  smaller  than  those  described  above,  but  they  produce 
parasitic  flies.  Baron  Osten  Sacken  writes  me  that  he  met  with  num- 
bers of  these  galls  in  Pennsylvania  several  years  ago.  They  are  rather 
rare  here  (Conn.) 

Q.  q.  ilicifoliae  n.  sp. 

9  Black,  vertex  of  the  head,  and  the  entire  thorax  black,  and  deeply  and 
irregularly  sculptured;  face  rugose  and  pubescent:  hairs  converging  toward 
the  mouth;  palpi  shining  reddish  brown.  Antennae  13-jointed,  the  13th  long, 
and  with  a  false  suture  apparent  on  the  inner  side;  first  and  second  joints  very 
short,  shining  black;  the  remaining  ones  pubescent,  and  dull  black.  Thorax 
with  a  coarse  pubescence.  The  parapsidal  groove  obliterated  by  the  coarse, 
somewhat  linearly  arranged  sculpturing.  Fovese  large  but  sculptured  like  the 
rest  of  the  scutellum.  Feet:  coxse,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  femur  of  the  two 
anterior  pairs  black — other  parts  reddish-brown;  posterior  pair  black,  reddish 
at  the  joints.  Abdomen  black  shining,  the  ventral  edge  clear  brownish  red. 
The  segments,  except  the  first  and  second,  with  a  very  fine  microscopic  punc- 
tation,  most  apparent  on  the  third  segment.  Wings  slightly  dusky ;  veins  brown- 
ish black,  heavy;  areolet  very  small,  vein  at  the  base  of  the  open  radial  area 
covered  by  a  large  brownish  black  cloud,  which  covers  part  of  the  areolet  but 
does  not  reach  the  anterior  margin  of  the  wing.  A  very  light  brown  cloud  in 
the  basal  cell  of  some  specimens.     Length  .17. 

'^  . — Antennee  15-jointed,  feet  darker  than  those  of  the  female  ;  posterior  pair, 
including  the  tarsi,  almost  entirely  black.  Otherwise  like  the  female  except  the 
usual  sexual  differences.     Length  .14. 

Ten  9  and  four  %  specimens. 

QuERCUS  ALBA.  Flat^  green,  succulent  galls,  often  of  a  very  irregu- 
lar outline,  and  from  one-fourth  to  more  than  an  inch  in  diameter,  the 
vertical  diameter  from,  one-fourth  to  three-eighths  of  an  inch,  groxcing  on 
the  leaves  of  the  tvhite  oak,  and  producing,  according  to  the  size,  from 
two  or  three,  to  more  than  a  dozen  gall-flies. 

The  flies  escape  from  the  galls  in  June,  through  the  upper  or  under 
surface.  The  water  that  enters  the  cavities  the  flies  have  left  causes 
the  galls  soon  to  decay  and  drop  off,  but  a  few  change  to  a  dry  pith- 
like substance,  and  remain  on  the  tree  through  the  summer.  These 
might  be  taken  for  a  diff"erent  species,  as  they  generally  contain  larvje, 
but  having  reared  a  few  Spalangia  (?)  from  such  galls.  T  infer  they  are 
all  parasitic. 

This  species  is  closely  related  to  C.  q.  irregularis  0.  S.  but  grows  on 
a  different  species  of  oak,  and   Baron  Osten    Sacken  to  whom    I  sent 


1S()4.]  GSP, 

■specimens,  thinks  it  may  be  specifically  distinct  from  that  species, 
which  I  have  not  yet  seen.  The  imperfect  condition  of  his  only  spe- 
cimen of  C  q.  irregularis  renders  a  satisfactory  comparison  impossible, 
and  actinj^  upon  his  suggestion.  I  describe  it  as 

C.  q.  majalis  n.  sp. 

9  Head  transverse,  black,  nearly  smooth,  but  under  a  powerful  magnifier 
presents  a  fine  netted  appearance:  face  smooth  with  a  very  few  short  white 
hairs;  mouth  brown,  tips  of  the  mandibles  black.  Antennoe  long,  with  13  joints, 
first  and  second  short,  third  very  long  and  enlarged  at  the  upper  end.  These, 
except  the  slightly  enlarged  portion  of  the  third,  are  a  pale  yellowish  white, 
the  remaining  joints  a  light  opaque  brown.  Thorax  black,  smooth  and  shin- 
ing; without  any  grooves  or  striae  whatever  on  the  mesothorax.  Scutellum 
smooth,  separated  from  the  mesothorax  by  a  broad  shallow  groove  ;  fovese  want- 
ing; marked  posteriorly  by  two  deep  transverse  grooves,  causing  three  transverse 
ridges  above  the  insertion  of  the  abdominal  peduncle.  Feet  white  with  a  tinge 
of  yellow,  like  the  basal  joints  of  the  antennae.  Abdomen  black,  smooth;  in  dry 
specimens  shrunken  and  wrinkled.  Wings  large  with  a  faint  duskiness  and  a 
dusky  cloud  resting  on  the  first  transverse  vein;  veins  dull  brown;  areolet  pre- 
sent; radial  area  open,  long  and  very  narrow.     Length  (dry)  .09. 

%  . — Head  black  ;  antennce  15-jointed  ;  three  basal  joints  paler  than  of  the  5  ; 
others  a  semitranslucent  brown.  Third  joint  very  long,  remaining  ones  short, 
and  of  equal  length.  Third  joint  curved  rather  than  incised.  Thorax,  the 
feet  and  the  first  and  part  of  the  second  segment  of  the  abdomen  very  light 
yellowish  brown.  The  central  part  of  the  mesothorax  dark  shining  brown; 
terminal  segments  of  abdomen  dark  brown;  in  some  specimens  nearly  black. 
Length  .10, slightly  longer  than  the  J. 

Several  hundred  S  S  and  9  $  • 

QuERCUS  TINi^TORIA.  Wood^.  tuber-like  galls,  fjroicing  on  the  green 
hraiirhes  (if  Q.  tinctoria.  sometimes  simply  an  enlargement  of  the  limb. 
lit  others  entirely  checking  its  growth  and  covered^  with  leaves.  They 
are  from  three-fourths  to  an  inch  and  a  half  in  lengthy  and  rather  more 
than  half  an  inch  in  diameter  at  the  base.,  tapering  to  a  cone-like  point. 

C.  q.  scitula,  n.  sp. 

9-  Black.  Head,  vertex  black,  subrugose;  sides  of  the  head  and  the  face  in 
some  specimens  a  very  dark  brown,  with  a  shade  of  red.  but  most  are  a  dull 
brownish  black;  face  pubescent.  Antennce  13-jointed,  the  13th  long  and  in  the 
middle  connately  divided;  the  basal  joints  yellowish-brown,  the  terminal  dark 
brown,  the  transition  gradual.  Thorax  finely  and  regularly  punctate;  parap- 
sidal  lines  fine,  and  two  parallel  interparapsidal  lines  so  faint  as  to  be  seen  only 
in  certain  positions  to  the  light,  median  line  merely  a  longitudinal  depression, 
a  short  deep  groove  over  the  base  of  the  wings.  Scutellum  regularly  and  finely 
sculptured;  basal  pits  obsolete.     Feet  shining  yellowish-brown.     Middle  of  the 


GSi  [December 

femur  and  tibia  darker  than  the  joints,  tarsal  tips  black.  Wings  hyaline,  1st 
transverse  and  radial  veins  dark  brown,  others  pale  but  distinct:  areolet  of  me- 
dium size  and  at  the  base  of  the  open  radial  area.     Length  .09. 

The  %  closely  resembles  the  9  in  color  and  markings.  The  abdomen  is  very 
long,  and  the  antennge  a  rich  amber  color,  with  a  few  of  the  terminal  joints  of 
a  light  brown.  In  all  the  specimens  I  have  examined  (16)  the  number  of  an- 
tennal  joints  is  sixteen.     Lengtli  .OS. 

Numerous  9  9  and  25  •£  S  . 

Dr.  Fitch  has  given  a  very  correct  figure  and  description  of  the  gall 
of  his  C.  q.  batatus,  which,  it  will  be  seen,  closely  resembles  that  of  the 
above  species.  Indeed  there  is  little  or  no  apparent  difference  in  the 
o-alls  more  than  pertains  to  the  different  species  of  oak  on  which  they 
'j-row,  but  the  flies  are  very  distinct.  As  Dr.  Fitch  describes  the  fly  so 
very  briefly  that  it  may  easily  be  confounded  with  C  q.  scttula,  1  give 
a  more  full  description  below : 

Quercus  alba. 

C.  q.  batatus  Fitch.     (N.  Y.  Reports,  Vol.  2nd,  No.  311.) 

9  Black,  shining,  entire  head  black,  vertex  smooth ;  face,  covered  with  a 
fine  thin  pubescence ;  color  of  the  palpi,  clear  vitreous  brown.  Antennce  13- 
jointed,  first  three  joints  pale  yellow,  others  a  pale  semi-translucent  brown. 
Thorax  black,  shining,  but  under  a  powerful  magnifier  shows  a  net-work  of  fine 
lines;  parapsidal  grooves  and  striae  obsolete.  Scutellum  smooth,  polished:  a 
few  scattered  hairs  on  the  posterior  portion;  basal  pits  wanting;  separated 
from  the  mesothorax  by  a  deep  shining  groove.  Abdomen  black  and  polished 
but  in  all  my  dry  specimens  contracted  and  wrinkled.  Feet,  coxse  clear  yel- 
lowish brown,  femur,  in  the  middle  dark  brown  or  black,  as  is  also  the  tibia  of 
the  posterior  pair:  remaining  portions,  except  the  tips  of  the  tarsi  which  are 
black,  are  of  the  same  color  as  the  coxse.  Wings  hyaline,  all  the  veins  dark 
brown  and  of  nearly  equal  size.  The  cubitus  large  and  heavy  its  whole  length  ; 
areolet  large;  radial  area  open.     Length  .09. 

'^. — -The  antennae  of  the  male  is  14-jointed.  Feet  dull  pale  yellow.  Abdomen 
petiolate  by  the  elongation  of  the  first  segment.     Length  .08. 

Numerous  specimens  %  and  9  .* 

*I  am  satisfied  that  there  are  annually  two  generations  of  C.  q.  batatus.  The 
first  appears  early  in  May,  from  galls  of  the  preceding  year's  growth, — the  last 
late  in  June,  from  green  galls.  I  have  often  found  perfect  insects  in  the  galls 
in  winter,  and  have  reared  flies  from  them,  apparently  of  the  same  species 
reared  from  the  summer  galls.  Inquilinae  in  great  numbers  are  produced  from 
the  winter  galls  and  few  true  gall  flies,  while  the  reverse  is  true  of  the  summer 
form.  As  many  of  the  summer  galls  remain  green  after  the  flies  have  left  them, 
and  as  the  tree's  annual  growth  is  nearly  or  quite  complete  the  first  of  July,  it 


1864.]  685 

QuERCTis  ILICIFOLIA.  Club-shnped.  woodi/  galh,  grovnng  on  the 
ends  of  the,  small  limbs.  Apex  blunt  and  generalh/  turned  to  one  side, 
covered  in  sum,m,er  with  a  few  leaves  and  containing  one,  and,  occasion- 
ally two  or  three  larvse,.  It  is  strikingly  like  that  of  0.  q.  tuber  of 
Fitch,  hut  produces  a  fly  which  though  closely  related,  is  evidently  a 
different  species. 

C.  q.  similis  n.  sp. 

9  •  Head  and  thorax  a  bright  brownish  red  ;  vertex  of  the  head  finely  sculp- 
tured ;  the  rather  jDroniinent  ocelli  are  black  only  at  the  apex,  face  pubescent: 
hairs  short,  converging  towards  the  mouth.  Antennce  13-jointed,  the  13th  nearly 
as  long  as  the  two  preceding  ones  and  in  some  individuals  there  is  an  obscurely 
marked  connate  suture.  Thorax  coarsely  punctate,  sparsely  hairy,  a  shade 
darker  than  the  head,  three  faint  longitudinal  lines  reach  from  the  collare  to 
the  scutellum,  and  two  other  lines,  one  on  each  side  and  very  close  to  the  me- 
dian line,  start  from  the  collare  and  extend  half-way  to  the  scutellum ;  obscure 
line  over  the  base  of  the  wing=.  Scutellum  sculptured,  basal  pits  small,  deep 
and  smooth.  The  central  portion  of  the  pleura — in  many  species  smooth  and 
polished — is  in  this  covered  with  very  fine  longitudinal  striae.  The  legs  of  a 
uniform  brownish  red,  except  the  tips  of  the  tarsi  which  are  black.  Wings,  a 
subopaque  white,  the  subcostal,  anal,  1st  and  2nd  transverse  very  pale  yellow, 
others  colorless  and  the  vein  which  bounds  the  posterior  side  of  the  radial  area  in 
other  species  is,  in  this  obsolete,  as  is,  also,  the  cubitus  and  areolet.  Abdomen,  red, 
except  the  dorsal  portion  of  the  middle  segments  which  is  nearly  black;  ter- 
minal segments  withdrawn  into  the  others  in  dry  specimens,  and  the  sheath  of 
the  ovipositor  turned  abruptly  upward  but  does  not  extend  above  the  back  of 
the  abdomen  as  in  the  Inquilinas.     Length  .12. 

% .  Black  head  and  thorax.  Antennae  15-jointed,  1st  and  2nd  joints  nearly 
black,  others  red.  Legs,  posterior  pairs  dark  reddish-brown,  the  posterior  pair 
dark  brown,  nearly  black — -all  lighter  at  the  joints.  Abdomen  black  and  shin- 
ing, 2nd  segment  long.     It  is  much  smaller  than  the  female.     Length  .08. 

16  9  ,  4  S  specimens. 

C.  q.  tuber  Fitch.     (N".  Y.  Eep.  Vol.  2nd,  l^o.  309.) 

9  . — Head  black,  sides,  however,  in  a  strong  light  have  a  tinge  of  red ;  face 
black,  pubescent,  hairs  converging  towards  the  mouth  Antennae  yellowish- 
brown,  13-jointed.  Thorax,  a  reddish  tinge  on  the  shoulder  of  the  collar;  other 
parts  black,  rather  densely  pubescent.  Three  longitudinal  lines  somewhat  ob- 
scured by  the  pubescence ;  two  short  lines  extend  half  way  from  the  collare  to 
the  scutellum  and  there  is  a  short  faint  line  over  the  base  of  the  wings ;  scutel- 
lum rough,  hairy;  fovse  medium  size;  smooth  spot  on  the  pleura  polished,  shin- 
ing, but  not  perfectly  smooth.     Legs  brown,  tips  of  the  tarsi  black.     Abdomen 


seems  probable  the  June  flies  oviposit  in  the  galls  from  which  they  were  pro- 
duced.—Jan.  28,  1865. 


(38G  [Decembkr 

black  shining,  second  segment  longest,  separated  from  the  third  by  a  connate 
suture,  third  with  microscopic  punctation.  Sheath  of  the  ovipositor  not  turned 
up  nearly  so  much  as  in  C.  q.  similis,  to  which  species  it  is  closely  related. 
Wings  hyaline,  sub-costal,  first  and  second  transverse  veins  pale  brown,  others 
colorless  :  lower  part  of  the  cubitus  obsolete:  areolet  present:  radial  area  open. 
Length  .12. 

Nine  speeimeiis. 

I  have  a  single  male  gall  fly  reared  from  the  same  galls,  but  it  differs 
so  much  from  the  female  that  T  am  inclined  to  think  it  belongs  to  a 
diff'erent  species.  The  thorax  is  quite  smooth  and  shining,  with  a  few 
short,  scattering  hairs,  and  only  two  longitudinal  lines  that  closely  con- 
verge at  the  seutellum.  The  venation  of  the  wings  is  like  that  of  the 
female  described  above,  and  is  unquestionably  that  of  a  true  gall-fly. 
The  antennae  light  dusky  brown,  15-jointed  ;  legs  dark  shining  brown, 
nearly  black,  paler  at  the  joints. 

Though  the  galls  are  very  much  alike,  the  venation  of  the  wings, 
the  pleurae,  and  several  other  points  of  difi'erence  mark  it  as  a  distinct 
species  from  G.  q.  similis.  Dr.  Fitch  has  figured  the  gall  of  his  C.  q. 
tuber  which  he  found  "  quite  common  particularly  upon  the  soft  and 
tender  limbs  of  young  (white  oak)  trees"  (N.  Y.  Rep.^  Vol.  2d,  No. 
309).  He  describes  (1.  c.  No.  310)  the  galls  of  C.  q.  arbos  as  "  swellings 
similar  to  that  above  described,  growing  on  the  tips  of  the  limbs  of 
aged  and  large  white  oak  trees." 

My  galls,  which  are  probably  identical  with  his  0.  q.  fiiber,  were 
gathered  from  low,  shrubby  white  oak  bushes,  though  I  have  often 
seen  precisely  similar  ones  on  large  trees.  Dr.  Fitch's  descriptions  of 
the  flies  from  0.  q.  tuber  or  0.  q.  arbos  will  apply,  so  far  as  they  go,  to 
either  the  gall  flies,  or  to  the  guest  flies  as  the  inquilinae  are  termed  by 
Mr.  Walsh.  For  the  reasons  that  follow,  I  am  led  to  think  that  the 
species  he  described  under  the  above  names  are  both  inquilinious 
species. 

1st.  My  galls  were  gathered  about  the  20th  of  June,  and  were  then 
green  and  soft  like  the  wood  of  the  young  shoots  on  which  they  grew. 
The  insects  were  then  in  the  pupa  state,  and  the  imago  came  out  early 
in  July.  The  gall  from  which  Dr.  Fitch's  G.  q.  arbos  was  reared  was 
found  in  March,  and  were  of  the  preceding  year's  growth,  as  were  also 
those  of  G.  q.  tuber,  if  we  may  judge  from  his  description  of  the  color 


1864.]  687 

of  the  gall,  which  will  only  apply  to  the  galls  long  after  the  true  gall- 
flies have  left  them. 

2nd.  My  galls  gathered  from  young  white  oaks,  and  which  answer 
perfectly  to  his  figure  and  description  of  G.  q.  tuber,  produced  females 
with  13-jointed  antennse,  while  his  have  but  12  antennal  joints. 

3rd.  I  have  gathered  several  hundreds  of  these  galls  in  the  autumn, 
winter  and  early  spring  within  the  last  two  or  three  years,  but  have 
never  reared  from  them  one  true  gall-fly,  though  they  have  produced 
large  numbers  of  male  and  female  guest-flies — the  male  answering  per- 
fectly to  Dr.  Fitch's  description  of  C.  q.  arbos.  The  female  he  had  not 
seen. 

4th.  The  galls  I  collected  in  June  have  not  yet  produced  any  guest- 
flies,  but  cutting  open  several  to-day  I  found  in  one  a  large  living 
larva — the  others  were  empty  or  contained  dead  gall-flies  that  had  not 
been  able  to  eat  their  way  out  of  the  dried  gall. 

From  the  above  facts  I  am  forced  to  believe  that  the  galls  C.  q.  tuber 
and  arbos  Fitch  are  both  produced  by  the  same  fly,  and  that  it  is  the 
same  species  that  I  have  described  above  and  for  which  I  retain  Dr. 
Fitch's  name,  O.  q.  tuber.  Dr.  Fitch  has,  no  doubt,  described  two  dis- 
tinct flies,  for  Mr.  Walsh,  who  has  devoted  much  attention  to  the 
guest-flies  of  the  oak  galls,  finds  that  not  only  do  some  species  live  in 
several  difi"erent  species  of  galls,  but  that  the  same  kind  of  gall  may 
produce  more  than  one  species  of  guest-fly.  {Proc.  Ent.  Soc.  Philad. 
Vol.  2d,  p.  465.) 

Mr.  Walsh,  in  the  article  referred  to,  mentions  other  of  Dr.  Fitch's 
species  which  he  is  satisfied  are  inquilinae,  and  not  the  producers  of  the 
galls  from  which  they  were  reared.  (See  pp.  464-5,  484  and  494.) 
His  remark  that  "  Q.  q.  tuber  Fitch  is  in  all  probability  a  guest-fly," 
escaped  my  notice  till  this  moment. 

QuERCUS  MONTANA.  Hard,  round  galh,  .25  of  an  inch  in.  diame- 
ter with  a  finely  papillose  surface  and  a  solid  radiated  cellular  struc- 
ture ;  growing  sometimes  on  the  upper,  but  as  often  on  the  under  side 
of  the  leaf;   attached  to  the  larger  veins  by  a  very  short  pedicel. 

These  galls  are  rarely  met  with,  and  I  have  seldom  found  more  than 
one  on  a  leaf.  In  a  single  instance  there  were  three  on  the  same  leaf, 
two  on  the  under  side  and  one  on  the  upper.  My  specimens  were  found 
iu  October  and  contained  perfect  insects.    Through  the  gall  of  several, 


♦W8  [December 

i^athered  October  20th,  the  insect  had  eaten  a  passage  but  they  still 
remain  in  the  galls.*  Each  contains  a  single,  subapterous,  female  gall- 
fly, closely  related  to  C.  q.  forticornis  Walsh,  and  C  q.  pezomachoides 
Osten  Sacken.  Dr.  Fitch's  figure  and  description  of  the  gall  of  C  q. 
plsUm,  {N.  Y.  Rej).  Vol.  2,  No.  319.)  answers  well  for  this  gall,  but  his 
were  from  a  diff'erent  species  of  oak,  and  this  gall-fly  is  very  distinct 
from  that  he  describes.  Baron  Osten  Sacken  informs  me  that  these 
subapterous  females  have  winged  males  and  belong  to  the  genus  x\ndri- 
cus. 

I  let  this  species  stand  with  the  related  species  named  above  and  call  it 

C.  q.  hirta  n.  sp. 

Head  black,  vertex  slightly  rugose,  densely  hairy  as  is  also  the  entire  dorsal 
portion  of  the  thorax;  face  pubescent,  hairs  converging  towards  the  mouth: 
palpi  shining  brown,  tips  black.  Antennce  long,  slender,  black,  14-jointed. 
Thorax  black,  very  small,  densely  covered  with  a  coarse,  yellowish-white  pu- 
bescence. No  striae  visible  on  the  mesothorax.  They  are  concealed  by  the 
pubescence  if  they  exist.  Feet  a  dull  brownish  black,  but  in  a  strong  light 
appear  of  a  very  dark  reddish  brown,  posterior  pair  lightest  and  all  somewhat 
paler  at  the  joints.  The  wings  are  mere  yellowish  white  scales.  Abdomen 
large,  black  and  shining,  a  short,  close  pubescence  on  each  side  of  the  2nd  seg- 
ment and  this  and  the  remaining  segments,  except  the  first,  bounded  across 
the  back  and  sides  on  the  posterior  edge  by  a  belt  of  long,  silvery  white  hairs. 
These  belts  are  divided  on  the  dorsal  ridge  by  a  shining  glabrous  line  like  the 
anterior  portion  of  the  segment.  These  belts  are  plainly  visible  without  the 
aid  of  a  magnifier.     Length  .14. 

Six  9  specimens. 

New  species  of  galls,  the  flies  of  which  are.  as  yet,  unknown  to  me- 
QuERCUS  Chinquapin.  Gall  a  cone-like  hoaij^  developed  from  the 
axillary  leaf-buds^  and  covered  ivhen  green  and  often  when  dry  with  a 
dense,  rose-like  cluster  of  imperfectly  developed  leaves.  The  cell  con- 
taining the  larva  smooth,  shining,  oval,  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  long, 
half  immersed  in  the  apex  of  the  cone. — C.  Q.  frondosa  n.  sp.  Gall 
fly  unknown. 

These  singular  and  very  pretty  galls  are  developed  after  the  summer 
growth  of  the  tree  is  completed,  and  the  axillary  buds  are  formed.     The 

*  November  29.  A  single  fly  was  found  in  the  box  yesterday.  It  is  quite  ac- 
tive, and  does  not  diflTer  from  those  cut  from  the  galls,  showing  those  to  have 
been  mature. 


1864.]  689 

sting  of  the  insect  causes  the  huds  that  would  otherwise  remain  unde- 
veloped till  the  following  year,  to  develop  in  the  autumn  in  the  abnor- 
mal manner  described  above. 

The  rudimentary  leaves  are  green,  ligulate.  and  the  more  perfectly 
developed  galls  resemble,  more  than  anything  else  I  can  think  of,  the 
flowers  of  the  common  Artemesia  of  the  flower  garden.  They  are  not 
common,  but  T  have  several  times  met  with  them,  and  the  clump  of  oak 
bushes  from  which  my  specimens  were  gathered  was  covered  with  them. 
The  larvae  are  now  fully  grown.  On  the  same  bushes  I  found  a  gall 
like  C.  q.  globulus  Fitch, — and  several  dry,  brown  galls  on  the  petioles 
of  the  leaves,  apparently  those  of  C.  q.  petioUcoIa. 

Q.  RUBRA.  Clusters  of  seed-like  bodies^  often  thirty  or  forty  toge- 
ther growing  on  the  midvein  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves  of  Q.  rubra. 
The  larger  cells  are  about  the  size  of  a  grain  of  wheat.  They  are 
smooth,  greenish-white,  the  apex  enlarged,  arid  would  remiud  a  botanist 
of  the  sessile  stigma  of  some  flowers. — C.  Q.  decidua,  n.  sp.  Gall  fly 
unknown. 

My  specimens  were  collected  about  the  first  of  October,  and  were 
then  fully  grown.  Some  had  fallen  to  the  ground,  but  on  cutting  open 
a  large  number  I  could  not  detect  any  larvae.  The  leaf  stems  and  twigs 
were  placed  in  water  to  keep  them  green,  but  the  galls  soon  dried  and 
many  fell  ofi".  A  few  fell  into  the  water,  and  these  not  only  kept  green. 
but  on  opening  them  a  few  days  since,  half-grown  larvae  were  found. 
Prom  this  I  infer  that  the  growth  of  this  species  is  dependent  upon  the 
galls  being  covered  in  the  earth. 

Gen,  DIASTROPHUS. 
DiASTROPHUS  PoTENTlLL^,  n.  sp.  Gralls  On  Potentilla  Canadensis- 
They  are  from  .3  to  .5  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  rather  longer  than 
thick,  growing  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves ;  of  a  soft  spongy  consistence 
when  dry,  and  each  contains  a  single  cell  in  shape  and  size  like  the  nu- 
cleus of  G.  q.  globulus,  though  not,  like  that,  free  from  the  substance 
in  which  it  is  enclosed.  They  are  rather  rare  here  (Conn.),  but  I  saw 
large  numbers  of  them  in  the  northern  part  of  Berkshire  Co.,  Mass., 
last  summer.  The  fly  came  out  May  20th  from  galls  of  the  previous 
year's  growth.  It  is  much  like  D.  nebulosus  0.  S.,  but  Baron  Osten 
Sacken  has  compared  it  with  this  species,  and  pronounces  it  distinct. 


690  [December 

Male. — Head  black;  vertex  nearly  smooth,  the  face  black,  finely  aciculate,  a 
ridge  or  carina  from  the  vertex  to  the  mouth,  organs  of  the  mouth  with  faintest 
possible  tinge  of  reddish-brown.  Antennae.:  1st,  2nd  and  3rd  joints  black,  the 
remaining  ones  dark  cinnamon.  3rd  joint  not  deeply  incised,  14-jointed.  Tho- 
rax black;  collare  hairy:  mesothorax  shining;  two  deep  lines  from  coUare  con- 
verging towards  the  scutellum  ;  space  enclosed  nearly  smooth  and  hairless, 
with  very  faint  longitudinal  grooves.  Scutellum  sculptured,  the  basal  pits 
large  and  deep.  Lateral  view  of  the  scutellum  shows  as  a  cone,  the  axis  of 
which  is  at  an  angle  of  45  deg.  from  the  axis  of  the  body.  Legs  dark  brown  or 
black,  coxse  black;  femur  and  tibia  yellowish  brown,  on  the  upper  side  darker; 
tips  of  tarsi  black  or  nearly  so;  pleura  very  finely  aciculate.  Abdomen  briefly 
petiolate,  shining  black,  2nd  and  3rd  segments  connate  jointed.  Wings  pale 
dusky;  veins  heavy,  none  of  them  reaching  the  margin;  vein  forming  the  base 
of  radial  area  with  heavy  brown  blotch.  1st  transverse  reddish-brown;  areolet 
small  distinct;  radial  area  open.  Cubitus  disappearing  before  reaching  the  first 
transverse.     Length  (dry  specimen)  .11. 

Female. — Antennae  13-jointed,  legs  a  shade  darker  than  the  male,  otherwise 
as  the  male,  though  as  usual  larger,  .13  long.  The  ocelli  form  nearly  a  straight 
line  on  the  head.     Abdomen  in  male  and  female  perfectly  smooth  and  shining. 

[n  Mr.  Cresson's  Catalogue  of  described  N.  Am.  Hjmenoptera, 
.pltm^yotantillse,  Harris,  occurs,  taken  from  Dr.  Harris'  Catalogue  of  Ins. 
Mass.  2nd  ed.     I  have  not  seen   Dr.    Harris'   catalogue.      Should  my 
insect  prove  identical  with  his.  I  shall  have  only  removed  it  to  Dias' 
trophus,  the  genus  to  which,  without  doubt,  it  properly  belongs. 

The  following  remarks  and  description  were  communicated  to  me  by 
Baron  R.  Osten  Sacken,  for  publication  in  this  paper: 

"  In  my  paper  entitled  'Additions  and  Corrections,'  etc.,  (Proc.  JSntom.  Soc.  1862) 
1  described  a  gall  under  the  name  of  C.  q.  strobilana  (1.  c.  p.  254),  the  producer 
of  which  was  at  that  time  unknown  to  me.  Many  months  afterwards,  I  ob- 
tained the  fly,  by  cutting  the  dry  galls  open.  It  belongs  to  the  genus  Cynips 
in  the  restricted  sense  (agamous  according  to  Hartig),  and  I  let  its  description 
follow; 
Cynips  quercws  strobilana  0.  Sacken. 

J.  Antennse  14-jointed;  body  dark  brown,  with  a  close,  appressed  pubescence 
on  the  thorax  and  along  the  hind  margins  of  the  abdominal  segments;  feet 
brown  ;  anterior  knees  and  tarsi  reddish  ;  wings  hyaline ;  length  from  0.17 — 0.22. 

Head  black,  finely  punctured  and  pubescent;  palpi  reddish;  antennse  rather 
short  for  the  size  of  the  insect,  14-jointed;  third  joint  about  as  long  as  the  two 
first,  taken  together;  fourth,  fifth  and  sixth  gradually  decreasing  in  length,  the 
seven  penultimate  joints  being  nearly  as  long  as  broad;  the  last  segment  \i 
somewhat  longer  than  the  preceding,  although  not  equal  in  length  to  the  two 
penultimate  joints  taken  together;  it  shows  no  indication  of  a  sub-division. 
Thorax  densely  clothed  above  with  a  yellowish,  appressed  pubescence,  which 


1864.]  691 

does  not  prevent,  however,  from  distinguishing  the  sculpture;  the  latter  con- 
sists of  a  moderately  dense  punctation  and  several  rather  shallow  grooves,  two 
of  which,  running  from  the  collare  backwards,  end  about  the  middle  of  the 
thorax  by  a  slight,  smooth  and  flat  expansion.  Pleurae  black,  punctured,  ex- 
cept a  smooth,  shining  spot  in  the  middle;  their  lower  part  is  pubescent.  Scu- 
tellum  punctured  above,  rugose  behind  and  finely  pubescent;  the  pits  at  its 
base  are  of  moderate  size.  Abdomen  pitch-black,  in  some  specimens  slightly 
reddish  below  and  along  the  hind  margin  of  the  segments;  its  whole  surface, 
except  the  base  of  the  segments  and  a  narrow,  smooth  line  along  the  back,  is 
clothed  with  a  whitish,  appressed  pubescence;  under  this  pubescence  a  mode- 
rately dense  jjunctation  is  perceptible;  the  second  (largest)  segment  of  the  ab- 
domen hardly  reaches  its  middle.  The  feet  are  dark  brown,  pubescent:  the 
base  of  the  femora,  the  knees  and  the  tarsi  of  the  foremost  pair  are  reddish;  in 
some  specimens  a  reddish  tinge  appears  at  the  base  of  the  femora  and  on  the 
knees  of  the  two  posterior  pairs.  Wings  hyaline;  the  second  transverse  vein 
forms  a  knee  which  bears  a  distinct  stump  of  a  vein  in  the  middle. 
Seven  9  specimens." 

Waterbury,  Conn..  Dee.  1864, 


CONTEIBUTIONS 

TO    THE 

Natural  History  of  the  CYNIPID^  op  the  United  States 
and  their  galls. 

Aeticle  3rd. 


BY  BABON  B.  OSTEN  SACKEN. 

[From  the  Proceedings  of  the  Entomological  Society  of  Philada.,  April,  1863.] 


1863.]  ni{ 


Contributions  to  the  Natural  History  of  the  CYNIPID^ffi  of  the  United  States 
and  of  their  galls.    Article  3rd. 

BY     BARON    R.  OSTEN    SACKEN.  ^ 

Since  my  first  articles  on  this  subject  (on  the  Cynipidse  of  the  oaJc, 
in  Proc.  Ent.  Soc.  Phil.,  Oct.  18  .1,  and  Arlditions^  etc.,  ibid.  Sept. 
1862),  I  have  continued  to  work  out  the  collections  of  galls  and  their 
inmates  I  had  on  hand ;  a  large  supply  of  materials  I  owe  to  the  libe- 
rahty  of  Mr.  Norton.  Thus  I  found  myself  able,  in  addition  to  the 
CynipkJse  of  the  oak,  described  in  the  above  quoted  papers,  to  prepare 
one  on  those  of  the  hlacliherrij  and  ilie  rose^  which  I  submit  herewith 
to  the  friends  of  entomology. 

The  present  publication  does'  not  exhaust  the  materials  contained  in 
my  collection  and  I  hope,  in  one  or  two  more  articles,  to  bring  them 
also  before  the  entomological  public.  As  all  these  papei-s,  although 
disconnected,  serve  to  complete  each  other,  thus  gradually  accumulat- 
ing a  store  of  materials  for  the  future  monographer,  I  have  preferred 
to  publish  them  henceforth  under  a  general  title. 

New  York,  March  6,  1863. 


Cynips-Galls  on  the  Blackberry — {RuJms  sp.) 

The  two  cynipideous  galls  heretofore  found  on  the  blackberry  bushes 
of  this  country  are  the  produce  of  two  species  of  the  genus  Diastrophus 
Hartig.  This  deserves  to  be  noticed,  as  the  first  and  only  insect  of  this 
genus,  described  by  Hartig,  was  also  reared  from  a  gall  on  the  black- 
berry. Two  more  species  have  been  described  since  by  Mr.  Griraud 
(Verb.  Zool.  Bot.  Gesellsch.  Wien,  1859,  p.  368),  the  one  reared  from 
a  gall  on  Gentaurea  scahiosa,  the  other  captured  in  the  net. 

The  genus  Diastrophus,  as  all  the  other  of  Hartig's  genera,  has  not 
been  defined  anywhere.  From  Mr.  Hartig's  analytical  sketch  (Germ. 
Z.  II,  p.  186,  and  from  the  addition  to  it,  given  1.  c.  IV,  p.  410),  we 
merely  gather  that  Diastrophus  has  15  (  S  )  and  14  (  9  )  jointed  an- 
tennae, five-articulate  maxillary  and  three-articulate  labial  palpi.  The 
characters  taken  from  the  number  of  joints  of  the  palpi,  are,  in  my 


34  [April 

opinion,  of  little  practical  value,  as  anybody  can  satisfy  himself  by  try- 
ing to  count  them.  As  for  the  number  of  joints  of  the  antennae,  it 
seems  to  vary.  One  of  the  species  described  below  (Z).  nehidosus)  has 
14  ( 'S  )  and  13  (  9  )  joints;  Giraud's  D.  scahiosse  has  the  same  num- 
ber; of  his  D.  areolatus  he  possessed  only  the  $  and  it  likewise  has  13 
joints.  The  other  N.  American  species,  however,  which  I  describe 
below  (i).  cuscutaeformis)  has,  like  Hartig's  D.  ruhi  15  (S  )  and  14 
(  9  )  joints.*  What  Hartig  says  about  the  antennae  of  the  %  (1.  c.  p. 
410,  at  bottom),  "  that  the  last  joint  is  subdivided  in  two  joints  of 
nearly  equal  length,  thus  making  15  joints",  seems  to  indicate  a  struc- 
ture similar  to  that  of  D.  cuscutaefomis  %  ,  where  the  15th  joint  ap- 
pears to  be  a  mere  subdivision  of  the  14th. 

One  of  the  most  curious  circumstances  connected  with  the  history 
of  two  North  American  blackberry  galls,  observed  by  me  is,  that  be- 
sides the  Diastroj^hus,  apparently  the  genuine  originator  of  the  gall, 
they  produce  another  gall-fly,  probably  parasitical,  belonging  to  the 
genus  Aulax  Hartig,  and  showing  the  most  striking  resemblance  in 
size,  coloring,  and  sculpture,  to  the  Diastrophus,  their  companion.  The 
one  is  the  very  counterpart  of  the  other,  hardly  showing  any  differences, 
except  the  strictly  generic  characters  !  This  seems  to  be  again  one  of 
those  curious  instances,  so  frequent  in  entomology,  of  the  resemblance 
between  the  parasites  and  their  hosts  !  By  rearing  a  considerable 
number  of  galls  of  D.  nebidosus,  I  obtained  this  species  as  well  as  its 
parasite  almost  in  equal  numbers.  By  cutting  some  of  the  galls  open, 
I  ascertained  that  a  single  specimen  of  the  gall  frequently  contained 
both  species,  thus  setting  aside  a  possible  doubt  whether  these  insects 
are  not  produced  by  two  different,  although  closely  similar  galls. 

From  the  gall  of  D.  custutaeformis  I  also  obtained  an  Aidax  (comp. 
below). 

The  genus  Aulax  Hartig  (Aylax  in  Glerm.  Z.  II  and  III,  Aulax  in 
vol.  /F,  p.  412)  is  not  much  better  defined  than  Diasti-ophus,  and  I  owe 
the  determination  of  both  to  Dr.  Bheinhard,  in  Bautzes,  Saxony. 

Aulax,  according  to  Hartig,  has  the  antennae  15  or  16  jointed  {%), 
14  or  15  jointed  (  9  ).  The  three  species  described  by  Griraud  have 
all  14  (  S  )  and  13(9)  joints. 

"•■■  I  have  to  add,  however,  that  I  can  couut  only  13  joints  in  the  9  specimens 
of  X>.  7-ubi,  kindly  sent  me  by  Dr.  Rheinhard. 


1863.]  35 

My  A.  si/lvesfris  has  14  (  ^  )  and  12  (  9  )  joints.  Another  North 
American  species,  parasitical  in  the  gall  of  Rlwdites  radicum  0.  S.  is, 
in  this  respect,  like  the  preceding. 

The  striking  difference  in  the  structure  of  the  abdomen  of  the  %  and 
the  9  is,  as  Mr.  Rheinhard  informs  me,  a  peculiarity  of  this  genus. 
As  to  the  position  of  Aidax  in  the  system,  that  assigned  to  it  by  Hartig 
is  somewhat  doubtful,  as,  according  to  his  statement,  some  of  its  spe- 
cies are  true  gall-producers  (^Psenides')^  others  parasites  {Inquilinae). 
.The  further  observations  of  Giraud  have  not  dispelled  these  doubts. 
Of  the  European  16  species  at  present  described,  seven  are  said  to  pro- 
duce galls  on  Salvia,  Scorzonera,  Papaver  rlioeas,  Hieracium  and 
Glechoma ;  three  have  been  reared  from  galls  of  other  species,  (two 
from  Rliodites-g2i\\^  on  the  rose,  one  from  an  oak-gall  of  Andricus). 

The  N.  American  Aidox  known  to  me  at  present,  are  all  parasites. 
A.  sylvestris,  described  below,  lives  in  the  gSiW  of  Diastrophus;  Atdax 
semipicea  Harris  is  obtained  from  the  root-gall  of  the  rose  (^Rhodites 
radicum  0.  S.),  and  was  mistaken  by  Dr.  Harris  for  the  originator  of 
this  gall.  A  third  species,  A.  futilis,  which  I  described  in  my  paper 
on  the  Cynipidse  of  the  oak  (Proc.  Ent.  Soc.  Phil.  I,  p.  64)  is  some- 
what doubtful,  as  I  was  not  well  acquainted  with  the  characters  of  the 
genus  Aidax  at  that  time,  and  have  accidentally  broken  since  the  only 
specimen,  which  I  reared  from  the  gall  of  Gymps  q.  futUis  O.  S.  I 
moreover  possess  three  other  species,  all  reared  from  rose-galls,  and  of 
one  of  which  (A.  infuscatus  0.  S.)  I  give  a  short  description  below. 

This  inconstancy  in  the  habits  of  the  species  of  the  same  genus  is 
rather  anomalous,  and  requires  further  observation.  I  would  remind 
here  of  a  very  common  reniform  gall  occurring  on  Vaccinium,  in  this 
country,  and  from  which,  although  collected  quite  abundantly,  I  never 
reared  anything  but  two  Clialcidii :  a  Decatoma  and  a  Pteromalold 
insect.  Would  this  be  considered  as  a  sufficient  proof  that  either  of 
these  insects  is  the  originator  of  the  gall  ?  The  neuration  of  the  wings 
of  the  species  of  Aulax,  especially  the  form  of  the  radial  area,  undoubt- 
edly establishes  their  relationship  to  the  parasitical  Cynipidae  (Inqui- 
linae^. 

Hartig  says  (1.  c.  Ill,  p.  334)  that  the  radial  area  in  Aulax  is  closed 
in  some  species,  open  in  others.  Judging  by  the  structure  of  this  area 
in  A.  sylvestris  and  A.  semipicea,  I  am  inclined  to  believe  that  this 
character,  at  least  in  this  genus,  is  a  very  indefinite  one,  as  the  closing 


36  [April 

of  the  radial  area  is  not  so  mucli  due  to  a  vein,  as  to  a  thickening  of 
the  margin  of  the  wing,  which  appears  like  a  pi-olongation  of  the  suh- 
costal  vein.  This  thickening  is  more  or  less  apparent  in  different  spe- 
cies, and  hence,  doubts  may  often  arise  as  to  the  radial  area  being  open 
or  closed.  (Hartig  himself,  pag.  cit.,  calls  it,  in  some  species,  half -closed?) 
The  two  N.  American  Diastrophus-gsWB  and  their  insects  may  be 
described  as  follows. 

RuBUS  VILLOSUS  (?).  Blachherry.  Elongated,  abrupt^  pitliy  swell- 
ing on  the  twigs,  from  an  inch  to  three  inches  in  length.  DlASTRO-- 
PHUS  NBBULOSUS    n.  Sp. 

This  deformation,  chiefly  due  to  a  hypertrophy  of  the  pith,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  sting  of  the  insect,  is  very  common  in  the  environs  of 
Washington.  Its  color  is  generally  dark  red  or  reddish  brown ;  its 
shape  oblong ;  its  surface  generally  uneven  with  irregular  tubercles,  or 
with  deep  longitudinal  farrows,  dividing  the  whole  gall  in  four  or  five 
parallel  ridges.  The  full-grown  specimens  are  usually  2  or  3  inches 
long,  and  from  f  to  an  inch  in  diameter.  A  transverse  section  of  the 
gall  shows  a  large  number  of  oblong  cells,  about  0.13  long,  arranged 
for  the  most  part  near  the  middle  of  the  gall;  their  intervals  are  filled 
with  soft  pithy  matter  and  harder  woody  fibres.  From  galls  collected 
in  the  fall,^  the  insects  usually  come  out  during  the  winter  and  in  the 
spring. 

Besides  the  Diastrophm  and  the  Aulax,  I  have  reared  from  these 
galls  parasites  belonging  to  the  genera:  C'allimome  (two  species), 
Ormi/rus  and  Eiwytuma. 

Diastrophus  nebulosus  n.  sp. — Pitch-black,  smooth  and  glossy  above,  antennae 
and  feet  red:  wings  hyaline  areolet  c^tsimcii,  second  transverse  vein  and  tip  of 
the  subcostal  slightly  clouded;  length,  %,  O.OS— 0.1;   9,  0.1—0.11. 

%  antennee  14  jointed;  third  joint  slightly  excised  below. 
9  "  13        ■''         third  joint  entire. 

Head  jDitcli-black,  jnandibles  more  or  less  reddish,  tip  black;  face  also  some- 
times tinged  with  brownish  or  reddish,  especially  round  the  mouth,  the  face  is 
sculptured  with  fine  scratches,  (aciculated)  convergent  towards  the  mouth ;  its 
middle  shows  an  elongated,  smooth  swelling;  above  antennae,  the  head  is  smooth 
and  shining;  antennse  reddish  someti.mes  darker  at  tip,  C^  )  14,  (  9 )  13-joirit- 
ed;  the  3d  joint  of  the  '^  is  the  largest,  excised  beneath  ;  last  joint  longer  than 
the  preceding,  but  shorter  than  the  two  preceding  taken  together,  pointed,  almost 
conical;  last  joint  of  the  J  as  long  as  the  two  preceding  together,  subcylin- 
drical.  pointed,  showing  slight  indications  of  a  subdivision  into  three  joints; 


1863.]  37 

thorax  pitcli  black,  collave  and  humeri  aeicnlated,  reddish  in  some  specimens; 
the  smooth,  shining  siDace  on  the  jsleurae  is  aciculated  below,  near  the  coxaj; 
the  mesothorax  is  smooth  and  shining  above;  interval  between  the  parapsidal 
grooves  smooth ;  scutellum  gibbose,  black,  densely  sculiDtured,  with  two  pits  at 
base;  abdomen  pitch-brown,  slightly  tinged  with  red  at  base,  second  segment* 
equal  to  half  the  length  of  the  abdomen;  the  third  somewhat  shorter,  the 
following  very  short;  feet,  including  coxee,  reddish,  onychia  blackish;  wings 
hyaline,  radial  vein  not  reaching  the  anterior  margin;  both  transverse  veins 
and  the  two  latter  segments  of  the  subcostal  more  or  less  infuscated;  areolet 
distinct,  of  moderate  size,  slightly  petiolate  that  is,  separated  by  a  short  stout 
vein  from  the  adjoining  corner  of  the  radial  area;  two  almost  obsolete  narrow, 
diverging  pale  brownish  streaks  in  the  apical  area;  they  are  frequently  al- 
together indistinct. 

Numerous  %  and  9  specimens.  The  coloring  is  more  or  less  brown- 
ish or  reddish,  according  to  the  degree  of  maturity  of  the  specimens. 

Aulax  sylvestris  n.  sp. — Pitch-black,  antennse  reddish,  feet  yellowish-red: 
space  between  the  jjarapsidal  furrows  somewhat  punctate  anteriorly ;  areolet 
distinct:  wings  hyaline;  length,  %,  0.09—0.1;   9,  0.1—0.12. 

%  ;  antennse  14-jointed;  second  and  third  segments  of  the  abdomen  not 
diiFering  much  in  length ;  the  others  short. 

9  ;  antennae  12-jointed  the  second  segment  of  the  abdomen  occupies  almost 
the  whole  of  its  surface. 

Head  black,  face  aciculate,  the  scratches  converging  towards  the  mouth, 
front  and  vertex  glossy  and  shining.  Thorax  black;  prothorax  opaque,  finely 
pubescent,  sculpture  indistinct;  dorsum  of  the  mesothorax  shining,  although 
a  strong  magnifying  power  shows  that  it  is  minutely  punctured;  pleurae  with  a 
large,  smooth  and  glossy  square  space,  the  lower  side  of  which  is  somewhat 
aciculated ;  scutellum  gibbose,  deeply  rugose-punctate,  with  the  two  usual  basal 
pits;  abdomen  pitch  brown,  verging  in  chestnut  brown  or  yellowish  brown 
below;  feet  reddish  yellow;  wings  hyaline;  veins  yellowish  brown,  not  clouded, 
radial  area  open  (that  is,  not  limited  by  a  vein  along  the  eosta). 

Many  S  and  9  specimens. 

As  stated  above,  there  is  the  most  striking  resemblance  in  sculpture 
and  coloring  between  this  species  and  the  preceding.  In  order  to  com- 
plete their  descriptions,  I  will  add  here  a  detailed  comparison  between 
them. 

■  ■••■  In  order  to  avoid  a  possible  misunderstanding,  I  remind  here,  that  in 
this  paper,  as  in  my  preceding  papers  on  Cynipidtz  I  call  second  segment  that 
which  is  apparently  ihe  first,  thus  following  Dr.  Eheinhard's  terminology.  (See 
my  paper:  On  the  Cynipidw,  etc..  Proceed.  Entom  Soe  Phil.  Vol.  I,  ]).  48  in  the 
note.) 


38 


[April 


Diastrophus  nebulosus. 

9  anteiinse,  13  jointed,  last  joint  as 
long  as  the  two-  preceding  taken  to- 
gether, etc. 

'^  antennee  14-jointed;  1st  joint  longer, 
last  joint  shorter  than  in  A.  sylvestris. 

Prothorax  (eollare)  and  humeri  aeicu- 

lated. 
Thorax  smooth  and  very  shining  above, 

without  any  vestige  of  a  sculpture, 

except  the  usual  furrows. 


Interval  between  the  anterior  ends  of 
the  parapsidal  grooves  (near  the  jjro- 
thorax)  smooth  ;  the  two  short,  inter- 
mediate grooves  usually  apparent 
there,  are  hardly  perceptible. 

%  abdomen  oval,  more  or  less  attenu- 
ated and  pointed  (  not  truncate  ) 
behind;  it  is  compressed  from  above 
that  is,  its  vertical  diameter  is  longer 
than,  or  at  least  equal  to,  its  trans- 
verse diameter. 

9  abdomen  in  structure,  like  that  of 
the  %  (with  the  usual  sexual  differ- 
ences) ;  that  is,  the  second  and  third 
segments  of  the  abdomen  do  not  dif- 
fer considerably  in  length. 


Sheath  of  the  ovipositor  concealed. 

Wings.  Subcostal,  first  and  second 
transverse  veins  much  stouter  than 
the  others  and  clouded  with  brown. 

Second  transverse  vein  slightly  arched 
and  shorter  than  in  A.  sylvestris. 


Aulax  sylvestris. 

9  antennse,  12-jointed,  last  joint  longer 
than  the  two  preceding  taken  toge- 
ther, subcylindrical,  showing  a  sub- 
division in  three  joints. 

%  antennse,  14-jointed;  first  joint  shor- 
ter, last  joint  longer  than  in  D.nebu- 
losus. 

Prothorax  and  humeri  indistinctly 
punctured  and  finely  downy. 

Dorsum  of  the  thorax  appearing  mi- 
nutely punctured  under  a  strong 
magnifying  power,  and  therefore 
somewhat  less  shining  than  in  D. 
nebulosus. 

Interval  between  the  anterior  ends  of 
the  parapsidal  grooves  with  some 
distinct  punctures ;  the  two  short, 
intermediate  grooves  are  apparent. 

%  abdomen  bell  or  funnel-shaped,  ti'un- 
cate  behind;  it  is  compressed  from 
the  sides,  that  is,  its  transverse  dia- 
meter, at  the  broadest  place  is  shorter 
than  its  vertical  diameter. 

9  abdomen  very  different  in  structure 
from  tliat  of  the  male,  as  the  second 
segment  occujDies  almost  its  whole 
surface,  the  following  ones  being 
either  concealed  under  it  or  protrud- 
ing but  little  beyond  it;  the  abdomen 
is  strongly  compressed  from  the 
sides,  that  is,  its  vertical  diameter  is 
much  longer  than  the  transverse 
one ;  seen  from  above,  the  abdomen 
appears  somewhat  bell-shaped  in 
outline,  being  oval  and  truncated  at 
top. 

Sheath  of  the  ovipositor  directed  up- 
wards and  protruding  distinctly. 

Subcostal,  etc.,  not,  or  very  slightly, 
stouter  than  the  radial  vein,  not 
clouded  with  brown. 

Second  transverse  vein  straight  and 
lona;er  than  in  D.  nebulosus. 


1863.]  3!) 

The  consequence  of  this  last  diffei'ence  is  that  the  radial  area  of 
Aulax  is  broader,  resembling  in  this  respect  those  of  the  other  Inqui- 
Unae.1  whereas  the  narrower,  although  short,  area  of  Diastroplius,  with 
the  areolet  nearer  its  basis,  is  more  like  those  of  the  true  Cynipidae 
{Psemdes').  Other  differences  between  the  two  species  are,  that  A. 
sylvestris  has  the  areolet  slightly  larger,  that  its  feet  are  somewhat 
paler,  etc. 

RuBUS  sp.  Blaclxherry .  A  numbei-  of  smalljTound,hoUoivhodies^ 
forming  a  cluster  roitnit  a  hrancli.  Diastrophus  cuscut^formis 
n.  sp. 

I  possess  two  specimens  of  this  gall,  collected  near  Bladensburgh , 
Md.,  and  kindly  communicated  to  me  by  Mr.  Hitz. 

The  globular,  seedlike  bodies,  each  having  about  0.1  in  diameter 
and  producing  a  single  insect,  are  (in  one  of  my  galls)  from  60  to  70 
in  number,  and  occupy  a  space  of  about  an  inch  and  a  half  on  the 
branch.  They  are  pressed  closely  together  and  offer  some  resemblance 
to  the  seeds  of  Cuscuta,  when  found  in  winter  attached  to  a  stem. 
Many  of  the  round  bodies  emit  more  or  less  strong  spines,  which  impair 
in  a  measure  the  regularity  of  their  form.  The  consistency  of  their 
shell  is  woody ;  their  color  brownish,  like  that  of  the  branch. 

I  was  unable  to  ascertain  on  what  species  of  Ruhus  this  gall  occurs. 

Besides  the  Diastrophus^  originating  this  gall,  I  have  obtained  from 
it  an  Ormyrus  and  an  Aidax^  which,  as  far  as  I  can  judge  from  a  single 
specimen,  is  my  A.  sylvestris,  also  reared  from  the  other  blackberry- 
gall. 

Diastrophus  cuscutaeformis  n.  sp.  Pitch  brown  or  black;  antennae  and  feet 
red;  areolet  toanting ;  wings  hyaline,  a  small  brown  cloud  near  the  anterior 
margin,  on  the  angle  formed  by  the  second  transverse  vein  and  the  tip  of  the 
subcostal;    %  15  (?),  9  14  jointed  antennae. 

This  species  is  like  D.  nebulosus  in  sculpture  and  coloring,  with  the 
following  differences :  1.  The  $  antennae  are  14  (and  not  13-jointed)  ; 
the  last  joint  is  shorter  than  the  two  preceding  taken  together,  sub- 
conical,  pointed;  the  9  antennae  (at  least  in  the  only  specimen  of  that 
sex  which  is  in  my  possession)  have  the  14th  joint  elongated  and  sub- 
divided by  a  somewhat  indistinct  suture  in  two  unequal  halves,  the 
posterior  one  being  the  shortest  and  thus  forming  a  minute  15th  joint. 


40  [April 

2.  The  color  of  the  aiitennse  is  somewhat  more  brownish.  3.  The  face 
is  aciculated  all  over  its  surface,  without  any  smooth  spot  in  the  mid- 
dle. 4.  The  scutullum  is  drawn  out  into  a  point,  almost  subconical. 
5.  The  wings  have  no  areolet  (two  specimens  have  an  irregularly  formed 
areolet  on  the  left  wing  only) ;  this  cell,  however,  cannot  even  be  con- 
sidered as  a  true  areolet,  as,  instead  of  being  formed  by  a  bifurcation 
of  the  second  transverse  vein,  it  occupies  the  lower  corner  of  the  radial 
ai-ea.  6.  The  brown  cloud  near  the  tip  of  the  subcostal  vein  is  larger 
and  more  distinct;  this  portion  of  that  vein  is  very  stout,  dark  brown, 
and  is  distinctly  attenuated  before  reaching  the  margin,  whereas  in 
D.  nehulosus  it  has  the  appearance  of  touching  the  margin,  and  is 
paler  brown  and  less  distinctly  attenuated.  7.  The  pale  brown  clouds, 
in  the  form  of  streaks,  towards  the  tip  of  the  wing,  which  exist  in  D. 
nehulosus,  are  wanting  here. 

One  %  and  eight  9  specimens.  The  %  is  easily  distinguished  by 
the  third  antennal  joint,  excised  below.  The  coloring  of  this  species, 
like  that  of  the  preceding,  is  frequently  more  or  less  brownish  or  red- 
dish, especially  on  the  face,  the  collare  and  the  humeri,  according  to 
the  maturity  of  the  specimens. 

Cynips-galls  on  the  Rose. 

I.  The  Galls. 

I  am  acquainted  with  eight  cynipideous  galls  on  the  different  kinds 
of  roses  of  this  country.  My  account  of  them  is,  perhaps,  not  so  com- 
plete as  I  would  desire  it,  as  most  of  these  galls  have  not  been  observed 
by  myself,  but  were  communicated  to  me  by  others. 

1.  An  agglomeration  of  hard  celU  round  a  branch,  the  whole  covered 
with  long  and  dense  greenish  filaments  and  forming  a  moss-lihe  mass 
of  an  inch  and  a  half  or  more  in  diameter.  This,  or  a  similar  gall 
(see  Reaumur,  vol.  Ill,  Tab.  47)  is  well  known  in  Europe  under  the 
name  of  the  hedeguar,  (from  the  Hebrew  hedeguach,  said  to  mean  rose- 
apple),  and  was  formerly  used  medicinally.  I  cannot  discover  any 
difference  between  the  gall-fly  obtained  in  this  country  and  some  Euro- 
pean specimens  of  R.  rosae,  communicated  to  me  by  Mr.  Rheinhardt. 
One  specimen  of  the  gall  from  New  York,  was  communicated  to  me  by 
Mr.  Glover ;  another,  with  numerous  female  Rhodites  reared  from  it, 
by  Mr.  Norton.     Mossy  galls  of  simillar  appearance,  but  much  smaller, 


1863.]  41 

occur  frequently  on  rose  leaves.  I  do  not  know  whether  they  are  the 
produce  of  the  same  insect.  Besides  the  ordinary  parasites,  a  beautiful 
Eupelmua  with  rudimental  wings  and  two  elevated  ridges  on  the  meso- 
thorax,  has  been  reared  from  this  gall. 

2.  Hard,  woody,  irregidar  sioellmg  of  the  branches,  generally  about 
two  inches  long  and  about  half  an  inch  or  a  little  more  in  diameter. 
This  is  the  gall  of  Rhodites  dichlocerus  Harris  (Harris,  Insects,  etc., 
p.  549,  Tab.  VIII,  p.  8,  of  the  3d  edition).  Specimens  from  New  York 
and  Connecticut  were  communicated  to  me  by  Mr.  Akhurst  and  Mr. 
E.  Norton.  The  %  and  9  insect  are  described  below  under  the  above 
name.  A^dax,  (Jallimome,  Ormyrus  and  Eurytoma  were  reared  from 
this  gall. 

Several  9  specimens  of  Rhodites  apparently  identical  with  R.  dich- 
locerus were  labelled  in  Mr.  Norton's  collection  as  having  been  reared 
from  the  elongated,  densely  prickly  rose-gall  (comp.  below,  No.  8).  If 
this  is  not  a  mistake,  it  would  lead  to  one  of  the  two  conclusions  :  either 
the  insects  obtained  from  the  two  galls  offer  some  nice  distinctions 
which  escaped  my  scrutiny,  or  the  prickly  gall  No.  8  is  a  mere  variety 
of  the  other. 

8.  Oblong  or  rounded  swellings  of  the  small  branches.  They  vary  in 
appearance,  as  there  is  sometimes  one  more  or  less  oblong  swelling,  con- 
taining two  or  three  cells,  and  about  one  third  of  an  inch  long,  some- 
times a  series  of  three  or  four  such  swellings,  which,  although  continu- 
ous, do  not  coalesce  entirely,  each  preserving  its  rounded  shape.  In 
this  respect  this  gall  is  very  different  from  the  preceding,  which,  in 
the  majority  of  specimens,  is  a  more  continuous  swelling,  tapering  at 
both  ends. 

When  cut  open,  the  galls  appear  more  hollow  than  those  of  R.  dich- 
locerus, and  this  for  the  very  plain  reason  that,  although  being  smaller, 
they  produce  insects,  and  consequently  contain  hollows,  of  the  same 
size.  There  also  seems  to  exist  a  constant  difference  in  the  color  of 
both  galls;  the  specimens  of  the  gall  of  R.  dichlocerus  in  my  posses- 
sion have  a  more  or  less  dark,  purplish-red  skin;  those  of  the  other 
gall  are  either  green,  when  found  on  young,  green  twigs,  or  they  have 
the  color  of  a  dead  branch.  I  found  this  gall  near  Washington,  and 
reared  from  it  (besides  the  R.  verna  n.  sp.  described  below),  Eurytoma, 
Ormyrus,  Eupelmus,  Tetrastichus  and  Pteromalus.  A  small  moth  had 
also  taken  refuge  within  one  of  the  probably  empty  galls. 


42  [April 

4.  Rounded^  warty ^  sometimes  very  large  gall,  smooth  on  the  out- 
side^ occurring  on  the  roots  of  roses  and  containing  numerous  cells, 
with  an  intervening  pithy  matter.  This  is  the  gall  described  by  Dr. 
Harris  (1.  c.  p.  5-i9),  as  the  gall  of  Cynips  semipicea,  Harris.  But 
Dr.  Harris's  description  of  this  insect  does  not  refer  to  the  true  origi- 
nator of  the  gall,  Rhodites  radicum  n.  sp.  (described  below).  Dr. 
Harris  says  :  they  resemble  closely  the  darh  varieties  of  C  dichlocerus 
in  color  and  in  the  little  furrows  of  the  thorax,  hut  their  legs  are  rather 
paler  and  they  do  not  measure  more  tlian  one-tentli  of  an  inch  in 
lengthJ'  R.  radicum  is  much  larger  than  one-tenth,  and  its  legs  in- 
stead of  being  paler,  are  on  the  contrary  conspicuous  among  those  of 
the  other  Rhodites  by  the  intensity  of  their  brownish-red  color.  Dr. 
Harris's  description  probably  refers  to  a  parasite  (perhaps  an  Aulax^. 

Specimens  of  this  gall  have  been  communicated  to  me  by  Mr.  Nor- 
ton and  Mr.  Akhurst.  Evrytoma,  Callimome,  Ormyrus  and  an  Eu- 
ptelmus,  with  rudimental  wings,  have  also  been  reared  from  it. 

5.  Rounded,  smooth,  ahnipt  swellings  of  the  branches.  The  out- 
side of  this  gall  (form,  color  and  skin),  is  not  like  the  preceding. 
Some  of  them  remind  by  their  appearance  the  galls  of  Diastrophus 
nebulosus  on  the  blackberry.  They  are  easily  distinguished  from  R. 
dichlocerus  (No.  2),  as  they  rise  abruptly  from  the  branch,  whereas  the 
other  gall  is  gradually  tapering  at  both  ends.  The  substance  of  this 
gall  is  rather  soft,  corky,  with  numerous  cells.  The  form  is  more  or 
less  oblong,  sometimes  almost  round  ;  my  specimens  measure  from 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in  length ;  the 
largest  is  a  little  more  than  three-fourths  of  an  inch  broad. 

Mr.  Norton,  to  whom  I  owe  the  communication  of  this  gall,  reared 
from  it  a  very  large  number  of  specimens  of  an  Aulax.  Until  further 
proof  I  cannot,  however,  consider  this  insect  as  the  originator  of  the 
gall.  I  am  also  doubtful,  whether  several  specimens  of  Rhodites  (de- 
scribed below  as  R.  ignota  n.  sp.)  in  Mr.  Norton's  collection,  marked 
as  being  obtained  from  "  smooth  rose-galls,''  belong  here,  as  precisely 
similar  specimens  were  reared  from  another  gall  (comp.  gall.  No.  7). 

Aulax  pirata  n.  sjd. — Black,  with  reddish-yellow  feet  and  antennse ;  base  of 
coxse  black  ;  thorax  pubescent;  wings  hyaline;  length  %  0.08,   9  0.1. 

Head  black,  mandibles  somewhat  reddish;  face  finely  pubescent ,  a  longitu- 
dinal j)rotuberance  between  the  mouth  and  the  antennse;  the  interval  between 
it  and  the  eyes  is  finely  aeiculated,  the  scratches  converging  more  or  less  to- 


1863.]  43 

wards  the  mouth;  antennas  reddish  (somewhat  brownish  in  some  of  tlie  9); 
14:-jointed  in  the  % ,  the  third  joint  very  strongly  excised  on  the  underside, 
with  jDrojections  on  both  sides  of  the  excision  which  give  this  joint  an  almost 
reniform  or  crescent-shajDed  appearance;  last  joint  but  a  little  longer  than  the 
preceding;  9  antennae  12-jointed,  third  joint  without  excision,  last  joint  much 
longer  than  the  preceding,  although  not  quite  as  long  as  the  two  before  last 
taken  together ;  thorax  black,  finely  pubescent,  finely  but  densely  sculptured, 
and  therefore  not  very  shining,  although  not  opaque;  parapsidal  grooves  not 
deep,  and  distinctly  apparent  only  from  a  side  view;  intermediate  grooves  in- 
distinct, shallow,  convergent ;  pleurae  with  a  large,  polished  space,  which  ap- 
pears aciculated  only  under  a  strong  magnifying  power ;  scutellum  protube- 
rant, deeply  rugose,  opaque,  with  two  small  pits  at  the  bottom ;  abdomen  black, 
polished;  in  the  %  elliptical,  base  finely  pubescent  above,  the  third  segment 
longer  than  the  second ;  the  following  ones  contracted ;  the  tip  finely  punc- 
tured and  pubescent ;  in  the  9  somewhat  rhomboidal  on  a  side-view,  flattened 
from  the  sides ;  the  second  segment  occupies  nearly  the  whole  of  its  surface ; 
the  following  ones  contracted  :  the  last  one  finely  pubescent ;  sheath  of  the 
ovipositor  exserted  above  the  abdomen,  pointing  upwards ;  (the  structure  of 
the  9  abdomen  is  exactly  the  same  as  that  of  A.  sylvestris,  n.  sp.  described  on 
page  37) ;  wings  hyaline,  veins  pale;  second  transverse  vein  somewhat  arched; 
margin  of  the  wing  inside  of  the  radial  area  thickened,  so  as  to  make  it  appear 
closed  ;  areolet  of  moderate  size. 

A  large  number  of  %  and  9  specimens. 

6.  Round  galls^  about  0.3  or  0.4  in  diameter,  covered  with  prickles 
about  as  long  as  the  diameter  of  the  gall.  Sometimes  three  or  four  of 
these  galls  are  in  a  cluster.  This  is  the  gall  of  Rhodites  (Cynips) 
bicolor  Harris  (1.  c.  p.  548).  Grail  and  fly  were  communicated  to  me 
by  Mr.  Norton;  the  fly  is  described  below.  Besides  other  parasites, 
numerous  specimens  of  an  Aulax  were  reared  from  it  by  Messrs.  Norton 
and  Akhurst.  This  Aulax  is  hardly  different  from  A.pirata,  described 
above. 

7.  Round  gcdls  of  the  size  of  a  pea,  covered  with  a  white  effores- 
cence,  on  the  leaves  of  Rosa  Carolina.  Sometimes  two  or  three  of 
these  galls  coalesce,  thus  forming  an  elongated  mass  of  more  irregular 
shape.  The  leaf  is  often  almost  wholly  obliterated,  the  galls  growing 
near  the  central  rib.  The  substance  (at  least  that  of  the  dry  galls 
which  I  have  for  examination),  is  hard  and  woody.  Each  gall  contains 
several  cells.  They  were  communicated  to  me  by  Dr.  Foreman,  who 
found  them  in  Maryland,  but,  except  a  Ccdlimome,  I  obtained  nothing 
from  them. 

Among  the  galls  communicated  to  me  by  Mr.  Norton,  there  is  a 


44  [April 

single  specimen  of  one,  which  is  not  unlike  the  preceding,  and  may  be 
the  same  gall ;  it  consists  of  a  mid-rib  of  a  leaf,  on  which  are  four 
rounded  galls,  somewhat,  although  not  entirely  coalescent,  each  retain- 
ing its  rounded  form;  the  specimen  is  about  0.8  long,  the  diameter  of 
each  of  the  galls  being  0.15  or  0.2.  The  surface  is  finely,  irregularly 
netted,  yellowish  and  not  whitish-mealy  like  the  other.  From  this 
gall  were  obtained  two  %  specimens,  which  apparently  belong  to  the 
species  described  below  as  R.  ignota.  The  latter  species  was  labelled 
in  Mr.  Norton's  collection  as  being  reared  from  a  "  smooth  rose-gall." 
(See  above,  No.  5). 

8.  Elongated  swelling  of  a  tvng,  covered  with  numerous^  dense 
prickles.  I  owe  to  Mr.  Grlover  a  specimen  of  this  gall,  a  section  of 
which  shows  cells,  evidently  belonging  to  a  cynipideous  insect.  The 
originator  of  the  gall  is  unknown  to  me ;  but  in  Mr.  Norton's  collection 
several  9  specimens  of  an  insect  apparently  identical  with  i?.  dicMocerxhs 
were  labelled  as  being  reared  from  a  similar  gall. 

II.  Ehodites  Hartig. 

The  genus  Rhodites.,  in  Europe  as  in  N.  America,  seems  to  be  ex- 
clusively confined  to  the  rose.  Five  European  species  are  known,  all 
producing  galls  on  this  shrub.  Six  N  orth- American  species,  which  all 
share  the  same  mode  of  living,  are  described  below ;  one  of  these  spe- 
cies (R.  rosse,  L.)  is  common  to  Europe  and  N.  America. 

Rhodites  as  a  genus,  is  very  easily  distinguished  by  its  general  ap- 
pearance, although  it  is  no  more  satisfactorily  defined  than  the  other 
cynipideous  genera.  Hartig,  for  instance,  counts  15  and  16  joints  on 
the  antennae,  whereas  I  never  found  more  than  14  in  hath  sexes.  The 
last  joint  shows,  it  is  true,  a  kind  of  suture  in  the  middle,  but  this 
suture  is  no  true  division  of  a  joint,  as  can  be  easily  ascertained  by 
comparing  it  to  the  other  divisions;  moreover,  it  occurs  in  both  sexes 
and  may  even  be  indistinctly  perceived  in  some  of  the  other  joints. 
The  third  joint  is  the  longest,  generally  as  long  as,  or  a  little  longer 
than,  the  two  following  taken  together.  The  underside  of  the  last  ab- 
dominal segment  is  drawn  out  here  in  a  long  point,  which  seems  to  be 
peculiar  to  the  genus  ;  in  Diastrophus  for  instance,  the  tip  of  this  seg- 
ment is  more  or  less  truncated. 

The  sexes  are  frequently  distinguished  in  this  genus  by  the  coloring 
of  their  abdomen  and  wings;  the  neuration  as  well  as  the  sculpture  of 
the  thorax  are  generally  the  same  in  both  sexes. 


1863.]  45 

Analytical  table  for  the  determination  of  the  species. 

MALE    SEX. 

1.  "Whole  abdomen  black 2 

Basal  third  of  the  abdomen  red  ;  areolet  small,  often 

wanting R.  dichlocerus  Harris. 

2.  A  stump  of  a  vein,  or  at  least  a  pointed  or  angular 

projection  inside  of  the  radial  area  on  the  second 

transverse  vein M 

Ifo  such  stump  or  projection,  the  second  transverse 

vein,  inside  of  the  radial  area,  being  smooth ;") 

?>.  A  short,  brown  line  or  projection,  like  the  stump  of  a 
vein,  on  the  underside  of  the  areolet,  near  the  angle 
directed  towards  the  tip  of  the  wing ;  elongated 
brownish  clouds,  indefinite  in  outline,  in  the  apical 

area E.  Mcolor  Harris. 

No  such  line  or  stump  4 

4.  A  more  or  less  distinct  brown  spot  or  cloud  at  the  tip 

of  the  radial  vein,  near  the  margin  of  the  wing; 
another  on  the  transverse  vein  between  the  areolet 
and  the  margin;  space  of  the  radial  area  between  these 
two  clouds  hyaline;  no  glossy,  shining  spots  on  the 

pleurae R.  ignota  n.  sp. 

Radial  area  tinged  more  uniformly  than  in  the  pre- 
ceding species  ;  pleurae  with  smooth  spots,  which 
are  much  more  glossy  than  their  surroundings R.  rosse  Linn. 

5.  Parapsidal  grooves  remarkably  deep ;  areolet  small, 

radial  and  apical  areas  clouded R.  radicum  n.  sp. 

Parapsidal  grooves  very  moderate,  areolet  of  ordi- 
nary size;  hardly  any  distinct  clouds  on  the  radial 
and  apical  areae R.  verna  n.  sp. 

FEMALE    SEX. 

1.  Whole  body  pale  chestnut R.  dichlocerus  Harris. 

Body  black R.  radicum  n.  sp. 

Head  and  thorax  black,  abdomen  red 2 

2.  Whole  abdomen  red 3 

Three  or  four  of  the  last  segments  black R.  rossB  Linn. 

3.  No  stump  or  projection  on  the  second  transverse  vein, 

inside  of  the  radial  area;  the  latter  and  its  sur- 
roundings clouded  with  pale  brownish, R.  verna  n.  sp. 

A  stump  of  a  vein  or  a  pointed  or  angular  projection 
on  the  second  transverse  vein,  inside  of  the  radial 
area 4 

4.  Radial  area  and  its  environs  clouded  ;  a  short  brown 

line,  like  the  stump  of  a  vein  on  the  underside  of 

the  areolet R.  bicolor  Harris. 

Two  small,  but  well-marked  clouds  occupy  ^oth  sides 
of  the  radial  area,  its  middle  being  hyaiWe R.  ignota  n.  sp. 


46  [April 

Description  of  the  sjiecies. 

Khodites  dicMocerus  Harris. 

Syn.  Cynijjs  dichlocerus  Harris,  Ins.  of  Mass.  3d  edit.  p.  549. 

%  0.1  long,  black,  base  of  abdomen  red. 

2  0.14  long,  brownish  red,  antennae  black,  excejst  the  three  basal  joints. 

%  Head  black,  dark  reddish  behind,  sometimes  also  with  a  reddish  spot  on 
the  inside  of  the  eye ;  mandibles  (except  tip)  and  labrum  red  ;  two  basal  joints 
of  the  antennae  often  reddish-brown.  Thorax  black,  suboj)aque,  pubescent, 
punctate  and  rugose,  parapsidal  grooves  well  marked,  intermediate  grooves 
flat,  with  a  shining  bottom;  often  a  reddish  spot  on  the  pleurse,  immediately 
over  the  anterior  coxse ,  sonaetimes  one  on  the  scutellum;  abdomen  black,  yel- 
lowish-red at  base ;  this  red  has  more  extent  on  its  sides  (where  it  sometimes 
reaches  the  third  segment),  than  on  its  back;  feet  red;  coxse  red  with  black 
base,  sometimes  black  with  reddish  tip;  tip  of  tarsi  black  ;  wings  hyaline;  the 
second  transverse  vein  curved  or  angular ;  areolet  either  of  moderate  size,  or 
very  small,  or  altogether  wanting,  its  sides  coalescing  into  one  stout  vein  (this  . 
is  quite  often  the  case  with  this  species). 

'  9  Head  brownish  red,  cheeks  generally  more  brownish ;  antennae  :  three 
basal  joints,  except  the  very  tip  of  the  third,  red;  the  remainder  black;  thorax 
brownish  red,  sculpture  as  in  the  %  ;  abdomen  brownish  red;  pointed  tip  of  the 
lower  half  of  the  last  segment,  brown ;  wings  pale  brownish  ;  radial  area  and 
surroundings  clouded  with  pale  brown;  areolet  extant;  second  transverse 
vein  angular. 

Numerous  %  aud  $  specimens ;  the  latter  more  common.  Mr.  Har- 
ris does  not  notice  the  difference  in  color  of  the  %  and  the  9  ',  he  only 
mentions  a  darker  variety,  which  may  be  the  %  .  Some  of  tlie  %  spe- 
cimens are  much  smaller  than  the  others,  and  with  much  less  red  at 
the  base  of  the  abdomen. 

The  gall  is  described  above  (No.  2). 

Rhodites  radicum  n.  sp. 

'^   0.13  long;  coxse  black. 

9  0.15  long;  coxse  dark  reddish,  their  base  black. 

Head  and  antennse  black  ;  two  basal  joints  of  the  latter  sometimes  reddish- 
brown;  mandibles  reddish;  thorax  black,  somewhat  shining,  densely,  but  very 
finely  and  uniformly  sculptured,  so  as  to  give  its  surface  a  silky  ajjpearance ; 
parapsidal  grooves  broader  and  deeper  than  in  the  other  species,  running  down  to 
the  humeri ;  intermediate  grooves  short,  but  well  marked  ;  pubescence  of  the 
thorax  above  scattered  and  hardly  apparent,  except  on  a  side-view ;  pleurse 
with  two  smooth  and  shining  oblong  spaces ;  huineri  very  rugose,  scutellum 
likewise;  abdomen  black,  shining,  sometimes  brown;  borders  of  segments 
sometimes  paler  ;  feet  dark  red,  two  hind  pairs  of  femora  infuscated,  especially 
at  base  ;  tips  of  tarsi  brown  ;  wings  :  radial  and  apical  arese  and  a  portion  of 
the  cubital  clouded  with  brown ;  areolet  rather  small ;  its  angle,  directed  to- 
wards the  base  of  the  wing,  is  for  the  most  time  pale,  subobsolete;  the  portion 
of  the  cubital  between  the  first  transverse  vein  and  the  areolet  is  often  subob- 


1868.]  47 

solete  or  obsolete  in  this  species  ;  the  secoad  transverse  vein   is  smooth,  with- 
out projection  inside  of  the  radial  area,  although  sometimes  slightly  angular. 

The  sexes  in  this  species  are  more  alike  than  in  any  other-  they  are, 
however,  easily  distinguished  by  the  structure  of  the  abdomen. 

The  specimens  which  I  possess  in  considerable  number,  were  com- 
municated to  me  by  Mr.  E.  Norton. 

As  already  noticed  above.  Dr.  Harris's  C  semipicea  cannot  possibly 
refer  to  this  species.  (Compare  about  it  the  description  of  the  gall, 
under  No.  4.) 

Rhodites  rosse  Linn. 

%  Black. 

9  0.13 — 0.15  long,  abdomen  red,  black  at  tip. 

9  Head  and  antennae  black,  mandibles  reddish,  thorax  black,  pubescent, 
smooth  and  but  finely  sculptured,  parapsidal  grooves  not  deep,  and  quite  in- 
distinct when  viewed  from  above,  stopping  some  distance  before  reaching  the 
humeri,  intermediate  furrows  well  marked,  shining  at  bottom,  pleurae  with  two 
oblong,  shining  spots,  abdomen  red,  the  four  last  segments  black ;  feet  red, 
coxse  and  tip  of  tarsi  black ,  wings  pale  brownish,  with  a  brown  cloud  on  the 
radial  area  and  its  surroundings  ;  the  second  transverse  v&in,  which  is  angular, 
has  a  small,  but  distinct  projection  within  the  radial  area;  areolet  of  moder- 
ate size. 

The  sculpture  of  the  thorax  is  not  dense  enough  to  render  it  opaque 
and  it  retains  some  of  its  gloss;  in  this  respect  it  resembles  the  R. 
verna.  By  all  means,  the  black  tip  of  the  abdomen  renders  this  spe- 
cies sufficiently  distinct. 

The  male  seems  to  be  very  rare,  as  among  200  specimens  which 
passed  through  my  hands,  thanks  to  Messrs.  Norton  and  Akhurst,  there 
was  only  a  single  %  .  I  was  unfortunate  enough  to  lose  it  in  attempt- 
ing to  paste  it  on  paper.  The  glimpse  I  had  of  it  was  sufficient  to 
show  that  its  abdomen  was  black,  and  its  wings  less  tinged  with  brown. 
(The  European  Rlioclites  rosse  %  has  also  a  black  abdomen.) 

The  gall  of  this  species  has  been  described  above  (under  No.  1);  it 
is  similar  to  the  European  gall,  known  as  the  hedeguar  of  the  rose.  I 
could  not  perceive  any  difference  between  my  specimens  of  the  Euro- 
pean R.  rosse  Linn,  and  the  American  insect. 

Rhodites  verna  n.  sp. 

%  0.1 — 0.11  long,  body  black,  feet  red,  coxse  black. 

9  0.15  long,  abdomen  red;  feet,  including  the  coxse,  red;  base  of  the  latter 
black. 

Head  and  antennae  black,  mandibles  reddish,  thorax  black,  finely,  not 
densely  sculptured,  sometohat  shining,  pubescent,  parapsidal  grooves  moderately  deep  ; 


48  [April 

they  touch  the  humeri :  the  intermediate  grooves  generally  appear  as  smooth 
lines,  unless  viewed  obliquely;  scutellum  rugose  on  the  sides,  more  smooth  in 
the  middle,  but,  in  general,  not  so  rough  in  appearance  as  in  most  other  species  ; 
abdomen  (  %, )  black,  (  9  )  mA,  fringed  with  pale  yellowish  hairs  on  the  hind  borders 
of  the  segments;  tip  of  the  point  on  the  underside  of  the  9  abdomen  brown: 
basis  of  %  femora  brownish;  wings  %  hyaline,  9  somewhat  tinged  with  brown 
and  with  a  more  or  less  distinct  cloud  on  the  radial  area  and  its  surroundings; 
.  in  both  sexes,  the  second  tranverse  vein  has  no  projection  within  the  radial 
area  and  is  arcuate  ;  the  areolet  is  of  a  moderate  size,  larger  in  9  • 

Two  %  and  16  9  specimens  reared  by  me  in  Washington,  from  the 
galls.     These  have  been  described  above  (No.  8). 

The  fringe  of  pale  yellow  hairs  on  the  border  of  the  %  abdominal 
segments  seems  to  be  peculiar  to  this  species,  as  it  is  quite  distinct  in 
all  my  specimens,  whereas  I  do  not  notice  it  in  the  numerous  speci- 
mens of  other  species,  communicated  to  me  by  Mr.  Norton. 

R.  verna  resembles  in  coloring  R.  hicolor  and  R.  ignota;  but  the 
latter  is  easily  distinguished  by  the  peculiar  coloring  of  its  wings;  R. 
hicolor  by  its  less  pubescent,  more  roughly  sculptured,  and  therefore 
more  opaque  thora^s  and  scutellum,  the  structure  of  its  second  trans- 
verse vein,  etc. 

Rhodites  hicolor  Harris. 

%  0.15  long,  black  ;  feet  red,  coxse  black. 

J  0.15 — 0.16  long,  abdomen  red ;  feet  and  coxse,  except  at  the  base,  red. 

This  species  is  so  much  like  the  preceding,  in  both  sexes,  that  it  will  be 
sufficient,  for  its  recognition,  to  notice  the  differences. 

Thorax  less  pubescent,  somewhat  more  roughly  sculptured  and  therefore 
more  opaque ;  parapsidal  furrows  somewhat  deeper ;  the  intermediate  furrows 
appear  as  distinct  ridges  when  viewed  obliquely;  scutellum,  likewise,  more 
deeply  rugose  :  the  smooth,  glossy  spots  existing  on  the  pleurae  of  some  other 
species  are  hardly  apparent  here,  these  spots  being  sculptured  more  or  less  like 
the  remainder  of  the  pleurae ;  the  brownish  cloud  on  the  radial  area  of  the  9 
is  more  intense  ;  the  %  wing  is  also  somewhat  clouded  along  the  stout  veins 
and  has  two  indistinct  clouds  in  the  apical  area ;  the  second  transverse  vein 
has  a  light  projection  about  its  middle,  in  the  radial  area  (in  some  specimens 
this  projection  is  very  small) ;  the  veins  forming  the  anterior  angle  of  the 
areolet,  as  well  as  the  portion  of  the  cubital  vein,  preceding  the  areolet,  in  this 
species  are  thin,  often  subobsolete  ;  said  portion  of  the  cubital  vein  being  ofcen 
merely  indicated  by  a  brownish  streak  (without  vein) ;  there  is  a  short,  pale 
hrovm  line,  as  if  a  stump  of  a  vein,  close  by  the  posterior  angle  of  the  areolet,  (that 
is  the  angle,  which  is  nearer  the  tip  of  the  wing),  on  its  out  and  underside. 
This  last  mark,  trifling  as  its  seems  to  be,  exists  in  precisely  the  same  degree 
of  distinctness,  in  the  nine  specimens  which  I  have  before  me. 

A  single  %  and  8  9  specimens,  communicated  by  Mr.  Norton  and 


1863.]  41) 

reared  by  him  from  the  gall  (see  above,  No.  6).     The  male  is-  conside- 
rably larger  than  that  of  7?.  verna. 

Rhodites  ignota  n.  sp. 

'J,    0.12 — 0.13  long,  black;  feet  red;  coxse  and  base  of  femora  black. 
9  0.14  long,  abdomen  red;    feet,  including  coxse,  red. 

Head  and  antenna  black,  mandibles  brownish  red,  thorax  black,  densely 
rugose,  opaque;  i^arapsidal  furrows  not  very  distinct,  intermediate  ones  like- 
wise; the  latter,  in  some  specimens,  have  the  appearance  of  small  ridges  ;  no 
distinct,  smooth,  shining  spots  on  the  pleurte,  especially  in  the  9;  wings:  se- 
cond transverse  vein  angularly  bent,  with  a  projection  in  the  middle,  inside  of 
the  radial  area;  (in  some  specimens,  especially  the  %,  this  projection  is  quite 
large,  like  the  stump  of  a  vein);  radial  area  shorter  than  in  the  other  species, 
the  radial  vein  being  slightly  arched;  the  margin  of  the  wing  within  this  area 
is  thickened,  so  as  to  appear  like  a  vein,  closing  the  area;  a  brown  spot  between 
the  areolet  and  the  anterior  margin;  another  one  at  the  tip  of  the-jadial  vein, 
near  the  margin;  (in  the  %  these  spots  have  often  very  little  extent,  appearing 
only  like  brownish  margins  along  the  veins);  the  space  of  the  radial  area  be- 
tween these  spots  is  hyaline;  the  tinge  of  the  9  wing  is  somewhat  yellowish, 
whereas  that  of  the  %  is  more  hyaline. 

The  thorax  of  this  species  is  proportionally  smaller  than  the  thorax 
of  JR.  verna  or  bicolor,  and  hence  the  body  has  a  more  slender  appear- 
ance. 

Four  S  and  two  9  specimens  were  in  Mr.  Norton's  collection,  with 
labels  indicating  that  they  had  been  obtained  from  a  ''  smooth  rose 
gall".  Is  it  the  gall  described  above  under  No.  5  ?  This  seems  doubt- 
ful, as  two  other  males,  apparently  of  the  same  species,  were  reared 
from  quite  a  different  gall,  described  under  No.  7. 

ERRATA. 

Some  corrections  in  my  paper  have  become  necessary  in  consequence  of  my 
having  made  a  change  in  the  latter  part  of  my  manuscript,  and  having  forgot- 
ten to  introduce  a  corresponding  alteration  in  the  preceding  text.  These  cor- 
rections refer  all  to  page  35  and  are  as  follows : — 

Line  1  and  2  from  the  top.  Instead  of  Another  ISTorth  American  species  par- 
asitical, in  the  gall  of  It.  radicum,  read:  My  Aulax pirata,  parasitical  on  rose- 
galls,  is,  etc. 

Line  15  and  16.  For  ^wtoa;  semipicea  Harris  is  obtained,  read:  Ct/nips  seini.- 
picea  Harris  is  probably  an  Aulax,  obtained  etc. 

Line  17.     Strike  out  the  word  ivas. 

Line  23.     For  three  read  two. 

Line  24.     For  A.  infuscatus  rea,d   A.  pirata. 

Line  2  from  the  bottom,  for  A.  semipicea  read  A.  pirata. 

On  page  39,  line  8  from  the  bottom,  after  the  word  antennee.  add:  Length., 
%  0.08;  9  about  0.1. 


f  a^^v/t    -2' 

ABDITIOKS  ANB  CORBECTlOKS 


TO    THE    PAPER   ENTITLED: 

ON  THE  CYNIPID^  OP  THE  NORTH  AMERICAN  OAKS 

AND    THEIR    GALLS." 


BY  BABON  B.  OSTEN  SACEEN. 

[From  the  Proceedings  of  the  Entomological  Society  of  Philadelphia,  Sept.  1862.] 


18(i2.]  241 

Additions  and  corrections  to  the  paper  entitled: 
"On  the  CYNIPID^  of  the  North  American  Oaks  and  their  Galls." 

BY    BARON    R.  OSTEN    SACKEN. 

Since  the  publication  of  my  paper  on  the  Cijnipidse  of  the  North  Amer- 
ican Oaks  (Proc.  Entom.  Soc.  Phila.  Oct.  1861),  I  have  had  occasion  to 
make  some  additional  observations,  which  serve  to  complete  and  often  to 
correct,  the  statements  of  that  paper. 

It  requires  a  particularly  favorable  situation  to  be  able  to  pursue  obser- 
vations of  this  kind  with  some  hope  of  attaining  a  certain  completeness. 
My  position  in  Washington,  although  affording  me  some  facilities,  did  not 
always  allow  me  to  attain  the  accuracy  which  I  desired.  My  removal  to 
New  York  will  probably  deprive  me  for  a  long  time  of  any  opportunity 
of  pursuing  my  observations.  I  .prefer  therefore,  to  publish  now  those  I 
have  on  hand,  following  the  conviction,  already  expressed  before,  that  ob- 
servations of  nature  should  be  made  known  without  waiting  too  long  for 
their  further  accumulation.  The  reader  favorably  situated  may  perhaps 
find  among  mine,  incomplete  as  they  are,  some  useful  hints  and  suggestions. 
The  subject  is  so  extremely  interesting  and  attractive  that  it  deserves  more 
attention  than  has  been  paid  to  it,  not  only  in  this  country,  but  even  in 
Europe. 

All  the  observations,  recorded  below,  have  been  made  in  Washington, 
unless  otherwise  mentioned. 

Those  who  have  paid  any  attention  to  the  nomenclature  of  the  oaks  of 
this  country,  are  acquainted  with  the  difficulties  attending  the  recognition 
of  the  species,  chiefly  of  the  red-oak  group,  if  this  recognition  is  to  be 
based  upon  single  leaves  or  even  young  trees.  Thus  I  became  aware  after 
the  publication  of  my  paper,  that  the  tree  which  I  had  called  the  red-oak 
(  Q.  riibrci)  was,  in  most  cases,  the  scarlet-oak  (  Q.  coccinea),  which  seems 
to  be  more  abundant  around  Washington  than  the  other.  Most  of  the 
galls,  therefore,  mentioned  as  found  on  the  red-oak,  belong  very  probably 
to  the  other  species.  In  some  cases,  I  have  been  able  to  verify  this  fact, 
last  spring.     Other  cases,  however,  are  still  doubtful. 

I.   Additions  to  the  paragraphs  on  the  Oak-Apple  Galls. 

(  1.  c.  No.  1  and  No.  3,  p.  66  and  58.)* 

At  the  time  of  my  previous  publication,  I  took  for  the  gall  of  C  cou- 

•••■  This  paragraph  supersedes  the  NN  1  and  3  of  my  former  jjaper,  except  the 
descriptions  of  C.  q.  aciculata  and  Synophrus  heinventris  (1.  c.  p.  56  and  57),  which 
have  not  been  reproduced  here. 


242  [Septkmbbr 

fluens  Harris  all  the  oak-apples  filled  with  a  spongy  substance,  which  I 
found  in  the  environs  of  Washington. 

Already  then,  however,  I  noticed  two  varieties  of  this  gall,  the  one  with 
a  glossy,  the  other  with  an  opaque  surface  (Compare  1.  c.  p.  56). 

These  two  varieties  proved  since  to  occur  on  two  different  kinds  of  oaks 
and  therefore,  very  probably,  to  constitute  two  species,  although  the  gall- 
flies, obtained  from  them,  hardly  show  any  difference.  The  gall-fly  from 
the  oak-apple  No.  3  (1.  c.  p.  58),  which  I  did  not  know  at  the  time,  but 
for  which  I  proposed  by  anticipation  the  name  of  0.  q.  iiianis^  has  also 
been  reared  by  me  since,  and  likewise  closely  resembles  the  other  two  gall- 
flies. Thus  we  have  three  (or  perhaps  four,  as  will  be  seen  below)  differ- 
ent and  easily  distinguished  oak-apple  galls,  occuring  on  diff"erent  species 
of  the  red-oak  group,  but  all  three  producing  uncommonly  similar  gall-flies. 

The  fourth  oak-apple  gall,  peculiar  to  the  same  group  of  oaks,  that  of 
C.  q.  aciculata,  discovered  by  Mr.  Walsh,  gives  a  totally  different  fly,  as 
the  9  has  14-  and  not  T3-jointed  antennae. 

I  distinguish  therefore,  at  present,  the  following  oak-apple  galls  and 
their  gall-flies : — 

Q.  COCCINEA.  Scarlet  Oah?  Large,  more  or  less  round  gall,  not  at- 
tenuated towards  the  basis;  surface  glossy ;  shell  thin  and  brittle;  on  the 
inside  whitish  filaments  radiating  from  the  kernel  to  the  shell.  Diameter 
about  an  inch.  C.  Q.  inanis  0.  S.  (Synon.  1.  c.  No.  3,  p.  58,  and  pro- 
bably C.  confiuens  Fitch,  non  Harris.) 

Two  9  specimens  obtained  from  the  galls  on  the  20th  of  June,  1862, 
iinswer  to  the  following  description  : — 

Head  black,  deeply,  irregularly  sculptured  on  the  front  and  vertex;  face  finely 
pubescent,  rugose;  antennae  13-jointed,  brown  or  reddish-brjown,  especially  to- 
wards the  tip.  Thorax  black,  deeply,  irregularly  rugose,  finely  and  sjiarsely  pu- 
bescent; three  deeper  longitudinal  furrows,  converging  towards  the  scutellum, 
may  be  distinguished  among  this  rugosity ;  their  bottom  is  intersected  by  numer- 
ous transverse  ridges  and  wrinkles.  These  furrows  are  deepest  and  broadest  near 
the  scutellum;  the  intermediate  one  is  gradually  attenuated  towards  the  coUarej 
the  anterior  end  of  the  I  literal  ones,  which  runs  towards  the  shoulders,  can  be  seen 
only  when  the  insect  is  kept  in  a  certain  position  towards  the  light.  Near  the  an- 
terior end  of  the  intermediate  furrow  and  parallel  to  it,  there  are  smaller,  rather 
indistinct,  longitudinal  furrows  and  ridges.  The  pit  at  the  basis  of  the  scutellum 
is  large,  divided  in  two  by  a  longitudinal  ridge;  its  bottom,  althovigh  glossy,  is 
marked  with  transverse  ridges.  Abdomen  brownish-red,  glossy  ;  the  large  basal, 
in  reality  the  second,  segment  (see  1.  c.  p.  48,  foot-note)  is  perfectly  smooth,  the 
other  segments  show  a  minute  punctation  ;  (the  jjosterior  edge  of  the  smooth  seg- 
ment shows  traces  of  a  similar  punctation,  but  they  are  so  minute,  as  to  be  hardly 


1802.]  243 

visible,  requiring  a  strong  lens  to  be  distinguished).  Legs  reddish-yellow,  pubes- 
cent, hind  tarsi  sometimes  infuseated  ;  onychia  black.  Wings  with  a  brownish- 
black  spot  at  the  basis  of  the  radial  area;  it  slightly  trangresses  the  second  trans- 
verse vein,  but  does  not  touch  the  anterior  margin  of  the  wing. 

I  have  found  this  gall  more  than  once  on  young  trees,  belonging  either 
to  Q.  coccinea  or  Q.  rubra.  (The  leaves  were  elongate,  cuneate  at  the 
basis  and  hardly  or,  at  least,  not  deeply,  sinuate;  this  is,  I  believe,  one  of 
the  varieties  of  the  scarlet  oak,) 

Among  the  specimens  of  my  collection,  I  find  a  number  of  galls,  col- 
lected in  one  locality  and  somewhat  diiferent  in  shape  from  the  typical 
specimens  of  C.  q.  inanis.  The  latter  are  more  or  less  globular,  the  leaf 
being,  so  to  say,  the  tangent  of  the  globe.  There  is  no  distinct  point  or 
nipple  on  the  top.  The  other  gall,  on  the  contrary,  is  somewhat  lemon- 
shaped,  being  attenuated  at  its  basis  with  a  corresponding  elongation,  end- 
ing in  a  minute  nipple,  at  the  opposite  end.  Its  color  is  more  brownish 
than  that  of  C.  q.  inanis;  on  the  inside,  I  did  not  detect  any  diiference 
between  both  galls.  The  tree  is  also  either  the  red,  or  the  scarlet  oak. 
As  twelve  specimens  of  this  gall,  although  of  diiferent  size,  all  show  the 
same  characters  with  distinctness,  I  can  hardly  believe  that  these  are  mere- 
ly accidental.     I  obtained  only  parasites  from  this  gall. 

Q.  COCCINEA.  Scarlet  Oak.  Large,  more  or  less  round  gall,  not  atten- 
uated at  the  basis,  surface  glossy,  shell  thin  and  brittle  ;  on  the  inside  with 
a  spongy  substance,  surrounding  a  kernel  in  the  centre.  Diameter  upwards 
to  an  inch  and  a  half.  C.  Q.  coccinea  0.  S.  (Syn.  C.  confiuens  0.  S. 
non  Harris,  ex  parte ;  gall  No.  1,  1.  c.  p.  56.) 

The  external  appeai-ance  of  this  gall  is  very  like  that  of  the  gall  of  (J. 
q.  inanis.  It  is  more  or  less  globular  (although  irregular  specimens  of 
both  frequently  occur),  that  is,  not  narrowed  towards  the  basis;  its  sur- 
face is  glossy.  Internally,  it  is  easily  distinguished  by  the  spongy  mass 
which  fills  it.  It  seems  to  reach  a  larger  size  than  the  former  o-all  as 
among  six  specimens  now  before  me,  one  measures  an  inch  and  a  half  in 
diameter  and  two  others  are  but  little  smaller,  whereas  among  eight  spec- 
imens of  the  gall  of  C  q.  inanis  the  largest  does  not  much  exceed  an 
inch. 

From  the  following  gall  it  is  distinguished  by  its  glossy  surface,  its  less 
dense  and  more  whitish  spongy  internal  matter,  its  much  thinner  and  brit- 
tle shell  and  by  its  shape,  which  is  more  rounded  on  the  top.  From  this 
gall  I  have  obtained  this  year  (about  the  25th  of  June)  only  one  9  speci- 
men, not  showing  any  perceptible  difference  from  C.  q.  inanis,  except  that 


244  [September 

the  thorax  i.s  somewhat  reddish,  which  is  probably  due  to  the  immaturity 
of  the  specimen. 

Q.  TINCTORIA.  Black  Oak.  Large,  round  gall,  somewhat  attenuated 
and  pointed  at  the  top;  surface  inore  or  less  opaque,  as  if  powdered  or 
dusted;  shell  thick;  inside,  a  dense,  spongn/,  brownish  substance,  surrounding 
the  kernel.     Diameter  about  an  inch  and  a  half.     C.  Q.  spongipica  0.  S. 

This  is  the  opaque  variety  mentioned  1.  c.  p.  56,  under  the  head  of 
Oynips  confuens.  On  the  25th  of  May  last  I  found  four  full-grown  spec- 
imens of  this  gall  on  the  leaves  of  a  large  black  oak  (^Q.  tinctorial,  and 
have  obtained,  on  June  15,  three  9  specimens  of  the  gall-fly.  They  look 
exactly  like  C.  q.  inanis,  only  they  are  a  little  larger,  (the  gall  being  also 
larger) ;  the  three  grooves  on  the  back  of  the  thorax  seem  to  be  deeper 
and  more  distinct  on  their  anterior  portion ;  the  posterior  part  of  the  scu- 
tellum,  immediately  behind  the  pit,  seems  to  be  more  deeply  and  distinct- 
ly excised ;  finally,  the  punetation  on  the  hind  margin  of  the  large  (2nd) 
segment  of  the  abdomen  is  somewhat  more  distinct. 

Of  these  galls  three,  taken  from  a  high  branch  of  the  tree,  can  be  con- 
sidered as  typical  specimens.  They  are  slightly  oblong,  that  is,  somewhat 
extended  into  a  point  at  the  end,  although  not  narrowed  at  the  basis. 
Their  diameter  is  about  an  inch  and  a  half.  Their  color  is  drab,  some- 
times spotted  with  brown  on  one  side ;  the  surface  is  more  or  less  opaque, 
as  if  powdered  or  sericeous,  and  shows  very  little  gloss.  The  shell  is 
much  thicker  than  that  of  the  two  previous  species;  the  spongy  mass  is 
more  dense  and  brownish. 

A  fourth  specimen,  found  on  the  same  tree,  is  more  irregular  in  its 
shape;  its  surface  is  without  any  gloss  and  altogether  drab,  without  brown 
spots.  Specimens  of  this  kind  are  frequently  found  on  young  shrubs  of 
Q.  finctoria,  the  leaves  of  which  are  very  rusty-puberulent  beneath. 

On  a  shrub  of  this  kind,  apparently  also  belonging  to  Q.  tinctoria,  I 
found,  last  June,  three  galls,  resembling  exactly  those  just  described.  I 
cut  them  open  and  obtained  ffom  two  of  them  perfectly  mature  male 
specimens  of  Cynips;  the  third  also  contained  a  mature  specimen,  yet  con- 
tracted in  the  shape  of  a  pupa  and  the  abdomen  of  which  was  consumed 
by  parasitical  larvae.* 

There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  the  two  males  thus  obtained,  belong- 
to  C  q.  spongifca  ;  but  if  not  for  the  circumstance  that  they  were  found 

*  This  fact  is  worthy  of  reniark,  as  it  proves  that  some  kinds  of  parasites  be- 
2;in  their  attacks  only  at  a  very  late  stage  of  the  development,  of  the  insect. 


1862.]  **  245 

in  a  similar  gall,  they  might  as  well  be  taken  for  the  males  of  the  two 
previous  species,  as  the  slight  diiFerences  they  show  distinguish  them  alike 
from  the  three  species  of  females. 

These  differences,  (besides  their  longer  and  15-jointed  antennae  and  a 
smaller  abdomen,  both  being  peculiar  to  the  sex)  consist,  as  far  as  I  could 
perceive,  only  in  the  dark  brown,  almost  black,  and  not  7'ed  color  of  their 
abdomen,  in  their  infuscated  hind  tibiae  and  tarsi,  in  a  somewhat  deeper 
sculpture  of  the  thorax  and  in  a  slightly  more  distinct  punctation  of  the 
abdomen.  These  male  Ci/nips  also  resemble  the  C.  q.  cmlehs,  except  that 
the  latter  is  somewhat  smaller  and  that  the  spot  on  its  wing  is  also  more 
small  and  paler. 

Q.  TINCTORIA.  Black  oak.  Large,  round  gall,  broad  and  7-ounded  at 
the  top;  surface  smooth  and  glossy;  shell,  thick;  inside,  a  dense,  brown, 
spongy  substance  surrounding  the  kernel.  Diameter  upwards  to  an  inch 
and  a  half.     C.  Q.  aciculata  0.  S.    (Syn.  C.  confluens  Harris  ?) 

This  gall  was  communicated  to  me  by  Benj.  D.  Walsh  Esq.,  in  Rock 
Island,  111. 

The  specimens  which  I  received  from  him  can  at  once  be  distinguished 
from  the  gall  of  G.  q.  sjjongijica,  by  their  smooth,  glossy  surface  and  their 
subglobular  or  short-oval  foiin,  their  basis  being  slightly  attenuated,  their 
top,  on  the  contrary,  being  bruad  and  rounded.  Otherwise,  their  thick 
shell  and  their  dense,  brownish  spongy  substance  reminds  of  C.  q.  spong- 
ifca. 

Mr.  Walsh  noticed  their  appearance  in  summer  (about  July).  The  gall- 
flies usually  remain  in  the  gall  through  the  winter  and  escape  in  the  spring ; 
sometimes  however,  especially  when  the  weather  in  the  fall  is  unusually 
warm,  the  flies  leave  the  gall  already  at  that  season. 

The  synonymy  of  this  species  with  C.  confluens  Harris,  supposed  by 
Mr.  Walsh,  is  founded  on  the  occurrence  of  their  galls  at  the  same  season, 
and  on  the  statement  of  Mr.  Norton  about  the  agreement  of  G.  q.  acicu- 
lata with  the  original  specimens  of  G.  confluens  in  Dr.  Harris's  collection. 
But  if  Dr.  Harris's  gall-fly  really  lives  on  the  red  oak  (^Q.  ridjra?),  its  great 
resemblance  to  G.  q.  aciculata,  occuring  on  the  black  oak  (().  tinctoria) 
would  no  more  be  a  proof  of  their  identity,  than  the  great  resemblance  of 
G.  q.  inanis  and  spongifica  is  of  theirs.  The  two  latter  gall-flies,  although 
almost  perfectly  similar  in  appearance,  occur  on  different  oaks  and  pro- 
duce quite  different  galls.  It  may  be  that  the  true  G.  confluens  Harris, 
although  closely  resembling   G.  q.  aciculata,  produces  on  the  red  oak  a 


246  [September 

gall,  sufficiently  different  from  that  of  the  other  species,  to  be  distinguish- 
ed by  constant  characters.  The  synonymy  of  both  therefore,  although 
probable,  seems  to  require  further  confirmation. 

The  gall-fly  G.  q.  aciculata  has  been  described  1.  c.  p.  56.  Its  anteu- 
nse  are  14-jointed,  the  last  joint  being  separated  from  the  penultimate  one 
by  a  suture  as  distinct  as  that  of  all  the  other  joints;  the  14th  joint  is 
very  slightly  longer  than  the  13th,  and  without  any  apparent  transverse 
impression.  This  character,  common  to  C.  q.  aciculata  and  to  C.  q.  cen~ 
tricola  (of  the  oak-apple  on  Q.  ohtusilohd)  distinguishes  these  species  at 
once  from  C.  q.  inanis^  spongifica  and  coccinese,  where  the  last  (loth)  joint 
of  the  antennae  is  almost  twice  as  long  as  the  preceding,  and  shows  two 
indistinct  transverse  sutures,  foreshadowing  the  14th  and  15th  joints  of 
the  %  .  The  structure  of  the  abdomen  of  these  two  groups  of  gall-flies 
is  also  very  different.  Seen  from  the  side,  it  appears  in  C.  q.  aciculata. 
and  centricola  very  slightly  convex  above,  the  line  of  its  back  not  rising 
abruptly  above  the  petiole;  the  principal  curve  in  the  outline  of  the  ab- 
domen is  on  its  under  side,  so  that  its  side-view  is  not  unlike  that  of  the 
seed  of  a  Desmodium.  In  C.  q.  inanis  and  the  two  other  species,  on  the 
contrary,  the  abdomen,  seen  from  the  side,  appears  as  convex  above  as  be- 
low, its  doi'sal  line  rising  steeply  above  the  petiole.  In  the  former  group 
the  largest  or  2nd  joint  (the  petiole  being  taken  for  the  first)  is  compara- 
tively longer,  occupying  almost  f  of  the  length  of  the  abdomen,  whereas 
in  the  other  group  (C.  q.  inanis  etc.)  it  only  reaches  its  middle.  These 
differences  prove  that  these  two  groups  should,  in  a  rational  systematic 
arrangement,  form  two  genera.  It  is  also  worthy  of  remark  that  both 
species  of  one  group  (C  q.  aciculata  and  centricola)  are  produced  by  au- 
tumnal galls,  and  escape  either  late  in  the  fall,  or  remain  in  the  gall  through 
the  winter,  whereas,  the  species  of  the  other  group  all  belong  to  vernal 
galls,  the  gall  growing  with  the  leaves  and  the  fly  passing  through  all  the 
stages  of  its  growth  between  the  earliest  spring  and  the  end  of  June. 

To  the  four  oak-apple  galls  just  described,  have  to  be  added  that  of  C. 
q.  centricola  0.  S.,  on  the  post-oak  (1.  c.  p.  58,  gall  No.  4)  and  that  which 
I  found  once  on  Q.  nicp-a,  the  black-jack  oak  (see  1.  c.  p.  53,  line  14). 
I  have  not  found  it  since,  but  possess  in  my  collection  a  specimen  of  a 
gall-fly,  closely  resembling  0.  q.  inanis^  spongifica  and  coccinese,  and  dis- 
tinguished only  by  a  much  more  distinct  punctation  of  the  abdomen,  which 
specimen.  If  I  remember  right,  was  reared  from  that  gall.  (Unfortunately 
I  lost  the  label  indicating  its  origin. ) 


1«62.]  247 

I  conclude  the  foregoing  descriptions  of  oak-apple  galls,  by  a  synopsis 
of  those  at  present  known  to  me.  I  omit  the  species  gi'owing  on  the  black 
oak,  as  I  know  it  but  imperfectly. 

With  the  spongy  substance  inside. 

Shell  thick ;  spongy  substance  very  dense. 

Broad  and  rounded  on  the  top;  surface  smooth 

and  glossy;  autumnal  gall  on   Q.  tinctoria:     C.  q.  aciculata  0.  S. 

Attenuated  and  pointed  on  the  top ;  surface 
more  or  less  opaque,  as  if  powdered  or  dust- 
ed ;  vernal  gall  on  Q.  tinctoria :  C.  q.  spongifica  0.  S. 

Shell  thin  and  brittle ;  spongy  substance  less  dense. 
Rounded,  almost  globular;  surface  glossy;  ver- 
nal gall  on  Q.  coccinea :  C.  q.  coccineae  0.  S. 

With  the  filaments  radiating  from  the  kernel  to  the 
shell ;  the  latter  thin  and  brittle. 

More  or  less  globular,  not  attenuated  towards 
the  basis ;  surface  glossy ;  vernal  gall  on  Q. 
coccinea  (or  Q.  rubra^  :  C.  q.  inanis  0.  S. 

Somewhat  lemon-shaped,  that  is,  attenuated  at 
both  ends,  with  a  distinct  nipple  on  top;  per- 
haps a  variety  of  the  preceding,  as  it  occurs 
apparently  on  the  same  kind  of  oak?  Gall-fly  unknown. 

Perfectly  globular,  smooth,  smaller  than  all  the 
preceding  galls,  not  drab,  but  more  reddish- 
yellow  when  ripe;  shell  although  thin,  but 
harder;  filaments  on  the  inside  more  dense 
and  silky;  autumnal  gall  on  Q.  ohtusiloha  :     C.  q.  centricola  0.  S. 

II.   General  remarks  on  the  Oak-Apple  Gtalls. 

The  foregoing  chapter  records  my  recent  observations  on  the  oak-apple 
galls  of  this  country.  These  observations  being,  however,  yet  incomplete, 
leave  open  several  questions  to  which  I  now  call  the  attention  of  future 
observers.     Such  questions  are  : — 

1.  Are  Cyni-ps  q.  inanis,  C.  q.  coccineoe  and  C.  q.  spongijlca  one  and  the  same  species .' 

2.  Have  the  gall-flies  of  the  oak-apples  one  or  two  yearly  generations? 

3.  The  question  of  the  sexes. 


248  [Septkmbeu 

1.  Aee  CYNIPS  Q.  INANIS,  C.  Q.  COCCINEiE   and   C.  Q.  SPONGIFICA  o.ve 

AND    THE    SAME    SPECIES? 

We  have  seen  above,  that  these  gall-flies  are  so  similar  that  I  could  not 
find  any  important  characters  to  distinguish  them.  Still,  it  does  not  fol- 
low hence  that  such  characters  do  not  exist.  The  comparison  of  a  larger 
number  of  specimens  would  probably  lead  to  their  discovery. 

The  supposition  that  they  are  the  same  species  would  involve  another 
one,  that  the  difiierence  between  the  galls,  described  under  the  above  names 
is  merely  due  to  the  organic  reaction  of  different  kinds  of  oak  against  the 
sting  of  one  and  the  same  insect.  It  is  obvious  however,  that  this  last 
supposition  must  be  dropped  if  it  is  proved  that  C.  q.  coccincse,  and  C  q. 
iiiams  both  occur  on  Q.  coccinea,  of  which,  as  shown  already*  I  am  as  yet 
uncertain. 

Another  fact  apparently  proving  that  they  are  really  different  species, 
is  the  close  resemblance  of  C  ij.  ojelebs  %  to  the  male  of  C.  q.  sponglfica. 
The  former  is  only  smaller,  otherwise  it  does  not  differ  from  the  Litter  more 
than  the  females  of  the  three  species  in  question  differ  from  each  other. 
Now  C.  q.  Calebs  seems  to  be  undoubtedly  a  different  species,  as  its  spin- 
dle-shaped gall  occurs  also  on  a  species  of  oak  about  which  I  am  uncer- 
tain whether  it  is  Q.  coccinea  or  rubra.  Thus  we  have  tlii:ee  different 
galls,  occuriug,  at  the  utmost,  on  two  kinds  of  oak,  so  that,  by  all  means 
two  of  the  galls,  and  perhaps  all  the  three  grow  on  the  same  kind  of  oak. 
It  seems  obvious,  hence,  thcit  gall-flies,  however  similar  they  may  be,  must 
belong  to  different  species  if  they  produce  different  galls  on  the  same  tree 
and  that,  at  the  same  season.  Mr.  Ratzeburg  (in  his  work :  Forst-In- 
secteu)  asserts,  from  personal  observation,  that  a  .species  of  Cj/nij)s  pro- 
duces the  same  gall  even  on  different  kinds  of  oak.  The  european  C./e- 
cundatrix  of  the  Quercus  pedunculata  gave  this  result,  when  it  attacked 
some  american  oaks  in  his  garden. 

For  all  these  reasons,  I  believe,  therefore,  that  C.  q.  mams,  coccinese, 
spongifica  and  ccelebs  are  different,  although  closely  allied,  species  of  the 
same  genus. 

2.    Have  the  Gall-Plies  or  the  Oak-Apples  one  or  two  generations? 

If  they  have  but  one  generation,  what  becomes  of  the  gall-flies  escap- 
ing in  June  and  the  larvae  of  which  begin  to  develope  nearly  a  year  later, 
in  the  buds  of  the  following  spring  ?  They  may  lay  their  eggs  in  the  buds 
destined  to  be  developed  on  the  next  year,  which  eggs  may  remain  dor- 
mant, till  the  buds  begin  to  grow.     But  this  remains  to  be  proved.     I  do 


1862.]  249 

not  recollect  now  having  observed  any  instance  of  the  same  kind  of  oak- 
apple  being  sometimes  vernal  (that  is,  beginning  to  grow  early  in  the 
spring,  together  with  the  growth  of  the  leaves  and  producing  the  fly  to- 
wards midsummer)  sometimes  aufumnal  (that  is,  reaching  its  full  growth 
later  in  the  summer  or  in  the  fall ;  the  fly  either  escaping  late  in  the  fall 
or  remaining  in  the  gall  till  the  following  spring).  In  my  former  paper 
I  said  on  p.  56  "  I  am  inclined  to  agree  with  Dr.  Fitch,  who  supposes  that 
there  are  annually  two  generations  of  this  fly  (  C.  confluens).'"  But  I  do 
not  remember  now  whether  I  founded  this  opinion  on  a  fact  or  on  a  mere 
probability,  and  rather  believe  the  latter,  as  otherwise  I  would  have  re- 
corded that  fact.     The  question  remains,  therefore,  undecided. 

3.  Sexes  of  the  CYNIPID^. 

When  I  first  reared  C.  q.  ccelebs  %  ,  its  resemblance  to  the  females  ob- 
tained from  the  oak-apples,  which,  at  that  time,  I  called  C  confluens, 
started  the  idea  in  my  mind  that  they  might  belong  together  and  that  the 
question  of  the  sexes  of  the  Cijnipidse  might  thus  find  its  solution  in  the 
occurrence  of  the  males  in  galls  difierent  in  shape  from  those  of  the  fe- 
males. The  discovery  of  the  four  exceedingly  similar  species  recorded 
above  diminishes  the  importance  of  the  resemblance  on  which  I  have  bas- 
ed my  hypothesis.  The  latter  is  moreover  apparently  altogether  unsettled 
by  the  rearing  of  male  specimens  of  Cynips  from  oak-apples.  I  now  pos- 
sess %  and  $  of  G.  q.  spongifica,  and  Mr.  Walsh  has  reared  a  S  of  what 
seems  to  be  G.  q.  coccincse.  It  follows  hence  that  if  %  and  9  gall-flies  can 
be  reared  from  oak-apples,  the  as  yet  unknown  9  of  G.  q.  ccelehs  may  also 
be  obtained  from  a  spindle-shaped  gall,  resembling  that  of  the  male.  It 
follows  also  that  the  gall-flies,  produced  by  the  ■vernal  oak-apples  of  G.  q. 
coccinese^  inanis  and  spongifica  do  not  belong  to  the  agamous  genera  of 
Hartig.  The  case  is  different  with  the  autumnal  oak-apples.  Mr.  Walsh 
informs  me  that  he  has  now  reared  over  100  Gi/nlps  aciculata  from  oak- 
apples  gathered  in  the  fall,  without  a  single  %  among  them.  I  have  shown 
already  (p.  246)  that  this  species,  as  well  as  Gynips  q.  centricola  0.  S., 
which  is  also  produced  by  an  autumnal  oak-apple,  both  belong  to  a  genus 
different  from  the  above  veVnal  gall-flies.  This  genus  therefore  must  be 
the  true  agamous  Gynips  scnsu  strictiori  of  Hartig  and  the  question  of 
the  male  sex  remains  open  for  it. 


250  [September 

III.   Additions  to  some  other  G-alls  described  in  the  paper 
ON  the  CYNIPID^E  etc. 

To  No.  5.     CYZSTIPS  QUERCUS  PISUM   Fitch  (1.  c.  p.  59). 

Last  winter  Dr.  Morris,  in  Baltimore,  gave  me  an  oak  leaf,  apparently 
that  of  a  white  oak,  with  several  galls  on  its  underside,  resembling  very 
much  those  of  G.  q.  pisum  Fitch,  only  that  the  intervals  between  the 
cracks  of  the  net-work  were  less  convex,  so  that  the  galls  seemed  some- 
what smoother.  On  opening  the  box  which  contained  them,  on  the  7th 
of  January,  I  found  a  wingless  gall-fly  walking  in  it.  I  immediately  cut 
one  of  the  galls  open  and  found  that  it  contained  two  other  similar  apter- 
ous flies,  both  alive.  Each  gall,  like  those  of  0.  q.  pisum ^  contained  two 
cavities,  separated  by  a  partition.  I  am  unable  to  decide  whether  these 
gall-flies  are  the  true  producers  of  the  gall  or  merely  parasites.  The  three 
gall-flies  were  females.  Not  knowing  exactly  to  what  genus  this  species 
should  be  referred,  I  call  it  provisionally : — 

Cynips  pezomachoides  n.  sp. — Brown,  mixed  luith  reddish  on  head  and  thorax;  legs 
reddish;  wings  rudiinental ;  length  about  0.12. 

Head  brown  on  front  and  vertex  and  in  the  middle  of  the  face,  reddish  around 
the  eyes;  antennse  14-jointed,  brown,  somewhat  mixed  witli  reddish  at  the  basis, 
but  little  shorter  than  the  body ;  sculpture  of  the  head  hardly  apparent.  Thorax 
comparatively  small,  reddish  on  the  back,  brown  on  the  pleurae  and  the  shoulders ; 
finely  pubescent;  wings  reduced  to  the  size  of  small  scales:  scutellum  small,  with- 
out any  a23parent  basal  pits;  its  tijj  somewhat  jsointed  and  recurved  upwards;  feet 
reddish;  basal  part  of  the  coxse  brown;  the  middle  of  the  femora,  the  external 
side  of  the  tibiae  and  the  tarsi,  especially  their  tip,  more  or  less  brownish ;  last 
joint  of  tarsi  rather  large.  Abdomen  dark  brown,  shining,  with  a  somewhat  blu- 
ish (oj^alizing)  reflection.  The  large  2nd  (apparently  first)  segment,  with  a  yellow- 
ish spot  on  each  side.  The  four  following  segments  are  short,  slightly,  but  gradu- 
ally diminishing  in  length,  the  last  of  them  bears  below  a  short  double  jarojection, 
with  a  fan-shaped  pencil  of  yellowish  hairs.  The  following  (in  fact  the  7th)  seg- 
ment is  longer  than  the  jjreeeding  but,  being  narrower,  forms  an  abrupt  angle  with 
the  hind  margin  of  the  latter ;  it  is  sj)arsely  j^ubescent  on  its  surface ;  the  eighth 
segment  above  is  connected  with  the  preceding  by  a  triangular,  whitish  membrane  ; 
the  ovipositor  is  short  and  bears  a  few  hairs. 

Three  9  specimens. 

To  No.  6.     CYNIPS  QUERCUS  TUBIC0LA   0.  S.  ( 1.  c.  p.  60). 

On  the  first  of  March,  1862,  I  obtained  a  new  brood  of  this  insect,  from 
galls  collected  in  autumn.  The  coloring  of  the  body  is  variable,  being 
more  or  less  mixed  with  brown;  some  of  the  specimens  are  altogether  dark 
brown.     The  antetmae  appear  to  me  now  14-jointed  and  as  the  abdomen 


1862.]  251 

has  the  same  shape  as  those  of  G.  q.  centrlcola  and  (iciculafa,  it  is  proba- 
ble that  G.  q.  tuhkola  has  a  generic  affinity  with  them,  the  more  so  as 
all  these  galls  are  autumnal  and  produce  only  females. 

To  No.  11.     CYNIPS  QUEECUS  PALUSTRIS  0.  S.    (1.  c.  p.  63). 

Galls  perfectly  similar  to  those  described  as  occuring  on  the  pin-oak, 
were  observed  by  me  this  spring  on  Quercus  falcata^  tinctovia  and  cocci- 
nea.  I  succeeded  in  rearing  the  gall-flies  from  the  two  former  and  could 
not  discover  any  perceptible  difference  between  them  and  that  of  Q.  palus- 
tris,  so  that  my  description  applies  to  all.  Still,  I  do  not  consider  my  in- 
ability to  distinguish  them  as  a  proof  of  their  specific  identity. 

My  description  stated  erroneously  that  the  antennae  are  15-jointed  in 
both  sexes.  In  reality  they  are,  as  they  ought  to  be,  14-jointed  in  the  fe- 
males. The  last  joint,  however,  is,  in  most  specimens,  distinctly  divided 
in  two  by  a  slight  annular  incision.  As  this  incision  is  more  distinct  in 
dry  specimens,  this  was  the  cause  of  the  error  in  my  description,  which  I 
became  aware  of,  as  soon  as  I  obtained  fresh  specimens.  In  the  same  way 
female  gall-flies  with  13-jointed  antennse  generally  have  an  indication  of 
tivo  subdivisions  on  their  last,  elongated  joint. 

Mr.  Walsh,  in  Rock  Island,  writes  me  that  he  also  discovered  the  gall 
on  Q.  tinctoria.  He  became  likewise  aware  of  my  error  as  to  the  number 
of  joints  of  the  9  antennae. 

IV.    Oak-Gtalls  not  mentioned  in  the  paper:   On  the 
CYNIPID^  ETC. 

The  following  galls  have  been  partly  observed  by  myself,  partly  com- 
municated to  me  by  other  persons  since  the  publication  of  my  paper  on 
the  Gijnipidse,.  About  some  of  them,  as  will  be  seen  below,  I  am  not 
quite  sure,  whether  they  are  really  the  produce  of  this  class  of  insects. 

Quercus  palustris.  Pin  Oak.  Woody  knots  on  the  limbs,  emitting 
pale  yellow,  conical,  brittle  projections.  Cynips  quercus  cornigera 
n.  sp.  (as  yet  unknown). 

Of  all  excrescences  on  oaks  in  general,  the  present  one,  wherever  it  oc- 
curs, is  perhaps  the  most  conspicuous,  as  by  its  abundance  it  deforms  the 
tree  and  seems  to  cause  considerable  injury.  (It  has  already  been  alluded 
to  1.  c.  p.  55,  foot-note.)  It  consists  of  woody  knots  on  the  limbs,  looking 
usually  as  if  many  of  them  were  closely  packed  together  and  thus  forming 


252  [September 

an  oblong,  woody  irregular  mass,  sometimes  two  inches  or  more  long.  Its 
most  striking  character  are  its  slightly  curved  conical  projections,  hollow 
on  the  inside,  which  bud  forth  from  all  sides  of  the  gall.  On  dry,  dead 
galls,  these  horn-shaped  projections  are  for  the  most  part  broken  off,  so 
that  their  bases  alone  are  visible,  projecting  like  short  tubes  from  the 
cracks  of  the  woody  tubercle.  In  order  to  be  able  to  designate  this  gall, 
the  development  of  which  I  have  not  been  able  to  investigate  completely, 
I  give  its  as  yet  unknown  originator  the  provisional  name  of  G.  q.  corni- 
gera  n.  sp. 

After  having  very  frequently  observed  dead  galls  of  this  kind,  I  finally 
succeeded  on  the  13th  of  May,  1862,  to  find  some  young  and  growing 
ones.  They  were  of  moderate  size;  their  back  was  greenish  and  their 
wood  soft  and  succulent.  The  conical  projections  were  just  beginning  to 
bud  forth ;  when  laid  bare,  by  removing  with  a  knife  the  wood  around 
them,  they  appeared  to  extend  deep  inside  of  the  gall,  almost  down  to 
the  twig.  Their  color  was  whitish,  their  consistency  soft,  apparently 
fibrous,  and  not  woody.  At  that  time,  they  were  not  hollow  yet,  and  I 
could  not  find  any  larvae  in  them.  When  I  brought  the  galls  home,  numer- 
ous gall-flies,  evidently  parasitical,  began  to  escapo  from  them.  They 
emerged  from  hollows  in  the  woody  substance  between  the  horn-shaped 
bodies  and  had  nothing  in  common  with  the  latter.  They  resemble  the 
Cijnips  (Synerges?)  oneratus  Harris  and  evidently  belong  to  the  same  par- 
asitical genus.  When  I  visited  the  same  spot  during  the  latter  part  of 
June,  1  found  some  of  the  horn-shaped  bodies  already  projecting  about 
one-tenth  of  an  inch;  their  substance  had  become  harder  and  more  woody; 
their  inner  end  had  become  club-shaped,  distinctly  isolated  from  the  sur- 
rovmding  wood,  so  that  the  whole  of  these  bodies  could  be  easily  removed 
by  cutting  away  the  wood  around  them.  On  the  inside,  the  inner  end 
was  hollow  and  contained  a  small  larva.  This  larva  is  probably  that  of 
the  true  gall-producing  Ci/iiipi<,  but,  unfortunately,  I  was  prevented  from 
watching  its  growth  further. 

Cynips  (Synerges?)  lignicola  0.  S. —  Yellow,  black  sj^ot  on  the  vertex:  upper 
part  of  thorax  and  of  the  abdomen  black;  length,  %  about  0.1 ;    9  0.12. 

Head  pale  yellow  with  a  black  spot  on  the  vertex:  tips  of  mandibles  black  :  ^ 
antennse  16-jointed,  the  third  joint  with  the  usual  excision  below:  9  antennse  13- 
jointed,  the  last  being  elongated  and  showing  two  slight  subdivisions,  Collare 
and  pectus  yellow;  upj^er  and  hind  part  of  the  thorax  black.  Legs,  including 
the  coxffi,  yellow,  onychia  brown  ;  abdomen  brownish- red,  black  above  ;  it  consists 
apparently  of  a  single,  smooth,  shining  segment,  the  following  segments    being 


1862.]  258 

contracted  inider  it,  so  that  its  posterior  margin  projects  beyond  them.  The  neck 
(or  first  segment)  of  the  abdomen  is  turgid  and  longitudinally  grooved.  The 
wings  are  hyaline,  the  radial  area  closed;  the  stout  veins  pale  yellow;  the  areo- 
let  narrow,  triangular,  its  two  anterior  sides  rather  indistinct,  almost  obsolete; 
the  origin  of  the  cubital  vein  (from  the  first  transverse  vein)  is  obsolete. 

Numerous  %  and  $  specimens. 

Cynips  oneratus  Harris  is  somewhat  larger  than  this  species,  it  has  a 
black  spot  on  the  pectus,  so  that  the  middle  coxae  are  inserted  on  a  black 
ground;  the  yellow  color  is  not  strictly  confined  to  the  collare,  as  in  G. 
lignicola^  but  extends  across  the  suture  on  both  sides  of  the  dorsum  of 
the  mesothorax ;  at  the  same  time  the  black  of  this  dorsum  encroaches 
anteriorly  on  the  middle  part  of  the  collare,  reaching  the  head;  the  ab- 
domen is  more  light  yellow,  and  the  black  on  its  upper  part  is  less  extend- 
ed. These  characters  belong  at  least  to  the  only  specimen  of  C.  oneratus 
in  my  possession. 

QuERCUS  PALUSTRIS.  Pin  Oak.  Rounded.,  looody  gall  on  the  upper 
side  of  the  leaves,  along  the  p>rincipal  ribs.  Diameter  upwards  to  0.4  to 
0.5.     Gall-fly  unknown. 

These  excrescenses,  occuring  frequently  in  autumn,  vary  in  size  from 
0.15  to  0.4  or  0.5;  most  of  them,  however,  are  about  0.2  or  0.3  long  and 
narrower  than  their  length.  Their  color  is  brownish,  sometimes  more  or 
less  yellow,  or  reddish  or  with  a  grey  efflorescence ;  their  surface  has  ir- 
regular, more  or  less  deep  wrinkles,  according  to  the  age  or  size  of  the 
gall;  otherwise  it  is  smooth,  and  has  nothing  of  the  deep  and  regular 
sculpture  of  C.  q.  pismn.  They  somewhat  resemble  the  gall  of  Cecido. 
myia  symmetrica  0.  S.  (see  Monographs  of  N.  A.  Diptera,  p.  200),  but 
project  only  on  one  side  of  the  leaf;  besides,  their  outline  is  more  regular- 
ly rounded  and  less  deeply  cracked.  When  cut  open  they  show  several 
(commonly  three)  cells,  divided  by  partitions,  somewhat  converging  to- 
wards the  middle  of  the  base. 

I  am  not  sure  whether  they  are  produced  by  a  Cynipts,  the  more  so  as  /.   / 

Gynips-gaWs  usually  occur  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves./ ^i?;    hi.in'^  .\jiciu/'i-^<>J 

IX.   Lc ciJ^i^L^ii^:  j 
QuERCUS  PALUSTRIS.    Pin  Oak.    Round,  toart-like,  rusty-puberlent  ex-     / 

crescences  on  the  upper  side  of  the  leaf,  groiving  several  together.     Diam. 

of  single  ones  about  0.1. 

These  galls  are  not  unlike  those  of  G.  q.  verrucarum  0.  S.  (1.  c.  p.  61, 
No.  9)  of  the  post  oak  and  similar  galls,  found  on  the  white  and  the  swamp 


254  '  [Septemueh 

.chestnut  oak,  with  the  important  diiFerence,  however,  that  they  occur  on 
the  upper  side  of  the  leaf,  whereas,  the  others  are  found  on  the  under  side. 
This  makes  me  uncertain,  whether  they  are  the  produce  of  Cijnips  or  of 
Cecidomyia.  I  had  no  opportunity  of  observing  fresh  specimens,  as  those 
in  my  possession  were  communicated  to  me  by  Dr.  Foreman,  who  had 
found  them  in  Maryland.  I  did  not  find  anything  in  the  hai'd  kernel  of 
those  which  I  cut  open. 

QuERCUS  PRINOS,  var.  bicolor.  Large  gall,  at  the  tip  of  twigs,  con- 
sisting of  a  number  of  wedge-shaped  bodies,  fastened  by  their  pointed^ 
ends  to  a  common  centre.  Diameter  about  an  inch  and  a  half.  C.  Q. 
STOBILANA  n.  sp.  (as  yet  not  reared). 

This  gall,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  in  my  collection,  was  kindly  com- 
municated to  me  by  Dr.  Samuel  Lewis,  in  Philadelphia,  as  found  on  young 
branches  of  this  oak,  in  Hoope's  Grarden,  near  West  Chester,  Peuu.  For 
another  specimen  I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  Morris,  in  Baltimore.  These 
specimens  measure  rather  more  than  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter  and 
look  somewhat  like  the  cones  of  some  kinds  of  pine,  for  instance,  of  the 
scrub-pine,  as  they  consist  of  a  number  from  2 (J  to  25  or  more  of  wedge- 
shaped  bodies,  closely  packed  together,  with  their  pointed  ends  attached 
to  a  common  centre.  These  wedges  are  hard  and  corky  and  break  off 
very  easily  when  the  gall  is  dry.  Each  of  them  contains  a  hollow  kernel 
with  a  plump,  large  larva  inside.  This  gall  is  evidently  produced  by  the 
sting  of  the  insect  on  the  single  leaves  of  a  bud,  each  leaf  growing  into 
the  shape  of  a  wedge.  I  did  not  succeed  in  rearing  the  larvas,  which 
were  still  living  when  I  received  the  gall.  I  call  the  Cynips  by  antici- 
pation   C  q.  strobilana. 

QuERCUS  PRINOS.  Sioamp-chestivut  Oak.  Globular  galls  on,  the  un- 
der side  of  the  lecf,  along  the  pjrincipal  ribs.  Diameter  upwards  to  O.o. 
Gall-fly  unknown. 

They  were  communicated  to  me  by  Dr.  Foreman,  who  found  them  in 
Maryland.  Not  having  seen  any  fresh  specimen,  I  can  only  describe  the 
dry  and  somewhat  shrivelled  ones.  Their  surface  is  finely  downy,  which 
gives  them  a  peculiar  brownish-cream-colored  shade.  They  contain  a  ker- 
nel in  the  middle,  nearer  to  their  bases,  from  which  numerous  woody  fibres 
radiate  toward  the  stout  woody  shell.  They  occur  in  numbers  on  the  same 
leaf,  a  moderate  sized  leaf  which  is  in  my  possession,  bearing  eight  of 
them,  the   largest  of  which  has  0.3.  the  smallest  hardly  0.1   in  diameter. 


18()2.]  255 

I  have  uo  doubt,  on  account  of  their  structure,  that  they  are  the  produce 
of  a   Ci/n>p>i. 

QuERCUS  OBTUSILOBA.  Post  Oak.  Clusters  of  small,  soonewhat  bell- 
shaped,  petiolate,  greenish  galls  on  the  under  side  of  tlhe  leaves,  along  the 
midrib. 

Their  shape  may  be  compared  to  that  of  the  flowers  of  Vaccinium.  They 
are  attenuated  at  the  basis  into  a  short  petiole,  fastened  to  the  midrib  of 
the  leaf;  the  opposite  end  is  truncated,  the  truncature  being  excavated ; 
the  length,  from  the  foot  of  the  petiole  to  the  truncated  end,  is  from  0.12 
to  0.15.  They  grow  in  numbers,  sometimes  of  ten  or  more  together,  so 
that  six,  for  instance,  form  a  row  on  one  side  of  the  midrib  and  four  or 
five  on  the  opposite  side.  When  found  by  me  on  the  tree  in  October,  1861, 
these  galls  were  pale  green;  the  dry  specimens  are  brownish.  Inside  of 
each  was  a  small  whitish  larva,  probably  of  a  Gynips. 

QuERCUS  ALBA.  White  Oak.  Clusters  of  S7nall,  round,  reddish  galls 
on  the  petioles  of  the  ivhite  oak  leaves;  inside  eompact,  with  a  hard  ker- 
nel.    Diameter  about  0.15. 

Found  quite  abundantly  in  October,  1861.  I  did  not  describe  them  at 
once  and  the  specimens  now  before  me  are  brown  and  shrunken.  The 
kernels  of  those  which  I  opened  at  that  time  seemed  empty.  Still,  I  be- 
lieve that  the  galls  belong  to  Ci/nips,  as  I  found  in  the  box,  containing 
them,  a  parasitical  Cynipideous  insect,  apparently  escaped  from  them. 

QuERCUS  ALBA.  White  Oak  ?  Large,  round  gall  of  a  hard  corky  sub- 
stance, growing  on  the  branches;  a  round,  hollov-  space  in  the  centre. 
Diameter  0.75-0.95.    Cynips  quercus  juglans  n.  sp.  (as  yet  unknown). 

I  found  a  couple  of  these  galls  in  winter,  on  the  ground,  under  an  oak, 
the  species  of  which  I  was  unable  to  ascertain.  Afterwards,  Mr.  Hitz,  of 
the  Maryland  Agricultural  College,  communicated  to  me  a  number  of  these 
galls,  with  the  statement  that  they  grow  on  the  branches  of  the  white  oak. 
All  these  galls,  as  well  as  those  found  by  myself,  were  somewhat  shrunken 
and  wrinkled  on  the  surface,  probably  from  the  effects  of  dryness.  They 
are  easily  distinguished  from  the  galls  of  C.  q.  globulus  Fitch  by  their 
large  size  and  their  much  harder  substance.  It  requires  some  efibrt  to  cut 
them  open,  whereas,  the  dry  galls  of  C.  q.  globulus  can  be  easily  cracked. 
For  the  same  reason  the  kernel  of  the  latter  gall  can  be  more  easily  detach- 
ed from  the  surrounding  corky  substance,  than  that  of  the  other  gall. 
The  greater  part  of  the  galls  which  I  cut  open  contained  a  cluster  of  small 


256  [September 

evidently  parasitical  larvae.  In  two  or  three,  however,  I  found  a  single 
Cynipideous  larva.  I  did  not  succeed  in  rearing  it,  but  obtained  several 
kinds  of  parasites. 

QuERCUS  COCCINEA.  Scarlet  Dale.  Round,  someivhat  ohlomj,  liollow, 
pah  greenish-yelloiD  gall  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf,  slightly  projecting 
on  the  opjiosite  side;  internally^  an  oblong  kernel,  kept  in  its  position  hy 
Jilaments,  radiating  towards  the  shell.     Diameter  of  the  gall  about  0.25. 

This  gall  occurs  frequently  along  the  margins  of  the  leaf,  although  some- 
times in  the  middle,  near  the  principal  ribs.  The  shell  is  rather  thin ;  the 
kernel  0.1—0.15  long,  oblong  in  shape.  Having  found  this  gall  in  June, 
I  obtained  only  a  parasite. 

Unknown  Oak.  Round  gall  of  a  hard,  corky  substance,  groning  on 
the  branches,  its  tip  drawn  out  in  a  point;  a  hollow  kernel  in  the  centre. 
diameter  of  the  full-grown  specimens  0.4-0.5. 

These  galls  were  communicated  to  me  by  Dr.  Morris,  in  Baltimore,  Md. 
The  branches  to  which  they  are  attached,  belong  apparently  to  an  oak 
(they  have  no  leaves).  The  galls  are  not  unlike  those  of  C.  q.  globulus 
Fitch  in  size  and  structure;  only  instead  of  being  altogether  globular,  their 
tip  is  extended  into  a  point;  their  color  is  more  reddish.  They  are  at- 
tached in  the  same  way  to  the  young  branches,  only  they  seem  to  occur  in 
much  larger  numbers  crowded  together.  Whereas,  the  galls  of  0.  q.  glob- 
idus,  observed  by  me  occur  either  singly,  or  in  clusters  of  two  or  three, 
symmetrically  arranged  round  the  limb;  one  of  the  branches  given  to  me 
by  Dr.  Morris,  which  is  G  inches  long,  bears  19  of  the  galls  of  the  other 
kind,  crowded  together  in  irregular  clusters  of  full-grown  and  abortive 
specimens.     Another  branch  o  inches  long  bears  9  specimens. 

From  this  gall  1  have  reared  a  parasitical  Oynips  and  another  parasiti- 
cal hymenopteron. 

QuERCUS  NIGRA.  Black-Jack  Oak.  Round  mass,  resembling  wool,  on 
the  tioigs,  loith  numerous  seed-like  grains  inside.  Cynips  QUERCUS  OPE- 
RATOR 0.  S.      , 

This  gall  resembles  very  much  the  beautiful  gall  pi'oduced  on  the  white 
oak  by  C.  seminator  Harris  (1.  c.  p.  69,  No.  21).  When  fresh  and  grow- 
ing, it  also  consists  of  whitish  filaments,  forming  a  white,  round  body  with 
beautiful  pink  spots.  The  inside  also  contains  seed-like  kernels.  I  found 
the  gall  in  June,  on  young,  flowering  branches  and  obtained  on  the  28rd 
of  that  month  the  gall-fly  which  I  call : — 


1862.] 


257 


Cynips  quercus  operator  n.  sp. — Reddish;  posterior  part  of  the  abdomen  brown- 
ish;  wings  without  discal  areolet :  %  antennte  14-,  9  12-jointed;  length  of  ^  0.1, 
of  9  0.12—0.13. 

Head  yellowish-red,  esjiecially  on  the  underside ;  tip  of  mandibles  brown ;  an- 
tennae of  %  14-jointed;  3rd  joint  distinctly  excised  inferiorly:  the  4  following 
joints  of  about  the  same  length,  slightly  shorter  than  the  3rd,-  the  other  joints 
gradually,  but  slightly  diminish  in  length  towards  the  tip;  9  antennse  12-jointed, 
gradually  diminishing  in  length  from  the  3rd  joint,  the  longest,  except  the  last 
joint,  which  is  a  little  longer  and  shows  a  slight  indication  of  a  subdivision  in  three 
joints.  Thorax  reddish,  very  minutely  sculptured;  the  two  usual  furrows  between 
the  collare  and  scutellum  delicate,  but  distinctly  marked;  a  short  groove  on  each 
side  between  them  and  the  basis  of  the  wing;  an  indication  of  a  pair  of  other  in- 
termediate furrows  beginning  at  the  collare  and  not  running  farther  than  the  mid- 
dle of  the  thorax;  scutellum  roughly  sculptured;  its  basal  pits  rather  small. 
Feet  pale  reddish,  except  the  ungues,  the  hind  tibije  and  the  base  of  the  hind 
tarsi,  wTiich  are  brown.  Abdomen  brownish-red ;  its  posterior  part,  especialh' 
above,  more  brown ;  large  (2nd)  segment  smooth  and  shining;  the  other  segments 
with  a  microscopic  punctation.  Ovipositor  rather  long,  projecting  from  its  elong- 
ated sheath,  which  is  directed  upwards.  "Wings  hyaline,  very  transparent;  areo- 
let none;  subcostal  vein,  first  and  second  transverse  veins,  stout,  pale  yellowish  : 
last  segment  of  the  subcostal  vein  (usually  forming  an  angle  with  the  remainder 
of  the  vein  and  running  towards  the  anterior  margin)  obsolete;  radial  vein  and 
latter  part  of  cubitus  pale  and  subobsolete;  the  anterior  part  of  cubitus  (between 
the  first  and  second  transverse  veins),  altogether  obsolete  :  anal  vein  hardly  in- 
dicated. 

2  %  and  11   9   specimens. 

This  species  is,  at  first  glance,  somewhat  Hke  C.  q.  nigrfp.  0.  S.  (1.  c.  p. 
0(3,  No.  17)  which  produces  a  swelling  on  the  leaf  of  the  same  kind  of 
oak.  Their  resemblance  consist  principally  in  the  coloring  and  in  the 
ueuration  of  the  wings,  which,  in  both  species  have  no  areolet.  The  dif- 
ferences, however,  are  the  following  (the  description  of  C.  q.  iiigrx  given 
in  my  former  paper  may  be  completed  from  this  comparison)  : — 


C.   Q.  OPERATOR. 

f^ize:    S   0.1;   9  0.12—0.13. 

Anteimge,:  9  12-jointed,  with  a  dis- 
tinct indication  of  a  13th  joint. 

Abdomen  :  ovate,  its  dorsal  ridge 
smooth,  the  segments  being  closely 
applied  to  each  other; 


C.  Q.  NIGR^. 

Size:    %   0.05;    9  0.09. 

Antennse:  9  14-jointed;  or,  if  the 
two  last  joints  are  taken  for  one, 
13-,  but  by  no  means  12-jointed. 

A/nlome)! :  much  shorter,  its  dorsal 
ridge  much  more  convex,  the  seg- 
ments being  at  angles  to  each  other 
and   with  intervals  between   their 


258 


[September 


its  punctation  microscopic ; 

its  color  more  or  less  reddish  at  the 

basis  and  on  the  underside. 

Sheath  of  tlir  ovii^ositor  long,  pro- 
jecting above  the  abdomen,. 

Hind  tihise  brownish. 

Suhcostal  and  both  transverse  veins 
pale  yellowish. 

The  subcostal  forms  with  the  second 
transverse  vein  a  rounded  angle; 
the  branch  usually  running  from 
it  towards  the  anterior  margin  is 
obsolete. 


The  radial  vein  gradually  disappears 
before  reaching;  the  margin. 


hind    margins   and    the   next  seg- 
ment ; 

its  punctation  much  more  distinct; 
its  color  altogether  brown. 


Sheath  short,  not  projecting  above 
the  abdomen. 

Hind  femora  and  fihiae  brownish. 

These  veins  pale,  colorless. 


The  branch  of  the  subcostal,  run- 
ning towards  the  anterior  margin  is 
distinct  and  well  defined,  although 
it  is  abruptly  truncated  before  reach- 
ins:  that  marain. 


The  radicd  vein  abruptly  stops  before 
reaching  the  margin. 

The  aments  of  the  same  kind  of  oak  {Q.  nigra')  are  sometimes  deform- 
ed by  swellings,  covered  with  white  and  pink  filaments  exactly  similar  to 
those  of  the  gall  of  O.  seminator  and  operator;  I  suppose,  therefore,  that 
they  are  produced  by  the  sting  of  the  latter  gall-fly,  although  I  did  not 
succeed  to  watch  their  development. 

QuERCUS  VIRENS.  Live  Oak.  Clusters  of  galls  eroiocled  together 
round  a  limb,  not  unlike  G.  q.  ficus  Fitch  in  appearance,  but  much  harder. 

It  was  communicated  to  me  by  Mr.  Glover,  who  brought  it  from  Florida. 
The  specimen  before  me  is  a  branch  round  which,  on  a  length  of  2\  inches, 
21  galls  are  crowded  together.  Their  shape  seems  originally  to  be  round, 
but  from  being  close  together  they  have  assumed  all  kinds  of  irregular 
shapes,  the  appearance  of  the  whole  cluster  being  well  represented  by  Dr. 
Fitch's  figure  of  the  gall  of  C.  q.  ficus.  Their  color  is  brownish-yellow, 
mixed  with  brown.  They  are  much  harder  than  the  galls  of  C.  q.  ficus. 
Having  broken  one  open,  I  found  in  the  kernel  the  remains  of  a  Gynip>s. 

QuERCUS  VIRENS.     Live  Oak.      Woodij  su^ellbig  of  the  limh. 
The  specimen,  communicated  by  Mr.  Glover,  is  a  fragment  of  a  branch 
about  IJ  inches  lono-  with  two  sucli  swellinas;  the  one  is  rounded  about 


1802.]  259 

0.7  long  and  0.5  broad ;  the  other  much  smaller.  I  opened  the  latter  and 
found  on  the  inside  a  small  empty  hollow  from  the  structure  of  which  I 
have  no  doubt  that  the  gall  is  the  produce  of  a  Cynips. 

QuERCUS  VIRENS.  Live  Oak.  Small,  rmind,  wooly  galls  on  the  wi- 
flerskle  of  the  leaves. 

They  are  not  unlike  the  galls  of  C.  q.  verrucarum  and  the  analogous 
galls,  only  the  wool  is  much  longer.  It  seems  that  each  gall  consists  of  a 
hard  kernel,  covered  with  this  pale  yellow  wool  and  that  they  occur  in 
numbers  together.  Communicated  by  Mr.  Grlover.  Undoubtedly  a  Cy- 
nips. 


JZ€dtil^fS7X. 


y/OOSLo-rL    'coc^^e.    XjLArrtkAx^ 


THE 


WHITE  COFFEE-LEAF  MINER 


(Cemiostoma    coffeellum    Stainton). 


A    REPORT    AS 


^nt0mol00tst  t0  i\t  %Q\i%xxmn\\  d  granl 


B.  PICKMAN  MANN. 


[Reprinted  from  the  Americau  Naturalist  for  June  and  October,  1872.] 


SALEM. 
PRINTED  AT  THE  SALEM  PRESS. 

1872, 


THE 


WHITE  COFFEE-LEAF  MINER 


(Cemiostoma    coffeellum    Stainton). 


A    REPORT    AS 


^nlomol0jgtst  f0  tl^t  ^obmxmtxxt  of  §ni^il. 


B.  PICKMAN  MANN, 


[Reprinted  from  the  American  Naturalist  for  June  and  Auguct-,  1872.] 


SALEM : 

PRINTED  AT  THE  SALEM  PRESS. 

1872. 


a?  h:  IB 


WHITE  COFFEE-LEAF  MINER/ 


The  observations  upon  which  I  base  the  following  histor}^  of 
that  insect  {Cemiostoma  coffeellum)  which  is  tlie  greatest  enemy 
to  the  coffee-cultnre  of  Brazil,  were  made  in  the  autumn  and  win- 
ter of  the  year  1871,  at  the  fazendas  of  Sao  Sebastiao  and  Secre- 
tario,  in  the  township  of  Vassouras,  Province  of  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
Brazil. 

At  Sao  Sebastiao,  to  whose  owner,  my  esteemed  friend  Snr. 
Lindorf  Moreira   de   Vasconcellos,   I   return   my   most   heartfelt 

*  A  Report  as  Entomologist  to  the  Government  of  Brazil. 


4  THE    WHITE    COFFEE-LEAF    MINER. 

thanks  for  bis  unbounded  hospitality  and  kindness,  my  observa- 
tions extended  through  the  greater  part  of  the  month  of  March. 

At  Secretario  I  continued  my  observations  until  the  latter  part 
of  June,  aided  by  the  s^'mpathy  and  cooperation  of  the  proprietor, 
Dr.  Christovao  Correa  e  Castro,  one  of  the  most  enlightened  and 
progressive  men  whom  I  had  the  pleasure  of  knowing  in  Brazil. 

The  acknowledgment  of  my  deep  gratitude  is  due  also  to  Col. 
Antonio  Correa  e  Castro  for  his  tender  care  of  me  during  a  month 
when  I  was  prostrated  b}'  severe  sickness. 

I  have  arranged  my  account  of  the  insect  under  headings,  for 
greater  convenience  to  the  future  investigator,  and  have  added  an 
explanation  of  the  less  familiar  words  used,  for  the  benefit  of  those 
who  are  not  acquainted  with  the  science  of  entomolog3\ 

Food-plant^  and  Indications  of  the  presence  of  the  Insect. —  The 
caterpillar  (larva)  lives  in  the  leaves  of  the  coffee-tree  (Cojfea 
Arabica).,  where  the  injury  done  by  it  is  shown  by  the  presence 
of  rust-colored  blotches  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf.  These 
blotches  are  sometimes  almost  black  in  the  centre. 

After  the  larva  has  stopped  feeding,  and  changed  to  a  chrysalis 
(pupa),  the  slender,  white  chrj-salis-case  (cocoon)  covered  wdth 
its  silken  web  may  easily  be  found  in  a  fold  of  the  leaf. 

The  moths  (imagos)  whose  beautifully  ornamented,  silvery  wings 
hardl}'  cover  the  breadth  of  the  little  finger  nail,  rest  upon  the  leaves 
and  branches  of  the  tree  when  quiet,  but  are  easily  disturbed. 
Then  they  fly  actively  with  a  jerking  flight. 

Scientific  Name. —  The  name  of  the  genus  (Cemiostoma)  is 
derived  from  the  Greek  words  hr^por,  meaning  muzzle,  and  (TTo/ia., 
meaning  mouth,  so  that  it  may  be  translated  muzzle-mouth.  This 
name  was  given  by  Zeller,  in  the  year  1848  (in  the  "LinnaBa 
Entomologica,"  vol.  iii,  p.  273),  because  the  hairs  on  the  side  of 
the  face  are  so  long  as  to  cover  up  the  mouth.  It  should  be  ac- 
cented on  the  antepenultimate  S3dlable.  Since  it  is  neuter  in 
gender,  because  (ttoiao.  is  neuter,  the  speciflc  name  must  be  neuter 
also.  The  specific  name  is  taken  from  the  scientific  name  of  the 
food-plant,  with  a  termination  indicating  the  small  size  of  the 
insect. 

Synonyme. —  The  insect  was  called  Elachista  cqffeella  b}''  Guerin- 
Meneville  in  his  memoir  (to  which,!  shall  often  refer  hereafter), 
because  at  the  time  when  he  described  it,  the  genus  Cemiostoma 
had  not  been  established,  and  the  genus  Elachista  was  still  consid- 
ered of  such  extent  as  to  include  this  species. 


THE    WHITE    COFFEE-LEAF    MINER.  O 

It  was  referred  to  under  the  same  name  by  Nietner  in  his 
pamphlet  on  the  enemies  of  the  coffee-tree  in  Ceylon. 

Vernamilar  names.  —  Guerin-Meneville,  who  described  it  as  com- 
ing from  the  Antilles,  called  it  "  L'Elachiste  du  Cafier."* 

In  Brazil  it  is  called  "  A  Borboleta  do  Cafezal,"  the  coffee-plan- 
tation butterfly  or  moth,  but  I  should  think  it  much  more  satis- 
factory to  unite  accuracy  with  definiteness  by  giving  it  the  name 
of  the  White  Coffee-leaf  Miner,  because  other  species  of  moths 
are  found  also  living  on  the  coffee-tree,  and  a  black  coffee-leaf 
miner  (Gracilaria?  coffeifoliella)  is  known  in  Ceylon. 

Erroneous  names. —  This  is  probably  the  insect  referred  to 
doubtfully  as  a  Bucculatrix  (  ?)  b}'-  Stainton  in  the  "  Entomologist's 
Weekly-  Intelligencer,"  vol.  iv  (1858),  p.  70. 

Imago. — The  outspread  wings  of  the  perfect  insect  (imago) 
measure  from  tip  to  tip  between  four  and  six  millimeters.  The 
body  is  about  two  millimeters  long.  Silvery  white  scales  cover 
the  head  and  face,  the  body  below,  the  upper  side  of  the  front 
wings,  and  the  legs,  except  the  tips  of  the  first,  second  and 
fourth  foot-joints  (tarsi),  upon  the  upper  side  of  which  the  scales 
are  black.  In  my  specimens,  which  are  not  in  good  condition,  the 
upper  side  of  the  hind-body  (abdomen)  is  bare  and  of  a  yellowish 
brown  color.  The  antenna  are  smoky  black,  except  at  the  base. 
The  front  wings  are  long  in  proportion  to  their  breadth.  On  the 
upper  side  of  each,  at  the  extremity  of  the  inner  edge  (inner  an- 
gle) is  a  large  steel-blue  or  black  spot,  which  has  a  violet  lustre. 
This  spot  is  bordered  on  the  sides  towards  the  base  and  front  edge 
of  the  wing  by  a  golden-yellow  band,  which  is  continued  toward 
the  end  of  the  wing.  At  more  than  half  the  distance  from  the 
base  of  the  wing  to  the  tip,  arises  from  the  front  edge  (costa) 
another  golden-yellow  band,  with  converging  sides,  bordered  on 
each  edge  with  black  scales,  which  runs  obliquely  toward  the  black 
spot,  and  sometimes  almost  reaches  the  golden  edging  of  that 
spot.  Beyond  an  interval  of  about  the  width  of  this  band  nearer 
the  tip  of  the  wing  (apex)  arises  another  band  of  the  same  color, 
but  wider  and  shorter,  and  bordered  only  on  the  inside  with  black 
scales.  This  band  runs  less  obliquel}^  toward  the  black  spot, 
but  does  not  meet  the  other  bands.  About  as  far  beyond  the  sec- 
ond band  as  that  is  beyond  the  first,  a  line  of  black  scales  arises 

*The  effect  upon  the  leaves  was  called  "  rouille"  (rust),  by  the  people  of  the  coun- 
try, who  did  not  know  to  what  it  was  due,  and  ascribed  it  to  the  action  of  the  sun. 


6  THE    WHITE    COFFEE-LEAF    MINER. 

from  the  costa,  and  runs  obliquely  to  a  point  at  some  distance 
beyond  the  black  spot.  Still  nearer  the  end  arises  another  line  of 
black  scales,  which  runs  less  obliquel}^,  and  meets  the  former  at 
its  termination,  the  two  thus  forming  an  acute  angle.  The  inner 
and  outer  edges  of  the  front  wings,  and  the  whole  circumference  of 
the  hind  wings  bear  long  smoky-black  or  brown  fringes,  'rhe 
hind  wings  are  very  narrow  and  pointed.  They  are  smok3'-'lolack 
on  both  the  upper  and  under  sides.*  The  front  wings  are  of  the 
same  color  on  the  under  side.  P\-om  the  front  of  the  head  pro- 
jects a  spreading  tuft  of  silvery-white  hairs.  The  scales  behind 
this  tuft  lie  smoothly  back  on  the  head.  The  antennse  are  about 
three- fourths  as  long  as  the  front  wings,  and  thread-like.  Their 
basal  joints  are  thickly  clothed  with  silvery  hairs,  which  form  a 
velvety  ^ye-cap  as  large  as  the  e3^es.     The  eyes  are  black. 

Pupa. —  The  chrysalis  (pupa)  is  two  millimeters  long  ;  of  a 
yellowish  brown  color.  The  head  is  large  ;  the  eyes  are  black  ;  the 
limbs  ai'e  glued  to  the  body ;  the  last  pair  of  legs  extends  very 
little  beyond  the  tip  of  the  abdomen.  It  appears  to  me  that  eight 
abdominal  segments  are  visible. 

Cocoon. —  The  cocoon  is  five  millimeters  long,  slender,  spindle- 
shaped,  formed  of  threads  of  silk  of  a  white  color,  which  are  laid 
lengthwise  and  close  together  upon  the  outside.  It  is  open  at 
each  end  with  a  longitudinal  slit.  It  rests  upon  a  flooring  of  silk, 
and  is  covered  by  a  light  web  of  white  silk,  which  is  spun  across 
one  of  the  furrows  at  the  edge  of  a  leaf.  This  web  is  a  little 
broader  at  each  end  than  in  the  middle,  and  has  an  opening  in 
each  end  shaped  like  the  point  of  a  lance,  through  which  openings 
the  ends  of  the  cocoon  beneath  may  be  seen. 

iLarva. — The  caterpillar  (larva)  is  four  or  five  millimeters  long, 
and  seventy-five  hundredths  of  a  millimeter  broad  across  the  first 
ring  (prothorax),  which  is  the  widest  part.  It  is  of  a  j^ellowish 
flesh  color,  partially  transparent.  It  is  flattened,  and  consists  of 
twelve  rings  (segments)  behind  the  head,  between  each  of  which 
the  body  is  much  constricted.  The  second  and  third  segments 
(which,  with  the  first,  form  the  thorax,)  are  successively  narrower 
than  the  segment  in  front  of  them  ;  the  next  three  segments  are 
successively  broader,  and  the  rest  of  the  segments  (which,  with 
the  three  before  them,  form  the  abdomen),  are  successively  nar- 

*Guerin  says  (Mem.  etc.,  p.  15)  that  they  are  covered  with  silvery  scales  like  the  su- 
periors. 


THE    WHITE    COFFEE-LEA.F    MINER.  7 

•  rower  to  the  end.  The  head  is  flat,  rounded  in  front,  and  is  fre- 
quently much  retracted  within  the  prothorax,  when  its  lobes  show 
through  the  skin  of  the  prothorax.  The  jaws  (mandibles)  have 
three  teeth  at  the  end,*  and  are  covered  in  repose  by  the  upper  lip 
(labrum).  The  head  on  each  side,  has  two  eye-spots  (ocelli),  of 
whicli  the  anterior  is  the  lai'ger,  and  about  nine  hairs.  The  three 
segments  of  the  thorax  bear  each  a  pair  of  jointed  legs  ;  the  third, 
fourth,  fifth,  sixth  and  ninth  or  last  segment  of  the  abdomen  bears 
each  a  pair  of  fleshy  projections  which  serve  as  feet,  so  that  the 
larva  may  be  considered  as  sixteen-legged.  From  each  side  of  the 
back  of  each  abdominal  segment,  arise  three  hairs,  of  which  the 
anterior  or  shortest  is  directed  forward,  while  the  two  others  are 
directed  backward.  The  third  hair  is  twice  or  more  than  twice 
as  long  as  the  second,  being  nearly  equal  in  length  to  the  breadth 
of  the  segment.  The  thoracic  segments  have  all  three  hairs  di- 
rected forward  ;  the  second  hair  is  the  longest,  and  an  additional 
hair  arises  from  the  outer  edge  of  the  back  of  each  segment. 

The  mine. —  The  habitation  of  the  larva  is  a  mine,  which  is 
made  in  the  leaf  b^^  eating  out  the  soft  green  substance  (paren- 
chyma) between  the  upper  skin  (epidermis)  and  the  framework  of 
the  leaf,  laying  the  framework  bare,  but  leaving  the  epidermis 
intact,  except  at  the  point  where  (I  suppose)  the  larva  enters  the 
leaf.  At  this  point  the  wound  heals  up  and  forms  a  lenticular  scar 
twenty-five  hundredths  of  a  millimeter  in  length,  and  fifteen 
hundredths  of  a  millimeter  in  breadth,  raised  a  little  above  the 
general  surface  of  the  leaf.  The  epidermis  which  covers  the 
mine  becomes  rusty  brown,  sometimes  almost  black  in  the  centre. 
The  excrement  (frass)  adheres  in-egularly  to  its  under  surface. 
Sometimes  a  portion  of  the  under  surface  of  the  leaf  opposite  the 
mine  also  turns  brown. 

When  the  eggs  are  laid  in  sets,  as  hereafter  to  be  described,  the 
mines  of  the  separate  larvae  usually  become  united,  and  even  the 
mines  of  two  sets  may  be  united  into  one. 

One  mine  fifteen  millimeters  long  and  ten  millimeters  broad, 
contained  seven  larvae,  the  scars  arranged  in  two  groups  of  four 
and  three  respectively.     Another  scar  was  near. 

As  many  as  five  mines,  all  inhabited,  hafVe  been  found  on  one 
leaf  and  even  eight  mines  made  by  ten  larvae,  though  in  this  case 
some  of  the  larvae  had  escaped. 

*Gu6rin  says  (M^m.  etc.,  p.  13)  that  they  are  bidentate. 


8  THE    WHITE    COFFEE-LEAF    MINER. 

When  the  larva  escapes,  it  cuts  an  angular  or  rounded  slit  in 
the  epidermis  near  an  edge  of  the  mine.  This  slit  is  slightly  more 
than  one  millimeter  across,  about  one  and  five-tenths  millimeters 
long. 

The  eggs. —  Before  I  had  seen  any  of  the  insects,  I  was  shown 
some  eggs  on  a  coffee-leaf,  which  were  said  to  be  the  eggs  of  this 
moth.  I  was  not  able  to  describe  them  at  the  time,  but  I  think 
they  could  not  have  belonged  to  this  moth,  because  they  seemed 
too  large.  Stainton  says,  however  (Nat.  Hist.  Tin.,  i,  324),  that 
the  eggs  of  C.  scitellum,  which  is  in  its  habits  one  of  the  nearest 
allies  of  this  species,  are  disproportionately  large  for  the  size  of 
the  insect.     Guerin  does  not  describe  the  eggs  in  his  memoir. 

Classification.  —  It  belongs  to  the  suborder  of  scaly-winged 
insects  (Lepidoptera),  which  may  be  known  from  other  winged 
insects  because  their  wings  are  more  or  less  covered  with  scales, 
which  lap  over  each  other  like  tiles  on  the  roof  of  a  house,  and 
further  they  (in  the  imago  state)  have  no  visible  jaws,  but  either 
have  a  tubular  tongue  formed  of  two  similar  pieces  which  can  be 
rolled  up  like  a  watch-spring,  or  have  no  means  of  taking  food. 

It  belongs  to  the  tribe  of  cloth- worm  moths  (Tineina),  which 
are  all  of  small  size,  and  may  be  known  from  the  other  Lepido- 
ptera because  their  wings,  which  are  elongated,  are  not  split,  but 
are  fringed  with  long  hairs. 

According  to  Zeller  (Linn.  Entom.,  iii  (1848),  p.  250),  the 
only  Tineina  whose  larvae  make  mines  in  leaves,  and  whose  ima- 
gos  have  the  head  covered  with  entirely  smooth  scales,  and  have 
the  lower  joints  of  the  antennae  widened  into  an  eye-cap,  are  in- 
cluded in  the  genera  Cemiostoma  and  Phyllocnistis.  These  genera 
with  others,  were  considered  by  Stainton  (I  know  not  in  what 
work)  to  form  the  family  of  Lyonetia  moths  (Lyonetidse).  The 
genus  Cemiostoma,  to  which  our  insect  belongs,  is  distinguished 
from  the  genus  Phyllocnistis  by  the  absence  of  tongue-shields 
(palpi)  (1.  c,  p.  250),  and  by  the  middle  area  (cell)  of  the  fore 
wings  not  being  closed  (1.  c,  p.  265). 

The  genus  Cemiostoma  was  divided  by  Stainton  (Nat.  Hist. 
Tin.,  i,  288)  into  two  groups,  one  of  which  has  the  anterior 
wings  of  the  perfect  insect  white,  while  the  other  has  these  wings 
leaden-gray.  The  former  of  these  groups,  to  which  our  species 
belongs,  contains  six  species,  as  far  as  known  at  present.  These 
are  C.  susinellum,  spartifoliellum,   wailesellum,   coffeellum,    labur- 


THE    WHITE    COFFEE-LEAF    MINER,  9 

nellum  and  zandceellum.      Cemiostoma  coffeeJhim  is  the  only  spe- 
cies of  the  genus  yet  known  outside  of  the  limits  of  Europe. 

Our  species  may  be  known  from  the  other  species  of  the  group 
by  the  following  characters  :  C.  zanchjeellum  has  not  the  first 
golden  band  on  the  costa ;  in  C.  susinellum  this  band  extends 
across  the  wing,  reaching  the  inner  angle;  in  C.  laburnellum, 
spartifoliellum  and  wailesellum,  this  band  hardly  reaches  to  more 
than  half  the  distance  from  the  costa  to  the  black  spot,  and  the 
second  band  is  bordered  on  both  edges  by  dark  scales.  Further, 
all  the  species  of  the  group,  except  possibly  C.  zandceellum,  have 
two  or  three  fuscous  streaks  on  the  fringe,  radiating  from  the 
black  spot.     I  can  discover  no  such  streaks  in  this  species. 

I  do  not  find  it  recorded  that  any  other  species  of  the  group, 
except  C.  laburnellum,  breeds  more  than  once  in  a  year.  Stainton 
says  (Nat.  Hist.  Tin.,  i,  314)  that  C.  laburnellum  breeds  twice. 

Seaso7is. —  The  larvae  are  said  to  attack  the  new  leaves  in  early 
spring,  and  to  be  found  from  that  time  forth.  As  the  coffee-tree 
is  evergreen,  it  seems  likely  that  the  period  of  hibernation  is  very 
short  or  none  at  all,  Guerin  says  (Mem.  etc.,  p.  16)  that  the 
Insect  occurs  throughout  the  year  in  the  Antilles,  but  is  more  or 
less  abundant  according  to  the  seasons. 

The  eggs  which  I  have  mentioned  were  seen  on  the  twenty-fifth 
of  January.  The  planter  who  showed  them  to  me  said  he  had 
seen  the  moths  that  day.  I  found  the  larvae,  pupae,  and  images 
from  the  ninth  of  March  until  my  observations  ended  on  the 
twenty-first  of  June. 

Periodicity. — Guerin  says  (Mem.  etc.,  pp.  17,  43)  that  the  eggs 
hatch  seven  or  eight  days  after  being  laid.  The  larvae  then  live 
about  fifteen  or  twenty  days  within  the  leaf,  after  which  they  make 
their  cocoons.  The  cocoon  is  spun  within  less  than  twenty-four 
hours  after  the  larva  has  left  the  mine.  The  larva-skin  is  thrown 
ofi"  within  twenty-four  hours  after  the  cocoon  is  completed.  I  did 
not  observe  how  long  the  pupa-state  continues.  According  to 
Guerin  (Mem.  etc.,  p.  13,  17),  the  imago  comes  out  of  the  cocoon 
at  the  end  of  six  days.  It  is  not  known  how  long  it  lives.  I 
should  judge  that  it  lived  less  than  two  weeks,  as  that  has  been 
noticed  to  be  the  probable  limit  of  life  in  C.  scitellum  (Entom. 
Monthl.  Mag.,  iv  (1867),  p.  162). 

The  history  of  reproduction,  and  of  the  deposition  of  eggs  is 
not  known.     It  must  have  an  important  efiect  upon  the  longevity 


10  THE    WHITE    COFFEE-LEAF   MINER. 

of  the  sexes.  Guerin  says  (Mem.  etc.,  p.  17),  that  the  insect  is 
reproduced  several  times  in  the  year,  in  the  Antilles,  once  in  about 
every  forty  to  forty-eight  days.  This  would  allow  for  the  Eggs, 
7  to  8  days  ;  Larva,  15  to  20  days  ;  Pupation,  2  daj^s  ;  Pupa,  6 
days  ;  Imago,  10  to  12  days  ;  total,  40  to  48  days. 

Habits  of  the  larva. — As  soon  as  the  larva  is  hatched  (if  I  mis- 
take not),  it  cuts  through  the  upper  epidermis  of  the  leaf,  and  begins 
to  eat  the  parenchyma.  Usually  it  may  be  found  under  an  edge 
or  an  end  of  the  blotch,  eating.  I  found  no  cast  skins  in  the  mines. 
The  larvse  can  not  be  considered  social,  although  several  are 
often  found  in  one  mine  when  several  mines  have  become  united. 
They  show  no  signs  of  pugnacity  or  mutual  destructiveness.  When 
the  larva  is  full-grown  it  escapes  from  the  mine,  and  often,  or 
even  generally,  goes  to  another  leaf  to  make  its  cocoon.  This 
it  can  do  by  letting  itself  drop  with  a  thread  of  silk.  It  then 
makes  its  cocoon  across  one  of  the  furrows  at  the  edge  of  a  leaf, 
on  either  the  upper  or  the  under  surface,  but  oftener  on  the  under 
surface.  The  larva  places  itself  across  the  furrow,  and  begins  a 
web  -by  spinning  a  series  of  threads  from  one  side  to  beyond  the 
middle  of  the  furrow,  swinging  the  fore  part  of  its  body  back  and 
forth  sidewise.  When  it  has  made  one  side  of  one  end  of  its  web 
thus,  it  spins  a  like  series  of  threads  to  make  the  other  side,  with- 
out changing  the  position  of  the  hind  part  of  its  body.  Thus  an 
opening  is  left  in  the  middle  of  this  end  of  the  web,  in  the  space 
occupied  by  the  body  of  the  larva.  It  then  turns  around,  and 
places  its  body  across  the  furrow  in  the  opposite  direction.  Here 
it  spins  a  like  series  of  threads  on  each  side  of  it,  from  the  leaf  to 
the  former  part  of  the  web,  leaving  a  similar  opening  in  this  end. 
It  then  retires  beneath  the  web,  and  lays  a  flooring  of  silk.  On 
this  flooring  it  spins  its  cocoon,  laying  the  outside  threads  length- 
wise. 

The  cocoons  are  fou.nd  in  the  greatest  abundance  on  the  leaves 
which  are  near  the  ground,  and  frequently  on  leaves  which  have 
never  been  injured. 

Habits  of  the  Pupa. —  The  larva-skin  is  split  longitudinally  over 
the  middle  line  of  the  head  and  first  two  thoracic  segments.  The 
split  extends  from  the  very  foremost  extremity  of  the  head  to  the 
third  thoracic  segment  {metathorax) ,  but  does  not  enter  this 
latter.  For  the  certain  observation  of  this  fact,  and  of  the  manner 
in  which  the   pupa-skin  is  burst,  I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  Hagen, 


THE    WHITE    COFFEE-LEAF   MINER.  11 

who  pointed  out  to  me  these  interesting  details.  The  skin  is  then 
thrown  off  and  pushed  out  through  the  posterior  end  of  the 
cocoon. 

Habits  of  the  Imago. —  The  pupa-skin  is  split  transversely  across 
the  back  of  the  head  {vertex)  then  longitudinally  along  the  sides 
of  the  thorax  as  far  as  the  metathorax.  When  the  imago  emerges, 
the  pupa-skin  is  left  inside  of  the  cocoon,  generally  I  think,  but 
in  some  cases  I  have  found  it  protruding  from  the  anterior  end  of 
the  cocoon,  through  which  the  imago  escapes  by  pushing  aside  the 
threads.  It  rests  on  or  under  the  leaves  or  branches,  but  is  easily 
disturbed.  "It  is  very  lively  and  very  agile,"  as  Guerin  says 
(Mem.  etc.  p.  16)  "and  flies  in  all  directions  seeking  to  copulate. 
It  is  seen  to  execute  rapid  bounds,  and  its  jerking  flight  makes  it 
known  even  at  a  distance."  It  flies  in  the  daj^-time,  perhaps  also 
in  the  night-time. 

I  judge  from  the  appearance  of  the  scars  in  the  epidermis,  al- 
ready described,  that  the  eggs  are  laid  unconcealed  on  the  upper 
surface  of  the  leaf,  singly,  or  in  sets  of  two,  three  or  more,  but 
not  in  immediate  proximity,  and  that  sometimes  two  or  more  sets 
are  placed  on  the  same  leaf.  It  is  not  known  how  many  eggs  are 
laid  by  one  female. 

Abundance. —  Some  idea  of  the  abundance  of  these  insects  may 
be  given  by  stating  that,  although,  as  I  was  frequently  told,  the}^ 
were  much  less  destructive  than  usual  during  the  year  in  which 
I  observed  them,  yet  from  one  tree,  which  I  chose  for  an  experi- 
ment as  not  exceptional  unless  by  reason  of  its  size,  I  picked 
one  hundred  and  fifty-three  leaves  in  the  course  of  nineteen  min- 
utes, endeavoring  at  the  same  time  to  select  onlj^  those  leaves 
which  contained  living  larvae,  and  to  leave  those  from  which  the 
larvae  had  escaped.  Of  these  leaves  forty-four  contained  recent 
mines,  but  the  larvae  had  escaped ;  ninety  contained  one  hundred 
and  twenty-two  mines  still  inhabited  ;  the  rest  contained  old  mines 
or  blotches  made  by  a  fungus  which  also  attacks  the  leaves. 

Manner  of  Devastation.  —  The  injury  caused  by  this  insect  is 
due  to  the  destruction  of  the  digestive  and  respiratory  organs  of 
the  plant.  The  larva  "absorbs  the  sap,  obstructs  the  circulatory 
channels,  and  impedes  the  vegetable  respiration"  (Madinier,  1.  c. 
p.  33),  thus  depriving  the  plant  of  its  food,  or  preventing  the 
food  from  becoming  fit  to  sustain  life,  in  consequence  of  which 
the  plant  becomes  exhausted,  and  either  dies,  or  bears  fewer  and 
smaller  fruit. 


12  THE    "WHITE    COFFEE-LEAF    MINER. 

Amount  of  Devastation.  —  Guerin  says  (Mem.  etc.  p.  12; 
[Dumeril,  Rapp.,]  p.  33)  that  in  the  Antilles  "all  the  coffee-trees 
were  feeble  and  languishing :  they  bore  only  small  and  stunted 
fruits,  their  leaves  were  spotted  or  blackened,  in  [great]  part 
dried  up,  and  although  dead,  remaining  upon  the  branches,  *  * 
which  rendered  these  shrubs  languishing,  and  had  even  caused  the 
death  of  many  of  them."  Madinier  says  (1.  c.  p.  33)  that  owing 
to  the  attacks  of  insects,  of  which  this  is  the  most  noxious,  the 
culture  of  the  coffee-tree  was  abandoned  in  the  island  of  Mai'ti- 
nique.  This  insect  is  said  to  lessen  the  coffee-crop  of  Brazil  by 
at  least  one-fifth. 

Enemies:  Fungus. —  The  leaves  of  the  coffee-tree  sometimes  turn 
yellow  at  the  tip  or  some  portion  of  the  edge.  The  spots  thus 
formed  increase  in  size  until  they  cover  the  whole  leaf,  gradually 
turning  to  a  brown  color,  by  which  time  the  leaf  has  become  dried 
up.  These  spots  may  be  easily  distinguished  from  those  made  by 
the  larva,  because  the  two  slvins  of  the  leaf  which  is  attacked  by  this 
disease  cannot  be  separated,  and  the  color  is  more  uniform, 
appearing  equally  on  both  surfaces  of  the  leaf.  I  was  told  that 
this  Avas  the  work  of  a  fungus.  It  attacks  leaves  which  have  or 
have  not  been  injured  by  the  larva,  but  seems  to  find  more  ready 
lodgment  on  such  part  of  the  leaf  as  has  been  injured  previously. 
It  appears  in  these  cases  to  kill  the  larva  within  the  mine,  as  many 
mines  recently  begun  are  found  to  contain  the  flat  and  empty 
skin  of  the  larva,  with  no  indication  of  another  destroyer,  but 
I  may  have  been  misled  in  my  judgment  by  seeing  the  interrupted 
labor  of  the  Eulophus  of  which  I  will  speak  next. 

Enemies :  Parasites.  —  I  have  found  two  ichneumons  parasitic 
upon  the  insect :  one  upon  the  larva,  the  other  upon  the  pupa.  I 
have  also  found  great  numbers  of  mites  (Acarina)  living  in  the 
mines.  The  first  of  these  ichneumons,  which  feeds  upon  the 
larva  of  Cemiostoma  coffeellum,  was  found  several  times  under 
a  small  roundish  blotch  of  a  grayish-brown  color  (about  the  same 
in  color  as  the  fungus-spot),  which  was  dotted  with  black  dots,  as 
if  a  lichen  had  grown  upon  it.  These  black  dots  may  have  been 
the  frass  of  the  larva,  which  showed  through  the  epidermis. 

Where  the  ichneumon  had  escaped  •  from  these  dotted  blotches, 
it  had  cut  out  an  oval  or  rounded  hole  in  the  upper  surface  of  the 
blotch.  Once,  before  I  broke  open  one  of  these  mines  from  which 
the  ichneumon  had  escaped,  I  found  the  pupa-skin  in  situ,  with  its 


THE    WHITE    COFFEE-LEAF    MINER.  13 

broken  end  just  touching  the  hole,  through  which  it  could  be  seen. 
The  hole  was  about  0  2  millimeter  in  diameter. 

I  found  several  of  these  blotches  wliich  had  no  hole  in  them, 
and  3'et  I  found  no  ichneumon  within,  but  the  lai"\'a-skin  flat  and 
empty.  TJiis  led  me  to  think  that  the  fnngus  which  I  have  men- 
tioned may  kill  and  exliaust  some  larvse. 

According  to  Ratzebnrg  (Fchnennjonen  der  Forstinsecten,  i, 
(1844),  p.  158),  this  ichneumon  belongs  to  the  genus  Eulophus,  in 
the  family  of  Cflialcididop,.  I  have  not  been  able  to  make  a  satis- 
factory figure  of  it,  owing  to  the  injured  condition  of  the  onl}'  three 
examples  which  I  succeeded  in  preserving.  It  may  be  called 
Eulophus  cemiostomatis,  if  it  has  not  been  previously  described. 

The  imago  is  metallic  green  or  coppery  ;  the  wings  are  trans- 
parent, somewhat  iridescent :  Lhe  fore  wings  crossed  by  a  brownish 
cloud  beyond  the  middle.  The  fore  wings  have  no  other  vein 
than  a  double  one  near  the  front  margin,  which  is  bent  at  about 
one-quarter,  and  ends  in  a  fork  at  about  three-quarters  of  the 
distance  between  the  base  and  the  tip,  sending  one  prong  of  the 
fork  in  line  with  the  A'cin,  and  the  other  towards  the  ijiner  angle 
of  the  wing.  The  inner  margin  of  the' fore  wing  is  also  thickened 
for  a  short  distance  near  the  middle  :  and  lhe  i'ront  inai'gin  of  the 
hind  wing  is  thickened  along  more  than  iialf  its  length  from  the 
base.  All  the  wings  are  fringed  around  theij'  margins,  and  the 
wings  as  well  as  tlie  differcni.  parts  of  the  bod}'  aiid  legs  are 
pubescent.  The  antenuj-e  are  eiglit-jointed,  thinly  haired  ;  the  tirst 
joint  long,  enlarged  at  the  apex;  tlie  last  three  joints  forming  an 
ovate-conical  club  :  the  intermediate  four  joints  ovate-cylindrical. 
The  abdomen  is  elongate- o\al,  attached  to  the  thorax  by  a  broad 
neck,  and  is  turned  up  at  t)ie  sides.  The  tarsi  are  four-jointed. 
Tlic  length  of  tlio  head  and  body  is  about  0*8  millimeter,  the 
ex})aiise  of  wings  about  I'o  uilllimetcrs. 

Tlie  pupa  when  seen  through  the  pupa-skin  seems  '  to  be 
longer  than  the  imagos.  —  The  pupa-skins  look  large;  all  are 
alilce  ;  one  or  two  were  sufPiciently  transparent  to  alhiw  the  occu- 
pant to  be  seen,  which  was  much  narrower  than  the  pupa-skin. 
From  one  pupa-skin  I  hatched  one  of  these  ichneumons.  I 
found  them  during  all  the  time  (April  to  June)  in  which  I  studied 
the  Cemiostoma.  In  the  one  hundred  and  flftj^-three  leaves  men- 
tioned I  found  eight  mines  containing  these  insects.  Afterwards 
I  obtained  two  from  a  box  containing  leaves. 


14 


THE    WHITE    COFFEE-LEAF    MINER. 


The  second  iclnieumon  parasitic  on  the  Ceyniostoma  coJfeeUiim, 
inhabits  the  larva  while  it  is  still  in  the  mine,  as  I  learned  by 
finding  an  immature  example  dead  within  the  thin  and  dried  skin 
of  a  nearly  full-grown  larva,  but  I  believe  that  it  usually  does 
not  kill  its  victim  until  after  the  Leaf-miner  has  become  a  pupa. 
It  then  completes  its  work  of  destruction  and  cuts  a  hole  in  tJie 
upper  side  of  the  cocoon,  through  which  it  escapes. 

It  belongs  to  that  subfamily  of  the  ichneumons  called  Braconi- 
doe;  consequently  I  will  call  it  Bracon  letifer.;  but'  as  far  as  I  liaA^e 
examined  its  characters,  it  corresponds  more  nearly  to  the  genus 

Fig,  130. 


Bracon  Parasite  of  the  Coffee  Moth. 

Eogas  than  to  any  other  genus  described  in  Curtis'  "  British 
Entomolog}^,"  and  seems  to  be  congeneric  with,  and  judging  by  the 
venation  of  the  wings,  neaii}^  related  to  Exothecus  exsertor^  as 
given  in  Wesmael's  "Monographic  des  Braconides  de  Belgique" 
in  the  Nouvelles  Memoiresde  1' Academic  de  Bruxelles,  xi  (1838), 
p.  73,  and  accompanying  plate,  fig.  10. 

The  perfect  insect  (Fig.  130)  is  honej^  j-ellow,  except  the  ejes, 
ocelli,  and  sometimes  the  ocellar  space,  which  are  black.  The 
antennse  are  also  black,  and  consist  of  twelve  slender,  sub-equal, 
uniformly  cylindrical  joints  beyond  the  scape,  which  seems  to 
consist  of  two  short,  stout  joints,  making  fourteen  in  all.  The 
head  is  transverse  ;   the  front  projects  slightly  beyond  the  eyes ; 


THE    WHITE    COFFEE-LEAF    MINER.  15 

the  hind  margin  of  the  vertex  is  emarginate,  the  emargination 
filled  with  the  upper  edge  of  the  occiput.  The  three  ocelli  are 
arranged  triangularly  ;  in  some  examples  they  are  approximate, 
in  others  distant,  which  may  be  a  sexual  difference.  The  neck  is 
distinct ;  the  back  of  the  mesothorax  sub-hexagonal,  rounded, 
tapering  anterior^.  In  some  of  my  examples  the  abdomen 
is  elongate,  subclavate  ;  in  others  it  is  rotundate.  I  think  the 
shape  given  in  the  figure  is  the  most  lifelike.  In  some  examples 
the  veins  near  the  extremity  of  the  wings  are  very  feebly  devel- 
oped. The  wings  are  fringed.  The  legs,  abdomen,  thorax,  head, 
antennse  and  wings  are  pubescent.  Length  1-9  millimeters; 
expanse  4-7  millimeters.  The  immature  example,  or  pupa  of  the 
Bracon,  which  I  found  as  stated  above,  had  wing  pads  instead 
of  wings.  These  were  dark,  smoky  black,  0*5  millimeter  long. 
The  antennse  are  honey  yellow,  instead  of  black,  as  in  the  devel- 
oped specimens.  They  lie  along  the  breast,  and  reach  to  the  end 
of  the  posterior  femora,  which  is  about  the  length  of  the  whole 
body.  The  first  two  joints  are  retracted  within  a  cavity  in  the 
front  of  the  head,  which  seems  to  be  the  result  of  a  doubling  in 
of  the  front.  Only  the  two  posterior  ocelli  are  visible,  distant, 
and  though  enough  of  the  front  remains  to  contain  the  anterior 
ocellus,  it  seems  as  if  it  must  be  still  farther  forward  than  in  the 
imago.  The  hind  pair  of  legs  is  stuck  straight  out  behind.  (The 
abdomen  is  broken  off.)  The  first  and  second  pair  of  legs  have 
the  femur  folded  forwards  ;  the  tibia  and  tarsus  lie  towards  the 
end  of  the  body.  This  example  lay  within  the  skin  of  the  larva, 
with  its  head  towards  the  head  of  the  larva. 

A  possible  enemy  is  a  greenish-yellow  spider  which  draws  down 
the  edge  of  a  coffee-leaf  on  the  under  side,  and  spins  a  light  web 
from  this  edge  to  the  surface  of  the  leaf,  leaving  each  end  of  the 
nest  open. 

Geographical  Distribi^tion.  —  As  we  have  stated,  M.  Perrottet 
met  these  insects  in  the  Antilles  ;  M.  Madinier  found  them  in  the 
island  of  Martinique  ;  and  I  observed  them  in  the  Province  of 
Rio  de  Janeiro.  They  are  said  to  extend  over  the  whole  coffee- 
region  of  Brazil. 

History.  —  Dr.  Christovao,  and  his  brother  Col.  Antonio  Correa 
e  Castro  told  me  that  the  coffee-trees  were  first  introduced  into 
Brazil  by  the  Brazilian  Minister  at  Paris,  who  sent  two  plants  to 
the  city  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  where  they  were  planted  on  Mount 


16  THE    WHITE    COFFEE-LEAF    MINER. 

Tijuca.  From  these  two  plants  many  others  were  obtained,  which 
were  kept  in  gardens  as  ornamental  shrubs.  Some  of  these  were 
afterwards  distributed  to  the  plantations  to  be  cultivated  for  com- 
mercial purposes.  From  them  sprung  the  coffee-plantations  of 
Brazil.  Until  about  twenty  years  ago  these  plantations  were  free 
from  all  noticed  pests.  About  that  time,  owing. to  the  general 
exhaustion  of  the  coffee-trees  thi'ough  long  bearing,  the  Govern- 
ment imported  quantities  of  new  plants  from  the  Antilles  and 
from  the  isle  of  Bourbon,  and  distributed  them  all  over  the  coun- 
try. It  was  noticed  during  the  very  next  year  that  the  leaves  of 
the  coffee-tree  were  attacked  by  the  larva  of  the  moth,  whose  history 
is  given  here,  which  has  ravaged  the  coffee-plantations  of  Brazil 
ever  since.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  insects  were  brought 
from  the  Antilles  with  the  plants,  and  that  a  proper  examination 
of  the  plants  at  that  time,  by  any  person  familiar  with  the  appear- 
ance and  habits  of  the  enemies  of  the  coffee-tree,  would  have 
prevented  the  introduction  of  so  great  a  pest.* 

Bemedies.  —  The  entomologist,  like  the  physician,  finds  it  much 
more  difficult  to  choose  a  proper  remedy  for  a  disease  with  which 
he  is  familiar,  than  to  trace  out  the  nature  and  progress  of  the 
disease.  But  at  this  day  the  science  of  entomology,  particularly 
in  its  practical  application,  is  of  such  recent  origin,  that  it  suffers 
under  a  disadvantage  from  which  the  practice  of  medicine  is  free, 
namely,  it  possesses  ]io  treasiu'y  of  results  drawn  from  experience. 

* Bibliograxjluj .  1.  Guerin-Meneville  et  Perrottet.  Memoire  sur  uii  Insecte  et  un 
Champignon  qui  ravagent  les  Cafeiers  aux  Antilles.-  Paris.  Ministere  de  la  Marine. 
1842.  8vo.  pg.  40.  tab.  2.    Gives  the  history  of  Elachista  coffeella. 

*2.  Revue  Zoologique.  1842.  p.  126-127.    Contains  a  notice  of  No.  1. 

*  3.  Annales  de  la  Societe  Entomologiqne  de  France.  1842.  T.  XI,  Bulletin,  p.  n. 
Contains  a  notice  of  No.  1. 

*4.  Zeller.  Linnaa  Entomologica.  1848.  T.  Ill,  p.  250,  272-273;  T.  II,  tab.  II,  fig. 
37-39.    Establishes  the  genus  Cemiostoma. 

*  5.  Stainton.  The  Natural  History  of  the  Tineina.  1855.  Vol.  I,  p.  284-334,  tab.  1.  Con- 
tains "  General  Observations  on  the  genus  Cemiostonu^^"  and  the  history  of  C.  sparti- 
foliellum,  laburnelhim,  and  scitelhnn. 

*  6.  Nietner.  Observations  on  tlie  Enemies  of  the  Coffee-tree  in  Ceylon.  Ceylon. 
Published  at  the  Ceylon  Times  Oflace.  1861.  Svo.pg.  31.  On  p.  24,  mentions  Elachista 
coffeella. 

*  7.  Stainton.  The  Entomologist's  Weekly  Intelligencer  for  1861.  Vol.  X,  p.  110-111. 
"A  few  words  respecting  Cemiostoma  coffeella;  an  insect  injurious  to  the  Coffee  planta- 
tions of  the  West  Indies." 

8.  Madinier.  Revista  Agricola  do  Imjierial  Institute  Fluminense  de  Agricultura. 
No.  3.  p.  29  et  seq.  Brief  notice  of  the  Coffee-tree,  containing  on  p.  33  an  account  of  the 
habits  of  an  insect  called  '•  noctuella,"  which  must  be  the  C.  coffeellum. 

(The  asterisks  before  the  titles  of  the  above  works  indicate  that  I  have  taken  the 
titles  and  references  directly  from  the  works  cited). 


THE    WHITE    COFFEE-LEAP   MINER.  17 

The  practical  entomologist  can  only  recommend  measures  to  be 
put  to  the  trial,  and  in  this  way  gradually  gather  a  body  of  experi- 
mental facts  which  may' serve  as  a  guide  in  the  future. 

The  most  'obvious  remedy  which  suggests  itself  is  the  collection 
and  destruction  of  the  leaves  which  contain  the  living  larvse. 
If  this  was  done  thoroughly,  it  would  no  doubt  result  in  the 
complete  extermination  of  the  pests,  a  result  the  value  of  which 
would  be  incredible. 

Towards  this  end  Guerin  recommends  (Mem.,  etc.,  pp.  18-20) 
that  "the  branches  of  the  coffee-trees  which  are  loaded  with 
[infested]  leaves  should  be  cut  off  in  all  parts  of  the  country  at 
one  time,  and  burned,  while  the  insect  is  in  the  larva  state." 
If  this  were  done,  he  says,  "  these  coffee- trees  should  be  cut  down 
in  such  manner  that  the  vegetation  could  resume  its  ordinary  course 
shortly  after  the  operation,  to  the  end,  if  it  were  possible,  of  not 
having  to  regret  but  one  crop  of  coffee.  *  *  To  attain  this  condi- 
'tion  more  promptly,  the  operation  in  question  should  be  made 
with  a  cutting  instrument,  and  at  a  height  which  should  be  deter- 
mined by  the  proprietor  himself  (a  metre  and  a  lialf).  Care  should 
be  taken  to  preserve  here  and  there  some  young  and  vigorous 
branches,  which  would  tend  to  maintain  the  equilibrium  of  the  sap 
in  all  parts  of  the  plant.  *  *  Afterwards  the  development  of  new 
leaves  ought  to  be  watched  with  the  greatest  exactness,  and  if 
there  should  appear  from  place  to  place  some  spotted  leaves,  they 
should  be  destroyed  promptly." 

It  will  be  seen  that  Guerin  expects  to  cause  the  loss  of  one 
crop  of  coffee  in  his  endeavor  to  exterminate  the  insect.  Cer- 
tainly the  issue  of  the  experiment,  if  successful,  would  be  well 
worth  the  loss  of  an  entire  crop,  but  I  think  the  same  result  could 
be  obtained  in  a  preferable  way :  entailing  much  more  labor,  but 
avoiding  at  the  same  time  the  loss.  Probably  not  a  single  branch 
would  be  free  from  infested  leaves,  so  that  it  would  be  necessary 
to  find  some  other  means  of  killing  the  larvae  in  the  leaves  of 
those  branches  which  remained.  On  the  other  hand,  many  healthy 
leaves  would  be  lost,  if  whole  branches  were  cut  off.  I  think  it 
would  be  better  to  piclc  off  all  the  infested  leaA'es,  and  burn  them, 
leaving  tlte  healthy  leaves  to  support  the  tree.  Guerin  sa,js  [Mem. 
etc.,  p.  19]  that  "  the  epoch  whicli  it  would  seem  ought  to  be  the 
most  favorable  for  this  operation  would  be  that  which  immediately 
follows  tlic  winter  season,  or  that  during  which  the  temperature  is 


18  THE    WHITE    COFFEE-LEAF    MINER. 

the  lowest,  because  the  larva  finds  itself  then  as  it  were  benumbed, 
and  cannot  be  transformed  into  a  moth  until  tlie  return  of  a  softer 
temperature."  The  time  appointed  for  -picking  off  tlie  leaves 
might  be,  for  the  obvious  purpose  of  saving  labor,  that  at  which 
the  smallest  number. of  old  leaves  remain  upon  the  trees,  if  there 
is  ajxj  such  time.  If  the  leaves  were  picked  at  such  time  as  to 
take  the  greatest  number  of  larvfe  wlien  they  were  about  two 
weeks  old,  it  would  )iot  be  difficult  to  select  them,  as  the  size  of 
the  blotches  would  make  them  A'cry  noticeable. 

I  have  made  a  theoretical  estimate  of  tlio  expense  which  would 
be  incurred  in  picking  off  the  leaves  as  1  recommend,  and  of  the 
relative  increased  yield  of  coflce  wliicli  wotdd  result  on  a  planta- 
tion of  given  size.  Testing  this  theory  by  the  juuuerical  data 
given  to  me  by  Dr.  Christo\'ao  Correa  e  Castro,  and  making  large 
allowances  for  unfavorable  circumstances,  I  find  tliat  the  expense 
would  be  more  than  met  by  the  next  year's  crop;  but  even  if 
this  should  not  be  the  case  in  the  second  year,  it  must  be  remem-  • 
bered  that  such  a  thorougli  and  expeiisive  war  upon  the  insects 
never  need  be  made  more  tlian  once,  and  that  with  vigilance  the 
trees  could  be  kept  in  good  ordei'  and  the  increased  yield  raaintained 
continually  afterwards.  But  vigilance  must  be  exercised.  One 
picking  woukl  not  entirely  exterminate  tlie  insects,  however  thor- 
oughly it  were  done.  The  planters  should  also  make  experiments 
at  all  times,  and  seelc  other  means  of  destroj-ing  not  only  this 
but  all  the  enemies  of  their  crops.  They  alone  have  the  facili- 
ties for  increasing  and  utilizing  all  tlie  knowledge  which  can  be 
gained  upon  these  subjects. 

Another  remedy  which  Gucrin  recommends  is  "to  kindle  fires  at 
all  points  of  the  coffee-plantations,  at  the  time  when  th.e  moths 
begin  to  issue  from  their  cocoons.  It  is  well  known  that  many 
insects,  and  above  all  the  nocturnal  Lcpidoptera,  are  attracted  by 
light,  and  come  whirling  around  a  fire  until  they  are  burned  there. 
Certainly  a  great  numlter  of  individuals  would  be  thus  desti'oyed. 
At  the  same  time,  and  to  attain  this  object  more  promptly,  lighted 
torches  might  be  carried  through  the  plantations  in  the  evening. 
Thus  a  crowd  of  moths,  hidden  in  places  to  which  the  light  of 
fixed  fires  could  not  penetrate,  would  be  attracted,  and  killed." 
Although  this  measure  tvould  not  be  absolutelj'  efficacious,  unless 
practised  for  a  long  time  and  together  over  the  whole  country, 
which  would  be  difficult  to  accomplish,  yet  it  would  repay  all  the 


THE    WHITE    COFFEE-LEAF    MINER.  19 

labor  expenrled  upon  it,  if  adopted  at  the  time  when  the  moths 
were  abundant. 

I  will  also  recommend  again  the  use  of  Col.  Sorsby's  process, 
which  I  have  described  at  length  in  my  report  upon  the  enemies  of 
Maize,  drawing  the  description  of  it  from  the  Report  of  the  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Patents  for  the  year  1854,  Part  iii,  p.  65. 

1  have  thus  stated  all  the  direct  means  which  have  been  sug- 
gested for  the  suppi"ession  of  these  pests.  It  is  evident  that  none 
of  them  can  be  adopted  without  the  expenditure  of  much  time 
and  labor.  If  other  measures,  less  direct,  could  be  employed, 
which  would  add  to  the  efficiency,  or  take  the  place  of  those 
already  suggested,  the  benefit  would  be  great.  Whatever  meas- 
ures are  employed,  however,  must  be  founded  upon  certain  general 
principles,  in  order  to  insure  their  success.  What  those  principles 
are  must  first  be  learned,  and  then  in  what  detail  they  can  be 
applied.  It  is  only  in  this  way  that  we  can  determine  whether 
there  is  any  mode  of  opposing  our  insect  enemies  which  will  not 
cost  more  than  it  is  worth. 

Men  gain  time  to  advance  in  civilization  and  prosperity,  by  mas- 
tering the  laws  of  nature,  and  converting  natural  forces  into  tools 
whicJi  do  their  work  automatically  as  it  were.  Nature  has  pro- 
vided enemies  for  tlic  moth  whose  history  we  have  been  studying. 
Let  us  only  learn  how  to  clierish  and  encourage  these  natural 
friends  of  ours,  and  they  will  work  for  us  thoroughly.  They  were 
made  to  work  for  us  wlieiiCA'er  we  should  learn  how  to  command 
them. 

I  recommend  that  before  tlic  picked  leaves  fire  bnnied  tliey  be 
placed  in  an  aparlment  from  whirli  the  uiotb?:  cniinot  escape,  and 
there  allowed  to  lie  nnlil  tlie  insects  have  developed.  If  such  an 
apartment  sliouUl  be  made  with  sides  of  glass,  and  a  properly 
guarded  entrance,  it  wmild  be  easy  to  (•a[)tnre  tlie  parasites  while 
they  rested  on  the  glass,  and  to  liberate  them  in  tbe  ])lantations, 
or  transport  them  to  other  parts  of  tlie  country  where  they  might 
be  needed  more.  At  the  same  time  the  moths  could  be  caught 
and  killed.  Or  the  sides  of  such  an  apartment  could  be  made  of 
gauze,  fine  enough  not  to  allow  the  passage  of  the  moths,  but  yet 
large  enough  to  let  the  parasites  out.  Such  a  building  could  be 
placed  in  the  midst  of  a  plantation.  I  believe  that  eventually  we 
shall  have  to  rely  mainly  upon  such  indirect  measures  as  a  pro- 
tection for  our  crops.     It  might  even  be  worth  while  to  undertake 


20  THE  WHITE  COFFEE-LEAF  MINER. 

a  positive  cultivation  of  tlie  parasites,  at  least  at  those  times  when 
the  race  has  greatly  diminished  in  numbers.  It  has  often  been 
observed,  in  studying  the  history  of  those  insects  which  are  sub- 
jected to  unnatural  conditions  b}'  man's  cultivation  of  the  ground, 
that  there  is  an  alternation  of  years  or  of  series  of  years  in  which 
the  insects  are  found  to  be  very  destructive,  or  to  have  almost 
entirely  disappeared.  These  alternations  are  partly  due  to  the 
influence  of  the  seasons,  but  largely  to  the  attacks  of  other  insects. 
At  first  the  destructive  insects  are  found  to  be  very  numerous,  but 
an  examination  will  show  that  they  have  already  been  attacked  by 
parasites  which  kill  them,  while  the  parasites  themselves  develop. 
This  process  goes  on  until  the  parasites  have  so  far  outnumbered 
their  prey  as  nearly  to  exterminate  them,  when  they  will  no  longer 
be  able  to  find  food,  and  will  themselves  perish.  Then  once  more 
the  destructive  insects  will  have  an  opportunity  to  multiply,  and  so 
the  rotation  Will  be  continued.  Now  it  is  at  the  time  when  the  de- 
structive insects  have  been  reduced  to  the  smallest  numbers  that  the 
enlightened  agriculturist  will  find  it  most  practicable  to  adopt  such 
measures  that  their  numbers  may  never  again  increase.  Knowing 
how  rapidlj'  these  insects  increase,  when  not  held  in  control  by  the 
forces  of  nature,  he  will  feel  that  every  eff'ort  of  his  to  stop  them  at 
the  first  step  will  be  a]i  investment  of  labor  at  compound  interest 
for  a  long  time  to  come.  Who  then  would  count  the  trouble  ?  But 
he  must  know  what  to  do. 

p.  S.  —  I  desire  to  correct  an  error  in  the  farmer  part  of  this  biography,  kindly 
pointed  out  to  me  by  Mr.  V.  T.  Chambers,  of  Covington,  Kentucky,  in  the  current 
volunicof  the  American  Naturalist,  p.  489-4911.  Onp.:338,I  said  that  CcoffeellumsYas 
the  only  species  of  the  genus  known  outside  of  the  limits  of  Europe.  This  is  a  mistake. 
Wliile  I  was  in  Brazil,  Mr.  Chambers  described  in  the  Canadian  Entomologist,  iii  (1871), 
p.  23-2.5,  a  species  from  the  United  States,  called  C.  alhella. 

As  all  but  one  of  Mr.  Chambers'  references,  in  his  note  of  correction,  were  wrong,  I 
must,  in  order  to  be  able  t>i  compare  liis  species  with  the  otliers  of  the  genus,  suppose 
it  also  due  to  negligence  that  he  (throiigh  Mr.  Staiuton)  describes  the  silvery  gray 
metallic  spot  of  tlie  ibre  \vings  as  apical,  instead  of  at  the  inner  angle.  If  this  suppo- 
sition is  correct,  C.  albellum  seems  more  nearly  related  to  C.  coffeellum  than  any  of  the 
other  species,  but  may  l)e  known  fnim  it  by  having  the  spot  at  the  inner  angle  of  the 
fore  wings  silvery  gray  metallic,  with  very  distinct  black  margins  before  and 
behind,  and  an  indistinct  pale  golden  streak  along  tlie  base  of  the  fringe  from  the  costa 
not  qiiite  to  the  inner  angle;  while  it  seems  not  to  have  the  two  oblique  lines  of  black 
scales  described  in  C.  cajfeellum,  ]ui]'  the  golden  band  which  partially  surrounds  the 
spot  in  that  species. 

Mr.  CI\ambers  says  also,  in  Ids  ndte  of  correction,  that  "in  the  Transactions  of  the 
London  Entomological  Society,  S(t.2,  Vol.  v,  pp.  21  and  27,  and  in  Ser.  ."J,  Vol.  ii,  p.  101, 
certainly  two,  and  if  my  [)ns]  memory  is  not  at  fault,  tlu-eo  species  [of  Cemiostoma], 
are  described  from  Iiiilia."  1  have  examined  the  pages  to  which  he  evidently  intends 
to  refer,  and  find  thnt  both  the  species  mentioned,  C.  ivailesdlum  and  C.  lotellum,  are 
said  to  come  from  England. 


THE    WHITE    COFFEE-LEAF    MINER.  21 

I  have  had  a  new  edition  of  tlie  accomiinnying'  plate  struck  off,  because  the  former 
one  contained  some  errors  introduced  by  tlie  artist,  who  translerred  my  figures  from 
paper  to  wood.  Some  of  the  figures  are  incomplete,  because  I  have  only  drawn  what  I 
could  see.    This  is  especially  the  case  with  the  larva. 


EXPLANATION   OF   PLATE   5. 

Fig.  1.    Imago  of  Cemiostomn  coffeellum,  magnified  15  diameters. 

Fig.  2.  Empty  pupa-skin  of  the  same,  seen  from  beneath,  magnified  about  20  diame- 
ters.   (The  projections  near  the  liead  are  the  broken  sides  of  the  thorax.)  - 

Fig.  3.    Larva  of  the  same  from  above ;  tlae  head  retracted,  magn.  15  diameters. 

Fig.  4.  Head  of  the  larva  fl-om  below,  showing  some  of  the  mouth-parts,  magnified 
about  60  diameters. 

Fig.  5.    Cocoon  of  tlie  same,  natural  size;  5a,  the  same  magnified  3  diameters. 

Fig.  6.  Leaf  of  coffee  tree  natural  size,  containing  five  mines  made  by  ten  larvse,  five 
of  the  larvas  belonging  in  the  four  mines  wholly  figured;  6a,  part  of  a  mine 
magnified  10  diameters  to  show  the  scar  made  by  the  larva  in  entering  the 
leaf;  66,  part  of  a  mine  magnified  5  diameters  to  show  the  slit  made  by  the 
larva  in  leaving  the  mine. 

(22) 


American  Natui'alist, 


Vol.  VI,  PL  5. 


S.PM^,VM.D£l.. 


MANN,  ON  THE  WHITE  COFFEE-LEAE  MINER. 

(Corrected.)  (23) 


/:'  / 


THE 

BUTTERFLIES  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 

By  W.  H.  EDWARDS. 
SECOND  SERIES. 


The  first  volume  of  this  work,  issued  in  parts,  was 
completed  in  the  fall  of  1872,  and  the  author  has 
been  engaged  since  in  perfecting  arrangements  for 
the  issue  of  a  second  volume  which  will  not  be  so 
strictly  confined  to  the  description  and  delineation 
of  new  species  as  was  the  first.  Within  the  past 
three  years  great  advance  has  been  made  in  knowl- 
edge of  the  preparatory  stages  of  many  species,  so 
that  the  attempt  made  in  this  volume  to  illustrate 
the  successive  steps  by  which  from  the'  tgg,  through 
many  curious  larval  phases,  the  chrysaUs  and  butter- 
fly are  at  last  reached,  will,  it  is  hoped,  meet  with 
favor. 

The  same  persons  who  were  engaged  upon  the 
plates  of  the  previous  volume.  Miss  Mary  Peart  and 
Mrs.  Bowen,  will  execute  the  plates  of  this,  which  is 
an  assurance  that  the  illustrations  will  equal  in  fidel- 
ity and  finish  those  of  the  former  series. 

The  series  will  be  issued  in  quarterly  parts,  each 


part  containing  five  plates  ;  the  descriptive  letter- 
press will  be  printed  in  large  type  on  fine  paper. 
With  the  last  part  a  revised  Synopsis  of  Species 
will  be  given. 

The  Publishers  desire  to  call  attention  to  the  very 
favorable  opinions  respecting  the  execution  of  the 
first  volume,  expressed  by  leading  naturalists  and 
journals  :  — 

From  the  late  Professor  Louis  Agassiz. 

"  Without  knowing  more  of  your  doings  than  appears  on  the  face 
of  your  publication,  I  was  so  much  struck  by  the  beauty  and  thor- 
oughness of  your  Lepidoptera  that  I  requested  Dr.  Hagen  to  write 
to  you  and  offer  you  anything  from  our  collections  that  might  be  de- 
sirable in  the  prosecution  of  your  work." 

Frovi  Charles  Darwin. 

"Part  9  of  your  Butterflies  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  works 
which  I  have  seen.  Your  careful  observations  on  the  dimorphism 
or  rather  trimorphism  of  Papilio  Ajax  strike  me  as  most  remarkable 
and  interesting." 

From  Dr.  Hagen,  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

"  I  have  before  me  the  first  volume  of  your  work.  It  is  for  Amer- 
ican Lepidoptera  beyond  comparison  with  any  so  far  published,  and 
it  ranges  with  the  most  prominent  works  on  this  class  of  insects  pub- 
lished outside  of  America,  both  in  the  plates  and  the  text." 

From  Professor  P.  C-  Zeller,  Stettin,  Prussia. 

"  This  work  is  undoubtedly  the  best  that  America  has  produced 
hitherto  in  the  cause  of  Entomology,  and  equals  the  very  best  Euro- 
pean works." 

From  Alfred  R.  IVallace,  Esq. 

"  Part  9  is  an  exceedingly  interesting  number,  and  goes  far,  I  think, 
to  elucidate  one  mode  at  least  in  which  species  are  formed." 

From  H.  IV.  Bates,  Esq. 

"Your  discoveries  regarding  Papilio  Ajax  and  Grapta  Interroga- 
tionis"  (detailed  in  Part  9,  Vol.  I.)  "are  of  the  greatest  interest." 

From  ^'Nature,"  Vol.  V.,  fi.  490. 
'  This   number   (9th),  like   its   predecessors,  is   accompanied   by 


many  quarto  plates  in  the  highest  style  of  pictorial  excellence,  depict- 
ing some  extremely  beautiful  species  and  varieties  of  Butterflies." 

From  ^^Nature"   Vol.  VII.,  p.  412. 

"  No  American  work  of  the  kind  has  ever  been  printed  containing 
in  its  pages  so  satisfactory  illustrations  of  the  various  species." 

From  ''^  E}itomologis{ s  Monthly  Magazine,''''  Lo7tdo}t. 

"  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  figures  w  '"ear  comparison 
with  the  best  that  have  ever  been  given  in  iconogi ,  j^hical  works. 
They  are  correct  in  outline  and  drawing,  and  colored  with  great 
truthfulness  and  sobriety.  The  letter-press  accompaniment  to  the 
plates  is  also  remarkably  well  done." 

From  the  "  Canadian  Ento7>iologistJ''' 

"  It  would  be  difficult  to  produce  anything  more  beautiful  or  true 
to  nature  than  these  exquisite  drawings  of  Butterflies  ;  they  vie  in 
excellence  with  any  European  work  we  have  seen." 

Frojn  the  ''''American  Entoinologist,''''  B.  D.  WahJi,  Editor. 

"  The  colored  plates  illustrating  these  species  are  unsurpassed  in 
splendor,  naturalness  of  color,  and  correctness  of  detail,  while  the 
typography  and  press-work  are  such  that  Americans  may  justly  feel 
proud  of  the  work." 

Price  of  the  work  to  subscribers.,  $2.50  a  part. 

For  the  convenience  of  those  wishing  to  subscribe, 
a  blank  form  has  been  printed  on  the  fourth  page  of 
this  circular. 

Copies  of  Volume  I.  may  be  had,  bound  in  half 
morocco  or  half  calf,  for  $30.00. 

Address  the  Publishers, 

HURD    AND    HOUGHTON, 

13  Astor  Place,  New  York. 

THE   RIVERSIDE  PRESS, 

Cambridge. 


part  containing  five  plates  ;  the  descriptive  letter- 
press will  be  printed  in  large  type  on  fine  paper. 
With  the  last  part  a  revised  Synopsis  of  Species 
will  be  given. 

The  Publishers  desire  to  call  attention  to  the  very 
favorable  opinions  respecting  the  execution  of  the 
first  volume,  expressed  by  leading  naturalists  and 
journals  :  — 

From  the  late  Professor  Louis  Agassiz. 

"  Without  knowing  more  of  your  doings  than  appears  on  the  face 
of  your  publication,  I  was  so  much  strucic  by  the  beauty  and  thor- 
oughness of  your  Lepidoptera  that  I  requested  Dr.  Hagen  to  write 
to  you  and  offer  you  anything  from  our  collections  that  might  be  de- 
sirable in  the  prosecution  of  your  work." 

From  Charles  Darwin- 

"  Part  9  of  your  Butterflies  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  works 
which  I  have  seen.  Your  careful  observations  on  the  dimorphism 
or  rather  trimorphism  of  Papilio  Ajax  strike  me  as  most  remarkable 
and  interesting." 

From  Dr.  Hagen,  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  Cambridge,  Mass, 

"  I  have  before  me  the  first  volume  of  your  work.  It  is  for  Amer- 
ican Lepidoptera  beyond  comparison  with  any  so  far  published,  and 
it  ranges  with  the  most  prominent  works  on  this  class  of  insects  pub- 
lished outside  of  America,  both  in  the  plates  and  the  text." 

From  Professor  P.  C-  Zeller,  Stettin,  Prussia. 

"  This  work  is  undoubtedly  the  best  that  America  has  produced 
hitherto  in  the  cause  of  Entomology,  and  equals  the  very  best  Euro- 
pean works." 

From  Alfred  R.  Wallace,  Esq. 

"  Part  9  is  an  exceedingly  interesting  number,  and  goes  far,  I  think, 
to  elucidate  one  mode  at  least  in  which  species  are  formed." 

From  H.  W.  Bates,  Esq. 

"  Your  discoveries  regarding  Papilio  Ajax  and  Grapta  Interroga- 
tionis"  (detailed  in  Part  9,  VoL  I.)  "are  of  the  greatest  interest." 

Froin  ''^ Nature,^'  Vol.  V.,  p.  490. 
'  This   number   (9th),  like   its   predecessors,  is   accompanied   by 


many  quarto  plates  in  the  highest  style  of  pictorial  excellence,  depict- 
ing some  extremely  beautiful  species  and  varieties  of  Butterflies." 

From  ''''Nature^''  Vol.  VII.,  p.  412. 

"No  American  work  of  the  kind  has  ever  been  printed  containing 
in  its  pages  so  satisfactory'  illustrations  of  the  various  species." 

From  ''''  E7itomologisi' s  Monthly  Magazine,''''  Lotidon. 

"It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  figures  w  *'"ear  comparison 
with  the  best  that  have  ever  been  given  in  iconogi.  ■>hical  works. 
They  are  correct  in  outline  and  drawing,  and  colored  with  great 
truthfulness  and  sobriety.  The  letter-press  accompaniment  to  the 
plates  is  also  remarkably  well  done." 

From  the  "  Canadian  Ento^nologist.'''' 

"  It  would  be  difficult  to  produce  anything  more  beautiful  or  true 
to  nature  than  these  exquisite  drawings  of  Butterflies  ;  they  vie  in 
excellence  with  any  European  work  we  have  seen." 

Front  tlie  "  Atnerican  Entotnologisi,''''  B.  D.  Walsh,  Editor. 

"  The  colored  plates  illustrating  these  species  are  unsurpassed  in 
splendor,  naturalness  of  color,  and  correctness  of  detail,  while  the 
typography  and  press-work  are  such  that  Americans  may  justly  feel 
proud  of  the  work." 

Pi-ice  of  the  work  to  subscribers,  $2.50  a  part. 

For  the  convenience  of  those  wishing  to  subscribe, 
a  blank  form  has  been  printed  on  the  fourth  page  of 
this  circular. 

Copies  of  Volume  I.  may  be  had,  bound  in  half 
morocco  or  half  calf,  for  ^30.00. 

Address  the  Publishers, 

HURD    AND    HOUGHTON, 

13  Astor  Place,  ITew  York. 

THE  RIVERSIDE  PRESS, 

Cambridge. 


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By  baron  R.  OSTEN  SACKEN. 


ARflCLE  IV. 


KROM    THE 

PROCEEDINGS  OF  THE  ENTOMOLOGICAL  SOCIETY. 

PHILADELPHIA: 

May,   1865. 


1865.]  3:i1 


[From  the  Proceedings  of  the  Entomological  Society   of  Philadelphia.] 

Contributions  to  the  Natural  History  of  the  CYNIPID^  of  the  United  States 
and  of  their  Galls.    Article  4th. 

BY    BARON    R.    OSTEN    SaCKKN. 

{Communicated  A2wil  10,1865.) 

The  present  paper  brings  but  very  few  new  facts  before  the  entomo- 
logical reader.  The  intention  which  principally  prompted  me,  in  pre- 
paring it  was,  to  give  an  account  of  the  present  state  of  the  European 
literature  on  Gynipidse,  (exclusive  of  Figi.tidae)^  an  account  intended 
especially  for  the  benefit  of  entomologists  unfavorably  situated  with 
regard  to  access  to  scientific  libraries  and  to  whom  this  literature, 
scattered  over  many  volumes  of  transactions  of  European  learned  socie- 
ties would  otherwise  have  remained  inaccessible.  At  the  same  time,  I 
have  taken  advantage  of  this  opportunity,  in  order  to  correct  several 
errors  of  my  former  papers,  to  complete  some  descriptions  of  species 
and  to  introduce  some  remarks,  synonymous  and  others,  suggested  by 
the  comparisou  of  the  specimens  of  my  collection  which  I  owe  to  the 
liberality  of  MM.  Walsh  and  Bassett.  In  this  respect  my  paper  will 
afford  a  kind  of  recapitulation  of  the  N.  A.  Qi/nqmlse  at  present  known. 

My  correspondence  with  'Dr.  Reinhard  and  the  exchange  of  speci- 
mens with  him,  have  led  me  to  a  somewhat  better  insight  into  Har- 
tig's  system  of  Gijni'pidse,^  than  I  po.ssessed  before,  but  have  convinced 
me  at  the  same  time,  1st,  that  although  most  of  his  genera  may  be 
easily  recognizable  to  European  entomologists,  they  have  never  been 
scientifically  defined ;  2nd,  that  Hartig's  system  will  require  a  consid- 
erable development,  in  order  to  be  applicable  to  the  N.  A.  Ci/nipidse; 
this  development  consisting  principally  in  the  adoption  of  several  new 
genera  peculiar  to  North  America  and  coordinate  to  Hartig's  genera. 
Gi/nips^  Andricus,  Neuroteriis,  Spathegaster  and  Trigonaspis.  How- 
ever, to  establish  new  genera,  without  strictly  defining  the  already 
existing  ones,  would  merely  increase  the  confusion.  A  simultaneous 
reform  of  the  whole  system  will  therefore  be  the  only  warrantable 
course  to  pursue. 

About  one  hundred  European  gall-producing  (p^eiitdous)  Ci/nipidse 
are  at  present  known.  The  number  of  American  species  has  not  quite 
reached  fifty,  and  yet,  considering  the  great  prevalence  of  oaks  in  this 
country,  much  more  abundant  in  species  of  this  tree  than  Europe,  we 
may  expect  that  the  number  of  N.  A.  Cynipidae,  will   far  exceed  the 


332  [Mat 

number  of  European  insects  of  this  family.  In  view  of  the  compara- 
tively small  number  of  known  N.  A.  species  and  of  the  large  additions 
which  we  can  reasonably  expect  very  soon,  it  would  be  premature  to 
attempt  now  the  reform  above  alluded  to.  This  conclusion  is  still  more 
justified  by  the  consideration  that  we  may  likewise  hope  within  a  short 
time,  to  see  new  light  thrown  upon  the  still  mysterious  sexual  ques- 
tion of  this  family,  a  discovery  which  will  naturally  affect  its  systema- 
tic distribution. 

In  agreement  with  these  motives,  I  have  adopted  in  this  paper  only 
three  psenidous  genei*a,  easily  recognizable  by  their  general  appearance, 
even  in  the  absence  of  a  definition,  the  more  so,  as  each  of  them  is  con- 
fined to  a  different  genus  of  plants.  These  genera  are  :  Ci/nipx  (in  the 
wider  sense,  in  contradistinction  of  the  genus  C(/nips  Hartig,  in  the 
narrower  sense,  reputed  agamous),  which  is  confined  to  the  oak;  Rho- 
d'ites,  all  the  known  species  of  which  live  on  the  rose,  and  Diastrophus, 
hitherto  obtained  from  galls  on  Ruhus  and  the  allied  PotentiUa.  As 
to  the  subdivision  of  the  first  and  largest  of  these  genera,  I  have  con- 
fined myself  to  a  few  hints,  leaving  it  to  the  future  student  either  to 
follow  them  out  or  to  controvert  them. 

The  same  views  about  the  unseasonableness  of  a  reform  of  the  sys- 
tem of  Gijnipidae,  have  induced  me  to  retain  the  primary  subdivision  of 
the  family,  adopted  by  Hartig  and  based  upon  the  shape  of  the  radial 
cell  and  the  position  of  the  areolet.  This  subdivision,  insufficient  as  it 
is,  affords  the  advantage  of  being  almost  coincident  with  the  subdivi- 
sion into  Psenidis  and  Inquilinai,  based  upon  the  habits  of  the  insects. 

Hartig  divides  the  gall-inhabiting  Cynipld^  into  two  sections : 

I.  With  a  narrow  radial  area,  the  areolet  being  opposite  its  basis. 

II.  With  a  broad  and  sto^  radial  area,  the  areolet  being  beyond  its 
basis. 

The  former  are  generally  Psenidse ;  the  latter  Iv.quilinse  ;  the  excep- 
tions, mentioned  by  Hartig  or  observed  by  others,  will  be  noticed  at 
the  proper  places  in  the  sequel.  Besides,  most  of  the  former  (with  the 
exception  of  Rhodites),  have  an  open  radial  area;  most  of  the  latter 
(with  the  exception  of  several  Aidax^,  have  it  closed.  All  these  dis- 
tinctive characters  may  be  useful,  as  long  as  taken  in  connection ;  but 
how  vague  Hartig's  definition  of  the  two  sections  is,  becomes  very 
striking,  if  the  radial  area  of  Rhodites  is  compared  with  that  of  any  spe- 
cies of  the  other  section ;  of  the  two,  it  is  certainly  the  former  which 
deserves  to  be  called  broad  and  short;  moreover,  it  is  closed,  whereas 
the  area  of  Aulax  syloestris  is  open. 


1865.]  333 

I  will  close  this  introductory  paragraph  by  briefly  stating  the  points 
which  deserve  an  early  investigation  from  those  who  are  so  situated  as 
to  be  able  to  devote  themselves  to  it. 

1.  The  species  Cijnips  pezomachouhs^  forticornis  and  Ar/Yor,  known 
in  their  wingless  form  only,  have  been  referred  by  me  to  Teras  Hartig, 
because  they  do  not  possess  the  principal  character  ascribed  by  this 
author  to  Biorhiza^  '\n  almost  obsolete  scutellum  ("  scutellum  subnul- 
lum"  Hartig).  Their  scutellum  is  as  large,  and  even  larger,  than  that 
of  the  wingless  specimens  of  the  European  Andricus  (Teras)  terminalis 
which  I  have  received  from  Dr.  Reiohard.  It  is  singular  enough, 
however,  that  the  winged  form  of  these  species  has  not  been  discovered 
yet,  and  it  would  be  worth  while  to  bre,ed  the  galls  in  larger  numbers 
in  order  to  obtain  this  winged  form,  if  it  exists. 

2.  The  dimorphism  of  certain  female  Cynipidse,  being  accepted  as  an 
apparently  well  established  fact,  it  remains  now  to  be  investigated  how 
far  this  mode  of  reproduction  is  general  in  this  family.  The  only 
dimorphous  female  as  yet  discovered  belongs  to  a  particular  group  of 
Cynipidse,,  occurring  on  the  black  and  red  oaks  only,  and  having  certain 
characters  in  common,  which  probably  will  cause  this  group  to  be  sepa- 
rated as  a  distinct  genus.  (The  details  of  these  characters  will  be  given 
at  the  proper  place  below.)  This  group,  as  far  as  I  can  understand, 
is  foreign  to  Europe. 

The  following  questions  arise  at  once: — 1st.  Is  this  character  of 
dimorphism  common  to  the  whole  group  above  alluded  to  'I  This 
can  be  easily  ascertained,  I  think,  by  subjecting  galls  of  C.  singida- 
ris,  for  instance,  or  any  other  common  species  of  the  group,  to  the 
same  process  of  observation  as  Mr  Walsh  applied  to  the  galls  of 
C.  spongifica.  2d.  Are  the  other  species  of  the  black,  red  and  wil- 
low-oak group,  species  known  as  yet  in  the  female  sex  only,  dimor- 
phous forms  of  some  as  yet  unknown  bisexual  species  ?  This  applies 
especially  to  C.  punctata  {pndagrse)  of  which  more  than  one  hundred 
females  have  been  reared  without  any  male,  and  to  G  formosa,  which 
shows  rather  striking  structural  affinities  to  the  agamous  female  of  6'. 
spongifica  (C.  aciculata  olim.)  3d.  Are  the  39  European  species  be- 
longing to  the  agamous  genus  Cynips  Hartig,  the  four  or  five  North 
American  species  belonging  to  the  same  genus,  and  the  European  aga- 
mous species  of  Netiroterus,  all  dimorphous  females  of  some  known  or 
unknown  bisexual  species?  This  is  the  most  important  question  of  all, 
and  the  most  difficult  to  solve  by  means  of  an  a  priori  reasoning.  If, 
on  one  side,  we  cannot  but  concur  in  the  views  expressed  by  Mr.  Walsh 


334  [May 

(Proc.  etc.  IT,  p.  448)  on  the  improbability  of  an  entirely  agamous  mode 
of  reproduction,  on  the  other  side,  it  seems  still  more  difficult  to  suppose 
that  the  dimorphism  of  the  females,  if  it  really  exists  in  the  genus  Cy- 
nips  in  Hartig's  sense,  should  have  remained  undiscovered  for  more 
than  a  quarter  of  a  century,  during  which  the  question  of  the  appa- 
rent parthenogenesis  of  this  genus  has  attracted  the  liveliest  interest  in 
Europe. 

I  read  in  the  last  number  of  the  Berliner  Eatomologische  Zeitschrift 
for  1864,  (page  405),  that  at  the  last  annual  meeting  of  the  German 
Naturalists  at  Giessen,  Professor  Hartig  lectured  upon  the  partheno- 
genesis of  Vt/nips.  He  said  that  the  experiments  of  breeding  these 
insects  from  galls  made  during  the  last  twenty-five  years,  produced 
only  females  of  the  genera  Ct/nij>s  and  Neuroterus.  The  females  of 
the  agamous  species  oviposit  immediately  after  the  completion  of  their 
development;  those  of  the  bisexual  species  only  after  copulation.  He 
described  the  receptaculum  seminis  of  the  bisexual  species;  it  contained 
spermatozoa  after  the  copula  (in  Spatltegaster.)  The  agamous  species 
possess  a  receptaculum,  but  it  contained  no  spermatozoa.  It  must  be 
observed  that  there  is  nothing  in  these  statements  to  subvert  Mr.  Walsh's 
hypothesis,  and,  as  improbabilities  are  not  impossibilities,  it,  may  turn 
out  yet  that  some  important  fact,  solving  the  vexed  question,  has  been 
overlooked  by  European  observers.  Hartig  reared  Neuroterus  parasi- 
ticus from  the  gall  of  a  true  Ci/nips.  Neuroterus  belongs  to  the  first 
section  of  Cynipidse  and  all  its  other  species  are  pseuidous.  But  Har- 
tig-'^uggest\himselfythat  iV'^  together  with  several  other 
species,  (which  were  all  caught  but  not  bred),  may  be  considered  as  a 
distinct  genus,  on  account  of  the  perfectly  smooth  mesonotum,  which 
has  no  parapsidal  grooves. 

The  rather  common  gall  of  Gj/nips  globulus  Fitch,  a  true  agamous 
Cynips  in  the  sense  of  Hartig,  can  be  recommended  as  a  suitable  object 
of  observation  towards  the  solution  of  the  mystery.  And  it  would  be 
very  gratifying  if  this  solution,  so  happily  begun  by  Mr.  Walsh,  was 
also  completed  on  this  side  of  the  ocean. 

New  York,  April  3,  1865. 

Section  I. 

( •' Area  radialis  angusta  ;  areolea  basalis."  Hartig,  Germ.  Zcitschr. 
II,  p.  185.) 

Hartig's  arrangement  of  the  genera  belonging  to  this  section  is  as 
follows : 


1865.]  335 

A.  Antennae  articulis  ingequalibus,  ultimis  7-8  brevioribus,  cla- 
vam  elongatam  constituentibus. 

a.  Scutelluni  haamisphericum. 

1.  Thoracis  dorso  villoso. 

Palpi  max.  5  artic. ;  palpi  labiates  3  art Cynips. 

2.  Thoracis  dorso  nudo,  plerisque  coriaceo. 

Palpi  max.  5  art.;  lab.  2  artic Andricus. 

3.  Thoracis  dorso  nudo,  plerisque  Isevigauo. 

Palpi  max.  4  art,  lab.  2  art Neuroterus. 

b.  Scutellura  depressum^  planum. 

4.  Palpi  max.  4  artic,  lab.  2  artic Teras. 

c.  Seutellum  subnullum  (apterus). 

5.  Palpi  max.  5  art.,  lab.  3  artic.  ultimis  appendiculis 

couicis  coronatis Apophyllus. 

{=Biorhiza  Westw.) 

B.  Antennae  setacese,  15 — 16  articulates. 

6.  Palpi  max.  4  art.,  lab.  2  art Rhodites. 

7.  Palpi  max.  5  art.,  lab.  3  art.,  articulis  ultimis  appen- 

diculis parvis  lateralibus Diastrophus. 

C.  Antennse  filiformes,  15 — 16  articulatee. 

8.  Thoracis  dorso  coriaceo. 

Palpi  max.  5  art.,  lab.  3  art Spathegaster. 

9.  Thoracis  dorso  lajvissimo. 

Palpi  max.  5  art.,  lab.  2  art.  articulis  ultimis  ap- 
pendiculis coronatis Trigonaspis. 

This  is  all  that  Hartig's  first  article  on  Cynipidse  (Germ.  Zeitschr. 
II,  p.  176)  affords  towards  a  definition  of  the  genera. 

His  second  article  (1.  c.  Vol.  Ill,  p  322)  contains  on  pages  330  and 
331  some  few  additional  remarks,  among  which  the  only  important  one. 
is  the  following: — "The  phrase  in  the  tabular  arrangement  of  the 
genera  '  A.  Antennae  articulis  ingequalibus.  ultimis  7 — 8,'  etc  ,  refers 
ohJa/  to  the  female  ?ex,  as  the  males  of  the  bisexual  genera  Andricus 
and  Teras  have  filiform  antennae  with  more  or  less  coarctate,  sometimes 
even  (A.  moniUatus)  rounded  joints.  These  males  might  therefore  be 
confounded  with  those  of  the  genera  Spathegaster.  Rhodites,  Trigo- 
iHiKpis  and  Di'astrophus,  if  the  %  of  Spathegaster  were  not  distinguish- 
able by  the  abdomen,  which  is  attached  to  a  long  peduncle,  the  S  of 
Rhodites  by  the  closed  radial  area.  At  the  same  time,  there  exists  the 
most  remarkable  resemblance  between  the  males  of  Andricus  and  Tri- 
gonaspis, two  genera  which  are  so  easily  distinguished  in  the  female 
sex  by  the  structure  of  the  antennae.  The  only  easily  noticeable  diifer- 
ences  are  that  Trigonaspis  has  the  single  antennal  joints  cylindrical, 
Andricus  more  or  less  truncate-ovate;  that  the  seutellum  of  Trigonas- 
pis is  larger,  narrower,  ending  in  a  sharper  point,  and  especially  that 
it  is  more  deeply  excavated  and  more  porrected  over  the  abdomen,  than 
in  Andricus.     The  lateral  tubercles  of  the  seutellum  of  Trigonaspis 


336  [May 

are  sharper  and  more  protruding,  which  gives  the  scutellum  a  more 
triangular  shape." 

About  Neuroterus  Hartig  says  (1.  c.  Ill,  p.  388),  that  it  can  be 
divided  into  two  groups,  based  on  the  presence  or  the  absence  of  parapsi- 
dal  grooves;  in  the  group  without  them,  the  mesonotum  is  an  uninter- 
rupted, smooth,  very  shining  convex  surface;  as  a  general  rule,  the 
mesonotum  of  this  genus  is  more  smooth  and  shining  than  in  most  spe- 
cies of  Andn'cus.  It  is  remarkable,  adds  Hartig,  that  two  so  closely 
allied  genera  as  Andricus  and  Neuroterus  should  be  so  different  with 
regard  to  their  mode  of  reproduction.  Neuroterus  certainly  belongs  to 
the  agamous  genera;  in  Andricus  the  males  are  as  common  as  the 
females. 

Other  remarks  of  Hartig,  bearing  on  the  subject  of  classification, 
are  the  following : 

1.  (I.  c.  Ill,  p.  323).  All  the  genera,  named  on  the  analytical  table 
(page  5),  are  gall-producers  (Psenidse) ;  Neuroterus  alone  ma^  some- 
times be  inquilinous ;  Aulax^  which  belongs  to  the  following  section, 
he  also  refers  In  part  to  the  Psenides.  (I  will  discuss  this  question  in 
the  introductory  remarks  to  the  second  section.) 

2.  (ibid.')  All  the  above  named  genera  are  bisexual ;  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  following,  which  are  agamous  :  Oj/nips,  Apophi/llus  and 
those  species  of  Neuroterus,  which  are  gall-producers ;  (the  latter 
circumstance  is  rather  remarkable  and  perhaps  suggestive  !  Compare 
above,  page  334.) 

3.  (1.  c.  IV,  p.  408).  Wingless  females  of  Teras  are  often  bred  from 
galls,  together  with  winged  specimens  of  both  sexes ;  such  specimens 
show  a  less  developed  thorax,  but  are  however  distinguished  from  Bior- 
hiza  Westw.  {Apophi/llus  Hartig)  by  a  larger  scutellum. 

4.  (1.  c.  IV,  p.  411).  Hartig  introduces  the  new  genus  /Sj/nophrus, 
which  was  not  included  in  the  tabular  arrangement  given  above.  It 
is  characterized  as  follows:  "  Segmentum  abdominis  secundum*  reli- 
quis  longius,  ai*ea  radialis  angusta,  areola  basalis,  antennae  filiformes, 
14  ( — 15  ?)  articulatae;  palpi  maxill.  5  articulati ;  palpi  lab.  triarticulati, 
articulis  ultimis  appendiculis  parvis  apicalibus;  facies  thoracisque  latera 
aciculata;  abdominis  segmentum  secundum*  reliquis  prominens."  This 
insect  was  obtained  from  a  gall  on  Quercus  cerris  ;  its  second  abdomi- 
nal segment  seems  to  have  nearly  the  same  structure  as  that  of  Synergus. 

The  extracts  which  I  have  just  given,  contain  nearly  all  the  infor- 

*  Hartig  has  primum  in  both  cases,  but  in  accordance  with  the  terminology 
adopted  by  us,  I  change  it  to  secundum. 


1865.]  337 

matioii  which  Harfcig  has  communicated  to  his  readers  about  the  new 
genera  introduced  by  him.  He  says  that  the  great  number  of  new 
species,  obtained  by  him  after  the  publication  of  these  genera,  were  all 
very  easily  located  in  them.  In  his  last  paper  (1.  c.  V^ol.  IV),  the  num- 
ber of  species  in  the  different  genera  reaches  the  following  figures : 
G//nips  28,  Andricus  12,  Neuroferus  11,  Teras  2,  Biorhiza  Westw.  2, 
Rhodites  3,  Diastrophua  1,  Synophrus  1,  Spathegaster  3,  Trigo- 
naspis  2. 

Since  Hartig,  Griraud  has  published  numerous  new  species  of  Euro- 
pean Cynipidse.  (Verb.  Zool.  Botan.  Gesellsch.  Wien,  1859,  p.  353). 
He  did  not  introduce  any  changes  nor  improvements  in  the  system, 
except  that  he  united  the  genus  Teras  to  Andricus^  the  characters  dis- 
tinguishing them  being  insufiicient,  and  that  he  established  a  new  genus 
DryocosTnus.  I  will  translate  here  the  character  of  the  genus  and  give 
a  short  extract  on  the  gall-fly,  which  belongs  to  it.  as  well  as  on  its  gall. 

Dryocosmus,  Giraud. — "Maxillary  palpi  5-jointed ;  labial  palpi  3-jointed; 
mandibles  bidentate  ;  antennae  slightly  inerassated  towards  the  tip,  15-jointed,- 
the  basal  joints  of  the  flagellum  gradually  decrease  in  length,  the  sixth  is  at 
least  twice  as  long  as  it  is  broad,  the  following  joints  are  shorter,  hardly  longer 
than  broad." 

"  Mesothorax  convex,  with  deep  parapsidal  grooves,  limited  ijosteriorly  by 
an  elevated  transverse  ridge ;  scutellum  hemispherical,  projecting,  transversely 
depressed  at  the  basis  and  bordered  on  the  sides  by  a  slightly  elevated  ridge, 
which  becomes  weaker  and  almost  obsolete  posteriorly." 

"  Wings  and  abdomen  as  in  the  genus  Gynvps ;  the  first  (what  we  call  now 
'second')  segment  occupies  about  half  of  the  whole  length  of  the  abdomen." 

"This  genus  is  principally  distinguished  from  Neurotcrus  by  the  structure  of 
the  scutellum." 

The  only  specie?,  D.  cerriphilus  9  •  was  obtained  by  Griraud  from 
a  gall  on  Q.  cerris^  which,  judging  from  his  description,  must  be  some- 
what like  the  gall  of  C  cornigera  0.  S.,  only  the  conical  points,  pro- 
jecting through  the  woody  swelling  of  the  limb  in  the  latter  gall,  are 
replaced  here  by  numerous  rounded,  oboval  or  fusifoi-m  bodies,  which 
in  June  pierce  the  outer  skin  of  the  swelling.  These  bodies,  when 
fresh,  are  pale  green,  tinged  with  rosy  and  reddish  and  exude  a  sap  of 
which  the  ants  are  very  fond.  The  gall-fly  has  a  smooth  shining  meso- 
notum  and  pleurae,  a  long,  narrow  radial  cell  and  a  distinct  areolet. 

The  only  mention  1  have  to  make  yet,  in  order  to  complete  the  lite- 
erature  of  this  section  of  Cynipidse,  is  the  genus  Pediaspis  Tischbein 
(Stett.  Entom.  Zeit.  1852,  p.  141).  The  author  obtained  forty-two 
female  specimens,  in  winter,  from  the  galls  on  the  roots  of  Sorbus  au- 
cuparia.  I  abstain  from  translating  the  description,  as  it  is  published 
in  an  easily  accessible  entomological  review,  the  more  so,  as  the  charac- 


338  r^AY 

ter  of  the  genus  is  not  very  clearly  stated.  Pediaspis  has,  like  Gpiips 
Hartig,  (in  the  restricted  sense,)  a  pubescent  thorax  and  seems  in 
general  rather  closely  allied  to  it. 


Iji  my  former  publications  on  Ct/nipidse,  I  have  more  than  once  com- 
plained of  the  incompleteness  of  Hartig's  definitions  of  the  genera  in- 
troduced by  him.  The  reader  may  judge  now  for  himself.  For  my 
own  part,  even  with  the  aid  of  typical  specimens,  which  I  owe  to  the 
kindness  of  Dr.  Reinhard,  I  am  still  unable  to  recognize  the  genera 
Andricus^  Neuroterua,  Spathegasfer  and  Triognaspis  with  any  degree 
of  scientific  accuracy. 

Without  speaking  of  the  diffieulty  of  counting  the  joints  of  the  palpi, 
it  is  contrary  to  all  analogy,  that  their  number  should  be  so  variable 
in  closely  allied  genera.  And  that  the  European  entomologists  them- 
selves do  not  value  this  character  very  highly  is  proved  by  the  fact 
that  Griraud  united  Teraa  and  Andricus  into  one  genus,  from  want  of 
sufficient  characters  to  distinguish  them,  although  Teras,  according  to 
Hartig,  has  4-jointed,  Aiuincus  5-jouited  maxillary  palpi.  The  palpi 
being  left  out,  what  is  the  difference  between  Andricus  and  Neurnte- 
nix  ?  Hartig's  phrase  :  "thorax  bare,ii.swa%  coriaceous"  for  the  former, 
and  -'thorax  bare,  usuaUij  smooth,"  is  the  only,  but  not  a  sufficient,  defi- 
nition. In  the  above  quoted  passage,  Hartig  informs  us  that  Spatlie- 
gaster  has  the  %  abdomen  pedunculated  ;  but  the  same  is  the  case  with 
Trigonaspis  !  (A  specimen  of  this  genus  was  sent  to  me  by  Dr.  Rein- 
hard.)  In  what,  then,  does  the  difference  between  these  genera  con- 
sist? As  if  to  increase  the  difficulty,  Mr.  Hartig  tells  us  (compare 
above)  that  there  is  the  most  remarkable  resemblance  between  the  males 
of  Andricus  and.  Trigonaspis.,  and,  in  the  enumeration  of  the  diff'erences 
which  follow,  he  makes  no  mention  of  the  pedunculated  S  abdomen. 
Have  we  to  conclude  from  this  statement  that  the  %  abdomen  of  An- 
dricus is  also  sometimes  pedunculated  ? 

It  is  the  place  here  to  bring  to  notice,  that  Hartig  generally  counted 
one  antennal  joint  more  than  necessary^  as  he  evidently  considered  as 
the  first  joint,  the  socket  of  the  antenna,  which  is  often  visible  below  the 
first  joint.  Noticing  the  frequent  disagreement  between  Hartig's  state- 
ments in  this  respect  and  my  own  observations,  I  always  suspected  that 
such  was  the  case,  until  I'ecently  my  suspicions  were  confirmed,  when 
I  happened  to  notice  Hartig's  remark  about  Trigonaspis  (1.  c.  II,  p. 
195):  ^^  articidus  4i  antennarum  %  curvatvs,"  which  evidently  refers 
to  the  third  joint. 

The  difficulty  experienced  by  me  in  arranging  the  North  American 


1865.] 


339 


(Ji/nipidse  according  to  Hartig's  system,  is  apparently  due,  besides  the 
imperfection  of  the  system  itself,  to  the  peculiarity  of  the  American 
fauna,  which  may  require  the  establishment  of  several  new  genera. 

The  great  prevalence  of  oaks  in  this  country  and  the  great  number 
of  their  species,  would  justify  a  priori  the  inference  that  Ci/mpidse  are 
very  abundant.  That  they  are  not  only  abundant,  but  also  very  diiferent 
from  the  European  representatives  of  this  family,  may  be  inferred  from 
the  following  facts : — 1st.  The  group  consisting  of  the  species  G.  spon- 
ijifica^  ilidfoUae^  coelehs,  smgularis,  etc.,  quite  numerously  represented 
in  North  America,  does  not  exist  in  Europe.  2d.  The  agamous  genus 
equips,  in  the  restricted  sense  of  Hartig,  is  much  more  numerous  in 
Europe  than  in  America,  as  among  98  species  of  true  gall-flies  {Psenides), 
described  by  Hartig,  and  in  the  last  publication  of  Giraud,  39  belong 
to  that  genus ;  whereas  among  nearly  50  North  American  Psenides  at 
present  known,  only  four,  perhaps  y?.tfe,  as  we  shall  see  hereafter,  belong 
to  C^mpii  Hartig. 

In  the  introductory  remarks  to  this  paper,  I  have  already  expressed 
the  conviction  that  before  the  North  American  fauna  of  Cynipidse  is 
better  known,  but  especially  before  the  myaterij  of  the  reproduction  of 
Cynipidae.  is  soloed,  it  would  be  premature  to  attempt  a  final  distribution 
of  the  family  in  genera.  Indeed,  if  we  were  not  acquainted  with  the 
fact  that  C  acieulata  is  nothing  but  a  dimorphous  $  of  C  sjjovr/ifca, 
we  would  probably  have  located  it  in  a  different  genus,  on  account  of 
the  peculiar  structure  of  its  abdomen,  the  number  of  joints  of  its  an- 
tennse,  etc. 

Admitting,  therefore,  as  announced  in  the  introduction,  only  three 
genera  of  psenidous  Cynipidse,  O/yuips,  Phodifes  and  Diastrophus,  all 
that  I  can  offer  at  present,  as  to  the  subdivision  of  Ci/nips,  is  confined 
to  a  few  hints,  as  follows  : — 

1.  G.  strobilana  0.  S.,  G.  tuhicola  0.  S.,  G.  globulus  Fitch,  and  G. 
centricola  0.  S.,  are  the  only  American  species  at  present  known  which 
Hartig  would  have  located  in  his  agamous  genus  Gi/nips.  (The  two 
former  species  I  have  communicated  to  Dr.  Reinhard ;  of  the  two  latter. 
I  judge  by  analogy.)  Although  G.  clavida  Bassett  has  a  pubescent 
thorax,  a  character  peculiar  to  Gijnips  Hartig,  I  am  not  sure  whether 
it  can  be  considered  as  belonging  to  this  genus.  All  these  species 
occur  within  the  group  of  the  white  and  chestnut  oaks  (  Q.  alba,prinus, 
obfusiloba,  etc.) 

2.  0.  semmafor  Harris,  which  I  have  communicated  to  Dr.  Reinhard, 
is  an  Aiidricus ;  judging  by  some  structural  analogies,  G.  petiolicola 
Bassett  and  G.  fusiformis  0.  S.,  perhaps  also  G.fufUlis  (^G.  papillata}, 


340  [Mat 

very  probably  belong  to  tbe  same  genus.     These  species  all  occur  in 
the  group  of  the  white  and  chestnut  oaks. 

3.  C.  pezomachoitles  0.  S.,  6\ /orh'cor?iis  Walsh  and  C.  hlrta  Bassett 
are  apparently  wingless  females  of  Teras  Hartig  (a  genus  now  united 
with  Andricus)  ;  if  such  is  the  case,  we  may  expect  the  discovery  of 
winged  individuals  of  these  species.  As  these  wingless  specimens,  in- 
variably females,  have  always  been  reared  in  winter,  may  they  not  be 
dimorphous  females  of  the  winged  individuals,  for  which  we  would 
have  to  look  out,  in  such  a  case,  in  the  early  part  of  summer  ?  Biorliiza 
Westw.  {=^  Apophijllus  Hartig)  is  distinguished  from  Teras  by  an 
almost  obsolete  scutellum.  The  three  species  named  above  belong  to 
the  group  of  the  white  and  chestnut  oaks. 

4.  C.  irregularis  0.  S.,  C.  majalis  Bassett  and  G.  hatatus  Fitch 
are  distinguished  by  the  %  abdomen  being  fastened  to  a  rather 
long,  linear  peduncle,  by  the  great  development  of  the  third  antennal 
joint,  which  is  long,  stout  and  curved;  by  the  smooth  mesonotum,  with- 
out any  traces  of  parapsidal  grooves ;  by  the  elevated  hind  margin  of 
the  mesonotum  ;  by  the  absence  of  pits  at  the  basis  of  the  scutellum 
which  are  replaced  by  a  transverse  impression,  etc.  These  species  are 
evidently  allied  to  Spatliegaster  tricolor  Hartig,  of  which  I  possess  spe- 
cimens, the  latter  having  an  abdomen  of  the  same  structure,  no  pits  at 
the  base  of  the  scutel,  the  same  large  wings,  with  a  rather  distinct  cu- 
bital vein,  etc.  But  the  third  antennal  joint  of  S.  tricolor^  is  linear 
and  slender,  and  not  much  longer  than  the  fourth;  the  mesonotum  is 
very  finely  coriaceous,  and  shows  faint  impressions,  foreshadowing  the 
parapsidal  grooves.  Trigonaspis  Hartig  has  the  third  antennal  joint 
elongated  and  curved,  but  its  abdomen,  although  pedunculated,  has  a 
difi'erent  structure  and  the  parapsidal  grooves  are  distinctly  marked.  I 
conclude,  hence,  that  the  three  above  named  N.  A.  species  form  a  dis- 
tinct group,  allied  to  Spafhegaster.  G.  verrucarum  0.  S.,  known  in 
the  female  sex  only,  shows  many  points  of  analogy  with  these  three 
.species,  and  I  should  not  wonder  if  the  male  proved  to  have  a  pedun- 
cled  abdomen. 

5.  G.  spongijica  (inanis,  coccinea3),  coelehs^  iUcifolix^  singidaris,  Osten 
Sackenii,  and  probably  the  gall-fly  of  Q.  falcafa,  the  gall  of  which 
was  described  by  me,  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  69,  No.  20,  form  a  distinct  group, 
foreign  to  Europe,  and  which  will  probably  have  to  be  separated  as 
a  distinct  genus.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  1st,  that  the  galls  of  all 
these  species  occur  exclusively  on  the  group  of  the  blacJc  and  red.  oaks  ; 
2d.  that  all  these  galls  are  built  on  the  same  plan;  they  are  monothala- 
mous,  and  consist  of  a  globular  or  fusiform,  comparatively  thin  and 


1865.]  341 

brittle  shell,  containing  a  proportionally  small  central  nucleus,  kept  in 
position  either  by  a  spongy  matter,  filling  up  the  space  between  it  and 
the  shell,  or  by  filaments,  radiating  from  it.  It  is  in  this  group  that 
the  dimorphism  of  a  female  (that  of  C.  spoivjifica)  was  first  discovered 
by  Mr.  Walsh,  and  it  would  be  an  interesting  and  comparatively  easy 
subject  for  observers  to  investigate,  whether  the  other  species  of  the 
group  likewise  have  dimorphous  females?  It  would  be  sufficient,  I 
think,  to  use  for  this  purpose  the  same  process  which  Mr.  Walsh  has 
used  for  the  discovery  of  the  dimorphism  of  C.  sijongifica,  that  is,  to 
collect  a  large  number  of  galls  at  the  proper  time  in  the  spring  or  in 
early  summer,  and  thus  to  obtain  the  two  successive  broods,  the  bisexual 
one  in  summer  and  the  dimorphous  female  brood  in  winter  or  early 
next  spring.  I  should  not  wonder  at  all  if,  in  some  cases,  the  galls 
producing  the  dimorphous  females  were  somewhat,  or  perhaps  even 
altogether,  dififerent  from  those  producing  the  bisexual  brood.  Is  not 
C  formosa  Bassett,  known  in  the  female  sex  only  and  bred  in  winter, 
a  dimorphous  female  of  some  other  species  ?  It  is  distinguished  from 
the  sexual  females  of  the  genus  by  precisely  the  same  characters  which 
distinguish  C.  ackulata  (the  agamous  female  of  G.  spongifica^ ;  its 
abdomen  has  the  same  shape  as  G.  aciculata,  and  is  diiferent  in  shape 
from  the  abdomen  of  the  sexual  females;  its  sculpture,  like  that  of  G. 
aciculatd,  is  less  coarse  than  that  of  the  sexual  females,  and  also  distin- 
guished by  five  aciculate  striae ;  its  antennas  have  more  joints  than 
those  of  the  sexual  females. 

6.  G.  modesta  0.  S.,  C.  quercus  iiigne  0.  S.  and  G.  tumifica  O.  S. 
form  again  a  distinct  natural  group,  remarkable  for  the  absence  of  the 
areolet,  the  peculiar,  microscopic  sculpture  of  the  thorax,  rendering  it 
opaque,  and  the  great  diflference  in  size  and  color  between  the  two 
sexes.  Their  galls  are  polythalamous  swellings  of  the  leaf-ribs,  contain- 
ing many  small,  seed-like  bodies.  They  occur  on  Q.  rubra,  tinctoria 
and  nigra. 

7.  G.  operator  0.  S.  with  12-jointed  9  antennae  and  some  other  pe- 
culiarities, will  probably  form  a  new  genus.  It  occurs  on  Q.  nigra,  and 
the  same  species  or  a  similar  one  on  Q.  palustris  and  ilicifolia.  A  pe- 
culiarity in  the  neuration  constitutes  a  point  of  relationship  between 
this  species  and  G  q.  phellos  and  G.  similis,  which,  however,  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  sheath  of  the  ovipositor  being  much  less  protruded. 

8.  G.  punctata  Bassett  {podagrse  Walsh)  is  apparently  agamous ; 
more  than  120  9  specimens  were  reared  by  MM.  Walsh  and  Bassett. 
without  a  single  male.  If  such  is  the  case,  we  have  iDefore  us  an  aga- 
mous species,  the  thorax  of  which  is  not  pubescent,  as  the  thorax  of  the 


342  [May 

agamous  Cijnips  Hartig  invariably  is.  The  presumption  is,  therefore, 
that  it  belongs  to  a  different  genus,  and  this  is  supported,  by  the  other 
characters,  as  the  sculpture,  the  shape  of  the  abdomen,  etc.  Now  C. 
scitula  Bassett,  known  in  both  sexes,  resembles  C.  punctata  very  much, 
except  that  it  is  much  smaller ;  it  occurs,  like  C.  podagrse,  on  Q.  tine- 
tor  ia,  and  produces  a  gall  which,  judging  by  the  description,  is  not 
unlike  that  of  the  latter  species.  These  facts  irresistibly  suggest  the 
impi'ession  that  C.  podagrse,  its  larger  size  notwithstanding,  is  but  an 
agamous  female  of  C  scitula.  Again  a  fact  for  observers  to  investigate. 
The  above  remarks  may  be  summed  up  as  follows : — 

1.  The  species  of  0,i/iiips  producing  galls  on  trees  of  the  white  and 
chestnut  oak  group  (Q.  ohtU'iilohco  macrocarpa,  alba,  prinu-t,  prinoides^ 
castanea,  forming  Mr.  Grray's  first  division,  fruit  ripening  the  first  year  ; 
compare  Gray's  Manual  of  Botany,)  seem  to  be,  as  a  general  rule,  gene- 
rically  distinct  from  the  species,  producing  galls  on  the  trees  of  the 
black,  red  and,  willow  oak  group  (^Q.  rubra,  coccinea,  tinctoria,  falcata, 
ilicifolia,  palustris,  phellos,  imbricaria,  nigra;  Grray's  second  division, 
fruit  not  maturing  until  the  second  year^.  Thus  the  genera  Cynips 
(in  Hartig's  sense),  Andricus,  Spathegaster,  Teras,  as  far  as  they  are 
recognized  among  the  N.  A.  species,  all  occur  on  the  white  oak  group, 
whereas  most  of  the  species  belonging  to  the  other  group  will  probably 
require  the  establishment  of  new  genera.  Hence,  the  relationship  with 
the  European  fauna  is  especially  to  be  found  in  the  first  group,  the 
second  principally  containing  forms  peculiar  to  America. 

2.  If  any  species  of  Cynips  produces  galls  on  more  than  one  kind  of 
oak  it  will  always  confine  itself  to  oaks  of  the  same  botanical  group.  I 
am  not  aware  of  a  single  exception  to  this  rule.* 

Genus  CYNIPS. 
(Galls  on  trees  of  the  genus  QwercMS.) 
The  number  of  species  of  Cynips  in  its  present  acceptation  being 
now  more  than  forty,  and  a  number  of  galls  having  been  described  be- 
sides, the  gall-flies  of  which  are  as  yet  unknown,  it  became  very  desira- 
ble to  have  a  general  synopsis  of  the  knowledge  thus  accumulated,  the 
more  so  as  the  data  respecting  this  knowledge  are  scattered  in  several 
volumes.  To  this  end,  the  following  two  tables  have  been  prepared: 
1st,  an  analytical  table  of  the  known  species  of  N.  A.  Cynips  ;  2d,  a 
synoptical  table  of  the  known  N.  A.  oak-galls  produced  or  supposed  to 

*Tliis  was  already  written  when  I  received  Mr.  "Walsh's  paper  "  On  the  in- 
sects etc.  inhabiting  the  galls  of  certain  willows,"  (Proc.  Ent.  Soc.  Vol.  Ill,  p.  54.3^ 
and  found,  that  by  a  remarkable  coincidence,  this  author  has  made  precisely 
the  same  observation  (1.  c.  p.  639). 


1865.]  34P. 

be  produced  by  Cj/nips.  At  the  end  of  these  tables  have  been  added 
od.  Remarks,  containing  all  the  necessary  references  to  the  previous 
publications  bearing  on  the  subject,  and  some  new  facts,  suggested  by 
the  comparison  of  original  specimens,  additional  descriptions,  etc. 

1.  The  construction  of  the  first  of  these  tables  is  necessarily  imper- 
fect, owing  to  the  difficulty  of  finding  discriminating  characters  of  easy 
and  general  application.  Another  still  more  evident  cause  of  imper- 
fection is,  that  of  inany  species,  only  one  sex  is  known.  It  will  be 
highly  desirable  to  have  a  new,  corrected  table  published  as  soon  as  the 
accumulation  of  new  facts  will  require  it.  Such  a  table  affords  the  ad- 
vantage of  being  the  only  means  for  identifying,  if  not  with  certainty, 
at  least  with  some  degree  of  approximation,  the  species  of  Cijnips  taken 
at  large  and  not  bred  from  galls.  A  very  useful,  if  not  indispensable 
addition  to  the  table,  would  have  been  a  full  and  comparative  descrip- 
tion of  all  the  known  species,  instead  of  the  existing  descriptions  differ- 
ing in  the  degree  of  their  completeness,  often  in  their  nomenclature 
and"  scattered  in  many  volumes.  I  regret  that  I  have  not  had  time  to 
prepare  such  descriptions. 

The  frequent  occurrence  of  phytophagie  varieties  within  the  present 
group  has  induced  me  always  to  add  the  name  of  the  tree  to  the  name 
of  the  species  bred  from  it.  The  name  of  the  tree  and  the  description 
of  the  gall  being  added  to  the  description  of  the  insect,  it  will  be  pos- 
sible, in  most  cases,  to  attain  comparative  certainty  as  to  the  specific 
identity  of  the  insect,  even  if  its  description  should  only  be  of  average 
completeness.  On  the  contrary,  the  insect  alone  or  even  the  gall  and 
the  insect  being  described,  without  the  name  of  the  tree,  the  identifica- 
tion may  often  seem  doubtful.  If  a  species  has  been  first  found  on  one 
kind  of  oak  and  subsequently  on  others,  I  have  added  the  name  of  the 
first  kind  of  oak  only,  thus  showing  that  the  insect  bred  from  that  oak 
represents  the  type  of  the  species.  If,  for  instance,  it  is  once  proved 
that  constant  differences  occur  between  C.  q.  palustris  bred  from  Q. 
palustris  and  G.  q.  pahistris  bred  from  Q.  tinctoria,  the  first  should 
be  considered  as  typical.  Entomologists  should  be  especially  cautioned 
against  rashly  concluding  as  to  the  specific  identify  of  insects  bred  from 
two  galls,  showing  a  superficial  resemblance,  but  found  on  different 
trees. 

In  the  analytical  table  No.  I,  those  species  which  are  nearly  identi- 
cal, but  occur  on  different  trees,  and  may  thus  be  considered  as  phyto- 
phagie varieties,  or  incipient  new  species,  are  united  by  brackets. 

I  have  also  introduced  a  slight  change  in  the  nomenclature,  which  I 
have  to  account  for.     In  my  previous  papers,  following  the  example  of 


344  TMat 

former  writers,  [  have  alwiiys  placed  the  letter  q  {querent)  between  the 
generic  and  the  specific  names  of  the  Gtjnlpidse.  of  the  oak.  But  af 
this  addition  seems  to  me  perfectly  useless,  I  have  omitted  it  now,  ex- 
cept in  cases  when  the  name  of  the  species  is  derived  from  the  name 
of  the  oak,  (as,  for  instance,  C  qwrcm  nigrse  0.  S.) 

'1.  In  preparing  the  Synopais  of  the  galls  (Table  No.  II ),  I  have 
mostly  retained  the  subdivisions  adopted  in  my  first  paper  (Proc.  etc. 
I,  p.  58).  xilthough  these  subdivisions  are  merely  empirical,  the  table 
will  considerably  facilitate  the  task  of  determining  whether  a  given 
gall  has  been  described  or  not,  and,  in  the  first  case,  where  the  descrip- 
tion is  to  be  looked  for.  A  scientific  subdivision  of  the  galls  has  to  be 
based  on  physiological  characters,  which  are  not  sufficiently  investigated 
at  present.  As  galls  are  apt  to  undergo  several  modifications  of  their 
appearance  during  the  different  stages  of  their  growth,  the  description 
of  a  gall  should  represent  it  in  the  state  of  maturity,  which  is  reached 
when  the  gall-fly  is  ready  to  escape.  This  rule  should  be  invariably 
understood,  unless  the  description  is  rendei'ed  still  more  complete  by 
representing  the  successive  stages  of  growth. 

I.  Analytical  Tahlf  of  the  known  species  of  N.  A.  Cynips. 
Observation . — The   numbers  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the   specific 
names  refer  to  the  Remarks^  etc.  on  page  350  and  the  following. 

1.  No  distinct  parapsidal  grooves ;  mesonotum  quite  smooth  and  bare, 

scutellum  likewise 2 

Parapsidal  grooves  distinctly  marked  (unless  indistinct  in  consequenoe 
of  a  very  rough  sculpture  of  the  mesonotum) 4 

2.  Third  antennal   joint  equal  in  length  to  three  f  18-  C-  irregularis  0.^.%. 

or  four  of  the  following  joints  taken  together;  -j  jg_  J.^afaUs'satiett  % 
thorax  of  the  'J,  with  yellowish  pleurge.  i  g.     (Q.  alba.) 

Third  antennal  joint  equal  to  two  of  the  following  joints  taken  toge- 
ther, or  less 3 

f20.  C.  batatus  Fitch -^  ?. 

3.  0.10— 0.12  long j  (Q.  alba.) 

0.05  long 1  21.  C.  verrucarum  O.S.  9. 

[  (Q.  obtusiloba.) 

4.  "Wings  with  a  conspicuous  dark  brown  cloud  at  the  basis  of  the  ra- 

dial area,  on  the  second  cross-vein 5 

Wings  without  such  a  cloud,  or,  at  the  utmost,  with  a  narrow,  in- 
conspicuous brown  margin  on  the  second  cross-vein 7 

6.  Feet  black,  except  the  two  anterior  pairs  of  tibiae  ]  26.  C.  q.  ilicifoliae  Bassett 
and  tarsi,  which  are  brownish-yellow.  j  'S  ?•  (Q-  ilicifolia.) 

Feet  reddish  or  yellowish R 

f22.  C.  spongifica  0  S.  ^ 
I  9-  (Q-  tinetoria.) 

6.  Areolet  distinct;  %  0.18  long;    9  0.23 ,  23.  C    q.  coccine^  0.  S.  9  . 

"  6 '    +  (Q.  eoccinea.) 

24.  C.  inanis  0.  S.    -^9 . 

(Q.  rubra.) 


1865.]  345 

Areolet  very  indistinct;  %  0.14  long 25.  C.  coelebs  0.  S.  'J, . 

(Q.  rubra?) 

7.  Areolet  present  (the  veins,  bounding  it  on  the  inside  may  often  be 

nearly  obsolete,  still  the  areolet,  in  a  certain  light,  is  visible.) 8 

No  areolet 2.5 

8.  Mesonotum  and  scutellura  clothed  with  a  rather  dense,  appressed 

pubescence 9 

Mesonotum  altogether  glabrous  or  seldom  with  a  few  short,  scat- 
tered, microscopic  hairs* 13 

9.  Body  reddish,  small  (0.10—0.12  long) |  *'  C  tubicola  0.  S.    9. 

•'                ■              ^                         "^^                        (          (Q-  obtusiloba.) 
Body  black  or  brown 1(1 

10.  Posterior  half  of  the  abdomen  pubescent j  ^-  ^V®*^"^^^'^^,^"  ^' ^ ' 

^  [  (Q.  bicolor?) 

Posterior  half  of  the  abdomen  not  pubescent 11 

11.  Body  not  more  than  0.12  long j  ^-  ^■,^}f^^^^,^^',\®"> 

•^  1  litt.  9  .  (Q.  alba.) 

Body  more  than  0.15  long ]2 

12.  A  brown  cloud  in  the  angle  between  the  radial )  o   r  *.  •  nan 
and  cubital  veins  and  a  couple  of  irregular  brown  I"'  ^'^  centricola  O.b.  J  . 
marks  towards  the  apex  of  the  wing.                       J          (^-  o'^'tusUoba.) 

No  clouds  or  marks  in  the  space  between  the  ra-  )  2.  C.  globulus  Fitch  9 . 
dial  and  cubital  veins J  (Q,.  alba.) 

13.  Mesonotum  more  or  less  distinctly,  (although  sometimes  microsco- 
pically) sculptured 14 

Mesonotum  smooth,   shining,  without  any  apparent  sculpture  (ex- 
cept the  usual  longitudinal  furrows) 23 

11.  Sculpture  of  the  mesonotum  very  coarse  and  rough 15 

Sculpture  of  the  mesonotum  delicate 16 

15.  %  Antenna  distinctly  16-jointed  :    9  tind  feet")  27.  C.  singularis    Bas- 
concolorous  with  the  other  feet,  red.dish ;    9  ab-  >  sett  %  9  . 
domen  red  or. reddish-brown J  (Q.  rubra.) 

%  AntennEB  15-jointed;   9  hind  feet  darker  than  j  ^^-    ^  Osten-Sackenii 

the  two  other  pairs,  brown:    9  abdomen  black.  1  ^^f^   .,P.f:.     . 

^        '  '    +  •  (^  (Q.  ihciiolia.) 

16.  The  whole  pleurae  are  rugose,  opaque 17 

A  considerable  portion  of  the  upper  jjart  of  the  pleurse  is  smooth 

and  shining 21 

17.  9  Antennse  distinctly  15-jointed :  whole  body  (  9  )  not  black  nor 

dark  brown 18 

9  Antennse  1.3  or  14-jointed  ;  bodj^  (except  antennse  or  feet)  black 

or  dark  brown 19 

IS.    9  head  and  thorax  brownish-yellow,  abdomen  |  37.  C.  ventricosa    Bas- 

brownish J      sett  9  •  (Q.  ilicifolia.) 

9  head  and  thorax  deep-black,  abdomen  bright  |  29.  C.  formosa  Bassett 
red I  9.     (Q.  rubra.) 

19.  Mesonotum  with  a  dense,  even  sculpture,  giving  it  a  haiidsome, 

semiopaque  appearance 20 

Mesonotum  rather  shining,  its  sculpture  percep-  [  38.  C.  cornigera  0.  S.  9  • 
ceptible  under  a  very  strong  lens  only j  (Q.  palustris.) 

*  The  only  possible  error  here  is  with  C.  petiolicola,  which  may  be  referred  to 
the  preceding  diagnostic  phrase,  as  its  thorax  has  a  sparse,  but  rather  distinct 
pubescence. 


346  ""M^^ 

f39.  C.  punctata  Bassett 
I  9.  (Q.  rubra.) 

20.  Length  0.12 ^  40.  C.  podagrse   Walsh 

[  9.   (Q-  tinctoria.) 

T        tu  n  A^     n  no  f  41.  C.  scitula  Bassett -J, 

Length  0.0/-0.09 |  ^  _  ^q   tinctoria  ) 

21.  The  rough  sculpture  of  the  humeral  parts  of  the  collare  is  in  dis- 

tinct contrast  with  the  comparatively  smooth  and  finely  sculp- 
tured surface  of  the  mesonotum *  1^ 

There  is  no  marked  contrast  between  the  sculpture  of  the  humeral 
parts  of  the  collare  and  the  mesonotum 22 

^    ^  „         „     ,  '  I  7.  C.petiolicolaBassett  9 

22.  Scutellum  finely  rugose,  opaque |  ^     ^^_  montana.) 

Basal  half  of  the  scutellum  rather  smooth  and  )  S.  C.  fusiformis  0.  S.  9  • 
.-Bomewhat  shining J  (Q.  alba.) 

23.  Scutellum  deeply  rugose,  and  therefore  opaqueOg_  C.  seminator  Harris  9 

male    abdomen  not  pedunculated;    head   01  V  't     IQ   alba  1 

the  female  reddish  J  o  •  IV- 

Scutellum  moderately  rugose,  and  therefore  more  or  less  shining; 
head  of  the  female  black  (except  the  face,  which  in  C.  q.  palustris 
is  reddish) 24 

. ,     ^  ,.  An    n  m  n  1  |  42.  C.  q.  palustris  0.  S.  % 

•n.    %  0.09,  9  0.10  long }  ^"i^^^  palustris.) 

f   9.  C.  futilis  O.&.  %. 

^       ,     A  ^-  ,  I  (Q-  alba.) 

%  only  O.Oo  long ^0    C.  papillata  0.  S.  ^  • 

[  (Q.  prions.) 

25.  The  branch  of  the  subcostal  vein,  running  towards  the  anterior 

margin,  is  obsolete;  the  radial  area  is  therefore  open  on  the  inner 

side 26 

The  branch  of  the  subcostal  vein  running  towards  the  anterior  mar- 
gin is  distinctly  marked,  although  sometimes  abbreviated 27 

2(5.  The  sheaths  of  the  9  ovipositor  project  consi-1 

derably  above  the  dorsal  line  of  the  abdomen;  |  36.  C.  operator  0.  S.  ■J,  9  • 
%  of  the  same  coloring  with  the  9)  both  be-  f  (Q.  nigra.) 

ing  brownish-red J 

The  sheaths  of  the  9  ovipositor  do  not  project!  ^.^_  c.similis  Bassett  ^  9 
above  the  dorsal  line  of  the  abdomen;  the  9  ,q   ilieifolia  ) 

is  bro^vnish-red  or  reddish-brown:    the  %  of  U-^^  q.  q.  phellos  0.  S.   9. 
C.  similis  IS  black;  the  %  of  C.  q.  phellos  is  as  (Q    phellos  ) 

yetunknown J 

27.  Stout  veins  of  the  wings  pale,  colorless;  head  ~|  .,g    q        nisrse  0  S  'J;  9 
and  thorax  (  9  )  reddish,  abdomen  dark  brown:  V"  '     '    m   njo-ra  )' 

'^  small  in  size,  black J  \    ■      a     ■> 

Stout  veins  of  the  wings  colored  with  brown,  head  and  thorax  (  9  ) 

brown 2S 

2S.  Antennne  uniformly  brownish-yellow ;   length]  35.  C.  modesta  0.  S.   9-' 

of  9  0.06—0.07  (male  unknown) |  (Q.  rubra?) 

Antennce  darker  towards  the  tip;  length  of  the  ]  34.  C.  tumifica  0.  S.  "J,  9  • 
9  O.O'J— 0.10 J  (Q-  tinctoria.) 

*This  brings  back  to  C.  cornigera  0.  S.  This  species  has  a  small  smooth  space 
on  the  upper  part  of  the  pleural,  which  might  mislead  those  who  perceive  it. 
Care  has  been  therefore  taken  to  arrange  the  table  in  such  a  manner  that 
whichever  of  the  two  phrases  under  ISTo.  16  is  chosen,  C.  cornigera  may  be  reached. 


1865.]  347 

N.  B. — Are  not  mentioned  in  this  table  the  species  known  in  their  wingless 
form  only  (12.  C.  pezomachoides  0.  S.,  1.3.  C.  forticornis  Walsh  and  14.  C.  Mrta 
Bassett)  and  the  species  which  I  have  not  seen  (11.  C.  flocci  Walsh,  30.  C.  sculpta 
Bassett,  15.  Philonix  fulvicollis  Fitch,  16.  Ph.  nigricollis  Fitch,  17.  Biorhiza 
nigra  Fitch). 

II.  Synopsis  of  the  described  Galls  of  N.  A.  Cynips. 
Observation. — The  numbers  on  the  left  hand  of  the  names  refer  to 
the  Remarks  on  page  350  and  the  following.  An  asterisk  near  this 
number  means  that  I  have  not  seen  the  gall,  and  therefore  cannot 
judge  with  certainty  about  its  location.  As  some  galls  have  been  de- 
scribed (especially  by  Dr.  Fitch)  under  the  name  of  their  guest-flies, 
and  had  to  change  their  name  since  the  discovery  of  the  true  gall-flies, 
I  have  mentioned  their  former  name  as  synonym  of  the  gall^  which  of 
course  does  not  imply  the  synonymy  of  the  insects.  All  the  galls  of 
the  left-hand  column  are  found  on  the  group  of  the  white  and  chestnut 
oaks ;  all  those  of  the  right-hand  column  belong  to  the  group  of  red, 
black  and  willow  oaks.  This  subdivision  will  render  it  easier  to  find  a 
gall  in  this  synopsis,  the  more  so  as  in  no  instance,  as  yet  known,  has 
the  same  species  of  gall-fly  been  discovered  on  two  species  of  oaks  be- 
longing to  diiferent  groiips.  (Compare  above,  page  342,  No  2.)  Some 
of  the  galls,  the  gall-flies  of  which  are  not  known,  may  prove  not  to  be- 
long to  the  Cynijjidse,  at  all. 

Group  of  white  and  chestnut-oaks.        |      Group  of  red,  black  and  willow-oaks. 
I.    GrALLS  ON  LEAVES. 

A.  Galls  not  intimately  connected  with  the  substance  of  the  leaf, 
generally  fastened  by  a  small  portion  of  their  surface,  and  which  can 
be  removed  without  carrying  a  portion  of  the  leaf  with  them,  (project- 
ing from  one  side  of  the  leaf,  or  from  the  margin.) 

1.  Grlobular  galls,  with  a  kernel  in  the  centre,  kept  in  position  by 
a  softer  substance  (dry  spongy,  fibrous,  or  succulent)  or  by  filaments, 
radiating  from  it  to  the  shell;  all  monothalamous. 

a.  Kernel  kept  in  position  by  a  dry,  spongy  or  fibrous  substance. 

43.  Q.  jwilavs ;  gall-fly  unknown.  22.  Q.  tinctoria;  C.  spongifica  0.  S. 

dcvteX'  gy^^  Qf  tijQ  g2i\\  :  confluens  Harris. 

M.4ix'ii;w]t0iitiJ4aV^<iifc<fet8afe*€*^  23.  Q.  coccinea;  C.  q.  coccinese  0.  S. 

b.  Kernel  kept  in  position  by  delicate  filaments. 

3.  Q.  obtusiloba;  C.  centricola  0.  S.     24.  Q.  rubra?  C.  inauis  0.  S.     Syn.  of  the 

gall:  covfluens  Fitch,  (non  Harris.) 

c.  Kernel  kept  in  position  by  a  juicy  substance. 

*30.  Q.  rubra  )  „ 

,.  „„    ^   ,.     ,     .       ^  C.  sculpta  Bassett. 

"■"30.  Q.  tinctoria     j 

2.  Globular  or  irregularly  rounded  galls  of  a  hard,   woody  sub- 


348  [May 

Group  of  wMte  and  chestnut-oaks.  |    Group  of  red,  black  and  willow-oaks. 

stance,  hollow  inside,  but  without  distinct  kernel  of  a  harder  sub- 
stance ;  the  hollow  space  usually  divided  in  two  or  more  cells. 

57.  Q.  alba;    gall-fly  unknown   (the     44.  Q.  palustris;  gall-fly  unknown. 

same  as  the   following  ?)     Syn. 
of  the  gall  Q.  pisuvx  Fitch  ? 
12.  Q.  alba  ?  C.  pezomachoides  0.  S. 

58.  Q.  alba;  gall-fly  unknown:  gall 

Q.  eWwacei  "Walsh.  ^    /-t/—   fSrijJctC. 

/^, ^.J^« ''««.-'  iv^ir.  >T%,.^£ri.*^^    - 1^-  ht''lA  r^rtnijcy 

'  o.  Spindle-shaped  galls. 
8.  Q.  alba:  C.  fusiformis  0.  S.  25.  Q.  rubra?  C.  coelebs  0.  S. 

56.  Q.   prinoides :    gall-fly   doubtful.     26.  Q.  ilicifolia :  C.  q.  ilicifoliae  Bassett. 
{Figites  chinquapin  Fitch.) 

4.  Woolly  or  hairy  excrescences  on  leaves,  wartlike  or  irregular. 
11.  Q.  alba?  C.  flocci  Walsh.  48.  Q.  palustris:  gall-fly  unknown. 

45.  Q.  alba;    gall-fly  unknown;    (C. 

flocci/)  Synon.oi  gall:    Q.  lanos    . 
Fitch. 

46.  Q.  obtusiloba;  gall-fly  unknown. 
21.  Q. obtusiloba;  C.verrucarumO.S. 

47.  Q.  prinus  ;  gall-fly  unknown. 
47.  Q.  alba;  gall-fly  unknown. 

5.  Clusters  of  small  galls  growing  on  the  underside  of  the  leaves, 
or  on  the  petiole. 

49.  Q.  obtusiloba:  gall-fly  unknown.     51.  Q.  rubra;  gall-fly  unknown;  gall  Q. 

decidua  Bassett. 

50.  Q.  alba ;  gall-fly  unknown. 

6.  Tubular  galls  with  spines  on  the  outside. 
4.  Q.  obtusiloba;  C.  tubicola  0.  S. 

AA.  G-alls  intimately  connected  with  the  substance  of  the  leaf,  so 
that  they  cannot  be  taken  off  without  carrying  a  portion  of  the  leaf 
with  them. 

1.  Griobular,  hollow,  mouothalamous  galls. 

a.  With  a  kernel  in  the  centre,  kept  in 
position  by  filaments,  radiating  from  it 
to  the  shell  (same  type  of  structure  as 
the  galls  of  section  A,  1,  b.) 

27.  Q.  rubra;  C.  singularis  Bassett.   Syn. 

of  gall  Q.  nubilipennifi  Fitch  (non 
Harris.) 

28.  Q.  ilicifolia;  C.  Osten  Sackenii  Bas- 

sett. 
28.  Q.  coccinea ;  gall-fly  unknown. 

b.  With  a  white,  cocoon-like  body,  roll- 
ing freely  about  in  the  cavity  (on  very 
young  leaves  and  on  buds,  early  in  the 
spring). 


1S65.]  349 

Group  of  white  and  chestnut-oaks.        |      Group  of  red,  black  and  willow-oaks. 

42.   Q,.  palustris.      ] 
Q,.  tinctoria.      | 

Votlte..      |C.q.palustrisO.S. 
Q.  imbricaria.  | 
Q.  ilicifolia.      J 

2.  Swellings  or  espausions  of  the  leaf  or  of  the  leaf-ribs,  mostly 
polythalamous,  except  No.  7,  which  seems  to  be  monothalamous.* 

a.  Juicy  swellings  of  the  blade  of  the  d.  Swellings  of  the  leaf,  usuallj' 
leaf;  of  a  cellular,  pithy  structure,  along  the  principal  ribs  ;  they  contain 
when  dry.  numerous,  seed-like  kernels. 

18.  Q.  obtusiloba;  C.  irregularis  0.  S.  .33.  Q.  nigra;  C.  q.  nigrae  0.  S. 

19.  Q.  alba;  C.  majalis  Bassett.  34.  Q.  tinctoria;  C.  tumifiea  0.  S. 

b.  Expansion  of  the  leaf,  not  juicy,  35.  Q.  rubra;  C.  modesta  0.  S. 
with  two  or  three  seed-like  kernels  in  « 

the  centre,  kept  in  posi  tion  by  filaments. 
9.  Q.  alba;  C.  futilis  0.  S. 
10.  Q.  prinus  ;  C.  papillata  0.  S. 

c.  Hard,  woody  swellings  of  the  leaf- 
stalk at  the  basis  of  the  leaf,  or  of  the 
principal  leaf-rib. 

7.  ^-AiTJTrtana ;  C.petiolicola  Bassett. 

7.  Q,.  prinoides  1  •         io 

'     ^  I  I  same  insect? 

7.  Q.  alba      ,    J 

7.  Q.  pwerste  ;  same  gall?     Insect  un- 
known'. 

II.    GrALLS  ON  BRANCHES,  TWIGS,  ETC. 

A.  G-alls  of  a  different  substance  than  the  limb,  and  which  can  be 
taken  off,  without  carrying  a  portion  of  the  branch  with  them. 

1.  Monothalamous  galls,  mostl}^  of  a  corky  substance  (except  the 

gall  No.  54,  which  is  filled  with  a  spongy  substance.) 

a.  Each  gall  wedge-shaped ;  a  nam-        c.  Large  globular  gall,  growing  from 
ber  of  them  growing  together,  with  the    the  side  of  the  cup  of  the  acorn, 
points  of  the  wedges  in  the  centre,  form      53.  Q.  rubra       ")      Gall-fly  unknown; 
abody  not  unlike  the  cone  of  a  pine.  f  gall    named   Q.  pru- 

,     ^        •         /  u-     1     \    n     i     I.-  Q.  tinctoria  J  nus  Walsh. 

1.  Q.  prinus  (var.  bicolor).  C.  strobi-  ^ 

,          „   „  d.  Subcorneal  galls,  often  m  clusters. 

lana  0.  S.  & 

,„,,,,,                 ,,  .,,           37.  Q.  ilicifolia:  C.  ventricosa  Bassett. 
6.  Galls  globular,  smooth,  or  with  a 

,              ■    1    i  i.1,         J  e.  Cluster  of  elongate-ovate  galls. 

nipple  or  point  at  the  end.  ^        ,          „    „                -^ 

^„    „        .         ,          1,-     1     \o  n   11  a       ■■'29.  Q.  rubra;  C.  formosa  Bassett. 

52.  Q.  prinus  (var.  bicolor)  ?  Gall-iiy              ^              ' 

,  /'.  MonothalamouSjOblonsraralls,  filled 

unknown.  ■'  '  &o 

.     „      ,,  ,  with  a  spongy  substance. 

'  Q.'^Iottana)!  ^-  g^o^^^^s  Fitch.         54.  Q.  falcata;  gall-fly  unknown. 

2.  Q.  obtusiloba    ']      Galls  similar  to 

V  the    preceding  : — 
2.  Q.  macrocarpaj  gallfly  not  reared. 

53.  Q.  alba??  Gall-fly  unknown;  gall 

named  Q.juglans  0.  S. 

■*The  gall  of  C.  petiolicola  is  certainly  polythalamous. — H.  F.  Bassett.  May 
25th,  1865. 


350  [Mat 

Group  of  white  and  chestnut-oaks.  |    Group  of  red,  black  and  willow-oaks. 

2.  Woolly  excrescences,  with  a  great  number  of  seed-like  kernels 
inside. 

6.  Q.  alba :  C.  seminator  Harris.  36.  Q.  nigra         "| 

Q.  ilicifolia    >  C.  operator  0.  S. 

Q.  palustris  J 

3.  Bladder-like,  thin-shelled,  hollow,  irregular  galls,  crowded  to- 
gether round  small  limbs. 

13.  Q.  alba :  C.  forticornis  Walsh. 
*S[?/?i.  of  gall :    Q.Jtcus  Fitch. 

4.  Clusters  of  small,  narrow,  deformed  leaves,  with  the  gall  in  the 
centre . 

.55.  Q.  prinoides ;    gall-fly   unknown; 
gall  Q.  frondosa  Bassett. 

A.  A.  Swellings  of  the  branches,  twigs,  etc.,  which  cannot  be  taken 
off.  without  breaking  the  branch. 

a.  Swellings  at  the  tip  of  the  twig. 
20.  Q.  alba;  C.  batatus  Fitch.  31.  Q.  phellos;  C.  q.  phellos  0.  S. 

5.  Q.  alba;  C.  clavula  Bassett.  ■■•32.  Q.  ilicifolia;  C.  similis  0.  S. 

Si/n.  of  gall.  Q.  tuber  Fitch. 
Q.  arbos  Fitch  ? 
b.  Swellings  in  the  middle  of  the  branch. 

39.  Q.  rubra ;  C.  punctata  Bassett. 

40.  Q.  tinctoria;  C.  podagrae  "Walsh. 
-■HI.  Q.  tinctoria;  C.  scitula  Bassett. 

38.  Q.  palustris;  C.  cornigera  0.  S. 
*38.  Q.  ilicifolia;  gall-fly  unknown. 

III.  Rema7-ks  supplemental' y  to  the  two  precediny  Tables, 
a.  Galls  on  the  group  of  the  white  and  chestnut-oaks. 

1.  C.  STROBILANA  0.  S.,  Proc.  etc.  Ill,  p.  690;  (  9  ;  Q.  prinus,  var. 
hicolor) ;  the  gall  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  254.  This,  as  Mr.  Reinhard  informs 
me,  is  a  true  agamous  Ct/nips^  in  the  restricted  sense  of  Hartig;  it  be- 
longs to  Hartig's  first  division,  which  has  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  pube- 
scent. 

2.  C.  GLOBULUS  Fitch,  Rep.  11,  No.  812  (  9  ;  <2-  aiha').  Compare 
also  0.  S.  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  68  and  Bassett,  Proc.  etc.  II,  p.  828.  Dr. 
Fitch,  Mr.  Walsh,  Mr.  Bassett  and  myself  have  found  this  gall  on  Q. 
alba.  Mr.  Bassett  has  found  a  similar  gall,  giving  apparently  the  same 
insect,  on  Q.  montana.  Grails  of  the  same  kind  were  observed  by  me 
on  Q.  obtusiloba  and  by  Mr.  Walsh  on  Q.  macrocaipa  ;  neither  of  us 
have  obtained  the  insect,  however.     Ctjnips  globulus  belongs  to  the  genus 

Cynips,  in  the  restricted  sense  of  Hartig. 

3.  C.  CENTRICOLA  0.  S.  Proc.  ctc.  I,  p.  58  (5;  Q.  obtmiloba). 
Likewise  a  Gynips  in  Hartig's  sense. 


1865.]  351 

4.  C.  TUBICOLA  0.  S.,  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  60  (  9  ;  Q.  obtusiloba.)  Again 
a  Cynips  Hartig,  as  Mr.  Eeinharcl,  to  whom  I  have  communicated  spe- 
cimens, informs  me. 

5.  C.  CLAVULA  Bassett  in  litt.  ('^yn.  C.q.  tuber  Bassett,  non  Fitch). 
(  9  ;  Q.  alba).  This  insect,  described  by  Mr.  Bassett  (Proc.  etc.  Ill, 
p.  685)  as  G.  q.  tuber  Fitch,  could  not  retain  this  name,  as  Mr.  Bassett 
himself  proves  that  it  is  not  the  insect  described  by  Dr.  Fitch,  the  latter 
being  a  guest-fly.  I  have  therefore  adopted  the  name  G.  clavtcla,  sug- 
gested to  me  in  a  letter  by  Mr.  Bassett  himself.  Although  this  insect 
has  a  pubescent  thorax,  like  Gi/nips  in  the  restricted  sense  of  Hartig,  I 
am  not  sure  whether  it  is  to  be  referred  to  this  genus.  The  feet  of  my 
specimen  are  brownish-yellow  and  not  brown,  as  mentioned  in  Mr. 
Bassett's  description.  According  to  this  author's  opinion  (1.  c.)  this 
gall  and  that  of  G.  q.  arbos  Fitch  are  produced  by  the  same  insect. 
Both  G.  q.  tuber  Fitch  and  G.  q.  arbos  Fitch  are  guest-flies;  (compare 
below,  the  genus  Geroptres). 

6.  C.  SEMINATOR  Harris,  Insects  etc.  p.  548 ;  Fitch,  Rep.  II,  No. 
315;  0.  Sack.,  Proc.  etc.  I,  69,  No.  21;  Walsh,  Proc.  etc.  II,  p.  465 
(at  the  top);  (  S  ?  ;  Q.  alba).  I  had  expressed  some  doubts  about  the 
identity  of  the  specimens  obtained  by  me  from  these  galls,  with  those 
described  by  Fitch,  as  he  says  that  the  thorax  of  the  9  is  cinnamon-red. 
Mr.  Walsh  confirmed  my  doubts,  venturing  even  the  supposition  that 
the  gall-fly  described  by  Fitch  was  a  guest-gall-fly.  I  believe  now  to 
have  found  the  solution  of  the  difficulty.  Having  exaniined  my  speci- 
mens recently,  after  a  lapse  of  several  years,  I  find  that  the  thorax  of 
all  the  9  specimens  has  become  reddish,  whereas  that  of  the  %,  speci- 
mens has  remained  black.  It  seems  probable,  therefore,  that  Dr.  Fitch 
had  rather  old  specimens  before  him  when  drawing  his  description.  G. 
seminator  belongs  to  the  genus  Andricus  Hartig. 

7.  C.  PETIOLICOLA  Bassett,  Proc.  etc.  II,  p.  325  (S  <^  ;  Q.montana); 
compare  also  Walsh,  Proc.  etc.  II,  p.  487;  (Q.  prinus.,  var.  discolor). 
This  is  the  gall  which  was  described  by  me  as  occurring  on  Q.  prinus 
(Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  Q&) ;  at  that  time  I  obtained  only  parasites  from  it. 
Mr.  Bassett  has  found  a  similar  gall  on  Q.  prinoides  (1.  c.  II,  p.  325), 
giving  a  closely  resembling  fly.  A  number  of  specimens  of  the  latter, 
which  I  owe  to  Mr.  Basse ct,  are  smaller,  the  body  of  the  female  is  con- 
stantly pale  brown  (and  not  black,  as  that  of  G.  petiolkola  9  ),  and,  as 
Mr.  Bassett  remarks,  the  veins  of  the  wings  are  less  distinctly  marked. 
This  is  again  a  case  of  a  phytophagic  variety,  which  may  almost  be  con- 
sidered as  a  distinct  species.  A  similar  gall  on  Q.  alba^  mentioned  by 
3Ir.  Bassett  (1.  c.)  produces  an  insect  which  stands  to  G.  petioUcola  in 


352  "  [Mat 

the  same  relation  as  the  gall-fly  of  Q.  prinoides.      C.  petiolicola  is  very 
probably  an  Aniricus. 

8.  C.  FUSiFORMis  0.  S.,  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  61  (  9 ;  Q.  alhd).  This 
insect  somewhat  resembles  C.  petioUcoIa^  and,  as  I  possess  only  a  single 
specimen  of  it,  the  difference  indicated  in  the  analytical  table  may  not 
be  a  constant  one;  I  will  try,  therefore,  to  point  out  some  others.  Both 
species  have,  between  the  parapsidal  gTooves.  two  lines  or  grooves  run- 
ning from  the  collare  a  short  distance  backwards;  in  0.  ■petiolicola  they 
are  much  more  distinct,  but  can  hardly  be  called  grooves,  as  they  are 
smooth  lines,  easily  perceptible,  on  account  of  their  lustre,  among  the 
sculpture  of  the  surface  of  the  mesonotum ;  in  C.  fmiformh  they  ap- 
pear more  like  furrows,  but  not  being  very  deep,  they  have  less  lustre 
than  those  of  the  other  species,  and  are  therefore  less  perceptible;  a 
third,  intermediate,  impressed  line  is,  in  a  certain  light,  perceptible  be- 
tween them.  The  scutellum  of  C.  jjetioUcola  is  more  deeply  wrinkled 
than  that  of  C.  fusiformis.  Both  species  have  a  short,  sparse,  micro- 
scopic pubescence  on  the  sides  of  the  mesonotum  and  on  the  scutellum, 
but  this  pubescence  is  more  distinct  in  C.  petiolicola.  (Compare  also 
below,  No.  56,  about  the  possible  relationship  between  this  gall  and 
that  of  Figites  chinquapin  Fitch). 

9.  C.  FUTiLis  0.  S.  (S  ;  Q.  alba?).  10.  C.  papillata  0.  S.,  (S  ; 
Q.  prinm')  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  63-64,  Nos.  13,  14.  Compare  also  Bassett, 
1.  c.  II,  p.  329.  These  are  probably  the  same  species,  attacking  two 
diflferent  oaks  and  producing  somewhat  different  galls. 

11.  C.  FLOCCi  Walsh  9  ,  Proc.  etc.  II,  p.  482  (  9  ;  Q.  alhaf).  This 
species,  which  I  have  not  seen,  may  po.ssibly  belong  to  Andricus  Hartig. 
Whether  the  gall  is  identical  with  the  gall  Q.  lana  Fitch  is  not  certain. 
(Compare  below,  No.  45.) 

12.  C.  PEZOMACHOIDES  0.  S.,  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  250  ($;  Q.  alba?). 
Although,  at  the  time  I  described  this  insect,  I  was  somewhat  un- 
cei-tain  about  the  kind  of  oak  to  which  the  galls  belonged,  I  hardly 
doubt  now  that  this  insect  is  the  author  of  the  gall  called  Q.  pisum  by 
Fitch  (Rep.  II,  No.  319),  the  C^nip^  q.  pisum  Fitch  being  a  guest- 
gall-fly.  The  gall  described  by  Mr.  Walsh  as  Q.  erinacei  {Q.  alba; 
gall-fly  unknown)  Proc.  etc.  II,  p.  483,  may  be  the  same  species,  as  Dr. 
Fitch  also  mentions  prickles,  occasionally  occurring  on  his  galls  of  Q. 
pisum.  A  difference  somewhat  more  difficult  to  reconcile  is,  that  Mr. 
Walsh's  gall  is  said  to  occur  twice  as  often  on  the  uppe?-  side  of  the  leaf 
as  on  the  under  side ;  whereas  both  Dr.  Fitch  and  myself  found  the 
gall  Q.  pisum  (which  is  now  to  be  called  pezomachoides)  always  on  the 


1865.]  358 

under  side.     This  species  probably  belongs  to  the  genus  Tcras  Hartig, 
now  united  to  Andricus.     (Compare  also  the  following  species). 

13.  C.  FORTICORNIS  Walsh,  Proc.  etc.  II,  p.  490  (  9  ;  (?.  alba),  is 
easily  distinguished  from  the  preceding  species  by  its  smaller  size,  the 
more  uniformly  reddish  coloring  of  the  head  and  the  thorax,  and 
especially  by  the  structure  of  the  antennte,  which  are  shorter  and 
stouter,  whereas  they  are  slender  and  filiform  in  the  other  species. 
The  third  antennal  joint  of  C  forticornis  is  not  longer  than  the  two 
preceding  taken  together,  obconical ;  the  fourth  is  much  shorter  and 
also  somewhat  obconical,  and  all  the  following  joints,  except  the  last, 
are  almost  as  broad  as  long.  The  third  joint  of  C.  pezomaclioides  is 
about  once  and  a  half  the  length  of  the  two  preceding  taken  together, 
linear,  slender;  the  fourth,  although  shorter,  has  the  same  linear  shape  ; 
the  following  joints  (5,  6,  7)  gradually  diminish  in  length,  but  are  all 
elongated.     This  is  also  a  Teras  Hartig,  and  not  Biorhiza  Westw. 

14.  C.  HiRTA  Bassett,  Proc.  etc.  Ill,  p.  688  (  ?  ;  <?.  montana) ;  is 
easily  distinguished  from  the  two  preceding  species  by  its  large  size,  its 
uniformly  brown  coloring  and  its  pubescent  abdomen.  The  structure 
of  its  antennas  is  like  that  of  the  antennas  of  C.  pezomachoides  0.  S. 
(Cnmpirn  n1  ii  Nn     iri^  1ir1nir-V 

15.  PiiiLONix  FULVicoLLis  Fitch,  Rep.  II,  No.  291 ;  16.  Philonix 
niCtRICOLLIS  Fitch,  Rep.  II,  No.  292,  which  the  author  found  on  snow 
in  winter,  but  did  not  breed  from  galls,  probably  belong  to  Teras 
Hartig.  Whether  17.  Biorhiza  niora  Fitch,  Rep.  IT,  No.  290,  is 
really  a  Biorhiza^  seems  uncertain,  but  it  is  not  improbable,  as  the  Eu- 
ropean species  of  this  genus  likewise  occurs  on  snow. 

18.  C.  IRREGULARIS  0.  S.,  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  65  {%  ;  Q.  ohhisdoha)  ; 
19.  C.  MAJAlils  Bassett,  Proc.  etc.  Ill,  p.  683  (  S  9  ;  Q.  alba).  Both 
galls  are  exactly  alike,  as  I  have  ascertained  by  comparison,  only  my 
description  applies  to  dry  galls,  Mr.  Bassett's  to  fresh  ones.  Whether 
the  gall-flies  have  to  be  considered  as  distinct  species  or  as  phytophagic 
varieties,  I  am  uncertain,  as  I  have  never  possessed  more  than  a  single 
specimen  (without  abdomen)  of  C.  irregularis.  By  all  means  this  re- 
semblance is  close  enough  to  render  the  description  of  C  majalis  useful 
to  consult  for  the  identification  of  my  species,  the  abdomen  of  which, 
as  well  as  the  female  sex,  have  not  been  described  by  me.  I  have 
already  discussed  above  (p.  340)  the  generic  location  of  these  species. 

20.  C.  BATATUS  Fitch,  Rep.  II,  No.  311;  Bassett,  Proc.  etc  III,  p. 
684  (  %  9  ;  Q-  olba)  ;  (about  the  generic  location  compare  page  340,  No. 
4).  Having  received  the  gall  and  the  fly  from  Mr.  Bassett,  I  found, 
upon  comparison,  that  the  gall  is  identical  with  the  one  I  took  for  that 


354  [May 

of  C.  tuber  Fitch  (compare  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  71,  No.  27).  Mr.  Bassett 
may  be  right,  and  if  I  have  any  hesitation  in  this  matter,  it  is  on  ac- 
count of  the  hard,  seed-hke  bodies,  mentioned  by  Fitch  as  belonging  to 
the  gall  Q.  tube)-,  and  not  mentioned  in  the  description  of  the  gall  Q. 
batatus.  These  seed-like  bodies  are  not  to  be  found  in  the  gall  called 
Q.  tuber  by  Mr.  Bassett  (now  daoula  Bassett).  Whether  the  fly  C 
batatus  Bassett  is  identical  with  0.  batatus  Fitch  is  also  not  quite  cer- 
tain, as  Dr.  Fitch's  short  description  may  just  as  well  apply  to  a  guest- 
fly  (^Ceroptres)  usually  obtained  in  abundance  from  the  same  gall. 
Still,  as  there  is  nothing  in  Dr.  Fitch's  description  to  contradict  the 
synonymy,  there  is  no  harm  in  adopting  it. 

21.  C.  VERRUCARUM  0.  S.,  Proc.  etc.  I,  62  (9;  Q.  obtusiloba.~) 
Compare  also  above,  page  340,  No.  4.  At  the  time  when  I  described 
this  species  I  was  not  positive  about  the  sex  of  my  specimens.  I  per- 
ceive now  that  they  are  really  females. 


b.  Galls  on  the  group  of  the  red,  black  and  willow-oaks. 

22.  C.  SPONGIFIOA  0.  S.,  (S  9;  Q.  tinctoria).  23.  C.  COCCINE^ 
0.  S.,  Proc.  I,  p.  243-245  (?;(>.  coccinea.')  Mr.  Walsh  suggests 
(Proc.  etc.  II,  p.  445)  that  as  Q.  coccinea  is  probably  nothing  but  a 
variety  of  Q.  tinctoria,  these  two  galls,  which  show  but  little  difference 
and  produce  apparently  the  same  insect,  may  be  considered  as  identical. 
It  may  really  be  so,  but  the  apparent  identity  of  the  insect  alone  would 
not  be  a  sufficient  proof,  as  it  seems  that  in  the  group  of  Ct/nipidae  to 
which  C.  spongifica  belongs,  the  species  are  sometimes  very  difficult  to 
distinguish.  (Compare  the  two  following  species.)  C.  aciculata  0.  S. 
(Proc.  etc.  I,  56)  being  the  dimorphous  9  of  C'.  spongifica,  all  that 
has  been  said  by  me  (Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  244—245)  about  the  assumed  dif- 
ference between  their  galls  will  have  to  be  cancelled.  Still,  it  would 
be  worth  while  to  investigate  whether  these  galls  are  absolutely  identi- 
cal, so  that  no  outward  sign  whatever  indicates  the  contents  of  the  gall. 
C.  confliiens  Harris..  Ins.  etc.  p.  546,  3d  edit,  is  apparently  synonymous 
with  C.  acicxdata,  although   Harris  says  that  it  occurs  on  the  red  oak. 

24.  C.  INANIS  0.  S.,  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  242  (  S  9  ;  §.  rubra).  Com- 
pare also  Walsh,  Proc.  etc.  II,  pp.  457,  458.  At  the  time  when  I  de- 
scribed this  gall,  I  was  uncertain  whether  it  occurred  on  Q.  rubra  or 
Q.  coccinea.  Mr.  Walsh  found  it  on  Q.  rubra  in  the  environs  of  Rock 
Island;  and  Dr.  Fitch,  (Rep.  II,  No.  317)  who  described  this  gall  as 
that  of  Callasjndia  conHuenta  Harris,  likewise  found  it  on  the  red  oak. 
Thus  the  question  may  be  considered  as  settled.  Mr.  Walsh  was  the 
first  to  obtain  the  male  sex  of  this  species.     I  am  not  aware  of  any  dis- 


1865.]  355 

tinctive  character  between  C.  I'nanis  and  C.  spongifica ;  the  galls,  how- 
ever, are  very  different.  It  is  not  impossible  that  we  have  here  not  a 
species,  but  a  phytophagic  variety,  habitually  attacking  a  different  spe- 
cies of  oak,  and,  owing  to  the  physiologic  peculiarities  of  this  species  of 
tree,  producing  a  somewhut  different  gall.  C.futUts  and  C.  papillata 
(compare  above,  Nos.  9  and  10)  stand  probably  in  the  same  relation  to 
each  other. 

25.  C.  COELEBS  0.  S.,  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  60,  No.  7  {%  ;  Q.  rubra). 
The  male  (the  only  sex  I  know),  is  remarkably  like  G.  spongifica  %  , 
and  differs  only  by  its  smaller  size,  its  somewhat  paler  feet,  and  a 
less  distinct  areolet.  The  gall  is  very  different  in  shape  from  the  galls 
C.  spongifica  and  C.  inanis,  although  the  principle  of  its  structure  is 
the  same,  as  it  contains  a  single  nucleus,  kept  in  position  by  fibres  ra- 
diating towards  the  shell.  If  this  gall  really  occurs  on  Q.  rubra,  of 
which  I  have  but  little  doubt,  it  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  two  insects 
so  closely  allied  as  C.  inanis  and  0.  coelebs  should  produce  so  different 
galls  on  the  same  kind  of  oak.  The  females  (both  sexual  and  dimor- 
phous) of  C.  coelebs  remain  as  yet  to  be  discovered. 

26.  C.  iLiciFOLi^  Bassett,  Proc.  etc.  Ill,  p.  682  (  S  9  ;  Q-  ilici/ofia). 
The  gall  is  spindle-shaped,  like  the  preceding,  but  much  larger  and 
broader  in  the  middle. 

27.  C.  siNGULARis  Bassett,  Proc.  etc.  II,  p.  326  (S  9;  Q.  rubra). 
Compare  also  Walsh,  1.  c.  p.  484.  Whether  0.  nubilipennis  Harris 
(Ins.  etc.  p.  548,  3d  edit.)  is  really  this  insect,  seems  very  doubtful,  as 
I  do  not  perceive  in  my  specimens  any  vestige  of  a  "  smoky  cloud  on 
the  tip  of  its  wings,"  which  determined  the  choice  of  the  name  of  the 
species.  Nor  do- 1  think  that  the  description  "galls  of  the  size  and 
color  of  grapes  "  applies  to  the  gall  of  0.  nubilipennis  better  than  to  any 
other  gall.  The  gall  described  by  Dr.  Fitch  as  that  of  C.  nubilipennis 
is  certainly  identical  with  Mr.  Bassett's  gall,  but  whether  it  is  identical 
with  Mr.  Harris'  gall,  is  another  question;  it  is  equally  uncertain  whe- 
ther the  gall-fly  which  Dr.  Fitch  calls  G.  nubilipennis,  really  belongs  to 
his  gall,  as,  according  to  his  own  statement,  it  was  found  on  the  ground 
among  fallen  oak-leaves.  Under  such  circumstances,  I  would  propose 
to  retain  Mr.  Bassett's  name  for  the  gall  and  fly  described  by  him. 

28.  C.  OsTEN  Sackenii  Bassett,  Proc.  etc.  II,  p.  327  ( S  9 ;  Q. 
ilicifolia).  As  Mr.  Bassett  observes,  this  gall  is  very  like  a  gall  on  Q. 
coccinea,  which  I  described  (Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  256).  Nevertheless,  [ 
would  hesitate  to  unite  them  before  convincing  myself  of  the  identity 
of  the  gall-flies.  I  do  not  know  the  gall-fly  of  my  gall ;  the  gall  and 
gall-fly  of  0.  Sackenii  I  owe  to  the  liberality  of  Mr.  Bassett. 


356  [Mat 

29.  C.  FORMOSA  Bassett,  Proc.  etc.  Ill,  p.  679  (  9 ;  $.  rubra).  la 
not  this  remarkable  species,  obtained  from  the  gall  in  winter,  a  dimor- 
phous female  of  some  as  yet  unknown  %  and  9  escaping  from  the  gall  in 
summer?     I  have  already  made  this  suggestion  above,  p^Jge  341. 

30.  C.  SCULPTA  Bassett,  Proc.  etc.  II,  p.  o24  (%  ^  ;  Q-  rubra).  I 
have  not  seen  this  insect,  nor  its  gall.  May  this  not  be  the  C.  nubiU- 
pennis  Harris?  (compare  above,  No.  27).     Mr.  Walsh  has  observed  on 

Q.  tinctoria  a  gall  which  he  considers  as  identical  with  that  of  0. 
sculjjta  (Proc.  etc.  Ill,  p.  639). 


31.  C.  Q.  PHELLO.S  0.  S.,  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  70,  No.  23  (  9  ;  Q.  phellos). 

32.  C.  siMiMS  Bassett,  Proc.  etc.  Ill,  p.  685  (S  9;  Q.  UicifoKa). 
This  gall-fly  is  very  like  the  preceding,  and  it  would  require  a  larger 
number  of  specimens  than  I  possess  in  order  to  discover  permanent 
differences.  C  i>im'dls  is  somewhat  larger,  its  abdomen  is  apparently 
broader,  its  coloring  somewhat  darker,  etc.  Their  galls,  judging  by 
Mr.  Bassett's  description  of  that  of  G.  shnllis,  are  also  very  much  alike. 

33.  C.  Q.  NiGR^  0.  S.,  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  66,  No.  17  (  S  9  ;  Q.  nigra). 
The  gall  resembles  that  of  0.  fumifica  0.  S.j  the  gall-fly  is  easily  dis- 
tinguished by  its  coloring. 

34.  C.  TUJVirFlCA,  n.  sp.  (  S  9  ;  Q.  tinctoria).  Obtained  by  me  from 
a  swelling  on  the  midrib  of  the  leaves  of  Q.  tinctoria.  Most  of  the 
swellings  were  near  the  basis  of  the  leaf;  some  of  them  even  on  the 
leaf-stalk.  Cut  open,  they  show  numerous  seed-like  bodies,  arranged 
in  rows,  and  each  containing  an  insect. 

C.  tumifica  n.  sp.    '^  9  • 

9  0.09  long.  Head  brownish-red  or  yellowish-brown;  a  blackish  spot  on  the 
vertex  encloses  the  ocelli ;  anteunse  14-jointed^  the  last  joint  is  much  shorter 
than  the  two  preceding  joints  taken  together:  their  color  is  yellowish-brown, 
the  last  five  or  six  joints  are  brown.  Mesonotum  brown,  mixed  with  reddish  in 
such  a  way  that  the  parapsidal  grooves  are  on  reddish  ground;  a  space  adjoin- 
ing the  scutellum  is  also  reddish;  the  surface  of  the  mesonotum  is  finely,  dense- 
ly, but  irregularly  rugose  and  opaque ;  between  the  parapsidal  grooves  two 
narrow,  polished  lines  run  from  the  coUare  a  short  distance  backwards;  scu- 
tellum brown,  deeply  rugose,  and  therefore  opaque;  abdomen  dark  brown, 
almost  black,  polished,  with  a  microscopic  punctation  on  the  margin  of  the  seg- 
ments; sheath  of  the  ovipositor  not  reaching  above  the  dorsal  line  of  the  abdo- 
men; feet  brownish-yellow;  femora  and  tibife  more  or  less  infuscated;  the  pos- 
terior ones  more  than  the  foremost  ones;  tarsi  brownish-yellow,  brown  at  tip. 
Wings  hyaline  ;  no  areolet ;  stout  veins  brown. 

x\  single  female  specimen,  bred  from  galls  found  in  June,  near  Dobb'a 
Ferry,  New  York,  on  Q.  tinctoria. 

Mr.  Bassett  having  found  the  same  gall  on  Q.  tinctoria  and  a  similar 
one  on  Q.  rubra,  communicated  me  the  flies  bred  from  one  of  them,  he 


1865.]  357 

was  not  quite  sure  which.  These  gall-flies  altogether  resemble  C.  tumi- 
yica,  and  I  do  not  doubt  of  their  identity.  Some  of  the  specimens  had 
the  whole  mesonotum  reddish,  and  only  a  broad  stripe  in  the  middle, 
not  reaching  the  scutellum,  brown.  As  among  these  specimens  there 
were  several  males,  I  give  here  their  description. 

%  0.06 — 0.07  long;  altogether  black,  except  the  entennse,  which  are  browniBh, 
and  the  feet,  which  are  like  those  of  the  9;  antennae  15-jointed;  third  joint 
elongated,  curved;  sculpture  of  the  mesonotum  exceedingly  fine,  almost  im- 
perceptible, and  for  this  reason  the  mesonotum  moderately  shining;  the  two 
smooth  lines  between  the  parapsidal  grooves  are  perceptible;  abdomen  very 
small  in  comparison  to  the  body;  wings  like  those  of  the  $>;  veins  dark  brown. 

G.  modesta  and  G.  tumifica  are  very  closely  allied  and  their  galls 
also;  both  differ  principally  in  size.  The  insects  diifer,  moreover,  by 
the  number  of  joints  of  the  9  antennjB,  by  the  coloring  of  the  latter, 
which  is  a  uniform  brownish-yellow  in  G.  modesta^  whereas  the  antennae 
of  tumifica  are  brown  at  the  tip ;  by  the  coloring  of  the  mesonotum  of 
the  female,  which  is  uniform  brown  in  G.  modesta  and  is  more  or  less 
mixed  with  reddish  in  G.  tumifica.  These  two  species,  with  G.  q.  ?ii(/rse 
form  a  distinct  group,  having  the  structure  of  their  galls,  the  absence 
of  an  areolet,  the  sculpture  and  coloring,  etc.  iu  common,  and  it  is  pro- 
bable that  the  %  of  G.  modeMa  is,  like  that  of  the  two  other  species, 
distinguished  by  its  small  size  and  dark  coloring.  It  is  also  worthy 
of  notice  that  the  ovipositor  of  G.  nigrse  and  especially  of  G.  tumifica  is 
very  often  entirely  exserted  from  the  sheath,  in  the  shape  of  a  large, 
free  spiral,  outside  of  the  abdomen.  I  do  not  know  how  to  explain  this 
peculiarity,  which  I  have  not  observed  so  constantly  in  any  other  species. 

35.  C.  MODESTA  O.  S.  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  65,  No.  16.  (  9  .  Q.  rubra.) 
Compare  the  preceding  species. 

86.  C.  OPERATOR  0.  S.  Proc,  etc.,  I,  p.  256.  (  S  9  ;  Q.  nigra.) 
Compare  also  Bassett,  1.  c.  II,  p.  332.  This  species  has  12-jointed  9 
antennas;  the  length  and  structure  of  the  sheath  of  the  ovipositor,  the 
structure  of  the  abdomen  and  the  neuration  of  the  wings  will  probably 
entitle  G.  operator  to  become,  at  once,  the  type  of  a  new  genus.  The  pe- 
culiar character  of  the  neuration  (absence  of  the  branch  of  the  subcostal, 
running  towards  the  margin  of  the  wing)  it  has  in  common  with  G. 
similis  and  G.  quercus  phellos.  Mr.  Bassett  has  observed  galls  similar  to 
those  of  G.  operator  0.  S.  (Q.  nigra),  on  Q.  ilici folia  and  Q.palustris. 
He  communicated  to  me  the  insects  obtained  from  these  galls,  and  I  can- 
not discover  any  important  difference,  except  that  the  hind  tibiae  of 
the  specimens  obtained  from  Q.  ilicifolia  were  not  infuscated,  and  the 
subcostal  as  well  as  the  transverse  veins,  were  somewhat  darker. 


358  [May 

37.  G.  VENTRicosA  Bassett,  Proc,  etc.,  Ill,  p.  681.  (  9  .  §.  ilici- 
folia?) 

38.  C.  CORNIGERA  0.  S.  I  have  described  the  gall,  which  I  observed 
in  cousiderable  number  on  Q.  palustris  (Proc,  etc.,  I,  p.  2.51).  Since 
then,  I  have  obtained  the  gall-fly,  and  let  its  description  follow.  Whe- 
ther the  gall  observed  by  Mr.  Bassett  on  Q.  Uicifolia  (Proc.  II,  328) 
belongs  to  the  same  species  is  very  uncertain.     I  have  not  seen  it. 

C.  comigera  n.  sp.  9-  0-  H  If'iig-  Black;  the  head  comparatively  broad,  as 
broad  as  the  thorax;  face  finely  and  indistinctly  pubescent;  irregularly  rugose, 
semi-opaque ;  a  few  indistinct  striae  converging  towards  the  mouth  on  both  sides  ; 
mandibles  reddish,  their  tips  blaclc;  palpi  brownish-yellow;  front  opaque,  ver- 
tex with  some  more  lustre,  finely,  irregularly  sculptured;  antennae  14-jointed, 
yellowish-brown,  brown  towards  the  tip;  third  joint  nearly  as  long  as  the 
two  preceding  taken  together ;  the  following  joints  gradually  diminish  in 
length;  joints  8  to  13  differ  but  little  in  length;  the  last  joint  is  about  once  and 
ahalf  the  length  of  the  preceding.  Humeral  parts  of  the  collare  coarsely  rugose, 
opaque,  in  contrast  to  the  comparatively  smooth  and  shining  mesonotum;  the 
latter  with  delicate,  dense  transverse  microscojDic  rugae,  not  much  diminishing 
the  lustre  of  the  surface ;  three  moderately  distinct  impressed  lines  run  from 
the  collare  some  distance  backwards;  parapsidal  grooves  very  distinctly  mark- 
ed, but  their  margins  are  less  well  cut  or  less  smooth  than  usual,  as  if  the  groove 
was  formed  by  a  series  of  confluent  punctures;  the  lateral  grooves  partake  of 
the  same  character,  and  are  somewhat  curved,  with  the  convexity  on  the  out- 
side; tegulse  yellowish-brown;  pleurae  densely  and  irregularly  sculptured, 
opaque,  except  a  shining  spot  on  their  upper  portion;  scutellum  deeply  and 
coarsely  rugose;  abdomen  black,  or  rather  dark-brown,  polished,  the  margins 
of  the  segments  lighter  brown;  second  segment  comparatively  large  ;  ventral 
valve  ending  in  a  short  apicule,  bearing  a  tuft  of  hairs;  feet  brownish-yellow, 
tips  of  tarsi  brown  ;  hind  femora  and  tibiae  infuscated ;  middle  femora  some- 
times also.  Wings  hyaline,  somewhat  whitish,  stout  veins  pale-brownish  ;  areo- 
let  distinct. 

I  possess  only  two  specimens,  bred  from  the  gall ;  one  of  them  is 
certainly  a  female  ;  the  abdomen  of  the  other  is  somewhat  injured,  and 
as,  at  the  same  time  the  14th  antennal  joint  shows  an  indistinct  sub- 
division in  two,  it  is  not  impossible  that  this  is  a  male. 

39.  C.  PUNCTATA  Bassett,  Proc.  etc.  II,  p.  324.  (9;  Q.  rubra.) 
40.  C.  PODAGRA  Walsh,  Proc.  etc.  II,  p.  492.  (  9 ;  Q.  tinctorial) 
About  these  species  probably  being  merely  phytoghapic  varieties,  com- 
pare Walsh,  1.  c.  in  the  foot-note.  Although  more  than  120  specimens 
were  reared  by  both  authors,  no  male  has  yet  been  found.* 

41.  C.  sciTULA  Bassett,  Proc.  etc.  Ill,  p.  683.  (S  9.  Q.tinctoria.) 
The  diiference  in  the  size  notwithstanding,  there  is  a  striking  analogy 
iii  shape  and  sculpture  between  this  species  and  the  former.     I  have 


*  I  have  found  nearly  600  specimens— all  females. — H.  F.  Bassett. 


1865.]  35^ 

already  commented  upon  this  analogy  (page  342).  The  galls  seem  like- 
wise to  be  somewhat  alike. 

42.  C.  QUERCUS  PALusTRis  O.  S.  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  62,  No.  11.,  1.  c. 
I,  p.  251 ;  Walsh,  1.  c.  II,  p.  488  ;  Bassett,  1.  e.  II,  p.  329.  This  gall, 
originally  found  by  me  on  Q.  palustn's^  has  been  found  since  on  Q. 
tinctoria,  coccinea,  falcata,  {mhricaria  and  ilicifolia.  The  insects  from 
all  these  galls  belong  apparently  to  the  same  species. 


The  insects  producing  the  following  galls,  are  as  yet  unknown  and 
some  of  them  may  not  belong  to  the  Cijnipidse  at  all. 

43.   Grail  on  Q.  pimuis,  described  by  me,  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  254.     May^— 
4t-B-9t  be  the  same' as  the  gall  of  0.  hula  Baa3ctt-((2.  nionfana)  1 — 

4^  G-all  on  Q.  palustris,  described  by  me,  P\;oc.  etc.  I,  253.  The 
gall  desifiribed  by  Mr.  Walsh  (Proc.  etc.  II,  p.  48l\  under  the  name  of 
Q.  pihafK  (Q.  tinctorid),  the  gall-fly  of  which  Re  did  not  obtain, 
is  not  unliW  my  gall  of  Q.  palustrls.  Mr.  Walsh's^  gall  is  the  pro- 
duce of  a  Cebidomyia ;  the  orange-colored  larvae,  m^itioned  by  this 
author  (1.  c.  at  ihe  bottom  of  the  page)  are  larvae  o^that  genus  of 
Diptera;  and  theVall  itself  is  the  same  which  has  beenVnentioned  by 
me,  (in  the  Monogrbi^s  on  JSF.  A.  Diptera,  Vol.  I,  p.  201,^ine  10  from 
the  top,)  in  connectio^vith  Cecid.  ajjinmetrica  0.  S.  It  isVot  impro- 
bable, therefore,  as  alre^^  suggested  by  me  (Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  253),  that 
the  gall  of  Q.  palustris  ^ere  described  is  likewise  the  produ^^  of  a 
Gecidomijia.  The  fact  ihst  Mr.  Walsh  bred  an  inquilinous  gii^-fly, 
Ceroptrp.s  (Amblynotus)  ine\nis  Walsh,  from  his  gall  is  very  rema 
able,  and  I  believe  the  only  iraetance  on  record  of  a  Cynipidous  inse^ 
living  as  guest  in  a  dipterous  g-all. 

45.  Cynips  q.  lana  Fitch  {Q.  alba),  being  probably  not  a  Ci/nips, 
but  a  guest-fly,  perhaps  Si/nergus,  the  gall-fly  of  the  gall  which  Dr. 
Fitch  describes  under  the  name  of  Q.  lana,  is  as  yet  unknown.  Mr. 
Bassett  has  communicated  to  me  specimens  of  a  gall  answering  exactly  to 
Dr.  Fitch's  description  and  figure.  Until  the  gall-fly  of  Q.  lana  Fitch 
(which  gall  will  have  to  be  called  then  by  the  name  of  that  gall-fly)  is 
bred,  the  question  of  the  identity  of  this  gall  with  that  of  O.flocci  Walsh, 
can  hardly  be  settled.  Judging  by  the  measurements  given  by  Mr.  Walsh 
(0.2 — 0.4),  his  gall  seems  to  be  usually  smaller.  (Compare  Walsh, 
Proc.  etc.  II,  p.  482.) 

46.  G-all  on  Q.  ohtusUoha,  similar  to  the  preceding,  and  described  by 
me  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  62.  My  specimens  are  of  a  darker,  more  brownish- 
yellow  color  than  the  gall  Q.  lana  Fitch,  and  seem  usually  to  occur 
near  the  basis  of  the  leaf,  whereas  Q.  lana  is  generally  found  about  the 


360  [Mat 

middle  of  the  leaf.     It  may  be  inferred  hence,  that  these  galls  are  the 
produce  of  two  different  insects. 

47.  These  two  galls  (on  Q.  prinus  and  alba)  were  mentioned  by  me, 
Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  62,  in  connection  with  the  gall  of  C.  verrucarum. 

48.  Gall  on  Q.  palustris,  described  by  me,  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  25B. 

49.  Gall  on  Q.  obtusiloha,  described  by  me, -Proc.  etc.  T,  p,  255. 

50.  Gall  on  Q.  alba,  described  by  me,  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  255.  When 
dry,  these  galls  become  brown  and  hard  like  wood ;  being  crowded  to- 
gether, their  lower  ends  become  wedge-shaped. 

51.  Gall  on  Q.  rubra,  called  Q.  decidua  by  Mr.  Bassett,  Proc.  etc. 
Ill,  p.  689  ;  this  gall,  of  which  I  have  specimens,  has  some  analogy  to 
that  of  Q.  obtusiloba  (No.  46),  but  it  is  certainly  different. 

52.  These  galls  were  described  by  me,  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  256,  as  being 
from  an  unknown  kind  of  oak.  Since  then,  Mr.  Bassett  communi- 
cated to  me  apparently  similar  galls,  found  in  Ohio,  on  Q.  bicolor.  x\s 
the  specimens  described  by  me  were  communicated  to  me  by  Dr.  Mor- 
ris, together  with  the  gall  of  G.  strob'dana,  occurring  on  Q.  bk-ohr,  it 
ia  not  unlikely  that  they  were  found  on  the  same  tree. 

53.  Mr.  Walsh  mentions  this  gall  in  the  following  manner  (Proc.  etc. 
Ill,  p.  639)  : — "  I  found  last  August  and  early  in  September,  in  very 
great  numbei'S,  both  on  Q.  rubra  and  Q.  tinctoria,  growing  from  the 
side  of  the  cup  of  the  acorn,  a  globular,  smooth,  plum-like,  fleshy,  in- 
tensely bitter  gall,  about  0.50  to  0.75  inch  in  diameter,  mottled  with 
yellowish  and  crimson  outside  and  internally  yellowish  in  the  centre, 
and  towards  the  circumference  pink,  like  a  watermelon.  This  gall,  of 
which  I  forwarded  a  specimen  to  Baron  Osten  Sacken,  is  thought  by 
him  to  be  identical  with  his  Q.jiiglans,  which  was  described  only  from 
dry,  shrivelled  up  specimens,  and  which  was  stated  by  Mr.  Hitz,  who 
found  it,  '  to  gro\Y  on  the  branches  of  the  White  Oak.'  .  .  .  Either 
Mr.  Hitz  must  be  mistaken,  ...  or  else  my  gall  is  a  distinct  species. 
If  so,  I  propose  for  it  the  name  of  Q.  jjrunus."  The  dry  gall  sent  by 
Mr.  Walsh  looks  exactly  like  the  galls  which  I  have  described  Proc. 
etc.  I,  p.  255,  under  the  name  of  Q.  juglans.  The  inside,  however,  of 
the  dry  gall  is  porous,  like  pith,  and  therefore  much  less  hard  than  that 
of  my  galls.  The  identity  of  these  galls  seems  therefore  at  least  doubt- 
ful, since  I  have  compared  them  more  closely. 

54.  Although  different  in  shape,  this  gall,  found  on  Q.  falcata  and 
described  by  me  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  69,  No.  20,  belongs  to  the  same  type 
>of  structure  with  the  gall  C  xpongifica,  and  probably  produces  an  insect 
of  the  same  group. 


1865.]  361 

55.  Grail  on  Q.  prinoides,  called  C.  q.  frondosa  Bassett.  Proc.  etc. 
Ill,  p.  688. 

56.  Spindle-shaped  galls,  inserted  like  pins  on  the  leaves  of  Q.  pri- 
noides, described  by  Dr.  Fitch  (Rep.  II,  No.  320).  He  bred  from  it 
an  insect  which  he  calls  Figites  chinquapin.  The  description  of  the 
gall  answers  that  of  G.  fasiformis  very  well ;  that  the  insect  obtained 
from  it  by  Dr.  Fitch  is  the  real  aiithor  of  the  gall  is  possible,  but  un- 
certain. Likewise  it  does  not  appear  why  Dr.  Fitch  calls  this  gall-fly 
a  Figites. 

57.  G-all  on  Q.  alba,  described  by  Dr.  Fitch  (Rep.  II,  No.  319)  as 
that  of  G.  q.  pisum,  which,  however,  is  a  guest-fly.  I  mention  this 
gall-fly  at  this  place,  as  I  am  not  quite  certain  whether  G.  pezomachoides 
O.  S.  has  been  bred  from  a  gall  on  Q.  alba.     (Compare  above,  No.  12.) 

58.  Grail  on  Q.  alba,  described  by  Mr.  Walsh  as  G.  q.  erinacei, 
(Proc.  etc.  II,  p.  488)  the.  gall-fly  being  unknown.  About  the  iden- 
tity of  this  gall  with  the  preceding  compare  above,  No.  12. 

N.  B. — The  following  galls  on  the  live  oak  {Q.  virens),  described 
by  me  in  my  former  papers,  have  been  altogether  omitted  in  the  >S^^- 
noptical  table,  as  well  as  in  the  Remarks,  both  of  which  were  especially 
intended  for  the  fauna  of  the  Middle  and  Northern  States  : — 

I.  On  leaves. 

1.  Small  globular  gall,  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  57. 

2.  Woolly  gall,  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  259. 

II.  On  branches. 

3.  Clusters  of  galls  not  unlike  the  galls  of  G.  forticornis  Walsh 

in  appearance,  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  258. 

4.  Woody  swelling  of  the  limb,  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  258. 
The  gall-flies  of  all  these  galls  are  unknown. 

Genus  RHODITES. 
(Galls  on  the  genus  Rosa.) 
The  six  N.  A.  species  of  this  group  are  sufficiently  characterized  in 
the  Proc.  etc.  II,  p.  45  and  the  following. 

Genus  DIASTKOPHUS. 

(Galls  on  the  genera  Ruhus  and  Potentilla.) 
To  the  two  species  described  by  me,  (Proc.  etc.  II,  pp.  36  and  39) 
and  occurring  on  Rubus,  Mr.  Bassett  had  added  a  third,  bred  from  a 
gall  on  Potentilla  (Proc.  etc.  Ill,  p.  690.)     It  is  somewhat  like  my  D. 
iiebulosus,  but  certainly  distinct. 


362  [May 

Section  II. 
("Area  radialis  brevis,  lata;  areola  intermedia."  Hartig,  1.  c.  p.  186.) 
Of  the  six  genera  placed  by  Hartig  in  this  section,  tln-ee — Xystus 
{=.  Allotria  Westw.),  Cothonaspis  (^=Eucoila  Westw.)  and  Megapel- 
mus  (=Anacharis  Westw.) — have  been  removed  since  among  the 
Figitidse.  The  three  remaining  genera  are  defined  by  Hartig  as  fol- 
lows : 

a.  Abdomen  collo  Isevigato. 

1.  Antennae  clavatae,  9  13,  %  14:  articulate. 

Palpi  maxill.  5  artic. ;  palpi  lab.  3  art.,  articulis  ultimis  ap- 
pendiculis  later alibus  cylindricis Ceroptres. 

2.  AntennEe  filiformes,   9   13-14,    %  15-16  articulatje;    flagellum 

articulis  longitudine  sequalibus. 
Palpi  maxill.  5  artic;  palpi  lab.  3  art.;  articulis  ultimis  ap- 
pendiculis  parvis,  acutis,  coronatis Aulax. 

b.  Abdomen  collo  tumido,  striolato. 

Palpi  maxill.  5  artic;  palpi  lab.  2  art.;  articulis  ultimis  ap- 

pendiculis  validis  coronatis .Synergus. 

Since  Hartig,  only  one  new  genus,  apparently  belonging  to  this  sec- 
tion, has  been  described.  This  is  Phanacis  Foerster  (Verb.  d-Rheinl. 
Vereins  fiir  Naturk.  XVII,  p.  145,  1856).  I  will  translate  the  defini- 
tion of  this  genus,  and  add  an  extract  from  the  description  of  the  spe- 
cies. 

"Phanacis  Foerst.  Maxillary  palpi  4-,  labial  palpi  3-jointed ;  radial  area 
closed;  second  cubital  likewise  closed  on  the  inside.  Thorax  not  pubescent, 
scutellum  cushion-shaped  ;  the  tip  of  the  metathorax  (called  neck  by  Hartig)  is 
provided  with  delicate  longitudinal  ridges;  the  first  abdominal  segment  is  the 
largest." 

•'This  genus,  belonging  to  the  family  Cynipidce,  may  be  next  to  Ceroptres  in 
the  structure  of  its  abdomen,  but  differs  from  it  in  several  points;  such  are 
principally  the  4-jointed  maxillary  palpi  and  the  sharp  ridges,  with  which  the 
apex  (neck)  of  the  metathorax  is  provided.  The  pleurae  are  not  aciculate,  but 
finely  coriaceous,  entirely  opaque;  the  antennse  are  almost  imperceptibly  in- 
crassated  towards  the  tip,  not  clavate.  If,  with  all  this,  we  take  the  mode  of 
life  into  consideration,  there  will  be  no  doubt  left  that  this  is  a  well  established 
genus." 

"  Observation. — Both  pairs  of  palpi  show  on  the  last  joint  a  distinct  subuliform 
point,  which  has  not  been  counted,  however,  as  a  distinct  joint." 

The  species  Phanacis  centaurese  has  been  reared  from  the  stalks  of 
Centaurea  scahrosa ;  only  females  were  obtained.  They  have  13- 
jointed  antennae,  head  and  thorax  have  very  little  lustre  and  are  finely 
coriaceous,  the  mesonotum  finely  transversely  rugose;  parapsidal  grooves 
distinct.  "The  second  abdominal  segment "  (called  by  Foerster  the  first 
in  the  generic  characters  given  above)  "is  about  equal  in  length  to  one- 
half  of  the  abdomen ;  the  third  is  much  shorter  and  about  equal  to  all 


1865.]  36H 

the  following  taken  together;  a  short  ovipositor  protrudes  in  a  straight 
direction  from  the  tip;  the  radial  area  is  closed  on  the  anterior  margin 
by  a  somewhat  paler  vein,  and  the  small  second  cubital  is  not  opened 
internally,  but  completely  closed  by  a  pale-colored  prolongation  of  the 
cubitus." 

It  is  not  quite  clear  what  Foerster  means  by  the  apex  of  the  meta- 
fhorax,  called,  as  he  says,  neck  by  Hartig.  The  last  named  author 
called  neck  (cuUuni,  compare  the  analytical  table  given  above)  what  wo 
call  the  Ji7-st  abdominal  segment^  which  is  narrow,  tubular,  neck-like, 
and  sometimes  (as  in  the  genus  Sj/nergus)  longitudinally  striate.  The 
apex  of  the  metathorax  is  quite  a  different  thing ;  it  is  a  narrow  pro- 
jection of  the  metathorax,  adapted,  by  its  shape,  to  be  inserted  in  the 
neck-like  first  abdominal  ses-ment. 


Having  communicated  to  Dr.  Reinhard  specimens  of  N.  A.  Aulax 
{A.  si/lvestris),  Si/nergus{S.lignicola  and  S.camjjanida)  and  Ceroptret^ 
(two  species)  and  having  also  obtained  from  him  types  of  Aulax  (four 
species)  and  Synergus  (three  species),  I  have  attempted  to  characterize 
these  genera  in  the  sequel.  The  principal  characters  may  be  laid  down 
as  follows  :  . 

Synergus. — First  abdominal  segment  longitudinally  striate;  the  second  oct 
cupies,  in  both  sexes,  the  whole  remaining  surface  of  the  abdomen  and  conceals 
all  the  following  segments. 

Aulax. — Abdomen  of  a  very  different  structure  in  the  two  sexes;  in  the  male, 
the  second  and  third  segments  are  subequal  in  length,  and  occupy,  together,  the 
larger  portion  of  the  surf  xce  of  the  abdomen ;  in  the  female,  the  second  segmen- 
alone  occupies  nearly  the  whole  surface  of  the  abdomen;  first  segment  exceed- 
ingly short,  not  longitudinally  striate  ;  the  third  and  the  following  more  or 
less  concealed  under  the  second. 

Ceroptres. — The  second  abdominal  segment  occupies,  iw  both  sexes,  the  greater 
portion  of  the  surface  of  the  abdomen;  a  delicate,  connate  suture  divides  it  appa- 
rently into  tioo  segments. 


Among  the  unnamed  species  of  my  collection  I  possess  one  which 
was  communicated  to  me,  in  several  male  and  female  specimens,  by  Mr. 
Bassett.  He  informed  me  that,  they  were  bred  from  stalks  given  to 
him  by  some  person,  who  said  they  were  mustard  stalks.  Mr.  Bassett 
is  of  the  opinion  that  by  all  means  these  stalks  must  belong  to  some 
cruciferous  plant.  The  pith  of  the  stalk  contains  numerous  round  cells, 
in  which  the  insect  probably  underwent  its  transformation. 

The  gall-fly  has  a  closed  radial  area,  the  structure  of  which  is  nearer 
to  that  of  the  gall-flies  of  the  second  section  than   to  that  of  the  first. 


364  [Mat 

The  radial  area  of  Diastrophus  alone,  among  the  first  section,  would 
remind  of  that  of  the  new  species,  if  the  latter  was  not  closed.  The 
abdomen  of  both  sexes  does  not  show  anything  of  the  great  preponde- 
rance of  the  second  abdominal  segment,  characterizing  both  sexes  in 
S^nergus  and  Caroptres  and  the  female  sex  in  Aulax.  Thus,  in  more 
than  one  respect,  this  species  seems  to  hold  an  intermediate  position 
between  the  two  sections  of  Gi/nip>%dse,. 

We  have  had  occasion  to  remark,  more  than  once,  how  important  a 
character  the  sculpture  of  the  thorax  is  among  the  Cijnipldee.  In 
many  cases  this  sculpture  characterizes  the  genus.  The  sculpture  of 
the  thorax  of  our  new  species  is  very  peculiar ;  the  surface  is  semi- 
opaque  and  has  a  silky  (sericeous)  gloss,  due  to  a  microscopic  coriace- 
ous sculpture  on  the  mesonotum  and  to  exceedingly  delicate  aciculate 
striae  on  the  pleurae.  Judging  from  Mr.  Fcerster's  description  of  Pha- 
nacis  centauresR,  it  seems  that  the  sculpture  of  its  thorax  is  somewhat 
of  the  same  nature,  and  a  closer  comparison  of  his  generic  definition 
leads  to  the  belief  that  both  species  must  be  closely  allied.  Only  the 
minute  ridges  on  the  "apex"  of  the  metathorax,  mentioned  by  Foerster, 
do  not  exist  in  my  species. 

Among  the  species  of  European  Aulax^  communicated  to  me  by  Dr. 
Ueinhard,  there  is  one,  A.  hieracii  (Bouche)  Hartig,  which  differs  very 
considerably  from  the  three  other  species  sent  by  him,  {A.  hrandtU. 
Hartig,  gernianus  Gir.,  and  potenfillse  Vill.)  Whereas  the  three  latter 
come  within  my  definition  of  the  genus  Aulax,  the  former  shows  the 
most  remarkable  analogy  to  the  new  species  in  question,  bred  from 
Sinapis.  The  structure  of  the  abdomen,  the  sculpture  of  the  thorax, 
the  neuration,  etc.,  are  very  nearly  the  same.  Now,  the  so-called  Aulax 
hieracii  is  said  not  to  be  a  guest  gall-fly,  but  a  psenidous  gall-fly,  living 
on  Hieracium.  This  would  establish  a  new  point  of  relationship  be- 
tween it  and  the  new  North  American  species,  as  well  as  with  Pha- 
nacis. 

It  seems,  therefore,  that  we  have  here  a  group  of  species  living  on 
different  herbaceous  plants  and  intermediate  between  the  gall-flies  of 
the  oak,  the  rose  and  the  bramble  on  one  side  and  the  guest  gall-flies 
on  the  other.  There  is  no  doubt,  that  in  the  course  of  time,  many 
other  species  will  be  added  to  this  group ;  it  may  also  happen,  that 
most  of  these  species  will  have  to  be  united  in  a  single  genus,  or  that 
the  definition  of  Phanacis,  somewhat  modified,  will  apply  to  a  number 
or  to  all  of  them.  Our  data  are  too  scanty  to  warrant,  as  yet,  any  con- 
clusion, but  we  recommend  the  subject  to  the  attention  of  observers 


1865.]  865 

and  wish  that,  in  the  meantime,   Mr.  Bassett  would  describe  the  new 
species.* 


Leaving  aside,  for  the  present,  this  intermediate  and  as  yet  doubtful 
group,  the  following  question  requires,  at  this  point,  our  attention.  Are 
all  the  Cijnipidse  of  the  second  section  of  Hartig  guest  gall-flies  or  not 't 
All  the  American  gall-flies  of  the  genera  Sj/nergus^  Ceroptres  and  Au- 
lax,  which  I  have  had  the  opportunity  to  observe,  are  guest  gall-flies. 
But  Hartig  and  Griraud  mention  a  number  of  Aidax,  which  they  con- 
sidered at  true  Psenides.  This  may  really  be  the  case,  but  before  ad- 
mitting it,  we  must  advert  to  two  circumstances,  which  may  be  sources 
of  error  :  1.  We  have  seen  that  Aulax  Hieracii^  which  is  one  of  the 
species  said  to  be psenidoiis,  is  generically  distinct  from  the  other  spe- 
cies of  Aulax ;  Dr.  Reinhard  writes  me  that  A.  glechomse  Htg.,  another 
psenidous  Aidax  "will  probably  have  to  be  removed  to  the  genus  Di<i>>- 
trophus;"  this  proves,  that  the  definition  of  Aidax  by  European  authors 
is  more  loose  than  that  which  we  have  adopted ;  may  not  all  the  gall- 
producing  Aidax  of  Hartig  and  Giraud  belong  to  other  genera  ?  2. 
We  have  had  frequent  instances  of  inqm'linous  gall-flies  erroneously 
taken  for  the  originators  of  the  galls,  and  why  could  not  the  same  error 
have  taken  place  with  regard  to  certain  species  of  Aidax  ?  I  possess, 
for  instance,  the  European  A.  potentUlse  Villers,  which  is  a  true  Aidax. 
As  the  name  implies,  it  is  probably  reared  from  a  gall  on  Potentilla.. 
(I  have  not  been  able  to  compare  the  original  reference.)  Now,  Mr. 
Bassett  has  recently  described  a  Diastrophus  producing  a  gall  on  Po- 
tentdla.  Aidax,  as  we  know,  is  frequently  a  guest  of  Rhodites  and 
Diastroplnis  ;  is  it  not  possible  that  A.  potentUlse  is  likewise  the  guest 
of  a  Diastrophus  ?  I  am  far  from  affirming  that  such  is  the  case  ;  my 
purpose  is  merely  to  show  how  an  error  of  this  kind  may  originate. 
The  question  whether  Aulax  is  an  entirely  inquilinous  genus,  thus 
remains  as  yet  open. 

Genus  ATILAX. 
Abdomen  (  S  ),  with  the  segments  2  and  3  subequal  in  length,  the 
following  somewhat  projecting  beyond  the  third ;  in  the  9  the  second 
segment  occupies  nearly  the  whole  surface  of  the  abdomen  and  more  or 
less  conceals  the  following  segments.  Antennae  14-jointed  (%  ),  and 
12-  (sometimes  13  ?)  jointed  (  9  ). 

*  Mr.  Walsh  has  communicated  me  a  gall-fly,  which  I  cannot  distinguish 
from  Mr.  Bassett's  gall-fly  of  Sinapis,  and  which  he  bred  from  '-'a  woody  sub- 
spherical  gall,  surrounding  a  twig  of  Q.  rubra."  I  merely  state  the  fact,  leav- 
ing it  for  future  observers  to  reconcile  it  with  M.  Bassett's  statement. 


366  [May 

The  female  of  Aulax  resembles  that  of  Sj/nergus  iu  the  structure  of 
the  abdomen ;  it  differs,  however,  in  the  extreme  shortness  of  the  first 
abdominal  segment,  ivJiich  is  not  striated.,  and  probably  also  by  the 
number  of  antennal  joints,  which,  in  both  species  known  to  me,  is  12 
and  not  13.  From  the  9  of  Geroptres,  it  is  distinguished  by  the  ab- 
sence of  any  suture  on  the  second  segment. 

The  S  of  Aulax  is  easily  distinguished  from  the  %  of  Sijnergus  by 
the  structure  of  the  abdomen ;  it  differs  from  that  of  Ceroptres  by  the 
subdivision  of  the  second  segment  into  two  parts,  not  merely  by  a  con- 
nate suture,  but  by  a  real  incisure. 

In  the  general  remarks  about  the  second  section  of  Ai/nijjidse,  I  have 
discussed  the  question  whether  this  genus  is  entirely  inquilinous  or 
not.  The  question  is  still  a  doubtful  one.  The  European  A.  Brandtii 
Hartig,  caninse  Hartig,  germanus  Gir.  and  the  American  A.  pirata 
0.  S.,  and  the  doubtful  A.  semipiceus  Harris,  are  guest  gall-flies  in 
galls  of  the  genus  Rhodites.  A.  sylvestris  0.  S.  occurs  in  the  galls  of 
Diastrophus.  Aidax pumilus  Grir.  have  been  bred  from  an  oak-uall  of 
Andricus.  As  psenidons  species  of  Aulax  have  been  considered  : —  A. 
hieracii  Htg.,  which  I  possess  and  which  is  no  Aulax  at  all,  A.  gle- 
chomse,  Htg.,  which,  according  to  Dr.  Reinhard's  statement,  is  pro- 
bably a  Diastrophus,  A.  Rhoeadis  Htg..  A.  minor  Htg.  (both  on 
Papaver^j  A.  sabaudi  (on  Ilieracium),  A.  salvise  (on  Salvia),  A.  sco?'- 
zonerse.  (on  Scorzonera).  The  five  last  species  I  do  not  know  and  am 
not  able  to  confirm  whether  they  really  belong  to  Aulax  or  not. 
(About  A.  potentillse  I  have  not  been  able  to  compare  the  reference.) 

The  described  N.  A.  species  are  the  following: 

1.  Aulax  sylvestris  0.  S.  Proc.  Ent,  Soc  Philad.  II,  p.  37. 
Bred  from  the  gall  of  Diastrophus  nebulosus,  on  the  blackberry. 

2.  I  possess  a  specimen  very  like  the  preceding  species,  only  smaller 
and  showing  but  slight  differences,  which  was  bred  from  the  gall  of 
Rhodites  radicum.  I  have  explained  already  (Proc.  etc.  II,  p.  42,  4) 
why  Cynips  semipicca  Harris  (Ins.  etc.  p.  549),  can  hardly  be  synony- 
mous with  my  Rhodites  radicum.  It  is  not  at  all  improbable  that  Har- 
ris reared  the  above  mentioned  Aulax  from  the  gall  and  mistook  it  for 
the  gall-producer.  This  would  then  be  Aulax  semipiceus  Harris. 
Whether  it  is  synonymous  with  A.  sylvestris  I  do  not  attempt  to  decide, 
having  only  a  single  specimen  for  comparison. 

3.  Aulax  pirata  0.  S.,  1.  c.  p.  42.     Bred  from  a  rose-gall. 

4.  Aulax  ?  futilis  0.  S.,  1.  c.  I,  p.  64.  This  species  is  doubtful, 
as  I  was  not  acquainted  with  the  characters  of  the  genus  Aulax  at  that 


1865.]  BCT 

time  and  have  accidentally  lost,  since  then,  the  only  specimen  which  1 
had  reared  from  the  gall  of  C.  q.  fidi/iK  0.  S. 
Genus  CEROPTKES. 

This  genus  is  easily  distinguished  by  an  impressed,  transverse  lino, 
dividing  the  second  abdominal  segment  into  two  portions,  which  are  sub- 
equal  in  length  in  the  male,  and  the  anterior  of  which  is  much  shorter 
than  the  posterior  in  the  female.  A  very  close  attention  is  often'  re- 
quired in  order  to  perceive  this  line,  which  otherwise  seems  to  be  a 
good  distinctive  character.  Whether  this  line  really  represents  a  con- 
nate suture  I  am  unable  to  say,  as  the  decision  of  this  point  would  re- 
quire a  dissection  which  I  cannot  now  undertake. 

Although  the  second  segment  (considered  as  a  whole,  as  if  the  suture 
did  not  exist)  is  very  large  in  comparison  with  the  others,  it  does  not,  as 
is  the  case  with  Si/nergus,  entirely  conceal  all  the  following  segments; 
these  project  more  or  less  considerably  beyond  the  posterior  edge  of  the 
second  segment,  so  that  the  segments  three  to  seven  can  be  easily 
counted  in  some  specimens;  in  others,  however,  they  are  more  con- 
tracted. The  first  abdominal  segment  is  very  short,  projecting  only  a 
little,  in  the  shape  of  a  rim,  over  the  anterior  edge  of  the  second  seg- 
ment, and  not  at  all  tubular  and  striated,  as  in  Si/nergusi.  Another  im- 
portant difierence  from  the  latter  genus  consists  in  the  length  of  the 
sheaths  of  the  ovipositor,  which  project  very  considerably  above  the 
dorsal  line.  Ceroptres  lyisum  0.  S.  is  the  only  species  having,  appa- 
rently, very  short  sheaths ;  but  I  am  not  certain  whether  they  are  really 
so,  or  only  broken  off  in  the  only  specimen  of  that  species  which  I  pos- 
sess. The  basal  portion  of  the  second  abdominal  segment  is  usually 
more  or  less  downy.  The  polished  surface  of  the  pleurge  is  perfectly 
smooth  and  shining  in  all  the  specimens  in  my  possession,  or  aciculate 
on  its  lower  part  only,  whereas  it  is  more  or  less  aciculate  in  all  the 
species  of  Synergus  which  I  have  seen.  As  Hartig,  however,  places 
Ceroptres  among  the  genera  with  aciculate  pleurse^  as  may  be  seen 
on  the  analytical  table  of  page  362,  this  character  is  probably  not 
one  of  general  application.  The  antennae  are  15-jointed  in  the  male 
and  usually  12-jointed  in  the  female;  the  last  joint  in  the  female  is 
very  elongated,  fully  equal  to  the  two  preceding  joints  taken  together; 
occasibnally  this  joint  is  subdivided  in  two  joints  by  a  distinct  suture, 
and  then  the  antennas  are  apparently  13-jointed.  Ceroptres  pisum  has 
13-jointed  antennae  and  the  last  joint  is  subdivided  into  two  joints.  Har- 
tig calls  the  antennae  14-  (  S  )  and  13-  (  9  )  jointed  In  some  of  the 
species  the  antennas  are  very  slightly  incrassated  on  their  latter  half; 
in  others  this  character  is  not  perceptible.     I  think  that  Hartig  gives 


368  ,  [May 

it  too  much  importance  when  he  says  (Germ.  Zeitschr.  Ill,  p.  343) 
that  it  distingtsishes  the  genus. 

Misled  by  the  impressed  line  on  the  second  abdominal  segment, 
which  is  not  mentioned  anywhere  in  Hartig,  I  had  previously  consid- 
ered this  genus  as  belenging  to  the  Figitidse  (Proc.  Ent.  Soc.  I,  p.  67) 
and  had  doubtingly  referred  it  to  Amhlynotus  Hart.  I  owe  the  cor- 
rection of  my  error  to  Dr.  Reinhard,  to  whom  I  communicated  two 
species ;  a  small  one,  reared  from  the  gall  of  G.  q.  verrucarum,  which 
has  slightly  incrassated  (sub-clavate)  antennae,  and  a  larger  one,  reared 
from  the  gall  of  G.  q.  hatatus  Fitch,  with  filiform  antennas.  The  first 
was  returned  as  Geroptres  ;  the  second  was  sent  back  by  Dr,  Reinhard 
with  the  following  remark :  "  This  species  may  also  be  taken  for  Gerop- 
tres ;  the  structure  of  the  abdomen  is  exactly  the  same,  only  the  pube- 
scence at  the  basis  is  stronger  than  usual ;  a  more  striking  difference  is 
that  the  antennas  are  filiform ;  this  might  render  the  generic  identity 
doubtful."  It  would  be  hardly  prudent,  however,  to  establish  a  new 
genus  on  such  slight  differences;  the  better  plan  will  be  to  keep  the 
structure  of  the  second  abdominal  segment  in  view  as  the  principal 
character  of  Geroptres. 

I  have  mentioned  the  communication  of  Dr.  Reinhard  to  me  about 
Geroptres  in  order  to  prove  that,  the  discrepancy  between  Hartig's  cha- 
racters and  my  specimens  notwithstanding,  these  specimens  really  be- 
long to  Geroptres. 

The  species  of  this  genus  are  vei'y  difficult  to  distinguish  on  ac- 
count of  the  great  uniformity  of  the  coloring  of  the  body  and  the 
apparent  inconstancy  in  their  size  and  the  coloring  of  their  feet.  The 
differences  in  the  sculpture  of  the  thorax,  which  would  afford  the  prin- 
cipal characters  for  specific  distinction,  seem  to  be  very  slight  here,  and 
for  this  reason  are  difficult  to  describe.  I  leave,  therefore,  the  task  of 
describing  the  species  to  those  who  will  be  in  possession  of  more  mate- 
rials, principally  obtained  by  breeding  large  numbers  of  specimens  from 
different  galls.  My  present  object  is  merely  to  point  out  those  among 
the  described  N.  A.  Gijnipidx  which,  according  to  my  opinion,  belong 
to  Geroptres,  but  in  doing  so  I  do  not  even  pretend  to  decide  whether 
all  these  species  are  really  distinct,  or  whether  some  of  them  would  not 
be  better  united. 


1.  Geroptres  ficus  Fitch. 
Syn.  Cynips  q.  ficus  Fitch,  Rep.  etc.  II,  No.  .314. 

Synophrus  Iceviventris  Walsh,  Proc.  Ent.  Soc.  Phil.  II,  p.  494.     (Exparte.) 

Mr.  Walsh,  probably  deceived  by  the  coloring  of  this  species,  which 


1865.]  36^ 

he  had  obtained  from  the  gall  of  C./orticornis  (called  C  q.  ficus  hy 
Fitch),  took  it  to  be  identical  with  the  specimens  of  Sijucrgiis  laevivoi- 
/r?',s,  which  he  bred  from  the  gall  of  0.  sponr/ijica.  But  I  agree  with 
this  author  in  thinking  that  the  specimens  which  he  bred  from  the  gall 
of  0.  forticornis  are  the  C^nips  q.  ficus  of  Fiteh,  the  latter  author 
having  in  this  case,  as  in  several  others,  mistaken  the  guest-gall-fly  for 
the  gall-producer.  This  insect  has,  in  accordance  with  Dr.  Fitch'e 
statements,  13-jointed  ^  antennas,  the  hind  tibiae  dusky,  the  head  partly 
yellowish  or  reddish,  etc. 

2.  Ceroptres  petiolicola  0.  S.  '^  9  - 

Syn.  Amhlynotus?  petiolicola  0.  S.  Proc,  Ent.  Soc.  Phil.  I,  p.  67. 

Amblynotus  ensiger  Walsh  (?),  Proc.  etc.  II,  p.  496. 
Bred  from  the  gall  of  C.  petiolicola  Bassett.     Since  the  above  men- 
tioned description  of  mine,  which  was  based  on  one  or  two  specimens 
only,  I  have  reared  two  more  specimens  from  the  same  gall,  a  %  and  a 

9  .  The  male  has  the  middle  and  hind  femora  and  tibiae  dusky,  and  a 
black  line  on  the  upper  side  of  the  fore-femora.  The  9  bas  apparently 
13-jointed  antennae  and   infuscated   femora.     These  differences  from 

Ceroptres  (Amblynotus)  ensiger  Walsh  (Proc.  Ent.  Soc.  II,  p.  496), 
notwithstanding,  I  incline  to  believe,  with  Mr.  Walsh,  that  his  species 
is  identical  with  mine.  The  twelfth  antenna!  joint  of  the  9  (which  is 
the  last,  according  to  Mr.  Walsh's  opinion,)  may,  in  some  specimens, 
show  a  more  distinct  suture  and  be  counted  for  two  joints.  As  to  the 
difference  in  size  and  in  the  coloring  of  the  feet,  they  seem  to  be  very 
variable,  as  we  will  see,  for  instance,  in  the  species  reared  from  the 
gall  of  Ct/nips  q.  hatatus. 

3.  Ceroptres  inermis  Walsh. 

Syn.  Amblynotus  inermis  Walsh,  Proc.  etc.  II,  p.  498. 

Reared  from  the  same  author's  gall  Q.  pilulse,  and  unknown  to  me. 
This  gall  being  that  of  a  Cecidomyia  and  not  of  a  Ci/nips^  it  is  a  re- 
markable and  heretofore  unique  instance  of  a  guest-fly  inhabiting  the 
gall  of  a  dipterous  insect.  The  differences  between  C.  inermis  and  C. 
ensiger  are  explained  by  the  author,  1.  c. 

4.  Ceroptres  pisum  0.  S. 

Syn.  Sarothrus?  pisum  0.  S.,  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  59. 

In  my  description  I  have  erroneously  stated  that  my  specimen  is  a  male 
and  that  it  has  14-jointed  antennee;  and  in  this  case  again,  deceived  by 
the  transverse  line  dividing  the  second  segment,  I  was  induced  to  think 
that  this  insect  belongs  to  the  Figitidae.  That  Gynips  q.  pisum  Fitch  is 
not  the  gall-fly  of  the  gall  described  by  Dr.  Fitch,  Rep.  II,  No.  319,  but  a 
guest-fly,  seems  certain,  since  the  discovery  of  C.  pezomachoides  O.  S. 


370  [May 

(unless  it  is  proved  that  I  was  mistaken  in  the  supposed  identity  of  Q. 
piaum  with  the  gall  which  gave  me  the  latter  species;  compare  above, 
p.  352,  No.  12).  But  whether  this  guest-fiy  is  identical  with  Ceroptre^ 
pisum  0.  S.  is  rather  doubtful,  as  my  specimen  measures  0.14,  whereas 
Dr.  Fitch's  species  is  said  to  be  0.08  ( "S  )  and  0.11  (  o  )  long. 

In  order  to  complete  my  previous  description,  I  give  a  new  one  here  : 

9  •  About  0.14  long;  head  black,  finely  pubescent;  mandibles  and  the  mouth 
brownish  red;  face  aciculate,  au  oblong  swelling  under  the  antennae;  vertex 
microscopically  punctate;  antennae  brownish-yellow,  13-jointed,  nearly  as  long 
as  the  body,  almost  filiform;  fourth  joint  slightly  longer  than  the  third;  the 
following  joints  very  gradually  diminish  in  length;  the  thirteenth  or  last 
joint  is  twice  the  length  of  the  preceding;  a  distinct  suture  divides  it  in  two 
parts,  in  the  only  specimen  in  my  possession.  Thorax  black,  finely  jjubeseent 
and  densely,  but  very  delicately  rugose:  parapsidal  grooves  distinct,  moderately 
deep;  between  these  grooves  two  very  indistinctly  marked  impressed  lines  run 
some  distance  from  the  collare  backwards;  scutellum  with  a  deep,  rough,  irreg- 
ular sculpture;  polished  space  on  the  pleurae  smooth.  Abdomen  dark  brown 
or  black,  paler  brown  along  its  inferior  edge;  second  joint  divided  into  two  une- 
qual parts  by  a  very  distinct  suture;  the  first  part  has,  dorsally,  a  little  less 
than  half  the  length  of  the  second;  at  the  basis  of  this  second  segment  the  ab- 
domen is  distinctly  downy;  the  ventral  valve  is  pale  brown,  considerably  pro- 
jecting, its  tip  at  an  angle  of  somewhat  more  than  46°;  the  sheaths  of  the  ovi- 
positor do  not  project  at  all  above  the  dorsal  line.  The  feet  are  yellow,  except 
the  extreme  basis  of  the  coxae,  especially  of  the  hind  ones,  which  is  black,  and 
the  tip  of  the  tarsi,  which  is  infuscated.  Veins  of  the  wings  pale  yellow;  areo- 
let  of  moderate  size,  its  posterior  portion  somewhat  indistinct. 

Bred  a  single  specimen  from  the  gall  called  Q.  pisum  by  Dr.  Fitch, 
but  which  is  probably  the  produce  of  Andricus  (Teras)  pezomachoideft 
0.  S.  This  species  is  larger  and  more  slender  than  the  other  species 
of  the  genus.  It  is  remarkable  for  the  contrast  between  the  sculpture 
of  the  scutellum,  which  is  very  deeply  rugose,  and  that  of  the  thorax, 
which  is  very  delicate  and  perceptible  only  under  a  strong  lens.  Whe- 
ther the  shortness  of  the  sheath  of  the  ovipositor  is  really  a  character  of 
the  species,  or  whether  its  tip  is  broken  olf  in  the  only  specimen  which  I 
possess,  I  am  unable  positively  to  affirm;  in  the  first  case,  this  character 
would  distinguish  tiiis  species  from  the  other  known  species  of  the 
genus. 

5.  Ceroptres  arbos  Fitch. 

Syn.  Cynips  q.  arbos  Fitch,   Rep.  II,  No.  310. 

6.  Ceroptres  tuber  Fitch.  (?) 

Syn.  Cynips  q.  tuber  Fitch,  Rep.  II,  No.  309. 

Mr.  Bassett  has  shown  (Proc.  etc.  Ill,  p.  687)  that  both  galls,  de- 
scribed by  Dr.  Fitch  under  the  above-mentioned  names  are  produced 
by  the  same  gall-fly,  which  wa?  not  known  to  Dr.  Fitch,  and  that  this 


1865.]  371 

gall-fly  occurs  only  ou  soft,  green  shoots  of  the  same  year's  growth, 
whereas  the  galls  of  the  last  year's  growth,  the  only  ones  described  by 
Dr.  Fitch,  always  give  guest-flies.  These  guest-flies,  as  I  have  had 
occasion  to  observe  myself,  belong  to  the  genus  Ccroptres.  We  can 
take  it  for  certain,  therefore,  that  Ci/nips  q.  arhos  Fitch,  the  male  of 
which  is  said  to  have  15-jointed  antennae,  is  a  Ceroptres.  Whether 
C.  q.  tuber  Fitch,  belongs  to  the  same  genus,  is  somewhat  doubtful,  as 
it  is  said  to  have  14-(  %  )  and  12-(  9  )  jointed  antennas.  Whether  this 
statement  is  based  upon  a  mistake,  or  whether  Geroptres  %  sometimes 
has  14-jointed  autennfe  (which  would  agree  with  Hartig's  statement), 
or,  finally,  whether  C.  q.  tuber  Fitch,  belongs  to  some  other  inquilinous 
genus,  I  do  not  pretend  to  decide.  The  last  hypothesis,  however,  seems 
to  me  the  most  improbable  of  all. 

7.  I  have  bred  numerous  %  and  9  specimens  of  Ceroptres  from  the 
gall  of  C.  q.  batatus  Fitch  (the  same  gall  which  I  erroneously  took, 
Pr;c.  etc.  J,  71,  27,  for  that  of  C.  q.  tuber  Fitch).  These  specimens 
were  mentioned  by  me  (1.  c.)  as  belonging  to  Amblijnotus.  They  vary 
very  much  in  size  and  in  the  coloring  of  the  feet,  which  are  more  or 
less  infuscated ;  some  specimens  have  the  hind  femora  and  tibise  almost 
black.  Most  specimens  have  the  cheeks  reddish,  which  distinguish 
them  from  my  specimens  of  C.  petioUcola  and  of  G.  arbos  with  which 
they  otherwise  closely  agree.  The  tip  of  the  ventral  valve  forms,  usu- 
ally, an  angle  of  45°,  sometimes  a  little  larger  •  the  9  antennae  are  12- 
jointed.  I  leave  it  undecided  whether  all  the  specimens  showing  the 
above  differences  belong  to  the  same  species,  and  whether  this  species 
is  only  a  phytophagic  variety  or  race  of  G.  petioUcola  and  G.  arbos. 

8.  Besides  the  above-mentioned  doubtful  species,  I  possess  several 
specimens  of  the  same  genus,  but  which  certainly  belong  to  a  distinct 
species.  Without  naming  or  describing  this  species,  I  will,  by  a  short 
notice,  draw  the  attention  of  observers  to  it.  I  have  bred  these  speci- 
mens from  the  gall  of  Gynips  verrucarum  0.  S.  (Q.  obtusiloba).  They 
are  hardly  0.5  long,  black,  with  yellow  feet;  parapsidal  grooves  not 
apparent,  except  near  the  scutellum ;  surface  of  the  thorax  smooth, 
with  an  exceedingly  fine,  hardly  apparent  pubescence;  viewed  from 
above,  the  thoracic  dorsum  seems  to  be  slightly  flattened.  The  antennse 
(  9  )  are  12-jointed  and  somewhat  incrassated  towards  the  tip.  This 
is  the  species  which  Dr.  Reinhard  returned  to  me  as  the  true  represen- 
tative of  Geroptres  Hartig. 

Gemis  SYNERGUS. 
The  structure  of  the  abdomen  afi'ords  the  characteristic  marks  of  this 


372  [Mat 

genus ;  the  first  segment  is  longitudinally  striate  ;  the  second  conceals 
all  the  following  in  both  sexes.  The  antennas  are  15-jointed  (%)  and 
13  or  14-jointed  (  9  )•  The  seven  known  North  American  species  have 
the  polished  spot  on  the  pleurae  aciculate ;  in  S.  mendax  this  sculpture, 
although  very  faiut,  also  exists.  The  species  of  Ceroptres  known  to 
me,  have  these  spots  perfectly  smooth ;  this  difference  between  the  two 
genera  may  however  not  prevail  through  all  the  species,  as  Hartig 
places  Ceroptres,  among  the  species  with  aciculate  pleurae.  The  sheath 
of  the  ovipositor  is  much  less  projecting  above  the  ventral  line  in  this 
genus  than  in  Ceroptres. 

The  first  segment  of  the  abdomen  usually  appears  somewhat  tumid, 
as  was  already  noticed  by  Hartig  (^abdomen  collo  striato,  tumido,  says 
he) ;  but  it  seems  to  me  that  this  appearance  is  merely  an  optical  illu- 
sion, produced  by  the  presence  of  the  striae.  The  face  is  aciculate,  the 
striae  converging  towards  the  mouth ;  but  as  this  character  seems  com- 
mon to  all  the  specifes,  and  in  fact,  to  a  great  many  Cynipldae,.  it  has 
been  omitted  in  the  descriptions. 

The  species  of  St/nergus  are  very  numerous  in  Europe  and  rather 
difficult  to  distinguish,  being  not  only  very  uniform,  but  also  very  vari- 
able, in  their  coloring;  it  has  been  observed,  however,  that  in  the  spe- 
cies of  mixed  coloring  (black  and  yellow),  certain  parts  of  the  body 
only  are  subject  to  variations,  others  pi'eserving,  on  the  contrary,  a  very 
constant  coloring.  The  principal  characters  have  to  be  derived  from 
the  shape  of  the  body,  especially  of  the  abdomen,  and  from  the  sculp- 
ture of  the  thorax.  Hartig  also  adverts  to  frontal  ridges  immediately 
above  the  eyes,  which,  in  some  species,  reach  the  vertex,  in  others  run 
only  a  very  short  distance.  I  distinctly  perceive  very  short  ridges  of 
this  kind  in  S.  oneratus  and  S.  campanula,  but  characters  of  such  ex- 
treme delicacy  are  apt  to  mislead,  as  their  perception  is  too  dependent 
on  optical  conditions. 

The  following  arrangement  of  the  seven  known  North  American 
species  applies  principally  to  females,  the  males  of  some  of  the  species 
not  being  yet  discovered  Ct/nips  quercus  lana  Fitch,  Rep.  II,  No. 
316,  apparently  likewise  a  Sjjnergus,  but  unknown  to  me,  has  not  been 
included  in  this  table. 

1.  Prevailing  color  of  the  body  yellow  2 

Prevailing  color  of  the  body  black 3 

2.  Antennal  joints  3  and  4  of  nearly  equal  length  ;  1 

mesonotum    reddish-yellow,  with  a  more  or  (  ,    «  .        -rr       ■     a 

less  broad,  sometimes  obsolete  black  stripe  in  (  '■  "•  o^^^atus  Harris  y  . 
the  middle;  antennae  (  9  )  14-jointed.  J 


1865.]  373 

Antennal  joint  4  but  little  more  than  half  the] 

length  of  the  third:  antennre  (  9  )  13-jointed;  |,,(jt      -inai-n 
mesonotum  entirely  black,  the  yellow  being  i  ^-  ^   Ugnicola  U.  b.  'J,  V- 
strictly  confined  to  the  collare.  J 

3.  Mesonotum  with  coarse,  transverse,  ridge-like  rugosities,  giving  it  a 

rough  appearance 4 

Mesonotum  with   fine    transverse  wrinkles,   preserving,  however,  a 
smooth  appearance 5 

4.  All  the  feet  partly  infuscated;  antennte  (  J)  14-1 

jointed,  nearly  as  long  as  the  body;   the  se-  !  -,    g   ^^^ax  Walsh    0 
cond  abdominal  segment  seen  from  the  side  [  '•  '*'  "i^nttax  waisn   V- 
is  distinctly  longer  than  broad.  J 

The  hind  tibise  and  the  basis  of  the  hind  tarsi  "| 

alone  are  infuscated;  antennee  (  9  )  13-jointed;  | 

the  second  abdominal  segment,  (  9  )  seen  from  i.  c    c  HimnrTihii';  O  S  't  9 

the  side,  is  but  very  little  longer  than  broad;  i'    '     "  ^  •    •  o  X 

thorax  of  9  black;  in  the  %,  the  pleurse  and 

the  head  are  yellow.  J 

6.  Second  abdominal  segment.  (  9)  seen  from  the") 

side,  much  longer  than  broad,  attenuated  to  a  I  3.  S.  Iseviventris  0.  S.  9  • 

point  at  the  tip,  almost  lanceolate.  j 

Second  abdominal  segment  (  9  )>  seen  from  the  side,  but  little,  or  not 

longer  than  broad 6 

C.  Long  (  9  )>  ventral  valve  considerably  projecting. .6.  S.  albipes  Walsh,  %  9  • 

Long  (  9  ))  ventral  valve  usually  concealed 4.  S.  campanula  0.  S.  9  • 


1.  Synergus  oneratus  Harris. 
Syn.  Q/wtps  oweraiws  Harris,  Ins.  etc.  3d  ed.  p.  548.  Fitch,  Rep.  etc.  II,  No.  313. 
This  species  (0.12 — 0.14  long)  is  variable  in  coloring,  the  black  stripe 
in  the  middle  of  the  thorax  and  of  the  head  having  more  or  less  ex- 
tent; in  some  specimens  the  head  has  no  black  spot  at  all,  and  the 
stripe  on  the  thorax  is  also  obsolete.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  fol- 
lowing species:  1st,  by  its  larger  size;  2d,  by  the  antennas  of  the  9 
being  14-jointed.  If  extended  backwards,  they  would  almost  reach  the 
tip  of  the  second  abdominal  segment;  the  joints  three  and  four  are  of 
nearly  equal  length,  linear  (that  if^,  their  length  being  out  of  all  pro- 
portion to  their  breadth) ;  joint  four  is  a  little  shorter  than  three,  and 
the  following  gradually  diminish  in  length  till  the  thirteenth  joint, 
the  length  of  which  is  about  double  its  breadth;  the  fourteenth  is  about 
once  and  a  half  the  length  of  the  preceding;  the  antennae  of  /S*.  lignl- 
cola  are  shorter,  that  is,  if  extended  backwards,  they  would  hardly 
reach  the  middle  of  the  second  abdominal  segment;  the  fourth  joint  is 
slightly  more  than  half  the  length  of  the  third,  not  linear,  its  length 
being  a  little  more  than  twice  its  breadth;  the  breadth  of  the  eleventh 
and  twelfth  segments  is  but  little  more  than  their  length ;  the  thir- 
teenth, or  last  joint,  is  about  twice  as  long  as  the  twelfth.  As  to  the 
male  sex,  the  proportional  length  of  the  third  and  fourth  joints  of  H. 
lignicola  %  is  the  same  as  in  the  9  >  that  is,  the  third  is  almost  twice 


374  [May 

as  Ions:  as  tlie  fourth,  and  I  infer  from  this  that  the  %  of  S.  onerafus, 
which  I  do  not  possess,  has,  like  the  9  ,  the  third  and  fourth  joints  of 
nearly  the  same  length;  3d,  by  the  mesonotum  always  having  more  or 
less  yellow  on  the  sides,  whereas  in  S.  ligv.icola  it  is  altogether  black, 
the  yellow  being  strictly  confined  to  the  collare ;  4th,  by  the  black  spot 
on  the  upper  part  of  the  abdomen  having  a  more  definite,  oblong  out- 
line, the  tip  of  the  abdomen  (or  rather  of  its  second  segment)  and  its 
sides  remaining  yellow,  whereas  the  limits  of  the  black  color  in  ;S'.  Ug- 
nicola  are  less  well  defined ;  this  color  extends  in  the  latter  to  the  very 
tip  of  the  second  segment  and  merges  into  bi-ownish  or  brownish-yellow 
on  the  sides;  in  many  9  specimens  the  venter  and  the  ventral  valve 
are  again  blackish  ;  5th.  the  ventral  valve  of  *S'.  oneratus  is  shorter  and 
truncate  at  the  tip ;  that  of  ;S'.  lignicola  ends  at  an  angle  of  about 
45°. 

I  possess  five  $  specimens  of  this  species,  obtained  from  the  galls  of 
G.  q.  globulus  Fitch  (on  Quercus  alha)^  from  a  similar  gall  on  Q.  ob- 
tusiloba  and  from  that  of  C  strobilana  0.  S. 

2.  Synergus  lignicola  0.  S. 

Syn.  8.  lignicola  0.  8.,  Proc.  Ent.  Soc.  Phil.  I,  p.  252. 

8.  rhoditiformis  Walsh,  Proc.  Ent.  Soc.  Phil.  II,  p.  499. 

The  synonymy  is  admitted  by  Mr.  Walsh  himself,  to  whom  I  have 
communicated  specimens  of  my  S.  lignicola.  My  description  was 
drawn  from  rather  pale  specimens,  and  has  to  be  corrected  in  the  fol- 
lowing points :  1st.  The  collare  has  a  brown  or  black  spot  in  the  mid- 
dle, which  is  more  or  less  extended,  being  sometimes  confined  to  a 
narrow  brown  line,  in  front  of  the  angle  formed  by  the  mesonotum  an- 
teriorly and  sometimes  extended  into  a  large  black  spot,  which  crosses 
over  to  the  occiput,  and  occupies  a  small  portion  of  it  round  the  neck ; 
the  specimens  bred  by  Mr.  Walsh  from  the  gall  of  0.  q.  podagrse  (Q. 
tinctoria),  and  described  as  *S'.  rhoditiformis,  seem  to  have  had  this  spot, 
usually,  of  a  large  size.  2d.  The  pectus  is  black  and  the  middle  coxae 
not  inserted  on  yellow  ground  as  stated  by  me.  The  question  of  the 
presence  or  absence  of  "two  slight  subdivisions"  of  the  last  joint  of 
the  9  antennae  is  unimportant,  as  it  depends  on  the  strength  of  the  lens 
used  and  on  that  of  the  eyesight.  I  perceive  it  in  S.  lignicola  as  well 
as  in  the  specimens  of  S.  rhoditiformis,  which  I  owe  to  the  kindness 
of  Mr.  Walsh.  His  description  being  more  detailed  and  accurate  than 
mine,  will  have  to  be  relied  upon  for  determining  the  species,  keeping, 
however,  in  view  the  remark  about  the  collare,  given  above,  and  the  cir- 
cumstance that  the  ventral  valve  is  not  always  of  "  a  highly  polished 
black,"  but  sometimes  paler.     As  Mr.  Walsh's  specimens,  reared  from 


1865.]  375 

the  gall  of  C.  q.  podagrse  (Quercus  tinctoria),  seem  to  have  had  in 
general  a  darker  coloring  than  my  specimens,  reared  from  the  gall  of 
C.  q.  cornigera  (Q.  palustris),  it  is  probable  that  we  have  here  again  an 
instance  of  two  races  of  the  same  species  living  on  different  trees.  The 
differences  between  this  species  and  S.  oneratus  have  been  detailed 
under  the  head  of  the  latter  species. 

3.  Synergus  laeviventris  0.  S.  9  • 

Syn.  Synophrus?  laeviventris  0.  S.  Proc.  Ent.  Soc.  Phil.  I,  p.  57. 

Synophrus  loeviventi-is  Walsh,  Proc.  etc.  II,  p.  494.     {Exparte.) 

0.07 — 0.08  long.  Head  reddish-brown,  vertex  darker,  antennae  brownish-yel- 
low, second  joint  not  much  shorter  than  the  fourth,  the  third  about  one-third 
longer  than  the  fourth ;  joints  four,  five  and  six  of  about  equal  length ;  the  four- 
teenth or  last  joint  is  somewhat  less  than  once  and  a  half  the  length  of  the  pre- 
ceding; thorax  black,  moderately  glossy,  finely  rugoso -punctate  and  pubescent; 
scutellum  gibbose,  with  a  slight,  sharp,  recurved,  elevated  margin;  (thorax 
and  scutellum  in  older  specimens  often  become  brownish  or  reddish-brown) ; 
parapsidal  grooves  distinct  their  whole  length;  foveas  at  the  base  of  the  scu- 
tellum rather  small,  but  distinct;  pleurae  black  or  brownish,  polished  and  glossy 
under  the  root  of  the  wing,  aciculate  below,  punctate  anteriorly;  first  abdomi- 
nal segment  striate ;  the  second  segment,  covering  all  the  following,  is  chestnut- 
brown  or  black,  paler  on  the  under  side;  its  shape,  seen  from  above,  is  elon- 
gated-ovoid, the  tip  being  drawn  out  in  a  point;  the  side-view  is  almost  lanceo- 
late, the  tip  appearing  likewise  pointed;  held  against  the  light,  the  valves  of 
the  ovipositor,  as  well  as  the  ventral  valve,  may  be  seen,  concealed  as  they  are 
under  their  unusually  long  second  joint;  the  ovipositor  alone  protrudes  some- 
times beyond  the  joint;  feet  brownish-yellow,  extreme  tip  of  tarsi  more  or  less 
brownish;  (one  of  my  specimens  has  the  hind  tibiae  and  tarsi  somewhat  infus- 
cated);  wings  hyaline,  veins  pale;  areolet  almost  obsolete,  as  one  side  of  it  only 
(which  is  the  prolongation  of  the  second  transverse  vein,)  is  stout  and  distinct; 
the  two  other  sides,  as  well  as  the  whole  course  of  the  cubital  vein,  are  almost 
obsolete. 

Four  9  specimens,  reared  from  the  galls  of  G.  spongifica,  G.  centri- 
cola  and  the  gall  on  Q.  falcata^  described  by  me  Proc.  etc.  I,  p.  69, 
No.  20.  It  may  not  be  useless  to  observe  that  the  European  S.  thau- 
tnacera  Dalm.,  which  seems  to  be  closely  allied  to  our  species,  has  the 
third  joint  of  the  antennae  enormously  developed  in  the  male  sex. 

Mr.  Walsh  having  had  the  kindness  to  communicate  to  me  specimens 
of  the  insects  mentioned  by  him  (Proc.  Ent.  Soc.  II,  p.  494)  as  Syno- 
phrus Is&oiventris  0.  S.,  I  convinced  myself  that  those  specimens  which 
he  had  bred  from  the  gall  of  G.  q.  spongijica  really  belong  to  the  pre- 
sent species;  but  that  the  specimens  obtained  by  him  from  the  gall  G. 
q.  forticornis  are  the  species  of  Geroptres  mentioned  above,  p.  51,  as  G. 
Jicus  Fitch,  and  closely  resembling  S.  laeviventris  in  its  coloring.  The 
remarks  of  this  author  (1.  c.)  have  to  be  sifted  accordingly. 


376  [.AIat 

4.  Synergus  campanula,  n.  sp.  9  ■ 

0.08 — 0.10  long.  Head  black,  except  the  face,  which  is  brownish  below  the 
antennae  and  brownish-yellow  above  the  mouth;  the  brownish  or  yellowish  co- 
loring sometimes  extends  above  the  antennae  in  the  shape  of  a  narrow  stripe 
along  the  eyes ;  vertex  black,  little  shining,  smooth.  Antennae  brownish-yel- 
low, a  little  shorter  than  the  body;  14-jointed  (  9  );  the  fourth  joint  is  a  little 
shorter  than  the  third,  the  following  joints  gradually  decrease  in  length;  the 
fourteenth  is  about  once  and  a  half  the  length  of  the  preceding  joint.  Thorax 
deep  black,  and  but  little  shining,  with  dense,  delicate,  transverse  rugae,  evenly 
spread  over  its  upper  surface,  which  is  also  clothed  with  a  short,  fine  and  scat- 
tered pubescence;  parapsidal  grooves  not  very  deep,  but  distinct;  a  vestige  of 
an  intermediate  furrow,  especially  visible  in  a  certain  light,  towards  the  scu- 
tellum;  two  minute,  parallel,  glabrous  lines,  running  a  short  distance  from  the 
middle  of  the  coUare,  backwards;  (they  are  visible  under  a  strong  lens  only); 
scutellum  rather  large,  gibbose,  densely  and  deeply  rugose;  its  basal  fovese  ra- 
ther small;  pleurae  with  a  smooth,  black,  polished  space,  the  lower  part  of  which 
is  finely  aciculate;  scapulae  yellow.  First  segment  of  the  abdomen  longitudi- 
nally striate;  the  second  segment,  concealing  all  the  following,  has  the  shape 
of  a  regular  oval  when  seen  from  above;  seen  from  the  side  its  longitudinal  dia- 
meter is  about  equal  to  the  transverse  one;  its  outline  is  almost  that  of  half  a 
circle,  which  has  a  flat  arc  (the  dorsal  side  of  the  segment)  instead  of  a  diame- 
ter; the  ventral  valve  or  the  tip  of  the  sheath  of  the  ovijjositor  are  sometimes, 
but  not  always,  protruding  beyond  the  hind  edge  of  the  second  segment;  the 
abdomen  is  polished,  black,  sometimes  brownish  along  the  hind  edge;  feet 
brownish-yellow,  tips  of  the  tarsi  brown;  veins  of  the  wings  pale;  areolet  of 
medium  size,  almost  obsolete,  as  one  side  of  it  only  (the  prolongation  of  the  se- 
cond transverse  vein,)  is  short  and  distinct. 

Three  9  specimens  reared  from  the  gall  of  Cijnips  q.  glohuhis  Fitch, 
(white  oak)  and  seven  from  a  somewhat  similar  gall  {Quercus  hicolorf), 
described  by  me  in  Proc.  Ent.  Soc.  I,  p.  256. 

5.  Synergus  dimorphus  n.  sp.  %  9- 

Female.  0.12 — 0.13  long.  Head,  black,  except  the  face,  which  is  brownish- 
red,  mixed  with  black,  below  the  antenniw;  mandibles  (except  their  tip,  which 
Is  black),  and  more  or  less  space  near  their  roots  on  the  cheeks,  yellowish ;  the 
brownish  coloring  of  the  face  extend  above  the  antennae,  in  the  shape  of  a  nar- 
row stripe  along  the  eyes  ;  vertex  black,  moderately  shining,  with  sparse,  broad, 
flat-bottomed  punctures.  Antennae  brownish-yellow,  13-jointed,  about  three- 
fourths  the  length  of  the  body ;  the  fourth  joint  is  a  little  longer  than  one-half 
of  the  third ;  joints  four,  five  and  six  are  nearly  of  the  same  length  ;  the  follow- 
ing joints  are  somewhat  shorter;  the  last  joint  is  about  equal  to  the  two  pre- 
ceding taken  together.  Thorax  black,  moderately  shining,  with  very  rough, 
but  not  very  dense  transverse  rugosities;  pubescence  short  and  very  sparse: 
parapsidal  grooves  well  marked,  punctured  at  the  bottom;  scutellum  coarsely 
sculptured;  its  basal  foveas  are  indistinct;  the  smooth  space  of  the  pleurae  is 
almost  entirely  aciculate;  scapulae  brownish-yellow.  First  segment  of  the  ab- 
domen longitudinally  striate;  the  second  segment,  concealing  all  the  follow- 
ing, has  the  shape  of  an  elongated  oval,  when  seen  from  above ;  seen  from  the 
side,  its  longitudinal  diameter  distinctly  exceeds  the  transverse  one;  the  ven- 
tral valve,  ending  in  a  short,  pubescent  point,  usually  projects  beyond  the  edge 
of  the  second  segment,  its  angle  is  about  60°  or  70°  ;  abdomen  polished,  black  ; 


ISCiS.]  377 

ventral  valve  yellowish-brown ;  feet  brownish-yellow;  hind  tibise  and  a  part 
of  the  first  joint  of  the  hind  tarsi  infuscated :  tips  of  all  the  tarsi  brownish; 
veins  of  the  wings  brownish;  areolet  rather  small,  its  structure  like  that  of  the 
{^receding  species. 

Male.  0.10  long;  antennae  16-jointed,  third  joint  excised  below,  fourth  half 
as  long  as  the  third;  head  yellow,  except  a  black  spot  on  the  vertex,  which  in- 
cludes tlve  ocelli;  a  part  of  the  collare  and  of  the  pleurae  also  yellow,  which 
color  seems  to  be  variable  in  extent  in  different  specimens ;  abdomen  truncate 
at  the  tip,  bell-shaped,  when  seen  from  the  side ;  the  sculpture  of  the  head  and 
thorax  and  the  coloring  of  the  feet  are  the  same  as  in  the  female. 

Numerous  9  ^iid  two  %  specimens,  found  in  the  box  containing  my 
callection  of  galls ;  I  have  not  been  able  to  ascertain  what  gall  pro- 
duced them. 

This  species  is  distinguished  from  *S'.  campanula  by  its  more  elon- 
gated shape,  the  sculpture  of  the  vertex,  the  coloring  of  the  hind  tibiae, 
etc.  Viewed  from  above,  the  abdomen  is  more  elongated-oval  than  that 
of  S.  campanula  ;  the  sculpture  of  the  thorax  appears  rough,  as  the 
wrinkles  seems  to  be  due  to  sharp,  projecting  ridges,  whereas  the  tho- 
rax of  S.  campanula,  although  more  densely  wrinkled,  has  a  handsomely 
smooth  appearance ;  the  pubescence  on  the  thorax  of  the  latter  species 
is  more  dense,  etc.  Besides,  the  antennse  of  the  9  of  >S'.  dimorpJms 
are  13  and  not  14-jointed.  The  punctures  on  the  vertex  of  this  species 
can  be  perceived  only  under  a  rather  strong  lens. 

6.  Synergus  albipes  Walsh,  %  9  • 

Syn.  Synophrus  albipes  Walsh,  Proc.  Ent.  Soc.  II,  p.  496,  17. 

Antennae  (  9  )  14-joiuted,  according  to  Mr.  Walsh,  the  last  joint  one- 
third  longer  than  the  preceding  one  (the  tip  of  the  antennae  of  my  only 
9  is  broken.)  The  entire  body  is  black,  except  the  yellow  palpi,  the 
yellowish-brown  mandibles  and  the  brownish-yellow  scapulae.  The  ver- 
tex is  moderately  shining,  without  any  apparent  punctures.  The  thorax 
is  moderately  shining,  very  finely  and  evenly  rugoso-punctate ;  its  pu- 
bescence short,  moderately  dense  and  very  even  ;  the  parapsidal  grooves 
but  moderately  distinct;  the  polished  space  on  the  pleurfe  microscopi- 
cally aciculate.  The  first  abdominal  segment  is  longitudinally  striate; 
"  the  sheaths  of  the  ovipositor  do  not  project  beyond  the  line  of  the 
back,  or  scarcely,  and  in  a  single  9  only"  (Walsh) ;  the  ventral  valve 
is  considerably  projecting  beyond  the  edge  of  the  second  segment ;  its 
tip  at  an  angle  of  more  than  45°  ;  it  is  extended  in  a  very  short  apicule; 
the  shape  of  the  second  segment,  as  seen  from  the  side,  is  nearly  like 
that  of  S.  climorpkus.  Feet  pale  whitish-yellow,  tarsal  tips  brown ; 
"  in  a  single  %  the  hind  femora  and  tibiae,  and  in  a  less  degree  the  in- 
termediate ones,  are  brown"  (Walsh). 

Mr.  Walsh  reared  many  %  9  specimens  from  the  gall  of  C.  q.  flocci 


378  [May 

Walsh  (  =  3'.  lansE  Fitch?)  in  August;  to  him  I  owe  the  communica- 

tioQ  of  some  specimens. 

7.  Synergus  mendax  Walsh.  9-     Proc.  Ent.  Soc.  II,  498. 

A  specimen,  communicated  to  me  by  the  author,  enables  me  to  add 
the  following  remarks  to  his  description  :  1st.  The  sculpture  of  the 
mesonotum  is  very  rough  and  not  unlike  that  of  S.  dimorjjhus,  consist- 
ing apparently  of  transverse,  projecting  ridges,  with  intervening  smooth 
and  moderately  shining  spaces;  only  the  ridges  appear  here  more  ele- 
vated and  sharper,  but  at  the  same  time  wider  apart  than  in  S.  dlmor- 
phus  and  thus  the  surface  of  the  thorax  is  more  rough,  but  at  the  same 
time  more  shining  than  the  latter  species.  2nd.  The  polished  spot  on 
the  pleurae  is  almost  smooth  in  this  species ;  however,  under  a  strong 
lens  and  in  an  oblique  light,  the  sculpture,  common  to  the  other  species 
of  the  genus,  becomes  apparent  here.  3rd.  The  general  shape  of  the 
body  is  more  elongated  than  in  S.  dimorphus  ;  the  abdomen,  seen  from 
the  side,  appears  more  elongated,  as  its  transverse  diameter  appears, 
comparatively,  much  shorter  than  that  of  the  other  species.  4th.  Mr. 
Walsh  calls  the  ventral  valve  "unarmed";  but  the  specimen  he  com- 
municated me,  of  this  species,  distinctly  shows  a  projecting  point  beyond 
the  tip  of  the  valve. 

Bred  by  Mr.  Walsh  from  the  gall  of  0.  q.  jjodagrse  Walsh,  together 
with    S.  llgnicola  0.  S.  {S.  rhoditiformis.  Walsh). 

p.  s. — Since  this  article  was  presented  to  the  Society,  I  have  received  from 
Mr.  Bassett  galls  of  his  Cynips  hirta.  They  look  precisely  like  the  galls  of  Q. 
pisum  Fitch  {=pezomachoides  nob  ?)  only  they  seem  usually  to  be  a  little  smaller, 
and  the  netting  on  the  surface  is  more  dense.  In  the  Synoptical  Table  of  the 
galls,  those  of  C.  hirta  have  therefore  to  be  put  next  to  those  of  C.  pezomachoides. 
Both  produce  apterous  gall-flies. 

Being  at  the  same  time  a  synonymical  catalogue  of  all  the  described 
N.  A.  0_i/nipidse,  exclusive  of  Fir/itidse. 

Observation. — An  asterisk  near  a  specific  name  signifies  that  I  have 
not  seen  the  species ;  an  interrogation  (?)  that  the  location  of  the  spe- 
cies in  the  genus  is  doubtful.  Species  united  by  brackets  are  probably 
phytophagic  varieties.  The  subdivision  of  the  genus  Cynips  in  genera 
is  subject  to  the  doubts  and  limitations  expressed  in  the  body  of  my 
paper,  and  is,  for  this  reason,  only  provisional.  I  have  thought  it  con- 
venient to  retain  the  subdivision  of  this  genus  in  two  groups,  according 
to  the  kinds  of  oaks  which  the  species  inhabit;  this  subdivision  is,  as 
I  have  shown,  very  often  coincident  with  the  generic  subdivisions. 
although  I  would  not  affirm  that  it  is  always  so. 


1865.] 


379 


A.  GALL-FLIES. 


I.   CYNIPS. 


(Quercus). 


Group  of  White  and  Chestnut-oaks. 

PAGE 

Cynips  Hartig. 

1.  a  strobilana  0.  S 350 

2.  C.  globulus  Fitch 350 

Syn.   Callaspidia   q.    glo- 
bulus Fitch. 

3.  C.  centricola  0.  S 350 

4.  a  tubicola  0.  S 351 

?5.   C.  clavula  Bassett 351 

Syn.  C.  q.  tuber   Bassett 

(nou  Fitch). 
Syn.  of  gall:  Q.  tuber  Fitch 
Q.  arbos  Fitch 

Andricus. 

6.  C.seminator  Harris 351 

7.  C.  petiolicola  Bassett 351 

8.  C.fusiformis  0.  S 352 

I    9.   C.futilisO.S 352 

(10.   C.papillata  0.8 352 

?»11.    C.  flocci  Walsh 352 

Teras. 

12.  C.  pezomachoides  0.  S 352 

Syn.    of  gall :     Q.    pisum 
Fitch? 

13.  C.  fortieornis  Walsh 353 

Syn.  of  gall:  Q.  ficus  Fitch. 

14.  C.  hirta  Bassett 353 

*15.   C.  fulvicoUis'Fiic'h 353 

Syn.  Philonix  fulvii^oUis 
Fitch. 

*16.   C.  nigricollis  Fitch 353 

Syn.  Philonix  nigricollis 
'  Fitch. 

Biorhiza  Westw. 

??*17.   C.nigra  Fitch 353 

Syn.  Biorhiza  nigra  Fitch. 

(s^i«A>tti  Spathegaster  Hartig.|r 

I  18.    C.  irregularis  0.  S 353 

I  19.   C.  mqjalis  Bassett 353 

20.  a  batatus  Bassett  (Fitch?  )..353 

21.  C,  verrucarum  0.  S 354 


Group  of  red,  black  and  willow-oaks. 

PAGB 

Nov.  gen.  m  t^^y^  A  <  6 a  l^p^ 

f  22.   C.  spongifica  0.  S 354 

Syn.  C.  aciculata  0.  S.  (di- 
morphous 9 .) 

C.    confluens    Harris 
(Syn.  of  aciculata.) 
Syn.    of   gall:    confluens 
Harris. 

.23.   C.  q.  coccineae  0.  S 354 

24.   C.inanisO.  S 354 

Syn.  C.  confluens  Fitch  (non 
Harris.) 
■  25.   a  coelebs  0.  S 355 

26.  C.  ilicifolioe  Bassett 355 

27.  C.  singularis  Bassett 355 

28.  C.  Osten-Sackenii'Ra.sseiit 355 

?29.   C. /ormosa  Bassett 356 

?®30.   C.  sculpta  Bassett 356 

(The  following  species  may  be  ar- 
ranged in  groups,  which  will  per- 
haps yet  constitute  as  many  ge- 
nera) . 

31.  C.  q.phellos  0.  S 356 

32.  C  similis  Bassett 356 

33.  C.  q.  nigrce  0.  S 356 

34.  C.  tumifica  0.  S 366 

35.  C.  modesta  0.  S 357 

36.  C.  operator  0.  S 357 

37.  C.  ventricosa  Bassett 358 

*  «  -is  * 

38.  C.  cornigera  0.  S 358 

I  39.   C.  punctata  Bassett 358 

(40.   C.  podagrcE  Walsh 358 

41.   C.  scitula  Bassett 358 


42.   C.  q.  palustris  0.  S. 


.369 


380 


[May 


II. 


Jt.  dichlocerus  Harris. 

Syn.  Cynips  dichlocerus  Harris. 
M.  hicolor  Harris. 

Syn.  Cynips  bicolor  Harris. 


RHODITES 

(Eosa.) 

R.  ignota  0.  S. 
R.  rosce  Linn. 
R.  radicum  0.  S. 
R.  verna  0.  S. 


.361 


D.  nehulosus  0.  S. 

D.  cuscutoeformis  0.  S. 


III.  DIASTROPHUS 

(Rubus,  Potentilla.) 

I  D.  potentillce  Bassett. 

B.  GUEST-FLIES. 
AULAX. 


.361 


^4.  sylvestris  0.  S 366 

A.  pirata  0.  S 366 

?A.futUis  0.  S 366  I 


?A.  semipiceus  Harris 366 

Syn.  Cynips  semipiceus  Harris. 


CEROPTRES. 


C.  /icus  Fitch 368 

Syn.  Cynips  q.  ficus  Fitch. 

Synophrus     Iseviventris 
Walsh  (exparte). 

C.  petiolicola  0.  S 369 

Syn.    Amblynotus  ?    petiolicola 

0.  S. 
Syn.  ?Amblynotus  ensigerWalsh 


0.  inermis  Walsh 369 

AS[yn..  Amblynotus  inerm.is  Walsh 

C.  pisum  0.  S 369 

Syn.  Sarothrus  pisum  0.  S. 

C.  arbos  Fitch 370 

Syn.  Cynips  q.  arbos  Fitch. 

a  tuber  Fitch 370 

Syn.  Cynips  q.  tuber  Fitch. 


SYNERGUS. 


4.  S.  campanula  0.  S 375 

5.  S.  dimorphus  0.  S 376 

6.  S.albipes  W&lsh 377 

Syn.  Synophrus  albipes  Walsh. 

7.  S.  menrfaa;  Walsh 378 


1.  S.  oneratus  Harris 373 

Syn.  Cynips  oneratus  Harris. 

2.  S.  lignicola  0.  S 374 

Syn.  S.  rhoditiformis  Walsh. 

3.  S.  loeviventris  0.  S 375 

*Sfyw.Synophrus?  Iseviventris  O.S. 
Syn.    Synophrus    Iseviventris 
Walsh  (exparte). 

Species  of  doubtful  location.  > 

Figites  chinquapin  Fitch,  see  No.  56..361  I  Cynips  q.  lana  Fitch,  see  No.  45 359 

Cynips  q.  pisum  Fitch,  see  No.  57 361  I 


ERRATA. 
Page  334,  line  25,  for  "suggests  himself"  read  "  himself  suggests." 
"     336,  line  15,  for  -'on"  read  "in." 
"     366,  line  11,  for  •'■  Kynipidae,''  read  "  Ci/nipk1se.'' 


/^ 


6/ 


A^'C-^ 


\j 


THE 


AMERICAN   NATURALIST. 

Vol.  II.— MAY,  1868.— No.  3. 
THE  SONGS   OF  THE  GRASSHOPPERS. 

BY  S.   H.   SCUDDER. 


Although  every  one  is  familiar  with  the 
notes  of  birds,  few  can  distinguish  the  differ- 
ent chirpings  of  insects,  or  are  even  aware 
that  every  kind  of  Grasshopper  has  its  distinc- 
tive note.  The  songs  of  insects  are  neither 
so  varied  nor  complicated  as  those  of  birds, 
i-'E^Mnm  ^^^^  their  study  presents  peculiar  difficulties. 

/■1/fei/  Sounds   become  inaudible  to  many  persons 

when  they  are  derived  from  vibrations  more 
rapid  than  25,000  per  second,  and  when  the 
number  reaches  38,000,  the  limit  of  human 
perceptibility  is  attained :  thus,  the  shrill- 
ness of  a  note  may  prove  a  hinderance  to 
its  study.  This  is  illustrated  by  Tyndall  in 
his  recent  book  on  Sound.  He  writes  :  "  Crossing  the  Wen- 
gern  Alp  with  a  friend,  the  grass  on  each  side  of  the  path 
swarmed  with  insects,  which,  to  me,  rent  the  air  with  their 
shrill  chirruping.  My  friend  heard  nothing  of  this,  the  in- 
sect world  lying  beyond  his  limit  of  audition." 

Another   and   universal   obstacle    lies   in  the  delicacy  or 
feebleness  of  the  notes  of  some  species ;  to  distinguish  them 

Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  In  the  year  1868,  by  the  Peabody  Academy  of 
SciEXCE,  In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  District  of  Massachusetts. 


AMKK.  ^'AXUKALIbT,  VOL.  n. 


15 


(iia) 


114  THE    SONGS    OF    THE    GRASSHOPPERS. 

clearly,  one  must  bring  his  ear  to  within  a  few  feet,  or  even 
inches  of  the  insect  during  its  striclulation, — a  process  which 
requires  'great  caution  lest  the  shyness  of  the  little  violinist 
should  overcome  his  egotistic  love  of  song.  The  observer 
must  walk  quietly  toward  the  sound  until  it  ceases,  and  wait 
motionless  for  its  renewal ;  the  direction  of  the  chirping  can 
then  easily  be  determined,  although  its  distance  is  deceptive. 
After  drawing  an  imaginary  line  towards  the  spot  from 
whence  the  sound  proceeds,  cautious  steps  must  be  taken 
aromid  the  arc  of  a  wide  circle  until  another  line  is  fixed  at 
right  angles  to  the  first,  and  the  location  of  the  songster  ap- 
proximately determined.  Then  walking  quickly  but  quietly 
to  within  five  or  six  feet  of  the  insect,  the  observer  will  fall 
upon  his  hands  and  knees,  and  produce  a  quill  edge  and  file, 
which,  on  being  rubbed  together,  imitate,  with  great  exact- 
ness, the  desired  note.  He  will  commence  his  mock  strid- 
ulation  after  a  short  delay;  at  first  the  sounds  must  be 
subdued  and  separated  by  considerable  intervals,  then  loud, 
and  repeated  in  quick  succession ;  usually  a  response  is 
heard  before  a  minute  has  elapsed,  and  sometimes  it  comes 
at  once.  When  the  insect  has  forgotten  his  fears  and  begins 
to  stridulate  violently,  the  observer  may  cease  operations 
and  carefully  approach  him.  In  this  way  one  can  place 
himself  within  a  few  inches  of  any  species  living  in  the 
grass. 

Grasshoppers  stridulate  in  four  diflferent  ways  :  first,  by 
rubbing  the  base  of  one  wing-cover  upon  the  other,  using, 
for  that  purpose,  the  veins  running  through  the  middle  por- 
tion of  the  wing ;  second,  by  a  similar  method,  but  using 
the  veins  of  the  inner  part  of  the  wing ;  third,  by  rubbing 
the  inner  surface  of  the  hind  les^s  against  the  outer  surface 
of  the  wing-covers ;  and  fourth,  by  rubbing  together  the 
upper  surface  of  the  front  edge  of  the  wings  and  the  under 
surface  of  the  wing-covers.  The  insects  which  employ  the 
fourth  method  stridulate  during  fliofht, — the  others  while  at 
rest.     To  the  first  group  belong  the  Crickets  ;  to  the  second 


THE    SONGS    OF   THE    GRASSHOPPERS.  115 

the  Green  or  Long-horned  Grasshoppers ;  to  the  third  and 
fourth,  certain  kinds  of  Short-horned  or  Jumping  Grasshop- 
pers. The  sounds  j)roduced  by  the  different  groups  vary  in 
pitch,  tliose  of  the  crickets  being  shrillest  and  the  others 
following  in  the  order  just  given.  With  but  few  exceptions 
the  males  alone  sins;. 

The  notes  of  the  Cricket — called  by  the  French  "cri  cri" 
on  account  of  its  song — maybe  heard  near  Boston*  from  the 
middle  of  June  until  November ;  further  north  they  do  not 
appear  until  much  later  in  the  season.  Their  note  is  crrri^ 
and  the  rapidity  with  which  it  is  uttered  varies  even  in  the 
same  strain ;  sometimes  it  is  as  slow  as  two  notes  a  second, 
at  others  it  is  twice  as  rapid.  The  note  is  sharp  and  shrill, 
and  appears  to  be  pitched  at  E  natural,  two  octaves  above 
middle  C.  Sometimes  two  choirs  of  these  insects  may  be 
heard  at  once,  the  individuals  of  each  choir  chirping  simul- 
taneously, but  one  choir  more  rapidly  than  the  other ;  most 
of  the  time  this  produces  a  sort  of  discord,  but,  as  they 
occasionally  harmonize,  one  hears  cycles  of  accordance  and 
discordance,  often  of  remarkable  uniformity  and  duration. 

The  Spotted-cricket  (^Nemobius  vittatus)  appears  simulta- 
neously with  the  Black-cricket  (  Gryllus  niger) .  The  chirpiug 
of  the  two  insects  is  very  similar,  but  that  of  the  former  may 
be  better  expressed  by  r-r-r-u,  pronounced  as  though  it  were 
a  French  word.  The  note  is  trilled  forcibly,  and  lasts  a  vari- 
able length  of  time.  One  of  these  insects  was  once  observed 
while  singing  to  its  mate.  At  first  the  song  was  mild  and 
frequently  broken ;  afterwards  it  grew  impetuous,  forcible, 
and  more  prolonged ;  then  it  decreased  in  volume  and  extent 
until  it  became  quite  soft  and  feeble.  At  this  point  the  male 
began  to  approach  the  female,  uttering  a  series  of  twitteriug 
chirps ;  the  female  ran  away,  and  the  male,  after  a  short 
chase,  returned  to  his  old  haunt,  singing  with  the  same 
vigor  but  with  frequent  pauses ;  at  last,  finding  all  persua- 
sion unavailing  he  brouo:ht  his  serenade  to  a  close. 

*  All  my  illustrations  are  drawn  from  New  England  insects. 


116  THE    SOXGS    or    THE    GRASSHOPPERS. 

In  September  and  October,  the  White  Climbing- cricket 
(^CScanthus  niveus,  Fig.  1,  left  wing-cover  of  male,  Fig.  1  a, 
the  same  of  female*)  is  found  on  the 
leaves  of  low  trees  and  bushes.  It  makes 
a  uniform  note,  exceedingly  shrill  but 
attenuated. 

The  peculiar  development  of  the  wing 
in  stridulating  Orthoptera  is  nowhere  seen 
to  better  advantage  than  in  this  insect. 
In  the  female,  the  veins  of  the  central  field  run  nearly  paral- 
lel to  the  border  ;  in  the  male,  they  cross  the  wing  in  various 
directions,  and  either  converge  toward  the  point  of  stridu- 
latiou  on  the  inner  border  of  the  wing,  where  the  inner  and 
central  fields  meet,  or  act  as  supports  to  the  converging 
veins. 

AH  these  insects  balong  to  the  first  class.  There  are  many 
species  in  the  second  group  (the  green  or  long-horned  grass- 
hoppers), but  a  few  examples  will  suffice.  These  insects, 
like  the  crickets,  sing  both  by  day  and  night,  but,  unlike  the 
latter,  their  day- song  difiers  from  tliat  of  the  night.  On 
a  summer's  day,  it  is  curious  to  observe  these  little  crea- 
tures suddenly  changing;  from  the  day  to  the  night-song  at 
the  mere  passing  of  a  cloud,  and  returning  to  the  old  note 
when  the  sky  is  clear.  By  imitating  the  two  songs  in  the 
daytime,  the  grasshoppers  can  be  made  to  respond  to  either 
at  will ;  at  night,  they  have  but  one  note. 

The  previous  illustrations  showed  that  the  stridulating 
organ  of  crickets  occupied  the  middle  field  of  the  wing ;  in 
the  green  grasshoppers,  on  the  contrar}^  it  will  be  found  in 
the  inner  field ;  here,  too,  the  relative  size  of  the  inner  field 
is  nearly  the  same  in  both  sexes,  but  the  stout,  curved  vein 
of  the  male  is  altogether  wanting  in  the  voiceless  female. 
One  of  them,  the  Phaneroptera  curvicauda  (Fig.  2,  male  ; 


*  In  all  the  illustrations,  the  dotted  lines  show  the  limitations  of  the  different  fields  of 
the  wing;  a  represents  the  "  file;"  b  points  at  the  line  of  separation  between  the  costal 
(or  outer)  and  central  fields;  c,  at  that  point  between  the  central  and  inner  fields. 


THE    SONGS   OF    THE    GRASSHOPPERS.  ' 


11-7 


Fig.  2  a,  female),  prefers  to  sing  in  the  night.  His  day- 
song  is  hzrwi,  and  lasts  one-third  of  a  second ;  the  night- 
song  consists  of  a  repetition — ordinarily  eight  times — of  a 
note  which  sounds  like  tcJiw.  This  is  repeated  at  the  rate 
of  five  in    three-quarters    of   a       rig. 2a.  rig. 2. 

second,  making  each  note  one- 
half  as  long  as  that  of  the  day. 

The  song  of  the  common 
Meadow -grasshopper  (  Orcheli- 
mum  vulgare)  is  more  compli- 
cated. Commencing  with  ts,  it 
changes  almost  instantly  into  a 
trill  of  zr:  at  first  there  is  a 
crescendo  movement  which 
reaches  its  volume  in  half  a  sec- 
ond ;  the  trill  is  then  sustained 
for  a  period  varying  from  one 
to  twenty  seconds,  and  closes 
suddenly  with  j^'  This  strain 
is  followed  by  a  series  of  stac- 
cato notes,  sounding  like  jip; 
they  are  one-eighth  of  a  second  in  length,  and  are  produced 
at  one-half  second  intervals.  The  staccato  notes  and  the 
trill  alternate  ad  libitum.  The  ni2:ht-sono;  differs  from  that 
of  the  day  simply  in  its  slower  movement ;  the  pitch  of  both 
is  at  B  flat,  two  octaves  above  middle  C. 

A  conical- headed  grasshopper  {^Conocephalus  robustiis), 
found  near  the  seashore  in  the  southern  part  of  New  England, 
makes  the  salt  marshes  resound  with  its  incessant,  shrill  din. 
The  resemblance  of  its  song  to  that  of  the  harvest-fly  is  quite 
striking;  at  a  distance,  the  note  seems  to  be  perfectly  uni- 
form ;  close  at  hand,  one  can  hear  it  rising  and  falling  rhyth- 
mically, two  and  a  half  times  a  second,  accompanied  by  a 
loud  droning  noise. 

There  are  numerous  kinds  of  jumping  grasshoppers  vv'hich 
stridulate  in  the  daytime  only.     They  do  this  by  the  aid  of 


118 


THE    SONGS    OF   THE    GRASSHOPPERS. 


the  hind  legs,  rubbing  their  thighs  against  their  wing-covers ; 
every  movement  of  the  fiddle-bow  produces  a  short  note,  and 
the  uniformity  with  which  each  species  plays  its  own  song 
is  quite  remarkable.  One  kind  (Stenobothrus  curtipennis) 
produces  about  six  notes  per  second,  and  continues  them 
from  one  and  a  half  to  two  and  a  half  seconds ;  another 
(S.  melanopleurus)  makes  from  nine  to  twelve  notes  in 
about  three  seconds.  In  both  cases  the  notes  follow  each 
other  uniformly,  and  are  slower  in  the  shade  than  in  the 
sun. 

The  stridulating  apparatus  of  the  jumping  grasshoppers  is 
of  a  very  diiferent  character  from  that  of  the  green  grasshop- 
Fig.3.      Fig.  3a.    pcrs.     1\\  Avcyptera  Uneata  (Fig.  d,  pi„  3^ 
left  wing  of  male  ;  Fig.  3  a,  left  wing 
of  female) ,  for  example,  it  is  situated 
in   the    central   field    of    the    wino;, 
which  is  of  about  the  same  size  in 
both  sexes ;  some  of  the  veins  in  the 
centre  of    the   wing  [a,  enlarged  in 
Fig.  3  5)  have    a   rasp -like   surface 
upon    which    the    hind    thighs    are 
scraped  up  and  down,  producing  mo- 
notonous, nearly  uniform  notes. 
^  ^  The  grasshoppers  which  stridulate 

during  flight,  by  the  contact  of  the  wings  and  wing- 
covers,  belong  mostly  to  the  genus  CEdipoda;  in  many 
of  them  the  wings  are  variegated  with  brilliant  colors.  The 
sound  which  the}"  make  seems  to  be  under  the  control  of  the 
insects,  for  they  often  omit  it  when  alarmed.  Some  species 
produce  a  uniform,  rattling  noise  during  the  whole  of  their 
undeviating  flight ;  others  make  it  only  during  the  intervals 
of  flight,  and  seem  to  stridulate  more  at  will.  The  flight 
of  the  latter  is  more  sustained,  they  are  capable  of  changing 
their  course,  and  at  each  turn  emit  a  crackling  sound  of 
short  duration. 


THE    SONGS    OF   THE    GRASSHOPPERS. 


119 


•P  JiP  Jip  Jip  Jip  Jip  Jip 


jri-^^  p^^  -^^ 


jip      ts 


tr^ 


^-O-m-»-0-0-0-~»-»-»~0~0-»-9-»-»-»-»~»-»-9-9-»-»-9-0-»-O-» 

■'...iT-ii.'ii.i.'i.i-i— .'-..Lir  ' II 


P         Jip 


Note  of  Orchelimum  vulgare. 


120  THE    SONGS    OF    THE    GRASSHOPPERS. 


crrn  crrri         crrri  crrri         crrri 


Note  of  Gryllus  neglectus. 
ru  ru  ru  ru        ru  ru  ru  ru  ru  ru  ru  ru  ru  ru 


tr        \  I     -""^  \  tr        \ 

—f-f-0-fi — ^-*-* ^ f-^—*1     » —«-»-0-9 O-0- 

I      I      I      I  I       I      I      I  '        III         '     I  I       I      1      I      I  I       I      I 

ru    ru  ru  ru  ru      ru     ti     ru     ru  ru  ru  ru     ru 


^r  \         ^        ^         \         tr 


— r- 1 -f-f-f-r- 1 -r-^-^-^- 1 -r 


,  -  ,  r        -^ ^ *- 

^     '    1/    I    r     1     I     I 

Note  of  Nemobius  vittatus. 


bzrwi  bzrwi  '        bzrwi 

^ 1*^ — ^ ^ ^ P' — ""^ ^ — g^-nP^    <llj 

Note  of  Phaneroptera  curvicauda  by  day. 
tchw      tcbw      tcbw      tcbw      tchw      tchw  tchw  tchw 

Note  of  Phaneroptera  curvicauda  by  night. 
Note  of  Stenobothrus  melanopleurus  in  the  sun. 

trfrfrrfjrfflrtriirmT— 

Note  of  Stenobothrus  melanopleurus  in  the  shade. 
Note  of  Stenobothrus  curtipennis. 


Note  of  Arcyptera  lineata. 


Accession  No. 

Added 187 

Catalogued  by 

Revised   by 

Memoranda. 


$ 


Pamphlets 


/    J 


J>^ zL  '^:. riost.Sa^.-^'^.  Jt:M,:isr,p. ssr/ss/, 


Anisopteryx    vernata    distinguished   from    a.   pometaria. 
By  B.  Pickman  Mann. 

The  question  of  the  difference  between  Anisopteryx  vernata  and 
Anwopten/x  pometaria  having  been  raised,  I  have  looked  over  my 
notes,  and  made  some  new  observations-  with  the  results  contained  in 
this  paper. 

In  the  following  descriptions  I  have  drawn  as  much  as  possible 
from  Harris'  Treatise  on  Some  of  the  Insects  Injurious  to  Vegeta- 
tion, and  have  indicated  by  italics  the  portions  so  adopted. 

Fii'st,  I  give  the  characters  which,  as  far  as  I  know  at  present,  are 
common  to  both  species. 

The  aniennce  of  the  male  have  a  very  narroro  and  almost  downy  edg- 
ing, on  each  >iide,  hardly  to  be  seen  ivith  the  naked  eye.  The  feelers  are 
minute  and  do  not  extend  lieyond  the  mouth.  The  tongue  is  not  visible. 
The  icings  are  large,  very  thin,  and  silky;  and,  tvhcn  the  insect  is  at 
rest,  the  fore  loings  are  turned  back,  entirely  cover  the  hind  ivings,  and 
overlap  on  their  inner  edges.  The  feincde  is  wingless,  and  its  antennce 
are  short,  being  about  half  the  length  of  the  body,  filiform,  and  slen- 
der. Its  body  approaches  to  an  ovcd  form,  Harris  adds,  but  tapers 
and  is  turned  up  behind.  I  am  not  able  to  say  whether  this  character 
is  common  to  both  species  or  not. 

I  find  the  following  differences  between  the  species:  — 


Anisopteryx  vernata. 

The  first  seven  rings  of  the  abdo.- 
men  of  both  sexes  with  no  spines 
upon  the  bacli. 


Fore  wings  of  male  ash-colored,  imtli 

a  distinct  whitish  spot  on  the  front  edge, 
near  the  tip; 

[fore  ivings]  crossed  by  tioo  jayged, 
whitish  bands;  the  outermost  band  has 
an  angle  near  the  front  edge.  The 
white  bands  are  often  entirely  loantiny, 
in  ■which  case  only  the  whitish  spot  near 
the  tip  remains. 

Along  the  sides  of  the  whitish  bauds 
there  are  several  hlacJdsh  dots,  each  on 
a  nervure,  aiid  all  generally  con- 
nected together  by  a  dusky  band 
which  incliides  them,  and  runs  on 
that  side  of  each  whitish  band  which 
is  towards  the  other.  These  bands 
remain  visible  when  the  whitish  bands 
are  wanting. 


Anisopteryx  pometaria. 

The  first  seven  rings  of  the  abdo- 
men of  both  sexes  bear  each  upon 
the  back  two  transverse  rows  of  stiff 
red  spines  pointing  towards  the  end 
of  the  body. 

Fore  wings  of  male  ash-colored  or 
brownish-gray ; 

the  whitish  spot  found    on    the    fore 
wings  of  A.  vernata  is  loanting. 

The  ivhitish  bands  found  on  the 
fore  wings  of  A.  vernata  are  luantiny, 
out  there  is' a  jagged,  submarginal 
white  band  on  the  upper  side  of  the 
fove  wings  in  most  specimens. 

There  are  three  iniemvpted,  dusky 
lines  across  the  fore  wings,  instead  of 
two  lines,  as  in  A.  vernata.  Some- 
times these  lines  are  only  indicated 
by  dark  spots  on  the  front  edge  of  the 
wing,  and  by  blackish  dashes  at  the 
crossing  of  median  nervure;  rarely 
are  they  very  distinct  throughout 
their  whole  extent. 


1873. 


883 


[Mann. 


Within  the  angle  of  the  outermost 
whitish  band,  near  the  front  edge, 
there  is  a  short,  faint,  blackish  line, 
following  a  nervure;  and  there  is  a 
roio  of  black  dots  along  the  outer  mar- 
gin, close  to  the  fringe. 

The  hind  wings  are  pale  ash-colored, 
or  light  gray,  with  a  faint  blackish  dot 
near  the  middle. 

In  most  specimens  a  curved  white 
band  is  plainly  visible  on  the  hind 
wings,  about  half  way  between  the 
middle  and  the  end. 

The  outermost  white  band  of  the 
fore  wings,  with  its  angulation,  and 
the  band  of  the  hind  wings,  are  also 
visible  on  the  under  side  of  the 
wings.  Within  the  angulation  is  a 
brown  or  blackish  spot  on  the  costa. 


The  u-ings  expand  about  one  inch 
and  a  quarter  (32  milliraetei-s'),  vary- 
ing between  26  and  34  millimeters, 
and  predominating  at  30  millimeters. 

Antennce,  of  the  female  naked. 

Abdomen  not  terminating  in  an  ovi- 
positor, rathes  bluntly  tapering  be- 
hind. 

Whole  body  and  legs  of  the  female 
smooth,  clothed  with  glistening  brown 
and  white  tnincate  scales  intermixed, 
giving  it  an  appearance  of  uniform 
shiny  dark  ash-color  above  and  gray 
beneath. 


There  is  an  oblique,  blackish  dash 
near  the  tip  of  the  fore  wings,  cross- 
ing ii  nervure;  and  there  is  a  dis- 
tinctly interrupted  or  nearly  uniform 
continuous  line  of  .blackish  along  the 
outer  margin,  close  to  the  fringe. 

The  hind  wings  are  pale  ash-colored, 
or  very  light  gray,  with  a  faint  black- 
ish dot  near  the  middle. 

The  white  band  found  on  the  hind 
\f  ings  of  A.  vernata  is  wanting. 


Oil  the  costa,  opposite  the  begin- 
ning of  the  outermost  dark  band  of 
the  upper  surface,  and  on  the  edge  of 
tlie  disk,  are  dark  spots  on  the  lower 
surface  of  the  wings.  Along  the 
median  nervure  beneath  is  a  dark 
line.  These  marks  are  sometimes 
indistinct. 

Of  a.  rather  smaller  size  than  A. 
vernata,  varying  between  22  and  3-3 
millimeters,'  and  predominating  at 
29  millimeters. 

Anteniiog  of  the  female  pubescent. 

Abdomen  terminating  in  a  retrac- 
tile ovipositor,  rather  acutely  taper- 
ing behind. 

Wliole  body  and  legs  of  the  female 
pubescent,  clothed  with  whitish  and 
brown  or  black  dentate  scales  or 
hairs;  general  coloration  not  uniform. 
A  black  band  along  the  middle  of  the 
back  of  the  abdomen,  often  inter- 
rupted on  the  second  to  seventh 
rings;  with  a  whitish  patch  each  side 
of  its  frO!it  end;  the  spines  frequently 
giving  a  reddish  appearance  to  the 
part  they  occupy. 

Crest  of  j^rothorax  and  mesothorax 
black. 


lOne  specimen   in    my  collection  with   all   tlie  otlier  characters   except  size, 
measures  38  millimeters. 


Mann.]  ,  384  ■  [April  23, 


Length  of  the  female  6-10  mm.  Length  of  the  female  5-8  mm. 

Of  16  dated  specimens  of  the  male  Of  16  dated  specimens  of  the  male 

hi   my  collection,  12  were   taken  in  in    my    collection,    1    was   taken    in 

October  or  November,  and  4  in  Mai-ch  March  and  15  in  April, 

or  April.     The  two  spring  specimens  Of  nine  females   in  my  collection, 

in  my  collection  now  are  among  the  all  were  taken  in  April.     Among  sev- 

most  strongly  characterized  I  have.  eral    hundred   females  of  A.    vernata 

Of  several  hundred  females  in  my  taken  in    November  I  do  not  find  one 

collection,  four  were  taken  in  April  female  of  this    species,   wherefore    I 

and  the  rest  in  November.  think  it  probable  that  this  species  is 

found  only  in  spring. 

I  must  acknowledge  myself  indebteil  to  Mr.  H.  K.  Morrison  for 
the  suggestion  that  I  should  find  ^1.  vernata  a  fall  species  and  A.  jJom- 
etaria  a  spring  species.  It  seems  as  if  the  occurrence  of  A.  vernata 
in  spring  might  be  explained  by  considering  the  spring  specimens  as 
belated.  The  necessity  of  applying  the  name  i^ernata  to  a  fall  spe- 
cies illustrates  the  danger  of  attempting  to  give  names  characteristic 
of  season  or  locality. 

I  hope  observers  will  take  note  next  spring  whether  the  eggs  of  A. 
pometaria  do  not  want  the  jug-like  shape  and  lid-like  upper  end 
which  are  seen  in  the  eggs  of  ^4.  vernata,  also  whether  the  eggs 
are  not  laid  separately  in  chinks  of  bark,  and  whether  their  num- 
ber is  not  about  sixty,  instead  of  over  two  hundred,  as  in  A.  ver- 
nata.    I  have  only  seen  apparently  immature  eggs  in  the  female.^ 

1  A  few  days  after  the  presentation  of  the  above  communication  Mr.  Morrison 
informed  me  that  he  had  lately  seen  a  female  A.  jyometaria  thrust  her  ovipositor 
in  between  th.e  chiuks  of  bark  of  the  apple-tree,  and  )ay  an  egg  thpre.  He  pulled 
ofT  the  bark  and  found  eggs  beneath.  He  had  also  seen  the  female  thrust  her  ovi- 
positor into  tlie  crack  of  a  board  fence,  and  lay  an  egg  there.  He  did  not  observe 
the  shape  of  the  egg. 


Corrigenda,  to  be  explained  in  a  subsequent  communication  :  — 

p.  384,  hues  16-18.  Omit  the  whole  sentence  from  "  The  neces- 
sity "  to  "  locality,"  inclusive. 

pp.  382-384.  Instead  of  vernata  read  pometaria,  and  instead  of 
pometaria  read  vernata. 


Accession  No 

Added 187. 

Catalogued  by 

Revised  by 

Memoranda 


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