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WfrM^
University of California Berkeley
,
UNIVERSITY
HANDBOOK OF
MIDDLE AGES.
WITH A DESCRIPTION OF THE METALS, PIGMENTS, AND
PROCESSES EMPLOYED BY THE ARTISTS
AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.
BY HENRY SHAW, F. S. A
i\
AUTHOR OF " ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES,"
" DRESSES AND DECORATIONS OF THE MIDDLE
AGES," ETC. ETC.
LONDON:
BELL AND DALDY, 186, FLEET STREET,
AND 6, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN.
1866.
r?
OF THE
'UNIVERSITY
PREFACE.
the great number of books, of every
degree of merit, on the Art of Illumination, which
have appeared of late years both in England and on
the Continent, and on many of which all the resources
of chromo-lithography have been employed in attempts
to produce facsimiles of the beautiful originals frbm
which their illustrations have been taken, it may fairly be asked whether
another publication on the subject is required.
For our justification we would remark that the most successful of these
reproductions are too costly to be within the reach of persons of ordinary
means, while they fail of being completely satisfactory ; especially when the*
examples chosen are those showing the highest degree of refinement. .
In the early styles of this art, when flat tints only were used, and the
effect of light and shade was produced by consecutive bands of colour of
increasing degrees of density, proceeding from pure white, the details of the
composition being made emphatic by a surrounding of red or black lines, a
close approximation to the originals may be effected by means of the printing-
press ; but colours so produced can never have the solidity and richness of
tone of those on which the hand and the brush alone have been employed.
In the finest works of the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries,
the most careful gradations of colour are found ; and both the miniatures,
the frames in which they are enclosed, and the other ornamental accessories
gradually display, as the art emerged from the various conventional styles to
a more natural mode of treatment, the most skilful blendings of the richest
iv PREFACE.
and most delicate tints. The press has, hitherto, been found inadequate to
the production of these refinements, and we can scarcely hope for any
material improvement ; as, independently of the difficulty of producing these
gradations and blendings by machinery, some of the most beautiful pigments
used in drawing are, when combined with the necessary varnish, of too thin
a quality to be employed successfully in the process of printing, unless
mixed with others, less brilliant, but of greater density.
Another objection to the employment of the press, as a means of imitating
these beautiful drawings, is rather one " looming in the future," than
apparent on the first appearance of these mechanical copies. In all the
styles of illumination, in all ages, gold formed a leading feature. This
metal being too costly for the printer's purpose, a substitute has been found
in another, which will not bear the light. If only exposed occasionally, its
comparative brilliancy may be preserved for a long period ; if otherwise, it
will gradually fade and become a dull heavy mass, sadly in contrast with
the gay colours by which it is surrounded.
Feeling convinced, therefore, that any attempt to produce a series of
plates in colours, if they are taken from the most beautiful examples of
ancient illuminations, must prove both costly and unsatisfactory, we have
thought it more judicious to give our illustrations through a medium that
.would display, at least, their refinements of drawing, and the pictorial effect
of the original painting, as far as a translation into various tints could give
a satisfactory impression of their gradations and contrasts.
In attempting to arrive at this result, we have considered that engravings
on wood would be the best suited to our purpose. It has commonly been
made an objection to this material for works of a highly finished character,
that its use is an infringement, on a province peculiarly suited to metal.
We feel, on the contrary, that the result only is worthy of consideration ;
and that, if engravings on wood can be produced as nearly approaching
perfection as those on metal, there can be no valid reason why the
advantages which the former material offers in printing with the text should
not give it a preference.
So far as line-engraving is concerned, we are satisfied that as great an
PREFACE. v
amount of delicacy can be produced on wood as on metal, and that
impressions from the flexible surface of the former are richer in tone than
those produced from the hard lines of the latter.
If this be the case, the question of preference is one chiefly depending
on the skill of the printer ; and we think our illustrations will show that the
skilful operator on wood has little to fear from his rival on steel or on copper.
When we commenced our book on the " Illuminated Ornaments of the
Middle Ages," in 1830, Dibdin's " Bibliographical Decameron" was the
popular work on the art of illumination ; and although the doctor's rhapso-
dical descriptions of the manuscripts from which, with considerable taste, he
selected the subjects for his illustrations have, at the present time, but little
critical value, the work has always maintained a high market value from
the exquisite delicacy and beauty of the engravings.
At that time an impression very generally prevailed that the pigments
employed by the ancient illuminators could not be procured. Our book,
although it was necessarily almost limited to the decorative portions of
illuminated manuscripts, from the great cost of hand-colouring, was sufficient
to prove that the difficulty of imitating those beautiful productions did not
arise from any want of the proper materials.
Some critics have characterized the art we are endeavouring to illustrate
as a dead one ; highly interesting when exhibited in its progress from infancy
to maturity, but utterly unfit, after a state of suspended animation for three
centuries, of forming even the ground-work of designs suited for modern
purposes, as these should both present novelty of treatment, and, at the
same time, be characteristic of the age we live in.
We believe that the invention of a new style in art is almost as impro-
bable an event as the construction of a new language. As fresh discoveries
are made in the different branches of natural history and the various
sciences, the resources of our vernacular dialect are found utterly inadequate
to the supply of names sufficiently explanatory of their individual forms or
properties. These deficiencies are, therefore, supplied from other languages,
ancient or modern, or by the use of compounds of which they furnish the
roots.
vi PKEFACE.
In like manner, the leading features of bygone decorative art may be
made the foundation on which to construct such variations and refinements
of ornamentation as may be necessary to supply the increasing wants of
modern times and the advancement of civilization.
The great number of beautiful types, both in the animal and the vegetable
kingdom, within the reach of the student of art of the present day, but
unknown to his predecessors, opens a wider field for the exercise of his
inventive faculties than they possessed ; but in whatever shape he may
connect art with nature in his compositions, his treatment will inevitably be
imbued with some of the characteristics of those old examples which have
served him as models while securing the preliminary, but indispensable
step to excellence, a competent knowledge of drawing.
We may also observe that, so long as the architecture of the Middle
Ages is imitated, either for religious, civil, or domestic purposes, its
decorative features will never be satisfactory unless they are distinguished
by a treatment in harmony with the structures on which they are employed.
This can only be effected by a careful situdy of the styles of art which
prevailed contemporaneously with the ancient examples which inspired
these modern compositions.
With respect to our illustrations, we may remark that they have been
chosen with a view to present the prevailing peculiarities of each century in
as great a variety as we could accomplish within the necessary limits of our
undertaking.
103, Southampton Row.
1866.
ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD.
PLATE I. Engraved by Page
THE TITLE ........ . J. D. Cooper. (Front.)
PLATE II.
LETTER F, FROM A BIBLE OF THE NINTH CENTURY, in the British
Museum . . . . . . . Miss By field. 1
PLATE III.
LETTER L, FROM A COPY OF THE GOSPELS OF THE TENTH CENTURY,
in the British Museum . . . . . . . . James D. Cooper. 12
PLATE IV.
FROM CANUTE'S GOSPELS OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY, in the British
Museum ........... James D. Cooper. 14
PLATE V.
PILASTERS FROM A PASSIONALK OF THK TWELFTH CENTURY, in the
British Museum ...... . James D. Cooper. 16
PLATE VI.
LETTER B, FROM THE LINDESEY PSALTER OF THE DATE OF THE EARLY
PART OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY, in the possession of the
Society of Antiquaries of London ... . R. B. Utting. 18
PLATE VII.
THE FIRST PAGE OF THE TENISON PSALTER OF THE DATE OF 1284,
in the British Museum ... J. 0. Jewett. 22
PLATE VIII.
A FRENCH MONK PRESENTING HIS BOOK TO RICHARD II. OF ENGLAND,
who is surrounded by his Court. From a volume in the British
Museum of the latter part of the Fourteenth Century . . James D. Cooper. 24
viii ENGKAVINGS ON WOOD.
1 LATE 1A_. Engraved by Page
DETAILS FROM VARIOUS MSS. OP THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY, in the
British Museum and the Bodleian Library . . . . . R. B. Uttiny. 26
PLATE X.
THE VIRGIN AND CHILD ATTENDED BY ANGELS, from a copy of the
" Offices of the Virgin," in the possession of Edwin H. Lawrence,
Esq. of Abbey Farm Lodge, Hampstead, of the date of about 1480
The Picture by Joseph L. Williams.
, The Border by James D. Cooper. 30
PLATE XL
LETTER li AND TEXT, FROM A BIBLE in the British Museum, of the
latter part of the Fifteenth Century James D. Cooper. 32
PLATES XII. AND XIII.
FROM A COPY OF THE " HOURS OF THE VIRGIN," which formerly
belonged to Isabella of Castile, the wife of Ferdinand II. of Spain,
of about the date of 1490, now in the British Museum . . . James D. Cooper. 34
PLATE XIV.
A PICTURE OF THE ANNUNCIATION, from a copy of the " Offices of the
Virgin," of the beginning of the Sixteenth Century, in the British
Museum .......... James D. Cooper. 38
PLATE XV.
A LETTER. P, from a drawing in the British Museum, which formerly
belonged to the late Samuel Rogers, of the early part of the
Sixteenth Century ......... James D. Cooper. 40
PLATE XVI.
A PAGE FROM A TRANSLATION OF THE ETHICS OF ARISTOTLE, from
the Latin version of Leonardo Aretino, into Romance, by Prince
Charles of Viana, of the date of about the middle of the Fifteenth
Century, in the British Museum ...... James D. Cooper. 54
Of the Initial Letters and Marginal Illustrations to the Text, those on pages 1, 8, 9, 10, 11,
14, 15, 17, 22, 33,40, and 54, are by James D. Cooper. That on page 4 is by Mrs. Gould; on
page IB by Miss By field ; on page 19 by Josepl), L. Williams ; and those on the Title, Preface,
and on pages 31, 43, 55, and 60, are by K. B. Utting.
UNIVERSITY:
THE ART OF ILLUMINATION.
F all the relics of the middle ages which -
have been preserved to our times, none
possess a greater amount of interest, or more
varied instruction, than illuminated manu-
scripts. Whether we regard them, in their
almost infinite variety, as an assemblage of
all that is most graceful in design and
gorgeous in colouring, or as illustrations of
the history, the manners, and the customs of
our ancestors, in their religious, their mili-
tary, and their civil affairs, their pictorial truth must always make them
highly valuable.
In the early ages of Christianity the schools of art were the monasteries,
and the books produced were almost wholly of a religious character ; chiefly
copies of the Bible and the Gospels. In the richer establishments no
amount of labour or cost was spared in the production of these sacred
volumes, more especially the latter. The most skilful scribes were employed
on the text, and the artists who produced the ornamental 'embellishments of
the most choice examples displayed an almost incredible amount of invention,
ingenuity, and patience. Nor were these preciou^ volumes preserved in
caskets unworthy of the labour bestowed on their execution, or the reverence
with which they were regarded. Binding formed of plates .of gold, and of
silver, enriched with precious stones, with gems, and with crystals, with
carvings in ivory, and the most precious enamels, were profusely employed
for these costly coverings.
As education became extended from the cloister to the castle, books for
amusement as well as for devotion became a natural necessity. And as the
chronicles, the romances, the tales of chivalry, and of love,' the classical
reproductions, and the poems written for that purpose, were generally
i
The above letter is from a Psalter in the Cotton Collection of the British Museum, marked
Galba A xviii.
1',
2 THE AKT OF ILLUMINATION.
embellished with pictures of the most striking scenes or events recorded in
them ; and as all the actors in these scenes were represented in the dresses
of the time, and all the appliances and accessories were those then in use,
these illustrations supply the most authentic records of the various details of
religious observances, as well as those connected with military operations,
and with the habits of domestic life.
As, however, the principal object of this little treatise is to point out the
peculiarities of, and the changes of fashion in, decorative art, as found in
illuminated manuscripts, rather than to attempt any minute description of
their pictorial beauties, or uses, we need pursue the subject no further.
There can be little doubt that the art of illuminating manuscripts in
gold, silver, and colours, and the processes employed on them, were of
Eastern origin ; indeed, the figures of the Apostles, which generally precede
the books of the Gospels written by them, are Byzantine in character, as
late as the eleventh century, and are frequently accompanied by Greek
inscriptions.
The use of minium, or vermilion, m marking the commencement of
titles, or particular words of manuscripts, is of very high antiquity, since it
is commonly found in Egyptian papyri, the earliest specimens of writing
known. In these papyri often occur mythological figures painted in various
colours. From Egypt the practice may have passed to Greece and Rome,
though previously to the Christian era no evidence exists of the mode of
writing manuscripts in either country. In the rolls of papyri dis-
covered at Herculaneum, written in the early part of the first century,
no trace of any ornament is found ; but we have the evidence of Ovid and
Pliny that the Romans, long before the destruction of Pompeii, were
accustomed to rubricate their manuscripts, and adorn them with pictures.
The process of burnishing gold and silver was familiar to the oriental
nations from the most remote antiquity, and it is not unreasonable to suppose
that the Greeks acquired from Egypt or India the art of thus ornamenting
manuscripts. Among the later Greeks it became so common that the
scribes, or artists in gold, formed a distinct class. The luxury thus intro-
duced was augmented by writing on vellum stained of a purple or rose
colour ; the earliest instance of which is recorded by Julius Capitolinus, in
his life of the Emperor Maximinus the younger, to whom his mother made
a present, of the poems of Homer written on purple vellum in letters of gold.
This took place at the commencement of the third century. The copy of
Virgil in the library of the Vatican has been attributed by the best palaeo-
graphers to the same century. This volume is enriched with miniatures,
many of which are engraved in D'Agincourt's " Histoire de PArt par les
Monuments."
THE AET OF ILLUMINATION. 3
The employment of purple vellum seems to have been discontinued for
about a hundred years, but was revived about the end of the fourth century,
as we find from a well-known passage in St. Jerome, though confined solely
to copies of the Scriptures, and devotional books written for the libraries of
princes, and the service of monasteries.
The celebrated Codex Argenteus of Ulphilas, written in silver and
gold letters on a purple ground, about A. D. 360, is perhaps the most
ancient existing specimen of this magnificent caligraphy ; after which may
be mentioned the copy of Genesis, at Vienna, the Psalter of St. German des
Pres, and the fragment of the New Testament in the Cottonian Library of
the British Museum, marked Titus C xv. All these were executed in the
fifth or sixth centuries. This taste for gold and purple manuscripts would
seem not to have reached England before the close of the seventh century,
when Wilfrid, Archbishop of York, enriched his church with a copy of the
Gospels thus adorned; and it is described by Eddis, his biographer, who
lived about that period, as " almost a miracle, and before that time unheard
of in this part of the world." In the eighth and ninth centuries, the art of
staining vellum seems to have declined, and the colour is no longer the
bright and beautiful purple, violet, or rose colour, of the preceding centuries.
It is rare also to meet with a volume stained throughout ; the artist con-
tenting himself with colouring a certain portion, such as the title, preface, or
canon of the mass.
An unique example of a manuscript written and illuminated on gold
grounds on both sides of the leaf is preserved in the British Museum,
Additional MS. 5111. It is a mere fragment of only two leaves, and these
have been miserably cut down to perhaps half their original size, and in
other respects are much injured by neglect ; but, notwithstanding these
defects, they must certainly be reckoned among the most precious remains
of early caligraphy and illumination in existence. On the gold ground of
these leaves are painted columns and arches for the reception of the Eusebian
canons, most elegantly filled up with ornaments and patterns in red, blue,
and green ; whilst in the upper part are introduced small heads of the
Evangelists, enclosed in circles, executed in a most masterly style of art.
These fragments formerly belonged to one of the convents of Mount Athos,
and are supposed to be of the sixth century.*
Manuscripts written in letters of gold on white vellum are chiefly
confined to the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries. Of these, the Bible, and
Hours of Charles the Bald, preserved in the Musee des Souverains at Paris,
* These leaves have been figured in Shaw's " Illuminated Ornaments of the Middle Ages.'^^fo.^ n "
THE ART OF ILLUMINATION.
and the Gospels of
the Harleian Collec-
tion, No. 2788, are
probably the finest
examples extant. In
England the art of
writing in gold seems to have been imperfectly under-
stood in early times, and the instances of it very
uncommon. Indeed, the only remarkable one that
occurs of it is the Charter of King Edgar to the new
Minster of Winchester, in the year 966. Prefixed is
a representation of Edgar between the Virgin and St.
Peter, presenting his Charter to Christ, who sits above,
supported by angels. The whole is within an elegant
foliated border of gold and colours on a purple ground.
Our marginal woodcut represents one-fourth of this
border. On the reverse is an inscription in letters of
gold on a light-blue tint. The remainder of the volume
is all written in gold. It is in the Cotton Collection of
the British Museum, and marked, Vespasian A viii.
Writing in gold was less employed in the eleventh,
twelfth, and thirteenth centuries, than in earlier times ; but it again came
into use in the fourteenth, particularly in devotional books for persons of
rank. It then exhibits a very inferior appearance to the examples of ancient
art, and the gold seems to be applied, not in a liquid state, but in leaves.
Among the Greeks the usage of writing whole pages in gold continued to
the latest period of the empire.
The use of gold and silver is found in oriental manuscripts of all ages.
In the Sloane Collection of the British Museum, Nos. 2835-2838, are rolls
in the language of Thibet, written in gold and silver on dark blue paper ;
and among the Arabians and Persians, examples of later manuscripts,
written and ornamented in gold and silver, are found in abundance, and
display an amount of beauty and minuteness so truly wonderful as to
surpass the effort of any European artist.
In the earliest manuscripts of the western world, the whole of the text
was written in capitals, and when coloured was of a much simpler character
than that which began to mark those of the end of the seventh centurv.
From the eighth to the eleventh, in Greek and Latin manuscripts, initial
letters of a large character occur at the commencement of books and
chapters, fancifully composed of human figures, animals, birds, fish, flowers, &c.
THE AKT OF ILLUMINATION. 5
These letters were called by the Benedictines " historiees," because they
often bear reference to, or illustrate, the text to which they are affixed.
The Irish, Hiberno-Saxon, school of illumination merits a distinct
notice, since it is of a peculiar and marked type, and characterized by a
design and execution not found in manuscripts of other nations. It is
founded, doubtless, on oriental types, as the same character of interlacing
may be met with in the earliest Eastern metal-work, though less intricate,
and consisting only of bands crossing each other, and enriched merely with
leaves, instead of being chiefly composed of birds, snakes, dragons, &c, as
we find in these illuminations. The exquisite taste, however, of the delicate
colours employed to give distinctness to the various details of these most
elaborate designs is altogether original.
The chief characteristics of this style are, extreme intricacy of pattern,
interlacing of knots, in a diagonal, or square form, sometimes interwoven
with animals or birds, and terminating in heads of serpents ; to which may
bo added, the use of lines composed of red dots, and sometimes of green,
round the edge of the larger letters.
The most extraordinary example of the skill of the artists of this school,
which appears to have been of Irish origin, and practised in that country as
early as the fifth century, is the Book of Kells, so called from having been
preserved in the Great Abbey Church at Kells, in the diocese of Meath.
It was saved from destruction by James Usher, who was Bishop of Meath
from the year 1621 to 1624, and was found in his library, which, having
been confiscated during the Commonwealth, was granted by Charles II. fo
Trinity College, Dublin, with which body it has since remained.*
This manuscript, and another called the Book of Durrow, are copies of
the Gospels, said to be in the handwriting of St. Columba. St. Columba is
spoken of as an indefatigable scribe, who, from his early youth, devoted
himself to the work of multiplying copies of the Psalms, Gospels, and other
portions of the Scriptures; and there is an interesting passage in the
annals of Ulster, A.D. 552, where St. Columba is mentioned as the possessor
of a remarkably fine copy of the Gospels : and again, in the same annals,
A.D. 1006, a book is mentioned as the book of St. Columba, which, if it
were so, must have been in existence upwards of 4 1 1 years at the time the
record was made.
Another great copy of the Gospels was preserved in the Cathedral of
* For our notice of these rare Irish manuscripts we are indebted to a poem called " The
Cromlech of Howth," by Samuel Ferguson, Q.C., M.R.S.A., with Illuminations from the Books of
Kells and Durrow, and drawings from Nature, by S. M. ; with Notes of Celtic ornamental art,
revised by George Petrie, LL.D.
6 THE AET OF ILLUMINATION.
Kildare up to the twelfth century. This has been described by Giraldus
Cambrensis, who went to Ireland, as secretary to Prince John, in A.D. 1185,
and his account of it might have been written as a description of the Book of
Kells itself, so exactly does it apply to that book..
" Of all the wonders of Kildare," he says, " I have found nothing more
wonderful than that marvellous book, written in the time of the Virgin (St.
Brigid), and, as they say, at the dictation of an angel. The book contains
the Concordance of the Evangelists according to St. Jerome ; every page of
which is filled with divers figures, most accurately marked out with various
colours. Here you behold a magic face divinely drawn ; there the mystical
forms of the Evangelists, each having sometimes six, sometimes four, and
sometimes two wings ; here an eagle, there a calf ; there again a human
face, or a lion, and other figures of infinite variety, so closely wrought
together, that if you looked carelessly at them, they would seem rather like
a uniform blot than an exquisite interweaving of figures, exhibiting no skill
or art, where all is skill and perfection of art. But, if you look closely, with
all the acuteness of sight that you can command, and examine the inmost
secrets of that wondrous art, you will discover such delicate, such subtle,
such fine and closely wrought lines, twisted and interwoven in such intricate
knots, and adorned with such fresh and brilliant colours, that you will
readily acknowledge the whole to have been the result of angelic, rather
than human skill. The more frequently I beheld it, the more diligently I
examined it, the more numerous are the beauties I discover in it, the more
I am lost in admiration of it."
As an instance of the wonderful delicacy and accuracy of the drawings
in the Book of Kells, Mr. Westwood examined one of them by the aid of a
microscope, and counted, in the space of a quarter of an inch, 158 interlace-
ments, of a slender riband pattern, formed of white lines edged with black
ones, upon a dark ground, without detecting a false line, or an irregular
interlacement.
But whatever doubt may be felt as to the exact date of the Book of Kells,
none can be entertained as to the age of the Book of Durrow, the writing of
which is also ascribed to St. Columba, and in which the illuminations are in
the same style of art, though inferior in beauty of execution ; for in this
manuscript we find the usual request of the Irish scribe for a prayer from
the reader, expressed in words of which the following is a translation :
" I pray thy blessedness, O holy presbyter Patrick, that whosoever shall
take this book in his hands may remember the writer, Colomba, who have
myself written this Gospel in the space of twelve days, by the Grace of our
Lord."
THE AET OF ILLUMINATION. 7
In the seventh century we find this style of illumination carried, by the
Irish missionaries who followed St. Columba, to lona, and hence to Lindis-
farne, by the companions of Aidan, who was made Bishop of that See, A. D.
635. He obtained from Oswald, Prince of Northumbria, leave to have his
episcopal residence at Lindisfarne, where he founded a monastery and
college similar to that at lona.
In that monastery was produced the celebrated copy of St. Cuthbert's
Gospels, commonly called "The Durham Book," now deposited in the
British Museum.* The drawings in this extraordinary volume are second
only to the Book of Kells in their wonderful elaboration, delicacy, and
beauty. It is a folio volume, containing the four Gospels in the Latin
version of St. Jerome, to which are prefixed, as usual, the Canons of
Eusebius. At the beginning of each Gospel are paintings representing one
of the Evangelists, and a tessellated cross. These are followed by large
illuminated capital letters ; and many small ones, equally rich in character,
are found at the heads of various chapters.! Between the lines of the text
is introduced a Saxon Gloss, of the highest value, from its containing so
early a specimen of the Northumbrian dialect, and at the close of the
volume a note is added by the Saxon scribe, from which we learn its history.
This manuscript seems to have been written and illuminated in honour of
St. Cuthbert, by Eadfrith, Bishop of Lindisfarne, who succeeded to that See
in the year 698, and died in 721. His successor, yEthelwald, caused it to
be splendidly bound, and addrned with gold and gems ; which was executed
under his direction by Bilfrith, who, according to Simon of Durham, was
"aurificis arte praBcipuus." This precious volume passed into the Monastery
of Durham, where it remained till the time of the Reformation, when it
was despoiled of its cover for the sake of the gold and jewels which adorned
it.
In noticing this manuscript it is most interesting to observe the extra-
ordinary purity and beauty of the pigments and materials employed on it.
The vellum is of admirable quality, and the colours are almost free from
change, except, in a few instances, on those pages which have been most
frequently exposed, or the least carefully treated ; while the ink has a
richness and fulness of tone not to be found in modern works, and remains
so fresh in appearance that it is difficult to imagine that the scribe who used
it has been in his grave between eleven and twelve hundred years.
* Cotton Collection, Nero D iv.
t The complete page preceding the Gospel of St. Matthew has been copied, and carefully
coloured in close imitation of the original drawing, in " Shaw's Illuminated Ornaments of the
Middle Ages."
THE AET OF ILLUMINATION.
OME idea of the style of art employed on
the Durham Book may be formed by our
initial, taken from a manuscript also in the
British Museum,* which is the identical
volume described by a monk of St. Augus-
tine's in the reign of Henry V. as one of
those which was sent over by Pope Gre-
gory to St. Austin, in the sixth century,
and reputed to be the " primitise librorum
totius ecclesiae Anglican ae." The monk
may, however, have been deceived by the
tradition respecting it, as it clearly ex-
hibits the Hiberno-Saxon character of the
seventh century.
It is worthy of remark, that in Ireland the same characteristics were
continued in illuminated manuscripts to a comparatively late period, but in a
gradually debased mode of manipulation. The earliest examples are almost
invariably the finest.
On wayside crosses, on works in metal, in carvings on ivory and on
wood, examples of this style of art are constantly met with ; and in
manuscripts of France, Germany, and the Northern Countries, evident
traces of it may be found.
The patronage of Charlemagne and his grandson, Charles the Bald,
caused a great number of beautiful volumes to be executed during the eighth
and ninth centuries.
Specimens from most of the fine examples of this time now remaining in
France have been most carefully copied in the great work of the Count de
Bastard. t It is much to be regretted that that magnificent undertaking was
not continued, or that the specimens given should have been so strictly
confined to early examples, instead of giving a due proportion of those
showing a more advanced state of art.
* Cotton MS. Vcsp. A i.
t " Peinturea des Manuscrits dcpuis le Huitieme Sleek- jusq'a la fin du Scizieme."
THE ART OF ILLUMINATION.
PAGE has
been copied,
in our next
engraving,
from a mag-
nificent Bible
in the British
Museum, for-
merly attri-
buted to the
English
monk Alch-
uine, who en-
tered the ser-
vice of Char-
1 e magn e
about the
year 782, and
continued in
it, with a
short interval, till his death in 804. There is, however, no evidence in the
volume itself to support this opinion, and the conclusion now generally arrived
at by those who have carefully compared it with contemporary works is,
that its date is not earlier than Charlemagne's successor, Charles le Chauve,
or the latter part of the ninth century. This book is of the largest folio
size, measuring twenty-two inches in height, by fifteen inches in width, and
consists of 409 leaves of very fine vellum, in a beautiful and distinct
minuscule letter in double columns, the height of which is fifteen inches and
the breadth four inches and five-eighths. At the commencement is the
title to Jerome's " Epistle to Paulinas," written in capital letters in gold,
nearly an inch in height, on bands of purple, which are enclosed in a
border surrounding the entire page, composed of gold interlaced ornament,
in the style usual in the eighth and ninth centuries, within an edge of green
on gold, with eight smaller interlaced ornaments in silver in the corners
and intermediate spaces. The Epistle follows, with a large F, " Frater
Ambrosius," twelve inches in height, from which our engraving has been
copied. This is succeeded by a series of pictures in the rude and coarse manner
of the time, and a number of cleverly designed borders and initial letters.
Our initial is from a Bible presented to Charles le Chauve by the Count Vivien, Abbe
Commendatore de St. Martin de Tours.
C
THE AET OF ILLUMINATION.
The flat bands forming
the skeleton of our letter,
and all the lightest tints
of the ornament, repre-
sent silver ; the next gra-
dation, gold ; the third, green colour ; and the deepest, blue or
purple. In all cases the silver is surrounded with black lines,
and the gold and colours with red ones.
The history of this fine example of early art, from the time
it was taken out of the Abbey at Basle by the French troops in
1793, till it found a resting-place in the British Museum, fur-
nishes an amusing instance of the exaggerated value sometimes
placed on articles of rarity by their owners, and the artful
manoeuvres occasionally resorted to in the hope of realizing ex-
orbitant prices for them, by appealing to the credulity of public
bodies or private individuals. In the year of its abduction it
became the property of Mons. Bennot, Vice-president ef the
Tribunal of Dolemont, from whom it was purchased in 1 822 by
Mons. De Speyr-Passavant, who at once proclaimed it to be the
work of the English monk Alchuine, and prepared for the use
of Charlemagne. The fact of Alchuine having received Char-
lemagne's commands to undertake a recension of Jerome's Vul-
gate text of the Bible, and having caused a copy to be written
for the Emperor's own use, stands undisputed, on the authority
of Alchuine himself, corroborated by the testimony of other
writers. The evidence, however, that Mons. De Speyr-Passavant produced
to prove the identity of this volume with the Bible prepared for Charlemagne
proved wholly fictitious. Nevertheless, with an assumed confidence in its
veracity, he took it to Paris in December, 1828, with the intention of selling
it to the French Government, at first at the price of 60,000 francs, then at
48,000 francs, and then at 42,000 francs ; but the price appeared so ex-
cessive, that it was finally resolved not to buy it, and its proprietor, in May,
1830, took it back to Basle.
Application was next made to Lord Stuart de Rothesay, English
ambassador in Paris ; then to the late Duke of Sussex ; afterwards to the
Archbishop of Canterbury, the Archbishop of York, and Viscount Althorp,
The above portion of a frame is taken from a copy of the Gospels of the ninth century from
the cathedral at Le Mans, but now in the Bibliotheque du Eoi at Paris. The bands are of gold with
red outlines. The interlacings in the centres are white on black, and the leaves alternately a
bright green, and light purple.
CDTINUS
cuLxert
UfSSf
CDASU
^ TCRAS
quxe
Apajjvcjpio
A(D J C J TJARUOVpJ 5 CD
pROBATAG JACD
copula CQ cjua NON
et fatDtliarif NONpraefeNtxa
r caNtUTt)coTporutr) NONfubdola ec
palpaN f adolarto fedditi-roor ecduti
fcrxprurarttto fcudia
CONClliaNt:
OF THE
UNIVERSITY
THE AET OF ILLUMINATION.
11
in England; to the Baron Reiffenberg, in Belgium, and to the Bishop of
Beauvais, in France, protesting to each he had given him, or his country,
the preference. Having totally failed in France, in January, 1836, he set
out for England, and offered the Bible to the trustees of the British Museum,
first at the price of 12,000, then 8000, then 6500, which, he declared,
was an immense sacrifice ! At length, finding he could not part with his
manuscript on terms so absurd, he resolved to sell it by public auction, and
accordingly, on the 27th of April, 1836, the Bible was knocked down by
Mr. Evans for the sum of 1500, but for the proprietor himself, as there was
not one real bidding for it. Overtures were then again made to the trustees
of the British Museum, and the manuscript finally became the property of
the nation for the comparatively moderate sum of 750.
In our national library may be seen another remarkably fine specimen of
French art of the ninth century.* It is a portion of a Bible written for
Charles the Bald, the remainder of which is in the Bibliotheque Nationale, at
Paris. The initial letters in these fragments are peculiarly elegant, both in
their general forms and details. In the minute interlacings embodied in
them, they partake largely of the Anglo-Saxon character.
UR initial and the letter L on
the succeeding page are taken
from a small copy of the Gos-
pels in the British Museum,f
written in the tenth century.
Each book is preceded by a
large capital within a frame,
similar to the latter, and each
chapter by a smaller one, simi-
lar to the former, showing an
immense variety of very elegant
designs, and nearly a complete
alphabet. They are all boldly
outlined in red, the interlacing
bands of which they are com-
posed, and the flat ones enclosing the ornamental portions of the frames are
of gold. The colours employed on the letters are green, red, and blue,
Additional MS. 7551.
f Egerton MS. No. 608.
12 THE ART OF ILLUMINATION.
according to the gradations shown in the engraving.* The grounds between
the large letters and the frames are purple.
One of the most interesting tenth-century manuscripts now remaining is
in the British Museum,f and generally known as the Coronation Book. It
would appear from the following inscription in the volume, " ^ Coda Rex,"
and " ^ Methild Mater Rex," that this volume was made in Germany for
the Emperor Otho and his mother, Mathilda, and presented to Athelstan,
whose sister the Emperor married. It was on this copy of the Gospels that,
henceforth, our Anglo-Saxon kings took the coronation oath, and it would
appear, from an interpolated leaf of the time, that it was used as late as the
coronation of Henry the Sixth.
Among the Anglo-Saxons, towards the close of the tenth century, a style
of ornament prevailed which must be considered as peculiar to themselves,
and which for boldness, correctness of design, and richness, cannot be
surpassed by any works executed on the Continent at that time. The
magnificent Benedictional belonging to the Duke of Devonshire,^ written
and illuminated between 963 and 970, is alone sufficient to prove the truth
of this assertion. This manuscript was the ancient Benedictional of the see
of Winchester, as we learn from the metrical dedication prefixed, in letters
of gold. ^Ethelwald, Bishop of Winchester, commanded a certain monk,
subject to him, to write this book ; he ordered also to be made in it many
arches elegantly decorated and filled up with various ornamental pictures
expressed in divers beautiful colours and gold.
The name of ^thelwald is enrolled in the calendar of English saints ;
and we have his life written, as it seems, by one of his disciples.
This great prelate co-operated with Dunstan and Oswald in reforming
the monks and in restoring learning. He is celebrated as the re-founder of
the monasteries of Ely, Peterborough, and Thorney ; and among the many
ecclesiastical buildings which he erected or rebuilt was his own cathedral
church.
This manuscript is a folio on vellum, measuring eleven inches and a-half
by eight inches and a-half, and contains one hundred and nineteen leaves,
of a thick and soft quality, in an extraordinary state of preservation. The
capital letters, some of which are very large, are uniformly of gold ; and
the beginnings and endings of some benedictions, together with the titles,
* In the following engravings, whenever flat tints are shown in gradations, the lightest is intended
to represent gold, the next green, the following red, and the deepest, blue, or sometimes purple.
t Tiberius A ii.
J The drawings in this extraordinary volume were all carefully engraved in volume twenty -
four of the Archasologia.
UNIVERSITY
THE AET OF ILLUMINATION. 13
are in gold or red letters. The book is illuminated with thirty different
miniatures, besides thirteen pages highly illuminated, some with arches on
ornamental columns; others decorated with rectangular borders composed
of flowers and devices; each page, where the opening of some principal
benediction occurs, being in capital letters of gold ; and where a miniature
or painting fronts a decorated page, the arches, circles, or borders of both
pages are made to correspond!
Facing the benediction of the third Sunday in Advent is a miniature of
the coming of the Son of Man in triumph. The other miniatures are as
follows : the Martyrdom of St. Stephen ; St. John the Evangelist ; the Con-
sultation of the Magi ; their Offering ; the Baptism of Christ ; the Presenta-
tion in the Temple ; the Entry into Jerusalem ; the Maries visiting the
Tomb after the Resurrection ; Christ appearing to his Apostles ; the Ascen-
sion ; the Descent of the Holy Ghost ; the Holy Trinity ; St. ^Etheldrytha ;
Christ in Glory ; the Nativity of St. John the Baptist ; St. Peter and St.
Paul; St. Swithin; St. Benedict; the Death of the Blessed Virgin; and
the Bishop blessing the people this last miniature is unfinished, and parts
are in red outline.
The whole of these miniatures have been very carefully engraved in the
twenty-fourth volume of the " Archseologia ; " but the best engravings can
convey but a faint idea of the beauty and brilliancy of the drawings.
The Benedictional of Archbishop Robert, in the public library at Rouen,
the Psalter in the Arundel Collection, No. 155, the Gospels, Royal I D ix,
and the Cottonian Psalter, Tiberius C vi, all show evident marks of having
proceeded from the same school of design, which, in all probability, was
principally established at Winchester, from which place we know that most
of the above manuscripts have been derived.
The latter manuscript has suffered severely from the disastrous fire,
which, in the year 1731, destroyed so many treasures in the Cottonian
Collection. It is a short folio, towards the close of the tenth century, and
now consists of one hundred and thirteen leaves, but is imperfect at the end.
It contains the Psalter of St. Jerome's Version, accompanied by a Saxon gloss,
with a prayer introduced at the end of each Psalm. Prefixed are various
tables, short theoretical treatises, &c, and (what forms the most interesting
portion of the volume, in point of art) a series of outline drawings, slightly
touched with blue, green, and red, representing various scriptural subjects,
executed with great skill, and presenting very curious illustrations of the
costume of the period. Among the most remarkable is an allegorical figure
of Death, represented as a human figure, with long hair and wings ; the'
Creation of the world ; the Crucifixion ; the fight of St. Michael and the
dragon ; and David playing on the harp.
THE AET OF ILLUMINATION.
O finer work of that
school is perhaps in exis-
tence than one still re-
maining at Winchester,
though little known, and
from which we have copied
the accompanying capital
letter. It is a copy of
the Bible of a large folio
size, in three volumes, '
containing numerous pic-
tures, and elaborate capi-
tal letters, some of which
run down the whole length
of the folio page. What
makes it most interesting
as a work of art is, that, from being left unfinished, it shows
us illumination in every stage of the process which it had to
go through.*
Our illustration has been taken from a very fine volume in the
British Museum,, called the Gospels of Canute. The foliated
frames at the commencement of each are admirable examples of
the characteristics of this style of art. Before the commencement
of the Gospel of St. Mark is a certificate in Anglo-Saxon, of which the
following is a translation : " In the name of our Lord Jesus Christ here is
written Canute the king's name. He is our beloved Lord worldwards, and
our spiritual brother Godwards, and Harold, this king's brother, Thorch
our brother, Kortoku our brother, Thuri our brother." On the next leaf is
the entry of a Charter of this king in the same language. These entries
may have led to the tradition of its having been the property of King Canute,
and it is probable that he presented it to the cathedral of Canterbury
upon being received into that church.
Illuminations of the twelfth century are more easily distinguished than
those of any other period. Manuscripts of an immense size were then
produced, and the principal capital letters were frequently from twelve to
eighteen inches in length, and sometimes longer, occupying, in fact, the
greater part of the pages on which they appear.
* The light tints of our letter represent green ; the studs and dots, red ; and the letter itself,
a deep blue colour.
OF THE
'UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY
THE ART OF ILLUMINATION.
15
JMPLICITY, elegance, and accuracy of drawing were
their leading characteristics. They were usually
formed of continuous or interlacing bands, or scrolls,
terminating in conventional foliage and flowers, com-
monly proceeding from the mouth of a dragon, or
other monster, and sometimes from a human mask.
Two distinct modes of treatment were employed on
the borders and large initial letters of this time. In
the one, the outlines are all red, with the details
rounded by fine delicate lines of the same colour,
the whole being relieved by backgrounds of blue, green, and yellow. The
letter H on the next page is an example of this style of art. In the
other, these bands, branches, and flowers, were coloured in gradations of the
richest tints, heightened on the outer edge with pure white, and made
distinct by a bold black outline. The ground was sometimes formed of
various colours almost equally distributed, sometimes partially of gold, and
often wholly of that precious metal. Occasionally the figure of the prophet,
apostle, or historian of the text following is introduced, commonly having a
scroll in his right hand bearing an inscription. It is worthy of remark that
the figures introduced at this time into manuscripts show a great advance
over preceding ones, both in drawing and colouring ; though still quaint in
style, the heads are remarkable for sincere and truthful expression, and the
draperies for the broad and simple arrangement of their folds, and the sober
and harmonious character of the tints employed on them. Among the
finest examples we have met with of twelfth-century illuminatiQn are
those contained in three enormous volumes in the British Museum,
Harleian 2800-2802. It is a Passionale, or collection of lives of saints,
written towards the close of the century, in double columns, on vellum,
in the large character which about that time began to be used, and
which forms the link between the round open letter of the preceding
century and a-half, and the square or Gothic letter of a later period.
From the great number of German saints introduced into these volumes,
and from the legend of Count Ludovic, inserted at the close of the
second, we may conclude that the work was written for the monastery of
Arnstein, situated in the diocese of Treves, on the river Lahn, about a
mile above Coblentz, in which monastic house, as appears by a memo-
randum at the end of the last volume, it was still preserved in 1464.
The legend of Count Ludovic, the founder of this monastery, is entirely
historical, and supplies some valuable facts respecting the history of the
foundation. From a religious feeling, at that period very prevalent among
THE AET OF ILLUMINATION.
the nobility, the Count and his wife Guda de Bonneburch,
in the year 1 139, converted their castle, called, from its lofty
situation, the " Eagle's Rock," into a religious receptacle
for twelve monks of the Premonstratensian order, and con-
secrated it to St. Mary and St. Nicholas, under the govern-
ance of Abbot Godfrid, a secular priest of Magdeburg, who
was confirmed by Adalbert, Archbishop of Treves. The
Count himself assumed the monastic habit at the same time,
and died in 1185, forty-seven years after the foundation.
The volumes in question were therefore probably written
about the year 1190. The following plate contains speci-
mens of pilasters copied from richly-coloured examples in a
series of double arcades at the commencement of the first
volume, within which are the calendars.
An example of nearly the same period and style as this
Passionale is the copy of a Bible (MS. Harl. 2803) in the
vulgate version, comprised in two very large folio volumes,
and written on vel-
lum in double co-
lumns. The illumin-
ated letters prefixed
to each book are
more richly coloured
and more highly
finished traka are
found in the farmer.
Prefixed to the first
is the Epistle of Je-
rome to Paulinus,
with a full-length
figure of the writer
sitting at a desk,
while a m(kik holds
out an ink^iorn to
him. In the first book
of Kings are also in-
troduced interesting
illustrations of costume in the figures of Goliath in chain mail, and of Saul
destroying himself. The second volume commences with the Psalter, the
initial letter of which is magnificently executed, and the New Testament
is embellished with figures of the Apostles.
OF THE
UNIVERSITY
0000
QQ oc
,. ins
(UNIVERSITY.
THE AET OF ILLUMINATION. 17
ROM the end of this century books became reduced in
size, and their contents exhibited a similar diminution
in all their decorative features. The principal capital
letters were commonly enclosed within square frames,
at the angles and along the sides of which were fre-
quently placed medallions, the one half encroaching
upon the border within, and the other on the plain
margin without. These medallions contained figures
of prophets, saints, minstrels playing on various instru-
ments, or other illustrations of the text to follow. Between
the outer ornamental border and the letter, the ground, of a
dark colour, usually blue, was elaborately diapered. The letter
itself was composed of the most delicate and intricate interlacing
of small bands of light brown, green, and blue, alternately. These
bands commenced with the heads of snakes or fanciful reptiles,
from which small leaves occasionally projected, and terminated in
full bunches of foliage. Entangled in these folds are found dogs,
rabbits, squirrels, and other animals, most carefully drawn, and
in every conceivable attitude. These, like the figures in the
medallions, are on raised and burnished gold grounds. All these
details are surrounded by a clear and intensely black outline,
evidently composed of lamp-black and gum. This description is
taken from the letter B which forms our next plate, copied from a
Psalter in the possession of the Society of Antiquaries of London.
It formerly belonged to Robert de Lindesey, who was Abbot of
Peterborough, and a great benefactor to it, for seven years before
his death, on October 25, 1222. It is in excellent preservation,
and may be pronounced one of the finest examples of English art
of the early part of the thirteenth century now in existence. The
musical instruments shown in our example are the harp in the hands
of King David ; and in those of the minstrels, the fiddle in the hand
of the one in the medallion on the left side of the letter; that in the
upper medallion
on the right side
is a viol, played
upon the knee,'
and may be
called a tenor-
viol, from not
Our initial is a specimen of Italian art of the thirteenth century, from a copy of the New
Testament in the Bodleian Library.
D
UNIVERSITY
,tf^ LI
V* OF THE
/ ... . . - - ;
UxTIVEiioii *
THE ART OF ILLUMINATION.
19
his sister Elizabeth, who married, firstly, John, Count of Holland, the
brother of Alphonso's intended bride ; and, secondly, Humphrey de Bohun,
Earl of Hereford, and Constable of England.
There is strong evidence to prove that this volume was executed in the
convent of the Blackfriars of London, which was founded by Edward I. and
Queen Eleanor, and where the hearts of Prince Alphonso and his mother
found burial. But, as the art of illuminating was then becoming a lay
occupation, the scribe employed may have been a monk, and the painter a
layman. Should that have been the case, the services of so skilful an artist
must have been comparatively costly, and this may account for their having
been dispensed with when the purpose for which they had been engaged
could not be accomplished.
Of these sixteen pages the first, which we have had engraved, is by far the
most richly illuminated. It is entirely enclosed in a border composed of
lozenge-shaped panels filled with lions and cross-crosslets fitchee in gold on
deep blue grounds ; the border being broken in the centres and sides by
roundels filled with elegant interlaced tracery, and cusped on the outside
with six points, and further enriched with the figures of English birds,
20 THE AKT OF ILLUMINATION.
painted from the life. At the top are varieties of finches, and on the right
side a woodpecker and kingfisher. The initial at the head of the page con-
tains a miniature of King David on his throne playing on the harp, on a
raised gold ground diapered with a light yellow colour. On the lower
margin are figures of David and Goliath, the latter shrinking into the corner,
with the blood trickling down his face, while at the opposite end the former
is seen holding the sling with which he has wounded the giant. Between
the two are shields charged with the arms of Prince Alphonso and the Count
of Holland, separated by a carefully-painted sea-gull, with a columbine, and
another flowering shrub. These plants may symbolize the two countries of
England and Holland, and the gull the sea which separates them.
The calendar prefixed to this, as usually to other Psalters, is filled with
the names of saints, amongst which those of English origin are numerous ;
and this one is rendered peculiarly interesting from its containing notices of
deaths of members of the Royal Family of England, from A.D. 1290 to A.D.
1316, and of other persons of the families of Mere worth and Hausted,
evidently inserted at the times of such deaths. From these entries in the
calendar, we are justified in concluding the book when completed came into
the hands of a person closely connected with the Royal Family of England,
and that within six years of Prince Alphonso's death ; and there is every
probability that it was presented to the prince's fourth surviving sister,
Elizabeth, who was born in the year of prince Alphonso's death, 1284, as
the arms of Humphrey de Bohun are painted on the ground of one of the
miniatures at the beginning of the volume, and also by the cessation of the
entries of royal obits after her death in 1316. The obits under the names
of Hausted and Mereworth confirm this conclusion, for we find individuals
of both families intimately connected with the princess's household.
As the first Psalm occupies entirely the first leaf, no opportunity is
afforded for a border to the second page. The third has a corner border-
line at the top and the bottom, on opposite sides. On the terminating
volute of the upper border is a crane, grotesquely finished, standing on one
leg, and having on its back a monkey, who presses a little red cap on the
bird's head. A great deal of cleverness is shown in the drawing of the leg
on which the crane stands, the muscular power being well displayed, and the
joints and sinews of the stiffened leg well indicated. At the top of the lower
border-line is the device of a lion struggling in the gripe of a dragon, and
being mangled by its fangs.
On the continuation of the same border, and filling the interval between
the corner of the page and the terminating volute, is a drawing of a stag
with bent head, prepared to receive on its antlers a winged dragon, which
THE ART OF ILLUMINATION. 21
rushes hissing upon it with open jaws. A blackbird the while, with an
air of interest, watches the contest from among the leaves of the volute.
The stag is firmly drawn in outline ; the body dappled over and shaded on
the back, the softness of the coat being very successfully imitated. The
antlers are tinted light blue. One of the front legs is straightened and
stretches forwards, to give firmness to the position. The dragon is appro-
priately coloured.
The subject represented in the lower margin of the fourth page is a
combat between a rustic, armed with sword and buckler, and a wild beast.
The figure of the human combatant is excellently drawn, and much humour
is displayed in the expression of the features, indicating not a little alarm, and
at the same time a stubborn resolution to fight out his dangerous contest.
The lower border-line of the sixth page has a charming tinted drawing of a
mermaid suckling her infant. The human portions of the figures are finely
drawn in very delicate outline. The head of the mother is very beautiful, with
a rich profusion of flowing hair confined by a golden chaplet. Her fishy
extremity is covered with silvery scales, but now blackened by oxidation, and
has an additional ornament in the figure of an ape standing on its hands with
its feet in the air. The tail of the infant is gilt and its fins coloured red.
The entire group, fantastic as it is, is extremely graceful, and striking also
from its novelty ; and the tenderness of action in the intertwining arms and
the contracted hands of the figures are very artistic.
The subject at the bottom of page 7 is remarkably pretty. A
huntress of slender form, and clothed in a long flowing dress of deep blue,
holds in leashes three greyhounds, in front of which is a herd of fallow deer,
represented by a buck, a doe, and a fawn, in full flight, a smaller dog
pursuing them. The huntress leans backward to keep in the dogs, one of
which strains at the game, another crouches with its head on its paws, and
the third turns back its head to its mistress. In advance of the flying herd
is an exquisite group of a doe suckling her fawn, which kneels on a turfy
mound sprinkled with daisies. The action of the dogs and deer Is excel-
lently conceived, and the modelling of the bodies and shading of the coats of
the deer most admirable.
Page 8 has no border illumination or drawing in the lower margin.
At the bottom of page 9 is a hawking scene. The falcon has struck down
a wild duck, and is tearing open its back with its beak. The huntsman
follows at full gallop, and stretches out his glove to reclaim the bird. The
screaming duck and eager hawk are drawn with life-like effect. A vine,
covered with leaves and bunches of grapes, grows out of the waving border-
line on which the sketch is drawn.
>^\.v
' ,<*
>
THE AET OF ILLUMINATION.
There are no border illuminations to pages 10, 11, and 12.
Page 13 has no drawing on the lower margin, but in com-
pensation has a very beautiful border on the inner margin, copied
in our engraving. At the top of the line is a monster, com-
posed of a winged angel in a robe of rich green, and terminating
in a boar's hind quarters, coloured scarlet. The angel blows a
golden trumpet, bearing a blue banner, on which is painted a
silver lion. At the extremity of a leaf growing from a knot
in the middle of the border stem, a peacock is painted in all the
gorgeousness of its deep blue body and iris tail. A cock and a
pea-hen, in fighting attitudes, are painted on the branching
extremities of the line.
In the lower margin of page 14 is painted the death of
Goliath by the hand of David. Goliath is on his knees, with
embossed shield in his right hand, and broken spear in his left.
David is in complete mail, with golden casque, and wielding a
sword with both hands, lays open with it the bald head of the
fallen giant, who appears to have been brought to the ground by
desperate gashes on both his heels. The subject is not an
unusual one in illuminated Psalters.
The drawing on page 15 is a stag in full flight, and pur-
sued by two greyhounds, one of which hangs by the animal's
ear. The top of the side margin has an extremely pretty subject
of a dancing youth, dressed in green, and playing on the viol,
with a monkey accompanying him on the bagpipes. Over them,
on the edge of a letter, stands a monkey tossing gold plates into
the air, to be caught on the point of a stick which it holds in its
left hand.
The subject at the foot of page 16 is a combat of a
knight in mail with a griffin. The knight, who is unhorsed, is
in the act of burying the point of his lance in the chest of
the monster, which clutches at him with its beak. The horse
lies wounded on the ground; and a raven, guided by its
instinct for prey, has already alighted on the saddle, and
is about to gorge itself on the dying
animal.
The subject of the drawing on page
17, and the last of the series, is a
man, armed with sword and buckler,
defending himself from the attack of a
afiut m coixfilto ttn
uolutrtas etuF^ffn
tileacaccte
crft tanquamUj)nunt qnot^ ylautatnn
est f tuts mating aqttazutitVqttot> fructruti fa
tfbltittn etas nouuftucet otmt
^[au (it imp i j tion ttc/Cet> f axiquam
em paolctt aeatcc^ a facie terce
n onrefarojittt tmptl tuftfl ttto tiecB
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tfttertmt teg.egterte^yzfactygg couti eue^
OF THE
UNIVERSITY
THE AET OF ILLUMINATION. 23
lion, who, with open jaws, crouches for the fatal spring. The border-line on
this page commences with a dragon's head, and facing it is a green lizard,
with tail stretched to the top of the page, very vividly coloured. All the
designs on these eight leaves show an amazing vigour of invention combined
with the truest taste for beauty, while every page is quite a composition of
colour.*
Of equal beauty with the preceding volume is a most exquisitely written
Bible in the old Royal Collection of the British Museum, marked I D i, of
the date of about 1270. It is written on the finest uterine vellum, in a
minute, most regular, and delicate hand ; and with scarcely a distinguishable
flaw from the beginning to the end. The ornamental work in the margins
is peculiar in character and very fantastic, but always beautiful from the
lustre and harmony of the colouring. A rich green, which characterizes
the English school of the time, is much introduced. It has many miniatures,
delicately outlined on diapered ground, more pure in expression, and grace-
ful in form, than any others we have met with of the same date. This
precious manuscript is English in its character, has always been in English
hands, and has the final guarantee of its English origin, by the inscription at
the end of the New Testament, of the name of the scribe, in these words :
"Will's Devoniensis scripsit istum librum."
The next manuscript we would cite is in the Royal Collection of the
British Museum, 2 B vii, commonly called Queen Mary's Psalter, from its
having been presented to her by Baldwin Smith, a citizen of London, in
1553. It is written on 320 pages of the finest vellum, and cannot be placed
earlier in date than the end of the thirteenth century. About this time a
fashion came into vogue of decorating a manuscript by the introduction of
coloured drawings in the lower margins, which was in particular favour with
English miniaturists. The first portion of this volume consists of a series
of outline drawings, slightly shaded with green, lilac, and brown, repre-
senting the history of the Old Testament from the Creation to the death of
Solomon. Next follow drawings of the prophets and patriarchs, but the
outlines have been filled up with body colour by an inferior hand. After
this succeeds the Psalter, with the usual calendar prefixed, ornamented with
ornaments, initials, and, .occasionally, miniatures. The most curious feature,
however, of this manuscript is the marginal drawings before alluded to, and
which run nearly through the volume. They are arranged methodically in
the following order. First, illustrations of natural history ; then, scenes of
* This description is chiefly taken from a more elaborate one by Mr. E. A. Bond, of the
Manuscript Department of the British Museum, published in the first number of " The Fine Arts
Quarterly Journal."
24 THE ART OF ILLUMINATION.
sports and hunting ; then, banqueting ; and, finally, lives of saints. These
drawings exhibit great skill in the grouping, considerable elegance in the
attitudes of the individual figures, and a vast amount of humour in many of
the burlesques. It is proved to be an English work by the handwriting, the
Litany, and entries of saints in the calendar, and by the colours employed
on it. These fine works are sufficient to prove there was an English school
of miniaturists in the latter part of the thirteenth century, equal, at least, in
skill to that of any other country at the same time.
We must also notice a magnificent Psalter in the Arundel Collection,
No. 83, of about that date, and possibly by the same hands as the preceding
volumes. The first page is an admirable composition in the style of the
Tenison book, and many of the following ones are surrounded by borders
composed with equal taste and originality, though of a more simple
treatment.
Our next plate is taken from a very interesting manuscript in the Royal
Collection of the British Museum, marked 20 B vi. It is entitled, " Epistre
au Roy Richard II. d'Angleterre, par un Solitaire de Celestins de Paris."
It contains many small illuminated letters and borders, but only two
drawings occupying whole pages. In the first is shown the sacred monogram
in burnished gold, within a panel, the field of which is powdered on one side
with the badge of France, the fleur-de-lis, and on the other, with the lion of
England. Above this panel are three smaller ones, the centre being
occupied with the crown of thorns, from which proceed rays of glory over
those of France and England, which fill those on each side of it. The whole
is surrounded with a rich and elaborate border. On the opposite page
appears the subject of our engraving. The monk on his left knee, with a
banner in his left hand charged with the symbol of the lamb, is presenting
with his right hand his book to King Richard, who is seated in his robes of
state, crowned, and with his sceptre in his left hand. The three principal
figures on the right of the king are supposed to be his uncles, the Dukes of
Lancaster, York, and Gloucester. The hair of these noblemen is bound by
jewelled circlets round the forehead. This group is an instance of the
grotesque, whimsical, and extravagant style of dress which prevailed at this
time. One of the figures has a long flowing dress, while that of another is
cut short at the hip to show his parti-coloured pantaloons, one leg of which
is white and the other grey. They all have shoes with the enormously long
toes, called "crackowes," so named, according to Mr. Planche, from the
city of Cracow ; Poland and Bohemia having been incorporated by John, the
grandfather of Richard's queen, and the fashion probably was imported from
thence. They were compared to devil's claws by a contemporary writer,
toteweUeoiitiitfttoi
ttdtir aat^ohquc etttes
m
OF THE
UNIVERSITY
THE AET OF ILLUMINATION. 25
who says thatt they were fastened to the knees with chains of gold and
silver.
About this time the borders surrounding the leading pictures and the
text, began to be altered in form, from being actual and symmetrical frames,
to that established proportion of margin which still exists in the making up
the pages of printed books ; that is, to make the outer margins and bottoms
of the pages considerably wider than the space allowed to the inner margin
and the top. The bottom was generally the widest ; and in volumes
prepared for distinguished individuals, that space was commonly occupied
on the first leaf with their arms, badges, and devices.
When the illuminators of this age had exhausted their inventive faculties
by the making and mixing of monsters with every created being suited to
their purpose, and caricature, frequently sadly destitute of refinement, reigned
triumphant, even on the margins of sacred volumes, a new mode of deco-
rating these margins came into fashion, and continued to prevail during the
greater part of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. These borders were
called ivy-leaf patterns, from conventional imitations of those simple and
beautiful leaves forming a leading feature in these sparkling and lace-like
designs.
The following engravings of portions of borders from various manuscripts,
some in the British Museum, and others in the Bodleian Library, are
sufficient to illustrate the general peculiarities of this mode of treatment.
They are all on burnished gold grounds, and the details are of green, red,
orange, and blue. In the third example the leaves are parti-coloured, orange
on the one side and blue on the other. The roses and violets in the lower
border are red and blue, and the leaves green and gold.
The most simple examples of this style of composition show the text
enclosed on the sides and lower margin with a continuous stem, formed of
red and blue, or either of these colours, with one of burnished gold. These
were divided and bounded by strong black lines, the colours being made
distinct by a fine thread of white passing along their centres. Sometimes
from the extremities, and at others from the middle of these bands, pro-
ceeded a series of scrolls, interlacing each other in the most graceful manner,
in single delicate lines of a dark brown colour. Along these lines were
thrown out leaves, which in some instances were of burnished gold, in others
of gold, blue, and red, alternately, while they were further enriched by
little spiral tendrils appearing between them. The more open spaces were
filled with studs of burnished gold, made star-like by fine lines radiating
from the bold ones in which they were enclosed.
In more costly volumes the text was frequently confined within richly
E
26 THE AET OF ILLUMINATION.
coloured bands of filigree and leaves, or interlaced foliage, from which
proceeded the outer scrolls, and occasionally the latter were of colour within
two delicate black lines. These were often enriched with gaily plumaged
birds. The details, however, of this style of decoration are so various, that
we can only point out its leading features.
Manuscripts of the fourteenth century show a great advance in painting
over previous works of a similar kind. Artists were no longer satisfied to
leave their heads in little more than outline, and to copy each other in the
same conventional method of composition and treatment. We now find in
their works a considerable range of invention, and satisfactory evidence that
the finest miniatures of the time were taken from living models, and finished
with the greatest care. A certain amount of stiffness and want of variety
in grouping still prevailed; and architectural embellishments, though
admirable for the precision of their details, were still faulty with regard to
perspective; and the very Chinese-like mode of representing rocks, trees,
and other features of their landscapes, afford convincing proofs that no
Claudes or Turners had yet appeared to delight either the pious or the
worldly-minded.
Towards the middle of this century, French art arrived at a very high,
if not the very highest, position. In the Bibliotheque Nationale, the Musee
d'Artillerie, and other libraries in Paris, many splendid examples remain to
prove this great excellence. One of the finest is generally known as " The
Great Hours of Jean, Due de Berri," and one of the most interesting pages
of this remarkable manuscript has been admirably reproduced in the
" PalaBographie Universelle, par M. Silvestre."
Exquisite illuminations of the latter half of this century may be found
in the British Museum ; the most perfect of which we consider to be a
volume containing the Psalter, and other Offices, executed for Margaret of
Bavaria, the wife of John, Duke of Burgundy, who was married in 1385,
and died in 1419- It is a small folio, consisting of 453 leaves of fine uterine
vellum, and had originally several pictures occupying whole pages, but only
one now remains, an Ascension. The lower part of the body of the Saviour
is alone seen, surrounded with clouds, his feet being supported by seven
angels. The apostles with the two Marys are grouped on the left side of the
picture, while the disciples are advancing from the portal of a building on
the right. The towers of a castle rise from a mass of rocks over the heads
of the disciples and apostles. The space between these rocks and buildings,
and the clouds under the Saviour's feet is covered with an exceedingly
minute diaper of squares, ruled in with black lines, and filled alternately
with blue colour and burnished gold; the colour being made lively by
butftieut attemet tcoi)e3.?Cte fteqre \
uto t* ana 6 umfuteut otm touo left
aurw pttant mats gut ouaffelu:
THE ART OF ILLUMINATION. 27
exceedingly fine and solid lines of white, and the gold to sparkle by each
square being punctured with a fine point. This picture is enclosed within
a remarkably elaborate ivy-leaf pattern, the gold leaves of which are also
punctured to give them brilliancy, having bands of conventional clouds
running along their centres, on which are supported angels playing musical
instruments, and on the lower margin is a most delicately-painted sitting
figure of the duchess, her hands resting on shields charged with the arms of
herself and her husband. Besides the large drawing of the Ascension, there
are sixty-one small ones incorporated in the text. These are by different
hands, but all of great merit. Many of them are unsurpassed in beauty of
design, or refinement, and delicacy of execution. We have considered this
volume deserving of a somewhat detailed notice, as one of the most beautiful
specimens now remaining of a style of art which prevailed very extensively,
and for a long period.
From the early part of the fifteenth century the art of miniature
painting began to decline in England, and the finest illuminated works now
in this country from that time forward are by foreign painters, chiefly
French and Flemish. One of the few exceptions is a volume of poems in
the British Museum. It is a translation of the legends of St. Edmund and
o
St. Fremund into English verse from the Latin. It was composed and
written by order of William Curteys, abbot of the monastery of St.
Edmundsbury, on the occasion of King Henry VI. 's visit to that monastery
in the year 1433. It contains a very interesting and carefully-painted
picture of the poet presenting his poem to the king, and little doubt can be
entertained that they are truthful portraits. It is neatly and most delicately
written, and contains no less than 125 miniatures, executed in a peculiar
and effective manner, with numerous borders and initials of a graceful and
original character.
Fine works of this late time are so numerous, both in public and private
libraries, that we can only venture to particularize a few, and point out the
decorative changes that had taken place, and the leading features of those
changes in the countries where the art of illumination was in the most
flourishing condition.
o
One of the best known works in the British Museum of the early part of
the fifteenth century is the celebrated Bedford Missal. This volume was _
prepared for John, Duke of Bedford, son of Henry IV. of England, and
Regent of France, and his wife Ann, daughter of John, Duke of Burgundy,
married A. D. 1423. It contains most elaborate and delicately-finished
miniatures of the duke and duchess, the former being highly interesting as
the only known portrait of the duke. It was presented by the duchess, with
THE AET OP ILLUMINATION.
her husband's consent, to Henry VI. of England, on Christmas Eve, 1430.
The following subjects occupy full pages. The Creation ; the building of
the Ark ; the abatement of the Flood, with Noah sacrificing ; and, the
destruction of the Tower of Babel. Deep borders of filigree and flower
pattern, in which appear medallions, filled with smaller miniatures, enclose
all the other pages. The figure illustrations of this remarkable volume have
been attributed to the three Van Eycks, without the slightest authority.
They are evidently of French, and not of Flemish art ; and, with the
exception of the portraits, and a few of the lesser subjects, this manuscript
is remarkable for the prodigious number, rather than for any unusual
refinement, either of the ornamental portion of the borders, or the miniatures
enclosed in them.
Of a much higher character of art is the little manuscript called the Prayer
Book of Henry VI, also of French origin, in the Cotton Collection of the
British Museum. It consists of 286 leaves, and is enriched with 14 highly-
finished pictures, in six of which the infant king is represented on his knees
in the act of devotion. In every instance he is crowned, and wears a surcoat,
on which are embroidered the arms of England and France. From the
apparent age of the king, there can be no doubt that this beautiful volume
was executed about the time of his coronation, which took place in Paris in
1431, when he was in his tenth year. It may have been a present on that
occasion from his uncle, the regent. The whole of the drawings in this
volume are of great interest, particularly several elaborately finished
interiors of churches. These, as well as the miniatures, are wonderful
examples of skilful composition, and the most exquisite finish.*
Of about the same date is a very interesting volume in the Harleian
Collection, containing the Poems of Christine de Pisan, having some splendid
coloured drawings, especially a very richly-furnished interior, in which the
poetess is on her knees, presenting the book to Isabella of Bavaria, who is
surrounded by her female attendants.
The folio manuscript, of a somewhat later time, called the Shrewsbury
Book, is a noble volume full of instructive pictures and borders, though not
of the high class of art we find in the Prayer Book of Henry Vl.f It was
made by the order of John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, " the warlike and
martial Talbot" of Shakespeare, and was presented by him to the celebrated
Margaret of Anjou, after her marriage with Henry VI. Its contents are
chiefly romances of " chivalrie," which were then very popular. At the
beginning of the volume is a superb miniature of Talbot, in the robes of the
* Several of these drawings have been engraved for Dibdin's "Bibliographical Decameron."
t British Museum, Royal MS. 15 E vi.
THE AET OF ILLUMINATION. 29
Order of the Garter, presenting the book to Queen Margaret, who is seated
beside the king, her husband. This picture of Talbot shows one of the few
instances now remaining of the mantle being powdered, or covered with
garters, instead of the more modern fashion of its displaying but one.
Another of the numerous interesting pictures scattered through the book
shows the king, attended by his court, delivering to Talbot his sword.
A series of the finest examples of French art of this time is contained in
a volume now in the possession of Edwin H. Lawrence, Esq., of Abbey
Farm Lodge, Hampstead, and formerly in that of the late Duke of Sussex.
It is thus described in the late Mr. Pettigrew's catalogue of manuscripts and
printed books in the Duke's library, published in 1S27 :
" It contains 2 1 9 leaves, nine inches in height by six inches and a-half in
width.
" This book of offices is the most exquisite of all the illuminated works
I have ever seen ; each page is alike splendid ; the borders superb in their
ornament of most elaborate execution, and the paintings -of the most beautiful
description. The MS. commences with a. calendar for the ecclesiastical year
on twenty-four pages. To each month the sign of the zodiac, and some
subject illustrative of the season, painted in gold and colours, are attached ;
the former at the side, and the latter at the bottom of the page. Some of
these are exquisitely beautiful, not only from the brilliancy of the colours,
but the correctness of the drawing and the interest of the subject : thus we
have feasting, hawking, hay-making, reaping, threshing, wine-pressing,
sowing, boar-hunting, &c. After the calendar are four portions of the
Evangelists, followed by two prayers addressed to the Virgin. To each of
the readings of the Gospels is affixed an illuminated miniature of the Evan-
gelist engaged in writing his Gospel.
" The first service in this MS. is the office of the Virgin : to the matins
there is an illumination of the Annunciation ; to the lauds, the Salutation ;
to the prime, the Nativity ; to the tierce, the Nativity of Christ made known
to the Shepherds ; to the sext, the adoration of the Magi ; to the nones, the
Presentation in the Temple ; to the vespers, the flight of Joseph, Mary, and
the infant Saviour into Egypt ; and to the completorium, or compline, the
Virgin Mary, attended by angels, kneeling before the Deity, and receiving
a crown of glory.
" The next portion of the MS. consists of the seven penitential Psalms,
and the litany of the saints, to which part there is an illumination of King
David worshipping the Deity, who is figured in the heavens, surrounded by
glory, and attended by angels.
" The next part of the MS. is the office of the Holy Cross. An illumi-
30 THE ART OF ILLUMINATION.
nation of the Crucifixion is attached to this portion, which is succeeded by
the office of the Holy Spirit; to which an illumination representing the
descent of the Holy Ghost is affixed. This is followed by the office for the
dead, to which a singular and highly-finished illumination is attached. This
is followed by one in which the whole service of the burial is fully and ably
represented. It shows the entombment of the body, the office of the church
being performed by the priests, the attendant mourners, &c, being in the
foreground. In the back and upper part is seen a struggle for the spirit
between the good and evil powers, and the interposition of the archangel
Michael, to overcome the efforts of the devil.
" The next division of the MS. consists of the fifteen joys of our Lady.
This service, to which a beautiful illumination of the Virgin and Child,
attended by angels, is attached, is in the French language, and commences
thus : ' Cy commencent les quinze joies de notre dame. Doulce dame de
misericorde mere de pitie fontaine de tous biens qui portastes nostre seigneur
iesu crist neuf moijs en vos precieux flans et lalait astez de vos doulces
mamelles. Belle tres doulce dame je vous cry mercy et vous pri que vous
vueilliez prier vostre benoit filz qui ait pitie et mercy de moy. Et ainsi
vous le priez belle tres doulce dame et je magenoilleray quinze fois devant
vostre benoit ymage en lonneur des quinze joies 'que vous eustez de votre
chier filz en terre.' *
" This service is succeeded by that of the five wounds of Christ, also in
the French language, to which an illumination of the Entombment is
attached.
" The last part is the service of the Holy Trinity. An illumination of
the Trinity is prefixed to this portion, throughout which the saints, with their
appropriate emblems, are painted in the margin.
" Every capital in this MS. is splendidly illuminated in gold and colours.
The MS. is written in a large Gothic character, and each page is furnished
with borders three inches in breadth, of leaves executed in gold. To the pages
just enumerated, on which there are paintings, there is, in addition to the
grand border, an inner one in colours, formed of flowers, fruit, leaves, birds,
angels, &c. Where the MS. does not extend to the extreme of the line, the
space is filled up with an illumination in gold and colours ; so minute has the
attention of the illuminator been to adorn and beautify this exquisite MS."
We cannot close our short notice of French illuminations of the fifteenth
century without alluding to a superb manuscript, also in the British
Museum, of the exceedingly popular " Romance of the Rose." The story
opens with a large picture, in which a lover, falling asleep in the " merry
* Our engraving has been taken from this picture.
UNIVERSITY
THE ART OF ILLUMINATION.
31
month of May," dreams that he arises early and quits the town for the
country. At length he arrives at a fair garden, enclosed by a high wall,
on the exterior of which are painted, in compartments, the principal passions
and troubles of life; Hate, Covetousness, Sorrow, Envy, and Avarice, followed
by Old Age and Poverty.* It would be impossible to point out any miniatures
more beautifully painted, or more full of character, than these. The rest of
the story is abundantly illustrated with pictures of a very high class, most
carefully finished, but none showing the genius evident in these single
figures. They would have delighted Wilkie, had he
been acquainted with them.
At this time a very bold and elegant style of orna-
mentation was employed on the margins of manu-
scripts, in which the foliage surrounding them was
made to grow out of the body of the capital letter
commencing the text, or at the beginning of a chapter
in any part of the page. Decorations of this character
are found in great perfection in English books. Our
letter R, forming the next plate, and the portion of a
border on this page, are favourable examples of its pecu-
liarities. The letter and text are taken from a large
folio Bible in the British Museum,t measuring twenty-
four inches in height by fourteen inches in width. It
is most profusely enriched with illuminations. The
commencement of each book has a marginal border,
surrounding and dividing the text into columns, and
containing a large initial, sometimes composed of
foliage in the character of our engraving, but more
generally enclosing miniature pictures of the leading
events described in them. The beginning of each
chapter has a small initial equally elaborate, with
* Old Age and Poverty have been carefully copied in Shaw's
" Dresses and Decorations of the Middle Ages."
t Royal MS. I E ix.
KV
THE AET OF ILLUMINATION.
branches and scrolls extending into the margins above and below, and
enriching the spaces between them. The foliage is coloured of a light
brown, red, and blue ; green being altogether absent in the decorations, and
but sparingly used in the miniatures. The ornament is enlivened by the
most delicate lines, rings, and dots of white, and the burnished gold grounds
by dots punctured on the surface.
It may be remarked that, by the end of the fifteenth century, almost
every kind of document, when formally written, may be found either illu-
minated, or illustrated by drawings with the pen. Charters, wills, indentures,
patents of nobility, armorial ensigns, statutes of foundation, books of accounts,
and even those registers called mortuary, or obituary rolls, were thus
decorated.
No school of the art of illumination during the whole of the fifteenth and
the first half of the sixteenth centuries produced a greater number of works
of extraordinary excellence than the Flemish. Nearly all the great artists
of that time exercised their skill as miniaturists, as well as in the production
of pictures on a larger scale. Hence we have manuscripts enriched with
the pencils of the Van Eycks, of Memling, of Lucan van Leyden, of Mabuse,
and of others nearly equal to these great men in reputation, which display
all the artistic skill and careful elaboration of their more important pro-
ductions.
It has been remarked that the tempera pictures of Fra Angelico, and
other celebrated early Italian masters, were little more than enlarged illu-
minations. If so, on the other hand, these miniatures may be taken as
reduced pictures. They exhibit the same careful composition, the same
variety of character and expression, the same skilful manipulation of details,
and the same evidence that, in their landscapes, as well as their architectural
accessories, they were no longer governed by conventional models, but
referred to nature, to make everything truthful.
The most splendid examples of the skill of these great Flemish painters
are to be found in the celebrated Grimani Breviary, now in the library of St.
Mark's, at Venice. It is a quarto volume, bound in crimson velvet, having
an elaborately-chased border in gold on the sides, enclosing a bust of the
cardinal, within an enriched medallion of the same precious metal. It
contains 110 drawings, measuring nine and a-quarter inches in height, and
seven inches in width, a very large proportion of which are by Memling.
The whole of these pictures have been recently published at Venice, in
the shape of a series of very carefully-executed photographs, by Antonio
Perini, with descriptions by Francesco Zanoto. Although these photographs
give the character of the heads, and the general composition of the designs in
NIVERSITY)
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wmiitie dnt tm thuxpi mlrge ctqpfretfe ecaotm-
a6 tiemm jet ermon geliat
THB
UNIVERSITY)
THE ART OF ILLUMINATION.
33
a satisfactory manner, they fail to convey any clear idea of the brilliancy and
beauty of the colours employed, especially in the exquisite and varied borders
surrounding them, in most of which gold is made a leading feature. To
compensate in some measure for this defect, the two first drawings in the
volume have been most admirably fac-similed. They commence the illus-
trations of the seasons. On the one page is the calendar for January,
showing, on the lower margin, a gang of poor men drawing, by the aid of a
long rope, a heavy load^over the snow. The opposite drawing displays the
richly-furnished interior of a wealthy family, who are feasting around a table
laden with the luxuries of that inclement season, which a number of well-
dressed attendants are busy in replenishing. Nothing can be more admirable
than the execution of these most characteristic contrasts.
URING this time a peculiar fea-
ture in Flemish decorations was
the introduction in their borders
of flowing branches of trees, from
which proceed masses of conven-
tional foliage, in most graceful
curves, the ends occasionally fold-
ing over each other, and the whole
distributed into leaves with the
most intricate subdivisions. Grow-
ing out of these branches, and
filling the spaces between them,
were the richest flowers and fruits, the gayest birds and insects, with every
kind of being the fancy of the painter could suggest. In choice manuscripts
these were copied with the utmost delicacy and truth, and, being relieved by
projected shadows, showing all the gradations reflected from the bright tints
around them, they appear almost deceptive enough to pass for miniature
realities, rather than painted imitations of nature.
These borders were enclosed in moulded frames of the same colour as
the branches, and relieved in the same manner. The ground within was
sometimes of gold, and occasionally of silver, but more generally of colour ;
and, for the sake of variety, we frequently find in the same volume, not only
the primitives, but every kind of compound tints employed.
Our initial letter is a good example of the ingenious manner the con-,
ventional branches above referred to were twisted into the forms of letters.
They sometimes enclosed fruit, sometimes flowers, sometimes birds, some-
F
34 THE ART OF ILLUMINATION.
times insects, and occasionally, jewels, as in this engraving, on grounds in
harmony with those of the borders of the pages on which they appear.
For skilfully-composed and carefully-executed borders in this style of art,
we know of no better examples than the large ones surrounding some of the
pages of the " Romance of the Rose," before referred to, which are evidently
by a Flemish artist, though the miniatures belong to the French school.
But, for abundance of specimens, showing every variety of treatment usually
employed in the finest decorations of the latter part of the fifteenth century,
few volumes are so remarkable as the copy of the " Hours of the Virgin,"
which formerly belonged to Isabella of Castile, the wife of Ferdinand II. of
Spain. The miniatures throughout the volume, the displays of heraldry,
and all its various details, are so admirable, that it is evident the first artists'
of the time must have been employed in its production. This superb volume
is written on the finest uterine vellum, in a Spanish hand of the end of the
fifteenth century. It is richly illuminated throughout, and ornamented with
occasional borders of various designs, chiefly of scrolls and flowers, sometimes
on a gold, and sometimes on coloured grounds, enclosing numerous minia-
tures of the finest Flemish art. From the arms of Don Francisco de Boias,
the second son of Don Alonso de Escobar y Cazeres and his wife, D. Mariana
de Boias, appearing at folio 437, it would appear to have been executed for that
person. He was employed by Ferdinand and Isabella as their ambassador
to the Court of the Emperor Maximilian I, to negotiate the double marriage
of the archduchess with the Infante Don Juan, and the Infanta Donna Juana
with the Archduke Philip, governor of the Netherlands. He accompanied
the archduchess in her journey from the Imperial court into Spain, where
her marriage took place in April, 1497. There can be little doubt, there-
fore, that it was on the occasion of the celebration of this marriage that De
Boias presented this volume to Queen Isabella.
The first of the following plates, which are taken from this volume, is an
example of the character of the borders by which the text is surrounded
and divided into columns throughout. The second is from an exquisitely
finished miniature of St. Barbara. The border to this drawing is of silver
with green bands crossing it. The border to that on the previous leaf is of
blue and gold. They have evidently been copied from tapestries or hangings.
The following account of this saint is taken from Mrs. Jameson's " Sacred
and Legendary Art :"
" The legend of St. Barbara was introduced from the East, about the same
O '
time with that of St. Catherine. She is the armed Pallas or Bellona of the
antique mythology, reproduced under the aspect of a Christian martyr.
" There was a certain man named Dioscorus, who dwelt in Heliopolis,
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UNIVERSITY
Jafelto fawtebatb axe*
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THE ART OF ILLUMINATION. 36
noble, and of great possessions; and he had an only daughter, named
Barbara, whom he loved exceedingly. Fearful lest, from her singular
beauty, she should be demanded in marriage and taken from him, he shut
her up in a very high tower, and kept her secluded from the eyes of men.
The virtuous Barbara, in her solitude, gave herself up to study and medi-
tation ; from the summit of her tower she contemplated the stars of heaven
and their courses ; and the result of her reflections was, that the idols of
wood and stone worshipped by her parents could not be really gods, could
not have created the wonders on which she meditated night and day. So she
contemned in her heart these false gods, but as yet she knew not the true faith.
" Now, in the loneliness of her tower, the fame reached her of a certain
sage who had demonstrated the vanity of idolatry, and who taught a new
and holy religion. This was no other than the famous doctor and teacher,
Origen, who dwelt in the city of Alexandria. St. Barbara longed beyond
measure to know more of his teaching. She therefore wrote to him secretly,
and sent her letter by a sure messenger, who, on arriving at Alexandria,
found him in the house of the Empress Mammea, occupied in expounding the
Gospel. Origen, on reading the letter of St. Barbara, rejoiced greatly ; he
wrote to her with his own hand, and sent to her one of his disciples, disguised
as a physician, who perfected her conversion, and she received baptism from
his hands.
" Her father, Dioscorus, who was violently opposed to the Christians, was
at this time absent, but previous to his departure he sent skilful architects to
construct within the tower a bath chamber of wonderful splendour. One day
St. Barbara descended from her turret to view the progress of the workmen ;
and seeing that they had constructed two windows, commanded them to
insert a third. They hesitated to obey her, saying, ' We are afraid to
depart from the orders we have received.' But she answered, * Do as I
command ye : ye shall be held guiltless ! ' When her father returned he
was displeased ; and said to his daughter, * Why hast thou done this
thing, and inserted three windows instead of two ? ' And she answered,
* Know, my father, that through three windows doth the soul receive
light, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost; and the Three are
One ! ' Then her father, being enraged, drew his sword to kill her, and
she fled from him to the summit of the tower, and he pursued her ; but
by angels she was wrapt from his view, and carried to a distance. A
shepherd betrayed her by pointing silently to the place of her concealment ;
and her father dragged her hence by the hair, and beat her and shut her up
in a dungeon ; all the love he formerly felt for his daughter being changed
into unrelenting fury and indignation when he found she was a Christian.
36 THE ART OF ILLUMINATION.
He denounced her to the pro-consul Marcian, who was a cruel persecutor of
the Christians. The pro-consul, after vainly endeavouring to persuade her
to sacrifice to the false gods, ordered her to be scourged and tortured
horribly; but St. Barbara only prayed for courage to endure what was
inflicted, rejoicing to suffer for Christ's sake. Her father, seeing no hope
of her yielding, carried her to a certain mountain near the city, drew his
sword, and cut off her head with his own hands ; but as he descended the
mountain, there came on a most fearful tempest, with thunder and lightning,
and fire fell upon this cruel father and consumed him utterly, so that not a
vestige of him remained."
As it is our chief object in this little tfeatise to refer to the best speci-
mens of decorative art as shown in illuminated drawings, and to explain the
changes and peculiarities by which each succeeding age was distinguished
from the preceding one, rather than to travel over the wide field of general
knowledge they offer so abundantly, we may remark that in the earlier part
of the fifteenth century the style of ornamentation differed but little from
that of the latter portion of the fourteenth.
In borders and in capital letters the ivy-leaf patterns, and the other
conventional foliage, relieved by burnished gold and surrounded by black
lines, still prevailed. But, by degrees, the more careful study of Nature led
to the employment of a more truthful rendering of its most beautiful
features, whether in the animal, the vegetable, or the insect world ; and in
combination with these more literal imitations, the use of mat, or powdered
gold, applied with a brush, gradually took the place of its polished prede-
cessor. At first, both modes of applying this metal were employed on the
same designs ; but the newer fashion continued to encroach on the older,
till burnished gold was rarely used, except for boundary lines united with
bands of colour, or for capital letters. In the sixteenth century mat gold
only is found in the finest manuscripts, both in the French and Flemish
schools. The first use of it appears to have been as the ground-work to
marginal borders ; but it grew so much in favour with illuminators that it
was applied in very delicate lines of cross hatchings on the high lights of
the rich draperies in their pictures, to represent the gay embroideries
worked on them, to mark the prominent hair of the flowing curls of their
female heads, and, in fact, to give brilliancy to every object on which it
could be effectively employed.
In Flemish manuscripts, both of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries,
borders of an architectural character were common. These were usually in
a very florid, but debased style. They were chiefly composed of niches,
with their accessories, containing figures of sacred characters, and panels
THE ART OF ILLUMINATION. 37
{
filled with bas-reliefs, often remarkable for the great number of figures thev
contain, and the wonderful minuteness and accuracy with which they are
painted. Occasionally, the borders were divided into panels, in which, on
deeply toned grounds, were suspended strings of pearls, coral beads, or
single jewels, set in rich chasings. It would be impossible, however, in any
reasonable space, to enumerate all the modes of ornamental treatment found
in books at this late period ; we can, therefore, only point to those most
frequently met with.
This mixture of the conventional with the natural was eventually
superseded by compositions in which nature ruled over all ; when flowers
were supported on their proper stems, and surrounded by their proper leaves,
and the very texture, as well as the form and colour of each individual
feature of the composition, was most elaborately imitated.
Our engraving, containing a picture of the Annunciation, is taken from
a copy of th^ " Offices of the Virgin," in the British Museum.* It is an
example of French art of the beginning of the sixteenth century, commencing, /
as usual, with a calendar, each page of which has on its upper margin one of
the signs of the zodiac, and on the outer and lower ones, pictures showing
the occupations of the months. It contains thirty-nine miniature paintings
surrounded by borders, each of which is different in design and treatment.
We know of no other volume presenting so great a variety of composition,
such harmony of colouring, such exquisite blendings of the most delicate
tints, and, at the same time, in so perfect a state of preservation.
One of the finest examples of French art, in its latest style, is found in
the celebrated " Hours of Anne of Brittany," in the Musee des Souverains
at Paris. The whole of this splendid volume has been published in chromo-
lithography ; but no amount of skill in printing can imitate, in a satisfactory
manner, the marvellous elaboration and delicate tints of these wonderful
drawings.
In the choice and valuable collection of Robert S. Holford, Esq. M.P.,
is a copy of " Hours," evidently the work of the same artists ; not so
extensive in its illustrations, but in some respects superior in point of taste.
In that of Anne of Brittany, the miniature compositions are merely sur-
rounded by flat bands of gold, bevelled at the edges, the whole of the margins
beyond being of a dead black ; forming a most offensive contrast with the
gay colours they enclose ; whilst in Mr. Holford's manuscript these pictures
are placed in architectural frames of gold, in which columns and pilasters
of the -richest marbles, inlaid mosaics, and all the resources of renaissance
architecture seem to have been employed.
In the early part of the sixteenth century a style of art prevailed to some
* Additional MS. 15,677.
38 THE AKT OF ILLUMINATION.
extent in French and Flemish manuscripts, which, from the small amount of
colour employed, can scarcely be called illuminated. It is known under
the name of " cama'ieu gris," and the drawings executed in this manner deserve
careful attention for the wonderful skill they generally display in the treat-
ment of light and shade, and the extraordinary minuteness and accuracy of
all their details. A fine example may be seen in the British Museum, Harl.
625. The subject of its contents is an imaginary conversation between
Francis I. of France and Julius Caesar, respecting the wars of the latter in
Gaul. It is a small upright book, measuring nine and three-quarter inches in
height, by five inches in width. The text is beautifully written on the finest
uterine vellum, and the dialogue is preceded by carefully-finished medallion
portraits of Francis and Caesar, on rich blue grounds. Incorporated in the
text are numerous pictures of the battles, triumphs, and other scenes, under
discussion. These pictures are painted in a rich grey, heightened with
white ; some of the details of the dresses, banners, &c, are picked in with
gold, but positive colour is very sparingly introduced. The great number
of figures and their accompaniments, shown in these small drawings, and the
wonderful spirit and accuracy with which they are painted, can scarcely be
appreciated without the aid of a microscope ; and m examining them we can
scarcely avoid feeling that, as works of art, they are superior to most of the
glittering decorations where colour is made the ruling feature. A volume
in the Bodleian Library, at Oxford, treated in this manner, made for
Charles, Duke of Burgundy, is of great merit ; and a smaller one of the
11 Offices of the Virgin," in the same collection, is curious from its containing
numerous miniatures in " cama'ieu gris," Flemish in character, surrounded by
richly-coloured borders, apparently of English workmanship. The following
inscription appears on a fly-leaf: "This Book was Q. Mary's, and was
lately thrice renowned Prince Henryes of blessed memorie, and now given
to y e Publique Librarie of the Universitie of Oxford by Richard Cannock,
Esquier, Auditor Generall Sollicitor & of his Highness Councill of Revenewe,
who giveth the same as a monument worthie to be kept, not for the Religion
it contains, but for the pictures & former Royal owners sake, and in regard
of a note written especially herein by Q. Mary with her own hand July 13,
1615. Richard Cannock. Anno Regis Jacobi."
Italian art has not been included in our chronological notices, for the
simple reason that illuminations of Italian origin do not exhibit the constant
changes of style found in the works of other Christian countries. All the
earliest examples with which we are acquainted are Byzantine in character ;
and so continued till Giotto, Cimabue, and others broke through the trammels
with which their predecessors had bound themselves by the eastern custom
of following established fashions.
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THE AKT OF ILLUMINATION. 39
These great men went to Nature for models, to enable them to give scope
to their inventive faculties, with a truthfulness which constant reference to
realities could alone impart to their productions. These primitive examples,
however, exhibit a large amount of conventional treatment, imperfect
drawing, and a deficient acquaintance with the principles of perspective and
chiaroscuro; but such deficiencies gradually disappeared, and henceforth
painting, and all the other branches of art, continued to make progress, till
they reached their highest degree of perfection in the latter part of the
fifteenth and the first half of the sixteenth centuries.
In book decorations henceforth the style generally adopted was the
renaissance, or the revival of ancient Roman characteristics, with such modifi-
cations as a new mode of treatment rendered necessary. These, like the larger
works of the time, were at first comparatively rude ; but as each succeeding
age made an advance on the preceding one, the miniature paintings, with
their decorative accessories, found in Italian manuscripts of the latter period,
show an amount of refinement, of variety of invention, and of purely classical
feeling, superior to the equally finished productions of all other schools.
One of the earliest of these illuminators of which we find any printed
record is Oderigi of Gubbio, noticed by Dante in his " Purgatoria" (canto
ix) ; he died about A. D. 1300. His more celebrated pupil, Franco
Bolognese, likewise noticed by Dante, was living in 1313, and Simone
Memmi, the painter of Laura, and by whom there is a miniature of Virgil
in a manuscript of that poet in the Ambrosian Library, at Milan, died at
Avignon, in 1342.
Vasari, in the life of Don Lorenzo, celebrated Don Jacopo, of Florence,
as the most distinguished letter-writer of Europe ; in the fourteenth century
large letter-writing being a distinct occupation. This Don Jacopo left to his
convent, Degl' Angeli, sixteen folio choral books, with miniature illustrations
by a brother of the same convent, Don Silvestro ; and their extraordinary
skill was so highly venerated by their brother monks, that they embalmed
their right hands after their death, and preserved them in a tabernacle.
The paintings of the most eminent Italian artists were occasionally
copied in the large illuminated letters found in choral and other service-
books. An interesting instance of this fact is found in a magnificent letter
D, in the possession of Thomas Baring, Esq. M.P., which encloses a minia-
ture painting of the Agony in the Garden, copied from a larger one in oil
by Andrea Mantegna, probably by one of his pupils. This painting by
Mantegna also belongs to Mr. Baring.
Altavante, a Florentine artist of the fifteenth century, was one of the
most celebrated illuminators of manuscripts. In the Library at Brussels is
'
THE AET OF ILLUMINATION.
a magnificent Missal, illuminated by him for Matthias
Corvinus, King of Hungary, on which the former regents
of Belgium used to take their official oaths.
Among the many fine Italian volumes in the British
Museum we would point special attention to Additional
MS. 15,813, for the originality and beauty of its ornamental
embellishments. It was written for the monastery of St.
Justina, at Padua, in 1525-6, and illuminated by Benedetto
Bordoni, of Padua. It has but one picture occupying a
page ; but ten chapters of this Missal commence with large
square borders of rich and varied foliage, flowers, birds, and
insects, having in the centre of each margin medallions
filled with miniature pictures ; the text is further illustrated
with 1971 large initial letters, which generally enclose
subjects taken from the service of the mass, or single figures
of the apostles and other saints.
No single volume in the manuscript department of the
National Library, we believe, offers so great a variety of
beautiful ornamental designs as the one filled with frag-
ments, which belonged to the late Samuel Rogers, and
purchased by him from the much larger collection of the late
William Young Ottley. They have been taken from service-
books made for the following cardinals and popes, whose
arms are emblazoned on many of them : Cardinal Antoi-
notto Pallavacini, A.D. 14891501 ; Pope Leo X, 1513
1521; Clement VII, 15231534; Pius IV, 1561 1564 ;
and Gregory, 1 572 1 583. The most remarkable examples
for originality, delicacy, and elaboration, are those made
for Pius IV, on several of which the following inscription
appears : " Apollonius Bonfratelis di Caprenica, Capellae
et Sacristrae Apostolicse Miniator, fecit Anno Domini
MDLXIV."
This series consists of 110 drawings. The first three
pages belong to the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth
centuries, and are of coarse execution. These are followed
by a letter P, the subject of our engraving. This is an
exquisite drawing, but which has suffered miich from ill
treatment. It is difficult to imagine a composition more
graceful and varied, or colouring more delicate and refined.
King David -is clothed in a crimson mantle heightened
f TUB
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THE AET OF ILLUMINATION. 41
with gold and lined with yellow, and an under garment of blue. The figure
on his right has a robe of delicate purple over white, and the one on his left
a light green over a light red. The seated figure between the columns is
dressed in a yellow mantle lined with blue over purple. The foliage and
flowers are of blue, green, yellow, and brown. The latter heightened with
gold to imitate bronze. This letter is succeeded by a series of fifteen
borders and fragments, with the arms and devices of Antoniotto Pallavicini.
Then follows twenty-five long strips, all cut from the outer margin of the
same MS, of a bold and masterly style, and which belonged to Leo X.
After these are twenty-one drawings of a more refined and delicate character,
from which our border has been selected. The stem and studs are of bur-
nished gold, the vase a stone colour, the leaves green, and the branches and
flowers of ultramarine, carmine, orange, and purple, the gradations being
formed by the addition of white.
Then come twelve drawings made for Clement VII, all showing
wonderful refinement and beauty. To these succeed thirteen frames, borders,
and miniatures, most elaborately finished, and in the purest taste. The best
of them are by Bonfratelis. The last of the series are thirteen examples of
an ordinary character made for Gregory XIII.
Among those who carried the art of illumination to the highest degree
of excellence we may mention Francesco Veronese and Girolamo da i Libri,
who executed for the Duke of Urbino the celebrated copy of the " Hours of
the Virgin," now in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. This is a most
extraordinary example of extreme richness with wonderful finish, and the
miniatures, with which it is profusely decorated, are, many of them, in
beauty of design and purity of sentiment, worthy of the greatest masters.
The most celebrated illuminators of the fourteenth, fifteenth, and six-
teenth centuries were largely employed on the monster choral books then
used in the service of the Church. The immense letters found in them were
usually connected with rich marginal borders, and contained within them-
selves highly-finished pictures. Vasari, in enumerating the works of Fra
Angelico, says : " There are certain choral books from the hands of Fra
Angelico in the cathedral of St. Marco, at Florence, of which the miniatures
are such that no words could do justice to their beauty." Some fine
examples of these initials and borders may be seen in the South Kensington
Museum, in a series of leaves taken from various books of this class.
At the end of the fifteenth and during the first half of the sixteenth
centuries choice copies of the classics and other popular books were printed
on vellum, and illuminated by the most skilful artists of the time for
distinguished persons. The great cost, however, of employing miniaturists
G
42 THE ART OF ILLUMINATION.
of the highest reputation, on works of so elaborate a nature, caused their
labours to be commonly confined to one or two pages; the rest of the
volume being enriched only with coloured borders and initial letters, or with
the latter alone. The principal picture generally presents, in combination
with the most florid arabesques and other ornaments, the portraits of the
owners ; and almost invariably on the lower margins, their arms, crests, and
mottoes, fully displayed.
One of the most beautiful volumes in existence treated in this manner is
in the Grenville Library of the British Museum. The title is as follows :
" La historia delle cose facte dallo invictissimo Duca Francesco Sforza,
scripta in Latino da Giovanni Simoneta, et tradocta in Lingua Fiorentina
da Christofero Landino." Milano, Antonio Zarotto, 1490, folio. This is
the presentation copy to Cardinal Sforza, and in the original velvet binding,
with silver niellos and knobs on the cover. The niellos represent a fine
portrait of Ludovico II Moro, and the badges of the family of Sforza. The
volume is beautifully printed on vellum of the finest texture, and is orna-
mented with thirty-four initial letters of the most exquisite finish. The first
leaf of the text has a magnificently illuminated border round it, exhibiting a
splendid specimen of the talent of Jerome Veronese (Girolamo da i Libri).
It contains beautiful miniature portraits of Francesco Sforza, Cardinal Sforza,
and Ludovico Maria Sforza, surnamed II Moro. The remaining ornaments
consist of the arms and devices of the Sforza family, and groups of children,
in the best style of the Venetian School.
The copy of Christofero Landino's Italian translation of Pliny's " Natural
History," printed on vellum at Venice, 1776, folio, in the Douce Collection,
at the Bodleian Library, is a volume worthy to be classed with the above,
and is even more gorgeous in its decorations. It is justly esteemed one of
the most beautiful examples of the union of early typography and illumination
in existence. It has generally been considered to be the copy presented to
Ferdinand II, King of Naples and Sicily, to whom the work itself was
dedicated, as the portrait of the king is often introduced in the borders
which ornament the commencement of each book ; but as the arms of
Ferdinand are made subsidiary to those of the distinguished family of
Strozzi, of Florence, it is more probable that it was executed for a member
of that house.
Of equal beauty with the above, in its decorative features, is a manuscript
in the Harleian Collection, 4965, containing the Latin translation of
Eusebius' " De Evangelica Preparatione," by George of Trebisond, dedicated
to Pope Nicholas V. The first page is surrounded by a beautiful border,
in which are inserted small heads of Domitian, Agrippa, Nero, and another
THE AET OF ILLUMINATION. 43
Emperor, and beneath, the historical portraits of Cadmus and Carmenta.
On the lower margin appear the arms of Ferdinand II. of Naples, who
succeeded to the throne in 1459, and died in 1494.
ARIETY of treatment prevails to a greater
extent in the later styles of Italian decoration
than is found in illuminations of the same time
of any other country. Our letter may be taken
as a type of a simple mode of ornamentation
frequently met with in manuscripts of the end
of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth
centuries, both for letters and borders. It
consists of an elaborate interlacing of branches
with projecting conventional leaves or flowers, very delicately outlined in
brown, but either without colour or partially tinted with a pale yellow. The
spaces between the branches are usually of blue, red, and green, about
equally distributed. The letters and foliage are generally surrounded by
bands of deep blue. These flat surfaces are relieved by minute dots of
white, usually in groups of three, forming a triangle. The letters themselves
and the outer bands enclosing the borders are almost invariably of burnished
gold, sometimes having an edging of yellow.
Our specimen is taken from a manuscript in the British Museum,
entitled, " Manetti, De Dignitate et Excellentia Hominis." * On the first page
is the following dedication in capital letters of raised and burnished gold :
" Ad Alfonsum clarissimum et gloriocissimum Aragonum Regem lanotti
Manetti prefatis incipit. Lege feliciter." This page is surrounded with
a very elaborate border of the same character as the letter.
We will conclude our short notice of the Italian illuminators by a few
references to the known works of the artist who is generally considered to
have reached the highest degree of perfection among the many celebrated
miniature painters who devoted their talents to the decoration of books.
Julio Gravata, or, as he is generally called, Julio Clovio. He was born in
1498, in Sclavonia, or Croatia, at a town called Grisone, in the diocese of-
Madrucci. From his childhood he was kept to the study of letters, but he
took to design by instinct; and, desirous of improvement, he came to
Italy when he had attained his eighteenth year, attaching himself to the
household of Marino, Cardinal Grimani.
* Harlcian, 2593.
44 THE ART OF ILLUMINATION.
Perceiving that he was more powerfully aided by Nature for minute
works than for larger ones, he wisely became a miniaturist, to which he was
advised by many friends, among whom was Julio Romano, who taught him
to use tints and colours prepared with gum and in tempera.
Among the first works painted by Julio Clovio was a Madonna, which
he copied from one of Albert Diirer's wood-engravings. This gained him
the patronage of Ludovico, King of Hungary, and of his Queen Maria, the
sister of Charles V. But Ludovico dying, and the affairs of Hungary falling
into confusion, Julio was obliged to return to Italy, where he had scarcely
arrived before Cardinal Campeggio (the elder) took him into his service.
His pursuits were interrupted by the sack of Rome, in 1527, when he
was taken prisoner by the Spaniards \ and finding himself in evil case, made
a vow, that, if he escaped from these modern Pharisees, he would imme-
diately make himself a monk. Being delivered, and having reached
Mantua, he attached himself to the Scopetine canons regular, and took the
habit in the monastery of San Ruflfino, and obtained permission to work
occasionally at his miniatures.
At this time he completed a large choral-book, with most delicate
miniatures and beautiful borderings, among which was a story of our
Saviour Christ appearing to Mary Magdalen in the Garden, which was
considered extremely beautiful. Encouraged by success, Don Julio next
painted the Woman taken in Adultery, the group comprising many figures
of a much larger size than his works usually exhibit, copied from a picture
by Titian.
Not long after the completion of these works he had the misfortune to
break his leg. This accident coming to the ears of Cardinal Grimani, that
prelate obtained permission from the Pope to take him into his own service;
when our artist, throwing off the habit, and having had his leg cured, went
to Perugia with the cardinal, who was legate in that city, where Don Julio
executed for him the following works : an Office of our Lady, with four
most beautiful stories ; an Epistolary, with three large stories from the life
of St. Paul, one of which was soon afterwards sent to Spain ; and a most
exquisite Pieta and a Crucifix, which came, after the death of Grimani, into
the hands of Messer Giovanni Gaddi, clerk of the chamber.
These works made Don Julio known at Rome as an able artist ; and
Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, who always assisted, favoured, and desired
to h?Lve about him distinguished and able men, having heard the fame and
seen the works of this artist, took him into his service, where he remained
to the end of his days. For this signore Don Julio executed a vast number
of most beautiful illuminations and miniatures. In one of his small pictures
THE AKT OF ILLUMINATION. 45
ho painted the Madonna with the divine Child in her arms, and Pope Paul
III. kneeling before her. This picture was sent, as an extraordinary work,
to Charles V, then in Spain, who was quite astonished at the beauty and
excellence thereof.
The cardinal then caused the artist to commence the miniature stories
and illuminations for an Office of the Madonna, written in fine letters by
Monterchi, who had a great reputation as a scribe. The series is divided
into twenty-six small stories arranged in pairs, and represent the symbol
with that which is symbolized ; each picture being surrounded by a delicate
bordering of figures and fancies in harmony with the subject represented.
Of these pictures, Vasari says : " Nine years did Don Julio labour over
this work, which could never be paid for, so to speak, whatever the price
that might be given for it ; the variety of fanciful ornaments, the divers
attitudes and movements of the figures, nude and draped, male and female,
placed in the most appropriate manner for the embellishment of the whole,
with the beauty of every detail, and the studious care given to all points, are
not to be described. The diversity and excellence of this production are
indeed such as to make it seem not of human so much as of divine origin.
The figures, the buildings, and the landscapes, are all made duly to recede
by the art of the master, and the nice arrangement of his colours ; the laws
of perspective are observed in every particular, and whether near or far,
each portion of the work maintains its due place and is viewed with surprise
and admiration ; the trees, to say nothing of other parts, are so well done,
that they seem to have been made in Paradise.
" In the stories and inventions of these pictures, there is the most
admirable design ; in the compositions, the most perfect order ; the
vestments are singularly rich and varied ; while the whole work is con-
ducted in such a manner that one thinks it could not possibly have been
executed by the hands of man ; wherefore, it is perfectly true, as we said at
the first, that in this performance Don Julio has surpassed both the ancients
and moderns, having been the Michael Angelo in little of our day."
This volume is now deposited in the private library of the King of
Naples, in a gold cover profusely enriched with gems of great value.
He painted many other pictures for the cardinal, some of which were
presented to the Emperor Charles V, Philip II. of Spain, to Pope Paul IV,
the Emperor Maximilian, and other royal and noble personages. The well-*
known Dante in the Vatican Library is another example of the glories of
his pencil. One of the drawings, with an elegant marginal border, in this
volume, has been most delicately engraved and most skilfully coloured, in
the " Palaeographie Universelle, par M. Silvestre."
46 THE ART OF ILLUMINATION.
But few specimens of Clovio's work have reached this country. The best
known are those belonging to Mr. Townley, Mr. Fountaine, and the fine
large folio volume in the Soane Museum. The contents of the latter are
commentaries on St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans, and its only picture a
representation of the conversion of St. Paul, within a border containing
allegorical figures, trophies, and medallions. This is followed by the title,
which has a border of the same character, and in one of its medallions
appears a highly-finished por trait of Cardinal Grimani. The authenticity
of these drawings is proved by the artist's own signature in a corner of the
border of the frontispiece, which may be literally translated thus : " For
Marina Grimani, Cardinal and Legate of Perugia, his patron, painted by
Julio Gravata ;" his surname of Clovio being rarely found on his works.
The British Museum has recently acquired an exquisite little volume by
this master, which shows his almost miraculous power of minute elaboration,
combined with the greatest delicacy and richness of colouring. It is a copy
of the " Offices of the Virgin," measuring only five and three-quarter inches
by three and three-quarter inches, and contains pictures of the Annunciation,
the meeting of Mary and Martha, the Virgin and Child, and the Saviour,
within borders studded with cameos, and the richest combinations of figures
and arabesques. It has suffered sadly from ill treatment, but it is a glorious
example of miniature painting even as a ruin.
Of the authenticity of the twelve drawings contained in a volume in the
Grenville Library, in the British Museum, representing the victories of
Charles V, which have been attributed to Julio Clovio, we entertain the most
serious doubts, as a careful comparison with the little volume last referred
to, or the other well-known works of Clovio, will, we believe, show that
these pictures have none of the characteristics of his style of treatment,
either in drawing, colouring, or manipulation. Dibden in his Bibliogra-
phical Decameron, says : " In 1556, Martin Hemskirk engraved and dedi-
cated to Philip II. twelve plates from the paintings of the victories of Charles
V. Philip had tapestries made of these designs, and directed Julio Clovio,
at that time in Italy, to paint them on vellum." But he offers no evidence
in support of these statements, we may therefore fairly ask what became of
these paintings ? or these tapestries ? If they had an existence, they would
most probably have been deposited in one of the royal palaces of Spain, from
which it is not likely they would have been removed, unless surreptitiously,
or as plunder. In either of these cases, the chances are in favour of our
having some means of tracing them ; also, is it likely that if Clovio had
made these drawings from the secondary authority of tapestries, he would
not have imparted to them something of Italian feeling or character ?
THE AKT OF ILLUMINATION. 47
On the title-page to the book of engravings it appears that they were
published at Antwerp by " Hieronimus Cocq, paintre," and that the plates
were engraved by Cocq and Theodore Corenhert. In the print representing
the entry of Charles into Tunis, in 1535, the name of M. Heemskerke is
given as inventor, and under it, " D. V. Caverenholt, fecit," and the picture
of the battle of Muhlberg, in 1 535, is accompanied by a careful and spirited
pen-drawing in brown colour of the same* with this inscription in the corner
of it: " Martinus van Hemskerck, inventor, 1554." In the print this
inscription is omitted, and in its place appears, " M. Cock cum privileg."
This drawing is the reverse of the coloured one, probably to facilitate the
labour of the engraver. There is no date to any of these drawings, and,
as the name of Hemskerke is the only one that appears as " inventor," there
can be little doubt that he had a large share in their production ; nor does
it appear to us, that, rich and elaborate as they are, they show a greater
amount of skill than he is known to have possessed, with the exception of the
last, the Landgrave of Hesse surrendering in the presence of the Pope's
Legate and various bishops and princes. This is a marvellously beautiful
work, but painted with a degree of solidity rather characteristic of the
Flemish than the Italian school.
One of the most gorgeous series of drawings of the latter part of the
sixteenth century is contained in a manuscript volume on alchemy, finished
in 1582, in the British Museum.* It is beautifully written, and each chapter
begins with a most elaborate and intricate capital letter, formed of interlaced
scroll-work, such as we commonly find in German manuscripts and printed
books of this time, all in gold. The numerous pictures are sometimes sur-
rounded with architectural frames, and in others with borders of flowers, birds,
insects, &c, cleverly composed, but wanting the refinement of earlier art.
As an example of illumination, as it was continued to the end of the
sixteenth century, we may refer to the '* Book of Hours" which belonged to
the ducal family of St. Croy, dated in 1601, in the British Museum. f It
contains some interesting portraits within very rich frames, some fine
examples of heraldry, and a profusion of borders, gaudily coloured, but poor
in design, and debased in style.
Occasional instances may be met with of the employment of this art to a
much later period, as shown in the gorgeous volume executed for Philip IV,
King of Spain, in 1637, by Francesco de Herrera, in the Hafod library.
But, perhaps, the last important specimen remaining is the magnificent
missal in the public library at Rouen, nearly three feet in height, which
* Harleian MS. No. 3469. t Additional MS. 8824.
48 THE ART OF ILLUMINATION.
occupied the labour of a monk of St. Oudoen for thirty years, and was com-
pleted in 1682.
We have taken our illustrations of the beautiful art of illumination
almost wholly from examples of the English, French, Flemish, and Italian
schools, as showing the most decided distinctions of style, rather than a want
of appreciation of the high degree of perfection to which it arrived in other
countries. In each of these some peculiarity of treatment may be found,
differing from that to which it bears the closest general affinity ; and even
local characteristics are seen which it would be difficult to explain in words.
German art was second only to Flemish, and for its decorative dis-
tinctions and peculiarities, we would refer to the many fine designs to be
seen in the South Kensington Museum, on leaves taken from large choral
books of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Some splendid borders and
large initial letters of a similar character enrich a magnificent copy on
vellum of the first printed Bible by Fust and Schoeffer, in the British
Museum, dated 1462; and this, as well as most great libraries, contain an
abundance of examples, both in illuminations and also in early engravings
on wood.
Neither Portugal nor Spain can be said to have had a distinct school of its
own, but rather to have engrafted a few novelties on what they found in
others. Hence, the embellishments of their finest illuminated manuscripts
were made gay with borrowed plumage, rather than the exercise of any
great original native talent.
One of the most beautiful series of drawings in the British Museum was
made for Fernando, third son of Emanuel, and brother of John, Kings of
Portugal, by Mary of Arragon and Castile, who was born in 1 507, and died
in 1534. It consists of eleven leaves of a very richly illuminated, but
unfinished, work on vellum, designed to show the alliances of the royal
houses of Spain and Portugal, from the earliest period to the beginning
of the sixteenth century.
The following is a brief description of the subjects of this splendid work.
I. A leaf intended for the prologue, for which a vacant space is left. At
the head are the arms of Portugal richly displayed, with a label of three
points argent, for difference, the first and third points charged with Leon
and Castile quarterly, being, apparently, the armorial distinction of the
Infante Don Fernando. On the sides are supporters, two savage men
proper, each holding a shield, bearing the following device : per pale argent
and gules, a brazen serpent on a cross or, standing on a mount vert, with
the motto " salus vite" on a scroll. On the border are represented
subjects of a mythological character. II. A leaf intended for the gene-
THE AET OF ILLUMINATION. 49
ration of Magog, with a blank space left for the explanatory text; on
the border are very spirited figures of eleven giants, or fabulous per-
sonages, in various attitudes, representing their descent from Unor to
Bonfield. III. " Tronco dos Reyes de Liam e Castela," being a table of the
first kings of Spain, or rather of Asturias, after the invasion of the Moors ;
viz. from Favilla, father of Pilago I, to Vilmeran, son of Alfonzo I, A. D.
757. IV. Entitled, " Tronco dos Reyes d'Aragam," containing the first
kings of Navarre, from Don Inego Arista, who died about A.D. 888, to Don
Sancho Abarca, who died in 926. V. Continuation of the preceding ; viz.
from Garcia, son of Sancho Abarca, to Sancho III, and his sons Ferdinand,
Garcia, and Ramiro, Kings of Castile, Navarre, and Arragon. VI. Table
showing the descent of Don Henry of Portugal from Stephen, King of
Hungary. VII. and VIII. Tables representing the kings of Portugal from
Alfonzo Anriquez, who died in 1185, to Alfonzo II, who died in 1223;
showing also the descent of the latter from Raymond Berengarius, Count
of Barcelona. IX. Table showing the descent from Sancho Capello and
Alfonzo III, sons of Alfonzo II, to Alfonzo IV, to Solado, who died in 1357,
and his children. X. Table showing the connection of the house of Portugal
with England and Burgundy ; viz. from John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster,
and Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, to Maximilian, son of Eleanor of
Portugal, who married Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold of Burgundy,
XI. An unfinished table, carefully drawn and shaded with a pen, intended
to show the descent of John II, King of Portugal, who died in 1495, from
John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster.
All these tables are contained in panels filled with spreading branches
of the most luxuriant foliage, on which are seen standing, sitting, or in the
shape of busts only, the leading persons of the various pedigrees, and their
alliances. Some of the sovereigns appear in elaborate suits of golden
armour, while others are in their civil robes ; but all are attired in garments
of the richest materials, more especially the females, whose dresses are
composed of velvets, silks, ermine, and embroideries, with a profusion of
pearls and precious stones. The heads are admirably painted, and all the
details are finished with the minute elaboration and care of a Van Eyck or
a Memling.
The shields accompanying each portrait are nearly all left in outline, as
are the various labels intended for inscriptions.
The margins of these pictures are occupied with representations of the
leading battles or other important events by which the various dynasties
were distinguished. Some are shown under rich canopies, and others within
square panels. They are all remarkable for spirited composition, rich
50 THE AET OF ILLUMINATION.
colouring, careful drawing, and the wonderful distinctness of the crowds of
almost microscopic figures which appear in the different scenes.
The following are the subjects which appear on the margins of the Tablets
from Nos. III. to X : III. At foot is represented a battle, probably that of
St. Marion de Cabadonga, fought in 718. IV. On the margin are three
miniatures ; 1 . The Coronation of Garcia Inhegez ; 2. The Death of Garcia
and his Queen Urraca, with the posthumous birth of Sancho Abarca;
3. A miraculous Vision of a Cross ; at the foot is a battle, probably the
defeat of the Moors by Sancho Abarca before Pampeluna. V. At the side
is the battle gained over Almanzor ; and at the foot are representations of
the lists prepared for the combat between Ramiro and his half brothers.
VI. At the foot are shown : 1. An army under Don Henry's banner leaving
Portugal to compose the differences between Castile and Arragon ; 2. Don
Henry leaving Portugal in a galley, bearing his arms, for the Holy Land,
to assist Baldwin, King of Jerusalem. VII. and VIII. At the foot are
representations of Lisbon and Santarem on the Tagus, with the proclamation
of Alfonzo as king, in 1 1 39, after the battle of Aurica. On the left margin
are painted : 1 . The vision which appeared to him before the battle ; and
2. The battle in which he defeated Alfonzo Raymond, King of Castile. On
the right margin are two battles with the Moors. IX. At the foot is the
battle of Salado, fought in 1340. X. On the lower margin are portraits of
the Dukes of Burgundy descended from John, King of France.
The headings and names throughout are in Portuguese, but the drawings
are evidently by Flemish artists, though many of them appear to have been
founded on Italian models.
These drawings were purchased in the year 1842 of Mr. Newton Scott,
one of the attaches to the embassy at Madrid, who bought them there, and
are considered so precious, that the leaves have been separately mounted
and covered with glass to save them from the common accidents to which
O
such articles are exposed.
In our work on the " Dresses and Decorations of the Middle Ages,"
published in 1843, we gave five carefully-coloured engravings from this
magnificent series of drawings. No. I. was a whole-length figure of Philippa,
the eldest daughter of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, and queen of
Joham, or John I, King of Portugal. She was married to that monarch in
1387, and died about 1415.
The queen is most gorgeously attired. Over a head-dress of white linen
bordered with gold and arranged in graceful folds, she wears a jewelled
crown ; her mantle, which reaches to the ground, is of cloth of gold covered
with crimson embroidery, in which the pomegranate forms a leading feature.
THE ART OF ILLUMINATION. 51
This robe is surrounded by a border formed of a double row of pearls,
between which are minute arabesque patterns in needlework, the collar
garnished with jewels. It is lined with green silk, and fastened by a large
brooch studded with precious stones. Her under garment is of puce colour
covered with a rich pattern of a deeper tint blended with gold. Round the
bottom of this dress is a broad band like that on the mantle, on which are
placed at intervals rubies, emeralds, and sapphires, in rich mountings of
gold. Her sleeves are blue with gold bracelets, beyond which appear those
of her white under garment, which is elaborately pleated round her neck.
From her girdle is suspended a chain, jewelled at intervals, and terminating
in a cluster of pearls. Even her foot-stool is of embroidered gold, with bands
of pearls, ending with a tassel of blue silk proceeding from a mass of these
delicate gems.
No. II. was a sitting portrait of Constancia, the second wife of John of
Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. His first wife was Blanche Plantagenet, the great
heiress of the Duchy of Lancaster, which he inherited through her. After her
death he espoused Constancia, elder daughter and co-heiress of Peter, King
of Castile, in whose right he assumed the title of King of Castile and Leon,
and was summoned to parliament by that title.
The dress of the Duchess is very gorgeous, though less elaborate in its
style than that of Queen Philippa. Over a cap of gold needlework, richly
diapered, and covered with small pearls, she wears a horned head-dress of
crimson velvet. Her gown is of the same rich material lined and trimmed
with fur. The sleeves are of gold, with patterns in black outline, and her
under garment is of light blue richly embroidered and trimmed with bands
of black velvet.
Our other illustrations were Queen Leonora of Arragon, King John
of Portugal, and Queen Johanna of Castile.
Only the portraits of those who lived contemporaneously, or near the
time when these drawings were made, can be looked upon as likenesses ;
but they form a magnificent collection of the regal, military, and civil
costume of the period.
Our national library contains but few examples of Spanish illumination.
The earliest is a large folio volume on vellum, in a beautiful state of preser-
vation, containing a comment upon, and interpretation of, the Apocalypse.*
It was executed in the Monastery of Silos, in the diocese of Burgos (old
Castile), having been begun under the Abbot Fortunius, carried on after
his death during the Abbacy of Nunnus (Nunez), and completed in the
time of Abbot John, in the year 1109. This information we obtain from
* Additional MS. 11,695.
52 THE AET OF ILLUMINATION.
the manuscript itself; and as it thus appears to have occupied not less than
twenty years in writing and illuminating, we may with propriety consider it
as representing the costume of the latter part of the eleventh century. This
volume was purchased by the trustees of the British Museum in 1840 of the
Comte de Survilliers (Joseph Buonaparte).
The style of the drawings in this manuscript is itself half Saracenic.
The elegance of the ornaments contrasts strongly with the unskilful rudeness
in the designs of men and animals, a circumstance which reminds us of the
repugnance among the Arabs to drawing men and living beings. It is in
many respects a valuable monument of art, and proves clearly the inter-
course which existed between the Moors and the Christians in Spain.
Throughout the volume the architecture of the buildings is altogether
Moorish : the walls covered with arabesque ornaments, and the remarkable
horse-shoe arches, appear on almost every page, and show the accuracy of
the term Saracenic adopted by architectural writers. The character of the
ornamental initial letters bears a close resemblance to that observed in many
of our Anglo-Saxon manuscripts of the tenth century, and the figures are
identical with those on the Bayeux tapestry.
A most interesting series of Spanish Illuminations is found in a volume
entitled, "LesLois d'Alfonse, Roi de Castile,"* purchased at the sale of the
late Lord Stuart de Rothsay, in 1855.
Besides numerous capital letters enclosing groups of figures, there are
sixteen miniature pictures within square frames, at the heads of various
chapters. The first represents the King on his throne surrounded by the
different orders of the state. The other miniatures are illustrations of the
more important enactments, and appear under rubricated headings. These
pictures are remarkable for the wonderful delicacy of their outlines, more par-
ticularly with regard to the heads of the figures, in which, in almost invisible
lines, the greatest truthfulness of expression is preserved. The draperies
are very graceful, and the arrangement of the groups and distribution of the
actors are both skilful and natural, while the action of the different figures is
fall of energy in the more exciting scenes, and of quiet propriety in those of
a religious character.
The distinctive difference between these illuminations and those of other
countries of Europe at the same date, is due to the sombre heaviness of the
colouring employed on the former. This arises from black being freely
employed in shading the draperies, while indigo is used on the blue dresses,
and also on the shadows of the buildings, although ultramarine appears
throughout the volume for small capital letters. The purples are composed
* Additional MS. 20,787.
THE ART OF ILLUMINATION. 53
of the same dull colour in combination with carmine, and green is altogether
absent.
The Spanish character is strongly marked on many of the heads, and a
few singular specimens of costume appear in some of the groups. The
architectural backgrounds also are very curious and interesting from the
variety and precision of their details.
This manuscript belongs to about the middle of the fourteenth century,
and may be placed a little later than Queen Mary's Psalter, with which it
assimilates in the character of its drawing ; but is in striking contrast in the
style of its colouring. In the one the beauty of the design is almost obscured
by the heaviness and coarseness of the pigments employed ; while in the
other the exquisitely delicate outlines are enriched by equally delicate tints
of the brightest colours, in which a lively green and a brilliant orange give
variety to the blues, greens, and more quiet tones.
The British Museum contains also a fine specimen of Spanish art of the
latter part of the fifteenth century, in a copy of the " Hours of the Virgin."*
It is embellished with numerous miniatures, elaborate borders, and initial
letters. They are French in style, but the colouring throughout is marked
by the heavy gloomy effects generally found in Spanish paintings, whether
on a large or a small scale.
The most gorgeous specimen of Italian and Spanish art combined with
which we are acquainted, is in a volume in the British Museum, from which
we have taken the letter P on the next leaf, and the same letter and the text
forming the following plate. The title is enclosed within a border, the whole
of which is most elaborately finished. It is formed of branches of continuous
scroll-work of a very peculiar character, in brown colour, carefully shaded
and heightened with fine lines of a delicate yellow. These scrolls enclose
flowers and foliage of the richest tints, and are covered at their junctions
with coloured leaves, while the centre of each curve has a band of jewels.
In the upper margin are seen two boys playing the game of quintain, and on
the inner margin is a grandee, and on the outer his lady, both in dresses of
the richest character. At intervals appear amorini playing musical instru-
ments, and between the scrolls are rabbits in various attitudes, while parrots
and other birds appear on the branches. The lower margin of the border
contains the arms, supporters, mottoes, and devices of Arragon, Navarre,
and Sicily. It has also the monogram of the unknown artist.
* Additional MS. 18,193.
54
THE AET OF ILLUMINATION.
RINCE CHARLES OF VIANA, SON
OF JOHN II, KING OF NAVARRE,
MADE THIS TRANSLATION OF THE
ETHICS OF ARISTOTLE FROM THE
LATIN VERSION OF LEONARDO ARE-
TINO, INTO ROMANCE, FOR HIS
UNCLE, ALFONSO V, KING OF
ARRAGON, WHO DIED ON THE 2?TH
OF JUNE, 1458.
The first paragraph of the title
is preceded by a small illuminated
letter, and continued in plain capitals
of blue and gold alternately. The
second follows the P on this page.
The letter itself is blue on a bur-
nished gold ground diapered with light yellow. The
foliage within of pink, green, and orange.
The volume measures twelve and a-half inches in
height by eight inches and three-quarters in width, is beautifully written
on 238 folios of the finest vellum, and is in an admirable state of
preservation.
The volume contains ten large letters similar to our engraving. They
are all Moorish in character, some of gold, others coloured ; but all inter-
laced with the most delicate branches, from which proceed marginal borders
in the purest Italian taste. Our letter is of burnished gold on the surface,
the returns being of a light brown. The ground colours are green, red,
and blue, according to their relative intensity. The text is further enriched
with 137 small capitals, equally elaborate in design and delicate in its
details with the larger ones.
The invention of printing, and the introduction of wood-engravings, had
little effect on the art of illumination as employed in the embellishment of
books, until towards the middle of the sixteenth century ; after which they
gradually superseded these more costly appliances, and although examples
remain to show that it still existed to a much later period, they display a
gradual degeneracy of taste, until it wholly disappeared.
OF THE >x
UNIVERSITY
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THE AET OF ILLUMINATION.
55
UR brief essay on the Art of Illumination seems
to require, as an appendix, a chapter descriptive
of the metals, pigments, and processes, em-
ployed by the artists of the middle ages in the
embellishment of manuscripts.
As an introduction we would observe that
the subdivision of labour was, at that time, as
systematically pursued in the production of a book, as it is in modern
times in articles made by machinery or by manual labour, when formed of a
number of component parts.
The first operator was the scribe, who commenced his work by running
down the sides of each page a wheel armed with teeth, at equal distances, an
instrument still used by law stationers^ Very delicate lines, generally red,
but sometimes brown, were then ruled from these point marks across each
page. Within these lines he wrote his text, leaving spaces for the capital
letters, miniatures, or other coloured decorations. The scribe was followed
by the illuminator of initials, borders, and other ornamental accessories, and
succeeded by the miniaturist. When heraldry was introduced, it appears to
have formed the last process.
The many manuscripts still remaining in an unfinished state, in all these
stages of progress, are sufficient to show the order in which they followed
each other.
Of the implements employed the pen may be considered the most
important. The earliest example we have of the general use of the quill
pen has been found in that part of the ruins of Pompeii which has been
named " the Street of the Silversmiths," in a very rude delineation on a
wall of a profile bust of a scribe named Faventius, having a long feather pen
behind his ear, with an inscription declaring his name and occupation, and
entreating for him the patronage of the ^Edile.*
In the seventh century, St. Isidore states that writers were accustomed
to employ either reeds or sticks taken from trees, that is to say, wooden
styles, or the feathers of a bird. But a document has been published by
Adrian of Valois as early as the fifth century, to which Theodoric, King
of the Ostro-Goths, subscribed the first four letters of his name, written
with a feather pen.f
The goose-quill seems to have been used in ancient as in modern times,
* Pompeii. " Library of Entertaining Knowledge," 1836, vol. i. pp. 133, 134.
t " Encyclopedic Methodique Antiquites," 1792, vol. iv. p. 754. "Plume pour ecrire."
56 THE AET OF ILLUMINATION.
for drawing or writing of a bold character ; but there can be no doubt that
the feathers of the crow or other small birds must have been employed by
the artists of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, whose drawings
exhibit a degree of delicacy in their outlines scarcely to be rivalled by the
use of the finest steel pens of the present day. The metal ruling pen and
the compass pen must have been introduced at a very early time, as the fine
divisional lines above alluded to could scarcely have been ruled with the
necessary accuracy with a feather, and the compass points with which the
circles and segments of circles were struck are still visible on the most
ancient drawings.
Cannino Cannini, in his treatise on painting, written in 1437,* devotes
several chapters of his work solely to such drawings as were to be made on
parchment or paper, to tracing outlines with a metal style or a quill pen,
and to tinting them with light colours previous to the final painting. The
pencil which was used for ordinary sketching at this early period on
paper or parchment was a style of silver, or of brass with a silver point,
" fine and polished," says Cannino, who also states, " it is possible to draw
on parchment with a style of lead ; that is, with two parts of lead and one of
tin well beaten together," the marks of which may be removed by crumbs
of bread.
As the sponge cannot be employed upon vellum to remove any dirt or
discolouration it may receive, the design should be first carefully drawn
upon paper, and the outline traced and transferred to the vellum. The .best
mode of effecting this is to take a second piece of tracing paper and rub
the one side carefully and equally with black lead ; then place the blackened
side next to the vellum with the tracing above it, and with the point of a
hard pencil pass over all the details of your cartoon.
To protect the margin from injury during the progress of the picture,
it should be covered with a piece of paper fastened on the outer edges of the
drawing-board, the centre of which has been removed as far as the extreme
boundary of the composition.
After drawing very carefully in outline the various parts of the design,
the metals were applied to the spaces left for them. Gold was sometimes
employed in the shape of leaf, and sometimes of powder, but in early
examples it seems invariably to have been burnished.
Theophilus, who is supposed to have written his treatise in the early
part of the thirteenth century, gives the following directions for its appli-
cation : " In laying on gold, take the clear part of the white of egg, which
is beat up without water, and with a pencil paint lightly over the part on
* Translated by Mrs. Merrifield, London, 1844, 8vo.
THE AKT OF ILLUMINATION. 57
which the gold is to be placed, and the handle of the same brush being
wetted in your mouth, touch one corner of the cut leaf, and elevating it, lay
it on with the greatest quickness and spread it even with a brush. And at
the moment you must be aware of a current of air and refrain from
breathing, because if you blow you lose the leaf and with difficulty recover
it. When this is laid on and dried, superpose another upon it, if you wish,
in the same manner, and^a third likewise, if it is necessary, that you may be
able to polish it more brightly with a tooth or stone."
This method did not produce a perfectly polished result, as the size
employed had not sufficient substance to prevent the uneven face of the
vellum being, to some extent, apparent on the burnished surface of the gold.
This style of gilding may be closely imitated by the use of the powdered
gold now sold in shells, if laid on solidly with the brush and carefully
burnished.
The next stage in the employment of this metal on manuscripts came
into fashion early in the thirteenth century; when, on raised grounds, it
was burnished to such perfection that, when applied to the backgrounds of
miniatures and initial letters, it appeared like polished plates of solid gold.
The processes connected with this brilliant result have sadly puzzled
those who have attempted to do likewise by following ancient authorities.
We think it unnecessary to quote largely from these writers, as we have
made experiments from most of their prescriptions without any very
satisfactory result.
In Sir Gardner Wilkinson's " Manners and Customs of the Ancient
Egyptians," he says : " Other ancient directions for executing raised
gilding, require that the grounds should be laid in gess-grosso and gesso-
sotile, tempered with the white of eggs ; which are, in effect, plaster of Paris
combined with animal size, a composition not very dissimilar to that
employed by the modern makers of picture-frames."
We have made the nearest approach to the brilliancy of ancient bur-
nished gold by following literally the present practice of gilders on wood ;
a practice which there can be little doubt has been continued by their craft
from the earliest ages, although it. ceased to be employed upon vellum when
the art of illumination became extinct in Europe. This process consists in
making a preparation of size and whiting, which should be dissolved by
being warmed over the fire, when the pattern must be painted with this
mixture. When dry, it should be gone over again, till it is sufficiently
raised. Then carefully scrape off the roughness with a steel scraper such
as engravers use, and pass evenly over it one layer of gold size. Let this
dry, then burnish it carefully. Being now ready for gilding, spread a leaf
58 THE ART OF ILLUMINATION.
of gold on your cushion, cut into the required sizes ; then take up a piece
on the tip, and with a brush and clean cold water moisten the work.* While
it is still wet, gently lay on the gold, which will be dry in an hour or two.
To get a greater body of gold you may repeat this process, taking care to
wet the surface each time. When perfectly dry it may be burnished.
Theophilus says this process should be performed with a tooth or bloodstone
upon a smooth and shining horn tablet. We have, inserted in our drawing-
board a piece of plate glass under the parts to be burnished. Both the size
for mixing with the whiting and the gold size may be bought at the gilder's
colour shops. As the latter is of a grey tint, it is advisable to make it as
nearly as possible of a golden colour, by the addition of a little chrome-
yellow and bol-ammoniac, when, should the gold be imperfect in any part of
the work, it will not be so readily perceived.
If our imitations are not equal to ancient originals, we attribute their
comparative failure to the inferiority of the chief material employed, rather
than to any mistake in the mode of applying it.
The gold leaves now sold are much thinner than those formerly prepared,
and, from the greater quantity of alloy incorporated with them, they are
less malleable, and also are deficient in the rich and glowing colour of gold
in a more pure state.
Cennine, under the heading of " What gold is proper for burnishing ?"
says : " You should know that the gold proper for flat surfaces is that of
which 100 leaves only are made from the ducat, and not from which 145.
Cornices and foliage require thinner gold, and for the delicate fringes and
ornaments laid on with a mordant, the gold should be very thin indeed."
In an interview we had many years ago with the late Sir Gore Ouseley,
to examine some of his Oriental manuscripts, so marvellous for their minute
and delicate manipulation, both with regard to gold and colours, he told us
* The gilder's cushion is made of a piece of wood generally measuring ahout nine inches by
six, having on the upper surface a covering of soft wash leather over a stuffing of wool, and a
protection of raised parchment to the edges of three of its sides to prevent the gold flying off ; the
knife for cutting the gold is long and flexible, perfectly straight, and cutting on one side only. The
" tip " with which the gold leaf is applied is formed by placing a line of badger-hair between two
thin pieces of card-board, and is generally about three inches wide. It should be drawn across the
hair or face each time it is used, as the trifling moisture it thus acquires causes the gold leaf slightly
to adhere to it. Great care is required in transferring the gold leaves from the books in which they
are purchased to the cushion. Gilders manage it by breathing under the leaf in the direction it is
wished to send it, and flatten it on the cushion by gently blowing or breathing. When laid on the
sized surfaces, it should be pressed down by a " dabber" formed of a small portion of wool covered
with a piece of fine silk, or a camel-hair brush may be employed on the rounded surfaces of raised
THE ART OF ILLUMINATION. 59
that when he held the post of ambassador in Persia, he always had one or
more illuminators in his service, engaged on the embellishment of documents
of public importance, whose practice, no doubt, according to Eastern
customs in general, had been unchanged from remote ages. These artists
would use no gold but that prepared from the Venetian ducat, which, in
their estimation, was the most pure that could be procured.
In manuscripts, when this burnished gold was spread over large surfaces,
it was commonly enriched by one of the following processes. Sometimes by
diapers of elaborate scroll-work in lines, and sometimes by patterns com-
posed of a series of dots impressed upon it. The best tool for these
operations is an etching-needle with the point rounded.
In very elaborate drawings, especially of the French and Italian schools
during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the gold was made to sparkle
by being covered with patterns of so delicate a character, that we have only
been able to reproduce them by the sharp point of the finest sewing-
needle.
Occasionally flowers, badges, and other ornaments were impressed from
metal punches, and a very agreeable variety is found in many manuscripts,
where, instead of the patterns being impressed, they are raised on the
surface in a delicate opaque colour composed of yellow and white.
The metal next in importance to gold is silver, which was employed in
illuminations of all periods, but more largely in drawings of an early date
than in those of a later time. In the former, the large initial letters, bor-
ders, and many of the other details, were chiefly composed of simple layers
of gold and silver within red and black outlines. The original beauty and
brilliancy of these, almost invariably, clever compositions have been sadly
marred by the blackened state of the silver from oxidation.
In more recent examples we have met with many instances in which
this metal has retained in a remarkable manner its original freshness. We
would particularly allude to the prayer-book of Henry VI. before described,
in which the glass in the windows of the various interiors are so admirably
imitated by the lozenge-shaped quarries being formed by ruled lines in
black over silver ; and in many manuscripts in which warriors appear in
silver, or silvered armour.
The almost unchanged appearance of the drawings in these books could
only arise from their being but rarely exposed to the action of light and
atmospheric influences, or to the silver having been fixed to the vellum in
leaves on a preparation of size, and secured from all sinister action on its
surface by the protection of a varnish. Powdered silver laid on with the
brush cannot receive this protection, as on the application to it of any liquid
60 THE ART OF ILLUMINATION.
the two substances become amalgamated, and a portion of the silver floats
uncovered to the surface.
As a substitute for this metal we employ aluminium, which we believe
to be permanent, and is now prepared, in powder and sold in shells. It has
not quite the shining brightness of silver, but being slightly subdued . in
tone, it is frequently more in harmony with the surrounding colours ; in
contrast with which the former metal often assumes an offensive promi-
nence. Platinum, which is also permanent, may be used in preference
to silver, but it is much more costly, and not so brilliant as aluminium.
Tin seems to have been employed from a very early period, both for
illuminating manuscripts, and also for mural decorations. Theophilus gives
instructions for its preparation, both in the shape of leaf, and also of
powder. Few of the volumes, however, in which it appears in either state
have come under our notice. One of the most interesting instances is in a
fine copy of the Gospels, bearing the date of 1 128, in the Bodleian Library,
at Oxford. The tin is in powder, and, if the coarseness of its texture may
be taken as an average example of this preparation, it is not surprising that
it was but rarely used as a substitute for its fugitive relative.
In a beautiful volume of the " Hours of the Virgin," in the possession of
Robert S. Holford, Esq. M.P., the drawings in which are evidently by the
artists employed on the celebrated " Hours" of Anne of Brittany, in the
Musee des Souverains at Paris, is an inserted leaf at the beginning, and
another at the end of the volume, on each of which are the arms of Christo-
foro Madruzzi, who was born in 1512, made cardinal in 1542, and who died
in 1578, and was probably the former owner of the volume. In the display
of these arms we presume tin leaf was employed, as the metal is remarkable
for its brightness, and is free from the tarnish we have always met with, in
a greater or less degree, on the surfaces of the silver found in ancient
drawings.
As the more unchangeable nature of tin does not appear to have led to
its extensive use in the art of illumination, although for ages it had formed
a leading feature in wall decorations ; it may fairly be presumed that some
practical difficulty attended its employment on vellum. The want of power
to reduce it to a powder so nearly impalpable as could be effected with
silver, may, from its want of delicacy of texture, have prevented its being
employed in that shape ; while its comparative want of flexibility may have
proved an obstacle to its being beaten into leaves as thin, and as easily
applied to the vellum, as the more malleable metal for which it would form
a substitute.
As our plan is intended simply to describe the processes and materials
THE ART OP ILLUMINATION. 61
by which facsimiles of ancient illuminations or modern compositions, having
their leading characteristics, may now be produced, it is unnecessary to
describe from early authorities the methods then employed in the prepara-
tion of articles now belonging to commerce, and which no one at present
need incur the labour of preparing for his own use. In fact, we would
advise the student to avoid, rather than consult, these ancient writers, as
their descriptions, although of great archaeological value, are more likely to
confuse than to instruct the practical artist.
Many of the names and terms employed by these authors are now unin-
telligible, and nearly all of them give long lists of colours, many of which
are fugitive, and certainly were not employed on any drawings which have
descended to our time, or, at least, have come under our observation. As
the finer colours must always have been comparatively costly, and the less
brilliant, and less permanent ones, are thus chronicled, the latter were pro-
bably employed on manuscripts of an inferior class, which have either
perished, or, in their faded state, have not been considered worthy of pre-
servation.
A cardinal error, we believe, prevails in the writings of nearly all these
authors, namely, a want of discrimination between the pigments employed
on illuminations only, and those used on walls, or on panels. Many colours
fade rapidly when used with water, which, when applied in oil, or in tem-
pera covered with a coating of varnish, preserve almost their pristine fresh-
ness for ages.
Theophilus, in writing " of the varnish gluten," says, " Pour linseed oil
into a small new pot, and add, very finely powdered, the gum which is called
fornis, which has the appearance of the most lucid Thus, but when broken
it yields a bright lustre. When you have placed which on the fire, cook
carefully, so that it may not boil up, until a third part is consumed, and
guard against the flame, because it is very dangerous, and extinguished
with difficulty if it be raised. Every painting covered over with this gluten
is made both beautiful and for eyer durable."
Most of the writers of the present time who have produced books of
instruction on the Art of Illumination, have enumerated nearly all the
pigments now prepared, as a necessary stock to enable persons to colour
modern drawings in imitation of those produced during the middle ages.
We maintain, on the contrary, that a costly colour-box is by no means
required for that purpose. The finest productions, especially of the early
schools, were as remarkable for their simplicity, and for the few pigments
employed on them, as for the care with which the artists selected the most
brilliant and the most permanent.
62 THE AKT OF ILLUMINATION.
We will give a single instance of the errors of authors who quote from
their predecessors, either without practical knowledge, or without testing
the truthfulness of the matter they quote as applicable to the purposes for
which it is quoted. It is from Mr. Digby Wyatt's work, entitled, " The
History, Theory, and Practice of Illuminating." In the latter division of
his book, Mr. Wyatt describes the mode of preparing the materials and
colours employed chiefly on the authority of Theophilus, and the collection
of " Secreta," entitled, " The Mappse Clavicula," or, " Little Key to Draw-
ing," a manuscript treatise on the preparation of pigments, and on the
various processes of the decorative arts practised during the middle ages, in
the possession of Sir Thomas Phillipps, Bart, of Middle Hill, supposed to
have been written about the time of Henry II.* This manuscript, under
two hundred and nine heads, treats not only of the composition of colours,
but of a variety of other subjects, as, for instance, architecture, mensuration
of altitudes, the art of war, &c. Among the recipes, in addition to those
referring to pigments, are many relating to illuminating. Mr. Wyatt gives
a translation of the names and properties of the different colours, which he
considers " curious, as defining clearly what were the best and most impor-
tant tints for illumination;" but, as we consider the majority of them more
curious than useful, a list of them is unnecessary. He then proceeds,
" The mixture of colours appears to have been reduced to a perfect system,
each hue having others specially adapted and used for heightening and low-
ering the pure tint ; thus the author gives directions which are likely to be
scarcely less useful to the illuminator of the present day than they were to
those of old." Then follows the quotation :
" OF MIXTURES.
" If, therefore, you should desire to know the natures and mixtures of
these (the above alluded to) colours, and which are antagonistic to each
other, lend your ear diligently.
" Mix azure with white lead, lower with indigo, heighten with white
lead. Pure vermillion you may lower with brown or with dragon's blood,
and heighten with orpiment. Mix vermillion with white lead, and make the
colour which is called Rosa, lower it with vermillion, heighten it with white
lead. Item, you may make a colour with dragon's blood and orpiment, which
you may lower with brown, and heighten with orpiment. Yellow ochre
* Published in oxtcnso in the 32nd volume of the Arcliseologia, pp. 183, 244, with a letter from
its owner.
THE ART OF ILLUMINATION. 03
you may lower with brown, and heighten with red lead (query, with white?)
Item, you may make Rosam of yellow ochre and white lead, deepen with
yellow ochre, heighten with white lead. Reddish purple (folium) may be
lowered with brown, and heightened with white lead. Item, mix folium with
white lead, lower with folium, and heighten with white lead. Orpiment may
be lowered with vermillion, but cannot be heightened, because it stains all
other colours."
Nearly all these colours being fugitive, it is needless to say that we know
of no ancient illuminations in which such mixtures have been employed.
White lead is a component part of nearly all of them, and it is notorious that
the leads are amongst the most perishable of pigments ; and that orpiment,
which figures so frequently in them, has the bad quality attributed to it in
the last passage of our quotation.
A paragraph follows on " tempering," and on " which colours are anta-
gonistic." As we know that most of these pigments were antagonistic to
their own existence, and frequently to that of their neighbours, it is unneces-
sary to allude further to the faults of the dear departed, beyond a caution to
avoid practical acquaintance with any of their families.
It is not our purpose to make any attempt to trace the origin, or to
define the chemical qualities, of the various colours employed in ancient
art. It is sufficient for the object we profess to have in view to describe
those which have borne the test of time under the ordinary adverse in-
fluences to which books are usually exposed ; and to show that the same
pigments may be procured at the present time. There can be little doubt
that the larger portion, if not the whole of them, descended to us from the
east, as we find them in works of the most remote ages ; in the painted archi-
tecture and the papyri .of the Egyptians on the enamels of Egypt and China,
and also on most of the articles of luxury to which colour could be applied.
For the sake of simplicity we will take each colour separately, and
describe the mode of its application. To begin with the most powerful and
attractive of them all, blue. In the earliest drawings ultramarine seems to
have been universally employed, both for pictorial illuminations, and the
large and small capital letters found in manuscripts. In the last it was
sometimes used in an unmixed state, but having a somewhat heavy cha-
racter in large masses, it was in such cases lowered to a tone that would
bring it into harmony with the surrounding colours, by being mixed with a
due proportion of white.
From the eleventh century, when the general use of flat tints gave way
to the practice of shading the various features of a design, the appearance of
roundness was given by the addition of white in increasing gradations from
64 THE AET OF ILLUMINATION.
the pure colour in its deepest tints to the highest lights which were pro-
duced by solid lines of the former. The French imitation of ultramarine
is a combination of the substances found by chemical analysis to form the
component parts of the lapis-lazuli, or real ultramarine ; and is as rich in
colour as the natural production and, we believe, as permanent.
Cobalt is another exceedingly beautiful blue, and came into early and
extensive use, though not found in the oldest illuminations. It is trans-
parent in texture, and lighter in colour than ultramarine. It was much
employed for skies, light blue dresses, and other parts of a picture for which
that pigment was considered to be of too dense and heavy a character. To
give it substance white was added.
o
The next blue in importance is Prussian blue, also transparent. This
blue was chiefly used for shading the various greens, and in many of the
compound tints.
Indigo, likewise a transparent blue, was much employed on the deepest
shadows of greens and in mixtures, but rarely formed a leading colour,
except in Spanish drawings, to which, from its blackish purple tone, it
imparts a heavy and gloomy character.
Of the reds, the most brilliant is that of carmine. Mr. Field, in his
" Chromotography," says, " It is very fugitive and changeable, and will,
when secluded from light, air, and oxygen, continue for half a century."
All we can say is, that we have found it in a very fair state of preservation
in the oldest drawings with which we are acquainted, and we have rarely
met with any instance of its having perished, except from ill usage, un-
necessary exposure, or its having been mixed with a fugitive white. On
the fragments of four golden leaves, from a copy of the Eusebian canons, in
the British Museum, figured in our " Illuminated Ornaments of the Middle
Ages," and supposed to be of the sixth century, a large portion of the
details of the borders are of this colour ; and we need hardly observe of
how little value the finest works of the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth
centuries, especially those of the Italian school, would have been had this
magnificent colour been generally limited to an existence of fifty years.
The mode of its employment was similar to that of ultramarine, namely,
by the addition of white. No shadings of brown, or other inferior pigments,
were allowed to overlay its natural purity.
Vermillion may have claimed the first rank among the reds, if pre-
cedence were given to age, as we find that the most ancient documents were
rubricated with it, and it took a leading part in the coloured embellishments
of all ages ; though in a larger degree in early than in later times, when
the glowing transparent colour above described became a greater favourite
THE AKT OF ILLUMINATION. 65
than its rich and solid predecessor. When vermillion was shaded it was
with carmine, and the union of these two colours is exceedingly striking and
satisfactory, especially in heraldic drawings.
Venetian red is very useful in the composition of various browns, though
too crude to be used alone.
Yellow is a colour which was employed but sparingly in illumination,
at any time, and after the twelfth century it was, for mere ornamentations,
almost entirely superseded by the use of gold.
The cromes, or crome and white, we have found to be the only pigments
with which we could imitate these ancient tints. A yellow stain, however, is
frequently found in manuscripts of a later time on the small capital letters
of the text. Gamboge, or gamboge with a little crome, will answer this
purpose.
Of the compound colours, we will first take purple. This may be pro-
duced, in all its gradations and varieties, by the combination of carmine,
cobalt, or ultramarine, and white.
The preparation termed emerald is the most brilliant of all the greens.
It is found in the earliest drawings in an admirable state of preservation, but
from its light colour, and semi-opaque texture, it was frequently mixed with
a small portion of white to give it body, and, when shaded, Prussian blue, or
indigo was used for that purpose. A darker green is sometimes met with,
which may be imitated by a mixture of crome yellow, Prussian blue, and
white.
The orange colour used in early drawings is an opaque, and remarkably
brilliant pigment. It may also rank as one of the most permanent. It
appears constantly in the drawings of the celebrated copy of the Gospels in
the British Museum, called the " Durham Book," executed in the beginning
of the eighth century ; and, with the exception of those on one or two pages
which have been much exposed, it still retains its freshness in a most
remarkable degree. This beautiful colour has been reproduced of late years.
A very charming tint is seen occasionally in drawings of the eleventh
and twelfth centuries, which may be termed salmon colour. It may be com-
pounded of crome yellow, carmine, orange, and white.
For grey colours, carmine, indigo, and white may be used. If a bright
colour is required, a little cobalt may be substituted for the indigo. For a
very dark grey mix carmine with lamp-black, Venetian red, and white.
Browns of every tint used in illuminations may be imitated by the
blending of crome yellow, Venetian red, vermillion, lamp-black, and white.
A greenish brown is occasionally met with, for which we have employed
crome, Venetian red, carmine, Prussian blue, and white.
K
66 THE ART OF ILLUMINATION.
The only black required is lamp-black, which was generally made more
intense by the addition of gum.
We have left to the last the most important of all the pigments em-
ployed in the Art of Illumination, namely, white. This was not only
used in its pure state to give brilliancy to the others, but was indispen-
sable in forming their various gradations, as well as in the production of all
the compound tints. It is, therefore, of the highest importance that it
should be both pure and permanent. We have found more failures in
ancient drawings from the use of fugitive white, probably white lead, than
from any other cause. We would recommend for all purposes the employ-
ment of zinc white, which is the only one that can be depended upon as
possessing these properties.
With regard to the brushes most suitable for illuminated drawings, we
prefer those made of camel's hair to those of sable, as their softer texture
enables us to apply the more solid pigments with a greater body, and con-
sequent richness of effect, than can be done with the less flexible character
of the latter. For the delicate lines of white and of gold, a fine brush
should be selected, and the hairs reduced to a long taper form by passing a
knife round the base of the quill.
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