HANDBOOK OF DRAWING.
Fig. 152.
HANDBOOK OF DRAWING
BY
^'ILLIAM WALKER
I ^ LECTrREE AXD TEACHEE OF KBEEllAXD DEAWLN'G IN TUE OWENS COLLEGE
WITH UPWARDS OF TWO HUNDRED WOODCUTS
AND DIAGRAMS
'Art is universal in its influence ; so may it be in its practice, if it proceed from a
sincere heart and quick observation. In tiiis case it may be the merest sketch, or the
mc8t elaborate imiUtive finish. Either will be whole and perfect.'— Goethe.
gust gtmcricaiT from tljc ^ccoub ^nglisb Cbition
^^
NEW YORK
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
743 AND 745 Broadway
1880
PREFACE
TO THE AMERICAN EDITION,
The very fair proposal of Messrs. Scribner to
issue tliis Handbook in America affords me the sat-
isfactory prospect of extended usefulness amongst
tlie real amateurs of a great country ; and I shall
indulge the hope that it may meet with as kind
and appreciative a reception in America as it has
done in England.
WILLIAM WALKER.
The Owens College,
Manchester, February, 1880. vii
PKEFACE
TO THE FIRST EDITION,
The purpose of this work is to furnish such informa-
tion on Elementary Art Education as is not likely to be met
with in any other compact form. It has been prepared
under the guiding principle that all true education consists
in the cultivation of the judgment.
Books of Examples, good and bad, are in abundance ;
but the language of Art, — any more than Greek or Ger-
man,— is not to be learned by merely copying its signs.
Art has its grammatical elements and rules, and should be
studied in its exact delineative and intellectual aspect, as
well as in its more emotional expression. The former will
find its sphere in the class-room, the latter amidst the
beauties of Nature, or in the studio.
The information here presented, and the practice
recommended, will enable the student to make truth-
ful and significant outlines, and drawings from outlines
and diagrams put before him in lecture-rooms and
elsewhere.
IX
X Preface.
The work has been prepared chiefly during intervals
of physical suffering, and has many imperfections. Two
courses only were open to me — either to let the hours pass
away useless to others as to myself, or to bring out the book
in its prese'nt form, and I chose the latter. The desire and
duty to help my fellows are my reasons and apology for
issuinof this little volume.
WILLIAM WALKER.
Fairlands, Hayfidd.
ADDRESS TO STUDENTS.
As a false start, or a wrong bias, may lead to failure,
an inquiry or two, wliich perhaps has not occurred spon-
taneously in entering upon this new field of work, is here
suggested, and a few indispensable facts are stated which
may prevent such wrong tendency at the outset.
In the first place, then, let us ask, Why do we wish
to learn to draw? To reply. Because we like it, would
hardly be deemed satisfactory, or worthy of thoughtful
men ; but if our reply should be. Because it may be useful,
that certainly would be more reasonable. But, suppose
our answer should take a higher form, and we should
say that we wish to study Art in order to develop in
us those nobler faculties which God has given for the
appreciation of His works in nature cestUeti colly, as Science
enables us to do intellect nail i/, then we at once come to the
root of the matter ; we start with a worthy motive, and
may reasonably expect success.
In beginning, then, the study of this new language,
let us ask. What course will be most likely to secure the
results we seek ? The answer would undoubtedly be.
That course which would lead to an acquaintance with
the fundamental principles on which the Art is based.
Just so. And in the pursuit of any subject of this nature
we should naturally expect to go through some labour,
perhaps drudgery, of preparation, equivalent to learning
XI
xii Address to Students.
Frencli verbs, or writing Greek hexameters, and not unwill-
ingly, provided always that we were certain that such
labour would bring us nearer to the desired goal.
It is just in this temper that we ask a student to study
Art, remembering at the same time that, whilst Frencli
verbs and Greek hexameters will occasionally be useful
and pleasant, the language he now proposes to study is
closely related to everything about him ; and that, in
fact, many of the Arts and Sciences are utterly incom-
prehensible without its aid. What would be thought
of a w^ork on Physics, or Chemistry, or Anatomy, or
any physical science whatever, without illustrations ?
Language alone is one of the w^orst means of expressing
form, wiiile drawing is incomparably the best. Physical
science stands still so soon as it becomes ^a reasoned
statement instead of a sense-subjected fact.' To a medical
student drawing will be as indispensable as Latin ; and
even Mathematics would be imjoossible of acquirement
without sensible form.
To learn, there should be action with perception, and
enjoyment with power ; for ^ Art is conversant with hand
and eye, main sources of jiower, j)leasure, and percei^tion.' .
A youthful mind should not stand, phial-like, to re-
ceive so much instruction from this master, now so much
from that — so much Chemistry, then so much Geology
and so on ; but rather it should be treated as a mysterious
agent, which, gathering to itself knowledge of all kinds,
weaves it into a new development of that which is the
imane of God Himself.
INTRODUCTION.
If it were announced on the Manchester Exchange, or
amongst any otlier large gathering of intelligent men, that
not one in every hundred of them could see correctly the
appearance of the walls or windows about them, it might
cause no small amount of surprise, if not disconcert ; yet
such is j^robably the fact.
Millions of persons pass through life unconscious of the
change that takes place in the appearance of things around
us, yet each time we move an inch a complete alteration
in the appearance of everything is the result. Appear-
ances are constantly at variance with facts, and vision,
like any other faculty, requires cultivation. It is not be-
cause our eyes are open that we therefore see. The mind
requires to be furnished with some means by which the
eye may be able to judge accurately of the form which
every object assumes under various aspects. This contin-
ual change of things is an infinite source of pleasure, es-
pecially when we are in the midst of landscape, but is so
constant and common to us that Ave fail fully to enjoy it.
If there were not variety both in general form and color,
as well as in the detailed appearances of things, the world
would be full of monotony. An oblong room is more
pleasant to dwell in than a square one. A circular room
would be wearisome.
xiii
xiv Introduction.
The actually different hues and colours in the world is
another infinite source of pleasure, but much enjoyment
of it is lost because we are not quick to observe, or we have
not been trained fully to appreciate. If a knowledge of
music, and a well -trained ear, are necessary to a full ap-
preciation and enjoyment of sound, how important is it
that the mind should be furnished with al] the helps, both
of knowledge and feeling (love), so necessary to the appre-
ciation and enjoyment of the charms of form and colour by
which we are surrounded. If it be considered necessary
that young persons should spend so much time in the j^rac-
tice of music, is it not equally important to cultivate the
eye to observe, and the hand to note things in this beautir
ful world, which would immensely enlarge and enrich our
minds with fine thoughts and imagery ?
As the eye is the most important gateway of knowledge,
so far as the physical world is concerned, it ought to re-
ceive great culture, even with only a utilitarian motive,
for the time is rapidly approaching when drawing will
demand its right place in education in this country. With
the Greeks, writing and drawing were synonymous ; and
in France and Germany every child is taught to draw just
as he is taught to write, and much time is given to the
practice of both ; and if England is to hold her own in
the Arts she must pay more attention to the right teach-
ing of drawing and the principles of Art as a primary
step.
Every purchase we make of anything with -a design
or pattern about it, encourages good or bad Art, though
Introduction. xv
we do not think so at the time. We are too apt to buy
what pleases us, instead of what is good in quality and pure
in design, as well as suited to its place and purpose.
No doubt everybody has taste ; but taste may be good
and pure, or it may be bad and false. If those who buy
Art, and are in a sense its patrons, do not know wliat is
good, so as to distinguish it from what is bad, it is useless
to expect manufacturers to work artistically, or shopmen
to sell that which is true,— they must prepare what the
public will buy. It is most desirable, therefore, that tlic
public generally, as well as the manufacturer, should know
what is right in Art.
True education in man, whether as applied to Art or
morals, is that which fits him to become the highest and
best of his nature's capability ; first, in view of the
Infinite Creator of all things, the ' Father of us all ; ' and,
secondly, in view of himself and his surroundings, whether
of the material universe — the world, or of the spiritual
universe, as manifested in man, and perfectly only in the
one perfect Man. In this great work surely the study of
Art is an important factor.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
PAGE
I.
ON DRAWING
> • • I
1
n.
ON THE EYE
7
III.
ON SEEING AND OBSERVING
13
IV.
ON HOLDING THE TENCIL .
20
V.
ON LINES
«
23
VI.
ON OUTLINE
26
VII.
ON SKETCHING
29
vni.
ON LIGHT AND SHADE
37
IX.
ON DRAWING FROM FLAT COPIES
55
X.
SUGGESTIONS FOR A COURSE OF STUDY
57
XI.
ON CONTRAST
76
xn.
ON RELIEF
81
xni.
ON SIZE . . .
83
XIV.
ON PROPORTION ....
86
XV.
ON SYMMETRY
89
XYl.
ON SECURING CHARACTER IN ART WORK
92
XVII.
ON TASTE
95
xvni.
ON STYLE
99
XIX.
ON MOTIVE
101
XX.
ON BEAUTY
107
XXI.
ON FITNESS
110
XXTI.
ON VARIETY
b
xvii
112
XVlll
Contents.
CHAPTER PAGE
XXIII. ON UNITY IIB
XXIY. ON COMPOSITION . 130
XXV. ON LIGHT AND SHADE AS APPLIED TO GROUPS OF OBJECTS
AND TO PICTURES 130
XXVI. LAWS OF NATURE, AND THEIR APPLICATION AS PRINCI-
PLES OF ART . . . . . . . . 138
XXVII. SKETCH, STUDY, PICTURE . . ... . . 145
XXVm. ON GRASS, HERBAGE, ETC 153
XXIX. ®N TREES • • 160
XXX. ON PRACTICE FOR TREE DRAWING 181
XXXI. ON WATER 187
XXXII. ON SKIES . . " li)3
XXXIII. ON DRAWING FIGURES AND ANIMALS .... 304
XXXIV. ON CRITICISM 210
PART II.
XXXV. ON PERSPECTIVE. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
XXXVI. ON ARTISTIC PERSPECTIVE
XXXVII. ON TECHNICAL PERSPECTIVE .
215
218
233
APPENDIX.
A. — ON CHILDREN S DRAWING
B. — ON THE DIASCOPE .
C. — PENCIL-IN-HAND MEASUREMENT
D. — NOTE ON TEACHING
263
264
266
267
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
>?
>>
•?>
>>
>>
>s
Hough sketches of tea-kettle, &e. .
Figs. 1, 2. Order for a box. Moulding
3. 'Effect' for Frontispiece
4, 5. Lotus i)lant. Scroll .
C. Iron bracket for lamp
7, 7a. Hands
7h, c. Hand and pencils .
'td. File box
8, 9, 10, Kectilinear, curvilinear, and compound forms
11, 12, 13. Circle, cube, apple .
14, 15, 16, 17. Irregular form, shoe, convolvidus, stone
18, 19. Sketch of wheel. Outline of picture
20. Coast scene, by J. D. Harding
21. Female figures, by J. D. Harding
22. Outlines of faces .
23. Outlines of tree trunks .
24. Window ....
25. Diagram, showing rays of light
26. Illumination of objects .
27. Jar and hoop, showing cast shadows
28. 29. Blocks, showing reflections .
30. Base of pillar and stick, showing cast shadows
31. Doorways, showing effect of cast shadow
PAGE
2, 3
13
15
16
20
21
22
24
26
27
30
32
33
34
35
36
39
40
41
43
45
46
XIX
XX
List of Illustrations.
PAGE
Figs.
31a. Opening in wall, showing retirement of shade
. 46
? J
32. Wooden platter and knife
47
• J
33. Portion of tree
48
>»
34. Pillar ....
49
>>
35, 36. Pairs of feet .
51
. «
37, 38, 39. Roofs
Old twine shed
52
54
> J
40. Leaves ' hlocking in '
Flat tint
59
60
>j
41. Outline sketch of boat
Graduated tint
•
»
61
63
J)
43, 43, 44. Different Aiews of squares
65
jj
45, 46. Two views of round table
. 66
. ^
47. Transparent cube .
. 67
5 J
48, 49. Angular views of squares
. 67
. J
50, Angular view of square
. 68
5>
51. Eye-stand ....
. 69
J J
52, 53. Chairs ....
. 70
54, 55. Barrel and ' What-not' .
. 70
56. Portions of cylinders .
. 71
57. Outline sketch, after J. M. W. Turner
. 72
58.
. 73
59, 60. Diagrams, to show contrast .
. 77
61. „ ,, • •
. 78
62. Dancing figures, after Watteau, by J. D. H
Boat
ardin
g
. 79
. 80
63, 64. 65. Arches, showing relative size .
. 84
66. Diagram, showing proportion
. 87
67. Ovals, showing symmetry
. 90
Landscaoe
•
•
•
•
. 91
List of Illustrations.
XXI
PAGE
Figs. 68, 69. Twigs, showing character
92
,, 70. Hamper ,,
. 94
,, 71, 72. Jugs
. 96
ScroU
. 98
Umbrella
. 100
,, 73, 74. Child's drawing, showing trutli,and falseness
. 101
Acorn
. 106
Vase
. 109
,, 75. Diagram of circle, showing segments .
. 113
. 114
,, 76a, b. ,, ovals
. 115
116
Rhine boats
. 117
,, 78. Contents of a pocket
. 121
,, 79, 80. Two compositions, glass, sketch-book, &c. .
. 122
,, 81, 83, 83, 84. Lines, showing relation, &c.
. 123
,, 85, 86. Crocus, vase
. 123
,, 87, 88. Composition lines in pictures
124
„ 89,90.
. 124
.. 91.
125
,, 92. The discovered letter .
125
,, 93. The prisoner ....
126
,, 94, 95. Composition lines ....
126
,, 96, 97. Repose and Contrast
. 127
,, 98. Division of picture ....
'
128
j> J 1 • • . .
129
„ 99. Bolton Abbey, by J. D. Harding
134
,, 100. Italian buildings ,, . .
135
,, 101. Lane in Surrey „
136
Bit of road
137
XXll
List of Illustrations.
PAGE
Figs
. 102,
103. Primitive candlesticks .
. 139
))
104,
105. Candlesticks . . . ,
. 140
»>
106.
Candlestick
. 141
?>
107,
108, 109. Cups
. 142
jj
110.
Facsimile of Wilkie's first idea of the
' Rabbit on the
Wall'
o 147
>>
111.
Sketch of field-flower . . . .
. 148
>>
112.
,, beehive . . . •
. 148
j>
113.
Sketch of sheep on a common
. 148
))
114.
,, old window
. 149
j>
115.
,, Dame Campbell's henroost .
. 149
»>
IIG.
,, bridge . . . .
. 150
>j
117.
Study of tree trunk . . . .
. 151
>>
118.
,, grass blades . . . .
. 153
»5
119,
120. Outlines of leaf . . . .
156
»5
121,
122. Notes of leaves . , . .
157
»»
123,
124. Preparation for grass .
158
?>
125.
Herbage
159
9»
126.
Concentric rings of tree trunk .
163
>>
127,
128, 129, 130. Oak leaves and spray .
164
?»
131,
132. Branches of oak and sycamore .
165
»>
133.
Oak tree
168
>>
134.
Ash tree ....
• •
169
»>
135.
Ash spray ....
• •
171
?»
136.
Umbrella diagram
f
\ ' • •
172
J>
137.
Shade exercise
• •
173
9?
138.
Sycamore tree * .
• •
174
>»
139.
Birch tree ....
• •
175
J5
140.
Shade exercise .
• •
176
>>
141.
Beech stems (J. D. Harding
) . .
• o •
177
List of Illustrations.
xxiu
PAGE
Figs. 142.
Scotch fir
179
„ 143,
144. Tree-shade exercise
, - ,
182
„ 145.
Exercise for tree contour .
183
„ 140,
147. ,, ,,
184
„ 148.
Portion of oak .
Tree trunk ....
185
186
„ 140.
Diagrams, sliowing angle of reflection
188
„ 150.
j> »> »» • <
189
„ 151.
Looking-glass, &c
189
„ 152.
Frontispiece.
„ 153.
Diagrams, showing curvature of waves
190
„ 154.
Cumulus at rest
198
,, 155.
,, after travel .
199
„ 15G.
Creeping mist . .
202
„ 157.
Clouds seen from above
203
„ 158.
Coast scene (J. D. Harding)
206
„ 159.
>> »
207
„ 160,
161, 162. Figures, after Prout
209
„ 163.
Figures, after J. D. Harding
. 209
„ 164.
Oak spray .
217
„ 165.
Transparent cube
Cube diagram
218
. 218
„ 168.
Book ....
. 219
„ 169.
Cube ....
. 220
„ 170.
Arm-chair ...
. 220
„ 171.
172, 173. Outline blocks
221
„ 174.
Transparent cubes
. 222
„ 175.
Twenty cubes
. 223
„ 176.
Transparent cubes upright
. 224
„ 177.
Interior of room .
. 225
XXIV
List of Illustrations.
Figs. 178. Diagram of room
179, 180. Blocks of buildings
181, 182. Two views of shed
183, 184. Uphill and downhill
185, 186. Angular view of square and cube
187. Angular view of cube
188. Transparent cube
189. ■ ,, cubes
190. Block of buildings
191. Angular view of cube
193, 193, 194. Chairs and piano
195. Group of models .
196, 197. Square and circle
198, 199, 200. Ground plan and views of three cubes
201, 202, 203. „ ,» six cubes
304. Blocl^ of buildiogs fEoni aime ground plan
Diagram 1. Appliance, illustrative of perspective terms
,, 2, 3. Showing same in profile, and flat
,, 4, 5. ,, how to find distance points and vanish-
ing points .
,, C, 7, 8. ,, parallel views of square and oblong
,, 9, 10. ,, ,, ,, circle and cube
,, 11, 12. Explanatory of angular view .
,, 13. Angular view of cube ....
14.
>>
tomb-stone
Figs. 205. Diascope
,, 206, 207. Hands measuring
Kettle, &c. .
PAGE
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
237
239
240
241
242
244
245
248
251
254
256
258
261
265
266
268
HANDBOOK OF DRAWING.
PART I.
CHAPTER I.
ON DRAWING.*
1. The misunderstanding of the term free-hand
draioing has led ' to considerable confusion. It was
originally applied to the copying, loitliout instrninentSj
of a series of outline designs issued by the Department
of Science and Art, and has, unfortunately, become
associated with that alone. Rightly understood it has a
much wider significance, and should be apj^lied to all
drawing where instruments, such as compasses, rulers,
&c., are not used. In geometric drawing, instruments are
used, and therefore this is not /ree-hand work. Strictly
speaking, models, floAvers, landscapes, drawn without
mechanical assistance, ought to be considered as free-
hand drawing.
* A definition of the term ' drawing ' must be very comprehensive
if it is not to exclude some art into "vrhich drawing enters more or
less. Hamerton says: — 'If we say that drawing is a motion ivliich
leaves significant marJcs, we are as precise as the numerous varieties of
the art will permit us to be.'
1
2
On Drawing.
2. Its elementary study is the first step towards ex-
pressing our ideas through the medium of art, and should
be practised more or less from earliest infancy as a most
useful language, by which the inrceptive faculties will bo
quickened, and knowledge conveyed in a sort of short-
hand language requiring no translation, and understood
by all.* In this respect it has often a great advantage
* Atkinson, the well-known Russian traveller, told the writer that
on many occasions he would have been most seriously inconvenienced
had it not been for the readiness with which he could use his pencil.
The following anecdote, also, will show the advantage of being ready
with this universal language. An artist who had neglected to secure
his hmch before going amongst some Welsh mountains for his day's
painting, after some hours' work began to feel faint for want of food,
and seeing a cottage at some distance, went to inquire if he could
have a cup of tea. His reception was not an agreeable one, as he was
attacked by a couple of curs, which frightened him and put to flight
a number of noisy fowls. On the good woman of the house opening
the door a few inches the artist made his request for a cup of tea, to
which he got the reply, ' Dim Sasenach ' (No English). After again
urging his request, and meeting with the same determined, settled,
and settling answer, ^ Dim Sasenach,' he bethought him of his pocket
sketch-book, which had been of like service to him among the moun-
taineers of Switzerland, and he instantly made a sketch like the
following, and showed it to the unwilling dame, who, recognising his
want, instantly opened wide the door, beckoned him into the cottage,
On Drawing.
over writing, as will be eyident if, as in business, we wish to
describe in writing almost any common article of daily use
— say a sofa, or a coal-vase — instead of drawing it. This is
a strong argument in favour of all persons learning to draw
as well as to write.
3. The question is often asked, ^ Can every one learn to
draw ? ' and although it may seem an ignorant question,
it had better be answered. All persons who can learn to
and offered a chair. In an unknown lan^iage two children, who had
concealed themselves behind their mother,
were hastily despatched, and soon returned,
one with a bundle of sticks and the other with
a can of spring water. Very quickly the
kettle was boiling, and cakes were baking on
something like a Scotch ' griddle,' hung from
a chain in the chimney. Soon the artist was
enjoying himself, and the remembrance of
the noisy cackling amidst which he was in-
troduced, suggested to his mind the possibility
of making his repast more substantial by the
addition of a few eggs ; so he politely, but
thoughtlessly, asked his hostess if she could
oblige him with an ^^^ or two. The inevitable ' Dim Sasenach ' soon
showed him his mistake ; so, getting out his pocket sketch-book,
he sketched something like the following : — ^whereupon the
good woman, charmed at her power of interpreting, went off
to a cupboard, and imme-
diately returned with a
large, clean, wooden bowl,
filled with eggs, of which
the rough sketch will give
an idea. Satisfied, refreshed, and
again ready for work, the artist
prepared to depart, but not before
he ascertained the power of his hostess to understand, without any
sketch, the value of English silver.
4 On Dt awing.
write can learn to draw. If it were required, ' Can any one
become an artist ? ' tlie question might be answered by
anotlier, ' Can any one become a poet ? ' Great painters,
like great j^oets or great composers, may be born, but not
made. But though there are not many Beethovens, or
Handels, or Mozarts in a generation, there are many per-
sons who add to national happiness by less pretentious ef-
forts than Oratorios and Masses. On the Continent draw-
ing is taught to all children in the best national schools,
and it ought to be taught in our own : not because it is
insisted on in Continent schools, but because it would be
of incalculable service in the business of life to those who
had learnt it. *
4. But here arises an important question : What do
we understand by learning to draw ? There are various
kinds of drawing, and that which may be suitable to one
purpose may not be applicable to another. For example,
the kind of drawing and knowledge requisite for a man of
culture is scarcely that best suited to an artisan. The first
and elemental requirement of an artisan is that he should
* The following remarks from Professor Huxley appeared in the
FortnigMly Review, January 1878. Speaking of the preparation for
technical teaching he says : — ' And especially I should require some
ability to draw : I do not mean artistically, for that is a gift which may
be cultivated, but cannot be learned, but with fair accuracy. Every-
body, or almost everybody, can learn to write ; and, as writing is a kind
of drawing, I suppose that the majority of the people who say they can-
not draw, and give copious evidence of the accuracy of their assertion,
could draw, after a fashion, if they tried. And that " after a fashion "
would be better than nothing for my purposes.
'I suppose that in nine trades out of ten it would be useful if he
(the student) could draw.'
ft
On Drawing.
be able to draw accurately, say a brick, and understand it
when it is drawn ; for if he can draw a brick he can draw
a box, and if a box, then a table ; and thus he has a safe
foundation on which to build his knowledge as it may be
required.
5. On the next page is given a supposed order for a com-
mon box, which, though very rough (as though drawn in
haste), would be clearly understood by an intelligent work-
man without any chance of error. How great the advan-
tage of drawing in this case is over a written description
only, may be felt if the student will try to write out instruc-
tions for such a box without any drawing — instructions
that might not only be understood, but that could not be
misunderstood.
G. To those who travel, even a little knowledge of free-
hand drawing, as here understood, will be not only useful
but delightful. The slightest sketch taken by oneself will,
in after years, recall more of the circumstances and associa-
tions than a lengthened description, or even a photograph.
Illustrations of this kind of memorandum sketch will be
found in various parts of the work.
7. But if true education be that which fits a person for
the after circumstances of life, then the requirements of an
educated man will be something far beyond the power to
sketch a few simple objects intelligently. He must have
a knowledge of the general principles of Fine Art, and
such power in practice as will develop in him that aesthetic
faculty without which he can neither fully enjoy, nor accu-
rately judge, in matters of taste.
6
On Brawing,
Pig. 1.
Fig. 8.
CHAPTER II.
ON THE EYE.
8. Of the five senses, or gateways of knowledge — seeing,
and hearing, feeling, tasting, and smelling — two, seeing and
liearing, belong to the intellectual part of our nature, whilst
the other three chiefly supply our animal wants. The sense
of seeing is at once tlie most active, the most comprehensive,
and the most intellectual of them all. It is the servant of
the soul, and through it the mind receives the richest vari-
ety of images, or ideas. F. W. Robertson says that 'the
highest pleasure of sensation comes through the Eye. She
ranks above all the rest of the senses in dignity. He whose
eye is so refined by discipline that he can repose with pleas-
ure upon the serene outline of beautiful form, has reached
tlie purest of the sensational raptures.'
9. A short description of the eye is given at page 9 ; but
it may here be briefly stated, that when an object is placed
before the eye, the light from it passes through the crystal-
line lens, and an image is formed on the retina, from whence
the consciousness of it is conveyed by the optic nerve to the
brain.*
* The number of shocks per second necessary to the production of
the impression of coloui' is as follows : — Red, 451 millions of millions ;
of violet, 789 millions of millions. All these waves enter the eye,
and strike the retina at the back of the eye in one second. — Tyxdall.
7
8 On the Eye,
10. The eye of a fish, or of a sheep, is probably as well
adapted to the purpose of their life as is that of a human
being ; but the lower animals, being chiefly moved by
instinct, have their organs ayailable when very young and
with little training ; whilst a very young infant, though
with the eye perfect as an organ, requires long and
frequent practice before it can judge even of distance.
The moon and its mother's face probably appear equally
near. If a person born blind obtains his sight at fifteen
or twenty years of age, he is said to have no idea of dis-
tance by sight ; whilst the little fish that gets its food by
shooting a drop of water at its prey scarcely ever misses;
and the chick that has only just emerged from the shell
pecks away at the crumbs, distinguishing them from
grains of sand of similar size and colour.
11. The human eye is a wonderfully adapted, self-
acting, self -regulating, and self -minding organ, for seeing
things large as mountains or small as motes, very near or
millions of miles away ; but it requires training.
If a person were to travel, say, from Liverpool to
London, and hold a looking-glass so as to have all the
objects reflected in it as they were passed, on arriving in
London there would be nothing left on the glass but the
last image — perhaps the station ; all the other myriads of
objects would be gone. It is just so, in a lesser degree,
with many persons who have not learned to use their
eyes ; whilst others are more like a sensitised plate in a
camera, not only receiving images, but photographing and
fixing them by observation.
On tlie Eye. 9
12. Considered merely as an organ, the eye is a com-
pound lens, consisting of three principal parts, the aqueous
humour, the crystalline lens, and the vitreous humour.
The aqueous humour is held in front of the eye by the
cornea, a transparent, horny caj)sule, something like a Avatch-
glass in shape. Behind the aqueous humour, and immedi-
ately in front of the crystalline lens, is the iris, which sur-
rounds the 2^^fpi^' Then follow the lens and the vitreous
humour. Behind this is a black pigment, upon which the
delicate network of nerves, called the retina, is spread. It
is this delicate screen, the retina, that receives the images of
things with such marvellous rapidity, and conveys them
through the optic nerve to the brain.
13. By means of the iris' the size of the pupil may be
caused to vary. When the light is feeble the pupil ex-
pands, and when it is intense the pupil contracts ; thus
the quantity of light entering the eye is to some extent
regulated.
14. The pupil also diminishes when the eye is fixed
upon a near object, and expands when it is fixed upon a
distant one. The image thrown upon the retina is inverted.
15. The eye possesses a power of adjustment for dif-
ferent distances, chiefly by a change in the curvature of the
crystalline lens. Two objects at different distances from
the eye cannot be clearly defined at the same moment : the
adjustment of the eye for seeing one distinctly will cause
the other to become indistinct.
16. A line drawn through the centre of the cornea and
the centre of the whole eye is called the axis of the eye.
10 On the Eye.
17. When an impression of light is made upon the
retina it does not instantly subside, but remains for a short
time after the cause has passed away. This is called the
^persistence of imjjression,'' This interval of persistence
varies with different persons, and amounts to a sensible
fraction of a second.
18. If a succession of images follow each other at inter-
vals less than the time which the impression endures, the
images v/ill blend together and form a shady surface, as in
the case of the spokes of a wheel when going round rapidly,
or the colours in a revolving chromotrope.
19. The image of any object thrown on the retina of
one eye differs from that thrown on the retina of the other,
because the object is viewed from two separate places. If
these two pictures, thrown on to the two retinae, were
combined, we should have the full impression of solidity.
This is what takes place in the stereoscope, in which the
two pictures always slightly differ. Both eyes, therefore,
are necessary to give the idea of solidity and space satisfac-
torily.
20. A very young child at first sees' things not as tlietj
really are, but as they appear (on the exquisite little re-
flector, the eye), unconscious that they often are actually
quite different from wdiat they appear. As the child grows,
he gradually learns the true or actual shapes of things,
and if, whilst very young, he does not draw things, * he
will lose what is called the 'innocence of the eye ;' so that
* I don't say, have drawing lessons. See Appendix A, on children's
drawing.
On tlie Eye. 11
when he is older, and attempts to draw things from nature,
he will have considerable difficulty in seeing retiring forms
correctly, and will have to use the rules of perspective : thus
to learn back again, as it were, to the simplicity and truth
of child-sight.
There are many intelligent persons who cannot draw the
top of a tumbler, or of a table or a book, correctly. In this
case the mind (with its knowledge of actual shape) inter-
feres with the image of the retina.* It is a fact that,
supposing a young child could hold and guide the pencil
sufficiently well, he would draw solid forms in perspective
more correctly than an upgrown person, and for this reason,
that he sees more innocently or truly.
21. "Yhapoiuer of the eye for judging,— distance, for ex-
ample,— depends on frequent and earnest practice. A sea-
man, who is constantly on the look-out, judges much more
accurately of distance than a landsman. When two boys at
play have their marbles almost equally near a given hole,
they very earnestly take the image into their eye, first of one
distance and then of the other, again and again, till at last
they may determine with almost certainty which of the two
marbles is nearest the hole. The image on the retina is
true enough ; the difficulty is for the mind to take a correct
' reading ' of the image. Aiming at a given mark, as in
shooting, or cricket, or billiards, tends to give power and
accuracy to the eye.
* Though a plumb-line may be used in dra^ving, it is really seldom
• necessary, as the eye, if fairly practised, will soon leam to determine
whether or not a line be vertical. '
CHAPTER III.
ON SEEING AND OBSEEVINQ.
22. By careful practice, as in drawing, the eye may be-
come astonishingly accurate as a measuring instrument.
Hitherto the eyes have been spoken of as a single organ,
for, although we often use both, Art recognises only one, or,
more correctly, one point of vision.
If we wish to see clearly the contour of any object, esr
pecially when near, only one eye should be used, so as to
avoid a parallax of vision ; * but if we desire to determine
how far an object *is from us, both ej^s must be used, so as
to see, as it were, from two places, for with one eye alone
we have little idea of space.
An illustration of this parallax of vision may be seen in
the ordinary stereoscope, by placing in it two views exactly
the same [i. e. taken from exactly the same point). No idea
of space will be given beyond what we see without the in-
strument. But if the two views be taken from two different
points, corresponding wnth the distance of the eyes from
each other, the * relief ' of the various objects will be per-
fect, and we shall have a full idea of space.
* What is meant by parallax of yision may be better understood in
the following manner :— Hold a pencil or pen at a little distance from
you, and look at it with one eye closed, and observe what object or part
of the room it obscures from the view ; now, without moving the head
or pencil, open the other eye and close the one just used, and it will be
seen that the pencil now screens quite a different part.
12
On Seeing and Observing.
13
We observe, tlien, tliat to see the contours of objects
clearly one eye only should bo used ; whilst in judging of
distance, or of the location of objects in space, both should
be used.
23. But there is yet another way in which the eyes
should be used in Art, viz. half closed.
When we wish to observe in a jucturc or drawing the
principal masses of light and shade, apart from detail, the
eyes should be partially closed, so as to admit only the
bright rays. A darkened glass is sometimes used by artists
for the same purpose.
The light and shade of a picture or drawing thus seen
is often spoken of in Art parlance as
the 'effect.' In Fig. 3 is given the
^effect,' or light and shade, of the illus-
tration forming the frontispiece of this
work.
24. From what has been said it will
be evident that, although the eye is so
wonderfully adapted, and so delicately
sensitive for the reception of images,
it requires the presence of a mind to
read or take from it the impression it presents so constantly.
The needle on the telegraphic dial may be moving ever
so rapidly, but to little purpose if there be no intelli-
gence ready and willing to receive the information it may
be presenting ; and this leads us to make some remarks on
the importance of Observation.
25. The power of observing varies much in different
Fig. 3.
14 On Seeing and Ohsermng.
persons, but may be greatly improyed by intelligent prac-
tice. It should never be confined to one class of objects.
The j)hysical world, though brimful of beauty for the
eye, and of evidences of wisdom for the mind, is a closed
book to one who has not learnt to observe ; but to one
who has learned to see, and to reflect on what is seen, it
is literally an endless source of enjoyment. We may,
therefore, naturally inquire what part of a liberal curri-
culum is most likely to be of service to us in forming and
developing this important faculty ? Certainly, w^hatever
other tangible subjects, such as chemistry and physics,
may do, that which brings us into immediate contact with
Nature and with Art in their more beautiful aspects must
hold an important place. This is what drawing, rightly
pursued, does. Let us suppose a simple case. In our
rambles we pick up, say, a leaf, or a stone, which we wish
for some reason to remember. A verbal description alone
would be both tedious and unsatisfactory, but if accom-
panied with a drawing of it, would be understood distinctly
and remembered long.
26. Collateral knowledge often helps observatioi;!, and
Art should be studied in its twofold character, as a science
and as an art — as a science to be known, and as an art to be
practised. The pleasure we take in any objects, whether of
God's or of man's making, chiefly depends on some of
the following considerations : 1st, that by what they pre-
sent to the eye they suggest to the mind something of
deep import, as in symbolic ornamentation ; or, 2nd, that
which is presented to the eye is of such a form or colour as
On Seeing and Observing.
15
to excite our sense of tlie beautiful — this is aesthetic or sen-
suous ; or, 3rd, the forms presented to us may he such as to
suggest the idea of fitness, either alone or in conjunction
with the sense of beauty.
Fig. 4.
27. In Fig. 4 (the lotus-plant) we have a conventional
and unpretending ornament, which by itself would not ex-
cite much emotion, but when recognised as one of the most
significant symbols of Egyptian architecture becomes full of
interest.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 5 is a form which, apart from any association, is
in itself pleasing, as is also the piece of scroll-work in
16
On Seeing and Obsermng.
Fig. G. But the charm of this latter is greatly enhanced
because applied where it not only does the work of a bracket
(conyeying the idea of fitness), but also because it does it
with much grace.
Fig. 0.
It is in thus seeing the essential cliar act eristics of things
that real observation consists, and it will be evident, there-
fore, how important it is that the mind should be led not
only to see beauty, but also to know what kind of beauty it
is, and whence it arises.
28. There is much truth in the remark that we see
only that which we look for, and to look energetically we
must consciously look for something. This will be better
On Seeing and Ohsermng. 17
understood by the following anecdote, which Professor
Tyndall gives of Faraday. * And this reminds me,' says
Tyndall, ^of an occurrence which took place in this room
at the beginning of my acquaintance with Faraday. I
wished to show liim a peculiar action of an electro-mag-
net upon a crystal. Everything was arranged, wiien, just
before the magnet was excited, he laid his hand upon my
arm and asked, *^What am I to look for?" Amid the
assemblage of impressions connected with an experiment,
even this prince of experimenters felt tlie advantage of
having his attention directed to the special point to be
illustrated.' *
29. Now, the difference between artistic sight and or-
dinary sight arises from the fact that people generally do
not look for those truths and qualities which artists look
for. For instance, a group of intelligent artisans — bot-
anists— met the waiter in one of the most beautiful valleys
in Derbyshire, and in a conversation admitted that they
had not particularly seen the rocks or the hills, nor even
the trees — ^They were not in their w^ay.' They were
searching for a little plant they had heard of as being in
that locality.
Thus, men use their eyes as channels of information
about what they w\ant to know. A farmer looks at the sky
to see w^hether it will rain, and at a field of corn with a
view to its value. A drove of cattle will not be seen by
him as strikingly picturesque, but as objects having their
market value. * Money value ' is all that some persons can
* Tyndall, On Sound, p. 120.
2
18 On Seeing and Ohsermng.
see in the world. With them the aesthetic sense is blind or
dead : they haye eyes, but no gesthetic faculty behind them ;
they are like the man who had bought sj^ectacles to read
with, but still could not read, for he did not know his
letters.
30. It is an optical fact that no two persons ever saw
the same rainbow, and it is equally true that no two men
ever saw the same appearance in any object. If we go to
a sketching-ground of artists — say, Bettws-y-Coed or Capel
Curig — though the same subject may be painted again and
again by successive artists, we shall not find two pictures
alike. The objects may have been the same precisely, but
in each case the representation will have passed through
quite a different mind, with quite a different result.
31. Xot to see anything is, so far as that particular thing
is concerned, equivalent to blindness. When people talk of
learning to draw and paint, they ought rather to say they
are learning to see, for that is the main object of artistic
education for amateurs. Artistic sight is not a natural
faculty, but may be acquired, and the act of acquiring it
gradually reveals nature to us aesthetically, and thus de-
velops this new sense, which, being emotional, supplies pure
food for the imagination.
Many persons would be indignant at being told that they
knew little about the form of an ox or a horse. Let any
one of them, however, sit down quietly and write such a
description of the form of a horse that we may know it in
a group. Or, if he find this too tedious, let him take pen-
cil and paper, and try seriously to draiu one — the one he
On Seeing and Observing. 19
knows so well and rides daily. The exercise may be of
value to him.
32. Ilamerton tells us, that although ^accustomed to
country life, and living summer and winter on a large farm,
he never knew anything accurately about horses and cows
till he began to make studies of them with a view to paint-
ing ; and postponed the writing of an article on Kosa Bon-
heur from the humiliating conviction that, although inti-
mately familiar with all the oxen on the farm, and their
labours — personally friendly with them, even, and calling
them by their names — he had not, in the deep, critical, and
artistic sense, seen them.'
33. Observations are of little value without comparison,
and for comparison we must have standards in the memory.
It is recorded of Rosa Bonheur, that when she first began
to study animals she bought a sheep, and kept it alwa3's by
her in a Parisian apartment, and studied it in every detail
till she knew it by heart ; and no doubt it became her first
standard. The haste and restlessness of the present age
are such as to make us impatient of anything but the gor-
geous and sensational. We should seek for the quieter,
but not less wholesome and enduring, jileasure of ram-
bling, sketch-book in hand, through some of our old Eng-
lish scenery ; for the true art of seeing and enjoying rests
cliiefly in sensitiveness and ^wiver of sympathy, and the
true value of observation is in the nohJe thouglits that it
excites loithin us. It is in this way that we would have
students cultivate a love for Nature in her simplicity, and a
habit of observing accuratelv her subtle, hidden teachings.
CHAPTEK IVo
ON HOLDING THE PENCIL.
34. The liand, as a preliensile or handling organ, varies
much in different individuals. In some, the fingers and
thumb are long and mobile, whilst in others they are com-
paratively short and stiff ; but ])Y[iQtiGe in the latter case
will soon surmount almost any want of physical adapta-
tion. One of the most skilful performers on the pianoforte
in this country has fingers so short that he can only reach
an octave.
Much, however, depends on the way in which the pencil
is held in drawing. Only one general rule can be given,
and it is this — that it should he held in that position
which is best adapted for the particular work to be done ;
certainly not with the fingers near the point, or with
Fig. 7.
Fig. 7 a.
the knuckles up as when WTiting, thus (Fig. 7), but rather
as in Fig. 7 a. Sometimes the pencil, being held be-
tw<?en the thumb and first finger, and supported by the
20
0)1 Holding the Pencil.
21
lontTf one, should i:)ass along the first finger in an upward
direction ; sometimes it should pass under the hand, held
also by the other fingers, thus (Fig. 7 h), according to the
^-^
Fig. 7 h.
kind of work to be done ; and in all cases it should, as
far as possible, be worked from the shoulder, esj^ecially
when drawing at an easel.
As excellence in Art-work greatly depends on the tools
or instruments used, the sharpening of the pencils is impor-
tant. A set of jicncils nicely pointed is quite a temptation to
f
Fig. 7 c.
A
draw with delicacy and refinement. They should never be
cut like the first two in Fig. 7 c, but like the third one, or
even with a still finer point, except where it is intended to
22
On Holding the Pencil.
shade broadly with the side of the instrument— then the
wood shoiikl be left uncut on one side, so as to sujoport the
lead and prevent it from breaking. After the cedar is
cleared away a small file may be used, or one fixed in a box,
as in Fig. 7 d.
Fig. 7 d.
CHAPTER V.
OU LINES.
35. By a line is not here meant the abstract idea of
length without breadth or thickness, but an elongated
mark or stroke made by some instrument on a plane or
surface.
3G. There are only two kinds of lines, straight and
curved, and by means of these all the infinitely varied and
beautiful forms in creation may be indicated. If you look
round the room, you will not find any object or j^attern that
may not be described by these lines.
37. A straight line may be defined as a point continued
in one direction, or as the nearest defined distance between
any two points.
Although there are really no lines in nature, we find the
idea of the straight line in crystals, buildings, and in many
things made by man, in which utility is the chief purpose ;
because generally it is easier to fit two plain or straight sur-
' faces than two which are curved or irregular, as, for in-
stance, in a box, or in bricks.
38. A curved line is one in which the direction is con-
stantly varied. It is found chiefly, but not altogether, in
things that are considered beautiful, as in leaves, flowers,
the human form, &c.
. 39. There is beauty, however, in crystals, and even in
the square ; but the beauty of the square arises partly from
23
24
On Jblnes.
a sense of exactness, for if it be not exact it ceases at once to
give pleasure and to be a square.
40. Botli straight and curved lines are felt to be most
beautiful when in combination, as in some kinds of archi-
tecture, vases, flowers, and trees.
41. When forms are made with the straight line only
(as in Fig. 8) they are called rectilinear ; when made with
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9.
Fig. 10.
curved lines (as in Fig. 9) they are called curvilinear ; and
when composed of both straight and curved lines they are
compound forms (as in Fig. 10).
42. A straight line can be placed only in three posi-
tions, viz. perpendicular, horizontal, and oblique or slant-
ing. The perpendicular and horizontal positions never
vary, and may therefore be considered and used as standard
lines. Oblique or slanting lines may incline more or less,
and the degree of inclinatioU can only be estimated by
comparing them with either perpendicular or horizontal
lines.
On Lines. 25
43. In copying an example or a model, therefore, it
is evidently absurd to begin Avitli slanting lines : all the
standard lines should be first drawn, and the slanting ones
judged of by them. The importance of constantly testing
all lines by those which are either perpendicular or horizon-
tal can scarcely be too strongly insisted on, as there are no
other means, in free-hand drawing, of attaining accuracy.
(See, also, •[ 105.)
44. By means of these two elemental lines all superficies
and all solid forms may be suggested. If w^e continue a
line at an equal distance from a point it will result in a
circle, which is the archetype of all animal and vegetable
forms, — the simplest and most economical form in creation,
and perfect in its completeness. It is, however, an unity
admitting no variety, and therefore has not in it the ele-
ment of infinity, which consists in variety rather than in
numbers. The square may be considered as the archetype
of crystals and of constructed forms, such as buildings.
The highest piece of future architecture — the New Jerusa-
lem— is described as being 'four square.' This figure, how-
ever, like the circle, being fixed — admitting of no change —
cannot be considered beautiful ^;er se, but only in its appli-
cation as to structure, and as a contrast to the curve. The
most beautiful and the highest forms in Nature and in Art
are made up of a combination of these two forms modified
by elongation, and by the admixture of one with the other.
This combination of the straight with the curve is found in
its highest development in the human form.
CHAPTER VI
ON OUTLINE.
45, OuTLiis"E may be understood to be the mere contour
of any form (as Fig. 11). It may also mean a sketch with
Fig. 11.
lines to indicate its general and leading characteristics,
thus : —
Fig. 12.
Fig. 13.
Some objects may be clearly indicated by outline alone,
26
On Outline.
27
as leaves, &c. ; whilst others cannot be satisfactorily ex-
pressed without shade — the sphere, for instance.
4G. A flat contour may be greatly modified by a few in-
dicative lines or markings on its sur-
face ; for. example. Figs. 15, 10, 17
are the same in contour as Fig. 14,
but their character is greatly modified
by the different markings.
Fig. 14.
Fia. 15.
Fig. 16.
Fig. 17.
Thus it will be seen that outline is most important,
and often very effective, as it suggests to the mind an idea
of many things which it would require long time and much
thought and labour fully to describe. (See page 6, order-
ing a box.)
47. In drawing a Head, the first twenty lines will indi-
cate more than a hundred lines can do afterwards ; for the
former will give the principal facts of eyes, nose, mouth,
&c., whilst the latter can only add lesser facts.
It is scarcely possible to overrate the importance of cor-
rect form as indicated by outline, inasmuch as no amount
of shading will make a wrong sketch right.
48. The first efforts at Art with primitive man have
always been in outline, just as we find in children's work.
The aim is to get at the fact which the mind recognises,
28 On Outline.
rather than the appearance on the retina of the eye — to get
the fact clearly stated without much regard to the means —
and it is in this sense that drawing in its earliest employ-
ment was a kind of writing. The Greeks used the same
word for writing and drawing, and there is little doubt they
considered the processes the same. All the arts of design
or drawing in their early development are essentially con-
ventional, inasmuch as they are produced by lines, and
there are no lines in nature. There does not appear to be
any evidence to show that the earlier nations, such as the
Babylonians, Assyrians, or Egyptians, had any knowledge
of the fuller expression of form by means of the gradation
of shade. We find them outlining their forms, and almost
invariably in profile ; then filling up the forms with flat
tints of colour. Thus, until the time of the Greeks, the
whole civilised world seems to have been satisfied with the
impression of form only by outlines and flat tints.
CHAPTER VII.
ON SKETCHING.
49. The first great mistake which young students in
Art make, is in not taking sufficient time to place accu-
rately the points which determine the principal parts of a
drawing. Suppose a man were about to build a house, the
first thing he would do would be to plot out the ground-
plan most carefully and accurately ; otherwise all his house
would be wrong. And when building, he would first secure
the corners, testing them with the plumb-line and square
before proceeding with the walls. So, in drawing, very
much time, and error, and rubber, and patience, would be
saved if young persons would only be persuaded to be suf-
ficiently careful in plotting out, or fixing accurately, the
chief lines and points in a drawing.
This can only be done by a constant use of right angles,
real or imaginary, and by what is known as * blocking in.'
If the work to be copied be of the nature of scrolls (as in
Fig. 5) or of leaves (as in Fig. 40), then straight lines
should be used in every available part. This is shown by
the lines, a, a, &c. (Fig. 18). This plan of using right
angles, and of ^blocking in,' is very useful when drawing
from casts, as well as from the flat.
Ordinarily it is best to commence near the middle of the
drawing, with some leading line or object, and then to work
to the right and left. The exact centre of a picture is
29
30
On SJcetcliing,
Fig. 19.
On Sketcliing, 31
readily found by drawing diagonal lines from corner to
corner of the paper, as in Fig. 19.
50. If it should happen that there are no important lines
near the centre of the drawing, as in the woodcut (Fig. 20),
then the principal horizontal lines should first be drawn,
and the chief objects sketched in upon them. Never
until the work is accurately laid in should the details be
added.
Fig. 21 affords an example of forms which it would
be almost impossible to reproduce accurately without the
aid of perpendicular lines, by which to judge of the
various curved and inclined lines, both of figure and
drapery.
51. In drawing the human figure, it is always better to
use as much as possible straight lines, as at a in Fig. 22,
and never dotted lines as at 1). It is only by the juxtaposi-
tion of a straight line that we can fully and accurately
judge of the value of a curved one.
52. When the subject to be sketched has a clear and
keenly defined contour, the lines used should be drawn
cleanly and firmly at once, as in the various perspective
figures in this work ; but when such objects as tree-stems,
rustic figures, &c., have to be sketched, then, instead of a
cold single line, several approximate lines may be used (as
in Fig. 23, a), but never dotted lines (as at h).
Objects composed of curves, such as Gothic windows,
arches, &c. (Fig. 24), may be readily drawn by first setting
up a framework of straight lines, by which to determine the
degrees of curvature.
o
CI
d
Oil Sketcliing.
33
Fig. 21.
Slioicing the value of contrasting straight lines with
curved ones.
34
On SketcJting.
I
I
I _,_ ,.
V '
r
> I
..— .-..i
)
a
Fig. 22.
Faces sliouU he draimi witli straight lines, as at a ; never
tvith dotted ones, as at b.
On SlcetcMng.
35
a
Fig. 23.
Tree-stems, especially ivTien rough, may he sTcetclied ivith
several lines, as at a, hut never with clotted 07ies, as at b.
36
On SketcJiirig.
53. The reason why in some cases a single line shonld
be used, and in other cases several lines, is, that the eye
inevitably follows a single and rigid line ; but where there
are several lines, the eye rests on the surface included by
them, as it does in nature ; the form is understood, and
some idea is obtained of the texture and character of the
surface.
Fig. 24.
54. Any mechanical aids that may have been used in
obtaining an accurate form should be cleanly removed be-
fore any shading is added, and the sketch or outline itself
should be reduced to such faintness as not to interfere or
obtrude itself in the completing of the work.
55. Although these remarks have reference principally
to sketching from flat copies, they apply also to drawing
from the round, and from Nature.
CHAPTER VIII.
ON LIGHT AND SHADE.
5G. ' Light and Shade' in Art should be considered as
the means of modelling the surface confined by contour ;
for outline is to contour what-' light and shade ' is to surface
—the outline leaves an object superficial, the Might and
shade ' makes it solid ; and roundness and projection are
the natural outcome of Might and shade,' which takes
away the appearance of flatness of the surface on which
the drawing is made. It is nevertheless true that this
modelling of a surface may be strongly indicated by lines
only, but never fully expressed without ' light and shade ; '
and in nature we are largely dependent on the same means
for our knowledge of the projection of one thing from
another, as, for instance, of the nose from the face, or of
the forehead over the eyes. We become conscious of the
wrinkles or creases in a face or on a piece of paper only
as they may be revealed by the light and shade that is on
them.
57. Before treating of light and shade as applied to Art,
it may be desirable to state a few facts with reference to
light and its action on bodies in various circumstances.
58. Light is defined as an imponderable agent which
makes objects perceptible to the sense of sight, but the par-
ticles of which are separately invisible. Thus, although we
37
38 On Liglit and Shade.
see things by means of light, we cannot see the light itself.
If an object be placed before the eyes, and there be no light,
it is of course invisible ; but if a ray, or a number of rays of
light, fall upon the object, they are instantly broken by it,
and partly absorbed and partly reflected in all directions.
Some of these reflected portions entering the eye reveal
to us the object, or, in other words, we can then see it.
Whether the object is very light or dark will depend upon
its nature, and the number of rays which it absorbs into
itself, or which it reflects into the eye. Some objects have
the power of absorbing many and reflecting few rays, as will
be shortly seen.
59. It must be remembered, however, that in drawing
and painting, our highest light, which is white paper
or white paint, is very much darker (less light) than
white light, as may be seen by holding a piece of whitest
paper in juxtaposition with the blue sky, or even a grey
cloud ; and this is one reason why in Art we cannot com-
pete with either the tender gradations ^or the scope or
range of Nature, from her highest light to her deepest
dark.
GO. When any part or plane of an object is so placed
that an equal number of rays are thrown from each part of
that plane into the eye, it will appear equally light ; but
when the object is so placed as to reflect fewer rays from
one part than from another, there is gradation of light into
shade ; and although shade may be generally defined as
absence of light, yet, as there are degrees of light, so there
are degrees of shade.
On Light and Shade.
39
This will be better understood by reference to Fig. 25.
Let a, h, c, d, e, represent equal spaces or planes on any ob-
ject. Illumined from *, it is evident that as more rays fall
on a h than on h c, this latter plane, b c, will be less light
^<-
7--
VV:
dj. ■ ■
e^'
..■\'
■' I
p
Fig. 25
than a b. Further, as c d receives scarcely any rays it will
appear very dark, and d e, receiving none, will be invisible
or black.
61. An object may be actually very light or very dark,
but it will only appear so to the spectator in proportion
to the number and intensity of the rays received on the
retina. The quantity of rays that could be reflected into
the eye from these various planes is indicated on the
vertical line, o p. It will be seen that as c d receives
no direct rays from *, it can throw into the eye only such
rays as it may happen to receive from surrounding ob-
jects.
The illuminating of objects may be further illustrated
40
On Light and Shade.
by the diagram below (Fig. 26), where the lines, a a a,
represent rays of light, and A b and c, planes intercepting
those rays. It will be apparent that as the plane, c, inter-
cepts all the rays, it will be lightest ; but as b is placed
obliquely to the rays, it cannot be so light ; whilst A, being
in the direction of the line of rays, must necessarily be
quite dark.
Fig. 26.
»
62. But there is another fact which must here be ob-
served. AVhen objects are not illumined from one point or
focus alone, as the sun, but from surrounding objects, also,
and from the particles of atmosphere, that secondary illu-
mination is called reflection, and thus much visible shade
is, in fact, but reflected light.
The atmosphere is seldom pure ; even our bluest skies
are said to be composed of infinitesimally small particles of
matter, by which the rays of pure white light are broken.
On Light and Shade.
41
Clouds formed of particles of vapour break and scatter the
rays in all directions.
G3. In some respects shade and shadow are one and the
same ; for instance, they may both be defined as darkness,
or absence of light, and they generally convey the idea of
evenness — of an equal and unbroken tone of colour.
Moreover, they both, however light or dark, have a degree
of depth, transparency, and repose, which in Art should
always be expressed.
As a matter of convenience in the practice of Art, and
arising in part from its nature, it is desirable to divide this
darkness, which we now speak of as shade, into shade, which
is natural, and shadow, which is accidental.
G4. All opaque objects receiving the light have some
portion of their surface turned more or less away from the
light, and have therefore an
inseparable darkness. This is
termed natural shade. But
when the darkness is caused
by an object intervening be-
tween the light and some other
object it is called accidental
shadow. For instance, in Fig.
27 you will see the accidental
shadow of the hoop on the jar. This would of course be
moved on removing the hoop, whilst the shade natural to
the jar would remain.
65. There is another term used in connexion Avith this
subject which is very important, and but for which all
Fig. 27.
42 On Light and Shade.
shades and shadows would be absolutely black : it is Refiec-
tion, which has been already referred to above.
By Keflection, then, is meant simply light thrown back
from one object on to another. ^
The strength of Eeflection varies greatly, according
to circumstances, but in some degree it is almost always
present.
White and polished surfaces reflect the most, whilst
dark and opaque ones, such as black cloth, &c., throw back
but little light. Even particles of matter floating in the
atmosphere receive and throw off rays, and by these rays
from all sides the parts of objects turned away from direct
illumination are rendered visible.
As rays of light from illuminated surfaces are thrown
off in straight lines in all directions, whether as direct or
reflected rays, the position and proximity of objects to
eacli other is very important in Art.
Generally, the greater the light is the stronger the reflec-
tions are, and, consequently, all shades affected by these
reflections will be lighter.
This is a very important truth, and is so often lost
sight of by young students that a few words of further
explanation may not be out of place, and as no knowl-
edge is better retained than that which is experimen-
tal, the student may gain experience in the following
manner.
6G. Get several pieces of white cardboard, say six or
eight inches long, and as many inches wide, and cut them
half through, so that they will fold and stand ujiright
On Light and Shade.
43
(something like Figs. 28 and 29), and let one of them so
stand on any ivliite surface, as a sheet of white paper, and if
possible in sunlight. Let another be placed in like man-
ner on a dark surface, as a dark table-coyer. Now make
a comparison of the two, and it will be found that in the
first case (Fig. 28) the lower part of the shaded side is much
lighter than the upper part, because many of the rays of
light from the white paper are thrown back or reflected
T
R
Fig. 28.
Fig. 29.
against it ; whilst in the other case (Fig. 29) little or no
perceptible change takes place, because the dark cloth,
instead of reflecting the light, absorbs it. Except for re-
flection, the shade side of objects would inevitably be black
— in fact, invisible.
67. If the student will now make the experiment with
coloured surfaces, he will learn more fully the universality
of these laws. Let y (Fig. 28) represent the cardboard
coloured, say Yellow, and k, the surface on which it stands.
44 On Light and Shade.
coloured Red, and as before let it be placed in sunlight.
It will be observed that the lower part of the shaded side, y,
is now of an Orange hue, because some of the Eed is thrown
back or reflected into the Yellow.
If, as in Fig. 29, the cardboard is coloured Blue, and
the surface on which it stands Red, then the lower part
of B will appear of a Purple hue : and so on, according
to the colours and the nature of the material used, ad
infi.yiiUim. *
68. It has been observed that substances vary greatly in
their power of reflection. When rays of light fall upon
an object, some of them are absorbed by the object, and the
remainder are reflected in all directions.! It is these re-
flected rays thrown on the retina that enable us to see
objects. This absorption of light takes place in all bodies
more or less, and even water, when very deep, will almost
completely absorb rays of light in certain degrees of inci-
dence, and appear black. The difference between the high-
est known transparency and the deepest opacity (say, pitch
or tar) is one of degree merely.
* The laws of reflection of colour, here referred to, apply only to
pigments, and not to pure light, where some singular phenomena present
themselves. For instance, Helmholtz has shown that Yellow and Blue
rays thrown together into each other produce White light. In painting,
however, we mix Blue and Yellow substances to produce Green.
f At a perpendicular incidence water reflects only 18 rays out of
every 1000. When the rays strike the water obliquely, the reflection is
increased. At an incidence of 40% for example, water reflects 23 rays ;
at 60' it reflects G5 rays ; at 80\ 333 rays ; while at an angle of 89'^,
where the light almost grazes the surface, it reflects 721 rays out of
every 1000. — Vide T}Tidall on Light, 2nd ed. p. 17.
46
On Light and Shade.
It will be evident, then, that if in Nature these laws
are invariable and ever present, we can only hope for suc-
cess in our efforts in projDortion as we express them in our
work.
69. We have said that when an object is interposed
Ex. 2.
^^>^
Fig. 31 a.
between the light and another object, the darkness so
caused is called accidental shadow (see ^ 64), Sliadoio
does not usually reveal so much the shape of the object
casting it as the shape of the surface on wMcli it f(dls, as
may be seen in Fig. 30, where the straight stick casts an
On Li gilt and Sltade.
47
irregular shadow, according to the sliape of the surface.
Also, in the doorways (Fig. 31), the framework of both is
tlie same in appearance, until, as in Ex. 1, a shadow is
cast which at once reveals to us the depth or retirement
of some portions of the mouldings. Usually the darkest
part of a cast shadow is close to the object casting it.
Fig. 31 rt shows in a simple manner how the compara-
tively flat shade and shadow, a, may be made into a
retiring space by the addition of a few accessories, as in h,
Not onlv does a cast shadow reveal the surface over which
Fig. 32.
it passes, but it is usually well defined at the edges, as
well as darkest immediately next to the object casting it.
Evidence of this may be seen in the wooden platter and
knife (Fig. 32). Sometimes, however, when the object
casting the shadow stands away from the surface on
which the shadow falls, the edge of the shadow is darkest,
as at a in Fio^. 33, where the shadow at a a is darkest at
the bottom.
70. Shadows are ordinarily darker than shades, espe-
cially in sunlight and under a clear sky, and for this reason :
48
On Llglit and Sliad^
— Light i^asses through 7_;?rre air invisibly ; * but if there be
particles, as of dust, or of water in suspension (cloud or
vapour), these particles, receiving the rays, scatter them in
all directions, and some falling on the shadow prevent it
from being absolutely black.
i
Fig. S3.
71. "When, however, the light is not bright, and there
are clouds breaking up and scattering the rays they have
not absorbed, the shaded parts of objects will be dull, and
the shadow from them undefined.
* This may be readily shown thus : — In a room totally dark, bore
a small hole in the shutter, so as to let in light from the sun. The
beam of light will be invisible. Now cause a little dust, or smoke, or
vapour from a kettle, to rise, and the beam of hght will instantly be-
come visible.
On Liglit and Shade.
49
When the local colour of the objects is dark, and unrc-
flective or absorbent of rays, these laws are not so apparent,
and it is for this reason that white or liglit models are the
best for students to work from.
73. The attention should now be drawn to another
very important property of shade — its gradation on round
Fig. 34.
objects. We have already said that in all cases shade
should be perfectly even and free from spottiness. This
fact applies to shade under all circumstances, on round as
on flat surfaces. The simplest form on which gradation
can be seen is on a cylinder, such as the pillar (Fig. 34), or
on a roll of white paper, where the gradation is in one di-
rection only. If you have a sphere, such as an india-rubber
50 On Light and Shade,
ball, you will see that the shade graduates in all directions,
but regularly ; whilst on an Qgg, or on the parts of a face,
the gradation is much more complex.
The great aim in the working of graduated shade, how-
ever, should be to keep it not only even, but tender, for all
fine work is delicate, and it is better to sacrifice some of the
roundness of appearance than the delicacy of work. The
shade on an egg is actually inimitable. The shading on the
pedestal in Fig. 34 must not on any account be taken as an
examjjile — it is quite too imperfect.
73. There is one more property in the use of cast
shadows which may be briefly noted, namely, that they tell
us the direction from which the light comes, and often the
location of the object which casts the shadow. It is evi-
dent, for instance, that in Fig. 34 the light falls from the
left-hand side, because the shadow on the ground from the
pillar is on the right-hand side. If the shadow from an
object assumes the shape of a cone, we infer that the illu-
mining body is wide in proportion ; but if the shadow
diverges as it leaves the object, we conclude that the light
is small in proportion — as it might be of a candle.
74. The student may illustrate this for himself in the
following experimental manner, by means of a bat's-wing
flame, or by a flat paraffine flame. Let any object narrov^er
than the width of the flat side of the flame be placed so as
to cast a shadow on to a piece of paper on the table ; it will
be seen that it assumes the shape of a cone, and that its
edge is somewhat softened. AVhen the edge of the flame is
turned towards the object, the shadow is sharp and clear.
On Light and Shade. " 51
and if the object be wider than the flame, the shadow will
form a divergent cone. n
75. In most of the illustrations given it will be observed
that the shadow touches the object that casts it, and thus
indicates that it is on the ground. In the two following
illustrations (Figs. 35 and 3G) the two pairs of feet are
Fig. 35. Fig. 36.
precisely the same, but by the shadows which they cast
they are made to appear different.
76. Although there are no lines in Nature, it is often
necessary to use them in expressing shade in drawing.
These lines, however, should always be used in the direc-
tion of the surface they are intended to express : never as
in Fig. 37, but as in Fig. 38 ; or even better. Fig. 39.
SUMMARY.
77. This chapter on Light and Shade is so important
that it may be desirable to give a summary of it.
78. Solidity, roundness, and projection, are the natural
outcome of light and shade, and we are greatly dependent
on it for our knowledge of projection.
79. Light is an imponderable, invisible agent by which
we see objects.
52
On Liglit and Shade.
80. Liglit is in itself inyisible, but becomes visible as
it impinges on anything.
Fig. 37.
Fig. 38.
Fig. 39.
81. We see objects by means of the rays of light which
are reflected from tlieni into the eye.
On Light and Sliade. 53
82. Objects are light or dark in proportion as they
absorb many or few rays, and they appear light or dark
according to the number of rays they reflect into the eye.
83. Few objects appear quite black on their shaded side,
owing to light being thrown upon tliem from surrounding
objects or from the atmosphere.
84. Shade may be defined as absence of light in yarious
degrees.
85. For convenience we divide shade into naticral shade
and accidental shadotu.
86. Reflection is light thrown back on to an object from
its surroundings.
87. The laws appertaining to ordinary white light apply
also to its component parts — blue, red, yellow, &c.
88. Exi3eri mental results with prismatic colours and
with pigment colours differ very much.
89. The difference between the highest known trans-
parency and the densest opacity is said to be one of degree
only.
90. Shadows usually reveal the surfaces on which they
fall more than the shapes which cast them.
91. Shadows are ordinarily clearly defined at their
edges, and darkest close to the objects casting them.
92. Graduated shade conveys the idea of roundness, and
the simplest form of it may be seen in the cylinder, where
the gradation is in one direction only.
93. In shading objects, tenderness and delicacy of work
should be aimed at rather than darkness.
94. Shadows indicate the direction from which the
64
On LigM and Shade.
light falls on an object ; and not unfrequently the size of
the light, Avhether great or small, in comj^arison with the
object.
95. Shadows often to some extent locate the objects
casting tl^em, by showing that they touch a surface, or that
they are removed from it.
9G. When the light on an object is strong or bright, the
shades light (showing much reflection), and the shadows
clear, the idea of sunlight is conveyed.
97. We have hitherto spoken of light and shade only
as applied to objects. Its application to, and uses in a pic-
ture, must be briefly treated in another chapter.
^^s>""^'
CHAPTER IX.
ON DRAWING PROM FLAT COPIES.
98. Few departments of education seem to have been
more entirely misunderstood than Drawing, and the prac-
tice of teaching it. By some it is thought that if good
examples, whether of heads or landscapes, are provided,
and the student has only patience enough to make a good
copy, all is well. Now we do not deny that there are
advantages to be derived from careful copying, but it
should not for a moment be supposed that this alone is
Art education. We have elsewhere said that the study
of Art is twofold, a science and an art — a science to be
known, and an art to be practised. But the two must
operate in combination with each other. A language is
not learned by merely copying its alphabetical characters,
however skilfully, but by obtaining such a knowledge of
its grammar as will enable the student to understand its
structure and apply its rules. Few things can be more
mischievous to a beginner than setting him to copy heads,
such as Julien's, or landscapes, such as Hubert's, and
especially such as those bearing the name of Raze. Even
the copying of Harding's trees, without attending to the
instructions contained in the text, can be of little advan-
tage. The usual result of such a practice with thoughtless
and stupid persons is idle deception, inasmuch as they
55
56 On Drawing from Flat Copies.
imagine that they have done something worthy or credit-
able ; whilst with intelligent and inquiring minds it soon
ends in disgust, for, although they are unable to devise a
better way, they are conscious of the worthlessness of this
as a means of real development.
99. It may be inquired, then, Ought flat copies to be
used at all ? — and, if so, what kind should they be, and how
ought they to be used ? We reply, that much advantage
may be gained by copying good examples rightly. We do
not say merely correctly, but rightly ; not by the slavish
and laborious imitation of an example, stroke for stroke
and point for point, but by the honest carrying out of the
intentions and spirit or motive of the example. Let it
ever be remembered that really conscientious effort is as
important in Art as in other studies, and its neglect can
only tend towards moral delinquency.
100. The Department of Science and Art has issued an
almost exhaustless series of outline studies — some of them
very graceful — the cojoying of which affords excellent exer-
cise for eye and hand, and is best suited to intending de-
signers : this, in fact, was their original purpose.
On the other hand, busy publishers have issued an
endless mass of lithographic examples, in landscapes, in
heads, in flowers, &c., which seem generally to have been
i:>repared more with a view to effect than truth. However
these may be regarded by the student, he cannot do wrong
in adopting a course that will educate his faculties in all
that appertains to truth and beauty. It is proposed to
sketch such a course here.
CHAPTER X.
SUGGESTIONS FOR A COUESE OP STUDY.
101. In" laying out a course of exercises for the stu-
dent, it will be perceived that all his faculties will be called
into use : —
(a.) The eye to see contour or outline truly, and the
hand to trace accurately what the eye sees.
(B.) The mind to perceive delicate, even, and subtly
varying shade, and the liand to produce it with
a point — pen, pencil, or brush,
(c.) The mind to distinguish the appearances of things,
and the hand to sketch them from nature.
(d. ) The mind to learn the essential characteristics of
things.
(e.) The judgment to have regard more to the purpose
of doing (viz. improvement) than to what is
done (the drawing).
(a.) Taking this proposed course in detail, we find flat
outline resolving itself into —
1. Rectangular figures, such as squares, parallelo-
grams, &c.
2. Curvilinear symmetrical forms.
3. Mixed or compound forms.
4. Natural objects that are flat, such as leaves, and flat
copies of objects.
57
58 Suggestions for a Course of Study.
102. In this course it is not to be understood that
the entire stage of outline drawing must be completed
before beginning the shading exercises or the sketching
from objects. All three may be prosecuted simultaneously
with advantage.
103. Outline is the simplest means by which form
may be suggested or represented, and as an exercise it is
best to practise it from outline drawings or from fiat
models. If a student can draw a square and an oblong
(parallelogram) accurately, he may proceed at once to
symmetrical and curvilinear forms, such as Fig. 40 {a and
h), only much larger.
104. The order of procedure in which such outline
drawings should be executed is as follows : —
1. 'Block in^ the general shape, dieciding upon the
proportions.
2. Draw all the parts definitely.
3. Rub down all the lines with a piece of bread till they
are only just visible, and then make the triie outline, deli-
cately but clearly.
105. To * hlock in ' the general shape, the student should
proceed much as a sculptor would in preparing his marble ;
first hewing out the form roughly, and, in the sculptor's
case, rather larger than will be ultimately required, but
ahcays securing the correct general j^roportions, and after-
wards completing it. In Fig. 40, «, half the figure is left,
only * blocked in.'
This method of working is very useful when enlarging
or reducing a drawing. In enlarging or reducing always ob-
Suggestions for a Course of Study.
59
observe the proportions of the copy by dividing it into
halves, quarters, or thirds ; then ' block in ' these quantities
of such size as may be determined upon. (See Fig. 40, h.)
lOG. The * blocking in' need not be done with long
curved lines, but with shorter straight ones — truth of quan-
tity and form being the princii^l aim ; but afterwards,
Fig. 40.
when the whole has been subdued with bread and made
almost invisible, the pencil should be passed several times
over a considerable part of any line wWiout toucldng it, so
as to get the hand into an easy and ready position for draw-
ing with neatness and precision the final line. There
should be no gradation or expression ; all should be equal in
60 Suggestions for a Course of Study.
depth and regular in appearance. But when copymg pro-
jecting objects, such as boxes, boats, &c., from flat exam-
l^les, squares should be used as guides, and varying empha-
sis may be given to assist in making some parts retire and
others stand forward (as in Fig. 41).
When an example is copied the same size as the original,
it is a good plan to test its accuracy by means of tracing-
paper. This, however, should never be done till the copy
is carefully made.
(b.) TliG ^ mind to perceive,'' &c.
107. The power to see and feel delicately is as important
in shading as it is in form, and is tho^first step towards real
success.
The student may begin first with a small piece of
equal or flat shading, enclosed in an oblong of, say, one
inch by one and a half. This
^, ,_ ~^--'^-= =-" enclosed space may be filled
^^ — ^=^^^^^^^^^^^^TZz ^i^^^ equal shade in various
g:^^=^-^— r-^^^^- used, the space may be first
^^^ ^3^^^ '-^^ig filled with long, soft (never
^^.=..^-^:=::^E^ -_-..z_^^^^==: liard or wiry), parallel lines or
bars, nearly touching each other, and afterwards the
interspaces filled evenly up Avith a finehj-])ointed pencil.
If a pen or the point of a brush is to be used, the work
should be what is technically called 'cross-hatched,' that is,
short lines in one direction are crossed with short lines
in another direction ; but as lines crossing at great angles
62 Suggestions for a Course of Study.
.produce contrast, the angles formed by the lines should
be Yerj. acute, as at b, and never as at a. When this
cross-hatching is quite diy
the lines may be again
^^^^^^^^ ~^ crossed, till all the light
A spaces are filled, and the
whole area made perfectly even.
Sometimes, when the pencil is the instrument to be
used, and the paper has sufficient texture or grain on its
surface, a faint flat shade is laid over the whole space with
a stump, made of leather or of paper, and then the work is
completed with the point of pencil or chalk. *
108. On correcting errors, — In this shade exercise the
student may find that some j^arts will require amending ;
for each exercise should be worked at till quite even.
Suppose some part is too dark or spotty, the dark part
should be touched gently - with a crumb of bread
rolled into a shape like — I or, if this should fail
sufficiently to remove the I I error, a small hole should
be cut in a piece of stiff W paper and laid on the
drawing ; then the offending dark part may be removed
with bread or artists' gum (india rubber), and the light
thus made stippled up to the required shade. In j^en-
work the knife must be used for scraping down any dark
patches.
109. Gradation. — The second exercise in shading is
* This latter mode has been introduced into the Schools of Art
throughout the country by the newly-appointed and energetic Art
Director, Mr. Poynter, R.A.
Suggestions for a Course of Study.
63
similar to the first, but more difficult : for an oblong must
be filled in with a perfectly even but graduated tint, the
change from light at one end to
dark at the other being hy imper-
ceptible degrees, like the shade on
a chalk cylinder or on an Qgg.
The power of graduating
delicately is very important, and
should be practised again and
again till perfect mastery is obtained, — once obtained,
however, the student may know that he has made real
progress.
"When the stump is used in graduating a surface, it is
best to i^roceed as follows : — First, lay a perfectly flat, even,
light tint, over the parts requiring shading, and afterwaTds
proceed to lay in the darker parts, so tenderly as not to be
easily perceptible. Never, when shading light objects,
such as china, eggs, plaster casts, &c., make the shades
dark, but always light and tender. All good work is deli-
cate, though not feeble* .
(c.) ' The mind to distinguish,^ &c.
110. If the student has read the Introduction to this
volume, he will have learnt that very few persons can see
at all truly, and that this is no fault of the eye, but of
early training. It would be well if he would noAv read
again the remarks ^ On the Eye' and ^ On Seeing.'
(Chaps. I. and III.)
111. It is evident that no representation of an object
64 Suggestions for a Course of Study.
on paper can appear quite the same as the original does ;
for in nature the image of tlie object is presented to the
mind from two points of vision, represented by the two
eyes, and is really a blended image of two views. This,
of course, cannot be put down on paper,* for Art recog-
nises only one eye. It is, therefore, better for the student
at first, when sketching the outline of any form, to use
only one eye, and to treat the object as though it were
perfectly flat. Some students find it a help to imagine a
piece of glass placed in front of them, and the contours of
objects traced on the glass. For students who have much
difficulty in seeing things as they appear, the 'Diascope'
(see Appendix), or a piece of glass with squares ruled on it,
will be of great service.
112. It is in this stage of his work that the student will
feel the disadvantage of not having drawn from objects in
his childhood ; and every opportunity of sketching objects
should now be seized, not so much in making set and
formal studies, as in jotting down very frequently the
shape of anything about him, and on any paper that hap-
pens to be conveniently at hand. A common, cheap pocket
sketch-book, carried in the pocket ready for use, Avill be
convenient.
113. As to systematic work, it is best to go through a
regular course of olject draioiiig, making such application
of perspective rules as artists do ; an explanation of which
will be found under the head of 'Artistic Perspective' in
the present work.
* This is seen in the Stereoscope.
Suggestions for a Course of Study.
65
We may, however, here state, for the benefit of begin-
ners, a few facts in connexion with the appearances of some
simple elementary forms.
If a square sheet of paper or cardboard be held in
front of the face and parallel to it, the actual shape of the
square will be seen (Fig. 43) ; but if
it be laid on the table, still keeping
one edge of the paper parallel to the
spectator, it will appear foreshortened
(Fig. 43). If it
be raised a little
from the table,
keeping it quite
horizontal, the figure will appear narrower and narrower,
as at a (Fig. 44), until it is raised to the level of the eye.
Pig. 43.
Fig. 42.
d
-^
h—
C
'-y-
Z^^^'aZl
s
c
/
Fig. 44. .
when the square is lost in a line, as at l. Raising it
higher, it assumes the shape seen at d. If the retiring side
lines of each square be continued or * produced,' they will
all appear to converge towards a point in the centre of the
line, c, exactly opposite the eye of the spectator. This is
parallel perspective.
5
66
Suggestions for a Course of Study.
114. If we now place a square piece of cardboard on
each side of the first one, and still parallel to the spectator,
we shall find a similar result, as shown at e and /, where
all the receding lines appear to converge towards the point
opposite the spectator's eye, which in parallel perspective is
called the vanishing point, and usually marked v. P. Of
course, the same remark would apply to the circle, if placed
in any of the squares.
115. If the square cardboard be placed with one edge
on the table, and exactly opposite the spectator, and its
plane vertical, the sides will not be visible, and it will have
to be represented by a vertical line. If, keeping it in the
same direction exactly, it be moved a little to the right
hand or to the left, the plane becomes again visible, as
shown at g in Fig. 44 ; the retiring lines converging towards
the V. P. (vanishing point) opposite the eye.
Fig. 45.
Ftg. 46.
116. We have a similar result of foreshortening in
the two views of the round table (Figs. 45 and 4G),
Suggestions for a Course of Study. 67
and in the four retiring planes of the transparent cube
(Fig. 47).
/:
\
1 . _ -J
r
1
\
1
\
1
\
1
N
1
\
\
1
; .
'
Fig. 47.-
117. Now let the square cardboard be laid on the table,
with one corner towards the spectator: the appearance
will be as seen in Fig. 48. As the cardboard is raised
-D --
H.L.
Fig. 49.
more nearly to the level of the eye (still keeping it hori-
zontal), it will appear narrower (as a, Fig. 49). Eaising it
almost to the level of the eye, it assumes a shape as at b ;
and. finally, when it is exactly level with the eye, the
whole square is lost in the line, c, and forms part of the
H. L. (horizontal line). If the card is raised above the eye
. little, its shape will appear as at d. It will be observed.
68 Suggestions for a Course of Study.
that in this view of the square the retiring lines go in two
different directions, to the right and to the left, but that
all those li7ies icMch are parallel to each other recede to the
same point. This view of the square is called angular or
oblique perspective.
118. In this instance the two outside corners are at the
same distance from the spectator, and therefore on the same
level. Further, if the retiring lines on each side be ex-
tended, they will meet on the level of the eye (h. l.), at the
same distance on each side from the square.
Suppose, now, that the square cardboard be placed so
that one outside corner is further from the spectator than
the other, we shall have a result as follows (Fig. 50): —
The corner, c, will be higher than B, and the line, A c,
shorter than A B. The angle, d, is not over the nearest
angle. A, and the receding lines, a c and b d, when con-
tinued, terminate on the ^ii. l.' much nearer to the figure
than do the lines A b and c d.
119. A few careful exercises drawn from the square
cardboard, or from a square of wire, placed in various
positions, will prepare the student for entering more fully
into the drawing of cubical objects, such as boxes, chairs,
Suggestions for a Course of Study.
69
i
i o
houses, &c., by rule, as shown in the chapter on 'Artistic
Perspective.'
120. In drawing from objects the student should be
careful not to alter his position w^hen view-
ing his model, as, of course, it will appear
different from each new point of view.
Sometimes beginners use an ' eye - stand '
(like Fig. 51), which is simply a strong
upright wire on a stand, on which a piece
of card slides up or down : a knitting-
needle stuck into a pincushion, or into a
block of wood, will do. In the card is
a hole, through which to look at the
object again and again without danger of
changing the 'point of view.'
121. One of the principal difficulties
that the beginner meets with in drawing from objects is in
determining the apparent width of their retiring planes.
Only experience will enable him to overcome these diffi-
culties, though he may be greatly assisted by using the
Diascope, or a piece of ruled glass before referred to. The
most common mistake is in making retiring planes too
wide, as in the chair-seat in Fig. 52, instead of like
Fig. 53, which is more agreeable.
122. In drawing cylindrical forms, such as mugs,
basins, «S:;c., a frame-work should always be made, so as to
keep the lower lines curved in relation to the upper lines.
Such frame-work may be drawn as in Fig. 54, or as in
Fig. 51.
Fig. 55. It is a good plan for the student to consider the
70 Suggestions for a Course of Study.
Fig. 53.
Fig. 53.
Fig. 54.
Fig. 55.
Suggestions for a Course of Study.
71
object as transparent, and draw it accordingly. The com-
mon error in drawing forms of this kind is shown in Fig.
66, at A, where the two outside vertical lines are longer
Fig. 56.
than the nearest line, a h, and where the lower curve termi-
nates at each end in a sharp comer, c d.
123. The habit of imagining a plane of glass for the
picture plane, between the spectator and the object, and
viewing it only with one eye, will often greatly assist in
ascertaining accurately either the inclination or the curve
of a line.
124. The square, the cube, and the cylinder, form the
basis for drawing most other regular forms, and should,
therefore, be carefully studied and well mastered before
attempting irregular and intricate objects. When the
student has gone through this course conscientiously, he
will be fitted to proceed to the study of any special depart-
ment of Art, as landscape, figures, &c.
(d.) ^Tlie mind to Jearn,^ Sc.
125. Another stage in this course will be to gain the
habit of so looking at natural objects as to be impressed
Avith those properties or qualities about them by which
they are most clearly distinguished from other objects and
72
Suggestions for a Course of Study.
Fig. 57.
Suggestions for a Course of Study. 73
0 c ^ p.- ^-^
u^^J./ti^./.
Fig. 58.
74 Suggestions for a Course of Study.
from one anotlier. In a simple way this is explained at
some length in Chaps. III. and XVI., * On Observing Na-
ture' and 'On Character.'
This habit is but another term for the power of seeing,
which has been elsewhere spoken of. It should be begun
in childhood, in what are known as ' object lessons,' and
in some of the exercises of the * Kindergarten ' system.
A student who has not had such advantages, nor the great
advantage of watching others draw, may do much for him-
self by a few set exercises, both from drawings and from
nature. Some good examples of what is here meant may
be found in several of our comic serials, where the pecu-
liarities which are strongly characteristic of a thing or of
a person are slightly exaggerated, and which, though gro-
tesque, have in them much truth.
126. The power of observing the essential characteristics
of a place was one of Turner's most striking peculiarities.
Wherever he went he was perpetually observing and sketch-
ing ; and although some of his sketches were almost un-
intelligible to others, to himself they were full of meaning.
A curious example of this (a Sunrise) is shown by Mr.
Euskin in Modern Painters.'^ The illustrations given in
Figs. 57 and 58 are from a slight pencil-sketch of a Water-
fall by Turner, in the possession of the author. They are
as nearly as possible like the original as the mode of
reproduction would allow, and bear evidence of the fact
that he had a definite intention in every stroke of his
pencil.
* Vol. V. p. 187.
Suggestions for a Course of Study. 75
(E.) ^ The judgment to have,' &c,
127. The unreasonableness and impatience of ignorant
persons, in expecting large results from small and brief
exertions, have been most mischievous to those who have
had to do with Art, whether as teachers or as students. A
would-be amateur applies to a teacher for a -few lessons, to
enable him * just to dash off a few telling effects from na-
ture with his brush. He has never drawn much, and does
not care for the pencil ; all he wants is just to be able to
paint effectively and quickly.' Now, in such a case as this,
one of two things is certain — either that our would-be
amateur must be wonderfully gifted, or that the teacher
must be uncommonly stupid to have taken so many years
to acquire that which is to be learned in a few lessons.
In all true artistic feeling, the pier suit, not the result, is
the reward ; for where Art is rightly pursued, it produces a
continual satisfaction in the fact that, however slow, there
is progress, and that progress is sure ; and although the
work done may have no mercantile value whatever, it may
be regarded as the effort of an immortal mind striving to
improve itself, and, therefore, precious.
128. After going through such a course as is here
sketched out, the student will find that his eye and hand
have been brought under strict discipline, his perceptions
quickened, his feelings made sensitive, and his whole being
brought into sympathy with truth and beauty in Nature
and in Art. He is thus prepared to enter with confidence
of success into any technical application of drawing, or is
able to develop his faculties for still higher enjoyments in
that outward manifestation of God which we call Nature.
CHAPTEK XI.
ON CONTRAST.
129. Contrast and gradation in Art may be consid-
ered as almost opposite terms — the former revealing, and
the latter concealing, many forms and facts. Contrast is
exciting and irritating, whilst gradation is soothing and
agreeable.
In order properly to understand contrast, the student
would do well to make it an experimental inquiry.
130. If, at night, the upper portion of an open book be
held vertically against the strong light of a lamp, and the
rays from the lamp be allowed at the same time to enter
the eye, the letters on the upper part of the book Avill be
invisible, or nearly so, whilst the characters on the lower
part of the page can be readily seen. The rays of light
entering the eye, being so strong, cause the ^ pupil ' to be
contracted, and the rays from the book are too feeble to ren-
der the letters visible.
131. The eye is similarly affected, but in a less degree,
in the following diagram (Fig. 59).* Let A and A repre-
sent two pieces of paper, shaded with a perfectly even and
equal tint. Let b and b likewise represent two similar
pieces of paper, with a similar perfectly even and equal
tint, only darker than A and A. Now let them be placed
* Chevreul on Colour.
76
On Contrast.
77
as in the diagram, when it will be seen that the order of
darkness will be as follows : — A 1 will appear the lightest ;
A 2, darker ; B 3, darker still ; and B 4, by its juxtaposition
to A 1, darkest of all.
A
2.
A
1
B
13
3
Fig. 59.
132. This force of contrast will be more stroiigly ap-
parent in the following experiment, which, if made on a
moderately large scale, may also be a good exercise for
the student. Obtain a number of strips of paper, and let
them be lettered, numbered, and cut into widths bearing
a similar relation to those marked a, b, c, &c., in Fig. 60.
A
3
e
5
c
4
D
3
2
F
1
C
0
H
I
1
2
Fig. 60.
Let G remain clear. On all except g lay a perfectly flat
wash of colour (say Sepia) ; now, on all except f, g, and h,
lay another flat wash. On all except E, r, G, h, and i, lay
a third. Lay a fourth wash on A, b, c, D ; a fifth on B and
c ; and, lastly, a sixth on B.
78
On Contrast.
Place these sfcrij)S in juxtaposition quite neatly on a
sheet of white paper or cardboard, and in the order here
given. If rightly done they will, when viewed from a little
distance, have the appearance of a fluted column.
133. The strongest contrast in Nature is of white
against black and black against white, as may be seen in
Fig. Gl, where the white space in the centre of 1) looks
Fig. 61.
lighter than the surrounding paper, and a looks darker than
it would if laid on a tinted or dark surface.
134. Contrast in Art, however, has a much wider signi-
ficance than when applied to light and dark alone, and is
powerfully felt in the opposition of colours, of objects, and
of properties and qualities of things.
Fully to illustrate the contrasts of colour Avould require
yery many coloured diagrams, and extend far beyond the
limits of this work.
The student may, however, assigt himself by making
experiments with various coloured pieces of paper or card-
board; and, if he wishes to pursue the subject further, may
consult any of the following works :— Field's treatise on
On Contrast.
79
Chromotograpliy ; Grammar of Ornament^ by Owen Jones ;
Principles and Practice of Art, by J. D. Harding; or one
of the many works on Decorative Art.
Fig. 62.
135. T\\Q forms of oljects are contrasted with each other
to make them mutually more strongly felt, as when a
straight line is set against a curved one, or a square figure
80
On Contrast.
against a round one. The value of this kind of contmst
will be felt not only in the dancing figures (Fig. 62), but
especially in many of tlie landscapes in the work. (See
Composition, Chap. XXIV. )
136. The iwoperties of various bodies are often set in
contrast with each other in Art ; as, for instance, the soft,
thick, round masses of moss on a roof of hard, square slates,
or on a rock ; or a tender spray of leafage by a sturdy stem ;
or a hard, flat wall.
137. Contrast in size is frequently used to enable us to
judge of an unknown quantity by means of that of which
the size is known and fixed. This may be seen in the arches
on page 84. A portrait of Tom Thumb could only be cor-
rectly estimated by comparison with ordinary figures or
objects, whose magnitude is known ; and in like manner
the stoutness of Sancho is used to make the lanky length of
Don Quixote more strongly felt.
CHAPTER XII.
ON RELIEF.
138. By the term ^ relief ^ is simply meant the separa-
tion of an object from that which is behind it ; and in
drawing it is obtained by making the edges of the shading
perfectly even and clear, and not necessarily by contrasting
strong dark against strong light.
139. In Nature we seldom see things in relief by violent
contrast, but constantly by tender and varied, but clear
opposition ; by which we become so perfectly conscious of
their shapes, and of their location in space, that the eye no
longer voluntarily follows the outline. It is scarcely possi-
ble to trace the precise contour or limit of many objects,
unless they be either superficial or strongly and equally light
or dark throughout their entire surface.
140. The term 'relief is also used in relation to colour,
where we say one colour is * relieved ' or set against another ;
but we think it less legitimately belongs to drawing and
painting than to sculpture, where one object is distinctly
separated from another in the solid.
141. In sculpture proper, which has been well said to be
*an art which can conceal nothing,' the figure is insulated,
and stands quite clear of any background : it is sculpture in
the round.
142. Other terms, such as ' basso relievo ' ' alto relievo,'
6 81
82 Oji Belief.
and ^ mezzo relieyo/ are commonly applied to any work of
sculpture connected more or less with any plane surface or
background. Basso — low or flat — relief has a very slight
projection from the background. Alto relief, on the other
hand, is not only rounded to the full bulk, but has gen-
erally some portions of the figure detached from the back-
ground. Mezzo relief — a style between the other two —
though rounded to considerable bulk, has no part entirely
unattached to the plain surface behind it.
143. The finest examples of these different kinds of
relief, from various Greek temples, may be seen in the
British Museum. The commonest examples of bas-relief is
a coin — a penny, a shilling, or a sovereign.
144. The gates of the Baptistery of San Giovanni at
Florence, known as the ^ Ghiberti Gates,' show beautiful
examples of relief, though the introduction of landscape
is considered by many critics a misapplication. Our own
Flaxman produced probably the finest relievos of modern
date, of which his * Shield of Achilles' is a notable ex-
ample.
145. One of the clearest indications of excellence in
the Grecian bas-reliefs is, doubtless, that m addition to the
exquisiteness and perfection of work, the forms are so skil-
fully arranged as not to cast shadows that would interfere
with their clear manifestation.
CHAPTER XIII.
ON SIZE.
146. Many students puzzle themselves by not knowing
how large to make a drawing or a sketch, and also by a con-
fusion of the idea of size with that of proportion.
147. By size is meant merely magnitude : proportion is
the relation which one thing bears to another.
148. The size of a sketch or drawing is to a great
extent optional, though depending chiefly on the nature
of the subject, and partly on the time at the disposal of
the student as well as his power, and the ultimate purpose
of the drawing. Let us suppose he wishes to represent
the lamp on the table before him— it will be equally right
to draw it any size, from one to six or eight inches ; but
if the object be large, such as a house, an elephant, or a
tree, then he must consider how it will be best placed on
his paper, without being too little on the one hand, or too
overwhelming on the other.
149. There are, however, some objects, such as fruit,
flowers, &c., which should, when possible, be drawn the
same size that they actually are in nature. Suppose we
wish to draw a cluster of grapes, and we make them only
the size of peas, there will be danger that at flrst sight they
will be mistaken for currants. A hen's egg on a small
scale might be mistaken for the Qgg of some smaller
bird.
83
84
On Size.
150. Objects in a drawing may be made to appear
large or small by tlie juxtaposition of some other objects
Fig. C3.
Fig. 64.
Fig. 65.
of Tcnoimi size. The mind instantly sets up a comparison,
and judges the indefinite by the definite. In Fig. G3 is a
sketch of an archwav, of which we have no means of
On Size. 85
knowing, even ai^proximately, the size — it may be five, ten,
or fifteen feet high. In Fig. G4 the same arch is given,
but it is at once seen, by the figure passing through it, that
it is probably about six feet high ; wliilst in Fig. G5 the
same arch, by comparison with the figure, is judged to be
about twenty feet high.
It is important when sketching from nature objects
whose sizes may be variable, to sketch also something near,
the size of which is always the same. In Fig. 65 a ladder
would be sufficient to determine the height of the arch,
without the figure, for the ' rounds ' of a ladder are always
about nine inches apart.
151. Many persons on visiting, for the first time, the
mountains of Switzerland, are not deeply . impressed with
their magnitude, till by a process of inferential reasoning
— comparing the tiny-looking chalets on them with their
surroundings— it dawns on the mind that the mountains
must be large. In like manner the magnitude of a grand
mass of distant cumuli is scarcely perceived, except by a
similar process of reasoning. It has been stated elsewhere
that some of these masses reach an elevation of twenty
thousand feet from the earth.
It is evident, then, that only by a process of reasoning
can we make ourselves accurately acquainted with the
size of many objects — the clock-face, tree, mountain, or
moon.
CHAPTER XIV.
ON PKOPOETION.
152. The simple meaning of the term ^ proportion ' is
the relation which one thing bears to another ; but the
aj^plication of the term in Art is both wide and yaried.
There may be such a relation between the various parts
of an object as to produce in the mind a consciousness of
beauty, arising solely from the relation of parts to each
other and to the whole, and quite independent of any
function to be performed. An illustration of this is seen
in the kaleidoscope, and in many kinds of ornament. In
this case it is an appeal to the aesthetic faculty alone.
153. A second sense in which the term proportion
may be used is when it is applied to the varied relations
of parts or things to each other in view of something to
be accomplished or done ; as in a column to support a
superincumbent weight, or a horse to draw a load, or an
athlete to run a race. In this case the appeal is made not
to the feelings, but to the intellectual faculties and the
judgment.
154. An object may have fixed and unalterable pro-
portions, as in the sides and angles of a square. In some
cases the proportions are variable, as in the human figure,
the proportions of which differ much, the male from the
86
On Proportion. 87
female, and various male forms from each other, as the
Discobolus, or the wrestler from the Athlete. *
In Architecture the various parts of a building should
bear such a relation and adjustment of parts to each other
and to the whole, as to produce on a pure and unbiassed
mind a sense of agreeableness, satisfaction, and rest.
155. The diameter of the Doric column is large in
comparison with the length of the column, and conveys to
the mind the idea of solidity, durability, and deep repose.
The Corinthian column, containing more diameters than
the Doric, suggests to the mind the idea of elegance and
repose. '
A horse may be said to be in good proportion when
the parts bear such a relation to each other that it is well
adapted to its purpose, whether of speed or power. But
to speak of a horse being in good symmetry indicates a
confusion of ideas, for the term symmetry refers to the
corresponding sides or parts of a
thing. (See Symmetry, Chap. XV.)
156. The proportions of A and b
in Fig. 66 are exactly the same, and,
therefore, though they are different
in size, they are the same in shape.
• -r. .• • A i. ^1 Fig. 66.
Proportion m Art seems to be
almost equivalent to * harmony ' in Music. It will gener-
* The proportion in length of the Discobolus is said to be seven
heads ; an Athlete might be eight. There is an interesting chapter on
this subject in the Handbook of Pictorial Art, by the Rev. St. John
Tyrwhitt.
88 On Proportion.
ally be found that those forms whose parts are arranged on
certain definite proportions — where the whole and each par-
ticular member is a multiple of some simple unit — are most
satisfactory. Those proportions will be most beautiful
which the eye can least readily detect, provided, as we have
said, that they be multiples of some simple unit. Thus,
the proportions of a square being all alike, as 1 to 1, it is
the most palpable and least pleasing. The joroportion of a
double square, or 4 to 8, though better, will be less beauti-
ful than the more subtle ratio of 5 to 8 ; so also, 3 to 6 than
3 to 7, 3 to 4 than 3 to 5.
157. 'Harmony of form,' Owen Jones says, 'consists
in the proper balance and contrast of the straight, the
inclined, and the curved;' but what this 'proper balance
and contrast' is we are not told: and though Ha}^ in his
various works, especially in his Principles of Symmetrical
Beauty, gives a great number of figures by which to secure
beautiful proportions, the changes that may be made with
a few different lines — like the changes that may be rung on
a given number of bells — are so great and so subtle as far to
exceed the power of the eye to calculate, but not of the
aesthetic faculties to appreciate, and the mind then reposes
in the sensation of the beautiful.
CHAPTER XV.
ON SYMMETRY.
158. The term ' symmetry ' (so often misapplied) should
be allowed its true significance, viz. the correspondence of
two opposite sides of a thing.
It seems to be a law of Nature, that almost every
individual thing shall be composed of two laterally
similar parts in its outward appearance. As the internal
arrangement is often different from the external appear-
ance, as in animals, &c., it would seem as though it
was intended as a designed principle of beauty. This
similarity of parts is found constantly amongst flowers
and trees ; and in the decoration of our houses, both on the
walls and in the furniture, we find this law of symmetry
quite a necessity.
159. A distinction must be made between the sym-
metry of the parts, and the symmetry of the group or
cluster. Take man, for example — a compound form, a
group of trunk, limbs, and extremities. The outer con-
tours on each side of the body correspond with each
other, whilst the contours of the sides of each arm do not
correspond, nor the contours of the two sides of legs and
feet. Whatever part of the group is balanced by a similar
member on the other side is itself without symmetry.
The arm, therefore, is in itself not symmetrical, because
it is balanced by a similar member on the other side ; but
89
90
On Symmetry.
the head, which has not this plurality, is perfect in the
repetition of the two halves. The two ovals (Fig. 67) will
illustrate this principle more clearly.
160. So also in the arrangement of groups or clusters
of any objects, — the mind does not require an exact
repetition of forms, so much as the recognition of the km
of repetition. In a triptych, for instance, the two outer
panels may contain different subjects, provided that they
Fig. 67.
bear some relation to each other, and do not interfere with
this law of repetition. It would, however, be manifestly
wrong to have a figure subject in one panel and a landscape
in the other.
161. In the spandrils of a Gothic doorway, the
geometric lines forming the spandril will give the idea of
repetition ; then the subjects filling the spandrils may be
different, but must be the same in treatment, and should
bear some relation to each other, or to the edifice they are
intended to decorate.
On Symmetry,
91
162. It will be evident, then, that as we must obtain
from Nature the principles intended for our guidance, and
as in most beautiful natural objects there is found the
correspondence of one side to another and reciprocal
balance, so in all our works, whether of Fine Art, pro-
perly so called, of architecture, or of adornment simply,
Ave are bound to recognize, in some degree, this beautiful
law of symmetry, which seems to lie at the foundation of
all true ornamentation.
We cannot ordinarily apply this term to an animal (to a
horse, for instance), as indicative of some special excellence
of form, for if it were not symmetrical it would be simply
monstrous.
1G3. In a limited sense the term may be applied to
Landscape, as when the 'balance' of a picture is spoken
of, which means such a disposition of parts, whether of
light and shade, or of colour, as shall prevent us from
feeling that one side of the picture is heavier than the
other.
CHAPTER XVI.
ON SECUKINa CHAEACTER IN ART-WOEK
164. If we look at the furrows in a ploughed field, or
at a fissured rock, we shall see a good illustration of this
very descriptive word ' character.' Used in relation to
Art, it means all those peculiarities, whether of age.
Fig. 68. Fig. 69.
newness, roughness, or any other qualities which most
strongly impress themselves on the mind, and by which
the object is remembered, or its representation recognised.
For instance, if we consider the two bits of twig given in
Figs. 68 and 69, which at first sight are not very dis-
92
On Securing Character in Art-icorJc. 93
similar, we shall soon discover that whilst the one is full of
life and promise, the other, wanting those markings which
indicate life — the huds — is actually dead.
165. In making a drawing, whether from a copy or from
Nature, it is a good plan, before beginning, to write on a
separate paper the leading peculiarities by which the work
is distinguished or characterised, that in our representation
of it we may not so much copy the strokes of the example,
as the intentions of those strokes.
Thus, Expression in Art is but another word for
Feeling, and is more clearly explained than defined.
When we endeavour to make a perfectly straight line, or
l^roduce a piece of perfectly even shading, considerable
care is required to keep such equal pressure of hand that
no part may be darker than the rest ; but when we
attempt to represent, say, a tree, we have to ask ourselves
what about it most strongly impresses our minds — in
other words, what are its characteristics ? These we
endeavour to put down with such feeling or sympathy as
we can command. In the case of a tree, our efforts should
be directed to the expression of leafiness and rotundity,
more than to an imitation of the leaves; but it will be
evident that some knowledge of the shape of the leaves,
of their arrangement on the twigs, and of the way in which
the branches strike off from the stem and from one another,
will be necessary to enable us fully to get at and depict it,
not only as a tree, but as some particular kind of tree, such
as oak or ash.
166. In like manner, if the subject be a mossy rock, we
94 On Securing Character in Art-worJc.
should strive to express ideas of softness and thickness of
moss, and the hardness and angularity or rotundity, the
solidity, and the granularness of the rock.
If a thatched roof be the object, the essential qualities
will be those of thickness, weight, age, &c. ; and failing to
express these, however carefully the object may be copied,
it must be considered a failure.
167. Speaking generally, character is most clearly seen
on the light parts of objects and at their edges, but chiefly
Fig. 70.
where the light and shade separate — as may be seen in the
hamj^er (Fig. 70).
.168. In drawing from Nature it would be as impos-
sible as useless to put all down that is before us — the
camera can do that for us : it is the business of Art to
select and express those essential and striking truths by
which a scene may be identified by the mind and impressed
on the feelings.
CHAPTER XVII.
ON TASTE.
169. Volumes have been written on this much dis-
puted word. Mr. Ruskin says,* and we cannot do better
than quote, as far as possible, his words, — * Perfect taste
is the faculty for receiving the greatest possible pleasure
from those material sources which are attractive to our
moral nature in its purity and perfection. He who re-
ceives little pleasure from these sources wants taste ; he
who receives pleasure from any other sources has false or
bad taste.'
If an object, a form, or a colour be right, it is right,
independently of our intuitive choice or ^ taste.' If we ad-
mire it, our taste is good or pure ; if we do not admire it,
our taste is bad.
170. The term 'taste' must not be confounded with
that of 'judgment,' which is a term expressing a definite
action of the intellect. We may reason whether a thing be
right or wrong, and arrive at a definite conclusion ; but this
is not 'taste.' 'AH exertions of the intellect are totally
distinct from taste, properly so called, which is the instinc-
tive and instant preferring of one material object to another
without any obvious reason, except that it is proper to hu-
manity in its perfection so to do.'
* Modem Painters, Vol. I.
95
96 On Taste.
171. This intuitive faculty may be affected to an
unlimited extent by the circumstances of life. A child
educated amidst the surroundings of the true and the
beautiful in Art is much more likely to develop into a
man of good taste than one who continually has about him
only the common and not beautiful objects of life. But
this faculty can be developed by direct effort, as well as
by the subtle influence of things of beauty ; and we ought,
therefore, to make ourselves acquainted with those prin-
ciDles or laws by which objects may be determined to be
Fig. 71. Fig. 72.
right or wrong. It is possible that of the two slight
sketches (Figs. 71 and 72), some persons might at first
sight prefer the first : if so, the taste is bad. If we
proceed to analyse them, we shall soon arrive at a definite
and unalterable decision that the second is the more beauti-
ful, both on account of the variety of its contour and from
its suitableness. Whether or not it might be made more
beautiful by, say, a little alteration in the proportions or
in the curves, would be ascertained by a mixed exercise
of the feelings and intellect, under the control of the
judgment.
On Taste. 97
172. Taste, then, is the instant and spontaneous opera-
tion of a faculty of our moral nature, which is good or bad
in proportion as it is affected agreeably by that which is
pure and beautiful, or by that which is false.
173. AVe are liable, however, to be misled by the arti-
ficial value which ' the World ' puts on some things. Wlien
we are told by the learned connoisseur that ^that little
china vase, only twelve or fifteen inches high, cost 800
guineas, and would fetch 1000 guineas at Christie's to-
morrow,' we are in danger of having our judgment i^re-
judiced ; and before accepting the stated pecuniary value of
the vase as its real value, we ought to satisfy ourselves with
regard to its true excellence, and ascertain wherein that
excellence consists.
Our willingness to be pleased, and to please, in speak-
ing of matters of Art, should not be allowed to lead us
into the position of the enthusiastic old gentleman who,
when his friend remarked, as they passed through a pic-
ture-gallery together, how beautiful that was, replied ^ Oh !
very beautiful, very beautiful indeed; which is it, sir?'
Let us know clearly and distinctly what we are to admire,
and why. Is it ^Dcauty of form or colour ? or is it the
antiquity of the object ? or has it a history ? If it possesses
any of these qualifications, it may rightly command our
attention ; but the reason of its worth must be distinctly
maintained. It is not ^pretty' because fashionable, nor
beautiful because old ; if it has age or histor}'' it may be
Ycnerable. If we are told that it was excavated from the
ruins of some ancient city, it is interesting as a relic ; or it
7
98
On Taste.
may be the work of some once famous but now extinct
pottery, and has been in the possession of some royal family,
and, moreover, is the only specimen of the kind known to
exist; then it becomes a thing of history, and we must
admire it accordingly.
CHAPTER XVIII.
ON STYLE.
174. Style in drawing is what 'manner or Miand' is
in writing. One person may draw in a broad style (not
necessarily bold), as with a piece of charcoal ; another in a
fine style (not niggling), as with a pen. It has nothing to
do Avith truth of work, for a drawing may be broad and
true, or fine and false, or vice versa. Some styles of work-
ing, however, may be peculiarly adapted to the expression
of some particular kinds of truths : for cxami)le, nothing
could be better than the reed pen, used as Prout used it, to
express the kind of truth that he aimed at in his old build-
ings ; or than the comm^on, coarse, whity-brown paper that
David Cox was so fond of, and used in some of his wild
wind and moorland pictures.
175. But the term style may apply not only to the man-
ner of particular individuals in their w^ay of working, but
also to Schools and communities ; as, for example, the
' Byzantine style ' of ornament^ or the * Dutch style ' of
painting, and the ' Elizabethan style ' of architecture.
Not that Schools are determined or known by their
style alone, but by their 7notive. The motive of some of
the early Italian Schools was fidelity of imitation — so, also,
the Dutch Schools ; the motive in Art as represented by
Era Angelico, Bartolomeo, and others, was expression ;
99
100
On Style.
whilst colour seems to have been a chief motive of the
Venetian School.
176. It will be seen, therefore, that inasmuch as Style
is but the mode of expression employed by a person or a
School, and is not either the expression itself nor what is
to be expressed, it is of secondary importance, and indeed
entirely subservient to Motive.
CHAPTER XIX.
ON MOTIVE.
177. On Motive in Art-work, whetlicr in a child or a
School, depends the ultimate issue in good or ill, truth or
<^uA.^.^,V^f:^4;'vD.,
r-" \v
FiG. 73.
Fig. 74.
falseness. The motive exhibited severally in the two little
woodcuts (Figs. 73 and 74) would, if pursued, be whole-
101
102 On Motim,
some or disastrous. In the first one, our child aims at
something clever, regardless of individual truth ; whilst in
Fio-. 74, truth of flower, of stone, of tree, is strongly aimed
at, though feehly expressed : the ultimate issue of such aim,
however, would be natural and healthy.
178. There is a well-known law in morals which seems
closely to apply to Art. ' All virtue and goodness tend to
make men powerful in this world ; but they who aim at
the power have not the virtue. Again : Virtue is its own
reward, and brings with it the truest and highest pleasures ;
but they who cultivate it for the pleasure-sake are selfish,
not religious, and will never gain the pleasure, because
they never can have the virtue.'* The same formula,
transposing the word ^Art' for 'virtue,' seems to hold
good here.
If this be true — and we scarcely think it can be
doubted— the motive of the student should be a very high
and pure one. As Ruskin truly saj^s, ' Every action, down
even to the drawing of a line or utterance of a syllable, is
capable of a peculiar dignity in the manner of it, which we
sometimes express by saying it is truly done (as a line or
tone is true), so, also, it -is capable of dignity still higher in
the MOTIVE of it. For there is no action so slight, nor so
mean, but it may be done to a great purpose, and ennobled
therefore ; nor is any purpose so great but that slight ac-
tions may help it, and may be so done as to help it much,
most especially that chief of all purposes, the pleasing of
God. Hence George Herbert : —
* Shairp, Culture and Religion, p. 61.
On Motim, 103
"A servant with this clause
Makes drudgery divine ;
Who sweeps a room, as for Thy hiws,
Makes that and the action fine."
'Therefore, in the pressing any manner of acting,, we
have clioice of two separate lines of argument : one based
on tlie inlierent vahie of the work, which is often small ;
the other on proofs of its acceptableness, so far as it goes,
to Him who is the origin of virtue.'* Better far for the
student that he be a disciple of George Herbert or Fra
Angelico, both in humility and motive, than of Salvator
Kosa, with his grand effects but monstrously impossible
geology, or of Gustave Dord, with his insinuating and
dangerous exaggerations.
179. Regarding this last-named artist we wish not to
be misunderstood. That Gustave Dore is a remarkable
genius there can be little doubt. His creative power is
wonderfully prolific, and his imaginative faculties are mar-
vellous. As Dante's exponent he stands alone, and as the
illustrator of Don Quixote he is unrivalled. We do not
much care, even, if in Elaine a female figure seven or eight
feet high appears ; the error does not dawn on us at once,
and in many cases is never noticed. Here is the legitimate
sphere for the imagination, which has its laws, and we are
not aware that he often goes beyond them. But this
imaginative faculty is just what entirely unfits him, we
think, to become a representer of facts, and it is for this
reason we protest against him as an illustrator of the Bible.
* Ruskin, Seven Lamps, p. 5, Introduction.
104 - On Motlm.
Here we do not want man's imagination ; we want facts,
and such clear statement of them as will help our judg-
ment to the realisation of the truth. There is more help
and comfort in Holman Hunt's sketch of an Eastern work-
shop, which forms the frontispiece to Canon Farrar's
Life of Christy than in all the dramatic imaginings that
hold a thoughtless public all a-stare during several years of
London exhibition seasons.
180. We may as well explain here a little more fully
what is meant by motive. It is generally understood that
the purpose of a jpicture is in some way to teach, instruct,
or enlighten, and in this way painters may be our teachers.
Let us, then, for a moment consider what is done by two
classes of men — taking Holman Hunt as representative of
the true. He proposes to instruct us concerning the * Scape-
goat' in Leviticus, chap. xvi. An ordinary painter of
the sixteenth century might supply himself with mate-
rials from his own country, probably not unmixed with
anachronisms ; and not a few nineteenth-century artists
would be content with such materials as could be gathered
in a tour through Switzerland, or the Riviera — possibly
visiting a friend's shooting-box in Scotland for a back-
ground. Holman Hunt, however, must go to the land
where the scenes about Avhicli he is to instruct us w^ere
enacted ; and not only so, but to the very dreariest of the
weary scenes of that waste wilderness below the Dead Sea,
that not only his eyes may see, but tliat his whole soul
may be imbued with the sentiment he would press upon us.
What was the result ? A picture of which Fashion, in
On Motive. 105
her blindness, for once spoke the truth, though she could
not appreciate. The picture was ugly ! — no interest in it !
— the goat wretched ! — and so on. How could such a
subject be otherwise, and yet the truth ? How could a
wilderness with sin in it be otherwise ? — and should not
that creature look wretched that is represented as bearing
a nation's sins ?
181. When Millais exhibited his picture of ^ An Enemy
Sowing Tares ' in the Eo^al Academy, about twelve years
ago, it was hung high, and people said, MVhat an ugly
thing ! ' The sower looked bad, and it was dark and
gloomy, and there were wretched-looking reptiles crawling
about. And yet how could the picture of such a deed of
darkness be otherwise, and at the same time true ?
182. If pictures are to read to us lessons, w^e might
inquire what lesson are we to learn from ^ The Otter-hunt,'
by Landseer, or 'The Boar-hunt,' by Schneider, or 'The
Bull-fight,' by Ward ? Grand in their exhibition of artistic
power, but what of their teaching ? What is the difference
between the teaching of 'The Otter-hunt' and a visit to
Hurlingham on a fete day ? or between that of a boar-hunt
and a place at a pigeon-shooting match near a Lancashire
town ? And are these the pictures to be hanging on the
walls of our homes, to be seen by our children ? Surely, in
our house decoration we might use a little more thought
and common sense.
Further, it should not be forgotten that in an illus-
trated work the artist or illustrator always gets the atten-
tion of the reader before the author does, for the picture
106
On Motive.
appeals instantly to the eye on the opening of the page,
whilst the truth which the author presents has to be ob-
tained from the type by a much more laborious process.
How important, then, that painters and illustrators should
be true men ! Many people look at illustrations, but do
not read the text ; few read the text without looking at the
illustrations.
183. Eeturning, then, from this digression, we cannot
too strongly urge on the student the importance of ex-
amining his motives in pursuing Art, that they may not
be either thoughtless or selfish, but such as will develop in
him the faculty of appreciating that which is true and of
avoiding that which is false.
* |n \\i arorn lug the <Dah,'
CHAPTER XX.
ON BEAUTY.
184. 'Beauty' and 'goodness' are names we give
to that whicli approximately satisfies our taste or our
conscience. Just as appetite of the intellect is stayed by
truth, so our aesthetic and moral faculties are capable of
like satisfaction in the recognition of beauty and goodness.
It is sometimes said that that which is beautiful or good
to one, may be the opposite to another. This, we think, is
a fallacy. Truth and goodness are entities quite inde-
pendent and unchangeable ; but our faculties for the
appreciation of truth and goodness may be untrained or
perverted, or they may be cultivated to the highest point
of sensibility. As we have elsewhere stated, they are
capaUe of education, and they suffer by neglect. If any
object — such as a vase, for instance — be beautiful or ugly,
it is so independently of all opinions, for it is a matter of
fact and not of -opinion. We cannot justly say that it is
a matter of taste, for taste may be good or bad, and cannot
alter the fact ; and if we wish to ascertain what the fact is,
it must be by the gathering together of evidences, and
the exercise of a sound judgment on those evidences.
When Mr. Ruskin says, 'Any material object which can
give us pleasure in the simple contemplation of its out-
107
108 On Beauty.
ward qualities, without any direct and definite exertion
of the intellect, I call in some way, or in some degree,
beautiful,' we cannot but think that very much depends
on the 'us' — that is, whether we (the 'us') have true or
pure taste.
185. Dugald Stewart says, 'Notwithstanding the great
variety of qualities — physical, intellectual, and moral — to
which the word leauty is applicable, I believe it will be
admitted that, in its primitive and most general applica-
tion, it refers to objects of sight.'
186. Besides beauty of form, there is beauty of colour,
of composition, of light and shade, and of expression ; all
of which are referable to certain principles. The various,
constituents that go to make up beauty are infinite, but
there are some few which are generally present in any-
thing we call beautiful, and are briefly referred to in
various parts of the work, especially in the next three
chapters.
' All our moral feelings are so interwoven with our
intellectual powers that we cannot affect the one without
in some degree addressing the other ; and in all high
ideas of beauty it is more than probable that much of the
pleasure de])ends on delicate and untraceable perceptions
of fitness, propriety, and relation, which are purely in-
tellectual. . . . Ideas of beauty are amongst the noblest
which can be presented to the human mind, invariably
exalting and purifying it according to their degree, and
it would appear that we are intended by the Deity to be
constantly under their influence, because there is not one
On Beauty.
109
single object in nature which is not capable of conveying
them.' *
187. To a right and full enjoyment of beauty, whether
in Nature or in Art, there must be a knowledsre of the
philosojihy of Nature, and of the principles of Art. But to
this end there must also be the operation of the feelings,
made sensitive by the intelligent practice of Art ; thus the
mental faculties, the feelings, the eye, and the hand, act
in concert.
* Ruskin, Modem Painters, Vol. I.
CHAPTER XXI.
ON FITNESS.
188. Ik a perfect sense of beauty of form, fitness
constitutes an essential element ; for though many things
may in themselves be beautiful, yet from the want of
fitness in their application they may become at least nuga-
tory.
In all complete works there must be a sense of agree-
ment and suitability of parts, not only in their individual
forms, but in their kinds. An Italian greyhound is a
beautiful creature, but would be quite out of place in a
stable ; and a calf, though very picturesque in a lane,
would be oddly out of jjlace on a lawn.
189. We must not forget, however, that this idea of
fitness is of a twofold kind, in one case appealing to the
senses, in another to the intellectual faculties and the
judgment. In the former case a number of objects may
be so related to each other, as to give the idea merely of
agreeableness, like sounds, apart from all function, and
give pleasure ; or, an object not essentially beautiful in
itself may become so to the mind by the recognition of its
adaptation to perform some particular function. Take, for
instance, the hand for handling, or the foot for walking :
if we are acquainted with the mechanical appliances of
the foot in walking, we are charmed, and look at it, apart
110
On Fitness. Ill
from its form, as a thing of beauty ; and in proportion as
we know and are charmed with Nature's appliances in the
human foot, so shall we be disgusted with and intolerant
of the utter vileness and tyranny of fashion, in dictating
to a world of reasonable but unreasoning votaries, heels
two inches higher than the Wise Designer saw fit to make
them.
190. The principle here referred to will apply not
only to architecture, sculpture, painting, and ornament, but
to ahnost everything by which we are surrounded. Thus
it will be seen, then, that in a work of true art there must
be a fitness, both in form and in function, of the various
parts composing it, which must precede everything else.
The walls and furniture of our rooms, the floors and carpets
on which we tread, the crockery and silver on our tables,
the ornaments on our mantel-shelf, and even the very fire-
irons themselves, all should be subject to this principle.
How often do we see highly elaborate fenders and pokers
—the latter so heavy and ornate that a deputy has to be
appointed, which is sometimes, in irony, called the 'curate.'
About the hearth there should be as little ornament in
'relief as possible. And as the carpet is intended as a
. surface to be walked upon, all striking patterns on it
should be avoided. The principle will apply continually,
because (as will be shown in Chap. XXVI.) it is founded in
truth.
CHAPTER XXII.
ON VAKIETT.
191. Variety in Art, as in Nature, is one of the chief
sources of beauty, and forms one of the trio of essential
elements in its production. Like every other essential
quality in Art, it is subject to laws naturally belonging
to it — for without obedience to law there can be neither
beauty nor truth. The extent of its operation is simply
infinite, and infinity is a characteristic of Nature. No two
things, from a blade of grass upwards, are exactly alike.
Variety seems to be a necessity of our nature. This is '
well shown by the late J. D. Harding,* "^by supposing a
number of beautiful women to be seen together, and that
each merited the appellation. It would be found, on
examination, that, however great the number, they all
varied; and that this variety, in fact,- constituted the
aggregate beauty of the wdiole number, and was insepara-
ble from it. Again, supposing we could select one from
*
among them, who by universal consent was admitted to be
«
the inost heautiful, what beholder would desire that some
magician's wand should make the rest exactly like her ?
Who, if such a change could be effected, would not feel a
desire to return to that variety which must ever be the
captivating constituent of beauty, both in the individual
* Princijiles and Practice of Art.
112
On Yariety.
113
and in the aggregate ? Witliout the one, we cannot have
the other. Were beauty always to take the same form and
expression, the eye and the mind would be fatigued by its
perpetual recurrence. But, as variety is given to beauty,
and is inseparable from it, the eye anrl the mind are excited
and gratified by fresh and unanticipated combinations of
form and expression.'
192. Mr, Harding afterwards proceeds to show, in a
Fig. 75.
palpable manner, that variety is an indispensable consti-
tuent of beauty, and that perfect beauty is constituted of
infinite variety, thus :— ^On cutting segments of the circle
of different sizes, s s s s, we shall find that the curvature
of the arcs is precisely the same, whatever may be the
difference in size ; since, from the construction of the
circle, the circumference is, during its whole circuit,
equally distant from the centre, and consequently all the
radii, R R R R, are of equal length, and the curvature is in
8 .
114
On Variety,
every point the same. This form, therefore, cannot be the
most beautiful, because it wants variety.
^On the other hand, if we cut segments from the egg,
s s s s, we shall find that, whether their chords be equal
or not, their curvature and assumed radii, R E R R, are
unequal, so that no part of any segment would repeat
part of another, or of itself on the same side ; for as the
curvature of these segments is perpetually changing,
Fig. 76.
they could not be rei^resented by radii such as I have
been here obliged to place in order to make myself un-
derstood. Here, then, is greater variety, and therefore
more beauty. This, so far, is only offering the test to
the eye, or the limited power of the compasses ; but if,
instead of this, we take a mental view, we shall feel
yet more thoroughly conscious of the sameness of curva-
ture in the sphere, and of the infinite variety which
On Yarietij. 115
the ovoid, or Qgg form, admits of. If wc should conceive
segments infinite in number to be cut from a sphere, we
should still have the same curves ever occurring ; but
should we conceive an Qgg so cut, the curvature and radii
of the segments would be of infinite variety, and conse-
quently, of the two, this is the most beautiful form.' He
then demonstrates how the most beautiful of Nature's
works, the human form, is made up almost entirely of
ovoid forms.
193. To get a correct idea of the infinity of this beauti-
A B
Fig. 76 a. Fig. 76 5.
ful figure, which combines in one so much variety with the
law of symmetry, we must not confine our observations to
one form or proportion of the ovoid. It will be evident,
when we consider it mathematically, or when we attempt to
construct it, that as the longitudinal and transverse diame-
ters can be varied in every possible relation, so we may
obtain, not only one ovoid with constantly varying curva-
ture, but an infinite variety of ovoids, from the very elon-
gated (Fig. 76 a) to the very compressed (Fig. 76 I), each
having the law of infinity stamped upon it.
116
On Variety.
Ovoids of yarious 23roportions may be made by an
instrument specially adapted for that purpose ; but
they may also be roughly made as follows (Fig. 77): —
Draw any line, c D, and bisect it as with
the line A B. Now fix pins at the points,
A B c D, and tie a string tightly round them.
Eemove the pin at c, and the string will lie
loosely about the three remaining pins, A B D.
If a pencil be now introduced within the
string, so as to restore it to its original ten-
sion, and be carried round so as to keep it
always equally stretched, it will trace the
ovoid, or composite ellipse.
It will be evident that the shape of the ovoid will
depend on the relation to each other of the two isosceles
triangles, cad and c B d. If the angles, c a d, for in-
stance, be, say 108°, and c B d 27°, we shall have a form
suited to the human face ; but if we make cad, say 120°,
and c B D 15°, we shall have a shape suited to a tall vase or
jar, and vice versa.
The student is recommended to work out for himself
this simple plan for constructing an ovoid.
194. It is the judicious combination of lines giving
infinite variety that has caused so many Greek forms,
especially vases, to remain unsurpassed during all the Art
efforts of 2300 years.
It would occupy too much space in a work of this kind
to follow this element of variety tliroughout its almost
endless applications, not only in ornamental art, but also in
On Variety.
117
architecture, sculpture, and painting. It applies equally
to the form of a leaf or to the shapes and modelling of a
mountain — not only to shapes, but to the quantities and
directions of shapes, and in composition (as in the Rhine
boats below), and as we shall presently find, it is in constant
requisition.
""J®^: -.V. :'ti^R^
CHAPTER XXIII.
ON UNITY.
195. Ik the consideration of the various elements, the
combinations of which are necessary to secure beauty in a
work of Art, it will be found that they almost inevitably
overlap or impinge on each other to some extent.
Variety has been spoken of as productive of beauty ;
but this variety must not run riot, and be introduced
merely for its own sake, but under certain restrictions and
relationships, so as to allow — or, perhaps, rather to suggest
— the idea of Unity.
This idea of Uuity, or oneness, which is the subordi-
nation of all the parts to the completeness of the whole,
is as essential in a work of pictorial art as in a piece of
music. We find it, like a cord, running through and
tying together all nature ; and it seems to have been a
divine idea in the creation of all things, binding organic
forms, from the highest to the lowest, in one complete
cycle; and although the completeness of any individual
natural form may in itself convey this idea of unity, it is
only one of an iufinity of individuals, the whole of which
are governed by this same idea. And thus it is that in
contemplating any object, we do so with the conviction
that the designer of this one object was also the designer
of the whole visible universe. Unity, then, being that
118
On Unity. 119
which connects all individuals into one whole, is the ele-
ment which expresses and produces completeness.*
196. In Art, as in morals, the mind may enjoy for a
time, but cannot obtain rest in the incomplete or in the
imperfect, and the higher the work, the more strongly is
the necessity of completeness felt : it is like a beautiful
piece of music performed with the omission of a few notes
at the beginning and ending of it.
197. A sketch may be incomplete, but the mind, taking
cognisance of the fact that it does not aim at or pretend to
completeness, enjoys it as a fragment, or as a part only of
some whole.
198. The idea of unity has nothing to do with unifor-
mity, but is an aggregation of differences which form one
whole.
* There are some extraordinary parallelisms and relationships re-
cently discovered between sound and form confirming this idea, but
they are scarcely suited for an elementary work of this nature.
CHAPTER XXIV.
ON COMPOSITION.
199. 'Composition^ may be defined to be such a collo-
cation of the several objects in a work of Art, both rela-
tively to each other, and with respect to the whole, that
each and all may most efficiently contribute to the perfec-
tion of the general design.' It may also be defined as the
help given by everything in the picture to everything else to
make a whole.
Composition brings to us a higher degree of beauty,
and therefore of satisfaction, by the association of objects
in such a combination as will most agreeably and most
powerfully affect us ; but in every case the objects must
be so arranged as to appear perfectly natural, both with
reference to the things introduced, and to the places they
severally occupy in the group.
200. We wdll endeavour to illustrate this in a familiar
manner. Let us empty on to the table before us the
contents of a general and promiscuous pocket. We may
have something like what is given in the rough sketch
(Fig. 78),— several keys,* including a railway key and a
watch key, a knife, a railway pass-book, a piece of lead
pencil, and several coins. Now we at once find that we
have more objects of the same kind than are necessary
for a group, and so we proceed to eliminate by taking
120
On Compos Ition.
121
away several coins (which are repetitions of the same
form), and several keys. The objects for our group now
feel more under control. But we inquire", Wliat natural
relation exists among them ? None, except perhaps
between the knife, i)encil, and book; and so we remove
the coins and the keys. AVe further discover that as the
knife happens to be a fruit knife (silver), it bears no
relation to the pencil, or book ; nor, finally, the pencil
to the *Pass;' and so these also must be eliminated. In
Fij. 73.
fact, out of the whole of the dozen or more articles, we
cannot form a natural and consistent group.
2Q1. We will try again, however, beginning with a
single object, say a piece of ordinary lead pencil, and
inquire what will naturally go well with this. A knife,
or a piece of eraser, or a pocket-book, — any or all of these ;
and we try to arrange them agreeably : but we find, as
they lie flatly on the table, we have no upright object
with which to vary the group, and so we add, say, a
tumbler with water in it. But as this tumbler bears no
relation to the other objects, we may instantly, by intro-
122
On Composition.
ducing a paint-brush into tlie group, suggest a relationship,
and especially if we show also a bottle of Chinese white.
We have now materials for our proposed composition
which bear some relation to each other, and we will proceed
to arrange them.
Fig. 79.
They may, perchance, be as in Fig. 79 ; but though
this may be said to be natural, or according to Nature,
it will -not satisfy the necessities of Art. We had better
Fig. 80.
begin by letting the principal object occupy the chief
place, near the centre, and then arrange the other objects
'about it so as to secure both yariety and unity. We have
done so in Fig. 80, with a satisfactory result.
On Composition.
123
202. The relation of the parts of a composition to each
other, and to the whole, may, perhaps, be better under-
FiG. 82.
Fig. 83.
Fig. 84.
stood by considering them as lines only. If we place two
or more lines parallel to each other, we shall not feel that
they bear any real relation. If we place
them as in Fig. 81, we shall feel that they
more oppose than combine ;
and by placing one line per-
pendicular to another we have
them in strongest contrast, as
in Fig. 82 ; whilst if we place
them as in Figs. 83 and 84,
they compose towards each
other ; and thus combining,
we may go on till we get to
Fig. 85 (our Crocus), one of
the most beautiful, simple
flowers we haye, which conveys the idea of
variety with unity, and in some degree of
symmetry also, though not absolute, as in Fig. 86. But
how, it may be asked, will tliis apply to landscape ?
Fig. 86.
Fig. 85.
124
On Composition.
Fig. 87.
Fig. 88.
Fig. 89.
Fig. 90.
Let Figs. 83 aTid 84 be placed horizontally, as in Figs. 87
and 88, and we have at once the general direction
of the lines forming the foundation of Figs. 89 and 90,
On Composition.
125
V"""'» I -" " -^^^'^^
Fig. 91.
Fig. 93.
126
On Compos it lo)u
Fig. 93.
Fig. 94.
Fig. 95.
Chi Composition.
127
and also for Fig. 91. If we analyse the two following
examples (Figs. 92 and 93), we shall find that they
resolve themselves into the simple elementary lines of
Fig. 98.
Fig. 97.
Figs. 94 and 95. It is by such means that the mind
may often suggest what the feelings require, but can-
not discover ; for the mind and the feelings should act
in concert in the production of a work of Art as well as
in its analvsis.
128
On Composition.
203. There are some qualities and cliaracteristics
whicli are more readily ex^Dressible by lines and by light
and shade than others. The sentiment produced by these
is sometimes easily traced to its exact source. To some
extent the ideas of repetition and monotony associate
themselves with that of stillness, which is allied to repose ;
and stillness is a condition of things with which avc may
become quite familiar — a condition in which Nature is
Fig. 98.
most easily represented by a tone of shade, by repetition
of lines, and by certain positions of lines, as in the rough
sketch (Fig. 96) ; whilst contrast of light and dark, and
opposition of lines, as in Fig. 97, give rise to a contrary
feeling.
204. If we take any rectangular parallelogram as our
picture, and divide it into equal parts, as in Fig. 98, the
intersection will mark the part of the picture space which
is the weakest place for the princi])al object of a pictorial
composition, for it divides the picture into two equal
On Compos It Ion.
129
halves. In the case of merely ornamental design, where
exact symmetry is an important constituent, this of course
does not apply.
By dividing the parallelogram into thirds or fifths, we
shall obtain what may be called the strong positions of the
picture ; but if some of tliese parts or positions on one side
are occupied witli points of interest, the corresponding parts
on the other side become neutralised for any equally impor-
tant feature of interest.
205. Tlius it will be seen that the various methods of
composition, especially in landscape Art, have for their
aim the introduction of pleasing, or at least mentally
satisfactory qualities, without disturbing what we might
almost call the idiosyncrasies of Nature. For rules and
helps we should ever study, not so much the customs of
men, as the works of Nature herself. Whichever way we
look, we always find in her the assertion of three grand
laws, — Fitness, Variety, and Unity.
9
CHAPTER XXV.
ON LIGHT AND SHADE AS APPLIED TO GROUPS OF OBJECTS AND
TO PICTURES,
206. li^ Chapter VIII. the remarks on 'light and
shade ' had reference only to in dividual objects : we are
now to see how light and shade operate on objects, in-
dividually or grouped, when considered in relation to the
whole picture. This can only be done here in a very
limited manner ; fully to show its importance would require
many costly plates.
207. As the purpose of light and shade in the repre-
sentation of an object is to give the idea of projection,
and to show the space it occupies, so the purpose of light
and shade, when applied to a picture, is to fill it with
space, and to locate, to conceal, or to reveal, the various
objects it may contain, whether houses or trees, figures or
mountains, and lead the mind of the spectator to consider
chiefly those parts of the work that the artist wishes him
to see.
208. If the student will, as before, make simple ex-
periments, he may more easily understand some important
truths in connexion with the subject.
Let him, on a stout piece of cartridge or of grey
paper, make two accurate but delicate outlines in ink of
any clearly defined subject, such as Fig. 90, or Fig. 97,
130
On Li gilt and Sliacle. 131
only considerably larger. With a piece of charcoal,* or a
pencil that will easily rub out, he may now treat the subject
under different aspects, and then compare them with each
other ; his feelings will soon inform him which is the most
agreeable treatment, and his intellect and judgment will
furnish him with the reasons why it is so.
In attempting such exercises he must consider the
position and kind of light that is to illumine his picture,
its effect on the large masses, the local colour of the
various parts ; and when these considerations have been
attended to, he may greatly modify and complete the
whole by the introduction of accidental shadows of various
shapes and intensities.
When these experiments have been made with a few
simple subjects, those of a more extensive and intricate kind
may be attempted : for instance, such as Figs. 91 and 93. \
209. It is not unfrequently the case that when an
artist has determined to paint a particular subject from
Nature, he has to commence it under very unfavourable
circumstances of light and dark ; but he is ever watchful
for any happy moment when the scene may be lit up by
some bright gleam of light which may instantly transform
it from the commonplaccness of a dull day into a beautiful
picture.
This instantaneous ' effect ' he rapidly secures (perhaps
* Charcoal must be dusted off the paper, not nibbed.
f If grey or tinted paper be used, the light parts of the sky, and the
brightest parts of near and very light objects, may be put in with a
piece of extra soft white chalk, or with Chinese white.
132 0)1 Light and Shade.
only on brown paper with charcoal and soft white chalk),
and by it he is assisted in completing his work, by adding
to beautiful forms and accurate drawing the charms of
ever-changeful lights and shadows.
210. And now let the student, in imagination, climb,
on this fine April morning, to the top of some hill, and
watch the marvellous effect of the cloud shadows as they
travel over hill and down dale, concealing, revealing,
gladdening, saddening ; our spirits going up or down as
one moment we stand in the bright liglit, and in the
next in deep shade — a picture of our human lives. The
winding stream, the rustic bridge crossing it, the woody
hill-side, the fortress-like rock, and the hills in the distance ;
these are the features that the mind loves to dwell upon
and the memory to recall, as the clouds cast their fleeting
shadows across the scene alternately bright in light, or fall-
insr into shade to be revealed anew.
These accidental cloud shadows are a most important
means in the hands of a painter for expressing space and
light, and for inducing the eye and mind to dwell on what-
ever is most interesting.
211. If the student, with these thoughts in his memory,
will look over a work like Turner's Rivers of France, his
Harlours of England, or the Liher Studiorum ; or go
through an exhibition of old (English) masters' works,
especially of water-colour drawings by such men as De
Wint, Varley, Barrett, Cox, Copley Fielding, and Hard-
ing]:, he w^ill have a mass of evidence that wdll convince
him of the grand power which these accidental cloud
On Light and Shade. 133
shadows place witliiu the reach of artists for the expres-
sion of space, light, and beauty.
212. These accidental shadows must not appear in
spots, or be clearly visible throughout their entire forms,
but should usually run continuously from side to side
of the picture, as they generally do in nature. Being
irregular in form, and passing over irregular surfaces,
their exact shapes cannot be traced ; but being subject to
that foreshortening which all retiring surfaces show, —
whether a table-top, a room, or a vast landscape, — tliey will
almost invariably appear to extend from side to side of the
picture, as in Fig. 99, and. not into it.
213. As illustrations of what we mean by the distri-
bution of light and shade in a picture, let us consider the
two Figs. 100 and 101. In the former, the u])per and more
interesting part of the building is left light, whilst the
other part becomes darker as it gets lower, and ultimately
blends with the dark shadow on the ground, the nearer
part of which is in strong light. To prevent the mono-
tony of so large a mass of dark, a figure is introduced, the
white and black dress of which prevents the dark shade
on tlie building from looking heavy. But to make this
more strongly felt, let the student with a soft pencil
shade over the light parts of the building, the figure, and
the foreground,— he will instantly perceive that all space
and light are destroyed, — in fact, that the drawing is
spoilt. It can be made right again by cleaning witli a
piece of bread.
214. Now let us take the second one. In this subject
C5
O
I— (
f,A\M^.
y" ^...^
136
On Light and Shade.
we have at once sucli elements of the picturesque as would,
independently of well-arranged light and shade, be interest-
ing ; a lane, fine aged trees, old railings, a clear slcy, and a
church spire. Moreover, these features are so combined as
to make the ^ li7ies ' of the picture harmonious and agree-
On Li gilt and Shade.
137
able. A dark cloud shadow is thrown over the trees in the
middle distance, and passes across the field behind the old
railings and the nearer trees on the left, causing them to be
much more clearly visible. Now let the student pass a
little white chalk over all the dark parts of the drawing,
and shade over the light parts with a pencil, so as to make
all equally dark, and he will again feel that all space and
light are gone, and the work ruined.
It will thus be seen that the purpose of light and shade,
as applied to a picture, is but an advanced stage of its appli-
cation to an object ; it is the means by which the artist gets
rid of the idea of the flat surface of his paper or canvas,
and invests it w^ith such ideas of Nature as have been
mentioned.
.v>rKvv
X.--^-
CHAPTER XXVI.
LAWS OF NATURE, AND THEIR APPLICATION AS PRINCIPLES
OF ART.
215. ^ Prin"CIPLES in Art are those primary gener-
alised truths, founded on or deduced from universal
laws, which lead not only to its successful practice, but
to a more complete and just appreciation both of Nature
and Art.'
' Principles make us more susceptible of the beauty of
Nature, and the power of Art in representing her ; of
what is essential to beauty, whether developed in the
more noble productions of the pencil, or in all the
varied objects, useful or ornamental, with which we are
surrounded.'
216. As these laws of Nature are perfect, and as from
these our principles are deduced, we adopt a true standard
by which to test Art works, quite independent of fashion
or the dictum of ignorance. The laws of material beauty
can only be discovered by determining the laws of the
Divine mind in the fact of creating, or by a study of the
manifestation of those Divine operations in what we call
Nature.
We will imagine a case in illustration of what has just
been said, by supposing that we wish to design any simple
object, say a candlestick ; and to make our work of design-
188
LaiDS of Nature.
139
ing quite simjyie and clear, we must first enunciate a few
laws which we invariably find in Nature, and then apply
them to our work.
1st. It is a law of Nature that eyerything intended for
service has a certain size and character defined for it accord-
ing to the purpose for which it is destined.
2nd. It is a law of Nature that, in things of use, orna-
ment is an addition, and secondary to utility — never a prin-
cipal or chief.
Fig. 102.
Fig. 103.
3rd. Natural ornament is always in harmony with the
thing to wdiich it is applied.
Now, we hove here three laws which will to some
extent guide us in the designing and ornamenting of
our candlestick. First, we require a socket to hold the
candle, and a base, that it may stand safely, as in
Fig. 102 ; but as we may wish to move it, w^e must
have convenience for doing so, and we add a handle
accordingly (Fig. 103) ; or we may wish the light to be
held well up, in which case we lengthen the shaft, and so
shape the top of it as to protect it from grease or running
wax, and as we have now a shaft to take hold of, we do
140
Laws of Nature,
not require a handle (Fig. 104) ; but if it is intended to
be carried about, we had better add a screen, as in Fig. 105.
AYe have thus conformed to this tirst law of Fitness, and
now that our candlestick will do its work well, we may
proceed to add that by which it will do it gracefully also,
Yiz. ornament. Before we can do this safely, however, we
must consider the material of which the candlestick is to
^^
Fig. 104.
Fig. 105.
be made, whether of metal, such as silver, or of clay, such
as china, as a design suitable for the one may be quite
wrong for the other. In the former material we may
add much to the lightness and elegance by varying the
thickness of the shaft and the shape of the base, as in the
rough sketch (Fig. 100) ; but this would be quite wrong
if produced in china— a material so easily broken. On
Laios of Nature
141
neither material slioiilcl there be such deeply incised or
highly * relieved' work as would interfere with the
cleaning of it from dust;, wax, or grease. The most suit-
able treatment for the china candlestick would be a
surface ornament, such as paint or gold, quite flat.
Here, then, are principles of
Art legitimately deduced from
the laws of Kature, which should
guide us, not only in designing
a thing in common use, but in
judging correctly of that which is
already designed.
217. AVe ■ will take another
simple object of every-day life —
a tea-cup. Our first inquiry ouglit
to be, "What shape of yessel is
best adajited for drinking from ?
Certainly not one like Fig. 107;
nor wide and shallow like a saucer,
which may be suitable for cooling
liquids in, or eyaporating them,
but not for drinking from. A
shape like Fig. 108 would be
much better; moreover, it is agreeable in form, for we
have slanted the sides, and affixed a handle convenient for
taking hold of. Suppose the design is for a child's cup,
this shape is not well adapted, as it might be easily
upset ; so we will simply invert it, make the handle a
little larger, affixing it a little lower on the side, that
Fig. 106.
142
Laws of Nature.
the cup may be more easily lifted and balanced without
danger of upsetting (Fig. 109). In both cases the forms
of our tea-cups must be admitted to be right, and we may
proceed to ornament.
Fio. 107.
Fig. 108.
Fig. 109.
218. But here, again, we are bound by the nature of
the subject to avoid highly 'relieved' ornament, and to
adhere to that which is flat, such as painting and gilding.
As to the kind of painting most proper for such
articles as tea or dinner services, we can only here state
in general terms that close imitations of Nature, such as
landscapes, flowers, fruits, &c., are undesirable; and that
simple geometric designs and conventional work are most
satisfactory. The general colour will depend much on
the surroundings, but white and gold are always safe, and
La IDS of Nature. 143
generally the primary colours, in small quantities, may be
admitted; but much strong red, especially on dinner
services, is decidedly out of place.
219. The application of the general jirinciples here
named is endless, — furniture, such as fire-irons and fender,
carpets, chairs, tables, wall decoration, — everything, in
fact, to the architecture of the house itself, must bo
amenable to these laws ; because they are not founded on
man's knowledge, but on the laws of God's works, and on
man's nature.
220. It may, however, be said by some, that all this is
a matter of taste and feeling. Granted, but as there is
false taste as well as true (see Chapter XVII., on ^ Taste'),
it becomes of jiaramount importance that we should make
ourselves acquainted with those principles on which true
taste depends. The fact remains that a thing is right, or
is wrong, whatever our taste and our opinions may be
in regard to it ; in either case it will be right or wrong
for some reason, and in either case the laws of Xature must
be followed or violated.
221. ' Principles, then, whether they relate to archi-
tecture, painting, sculpture, or design, must be known, in
order that the eye may not become accustomed to admire
or acquiesce in what is wrong, but be taught to discover
and correct it, and in new applications of truth to develope
newer and higher manifestations of beauty. To illustrate
this, let us suppose a ^^erson little skilled in Art to have
produced something in which, from his want of- know-
ledge, his eye detects no fault ; and that he takes it to
144 Laws of Nature.
some accomplished jirtist, who, instantly perceiving its
defects, informs him of the principles he has violated, and
thus makes him sensible of the faults he has committed,
and tells him how they may be remedied in his present
performance, or avoided in future. The consequence is
that the production which but a few minutes before was
viewed with complacency, and perhaps pride, is now found
to possess so many faults, that instead of affording satis-
faction, it annoys and displeases. To what is the change
to be ascribed ? Not to any alteration in the sight, but
to the fact that the eye, looking through the medium of
the mind, now in possession of the truth, can no longer be
satisfied with what the reason disapproves of. Every
effort is consequently made to satisfy the mind and the
feelings, now become more acute and more sensitive, by
closely adhering to that truth, which is felt to be so power-
ful and so essential.'
222. We are ^ prone to rely on our feelings alone;
but as these are extremely liable to be excited by mere
inconsiderate impulse, it is necessary that they should be
controlled, regulated, corrected, and strengthened, by the
judgment ; and the judgment can only be in a condition to
decide correctly, when it is rendered independent of the
bias of prejudice or fashion, by a knowledge of the true
principles of Nature and Art.'
CHAPTER XXVII.
SKETCH, STUDY, PICTUEE.
223. It might be thought unnecessary to define for the
student such terms as stand at the head of this brief chap-
ter ; but there is often a considerable confusion arising from
the want of clearly defined terms, especially in the use of
technical language.
224. The original meaning of the word ' Sketch ' may
be gathered from its Latin root, together with its syno-
nyms in other languages. The primary sense of the verb is
to throw off, or shoot, and in this sense it may be used in
Art— the first ideas of a work hastily thrown on a paper
or canvas, and with such materials as offer the greatest
promptitude and facility. The term applies equally to
historical, landscape, and genre subjects, whether origi-
nated by the historical painter in his studio, or by the
landscape painter when before Nature.
225. The term is also used to mean the outline of a
drawing or picture laid in for the artist's guidance, but
cannot, we think, be so legitimately applied to the deline-
ation of the human figure when it is done slowly, and, it
may be, with much rubbing in and out. This we should
call an outline in preference to a sketch.
22G. It not unfrequently happens that when an artist
proposes to paint a picture and has produced his sketch,
10 145
146 Sketch, Study, Picture.
he may find it necessary to prepare from Xaturc, with
great care and thought, the various parts of his picture
separately ; such as, in some instances, entire figures ;
in others, human heads, hands, or feet, animals, trees,
plants, &c. These are properly called "' studies.^ The
purpose of these studies is to assist a painter to such an
intimate knowledge of the details of a future work, that
he may with more freedom give full and complete exj^res-
sion to his feelings. When we sit down before Nature,
and spend much time and thought in working out a
portion of a landscape, so as to make ourselves thoroughly
acquainted with it, whether in view of some definitely in-
tended future picture or not, the work is not a sketch,- it is
a ' study. '
227. A picture is a full and comjolete representation
of a thought, idea, historical incident, or landscape, on
any material, whether plaster (fresco), wood, canvas, or
paper, — usually understood to be in colours, — and is the
natural outcome and full development of the ^ sketch ' and
* studies.'
228. When the members of the Old Water-Colour So-
ciety held their first winter exhibition some years ago,
there was a wonderful and most instructive display of
studies and 'sketches,' properly so called, many of them
incomplete except as sketches, and very slight. It was
unique, and so successful that an annual ' Winter Exhibi-
tion of Sketches ' has been the result. Much of the work
exhibited, however, cannot be fairly classed as 'sketches/
but rather sketches changed into pictures.
Sketch, Study, Picture.
147
Fig. 110.
229. The first idea of the 'Rabbit on the Wall,' by
Sir David Wilkie, was a scrawl of only a few inches (see
Fig. 110).* He afterwards made sepa-
rate studies of some of the principal
figures, and ultimately painted the pic-
ture so well known.
230. Two of the' most eminent
landscape painters whose works annu-
ally adorn the walls of the Royal
Academy, pursue quite opi)osite modes
of procedure in the production of their
works. Of one of them it is said — speaking figuratively,
of course — that he makes innumerable sketches, out of
every hundred he destroys fifty, and from the remaining
fifty he produces five complete works. The other rarely
makes a sketch, but com2)letes his pictures on the spot.
Considered by the public very fortunate in selling his pic-
tures, he himself says, ' My good fortune in selling my pic-
tures is a misfortune, for when I sell my pictures I sell all,
and have no sketches to fall back on.'
231. The 'sketches' of an artist are a sort of store-
house, from which the imagination of the artist draws its
food ; and ideas thus originated, being revolved in his
mind, may ultimately be re-presented in the completed pic-
ture.
232. Still, there is no clear demarcation by which always
to distinguish a 'sketch' from a 'study,' and a 'study'
from a 'picture.' As examples of 'sketches' we may refer
* From Jackson's large work on Wood-cutting.
148
Sketchy Study, Picture.
Fig. 111.
Fig. 113.
•^*'¥h.^<
Fig. 113.
Sketch, Study, Picture.
149
^^^^
Fig. 114.
Fig. lio.
150
Sketcli^ ^tudy^ Picture.
"s -
iSf^-^^ Q ■■ -^
^ i^--
'It/- T
s^X-*^
Fig. 116.
Sketchy Study ^ Picture.
151
C,.'
Fig. 117.
152
SJcetcTi, Study, Picture,
to Figs. 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, and 116. Figs. 117
(tree-trunk) and 118 (grass-blades) are of the nature of
'studies,' each part having been carefully put down from
Nature. The Frontispiece, although without colour, may
be considered as a picture.
Fig. 118.
CHAPTER XXVIIT.
ON GRASS, HEEBAaE, ETC.
233. Ix the midst of our scientific investigations, whilst
the mind is on full stretch after exact calculations and
mathematical formulas in the study of Nature, there is
necessity for some pursuit which will in part and for a time
release' us from the dry, hard facts of science. And such
a pursuit is not always without advantage. One of the
most beautiful scientific generalizations of modern times
was the result of the dreamy reverie of Goethe. On his
meditative mind the idea dawned that the flower of a plant
is not a separated or superadded organ, but only the highest
development and transformation of its leaves — that all the
parts of a plant, from the seed to the blossom and fruit,
are only modifications of the leaf.
234. The study of Nature should be not merely sen-
suous, but intellectual — not only aesthetic, but religious ;
for however we may reason on the evolution and develop-
ment of things, there still remains the grand, irresistible,
and inevitable truth, which lies at the back of all our logi-
cal sequences and inferences, and towards which all lines
of life seem to converge, — the great eternal Fatherhood,
* God over all, blessed for evermore.'
Let us in this spirit look, with pencil in hand, at some
153
154 On Grass, Herbage, &c..
of the things in nature which are manifestly designed for
our pleasure, beginning with what may be under our feet,
— Grass.
235. If we look at a field of grass we may see little
more than a mass of green, agreeable in colour, but with
no striking character about it ; but if, instead of looking
at an entire field, we take a millionth jiart of it — a few
blades of grass— and carefully study that, we may have
a more tangible, definite idea of the beauty that lies about
our path. Taking a simple example, like Fig. 118, and
reflecting on it, we observe that in the tissues of grass the
inorganic becomes organic, the dust of the earth becomes
vital — vital in giving off life and beauty, vital also in
giving nourishment both to body and mind, showing
purposes far beyond what is necessary to its utilitarian
destination. In many grasses and cereals, the stems,
with their bearded plumes, are models of symmetry, ele-
gance, and strength. The structure of grass throughout
exhibits interesting evidences of design ; and it will not
hurt our artistic efforts if we take some of these into ac-
count when, in our unwise haste, we attempt by a few
clever dashes of the pencil to express that wliich is so
perfect. The root, in proportion to its size, is more
fibrous and tenacious than that of any other plant, and is
often what is known as a running root (see Fig. 118),
sending up a new shoot at each joint, thus causing the
grass blades to cluster closely together, and cover the
ground as with a carpet. In this way also it propagates
itself, and thus makes compensation for the absence of
On Grass, Herbage, &c. 155
blossoms, which animals will sometimes crop, though it
may be observed that they generally prefer the blades and
eat round many Hower-stalks.
23G. The stem is hollow, and so constructed that, were
it the Avork of a human mechanic, it would be held up
before the world as an example of marvellous ingenuity,
and perfect for its purpose. May not our engineers have
taken a hint from a straw in the construction of their long
boilers and tubular bridges ? The blade or leaf is so formed,
being long and narrow, as to offer the least resistance to
the earth and wind, and yet get an abundance of light and
air. The flowers of some irrasses are wonders of desio^n.
They are often produced from the upper sheath which
encloses tliem when young, and are disposed in simple or
in branching heads, each head consisting of two or more
chaffy scales, inserted one above another ; and from these
scales hang slender threads, terminating in yellow knobs of
dusty-looking pollen. It is said that there are more than
three hundred genera, and upwards of five thousand diff'er-
ent species of grass in the world.
The colour of grass is that which is most soothing to the
eye.
Altogether, the exquisite perfection of it — in its form,
colour, adaptation — enables us to see not only God's care for
helplessness and' lowliness, but His care, too, for beauty as
an end, and not as a mere means.
The Great Teacher spoke wisely when He said, ^ C out-
sider the flowers of the field.'
237. It is good and i)leasant practice, especially for a
156
On Grass, Herljage, &c.
beginner in drawing, to copy leaves in flat symmetrical
form, like the Ivy-leaf in Fig. 119, and if he has a correct
eye and steady hand he may soon draw detached leaves
very beautifully. But here is the danger : he is likely to
become mechanical, for the drawing of flat scroll - work
and flat leaves has little art in it. But if a leaf is so
placed as to show its varied and delicate curves in front
one of another — in other words, if it be foreshortened —
then we are no longer drawing from the flat, but from an
Fig. 119.
Fig. 120.
object in space, with all the exquisite changes of curve and
surface, and there is now more properly a field for Art-
expression (see Fig. 120).
In this kind of work two things should be observed :
first, to draw the leaves with strict botanical accuracy,
whether in the correct veining and serrating of a leaf, or
in the careful copying of petals and calices of a flower ;
and secondly, to do all this witliout losing the beauty of
natural curve and delicacy of expression whicli would ren-
der it a real work of Art.
On Grass, Herbage, &c.
157
2jl0{lj.
Fig. 121.
■(rnf\ s
158
On Grass, Ilerhage, &c.
This conscientious and artistic mode of drawing grasses,
leaves, and flowers, separately, forms a good stepping-stone
to more advanced sketching out of doors. It is desirable
<^^^^AN\\\^
Fig. 123.
Fig. 124.
sometimes to draw them their natural size, at other times
they may be drawn in the pocket sketch-book, as shown
in Figs. 121 and 122, when they partake more of the
character of ' notes ' or memoranda.
On Grass, Herhage, &c.
159
238. "When sketching grass in quantity from Xaturc,
especially when the ground is uneven, it is well to lay in
the shade for the denser masses first, as in Figs. 123 and
124, and afterwards to complete by the addition of dis-
tinct organic shapes. Sometimes it may be desirable to
make quite a study of herbage, as in Fig. 125, but larger.
AVhatever is attempted should be done with a view to
structural truth and artistic beauty.
^^^-:^^#Sp^P^
">y^ ?«<<:■
Fig. 125.
CHAPTER XXIX.
ON TREES.
239. The representation of these beautiful landscape
adornments is confessedly difficult. They are so complex
and so varied, that in order to study them satisfactorily
we must in some way classify them. But as Art has to
do with the appearances of things rather than with their
physiological structure, our classification must have chief
reference to appearances and the modes of representation ;
and in doing even this we can only notice the broad
characteristics, as of Oak, Ash, Birch, &c., and not those
finer differences by which we distinguish the Sycamore
from the Maple, or the Oak from the Alder, especially
when expressed only in black and white. And in this
classification we shall, for the present at least, leave out
the coniferous trees, and all shrubs such as Rhododendrons,
that we may more strongly fix our attention, and more
clearly understand the few which we may consider as
typical of many.
240. For the satisfactory expression of trees, especially
with a point — e. g, pen or pencil^considerable practice is
absolutely necessary, less in drawing or copying particular
trees than in that kind of exercise of shade or of character
which will enable us successfully to attempt any tree : just
160
On Trees.
161
as a Yocalist who, before a concert, practises not the song
but the 'scales,' so as to prepare the voice for the effort
about to be made.
241. It must not be sujiposed, however, that there is
one * toucli ' for one kind of tree and a different ' toucli ' for
another kind of tree. Even great men have been in
dauocr of fallino; into this mistake. Constable is said to
have told an eminent artist that he had got a 'capital
touch for trees.' 'But for what kind of trees ?' inquired
his friend. 'Oh,' said Constable, 'it will do for almost
any sort of tree.' Such an idea we deprecate. In these
days of intense observation, arising chiefly from the joint
influence of pre-Raphaelism and photography, we are not,
or at least ought not, to be satisfied with indefinite and
non-characteristic work.
242. If we study carefully a few of what we are
calling typical trees, such as the Oak, the Ash, and the
Beech, others which are less forceful in their character
will readily yield to our efforts. That this may be
better understood, we will place them in tabulated form,
thus : —
Oak.
Ash.
Beech.
Alder.
Chestnut.
Birch.
Sycamore.
Horse-chestnut.
Poplars.
Thorn. *
Willows.
Olive.
Acacia.
243. We will consider then, as briefly as possible,
each of these leading trees ; and in doing so — in trying
162 On Trees.
to get a tangible idea of them-^we must take a sort of
diagnosis, and ascertain the causes for their appearances.
All trees have some things in common, such as roundness
and leafiness ; but some have a hard and angular appear-
ance, and may be looked upon as masculine in character,
whilst others convey the idea of tenderness and gentle
beauty. Of the former, the Oak is an example ; of the
latter, the Birch and the Beech.
244. The appearance of a tree depends mainly — 1st,
on the shape of the leaves; 2nd, on the arrangement
of the leaves on the twigs or on the peduncles ; 3rd, on
the arrangement of the twigs on the branches, and the
branches on the stem.
Although physiologists tell us that each kind of tree
has its particular angle of branch divergence, the circum-
stances of life in the growth of a tree are so varied as
altogether to change the normal condition of branching.
The great business of a branch is to carry its buds out
and up into the warmth and light, and the efforts to
accomplish this are sometimes most curious and erratic.
Suppose, for instance, that there is a young shoot
growing from the stem of a tree, and that the tree is
blown down by the wind, but in such a manner as not
to tear away all its roots from the earth, though the
shoot may remain underneath the tree for a time, the
following spring it will be found to have bent round
from under the stem, and thus to be carrying its new
buds to the light.
Hence it will be observed that leaves and flowers are
Or Trees.
163
more abundant on that side of the tree which receives the
most light and warmth, so that the centre of the con-
centric rings is seklom in the centre of the bole of tho
tree, as may be seen
when a tree-stem has
been saiu)i through, as
in the rough Fig. 126.
In fact, we may then ^
not only count the years
of its growth, but tell,
also, the position in
which it has grown, and the kind of summer it has prob-
ably had for many years past. *
245. The almost infinite variety of leaves, which at
first mav stasrsfer us, is one of the chief sources of aesthetic
enjoyment and of scientific inquiry, for all are obedient to
the hiws both of variety and of unity. Each kind of tree
has its own kind of leaf, which may be distinguished from
the leaves of all other trees, yet no two leaves from any one
tree are found to be exactly alike — a beautiful example of
infinity with unity.
246. We have alluded to the causes of this variety in the
appearances of trees. We will consider these very briefly,
and consequently but imperfectly.
First, then, taking them in the inverse order given,
and beginning with the stem, we notice the way in which
the leaves start away from the parent stem. They all, of
*This is only the case with exogens — trees which increase from
the outside — and not with endo<jens, such as Palms and Canes.
164
On Trees.
course, originate in the buds of the previous summer, and
it is thus that
' Another year is hidden along the bough.'
Some leaves diverge from the stem alternately ; others
opposite ; others, again, opposite and alternate, as shown
in the shoot of Sycamore (Fig. 122). Many trees have
their leaves arranged in whorls, as the Oak (Fig. 127),
where five leaves form a whorl, the sixth beginning a new
cycle.
247. The next cause of variety in tree appearance we
Fig. 127.
Fig. 128.
Fig. 129.
Fig. 130.
may find in the leaf arrangements as they emerge from
the buds. The vernation of leaves exhibits in a most
exquisite manner the special provision for an endless va-
riety of leaf form and leaf arrangement, and no student
should let a spring season pass without making some ex-
aminations and observations in this interesting subject,
apart from his study of Art.
248. It may be observed that there are cases in which
the vernations and shapes of leaves on different trees at'
first appear almost the same. Comparing the Sycamore
On Trees.
165
and the Horse-chestnut, we find in each an arrangement
similar to that shown in Fig. 132 at h ; but as they
^J^c^^:"^
Fig. 132.
x^«^;^r
develop, the peduncles of the latter lengthen and carr}^ the
leaves far out, and form those beautiful digitate masses
with which the tree is covered ; whilst the peduncles of
166 On Trees.
the Sycamore, remaining short, allow the leaves to be
sessile, or nearly so, thus making a great difference in the
general aj^pearance of the entire tree (Fig. 138).
249. A third cause of variety in the appearances of
trees, we have said, arises from the shape of the indi-
vidual leaves. This, however, has not so powerful or
striking an effect as might at first be imagined, as trees
are usually viewed at some distance away, and the leaves
are seldom separately visible. Still, in some trees, where
the leaves are large in proportion to the size of the tree,
they are distinctly seen, as in the Horse-chestnut ; but
this presence of individuality in the leaves of a tree,
although pleasant sometimes to look upon, so interferes
with the idea of infinity and mystery of leafiness as to
make it but seldom used as the object of artistic repre-
sentation.
250. AYe must now take one of our typical trees — the
Oak (Fig. 133) — and consider how Ave may best put it on
paper, so as to call up in the mind those emotions which
the same tree in Nature would give rise to. One thing is
certain, — ive cannot copy it. Even the camera does this
but very unsatisfactorily. But though Art cannot copy^
it may express on paper many of those properties and
peculiarities by which not only the kind of tree, but the
individual tree itself, may be recognised. Thus the author
some time ago received from a young artist a drawing of
a branch of a tree. It was at once recognisable as an Ash
branch ; and knowing it to be taken from one of some
half-dozen trees, and being wishful to verify the work.
On Trees. 167
he went into the lane, and soon discovered not only the
tree but the branch from which the drawing had been
made.
In the Oak it is not the serrature of the leaf which
affects its appejjrance in the mass, but tlie arrangement on
the stalk. The shape of the leaf is given in Fig. 1-^8, and
its sessile arrangement in Fig. 129, of which a rough
contour is given in Fig. 130. It must not be supposed,
however, that by covering a given surface of paper with
such markings as tliese, or even witli carefully copied
Oak-leaves, we shall produce any likoness to a tree. We
forget that a tree in Nature does not appeal equally to
us from every part. It is only the light parts and the
edges that are impressed strongly on the sensorium, and
it is, therefore, to these parts that our special efforts
should be directed. But what of the shade ? it may be
inquired. Simply that it must be quiet, for repose is
its chief quality, if not its purpose, also ; not the con-
fusion or the destruction of detail, but its partial con-
cealment, that those other portions by which we are to
recognise the tree may be more conveniently and clearly
perceived.
251. In the practice of tree drawing it is often de-
sirable, after a light but accurate sketch or outline has
been made for guidance, to divide the work as follows : —
First, to lay in the shade, paying attention to its even-
ness, its gradation, and its intricacy ; then to lay in the
character or leafage on the light parts and at the edges,
with a strong intention of introducing, where possible.
168
On Trees.
ik. •'/ :5-.
Fig. 133.
On Trees.
169
Fig. 134.
170 On Trees.
actual shapes of leaves instead of mere ^ touch ; ' and
finally, to draw the stem, the branches, and the twigs,
keeping the former inside and under the tree, and causing
the latter to do their work of holding up their leaves to
the light. This sj^stematic method of working will be
found applicable to any kind of tree drawing. It was the
constant practice of that prince of tree-draughtsmen, J. D.
Harding.
252. In Figs. 131 and 132 are given small portions of
Oak and Sycamore. At first sight they may not seem very
dissimilar, but careful examination and repeated inspec-
tion, till they become familiar, will reveal a wide differ-
ence between them, especially if they be compared with
Nature.
253. Taking the next division of our typical trees, we
may observe that the normal branch divergence of the Ash,
though calculated* as an angle of 60°, does really vary very
much, as may be seen in Fig. 134, which was sketched from
a tree of probably fifty years' growth. It already shows a
great difference of angle between the lower and upper
branches, and we may consider this as a usual habit of
branches, for they certainly would not grow laterally if they
could otherwise get towards the light. This may be well
seen in the Sycamore (Fig. 138), where a vigorous branch
at a, not being able to get to the light by any other means,
strikes off almost horizontally to the right, and thus ob-
tains that which was necessary to its existence. The leaves
of the Ash are compound and pinnate, as shown in Fig.
* McCosh and Balfour.
On Trees. ^ 171
135. In studying trees whose masses of leaves are some-
what long and which have a tendency to droop, we should
be careful to observe the manner in which they foreshorten,
as they retire at the sides of the tree. It might be supposed
that perspective had but little to do with trees : in reality
it is most important, though greatly neglected even by
artists.
254. We will endeavour in a very simple manner to
make this understood. The term ' perspective ' (jjerspicio)
Fig. 135.
has to do (apart from the atmosphere) with two properties
of bodies, their shape and their size : with their shape
according to the position in which they are viewed, and
with their size according to their distance from the
spectator. Figs. 119 and 120 were carefully copied from
the same Ivy-leaf, but in different positions. If they
were removed to a distance they would look smaller, but
the same shape. We may see little perspective in a plain
sphere ; but if we cover it with a pattern we instantly
cover it with perspective. A reference to the rough
172
On Trees.
sketch (Fig. 13G) will make this evident. The centre
space has a pattern receding only towards the top ; but
the other divisions, as they retire to the right and left,
have their patterns foreshortened. This is precisely what
takes place in trees, and what ought to be expressed in
our reiDresentations of them. We ought to have regard
not only to the foreshortening of large branches and
masses, but also to the diminished size of the leaves at the
top and sides of the tree, which, being so much further
Fig. 136.
away than those in the front, must of necessity appear
much smaller.
255. This application of perspective to trees is very well
seen in the Ash, noAV under consideration, but is equally
important in all trees.
256. The many different kinds of Willows, the Olive,
and the Acacia, though differing from the Ash both in
shape and aiTangement of leaf, are jolaced in the same
division, and the same kind of exercise for the one will
assist in the expression of the others. The leaf shape
On Trees. 173
and arrangement of the Olive and of some of the Willows
are very similar, and, apart from the colour, scarcely
distinguishable.
257. At the head of our third typical division of trees
we have placed the Beecli, Avhich we will briefly examine.
In most of the trees we have had under review, their
arrangements of leaves have been such as to form com-
paratively large and simple masses of light and shade.
In the Beech, as also in the Birch and Poplar, the leaves
c^
•v«
Fig. 137.
are so isolated as to make them very difficult to represent
except by separate leaf-like shapes ; and consequently a
readily produced shade, like that in Fig. 137, is no longer
applicable, and the danger of laying in a shade with small
points is, lest the evenness, so essential to shade, should be
disturbed.
258. In the upper part of Fig. 140 is represented a
mass of shade, and in the lower a small leaf spray and
branch of Beech and Birch, showing the way in which
174
On Trees.
n
Fig. 138.
On Trees.
175
t X- >. *
^.' /. >->
X*"^
Fig. 13$^.
176 On Trees.
the leaves are given off from the twigs and branches.
The treatment of them in Art, as well as of the White
and Black Poplar, is very similar ; but the chief difference
in the appearance of the entire tree arises from the char-
acter of the branches and twigs. The Lombardy Poplar
affords an example of extreme acuteness in the branching.
4!' i".^
^ v^^'
-tr. L -^ ^V r^ ^
Fig. 140.
The Black and White Poplars, and also the Black Birch,
although very divergent in their branching, are sometimes
elegant in form, but for exquisite gracefulness of line the
Silver Birch (Fig. 139) stands unrivalled.
The stem of the Birch, like that of most young trees,
is smooth, and covered with beautiful striated markings;
but as it ages, and especially in some soils, it becomes
On Trees.
177
•■ Ti
■\ - ,
4'E
'IlII,
Fig. 141.
378 On Trees.
deeply corrugated, like the Oak and Horse-chestnut. The
Beech stem retains its smoothness throughout its entire
growth, as may be obseryed in the grand old Burnham
Beeches, and in Fig. 141.
259. We have thus briefly glanced at some of the prin-
cipal English forest trees, with the exception of the Coni-
fers, which seem to form a division by themselves. The
principal individuals are the Stone Pine and Scotch Fir,
the Spruces and the Larches. In this division we must also
place the Yew, whose solemn shade and usual locality so
greatly assist artistic sentiment.
260. Until these trees attain considerable age, so as to
form large masses, they are difficult to represent truly.
Their spike-like leaves, properly called ^ spines ' can be
treated only in the aggregate. In the Larches and
Spruces the branch divergence is such as causes the tree
to assume a form resembling the cones they bear, strongly
contrasting with most other trees. The Stone Pine and
the Scotch Fir, when full grown, become very imposing
and picturesque, often carrying their dark heads high
against the sky.
261. In representing them with a point, the same
methodical procedure which has been recommended for
trees generally, should be adopted here. In expressing
the masses of spines, however, it will be observed that as
their position is vertical, the shade preparation for them
should be treated more like the preparation for grass in
Figs. 123 and 124. The twigs are very numerous and
On Trees.
179
reticulate, each carrying on its tip a little tuft of spines,
as at c in Fig. 142.*
262. In a separate Chapter we will endeavour to assist
the student in his practice by summarising some essential
principles always to be observed in drawing trees, leaving
this part of our subject, in the strong hope that he may
be induced to study, earnestly and lovingly, these beautiful
Fig. 142.
manifestations of wisdom which form so important a link
in the great cycle of created organisms.
263. It would not be desirable, even if it were possible,
to give rules for drawing all the different kinds of trees :
there is, however, one general principle almost universal
* The cones themselves, especially those of the Scotch Fir, are very
beautiful objects, and serve as excellent examples for copying practice.
When covered with a thin wash of Chinese white, the light and shade
on them become more apparent ; but this should only be done in early
practice.
180 On Trees.
in its api)lication, which we will illustrate by an anecdote
of one who became a giant as a draughtsman of trees.
About the jqvlv 1824, the late J. D. Harding, then an
energetic, inquiring young artist, had fruitlessly sought
from eminent artists and * drawing-masters ' some prin-
ciples for his guidance in Art, which might also assist
him in his lithographic work — then a new discovery. He
was curtly recommended, instead of asking questions of
his ' master,' to go and sketch from Nature, and ask Her.
This he did, and on one occasion, when sketching some
trees by a large grayel-pit near Greenwich Park, almost
in despair at his ill-success, a bright thought crossed his
mind. ^ These trees,' he said to himself, 'obey laws in
their growth: if I can only observe and put down those
laws in my drawing, I shall put down truth ! ' Charmed
with his bright idea he gave up his sketching, and hast-
ened to the Park close by, to observe the laws of growth
peculiar to the different kinds of trees, and this, he told
the author, was the foundation of his success as a repre-
senter of trees. His success soon became complete, as was
shown in the production of The Parh and Forest, a work
which still remains unrivalled.
CHAPTER XXX.
ON PRACTICE rOE TREE DRAWING.
2G4 The beautiful components of the forest — the
trees— are so varied and so free in their growth, their
long arms waving in tl\e wind, whilst their strong stems
sturdily face the blast, that he who in his drawing of
them would give the expression of their freedom of life,
must himself feel free in manipulation— must work with
a sort of controlled aha?ido}i—in\\ of knowledge of their
general character, and of watchfulness of their wayward
peculiarities.
2G5. The student, in practising the exercises here sug-
gested, must be careful to make a distinction between quasi-
work and real, intentional work. We have defined drawing
as 'a motion which leaves significant marks,' and although
some of these exercises may at first sight seem insignificant,
there must be constant intention in producing them, or the
result will be mere scribble.
Beginning, then, with the first exercise in shade (Fig.
143), the qualities to be aimed at are three,— even7iess,
gradation, and intricacy,— kee^mg the strokes shorter and
paler at h, c, d, and e.
26G. The strokes composing the second exercise (Fig.
144) are not so nearly horizontal, but are tilted, first on
one side, then on the other, so as to give a somewhat
181
182
Oil Practice for Tree Drawing.
angular appearance ; but in all cases of shade, for what-
ever purpose, there must be such evenness of work as will
secure rejjose, without which shade would cease to be.
This kind of shade would be suitable for Oak-like trees.
Fig. 143.
Fig. 144.
^'\
267. A third exercise may be practised from the upper
part of Fig. 139, by making the strokes much shorter, but
still keeping the essential conditions of shade just alluded
to. As the first example would be suitable for Ash-trees,
&c., so this would be for Beech, Birch, Poj^lar, &c.
On Practice for Tree Draioing. 183
208. AVe now come to the expression of the outer
and projecting surfaces of trees. In Chapter IV. it was
shown that a flat contour or outline could be greatly
modified by the addition of surface markings. The direc-
tion of a line will often indicate the direction of a surface ;
and this should be constantly borne in mind in practising
the exercises which follow. In the first one, Fig. 145,
which should be repeated yery often, the lines at a and a
should incline upwards, so as to form the groups like c c,
/7 ^ '- CI
^.
\\
■N
Fig. 145.
and afterwards bend down in the manner of d d, always
being emphasised at their outer edges. These should be
drawn of various sizes, 'gradually increasing, so that the
power may be acquired of expressing them perfectly, and
with great facility.
269. This may be followed by Fig. 146, which assumes
a little more the appearance of tree form.
In Fig. 147, at A, is given a simple outline, with no
detail on it ; but in b some additional character is added,
as shown at Z> ^ and c c, by which considerable rotundity is
184 On Practice for Tree Drawing.
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' \..l*
A
Fig. 147.
fi^V^-' >
't <~.t*
B
On Practice f 01^ Tree Draicing.
185
giyen to the original disc-like shape of A. It is this rotun-
dity and flexibility which must be continually aimed at in
the expression of foliage.
270. AVhen these outline and shade exercises have been
well practised separately, we may attempt to put them
!M
Fig. 148.
together, and add stems and branches ; but in doing this
let it be well borne in mind, that as most of the shade
parts are intended to retire, the outline of the light masses
should impinge a little on the shade, and also that the
stems, being cylindrical, must be shaded accordingly. This
is shown in Fig. 148.
186
On Practice for Tree Drawing.
271. We liave thus endeavoured to show a modus
operandi by which trees may be successfully attempted
with the 2)oint, as of a pen. The pencil and the brush
are, however, much more suitable and powerful instru-
' ments for Tree representation, and when the student has
leisure to follow up the subject further, he may be referred
for help to Elementary Art, and to Lessons on Trees, by
J. J). Harding, or to the author's own work, Forest Trees
of British Landscape,
CHAPTER XXXI.
ON WATER.
272. The representation of water in drawing, owing
to its moljility and transparency, is diflftenlt, except wlien
perfectly still ; and much unnecessary difficulty in the
study of reflections in water also arises from confusing
the idea of Shadow'^ with that of Reflection. For the
existence of the former some ojDacity is necessary ; for the
latter, no opacity, but at least a polished surface.
273. By 'reflection' is here meant the image or
picture caused by rays or beams falling from any object
upon a smooth surface, such as glass, water, polished
metal, &c., and being thrown thence on to the eye.
In all cases where light falls, or, speaking techni-
cally, is incident upon the surface of a solid or a liquid,
the reflection is partial ; that is, some of the rays are
absorbed, f
* The fable of ' The Dog and his Shadoiv ' is quite a misnomer ; it
ought to be the Dog and his Image.
f At a perpendicular incidence water reflects only 18 rays out of
every 1000.
At an angle of 40'' water reflects 22 rays out of every 1000.
j> ?> "0 ,, ,, 333 ,, ,, ,,
>> >j ~'^ a j> 5> ''^^ j> 5> j»
Tyndall.
187
188 On Water,
274. When a beam of light passes obliquely from one
medium to another, as from air into water, refraction (a
breaking or bending of the rays) takes place, as may be
seen by putting a spoon or a pencil obliquely into a
tumbler of water ; buj: as refraction takes place m the
water, and reflections are seen on the water, we need not
at present trouble ourselyes about it.
275. For the full understanding of this complex sub-
ject some knowledge of the laws of optics is necessary ;
nevertheless, much may be learned by a few simple ex-
periments and observations : and first, it had better be
studied in its simplest form — reflection on an absolutely
calm surface, and for our purpose now, a mirror (an ordi-
nary hand-glass will suffice) laid flat on the table shall
represent our sheet of water.
276. Before proceeding further with the experiment,
it- had better be explained that the angle of reflection and
the angle of incidence are always the same. Thus, in
Fig. 149, let A B represent the level surface of water. Tt
will be seen that the angle, A o c, is equal to the angle,
BOD. It is just so in Nature.
277. Or it may be put thus (Fig. 150) :— Let A b, as
before, represent the level water, and a o c and bod equal
On Water.
189
angles. Further, let the eye be supposed at c, looking
towards o, and e be an imaginary spectator under the
water, c would see reflected at o what e would see on
the line o d. Keturning now to our sheet of water — the
Fig. 150.
hand-glass — put upon it some oblong bits of wood or cork,
fixing into them pins for masts, and pieces of paper for
sails. Behind these, on the edge, we may place a book to
represent upright rocks, and a crumpled pocket-hand-
kerchief or piece of newspaper for the retiring banks.
x^
"^C-
Fig. 151.
We can now observe the Tarious reflections from various
elevations, from the shore or looking-glass level, higher
and higher. (See Fig. 151.)
278. The picture or image in calm water is, however,
not an exact inverted reproduction of the object as we see
190 On Water.
it on the shore, but often a reproduction under an entirely
new arrangement. For instance, a spectator viewing Fig.
152 (Frontispiece), though he could not be cognisant of
what was under the roof, would readily see it reflected in the
water. So, also, the reflections of birds must be inverted.
We are at present only on the very confines of the
infinity of facts to be observed in water reflections, and
Ave shall not here attempt to go beyond the threshold.
We have hitherto been on smooth water : let there come
a breath of w^ind, and the water is broken up into millions
S
A
S
Fig. 153.
of surfaces, each little wavelet carrying on its back or in
its bosom an expanded or contracted image of all it
reflects. When we consider the rendering of a single
wave in colour, the difiiculty becomes more manifest. For
instance, let us im^agine an artist attempting to paint a
wave in a sunset, as represented by the rough diagram in
Fig. 153, seen from s.
But, to make our explanation more simple, instead of
the curved lines as at a, we will substitute a few straight
lines, which shall indicate the general direction of the
principal curves as in b.
On Water. 191
In accordance with what has been said, the colour of
the sunset sky would be reflected chiefly on the planes, b
and E ; at c would be reflected the sky behind the spec-
tator, s, whilst at D would be seen the image of the sky
at the zenith.
279. "What is here shown is only a part of the difficulty,
for in the diagram only one direction of curvature is sup-
posed, and a wave is often made up of curved surfaces in
every direction, and has its sides covered with minor
Avaves. When, in addition to this, avc remember that
water as found in lakes is seldom quite colourless, owing
to particles of earthy matter held in suspension, each
particle receiving its ray of variously coloured light, and
affecting the colour of tlie water accordingly, the com-
plexity becomes infinite and inimitable.
280. Sometimes on a smooth lake there is what Hamer-
ton appropriately calls * invisible motion ' — a slightly
tremulous movement in water, entirely i?ivisible in itself,
yet strong enough to elongate a reflection. It is only by
this elongation of reflection that we can become conscious
of this * invisible motion/
281. Sometimes a very gentle wind will come down on
to some parts of a lake, rasping its surface into myriads of
wavelets, and leaving other parts in perfect calm. As
the wind increases, the condition of the w^ater becomes a
'ripple,' in which qyqvj recognisable reflection is destroyed,
and then the water often becomes leaden in colour.
282. Although water in itself may be considered
colourless, there is usually in it some matter which gives
192 On Water.
it a decided colour. The Eliine, Lake Lucerne, Loch Awe,
are all different in colour from this cause.
283. From what has here been said respecting reflec-
tions in water, it will be evident that, though the princij)al
laws respecting it are few and simple, the facts connected
with it are so varied and varying that it is seldom safe to
attempt a representation of it, either in its wave form or
in the rippling brook, except in the immediate presence of
Nature. Neither is it desirable that we, in our ignorance,
should be too ready to criticise the works of those who,
after having lived near and on the water, and studied it
in its infinitely varying phases, declare the impossibility
of truly representing it.
284. Perhaps the most truthful painter of these rest-
less forms at the present time is Mr. Francis Powell, who,
by living amongst them, and for many years making them
his objects of special study, has attained great knowledge
of their nature and great skill in depicting them.
CHAPTER XXXII.
ON SKIES.
285. The reasons wliy this subject is brought into
this work are — 1st. Because it is usually utterly ignored
by most teachers, or seldom alluded to in the drawing-class
except in the most casual way. 2nd. That the intelligent
study of it is a source of highest and purest gratification.
And, 3rd. That there does not seem to be known any recent
small work that could be put into the hands of a student
as a sort of first stepping-stone towards more advanced
knowledge of the subject.
286. Ruskin says : — ' It is a strange thing how little
in general people know about the sky. It is the part of
creation in which Nature has done more for the sake of
pleasing man, more for the sole and evident purpose
of talking to him and teaching him, than in any other
of her works, and it is just the part in which we least
attend to her. There are not many of her other works in
which some more material or essential purpose than the
mere pleasing of man is not answered by every part of
their organization ; but every essential purpose of sky
might, so far as we know, be answered, if once in three
days, or thereabouts, a great rain-cloud were brought up
over the blue, and everything well watered, and so all left
blue again till next time, with perhaps a film of morning
13 193
194 On Skies.
and evening mist for dew. And instead of this, there is
not a moment of any day of our lives when Nature is not
producing scene after scene, picture after picture, glory
after glory, and working still upon such exquisite and cour-
stant principles of the most perfect beauty, that it is quite
certain it is all done for us, and intended for our perpetual
pleasure.'
287. By sky we do not here mean merely the blue
space above us, but, using the term in an artistic sense,
the clouds also, with all their various visible phenomena
and infiniteness of variety.
We shall give only such hints respecting it as will in
some measure prepare a student for the enjoyment of that
part of our world to which we owe so much, and yet of
which we observe so little.
288. The earth is surrounded, to a height of from forty
to fifty miles, with what is known as the atmosphere,
which is composed of various fluids, such as air, aqueous
vapour, &c., and which, like other bodies, gravitates to-
wards the earth.
Air, one of these fluids, is invisible, colourless,* elastic,
and easily moved, rarefied, and condensed. It is seldom
pure, but is generally mixed with water in a vaporous
and invisible state. When there is very little water or
vapour in the air, the sky appears blue— not like a painted
ceiling or vault, but blue space, that we cannot so much
look at as into. Let this be well remembered.
289. If we blow from a pipe of tobacco some fumes
* Like water, its colour is perceptible only in deepest depths.
On Skies, 195
(unconsumed tobacco), the particles will be so distended
that they will float in the form of clouds in the air.
If we get a little cotton wool and roll it into a pellet
or marble form, we by this means make it so dense that it
may be thrown some distance, or it may fall quickly to
the earth. Let this pellet of cotton wool represent our
drop of water. If it be pulled out or extended as much
as possible, it will become so light, relatively to its bulk,
that it may be blown about. This will represent, in a
rough way, our drop of water with its particles so separated
that it will float in the form of cloud.
290. When some of the invisible moisture with which
the air is charged is condensed {i. e. its particles become
closer) through a chill, it immediately assumes visible form
as vapour.
If the air hajoj^ens to be heavily charged with this
invisible moisture, and is then suddenly condensed, the
clouds become thick, opaque, and heavy, as in a thunder-
storm, and fall to the earth in large drops.
When a cloud is formed, it will float high or low
according to its density in proportion to the surrounding
atmosphere. Thus, then, we have an atmosphere about
us more or less charged with invisible moisture, amongst
which there may float that same air, locally condensed and
made visible, in the form of clouds. How or why these
forms should float separately in a liquid of the same
constituents as themselves was asked many thousand years
ago, but we doubt if it has yet been fully or satisfactorily
answered.
196 On Skies.
291. Por conyenience of- study clouds are usually
arranged in groups, and we cannot do better than adopt
Mr. Euskin's arrangement and nomenclature : though not
fully complete, it will prepare the student for further and
fuller observations.
* Thus the atmosphere may be conveniently considered
as divided into three spaces or regions — the upper region,
or region of the cirrus ; the central region, or region of
the stratus ; the lower region, or region of the rain-cloucV
293. * The CIRRI may be looked upon as never formed
below an elevation of at least 15,000 feet' — never touching
even the highest mountains of Europe. ' They are the
motionless multitudinous lines of delicate vapour with
which the blue of the open sky is commonly streaked or
speckled after several days of fine weather.' According to
their shapes they are vulgarly known as * mares' tails ' or
' mackerel ' skies, and are often arranged in almost
parallel lines, and sometimes, when driven by the wind and
seen in perspective retirement, present a most exquisite
appearance. Mr. Ruskin says, ^ They differ from all other
clouds in having a plan and system ; whereas other clouds,
though there are certain laws which they cannot break,
have yet perfect freedom from anything like a relative
and general system of government.'
The direction of the wind may generally be determined
by the shape of these clouds, though they themselves
may for a time appear motionless. Owing to their
quietness and multitude they may, as the same author
remarlvs, be conveniently designated as ' cloud-flocks.'
On Skies. 197
293. The cextral cloud region, or stratus, may be
considered as including all those masses of yisible floating
vapour lying between the cirri and the true rain-cloud.
Thev are known also as the ciumdus, from the fact of their
piling up in huge masses over each other. They are often
so large that they cannot be seen entire, except at a dis-
tance of some miles away, and as they are often so seen
in perspective, we are liable to forget their true shapes and
formation, and what is going on amongst them. If we
were to stand in a dye-house, and were surrounded by caul-
drons of boiling water, we should have a very miniature of
what takes place in the formation of these grand shapes on
some of our high mountains.
Sometimes a huge mass of cumulus will be piled up,
and for a time appear almost motionless, till, moved by a
gentle wind, it may float slowly away, gradually changing
its form, till, having travelled perhaps fifty or a hundred
miles, it becomes elongated, and is then called cumulo-
• stratus. If these elongated masses are at a great elevation
they are called cirro-stratus, Mr. Ruskin gives them the
appropriately poetic name of ^cloud-chariots.'
The Figs. 154 and 155, here sketched, will give only a
very rough and imperfect idea of the piling up of clouds,
which sometimes rise to a height of 20,000 feet, and of the
effects of travel upon them.
294. It must not be supposed, however, that the wind
is the only or chief agent in the formation and shaping of
clouds, so much as the change of temperature arising from
electric and other conditions, for in some cases the cloud
200 On SMes.
is the cause of the wind. The author has often watched
from his window* masses of vapour, following each other
up the valley, disappear at one particular place, and re-form
again as soon as the (probably) warm air had been passed.
295. The third division of this cloud arrangement is
the rain-cloud region, possibly at first thought not so
pleasant to contemplate, yet that to which is attributable
most of the daily beauty of English landscape. It must
not be supi^osed that Avhen a rain-cloud is spoken of it is
necessarily in a state of rain ; far from it. The clouds of
the middle region already referred to deposit moisture, if
not rain, have mostly pure aerial greys for their dark sides,
and, owing to their distance, can be more definitely seen in
their entirety than the rain-clouds proper. The nearness of
these latter prevents some of the characteristic phenomena
and the sometimes definite outline being easily studied.
They are often only thin mist, the outline of which can-
not be traced, and by which the landscape is rendered
indistinct. Sometimes this mist is seen in definitive form
moving along in columns, and its lower edges fringed,
and sometimes twisted, by the wind. At other times,
viewed from a high mountain, it may be seen miles away,
floating over a sunny landscape towards the spectator;
and presently it may envelop him, completely conceal
everything more than ten feet away from him, pass away,
and leave him entirely unwetted. Occasionally amongst
the mountains a cloud may be seen like a huge monster
crawling slowly about, as indicated in Fig. 156.
* Under Kinder Scout.
On Skies. 201
Fig. 157 was etched from a photograph taken on Pike
Mount, looking down on to an ocean-like mass of clouds.
As there were no clouds above to reflect the light back on
to the shade side of the rocks, they are nearly black.
296. To the region of the rain-cloud belong all those
phenomena of drifted smoke, heat-haze, local mists in the
morning or evening, in valleys, or over water, white
steaming vapour rising from moist and open surfaces, and
everything that visibly affects the condition of the atmo-
sphere without actually assuming the form of cloud.
These phenomena are as perpetual in all countries as they
are beautiful, and afford by far the most effective and
valuable means which the painter possesses for modifica-
tion of the forms of fixed objects.
297. In giving this brief and necessarily imperfect
description of the principal regions into which, for con-
venience of studv, the firmament is divided, no allusion
has been made to the marvellous exhibitions of colour
which frequently present themselves. In a work though
devoted to this subject alone it would be utterly impos-
sible, even in these days of advanced scientific inquiry, to
account satisfactorily for many of the infinite phenomena,
or to explain lucidly what is already ascertained of their
nature. If the earth on which he treads is covered with
objects for the student to study, so also are the ^ heavens '
and the firmament filled with ever-changing material for
contemplation ; but let the reverent inquiry be on his
lips, — 'Dost thou know the balancings of the clouds?'
and the constant conviction on his heart that 'HIS ways
are past finding out.'
o
I— (
\^^
V
o
Or
CHAPTEE XXXIII.
ON DRAWING FIGURES AND ANIMALS.
298. It may have been observed that the teaching of
this book has reference chiefly to Landscape Art ; there-
fore figures are here treated of only in the as]Dect of
accessories, and not as princiiDal features in a picture.
. 299. If the student wishes to draw the figure other-
wise than in a subordinate relationship — if he seeks to
make it the prominent part of his picture, as in His-
torical subjects — he must patiently go through a regular
and severe course of study from the cast and from the
living model, supplementing it with Artistic Anatomy.
How certainly necessary this is may be discovered
if the student will attempt to draw the figure of a
man from Nature on a moderately large scale, either
still or in motion, previously to this suggested course of
training.
Hence, Figure-drawing should be made a specialty,
and studied apart from all else, that, by knowledge and
practice, the power may be the more quickly gained to
draw it with perfect accuracy, for of all false repre-
sentation, bad figure-drawing is the most intolerable.
300. When figures occupy an important place in the
204
On Drawing Figures and Animals. 205
foreground of a Landscape, they require a jDroportionato
amount of attention to individuality and detail.
Speaking generally, rocks, trees, foregrounds, &c., are
principal elements of Landscape, as figures are in Historical
pictures, and the same amount and kind of study that is
spent on the one ought to be devoted to the other.
301. But even when figures occupy only a subordinate
position in Landscape work, and their general character
only is required, there are yet difficulties and peculiarities
which will demand careful attention and study.
When it is proposed to make this use of figures or
animals, a primary consideration ought to be. Why should
they be introduced ? What purpose have they to serve ?
What figures or animals, and what positions or arrange-
ments, will best answer the purpose, whether for the idea
of activity, or repose, or any other ?
The introduction of figures in a work must, of course,
be governed by the laws of composition and perspective :
in the former as to position, posture, and relationship to
surroundings (see Chapter on Composition) ; and in the
latter as to size.
The importance of the right introduction of living
objects in a drawing Avill be more strongly felt if the stu-
dent will cover with his finger the figures which are used
in Fig. 158, or even the birds in Fig. 159.
302. Perhaps the best way to obtain the power to
draw the figure for Landscape purposes is to be con-
stantly making notes and memoranda in the pocket
sketch-book of all sorts of figures, in every variety of
208 On Drawing Figures and Animals.
circumstance, costume, and position, combined with more
deliberate effort on a larger scale whenever opportunity
may occur. And in making such notes and studies a first
inquiry should be, — In what does the vitality, and spirit,
and charm of that figure lie ? and then the aim must bo
to express this. It will often be 'found in a scarcely per-
ceptible bend of line, or touch of dark, or in some subtle
arrangement of colour.
303. If we consider well the works of Turner,
Staafield, Copley ..Fielding, J. D. Harding, David Cox,
and many others, we shall find that they appear to
have aimed at expressing their figures and animals in a
(jeneral way, but always truly in their forms and ten-
dencies, seldom attempting any detailed facial or bodily
expression. They should be drawn as they would be felt
when looking at the picture, rather than as seen when
looking directly at them alone. If, when we observe one
of Front's figures, we expect to find in it a likeness to
nature, we shall be disappointed ; but his figures taken as
parts of a whole picture are in admirable * keeping' and
harmony.
304. Some elementary rules ajDplicable to the drawing
of figures have already been given in the earlier chapters
of this book. In all cases both figures and animals should
be 'blocked in,' so as to secure their correct proportions,
and in this respect no examples can be better than the
figures in such a work as Front's Microcosm,^
As Front's work may not be readily accessible to the
* A number of these are reproduced in Lessons on Animals.
On Drawing Figures and Animals. 209
student, a few simple illustrations are given in Figs. IGO,
161, and IG'2. They are expressed by few but main lines,
which suggest blocks in shape.
Fig. 162.
In Fig. 163, after J. D. Harding, the block-like shapes
are somewhat softened and rounded, so as to accord with
the work for which they may be intended.
Fig. 163.
14
CHAPTER XXXIV.
ON CEITICISM.
305. No person goes tlirough an Art Exhibition with-
out criticising, and usually the most uncompromising
critics are those persons who, when asked, will be ready
to say they don't know much about it, only they know
what they like. A great many mistakes are made by
persons who ought to know better. No sensible person
would venture to question the accuracy of a work on
Chemistry or Geology, but almost everybody has his
opinion one way or other about Art, and seems more
anxious to get truth over to his side than to get himself
on to the side of truth. F. W. Robertson says, ^ For
every kind of truth a special capacity or preparation is in-
dispensable.' Criticism, like most other arts, has its rules
and modes of procedure. It should be indulged in sparingly
by a student ; Ms work should be that of inquiry rather than
criticism — to seek knowledge rather than to pass judg-
ment, except on his own works. Safe and accurate Art
criticism can only result from a knowledge of the history
of Art, of its principles and practice, and from a correct
taste. And by a correct taste is meant the faculty —
whether the gift of nature or the result of culture— by
which we intuitively and instantly select that which is
210
On Criticism. 211
true and beautiful in preference to that whicli is false
or ugly.
30G. Whether we are in a position justly to judge of
an historical work will depend largely on our knowledge
of the history and circumstances of the particular event
represented. In tlie case of a landscape, too, so varied are
the appearances in any one locality in the course of a few
hours, that in the work of an able and honest painter there
is great danger of error in criticism. In such instances
we should remember that the work we propose to examine
is probably the result of much deliberate thought, know-
ledge, and victorious battle Avith difficulties, totally un-
known to the critic, and that the artist, having put his
expressions on to the canvas, however unjust his critic
may be, has no means of reply. It is quite painful to a
sensible man to hear the silly and thoughtless remarks of
ignorant pigmies, as they sit in judgment on the thoughtful
works of great artists.
307. In public criticism the attitude of the critic is
supposed to be strictly judicial, and this implies not only
the presence of evidence, but a knowledge of the character,
condition, and application of such evidence. Further, in
criticism, especially when it happens to be of an adverse
kind, it should always be considered whether the author
whose work is under review has the opportunity of. reply or
defence.
308. "When, as students, we have to form an opinion of
a work of art, it is desirable to make ourselves acquainted
with the central or main idea of it, and then to consider
212 On Criticism.
whether or not the artist has fully and fairly overcome the
difficulties that may have surrounded his work, whether
that work be imitative and simple, or great and creative.
309. 'There are two marks which characterize every
really great work of fine art.' * ThQ first of these marks is
that it must embody a creative tliouglit, that it must exhibit
the power of the human spirit to seize, shape, vivify, and
suljdue under its own dominion the dead matter of un-
formed impression presented to the niind in the two
universes of external nature and internal feeling. And
then, in addition to this character of creativeness, a second
mark is required to distinguish aesthetic from scientific
production. While Science values each new thought only
as a fresh step towards the intellectual comprehension of
the whole universe, the artist confines himself to thoughts
which possess for him a value quite independent of the
inference that may be drawn from them for a more
general body of truth — thoughts to which he can give a
more general expression, without caring to use them as a
means to a remoter end. In a word, every work of art is
a product of creative thought, having its end within itself.
In Science the joy of each new attainment is absorbed in
the fresh impulse to further pursuit of truth ; the search
for knowledge knows no rest till the whole universe lias
been subdued. A work of Fine Art points to no end
beyond itself, and urges directly to no activity save that
of enjoying to the full the satisfaction that accompanies
* This view of the character of Fine Art is ably expressed in an
article in the British Quarterly Review for January, 1877.
On Criticism. 213
* every exertion of completed mastery of thought over
matter.'
310. Although a fine work of art must in some
measure, and sometimes in a great measure, be imitative
of nature, yet it is so only in the highest sense when it
partakes of the nature of a creative act.
It is with such views of Art in our minds that we
should approach the object of criticism ; for assuredly, if
we criticise a work ignorantly or unjustly, whether we
injure the work or its author or not, we damage ourselves,
and criticism indulged in without reason, large knowledge,
and a sound mind, may soon develop into cynicism.
311. AYe cannot but think that the unmeasured and
severe remarks of our most elegant Art critic, John
Ruskin, in some of his early writings on the works of
living artists, was not only a presumjotion and an un-
generous act, but also mischievous in making a precedent
which has unfortunately become a fashion amongst un-
learned people. Obiter dicta, equally in criticism as well
as in discussion, should have no place ; and criticism, when
it condemns^ should give its reasons.
PART II.
CHAPTER XXXV.
ON PERSPECTIVE.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
312. Man"Y people imagine that anybody with eyes
must surely be able to see correctly the appearances of
things without the trouble of learning Perspective ; but
most persons need only make the attempt to draw a few
rectangular objects, such as books, boxes, or doors, to dis-
cover how uncertain and helpless they are in the matter of
seeing.
313. The fundamental principles of Perspective are
extremely simple, and may be understood by a child ; but
the technical application of its rules to irregular and com-
plicate forms is difficult, and may tax the powers of an able
mathematical mind.
314. It is important that the term should be well
understood, as there is often much misapprehension and
confusion respecting it as a science, both theoretically and
in its application.
In nine cases out of every ten objects appear different
from Avhat they really are ; Perspective, therefore, may be
215
216 On Perspective.
briefly defined as the art of representing things as they
appear to the eye of a spectator, and as the science which
enables us to represent objects when they appear different
from what they really are.
315. Practically, Linear Perspective may be divided
into Artistic Perspective, as used by artists, and Technical
Perspective, as used by architects and others. In the one
case the Perspective is evolved from the olject, as when an
artist sketches from Nature ; whilst in the other, the object
grows out of the apijlication of the rides of Perspective.
When an artist sketches from Nature — say, some build-
ings— he makes certain observations, such as the level of
his eye on the buildings, the inclination of any principal
receding lines, by which he determines his vanishing points,
&c.; and these observations, together with pencil-in-hand
measurement, furnish him with much of what he will
require to get the work in true perspective.
These 'oJserva^'ows,' accurately made, form the *data'
by which he w^ill work out his outline, and thus, as his
observations are made from the objects themselves, the
Perspective grows out of the act of drawing.
316. An architect often requires a view of buildings,
which he intends to erect, before they have any existence in
fact. Of these intended buildings he will require to have
Aground-plans,' ^ elevations,' 'measurements,' &c., together
with certain 'data' (to be hereafter explained); and from
these, by the rules of Perspective, he will be able to show
his edifice as it will actually appear when erected.
317. The purpose of Perspective covers much more
On Perspective.
217
than the representation of regular forms, such as boxes,
buildings, &c. ; it has to do with the form and size of
every object, regular or irregular, that comes before the
eye— with the form according to its position, and with the
size according to its distance. Even in the little sprigs or
whorls of Oak (Figs. IGi
and 165), every leaf is in
perspective; so, also, it is
with an entire tree. It is
the forgetting of this fact
that causes many persons in
drawing trees to fail, because ■^^^- ^^^' ^^^- ^^^•
they make the leaves at the top and sides of the tree as large
as those which are nearest. In figure drawing it is equally
applicable, from the foreshortening of a finger-nail to that
of an arm or a le^.
The work of Perspective, then, is to translate facts into
appearances.
318. There are two kinds of Perspective, Linear and
Aerial ; the former concerns itself with the appearances
of objects as they are represented by lines, and the latter
as they are affected by the atmosphere. (See Chapter
on Skies.)
Hence we should never forget that we are constantly
surrounded by Perspective — Aerial or Linear — in almost
everything we look at.
CHAPTEE XXXVI.
ON ARTISTIC PERSPECTIVE.
319. What is here termed ^Artistic' or ^Pictorial
Perspective' is the method constantly used in drawing
from Nature ; and some hints and
iUustrations resj)ecting it are given,
beginning with a very simple ex-
ample, the parallel view of a cube,
as seen in Fig. 1G6. Here the cube*
must be put not only parallel, but
directly in front of the spectator.
In copying it from the model, first
draw the front square ; then deter-
mine the relative height of the e3^e with regard to it
in order to fix the vanishing point, which in parallel
perspective is not only on a level with the eye, but alw\ays
Fig. 166.
* A cube — the larger the better — should
be placed before the student in all exercises
in Perspective. One may readily be made of
cardboard, thus : — Cutting the board half
through where the dotted lines are, that it
may fold more easily (see Fig. 167). A set of
cubic models would be of great service, as
affording greater variety.
Fig. 167.
218
On Artistic Perspective, 219
opi^osite to it. Towards this point draw lines from a
and B. !N^ext ascertain by pencil-in-hand measurement
(see Appendix C) the apparent height of the back line
from A B, and draw it parallel to A B. A book placed in
front of the spectator, like Fig. 1G8, would be drawn in
this manner. A jiarallel view of an object may be defined
simply as one having its principal j)lane i:>arallel to the
spectator, and clearly visible without moving the eye. If
the eye moves, the view at once becomes panoramic. The
angle of vision,* though to a limited extent optional,
Fig. 168.
should not exceed G0°, especially in the representation
of right-angled forms. This limited angle of vision is
less important when representing irregular forms, such as
mountains, trees, or clouds.
320. Fig. 169 is the same cube as seen when placed a
little below the eye and to the left of the spectator, and
should be drawn in the same manner from the model. The
height of the back line from the front square, obtained as
in the previous case, determines the width of the side. The
chair in Fig. 170 would be drawn in the same manner.
321. Where there are several parallel faces, as in
Fig. ITl, all the front planes should first be drawn, and
* Known as the ' cone of visual rays.' (See Chapter XXXVII.)
/
Fig. 169.
Fig. 170.
Fig. 173.
Fig. 173.
222
On Artistic Perspective.
then the yanishing point and distance of back line deter-
mined on, as in the previous cases. Some objects — as, for
instance, a flight of steps — it would be almost impossi-
ble to draw correctly without a fixed vanishing point,
VP
p.
B
\
I V
I \
t t
G
U
D
Fig. 174.
\ N
Q
whereas with a poiut, and by means of this simple mode
of procedure, the work is made quite easy.
322. When one block or object stands nearer to the
spectator than another, as in Fig. 172 or 173, it is
best to complete the front block first, and afterwards to
draw the one behind.
On Artistic Perspective.
223
323. In Fig. ITJ: is shown how cubes may be repre-
sentee! when transparent, and in Fig. 175 how a number
may be represented in proper retirement behind each
other. When the first, or middle cube, has been accu-
rately drawn, the others may be readily found by using
Fig. 175
the same yanishing point, and in the latter figure the
diagonal line from A, which bisects f e, and gives the
proportionate width of the next squares.
324. In each of the foregoing examples the object has
been represented as seen heloio the eye, and consequently
with all the receding lines slanting upwards towards the
vanishing point opposite to the eye. If the objects,
224
On Artistic Persjyecti'Ge.
lioweyer, be placed above the eye,
like the upper cubes in Fig. 176,
the recediDs: lines will slant doion-
ivards towards the horizontal line.
The iron- wrought covering of a
large railway station, seen from one
end, affords a good illustration of
this recedence of lines to a point.
325. The room giyen in Fig. 177
presents an instructive example of
parallel persj^ective. The farther,
end of the room, being parallel to
the spectator, remains its true shape,
but the sides, together with the pic-
tures, and the floor and ceiling, are
all retiring planes ; consequently
the retiring lines bounding them all
tend towards a point opposite the
eye — the vanishing point, those
lines which are above it slanting
downwards, those which are below
it slanting upwards. The same rule
will govern the lines of the sofa,
fender, and the two distant chairs,
but not the door and nearest chair, as
these are not in the same j^lane. It
may be remarked, however, that the
representation of ordinary rooms is seldom satisfactory,
from the fact that the spectator cannot get far enough
i
Fig. 176.
226
On Artistic Pei^spective.
back, so as to see the distant end of the room without
haying too wide a yisual angle ; unless, indeed, the apart-
ment be a yery long one.
The readiest way to represent an apartment in parallel
pprspectiye is to begin by drawing the further end of the
room (its true shape), fixing the yanishing point, then
placing the ruler to it, and ruling througli each corner
of the room laclcivards, as shown in the small diagram
(Fig. 178).
Fig. 178.
32G. When large objects, such as trees, buildings, &c.,
are represented with their receding lines slanting upwards,
thus indicating that they are below the eye, as in Fig. 179,
the spectator has what is known as a bird's-eye yiew.
327. Hitherto we haye concerned ourselyes only with
receding lines which were parallel to the ground plane,
and at right angles to the plane of the spectator. In
Fig. 180 there is a receding plane on the top of A b c d,
which is not horizontal, and the receding lines of which
would not yanish on the leyel of the eye, but far aboye it.
On Artistic Perspective.
227
Fig. 179.
^-^
Fig. 180.
as shown by the dotted lines, e f. The point in which
these lines would meet is called ^\\ ' accidejitar \2iuhh.m^
point. Figs. 181 and 182 are further examples.
228
On Artistic Perspective.
The rougli sketches (Figs. 183 and 184) may better
illustrate this. In each case the receding lines formed by
Fig. 181.
Fig. 183.
the divisions of the stones are felt to be retiring towards
a vanishing point that would be level with the eye,
because ' coursed ' buildings have always their stones in
horizontal layers or ^courses;' but the retiring markings
Fig. 183.
/iiilA
"'..{^v.f^l&V//
Fig. 184.
230
On Angular Perspectwe.
on the road, in the former, would evidently terminate far
above the horizontal line, which is in this case about the
bottom of the window : consequently we are conscious
that the road rises as it recedes. In Fig. 184, because
the lines of the road are retiring below the horizontal line,
we infer that the road is down-hill. In all these cases
the views are parallel to the spectator.
Fig. 185.
ANGULAR PEESPEOTIVE.
328. Angular or Oblique Perspective is the term used
when objects have an angle presented towards the spec^
tator, as in Fig. 185, also in Fig.
186, where it will be seen that as
both the right and left-hand sides
of the cube re-
tire, there must
be two vanishing
points towards which the receding
lines will tend.
329. In drawing objects from
Nature, when they are thus oblique
to the spectator, it is well to adopt a methodical mode
of ojieration, thus : —
,(1.) First determine the length, and draw the front
line, as A b. Fig. 187.
(2.) Determine the distance laterally of the lines c d
and E F, and draw them indefinitely.
(3.) Ascertain the relative height of the eye above the
Fig. 180.
232
On Angular Perspective.
cube, and at that height draw a line across the paper.
This line is known as the H. l,, and is used for placing the
yanishing points on.
(4.) Ascertain accurately the angles at which the
lines, B F and B D, respectively retire (by comparing them
with a horizontal line), and produce them until they meet
the H. L. This junction will give the vanishing points to
which all the other receding lines must be drawn ; and
thus the figure will be completed.
In adopting this method of drawing from Nature, it is
of little consequence whether the sides of the object retire
at an equal angle from the spectator or not. It must be
observed, however, tliat the vanishing point will be near
on the side which retires rapidly, whilst on the side which
does not retire so sud-
denly it will be further
away on the h. l. If the
sides retire equally, the
points will be equally dis-
tant on each side of the
spectator.
330. Suppose it is de-
sired to represent another
cube immediately behind
that which has been already drawn, a diagonal line from A
(Fig. 188), bisecting E F, and continuing to the receding
line, will give the proportionate distance of the next ver-
tical line, as at k, from the top of which a line must be
drawn to the left-hand vanishing point, and the second cube
Fig. 188.
0)1 Angular Perspective.
233
will be completed, in exact proiDortion with the first. This
process may be carried further to any extent, as in Fig. 189.
Fig. 189.
Fig. 190.
331. If the object be so placed as to be partly
above and partly below the eye, as we ordinarily see in
buildings (Fig. 190), the receding lines, as before shown,
234 On Angular Perspective.
> ■'•
will appear to slant down or up re-
spectiyely towards the H. L., as the
case may be. Fig. 191 will illustrate
this in the single cube, and when
/ 11 several are placed on each other they
; 11 will appear as shown in Fig. 176.
\ \\ ' The application of these rules may be
: : \ seen in the representation of many
j i i familiar household objects, as in
; \\ Figs. 192, 193, and 194, as well as
/ ; 1 in the various woodcuts of buildings
i 1 i .
': 'i throusrhout this work.
\ \ 332. When an object is so placed
; ; o that its receding lines are not parallel
to the ground plane (level ground),
they wdll meet in what is known as
an accidental vanishing point, above
or below the h. l., according to the
inclination of the object, as already
referred to in ^ 327.
333. From the remarks which
have here been made respecting
Artistic Perspective, it wall be seen
that when the artist has obtained
\ i ; certain facts (which in Technical
\ i ; Perspective w^ould be data), he may
\ if proceed with his sketch easily, and
with as near an approximation to truth
as in any ordinary circumstances
f^
"^
On Angular Perspective.
235
Fig. 192.
Fig. 193.
Fig. 194.
236 On Angular Persj^ecUve.
would be required ; whereas, where there is no knowledge
of perspective rules, the student must be constantly on the
watch to get every part in its proper place, and even then he
cannot be sure of anytliing approaching absolute accuracy.
Even when a complicate group of objects has to be
drawn, to which these simple rules do not altogether
apply, as in Fig. 195, and where we are greatly dependent
on auxiliary lines, the knowledge of these rules will
greatly assist the draughtsman in obtaining an accurate
representation. And although these auxiliary lines,
vanishing points, receding lines, &c., may not necessarily
be drawn on tlie paper, they should be in the mind (like
tlie rules of grammar), ready for instant application, to
determine the direction of a line or to test the accuracy of
one already drawn. *Tliey always exist in tlie mind of
an intelligent artist, and constitute, in fact, part of the
mental mechanism by which he sees, and, so far as lines
are concerned, delineates accurately. Neither must these
aids be supposed to a2:>ply to buildings or cubes alone, for.
they are of great service when drawing trees, animals, and
the human figure.
334. It may be remarked, that when the student has
clearly understood and can put in practice the hints
containetl in this chapter, he will have acquired all the
perspective that is necessary to the practical work of a
landscape artist. These lines, after all, are but the skeleton
of various forms, and are science rather than art. Their
rigidity should be broken, and they should afterwards be
clothed with all the artistic feeling of which the student
is capable.
t-H
o
CO
CHAPTEE XXXVII.
OU TEOaKIOAL PERSPECTIVE.*
335. Tech:n'ICAl Perspective, as used by architects, is
of little service to a student in drawing from Nature, as
the simplest object cannot be drawn truly without a
wearisome array of measurements according to scale, eleva-
tion, ground plan, and other data. From these, by the aid
of various rulers and compasses, a correct drawing may with
some labour be obtained.
Nevertheless, the mode of developing an object by
measurements and the rules of Perspective, will here be
shown, that the student may have some idea of what labour
is involved in such architectural presentations as are often
seen before an important building is erected, and also that
he may have some knowledge of the science in its element-
ary stages, f
And first we will name, and afterwards explain, some
of the terms used in this science, in various works, and as
illustrated in Diagram 1 : —
GROUND PLANE.
GROUND PLAN.
PICTURE PLANE.
PICTURE LINE, OR GROUND
LINE, OR BASE LINE.
ELEVATION.
POINT OF SIGHT.
CENTRE OF VISION.
STATION POINT.
STATION LINE, OR LINE OF DL
RECTION, OR DISTANCE LINE.
HORIZONTAL LINE.
CONE OF VISUAL RATS.
VANISHING POINTS.
* In going through these problems the student should place models
before him whilst working.
f It must be remembered that this is not a treatise on Perspective.
238
On Technical Perspective.
239
THE GROUND PLANE is the ground on whicli the plan is
placed.
GROUND PLAN. — If the foot be pressed on some soft clay,
so as to make an impression on it, that impression would
be the ground plan of the foot ; or if a house were lifted
away from its place on the ground, the marks left on the
ground would be the ground plan of the house. The
square (Fig. 196) is the ground plan of a cube, a pyramid,
or any object having a square base, and viewed with one
side parallel to the spectator. The circle (Fig. 197) is the
ground plan of a cone or a cylinder.
Fig. 196.
Fig. 197.
Fig. 198 shows the ground plan of three cubical forms,
when seen in angular perspective, and might, by the rules
of Perspective, be developed into Figs. 199 or 200 ; and
Fig. 201 might in like manner be developed into Figs. 202,
203, or 204.
THE PICTURE PLANE — the ^ plane of delineation,' or ^the
picture' — is the jolane (whether of glass, paper, canvas, &c.)
on which the drawing or ^projection ' is to be made. It is
quite indefinite in extent, and in working may be considered
as transparent.
Fig. 198.
Fig. 199.
Fig. 200.
Fig. 201.
Fig. 202.
Fig. 203.
16
242
0)1 Technical Perspective.
THE PICTURE LINE, or Ground Line, or Base Line, is the
line forming the bottom edge of the picture plane, and rest-
ing on the ground plane.
THE ELEVATION is the upright yiew of an object, as seen
when directly in front of the spectator. A square is the
elevation of a cube, as well as its ground plan.
Fig. 204.
THE POINT OF SIGHT is tlie point on the picture plane
exactly opposite the spectator's eye, and is sometimes called
the ^ Sight Point.'
THE CENTRE OF VISION is that point on the picture plane
which is exactly opposite to the point of sight — i. e. the
eye of the spectator — and is sometimes called the Sight
Point, or the principal visual ray.
On Teclinlcal Perspective. ' 243
THE STATION POINT is simply the distance of the spectator's
eye from the picture, and is called in various works either
Station Point or Point of Distance.
THE STATION LINE, or 'Line of Direction,' or 'Distance
Line,' is the line between the spectator's eye and the
centre of the picture. It is the same as the 'principal
visual ray.'
THE HORIZONTAL LINE (imaginary in IS'ature) is a lino
drawn across the picture, always and exactly on a level
with the spectator's eye. If he be high up, then the h. l.
is high ; if he be low down, then it is low.
THE CONE OF VISUAL RAYS.-This is but another term for
Angle of Vision, — the angle at which we can comfortably
view any objects. It is usually limited to 60'^, /. e. 30° on
each side of the Line of Direction. This limitation is
necessary only when representing regular bodies, and does
not apply to mountains, trees, &c.
THE VANISHING POINTS are points on the horizontal line
in which all horizontal receding lines meet. When receding
lines are oblique to the ground they meet in Accidental
vanishing points, above or below the horizontal line.
This array of terms may at first sight appear for-
midable, but it will be made clearer by reference to
Diagram 1, showing a simple appliance used by the
Author in elementary teaching, and Diagrams 2 and 3,
showing the same in profile, and also laid down as a flat
diagram.
336. Before we proceed to work the problems, we
must urge the student to make himself familiar with
Ci Centre of Vision
Line of Direction
Station Point
Ground Plane
DIAGEA3I 2.
Q. Q Horizontal
Line
Picture Plane \
Centre of Vision
H.U a!
1
1
1
\
1
•
t
«
\
t
'picture Line or
\ Point O
\ \ Picture
Sight /
S Plane / 1
Q / /
1
Ground Lina f
\
\
a> / /
•S / X
r
/
\
N
\ Angle
)f Vision /
f
Station
Po/nt
Diagram 3.
246 On Teclinical Perspective.
eyery part of these three diagrams, as his success in the
following figures will be thereby greatly facilitated. In
working, the diagrams should be made to scale, and much
larger than those here given.
It will be observed that in all perspective problems
the picture or ground line, the ground plan, the horizontal
line, and the line of direction (one end of which is the
station point and the other the centre of the picture), are
given, and form the data.
To render the diagrams and explanations more simple,
these *data ' are shown in thin ; the working lines in dotted;.
and the result in iroad lines.
Chi Teclinical Pers'pectim. 247
Explanation of Diageam 4.
HOW TO FIND DISTANCE POINTS AND VANISHING POINTS.
Always first lay down the ground line, horizontal line,
and line of direction. Place the compass point on c (cen-
tre of vision), and witli space c s (station point) mark on
tlie horizontal line to the right and left of c. These are
the Distance Points.
Note. — The distance points are the vanishing points for
all lines receding at an angle of 45°.
Eeceding lines Avill touch the h. l. according to the
angle at which they are to the plane of the spectator :
i, e. if the line retires suddenly away, its vanishing point
will he near the centre of vision ; hut if the line retires
gently, or is nearly parallel to the spectator, its vanishing
point will he far away from the centre of vision, yet on
the H. L.
To find the vanishing point for any line, first draw a
horizontal line at s, then set off on it the angle which the
line forms w^ith the G. l. (ground line) ; produce the line
thus set off till it meets the H. l., which will give the
vanishing point of that line.
Diagram 5.
In this diagi'am the means by which vanishing points
for various lines, a bd e f, may he found are shown, hut the
student should work each of these various lines separately.
a
d
0.
>
-!i? d
"y ^>
^.<5
>
,>/
/.
/
° /
\ 4
% / i
^ / '
CO
On Teclinlcal Perspective. 249
Beginning with line A, it will be found to form an angle
of G0° with the base or ground line (g. l.) ; therefore from
the horizontal line s draw a line to the left at 60°, and
produce it till it touches the H. L., which will give the
yanishing point for the line at a.
The line b is at an angle of 40'^ with the base or ground
line, therefore from the line s draw a line to the left at 40°,
and produce it till it meet the H. l. at h, which is the van-
ishing point for the line.
The line D forms an angle of 50° with the ground line,
therefore from the line S draw a line at the same angle
(50°) to the right, and extend it to the H. L., which will
give the v. p. of the line at d.
The line e is at an angle of 35° with the ground line,
therefore from the line s draw a line to the H. L., at an
angle of 35°, which will give the v. P. at e.
Lastly, it will be seen that the line F, being at an
angle of only 10° with the ground line, is nearly parallel
to the spectator, and, therefore, that its yanishing jooint
will be at a considerable distance from the centre of the
picture, as will be evident on drawing a line from s at an
angle of 10° to the left. Of course there is not room to
show it on this sheet.
Note. — It will te observed, that if a li7ie ivliose vanish-
ing 2)oint is required inclines to the right, the vanishing
imnt tvill M to the left, 07i the horizontal line. '
It has already been observed, that lines retiring from
the ground line at an angle of 45° have their vanishing
points in the distance points.
250 On Teclinical Perspective.
Diagram 6.
In the "whole of these figures the scale is of \ an inch
to a foot, the h. l. being 5 ft., and the point of distance,
or station point (s), 10 ft. c is the Centre of Vision.
Wheji li7ies recede directly from the spectator, or, in
other words, are at right angles to the ])lane of the picture,
they vanish toivards the point of sight. Tliis is an invar i-
aUe laiv, and Ave will apply it in the next problem.
To draw in perspective a square of 4 ft. lying on the
ground, with one of its sides parallel to and touching the
picture plane, 1 ft. to the left of the spectator.
Now it is clear that if one side of the square be parallel
to the picture plane, two of its sides will be at right angles
to it, and consequently, according to the rule just laid
down, will retire to the Point of Sight, or Centre of the
picture (c). To work the problem, then, first measure
1 ft. to the left side of the spectator, or line of direction,
on the Picture or Ground Line (g. l.) ; then 4 ft. further
for the side of the square (A b), which is to touch the
Picture Plane. From A and B rule lines to the Point of
Sight. To obtain the distance of the back (d e), mark
off 4 ft. from A towards the Line of Direction (which of
course will be to b), and then draw a line from B to Dis-
tance Point 1 ; or, measure off 4 ft. from B to the left (a),
and then draw a line from A to Distance Point 2. The
intersection at d or E will cut off the 4 ft. required ; then
a line parallel to the front line will complete the square in
perspective.
252 On Technical Persjpectlve.
DiAGEAM 7.
To draw in perspectiye a square of 4 ft. lying on the
ground, with its nearest side 6 ft. to the left of the
spectator, and 1 ft. beyond and parallel to the picture
plane.
First measure G ft. to the left of the Line of Direction
on the ground line (g. l.) as at a, and the size of the
square, 4 ft., to b, and then from A and B draw receding
lines to the centre of the j^icture c. Now as the square
in this case is to stand 1 ft. in the picture, or bej'ond the
picture plane, mark 1 ft. to the right of A, and draw to
Distance Point 1, which will intersect the line a c, at 1 ft.
in the picture (at d). Or, mark 1 ft. to the left of b, as
at p, and rule to Distance Point 2, which will intersect the
line :^ c at E, 1 ft. in the picture as before, thus proying
the accuracy of the rule.
But as the figure required is a square, the retiring
lines just drawn also give the intersection necessary for
drawing the back line, G H, thus completing the square in
perspectiye as required.
Diageam 8.
To draw a right-angled parallelogram of 4 ft. by G ft.,
one side (4 ft.) being joarallel to and touching the jDicture
plane, its nearest side 2 ft. to the right of the spectator.
Mark off 2 ft. to the right of the spectator, on the
On Teclinical Perspective. 253
G. L., and then 4 ft. more for the width of the parallel-
ogram, A T>, and rule to the centre, c. Now as the
parallelogram is to be G ft. long, mark G ft. to the right
from A, as at F, and draw a line to Distance Point 1,
which will intersect the line A c at D, G ft. (in perspective)
from A : draw the line D e parallel to the G. l., and thus
the parallelogram will be represented in perspective.
XoTE. — The three diagrams that have just been ex-
plained may also be worked from their ground plans,
1, 2, and 3. Diagram G is very simple : first draw from
A and B to the centre of the picture c ; then, for the width
of the scpiare, find the perspective of the diagonal line of
the original square 1, according to the rule laid down for
Diagram 5 ; and as this diagonal line happens to form an
angle of 45° with the Ground Line, its Vanishing Point
will be in the distance poiut, for, as has been already
explained, lines forming an angle of 45° with the g. l.
alwavs vanish in the Distance Points.
In Diagram 7 extend the lines of the square to the
G. L. as at A B ; whence draw to the Centre of Vision, c.
The front and back lines will be found by extending the
diagonal lines to the G. l., and then drawing to either
of the Distance Points. Diagram 8 will not require
explanation.
Q
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o /
/
\ /
£.-
\
X
/
/
\
I
/
\
\
/
/
/
\
/
\
/
/
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1
1
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On Teclinical Perspective. 256
Diagram 9.
To represent a Circle in Pers2')ective, 2 ft. to the left of
the spectator and 2 ft. in the picture.
It will be evident that, as only straight-lined figures
are amenable to the Perspective rides, it will be necessary
to find a number of points in Perspective through which
to trace the required circle ; therefore a ground plan will
be required, which must be surrounded with a square, and
intersected as shown at 1. The working of the problem
will then be simple. Extend the perpendicular lines of
the Ground Plan to the Ground Line, and from thence to
the Centre of Vision, c. Now produce qne of the diagonal
lines of the Ground Plan to the Ground Line, as at A, and
from thence to one of the Distance Points, which is the
Vanishing Point for lines at 45 '^. At each intersection of
the line with the lines going to the Point of Vision, c,
draw horizontal lines, which will give points through
which to trace the required circle in perspective.
Diagram 10.
To represent a Cube 4 ft. square in Perspective, 2 ft.
to the right of the spectator, and 1 ft. in the picture.
First find the base of the square, as in Diagram 7 ;
then, at A, raise a perpendicular line 4 ft. for the height
of the cube, as at b, and from b draw to the Centre of
Vision, c ; at c, d, and e, erect perpendiculars ; from g
draw a horizontal line to /, and complete the Cube in
Perspective by draAving from i to h.
D.P
V.P.
V.R
\ f
V
\
\
\
\
\
\
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i
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/
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/
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S.
1
1
1
1
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1
1
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s
Diagram 11.
D.P
V.P. M.P.I. C V.P.
M.P.2
.
\ —
1
73"
1
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y
Diagram 12.
On Technical Perspective. 257
Diagram 11.
Hitherto the diagrams have been explanatory of the
Parallel view ; this diagram and the next are preparatory
to the clear understanding of the Angular view.
The method of finding the Vanishing Point for any
line has been shown in Diagram 5, and is here repeated,
so as to impress it more strongly on the mind. It has
also been shown that the Distance Points will be the
Vanishing Points for lines at an angle of 45°. If a line
sliould slant at any other angle to the Ground Line, it will
have its own Vanishing Point, which will be the Vanishing
Point for all lines at that angle. In this diagram the line
to the right of the spectator is shown at an angle of 75° to
the Ground Line (and consequently to the H. L.), and the
one to the left at an angle of 50°.
Diagram 12.
Measuring Points are the points by which any distance
may be measured on a receding line as it retires into the
picture, and may be found as follows : — Measure from the
Vanishing Point to the-Station Point ivitli the compasses, and-
then set off on the Horizontal Line from theVanishiiig Point
towards the Line of Direction, which will give its Measuring
Point. It must be remembered that every Vanishing Point
has its own Measuring Point, which is always on the opj^o-
site side of the Line of Direction.
17
'Z'd'lM
'I'd'IAI
On Technical Perspectlm. 259
Diagram 13.
To represent a cube in Angular Perspective.
This may be done in two ways. First, draw tlie
ground plan, A B c D, at the desired angle, and (in this
case) touching the G. L. Extend d b and d c respectively
to the G. L. and observe the angles they make with it (viz.
40° and 50°). Set off these angles from a horizontal line
at S (as shown in Diagram 5), and extend them till they
meet the Horizontal Line (h. l.), which will give the
Vanishing Points. From A draw to the two Vanishing
Points, and cut off the proper length of the receding line
by drawing from e and / to the Vanishing Points, which
will give the base of the Cube in Perspective.
If, instead of ruling from e and / to the two Vanishing
Points, we measure the side of the square — in this case
4 ft.— to the right and left from A, as at ^• and /, and then
rule to the Measuring Points 1 and 2 (found as in Diagram
12), the saTue intersection will take place, and the Square in
Perspective be obtained.
At A erect a perpendicular line (4 ft. ) to g, and rule to
the two Vanishing Points. At each corner of the square
also raise perpendiculars till they meet the receding lines,
and from the top of these, again, by ruling to the Vanishing
Points, the Cube will be completed.
This problem should be repeated till the student finds it
quite easy.
260 On Teclmical Perspective.
Diagram 14.
This diagram is given as a further illustration of the
foregoing rules, and if the student has understood and
worked the previous problems, he will have little difficulty
in understanding and executing this. He will also have
l^repared himself for more readily and intelligently appre-
ciatiug any plans and perspective drawings of buildings
or machinery that may come before him in the business
of life.
The student who has gone carefully and thoughtfully
through this little book will find that he has been moving
on some of those only safe lines of true education which
fit a man for the highest purposes and business of his
being.
p
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APPENDIX.
A.-ON OHILDKEN'S DEAWING.
The question is often asked, ' Ought young children to
learn to draw ? '
We answer decidedly in the affirmative, but not neces-
sarily by set lessons, except on the Kindergarten system.
The chief purpose in letting a young child draw is that
it may not lose the power of seeing things as they ai^pear,
whilst at the same time it is learning Avhat their shapes
really are. It is quite remarkable how few persons do see
things as they appear. The cause is, that the TcnoivUdge of
the actual shape is allowed to interfere with the image the
shape makes on the retina. Tlie image on the retina is per-
fect, but it requires to be correctly read by the mind, and
this can only be accurately done by long and careful habit ;
hence the difficulty that many grown-up persons have in
sketching even a book or a box.
Further, it may be asked, ' What kind of drawing should
young children be encouraged in practising ? '
We again answer decidedly,— Let them draw from
the things around them, unless there be some systematic
set of models to draw from; and these should be very
interesting, otherwise the child will not care to draw
263
264 Appendix.
tliem. In work of tliis kind children should always be
interested, or more harm will be done than good. Children
should never be j!?r«i5e6Z for the drawings they make, but
simply commended for any rightness, neatness, cleanness,
or special effort. Nothing weakens a child's efforts more
than false or injudicious praise.
Ought young children to be allowed to rule lines ?
Most assuredly. A nice flat ruler, a triangle or square,
and in some cases a pair of compasses, are excellent in-
struments to ]}\\t into the hands of a child ; but neatness
and exactness should be the consequence, for this is their
purjDose.* But instruments should never be used in the
free-hand drawing class until a sketch is comjDleted, and
then only for the purpose of showing the student Avhere he
has failed.
Children who have been encouraged in early life to draw
the things about them on scraps of paper, on insides of old
envelopes, or on slates, seldom have any difficulty in under-
standing perspective, especially such perspective as is ordi-
narily used by artists.
B.-THE DIASOOPE.
The ' Diascoi)e/ as its name implies, is in its simplest
form merely a piece of cardboard or thin wood, with an
* A neat flat ruler may be made with a long slip of cardboard, or
by folding over and over a half sheet of foolscap paper and gumming
the last lap. A cliild should have inches marked on his ruler.
Appendix.
^m
aperture cut in it through which to view the best parts of
a Landscape and conceal the remainder. It may be of any
size and proportion, but a convenient one may be made
with a piece of cardboard, say seven inches by five, or
hirger, with an opening five inches by three. This opening
may be divided at the inches by intersecting threads, per-
pendicularly and horizontally (Fig. 205).
Fig. 205.
When a student goes to Nature, and has an extensive
view before him, he is often perplexed to know how much,
or what part, of what lies before him, he sliould take as
his sketch. Let him with one eye look at the landscape
through the ^ Diascope ' when held at from six to ten
inches from him, and move it to the right or left, and up
or down, till he has found that part of the landscape which
will give him the best material.
266
Appendix.
O.-PENOIL-IN-HAND MEASUKEMENT.
This simple and convenient method of measuring the
projjortions of distant objects is often misunderstood, by
applying it to the size of objects, with which it has nothing
to do. It is, therefore, here described.
Shut one eye ; hold the pencil, as in Fig. 206, at arm's
length; let the end of the pencil come exactly between the
Fig. 206.
Fig. 207.
eye and any point on the object you wish to measure /rom ;
then let the thumb or first finger move along the pencil as
required, till it reaches the point you wish to measure to.
Having obtained this measurement, it can now be com-
pared with, or measured into, any other part of the object
or picture (being most careful in moving not to bring the
hand nearer to the eye), and thus ascertain its j)roportion.
Appendix. 267
In all measurements the pencil should be held at arnfs
lengthy and jyaraUel to the plane of the face. It should
always be remembered that these measurements have
reference only to the proportions of objects, and 7iot to
their size. Fig. 207 shows how the pencil is held when
measuring horizontally.
D.-NOTE ON TEACHING.
A LOXO, varied, and extensive acquaintance with
teach ins: has broudit the conviction that Art has not
had its proper place as a subject to be taught, nor, as a
rule, its proper treatment as a factor in education. Its
importance is underrated, and the teaching of it is often
a farce. At best it has been taught pretty much as
writing is taught ; and, to a very limited extent, this may
be right. But. the twenty-six letters of the alphabet do
not constitute a language ; they are merely arbitrary and
conventional signs by which, when properly arranged and
understood, we are able to make thought visible.
Art is as truly a language as is Greek or German ;
more easy to read, and universal in its application. What
is language, but that by which thought is conveyed from
one mind to another ? If we place six of these English
signs before a very young child, or an intelligent person
not conversant with English, thus — kettle, or tea
268 Appendix.
pot, or three of them, cup — they will be utterly
meaningless ; whilst the roughest possible sketch will
conyey a correct idea to the mind at once.
r \
Instead of these twenty-six arbitrary signs', Art has
two lines as fundamental, the straight and curved, with
which we may express almost any physical fact — or, to
state the case more accurately, without which scarcely any
physical fact can be satisfactorily expressed.
In the teaching of Art, then, we claim that the
grammar which governs these two lines, and all that
belongs to them, ought to be taught in a like practical
manner, day by day, with black board or other illus-
trations, the same as Geography, Mechanics, or any other
science, and thus be thoroughly incorporated in our
educational system.
It is true that Art — and the teaching of it, also — has
two aspects : first, the commonplace, utilitarian one, such
as should be taught in all schools, just as regularly as
writing is taught ; and, second, the emotional aspect, such
as ap})lies to higher Art or to pictures.
Aj^pendix. 269
In this utilitarian work, oljeds should be used in pi'e-
ference to flat copies, though both are important. Copying
from the flat is a mechanical operation to improve eye
and hand ; but the copying from solid objects implies
much more of a mental conception, and is most important
to artisans (as well as to those who rank above them), that
they may be able instantly to write down (draw) a thing
itself in the universal language of Art, as well as under-
stand that which is drawn.
There is yet one more point in Art instruction to
which we wish to make reference, viz., the teaching of
Perspective, as it is usually done in common schools. In
some middle-class schools it is not taught at all. Many
works on Technical Perspective, both cheap and excellent,
have made their appearance during the last few j^ears,
and these are used largely in our National Schools in
preparation for Government examinations. In view of
what we have seen in the preparation for, and the conse-
quences of, these examinations, we cannot but agree with
Professor Huxley, when, in writing on Education, he
says:* — ^The educational abomination of desolation of
the present day is the stimulation of young people to work
at high pressure by incessant examinations. . . . They
are conceited all the forenoon of life, and stupid all its
afternoon.' Although he is speaking here of education
generally, his remarks apply with special force to Art
teachings and examinations. These examinations have a
reflex effect on the teachers also, and in honesty we must
* Fortnightly Review, January 1878.
270 A2ypendix.
say (and we speak that which we do know) often a very
mischievous effect. Professor Huxley says :* —^ There is
much to be done before the ' (present) ' system can be said
to be thoroughly satisfactory. The instruction given needs
to be more systematic, and especially more practical; the
teachers are of very unequal excellence, and not a few
stand much in need of instruction themselves, not only in
the subjects which they teach, but i7i the objects for tvliich
they teach, j I dare say you have heard of that pro-
ceeding, reprobated by all true sportsmen, which is called
'^shooting for the pot." AVell, there is such a thing as
^* teaching for the pot,"' — teaching, that is, not that your
scholar may know, but that he may count for payment
among those who pass the examination ; and there are
some teachers — happily, not many — who have yet to learn
that the examiners of tlie Department regard them as
poachers of the worst description.'
The great aim, then, of the true Art teacher ought to
be to develop all the quickness of eye and power of hand
possible to his pupils (the utilitarian aspect); and then,
as time and circumstances will permit, to call out of — or, if
necessary, instil into — their minds such emotional and
intelligent power of observation as will make them correct
judges of Art and intense lovers of Nature.
■;•:• Fortnightly Review, January 1878.
f The italicising is not Professor Huxley's.
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half calf, $3.00; cloth, §1.75.
DREAM LIFE. A Fable of the Sea-
sons. One vol. i2mo, Turkey antique,
$4.00 ; i2mo, cloth, §1.75.
THE SAME. Cabinet edition, i6mo,
half calf, 53.00; cloth, ?i.75.
SEVEN STORIES, WITH BASE-
ment and Attic. One vol. i2mo,
cloth, Si. 75.
DR. JOHNS. Being a narrative of Cer-
tain Events in the Life of an Orthodox
Minister in Connecticut. Two vols.
i2mo, c! )th, §3.50.
$i.75-
RURAL STUDIES. With Practical
Hints for Country Places. By Ik M.vr-
VEL. Illustrated by the author. Una
vol. i2mo, cloth, $1.75.
PICTURES OF EDGEWOOD
Being Photographic Views (by Rock-
wood), with Text and Illustrative Dia-
grams by the author of "My Farm of
Edgewood." One vol. 4to. Only 30c
copies printed. §12.00.
*<* The above books for sale by all booksellers^ or -unll be sent, post or exprfU
zharges paid, upon receipt of the price by the publishers,
CHARLES SCRIF.XER'S SONS,
743 AND 745 Broadway, New York
A VALUABLE LITTLE BOOK.
3£ (Jonrisp JlistoPE of JUlJusir,
FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE PRESENT TIMF.
By H. G. B. HUNT, B. Mus.,
Christ Church, Oxford.
One volnme neat 12mo, with nnmerons Tables, etci Cloth, $1.00,
Mr. Hunt has produced a well-arranged and really concise history of
the subject with which he deals. The book is divided into three sections,
the fust of which is a general rev-iew of musical epochs and events, while
the second presents a series of chronometrical tables, and the third sum-
marizes a history of the art. The student "'is warned" in tlie preface
" that he is not to expect what is called a readable book," but we feel
bound to say that Mr. Hunt's work is, in the proper sense of the word,
far more readable than books which attempt to combine valuable informa-
tion with attractiveness by tricks to which Mr. Hunt has not condescended.
Those who care to follow the fortunes of opera and music in general
cannot do better than to turn to Mr. Hunt's little book.
CRITICAL, NOTICES.
"As the book now stands, it is ihe most concise and correct history of music that we
have ever seen compiled as a text-book No musician, and in fact, no con-
noisseur or person making any pretension to musical taste, should be without this little
work as a ready reference." — Chicago Tribune.
"The book is not only a remarkable example of skillful condensation, but. for the vast
amount of valuable information that is crowded within its narrow limits, is without com-
parison. We recommend it warmly to the attention of musical students."
— Boston Saturday Eve. Gazette.
**The entire book, admirably made, is the best specimen of multum in parvo that we
have seen in a long time." — N. Y. Mail.
"The subject is one of the most appropriate for study in schools, and we know no other
book to be compared with this one for such use. There are bulky books full of informa-
tion, but this one is concise and methodical." — New York Observer.
"As a text-l ook for school study or private reference, we have seen nothing so com-
pact and useful It is a comprehensive survey of the whole field, from the
earliest Oreek and Egyptian art down to the performance of Wagner's Trilogy at
Hayreuth, in 1876." — Springfield Union.
" Altogether, this is an admirable compend, worth more than many pretentious works,
and quite indispensable to the student of music. As a text-book, it seems to be one of the
best possible." — Boston Globe.
*;»* The above hook for sale by all booksellers., or will be sent, post or express
iharges paid, upon receipt of the price by the publishers,
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS,
743 AND 745 Broadway, New York»
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