GIFT OF
HAND-BOOK
OF
HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE
JUNIATA L SHEPPERD, M. A.
INSTRUCTOR IN COOKERY AND LAUNDERING,
SCHOOL AND COLLEGE f>F AGRICULTURE,
UNIVERSITY OF M^fNESOTA.
AUTHOR'S /EDITION.
PUBLISHED 81 THE AUTHOR.
PKINTJSD rf WEBB PUBLISHING Co.
W. PAUL. MINN.
1902
CCPYRIOHT 1902
BY
JUNIAIA L. SHKPPEKD.
PREFACE.
This text will be found useful in the class room, and
it will also serve as a manual for the housewife in the
farm home. It treats of the philosophy of cooking. It
gives directions for preparing and serving many of the
substantial, and some embellishing, dishes. It treats of
the kitchen and dining room, and gives suggestions on
their furnishing and care.
In preparing this book, the author has consulted many
books and magazines devoted to the subject of house-
hold science. The literature on the subject of foods,
which is issued by the department at Washington, is reg-
ularly received, and has been freely consulted in revis-
ing the notes and lectures used in the school room each
year. The book is largely a compilation of these lectures
and notes, supplemented by formulae for the preparation
and serving of the various dishes. The formulae are
such as have been found reliable by use in the school
rooms and culinary departments over which it has been
the author's privilege to preside.
The formulae marked "class work" give directions,
usually, for dishes sufficient for two people, as these
amounts have been found most practical for the schools
in which used. The young housewife will find them
about what she wishes. The teacher who finds a smaller
amount better, can easily divide the formulae for most
dishes without changing the proportions of the ingredi-
ents and thus make small formulae which will be reliable.
JUNIATA L. SHEPPERD.
St. Anthony Park, Minn.,
Sept. 20, 1902.
418547
HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
CHAPTER I.
FUELS.
The value of a fuel is estimated by determining the
amount of moisture, of volatile matter, and of fixed car-
bon and sulphur it contains. The principal fuels occur
in the solid, liquid, and gaseous forms. Chief among the
solid fuels are coal, wood, charcoal, and coke. The distri-
bution of coal is general over the United States and Eu-
rope. Although the coal fields of the United States are
shallow compared with those of Nova Scotia and parts of
Europe, they are sufficiently extensive to render them the
richest in the world.
Varieties of Coal.
Coals are divided in the first place into hard and soft
coal. The hard coal is known as "anthracite" or "glance,"
the soft, as "black" or "bituminous," coal. Each of these
groups may be subdivided into several varieties.
Graphite may be placed at the base of the series of coal
formations. This represents coal deprived of all its vola-
tile matter and a very large portion of the original car-
bon, but practically none of the original ash. Graphite is
practically incombustible, and is never used as a fuel, and
is not listed among coals.
Anthracite coal comes next in the series as regards
hardness and amount of carbon. It contains from three
to ten per cent, of volatile matter, and sometimes as high,
as ninety-five per cent, of carbon. This variety of min-
eral coal contains a small amount of hydrogen, and conse-
quently burns almost without flame. Anthracite coal is a
clean and convenient fuel for household use. Its avail-
able heating power is high. It has great durability in
combustion, and it is possible to gain practically complete
combustion by sifting the ashes and reusing the partially
burned coal. It is a better winter than summer fuel for
kitchen use, because it is so much more difficult to kindle
a fire with coal than with wood, and it is easier to have a
good fire and then extinguish it when using wood. The
greatest objection to this coal as a household fuel is its
expense. It makes a hot, steady fire, and is pleasant to
handle.
Semi-bituminous coal comes next in the line of hard-
ness. It contains from ten to eighteen per cent, of gas-
eous matter. It kindles more readily than anthracite coal,
has a high heating power, and cakes in the fire. As a
coal for household purposes, it ranks next to anthracite
coal. It burns more freely in an open grate than anthra-
cite coal, but it is less cleanly.
The bituminous or soft coals are divided into coking,
furnace, and cannel coals. In bituminous coal, the amount
of volatile matter varies from eighteen to fifty per cent,
of the entire mass.
The coking coals melt and adhere in burning, and when
the gaseous matter has escaped, a mass of coke remains.
Most bituminous coals belong to this variety, of which
the Pittsburg coal may be taken as a type. Bituminous
coals are extensively employed for the generation of
steam, and, when coked, for smelting metals. Their tend-
ency to adhere in masses when burning prevents their
being used for this in their raw state. This variety of
coal is a good heat producer, but on account of the large
amount of volatile matter contained, it produces a great
quantity of smoke and soot. In some localities it is ex-
pedient to use it because it is the cheapest fuel. Extreme
FUELS. 5
care is necessary, when it is burned in the kitchen range,
to prevent the light, black, tenacious particles of soot es-
caping into the room. It is also very unpleasant to han-
dle.
Coking coals sometimes contain much sulphur, and
when so contaminated they are not prized as gas coal, but
when sufficiently free from this they are much used in
the production of illuminating gas. The cannel coals ex-
ceed these in the volume and illuminating power of their
gas, but the coking coals furnish the most valuable coke.
The furnace coals are those bituminous coals which do
not melt or adhere in the fire.
Cannel coals form a third variety of coals, and differ
from other bituminous coals in the following particulars :
They are more homogeneous in texture, contain less
pitch, and are less brilliant ; they have a low heating pow-
er, but are esteemed in some localities as a household
fuel.
Coke.
Coke is manufactured from coal, and may be produced
in two ways : It may be a by-product of the distillation
of coal for the production of tar, ammonia, etc., or it
may be obtained by heating the coal in a coke oven with
an almost entire exclusion of air. It has a dull appear-
ance, and gives a metallic ring when struck. That
made in the oven or kiln of brick or stone is the
best quality of coke, and is used for melting pig
iron, and for smelting copper and lead. Coke was
formerly made by a method similar to that used in
the manufacture of vegetable charcoal. Much of the
coke found in fuel markets is that produced as a by-
product in the manufacture of gas. This is not equal to
the best oven coke, but is a reasonably good heat pro-
ducer, and is much more cleanly than bituminous coal.
No special stove or furnace is needed for burning it. It
burns out grates and fixtures more than other fuels. Coke,
6 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
like charcoal, needs to be stored in a dry place, as its
porous nature causes it to absorb much moisture, and this
interferes very materially with its value as a fuel.
Charcoal.
Charcoal bears the same relation to wood as coke does
to coal. The manufacture of coke and charcoal are both
processes of destructive distillation. Usually means are
employed to save the useful materials which are driven
off by the heat.
Charcoal makes an excellent fire for broiling meats, as
it, like the coke, burns with a bluish flame, without smoke,
deposits no soot, and yields an intense heat. Charcoal
-can be very economically used for a broiling fire in the
range when there is no fire needed for other things. When
through using the coal, extinguish it with water, and
when thoroughly dried it will burn equally well.
Wood.
Wood is more universally used as a fuel than coal, oil,
and gas. In many cases it is cheaper than hard coal,
and cleaner than soft coal. Gas is a pleasant fuel for
cooking purposes, but is not generally available, and is
expensive in some localities. Wood, to be most valu-
able as a fuel, must be dense and dry. Green wood con-
tains much moisture, and it is not possible to have so hot
a fire quickly with it. As this is often needed in the
kitchen, it is better to avoid green wood, because some
heat must be used up in vaporizing the water in the wood.
The amount of water varies, but forms from one-fifth
to one-half the weight of the wood. The essential ele-
ments of wood are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. There
is mineral matter present, also, as is shown by the ash
after the wood is burned.
Wood for fuel purposes may be divided into hard and
soft woods. The same rule holds good in wood as in
coal in this respect, the hard fuel is the best. Hard
FUELS. 7
wood, such as oak or hickory, gives a nice bed of glowing'
coals, which continue to yield heat long after the blaze is
gone.
When a steady fire is required for baking, a few sticks
of hard wood of good size will make it possible to control
the heat during a long period of time. Soft wood burns
to ashes very quickly, gives a good heat, but needs con-
stant watching and replenishing.
In order to have wood serve its purpose best in the
kitchen range, it must be cut long enough before using
to give it time to become thoroughly dried out or sea-
soned. Trees for fuel should not be cut when they are
what the woodmen call "in sap" ; that is, when they are
in leaf, or after the buds begin to swell in the spring.
Such wood is more apt to be infested by insects, and de-
cay sets in sooner.
Wood when ready for the stove should be short enough
to be admitted readily, but not so short as to pack the fire.
When seasoned and cut, it should be packed in a dry
place. Moisture from rain dries out more quickly than
the natural moisture from the tree, but decreases the
value of the fuel, and annoys the housekeeper as well.
The wood itself burns better than the bark, and produces
less ashes.
In buying wood, avoid that which has many crooked
or knotty sticks. It will not lie close, and what is gained
in the resinous knots of the soft wood will hardly com-
pensate for what is lost in measure. The absence of bark,
or the shelling off of the bark, is an indication that the
wood has passed its best stage, and begun to deteriorate
slightly. Soft wood is better than hard wood for kindling,
because more easily manipulated, and it also burns more
readily.
Peat.
Peat is of vegetable origin. It is found in marshy
places, and is always wet, even if not saturated with wa-
8 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
ter. The roots and vegetable fibres are in different stages
of decay, and the bottom layers are black, unctuous,
and much more dense than the fresher growth. It is
taken out in blocks, dried, and used for fuel. Air-dried
peat averages about fifteen per cent, water. Peat makes
much ash, the amount varying from four or five to
twenty-five per cent.
Liquid Fuels.
The most common liquid fuels are kerosene, gasoline,
Inner Construction of Range.
and the two kinds of alcohol, the ethyl, or common al-
cohol, and the methyl, or wood alcohol.
To use kerosene satisfactorily as a summer fuel, two
things are necessary: The oil must be of good grade,
that is, have a high flashing point, and the stove must
t
t
Diagram of a section of range, showing direction of hot-air currents
when damper is open, as in No. 1; when closed, as in No. 2.
10 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
be kept perfectly clean. The lighter oils mix readily with
kerosene, and unless it is sufficiently purified to be com-
paratively free from these inflammable oils, there is dan-
ger of accidents in its use, just as there is danger in
using oil of poor quality in a lamp. The flashing point
is fixed by law, and is usually not lower than 150, nor
higher than 200 F. With good oil, one can use a
kerosene stove very comfortably if it is cared for just as is
a lamp ; otherwise it will smoke and make the user very
unhappy.
Gasoline gives less trouble than kerosene, because the
stove requires much less cleaning; but on account of the
volatile nature of the gasoline, its use is always attended
with some danger.
Both gasoline and kerosene are obtained by a process
of refining the mineral oils. Most mineral oils are ob-
tained by boring into the earth, the same as for artesian
wells. In the process of refining the crude oil, the white,
solid paraffine wax is obtained, and the semi-solid vase-
line, as well as many products of a liquid nature, used for
various purposes.
The alcohols are about equal in fuel value. They are
both, when pure, colorless, volatile liquids. They ignite
by the touch of a flame; give little light, much heat, and
no smoke. Methyl alcohol gives off a disagreeable odor.
In using either variety, the bottle should be corked and
set away before a match is lighted, if one would be sure
to have no accidents. Much of the ethyl alcohol is ob-
tained from the distillation of grains. Fermentation is
the only process of production. Methyl alcohol is ob-
tained by the process known as the "destructive distilla-
tion of wood." Much of it is one of the by-products of
the charcoal kiln.
TO MAKE AND MANAGE A FIRE.
Every woman who has anything to do with the cook-
ing should study the kitchen range until she is familiar
FUELS. 11
with every part of it, both inside and out. She must un-
derstand the use and abuse of every damper, door, and
slide.
Every range has a fire box. This may be round or
elongated; deep or shallow. When wood is to be used,
a moderately deep and long fire box is preferable, as it
will admit longer and larger sticks of wood, thus en-
abling one to more easily keep a steady fire. The usual
openings in a fire box are a door and one or more slides.
The latter admit air containing the oxygen needed by the
fire. In many ranges there is also an ash damper under
the fire box, which, if kept open while raking the fire, will
aid in preventing the ashes entering the room, by creat-
ing an upward draft. It should not be open at other
times, because it retards the burning of the fire. There
is also an oven damper, either back of the oven or over
it, which, when closed, forces the flames and hot smoke
to pass around the oven ; then, by means of divisions, as
shown in the illustration, they are conveyed along the
bottom of the oven to a pipe at the back part, through
which they escape into the flue. The oven damper often
has over it the words, "Out to use the oven," but it does
not follow that it shall be out only when the oven is to
be used. When a fresh fire is made, allow the smoke and
heat to pass up the chimney, but as soon as the fire is
burning well, adjust this damper so that tne oven will be
heated. This will keep the oven so that you can heat it
at any time in a few minutes, and you will have a good
fire with much less fuel than by allowing a strong draft,
created by open dampers, to carry the heat up the chim-
ney. Some ranges have a damper in the pipe, also, which
can be used when the draft is too strong.
To Make and Manage a Wood Fire.
Take off all the stove covers and brush off the dust and
ashes from the top of the oven into the fire box. Scrape
the ashes from the fire box into the ash pan, and remove
12 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
and empty it. About once a week the ashes should be
scraped from beneath the oven with a scraper made for
the purpose.
When ready to lay the fire, place on the bottom of the
fire box some shavings, if you have them ; otherwise pre-
pare some paper by wringing it in the hands, and lay that
in. On the paper lay a number of fine sticks extending
the entire length of the grate, and crossing each other
diagonally, to allow the air to circulate among them, and
let the ends of the sticks rest on the supports at the ends
of the fire box, that they may not press the paper or shav-
ings too much. On these fine sticks place some thicker
sticks, and criss-cross them as before. Put the covers on,
and light the fire from below. As soon as the fire has
burned a few minutes, and sunk a little, put on another
stick or two, and when it is well started close the drafts
and the oven damper to hold a steady fire, and replenish
as often as necessary.
To Make and Manage a Coal Fire.
Prepare the range the same as for a wood fire. Put into
the fire box several pieces of thick kindling wood, laying
them across the bars of the grate a short distance apart.
On these place the shavings or paper as before, letting
them protrude through the bars of the grate, so that they
can be lighted from below. On these place the small and
the large sticks, as before, until the fire box is nearly filled,
then sprinkle on a shovelful of coal, and light. Add a
little coal, as needed, until a nice bed of red coals is
formed, then fill the fire box with coal nearly to the top
of the fire bricks. Under no circumstances fill it fuller
than this, because there is nothing gained by having the
top of the range red hot, and it chokes the draft, wastes
the fuel, and warps the top of the stove. Leave the drafts
open until the surface of the fire is covered with blue
flames, then close the drafts to hold a steady fire. Do
not allow the coal to burn until it is red, as the fire has
FUELS. 13
then reached its climax, and will soon begin to die out
unless more coal is added ; neither is it wise to allow it to
burn low. If you wish to keep a brisk fire all day, add a
sprinkle of coal now and then, as needed, and you will
not have to wait for a fire to burn.
When you wish to hold the fire from one meal until
the next, after the blue flame appears, partially remove
one or more of the covers, and close the drafts. If
the gas escapes, adjust them so as to prevent this, open-
ing them a little later, if necessary. When ready to use
the fire, put on the covers, and open the drafts until it
again burns brightly. If the fire has rested thus at night,
get the breakfast and then put on a shovelful of coal and
let the fire burn until after breakfast; then empty the
ashes into the sifter, replace the ash pan, open the ash
damper, and rake the fire until free from ashes. Always
Double Boiler. Showing height of water.
rake it from below, using a long straight poker which
will pass between the bars of the grate in front, thus lift-
ing the bed of coals and allowing the ashes to drop
through into the ash pan. This also brings the clinkers
up where they can be removed. Close the ash damper,
sprinkle a little coal over the top, put on the covers, and
open the oven damper, When this burns, put on coal
nearly to the top of the fire bricks, and when the blue
flame appears close the damper.
References: Johnson's Encyclopedia, p. 356; School Kitch-
en Text Book Lincoln pp. 2 to 10; Elements of Cookery
Williams & Fisher 7-23.
14
Plan for Large Farm Kitchen.
A China closet between dining room and kitchen.
B Closet for kitchen utensils, tinware, etc.
C Movable table.
D Draining boards.
E Sink; if there is water in house.
F Range.
\
-.FRONT VIEW/.
.'.PROFILE/.
China Closet
CHAPTER II,
THE KITCHEN.
The kitchen should be light and airy. People, like
plants, need a certain amount of heat and light.
The kitchen windows should move easily at top and
bottom. Windows which can be opened easily permit one
the more readily to clear the room of an undue amount of
heat or steam. The ceiling should be high, smooth, and
free as possible from angles. The height will give better
air, and the smoothness will lessen the amount of collect-
ing dust and the trouble with house pests.
Hotel Range.
It is well to have a ventilator in the roof by means of
a skylight, when the kitchen is so situated that it can
be done, as the odors will then escape more readily.
There should be floor space sufficient for range, sink, cup-
board, tables, etc., but no more than is necessary ; other-
wise, much extra walking is required in doing the work.
THE KITCHEN. 17
A bare floor of hardwood is best, but it is expensive,
\and any bare floor requires much cleaning, though it is
certainly more sanitary than one that is covered. Soft
wood will splinter in time, and tiling is cold and hard on
the feet, but is easily kept clean, and is very durable.
If a covering is used, linoleum is better than oilcloth,
because it is warmer for the feet, and wears well. If there
is water in the house, so that a sink can be used, have an
iron or a porcelain one, and a strainer screwed down, to
prevent clogging the pipe.
At a convenient place in the kitchen have a closet for
kitchen tableware and other utensils. There should be
two drawers for kitchen towels, etc. A small table on
casters will be found very convenient for use when one
is baking pies, etc., as it can be readily wheeled from
pantry to range. It is also desirable to have a table near
at hand when one is frying doughnuts, poaching eggs,
or in fact doing any cooking on the top of the range.
This table should be made of hardwood, that it may be
easily cleaned, and should be covered with paper while in
use.
The range is a very important part of the kitchen fur-
nishings and it is necessary that it be set in a place where
the light from at least one window can shine full upon it,
for there are cloudy days when it is impossible to cook
successfully unless one can admit much light by adjust-
ing window shades.
There are many patterns of stoves and ranges, each
having its merits and demerits. The portable and set
ranges will answer for a rough classification. Set ranges
require less room, but are often necessarily in a dark place
and can be approached from one side only. They con-
sume much fuel and heat up slowly. The floor near them
becomes hot and uncomfortable to the feet. A portable
range can be placed so as to have better light than a set
range, in some cases, and as it can be approached from
18
HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
more sides, less lifting of heavy vessels is necessary. It
requires less fuel than a set range, heats up more quickly,
but gives a smaller amount of hot water, and has some
other disadvantages. There are a few things that are nee-
Kitchen Range.
essary to the successful use of any stove or range : There
must be a free draught, that the fire may burn readily;
there should be several checks and dampers, that the user
THE KITCHEN. 19
may be able to control the heat so as to consume no more
fuel than is necessary, and also be able to direct the hot air
into such parts of the range as are needed for use at the
time. When the range is brought into the house, the
user must at once make herself acquainted with its dif-
ferent dampers and checks, and study its inner construc-
tion, that she may know the use of all hot-air and smoke
flues, and how to manage them. The reasons for this are
obvious. The air and smoke always carry with them
soot and ashes, which they deposit on the way to the top
of the chimney. The soot and ashes must be removed
frequently, else the range will cease to do good work.
Water should never be allowed to fall on the range. If
the range is hot, it is liable to break ; if cold, there is dan-
ger of rust. When it is necessary to leave the kitchen for
a few minutes, remove the cover from the teakettle to pre-
vent it boiling over. When anything is spilled on the
range, wipe it off at once. The top of the range can be
kept in good condition by washing with dish water after
rubbing with a piece of paper. Whether the range shall
be blacked, each user must decide for herself. Polish
gives it a more pleasing appearance, but is hard on the
clothes of the one working about the stove.
KITCHEN UTENSILS.
In selecting kitchen utensils, one should exercise great
care to choose only those which are best adapted to her
wants, those which a good housekeeper really needs.
Closets filled with utensils which are of no great value are
not 'an aid to order, neatness, nor expedition in cooking.
Old iron utensils are superior to new ones, because
long use has made them very smooth. In buying iron
utensils, be careful to know that they are of the best qual-
ity and well finished. Iron utensils of poor quality cause
much annoyance. Before being used, they should be
washed and wiped perfectly dry; then the inside should
be rubbed with some kind of unsalted fat, as lard. Let
20
HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
the utensils stand several hours, and then wash again,
put over the fire where they will heat gradually, wash
again with soapy water, rinse thoroughly in hot water,
and wipe perfectly dry.
Many kitchen utensils can be had in ironware lined
with porcelain. These have many merits, they are not
acted upon by acids, they are thick, and consequently the
degree of heat required for their contents is easily con-
trolled, and, if carefully handled, they are durable. If al-
lowed to become dry, the enamel is liable to crackle and
subsequently chip off, and they are heavy to handle, but
are easily cleaned.
Gasoline Range.
There are tin vessels with asbestos interlinings. These
are good for heating milk and all things which require
care to prevent burning, and which do not act on tin.
Granite ware is not acted upon by acids, is easily kept
clean, and is light to handle, but, like porcelain, will chip
THE KITCHEN. 21
off if burned or allowed to fall. In buying iron utensils,
porcelain-lined or granite ware, see that they are smooth
and free from blemish, as any defect will soon prove the
ruin of the whole in granite and porcelain-lined vessels,
and is a constant source of annoyance in iron ones.
Copper vessels retain heat well, but are expensive and
difficult to keep in order. They may be kept bright by
rubbing 1 with a solution of salt and vinegar, and washing
in soapsuds and wiping dry. They should never be used
unless perfectly bright, because the food is liable to be
poisoned by the dark coating.
Aluminum cooking vessels are light and durable, but
are very expensive, and, with some kinds of water, tarnish
readilv and are difficult to clean.
Strainers, Puree Sieve and Potato Ricer.
In buying tin vessels, select those which are smooth
and heavy, and not too brilliant. The retinned is more
expensive, but usually more satisfactory, as the cheap
ware has very little durability. The surface of cjieap tin
is easily injured by heat. Tinware is best washed in soap-
22 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
suds, rinsed, and wiped dry. Some object to the use of
soap in dish washing, fearing that the soap may not be
clean. It is better to use home-made soap for dish wash-
ing, and, knowing that it is clean, use it freely. Granite
ware and porcelain-lined vessels should be washed in
soapsuds, if greasy, and then rinsed in clear water, if de-
sired, and wiped dry. A wire dishcloth should be used
with pots and kettles when necessary.
A soup digester, while not an absolute necessity, is a
good thing to have if one can afford it. It must be suf-
ficiently tight to prevent the steam escaping, else it is no
better than an ordinary kettle.
Kitchen Knives, Etc.
A soapstone griddle is expensive, and some think cakes
baked on it are less tender than those baked on an iron
griddle. The soapstone griddle needs no greasing, con-
sequently there is less smoke from it than from the others
when cakes are cooking. Of iron griddles there are sev-
eral kinds. The common cast-iron griddle has very little
polish, and is inexpensive, but not very satisfactory.
THE KITCHEN. , A 23
There is a thick, heavy griddle having a surface like
polished steel. This is good, but expensive. There is a
griddle of iron which is smooth and durable, also inex-
pensive. This is called "never break" ware.
If the grease burns on the griddle, scour and rub with
salt to remove it, then wash clean, and wipe dry.
Cast-iron roll and gem pans are very heavy, and it
takes some use to make them smooth. They give a good
crust to things baked in them, but are inconvenient on
account of their weight. Russia iron gem pans are light,
Lemon Squeezers.
easily cleaned, and bake well, but these are not always
made so that thin batters will not exude from them. Tin
pans, especially when new, do not usually give so nice a
crust as either of the others. When used a while, tin
bakes better, but it is never quite so satisfactory for this
purpose as some other materials. Granite ware is good if
used with care, but does not give a good crust very read-
ily.
A common cast-iron spider with a short handle is very
useful in the kitchen. This should have a close-fitting
24 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
cover. It will be found best for sauteing meats, and can
be set in the oven when necessary. The spider should
be oared for in the same way as other iron utensils.
THE PANTRY.
Adjoining the kitchen there should be a pantry. Ten
by twelve feet, inside measure, is a good size. The win-
dow should have a wire screen, so that the room can be
well aired, and there should be a shade of some kind to
shut out the sun when necessary. A large, strong table
containing two drawers should be placed near the win-
dow. There should be hooks at the end of the table, from
which to suspend the pastry board, egg beater, etc. The
board on which cold meats are cut, also that for bread
and cake, may be hung in some convenient place. " In one
drawer the rolling pin, knives, pastry and cake cutters,
and a few other utensils may be stored. In the other,
measuring cups, steel knives, forks,. etc., may be kept.
On one side of the room there should be shelves for
jars, or boxes, in which materials frequently used, such as
coffee, tea, rice, etc., may be kept. For the daily or week-
ly supplies in the pantry there is nothing better than glass
jars. They may be securely closed from insects, prevent
loss of strength by evaporation, and permit one to see at
a glance when the stores need replenishing. Some shelves
should be placed up higher than can be reached from the
floor, as during the summer these will be found a con-
venient place for empty fruit jars and such things as are
not in use at the time. Near the door have a roller for
the towel, to save steps while working in the pantry.
Near the window, but not in the sunshine, have the re-
frigerator, unless there is a cold room near the kitchen in
which perishable articles of food may be kept. If the
house has a good cellar, a refrigerator is not a necessity,
but is convenient, as it saves many steps, and preserves
foods better than a cellar.
THE KITCHEN. 25
THE STOREROOM.
A storeroom is expected to be a source of comfort, se-
curity, and economy; but if it proves to be so, it must be
properly managed, as well as wisely arranged. This room
should be kept dry, cool, and dark. Light should be fur-
nished by a window which can be shaded when neces-
sary, and opened, when needed, to admit light and air.
This room should have many shelves, and a step-ladder
of convenient size for use here. The shelves should be
made so they can be thoroughly and easily cleaned. Any-
thing spilled on these shelves should be wiped up at once,
and the entire room should be cleaned often enough to
prevent dust accumulating.
Pantry and storeroom shelves may be covered with oil-
cloth or paper, which should be renewed often for cleanli-
ness. Oilcloth is more satisfactory than paper,, because a
soiled place caused by an accident when the covering is
clean can be cleaned without removing everything from
the shelf. Paper has the merit of cheapness. In this
room should be kept all provisions bought in quantities,
except those having a strong odor, as codfish, bacon, etc.
These should be kept alone in an airy place.
The room where, milk and butter are kept must be dry,
well-ventilated, and light. Usually the cellar will be
found most desirable for this purpose, because there the
temperature is more even than in a place above ground.
Perfect cleanliness and frequent airing are indispensable
in this place. If vegetables and milk are both kept in the
same cellar, they should be put into separate rooms which
do not communicate with each other, for milk and butter
will readily absorb any odor which is in the air about them.
The cellar should be ventilated when the outside air is
cool, for warm air which is admitted is liable to contain
moisture, which, on meeting the cool air of the cellar,
will be condensed, and render the cellar damp, as well as
26 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
warm. In order to avoid this, the windows should be
opened late at night, and closed before sunrise, when the
air is the coolest one can obtain.
References: Parloa's Kitchen Companion, pp. 9-17, 31-42,
56-62; Elements of Cooking Williams & Fisher pp. 31-33,
39-49.
MEASURING.
Believing that most housekeepers prefer measuring to
weighing, the recipes in this book are given almost wholly
by measure. The measures are almost invariably even;
for example, one cup means one level cup ; one teaspoon-
ful means one level teaspoonf ul ; one scant cup means one
tablespoonful less than a cup; one generous cup means
one tablespoonful more than a cup. Eggs vary so much
in size that it is practically impossible to be exact in a
recipe which calls for a certain number of eggs, conse-
quently the following recipes generally give eggs by meas-
ure, instead of by number.
In order to eliminate luck from cookery, the worker
must be exact in her measurements, as well as careful in
the preparation and baking of any dish. Materials differ
in strength and quality, and for this re'ason a little judg-
ment is needed in making any dish ; but the fact that these
formulae have all been thoroughly tested, and many of
them have been used by large classes in the schoolroom,
leads to the belief that even the amateur will find them
reliable. One cup, as used in the formulae, means one-
half pint; but it does not follow that, in order to be ex-
act in her measurements, each woman must possess a
graduated measuring cup. It is easier to use, and costs
little ; but knowing that, in these recipes, sixteen table-
spoonfuls equal one cup, it is an easy matter to put six-
teen tablespoonfuls of water into a glass (be sure that
the spoons are just full, neither under full nor running
over), and hunt among your dishes until you find a glass
THE KITCHEN.
27
or cup which will be just filled level full by this process.
Then keep that one always for measuring purposes. Re-
member that success depends upon accuracy of measure-
ment. At home, the one cup, with a teaspoon and table-
spoon, is all that is necessary ; but in school work, by
some methods of teaching, one needs to divide a recipe
into tablespoonfuls. The following table is given to aid
in this work:
I
Measuring Dry Materials.
MEASURES.
Four teaspoonfuls equal one tablespoonful.
Sixteen tablespoonfuls of liquid equal one cup.
Twelve tablespoonfuls of dry material equal one cup.
Four cups equal one quart.
The juice of one lemon means one-fourth of a cup.
MEASURES AND WEIGHTS.
One pint of butter (packed) equals one pound.
One quart of flour (packed) equals one pound.
One pint of granulated sugar equals one pound.
One pint of chopped meat (packed) equals one pound.
One pint and two-thirds of a cup of powdered sugar equals one
pound.
One pint and two-thirds of a cup of brown sugar equals one
pound.
28 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
One pint and two-thirds of a cup of oatmeal equals one pound.
One quart and three-fourths of a cup of rolled oats equals one
pound.
For school work, it is absolutely necessary to have the
graduated cups. It is wise, also, to have a number of
timbale molds, which can be had for a little ; and as they
can be gotten in a size that holds just one-fourth of a
cup, they aid much in securing accurate measurement by
those in class who cannot measure by the eye, for anyone
can smooth a substance off with a knife, and have it al-
ways measure the same.
In class work, it is well (for beginners) to use the
small-sized timbale molds. Make your recipes so that
even measures can be used ; then for one- fourth of a cup
the students can smooth the material in the little cups off
even with the top of the measure by using a kitchen
knife ; for half a cup they can take two of the measures ;
for three-fourths, three, etc. Have them empty the con-
tents each time into their half-pint measure. After three
months' work (twenty-four lessons), take the small cups
away, and let those who succeed with the half-pint cup
continue using it ; let the others go back to the use of
small cups again, and they will be somewhat chagrined,
and use their powers of observation to such purpose that
they will soon succeed in developing some judgment in the
matter of measuring.
PICKING UP AND WASHING DISHES.
(1) Put away food.
(2) Gather teaspoons and put in a small pitcher.
(3) Gather up glasses.
(4) Gather up cups.
(5) Gather up saucers.
(6) Gather up pitchers.
(7) Gather up knives, forks, and tablespoons, and put
in a pitcher of water.
(8) Gather the cleanest plates, or the sauce plates.
THE KITCHEN. 29
(9) Gather the dinner plates.
( 10) Gather the butter plates.
Scrape all the fragments into a refuse pail as the dishes
are picked up. Arrange dishes conveniently on the table
where they are to be washed. When washing glassware
of any kind, dip in such a way that water will enter inside
and outside at same time, and it will be less liable to
break them.
Have a dishpan with plenty of clean, hot, soapy water.
Wash first the glasses, drain, and wipe on a clean, dry
cloth, as they have thus a better polish. Cut glass should
be cleaned with sawdust and a clean brush before wash-
ing. Next wash the silver, then the tinware, drying each
Household Scales.
immediately while still hot. Throw that water out, if
dirty, and with clean, hot soapsuds wash first the cups,
drain, scald, and wipe, or drain, if you have room to stand
them up where the air can pass about them, and put
away unwiped. Treat all other china in the same way,
washing the cleanest first. If the washing water is not
hot, the change of temperature may cause the china to
crackle. Avoid putting the handles of steel knives, or the
tops of egg beaters, in the water, as the handles may come
30 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
off from the knives, and the egg beaters may refuse to
turn, or may scatter oil when used.
CLEANING SILVER, GLASS, ETC.
When the water bottle or glass pitcher becomes dis-
colored, soak in ammonia water, or in water with a little
baking soda, and rub the spots with baking soda. Alco-
hol is better than ammonia to moisten the whiting for
cleaning silver, because the ammonia is apt to dissolve off
a portion of the silver. Better use whiting or powdered
chalk than many of the silver polishes, as the silver is
injured less. To remove egg stains from silver, rub with
salt on a moist cloth. Whiting, or very fine sand, with a
neutral soap, is good for cleaning tinware. To prevent
iron utensils rusting while not in use, coat with kerosene
and lamp-black.
The cloth that the dishes are washed with should never
be left wet or hung under the sink, but should be rinsed
out and dried at once, in the sunshine, if possible. Once
a week it should be boiled in soapsuds after washing well,
and then dried.
For tea towels, linen crash is probably the best, be-
cause it absorbs water well, and is easily laundered. But
muslin flour sacks, hemmed, will serve the purpose very
well if laundered each week before too much soiled. The
cloths for wiping ironware, such as kettles, bread pans,
etc., should be made of crash, because it is so difficult to
wash the stains from them. The iron must be wiped, be-
cause, if left to dry on the range, it may become rough.
There should be cloths of some soft material for lifting
things about the range. When an iron or granite ware
kettle has had something burned in it, it should have
some water and a little washing soda or concentrated lye
put into it, and be allowed to stand where it will keep
warm for a while, then the water should be poured off,
and the burned portion of the kettle scraped with an oys-
THE KITCHEN. 31
ter shell, a wire dish washer, or something of the kind.
It should then be rinsed with clear water, washed and
rubbed with a cloth on which a little sapolio has been
placed by rubbing the cloth over the cake.
To prevent omelet pans sticking, rub with salt. When
onions or cabbage have been cooked in a kettle, it should
be filled with water after washing, and a little washing
soda or lye added and allowed to boil, and afterwards
washed well and wiped. This will remove odor.
Wooden articles should be soaked with water as little
as possible in washing, and dried in a gentle heat. If
placed near the fire they are very apt to crack.
Steel knives and forks should be cleaned with brick
dust after each meal. The cut surface of a raw potato is
a good thing to rub them with, as it keeps constantly
moist. A piece of cork is also good. After scouring,
wash in soapsuds and wipe dry.
The garbage pail should be washed after each meal, and
scrubbed each laundry day.
TO CLEAN THE SINK.
Wash with hot water in a dishpan and a brush, being-
certain that every groove is reached. Pour the water
from the dishpan into the sink, and let it drain out. Fill
the pan again with hot water, and again wash the sink,
and wipe dry, if it is not to be used again soon. The
sink should be flushed three times a week with boiling
salsoda water, made in the proportion of one pint of sal-
soda to three gallons of water. Use at least two quarts
of the hot salsoda water each time, allowing it to run
boiling hot down the pipe, and pour clear boiling water
in at once when the other disappears. If the sink be-
comes rusty, rub well with un salted fat on the bottom and
sides, and allow it to stay on over night, or several hours ;
then wash it off with hot soapsuds, and wipe the sink dry,
32 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
TO CLEAN THE REFRIGERATOR.
Wash shelves and bottom of refrigerator once a week
with clear warm water, and wipe dry, if shelves are not
movable. If shelves can be moved, take them out, and
wash with soapsuds, and scald, and wipe dry. When
cool, return to their places. In every case see that crevices
are thoroughly cleaned. Once in two weeks take ice all
out, and wash ice chest well ; also clean waste pipe by
probing with a white cloth tied onto the end of a stick
that is certain not to break, a piece of an old whip stock
is good.
CHAPTER III
METHODS OP COOKING,
Methods of cooking may be divided into four general
classes, broiling, boiling, baking, and frying.
( Broiling- over coals. ( Boiling- proper.
Broiling- - Pan broiling-. Boiling- < Steaming-.
( Oven broiling-. ( Stewing-.
Bakinsr ! Bakin ff- Frvimr J Fr ying" in d ep fat.
ngr I Roasting. Drying- ^ Sauteing>
In broiling, an article of food is subjected to radiant
heat, which usually reaches the article being cooked, from
one side only. In broiling proper, this heat comes from a
bed of glowing, smokeless coals, and the article to be
cooked is supported by a few wires. In pan broiling, the
heat is conducted by a hot metal surface, as a hot griddle,
and the article to be cooked lies on the radiating surface.
In oven broiling, the medium is hot air, and the process
differs from baking only in having much more intense
heat, as the article to be cooked is thin, and requires an
intense heat, because it must be cooked quickly, and be
served while still juicy and hot.
When food is boiled, it is enveloped in hot water. In
some cases, the water should boil rapidly all the time,
as in cooking potatoes, carrots, etc. In other cases, it
should not bubble at all, but be kept near the boiling
point. The reason for this is found in the articles on
cooking vegetables and meats.
Stewing is a combination of two methods, boiling
and steaming, only a little water being used, and the
article to be cooked placed in a closed vessel with tight-
fitting cover, so that the confined steam aids the small
amount of hot water in making the food tender.
34 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
In steaming, the food is placed above hot water, and
the vessel is covered so closely that the steam surrounds
the food and cooks it. This is an excellent method of
cooking such vegetables as potatoes, parsnips, etc. When
foods such as cereals, steamed bread, etc., are cooked in
a vessel surrounded by hot water, we call the process
steaming, though the steam does not touch the food, but
the heat is conducted to it by means of the metal or
porcelain vessel containing the article to be cooked.
In baking, the article to be cooked is surrounded by
hot air. In roasting, the heating medium is the same.
In frying, the food is surrounded by hot fat. In sau-
teing, a small quantity of fat is used, and articles which
would be tough when fried or broiled are made tender
by first browning in the fat, and then subjecting to a
long, slow cooking, the spider being closely covered all
the time.
Braising might be termed "oven stewing," as a small
amount of water is used, and the closely-covered vessel
containing the food is kept in the oven while the article
cooks.
OBJECT OF COOKING.
The value of food for nutriment depends not only
on the amount of nutrients it contains, but also on the
amount of these the body can digest and use for its sup-
port.
Cooking changes the texture of food, making it in
some cases more, and in others less, digestible; hence
we should first ascertain whether cooking will improve
the flavor and digestibility of the article of food. In
general, the digestibility of animal foods is diminished
by cooking, and that of vegetables increased, though
there are exceptions. Vegetable foods are more difficult
of digestion than animal foods, and their preparation is
more complicated and thorough. The nutritive substances
are inclosed in cells often with thick walls, and hence are
METHODS OP COOKING. 35
not readily acted upon by the digestive fluids. When
vegetables are boiled in water, the contents of the cells
expand and burst through these walls. The fragrant and
savory substances are set free with the other substances
which were imprisoned in the cells, and their astringency
and bitterness are tempered. Some of the constituents
are dissolved by water, or suffer other changes. Starch,
an important ingredient in many vegetable foods, such
as potato, wheat, rice, etc., takes up water and assumes
the soft pasty condition which is necessary for its trans-
formation into soluble dextrine and sugar, which shows
that the cooking of starchy foods is necessary.
The boiling of vegetables may, indeed, be termed a
preparatory digestive process. Cells of other plants be-
have like the starch-bearing potato. The seeds of le-
gumes, such as beans, peas, and lentils, are, in their nat-
ural state, difficult of digestion, because their starch gran-
ules lie closely packed within the indigestible cell walls.
On boiling, the starch swells, the cells burst, and their
contents are changed into a pulpy mass, a very nutri-
tious and digestible dish.
References: Art of Cookery Ewing p. 33; Elements of
Cookery Williams & Fisher- pp. 52, 53; The Chemistry of
Cookery Mattieu Williams pp. 8-12.
CHAPTER IV.
WATER.
Sources of Water,
Water plays a very important part in this world of
ours. It is encountered in minerals as a chemical con-
stituent. It enters very largely into the composition of
,-iii things of vegetable growth, from the blade of grass
to the sturdy oak. Many vegetables, as cabbage, pota-
toes, celery, lettuce, etc., are composed largely of water.
Fruit also contains a large amount of water. The bodies
of all animals contain much water. If the water could
all be removed from a human body, a very small weight
would balance what is left. Since fruits and vege-
tables, as well as animal foods, are composed so
largely of water, a human being takes much water in
his food, and this is the same as other water, so far as
its work in the body is concerned. Water is taken in
also with the air which is breathed. A body composed
so largely of water as is that of the human being needs
much more water than the food and air supply. Much is
needed to enable the body to perform its necessary func-
tions, and the skin must be kept clean to aid the internal
organs in their ceaseless and worthy efforts to excrete
watery solutions and keep the person in good health.
Nature has supplied this universal solvent very plenti-
fully, and distributed it over much of the earth's sur-
face, and under some portions of it. Water for the
nourishment of men and animals is derived largely
from rain water stored in cisterns, etc., and from springs,
lakes, rivers, and wells. The term "rain water" is ap-
plied to the water which reaches us from the clouds, di-
rect, whether in the form of rain, hail, or snow. Rain
WATER. 37
water should be allowed to fall a sufficient length of time
to wash the dust particles and other impurities from the
air, and the smoke and dust from the roof , before it is
allowed to enter the cistern. A cistern should be walled
with material practically insoluble in water, and well ce-
mented. It should be kept well covered, to prevent the
entrance of all impurities.
Rain or melting snow is the usual source of spring
water. The water sinks into the earth, and percolates
through layer after layer, until it reaches- an impervious
stratum of rock or clay. There it rests until the ac-
cumulation is so great that it must have more room. It
then breaks through the soil at some lower level in the
form of a spring. Rivers usually have their source in
a lake situated among the mountains, or on other high
land. These lakes receive the water from the melting
snows on the surrounding heights, and from the rain-
fall, as well as that which seeps through the rocks.
When the lake basin can hold no more water, a tiny
.stream flows out over the lower land, and receives
similar streams and large rivers until, when it reaches
the sea, there is a large amount of water. Lakes are
formed by melting snow and rain, which flow in small
streams into a basin having a bottom impervious to wa-
ter. Wells are artificial openings into underground water,
and are of three kinds. Shallow wells from fifteen to
fifty feet are dug, and walled with brick or stone. These
are fed by surface water, and are often visibily affected
by copious rainfall or protracted drouth. Driven wells
are deeper, and often pass through a layer of some ma-
terial which is impervious to water. Artesian wells are
sometimes of very great depth, ranging from some hun-
dreds to a few thousand feet deep.
Composition of Water.
Pure water is made up of two gases, hydrogen and
38 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
oxygen, in the proportion of one part oxygen to two
parts hydrogen by volume. It is represented by the sym-
bol "H2O." Pure water is colorless, tasteless, and odor-
less. Pure water is never found in nature. Put a clean
glass where the rain can fall unobstructed through the air
into it during the latter part of a shower, and you will have
water as nearly pure as it occurs in nature. Rain water
absorbs gases of which the atmosphere is composed,
nitrogen and oxygen and carbon dioxide and a small
amount of ammonia. It usually contains dust taken from
the air, and may contain small amounts of soluble sub-
stances, particles of which were floating in the air. That
which flows over the roofs of buildings is likely to con-
tain smoke, in addition to the other impurities. Rain
water which flows over or through portions of the earth,
as in the formation of rivers, lakes, and springs, takes up
something in the form of soluble portions of soils, rocks,
and decaying animal and vegetable matter found in its
course. Many substances are soluble in water, and food
nutrients needed by some plants are found in water, so
that water which falls on a mountainous region has a
very different composition when it reaches the sea, or
an underground river or lake, from what it had when it
first reached the earth. Rain water which falls in the
latter part of a shower is purer than that which falls
in the first part, and the water which falls in winter is
purer than that which falls in summer.
Food Value of Water.
Water is not a "nutrient," in the sense in which the
word is generally used, but it is indispensable for nour-
ishment, for it is a universal solvent, and a very conven-
ient means of carrying the nutrients to the places where
they are needed. It also carries waste products to places
of exit, and conveys the surplus heat from the places
where it is manufactured to the outside of the body, so that
the temperature may be equalized, the blood purified, and
WATER. 39
the tissues built up or repaired. The frequent application
of water to the outside of the body aids in the work of
purification of the body 'by keeping the pores of the skin
open, so that some of the waste products may be freely
eliminated.
Perfect purity is not necessary in drinking water, but
it should be free from visible particles, and should have
no disagreeable taste or smell, either when fresh, or after
it has stood for a time in a clean closed vessel. It should
contain enough of the gases of the air to prevent its tast-
ing flat, like distilled or long-boiled water. It should
contain only a small amount of dissolved mineral mat-
ter, and this should not be of a poisonous nature, as lead
from pipes, etc. Water should be free from decaying
animal or vegetable matter. Impurities of animal matter
or the excreta of animals are usually more dangerous than
those of vegetable origin. Water which has more than a
trace of such matter is not safe. The purity of water
cannot always be judged by its appearance, odor, or
taste. Water which is clear and sparkling and tastes
well may contain the germs of some dread disease; and
water may contain the dead bodies of harmless confervae
and Crustacea, minute sponges, etc., to such a degree as
to cause it to smell bad for a time, without perceptibly
injuring the one who drinks of it. If there is any ques-
tion about the wholesomeness of water, boil it, and let
it cool before using. So far as lies in your power, keep
the surroundings clean. Pure water is "clean" in every
sense of the word. Water in which sodium and magne-
sium salts are present in such small quantities as not to
render it hard is desirable. When the conditions are such
that the calcium or magnesium carbonate can be precipi-
tated by continued boiling the water is called "temporary
hard" water, because the hardness can be removed by
boiling. The carbonate is not readily soluble in pure
water, but is soluble in water containing carbon dioxide
40 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
gas. Boiling drives the carbon dioxide gas off, and the
calcium or magnesium carbonate is precipitated. The in-
crustation thus formed on the inside of the tea kettle can
be removed by setting it out to freeze. When the calcium
and magnesium occur as sulphates, they cannot be precipi-
tated by boiling, and the water is known as "permanent
hard" water.
A comparatively soft water is considered best for cook-
ing some vegetables, as beans, peas, etc., as the hard wa-
ter seems to have a less softening effect on them. In
cooking some other vegetables, the kind of water used
seems to make little difference. Moderately hard water
is considered better than very soft water for making tea
and coffee, because it dissolves less tannin, and the bev-
erage is thus more wholesome. Soft water is far pref-
erable for cleaning and for all laundry work, as it re-
quires less soap and labor, and gives better results.
Sources of Impurities in Water.
Harmful impurities in rain water may be avoided by
preventing the water entering the cistern before the air
and the roofs of buildings have been thoroughly washed,
and then keeping the cistern covered, to prevent the en-
trance of leaves, insects, etc.
Spring water necessarily contains some mineral matter
more in calcareous than in silicious regions which it
dissolved as it passed through the soil, and it may have
dissolved some animal matter, if any dead carcass or ani-
mal excreta lay on the soil over which it passed. It usual-
ly contains some vegetable matter, obtained from dead
leaves, though organic matter is usually found in small
amount in spring water. Lakes which lie high up
among the mountains are usually replenished by water
which flows over uncultivated lands. Such lakes fre-
quently have rocky bottoms, and are consequently quite
free from contamination if they are remote from human
habitations, and have an outlet, that they may be purified
WATER. 41
by subsidence, and kept fresh by constant change. Lakes
which have no outlet contain much mineral matter on
account of constant evaporation. Lakes in thickly-settled
regions receive much mineral matter and other impuri-
ties brought by the streams which flow over cultivated
regions. They may also receive garbage, sewage, etc.,
from cities and towns on their shores.
River water always contains mineral matter, the amount
varying under different conditions. A river which has
its source on high, uncultivated ground usually has purer
water near its source than farther down. Much depends,
also, on the formation of the soil through which it flows.
It is also different when swollen by heavy and frequent
rains than after protracted dryness. River water is very
apt to be polluted by decaying animal and vegetable mat-
ters, as vegetation on its shores, the bodies of dead ani-
mals, as fish, etc. The refuse from factories and the sew-
age from cities frequently find their way into the near-by
river. It sometimes becomes necessary to supply cities
with water from a river or lake. In this case, some
means of purifying is resorted to, as filtering through
beds of sand, etc. Household filters can be had, but un-
less they are kept scrupulously clean, the water is worse
with than without filtering.
The water of wells contains mineral matter dissolved
from the soil and rocks through which it passed. Some
well waters have much more mineral matter than others ;
this depends largely on whether the well is situated in a
silicious or a calcareous region. Well water is not free
from organic impurities, as water carries them long dis-
tances through porous soil. Of the three mentioned, arte-
sian wells are least apt to be so contaminated. Shal-
low wells are the most commonly so polluted. There
is more danger from such wells in the village than
in the country, for, however cleanly a person may be, he
has several neighbors near enough so that a little careless-
ness on their part may in a few days cause disease germs
42 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
to enter the water of a well that has been used for years,
and never found unwholesome.
Though there is less danger of pollution in the well
water at the farm hoiise, it is far from being free from
danger. As the well is merely an opening into this un-
derground lake or river, it will be as surely polluted by
solid garbage thrown on the ground to be washed by
the rains, and carried through the earth into it, as though
it were thrown on its visible surface. The piggery, the
barn, the henhouse, etc., are fruitful sources of contami-
nation unless they be well removed and on lower ground.
No one would think of throwing the kitchen slops into
the well, but they sometimes find their way into it when
thrown on the surface of the ground.
References: Johnson's Encyclopedia; Drinking Water and
Ice Supplies Prudden.
CHAPTER V.
VEGETABLES.
What Place Should Vegetables Have in the Diet?
The cereal products and potatoes make up the bulk
of the vegetable substance of our diet. There are, how-
ever, other vegetables which should be daily used. Some
of these cannot be said to have a large amount of nutri-
ment, yet there is something in their cool and crisp
natures, their vegetable acids and other constituents,
which exert a beneficial effect upon the system. It is
said that the early Romans so fully appreciated the use
of vegetable foods that they enacted laws compelling
their people to combine them freely with meats in their
dietaries. If the American people would use vegetables
freely with their diet of bread, meat, and potatoes, they
would have much more reason to hope for happy and
healthy old age.
Lettuce is chief among the salad plants. It has many
virtues. It is dainty and delicate ; wholesome at any
meal, but generally used at dinner. It combines har-
moniously with almost any kind of meat. It admits of
a number of different dressings, but is almost univer-
sally relished, even when dressed in the simplest man-
44 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
ner. The leaves of lettuce should never be bruised.
The tender leaves brought fresh from the garden should
be washed in clean, cold water, and relieved from moist-
ure by tumbling about in a white cloth. It may be
served just as it is, allowing each guest to dress it sim-
ply with vinegar and salt, or more elaborately, as is pre-
ferred.
Endive or winter lettuce is also valuable, because,
being more hardy than lettuce proper, it can be had in
early spring, when green vegetables are scarce. When
exposed to the air, the leaves are more acrid and tough
than those of lettuce. It can be bleached so that it is
crisp, tender and appetizing. It is dressed and used in
the same way as lettuce.
Watercress, that aromatic and pungent herb which
grows wild in some localities along the edges of ponds
of fresh water, near springs, and upon the banks of small
streams, always where there is plenty of water, has
a very pleasant flavor, and is relished by many. The
cultivated varieties are more tender than the wild ones.
Rhubarb, on account of its pleasant flavor and early
appearance in the spring, is a welcome visitor. It is
ready for use long before any fruit, or even the prin-
cipal salad plants. It can be used in a variety of ways,
so that one does not readily tire of it. When stewed
in a very little water and sweetened, it makes a good
substitute for fruit sauce. It is very acceptable in pie,
and those who have tried it in a shortcake served with
whipped cream can give evidence of its merits in this
capacity.
There are many plants belonging to the cabbage fam-
ily, different kinds of kale, Brussells sprouts, broccoli,
cauliflower, etc. A dish of sauerkraut makes a pleasant
variety during the long winter months, when vegetables
are scarce. This German dish is said to prevent scurvy
quite as efficiently as lemon juice or green vegetables.
VEGETABLES. 45
Crisp, tender cabbage, when finely shredded and
dressed for the table raw, is, for many, more wholesome
and digestible than cooked cabbage. Young onions are
to most people very agreeable and digestible. Celery
has a tenderness and delicacy of flavor which, added to
the benefit which the system derives from its use, should
gain for it a place in every farmer's garden.
There are other vegetables used as salads, but these
which are mentioned are all common, and with such a
variety there need never be a time during the summer
season when one feels the need of anything further in
the line of food materials.
Spinach is an early spring vegetable, and makes a fine
dish of greens.
All vegetables lose something either in flavor or constit-
uents, or both, by cooking. White beans are easily had
for winter use, and are a food rich in the flesh forming ele-
ments. Dry beans, like cereals, seem to benefit the person
eating them very little unless thoroughly cooked. Twelve
to twenty hours' cooking is necessary to render them the
most palatable and digestible ; but as the fire seldom goes
out in the kitchen range during winter, their preparation
requires little extra time or attention. The small white kid-
ney bean is best, on account of its thin skin and fine flavor.
There are several reasons for the long, slow cooking nec-
essary in dry beans, peas, and lentils. One is to soften
the paper-like membrane in which each nutritive particle
is bound up. Another is to so soften and change the
proteid matter as to render it more palatable and more
easily acted on by the digestive fluids. Another reason
for long cooking is that the legume softens and is pene-
trated by the seasonings used, which renders it more
palatable. Split peas have the outside skin removed and
are for this reason easier made use of by those who
are disturbed by the skins of legumes. All legumes may be
passed through a sieve to free from skins, as in making
46 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
purees. Some beans may be soaked until the skins can be
rubbed off between the hands.
In seasoning cooked vegetables, our object is to em-
phasize and bring out delicate flavors, and tone down
such flavors as are too prominent. A little cream adds
much to the flavor of some vegetables.
Green corn is a universal favorite, and is very gener-
ally used in its season. It has no further need of season-
ing than to bring out the delicious flavor, and this can be
best done by steaming.
Some green vegetables can be dried for winter use
and be as palatable as when canned. The process of
drying requires little, if any, more time or labor than
does canning.
To Dry Corn.
Pick it when just in prime condition for roasting ears,
husk, silk, and remove from the cob the same as for cook-
ing. Dry in a current of air as quickly as possible, tie up
in a bag and keep in a dry place.
To Dry String Beans.
Gather them when just right for present use, string,
and prepare as for cooking. Spread in a shady place
where the air circultes freely, and, when dry, treat in the
sarne manner as corn.
REMARKS.
Use each vegetable very often while it is in season.
Asparagus seldom lasts long enough for the family to
tire of it. Peas are always welcome, especially if cream
is used in dressing them. Peas are sweeter when the
pods are washed and boiled until soft, then skimmed out,
and the peas cooked in the water. Most people will wel-
come tomatoes in some form once a day during the
entire summer.
For cooking some vegetables, use a kettle having a
VEGETABLES. 47
tight-fitting cover. Food will cook in a less amount of
water when the steam is confined within the vessel than
when the medium for cooking must be hot water en-
tirely.
Most vegetables may be steamed instead of boiled if
one has utensils for so cooking.
The kettle in which potatoes are cooked should be
used for nothing else, if one wishes potatoes to be as
white as possible.
In all vegetables, aim to have the water mostly cooked
out, unless the flavor is too great, and you parboil the
vegetable.
In cooking some vegetables, such as carrots, cabbage,
and parsnips, the water in which they are cooked need
not be thrown away.
While stewing is usually done in a small quantity of
water, there are exceptions to this rule, as carrots, beans,
onions, turnips, and some other highly-flavored vege-
tables are improved in flavor by parboiling and draining.
Much of the nutritive part of the vegetable is sacrificed
in thus obtaining the best flavor. It is undoubtedly better
to use little water in the cooking, and tone the flavor
by using an appropriate dressing.
48 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
Prozen Vegetables.
Are, at best, inferior, but when it is necessary to use
such, soak them in cold water until thawed before pre-
paring for use. Then put to cook in boiling water, and
cook rapidly until done.
References: U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Exp. Stations, Bulletin
No. 43, pp. 7-8, 13; Food Products of the World Green pp.
158-161, 196-199; Farmers' Bulletin No. 121; Minnesota Bulle-
tin No. 54, pp. 58-61 ;Parloa's Kitchen Companion, pp. 490-492.
STEAMING, BAKING AND BOILING VEGETABLES.
Effect of Cooking on Food Value of Potatoes.
The following conclusions are taken from Minnesota
Experiment Station Bulletin No. 43 :
"(i) In order to obtain the highest food value, pota-
toes should not be peeled before cooking.
"(2) When potatoes are pared before cooking, the
least loss is sustained by putting them directly into hot
water, and boiling as rapidly as possible. Even then the
loss is very considerable.
"(3) If potatoes are pared and soaked in cold water
before boiling, the loss of nutrients is very great, being
one-fourth of all the albuminoid matter. In a bushel of
potatoes, the loss would be equivalent to a pound of
sirloin steak."
Plain Boiled Potatoes,
Select potatoes of uniform size. Wash clean in cold
water, using a vegetable brush. Rinse and pare, remov-
ing a thin paring, and taking out the eyes, if necessary.
As soon as pared, rinse in clear water, and put to cook
in such a quantity of boiling salted water that it will be
nearly boiled away when the potatoes are soft. Drain
off the water which remains, remove to the back of range,
throw a white cloth over the potatoes to absorb the moist-
ure, and they are ready to serve. A medium-sized po-
tato will cook in about twenty-five minutes. To cook
VEGETABLES. 49
potatoes in their skins, follow the same method. Potatoes
which are pared before cooking will give the whitest and
nicest-looking mashed potatoes, but they have less food
value than those pared after cooking. Potatoes are as
nice steamed as boiled and probably have greater food
value.
Emergency Potatoes.
Select potatoes with a smooth skin and of medium
size, scrub them, cover with boiling water, and let boil
about ten minutes, drain off the water and put potatoes to
bake. They will then bake quicker, and be almost as
good, as when wholly cooked in the oven.
Baked Potatoes.
Select and wash as above. Put to bake on the bottom
of a clean, moderately hot oven., When done, take each
potato in a cloth, and squeeze until it breaks a little,
allowing the steam to escape, or pierce each with a
skewer or fork. Serve at once.
Baked Sweet Potatoes.
Prepare and bake as white potatoes. Serve as soon as
done, as they become soggy if allowed to stand.
Browned Sweet Potatoes.
Pare cold baked or boiled sweet potatoes, and pour
over them a mixture of water, sugar and butter, using
one-quarter cup of water and one tablespoonful of sugar
and one of butter for three potatoes cut in half length-
wise. Bake until browned.
Mashed Potatoes.
Wash, pare, and remove imperfect parts from pota-
toes, and put to steam, or put to cook in a small amount of
boiling water, allowing one teaspoonful of salt to each pint
of water, and boil rapidly until done.
Do not allow pared potatoes to stand in cold water, as
this detracts from the food value. When the potatoes
50 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
are soft, mash fine. A wooden masher is best for this,
and a wire one is best for stirring. Measure the quantity
of potatoes by the eye, and for each pint add half a tea-
spoonful of salt, a little pepper, hot milk to moisten, and
butter enough to give a good flavor, then stir and beat
with wire masher until light and creamy white. Use
cream instead of milk and butter if you have it.
Bleed Potatoes.
After the potatoes are mashed, seasoned, and beaten,
press through a potato ricer into the serving dish.
Creamed Potatoes.
Cut cold boiled potatoes into thin slices. Put them in
a small shallow pan, cover with sweet milk and cook until
the potatoes have absorbed all of the milk. To one pint
of potatoes add one tablespoonful of butter, half a tea-
spoonful of salt and one-eighth teaspoonful of pepper, and
a little chopped parsley. Put the salt into the milk be-
fore pouring over the potatoes.
To Cook Carrots.
When carrots are to be cooked, have on the range,
boiling in the kettle, such an amount of slightly salted
water as in your opinion will allow the carrots to barely
cook until tender without burning. The exact quantity
of water cannot be given, as it evaporates more rapidly
some days than others. Put the carrots in whole, or as
nearly so as the kettle will permit. Keep them boiling
rapidly until tender. Remove the carrots from the ket-
tle, and with a sharp knife divide each through the
centre. For each half pint of liquid in the kettle, meas-
ure out a level tablespoonful of flour, and the same of
butter. Stir these together in a cup until thoroughly
mixed, then put into the boiling liquid in a lump, and
stir until the flour is cooked, and the liquid smooth and
thickened a little. Then season to taste with salt and
pepper, and add a sufficient amount of vinegar to make
VEGETABLES. 51
it slightly acid. Return carrots to the kettle, let boil and
serve. Better steam carrots than boil them when possi-
ble.
Carrots in White Sauce.
Put into a saucepan one level tablespoonful of flour,
and the same of butter. Let butter melt, and stir the two
together, but do not brown. Then add one cup of sweet
milk, and let boil a few minutes. After it actually boils,
season with salt and pepper, add one heaping teaspoonful
of parsley, stir up, pour over the carrots, and serve.
Sauces for Carrots.
Sauce No. I : Measure one level tablespoonful of flour
and one of butter for each cup of milk or carrot broth
used. Stir these together in a cup until perfectly mixed,
then put on the end of a wooden spoon, and put into the
boiling liquid, and stir until well cooked and smooth.
Season with salt and pepper, pour over the carrots and
serve.
Sauce No. 2 : If there is not liquid enough from the
carrots to make the sauce, put in enough rich milk to
make the required amount, thicken in the same manner as
before, season, and serve.
Sauce No. 3 : Put in enough beef broth to make the
required amount of liquid, thicken in the same way, put
one tablespoonful of vinegar to each cup of liquid, season,
and serve. If the vinegar is very sharp, use less.
Prof. Harry Snyder gives the following conclusions
from his experiments with carrots :
"These trials suggest that, in order to retain the great-
est amount of nutrients in the cooking of carrots, ( I )
the pieces should be large, rather than small: (2) the
boiling should be rapid, in order to give less time for the
solvent action of the water to act upon the food ingre-
dients; (3) as little water as possible should be used;
and (4) if the matter extracted be used as food along
52 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
with the carrots, instead of being thrown away, the loss
of twenty to thirty per cent., or even more, of the total
food value may be "prevented."
To Cook Asparagus.
Break off the woody ends, wash and tie the asparagus
in bunches of suitable size, cook in a small amount of
salted boiling water, and season as peas, or serve with
Hollandaise Sauce. May steam instead of boiling it.
To Cook Cabbage.
Cabbage may be cooked in very little water, and to
most persons is even more palatable than when cooked
in a large quantity of water. To cook cabbage in this
way, cut into moderately small pieces, and put to cook
in a closely covered vessel containing just boiling water
enough to prevent burning. When boiling rapidly, draw
to a cooler portion of the range, and let cook slowly
until tender. Season with salt, pepper, and butter, and
serve. Cabbage will be cooked by steaming in about the
same length of time as by boiling.
Boiled Cabbage.
Trim off the outside leaves, cut each head into eighths,
and put into the kettle with a small amount of boiling
salted water. Cook until tender, keeping just water
enough to prevent burning. When tender, remove to the
back of the range to keep warm, until ready to serve, then
prepare White Sauce No. I and pour over it.
Hot Slaw No. 1.
Cut the cabbage fine, cook in very little water until
tender, and when ready to serve add to one egg
beaten very light one tablespoonful of sugar, one-half
cup of hot vinegar, and lastly two tablespoonfuls of cream.
Season with salt and pepper, pour over the cabbage, stir,
and serve at once.
VEGETABLES. 53
Hot Slaw No. 2.
Cook cabbage same as in No. I, season with salt, pep-
per and butter and add enough vinegar to make pleas-
antly acid.
The following is from U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Exp.
Stations, Bulletin No. 43 :
"The kind of water used seems to have more effect on
the loss of nutrients in cooking cabbage than the tem-
perature of the water at which the cooking is started.
In any case the loss is large. In one hundred pounds
of uncooked cabbage, there are but seven and one-half
pounds of dry matter, and of this dry matter from two
and one-fourth to three pounds are lost in the process
of cooking." Cabbage loses much in cooking, because,
being leaves, the water has access to a large surface.
There seems no way to avoid great loss in food value,
except to use little water in cooking, and cook the water
out, or make a sauce of it.
Creamed Cabbage.
Cut the cabbage into medium fine pieces and steam or
cook in little water until tender, then pour over it a sea-
soned white sauce.
White Sauce No. 1.
Put into a saucepan two level tablespoonfuls of butter
and the same of flour. Heat until the butter melts, and
mix thoroughly together, but do not allow it to brown.
Pour into this, all at once, one cup of milk. Let cook
until it thickens, and ceases to taste of raw flour, season
with salt and pepper, pour over the cabbage, and serve.
Some find cabbage more palatable when as much water
as possible is removed before pouring the sauce over it.
Cabbage may be served with Hollandaise Sauce.
Hollandaise Sauce No. 1.
Pour one cup of White Sauce No. i, boiling hot, over
a beaten egg, pouring slowly, and beating rapidly. Add
54 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
one tablespoonful of vinegar or lemon juice. Put over
the fire and heat until the egg cooks a little, but do not
allow it to curdle. Season and serve.
Hollandaise Sauce No. 2.
Cook together, until well mixed, one tablespoonful
each of butter and flour. Add one cup of thin cream,
and bring to the boiling point. While boiling, stir in the
well-beaten yolks of three eggs, in which has been put
one tablespoonful of vinegar or lemon juice. Add egg
slowly, and continue cooking, after egg is in, about one
minute. Remove from fire, add seasoning, also one
tablespoonful of butter, and the egg whites, beaten stiff.
To Cook Beets.
Scrub the beets well, but be careful that the skin is
unbroken and the top left on, because they will lose their
beautiful color, as well as have less food value, if broken.
Cook in boiling water until tender, put into cold water
and rub off the skin. Cut in slices and serve hot. Sea-
son with salt, pepper, and butter, or pickle and serve cold.
To Cook Parsnips.
Prepare and cook in the same manner as carrots, and
serve with a sauce made of the water in which they are
cooked. Or, when tender, pour into a dripping pan,
and set in the oven. When the water has evaporated,
brush the parsnips over with butter, and let brown. Or
they may be cooked dry, and mashed, as potatoes, and
seasoned with salt, pepper, and butter.
To Cook Celery.
Scrub with a vegetable brush to remove all dirt from
the creases. Cut in half-inch lengths, and cook in a little
boiling salted water, or steam. When tender, serve with
White Sauce No. i.
VEGETABLES. 55
To Cook Onions.
Peel the onions and put to cook in a small quantity of
water (boiling and salted) until tender, then serve with
White Sauce No. I.
Smothered Onions.
Peel and put into a covered baking dish, and bake
until tender; then season with salt and pepper, and add
one tablespoonful of cream to each onion. Let cook
fifteen minutes longer, and serve. Or, put the onions
to cook in a buttered baking dish, season with salt and
pepper, and baste occasionally with butter while they
cook. When tender, remove the cover, allow the onions
to brown, and serve.
Onions Cooked with Milk.
Boil in plenty of salted water until about half done,
then drain the water off, and cover with milk, cook until
done, and season with salt and pepper to taste.
To Cook Peas.
Shell the peas, wash the pods, and put pods to cook
in a sufficient amount of water to cook the peas. When
the pods are soft, skim them out and put the peas to cook.
Keep just water enough to prevent burning, and when
done season with salt, pepper, and sweet cream.
To Cook String Beans.
Break off both ends of the pod, and break what is left
into two or three parts. Put to cook in sufficient boil-
ing water to keep them cooking three or four hours.
Put a piece of salt pork in the bottom of the kettle. Sea-
son, when done, with salt and pepper. Let the water
practically all cook out. A little cream may be added,
or they may be served with a white sauce.
56 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
To Cook Tomatoes.
Lay ripe tomatoes in a pan, stem side up, and cover
with boiling water, let stand an instant, drain off the
hot water, and put cold water on them. Remove the
skins, take out the cores, cut the tomatoes in pieces, and
put to cook in a granite ware or porcelain kettle, and
cook until well done. Season with salt, pepper, and but-
ter, and add bread or cracker crumbs.
Or make White Sauce No. I, and mix with the tomato
by first putting a little of the tomato into the sauce, then
pouring this into the kettle of tomatoes; stir well to-
gether and serve.
To Cook Turnips.
Choose turnips of medium size, pare, cut in halves, and.
cook until tender in a small amount of boiling salted
water. Allow the water to evaporate, mash the turnips,
and add salt, pepper, butter, and a very little sugar., Or
cut into small cubes before cooking, boil in mutton broth,
and serve with boiled mutton.
To Cook Spinach.
Look the spinach over, and remove all dead leaves and
roots. Set a colander in a pan of water, put the spinach
in it, and in this way wash it through several waters to
remove all particles of sand or dirt. Put in a kettle
on a cool part of the stove with no more water than
clings to it. Let cook until tender, season with salt,
pepper, and butter, and serve. Boiled eggs, sliced, may
be served with it.
To Cook Hubbard Squash.
The hard shell should be broken in pieces, and the
seeds scraped out. First wash the outside of the squash
and wipe before breaking. Steam the pieces until
done, then take out the inside with a spoon, mash, and
season with salt, pepper, and butter. Or break into
VEGETABLES. 57
pieces suitable for serving, and bake the squash in the
oven, sprinkling salt and pepper over it when put to
cook, and serve in the shell.
Summer Squash.
Use while very young and tender. Wash clean, cut
in slices, stew in very little water, and mash and season
with salt, pepper, and butter. Many saute same as egg
plant.
Green Corn-
Remove husks and silks, and steam the corn, or cook
in just enough boiling water to keep from burning, and
serve on the ear. Corn may be cooked in the husk by
leaving the fine inner covering, but there is no perceptible
difference in the quality.
To Stew Green Corn.
Remove husks and silks, and score each row of grains
down the center with a sharp knife. Cut off a thin slice
from the top of the grains, and with a /-kitchen knife
scrape out the contents. Cook in a small quantity of
salted water, letting cook gently, keeping covered, and
stirring occasionally. When done, season with salt, pep-
per, and butter. Cream is better than butter if you
have it.
Or, the corn may be partly cooked on the cob, cut off,
seasoned with salt, pepper, cream, and a very little butter
heated to the boiling point, and served.
To Steam Rice.
Put over the fire in a double boiler three cups of milk
or water, or of the two mixed. Put into it one tea-
spoonful of salt. Look over one cup of rice, wash, put
into the boiling liquid and cook, covered, without stir-
ring, until the grains of rice are so soft as to be easily
crushed between the thumb and finger. Take the cover
off and let the rice dry a little. The grains will be dis-
tinct, and the rice palatable.
58 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
To Cook Rice in Water.
Put in a saucepan over the fire ten cups of water, add-
ing a tablespoonful of salt. When the liquid boils, put
a cup of rice in. Let boil until soft, as before. Keep the
quantity of water the same by adding boiling water as
it evaporates. Drain in a puree sieve, and dry it off on
the range shelf. Rice cooked in this way is very white,
fluffy, and beautiful, but less nutritious and palatable
than when cooked the other way.
Stuffed Tomatoes.
Wash and wipe medium-sized, firm, ripe tomatoes. Cut
off a slice from the stem end, and with a spoon take out
some of the seeds, but not the core. Fill the cavities
with bread crumbs seasoned with butter, pepper, and
salt. Replace the slice on the top, place in a pan, and
bake fifteen or twenty minutes. Serve hot.
Escalloped Tomatoes.
Select perfect, ripe tomatoes. Put in a pan, pour on
enough boiling water to cover them, and let stand
one minute. Pour off the hot water, cover with cold
water, and remove the skins. Butter a baking dish on
the bottom and sides. Cover the bottom of the dish with
breadcrumbs made from crusts dried and rolled or ground.
Slice the tomatoes one-half an inch thick, and lay over
the crumbs. Cover the tomatoes with crumbs, sprinkle
with salt and pepper, and drop on bits of butter. Add
another layer of tomatoes, another of bread crumbs, butter
and seasoning; continue in this manner until the dish
is filled to within two inches of the top. Have bread
crumbs on the top. Place in the oven and bake twenty
or twenty-five minutes. Serve in the dish in which they
are baked.
Sauted Tomatoes.
Select firm tomatoes, not over ripe, wash and wipe.
Cut a medium-sized tomato into four slices, dredge with
VEGETABLES. 59
flour, saute in a hot spider containing one tablesponful
of butter. Brown on one side, turn, and brown on the
other. Remove to a warm platter, and sprinkle with salt
and pepper. Into the spider put one-fourth cup of cream,
let boil up, turn over the tomatoes, and serve. The slices
of tomato may be dipped in beaten egg and dusted with
very fine bread crumbs, before sauteing.
Escalloped Macaroni with Tomatoes.
Look the macaroni over carefully, and see that it is
free from insects. Break into inch or two-inch lengths,
and put to cook in plenty of salted boiling water. Cook
rapidly until done. When done, it is clear and soft.
Turn into a colander and allow it to drain. Cover the
bottom of a baking dish with bread crumbs, put in about
one inch of macaroni, over this lay sliced tomatoes, and
sprinkle lightly with seasoned bread crumbs. Then add
another layer of the macaroni, another of tomatoes, and
a dust of crumbs. Continue in this manner until the pan
is as full as desired, having tomatoes on top. Cover with
a layer of the seasoned crumbs one-half inch thick. Bake
until the crumbs are a nice brown, twenty or twenty-
five minutes, and serve in the dish in which it is baked.
To Cook Salsify or Vegetable Oysters.
Wash the roots clean, and remove rootlets. Scrape the
thin skin off, and keep the roots in vinegar water, as they
discolor very readily. Cut into bits, and cook one and
one-half hours in boiling salted water. Keep just enough
water to prevent burning. Season same as peas. Salt,
pepper, and cream give best results, but it is good served
with White Sauce No. I.
Corn Oysters.
Select roasting-ear corn, and prepare for cooking.
Score each row of grains, then with a sharp knife cut off
the top of each row about one-third down, and with a
kitchen knife scrape out the pulp. With each cup of
60 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
corn mix one tablespoonful of flour, one-half a tea-
spoonful of salt, and one tablespoonful of cream. Lastly,
fold in one egg white, beaten very light. Drop one ta-
blespoonful at a time on a greased griddle, and bake same
as griddle cakes. These are fine if one-third as much
sweet-bread as corn is used. To make corn oysters from
left-over corn, grate the roasting ears which have been
left from dinner, then proceed as with fresh corn.
To Cook Egg Plant.
Pare the egg plant and cut into slices one-fourth of an
inch thick, and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Dip the
slices in beaten egg, then in fine bread crumbs, and
saute in a spider with plenty of bacon fat or clarified but-
ter. Brown on both sides. Or the slices may be simply
dusted with flour. If, when the slices are brown, they
do not seem perfectly cooked, draw the spider to a cooler
part of the stove and finish cooking.
Egg plant is also very nice dipped in a fritter batter
and sauted.
Baked Egg Plant.
Prepare the egg plant as for sauteing, cook in salted
water for ten minutes, and drain. In a greased baking
dish put first a layer of seasoned bread crumbs, then a
layer of the egg plant, more crumbs and bits of butter,
more egg plant, and so continue until as much is used as
desired, having crumbs on the top. Bake twenty minutes
in a moderate oven.
Egg-Plant Oysters.
Prepare and cook the plant as for baking. When soft,
drain and mash through a sieve. To one-half pint of egg
plant use one egg, well beaten, two tablespoonfuls of
milk, one-fourth cup of flour, and one-half as much bread
or cracker crumbs as flour. Season with salt and pepper
and saute o r bake as griddle cakes.
VEGETABLES. 61
DRIED VEGETABLES.
All dried vegetables should be looked over, washed,
and put to soak in cold water, and left until they absorb
all the water they will, or at least for several hours, then
cooked in the water in which soaked. Some prefer to
throw away the water in which dried vegetables are
soaked, and thus have a milder flavor. Such treatment
takes away a portion of the food value, and whether it is
advisable to do so each person must decide for herself.
Dessicated beans or shredded string beans are some-
times included in army supplies.
Some vegetables, as string beans, cucumbers, and cab-
bage, may be preserved in salt or in vinegar for winter use.
Bean Pot and Brown Bread Tins.
String beans preserved in salt will keep for months, but
they undergo a change similar to that produced in cab-
bage when sauerkraut is made. They are much used by
some people, and are no doubt a good thing, as they add
one more vegetable to the winter diet.
White Beans in Cream.
Look over the desired quantity of dry beans, wash, and
62 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
put to soak in cold water to cover them. Let stand over
night, or for several hours, until they have absorbed all
the water they will take; then put to cook, using the
water in which they have soaked, and adding enough
boiling water to cover. For each pint of beans used add
half a tablespoonful of salt, and one level tablespoonful
of sugar. Set the bean jar in the oven and cover. Let
the beans cook until soft, but not dark. When done, make
a white sauce by using one tablespoonful of butter and
one of flour to each cup of milk (as directed for making
White, Sauce No. i). Wlien the sauce is smooth, season
to taste, and pour over the beans.
Stewed Beans.
Proceed in same way as for white beans in cream, ex-
cept cook a piece of salt pork with the beans. Let water
nearly all cook out, season, and serve.
.Baked Beans,
Beans one pint. Soak over night in plenty of cold
water, and put to cook in cold water enough to cover the
beans. Add one-half tablespoonful of salt, and one-fourth
of a teaspoonful of soda. When boiling, drain off the wa-
ter, and in the bottom of the bean jar put one-fourth of
a pound of salt pork, scored, two level tablespoonfuls of
sugar, and one^half scant tablespoonful of salt. Put beans
into the jar, cover them with hot water, cook in a slow
oven for ten, twelve, or fifteen hours.
Prepare and bake lentils same as beans.
Lentil Pudding.
Prepare the lentils, and soak as before, then slowly
steam them until done. Cook a piece of salt pork with
them for seasoning, or season with butter.
Cereal Grains.
CHAPTER VI.
PREPARED CEREALS.
Cereal foods are made of the farinaceous (meaning-
floury) seeds of plants belonging to the grass family,
and in some instances, doubtless, in part, of the seeds of
such leguminous plants as peas and beans. These valu-
able grain-bearing plants were, probably, among the first
to furnish food to the human race.
Pliny speaks of wheat, in writing of the ancient Roman
people. China has history of the use of cereal grains as
early as 2,700 years before the Christian era. And there
is evidence that the lake dwellers of prehistoric Switzer-
land used seeds of millet as food. In America the na-
tives were using corn when white men came to the west-
ern world, and the evidence seems complete that the an-
cient Cliff Dwellers of, the Mexican and the southern part
of America used corn as food. The American Indians
residing in the north used large quantities of wild rice or
Indian rice for food. All the cereal grains now largely
used, excepting maize, have been in use in the Eastern
hemisphere since ancient times.
While the culture of the cereal grains had made some
progress throughout the preceding centuries, the greatest
advance along this line has come within the past century.
The machinery for cultivating and transporting cereal
grains, and products made from them, has made most
wonderful strides during the lives of the present genera-
tion. Processes in the manufacture of cereal foods from
cereal grains form one of the marvels of modern prog-
ress. And the rate of this progress seems to be acceler-
ated as each year's experience is added to the last.
PREPARED CEREALS. 65
It is not long since our ancestors had only the crudest
means of grinding grains, and no thought occurred to
them of pearling and mixing, and partially cooking and
flavoring, and otherwise preparing these foods into the
many forms now found on our markets.
Our grandmothers were pleased with the simple
straight flour from which the coarsest bran had been re-
moved. They took great comfort in the bolted cornmeal
and the oatmeal which was used only occasionally by
others than the Scotch. These foods, together with rice
and hominy, made up the list of cereal preparations. Now
we have our wheat flour graded so that we have patent
flour for bread, pastry flour for pastry uses, and various
brands for special purposes. Instead of the uneven sam-
ple of flour furnished to the farmer with toll retained by
the old time burr mill in return for his grist of wheat,
we now have the uniform patent flour made every day
the same by the modern roller mill with its wonderful
machinery. We have also not only cornmeal which is
better bolted and more uniformly ground, and oatmeal of
finer quality, but we have dozens of other more or less
popular meals and flours, and cracked and polished
grains, which we have come to know as "cereals."
America's rich soil, energetic people, favorable climate,
and her mechanical and commercial genius have com-
bined in the production of large amounts of cereal foods.
The best varieties of these crops have been gleaned from
the whole world, and in many instances they have been
improved upon. Here, as in manufacturing, progress
seems to be making rapid strides, and bids fair to hold a
permanent place. Owing to the fact that farmers can so
cheaply produce at home a variety of foods, they have not
felt the need of rapidly taking up the use of even the
better forms of manufactured cereal foods put upon the
markets during the last one or two decades. Doubtless
their conservatism in this, as in many other things, has
3
66 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
kept them from enjoying advantages which are within
their easy reach. Most cereal foods are economical in
that for a given amount of money a large amount of food
material is purchased. They are healthful in that they
lessen the tendency to eating too much meat, and they
furnish all the elements needed to nourish the body. They
have bulk enough to give the digestive organs their need-
ed amount of muscular exercise, yet they rarely cause in-
digestion.
Cereal foods tend to good morals, since, when they
form a goodly portion of the daily food, there is no ex-
cessive stimulant to the body, nerves, or mind. They are
sufficiently bulky so that there is little tendency to overeat-
ing, and thus overloading the system with an excess of
flesh formers, heat formers, or ash which must be car-
ried out, requiring excessive labor on the part of the ex-
cretory organs. These foods are very appetizing, and
since many of them are especially relished when eaten
with cream, which is nowhere so abundant and inexpen-
sive as on the farm, no class of people should appreciate
them more than farmers.
Manufacturers rival each other in embellishing wrap-
pers and inventing novel names for their wares. Extrav-
agant claims are made for these foods, and much is said
to induce the public to believe that, by some peculiar
method of manufacture, an article far superior to simple,
plain oatmeal or rolled wheat has been produced. The
fact is that there is, in most cases, more variation in price
than in food value, and the relation between quality and
cost is sometimes difficult to discover. The package goods
have one merit, and that is, the manufacturer is made
directly responsible to the consumer. The oatmeal sold
in bulk is practically uniform in composition, and, unless
injured by long keeping and exposure, there is little, if
any, discoverable difference in quality and flavor. The
package cereals usually make greater claims for quick
PREPARED CEREALS. 67
cooking than can be well substantiated. Granting that,
in such cereals, a portion of the starch grains have been
crushed and partly converted into more soluble forms by
means of heat, pressure, and moisture, thus lessening the
time required for cooking, yet experience proves that
they usually have a better flavor when cooked half an
hour than when removed from the fire after ten minutes'
cooking, as the packages sometimes direct. The carbo-
hydrates of cereals are mostly in the form of small, hard,
starch grains which are not easily attacked by the digest-
ive fluids. Experiments made in feeding cooked cereals
to domestic animals seem to verify the statement that lit-
tle cooking renders them less digestible than when eaten
raw, but a long, slow, thorough cooking brings about
good results.
Cellulose is the woody portion of plants. In such foods
as spinach, the cellulose is young, tender, and digestible.
In grains, the cellulose is found in its mature state, and
can hardly be classed as a food stuff for man, yet it plays
an important part in giving bulk to the food, and aids in
preventing the tendency to too concentrated food. It acts
as a mechanical stimulus to promote the peristalsis of
the intestines. Bunge, in his Physiological and Patholog-
ical Chemistry, says: "While it is urged that the rapid
and continual movement of the intestinal contents in con-
sequence of the irritating action of the woody fibre pre-
vents the complete utilization of the food, at the same
time," he continues, "it appears to me that the advantages
of food containing cellulose far outweigh the drawbacks."
All oily matters in grains are termed "fats." These are
similar in composition to carbohydrates, but the fats are
poorer in oxygen and richer in carbon and hydrogen;
therefore the heat equivalent of fats is much greater,
that is, a pound of fat will produce more animal heat
than a pound of starch or sugar. Buckwheat is a good ex-
ample of a heat-giving cereal. It is more agreeable when
68 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
used in cold weather, and by those who exercise freely.
It is used principally in the form of griddle cakes, though
it is sometimes found in the markets in the form of a
specially prepared cereal. Cereals contain a small por-
tion of the several mineral matters which are necessary
for both bone and flesh, but there is usually no deficiency
of most of these in our diet. Phosphorus is considered
of much importance, and special efforts are said to be
made to secure it in milling.
One authority on physiological chemistry says that,
with the exception of preparations of corn and oats, all
the cereal foods lack the fat necessary to a normal diet.
The proteids and carbohydrates occur in the proper pro-
portion in them all. Since human beings select their foods
largely on account of flavor, why not supply the fat to
the foods in the form of cream. A dish of breakfast food
which is eaten under protest when served with milk will
be relished when cream is used. It is not extravagant,
because the cereal costs only a few cents a pound and the
willingness with which it is eaten well repays the cost of
the cream, which, on the farm, is not expensive. To com-
pensate for the lack of cream in oatmeal and cornmeal
mush, a garnish of fruit can sometimes be used. Straw-
berries, peaches, raspberries, and bananas, each in its fresh
state, are considered best for this purpose, as the flavors
are sufficiently pronounced so that the two foods, eaten
together, are very appetizing.
The manufacture of special cereal foods is taking on a
wonderful development. These foods have the well-bal-
anced composition of the cereal grains from which they
are made. The staple cereal foods, as wheat flour, corn-
meal, and oatmeal are the sources of the cheapest food
materials we have. Their large use not only does
not endanger health, but also prevents our over-eating
of the too rich albuminous foods and sweets. Good
bread prevents our eating the less wholesome cakes. Oat-
PREPARED CEREALS. 69
meal for breakfast aids in avoiding the too free use of
meats, and cornmeal mush as a part of the evening meal
fills our stomachs with nourishing yet light food, and
allows us to have sweet dreams. Especially are these
cereal foods a blessing to growing children and to adults
during periods of lessened activity, as in winter, when
less muscular exertion makes a lighter diet well nigh im-
perative. Flour, oatmeal, and cornmeal are so cheap as
compared with most other forms of food that farmers
should exercise great care in securing that of good qual-
ity. It is likewise important that these foods be cooked
in the most perfect manner. Very many people with dis-
eased digestion are constantly distressed, injured, and
made far less able to be happy, to perform work of any
kind, or to be useful to others, by eating wheaten bread
which is improperly made. Bread made by a slow pro-
cess, with low temperature, or with the dough now warm,
then cold, develops within itself not only a yeast fer-
mentation, but other ferments as well. A mere trace
of an acid developed by injurious fermentation, an
amount barely sufficient for the taste or the smell to de-
tect, will disturb the digestion of many people in health
as well as those having weak digestion. The most im-
portant matter in connection with oatmeal is to have it
made of sweet and well-flavored grain. It should always
be fresh and well cooked. Under such circumstances, it
will be palatable, and may be used often and is always rel-
ished. Cornmeal should be nicely prepared, and should be
properly made into mush, that it may be enjoyed for sup-
per; and a. remaining portion fried for breakfast is very
acceptable. The fact that farmers have fine milk and
cream at first cost is a most favorable circumstance to
their using large quantities of cornmeal and oatmeal
mush. These foods are often more delicious, and proba-
bly more healthful, than many of the modern compounds
which require much more labor in their preparation. They
70
HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
are also very inexpensive, as will be shown further on in
these articles.
In order to have good health, people must have food
that supplies the quantities of nutrients which the body
requires. Yet this is not all that is necessary. The food
must be such that the person can digest it, else it does him
harm, rather than good.
Experiments in the digestibility of foods lead to the
belief that fat as found in pork is difficult of digestion;
and when taken in large quantities, a considerable portion
of it fails to be utilized in the system, and thus entails
unnecessary work on the different organs to remove it,
with no benefit to the body.
It would be well, then, to replace a part of the meat
with some food which will furnish the necessary ingredi-
ents in a more digestible form. The cereals, when prop-
erly cooked, are very completely digested and assimi-
lated.
The quantity of protein in cornmeal is small as com-
pared with some other food stuffs, but it is a valuable
nutrient because easily digested. The fat of butter and
cream is more digestible than that of bacon, owing in
part, probably, to the more delicate structure of the cell
I
d
1
03
1
Protein
Carbo-
hydrates
S!
Entire wheat flour
5
100
19
13
1
25
1
1
2
3
2
10
9
5
4
13
11
13
12.1
12.5
11.6
12.5
lo.'s
10.4
10.4
9.7
11.9
10.8
14.3
12.9
11.9
10.8
7.2
7.2
12.4
32.0
1.2
.5
.5
.4
3.0
1.6
.9
.2
2.6
1.3
1.4
.9
.4
1.4
1.9
1.9
.4
.1
14.2
11.3
11.8
10.4
9.4
11.7
11.4
12.3
11.1
10.5
9.3
6.1
8.9
8.2
11.3
15.6
16.9
7.8
.9
70.6
74.6
75.0
75.6
78.6
72.9
74.5
75.0
77.6
72.8
77.6
77.2
75.1
78.9
71.4
68.0
66.8
79.
56.
1.9
1.1
1.1
1.0
1.0
1.6
2.1
1.4
1.4
2.2
1.2
1.0
2.2
.6
5.2
7.3
7.2
. .4
.1
Roller process flour
Spring wheat flour
Winter wheat flour
Cerealine
Macaroni and vermicelli
Rex wheat.
Wheatlet
Wheat Farina.
Barley meal
Barley, pearled
Buckwheat flour
Cornmeal, bolted
Corn, hominy . . .
Corn pop raw
Oatmeal
Rolled oats .. .
Rice
Bakers' bread
PREPARED CEREALS. 71
walls in which the fat globules are inclosed, or the ab-
sence of such walls. A glance at the preceding table,
compiled by Prof. W. O. Atwater, will show that oat-
meal has rather more protein than wheat flour.
In comparing wheat bread with wheat flour, we find
that the chief difference is that the bread has a larger
proportion of water, and a greater amount of fat, owing
to the water and milk used in its preparation. As we run
down the scale, we find that the cereals prepared from
barley rank next to wheat flour in the amount of protein
contained. Cornmeal contains more protein than buck-
wheat flour, and rice ranks lowest in proteid matter.
There are many cereals prepared from oats, but coarse
oatmeal, fine oatmeal, and rolled oats usually give a sat-
isfactory variety in this cereal. These can all be bought
in bulk for two or three cents per pound. They are all
cooked in the same manner; the only difference in the
process being that the coarser ones require a longer time
and a greater proportion of water.
The protein in cereals is in the form of gluten, and is
very hard when dry, and needs long cooking. Starch, in
a raw or half-cooked state, is neither very palatable nor
digestible. Each starch cell is surrounded by a thin wall
of cellulose, and this must be softened by the heat and
moisture, so that the starch cells may absorb water, dis-
tend, and become soft and digestible. Coarse oatmeal re-
quires a very long, slow cooking to thoroughly prepare
it for the action of the digestive fluids. It is well to have
this for breakfast on the morning following baking or
ironing day, as the fire necessary for the extra work can
be utilized in partially cooking the cereal for the next
morning's breakfast.
Among "cereals" prepared from corn, the good old
hominy, a dish borrowed from the Indians, awakens
pleasant memories in the minds of those whose youthful
palates were tickled by this delicious and wholesome ar-
72 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
tide of food. The coarse hominy of early days, in Amer-
ica, was made by soaking the grains of corn in weak lye
made from wood ashes, until the outside covering became
loose. The grain was then taken from the liquid and
washed in two or three clean waters, and the hulls rubbed
off by the hands. It was then soaked in clear water to
remove all trace of the lye. When ready, it was boiled
in slightly salted water for some hours, until it became
perfectly tender. By placing it out in the pure cold air,
and allowing it to freeze, the hominy was thought to be
improved, as it was more tender, and slightly changed
in taste. It was eaten with milk or sauted in butter or
meat drippings. This method of preparing it was very
simple. A spider containing a generous supply of what-
ever fat was to be used for cooking the hominy was
placed upon the stove and allowed to become hot. Then
the hominy, free from water, was put in and stirred
about and seasoned to taste with salt and pepper, and,
when thoroughly heated, was served in a hot dish.
In some localities of the far west, wheat and barley
were hulled by some home-made device, and used as
cereals. Cornmeal mush with cool whole milk often
makes a satisfying supper on a winter evening, and such
a repast usually leaves no ill effects.
In addition to the whole-grained hominy, coarse hom-
iny, fine hominy, and other cereals are common in our
markets. These can be purchased in retail quantities at
two to four cents per pound. Coarse hominy, like coarse
oatmeal, requires a very long time for cooking.
To Cook Coarse Hominy.
Use six cups of boiling liquid to each cup of hominy.
Salt to taste. Cook six to ten hours, either over a slow
fire, or in a double boiler. The only object in using
the double boiler is that it is easier to keep the food con-
stantly cooking, and there is no danger of burning.
PREPARED CEREALS. 73
To Cook Fine Hominy.
Use four cups of liquid to one cup of hominy. Cook
from three to six hours. Salt to taste.
To Cook Cerealine Flakes.
This is one of the specially prepared cereals which is
partially cooked during the process of manufacture.
The directions with this package cereal sometimes read
"Cook one minute," but one usually finds fifteen min-
utes cooking to be more satisfactory.
To Make Cornmeal Mush.
Use four cups of water to one cup of cornmeal.
Have three cups of the water salted to taste, and boiling
in the vessel in which the meal is to be cooked. Wet the
cornmeal in one cup of cold water, then put into the
boiling water, carefully stirring to avoid lumps, and cook
half an hour directly over the fire. Stir often enough
to prevent burning, or set the close-covered vessel con-
taining the mush in a kettle of hot water, also covered,
and cook two hours. If the mush is to be cooled and
fried, use half a measure more of water to the same
amount of cornmeal, as the mush thickens in cooling,
though the fried mush should never be soft enough to
break when cooked.
Mush from Coarse Oat Meal.
Measure and put into the upper part of the double
boiler, or into a tin pail having a tight-fitting cover, a
sufficient amount of water to make the quantity of mush
desired, using the same measuring dipper or cup for
both the water and the oatmeal. Set aside one-fifth as
much oatmeal as you have hot water in the kettle. When
the water is boiling, salt it to suit the taste, and sift in
the oatmeal with the hand. Do not stir the oatmeal, as
this renders it stringy and less palatable, but lift from
the bottom of the vessel with a spoon to prevent burn-
ing. Let cook directly over the fire until it swells and
74 HOUSEHOLD SCIENCE.
ceases to settle to the bottom, then set in the lower part
of the double boiler, or, if in a pail, cover the pail closely
and set in a kettle of boiling water; cover closely and
let boil from six to ten hours.
Mush from Fine Oatmeal.
Proceed in the same manner as for coarse oatmeal,
except take one-fourth as much meal as water and cook
three to six hours.
Mush from Rolled Oats.
Use one part of cereal to three parts of boiling water
and cook one and one-half to three hours.
To Cook luce.
Free the rice from all objectionable parts, and wash
well to remove any loose starch. Put a cup of prepared
rice into two quarts of boiling water, and cook rapidly
for fifteen or twenty minutes, or until the grains are
tender, drain in a sieve or colander, and set on a warm
part of the range to dry off.
A more economical way of cooking rice, and one which
is equally as good when skillfully done, is to put a cup
of prepared rice into three cups of boiling water, slightly
salted. Let boil rapidly until the grains swell some, then
put into the double kettle. When done, set on back of
range to dry off, and lift from bottom with a fork.
Vitos.
One and one-half cups of milk, one and one-half cups
of water, one teaspoonful of salt, three-fourths cup of
Vitos. Let milk and water boil, then stir the Vitos into
it, and let cook one-half hour in double boiler.
Cracked Wheat.
One cup of cracked wheat, one quart and one cup of
water (five cups), two level teaspoonfuls of salt. Let
the water boil, then stir the cereal into it, and cook five
or six hours in a double boiler.
PREPARED CEREALS.
75
ANALYSIS OF CEREALS. COMPILED BY JENKINS AND WINSTON.
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